{"id": 5, "summary": [{"text": "cue card ( foaled 30 april 2006 ) is a british thoroughbred racehorse .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "a specialist steeplechaser , he has won fifteen of his thirty-three races , including nine at grade i level .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was a leading performer in national hunt flat races , winning the champion bumper at the cheltenham festival .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was less successful over hurdles but emerged as a top-class performer when tried over larger obstacles .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he won the haldon gold cup , ascot chase and ryanair chase in the 2012/2013 national hunt season and the betfair chase in the 2013/2014 season .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he went through the 2014/2015 campaign winless but after a wind-operation over the 2015 summer , he returned in the following season to record his second win in the betfair chase and won the king george vi chase at the fourth attempt .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he fell when in contention in the 2016 cheltenham gold cup but returned to winning form with victory on his next start in the betfred bowl . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "cue card ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["horse racing betting tips : taquin looks value to upset cue card in ascot chase | city a . m .\njordan mccarthy ponders whether cue card is the most exciting chaser - in - training in the world of horse racing .\ncolin tizzard can barely wait for the timico cheltenham gold cup with cue card .\nlike a fine wine , cue card just keeps on getting better with age .\ncue card ' s win in the betfair chase was nothing short of spectacular .\ncue card will bid for a second victory in saturday ' s ascot chase .\ncolin tizzard labelled cue card the\nhorse of a lifetime\nas he gets ready to bid for a \u00a31million bonus in the timico cheltenham gold cup .\neverything about cue card is brilliant - i think he ' s still at his peak .\ntrainer shark hanlon is leaning towards the ryanair chase with hidden cyclone following cue card ' s defection .\ncue card was disputing the lead and missed out on a potential \u00a31m bonus for winning the race .\npaddy brennan will partner cue card in what promises to be a real cracker at kempton . photo : getty\ncue card , his new best friend paddy brennan and his lovable trainer colin tizzard jumped into our affections .\nnot that the money is really what matters to those closest to cue card or his many thousands of fans . it is the horse and his background . like coneygree , who graduated top of the class among the novices when he won the gold cup last year , cue card has the feel of a traditional , \u201cproper\u201d jumping horse about him .\ncue card , a 40 - 1 shot when landing his first grade one at the 2010 cheltenham festival , was a\nrunaway\nhorse in those days , the tizzards say .\ncue card is owned by jean bishop , who owned the horse with her late husband , bob , who died just four days after cue card won the king george vi chase at kempton on boxing day 2015 . jean also owns horses including theatre guide and royal vaction , trained by colin .\ncue card gained a measure of compensation for his cheltenham fall with victory in the betfred bowl chase at aintree .\na fantastic performance by cue card gave racing a much - needed lift in a brilliant betfair chase at haydock .\nwhen 2015 gold cup winner coneygree was pulled from the line - up , it seemed the king george would have a predictable outcome , with cue card far superior to any other horse .\ncue card has been ruled out of the ryanair chase at the cheltenham festival next thursday , said trainer colin tizzard .\ncue card will face a maximum of six rivals when bidding for a second victory in saturday ' s betfair ascot chase .\nun de sceaux ' s connections are looking forward to a clash with cue card in thursday ' s ryanair chase at cheltenham .\nrider lizzie kelly celebrated a huge success at aintree as tea for two saw off the gallant cue card in the betway bowl .\ncolin tizzard is open to the prospect of cue card and native river locking horns for a second time at aintree next month .\ncue card won the king george vi chase at kempton this afternoon ( 26 december ) in a thrilling renewal of the race .\ncue card continued his wonderful association with paddy brennan who rode a race full of confidence . he tracked coneygree and richard johnson , who ran a blinder on his first run for about a year , before cue card took the lead at the third last .\ncue card and native river are reported to be thriving at colin tizzard ' s base as the gold cup looms at cheltenham .\ntizzard told racing uk :\ncue card is going to go . he ' s been a good old boy for us .\nnad said , striding in boldly from his trailer , fuse and woneer clearing a path through the techs and cue card holders .\n\u201cit\u2019s fantastic . he\u2019s a brilliant horse , \u201d said proud trainer colin tizzard .\nhorse racing tips for every meeting , every day provided by our expert tipsters .\nhorse and man as one . they were heroes , as they should be .\ncue card will bid to make amends for a late fall last year when he lines up for the cheltenham gold cup on friday .\non 15 march , cue card was pulled up in the ryanair chase at the cheltenham festival . trainer colin tizzard said that there would be no immediate decision of whether the horse would now be retired . [ 16 ]\ncolin\u2019s son joe rode cue card in the horse\u2019s first 20 races , winning 10 of them . when joe retired in 2014 the ride was taken on by daryl jacob . cue card was ridden once by aidan coleman , but in the past couple of seasons has formed a successful partnership with paddy brennan , with the pair winning five from eight starts together .\ncue card and joe tizzard on their way to a decisive victory in the betfair chase at haydock park . photograph : john giles / pa\nbrennan was pleased to erase the memory of the defeat at wetherby last month where the cue card team admitted getting the riding tactics wrong .\nbut buddy didn ' t actually read the bible , not anymore , he consulted it the way that an actor consults a cue card .\nlast december he was nailed in the very last strides by cue card in a pulsating finish to the king george vi chase at kempton .\nthe other horse ( native river ) ran his race , i think . he got nutted for second and the winner ( sizing john ) is a very good horse .\nbrennan , who is a regular on the mighty cue card , rides the in - form henley for county durham - based trainer tracy waggott .\ndon cossack fell when bringing a challenge which left cue card to chase down vautour and nab the prize in the shadow of the posts . vautour ran a massive race but cue card ran a sensational race to claim a famous win and a better race we could not have asked for .\nadam morgan is passionate about horse racing and is currently a journalist for the press association .\ncrellin comments , \u201ccue card is undoubtedly the best i\u2019ve bred . he has opened a lot of doors , i no longer have to go looking around for buyers , he has been a tremendous help . looking forward , we will be sending a half - brother to cue card by beneficial to the sales this year and a half - brother by gold well next year . we also have a full sister to cue card at home . \u201d\ncue card and paddy brennan clear the final fence as they go on to win the charlie hall chase at wetherby . photograph : john giles / pa\ndavid ord has a horse - by - horse guide to saturday ' s darley july cup and he ' s siding with a potential improver to shake - up the established sprinting stars .\ncue card looked full of himself as he showed his well - being ahead of the timico cheltenham gold cup with a pleasing workout before racing at kempton .\nhowever , one partnership is seeking redemption . a year ago paddy brennan and cue card threw away victory in the gold cup when falling three fences out .\na return to wetherby , aiming for a repeat in the charlie hall chase , is the first plan for cue card , before another triple crown attempt .\n\u201ci know where bob and jean [ bishop , the owners of cue card ] would like to go , haydock [ and the betfair chase ] for the flat track , \u201d colin tizzard , cue card\u2019s trainer , said . \u201cbut if the handicapper doesn\u2019t put him up , maybe we\u2019ll look at the hennessy .\ncue card hasn ' t won a race beyond 3m 1f and that was a victory at haydock which a flat course . the stiff 3m 2f here is going to be a trip that catches him out unless his rivals run below their best . i know he won last time out against vautour over 3m but i think that was a case of cue card nailing a tired rival on the line rather than catching a horse who saw out the 3m right to the line . i don ' t doubt that cue card is a seriously good horse , i just think he has it all to do to beat don cossack if both horses stay on their feet .\n\u201chere he was the cue card i know , at wetherby i never had that . when he ' s in the form he was today you can ride him any way you want \u2013 he ' s different class . we ' ve had an unbelievable day , cue card ' s shown what he can do .\nhe has been a phenomenal horse for national hunt racing . yes , we have the horse of a lifetime perhaps in sprinter sacre . however , cue card is another very exciting equine star . the king\u2019s theatre gelding has missed the target a couple of times when he was well fancied by punters . that is perhaps why he has been overshadowed . one particular race springs to mind : the supreme novices hurdle of 2011 . cue card went into this race as a banker of the meeting for many punters and pundits alike .\ndisappointment of the season for decades to come the national hunt aficionados will debate long into the night the unanswerable question of whether cue card would ' ve got the better of don cossack in the 2016 timico cheltenham gold cup . a late tumble saw the strong - travelling cue card dislodge paddy brennan from the saddle , and the irish star ' s victory will always be somewhat tarnished by people debating whether he would ' ve been eclipsed by the departing cue card in the closing stages .\nviewers are in for a treat on the second to last day of the festival , as the scintillating cue card struts his stuff in the ryanair chase . below , cue card is shown here winning the sportingbet haldon gold cup chase in 2012 by an absolutely remarkable distance . he has been every bit as solid in 2013 :\n\u201che always finishes his food and he never misses a feed , \u201d says colin of the horse , who is affectionately known as crackle at home . \u201che\u2019s a beautiful horse , a real superstar . \u201d\ndon cossack , vautour and cue card all feature among 14 horses still in contention for the timico cheltenham gold cup on friday at the six - day entry stage .\nwhile the muddy gold cup picture has become a bit clearer thanks to cue card , the champion hurdle scene is even murkier than it already was after last weekend .\ntwo out and the famous maroon silks on bryan cooper and don cossack came asunder , crashing to the turf . the pink colours of ruby walsh began to move up and down more animated as the blue of paddy brennan and cue card started to gain ground . over the last cue card swallowed up the brave vautour to prevail .\nsince winning the ryanair chase at cheltenham back in 2003 , cue card has only run three times over less than three miles and he has been beaten on every occasion .\nlike don cossack and cue card previously , this idyllic win had vanished all the heartache , silenced the doubters and gave this brilliant mare her much deserved place in history .\nsuper saturday the racing horse enjoyed another fabulous saturday and not just because england beat [ . . . ]\nhe finished the 2014 / 2015 season as the highest rated national hunt horse in the uk and ireland .\nbut cue card is the story horse , the one that would send the sellout crowd home satisfied regardless of whether he carried their money . for tizzard , meanwhile , it would surpass even the victory of thistlecrack in thursday\u2019s world hurdle as an advertisement for his way of doing things .\ncue card , silviniaco conti , dynaste and long run all headed to kempton park for the king george vi chase on boxing day . once again , cue card attempted to lead his rivals a merry dance and looked to have the race won jumping the penultimate fence before a late rally by silviniaco conti handed paul nicholls a seventh victory in the contest .\ncue card had not run at the cheltenham festival since his victory there in 2013 , and had had a wind operation following his final start of the 2014 - 2015 campaign .\nfsf rating = form and speed combined rating . based on the horse\u2019s best performance over the last twelve months .\nhorse & hound \u2018s racing correspondent marcus armytage fancies the willie mullins - trained don poli ( pictured below ) .\nhe\u2019ll be trying to follow in the hoof - prints of the likes of first lieutenant and our vic , who both ran well in the ryanair chase at cheltenham before taking this , and is certainly a horse that cue card needs to fear . smad place and aso make up the field .\n\u201cwe\u2019ve got one or two other good ones and people think with cue card maybe time is catching up but it\u2019s not \u2013 he\u2019s every bit as good as he\u2019s ever been . \u201d\ntizzard ' s son and assistant , joe , said :\nboth native river and cue card schooled on tuesday . i don ' t think i ' ve ever seen cue card school so well it was like he was on springs . native river was really good , too . i rode native river myself this ( sunday ) morning and he felt superb .\ncue card , pictured winning the weatherbys champion bumper at the cheltenham festival , races over hurdles back at the track today . photograph : david davies / pa archive / press association images\nsilvianico conti was the well heralded favourite who we all expected to win . the only fear in a tepid field was cue card , and at that point it was hard to even fancy him . cue card had been in the doldrums for the previous 18 months and the phrase \u201cgone at the game\u201d had been used many a time to sum up colin tizzard\u2019s charge .\npaddy brennan has ridden cue card to success in the 2015 betfair chase for trainer colin tizzard . urltoken racing uk is the uk ' s leading horse racing tv channel , broadcasting over 4 , 000 live races every year . relive all the best action here : urltoken racing uk - pure racing entertainment\ncue card is set to come back in trip for this weekend ' s two - mile - five - furlong grade one feature before a potential second tilt at cheltenham gold cup glory .\ncue card , the winner of the ryanair chase at the cheltenham festival in march 2013 , recorded his first success for nearly two years in the charlie hall chase at wetherby on saturday .\nsprinter sacre takes on un de sceaux again in the celebration chase at sandown on saturday and on the following wednesday don cossack and cue card lock horns again in the punchestown gold cup .\non 29 october , cue card made his seasonal debut in the charlie hall chase at wetherby and was sent off the odds on favourite . disappointingly , he was only third to irish cavalier who won at 16 / 1 . cue card ' s second reappearance was in the betfair chase at haydock on 19 november when he beat coneygree by an impressive 15 lengths . [ 15 ]\npaddy brennan has ridden cue card to success in the 2015 betfair chase for trainer colin tizzard . to join racing uk ' s international service visit : urltoken racing uk is the uk ' s leading horse racing tv channel , broadcasting over 4 , 000 live races every year . racing uk - pure racing entertainment\ntizzard\u2019s meteoric climb now sees him sitting the top table of national hunt racing . the brilliant cue card has been his flag bearer since winning the 2010 champion bumper , the yards first cheltenham festival winner . that day , cue card was sent off as a 40 / 1 outsider and it was the beginning of a special relationship between trainer and horse . i personally remember doing a tipping competition at my work for the festival and a customer told me his horse for the day : \u201c5 . 15 cue card please\u201d . i thought , \u201ci\u2019ve not heard of this , it must be a right rag ! \u201d . i am pleased to admit that i was categorically wrong as he powered up the hill to record an eight length victory over none other than the subsequent 2011 supreme novices\u2019 hurdle winner , al ferof .\nhaving said that , we know cue card is effective over two and a half miles as well , so he has that option ( jlt melling chase ) at aintree , too .\ncolin tizzard\u2019s stable star battled it out to the line with irish raider vautour , culminating in a photo finish . but it was a home win , with cue card just taking the prize .\ntizzard waves away questions about feeling pressure , saying he got over any sense of anxiety quite early in his training career , but he is keenly aware of the need to protect cue card .\ncue card ( foaled 30 april 2006 ) is a british thoroughbred racehorse . a specialist steeplechaser , he has won fifteen of his thirty - three races , including nine at grade i level .\njust click on any of the list of races below to go to the race card . you can also click on a horse\u2019s name to go to an individual race record . ( courtesy of the uk\u2019s racing post )\ncue card and don cossack were fighting for position in second and third , with their two jockeys looking to be fretting as they pushed their mounts for a response to the foot perfect jumping ahead .\nridden by joe tizzard , and trained by the winning jockey ' s father colin , cue card pulled away after the final fence having been at the head of the field for most of the race .\nboth horses are reported to have taken those exertions well and could be in line for a rematch in the betway bowl on merseyside , although cue card also has the option of the shorter melling chase .\nhats off to the connections of cue card who this week scratched the lovable 11 - year - old from next month\u2019s ryanair chase , signifying their intentions to once again go for the cheltenham gold cup .\nlee mckenzie and luke elder reflect on the weekend\u2019s racing action , which included cue card\u2019s return to form at ascot , a victory for yanworth at wincanton and vieux lion rouge enhancing his grand national credentials .\ncue card ( 1 . 50 ) is arguably the most exciting prospect in british jumps racing and represents a decent bet if he can be backed at something near even - money at cheltenham this afternoon .\njockey paddy brennan said in an interview published earlier this week he\nwanted to die\nafter cue card fell three fences from the finish in last year ' s gold cup won by don cossack .\nsunbury , england \u2013 december 26 : paddy brennan riding cue card ( r ) clear the last to win the william hill king george vi steeple chase from vatour and ruby walsh ( l ) at kempton park racecourse on december 26 , 2015 in sunbury , england . ( photo by alan crowhurst / getty images ) * * * local caption * * * paddy brennan ; cue card ; vautour ; ruby walsh\njordan mccarthy is our horse racing expert and a university college cork graduate . he was a prominent member of the ucc horse racing society and will be focusing on the big talking points in racing . he also discusses some of the burning issues in football .\nhow to get into horse racing , whether you want to work with horses at the stables or become a fully fledged jockey .\ncue card ( usa ) dkb / br . h , 1965 { 7 } dp = 7 - 8 - 9 - 0 - 0 ( 24 ) di = 4 . 33 cd = 0 . 92\ndon\u2019t get me wrong , his form is well below that of cue card\u2019s , it\u2019s just he seems over - priced at 6 / 1 with 188bet back on his favoured soft ground over his best trip .\n\u201cit\u2019s the best feeling in my whole career , \u201d said rider paddy brennan . \u201ci feel very proud today . i\u2019d like to thank cue card and all the staff . he\u2019s run a true race . \u201d\nleading racing writer kevin blake looks at the influx of talent at colin tizzard\u2019s upwardly - mobile dorset yard and assesses what it could mean for tizzard , who also trains national hunt heavyweights cue card and thistlecrack .\ni ' ve never had a career all my life and now i ' m in the autumn of my days and i need something for myself , ' she gabbled , as if reading from a cue card .\nthey try again this year , with the horse bidding to become the oldest gold cup winner since what a myth in 1969 . the stats are against them but this man and horse , who unite in such perfect harmony , would be the week\u2019s most popular winner .\ninspired by the movie ' war horse ' ; the stories of david and adrian ' s grandparents , and paintings of septimus power .\nall i want them to do is run their races , come back fit and sound and may the best horse win .\nanchises 8 . 10 windsor at 6 / 5 . 1pt win advised horse guards gin lord uxbridge novice stake [ . . . ]\ncue card is a horse who has always had his doubters and it emerged after his upset victory in the betfair chase here on saturday that the faith had been ebbing even from those closest to him , only hours before his greatest triumph . at 5 . 30am , unable to sleep , his owners , bob and jean bishop , rang colin tizzard , his trainer , to ask if it was really wise for the horse to be running on soft ground over such a long distance .\nlast year\u2019s betfair chase saw jockey club racecourses re - introduce the \u00a31 - million bonus for any horse who could follow up success at haydock park with victories in the king george vi chase and cheltenham gold cup , under the \u201cchase triple crown\u201d banner . silviniaco conti , cue card and dynaste all headed back to haydock park with holywell , a grade one winner over fences , and cheltenham festival scorer ballynagour completing another high - class field . it was a resurgent 7 / 4 chance cue card , ridden by paddy brennan , who came out on top , scoring readily by seven lengths from the 5 / 4 favourite silviniaco conti , thus becoming the third horse to win the betfair chase at least twice .\nit was only the second time in his career that cue card had run over three miles , and after shaking off roi du mee , tizzard kept silviniaco conti at bay to win by four and a half lengths .\nwe all love a great racing story and thankfully , this year ' s renewal has one . it involves last year ' s winner and veteran cue card , now almost 11 , enjoying some of his best form .\nthe eye - catching gelding , who was last year\u2019s highest rated chaser , hit the headlines at the cheltenham festival in march when storming to victory in the gold cup \u2014 following cue card\u2019s unfortunate fall in the race .\ncue card has came back to somewhere near his best after a pretty poor season in 2014 / 2015 . he ' s won three out of three this season including collaring vautour on the line in the king george . he ' s appeared seven times at cheltenham and has won three of them . he clearly loves it around here but does he want the 3m 2f trip ? that ' s the doubt i have about cue card .\na recent article in the racing post weekender by the legendary tom segal really struck me . not only did he tip cue card for next season\u2019s king george , but he also claimed the colin tizzard trained horse to be the most exciting chaser in training . initially , it seemed a bit ludicrous but after some thought and subsequent performances it is hard to disagree .\njoe was real coy with him from three out , he was sat there , never moved . cue card jumped better than he ever has . he was on his game today , that ' s for sure .\ncue card won his first race , a bumper at fontwell on 25 january 2010 , \u201cso easily\u201d that colin decided they had to go to the champion bumper at cheltenham . so in march 2010 , that\u2019s what they did .\nhaydock was up next and our old friend cue card was back again . he bolts up in the betfair chase . maybe that wind operation has worked wonders after all as there was no excuses for his rivals that day .\nwe then arrived at kempton\u2019s festive offering and the big clash in the king george as cue card battles the top two in the gold cup market don cossack and vautour . cue card has had a king george in the bag before throwing it away up the straight and rumours echoed pre - race ; he doesn\u2019t get the trip , he\u2019s against the big boys today , he\u2019s old now so he\u2019ll get found out . vautour led them along , bryan cooper got into a world of trouble before hitting the deck at the first sight of daylight two out and there was cue card proving them all wrong . he staying on dourly , moving alongside vautour and walsh as the desperate reach for the line took place . a photo was called and cue card had just got there . all heart , all guts , it was a victory for the romantics on a bitter winters afternoon in the south london gloom .\nshould thistlecrack come through his next few assignments in novice company without undue drama , he would be highly likely to be sent off favourite for the gold cup and would represent the biggest danger to cue card landing the bonus . should these circumstances come about , speculation will inevitably run wild that thistlecrack could have his cheltenham festival target changed to one of the novice races or a championship race over a shorter trip to ease cue card\u2019s task in the gold cup .\na pelvic fracture ruled cue card out of the 2014 cheltenham festival but he returned to haydock park later the same year to defend his crown in the betfair chase , when his rivals included silviniaco conti and dynaste again and the philip hobbs - trained menorah , a grade one winner over hurdles and fences . adopting his customary front - running tactics , cue card led the field for much of the race but was headed by silviniaco conti four fences from home .\nhowever , the main danger to cue card looks like coming from empire of dirt . officially - rated just 4lbs off cue card then there might not be much between them . he was last seen running fourth in the ryanair , but before that was a close second to sizing john in the irish gold cup \u2013 form that has since been given a huge boost . he\u2019s won on a variety of different grounds , but is so far unproven at aintree .\ncue cards were originally used to aid aging actors . one early use was by john barrymore in the late 1930s .\nalways towards the head of affairs , cue card jumped with his customary exuberance under the trainer\u2019s son joe and rallied well when pressed by silviniaco conti three fences from home . following a fine leap at the final fence , cue card extended his advantage towards the line to beat dynaste by four and a half lengths , followed by silviniaco conti ( 3rd ) , long run ( 4th ) and tidal bay ( 5th ) as bobs worth faded to come home sixth .\nfollowing on from last year , we are delighted to announce that we are featuring horse racing tips from channel four racing presenter , tom lee .\na top week is in prospect for horse racing fans as the three day aintree grand national meeting kicks - off on thursday 6th april 2017 .\nfollow the sportsman for the latest horse racing news . register with the sportsman to personalise your news feed with your favourite sports and football team .\nthe king george vi chase at kempton was certainly a race for the ages with the outstandingly brave cue card denying vautour victory in the dying strides after don cossack came to grief at the second last obstacle . first and foremost , cue card deserves enormous credit for his performance in this season\u2019s christmas highlight . the tizzard team have showed that they are a stable of immense talent in bringing cue card to the grade 1 heights of this season , but deeper company await at cheltenham for the popular chaser in his bid for the million pound triple crown bonus . there has been much debate on whether or not don cossack would have been able to clinch king george glory if not for falling two out . in my eyes , he never looked to be in a rhythm for the majority of the race , but he surely would have gone mightily close if he had stayed on his feet . however , this is jumps racing and the fences as there to be jumped primarily , so i would not take anything away from the memorable battle between cue card and vautour . don cossack is still most definitely a worthy contender for the gold cup crown this march , but this was cue card\u2019s day .\nin a cruel twist of fate , it was cue card\u2019s turn to fall when still in contention . he more than made up for this when routing the field at aintree and heads next week to punchestown to take on don cossack again .\na winner on his return at ascot , he was outstayed at kempton in the king george vi chase by cue card prior to romping to his cheltenham success ; although he blotted his copybook with a fall at aintree in the melling chase .\nit ' s so nice that he ' s proved he can get in there , and it makes him a real gold cup horse .\nhowever , cue card ran a superb race to finish second , just coming under pressure when barry geraghty\u2019s mount came upsides him on the run for home at liverpool . that race was the highlight of the jump racing season . it saw sprinter sacre beat very good horses and prove , although it was never really in doubt , what a superstar he is . it was great to see cue card give him a race but in the end there was only going to be one winner .\nperhaps the biggest threat to cue card on saturday could be jonjo o ' neill ' s taquin du seuil . he won a big handicap at cheltenham in december before seemingly failing to get home over three miles in the lexus chase at leopardstown .\neven before the flat season ended last weekend , talk had already begun to circulate about a flashy young horse who might shake up the top - class hurdlers this winter . cue card is only four and has raced just once over obstacles but his name features in betting lists for the champion hurdle and defeat would be a major upset when he risks his reputation in the second race at cheltenham today .\ncue card began his next season in the grade ii haldon gold cup at exeter racecourse . competing against more experienced chasers he started the 5 / 6 favourite and won impressively by twenty - six lengths . [ 5 ] he was then moved up in class and distance for the king george vi chase at kempton park racecourse on boxing day , but after making mistakes at the first two fences he tired in the closing stages and finished fifth behind long run . in february , cue card won the grade i ascot chase , beating captain chris by six lengths : he led for most of the race and was never in danger of defeat after the runner - up made a\nterrible blunder\nat the final fence . [ 6 ] at the cheltenham festival , tizzard opted to run cue card in the two and a half mile ryanair chase , rather than taking on sprinter sacre in the two mile queen mother champion chase . starting at odds of 7 / 2 , cue card led from the start and won by nine lengths from the irish - trained favourite first lieutenant . [ 7 ] on his final appearance of the season , cue card finished four and a half lengths second to sprinter sacre in the melling chase at aintree .\n\u201chonestly , if i ' d dreamt a thousand times in my life i never thought i ' d be lucky enough to ride a horse like him .\nthe stable companions were towards the forefront of the betting for friday ' s cheltenham gold cup , with cue card falling at the third - last fence for the second year in succession and native river running a fine race in defeat to finish third .\nand , though it would not have counted towards the title , had cue card won at cheltenham there would have been another \u00a31m for completing the jockey club ' s ' steeplechasing triple crown ' - the betfair chase , king george and gold cup .\nvictory for the ' people ' s favourite ' cue card would bring the house down , but , even at an evergreen 11 , he ' s got to defy the age stats and there ' s a chance 2016 was ' his year ' .\ncue card is a bay gelding with a white star bred by roland crellin at brookfarm , penhow . he is one of many successful national hunt horses sired by the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes winner king ' s theatre . [ 2 ]\nthe 2015 - 2016 national hunt season in britain provided clear - cut proof of the continued excellence of british - bred thoroughbreds , with rule the world , thistlecrack and cue card claiming the top 3 spots in the list of the season\u2019s highest earners .\nhe may be just short of becoming the absolute best horse out there . after all , the two - mile division is very weak , the 3 mile is lacking what it used to have and somewhere in between is a horse that carries the blue silks with the pink star of mrs . jean bishop . cue card has made that area in between almost his own this year , despite suffering defeat at the hands of sprinter sacre over the trip at aintree . still , he is an intriguing animal although he has had to play second fiddle to \u2018frankel sacre\u2019 .\nwe can ' t be cocky , either , he has got to get round and get over all those fences . we ' ve seen what can happen to the very best with cue card falling last year when having a very good chance .\nthe lineup of the three highest earners over the 2015 - 16 national hunt season is completed by the ever popular cue card . the king\u2019s theatre gelding out of wicked crack has proved to be the biggest and brightest feather in welsh breeder roland crellin\u2019s cap .\nwhether the king george tip will come to fruition is debatable . however this 7 - year - old second season chaser is one of , if not the , most exciting in training ( what about sprinter sacre they say ? ) . sprinter sacre is the greatest national hunt horse on the planet at the moment . however , cue card deserves another title ; themost exciting - , as mr . pricewise puts it .\ncue cards however did not become widespread until 1949 when barney mcnulty a cbs page and former military pilot , was asked to write ailing actor ed wynn ' s script lines on large sheets of paper to help him remember his script . mcnulty volunteered for this duty because his training as a pilot taught him to write very quickly and clearly . mcnulty soon saw the necessity of this concept and formed the company\nad libs .\nmcnulty continued to be bob hope ' s personal cue card man until he stopped performing . mcnulty who died in 2000 at the age of 77 was known in hollywood as the\ncue - card king\n.\ngarde champetre looks the horse to be on in today ' s cross - country event at cheltenham . photograph : david davies / pa archive / press association images\nshowing signs of a revival and well - handicapped on his best form . on the downside , no horse older than six - years has won since 2004 .\nseasonal return for this promising horse . 2013 adonis hurdle form with irish saint , suggests he has a good chance of reversing placings , if at his best .\nheffernan said :\ni was on a horse that handled the conditions well . he ' s straightforward , he ' s very sound and he stays hard .\nas always with the big meetings , matchbook\u2019s horse racing trends expert andy newton gives you the low - down on the trends worth noting for aintree day 1 .\nhe\u2019s clearly a hard horse to keep sound , but hugely talented he could make his mark if avoiding any niggling problems that have beset his career to date .\nthis season he has three wins out of four and the only race he lost when was when falling in the king george at kempton . i still maintain that he wins that race without the fall . in my opinion i think it ' s clear as day that he jumps the second last ahead of cue card and you just know that don cossack stays all day . people will disagree with me but don cossack would ' ve beat cue card in the king george had he jumped the second last more efficiently .\nfor much of the season the betting for the cheltenham gold cup has been dominated by horses from the yard of trainer colin tizzard , and despite the absence of thistlecrack the milborne port handler still has the services of native river and cue card to call upon .\ncue card is the most exciting chaser in training . the interesting thing is that he has achieved so much but could yet go on to achieve so much more . it will be interesting to see if he can feature over a longer trip and on better ground . one thing is for sure next year\u2019s king george could a champion chaser , a ryanair winner and grey that could follow up his amazing win in last year\u2019s feltham over course and distance . can cue card challenge over three miles ? that is another exciting prospect\ni couldn\u2019t help but be taken by imagine the chat\u2019s emphatic success in a 2m 6\u00bdf limited handicap chase at newbury recently and he looks to be a horse that is steadily improving . although the handicapper will more than likely have his say after an easy seven length success under sean bowen , jp mcmanus looks to have a horse capable of holding his own in deeper company later this season . imagine the chat is certainly a horse to keep an eye on over the coming months in staying handicaps .\nas it ' s # pollingday we thought we should run our very own poll . name the 2015 / 16 jumps horse of the season . . . . .\nn . ( context film television english ) a card with writing on it , shown to actors to remind them of their lines .\nas a yearling , cue card was sent to the sales in february 2007 and was bought for \u20ac75 , 000 by aiden murphy . he returned to the sales as a gelding in june 2009 , and was sold to aidan kennedy for \u20ac52 , 000 . [ 3 ]\nstill one of the best staying chasers around right now , he will take some beating - thistlecrack will be a great horse if he lowers his stablemate ' s colours .\nin truth the official ratings suggested cue card had to win as he did , by an eased - down 15 - lengths , but the 4 - 9 favourite still put in some spectacular leaps along the way , in what was an ordinary renewal outside of the market leader .\nwhether or not cue card is king george material remains unclear . the fact that sprinter sacre could go for that race increases this doubt . mr . pricewise feels cue card is a cracking bet for next season\u2019s kempton feature . we will have to wait and see . it could be a case of 2 and a half miles being his ideal trip , or better again 2miles and 5 furlongs . lucky for him he has the ryanair , unlike oscar whiskey who has no 2 and a half mile grade 1 hurdle event at the festival to aim for .\nduring the 2015 - 16 jump - racing season , no british trainer hit the big - race headlines more frequently than colin tizzard as he navigated generally triumphant paths for people ' s - favourite steeplechaser cue card , champion long - distance hurdler thistlecrack and emerging star native river .\nsuch an influx of firepower into a yard that already houses two of the most talented horses in the sport in the shape of cue card and thistlecrack has the potential to elevate tizzard to even greater heights than his excellent fourth - place finish in the british trainers\u2019 championship last season .\nnative river is great ; we ' ll have to consider the world hurdle at the festival with him because if cue card and thistlecrack get clear runs and go to the gold cup is native river going to beat them ? his rating puts him in the world hurdle .\nplease keep me up to date with special offers and news from horse & hound and other brands operated by ti media limited via email . you can unsubscribe at any time .\nhe then trounced the opposition in this year\u2019s ryanair despite not being too fluent over a couple of his fences . he beat a quality packed field in that race , with runner - up first lieutenant going on to take the bowl at aintree . that tells you what a serious horse cue card is . the 2m5f trip seems to be tailored for the horse . he has simply excelled at the trip this season . his victories this year have seen him ridden prominently by joe tizzard . his jumping has been great the majority of the time and he has defeated some very talented horses . unfortunately for him he also ran into sprinter sacre .\nnobody saw that coming a year ago . then again , not many people saw cue card coming either , as a serious gold cup contender at least . this year\u2019s race was expected to be all about the 2015 class of novices , ushering an earlier generation into retirement . cue card , a prominent member of that generation ever since his win in the bumper here in 2010 , has not been to the festival since 2013 , when he won the less prestigious ryanair chase . his chance to claim the most valuable and prestigious race at the meeting had apparently been and gone .\ncue card will be all the rage though as he bids to do what he did last season and mop - up this race after falling in the gold cup . he\u2019s another that is getting a bit long in the tooth at 11 , so we should enjoy him while we can .\ntizzard seems to have the midas touch with chasers . behind thistlecrack in the gold cup betting is one of the most improved chasers in national hunt racing , native river . unlike cue card who was a precocious four - year - old bumper horse , this smashing chestnut started his life in the point - to - point sphere and subsequently had six hurdle runs before heading over fences last season . again unlike the speedy cue card , he always had the \u2018dour stayer\u2019 look about him . after starting his chase career at a little over 2m3f ( finishing third ) , the step up to races around three miles has been the making of him . native river has only been out the first two twice when contesting races over three miles or beyond and that will certainly\nnicholls also ran tidal bay in the betfair but the old horse disappointed for the first time in more than 18 months . the welsh national and the lexus are now being considered .\n\u201cthe horse has won his last two \u2013 so any rain probably won\u2019t do him any harm - but it\u2019s five furlongs and we\u2019ll jump out and go as fast as we can .\ndespite suffering the ' fall of the year ' , at the third last fence in the cheltenham gold cup , cue card confirmed his place in the hearts of thousands with wins at wetherby , at haydock in the betfair chase , in the king george vi chase at kempton and at aintree .\nit all started back at wetherby with the enigma that is cue card . we all laughed when paddy brennan started waxing lyrical about his charlie hall win ; paddy\u2019s deluded \u2013 he\u2019s just happy to win on tv again , none of the others were fit , wait till they get to haydock .\nit\u2019s fair to say , his hurdles career wasn\u2019t as fruitful as it first looked . he was fourth in al ferof\u2019s supreme but as an embryonic chaser , his future was always going to lie over fences . tizzard\u2019s meticulous planning of cue card was a joy to behold . he never has once shied away from a challenge and his belief in the horse\u2019s raw ability was a refreshing site to see as often connections can be known to wrap their horses in the proverbial cotton wool .\ncue card has already won this race three times , including when arriving last season off the back of a defeat in the charlie hall . while bristol de mai is 2 / 2 here , they have been in lesser company and his task was massively eased last time at wetherby with neither coneygree nor cue card getting round . he is by no means written off as he is the young improver but at the prices he is too short . outlander has grade 1 winning form in the book , if the cheekpieces work as well second time , he deserves plenty of consideration at a bigger price ."]}
{"id": 16, "summary": [{"text": "tarzino ( foaled 29 september 2012 ) is a thoroughbred racehorse bred in new zealand and trained and australia .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he won the victoria derby and rosehill guineas , both group one races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he has won over one and a half million dollars . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "tarzino", "paragraphs": ["tarzino was sired by tavistock out of the dam zarzino tarzino was foaled on 29 of september in 2012 .\ntarzino has a 29 % win percentage and 50 % place percentage . tarzino ' s last race event was at flemington .\nhope tarzino turns out to be a real nice horse . didn ' t settle for a stride and pissed in ! # tarzino # derbyday\nthe current race record for tarzino ( nzl ) is 4 wins from 14 starts .\nwent and saw the old mate in nz this morning ! never looked better @ westburystud . # tarzino urltoken\ntarzino ' s exposed form for its last starts is 6 - 8 - 0 - 8 - 4 .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for tarzino ( nzl ) . tarzino ( nzl ) is a stallion born in 2012 september 29 by tavistock out of zarzino\nshould get the photo . absolutely outstanding craig newitt . on the big stage he delivered # tarzino # derbyday urltoken\ntarzino\u2019s last race event was at 02 / 10 / 2016 and it has not been nominated for any upcoming race .\nthe victoria derby went according to form , with favourite tarzino winning the feature event of derby day comfortably for trainer mick price .\nhorses dual group i winner tarzino will head to ballarat on monday for tests that will determine the remainder of his spring preparation .\nfor price the victory was a particularly emotional one given the ownership of tarzino which includes himself as well as his wife caroline .\nin the home straight , topweight lizard island joined in , before tarzino came down the outside to hit the front and raced away .\ntarzino , ridden by craig newitt , beat the john o ' shea - trained etymology with western australian galloper kia ora koutou in third .\ncatching up with my old mate # tarzino in nz . so far 150 lucky mares look like going to him . what a prospect ! urltoken\ntrackwork the blinkers are coming off but trainer mick price expects tarzino to retain his concentration in saturday\u2019s group i underwood stakes ( 1800m ) at caulfield .\nsaturday racing atc australian derby favourite tarzino completed his preparation for the target race in his autumn campaign with a pleasing gallop at randwick on tuesday morning .\npunters . in the wash up of golden slipper day . . highlights ? lowlights ? thoughts ? # theunitedstates # winx # tarzino # capitalist # griante\nthis week on # kiwibred : # tarzino at @ westburystud & sir patrick hogan at @ cambridgestud stud . @ tabtrackside 1 7 . 30pm tuesday . urltoken\ntarzino career form is 4 wins , 1 seconds , 2 thirds from 14 starts with a lifetime career prize money of $ 1 , 647 , 050 .\ngroup 1 racing the cancellation of monday\u2019s cranbourne trials is unlikely to affect dual group i winner tarzino\u2019s performance in saturday\u2019s group i memsie stakes ( 1400m ) at caulfield .\ndoncaster / derby day 02 ( sunline / don ed ) is clearly my fav raceday spent outside vic . hoping for something to rival it today . # winx # tarzino\nhe has proven a profitable horse for the punters over the journey . if you had backed tarzino throughout his career you ' d have achieved a 16 % return on investment .\nthe tarzino trophy race day launches group 1 racing for the season , bringing the big guns of new zealand racing to hastings to battle at one of the country\u2019s stellar racing events .\ncriterion ' s big move in melbourne cup betting is one of the major changes to the tab\u2019s future race markets following the two meetings from moonee valley : victoria derby tarzino . . .\ntarzino is a 5 year old bay horse . tarzino is trained by m g price , at caulfield and owned by m g price , dr c g lawler , mrs m jurie , j g bebedellis , g bebedellis , mrs c bebedellis , j j mcnicholas , g alas , j p bergin , r a & j e ferguson partnership syndicate , rosemont stud pty ltd syndicate .\nit is a nice return on the $ 60 , 000 price paid for tarzino , a son of tavistock , a horse the trainer had in his stable during his three - year - old season .\naami victoria derby champion tarzino will have a light autumn preparation with the group 1 australian guineas ( 1600m ) at flemington an early target . trainer mick price said the three - year - ol . . .\nall the key changes to the tab\u2019s future race markets following yesterday\u2019s races at caulfield : no changes of note in the manikato stakes and cox plate victoria derby ( tarzino $ 3 . 80 favo . . .\nthe mick price - trained tarzino is set to start a hot favourite to take out saturday\u2019s aami victoria derby at flemington . tab didn\u2019t adjust the price of the $ 2 . 30 favourite after today\u2019s b . . .\nthe $ 1 . 5 million victoria derby had been a frustrating race for caulfield trainer mick price but that was all forgotten on saturday as the trainer finally went home a winner when tarzino outstayed his rivals to take out the 2500m group 1 classic .\nthe moves came early , with red alto going up from the 800m to go after the leaders , with craig newitt starting to slide forward just in behind on tarzino he got to the outside just as they straightened , with the leaders starting to struggle .\nboth price and newitt are confident that he derby win is only just the start of a glittering career for tarzino .\nyou ' ll see him in the cox plate , in the melbourne cup , he ' s a really good horse ,\nprice said .\nthe thing is in these sort of races you have everyone from a to z on your phone wishing you all the best so second is no good .\nat his previous two starts , tarzino had settled back in the field and had no luck and the decision was made to try and have him up handier on saturday .\non the line tarzino , who was heavily backed late from $ 3 . 60 into $ 2 . 90 favourite , had two lengths to spare on the john o ' shea - trained etymology , who was trapped wide in the first half of the race but stuck to his guns determinedly and his rider james mcdonald said he should have finished closer .\noutsider iron boss led a fast - run derby until shards took the lead around the turn , with red alto and ayers rock challenging .\netymology stayed on for second , with kia ora koutou finishing narrowly ahead of red alto .\nhe ' s just an out and out star . he ' s got class written all over him and he just give me the perfect ride today ,\nhe told channel seven .\nhe ' s not a push button horse to ride . it would be nice to win all the time but you can ' t .\nhe put himself in the right spot today . got to the top of the straight and i just - put it all for the horse .\nnewitt thanked trainer mick price for his support and said he wished one member of his family could have been there to see the win .\ni am just really sad that the old man couldn ' t be here today .\nbut i ' ve got three little fellas and my beautiful wife back here waiting for me to come back down , so it ' s pretty emotional .\nprice said he was nervous for the first half - mile of the race .\nit was good for craig . he always wanted to get off heels and get in clear running at the top of the straight ,\nhe told channel seven .\nat the top of the straight he was the one you wanted to be on but he was going to hit the front too early .\nit was a long way up the straight . i was looking for the post but he was too strong . he was in front a long way out .\n'\nhe ' s a really good horse with a lot of capacity to him . he can go to the paddock . he ' ll be a grouse horse in the autumn , i think he ' ll make a weight - for - age four - year - old horse .\n( i ' m ) happy for craig , ( he ' s ) been with me for a long time .\na new dinosaur has been discovered . but did it walk on two legs or four ?\nif you have inside knowledge of a topic in the news , contact the abc .\nabc teams share the story behind the story and insights into the making of digital , tv and radio content .\nit ' s no surprise the plight of the soccer team has received global media attention . but it does raise some interesting questions about how we extend empathy and concern to people we don ' t know .\nhobart ' s old zoo is famous as being where the last thylacine in captivity died , but in its heyday people could view elephants , zebras , monkeys and even see a girl walking her pet leopard . what happened to the beaumaris zoo ?\nwe ' ve ranked the top 50 wimbledon players over the last 50 years .\npeter sagan is a triple world champion and the most charismatic rider in professional road cycling . he is now the leader of the 2018 tour de france , writes rob arnold .\nthis service may include material from agence france - presse ( afp ) , aptn , reuters , aap , cnn and the bbc world service which is copyright and cannot be reproduced .\nto use this website , cookies must be enabled in your browser . to enable cookies , follow the instructions for your browser below .\nthere is a specific issue with the facebook in - app browser intermittently making requests to websites without cookies that had previously been set . this appears to be a defect in the browser which should be addressed soon . the simplest approach to avoid this problem is to continue to use the facebook app but not use the in - app browser . this can be done through the following steps :\nbefore the cookie settings change will take effect , safari must restart . to restart safari press and hold the home button ( for around five seconds ) until the iphone / ipad display goes blank and the home screen appears .\na note about relevant advertising : we collect information about the content ( including ads ) you use across this site and use it to make both advertising and content more relevant to you on our network and other sites . this is also known as online behavioural advertising . you can find out more about our policy and your choices , including how to opt - out here .\n, who is based at caulfield . he is sired by the stallion tavistock out of the dam zarzino .\nr7 g1 turnbull $ 10 , 000 ( of $ 500 , 000 ) barrier 8 , winning time : 2 : 01 . 03 , sp : $ 31 in - running : settled 4th , 1200m 4th , 800m 4th , 400m 4th sectionals : 600m 0 : 34 . 070\nr8 g1 underwood $ 10 , 000 ( of $ 500 , 000 ) barrier 10 , winning time : 1 : 50 . 64 , sp : $ 12 in - running : settled 10th , 1200m 10th , 800m 9th , 400m 8th sectionals : 600m 0 : 34 . 840\nr7 g1 makybe diva ( of $ 500 , 000 ) barrier 4 , winning time : 1 : 36 . 26 , sp : $ 11 in - running : settled 7th , 800m 6th , 400m 6th sectionals : 600m 0 : 34 . 220\nr7 g1 memsie $ 10 , 000 ( of $ 500 , 000 ) barrier 9 , winning time : 1 : 23 . 93 , sp : $ 15 in - running : settled 12th , 800m 12th , 400m 12th sectionals : 600m 0 : 35 . 570\nr7 g1 atc derby $ 100 , 000 ( of $ 2 , 000 , 000 ) barrier 6 , winning time : 2 : 33 . 67 , sp : $ 1 . 65f in - running : settled 2nd , 1200m 4th , 800m 4th , 400m 4th sectionals : 600m 0 : 36 . 090\nr6 g1 rosehill gneas $ 367 , 000 ( of $ 600 , 000 ) barrier 2 , winning time : 2 : 03 . 56 , sp : $ 3 . 10f in - running : settled 5th , 1200m 4th , 800m 3rd , 400m 2nd sectionals : 600m 0 : 34 . 540\nr7 g1 aust gns $ 135 , 000 ( of $ 750 , 000 ) barrier 4 , winning time : 1 : 35 . 28 , sp : $ 8 . 50 in - running : settled 15th , 800m 15th , 400m 7th sectionals : 600m 0 : 35 . 080\nr6 g2 autumn stks $ 9 , 000 ( of $ 200 , 000 ) barrier 8 , winning time : 1 : 23 . 49 , sp : $ 14 in - running : settled 10th , 800m 9th , 400m 8th sectionals : 600m 0 : 34 . 570\nr1 2up - trl , winning time : 1 : 12 . 64 sectionals : 600m 0 : 34 . 720\nr7 g1 vic derby $ 910 , 000 ( of $ 1 , 500 , 000 ) barrier 10 , winning time : 2 : 38 . 39 , sp : $ 2 . 90f in - running : settled 6th , 1200m 8th , 800m 9th , 400m 2nd sectionals : 600m 0 : 36 . 390\nr7 g2 vase $ 18 , 000 ( of $ 200 , 000 ) barrier 10 , winning time : 2 : 06 . 01 , sp : $ 4 . 60 in - running : settled 11th , 1200m 11th , 800m 11th , 400m 9th sectionals : 600m 0 : 35 . 960\nr9 g1 caul guineas $ 20 , 000 ( of $ 1 , 000 , 000 ) barrier 3 , winning time : 1 : 36 . 47 , sp : $ 17 in - running : settled 12th , 800m 13th , 400m 14th sectionals : 600m 0 : 34 . 940\nr9 3y hcp $ 44 , 000 ( of $ 80 , 000 ) barrier 18 , winning time : 1 : 37 . 44 , sp : $ 6 . 50 in - running : settled 16th , 800m 14th , 400m 9th sectionals : 600m 0 : 35 . 430\nr5 3y mdn - sw $ 12 , 650 ( of $ 23 , 000 ) barrier 8 , winning time : 1 : 26 . 89 , sp : $ 3 . 70 in - running : settled 7th , 800m 7th , 400m 5th sectionals : 600m 0 : 35 . 440\nr22 cl2 - trl , winning time : 1 : 03 . 64 sectionals : 600m 0 : 36 . 280\nr1 2y mdn - sw $ 1 , 400 ( of $ 17 , 500 ) barrier 15 , winning time : 1 : 24 . 29 , sp : $ 7 . 50 in - running : settled 11th , 800m 12th , 400m 12th sectionals : 600m 0 : 36 . 680\n18 + know when to stop . don\u2019t go over the top . gamble responsibly . think ! about your choices . call gambling help on 1800 858 858 or visit urltoken or urltoken .\nhe is just the image of zabeel , when he lets down you would think zabeel has returned . this is the only horse that has thrown to zabeel even though he is sired by tavistock .\ndual group 1 winner at three - atc rosehill guineas gr . 1 , vrc derby gr . 1\n* new customers only . turnover and bet requirements apply . t & c ' s apply . excl nsw , wa , sa & vic . gamble responsibly .\ngroup 1 racing an old firm will reunite in saturday\u2019s group i coolmore classic ( 1500m ) at rosehill .\ngroup 1 racing a field of just 16 will start in the $ 3 million group i caulfield cup after two horses were scratched on race morning .\nstewards with the two emergencies gaining a start another runner is subject to a vet check on saturday morning ahead of the 2016 caulfield cup .\ngroup 1 racing the all - important barrier draw has been conducted for the $ 3 million group i caulfield cup ( 2400m ) on saturday where chances have improved or been diminished .\nsaturday racing promising young stayer odeon can take a step towards a victoria derby start with a strong performance in saturday\u2019s ladbrokes supports national jockey trust plate ( 1600m ) at caulfield .\ngroup 1 racing the field for the 2016 australian derby ( 2400m ) has been released and 13 three - year - olds will line up in the set weights feature at randwick on saturday .\n* new customers only . turnover & bet requirements apply . t & c ' s apply . excl nsw , wa , sa & vic . gamble responsibly .\nis gambling a problem for you ? call gambling help on 180 0858 858 or visit www . gamblinghelponline . org . au\nyour screen name will be seen by the racenet community when you participate in discussions or comment on our content .\nyou ' ll receive an email shortly with instructions on how to reset your password .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\nthe new zealand thoroughbred industry is one of the most successful in the world . in 2010 - 11 , the industry produced over 4000 foals and exported 1600 horses at an estimated value of $ 150 million . so , what is the secret of new zealand ' s remarkable success as a thoroughbred breeding nation ? learn more \u203a\nwelcome to the gallery section of the website . here you can search the historical library for images of horses and participants by entering a key word in the search function eg . sunline . many of these photos have been provided by the new zealand press association and our friends at race images . if you would like to contact us about any of these images please email : office @ urltoken\nfertility rate : this is worked out as the total number of foals ( live , dead or slipped ) as a percentage of total mares covered less exported , not returned , dead or indeterminate results .\nindeterminate result : this exists where a mare is covered by more than one stallion and the result of these services is unable to be accurately credited to either of the respective stallions .\nprivacy policy / terms & conditions all content \u00a9 nztr 2012 . nztr holds the copyright in all material on this site . all rights reserved .\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\nrising red checking out the new zealand air this morning . owners and trainers looking forward to saturday ' s g1 derby with a very happy horse\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\ngeneral admission : by donation with all proceeds supporting the hawke\u2019s bay cancer society .\nall of the gate donation fees , along with proceeds from a charity auction , and other generous parties , will support this great charity that\u2019s touched the lives of many families in the hawke\u2019s bay .\nbetween the races promises plenty of action with the hits free family zone with children\u2019s entertainment , live music , and a food precinct offering hawke\u2019s bay\u2019s finest outdoor catering offerings .\nget on - course for a great family day out and support a fantastic cause .\nthe premier lounge is a great way to enjoy your day with friends , work mates and family . the premier lounge has outstanding views of the track with private indoor and outdoor area . this all inclusive package has been extremely successful this year and will sell out throughout the carnival .\nhawke\u2019s bay racing boasts a number of fabulous private indoor lounges for you to host your guests in . these can cater for groups ranging from 20 \u2013 200 guests .\nmembers of hawke\u2019s bay racing enjoy many benefits from free entry to racemeetings and discounts on stand passes , access to members only lounges and . . .\na half - sister to dual hong kong horse of the year ambitious dragon was among 21 weanlings on display at last sunday\u2019s annual hawke\u2019s . . .\nco - trainer chris gibbs confirmed over the weekend that the stable\u2019s progressive young stayer tavidream was \u201cdefinitely queensland derby bound\u201d after a win at ellerslie across the tasman . a well - bred son of tavistock , tavidream is prepared by donna logan and gibbs in new zealand but has been confirmed for a trip down under this brisbane winter [ \u2026 ]\nwelcome to horseracing . com . au , australia ' s premier site for horse racing news .\nearly favourite to take out saturday\u2019s group 1 $ 1 , 000 , 000 robert sangster stakes ( 1200m ) in adelaide , local hope viddora has come up trumps with barrier one in the morphettville feature .\nthe world\u2019s best racehorse , winx , has been celebrated by the australian turf club ( atc ) getting the warwick stakes renamed in her honour .\nthe championships day 2 results will be known shortly and you can stay up to date with all the news at horseracing . com . au .\nfor everything you need to know about horse racing . free horse racing tips from professional punters and betting secrets to increase your horse racing profits .\nthere are many problems associated with beating the trifecta . punters probably don\u2019t realise the task they are taking on when they tackle this bet . question 1 : can you predict the 1 - 2 - 3 finishin . . .\nthere are two groups of punters who invariably go to the races , or their tab agencies , with the percentages piled high against them . they are the backers of favourites and longshots . no matter wh . . .\ngreyhound racing is probably the best system under which a punter in australia can risk - or rather , invest - his hard earned dough . to my way of thinking there is nothing so good as a standout\n. . .\nthe late don scott once wrote that the best form of exotic betting is the trifecta . i think he was right . don said picking a trifecta winning bet was a test of skill rather than a game of chance . . . .\nppm reader kerrin brown has been enjoying success as a \u201clay\u201d operator on betfair . in this article he relates his personal story , and how he makes money from his operation . the first time i w . . .\nyou would like to back a winner every two selections ? that\u2019s a 50 per cent win strike . some dream ! but maybe it\u2019s not so crazy . after all , picking two horses a race and making a \u2018book\u2019 by savin . . .\nthis is part 1 of a two - part exclusive interview with australia ' s greatest professional punter , the late don scott , by ppm ' s brian blackwell . scott discusses his lifestyle , his approach to punting . . .\ni\u2019ve spent years trying to beat the tab and bookies and i\u2019ve lost my bank more times than i can remember . there have been a few big wins ; as many as a man with only three fingers could count on . . .\nin fast month ' s p . p . m . we began our 100 great betting ideas series . sixteen ideas were listed . in this second article , we take a look at another 20 betting tips . staking is a key part of any punt . . .\nin this article , our senior contributor ( the late and great ) e . j . minnis replied to queries sent in by ppm readers . letter from a reader : i have been a ppm reader for quite a while now and al . . .\nclassy staying mare jameka has shortened from $ 3 . 40 to $ 3 . 30 with tab for the caulfield cup following the barrier draw on tuesday afternoon . jameka remains the best backed in the race , ahead of a . . .\npunters have quickly targeted awesome rock for the underwood stakes . tab reports that 60 % of all early bets has been on awesome rock ( $ 8 . 00 ) . the winner of the dato tan chin nam stakes opened at . . .\npreferment has attracted plenty of support in the last 48 hours and is now $ 9 to win the melbourne cup on tuesday . the chris waller - trained four - year - old was $ 13 on wednesday morning , bu . . .\nmelbourne cup favourite fame game has firmed from $ 4 . 00 into $ 3 . 80 and is now the shortest price favourite to win the race that stops the nation since so you think ( $ 3 . 00 ) in 2010 . over 25 % . . .\nc . f . orr stakes . . . turn me loose early fav at $ 5 . 50\nturn me loose has been opened as the $ 5 . 50 favourite with tab to win the c f orr stakes following an impressive trial win last week . going for his fourth win in a row , the four year old group 1 . . .\npress statement has been installed as the one to beat in the randwick guineas , opening as the $ 1 . 80 favourite with tab to win the group one . montaigne ( $ 7 . 00 ) and stay with me ( $ 8 . 50 ) look . . .\none of our great packages ! you save over $ 800 , our new blockbuster collection selection service includes tips a gift , a bonus & more . . .\naustralia ' s leading tipping service . daily specials , longshots & ratings . run by professionals with one aim : to make money for members . . .\nprice - trained runners had finished sixth , fifth , fourth , third and second in the race so he was overdue to win with the favourite in the race but he admitted he had been feeling a little pressure .\nthere was a bit of pressure and there ' s a great sense of relief , $ 2 . 60 favourite , it ' s a nice problem to have but they still have to win ,\nprice said .\nhe did that but raced a little too keenly for the first 800 metres before the pace came on when tommy berry allowed iron boss to stride forward and take up the running along the river side .\nnewitt held him together for as long as he could before pressing the button at the 350m and going for home .\non the home turn , i waited and waited ,\nnewitt said .\nbut further up the straight trainer price was just hoping there was enough in the tank to get him home first .\nat the top of the straight he was the one you wanted to be on but he was going to hit the front too early . it was a long way up the straight , i was looking for the post ,\na relieved price said after the win .\ni could put up a case for being unlucky in the race as i was held up at a vital stage ,\nmcdonald said .\nwest australian visitor kia ora koutou ran on strongly for third a further 4 \u00bc lengths away , after being held up for clear running in the early part of the straight .\none of the horse ' s owners , melissa jury , had promised her dying husband that they would win a group race with the horse , another owner had been seriously ill and price had recently sold a share to one of his long - time owners , rob ferguson .\nthere is a real human element to it . it means a lot ,\nprice said .\nto do the job for them is just sensational and that is what the game is all about . it ' s the best game in the world this .\nthe ownership group had stuck together despite some huge offers from hong kong and with a $ 900 , 000 payday on saturday they are no doubt pleased they declined to sell ."]}
{"id": 32, "summary": [{"text": "poromya granulata , or the granular poromya , is a species of marine bivalve mollusc in the family poromyidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is unusual among bivalves in being carnivorous .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "it is found in more northerly parts of the atlantic ocean . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "poromya granulata", "paragraphs": ["variety poromya granulata var . triangularis dall , 1881 accepted as poromya rostrata rehder , 1943\nwhat type of species is poromya granulata ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the poromya granulata species belongs to .\nwhich photographers have photos of poromya granulata species ? below , you will find the list of underwater photographers and their photos of the marine species poromya granulata .\nhow to identify poromya granulata marine species ? below , you will find the list of main identification criteria and physical characteristics of marine species poromya granulata . for each identification criteria , the corresponding physical characteristics of marine species poromya granulata are marked in green .\nwhere is poromya granulata found in the world ? below , you will find the list and a world map of the geographic distribution where the marine species poromya granulata can be found .\n3b . surface of shell granulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . poromya cf . granulata\ndrawing is reproduced by permission of the author , brian morton , from the article\nprey capture in the carnivorous septibranch poromya granulata ( bivalvia : anomalodesmata : poromyacea )\n; sarsia , v . 66 , pp . 241 - 256 , 1981 .\ngofas , s . ( 2014 ) . poromya granulata . in : costello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvantidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2014 ) european register of marine species , accessed through pesi at\nporomya cf . granulata ( nyst & westendorp , 1839 ) ( cmphrm 2030a ) . legends : ( a ) and ( c ) external views of the right valve ; ( b ) and ( d ) internal views of the right valve . scale bars : a\u2013d , 1 mm\nbogi , c . ; cantagalli g . ( 1986 ) . prima segnalazione di poromya neaeroides seguenza , 1877 in mar mediterraneo . la conchiglia . 202 - 203 : 18 - 19 . [ details ] available for editors\nbogi , c . ; cantagalli g . ( 1986 ) . prima segnalazione di poromya neaeroides seguenza , 1877 in mar mediterraneo . la conchiglia . 202 - 203 : 18 - 19 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nporomya also possesses red amoebocytes in the blood stream , which seem to carry a hemoglobin pigment . this and the several modifications described above point to a degree of evolutionary development that few other bivalves have achieved in adapting to new niches .\nthree species of bivalves , thyasira succisa , lyonsia norwegica and poromya granulate , were recorded for the first time in the adriatic sea during surveys conducted from 2010 to 2012 on offshore relict sand bottoms at a depth range of 45\u201380 m .\n( of panomya granulata ( nyst & westendorp , 1839 ) ) mayhew , r . and f . cole . 1994 ms . a taxonomic discussion and update of shell - bearing marine molluscs recorded from nw atlantic north of cape cod ( excluding greenland ) , and canadian arctic archipeligo . [ details ]\n( of panomya granulata ( nyst & westendorp , 1839 ) ) abbott r . t . ( 1974 ) . american seashells . the marine mollusca of the atlantic and pacific coast of north america . ed . 2 . van nostrand , new york . 663 pp . , 24 pls . [ october 1974 ] . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of corbula granulata nyst & westendorp , 1839 ) nyst p . h . j . & westendorp g . d . ( 1839 ) . nouvelles recherches sur les coquilles fossiles de la province d ' anvers . bulletin de l ' acad\u00e9mie royale des sciences , des lettres et des beaux - arts de belgique , bruxelles 6 ( 2 ) : 393 - 414 [ details ]\n( of poromya rotundata jeffreys , 1876 ) jeffreys , j . g . ( 1876 ) . new and peculiar mollusca of the kellia , cyprina and corbula families , procured in the valorous expedition . annals and magazine of natural history . 4 : 18 - 490 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 494 [ details ]\n( of poromya anatinoides forbes , 1844 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of poromya rotundata jeffreys , 1876 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of poromya anatinoides forbes , 1844 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in ror ) [ details ]\n( of poromya rotundata jeffreys , 1876 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in ror ) [ details ]\n( of poromya anatinoides forbes , 1844 ) forbes e . ( 1844 ) . report on the mollusca and radiata of the aegean sea , and on their distribution , considered as bearing on geology . reports of the british association for the advancement of science for 1843 . 130 - 193 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 191 [ details ]\nthe foot ( figs 2 b , e , f , 11 c ; f ) of g . coronata extends through the septal pedal gape ( spg ) in the septal membrane ( sem ) . ventrally , the densely ciliated foot , with an overall length ( when contracted ) of 240 to 300 \u03bcm , has a pedal groove ( peg ) that may be the remnant of a juvenile byssal groove if , as in many bivalves , such a structure is produced to assist in the establishment of the juvenile in its chosen habitat . morton ( 1981b ) suggested for poromya granulata that the foot , in addition to being responsible for burrowing , probably also served to push captured prey items into the mouth and seal the opening ; it is likely that the same functions are served by the foot of g . coronata .\nnyst p . h . j . & westendorp g . d . ( 1839 ) . nouvelles recherches sur les coquilles fossiles de la province d ' anvers . bulletin de l ' acad\u00e9mie royale des sciences , des lettres et des beaux - arts de belgique , bruxelles 6 ( 2 ) : 393 - 414 page ( s ) : 6 [ details ]\n( of cumingia parthenopaea tiberi , 1855 ) tiberi n . ( 1855 ) . descrizione di alcuni testacei viventi viventi nel mediterraneo . lettere di nicola tiberi . napoli : gaetano noblie pp . 16 : , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 10 - 12 ; pl . 1 fig . 14 - 18 [ details ]\n( of embla korenii lov\u00e9n , 1846 ) lov\u00e9n , s . l . ( 1846 ) . index molluscorum litora scandinaviae occidentalia habitantium . \u00f6fversigt af kongliga vetenskaps akademiens f\u00f6rhandlingar . ( 1846 ) : 134 - 160 , 182 - 204 . [ offprint : pp . 1 - 50 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\npoutiers , j . m . ; bernard , f . r . ( 1995 ) . carnivorous bivalve molluscs ( anomalodesmata ) from the tropical western pacific ocean , with a proposed classification and a catalogue of recent species . in : bouchet , p . ( ed . ) r\u00e9sultats des campagnes musorstom 14 . m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle . s\u00e9rie a , zoologie . 167 : 107 - 187 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhuber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of embla korenii lov\u00e9n , 1846 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of cumingia parthenopaea tiberi , 1855 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\njanssen r . , krylova e . m . ( 2014 ) . deep - sea fauna of european seas : an annotated species check - list of benthic invertebrates living deeper than 2000 m in the seas bordering europe . bivalvia . invertebrate zoology . vol . 11 . no . 1 : 43\u201382 [ in english ] . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbroadly subovate ; anterior broadly rounded , ventral gently curved , posterior subtruncate angled to rather long almost straight sloping posterior dorsal margin .\numbos rather prominent ; posterior set off by a weak ridge running from umbo to posterior ventral junction .\noverall finely granular , granules arranged in radial rows . concentric sculpture of lines and growth stops .\nmostly internal and set on a shallow chondrophore just behind the beaks ; external part small , just behind the beaks .\nrv with a projecting cardinal in front of chondrophore ; lv with a posterior ridge - like lateral behind chondrophore and a socket in front of chondrophore to receive rv cardinal .\nrecorded primarily from northern localities off the north west coast of scotland and the northern north sea . widely distributed in boreal and subarctic waters across the north atlantic . bathymetric ranges from about 70m to the outer shelf and continental margin , becoming progressively deeper further south .\n1981 . the functional morphology of atlantic deep water species of the families cuspidariidae and poromyidae ( bivalvia ) : an analysis of the evolution of the septibranch condition .\n1839 . nouvelles recherches sur les coquilles fossiles de la province d ' anvers .\nbulletins de l ' acad\u00e9mie royale des sciences et belles - lettres de bruxelles .\n2005 . patterns of bathymetric zonation of bivalves in the porcupine sea bight and adjacent abyssal plain , ne atlantic .\nthe marine life information network for britain and ireland ( marlin ) provides information for marine environmental management , protection and education . it is a centre of excellence in spatially based and time - series marine biological information and supports good stewardship in the marine environment .\nnational biodiversity network ' s gateway . use it to explore uk biodiversity data , as contributed by participating data providers .\nmarbef marbef , a network of excellence funded by the european union and consisting of 94 european marine institutes , is a platform to integrate and disseminate knowledge and expertise on marine biodiversity , with links to researchers , industry , stakeholders and the general public .\nobserved in a natural position in the sand , with its inhalant siphon fully extended . note the projecting cowl , which is extended for capture of a 2 . 5 mm long crustacean , typical of food found in its stomach . the 15 tentacles and the siphon are a bright red color .\nspecies in the subclass , anomalodesmata , account for over 70 % of all those benthic and abyssal clams that feed carnivorously or by scavenging tissue fragments - - a mode of feeding that is unusual and not at all characteristic of the vast majority of bivalves .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , w . k . emerson , w . g . lyons , w . pratt , et al .\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al .\ncommon and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\n( nyst & westendorp , 1839 ) . accessed through : costello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvanitidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2018 ) european register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 140843 on 2018 - 07 - 09\ncostello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvanitidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2018 ) . european register of marine species .\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in ror ) [ details ]\nhuber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in ror ) [ details ]\n( of embla korenii lov\u00e9n , 1846 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in ror ) [ details ]\n( of cumingia parthenopaea tiberi , 1855 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in ror ) [ details ]\njanssen r . , krylova e . m . ( 2014 ) . deep - sea fauna of european seas : an annotated species check - list of benthic invertebrates living deeper than 2000 m in the seas bordering europe . bivalvia . invertebrate zoology . vol . 11 . no . 1 : 43\u201382 [ in english ] . [ details ] available for editors\nl\u00e4ngd upp till 13 mm . relativt tunnskalig , sk\u00f6r , v\u00e4nster skalhalva n\u00e5got mindre konvex \u00e4n h\u00f6ger . bucklor n\u00e4ra mittlinjen , bakre del med list fr\u00e5n bucklan till nedre bakkanten . fint granulerad radi\u00e4r skulptur samt koncentriska linjer och tillv\u00e4xtlinjer . mantelbukt bred men grund . skal vitt , periostracum brunaktigt .\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\nl\u00e4ngre texter , ut\u00f6ver kriteriedokumentation , har sammanst\u00e4llts av : fredrik pleijel och malin strand 2016 .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nchecklist della flora e della fauna dei mari italiani ( parte i ) . bivalvia .\nquantity and biochemical composition of sedimentary organic matter around offshore gas extraction pl . . .\ngas platforms can exert relevant effects on various ecosystem properties of the hosting area , modifying patterns of productivity and particle sedimentation . we hypothesised that the presence of gas platforms is associated with higher organic matter ( om ) contents and we tested the null hypothesis by which benthic trophic conditions do not vary significantly among gas structures with different . . . [ show full abstract ]\nanadara kagoshimensis ( mollusca : bivalvia : arcidae ) in adriatic sea : morphological analysis , molecul . . .\nmorphological analysis , molecular characterization , and information on distribution and density of anadara kagoshimensis ( tokunaga , 1906 ) specimens collected in the adriatic sea were here carried out as based on various material and data from five surveys conducted from 2010 to 2014 , for a total of 329 bottom trawl hauls . the morphological and molecular analyses allowed to clarify the confused . . . [ show full abstract ]\ndistribution of the sea pens virgularia mirabilis and funiculina quadrangularis ( cnidaria anthozoa ) . . .\noccurrence and distribution of the sea pens virgularia mirabilis and funiculina quadrangularis in the northern and central adriatic sea were determined from data collected during five trawl surveys from 2011 to 2015 carried out through rapido trawl . species density data ( number of individuals per km ) were processed to describe their spatial distribution .\noccupation : scientist workplace : murmansk marine biological institute ( mmbi ) taxonomic group : malacostraca , cirripedia , pycnogonida e - mail : o . l . zimina @ urltoken\nnyst , p . h . & g . d . westendorp 1839 nouvelles recherches sur les coquilles fossiles de la province d ' anvers . bulletin de l ' acad\u00e9mie royal ede bruxelles , 6 ( 1 ) : 393 - 414 .\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 180 - 213\nturgeon , d . d . , w . g . lyons , p . mikkelsen , g . rosenberg , and f . moretzsohn . 2009 . bivalvia ( mollusca ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 711\u2013744 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , colleg\ndyntaxa ( 2013 ) swedish taxonomic database . accessed at urltoken [ 15 - 01 - 2013 ] .\npoutiers , j . m . & f . r . bernard . 1995 . carnivorous bivalve molluscs ( anomalodesmata ) from the tropical western pacific ocean , with a proposed classification and a catalogue of recent species . in : p . bouchet ( ed . ) , r\u00e9sultats des campagnes musorstom , vol . 14 . m\u00e9moires mus\u00e9um national histoire naturelle , 167 : 107 - 187 .\nhuber m . ( 2010 ) compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world\u2019s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom .\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 license\npesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi\nby adding new morphological and morphometric data of the shells , the present study may help in the taxonomy of these septibranch species . new collections in the region will probably lead to the discovery of new records of septibranchia .\nanomalodesmata dall , 1889 , which diversified early in the palaeozoic , is a monophyletic clade , globally distributed and represented today by a diverse assemblage of highly specialised marine shallow and deep waters bivalves ( harper et al .\n) . several families of anomalodesmatans have become carnivorous , showing a series of remarkable anatomical and conchological modifications for the capture of small arthropods and polychaetes ( harper et al .\n) . this main group of carnivorous taxa has been grouped together as the \u2018septibranchs\u2019 ( harper et al .\n) . some analyses of molecular and / or morphological data support a deep division of anomalodesmata into three clades : septibranchia and two lineages corresponding to the \u2018lyonsiid\u2019 and largely to the \u2018thraciid\u2019 lineages ( harper et al .\n) . however , the origin of the carnivorous septibranch mode of life remains unresolved , due to conflicting results from different analyses ( bieler et al .\n) . this study will discuss three families within anomalodesmata : poromyidae dall , 1886 , cuspidariidae dall , 1886 , and verticordiidae stoliczka , 1870 .\n) . cuspidariids have separate sexes and are carnivores or detritus consumers . their shell is generally small , thin , inflated , and inequilateral , with a rounded and convex anterior end and rostrate or pointed posterior end ( drawn out into the tubular rostrum in many ) ( olsson\nverticordiidae , known from the early cretaceous , contains highly modified genera , mostly deep - water infauna capturing and feeding on small invertebrates ( coan et al .\n) , 37 species are recorded in these families in brazil : two genus and three species in poromyidae , seven genus and 26 species in cuspidariidae , and five genus and eight species in verticordiidae . studies on the north - north - east coast of brazil are still scarce , with a majority of studies focusing on the south - eastern region ( oliveira\n( dall , 1881 ) in brazilian waters , but did not specify the localities .\nthe present study aims to identify the species of the families poromyidae , cuspidariidae and verticordiidae found in the northern and north - eastern coasts of brazil , reducing the gaps in the geographic distribution and adding new morphological data for the analysed shells .\n) and is presented below . cuspidariidae was the most represented family with four genera and six species :\n2a . rostrum broader than long \u2026\u2026 . . . . . . . . . . . . . myonera aff . paucistriata\n2b . rostrum longer than wide \u2026\u2026 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4\n3a . circular shell with radial ribs and deep lunule . . . . . . . . \u2026 . . \u2026 . . . . . . . . . \u2026 . . . . \u2026 . . . . . . . . . . . trigonulina ornata\n4a . with radial ribs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5\n4b . without radial ribs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6\n5a . strong radial ribs ( 6 to 16 primary ribs ) with interspaces , ribs well marked on the inner surface of the valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cardiomya ornatissima\n5b . variable number of radial ribs ( 14\u201336 ) with interspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7\n6a . external surface with granules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . plectodon braziliensis\n6b . external surface without granules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cuspidaria sp .\n7a . 14 to 32 radial ribs with different sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cardiomya perrostrata\n7b . 15 to 36 radial ribs of equal size , shell with pronounced anterior projection next to umbones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cardiomya cleryana\ndistribution maps by species of the material examined in this study ( n - ne brazil ) . legends : ap amap\u00e1 ; pa par\u00e1 , ce cear\u00e1 , pe pernambuco , al alagoas , se sergipe\nmaterial examined : cmphrm 2030a , 2 right valves , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off par\u00e1 , 0\u00b029\u2032n 47\u00b024\u2032w .\ndescription : valve small ( 5 . 44\u20137 . 63 \u00d7 5 . 59\u20138 . 44 mm ) , ovate , both ends rounded , posterior region aslope . color white to cream , inner surface subnacreous . umbones prominent subcentral , turned to the anterior region . outer surface with minute granules spread over the entire surface . internal margins smooth . right valve with a strong cardinal tooth in front of chondrophore .\n) . in the present study , this species was recorded for off the coast of par\u00e1 ( north brazil ) .\nbecause it has an external surface sculptured with fine granules and right valve with a strong cardinal tooth in front of a chondrophore . other four living genera are recognized in poromyidae :\nleal , 2008 ( shell strongly compressed in the anteroposterior direction ) ( coan et al .\n) , but is distinguished from the latter mainly by the non - elongated posterior end . this difference may be due to the fact that our material is of young specimens . thus , we prefer to identify it as\nmainly by \u201cthe dentition obsolete except the cardinal tooth of the right valve , which itself is sometimes absent in the adult , though observable in the young shells\u201d ( p . 280 ) ( dall\nallen & morgan , 1981 ) , especially regarding ornamentation present in the outer surface .\nhas a \u201cshell smooth , except that a faint impression of radiating lines is left by the epidermis\u201d ( p . 107 ) ( dall\nhas a \u201cshell surface with faint , concentric growth lines , about 13 posterior radial lines of granules , more distinct ventrally\u201d ( p . 521 ) ( allen and morgan\n. unfortunately , it was not possible to identify more accurately the specimens due to the existence of only two young right valves .\ncuspidaria sp . ( cmphrm 3665a ) . legends : ( a ) external view of the left valve ; ( b ) internal view of the left valve . scale bars : a\u2013b , 1 mm\nmaterial examined : cmphrm 3665a , 1 left valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off par\u00e1 , 2\u00b029\u203200\u2033n 48\u00b030\u203200\u2033w , 09 december 1970 .\ndescription : shell globose ( 11 . 53 mm in length ) , inequilateral , moderately convex , rostrate posteriorly ( 2 . 50 mm in length ) . color white , not shiny . sculptured with fine radial lines . left valve without teeth , with a small fossete .\nnardo , 1840 because it has a smooth external surface with fine growth lines , without granules . absal\u00e3o and oliveira (\npresent on the continental slope ( 700\u20132 , 000 m ) of the campos basin ( 22\u00b0s ) off southeastern brazil , describing two new species . according to oliveira (\n. unfortunately , it was not possible to identify the specimen at a specific level due to its poor preservation and the existence of a single left valve .\nplectodon braziliensis ( e . a . smith , 1915 ) ( cmphrm 3684a ) . legends : ( a ) external view of the left valve ; ( b ) external view of the right valve ; ( c ) hinge of the left valve ; ( d ) hinge of the right valve . scale bars : a\u2013c , 1 mm ; d , 500 \u03bcm\nsome morphometric data of plectodon braziliensis ( e . a . smith , 1915 ) . comparative data on the length and height of the valves and size of rostrum of the examined material . dimensions in mm . the number in italics means the average value of the measurement\nlegend : cmphrm - a malacological collection \u201cprof . henry ramos matthews\u201d - series a , val . valve , ( n o ) number of examined valves , r right , l left ; * damaged shell\nmaterial examined : cmphrm 3656a , 1 left valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 3\u00b010\u203230\u2033n 49\u00b000\u203218\u2033w , 13 september 1970 ; cmphrm 3658a , 2 right valves , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 3\u00b044\u203230\u2033n 50\u00b007\u203230\u2033w , 08 may 1971 ; cmphrm 3672a , 1 right valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 3\u00b054\u203200\u2033n 49\u00b047\u203230\u2033w , 09 may 1971 ; cmphrm 3653a , 1 right valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 3\u00b055\u203230\u2033n 49\u00b021\u203230\u2033w , 19 may 1971 ; cmphrm 3655a , 1 valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 4\u00b001\u203230\u2033n 49\u00b053\u203200\u2033w , 09 may 1971 ; cmphrm 3652a , 1 right valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 4\u00b020\u203200\u2033n 50\u00b018\u203200\u2033w , 07 may 1971 ; cmphrm 2020a , 1 right valve and 1 left valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 4\u00b046\u203200\u2033n 50\u00b046\u203230\u2033w , 06 may 1971 ; cmphrm 3667a , 1 right valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off par\u00e1 , 1\u00b047\u203200\u2033n 47\u00b049\u203200\u2033w , 20 april 1971 ; cmphrm 3673a , 1 right valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off par\u00e1 , 1\u00b055\u203230\u2033n 47\u00b041\u203200\u2033w , 20 april 1971 ; cmphrm 3654a , 3 right valves and 2 left valves , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off par\u00e1 , 2\u00b001\u203200\u2033n 47\u00b032\u203230\u2033w , 20 april 1971 ; cmphrm 3696a , 1 right valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off par\u00e1 , 2\u00b006\u203230\u2033n 48\u00b024\u203200\u2033w , 23 april 1971 ; cmphrm 3683a , 1 right valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off par\u00e1 , 2\u00b009\u203200\u2033n 47\u00b025\u203230\u2033w , 19 may 1971 ; cmphrm 3684a , 1 right valve and 4 left valves , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off par\u00e1 , 2\u00b053\u203200\u2033n 48\u00b017\u203200\u2033w , 14 september 1970 ; cmphrm 715a , 2 right valves and 5 left valves , canopus , brazil , off cear\u00e1 , 3\u00b013\u2032s 38\u00b031\u2032w , june 1965 to february 1966 ; cmphrm 3697a , 1 right valve , akaroa , brazil , off alagoas , 10\u00b05\u20327\u2033s 35\u00b047\u20322\u2033w , 04 november 1965 ; cmphrm 3682a , 1 left valve , canopus , brazil , off sergipe , 11\u00b019\u20320\u2033s 35\u00b005\u20320\u2033w , 20 march 1966 ;\ndescription : shell elongate ( 19 . 5 \u00d7 12 . 4 mm ) , moderately globose , rostrate posteriorly . dorsal margins obliquely angled on either side of beaks , anterior straight at first , then curving into the rounded end . rostrum rounded posteriorly . color white , inner surface shiny ( polished ) . inequilateral , posterior end longer , umbones slightly opisthogyrate . outer surface with fine growth lines and dense minute granules . hinge in the right valve with elongate ( lamellar ) lateral teeth ( anterior and posterior ) . hinge in the left valve without teeth , with small fossete .\n) . in the present study , this species was recorded for off the north - north - east coast of brazil ( amap\u00e1 , par\u00e1 , cear\u00e1 , alagoas , and bahia ) .\nbecause it has minute granules upon the external surface . according to these authors ,\n( from the pacific ocean ) mainly by a rose - tinged umbo ( pimp\u00e3o et al .\nin the south - western atlantic and extends the northern distribution limit with new records for off the north - north - east coast of brazil ( amap\u00e1 , par\u00e1 , alagoas , and bahia ) . now the amap\u00e1 coast is its most northern limit .\ncardiomya cleryana ( d\u2019orbigny , 1842 ) ( cmphrm 3695a ) . legends : ( a ) external view of the right valve ; ( b ) internal view of the right valve ; ( c ) hinge of the right valve . scale bars : a\u2013b , 1 mm ; c , 500 \u03bcm\nsome morphological and morphometric data of cardiomya cleryana ( d\u2019orbigny , 1842 ) . comparative data on the length and height of the valves and size of rostrum of the examined material . dimensions in mm . the number in italics means the average value of the measurement\nlegend : cmphrm - a malacological collection \u201cprof . henry ramos matthews\u201d - series a , val . valve ; ( n o ) number of examined valves or ribs , r right , l left ; * damaged shell or uncountable\nmaterial examined : cmphrm 3670a , 1 valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 4\u00b027\u203230\u2033n 50\u00b001\u203230\u2033w , 20 april 1971 ; cmphrm 3678a , 1 right valve and 7 left valves , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 4\u00b035\u203230\u2033n 50\u00b021\u203200\u2033w , 18 may 1971 ; cmphrm 3681a , 1 left valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 3\u00b037\u203200\u2033n 50\u00b001\u203200\u2033w , 08 may 1971 ; cmphrm 3680a , 2 right valves and 2 left valves , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 2\u00b053\u203200\u2033n 48\u00b017\u203200\u2033w , 14 september 1970 ; cmphrm 3671a , 1 valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off par\u00e1 , 1\u00b055\u203230\u2033n 47\u00b041\u203200\u2033w , 20 april 1971 ; cmphrm 3679a , 2 right valves and 2 left valves , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off par\u00e1 , 2\u00b01\u203200\u2033n 47\u00b032\u203230\u2033w , 20 april 1971 ; cmphrm 3693a , 3 right valves and 1 left valve , brazil , pernambuco , itamarac\u00e1 island ; cmphrm 3695a , 1 right valve and 1 left valve , brazil , pernambuco , itamarac\u00e1 island ; cmphrm 3651a , 1 left valve , akaroa , brazil , 9\u00b027\u203208\u2033s 35\u00b007\u203207\u2033w , 08 september 1965 .\ndescription : shell ovate ( 11 . 4 \u00d7 6 . 9 mm ) , inequilateral , longer anteriorly , valves inflated , posteriorly rostrate . rostrum sometimes with fine radial lines . color white . umbones opisthogyrate . sculptured with variable number ( 15\u201336 ) curved radial ribs , that extend beyond the shell edge , yielding a crenulated margin . ribs concentrated in the anterior region , with distance between them increasing from anterior to posterior . hinge in the right valve with strong posterior lateral tooth , small fossete . hinge in the left valve without teeth , with fossete .\n) . in the present study , this species was recorded for off the north - north - east coast brazil ( amap\u00e1 , par\u00e1 , and alagoas ) and itamarac\u00e1 island , pernambuco ( northeast brazil ) .\nspecies found in this study mainly by radial ribs with equal sizes and shortly rostrate posteriorly . the anatomy of the arenophilic system of\nin the south - western atlantic with new records for off the north - north - east coast of brazil ( amap\u00e1 , par\u00e1 , and alagoas ) and itamarac\u00e1 island , pernambuco ( northeast brazil ) . now off the amap\u00e1 coast is its northernmost limit .\ncardiomya ornatissima ( d\u2019orbigny , 1853 ) ( cmphrm 3649a ) . legends : ( a ) external view of the left valve ; ( b ) external view of the right valve ; ( c ) hinge of the left valve ; ( d ) hinge of the right valve . scale bars : a\u2013b , 1 mm ; c\u2013d , 500 \u03bcm\nsome morphological and morphometric data of cardiomya ornatissima ( d\u2019orbigny , 1853 ) . comparative data on the length and height of the valves , size of rostrum and number of ribs of the examined material . dimensions in mm . the number in italics means the average value of the measurement\nlegend : cmphrm - a malacological collection \u201cprof . henry ramos matthews\u201d - series a , val . valve ; ( n o ) number of examined valves or ribs , r right , l left , pr primary ribs , sr = secondary ribs\nmaterial examined : cmphrm 3692a , 2 right valves , 5 left valves and 1 shell , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 4\u00b048\u203200\u2033n 51\u00b007\u203200\u2033w , 31 may 1971 ; cmphrm 3675a , fragments , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 4\u00b046\u203200\u2033n 50\u00b046\u203230\u2033w , 06 may 1971 ; cmphrm 2021a , 1 left valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 4\u00b046\u203200\u2033n 50\u00b046\u203230\u2033w , 06 may 1971 ; cmphrm 3688a , 4 left valves , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 4\u00b035\u203230\u2033n 50\u00b021\u203200\u2033w , 18 may 1971 ; cmphrm 3690a , 1 left valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 4\u00b018\u203248\u2033n 50\u00b017\u203206\u2033w , 27 september 1970 ; cmphrm 3674a , 1 left valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 3\u00b044\u203230\u2033n 50\u00b007\u203230\u2033w , 08 may 1971 ; cmphrm 3691a , 7 right valves , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 3\u00b010\u203200\u2033n 50\u00b003\u203200\u2033w , 05 may 1971 ; cmphrm 3694a , 2 right valves , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 2\u00b053\u203200\u2033n 48\u00b017\u203200\u2033w , 14 september 1970 ; cmphrm 3687a , 1 right valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 2\u00b029\u203200\u2033n 48\u00b030\u203200\u2033w , 09 december 1970 ; cmphrm 3676a , 1 left valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 2\u00b06\u203230\u2033n 48\u00b024\u203200\u2033w , 23 april 1971 ; cmphrm 3689a , 5 left valves , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off par\u00e1 , 2\u00b002\u203200\u2033n 48\u00b010\u203200\u2033w , 21 june 1971 ; cmphrm 3677a , 7 right valves and 3 left valves , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off par\u00e1 , 2\u00b01\u203200\u2033n 47\u00b032\u203230\u2033w , 20 april 1971 ; cmphrm 3685a , fragments , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off par\u00e1 , 2\u00b027\u203200\u2033n 47\u00b045\u203200\u2033w , 23 april 1971 ; cmphrm 3686a , 3 left valves , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off par\u00e1 , 1\u00b055\u203230\u2033n 47\u00b041\u203200\u2033w , 20 april 1971 ; cmphrm 714a , 5 right valves and 8 left valves , canopus , brazil , off cear\u00e1 , 3\u00b013\u2032s 38\u00b031\u2032w , june 1965 to february 1966 ; cmphrm 3648a , 1 right valve , akaroa , brazil , off alagoas , 9\u00b02\u203200\u2033s 35\u00b011\u20327\u2033w , 10 september 1965 ; cmphrm 3649a , 2 shells , akaroa , brazil , off alagoas , 9\u00b006\u203209\u2033s 35\u00b008\u203207\u2033w , 10 september 1965 ; cmphrm 3650a , 2 left valves , akaroa , brazil , off alagoas , 9\u00b027\u203208\u2033s 35\u00b007\u203207\u2033w , 08 september 1965 .\ndescription : shell ovate ( 13 \u00d7 8 mm ) , inequilateral , inequivalve , right valve smaller than left one , posteriorly rostrate . color white , inner surface shiny , outer surface with thin light - brown periostracum . subequilateral , posterior end longer , umbones slightly opisthogyrate . right valve convex , with 6\u201311 prominent radial ribs with interspaces , broader in the posterior region , that extend beyond the edge , making the crenulated margin , ribs well marked on the inner surface of the valve ; rostrum truncate , with fine secondary ribs ( 1\u20133 ) and growth lines ; hinge with l elongate ( lamellar ) lateral tooth ( posterior ) , anterior region rounded wih projetion next to umbones , deep fossete . left valve very convex , with 7\u201316 prominent radial ribs with interspaces , broader in the posterior region , that extend beyond the edge , making the crenulated margin , ribs well marked on the inner surface of the valve ; rostrum median truncate , with fine secondary ribs ( 3\u20136 ) and growth lines ; hinge without teeth , with deep fossete .\n) . in the present study , this species was recorded for off the north - north - east coast of brazil ( amap\u00e1 , par\u00e1 , cear\u00e1 , and alagoas ) .\nremarks : cardiomya ornatissima is distinguished from other cardiomya species found in this study mainly by a smaller number of radial ribs that are well - marked on the inner surface of the valve and the presence of secondary ribs in the rostrum .\ncardiomya perrostrata ( dall , 1881 ) . legends : ( a ) external view of the right valve ; ( b ) internal view of the right valve ; ( c ) external view of the left valve ; ( d ) external view of the right valve ( cmphrm 3660a ) ; ( e ) hinge of the right valve . a\u2013c ; e ( cmphrm 3662a ) . scale bars : a\u2013e , 1 mm\nsome morphological and morphometric data of cardiomya perrostrata ( dall , 1881 ) . comparative data on the length and height of the valves , size of rostrum and number of ribs of the examined material . dimensions in mm . the number in italics means the average value of the measurement\nmaterial examined : cmphrm 3661a , 1 left valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 4\u00b027\u203230\u2033n 50\u00b001\u203230\u2033w , 18 may 1971 ; cmphrm 3662a , 1 right valve and 1 left valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , off amap\u00e1 , 2\u00b053\u203200\u2033n 48\u00b017\u203200\u2033w , 14 september 1970 ; cmphrm 712a , 1 right valve , canopus , brazil , off cear\u00e1 , 3\u00b013\u2032s 38\u00b031\u2032w , june 1965 to february 1966 ; cmphrm 3657a , 10 right valves and 9 left valves , brazil , pernambuco , itamarac\u00e1 island ; cmphrm 3659a , 5 right valves and 2 left valves , brazil , pernambuco , itamarac\u00e1 island ; cmphrm 3660a , 1 left valve , akaroa , brazil , off alagoas , 9\u00b01\u20320\u2033s 34\u00b055\u20322\u2033w , 10 september 1965 .\ndescription : shell small ( 14 . 93 \u00d7 9 . 45 mm ) , with a long , narrow rostrum ( sometimes with fine lines ) . color white , inner surface shiny . subequilateral , posterior end longer , umbones opisthogyrate . sculptured with 14 to 32 radial ribs alternating in size , every other one being slightly larger than the other , stronger in the posterior region . growth lines well marked in some specimens . crenulated margin . hinge in the right valve with posterior lateral teeth , with small fossete . hinge in the left valve without teeth .\n) . in the present study , this species was recorded for off the north - north - east coast of brazil ( amap\u00e1 , cear\u00e1 , and alagoas ) and itamarac\u00e1 island , pernambuco ( northeast brazil ) .\nremarks : cardiomya perrostrata is distinguished from other cardiomya species found in this study mainly by radial ribs with different sizes , a long narrow rostrum , and the presence of two posterior lateral teeth in the right valve , while c . cleryana and c . ornatissima have just one lateral tooth .\nmyonera aff . paucistriata dall , 1886 ( cmphrm 3664a ) . legends : ( a ) external view of the left valve ; ( b ) external view of the left valve . scale bars : a\u2013b , 1 mm\nmaterial examined : cmphrm 3663a , fragments , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 2\u00b006\u203230\u2033n 48\u00b024\u203200\u2033w , 23 april 1971 ; cmphrm 3664a , 1 left valve , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off par\u00e1 , 1\u00b022\u203200\u2033n 48\u00b013\u203200\u2033w , 20 april 1971 .\ndescription : valve small ( 5 . 01 \u00d7 3 . 08 mm ) , ovate , shortly rostrate ( 1 mm in lenght ) , with 2 strong keels posteriorly ( 3 ribs well marked and one secondary rib ) . outer surface white and shiny . inequilateral , umbones opisthogyrate . sculptured with radial and concentric lines that ceases just before the anterior keel . the space between and behind kells is smooth . left valve without teeth .\n) . in the present study , this species was recorded for off the north brazil ( amap\u00e1 and par\u00e1 ) .\nspecies found in brazil by ovate and shortly rostrate shell with two strong keels posteriorly .\n, but is distinguished from the latter mainly by its radial and concentric lines and a well - marked third rib . unfortunately , it was not possible to identify the specimens at a specific level due to the existence of a single left valve .\ntrigonulina ornata d\u2019orbigny , 1842 ( cmphrm 1864a ) . legends : ( a ) external view of the left valve ; ( b ) external view of the right valve ; ( c ) minute granules of outer surface in detail ; ( d ) internal view of the right ; ( e ) internal view of the left valve . scale bars : a\u2013b , 1 mm ; c , 200 \u03bcm ; d\u2013e , 1 mm\nsome morphological and morphometric data of trigonulina ornata d\u2019orbigny , 1842 . comparative data on the length and height of the valves , size of rostrum and number of ribs of the examined material . dimensions in mm\nlegend : cmphrm - a malacological collection \u201cprof . henry ramos matthews\u201d - series a , val . valve ; ( n o ) number of examined valves or ribs , r right , l left\nmaterial examined : cmphrm 1864a , three right valves and three left valves , oc . v . almirante saldanha , brazil , off amap\u00e1 , 4\u00b046\u203200\u2033n 50\u00b046\u203230\u2033w , 06 may 1971 .\ndescription : shell small ( 5 . 6 \u00d7 5 . 9 mm ) , equivalve , ovate to rounded , compressed . color white to cream , inner surface silver - white , outer surface opaque ( not shiny ) . umbones subcentral , turned to the anterior region ; deep lunule . ligament long . outer surface with minute granules . 3 / 4 of the anterior surface of the valve sculptured with 10 to 13 curved , deep radial ribs . posterior region without lines . anteroventral margin crenulated by the strong ribs . hinge in the right valve with small cardinal teeth , below umbones . hinge in the left valve without teeth .\ngeographic distribution : atlantic ocean : bermuda , massachusetts to florida , caribbean , guyane , surinam , brazil ( amap\u00e1 to rio grande do sul ) and sta . helena island ( rios\n) , based on the presence of a series of prominent radial ribs and the crenulation of the posteroventral margin . according to oliveira (\nalthough several studies have been carried out in brazil with the families poromyidae , cuspidariidae , and verticordiidae in the last few years ( e . g . ( oliveira\n) ) the knowledge about these families is still far from complete , as shown by the new records done in this study . the present study shows the possibility of two new species of septibranchs to brazil . however , it was not possible to reach conclusive identifications due to the scarce materials ( one valve of each species ) and its poor preservation .\nthis study provide new knowledge about septibranchia on the brazilian coast , reducing the gaps in the geographic distribution and extending the distribution limits of some species with new records . new collections probably will discover new records of poromyidae , cuspidariidae , and verticordiidae in the region .\n) . the studied material was deposited in the malacological collection \u201cprof . henry ramos matthews\u201d - series a ( cmphrm - a ) of universidade federal do cear\u00e1 ( ufc ) , brazil .\nspecies identification was performed with the aid of a stereoscopic microscope and specialized taxonomic literature . the examined material consists only of empty shells . all unbroken specimens were measured in total length , height , and size of the rostrum ( for members of the cuspidariidae ) with a digital caliper ( precision 0 . 01 mm ) . species with more than one well - preserved shell were photographed under a scanning electron microscope ( sem ) at the museu nacional , rio de janeiro , brazil .\nthe above specimens were used to prepare a dichotomous identification key and redescription of each species .\nthe lists of examined material contain the register number in the cmphrm - a , the number of examined valves , the collector , the country , the state , the geographic coordinates , and the collection date .\nthe authors thank paul valentich - scott , natalia pereira benain and one anonymous referee for valuable comments on the manuscript . the authors wish to also thank jo\u00e3o eduardo pereira de freitas for the photographs used in this study .\ncxb , ss and sgr participated in the acquisition , analysis and interpretation of data . cxb drafted the manuscript . hmc conceived of the study , and participated in its design and coordination and helped to draft the manuscript . all authors read and approved the final manuscript .\nabbott rt . american seashells - the marine mollusca of the atlantic and pacific coast of north america . new york : van nostrand ; 1974 .\nabsal\u00e3o rs , oliveira cdc . the genus cuspidaria ( pelecypoda : septibranchia : cuspidariidae ) from the deep sea of campos basin , brazil , with descriptions of two new species . malacologia . 2011 ; 54 : 119\u201338 .\nallen ja , morgan re . the functional morphology of atlantic deep water species of the families cuspidariidae and poromyidae ( bivalvia ) : an analysis of the evolution of the septibranch condition . philos trans r soc lond . 1981 ; 294 : 413\u2013546 .\nbieler r , carter jg , coan ev . classification of bivalve families . in : bouchet p , rocroi jp , editors . nomenclator of bivalve families , malacologia , vol . 52 . 2010 . p . 113\u201333 .\nbieler r , mikkelsen pm , collins tm , glover ea , gonz\u00e1lez vl , graf dl , et al . investigating the bivalve tree of life \u2013 an exemplar - based approach combining molecular and novel morphological characters . invertebr syst . 2014 ; 28 : 32\u2013115 .\ncoan ev , valentich - scott p . bivalve seashells of tropical west america : marine bivalve mollusks from baja california to northern peru . santa barbara : santa barbara museum of natural history ; 2012 .\ncoan ev , valentich - scott p , bernard fr . bivalve seashells of western north america : marine bivalve mollusks from arctic alaska to baja california . santa barbara : santa barbara museum of natural history monographs 2 ; 2000 .\ncorrea - sandoval a , rodr\u00edguez - castro jh . zoogeograf\u00eda de los bivalvos marinos de la costa de tamaulipas , m\u00e9xico . rev biol mar oceanogr . 2013 ; 48 : 565\u201384 .\ndall wh . reports on the results of dredging , under the supervision of alexander agassiz , in the gulf of mexico and in the caribbean sea ( 1877\u201378 ) , by the united states coast survey steamer \u201cblake\u201d , lieutenant - commander c . d . sigsbee , u . s . n . , and commander j . r . bartlett , u . s . n . , commanding . xv - preliminary report on the mollusca . bull mus comp zool . 1881 ; 9 : 33\u2013144 .\ndall wh . reports on the results of dredging , under the supervision of alexander agassiz , in the gulf of mexico ( 1877\u201378 ) and in the caribbean sea ( 1879\u201380 ) , by the u . s . coast survey steamer \u2018blake\u2019 , lient . - commander c . d . sigsbee , u . s . n . , and commander j . r . bartlett , u . s . n . , commanding . xxix - report on the molluscs part i , brachiopoda and pelecypoda . bull mus comp zool . 1886 ; 12 : 171\u2013318 .\nharper em , dreyer h , steiner g . reconstructing the anomalodesmata ( mollusca : bivalvia ) : morphology and molecules . zool j linnean soc . 2006 ; 148 : 395\u2013420 .\njanssen r , krylova em . deep - sea fauna of european seas : an annotated species check - list of benthic invertebrates living deeper than 2000 m in the seas bordering europe . bivalvia invert zool . 2014 ; 11 : 43\u201382 .\nkrylova em . new taxa and the system of recent representatives of the family poromyidae ( bivalvia , septibranchia , poromyoidea ) . ruthenica . 1997 ; 7 : 141\u20138 .\nlamy d , martin d , romano c , pititto f , mura mp , gil j , et al . compl\u00e9ment \u00e0 l\u2019inventaire des mollusques de guyane . xenophora . 2014 ; 148 : 8\u201319 .\nleal jh . a remarkable new genus of carnivorous , sessile bivalves ( mollusca : anomalodesmata : poromyidae ) with descriptions of two new species . zootaxa . 1764 ; 2008 : 1\u201318 .\noliveira cdc . considera\u00e7\u00f5es sobre a taxonomia de septibranchia ( mollusca : pelecypoda ) e o estado da arte do conhecimento do grupo no brasil . sicardia . 2012 ; 2012 : 1\u201312 .\noliveira cdc , absal\u00e3o rs . primeiro registro de mendicula ferruginosa , kelliella atlantica e lyonsiella subquadrata ( mollusca , pelecypoda ) para \u00e1guas brasileiras . biociencias . 2007 ; 15 : 63\u20137 .\noliveira cdc , absal\u00e3o rs . the genera myonera , octoporia , and protocuspidaria ( pelecypoda , cuspidariidae ) from deep waters of campos basin , rio de janeiro , brazil with descriptions of two new species . am malacol bull . 2009 ; 27 : 141\u201356 .\noliveira cdc , absal\u00e3o rs . review of the septibranchia ( pelecypoda : mollusca ) from deep sea of campos basin , brazil : family verticordiidae , with description of a new species . j mar biol assoc uk . 2010a ; 90 : 809\u201317 .\noliveira cdc , absal\u00e3o rs . review of the septibranchia ( mollusca : pelecypoda ) from the deep sea of campos basin , brazil : family lyonsiellidae , with description of a new species . science . 2010b ; 74 : 305\u201316 .\noliveira cdc , sartori af . discovery and anatomy of the arenophilic system of cuspidariid clams ( bivalvia : anomalodesmata ) . j morphol . 2014 ; 275 : 9\u201316 ."]}
{"id": 34, "summary": [{"text": "trigonogenium is a genus of beetles in the family buprestidae , the jewel beetles .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "species are native to chile and argentina .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "species include : trigonogenium angulosum ( solier , 1849 ) trigonogenium biforme cobos , 1986 trigonogenium subaequale ( fairmaire & germain , 1864 )", "topic": 26}], "title": "trigonogenium", "paragraphs": ["trigonogenium is a genus of beetles in the family buprestidae , the jewel beetles . they are native to chile and argentina .\nbuy beetles for sale buprestidae : trigonogenium angulosum obscure form from chile online . worldwide shipping ! beautiful insect beetles for sale buprestidae : trigonogenium angulosum obscure form for sale at the bugmaniac , one of the world ' s largest dealers of preserved dried insects .\nfigures 1 \u2013 5 . 1 . hovorigenium ecuadorense bellamy , 2007 , holotype , female , 7 . 2 mm ( photo by c . l . bellamy ) ; 2 . trigonogenium angulosum ruginosum ( fairmaire , 1868 ) , female , chile \u2013 las trancas , 9 . 5 mm ; 3 . cimrmanium angulinotum gen . nov . , sp . nov . , holotype , female , 11 . 0 mm ; 4 . same , ovipositor ; 5 . same , left antenna .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nhallan , j . ( 2000 - current ) . biology catalog . web compilation accessible at urltoken ( accessed june 2012 ) .\nnomenclator zoologicus . a list of the names of genera and subgenera in zoology from the tenth edition of linnaeus , 1758 to the end of 2004 . digitised by ubio from vols . 1 - 9 of neave ( ed . ) , 1939 - 1996 plus supplementary digital - only volume . urltoken ( as at 2006 ) .\nsn2000 : brands , s . j . ( compiler ) 1989 - 2005 . systema naturae 2000 . amsterdam , the netherlands ( 2006 version ) . available online at urltoken\nthere are no reviews yet . be the first one to write a review .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nb\u00edl\u00fd , svatopluk , 2009 , a new genus and species of the tribe trigonogeniini cobos , 1956 , from belize ( coleoptera : buprestidae ) , zootaxa 2108 , pp . 65 - 68 : 65\ndescription . medium - sized , rather convex , elongate - ovoid , distinctly enlarged posteriorly ; entire dorsal surface except for pronotum with short , recumbent , black ( head ) or grey ( elytra ) pubescence , pronotum glabrous , asetose ; abdominal ventrites with extremely short , grey pubescence ; head deeply impressed above frontoclypeal suture , supraantennal carinae strongly developed ; antennomeres 4\u201311 obtusely serrate , longer than wide ; eyes large , widely reniform , not projecting beyond outline of head ; pronotum with fine , transverse rugae on disc , lateral pronotal margins strongly angulate at posterior fifth , deeply emarginate before posterior angles ; prelateral pronotal carina well - developed , obtuse ; scutellum very small , slightly longer than wide ; elytra nearly regularly convex , enlarged posteriorly with rows of fine , deep , isolated punctures ; elytral epipleura narrow , almost reaching elytral apex ; apical third of elytral margins finely , densely serrate ; prosternal process flat , nearly subparallel , anal ventrite obtusely truncate ; legs long , slender , femora narrowly fusiform , tarsi with ventral adhesive pads on tarsomeres 2\u20134 ; ovipositor long , slender , strongly sclerotised with small , laterally inserted styli .\ngen . nov . ( neuter ) is named after the famous czech traveller , innovator and the last czech polyhistorian , j\u00e1ra cimrman .\nby deeply impressed frons , strongly developed supraantennal carinae , quite characteristic pronotal shape ( fig . 3\n) , transverse rugae on pronotal disc , posteriorly enlarged elytra ( fig . 3\nby the narrow pronotum which is much narrower than the base of elytra ( figs . 2 & 3\n) , much finer dorsal sculpture , slightly prolonged scutellum , longer antennomeres , truncate anal ventrite , frons carinate along inner margins of eyes and by presence of transverse , elytral fields of grey pubescence .\nno known copyright restrictions apply . see agosti , d . , egloff , w . , 2009 . taxonomic information exchange and copyright : the plazi approach . bmc research notes 2009 , 2 : 53 for further explanation ."]}
{"id": 41, "summary": [{"text": "the slender treeshrew ( tupaia gracilis ) is a treeshrew species within the tupaiidae .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it is native to borneo and inhabits foremost lowland old forest . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "slender treeshrew", "paragraphs": ["the slender treeshrew ( tupaia gracilis ) is a treeshrew species in the tupaiidae family . it is found in indonesia and malaysia .\nfirst footage of the slender treeshrew ( tupaia gracilis ) , a scarce bornean endemic and the least common treeshrew in sabah . it was captured in a lowland forest , in sintopy with tupaia tana .\nis a species of treeshrew in the tupaiidae family . it is found in indonesia and malaysia .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nborneo , sarawak , baram dist . , apoh river at base of mt . batu song .\nborneo below 1 , 200 m , including sabah and sarawak ( malaysia ) and kalimantan ( indonesia ) except se ; west to islands of karimata , belitung , and bangka , and north to banggi isl .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern as although the species is not common and its habitat continues to decline in the face of ongoing forest loss in the lowlands of borneo , the species shows some adaptability to disturbed environments , and it is unlikely that past or future declines over 10 years would not be at a rate that would warrant listing in a threatened category .\nthis species is found on borneo below 1 , 200 m , in sabah and sarawak ( malaysia ) and kalimantan ( indonesia ) except in the south - east ; west to the islands of karimata , belitung , and bangka , and north to banggi island ( helgen 2005 ) . it is sympatric with tupaia minor , t . longipes , and t . tana on borneo ( .\nthis species is somewhat rare ( k . h . han pers . comm . ) . it seems patchily distributed , being present at low densities in some sites , but apparently absent from other forested areas ( r . stuebing pers . comm . ) .\nthis species is found in lowland old growth forests , secondary forest and in older ( > 5years ) tree plantations ( r . stuebing pers . comm . ) .\nthe major threat to this species is loss of habitat due to logging , agricultural expansion and conversion of land to plantations .\nit occurs in several protected areas throughout its range , including lanjak - entimau wildlife sanctuary ( han and engkamat 2000 ) . the preservation of old and regenerating forested areas , and natural forest remnants within tree plantations , will benefit this species . it is listed on cites appendix ii .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t41495a115189017 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nemmons , l . h . 2000 . tupai : a field study of bornean treeshrews . university of california press , berkeley , ca , usa .\nhan , k . h . and engkamat , l . 2000 . a species inventory of small mammals for the development of lanjak - entimau wildlife sanctuary as a totally protected area . proceedings of international itto workshop 2000 development of lanjak - entimau wildlife sanctuary as a totally protected area phase ii : 120\u2013134 . malaysia .\nhelgen , k . m . 2005 . order scandentia . in : d . e . wilson and d . a . reeder ( eds ) , mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , pp . 104 - 109 . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , maryland , usa .\niucn . 2016 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2016 - 3 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 07 december 2016 ) .\niucn . 2017 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2017 - 1 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 april 2017 ) .\npacifici , m . , santini , l . , di marco , m . , baisero , d . , francucci , l . , grottolo marasini , g . , visconti , p . and rondinini , c . 2013 . generation length for mammals . nature conservation 5 : 87\u201394 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nyou can copy this taxon into another guide . if you are one of the editors of this guide it should copy everything , but if you ' re not , it will only copy the licensed content .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 frameset / / en\nurltoken\nproject noah is a tool to explore and document wildlife and a platform to harness the power of citizen scientists everywhere .\nthanks andhi , i always refer it as squirell in the past , not anymore . stick with tupaia or tupai : ) glad to know that we still have heaps of these in the wild ."]}
{"id": 45, "summary": [{"text": "pyrosoma atlanticum is a pelagic species of marine colonial tunicate in the class thaliacea found in temperate waters worldwide .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the name of the genus comes from the greek words pyros meaning ' fire ' and soma meaning ' body ' , referring to the bright bioluminescence sometimes emitted .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the specific epithet atlanticum refers to the atlantic ocean , from where the first specimen of the species was collected for scientific description ; it was described in 1804 by fran\u00e7ois p\u00e9ron , a french naturalist . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "pyrosoma atlanticum", "paragraphs": ["forma pyrosoma atlanticum f . elegans lesueur , 1815 accepted as pyrosoma atlanticum p\u00e9ron , 1804 ( junior synonym )\nvariety pyrosoma atlanticum var . giganteum lesueur , 1815 accepted as pyrosoma atlanticum p\u00e9ron , 1804 ( junior synonym )\nvariety pyrosoma atlanticum var . levatum seeliger , 1895 accepted as pyrosoma atlanticum p\u00e9ron , 1804 ( junior synonym )\nvariety pyrosoma atlanticum var . tuberculosum seeliger , 1895 accepted as pyrosoma atlanticum p\u00e9ron , 1804 ( junior synonym )\nmass deposition event of pyrosoma atlanticum carcasses off ivory coast ( west africa ) .\nfigure 1 : one of many pyrosoma atlanticum caught in a bongo net tow .\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30d2\u30ab\u30ea\u30dc\u30e4\nto\npyrosoma atlanticum p\u00e9ron , 1804\n.\npyrosoma atlanticum is a pelagic species of marine colonial tunicate in the class thaliacea . it is found in temperate waters worldwide . pyrosoma atlanticum is bioluminescent and can generate a brilliant blue - green light when stimulated .\npyrosoma atlanticum conducts diel vertical migrations , and employing continuous jet propulsion it attains the highest clearance rates recorded in zooplankton grazers . photo : peter wirtz\nholland , lz . 1990 . spermatogenesis in pyrosoma - atlanticum ( tunicata , thaliacea , pyrosomatida ) - implications for tunicate phylogeny . marine biology . 105 : 451 - 470 .\npyrosoma benthica monniot c . & monniot f . , 1966 ( junior synonym )\nto antarctic invertebrates to biodiversity heritage library ( 1 publication ) ( from synonym pyrosoma benthica monniot c . & monniot f . , 1966 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 1 publication ) ( from synonym pyrosoma ellipticum ( brooks , 1906 ) ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 1 publication ) ( from synonym pyrosoma atlanticum triangulum neumann , 1913 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 111 publications ) ( from synonym pyrosoma elegans lesueur , 1813 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 116 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 140 publications ) ( from synonym pyrosoma giganteum lesueur , 1815 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 5 publications ) ( from synonym pyrosoma triangulum neumann , 1909 ) to biological information system for marine life ( bismal ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 3 nucleotides ; 0 proteins ) to marine species identification portal to marine species identification portal to pesi to pesi ( from synonym pyrosoma benthica monniot c . & monniot f . , 1966 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology chordata collection ( 1 record ) ( from synonym pyrosoma atlanticum hawaiiense metcalf & hopkins , 1919 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology chordata collection ( 1 record ) ( from synonym pyrosoma ellipticum ( brooks , 1906 ) ) to usnm invertebrate zoology chordata collection ( 2 records ) ( from synonym pyrosoma giganteum lesueur , 1815 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology chordata collection ( 3 records ) ( from synonym pyrosoma atlanticum triangulum neumann , 1913 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology chordata collection ( 52 records ) to usnm invertebrate zoology chordata collection ( 6 records ) ( from synonym pyrosoma atlanticum dipleurosoma metcalf & hopkins , 1919 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology chordata collection ( 9 records ) ( from synonym pyrosoma atlanticum intermedium metcalf & hopkins , 1919 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology chordata collection ( holotype usnm 6409 ) ( from synonym pyrosoma atlanticum paradoxum metcalf & hopkins , 1919 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology chordata collection ( holotype usnm 6416 ) ( from synonym pyrosoma ellipticum ( brooks , 1906 ) ) to usnm invertebrate zoology chordata collection ( holotype usnm 6437 ) ( from synonym pyrosoma atlanticum echinatum metcalf & hopkins , 1919 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology chordata collection ( holotype usnm 6443 ) ( from synonym pyrosoma atlanticum hawaiiense metcalf & hopkins , 1919 ) to itis\nperissinotto r , mayzaud p , nichols pd , labat jp . 2007 . grazing by pyrosoma atlanticum ( tunicata , thaliacea ) in the south indian ocean . marine ecology progress series 330 : 1 - 11 .\n( of pyrosoma atlanticum triangulum neumann , 1913 ) neumann , g . 1913a . 14 . die pyrosomen und doliolida der deutschen s\u00fcdpolar - expedition 1901 - 03 , zoologie iv : 1 - 34 . [ details ]\n( of pyrosoma atlanticum var . giganteum lesueur , 1815 ) neumann , g . 1913a . 14 . die pyrosomen und doliolida der deutschen s\u00fcdpolar - expedition 1901 - 03 , zoologie iv : 1 - 34 . [ details ]\n( of pyrosoma atlanticum var . tuberculosum seeliger , 1895 ) seeliger , o . 1895 . die pyrosomen der plankton - expedition . ergebnisse plankton - exp . 2 ( e , b ) : 3 - 88 . [ details ]\n( of pyrosoma atlanticum var . levatum seeliger , 1895 ) seeliger , o . 1895 . die pyrosomen der plankton - expedition . ergebnisse plankton - exp . 2 ( e , b ) : 3 - 88 . [ details ]\n( of pyrosoma atlanticum triangulum neumann , 1913 ) metcalf , m . m . ; hopkins , h . s . 1919 . pyrosoma . a taxonomic study based upon the collections of the united states bureau of fisheries and the united states national museum . bulletin of the u . s . national museum 100 ( 2 ) : 195 - 272 . [ details ]\n( of pyrosoma atlanticum echinatum metcalf & hopkins , 1919 ) metcalf , m . m . ; hopkins , h . s . 1919 . pyrosoma . a taxonomic study based upon the collections of the united states bureau of fisheries and the united states national museum . bulletin of the u . s . national museum 100 ( 2 ) : 195 - 272 . [ details ]\n( of pyrosoma atlanticum intermedium metcalf & hopkins , 1919 ) metcalf , m . m . ; hopkins , h . s . 1919 . pyrosoma . a taxonomic study based upon the collections of the united states bureau of fisheries and the united states national museum . bulletin of the u . s . national museum 100 ( 2 ) : 195 - 272 . [ details ]\n( of pyrosoma atlanticum dipleurosoma metcalf & hopkins , 1919 ) metcalf , m . m . ; hopkins , h . s . 1919 . pyrosoma . a taxonomic study based upon the collections of the united states bureau of fisheries and the united states national museum . bulletin of the u . s . national museum 100 ( 2 ) : 195 - 272 . [ details ]\n( of pyrosoma atlanticum hawaiiense metcalf & hopkins , 1919 ) metcalf , m . m . ; hopkins , h . s . 1919 . pyrosoma . a taxonomic study based upon the collections of the united states bureau of fisheries and the united states national museum . bulletin of the u . s . national museum 100 ( 2 ) : 195 - 272 . [ details ]\n( of pyrosoma atlanticum paradoxum metcalf & hopkins , 1919 ) metcalf , m . m . ; hopkins , h . s . 1919 . pyrosoma . a taxonomic study based upon the collections of the united states bureau of fisheries and the united states national museum . bulletin of the u . s . national museum 100 ( 2 ) : 195 - 272 . [ details ]\n( of pyrosoma giganteum var . atlanticum p\u00e9ron , 1804 ) kr\u00fcger , p . 1912 . pyrosomes et appendiculaires provent des campagnes de la princess - alice ( 1885 - 1910 ) . r\u00e9sultats de campagnes scientifiques albert 1er 39 : 3 - 38 . [ details ]\nlindley ja , hern\u00e1ndez f , scatllar j , docoito j . 2001 . funchalia sp . ( crustacea : penaeidae ) associated with pyrosoma atlanticum ( thaliacea : pyrosomatidae ) off the canary islands . journal of the marine biological association uk 81 : 173 - 174 .\nthis bizarre and rarely - seen creature is called a pyrosome , a species of pelagic colonial tunicates . their scientific name , pyrosoma atlanticum , is derived from the greek words pyro meaning \u2018fire\u2019 and soma meaning \u2018body\u2019 which refers to the fact that they are known for bright displays of bioluminescence .\npyrosoma atlanticum are one of the few pyrosomes that make it to the west coast of the u . s . the species found here are less than a foot but can get as long as 24 inches . largely colorless , they can show up as pink , grayish or purple - green .\n( of pyrosoma atlanticum f . elegans lesueur , 1815 ) godeaux , j . 1973 . tuniciers p\u00e9lagiques r\u00e9colt\u00e9s au cours de troisi\u00e8me croisi\u00e8re atlantique de l ' armauer hansen ( 1922 ) . bulletin de soci\u00e9t\u00e9 royale des sciences de li\u00e8ge 42 ( 1 / 2 ) : 53 - 69 . [ details ]\n( of pyrosoma benthica monniot c . & monniot f . , 1966 ) monniot , c . ; monniot , f . 1966 . un pyrosome benthique : pyrosoma benthica n . sp . comptes rendus de l ' acad\u00e9mie des sciences , paris 263d : 368 - 370 . [ details ]\n( of pyrosoma ellipticum ( brooks , 1906 ) ) brooks , w . k . 1906b . the affinities of the pelagic tunicates . i . on a new pyrosoma ( dipleurosoma elliptica ) . memoirs of the national academy of sciences , washington 10 : 151 - 155 . [ details ]\nthalassarche bulleri ( buller ' s albatross ) ( james & stahl 2000 ) . new zealand study : 77 % of samples contained pyrosoma atlanticum , and this species made up 22 % of the diet by weight . one individual had 69 specimens in its stomach . the largest specimen consumed was 14 . 3 cm in length .\np\u00e9ron , f . 1804 . m\u00e9moire sur le nouveau genre pyrosoma . annales du mus\u00e9um d ' histoire naturelle 4 ( 12 ) : 437 - 446 . [ details ]\n( of pyrosoma atlanticum f . elegans lesueur , 1815 ) lesueur , m . ( 1815 ) . m\u00e9moire sur l ' organisation des pyrosomes , et sur la place qu ' ils semblent devoir occuper dans une classification naturelle . bulletin des sciences , par la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 philomatique de paris . 1815 : 70 - 74 , pl . 1 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n. . . measurements of the mesh of the pyrosome pyrosoma atlanticum [ 97 ] suggest submicron particle capture is likely ( electronic supplemen - tary material , table s2 ) . the only study to date on size selectivity of pyrosomes showed favourable selection of par - ticles greater than 10 mm [ 76 ] . the smallest cells identified in p . atlanticum faecal pellets were 3 - 5 mm phytoplankton [ 72 ] , but a recent study hypothesized that a swarm of p . spinosum was sustained by high densities of synechococcus and flagellates approximately 1 - 3 mm [ 98 ] . . . .\nduring the 21st cruise of r . v . gaveshani in the bay of bengal in august 1977 , a big colony of pyrosoma , about 100 cm long and 50 cm wide , was located in the surface layers of water about 320 km off kakinada . a portion of a similar colony was collected in the plankton net about 200 km south east of this station . the colony was incomplete and partly damaged due to the cyclonic weather conditions . however , the species could be identified as pyrosoma atlanticum . the earlier records and description of the species are discussed\nstructure and functioning of colonial pyrosomes are largely undescribed and their lipid characteristics have received limited attention . the aim of this paper is to fill this gap on one of the dominant species pyrosoma atlanticum . lipid content is tightly coupled to size and weight . lipid composition shows a large dominance of structural polar lipids . neutral lipids were dominated by sterols . . . [ show full abstract ]\npyrosoma are hermaphroditic , with each zooid producing both eggs and sperm . the fertilized egg gives rise to an embryo that develops into four attached zooids which subsequently reproduce asexually by budding off new zooids ( brooks 1906 ) . this budding process is responsible for the growth of the colony . thus , the life history of pyrosoma includes both sexual and asexual phases .\nperissinotto and co - workers investigated the feeding dynamics of the pelagic tunicate pyrosoma atlanticum in the southern indian ocean . colonies showed highest retention efficiency for particles > 10 \u00b5m , and clearance rates were among the highest recorded in any zooplankton grazer ( up to 35 l h \u20131 per colony ) . gut pigment destruction rates exceeded those previously measured in salps and appendicularians . neutral lipid classes in p . atlanticum were very similar to those of both dinoflagellates and prymnesiophytes ; zooids contained small amounts of lipids , and low percentages of triacylglycerols and free fatty acids , which suggests that they use high biomass turnover as an alternative strategy to energy storage .\nmost pyrosoma species are tropical . unlike most tunicates , which are benthic ( bottom - dwelling ) and sessile ( fixed in one place ) as adults , pyrosoma are pelagic at all life history stages , floating freely in the open ocean , sometimes in enormous numbers . one recent study off the coast of west africa ( lebrato and jones 2009 ) suggests that pyrosoma tunicates that die and sink quickly to the bottom of the ocean may represent a major food resource for both benthic microbes and larger benthic organisms in the deep sea and should be included in models of large - scale cycling of elements such as carbon .\nas with many gelatinous zooplankton , we lack crucial insights into their natural history . so it can be difficult to tease apart how they may be impacting marine ecosystems . for instance , pyrosomes can grow rapidly and are efficient filterers with the potential to have a significant impact on phytoplankton blooms . for now , our current observations maintain that recent oceanic conditions are ideal for pyrosome populations . i\u2019m guaranteeing this isn\u2019t the last you\u2019ve heard of pyrosoma atlanticum . stay tuned !\n( of pyrosoma triangulum neumann , 1909 ) neumann , g . 1909b . 3 . mitteilung \u00fcber eine neue pyrosomen art der deutschen tiefsee - expedition . zoologischer anzeiger 33 ( 21 ) : 709 - 711 . [ details ]\n. . . for example , gelatinous forms are often lipid poor ( e . g . 6 % dm in pyrosoma atlanticum ) and dominated by membrane polar lipids ( perissinotto et al . , 2007 ) , whereas crustaceans can be relatively lipid rich [ e . g . krill tend to have substantial lipid contents of up to 48 % dm ( hagen et al . , 2001 ) ] with potentially large proportions of neutral storage lipids ( falk - petersen et al . , 1999 ) . . . .\nresearch pyrosoma atlanticum \u00bb barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms\ni have just watched the moon set in all her glory , and looked at those lesser moons , the beautiful pyrosoma , shining like white - hot cylinders in the water\n( t . h . huxley , 1849 ) .\nbrooks , w . k . 1906 ,\nthe affinities of pelagic tunicates . no . 1 . on a new pyrosoma and dipleurosoma elliptica\n, memoirs of the national academy of science washington , vol . 10 , pp . 149 - 156\npyrosoma may migrate hundreds of vertical meters each day . a study of pyrosoma atlanticum occurring in offshore waters of the ligurian sea ( northwestern mediterranean ) in april of 1991 found that daytime depths and amplitudes of the diurnal migration were correlated with colony size . the amplitude of the migration ranged from 90 m for 3 - mm - length colonies to 760 m for 51 - mm - length colonies , with a mean amplitude of 410 m for the overall population pooled ( andersen and sardou 1994 ) . in the same study , the results of horizontal hauls at a given depth around sunrise and sunset revealed a marked diurnal symmetry of the migratory cycle relative to noon , and showed that migration of the population was not cohesive . for example , the larger the colonies , the later after sunset they reached the upper layers during their upward migration .\n. . . the colonial pyrosome pyrosoma atlanticum filters particulates from the water column ( esnal , 1999 ) , with high retention efficiency for particles . 10 mm ( perissinotto et al . , 2007 ) , whereas the hyperiid amphipod vibilia armata is best known as a symbiotic ectoparasite of gelatinous animals ( vinogradov , 1999 ) . regional distinctions in the food environment of these species were indicated by increased levels of 18 : 2v6 , a biomarker for chlorophytes or cyanobacteria ( volkman et al . , 1998 ; gugger et al . , 2002 ) , in the northern specimens . . . .\n( of dipleurosoma ellipticum brooks , 1906 ) brooks , w . k . 1906b . the affinities of the pelagic tunicates . i . on a new pyrosoma ( dipleurosoma elliptica ) . memoirs of the national academy of sciences , washington 10 : 151 - 155 . [ details ]\n. . . similarly , no clear daynight migration pattern was recorded in pyrosoma ( not identified to the species level ) in the open waters ( along 88\u00b0e ) of the bay of bengal ( madhupratap et al . 2003 ) , although the pyrosoma colonies there were non tubular , smaller in size ( 10 \u00d7 10 cm ) , fewer in number , and whitish in color . as pointed out by perissinotto et al . ( 2007 ) , the trophic function , feeding dynamics , as well as ecology and physiology of pyrosomes are not well known . analysis of gut contents of pyrosoma ( hart , as cited by culkin and morris 1970 ) showed that the main food was phytoplankton ( approximately 80 % ) belonging to the classes haptophyceae , chrysophyceae , and bacillariophyceae , the remainder was composed of protozoan species such as radiolarians and tintinnids . . . .\npyrosoma atlanticum like most members of the pyrosomatidae is bioluminescent and colonies are able to light up for sustained periods . each zooid in the colony has a pair of luminescent organs flanking the orals siphon . light production may be the result of intracellular bioluminescent bacteria in the cells of these luminescent organs but this needs to be confirmed . bowlby et al . ( 1990 ) showed how pyrosoma atlanticum and pyrosomella verticillata bioluminesce in response to light . if you shine light on zooids on the one side of the colony , they bioluminesce and their light stimulates adjacent individuals . in this way , the bioluminescence spreads over the colony from the point where the zooids were stimulated . a colony that lights up can in turn stimulate an adjacent colony to light up as well . at the same time as lighting up , the zooid closes its oral siphon and the cilia inside that cause the water flow , stop beating . colonies are negatively buoyant so when water flow stops , the colony starts sinking slowly . it is thought that the ability to bioluminesce in response to light stimulation might be an adaptation to communicating about predators and by also closing the water flow and sinking , they can move to a depth where there are fewer predators ( bowlby et al . 1990 ) .\nmackie , g . o . ; bone , q . ( 1978 ) .\nluminescence and associated effector activity in pyrosoma ( tunicata : pyrosomida )\n. proceedings of the royal society b 202 ( 1149 ) : 483\u2013495 . doi : 10 . 1098 / rspb . 1978 . 0081 .\nmonniot , c . & monniot , f . 1966 ,\nun pyrosome benthique : pyrosoma benthica n . sp\n, comptes rendus ( hebdomadaires ) des s\u00e9ances de l ' academie des sciences . s\u00e9rie d . sciences naturelles , vol . 263 , no . d , pp . 368 - 370\n. . . 24 - methylcholesta - 5 , 22e - dien - 3\u03b2 - ol , reported to be a major st in some prymnesiophytes , such as phaeocystis ( nichols et al . , 1991 ; tsitsa - tzardis et al . , 1995 ) , diatoms and other species , was an abundant st in both holothurians and ophiuroids ( 5\u201316 % of total st , table 2 ) . the abundance of this sterol in the filter feeder pyrosoma atlanticum , has been shown to reflect dinoflagellates and prymnesiophytes as major diet items ( perissinotto et al . , 2007 ) . thus the high phytosterol composition in these abyssal echinoderms is reflective of a diet rich in phytodetritus . . . .\nmetcalf , m . m . and h . s . hopkins , 1919 . pyrosoma . a taxonomic study based upon the collections of the u . s . bureau of fisheries and the u . s . national museum . bull . u . s . nat . mus . , 100 : 195 - 276 .\nmetcalf , m . m . , hopkins , h . s . ( 1919 ) . pyrosoma . a taxonomic study based upon the collections of the united states bureau of fisheries and the united states national museum . bull . u . s . natn . mus . no . 100 2 ( 3 ) : 195\u2013275\npyrosomes ( pyrosoma sp . ) are colonial tunicates embedded in a gelatinous tunic . these can also be bioluminescent , and are normally pelagic ( found in the open ocean ) . they were washed up dead along the beach . thanks to my colleague paul detwiler for identifying these creatures . july 15 - 17 , 2014\n( of pyrosoma benthica monniot c . & monniot f . , 1966 ) van soest , r . w . m . ( 1981 ) . a monograph of the order pyrosomatida ( tunicata , thaliacea ) . journal of plankton research . 3 ( 4 ) : 603 - 631 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of pyrosoma giganteum lesueur , 1815 ) lesueur , m . ( 1815 ) . m\u00e9moire sur l ' organisation des pyrosomes , et sur la place qu ' ils semblent devoir occuper dans une classification naturelle . bulletin des sciences , par la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 philomatique de paris . 1815 : 70 - 74 , pl . 1 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\npyrosomes , genus pyrosoma , are free - floating colonial tunicates that live usually in the upper layers of the open ocean in warm seas , although some may be found at greater depths . pyrosomes are cylindrical - or conical - shaped colonies made up of hundreds to thousands of individuals , known as zooids . colonies range in size from less than one centimeter to several metres in length .\n( of pyrosoma elegans lesueur , 1813 ) lesueur c . a . ( 1813 ) . m\u00e9moire sur quelques nouvelles esp\u00e8ces d ' animaux mollusques et radiaires recueillis dans la m\u00e9diterran\u00e9e pr\u00e8s de nice . nouveau bulletin des sciences , par la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 philomatique de paris . ( 2 ) 3 ( 69 ) : 281 - 285 , pl . 5 . , available online at urltoken ; = pa281 [ details ]\na large population of the colonial pelagic tunicate pyrosoma atlanticum occurred in april 1991 in offshore waters of the ligurian sea ( northwestern mediterranean ) . the high numbers of colonies caught allowed their vertical distribution and diel migration in the 0\u2013965 m water column to be described as a function of their size . daytime depths and amplitudes of the migration were correlated with colony size . the amplitude of the migration ranged from 90 m for 3 - mm - length colonies to 760 m for 51 - mm - length colonies , with a mean amplitude of 410 m for the whole population , all sizes pooled . the results of horizontal hauls at a given depth around sunrise and sunset showed a marked diurnal symmetry of the migratory cycle relative to noon , and that migration of the population was not cohesive . for example , the larger the colonies , the later after sunset they reached the upper layers during their upward migration .\n( of pyrosoma rufum quoy & gaimard , 1824 ) quoy , j . r . c . ; gaimard , j . p . ( 1824 ) . voyage au tour du monde fait par ordre du roi , sur les corvettes de s . m : l\u2019uranie et la physicienne pendant les ann\u00e9es 1817 \u00e0 1820 . in : desaules de freycinet . iv + 712 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\npyrosomes , genus pyrosoma , are free - floating colonial tunicates that live usually in the upper layers of the open ocean in warm seas , although some may be found at greater depths . pyrosomes are cylindrical or cone - shaped colonies made up of hundreds to thousands of individuals , known as zooids . colonies range in size from less than one centimeter to several metres in length . they are commonly called\nsea pickles\npyrosoma is a genus of colonial , pelagic ( open - ocean ) tunicates . colony size ranges from less than a centimeter to several meters in length . each colony forms a transparent tube , closed at one end and open at the other , that is composed of hundreds or even thousands of outward - facing individuals ( or zooids ) . these tiny zooids , each just millimeters long , are joined together by a gelatinous tunic . water is drawn into each zooid through an oral siphon by beating cilia , creating a feeding current . plankton are filtered out of the water and the depleted water is then expelled into the interior of the colony and out the posterior opening . this flow of water not only facilitates food acquisition , but also allows the colony to move by graceful jet propulsion , although pyrosoma are mainly planktonic ( passively free - floating ) .\npyrosomes are brightly bioluminescent , flashing a pale blue - green light that can be seen for many tens of metres . the name pyrosoma comes from the greek ( pyro =\nfire\n, soma =\nbody\n) . pyrosomes are closely related to salps , and are sometimes called\nfire salps\n. sailors on the ocean are occasionally treated to calm seas containing many pyrosomes , all luminescing on a dark night .\nas bizarre as they may seem , these animals are not uncommon to those sampling off oregon . but on our recent trip aboard the bell m . shimada , pyrosomes seem to be everywhere ! we have been getting numerous specimens in our three different sampling gears : vertical net , bongo net , and beam trawl . at one of our nearshore stations , the beam trawl brought up 2 . 5 gallons of pyrosomes ( fig . 3 ) ! we were also lucky to encounter a large aggregation at the surface on the newport line transect . this anomalous abundance of pyrosomes has been observed in other research cruises along the west coast . a long - term time series in the california current saw the highest catches ever of pyrosoma atlanticum in 2015 . pyrosomes have been mystifying beachcombers up and down the coast as they wash up on beaches . these gelatinous organisms join a list of other gelatinous zooplankton , such as aequorea spp . , doliolids , and the pteropod corolla spectabilis , that have been seen in large numbers over the past few years .\nfor more images of pyrosoma , check out bob perry\u2019s photographs . included in his work are a few pseudoconchs ( false shells ) of the pelagic mollusk corolla which we similarly found . if you are interested in learning more about invertebrates with your students , i encourage you to look into the amazing animals curriculum unit i have written to introduce middle level students to zoology . this 10 - week unit is full of inquiry - based activities and lesson plans fully outlined for you .\n( of pyrosoma benthica monniot c . & monniot f . , 1966 ) van der land , j . ; van soest , r . w . m . ( 2001 ) . thaliacea , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 355 - 356 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\ncigartha\n/ / pyrosomes\u2014fire bodies , ciliuminati , the enlightened ones\u2014are washing up en masse in the monterey bay . these gelatinous cigars on the beach are marvels in the water , shining bright bioluminescence that lead t . h . huxley to exclaim :\ni have just watched the moon set in all her glory , and looked at those lesser moons , the beautiful pyrosoma , shining like white - hot cylinders in the water\n. this particular pyrosome was partnered with an isopod parasite at its opening , while the rest of the colonial tunicates created currents to filter food from fertile waters . depth : 6 fsw\na striking feature of pyrosoma tunicates is their dramatic bioluminescence , which is visible for several meters underwater and appears in waves within the colony as flashing by individual zooids is triggered by flashes from their neighbors . flashing can also be triggered by physical disturbance . when disturbed , individual zooids protect themselves by closing off their oral ( intake ) siphons , stopping the beating of their cilia , and emitting a flash of light . neighbouring zooids detect the flash with their photoreceptors and respond in turn with protective responses and light emission . protective responses thus spread by photic signalling and propagate from zooid to zooid through the colony ( mackie 1995 ) .\n. . . sus densas agregaciones tienen un impacto sobre la comunidad fitoplanct\u00f3nica que las rodea , debido a que p . atlanticum es una especie filtradora , que se alimenta principalmente de nanoplancton como cocolitof\u00f3ridos , diatomeas , silico - flagelados y tambi\u00e9n de peque\u00f1os crust\u00e1ceos . se han medido vol\u00famenes de filtraci\u00f3n de 35 l / h en colonias con un tama\u00f1o medio de 17 ' 9 cm ( perissinotto et al . [ 24 ] ) . en los \u00faltimos a\u00f1os se ha estudiado su papel en las cadenas tr\u00f3ficas marinas , siendo importante como presa para 62 especies de peces , tres de tortugas , dos de albatros y un le\u00f3n marino ( harbison [ 12 ] , james & stahl [ 14 ] , childerhouse et al . [ 6 ] , hedd & gales [ 13 ] ) . . . .\n. . . adem\u00e1s , contribuyen al flujo de energ\u00eda y materia entre capas de los oc\u00e9anos cuando sus cuerpos se depositan en el fondo una vez muertos , fen\u00f3meno denominado como cascada de gelatinosos . sobre este \u00faltimo hecho se han observado deposiciones de m\u00e1s de 2 . 000 carcasas de p . atlanticum en los taludes continentales a m\u00e1s de 3 . 000 m de profundidad , ( cacchione et al . [ 5 ] , miyake et al . [ 22 ] , billet et al . [ 4 ] , perissinotto et al . [ 24 ] , yamamoto et al . [ 35 ] ) . la descomposici\u00f3n de sus cuerpos incrementa la concentraci\u00f3n de nutrientes , como el nitr\u00f3geno org\u00e1nico disuelto y el f\u00f3sforo , entre 8 y 25 veces en comparaci\u00f3n a su concentraci\u00f3n normal en la columna de agua ( west et al . [ 32 ] [ 33 ] , le - brato et al . [ 17 ] ) . . . .\namong the rare species , d . krohni ( if clearly identified ) and doliolum denticulatum were exclusively found at 25\u201375 m and h . virgula at 75\u2013125 m . c . polae was found in a moc10 sample at 50\u2013100 m . p . atlanticum was collected at the sites between 575 and 750 m by day and within the upper 135 m by night . apart from d . nationalis which was represented solely by phorozooids , stages other than nurses at site a were most abundant in the 25\u201375 m - layer ( 206 . 0 \u00b1 508 . 6 ind . 1 , 000 m \u22123 ) as compared to the adjacent 0\u201325 and 75\u2013100 m - layers ( 8 . 7 \u00b1 22 . 5 ind . 1 , 000 m \u22123 and 17 . 3 \u00b1 32 . 9 ind . 1 , 000 m \u22123 , respectively ) , but the differences were not significant ( mann - whitney u - test , p > 0 . 05 ; n : 8 ; 8 ) .\na swarm of pelagic tunicate ( pyrosoma spinosum ) was found in the surface open waters of the arabian sea during late southwest monsoon ( september 2007 ) . the swarm site was characterized by moderate southwesterly wind ( approximately 7 m s \u22121 ) , relatively low sea - surface temperature ( approximately 26\u00b0c ) , shallow mixed layer ( approximately 50 m ) , and substantial macro - nutrient concentrations ( surface values : 2 . 5 \u03bcm nitrate , 0 . 3 \u03bcm phosphate , 0 . 9 \u03bcm silicate , and 5 . 0 \u03bcm ammonium ) . despite adequate macronutrient availability , the swarm site was characterized by low diversity of phytoplankton ( > 5 \u03bcm ) and mesozooplankton in the upper 200 m . low chlorophyll a concentration ( 27 . 3 mg / m 2 in the upper 120 m ) at the swarm site was dominated ( 90 % to 95 % in the upper 40 m ) by the synechococcus ( 20 \u00d7 10 6 / ml ) .\nvan soest , r . w . m . ( 1981 ) . a monograph of the order pyrosomatida ( tunicata , thaliacea ) . journal of plankton research . 3 ( 4 ) : 603 - 631 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nvan der land , j . ( ed ) . ( 2008 ) . unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( urmo ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nvan der land , j . ; van soest , r . w . m . ( 2001 ) . thaliacea , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 355 - 356 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nkott , p . ; bradford - grieve , j . ; esnal , g . ; murdoch , r . c . ( 2009 ) . phylum tunicata : sea squirts , salps , appendicularians , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 1 . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . pp . 409 - 430 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\ncole , l . and g . lambert . 2009 . tunicata ( urochordata ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1209\u20131216 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ninter - research science center is pleased to make this feature article openly available for viewing by our readers .\nprocesses , tapering into an acanthose , backwards pointing tip . open end of colony with a tight diaphragm .\nfraser , j . h . , 1981 . british pelagic tunicates . synopses of the british fauna ( new series ) , no . 20 . cambridge university press , cambridge . 57 pp .\nihle , j . e . w . , 1927 . thaliacea . in : g . grimpe and e . wagler ( eds ) , die tierwelt der nord - und ostsee , xiia2 : 21 - 48 . leipzig .\nvan soest , r . w . m . , 1981 . a monograph of the order pyrosomatida ( tunicata , thaliacea ) . journal of plankton research , 3 ( 4 ) : 603 - 631 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nplankton ( centric diatoms , silico - flagellates and even fragments of small crustaceans , coccolithophores ) .\na colony with tough consistency and cylindrical in shape ; one end open and one end closed . it narrows toward the closed end and can be pink or yellowish pink in color .\npyrosomes are hollow tubular colonies of individual zooids that reside next to one another in a common tunic and result from asexual reproduction . pyrosomes often produce light ( bioluminescence ) and are capable of forming dense aggregations .\njavascript is required . please enable javascript before you are allowed to see this page .\nprocesses which taper into a tip . size up to 60 cm by 4 - 6 cm . zooids basically arranged in more or less parallel rows , which are mostly obscured .\n) . sexually mature zooids are found in colonies over 4 - 6 cm long .\nhans - martin braun added the english common name\nmalayan leaf frog\nto\nmegophrys nasuta ( schlegel , 1858 )\n.\nhans - martin braun marked the common name\nlong - nosed horned frog\nin an unknown language from\nmegophrys nasuta ( schlegel , 1858 )\nas trusted .\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nzipfelfrosch\nto\nmegophrys nasuta ( schlegel , 1858 )\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nfilmed with : panasonic gh4 4k @ 30fps f . 8 , iso 400 nauticam housing keldan 4x light\nwe had a unusual sighting these days , a fire roller . daniel , our skipper , was able to make a close and interesting video . this species are creatures of the open ocean . it is said that when they are carried by currents near to the shore they normally end up dying . the fire roller although having a strong body is nibbled at by fish an injured at rocks when it comes close to the shore . the body of this creature is composed by many thousands of tiny individuals forming a tube closed at one end , the tube can reach up to 3 meters each of the tiny individuals produces a current through its body into the tube ( in order to strain plankton from the water ) . as the water is ejected through the open end of the tube , a jet is created that slowly propels the whole colony . what a nice sighting ! !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\nyou could not be signed in . please check your email address / username and password and try again .\nmost users should sign in with their email address . if you originally registered with a username please use that to sign in .\nto purchase short term access , please sign in to your oxford academic account above .\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\ndepth range based on 585 specimens in 20 taxa . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 416 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 0 - 5040 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : - 1 . 566 - 28 . 884 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 000 - 43 . 735 salinity ( pps ) : 30 . 220 - 38 . 998 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 0 . 353 - 7 . 761 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 073 - 3 . 390 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 499 - 167 . 288 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 0 - 5040 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : - 1 . 566 - 28 . 884 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 000 - 43 . 735 salinity ( pps ) : 30 . 220 - 38 . 998 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 0 . 353 - 7 . 761 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 073 - 3 . 390 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 499 - 167 . 288 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\neach zooid is only a few millimetres in size , but is embedded in a common gelatinous tunic that joins all of the individuals . each zooid opens both to the inside and outside of the\ntube\n, drawing in ocean water from the outside to its internal filtering mesh called the branchial basket , extracting the microscopic plant cells on which it feeds , and then expelling the filtered water to the inside of the cylinder of the colony . the colony is bumpy on the outside , each bump representing a single zooid , but nearly smooth , though perforated with holes for each zooid , on the inside .\npyrosomes are planktonic , which means their movements are largely controlled by currents , tides , and waves in the oceans . on a smaller scale , however , each colony can move itself slowly by the process of jet propulsion , created by the coordinated beating of cilia in the branchial baskets of all the zooids , which also create feeding currents .\nand evoked the following comment when seen by scientist t . h . huxley at sea :\npyrosomes often exhibit waves of light passing back and forth through the colony , as each individual zooid detects light and then emits light in response . each zooid contains a pair of light organs located near the outside surface of the tunic , which are packed with luminescent organelles that may be intracellular bioluminescent bacteria .\nthe waves of bioluminescence that move within a colony are apparently not propagated through neurons , but by a photic process .\nflashing zooids not only stimulate other zooids within the colony to bioluminesce , but nearby colonies will also display bioluminescence in response . colonies bioluminesce in response to mechanical stimulation ( touch ) , as well as to light .\nbowlby , m . r . ; e . a . widder and j . f . case ( 1990 ) .\npatterns of stimulated bioluminescence in two pyrosomes ( tunicata : pyrosomatidae )\n. biological bulletin ( marine biological laboratory ) 179 ( 3 ) : 340\u2013350 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 1542326 . jstor 1542326 .\nhuxley , j . ( 1936 ) . t . h . huxley ' s diary of the voyage of h . m . s . rattlesnake . garden city , new york : doubleday .\nbone , q . editor ( 1998 ) the biology of pelagic tunicates . oxford university press , oxford . 340 pp .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nvan soest , r . w . m . 1981 ,\na monograph of the order pyrosomatida ( tunicata , thaliacea )\n, journal of plankton research , vol . 3 , no . 4 , pp . 603 - 631\nneumann , g . 1909 ,\nmitteilung \u00fcber eine neue pyrosomen art der deutschen tiefsee expedition\n, zoologischer anzeiger , vol . 33 , no . 24\u201325 , p . 792\nlesueur , c . a . 1815 ,\nm\u00e9moire sur l ' organisation des pyrosomes et sur la place qu ' ils semblent devoir occuper dans une classification naturel\n, bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 philomathique de paris , vol . 4 , pp . 70 - 74 pl . i\nlesueur , c . a . 1813 ,\nm\u00e9moire sur quelques nouvelles esp\u00e8ces d ' animaux mollusques et radiares receueilles dans la m\u00e9diterran\u00e9e pr\u00e8s de nice\n, nouveau bulletin des sciences , par la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 philomatique de paris , vol . 3 , pp . 281 - 285 , 1 pl .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 1398a050 - 6f59 - 4404 - b571 - 0e0f7bfb9192\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 368846\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\ndownloads from eprints over the past year . other digital versions may also be available to download e . g . from the publisher ' s website .\nthis repository has been built using eprints software , developed at the university of southampton , but available to everyone to use .\nwe use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website . if you continue without changing your settings , we will assume that you are happy to receive cookies on the university of southampton website .\nforms finger - shaped pink to yellowish pink colonies of zooids ( each zooid is an individual animal with an inhalent and an exhalent siphon ) , measuring up to 60 cm long by 4 - 6 cm wide . colonies upwards of 4 cm long can contain sexually mature zooids . the test on the exterior of the colony , which forms the matrix between the zooids , has numerous protuberences , up to 15 mm long , over the surface , each ending in a spine - like tip , although , rarely , the exterior can be smooth . the wall of the colony is opaque and tough , and the zooids are tightly packed . zooids are rounded and up to 8 . 5 mm long .\nregarded as the most widely spread and common pyrosomatid occurring in all oceans from 50\u00ban to 50\u00bas . there are numerous records from southern african seas ( see distribution map in van soest 1981 ) .\ngrampus griseus ( risso ' s dolphin ) ( blanco et al . 2006 )\nbowlby mr , widder ea , case jf . 1990 . patterns of stimulated bioluminescence in two pyrosomes ( tunicata : pyrosomatidae ) . biological bulletin 179 : 340 - 350 .\ndavenport j , balazs gh . 1991 . ' fiery bodies ' - are pyrosomas an important component of the diet of leatherback turtles ? british herpetological society bulletin 37 : 33 - 38 .\njames gd , stahl j - c . 2000 . diet of southern buller ' s albatross ( diomedea bulleri bulleri ) and the importance of fishery discards during chick rearing , new zealand journal of marine and freshwater research , 34 ( 3 ) : 435 - 454 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 00288330 . 2000 . 9516946\ncruz jb , lalas c , jillett jb , kitson jc , lyver po ' b , imber m , newman je , moller h . 2001 . prey spectrum of breeding sooty shearwaters ( puffinus griseus ) in new zealand . new zealand journal of marine and freshwater research 35 ( 4 ) : 817 - 829 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 00288330 . 2001 . 9517044\nlindsay dj , hunt jc , hayashi k . 2001 . associations in the midwater zone : the penaeid shrimp funchalia sagamiensis fujino 1975 and pelagic tunicates ( order : pyrosomatida ) . marine and freshwater behaviour and physiology , 34 ( 3 ) : 157 - 170 .\nblanco c , radu\u00e1n ma , raga ja . 2006 . diet of risso ' s dolphin ( grampus griseus ) in the western mediterranean sea . scientia marina 70 ( 3 ) : 407 - 411 .\nfrick mg , williams kl , bolten ab , bjorndal ka , martins hr . 2009 . foraging ecology of oceanic - stage loggerhead turtles caretta caretta . endangered species research 9 : 91 - 97 .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\n) thaliaceans can thus locally comprise an exceeding portion of the surface zooplankton standing stock in terms of numbers and biomass . by their capability of exploiting small particles over a wide size range , from bacteria to large diatoms and microzooplankton ( silver and bruland\n; and references therein ) , in addition to the mass sinking of individual corpses ( wiebe et al .\ndifferent to the western mediterranean sea , thaliacean blooms have not been reported from the eastern mediterranean which is one of the most oligotrophic water bodies ( redfield et al .\n) . hydrographically , the strong variability of the surface water circulation on different scales ( \u00f6zsoy et al .\n) can return nutrients to the exhausted surface water and thereby boost a local phytoplankton bloom ( salihoglu et al .\n) which may be considered a general prerequisite for a flourishing thaliacean population ( e . g . wiebe et al .\n) . no information , however , is available as to which extent thaliaceans are involved in the observed increase of zooplankton ( salihoglu et al .\n) to an upward shift of the nutricline in the course of the eastern mediterranean transient , emt ( klein et al .\n) . although the thaliacean population was small relative to other taxa , we present the data on the populations of species and their ontogenetic stages , with a focus on regional abundance and vertical distribution , in order to provide basic information for the evaluation of the yet unknown role of thaliaceans in the levantine sea ecosystem .\n47\u2032e and ne off cyprus ( c ) at 35\u00b030\u2032n / 35\u00b000\u2032e ( fig .\n) . the respective depths of sounding were 4 , 300 , 2 , 700 and 1 , 200 m .\n- double - mocness ( d - moc ) equipped with 18 nets of 0 . 333 mm mesh size , and a 10 m\n- mocness ( moc10 ) fitted with five 1 . 670 mm mesh nets , all nets dark stained ( wiebe et al\n) . both devices carried seabird ctd probes and sensors to measure flow past the net and net frame angle . we almost exclusively present the findings with the d - moc , since the number of samples with the moc10 was small and less specimens and species were collected in general : while the standing stocks of\n) , if present in the moc 10 , were collected in only scattered numbers at the sites .\nthaliaceans were collected from the upper 1 , 050 m , yet chiefly in the upper 450 m . within the latter range 50 m - intervals were fished with the d - moc per haul between 425 and 25 m , in addition to the top 25 m . off site c , the uppermost layer was 0\u201335 m , due to an offset of the pressure meter and the depth ranges of the 50 m - intervals had changed accordingly .\nthe mean water volume filtered at the 50 m - intervals was 332 m 3 ( sd \u00b1 105 m 3 ) at the sites a and b and 300 m 3 ( sd \u00b1 78 m 3 ) at site c . this is about double as high as the mean filtered in the respective uppermost 25 or 35 m ( a 146 \u00b1 44 m 3 , b 172 \u00b1 18 m 3 , c 156 \u00b1 38 m 3 ) . in total , five day - time and four night - time profiles were available from site a , and two day and two night samples each from sites b and c .\n) in the homelab prior to subsequent numerical sorting for major taxa and further storage . samples of the d - moc were split according to kott (\n) except for the blastozooid stages ( phorozooid and gonozooid ) . but even their species - specific determination is cumbersome . therefore , the specimens of a rich sample at site a were not discriminated .\n( integrals over the upper 1 , 050 m , \u201cstanding stock\u201d ) based on volume estimates of filtered water by a calibrated flowmeter , corrected for the net frame angle and the angle of the oblique haul through the water ( h . w . ) . counts from a day - time haul at site a which encompassed only the deepest layers of regular occurrence of species were accepted for"]}
{"id": 51, "summary": [{"text": "candoia carinata , known commonly as the pacific ground boa or the pacific keel-scaled boa , is a species of snake in the family boidae . ", "topic": 22}], "title": "candoia carinata", "paragraphs": ["pacific boa : candoia carinata carinata and new guinea tree boa : c . c . tepedeleni\njacobs , p . 1990 . things worth knowing about candoia carinata carinata and candoia carinata paulsoni . litteratura serpentium 10 ( 4 ) : 179 - 180 - get paper here\nboa carinata schneider 1801 : 261 boa variegata thunberg 1807 candoia carinata \u2014 gray 1842 : 43 enygrus carinatus \u2014 dum\u00e9ril & bibron 1844 : 479 enygrus carinatus \u2014 g\u00fcnther 1863 : 398 enygrus carinatus \u2014 boulenger 1893 : 107 enygrus carinatus \u2014 boulenger 1895 : 31 enygrus carinatus \u2014 de rooij 1917 : 31 enygrus carinatus \u2014 barbour 1921 : 109 enygrus carinatus \u2014 kinghorn 1928 : 290 candoia carinata \u2014 stimson 1969 candoia carinata \u2014 mcdiarmid , campbell & tour\u00e9 1999 : 188 candoia carinata \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 147 candoia carinata carinata ( schneider 1801 ) boa carinata schneider 1801 : 261 candoia carinata carinata \u2014 wirz 2003 candoia carinata tepedeleni smith et al . 2001 candoia carinata tepedeleni smith chiszar , tepedelen & breukelen 2001 enygrus carinatus ( part ) \u2014 werner 1899 : 373 enygrus carinatus ( part ) \u2014 hediger 1933 : 15 candoia carinata carinata ( part ) : stimson 1969 : 7 ( bismarck archipelago ) . candoia carinata ( part ) \u2014 mcdowell 1979 : 27 - 51 candoia carinata tepedeleni smith et al . 2001\ncandoia superciliosa superciliosa ( g\u00fcnther 1863 ) candoia superciliosa crombiei smith et al . 2001\nenygrus carinatus paulsoni stull 1956 candoia paulsoni \u2014 smith et al . 2001 candoia paulsoni \u2014 wirz 2003 candoia paulsoni \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 147 candoia paulsoni tasmai smith & tepedelen 2001 candoia paulsoni tasmai \u2014 koch et al . 2007 candoia paulsoni tasmai \u2014 koch 2012\njacobs p . 1990 things worth knowing about candoia carinata carinata and c . c . paulsoni . litteratura serpentium 10 ( 2 ) : 179 - 180 .\nrenato agazzi added the italian common name\nboa delle isole salomone\nto\ncandoia carinata schneider 1801\n.\ncitation : - candoia carinata . malaysia biodiversity information system ( mybis ) . urltoken downloaded on 10 july 2018 .\npols , j . j . van der 1986 . candoia carinata carinata ( schneider ) in captivity . litteratura serpentium 6 ( 5 ) : 162 - 166 - get paper here\nwirz , s . 2002 . ein kleinod im terrarium - die pazifik - boa candoia carinata carinata ( schneider 1801 ) . herpetofauna 24 ( 139 ) : 19 - 27 .\nwirz , s . 2002 . ein kleinod im terrarium - die pazifik - boa candoia carinata carinata ( schneider 1801 ) . herpetofauna 24 ( 139 ) : 19 - 27 - get paper here\nrenato agazzi marked the classification from\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis )\nas preferred for\ncandoia carinata schneider 1801\n.\ntaxonomic note : the recent revision of the candoia carinata complex , which basically recognized the various populations defined by sam mcdowell , has elevated its two subspecies to full species status and defined eight subspecies between them . in addition a third species , with two subspecies has been described . the form occurring on karkar island is the nominate candoia carinata carinata .\njohann gottlo schneider originally described boa carinata in 1801 , and in 1842 thanks to john edward gray become candoia carinata . four more snakes were later added to the same genus . candoia bibroni bibroni was described as enygrus bibroni by dumeril _ bibron in 1844 . there\u2019s also another subspecies of candoia bibroni known as c . b . australis .\njennifer hammock split the classifications by integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) from candoia carinata paulsoni ( stull 1956 ) to their own page .\njohnson c . r . 1975 thermoregulation in the papuan - new guinean boid and colubrid snakes , candoia carinata , candoia aspera and boiga irregularis . zoological journal of linnean society . 56 : 283 - 290 .\nsmith h . m . , d . chiszar , k . tepedelen & f . van breukelen 2001 a revision of the bevel - nosed boas ( candoia carinata carinata ) ( reptilia : serpentes ) . hamadryad 26 ( 2 ) : 283 - 315 .\nwynn a . h . & g . r . zug 1985 observations on the reproductive biology of candoia carinata ( serpentes , boidae . the snake 17 : 15 - 24 .\npacific boa : candoia bibroni bibroni and fiji island boa : c . b . australis\nbelau bevelnosed boa : candoia superciliosa superciliosa and ngeaur bevelnosed boa : c . s . crombiei\nb\u00f6hme , wolfgang ; hobart m . smith , john rybak , frank van breukelen , and david chiszar 1998 . the lectotype and type locality of candoia carinata ( reptilia , serpentes ) . contemporary herpetology 1998 ( 2 ) : urltoken\ndistribution : not on the solomon island ( mccoy 2015 ) . until recently the species was considered a subspecies of candoia carinata , which is found throughout most of the solomon islands archipelago ( harlow and shine 1992 ) . it is now a full species , but due to a lack of specific data , much of the available information refers to candoia carinata ( smith et al 2001 , o . tallowin in iucn 2012 and pers . comm . , 23 nov 2016 ) .\nb\u00f6hme , wolfgang ; hobart m . smith , john rybak , frank van breukelen , and david chiszar . 1998 . the lectotype and type locality of candoia carinata ( reptilia , serpentes ) . contemporary herpetology 1998 ( 2 ) : urltoken .\nwhat is candoia ? candoia is a family or genus of snakes that includes 3 valid species at the time of this writing . further taxonomic research may show candoia to include 5 or more valid species within the genus . they are small boas , normally between 2 & 3 feet , which occur in many different sizes , colors and patterns .\nsmith , h . m . ; chiszar , d . ; tepedelen , k . & van breukelen , f . 2001 . a revision of bevdelnosed boas ( candoia carinata complex ) ( reptilia : serpentes ) . hamadryad 26 ( 2 ) : 283 - 315\nsmith , h . m . ; chiszar , d . ; tepedelen , k . & van breukelen , f . 2001 . a revision of bevelnosed boas ( candoia carinata complex ) ( reptilia : serpentes ) . hamadryad 26 ( 2 ) : 283 - 315 .\none of the easiest aspects of candoia husbandry is the ease of sexing your specimens . there is never a need to probe or pop any candoia species . to sex any specimen , just look for spurs or absence of spurs on either side of the vent . male candoia of all species have very large hooks for spurs . females have no spurs at all . it is very easy to see provided you are looking in the correct place . all male candoia are smaller than females .\ntimmis w . h . 1969 observations on pacific boas candoia spp . at sydney zoo . international zoo yearbook 9 : 53 .\nenygrus superciliosus g\u00fcnther 1863 : 360 enygrus carinatus var . superciliosus \u2014 kinghorn 1928 : 142 enygrus carinatus ( nec schneider ) \u2014 boettger 1898 : 111 ( part ; ) enygrus carinatus \u2014 sternfeld 1920 : 423 ( part ) enygrus carinatus \u2014 dryden & taylor 1969 : 271 candoia superciliosa \u2014 smith et al . 2001 candoia superciliosa \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 148 candoia superciliosa crombiei smith et al . 2001 candoia superciliosa crombiei smith chiszar , tepedelen & breukelen 2001 enygrus carinatus ( nec schneider ) \u2014 sternfeld 1920 : 425\nthus all distinctive features of the lectotype of boa carinata conform with those of other material from the stated type locality of ambon , which we conclude cannot be contested .\nhi all : ) , i want to ask does anybody have a candoia carinata carinata ? what do you give them for food ? because i have a plan to give mine a pinkies , but my friend said that it would be no good for the diggestion , because in the wild the used to have a lizard or a gecko for food . . i need your suggestion then , is it true what my friend opinion is ? ps : i ' m sorry if my english is bad : ( - - bram - -\ncandoia look venomous , particularly the viper boa , which in its native habitat is killed routinely by humans who mistake it for the highly venomous death adder .\nthe other species in candoia are candoia aspera , from new guinea , with two subspecies ( c . a . aspera and c . a . schmidti ) , and c . bibroni , from samoa to the solomons , also with two subspecies ( c . b . bibroni and c . b . australis ) .\ncandoia carinata has been assessed as least concern . it has a large distribution occurring in eastern indonesian islands , new guinea , the bismarck archipelago and admiralty islands . it is not likely to be affected by any significant threats and is present in many protected areas . it has been recorded in the pet trade but this is not posing a threat at present .\nsorry i didnt asnwer you previously but i think anubis is a perfect name for your wee fella : ) carinata remind me of ancient egypt for some reason , maybe the shape of the head .\nsubspecies : smith et al . ( 2001 ) elevated c . c . paulsoni to full species status and stated the existence of 2 subspecies of c . carinata ( carinata and tepedeleni ) . in addition , these authors revalidated another species , c . superciliosa ( g\u00fcnther 1863 ) with 2 subspecies , c . s . superciliosa and c . s . crombiei from ngeaur island in the belau archipelago .\naustin , c . c . 2000 . molecular phylogeny and historical biogeography of pacific island boas ( candoia ) . copeia 2000 ( 2 ) : 341 - 352 .\ncolv\u00e9e , s . & mart\u00edn , a . 2005 . keeping pacific island boas of the genus candoia . reptilia ( gb ) ( 39 ) : 73 - 77 .\nsolomon island ground boa : candoia paulsoni paulsoni , c . p . vindumi , c . p . mcdowelli , c . p . sadlieri , and c . p . rosadoi\ncolv\u00e9e , s . & weffer , e . 2004 . candoia aspera - the short - tailed ground boa . reptilia ( gb ) ( 33 ) : 43 - 49 .\naustin , c . c . 2000 . molecular phylogeny and historical biogeography of pacific island boas ( candoia ) . copeia 2000 ( 2 ) : 341 - 352 - get paper here\nharlow p . & r . shine 1992 food habits and reproductive biology of the pacific island boas ( candoia ) . journal of herpetology 26 ( 1 ) : 60 - 66 .\nharlow p . & r . shine 1992 food habits and reproductive biology of the pacific island boas ( candoia ) . journal of herpetology 26 ( 1 ) : 60 - 66 .\nc . c . carinata : sangihe , w moluccas ( banda , gora , haruku ) , irian jaya ( miosool , batanta , salawati ) , papua new guinea , bismarck archipelago , tanimbar ( fide wirz 2003 ) .\ncolv\u00e9e , s . & mart\u00edn , a . 2005 . keeping pacific island boas of the genus candoia . reptilia ( gb ) ( 39 ) : 73 - 77 - get paper here\ncolv\u00e9e , s . & weffer , e . 2004 . candoia aspera - the short - tailed ground boa . reptilia ( gb ) ( 33 ) : 43 - 49 - get paper here\nas with all tropical species , temperature plays a vital role in a candoia environment . i keep the ambient temperature at approximately 80 - 84 degrees year round . a brief winter cool down is needed for breeding candoia species . humidity is kept between 50 - 80 % with occasional cage misting . i have witnessed some specimens become restless or uneasy when exposed to temperatures near 90 degrees .\ngravid females also tend to stay away from their heating pads . temperature is not a major concern for candoia maintenance . they will do just fine at room temperature and require no special needs .\nborer , m . & l . meier 2011 . candoia paulsoni paulsoni : haltung und nachzucht der pazifikboa . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 16 ( 90 ) : 69 - 72 - get paper here\nbustard h . r . 1969 defensive behavior and locomotion of the pacific boa candoia aspera , with a brief review of head concealment in snakes . herpetologica 25 ( 3 ) : 164 - 170 .\nharlow , p . and r . shine . 1992 . food habits and reproductive biology of the pacific island boas ( candoia ) . j . herp . 26 ( 1 ) : 60 - 66\nour own studies of geographic variation indicate that the species as currently recognized does indeed constitute a complex of several taxa . resolution of nomenclature for those taxa hinges upon fixation of the earliest name applied in the complex , schneider ' s boa carinata .\nall other candoia species average 5 - 20 young per litter . i highly recommend giving a female a year off after giving birth . too much stress can be detrimental to her health and future breeding success .\na third , apparently completely distinctive feature of typical c . carinata is the presence of at least weak keels on some part of the 2nd scale row , as in the lectotype . keels do not occur on the 2nd scale row in any material from elsewhere .\nc . carinata ( schneider\u2019s bevelnosed boa ) from eastern indonesia , new guinea & bismarcks . c . carinata carinata ( western schneider\u2019s bevelnosed boa ) from east indonesia & new guinea . c . carinata tepedeleni ( tepedelen\u2019s bevelnosed boa ) from bismarck archipelago . c . paulsoni ( paulson\u2019s bevelnosed boa ) from eastern indonesia , new guinea & solomons . c . paulsoni paulsoni ( solomon bevelnosed boa ) from solomon islands , excl . bougainville . c . paulsoni mcdowelli ( mcdowell\u2019s bevelnosed boa ) from png & louisiade archipelago . c . paulsoni rosadoi ( rosado\u2019s bevelnosed boa ) from misima island , louisiade archipelago . c . paulsoni sadlieri ( sadlier\u2019s bevelnosed boa ) from woodlark island , louisiade archipelago . c . paulsoni tasmai ( tasma\u2019s bevelnosed boa ) halmahera & northeastern sulawesi , indonesia . c . paulsoni vindumi ( vindum\u2019s bevelnosed boa ) from bougainville & buka . c . superciliosa ( belau bevelnosed boa ) from palau archipelago . c . superciliosa superciliosa ( northern belau bevelnosed boa ) from babeldaob to beliliou . c . superciliosa crombei ( ngeaur bevelnosed boa ) from ngear , southern palau .\n@ isaac : now you give your candoia pinkies ? yep , pinkies when he was starting out , we were doing fresh , tiny pinkies - about 1 gram each . he ' s up to 2 - 3g pinks now : )\nno evidence exists that more than one taxon of the c . carinata complex occurs on ambon island or anywhere else in the south moluccas or irian jaya . nevertheless , it is also important that the morphological features of the lectotype conform with those of other material known to have originated in that area , thus substantiating the purported source of the lectotype from the stated locality .\nfixation of application of the name c . carinata , through discovery of the lectotype , clarification of type locality , and analysis of the characteristics of the lectotype , removes all uncertainty in application of other names , such as enygrus superciliosus g\u00fcnther ( 1863 ) and e . c . paulsoni stull ( 1956 ) to the complex , as junior synonyms or for separately valid taxa .\nwe are much indebted to thomas ziegler for the photographs ; to dr . k . l . williams for vital aid with the literature ; to kamuran tepedelen and vern veer for access to both live and preserved specimens of c . carinata ; to dr . kraig adler for bibliographic aid ; and to numerous institutions and their curators for the loan of specimens from their collections .\naustralis is smaller and more slender , the 2 species look remarkably similar . more scientific and taxonomic studies are needed to confirm major differences in these and other candoia species . fiji boas can reach maximum lengths of 3 - 4 feet for males and over 7 feet for females . average size is 3 - 6 feet .\nin their native habitats some candoia begin life eating amphibians and lizards then switching to mammals and birds later on . if you plan to own candoia in the future , we cannot recommend enough that you demand captive bred snakes . the reason is it can be very difficult to bring in a wild caught snake , used to eating lizards and amphibians , and then getting it to switch over to a rodent diet . i\u2019m not saying it cannot be done , just that it\u2019s best to avoid that situation if possible . feed appropriate size euthanized mice and rats . we prefer to buy in bulk frozen rodents which we later defrost in warm water .\n* special note : because i moved to new brunswick i cannot keep candoia spp at all in the province . however , two hours away the species is allowed . ironic isn\u2019t it , i mean what exactly are the environmental impact differences that the two provinces face ? want to find out more about this and other issues facing canadian herpetoculture ? join urltoken right now !\nover 300 specimens have been examined for comparison from all parts of the range of the species , enabling us to compare the features of the lectotype with those of populations in all parts of the range of the species . especially critical is the presence of a conspicuous white postanal spot , immediately following the anus ; the spot is invariably present in the morphologically uniform populations of the south moluccas , irian jaya , northern papua new guinea , new britain and new ireland , all regarded as typical c . carinata . there is , indeed , no way to limit the origin of the lectotype morphologically to any one of those regions . a white , immediately postanal spot occurs elsewhere in the c . carinata complex only in the palau population , which , however , has fewer than 9 intersupraoculars ( 4 - 7 , n = 29 ) , usually fewer anterior scale rows ( 25 - 27 , 28 occurring in only two of 29 ) , and several other average differences .\nas published by b\u00f6hme and bischoff ( 1984 , see also myers and b\u00f6hme , 1996 ) , the entire collection of the zoological museum of g\u00f6ttingen was transferred to the zoologisches forschungsinstitut und museum alexander koenig ( zfmk ) , bonn , in 1977 . the specimen included by schneider ( 1801 ) in his syntype series of boa carinata and designated as lectotype by mcdowell ( 1979 ) is from\namboina\n( = ambon ) and is now cataloged as zfmk 35503 ( figures 1 , 2 ) .\nthe entire genus candoia is one that would be considered tropical species . when keeping tropical species three things should come to mind : heat , humidity and uvb . some may have said humidity and heat . in addition to heat , most tropical reptiles in our experience also require humidity and uvb . with snakes it\u2019s a long standing presumption that snakes don\u2019t benefit from uvb . however , we\u2019ve not seen reports of blood calcium levels which would prove uvb is not necessary .\nfor the more fossorial ( burrowing ) or terrestrial ( surface ) dwelling species of candoia we offer two hide boxes of appropriate size . the snake can go inside the box , curl itself up and have its sides touching the hide box interior . we place a hide box on each side of the enclosure , one on the cool side and one on the basking side . this allows the snake to thermoregulate while being hidden and feeling secure if they so choose .\nit is truly amazing to see a 26 inch male paulsoni on the back of a nearly 5 foot female . but yet , they get the job done and in approximately 7 - 9 months a litter of neonates will be born . as with all boas , candoia give birth to live young . paulsoni litters are the largest , with total amounts of nearly 100 babies at a time possible . standard size litters average 20 - 40 for a normal size 3 - 4 foot female .\nif you\u2019re a regular reader skip the next two sentences . you shouldn\u2019t use colored lights as they will disrupt the normal circadian rhythms of the reptile . we have explained this in the article \u201c colored lights and other myths the pet store told me . \u201d ceramic heating elements are the best way to go . sometimes the enclosure you\u2019re using needs an alternative way of heating . therefore , we have what are known as under tank heaters which make for excellent secondary heating source with the candoia spp .\n: sexing aspera , as well as all candoia , is extremely easy . they males have predominant spurs protruding from either side of the cloaca . if these are present then you have a male although some females will have very small spurs too . the females also have a slightly shorter tail , but popping is almost never necessary to sex the snake properly . of course , as all of you well know , the only 100 % way to know the sex of a snake is to probe it properly .\nwhy decor is not covered more often within herpetoculture is beyond us here at reptile apartment group , but that\u2019s another topic . for now suffice it to say , in our experience an enriched environment with various types of decor appears to have a direct correlation with a healthy snake . not just physically , but also their behaviours seem to be calmer and not as flinching when a naturalistic environment is provided . live plants should be offered for candoia not only low growing plants for cover but also some taller species .\na second generally distinctive feature of south moluccan populations is the relatively long tail , as noted by mcdowell ( 1979 ) , who struggled with an analysis of its possible taxonomic significance . the lectotype number of 45 subcaudals , even though incomplete , occurs within the range of 45 - 53 that occurs in south moluccan c . carinata ( n = 21 ) , and is matched elsewhere only in misima island specimens ( 49 - 50 , n = 3 ) . none is as high as 45 in material from bougainville and halmahera ( n = 52 ) , in only 3 % in material from central and southern papua new guinea ( n = 29 ) , although in 25 % of specimens from the solomons ( n = 56 ) and 45 % in palau material ( n = 20 ) . concomitantly , the tl / ttl ratio is consistently higher in typical c . carinata , including the holotype with a ratio of . 16 ; 81 % of south moluccan specimens have a ratio of . 16 or higher , whereas 0 % occurs in material from halmahera and central and southern papua new guinea ( n = 55 ) , 4 % in bougainville ( n = 23 ) , 5 % in the solomon islands ( n = 55 ) , 15 % in palau ( n = 20 ) , and 33 % in misima ( n = 3 ) .\nat first glance , that may seem an odd combination substrate and humidity . the two are interwoven and will play a major role in keeping a healthy candoia in captivity . substrates are like the heating sources , where there are numerous opinions and they all claim to be right . to cut to the chase of the substrate , we recommend and use earthgro organic orchid bark and earthgro organic soil for all of our tropical species of reptiles , amphibians , and invertebrates . for the boas we will often tear up and place a few mats of sphagnum moss to hold more moisture . if you\u2019d like to read a more in depth treatise on substrates then we recommend the substrates : getting your hands dirty article .\ncontinent : asia distribution : indonesia ( sulawesi , sangihe , telaud , moluccas , misool , batanta , salawati , angaur , irian jaya ) , papua new guinea ( bismarck archipelago ) , solomon i c . c . carinata : sangihe , w moluccas ( banda , gora , haruku ) , irian jaya ( miosool , batanta , salawati ) , papua new guinea , bismarck archipelago , tanimbar ( fide wirz 2003 ) . c . c . tepedeleni ( smith et al . 2001 ) : liki , new britain , new ireland . c . s . superciliosa : belau . c . s . crombiei : ngeaur . type locality : not been reported previously , but is indicated as\namboina\non a label with the lectotype . the specimen is redescribed and figured , and conforms with expectations for material from the vicinity of the type locality\u201d ( b\u00f6hme et al . 1998 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nuetz , p . & jir\u00ed hosek ( eds . ) , the reptile database , ( http : / / www . reptile - database . org )\nbanks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , and a . l . gardner\nchecklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada\nmcdiarmid , roy w . , jonathan a . campbell , and t ' shaka a . tour\u00e9\nsnake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nindonesia ( sulawesi , sangihe , telaud , moluccas , misool , batanta , salawati , angaur , irian jaya ) , papua new guinea ( bismarck archipelago ; northern province : s slope mt . trafalgar , 9 . 2340\u00b0s , 149 . 1541\u00b0e , 223 m elevation ; lae ) ( smith et al . 2001 , kraus 2013 ) , vanuatu ( possibly introduced )\nc . c . tepedeleni ( smith et al . 2001 ) : from liki island off the northern eoast of irian jaya eastward through the admiralty islands , new britain , new ireland and some adjacent islands , bismarck archipelago . type locality : rabaul , new britain .\ntype locality : not been reported previously , but is indicated as\namboina\non a label with the lectotype . the specimen is redescribed and figured , and conforms with expectations for material from the vicinity of the type locality\u201d ( b\u00f6hme et al . 1998 ) .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nlectotype : zfmk 35503 holotype mcz 72155 , an adult male , fred parker collector ; 1963 [ tepedeleni ] .\nbarbour , thomas 1921 . reptiles and amphibians from the british solomon islands . proc . new england zool . club 7 : 91 - 112 - get paper here\nbauer , a . m . and wahlgren , r . 2000 . on boa variegata thunberg 1807 , a neglected boid snake name . hamadryad 25 : 93 - 97\nboulenger , g . a . 1895 . on a collection of reptiles and batrachians from ferguson island , d ' entrecasteaux group british new guinea . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 16 : 28 - 32 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1886 . on the reptiles and batrachians of the solomon islands . trans . zool . soc . london 12 : 35 - 62\nboulenger , g . a . 1893 . catalogue of the snakes in the british museum ( nat . hist . ) i . london ( taylor & francis ) , 448 pp . - get paper here\nclegg , jonathan r . and merlijn jocque 2015 . the collection of snakes made by beno\u00eet mys and jan swerts in northern papua new guinea in 1982\u201385 journal of herpetology sep 2016 , vol . 50 , no . 3 : 476 - 485 . - get paper here\ndum\u00e9ril , a . m . c . and g . bibron . 1844 . erpetologie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale ou histoire naturelle complete des reptiles . vol . 6 . libr . encyclop\u00e9dique roret , paris , 609 pp . - get paper here\ngray , j . e . 1842 . synopsis of the species of prehensile - tailed snakes , or family boidae . zoological miscellany 2 : 41 - 46\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1863 . contribution to the herpetology of ceram . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 12 : 397 - 399 - get paper here\nineich , i . 2011 . amphibians and reptiles . in : bouchet p . , le guyader h . & pascal o . ( eds ) , the natural history of santo . pp . 187 - 236 . mnhn , paris ; ird , marseille ; pni , paris . 572 pp . ( patrimoines naturels ; 70 ) .\njan , g . 1861 . iconographie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale des ophidiens . 2 . livraison . j . b . baili\u00e8re et fils , paris - get paper here\nkinghorn , j . r . 1928 . notes on some reptiles and batrachians from the northern division of papua , with descriptions of new species of apisthocalamus and lygosoma . rec . austral . mus . 16 : 289 - 293 . - get paper here\nkinghorn , j . r . 1928 . herpetology of the solomon islands . rec . austral . mus . 16 : 123 - 178 - get paper here\nkoch , a . 2012 . discovery , diversity , and distribution of the amphibians and reptiles of sulawesi and its offshore islands . edition chimaira , 374 pp . [ isbn 978 - 3 - 89973 - 432 - 4 ] - get paper here\nkraus , fred . 2013 . further range extensions for reptiles and amphibians from papua new guinea . herpetological review 44 ( 2 ) : 277 - 280\nlang , r . de & g . vogel 2005 . the snakes of sulawesi . a field guide to the land snakes of sulawesi with identification keys . frankfurter beitr\u00e4ge zur naturkunde , 25 , edition chimaira , frankfurt am main , 312 pp .\nmccoy , m . 2015 . a field guide to the reptiles of the solomon islands . michael mccoy , kuranda - get paper here\nmcdiarmid , r . w . ; campbell , j . a . & tour\u00e9 , t . a . 1999 . snake species of the world . vol . 1 . herpetologists\u2019 league , 511 pp .\nnoonan , b . p . & sites , j . w . jr . 2010 . tracing the origins of iguanid lizards and boine snakes of the paci\ufb01c . american naturalist 175 ( 1 ) : 61 - 72 - get paper here\no ' shea , m . 1996 . a guide to the snakes of papua new guinea . independent publishing , port moresby , xii + 239 pp . - get paper here\npyron , r . alexander ; reynolds , r . graham & frank t . burbrink 2014 . a taxonomic revision of boas ( serpentes : boidae ) . zootaxa 3846 ( 2 ) : 249\u2013260\nschmidt , kp 1932 . reptiles and amphibians from the solomon islands . field mus . nat . hist . zool . ser . - 18 ( 9 ) : 175 - 190 - get paper here\nschneider , johann gottlob 1801 . historiae amphibiorum naturalis et literariae . fasciculus secundus continens crocodilos , scincos , chamaesauras , boas . pseudoboas , elapes , angues . amphisbaenas et caecilias . frommanni , jena . 374 pp . - get paper here\nstimson , andrew f . 1969 . liste der rezenten amphibien und reptilien : boidae ( boinae + bolyeriinae + loxoceminae + pythoninae ) . das tierreich 89 xi + 1 - 49\nstull , o . g . 1956 . description of a new subspecies of the boid snake , enygrus carinatus . copeia 1956 ( 3 ) : 185 - 186 - get paper here\nswitak , karl h . 2006 . adventures in green python country . natur und tier verlag ( m\u00fcnster ) , 364 pp . - get paper here\nwallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .\nwerner , f . 1899 . beitr\u00e4ge zur herpetologie der pacifischen inselwelt und von kleinasien . i . bemerkungen \u00fcber einige reptilien aus neu - guinea und polynesien . ii . \u00fcber einige reptilien und batrachier aus kleinasien . zool . anz . 22 : 371 - 375 , 375 - 378 - get paper here\nwerner , f . 1899 . ueber reptilien und batrachier aus togoland , kamerun und deutsch - neu - guinea gr\u00f6sstentheils aus dem k . museum f\u00fcr naturkunde in berlin . verhandlungen der kaiserlich - k\u00f6niglichen zoologisch - botanischen gesellschaft in wien 49 : 132 - 157 - get paper here\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nhtml public\n- / / ietf / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nand other stimuli will cause these changes . despite their common name , ground boas will use branches if provided . many will ambush their prey while hanging from the branch . a large water bowl is very much needed as paulsoni love to soak .\nadults can reach maximum lengths of 3 feet for males and 5 feet for females but average in the 2 - 4 foot range .\naustralis are semi - arboreal and need sturdy branches to climb on in addition to a large water bowl . most specimens are fairly calm and deliberate , but once in a while you will run into a nasty individual . adults can reach maximum sizes of 3 - 4 feet for males and nearly 7 feet for some females . average size is 3 - 5 feet .\nbeautiful colors and patterns can then be seen , and that dull brown snake may turn into a golden beauty . these snakes will readily accept rodents in captivity . they prefer rat pups over adult mice . stubborn feeders may need a little more time to acclimate . scenting methods can be used if the specimen starts to lose weight . not all aspera are nasty . i own many specimens which can easily be picked up and handled without incident . aspera will often spend all or most of their day in the water bowl . they will use the water bowl for defecating and also breed while in the water . maximum size for viper boas is 24 - 36 inches but average approximately\nonce your neonates are established rodent feeders they will begin to grow fairly quickly and will double their size within the first 6 months . lizard and frog feeders will slowly catch up with the growth rate of their siblings after the switch over to pinkies . i have also seen several instances of\ncannibalism with neonate paulsoni . this has occurred when several hungry neonates were housed together . it does not happen when they become established feeders .\nit is especially noticeable in paulsoni , where most males are dwarfed by females that may be 10 times larger and heavier .\nloveridge a . 1948 new guinean reptiles and amphibians in the museum of comparative zoology and united states national museum . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology , harvard . 101 ( 2 ) : 307 - 430 .\nmcdowell s . b . 1979 a catalogue of the snakes of new guinea and the solomons , with special reference to those in the bernice p . bishop museum . part iii . boinae and acrochordidae . journal of herpetology 13 ( 1 ) : 1 - 92 .\no\u2019shea m . 1989 the boas of the southwest pacific . the herptile . 14 ( 1 ) : 20 - 30 .\n1996 a guide to the snakes of papua new guinea . independent pub . xii + 239 .\n1994 the herpetofauna of coconut husk piles on kar kar island , madang province , papua new guinea : the initial surveys . asra journal 1994 : 51 - 72 .\nstickel w . h . & l . f . stickel 1946 sexual dimorphism in the pelvic spurs of enygrus . copeia 1946 ( 1 ) : 10 - 12 .\nusfws will render a decision on the narrow headed garter snake and the northern mexican garter snake in fiscal year 2014 .\ncity issues cease and desist order , later issues home business permit for breeder of ball pythons and boa constrictors .\nthis page requires javascript . it seems that your browser does not have javascript enabled . please enable javascript and press the reload / refresh button on your browser .\nclassification from integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) selected by renato agazzi - see more .\nyan wong changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : pazifikboa . jpg\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nwas watching my candoias this morning and thought i might record this behavior for y ' all . this is what a snake looks like when it pukes .\nover 100 snakes & lizards available from urltoken with uk delivery options ! online store with actual pictures of our animals for sale . quickest responses via telephone to 02920 190291 or facebook message\ni bred these alot of years ago started the babies by assist feeding mice tails and slowly one by one they started taking them on there own . they were hard to get going but once started i never had any problems after . kept them on kitchen roll and warm damp moss , hope this may help a little\ngot a pair of these from cpr at the weekend . they were non / assist feeders . tried assist feed tonight , but both released the pinky as soon as they had the chance . hoping that they will assist feed once settled a little more . have also just ordered lizard maker , fingers crossed . so i am also looking to hear opinions and experiences that others have had in getting them to feed .\nhi all , i have heard that lizard maker has been taken off the market , so if you use it i would stockpile it , or try to get them on something else . slither61\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ my reptiles 1 . 1 . 0 royal pythons 0 . 1 . 0 cal king 2 . 2 . 0 western hognose 1 . 0 . 0 caramel corn 1 . 0 . 0 anery corn 1 . 0 . 0 amel mot het butter 0 . 1 . 0 butter corn 0 . 1 . 0 creamsicle mot het butter 1 . 0 . 0 ultramel corn 1 . 0 . 0 b c i 1 . 0 . 0 tri couour hognose 1 . 1 . 0 albino ro corn 0 . 1 . 0 b r b 1 . 0 . 0 trinket snake 1 . 1 . 0 white sided texas ratsnake 1 . 1 . 0 radiated rats h yellow 0 . 1 . 0 sumartran blood p 1 . 0 . 0 argentine l nosed snake [ option ] my flickr gallery - urltoken member no 2300\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ captive bred boas and tree boas a speciality . tel : 07813723259 dont be shy phone or txt your enquiry e - mail : gazboas @ urltoken facebook : gereint gazboas mortimer website : urltoken payment plans available with minimum payment of \u00a350 per month on any animal ratking gaz ive seen you with boa chewing on your hand while you chewed on a bacon buttie so im sure the little worm didnt phase you . your like chuck norris of the snake world the wanderer you can always be relied on to swing your huge cat among the pigeons old chap _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _\ni don ' t mind assist feeding really , and he / she is taking it really easily now ( was a bit of a struggle at first ) , but obviously it isn ' t the ideal solution . oh well , i ' ll keep trying ! i ' ve been told to try a live frog but unless i could find a day old tree frog or something i don ' t think that ' d fit either . . . and even if i could , it ' s not something i could provide weekly so wouldn ' t exactly be a solution .\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 3 . 8 . 8 copyright \u00a92000 - 2018 , vbulletin solutions , inc . content relevant urls by vbseo 3 . 6 . 0\nvbulletin security provided by vbsecurity v2 . 2 . 2 ( pro ) - vbulletin mods & addons copyright \u00a9 2018 dragonbyte technologies ltd . copyright \u00a9 2005 - 2011 , reptile forums ( rfuk\u0099 )\nattention : 1 ) te pr\u00e9senter avant de poster tu devras 2 ) avant 10 posts aucune annonce ( de vente ) tu ne posteras 3 ) rester courtois tu devras 4 ) en bon fran\u00e7ais tu t ' exprimeras 5 ) sans quoi au bout de 3 avertissements tu d\u00e9gageras 6 ) t ' inscrire pour ne pas \u00eatre actif tu \u00e9viteras , sinon ton compte on supprimera .\nsauter vers : s\u00e9lectionner un forum | | - - r\u00e8gles et pr\u00e9sentation | | - - r\u00e8glement & annonces | | - - les bases de la terrario | | - - morphologie simplifi\u00e9e | | - - dico ' terrario | | - - biblioth\u00e8que | | - - la nourriture | | - - g\u00e9neral | | - - l\u00e9gislation | | - - liens | | - - asso . | | - - site terrariophile | | - - forum | | - - bo\u00efnes | | - - fiches d ' \u00e9levage | | - - photos & vid\u00e9os | | - - discussion | | - - bo\u00efn\u00e9s en images | | - - reproductions et naissances | | - - pythonines | | - - fiches d ' \u00e9levage | | - - photos & vid\u00e9os | | - - discussion | | - - pythonin\u00e9s en images | | - - reproductions et naissances | | - - erycinae | | - - erycinae | | - - fiches d ' \u00e9levage | | - - photos et vid\u00e9os | | - - dicussion erycinae | | - - colubrides | | - - fiches d ' \u00e9levage | | - - photos & vid\u00e9os | | - - discussion colubrid\u00e9s | | - - colubrid\u00e9 en images | | - - reproductions et naissances | | - - venom | | - - fiches d ' \u00e9levage | | - - photos & vid\u00e9os | | - - discussion venom | | - - v\u00e9nom en images | | - - le reptilarium | | - - mat\u00e9riels & installations | | - - fiches d ' \u00e9levage | | - - discussion g\u00e9n\u00e9rale terrario . | | - - vos autres animaux de terrario | | | - - sauriens | | | - - invert\u00e9br\u00e9s | | | - - batraciens | | | - - divers | | | | - - sant\u00e9 | | - - herping | | - - le coin photo | | - - petites annonces | | - - vente d ' animaux | | - - vente / recherche de mat\u00e9riel | | - - ventes / recherches de nourriture | | - - ventes professionnelles | | - - le salon | | - - espace d\u00e9tente | | - - les grands concours | | - - quizz | | - - rencontre entre membres | | - - espace anglophone | - - introduction | - - introduce yourself . | - - foreign countries ' legislations | - - health | - - care sheets . | | - - ophidians | | - - other reptiles | | - - herp discussion | - - herp photos and videos | - - lexical help\na curated database of candidate human ageing - related genes and genes associated with longevity and / or ageing in model organisms .\na curated database of genes associated with dietary restriction in model organisms either from genetic manipulation experiments or gene expression profiling .\nprojects focused on gene expression profiling of ageing and of dietary manipulations of ageing , such as caloric restriction .\nsoftware for ageing research , including the ageing research computational tools ( arct ) perl toolkit .\na curated database of ageing and life history information in animals , including extensive longevity records .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\na high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .\nanalyses using the anage database to study the evolution of longevity and ageing in vertebrate lineages .\na portal of ageing changes covering different biological levels , integrating molecular , physiological and pathological age - related data .\nthe whosage database contains people and biotech companies that are contributing to increase our understanding of ageing and life - extension .\n[ 0485 ] andrew snider and j . bowler ( 1992 ) , longevity of reptiles and amphibians in north american collections , second edition\ncomments , suggestions , ideas , and bug reports are welcome . please contact us .\ncontinent : oceania distribution : western samoa , melanesia , polynesia , solomon islands [ mccoy 2000 ] , new caledonia , toga , loh , linua , tegua , hiu islands . type locality : viti levu , fiji islands\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , large overall population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category . however , as the species is seen in trade , further research and monitoring of harvest and trade levels is recommended .\nthis widespread species ranges through the solomon islands , vanuatu , the loyalty islands ( but not mainland new caledonia ) , fiji , tokelau , wallace and futuna islands , samoa , american samoa , and tonga . it is found up to 1 , 200 m asl .\nthis species is probably reasonably common to uncommon over its wide range . the population is probably stable across the range as a whole , but is perhaps decreasing somewhat in the central pacific .\nthis snake is found in trees , bushes and rock clefts in a range of forests including lowland forest , coastal vegetation and dry forest ( morrison 2003 ) . animals have been recorded as abundant in mangroves ( m . mccoy pers . comm . november 2011 ) . it can be found in cacao plantations . it is an ovoviviparous species .\nthere appear to be no significant threats to this species , although , as with many snakes , animals are frequently killed on sight by people . it is found in trade , but the effects of this are unknown .\nthis species is present in some protected areas . it is listed on appendix ii of cites . further research and monitoring of harvest and trade levels is recommended .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis species has a large distribution , ranging from the eastern indonesian islands , new guinea to the bismarck archipelago . in indonesia it has been recorded on the minahassa peninsula , sangihe and talaud islands in northern sulawesi , tanimbar islands , seram and the other northern maluku islands ( in de bosch 1985 , o\u2019shea 1996 ) . in indonesian new guinea it occurs throughout west papua province and across the northern coastal region to the huon peninsula of moreby province , papua new guinea . it is found in the south west of papua new guinea in western and gulf province . it is also found throughout the bismarck archipelago and admiralty islands . it is found at elevations from sea level to around 1 , 525 m asl . ( o\u2019shea 1996 ) .\nthis species can be found in a variety of habitats from rainforests to caves and also disturbed environments such as plantations and rural gardens ( o ' shea 1996 ) . typical of snakes of this genus , this species is generally found either on or close to the ground ( foufopoulos and richards 2007 ) . it is viviparous with a clutch size of up to six . its diet consists primarily of skinks but may also take gecko eggs and frogs ( o\u2019shea 1996 ) .\nthere is no population information available for this species but its population is probably stable .\nyuwono ( 1998 ) recorded the trade of this species from indonesian new guinea , and that thousands of specimens could be collected if required . natusch and lyons ( 2012 ) noted the trade of this species from jayapura and the vogelkop in indonesian new guinea . sixteen and eighty - three individuals ( respectively ) were recorded at wildlife traders between september 2010 - april 2011 . this species is listed under cites but does not have protected status in indonesia . the cites quota for this species was 400 from papua and 400 from west papua .\nit is unlikely that any major threats are impacting this species . it is present in the pet trade but current levels are unlikely to be posing a significant threat to this species .\nthis species is listed under appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cities ) ( urltoken ) .\nthis species has protection status in papua new guinea but not in indonesian new guinea ( natusch and lyons 2012 ) .\nthis species occurs in protected areas in new guinea and the bismarck archipelago . monitoring the trade and harvest levels of this species is recommended .\ncrombie , r . i . and pregill , g . k . 1999 . a checklist of the herpetofauna of the palau islands ( republic of belau ) , oceania . herpetological monographs 13 : 29 - 80 .\nfoufopoulos , j . and richards , s . 2007 . amphibians and reptiles of new britain island , papua new guinea : diversity and conservation status . hamadryad 31 ( 2 ) : 176 - 201 .\nin den bosch , h . a . j . 1985 . snakes of sulawesi : checklist , key and additional biogeographical remarks . zoologische verhandelingen 217 : 3 - 50 .\nnatusch , d . j . d . and lyons , j . a . 2012 . exploited for pets . the harvest and trade of amphibians and reptiles from indonesia new guinea . biodiversity conservation 21 : 2899 - 2911 .\no ' shea , m . 1996 . a guide to the snakes of papua new guinea . independent publishing , independent group ltd . , port moresby , png .\nyuwono , f . b . 1998 . the trade of live reptiles & amphibians in indonesia . in w . erdelen ( ed . ) conservation , trade & sustainable use of lizards & snakes in indonesia . mertensiella 9 : 9 - 16 .\ncopy and paste the following code to embed this assessment into another web page .\nnote : you can modify the ' height ' attribute to fit the available space on your web page .\nthe most common snake inhabiting coconut husk piles on karkar island is the new guinea ground boa .\nbismarck ground boa ( c . aspera aspera ) from new britain and new ireland , and new guinea ground boa ( c . aspera schmidti ) from new guinea ( west papua and papua new guinea ) and its continental islands including karkar . the scale counts defining the two subspecies are listed in the table below .\nin addition , a single new ireland juvenile compared with several juvenile karkar island specimens , was found to be of more slender build , have a longer tail , a raised vertebral ridge and lighter coloured eyes but all those characters are relative and the sample was small .\nloveridge a . 1948 new guinean reptiles and amphibians in the museum of comparative zoology and united states national museum . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology , harvard . 101 ( 2 ) : 307 - 430 .\no\u2019shea m . 1989 the boas of the southwest pacific . the herptile . 14 ( 1 ) : 20 - 30 . 1994 the herpetofauna of coconut husk piles on kar kar island , madang province , papua new guinea : the initial surveys . asra journal 1994 : 51 - 72 .\n1996 a guide to the snakes of papua new guinea . independent pub . xii + 239 .\nstickel w . h . & l . f . stickel 1946 sexual dimorphism in the pelvic spurs of enygrus . copeia 1946 ( 1 ) : 10 - 12 .\nstull o . g . 1932 five new subspecies of the family boidae . occasional papers of the boston society of natural history . 8 : 25 - 30 .\nopheodrys vernalis were hatched as part of breeding program in conjunction with lake county forest preserve district .\nyoutube video of a frog eating a caterpillar gets close to 1 . 5 million views in three days\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 74, "summary": [{"text": "scyllarides squammosus is a species of slipper lobster known as the ' blunt slipper lobster .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is found throughout the indo-west pacific region .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "specifically its range is from australia ( queensland , new south wales , west australia ) , japan , hawaii , melanesia , new caledonia to east africa .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "scyllarides squammosus has been found at depths from 7.5 m to 71 m.", "topic": 18}], "title": "scyllarides squammosus", "paragraphs": ["worms - world register of marine species - scyllarides squammosus ( h . milne edwards , 1837 )\nscyllarides squammosus ( h . milne edwards , 1837 ) \u2013 blunt slipper lobster , ula - p\u00e4papa\nstatus in world register of marine species accepted name : scyllarides squammosus ( h . milne edwards , 1837 )\njustification : scyllarides squammosus is listed as least concern . this species has a broad distribution and is harvested in only small parts of its range . ongoing fisheries in australia have stringent management controls in place .\nfischer , w . & g . bianchi ( eds . ) ( 1984 ) . fao species identification sheets for fisheries purposes : western indian ocean . fao , rome . [ details ]\nholthuis , l . b . 1991 . fao species catalogue . vol 13 . marine lobsters of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species of interest to fisheries known to date . fao fisheries synopsis . 125 ( 13 ) : 292 p . [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nbatchelor , a . , de silva , r . , dyer , e . , kasthala , g . , lutz , m . l . , mcguinness , s . , milligan , h . t . , soulsby , a . - m . & whitton , f .\nthis species is distributed throughout the indo - west pacific region from east africa to japan , hawaii , melanesia , new caledonia and australia ( queensland , new south wales , west australia ) ( holthuis 1991 , dewha 2009 ) . it is likely that this species has a wider distribution than is currently known . the type locality of this species is mauritius ( holthuis 1991 ) .\naustralia ( new south wales , queensland , western australia ) ; fiji ; indonesia ; japan ; kenya ; madagascar ; marshall islands ; mauritius ( mauritius ( main island ) ) ; mozambique ; new caledonia ; oman ; papua new guinea ( bismarck archipelago , north solomons , papua new guinea ( main island group ) ) ; seychelles ; solomon islands ; somalia ; taiwan , province of china ; tanzania , united republic of ; tuvalu ; united arab emirates ; united states ( hawaiian is . ) ; vanuatu ; wallis and futuna\nthere is insufficient population data available for this species . however , chan ( 1998 ) described it as ' apparently nowhere abundant in the western central pacific ' . comparatively , dinardo and moffitt ( 2007 ) state that it is currently the dominant lobster species in the northwestern hawaiian islands . the northwestern hawaiian islands populations of this species should be treated as one metapopulation ( dinardo and moffitt 2007 ) .\nthis nocturnal species inhabits reefs and rocky areas ( holthuis 1991 ) . it shelters during the day , and forages at night where it feeds mainly on bivalves ( chan 1998 , lavalli\n2007 ) . it has a maximum total length of 40 cm , although usually only reaches 20 cm ( holthuis 1991 , chan 1998 ) . there are conflicting reports of the depth preferences of this species : dinardo and moffit ( 2007 ) suggest between 30 - 120 m , whereas holthuis ( 1991 ) and chan ( 1998 ) suggest a shallower range of 5 - 80 m . this is also reflected in the ' most common ' ranges , with 50 - 70 m and 20 - 50m , respectively .\nthis gregarious species attains sexual maturity at a carapace length of 6 . 6 - 6 . 7 cm , although variation was found between reefs ( hearn et al . 2007 , lavalli et al . 2007 ) . ovigerous females occur throughout the year with peak abundance between may and july , and their fecundity ranges from 54 , 000 - 227 , 000 eggs per female ( dinardo and moffitt 2007 , sekiguchi et al . 2007 ) . the phyllosoma of this species remain pelagic for 3 - 6 months prior to transforming into benthic juveniles ( dinardo and moffitt 2007 ) .\nits large size and well developed fleshy tail make this species , like other species of the genus , a sought - after delicacy ( holthuis 1991 ) . below is a breakdown of use and trade within distinct parts of this species ' range .\nin hawaii there has been a commercial lobster fishery in operation in the northwestern hawaiian islands ( nwhi ) for 20 years . the fishery has been primarily targeting this species and the spiny lobster (\n) . landings of all species were showing reductions , and in 2000 the nwhi fishery was closed as a precautionary measure due to increasing uncertainty of the population models used to assess stock status . later on that year , the northwestern hawaiian islands coral reef ecosystem reserve was established . this may prohibit commercial lobster fishing in the nwhi indefinitely ( dinardo and moffitt 2007 ) . for catch data from the nwhi fishery whilst it was in operation see dinardo and moffitt ( 2007 ) .\nin 1997 , the queensland fisheries service ( qfs ) , authorised a developmental trap fishery in southeast queensland . the fishery was specifically targeting this species and\nspp . ) resource existed in the waters to the south of the great barrier reef marine park ( gbrmp ) . prior to that time these species were landed only as a minor by - catch of prawn and scallop trawl fisheries ( these species have now been removed from the\npermitted trawl species\nable to be retained by trawl fishers ) ( sumpton\ndevelopment of this trap fishery began in july 1999 , and was monitored for an initial period ending june 2003 . participants in the fishery required a permit that was renewed annually ( subject to satisfactory performance by the permit holders ) . however , by 2004 there were no active harvesting permits and further development of the fishery was awaiting discussions between fisheries managers and stakeholders ( sumpton\nspp . have been caught . to some extent this was a result of the fishery ' s limitations to trawl relatively shallow depths < 200 m , which is not the preferred habitat of many of the species capable of entering baited traps ( sumpton\n, coutures and chauvet 2003 ) . this is achieved by diving with a water torch over the reefs ( coutures and chauvet 2003 ) . the catch - per - unit - effort ( cpue ) data for these fishermen was found to be 1 . 32 kg / fisherman / night , although this increased to 2 . 16 kg kg / fisherman / night for more efficient fishermen ( coutures and chauvet 2003 ) .\nthe queensland fisheries service ( qfs ) considers that the fishery does not pose a significant threat to the sustainability of this species . the fishery landed less than 5 tonnes of slipper lobster each year between 1998 and 2001 , and in 2002 / 2003 no slipper lobsters were landed ( sumpton et al . 2004 ) .\nthe northwestern hawaiian islands ( nwhi ) coral reef ecosystem reserve was established in 2000 which may prohibit commercial lobster fishing in the nwhi indefinitely , therefore this fishery does not pose a continuing threat to this species ( dinardo and moffitt 2007 ) .\na decline in global captures of scyllaridae has been documented , although information on specific species is lacking ( spanier and lavalli 2007 ) .\nthe management plan of the hawaiian fishery incorporated closed seasons , minimum size limits , no retention of egg bearing females , the incorporation of escape vents in pots , accurate recording of log data , and revised yearly quotas ( pooley and kawamoto 1998 , sumpton et al . 2004 ) .\nin the event that the trap fishery in southeast queensland progresses beyond developmental status , a formal process would be undertaken to develop appropriate management strategies . within the area of the fishery , a number of closed waters have been declared under the fisheries regulations 1995 , and no fishing is allowed in the great barrier reef marine park ( gbrmp ) . all commercial fishers in queensland have a legal obligation to provide information about their fishing activity via daily logbook reporting ( sumpton et al . 2004 ) .\nit is prohibited to take berried females or setose females ( sumpton et al . 2004 ) .\nas the queensland trap fishery is only operated on a very limited developmental scale ( a time frame of only four years ) , the lobster stocks are not likely to have been seriously affected . the current permit conditions provide the queensland fisheries service ( qfs ) with extensive powers to ensure the sustainable management of the fishery . it allows them to suspend or cancel permits if a deleterious effect on stocks of slipper and spiny lobster , or any other fish species ( including bycatch and byproduct ) has been caused , or is imminent , or may reasonably be expected due to activities under the permit ' ( sumpton et al . 2004 ) . for a comprehensive report on the queensland developmental trap fishery , see sumpton et al . ( 2004 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nwith three red spots , one rather ill - defined in the middle , and two more distinct laterally ; seldom the three are fused to a single broad spot . outline of posterior margin of the\nhabite l ' \u00eele - de - france\n( = mauritius ) . type in\nhabitat in oceano australiori . mus . dom . banks\n. type lost .\nindo - west pacific region : from east africa to japan , hawaii , melanesia , new caledonia and australia .\nin depths of\na few fathoms\nto about 80 m , most common between 20 and 50 m . on reefs and rocky areas . nocturnal .\nmake this species , like other species of the genus , a sought - after delicacy . it is scarce and lives in inaccessible places and therefore is not commercially fished . the animals are mostly taken by hand usually at night , but also wire traps are used . they are sold fresh on the local markets .\nfischer , w . and g . bianchi ( eds ) , 1984 . fao species identification sheets for fishery purposes . western indian ocean ( fishing area 51 ) , vol . 5 : pag . var .\nholthuis , l . b . and t . sakai . 1970 . ph . f . von siebold and fauna japonica . a history of early japanese zoology : 18 pp , 1 - 323 , pls 1 - 32 , 7 unnumbered pls , 1 map\nmilne edwards , h . , 1837 . histoire naturelle des crustac\u00e9s , comprenant l ' anatomie , la physiologie et la classification de ces animaux , 2 : 1 - 532 , atl . pl . 1 - 42 , 1 - 32 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmclaughlin et al . 2005 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : crustaceans . american fisheries society special publication 31\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nholthuis , l . b . 1991 ,\nfao species catalogue . vol . 13 . marine lobsters of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species of interest to fisheries known to date\n, fao fisheries synopsis , vol . no . 125 , 13 , pp . i - viii , 1 - 292\nmiers , e . j . 1882 ,\non some crustaceans collected at mauritius\n, proceedings of the zoological society of london , vol . 1882 , pp . 339 - 342 pl . 20 , 538 - 543 pl . 36\nmilne edwards , h . 1837 , vol . 2 , pp . 532 pp . , atlas 32 pp . , 42 pls , libraire encyclopedique de roret , paris\nde haan , w . 1841 ,\ncrustacea\n, ed . von siebold , p . f . ( ed . ) , fauna japonica sive descriptio animalium , quae in itinere per japoniam , jussu et auspiciis superiorum , qui summum in india batava imperium tenent , suscepto , annis 1823\u20131830 collegit , notis , observationibus et adumbrationibus illustravit , pp . 1 - 243 pls a - j , l - q , 1 - 55 , circ . tab . 2 , lugundi - batavorum , leiden\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3df778c7 - 7be1 - 4299 - 9cbc - 1863a7282399\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 6c1c4fe3 - 6de0 - 452b - 9df8 - 729b5b0b004f\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : d70af230 - ed62 - 49ed - 80ea - 471d9a5747f8\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 2d6b407b - 388d - 4ab1 - 84f8 - 9e52de5199e5\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 417880\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding ."]}
{"id": 77, "summary": [{"text": "eastern cougar or eastern puma ( puma concolor couguar ) refers to the extinct subspecies or extirpated population of cougars that once lived in northeastern north america .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "the eastern cougars were deemed extinct by a u.s. fish and wildlife service ( fws ) evaluation in 2011 , while a parallel canadian organization has taken no position on the question . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "eastern cougar", "paragraphs": ["eastern cougar foundation ( ecf ) . 2006 . about eastern cougars . eastern cougar foundation . retrieved december 27 , 2017 .\neastern cougar sightings - information about reporting a sighting of an eastern cougar and false internet rumors of sightings in new york state .\nthe last confirmed eastern cougar was trapped in the late 1930s , the agency said .\nthe eastern cougar has been declared extinct almost eight decades after it was last seen .\nreport any eastern cougar sightings to the canadian wildlife service and your provincial department of wildlife .\nmost significantly , no evidence whatsoever has been found to show that either individual eastern pumas or any relic populations of the eastern puma subspecies remain extant in eastern north america .\nwith the headline : federal fish and wildlife service declares the eastern cougar extinct , with an asterisk .\n\u201cwe recognize that many people have seen cougars in the wild within the historical range of the eastern cougar , \u201d said the service\u2019s northeast region chief of endangered species martin miller . \u201chowever , we believe those cougars are not the eastern cougar subspecies . we found no information to support the existence of the eastern cougar . \u201d\nextinct eastern cougar subspecies proposed for removal from endangered species list | u . s . fish & wildlife service\nthe service\u2019s proposal to remove the eastern cougar from the endangered species list does not affect the status of the florida panther , another cougar subspecies listed as endangered .\nthe eastern cougar network ( ecn ) has been formed to document cougar confirmations in the eastern half of north america . nearly a year in the making , the exciting results of the group\u2019s comprehensive research project can be found at\nthe animal would likely not be an elusive eastern cougar , whose existence is controversial for a number of reasons .\nwestern cougar cubs . their eastern cougar cousins have not been sighted since 1938 according to a us fish and wildlife service review . photograph : kevin schafer / getty images\nmany people have seen cougars in the wild within the historical range of the eastern cougar ,\nsaid martin miller , the northeast regional chief of endangered species for the usfws , in 2011 .\nhowever , we believe those cougars are not the eastern cougar subspecies . we found no information to support the existence of the eastern cougar .\nwhat does the loss of the eastern cougar mean ? michael robinson of the center for biological diversity gives the bad news .\nfor sometime now we\u2019ve recognized two distinct subspecies of cougar in north america - the western and eastern populations . although the western population is still very much alive and kicking , the past , present and future of the eastern cougar is hopelessly unclear .\nthe service completed the formal review of the eastern cougar in 2011 . during the review , the service examined the best available scientific and historic information , queried 21 states and eastern canadian provinces , and reviewed hundreds of reports from the public . no states or provinces provided evidence of the existence of an eastern cougar population .\nthe eastern cougar is the only 7 foot long , 200 pound wildcat that may or may not be living in your backyard .\nduring the review , the service received 573 responses to a request for scientific information about the possible existence of the eastern cougar subspecies ; conducted an extensive review of u . s . and canadian scientific literature ; and requested information from the 21 states within the historical range of the subspecies . no states expressed a belief in the existence of an eastern cougar population . according to dr . mark mccollough , the service\u2019s lead scientist for the eastern cougar , the subspecies of eastern cougar has likely been extinct since the 1930s .\non march 2 , 2011 , the united states fish and wildlife service declared the eastern cougar ( puma concolor couguar ) officially extinct .\nthis western cougar is spotted in a tree in colorado . the western cougar\u2019s cousin , the eastern cougar has been though to be among the nova scotian forests , however experts have found no trace of the animal after extensive searches . ( justin shoemaker )\ndepartment of environmental conservation ( dec ) , new york . 2008 . eastern cougar fact sheet ( felis concolor cougar ) . new york state department of environmental conservation . retrieved december 27 , 2017 .\ndownload printable pdf version u . s . fish and wildlife service concludes eastern cougar extinct ( march 2 , 2011 ) ( pdf 25k )\nthe eastern cougar subspecies was listed as endangered in 1973 . however , accounts suggest that most eastern cougars disappeared in the 1800s as european immigrants killed cougars to protect themselves and their livestock , as forests were harvested , and as white - tailed deer , the cougar\u2019s primary prey , nearly went extinct in eastern north america . the last records of eastern cougars are believed to be in maine ( 1938 ) and new brunswick ( 1932 ) .\nscientists are moving toward the conclusion that the eastern cougar was erroneously classified as a separate subspecies in the first place . as a result of a genetic study conducted in 2000 , most biologists now believe there is no real difference between the western and eastern branches of the cougar family .\nthey are so wrong we have seen them here in eastern nc many times .\nadditional information about eastern cougars , including frequently asked questions and cougar sightings , is at : urltoken . find information about endangered species at urltoken .\n\u201cwe recognize that people have seen cougars in the wild in the eastern u . s . , \u201d said martin miller , the service\u2019s northeast region chief of endangered species . \u201cthose cougars are not of the eastern cougar subspecies . \u201d\neither way , the \u201ceastern\u201d cougar as such is no longer with us . any recent sightings in the cougar\u2019s historic range , which stretched from eastern ontario and michigan eastward to maine and southward to georgia , tennessee and missouri , were actually sightings of its relatives , the fish and wildlife service said .\nthe decision comes almost 80 years after an eastern cougar was trapped and killed by a hunter in maine in 1938 . none have been seen since .\n' we recognize that people have seen cougars in the wild in eastern u . s . , ' said martin miller , the usfws northeast region chief of endangered species . ' those cougars are not of the eastern cougar subspecies . '\nin the dense hardwood forests of eastern canada , the cougar prowls \u2013 or might prowl . it is uncertain whether there are any eastern cougars left in canada . this beautiful wild cat is gravely endangered in the near north of eastern canada , where it once traveled the rough , hilly and swampy lands surrounded by forest .\n\u201ci\u2019ve never seen a cougar , but i have gone out on cougar calls where i believe people did see a cougar , \u201d he said . \u201ci can\u2019t explain how someone would make that mistake . \u201d\nthe proposal to remove the eastern cougar from the endangered species list does not affect the status of the florida panther , which will remain listed as endangered .\nhey people . the article is about the subspecies of the cougar \u2013 the eastern puma . you may have seen cougars in your area but not the subspecies of that cougar member . yes we have plenty of cougar ( aka puma ) here in oregon and other places but , again , so it\u2019s clear , the eastern puma is hat the article is talking about . read !\ngoing by official records , the last known eastern cougars were killed in new brunswick in 1932 and in maine in 1938 . bureaucracy moves slowly and it wasn\u2019t until 1973 that the eastern cougar , by then already extinct , was recognized as endangered .\nthe us fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) began a formal review of the eastern cougar in 2011 , 36 years after it was first classified as endangered .\nin eastern north america at the time of european contact , the puma ranged from florida to southern quebec and remained abundant through much of eastern north america during the colonial era . despite its apparent early abundance , however , only 26 historical specimens of eastern pumas , from seven eastern states and one canadian province within the subspecies ' historical range , reside in museums or other collections .\ncougar management guidelines working group . cougar management guidelines . first edition . washington , dc : wiley , on behalf of the wildlife society ; 2005 .\ninformation gathered from : keeping track , vermont public radio , cougar net , the new york times , mountain lion : an unnatural history of pumas and people , by chris bolgiano , and the eastern cougar , edited by chris bolgiano and jerry roberts .\ndid you read the article ? ! \u201cthe eastern puma was a subspecies of the animal also known as cougar or mountain lion , which is still widely distributed across the west . \u201d they also said , \u201cthe eastern cougar was extinct well before it was protected under the endangered species act , as was the case with eight of the other 10 species that have been delisted for extinction\u201d , so what you think you saw was not an actual eastern puma .\nalthough the eastern cougar has been on the endangered species list since 1973 , its existence has long been questioned . the u . s . fish and wildlife service ( service ) conducted a formal review of the available information and , in a report issued today , concludes the eastern cougar is extinct and recommends the subspecies be removed from the endangered species list .\neastern cougars were once found across michigan , southern ontario , eastern canada and maine , and as far south as south carolina and tennessee , in a variety of habitats including marshes , mountains and forests .\n1 . a relic population of pumas has survived in eastern north america . although some hypothesize that the eastern puma has survived in eastern north america since colonial times , the continued existence of a puma population in eastern north america is not corroborated by the historical record , the history of white - tailed deer , or our current understanding of puma ecology ( usfws 2011 , pp . 43 - 46 ) .\nalthough the eastern cougar has been declared extinct , the florida and western subspecies populations have grown in recent decades , and some are expanding their range into their extinct cousins ' terrain .\nthe so - called eastern cougar was designated as endangered in 1973 , only to be redesignated\ndata deficient\nin 1998 due to an absence of scientific proof . last year , the u . s . fish and wildlife service proposed removing the eastern cougar from the endangered species list , declaring that the cougars have likely been extinct for at least 70 years .\ncougar , photographed in the arizona - sonora desert museum , tucson , arizona .\nthere is little evidence that sport hunting is of any benefit to cougar populations .\ndespite the large number of contemporary eastern puma accounts , few of the surveys and investigations of puma reports have provided verifiable evidence of the presence of pumas , irrespective of origin , in eastern north america , and even fewer have provided irrefutable proof of a wild puma . nonetheless , verified puma occurrences have occurred with enough frequency in eastern north america ( approximately 15 puma carcasses have been documented in eastern north america north of florida since 1950 ) to encourage a widespread belief that a cryptic eastern puma population continues to persist .\nseven decades after the last reported sighting of the eastern cougar , the federal fish and wildlife service declared it extinct wednesday and recommended that it be removed from the nation\u2019s endangered species list .\nthe eastern mountain lion\u2019s official designation with the u . s . fish and wildlife service is \u201cendangered\u201d ; however , the service considers the species extinct . the agency is now reviewing the eastern cougar\u2019s status in maine and 20 other states and whether they are the same species as more common western lions .\nin fact a considerable number of people claim the eastern cougar still walks among us , its survival attested to by the thousands of sightings across nova scotia and new brunswick in the past century .\na western cougar in grand teton national park , wyoming . ( national park service )\nbig cat fans are mourning the extinction of the eastern cougar ( puma concolor couguar ) after the u . s . fish and wildlife service announced it is removing the big cat from the endangered species list because it hasn\u2019t found any credible evidence of the existence of one in at least 70 years . those cougars being spotted in eastern north america are most likely western cougars or mountain lions ( puma concolor ) that have extended their range or escaped from negligent pet owners . what happened to the eastern cougar ?\norange county transportation corridor agency . foothill / eastern transportation corridor agency board of directors agenda ; 2013 . available :\ncougars are found wherever there is enough prey , enough forest cover , and a minimum of human disturbance . logging in the eastern forests , human settlement , and habitat disturbance from activities like mining are responsible for the sharp drop in cougar populations . if the eastern cougar does still exist , it is possible the population may recover if deer populations increase and forests grow again on the existing logged land .\nsummary : overall , we find that pumas ( except for single transients ) are reasonably detectable , that no contemporary puma sightings in eastern north america have been verified as the eastern puma subspecies since 1938 , and that it is extremely unlikely that either individuals or eastern puma populations could have survived the long period during which most of their habitat was lost and their primary prey base was nearly extirpated . we therefore determine the eastern puma subspecies to be extinct .\nphoto : biologist bruce wright with the mounted specimen of what is believed to be the last eastern cougar , which was trapped in maine in 1938 . courtesy u . s . fish and wildlife service .\ndue to persecution following the european colonization of the americas , and continuing human development of cougar habitat , populations have dropped in many parts of its historical range . in particular , the cougar was extirpated in eastern north america , except an isolated sub - population in florida ; the animal may be recolonizing parts of its former eastern territory . with its vast range , the cougar has dozens of common names and various references in the mythology of the indigenous peoples of the americas and in contemporary culture .\nthe last documented cougar taken in eastern north america was trapped in maine near the quebec border in 1938 . the last killed in new brunswick was in kent county , 1932 . since then we have had only tantalizing glimpses into the lives of cougars inhabiting our coast . in canada , the eastern cougar was listed as endangered in 1978 , but lost that classification in 1998 and was relabeled \u201cdata deficient . \u201d this photo is of a western cougar in the grand teton national park , wyoming . national park serv\nof all the folklore composing the cultures of atlantic canada , no tale is more compelling to me than that of the eastern cougar , a supposed subspecies which once roamed the forests of nova scotia and beyond .\nin 2011 , the fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) opened an extensive review of the status of eastern cougars .\nutah division of wildlife resources ( udwr ) , cougar discussion group . 1999 . utah cougar management plan ( draft ) . utah division of wildlife resources . retrieved december 27 , 2017 .\nthe focal area of this study includes the santa ana mountains and the eastern peninsular range . inset shows location within california .\norange county transportation corridor agency . foothill / eastern transportation corridor agency board of directors agenda ; 2013 . available : urltoken .\nthe usfws concluded in 2011 that there was no evidence of the eastern cougar living within its once enormous habitat . experts suggest the cougars\u2019 decline began when european immigrants starting killing the animals to protect their families and livestock .\nharper , d . 2001a . cougar . online etymology dictionary . retrieved december 27 , 2017 .\na captive cougar feeding . cougars are ambush predators , feeding mostly on deer and other mammals .\nthe eastern cougar has been declared extinct by the u . s . fish and wildlife service . according to news reports , scientists had held out hope , based on scattered reports , that a few eastern cougars remained . those sightings turned out to be other subspecies from the western united states , or captive animals that were freed or had escaped .\nthe declaration of the eastern cougar ' s extinction raised hackles from numerous people and organizations , including ontario ' s ministry of natural resources , which said there is conclusive evidence\u2014including paw prints and feces\u2014that cougars do still live in the canadian state . the last confirmed eastern cougar in ontario was killed in 1884 , and none have been photographed since then . ( the ministry does acknowledge the possibility that the cougars might not be native to the area . )\n\u201cit\u2019s a rare case \u2014 almost nonexistent \u2014 that we find evidence that it was a cougar , \u201d said wally jakubas , who receives most cougar reports as head of dif & w\u2019s mammal division .\n\u201cif somebody sees a cougar and it turns out to be a cougar , the first thing that i would suspect is that it was captive and either escaped or was released , \u201d jakubas said .\nthe cougar network has documented a significant amount of cougar activity in this sub - region . the incidents in arkansas and louisiana take on greater significance when viewed in conjunction with those from east texas .\n\u00a92006 - 2016 cougar rewilding foundation ~ easterncougar . org , urltoken ~ web site maintained by cougar rewilding foundation web site design by keto gyekis - urltoken ~ header photo : copyright susan c . morse\nonce the top predator across north america , the demise of all cougars and particularly the eastern cougar coincided with the arrival of european settlers the eastern cougars were hunted because of their real and perceived threats to livestock but the drive to extinction was hastened by the killing of white - tail deer , their real food , and the deforestation of its habitats .\nmccollough says the fws ' s recently published review ( pdf ) of the eastern cougar ( mandated every five years for all species protected under the endangered species act ) examined all evidence that would have led scientists to conclude that the cat still existed in the northeast . after finding no tracks , bodies , den sites or photographs ,\nwe came to the conclusion that the eastern cougar is likely extinct , probably since the 1930s ,\nhe says .\nthe 140 - pound cougar that was spotted last month among the estates of greenwich \u2014 and was later struck and killed on the wilbur cross parkway \u2014 has been the talk of southern connecticut . new england , along with most of the eastern united states , hasn\u2019t been cougar country since the 19th century , when the animals were exterminated by a killing campaign that started in colonial times . so where had this cougar come from ?\nthe cougar network has documented lions establishing new populations in the dakotas and individual lions\u2019 presence farther east .\nlearn about the cougar and share your knowledge with others to stimulate concern for this beautiful endangered animal .\nin the southern portion of its range , the cougar and jaguar share overlapping territory ( hamdig 2006 ) . the jaguar tends to take larger prey and the cougar smaller where they overlap , reducing the cougar ' s size ( iriarte et al . 1990 ) . of the two felines , the cougar appears best able to exploit a broader prey niche and smaller prey ( nuanaez et al . 2000 ) .\nofficers found the cougar in the downtown , where it climbed a tree near ecole rocky elementary school .\njohn lutz , direct of the eastern puma research network , a group dedicated to finding evidence of the cougar ' s continued existence , told pennsylvania ' s times leader that they have collected 11 , 000 reports of cougar sightings since 1965 .\nthere will be more reports to prove [ the fws ] wrong ,\nhe said .\non january 29 , 2007 , we published a federal register notice announcing a 5 - year review specific to the eastern puma and nine other species , and we requested information from the public concerning the eastern puma ( 72 fr 4018 ) . the assessment of the eastern puma ' s current status , completed on january 28 , 2011 ( usfws 2011 ) , found no evidence of the existence of either an extant population or individual eastern pumas , and concluded , therefore , the subspecies should be considered extinct . the assessment thus concluded that the eastern puma does not meet the definition of either an endangered species or a threatened species under section 3 of the act .\nnovember 11 is crane festival day at gangtey monastery in eastern bhutan . the main performers are school kids who enact a . . .\nthe u . s . fish and wildlife service lists the florida panther , the costa rican puma and the eastern puma as endangered .\nsouth florida harbors the only documented remnant population of cougars in the east . aside from this well - known and high profile population , the cougar network has not documented significant cougar activity from this sub - region .\nin recognizing the eastern puma as a valid subspecies , and thus a valid listed entity , we next evaluate whether the subspecies should be determined extinct . it is important to note that assessing the biological status of the eastern puma as a subspecies does not preclude eventual taxonomic revision .\nit was originally thought the eastern cougar had been driven to extinction and to this day it\u2019s still considered extinct in the united states . it might have received a similar designation in canada were it not for persistent sightings across new brunswick and nova scotia , with hundreds recorded between 1948 - 1971 . from 1977 to 1992 the canadian wildlife service recorded 425 sightings in those same regions . unfortunately , no concrete evidence of a living eastern cougar came from any of these encounters , even if some stories were compelling .\n( for updated information , see mlfs 2006 study on the affects of cougar sport hunting in mlfs library . )\nthe fws now plans to seek the removal of the eastern cougar from the endangered species list , because extinct animals can no longer be protected . the move would not affect the florida panther , which remains , for now , listed as its own subspecies .\nthe eastern cougar or eastern puma is ( or , as of now , was ) a subspecies of the mountain lion . its range was from canada ( southeastern ontario , new brunswick , southern quebec ) south to south carolina and west to illinois and michigan . its southern ranged stopped at what was once the northern range of the florida panther , of which today only about 160 exist in florida .\nthe eastern puma\u2019s range contracted from the 1790s to the 1890s due to human persecution abetted by the extirpation , through hunting , of its primary prey , white - tailed deer . the last three eastern pumas were killed in 1930 in tennessee , 1932 in new brunswick and 1938 in maine .\na surge in reported sightings followed in the 1960s and 1970s , again coincident with publications claiming that a relic population of pumas from the northeastern united states and eastern canada was repopulating eastern north america . although based mostly on questionable evidence , many\u2014including wildlife biologists\u2014accepted this hypothesis without critical scientific review .\n3 . pumas in eastern north america are dispersers from breeding populations to the west and south . breeding puma populations in proximity to the eastern puma ' s historical range occur in manitoba , north dakota , south dakota , possibly nebraska and oklahoma , and florida . the service ' s 5 - year review discusses the likelihood of immigration of pumas to eastern north america from these populations ( usfws 2011 , pp . 51 - 56 ) .\nthe eastern cougar \u2014 known variously as the mountain lion , puma , panther or catamount \u2014 once roamed from canada to south carolina and as far west as michigan . male cougars can weigh up to 200 pounds and are distinguished by their long , thick tails .\nmr . miller said in an interview that no regulations or restrictions were ever imposed in an effort to help the eastern cougar recover , although a recovery plan drafted in 1982 \u201cheld out hope , expressed the possibility that a population still existed in remote areas . \u201d\nthe eastern cougar recovery plan was approved in 1982 ( usfws 1982 ) . during plan preparation , r . l . downing conducted field surveys and investigated sighting reports and concluded that \u201cno breeding cougar populations have been substantiated within the former range of f . c . couguar since the 1920s . \u201d nonetheless , the recovery plan states that the eastern cougar could be reclassified from endangered to threatened when one population containing at least 50 breeding adults was found or established . it further states that the eastern cougar could be removed from the list when at least three populations were found or established , with each containing more than 50 breeding adults . since the plan ' s approval , no breeding populations have been found , nor have any individual pumas known to be f . c . couguar ( such individuals would form the basis of a founder population ) . thus , neither of the recovery criteria was ever met .\nbiology and life history : there is little basis for believing that the ecology of eastern pumas was significantly different from puma ecology elsewhere on the continent . our biological understanding of the eastern puma , therefore , is derived from studies conducted in various regions of north america and , to the extent possible , from eastern puma historical records and museum specimens . this information is detailed in the status review ( usfws 2011 ) on pages 6 through 8 .\ndoes the eastern cougar really exist ? did it ever exist ? these are questions that wildlife scientists grapple with as they track this elusive animal . hundreds of unofficial sightings of this stealthy cat have helped build a mythology around its presence in eastern canada . while the\nevidence\nis very compelling , biologists have yet to find any scientific proof that it exists . cbc reporter cynthia kent talks to the experts .\nthe last confirmed sightings of eastern cougars are believed to be in maine in 1938 and in new brunswick in 1932 . the u . s . fish and wildlife service now says cougars in eastern parts of canada and the u . s . have been extinct for 70 years . ( craig pamplin )\nthis uncertainty has been recognized by canadian authorities . the canadian federal agency called committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada rates its current data as\ninsufficient\nto draw conclusions regarding the eastern cougar ' s survival , and says on its web site\ndespite many sightings in the past two decades from eastern canada , there are insufficient data to evaluate the taxonomy or assign a status to this cougar .\nnotwithstanding numerous reported sightings in ontario , quebec , new brunswick and nova scotia , it has been said that the evidence is inconclusive :\n. . . there may not be a distinct ' eastern ' subspecies , and some sightings may be of escaped pets .\nthe eastern cougar was extinct well before it was protected under the endangered species act , as was the case with eight of the other 10 species that have been delisted for extinction . overall the endangered species act has been 99 percent successful at saving species from extinction .\nuntil there is confirmation that the eastern cougar still survives , no direct recovery actions will take place for this species . cougars are protected from hunting and killing in nova scotia , new brunswick and ontario . despite this , their population does not seem to have increased .\nwhen a cougar is shot outside winnipeg on christmas eve , benard bloom looks into the legend of this mysterious animal .\npolice say they shot and killed a cougar that had climbed a tree near a school in west - central alberta .\npanthera is in the earliest stages of developing the east bay regional parks cougar project , a collaborative effort with east bay regional parks near san francisco . the state of california covers more than 99 million acres ( 400 , 000 km 2 ) . of that , approximately half of the state is considered occupied cougar habitat , where they compete with a growing population of more than 37 million people . current cougar conservation imperatives in california include understanding cougar ecology in suburban and urban areas , where cougar populations are increasingly coming into conflict with people . this project would be a comprehensive look at cougar ecology in the east bay and be instrumental in aiding public agencies and private individuals understand and live with america\u2019s big cat .\nyou have to appreciate this cat\u2019s sense of irony , too . the cougar showed up in the east just three months after the fish and wildlife service declared the eastern cougar extinct , a move that would exempt the officially nonexistent subspecies of the big cat from federal protection . perhaps this red - state cougar traveled east to send a message to washington : the federal government can make pronouncements about where cougars are not supposed to be found , but a cat\u2019s going to go where a cat wants to go .\n\u201cit\u2019s really not a good way to decide where a species or subspecies begins and ends , \u201d said mark . he then invoked the work of dr melanie culver from the early 1990s . using the more precise science of molecular dna , she compared the separate subspecies suggested by taxonomy and found that several weren\u2019t subspecies at all . the dna doesn\u2019t lie \u2014 from the west coast to the east , it would appear , a cougar is a cougar is a cougar . the fabled eastern subspecies was a myth .\nfor the better part of a year i\u2019ve been gathering the facts behind the folklore , speaking first to mark elderkin , a species at risk biologist with nova scotia\u2019s department of natural resources . he told me our initial belief in an eastern subspecies of cougar came from taxonomy , as the bones and skulls of cougars caught nearby in the new england states were measured against specimens from elsewhere in north america . the new england skulls appeared unique , superficially , and so the eastern cougar was born , but we\u2019ve since learned that taxonomy makes for shaky evidence .\nthe four - year study used information from 21 states and eastern canadian provinces , and scoured hundreds of reports of sightings dating as far back as 1900 .\nfive year moving average of pumas killed secondary to vehicle collisions or depredation permits ( n = 174 ) in the santa ana mountains and eastern peninsular ranges .\nthe principal factors leading to the listing of the eastern puma were widespread persecution ( poisoning , trapping , hunting , and bounties ) , decline of forested habitat , and near - extirpation of white - tailed deer populations during the 1800s . these impacts led to the extirpation of most eastern puma populations by 1900 .\nindeed , if a cougar can walk from south dakota to connecticut , a cougar could show up anywhere . vermont . tennessee . queens . ( don\u2019t laugh : in 2008 , another cougar from the black hills found its way to chicago , where it was shot and killed by the police . ) for years , a relative handful of people throughout the eastern united states have claimed to see cougars , claims that the authorities have generally taken as seriously as sasquatch sightings . now , those sightings can\u2019t be so easily dismissed .\nthis proposal , if made final , would revise 50 cfr 17 . 11 to remove the eastern puma from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife due to extinction . the prohibitions and conservation measures provided by the act would no longer apply to this subspecies . there is no designated critical habitat for the eastern puma .\nconservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or threatened under the act include recognition , recovery actions , requirements for federal protection , and prohibitions against certain practices . however , since the service has determined the eastern cougar to be extinct , this proposed rule , if made final , would remove any federal conservation measures for any individual pumas ( except dispersing florida panthers ) that may subsequently be found within the historical range of the eastern puma .\neastern cougars that once roamed north america from canada to south carolina are extinct and no longer warrant federal endangered species act protections , us wildlife managers have said .\ngovernment wildlife managers believe the bulk of eastern cougars disappeared in the 1800s with the arrival of european immigrants , who killed them to protect themselves and their livestock .\ngovernment wildlife managers believe the bulk of eastern cougars disappeared in the 1800s after the arrival of european immigrants , who killed them to protect themselves and their livestock .\nthere ' s one other bit of debate going on that ' s important to note : many scientists say that the eastern cougar subspecies does not exist , not because it went extinct , but because it never really existed at all . a study published in the journal of heredity in 2000 revealed that previously recognized north american cougar / puma / panther / mountain lion subspecies may actually all be the same species .\nby 1929 , eastern pumas were believed to be \u201cvirtually extinct , \u201d and young and goldman ( 1946 ) concurred that \u201cthey became extinct many years ago . \u201d on the other hand , puma records from new brunswick in 1932 and maine in 1938 suggest that a population may have persisted in northernmost new england and eastern canada .\nthis information , along with the total absence of verified contemporary eastern puma records , suggests that a remnant population of eastern pumas is highly unlikely to have survived two centuries of intense human exploitation and persecution , habitat changes , and near - eradication of its primary prey . further , were a relic puma population to have survived , the rebounding of deer populations along with protections from take under the act would have likely resulted in a corresponding increase in documentation of eastern puma presence and increased likelihood of deterction . given the lack of verified contemporary records , we therefore find no evidence to support the hypothesis that an undetected relic population of eastern pumas remains extant .\nit is notable that areas in eastern north america that still support extant populations of native pumas ( e . g . , florida and manitoba ) have had a long and continuous record of confirmed occurrences . in contrast , a long - term record of verified puma occurrences is lacking in regions of eastern north america outside florida .\nmahaffy , j . 2004 . behavior of cougar in iowa and the midwest . dordt college . retrieved december 27 , 2017 .\n_ _ _ _ . 1961 . notes on cougar productivity and life history . journal of mammalogy 42 : 204 - 217 .\nthe cougar is canada\u2019s largest and most powerful cat . cougars were once found all over north america . they still survive in western canada but no one knows how many , if any , eastern cougars remain . their range is thought to be the most extensive range of any terrestrial mammal in the western hemisphere \u2013 a range that is almost the same as that of the white - tailed deer , the cougar\u2019s main prey .\nmichael robinson of the center for biological diversity said the extinction of eastern cougars has disrupted the forest ecosystem and allowed large populations of white - tailed deer to thrive .\nwe further conclude that although there have been thousands of puma sightings in eastern north america since the 1950s , most are a case of mistaken identity . we acknowledge that a small number of pumas are occasionally encountered in the wild in eastern north america within the historical range of the listed eastern puma . based on the best available scientific evidence , however , we conclude that these are escaped or released captive animals , or dispersers from western puma populations , not the eastern puma subspecies . breeding of escaped or released individuals , if it occurs , appears to be an extremely rare event , and there is no evidence of any population established from escaped or released captive animals .\nelusive as unicorns and howling like devils , cougars did not stand much of a chance in the face of settlers imaginations . the damned thing , a short story written by ambrose pierce in 1893 , casts the cougar as an invisible killer , unseen to the human eye , detectable only as it passes through grass . aggressive hunting of cougars and their prey , along with deforestation of cougar habitat , decimated cougar populations in the eastern united states , extirpating them by 1881 . like exorcising an evil spirit from the body , european settlers eliminated what they could not comprehend .\ntaxonomy and genetics : the eastern puma 5 - year review ( usfws 2011 , pp . 29 - 35 ) provides a full discussion of the taxonomic history of this subspecies . as indicated in that review , the current practice is to refer to the species as puma concolor ( linnaeus 1771 ) and the eastern subspecies as puma concolor couguar .\nthe service initiated the review as part of its obligations under the endangered species act . the service will prepare a proposal to remove the eastern cougar from the endangered species list , since extinct animals are not eligible for protection under the endangered species act . the proposal will be made available for public comment .\nclick to enlarge this image . ( 83kb ) click to enlarge this image . ( 21kb ) puma concolor ( cougar ) , peru click to enlarge this image . ( 195kb ) puma concolor ( cougar ) , peru click to enlarge this image . ( 188kb )\n\u201cwe actually have no historical evidence that the cougar ever occurred here , \u201d he told me . \u201cwell , very little evidence . \u201d\nfront paw print of a cougar . an adult paw print is approximately 10 cm ( 4 inches ) long ( esd 1991 ) .\ncalifornia set a new precedent in 1990 when residents passed a referendum giving the cougar complete protection from sport hunting ( proposition 117 ) .\nironically , the animal that causes more human deaths than any other is not the cougar , but the cougars primary prey : deer .\nrcmp say they responded to a 911 call early friday in rocky mountain house about a cougar that was spotted walking down main street .\ncontemporary accounts of pumas in eastern north america as evidence of the continuing existence of the subspecies : as discussed in the 5 - year review ( usfws 2011 , pp . 36 - 38 ) , renewed interest in puma conservation over the past 60 years has resulted not only in a profusion of reported sightings by the public but also efforts by scientists to determine the presence of pumas in eastern north america . we summarize these accounts below and discuss whether they constitute a basis for concluding that the eastern puma remains extant .\nwashington\u2014 the u . s . fish and wildlife service today declared the eastern puma extinct and removed it from the list of protected wildlife and plants under the endangered species act . the eastern puma was a subspecies of the animal also known as cougar or mountain lion , which is still widely distributed across the west . it once roamed as far north as southeastern ontario , southern quebec and new brunswick in canada , south to south carolina and west to kentucky , illinois and michigan .\nextinct animals and plants cannot be protected under the endangered species act , which is meant to recover imperiled species and their habitats . additionally , under law , the eastern cougar listing cannot be used as a method to protect other cougar subspecies . the proposal is available for public inspection june 16 at urltoken . from june 17 to august 17 , 2015 , the proposal will be available for review and comment at urltoken under docket no . fws\u2013r5\u2013es\u20132015\u20130001 .\nthe cougar network has documented three louisiana 2008 confirmations , one resulting in the killing of the animal and the other two being trail camera pictures , and one confirmation from 2002 . in april 2002 , state biologist mike carloss had a visual sighting of a cougar in lake fausse pointe state park . scat was subsequently found which tested positive for cougar dna . also , an interesting sighting report occurred in july 2000 . louisiana department of wildlife and fisheries ( ldw & f ) biologist john stacy and two others had a good visual sighting of a cougar in sabine national wildlife refuge , near the texas border . this area has been a hotbed for credible cougar reports in recent years .\nthe deer population in new brunswick is high enough to support 140 - 250 cougars . however , logging , mining , and other activities have driven cougars away in search of areas that are free from human disturbance . in order for the eastern cougar to survive , areas of land must be protected from human activity .\nyattaw said he had his own cougar encounter last august while he was driving through owls head on his way into work early one morning .\nlarge species that are highly mobile and occur at low densities under the best of conditions are lost . again , the cougar is representative .\nmccarthy said it ' s possible that if the test comes back positive for cougar hair , the animal could have been an escaped pet .\nthe fish and wildlife service in 2011 opened an extensive review of the status of eastern cougars , cousins to mountain lions that still roam western us states and the imperilled florida panthers .\nhe also shrugs off conspiracy theories . despite what many people believe , his agency nor any other wildlife department in the eastern united states , has released mountain lions in recent history .\nthe world conservation union ( iucn ) currently lists the cougar as a\nleast concern\nspecies . the cougar is regulated under appendix i of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ) , rendering illegal international trade in specimens or parts .\nlast verifiably seen in 1938 , when the final\nghost cat\nwas shot and killed in maine , the eastern cougar ( puma concolor couguar ) has now been declared extinct by the u . s . fish and wildlife service ( fws ) . but that may not stop many people from believing that it still exists .\nthe puma ' s range throughout southern ontario and manitoba . the eastern subspecies is not stipulated in scott ' s ( 1998 ) range description ; indeed , the review questioned whether the eastern puma was ever a valid subspecies . other authors have also discussed the past distribution of pumas in canada without acknowledging them as the eastern subspecies . rosette ( 2011 ) asserts that native , free - roaming pumas of unknown origin may continue to survive in ontario while conceding that no evidence of their presence has been documented for almost 100 years . in manitoba , on the other hand , several authors have documented a relatively consistent record of pumas , but there is no evidence that these are eastern pumas or that the subspecies ever occurred that far west .\ngiven evidence of growing puma populations in the west , increased dispersal , and availability of dispersal corridors and prey in the midwest , we conclude that wild - origin pumas ( primarily males ) will continue to disperse into the midwestern states and into the historical range of the eastern puma and are the likely source of any wild pumas that currently exist in eastern north america .\nbeier , p . 1991 . cougar attacks on humans in the united states and canada . wildlife society bulletin , 19 : 403 - 412 .\nto me , there would be a lot more evidence .\nevidence such as more conclusive dna proof , cougar tracks and eyewitness photos .\nthe eastern subspecies , known variously as ghost cat , catamount , puma , painter , panther , mountain lion , and cougar , originally hunted from southern canada to the tip of south america . once the most widely distributed land mammal in the western hemisphere , cougars have been eliminated from about two - thirds of their original range .\neastern cougars , which were known as the ' ghost cat ' because of their reclusive nature , grew up to 8ft long - including their tails - with males weighing up to 150lb .\nfew research studies have monitored cougar populations over periods longer than a few years , and experts are reluctant to apply findings to cougar populations in different areas , given the cats recognized adaptability and subsequent behavioral variation . lack of standardized research methods make it difficult for researchers to share and apply information . as a result , wildlife administrators too frequently face the task of designing cougar management programs based on research data that is both scant and questionable .\nit is those illicit cougar keepers who dif & w officials and biologists say are likely to blame for many of the credible sightings around the state . officials suspect that some cougar owners release the cats after they become too large or too costly to keep because of their ravenous appetite for meat .\n\u201cthe distribution of the eastern cougar in canada and the validity of considering it a subspecies have been questioned . during the twentieth century , cougars were reported in ontario , quebec , new brunswick , and nova scotia , but some of the sightings proved to be encounters with cougars from other areas that had escaped from captivity . there is no objective evidence ( actual cougar specimens or other unequivocal confirmation ) of the continuous presence of cougars in eastern canada since the nineteenth century . for example , since that time , no cougars have been reported killed in ontario , and the one animal killed in quebec , in 1992 , had escaped from captivity . \u201d ( hinterland who\u2019s who )\ncougars are considered big game in many of the western states . there are limited legal harvests in these areas that do not threaten local cougar populations .\nwild cougar populations in the west have been expanding their range eastward in the last two decades , with individual cougars confirmed throughout the midwest . evidence of wild cougars dispersing farther east is extremely rare . in 2011 , a solitary young male cougar traveled about 2 , 000 miles from south dakota through minnesota , wisconsin and new york , and was killed on a connecticut highway . a cougar of unknown origin was also killed in kentucky in december 2014 .\naccording to these standards , we must determine whether the eastern puma is a valid subspecies and whether the subspecies is still extant in order to determine its appropriate listing status . the following sections thus examine the biological and legal information considered to be most germane to the status of the eastern puma as a valid , extant subspecies before looking at factors that may affect the its continued existence ."]}
{"id": 78, "summary": [{"text": "datnioides microlepis , also known as the indonesian tiger datnoid , indo datmoid , indonesian tigerfish , or finescale tigerfish , is a species of freshwater fish endemic to the malay peninsula and indonesia ( sumatra and kalimantan ) .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "previous records from the chao phraya and mekong rivers is due to confusion with the d. pulcher ( siamese tigerfish ) , which was included in d. microlepis until 1998 .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it reaches up to 45 cm ( 1 ft 6 in ) in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this fish is commonly seen in the aquarium trade , and often is seen when juvenile about 3 \u2013 4 in ( 8 \u2013 10 cm ) long . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "datnioides microlepis", "paragraphs": ["i am looking for datnioides pulcher . i like this one my phone is 6465933435 , usa\ndatnioides : from the genus name datnia and ancient greek \u03b5\u1f36\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 \u200e ( e\u00eedos ) , meaning \u2018form , likeness\u2019 .\nmicrolepis : from the ancient greek \u03bc\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 \u200e ( mikr\u00f3s ) , meaning \u2018small\u2019 , and \u03bb\u03b5\u03c0\u03af\u03c2 \u200e ( lep\u00eds ) , meaning \u2018scale\u2019 .\nin the ornamental trade d . microlepis is the most widely available tiger perch and is sometimes sold as d . pulcher in order to raise prices , since the latter is considered critically endangered in the wild and may already be extirpated from thailand . both species are also fished for human consumption .\nthere are additional differences in colour pattern and meristic characters , and in practice it is difficult to confuse d . microlepis with any species other than d . pulcher , these two having been considered conspecific prior to 1998 . in principle they can be separated by the number of dark body bars , but this observation appears to be based solely on specimens from borneo with the colour pattern of sumatran and malaysian populations undocumented . adult individuals can usually be separated on the basis of base body colour , which tends towards orangey - brown in d . pulcher , dirty yellowish - grey in d . microlepis .\nfollowing kottelat ( 2001 ) , the genus datnioides is diagnosed by the following combination of characters : second spinous anal - fin ray longer than the first and third rays ; presence of fine teeth and 2 - 3 blunt spines on the edge of the opercle ; 50 + lateral line scales ; barred colour pattern .\ndatnioides spp . typically produce a lot of waste so the use of large external filters is essential . if possible buy units with built in heaters or at least fit a sturdy heater - guard since adults have been known to damage submerged equipment . sump systems also work well , and the heater can be housed within .\nthey do not travel well and can be tricky to stabilise post - import , often refusing to feed and continuously exhibiting a colour pattern indicative of stress but also displayed at night . in d . microlepis the dark body bars fade , leaving only the margins or a series of spots distinctly visible , with the majority of the body greyish , brownish , or blackish .\nmembers were included in the genus coius during the 1990s , but coius is now considered to be a synonym of the genus anabas ( kottelat , 2000 ) . the former family name coiidae is thus a synonym of anabantidae , and datnioides species comprise the monotypic family datnioididae . the genus has also been included in the marine tripletail family lobotidae in the past , and preliminary phylogenetic analyses suggest a close relationship these two groups .\nd . microlepis is distinguished from all congeners by the following combination of characters : presence of 6 - 7 wide dark bars on the body , the first of which usually continues uninterrupted across the opercle , onto the thoracic region , and across the ventral surface of the body ( vs . 4 - 5 wide bars in d . pulcher ; 4 - 6 wide bars with diffuse margins in d . campbelli ; up to 7 bars , sometimes with 1 - 4 smaller bars between in d . polota ; 4 relatively thinner bars , first bar sometimes not continuous on operculum , not usually extending onto thoracic region or ventral surface of body , sometimes a single , additional partial bar in d . undecimradiatus ) ; a distinct black marking immediately anterior to the pelvic - fin base ( vs . no such marking in d . undecimradiatus ) ; body scales small , with 70 - 100 in the lateral series ( vs . large , 40 - 60 in the lateral series in d . polota and d . campbelli ) ; predorsal profile almost straight ( vs . distinctly concave in d . polota and d . campbelli ) .\nasia : chao phraya basin , mekong basin of mainland southeast asia , kapuas basin in western borneo and musi basin in sumatra ( ref . 10425 ) . protected in thailand ( ref . 12217 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 45 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 7050 ) ; max . published weight : 10 . 0 kg ( ref . 9497 )\nhas the deepest body of any species of coius , 2 . 1 - 2 . 4 times in sl . specimens from mainland southeast asia invariably with five full bars , specimens from borneo with 6 - 7 bars , all usually continued across ventral surface of body . first bar extending uninterrupted and undiminished across opercle and onto thoracic region , and continued across ventral surface of body ; a well defined black mark on ventral surface of body immediately anterior to base of pelvic fins ( not present in other coius ) . partial bars almost invariably absent . branched dorsal rays 14 - 18 ; branched anal rays 9 - 11 , usually 10 ( ref . 10425 ) .\ninhabits freshwater rivers , lakes and reservoirs , frequenting areas with a lot of submerged branches , such as flooded forests ( ref . 12693 ) . adult fish feed on small shrimps , fish fry and small fishes while young individuals take zooplankton ( ref . 6459 ) . also feeds on crabs , worms and insect larvae ( ref . 12693 ) and plants ( ref . 56749 ) . esteemed food fish which is marketed fresh and often seen in aquarium trade ( ref . 12693 ) .\nroberts , t . r . and m . kottelat , 1994 . the indo - pacific tigerperches , with a new species from the mekong basin ( pisces : coiidae ) . ichthyol . explor . freshwat . 5 ( 3 ) : 257 - 266 . ( ref . 10425 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5625 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01995 ( 0 . 00906 - 0 . 04395 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 83 - 3 . 19 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 \u00b10 . 55 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( fec = 30 , 000 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 42 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\napparently restricted to the malay peninsula and western indonesia , where it is known from the perak and selangor river systems in peninsular malaysia , batang hari and musi watersheds in sumatra , and kapuas basin in kalimantan ( indonesian borneo ) . it is unclear whether its range extends into peninsular thailand , while records from the chao phraya and mekong river basins refer to the congener d . pulcher .\nan exclusive inhabitant of large , deep , typically lowland freshwater rivers , and not thought to enter brackish environments . it has been collected from flooded forests during the annual wet season .\njuveniles and subadults should be provided with a well - decorated , planted aquarium with driftwood roots and branches . larger individuals are relatively unfussy , although some surface cover in the form of floating or overhanging vegetation or branches is appreciated . the addition of marine salt is not required at any life stage .\nan efficient , largely piscivorous , predator with highly protrusible mouthparts . in the aquarium , juveniles can be offered chironomid larvae ( bloodworm ) , small earthworms , chopped prawn , and suchlike , while adults will accept strips of fish flesh , whole prawns , mussels , live river shrimp , larger earthworms , etc . older individuals do not require feeding on a daily basis , with 2 - 3 times per week sufficient .\nthis species should not be fed mammalian or avian meat such as beef heart or chicken since some of the lipids contained in these cannot be properly metabolised by the fish and may cause excess fat deposits and even organ degeneration . similarly , there is no benefit in the use of \u2018feeder\u2019 fish such as livebearers or small goldfish , which carry with them the risk of parasite or disease introduction and tend not have a high nutritional value unless properly conditioned beforehand .\ncan be maintained alongside similarly - sized fishes if sufficient space is available , but might be intimidated by territorial or otherwise competitive species .\nalthough juveniles may form groups , adults are not gregarious and tend to respond aggressively to conspecifics and similarly - shaped fishes . they are best maintained singly or in a group of 5 or more individuals .\nunrecorded in captivity . observations by local fishermen in the kapuas river suggest it to be non - migratory , spawning in april and may , with no parental care .\nin aquarium literature this species is also referred to as \u2018fine scaled tiger fish\u2019 , \u2018indonesian tiger fish ( or \u2018it\u2019 ) \u2019 , \u2018sumatran tiger fish\u2019 , \u2018indo datnoid\u2019 , \u2018indo dat\u2019 , and \u2018false siamese tiger fish\u2019 . the common name of \u2018tiger fish\u2019 is also used in reference to the african alestid genus hydrocynus , therefore the more appropriate \u2018tiger perch\u2019 was suggested by roberts and kottelat ( 1994 ) .\nbleeker , p . , 1854 - natuurkundig tijdschrift voor nederlandsch indi\u00eb v . 5 : 427 - 462 zevende bijdrage tot de kennis der ichthyologische fauna van borneo . zoetwatervisschen van sambas , pontianak en pangaron .\nhashim , z . h . , r . y . zainuddin , a . s . r . md . shah , s . a . m . sah , m . s . mohammad , and m . mansor , 2012 - check list 8 ( 3 ) : 408 - 413 fish checklist of perak river , malaysia .\nkottelat , m . , 2001 - wht publications , colombo : 1 - 198 fishes of laos .\nkottelat , m . , 2013 - raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 27 : 1 - 663 the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibiography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries .\nkottelat , m . , 2000a - journal of south asian natural history 5 ( 1 ) : 83 - 90 notes on taxonomy , nomenclature and distribution of some fishes of laos .\nkottelat , m . , 2000b - journal of south asian natural history 5 ( 1 ) : 91 - 94 the type species of the genus - group names coius hamilton , 1822 and datnia cuvier , 1829 and the type - genus of the family - group name datnioididae bleeker , 1858 .\nkottelat , m . and e . widjanarti , 2005 - raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 13 : 139 - 173 the fishes of danau sentarum national park and the kapuas lakes area , kalimantan barat , indonesia .\nrainboth , w . j . , 1996 - rome , fao : 1 - 265 fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes . fishes of the cambodian mekong .\nroberts , t . r . , 1989 - memoirs of the california academy of sciences no . 14 : i - xii + 1 - 210 the freshwater fishes of western borneo ( kalimantan barat , indonesia ) .\nroberts , t . r . and m . kottelat , 1994 - ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 5 ( 3 ) : 257 - 266 the indo - pacific tigerperches , with a new species from the mekong basin ( pisces : coiidae ) .\ntan , h . h . and m . kottelat , 2009 - ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 20 ( 1 ) : 13 - 69 the fishes of the batang hari drainage , sumatra , with description of six new species .\nbetta fish care infographic , a handy cheat sheet that will benefit any keepers of siamese fighting fish .\nfish tank care . guide to fish care with a simple look at aquarium filtration , how to clean a fish tank , and a fish tank maintenance schedule .\npiranhas , one of the most efficient predators with razor sharp teeth and a ferocious nature . piranha fish species , description , information , habitat , and more !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\nwe have two large iridescent sharks we are looking to find another home for . our tank is too small and they are very large . do you have a big tank ? do you know they can grow 3 - 4 feet ? where are you located ?\nlooking for medaka rice fish . what ever species you may have for sale .\ni ' m looking to but a balloon kissing gourami . any idea where i can get one ?\ni like that fish so much . but i wonder where can i find that siamese tiger fish . john tang\nhas been a standard in the aquarium industry for decades . it is a large , very attractive , deep bodied aquarium fish . its coloration is a golden body contrasted with bold black bands . it can reach up to 18 inches ( 45 cm ) in length , though in the aquarium they generally only get 9 to 12 inches ( 20 - 30 cm ) . this beautiful fish is a great addition to any large tank containing relatively non - aggressive , predatory fish\nthe siamese tiger fish is one of the most handsome large fish in the aquarium hobby , especially with its brilliant coloration when young . they come from the coastal rivers and swamps of southeastern asia . as a general rule , the number of bars on the fish will tell you its approximate origin . fish collected from mainland southeast asia usually have 5 full bars and ones collected from borneo or sumatra usually have 6 to 7 full bars .\nthis fish has long been a favorite species for the large predatory fish tank , especially in asia . even though the price remains relatively high , the popularity of this gold datnoid endures . in recent years there has been a surge in popularity in europe and the united states as well . the gold datnoid is known by quite a number of equally descriptive names ranging from siamese tiger fish , indonesian tiger fish , finescale tigerfish , gold datnoid , gold tiger datnoid , finescale tigerfish , yellow tiger fish , to the black barred tiger fish .\nthe siamese tiger fish is one of two commonly available datnoids , or\ndat ' species . the other is the silver tigerfish or four - barred tigerfish\nwill also occasionally show up , and when it does it commands a very high price . a fourth species , the wide bar tigerfish or wide bar dat\n, frequently called the siamese tigerfish and siamese tiger perch , is much sought after but is quite rare .\nthese datnoid species can get confused and are sometimes mislabeled in pet stores . however they can easily be distinguished with a bit of close observation . for fish identification of these datnoids by their distinguishing features . see the discussion below under\ndescription\n.\nand the family coiidae by roberts and kottelat in 1994 . kottelat again revised the genus in 2000 to its current classification of\nand the family datnioididae . other common names it is known by include indonesian tiger fish , finescale tigerfish , gold datnoid , gold tiger datnoid , finescale tigerfish , yellow tiger fish , and black barred tiger fish .\nthis species is found on the southeast mainland of asia in the mekong basin , the chao phraya river basin in the center of thailand , the musi basin in sumatra , the kapuas basin in western borneo , and in cambodia . the origin of this fish can be determined by the number of bars on the fish . fish from southeast asia will normally have 5 bars and the ones from borneo and sumatra will usually have 6 to 7 bars .\nthese fish are not listed on the iucn red list , but may be endangered in many regions from capturing them for food fish and the aquarium industry . it is said to possibly be extinct in the chao pharya river basin in thailand .\nthe indonesian tiger fish inhabits large bodies of waters such as lakes , reservoirs , and rivers . it dwells among submerged trees and roots . the young will eat zooplankton , but as they mature their diet becomes fish fry and small fishes , small shrimps , crabs , worms , and insect larvae . they possibly eat some plant matter as well .\nthe siamese tiger fish is a deep bodied fish with a sharply slanted forehead . it has a golden toned body with black vertical bars . they are usually full bars extending across the entire body . depending upon the geographic location , they can have between 5 and 7 bars . these fish can get up to at least 18 inches ( 45 cm ) in length in the wild . this size is rare in home aquariums however . in captivity they will generally generally only reach between 9 to 12 inches ( 20 - 30 cm ) . they have a life span of about 15 years .\nthe silver tigerfish is distinguished from the other species by its silver body coloration . it also has more of a\nbullet\nbody shape and up to 7 full black bars , often with 1 to 4 partial bars in between the full bars . this species naturally occurs in brackish waters , which has led to a common misconception that all tiger fish species are brackish .\nthe new guinea tigerfish will occasionally show up , and when it does it commands a very high price . it is easily distinguished from the other\nspecies by its intense gold body color with indistinct black bars that are irregular and variegated .\nthe wide bar tigerfish is quite rare but much sought after in the hobby . it is also frequently called the siamese tigerfish . being very similar in appearance to\n, the two are easily confused , which is further complicated by the cross - over use of the same common name . the wide bar tigerfish is easy to distinguish however . the wide central black band on the\n17 . 7 inches ( 45 . 01 cm ) - rarely grow that large in captivity . usually reach between 9 to 12 inches ( 20 - 30 cm ) in the aquarium .\n15 years - these fish are quite long lived , with a life span of 10 years or longer .\nthe siamese tiger fish is suggested for a more experienced fish keeper . they are a large predatory fish , though relatively peaceful with similar types of fish . however they need a large tank to live in and these fish demand pristine waters . they can also be difficult to feed . these fish can take a great amount of space and pose a great financial responsibility .\nindonesian tiger fish are primarily carnivores . they are a predator that in the wild primarily feeds on fish fry and small fishes , small shrimps , crabs , worms , and insect larvae . in the aquarium their main diet consists of smaller fish although they can sometimes be coaxed into eating shrimp , worms or insects . one look at their large mouth will tell you that small tank mates will disappear quickly . they are not aggressive towards other species but will attempt to eat any fish that will fit into their mouth .\nall of diet - these fish can be trained to take frozen foods so as not to contaminate the tank with feeder fish .\nthese are big messy eating fish . if their tank is set up to match that of their natural environment , it can be very difficult to maintain a clean tank . the need for a large external canister filter is very important . weekly water changes of at least 30 % are needed .\nthe gold tiger datnoid will swim in all parts of the aquarium . when first purchased however , yours will probably hide near the bottom until it gets accustomed to its new home . this species will require a large aquarium . an aquarium the size of 60 gallons would house small to medium fish , but if you plan on growing this fish to adult size , an aquarium in excess of 100 gallons will eventually be needed . a large external canister filter is very important for maintaining the water quality . these fish will jump , so make sure to have a tight fitting cover .\nconsidering this as a brackish water species is a common mistake . there are datnoid species that live exclusively in brackish water but the siamese tiger fish is not one of them . they don ' t occur in seawater and they will not do well in strongly brackish water either . they can do fine in slightly brackish water with a specific gravity of 1 . 005 to 1 . 010 , but anything more will cause problems . as a matter of fact a very low specific gravity between 1 . 003 to 1 . 005 , though not necessary , can be good for long term health .\nin nature these fish live in vegetated areas with submerged trees and roots . they like to hide among the vegetation , camouflaged by their striped patterning , and wait for prey to happen by . in the aquarium it is suggested that they be provided with places for retreat such as rocks and caves , or driftwood . floating plants and some sturdy aquatic plants set in the substrate can offer a sense of seclusion and also help to provide subdued lighting .\nthe challenge with having a tank designed to provide a more natural environment is that it is more of a problem to maintain . cleaning up after these big messy predators can be difficult with too much decor . many people have also had great success keeping these fish in a very minimally decorated tank to get the best viewing . these fish seem to do fine in either setting .\n60 gal ( 227 l ) - for adults , an aquarium of 100 gallons or more will be needed .\nno - they are fine in freshwater but can tolerate very slightly brackish waters .\nthe siamese tiger fish are non - aggressive towards other species but will sometimes quarrel among themselves . they will also attempt to eat any fish that will fit into their mouth . unless your tank is huge , plan on keeping only one gold datnoid . if you want to keep more , you will need a very large aquarium and it is suggested to keep several . a group setting 5 or more is needed to disperse any aggressive behavior .\nunfortunately , their low salinity tolerance puts limits the types of brackish water tank mates they can be kept with . tank mates like monos and scats would be great , but these species need too high a salinity content , so don ' t make good long term companions . good tank mates are fish of comparable size like archers , green chromides , and big sleeper gobies .\nsometimes - can be aggressive to its own species unless in groups of 5 or more .\nthe siamese tiger fish have never spawned in a home aquarium . it is now being bred commercially in indonesia . however the method used is , for now , a secret .\nwith the siamese tiger fish , disease is not usually a problem in a well maintained aquarium . that being said there is no guarantee that you won ' t have to deal with health problems or disease . anything you add to your tank can bring disease to your tank . not only other fish but plants , substrate , and decorations can harbor bacteria . take great care and make sure to properly clean or quarantine anything that you add to an established tank so not to upset the balance . gold datnoid are very resilient once established in a tank .\na good thing about the gold datnoid is that due to their resilience , an outbreak of disease can often be limited to just one or a few fishes if you deal with it at an early stage . when keeping more sensitive types of fish , it is common for all fishes to be infected even before the first warning signs can be noticed . the best way to proactively prevent disease is to give your gold datnoid the proper environment and give them a well balanced diet . the closer to their natural habitat the less stress the fish will have , making them healthier and happy . a stressed fish will is more likely to acquire disease .\ngold datnoid are fairly hardy fish when mature , but are subject to the same diseases as other tropical fish . one of the most common freshwater fish ailments is ich . it is recommended to read up on the common tank diseases . knowing the signs and catching and treating them early makes a huge difference . for information about freshwater fish diseases and illnesses , see aquarium fish diseases and treatments .\nthe siamese tiger fish is commonly available but may be relatively hard to find due to its high price . a special order may be required to get one . other names they may be found for sale as include indonesian tiger fish , gold tiger datnoid , and gold datnoid .\nglen s . axelrod , brian m . scott , neal pronek , encyclopedia of exotic tropical fishes for freshwater aquariums , tfh publications , 2005\ndr . r\u00fcdiger riehl and hans a . baensch , aquarium atlas vol . 1 , publisher hans a . baensch , 1991\ni like that fish so much . but i wonder where can i find that siamese tiger fish .\ni just picked one up and trying to learn about it . was an adoption situation so any info would be cool . i have nursed other fish like my oscar back to health . gave ursala a siamese tiger own tank and is doing ok . poor thing has been in 3 tanks in last few days and want her as healthy and happy as possible . info wanted\nlive foods are your best bet , try small fish , worms , and shrimps .\nhi all ! ! ! i used to have beautiful datnoids when i was younger , about 20 years ago . i loved them ! ! . i recentl just bought a 155 gallon bowfront aquarium , and want some beautiful datnoids in it ! ! i remember there were 2 different kinds of datnoids ? . i think , 1 was more silver , and the other a true beige & black stipped tiger datnoid ? . which is the better of the 2 ? , would any one know ? . i live in toronto , ontario , canada . i am looking all over for a tiger datnoid , could anyone help me find a baby ? , or a ? tiger datnoid ? . thanks very much ! ! ! ! ! !\ni would love to order a true tiger datnoid , where could i do this ? . please if anyone could help me , i would greatly appreciate it ! ! thanks ! ! in advance ! ! ! ! andrew\nnormally you can go to a pet shop and have them order you one . i wouldn ' t go to a change . try a smaller store that just deals with fish .\ncopyright \u00a9 [ animal - world ] 1998 - 2015 . all rights reserved .\nwater is a bit cloudy since i just fed them , the tigerfish is at least 44cm anyhow .\nme time , size 8 - 13\n. dats is great , enjoy fellas !\n: a thickset , high backed fish with lateral compression . the front portion of the dorsal fin is inconspicuous , lying close to the body . the caudal fin is fan shaped and the anal fin is small . the body color is white to yellowish brown with five broad , black vertical bands , the first runs through the eye , while the last marks the caudal penuncle . the first rays of the pelvic fin are white , while the rears parts are black . the other fins are white to brown .\n: to 24\n( 61 cm ) in nature , although rarely exceeds 16\n( 41 cm ) in captivity .\n: a 36\n( 91 cm ) or 35 - 45 gallon ( 132 - 170 l ) tank is sufficient for fish up to 8\n( 20 cm ) in length . larger fish require a tank measuring at least 48\n( 122 cm ) with a volume exceeding 50 gallons ( 190 l ) . the tank should have subdued lighting possibly with a cover of floating plants . this species requires hiding places such as rocks , wood , or caves . use plants that can tolerate brackish conditions along the rear and sides of the tank .\n: ph 6 . 5 - 7 . 5 ( 7 . 0 ) , 6 - 15 dh ( 8 ) , 72 - 82\u00b0f ( 22 - 28\u00b0c ) . a 1 - 1 . 5 % addition of salt is suggested . add 7 . 5 - 11 tsp of salt per 10 gallons ( 10 - 15 g / 10 l ) .\n: keep only with other large , hardy brackish water fish . the tiger fish is tolerant of its own species and may battle over territory with other species . a good candidate for a species tank .\n: 7 . this hardy and aggressive species requires live foods and brackish water conditions . it reaches a large size and demands a large tank .\ncarbon dioxide ( co2 ) emissions generated from urltoken operations ( server , data transfer , travel ) are mitigated through an association with anthrotect , an organization working with afro - indigenous and embera communities to protect forests in colombia ' s darien region . anthrotect is protecting the habitat of mongabay ' s mascot : the scale - crested pygmy tyrant .\nrainforest\nis used interchangeably with\nrain forest\non this site .\njungle\nis generally not used .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nshould be kept either singly or in groups of 5 or more , smaller groups can result in aggression issues . tank mates should be considered very carefully , they should not be kept with aggressive fish nor with fish smaller than itself as they risk being eaten .\na carnivorous fish that will generally not accept dry foods . feed with meaty foods such as shrimp and silversides .\nsometimes labelled as brackish , this is a true freshwater fish . requires a laterally spacious tank and prefers alkaline water . hiding places amongst tall plants or large d\u00e9cor is appreciated .\n, the true siamese tigerfish only has 3 - 4 vertical stripes , whereas this fish has 5 - 7 vertical stripes . this fish has a\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 03 : 03 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted ."]}
{"id": 88, "summary": [{"text": "salaria pavo , the peacock blenny , is a species of combtooth blenny found in the eastern atlantic coast from france to morocco ; also in the mediterranean and black seas , introduced to the suez canal .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "this species reaches a length of 13 centimetres ( 5.1 in ) tl . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "peacock blenny", "paragraphs": ["the effect of nest aggregation on the reproductive behaviour of the peacock blenny salaria pavo .\nthe brackish tank \u2022 peacock blenny genus : salarias species : s . pavo . . .\nthe effect of nest aggregation on the reproductive behaviour of the peacock blenny salaria pavo . - pubmed - ncbi\npeacock blenny can grow up to 13 cm what is approximately 5 inches . in general , 1 specimen requires at least 1560cm\npeacock blenny .\nsaltwater . aqua - fish . net . fri dec 21 17 : 53 : 37 utc 2007 . < br / > < br / > aqua - fish . net . mon jul 9 18 : 08 : 32 utc 2018 < a href =\nurltoken\n> urltoken < / a > .\nthe effect of nest aggregation in courtship behaviour was tested experimentally in an ecologically constrained , sex - role reversed population of the peacock blenny salaria pavo . mixed sex groups of eight males and eight females were tested in experimental tanks , containing eight potential nests either aggregated or dispersed . in the aggregated treatment , males spent more time inside their nests and monopolized other potential nests , causing a female - biased operational sex ratio ( osr ) . in the aggregated treatment , females also expressed more courtship behaviour . the results in general support the prediction that the aggregation of nests promotes male monopolization of potential nests , resulting in fewer nest - holding males and therefore a female - biased osr that leads to the reversal of sex roles .\nmarine ; brackish ; demersal . subtropical ; 51\u00b0n - 20\u00b0n , 18\u00b0w - 42\u00b0e\neastern atlantic : atlantic coast from france to morocco ; also in the mediterranean and black seas and in the suez canal .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 13 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5981 )\nmature males with well - developed head - crest and anal gland in the first two anal - fin rays . sneaker males much smaller than nesting males and do not display male secondary sexual characters ( ref . 94108 ) .\nadults occur in the intertidal zone and shallow bottoms , on rocks or sand between pebbles and vegetation ( ref . 5981 ) . often in brackish waters down to 5 ppt ( ref . 5981 ) . inhabit crevices or piddock holes , males remain in cavities above water - level during low tide ( ref . 5981 ) . feed on benthic invertebrates , mainly mollusks , also algae ( ref . 5981 ) . also ingest large amounts of aquatic insects and pupae ( ref . 94105 ) . oviparous ( ref . 205 ) . mature males adopt a passive role during courtship , rarely court females , do not defend nest territory , but provide parental care to eggs . sneaker males assume a female - like behavior in order to approach the nests of nesting males and parasitically fertilize the eggs ( ref . 94113 ) . eggs are demersal and adhesive ( ref . 205 ) . has been reared in captivity ( ref . 35421 ) .\nmales court by nodding and undulating movements and drive females to spawning place by biting and butting ( ref . 5981 ) though this event is rarely done by the males , more or less adopting a passive role in the courtship ( ref 94113 ) . additionally , males don ' t defend a territory around the nest ( ref . 94113 ) though they guard eggs from several females ( ref . 5981 , 94113 ) .\nzander , c . d . , 1986 . blenniidae . p . 1096 - 1112 . in p . j . p . whitehead , m . - l . bauchot , j . - c . hureau , j . nielsen and e . tortonese ( eds . ) fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean , volume 3 . unesco , paris . ( ref . 5981 )\n) : 15 - 21 . 2 , mean 18 . 8 ( based on 615 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5312 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00569 - 0 . 01758 ) , b = 3 . 00 ( 2 . 85 - 3 . 15 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 \u00b10 . 0 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( k = 0 . 50 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 25 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2014 . catalog of fishes . updated 27 august 2014 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 august 2014 ) .\njustification : global assessment : this species is widespread and there are no major threats to it . there is no specific population information for this species although the population is thought to be stable . this species is listed as least concern . european regional assessment : salaria pavo is widespread in the eastern atlantic from france to morocco , including the mediterranean and black sea . although there is no specific population information for s . pavo , the population is thought to be stable . there are no known major threats . therefore , s . pavo is assessed as least concern .\nsalaria pavo is known from the eastern atlantic , from france to morocco ( zander 1986 ) . it is also present in the mediterranean and western black sea in suitable habitat , though it is not known from libya . it has invaded suez canal and northern red sea . salaria pavo is typically found in the intertidal zone and very shallow bottoms , from 0 to 2 m ( zander 1986 ) .\nthis is a common species throughout most of its range , but is less common in the east mediterranean sea .\nthis species occurs in the intertidal zone and shallow bottoms , on rocks or sand between pebbles and vegetation ( zander 1986 ) . this species is tolerant to different salinities ( euryhaline ) and is more commonly found in brackish waters down to 5ppt ( zander 1986 ) . it inhabits crevices or piddock holes ; males remain in cavities above water - level during low tide ( zander 1986 ) . this species feeds on benthic invertebrates , mainly molluscs , and algae ( zander 1986 ) . it is oviparous with distinct pairing and demersal , adhesive eggs ( breder and rosen 1966 ) . it has been reared in captivity ( patzner and brandstaetter 1989 ) . males court by nodding and undulating movements and drive females to spawning place by biting and butting ( zander 1986 ) . the male guards eggs from several females ( zander 1986 ) .\n. however , its range may overlap with several marine protected areas ( world database on protected areas 2010 ) .\nantonio di natale , murat bilecenoglu , michel bariche , can bizsel , enric massuti , jeffrey williams , matthew craig . 2014 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\na la familia blenniidae ( blenidos ) pertenecen un grupo de peces tele\u00f3steos que se caracterizan principalmente por la ausencia de escamas , cuerpo aplastado y alargado lateralmente , cabeza achatada y diformismo sexual bien marcado . suelen vivir en el bentos marina ya que los adultos carecen de vejiga natatoria . the blenniidae ( blennies ) family are a group of teleost fish that are mainly characterized by the absence of scales , laterally flattened and elongated body , flat head , well marked sexual dimorphism . they live in the marine benthos because adults lack a swim bladder .\nbeginner ' s aquarium guide ep . 1 - blennies ( + nano news )\nalso known as coral blennies , reef blennies , rock blennies . found singly in brackish waters over shallow protected intertidal areas over pebble , rock and sand bottoms hiding in crevices and holes . they feed on algae , benthic invertebrates and molluscs . length - 13cm depth - 0 - 8m widespread eastern atlantic , mediterranean coombtooth blennies are the largest of bennies , found in both tropical and subtropical waters and freshwater habitats , as the name suggests they have comb like teeth lining their jaws . reef and rock blennies are usually territorial and have their own areas of rock pools which they skip and jump over , scraping algae from the surface of dead corals . some male blennies have small harems of arguing females . males and females often have different colouring and features\ncreated to help individuals around the world identify tropical fish found during their scuba dive and snorkelling excursions .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nof water surface which is approximately 241 square inch . this species will require to be kept in a tank that is medium . (\n) medium aquariums have at least 113 litres ( 30 us gallons ) . large aquariums have at least 265 litres ( 70 us gallons ) . very large aquariums have at least 700 litres ( 185 us gallons ) .\n) the specific gravity ( sg ) should be between 1 , 020 and 1 , 025 , the temperature between 23\u00b0c ( 73 . 4\u00b0f ) and 26\u00b0c ( 78 . 8\u00b0f ) . the recommended ph level is between 8 . 0 and 8 . 3 since marine fish are used to these levels in general .\nbelow . every message will be held for approval by our moderators . it usually takes 24 hours to publish your comment . before you ask anything , browse the\nleave your email below , please . we will not publish it at all . see our\nfor this purpose , please . once your comment is reviewed and published , you will receive a notification email .\nleave your comment below , please . use correct english , please ! slang or too many misspellings will cause deletion .\nadults occur in the intertidal zone and shallow bottoms , on rocks or sand between pebbles and vegetation ( ref . 5981 ) . often in brackish waters down to 5 ppt ( ref . 5981 ) . inhabit crevices or piddock holes , males remain in cavities above water - level during low tide ( ref . 5981 ) . feed on benthic invertebrates , mainly mollusks , also algae ( ref . 5981 ) . also ingest large amounts of aquatic insects and pupae ( ref . 94105 ) . oviparous ( ref . 205 ) . mature males adopt a passive role during courtship , rarely court females , do not defend nest territory , but provide parental care to eggs . sneaker males assume a female - like behavior in order to approach the nests of nesting males and parasitically fertilize the eggs ( ref . 94113 ) . eggs are demersal and adhesive ( ref . 205 ) . has been reared in captivity ( ref . 35421 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nblennies are often sensitive to low oxygen conditions . high tank turnover ( 6 - 10 times tank volume per hour ) and keeping the temperature from going too high should prevent any issues . while they may breed in the aquarium , the larvae are planktonic and require specific salinity requirements and thus is unlikely to be duplicated in the home aquarium .\n( most pictures are not taken by , nor owned by me . if i have sourced anything incorrectly , let me know ! )\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nunidade de investiga\u00e7\u00e3o em eco - etologia , instituto superior de psicologia aplicada , rua jardim do tabaco 34 , lisboa , portugal . jsaraiva @ urltoken\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 ."]}
{"id": 98, "summary": [{"text": "stenodactylus doriae , commonly known as the middle eastern short-fingered gecko or doria 's comb-fingered gecko , is a species of lizard in the family gekkonidae . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "stenodactylus doriae", "paragraphs": ["embed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - middle eastern short - fingered gecko ( stenodactylus doriae )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - middle eastern short - fingered gecko ( stenodactylus doriae )\ntitle =\narkive species - middle eastern short - fingered gecko ( stenodactylus doriae )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nbouskila , a . 1987 . preliminary observations on the ecology of stenodactylus doriae . hardun , jour . israel herp . inf . center 4 ( 1987 ) : e9 - e10\ndescription of choleoeimeria duszynskii n . sp . ( apicomplexa : eimeriidae ) from the gallbladder of the middle eastern short - fingered gecko stenodactylus doriae ( blanford ) ( sauria : gekkonidae ) in saudi arabia\ndescription of choleoeimeria duszynskii n . sp . ( apicomplexa : eimeriidae ) from the gallbladder of the middle eastern short - fingered gecko stenodactylus doriae ( blanford ) ( sauria : gekkonidae ) in saudi arabia | springerlink\nbi tree of the genus stenodactylus inferred using 12s , 16s mtdna and . . . | download scientific diagram\nc . michael hogan marked\nglobal distribution\nas visible on the\nstenodactylus petrii anderson 1896\npage .\nc . michael hogan marked\nglobal distribution\nas hidden on the\nstenodactylus petrii anderson 1896\npage .\nc . michael hogan selected\nglobal distribution\nto show in overview on\nstenodactylus petrii anderson 1896\n.\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - slevin\u2019s sand gecko ( stenodactylus slevini )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - slevin\u2019s sand gecko ( stenodactylus slevini )\ntitle =\narkive species - slevin\u2019s sand gecko ( stenodactylus slevini )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - arabian sand gecko ( stenodactylus arabicus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - arabian sand gecko ( stenodactylus arabicus )\ntitle =\narkive species - arabian sand gecko ( stenodactylus arabicus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nsynonymy : the paratype of s . leptocosymbotes leviton and anderson , 1967 is a s . doriae , albeit with a very short digital fringe [ fide arnold 1980 : 399 ] . population genetics : the habitat specialist s . doriae had a low level of gene flow whereas the habitat generalist s . sthenodactylus had a relatively high level of gene flow . the most isolated population of s . doriae , exhibited the highest level of gene diversity . the generalist s . sthenodactylus , in contrast , did not exhibit an exceptional level of gene diversity [ peled et al . 2014 ] . distribution : see map in smid et al . 2014 for distribution in iran .\narnold e n 1980 . reptiles of saudi arabia . a review of the lizard genus stenodactylus ( reptilia : gekkonidae ) . fauna of saudi arabia 2 : 368 - 404\nfujita , matthew k . and theodore j . papenfuss 2011 . molecular systematics of stenodactylus ( gekkonidae ) , an afro - arabian gecko species complex . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 58 ( 1 ) : 71 - 75 - get paper here\nlittle information is available on the biology of slevin\u2019s sand gecko . it is a nocturnal , ground - dwelling species ( 5 ) , which , like other geckos , is likely to feed on insects and other small invertebrates ( 4 ) . like the closely related arabian sand gecko ( stenodactylus arabicus ) , the female may lay a single egg ( 3 ) . the young slevin\u2019s sand gecko is reported to produce a distraction display when confronted by a potential predator , passing waves of movement along the extended tail . this is thought to distract the predator\u2019s attention towards the tail , which is expendable , and away from the vulnerable head and body ( 5 ) .\nactive at night , the middle eastern short - fingered gecko is most commonly encountered walking slowly across the desert sands , body raised high off the ground on its long legs ( 2 ) . prey mainly comprises insects and arachnids , which are caught by active pursuit or by remaining still and using an ambush strategy ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . as prey is located by sight , the middle eastern short - fingered gecko is usually more active on moonlit nights ( 7 ) .\nduring the daytime , the middle eastern short - fingered gecko resides in a burrow which it excavates in the sand . this provides shelter from the extremely high surface temperatures and from predators . while inside the burrow , this species will further deter discovery by predators , such as snakes , by obliterating the burrow entrance using vigorous tail sweeps ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . in order to construct a stable burrow , the middle eastern short - fingered gecko requires the presence of a thin surface crust , formed from microorganisms and the chemicals they produce , which bind the sand grains together . the middle eastern short - fingered gecko usually has several burrows in its home range , and will reside in each for a few days , before switching to one of the alternatives ( 6 ) .\ninhabiting the middle east and the arabian peninsula , the middle eastern short - fingered gecko can be found in saudi arabia , iran , iraq , israel , the united arab emirates , oman and jordan ( 3 ) .\nthe middle eastern short - fingered gecko can be found on the loose , wind - blown sands of dunes and sandy plains ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .\nthe middle eastern short - fingered gecko is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nalthough apparently common , at least in some parts of its range ( 6 ) ( 8 ) , the middle eastern short - fingered gecko\u2019s habitat is surprisingly vulnerable to disturbance ( 6 ) . trampling of sand by livestock and off - road vehicles destroys the surface crust that supports burrow excavation , and can therefore have a negative impact on this species ( 6 ) .\nthe middle eastern short - fingered gecko is found in the al wathba wetland reserve , in the emirate of abu dhabi , where it receives protection from the increasing disturbance that is occurring as a result of land reclamation for housing and farming ( 8 ) . any future conservation efforts within this species\u2019 range should take into account its vulnerability to disturbance from trampling ( 6 ) .\nenvironment agency - abu dhabi is a principal sponsor of arkive . ead is working to protect and conserve the environment as well as promoting sustainable development in the emirate of abu dhabi .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nhellyer , p . and aspinall , s . ( 2005 ) the emirates : a natural history . trident press limited , united arab emirates .\nboulenger , g . a . ( 2001 ) catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( natural history ) . volume 1 . adamant media corporation , boston .\nvine , p . and al - abed , i . ( 1997 ) natural emirates : wildlife and environment of the united arab emirates . trident press ltd , london .\nzaadyw , e . and bouskilaz , a . ( 2002 ) lizard burrows association with successional stages of biological soil crusts in an arid sandy region . journal of arid environments , 50 : 235 - 246 .\ntourenq , c . , barcelo , i . , kumari , a . and drew , c . ( 2005 ) the terrestrial mammals , reptiles and invertebrates of al wathba wetland reserve \u2013 species list and status report . environmental research and wildlife development agency , abu dhabi .\nnature picture library 5a great george street bristol bs1 5rr united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4675 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4699 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is featured in jewels of the uae , which showcases biodiversity found in the united arab emirates in association with the environment agency \u2013 abu dhabi .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nal - quran , s . 2009 . the herpetofauna of the southern jordan . american - eurasian j . agric . & environ . sci . , 6 ( 4 ) : 385 - 391 [ this journal has a dubious record , see urltoken\nal - shammari , ahmed m . 2012 . additional records of lizards in ha ' il province , saudi arabia . russ . j . herpetol . 19 ( 4 ) : 287 - 291 - get paper here\nalshammari , ahmed m . and adel a . ibrahim 2015 . lizards and snakes in the historical faid protected area ( faid hema ) , ha ' il region , saudi arabia . herp . cons . biol . 10 ( 3 ) - get paper here\nalshammari , ahmed m . and adel a . ibrahim 2015 . lizards and snakes in the historical faid protected area ( faid hema ) , ha ' il region , saudi arabia herp . cons . biol . 10 ( 3 ) : 1021\u20131029 - get paper here\nanderson , john 1896 . a contribution to the herpetology of arabia , with a preliminary list of the reptiles and batrachians of egypt . london , r . h . porter , 124 pp .\nanderson , steven c 1999 . the lizards of iran . contributions to herpetology volume 15 , society for the study of amphibians and reptiles , saint louis , missouri : i - vii , 1 - 442 [ review in copeia 2000 ( 4 ) : 1144 ] - get paper here\nanderson , s . c . 1963 . amphibians and reptiles from iran . proc . cal . acad . sci . ser . 4 , 31 ( 16 ) : 417 - 498 - get paper here\narnold e n 1980 . the scientific results of the oman flora and fauna survey 1977 ( dhofar ) . the reptiles and amphibians of dhofar , southern arabia . journal of oman studies special report ( no . 2 ) : 273 - 332 - get paper here\nbar , aviad and guy haimovitch 2012 . a field guide to reptiles and amphibians of israel . pazbar ltd , 246 pp . - get paper here\nbauer , aaron m . ; rafaqat masroor , james titus - mcquillan , matthew p . heinicke , , juan d . daza & todd r . jackman 2013 . a preliminary phylogeny of the palearctic naked - toed geckos ( reptilia : squamata : gekkonidae ) with taxonomic implications . zootaxa 3599 ( 4 ) : 301\u2013324 - get paper here\nbeolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here\nblanford , w . t . 1874 . descriptions of new lizards from persia and baluchist\u00e0n . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 4 ) 13 : 453 - 455 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1885 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( nat . hist . ) i . geckonidae , eublepharidae , uroplatidae , pygopodidae , agamidae . london : 450 pp . - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1887 . a list of the reptiles and batrachians obtained near muscat , arabia , and presented to the british museum by surgeon - major a . s . g . jayakar . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 5 ) 20 : 407 - 408 - get paper here\ncarranza s , xipell m , tarroso p , gardner a , arnold en , robinson md , et al . 2018 . diversity , distribution and conservation of the terrestrial reptiles of oman ( sauropsida , squamata ) . plos one 13 ( 2 ) : e0190389 - get paper here\ncog\u0103lniceanu , dan ; aurora castilla , aitor valdeon , alberto gosa , noora al jaidah , ali alkuwary , essam saifelnasr , paloma mas , renee richer , ahmad amer al hemaidi 2014 . a preliminary report on the distribution of lizards in qatar . zookeys 373 ( 2014 ) : 67 - 91 < br / > doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 373 . 5994 - get paper here\ndisi , a . m . ; modry , d . ; necas , p . & rifai , l . 2001 . amphibians and reptiles of the hashemite kingdom of jordan . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 408 pp .\ngrossmann , wolfgang ; thomas kowalski & hans - j\u00fcrgen zilger 2012 . \u00fcberraschendes arabien 2 . 0 . teil 2 . terraria - elaphe 2012 ( 2 ) : 50 - 57 - get paper here\nhaas , georg 1957 . some amphibians and reptiles from arabia . proc . cal . acad . sci . 29 ( 3 ) : 47 - 86 - get paper here\nhenkel , f . - w . 2003 . herpetological expedition through oman . reptilia ( gb ) ( 27 ) : 50 - 55 - get paper here\njongbloed , m . 2000 . field guide to the reptiles and amphibians of the uae - wild about reptiles . barkers trident communications , 116 pp .\nleviton , a . e . & anderson , s . c . 1967 . survey of the reptiles of the sheikdom of abu dhabi , arabian peninsula . part ii . systematic account of the collction of reptiles made in the sheikdom of abu daby by john gasperetti . proc . cal . acad . sci . ( 4 ) 39 : 157 - 192 - get paper here\nleviton , a . e . ; anderson , s . c . ; adler , k . ; minton , s . a . 1992 . handbook to middle east amphibians and reptiles . ssar , oxford , ohio ( contr . to herpetol . no . 8 ) , 1 - 252\nparker , h . w . 1930 . three new reptiles from southern arabia . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 10 ) 6 : 594\u2014598\npeled , e . ; r . ben - shlomo & u . shanas 2014 . specialists may thrive in small habitats : the case of high genetic diversity within a confined gecko population . journal of zoology , doi : 10 . 1111 / jzo . 12124 - get paper here\nrastegar - pouyani , nasrullah ; haji gholi kami , mehdi rajabzadeh , soheila shafiei and steven clement anderson 2008 . annotated checklist of amphibians and reptiles of iran . iranian journal of animal biosystematics 4 ( 1 ) : 7 - 30\nr\u00f6sler , h . 2000 . kommentierte liste der rezent , subrezent und fossil bekannten geckotaxa ( reptilia : gekkonomorpha ) . gekkota 2 : 28 - 153\nsindaco , r . & jeremcenko , v . k . 2008 . the reptiles of the western palearctic . edizioni belvedere , latina ( italy ) , 579 pp . - get paper here\n\u0161m\u00edd , ji\u0159\u00ed ; ji\u0159\u00ed moravec , petr kodym , luk\u00e1\u0161 kratochv\u00edl , seyyed saeed hosseinian yousefkhani , eskandar rastegar - pouyani & daniel frynta 2014 . annotated checklist and distribution of the lizards of iran . zootaxa 3855 ( 1 ) : 001\u2013097\nsteindachner , franz 1903 . batrachier und reptilien von s\u00fcdarabien und sokotra , gesammelt w\u00e4hrend der s\u00fcdarabischen expedition der kaiserlichen akademie der wissenschaften . sitzungsb . akad . wiss . wien , math . - naturwiss . kl . , 112 , abt . 1 : 7 - 14 - get paper here\nvan der kooij , jeroen 2001 . the herpetofauna of the sultanate of oman : part 2 : the geckoes . podarcis 1 ( 4 ) : 105 - 120\nwerner , f . 1917 . reptilien aus persien ( provinz fars ) . verhandlungen der kaiserlich - k\u00f6niglichen zoologisch - botanischen gesellschaft in wien , 67 : 191\u2014220 . - get paper here\nwerner , y . l . ; okada , s . ; ota , h . ; perry , g . & tokunaga , s . 1997 . varied and fluctuating foraging modes in nocturnal lizards of the family gekkonidae . asiatic herpetological research 7 : 153 - 165 - get paper here\nwerner , yehudah l . 2008 . tales of tails . gekko 5 ( 2 ) : 6 - 18\nwilms , t . 2007 . unternehmen \u201cdornschwanzagame\u201d : das reptilium - freilandforschungsprojekt in saudi - arabien . draco 8 ( 31 ) : 45 - 54 - get paper here\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - middle eastern short - fingered gecko\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - middle eastern short - fingered gecko\ntitle =\narkive photo - middle eastern short - fingered gecko\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species ranges from southwestern israel and southern and eastern jordan , south into saudi arabia , the united arab emirates , yemen and oman , and east into iraq , southwestern iran ( fars and kerman provinces and the lower mesopotamian plain [ anderson 1999 ] ) . it occurs from sea level up to 1 , 000 m asl .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nall photos and information taken and written by alejandro lozano unless stated otherwise . none of the photos or information may be used without alejandro lozano ' s express permission .\nterra typica : bandar abbas , persia ( = iran ) . ( distribution info from embl , see\nbibliography & links\nlink above )\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\nthe author extends his appreciation to the deanship of scientific research at king saud university for funding the work through the research group project number rgp - vpp - 004 .\nabdel - baki , a . s . , abdel - haleem , h . m . , & al - quraishy , s . ( 2013 ) . redescription of\nal - oran , r . m . ( 2000 ) . notable herpetological records from central and southern jordan .\nal - quraishy , s . , abdel - baki , a . s . , & al otaibi , m . s . a . ( 2013 ) .\nal - sadoon , m . k . ( 2004 ) . student handbook for practical herpetology . management of scientific publishing and printing presses , king saud university , saudi arabia , 159 pp .\ncarini , a . , & pinto , c . ( 1926 ) . estudos sobre coccideas .\n( apicomplexa : eimeriidae ) , coccidian of bile - bladder of reptiles , illustrating a multiplicity of host cell - parasite interrelatios .\npaperna , i . , & landsberg , j . h . ( 1989 ) . description and taxonomic discussion of eimerian coccidian from african and levantine geckoes .\nabdel - baki , aa . s . syst parasitol ( 2014 ) 87 : 299 . urltoken\nchief editor : prof dr abdulaziz h . abuzinada editors : e . r . robinson , iyad a . nader & yousef i . al wetaid publisher\nthe following are the key taxa that have been included in the updated syatem plan for saudi arabia ( llewellyn in prep ) . species were selected by applying the following set of criteria and the numbers in the species lists refer to which criterion or criteria qualify particular organisms for inclusion as \u201ckey taxa\u201d .\n1 ) . genera , species , or subspecies that are critically endangered , endangered , or vulnerable ( globally , regionally , or nationally ) ; taxa which are locally extinct in the wild may be included , provided that there is an ncwcd policy to reintroduce them .\n2 ) . genera , species , or subspecies that are endemic to the arabian peninsula , the red sea , or the gulf .\n3 ) . genera , species , or subspecies of which the conservation of populations within saudi arabia is essential to the conservation of the taxon ( e . g . near - endemics and migrants for which saudi arabia represents a critical range ) .\n4 ) . relict genera , species , or subspecies that are of global , regional , or national significance .\n5 ) . genera or species of special ecological importance ( i . e . fulfilling a vitally important function in an ecosystem such as providing a key habitat for other species , serving as indicator species , etc ) .\n7 ) . genera or species that serve a \u201cflagship\u201d function ( i . e . high - profile species of cultural value , the protection of which will also protect large numbers of other species that share their habitats ) .\nthe list of key plant species is based on existing information available to the ncwcd . however , more research needs to be done ; new species from saudi arabia are being discovered every year , and many of these new species are endemics . already , some 246 endemic species have been listed by mrs . sheila collenette , and many of these are rare , vulnerable , or threatened , such as a number of succulent asclepiads and aloes , or the endemic genus dolichorhynchus .\nsimilarly many of the relict plants of mediterranean , eurasian , or african origin such as the almond prunus korshinskyii , the tulip tulipa biflora , or the heather erica arborea , survive in small populations in restricted localities , which makes them especially vulnerable . during long - term climatic fluctuations , such relict populations may play a vitally important role in the conservation and re - dispersal of genetic material , as well as the evolution of new forms .\nspecies of special ecological importance include the brown algae , seagrasses , mangroves , and junipers , which constitute the habitats of exceptionally large numbers of other species . species of actual or potential economic importance such as the truffles , some of the aloes , maerua crassifolia , artemisia judaica , the wild barleys , the wild olive , and feral date palms may be endangered by overharvesting , but at the same time represent opportunities for conservation through sustainable use . some of these are medicinal plants , or wild crop strains of potential agricultural importance .\nseveral of the plants mentioned above could serve as flagship species . so are spectacular species such as the dragon tree dracaena ombet , the \u201cdesert rose\u201d adenium obesum , the one apparently native population of oleander in the kingdom , the ban tree moringa peregrina , and mimusops laurifolia , the largest of saudi arabia\u2019s trees . a good example of a flagship species is the lote tree ziziphus spina - christi , with its many uses in arabian culture from shade to fruit and forage , soap , timber , and honey production , its recurrence in the qur\u2019anic imagery of paradise , and the teachings of the prophet muhammad , upon whom be blessings and peace , condemning its destruction .\naloe x abhaica lavr . & collen . ined . ( 1 , 2 )\ncrinum album ( forssk . ) herbert = c . yemense ( 1 , 7 )\nadenium obesum ( forssk . ) roem . & schult . ( 2 or 3 , 6 , 7 )\nangolluma commutata ( berger ) plowes ssp . sheilae plowes ( 1 , 2 ) angolluma deflersiana ( lavr . ) plowes ( 1 )\ncommiphora erythraea ( ehrenb . ) engl . ( 1 , 6 , 7 )\ncommiphora gileadensis ( l . ) c . christ . ( 6 , 7 )\ngypsophila umbricola ( j . r . i . wood ) r . a . king ( 1 , 2 )\narthrocnemum macrostachyum ( moric . ) k . koch ( 5 , 7 ? )\ncrepis sancta ( l . ) bornm . ssp . sancta ( 1 , 2 )\nkleinia pendula ( forssk . ) sch . bip . ( 2 , 7 )\ndracaena ombet ky & peyr . ( 1 , 3 , 4 , 7 )\nflueggea virosa ( roxb . ex . willd . ) voight = securinega virosa ( 1 , 4 )\nenteropogon macrostachyos ( hochst . ex . a . rich ) munro ex benth . ( 4 )\nhalophila ovalis ( r . br . ) hook . f . ( 5 )\nfaidherbia albida ( delile ) a . chev . ( 1 , 4 , 5 , 6\u200e )\nrecherche bei umlauten ggf . \u00fcber ae , oe , ue suchen ! dasselbe gilt : wenn mit \u201e\u00df\u201c kein ergebnis vorliegt , ggf mit \u201ess\u201c suchen ! bei den\nrecherche bei umlauten ggf . \u00fcber ae , oe , ue suchen ! dasselbe gilt : wenn mit \u201e\u00df\u201c kein ergebnis vorliegt , ggf . mit \u201ess\u201c suchen ! bei den signaturnummern gibt das letzte k\u00fcrzel ( z .\na ( 1 ) indefinite article , c . 1150 , a variation of o . e . an ( see an ) in which the - n - began to disappear before consonants , a process mostly complete by 1340 . t\na ( 1 ) indefinite article , c . 1150 , a variation of o . e . an ( see an ) in which the - n - began to disappear before consonants , a process mostly complete by 1340 .\nthis bibliography contains isee newsletter entries , vols . 1 - 16 , 1990 - 2005 , but not 2006 newsletter entries . they will be merged into this document spring 2007 .\ni began this project after i looked one day for a free dictionary of word origins online and found that there was none . you could subscribe to the oxford english dictionary for $ 550 a year .\nay 59 . u55 195 1953 the unicorn book of 195 / prepared under the editorial direction of joseph laffan morse .\nstanford university is accredited by the accrediting commission for senior colleges and universities of the western association of schools and colleges ( wasc ) , 985 atlantic avenue , suite 100 , alameda , ca 94501 ; ( 510 ) 748 - 9001 .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nbauer , a . m . , masroor , r . , titus - mcquillan , j . , heinicke , m . p . , daza , j . d . and jackman , t . r . 2013 . a preliminary phylogeny of the palearctic naked - toed geckos ( reptilia : squamata : gekkonidae ) with taxonomic implications . zootaxa 3599 ( 4 ) : 301 - 324 .\nsoorae , p . , amr , z . s . s . , al johany , a . m . h . , els , j . , sharifi , m . , papenfuss , t . , sadek , r . , disi , a . m . , hraoui - bloquet , s . , werner , y . l . & shafiei bafti , s .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species ranges from southwestern israel and southern and eastern jordan , south into saudi arabia , the united arab emirates , yemen and oman , and east into iraq , southwestern iran ( fars and kerman provinces and the lower mesopotamian plain [ anderson 1999 ] ) . it occurs from sea level up to 1 , 000 m asl .\nit can be locally abundant in suitable habitat ( van der kooij 2000 ) .\nthis terrestrial species is only found in the areas between mobile sandy dunes , where there is a ' green crust ' substrate in which the species can dig burrows . the females lay clutches of one to two eggs . it is not present in agricultural land .\nthere appear to be no threats to the species in iran , and it is widespread in the united arab emirates and oman ( t . papenfuss pers . comm . september 2008 ) . there are no threats in saudi arabia . in israel and jordan , this species is threatened by habitat loss through trampling of the green crust by livestock ( goats and other animals ) and by students visiting the habitat .\nit is found in protected areas in saudi arabia . it is found in protected areas in both jordan ( wadi rum reserve and dana wildlife reserve ) and israel . it is perhaps not present in protected areas within iran ( t . papenfuss pers . comm . september 2008 ) . it is protected by national legislation in israel where it is considered to be a highly threatened species .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\nsoorae , p . , amr , z . s . s . , al johany , a . m . h . , els , j . , sharifi , m . , papenfuss , t . , sadek , r . , disi , a . m . , hraoui - bloquet , s . , werner , y . l . & shafiei bafti , s . 2012 .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2012 : e . t164683a115304527 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nthis species is present in saudi arabia , southern and central oman and the united arab emirates . it is found from sea level to 500 - 600 m asl .\nsaharan northern africa , from senegal and mauritania in the west to the western negev in israel . penetrates into the northern ( sandy ) fringes of the sahel . three reports from sudan : between atbara and berber ( loveridge 1947 ) , around the second cataract ( mathiasson 1964 [ in mahmoud et al . 1997 ] ) and from dabarosa ( west side of nile opposite wadi haifa , smith et al . [ 1998 ] ) , but it is likely to be found further south in that country .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nplasticity , or are , to an extent , a result of both ( i . e . , adaptive\nincreases in colder and wetter ( i . e . , more productive ) areas .\ntemperature on size , we used worldclim data ( at a 2 . 5 - mi\neven stronger vifs ( i . e . , of 10 ) have recently been criti -\nsize ( meiri et al . 2004 ) . we do this by comparing the\nrainfall ( seven species , vs . none that increase in size ) , but\nin npp of species showing clines is 0 . 776 versus 0 . 396 of\nmoregulate ) , the impact of other factors ( e . g . , food , sexual\nsome non - emergent traits ( e . g . , body size , metabolic rate )\npendent data - points . ( 2 ) in our data ( see above ) there\nher life was interrupted on her way to her ph . d viva . natalia\u2019s work\nashton , k . g . , tracy , m . c . , & de queiroz , a . ( 2000 ) . is bergmann\u2019s\ndayan , t . , tchernov , e . , yom - tov , y . , & simberloff , d . ( 1989 ) .\nfeldman , a . & meiri , s . ( 2013 ) . length - mass allometry in snakes .\niverson , j . b . ( 1982 ) . adaptations to herbivory in iguanine lizards . in\ng . m . burghardt , & a . s . rand ( eds . ) , iguanas of the world .\nmeiri , s . ( 2008 ) . evolution and ecology of lizard body sizes .\nmeiri , s . ( 2010 ) . length - weight allometries in lizards .\nfeldman , a . , castro - herrera , f . , novosolov , m . , pa\ufb01lis , p . ,\npincheira - donoso , d . , powney , g . , torres - carvajal , o . , uetz , p . ,\n& van damme , r . ( 2013 ) . are lizards feeling the heat ? a tale of\nmeiri , s . , & dayan , t . ( 2003 ) . on the validity of bergmann\u2019s rule .\nmeiri , s . , yom - tov , y . , & geffen , e . ( 2007 ) . what determines\nolalla - tarraga , m . a . , rodriguez , m . a . , & hawkins , b . a . ( 2006 ) .\npincheira - donoso , d . ( 2010 ) . the balance between predictions and\npincheira - donoso , d . ( 2011 ) . predictable variation of range - sizes\npincheira - donoso , d . , bauer , a . m . , meiri , s . , & uetz , p . ( 2013 ) .\npincheira - donoso , d . , fox , s . f . , scolaro , j . a . , ibargu\npincheira - donoso , d . , hodgson , d . j . , & tregenza , t . ( 2008a ) . the\npincheira - donoso , d . , scolaro , j . a . , & sura , p . ( 2008b ) . a\npincheira - donoso , d . , tregenza , t . , & hodgson , d . j . ( 2007 ) . body\nyom - tov , y . ( 2003 ) . body sizes of carnivores commensal with\nyom - tov , y . , & geffen , e . ( 2006 ) . the determination of mammal\n. . . these clades , liolaemus and phymaturus , display highly contrasting patterns of biodiversity distribution . at one extreme , liolaemus is one of the most prolific genera among living vertebrates , numbering 270 + species [ 17 ] and inhabiting one the widest ranges of environmental / climatic conditions recorded among reptiles [ 12 , [ 18 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ] . these unique features have contributed to consolidate liolaemus as a highly promising vertebrate model system to investigate diversification , adaptation and extinction theories [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] . . . .\n. . . species of the andean dwelling palluma group , inhabiting colder climatic conditions at higher altitudes , have evolved larger body sizes as shown by the larger 96 . 5 mm adaptive peak . the pattern of larger bodied species occupying colder environmental temperatures is the fundamental prediction of bergmann ' s rule , which , despite being consistently rejected in the sister genus liolaemus [ 20 , 64 , 94 ] , is a question yet to be statistically analysed in phymaturus . the explicit testing of niche - overlap within the genus , in conjunction with the findings presented here , is needed before phymaturus can be established as an example of a non - adaptive radiation as is often hypothesised . . . .\n. . . body size is thought not to affect snake meristic characters , as those are probably determined during embryonic development and do not change during later ontogeny ( ewert , 1985 ) . because body size does affect a wide array of morphological attributes of species ( e . g . , peters 1983 , calder 1984 , and can vary geographically in snakes ( pincheira - donoso & meiri 2013 ) , we nonetheless examined whether it can predict meristic traits such as scale counts . we used svl as a proxy to body size , as it has an advantage over body mass within a species , which is more prone to change during an individual ' s life time , because of its reproductive and nutritional status and because of seasonality ( feldman & meiri , 2013 ) . . . .\n. . . most ectotherms follow the temperature\u2013size rule with smaller adult body size under lower temperatures . this holds true especially when tested under controlled conditions , but such a pattern in nature is less often discovered , especially when comparing latitudinal clines of body size ( blanckenhorn & demont , 2004 ; shelomi , 2012 ; pincheira - donoso & meiri , 2013 ) . our results support the recent conclusion of shelomi ( 2012 ) , that the effect of temperature on insect body size under natural conditions is more complex or species - specific . . . .\n. . . most ectotherms follow the temperature - size rule with smaller adult body size under lower temperatures . this holds true especially when tested under controlled conditions , but such a pattern in nature is less often discovered , especially when comparing latitudinal clines of body size ( blanckenhorn & demont , 2004 ; shelomi , 2012 ; pincheira - donoso & meiri , 2013 ) . our results support the recent conclusion of shelomi ( 2012 ) , that the effect of temperature on insect body size under natural conditions is more complex or species - specific . . . .\n. . . increased temperature generally results in faster growth rates , shorter development times , and smaller adult size in insects and other ectotherms ( nylin and gotthard 1998 ) . olallatarraga and rodriguez ( 2007 ) claimed that similar selection pressures acting on endotherms can apply to behaviourally thermoregulating ectotherms ( but seeadams and church 2008 ; pincheira - donoso and meiri 2013 ) . terrestrial isopods behaviourally thermoregulate to a certain extent ( hassall et al . 2010 ) , but show little tendency ( especially within closely related taxa ) to follow bergmann ' s rule . . . .\n. . . journal of biogeography published by john wiley & sons ltd . summer and winter temperatures may also help to explain mixed support for the heat conservation hypothesis . some studies measured skeleton dimensions to quantify body size , whereas others measure total body mass , including both lean mass and energy reserves , which may confound attempts to assign cause ( pincheira - donoso & meiri , 2013 ) . this is because an animal that is designed to resist starvation might be selected to be highly adipose , so that it has a high ratio of fuel stores to energetic requirements . . . .\n. . . however , despite years of intense study , its effect on continental - level gradients in ectotherms is still debated ( e . g . intraspecific : ashton & feldman , 2003 ; pincheira - donoso & meiri , 2013 ; interspecific : olalla - t arraga et al . , 2006 ; pincheira - donoso et al . , 2008 ; terribile et al . , 2009 ; feldman & meiri , 2014 ) . several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the effect of climate on body size . . . .\n. . . there is an extended debate about the interpretation of this rule and its application to different groups and scales beyond bergmann ' s original postulation ( blackburn et al . , 1999 ) . the inclusion of a mechanism driving the pattern as part of the rule has been also matter of debate ( reviews in watt , mitchell & salewski , analysed also in ectothermic species ( ray , 1960 ; lindsey , 1966 ; ashton & feldman , 2003 ; olalla - t\u00e1rraga & rodr\u00edguez , 2007 ; pincheira - donoso & meiri , 2013 ) . the study of this rule in ectotherms yielded contradictory results , reporting different trends among different groups . . . .\n. . . alternatively , smaller body size at high elevation may also be nonadaptive and may be the result of reduced activity times that limit growth ( sears and angilletta 2004 ; caruso et al . 2014 ) . finally , individuals are also subject to a range of abiotic and biotic selection pressures beyond temperature , including but not limited to microhabitat availability , competition , predation , disease , and resource availability , all of which may influence body size ( angilletta et al . 2004b ; pincheira - donoso and meiri 2013 ) . although the precise mechanisms underlying inverse size clines remain unknown , it is clear that they were constructed in different ways on cuba and hispaniola . . . .\n. . . members of this genus are small - to medium - sized , diurnal , terrestrial , and oviparous species that inhabit semi - arid to desert ecosystems from the iberian peninsula , through north africa , to the middle east and west india , including cyprus and the arabian peninsula ( salvador , the huge geographical range of a . boskianus includes areas with very different climates ( from submediterranean climate on the sea coasts of north africa to the hyperarid climate of central sahara ) . this wide range leads to adaptations to different environments , with great geographical variation ( boulenger , 1921 ; salvador , 1982 ; arnold , 1983 ; pincheira - donoso & meiri , 2013 ) and consequent taxonomic confusion . this problem is well known ( salvador , 1982 ; arnold , 1983 ; baha el din , 2006 ) and has great effect when examining closely related species in an attempt to assess their systematic status . arnold ( 1983 ) suggested that a . boskianus and a . schreiberi might be sister species as they share a relatively high number of primitive features . . . .\nthis is a special issue in biological conservation that just came out - december 2016 . there are some great cutting edge manuscripts in this issue on reptile conservation .\nthe balance between predictions and evidence and the search for universal macroecological patterns : . . .\ngeographical variation in environmental temperatures is expected to impose clinal phenotypic selection that results in the expression of large - scale gradients of body mass variation within animal clades . body size is predicted to increase with increasing latitude and elevation , and hence , with decreasing temperature , a pattern broadly known as bergmann ' s rule . however , empirical observations . . . [ show full abstract ]\nbergmann\u2019s rule ( i . e . , the tendency of body size to increase with decreasing environmental temperature ) was originally explained by a mechanism that is unique to endotherms . nevertheless , geographic variation of body size of ectotherms , including snakes , is increasingly studied , and some claim that the rule should apply to ectotherms , or to thermoregulating ectotherms . such studies usually . . . [ show full abstract ]\npredictable variation of range - sizes across an extreme environmental gradient in a lizard adaptive r . . .\nlarge - scale patterns of current species geographic range - size variation reflect historical dynamics of dispersal and provide insights into future consequences under changing environments . evidence suggests that climate warming exerts major damage on high latitude and elevation organisms , where changes are more severe and available space to disperse tracking historical niches is more limited . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe liolaemidae lizard evolutionary radiation has resulted from active spatial expansions into an extensive territorial area accompanied by active events of cladogenesis that have produced high levels of taxonomic and ecological diversity , es - pecially within the liolaemus genus . as a result , these lizards have been for decades the subject of intense taxonomic and systematic debates . here , i . . . [ show full abstract ]\njoin researchgate to access over 30 million figures and 118 + million publications \u2013 all in one place .\nslevin\u2019s sand gecko is a small gecko with a large head , a tapering tail , and relatively slender , rounded toes ( 2 ) . as in other gecko species , the eyes are large , with a pupil that contracts to a vertical slit , and the skin is soft , with small scales ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the body of slevin\u2019s sand gecko is a fairly dark sandy colour , lighter on the underside , and with bands and mottling that range from orange to brown ( 2 ) . there is a chevron mark on the back of the head ( 3 ) . the juvenile has strong light and dark barring on the tail , which is somewhat reduced in adults ( 5 ) .\nslevin\u2019s sand gecko occurs in saudi arabia , bahrain , kuwait , southern iraq , yemen , the western united arab emirates , and qatar ( 2 ) ( 6 ) .\nthis species is reported to inhabit areas of relatively firm sand in sandy plains ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .\nslevin ' s sand gecko is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nlittle is known about the threats faced by this species . in areas such as the united arab emirates , it may potentially by impacted by a range of threats to its habitat , including urbanisation , development , overgrazing , overextraction of groundwater , pollution , and increasing levels of tourism ( 7 ) . however , its status in the wild , as well as its occurrence in the pet trade , are currently unknown .\nthere are no known conservation measures specifically in place for slevin\u2019s sand gecko . in the united arab emirates , the environment agency - abu dhabi ( ead ) are working to protect and manage biodiversity in the region ( 8 ) , but further research into slevin\u2019s sand gecko is likely to be needed before any specific conservation action can be taken for this attractive small lizard .\nhellyer , p . and aspinall , s . ( 2005 ) the emirates : a natural history . trident press limited , london .\ninvertebrates animals with no backbone , such as insects , crustaceans , worms , molluscs , spiders , cnidarians ( jellyfish , corals , sea anemones ) , echinoderms , and others . nocturnal active at night .\nhalliday , t . and adler , k . ( 2002 ) the new encyclopedia of reptiles and amphibians . oxford university press , oxford .\narnold , e . n . ( 1984 ) evolutionary aspects of tail shedding in lizards and their relatives . journal of natural history , 18 : 127 - 169 .\ngetty images 101 bayham street london nw1 0ag united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 800 376 7981 sales @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\na small and attractively marked gecko , the arabian sand gecko is unusual for its webbed feet , which increase the surface area for burrowing and walking on soft sand ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the skin is delicate and pinkish in colour , almost transparent , and the relatively long tail has distinctive white and brown bands ( 3 ) , particularly in juveniles ( 4 ) . like other gecko species ( 2 ) ( 5 ) , the arabian sand gecko has a large head , with large eyes that have vertical pupils . the male is somewhat smaller and more slender than the female ( 3 ) .\nlittle information is available on the biology of the arabian sand gecko . active at night , it is a ground - dwelling species ( 4 ) ( 7 ) , and the female is reported to lay a single egg ( 2 ) . like other geckos , it is likely to feed on insects and other small invertebrates ( 5 ) .\nthe arabian sand gecko is found in saudi arabia , bahrain , oman , kuwait and the united arab emirates ( 3 ) ( 6 ) .\nthe arabian sand gecko inhabits the loose sand of dunes , coastal beaches and sandy plains ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 7 ) .\nthe arabian sand gecko is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nvery little is known about the threats to this small gecko . it is sometimes kept as a pet , but is apparently relatively rare in captivity , its delicate nature making it difficult to care for ( 3 ) . in areas such as the united arab emirates , the species may potentially be impacted by a range of threats to its habitat , including urbanisation , industrial development , overgrazing , overextraction of groundwater , pollution , and increasing levels of tourism ( 8 ) . however , the status of the arabian sand gecko throughout its range is currently unknown .\nthere are currently no specific conservation measures known to be in place for the arabian sand gecko . in the united arab emirates , the environment agency - abu dhabi ( ead ) is working to protect and manage biodiversity in the region , and to promote sustainable development ( 9 ) . further research is likely to be needed into its biology , populations and the threats it faces , before specific conservation action can be taken for this delicate small lizard .\ninvertebrates animals with no backbone , such as insects , crustaceans , worms , molluscs , spiders , cnidarians ( jellyfish , corals , sea anemones ) , echinoderms , and others .\nvine , p . ( 1996 ) natural emirates : wildlife and environment of the united arab emirates . trident press , london .\nthis is a small lizard with a total length smaller than 15 cm . it is quite a colourful gecko showing pinkish skin with yellow and dark reticules , but without dorsal tubercles . the toes of the forefeet are fringed but they have not adhesive pads in their toes . they do not climb vertical surfaces but are strictly ground dwelling geckos . this is a nocturnal species , during the day it hides in burrows . they can be found in vegetated sandy habitats . they eat insects and other small invertebrates . females dig burrows in the sand to lay the eggs .\nwe have found 15 scientific publications about the species in international databases . most studies are general and about their geographic distribution . few studies focus on ecology , osteology , tail regeneration and genetics . no information about the ecology of the species exists for qatar\ndescription of choleoeimeria duszynskii n . sp . ( apicomplexa : eimeriidae ) from the gallbladder of the middle eastern short - fingered gecko stenodactylusdoriae ( blanford ) ( sauria : gekkonidae ) in saudi arabia - proquest\nthis is a short preview of the document . your library or institution may give you access to the complete full text for this document in proquest .\ndescription of choleoeimeria duszynskii n . sp . ( apicomplexa : eimeriidae ) from the gallbladder of the middle eastern short - fingered gecko stenodactylusdoriae ( blanford ) ( sauria : gekkonidae ) in saudi arabia\nsystematic parasitology ; dordrecht vol . 87 , iss . 3 , ( mar 2014 ) : 299 - 304 .\ntype status : other material . occurrence : recordedby : salvador carranza ; raquel vasconcelos ; margarita metallinou ; roberto sindaco ; jiri smid ; individualcount : 1 ; sex : male ; taxon : taxonid : urltoken ; scientificnameid : urn : lsid : organismnames . com : name : 2791139 ; location : country : oman ; stateprovince : al wusta ; verbatimlocality : north of hasirah oil field , ' uruq al mu\u2019taridah area ; verbatimelevation : 143 m ; verbatimlatitude : 20 30 7 . 704n ; verbatimlongitude : 55 41 56 . 2554e ; event : eventdate : 2013 - 10 - 07t00 : 30 + 0400 ; record level : collectionid : ibe - cn7611 ; institutioncode : institute of evolutionary biology ( csic - universitat pompeu fabra )\ntype status : other material . occurrence : recordedby : salvador carranza ; roberto sindaco ; margarita metallinou ; raquel vasconcelos ; jiri smid ; individualcount : 1 ; sex : juvenile ; taxon : taxonid : urltoken ; scientificnameid : urn : lsid : organismnames . com : name : 2791139 ; location : country : oman ; stateprovince : al wusta ; verbatimlocality : about 13km by air east of sahmah oil filed , ' uruq al mu\u2019taridah area ; verbatimelevation : 96 m ; verbatimlatitude : 20 39 37 . 0434n ; verbatimlongitude : 55 32 28 . 716e ; event : eventdate : 2013 - 10 - 07t02 : 00 + 0400 ; record level : collectionid : ibe - cn8073 ; institutioncode : institute of evolutionary biology ( csic - universitat pompeu fabra )"]}
{"id": 116, "summary": [{"text": "pomatoschistus marmoratus , marbled goby , is a species of goby native to the eastern atlantic from the bay of biscay down around the iberian peninsula through the mediterranean sea , the black sea and the sea of azov .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is also found in the suez canal in egypt .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it occurs in marine and brackish waters on sandy substrates in shallow waters , typically down to 20 m ( 66 ft ) , but occasionally to 70 m ( 230 ft ) in the winter .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it can reach a length of 8 cm ( 3.1 in ) tl though most do not exceed 5 centimetres ( 2.0 in ) tl . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "marbled goby", "paragraphs": ["my marbled goby eating thawed silversides . he also enjoys earthworms , minnows , and goldfish .\nthe marbled goby fish is found in malaysian rivers . it is noted that it is the largest goby in the world . this hd video is shot using the panasonic hdc tm 300 camcorder in full 1080 hd .\ndoing a switch to native biotope and i want to start breeding marbled gobies . anyone here can share their experience or knowledge in this area ?\nbreeding and rearing the offspring through successive generations are mandatory in order to study evolutionary responses to anthropogenic impact in marine organisms . however , fish offer a limited number of marine model species that allow performing multigenerational experimental approaches . here , we propose a novel breeding and rearing experimental model based on the marbled goby\nfeeding : feeding is easy . these fish will eat anything . i give mine krill and feeder shrimp intended for marine fish , and my goby loves it .\ni currently have one in my tank , about 12 inches long . and i feed it with raw fish ( cut in stripe ) . in the near future , i will get another variety goby ( quite similar dark brown ) and download to u - tube broadcast . goby fish loves to camouflage with drift woods provided for hiding .\n) in un ambiente del delta del po ( observations on population structure and trophic role of three goby species in the delta of po river ) . nova thalassia 7 ( suppl . 3 ) : 373\u2013378 .\nthey climb walls ? i was keen of doing the same but also clueless how to start . intially i thought we need to have many stones for hiding , some plants and\nwaterflow\n. just like keeping crabs . i assumed your goby mean mudskippers ?\ngot the tank size to do it . thanks for the information link , it is very useful . as suspected , they are next to impossible to breed in tanks . will be doing a biotope of small fishes and shrimps and placing a goby in it .\ni ' m keeping one wild caught . very intelligent fish keen on observations around their surroundings . like to barrow in the sand ambush for prey to hit it ' s effective range . skilled hunter , i would say . normally i feed it with feeder prawns . there was a week the tank was out of feeder prawns . in the tank was 2 garfish as tank mates . same length as the marble goby about 15 cm . within 2 nights , my garfish went 1 missing , with each night . i observed the belly of the marble goby was bloated . i will be very caution with it . good luck .\nbad idea to mix this\nsoon hock\nwith fishes smaller than the mouth can fit . they just lie motionless and ambush unsuspecting fish and shrimps that wander too close . imo , if you want a suitable goby for a freshwater - brackish singapore biotope setup , those brachygobius species aka bumblebee gobies will be excellent choices . they breed in caves and snail shells .\nlife cycle and reproductive biology of the marbled goby pomatoschistus marmoratus was studied in the venetian lagoon . lifespan was determined by reading otoliths . the maximum age recorded was 17 months juveniles occurred in samples from july to november . nests were found in two different periods : from the middle of april to the middle of july and from the middle of august to the end of september . while individuals in a wide range of body size ( 35\u201362 mm total length ) mated during the first spawning peak during the second one only small individuals ( 28\u201332 mm total length ) developed during the first peak were in reproductive activity . histological analyses showed that most of the juveniles developed during the first spawning peak delayed sexual maturation to the following year . ripe females appeared to be multiple spawner showing an asynchronous ovary with oocytes at different stages of development . from nesting male body sizes gonadosomatic indices and histological analyses no indication of the presence of alternative male mating tactics emerged .\none of the largest goby species in the world , o . marmoratus is unsuitable for the vast majority of aquaria , but is an interesting oddball for the true enthusiast with the facilities to house it properly . it is a nocturnal ambush predator and generally remains motionless during daylight hours unless striking at food . it is a popular food fish in some of its native countries , where it is known as soon hock .\nbesides the two pictus cats that where in it i also got a 2\nmarble goby . i had no idea what it was until i did some research and found out what it was and how big they get . i ' m gonna need a bigger tank ! right now he ' s fat and happy in my 30 gal . fat and happy because i noticed his big belly and a missing platy !\ncare : ph range from 6 . 5 - 7 . 5 , brackish and slightly acidic . water quality should be fairly good , but these fish are very hardy , so even though they can survive in semi - bad quality water , ammonia and nitrates still need to be kept low . marbled sand gobies will grow over 25 inches / 63 . 5cm , so a very large tank for them is needed ( 125 - 150 gallon / 473 - 567 liter ) . the tank needs to have a tight - fitting lid , as these fish are jumpers , and they will try to escape . a large stretch of clear bottom of the tank is need when these fish are fully grown . however , if you raise them in smaller tanks like i did ( 12 - 36 gallon / 45 - 136 liter ) , they need lots of plants , bogwood , and caves to make them feel secure . also if you raise them in a smaller tank , be sure to move them into a larger ( 50 - 125 gallon / 189 - 473 liter ) tank when they ' ve grown over 6 inches / 15 cm . do not keep these fish in groups , as the dominate will eat the others , and any smaller fish in the tank . only keep these fish with large fish , such as bala sharks , arowanas , pacus , and knifefish . any fish under 9 inches will be eaten when the goby is fully grown . surface dwellers and fast fish can be kept with these fish , as they are very slow and can ' t catch anything .\ngreek , poma , - atos = cover , operculum + greek , schistos = divided ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; freshwater ; brackish ; demersal ; depth range 20 - 70 m ( ref . 4696 ) . subtropical ; 20\u00b0c - 28\u00b0c ( ref . 12468 ) ; 48\u00b0n - 35\u00b0n , 10\u00b0w - 42\u00b0e\neastern atlantic : iberian peninsula northwards to bay of biscay ( ref . 4343 ) ; mediterranean , black sea and sea of azov ; also suez canal .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 8 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 50519 ) ; common length : 5 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 50519 ) ; max . reported age : 2 years ( ref . 4696 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 7 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 8 - 10 ; anal spines : 1 ; anal soft rays : 7 - 10 . distinguished by its usually scaled breast and rear edge of anterior pelvic membrane with minute projections ( ref . 59043 ) .\nfound inshore , over sand . enters brackish and hyper - saline waters . feeds on small crustaceans and chironomid larvae ( ref . 4343 ) .\nmales clean the insides of bivalve shells and cover the outside with sand in preparation for the eggs that will be deposited by the female ( ref . 46373 ) . nesting males exhibit breeding colouration with four dark bars across side , a blue spot on the first dorsal fin and dark coloration on pelvic fins and edge of anal fin ( ref . 4696 ) . males defend the nest , cleaning and fanning the eggs until hatching ( ref . 27118 ) .\nmiller , p . j . , 1986 . gobiidae . p . 1019 - 1085 . in p . j . p . whitehead , m . - l . bauchot , j . - c . hureau , j . nielsen and e . tortonese ( eds . ) fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . volume 3 . unesco , paris . ( ref . 4696 )\n) : 10 . 3 - 17 . 3 , mean 15 . 1 ( based on 59 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5002 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00851 ( 0 . 00719 - 0 . 01008 ) , b = 3 . 08 ( 3 . 03 - 3 . 13 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 45 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tm = 1 ; assuming fec < 10 , 000 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 85 , 2 sd range = 0 . 4 - 1 . 80 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 16 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 38 , based on : 1 tgen , 1 tmax , 2 fec records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 15 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : pomatoschistus marmoratus is present throughout the mediterranean sea , the black sea and the sea of azov , with a smaller distribution in the eastern atlantic . although possible local declines in parts of turkey may be occurring due to habitat destruction and pollution , the population overall is assumed to be stable . there are no known widespread threats . therefore , p . marmoratus is assessed as least concern .\npomatoschistus marmoratus is present in the eastern atlantic , from the southwestern iberian peninsula ( from the algarve in portugal ) eastwards . it is present throughout all coastal areas in the mediterranean sea , black sea and the sea of azov ( miller 1986 , fouda et al . 1993 ) . records in the southern mediterranean are confirmed by dieuzeide ( 1955 ) , mejri et al . ( 2009 ) , and al - hassan and el - silini ( 1999 ) . it has also been reported from the suez canal ( invasive ) . pomatoschistus marmoratus is typically found inshore , to about 20 m , but has been collected to 70 m during the winter in the black sea ( miller 1986 ) .\nalbania ; algeria ; bosnia and herzegovina ; bulgaria ; croatia ; cyprus ; egypt ( egypt ( african part ) , sinai ) ; france ( corsica , france ( mainland ) ) ; georgia ( abkhaziya , adzhariya , gruziya ) ; gibraltar ; greece ( east aegean is . , greece ( mainland ) , kriti ) ; israel ; italy ( italy ( mainland ) , sardegna , sicilia ) ; lebanon ; libya ; malta ; monaco ; montenegro ; morocco ; palestinian territory , occupied ; portugal ( portugal ( mainland ) ) ; romania ; russian federation ( european russia ) ; slovenia ; spain ( baleares , spain ( mainland ) , spanish north african territories ) ; syrian arab republic ; tunisia ; turkey ( turkey - in - asia , turkey - in - europe ) ; ukraine\nthere is no population information available for p . marmoratus . possible declines in parts of turkey may be due to pollution and habitat destruction ( m . bilecenoglu pers . comm . 2007 ) . however , the population is thought to be stable overall .\nis found in inshore waters , to 70 m in the winter in the black sea over fine sandy substrates ( miller 1986 ) . it is capable of living in areas of high or low salinities and it often enters brackish and hyper - saline waters ( miller 1986 ) .\nthe species feeds on small crustaceans and chironomid larvae ( maug\u00e9 1986 ) . males clean the insides of bivalve shells and cover the outside with sand in preparation for the eggs that will be deposited by the female ( mazzoldi and rasotto 2001 ) . nesting males exhibit breeding colouration with four dark bars along the side , a blue spot on the first dorsal fin and dark coloration on pelvic fins and edge of anal fin ( miller 1986 ) . males defend the nest , cleaning and fanning the eggs until hatching ( gandolfi\nin the mediterranean , the maximum recorded size is 6 . 0 cm tl and the length at maturity for females ranges from 2 . 8 cm to 3 . 8 cm tl and for males ranges from 2 . 8 cm to 4 . 7 cm tl ( tsikliras and stergiou 2014 ) .\nno conservation measures are in place or needed for this species and it occurs in marine protected areas .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthailand , cambodia , laos , vietnam , indonesia , malaysia , phillipines , brunei darussalam .\noccurs in various biotopes , including rivers , ponds , swamps and flooded forests . it generally prefers areas of little or no water movement . mainly found in freshwater but is also found in brackish environments .\na sedentary species , so a tank measuring 60\u2033 x 24\u2033 x 24\u2033 ( 150cm x 60cm x 60cm ) \u2013 565 litres ought to be enough for all but the very largest specimens . young fish can obviously be grown on in smaller tanks .\nthe fish like to dig , and sometimes partially bury themselves , so a soft substrate of sand , several inches in depth is recommended . provide hiding places using large chunks of bogwood , lengths of plastic piping , or clay flowerpots . dim lighting is also preferable , as this is essentially a nocturnal species .\nalthough strictly carnivorous in nature , many captive specimens can be trained to take dried pellets . it should definitely be offered a meat - based diet , however . young fish will accept bloodworm , small earthworms etc . , while larger fish will take whole prawns , large earthworms , lancefish and other similar foods . take care not to overfeed as these fish are very greedy indeed .\nterritorial with its own kind and will consume any fish it can fit in its capacious mouth . it is therefore best kept alone , although we have seen large specimens coexisting with other similarly - sized fish that inhabitb other parts of the aquarium , such as arowana . obviously , a very large tank would be required if this is to be attempted .\nmale fish have a longer anal fin and more extended second dorsal fin . apparently the genital papilla is also more pointed in the male than in the female .\nnot thought to have been bred in captivity . any attempt would surely prove problematic , due to the adult size of the fish and their territorial , predatory nature .\nkottelat , m . 2013 . the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibiography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries . raffles bulletin of zoology supplement no . 27 : 1 - 663 .\noriginally described as a member of eleotris by bleeker ( 1852 ) . transferred to oxyleleotris by bleeker ( 1874 ) .\njustification : the species has a wide distribution in southeast asia and is considered least concern at present . it is highly utilised however and population trends should be monitored .\nrecorded from the mekong and chao phraya basins in thailand , viet nam , lao pdr , cambodia ( including the tonle sap river and lake , stung sen river ) , malaysia ( peninsula , sarawak , and sabah ) , philippines and indonesia ( sumatra and kalimantan ) . record from fiji needs confirmation . also recorded from china ( hong hong , but thought to be from a market ) , taiwan , province of china , and from singapore .\noccurs in various wetlands , including rivers , ponds , reservoirs , canals , swamps and flooded forests . it generally prefers areas of little or no water movement . mainly found in freshwater but is also found in brackish environments . enters flooded forest ( roberts 1993 ) . feeds on small fishes , shrimps , aquatic insects , molluscs and crabs .\nfound in commercial and subsistence fisheries . cultivated in aquaculture , and found in the aquarium trade . considered a delicacy over much of eastern asia . exported fishes command a high price ( rainboth 1996 ) . frequently found in the aquarium trade .\nlikely to be impacted locally in parts of its range by pollution and overfishing .\nfurther research into the species current population trends and the impact of threats is required .\nthe members of this forum have come together to share our knowledge and experiences of fish keeping . we want to answer your questions , offer advice and fill the galleries with pictures of the fish we have all grown to love . we are a unique community of fish keepers who seriously take our hobby to extremes and the next level . the majority of our fish collections include rare & exotic species of all sizes , big fish with big appetites and big tanks . it ' s not easy for most people or other\nregular\nfish keepers to understand why we maintain this type of collection and spare no expense on this fascinating hobby . hopefully , through this site and discussion forums we can encourage the next generation of monster fish keepers to have the same passion and love we have for the hobby and our monster fish . as one of the founding members , i personally invite you to register and join us today . currently you are viewing this site as our guest which only gives you limited access to view most discussions , articles and photo galleries . registration is free and very easy ! when you register , you ' ll have instant access to . . . .\nwe ' re constantly striving to improve our community to help make your monster fish keeping hobby fulfilling and interesting . comments are welcome .\nbreeding : nearly impossible in aquariums as one fish will eat the other , but possibly in a very large tank ( 1500 - 2500 gallon / 5678 - 9463 liter ) , it could be done .\nthanks for the info phil . also don ' t keep them in the feeder tank .\ni bought mine about 2 yrs . ago at about 2\nand he is now 10\nhoused in a 125 gal . with a 20\nfire eel , a 10\nflowerhorn and a 2\nblue convict . yes i know this is a fresh water tank but the fish was bought as a fresh water fish and has never had any health problems or lack of appitite .\ngood stuff ! i recently pick up a new ( to me ) 80 gallon tank . here :\nso if i don ' t get a bigger tank down the line i ' ll need to sell or trade him . really interesting fish though .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 28 . 08 . 01 , php script by cmilitante , 04 / 03 / 10 , last modified by cmilitante , 11 / 12 / 12\nif you do , and you would like to get more interaction with aquarium hobbyists ( i . e . aq members ) , aq can automatically read your rss feeds and post your new blog entries as aq threads . this should encourage more views and interaction . aq will of course preserve the links back to your blog .\nto aq by using categories / labels / tags , so no need to worry that non - aquarium related posts gets here .\nwe hope you have found aq to be useful and informative . membership on aq is free . if you have not already done so ,\nindefinite ban of shrimp sales on aq w . e . f . from monday 20th aug 2012\nwe have decided to disallow the sales , giving and trading of shrimp through aq from monday , 20th aug 2012 onwards until further notice .\nthis will appear once only per visit to aq . if aq is down , go to our facebook page for status updates .\nthese monsters reach a maximum length of 50cm . for a fish that almost reaches 2 ft in length , your tank must be big enough to accommodate them . read this link for more info , before you decide to keep these tank busters . urltoken\noh dear , i thought they never grow that big . i skip my interest . concentrate on miniature items . .\nactually i am using those shrimps and fishes such as as feeders . i got a pretty large shallow tank which i want to keep outside as a low maintenance tank , probably a hof at most . my only concern is that they eat more than they want to . i have watch them eat , it is pretty comical when the fishes are like millimetre away and the fish makes a half hearted attempt to actually bother trying to get the fish . it only swoop down those that were resting at its mouth .\nactually on the feeding habit part . they ambush during the day . they are pretty active in the dark . turn off the light and they go into action .\ni have a friend who breeds them for commercial purposes and if you are keen i can introduce him to you . one thing i do know is that these fishes take a long time to grow in size especially if kept in a tank . their natural habitat are usually large ponds with connecting streams that provide them with fresh running water . make sure you do not keep the bigger size ones with the smaller ones cause they will eat them .\ndo let me know if you want some . i have some small ones in my friend ' s shop . he owns a fish shop here in jb and they have quite a lot of these fishes there . the smaller ones that i used to catch i tend to leave it in his shop because he has big tanks to house them .\ni have a friend who breeds them for commercial purposes and if you are keen i can introduce him to you . one thing i do know is that these fishes take a long time to grow in size especially if kept in a tank . their natural habitat are usually large ponds with connecting streams that provide them with fresh running water . make sure you do not keep the bigger size ones with the smaller ones cause they will eat them . do let me know if you want some . i have some small ones in my friend ' s shop . he owns a fish shop here in jb and they have quite a lot of these fishes there . the smaller ones that i used to catch i tend to leave it in his shop because he has big tanks to house them .\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 4 . 2 . 5 copyright \u00a9 2018 vbulletin solutions inc . all rights reserved .\nthis article is a stub . we can not complete the encyclopaedia without your help . you can contribute to the aquarium wiki by expanding this article . dont be shy ! .\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 03 : 03 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\n) which is representative of small ( up to 65 mm total length ) , benthic species with a short life cycle . we devised a \u2018full - sib / half - sib\u2019 breeding design , and the resulting offspring were reared in captivity using a complex feeding protocol and a creative design of the tanks . three families survived up to 160 days post - hatching ( dph ) ; one was reared at 24 \u00b0c and two at 18 \u00b0c . the families reared at 18 \u00b0c reached sexual maturity and spawned . the size range at sexual maturity of individuals reared in captivity was consistent with the one observed in nature . the possibility to complete the entire life cycle , from hatching to sexual maturity and spawning in\noffers great perspectives for experimental evolution and quantitative genetics studies aimed at understanding the role of evolutionary processes in response to global changes .\nthis study was supported by \u201cprogetto giovani studiosi 2014\u201d ( 2124prgr14 ) from the university of padova to ll .\nthe study did not involve endangered or protected species and was carried out in accordance with current italian regulations for the use of animals in scientific procedures . sampling and experimental procedures were reviewed and approved by the animal ethics committee of the university of padova ( opba , permission no . 134730 ) . animal collection in the field was authorised by regione veneto , giunta regionale ( decreto 20 , 14 march 2015 ) .\namaral , i . p . , & johnston , i . a . ( 2012 ) . experimental selection for body size at age modifies early life - history traits and muscle gene expression in adult zebrafish .\nbuechel , s . d . , booksmythe , i . , kotrschal , a . , jennions , m . d . , & kolm , n . ( 2016 ) . artificial selection on male genitalia length alters female brain size .\nburgess , s . c . & marshall , d . j . ( 2011 ) . temperature - induced maternal effects and environmental predictability .\ncrozier , l . g . & hutchings , j . a . ( 2014 ) . plastic and evolutionary responses to climate change in fish .\ndonelson , j . m . , & munday , p . l . ( 2015 ) . transgenerational plasticity mitigates the impact of global warming to offspring sex ratios .\nengstr\u00f6m - \u00f6st , j . , & candolin , u . ( 2007 ) . human - induced water turbidity alters selection on sexual displays in sticklebacks .\nheino , m . , diaz pauli , b . , & dieckmann , u . ( 2015 ) . fisheries - induced evolution .\nhutchings , j . a . , & fraser , d . j . ( 2008 ) . the nature of fisheries - and farming - induced evolution .\nkotrschal , a . , rogell , b . , bundsen , a . , et al . ( 2013 ) . artificial selection on relative brain size in the guppy reveals costs and benefits of evolving a larger brain .\nmalvezzi , a . j . , murray , c . s . , feldheim , k . a . , et al . ( 2015 ) . a quantitative genetic approach to assess the evolutionary potential of a coastal marine fish to ocean acidification .\nmunday , p . l . , warner , r . r . , monro , k . , pandolfi , j . m . , & marshall , d . j . ( 2013 ) . predicting evolutionary responses to climate change in the sea .\npanfili , j . , de pontual , h . , troadec , h . , & wright , p . j . ( 2002 ) .\npatzner , r . a . , van tassel , j . l . , kova\u010di\u0107 , m . , & kapoor , b . g . ( 2011 ) .\npauls , s . u . , nowak , c . , b\u00e1lint , m . , & pfenninger , m . ( 2013 ) . the impact of global climate change on genetic diversity within populations and species .\nrisso , a . ( 1810 ) . ichthyologie de nice , ou histoire naturelle des poissons du d\u00e9partement des alpes maritimes . f . schoell , paris . i - xxxvi + 1\u2013388 , pls . 1\u201311 .\nsalinas , s . , & munch , s . b . ( 2012 ) . thermal legacies : transgenerational effects of temperature on growth in a vertebrate .\nvan der sluijs , i . , gray , s . m . , amorim , m . c . p . , barber , i . , candolin , u . , hendry , a . p . , krahe , r . , et al . ( 2011 ) . communication in troubled waters : responses of fish communication systems to changing environments .\nwegner , k . m . , kalbe , m . , & reusch , t . b . h . ( 2007 ) . innate versus adaptive immunity in sticklebacks : evidence for trade - offs from a selection experiment .\nlocatello , l . , santon , m . , mazzoldi , c . et al . org divers evol ( 2017 ) 17 : 709 . urltoken\narruda , l . m . , j . n . azevedo & a . i . neto . 1993 . abundance , age - structure and growth , and reproduction of gobies ( pisces ; gobiidae ) in the ria de aveiro lagoon ( portugal ) . estuar . coast . shelf s . 37 : 509\u2013523 .\nbagenal , t . b . & f . w . tesch . 1978 . age and growth . pp . 101\u2013136 .\n: t . b . bagenal ( ed . ) methods for assessment of fish production in freshwaters , blackwell scientific publications , oxford .\nbouchereau , j . - l . & o . guelorget . 1998 . comparison of three gobiidae ( teleostei ) life history strategies over their geographical range . oceanol . acta 21 : 503\u2013517 .\n( pallas , 1770 ) ( pisces , gobiidae ) dans le golfe du lion ( france ) . nids , d\u00e8terminismes de la s\u00e9dentariet\u00e9 et de la migration . cybium 15 : 315\u2013346 .\n( kr\u00f8 yer , 1838 ) ( gobiidae ) , dans la lagune de mauguio , france . cybium 17 : 3\u201315 .\ncole , k . s . 1988 . predicting the potential for sex - change on the basis of ovarian structures , in gobiid fishes . copeia 1988 : 1082\u20131086 .\ncole , k . s . 1990 . patterns of gonad structure in hermaphroditic gobies ( teleostei : gobiidae ) . env . biol . fish . 28 : 125\u2013142 .\ncole , k . s . , d . r . robertson & a . a . cedeno . 1994 . does gonad structures reflect sexual pattern in all gobiid fishes ? env . biol . fish . 41 : 301\u2013309 .\nde girolamo , m . & c . mazzoldi . 2000 . the application of visual census on mediterranean rocky habitats . mar . env . res . ( in press )\neggert , b . 1931 . die geschlechtsorgane der gobiformes und blenniiformes . z . wiss . zool . 139 : 249\u2013558 .\nfishelson , l . 1989 . bisexuality and pedogenesis in gobies ( gobiidae : teleostei ) and other fish , or why so many little fish in tropical seas ? senckenbergia marit . 20 : 147\u2013169 .\nfishelson , l . 1991 . comparative citology and morphology of seminal vesicles in male gobiid fishes . japan . j . ichthyol . 38 : 17\u201330 .\nfouda , m . m . 1995 . life histories of four small - size fishes in the suez canal , egypt . j . fish biol . 46 : 687\u2013702 .\n, in lake timsah , suez canal . j . fish biol . 43 : 139\u2013151 .\ngandolfi , g . , s . zerunian , p . torricelli & a . marconato . 1991 . i pesci delle acque interne italiane ( italian freshwater fishes ) . istituto poligrafico e zecca dello stato , roma . 616 pp .\n( risso , 1810 ) ( osteichthyes , gobiidae ) in the delta of po river ) . thesis , facolt ` a di scienze mm . ff . nn . , universit\u00e0 di ferrara , ferrara . 71 pp .\nlam , t . j . 1983 . environmental influences on gonadal activity in fish . pp . 65\u2013116 .\n: w . s . hoar , d . j . randall & e . m . donaldson ( ed . ) fish physiology , volume 9 , part b , academic press , new york .\nmazzoldi , c . 1999 . studio comparativo della dinamica di accoppiamento e fecondazione in teleostei ad uova demerse ( a comparative study on mating behaviour and fertilization dynamic in demersal spawner teleosts ) . ph . d . thesis , facolt\u00e0 di scienze mm . ff . nn . , universit\u00e0 di padova , padova . 206 pp .\nmiller , p . j . 1984 . the tokology of gobioid fishes . pp . 119\u2013153 .\n: g . w . potts & j . r . wootton ( ed . ) fish reproduction : strategies and tactics , academic press , london .\nnagahama , y . 1983 . the functional morphology of teleost gonads . pp . 223\u2013275 .\n: w . s . hoar , d . j . randall & e . m . donaldson ( ed . ) fish physiology , volume 9 , part a , academic press , new york .\npearse , a . g . e . 1985 . histochemistry , theoretical and applied analytical technology . churchill livingstone , edinburgh . 757 pp .\npetersen , c . w . & r . r . warner . 1998 . sperm competition in fishes . pp . 435\u2013463 .\n: t . r . birkhead & a . p . m\u00f8 ller ( ed . ) sperm competition and sexual selection , academic press , london .\nriedl , r . 1991 . fauna e flora del mediterraneo ( mediterranean fauna and flora ) . franco muzzio editore , padova . 777 pp .\nsheenan , d . c . & b . b . hrapchack . 1980 . theory and practice of histotechnology . c . v . mossby co . , st . luis . 182 pp .\nstearns , s . c . 1992 . the evolution of life histories . oxford university press , oxford . 249 pp .\nstockley , p . , m . j . g . gage , g . a . parker & a . p . m\u00f8 ller . 1997 . sperm competition in fishes : the evolution of testis size and ejaculate characteristics . amer . nat . 149 : 933\u2013954 .\ntaborsky , m . 1994 . sneakers , satellites , and helpers : parasitic and cooperative behavior in fish reproduction . adv . stud . behav . 23 : 1\u2013100 .\nthresher , r . e . 1984 . reproduction in reef fishes . t . f . h . publications , neptune city . 399 pp .\nwallace , r . r . & k . selman . 1981 . cellular and dynamic aspects of oocyte growth in teleosts . amer . zool . 21 : 325\u2013343 .\nwhitehead , p . j . p . , m . - l . bauchot , j . - c . hureau , j . nielsen & e . tortonese . 1986 . fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean , 3 volumes . unesco , paris . 1473 pp .\nmazzoldi , c . & rasotto , m . b . environmental biology of fishes ( 2001 ) 61 : 175 . urltoken"]}
{"id": 128, "summary": [{"text": "the pyralidae , commonly called pyralid moths , snout moths or grass moths , are a family of lepidoptera in the ditrysian superfamily pyraloidea .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "in many ( particularly older ) classifications , the grass moths ( crambidae ) are included in the pyralidae as a subfamily , making the combined group one of the largest families in the lepidoptera .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the latest review by eugene g. munroe & solis , in kristensen ( 1999 ) retains the crambidae as a full family of pyraloidea .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the wingspans for small and medium-sized species usually between 9 and 37 mm with variable morphological features .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "it is a diverse group , with more than 6,000 species described worldwide , and more than 600 species in america north of mexico , comprising the third largest moth family in north america .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "at least 42 species have been recorded from north dakota in the subfamilies of pyralidae . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "pyralidae", "paragraphs": ["a new genus and three new species of chrysauginae ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) .\n( f . ) ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) in brasil . colloques i\u2019inra 43 : 133\u2013140\nbiocontrol of duponcheria fovealis ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) with soil - dwelling predators in potted plants .\nsystematics of the neotropical genus catharylla zeller ( lepidoptera , pyralidae s . l . , crambinae )\narticle : systematics of the neotropical genus catharylla zeller ( lepidoptera , pyralidae s . l . , crambinae )\nbiocontrol of duponcheria fovealis ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) with soil - dwelling predators in potted plants . - pubmed - ncbi\ndetails - systematics of the neotropical genus catharylla zeller ( lepidoptera , pyralidae s . l . , crambinae ) - biodiversity heritage library\nhulst , g . d . , 1886 . descriptions of new pyralidae . transactions of the american entomological society 13 : 145 - 168 .\nmutuura , akira . 1959 . canadian species of dioryctria zeller ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) . can . entomol . 91 : 65 - 72 .\nthere are currently 5 described subfamilies of pyralidae : chrysauginae lederer ( 1863 ) , epipaschiinae meyrick ( 1884 ) , galleriinae zeller ( 1848 ) , phycitinae zeller ( 1839 ) , and pyralinae latreille ( 1809 ) . currently there are around 4400 named species of pyralidae , although much of the diversity is undescribed .\nfive subfamilies are generally recognized in the pyralidae today . the acentropinae ( = nymphulinae ) , occasionally still placed here , do indeed seem to belong in the crambidae .\npyralidae ( pyralid lepidopterans ) preys on : mammalia based on studies in : costa rica ( carrion substrate ) this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\nheppner j . b . ( 2008 ) snout moths ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) . in : capinera j . l . ( eds ) encyclopedia of entomology . springer , dordrecht\nthe effect of neem ( azadirachta indica a . juss ) oil on oviposition , development and reproductive potentials of sesamia calamistis hampson ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) and eldana saccharina walker ( lepidoptera : pyralidae )\npyralidae ( pyraloidea ) ; [ mna13 . 1 ] ( a ) , 8 ; [ nacl ] , 67 ; [ aucl ] ; [ globiz ] ; van nieukerken et al . , 2011 , zootaxa 3148 : 216\nneunzig , herbert h . 1986 . fascicle 15 . 2 pyralioidea , pyralidae ( part ) in dominick et al . the moths of america north of mexico . e . w . classey ltd . london . 88 pp .\nif you know the species , please , click on the picture and write the species name in comments section . also , you can go to the gallery page with all photos of pyralidae sp . ( large size ) .\nhorak marianne ( 1997 ) the phycitine genera faveria walker , morosaphycita , gen . nov . , epicrocis zeller , ptyobathra turner and vinicia ragonot in australia ( pyralidae : phycitinae ) . invertebrate systematics 11 , 333 - 421 .\nschaffer , jay c . 1968 . a revision of the peoriinae and anerastiinae ( auctorum ) of america north of mexico ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) . bull . u . s . natl . mus . 280 . 124 pp .\nsolis , m . alma . and c . mitter . 1992 . review and preliminary phylogenetic analysis of the subfamilies of the pyralidae ( sensu stricto ) ( lepidoptera : pyraloidea ) . syst . entomol . 17 : 79 - 99 .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . 1979 . american species of dioryctria ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) v . three new cone feeding species from the southeastern united states . georgia entomol . soc . 14 : 290 - 304 .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . 1982 . american species of dioryctria ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) vi . a new species of dioryctria from eastern canada and northeastern united states . can . entomol . 114 : 1069 - 1076 .\nsolis , m . alma . 1993 . a phylogenetic analysis and reclassification of the genera of the pococera complex ( lepidoptera : pyralidae : epipaschiinae ) . j . n . y . entomol . soc . 10 ( 1 ) : 1 - 83 .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . 1990 . fascicle 15 . 3 pyralioidea , pyralidae ( part ) in dominick et al . the moths of america north of mexico . e . w . classey ltd . london . 164 pp .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . 1988 . a taxonomic study of the genus salebriaria ( lepidoptera : pyralidae : phycitinae ) in america north of mexico . north carolina state univ . res . serv . tech . bull . 287 : 95 pp .\nbelow is a guide to the local subfamilies of pyralidae . the images included are meant to be illustrative of the general appearance of each subfamily as an aid for narrowing down possibilities for identification . while the commonest elements of forewing maculation in each subfamily are represented , many patterns are not .\ngoodson , r . l . and h . h . neunzig . 1993 . taxonomic revision of the genera homoeosoma curtis and patogonia ragonot ( lepidoptera : pyralidae : phycitinae ) in america north of mexico . north carolina agric . res . service . tech . bull . 303 : 105 pp .\nforbes , william t . m . family 33 . pyralidae , pp . 523 - 639 in , ibid . 1923 . lepidoptera of new york and neighboring states . part i . primitive forms , microlepidoptera , pyraloids , bombyces . cornell agric . exp . sta . mem . 68 : 729 pp .\nin addition to those assigned to the tribes above , there are several genera of ( presumed ) pyralidae which are not firmly placed in this arrangement . some may be very basal lineages which stand outside the main snout moth radiations . but given the changing circumscription of the pyralidae , some are likely to be placed outside this group in its modern meaning , either in the crambidae or in other lineages of basal obtectomera . some may even belong to more ancient moth lineages , such as the alucitoidea or pterophoroidea . finally , it is possible that some of these ( usually little - studied ) genera are junior synonyms of genera described earlier . the genera in question are :\nhome \u00bb guide \u00bb arthropods ( arthropoda ) \u00bb hexapods ( hexapoda ) \u00bb insects ( insecta ) \u00bb butterflies and moths ( lepidoptera ) \u00bb pyralid and crambid snout moths ( pyraloidea ) \u00bb pyralid moths ( pyralidae ) \u00bb epipaschiinae \u00bb incertae - sedis \u00bb incertae - sedis glastianalis - hodges # 5576 . 1 ( incertae - sedis glastianalis )\nroux - morabito , g . ; gillette , n . e . ; roques , a . ; dormont , l . ; stein , j . ; sperling , f . a . h . 2008 . systematics of the dioryctria abietella species group ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) based on mitochondrial dna ann . entomol . soc . am . 101 ( 5 ) : 845 - 859 .\nneunzig hh ( 1986\u20131997 ) pyraloidea , pyralidae ( part ) . phycitinae ( part ) . in : dominick rb et al . ( eds ) the moths of america north of mexico , 15 . 2 : 1\u2013113 , 6 pl . ( 1986 ) ; 15 . 3 : 1\u2013165 , 5 pl . ( 1990 ) ; 15 . 4 : 1\u2013157 , 4 pl . ( 1997 ) . wedge entomological research foundation , washington\nwaxworms are the caterpillar larvae of wax moths , which belong to the snout moth family ( pyralidae ) . two closely related species are commercially bred \u2013 the lesser wax moth ( achroia grisella ) and the greater wax moth ( galleria mellonella ) . they belong to the tribe galleriini in the snout moth subfamily galleriinae . another species whose larvae share that name is the indian meal moth ( plodia interpunctella ) , though this species is not available commercially .\nthere are two main types of tympanal organs within pyraloidea , indicating two distinct evolutionary lineages : the pyralidae latreille , 1809 ( or pyraliformes ) and crambidae latreille , 1810 ( or crambiformes ) ( munroe 1972 , minet 1982 , maes 1985 , munroe & solis 1999 ) . this basal dichotomy in pyraloid phylogeny is supported by molecular data ( regier et al . 2012 ) . the following table shows the main diagnostic characters to identify these two groups .\nphycitinae ( including anerastiinae , peoriinae ) \u2013 probably the most difficult group of pyraloidea in terms of identification and classification . they comprise more than 600 genera and about 4000 species found all over the world . the characteristic trait of the caterpillars is a sclerotised area encircling the base of seta sd1 on the mesothorax , while the adult females have \u2013 like the males of pyralidae in general do \u2013 a frenulum consisting of a single bristle which in turn is composed of multiple acanthae .\nsnout moths , family pyralidae , comprise the third largest family of lepidoptera , with about 16 , 500 described species , but a probable fauna of at least 25 , 000 species worldwide . there are 19 subfamilies in the classification , divided into two groups : group crambinina , with 14 subfamilies ( crambinae , schoenobiinae , cybalomiinae , linostinae , scopariinae , musotiminae , midilinae , nymphulinae , odontiinae , noordinae , wurthiinae , evergestinae , glaphyriinae , and pyraustinae ) , and group pyralinina , with five subfamilies ( pyralinae , chrysauginae , galleriinae , epipaschiinae , and phycitinae ) . the group names are sometimes elevated to separate families , as was already done over 100 years ago , but they can equally be maintained within the single family pyralidae as has long been the practice . by far the largest subfamily is the pyraustinae , with about 7 , 500 species worldwide . the family is in the superfamily pyraloidea in the section tineina , subsection tineina , of the division ditrysia . adults . . .\nty - jour ti - systematics of the neotropical genus catharylla zeller ( lepidoptera , pyralidae s . l . , crambinae ) t2 - zookeys vl - 375 ur - urltoken pb - pensoft publishers py - 2014 sp - 15 ep - 73 do - 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 375 . 6222 au - leger , theo au - landry , bernard au - nuss , matthias au - mally , richard kw - argyria kw - argyriini kw - atlantic forest kw - biogeography kw - crambini kw - micrelephas kw - morphology kw - new species kw - phylogeny kw - pyraloidea kw - taxonomy er -\n@ article { bhlpart101138 , title = { systematics of the neotropical genus catharylla zeller ( lepidoptera , pyralidae s . l . , crambinae ) } , journal = { zookeys } , volume = { 375 } , url = urltoken publisher = { pensoft publishers 2014 } , author = { leger , theo and landry , bernard and nuss , matthias and mally , richard } , year = { 2014 } , pages = { 15 - 73 } , keywords = { argyria | argyriini | atlantic forest | biogeography | crambini | micrelephas | morphology | new species | phylogeny | pyraloidea | taxonomy | } , }\npyraloidea , the third largest superfamily of the lepidoptera , is comprised of two families - pyralidae and crambidae . the history of families previously placed in the pyraloidea is discussed . the group now includes about 16 , 000 species worldwide . morphologically , the superfamily is defined by a basally scaled proboscis and the presence of abdominal tympanal organs . the larvae of many species are economically important pests of crops ( e . g . : sugarcane , corn , rice ) , and stored products such as seeds and grains . currently 22 subfamilies comprise the pyraloidea ; only the 19 subfamilies that occur in the western hemisphere are discussed . there is a paucity of recent research using cladistic methods and phylogenetic analyses across all taxa .\nthe wing span of pyraloid moths varies from less than 10 mm to more than 80 mm . the head bears long and porrect or upturned labial palpi . the maxillary palpi are generally present . the main external characters supporting the monophyly of the group are the basally scaled proboscis and the paired tympanal organs situated ventrally on the 2nd abdominal segment . tympanal organs enable moths to detect the ultrasounds of insectivorous bats . many superfamilies within the obtectomeran lepidoptera ( the groups with obtect pupae ) have tympanal organs , but they are not homologous . only geometroidea have tympanal organs which are also situated on the 2 nd abdominal segment , but they are distinct in structure and evolved independently . it is generally accepted that lepidopteran tympanal organs co - evolved with the sonar system of bats . in achroia grisella and galleria mellonella ( pyralidae , galleriinae ) , the moths also possess tymbal organs on the tegulae to produce ultrasound for intraspecific , accoustic communication .\ncarbohydrase is responsible for catalyzes the breakdown of carbohydrates into simple sugars . it includes \u03b1 - amylase ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 1 ) , \u03b2 - amylase ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 2 ) , glucoamylase ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 3 ) , exo - \u03b2 - l , 4 - glucanases ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 91 ) , endo - \u03b2 - l , 4 - glucanases ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 4 ) , \u03b2 - l , 4 - glucosidases ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 21 ) , chitinase ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 14 ) , \u03b2 - nacetyl - d - glucosaminidase ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 52 ) , lysozyme ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 17 ) , lysozyme ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 17 ) , \u03b1 - glucosidases ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 20 ) , and trehalase ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 28 ) ( wyatt , 1967 ; huber and mathison , 1976 ; applebaum , 1985 ; dunn , 1986 ; kramer and koga , 1986 ; martin et al . , 1991 ) . further christeller et al . ( 1992 ) identified midgut protease activities in midgut was higher in lepidopteran insects from the families , tortricidae , noctuidae , gelechiidae , hepialidae and pyralidae . further treatment with chemical insecticides has directly affected the digestive enzyme including amylase , invertase , lipase , and protease ( deshmukh et al . , 2009 ) .\nduponchelia fovealis zeller ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) is a widespread pest in dutch greenhouses . most damage is recorded from potted plants as kalanchoe , cyclamen and begonia . caterpillars of this pyralid prefer to live in a moist soil layer were they feed on either plant parts or organic matter . larvae typically seek shelter within plant parts or in soil . this behaviour hampers contact between pesticides and caterpillars . growers , therefore would welcome an effective method to prevent damage by d . fovealis . this paper describes the effects of the soil - dwelling mites hypoaspis miles ( berlese ) and hypoaspis aculeifer ( canestrini ) ( acari : laelapidae ) and the beetle atheta coriaria kraatz ( coleoptera : staphilinidae ) on eggs and larvae of d . fovealis . both predatory mites and adults of the staphilinid beetle gave excellent control of eggs of d . fovealis in potting soil with kalanchoe . h . miles was slightly ( 99 percent control ) , but significantly , better than h . aculeifer ( 92 percent control ) . 50 to 87 percent of the eggs were predated by adult beetles of a . coriaria . these beetles also prey on first larval stages of d . fovealis . 87 percent of the h . miles population was present in the upper soil layer , whereas about half of the population of h . aculeifer preferred to stay deeper than 5 cm in soil . this behaviour might explain the slightly better control of d . fovealis by h . miles , since eggs and first larval stages of d . fovealis are mostly present in the upper soil layer . all predators tested may contribute to an integrated or biological system for controlling d . fovealis in potted plants .\nthis review described the physiological and biochemical effects of various secondary metabolites from meliaceae against major lepidopteran insect pest including , noctuidae and pyralidae . the biochemical effect of major meliaceae secondary metabolites were discussed more in this review . several enzymes based on food materials have critical roles in nutritional indices ( food utilization ) of the insect pest population . several research work has been referred and the effect of meliaceae secondary metabolites on feeding parameters of insects by demonstrating food consumption , approximate digestibility of consumed food , efficiency of converting the ingested food to body substance , efficiency of converting digested food to body substance and consumption index was reviewed in detail . further how the digestive enzymes including a - amylases , \u03b1 and \u03b2 - glucosidases ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 1 ) , lipases ( ec 3 . 1 . 1 ) proteases , serine , cysteine , and aspartic proteinases affected by the meliaceae secondary metabolites was reviewed . further effect of meliaceae secondary metabolites on detoxifying enzymes have been found to react against botanical insecticides including general esterases ( est ) , glutathione s - transferase ( gst ) and phosphatases was reviewed . alkaline phosphatase ( alp , e . c . 3 . 1 . 3 . 1 ) and acid phosphatase ( acp , e . c . 3 . 1 . 3 . 2 ) are hydrolytic enzymes , which hydrolyze phosphomonoesters under alkaline or acid conditions , respectively . these enzymes were affected by the secondary metabolites treatment . the detailed mechanism of action was further explained in this review . acethylcholine esterase ( ache ) is a key enzyme that terminates nerve impulses by catalyzing the hydrolysis of neurotransmitter , acetylcholine , in the nervous system of various organisms . how the ache activity was altered by the meliaceae secondary metabolites reviewed in detail .\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > systematics of the neotropical genus catharylla zeller ( lepidoptera , pyralidae s . l . , crambinae ) < / title > < / titleinfo > < name > < namepart > leger , theo < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > landry , bernard < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > nuss , matthias < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > mally , richard < / namepart > < / name > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < note type =\ncontent\n> 375 < / note > < subject > < topic > argyria < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > argyriini < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > atlantic forest < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > biogeography < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > crambini < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > micrelephas < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > morphology < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > new species < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > phylogeny < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > pyraloidea < / topic > < / subject > < subject > < topic > taxonomy < / topic > < / subject > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > zookeys < / title > < / titleinfo > < origininfo > < publisher > pensoft publishers < / publisher > < / origininfo > < part > < detail type =\nvolume\n> < number > 375 < / number > < / detail > < extent unit =\npages\n> < start > 15 < / start > < end > 73 < / end > < / extent > < date > 2014 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < identifier type =\ndoi\n> 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 375 . 6222 < / identifier > < / mods >\n700x776 ( ~ 84kb ) usa : lepsoc mothing trip to copper canyon , cochise co . , arizona , 4 . 8 . 2005 , photo \u00a9 valentina anderson\n700x924 ( ~ 121kb ) usa : lepsoc mothing trip to copper canyon , cochise co . , arizona , 4 . 8 . 2005 , photo \u00a9 valentina anderson\n800x859 ( ~ 172kb ) usa : lepsoc mothing trip to copper canyon , cochise co . , arizona , 4 . 8 . 2005 , photo \u00a9 valentina anderson\nthe exact identification of these species is still unknown , but tentatively assumed to belong into this group .\n[ globiz ] global information system on pyraloidea globiz ; globales informtationssystem z\u00fcnslerfalter ; note this information is not automatically synchronized with globiz and can sometimes be lagging behind .\n( a ) : 1 - 134 , ( b ) : 135 - 250 , ( c ) : 251 - 304 , pl . 1 - 13 , a - k ( 1973 )\nvan nieukerken et al . , 2011 in zhang ( ed . ) , animal biodiversity : an outline of higher - level classification and survey of taxonomic richness . order lepidoptera linnaeus , 1758 zootaxa 3148 : 212 - 221\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\n; hw with sc + r and rs closely approximate or united beyond discal cell and sharply divergent before outer margin ; tympana ( ears ) at base of abdomen ventrally , not easily visible in anterio - lateral view , praecinctorium absent .\nworldwide five subfamilies and at least 6 , 150 species ; north america with at least 565 species in five subfamilies ; 42 species have been recorded from north dakota .\nsome leaf tiers and rollers , majority are borers in stems , seeds , buds , or flowers , some are wood borers in the cambium layer , others feed on combs in bee hives or on dried plant materials . many economically important species : indian meal moth , clover hay - worm , zimmerman pine moth , sunflower head moth , etc .\nheinrich , carl . 1956 . american moths of the subfamily phycitinae . bull . u . s . natl . mus . 207 : 1 - 581 .\nmunroe , eugene and m . alma solis . the pyraloidea , pp . 233 - 256 in kristensen , neils p . ed . 1999 . lepidoptera , moths and butterflies . part 35 , vol . 1 in handbook of zoology . maximilian fischer ed . walter de gryter , new york . 491 pp .\nmutuura , akira and eugene munroe . 1969 . american species of the zimmermani group . can . entomol . 101 : 1009 - 1023 .\nrennels , r . g . 1960 . the zimmerman pine moth . an 8 - year study of its natural history in illinois coniferous plantations . univer . ill . agric . exp . sta . bull . 660 : 39 pp .\nscoble , malcom j . 1992 . the lower ditrysia , chapter 11 , pp . 225 - 289 in the lepidoptera : form , function , and diversity . oxford univ . press . 1982 . 404 pp .\nlast updated : 03 / 27 / 02 gerald m . fauske research specialist ndsu 202 hultz hall fargo , nd 58105 e - mail : gerald . fauske @ urltoken\nprospective students may schedule a visit by calling 1 - 800 - 488 - ndsu .\nenter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .\nwe are still having problems with the search feature . unfortunately we cannot give a timeline when the advanced search will be fixed .\nthe id resolving service for stable taxon ids is currently under maintenance . meanwhile , please use the name search in order to find the taxon page .\nmuseum f\u00fcr naturkunde leibniz - institut f\u00fcr evolutions - und biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nthis list contains all moth species illustrated on the ukmoths website . the numbers before each entry are checklist numbers . in the main list , there are two numbers beside each species . the first number is the\nnew\ndecimal - style checklist number , corresponding to\na checklist of the lepidoptera of the british isles\nby agassiz , d . j . l . , beavan , s . d . & heckford r . j . 2013 , hitherto referred to as the\n2013 checklist\n. the second number , prefixed with\nbf\nis the previous\nbradley and fletcher number\n, derived from\na recorder ' s log book or label list of british butterflies and moths\nby j . d . bradley and d . s . fletcher . some species will have\nappendix a\nto the right of their listing . this relates to appendix a of the 2013 checklist , which lists adventive species . at the end of the main list are questionable or doubtful records which is an approximation of appendix b ( questionable records ) of the new checklist , but also contains other records that do not for various reasons have new decimal - style checklist numbers . many thanks to stella beavan and bob heckford for their help in interpreting the new checklist .\nthe numbers before each entry are checklist numbers . in the main list , there are two numbers beside each species .\nthe first number is the\nnew\ndecimal - style checklist number , corresponding to\na checklist of the lepidoptera of the british isles\nby agassiz , d . j . l . , beavan , s . d . & heckford r . j . 2013 , hitherto referred to as the\n2013 checklist\n.\nthe second number , prefixed with\nbf\nis the previous\nbradley and fletcher number\n, derived from\na recorder ' s log book or label list of british butterflies and moths\nby j . d . bradley and d . s . fletcher .\nsome species will have\nappendix a\nto the right of their listing . this relates to appendix a of the 2013 checklist , which lists adventive species .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 24 23 : 16 : 27 page render time : 0 . 2728s total w / procache : 1 . 0005s\nadult moth of the tropical warehouse moth , cadra cautella . \u00a9csiro entomology , all rights reserved\nlarva of the tropical warehouse moth , cadra cautella . \u00a9csiro entomology , all rights reserved\nlarva of the tropical warehouse moth , cadra cautella . photo : usda , ars ( public domain )\nadult of the tropical warehouse moth , cadra cautella . photo : usda , ars ( public domain )\nthe tropical warehouse moth is found throughout the tropics and subtropics where it is more common in non - arid areas . the tropical warehouse moth feeds on a range of stored foods , notably cereals and cereal products .\n( caterpillars ) feed externally on maize grains but also cause damage to stored products through contamination with the silk webbing it produces and faecal pellets , cast skins and egg shells .\nthe tropical warehouse moth is found throughout the tropics and subtropics where it is more common in non - arid areas . it can be found in temperate countries but can only survive the winter in heated areas .\nlarvae the larvae range from 1 . 5 - 15 mm in length and are light brown with dark brown spots with a sparse covering of hair .\npupae pupae are dark - brown and found within a relatively light pupal case .\nadults the adult forewings are greyish - brown with scattered darker patches . the wing span is 11 - 20 mm and both fore - and hind - wings have broadly rounded tips and short fringes of hairs .\nthe adult tropical warehouse moth is commonly confused with the indian meal moth , plodia interpunctella but can be differentiated from it by the distinct colouring of the forewings of indian meal moth ( a dark band separating the two differently coloured halves of the forewing ) . the larva resembles that of the indian meal moth .\nthe females lay their slightly sticky eggs on the stored food . up to 300 eggs are laid in the first 3 - 4 days of their short ( 8 - 9 day ) lives . at 30\u00b0c the eggs hatch in approximately 3 days . there are normally five larval instars and larval development , under optimum conditions ( 32 . 5\u00b0c and 70 % relative humidity ) is completed in about 22 days . in heavy infestations the mature larvae leave the produce to pupate on surfaces such as walls of the store or in spaces between bags . before pupation , the last instar larva builds a cocoon . the pupal stage is completed in about 7 days . adult emergence from the cocoon usually occurs during the late afternoon . under optimum conditions , development from egg to adult takes 29 - 31 days .\nis a major pest of a range of stored foods , especially cereals ( maize , rice , wheat , sorghum , millet , oats ) flours and other cereal products , dried cassava , groundnuts , cocoa beans , dried mango , dates , nutmeg , mace , cowpeas and other dried stored products .\ndetection methods the tropical warehouse moth can be detected by visual inspection . sticky traps baited with a sex pheromone can be used to monitor adults .\nthe severity of a tropical warehouse moth infestation can be reduced by good store hygiene which includes cleaning the store between harvests , immersing grain sacks in boiling water and fumigating the store to eliminate residual infestations , ensuring that all spillages are removed , all cracks and crevices in the store are filled and the selection of only uninfested material for storage . infestations of this species may also be limited by the storage of good quality grains such as whole cereals with fewer broken grains .\nthe mass release of the parasite habrobracon hebetor has been used in south africa to control the tropical warehouse moth in a sultana store as part of an integrated pest management programme .\ncontrolled atmosphere where suitable infrastructure exists , low oxygen and carbon dioxide - enriched atmospheres can be used to control stored product pests .\nfreezing and heating where the infrastructure exists , freezing for several days and heating for 24 hours have proved to be effective control methods for stored product pests .\nfumigation of grain stocks with phosphine will control existing infestations but will not protect against re - infestation . an admixture of approved grain insecticides , especially organophosphorus compounds , will protect against this pest . store misting or fogging at times of peak flight activity may be used to control the adult population . pesticides are poisons so it is essential to follow all safety precautions on labels .\nburges hd , haskins kpf , 1965 . life - cycle of the tropical warehouse moth , cadra cautella ( wlk . ) at controlled temperatures and humidities . bulletin of entomological research , 55 ( 4 ) : 775 - 789 .\ncabi . ( 2007 ) ephestia cautella ( walker ) tropical warehouse moth datasheet . crop protection compendium , 2007 edition . cab international publishing . wallingford , uk .\ndent d . ( 2000 ) . insect pest management . cab international wallingford , uk\ngaby , s . ( 1988 ) natural crop protection in the tropics . margraf publishers scientific books , german\nkrischik , v . a . , cuperus g . and galliart d . ( eds . ) . ( 1995 ) . stored products management , 2nd ed . oklahoma state univ . 204 pp . urltoken accessed on 15 / 5 / 2010 .\nridgway , r . l . silverstein r . m and inscoe , m . n . ( 1990 ) behaviour - modifying chemicals for insect management , marcel dekker inc . , new york .\nyoudeowei a . ( 1993 ) pest and vector management in the tropics , longman group ltd england .\nanne m . akol , makerere university ; maneno y . chidege , tropical pesticides research institute ; herbert a . l . talwana , makerere university ; john r . mauremootoo , bionet - international secretariat .\nwe recognise the support from the national museums of kenya , tropical pesticides research institute ( tpri ) - tanzania and makerere university , uganda . this activity was undertaken as part of the bionet - eafrinet uvima project ( taxonomy for development in east africa ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nby m . alma solis , everett d . cashatt , brian g . scholtens\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 22 october , 2013 - 10 : 34pm\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 21 august , 2013 - 1 : 47am\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 17 june , 2013 - 4 : 53pm\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 30 april , 2013 - 6 : 37pm\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 3 april , 2013 - 3 : 10pm\nragonot , e . l . , 1887 . diagnoses of north american phycitiae and galleriiae : 1 - 20 .\n4th ann . rep . noxious , beneficial and other insects of state of missouri . st . louis , mo . , 1872\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\na8 sd1 surrounded by chitinous ring ( occasionally reduced ) . a1 - a7 : l2 anterodorsal or sometimes dorsal of l1 . a8 sv - group usually bisetose . a9 l group usually trisetose ( l3 rarely lost ) . anal shield : distance d1 - d1 usually greater than sd1 - sd1 ( exceptions in galleriinae , pyralinae ,\nvariable . from long and slender to short and stout . may be smoothly scaled or with modified scales . some males with prominent androconia .\nforewing of variable shape . forewing veins with r2 closely apposed to r3 and r4 , and not usually stalked ; r3 , r4 and r5 may be reduced to one or two veins ; m1 originates near anterior angle of discal cell ; m2 , m3 and cua1 originate from posterior angle of cell ; m2 and m3 may be stalked ; cup well developed , incomplete , or absent and reduced to a fold ; 1a strongly developed ; 2a distally free or connected to 1a by a crossvein to form a closed cell , sometimes with a free portion extending beyond this cell . hindwing wide , with narrow fringe . hindwing veins sc + r1 and rs may be anastomosed or separate ; m2 and m3 usually separate , but may be fused ; cua1 and cua2 usually arising separately from discal cell ; cua1 free , rarely fused with m3 ; cup and 1a + 2a present .\nin phycitinae , radial sector free or partially fused with sc + rs . m2 + 3 fused ( partially or fully ) , or separate . cell often open . cup absent . all three anal veins generally present .\nboth sexes with a retinaculum of stiff scales on underside of cubital area . males may have sclerotized frenulum hook , but is lost in some groups .\nin phycitinae the scape may posses various modification , such as having a long spine or being deeply notched .\nin phycitinae the basal flagellomere may posses various modifications , mainly in the form of a high concentration of scale - like sensilla .\nforewing vein r5 stalked or fused with r3 + r4 . tympanal case closed , or nearly closed . praecinctorium absent . tympanum and conjunctiva lie in the same plane . male genitalia with uncus arms , a pair of processes arising laterally from the base of the uncus . larvae almost always with sclerotized ring around base of seta sd1\nl . f . jiron and v . m . cartin , 1981 . insect succession in the decomposition of a mammal in costa rica . j . new york entomol . soc . 89 : 158 - 165 , from p . 163 .\nplease help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . unsourced material may be challenged and removed .\nthe adult moths are sometimes called\nbee moths\n, but , particularly in apiculture , this can also refer to aphomia sociella , another galleriinae moth which also produces waxworms , but is not commercially bred .\nwaxworms are medium - white caterpillars with black - tipped feet and small , black or brown heads .\nin the wild , they live as nest parasites in bee colonies and eat cocoons , pollen , and shed skins of bees , and chew through beeswax , thus the name . beekeepers consider waxworms to be pests . galleria mellonella ( the greater wax moths ) will not attack the bees directly , but feed on the wax used by the bees to build their honeycomb . their full development to adults requires access to used brood comb or brood cell cleanings\u2014these contain protein essential for the larvae ' s development , in the form of brood cocoons . the destruction of the comb will spill or contaminate stored honey and may kill bee larvae or be the cause of the spreading of honey bee diseases .\nwhen kept in captivity , they can go a long time without eating , particularly if kept at a cool temperature . captive wax worms are generally raised on a mixture of cereal grain , bran and honey .\nmicrobes found in the guts of waxworms like to feast on polyethylene , and could help dispose of plastic .\nthese larvae are used extensively as live food for terrarium pets and some pet birds , mostly due to their high fat content , their ease of breeding , and their ability to survive for weeks at low temperatures .\nmost commonly , they are used to feed reptiles such as bearded dragons ( species in the genus pogona ) , the neon tree dragon ( japalura splendida ) , geckos , brown anole ( anolis sagrei ) , turtles such as the three - toed box turtle ( terrapene carolina triunguis ) or chameleons .\nsmall mammals such as the domesticated hedgehog can also be fed with wax worms .\nthey can also be used as food for captive predatory insects reared in terrarium , such as assassin bugs in the genus platymeris .\nwaxworms are also occasionally used to feed certain kinds of fish in the wild , such as bluegills ( lepomis macrochirus ) .\nshops often refer to the larvae as\nwaxies\n. they are used for catching some varieties of\nwith the use of a lighter weight . they are also used for fishing some members of the\nwaxworms prove valuable in such studies because the innate immune system of insects is strikingly similar to that of mammals .\nwaxworms survive well at human body temperature and are large enough in size to allow straightforward handling and accurate dosing . additionally , the considerable cost savings when using waxworms instead of small mammals ( usually mice , hamsters , or guinea pigs ) allows testing throughput that is otherwise impossible . using waxworms , it is now possible to screen large numbers of bacterial and fungal strains to identify genes involved in pathogenesis or large chemical libraries with the hope of identifying promising therapeutic compounds . the later studies have proved especially useful in identifying chemical compounds with favorable bioavailability .\nantunes , lu\u00edsa c . s . ; imperi , francesco ; carattoli , alessandra ; visca , paolo ( 2011 ) . adler , ben , ed .\ndeciphering the multifactorial nature of acinetobacter baumannii pathogenicity\n. plos one 6 ( 8 ) : e22674 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0022674 . pmc 3148234 . pmid 21829642 .\nkavanagh , kevin ; reeves , emer p . ( 2004 ) .\nexploiting the potential of insects for in vivo pathogenicity testing of microbial pathogens\n. fems microbiology reviews 28 ( 1 ) : 101\u201312 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . femsre . 2003 . 09 . 002 . pmid 14975532 .\naperis , g ; burgwynfuchs , b ; anderson , c ; warner , j ; calderwood , s ; mylonakis , e ( 2007 ) .\ngalleria mellonella as a model host to study infection by the francisella tularensis live vaccine strain\n. microbes and infection 9 ( 6 ) : 729\u201334 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . micinf . 2007 . 02 . 016 . pmc 1974785 . pmid 17400503 .\n, making the combined group one of the largest families in the lepidoptera . the latest review by munroe & solis , in kristensen ( 1999 )\nmost of these small moths are inconspicuous and of no particular significance to humans . some are more notable , however . perhaps the most familiar are waxworms , which are the caterpillar larvae of the greater ( galleria mellonella ) and lesser ( achroia grisella ) wax moths ( subfamily galleriinae ) . they are natively pests of beehives , but are bred indoors in enormous numbers as live food for small reptile and bird pets and similar animals . they are also used as fishing bait for trout fishing .\nother notable snout moths are primarily relevant due to their larval food choices . examples include :\ncacao moth , tobacco moth , warehouse moth ( ephestia elutella : phycitinae ) \u2013 pest of stored dry vegetable products ; europe , introduced to some other regions ( e . g . australia )\nthe european corn borer ( ostrinia nubilalis ) and southern cornstalk borer ( diatraea crambidoides ) , formerly considered snout moths , are placed in the crambidae which , as noted above , are usually regarded as a separate family today .\nchrysauginae ( including bradypodicolinae , semniidae ) \u2013 about 400 species occurring predominantly in the neotropical region . larvae typically feed on plants , but some have more unusual feeding habits . the latter include for example some myrmecophilous species , as well as a number of sloth moths which are dependent on sloths for their entire life cycle . most chrysauginae larvae have a sclerotised ring around seta sd1 of the metathorax .\ngalleriinae ( including macrothecinae ) \u2013 about 300 species worldwide . the males of galleriine moths have a gnathos almost or completely reduced , the pupae have a prominent dorsal median ridge on the thorax and abdomen , and most larvae have a sclerotised ring around seta sd1 of the first abdominal segment .\npyralinae ( including endotrichinae , hypotiinae ) \u2013 rather diverse in the old world ; a lesser amount of the c . 900 species occurs elsewhere . the females of almost all pyralinae except cardamyla and embryoglossa are recognizable by the very short ductus bursae of their genitals .\nepipaschiinae ( including pococerinae ) \u2013 over 550 described species in the tropical and temperate regions ( except europe ) . larvae are leaf rollers , leaf tiers or leaf miners . some species are minor pests of a few commercial crops . epipaschiinae are generally hard to recognize , except in the case of adult males which have a few characteristic traits , such as the upturned and pointed third segment of the labial palps and usually a scaly projection from the antenna base . the larvae lack any stereotyped seta sclerotisations .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nscholtens , b . g . , solis , a . m . , 2015 . annotated check list of the pyraloidea ( lepidoptera ) of america north of mexico .\nannotated check list of the pyraloidea ( lepidoptera ) of america north of mexico scholtens , b . g . , solis , a . m . 2015 . zookeys 535 : 1\u2013136 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 535 . 6086 .\n- - - page mise \u00e0 jour le 09 / 07 / 2018 \u00e0 11 : 44 : 25 - - - page affich\u00e9e en 0 . 005 s - - -\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ncommun agric appl biol sci . 2003 ; 68 ( 4 pt a ) : 159 - 65 .\napplied plant research , division glasshouse horticulture , po box 8 , 2670 aa naaldwijk , the netherlands .\npowered by naturemapr | canberra nature map operates under creative commons attribution 3 . 0 australia | privacy\nedis is the electronic data information source of uf / ifas extension , a collection of information on topics relevant to you . more . . .\nbalinsky bi ( 1994 ) a study of african phycitinae in the transvaal museum . johannesburg , 208 pp\nbleszynski s ( 1965 ) crambinae . in : amsel hg , reisser h , gregor f ( eds ) microlepidoptera palaearctica , vol 1 . g . fromme , vienna , 533 pp , 133 pl . [ in german ]\ngoater b ( 1986 ) british pyralid moths : a guide to their identification . harley books , colchester , 175 pp , 8 pl\nheinrich c ( 1956 ) american moths of the subfamily phycitinae . bull u s natl mus 207 : 1\u2013581\nmunroe eg ( 1972\u20131976 ) fasc . 13 . 1 , pyraloidea ( in part ) . in : dominick rb et al . ( eds ) the moths of america north of mexico , 13 . 1 : 1\u2013304 , 9 pl . ( 1972\u20131973 ) ; 13 . 2 : 1\u2013150 , 8 pl . ( 1976 ) . e . w . classey and r . b . d . publishing , london\nroesler ru ( 1973\u20131993 ) phycitinae [ part ] . in microlepidoptera palaearctica , 4 ( 1 ) : 1\u2013752 , 4 ( 2 ) : 1\u2013137 , 170 pl . ( 1973 ) ; 8 : 305 , 82 pl . ( 1993 )\nslamka f ( 1997 ) die z\u00fcnslerartigen ( pyraloidea ) mitteleuropas : bestimmen & verbreitung & flugstandort & lebensweise der raupen , 2nd edn . bratislava , 112 pp , 13 pl\nzimmerman ec ( 1958 ) lepidoptera , pyraloidea : insects of hawaii , vol 8 . university of hawaii press , honolulu , pp 1\u2013456\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7ac28616 - bcf0 - 4306 - a38e - 3b19be902bf8\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 90e96c05 - a9e1 - 4b7f - 98c0 - f4bebc8619cf\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 6b4ec7ef - cd76 - 42a6 - 87d8 - 5a58c07f0019\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 255863\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nwere such that each was at once first and second cousin to the other , and thus aunt and cousin to the culprit cyril , so that his misbehavior was almost as much cousin caroline ' s affair as aunt celia ' s .\ncentres across the country , it is timely to reflect on the significant contribution this service has made to australian families and our legal system .\nroles , traditional teachings in language and culture ,\nstick like velcro and keep us from being whole .\nall content on this website , including dictionary , thesaurus , literature , geography , and other reference data is for informational purposes only . this information should not be considered complete , up to date , and is not intended to be used in place of a visit , consultation , or advice of a legal , medical , or any other professional .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nreviewed by : arash zibaee , university of guilan , iran ; maria l . macedo , universidade federal de mato grosso do sul , brazil\n* correspondence : sengottayan senthil - nathan , division of biopesticides and environmental toxicology , sri paramakalyani centre for excellence in environmental sciences , manonmaniam sundaranar university , alwarkurichi \u2013 627 412 , tirunelveli , india e - mail : ni . ca . vinusm @ lihtnes ; moc . liamtoh @ rdialaklihtnes\nthis article was submitted to invertebrate physiology , a section of the journal frontiers in physiology .\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( cc by ) . the use , distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted , provided the original author ( s ) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited , in accordance with accepted academic practice . no use , distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms .\ncrop protection all over the world relies heavily on the use of synthetic pesticides . in the past , synthetic pesticides have played a major role in crop protection programes and have immensely benefited mankind . the discovery and use of ddt in 1940 and then bhc and subsequent development of the chlorinated cyclodienes marked a major advance in the field of crop protection . these chemicals have made great contributions to plant protection but have also raised a number of ecological and medical problems ( varma and dubey , 1999 ) . nevertheless , their indiscriminate use has resulted in the development of resistance by pests ( insects , weeds , etc ) , resurgence and outbreak of new pests , toxicity to non - target organisms and hazardous effects on the environment endangering the sustainability of ecosystems ( jeyasankar and jesudasan , 2005 ) . it has been estimated that hardly 0 . 1 % of the agrochemicals used in crop protection reach the target pest leaving the remaining 99 . 9 % to enter the environment to cause hazards to non - target organisms including humans ( pimentel and levitan , 1986 ) .\nit has been described that more than 2 . 5 million tons of pesticides are used in agricultural crops protection for every year and the global damage caused by synthetic insecticides reaches more than $ 100 billion annually ( usepa , 2011 ) . the reason behind this amount of cost is the high toxicity and residual properties of pesticides in soil , water , air and crops that affect human and domestic animal health ( carson , 1951 ) . hence search for the eco - friendly , biodegradable pesticides for management of pest insects have been encouraged to be essential for last five decades .\nthe ideal insecticide should control target pests adequately and should be target - specific ( able to kill the pest insect but not other insects or animals ) , rapidly degradable , and low in toxicity to humans and other mammals . two classes of insecticides that exhibit some of these characteristics are the botanical insecticides and the insecticidal soaps . botanical insecticides , sometimes referred to as \u201cbotanicals , \u201d are naturally occurring insecticides have been derived from plants . insecticidal soaps are soaps that have been selected and formulated for their insecticidal action ( weinzierl and henn , 1991 ) .\nbotanical insecticides have more advantages than synthetic one . the advantages of botanical pesticides mainly depending upon their quick degradation and lack of persistence and bioaccumulation in the eco system , which have been key problems in chemical pesticide use .\nseveral experiment with botanical pesticides , shows they are degraded in the environment in hours or days . further literature has clearly shown that use of plant natural products provides low risk when compare with chemical insecticides . the availability and diversity of the secondary metabolites in botanical extracts is renewable source . also multiple analogs of one compound , is known to increase the efficiency of phytochemcial through synergism , reduce the rate of metabolism of the compounds and prevent the pest resurgence / pesticide resistance ( ascher , 1993 ; senthil - nathan and kalaivani , 2005 , 2006 ; ntalli and menkissoglu - spiroudi , 2011 ) . plant community is the most efficient source for natural pesticide . it synthesizes numerous products , many of which have been shown to effect on insect and other harmful organism . some are highly toxic to a wide range of organisms , including both vertebrates and invertebrates . but majority of plant derived compounds are affecting insects and are comparatively harmless to vertebrates . such compounds are toxic causing mortality or reduced growth of pest insects . phytochemcial modes - of - action are more complicated . most of them are affecting insect performance by repelling an insect and feeding deterrence or oviposition deterrence ."]}
{"id": 132, "summary": [{"text": "the mexican water mouse , mexican fishing mouse or goodwin 's water mouse ( rheomys mexicanus ) , is a species of semiaquatic rodent in the family cricetidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it has a restricted range in the state of oaxaca in southern mexico , threatened by deforestation and water pollution , it is listed as endangered by the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "mexican water mouse", "paragraphs": ["the mexican water mouse ( rheomys mexicanus ) is a species of rodent in the family cricetidae . it is found only in mexico .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - mexican water mouse ( rheomys mexicanus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - mexican water mouse ( rheomys mexicanus )\ntitle =\narkive species - mexican water mouse ( rheomys mexicanus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe mexican mouse opossum ( marmosa mexicana ) is a species of central american opossum in the family didelphidae .\nthreats to the jumping mouse and its habitat include grazing pressure , water management and use , lack of water due to drought / climate change , wildfires , and certain recreation activities .\nthe mexican water mouse is endemic to the state of oaxaca , mexico , where it is known from only four sites ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nin general , water mice are considered very difficult to capture , and so the exact status of many species is unknown ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . however , the mexican water mouse is believed to be rare and to occupy a limited and severely fragmented range , and has been recorded from only four locations , making it particularly vulnerable ( 1 ) ( 2 ) . the main threats to the species are deforestation , which is reported to be occurring throughout its range , and water pollution . the mexican water mouse is reliant on areas of pristine habitat , and any kind of water pollution , including household pollution from the washing of clothes , is a potential threat to its survival ( 1 ) .\nmexican vole order : rodentia family : cricetidae genus : microtus species : m . mexicanus\ngood indicator of riparian habitat , permanent water ( hafner , 1995 ) * 36 * .\nsubspecies differ in their use of plant communities and vegetation structures . there are two main groups of deer mouse : the prairie deer mouse and the woodland or forest deer mouse group .\nmexican gox squirrel order : rodentia family : sciuridae genus : sciurus species : s . nayaritensis\ntalks between the united states and mexico about an amnesty for the estimated four million mexican illegal immigrants living here stalled . and mexican diplomats began lobbying for acceptance of the matr\u00edcula card .\nan example of a management practice that will provide habitat for the mouse and continue to provide necessary water for cattle are what the forest service is calling\ncattle lanes\n. these cattle lanes will be installed in all of their exclosure areas to maintain access to water for cattle grazing on allotments where fencing is being installed . this will allow cattle to get to needed water while protecting the important vegetation the mouse needs .\nfour different methods of locomotion are used by the mexican spiny pocket mouse . the fastest is a kangaroo - like leaping gait , during which the mouse can cover 1 . 5 metres ( 5 feet ) in a second .\nof mexican spiny pocket mouse and there is considerable differences in color and size between different populations . in general it is a medium - sized member of its genus\nprovide fresh water in a bowl that is deep enough that when the bowl is half filled and the snake goes in to soak , the water will not overflow into the cage . you want a dry cage . if the humidity increases in the cage to where it looks or feels moist , remove the water and only offer it a couple days a week . clean the water bowl as needed .\nthe new mexico meadow jumping mouse is a unique subspecies of meadow jumping mouse ; it is a water - loving animal that lives only along the banks of southwestern streams . it is semi - aquatic , and its large back feet may assist it with swimming as well as jumping . unlike other subspecies of meadow jumping mouse , it is never found in meadows or grasslands without suitable perennial water and riparian habitat . it is rarely found more than a few feet ( 1 . 8 m ) from running water .\nthe mexican water mouse is classed as \u2018rare\u2019 by the mexican government ( 8 ) , but there are not known to be any specific conservation measures in place for the species . more research is needed to better understand this little - known rodent , and to determine the status of its populations and its specialised habitat , before appropriate conservation measures can be put in place ( 1 ) .\nthe mexican water mouse is very similar in appearance to crab - eating rats of the genus ichthyomys , but can be distinguished by its smaller size and by having four rather than five pads on the palm of the forefoot ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\nmcmullen , s . .\nhow to grow mexican miniature watermelon\naccessed july 08 , 2018 . urltoken\nwatering - a five gallon container can hold a substantial amount of moisture , so watering should be conducted only when the top couple inches of soil have become dry . water the plants thoroughly , and always allow excess water to drain free . if the plants are left sitting in standing water , they may develop root rot and die !\nbelow are images of just some of the water gaps / lanes near exclosures on the lincoln and santa fe national forests where livestock have full access to water . livestock have been utilizing these gaps extensively with no apparent difficulties .\nthe mexican spiny pocket mouse feeds on the seeds of hackberry , mesquite , and other shrubs as well as herbaceous plants . these mice have been known to store seeds in burrows .\nthe mexican spiny pocket mouse has a wide range and is common in suitable habitats within that range . the population size seems to be stable and no particular threats have been identified so the\nand there is a report of a forest deer mouse that lived 8 years in captivity ( another mouse was fertile until almost 6 years of age ) .\nin east chicago , ind . , immigrants with the mexican identification card , known as the matr\u00edcula consular , can now borrow library books and arrange city water services . in cincinnati , police officers accept the card from crime victims , witnesses and suspects .\nthe nm meadow jumping mouse ( jumping mouse ) is a rare subspecies found primarily near streams and wetlands in parts of new mexico , eastern arizona , and southern colorado .\ncactus mouse order : rodentia family : cricetidae genus : peromyscus species : p . eremicus\nbrush mouse order : rodentia family : cricetidae genus : peromyscus species : p . boylii\nthe jumping mouse has very specific habitat requirements . it requires perennial or seasonally perennial water and saturated soils that produce tall ( 24 + inch ) herbaceous riparian plants , and intact adjacent uplands ( see image below ) .\narizona pocket mouse order : rodentia family : heteromyidae genus : perognathus species : p . amplus\nplains pocket mouse order : rodentia family : heteromyidae genus : perognathus species : p . flavescens\nsilky pocket mouse order : rodentia family : heteromyidae genus : perognathus species : p . flavus\ndesert pocket mouse order : rodentia family : heteromyidae genus : chaetodipus species : c . penicillatus\nhispid pocket mouse order : rodentia family : heteromyidae genus : chaetodipus species : c . hispidus\nwestern harvest mouse order : rodentia family : cricetidae genus : reithrodontomys species : r . megalotis\nnorthern pygmy mouse order : rodentia family : cricetidae genus : baiomys species : b . taylori\nnorthern grasshopper mouse order : rodentia family : cricetidae genus : onychomys species : o . leucogaster\nsouthern grasshopper mouse order : rodentia family : cricetidae genus : onychomys species : o . torridus\nmeadow jumping mouse order : rodentia family : zapodidae genus : zapus species : z . hudsonius\nmcmullen , s . .\nhow to grow mexican miniature watermelon .\nhome guides | sf gate , urltoken accessed 08 july 2018 .\nthe majority of deer mice nest is up high in large hollow trees . the deer mouse nests alone for the most part but will sometimes nest with a deer mouse of the opposite sex .\nlong tailed pocket mouse order : rodentia family : heteromyidae genus : chaetodipus species : c . formosus\napplicants for the card must apply in person at their local consulate and provide supporting documents like birth certificates , mexican passports and voting cards . in march 2002 , the mexican government introduced an advanced matr\u00edcula card with security features , including invisible coding that can be read only with special detectors .\nalthough very few total acres are excluded from grazing , the majority of currently suitable critical habitat , particularly occupied critical habitat , is excluded from livestock grazing . at the same time , there are still many miles of stream and numerous water lanes that provide access for watering cattle . table 2 below shows the high percent of critical habitat stream miles in exclosures on the lincoln national forest , and the miles of stream access remaining in critical habitat . in addition to water access in critical habitat , there are many perennial stream reaches with water access outside critical habitat . no developed water diversions have been included in exclosures .\nmacmillen , r . e . 1972 . water economy of nocturnal desert rodents . symp . zool . soc . london . 31 : 147 - 174 .\njenkins , pd , and barnett , aa ( 1997 ) : a new species of water mouse , of the genus chibchanomys ( rodentia , muridae , sigmodontinae ) from ecuador . bulletin of the natural history museum : zoology series 63 , 123 - 128 .\nmouse melon vines on a homemade twine trellis . the trellis pictured is hand tied with hemp twine .\nbailey ' s pocket mouse order : rodentia family : heteromyidae genus : chaetodipus species : c . baileyi\nmcmullen , s . . ( n . d . ) . how to grow mexican miniature watermelon . home guides | sf gate . retrieved from urltoken\nvery little is known about the biology of the mexican water mouse . like other members of the genus , it has a semi - aquatic lifestyle , foraging for a range of aquatic insects , insect larvae , snails and other aquatic invertebrates , and possibly even small fish ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . other species have been observed to swim with only the head and the tip of the tail protruding above the water , and with the hind feet used for propulsion ( 5 ) . nothing is known about the reproductive behaviour of these rodents .\nthis species is threatened by human activities within its range , specifically by continued deforestation and water pollution ( ceballos 2014 ) . any type of water pollution , including household pollution from washing clothes , is considered a threat to this species . deforestation is occurring throughout the range of this species , except in steep riparian areas .\nencyclopedia of life . marmosa andersoni : anderson\u2019s mouse possum . accessed 14 december 2012 . available from : urltoken\na steady supply of moisture is required for good fruiting in mexican miniature watermelons . provide 1 inch of water every five to seven days during the summer months , wetting the top 6 to 15 inches of soil each time . during very hot , dry weather , increase water to twice weekly . monitor the soil during prolonged periods of foggy , cool weather and water only if the soil dries out in the top 1 inch . in warm inland areas , spread a 3 - to 4 - inch layer of lightweight mulch around each plant , keeping it from the base of the stems . mulch will help regulate moisture loss while keeping weeds at bay .\nin laboratory studies it was found that this pocket mouse was unable to maintain its body weight unless it had access to water . reproduction takes place during much of the year but seems to peak between august and november . litter sizes range from two to eight with four young being typical .\nthe bush administration and congress remain deeply divided over the issue , with some moderate republicans and some officials from the state and treasury departments offering support for the mexican card .\nmay 2011 - new mexico meadow jumping mouse included in landmark settlement with the u . s . fish and wildlife service\nendangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; designation of critical habitat for the new mexico meadow jumping mouse , final rule .\nthe mexican miniature watermelon ( melothria scabra ) goes by many common names , including mouse melon and cucumelon . with their oblong shape , green speckled skin and petite , 1 - to 2 - inch length , their fruit look like miniature watermelons , hence their common name . mexican miniature watermelons are carefree plants that will thrive despite neglect , drought and cool temperatures . however , the right growing conditions and a little routine care will help them reach their full potential .\nbelow : \u200ba new mexico meadow jumping mouse captured within a livestock exclosure on the lincoln nf ( sept . 2016 ) .\nthe mouse became a candidate for listing under the endangered species act in december 2007 , and was listed in june 2014 .\nmarch 2008 - wildearth guardians requests that the u . s . forest service reduce livestock grazing in jumping mouse ' s range\nlindeborg , r . g . 1952 . water requirements of certain rodents from xeric and mesic habitats . contrib . lab . vert . biol . , univ . michigan 58 : 1 - 32 .\nunlike many marsupials , female mexican mouse - opossums do not have pouches . instead , females carry their young on their backs . litters can be as large as thirteen , although most do not survive to maturity . mothers generally eat those young that die in order to recapture some of the nutrients that they have invested .\ndalquest , w . e . 1953 . mammals of the mexican state of san luis potosi . louisiana state univ . studies , biol . sci . ser . 1 : 1 - 229 .\nmexican officials counter that the older cards are being phased out as people renew their cards . they say their computer databases will soon be updated and that additional security features are in the works .\nthe currently accepted scientific name for deer mouse is peromyscus maniculatus ( wagner ) [ 51 ] . it is in the family cricetidae ( new world mice ) . hall [ 51 ] listed 67 subspecies , describing the species as a series of intergrading populations . subspecies in the same area may be ecologically distinct . subspecies mentioned in this text include [ 51 ] : cloudland deer mouse ( p . m . nubiterrae ) prairie deer mouse ( p . m . bairdii ) forest deer mouse ( p . m . gracilis )\nbelow : in many areas where access to streamside habitat by livestock is restricted ,\nlanes\nor corridors are left open and allow cattle access to the much needed water found in these riparian areas .\nthe forest service provided extensive comments to usfws regarding the listing and is actively exploring potential management and monitoring strategies for the jumping mouse .\njuly 2010 - wildearth guardians files lawsuit challenging u . s . fish and wildlife service\u2019s failure to list the new mexico meadow jumping mouse\nin march 2002 , only a handful of cities and banks recognized the matr\u00edcula card , mexican officials say . today , more than 100 cities , 900 police departments , 100 financial institutions and 13 states , including indiana , new mexico and utah , accept the cards , which carry the bearer ' s photo , name and address and are issued by mexican consulates to mexicans regardless of their immigration status .\nmacmillen , r . e . 1964 . population ecology , water relations , and social behavior of a southern california semidesert rodent fauna . univ . california publ . zool . 71 : 1 - 59 . -\non march 16 , 2016 , the usfws designated critical habitat for the jumping mouse , with an effective date of april 15 , 2016 .\nbal\u010diauskas , l , and bal\u010diausken\u0117 , l ( 2012 ) : mediterranean water shrew , neomys anomalus cabrera , 1907 \u2013 a new mammal species for lithuania north - western journal of zoology 8 , 367 - 369 .\nthe mexican spiny pocket mouse occurs in central and northeastern mexico and the extreme south of texas . it inhabits a variety of semi - arid brushy or rocky habitats , and is common where it lives . the\npockets\nof the pocket mouse are fur - lined cheek pouches , where seeds are carried from the foraging area to the burrow . mexican spiny pocket mice are grayish - brown , with white underparts . on the back , a mixture of stiff spiny hairs and soft ones gives the animal a somewhat coarse appearance . these mice are nocturnal and are active year - round .\nlinks : mammal species of the world click here for the american society of mammalogists species account\nnoting those found during focus on nature tours in mexico with an ( * ) tours during the months of march , june , august september , & november . this list of mexican mammals compiled by armas hill\nkrystufek , b , davison , a , and griffiths , hi ( 2000 ) : evolutionary biogeography of water shrews ( neomys spp . ) in the western palaearctic region . canadian journal of zoology 78 , 1616 - 1625 .\nthey are populous in the western mountains and live in wooded areas and areas that were previously wooded . the deer mouse is generally a nocturnal creature .\nlewis , a . w . 1972 . seasonal population changes in the cactus mouse , peromyscus eremicus . southwestern nat . 17 : 85 - 93 .\nmacmillen , r . e . 1965 . aestivation in the cactus mouse peromyscus eremicus . comp . biochem . physiol . 16 : 227 - 248 .\nis an abundant species , often among the most abundant mouse species of certain areas ( lter 1998 ) . densities can reach 11 mice per acre ( baker 1983 ) . quantity and quality of foods , availability of water , number and distribution of nest sites , architecture of living and dead vegetation , and depth and density of litter are some ecological factors proposed to affect the density of\nmany nongame mammals in arizona are poorly known . entire species complexes , such as the voles , gophers , and several genera of mice , have yet to be studied using modern genetic science . the ecology and distribution of some of these species is also poorly known . among those in need of field study are the water shrew , jumping mouse , and several species of pocket mice .\nofficials at the federal bureau of investigation and department of homeland security say this is worrisome because they believe the card is vulnerable to fraud and misuse by criminals and terrorists , a contention that mexican and some american officials dispute .\ndeer mouse breeding tends to be determined more by food availability rather than by season . in plumas county , california , deer mice bred through december in good\ncollecting seeds - if you wish to replant mouse melons the next season , the steps for seed collection is quite easy . to collect seeds , allow the mouse melon fruits to become so ripe on the plants that they fall off . the fruit that fall from the plant can then be collected and placed in a warm area in your home to ripen even further for a few more days . after they have fully ripened , cut the fruit open and squeeze the seeds out into a glass of declorinated water . allow the seeds to sit in the water for a few days , or until they begin to fall to the bottom . strain off any excess plant material left behind and allow the seeds to dry on a paper towel . once dry , store them in a paper envelope .\n; fungi have the least amount of intake . throughout the year , the deer mouse will change its eating habits to reflect on what is available to eat during that season . during winter months , the arthropods compose of one - fifth of the deer mouse ' s food . these include spiders , caterpillars , and\nwith its streamlined body , small , almost inconspicuous ears , and large , paddle - shaped hind feet , the mexican water mouse is well adapted to its semi - aquatic lifestyle . the hind feet are also partially webbed and are fringed with hair , giving extra propulsion in the water , and the long , furred tail , which is longer than the length of the head and body , may also aid in swimming ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . the short , dense , glossy fur is dark brown on the upperparts , often with a few longer , silvery outer hairs , and silvery white on the underparts , while the tail is also dark above and white below . the muzzle is quite blunt , with thin , stiff whiskers , and the eyes are tiny . juveniles are reported to be slate grey in colour ( 4 ) .\nmexican miniature watermelons are grown as annual vegetables in most areas , although they are technically tender perennials like tomatoes ( solanum lycopersicum ) . they require a long growing season with at least 65 to 75 days of warm , frost - free weather and soil temperatures between 75 and 85 degrees fahrenheit to bear fruit . gardeners in cooler areas can grow mexican miniature watermelons in pots and move them indoors to a warm , bright room when nighttime temperatures drop below 50 degrees fahrenheit .\nthrough collaborative efforts , adaptive management measures that provide for the protection of the mouse and the continuation of grazing have been developed and agreed to on 13 of the 14 allotments . the protective measures generally provide for exclusion of livestock grazing in most of the currently occupied critical habitat and a portion of the unoccupied critical habitat , and primarily consist of combinations of riparian exclosures , upland water developments , and other range improvements to reduce grazing pressure on riparian areas . no reductions in permitted numbers or significant change in season of use was required on any allotment . permittees have access to all working facilities and water developments . efforts to reach an approved solution on the final allotment are continuing .\nalternatively known as the mexican sour gherkin or cucamelon , the mouse melon is a rarely cultivated member of the cucumber family that is steadily gaining popularity in heirloom gardens . the species melothria scabra is characterized as a prolific vine that produces an ample amount of tiny fruit . although they look like little melons , the fruit taste more like a citrusy cucumber ! since the plants possess a small stature , they are the perfect choice for container gardeners looking to do a little pickling . don ' t let the summer season pass you by , come learn how to grow mouse melons today .\ni never heard of mouse melons . they look and sound interesting to try , if they ' re available in your local area or to grow . thanks for sharing .\no\u2019neill , m , nagorsen , d , and baker , r ( 2005 ) : mitochondrial dna variation in water shrews ( sorex palustris , sorex bendirii ) from western north america : implications for taxonomy and phylogeography . canadian journal of zoology 83 , 1469 - 1475 .\ndo you have a seed source for this mouse melon ? i would love to try it this summer . great hub . voted up , useful , tweet , & pin .\nthe department ( nmdgf ) should continue to encourage land managers to protect and enhance known or potential areas of meadow jumping mouse occurrence ( nmdgf , 1994 ) * 32 * .\n44 - morrison , j . l . 1992 . persistence of the meadow jumping mouse , zapus hudsonius luteus , in new mexico . southwestern naturalist . 37 : 308 - 311 .\ntessier , nathalie , sarah noel , and francois lapointe ( 2004 ) .\na new method to discriminate the deer mouse ( peromyscus maniculatus ) from the white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ) using species - specific primers in multiplex pcr\n. canadian journal of zoology 82 ( 11 ) : 1832\u201335 . doi : 10 . 1139 / z04 - 173 .\nfor more than a century , the card was used to ensure that mexican immigrants could receive consular assistance in dealing with american employers and police and help in shipping belongings home or relatives back for burial . the card was not typically used for dealing with american authorities .\ngiven that a majority of the remaining mouse habitat is on federal land , the usfws has been working closely with the usda forest service southwestern region ( usfs ) ( apache - sitgraves national forest , lincoln national forest , and santa fe national forest ) . these two agencies have come together to develop conservation measures that will protect the jumping mouse , continue livestock grazing on usfs lands , and provide those cattle with continued access to needed water . since the final listing announcement there has been much concern voiced by some members of the livestock industry , and it is the goal of the usfs and usfws to work with the livestock industry to address these concerns .\njuly 11 , 2014 - wildearth guardians warns the u . s . forest service that it will sue the federal agency to require greater protection of the streamside habitat of the new mexico meadow jumping mouse\nthe deer mouse is small in size , only 3 to 4 inches ( 8 to 10 cm ) long , not including the tail . they have large beady eyes and large ears giving them good\nmexican miniature watermelons are light to moderate feeders , depending on their soil . those grown in organically rich soil require no chemical fertilizers . amend lean or porous soil with a 2 - inch layer of compost worked into the top 6 to 8 inches of soil prior to planting . also , add 1 tablespoon of 6 - 10 - 10 analysis fertilizer to each planting hole to improve the soil ' s nutrient content . once established , mexican miniature watermelons need no supplemental feeding apart from a light , 3 - inch side - dressing of compost each month starting roughly two months after planting .\nin cactus mice , torpor is mainly circadian ( torpid by day , active by night ) ; ( macmillen , 1972 ) and can be employed anytime their energy supplies become limited ( morhardt and hudson , 1966 ) . macmillen ( 1965 , 1972 ) distinguished between winter ( circadian ) torpor , induced only by food restriction , and summer torpor , which may be circadian or may last two to three months . summer torpor was induced by food restriction or by imposing a negative water balance . according to macmillen ( 1964 , 1965 ) , cactus mice aestivate during the summer to conserve water and prolong food reserves .\ndeer mouse pups usually disperse after weaning and before the birth of the next litter , when they are reaching sexual maturity . occasionally juveniles remain in the natal area , particularly when breeding space is limited .\nthis month , cincinnati followed suit . officials say the move would be a boon to local economies , encouraging mexican immigrants to pour money into banks and businesses . they also say immigrants with bank accounts will be less vulnerable to criminals who prey on people who carry cash or keep money at home .\nchurch\ufb01eld , s ( 2007 ) : habitat use by water shrews , the smallest of amphibious . in n . dunstone , and m . l . gorman ( eds ) : behaviour and ecology of riparian mammals , vol . 71 . cambridge university press , new york , usa , pp . 49 - 69 .\nbut in recent months , mr . montes de oca and other undocumented immigrants from mexico have begun stepping out of the shadows . this summer , indianapolis and seven other midwestern cities started accepting an identity card issued by the mexican government , offering mexicans who are here illegally a startlingly new sense of legitimacy .\nthese days , the mexican consul here , sergio aguilera , drives from city to city , making his pitch . this week , he shuttled between east chicago , where he met with the mayor , and indianapolis , where he tried to persuade credit union executives to join the businesses that accept the card .\nbecause the two species are extremely similar in appearance , they are best distinguished through red blood cell agglutination tests or karyotype techniques . the deer mouse can also be distinguished physically by its long and multicolored tail .\nin a survey of small mammals on 29 sites in subalpine forests in colorado and wyoming , the deer mouse had the highest frequency of occurrence ; however , it was not always the most abundant small mammal .\nharvesting - once flowering is underway , the tiny mouse melon fruit won ' t be far behind . harvest the fruit when they have reached a nice plump size and are about one to one and half inches in length . pick the first few at a bit of an earlier stage to force more fruit production . after pollination , it takes about 2 - 3 weeks for the mouse melon fruit to reach a harvestable size .\n73 - u . s . fish and wildlife service . 2013 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; listing determination for the new mexico meadow jumping mouse . federal register 78 : 37363 - 37369 . urltoken view document\n84 - u . s . fish and wildlife service . 2016 . endangered and threatened wildlife ; designation of critical habitat for the new mexico meadow jumping mouse . 81 ( 51 ) : 14264 - 14325 . view document\n96 - wright , g . and frey , j . 2010 . cool season activity of the meadow jumping mouse in the middle rio grande . share with wildlife , new mexico department of game and fish . view document\nalbert g . huntington , the mayor of madison , ind . , agreed . mr . huntington said he could not ignore the needs of the mexican workers who were increasingly filling jobs in his small town . recognition of the matr\u00edcula card , he said , was simply a reflection of the demographic changes rippling across the midwest .\nbelow : grazing permittees and the us forest service meet on the santa fe national forest to discuss ways of protecting the jumping mouse and its critical habitat without having to adjust the permitted number of livestock or season of use .\nfemales deer mice can have many litters in a year . in the wild , reproduction may not occur during winter or other unfavorable seasons . females are able to become pregnant again shortly after giving birth . the pregnancy of a female deer mouse that is not nursing young lasts from 22 . 4 to 25 . 5 days and the pregnancy of a female deer mouse that is nursing young lasts 24 . 1 to 30 . 6 days . deer mice may have litters containing from one to eleven young with typical litters containing four , five , or six babies . litter size increases each time a female deer mouse gives birth until the fifth or sixth litter and decreases afterwards .\nis composed of a mixture of stiff spines with soft hairs , but because the hairs lie flat , the spines are the more noticeable part of the coat . the upper parts of the head and body are greyish - brown and the underparts whitish . there is a pinkish or buff lateral line separating the two colors . juveniles are grey and initially lack spines which grow through the coat later . the soles of the feet are haired and the mexican spiny pocket mouse is unique in its genus in possessing five rather than six tubercles on the hind foot .\nthe new mexico meadow jumping mouse has seen a significant population decline . this decline is mainly due to habitat loss and fragmentation across its range . about 95 percent of the range is found on federal and state lands . based on the further threat of habitat loss , the u . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) designated the new mexico meadow jumping mouse as endangered under the endangered species act ( esa ) on june 9 , 2014 .\n' ' they ' re coming , one way or another , ' ' said mr . huntington , who has decided to offer city services to mexican immigrants in his town of 12 , 500 people . ' ' so you have a choice . you can recognize them or you can ignore them and allow problems to develop . ' '\nnot surprisingly , mouse melons turned out to be one of my most productive patio crops of the 2013 season . the two plants that i grew produced handfuls of the delicious little cucamelons . the majority of them were enjoyed fresh , but i did pickle a jarful to see how they held up . using a rustic dill pickle recipe , the mouse melons turned out great ! although they lose a bit of their crispness , they ' re still very good . in the end , this is one heirloom that will definitely be grown again ! thanks for reading this guide on how to grow mouse melons . as always , please feel free to leave any comments or questions you may have .\nfull sun and rich , fast - draining soil provide the best conditions for growing mexican miniature watermelons . choose a growing site with full southern exposure and at least 12 square - inches of space for each plant . as vining plants , mexican miniature watermelons need a support structure to keep their stems and fruit off the ground , so install a small trellis or tomato cage for them to grow on . start the seeds indoors three to six weeks before the last spring frost , sowing them in starter pots at a depth of 1 / 2 to 1 inch . transplant the seedlings 12 inches apart after all frost danger has passed and the soil has warmed to 75 degrees fahrenheit .\nthe usfws and usfs will be establishing three working groups ; media , science / survey monitoring , and management coordination that will address the needs of both the jumping mouse and people who use the national forests for their livelihood or recreation .\n80 - u . s . fish and wildlife service . 2014 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; determination of endangered status for the new mexico meadow jumping mouse throughout its range . federal register 79 : 33119 - 33137 . view document\nthe meadow jumping mouse apparently requires relatively dense vegetation for population persistence , and its scarcity may be related to livestock overgrazing in streamside habitats ( clark and stromberg 1987 ) . periodic severe flooding may also contribute to its rarity ( finch , 1992 )\nthe card has been issued by the mexican government for more than 100 years to keep track of its citizens in the united states . but across this country cities and states are increasingly recognizing the card , too , as officials seek ways to identify residents in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of sept . 11 , 2001 , and try to better serve immigrants .\ndeer mice are abundant , often among the most abundant mice of certain areas . densities can reach 11 mice per acre . many factors including availablity of food , water , and nest sites are thought to affect how many deer mice can live in an area . however , only the availability of food has been studied in enough detail to show it has an effect on population density .\n83 - u . s . fish and wildlife service . 2014 . species status assessment report : new mexico meadow jumping mouse ( zapus hudsonius luteus ) . listing review team , u . s . fish and wildlife service , albuquerque , nm . view document\nmouse melons may not require a seasoned gardener to help them grow properly , but they will require a few basic necessities that only the gardener can provide . here ' s a look at what you ' ll need to keep your vines healthy throughout the season .\ntable 1 : this table presents the number and approximate total acreage of grazing allotments on which critical habitat for the new mexico meadow jumping mouse occurs for the lincoln and santa fe national forests ( as of july 5 , 2016 , and subject to change ) .\nspecific forms of management ( e . g . fencing of riparian areas , additional water developments , seasonal restrictions of certain activities , etc . ) have been undertaken to ensure that public - land cattle grazing can continue in close proximity to protected nmmjm habitat . in addition , some nmmjm habitat will continue to be grazed at a level that is likely to provide at least some conservation value for the species .\nwhile mouse melon vines will grow with ease and relatively little care from the gardener , they still need a few things from you ! follow the steps below , and you ' ll be well on your way to harvesting a ton of these tiny cucumbers / melons .\nsome uses of national forests may affect the jumping mouse or its critical habitat when they occur in or along streams and wetlands , and when they do the usfs is required to enter into esa section 7 consultations with the u . s . fish & wildlife service .\nthe meadow jumping mouse apparently requires relatively dense vegetation for population persistence , and its scarcity may be related to livestock overgrazing in streamside habitats ( clark and stromberg 1987 ) . periodic severe flooding may also contribute to its rarity ( finch , 1992 ) * 20 * .\nmexican miniature watermelons are resilient , attractive and productive plants , but there are drawbacks to consider when growing them . they self - seed readily in warm , frost - free locations , which can create a forest of unwanted seedlings . picking the fruit before it fully ripens and drops will help eliminate unwanted seedlings , as will raking up any fallen fruit before it breaks down and the seeds disseminate .\nstate wildlife management agencies in arizona , colorado and new mexico have considered the jumping mouse a species of management concern for several years . the state of new mexico listed the species as threatened in 1983 and upgraded it to endangered status in 2006 , where it remains today .\nfence construction on national forests lands will be limited to areas that are currently occupied by the mouse . this amounts to less that . 3 % of the 22 allotments where the mouse occurs . in the apache - sitgreaves nf there are 12 allotments totaling approximately 272 , 977 acres , of which only 698 acres ( 0 . 29 % ) is occupied ; the lincoln nf has 4 allotments ( 153 , 903 acres ) of which 272 acres are occupied ; and in the santa fe nf there are 6 allotments ( 180 , 212 acres ) of which only 283 acres are occupied .\nis a medium - sized mouse with rough pelage covering the upper body . the hairs are flattened with sharp points and grooves . the upper fur is dark gray with an orange tint . white fur covers the underside of the mouse except for the heel of the hind foot . the tail is covered with sparse hairs and is bicolored , brown above and white below . they possess external , fur lined , cheek pouches . the dental formula is that of a typical heteromyid rodent : i 1 / 1 , c 0 / 0 , pm 1 / 1 , m 3 / 3 . the average weight of\nthirty - four arizona mammals are identified as species of greatest conservation need . nine are also federally listed as endangered under the endangered species act . three of these species are extinct , and five have disappeared from arizona , although reintroduction efforts are underway for two ( black - footed ferret and mexican wolf ) . most other imperiled species have very small , local populations that face a variety of threats . some species are tied to riparian or native grassland habitats .\nthe apache - sitgreaves , santa fe , and lincoln national forests have populations of the jumping mouse and designated critical habitat units . there are approximately 7 , 713 acres ( encompassing approximately 100 stream miles ) among these three forests that are within critical habitat . there are 14 allotments with permitted grazing in critical habitat .\n28 - zwank , phillip j . , et al . 1994 . habitat use and population status of the meadow jumping mouse at bosque del apache national wildlife refuge . in : abstracts from presentations at arizona / new mexico chapters of the wildlife society , sierra vista , az . february 4 and 5 , 1994 .\n91 - wright , g . and frey , j . 2011 . cool / winter activity of the new mexico meadow jumping mouse . final report prepared for the share with wildlife program , new mexico department of game and fish , santa fe , nm , contract # 11 - 516 - 0000 - 000017 view document\nwater requirements , body temperature , and metabolism of p . eremicus have been studied in relation to adaptations to desert living by lindeborg ( 1952 ) , murie ( 1961 ) , mcnab and morrison ( 1963 ) , macmillen ( 1964 , 1965 ) , and morhardt and hudson ( 1966 ) . murie ( 1961 ) reported p . eremicus to have a 10 to 20 % lower metabolic rate and to resort to saliva spreading for evaporative cooling at high temperatures less readily than p . maniculatus .\nthe jumping mouse hibernates for approximately nine months ( around mid - sept to mid - june ) out of the year . therefore , it is only awake and active for about three months per year and must replenish energy , breed , rear young , and then accumulate sufficient fat reserves to sustain them through the next hibernation .\nunlike many marsupials , female mouse opossums do not possess a pouch to protect the young as they develop . the young are so undeveloped their eyes do not open until 39 to 40 days . it is likely that the young are completely weaned after around 65 days , and they may have an incredibly short life span of only one year .\non june 10 , 2014 , the u . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) listed the jumping mouse as an endangered species , with an effective date of july 10 , 2014 . the need for the listing was attributed to a\nsignificant reduction in occupied localities likely due to cumulative habitat loss and fragmentation across the range\n.\n60 - morrison , j . l . 1990 . the meadow jumping mouse in new mexico : habitat preferences and management recommendations . pp 136 - 141 . in proceedings of the symposium on managing wildlife in the southwest ( p . r . krausman and n . s . smith eds . ) . arizona chapter , the wildlife society , phoenix .\nthis mouse lives in dense vegetation and near rocky mountain slopes or stone fences . it has been found in the dense brush along the banks of the rio grande river and beside oxbow lakes , in subtropical palm forests , thickets of prickly pear cactus , and in chaparral . they build burrows that have their opening closed off by vegetation or mounds of dirt .\nduring the process to determine whether the new mexico meadow jumping mouse should be listed , we sought comments from independent specialists to ensure that our designation is based on scientifically sound data , assumptions , and analyses . we invited these peer reviewers to comment on our listing proposal . we also considered all comments and information received from the public and other sources during the comment period .\nfertile & well draining soil - like most other fruiting garden crops , mouse melons will need plenty of nutrition and ample soil drainage to produce at their maximum . the soil that they will be grown in should be amended with compost or aged manure in order to provide nutrition that will last all season . for soil drainage , perlite or small porous lava rocks can be added .\n. during the spring months , seeds become available to eat , along with insects , which are consumed in large quantities . leaves are also found in the stomachs of deer mice in the spring seasons . during summer months , the mouse consumes seeds and fruits . during the fall season , the deer mice will slowly change its eating habits to resemble the winter ' s diet .\nthe mouse melon vine is native to mexico and surrounding central america . these plants grow quickly and produce fruit for a long period throughout the summer season . while the vines can reach lengths in excess of ten feet , they can be easily trained to grow on compact twine trellises . other than their need to grow on something , the vines are relatively low maintenance and disease free !\nhave remarkable manipulative powers . it uses this ability to burrow in the ground . the burrow can be 30 mm in diameter and 40 cm in length . the mouse - opossum then fills the burrow with leaves to create a nest . more commonly it creates nests in trees especially abandoned bird nests . when threatened it can become aggressive , opening its mouth and hissing or a clicking noise .\nfive gallon planter - gardeners who plant to grow these in containers will be very happy to hear that they can and will grow just fine ! unlike standard cucumbers that require much larger containers to reach their full potential , the mouse melons will produce heavily in a five gallon container ! for the best results , use a clay or wood container with plenty of holes in the bottom for drainage .\ncompost tea as a foliar spray - every other week , or after soaking rains , mist the upper and undersides of the mouse melon foliage with a compost tea spray . this natural spray will not only provide extra nutrition for the plant , but it will also create healthier leaves . forming a thin residue on the foliage , the compost tea will also help to create a natural insect barrier !\nthe forest service is facing a difficult decision . it will have to weigh its mandate to protect the mouse ' s habitat against the needs of local ranchers , recreationists , and other animals . the plaintiffs greatly value their access to the grazing allotments . the surrounding communities greatly value the ranchers and their work . ultimately , the forest service must consider the full panoply of human and environmental impacts .\ndeer mice occur throughout most of north america and are abundant in most areas . deer mouse is the most widely distributed peromyscus species [ 51 ] . deer mice are distributed from quebec and new brunswick west to yukon territory and southeast alaska ; south to baja california and through the sierra madre to southern mexico ; south in central texas to the gulf of mexico ; and south in the appalachian mountains to northern georgia [ 57 , 127 ] .\npollination - an important part to the production of fruit on the mouse melon vine is proper pollination of the flowers . since the vines produce both male and female flowers on the same plant , they will need some form of insect to properly move pollen from the male flowers to the female flowers . to ensure that pollination is occurring , observe the plant for pollinator activity . if no pollinators are present , you can use a cotton swab to manually pollinate the flowers .\nthe mouse should leave a lump in the kingsnake a little larger than the snake\u2019s normal diameter mid body . until the snake is established with you , do not handle it until the lump has digested down to normal diameter of the snake . feeding once a week will maintain your california kingsnake , but the snake will grow faster if you feed it twice a week or more , if it will take it . once the kingsnake reaches adult size , avoid obesity . reduce feeding if necessary .\nis very altricial at birth but develops quickly . at birth , the deer mouse has a mass of about 1 . 5 g . the young are born hairless with wrinkled , pink skin , closed eyes , and folded over ear pinnae . juvenile hair begins to develop on the second day after birth . on the third day , the pinnae unfold with the ear canal opening on the tenth day . eyes open on the fifteenth day , and the young are weaned between day 25 and 35 .\nare seasonally polyestrous with an estrous cycle of about five days . in the wild , reproduction may not occur during winter or other unfavorable seasons ( lter 1998 ) . females exhibit post - partum estrus and are able to become pregnant shortly after giving birth ( baker 1983 ) . the gestation period of a nonlactating female deer mouse lasts from 22 . 4 to 25 . 5 days and 24 . 1 to 30 . 6 days in a lactating female ( kirkland and layne 1989 ) . litter size is highly variable between populations ."]}
{"id": 142, "summary": [{"text": "the plymouth red-bellied turtle ( pseudemys rubriventris bangsi ) , sometimes called the plymouth red-bellied cooter , the first freshwater turtle in the us to be listed as endangered , by the united states fish and wildlife service was found only in plymouth county , massachusetts before the state began trying to establish populations in other areas .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "current thinking is that they are not a full subspecies and that they belong in synonymy under pseudemys rubriventris or northern red-bellied cooter .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "nevertheless , it is well recognized that the plymouth red-bellied turtle extends the range of the northern red-bellied cooter by 30 \u2013 40 percent .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "in 1983 , massasoit national wildlife refuge was established to help conserve the plymouth red-bellied turtle .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this turtle gets its name from its reddish plastron or undershell .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "they have flattened or slightly concave vertebral scutes with a red bar on each marginal scute .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "their upper shell or carapace ranges from brown to black .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "an arrow-shaped stripe runs atop head , between the eyes , to their snout .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "adults are 10 \u2013 16 inches ( 25 \u2013 41 cm ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "males have elongated , straight claws on the front feet .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it lives in the plymouth pinelands of the massachusetts and spends most of its time in freshwater ponds .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "in spring and summer , the females nest in sand while the males look for food .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "females lay 5 \u2013 17 eggs at a time .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the incubation of the eggs takes 73 to 80 days , and the eggs hatch at around 25 \u00b0c ( 77 \u00b0f ) .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "hatchlings are about 32 millimetres ( 1.3 in ) long .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "eggs and young turtles are prey to skunks , raccoons , birds , and fish .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "their natural lifespan is 40 to 45 years .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the population had been reduced to 200 \u2013 300 turtles by the 1980s .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "by 2007 , there were estimated to be 400 \u2013 600 breeding age turtles across 20 ponds .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "this is due to overhunting by its natural predator the skunk and pollution from herbicides dumped into streams and ponds .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "loss of habitat , as a result of filling in ponds to create houses is also a major issue . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "plymouth red - bellied turtle", "paragraphs": ["(\nspecies turtle , red - bellied , plymouth\n, 1996 ;\nplymouth rebelly turtle habitat model\n, 2001 ; ernst , et al . , 1994 )\n1996 .\nspecies turtle , red - bellied , plymouth\n( on - line ) . accessed march 19 , 2003 at urltoken .\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - plymouth red - bellied turtle facts\n( online ) . accessed\nthe plymouth red - bellied turtle is thought to be limited to about 17 ponds and one river site in plymouth county , massachusetts . the total number of breeding individuals is believed to be about 300 .\nthe plymouth red - bellied turtle prefers deep , permanent ponds with nearby sandy areas for nesting , and surrounding vegetation of pine barrens or mixed deciduous forest .\nplymouth red - bellied turtle .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nwikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article\nplymouth red - bellied turtle\n.\nplymouth red - bellied turtle .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1985 .\nplymouth red - bellied turtle recovery plan .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service , newton corner , massachusetts .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1994 .\nplymouth red - bellied turtle recovery plan , second revision .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service , newton corner , massachusetts .\nred - bellied turtles are considered endangered according to the endangered species act of 1973 . the subspecies\npseudemys rubriventris bangsi is the scientific name for the common named plymouth red - bellied cooter . these turtles can be found in deep ponds , lakes , streams , rivers , and marshes . they mostly live in freshwater .\n2001 .\nplymouth rebelly turtle habitat model\n( on - line ) . usfws gulf of maine watershed habitat analysis . accessed march 19 , 2003 at urltoken .\neastern red - bellied turtles act as both predator and prey . their prey include crayfish , snails , fish , and tadpoles . predators of\nthe plymouth red - bellied turtle is believed to be a subspecies of the eastern red - bellied turtle ( pseudemys rubriventris ) . some biologists argue that the subspecies only exists because of a taxonomic error , and that the plymouth red - bellied turtle is only an isolated population of the eastern red - bellied turtle . nevertheless , the subspecies is classified as endangered throughout its entire range in massachusetts . the eastern red - bellied turtle is a shy pond turtle species . adults grow from 10 to 15 inches in length . their carapaces are brown to black with flat scutes . their heads are arrow - like in shape with stripes that run between the eyes and to the nose . the plastron ( undershell ) is reddish in color , giving the red - bellied turtle its name . males have long claws on their front feet . eastern red - bellied turtles can be found in deep ponds , lakes , streams and rivers . they can often be found basking not too far from the water . diet consists of snails , slugs , crayfish , tadpoles , and aquatic plants . mating occurs in the spring , and nesting from june to july . females lay from 8 to 20 eggs , and the hatchlings emerge 10 to 15 weeks later . the young turtles sometimes remain in the nest throughout the winter . in massachusetts , these turtles are said to be very vulnerable ( as eggs and young turtles ) to predation by skunks , raccoons , birds , and fish , and the population was reduced to 200 to 300 turtles in the 1980s . conservation efforts include preservation of the turtles habitat and protection of the nests . there are also several head start programs in place in massachusetts to help raise hatchlings until they are able to survive on their own .\npseudemys rubriventris bangsi , also known as the plymouth red - bellied turtle , or the northern red - bellied cooter , has been listed as endangered and protected under the endangered species act of 1973 since april 2 , 1980 ( 3 ) . until recently , the turtle was classified taxonomically as a subspecies due to differences in shell morphology ( 4 ) . when it was later found that this species showed no difference in morphology or genetics from the mid - atlantic red - bellied turtles pseudemys rubriventris ( 4 ) , the national wilderness institute filed a petition in 1997 asking that pseudemys rubriventris bangsi be removed from the endangered species list due to taxonomical error at the time of listing ( 2 ) .\neat the hatchlings and eggs . red - bellied turtles escape predators by burying themselves in the mud , swimming aggressively , or by withdrawing into their shells .\nthe northern red - bellied cooter ( pseudemys rubriventris pop . ) is endemic to ponds in eastern massachusetts [ 1 ] . it formerly occurred in a patchy distribution in most of the state ' s coastal counties including essex , middlesex , plymouth , barnstable , and dukes . the only non - coastal county with a historical record is worcester . today it occurs only in plymouth county .\nroy mcdiarmid ( pers . comm . , june 2001 ) indicates that current thinking is that the massachusetts populations previously referred to as pseudemys rubriventris bangsi babcock , 1937 ( plymouth red - bellied turtle ) , which are listed as endangered by the us fish & wildlife service , are not a full subspecies ; they belong in synonymy under p . rubriventris ( leconte , 1830 )\nin 1983 , the massasoit national wildlife refuge was established to help conserve the plymouth red - bellied turtles . at the current moment , measures are being taken to preserve the turtle ' s habitats and protecting of the nests . there are many\nhead start\nprograms in massachusetts to help raise the hatchlings until they are big and strong enough to survive on their own .\ntable 1 : number and locations of hs hatchlings in plymouth county , ma from 1984 - 2006 ( 3 ) .\nat maturity , the plymouth red - bellied turtle , pseudemys rubriventris bangsii , achieves a carapace ( upper shell ) length of up to 12 in ( 31 cm ) . the carapace is typically black to deep mahogany with reddish vertical bars , but color and patterning vary widely . the male undershell ( plastron ) is pale pink , overlaid with a dark mottling . the female under - shell is a brilliant coral red . the upper jaw is notched and displays distinct cusps .\narchaeological evidence suggests that this species occurred in a fairly restricted area of eastern massachusetts defined by ipswich , concord , and martha ' s vineyard . a closely related subspecies , the red - bellied turtle ( pseudemys rubriventris rubriventris ) , ranges from north carolina to southern new jersey .\nred - bellied turtles were economically important to humans in the colonial times as a source of food and trade . today , their shells make decorative art . doctors have an interest in the workings of the turtles ' hearts and have performed operations recorded in scientific journals . red - bellied turtles also help control the population of hyacinth , an invasive aquatic plant .\nthe carapace of the red - bellied turtle can measure from 10 \u2013 16 in and is dark brown or black in color ( 1 , 3 ) . the scutes ( modified scales ) on the carapace are flat and nearly concave ( 1 ) . there is also a red bar on the marginal scutes . the name red - bellied comes from the reddish color of the plastron , which is also accompanied by dark markings ( 1 ) . sexual dimorphism is evident at 5 to 7 years ( 3 ) with males having long , straight claws on front limbs ( 1 ) .\nother negative impacts on this turtle include incidental mortality from highway traffic , occasional shooting , and use as pets . another threat could arise in the future if pond levels were subject to extensive draw downs as might occur if the plymouth aquifer were tapped as a water source for metropolitan areas . such draw downs could affect the turtle ' s food supply as well as cover .\nred - bellied turtles are diurnal reptiles , spending most of their days basking on logs and swimming . they are most active from april to october . during winter , when water is covered with ice ,\neastern redbelly turtle\n( on - line ) . enature . accessed 03 / 19 / 03 at urltoken .\nthe turtles hibernate in mud at the bottoms of rivers during the winter time . the description of a red - bellied turtle , as you can see , is a brown / black carapace and concave scutes . each scute has a red bar and there is a stripe on the head . scutes are lightly marked and the males have straight claws on front feet . dimensions are 10 - 15 inches . these turtles breed during june and july . there are 8 - 20 eggs in a clutch , dimension of egg is 1 inch . time period it takes to hatch is 10 - 15 weeks , but sometimes they don ' t hatch until the following year . their natural lifespan is 40 - 45 years . the red - bellied turtle gets its name from its reddish plastron .\nthe loss of federal protections and the associated recovery plan could have resulted in drastic population declines . in 1996 , there was new criteria for which a species could be considered endangered ; this was beneficial to protecting the plymouth red - bellied turtle ( 3 ) . the 1996 disjunct / discrete population segment policy allows populations to be considered on their own for extinction risks if there is significant reproductive isolation ( 3 ) . this lack of interbreeding with the rest of the species could be due to physiological , behavioral , ecological and / or physical factors ( 3 ) . in the case of pseudemys rubriventris bangsi , the nearest population is approximately 250 miles south ; this significant isolation distance may have existed for hundreds of years ( 3 ) . isolation and the lack of any migratory evidence have led to the plymouth red - bellied turtle being granted the status of a discrete population segment , under which it maintains its endangered designation under the endangered species act ( 3 ) . many recommend that the name bangsi be retained , even though it is no longer an official subspecies . some experts claim that the extinction of the plymouth population would result in a 40 % reduction in the range of the species ( 3 ) .\nto counter habitat loss , the nature conservancy included several turtle ponds in its land registry program in massachusetts . under this system , landowners voluntarily agreed to avoid activities on their lands that would harm the turtle . this voluntary program provided the nucleus for the establishment of a permanent federal wildlife refuge in 1986 . the refuge includes all turtle ponds known to be inhabited and others that were once inhabited .\n3 . michael j . amaral . northern red - bellied cooter ( pseudemys rubriventris ) 5 - year review : summary and evaluation may 3 , 2007 u . s . fish and wildlife service new england field office concord , new hampshire urltoken\n5 . aquatic oxygen consumption by wintering red - bellied turtles terry e . graham ; robert w . guimond journal of herpetology , vol . 29 , no . 3 . ( sep . , 1995 ) , pp . 471 - 474 .\nthe carapaces of adult red - bellied turtles are on average 26 to 32 cm in length . the carapace is a mahogany black color with red lines running dorso - ventrally . they have a serrated front upper - jaw . the head is brown and arrow - shaped with a yellow line that extends between the eyes and snout . a series of consecutive thick and thin yellow bands come off the anterior of the eye and travel laterally down the neck . this species exhibits sexual dimorphism . the plastrons of male red - bellied turtles are light pink . they have long , straight claws on their feet and an anal opening that extends beyond the shell . the females are larger than the males with brighter red plastrons containing gray borders . the hatchlings of\nthe greatest threat to this turtle is its limited distribution . many of the habitat ponds are within an area of only 1 , 500 acres ( 607 hectares ) . in the early 1980s , plymouth county experienced a development boom . pondshore land , in particular , was considered prime for residential development . the massachusetts wetlands protection act provided some protection against alteration of turtle pond habitats . but even when ponds were left intact by construction , houses and roads eliminated nesting and basking sites .\neastern red - bellied turtles inhabit large freshwater lakes , rivers , ponds , and creeks . most of these waters are fast moving , deep - bodied , and contain a muddy bottom where the water depth ranges from 2 - 3 . 5 m . occasionally ,\nfemale eastern red - bellied turtles dig a nest cavity 10 cm wide by 10 cm deep in the sand in early june or july . this nest cavity is found in a well - insulated area 90 m from the water , and 1 m above pond level .\nthere are currently 20 ponds in plymouth county massachusetts , a region in southeastern massachusetts experiencing increasing land development , that are inhabited by pseudemys rubriventris bangsi ( 3 ) . the ponds are land - locked coastal plain ponds fed by groundwater , springs and connected by an underground aquifer ( 3 ) . as much as 50 % of the population inhabits federal pond , which is owned and utilized by federal furnace cranberry company ( 3 ) . plymouth county is being developed quickly and the cranberry company has been reviewing development opportunities which could endanger the turtle even more ( 3 ) . although southeastern massachusetts cranberry agriculture draws nearly 3 . 5 billion gallons of water per year from local surface waters , red - bellied turtles have a better chance of continuing their existence by depending on the same water as cranberry growers than sharing their ponds with residential development .\nturtle taxonomy working group [ van dijk , p . p . , j . iverson , a . rhodin , h . shaffer , and r . bour ]\nwhen listed as an endangered species , the taxon was called the\nplymouth red - bellied turtle\nand was considered a subspecies ( pseudemys rubriventris bangsi ) [ 1 ] . the subspecies has since been invalidated , but the 1994 federal recovery plan explains that as an ecologically and geographically distinct population , it still qualifies as an endangered species . the nearest individuals of the southern population are 250 miles away in southern new jersey . the northern population is also unique in only being found naturally in ponds . the southern population is often riverine . the taxon ' s status as an endangered species will be reviewed in 2006 in response to a delisting petition [ 2 , 5 ] .\nbrowne , r . , a . haskell , c . griffin , j . ridgeway . 1996 . genetic variations among populations of the redbelly turtle ( pseudemys rubriventris ) .\n[ 1 ] u . s . fish and wildlife service . 1994 . plymouth redbelly turtle ( pseudernys rubriventris ) recovery plan , second revision . u . s . fish and wildife service , hadley , massachusetts . 48 pp . [ 2 ] amaral , m . 2006 . personal communication with michael amaral , u . s . fish and wildlife service , concord , nh , february 7 , 2006 . [ 3 ] amaral , m . 2006 . released northern red - bellied cooters , 1985 - 2003 . spreadsheet provided by michael amaral , u . s . fish and wildlife service , concord , nh , february 7 , 2006 . [ 4 ] french , t . 2006 . personal communication with tom french , massachusetts natural heritage and endangered species program , westborough , ma , february 7 , 2006 , and february 8 , 2006 . [ 5 ] gordon , r . 1997 . petition to remove the ' plymouth redbelly turtle ' ( ' pseudemys rubriventris bangsi ' ) from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife and plants . national wilderness institute , february 3 , 1997 .\nhibernate in the mud at the bottom of rivers . red - bellied turtles are not territorial . they are shy and wary of humans and predators and swim rapidly and bury themselves in the mud when scared . numerous individuals frequently inhabit the same rocks or logs while sunbathing . however , aggression over basking spots between\nthere is a dispute over the correct genus of the eastern redbelly turtle . some choose to use pseudemys while others use chrysemys . oftentimes , chrysemys is used only for painted turtles .\npredation by raccoons , skunks , and widemouth bass is also considered a serious threat to the turtle population . raccoons and skunks dig out nests and eat the eggs , while bass snatch turtle hatchlings from the water before the shells have a chance to harden . to counter this threat , researchers under the direction of the massachusetts natural heritage and endangered species program began locating turtle nests and fencing sites to exclude predators . at the time of fencing , several eggs are removed from each nest , then hatched and raised in a collaborative captive breeding program .\nspans the mid - atlantic coastal waters of the usa from new jersey to north carolina . this includes areas east to the potomac river and west to w . virginia . there is a disjunctive population of eastern red - bellied turtles in massachusetts , as well as a small , introduced population in long island , new york .\nlay eggs under 10 cm of sand . the young emerge as hatchlings after 73 to 80 days and quickly make their way to the nearest water source , where they will develop into adults . hatchlings are typically between 29 and 36 mm in plastron length . eastern red - bellied turtles reach sexual maturity after 5 to 9 years .\nare found in brackish water at the mouths of rivers . they surround themselves with aquatic vegetation , rocks , and logs for basking in the sun . eastern red - bellied turtles become terrestrial for short periods of time while laying eggs in june or july . they show little evidence of migration and often occupy the same habitat year - round .\nred - bellied turtles are omnivores that feed on snails , plants , worms , tadpoles , crayfish , and insect larvae . these turtles are endangered throughout massachusetts . their population had been reduced to 200 - 300 turtles by 1980s . by 2007 , there were estimated to be about 400 - 600 breeding age turtles across 20 ponds . reasons for endangerment are overhunting . skunks , raccoons , birds , and fish eat the turtle ' s eggs and hatchlings . their habitat is threatened by draining of the wetlands . another major issure to endangerment is loss of habitat by filling in ponds with houses .\nhatchlings are held over the winter , during which time they develop at a rate five times faster than those remaining in the wild . by spring , these young turtles are able to resist predation and are released into the turtle ponds .\npseudemys rubriventris bangsi must cope with harsh winters that are not experienced by mid - atlantic populations of pseudemys rubriventris ( 3 ) . winter research utilizing scuba has observed plymouth red - bellied turtles sleeping exposed on the bottom of ponds as opposed to being burrowed in the mud . this occurs despite ponds being completely frozen ( 5 ) . pseudemys rubriventris bangsi has also been observed making small jaw movements to draw in water for buccopharyngeal gas exchange ( 3 , 5 ) . other observations included more movement under ice cover than previously thought . radio - telemetry showed movements of 7 . 6 m per week , although during some weeks they remained motionless ( 5 ) . these underwater movements increased to 36 m per week after ice melt ( 5 ) .\nthe term is used in the 1994 iucn red list of threatened animals to refer collectively to species categorized as endangered ( e ) , vulnerable ( v ) , rare ( r ) , indeterminate ( i ) , or insufficiently known ( k ) and in the 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals to refer collectively to species categorized as critically endangered ( cr ) , endangered ( en ) , or vulnerable ( vu ) .\nthe headstart program is at the core of the recovery plan for the plymouth red - bellied turtle . due to high predation , one of the main strategies in the recovery plan is to protect nests and take hatchlings from the wild . the hatchlings are raised in captivity in 84\u00baf water and fed a head of romaine lettuce per day until they grow to be much larger than their non - headstarted counterparts . this strategy allows turtles to reach a size large enough to avoid much of the predation that threatens them in the wild . studies have shown that carapace lengths of 66 - 95 mm and 296 mm increase survival rates to high levels ( 6 ) . sometimes the headstarted turtles are six times larger than they would be if they had been left in the wild as a hatchling ( 6 ) . the first headstarted turtles were taken in 1984 and released in 1985 . since then , 2725 turtles have been headstarted through this recovery effort ( 3 ) . headstarted turtles , along with having a higher survival rate , also reach sexual maturity sooner ( 3 ) .\nproduce one clutch of eggs yearly containing 8 to 22 eggs . hatching occurs in 73 to 80 days . the hatchlings emerge from august to october . if late nesting occurs , hatchlings do not emerge before the winter . eggs incubated on natural sand are larger and have a better chance of survival than eggs incubated in artificial settings . due to the loss of natural habitats , female red - bellied turtles sometimes lay eggs in homeowner ' s yards . females try to return to the same nesting sights every year .\n4 . robert a . browne ; n . alison haskell ; curtice r . griffin ; jeffrey w . ridgeway genetic variation among populations of the redbelly turtle ( pseudemys rubriventris ) copeia , vol . 1996 , no . 1 . ( feb . 2 , 1996 ) , pp . 192 - 195 .\nthe primary management objective for this turtle is to restore and maintain self - sustaining populations . reclassification to threatened status could occur if the species increases to at least 15 self - sustaining populations with 600 breeding - age individuals . delisting will be considered when numbers increase to 1 , 000 breeding - age turtles in 20 or more self - sustaining populations ( in ponds , lakes and possibly rivers ) . in addition to the population targets , maintenance of sufficient habitat to allow long - term survival of the population and an understanding of the turtle ' s life history and habitat requirements sufficient for management purposes , will be required to meet the full recovery objective .\nthe main threats to the plymouth population are habitat loss , altered habitat , and high predation ( 3 ) . ponds that previously had sunny shores ideal for egg incubation now are surrounded by a closed canopy due to intentional suppression of forest fires that use to occur naturally due to native american fires and lightning ( 3 ) . cooler temperatures in the shade have resulted in loss of nesting habitat and an unequal sex ratio as described above ( 3 ) .\nduring the incubation period , and in the first few years of life , pseudemys rubriventris bangsi experiences very high predation . nest predation , which can be as high as 100 % for nests that are not protected at federal pond , is carried out by crows , red fox , skunks , raccoons and coyotes , while hatchlings are preyed on by largemouth bass ( micropterus salmoides ) , chain pickerel ( esox niger ) , snapping turtles , great blue heron and bull frogs ( rana catesbeiana ) ( 3 , 6 ) . analysis of the stomach contents of bull frogs provides evidence that they are one of the main predators of hatchlings ( 6 ) . the survival rate of hatchlings is thought to be very low . similar freshwater turtles , such as blanding\u2019s turtle , may have a hatchling survival rate of only 1 % ( 3 ) . it is difficult to study the survival rate using the current shell notch identifying technique , because the notches are no longer discernable when the turtles are recaptured as adults ( 3 ) .\ndue to the loss of historic populations , increasing shoreline and between - pond development , and increased predation pressure , the northern red - bellied cooter was placed on the endangered species listed and granted critical habitat in 1980 [ 1 ] . twelve occupied ponds were known at the time . three additional populations , including federal pond , were discovered in subsequent years . federal pond was and is the largest population . an active\nheadstarting\nprogram introduced the cooter to ten additional ponds and two rivers by 2005 [ 2 , 3 , 4 ] . all nests discovered each year are caged to protect the eggs and hatchlings from predators ( about 95 % of uncaged nests suffer predation ) [ 2 ] . when hatching is complete , 50 % of the hatchlings are released into the same pond and 50 % are moved to headstarting facilities which raise them to a size that is less vulnerable to predation . the headstarted turtles are reintroduced to the same or new sites . between 1985 and 2005 , the program released over 2 , 500 turtles [ 3 , 4 ] . headstarted turtles were first documented to breed in the wild in 2000 [ 5 ] .\nthis turtle is primarily aquatic , preferring small ponds but is occasionally found on land near the water . it is most active from late march to october . in the winter it rests on the pond bottom beneath the ice in an inactive state similar to hibernation , known as brumation . it feeds on aquatic vegetation , crayfish , and other small pond fauna . in late spring and early summer , the female selects a nesting site in sandy soil close to the pond . after scooping a hole , she deposits 10 - 17 eggs , which incubate between 73 and 80 days . hatchlings are only about 1 in ( 2 . 5 cm ) long . hatchlings may emerge from nests to enter ponds in late summer , or overwinter in the nest chamber and emerge the following spring . females reach sexual maturity in 8 - 15 years ; males may mature earlier .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nrange depth 2 to 3 . 5 m 6 . 56 to 11 . 48 ft\nhave an orange plastron and a green carapace covered with light green markings . the skin is light green as well . a possible subspecies ,\nof massachusetts , has a greater height ( by 2 . 4 times ) due to a more domed carapace .\nhas never been observed . scientists know mating does occur in shallow water in the fall or spring . with regards to a closely related species ,\n, the male pursues the female and sniffs her tail after the female releases a pheromone . in the following mating ritual , he then swims above and in front of her in the water and rapidly strokes her face with his claws . if a female\naccepts his advances , the male then swims behind the female , mounting her for copulation .\n. they frequent the same rocks and logs while sunbathing and often sit on top of each other . regarding\n, a closely related species , females communicate by the emission of pheromones and males by tactile contact and a mating dance .\n. juveniles are herbivorous and adults are omnivorous . laboratory hatchlings can be fed brine shrimp\n. lawn mowers frequently kill turtles resting in grass . housing developments around rivers and ponds result in loss of nesting sights .\ninclude bullfrogs , skunks , raccoons , wading birds , crows , and mice . eastern redbelly turtles play an important role in the middle of the food chain . they also are responsible for controlling the population of hyacinth , an invasive plant .\nis considered threatened by the lacey act . this makes it illegal to import , export , transport , sell , or buy any part of the animal , dead or alive . the environmental protection agency is responsible for maintaining water treatment plants that do not harm the turtles . main causes of endangerment include expanding housing developments and a loss of nesting sights , pollutants , pesticides , and predation on eggs and hatchlings . the u . s . fish and wildlife service enacted a plan in 1985 to protect existing populations , to prevent hunting of the turtles , to collect eggs to hatch in captivity , and to educate the local public on the turtles .\nkelly clark ( author ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , phil myers ( editor ) , museum of zoology , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nan area where a freshwater river meets the ocean and tidal influences result in fluctuations in salinity .\nhaving a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .\nthe state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced , thus lowering the animal ' s energy requirements . the act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state , typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nmany forms .\na species is polymorphic if its individuals can be divided into two or more easily recognized groups , based on structure , color , or other similar characteristics . the term only applies when the distinct groups can be found in the same area ; graded or clinal variation throughout the range of a species ( e . g . a north - to - south decrease in size ) is not polymorphism . polymorphic characteristics may be inherited because the differences have a genetic basis , or they may be the result of environmental influences . we do not consider sexual differences ( i . e . sexual dimorphism ) , seasonal changes ( e . g . change in fur color ) , or age - related changes to be polymorphic . polymorphism in a local population can be an adaptation to prevent density - dependent predation , where predators preferentially prey on the most common morph .\nreferring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody ( usually , but not always , a river or stream ) .\none of the sexes ( usually males ) has special physical structures used in courting the other sex or fighting the same sex . for example : antlers , elongated tails , special spurs .\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\n2004 .\npseudemys rubriventris\n( on - line ) . natureserve explorer . accessed march 19 , 2003 at urltoken .\n1999 .\npseudemys concinna\n( on - line image ) . accessed april 06 , 2003 at urltoken .\n2003 .\npseudemys rubriventris study\n( on - line ) . jug bay wetlands sanctuary . accessed march 19 , 2003 at urltoken .\nto cite this page : clark , k . 2004 .\npseudemys rubriventris\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\npseudemys rubriventris bangsi has a life expectancy of 40 to 45 years and does not reach sexual maturity until 15 to 20 years in age ( 3 ) . females dig terrestrial nests near ponds and lay one to two clutches per year , although one is more typical ( 3 ) . the incubation period is 73 to 80 days and the temperature required is 25\u00bac ( 3 ) . sex determination of the offspring is dependent on temperature , with cooler temperatures producing more males ( 3 ) . due to closed forest canopies at nesting areas , an increasing percentage of nests are lacking the required sunlight needed to produce females . in boot pond , this has resulted in a reported ratio of 21 males to every eight females . this unequal sex ratio is limiting to the effective size of the population ( 3 ) .\nthe mid - atlantic populations of pseudemys rubriventris live in different habitats compared to their northern disjuncts . they inhabit rivers , creeks , interconnected pond habitats , and / or brackish water ( 3 ) . while pseudemys rubriventris bangsi have to travel in upland areas to migrate to another pond , the mid - atlantic population of pseudemys rubriventris can travel huge distances by water ( 3 , 4 ) . not only do they have different pressures in the winter , they also have different dispersal strategies and associated food webs ( 3 ) .\nthere is very little habitat protected for these turtles . crooked pond is protected in the massasoit national wildlife refuge , and east head pond is in the myles standish state forest , but a neighboring cranberry grower holds the water rights ( 3 ) . there is a nesting beach protected on island pond and gunner\u2019s pond , but the entire pond is not protected ( 3 ) .\nthe recovery plan lists the criteria necessary for changing the esa status from endangered to threatened as having 600 breeding adults in 15 or more self - sustaining populations of 50 or more turtles . delisting the turtles would require 1000 breeders in 20 self - sustaining populations . the current population estimates suggest that there may be between 400 and 600 breeders in the current population in 20 ponds , but only 10 of these ponds contain more than 20 breeders , and very few are protected ponds . these populations , as you can see from table 1 , have received many turtles through the headstart program . it is not known how the population would respond if the headstart program was stopped . even if the population goals are met in the near future , the sustainability goal of the populations may not be met for some time . in order for the populations to be self - sustainable , a solution to the low survival of hatchlings in the wild is needed .\n6 . size related survival of headstarted redbelly turtles ( pseudemys rubriventris ) in massachusetts alison haskell ; terry e . graham ; curtice r . griffin ; jay b . hestbeck journal of herpetology , vol . 30 , no . 4 . ( dec . , 1996 ) , pp . 524 - 527 .\nthis great blue heron was filmed and photographed on an apr\u00e8s work canoe paddle at jacob\u2019s pond in norwell , ma . the great blue heron has great size and stature at 4\u2019 tall . i highly recommend this pond for anyone looking to see wildlife by canoe or kayak .\ndespite the heron being so large , it easily takes off from the water and doesn\u2019t seem to care that it\u2019s 6\u2019 wide wingspan is pushing though tree branches . they wait motionless on their stick - like legs in the water or slowly stalk their prey before they ambush them . they swallow their prey whole , rather that be fish , frogs , or even rodents . you may find that they show up at your backyard koi pond so beware . .\nthere is no sexual dimorphism , meaning that the males and females look the same . their backs and wings are a bluish - grey . their neck is brownish - cream and has a scruffy appearance . their face is white . they\u2019ve got two black stripes above their eyes , and the middle of their crown is white .\nthis bird can be found around freshwater or brackish water habitats all over new england and into atlantic canada . the great white heron in florida was thought to be a separate species , but it is now accepted that they are the same species with different coloration .\ni hope that all of you can also add the great blue heron to your own species list . please visit urltoken and click on blue heron to add your own sightings to our range maps or tell us about them in our comment section . check our other pages on species from around new england and atlantic canada .\nnew england and atlantic canada is home to various beautiful oak tree species . with a little effort , one can learn to identify the difference among these by the leaf shapes .\nwhile an active head start program has introduced turtles to several new ponds and the river site , and has significantly increased the number of turtles in other ponds , the turtles take years to reach breeding status . it is therefore premature to evaluate the ultimate success of this effort .\nthe potential for recovery is reasonable if nest predation can be prevented and if head starting of young is done on a larger scale than in the past . due to the limited range of this species , delisting may not be possible . reclassification may be possible by the year 2000 , if ongoing recovery efforts continue to be successful .\ngraham , t . e . 1984 .\npseudemys rubriventris predation .\nherpetology review 15 : 19 - 20 .\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\nthis article is only an excerpt . if it appears incomplete or if you wish to see article references , visit the rest of its contents here .\nwant to help save endangered species , but don ' t have a lot of money to donate ? there are actually a lot of creative ways you can help endangered species , even if you are an individual and not a funded organization . we ' ve put together a list of ways you as an individual can help save endangered species .\nlist of all endangered animals . list of all endangered plants . list of all endangered species ( animals & plants ) . by species group ( mammal , birds , etc ) . . . united states endangered species list . browse by country , island , us state . . . search for an endangered species profile .\nare you inspired by endangered animals ? check out our games and coloring pages ! more to come soon .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nchamberlain wifi garage door opener chamberlain garage door opener home depot chamberlain myq garage door opener reset .\ntarget bed sheets queen target bed sheets queen for dimensions of fancy elegant target bed sheets queen size .\nkitchen items list large size of list of kitchen items best small kitchen appliances to have must have kitchen kitchen items list of indian .\nhome desk furniture desk for office at home modern home office furniture small contemporary desk for at home office furniture ideas ikea .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndue to the difficulty of censusing the species , quantitative population trend data have not been gathered [ 2 ] . however , species experts are in agreement that the number of occupied sites and the number of individuals has increased in size since 1980 , primarily due to the headstarting program and to a lesser extent natural reproduction [ 2 , 4 ] . the 1994 federal recovery plan requires a total of at least 600 breeding - age turtles distributed among at least 15 self - sustaining populations for downlisting to be considered [ 1 ] . delisting will require at least 1 , 000 breeding - age turtles in 20 or more self - sustaining populations ."]}
{"id": 143, "summary": [{"text": "the philippine hawk-eagle or north philippine hawk-eagle ( nisaetus philippensis ) , earlier treated under spizaetus , is a species of bird of prey in the family accipitridae .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "many taxonmists consider the pinsker 's hawk-eagle , a former subspecies , raised to full species status .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is endemic to the philippines .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "philippine hawk - eagle", "paragraphs": ["red data book threatened birds of asia detailed information on status , threats , and conservation measures . vireo philippine hawk - eagle photos .\ngamauf a , preleuthner m & w . pinsker ( 1998 ) .\ndistribution and field identification of philippine birds of prey : 1 . philippine hawk - eagle ( spizaetus philippensis ) and changeable hawk eagle ( spizaetus cirrhatus )\n( pdf ) . forktail 14 : 1\u201311 .\nrecommended citation : global raptor information network . 2018 . species account : northern philippine hawk - eagle nisaetus philippensis . downloaded from urltoken on 9 jul . 2018\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - philippine hawk - eagle ( spizaetus philippensis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - philippine hawk - eagle ( spizaetus philippensis )\ntitle =\narkive species - philippine hawk - eagle ( spizaetus philippensis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe philippine hawk - eagle inhabits forest , from the lowlands up to montane mossy forest at 1 , 900 meters ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . as well as primary forest it has been recorded in disturbed and selectively logged forest ( 7 ) .\nthe philippine hawk - eagle inhabits forest , from the lowlands up to montane mossy forest at 1 , 900 meters ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . as well as primary forest it has been recorded in disturbed and selectively logged forest ( 7 ) .\npreleuthner , m . and gamauf , a . ( 1998 ) .\na possible new subspecies of the philippine hawk - eagle ( spizaetus philippensis ) and its future prospects .\n( pdf ) . j . raptor res . 32 ( 2 ) : 126\u2013135 .\n56\u201369 cm ; female 1168\u20131280 g ( 2 birds ) ; wingspan 105\u2013125 cm . typical hawk - eagle with long ( 8 cm ) crest , largely dark upperparts , grey - brown tail with . . .\nthe philippine hawk - eagle is listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , which means that any international trade in this species should be carefully controlled in order to be compatible with its continued survival ( 3 ) . however , more effective legislation is required to control hunting and trading within the philippines ( 5 ) . in addition , while the philippine hawk - eagle has been recorded from numerous protected areas , the degree of protection these sites actually afford is unclear and there may be further important sites , the protection of which would greatly benefit this magnificent bird of prey ( 5 ) .\nthe philippine hawk - eagle is listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , which means that any international trade in this species should be carefully controlled in order to be compatible with its continued survival ( 3 ) . however , more effective legislation is required to control hunting and trading within the philippines ( 5 ) . in addition , while the philippine hawk - eagle has been recorded from numerous protected areas , the degree of protection these sites actually afford is unclear and there may be further important sites , the protection of which would greatly benefit this magnificent bird of prey ( 5 ) .\n54\u201361 cm ; c . 1200 g . typical hawk - eagle with crest of 4\u20135 black feathers up to 8 cm long . head is brown to dark olive - buff , variably streaked black ; upperparts , . . .\nc and s philippine is ( samar , biliran , leyte , negros , siquijor , bohol , mindanao and basilan ) .\nfjelds\u00e5 , j . ( 2018 ) . south philippine hawk - eagle ( nisaetus pinskeri ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nclark , w . s . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . north philippine hawk - eagle ( nisaetus philippensis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nvery little is known about the biology of the philippine hawk - eagle , possibly due to its habit of perching in the canopy , concealed with foliage ( 4 ) . however , it soars frequently , and its presence is often revealed by its distinctive two - note call given in flight or while perched ( 4 ) . whilst its diet has not been recorded , like other birds of prey it is likely to use its powerful , hooked bill and long , sharp talons to kill a variety of forest animals .\nvery little is known about the biology of the philippine hawk - eagle , possibly due to its habit of perching in the canopy , concealed with foliage ( 4 ) . however , it soars frequently , and its presence is often revealed by its distinctive two - note call given in flight or while perched ( 4 ) . whilst its diet has not been recorded , like other birds of prey it is likely to use its powerful , hooked bill and long , sharp talons to kill a variety of forest animals .\n( occurring on the southern philippine islands and only recently recognised ) is very similar , but has ochraceous - tawny throat and breast , and plain brownish belly and underwing coverts .\nimportant references : birdlife international . 2000 . threatened birds of the world . lynx edicions , barcelona , spain , and birdlife international , cambridge , uk . clark , w . s . 1994 . philippine hawk - eagle . p . 204 in del hoyo , j . , a . elliott , and j . sargatal ( eds ) . handbook of birds of the world . vol . 2 . new world vultures to guineafowl . lynx edicions , barcelona , spain . ferguson - lees , j . , and d . a . christie .\ndependent on forests in which to forage and breed , the philippine hawk - eagle is likely to be threatened by habitat destruction throughout its predominantly lowland range ( 7 ) . forest cover in the philippines has been drastically reduced ; for example , on mindanao , only 29 percent of the forest cover remains , while on bohol just six percent is still standing ( 8 ) . these remnant forest patches continue to be cleared , with most remaining forests being leased to logging concessions or covered by mining applications , the acceptance of which would give companies the right to clear forests ( 8 ) . the impact of habitat loss is being compounded by significant hunting and trapping pressure ( 7 ) .\ndependent on forests in which to forage and breed , the philippine hawk - eagle is likely to be threatened by habitat destruction throughout its predominantly lowland range ( 7 ) . forest cover in the philippines has been drastically reduced ; for example , on mindanao , only 29 percent of the forest cover remains , while on bohol just six percent is still standing ( 8 ) . these remnant forest patches continue to be cleared , with most remaining forests being leased to logging concessions or covered by mining applications , the acceptance of which would give companies the right to clear forests ( 8 ) . the impact of habitat loss is being compounded by significant hunting and trapping pressure ( 7 ) .\nthis newly - split forest eagle qualifies as endangered because its very small population , of which the majority is in two main subpopulations , is undergoing a continuing and very rapid decline owing to lowland forest loss , exacerbated by hunting and trade .\ngamauf a , gjershaug jo , rov n , kvaly k and haring e ( 2005 ) .\nspecies or subspecies ? the dilemma of taxonomic ranking of some south - east asian hawk - eagles ( genus spizaetus )\n. bird conservation international 15 : 99\u2013117 . doi : 10 . 1017 / s0959270905000080 .\ngamauf , a . , gjershaug , j . o . , rfv , n . , kvalfy , k . and haring , e . ( 2005 ) species or subspecies ? the dilemma of taxonomic ranking of some south - east asian hawk - eagles ( genus spizaetus ) . bird conservation international , 15 : 99 - 117 .\nconservation : birdlife international does not accept the separation of southern philippine populations as n . pinskeri , but designates the combined populations as vulnerable . as treated here , the separate species should probably be classified as endangered . both taxa are suffering from continuing habitat loss in many parts of their respective ranges and also from hunting and trapping pressure ( birdlife international 2009 ) .\npopulation estimates : ferguson - lees and christie ( 2001 ) estimated the global population of the n . philippensis , including the populations now assigned to n . pinskeri , as being in the range of 1 , 001 to 10 , 000 individuals . gamauf et al . ( 2005 ) pointed out that splitting the hawk - eagle populations of the philippines into two species would lead to lower estimates of their respective population sizes , which they estimated at 200 - 220 pairs for n . philippensis on luzon and 320 - 340 pairs for n . pinskeri on mindanao ( preleuthner and gamauf 1998 ) . birdlife international ( 2009 ) concluded that this leads to a global population estimate for the combined populations of 1 , 000 to 2 , 500 individuals .\ntraditionally thought to form a species - group with n . nipalensis , n . bartelsi , n . alboniger ( with n . nanus ) and n . lanceolatus . recent genetic data , however , suggested that present species and n . lanceolatus are closer to n . cirrhatus # r . until recently , n philippine populations considered inseparable from c & s ones , but recently described form pinskeri ( see below ) now recognized as full species . monotypic .\n65 - 70 cm . medium - sized eagle with longish , black crest . rufescent - brown crown and face , with fine dark streaks . dark brown upperparts . brown tail with 4 - 5 darker bars . white throat , bordered by dark malars . black mesial stripe . rufous underparts with black streaking . finely barred black - and - white\ntrousers\n. pale iris . in flight , shows broad , rounded wings and well - barred flight feathers . juvenile has white head and underparts , upperparts fringed paler . acquires adult plumage over four years .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\nnisaetus philippensis and n . pinskeri ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) were previously lumped as n . philippensis following haring et al . ( 2006 ) , which before then was placed in the genus spizaetus following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .\nbenstead , p . , bird , j . , lowen , j . , taylor , j . , martin , r & symes , a .\n1999 ) . it is uncommon in the sierra madre lowlands , very scarce on mindoro , and is very probably already extinct on some smaller islands within its former range . in the late 1990s 200 - 220 pairs were estimated to remain on luzon ( preleuthner and gamauf 1998 ) .\nthe species stronghold appears to be luzon where 200 - 220 pairs were estimated in the late 1990s ( preleuthner and gamauf 1998 ) . given that rapid declines have presumably continued since then , a preliminary population estimate is of a total of 400 - 600 mature individuals , roughly equating to 600 - 900 individuals . trend justification : deforestation in the philippines is reported to have been very rapid in recent decades , and it is said that the country lost c . 40 % of its forest cover in the 20 years between 1970 and 1990 ( uitamo 1999 ) . data from essc ( environmental science for social change ) suggest that the area of closed - canopy forest in the philippines decreased by c . 44 % between 1987 and 2002 ( walpole 2010 ) . assuming rapid losses of primary forest over the past 56 years , and impacts from hunting and trapping pressure , it is likely that this species has experienced population declines of more than 50 % over the past three generations .\nit inhabits primary , selectively logged and disturbed forest , occasionally frequenting open areas , from the lowlands to lower mountain slopes , almost exclusively below 1 , 000 m . it appears not to tolerate much forest degradation . no migration is known , although unconfirmed reports from the migration funnel of dalton pass ( luzon ) hint at intra - island movements .\ndeforestation for plantation agriculture , livestock and logging throughout its extensive , predominantly lowland range is the chief threat . in 1988 , forest cover was as low as 24 % on luzon , which is likely to be an overestimate , with most lowland forest leased to logging concessions . habitat loss is exacerbated by considerable hunting and trapping pressure .\ncites appendix ii . it has been recorded recently from numerous protected areas , including mts isarog and makiling national parks , the northern sierra madre natural park and bataan natural park / subic bay and recently on mount irid - angilo - binuang of the southern sierra madre in luzon ( j . ibanez\n. 2007 ) , as well as tadao ilocos norte , mt palay palay and mt banahao ( d . allen\n. these sites are legally protected through local government decrees , but the efficacy of this legislation is often unclear and is ineffective at mt malindang and in the southern sierra madre ( d . allen\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nendemic to the philippines , whereit has been recorded on at least 12 islands , including luzon , mindoro , mindanao , negros , samar , basilan , bohol and leyte ( 7 ) .\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nbirdlife international . ( 2001 ) threatened birds of asia : the birdlife international red data book . birdlife international , cambridge , uk .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nendemic a species or taxonomic group that is only found in one particular country or geographic area . morphological referring to the visible or measurable characteristics of an organism . primary forest forest that has remained undisturbed for a long time and has reached a mature condition . subspecies a population usually restricted to a geographical area that differs from other populations of the same species , but not to the extent of being classified as a separate species .\ndel hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and sargatal , j . ( 1994 ) handbook of the birds of the world . vol . 2 : new world vultures to guineafowl . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nkennedy , r . s . , gonzales , p . c . , dickinson , e . c . , miranda jr , h . c . and fisher , t . h . ( 2000 ) a guide to the birds of the philippines . oxford university press , oxford .\nbirdlife international . ( 2003 ) saving asia ' s threatened birds : a guide for government and civil society . birdlife international , cambridge , uk .\nauscape international po box 1024 , bowral nsw 25a76 australia tel : ( + 61 ) 2 4885 2245 fax : ( + 61 ) 2 4885 2715 sales @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nerror . page cannot be displayed . please contact your service provider for more details . ( 19 )\ngives shrill\nyiep - yiep\nor similar , which is quite different from rising , four - syllable . . .\nforest in lowlands and foothills mostly to 1050 m ( on luzon ) , including selectively logged areas , . . .\nno information available . presumably similar to other members of genus , taking large birds and some mammals . has predilection for concealed . . .\nno information available , although birds with enlarged gonads reported in jan and aerial display ( undescribed ) reported in late mar .\napparently sedentary , although inter - island movements by immatures possible and unconfirmed reports . . .\n. population estimated at 400\u2013600 mature individuals . since 1980 , there . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nasian genus previously included within spizaetus , but recent studies support its recognition as separate from american taxa # r # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\ninhabits mature forest in lowlands and low mountains ; to above 1900 m in montane mossy forest .\nlittle information . probably feeds on birds . perches in concealed locations in canopy , but most often seen at forest edges or soaring over . . .\nendangered . restricted - range species : present in negros and panay eba , mindanao and the eastern visayas eba , sulu archipelago eba and siquijor secondary area . cites ii . . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 294 , 782 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : nisaetus philippensis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nclements , j . f . , t . s . schulenberg , m . j . iliff , d . roberson , t . a . fredericks , b . l . sullivan , and c . l . wood . 2014 . the ebird / clements checklist of birds of the world : version 6 . 9 . downloaded from urltoken\nendemic to the philippines , whereit has been recorded on at least 12 islands , including luzon , mindoro , mindanao , negros , samar , basilan , bohol and leyte ( 7 ) .\ntype for spizaetus philippensis catalog number : usnm 578113 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of birds sex / stage : female ; preparation : skin : whole collector ( s ) : d . rabor year collected : 1963 locality : car - can - mad - lan area , surigao del sur , mindanao , philippines , asia elevation ( m ) : 305 to 640\ntype : preleuthner & gamauf , a . june 1998 . journal of raptor research . 32 ( 2 ) : 126 - 135 .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there is 1 barcode sequence available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is the sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nthe species stronghold appears to be luzon where 200 - 220 pairs were estimated in the late 1990s ( preleuthner and gamauf 1998 ) . given that rapid declines have presumably continued since then , a preliminary population estimate is of a total of 400 - 600 mature individuals , roughly equating to 600 - 900 individuals .\n. 2012 ) . these sites are legally protected through local government decrees , but the efficacy of this legislation is often unclear and is ineffective at mt malindang and in the southern sierra madre ( d . allen\nits natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests . it is threatened by habitat loss .\nhelbig aj , kocum a , seibold i & braun mj ( 2005 ) a multi - gene phylogeny of aquiline eagles ( aves : accipitriformes ) reveals extensive paraphyly at the genus level . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 35 ( 1 ) : 147 - 164 pdf\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\ndistribution : indomalayan . endemic to luzon island , philippines . more . . . .\nmovements : non - migratory , but juveniles disperse from breeding areas ( bildstein 2006 ) .\nhabitat and habits : occurs in forest and advanced second - growth from lowlands to over 1 , 900 m in montane mossy forest ( kennedy et al . 2000 ) . perches in concealed locations in canopy and often soars ( kennedy et al . op cit . ) .\nfood and feeding behavior : prey not recorded ( kennedy et al . 2000 ) .\nbreeding : nest and eggs are undescribed ( kennedy et al . ( 2000 ) .\nharing , e . , k . kval\u00fdy , j . o . gjershaug , and a . gamauf .\nhelbig , a . j . , a . kocum , i . seibold , and m . j . braun ."]}
{"id": 146, "summary": [{"text": "echis coloratus is a venomous viper species endemic to the middle east and egypt .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "no subspecies are currently recognized .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "common names : painted saw-scaled viper , painted carpet viper , burton 's carpet viper , more . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "echis coloratus", "paragraphs": ["echis colorata g\u00fcnther 1878 echis froenata dum\u00e9ril , bibron & dum\u00e9ril 1854 : 1449 echis coloratus \u2014 haas 1957 : 83 echis coloratus gasperetti 1988 echis froenatus cherlin & borkin 1990 echis coloratus \u2014 welch 1994 : 57 echis coloratus \u2014 mcdiarmid , campbell & tour\u00e9 1999 : 378 echis coloratus \u2014 dobiey & vogel 2007 echis coloratus \u2014 pook et al . 2009 echis coloratus \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 255\nvapaguide - biomedical database - terrestrial snakes , vipers - echis spp . - echis coloratus\nechis omanensis babocsay 2004 echis colorata \u2014 boulenger , 1887 : 408 echis coloratus \u2014 boulenger 1896 : 507 echis coloratus \u2014 arnold & gallagher 1977 : 69 echis coloratus \u2014 joger 1984 : 46 ( part . ) echis coloratus \u2014 gasperetti 1988 : 348 echis froenatus \u2014 cherlin 1990 : 203 ( part . ) echis omanensis \u2014 gardner 2004 echis omanensis \u2014 dobiey 2005 echis omanensis \u2014 pook et al . 2009 echis omanensis \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 256\nechis multisquamatus echis multisquamatus echis multisquamatus a gravid female of echis male and female from southern uzbekistan near border with afganistan ( around sherebat ) . multisquamatus .\nechis pyramidum leakeyi echis pyramidum lucidus echis pyramidum lucidus echis pyramidum leakeyi lake baringo , kenya biskra , algeria egypt archer\u00b4s post , kenya ( photo : j . hale\u0161 )\n. . . echis ( toxicoa ) hughesi e . hughesi ? e . coloratus echis ( turanechis ) ' ' froenatus\n( = coloratus ) e . coloratus e . coloratus babocsay ( 2003 babocsay ( , 2004 ) : e . coloratus coloratus e . coloratus terraesanctae e . omanensis e . omanensis 2003 , 2004 ) . as yet , there has been no comprehensive attempt to address the phylogeny and systematics of the complex using molecular markers . . . .\nfainaru et al . 1974 : 5 echis coloratus bites ( identification of the species by indirect criteria : the accident occurred within the distribution area of echis coloratus and the patients displayed impaired coagulation ) .\ntreatment of envenomation by echis coloratus ( mid - east saw scaled viper ) : a decision tree .\nhabitat of echis c . coloratus habitat of echis c . coloratus male of echis c . coloratus echis pyramidum leakeyi , from israel in elat in southern arava valley from southern arava valley near maikona ( northern , ( copyright : g . babocsay ) in israel ( copyright : g . babocsay ) in israel ( copyright : g . babocsay ) kenya )\nechis s . sochureki - male echis s . sochureki - male e . s . sochureki - female echis s . sochureki pakistan pakistan pakistan pakistan\nlehmann , m . 1980 . haltung und nachzucht von echis carinatus leakeyi x echis coloratus . herpetofauna 2 ( 4 ) : 32 - 34 - get paper here\ntreatment of envenomation by echis coloratus ( mid - east saw scaled viper ) : a decision tree . - pubmed - ncbi\nechis pyramidum leakeyi echis pyramidum leakeyi phenotypically echis pyr . echis s . sochureki - female archer\u00b4s post , kenya archer\u00b4s post , kenya aliaborri , but geographically pakistan f1 generation - juvenil f1 generation - juvenil echis pyr . leakeyi - laisamis north - central kenya . nmk 0 / 2160\nenvenomation by echis coloratus ( mid - east saw - scaled viper ) : a review of the literature and indications for treatment .\na new species of saw - scaled viper of the echis coloratus complex ( ophidia : viperidae ) from oman , eas . . .\na copulation of a typical coloration and pattern of echis multisquamatus echis cf . megalocephalus echis pyramidum lucidus ( this specimen is from sherebat , uzbekistan ) ( after dobiey et vogel , 2007 ) ginda , erithrea . after me until revision only echis p . pyramidum .\nlehmann , m . 1987 . the arabic sawscaled viper , echis coloratus . litteratura serpentium 7 ( 6 ) : 258 - 266 - get paper here\nenvenomation by echis coloratus ( mid - east saw - scaled viper ) : a review of the literature and indications for treatment . - pubmed - ncbi\nsaudi arabia annobil 1993a : 7 echis coloratus bites in children ; identification : morphological . 5 children reached hospital within 6 h , 2 within 18 h .\ntwo subspecies of palestine saw - scaled viper have been described : echis coloratus coloratus and echis coloratus terraesanctae ( 1 ) ( 4 ) ( 7 ) . e . c . terraesanctae differs from e . c . coloratus in its colour , patterning , number of scales , and relatively larger eyes ( 7 ) . the palestine saw - scaled viper is very similar in appearance to the recently described oman saw - scaled viper ( echis omanensis ) ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 8 ) . it also resembles the widespread saw - scaled viper ( echis carinatus ) , but is slightly stockier and more colourful ( 6 ) .\nisrael porath et al . 1992 : 68 echis coloratus bites ; identification : morphological or indirect criteria ( the accident occurred within the distribution area of echis coloratus and the patients displayed impaired coagulation ) . this retrospective study included patients from two hospitals in jerusalem and one hospital in beer - sheva ( time period 1970\u20131989 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - palestine saw - scaled viper ( echis coloratus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - palestine saw - scaled viper ( echis coloratus )\ntitle =\narkive species - palestine saw - scaled viper ( echis coloratus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nhemipenes of locality of echis pyramidum locality of echis pyramidum young specimen of echis pyramidum echis pyramidum near north horr in northern kenya in archer \u00b4s post ( kenya ) leakeyi from kula mawe ( kenya ) , from kenya note red coloration and a large supraoculars ( like e . p . aliaborri ) .\n. . . distribution of the genus echis , which are small - to medium - sized vipers , extends across open and xeric formations from africa north of the equator , to the arabian peninsula , and south and east to sri lanka and india . the israeli haplotypes represent populations described as echis coloratus terraesanctae in the negev and judean deserts and the parapatric echis coloratus coloratus in the arava ( dead to red sea ) , and sinai regions ( babocsay , 2003 ) . the palestine saw - scaled viper is found mostly in rocky terrain in deserts . . . .\ntsairi , h . & bouskila , a . 2004 . ambush site selection of a desert snake ( echis coloratus ) . herpetologica 60 ( 1 ) : 13 - 23 - get paper here\ndescribed as less irritable than echis carinatus , but will aggressively defend itself when disturbed .\nechis multisquamatus ( adult ) . southern uzbekistan near border with afganistan ( around scherebat )\nsmith , h . m . 1976 . comments on echis coloratus dumeril , bibron and dumeril , 1854 ( reptilia ) . bull . zool . nomenclature 32 ( 4 ) : 199 - get paper here\nbabocsay , g . 2004 . a new species of saw - scaled viper of the echis coloratus complex ( ophidia : viperidae ) from oman , eastern arabia . systematics and biodiversity 1 ( 4 ) : 503\u2013514\nbabocsay , g . ( 2003 ) geographic variation in echis coloratus ( viperidae , ophidia ) in the levant with the description of a new subspecies . zoology in the middle east , 29 : 13 - 32 .\nbabocsay , g . 2004 . a new species of saw - scaled viper of the echis coloratus complex ( ophidia : viperidae ) from oman , eastern arabia . systematics and biodiversity 1 ( 4 ) : 503\u2013514 .\nbabocsay , g . 2003 . geographic variation in echis coloratus ( viperidae , ophidia ) in the levant with the description of a new subspecies . zoology in the middle east 29 : 13 - 32 - get paper here\nbabocsay , g . ( 2004 ) a new species of saw - scaled viper of the echis coloratus complex ( ophidia : viperidae ) from oman , eastern arabia . systematics and biodiversity , 1 ( 4 ) : 503 - 514 .\n8 . elisa analysis of the contents of a vesicle that was removed 40 h after the bite detected 9 ng / ml echis coloratus venom ( tilbury et al . 1987 ; immunological detection by r . d . g . theakston ) .\nyosef , reuven ; juan ramirez roman , and piotr zduniak 2012 . habitat choice of palestine saw - scaled viper ( echis coloratus ) in an extreme environment . journal of herpetology 46 ( 4 ) : 671 - 674 . - get paper here\nvenomous ! taxonomy : note that echis froenatus dum\u00e9ril , bibron & dum\u00e9ril was suppressed by opinion 1176 ( iczn 1981 ) . definition : echis omanensis has a longer tail with higher subcaudal counts ; the lower prenasal scale is often missing and the upper prenasal is frequently fused with the nasal ; the subnasal is often missing or fused with the nasal . the gular scales between the chin - shield and the preventrals are round or only slightly elongate , not elongate as in echis coloratus , andtheir number is higher . other differences in characters of the gular area indicate a different scale structure of the ventral surface of the head . the new species is allopatric or parapatric with e . coloratus , but sympatric with echis carinatus sochureki .\nvenomous ! distribution : erroneously reported from socotra . see distribution map in babocsay ( 2003 ) . populations from united arab emirates ( uae ) have been described as e . omanensis , hence e . coloratus does not occur in the uae . reports from n oman are now considered as e . omanensis . similar species : may be confused with echis omanensis babocsay 2004 . the main differences between echis omanensis and echis coloratus involve the gular scales under the head being rounder and more numerous in the new species . the tail is longer , with more sub - caudal scales , and there are differences in some of the scales around thenostrilsandinthepatternof darkgreyblotcheson the head , back and flanks .\none of the paratypes of echis\ncarinatus\naliaborri ( wajir , kenya ) . ( copyright : b . drewes )\nstimson , a . f . 1974 . echis coloratus g\u00fcnther 1878 ( reptilia , serpentes ) : proposed validation under the plenary powers . z . n . ( s . ) 2064 . bull . zool . nomenclature 31 ( 4 ) : 223 - 224 . - get paper here\nopinion 1176 1981 . echis colorata [ sic ] guenther , 1878 ( reptilia ; serpentes ) given nomenclatural precedence over echis froenata [ sic ] dum\u00e9ril , bibron & dum\u00e9ril , 1854 . bull . zool . nomenclature 38 ( 2 ) : 110 - 111 . - get paper here\ntreatment summary echis bites cause moderate to severe , potentially lethal envenoming , requiring urgent assessment & treatment , including iv fluids , iv antivenom and good wound care .\ncoloratus : nw arabia , s levant ( sinai ) , wadi arava ) , egypt ( east of nile ) , jordan . type locality : jebel sharr , midian , arabia , elevation 4 , 500 ft .\nenvenomation by echis coloratus causes a transient hemostatic failure . systemic symptoms , hypotension and evident bleeding are rare , with only one reported fatality . in this paper , we examine the decision to treat victims of echis coloratus by a specific horse antiserum . the decision model considers the mortality of treated and untreated envenomation , and the side effects of antiserum treatment : fatal anaphylaxis , serum sickness and increased risk of death after a possible repeated exposure to horse antiserum in the future . the results of the analysis are not sensitive to variations in the probability of side effects of antiserum treatment . they are sensitive to variations in the risk of bleeding after envenomation , in the degree of reduction of this risk by antiserum treatment and in the risk of dying after an event of bleeding . prompt administration of antiserum appears to be the treatment of choice if it reduces the risk of bleeding from 23 . 6 % to 20 . 3 % and if 1 . 6 % or more of the bleeding events are fatal . we conclude that presently available data support antiserum treatment of victims of echis coloratus who present with hemostatic failure , even though the advantage imparted by this treatment appears to be small .\njoger , u . & courage , k . 1999 . are palearctic \u2018rattlesnakes\u2019 ( echis and cerastes ) monophyletic ? . kaupia ( darmstadt ) ( 8 ) : 65 - 81\na study of 353 museum specimens of the echis coloratus complex from its entire range of distribution revealed an undescribed species in the united arab emirates and northern oman . the results of upgma clustering and principal co - ordinate analysis of 138 male and 142 female specimens yielded for both sexes two major clusters , one with specimens from the uae and northern oman and one from . . . [ show full abstract ]\nnumbers of vipers are limited in some the same area as on the previous el wak ( kenya ) . echis pyramidum lucidus from areas due to a periodical floods . around photograph in a wet season vipers may be found egypt with very short head . the garissa in a dry season ( august , 2005 ) , ( november , 2006 ) . the locality of under the limestones vipers are very polymorphic in this a locality of echis pyramidum . echis pyramidum ( kenya ) . around a road ( see character . it is an adult female . right side of a pict . )\nlike other vipers , the palestine saw - scaled viper ( echis coloratus ) is a venomous snake with a relatively short , stocky body , a wide head , vertical pupils and heavily keeled scales ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . it receives its common name from its defensive display , in which the scales are rubbed together by drawing opposing coils of the body against each other , producing a loud rasping or sawing sound ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\ncherlin , v . a . 1990 . taxonomic revision of the snake genus echis ( viperidae ) . ii . an analysis of taxonomy and description of new forms [ in russian ] . proc . zool . institute leningrad 207 : 193 - 223\nspecies in the genus echis are responsible for the greatest proportion of all snake bite fatalities in humans . as these vipers often live in close proximity to humans and will bite with little provocation , they are considered to be among the world\u2019s most dangerous snakes ( 5 ) ( 11 ) .\npook , catharine e . ; ulrich joger , nikolaus st\u00fcmpel , wolfgang w\u00fcster 2009 . when continents collide : phylogeny , historical biogeography and systematics of the medically important viper genus echis ( squamata : serpentes : viperidae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 53 ( 3 ) : 792 - 807 - get paper here\npook , c . e . , joger , u . , stumpel , n . and wuster , w . 2009 . when continents collide : phylogeny , historical biogeography and systematics of the medically important viper genus echis ( squamata : serpentes : viperidae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 53 ( 3 ) : 792 - 807 .\nantivenoms arabian echis , rogoff medical research institute , tel aviv , israel ( porath et al . 1992 ) ; near and middle east , pasteur , france ( annobil 1993a ) . studies no controlled clinical antivenom study available . data on efficacy of antivenom in porath et al . 1992 . indications for antivenom not defined in the study of porath et al . 1992 ; see below for recommendations . dose administered doses not specified in the study of porath et al . 1992 . efficacy\nadministration of arabian echis , rogoff medical research institute , at the time of hospitalisation ( i . e . for most of the retrospectively studied patients 2\u20133 h after the bite ) decreased the duration of the haemostatic defect and reduced the risk of thrombopaenia and anaemia . it is therefore recommended that monovalent antivenom be administered if slight or marked bleeding , anaemia , azotaemia , thrombopaenia or proteinuria are present or local swelling increases rapidly within 1 h after the bite ( porath et al . 1992 ) .\nterraesanctae : israel , jordan . type locality : ma\u2019ale efrayim , samaria , cisjordan .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nal - quran , s . 2009 . the herpetofauna of the southern jordan . american - eurasian j . agric . & environ . sci . , 6 ( 4 ) : 385 - 391 [ this journal has a dubious record , see urltoken\nalshammari , ahmed m . and adel a . ibrahim 2015 . lizards and snakes in the historical faid protected area ( faid hema ) , ha ' il region , saudi arabia . herp . cons . biol . 10 ( 3 ) - get paper here\nalshammari , ahmed m . and adel a . ibrahim 2015 . lizards and snakes in the historical faid protected area ( faid hema ) , ha ' il region , saudi arabia herp . cons . biol . 10 ( 3 ) : 1021\u20131029 - get paper here\nbar , aviad and guy haimovitch 2012 . a field guide to reptiles and amphibians of israel . pazbar ltd , 246 pp . - get paper here\ncarranza s , xipell m , tarroso p , gardner a , arnold en , robinson md , et al . 2018 . diversity , distribution and conservation of the terrestrial reptiles of oman ( sauropsida , squamata ) . plos one 13 ( 2 ) : e0190389 - get paper here\ncorkill , n . l . and cochrane , j . a . 1966 . the snakes of the arabian peninsula and socotra . j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 62 ( 3 ) : 475 - 506 ( 1965 ) - get paper here\ndisi , a . m . ; modry , d . ; necas , p . & rifai , l . 2001 . amphibians and reptiles of the hashemite kingdom of jordan . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 408 pp .\ndobiey , m . 2005 . zwei neue sandrasselottern . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 10 ( 51 ) : 14 - 15 - get paper here\ndobiey , m . & vogel , g . 2007 . venomous snakes of africa / giftschlangen afrikas . edition chimaira , terralog 15 , 150 pp . - get paper here\ndum\u00e9ril , a . m . c . , bibron , g . & dum\u00e9ril , a . h . a . , 1854 . erp\u00e9tologie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale ou histoire naturelle compl\u00e8te des reptiles . tome septi\u00e8me . deuxi\u00e8me partie , comprenant l ' histoire des serpents venimeux . paris , librairie encyclop\u00e9dique de roret : i - xii + 781 - 1536 - get paper here\negan , d . 2007 . snakes of arabia . motivate publishing , dubai , 208 pp .\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1878 . on reptiles from midian collected by major burton . proc . zool . soc . london 1878 : 977 - 978 - get paper here\nhaas , georg 1957 . some amphibians and reptiles from arabia . proc . cal . acad . sci . 29 ( 3 ) : 47 - 86 - get paper here\nherrmann , h . w . ; joger , u . ; lenk , p . & wink , m . 1999 . morphological and molecular phylogenies of viperines : conflicting evidence ? . kaupia ( darmstadt ) ( 8 ) : 21 - 30 - get paper here\njongbloed , m . 2000 . field guide to the reptiles and amphibians of the uae - wild about reptiles . barkers trident communications , 116 pp .\nleviton , a . e . ; anderson , s . c . ; adler , k . ; minton , s . a . 1992 . handbook to middle east amphibians and reptiles . ssar , oxford , ohio ( contr . to herpetol . no . 8 ) , 1 - 252\nmcdiarmid , r . w . ; campbell , j . a . & tour\u00e9 , t . a . 1999 . snake species of the world . vol . 1 . herpetologists\u2019 league , 511 pp .\nmilto , konstantin d . 2017 . new records of reptiles on the red sea coast , egypt , with notes on zoogeography russ . j . herpetol . 24 ( 1 ) : 11 - 21 - get paper here\nphelps , t . 2010 . old world vipers . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 558 pp . [ critical review in sauria 33 ( 3 ) : 19 and hr 43 : 503 ]\nr\u00f6sler , herbert and wolfgang wranik 2017 . untersuchungen und beobachtungen zur herpetofauna des jemen jemen - report jg . 48 ( 1 / 2 )\nschmidt , k . p . & marx , h . 1956 . the herpetology of sinai . fieldiana 39 ( 4 ) : 21 - 40 - get paper here\nsindaco , roberto ; riccardo nincheri , benedetto lanza 2014 . catalogue of arabian reptiles in the collections of the \u201cla specola\u201d museum , florence . scripta herpetologica . studies on amphibians and reptiles in honour of benedetto lanza : pp . 137 - 164 - get paper here\nvan der kooij , jeroen 2001 . the herpetofauna of the sultanate of oman : part 4 : the terrestrial snakes . podarcis 2 ( 2 ) : 54 - 64\nvenchi , alberto and roberto sindaco 2006 . annotated checklist of the reptiles of the mediterranean countries , with keys to species identification . part 2 - snakes ( reptilia , serpentes ) . annali del museo civico di storia naturale\ng . doria\n, genova , xcviii : 259 - 364\nwallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nthe number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .\nover the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .\nthe number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .\noverall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .\nthe reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .\ncurrently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .\nthe reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .\nthe reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .\nin case of an accident with venomous animals there can be a problem to find a holding centre of an indicated antivenom close to the site of the accident . the intention of mavin is to assist solving this problem . holding centres of antivenoms can use mavin by comparing a summary of the current status given here against the actual status of their stock and using in case of an update a preformed datasheet .\nall information is intended for use only by competent healthcare and safety professionals and should be utilized in conjunction with pertinent clinical or situational data . as between you and poison centre munich , you assume full responsibility for ensuring the appropriate use and reliance upon the information . this version of mavin was created by martin ganzert , norbert felgenhauer and florian eyer . copyright 2016 . poison centre munich . all rights reserved .\nthe palestine saw - scaled viper is named after its defensive display , in which the scales are rubbed together to produce a sawing sound .\nthe palestine saw - scaled viper\u2019s fangs may be replaced many times throughout its life .\na venomous species , the palestine saw - scaled viper and its close relatives are considered to be among the world\u2019s most dangerous snakes .\nthe palestine saw - scaled viper is unusual among vipers in laying eggs rather than giving birth to live young .\nthe palestine saw - scaled viper is usually grey , brown or brownish - red , with a lighter underside and with a pattern of large , light pinkish or greyish blotches or cross - bands along the back ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 7 ) . the blotches may have a darker outline , and may contain shades of light grey or blue ( 7 ) . the upper side of the palestine saw - scaled viper\u2019s head is usually brown , with a lighter \u2018x\u2019 shaped marking and a darker grey streak that runs from the corner of the mouth to the eye ( 4 ) ( 7 ) .\narabian saw - scaled viper , burton\u2019s carpet viper , mid - east saw - scaled viper , painted carpet viper , painted saw - scaled viper .\nlike other vipers , the palestine saw - scaled viper has relatively long , hollow fangs that can be folded against the roof of the mouth when not in use ( 5 ) . the fangs of vipers are generally longer than those of other snakes , allowing venom to be injected deeper into their prey . the fangs may be replaced at numerous times throughout the snake\u2019s life as new fangs develop at the back of the mouth and replace old ones that are shed ( 11 ) .\nthe palestine saw - scaled viper is active either at night or at dawn and dusk ( 4 ) ( 6 ) . like other vipers , it is likely to hunt its prey using a sit - and - wait technique , aided by camouflaging body markings that conceal the snake from its prey ( 11 ) .\nthe palestine saw - scaled viper has been reported to feed on small mammals , frogs , toads , birds , lizards and large invertebrates ( 2 ) ( 6 ) ( 8 ) . in some areas , it has a habit of perching on bushes or trees close to water , with the head pointed upwards , suggesting that it may hunt birds coming in to rest or drink ( 8 ) . once a viper has struck its prey , it usually withdraws immediately ( 12 ) and then follows its prey using chemical cues until its venom has immobilised the victim ( 11 ) .\nthe majority of viper species give birth to live young ( 5 ) ( 9 ) . however , the palestine saw - scaled viper is somewhat unusual in laying eggs ( 1 ) ( 2 ) , usually producing six to ten eggs per clutch ( 2 ) .\nthe palestine saw - scaled viper occurs across egypt , the middle east and the arabian peninsula , including israel , jordan , saudi arabia , yemen , northern oman and the united arab emirates ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 7 ) . in egypt , it occurs east of the river nile ( 1 ) ( 7 ) .\nthe subspecies e . c . terraesanctae is restricted to israel and jordan ( 1 ) ( 7 ) .\nlike many viper species ( 9 ) ( 10 ) , the palestine saw - scaled viper inhabits rocky , arid areas ( 2 ) ( 7 ) . it avoids sandy habitats , preferring rocky or hard terrain ( 8 ) , and is often found near sources of water ( 4 ) .\nthe palestine saw - scaled viper has been recorded at elevations of up to 2 , 000 metres in the southern sinai peninsula ( 4 ) .\nthe palestine saw - scaled viper has yet to be classified by the iucn .\nthe palestine saw - scaled viper is not currently known to be facing any major threats .\nalthough its global conservation status has not yet been assessed , the palestine saw - scaled viper has been classified as least concern ( lc ) in the mediterranean region according to iucn criteria ( 13 ) .\nthere are not known to be any specific conservation measures currently in place for this venomous snake .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\no\u2019shea , m . ( 2008 ) venomous snakes of the world . new holland publishers , london .\ncloudsley - thompson , j . l . ( 1999 ) the diversity of amphibians and reptiles : an introduction . springer - verlag , berlin and heidelberg .\nbaha el din , s . ( 2006 ) a guide to the reptiles and amphibians of egypt . american university in cairo press , cairo .\nhalliday , t . and adler , k . ( 2002 ) the new encyclopedia of reptiles and amphibians . oxford university press , oxford .\nvine , p . ( 1996 ) natural emirates : wildlife and environment of the united arab emirates . trident press , london .\nbellairs , a . a . and attridge , j . ( 1975 ) reptiles . hutchinson university library , london .\nzug , g . r . , vitt , l . j . and caldwell , j . p . ( 2001 ) herpetology : an introductory biology of amphibians and reptiles . second edition . academic press , san diego , california .\nstafford , p . ( 2000 ) snakes . the natural history museum , london .\nbellairs , a . a . ( 1969 ) the life of reptiles . volume 1 . weidenfeld & nicolson , london .\ncox , n . , chanson , j . and stuart , s . ( 2006 ) the status and distribution of reptiles and amphibians of the mediterranean basin . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk . available at : urltoken\nanimals animals / earth scenes 17 railroad avenue chatham ny 12037 united states of america tel : + 01 ( 518 ) 3925500 fax : + 01 ( 518 ) 3925550 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nisr j med sci . 1993 apr ; 29 ( 4 ) : 239 - 50 .\ndepartment of community medicine , faculty of health sciences , ben - gurion university of the negev , beer sheva , israel .\ndepartment of medicine , hadassah university hospital , mt scopus , jerusalem , israel .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\na curated database of candidate human ageing - related genes and genes associated with longevity and / or ageing in model organisms .\na curated database of genes associated with dietary restriction in model organisms either from genetic manipulation experiments or gene expression profiling .\nprojects focused on gene expression profiling of ageing and of dietary manipulations of ageing , such as caloric restriction .\nsoftware for ageing research , including the ageing research computational tools ( arct ) perl toolkit .\na curated database of ageing and life history information in animals , including extensive longevity records .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\na high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .\nanalyses using the anage database to study the evolution of longevity and ageing in vertebrate lineages .\na portal of ageing changes covering different biological levels , integrating molecular , physiological and pathological age - related data .\nthe whosage database contains people and biotech companies that are contributing to increase our understanding of ageing and life - extension .\ncomments , suggestions , ideas , and bug reports are welcome . please contact us .\nvomiting 4 / 7 , arterial hypotension 4 / 7 ( annobil 1993a ) .\nlocal pain 5 / 5 ( fainaru et al . 1974 ) . local swelling is presented as the most important clinical sign that injection of venom has taken place ; necrosis can occur ( porath et al . 1992 ) . local swelling 5 / 5 , in some cases the entire bitten extremity was swollen . subcutaneous bleeding in the region of the swelling 3 / 5 ( fainaru et al . 1974 ) . local swelling 7 / 7 , blisters and ecchymosis in the region of the swelling 7 / 7 , necrosis 1 / 7 ( annobil 1993a ) .\nbleeding at the time of hospitalisation ( i . e . in most of the retrospectively studied patients 2\u20133 h after the bite ) : minor systemic bleeding ( spontaneous subcutaneous bleeding and bleeding from the mucous membranes , microhaematuria ) 19 / 68 , marked systemic bleeding ( gastrointestinal and soft tissue haemorrhage , macrohaematuria ) 9 / 68 ( porath et al . 1992 ) . gingival bleeding 1 / 5 ( fainaru et al . 1974 ) . microhaematuria 2 / 3 ( annobil 1993a ) .\necg changes ( see below ) ( primary cardiac effect of the venom ? ) ( fainaru et al . 1974 ) . normal ecg 7 / 7 ( annobil 1993a ) .\noliguria ( < 200 ml within the first 24 h after the bite ) 2 / 5 ( fainaru et al . 1974 ) . transient anuria 2 / 7 , acute kidney failure 1 / 7 ( annobil 1993a ) . secondary in the context of hypotensive episodes or disseminated\nduration of hospitalisation on average 6 . 3 \u00b1 4 . 1 days ( porath et al . 1992 ) , for 6 children between 5 and 11 days , for 1 child 78 days ( debridement of necrosis ,\nanaemia , limited renal function ( acute renal failure ) ( tilbury et al . 1987 , porath et al . 1992 , annobil 1993a ) .\n1 fatality in israel ( mann 1978 , including autopsy findings ) . haemostatic defect with haemorrhaging , renal failure . no antivenom was administered . according to mann ( 1978 ) , the only published case since 1918 , mentioned by flower ( 1933 ) . according to porath et al . ( 1992 ) this continues to be the only published fatality known .\ndisseminated intravascular coagulation induced by direct activation of prothrombin and reactive ( secondary ) hyperfibrinolysis ( fainaru et al . 1974 ) . thrombopaenia ( porath et al . 1992 ) . little intravascular fibrin deposition ( this is reflected in the low incidence of acute renal failure . transient impairment of kidney function is nonetheless an indication that such processes could play a role ) . fibrin clearance appears to be very efficient . haemorrhagic activity is present , which together with\nin this overview , the deviations from normal are recorded for those haemostasis para - meters only , for which good evidence is documented in the literature .\nct , pt , ptt : impaired coagulation ( 67 / 68 ) , with an arbitrary cut - off between\nnormal\nand\nimpaired\ncoagulation of pt < 50 % and ptt > 60 s . on average it took 2 . 8 \u00b1 1 . 7 days for coagulation to be restored according to these criteria ( porath et al . 1992 ) .\nct , pt ) between 6 and 48 h after the bite 5 / 5 . restoration of\ncoagulability ( clot formation ) on the 3rd day after the bite 2 / 5 , on the 4th day 2 / 5 and on the 5th day 1 / 5 ( fainaru et al . 1974 ) . pt and ptt \u2191 ( > 120\u2013180 s ) 3 / 7 ( annobil 1993a ) . incoagulable blood (\nct , pt ) 3 h after the bite ( yatziv et al . 1974 ) .\nplatelets : at the time of hospitalisation ( i . e . for most of the retrospectively studied patients 2\u20133 h after the bite ) : 155 , 000 \u00b1 86 , 000 / mm 3 ; < 100 , 000 / mm 3 : 14 / 68 . during hospitalisation ( minimum ) : 114 , 000 \u00b1 68 , 000 / mm 3 ; < 100 , 000 / mm 3 : 25 / 68 ( porath et al . 1992 ) .\n< 100 , 000 / mm 3 1 / 5 ( fainaru et al . 1974 ) . < 200 , 000 / mm 3 1 / 7 ( 15 , 000 / mm 3 ) ( annobil 1993a ) . minimum 16 , 000 / mm 3 62 h after the bite ( tilbury et al . 1987 ) . 50 , 000 / mm 3 ( yatziv et al . 1974 ) .\nfibrinogen : undetectable during the 1st day after the bite : 3 / 5 , minimum 20 mg % : 1 / 5 , minimum 58 mg % : 1 / 5 . start of fibrinogen decrease 3\u20136 h after the bite 5 / 5 . increase in fibrinogen from the 2nd day after the bite 5 / 5 . normal values 5\u201310 days after the bite 5 / 5 ( fainaru et al . 1974 ) .\nfibrinogen < 1 g / l ( 3 / 7 , all 3 had pt and ptt \u2191 ) , fibrinogen > 1 g / l and < 2 g / l ( 2 / 7 ) ( annobil 1993a ) .\nfibrinogen before administration of antivenom 0 mg / 100 ml ( yatziv et al . 1974 ) .\nfactors v , ii , vii , x : course similar to that of fibrinogen . factors ii , vii and x were less severely decreased than factor v ( fainaru et al . 1974 ) .\nfsp : increased in 3 / 5 patients ( fainaru et al . 1974 ) .\n> 320 and < 640 \u03bcg / ml ( tilbury et al . 1987 ) . 360 \u03bcg / ml ( yatziv et al . 1974 ) .\n2 . leucocytes at the time of hospitalisation ( i . e . for most of the retrospectively studied patients 2\u20133 h after the bite ) : 10 , 800 \u00b1 4 , 300 / mm 3 ( porath et al . 1992 ) . > 11 , 000 / mm 3 5 / 7 ( annobil 1993a ) .\n3 . haemoglobin at the time of hospitalisation ( i . e . for most of the retrospectively studied patients 2\u20133 h after the bite ) : 14 . 1 \u00b1 1 . 9 g / 100 ml , < 10 g / 10 ml ( 2 / 68 ) . during hospitalisation ( minimum ) : 12 . 2 \u00b1 2 . 4 g / 100 ml , < 10 g / 100 ml ( 9 / 68 ) ( porath et al . 1992 ) . < 10 g / 100 ml 4 / 7 ( annobil 1993a ) .\n4 . urea at the time of hospitalisation ( i . e . for most of the retrospectively studied patients 2\u20133 h after the bite ) : 6 . 4 \u00b1 3 . 4 mmol / l . during hospitalisation ( maximum ) : 8 . 0 \u00b1 5 . 7 mmol / l ( porath et al . 1992 ) .\n5 . proteinuria , albuminuria at the time of hospitalisation ( i . e . for most of the retrospectively studied patients 2\u20133 h after the bite ) : 34 / 68 ( porath et al . 1992 ) . albuminuria 2 / 7 ( annobil 1993a ) .\n6 . ecg ecg changes 3 / 5 , of whom 2 / 3 with transient st / t changes , 1 / 3 with atrial extrasystole ( fainaru et al . 1974 ) .\n7 . kidney biopsy after acute renal failure histological characteristics of acute tubular necrosis , glomerular mesangial proliferation and acute interstitial nephritis ( the patient had a history of recurrent renal colic , and there was a stone in the inferior pole of the right kidney ) ( tilbury et al . 1987 ) .\nimmobilisation of the bitten extremity 68 / 68 ( porath et al . 1992 ) .\nffp 24 / 68 . one of these patients died 5 years later of aids , and the blood plasma transfusion represented the only known risk of infection . administration of ffp directly upon hospitalisation ( i . e . for most of the retrospectively studied patients 2\u20133 h after the bite ) represented the only variable at the time of hospitalisation that predicted ( logistic regression analysis ) urea levels of \u22659 mmol / l on subsequent investigations and that was associated with a 5 - fold higher risk of azotaemia . however , the study design ( retrospective , no control groups , small number of patients ) limits the significance of these results ( porath et al . 1992 ) .\nblisters were opened and emptied in order to avoid further absorption of venom from the contents of the blisters ( annobil 1993a ) .\nwith regard to the haemostatic effect : administration of antivenom directly upon hospitalisation ( i . e . for most of the retrospectively studied patients 2\u20133 h after the bite ) represented the only variable at the time of hospitalisation that predicted ( logistic regression analysis ) platelet counts of \u2265100 , 000 / mm 3 on subsequent investigations and that reduced the risk of thrombopaenia by 76 % . however , the study design ( retrospective , no control groups , small number of patients ) limits the significance of these results ( porath et al . 1992 ) .\nwith regard to haemoglobin : administration of antivenom directly upon hospitalisation ( i . e . for most of the retrospectively studied patients 2\u20133 h after the bite ) represented the only variable at the time of hospitalisation that predicted ( logistic regression analysis ) haemoglobin levels of \u226510 g / 100 ml on subsequent investigations and that reduced the risk of anaemia by 87 % . however , the study design ( retrospective , no control groups , small number of patients ) limits the significance of these results ( porath et al . 1992 ) .\nno details of adverse reactions in the study of porath et al . 1992 .\nevaluation of the risk of fatal bleeding in a decision model supported the indication for antivenom administration in all patients with haemostatic failure ( gilon et al . 1989 ) .\ntype locality : wadi as siji , region of masafi ( 25\u00b018\u2019 n , 56\u00b010\u2019 e ) , united arab emirates .\narnold , e . n . , & gallagher , m . d . 1977 . reptiles and amphibians from the mountains of northern oman . in : the scientific results of the oman flora and fauna survey 1975 . j . of oman stud . spec . rept . ( no . 1 ) : 59 - 80 .\nboulenger , g . a . 1887 . a list of the reptiles and batrachians obtained near muscat , arabia , and presented to the british museum by surgeon - major a . s . g . jayakar . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 5 ) 20 : 407 - 408 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1896 . catalogue of the snakes in the british museum , vol . 3 . london ( taylor & francis ) , xiv + 727 pp . - get paper here\ngardner , a . s . 2009 . mapping the terrestrial reptile distributions in oman and the united arab emirates . zookeys 31 : 165\u2013177 - get paper here\ngardner , drew . 2004 . a new species of viper described from the uae and northern oman . tribulus : journal of the emirates natural history group 14 ( 2 ) : 32 - get paper here\ngasperetti , j . 1988 . snakes of arabia . fauna of saudi arabia 9 : 169 - 450\ngrossmann , w . , t . kowalski , b . m . zwanzig & h . - j . zilger 2012 . erg\u00e4nzende herpetologische beobachtungen auf dem saiq - plateau und im jebel al - akhdar , sultanat oman . sauria 34 ( 4 ) : 3 - 18 - get paper here\ngrossmann , wolfgang ; bernd - michael zwanzig , thomas kowalski & hans - ju\u0308rgen zilger 2013 . weitere erga\u0308nzende herpetologische beobachtungen auf dem saiq - plateau und im jebel al - akhdar , sultanat oman . sauria 35 ( 3 ) : 23\u201331 - get paper here\njoger , u . 1984 . the venomous snakes of the near and middle east . beihefte zum t\u00fcbinger atlas des vorderen orients , a 12 . dr . ludwig reichert verlag , wiesbaden .\nupdate 1st june , 2018 : we just set up snake _ id , a cool new page that simplifies snake identification . be sure to check it out !\nimages provided by flickr - / inaturalist - api . sporadic false assignments may occur .\n0 to 2600 meter above sea level ( a . s . l . )\nurutu or yarara parker ' s pit viper andean pit viper terciopelo * barba amarilla * caissaca * barbour ' s pit viper barnett ' s pit viper bocourt ' s pit viper amazonian tree - viper brazil ' s pit viper st . lucia pit viper cotiara dunn ' s pit viper fonseca ' s pit viper godmann ' s pit viper island jararaca jararaca jararacussu fer - de - lance lansberg ' s hog nose viper yellow - lined pit viper black - tailed pit viper hog - nosed pit viper jararaca pintada or wied ' s lance - head black spotted pit viper jumping viper western hog - nosed pit viper peruvian pit viper piraja ' s pit viper , jararacucu eyelash viper yucatan pit viper\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\ngeneral shape small in length , cylindrical and moderately slender bodied snake with very short tail . can grow to a maximum of about 0 . 83 metres . head is broad , flat and pear shaped when viewed from above and distinct from neck . snout is short and broad . canthus is indistinct . eyes are medium in size with vertically elliptical pupils . head scales are keeled . dorsal scales are dull , strongly keeled and imbricate with apical pits . lower lateral body scales are markedly serrated . ventrals are rounded .\nhabitat desert areas mainly in dry rocky hillside and mountain terrain with widely scattered vegetation up to about 1500 metres . tends to avoid loose sand areas\nhabits terrestrial and nocturnal , uses sidewinding locomotion , and avoids the summer heat by sheltering deeper into their burrows . if disturbed it assumes an s - shaped coil position and rubs the sides of the body together making a rasping sound . very nervous , irritable and aggressive disposition , quick to strike at the slightest provocation and does not try to escape .\ndescription : first aid for bites by viperid snakes likely to cause significant local injury at the bite site ( see listing in comments section ) .\ngeneral approach to management all cases should be treated as urgent & potentially lethal . rapid assessment & commencement of treatment including appropriate antivenom ( if indicated & available ) is mandatory . admit all cases .\nantivenom therapy antivenom is the key treatment for systemic envenoming . multiple doses may be required .\n( cc by - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - noncommerical - sharealike\n( cc by - nc - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - share alike\n( gpl3 . 0 ) , or in the public domain ( pd ) , as shown in the caption to the image displayed on www . toxinology . com .\ncopyright 2001 - 2018 toxinology , wch . all rights reserved . best viewed in 800x600 resolution or higher .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nuetz , p . , freed , p . and ho\u0161ek , j . ( eds ) . 2018 . the reptile database . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 06 february 2018 ) .\nwilms , t . , al rasbi , k . j . m . & els , j .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern in view of its wide range and lack of significant threats . the species may be expanding its range where irrigation projects occur .\nthis species is endemic to the eastern al hajar mountain complex of oman and the united arab emirates ( egan 2007 ) . the animals are seldom found above 800 m asl .\nthis nocturnal species is found in mountain valleys and surrounding rocky terrain . animals are common in wadis with or without water . the diet consists of small vertebrates . they are presumably oviparous .\nactivities in the species ' range include coastal development , and water yielding wadis being used for recreational means - however the species is considered to be resilient and non - specific in its habitat requirements , so there are not believed to be any threats to the species as a whole .\nit is present in some protected areas . further studies are needed into the distribution , abundance , natural history , and threats to this little - known species .\n0 . root - > 6 . rocky areas ( eg . inland cliffs , mountain peaks ) suitability : suitable\n1 . research - > 1 . 2 . population size , distribution & trends 1 . research - > 1 . 3 . life history & ecology 1 . research - > 1 . 5 . threats\nbranch , w . , egan , d . and edmonds , j . 2008 . proceedings of the 9th conservation workshop for the fauna of arabia : conservation status of the terrestrial snakes of the arabian peninsula . breeding centre for endangered arabian wildlife .\negan , d . 2007 . snakes of arabia : a field guide to the snakes of the arabian peninsula and its shores . motivate publishing , dubai .\niucn . 2012 . iucn red list of threatened species ( ver . 2012 . 2 ) . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 17 october 2012 ) .\nst\u00fcmpel , n . and joger , u . 2009 . recent advances in phylogeny and taxonomy of near and middle eastern vipers - an update . zookeys 31 : 179 - 191 .\nwilms , t . , al rasbi , k . j . m . & els , j . 2012 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . moreover , within the biodiversity hotspot of the mediterranean basin ( myers et al . 2000 ) the coastal levant is relatively reptile - species rich ( b\u00f6hm et al . 2013 ) . this is partly due to the local herpetofaunal knowledge having advanced in recent decades through research ( werner 1968werner , 2004werner , 2007 kark et al . 1997 ; werner et al . 1999 werner et al . , 2006 babocsay 2003 ; baha el din 2007 ; perry 2012 perry , 2012 ) and reviews ( hurvitz et al . 1980 ; werner 1982 werner , 1988 werner , 1995 werner , 1998 sivan and werner 1992 ; amr et al . 1994 ; amitai and bouskila 2001 ; disi 2002 disi , 2011 hraoui - bloquet et al . 2002 ; baha el din s 2006 ; amr and disi 2011 ) . we equate species and subspecies as ' operational taxonomic units ' , or taxa . . . ."]}
{"id": 149, "summary": [{"text": "} } angiostrongylus cantonensis is a parasitic nematode ( roundworm ) that causes angiostrongyliasis , the most common cause of eosinophilic meningitis in southeast asia and the pacific basin .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the nematode commonly resides in the pulmonary arteries of rats , giving it the common name rat lungworm .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "snails are the primary intermediate hosts , where larvae develop until they are infective .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "humans are incidental hosts of this roundworm , and may become infected through ingestion of larvae in raw or undercooked snails or other vectors , or from contaminated water and vegetables .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the larvae are then transported via the blood to the central nervous system , where they are the most common cause of eosinophilic meningitis , a serious condition that can lead to death or permanent brain and nerve damage .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "angiostrongyliasis is an infection of increasing public health importance as globalization contributes to the geographic spread of the disease . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "angiostrongylus cantonensis", "paragraphs": ["studies on eosinophilic meningitis . v . molluscan hosts of angiostrongylus cantonensis on pacific islands\ntable 2 : rats examined for angiostrongylus cantonensis infection in mu\u00f1oz , nueva ecija .\ntable 3 : snails examined for angiostrongylus cantonensis infection in mu\u00f1oz , nueva ecija .\neosinophilic meningitis in thailand . clinical studies of 484 typical cases probably caused by angiostrongylus cantonensis\nepidemiology of angiostrongylus cantonensis and eosinophilic meningitis in the people ' s republic of china .\nlearn more about how people get infected with angiostrongylus cantonensis in this new motion graphic video .\nlearn more about how to keep from getting infected with angiostrongylus cantonensis in this new motion graphic video .\nthe truncated life - cycle of angiostrongylus cantonensis , the rat lungworm , in an accidental ( human ) host .\nfigure 1 : map of mu\u00f1oz , nueva ecija , showing the distribution of angiostrongylus cantonensis infected rats and snails .\nstudies on eosinophilic meningitis . 3 . epidemiologic and clinical observations on pacific islands and the possible etiologic role of angiostrongylus cantonensis\ncross jh . 1987 . public health importance of angiostrongylus cantonensis and its relatives . parasitology today 3 : 367 - 369 .\naguiar , p . , p . morera , j . pascual . 1981 . first record of angiostrongylus cantonensis in cuba .\nangiostrongyliasis , the most common infectious cause of eosinophilic meningitis , results from infection by the parasitic nematode angiostrongylus cantonensis 1 . here , we present a case of eosinophilic meningitis due to a . cantonensis .\nalicata je . 1991 . the discovery of angiostrongylus cantonensis as a cause of human eosinophilic meningitis . parasitology today 7 : 151 - 153 .\nwestern blot analysis for angiostrongylus cantonensis . at left , few bands appear when an acute serum sample was tested against a . cantonensis extract . at right , many bands are present in a convalescent sample , in particular a strong band against specific 31 - kda a . cantonensis antigen ( arrowhead ) , confirming infection with a . cantonensis .\nherwaldt bl . 2012 . angiostrogyliasis ( angiostrongylus cantonensis infection , neurologic angiostrongyliasis ) . centers for disease control and prevention , yellowbook , chapter 3 .\nheyneman d , lim b . 1967 . angiostrongylus cantonensis : proof of direct transmission with its epidemiological implications . science 158 : 1057 - 1058 .\nash lr . diagnostic morphology of the third - stage larvae of angiostrongylus cantonensis , angiostrongylus vasorum , aelurostrongylus abstrusus , and anafilaroides rostratus ( nematoda : metastrongyloidea ) . j parasitol . 1970 ; 56 : 249\u2013253 . pmid : 5445821\nthe nematode ( roundworm ) angiostrongylus cantonensis , the rat lungworm , is the most common cause of human eosinophilic meningitis . in addition , angiostrongylus ( parastrongylus ) costaricensis is the causal agent of abdominal , or intestinal , angiostrongyliasis .\nangiostrongylus costaricensis causes eosinophilic gastroenteritis and is found in latin america and the caribbean .\nfigure a : angiostrongylus cantonensis third stage ( l3 ) , infective larva , in a wet mount , recovered from a slug . note the terminal projection on the tip of the tail which is characteristic of a . cantonensis .\njitpimolmard , s . , j . kanpittaya , e . mairiang , s . tiamkao . 2000 . mr findings of eosinophilic meningoencephalitis attributed to angiostrongylus cantonensis .\n5 k\u00e4lber und 5 schweine wurden mit angiostrongylus cantonensis infiziert , 3 , 7 , 14 , 28 und 56 tage nach der infektion get\u00f6tet und histologisch untersucht .\nfigure a : angiostrongylus cantonensis third stage ( l3 ) , infective larva recovered from a slug . image captured under differential interference contrast ( dic ) microscopy .\nangiostrongylus cantonensis was first described from rats in china by chen in 1935 12 and placed in the genus pulmonema , as pulmonema cantonensis . the same species was also described a short time later in 1937 as haemostrongylus ratti by yokogawa 13 , who did not realize that it was the same species that had been described already by chen . the genus pulmonema was subsequently synonymized with angiostrongylus and the species name ratti was synonymized with cantonensis . 14 these nomenclatural changes were widely accepted so that the most common and widely used name for the species became angiostrongylus cantonensis .\nfigure 3 . adult female ( left ) and male ( right ) of the rat lungworm , angiostrongylus cantonensis . adapted from mackerras and sandars ( 1955 ) .\nishih , a . , t . lakwo , m . sano , m . terada . 1998 . effects of albendazole against larval and adult angiostrongylus cantonensis in rats .\nfive calves and 5 pigs experimentally infected with larvae of angiostrongylus cantonensis were killed 3 , 7 , 14 , 28 , and 56 days after infection and histologically examined .\nto cite this page : syed , s . 2001 .\nangiostrongylus cantonensis\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\n. memorandum on the first report of angiostrongylus in man , by nomura and lin , 1945 .\nangiostrongylus costaricensis eggs and larvae in tissue stained with hematoxylin and eosin ( h & e ) .\n9 . luessi f , sollors j , torzewski m . et al . eosinophilic meningitis due to angiostrongylus cantonensis in germany . j travel med . 2009 ; 16 : 292 - 294\na . vitta , r . polseela , s . nateeworanart , and m . tattiyapong , \u201csurvey of angiostrongylus cantonensis in rats and giant african land snails in phitsanulok province , thailand , \u201d\neamsobhana p , yong hs . immunological diagnosis of human angiostrongyliasis due to angiostrongylus cantonensis ( nematoda : angiostrongylidae ) . int j infect dis . 2009 ; 13 : 425\u2013431 . pmid : 19117782\n3 . eamsobhana p , yong hs . immunological diagnosis of human angiostrongyliasis due to angiostrongylus cantonensis ( nematoda : angiostrongylidae ) . int j infect dis . 2009 ; 13 : 425 - 431\ntunel assay in the subarachnoid space and meningeal area of mice infected with a . cantonensis\nash lr . 1976 . observations on the role of mollusks and planarians in the transmission of angiostrongylus cantonensis infection to man in new caledonia . revista de biologia tropical 24 : 163 - 174 .\neamsobhana p . the rat lungworm parastrongylus ( = angiostrongylus ) cantonensis : parasitology , immunology , eosinophilic meningitis , epidemiology and laboratory diagnosis . bangkok : wankaew ( iq ) book center ; 2006 .\nfigure a : angiostrongylus costaricensis eggs in intestinal tissue stained with hematoxylin and eosin ( h & e ) .\nimage : left : angiostrongylus cantonensis third stage ( l3 ) , infective larva recovered from a slug . image captured under differential interference contrast ( dic ) microscopy . right : angiostrongylus adult worm recovered from vitreous humor of a human patient . the bursa is one indication that this is a male worm . the worm is most likely a . cantonensis based on the patient\u2019s geographic location . credit : dpdx\nhochberg ns , park sy , blackburn bg , et al , 2007 . distribution of eosinophilic meningitis cases attributable to angiostrongylus cantonensis , hawaii . emerg infect dis . 13 ( 11 ) : 1675\u201380 view article\n2 . li h , xu f , gu jb , chen xg . a severe eosinophilic meningoencephalitis caused by infection of angiostrongylus cantonensis . am j trop med hyg . 2008 ; 79 : 568 - 570\nkottwitz jj , perry kk , rose hh , hendrix cm . 2014 . angiostrongylus cantonensis infection in captive geoffroy\u2019s tamarins ( saguinus geoffroyi ) . journal of the american veterinary medical association 245 : 821 - 827 .\nmackerras mj , sandars df . 1955 . the life history of the rat lung - worm , angiostrongylus cantonensis ( chen ) ( nematoda : metastrongylidae ) . australian journal of zoology 3 : 1 - 25 .\ncenter for disease control and prevention , 2004 .\nangiostrongylus cantonensis infection\n( on - line ) . cdc , division of parastitic diseases , parasitic disease information . accessed august 23 , 2004 at urltoken .\nwe appreciate the assistance of wanpen chaicumpa in the confirmation of the diagnosis of a . cantonensis .\nrichards , c . s . , & merritt , j . w . ( 1967 ) . studies on angiostrongylus cantonensis in molluscan intermediate hosts . journal of parasitology , 53 ( 2 ) , 382 - 388 .\nstockdale - walden hd , slapcinsky j , qvarnstrom y , mcintosh a , bishop hs , rosseland b . 2015 . angiostrongylus cantonensis in introduced gastropods in southern florida . journal of parasitology 101 : 156 - 159 .\ncross , j . 2000 .\ncentral nervous system parasites , phasmidea , order : strongylida . angiostrongylus cantonensis\n( on - line ) . atlas of medical parasitology . accessed august 23 , 2004 at urltoken .\nknown gastropod hosts of angiostrongylus cantonensis , associated localities and corresponding key references . * references reporting only experimental laboratory infection - no locality is given for such studies . * * references reporting both natural and experimental infection .\nkim jr , hayes ka , yeung nw , cowie rh . 2014 . diverse gastropod hosts of angiostrongylus cantonensis , the rat lungworm , globally and with a focus on the hawaiian islands . plos one 9 : e94969 .\nanderson , d . , l . fitzgerald , c . gardiner , a . gutter , r . harris . 1990 . eosinophilic meningoencephalitis due to angiostrongylus cantonensis as the cause of death in captive non - human primates .\nalicata je . biology and distribution of the rat lungworm , angiostrongylus cantonensis , and its relationship to eosinophilic meningoencephalitis and other neurological disorders of man and animals . adv parasitol . 1965 ; 3 : 223\u2013248 . pmid : 5334821\n5 . dorta - contreras aj , padilla - docal b , moreira jm . et al . neuroimmunological findings in angiostrongylus cantonensis meningitis in ecuadorian patients . arq neuropsiquiatr . 2011 ; 69 ( 3 ) : 466 - 469\nfigure b : a . cantonensis l3 , infective larvae , in wet mounts , recovered from slugs .\nfigure c : a . cantonensis l3 , infective larvae , in wet mounts , recovered from slugs .\nhowever , in 1986 , ubelaker 15 split the genus angiostrongylus into five genera , based largely on their anatomy , assigning species to each of the genera , based on morphology but also on the definitive host , as follows : angiostrongylus ( found in carnivores , eg , dogs , foxes , cats ) , parastrongylus ( murids , eg , mice and rats ) , angiocaulus ( mustelids , eg , martens ) , gallegostrongylus ( gerbils and one murid ) , stefanskostrongylus ( insectivores , eg , shrews , tenrecs , etc . ) . angiostrongylus cantonensis , the definitive host of which is rats , was thus transferred to the genus parastrongylus , becoming parastrongylus cantonensis . however , although occasionally used , 16 , 17 this classification has not been widely adopted and the species continues to be referred to most widely as angiostrongylus cantonensis .\nmartin - alonso a , foronda p , quispe - ricalde ma , feliu c , valladares b . seroprevalence of angiostrongylus cantonensis in wild rodents from the canary islands . plos one . 2011 ; 6 : e27747 . pmid : 22110752\nac : angiostrongylus cantonensis ; csf : cerebrospinal fluid ; pcr : polymerase chain reaction . * eosinophilic meningitis : \u2265 10 eosinophils / mm3 in csf or \u226510 % wbc ) . * * meningitis : \u2265 10 wbc in csf .\nfigure a : angiostrongylus sp . male worm , approximately 4 . 25 mm in length , recovered from vitreous humor of a human patient . the worm is most likely a . cantonensis based on the patient ' s geographic location .\nfigure d : angiostrongylus adult worm recovered from vitreous humor of a human patient . the bursa is one indication that this is a male worm . the worm is most likely a . cantonensis based on the patient ' s geographic location .\nhochberg ns , blackburn bg , park sy , et al , 2011 . eosinophilic meningitis attributable to angiostrongylus cantonensis infection in hawaii : clinical characteristics and potential exposures . am j trop med hyg . 85 ( 4 ) : 685\u201390 view article\n6 . tsai hc , lai ph , sy cl . et al . encephalitis caused by angiostrongylus cantonensis after eating raw frogs mixed with wine as a health supplement . intern med . 2011 ; 50 ( 7 ) : 771 - 774\nun nouveau nematode pulmonaire : pulmonema cantonensis n . g . n . sp . , des rats de canton\nqvarnstrom y , sullivan jj , bishop hs , hollingsworth r , da silva , aj . 2007 . pcr - based detection of angiostrongylus cantonensis in tissue and mucus secretions from molluscan hosts . applied and environmental microbiology 73 : 1415 - 1419 .\nvincent lo re , stephen j . gluckman ; eosinophilic meningitis due to angiostrongylus cantonensis in a returned traveler : case report and review of the literature , clinical infectious diseases , volume 33 , issue 9 , 1 november 2001 , pages e112\u2013e115 , urltoken\nwilkins pp , qvarnstrom y , whelen ac , et al . 2013 . the current status of laboratory diagnosis of angiostrongylus cantonensis infections in humans using serologic and molecular methods . hawaii j med public health . 72 ( 6 ) : 55\u20137 view article\nqvarnstrom y , sullivan jj , bishop hs , hollingsworth r , da silva aj . 2007 . pcr - based detection of angiostrongylus cantonensis in tissue and mucus secretions from molluscan hosts . appl environ microbiol . 73 ( 5 ) : 1415\u20131419 view article\nangiostrongylus cantonensis , the rat lungworm , is the principal cause of eosinophilic meningitis worldwide , and the increase in world travel and shipborne dispersal of infected rat vectors has extended this parasite to regions outside of its traditional geographic boundaries . we report a case of eosinophilic meningitis due to a . cantonensis in a patient who recently returned from a trip in the pacific .\nangiostrongylus cantonensis is a nematode ( phylum nematoda ) in the superfamily metastrongyloidea and family angiostrongylidae . 8 the systematics of the angiostrongylidae is not well understood , with many species inadequately described and probably others not yet recognized , a situation that has advanced but little since anderson 8 expressed the hope over 30 years ago that this might improve . there are around 20 species in the genus angiostrongylus globally 9 , 10 two of these cause disease in humans : angiostrongylus costaricensis morera & c\u00e9spedes , 1971 , which causes abdominal angiostrongyliasis , and which is a problem especially in south and central america , 10 , 11 and angiostrongylus cantonensis ( chen , 1935 ) , which causes eosinophilic meningitis , is spreading rapidly to many parts of the world , and is the subject of this paper .\nalicata , j . e . ( 1967 ) . effect of freezing and boiling on the infectivity of third - stage larvae of angiostrongylus cantonensis present in land snails and freshwater prawns . journal of parasitology , 53 ( 5 ) , 1064 - 1066 .\ncitation : kim jr , hayes ka , yeung nw , cowie rh ( 2014 ) diverse gastropod hosts of angiostrongylus cantonensis , the rat lungworm , globally and with a focus on the hawaiian islands . plos one 9 ( 5 ) : e94969 . urltoken\nqvarnstrom y , sullivan jj , bishop hs , hollingsworth r , da silva aj : pcr - based detection of angiostrongylus cantonensis in tissue and mucus secretions from molluscan hosts . appl . environ . microbiol . ; 2007 ; 73 : 1415 - 1419 .\nwe thank paron dekumyoy ( faculty of tropical medicine , mahidol university , thailand ) for performing the serological testing for angiostrongylus and gnathostoma species .\n7 . diao z , chen x , yin c . et al . angiostrongylus cantonensis : effect of combination therapy with albendazole and dexamethasone on th cytokine gene expression in pbmc from patients with eosinophilic meningitis . exp parasitol . 2009 ; 123 : 1 - 5\nsynonym or cross reference : parastrongylus cantonensis , rat lungworm , angiostrongyliasis , cerebral angiostrongyliasis , eosinophilic meningitis , eosinophilic meningoencephalitis .\nsynonym or cross reference : parastrongylus cantonensis , rat lungworm , angiostrongyliasis , cerebral angiostrongyliasis , eosinophilic meningitis , eosinophilic meningoencephalitis .\nwith the improvement of public health , eosinophilic meningitis associated with angiostrongylus cantonensis infection is now seldom reported in taiwan . eosinophilic meningitis typically occurred sporadically in children . this study aims to analyze the clinical manifestations and change in the contemporary epidemiology of eosinophilic meningitis in taiwan .\nqvarnstrom y , xayavong m , da silva aca , et al . 2015 . real - time polymerase chain reaction detection of angiostrongylus cantonensis dna in cerebrospinal fluid from patients with eosinophilic meningitis . am j trop med hyg . ( epub ahead of print ) view article\nfigure b : angiostrongylus worm . note the very long spicules ( black arrows ) , one of the indications that this is a male worm .\nthe distribution map revealed that the sampling points for infected rats and snails overlap implying potential hosts occurring in the same area ( figure 1 ) . the map also showed that the selected villages have rats and snails harboring a . cantonensis and other parasites . two villages , namely , sapang cawayan and villa nati have the known definitive and intermediate hosts of a . cantonensis . however , there are also villages which have a . cantonensis infected rats but no a . cantonensis infected snails .\nonce angiostrongylus cantonensis becomes established in populations of rats , it is likely to be a permanent concern . eradication of rats and molluscs potentially could eliminate the problem , but this is impossible to accomplish . their abundance can be reduced , however , minimizing risk of infection .\nhochberg ns , blackburn bg , park sy , sejvar jj , effler pv , herwaldt bl . eosinophilic meningitis attributable to angiostrongylus cantonensis infection in hawaii : clinical characteristics and potential exposures . am j trop med hyg . 2011 oct ; 85 ( 4 ) : 685\u201390 .\nfigure b : a . cantonensis ( l3 ) , infective larvae recovered from a slug . image captured under dic microscopy .\nbeing infected with angiostrongyliasis does not protect you against becoming infected again in the future from another exposure to a . cantonensis .\nlv s , zhang y , liu h - x , zhang c - w , steinmann p , zhou s - n , utsinger j . 2009b . angiostrongylus cantonensis : morphological and behavioral investigation within the freshwater snail pomacea canaliculata . parasitology research 104 : 1351 - 1359 .\nsawanyawisuth k , chindaprasirt j , senthong v , limpawattana p , auvichayapat n , tassniyom s , et al . clinical manifestations of eosinophilic meningitis due to infection with angiostrongylus cantonensis in children . korean j parasitol . 2013 ; 51 ( 6 ) : 735\u20138 . pmid : 24516281\nangiostrongylus is a parasitic nematode that can cause severe gastrointestinal or central nervous system disease in humans , depending on the species . angiostrongylus cantonensis , which is also known as the rat lungworm , causes eosinophilic meningitis and is prevalent in southeast asia and tropical pacific islands . the recognized distribution of the parasite has been increasing over time and infections have been identified in other areas , including africa , the caribbean , and the united states .\nnoda , s . , & sato , a . ( 1990 ) . effects of infection with angiostrongylus cantonensis on the circulating haemocyte population and the haematopoietic organ of the host snail m - line biomphalaria glabrata . journal of helminthology , 64 ( 3 ) , 239 - 247 .\ncitation : martin - alonso a , abreu - yanes e , feliu c , mas - coma s , bargues md , valladares b , et al . ( 2015 ) intermediate hosts of angiostrongylus cantonensis in tenerife , spain . plos one 10 ( 3 ) : e0120686 . urltoken\ncitation : epelboin l , blond\u00e9 r , chamouine a , chrisment a , diancourt l , villemant n , et al . ( 2016 ) angiostrongylus cantonensis infection on mayotte island , indian ocean , 2007 - 2012 . plos negl trop dis 10 ( 5 ) : e0004635 . urltoken\nlim , j . m . , lee , c . c . , & wilder - smith , a . ( 2004 ) . eosinophilic meningitis caused by angiostrongylus cantonensis : a case report and literature review . journal of travel medicine , 11 ( 6 ) , 388 - 390 .\nangiostrongylus cantonensis , the rat lungworm , is the major cause of eosinophilic meningitis worldwide . rats serve as the definitive host of the nematode , but humans can be infected incidentally , leading to eosinophilic meningitis . a previous balb / c animal study has demonstrated increased apoptotic proteins and decreased anti - apoptotic proteins in mice infected with a . cantonensis . steroids may be an effective treatment option for eosinophilic meningitis caused by a . cantonensis , but the involved mechanism is unclear . this study hypothesized that the beneficial effects of steroids on eosinophilic meningitis are mediated by decreased apoptosis .\nliu c , song h , zhang r , chen m , xu m , ai l , et al . specific detection of angiostrongylus cantonensis in the snail achatina fulica using a loop - mediated isothermal amplification ( lamp ) assay . mol cell probes . 2011 ; 25 : 164\u2013167 . pmid : 21515360\nhow to cite this article : liu j , gao j , zhou c . a case report on eosinophilic meningitis caused by angiostrongylus cantonensis . int j med sci 2011 ; 8 ( 6 ) : 510 - 513 . doi : 10 . 7150 / ijms . 8 . 510 . available from urltoken\niwanowicz dd , sanders lr , schill wb , xayavong mv , da silva aj , qvarnstrom y , smith t . 2015 . spread of the rat lungworm ( angiostrongylus cantonensis ) in giant african land snails ( lissachatina fulica ) in florida , usa . journal of wildlife diseases 51 : 749 - 753 .\njin e , qiang ma , da - qing ma , wen he , ai - ping j , and cheng - hong y . magnetic resonance imaging of eosinophilic meningoencephalitis caused by angiostrongylus cantonensis following eating freshwater snails . chinese medical journal . 2008 ; 121 ( 1 ) : 67\u201372 67 . pmid : 18208669\nnueva ecija is the rice granary of the philippines and one of its towns , mu\u00f1oz , was observed to have a . cantonensis [ 4 , 5 ] . the intensity and molecular biology of the observed parasites were not determined in previous studies . however , it is important to present stronger evidence regarding the presence of a . cantonensis as it could be mistaken for other species of angiostrongylus . furthermore , the intermediate host remains unknown in the region . this is an important key in assessing the infection of a . cantonensis particularly in humans because these hosts harbor the infective stage of the parasite . thus , this study was conducted to determine the extent of infection of a . cantonensis among rats and snails collected from mu\u00f1oz .\ncampbell bg , little md . 1988 . the finding of angiostrongylus cantonesis in rats in new orleans . american journal of tropical medicine and hygiene 38 : 568 - 573 .\ncase 2 . angiostrongylus vasorum in the anterior chamber of the left eye of a 2 - year - old male cavalier king charles spaniel dog . ( mov 1003 kb )\na . cantonensis is the most common parasitic cause of eosinophilic meningitis outside europe and north america [ 4 ] . human cases of angiostrongyliasis , a neurotropic helminthic infection , have been reported in the south pacific , asia , australia , and the caribbean [ 4 , 5 ] . in the united states , case series have been reported from hawaii , where angiostrongylus infection is endemic [ 5 ] . there have also been reports of rats infected with angiostrongylus species in louisiana [ 6 ] .\nfigure c : higher magnification of image b . note the terminal projection on the tip of the tail which is characteristic of a . cantonensis .\nangiostrongyliasis , also known as rat lungworm , is a disease that affects the brain and spinal cord . it is caused by a parasitic nematode ( roundworm parasite ) called angiostrongylus cantonensis . the adult form of a . cantonensis is only found in rodents . however , infected rodents can pass larvae of the worm in their feces . snails , slugs , and certain other animals ( including freshwater shrimp , land crabs , and frogs ) can become infected by ingesting this larvae ; these are considered intermediate hosts . humans can become infected with a . cantonensis if they eat ( intentionally or otherwise ) a raw or undercooked infected intermediate host , thereby ingesting the parasite . for more information on the life - cycle of a . cantonensis , visit the cdc website .\nburns r . e , bicknese e . j , qvarnstrom y , deleon - carnes m , drew c . p , gardiner ch . , rideout ba . 2014 . cerebral angiostrongylus cantonensis infection in a captive african pygmy falcon ( polihierax semitorquatus ) in southern california . journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation 26 : 695 - 698 .\ntube 1 , dna isolated from plutonia lamarckii tissue ; tube 2 , dna obtained from a . cantonensis adult worms ; tube 3 , negative control .\nwang qp , wu zd , wei rl , owen zr , and lun zr . human angiostrongylus cantononsis : an update . eur . j clin microbiol . infect . dis . 2011\nfigure a : angiostrongylus costaricensis female worm in appendix tissue sections stained with hematoxylin and eosin ( h & e ) . image courtesy of regions hospital , st . paul , mn .\nwhile the systematics of angiostrongylidae is in need of detailed study , the complex life cycle of angiostrongylus cantonensis is relatively well understood . the parasite is spreading widely around the world , resulting in cases of angiostrongyliasis in places where it had not previously been recorded , facilitated by ease of global travel , globalization of commerce , and climate change .\nis not specific for either definitive or intermediate hosts . the requirement is that the intermediate host must be an invertebrate while the definitive is a terrestrial mammal . paratenic hosts , where the parasites don ' t develop to the next stage , can be either invertebrate or vertebrate . the definitive hosts for angiostrongylus cantonensis are usually rodents from the genus\ncitation : jarvi si , pitt wc , farias me , shiels l , severino mg , howe km , et al . ( 2015 ) detection of angiostrongylus cantonensis in the blood and peripheral tissues of wild hawaiian rats ( rattus rattus ) by a quantitative pcr ( qpcr ) assay . plos one 10 ( 4 ) : e0123064 . urltoken\nangiostrongylus cantonensis is the most common cause of eosinophilic meningitis in humans . it is usually caused by ingestion of raw or inadequately cooked intermediate hosts or food contaminated with infective third - stage larvae . we describe a case of eosinophilic meningitis caused by a . cantonensis in a male chinese patient . the patient had a history of eating raw fish and snail . we describe the clinical features of the patient , the diagnostic process and treatments . we also provide a brief update for physicians on the characteristics , diagnosis and treatment of eosinophilic meningitis caused by a . cantonensis , with particular emphasis on the update of prevalence and treatment of the disease in china .\nbeaver pc , rosen l . memorandum on the first report of angiostrongylus in man , by nomura and lin , 1945 . am j trop med hyg . 1964 ; 13 : 589\u201390 .\nasato r , taira k , nakamura m , kudaka j , itokazu k , kawanaka m . changing epidemiology of angiostrongyliasis cantonensis in okinawa prefecture , japan .\nthe life history of a . mackerrasae was found to differ from that of a . cantonensis as follows : ( 1 ) the moulting times of a . cantonensis in the definitive host occurred a few days earlier than those of a . mackerrasae ; ( 2 ) the growth rate of a . cantonensis was more rapid than that of a . mackerrasae . however , there were no differences in the migratory pattern of the third - stage larvae of both species in experimentally - infected definitive hosts . it is concluded that mackerras & sandars ( 1955 ) described the life history of a . mackerrasae and not a . cantonensis .\nchen ht . un nouveau nematode pulmonaire , pulmonema cantonensis , ngn sp . des rats de canton . ann . parasit . 1935 ; 13 : 312 .\nhuttemann , m . , schmahl , g . , & mehlhorn , h . ( 2007 ) . light and electron microscopic studies on two nematodes , angiostrongylus cantonensis and trichuris muris , differing in their mode of nutrition . parasitology research , 101 suppl 2 , s225 - 32 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s00436 - 007 - 0698 - 1\nslom tj , cortese mm , gerber si , jones rc , holtz th , lopez mhs , zambrano ch , sufit rl , sakilvaree y , chaicumpa w , herwaldt bl , johnson s . 2002 . an outbreak of eosinophilic meningitis caused by angiostrongylus cantonensis in travelers returning from the caribbean . new england journal of medicine 346 : 668 - 574 .\nteem jl , qvarnstrom y , bishop hs , da silva aj , carter j , white - mclean j , smith t . 2013 . the occurrence of the rat lungworm , angiostrongylus cantonensis , in nonindigenous snails in the gulf of mexico region of the united states . hawaii journal of medicine and public health 72 supplement 2 : 11 - 14 .\nlv s , zhang y , liu h - x , hu l , yang k , steinmann p , chen z , wang l - y , utzinger j , zhou s - n . 2009a . invasive snails and an emerging infectious disease : results from the first national survey on angiostrongylus cantonensis in china . plos neglected tropical diseases 3 : e368 .\nphylogeny constructed using the classifications and phylogenies of bouchet and rocroi , aktipis et al . and strong et al . [ 59 ] \u2013 [ 61 ] , indicating the diversity of families in which mollusc species have been shown to act as hosts of angiostrongylus cantonensis . bars at the right of the tree indicate the taxonomic group that the families belong to .\nnematodes of the genus angiostrongylus are important causes of potentially life - threatening diseases in several animal species and humans . angiostrongylus vasorum affects the right ventricle of the heart and the pulmonary arteries in dogs , red foxes and other carnivores . the diagnosis of canine angiostrongylosis may be challenging due to the wide spectrum of clinical signs . ocular manifestations have been seldom reported but have serious implications for patients .\nqvarnstrom y , da silva aqa , teem jl , hollingsworth r , bishop h , graeff - teixeira c , and da silva aj : improved molecular detection of angiostrongylus cantonensis in mollusks and other environmental samples with a species - specific internal transcribed spacer 1 - based taqman assay . appl . envir . microbiol . ; 2010 ; 76 : 5287 \u2013 5289 .\nthe pcr method was successfully applied to mucus secretions from p . martensi . spiking experiments revealed that the pcr could detect a single a . cantonensis larva in approximately 0 . 3 g of secretions . despite this , the majority of naturally infected p . martensi semislugs examined in this study did not have detectable levels of larvae in their mucus . since the notion that mollusks infected with a . cantonensis can shed larvae in their mucus trails was first suggested , other workers have found no or very few a . cantonensis larvae secreted from infected mollusks ( 3 , 7 , 8 ) . similar results have been obtained for excretion of other angiostrongylus species ( 6 , 15 , 25 , 28 ) .\nangiostrongylus cantonensis - associated eosinophilic meningitis in humans has been commonly reported worldwide . however parasitologically confirmed cases are not common , as the parasite has been recovered only infrequently from the cerebrospinal fluid of patients . the potential value of immunodiagnosis is therefore self - evident . immunological tests can also help in the differential diagnosis of parasitic ( particularly helminths ) infections that cause eosinophilic meningitis . this paper summarizes the state of and advances in the immunological diagnosis of human angiostrongyliasis due to angiostrongylus ( = parastrongylus ) cantonensis . a specific antigen is available for the definitive diagnosis and unequivocal differentiation of eosinophilic meningitis due to helminth infections . rapid diagnostic kits based on dot - blot elisa have been developed and have proved to be simple , effective , and economical for field use .\nfigure 1 . rats are the normal host of angiostrogylus cantonensis nematodes . they acquire the parasite by feeding on infected molluscs . photograph by jennifer l . gillett - kaufman .\nangiostrongylus cantonensis is a parasitic nematode and one of the major causes of eosinophilic meningitis , a potentially fatal disease in humans and other mammals , as well as birds [ 1 ] \u2013 [ 6 ] . additional causes of eosinophilic meningitis include other parasitic , bacterial , viral and fungal infections , as well as intracranial malignancies or medical devices and allergic reactions to drugs [ 7 ] . angiostrongylus cantonensis has been recorded on all continents except europe and antarctica and over 2 , 800 human cases of eosinophilic meningitis caused by it have been reported from about 30 countries [ 8 ] , [ 9 ] . most records of the disease , also known as rat lungworm disease , have been from tropical and subtropical areas in southeast asia and the pacific basin . however , cases have also been sporadically reported in other regions , including places where a . cantonensis is not present , when people return from regions where it occurs [ 8 ] \u2013 [ 13 ] .\ntwo of the samples that tested positive with lamp were confirmed as positive by 18s rrna pcr ( genbank accession number km096415 ) . both were from p . lamarckii specimens . sequences exhibited 100 % similarity to an 18s rrna gene partial sequence of a . cantonensis retrieved from genbank ( ay295804 . 1 ) [ 18 ] and to a sequence obtained from a . cantonensis third stage larvae of parmarion cf . martensi [ 20 ] . both samples were confirmed to be infected with a . cantonensis by amplification of the its1 region .\nhowever , if snails or slugs become abundant in home garden or other vegetable production areas and the produce is to be eaten raw , the produce should be examined for molluscs and washed thoroughly . soaking vegetables with 1 . 5 % bleach solution for 15 minutes ( 4 tablespoons or 2 oz of bleach per gallon of rinse water ; or 15 ml of bleach per liter of water ) has been shown to be effective for control of angiostrongylus costaricensis ( zanini and graeff - teixeira 2001 ) , and this decontamination procedure might be advisable for leafy vegetables that are potentially contaminated by angiostrongylus cantonensis as well .\n8 . punyagupta s , juttijudata p , bunnag t . eosinophilic meningitis in thailand : clinical studies of 484 typical cases probably caused by angiostrongylus . am j trop med hyg . 1975 ; 24 : 921 - 931\nduffy ms , miller cl , kinsella jm , de lahunta a . 2004 . parastrongylus cantonensis in a nonhuman primate , florida . emerging infectious diseases 10 : 2207 - 2210 .\napoptosis of mice brain homogenates can be repressed by treatment with dexamethasone . the findings here demonstrate one mechanism of action of corticosteroids in the treatment of a . cantonensis eosinophilic meningitis .\nin humans , angiostrongylus eggs and larvae are not normally excreted but remain sequestered in tissues . a . costaricensis infections are predominantly abdominal ; both eggs and larvae ( occasionally adult worms ) can be identified in biopsy or surgical specimens of intestinal tissue where the eggs and larvae are engulfed in giant cells and / or granulomas . a . cantonensis infections are predominantly cerebral , being one of the most common causes of eosinophilic meningitis , although developing but immature adult worms can on occasion migrate to the lungs . no a . cantonensis eggs or larvae have been recognized in human tissues .\nthis study reveals an increase in brain apoptotic protein expressions and blood - brain barrier damage as demonstrated by increase evans blue extravasations following 2 - 3 weeks of infection with third stage larvae of a . cantonensis . steroid administration remarkably decreases the evans blue staining and apoptotic protein expressions . these findings provide evidences supporting the effects of steroids on a . cantonensis infection .\nangiostrongylids are roundworms ( nematodes ) with thin cylindrical bodies . research has focused primarily on angiostrongylus cantonensis and species closely related to it . 2 , 10 , 15 , 18 \u2013 22 angiostrongylus cantonensis and a . mackerrasae ( which was misidentified 20 as a . cantonensis by mackerras and sandars 18 in their detailed study ) are extremely similar in size and anatomy , 20 and the following data of mackerras and sandars for a . mackerrasae refer equally to a . cantonensis . first stage larvae are about 0 . 3 mm long and 0 . 015 mm in width ; second stage larvae are about 0 . 45 by 0 . 03 mm ; third stage larvae are similar in size , though a little thinner ; fourth stage larvae reach about 1 . 0 by 0 . 4 mm . the newly molted sub - adults are about 2 mm by 0 . 06 mm ; they grow to about 12 mm ( females ) and 11 mm ( males ) before leaving the rat ' s brain and migrating to the pulmonary arteries ( see the life cycle section , below ) , where they mature , reaching a size of up to about 35 by 0 . 6 mm ( females ) and 25 by 0 . 4 mm ( males ) . a number of publications have provided good descriptions of a . cantonensis . 10 , 20 , 23\nhwang kp , chen er . clinical studies on angiostrongyliasis cantonensis among children in taiwan . southeast asian j trop med public health . 1991 ; 22 suppl : 194\u20139 . pmid : 1822885\nin cases of eosinophilic meningitis , the diagnosis of a . cantonensis infection should be considered and the appropriate exposure history obtained . it is important for clinicians to consider a . cantonensis when evaluating a patient with an eosinophilic meningitis , even in regions outside of its traditional geographic boundaries . this case also highlights the new immunologic techniques being used to confirm the diagnosis of angiostrongyliasis .\neosinophilic meningitis can be the result of noninfectious causes and infectious agents . among the infectious agents , angiostrongylus cantonensis and gnathostoma spinigerum are the most common . although angiostrongyliasis and gnathostomiasis are not common in the united states , international travel and immigration make these diseases clinically relevant . both a . cantonensis and g . spinigerum infection can present as severe cns compromise . diagnoses of both infections can be challenging and are often clinical because of a paucity of serological assays readily available in the united states . furthermore , there are conflicting recommendations about treatment for angiostrongyliasis and gnathostomiasis . to further explore the emerging nature of these helminthic infections , a case description and review of a . cantonensis and g . spinigerum infections are presented . the clinical severity of eosinophilic meningitis and diagnosis of these infections are highlighted .\nkwon e , ferguson tm , park sy , et al . 2013 . a severe case of angiostrongylus eosinophilic meningitis with encephalitis and neurologi sequelae in hawaii . hawaii j med public health . 72 ( 6 ) : 41\u20135 view article\nserum and csf samples were sent to the faculty of tropical medicine , mahidol university ( thailand ) for helminthic immunoassay . the acute - phase serological and csf specimens collected during the patient ' s initial hospitalization tested negative for angiostrongyliasis and gnathostomiasis . the convalescent - phase serum and csf samples , collected 76 and 66 days after presentation , respectively , tested positive for antibodies against an angiostrongylus cantonensis 31 - kda antigen by immunoblot assay .\nzanini gm , graeff - teixeira c . 2001 . inactivation of infective larvae of angiostrongylus costaricensis with short time incubations in 1 . 5 % bleach solution , vinegar or saturated cooking salt solution . acta tropica 78 : 17 - 21 .\nthere are limited controlled trials that outline the benefit or harm of using antihelminthics for treatment of a . cantonensis and g . spinigerum cns infection [ 3 , 17 ] . because of our patient ' s severe neurologic symptoms and progressive course of infection , he received a 28 - day course of albendazole therapy , with no clinical change . importantly , some eosinophilic meningitis treatment trials include patients who receive a diagnosis of angiostrongylus infection on the basis of local epidemiology and symptomotology but not serological testing . it is possible that some treatment trials are confounded by patients with eosinophilic meningitis secondary to a different helminthic infection , given the overlap in the geographic distribution of gnathostoma and angiostrongylus species .\na total of 64 rats ( 31 % ) were found to be infected with a . cantonensis ( table 2 ) . the rats belonging to r . norvegicus showed 46 % ( 11 / 24 ) prevalence for a . cantonensis infection while r . tanezumi showed 29 % ( 53 / 185 ) prevalence . statistical analysis revealed no significant differences between the rat species ( , ) . furthermore , intensity of a . cantonensis for r . tanezumi ( 62 parasite / rat ) is higher than r . norvegicus ( 43 parasite / rat ) and also showed no significant differences ( ; ) .\nthe 18s and its1 amplifications gave identical results . of the 37 species , 16 tested positive for a . cantonensis , with 70 specimens testing positive out of a total of 1 , 271 ( table 1 ) . among the 30 non - native species , 14 tested positive , two being newly recorded natural hosts of a . cantonensis ( cyclotropis sp . , oxychilus alliarius ) . of a total of 1 , 062 non - native gastropods , 6 % were positive for a . cantonensis . no specimens of four non - native species ( bradybaena similaris , deroceras laeve , limax flavus , melanoides tuberculata ) that have been recorded in other studies as hosts of a . cantonensis ( appendix s1 ) tested positive for the parasite . parmarion martensi had the highest prevalence of infection with 68 % ( 13 / 19 ) of the specimens testing positive for a . cantonensis followed by laevicaulis alte with an infection rate of 30 % ( 13 / 44 ) ( table 1 , figure 2 ) .\nthis is a retrospective study of patients diagnosed with eosinophilic meningitis at kaohsiung veterans general hospital , from december 1991 to september 2009 . the demographic characteristics , clinical presentations , laboratory data , radiographic imaging , and treatment and clinical outcome were analyzed . a pubmed search with the keywords of eosinophilic meningitis , a cantonensis , and taiwan was performed to retrieve cases of eosinophilic meningitis caused by a cantonensis since 1960 .\none hundred respondents in the study site were interviewed and a questionnaire was given out to each respondent . the respondents include farmers and housewives which are people that have high chances of getting a . cantonensis .\nhuman angiostrongyliasis ( ha ) is a neurological helminthic disease caused by the lung worm angiostrongylus cantonensis . it is suspected in the combination of travel or a residence in an endemic area and eosinophilic meningitis . in mayotte , an island in the indian ocean , cases are rare but regular . the main objective of our study was to describe the epidemiological and diagnosis clues of ha in mayotte . the secondary objectives were to evaluate the contribution of real - time polymerase chain reaction ( rt - pcr ) for the diagnosis of ha , delineate the characteristics of the local transmission and ascertain the presence of a . cantonensis in achatina fulica , the potential vector of the disease .\nangiostrongylus cantonensis is a parasitic worm of rats . it is also called the rat lungworm . the adult form of the parasite is found only in rodents . infected rats pass larvae of the parasite in their feces . snails and slugs get infected by ingesting the larvae . these larvae mature in snails and slugs but do not become adult worms . the life cycle is completed when rats eat infected snails or slugs and the larvae further mature to become adult worms .\nautochthonous angiostrongylus cantonensis infection has been little recognized in the continental united states with the exception of louisiana . in contrast , it was recognized in hawai\u2018i in the early 1960s , and the parasite has been considered endemic since . however , infections were rare until late 2004 , when a case cluster was noted on the island of hawai\u2018i . while still uncommon , a . cantonensis infection has continued to emerge throughout the state , especially on the island of hawai\u2018i . despite increased community awareness , the diagnosis is commonly missed , and the lack of diagnostic tests as well as the challenge of educating clinicians and the public are constant limitations to the prevention and control of this emerging infection .\nangiostrongylus cantonensis or the rat lungworm is a zoonotic helminth responsible for the disease called angiostrongylosis . its life cycle involves rodents as definitive hosts and mollusks as intermediate hosts . it can also infect other animals , for example , shrimps and frogs , without further development and still be infective when ingested . humans , however , are dead - end hosts for a . cantonensis and can be infected through ingestion of infected mollusks , things contaminated by infected mollusks , for example , soil and vegetables [ 1 , 2 ] , and ingestion of paratenic hosts . as a result , a . cantonensis is the major cause of eosinophilic meningitis in humans particularly in indo - pacific regions where it is endemic . the animal - human environmental interface of a . cantonensis is difficult to assess and one of the reasons is that its hosts are easily affected by changes in the environment [ 3 ] . changes in ecology and environment may also result in changes in the epidemiology of this parasite . thus , it is important to assess the possible transmission route of the parasite due to its risks to both veterinary and public health .\nthe low prevalence of a . cantonensis in freshwater snails in the study may has resulted from a number of factors such as the seasonal infection of rats with a . cantonensis . based on a study by antolin et al . [ 4 ] , female r . tanezumi in philrice farms from nueva ecija were found to be infected with a . cantonensis during june to september . this could mean that the transmission of the parasite between its hosts may have happened during these months . in connection to this , snails for the study were collected during other months of the year . furthermore , ecological characteristics of p . canaliculata and m . maculata such as their benthic life cycle may also be accounted for the low prevalence of a . cantonensis infection . according to lv et al . [ 16 ] , only a few species of freshwater snails naturally transmit a . cantonensis because rat feces containing its l1 are diluted in freshwater bodies . previous studies suggest that a . cantonensis infection in terrestrial snails and slugs are higher than freshwater snails [ 19 \u2013 21 ] . in the present study , no a . cantonensis l3 was observed in a . fulica . the reason is unclear ; however , possibilities exist such as effects of seasonal variations and habitat of hosts on the transmission of parasite . based on observations , a . fulica becomes active when it starts to rain . in the study of salibay and luyon [ 22 ] , fewer rats were caught in rainy days . this indicates that there may have been less contact between rats and a . fulica . studies in other countries have shown that a . fulica are naturally infected with the parasite [ 8 , 17 , 19 , 23 \u2013 25 ] . in the philippines , few reports regarding a . cantonensis infection in snails can be found . a . fulica and laevicaulis altae from metro manila were revealed to be infected with a . cantonensis [ 9 , 10 , 26 ] but other than the snail , no other reports have been made . this study , however , is the first record of a . cantonensis infected p . canaliculata and m . maculata in the philippines .\ndrug susceptibility : there is no specific treatment for angiostrongyliasis . a cantonensis is susceptible to albendazole and mebendazole , but a systemic response to dying worms may make the condition worse ( 2 , 3 , 7 ) .\ndrug susceptibility : there is no specific treatment for angiostrongyliasis . a cantonensis is susceptible to albendazole and mebendazole , but a systemic response to dying worms may make the condition worse ( 2 , 3 , 7 ) .\nasato r , taira k , nakamura m , kudaka j , itokazu k , et al . ( 2004 ) changing epidemiology of angiostrongyliasis cantonensis in okinawa prefecture , japan . jpn j infect dis 57 : 184\u2013186 .\na . cantonensis was detected by morphological and / or molecular methods in all three mollusc species and from all the areas studied . the three species are common and widespread over the north - east part of tenerife .\neamsobhanaa p , limb pe , solano g , zhange h , ganf x , yongc hs : molecular differentiation of angiostrongylus taxa ( nematoda : angiostrongylidae ) by cytochrome c oxidase subunit i ( coi ) gene sequences . acta tropica ; 2010 ; 116 : 152\u2013156 .\nthe pcr method presented here may also be useful for detecting angiostrongylus costaricensis , a parasitic nematode that causes gastrointestinal disease ( 22 ) . a . costaricensis has a life cycle similar to that of a . cantonensis , including the fact that mollusks are intermediate hosts that transmit the disease to humans ( 21 ) . the pcr primers described in this study are based on regions where these two parasites have almost identical sequences ( genbank accession number dq116748 ) , making it possible to use this pcr to examine mollusks for the presence of a . costaricensis , as well as a . cantonensis . the two species can be differentiated by sequence analysis . in addition to amplifying the intended angiostrongylus species sequence , the pcr primers were found to interact with an unidentified nematode species . this finding emphasizes the importance of sequence analysis of the pcr amplicons . it also highlights the need for further evaluation of the specificity of the pcr primers for dna from more nematode species , especially those that are associated with mollusks .\nneuroimaging studies are often nonfocal without any characteristic lesions . despite this , they may be helpful to distinguish a . cantonensis eosinophilic meningitis from focal lesions which is more commonly seen with other parasitic infections such as neurocysticercosis and gnathostomiasis .\nwang , l . c . , jung , s . m . , chen , c . c . , wong , h . f . , wan , d . p . , & wan , y . l . ( 2006 ) . pathological changes in the brains of rabbits experimentally infected with angiostrongylus cantonensis after albendazole treatment : histopathological and magnetic resonance imaging studies . the journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy , 57 ( 2 ) , 294 - 300 . doi : 10 . 1093 / jac / dki430\nrecovery of a . cantonensis from the patient\u2019s csf confirms the diagnosis ; however , the organism is rarely detected on microscopy as it can adhere to the meninges and often migrates in neural tissue rather than remaining in the extrameningeal space .\nalthough infected humans usually recover , the nematodes can penetrate the brain , spinal cord , and eyes , and sometimes cause paralysis , blindness , or death . other primates , dogs , horses , birds and other animals also are susceptible to infection . a particularly good host of the nematode is giant african land snail , achatina fulica , which has been deliberately relocated to some areas , but movement in association with other molluscs and rats is implicated in the spread of angiostrongylus cantonensis ( duffy et al . 2004 ) ."]}
{"id": 154, "summary": [{"text": "gyrinocheilus is the single genus in the family gyrinocheilidae , a family of small southeast asian cypriniform fishes that live in fast-flowing freshwater mountain streams .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the species in this genus are commonly called \" algae eaters . \"", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they hold on to fixed objects using a sucker-like mouth , and , despite the name , feed on a wide range of detritus , rather than simply on algae .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "a \" golden \" variety of g. aymonieri , the chinese algae eater or \" sucking loach \" , can be found in many pet shops and fish farms . ", "topic": 22}], "title": "gyrinocheilus", "paragraphs": ["the other species in the genus , gyrinocheilus pennocki and the gyrinocheilus pustulosus , are rarely seen in the aquarium trade .\ngyrinocheilus aymonieri is commercially bred with the use of hormones . there are no well documented reports of aquarium breeding of gyrinocheilus aymonieri .\nchinese algae eater - gyrinocheilus | tropical fish misc . | pinterest | freshwater fish and tropical fish\nmatt clarke looks at gyrinocheilus pennocki , the spotted algae eater , a fish easy to mistake for aymonieri .\nfroese , r . & pauly , d . , eds . ( 2011 ) . gyrinocheilus aymonieri in catalog of fishes .\ngyrinocheilus aymonieri is a large , drab fish with little to recommend it and a fish which is unlikely to get along with any other species .\nchinese algae - eaters ( gyrinocheilus aymonieri ) often feed off the body slime of other fish , causing injury or death . photo by pseudogastromyzon / wikipedia\nkingdom : animalia phylum : chordata class : actinopterygii order : cypriniformes family : gyrinocheilidae genus : gyrinocheilus species : g . aymonieri , ( tirant , 1883 )\nthe iucn red list of endangered species lists gyrinocheilus aymonieri as ' least concern ' . the species is very widespread and local threats make little difference to the whole population . gyrinocheilus aymonieri is widely collected as a food item . some are still collected for the aquatic trade but most aquarium fish have been commercially bred with the mutant white morph being the most popular .\ngyrinocheilus : from the ancient greek \u03b3\u03c5\u03c1\u1fd6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 ( gyrinos ) , meaning \u2018tadpole\u2019 , and \u03c7\u03b5\u03af\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 ( che\u00edlos ) , meaning \u2018lip\u2019 , due to the somewhat triangular , tadpole - like shape of the mouthparts .\ngyrinocheilus species exhibit some morphological peculiarities which separate them from all other genera in the order cypriniformes . they lack pharyngeal teeth and possess a small , spiracle - like aperture at the top of each opercle .\nkeeping gyrinocheilus aymonieri in a group with the aim of spreading the aggression won ' t normally work , it will make things worse because instead of there being just one trouble maker there will be several .\narai , r . , a . suzuki and y . akai , 1988 - japanese journal of ichthyology 34 ( 4 ) : 515 - 517 the karyotype and dna value of a cypriniform algae eater , gyrinocheilus aymonieri .\nin nature gyrinocheilus aymonieri will sift through the detritus picking out morsels of food . in captivity it will eat anything and everything , sadly for most new fish keepers the fish they bought as an algae eater will ignore the stuff , instead it will go for a higher quality diet and eat all the usual fish food on offer . gyrinocheilus aymonieri are very bold feeders and may try to take over the food for themselves by behaving very aggressively to other fish at feeding time . shy timid species won ' t usually thrive for very long in the presence of a sucking loach .\ngyrinocheilus aymonieri isn ' t actually a true loach . it is a close relative of the loaches but has its own family - gyrinocheiliidae , which contains one genus , with four species . as well as the typical wild form there is a white aquarium morph but both morphs behave in the same way .\ngyrinocheilus aymonieri is very tolerant of wide ranging environmental conditions and from that point of view it is a very very easy fish to cater for . however it is generally to aggressive for most community aquariums and will invariably cause problems when introduced . it is particularly aggressive towards fish which are similar in appearance .\nthe chinese algae - eater ( gyrinocheilus aymonieri ) is a fraud . it doesn\u2019t come from china , and it barely eats algae . worse , it often feeds off the body slime of other fish , injuring or killing them . many hobbyists end up with it as the only fish in their tank without knowing why .\ndespite the name , never rely on any fish with ' algae eater ' in its title . controlling algae is the job of the fish keeper , not the fish . almost every species which does eat algae will move on to the higher quality diet of fish food given the chance . this is very true of gyrinocheilus aymonieri .\nmost new aquarist buy gyrinocheilus aymonieri because it is wrongly sold as an algae eater when it is a couple of inches in length . initially it will be fine and probably choose to hide and keep a low profile but as it grows it will become increasingly aggressive towards all its tank mates and it won ' t eat any algae .\nchinese algae eater alternative name ( s ) : algae eater , chinese catfish , sucking loach scientific name ( s ) : gyrinocheilus aymonieri category : tropical difficulty : maximum size : 28cms minimum tank volume : 250 litres minimum tank size : 48\nwater temperature range : 22 - 26\u00b0c water ph range : 6 . 0 - 8 . 0 water hardness range : 5 - 20 dgh\ni would be interested to know what kind of fish you actually had in the tank . usually , fish going by the common name\nalgae eater\nare either gyrinocheilus ( chinese algae eaters ) or crossocheilus siamensis ( siamese algae eaters ) . the chinese algae eater ( often confused with the siamese ) tends to only fulfill the\npeaceful bottom feeder\nrole until it matures . adult chinese algae eaters don ' t tend to eat algae at all and are quite aggressive !\naquarium : gyrinocheilus aymonieri is a robust and easy - to - keep grazer which does a good job of keeping algae to a minimum . however , the species can become quarrelsome and territorial and may rasp the mucus from the flanks of larger fishes , so you need to be careful what you mix it with . g . pennocki is probably the same . according to rainboth s fishes of the cambodian mekong , g . pennocki is found on large flat rocks in fast - flowing water . in the dry season it occurs in riffles and rapids in rocky streams .\nnotes : this fish is a member of the cypriniform family gyrinocheilidae . the genus has three species : g . pennocki , g . pustulosus and the widely available g . aymonieri . the easiest way to tell the three apart is to count the number of branched dorsal fin rays . g . aymonieri has nine , g . pustulosus has 10 and g . pennocki has 11 . gyrinocheilus are adapted for life in fast - flowing water and have greatly reduced swimbladders . a spiracle - like hole exists behind the gill to allow them to breathe while clinging to rocks with the suctorial disc in their mouth .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndistribution : southeast asia . freshwater mountain streams . no pharyngeal teeth . mouth inferior and suctorial for attachment onto objects . gill slit consisting of 2 small openings , inhalent aperture located above gill opening and communicating with gill chamber . barbels absent . feed only on algae . maximum size 30 cm . reared as aquarium fish .\ngreek , gyrinos = frog larvae + greek , cheilos = lip ( ref . 45335 ) .\nthe list below must not be used as an authority reference synonymy list like those found in scientific published revisions , which must be the source to be used and cited eventually when they exist .\nrather , it reflects the current content of fishbase , and the progress with respect to synchronization with the catalog of fishes . however , we think it can be useful for users to assess the quality of information in fishbase , to start new work on the family , or to cross - check with other lists .\nbut we appreciate to be cited in publications when this list has been of any working value . in particular , for published scientific , we suggest then to cite it in the material and method section as a useful tool to conduct the research , but again , not as a taxonomic or nomenclatural authority reference .\nunless it is explicitly precised , the list is not complete , please search all original names published for the family in the catalog of fishes ( genera , species ) , including those with uncertain or unknown status , that are not included in fishbase when they are not attached to a valid species .\nthis list uses some data from catalog of fishes ( not shown but used to sort names ) .\nin the column coff , the digit indicates the status of synchronization with coff : 0 : not checked ; 1 : same status ; 2 : different status ; 3 : other combination ; 4 : synonym in coff ; 5 : species / subspecies issue ; 6 : synonym of another species in coff ; 7 : not in coff ; 8 : should not be in coff . the coff version currently used is the one published on 23 - 07 - 2014 ( ref . 97102 ) .\nwhen subfamilies are recognized , nominotypical subfamily first then other subfamilies by alphabetical order .\ntype genus of the family first ( or of subfamily when subfamilies are recognized ) then other genera by chronological order of description ( and alphabetical order ) .\ntype species of the genus first by chronological order ( and alphabetical order ) , with last listed misapplied names in a light gray font .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 final / / en\nof this article , so you may wish to read it there . unique to this site , here are some photos of\n) which is the only known fish to effectively eat red ( beard / brush ) algae . the other four fishes are ( 1 ) a very similar fish which we call the\nfalse siamensis ,\n( 2 ) a more colorful relative - the flying fox (\nspecies and ( 4 ) the chinese algae eater . to the casual observer , all fish may look the same at first . even some reputable aquarium texts have confused the real and false siamensis . a summary table is included at the end to compare the distinguishing features among these interesting fishes .\nthis slender algae eating barb is the only known fish that eats red algae . it comes from the flowing waters of thailand and the malay peninsula . it was first brought to europe in 1962 , but became popular in the 1970 ' s when its ability to eat red algae was noticed . the fish is also known as siamese flying fox , and siamese fox . it previous scientific name was\nit is a slender , grayish - brown fish with a distinctive black horizontal stripe . maximum length is 15 cm ( 6\n) and might be obtained in two years , if the conditions are optimal . normally they grow slower and don ' t always reach that size in captivity . they can live over 10 years . all the fins are transparent or slightly milky without any yellow or reddish sheen . the black band goes from nose to the fork of the tail and its edges are zig - zagged . when a fish is stressed or fighting the black color fades significantly . underparts are silvery white and there is no light stripe over the black , but the whole upper body is brownish and every scale has a dark edge , which make the top look reticular . some dark scale edges might be seen under the black stripe . it has a pair of thin , forward - pointing barbels but they might be pressed against the cheeks when fish is swimming or resting . the long black stripe is also easy to see in young fishes , but the scale edge pattern and zig - zag edges are not clearly visible until the fish reaches the length of 5 - 7 cm ( 2 - 3\n) ; the ones that are normally seen in european shops are about 3 - 5 cm ( 1 - 2\n) long . adult females are often slightly fatter than males , no other sexual differences are known .\nit is an active and fast swimmer , which thrives best in schools but can also be kept alone or in pairs . it is a strong jumper and should not be kept in uncovered tank , because it will eventually jump . siamese algae eaters often chase one another but they never get hurt in these fights .\nhas a peculiar resting position : it doesn ' t lie flat on its belly but keeps its body propped up with its tail , pelvic and pectoral fins . young fish sometimes rest on broad leaves , adult specimens prefer resting on bottom or dense , low plants like\n. the swim bladder is not very developed , so the fish can ' t stay in midwater but it must be in constant motion or it sinks .\nsiamese algae eater is not very demanding . suitable temperature is 24 - 26 c ( 75 - 79f ) . they can tolerate ph from 5 . 5 to 8 . 0 , but 6 . 5 - 7 . 0 is ideal .\nhardness should be less than 20 dh . water should be clean and oxygenated , because they come from bright and fast - flowing streams . they eat algae , including red algae and all kind of live and prepared foods . it is very rare that they harm plants in their tank if they are given enough green food . they also eat algae when they are mature , but seem to prefer flake food . liisa ' s fish eat duckweed (\n) but have never touched any other plants . they haven ' t yet been bred in captivity , so all the specimens are caught from nature . it appears that the fish are seasonal and are not always available in the shops . minimum tank size for a pair of adult siamese algae eaters is 100 liters ( 25 gallons ) . the aquarium should be long and have lots of living plants .\nas they are not aggressive , they can be kept in any community tank big enough . their active behavior might stress some sensitive species like dwarf cichlids and prevent them from spawning . they should not be kept with red - tailed sharks ( epalzeorhynchus bicolor ) unless the aquarium is large and well planted , because that species is very aggressive towards all its relatives .\nthis algae eating barb strongly resembles the siamese algae eater . it comes from the same region and at least young specimens can school together . these fish are often mistaken for real siamese algae eater and in finland it is common to see some specimens among a tankful of siamese algae eaters . it seems that the real siamese algae eater is a rarity in us , and the\nfalse siamensis\nis normally sold as siamese algae eater . more confusing is that many respected aquarium books ( e . g . baensch atlas , volume 1 , english edition ) present this fish as the siamese algae eater (\nthere is still some uncertainty regarding the true identity of this fish . markku varjo states that it is the siamese stone lapping fish (\nat first sight this fish is just like the siamese algae eater , but they are easy to tell apart when you know what to look . the black horizontal band does not go to the fork of the tail but stops at the base of the tail and its edges are rather smooth . when the fish is frightened the black stripe fades to light grey . all fins except pectoral are yellowish and there are dark markings on the dorsal fin . the rays near the base of the dorsal fin are black and there is another dark band in the upper part of dorsal . there is a distinctive narrow light stripe over the black horizontal band and the dorsal region is solid grayish brown without dark scale edges . the top area is also slightly darker than siamese algae eater . sometimes bright red or pink is seen around the mouth but it might disappear if the fish is stressed . it has two pairs of barbels ( unlike the siamese algae eater ) . maximum length is reported to be 15 cm ( 6\n) . no sexual differences are known , but the amount of red might depend on the sex of the fish . in the orient , these fish are called\ncolorful flying fox .\nironically ,\nfalse siamensis\nis more demanding on water quality than siamese algae eater . it needs very clear and oxygenated water , ideal temperature is 24 - 26 c ( 75 - 79f ) and the ph shouldn ' t get much under 7 . they eat some algae , but in nature they probably seek small animals from algae growths . in aquarium they eat all kinds of live and artificial foods . they have not been bred in captivity . minimum tank size for it is 80 liters ( 20 gallons ) .\ncan be kept in any community tank . adult specimens often get aggressive toward each other , so there shouldn ' t be more than one\nfalse siamensis\nin a tank . they might also harass related species and other small bottom - dwellers like loaches , if the tank is not big enough .\nthe flying fox is the most colorful of this fish group . for this reason , it has gained popularity in the u . s . over\nand\nfalse siamensis\n. it comes from the flowing waters of thailand , sumatra and borneo . wholesalers sometimes deliver this species as siamese algae eater in finland . this fish is also known as trunk barb .\nbody and fin shape like two previous species . thin specimens are often pictured in the aquarium literature . the overall color is warmer brown or even goldish and the black horizontal stripe goes from nose to the fork of the tail like on siamese algae eater , but the part going through the tail fin in darker and broader . there is a narrow golden stripe over the black . dorsal , anal and pelvic fins have indistinctive dark bands and bright white tips . it has 2 pairs of barbels . maximum length is reported to be 15 cm ( 6\n) . no sexual differences are known .\nsame as previous species . adult specimen is territorial and aggressive towards its own kind .\nideal ph is near 7 , temperature 24 - 26c ( 75 - 79f ) . it eats all kinds of live , prepared and plant foods . it has not been bred in captivity . minimum tank size 80 liters ( 20 gallons ) .\nflying fox can be kept in a community tank , but it might chase other fish viciously from its territory . there shouldn ' t be more than one adult flying fox in a tank .\nthis is a close relative to siamese algae eater , and it is possible that specimens of this fish are sometimes found in schools of siamese algae eater or\nfalse siamensis\n.\nbody shape and color are basically same as siamese algae eater and\nfalse siamensis\n. all the fins are transparent and the black horizontal stripe does not extend to the tail fin . the stripe has smooth edges and the back is solid , not reticulated like on siamese algae eater . it has two pairs of barbels like flying fox . maximum length is 10 cm ( 4\n) .\nthis algae eater belongs to family gyrinocheilidae , although it resembles both loaches and algae eating barbs . its english name isn ' t very accurate , because it comes from northern india and thailand , not china . it is also called the indian algae eater . there are still some unclear points in the systematic classification of this genus and it is possible that the species most often imported isn ' t\nchinese algae eater is a bottom - dweller . the most prominent feature is a big suckermouth , which it uses for scraping algae and clinging to objects . there is a special opening on the upper part of the gill cover for the water intake so the fish can breath without using its mouth . this same feature is seen on suckermouth catfishes . the fish is light brown and there is a dark grey or brown horizontal pattern on its side , which can be either a zig - zag edged solid stripe or a row of separate spots or anything between these two . young specimens are more colorful . there are some dark patches at the back and small brown spots at the tail . all the other fins are transparent or slightly brownish . maximum length is 27 cm ( 11\n) but normally it doesn ' t exceed 15 cm ( 6\n) in an aquarium . females are larger and fuller , adult males might show spawning tubercles on the head .\nit moves along all the surfaces of the tank scraping green algae with its suckermouth . older specimens prefer artificial foods and are rather aggressive .\nchinese algae eater is not very demanding on water conditions : ph may vary from 6 . 0 to 7 . 5 and the temperature from 22c ( 72f ) to 28c ( 82f ) . water should be well oxygenated , as it comes from streams . it eats all kinds of foods , but must get enough algae or plant food . it is reported that it will stop eating algae if the temperature drops below 69 degrees f ( 20 deg . c ) . it has not been bred in captivity . minimum tank size 100 liters ( 25 gallons ) .\nyoung chinese algae eaters can be kept in community , but adult specimens can be aggressive to other fish . they most often attack slow - swimming , flat - bodied fish and shouldn ' t be kept with them .\nvarjo , m . 1983 : levabarbi vai mika ? - akvaariolehti 3 / 83 : 16 - 19 .\npetrovicky , i . 1988 : aquarium fish of the world . - arch cape press , new york .\nmills , d . et al 1988 : tropical aquarium fishes . - tetra press , nj .\naxelrod , h . 1989 : atlas of tropical freshwater aquarium fishes . - tfh , nj\nriehl , r . and baensch , h . a . 1989 : aquarium atlas ( volume 1 ) , - mergus , germany .\nsmith , h . m . 1945 : the fresh - water fishes of siam , or thailand . bulletin 188 - smithsonian institute , washington d . c .\ngreek , gyrinos = tadpole + greek , cheilos = lip ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; demersal ; ph range : 6 . 0 - 8 . 0 ; dh range : 5 - 19 ; potamodromous ( ref . 51243 ) . tropical ; 25\u00b0c - 28\u00b0c ( ref . 1672 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 28 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 27732 )\nhas 9 branched dorsal rays ; 36 - 40 lateral line scales ; no dark spots on pelvic and anal fins ( ref . 27732 ) ; a small dark spot always present behind spiracle ; sometimes tiny tubercles on side of head and large tubercles confined to snout ( ref . 12693 ) .\noccur in medium to large - sized rivers and enters flooded fields ( ref . 12975 ) . found on solid surfaces in flowing waters . mostly herbivorous , feed largely on algae , periphyton and phytoplankton , but also take insect larvae or zooplankton . in current , they hold onto fixed objects with their sucker - like mouth . for breathing , water is pumped into the gill cavity through a small spiracle and across the gills for gas exchange . large fish are sold in the markets , smaller ones are used to make prahoc ( ref . 12693 ) . aquarium keeping : needs plant feed ; adults territorial ; in groups of 5 or more individuals ; minimum aquarium size 60 cm ( ref . 51539 ) .\nrainboth , w . j . , 1996 . fishes of the cambodian mekong . fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes . fao , rome , 265 p . ( ref . 12693 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 7500 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 5 \u00b10 . 25 se ; based on food items .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 24 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nasia : known only from the kapuas , mahakam and kayan basins in borneo , indonesia .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 35 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 7050 )\ndorsal soft rays ( total ) : 10 ; vertebrae : 39 - 40 . no spots on any of the fins . side of the head with very many parallel rows of small tubercles ( ref 13074 ) .\nkottelat , m . , a . j . whitten , s . n . kartikasari and s . wirjoatmodjo , 1993 . freshwater fishes of western indonesia and sulawesi . periplus editions , hong kong . 221 p . ( ref . 7050 )\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01072 ( 0 . 00413 - 0 . 02777 ) , b = 3 . 03 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 25 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 0 \u00b10 . 00 se ; based on food items .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 19 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyoung specimen of the ornamental form known as ' marbled ' or ' piebald ' .\naymonieri : named in honour of french linguist , archaeologist and explorer \u00e9tienne fran\u00e7ois aymonier ( 1844 - 1929 ) , who collected or helped secure the type series while serving as a representative for the french protectorate of cambodia .\ndescribed from the mountains of samrong tong , kampong speu province , cambodia but is widely - distributed in the mae klong , chao phraya , middle / lower mekong and dong nai river basins in thailand , laos , cambodia and vietnam .\nit\u2019s often seen on sale under the trade names \u2018indian\u2019 or \u2018chinese\u2019 algae eater but does not occur naturally in either country .\ninhabits flowing streams and tributaries with substrates of boulders , pebbles , gravel and sand , often in areas with submerged driftwood or tree roots .\nthe frequently clear , shallow water allows sunlight to penetrate the surface and the development of a rich biofilm covering submerged surfaces upon which the fish browse .\nit\u2019s thought to undergo seasonal migrations during which it can be found in deeper , more turbid water and may enter temporarily - inundated zones .\nprovided sufficient cover is available this species is relatively unfussy in terms of d\u00e9cor , and should not harm softer - leaved plants . however it will thrive in a set - up designed to resemble a flowing river with a substrate of variably - sized rocks , gravel and some larger , water - worn boulders .\nthis can be further furnished with driftwood roots and branches plus aquatic plants from genera such as microsorum , bolbitis , or anubias which can be grown attached to the d\u00e9cor . bright lighting will promote the growth of algae upon which the fish will graze .\nlike many fishes that naturally inhabit running water it\u2019s quite intolerant to the accumulation of organic wastes and does best if there is a high level of dissolved oxygen and moderate water movement .\ntemperature : active over a wide temperature range of 60 \u2013 90\u00b0f / 16\u00b0 \u2013 32\u00b0c . prolonged exposure to conditions towards either extreme of this range is not recommended however and this fish should be kept in a heated aquarium at 22 \u2013 26 \u00b0c for general care .\nprimarily an aufwuchs grazer feeding on algae , small crustaceans , insect larvae , etc . , and for it to develop its best colours and condition it should be offered regular meals of small live and frozen foods such as bloodworm , daphnia and artemia , along with good quality dried flakes , granules and fresh plant material .\nshelled peas , cucumber , blanched courgette , spinach , and chopped fruit all make good additions to the menu , and home - made , gel - based foods using a mixture of natural ingredients are also highly recommended .\nonce settled it will often ascend into midwater to feed and in a stream - style set - up as described above will be seen browsing the biofilm that tends to form on the rockwork .\nthough normally sold as such this species is largely unsuitable for the general community aquarium . this does not mean to say it must be kept alone , rather that tankmates must be chosen with care .\nwhile small specimens tend to hide away much of the time they become increasingly territorial as they grow and can display particularly high levels of aggression towards similar - looking fishes such as crossocheilus , epalzeorhynchos , or garra spp .\nother bottom - dwelling fishes including cichlids and most catfishes are best avoided as they may be picked on it may even attach itself to the flanks of larger tankmates in order to feed on their body mucus .\nfor the upper levels choose robust , active cyprinids , characids , or similar . ideally it should be the final addition to the tank in order to avoid it claiming ownership of the entire space .\nkeeping a group is one way to reduce intraspecific aggression but at least half - a - dozen or more individuals should be purchased because they will develop a distinct pecking order and in lesser numbers weaker individuals are more easily targeted . it goes without saying that a very large tank would be needed in order to attempt such a project .\nsexually mature females are noticeably thicker - bodied than males but it is impossible to accurately sex young fish . when in spawning condition adult males develop noticeable tubercules on the snout .\nas far as we know it hasn\u2019t been bred in aquaria but is farmed for the trade in large numbers with the aid of hormones .\nthis species is among the most well - known fishes in the aquarium trade but juveniles are typically being offered for sale with little to no information regarding temperament , eventual size , and potential age which can be in excess of 15 years .\nwild examples are not currently traded , with all of those seen on sale produced on a commercial basis . there also exist several ornamental strains including albino , \u2018golden\u2019 , \u2018piebald\u2019 and \u2018short - bodied\u2019 forms .\nthe golden variety is sometimes subjected artificial dying , an undoubtedly painful process which involves injecting the fish repeatedly with coloured dyes and normally leads to a significant reduction in lifespan .\ndespite often being sold as such this species is not a loach although it was was initially considered a member of the former subfamily homalopterinae . the results of an investigation regarding its karotype suggest it to be most closely - related to the families cobitidae and homalopteridae .\nthere are currently three described species although neither g . pennocki ( native to the mekong basin ) or g . pustulosus ( borneo ) are normally available in the aquarium trade . the former is the most similar in appearance to g . aymonieri but is distinguished by the presence of dark spot - like markings in the fins .\nthe latter are used as secondary respiratory openings through which water enters and passes over the gills before being expelled via the principal gill opening . the mouthparts can therefore be used independantly for feeding and anchoring to solid surfaces .\nthey also lack barbels , further distinguishing them from similar - looking fish such as garra cambodgiensis , epalzeorhynchos kalopterus and laterally - striped crossocheilus spp .\ntirant , g . , 1883 - bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 des \u00e9tudes indo - chinoises . saigon : 167 - 173 note sur quelques esp\u00e8ces de poissons des montagnes de samrong - tong ( cambodge ) .\nkottelat , m . , 2013 - the raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 27 : 1 - 663 the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibiography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries .\nrainboth , w . j . , 1996 - fao , rome : 1 - 265 fishes of the cambodian mekong . fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes .\nhow well do otocinclus catfish eat algae ? a little experiment from the den . . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\n, a mekong endemic . it is possible that the chinese record may be based on\nthe species has a wide distribution from southern china and southeast asia ( thailand , lao pdr , cambodia and viet nam ) .\npopulations have declined in some parts of its range ( e . g . , thailand ) as a result of over - exploitation . although considered threatened in china and viet nam , and perhaps naturally rare , it is assessed as least concern at present as it is not thought likely to have declined sufficiently across its range in order to qualify for a threatened category .\nthe middle / lower mekong ( thailand , cambodia , lao pdr , viet nam ( e . g . , the mekong delta ( electricity viet nam 2010 ) and the\nand from the northern malay peninsula ( southern thailand , peninsular malaysia , and probably associated parts of the mekong drainage in myanmar ( mekong myanmar ( the mae kok , mae sai , and kengtung ) ) .\nit is naturally rare / uncommon in china and southern viet nam ( mekong delta areas ) , but is locally common in viet nam ' s mekong tributaries ( the se san and sre pok ) and the chao phraya - mae khlong basin and the tonle sap basin . populations in thailand have declined ; it was an important component of fish sauce (\ninhabits flowing streams and tributaries with substrates of boulders , pebbles , gravel and sand , often in areas with submerged driftwood or tree roots ( rainboth 1996 ) . it is thought to undergo seasonal migrations during which it can be found in deeper , more turbid water and is known to enter temporarily - inundated zones .\noccurs in medium to large - sized rivers and enters flooded fields ( taki 1978 ) . it is a good indicator of stream / river quality ( c . vidthayanon pers . comm . 2011 ) .\nhighly commercial ; large fish are sold in the markets , smaller ones are used to make fermented fish products ( rainboth 1996 ) . found in the ornamental fish trade ; wild fish not often found , with most individuals from captive - bred sources , especially mutant ( albino - lutino ) forms ( c . vidthayanon . pers . comm . 2011 ) .\nalthough the species may be impacted by dams , not enough is known about its migratory habits to predict the scale of impacts . populations have declined locally , especially in thailand , as a result of a range if factors , including over - exploitation .\nmore information on the species ecology , threats and distribution is required . listed as a protected animal in yunnan province in 1989 and considered endangered ( wang 1998 ) , and considered rare in viet nam ( huynh 1998 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis page will give a completely detailed profile of the selected fish , from a to z . the profiled fish will be chosen randomly by badman , and will come from the complete genre of tropical fish . new profiles are added on a regular basis . if you would like to submit a profile for the site please contact me . don ' t forget to let us know you experiences with this fish by filling out the\nthe very common algae eater . i believe it received this name due to its sucking disc . in my experience i have found them to be a poor algae eater . nevertheless they are an interesting addition to your aquarium .\nlong and cylindrical with a down facing mouth . the mouth has thick lips with many folds that form a sucking disc . this disc helps the fish feed on algae . it is also the basis of its common name . the dorsal fin is well developed with nine protruding soft rays . the anal , ventral and pectoral fins are all rounded . the caudal fin has a deep fork .\nthe sides are a burnt yellow , with a brown stripe running down the length of the body . this stripe is commonly broken up into spots . the eye is also yellow . the tail and dorsal fins may have some small spots at the base and the general coloration is clear . the back is brown . the coloration of this fish is not set and is quite variable .\nlittle is known of the sexing of these fish . breeding has occurred , but only accidentally .\nplease remember that the following comments are personal experiences and may or may not apply to your setup . use them as guide to help better understand your fish , like us all individuals will behave differently under different circumstances .\ni have two of these in my tank . i have a divider in my tank with adult fish on one side and babies on the other , and one on each side . normally i do my research before i buy anything , but i needed an algae eater , and i definitely did not want a plecostomus because they get way too big for my tank . i plan on upgrading my tank soon , but not as big as i will need for those guys because they get absolutely huge when you can keep them alive ! i talked to the representative in the fish store to find out some more information about other algae eaters and she recommended these . so far they do very well . they have been absolutely wonderful these last couple months cleaning up my algae and the one i have with the babies doesn ' t bother them at all . the one with the adults tends to hide a lot though while the one with the babies is a bit more active . i have neons , mickey mouse platys and guppies right now ( my 2 year olds tank ) . if any signs of aggression arise , i do plan on separating them out of my tank since i do have small fish , and these guys aren ' t adults yet so aggression may still happen . rich now though , i am very happy with my fish . fish !\nover the years , i ' ve owned several tanks and each one had one of these guys . my last one , the cae was a bully , then i got a jack dempsey and once he reached maturity , he devoured the cae . currently , my cae is toeing the line in a tank with a breeding pair of convict cichilds . nevertheless , this fish is definitely not for beginners , as almost every lfs will say . please do your research before buying any fish !\ni had one for seven years in a 55 gallon tank with 7 silver dollars , one angelfish , one pleco , and one red tail catfish . all of these except the angelfish lived together for the whole seven years . him and the redtail catfish mildly fought over territory for a couple of years , but eventually they came to some agreement and settled down . this was a very interesting and lively fish . i would not discount him in the right tank .\ni ' ve had one of these fish for about two years in a community tank . its bottom feeder buddies are a clown loach , a pleco and two corydoras . the other fish in the tank are 8 neons , 4 black neons and seven harlequins . i also had seven platies , however , the platties were all wiped out by the same disease , which also carried off a black neon ( completely un - cae related deaths ) . my cae has reasonably peaceful , and never done much more than chase the odd platy or neon for a couple of seconds , and i ' ve got no deaths to blame it for . based on some of the other comments here though , i ' d lay that on being lucky enough to get a cae with a peaceful personality . still he ' s a healthy and reasonably good looking fish in my tank .\nimo alison did the right thing and selected very tough tankmates for this ( usually ) very aggressive fish . i kept one when young and yes the small specimens destroy algae brilliantly , but as others have noted the aggression increased with size and was meted out to anything in range . a truly terrible aquarium fish , with only it ' s natural toughness to recommend it , along with the fascinating morphological adaptations ( spiracles as mentioned in the profile , and the lack of functional swimbladder , causing negative buoyancy - which is why they sink when stationary ) . ps - they are frequently sold for coldwater tanks - do not keep these fish with fancy goldfish ! the fantails won ' t stand a chance and that ' s not fair . . .\nit ' s funny i didn ' t know about the cae bad rap until i had successfully owned one for several years . when i bought my cae i was relatively new to fish keeping and was sold the\ncommunity fish line\n. normally i research everything like crazy . i guess i lucked out this time . my cae just died this morning at the age of 7 and was a joy to have . his tank mates for the last three years were a rowdy bunch of african cichlids . i only saw him make an aggressive move twice and both times a cichlid was stealing an algae wafer out from under him . once the wafer was surrendered all was well . i even have three cichlids that were born in the tank and lived to adulthood with him around . my\nrecipe for success\nwas a 37 eclipse gallon tank , extra air stone , enough rock to displace 7 gallons of water , about a dozen cichlids and a pleco . maybe i was lucky but he was a great little fish .\ni have a 90 gallon aquarium . the only fish that i have noticed any aggression from is my chinese algae eater . his tank mates are barbs , cory cats , a red tail shark and a skunk botia . this fish has quickly grown and now wants to dictate the harmony of my aquarium . if this doesn ' t stop soon my cae will soon find himself in some ranchers cow trough .\ni have had my cae for close to 5 years now . he started out in my 20 gal . once he was full grown he started attacking and killing my other fish . i kicked him out of that tank , needless to say . i have since put him in my 125 gal tank and he is now like a new fish . his current tank mates are angelfish , assortment of tetras , bristlenose catfish and a butterfly pleco . he no longer bothers any fish . his best friend is the butterfly pleco . they are always swimming together . if you don ' t have a big tank these are not a fish for you . i would say anything less than a 55 gal would not be suitable . the smaller the tank the more you will see them being aggressive .\nas much as i ' ve read that caes are aggressive , the only aggression my cae has shown was toward my large silver white female molly . he never bothered anyone else in the tank except her . as soon as she got close , he would chase her around the tank ' til he was satisfied . after a couple weeks of witnessing this , i moved him the my 20 gallon with the 6 tiger barbs , and 2 danios . haven ' t seen any aggression since . i ' ve had him for nearly 7 months without any real problems or deaths because of him . so , all in all , aggression really depends on the fish ' s personality ( and possibly it ' s tank mates as well ) .\ni ' ve had a cae for awhile now . i would really really not recommend them for anyone who cannot provide a separate living space when they get larger . they eat tons of algae when they are small but when they get older and larger their diets completely change mine now prefers\nmeatier\nfoods over algae or any other vegetable based food . and if you do plan on putting this fish with other species make sure it is fast enough to get away or it will be a snack to this guy / girl .\nfour words . . . these fish are evil ! ! ! when i had them they killed almost every fish in my tank . to anybody who does not know , when the cae sucks on the side of your other fish , your cae is actually eating that fishes body slime . ( which is a bad thing , body slime keeps your fish more resistant to disease and keeps them happier . ) i had to flush my cae before it finished killing the rest of my fish . i had a group of tetras , a cory cat , and danios with the cae . when the cae was finished with his bloody fish rampage , all i had was one tetra and one danio .\nprivacy policy | contact badman ' s tropical fish copyright \u00a9 all rights reserved . reproduction of any portion of this website ' s content is forbidden without written permission .\nbetta fish care infographic , a handy cheat sheet that will benefit any keepers of siamese fighting fish .\nfish tank care . guide to fish care with a simple look at aquarium filtration , how to clean a fish tank , and a fish tank maintenance schedule .\npiranhas , one of the most efficient predators with razor sharp teeth and a ferocious nature . piranha fish species , description , information , habitat , and more !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\nwe have two large iridescent sharks we are looking to find another home for . our tank is too small and they are very large . do you have a big tank ? do you know they can grow 3 - 4 feet ? where are you located ?\nlooking for medaka rice fish . what ever species you may have for sale .\ni ' m looking to but a balloon kissing gourami . any idea where i can get one ?\nif anybody out there can tell me why my little fish that i have had him for about 7 years now maybe longer but anyway all the sudden today i hear this noise and i . . . ( more ) angel8\nthe chinese algae eater is a workhorse when it comes to its job . . . eating algae !\nis a one of the best - known aquarium fish . it is found in large areas of southeast asia and southern parts of china . it was first exported to germany in 1956 for the aquarium trade , but in its native countries , it is used as a food fish .\nthis fish is highly desired by many aquarists . though not the most beautiful fish , it is appreciated for its ability to keep the aquarium free of algae . as a youngster , it does a great job at that , but its dietary preference will change as it matures . adult chinese algae eaters will look for meatier foods such as small crustaceans and even the slime coating of other fish . adults will also start enjoying the easier foods supplied by their keepers . other surprising aspects of keeping this fish , besides its changing diet , include its size , the number of very similar\nlook - alike\nspecies , and its personality with its tankmates ."]}
{"id": 158, "summary": [{"text": "eudryas brevipennis is a moth in the noctuidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in idaho , utah and california .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of wetlands .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 14 \u2013 16 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are white and the hindwings are bright yellow .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "both are edged in red-brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing in summer .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on oenothera and epilobium species . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "eudryas brevipennis", "paragraphs": ["eudryas brevipennis is a moth in the noctuidae family . it is found in idaho , utah and california . the habitat consists of wetlands .\nthe identical male and female genitalia of the california and intermountain populations of eudryas brevipennis suggest strongly that they are the same species despite the differences in wing pattern and the 700 kilometer gap that separates them . a single specimen from modesto , california in the cnc resembles subspecies bonneville more than other california populations . eudryas should be sought in riparian habitats in the area between california and the range of eudryas brevipennis bonneville to see if this subspecies has a larger range than is known currently . there is no barcode data for either subspecies of eudryas brevipennis .\neudryas brevipennis bonneville occurs near large rivers and lakes in the northern intermountain region . most specimens have been collected near the snake river in south - central idaho .\neudryas brevipennis stretch , 1872 , illustrations of the zygaenidae and bombycidae of north america , 1 : 151 , pl . 7 , figs . 3 , 4 . new synonomy\neudryas grata and eudryas unio are similar , but do not occur in the west . xerociris wilsonii is also superficially similar , but is restricted to texas and neighboring states .\neudryas brevipennis , including the utah populations , is considered to be conspecific with eudrya unio by poole on the website nearctica . com . these taxa differ in the structure of the genitalia of both sexes indicating that they are distinct species . the identical male and female genitalia of the california and intermountain populations of eudryas brevipennis suggest strongly that they are the same species despite the differences in wing pattern and the 700 kilometer gap that separates them . a single specimen from modesto , california in the cnc resembles subspecies bonneville more than other california populations . eudryas should be sought in riparian habitats in the area between california and the range of eudryas brevipennis bonneville to see if this subspecies has a larger range than is known currently . there is no barcode data for either subspecies of eudryas brevipennis .\nthe moth flies during late spring and summer and has been collected from late may through early august . the early stages are unknown . california populations of eudryas brevipennis feed on the willowherb epilobium ciliatum raf . and evening primroses ( oenothera spp . ) ( comstock and dammers 1938 ) , all in the evening primrose family ( onagraceae ) . it is likely that eudryas brevipennis bonneville utilizes similar plants in this family .\neudryas brevipennis , including the utah populations , is considered to be conspecific with eudrya unio by poole on the website nearctica . com . these taxa differ in the structure of the genitalia of both sexes indicating that they are distinct species .\nmale genitalia of erebidae and noctuidae . ventral or right aspect of aedeagus is shown . 32 cycnia oregonensis tristis crabo , paratype , usa , wa , thurston co . , plumb ( ventral aspect ) 33 drasteria parallela crabo & mustelin , paratype , usa , wa , klickitat co . , simcoe butte 34 drasteria convergens mustelin , usa , ca , mono co . , lee vining 35 drasteria divergens ( behr ) , usa , or , baker co . , burnt river canyon 36 eudryas brevipennis bonneville shepard & crabo , paratype , usa , id , twin falls co . , buhl 37 eudryas unio ( h\u00fcbner ) , usa , ma , norfolk co . , ponkapoag bog .\nmale genitalia of erebidae and noctuidae . ventral or right aspect of aedeagus is shown . 32 cycnia oregonensis tristis crabo , paratype , usa , wa , thurston co . , plumb ( ventral aspect ) 33 drasteria parallela crabo & mustelin , paratype , usa , wa , klickitat co . , simcoe butte 34 drasteria convergens mustelin , usa , ca , mono co . , lee vining 35 drasteria divergens ( behr ) , usa , or , baker co . , burnt river canyon 36 eudryas brevipennis bonneville shepard & crabo , paratype , usa , id , twin falls co . , buhl 37 eudryas unio ( h\u00fcbner ) , usa , ma , norfolk co . , ponkapoag bog .\nfigures 32\u201337 . male genitalia of erebidae and noctuidae . ventral or right aspect of aedeagus is shown . 32 cycnia oregonensis tristis crabo , paratype , usa , wa , thurston co . , plumb ( ventral aspect ) 33 drasteria parallela crabo & mustelin , paratype , usa , wa , klickitat co . , simcoe butte 34 drasteria convergens mustelin , usa , ca , mono co . , lee vining 35 drasteria divergens ( behr ) , usa , or , baker co . , burnt river canyon 36 eudryas brevipennis bonneville shepard & crabo , paratype , usa , id , twin falls co . , buhl 37 eudryas unio ( h\u00fcbner ) , usa , ma , norfolk co . , ponkapoag bog .\nfemale genitalia of erebidae and noctuidae . ventral aspect . 45 drasteria parallela crabo & mustelin , usa , ca , siskiyou co . , deadfall meadow 46 drasteria convergens mustelin , usa , ca , mono co . , lee vining 47 drasteria divergens ( behr ) , usa , baker co . , burnt river canyon 48 eudryas brevipennis bonneville shepard & crabo , paratype , usa , id , twin falls co . , kimberly 49 eudryas unio ( h\u00fcbner ) , usa , wi , st . croix co . , s18 springfield township 50 resapamea diluvius crabo , paratype , usa , wa , adams co . , washtucna 51 resapamea passer ( guen\u00e9e ) , usa , wa , douglas county , 3 mi . ese of orondo 52 fishia nigrescens hammond & crabo , paratype , usa , or , jefferson co . , warm springs .\nfigures 45\u201352 . female genitalia of erebidae and noctuidae . ventral aspect . 45 drasteria parallela crabo & mustelin , usa , ca , siskiyou co . , deadfall meadow 46 drasteria convergens mustelin , usa , ca , mono co . , lee vining 47 drasteria divergens ( behr ) , usa , baker co . , burnt river canyon 48 eudryas brevipennis bonneville shepard & crabo , paratype , usa , id , twin falls co . , kimberly 49 eudryas unio ( h\u00fcbner ) , usa , wi , st . croix co . , s18 springfield township 50 resapamea diluvius crabo , paratype , usa , wa , adams co . , washtucna 51 resapamea passer ( guen\u00e9e ) , usa , wa , douglas county , 3 mi . ese of orondo 52 fishia nigrescens hammond & crabo , paratype , usa , or , jefferson co . , warm springs .\nseveral taxonomic issues in the moth families erebidae and noctuidae are addressed for northwestern north america . drasteria parallela crabo & mustelin and cycnia oregonensis tristis crabo in the erebidae and eudryas brevipennis bonneville shepard & crabo , resapamea diluvius crabo , resapamea angelika crabo , resapamea mammuthus crabo , fishia nigrescens hammond & crabo , and xestia perquiritata orca crabo & hammond in the noctuidae are described as new . the following new synonyms are proposed : chytolita petrealis grote with herminea morbidalis guen\u00e9e ; gortyna columbia barnes & benjamin and gortyna ximena barnes & benjamin with gortyna obliqu a harvey ; and hydroecia pallescens smith with hydroecia medialis smith . the type locality of gortyna intermedia barnes & benjamin is restricted to lundbreck , municipality of crowsnest pass , alberta , canada .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nthe information below is based on images submitted and identified by contributors . range and date information may be incomplete , overinclusive , or just plain wrong .\nhover over black occurrence boxes to see number of images submitted . log in to make states , months and boxes clickable .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\n1 corresponding author . adjunct faculty , dept . of entomology , washington state university , pullman , washington , usa ; 724 - 14 st . , bellingham , washington 98225 - 6302 usa\n5 research faculty , dept . of entomology , washington state university ; 6420 barabanoff rd . , nelson , bc v1l 6y1 , canada\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license 3 . 0 ( cc - by ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\na website devoted to the macromoths ( excluding the geometridae ) of the pacific northwest was recently created by a team that includes the authors of the current paper . the pacific northwest ( pnw ) is defined as all of idaho , oregon , and washington and the western part of montana in the united states and all of british columbia in canada . this site , called pacific northwest moths ( urltoken ) , has been available to the public since july 2012 . the internet format\u2013as opposed to a book or journal article\u2013lends itself to continuous updating of things such as additional species , range extensions and life histories . however , it is not an appropriate format for taxonomic work intended for a larger audience , nor does it satisfy the requirements for the description of new taxa .\nwe are aware of several undescribed species of erebidae and noctuidae in the pacific northwest ( pnw ) . three of these are described here so that they can be included on the website .\nthe thorough vetting of pnw moth collections that was part of the website work confirmed that three superficially distinctive populations of previously named moths are isolated segregates . these are sufficiently different to warrant recognition as subspecies , a taxonomic category that we reserve for populations that are both geographically isolated and differ significantly in appearance from other populations of their species . three subspecies are named in this paper .\none of the new pnw species is in the genus resapamea varga & ronkay ( noctuidae ) . this presents an opportunity to name two additional species in this genus even though they are from parts of western north america outside the pnw .\na large number of taxonomic changes in the superfamily noctuoidea have recently been advanced in a new check list for north america north of mexico ( lafontaine and schmidt 2010 ) and in the first update to this list ( lafontaine and schmidt 2011 ) . additional synonyms to those published by these authors were discovered during the website work , usually because a pnw species is known by more than one name . the new synonyms that are discussed in this paper are in the genera chytolita grote ( erebidae ) and hydraecia guen\u00e9e ( noctuidae ) .\nthe genus hydraecia is represented by hydraecia perobliqua hampson and the hydraecia obliqua species - group in the pnw . the number of species in the latter group is confusing to collectors , with seemingly more names than species . an attempt by the senior author to revise it in the late 1990s was never published because of difficulties in assigning species boundaries using standard morphological methods . more recent dna data allows many of these issues to be resolved . the pnw species hydraecia obliqua ( harvey ) and hydraecia medialis smith are discussed and illustrated herein , and the type locality of the third north american species in the species - group , hydraecia intermedia ( barnes & benjamin ) , is restricted .\nthis paper is arranged in check list order following lafontaine and schmidt ( 2010 ) .\ngenitalia were prepared using standard methods for inflating the male vesica and female bursa ( lafontaine 2004 ) . terminology for wing markings and anatomy also follows lafontaine ( op . cit . ) except in drasteria h\u00fcbner ( erebidae ) where they are modified from metlevski and zolnerowich ( 2009 ) . the term ductus bursae is used herein for the entire length of the tube connecting the ostium bursae to the corpus bursae . metlevski and zolnerowich ( op . cit . ) divide this structure into two parts\u2013the ductus bursae and antrum\u2013restricting the use of ductus bursae to the anterior sclerotized portion . in resapamea , a stout process extending dorsad from the base of the sacculus is herein named the basal saccular process . this structure was called the clavus by zilli et al . ( 2005 ) , a term that is potentially confusing because the term clavus has been used previously for a rod - like sensory organ with apical setae located adjacent to the base of the valve in some noctuid genera ( forbes 1954 , lafontaine 2004 ) .\nthe sequence of the 658 base pair \u201cbarcode\u201d region of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase c subunit 1 ( hereafter called co1 or barcode ) were obtained from the barcodes of life initiative through the courtesy of dr . j . donald lafontaine . only pre - existing data were used during this study . the barcode sequences were compared using phylograms constructed using the kimura - 2 - parameter distance model as implemented on the bold systems website ( ratnasingham and hebert 2007 ) .\nusnm national museum of natural history ( formerly united states national museum ) , washington , d . c . , usa\nfamily erebidae leach , [ 1815 ] . subfamily arctiinae leach , [ 1815 ] . tribe arctiini leach , [ 1815 ]\nholotype male , usa , washington , thurston county , [ wa ] dnr rocky prairie , 4 . 2 mi . n of tenino at plumb , 46 . 92\u00b0n , 122 . 85\u00b0w , 75 m . , 20 . vi . 1998 , l . g . crabo leg . / barcodes of life # cncnoctuoidea12243 . cnc . paratypes 8 males . usa . washington . thurston county : plumb , n of tenino , tnc rocky prairie , elev 50 m . , 46 . 92\u00b0n , 122 . 85\u00b0w , 26 . vi . 1990 , l . g . crabo leg . ( 1 male ) ; [ same locality and collector ] , 24 . vii . 1996 ; puget trough prairie ( 1 male ) ; rocky prairie , 12 . vii . 1982 , don frechin leg . ( 1 male ) ; [ same location data and collector as holotype ] , 4 . vi . 1998 ( 1 male ) ; 20 . vi . 1998 ( 1 male ) ; 24 . vii . 1998 ( 1 male ) ; wa dnr mima mounds state natural area , 46 . 907\u00b0n , 123 . 049\u00b0w , 240\u2019 [ 73 m . ] , 4 . vi . 1998 , l . g . crabo leg . , mounded prairie ( 1 male ) ; mima prairie , thurston county glacial heritage site , 46 . 86\u00b0n , 123 . 04\u00b0w , 120\u2019 [ 37 m . ] , 10 . vii . 1998 , d . grosboll leg . , prairie ( 1 male ) . cnc , lgcc , wsu .\nthe name is from the latin tristis meaning sad , a reference to the gray color of this moth and the weather in its western washington distribution .\nis distinguished by the uniform medium gray color of both wings . the nominate subspecies of\n) , found elsewhere in north america , has lighter yellow - cream to grayish - cream forewings with lighter veins and nearly white hindwings .\n( drury ) , an eastern north american tiger moth that occurs west to the eastern great plains . these moths are easily distinguished by locality .\nthis subspecies is restricted to gravel prairies south of puget sound , washington . these prairies were created by the outwash from the vashon lobe of the pleistocene glaciation , and might have been maintained as open prairies by burning by native humans to promote the growth of camas lilies ( camassia spp . , liliaceae ) as a food source . the moth is associated with dogbane ( apocynum spp . , apocynaceae ) , the known foodplant of camassia oregonensis elsewhere in north america ( tietz 1972 ) . this is almost certainly the larval foodplant of camassia oregonensis tristis , although this has not been confirmed . this moth flies during june and july .\ncycnia oregonensis is found in a large part of north america , occurring from coast to coast and from the border with mexico north to central saskatchewan and nova scotia ( covell 1984 , ferguson et al . 2000 ) . this range includes much of the pnw , including western oregon and the area east of the cascade range as far north as south - central british columbia . throughout most of its range it is nearly uniform in color and pattern . cycnia oregonensis tristis is limited to a small area near olympia , washington and is the only known population of this species in washington west of the cascades . it is distinctly grayer and less patterned than all other populations , but has an identical co1 barcode sequence .\nthe type specimen of euchaetes oregonensis stretch was collected by lord walsingham on a trip through oregon during 1871\u20131872 ( stretch 1872\u2013 [ 1874 ] ) . comparison of his itinerary ( essig 1941 ) with the flight period of the moth suggests strongly that it was collected in the southwestern corner of the state between roseburg and the california border . cycnia oregonensis tristis is separated from the closest west - side populations in western oregon by 225 kilometers . all of the specimens of camassia oregonensis oregonensis examined from near the likely type locality are similar to those from elsewhere in north america .\nthe puget prairies where camassia oregonensis tristis flies are inhabited by several other distinctive lepidoptera with limited distributions , including the noctuid moth apamea inordinata olympia crabo and several uncommon butterflies .\nchytolita petrealis grote 1880 : 219 . type locality : [ usa ] , ohio , illinois , syn . n .\nchytolita fulicalis smith 1907 : 143 . type locality : [ usa ] , tennessee , syn . rev .\nzanclognatha punctiformis smith 1895 : 37 . type locality : [ usa ] , district of columbia , syn . rev .\ntwo species of chytolita grote have until now been recognized for north america ( lafontaine and schmidt 2010 ) : chytolita morbidalis ( guen\u00e9e ) and chytolita petrealis grote . both species names have at various times been used for material collected in the pnw ; however , only a single species with slight variation in size and darkness exists in this region . material from eastern north america , the type specimens of the available names , and material previously submitted for co1 sequencing were therefore examined to attempt to elucidate the correct name for the pnw species . it was found that there is virtually no variation in barcodes in this genus despite the fact that the sample is diverse and includes larger light - colored specimens identified as chytolita morbidalis and smaller dark ones submitted as chytolita petrealis from a large portion of eastern north america . the two previously recognized species have been described as \u201cidentical in pattern\u201d ( forbes 1954 ) and were only distinguished by size and darkness without structural differences . the dark small forms known as chytolita petrealis are from swamps and acid bogs ( forbes op . cit . ) and are consistent with an ecophenotype . this evidence indicates that chytolita petrealis grote is a synonym of herminea morbidalis guen\u00e9e .\nthe two syntypes of herminea morbidalis guen\u00e9e could not be located and might be lost ; however , the original description is sufficient to identify the species and associate it with the genus chytolita based on features of the labial palpus and the presence of an accessory cell on the forewing . a neotype designation is not necessary since there is only one chytolita species in north america .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 1fa8c27b - 2159 - 41ca - bcf5 - 246f99b9f8b5\nthe name refers to the parallel lines across the pale medial area of the forewing of this species . this name perpetuates the geometry references of the related species drasteria divergens ( behr ) and drasteria convergens mustelin .\n) , a species that occurs to the south of its range in california as far north as mono county . both have a medial line comprised of distinct parallel components , but the dorsal hindwing of\n) , which is similar in size and has a similarly colored orange hindwing . they can be distinguished without dissection by the pattern of the medial areas of both wings . the forewing medial line of\nhas a single broader medial line . on the hindwing , the discal spot of\nis nearly rectangular and the veins between it and the postmedial line are dark and contrasting . the discal spot of\nis joined broadly to the postmedial line giving it a long curved c - shape and the adjacent veins are orange . they also differ in other features of the maculation , including a smoother subterminal line in\nby the nearly equal lengths of the two claspers and more rounded valvulae . in\n) the right clasper is longer and more slender than the left and the posterodorsal valvulae are angular .\nin which it is long and narrow . in the vesica , the posteriorly - directed process arising from the glove - like diverticulum on the left side of the dorsal vesica is conical in\n( ratio of width : length 0 . 87 and 0 . 7 , respectively ) .\ndrasteria parallela is found in the cascade mountains of washington , the klamath and siskiyou mountains of southwestern oregon and northern california , and the northern sierra nevada in california . it is most commonly collected on exposed ridges in forests at middle elevations . it flies during july . the early stages and foodplant are unknown . barcodes suggest a close relationship of drasteria parallela and drasteria convergens to drasteria howlandii ( grote ) , which feeds on eriogonum michaux ( polygonaceae ) ( powell and opler 2009 ) .\nthe barcode of a single sample of this species from plumas county , california ( boldsystems sample id : cncnoctuoidea7767 ) differs by 1 . 3 % from that of drasteria convergens from mono county , california .\nfamily noctuidae latreille , 1809 . subfamily agaristinae herrich - sch\u00e4ffer , [ 1858 ]\nholotype male , usa , idaho , [ twin falls county ] , twin falls , 10 . vii . 1953 , j . r . douglass leg . / database # cnc lep 00094168 / genitalia cnc slide # 15232 male . cnc . paratypes 5 males , 5 females . usa . idaho . gooding county : wendell , 3500\u2019 [ 1067 m . ] , 25 . vii . 1965 , r . e . miller leg . ( 1 female ) ; power county : massacre rocks s [ tate ] p [ ark ] , 4290\u2019 [ 1308 m . ] , 42 . 679\u00b0n , 112 . 987\u00b0w , 17 . vii . 2010 , j . & s . shepard leg . ( 1 male ) ; twin falls county : buhl , 3500\u2019 [ 1067 m . ] , 29 . vi . 1961 , r . e . miller leg . ( 1 male ) ; kimberly , 1 mi . e . , 10 . vii . 1970 , a . c . antonelli collector ( 1 female ) ; twin falls [ 42 . 57\u00b0 , - 114 . 47\u00b0 ] , 10 . vii . 1953 , j . r . douglas leg . ( 1 male ) ; [ same locality and collector ] , 7 . vii . 1945 ( 1 male ) , 9 . viii . 1945 ( 1 female ) , 12 . vii . 1952 ( 1 female ) , [ same locality and collector ] , 3700\u2019 [ 1128 m . ] , 25 . v . 1953 ( 1 male ) ; [ same locality ] , 15 . vi . 1959 , k . e . gibson leg . , genitalia cnc slide # 16535 ( 1 female ) . cnc , jhs , wfbm .\nthe species name is derived from lake bonneville . this glacial lake covered much of utah and southern idaho during the late pleistocene epoch . the distribution of this moth is in the lake bonneville basin and along its historic flood path along the snake river .\nno other pacific northwest noctuid is likely to be confused with this brightly colored moth .\n) by the width of the dark marginal borders of both wings and darkness of the discal spots . the red - brown hindwing marginal band is relatively narrow and mottled in\nis wider and uniformly darker . the reniform spot and hindwing discal spot are both black in\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : b5ed782b - 3a1f - 4404 - 92d8 - dbeb0f415656\nmale genitalia of noctuidae . ventral aspect of aedeagus is shown . distal uncus of fig . 41 is inset . 38 resapamea diluvius crabo , paratype , usa , wa , grant co . , potholes 39 resapamea passer ( guen\u00e9e ) , usa , wa , douglas co . , 5 km ese of orondo 40 resapamea angelika crabo , holotype , usa , nv , elko co . , angel lake 41 resapamea mammuthus crabo , holotype , canada , yt , old crow 42 resapamea hedeni ( graeser ) , russia , magadan oblast , tenkinsky district , stokovyi 43 fishia nigrescens hammond & crabo , paratype , usa , or , klamath co . , 6 mi . se of klamath falls 44 xestia perquiritata orca crabo & hammond , paratype , usa , wa , clallam co . , neah bay .\ndune habitat of resapamea diluvius at potholes , grant county , washington , showing the likely foodplant rumex venosus in flower during may .\nholotype male . usa , washington , grant county : potholes , 1110\u2019 [ 338 m . ] , 46 . 982\u00b0n , 119 . 451\u00b0w , 23 . v . 2001 , l . g . & e . k . crabo leg . / database # cnc lep 00094165 . cnc . paratypes 80 males , 25 females . usa . oregon . sherman county : biggs , 1 vi 1960 , s . g . jewett ( 1 female ) ; biggs junction , 28 iv 1959 , s . g . jewett ( 1 male ) . washington . adams county : sand hills near washtucna , 9 mi . n . of kahlotus , 46 . 78\u00b0n , 118 . 53\u00b0w , 445 m . , 22 . v . 1999 , l . g . crabo leg . , sand dunes ( 1 male , 1 female ) ; irrigation exper . sta . basin unit [ 47 . 008\u00b0 , - 118 . 567\u00b0 ] , 30 . v . 1963 , e . c . klostemeyer leg . ( 1 male ) ; franklin county : white bluffs ferry , 46 . 675\u00b0n , 119 . 449\u00b0w , 25 . iv . 2002 , strenge / zack leg . ( 1 male ) ; grant county : [ same data as holotype ] ( 30 males , 10 females ) ; [ same locality as holotype ] , 1095\u2019 [ 334 m ] , 1 . vi . 2002 , crabo & troubridge leg . ( 9 males , 2 females ) ; [ same locality and date as previous ] , barcodes of life cnclep70179 ( 1 male ) ; stable dunes s of moses lake , 21 . v . 1994 , j . troubridge leg . ( 1 male ) ; road c se at the potholes , [ same coordinates as holotype ] , 19 . v . 2001 , j . troubridge leg . ( 32 males , 9 females ) ; [ same locality and date as previous ] , barcodes of life cnclep70181 ( 1 female ) ; potholes , 1095\u2019 [ 334 m . ] , 46 . 989\u00b0n , 119 . 425\u00b0w , 4 . vi . 2005 , e . k . & l . g . crabo leg . ( 1 male , 1 female ) ; vantage , 46\u00b054 ' n , 119\u00b056 ' w , 22 . iv . 1998 , j . troubridge leg . ( 2 males ) . cnc , csuc , jhs , jtt , lgcc , osac , tmc , wsu .\nthe name is derived from the latin diluvium meaning deluge or flood . the columbia basin where this moth occurs in washington was scoured repeatedly by cataclysmic floods at the end of the ice age .\n, which comes in a range in colors and patterns that includes dark brown , reddish brown , dull light yellow brown , or a mixture of light - and dark - brown forms .\non both wings , with a more streaky pattern distal to the cell due to pale - gray veins . a few specimens of\nare dark gray under magnification but do not contrast with the ground color ) . most specimens of\nhave the streaky pattern accentuated by black between the veins in the distal subterminal area and terminal area across the width of the wing . in\n, black scaling on the distal wing is uncommon , and is usually limited to the area distal to the cell and in the fold . finally , white or cream in the lateral reniform spot is typical in\n: absent , darker yellow or tan if limited to the lateral portion , or filling the entire spot . habitat association with dunes and early flight period are also characteristic of\nis found in a variety of wetland and agricultural habitats and usually flies later in the summer with a peak during late june and july .\n, especially relative to the width of the valve , and the anal margin is more rounded . in the vesicas , the diverticulum bearing a ridge of spines ( cock\u2019s comb ) on the ventral surface is positioned slightly closer to the base in\nthis species occurs in the columbia basin in washington and northern oregon . specimens from dunes in northern nevada and the northern great plains have been examined but the limits of its distribution are not well known .\n) based on their close association with this plant in the columbia basin . this rue is abundant on the dunes where\n) and the moth has not been found in columbia basin dune systems from which the plant is absent . some other\nadults fly from late april to early june . no specimens have been found at the type locality during summer or fall , although resapamea passer occurs there during the summer . resapamea diluvius is local but is often abundant where it occurs .\nthe co1 sequences of resapamea diluvius and resapamea passer are nearly uniform within each species but differ from each other by over 3 . 5 % .\nhadena hulstii grote , hadena morna strecker , and hadena virguncula smith are considered to be synonyms of mamestra passer guen\u00e9e ( lafontaine and schmidt 2010 ) . all were described from colorado . the holotype of hadena hulstii could not be located and is presumed lost ( lafontaine jd pers . comm . 2012 ) . the holotypes of the other two were examined ( hadena virguncula from a photograph ) to exclude the possibility that they refer to resapamea diluvius .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 0f672160 - b1c9 - 4a79 - aedc - 0a01c47f6f0d\nholotype male . usa , nevada , elko county , angel lake ( s side ) , sw of wells , light trap , 1\u20132 . viii . 2003 , james k . & eleaner adams leg . / database # cnc lep 00094166 . cnc . paratype female . usa , nevada , elko county , rt 231 , 11 mi sw wells [ angel lake ] , 23 july 2001 , j . troubridge / cncnoctuoidea6305 . jtt .\nspecies due to the combination of large size , even dark red - brown forewing color , small or absent orbicular spot , and narrow reniform spot with well - demarcated thin black outline and prominent cream to light orange filling . it is most likely to be confused with\nhas a slightly broader distal uncus , a more v - shaped inferior juxta , and a larger and more angular basal saccular process . in the vesica , the ridge of spines with a sclerotized base ( cock\u2019s comb ) adorning a ventral diverticulum is smaller than in\nthis species is only known from the vicinity of angel lake in the east humboldt range of northeastern nevada . the habitat is sedge meadows along tributaries of angel creek . these meadows appear to lack rumex but harbor dense stands of an iris ( iris spp . , iridaceae ) which might be the larval foodplant . the early stages of resapamea angelika are unknown . the few known specimens have been collected during late july and early august .\nthe co1 sequence of the female paratype differs from those of all other north american resapamea , including resapamea passer and resapamea innota , by over 3 . 4 % .\nthe holotypes of luperina innota smith , type locality wyoming , yellowstone park , and luperina enargia barnes & benjamin , type locality california , tulare county , monachee meadows , were examined from photographs to ensure that neither name is referable to resapamea angelika . these specimens are superficially very similar to each other and may represent the same species . somewhat variable resapamea populations resembling these types are found at mid - elevations in a large portion of the western united states and require further study to determine the number of species that are involved . because of this , we feel that it is premature to consider resapamea innota and resapamea enargia to be synonyms .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 5d5927c7 - 717d - 4dc4 - b855 - 37389c705002\nholotype male . canada , yukon territory , old crow , 5 . vii . 1983 , r . j . cannings leg . / malaise trap . forest edge on s - facing bluff / database cnc lep 0094163 / slide luperina male er8824 . cnc . paratypes none .\nthe name is derived from the genus of the wooly mammoth\u2013 mammuthus . it is befitting of the moth because its beringian distribution and relatively large size for the genus . it is a noun in apposition .\nin north america due to its northerly distribution and orange - tan color . it is superficially similar to\n) , which occurs in asia and might also occur in alaska ( see remarks , below ) . the male genitalia of these species differ in the shape of the distal uncus . it is truncated in\ndiscussed in this paper in lacking the subbasal diverticulum and medial cornuti . it differs from that of\n\u2013 antenna of male nearly filiform , with slight constriction at base of each segment , covered ventrally by short fine cilia . antenna of female unknown . scape orange tan , with dorsal tuft . eye rounded , smooth . labial palp covered laterally by short flat tan scales , lengthening to a brush - like fringe on ventral surface of first two segments . frons smooth , covered in narrow orange - tan scales . top of head covered in long narrow orange - tan scales .\n\u2013 vestiture of collar , thorax , and tegula long , narrow , apically notched orange - tan scales , appearing medium - dark orange - tan [ central thorax of holotype partially mildewed ] . legs light tan ; with three ventral rows of spiniform setae on basitarsus and four irregular rows on other tarsal segments .\n\u2013 forewing length : male 21 . 5 mm . forewing with a mixture of tan , orange - tan , gray - tan , light - gray , brown - gray , and gray scales , appearing medium - dark orange tan , grayer near anterior and posterior margins and darker gray - brown in terminal area ; veins near costa , distal to postmedial line , and near posterior margin gray but not strongly contrasting ; an ill - defined dark mark in medial area distal to lower reniform spot . basal , antemedial , and postmedial lines faint , ill - defined dark gray with adjacent light orange tan . basal line only evident near costa . antemedial line evident on costa and posterior to claviform spot , forming an oblique dark mark on costa and a zigzag line from claviform spot to posterior margin . medial line absent . postmedial line very faint , ill - defined , smooth , strongly oblique toward base anterior to reniform spot , straight and parallel to outer margin lateral to spot , and slightly angled and concave toward base below spot to meet posterior margin at a right angle . subterminal line light orange tan , faint , undulating ; preceded by a faint indistinct shade of dark gray that is strongest opposite cell and in fold . terminal line thin , dark gray . orbicular spot round , outlined by ill - defined faint gray and filled with light orange tan . reniform spot moderately large , kidney shaped with strong lateral indent , dark gray along medial and lateral sides and open anteriorly and posteriorly , filled with cream , slightly grayer at posterior end . claviform spot black , ill defined , strong anteriorly and weak posteriorly , narrow , filled with ground color . fringe gray tan , with a lighter tan base and gray medial line . hindwing light gray tan with gray suffusion , very faint postmedial line , marginal band , terminal line , veins , and chevron - shaped discal spot . hindwing fringe slightly lighter than hindwing ground color .\n) . tegumen with large penicillus lobes . juxta shield shaped , 0 . 5 \u00d7 as high as wide , with v - shaped ventral margin . valve s - shaped , 5 . 5 \u00d7 as long as wide ( measured at mid - valve ) , widest at base and cucullus , mid - section 2 / 3 as wide as base and tapering slightly to narrow neck at base of cucullus ; stout sclerotized knob - like basal saccular process extending dorsolaterally from base to just dorsal to costal attachment of valve , medial margin of this process irregular and apex rounded . sacculus reaching 2 / 3 of distance to costal margin and extending distally to mid - valve . clasper a smooth ridge . ampulla short , round . digitus a weak ridge , partially covered by medial cucullus . cucullus well developed with rounded apical and anal ends , 2 \u00d7 as wide as mid - valve ; mesial surface covered by fine setae ; corona of stout curved setae , dorsal half partially double . aedeagus tubular , 3 . 6 \u00d7 as long as wide , with short linear extension onto ventral vesica bearing a loose row of very small spines . vesica 0 . 7 \u00d7 as long as aedeagus , bent 135\u00b0 toward right at base to project anteriorly and toward right , basal two - thirds bulbous and distal half tapering , with a single conical membranous diverticulum on anterior side of distal vesica projecting anteriorly and a subapical posterior patch of variable - sized spine - like cornuti directed basad .\nthis species is known only from the type locality at old crow , yukon territory . the habitat is described as forest edge on a south - facing hillside on the specimen label . the holotype was collected during early july . the early stages are unknown .\nadults of noctuidae . 21 hydraecia obliqua ( harvey ) , male , usa , ca , sonoma co . , bodega bay dunes 22 hydraecia obliqua ( harvey ) , male , usa , wa , island co . , deception pass state park 23 hydraecia obliqua ( harvey ) , male , usa , or , lane co . , s fork mckenzie river near cougar reservoir 24 hydraecia medialis smith , male , usa , wa , douglas co . , jameson lake 25 hydraecia medialis smith , male , usa , or , grant co . , south fork john day river 26 hydraecia medialis smith , male , canada , bc , princeton , hayes creek 27 fishia nigrescens hammond & crabo , male paratype , usa , or , klamath co . , 6 mi . se of klamath falls 28 fishia nigrescens hammond & crabo , male holotype , usa , nv , lander co . , 3 mi . w of kingston 29 fishia yosemitae ( grote ) , male , usa , or , lake co . , deep creek w of adel 30 xestia perquiritata orca crabo & hammond , male paratype , or , [ lincoln co . ] , newport 31 xestia perquiritata partita ( mcdunnough ) , male , wa , pend oreille co . , salmo mountain .\ngortyna obliqua harvey 1876 : 53 . type locality : [ usa ] , california , [ mendocino ] . note : gortyna obliqua was described from a single specimen . poole ( 1989 ) states that the holotype is in the bmnh . this appears to be incorrect because all harvey type material , including that in the bmnh , was examined by barnes and benjamin ( 1924 ) who concluded that a specimen in the amnh labeled \u201cmendocino , california / 4410 / no . 10703 collection hy . edwards / apamea obliqua . harv . \u201d is the type .\ngortyna ximena barnes and benjamin 1924 : 160 . type locality : [ usa ] , california , truckee . syn . n .\ngortyna columbia barnes and benjamin 1924 : 161 . type locality : [ canada ] , b [ ritish ] c [ olumbia ] , saanich district . syn . n .\nmore than a decade ago , prior to the availability of mitochondrial dna , the senior author conducted a study of the genus hydraecia guen\u00e9e focusing on the western north american species related to hydraecia obliqua ( harvey ) , herein referred to as the hydraecia obliqua species - group for convenience . these moths occur over a large area spanning the pacific coast to the great plains west to east and british columbia , alberta , and saskatchewan to southern california , northeastern arizona , and northern new mexico north to south . this study included examination of all primary types , assembling over 600 specimens from most large institutional and many private north american collections , and examination of over 60 genitalia preparations . the conclusion was that hydraecia intermedia ( barnes & benjamin ) , known only from the holotype from fort calgary , is distinct but that all other populations in the species - group exhibit nearly continuous clinal variation in maculation and genitalia to form a circle of races ( rasenkranz ) from california , across montana , and ending in the montane forests of the southwest . this work was accepted for publication but was withdrawn because of the author\u2019s concern that somewhat distinctive populations on the pacific coast and in the southwest might be different species from the widespread intervening population but that the genitalia structure lacked differences sufficient for resolving the species .\nsince then , barcodes have demonstrated a consistent 2 % difference between populations from near the pacific coast ( northern california , washington , and british columbia ( n = 6 ) ) and those from farther inland ( colorado , washington , wyoming , alberta , and british columbia ( n = 7 ) ) that along with slight differences in maculation suggest that they are best treated as distinct species . the western species is hydraecia obliqua and the eastern one is hydraecia medialis smith .\noccurs east to the sierra nevada in california and the crest of the cascade range in oregon and washington . it occurs continuously on the coast north to southwestern british columbia , with a disjunct northern population at terrace , british columbia . its forewing is warm orange brown , varying considerably in darkness from dark brown on the california coast (\n) , and pale yellow brown in the sierra nevada . the hindwing is pale with a yellow tint , usually with dark veins and a gray suffusion in the submarginal area . the forewing pattern is similar to that of\nan area of possible intergradation between hydraecia obliqua and hydraecia medialis in oregon is discussed under hydraecia medialis .\nhydroecia medialis smith 1892 : 251 . type locality : [ usa ] , colorado .\nhydroecia pallescens smith 1899 : 25 . type locality : [ canada ] , alberta , calgary . syn . n .\nand usually lacks a slight bend in or near the fold that is found commonly in that species . the hindwing ground color is variable , most commonly off - white , but lacks a yellow tint . gray scaling on the hindwing varies from absent to covering the entire wing . when present on the distal portion , it often forms a band to the outer margin , whereas in\nfrom forests tend to be darker than those from open sage steppe habitats , especially in southern british columbia and western montana . its northern limit in the pnw is at 100 mile house in south - central british columbia .\nspecimens of hydraecia medialis from the great plains are similar to those in the pnw but tend to be more uniform with dull gray - tan color , smooth lines , and less contrast between the antemedial and medial areas on the inner third of the forewing . populations from the southern rocky mountains have a similar pattern to those from the great plains but are more colorful and variable , with gray or red - brown individuals and paler gray - white subterminal areas . those from utah and arizona are red brown , darkest in arizona .\nas mentioned under hydraecia obliqua , the barcodes of hydraecia obliqua and hydraecia medialis differ by 2 % . a third barcode haplotype differing from both of these by slightly more than 2 % exists for a single specimen of hydraecia medialis from wyoming ( boldsystems sample id : cncnoctuoidea6703 ) . this specimen is superficially indistinguishable from two other wyoming specimens with barcodes that match those of other hydraecia medialis and this haplotype is therefore interpreted as a dna polymorphism rather than evidence of a cryptic species .\na discussion of hydraecia intermedia \u2013known only from the holotype\u2013is warranted in this section because its type locality of fort calgary suggests that it should be sympatric with hydraecia medialis near present - day calgary in southwestern alberta . its forewing is warm yellow brown unlike those of hydraecia medialis , with markings that are more like those of hydraecia obliqua than hydraecia medialis . structurally , its digitus is shorter and more bluntly rounded than those of all other populations in the hydraecia obliqua species - group ( n = 45 ) . the following discussion regarding its type locality is contributed by b . c . schmidt :\nthe holotype of hydraecia intermedia resembles the single specimen of hydraecia obliqua in the cnc from terrace in west - central british columbia . this locality is far north of the continuous distribution of hydraecia obliqua , which ends near vancouver , british columbia . this specimen is structurally similar to other hydraecia obliqua populations , not hydraecia intermedia . all british columbia hydraecia obliqua species - group specimens from east of the cascade mountains and british columbia coast ranges are typical hydraecia medialis , including from cranbrook which is the closest locality to the crowsnest pass locality of hydraecia intermedia . nonetheless , it is interesting to speculate that hydraecia intermedia could be an eastern population of hydraecia obliqua . we retain hydraecia intermedia as a species because of the structural differences between it and hydraecia obliqua , and because there are no records of similar specimens in central british columbia between terrace and crowsnest pass .\nalthough the present reduction of this species - group to three species\u2013 hydraecia intermedia , hydraecia medialis , and hydraecia obliqua \u2013is best supported by the available data there are two remaining issues that cannot be solved with the information at hand . a large series of specimens from the east slope of the cascades at camp sherman , jefferson county , oregon at osac show possible intergradation between hydraecia obliqua and hydraecia medialis , with some specimens that are difficult to assign to either species . this raises the possibility that the original hypothesis that hydraecia obliqua and hydraecia medialis are the same species could be correct despite the different barcodes in coastal and interior populations . barcode or other dna data from this population might help to elucidate its significance but is not available .\nsimilarly in the southwest , at the other end of the rasenkranz , more dna samples from colorado , utah , and arizona would be helpful to exclude the presence of an undiscovered species amongst the colorful populations that occur there . of these , a dusky red - brown population from east - central arizona is the most distinctive .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : b23f75ca - e5ea - 4891 - aefc - 19c4de6035cd\nholotype male . [ usa ] , nevada , lander co . , 3 mi w of kingston , kingston cr . , 7150\u2019 [ 2179 m . ] , 30 . ix . 2000 , laurence l . crabtree leg . / database for noctuoidae [ sic ] 14832 / genitalia cnc # 15215 / barcodes of life project , leg removed , dna extracted . cnc . paratypes 7 males , 1 female . usa . california . mono county : dunes ne of mono lake , 23 . ix . 1995 , r . robertson leg . barcodes of life noctuoidea 14834 ( 1 male ) ; [ same data as previous ] , barcodes of life noctuoidea 14833 ( 1 male ) ; riverside county : pinyon crest , 4000\u2019 [ 1219 m ] , 5 . xi . 1966 , r . h . leuschner leg . genitalia slide cnc 15223 ( 1 male ) . oregon . deschutes county : cline falls state park , j . c . miller coll . , larva 25 . v . 1995 on chrysothamnus nauseosus , pupa 19 . vi . 1995 , adult 28 . ix . 1995 ( 1 male ) ; grant county : john day fossil bed n . m . , sheep rock unit u . c . , 2 . x . 2003 , u . s . natl . park service leg . ( 1 male ) ; jefferson county : warmsprings , 27 . x . [ 19 ] 52 , s . g . jewett jr . ( 1 female ) ; lake county : hwy . 20 at glass butte , 23 . x . 2009 u . s . d . a ( 1 male ) ; klamath county : 6 mi . se of klamath falls , 14 . x . 1964 , kenneth goeden , blk . light trap ( 1 male ) . cnc , osac .\nthe type series is restricted to california , nevada , and oregon . two additional specimens from mt . lemmon highway , pima county , arizona at the cnc are excluded from the type series .\nthe name is derived from the latin niger meaning black or dusky . it refers to the forewing color of the moth .\nspecies by the charcoal - gray forewing without warm brown or reddish shades . other western north american species are either much lighter gray (\nin the male genitalia , the valve of fishia nigrescens can be told from that of fishia yosemitae by the shape of the digitus . in fishia nigrescens the two prongs of the bifid digitus are unequal in length with a long dorsal and short ventral process . in fishia yosemitae these processes are shorter and of similar length .\nthe female genitalia of fishia nigrescens differ from those of fishia yosemitae in the shape of the left posterior projection of the corpus bursae , blunter and more conical in fishia nigrescens and rounder in fishia yosemitae . the bursa of fishia nigrescens has five signa whereas that of fishia yosemitae has three , lacking two small signa at the anterior end .\nfishia nigrescens occurs in central and eastern oregon , nevada , eastern california , and arizona . its flight season is late fall , usually during october . the habitat is sage steppe , often in open juniper forest in oregon . a specimen of this species was reared from rabbitbrush ( ericameria nauseosa ( pallas ex pursh ) g . l . nesom & baird ) ( asteraceae ) in oregon . the larva was collected in may , pupated in june , and emerged in late september of the same year . it was described as green with a white lateral band ."]}
{"id": 166, "summary": [{"text": "hermosilla azurea , the zebra-perch sea chub , is a species of sea chub native to the pacific coast of north america where it occurs from monterey bay , california to the gulf of california .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is a shallow-water species , found in near-shore waters down to a depth of 8 metres ( 26 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species forms schools and is usually found in association with the panamic sergeant major ( abudefduf troschelii ) .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "this species grows to a length of 45 centimetres ( 18 in ) tl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this species is the only known member of its genus . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "hermosilla azurea", "paragraphs": ["froese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2013 ) .\nhermosilla azurea\nin fishbase . august 2013 version .\nshowing page 1 . found 0 sentences matching phrase\nhermosilla azurea\n. found in 0 ms . translation memories are created by human , but computer aligned , which might cause mistakes . they come from many sources and are not checked . be warned .\nallen , g . , robertson , r . , lea , b . & findley , l . 2010 . hermosilla azurea . in : iucn 2013 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2013 . 1 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 27 october 2013 .\ntype for hermosilla azurea catalog number : usnm 39629 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of fishes preparation : illustration ; photograph ; radiograph collector ( s ) : o . jenkins & b . evermann locality : gulf of california , mexico , pacific\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is widespread in the eastern pacific , and common throughout most of its range . there are no known major threats to this species , and the population is increasing in some parts of its range . it is listed as least concern .\nthis species is endemic to the eastern pacific , and is found from monterey , california to baja california , and in the gulf of california .\nthis species is considered to be moderately common in the gulf of california , with no indication of major population fluctuations , and is common on pacific coast of baja . in california , the population has increased over the past decade .\nthis benthopelagic species inhabits shallow inshore areas to 15 m depth . it is encountered frequently in schools .\nthere are no known conservation measures for this species . however , this species distribution falls partially into a number of marine protected areas in the eastern pacific region ( wdpa 2006 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nmarine ; benthopelagic ; depth range 0 - 8 m ( ref . 9310 ) . subtropical ; 37\u00b0n - 20\u00b0n , 123\u00b0w - 105\u00b0w\neastern central pacific : monterey bay in california , usa to gulf of california .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 45 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9310 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 11 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 10 - 11 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 10 ; vertebrae : 25 . this species is distinguished by the following characters : interorbital region scaleless ; mouth terminal ; teeth incisiform ; 5 - 9 vertical dark bands on body ; d xi , 10 - 11 rays ; a iii , 10 ; gill rakers 4 - 5 + 11 - 12 ; 49 - 55 lateral line scales , of which 45 - 49 have pores ; longitudinal row 43 - 49 scales ; cheek scales 5 - 6 ; postorbital scales 7 - 8 ; precaudal vertebrae 10 , caudal vertebrae 15 ; pterygiophores , 19 - 20 on dorsal , 11 on anal ( ref . 95491 ) .\ninhabit shallow inshore areas to 8 m depth ( ref . 9310 ) ; coastal rocky reefs and reef flats with algal growth ( ref . 95491 ) . exclusively herbivorous ( ref . 95491 ) . encountered frequently in schools near abudefduf troschelii . pelagic spawner ( ref . 56049 ) . also caught with harpoons ( ref . 9310 ) .\nknudsen , s . w . and k . d . clements , 2013 . revision of the fish family kyphosidae ( teleostei : perciformes ) . zootaxa 3751 ( 1 ) : 001 - 101 . ( ref . 95491 )\n) : 18 . 2 - 26 . 9 , mean 23 . 2 ( based on 114 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01622 ( 0 . 00788 - 0 . 03339 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 25 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 0 \u00b10 . 0 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 41 of 100 ) .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ninhabit shallow inshore areas to 8 m depth . encountered frequently in schools near abudefduf troschelii . pelagic spawner ( ref . 56049 ) . also caught with harpoons ( ref . 9310 ) .\n45 . 0 cm tl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9310 ) )\ndepth range based on 8 specimens in 1 taxon . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 2 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 2 - 12 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 20 . 794 - 22 . 443 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 3 . 645 - 5 . 631 salinity ( pps ) : 35 . 125 - 35 . 261 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 4 . 744 - 4 . 879 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 897 - 1 . 098 silicate ( umol / l ) : 7 . 763 - 12 . 886 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 2 - 12 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 20 . 794 - 22 . 443 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 3 . 645 - 5 . 631 salinity ( pps ) : 35 . 125 - 35 . 261 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 4 . 744 - 4 . 879 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 897 - 1 . 098 silicate ( umol / l ) : 7 . 763 - 12 . 886 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nbenthopelagic ; marine ; depth range ? - 8 m ( ref . 9310 )\ndepth : 0 - 8m . recorded at 8 meters . habitat : benthopelagic . inhabits shallow inshore areas to 8 m depth . encountered frequently in schools near @ abudefduf troschelii @ . also caught with harpoons ( ref . 9310 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 2 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nthis species is widespread in the eastern pacific , and common throughout most of its range . there are no known major threats to this species , and the population is increasing in some parts of its range . it is listed as least concern .\n. it is a shallow - water species , found in near - shore waters down to a depth of 8 metres ( 26 ft ) . this species forms schools and is usually found in association with the panamic sergeant major\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\noval , compressed ; dorsal rays xi , 9 ; anal rays iii , 10 ; scales in oblique series below lateral line about 55 ; jaw teeth fixed , not freely movable ; head scaleless ; tail forked .\nsides with about 8 greyish - brown bars with light grey spaces between them ; a blue spot on upper edge of gill cover and a black spot below pectoral - fin base ; ventral portion of head and body whitish .\ncalifornia ( monterey southwards ) to baja california , and gulf of california , particularly in the northern and central parts .\nattributes abundance : common . cites : not listed . climate zone : north temperate ( californian province & / or northern gulf of california ) ; northern subtropical ( cortez province + sinaloan gap ) ; northern tropical ( mexican province to nicaragua + revillagigedos ) . depth range max : 15 m . depth range min : 0 m . diet : benthic microalgae ; benthic macroalgae . eastern pacific range : northern limit = 33 ; southern limit = 21 ; western limit = - 118 ; eastern limit = - 106 ; latitudinal range = 12 ; longitudinal range = 12 . egg type : pelagic ; pelagic larva . feeding group : herbivore ; omnivore . fishbase habitat : bentho - pelagic . global endemism : tep non - endemic ; east pacific endemic ; all species . habitat : macroalgae ; reef associated ( reef + edges - water column & soft bottom ) ; rocks ; reef ( rock & / or coral ) ; reef only . inshore offshore : inshore ; inshore only . iucn red list : not evaluated / listed . length max : 45 cm . regional endemism : continent ; temperate eastern pacific , primarily ; california province , primarily ; continent only ; tropical eastern pacific ( tep ) non - endemic ; all species . residency : resident . salinity : marine ; marine only . water column position : bottom ; near bottom ; bottom + water column ;\nbreder , c . m . jr . , 1936 . , scientific results of the second oceanographic expedition of the\npawnee\n1926 . heterosomata to pediculati from panama to lower california . , bull . bingham oceanogr . collect . yale univ . , 2 ( 3 ) : 1 - 56 .\nde la cruz , j . , galvan , f . , abitia , l . a . , rodriguez , j . and gutierrez , f . j . , 1994 . , lista sistematica de los peces marinos de bahia magdalena , baja california sur ( mexico ) . systematic list of marine fishes from bahia magdalena , baja california sur ( mexico ) . , ciencias marinas , 20 : 17 - 31 .\neschmeyer , w . n . , herald , e . s . and hamman , h . , 1983 . , a field guide to pacific coast fishes of north america from the gulf of alaska to baja california . peterson field guide ser . 28 . , houghton mifflin : 336pp .\nfindley , l . t . , hendrickx , m . e . , brusca , r . c . , van der heiden , a . m . , hastings , p . a . , torre , j . , 2003 . , diversidad de la macrofauna marina del golfo de california , mexico . , cd - rom versi\u00f3n 1 . 0 . projecto de la macrofauna del golfo . derechos reservados de los autores y conservaci\u00f3n internacional .\nfischer , w . , krup , f . , schneider , w . , sommer , c . , carpenter , k . e . and niem , v . h . , 1995 . , guia fao para la identificacion de especies de para los fines de la pesca . pacifico centro - oriental . volumen ii . vertebrados - parte 1 . , fao2 : 647 - 1200 .\ngalv\u00e1n - maga\u00f1a , f . , guti\u00e9rrez - s\u00e1nchez , f . , abitia - c\u00e1rdenas , l . a . , rodr\u00edguez - romero , j . , 2000 . , the distribution and affinities of the shore fishes of the baja california sur lagoons . in aquatic ecosystems of mexico : status and scope . eds . m . manuwar , s . g . lawrence , i . f . manuwar & d . f . malley . ecovision world monograph series . , backhuys publishers : 383 - 398 .\njenkins , o . p . and evermann , b . w . , 1889 . , description of eighteen new species of fishes from the gulf of california . , proc . u . s . nat . mus . , 11 : 137 - 158 .\nlove , m . s . , mecklenburg , c . w . , mecklenburg , t . a . , thorsteinson , l . k . , 2005 . , es of the west coast and alaska : a checklist of north pacific and artic ocena species from baja california to the alaska - yukon border . , u . s . department of the interior , u . s . geological survey , biological resources division , 288pp .\nosburn , r . c . and nichols , j . t . , 1916 . , shore fishes collected by the ' albatross ' expedition in lower california with descriptions of new species . , bull . amer . mus . nat . hist . , 35 : 139 - 181 .\npondella ii , d . j . , 1997 . , the first occurrence of the panamic sergeant major , abudefduf troschelii ( pomacentridae ) , in california . , calif . fish & game , 83 : 84 - 86 .\npondella ii , d . j . , gintert , b . e . , cobb , j . r . , allen , l . g . , 2005 . , biogeography of the nearshore rocky - reef fishes at the southern and baja california islands . , journal of biogeography , 32 : 187 - 201 .\ns\u00e1nchez ort\u00edz , c . , arreola robles , j . l . , aburto oropeza , o . and cort\u00e9s hern\u00e1ndez , m . , 1997 . , peces de arrecife en la regi\u00f3n de la paz , b . c . s . . en urb\u00e1n ram\u00edrez , j . y m . ram\u00edrez rodr\u00edguez ( eds . ) . la bah\u00eda de la paz investigaci\u00f3n y conservaci\u00f3n . , universidad aut\u00f3noma de baja california sur : 189 - 200 .\nthomson , d . a . , findley , l . t . and kerstitch , a . n . , 2000 . , reef fishes of the sea of cortez . , university of texas press ( revised ed . ) : 353 .\nvillareal - cavazos , a . , reyes - bonilla , h . , berm\u00fadez - almada , b . and arizpe - covarrubias , o . , 2000 . , los peces del arrecife de cabo pulmo , golfo de california , m\u00e9xico : lista sistem\u00e1tica y aspectos de abundancia y biogeograf\u00eda . , rev . biol . trop . , 48 : 413 - 424 .\ni thank ashley macdonald and john pickering , university of georgia , for technical support in building this page .\n) : 18 . 2 - 26 . 9 , mean 23 . 2 ( based on 114 cells ) . phylogenetic diversity index ( ref .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01622 ( 0 . 00788 - 0 . 03339 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 25 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref .\n) : 2 . 0 \u00b10 . 0 se ; based on diet studies .\n) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\noccurrence describes how often the species is found on surveys within its distribution . it is calculated as the % of reef sites surveyed by rls divers across all the ecoregions in which the species has been observed\nabundance is calculated as the average number of individuals recorded per rls transect , where present .\nplease use this form only for a single type of error . if you see multiple errors on the page for this species , please report these in separate forms by clicking on this button again after submitting this form\nthank you for highlighting this error . we appreciate your assistance in maintaining high quality control standards\ncookies help us deliver our services . by using our services , you agree to our use of cookies .\nno translation memories found . consider more lenient search : click button to let glosbe search more freely ."]}
{"id": 173, "summary": [{"text": "the tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus ) is a species of carpet shark in the family ginglymostomatidae , and the only extant member of the genus nebrius .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is found widely along coastlines in the indo-pacific , preferring reefs , sandy flats , and seagrass beds from very shallow water to a depth of 70 m ( 230 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "with a cylindrical body and a broad , flattened head , the tawny nurse shark is quite similar in appearance to the nurse shark ( ginglymostoma cirratum ) of the atlantic and east pacific , from which it can be distinguished by its pointed-tipped dorsal fins and narrow , sickle-shaped pectoral fins .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the maximum recorded length of the tawny nurse shark is 3.2 m ( 10 ft ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "nocturnal in habits , the tawny nurse shark tends to spend the day resting in piles of two dozen or more individuals inside caves or under ledges .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "at night , it is an active-swimming predator that uses a powerful suction force to extract prey from inside holes and crevices .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the diet of this species consists mainly of octopus , though they also take other invertebrates , small bony fishes , and rarely sea snakes .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it is aplacental viviparous , meaning the embryos hatch from egg capsules inside the mother .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is the only carpet shark in which the embryos are oophagous , feeding on eggs produced by the mother while inside the uterus .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the litter size may be as small as one or two , based on the large size of near-term embryos .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "compared to the nurse shark , the tawny nurse shark has a more placid disposition and will often allow divers to touch and play with it .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "however , it should be accorded respect due to its powerful jaws and sharp teeth .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this species is caught by commercial fisheries across most of its range for meat , fins , liver oil , leather , and fishmeal .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it is also esteemed as a game fish off queensland , australia , and is known for its habit of spitting water in the faces of its captors .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has assessed the tawny nurse shark as vulnerable , with subpopulations in several areas already diminished or extirpated . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "tawny nurse shark", "paragraphs": ["australia : tawny shark , spitting shark , rusty shark , rusty catshark , sleepy shark , madame x .\nen - tawny nurse shark , fr - requin nourrice fauve , sp - gata nodriza atezada .\nsmall fish and invertebrates are among the prey items of the tawny nurse shark . photo \u00a9 klaus jost\nfao names : en \u2013 tawny nurse shark ; fr \u2013 requin nourrice fauve ; sp \u2013 gata nodriza atezada .\n' other\u2019 species are tawny nurse , blacktip reef , tiger , scalloped hammerhead and great hammerhead .\noverview of various pacific coral reef sharks , notably the blacktip reef shark , gray reef shark , and nurse shark .\nfive new species of pedibothrium ( tetraphyllidea : onchobothriidae ) from the tawny nurse shark , nebrius ferrugineus , in the pacific ocean .\ntawny nurse sharks are gray - brown to brown in color along the dorsal surface . photo \u00a9 doug perrine\nthere are 5 species of tapeworms documented in the spiral intestines of the tawny nurse shark taken from the waters off australia and french polynesia .\nthe tawny nurse shark is ovoviviparous , with females giving birth to up to eight live young that have hatched within the uterus ( 4 ) .\nfive new species of pedibothrium ( tetraphyllidea : onchobothriidae ) from the tawny nurse shark , nebrius ferrugineus , in the pacific ocean . - pubmed - ncbi\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus )\ntitle =\narkive species - tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe tawny nurse shark has a more calm disposition compared to other nurse sharks and adventurous scuba divers have been known to touch them . a few non - fatal attacks have been recorded . these occurred when they were being \u2018handled\u2019 by divers . due to their large size and strength , the tawny nurse shark should be regarded as potentially dangerous and treated with respect .\nthis nurse shark found in the indo - pacific region should not be confused with the nurse shark ( ginglymostoma cirratum ) of the atlantic and eastern pacific oceans . although at first glance these two species closely resemble each other , on closer inspection the tawny nurse shark can be easy distinguished by the pointed apices of its pectoral , dorsal , and anal fins as well as its narrowly falcate pectoral fins . the tawny nurse shark is also a more active swimming species than g . cirratum .\nwith their cylindrical body and broad , flattened head , the tawny nurse shark is quite similar in appearance to the nurse shark ( ginglymostoma cirratum ) but can be distinguished by its pointed - tipped dorsal fins and narrow , sickle - shaped pectoral fins .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - tawny nurse shark feeding on and investigating dead turtle\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - tawny nurse shark feeding on and investigating dead turtle\ntitle =\narkive video - tawny nurse shark feeding on and investigating dead turtle\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe movie opens with footage of zebra sharks , but moves on to show tawny shark behaviour and feeding .\nteshima , k . , m . toda , y . kamei , s . uchida and m . tamaki . 1999 . reproductive mode of the tawny nurse shark .\nparasites there are five species of tapeworms ( pedibothrium sp . ) documented from the spiral intestines of the tawny nurse shark taken from the waters off australia and french polynesia .\ngiven that tawny nurse shark pups are born at an average length of between 40 to 60cm , it was clear that these large females were pregnant by their distinctively bulging stomach . the tawny nurse shark is the only member of the carpet shark family which exhibits intrauterine cannibalism ; once the pups have used up their yolk supply , they will feed on other eggs within the uterus .\nthe biology of the nurse shark , ginglymostoma cirratum , off the florida east coast and the bahama islands .\npredators there are no species that regularly prey on nurse sharks . however some larger sharks are known to feed occasionally on nurse sharks found in the atlantic ocean . remains of nurse sharks have been found in lemon shark and tiger shark stomachs , and attacks on nurse sharks by bull sharks and great hammerhead sharks have been observed on this closely related species .\n\u2026the wobbegongs ; and ginglymostomatidae , the nurse sharks . one species of nurse shark , ginglymostoma cirratum , reaches a length of more than 4 metres ( 13 feet ) . \u2026\noften used as an attractive display animal in aquaria , the tawny nurse shark is a tough , hardy shark that easily adapts to captivity . it is kept at public aquaria facilities throughout europe , japan , singapore , and the united states .\nresponding to a related posting , [\ni believe that the name nurse shark comes from some place in the south pacific where they called it a plurse shark . the name was then slurred into nurse shark .\n] , i had the following thoughts .\nverification of multiple species of pedibothrium in the atlantic nurse shark with comments on the australasian members of the genus .\nthe tawny has a cylindrical body with a broad , flattened head , with a squarish snout and tiny eyes . they are quite similar in appearance to the nurse shark that is found in the atlantic and east pacific . the tawny nurse shark has a couple of features that distinguish them from other nurse sharks . the most obvious is their sickle shaped pectoral fins . the less apparent anatomical difference , unless a diver touches the shark , is their soft skin . their greek name \u2018nebrius\u2019 can be translated to \u2018skin of a fawn . \u2019\nwithin the first few days of surveying in chagos , our fish and benthic surveyors have had multiple encounters with large and often pregnant tawny nurse sharks ( nebrius ferrugineus ) .\na tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus ) lies in a small cave on a reef in raja ampat , indonesia . this beautiful region is known for its prolific marine life and world class scuba diving and snorkeling .\ninhabiting the waters above the continental shelves in most warm and temperate regions\u2014which is sometimes referred to as the gray nurse shark .\ntawny nurse sharks can reach a maximum length of 10 . 4 feet ( 320 cm ) . born at 15 . 7 up to 23 inches ( 40 - 60 cm ) .\ntawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus ) scientific name : nebrius ferrugineus , higher classification : nebrius , rank : species , kingdom : animalia , phylum : chordata , class : chondrichthyes , subclass : elasmobranchii , order : orectolobiformes , family : ginglymostomatidae , genus : nebrius , type : fish , * * the tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus ) is a species of carpet shark in the family ginglymostomatidae , and the only extant member of the genus nebrius . it is found widely along coastlines in the indo - pacific , preferring reefs , sandy flats , and seagrass beds from very shallow water to a depth of 70 m ( 230 ft ) . with a cylindrical body and a broad , flattened head , the tawny nurse shark is quite similar in appearance to the nurse shark ( ginglymostoma cirratum ) of the atlantic and east pacific , from which it can be distinguished by its pointed - tipped dorsal fins and narrow , sickle - shaped pectoral fins . the maximum recorded length of the tawny nurse shark is 3 . 2 m ( 10 ft ) . more info : urltoken\na tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus ) attracted to a dive light during a feeding session for tourism in the northern ari atoll of the republic of maldives . currently the republic of maldives has completely banned shark fishing in the country to conserve their population and maintain shark tourism which attracts a large number of tourists each year . it has been studied in several locations that a living shark could yield much larger revenue throughout their lifetime than a dead one at fish markets . currently tawny nurse shark is listed as vulnerable in the iucn red list of endangered species . photo : \u00a9 sirachai arunrugstichai\ntawny nurse sharks have few natural predators if humans are not included . if they are unfortunate , they may fall prey to other sharks such as bull sharks , great hammerheads and tiger sharks .\nthey have short small mouths with fan - shaped serrated teeth . the tawny nurse shark ' s name was presumably derived from its ability to suck up prey using a powerful sucking motion with its throat , just like a baby being nursed .\nthe mating season runs from late june to the end of july . nurse sharks are\nduring day lies motionless unless closely harassed . will bite if provoked . nurse sharks are opportunistic and become regular visitors to shark feeds .\ntawny nurse sharks are ovoviviparous ( aplacental viviparous ) . young feed inside the uterus on large infertile yolky eggs . litter size is uncertain , one to four , depending upon competition in the uterus .\nthis shark ' s narrow range and limited dispersion as well as low reproductive rates make it especially susceptible to the effects of overfishing . reef habitats and local food webs have been damaged from dynamiting and poisoning in portions of its range , further increasing the tawny nurse shark ' s vulnerability . there have been reports of local extinctions in waters around india and the gulf of thailand due to increased fisheries catch along with destruction of habitat . at this time , the tawny nurse shark is still abundant off of australia where fishing impact is much less .\nthis nurse shark is quite docile , allowing itself to be touched by divers , however there are a few non - fatal attacks on humans attributed to this species . due to its strong jaws and sharp cutting teeth , the tawny nurse shark should be regarded as potentially dangerous and treated with respect . it is a favorite species for observation by ecotourists in waters off thailand and the solomon islands .\nthe tawny nurse shark is widely distributed across the indian and west and central pacific oceans , ranging from the red sea , east africa and the arabian gulf to southern japan , south through indonesia to australia ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .\nit is worth noting in passing that the nurse shark of the central and western south pacific and indian oceans is not the familiar ginglymostoma cirratum of the atlantic and eastern pacific , but the tawny nurse shark , nebrius ferrugineus ( = n . concolor ) . although the nurse and tawny sharks superficially resemble one another , the latter is readily distinguished from the former by the pointed apices of its pectoral , dorsal , and anal fins , narrowly falcate pectoral fins , and laterally compressed teeth in the sides of the jaw . these differences have long been regarded as evidence that these orectoloboid sharks warrant different genera .\nsome aquariums have tried to exhibit much larger sharks , such as the white shark and whale shark .\na sickle - fin lemon shark takes a tuna head from a shark handler . photograph : tom vierus\nage of association between the nurse shark , ginglymostoma cirratum , and tapeworms of the genus pedibothrium ( tetraphyllidea : onehobothriidae ) : implications from geography .\na comparison of mode of attachment and histopathogenicity of four tapeworm species representing two orders infecting the spiral intestine of the nurse shark , ginglymostoma cirratum .\nthe common atlantic nurse shark is generally a light tan to dark brown colour . juveniles may be a dark gray with small black spots that are lost as the animal grows . nurse sharks possess two dorsal fins and an anal fin . in\nnurse sharks are able to respire while stationary by pumping water through their mouths and out gills .\npossibly , some bygone observer watched a shark giving birth to live young and thought the shark was giving nurse . possibly the use of the word sprang from the old notion that a shark would protect its young by taking them into its mouth .\nneed a unique gift idea ? consider an annual whale shark adoption to help fund our whale shark study .\nthe international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) is a global union of states , governmental agencies and non - governmental organisations in a partnership that assesses the conservation status of species . the tawny nurse shark is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list .\nthe tawny nurse shark is heavily fished commercially . the meat is used as fishmeal , its liver is rendered for oil and vitamins , and fins are sought for the oriental sharkfin trade . their skin is thick and \u2018hide - like\u2019 , and is used for the manufacture of purses .\na new species of pedibothrium ( cestoidea : tetraphyllidea ) from the short - tail nurse shark , pseudoginglymostoma brevicaudatum ( elasmobranchii : orectilobiformes ) from southwest madagascar .\nfishes ( including surgeonfishes and siganids ) . while foraging the tawny shark moves along the bottom and explores depressions , holes and crevices in reefs . when it detects prey it places its small\nrecords of these sharks biting their tormentors , and clamping tightly onto them . because of its size and strength , the tawny shark should be regarded as potentially dangerous and treated with respect .\na blacktip reef shark cruises over the reef at the shark reef marine reserve , fiji . photograph : tom vierus\nlockenloia sanguinis n . gen . , n . sp . ( nematoda : dracunculoidea ) from the heart of a nurse shark , ginglymostoma cirratum , in florida .\nnurse sharks are sometimes preyed upon by other sharks , such as tiger ( galeocerdo cuvier ) and lemon sharks ( negaprion ) . most nurse shark species are not well studied , but ecologists suspect that human activity has caused the populations of some nurse sharks to shrink . for example , populations of tawny nurse sharks ( n . ferrugineus , which often rest in caves and under reef escarpments ) near thailand are thought to have decreased as a direct result of blast fishing and through pestering by divers , whereas shorttail nurse sharks ( p . brevicaudatum , which inhabit the western indian ocean ) are declining because of a combination of habitat destruction , fishing , and capture as bycatch ( being accidentally caught by anglers ) .\nthe tawny nurse shark is a large shark with a broad flattened head , snout rounded or truncated . mouth in front of eyes with long nasoral grooves . nostrils with barbels . small spiracles behind eyes . small gill slits , two spinless dorsal fins . precaudal tail much shorter than head and body . unpatterned , juveniles will have a few dark spots .\nthis is a continental and insular shelf species restricted to a narrow band of shallow water from intertidal waters to depths of up to 70 m ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the tawny nurse shark lives on or near the bottom in lagoons , or close to coral and rocky reefs ( 2 ) . like other nurse sharks , this species uses crevices and caves for shelter ( 5 ) .\nadults and juveniles feed on a wide diversity of benthic marine invertebrates including cephalopods , crustaceans , and sea urchins . the tawny nurse shark also feeds on small fishes including surgeonfish , queenfish and rabbitfish , as well as occasionally sea snakes . during its search for prey , this nurse shark swims along the bottom and explores holes and crevices along reefs . upon detection of prey , it uses suction to draw out - of - reach prey items into its mouth with great force .\nthe nurse shark has two rounded dorsal fins , rounded pectoral fins , an elongated caudal fin , and a broad head . nurse sharks are brownish . adults can grow up to 4 . 3 m ( 14 ft ) and weigh up to 330 kg ( 730 lb ) .\nnurse sharks range in length from about 75 centimeters for the short tail nurse shark to 4 meters in length for the other types of nurse sharks . the average weight of a 240 centimeter long nurse shark is 330 pounds . they are generally dark in color or have dark scattered spots along their bodies . they have broad heads , no grooves around the outer edge of their nostrils , and relatively fat or stout bodies and tails . their anal fins are slightly behind their second dorsal fins and just in front of their caudal fins . anal fins are absent in some families of sharks .\nteshima , k . , y . kamei , m . toda and s . uchida . 1995 . reproductive mode of the tawny nurse shark taken from the yaeyama islands . okinawa . japan with comments on individuals lacking the second dorsal fin . bull . seikai nat . fish . res . inst . , ( 73 ) : 1\u201312 .\nthe most remarkable feature of the tawny nurse shark is probably its curious ability to change colour between grey and sandy brown depending on the colour of its surroundings ( 3 ) . the tawny nurse shark is uniformly grey to tan - brown on its upper surfaces , paling slightly on the belly ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . juveniles can be distinguished from adults by the presence of small dark spots on the skin ( 4 ) . this large shark has a broad , flattened head with a squarish snout and tiny eyes ( 3 ) . there are two angular dorsal fins close to the tail , the pectoral fins curve backwards , and the long , narrow tail has a large upper lobe and almost no distinct lower lobe ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .\ngrillotia similis ( linton , 1908 ) comb . n . ( cestoda : trypanorhyncha ) from nurse sharks in the florida keys .\nnurse sharks prefer to dwell near the sea floor in the warm , shallow waters of the western atlantic and eastern pacific oceans .\nhowever , since nurse sharks attain lengths in excess of ten feet they are far too large to be kept in home aquaria .\nthe tawny nurse shark was first described as scyllium ferrugineum by lesson ( 1831 ) . however this name was later changed to the currently valid scientific name of nebrius ferrugineus ( lesson 1831 ) . synonyms include ginglymostoma concolor r\u00fcppell 1837 , ginglymostoma ferruginea lesson 1831 , ginglymostoma ferrugineum lesson 1831 , ginglymostoma muelleri g\u00fcnther 1870 , ginglymostoma rueppellii bleeker 1852 , nebrius concolor r\u00fcppell 1837 , nebrius doldi smith 1953 , nebrius macrurus garman 1913 ) , nebrodes concolor ogilbyi whitley 1934 , nebrodes macrurus garman 1913 , and scymnus porosu s ehrenberg 1871 . the genus name nebrius originates from the greek\nnebris , - idos\n, meaning skin of a fawn . the species name , ferrugineus , is derived from latin , referring to the brown coloration of this shark . the tawny nurse shark is a member of the family ginglymostomtidae .\nhe fijian shark culture and mythology is one which deeply appeals to me . the shark is revered by many fijians , and legend has it that\ntawny nurse sharks are quite commonly encountered by divers . you may see them lying on a sandy floor or huddled together in their favourite cave or crevice during the day , or witness them hunting on a night dive . nurse sharks are easily recognised by their elongated caudal fin ( tail ) and barbels ( thin , fleshy , whisker - like organs on the lower jaw in front of the nostrils that sense taste and touch ) .\nour improved understanding of shark behavior has led to scientists abandoning the term \u201cshark attack\u201d altogether , replacing it with \u201chuman - shark interactions , \u201d or \u201cshark bites . \u201d it is important to realize that shark bites are extremely rare . you are 75 times more likely to be struck by lightning and 33 times more likely to be bitten by a dog than you are to be killed by a shark . but before you go swimming , you still need to know how to behave if you see a shark .\nenglish language common names are tawny nurse shark , giant sleepy shark , madame x , nurse shark , rusty catshark , rusty shark , sleepy shark , spitting shark , and tawny shark . other common names include aarau ( kumak ) , bagea ( ro ) rodo ( gela ) , b\u00e1koa ( kirabati ) , brun nursehaj ( danish ) , chlarm ( khmer ) , cucut buta ( malay ) , endormi ( french ) , gata nodriza atezada ( spanish ) , geelbruine verpleegsterhaai ( dutch ) , hiu bisu ( jawa ) , hiu gedebong ( bali ) , hiu gedok ( bali ) , ma ' o rohoi ( tahitian ) , moemoeao ( samoan ) , moron ( malayam ) , nadammiyaru ( malayam ) , nek aarau ( kumak ) , nidammiyaru ( mahl ) , paab ( carolinian ) , pating ( tagalong ) , requin dormeur ( french ) , requin nourrice ( french ) , requin nourrice fauve ( french ) , requin - dormeur fauve ( french ) , reuse - vaakhaai ( afrikaans ) , rohoi ( tahitian ) , sunera ( marathi ) , and tubar\u00e3o - de - leite tostado ( portuguese ) .\nnurse sharks live in warm waters . they range from the eastern pacific ocean , eastern and western atlantic ocean to the indian ocean .\nthe teeth of nurse sharks are always sharp and effective because new rows of teeth develop constantly to replace older , worn down teeth .\nthe scientific name for the nurse shark sounds like something bilbo baggins might have said to summon elves to his rescue : ginglymostoma cirratum . actually the name is a mix of greek and latin and means\ncurled , hinged mouth\nto describe this shark ' s somewhat puckered appearance .\nsize , age , and growth the maximum reported size of the tawny nurse shark is 10 . 5 feet ( 320 cm ) total length ( tl ) . the sex of this specimen caught in indonesian waters is unspecified . maturity is reached by males at lengths of approximately 7 . 4 feet ( 225 cm ) tl and by females around 7 . 6 feet ( 230 cm ) tl .\nnurse sharks are commonly caught in small - scale local fisheries in some parts of its range , and are incidentally captured in many coastal fisheries ( 1 ) ( 2 ) . its tough , thick hide makes good leather , the flesh is consumed by humans and used for fishmeal , and oil is extracted from the liver ( 2 ) . the nurse shark is also captured for the aquarium trade , and is occasionally the target of spear fishermen ( 1 ) . as the nurse shark grows slowly and matures late , this exploitation can cause populations to decline rapidly and recover slowly ( 6 ) . the threat of overexploitation is compounded by the impact of humans on the coastal and reef habitats of the nurse shark ( 1 ) ( 6 ) . coral reefs are a particularly vulnerable habitat , being impacted by pollution , sedimentation , global climate change and disturbance from tourism ( 1 ) . extreme population reductions have already been recorded in the southern western atlantic , and it is possible that the nurse shark is declining , unnoticed , in other areas where there is a lack of data ( 1 ) . for this reason , the world conservation union ( iucn ) has classified the nurse shark as data deficient ( 1 ) .\nthere are now more than 10 , 000 shark pictures and sections on shark evolution , biology , and conservation . there is a large library of reviewed shark books , a constantly updated shark taxonomy page , a monster list of shark links , and deeper in the site there are numerous articles and stories about shark encounters . elasmodiver is now so difficult to check for updates , that new information and pictures are listed on an elasmodiver updates page that can be accessed here :\non one occasion , a large individual swam directly over our fish transect line , giving us a good estimate of the length which was close to 3m ( the maximum recorded length of the tawny nurse shark is 3 . 2 m ) . several of these large females have been observed swimming with the company of a single juvenile ( ~ 1 m ) which may be a year old pup of hers .\n. nurse sharks can reach a length of 4 . 3 m ( 14 ft ) and a weight of 330 kg ( 730 lb ) .\ntawny nurse sharks are found on sandy flats , rocky and coral reefs , seagrass beds , bottom substrate in lagoons and in the surf zone . they have been known to be in depths that range from intertidal water that barely covers their body , up to 70m . however , they are most frequently found between 5 - 30m .\nanother tactic used by this species is brute force . a 3m tawny nurse shark was filmed extracting a speared fish from under a coral head by wedging its body under the bommie and lifting its head and body to raise the entire coral structure ! the shark continued this behaviour until it was able to get close enough to suck the fish from the coral head . the bommie was estimated to weigh in excess of 450 kilogrammes ! dive the world obviously does not condone the tactics used by the film maker , however it does illustrate the strength and tenacity of this shark .\npartial response plot for generalised linear models of log - transformed total shark abundance ( a - c ) and grey reef shark abundance ( d - f ) .\n, the ancient shark god , provides protection for the people when at sea .\nwhysharksmatter talks about sharks and shark week on dr . kiki ' s science hour\non the shark dive you will be able to experience the breathtaking sight of up to eight species of sharks : blacktip reef sharks , whitetip reef sharks , grey reef sharks , silvertip sharks , tawny nurse sharks , sicklefin lemon sharks , bull sharks and the occasional tiger shark . in addition , you can also encounter giant groupers , maori wrasse , rainbow runners , giant trevally , java morays , eagle rays and more than 400 species of tropical reef fish , as documented by our 2010 census .\nthe origin of the name\nnurse shark\nis unclear . it may come from the sucking sound they make when hunting for prey in the sand , which vaguely resembles that of a nursing baby . or it may derive from an archaic word , nusse , meaning cat shark . the most likely theory though is that the name comes from the old english word for sea - floor shark : hurse .\nnurse sharks are frequently encountered by divers , and most encounters are without incident . since nurse sharks are slower - moving fishes and are relatively tolerant of human beings , recreational divers seeking the thrill of a ride may grab them by the tail or by the dorsal fin . such encounters often end with a shark bite . once the bite is established , nurse sharks are reluctant to let go , and many small sharks either have been killed to remove them from the human victim or have been \u201cworn\u201d to a hospital for removal and treatment . bites can be severe because of the crushing power of their strong jaws . most attacks attributed to nurse sharks are provoked by humans , according to the international shark attack file maintained by the florida museum of natural history at the university of florida .\ndiving with sharks , often in combination with food baiting / provisioning , has become an important product of today\u2019s recreational dive industry . whereas the effects baiting / provisioning has on the behaviour and abundance of individual shark species are starting to become known , there is an almost complete lack of equivalent data from multi - species shark diving sites . in this study , changes in species composition and relative abundances were determined at the shark reef marine reserve , a multi - species shark feeding site in fiji . using direct observation sampling methods , eight species of sharks ( bull shark carcharhinus leucas , grey reef shark carcharhinus amblyrhynchos , whitetip reef shark triaenodon obesus , blacktip reef shark carcharhinus melanopterus , tawny nurse shark nebrius ferrugineus , silvertip shark carcharhinus albimarginatus , sicklefin lemon shark negaprion acutidens , and tiger shark galeocerdo cuvier ) displayed inter - annual site fidelity between 2003 and 2012 . encounter rates and / or relative abundances of some species changed over time , overall resulting in more individuals ( mostly c . leucas ) of fewer species being encountered on average on shark feeding dives at the end of the study period . differences in shark community composition between the years 2004\u20132006 and 2007\u20132012 were evident , mostly because n . ferrugineus , c . albimarginatus and n . acutidens were much more abundant in 2004\u20132006 and very rare in the period of 2007\u20132012 . two explanations are offered for the observed changes in relative abundances over time , namely inter - specific interactions and operator - specific feeding protocols . both , possibly in combination , are suggested to be important determinants of species composition and encounter rates , and relative abundances at this shark provisioning site in fiji . this study , which includes the most species from a spatially confined shark provisioning site to date , suggests that long - term provisioning may result in competitive exclusion among shark species .\nnurse sharks live off of sandy beaches , mud and sand flats , and from the intertidal zone on coral and rocky reefs to depths of 70 meters .\nfurther information on gymnorhynchus isuri ( trypanorhyncha : gymnorhynchidae ) from the shortfin mako shark .\nreefquest centre for shark research text and illustrations \u00a9 r . aidan martin copyright | privacy\n) . the term ' nusse ' or ' nurse ' was later extended to describe any large fish , especially a shark . although the spanish and dutch had been poking about the south pacific since about 1520 and 1642 , respectively , the english didn ' t begin exploring this region in earnest until 1768 , with the first voyage of captain james cook . therefore , english use of the term ' nurse ' to refer to a shark predates earliest british contact with south pacific islanders .\ni would suggest that the etymology of the term ' nurse shark ' is pretty much as traced by lineaweaver and backus ( 1970 ) \u2014 see my post of 1 / 24 / 98 for a discussion . use in english of the name ' nuse ' or ' nurse - fish ' dates back to the 1550 ' s , when it was apparently used for what we now know as the spiny dogfish (\nthey are hardy and thrive in captivity which unfortunately sees them kept in aquariums across the globe , where they are often handfed . they can be feisty when on the end of a fishing line and have been known to \u2018spit\u2019 water in the faces of their hunters . tawny nurse sharks are one of the few species of shark to produce sound . when threatened , and out of their natural aquatic environment , they make grunting sounds between \u2018spitting\u2019 streams of water .\nreproduction the tawny nurse shark has an aplacental viviparous ( ovoviviparous ) mode of reproduction . there is no embryonic nourishment from the placental structure within the mother ' s uterus ; the embryos feed off yolk contained within the egg case in which it grows . it appears that the tawny nurse shark practices oophagy on relatively large , cased nutritive eggs and is the first orectoloboid known to have uterine cannibalism . however , it is unknown if the fetuses of this species eat on other fetuses ( adelphophagy ) . in captivity , females lay cased eggs on the bottom substrate but these do not develop and may be nutritive and unfertilized . due to the confusion caused by the appearance of free eggs , this species was at one time considered to be oviparous . this species gives birth to litters of up to 8 pups , each measuring approximately 15 . 8 - 23 . 6 inches ( 40 - 60 cm ) in length at birth .\nreproductive modes of elsmobranchs . shark news 9 : 1 - 3 ( june 1997 ) .\norders out of chaos - molecular phylogenetics reveals the complexity of shark and stingray tapeworm relationships .\nwhale shark ( rhincodon typus ) biology and ecology : a review of the primary literature .\nnurse sharks have been observed resting on the bottom with their bodies supported on their fins , possibly providing a false shelter for crustaceans which they then ambush and eat .\nwhale sharks are not the only sharks you can expect to see around exmouth . reef sharks , mainly white tip reef sharks , are regular sightings at many dive sites , particularly on the navy pier . last summer there were over 20 whitetip sharks at the site , with up to 10 all reposing on the sand in one small area . quiet approach and observation allows divers to get within metres of these sharks ; often the first and closest underwater encounter with sharks for many of our divers . other sharks we have recorded seeing include grey nurse , tawny nurse , grey shark , oceanic white tip , bronze whaler and cat sharks .\nfor any shark diver , the species which are regular visitors to the reef come close to nirvana . to get an idea of how diverse the area is , of shark and man , a recent film by david diley , not only tells the story of the srmr but is a stunning showcase of the reef\u2019s most regular visitors , including white - tip reefs , black - tip reefs , grey reefs , tawny nurse , sickle - fin lemons , silver - tip reefs , tigers , and \u2013 the species most consider to be the main attraction \u2013 bull sharks .\nlittle has been documented about the life of young tawny nurse sharks . large females have been observed in the chagos archipelago ( about 500 km south of the maldives ) in the company of a single juvenile ( less than 1m long ) which may be a year old pup of hers . juveniles are known to rest on their pectoral fins , which are rolled under their bodies . it is thought that the space under the bodies of these predators may be mistaken for a home by a shelter - seeking fish or shrimp , unfortunately for the poor unsuspecting individual they become the tawny ' s next meal .\ntawny nurse sharks have barbels , powerful jaws and sharp comb - like teeth that overlap . they have approximately 30 rows of teeth in their upper jaw and 27 rows in their lower jaw . they range in colour from yellowish , reddish , to greyish brown on top , and off - white on their belly . there are no ridges present on the body . their caudal fin ( tail like ) is moderately long , measuring over a \u00bc of the total length of the shark .\na common description of the origin of the name nurse shark suggests that the sound they make when feeding at the surface resembles a nursing animal . however , the name is likely derived from the word nusse , a middle english form of the word nurse . nusse may have originated from the slurring of the middle english word huss , which was itself used in the 1500s to describe cat sharks or other large fish that were probably sharks .\nfor these reasons , responding to shark bites ( fatal or non - fatal ) by wishing all sharks dead , spreading panic or actually hunting down and killing sharks is irresponsible and unwise . instead , we should think like achmat hassiem , a south african shark attack survivor and adorned paralympian . he became a shark conservationist after his right leg was bitten off by a great white shark .\nnurse sharks eat a variety of foods . their diet includes small fishes , shrimps , octopus , sea snails , crabs , lobsters , squid , sea urchin , and corals .\noccurring along continental and insular shelves , the tawny nurse shark resides at depths ranging from the intertidal to depths of at least 230 feet ( 70 m ) but more commonly from 16 - 98 feet ( 5 - 30 m ) . it is observed on or near the bottom substrate in lagoons , sandy areas in close proximity to reefs , off sandy beaches , and along the outer edges of coral and rocky reefs . although this species is primarily nocturnal , it is sometimes active during daylight hours . it often hides in caves and crevices as well as in more exposed areas , this nurse shark has even been observed piled across or on top of each other in aggregations . it has a limited home range , returning to the same area every day after foraging for prey items .\nthe nurse shark inhabits inshore tropical and subtropical waters , where it is found at depths of less than one meter down to 130 metres ( 2 ) . it is frequently found on rocky and coral reefs , and in channels between mangroves keys and sand flats ( 2 ) .\nmean depth of observation differed between species , with five species ( tawny nurse , tiger , white tip reef , black tip reef and grey reef ) observed predominantly on shallow sites ( < 40 m ) and three species ( silvertip , scalloped and great hammerheads ) observed mainly on deeper sites . 95 % confidence intervals for the mean depths indicate that the two groups occupied significantly different depth ranges ( fig 4 ) .\nin the present study , we evaluate data from the shark reef marine reserve , a multi - species shark feeding site in fiji [ 16 ] , [ 17 ] . up to eight different species of sharks can be encountered at shark reef , namely bull sharks carcharhinus leucas , whitetip reef sharks triaenodon obesus , blacktip reef sharks carcharhinus melanopterus , tawny nurse sharks nebrius ferrugineus , silvertip sharks carcharhinus albimarginatus , sicklefin lemon sharks negaprion acutidens , c . amblyrhynchos and g . cuvier . since 2003 , parts of shark reef have been declared as a no - take zone that is visited 3 to 4 times per week by a single dive operator [ 17 ] . previous research from this site has shown that the number of c . leucas , the numerically dominant species at the shark reef marine reserve , increased over the years , but decreased over the course of a calendar year [ 9 ] , [ 16 ] . in 2006 , a competitor dive operator started to conduct shark feeding dives on the neighbouring lake reef ( fig . 1a ) , mostly on the same days and times when dives on shark reef take place .\nthe whale shark , rhincodon typus , is a livebearer : 300 embryos found in one \u2018megamamma\u2019 supreme .\nit wouldn\u2019t have occurred to me that the lack of females featured in shark week was an issue until i started a non - profit to fund shark research . at events , i met young girls that were being told by other kids that , \u201conly boys like sharks\u201d and being discouraged from following their passion . i realized that if your only experience with shark research / conservation is shark week \u2013 like it is for most kids \u2013 you may believe that shark science is a career only for men . the reality is , shark science is comprised of many women who live every week like it\u2019s shark week . i wanted to find a way to connect the two groups , and so the gills club was born !\nthe nurse shark is included as a vulnerable species in the official list of endangered animals in brazil , fisheries are managed within united states ' waters , and the colombian government is considering a ban on the nurse shark fishery along with an extensive habitat protection campaign ( 1 ) . however , in regions outside of the western atlantic , the lack of data makes it difficult to assess the status of populations , and subsequently to implement appropriate conservation measures . measures recommended include the regulation of spear - fishing and the marine ornamental fish trade , compulsory release of incidentally caught sharks , and the establishment of no - fishing areas encompassing mating and breeding grounds ( 1 ) . countries should be motivated to take action to prevent over - fishing of the nurse shark as it is likely to be far more valuable alive for dive - tourism than as fisheries products ( 6 ) .\nnocturnal by nature , the tawny nurse shark is most commonly seen during the day resting in caves or under ledges . by night , these predators use their large pharynx as a powerful suction pump to rapidly suck in reef organisms from inside holes and crevices . food of this shark includes corals , crabs , lobsters and other crustaceans , sea urchins , and reef fish including surgeonfish ( acanthuridae ) , queenfish ( carangidae ) and rabbitfish ( siganidas ) . these sharks may be one of the few animals that specializes in preying upon octopus , which may explain the timid nature of the abundant octopus we have observed hiding in reef crevices .\nsince the 1950s lemon sharks and the common atlantic nurse shark have been used in experiments to test the ability of sharks to learn . experiments performed in the 1960s showed that nurse sharks could be trained to respond to a sound signal from a bell and could remember the training after a several - month break between training sessions . other experiments conducted by the u . s . navy showed that they could be trained to retrieve a ring thrown into a pool by a trainer .\n' plurse ' sounds rather like an example of the pidgin english widely spoken throughout much of melanesia , suggesting the possibility that it was the south pacific islanders who slurred the english word ' nurse ' and that ipso facto the english term for the shark in question predates the south pacific one .\nthe geographical range of the tawny nurse shark ranges includes waters off of south africa , mozambique , mauritius , seychelles , chagos archipelago and madagascar to red sea , maldives , persian gulf , india , malaysia , indonesia , singapore , thailand , viet nam , china , taiwan ( province of china ) , japan ( ryukyu islands , southern honshu ) , philippines ( luzon ) , papua new guinea , australia ( western australia , northern territory , and queensland ) , new caledonia , new ireland , samoa , palau , marshall islands , and tahiti .\na new genus and species of tetraphyllidean cestode from the spadenose shark , scoliodon laticaudus , in malaysian borneo .\nattachment site specificity and the tapeworm assemblage in the spiral intestine of the blue shark ( prionace glauca ) .\nyour last resort if you actually get bitten would be to defend yourself by punching or kicking at the shark\u2019s nose or clawing at its eyes and gills , then exiting the water as soon as the shark retreats .\nwith all of the improvements promised for 2015\u2019s shark week , i do hope that rich ross plays close attention to this blog and that 2016 will feature the much more diverse and exciting reality of modern shark science .\nthe tawny nurse shark resides in inshore waters that are heavily fished and is often captured in demersal trawls , gill nets , and baited hook and line throughout much of its range outside of australia . in australian waters , this species is taken in small numbers as bycatch in gillnets and meshing . off queensland , australia it is fished recreationally as a big game fish and are prized as powerful fighters . the flesh is marketed as fresh or dried salted for human consumption while the fins are shipped to the asian shark fin market . its liver may also be utilized for vitamins and oil , the offal processed into fishmeal , and the thick hide used for leather .\nthis has been described as a much more docile species than its close relative , ginglymostoma cirratum , and apparently usually allows humans to touch and play with it without biting . however , there are a few non - fatal attack records of these sharks biting their tormentors , and clamping tightly onto them . because of its size and strength , the tawny shark should be regarded as potentially dangerous and treated with respect . this is a tough , hardy shark that readily survives in captivity .\nthey are thought to take advantage of dormant fish which would otherwise be too fast for the sharks to catch ; although their small mouths limit the size of prey items , the sharks have large throat cavities which are used as a sort of bellows valve . in this way nurse sharks are able to suck in their prey with a short , violent influx of water . nurse sharks are also known to consume\nmaximization of evolutionary trends for placental viviparity in the spadenose shark , scoliodon laticaudus . env . biol . fish .\na new species of calliobothrium ( tetraphyllidea : onchobothriidae ) from the whiskery shark , furgaleus macki , in australia .\neffects of large - scale anthropogenic development on juvenile lemon shark ( negaprion brevirostris ) populations of bimini , bahamas .\nnamed the best shark dive in the world by diving legends ron and valerie taylor , the fiji shark dive has been experienced by countless diving icons , professional photographers and cameramen , industry professionals and clients alike . this is the original and unmatched product featuring fiji\u2019s unique and highly experienced crew of shark divers \u2013 much copied but never equalled !\nin order to determine changes in species composition and relative abundances at the shark reef marine reserve , we asked the following questions : 1 ) did species composition and / or encounter rates change over time at the shark reef marine reserve ? 2 ) are there seasonal and / or long - term changes in relative abundance of the different shark species at the feeding site ? 3 ) does the presence of a competitor operator conducting shark feeds at a nearby reef have an effect on shark abundance at the shark reef feeding site ? in answering these questions , our results provide baseline data on the long - term trends in relative abundance and seasonal cycles , and help elucidate whether the numbers of the eight species of sharks visiting the shark reef marine reserve changed over the years . additionally , our data provide important fisheries - independent information on shark populations that can supplement long - term monitoring and serve for conservation purposes .\nvery little is known about most shark mating rituals , and the same holds true for the nurse shark . the atlantic nurse shark has been observed mating on the ocean floor . in general , the male inseminates the female with his claspers ( these are located between the male ' s pelvic fins ) . during mating he turns his claspers foward and inserts one into the female and transfers his sperm . nurse sharks can be either oviparous or ovoviparous . in oviparous organisms the eggs develop and hatch on the outside of the body . the pups , as baby sharks are called , hatch out of a leathery protective covering with the yolk attached and stay on the ocean floor until they fully mature . in ovoviparous creatures the eggs develop on the inside of the body and hatch within or immediately after extrusion by the parent . the yolk of these pups are hatched inside the uterus before the pups are developed , and they too have leathery eggs . these sharks have from 20 - 30 pups at a time . nurse sharks grow about 13 centimeters in length and 2 - 3 kilograms a year . they do not reach sexually maturity until they are from 15 to 20 years old .\nto help divers find the best places to encounter the different species of sharks and rays that live in shallow water but it has slowly evolved into a much larger project containing information on all aspects of shark diving and shark photography .\nthe tawny shark embryos are oophagous , unique among carpet sharks , meaning that while they are still inside the mother\u2019s uterus they feed on eggs produced by the ovary . generally 1 to 4 pups are born ( however up to 8 live young have been recorded ) and each measures about 40 cm . juveniles can be distinguished from adults by the presence of small dark spots on their skin ."]}
{"id": 196, "summary": [{"text": "kootenichela deppi is an extinct arthropod described from the middle cambrian of the kootenay national park , canada .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it belongs to the \" great appendage arthropods \" .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "kootenichela appears to be the sister taxon of worthenella , from cladistic analysis .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the species name deppi comes from the actor johnny depp , after his role as edward scissorhands in the film of the same name .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "david legg , the discoverer of kootenichela , said : \" when i first saw the pair of isolated claws in the fossil records of this species i could not help but think of edward scissorhands .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "even the genus name , kootenichela , includes the reference to this film as ' chela ' is latin for claws or scissors .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "in truth , i am also a bit of a depp fan and so what better way to honour the man than to immortalise him as an ancient creature that once roamed the sea ? \" kootenichela appears to be a primitive arthropod .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it has an elongated body composed of at least 29 segments of similar shape and appearance .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "on the head , there are large eyes supported by stalks and an appendage resembling an antenna .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the appendages bound to the trunk are poorly sclerotised .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "it was approximately 4 centimetres ( 1.6 in ) long .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "most prominent are the claw-like , spinose cephalic appendages , which seem to suggest affinities with the \" great appendage \" arthropods . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "kootenichela", "paragraphs": ["this 505 - million - year old extinct arthropod was named kootenichela deppi for actor johnny depp .\nthe 505 - million - year - old fossil , named kootenichela deppi , is a distant ancestor of lobsters and scorpions .\nthe latest species to be named after hollywood royalty is a 505 - million - year old extinct arthropod now called kootenichela deppi for actor johnny depp .\nthe 505 million - year - old ' kootenichela deppi ' - a nod to lead actor johnny depp - is an ancestor of lobsters and scorpions .\n\u201cjust imagine it : the prawns covered in mayonnaise in your sandwich , the spider climbing up your wall and even the fly that has been banging into your window and annoyingly flying into your face are all descendants of kootenichela deppi . current estimates indicate that there are more than one million known insects and potentially 10 million more yet to be categorized , which potentially means that kootenichela deppi has a huge family tree , \u201d dr legg said .\ndr legg believes that kootenichela deppi would have been a hunter or scavenger . its large edward scissorhands - like claws with their elongated spines may have been used to capture prey , or they could have helped it to probe the sea floor looking for sea creatures hiding in sediment .\n\u201cwhen i first saw the pair of isolated claws in the fossil records of this species i could not help but think of edward scissorhands . even the genus name , kootenichela , includes the reference to this film as \u2018 chela \u2019 is latin for claws or scissors . in truth , i am also a bit of a depp fan and so what better way to honour the man than to immortalize him as an ancient creature that once roamed the sea ? \u201d explained dr legg , who has described kootenichela deppi in a paper published in the journal of paleontology .\nkootenichela deppi belongs to a group known as the \u2018great - appendage\u2019 arthropods , or megacheirans , which refers to the enlarged pincer - like frontal claws that they share . the \u2018great - appendage\u2019 arthropods are an early relation of arthropods , which includes spiders , scorpions , centipedes , millipedes , insects and crabs .\neven the genus name , kootenichela , includes the reference to this film as \u2018chela\u2019 is latin for claws or scissors . in truth , i am also a bit of a depp fan and so what better way to honour the man than to immortalise him as an ancient creature that once roamed the sea ? \u201d\neven the genus name , kootenichela , includes the reference to this film , as ' chela ' is latin for claws or scissors ,\nlegg added .\nin truth , i am also a bit of a depp fan and so what better way to honour the man than to immortalise him as an ancient creature that once roamed the sea ?\nkootenichela deppi lived in very shallow seas , similar to modern coastal environments , off the cost of british columbia in canada , which was situated much closer to the equator 500 million years ago . the sea temperature would have been much hotter than it is today and although coral reefs had not yet been established , the creature would have lived in a similar environment consisting of sponges .\nkootenichela deppi was about 1 . 5 inches ( 4 cm ) long with an elongated trunk for a body and millipede - like legs , which it used to scuttle along the sea floor with the occasional short swim . it also had large eyes composed of many lenses like the compound eyes of a fly . they were positioned on top of movable stalks called peduncles to help it more easily search for food and look out for predators .\n\u201cwhen i first saw the pair of isolated claws in the fossil records of this species i could not help but think of edward scissorhands . even the genus name , kootenichela , includes the reference to this film as \u2018chela\u2019 is latin for claws or scissors . in truth , i am also a bit of a depp fan and so what better way to honour the man than to immortalise him as an ancient creature that once roamed the sea ? \u201d\na scientist has discovered an ancient extinct creature with scissor hand - like claws in fossil records and named it in honour of a movie star .\nthe 505 million year old fossil called kooteninchela deppi ( pronounced koo - ten - ee - che - la depp - eye ) , which is a distant ancestor of lobsters and scorpions , was named after the actor johnny depp for his starring role as edward scissorhands - a movie about an artificial man named edward , an unfinished creation , who has scissors for hands .\nkooteninchela deppi is helping researchers to piece together more information about life on earth during the cambrian period when nearly all modern animal types emerged .\nkooteninchela deppi lived in very shallow seas , similar to modern coastal environments , off the cost of british columbia in canada , which was situated much closer to the equator 500 million years ago . the sea temperature would have been much hotter than it is today and although coral reefs had not yet been established , kooteninchela deppi would have lived in a similar environment consisting of sponges .\nthe researcher believes that kooteninchela deppi would have been a hunter or scavenger . its large edward scissorhands - like claws with their elongated spines may have been used to capture prey , or they could have helped it to probe the sea floor looking for sea creatures hiding in sediment .\nkooteninchela deppi was approximately four centimetres long with an elongated trunk for a body and millipede - like legs , which it used to scuttle along the sea floor with the occasional short swim .\nit also had large eyes composed of many lenses like the compound eyes of a fly . they were positioned on top of movable stalks called peduncles to help it more easily search for food and look out for predators .\nthe researcher discovered that kooteninchela deppi belongs to a group known as the \u2018great - appendage\u2019 arthropods , or megacheirans , which refers to the enlarged pincer - like frontal claws that they share . the \u2018great - appendage\u2019 arthropods are an early relation of arthropods , which includes spiders , scorpions , centipedes , millipedes , insects and crabs .\ndavid legg adds : \u201cjust imagine it : the prawns covered in mayonnaise in your sandwich , the spider climbing up your wall and even the fly that has been banging into your window and annoyingly flying into your face are all descendants of kooteninchela deppi . current estimates indicate that there are more than one million known insects and potentially 10 million more yet to be categorised , which potentially means that kooteninchela deppi has a huge family tree . \u201d\nin the future , david legg intends to further his research and study fossilised creatures from the ordovician , the geological period that saw the largest increase in diversity of species on the planet . he hopes to understand why this happened in order to learn more about the current diversity of species on earth .\narticle text ( excluding photos or graphics ) available under an attribution - noncommercial - sharealike creative commons license .\nphotos and graphics subject to third party copyright used with permission or \u00a9 imperial college london .\ncomment on prostate cancer ultrasound treatment as effective as surgery or radiotherapy : thank you for your comments . i ' ve sent you both some more detailed information about the procedu\u2026\ncomment on new type of photosynthesis discovered : light has been here for earth for very , very long time . i am surprised that c ' phyll would be the onl\u2026\ndr david legg , a paleontologist with the department of earth science and engineering at imperial college london , has discovered an ancient creature with scissor hand - like claws and named it after the actor johnny depp for his portrayal of edward scissorhands in the 1990 film about an artificial man who has scissors for hands .\nbibliographic information : david legg . 2013 . multi - segmented arthropods from the middle cambrian of british columbia ( canada ) . journal of paleontology 87 ( 3 ) : 493 - 501\njuvenile australopithecus climbed trees , 3 . 32 - million - year - old foot fossil shows\n\u00a9 2011 - 2018 . sci - news . com . all rights reserved . | back to top\ncelebrity names will be preserved for posterity in film reels , heaps of tabloid magazines and taxonomy textbooks , too .\na fossil of the organism , a distant ancestor of lobsters and scorpions , has pinchers that recalled edward scissorhands , the misunderstood monster played by depp in the eponymous 1990 tim burton movie , according to the researcher who named it . [ starstruck : species named after celebrities ]\nwhen i first saw the pair of isolated claws in the fossil records of this species i could not help but think of edward scissorhands ,\ndavid legg , who studied the creature as part of his doctorate research at the imperial college london , said in a statement .\nthe fossil was found in kootenay national park in british columbia , canada , which would have been much closer to the equator 500 million years ago , during the cambrian period .\nlegg believes kooteninchela deppi , which measured just 1 . 5 inches ( 4 centimeters ) in length , would have scuttled across the sand in a shallow sea environment , hunting or scavenging for food . its large claws have elongated spines , which may have been used to capture prey or probe the seafloor for meals hiding under the sediment .\nit also had large , fly - like eyes with many lenses nestled atop movable stalks to look out for food and avoid predators , the researcher said .\ndepp is far from the first celebrity to get a taxonomic tribute . from beyonce to arnold schwarzenegger to roy orbison , the rich and famous have sometimes had entire species named after them , an honor once reserved for scientists .\nkooteninchela deppi is a primitive relative of today ' s arthropods , a group that includes spiders , scorpions , centipedes , millipedes , insects and crabs .\njust imagine it : the prawns covered in mayonnaise in your sandwich , the spider climbing up your wall and even the fly that has been banging into your window and annoyingly flying into your face are all descendants of kooteninchela deppi ,\nlegg added .\nhis description of the species was published this month in the journal of paleontology .\nfollow megan gannon on twitter and google + . follow us @ livescience , facebook & google + . original article on live science .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : d . legg . 2013 . multi - segmented arthropods from the middle cambrian of british columbia ( canada ) . journal of paleontology 87 ( 3 ) : 493 - 501\nsmarter homes are better for the planet . here ' s how to get on board\nan ancient species has been named after edward scissorhands because of the shape of its claws .\nan artist ' s impression has been released of the newly - discovered creepy - crawly by imperial college london .\nits fossilised remains show it had sharp claws , triggering comparisons with the 1990 film .\nthe animal would have lived in shallow seas similar to modern coastal environments off the coast of british columbia in canada .\nphd student david legg said :\nwhen i first saw the pair of isolated claws in the fossil records of this species i could not help but think of edward scissorhands .\nget top stories and blog posts emailed to me each day . newsletters may offer personalized content or advertisements . learn more\nthank you for signing up ! you should receive an email to confirm your subscription shortly .\nwe urge you to turn off your ad blocker for the telegraph website so that you can continue to access our quality content in the future .\nella mai \u2013 boo ' d up ( remix ) ft . nicki minaj & quavo\nby using ifunny you agree to our privacy policy . we and our partners operate globally and use cookies , including for analytics ."]}
{"id": 199, "summary": [{"text": "euhyparpax is a genus of moths of the family notodontidae , the prominents .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "there are two species : euhyparpax amatame ( dyar , 1916 ) euhyparpax rosea beutenm\u00fcller , 1893", "topic": 26}], "title": "euhyparpax", "paragraphs": ["euhyparpax rosea beutenm\u00fcller , 1893 ; bull . amer . mus . nat . hist . 5 ( 2 ) : 19 ; tl : colorado , custer co . , west cliff\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ngreer , apache county , arizona , usa july 18 , 2013 size : wingspan approx . 40mm\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nribaldia dyar , 1916 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 51 ( 2139 ) : 22 ; ts : ribaldia amatame dyar\nribaldia amatame dyar , 1916 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 51 ( 2139 ) : 22 ; tl : mexico , hidalgo , guerrero mill\n[ nacl ] ; hodges , 1983 check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico check list lep . am . n of mexico\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nlafontaine , j . d . and b . c . schmidt . 2010 . annotated check list of the noctuoidea ( insecta , lepidoptera ) of north america north of mexico . zookeys 40 : 1 - 239 .\ndescribed in the 19th century , the species has been found in only one or two locations in the last 40 or 50 years . stochastic events such as development , fires , or alien weed impact could also eliminate populations of the moth .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nknown from only type locality ( custer county ) in central southern colorado and from near silver city , grant county , new mexico ( opler , 2000b ) .\nthe small range is susceptible to stochastic events such as fire , invasive alien plants , or inadvertent management actions that might be to the species ' detriment .\n( 250 - 20 , 000 square km ( about 100 - 8000 square miles ) ) known from only type locality ( custer county ) in central southern colorado and from near silver city , grant county , new mexico ( opler , 2000b ) .\nprobably an oak feeder like the related h . aurora ( schweitzer , pers . comm . , 2002 ) .\na location where the species occurs , or has recently occurred , where there is potential for persistence or continued recurrence . minimally a place where an adult or larva has be been verified associated with suitable habitat and foodplant . verification standards vary by species and location but sight records should not be the basis for new eos . a few species , most notably datana , are much easier to identify from specimens or photos of last instar larvae ( see forbes , 1948 ) than from adults . wagner et al . ( 1997 ) and wagner ( 2005 ) are also useful for larvae . many species can be identified from either stage and except for some datana the larvae do not have to be last instars . genitalia dissection will sometimes be necessary with single adult specimens or even small series and obviously for such species photographs are not acceptable .\nwhen possible base boundaries on vegetation structure , foodplant distribution in area or other known habitat features . see habitat and food comments fields for species - specific information on what constitutes habitat when mapping occurrences . note in particular care must be taken for the few that specialize on tree or shrubs that are localized within large forests .\nwhen multiple habitat patches occur in a large community complex such as a barrens or savanna or in a landscape feature like a ridgeline or canyon , regard all as one metapopulation .\nthere are no real data but experience generally suggests habitats are either fully occupied or vacant at least over periods of a few years and usually in every generation . occurrences are usually hundreds of hectares to dozens of square kilometers . occurrences even of globally rare species can be more than 10 kilometers in at least one dimension - - at least in new jersey . all of this argues for large separation distances within suitable habitat . adult males are powerful fliers but heavily laden females probably are not . very few species feed as adults and so they probably do not live long . individual movements are probably modest , a few kilometers or less . long distance strays are virtually unknown . this suggests a short distance across unsuitable habitat . clearly some species recognize and respond to habitat features , for example all known occurrences of heterocampa varia in new jersey are clearly mostly in the 500 to 10 , 000 + hectare range but strays of males out of habitat are rare and of females unknown even with potential foodplants ( oaks ) ubiquitous . datana ranaeceps also rarely is found out of habitat there even though its foodplant is much more widespread and this moth seems absent from virtually all ( dozens to few hundred hectare ) habitat patches more than about 10 kilometers from the true pine barrens region in new jersey . h . varia appears to be absent from the willow grove lake preserve in new jersey even though there is a large population in nearby similar xeric oak woodland which would have been no more than about 10 - 20 kilometers separated originally , although more now . one does not usually find the forest species in residential areas more than a kilometers from woods . females at least apparently do not cross unsuitable habitat often . many species are very heavily egg laden and deposit eggs in rather large masses rather quickly after mating and so probably do not disperse them widely . some clostera and datana are extreme examples but females of heterocampa sometimes and schizura probably always also lay eggs in masses , although often in more , smaller masses . this also supports short distances over unsuitable habitats . do not use the 2 kilometer distance with substantial ( > 100 hectare ) occupied habitat patches separated by areas of marginal habitat .\nmost notodontidae are widespread woodland or forest moths and typically they are not localized within such places unless the foodplant is . for species where there is some understanding of what actually is suitable habitat , few if any , observations suggest consistent partial occupancy but as noted some do require certain vegetation features ( often sparsely wooded to open scrub of some sort ) in addition to foodplant . notodontids seem to reliably occupy all available habitat where they are present at all , although they may of course be temporarily absent from patches within larger habitats ( especially datana ) . this radius is certainly unrealistically low for most species in large expanses of habitat but some limit is needed . if the habitat does not appear to be a large scale forest or woodland type , do not use this radius . for example some datana and a few others do sometimes occur in small habitats , but in such cases these should be obvious based on the foodplant .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nbeutenmueller , w . 1893 . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 5 : 19 .\ndraudt , m . 1940 . notodontidae . pages 901 - 1070 in a . seitz . the macrolepidoptera of the world . volume 6 , part 2 . alfred kernen , stuttgart , germany .\nferguson , d . c . , c . e . harp , p . a . opler , r . s . peigler , m . pogue , j . a . powell , and m . j . smith . 1999 . moths of north america . jamestown , nd : northern prairie wildlife research center home page . online . available : urltoken ( version 07jan2002 ) .\nneumoegen , b . and h . g . dyar . 1894 . a preliminary revision of the lepidopterous family notodontidae . transactions of the american entomological society 21 : 179 - 208 .\nopler , p . a . 2000a . notodontidae of north america . draft working document . abi contract number : zoo - 010100 .\nopler , p . a . 2000b . unpublished notes on notodontidae in museums including american museum of natural history ; gillette museum of arthropod biodiversity - - colorado state university ; national museum of natural history ; and california insect survey - - university of california at berkeley .\npackard , a . s . 1895 . monograph of the bombycine moths of american north of mexico . part 1 . notodontidae . national academy of sciences , memoir 7 - 390 , 7 maps .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on image to enlarge .\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho ."]}
{"id": 203, "summary": [{"text": "the mascarene grey parakeet or thirioux \u2019s grey parrot ( psittacula bensoni ) , is an extinct species of parrot which was endemic to the mascarene islands of mauritius and r\u00e9union in the western indian ocean .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "it has been classified as a member of the tribe psittaculini , along with other parrots from the islands .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "subfossil bones of the mascarene grey parakeet found on mauritius were first described in 1973 as belonging to a smaller relative of the broad-billed parrot in the genus lophopsittacus .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "apart from their size , the bones were very similar to those of other mascarene parrots .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the subfossils were later connected with 17th - and 18th-century descriptions of small grey parrots on mauritius and r\u00e9union , together with a single illustration published in a journal describing a voyage in 1602 , and the species was instead reassigned to the genus psittacula .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the mascarene grey parakeet was grey , had a long tail , and was larger than other species of the psittacula genus , which are usually green .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the grey parrots were said to be easy to hunt , as the capture of one would result in its calling out to summon the whole flock .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "they were also considered to be crop pests and being such easy prey meant that they were extensively hunted .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "coupled with deforestation , this pushed them into extinction .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this had happened by the 1730s on r\u00e9union and by the 1760s on mauritius . ", "topic": 19}], "title": "mascarene grey parakeet", "paragraphs": ["the mascarene grey parakeet or thirioux\u2019s grey parrot ( psittacula bensoni ) , is an extinct species of parrot which was endemic to the mascarene islands of mauritius and r\u00e9union in the western indian ocean .\ndutch sailors hunting mauritius\u2019 giant tortoise , dodo , and mascarene grey parakeet , all of which were extinct within 150 years of this 16th century woodcut .\nupper magdalena parakeet is a proposed split from maroon - tailed parakeet ( donegan et al . 2016 , hbw )\ncliff parakeet is split from monk parakeet ( collar 1997 , russello et al . 2008 , hbw alive , cf sacc 93 & 503 )\nchoco parakeet is a proposed split from maroon - tailed parakeet ( ridgely and greenfield 2001 , donegan et al . 2016 , sacc 524 , hbw )\nto greyish chocolate , the tail from light grey to blackish grey - brown , and the head from bluish - grey to dove - grey . the plate also lacks two dark central tail feathers without white bases , a feature described by brisson , and these features have been repeated by subsequent artists . the illustration and buffon ' s description were perhaps based on the paris specimen which had its tail and wing feathers feathers severely damaged by\nalleles were present in the majority of echo parakeet isolates . from early 2005 a new\n. the cause and date of extinction for the mascarene parrot itself is uncertain .\nby linnaeus in 1758 , who again synonymised it with the mascarene parrot in 1766 . because of this association , some authors believed it was from the mascarene islands as well , but this dark parrot ' s description differs from that of the mascarene parrot .\n, so it was possible for species to colonise the mascarene islands from other areas .\na 2017 study found it to be close to the mascarene parrot . [ 10 ]\n) . the coefficient of variation histograms indicated that for the echo parakeet isolates there is not sufficient evidence to reject the strict clock , but there is for the rose - ringed parakeet isolates .\nthere are several sorts of parrot , of different sizes and colours . some are the size of a hen , grey , the beak red [ mascarene parrot ] ; others the same colour the size of a pigeon [ mascarene grey parakeet ] , and yet others , smaller , are green [ r\u00e9union parakeet ] . there are great quantities , especially in the sainte - suzanne area and on the mountainsides . they are very good to eat , especially when they are fat which is from the month of june until the month of september , because at that time the trees produce a certain wild seed that these birds eat .\nthe mascarene parrot ( mascarinus mascarinus ) is an extinct species of parrot known from bones , specimens and descriptions to have occurred in the mascarene island of r\u00e9union , and possibly mauritius .\ngenus : scientific : mascarinus . . . english : mascarene parrot . . . dutch : maskarenenpapegaaien . . . german : mascarenen - papageien . . . french : perroquet de mascarene\nspecimens having aged and being exposed to light , which can turn grey and black to brown . such a transformation has also turned an aberrant\n. moreover , these mutations were completely fixed in the echo parakeet host population very shortly after the outbreak . several\nspecies : scientific : mascarinus mascarinus . . . english : mascarene parrot . . . dutch : maskarenpapegaai . . . german : mascarenen papagei . . . french : perroquet de mascarene . . . cites status : extinct\nthe affinities of the mascarene parrot are unclear , and two hypotheses have competed since the mid - 19th century .\ni ' ve removed the alternate english names for nanday parakeet , aratinga nendaya ( black - hooded parakeet ) , and for rosy - faced lovebird , agapornis roseicollis ( peach faced lovebird ) . [ psittacidae , falconiformes & psittaciformes , 2 . 71a ]\nthe following cladogram shows the phylogenetic position of the seychelles parakeet , according to jackson et al . , 2015 : [ 9 ]\ngene that we observed to be particularly polymorphic in the echo parakeet isolates ( codons 88 , 148 , 167 , 176 , and 234 ) appeared to be much less variable in the rose - ringed parakeet isolates . only codons 148 and 167 showed nonsynonymous polymorphism .\n) in samples that tested positive for the presence of bfdv . the reaction volumes and cycling conditions were identical to the orf1 pcr except for the annealing temperature , which was reduced to 54\u00b0c . we sequenced 47 echo parakeet and 31 rose - ringed parakeet bfdv isolates at orf2 .\nin 1779 under his entry for the mascarene parrot , in which he pointed out similarities and differences between the two . the english\nthe only endemic bird species on r\u00e9union that disappeared after the mascarene parrot was the hoopoe starling in the mid - 19th century .\ngene in the echo parakeet isolates is well supported . this result indicates that as with other ssdna viruses , bfdv has a high evolutionary rate .\nin 1973 , based on remains collected by louis etienne thirioux in the early 20th century , the english ornithologist daniel t . holyoak placed a small subfossil mauritian parrot in the same genus as the broad - billed parrot and named it lophopsittacus bensoni . in 2007 , on the basis of a comparison of subfossils , correlated with 17th and 18th century descriptions of small grey parrots , hume reclassified it as a species in the genus psittacula and called it thirioux ' s grey parrot . in 1967 , james greenway had speculated that reports of grey mauritian parrots referred to the broad - billed parrot .\na ( data not shown ) . the estimated nucleotide diversity ( \u03c0 ) of bfdv in each echo parakeet breeding season from 2004 / 05 is shown in\nthe mauritius parakeet is the only extant of six parrot species once endemic to the mascarene islands in the southern indian ocean . its population gradually began to decline in the mid - 1800s and by 1986 it was estimated that about 8 - 12 individuals were living in the wild upland forest of mauritius .\ncontrary to feuilley ' s claims , dubois mentioned that the mascarene parrot was not edible which may have led to r\u00e9union visitors mostly ignoring it .\nupperparts of head and neck clear ( ash ) grey . back , rump , underparts of neck , breast , belly , sides , legs , scapular feathers , uppercoverts of tail very - dark ( ash ) grey . wing feathers of the same colour . the tail is composed of 12 feathers : the two median ones are also very - dark ( ash ) grey . all the lateral ones are of the same colour , except that they have a little white at their base . the eyes are surrounded by a naked skin , bright red . pupil black , iris red . the base of the superior half of the beak is also surrounded by a red naked skin in which the nostrils are placed . beak similarly red . legs pale flesh . claws grey - brown . i am unaware from which country it is found . i have seen it living in paris .\nthe echo parakeet , psittacula echo , is lumped with the extinct p . eques , which has priority . [ psittacidae , falconiformes & psittaciformes , 2 . 62b ]\ndisappearing when they did , at a time when modern science was still emerging , the mascarene giant tortoises occupy a strange halfway house between poorly - understood human - induced casualties of the early modern era and better - known lost species of more recent times . unlike some of their vanished compatriots , such as the mascarene grey parakeet , their life appearance is fairly well - known , but there is still a deep air of mystery about them . the world\u2019s only taxidermied specimen is kept in paris , in the sombre setting of the room of endangered & extinct species . below is a ( slightly blurred ) picture which seems a poignant reminder of these peculiar giants , now forever receding into the mists of time .\nthe seychelles parakeet or seychelles island parrot ( psittacula wardi ) is an extinct species of parrot which was endemic to the seychelles group in the indian ocean . it resembled the alexandrine parakeet but was smaller and lacked the pink colour in its collar . the species is suspected to have become extinct due to intense persecution by farmers and coconut plantation owners .\nif hahn ' s account is disregarded , the mascarene parrot probably became extinct prior to 1800 . the last account of wild specimens on r\u00e9union is from the 1770s .\nthe scientific name of mascarene sheldgoose has been corrected to alopochen mauritiana , from mauritianus , as alopochen is feminine . [ anatidae , paleognaths and anseriformes , 2 . 60a ]\nphylogenetic studies suggest that the species diverged from the alexandrine parakeet through isolation of populations that dispersed through the indian subcontinent into seychelles about 11 million years ago when sea levels were much lower . [ 8 ]\nparrots . it also found that the mascarene parrot line diverged 4 . 6 to 9 million years ago , prior to the formation of r\u00e9union , indicating this must have happened elsewhere .\ncheke , a . s . ( 1987 ) .\nan ecological history of the mascarene islands , with particular reference to extinctions and introductions of land vertebrates\n. in diamond ( ed . ) , a . w . studies of mascarene island birds . cambridge . pp . 5\u201389 . doi : 10 . 1017 / cbo9780511735769 . 003 . isbn 978 - 0521113311 .\nthe mascarene parrot or mascarin ( mascarinus mascarin ) is an extinct species of parrot that was endemic to the mascarene island of r\u00e9union in the western indian ocean . the taxonomic relationships of this species has been subject to debate . it has been connected to the psittaculini parrots based on anatomical grounds , but to the vasa parrots based on genetic grounds . the exact placement is unresolved .\nthe mascarene parrot was a medium - sized bird , about as large as an eclectus parrot and of a similar shape , although less heavyset and with a longer tail . it was dark greyish brown on the upperside , lighter on the underside . the bases of the tail feathers were white , and the head was colored a medium lavender grey . a ring of velvet - like short black feathers surrounded the bill , which was brilliant red . the feet were reddish brown .\nhenkel , f . m . , and w . schmidt . 2000 . amphibians and reptiles of madagascar and the mascarene , seychelles , and comoro islands . krieger publishing co . , florida .\nthe mascarene parrot was 35 cm ( 14 in ) in length . the wing was 211 mm ( 8 . 3 in ) , the tail 144\u2013152 mm ( 5 . 6\u20136 in ) , the\nof the two existing stuffed mascarene parrots made it possible to compare the remaining bones with the subfossils and showed these were intermediate in measurements in comparison to the modern specimens . the lesser vasa parrot was introduced to r\u00e9union as early as 1780 but , though the subfossil parrot bones were similar to that species in some aspects , they were more similar to those of the mascarene parrot and considered to belong to it .\nmany other endemic species of mauritius were lost after the arrival of man , so the ecosystem of the island is severely damaged and hard to reconstruct . before humans arrived , mauritius was entirely covered in forests , almost all of which have since been lost to deforestation . the surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened . the broad - billed parrot lived alongside other recently extinct mauritian birds such as the dodo , the red rail , the mascarene grey parakeet , the mauritius blue pigeon , the mauritius owl , the mascarene coot , the mauritian shelduck , the mauritian duck , and the mauritius night heron . extinct mauritian reptiles include the saddle - backed mauritius giant tortoise , the domed mauritius giant tortoise , the mauritian giant skink , and the round island burrowing boa . the small mauritian flying fox and the snail tropidophora carinata lived on mauritius and r\u00e9union but became extinct in both islands . some plants , such as casearia tinifolia and the palm orchid , have also become extinct .\namong the extant mammals the only true endemic is the greater mascarene flying fox ( pteropus niger , vu ) . this species is now severely endangered due to deforestation , hunting , introduced species , and cyclones . another similar species of bat , the lesser mascarene flying fox ( pteropus subniger , ex ) , is already extinct . another rare mammal on these islands is the rare rodrigues flying fox ( pteropus rodricensis , cr ) .\nmany endemic species of mauritius became extinct after the arrival of humans , so the ecosystem of the island is badly damaged and hard to reconstruct . before humans arrived , mauritius was entirely covered in forests , but very little remains of them today , because of deforestation . [ 57 ] the surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened . [ 58 ] the dodo lived alongside other recently extinct mauritian birds such as the flightless red rail , the broad - billed parrot , the mascarene grey parakeet , the mauritius blue pigeon , themauritius owl , the mascarene coot , the mauritian shelduck , the mauritian duck , and the mauritius night heron . extinct mauritian reptiles include the saddle - backed mauritius giant tortoise , the domed mauritius giant tortoise , the mauritian giant skink , and the round island burrowing boa . the small mauritian flying fox and the snail tropidophora carinata lived on mauritius and r\u00e9union , but vanished from both islands . some plants , such as casearia tinifolia and the palm orchid , have also become extinct . [ 59 ]\nhume , j . p . ( 2007 ) .\nreappraisal of the parrots ( aves : psittacidae ) from the mascarene islands , with comments on their ecology , morphology , and affinities\n. zootaxa 1513 : 4\u201341 .\n. to identify the mutations that may have elicited the 2005 / 2006 season ( 2005 / 06 ) pbfd outbreak , we constructed phylogenies using the echo parakeet bfdv isolates . we found no significant evidence for recombination using any method and , consequently , the\nto assess the level of clock - like evolution in the data , we regressed the root - to - tip genetic distances , inferred from neighbor - joined trees , against sampling time by using path - o - gen . the results indicate that there is good evidence for temporal signal in the ca psid gene but not in the replicase : ( i ) echo parakeet isolate capsid gene , r 2 = 0 . 625 , residual mean square ( rms ) = 3 . 23 \u00d7 10 \u22126 , and replicase gene , r 2 = 0 . 122 , rms = 1 . 55 \u00d7 10 \u22126 , and ( ii ) rose - ringed parakeet isolate capsid gene , r 2 = 0 . 461 , rms = 4 . 32 \u00d7 10 \u22125 , and replicase gene , r 2 = 0 . 073 , rms = 7 . 21 \u00d7 10 \u22127 . following duffy and holmes ( 14 ) , to assess the temporal structure of the evolutionary rate , analyses were repeated for each data set , but with the sampling dates randomly shuffled among the tips . in both genes of the echo parakeet isolates the actual estimated mean evolutionary rates do not coincide with the 95 % hpd intervals for any of the randomized runs , indicating that there is good temporal structure ( fig . 4 ) . in contrast , there is little difference between the estimated evolutionary rates from the rose - ringed parakeet isolates and their randomized results , suggesting that there is no temporal structure . taken together , these results suggest that the high evolutionary rate estimated from the bfdv capsid gene from echo parakeet isolates is well supported . there is marginal support for the rate estimated from the rep gene in the echo parakeet isolates but no support for the results from the rose - ringed parakeet bfdv data .\nto not correspond to the pbfd outbreak . this group includes rose - ringed parakeets sampled at the same time as the pbfd outbreak in the echo parakeet population . the second group ( highlighted by the gray box ) , comprising just three isolates , have the 14h34l\nthe mascarene parrot was first mentioned in 1674 , and live specimens were later brought to europe where they lived in captivity . the species was scientifically described in 1771 . only two stuffed specimens exist today , in paris and vienna . the date and cause of extinction for the mascarene parrot is unclear . the latest account from 1834 is considered dubious , so it is probable that the species became extinct prior to 1800 , and may have become extinct in the wild even earlier .\nthe broad - billed parrot or raven parrot ( lophopsittacus mauritianus ) is a large extinct parrot in the family psittaculidae . it was endemic to the mascarene island of mauritius in the indian ocean east of madagascar . it is unclear what other species it is most closely related to , but it has been classified as a member of the tribe psittaculini , along with other mascarene parrots . it had similarities with the rodrigues parrot ( necropsittacus rodricanus ) , and may have been closely related .\nnewton , e . ( 1876 ) .\nxxvii . - on the psittaci of the mascarene islands\n. ibis 18 ( 3 ) : 281\u2013289 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1474 - 919x . 1876 . tb06925 . x .\nshows the rate estimated from the strict clock for the echo parakeet isolates and the relaxed clock ( uncorrelated lognormal ) for the rose - ringed isolates . the inferred rates do not differ substantially between the two genes or between the two host populations , although the 95 % hpd intervals for the\nthe seychelles parakeet was named palaeornis wardi as by the british ornithologist edward newton in 1867 . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] it was endemic to mah\u00e9 and silhouette and was once sighted on praslin . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] ten specimens exist today . [ 7 ]\npsittacula wardi was endemic to mah\u00e9 and silhouette , seychelles , with a sight record from praslin . [ 1 ] the seychelles parakeet is believed to have had a diet of bugs found in the bushes or trees , [ 13 ] and probably also consumed fruit and seeds . [ 1 ]\nconsidering the proximity of the two parrot populations in mauritius and the recent common ancestry of the host species ( 22 ) , we expected to find good evidence for viral transmission . indeed , the phylogenetic analyses indicated the presence of bfdv allele sharing between the two populations . although the literature ( 28 ) and field reports indicate behavioral and ecological separation between the parrot populations in mauritius , the environmental stability of bfdv ( 62 ) means that the virus still can be indirectly transmitted . the most recent common ancestor for all echo parakeet isolates dates to around 1959 ( or 1949 when the rose - ringed isolates are included in the analysis ) , which approximately coincides with a period when the rose - ringed parakeet started expanding into native forest , coming into direct competition with the echo parakeet for nest sites ( 6 ) . interestingly , the oldest rose - ringed parakeet isolate was taken from a bird housed in aviaries that were central to the initial recovery of the echo parakeets . thus , the apparent transmission of bfdv actually may in some cases be attributable to human intervention . although the evidence for viral transmission between the two parrot populations appears to be clear , the evidence for the rose - ringed parakeets being the source of the pbfd outbreak is more equivocal . we only identified three rose - ringed parakeet isolates that possessed the 14h34l rep allele , and all of them were collected at least one season after the outbreak . one possibility is that the mutations responsible for the outbreak originated in the echo parakeet population with subsequent transmission to the rose - ringed population . indeed , one of the three rose - ringed isolates was collected from an individual that most likely became infected after indirect contact with the endemic population ( it was found in an echo parakeet nest in the 2006 / 07 season ) . nevertheless , given the considerable size and distribution of the invasive population , it undoubtedly remains the likeliest source of the pbfd outbreak in the echo parakeets . it may be that our sampling of this population prior to 2005 / 06 was not sufficient to identify the 14h34l mutations .\nmourer - chauvir\u00e9 , c . ; bour , s . ; ribes , r . ( 2006 ) .\nrecent avian extinctions on r\u00e9union ( mascarene islands ) from paleontological and historical sources\n. bulletin of the british ornithologists ' club ( 126 ) : 40\u201348 .\nevolutionary rate of the capsid and rep bfdv genes ( mean and 95 % hpd ) estimated from the true dates of sample isolation ( labeled as the \u201ct\u201d data point ) and from the shuffled dates of isolation . analyses using the shuffled dates were performed using a gtr + \u03b3 + i model of evolution and a relaxed ( uncorrelated lognormal ) molecular clock . ( a ) results from the echo parakeet data set indicate no overlap between the estimates from the true dates and from the shuffled dates , indicating good temporal signal . ( b ) results from the rose - ringed parakeet isolates indicate no clear temporal signal .\nphylogenetic relationships between bfdv isolates from the echo parakeet and rose - ringed parakeet inferred from bayesian analysis using beast ( the tree was automatically rooted using a relaxed clock model ) . nodes with a posterior probability of \u22650 . 9 are indicated with an asterisk and with a double dagger for p \u2265 0 . 7 . inferred nonsynonymous substitutions at codons in the replicase ( in boldface ) and capsid ( in italics ) genes are indicated . to ease visualization , we include only 15 isolates from the echo parakeet population representing all of the major genotypes identified in fig . 1 . isolates from rose - ringed parakeets are indicated by the suffix \u201c ( r ) \u201d . as in fig . 1 , the gray - shaded box represents all of the isolates with the 14h and 34l replicase gene substitutions identified as corresponding to the outbreak . the estimated mean tmrca for all sequences is 1949 ( 95 % hpd = 1899 and 1983 ) .\nmourer - chauvir\u00e9 , c . , r . bour , s . ribes , and f . moutou . 1999 . the avifauna of r\u00e9union island ( mascarene islands ) at the time of the arrival of the first europeans . smithsonian contributions to paleobiology 89 : 1 - 38 .\nmaximum clade credibility tree showing the inferred phylogenetic relationships between bfdv isolates collected from the echo parakeet population ( from bayesian analysis of the capsid and rep genes using beast ) . the tips are labeled with the echo parakeet breeding season from which the sample was collected . the tree was automatically rooted by using a relaxed clock model in beast . nodes with posterior probability of \u22650 . 9 are indicated with asterisks and with a double - dagger for p \u2265 0 . 7 . the dark grey vertical bar highlights the 2005 / 06 pbfd outbreak season . inferred nonsynonymous substitutions at codons in the replicase ( in boldface ) and capsid ( in italics ) are indicated at the appropriate lineages ( where the majority of isolates in a clade possess a particular substitution then the ancestral node has been labeled ) . the clade highlighted by the gray box represents all of the isolates with the 14h and 34l replicase gene substitutions identified by the present study as closely corresponding to the pbfd outbreak . the estimated mean tmrca for all of the isolates is 1959 ( 95 % hpd 1920 and 1988 ) .\nj . p . , hume ; prys - jones , r . ( 2005 ) .\nnew discoveries from old sources , with reference to the original bird and mammal fauna of the mascarene islands , indian ocean\n( pdf ) . zoologische mededelingen 79 ( 3 ) : 85\u201395 .\nhume has expressed surprise at these findings due to the anatomical similarities between the mascarene parrot and other parrots from the islands that are believed to be psittaculines . he also points out that there is no fossil evidence found on other islands to support the hypothesis that the species evolved elsewhere before reaching r\u00e9union .\nthe\nevidence\nfor this bird ' s former existence on mauritius rests on the testimony of peter mundy , who saw\nrussett parratts\nin 1638 , and johann christian hoffmann , who saw\nred crows with recurved beaks and blue heads\ncalled indiaensche ravens (\nindian crows\n) in the early 1670s . an illustration in the report on van neck ' s 1598 voyage refers to\nindian crows\ntwice the size of parakeets and being two - or three - colored , but the animal depicted does not agree well with the mascarene parrot . all these reports are often taken to argue that the broad - billed parrot was multicolored and that lophopsittacus bensoni was a valid species that was the\ngrey parrots\nalso mentioned by the early travellers .\npolymerase ( 5 u / \u03bcl ) made up to 25 \u03bcl with dna - grade water . reactions were run as follows : 92\u00b0c for 3 min , followed by 30 cycles of 92\u00b0c for 30 s , 57\u00b0c for 30 s and 72\u00b0c for 45 s , with a final 10 min at 72\u00b0c . we included the extraction blank and a negative control in all of the pcrs to check for contamination . of the 163 echo parakeet samples that tested positive , 74 were sequenced at orf1 by macrogen ( korea ) using bigdye terminator reactions . of the 46 rose - ringed parakeet samples that tested positive , 31 were sequenced at orf1 . we targeted a 765 - bp region comprising most of orf2 (\nthe seychelles parakeet was a medium - sized parrot with a length of about 41 cm ( 16 . 1 in ) . it was green with a large red beak , a red shoulder patch and a long tail . the male had a narrow black cheek - band and black collar which the female and juvenile lacked . [ 7 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ]\nthe mascarene parrot was 35 cm ( 14 in ) in length with a large red bill and long , rounded tail feathers . its legs were red , and it had naked red skin around the eyes and nostrils . it had a black facial mask and partially white tail feathers , but the colouration of the body , wings and head is unclear . descriptions from life indicate the body and head were ash grey , and the white part of the tail had two dark central feathers . in contrast , descriptions based on stuffed specimens state that the body was brown and the head bluish but do not mention the dark central tail feathers . this may be due to the specimens having changed colour as a result of aging and exposure to light , as well as other forms of damage . very little is known about the bird in life .\nsubfossil remains show the dodo was about 1 metre ( 3 . 3 feet ) tall and may have weighed 10 . 6\u201321 . 1 kg ( 23\u201347 lb ) in the wild . the dodo ' s appearance in life is evidenced only by drawings , paintings and written accounts from the 17th century . because these vary considerably , and because only some illustrations are known to have been drawn from live specimens , its exact appearance in life remains unresolved . similarly , little is known with certainty about its habitat and behaviour . [ 2 ] it has been depicted with brownish - grey plumage , yellow feet , a tuft of tail feathers , a grey , naked head , and a black , yellow , and green beak . it used gizzard stones to help digest its food , which is thought to have included fruits , and its main habitat is believed to have been the woods in the drier coastal areas of mauritius . one account states its clutch consisted of a single egg . it is presumed that the dodo became flightless because of the ready availability of abundant food sources and a relative absence of predators on mauritius .\njustification of ecoregion delineation the mascarene islands are composed of three main islands : r\u00e9union , mauritius , and rodrigues , and some islets . although each island contains distinct flora and fauna , they were included in a single ecoregion due to their possession of some shared endemic species , their similar volcanic history and geophysical characteristics , and their wide separation by sea from other land masses .\nbetween 300 , 000 and 180 , 000 years ago . most recent and extant species would , therefore , probably be descendants of animals which had recolonised the island from africa or madagascar after this event . if the mascarene parrot had , in fact , evolved into a distinct genus on r\u00e9union prior to the volcanic eruption , it would have been one of the few survivors of this\nmauritius had previously been visited by arab vessels in the middle ages and portuguese ships between 1507 and 1513 , but was settled by neither . no records of dodos by these are known , although the portuguese name for mauritius ,\ncerne ( swan ) island\n, may have been a reference to dodos . [ 74 ] the dutch empire acquired mauritius in 1598 , renaming it aftermaurice of nassau , and it was used for the provisioning of trade vessels of the dutch east india company henceforward . [ 75 ] the earliest known accounts of the dodo were provided by dutch travelers during the second dutch expedition to indonesia , led by admiral jacob van neck in 1598 . they appear in reports published in 1601 , which also contain the first published illustration of the bird . [ 76 ] since the first sailors to visit mauritius had been at sea for a long time , their interest in these large birds was mainly culinary . the 1602 journal by willem van west - zanen of the ship bruin - vis mentions that 24 - 25 dodos were hunted for food , which were so large that two could scarcely be consumed at mealtime , their remains being preserved by salting . [ 77 ] an illustration made for the 1648 published version of this journal , showing the killing of dodos , a dugong , and possibly a mascarene grey parakeet , was captioned with a dutch poem , [ 78 ] here in hugh strickland ' s 1848 translation :\nin spite of the mention of several colours , authors such as walter rothschild claimed that the gelderland journal described the bird as entirely blue - grey , and it was restored this way in rothschild ' s 1907 book extinct birds . later examination of the journal by julian hume has revealed only a description of the dodo . he suggested that the distinctively drawn facial mask may represent a separate colour . the head was evidently blue , and in 2007 , hume suggested the beak may have been red , and the rest of the plumage greyish or blackish , which also occurs in other members of psittaculini .\nthe mascarene islands of r\u00e9union , mauritius , and rodrigues are situated in a line along a submerged ridge , the seychelles - mauritius plateau , located 640 to 800 km east of madagascar in the western indian ocean . these islands are unique in their isolation , speciation processes and assemblages , and possess many endemic species . when these islands were first visited in the 16th century , passing ships hunted the native fauna , causing the extinction of the ground dwelling dodo and the related rodriguez solitaire . the ships also introduced european species such as rabbits and goats . later , people permanently settled these islands . the combination of hunting , species introductions , deforestation and farming has dramatically changed the habitats of these islands and caused the extinction of species on these islands . many of the surviving endemic mascarene species are seriously threatened with extinction .\nwhile the mascarenes still support many endemic species , they are as well known for the large number of species that have become extinct since 1600 . these extinctions include the dodo ( raphus cucullatus ) of mauritius , rodrigues solitaire ( pezophaps solitaria ) , rodgrigues parakeet ( psittacula excul ) , mascarene parrot ( mascarinus mascarinus ) , r\u00e9union starling ( fregilupus varius ) , and the mauritius blue - pigeon ( alectroenas nitidissima ) ( stattersfield et al . 1998 ) . there have also been a number of extinctions of endemic plants , possibly totaling as many as 100 species ( wwf and iucn 1994 ) . the remaining 500 - 600 endemic plant species are threatened from the considerable loss of habitat and invasion by more vigorous introduced species . some of these are reduced to handfuls of individuals , or even a single remaining plant . examples of plant species on the verge of extinction include : drypetes caustica , tetrataxis salicifolia , and xanthophyllum paniculatun .\nunsurprisingly , such wanton slaughter soon turned beguiling plenty into vanishing rarity . even by the standards of a europe that burned , beheaded and hanged tens of thousands of its own as witches during this period , the treatment of mascarene tortoises was seen as reckless by officialdom . as early as 1639 , legislation was put in place on mauritius to protect its tortoises . sadly this proved ineffective and it would not be until 1771 that the remaining tortoises would receive meaningful protection .\nhowever , the broad - billed parrot was in all likelihood flightless and thus it seems that the above - mentioned reports are more consistent with mascarinus mascarinus . hoffman states that the birds flew only\nwith difficulty\n, though , whereas the wing bones of the mascarene parrot does not suggest a reduction in flying ability . the sternum of the bird is only insufficiently known and thus it may be that the species flew badly . this , on the other hand , is in disagreement with the theory that the same taxon occurred on both islands , although hoffman may have referred to a general unwillingness to fly until pressed , which was common for the unwary birds of the mascarenes . most strongly against the former existence of this species on mauritius , however , weighs the fact that no skeletal material has turned up in the extensive collections of subfossil bones recovered to date ; the fossil record of mauritius is the most complete of the mascarene islands .\ndescription location and general description this ecoregion covers the three main islands , r\u00e9union , mauritius , and rodrigues , and a number of smaller islets of the mascarene islands . the largest islands are the french dependent territory of r\u00e9union ( 2 , 500 km2 ) , and the island of mauritius ( 1 , 900 km2 ) , which together with rodrigues ( 110 km2 ) forms the single independent nation of mauritius . the nearest landmass is madagascar , 680 km northwest of r\u00e9union .\nfrench and dutch settlers arriving on r\u00e9union and rodrigues in the seventeenth century found great herds of native tortoises . one early arrival on rodrigues described whole fields covered in the creatures ! unfortunately for all five mascarene giant tortoise species , their large size combined with apparent tameness and slow movement to render them ridiculously easy prey . before refrigeration , islands served as gigantic larders for malnourished and hungry sailors . faced with abundance , humans responded as they so often have : with rampant plunder .\nmourer - chauvire , c . ; bour , r . ; ribes , s . ; moutou , f . ( 1999 ) .\nthe avifauna of r\u00e9union island ( mascarene islands ) at the time of the arrival of the first europeans\n. avian paleontology at the close of the 20th century : proceedings of the 4th international meeting of the society of avian paleontology and evolution , washington d . c . , 4\u20137 june 1996 . smithsonian contributions to paleobiology 89 : 8\u201311 .\n) , including the limited number of host species and the presence of within host genetic diversity . a caveat to our own findings is the potential effect of the background mutation rate to inflate our estimates for the evolutionary rate . it is possible that some of the variation identified here may be from deleterious mutations that have yet to reach fixation . the randomization analyses of the rose - ringed parakeet isolates suggested that there is insufficient support for the evolutionary rate inferred from this data set . however , our analyses suggest that the rate estimated from the bfdv\nthe growing impact of emerging infectious disease in humans , livestock , and endangered species has increased the importance of understanding the changes that can elicit an outbreak and how a pathogen subsequently evolves during such a disease . although infectious disease in endangered populations represents a major problem for biodiversity , such events also present an excellent opportunity to resolve evolutionary patterns in pathogens . populations such as the echo parakeet , which have been sampled in a frequent and unbiased ( in terms of disease ) fashion , enable studies to access a level of detail not normally possible in a natural population .\nmanaging the effects of virally mediated infectious disease in host populations requires an understanding of how these pathogens evolve . rapid evolution and selection can enable a virus to escape immune recognition and to reinfect individuals that have been previously exposed . however , logistical difficulties in surveying wild populations may undermine our ability to understand evolution in pathogens that do not infect humans or domestic livestock . endangered species , which are often monitored and regularly sampled over long periods of time , offer a resolution . using a data set of samples collected over 11 years from two populations of parrot , the endangered echo parakeet (\nstrewn across the indian ocean to the east of madagascar , the mascarene islands ( mauritius , r\u00e9union and rodrigues ) are well known as the former home of the dodo and other strange extinct birds . however , dodos and their kin were only part of the unique ecosystem encountered by early visitors to these islands . as with madagascar , the mascarenes had been geographically cut off from the rest of the world for millions of years prior to human discovery . this isolation combined with their tropical location to produce an abundance of singular forms .\nas no complete dodo specimens exist , its external appearance , such as plumage and colouration , is hard to determine . [ 2 ] illustrations and written accounts of encounters with the dodo between its discovery and its extinction ( 1598\u20131662 ) are the primary evidence for its external appearance . [ 35 ] according to most representations , the dodo had greyish or brownish plumage , with lighterprimary feathers and a tuft of curly light feathers high on its rear end . the head was grey and naked , the beak green , black and yellow , and the legs were stout and yellowish , with black claws . [ 36 ] the bird was sexually dimorphic : males were larger and had proportionally longer beaks . the beak was up to 23 centimetres ( 9 . 1 in ) in length and had a hooked point . [ 37 ]\nthe pattern of changes that we observed in the rep gene suggests that there was a major selective sweep of bfdv mutations that coincided with the outbreak of pbfd in the echo parakeet . the speed and extent of this sweep is such that the rep allele occurring prior to the outbreak appears to be completely absent in the season immediately afterward . a number of factors may have contributed to the scope and rapidity of the sweep , including the environmental stability of circoviruses ( 62 ) , both vertical and horizontal modes of transmission ( 18 , 48 , 63 ) , and host population dynamics ( infection in a small population of a highly gregarious species ) .\n\u201cmindoro racket - tail\u201d , prioniturus mindorensis , has been split from blue - crowned racket - tail , prioniturus discurus , based on schweitzer et al . ( 2012 ) . kundu et al . ( 2012 ) found that the mascarene parrot is part of the vasa parrot clade . as mascarinus has priority , coracopsis is merged into mascarinus . also , the seychelles black parrot , mascarinus barklyi , is split from lesser vasa - parrot , mascarinus niger . finally , psittacula has been rearranged per kundu et al . ( 2012 ) . [ psittacidae , falconiformes & psittaciformes , 2 . 63 ]\nsince 1993 , on an almost annual basis , a conservation program has collected blood samples from the echo parakeet population . by chance , the sampling periods have encompassed the pbfd outbreak , and consequently this archive presents a novel opportunity to monitor the evolution of a pathogen in a natural host population before , during , and after an outbreak . by reconstructing the phylogenetic history of bfdv in the echo parakeet population , we aimed to identify the mutation ( s ) that may have led to the outbreak . since the circovirus capsid is immunogenic ( 17 ) , we expected the outbreak to be defined by mutations in the capsid gene and for codons in this gene to show evidence for positive selection ( as opposed to the rep , which should be conserved due to its critical role in replication ) . we reconstruct the bfdv phylogeny using isolates from both parrot populations to identify any evidence for transmission and in particular for any indication that the outbreak was caused by the invasive species . finally , we take advantage of our extensive time - stamped archive of samples to estimate the evolutionary rate of bfdv . recent evidence from studies of other single - stranded dna ( ssdna ) viruses suggests that these pathogens are characterized by high rates of evolution , on a par with single - stranded rna ( ssrna ) viruses ( 14 , 55 , 56 ) .\nmany endemic mascarene birds , including the dodo , are derived from south asian ancestors , and the english palaeontologist julian hume has proposed that this may be the case for all the parrots there as well . sea levels were lower during the pleistocene , so it was possible for species to colonise some of the then less isolated islands . although most extinct parrot species of the mascarenes are poorly known , subfossil remains show that they shared features such as enlarged heads and jaws , reduced pectoral bones , and robust leg bones . hume has suggested that they have a common origin in the radiation of the tribe psittaculini , basing this theory on morphological features and the fact that psittacula parrots have managed to colonise many isolated islands in the indian ocean . the psittaculini may have invaded the area several times , as many of the species were so specialised that they may have evolved significantly on hotspot islands before the mascarenes emerged from the sea . a 2011 genetic study instead found that the mascarene parrot ( mascarinus mascarinus ) of r\u00e9union was most closely related to the lesser vasa parrot ( coracopsis nigra ) from madagascar and nearby islands , and therefore unrelated to the psittacula parrots , disputing the theory of their common origin .\nthough mauritius had previously been visited by arab vessels in the middle ages and portuguese ships between 1507 and 1513 , they did not settle on the island . the dutch empire acquired the island in 1598 , renaming it after maurice of nassau , and it was used from then on for the provisioning of trade vessels of the dutch east india company . to the dutch sailors who visited mauritius from 1598 and onwards , the fauna was mainly interesting from a culinary standpoint . of the eight or so parrot species endemic to the mascarenes , only the echo parakeet ( psittacula echo ) of mauritius has survived . the others were likely all made extinct by a combination of excessive hunting and deforestation .\nthe veracity of hahn ' s claim was questioned as early as 1876 , and the illustration appears to be plagiarised from the plate by fran\u00e7ois - nicolas martinet which was published at least 50 years earlier . after king maximilian died in 1825 , his collection was auctioned off , but no mascarene parrot was mentioned in the inventory list of species . hahn did not mention the date in which he actually saw the bird which could have been long before 1834 . however , the fact that martinet ' s image was copied and that no mounted specimen exists ( though such a rare bird would probably have been preserved ) makes hahn ' s account dubious .\ntantalising scraps of evidence , including an alleged photograph of a living tortoise , survive from the late nineteenth century . however , the last generally - accepted record of mascarene giant tortoises was in 1844 . a british expedition to round island , off the coast of mauritius , found several living tortoises . a female was captured and laid eggs , with the hatchlings distributed amongst various friends of one of the explorers . there is no information available as to which of the two mauritian species was found on round island , nor is there anything known about what became of the hatchlings . given that goats and rabbits were introduced to round island shortly thereafter , it is probable that one of the hatchlings became the endling of the genus cylindraspis .\nprevalence and nucleotide diversity ( average number of nucleotide differences per site ) of bfdv in the echo parakeets . ( a ) bayesian skyline plot showing the effective number of bfdv infections in the echo parakeet population since the estimated mean tmrca ( in 1959 ) . the plot shows a period of exponential decline in viral diversity ( highlighted as \u201ca\u201d ) coinciding with the 2005 / 06 pbfd outbreak ( highlighted by gray shading ) , followed by a subsequent increase ( \u201cb\u201d ) . ( b ) number of infected and uninfected echo parakeets for the breeding seasons between 1993 and 1998 and between 2003 and 2009 ( the estimated prevalence of bfdv per season from 2004 is also indicated ) . the estimated nucleotide diversity of bfdv is also shown from the 2004 / 05 season and indicates a reduction in genetic diversity during the pbfd outbreak and the following season ( 2006 / 07 ) .\ntypes and severity of threats the habitats and species endemic to the mascarene islands are all under some level of threat . the threats to native vegetation and plant species on these islands are numerous and have been summarized in wwf and iucn ( 1994 ) . some species are critically endangered ( e . g . a few plant species are reduced to one individual ) . introduced animals are especially problematic . introduced grazers and herbivores , such as deer , pigs , crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) ( the last is not on r\u00e9union ) , and even giant snails ( achantina spp . ) lead to the destruction of habitat and endemic plant species . introduced rats , cats , and mongooses ( although the last is not on r\u00e9union ) prey on adult and young endemic animals , and introduced birds prey on endemic birds .\ncurrent status mauritius has one of the highest human population densities in the world , 634 persons / km2 ( cia 2000 ) . on all of the mascarene islands , there has been a vast loss of the original forest habitat ( stuart et al . 1990 ) . on r\u00e9union , it is estimated that less than 40 percent of the island is covered with natural vegetation ; on mauritius , only about 5 percent of the natural vegetation survives ; and on rodrigues , the natural vegetation covers around 1 percent of the total land area . different agents have caused this loss of habitat . on r\u00e9union , forest and other habitat is cleared for agriculture and degraded through the introduction of alien plants . on mauritius , sugar cane , tea , and conifer plantations have replaced the natural vegetation . on rodrigues , the effects of feral animals and shifting cultivation have changed the forest habitats to a savanna with scattered trees , and introduced plants have then taken over the remaining habitats .\nthe broad - billed parrot possessed a distinct frontal crest of feathers . ridges on the skull indicate that this crest was firmly attached , and that the bird , unlike cockatoos , could not raise or lower it . the 1601 gelderland sketch was examined in 2003 by hume , who compared the ink finish with the underlying pencil sketch and found that the latter showed several additional details . the pencil sketch depicts the crest as a tuft of rounded feathers attached to the front of the head at the base of the beak , and shows long primary covert feathers , large secondary feathers , and a slightly bifurcated tail . measurements of sub - fossils known by 1893 show that the mandible was 65\u201378 millimetres ( 2 . 6\u20133 . 1 in ) in length , 65 mm ( 2 . 6 in ) in width , the femur was 58\u201363 mm ( 2 . 3\u20132 . 5 in ) in length , the tibia was 88\u201399 mm ( 3 . 5\u20133 . 9 in ) , and the metatarsus 35 mm ( 1 . 4 in ) . unlike other mascarene parrots , the broad - billed parrot had a flattened skull .\nthe echo parakeet is an endangered parrot species endemic to the indian ocean island of mauritius . by the early 1980s , this species had declined to such a degree ( around 20 individuals ) that it was regarded as the world ' s rarest parrot ( 28 ) . intervention by a conservation program has resulted in a period of population growth over the last decade , with the number of birds currently estimated at around 500 . between 2005 and 2006 the recovery was interrupted by the presence of a pathogen ; a large proportion of the population showed clinical signs consistent with pbfd . one suspected source of infection in the echo parakeets is a population of feral rose - ringed parakeets . since being founded in about 1886 ( 6 ) , this population has grown rapidly to number over 10 , 000 birds and is widespread throughout mauritius . in the context of infectious disease , invasive species represent an especially pernicious problem . besides the potential for introducing novel pathogens and pathogen strains for which the endemic species may have no immunity , in such large and growing host populations natural selection will tend to favor pathogen virulence ( 5 ) . the presence of such a large pathogen reservoir can also result in a persistence of disease outbreaks in small endemic host populations through a pattern of constant reinfection ."]}
{"id": 212, "summary": [{"text": "asura fulguritis is a species of lichen moths of the eribidae family , arctiinae subfamily .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found on bali , java , sumatra , pulo laut , borneo and peninsular malaysia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of lowland and lower montane forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "asura fulguritis", "paragraphs": ["asura fulguritis hampson , 1900 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . , 2 : 450 .\nasura fulguritis ; [ nhm card ] ; [ mob7 ] : 341 , pl . 4 , f . 266 , 415\nasura fulguritis hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 450 , pl . 31 , f . 6 ; tl : bali\nfigures 45 \u2013 47 . barsine and asura spp . : male genitalia . 45 , barsine prominens [ india , meghalaya ] khasis , slide av 1914 m ; 46 , asura cervicalis , the type species of asura , australia , slide av 2380 m volynkin ( \u00a9 nhm ) ; 47 , asura fulguritis , bali , slide av 5327 m holloway ( \u00a9 nhm ) .\nmale genitalic features are as in asura , and are not distinct between the two taxa brought into synonymy . the two differ in the postmedial fascia which is distally bidentate in fulguritis but unidentate in birivula . the two forms appear to occur together in pulo laut , perhaps as a variable population . a series in usnm from 1530m 1km south of kundasang on the slopes of g . kinabalu has the medial fascia closely associated with the postmedial , but the male genitalia are as in other material . all three forms are illustrated .\nfigures 27 \u2013 33 . barsine and asura spp . : adults . 27 , barsine defecta walker , the type species of barsine , lectotype \u2642 , nepal ( \u00a9 nhm ) ; 28 , ditto , \u2642 , n india , uttar pradesh ( zfmk ) ; 29 , ditto , \u2640 , n india , uttar pradesh ( zfmk ) ; 30 , barsine cuneonotatus ( walker ) , syntype \u2640 , ceylon ( \u00a9 nhm ) ; 31 , barsine prominens ( moore ) , syntype \u2642 , [ india , meghalaya ] khasis ( \u00a9 nhm ) ; 32 , asura cervicalis walker , the type species of asura , syntype \u2642 , australia ( \u00a9 nhm ) ; 33 , asura fulguritis hampson , holotype \u2640 , bali ( \u00a9 nhm ) .\nasura latimargo roepke , 1946 ; tijdschr . ent . 87 : 82 ; tl : todjambu\nasura russula kiriakoff , 1963 ; explor . nat . albert 16 ( 2 ) : 99\nasura trifasciata roepke , 1946 ; tijdschr . ent . 87 : 80 ; tl : todjambu\nasura eala k\u00fchne , 2007 ; esperiana memoir 3 : 364 , pl . 45 , f . 138\nasura compsodes turner , 1940 ; proc . r . soc . qd 51 ( 6 ) : 100\nasura polyspila turner , 1940 ; proc . r . soc . qd 51 ( 6 ) : 99\nasura crocoptera turner , 1940 ; proc . r . soc . qd 51 ( 6 ) : 98\nasura monospila turner , 1940 ; proc . r . soc . qd 51 ( 6 ) : 98\nasura catameces turner , 1940 ; proc . r . soc . qd 51 ( 6 ) : 98\nasura crocopepla turner , 1940 ; proc . r . soc . qd 51 ( 6 ) : 97\nasura coccinocosma turner , 1940 ; proc . r . soc . qd 51 ( 6 ) : 96\nasura hermanni k\u00fchne , 2007 ; esperiana memoir 3 : 364 , pl . 44 , f . 137\nasura pinkurata k\u00fchne , 2007 ; esperiana memoir 3 : 366 , pl . 45 , f . 143\nasura lignea cern\u00fd , 1995 ; nachr . ent . ver . apollo , suppl . 14 : 158\nasura mediofascia rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 210 ; tl : sambawa\nasura snelleni duplicata nieuwenhuis , 1948 ; tijdschr . ent . 89 : 139 ; tl : banggaai arch .\nasura distyi k\u00fchne , 2007 ; esperiana memoir 3 : 363 , pl . 44 , f . 133 - 134\nasura doa k\u00fchne , 2007 ; esperiana memoir 3 : 364 , pl . 44 , f . 135 - 136\nasura bipartita rothschild , 1916 ; novit . zool . 23 ( 3 ) : 330 ; tl : dampier island\nasura congoensis k\u00fchne , 2007 ; esperiana memoir 3 : 361 , pl . 44 , f . 123 - 124\nasura friederikeae k\u00fchne , 2007 ; esperiana memoir 3 : 365 , pl . 45 , f . 141 - 142\nasura gigantea k\u00fchne , 2007 ; esperiana memoir 3 : 362 , pl . 44 , f . 129 - 130\nasura magica strand , 1917 ; arch . naturgesch . 82 a ( 3 ) : 124 ; tl : kosempo\nasura mutabilis k\u00fchne , 2007 ; esperiana memoir 3 : 361 , pl . 44 , f . 115 - 119\nasura mylea rothschild , 1916 ; novit . zool . 23 ( 3 ) : 330 ; tl : dampier island\nasura spinata k\u00fchne , 2007 ; esperiana memoir 3 : 362 , pl . 44 , f . 125 - 127\nasura versicolor k\u00fchne , 2007 ; esperiana memoir 3 : 363 , pl . 44 , f . 131 - 132\nasura camerunensis strand , 1912 ; archiv naturg . 78 a ( 9 ) : 102 ; tl : binbundi , kamerun\n= asura perihaemia ; daniel , 1952 , bonn . zool . beitr . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 80\nasura metahyala hampson , 1918 ; novit . zool . 25 : 106 ; tl : philippines , luzon , los ba\u00f1os\nasura postbicolor rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 211 ; tl : dili , timor\nasura trizonata rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 208 ; tl : great kei island\nasura punctata rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 207 ; tl : khasia hills , assam\nasura strigatula rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 209 ; tl : khasia hills , assam\nasura subfulvia kiriakoff , 1954 ; bull . inst . r . sci . nat . belg 30 ( 29 ) : 4\nasura is a genus of moths in the subfamily arctiinae . some species formerly placed in this genus are now in nepita .\nasura birivula hampson , 1900 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . , 2 : 450 , syn . n .\nasura ruenca ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 446 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura varians ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 451 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura sexpuncta ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 461 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura uniformis ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 463 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura lacteoflava aureata rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 208 ; tl : khasia hills , assam\n= asura sexualis ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 760\n= asura conflua ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 748\nasura manusi rothschild , 1916 ; novit . zool . 23 ( 3 ) : 329 ; tl : manus , admiralty is .\nasura mimetica rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 212 ; tl : tugela , solomon is .\n= asura congerens ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 772\nasura thomensis rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 211 ; tl : st thom\u00e9 , west africa\nasura perihaemia ; daniel , 1952 , bonn . zool . beitr . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 80 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura amabilis rothschild & jordan , 1901 ; novit . zool . 8 ( 4 ) : 424 ; tl : isabel , solomon is .\nasura quadrifasciata rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 209 ; tl : toli - toli , n . celebes\nasura strigibasis de joannis , 1930 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 99 ( suppl ) : 757 ; tl : cha pa\nasura parallelina ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 455 , pl . 31 , f . 14\nasura phantasma hampson , 1907 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 19 ( 111 ) : 233 ; tl : andamans\nasura lydia ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 426 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ]\nasura septemmaculata ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 764 ; [ nhm card ]\n= asura cancellata ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 754 , \u2642 nec \u2640\nasura eos ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 775 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura flaveola ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 769 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura ochreomaculata ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 771 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura unicolora ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 777 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura brunneofasciata ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 770 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura cancellata ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 754 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura geminata ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 774 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura arenaria rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 205 ; tl : kumusi r . , ne . br . new guinea\nasura fulvimarginata hampson , 1909 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 4 ( 22 ) : 357 ; tl : madras , horsleykonda\nasura xanthophaea toulgo\u00ebt , 1977 ; mem . mus . nat . hist . nat . ( n . s . ) ( zool . ) 105 : 78\nasura hemixantha hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 426 , pl . 30 , f . 5 ; tl : tenimber\nasura perihaemia hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 438 , pl . 30 , f . 6 ; tl : java\nasura ecmelaena hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 438 , pl . 30 , f . 24 ; tl : sangir\nasura nigriciliata hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 445 , pl . 30 , f . 19 ; tl : sangir\nasura atritermina hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 456 , pl . 31 , f . 23 ; tl : sangir\nasura pseudojosiodes rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 210 ; tl : nr oetakwa r . , snow mtns , dutch new guinea\nasura dinava [ = dinawa ] hampson , 1914 ; cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 759 ( emend . )\nasura cervicalis walker , 1854 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 2 : 484 ; tl : new holland and van dieman ' s land\nasura hieroglyphica rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 207 ; tl : ninay valley , central arfak mts , dutch new guinea , 3500ft\nasura orsova swinhoe , 1903 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 11 ( 65 ) : 501 ; tl : sima , muok - lek\nasura haemachroa hampson , 1905 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 15 ( 89 ) : 438 ; tl : solomon is . , bougainville\nasura miltochristina rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 212 ; tl : biagi , mambare r . , br . new guinea , 5000ft\nasura modvena schaus , 1924 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 65 ( 2520 ) : 26 ; tl : mt makiling , luzon , philippines\nasura birivula hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 450 , pl . 31 , f . 30 ; tl : borneo , sandakan\nasura vivida ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 439 , pl . 30 , f . 26 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura avernalis ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 441 , pl . 30 , f . 13 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura flavida ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 449 , pl . 31 , f . 4 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura nigrivena ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 458 , pl . 31 , f . 12 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura eos hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 459 , pl . 31 , f . 19 ; tl : java , malang\nasura carnea ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 459 , pl . 31 , f . 16 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura unipuncta ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 459 , pl . 31 , f . 15 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura megala hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 462 , pl . 31 , f . 21 ; tl : china , pekin\nasura griseata ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 462 , pl . 31 , f . 22 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura chrysomela ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 751 , f . 252 ; [ nhm card ]\nmediofascia ( rothschild , 1936 ) ( asura ) ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 10 ) 17 ( 100 ) : 489 ; tl : new hanover\nasura phaeobasis hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 429 , pl . 30 , f . 3 ; tl : louisiades , st . aignan\nasura phaeoplagia hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 433 , pl . 30 , f . 4 ; tl : java , mt . arjuno\nasura xantherythra hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 563 , pl . 35 , f . 5 ; tl : new guinea , milne bay\nasura dentifera hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 564 , pl . 35 , f . 18 ; tl : new guinea , milne bay\nasura unicolora bethune - baker , 1904 ; novit . zool . 11 ( 2 ) : 425 , pl . 5 , f . 25 ; tl : dinawa ; aroa r .\nasura brunneofasciata bethune - baker , 1904 ; novit . zool . 11 ( 2 ) : 425 , pl . 5 , f . 24 ; tl : dinawa ; aroa r .\nasura insularis rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 212 ; tl : st . aignan , louisiade is . ; goodenough , d ' entrecasteaux is .\nasura camerunensis ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 822 ( unrecognized ) ; [ nhm card ] ; [ afromoths ]\nasura bipars ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 427 , pl . 30 , f . 1 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ]\nasura cervicalis ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 427 , pl . 30 , f . 23 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ]\nasura erythrias ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 428 , pl . 30 , f . 9 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ afromoths ]\nasura crocota ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 754 , pl . 39 , f . 19 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura hieroglyphica ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 758 , pl . 39 , f . 28 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura pseudojosiodes ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 746 , pl . 38 , f . 36 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura orsova ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 774 , pl . 40 , f . 22 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura albidorsalis ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 749 , pl . 39 , f . 11 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura albigrisea ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 748 , pl . 39 , f . 6 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura amabilis ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 747 , pl . 9 , f . 5 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura arenaria ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 749 , pl . 39 , f . 10 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura haemachroa ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 760 , pl . 39 , f . 30 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura insularis ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 753 , pl . 39 , f . 16 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura irregularis ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 754 , pl . 39 , f . 20 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura lutea ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 770 , pl . 40 , f . 14 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura mediofascia ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 773 , pl . 40 , f . 20 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura metascota ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 763 , pl . 40 , f . 1 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura miltochristina ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 764 , pl . 40 , f . 3 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura mimetica ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 746 , pl . 39 , f . 3 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura ocnerioides ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 750 , pl . 39 , f . 12 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura postbicolor ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 760 , pl . 39 , f . 31 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura quadrifasciata ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 765 , pl . 40 , f . 6 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura striata ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 775 , pl . 40 , f . 23 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura tricolor ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 768 , pl . 40 , f . 11 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura trizonata ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 749 , pl . 39 , f . 9 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura likiangensis daniel , 1952 ; bonn . zool . beitr . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 82 , pl . 2 , f . 38 ; tl : n . yunnan , li - kiang\nasura semivitrea ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 745 , pl . 38 , f . 35 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ]\nasura pyrostrota hampson , 1914 ; cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 753 , pl . 39 , f . 17 ; tl : solomon is . , kulambangra i .\nfigures 54 \u2013 59 . barsura , barsine and asura spp . : female genitalia . 54 , barsura umbrifera , syntype , china , tibet , slide av 1854 f volynkin ; 55 , barsine umbrosa , e india , khasis , slide av 1935 f volynkin ; 56 , barsine defecta , the type species of barsine , thailand , slide av 1799 f volynkin ; 57 , barsine cuneonotatus , sri lanka , slide bmnh ( e ) arct - 4669 f holloway ( \u00a9 nhm ) ; 58 , barsine prominens , sikkim , slide av 1917 f volynkin ; 59 , asura cervicalis , the type species of asura , australia , slide bmnh ( e ) arct - 4488 f durante ( \u00a9 nhm ) .\nasura percurrens hampson , 1914 ; cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 769 , pl . 40 , f . 13 ; tl : dutch n . guinea , oetakwa r . , snow mts .\nasura fuscalis ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 452 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 23\nasura inconspicua ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 453 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 23\nasura solita ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 461 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 24\nasura anomala ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 463 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 22\nasura ruptifascia ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 455 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 24\nasura uniformeola ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 777 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 24\nasura esmia ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 463 , pl . 31 , f . 8 ; daniel , 1952 , bonn . zool . beitr . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 81 ; [ nhm card ]\nasura rubrimargo ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 463 , pl . 31 , f . 32 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 24\nasura floccosa ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 454 , pl . 31 , f . 13 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 23\nasura aureata ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 773 , pl . 40 , f . 18 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 23\nasura fulvimarginata ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 776 , pl . 40 , f . 27 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 23\nasura obliquilinea ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 755 , pl . 39 , f . 22 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 23\nasura punctata ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 755 , pl . 39 , f . 21 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 24\nasura strigatula ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 775 , pl . 40 , f . 24 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 24\nasura discisigna ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 460 ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 776 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 23\nasura phantasma ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 772 , pl . 40 , f . 16 ; arora , 1983 , rec . zool . surv . india , occ . paper 60 : 38 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 24\nthe facies is more typical of lyclene moore species ( see below ) , with greyish brown lineation on yellow , but the basal zone of the forewing has a characteristic \u2018stomatal\u2019 pattern , and there are two fasciae between that and the submarginal longitudinal streaks , rather than one as in the biseriata hampson group .\nbali , java , sumatra , pulo laut ; borneo ( incl . pulo laut ) , peninsular malaysia ( ssp . birivula ) .\nthe species is frequent in lowland and lower montane forest , recorded up to 1530m .\naustralia ( queensland , new south wales , tasmania ) . see [ maps ]\nmiltochrista ( ? ) erythrias holland , 1893 ; psyche 6 : 400 ; tl : w . africa , ogov\u00e9 r\nmiltochrista craigii holland , 1893 ; psyche 6 : 411 ; tl : w . africa , ogov\u00e9 r .\ncyme sexualis felder , 1861 ; s . b . akad . wiss . wien 43 ( 1 ) : 36 ; tl : amboina\nlyclene ruenca swinhoe , 1892 ; cat . het . mus . oxford ( 1 ) : 101 , pl . 4 , f . 15 ; tl : sula\nmiltochrista chypsilon semper , 1899 ; reisen archipel . philipp . 2 : 507 , pl . 59 , f . 14 ; tl : philippines , luzon\nmiltochrista flavida butler , 1887 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 5 ) 19 ( 111 ) : 219 ; tl : solomns , alu\nlyclene varians hampson , 1893 ; ill . typical spec . lep . het . colln br . mus . 9 : 85 , pl . 158 , f . 10 , 20 , 32 - 33 ; tl : ceylon , pundaloya\nlyclene fuscalis hampson , 1891 ; ill . typical spec . lep . het . colln br . mus . 8 : 50 , pl . 139 , f . 9 ; tl : nilgiri plateau , 7000ft\n= ? miltochrista strigipennis ( inconsticiua ) ; kaleka & rose , 2002 , zoos ' print j . 17 ( 8 ) : 855\n= ; daniel , 1952 , bonn . zool . beitr . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 85 ; [ nhm card ] ; kaleka & rose , 2002 , zoos ' print j . 17 ( 8 ) : 855\nlyclene rubricosa ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 43\nmiltochrista parallelina hampson , 1894 ; fauna br . india ( moths ) 2 : 110 ; tl : burma , e . pegu\nindia ( andamans , arunachal pradesh , assam , manipur , meghalaya , sikkim ) . see [ maps ]\nsesapa andamana moore , 1877 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1877 ( 3 ) : 597 ; tl : andamans\nmiltochrista andamana ; kaleka & rose , 2002 , zoos ' print j . 17 ( 8 ) : 854 ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 45\nmiltochrista nigrivena leech , 1899 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1899 ( 1 ) : 196 ; tl : ni - tou ; moupin ; omei - shan\n= miltochrista infumata ( decisigna ) ; hampson , 1894 , fauna br . india ( moths ) 2 : 113\nmiltochrista sexpuncta hampson , 1894 ; fauna br . india ( moths ) 2 : 113 ; tl : burma , bernardmyo ?\nsetina modesta leech , 1899 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1899 ( 1 ) : 200 ; tl : nw . china , kwei - chow\nsetina griseata leech , 1899 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1899 ( 1 ) : 200 ; tl : w . china , wa - ssu - kow\nlithosia anomala elwes , 1890 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1890 : 388 , pl . 32 , f . 14\nidopterum rubrimargo hampson , 1894 ; fauna br . india ( moths ) 2 : 104 ; tl : sikkim\nlyclene ruptifascia hampson , 1893 ; ill . typical spec . lep . het . colln br . mus . 9 : 85 , pl . 158 , f . 12 ; tl : ceylon , newalapittia\ntricholepis uniformis hampson , 1893 ; ill . typical spec . lep . het . colln br . mus . 9 : 86 , pl . 157 , f . 29 ; tl : ceylon , newera eliya\n= neasura hypophaeola ; daniel , 1952 , bonn . zool . beitr . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 88\nsikkim , calcutta , ganjam , madras , coimbatore , ceylon . see [ maps ]\ntrichocerosia zebrina hampson , 1914 ; cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 739 , pl . 38 , f . 26 ( turner , ined . ) ; tl : new south wales , lilyvale\neutane semivitrea rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 216 ; tl : fort mackay , queensland\nmiltochrista biplagiata rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 216 ; tl : nr oetakwa r . , snow mtns , dutch new guinea\nzygaenosia albigrisea rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 204 ; tl : biagi , mambare r . , br . new guinea , 5000ft\nmiltochrista cancellata pagenstecher , 1900 ; zoologica , stutt . 12 ( 29 ) : 62 , pl . 2 , f . 27 ; tl : neu - pommern\nmiltochrista connexa ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 782 , pl . 40 , f . 35 ; [ nhm card ]\ndiluta draeseke , 1926 ; dt . ent . z . iris 40 : 52\neichorni rothschild , 1936 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 10 ) 17 ( 100 ) : 489\nmiltochrista geminata pagenstecher , 1900 ; zoologica , stutt . 12 ( 29 ) : 62 , pl . 2 , f . 22 ; tl : neu - pommern\nlikiangensis grisescens daniel , 1952 ; bonn . zool . beitr . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 83\nmimetica flagrans fletcher , 1957 ; in wolff , nat . hist . rennell island , 2 : 38\nlyclene obliquilinea swinhoe , 1901 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 7 ( 41 ) : 467\nobscurodiscalis rothschild , 1936 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 10 ) 17 ( 100 ) : 489\nazura [ sic ] owgarra bethune - baker , 1908 ; novit . zool . 15 : 196 ; tl : owgarra\nmiltochrista parallelina hampson , 1894 ; fauna br . india ( moths ) 2 : 110 ; tl : e . pegu\nrhabdota rothschild , 1920 ; j . fed . malay states mus . 8 ( 3 ) : 112\nsimillima rothschild , 1936 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 10 ) 17 ( 100 ) : 489\ncabarda temperata holland , 1893 ; psyche 6 : 399 ; tl : w . africa\ntripuncta ( reich , 1935 ) ( lyclene ) ; int . ent . zeit . 29 : 265\n[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\non the lepidopterous fauna of andaman and nicobar group of islands ( india ) . family arctiidae\nbeitr\u00e4ge zur kenntnis der arctiidae ostasiens unter besonderer ber\u00fccksichtigung der ausbeuten von dr . h . c . h . h\u00f6ne aus diesem gebiet . iii . teil : lithosiinae\nan epitome of the natural history of the insects of new holland , new zealand , new guinea , otaheite and other islands in the indian , sothern and pacific oceans . . .\nlepidopterorum amboinensium a dre . l . doleschall annis 1856 - 58 collectorum species novae\nillustrations of typical specimens of lepidoptera heterocera in the collection of the british museum . part 8 . the lepidoptera of heterocera of the nilgiri district\nillustrations of typical specimens of lepidoptera heterocera in the collection of the british museum . part 9 . the macrolepidoptera heterocera of ceylon\nzutr\u00e4ge zur sammlung exotischer schmettlinge , vol . 3 [ 1824 - ] 1825 [ - 1831 ]\nbeitr\u00e4ge zur lepidopteren - fauna des malayischen archipels . ( 3 ) heteroceren der aru inseln , kei - inseln und von s\u00fcdwest - neu guinea\nthe lithosiids , collected by dr . l . j . toxopeus in central celebes , with remarsk on some allied species\non the lepidoptera in the tring museum sent by mr . a . s . meek from the admiralty islands , dampier and vulcan islands\nheterocera . collected in korinchi , west sumatra , by messrs . h . c . robinson and c . boden kloss\ndie schmetterlinge der philippinischen inseln . beitrage zur indo - malayischen lepidopteren - fauna . zweiter band . die nachtfalter . heterocera\nzoologische ergebnisse der expedition de herrn g . tessmann nach s\u00fcd - kameroun und spanish - guinea . lepidoptera iii\nh . sauter ' s formosa - ausbeute : lithosiinae , nolinae , noctuidae ( p . p . ) , ratardidae , chalcosiidae , sowie nactr\u00e4ge zu den familien drepanidae , limacodidae , gelechiidae , oecophoriidae und heliodinidae\ninsects of samoa and other samoan terrestial arthropoda . part iii . lepidoptera , fasc . 4 , heterocera\nresultats scientifiques du voyage aux index orientales n\u00e9erlandaises d ll . aa . rr . le prince et la princesse l\u00e9opold de belgique , volume iv , fascicule 12 , lepidoptera ii , 2 . heterocera\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nright now the scientific names on some species do not show on the site - we are working to fix this problem which should be solved after the back - up this morning .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nbarsura volynkin , dubatolov & kishida , 2017 , gen . nov . - plazi treatmentbank\nvolynkin , anton v . , dubatolov , vladimir v . & kishida , yasunori , 2017 , barsura volynkin , dubatolov & kishida , gen . nov . , with descriptions of three new species ( lepidoptera , erebidae , arctiinae ) , zootaxa 4299 ( 1 ) , pp . - 1 - - 1 : - 1\ndiagnosis . medium - sized moths , the male antennae are bipectinate , the female antennae are ciliate . venation ( fig . 4\n. forewing pattern consists of dotted transverse lines in the subbasal and medial areas , and cuneal connected shadows in the subterminal area with longitudinal dark strokes on veins . due to the presence of ventral costal , distal costal and distal saccular processes , the male genital capsule of barsura ( figs . 1 , 2\n) is the only exception , for it has the genital capsule similar to barsura species . however , its vesica structure and the female genitalia are typical for\n, as member of which the species of barsura were treated earlier ( hampson 1900 , daniel 1952 , fang 1993 ; 2000 ) , the medial costal process is short and situated medially ( whereas in barsura it is situated subapically ) , and cornuti in vesica are spine - like and assembled into large bundles and bands . the female genitalia ( fig . 3\n) of the new genus is very characteristic and it clearly differs from those of all other related genera by the short ductus bursae with asymmetric lateral sclerotized folds , the very small corpus bursae subdivided into two asymmetric and heavily sclerotized lateral lobes , with numerous short spinules on inner surface , and a small , globular , weakly sclerotized anterior section with weak spine - like scobination .\nfigures 1 \u2013 4 . barsura nubifascia morphology . 1 , male genital capsule ; 2 , male aedeagus with everted vesica ; 3 , female genitalia ; 4 , venation scheme ( after hampson 1900 ) .\nfigures 20 \u2013 26 . barsura and barsine spp . : adults . 20 , barsura melanoleuca , holotype \u2642 , sikkim ( \u00a9 nhm ) ; 21 , barsura melanoleuca , \u2642 , sikkim ( \u00a9 nhm ) ; 22 , barsura melanoleuca , \u2640 , sikkim ( \u00a9 nhm ) ; 23 , barsura umbrifera , syntype \u2642 , china , tibet ( \u00a9 nhm ) ; 24 , barsura umbrifera , syntype \u2640 , china , tibet ( \u00a9 nhm ) ; 25 , barsine umbrosa , holotype \u2642 , [ india , meghalaya ] khasis ( \u00a9 nhm ) ; 26 , barsine umbrosa , \u2640 , sikkim zfmk ) .\nfigures 42 \u2013 44 . barsine spp . : male genitalia . 42 , b . umbrosa , khasis , slide av 1891 m volynkin ; 43 , b . defecta , the type species of barsine , india , sikkim , slide av 1997 m volynkin ; 44 , b . cuneonotatus , sri lanka , slide bmnh ( e ) arct - 2879 m holloway ( \u00a9 nhm ) .\nno known copyright restrictions apply . see agosti , d . , egloff , w . , 2009 . taxonomic information exchange and copyright : the plazi approach . bmc research notes 2009 , 2 : 53 for further explanation .\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nwalker , 1855 , list specimens lepid . insects colln br . mus . , 3 : 760 .\nsetina calligenioides snellen , 1879 , tijdschr . ent . , 22 : 87 .\nsee the previous species . the forewing fasciation and the broad blackish border to the hindwing are diagnostic . the male abdomen has features in common with crustata , such as narrow , flimsy coremata on the eighth sternite and tapering valve apices . in lineatus the valve apex is more complex , with a subapical angle and two more basal marginal spurs . the aedeagus vesica has four large , appressed quadrate spines like molar teeth . there are minor differences in the genitalia of the sulawesi subspecies ( roepke , 1946b ) .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more"]}
{"id": 229, "summary": [{"text": "the gambian sun squirrel ( heliosciurus gambianus ) is a species of rodent in the family sciuridae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is found in angola , benin , burkina faso , central african republic , chad , democratic republic of the congo , ivory coast , eritrea , ethiopia , gambia , ghana , guinea , guinea-bissau , kenya , liberia , nigeria , senegal , sierra leone , sudan , tanzania , togo , uganda , and zambia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat is wooded savanna . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "gambian sun squirrel", "paragraphs": ["gambian sun squirrels bask in the sun ( that\u2019s where they get their name ) .\ninside one of the out - buildings , the gambian sun squirrel is racing around his cage .\ngambian sun squirrels are primarily arboreal ( spend most of their time in the trees .\na young / baby of a gambian sun squirrel is called a ' pup , kit or kitten ' . the females are called ' doe ' and males ' buck ' . a gambian sun squirrel group is called a ' dray or scurry ' .\ngambian sun squirrels are adorable . we love that they spend their time basking in the sun to keep warm ! we wonder if they use sunscreen .\n, differ from typical gambian sun squirrels only because they are paler and there is a little bit of pink under the tail .\nthe gambian sun squirrel is listed as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\ngambian sun squirrel . heliosciurus gambianus . feeding in some kind of wild fig tree , locals , called it sotho tree , i think . ( just a short video clip for a blog post about squirrels . )\nthere are at least seven different sub - species of gambian sun squirrels , and all are distinguished almost solely by differences in color . because of this variety , it is difficult to describe the appearance of these animals except in broad terms and in comparison to other species of sun squirrel .\nlittle is known about the reproductive habits of sun squirrels . however , the genus\neastern gray squirrel ( video for dogs and cats to watch . . . )\nbolivian squirrel monkeys are arboreal ( spend most of their lives in trees ) .\nbolivian squirrel monkeys live in large troops , with up to 40 - 50 individuals .\nthanks machi and injica for your comments and id suggestion . indeed it looks like the subspecies of gambian .\nlike most squirrels , gambian sun squirrels are confident climbers and leap with agility between trees . on the ground , their gait is a series of small leaps , the two hindfeet and two forefeet alternating as pairs .\nthis experiment examines combining\nultrascatter advanced instancing for daz studio\nand\nlook at my hair\nin daz studio and iray . i had to convert the lamh fur to an object and then i could use ultrascatter to generate 40 gambian sun squirrel ' s . no post work . 30 min render\nis known to coexist quite peacefully with humans as well as other species of squirrels , and as a result is quite common in the tropics of africa . gambian sun squirrels are currently not listed as threatened or endangered .\nkhodakevich l , jezek z , kinzanzka k . isolation of monkeypox virus from wild squirrel infected in nature .\ni spent a long morning walking through the forest with robert . again it was fairly quiet . we saw a green squirrel or two , and a red - legged sun squirrel . we heard a giant squirrel along with another squirrel that , from robert\u2019s description , was presumably a fire - footed rope squirrel . we also another cusimanse , saw lowe\u2019s monkeys and heard geoffroy\u2019s pied colobus quite near to the visitor centre in the late morning . at about 10am something bolted through the undergrowth close to where we stood . robert saw it better than me and identified it as a brush - tailed porcupine . all i saw was a blur of brown that , even i , with my dodgy ethics for counting new mammals , couldn\u2019t in all conscience add to my life list .\ngambian sun squirrels have been seen eating everything from fruits , seeds , and the pods of acacia species to insects , eggs , and young birds . they have even been recorded eating geckos , lizards , and nestlings . rosevear infers that if the opportunity should arise , small mammals would also be killed and eaten .\nmost observed communication has been recorded in captivity . gambian sun squirrels emit a high - pitched squeak when they are eating and are afraid that they will be disturbed . the tail flicks when they sense danger , but this may simply be a reaction rather than a type of signal . they also squeak constantly when running around a room .\ngoodness these bolivian squirrel monkeys adorable . can you imagine hearing a whole troop of these monkeys in the trees ? that would be so fun !\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - grey squirrel ( sciurus carolinensis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - grey squirrel ( sciurus carolinensis )\ntitle =\narkive species - grey squirrel ( sciurus carolinensis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nnowak , r . 1997 .\nsun squirrels\n( on - line ) . walker ' s mammals of the world . accessed february 12 , 2004 at urltoken .\ngambian sun squirrels prefer to live in tall , dense woodland savanna . they are arboreal , and are slowly expanding into the rainforests . although they prefer staying in the upper branches of trees , they will also feed on lower branches and even on the ground . in addition to the savannas and rainforests , they are found in woody water courses and thickets .\nalthough a familiar mammal in many parts of great britain , the grey squirrel ( sciurus carolinensis ) is non - native , having been first introduced from the eastern usa in 1876 ( 3 ) . it is responsible for the decline in populations of the uk ' s native red squirrel ( sciurus vulgaris ) ( 3 ) . the introduced species is larger than the red squirrel , has largely grey fur with touches of russet - brown , and white underparts ( 2 ) . unlike the red squirrel , this species never has ear tufts ( 2 ) . the sexes are similar in appearance ( 4 ) .\nalthough populations can be quite dense , gambian sun squirrels are for the most part solitary creatures . occasionally a family group ( the parents and one or two young ) will be seen together . they are diurnal animals , and at night they sleep in holes lined with freshly gathered leaves . for the most part they are arboreal , preferring the higher strata of the trees to the lower strata or the ground .\n1 . red - legged sun squirrel heliosciurus rufobrachium 2 . forest giant squirrel protoxerus stangeri ( heard only ) 3 . green bush squirrel paraxerus poensis 4 . fire - footed rope squirrel funisciurus pyrropus ( heard only ) 5 . nagtgla\u2019s dormouse graphiurus nagtglasii 6 . brush - tailed porcupine atherus africanus 7 . long - tailed pangolin uromanis tetradactyla 8 . long - nosed ( common ) cusimanse crossarchus obscurus 9 . straw - colored fruit bat eidolon helvum 10 . egyptian tomb bat taphozous perforatus 11 . demidoff\u2019s galago galago demidoff 12 . potto perodicticus potto 13 . geoffroy\u2019s colobus colobus vellerosus ( heard only ) 14 . olive colobus procolobus verus 15 . olive baboon papio anubis 16 . lowe\u2019s monkey cercopithecus lowei 17 . mona monkey cercopithecus mona 18 . lesser spot - nosed monkey cercopithecus petaurista 19 . green monkey chlorocebus sabaeus ( heard only ) 20 . kob kobus kob 21 . western tree hyrax dendrohyrax dorsalis ( heard only )\nthe invasive alien species project ( march , 2008 ) http : / / 138 . 253 . 199 . 114 / iaap % 20web / iaapwebsite / factsheet / squirrel . doc\ninterviews with the u . s . importer and the licensed commercial ghanaian exporter indicated that in march\u2013april 2003 collections of multiple ghanaian mammal species were made by local persons . these animals were subsequently shipped to the united states . the shipment included several rodent species including gambian rats (\nthe grey squirrel is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . it is an introduced invasive species to the uk , south africa and italy ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\na very adaptable species , the grey squirrel prefers mature broadleaved woodlands with a rich understorey layer ( 4 ) . it also occurs in conifer woodlands , urban areas where there are mature trees , as well as gardens and parks ( 5 ) .\nghana , 2017 : romain bocquier , 7 days & 28 species including a range of nice bats ( including a hammer bat ) , pel\u2019s anomalure , olive colobus , african palm civet and a slender - tailed squirrel . further discussion on the bat ids is here .\nsquirrels are hunted for their meat and pelts . squirrel pelts were also once used as a form of currency . the modern word for money in finland actually comes from a root word that means squirrel skins . since their diets consist of mainly fruits and seeds , squirrels become very useful in seed dispersal . squirrels that eat flowers or drink nectar may also aid in pollination . squirrels are used in medical and scientific research . a research project at the institute of arctic biology at the university of alaska , fairbanks has been studying hibernation in\nalso live in moist forests and are colored similarly to punctate sun squirrels except that the crown , neck , and mid - dorsum are redder , and the tail bands are not as distinct . what sets this sub - species apart is the unusual red tinge on the insides of the thighs and the root of the tail .\nthere are no threats to the grey squirrel ( 1 ) . it is a serious pest in britain , and its habit of removing tree bark is extremely damaging . in addition to out - competing red squirrels , it also carries a disease called parapox virus , which affects the native species ( 7 ) .\nthere are a few other mammals in the forest . squirrels are quite common , especially in the early morning when they feed in palm trees in the village . after an hour of looking in the afternoon i saw a red - legged sun squirrel and then a couple of squirrels , most probably a different species , run along a fallen tree . after considerable debate with the locals looking in my field guide , i gave up trying to work out which other species occurred in the forest , though it seems several do . the day before my visit , a lord derby\u2019s anomalure had been in a tree by the visitors\u2019 office at 11am . red river hogs were also apparently findable but with a considerable amount of effort .\nintroductions of this species to the uk continued up until 1915 . between 1930 and 1945 it underwent a huge expansion in range ; it is now common throughout central and southern england , wales and the central lowlands of scotland ( 3 ) , and is still increasing in terms of range and numbers ( 5 ) . the grey squirrel has also been introduced to south africa , australia ( 3 ) and italy ( 6 ) . in italy the grey squirrel has extended its range into the alps and piedmont , and it seems likely that it will now spread throughout much of europe ( 6 ) . its native range extends throughout the eastern usa reaching as far north as canada , and south to the mississippi river ( 4 ) .\ngenovesi , p . and bertolino , s . ( 2001 ) human dimension aspects in invasive alien species issues : the case of the failure of the grey squirrel eradication project in italy . in : mcneely , j . a . ( ed ) the great reshuffling human dimensions of invasive alien species . iucn biodiversity policy coordination division , gland , switzerland . available at : urltoken\nthis squirrel has little impact on its human neighbors . at times their skins were made into small bags , but it is now rarely done . they were also once considered a food source , but that was only for a brief period . perhaps their greatest contribution to humans is by becoming pets . squirrels make good pets , as long as they are taken before they are weaned .\ngenets and palm civets are noted as an adults squirrel ' s most likely predator . the young are likely to fall prey to rats , snakes , and driver ants . parents are known to cover the entrance to their nest with loose twigs and leaves , but this is easily bypassed . the parents may sometimes save the young from ants by carrying them in their mouth to a safer place .\n. tree and flying squirrels are also essential in the regeneration of forests around the world through their seed dispersal activities . this is not only because seeds are left in the feces of these animals but also because of the caching habits of many squirrels . squirrels are also important in dispersing the spores of fungi that they eat , including ecologically important underground endorhyzal fungi . squirrels serve as host to a number of parasites such as fleas , mites and ticks . these parasites are known for causing the transfer of a number of diseases , such as plague , from squirrel to squirrel and to other mammals , including humans . some species have also been identified as playing the role of a keystone species in their ecosystem . one study conducted by kotiliar et al . ( 1999 ) confirmed that prairie dogs acted as a keystone species in the great plains of the united states . not only were prairie dogs an important food source for predators such as\nthe natural cycle of mpx within its native range is poorly understood , as is the route of transmission to humans in the tropical forest setting . the only mpx virus isolated from a wild - caught mammal was obtained from a single moribund rope squirrel ( funisciurus anerythrus ) collected during an outbreak investigation in zaire . 5 primary human ( and non - human primate ) infections are hypothesized to result from contact with an infected sylvan animal , although this reservoir host species is currently unknown .\n. like in all mammals , the pregnant female invests her energy in producing the young , and the litters are typically small . when just born , the neonates are basically helpless , and are completely dependent upon the parents . the mother will nurse them , but sun squirrels grow fast , and will reach adult age fairly quickly . as the young are growing , the mother offers food and protection , as well as teaches them what is good for consumption and what is better left alone . the role of males in parental care of this species has not been documented .\nat about 1pm , just back on the main trail we stopped to look for a squirrel that robert had seen . while scanning the bushes he got a glimpse of movement and saw about 2cm of something brown sticking out of a thicket . this turned into a long - tailed pangolin . even when i could see the tail through the binoculars ( all we could see was the size and texture of a pine cone ) i still wasn\u2019t convinced that it wasn\u2019t just a couple of strange leaves . and so i have simply no idea how robert spotted it .\nsquirrels have distinct vocalizations for particular situations , such as infants calling to their mothers and adults vocalizing during aggression . males vocalize during the mating season to attract mates . many squirrel species use distinctive alarm calls to warn conspecifics of dangers , including alarm calls that warn of specific threats , distinguishing between aerial and terrestrial predators . squirrels also use posture and movement as a form of communication , with messages carried by tail position , stomping of the feet , or body posture . as in most mammals , olfaction is very important in communication . females indicate sexual receptiveness through pheromones and social position or relatedness may also be inferred through chemical cues .\nthe most common tactics of sciurids for avoiding predators is camouflage and escape . squirrels typically have coats with color that matches their surroundings . tree squirrels often have lighter coloration on the ventral side compared to the dorsal , allowing them to blend in with the light sky to a predator that is looking at the squirrel from below and at to blend in with the dark ground when being stalked by an aerial predator . squirrels also avoid capture by quickly darting away from predators , remaining vigilant , biting , clawing , hiding in burrows or nests and sounding alarm calls . squirrels that are commonly attacked by snakes take on a completely different defense tactic known as mobbing . especially common in communal prairie dogs (\nmost squirrels eat mainly tree seeds and fruit , but their diet is diverse , including insects , eggs , fungi , lichens , and small vertebrates . while some squirrels consume fungi as a secondary component of their diet , it makes up nearly half of the diet of other species . many species opportunistically take animal prey , such as the young and eggs of birds or other mammals . foods such as buds , shoots , flowers , bark , lichens , and green plant material have generally low energy content per unit weight and make up a smaller portion of the diet . but the amount of each type of food consumed is determined mainly by its availability and accessibility . for this reason , diet composition changes from region to region , season to season , and year to year . many squirrel species cache or hoard food as well .\ngestation ranges from 29 to 65 days , depending on the size of the species , with smaller squirrels having shorter gestation periods . for squirrels that hibernate , mothers must wean their young in enough time to gain winter weight for hibernation . all sciurids give birth to their young in a nest . although a single male can fertilize an entire litter , usually a litter has varying paternity , so a single litter could have multiple fathers . a typical litter consists of four offspring that are born naked , with closed eyes and ears . development and sexual maturity varies from species to species , with some squirrels being able to leave the nest after 26 days , and reaching sexual maturity by 87 days , to squirrels that are fully developed after 42 days , but don\u2019t reach sexual maturity until they are 3 years old . hibernating squirrels tend to develop more quickly , with lactation times averaging 38 days . in tree and flying squirrels , lactation averages 70 days , longer than most other squirrel groups . african tree squirrels tend to be born at larger birth weights and have relatively shorter times to independence .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthis is almost certainly a complex of several similar species . the form occurring east of the nile river ( multicolor ) is likely to be distinct ( p . grubb pers . comm . ) .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , it occurs in a number of protected areas , has a tolerance of a degree of habitat modification , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species has been widely recorded over subsaharan africa . it ranges from senegal and the gambia eastwards through west africa to cameroon , through southern chad and central african republic , to southern sudan ( with an isolated population on jebel marra ) , ethiopia , and northwards to eritrea with a southerly extension into uganda and northwestern kenya . in the south of its range , the species occurs in central angola , zambia , southern democratic republic of the congo and southwestern tanzania . it has been recorded to elevations of up to 2 , 000 m asl .\nthis is considered to be a common and widespread savanna species ( grubb et al . 1998 ) .\nthis species is typically associated with savanna woodland . populations have also been observed within riparian forest and in savanna areas . it is generally absent from closed forest habitats . this species is commonly found in agriculural areas , especially oil palm plantations . animals are diurnal , solitary and predominantly arboreal .\nthis species is present in a number of protected areas . heliosciurus gambianus probably represents a complex of several similar species . further studies are needed to clarify the taxonomic status of populations currently allocated to this species .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t9830a115094544 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n, are found only in the tropical regions of africa . the range of this species range stretches from nigeria and senegal on the west coast , across to the eastern coasts of sudan , uganda , kenya , and ethiopia . a few populations have been found in angola , the congo , and zambia .\nhas a small head coming to a bluntly pointed muzzle . the ears are round , and the eyes are large and bright . these animals weigh between 250 and 340 g , and measure in at 153 to 210 mm . the sexes are reported to be the same size , and to possess the same pelage .\nis duller than other squirrels found in western africa . its dorsal pelage and flanks are grey , grey - brown or honey - colored and can have black speckling . there is a distinct black line that travels from the head to the tail , flanked on either side by a wide honey colored band . the tail has a black tip and the throat , chest , and ventral pelage are white . the tail is ringed with alternating black and tan rings .\n, live in moister forest climates and have darker pelage , with some intermingled honey - colored hairs . the ventral pelage is more grey than white , and is a little longer and softer than the typical\n, have very distinct rings on the tail , because the honey colored rings are a lighter , almost beige tone .\n, live mainly in forests on the banks of streams . the tail rings are faint and the flanks of this sub - species are lighter due to interspersed white hairs . there is some red in the dorsal pelage .\n, are a dark reddish sub - species . the tail is distinctive because of the greyish - black hair at the base of the back , leading into a long band of rusty - red thena long black ring , a short pale ring , and a short black tip .\n, except that they have no dorsal reddish hairs . this subspecies also has fainter rings on the tail and the tips of the tail hairs are very long and white .\nthe more arboreal the subspecies is , the softer and longer the hairs are , especially in relation to the dorsal pelage .\nis often found in pairs . it is not known if these represent stable mating pairs , however , it raises the prospect that these squirrels could be monogamous .\nis reported to have two breeding seasons in west africa , july through september and november through january . the young of\nwere collectd in february , and two pregnant females had one and five embryos . it has been noted that most squirrels in west africa tend to have one to two young in each litter . it is not known how these data pertain to\nbreeding season the breeding season is apparently bimodal , with breeding occuring between july and september , then again between november and january .\nhas never been measured in the wild . there is one recording of its lifespan in captivity as eight years and eleven months .\nhave been in captivity , and their behavior is interestingly divergent from their behavior in the wild . for example , in captivity they are prone to sleeping with other animals , and other species if their own is not available . also , they do not make nests in captivity .\nin the wild , these animals make other noises , such as a long note ,\nker , ker ,\na short trill , and a chatter . the meanings of these calls are yet to be determined . it can be inferred that their hearing is quite good because of their medium sized external ear conch and sensitivity to dangerous sounding noises .\nin addition to vocal communications , it is likely that these animals use some visual and tactile communication , especially between mates , or between parents and offspring . chemical communication has not been documented in this species .\nespecially likes oil palm nuts , and prefers the husk to the kernal . the foraging behavior of these animals helps to wear down their ever - growing incisors . gnawing through tree bark and the tough husks of some fruits apparently helps their teeth .\nthe most significant impact that this species has on its ecosystem is most likely the result of its eating habits . its daily diet of nuts and fruits plays a role in the destruction and dispersal of seeds . they are small mammals , and therefore probably have voracious appetites . even though their diet is , for the most part , varied , their presence is surely felt by the insects and birds they prey on .\non humans . predators abound in the tropics , so they have little chance of becoming pests . they eat palm oil nuts , and sometimes cocoa pods , but not in enough numbers to be a nuisance .\nalice park ( author ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , phil myers ( editor , instructor ) , museum of zoology , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in sub - saharan africa ( south of 30 degrees north ) and madagascar .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nthe business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\nreferring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody ( usually , but not always , a river or stream ) .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\nto cite this page : park , a . 2004 .\nheliosciurus gambianus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\ngambianaurinko - orava\nto\nheliosciurus gambianus ( ogilby , 1835 )\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nif you have a question about vimeo , chances are we\u2019ve already answered it in our faq . take a look - see .\nitems in open research are protected by copyright , with all rights reserved , unless otherwise indicated .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nproject noah is a tool to explore and document wildlife and a platform to harness the power of citizen scientists everywhere .\ndark brown - grey animal with cream colored underparts ( chest , neck and belly ) ; with a long barred tail . approx 22 to 25 length for the body , and the same , if not a bit more , for the tail .\nthis subspecies is found mainly in eastern africa , from north - east congo dr , up to forested regions of ethiopia and eritrea . this one was seen in forested area between the town of awassa , and lake awassa . the forest is swampy and very rich in wildlife , in particular birds as it is one of stops on the main migratory routes .\nthis subspecies is currently treated as separate species , with three subspecies , by some authors ; and it would be named\nthe cepape\n- it can also be found under the scientific synonyms h . multicolor or sciurus multicolor . it was finally identified thanks to this photo , urltoken .\n1st i thought it could be a dassie rat ( petromuridae ) but the habitat definitely does not fit - they like arid locations , and its tail is too thick anyway . this is a mystery indeed , i also don ' t think is any herpestidae . . . it has to be a rodent but i don ' t know any that looks like this one .\nenglish german online dictionary term bank , where you can search in more than 2 million words in categories and different pronunciation options .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nabout birding africa birding africa is a specialist birding tour company customising tours for both world listers and more relaxed holiday birders , and combining interests in mammals , butterflies , dragonflies , plants and other natural history . our guides know the continents birds like few others ; we ' ve written two acclaimed guide books on where to find southern africa ' s and madagascar ' s best birds and will guide you to africa ' s and madagascar ' s most diverse birding destinations . birding is more than our passion , it ' s our lifestyle and we are dedicated to making professional best value trips filled with endemic species and unique wildlife experiences . since 1997 , we ' ve run bird watching tours in south africa and further into africa for individual birders , small birding groups and top international tour companies . we ' ve run conservation tours in association with the african bird club and work with and consult for a number of other top international tour companies and the bbc natural history unit . for feedback from our guests , please see our tour information pages . for trip reports , please see our trip reports page .\nthis website is maintained by birding africa . copyright \u00a9 1997 - 2012 birding africa\nplease do not use any text , images or content from this site without permission . black harrier photograph courtesy of keith offord . \u00a9 birding africa 1997 - 2012 info @ urltoken\n[ african tailorbirding cc ( ck2003 / 020710 / 23 ) trading as birding africa ] 4 crassula way , pinelands 7405 , cape town , south africa .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nmary g . reynolds , * \u2020 darin s . carroll , \u2020 victoria a . olson , christine hughes , jack galley , anna likos , joel m . montgomery , richard suu - ire , mubarak o . kwasi , j . jeffrey root , zach braden , jason abel , cody clemmons , russell regnery , kevin karem , and inger k . damon\n* address correspondence to mary g . reynolds , division of viral and rickettsial diseases , centers for disease control and prevention , 1600 clifton road ne , mailstop g - 43 atlanta , ga 30333 . e - mail : vog . cdc @ 6rzn\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the american society of tropical medicine and hygiene ' s re - use license which permits unrestricted non - commercial use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original work is properly cited .\nhuman monkeypox has never been reported in ghana , but rodents captured in forested areas of southern ghana were the source of the monkeypox virus introduced into the united states in 2003 . subsequent to the outbreak in the united states , 204 animals were collected from two commercial trapping sites in ghana . animal tissues were examined for the presence of orthopoxvirus ( opxv ) dna using a real - time polymerase chain reaction , and sera were assayed for antibodies against opxv . animals from five genera ( cricetomys , graphiurus , funiscirus , and heliosciurus ) had antibodies against opxv , and three genera ( cricetomys , graphiurus , and xerus ) had evidence of opxv dna in tissues . additionally , 172 persons living near the trapping sites were interviewed regarding risk factors for opxv exposure , and their sera were analyzed . fifty - three percent had igg against opxv ; none had igm . our findings suggest that several species of forest - dwelling rodents from ghana are susceptible to naturally occurring opxv infection , and that persons living near forests may have low - level or indirect exposure to opxv - infected animals , possibly resulting in sub - clinical infections .\nthe first case of human monkeypox ( mpx ) was identified in 1970 in the basankusu district of the democratic republic of the congo ( former zaire ) during the intensification phase of the smallpox eradication campaign . 1 in that same year , five additional mpx cases were reported in west africa , four in liberia and one in sierra leone . 2 , 3 however , during the subsequent 13 years , only 11 of the 155 mpx cases identified in africa were reported from west africa countries ( c\u00f4te d ' ivoire , liberia , nigeria , sierra leone ) ; 4 most cases occurred in the democratic republic of the congo .\nmost of the previous field investigations designed to identify the sylvatic reservoir of mpx virus were confined to relatively short - term outbreak responses and involved general broad spectrum collections of a wide variety of mammalian taxa . the taxa and animals examined were mostly composed of those species that can be purchased from local hunters and collectors . such taxonomically broad surveys yield large numbers of samples , but usually do not sufficiently sample any individual taxon given the likelihood of a low incidence of active infections in presumptive reservoir species . 6 \u2013 8\nto determine the precise geographic origin of the infected animals and to assess whether one or more of the three implicated species might harbor mpxv in nature , we traveled to the area in which the animals were originally trapped and collected additional specimens ( from the same time of year ) , which could then be tested for mpxv . furthermore , we examined residents of nearby communities for serologic evidence of orthopoxvirus ( opxv ) exposure to determine to what extent persons living near these animals might be exposed to the virus . the findings of these investigations are detailed below .\nthe origin of the mpxv - infected animals imported into the united states on april 21 , 2003 , was traced to a single facility in accra , ghana . a description of husbandry practices at the facility was undertaken by officials from the ghanaian wildlife division in cooperation with the owner , focusing on animal housing , turnover , shipping , and other practices that could have influenced virus transmission among captive animals .\ntwo localities outside accra were identified by the facility owner as being the areas from which the original animals from the april 2003 shipment had been collected . one site ( 5 . 98125n , 0 . 58489e ) was near the town of sogakofe , in the volta region and the other site ( 5 . 78562n , 1 . 01410w ) was near the city of oda in the eastern region . in march\u2013april , 2004 , animals representing several of the species contained in the 2003 consignment and others commonly found in the two source areas were collected and evaluated for the presence of mpxv and for serologic evidence of prior or current infection .\nthe collection and processing of animals followed methods for trapping and sampling small mammals for virologic testing published by the centers for disease control and prevention ( cdc ) . live animals were handled according to guidelines and recommendations of the cdc institutional animal care and use committee and as outlined in the institutional animal care and use committee protocol field collections in zoonoses investigations . small rodents were either trapped live by using live traps ( h . b . sherman traps , tallahassee , fl ) and locally produced live traps or were captured live by hand . gross pathologic examinations were followed by a complete necropsy in which blood , heart , liver , kidney , lung , spleen , and skin samples were collected and immediately frozen at \u221220\u00b0c before being transferred to dry ice coolers . specimens were split , with half remaining at the noguchi memorial institute for medical research in accra and half sent to cdc laboratories in atlanta .\nthe cdc laboratories in atlanta evaluated tissue specimens for evidence of opxv and mpxv ( by using a polymerase chain reaction [ pcr ] and virus culture ) and assayed blood specimens for antibodies ( by using an enzyme - linked immunosorbent assay [ elisa ] ) .\nresidents living in villages near the two original trapping sites were contacted by ghanaian ministry of health officials and cdc investigators and asked to participate in a research study to evaluate human exposure to opxv species . local ministry of health workers explained the purpose of the study and read the consent form to prospective enrollees , translating from english when necessary . parental consent was obtained for persons less than 18 years of age . adolescents ( age = 11\u201317 years ) and children ( age = 7\u201310 years ) were asked to provide their assent to participate in the study .\npersons who consented to participate were asked to provide basic demographic information ( e . g . , age , occupation ) and to answer several questions pertaining to illness history , smallpox vaccination status , and exposure to wildlife . in addition , one blood specimen was collected from each study participant . blood for serologic testing was collected in standard marble - top vacutainer\u2122 tubes and stored refrigerated for not more than 48 hours before being centrifuged . centrifugation and collection of serum was conducted at the noguchi memorial institute for medical research . serum specimens were divided and frozen ; one aliquot was kept at the ministry of health laboratories and one was sent to cdc for analysis of opxv - reactive igg and igm .\npersons who participated were compensated for their time and effort . the protocol for this study was reviewed and approved by institution review boards at the cdc in atlanta ( cdc protocol # 4043 ) and at the noguchi memorial institute for medical research in accra .\ndetailed methods for preparation and analysis of tissues using real - time pcr are described elsewhere . 11 all processing of animal tissues was performed under biosafety level 3 conditions . solid tissues ( pooled or individual ) were placed in disposable dounce homogenizers ( kendall large tissue grinders ; kendall company catalog no . 3500sa ; tyco healthcare , mansfield , ma ) . one milliliter of phosphate - buffered saline was added to each measured tissue sample before grinding to enable creation of slurries . genomic dna was prepared from an aliquot of each slurry ( kit catalog no . 732 - 6340 ; bio - rad , hercules , ca ) . remaining tissue slurries were stored for future virus isolation ( see below ) .\nnucleic acid samples prepared from pooled tissues were tested by real - time pcr for opxv dna before testing individual tissues . the primer / probe sequences were selected from the dna polymerase gene ( e9l ; genbank accession no .\n) with primer express version 1 . 5 ( applied biosystems , foster city , ca ) . these sequences included opx forward primer ( 5\u2032 - tca aat att gat cgt cca acg a - 3\u2032 ) , opx reverse primer ( 5\u2032 - tgg atg aat ttc tca ata tta gtt gg - 3\u2032 ) , and opx probe ( 5\u2032fam - taa cat ccg tct gga gat atc ccg tta ga - bhq1 - 3\u2032 ) . primers and probe were synthesized in the biotechnology core facility ( cdc ) by using standard phosphoramidite chemistry . each reaction ( 25 \u03bcl ) contained 5 \u03bcl of template dna , 0 . 5 \u03bcl of each primer , 0 . 5 \u03bcl probe added to the lightcycler faststart dna master hybprobe ( 2 . 5 \u03bcl vial 1 [ dna polymerase ] , 3 \u03bcl vial 2 [ 25 mm mgcl\n] , and 10 . 25 \u03bcl vial 3 [ water ] ; roche , indianapolis , in ) and taqman exogenous internal positive control ( 2 . 5 \u03bcl 10\u00d7 internal positive control mix and 0 . 25 \u03bcl 50\u00d7 internal positive control dna ; applied biosystems ) . thermal cycling conditions for the abi7900 apparatus ( applied biosystems ) were one cycle at 95\u00b0c for 10 minutes and 45 cycles at 95\u00b0c for 15 seconds and 60\u00b0c for 1 minute . the pcr amplification is based on fluorescent emission after annealing / elongation ( 60\u00b0c ) .\nhuman serum samples were assessed for igg and igm reactive with opxv antigen in accordance with published methods . 14 antibody positivity was measured and compared with reference standards . any reading that was three standard deviations above the mean of the negative controls was inferred to be positive .\nepidemiologic and demographic variables and qualitative laboratory findings were analyzed by using parametric and nonparametric statistical tests . nonparametric statistical tests were used when analyzing subsets of data that were not normally distributed . the mantel - haenszel common odds ratio ( or ) and fisher ' s exact tests ( two - tailed ) were used for categorical variables , and the student ' s t - test was used for comparison of means derived from continuous variables . a p value < 0 . 050 was used to measure significance of associations .\n) . these collections were made gradually over a period of a few weeks . while awaiting shipment , the pouched rats were stored together in concrete enclosures and the squirrels were housed in contiguous wire mesh cages with several individuals per cage . all animals were grouped with members of their own species . most of the squirrels , and pouched rats were collected in a forest zone northwest of accra (\n) could not be ruled out by the ghanaian exporter . the dormice were collected from a lowland scrub vegetation area near the volta river northeast of accra . these two sites are separated by approximately 200 miles (\nthe animal shipments were packed into multi - tiered wooden crates with wire - lined compartments . members of each of the smaller species ( lemniscomys and graphiurus ) were shipped with approximately 25 animals per compartment . the exporter reported seeing nothing unusual as far as overt disease in the animals before shipment , nor were any unusual animal die - offs seen at his facility before shipment . the shipment was sent as freight aboard a commercial airline and entered the united states through dallas , texas .\nto determine which species of interest might be capable of harboring mpxv in nature , members of the ghanaian division of wildlife services , cdc , the u . s . department of agriculture , and local trappers collected 204 animals over nine nights during march 24\u2013april 2 , 2004 . approximately 28 % ( 57 animals ) were collected in the eastern region and the remaining from the volta region (\n* pcr = polymerase chain reaction ; elisa = enzyme - linked immunosorbent assay .\n\u2020 the orthopoxvirus dna detection threshold for the orthopoxvirus generic e9l polymerase real - time pcr assay is \u2265 2 fg of purified vaccinia dna .\nresult replicated in independent assay ; represents finding from liver , spleen , skin , and / or pooled organ specimens . details are shown in\n\u00b6 female dormice were significantly more likely to have opx - reactive titers at 1 : 50 than males ( p = 0 . 030 , by fisher ' s exact test , 2 - sided ) .\nspp . ( at a reciprocal dilution of 200 ) , and seven others had low levels of antibodies .\n* pcr = polymerase chain reaction ; elisa = enzyme - linked immunosorbent assay ; nd = not determined .\ntissues from the nine animals that showed positive results by real - time pcr specific for opxv ( generic ) polymerase ( e9l ) dna signatures were also assayed for a secondary opxv dna target ( 14 - kd fusion protein ) . three of the nine animals were also positive for this secondary opxv (\n) . all animals were subsequently screened for mpxv - specific signatures by using a real - time pcr designed to detect sequences corresponding to the mpxv envelope protein ( b6r ) . the mpxv - specific dna signals were not reproducibly detected in any of the specimens . however , the mpxv - specific assay is slightly less sensitive than the opxv generic a27l assay ( 10 genomes versus 4 genomes , respectively ) .\na cytopathic effect caused by opxv was not observed in virus cultures prepared from the tissues of any animals , nor was culturable virus obtained after serial passage . ( in our hands , virus culture is typically 10\u2013100 - fold less sensitive than the most sensitive real - time pcr in detecting opxv in clinical specimens . )\none graphiurus spp . ( animal number 431 ) had a low level of antibodies against opxv in its serum and opxv dna signatures in its spleen . two funisciurus spp . with antibodies against opxv had equivocal opxv dna findings in pooled organ specimens in the pcr screening .\nto investigate whether persons working closely with sylvan animals and humans living near animal trapping sites might be at enhanced risk for exposure to opxvs , we conducted a serosurvey among residents of several villages within walking distance of where the animals implicated in the u . s . outbreak had been originally collected . for purposes of this study , these villages will be referred to as villages a / b ( eastern region ) and village c ( volta region ) . in all , 65 residents of village c ( approximately 92 % of the total village population ) , 100 residents of villages a / b ( approximately 33 % and 85 % of the total village populations , respectively ) , and 7 persons who were directly involved in the exotic animal trade consented to participate in the serosurvey ("]}
{"id": 238, "summary": [{"text": "the marbled leaf-toed gecko ( afrogecko porphyreus ) is a gecko found in southern and southwestern south africa ( including many offshore islands ) and in namibia .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is a flat , medium-sized gecko . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "marbled leaf - toed gecko", "paragraphs": ["marbled leaf - toed gecko ( afrogecko porphyreus ) from claremont , western cape .\nthe two subspecies are commonly referred to as the western marbled gecko and the southern marbled gecko .\nafrogecko porphyreus ( marbled leaf - toed gecko ) , western cape . [ photo tyrone ping \u00a9 ]\nleaf - toed gecko is a common name for some species and genera of gecko . more\nthe peninsular leaf - toed gecko is the only nocturnal , climbing gecko native to the continental united states . the leaf - toed gecko\u0092s distinctive swollen toepads only cover the tips of the toes , and have a bilobed shape unlike those of other geckos found in north america . more\nthe musandam leaf - toed gecko is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nleo shapiro set\nmarbled gecko\nas an exemplar on\nchristinus marmoratus gray 1845\n.\nmarbled leaf - toed geckos gain their name from the enlarged leaf - like pads on each digit . in this image the gecko has at some point shed its tail to flee from a predator . the tail is now growing back with a rare\ndouble fork\nthe burmese leaf - toed gecko is a small gecko species native to myanmar ( burma ) . the total length of their body rarely excees 5 cm . these geckos are a light grey - brown color on top , with a darker brown bottom that varies from gecko to gecko . more\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - musandam leaf - toed gecko ( asaccus caudivolvulus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - musandam leaf - toed gecko ( asaccus caudivolvulus )\ntitle =\narkive species - musandam leaf - toed gecko ( asaccus caudivolvulus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe leaf - toed gecko is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\nthe peninsular leaf - toed gecko ( phyllodactylus nocticolus ) is the only gecko species native to the united states of america that is both climbing , and nocturnal . this gecko can be found in southern california on the slopes of semi - desert mountain ranges , extending through the baja california peninsula . more\ndistribution the cederberg dwarf leaf - toed gecko has a very restricted range in south africa and occurs from the bokkeveld mountains in the north through the cederberg to the klein drakenstein mountains near wellington . more\nas its common name suggests , the musandam leaf - toed gecko is endemic to the musandam region of oman , and to the hajar mountains of the eastern united arab emirates ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .\ntaylor d , daniels cb , johnston g . in press . the marbled gecko in urban parklands : do retreat sites limit population size during winter ? herpetologica .\nthe leaf - toed gecko is from the order squamata . species from this order are amphisbaenians , lizards or snakes . there are over 6 , 000 living species belonging to the squamata order - it is the largest order of all reptiles . more\nthe european leaf - toed gecko was first described by gen\u00e9 in 1839 , the scientific name of this species is euleptes europaea . euleptes from greek meaning ' true ' and ' slim ' . europaea from latin meaning ' from europe ' . more\nbecause the kurdistan leaf - toed gecko is a recently described species from iran few is known about ecological and biological aspects in this species ( torki and sharifi 2007 ) . therefore this species is kept to gain more knowledge about its behaviour . more\n. . . the marbled gecko , christinus marmoratus is widely distributed across the woodlands of the southern seaboard of australia . marbled geckos are small ( snout vent length of \u224850 mm and mass of \u22482 . 5 g ( kearney and predavec 2000 ) ) . in the adelaide region marbled geckos are found on trees with exfoliating bark , in dry sclerophyll forests which it uses as diurnal retreat sites ( daniels 1981 ) . . . .\na study conducted by king in 1977 showed that c . marmoratus exhibits considerable geographic variation in karyotype across its range . further investigation by donnellan et al . ( 2000 ) led to the species being recognized as a composite of two subspecies ; c . marmoratus marmoratus and c . marmoratus dactyls . the two subspecies are commonly referred to as the western marbled gecko and the southern marbled gecko .\nthere are no known specific conservation measures currently in place for the musandam leaf - toed gecko . however , it occurs in a number of protected areas , which may offer it some protection . further studies are needed into the distribution , abundance and biology of this gecko , as well as into the potential threats it faces ( 1 ) .\nthe musandam leaf - toed gecko was only described as a separate species as recently as 1994 ( 4 ) . the body of this species is pinkish in colour , almost translucent , with darker bands running down the body and onto the tail , and small tubercles covering the back .\npalystes occurs mainly on plants where it hunts various insects but is also regularly found in the home where they are fond of hunting geckos ( usually the marbled leaf - toed gecko , afrogecko porphyreus in the western cape or the cape dwarf gecko , lygodactylus capensis in the eastern parts of southern africa ) and are sometimes called lizard - eating spiders . they usually appear in the home just before the onset of rain and the males are regularly seen in august to december , probably looking for females and also females busy foraging .\nsize a small gecko with adult snout - vent length ranging from 45 - 50 mm .\narnold , e . n . and gardner , a . s . ( 1994 ) a review of the middle eastern leaf - toed geckoes ( gekkonidae : asaccus ) with descriptions of two new species from oman . fauna of saudi arabia , 14 : 424 - 441 .\nrelatively little is known about the threats faced by the musandam leaf - toed gecko , but it may be locally threatened in parts of its range by quarrying activities ( 1 ) . general threats to the region\u2019s wildlife include habitat loss due to increasing urbanisation and development , as well as overgrazing by livestock , mining , pollution , and over - extraction of ground water ( 6 ) ( 7 ) .\nr\u00f6sler , herbert 2017 . gecko - chorologie ( squamata : gekkota ) . gekkota ( 4 ) : 1 - 160\ndaniels cb . 1984 . the importance of caudal lipid in the gecko phyllodactylus marmoratus . herpetologica 40 : 3 , 337 - 344 .\nbauer a m . good d a . branch w r . 1997 . the taxonomy of the southern african leaf - toed geckos ( squamata : gekkonidae ) , with a review of old world\nphyllodactylus\nand the description of five new genera . proc . cal . acad . sci . 49 ( 14 ) : 447 - 497 . - get paper here\nthe musandam leaf - toed gecko is active at night ( 2 ) and , like most other geckos , is likely to feed on a variety of insects and other small invertebrates ( 3 ) . this species lays a single , hard - shelled , spherical egg , which is glued to rock deep within crevices in caves or cliffs . a number of individuals may lay their eggs in the same traditional , communal laying sites . in captivity , one egg may be laid around every three to four weeks ( 2 ) .\nalthough the mountains of the united arab emirates have so far not been subject to the same degree of habitat loss as many lowland regions , the available habitat in these areas is limited , and some isolated reptile populations may potentially be threatened . of particular concern is a population of the musandam leaf - toed gecko in jebel ras , south of khor fakkan in the united arab emirates . this area has been subject to high levels of urban and industrial development , and the continued survival of this small population is uncertain ( 8 ) .\nkearney m , predavec m . 2000 . do nocturnal ectotherms thermoregulate ? a study of the temperate gecko christinus marmoratus . ecology 81 : 11 , 2984 - 2996 .\nthe bibrons gecko is a nocturnal species with large eyes and vertical pupils to improve vision in the dark . during the day they hide in rock crevices or under bark .\nheinicke , matthew p . ; juan d . daza , eli greenbaum , todd r . jackman & aaron m . bauer 2014 . phylogeny , taxonomy and biogeography of a circum - indian ocean clade of leaf - toed geckos ( reptilia : gekkota ) , with a description of two new genera . systematics and biodiversity 12 ( 1 ) : 23 - 42 , doi : 10 . 1080 / 14772000 . 2013 . 877999 - get paper here\nhemidactylus platyurus , commonly known as the flat - tailed house gecko , is a species of gekkonidae native to southeastern and southern asia . the species is sometimes classified under the genus cosymbotus .\nthese geckos are frequently found in the pet trade , including corporate chain stores , usually identified only as\nhouse gecko\n. while there are other species of gecko available under the same common name , the cosymbotus platyurus is easily identified by the flaps of skin along its sides , making them resemble a miniature flying gecko ( ptychozoon genus ) . they are easily maintained in a terrarium with frequent misting and insect prey , but they are not easy to handle . also , herpetoculturists often use this species in addition to anoles as a feeder lizard for some species of snakes , especially asian green vine snakes ( ahaetulla prasina ) .\ndescription the head and body is flattened , an indication that it is a crevice dweller . the nostril is pierced between the rostral and three nasal scales . the calcium stores in the lateral neck region of females are often very prominent . the body is covered with small smooth granular scales . each toe has a pair of leaf - shaped lamellae . there is often a dark streak from the nostril through the eye . the body is greyish to grayish - brown above , uniform , variegated or marbled with reddish to dark brown . occasionally , specimens have a white stripe down the middle of the back . the underparts of the body are uniform white .\n. . . the close relationship chunky bark has with the trunk of the tree might also aid geckos to behaviourally thermoregulate . marbled geckos in victoria that use rocks as retreat sites , actively choose rocks with favourable thermal conditions ( kearney and predavec 2000 ; kearney 2002 ) and actively control their temperature while in retreat sites by changing their posture ( kearney 2001 ) . . . .\n) is a species of gekkonidae ( gecko ) native to southern mainland of australia , from victoria to western australia . the species is well adapted to a variety of habitats , including city dwellings . other related taxa in addition to this species are also known as\nc . marmoratus is australia\u2019s most southerly gecko . it occurs from northeastern new south wales to southwestern western australia , as well as a number of islands off the coasts of south australia and western australia . they use a variety of habitats including open shrubland , sclerophyll forest , riverine woodland and urban regions .\ngecko porphyreus daudin 1802 : 130 phyllodactylus porphyreus \u2014 dum\u00e9ril & bibron 1836 : 393 phytodactylus porphyreus \u2014 wainson 1839 : 371 ( in error ) phyllodactylus porphyreus \u2014 boulenger 1885 : 87 phyllodactylus porphyreus namaquensis hewitt 1935 : 320 phyllodactylus porphyreus cronwrigthi hewitt 1937 : 205 phyllodactylus porphyreus namaquensis \u2014 wermuth 1965 : 143 phyllodactylus porphyreus \u2014 kluge 1993 afrogecko porphyreus \u2014 bauer et al . 1997 afrogecko porphyreus \u2014 heinicke et al . 2014\nwow i would have said those are 2 different species , but i guess babies can be different sometimes . . . even in body shape . now that i see the second picture , i would guess flat gecko ( afroedura ) species . . . mainly because of the flattened body shape and also the irregular pattern . because of distribution you mentioned i would also guess it to be one of the afroedura pondolia ssp ?\n. . . notably , although temperature tags in backpacks might indicate less accurate body temperatures for basking than for non - basking indi - viduals ( barroso et al . 2016 ) , the highest body temperatures selected by individuals did not differ between years ( % 42 . 1\u00b0c ) . active diurnal behavioral thermoregulation is a necessary adaptation of nocturnal geckos for digestion ( bustard 1967 , greer 1989 , angilletta et al . 1999 , kearney and predavec 2000 and for body growth ( autumn and de nardo 1995 ) . however , true basking behavior was previ - ously known for larger gecko species only ( greer 1989 ) or for species from cooler climates , e . g . , tarentola mauritanica ( lisi ci c et al . 2012 ; k . henle , personal observation ) . . . .\nsnout longer than the distance between the eye and the ear opening , one time and a half the diameter of the orbit ; forehead concave ; ear - opening small , oval , oblique . rostral four - sided , not twice as broad as high , with median cleft above ; nostril bordered by the rostral , the first labial and three nasals . nine to eleven upper and seven or eight lower labials ; mental large . triangular or pentagonal ; two pair of chin - shields , the median pair large , in contact with each other , the posterior pair small , sometimes separated from the labials . body depressed , covered above with uniform small granules , largest on the snout ; a dermal expansion from axilla to groin and another along the posterior side of the hind limb . ventral scales cycloid , imbricate . male with an uninterrupted series of 34\u201436 femoral pores . tail depressed , flat inferiorly , with sharp denticulated lateral edge , covered above with uniform small granules , below with a median series of transversely dilated plates . limbs moderate , depressed ; digits strongly dilated , about half - webbed , inner well developed ; 3 to 6 lamellae under the inner , 7 to 9 under the median digits . grey above , marbled with darker grey ; generally a dark streak from eye to shoulder . lower parts white . length of head and body 61 mm . ; tail 66 mm .\nwestern cape . [ photo rebelo a . \u00a9 , from sarca virtual museum ]\nislands off the west coast of south africa ( robben , jutten , dassen , meeuw , marcus , malgas , schappen ) . one questionable record from cameroon ( tornier 1902 ) , namibia\ntype locality : santo domingo island . terra typica designata ( fltzsimons 1943 ) : cape of good hope\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nbates , m . f . ; branch , w . r . , bauer , a . m . ; burger , m . , marais , j . ; alexander , g . j . & de villliers , m . s . ( eds . ) 2014 . atlas and red list of the reptiles of south africa , lesotho , and swaziland . suricata 1 . south african national biodiversity institute , pretoria , 512 pp .\nbauer , aaron m . 1997 . family gekkonidae . genus phyllodactylus . in : j . h . van wyk ( ed . ) : proceedings of the fitzsimons commemorative symposium , south african lizards : 50 years of progress . - herp . assoc . africa ( matieland , south afr . ) , pp . 24 - 28\nboulenger , g . a . 1885 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( nat . hist . ) i . geckonidae , eublepharidae , uroplatidae , pygopodidae , agamidae . london : 450 pp . - get paper here\ndaudin 1802 . histoire naturelle , g\u00e9n\u00e9rale et particuli\u00e8re des reptiles , vol . 4 . f . dufart , paris .\ndum\u00e9ril , a . m . c . and g . bibron . 1836 . erpetologie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale ou histoire naturelle complete des reptiles . vol . 3 . libr . encyclop\u00e9dique roret , paris , 528 pp . - get paper here\nherrmann , h . - w . ; w . r . branch 2013 . fifty years of herpetological research in the namib desert and namibia with an updated and annotated species checklist . journal of arid environments 93 : 94\u2013115 - get paper here\nhewitt , j . 1935 . some new forms of batrachians and reptiles from south africa . rec . albany mus . 4 : 283 - 357\nhewitt , j . 1937 . descriptions of south african lizards . ann . natal . mus . 8 : 199 - 209\nro\u0308sler , herbert 2015 . bemerkungen \u00fcber einige geckos der zoologischen staatssammlung m\u00fcnchen . gekkota , suppl . ( 2 ) : 3 - 54\nsch\u00f6necker , p . 2014 . s\u00fcdafrika . auf reptiliensuche entlang der garden route . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 19 ( 105 ) : 80 - 93\nswainson , w . 1839 . the natural history of fishes , amphibians , & reptiles , or monocardian animals . vol . 2 . longman , orme , brown , green and longmans , london - get paper here\ntornier , g . 1902 . die crocodile , schildkr\u00f6ten und eidechsen in kamerun . zool . jahrb . , abt . syst . , 15 ( 6 ) : 663 - 677 - get paper here\nwitberg , m . 2012 . the herpetofauna of schaapen island , langebaan , south africa . african herp news ( 56 ) : 11 - 16\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nthe number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .\nover the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .\nthe number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .\noverall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .\nthe reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .\ncurrently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .\nthe reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .\nthe reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : common in the region and tolerant of transformed habitats hence this species is assessed as least concern .\nthe population is stable . the population size is unknown ; genetic studies indicate possible cryptic taxa .\nnocturnal , occupying moist habitats where it shelters under tree bark , exfoliating rock flakes and fissures in rock outcrops . communal ; groups may occupy the same shelters . commensal with humans and common in urban areas ( branch 1998 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nproject noah is a tool to explore and document wildlife and a platform to harness the power of citizen scientists everywhere .\nfound in hermanus in the western cape . gravid female . one can clearly see the eggs through the body .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we\u0092ll send you a link to reset your password .\nif you want to use this image commercially and we ' ve indicated * that alamy doesn ' t have a release , you might need additional permission from the model , artist , owner , estate , trademark or brand . more information .\nsorry , this image isn ' t available for this licence . please refer to the license restrictions for more information .\non the alamy prints site ( powered by art . com ) choose your frame , the size and finish of your photo .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nusing this photo this photo and associated text may not be used except with express written permission from wolfgang wuster . to obtain permission for personal , academic , commercial , or other uses , or to inquire about high resolution images , prints , fees , or licensing , or if you have other questions , contact wolfgang wuster urltoken . ( replace the [ at ] with the @ symbol before sending an email . )\n0000 0000 0805 0011 copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 uc regents . all rights reserved .\nbiology it is nocturnal and very common at houses in coastal areas of the western cape where it is often seen feeding on insects around outdoor lights . it is often regarded as a nuisance because of its faeces sticking to the walls . in nature , its habitat is very varied and it will shelter in any suitable hiding place , from rock crevices to under bark on dead trees . it is particularly common in coastal rock just above the highwater mark . it does not seem to be territorial as a number of individuals often live in the same retreat . females lay two hard - shelled eggs in early summer and communal egg laying sites are common . the eggs hatch after one and a half to two months .\ndistribution it is found in the w estern and southern coastal regions , from nieuwoudtville to cape st francis . it is also present on most of the offshore islands .\ndistribution in the gcbc there are only isolated records from the central cederberg range .\nthe environment agency - abu dhabi ( ead ) is working within the united arab emirates to protect and conserve the region\u2019s valuable biodiversity ( 9 ) , while the use of traditional , protected , livestock - free areas by local people in some parts of the hajar mountains may help to slow habitat loss to some degree ( 7 ) .\nenvironment agency - abu dhabi is a principal sponsor of arkive . ead is working to protect and conserve the environment as well as promoting sustainable development in the emirate of abu dhabi .\nhellyer , p . and aspinall , s . ( 2005 ) the emirates : a natural history . trident press limited , london .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nendemic a species or taxonomic group that is only found in one particular country or geographic area . invertebrates animals with no backbone , such as insects , crustaceans , worms , molluscs , spiders , cnidarians ( jellyfish , corals , sea anemones ) and echinoderms . tubercles small , rounded , wart - like bumps on the skin or on a bone . wadis mountain canyons found in north africa and the middle east that only carry water when it rains .\nhalliday , t . and adler , k . ( 2002 ) the new encyclopedia of reptiles and amphibians . oxford university press , oxford .\nalsharhan , a . et al . ( 2008 ) terrestrial environment of abu dhabi emirate . environment agency , abu dhabi , united arab emirates .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is featured in jewels of the uae , which showcases biodiversity found in the united arab emirates in association with the environment agency \u2013 abu dhabi .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\n. the species is well adapted to a variety of habitats , including city dwellings .\n. gray ' s description was based on four specimens that were preserved in spirits . they were collected on the abrolhos islands ( off\n) , and were donated to the british museum from the collection of a \u201cmr . gilbert . \u201d gray examined another preserved specimen of\nfurther investigation by donnellan et al . ( 2000 ) led to the species being recognized as a composite of two subspecies ;\nadults reach an average ( snout - vent ) length of 50mm , and weigh about 2 . 5g .\n) when threatened , to aid in escape . tails take about eight months to regenerate . fully regenerated tails are characterized by an abrupt change in dorsal skin colouring and pattern at the level of the original fracture plane . original tails also have much more developed muscular bands .\nhatchlings do not have any fat in the tail , and they drop it more readily than adults do .\nduring the hot summer months they generally use deep crevices and burrows as their daytime retreat sites , and in cooler weather they aggregate under rocks .\nare commonly found in aggregations of up to 10 individuals , and most aggregations contain one male .\naggregate so commonly ( kearney et al . reported that one quarter of individuals they found were in aggregations ) .\nwas 27 . 7\u00b0c . , which is much higher than their average body temperatures during the day or night . subsequent investigation by kearney and predavec ( 2000 ) revealed that\nby adjusting its posture , for instance , by raising or flattening the body to contact the rock substrate . they also seem to touch the rock with their snout before doing so , as if testing the temperature .\nbrowne - cooper , robert ; brian bush ; brad maryan ; david robinson ( 2007 ) . reptiles and frogs in the bush : southwestern australia . university of western australia press . pp . 108 , 109 . isbn 978 - 1 - 920694 - 74 - 6 .\ngray , j . e . 1845 . catalogue of the specimens of lizards in the collection of the british museum . trustees of die british museum / edward newman , london : xxvii + 289 pp .\nboulenger ga . 1885 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( nat . hist . ) i . geckonidae , eublepharidae , uroplatidae , pygopodidae , agamidae . london : 450 pp .\nwells rw , wellington cr . 1985 . a classification of the amphibia and reptilia of australia . australian journal of herpetology , supplementary series 1 : 1 - 61 .\nking m . 1977 . chromosomal and morphometric variation in the gekko diplodactylus vittatus ( gray ) . australian journal of zoology 25 : 43\u201357 .\ndonnellan sc , aplin kp , dempsey pj ( 2000 ) . genetic and morphological variation in australian christinus ( squamata : gekkonidae ) : preliminary overview with recognition of a cryptic species on the nullarbor plain . australian journal of zoology 48 : 289\u2013315 .\nkearney m , shine r , comber s , pearson d . 2001 . why do geckos group ? an analysis of \u201csocial\u201d aggregations in two species of australian lizards . herpetologica 57 : 4 , 411 - 422 .\nbellairs ada , bryant sv . 1985 . autotomy and regeneration in reptiles . in : gans c , billett f , editors . biology of the reptilia . new york : john wiley and sons , 301 - 410\nking m , rofe r . 1976 . karyotypic variation in the australian gekko phyllodactylus marmoratus ( gray ) ( gekkonidae : reptilia ) . chromosoma 54 : 75\u201387 .\ndaniels cb . , flaherty sp . , simbotwe mp . 1986 . tail size and effectiveness of autotomy in a lizard . journal of herpetology 20 : 1 , 93 - 96 .\nmarcellini d . 1977 . acoustic and visual display behaviour of gekkonid lizards . american zoologist 17 : 251 - 260 .\nstamps ja . 1988 . conspecific attraction and aggregation in territorial species . the american naturalist 131 : 3 , 329 .\nedgar r . waite f . l . s , c . m . z . s , 1929 the reptiles and amphibians of south australia , printed by harbison weir , government printer 31 january , p . 76 , 7 / - sixpence .\nleo shapiro selected\nchristinus marmoratus\nto show in overview on\nchristinus marmoratus gray 1845\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nphyllodactylus porphyreus dum\u00e9ril & bibron 1836 ( partim ) phyllodactylus peronii fitzinger 1843 diplodactylus marmoratus gray 1845 phyllodactylus marmoratus \u2014 boulenger 1885 : 88 phyllodactylus affinis \u2014 boulenger 1885 : 89 phyllodactylus marmoratus \u2014 cogger 1983 : christinus marmoratus \u2014 wells & wellington 1984 christinus marmoratus \u2014 cogger 2000 : 208 christinus marmoratus \u2014 wilson & swan 2010 : 60 christinus marmoratus \u2014 heinicke et al . 2014 christinus marmoratus marmoratus ( gray 1845 ) diplodactylus marmoratus gray 1845 goniodactylus australis gray 1845 gonatodes australis \u2014 boulenger 1885 : 72 ( ? ) phyllodactylus marmoratus marmoratus \u2014 storr 1987 christinus marmoratus marmoratus \u2014 r\u00f6sler 2000 : 62 christinus marmoratus macrodactylus ( fitzinger 1843 ) phyllodactylus peronii fitzinger 1843 : 95 phyllodactylus macrodactylus boulenger 1885 : 89 phyllodactylus marmoratus \u2014 loveridge 1934 christinus biggsae wells & wellington 1985 : 10 christinus marmoratus macrodactylus \u2014 r\u00f6sler 2000 : 62\ntype locality : restricted to west - and south australia ( kangaroo island , swan river , freemantle , champion bay , houtman\u2019s abrolhos , norfolk island , aneitum ) .\nsyntypes : mnhn 6734 , 6734a ( 1843 phyllodactylus peronii fitzinger ) lectotype : bmnh xxi . 9 . a ( 1845 diplodactylus marmoratus gray ) holotype : bmnh 55 . 8 . 16 . 15 ( 1885 phyllodactylus affinis - boulenger ) holotype : bmnh xxii . 86a ( 1845 goniodactylus australis gray ) syntypes : bmnh 70 . 6 . 26 . 60 ( 1885 phyllodactylus macrodactylus boulenger ) holotype : ams 116977 ( 1985 christinus biggsae wells & wellington )\nbauer , a . m . 1994 . liste der rezenten amphibien und reptilien : gekkonidae i ( australia ) . das tierreich , vol . 108 , w . de gruyter & co . ( berlin )\ncogger , h . g . 2014 . reptiles and amphibians of australia , 7th ed . csiro publishing , xxx + 1033 pp .\ncogger , h . g . 2000 . reptiles and amphibians of australia , 6th ed . ralph curtis publishing , sanibel island , 808 pp .\ndonnellan , s . c . ; aplin , k . p . & dempsey , p . j . 2000 . genetic and morphological variation in australian christinus ( squamata : gekkonidae ) : preliminary overview with recognition of a cryptic species on the nullarbor plain . australian journal of zoology 48 : 289 - 315 - get paper here\nfitzinger , l . 1843 . systema reptilium , fasciculus primus , amblyglossae . braum\u00fcller et seidel , wien : 106 pp . - get paper here\ngray , j . e . 1845 . catalogue of the specimens of lizards in the collection of the british museum . trustees of die british museum / edward newman , london : xxvii + 289 pp . - get paper here\nkay , g . m . ; d . michael ; m . crane ; s . okada ; c . macgregor ; d . florance ; d . trengove ; l . mcburney ; d . blair ; d . b . lindenmayer . 2013 . a list of reptiles and amphibians from box gum grassy woodlands in south - eastern australia . check list 9 ( 3 ) : 476 - 481 - get paper here\nking , m . ; rofe , r . 1976 . karyotypic variation in the australian gekko phyllodactylus marmoratus ( gray ) ( gekkonidae : reptilia ) . chromosoma 54 ( 1 ) : 75 - 87\nmichael , d . r . ; d . b . lindenmayer ; m . crane ; c . macgregor ; r . montague - drake ; l . mcburney . 2011 . reptilia , murray catchment , new south wales , southeastern australia . check list 7 ( 1 ) : 25 - 29 - get paper here\nr\u00f6sler , h . 2000 . studien an den begattungsorganen der geckos ( reptilia : gekkota ) - 5 . der hemipenis von christinus marmoratus marmoratus ( gray 1845 ) ( gekkonidae : gekkoninae ) . gekkota 2 : 255 - 258\nr\u00f6sler , h . 2000 . kommentierte liste der rezent , subrezent und fossil bekannten geckotaxa ( reptilia : gekkonomorpha ) . gekkota 2 : 28 - 153\nr\u00f6sler , herbert 1995 . geckos der welt - alle gattungen . urania , leipzig , 256 pp .\nstorr , g . m . 1987 . the genus phyllodactylus ( lacertilia : gekkonidae ) in western australia . rec . west . austr . mus . 13 ( 2 ) : 275 - 284 - get paper here\nwells , r . w . and wellington , c . r . 1985 . a classification of the amphibia and reptilia of australia . australian journal of herpetology , supplementary series , ( 1 ) : 1 - 61 . - get paper here\nwilson , s . & swan , g . 2010 . a complete guide to reptiles of australia , 3rd ed . chatswood : new holland , 558 pp .\nwe\u2019ve partnered with invision to make it easier to search and download our images in sketch and adobe\u00ae photoshop\u00ae .\n{ { t ( ' more _ than _ one _ credit ' , { zero : calc . totalcreditcost } ) } }\nonce this video clip is done converting , you ' ll be able to download it from your video conversion queue or download history .\neditorial use only photos don ' t have any model or property releases , which means they can ' t be used for commercial , promotional , advertorial or endorsement purposes . this type of content is intended to be used in connection with events that are newsworthy or of general interest ( for example , in a blog , textbook , newspaper or magazine article ) .\nthis format requires a quick conversion ( usually under 5 mins ) before download begins , or you can get the largest and smallest formats immediately .\ncrop for social , add text and more with istock editor . open in editor\nby clicking\nconfirm download\nyou agree that you ' ve read and agree to all applicable license agreements for this download .\npalystes castaneus in threat posture , showing banding beneath the legs . [ image n . larsen \u00a9 ]\npalystes is derived from either the latin\npalaestes\nor greek\npalaistes\nmeaning wrestler . these are the large spiders , often referred to as\ntarantulas\n, that cause havoc by entering buildings during summer or before rain .\nthese spiders were previously listed as potentially dangerous . after tests where they were induced into biting guinea - pigs it was established that although the guinea - pigs had died within 3 minutes , it had been from shock and not the effects of any venom . for humans , the venom is in fact no worse than a bee sting although the spider ' s aggressive display , with its 2 front pairs of banded legs raised in warning , is enough to shrink the stoutest of hearts . they occur usually in vegetation but sometimes occur in the home .\npalystes is also regularly seen in more unfortunate circumstances where it is being dragged around by a wasp or often the wasp is missing and all one finds is what seems to be a dead spider on the pathway . what has in fact happened is that the spider has been stung and immobilized by a female wasp of the family pompilidae . these wasps hunt only spiders that they sting and paralyse and then stock each of their nests with a paralyzed spider , lay an egg on it and then seal the nest . the wasp eggs then hatch and the larvae have live fresh food on which to feed . all peripheral tissue is eaten first and lastly the vital parts so the meal stays fresh long enough for the larva to mature and then pupate .\npompilid wasp , tachypompilus ignites , dragging a paralysed palystes superciliosus spider to her nest . [ image h . robertson , iziko \u00a9 ] .\ntwenty eight palystes species occur in central , eastern and southern africa with 13 resident in south africa .\npalystes body length is 15 - 36 mm with a leg span of up to 110 mm . dorsally ( top ) it is covered in tan to dark tan velvety covering of setae ( hairs ) . the abdomen and legs might be interspersed with slightly longer setae ( hairs ) .\nthe diagnostic features are a white moustachial stripe below the anterior ( front ) eyes and extending down the chelicerae ( fangs ) as well as banding on the ventral ( underside ) of the legs .\nanother identifying feature of palystes castaneus and p . superciliosus , is the egg sac made by the female . it is a roundish bag made of silk with leaves and twigs woven into it and is about 60 - 100mm in size . the construction of this nursery and the laying of eggs takes about 3 - 5 hours . the eggs hatch inside and are protected within the bag of silk and leaves . during this time the female guards her brood aggressively . many a gardener has been bitten by a protective palystes mother . after about 21 days , the spiderlings chew their way out of the sac to join the world . these egg sacs are a common sight from about november to april . mating takes place in early summer and the spider will produce about 3 egg cases in her 2 year life .\nis known from modimolle ( formerly nylstroom in limpopo ) , warburton ( mpumalanga ) to ndumo ( kwazulu - natal ) .\ns common from cape town to heidelberg in the western cape . it appears to be more common in forested areas and during november its egg cocoon is very common in low vegetation and hedges . it is replaced by\nis the common species in zimbabwe and limpopo province reaching into mala\u0175i , botswana ( okavango ) and mozambique . it occurs in savannah woodland .\noccurs mainly in the mountainous areas of the karoo . it occurs from beaufort west ( western cape ) to graaf - reinet to the kleinwinterhoekberge and kokstad district ( eastern cape ) . 14 - 22mm .\noccurs in the grahamstown to alicedale areas of the eastern cape . 16 - 25mm .\nis found in the bloemfontein area ( free state ) to modimolle ( formerly nystroom in limpopo ) .\nis only known from the type specimen . no locality is given only that it was collected in south africa . croeser believes it may be a montane species from the eastern cape . 29mm .\npalystes martinfilmeri is less common , occurring in the cedarberg - piketberg area ( northern and western cape ) . this is the largest species with a body length of 19 - 36 mm .\nis known from the amatola and hogsbach mountains ( eastern cape ) to port edward ( kwazulu - natal ) . 23 mm .\nheidelberg district , ( western cape ) . possibly a forest species that often occurs in the same area as\nin that its egg cocoon is similar to a white ping - pong ball . the female retreats into this with her eggs and cuts it open when she wants to leave . 26 mm .\nstuarti only known from nieuwoudtville ( northern cape ) . 24 - 34 mm .\nsuperciliosus is the most common and widespread species of the genus and ranges from kwazulu - natal westwards to mpumalanga , north west , limpopo , eastern and western cape .\ncayton - boxall , p . 1988 . the mating of two palystes . spider club news . 3 ( 1 ) : 8 .\ncroeser , p . m . c . 1979 . just a bag of old leaves ? eastern cape naturalist 66 : 8\u201310 .\ncroeser , p . m . c . 1996 . a revision of the african huntsman spider genus palystes l . kock , 1875 ( araneae : heteropodidae ) . annals of the natal museum 37 : 1 - 122 .\ndippenaar - schoeman , a . s . & r . jocqu\u00e9 . 1997 . african spiders : an identification manual . plant protection res . inst . handbook , no . 9 , pretoria , 392 pp .\nfilmer , m . r . , revised larsen , n . 2010 . filmer\u2019s spiders : an identification guide for southern africa , struik , cape town . 128pg j\u00e4ger , peter . 1999 . sparassidae \u2013 the valid scientific name for the huntsman spider ( arachnida : araneae ) . arachnol . mitt . 17 : 1 - 10 .\nj\u00e4ger , p . 2000 . heteropoda parva n . sp . and h . martusa n . sp . primitive or derived heteropoda species ? ( araneae : sparassidae : heteropodinae ) . mitt . internat . entomol . ver . 25 : 195 - 205 .\nj\u00e4ger p , kunz d . 2005 : an illustrated key to genera of african huntsman spiders ( araneae : sparassidae ) . \u2013 senckenbergiana biologica 85 ( 2 ) : 163\u2013213 . download from here\nj\u00e4ger , p . & d . kunz . palystes kreutzmanni sp . n . - a new huntsman spider species from fynbos vegetation in western cape province , south africa ( araneae , sparassidae , palystinae ) . zookeys 67 : 1 - 9 .\nlarsen , n . 2005 . more than just a bag of old leaves : a look into our rain spiders . newsletter of the spider club of south africa 20 ( 2 ) : 12\nlawrence , r . f . ( 1952a ) . new spiders from the eastern half of south africa . ann . natal mus . 12 : 183 - 226 .\nlawrence , r . f . 1962 . spiders of the namib desert . ann . transv . mus . 24 : 197 - 211 .\nlawrence , r . f . 1965 . new and little known arachnida from the namib desert , s . w . africa . scient . pap . namib des . res . stn 27 : 1 - 12 .\nlawrence , r . f . 1966 . new dune spiders ( sparassidae ) from the namib desert , south west africa . cimbebasia 217 : 3 - 15 .\nwarren , e . 1926 . on the habits , egg - sacs , o\u00f6genesis and early development of the spider palystes natalius ( karsh ) . annals of the natal museum 5 ( 3 ) : 303 \u2013 349 .\nyates , j . h . 1968 . spiders of southern africa . cape town : books of africa . 6 - 73 . unknown author . 1998 the rain spider , the wasp and physiotherapy . spider club news . 13 ( 3 ) : 5 - 6 .\never since the time when adam bit into the infamous apple , reptiles have caused a shiver down people\u2019s spine and our inborn reaction is to scream and run , or on occasion , worse for the reptile , pick up a blunt object and beat it into oblivion . reptiles however play a vital role in the environment and if one takes the time to study them , they are generally shy but fascinating creatures .\nsouthern africa has a incredible diversity of reptile fauna with a minimum of 517 species that have so far been described . these include 151 snakes , 338 lizards , 27 tortoises and one crocodile . many more species are still awaiting description in the scientific literature . sadly , many of these reptiles have largely been ignored in conservation management plans and require special attention in the future .\nthis juvenile cape cobra was basking in the warm evening light , which radiated off its recently shed skin . it reared its hood in a defensive pose and reversed backwards into a bush rapidly trying to escape .\ncape cobras are a highly adaptive species that can be found in a variety of habitats including low density towns and villages . their coloration is extremely variable from a golden yellow through to a dark chocolate brown with speckled varieties also occuring . they are highly intelligent snakes , maintaining a territory for many years .\nthe boomslang has well - developed binocular vision that allows the snake to see directly forward to detect predators and prey . they are generally an aboreal species that seldom descends to the ground .\nthe diet of the boomslang is extremely varied and includes tree living reptiles such as chameleons and small mammals and birds . due to their habit of raiding birds nests , the boomslang is often mobbed by small birds that will on occasion strike the snake .\nsnakes , such as this southern adder use their forked tongues to pick up particles in the air , which are then deposited onto the jacobson organs , which act in the same manner as our sense of smell . the forked tongue helps determine the direction of the smell .\nthe puff adder is one of the most wide - spread snakes in south africa and can attain an adult length of just under one meter . it is a slow moving snake that relies on its camouflage to avoid detection and ambush prey .\nthe puff adder is responsible for more cases of serious snakebites in south africa than any other . the venom is cytotoxic , causing extreme pain . handlers use plastic tubing and a snake stick to carefully capture and handle puff adders .\ndespite the bright warning colours of the spotted harlequin snake it is a docile snake , which rarely bites . they largely forage underground in tunnels and cracks , feeding on other burrowing reptiles .\nthe spotted skaapsteker is a diurnal hunter that uses speed and good eyesight to capture its prey which varies from small rodents , small reptiles and nestling birds . their name is misleading as their venom is only mildly toxic .\nthe robertsons dwarf chameleon is one of 15 currently described species of dwarf chameleon and adults are small ranging between 4 , 5 and 10cm in length . dwarf chameleons are heliothermic using the suns rays to raise their body temperature and climb into exposed positions in the mornings to bask .\nchameleons eyes can scan almost 180 degrees and can be moved in different directions simultaneously . their vision is more acute that that of humans\nthe male southern tree agama is brightly colored to both attract females and warn other males of their dominance status . they form family groups that are centered around clusters of trees . they avoid danger by moving rapidly around the tree trunk and fleeing into the upper branches .\nsouthern tree agamas are unusual in that they feed almost entirely on ants and termites .\nthe leopard tortoise is the largest species to be found in southern africa and may weigh as much as 12kgs . their home ranges may exceed 80 hectares\nduring the breeding season between september and april , male angulate tortoises use their enlarged gular shields in intensive battle with other males and try and use the gular shields as levers to overturn and ram their rivals .\nthe angulate tortoise which is found in fynbos habitat is extremely vulnerable to fire with many individuals burning to death if they cannot find shelter quickly enough . it can live in very high densities of up to 15 individuals per hectare\nmarsh terrapins are highly adaptable and during dry periods will bury themselves into the mud and aestivate in a torpid state until rain once again falls . in the kalahari , rain may only fall every few years and it is an incredible site to see the terrapins again emerging after such long periods of time .\nsignup to receive our latest images , wildlife and conservation photography updates direct to your inbox .\nthis email address is being protected from spambots . you need javascript enabled to view it .\nas a dedicated conservationist , peter chadwick has 30 years strategic and operational conservation experience in terrestrial and marine protected area management . he has worked within all of the major biomes in southern africa as well as having provided expert conservation advice at a global level . his conservation and wildlife photography is a natural extension to his conservation work where he has numerous opportunities to capture photographs that showcase the beauty and complexity of the outdoors . peter\u2019s photography is internationally recognized , with this work appearing globally in a wide range of print and electronic media .\nthese images are absolutely awesome ! aspiring to take photos even . . .\ni think another huge issue observed in both kzn and . . .\nand flying around in a gyrocopter even better . excellent work . . . .\na really awesome portfolio - must be one of the . . .\nsouth africa has a network of 21 marine protected areas ( mpas ) around our coastline . collectively they protect a wide range of marine habitat types and biodiversity . . . .\nthe guano islands off south africa are situated along the western and southern coastlines . the islands provide important breeding and nesting sites for many threatened seabirds .\nphotographs have the power to change the world by altering the perceptions and understanding of the viewer . conservation photography can bridge language barriers , be easily understood and can create . . .\nthe de hoop nature reserve and marine protected area is without a doubt , one of the flagship reserves of the cape floral kingdom and the fynbos . its habitats cover . . .\nthe overberg region of the western cape in south africa is one of the countries important agricultural areas and during spring and summer , is covered in vast green swathes . . .\nclose your eyes and imagine a soccer stadium densely packed to capacity with rows upon rows of fans and the eruption of noise , just as a goal by the . . .\nbirdlife south africa , with funding from the critical ecosystem partnership fund , initiated a project in southern africa with a focus on mozambique to develop the area as a birding . . ."]}
{"id": 244, "summary": [{"text": "oreoicidae is a newly recognized family of small insectivorous songbirds , the australo-papuan bellbirds .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the family contains three genera , each containing a single species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the genera are oreoica , which contains the crested bellbird ; ornorectes which conatins the crested pitohui , and aleadryas with the rufous-naped whistler . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "oreoicidae", "paragraphs": ["crested pitohui ( ornorectes cristatus ) is a species of bird in the oreoicidae family .\nthe crested pitohui ( ornorectes cristatus ) is a species of bird previously placed in the pachycephalidae family . it is now placed in the family oreoicidae .\nthe rufous - naped whistler ( aleadryas rufinucha ) is a species of bird in the oreoicidae family . it is assigned to the monotypic genus aleadryas .\noreoicidae is a newly recognized family of small insectivorous songbirds , formerly placed in the old world warbler\nwastebin\nfamily . it contains 3 species , all in different genera .\ni accept the name oreoicidae ( sibley and ahlquist , 1985a ) over oreoicidae ( schodde and christidis , 2014 ) . schodde and christidis object that there is not a proper definition or description of oreoicini sibley and ahlquist . however , they treat it as monotypic , and i think that defining the tribe oreoicini as consisting of crested bellbird is sufficient definition .\nbibliographic note : there is no\nfamily book\ncovering the oreoicidae , but good photographs and information about australian and new guinea species are found in frith ( 1979 ) and coates ( 1990 ) , respectively .\nlist of species of the australo - papuan bellbirds ( oreoicidae ) family . each species provides information on taxonomy , descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation and bibliography .\noreoicidae is a newly recognised family of small insectivorous passerines , formerly placed in the old world warbler incerta sedis family . they are confined to australasia ; two in new guinea and the third in australia . it contains just three species , all in different genera :\nj\u00f8nsson et al . ( 2016 ) found the three oreoicidae species to form a strongly - supported group . they even suggest putting them all in the same genus ( oreoica has priority ) , but with the split between them somewhere around 10 million years ago , i do not see a compelling reason to do this .\nthe ploughbill is a new guinea endemic . hbw treated them as a basal whistlers , along with 6 other taxa that have also been removed from the whistlers . the others are pachycare ( pardalotidae ) , falcunculus ( falcunculidae ) , oreoica and aleadryas ( oreoicidae ) , rhagologus ( rhagologidae ) , and hylocitrea ( hypocoliidae ) .\n( 2018 ) . australo - papuan bellbirds ( oreoicidae ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ngenetic studies have done a number on the family . although the core of it , the whistlers and shrike - thrushes , has remained unscathed , other taxa associated with the family have moved in or out . the pitohuis have been split into 4 genera , with pitohui itself moving to oriolidae and ornorectes in oreoicidae . the other three pitohuis have been retained in pachycephalidae in two genera .\nthere has support for other arrangements . although both aggerbeck et al . ( 2014 ) and j\u00f8nsson et al . ( 2016 ) both place oreoicidae near falcunculidae and cinclosomatidae , earlier analyses based on fewer genes have come to different conclusions . norman et al . ( 2009a ) weakly supported placing aleadryas and oreoica in malaconotoidea while j\u00f8nsson et al . ( 2008a ) put aleadryas and the former pitohui , ornorectes , near campehagidae .\nnorman et al . ( 2009 ) suggest some parallels in the distribution of australasian birds to the odd distribution of the three oreoicids . they point out that the family cinclosomatidae there are several species of quail - thrushes in the dry interior of australia , and several species of jewel - babblers that replace each other elevationally in the foothills and mountains of new guinea . thus , like that family , the oreoicidae contains birds of the dry country of australia with close relatives in the damp and steamy jungles of montane new guinea .\nthe crested bellbird is native to australia and is a medium - sized passerine member of the family oreoicidae that lives on mainland australia in dry habitats . its rich musical call is one of its most remarkable features , being a series of bell - like staccato , then a loud \u2018plop\u2019 . it is also surprising that this sound is ventriloquial - the bellbird can throw its voice , sounding as though it is off to your left a few meters , then fifty meters on your right , then behind you , making it difficult to establish the bird\u2019s location . there is little information about the crested bellbird\u2019s lifespan .\nhe crested bellbird ( oreoica gutturalis ) is a medium - sized passerine bird in the family oreoicidae . it is native to drier parts of australia where its typical habitats are acacia scrublands , eucalypt woodlands , spinifex and saltbush plains and , dunes . the male is about 20 cm ( 8 in ) long and has a grey head , a black crest and breast , and a grey or olive brown body . the female and juvenile are similar but the colours are more muted and the black breast is lacking . the distinctive call is a high pitched bell - like sound , audible at some distance . sometimes a pair of birds duet .\nbecause divisions between them are fairly deep , dating to near the oligocene / miocene boundary . j\u00f8nsson et al . ( 2016 ) estimate a common ancestor for the three families in the late oligocene at about 26 million years . moyle et al . ( 2016 ) put the divisions in the early miocene , following the wallacea uplift . although the grouping of falcunculidae and cinclosomatidae was strongly supported in aggerbeck et al . ( 2014 ) and j\u00f8nsson et al . ( 2016 ) , support for including oreoicidae was less strong . moyle et al . ( 2016 ) have cinclosomatidae basal in corvida while falcunculidae remains here , and that is the solution i follow .\npitohuis : although it turns out that they are not all that closely related , the pitohuis share an interesting characteristic . they ' re poisonous ! ( dumbacher et al . , 1992 . ) you can read more about these birds at dumbacher ' s website and an article in american birds . the exact relationships of these toxic species has not been exactly clear , so we shouldn ' t be entirely surprised that they have split apart . a paper by j\u00f8nsson et al . ( 2008a ) found that the pitohuis are not that closely related to each other . accordingly , they end up in four genera : ornorectes ( oreoicidae ) , pitohui ( oriolidae ) , pseudorectes ( pachycephalidae ) , and melanorectes ( pachycephalidae ) .\nrace lochmia sometimes synonymized with gamblei # r ; proposed race prasinonota ( herzog mts ) appears inseparable from latter . birds of torricelli and adelbert mts provisionally included in niveifrons , but racial identity requires confirmation . four subspecies recognized .\n( p . l . sclater , 1874 ) \u2013 vogelkop ( tamrau mts , arfak mts ) , in nw new guinea .\n( e . j . o . hartert , 1930 ) \u2013 mountains of w , c & n new guinea ( wandammen , fakfak , weyland , and nassau e to kubor and bismarck ranges , also foja mts , bewani mts , torricelli mts and adelbert mts ) .\n( mayr , 1931 ) \u2013 huon peninsula ( saruwaged mts ) , in ne new guinea .\n( rothschild , 1897 ) \u2013 herzog mts and mountains of se new guinea .\n16\u00b75\u201318 cm ; 38\u201342 g . nominate race has head and hindneck grey , rufous nape patch ; upperparts dull yellowish - olive , flight - feathers blackish - brown , edged . . .\nsong of clear ringing whistles or upslurs , either alternating between notes or repeated . . .\ninsects ; also worms , and fruit . credited locally with ability to take large prey . frequents ground and understorey . forages extensively on . . .\nnests with eggs in early jun and late dec , with eggs and young in mid - oct and with young in early dec , juveniles seen in late mar to mid - . . .\nnot globally threatened . not uncommon . can appear to be uncommon or scarce , as it is fairly shy and infrequently seen .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nboles , w . ( 2018 ) . rufous - naped bellbird ( aleadryas rufinucha ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthree monospecific genera previously scattered within pachycephalidae , where no clear links were agreed ; now shown to be closely related to each other # r # r , but nearest relatives of the group much debated , with proposals including oriolidae , paramythiidae , pachycephalidae , rhagologidae , campephagidae , malaconotidae , artamidae , cinclosomatidae and falcunculidae # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nsometimes treated as monotypic # r , as geographical variation is masked by age - and sex - related plumage differences . three subspecies currently recognized .\n( salvadori , 1875 ) \u2013 nw & w new guinea : mountains of vogelkop and onin peninsula , weyland mts and nassau mts .\n( e . j . o . hartert , 1930 ) \u2013 n & c new guinea e to sepik mts in n and karimui area of chimbu province in s ; cyclops mts ; s trans - fly region ( mouth of fly r and oriomo r area ) .\n25\u201326 cm ; 78\u2013111 g . nominate race has crown , hindneck and upper part of face dark olive - rufous , long crest of same colour reaching to nape when lying flat , lower . . .\nsong a long series of bell - like notes , beginning slowly , increasing in speed while slowly dropping . . .\nprimary rainforest , mainly in foothills , adjacent lowlands and hills to 1300 m , locally to lowlands . . .\ninsects . forages mainly on ground , sometimes in trees , particularly in middle levels . joins mixed - species foraging flocks .\nnot globally threatened . widely distributed and locally fairly common ; elsewhere scarce . markedly shy , with consequent lack of observations ; true level of abundance probably . . .\nboles , w . ( 2018 ) . piping bellbird ( ornorectes cristatus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nmathews , 1912 \u2013 western australia ( except sw & s ) , northern territory ( except n ) , south australia ( except s ) and w & c queensland .\n( vigors & horsfield , 1827 ) \u2013 sw & s western australia , s third of south australia , sc queensland , w two - thirds of new south wales and n victoria .\n19\u201323 cm ; 56\u201367 g . male nominate race has centre of forehead and crown to nape black , feathers elongated as crest , sides of crown and head from eye to nape grey , . . .\nsong with ringing , ventriloquial quality , starting softly and then intensifying , opening notes . . .\ninvertebrates , mainly insects ; some seeds . forages mainly on ground , occasionally in dense vegetation in low shrubs ; sometimes to higher . . .\neggs found late jul to early mar ; some local variation according to rain . territorial . nest built by both sexes , a deep cup with outer . . .\npresent throughout year at some localities ; alleged to move widely in winter or to be nomadic in . . .\nnot globally threatened . locally fairly common ; widespread . nominate race has disappeared from more than 50 % of its range , particularly along s & e periphery , contracting . . .\nboles , w . ( 2018 ) . crested bellbird ( oreoica gutturalis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nsometimes placed close to colluricincla , as it resembles c . harmonica in size and shape , and females of the two are similar to each other in plumage .\nonly subscribers have complete access to the families of the hbw alive . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\na detailed list of the species of the family is displayed to our subscribers , showing the following columns : genus , species , common name , conservation status , figure , and the check mark . above the table , a tiny search engine is displayed to facilitate the filtering of the species .\nyou don ' t have any subscription to the hbw alive . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe crested bellbird of australia is by far the best known species among this new group . it is traditionally been considered a whistler ( pachycephalidae ) . its call , a series of two slow notes and three quick notes , is a characteristic sound in arid mulga and mallee within its range . its aboriginal name\npanpanalala\nis alliterative for that call . the vocalization has a ventriloquil quality , and the bird itself can be hard to spot . i recall being led on a grand chase after it through the mallee of wyperfeld national park \u2014 and getting myself lost in the process !\napparently crested bellbird feeds primarily on the ground , and this behavior recalls wedgebills , with whom they have been associated in the past . the bird is said to have the\ncurious habit or ornamenting its nest with hairy caterpillars . it squeezes the caterpillars . around the middle , making them semi - immobile , and then attaches them to the rim of the nest . . . . . the young apparently do not eat the ornamental caterpillars .\n( frith 1979 ) .\nanother member of this new family is rufous - naped whistler ( right ; in a fine shot \u00a9 nik borrow ) of the new guinea mountains . it has been traditionally considered a whistler ( pachycephalidae ) .\nresearch by dumbacher et al . ( 2008 ) and j\u00f8nsson et al . ( 2008 ) found that the new guinea birds called pitohuis were not closely related at all . indeed , the evidence is that they belong to four separate families ! the\ntrue\npitohuis \u2014 variable pitohui pitohui kirhocephalus and hooded pitohui p . dichrous \u2014 are the only ones that belong in the genus pitohui . they are the now - famed\npoisonous birds ,\nand they are closely related to old world orioles ( oriolidae ) . one of the remained\npitohuis\nis crested pitohui . it is now considered part of this new clade .\nit is possible that both the\nwhistler\nand the\npitohui\nwill retain their english names , just as\nrobins\nor\nflycatchers\nare names that are scattered throughout many families . the names just will no longer have taxonomic meaning .\nthis is all brand - new stuff , and time will tell if this group lasts long as a family . it may prove to have additional members , or further research may place it within some traditional family . we ' ll just have to wait and see . in the meantime . . . go see one .\nnear waikerie , south australia in 2002 , presumably in the austral spring . nik borrow photographed the\nphotos \u00a9 paul hackett ( bellbird ) and \u00a9 nik borrow ( whistler ) and used with permission ; all rights reserved .\nbarker , f . k . , a . cibois , p . schikler , j . feinstein , and j . cracraft . 2004 . phylogeny and diversification of the largest avian radiation . proc . nat . acad . sci . 101 : 11040 - 11045 .\ncoates , b . j . 1990 . the birds of papua new guinea . part ii . dove publ . , ltd . , alderley , australia .\ndumbacher , j . p . , k . deiner , l . thompson , and r . c . fleisher . 2008 . phylogeny of the avian genus pitohui and the evolution of toxicity in birds . molec . phylog . evol . 49 : 774\u2013781 .\nfrith , h . j . , ed . 1979 . complete book of australian birds , rev . reader ' s digest serv . , surry hills , australia .\nj\u00f8nsson , k . a . , r . c . k . bowie , j . a . norman , l . christidis , and j . fjelds\u00e5 . 2008 . polyphyletic origin of toxic pitohui birds suggests widespread occurrence of toxicity in corvoid birds . biol . lett . 4 : 71\u201374 .\nfrith , h . j . , consulting ed . 1979 . the reader ' s digest complete book of australian birds . 2d revised ed . reader ' s digest services , ltd . , sydney .\nnorman , j . a . , p . g . p . ericson , k . a . j\u00f8nsson , j . fjelds\u00e5 , and l . christidis . 2009 . a multi - gene phylogeny reveals novel relationships for aberrant genera of australo - papuan core corvoidea and polyphyly of the pachycephalidae and psophodidae ( aves : passeriformes ) . molec . phylog . evol . 52 : 488 - 497 .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 6 / 8 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nioc world bird list , master list v3 . 4 , website ( version 3 . 4 )\ngill , f . , and d . donsker , eds . 2013 . ioc world bird list ( v 3 . 4 ) . available at urltoken [ accessed 20 august , 2013 ]\nnorman , janette a . , per g . p . ericson , knud a . j\u00f8nsson , jon fjelds\u00e5 , les christidis\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nfatbirder - linking birders worldwide . . . wildlife travellers see our sister site : wand\nrecent molecular evidence has discovered several lineages of birds , apparently not closely related to other groups , that were entirely unexpected .\nthe population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe crested bellbird is a medium - sized bird . adult males have grey heads with a raised black crest , a white forehead and throat , and a prominent black breast . the rest of the body is grey or brown and they have orange - red eyes . females and immature birds are less prominently coloured than the males , lacking the black breast and having a smaller , unraised black crest . this species is also known as the crested thrush , as well as having names such as ' dick - dick - the devil ' .\ntaxonomy : rectes cristata salvadori , 1876 , mount morait , north vogelkop , new guinea . three subspecies recognized .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) .\ntaxonomy : pachycephala rufinucha p . l . sclater , 1874 , hatam , arfak mountains , vogelkop , new guinea . often placed in genus pachycephala . proposed race prasinonota ( from herzog mts ) regarded as inseparable from gamblei . birds in torricelli mts and adelbert mts of uncertain racial affiliation , provisionally included in niveifrons . four subspecies recognized .\nignore this text box . it is used to detect spammers . if you enter anything into this text box , your message will not be sent .\nresponsibility bruce m . beehler and thane k . pratt ; mary lecroy , technical editor . publication princeton , new jersey : princeton university press , [ 2016 ] copyright notice \u00a92016 physical description 668 pages : illustrations ( some color ) , maps ; 25 cm\nauthor / creator beehler , bruce mcp . author . contributor pratt , thane k . , author . lecroy , mary , editor .\nsubject birds > new guinea > classification . birds > new guinea > geographical distribution . new guinea > gazetteers .\npublication date 2016 copyright date 2016 title variation new guinea note detailed map on end papers .\ngazetteer of new guinea ornithology [ by ] jennifer l . mandeville and william s . peckover\n: pages 560 - 632 . isbn 9780691164243 069116424x\nthe purpose of bird families of the world is as an aid to world birders who want to maximize their enjoyment of avian diversity by observing examples of as many bird families as is reasonable within the time and money available for travel , and as a study tool for all interested readers . this project began in 1999 . dna evidence has revised much of what was thought to be known about bird evolution and relationships . it has been the ' wild wild west ' in recent years as new research was published but , perhaps , a greater degree of consensus is now being reached . while tracking proposed revisions to the list of bird families , i ' ve advocated for more consistency in the use of evidence across bird groupings , and have not always followed the latest trends .\nfor this 15th edition , the changes highlighted below bring my list to 253 extant families .\nthis web project began on 9 feb 1999 when i posted a short page on the dulidae [ palmchat ] . while the list of bird families has been regularly updated to accommodate new research through 14 editions , it was not until 17 years and a month [ 6238 days ] that , with the posting of the vireonidae [ vireos ] , the project finally has a web page with text and photos for every family . many of the old pages badly need updating in both layout , text , and photos but at least the initial goal has been reached . the updating of old pages \u2014 including the dulidae \u2014 will go on . i ' ve used my own photos when i had them , but i ' m very grateful to the many photographers around the world who ' ve permitted me to use their wonderful shots when i needed them .\nin putting together this list , i ' ve been influenced by the winkler et al .\n[ full disclosure \u2014 i have been a volunteer junior member of the clements team since 2011 but i continue to depart from clements for purposes of this project . ]\ninfluential new publications include major efforts which combine molecular and fossil evidence to construct a comprehensive phylogeny of birds , perhaps most importantly prum et al . ( 2015 ) . winkler et al . ( 2015 ) , the aou , the sacc , and the ioc have now rearranged the sequence of orders and families ; clements intends to do so in 2018 . according , i have now resequenced all orders and families , generally following winkler et al . ( 2015 ) but preferring aou and / or sacc when the families involved are primarily new world families . so my current sequence is a mishmash of 3 current phylogenies .\nbarker et al . ( 2004 ) first suggested a close relationship between three ground - dweller\nbabblers\nin central africa and the sugarbirds ( promeropidae ) of southern africa . many global checklists placed the three genera [ modulatrix , arcanator and kakamega ] within the promeropidae , as did i . more recent genetic work , including nuclear dna ( johansson et al . 2008 ) , showed a strong divergence between these groups . most recently winkler et al . ( 2015 ) and other works confirm that the divergence is ancient , and the three skulking ground - dwellers are elevated to family level . winkler et al . ( 2015 ) call the new family modulatricidae . rather than arcanatoridae as does ioc , so i tentatively do so also . this now splits the three dapplethroats [ modulatricidae ] from the sugarbirds .\ni remain conservative about puerto rican tanager , genus nesospingus , lumping it with spindalises [ it looks rather like a female spindalis ] and it is closely related , and with yellow - breasted chat [ icteria ] , awaiting more evidence as to whether it remains a new world warbler , or should be with the icterids , or should become the youngest family of all .\nevery family has a link to a separate web page , with photos , that i created over the years . some are now very dated and badly need revision .\nbarker , f . k . , a . cibois , p . schikler , j . feinstein , and j . cracraft . 2004 . phylogeny and diversification of the largest avian radiation . proc . natl . acad . sci . 101 : 11040\u201311045 .\nbarker , f . k . , k . j . burns , j . klicka , s . m . lanyon , and i . j . lovette . 2013 . going to extremes : contrasting rates of diversification in a recent radiation of new world passerine birds . syst . biol . 62 : 298\u2013320 .\nburns , k . j . , a . j . schultz , p . o . title , n . a . mason , f . k . barker , j . klicka , s . m . lanyon , and i . j . lovette . 2014 . phylogenetics and diversification of tanagers ( passeriformes : thraupidae ) , the largest radiation of neotropical songbirds . molec . phylo . evol . 75 : 41 - 77 .\ndickinson , e . c . , and l . christidis . 2014 . the howard and moore complete checklist of the birds of the world : passerines vol . 2 . aves press , eastbourne , u . k .\njohansson , u . s . , j . fjelds\u00e5 , and c . k . bowie . 2008 . phylogenetic relationships within passerida ( aves : passeriformes ) : a review and a new molecular phylogeny based on three nuclear intron markers , mol . phylog . evol . 48 : 858\u2013876 .\nj\u00f8nsson , k . a . , p - h . fabre , j . d . kennedy , b . g . holt , m . k . borregaard , c . rahbek , and j . fjelds\u00e5 . 2016 . a supermatrix phylogeny of corvoid passerine birds ( aves : corvides ) . molec . phylog . evol . 94 : 87 - 94 .\nprum , r . o . , j . s . bery , a . dornburg , d . j . field , j . p . townsend , e . m . lemmon , and a . r . lemmon . 2015 . a comprehensive phylogeny of birds ( aves ) using targeted next - generation dna sequencing . nature 526 : 569\u2013573 .\nschodde , r . , and l . christidis . 2014 . relicts from tertiary australasia : undescribed families and subfamilies of songbirds ( passeriformes ) and their zoogeographic signal . zootaxa 3786 : 501 - 522 .\nwinkler , d . w . , s . w . billerman , and i . j . lovette . 2015 . birds families of the world : a guide to the spectacular diversity of birds . lynx edicions , barcelona .\ni thank the editors of the handbook of the birds of the world project ; the late g . stuart keith , co - author birds of africa series ; the late james clements , author of the clements ' world checklists ; keith barker , frank gill , murray lord , tom schulenberg , and van remsen for sharing with me ideas and concepts about the taxonomy and arrangement of a listing of bird families of the world . i appreciate their input , but all the decisions reflected in the above listing are mine , including all the errors .\nafter its discovery , a . affinis terborghi was included as a form of the barred owlet - nightjar aegotheles bennettii on account of its close similarity to the two mainland races of a . bennettii : the nominate and a . b . wiedenfeldi ( sibley & monroe 1990 ) . however , it is much darker above and also much larger than either of these these races : its wing length of 154 mm greatly exceeds the 121\u2013128 mm of a . b . bennettii . mitochondrial dna differences also suggest a relationship to a . a . affinis , as well as the splitting - off of both a . affinis races from the a . bennettii clade ( dumbacher et al . 2003 ) . the two known populations of the allied owlett - nightjar inhabit low - altitude montane areas some 1400 km apart . they may be two distinct species ( beehler & pratt 2016 ) but further observations and voice recordings are required to clarify the situation .\nbeehler , b . m . & pratt , t . k . ( 2016 ) . birds of new guinea : distribution , taxonomy , and systematics . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2016 ) . allied owlet - nightjar ( aegotheles affinis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona .\ndiamond , j . m . ( 1967 ) . new subspecies and records of birds from the karimui basin , new guinea . american museum novitates 2284 : 1\u201317 .\ndumbacher , j . p . , pratt , t . k . & fleischer , r . c . ( 2003 ) . phylogeny of the owlet - nightjars ( aves : aegothelidae ) based on mitochondrial dna sequence . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 29 ( 3 ) : 540\u2013549 .\nsibley , c . g . & monroe jr . , b . l . ( 1990 ) . distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world . yale university press , new haven , connecticut .\nbanwell , a . ( 2016 ) . rediscovery of the karimui owlet - nightjar . hbw alive ornithological note 427 . in : handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nrichard schodde australian national wildlife collection , csiro ecosystem sciences , po box 1700 , canberra , act 2601 australia .\naggerbeck , m . , fjelds\u00e5 , j . , christidis , l . , fabre , p . - h . & j\u00f8nsson , k . a . ( 2014 ) resolving deep lineage divergences in core corvoid passerine birds supports a proto - papuan island origin . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 70 , 272\u2013285 . urltoken\nbarker , f . k . , barrowclough , g . f . & groth , j . g . ( 2002 ) a phylogenetic hypothesis for passerine birds : taxonomic and biogeographic implications of an analysis of dna nuclear sequence data . proceedings of the royal society of london , series b , 269 , 295\u2013308 . urltoken\nbarker , f . k . , cibois , a . , schikler , p . , feinstein , j . & cracraft , j . ( 2004 ) phylogeny and diversification of the largest avian radiation . proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america , 101 , 11040\u201311045 . urltoken\nbaumel , j . j . , king , a . s . , lucas , a . m . , breazile , y . e . & evans , h . e . ( eds . ) ( 1979 ) nomina anatomica avium . academic press , london , 637 pp .\nbeecher , w . j . ( 1953 ) a phylogeny of the oscines . auk , 70 , 270\u2013333 . urltoken\nbeehler , b . m . & finch , b . w . ( 1985 ) species - checklist of the birds of new guinea . royal australasian ornithologists union monograph 1 . royal australasian ornithologists union , moonee ponds , 127 pp .\nbeehler , b . m . , pratt , t . k . & zimmerman , d . a . ( 1986 ) birds of new guinea . princeton university press , princeton , 293 pp .\nbeehler , b . m . , diamond , j . m . , kemp , n . , scholes , e . iii . , milensky , c . & laman , t . g . ( 2012 ) avifauna of the foja mountains of western new guinea . bulletin of the british ornithologists\u2019 club , 132 , 84\u2013101 .\nbock , w . j . ( 1962 ) the pneumatic fossa of the humerus in the passeres . auk , 79 , 425\u2013443 . urltoken\nbock , w . j . ( 1963 ) relationships between the birds - of - paradise and the bower birds . condor , 65 , 91\u2013125 . urltoken\nbock , w . j . ( 1985 ) relationships of the sugarbird ( promerops , passeriformes , ? meliphagidae ) . in : schuchmann , k . l . ( ed . ) , proceedings of the international congress on african vertebrates . museum koenig , bonn , pp . 349\u2013374 .\nbock , w . j . ( 1994 ) history and nomenclature of avian family - group names . bulletin of the american museum of natural history , 222 , 1\u2013281 .\nboles , w . e . ( 2007a ) family pachycephalidae ( whistlers ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . & christie , d . ( eds . ) , handbook of the birds of the world . vol . 12 . lynx edicions , barcelona , pp . 374\u2013437 .\nboles , w . e . ( 2007b ) family eupetidae ( jewel - babblers and allies ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . & christie , d . ( eds . ) , handbook of the birds of the world . vol . 12 . lynx edicions , barcelona , pp . 348\u2013373 .\nbyrne , m . , steane , d . a . , joseph , l . , yeates , d . k . , jordan , g . j . , crayn , d . , aplin , k . , cantrill , d . j . , cook , l . g . , crisp , m . d . , keogh , j . s . , melville , j . , moritz , c . , porch , n . , sniderman , j . m . k . , sunnucks , p . & weston , p . h . ( 2011 ) decline of a biome : contraction , fragmentation , extinction and invasion of the australian mesic zone biota . journal of biogeography , 38 , 1635\u20131656 . urltoken\ncharlton , t . r . ( 2000 ) tertiary evolution of the eastern indonesia collision complex . journal of asian earth sciences , 18 , 603\u2013631 . urltoken\nchristidis , l . ( 1991 ) biochemical evidence for the origins and evolutionary radiations in the australasian avifauna : the songbirds . acta xx congressus internationalis ornithologici . vol . 1 . new zealand ornithological trust board , wellington , pp . 392\u2013397 .\nchristidis , l . & boles , w . e . ( 1994 ) . the taxonomy and species of birds of australia and its territories . royal australasian ornithologists union monograph 2 . royal australasian ornithologists union , hawthorn east , victoria , 112 pp .\nchristidis , l . & boles , w . e . ( 2008 ) systematics and taxonomy of australian birds . csiro publishing , melbourne , 277 pp .\nchristidis , l . & schodde , r . ( 1991 ) relationships of the australo - papuan songbirds\u2015protein evidence . ibis , 133 , 277\u2013285 . urltoken\nchristidis , l . , schodde , r . & robinson , n . a . ( 1993 ) affinities of the aberrant australo - papuan honeyeaters , toxorhamphus , oedistoma , timeliopsis and epthianura : protein evidence . australian journal of zoology , 41 , 423\u2013432 . urltoken\ncoates , b . j . ( 1990 ) the birds of papua new guinea . vol . 2 . dove publications , alderley , queensland , 576 pp .\ncoates , b . j . , dutson , g . c . l . & filardi , c . ( 2006 ) monarchidae ( monarch - flycatchers ) . in : del hoyo , j , elliott , a . & christie , d . ( eds . ) , handbook of the birds of the world . vol . 11 . lynx edicions , barcelona , pp . 244\u2013329 .\ncottrell , g . w . ( 1967 ) a problem species : lamprolia victoriae . emu , 66 , 253\u2013266 . urltoken\ndeignan , h . g . ( 1964 ) family orthonychidae . in : mayr , e & paynter , r . a . jr . ( eds . ) , check - list of birds of the world , a continuation of the work of james l . peters . vol . 10 . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts , pp . 228\u2013240 .\ndel hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . & christie , d . ( eds . ) ( 1992\u20132011 ) handbook of the birds of the world . vols . 1\u201316 . lynx edicions , barcelona , 12500 pp .\ndiamond , j . m . ( 1983 ) melampitta gigantea : possible relation between feather structure and underground roosting habits . condor , 85 , 89\u201391 . urltoken\ndickinson , e . c . ( ed . ) ( 2003 ) the howard and moore complete checklist of the birds of the world . 3 rd edition . christopher helm , london , 1039 pp .\ndow , d . b . ( 1977 ) a geological synthesis of papua new guinea . geology and geophysics bulletin ( bmr australia ) , 201 , 1\u201341 .\ndorst , j . j . ( 1952 ) contribution \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9tude de la langue des meliphagides . l\u2019oiseau et la revue francaise d\u2019ornithologie , 22 , 185\u2013214 .\ndriskell , a . , christidis , l . , gill , b . j . , boles , w . e . , barker , f . k . & longmore , n . w . ( 2007 ) a new endemic family of new zealand passerine birds : adding heat to a biodiversity hotspot . australian journal of zoology , 55 , 73\u201378 . urltoken\nericson , p . g . p . , christidis , l . , cooper , a . , irestedt , m . , jackson , j . , johansson , u . s . & norman , j . a . ( 2002 ) a gondwanan origin of passerine birds supported by dna sequences of the endemic new zealand wrens . proceedings of the royal society of london , series b , 269 , 235\u2013241 . urltoken\nfrith , c . b . ( 1971a ) some undescribed nests and eggs of new guinea birds . bulletin of the british ornithologists\u2019 club , 91 , 46\u201349 .\nfrith , c . b . ( 1971b ) nidification of some new guinea birds . bulletin of the british ornithologists\u2019 club , 91 , 164\u2013165 .\nfrith , c . b . & frith , d . w . ( 1990 ) nesting biology and relationships of the lesser melampitta melampitta lugubris . emu , 90 , 65\u201373 . urltoken\nfrith , c . b . & beehler , b . m . ( 1998 ) the birds of paradise paradisaeidae . oxford university press , oxford , 613 pp .\ngadow , h . ( 1884 ) on the suctorial apparatus of the tenuirostres . proceedings of the zoological society of london , 1883 , 62\u201369 .\ngardner , j . l . , trueman , j . w . h . , ebert , d . , joseph , l . & magrath , r . d . ( 2010 ) phylogeny and evolution of the meliphagoidea , the largest radiation of australian songbirds . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 55 , 1087\u20131102 . urltoken\ngill , f . b . & wright , m . ( 2006 ) birds of the world recommended english names . princeton university press , princeton & oxford , 259 pp .\nhall , r . ( 2002 ) cenozoic geological and plate tectonic evolution of se asia and the sw pacific : computer - based reconstructions , model and animations . journal of asian earth sciences , 20 , 353\u2013431 . urltoken\nhall , r . ( 2009 ) southeast asia\u2019s changing palaeogeography . blumea , 54 , 148\u2013161 . urltoken\nharrison , c . j . o . & parker , s . a . ( 1965 ) the behavioural affinities of the blue wrens of the genus malurus . emu , 65 , 103\u2013113 . urltoken\nheather , b . d . ( 1977 ) the vanua levu lamprolia ( lamprolia victoriae kleinschmidti ) : a preliminary look at its status and habits . notornis , 24 , 94\u2013128 .\niczn ( international commission on zoological nomenclature ) ( 1999 ) international code of zoological nomenclature . 4 th edition . international trust for zoological nomenclature , london , 306 pp .\nirestedt , m . , fuchs , j . , j\u00f8nsson , k . a . , ohlson , j . i . , pasquet , e . & ericson , p . g . p . ( 2008 ) the systematic affinity of the enigmatic lamprolia victoriae ( aves : passeriformes ) \u2015an example of avian dispersal between new guinea and fiji over miocene intermittent land bridges . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 48 , 1218\u20131222 . urltoken\nj\u00f8nsson , k . a . & fjelds\u00e5 , j . ( 2006 ) a phylogenetic supertree of oscine passerine birds ( aves : passeri ) . zoologica scripta , 35 , 149\u2013186 . urltoken\nj\u00f8nsson , k . a . , bowie , r . c . k . , norman , j . a . , christidis , l . & fjelds\u00e5 , j . ( 2007 ) polyphyletic origin of toxic pitohui birds suggests widespread occurrence of toxicity in corvoid birds . biology letters , 4 , 71\u201374 . urltoken\nj\u00f8nsson , k . a . , irestedt , m . , fuchs , j . , ericson , p . g . p . , christidis l . , bowie , r . c . k . , norman , j . a . , pasquet , e . & fjelds\u00e5 , j . ( 2008 ) explosive avian radiations and multi - directional dispersal across wallacea : evidence from the campephagidae and other crown corvida ( aves ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 47 , 221\u2013236 . urltoken\nj\u00f8nsson , k . a . , bowie , r . c . k . , nylander , j . a . a . , christidis , l . , norman , j . a . & fjelds\u00e5 , j . ( 2010 ) biogeographical history of cuckoo - shrikes ( aves : passeriformes ) : transoceanic colonization of africa from australo - papua . journal of biogeography , 37 , 1767\u20131781 . urltoken\nj\u00f8nsson , k . a . , fabre , p . - h . , ricklefs , r . e . & fjelds\u00e5 , j . ( 2011 ) major global radiation of corvoid birds originated in the proto - papuan archipelago . proceedings of the national academy of sciences , usa , 108 , 2328\u20132333 . urltoken\nkearns , a . m . , joseph , l . & cook , l . g . ( 2013 ) a multilocus coalescent analysis of the speciation history of the australo - papuan butcherbirds and their allies . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 66 , 941\u2013952 . urltoken\nlivezey , b . c . & zusi , r . l . ( 2006 ) higher - order phylogeny of modern birds ( theropoda , aves : neornithes ) based on comparative anatomy : i . \u2014methods and characters . bulletin of the carnegie museum of natural history , 37 , 1\u2013556 .\nmack , a . l . & oppel , s . ( 2006 ) nidification of dwarf whistler pachycare flavogriseum , a little - known new guinean endemic . bulletin of the british ornithologists\u2019 club , 126 , 61\u201364 .\nmathews , g . m . ( 1930 ) systema avium australasianarum . part 2 . british ornithologists\u2019 union , london , 427\u20131048 .\nmayr , e . ( 1931 ) die syrinx einiger singv\u00f6gel aus neu - guinea . journal f \u00fcr ornithologie , 79 , 333\u2013337 . urltoken\nmayr , e . ( 1940 ) the origin and the history of the bird fauna of polynesia . proceedings of the sixth pacific science congress , 4 , 197\u2013216 .\nmayr , e . ( 1941 ) list of new guinea birds . american museum of natural history , new york , 260 pp .\nmayr , e . ( 1967 ) subfamily pachycephalinae . in : paynter , r . a . jr . ( ed . ) , check - list of birds of the world , a continuation of the work of james l . peters . vol . 12 . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts , pp . 3\u201351 .\nmayr , e . ( 1986 ) genera incertae sedis . in : mayr , e . & cottrell , g . w . ( eds . ) , check - list of birds of the world , a continuation of the work of james l . peters . vol . 11 . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts , pp . 526 - \u2013529 .\nmayr , e . & gilliard , e . t . ( 1954 ) birds of central new guinea : results of the american museum of natural history expeditions to new guinea in 1950 and 1952 . bulletin of the american museum of natural history , 103 , 314 - \u2013374 .\nnorman , j . a . , boles , w . e . & christidis , l . ( 2009a ) relationships of the new guinean songbird genera amalocichla and pachycare based on mitochondrial and nuclear dna sequences . journal of avian biology , 40 , 640\u2013645 . urltoken\nnorman , j . a . , ericson , p . g . p , j\u00f8nsson , k . a . , fjelds\u00e5 , j . & christidis , l . ( 2009b ) a multi - gene phylogeny reveals novel relationships for aberrant genera of australo - papuan core corvoidea and polyphyly of the pachycephalidae and psophodidae ( aves : passeriformes ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 52 , 488\u2013497 . urltoken\nny\u00e1ri , a . s . , benz , b . w . , j\u00f8nsson , k . a . , fjelds\u00e5 , j . & moyle , r . g . ( 2009 ) phylogenetic relationships of fantails ( aves : rhipiduridae ) . zoologica scripta , 38 , 553\u2013561 . urltoken\nolson , s . l . ( 1980 ) lamprolia as part of a south pacific radiation of monarchine flycatchers . notornis , 27 , 7\u201310 .\nparker , s . a . ( 1963 ) nidification of the genus melanocharis sclater ( dicaeidae ) . bulletin of the british ornithologists\u2019 club , 83 , 109\u2013112 .\npigram , c . j . & davies , h . l . ( 1987 ) terranes and the accretion history of the new guinea orogen . bmr journal of australian geology and geophysics , 10 , 193\u2013212 .\npigram , c . j . & symonds , p . a . ( 1991 ) a review of the timing of the major tectonic events in the new guinea orogen . journal of southeast asian earth sciences , 6 , 307\u2013318 . urltoken\npratt , d . , bruner , p . l . & berrett , d . g . ( 1987 ) the birds of hawaii and the tropical pacific . princeton university press , princeton , 409 pp .\nrand , a . l & gilliard , e . t . ( 1967 ) handbook of new guinea birds . weidenfeld & nicolson , london , 611 pp .\nrocamora , g . j . & yeatman - berthelot , d . ( 2009 ) family dicruridae ( drongos ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . & christie , d . ( eds . ) , handbook of the birds of the world . vol . 14 . lynx edicions , barcelona , pp . 172\u2013271 .\nrothschild , w . & hartert , e . ( 1896 ) contributions to the ornithology of the papuan islands . iv . list of a collection made by albert s . meek on fergusson , trobriand , egum and woodlark islands . novitates zoologicae , 3 , 233\u2013251 .\nrussell , e . m . & rowley , i . c . r . ( 2009 ) family cracticidae ( butcherbirds ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . & christie , d . ( eds . ) , handbook of the birds of the world . vol . 14 . lynx edicions , barcelona , pp . 308\u2013342 .\nsalomonsen , f . ( 1967 ) family meliphagidae . in : paynter , r . a . jr . ( ed . ) , check - list of birds of the world , a continuation of the work of james l . peters . vol . 12 . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts , pp . 338\u2013450 .\nsalvadori , t . ( 1876 ) descrizione di cinquantotto nuove specie di uccelli , ed osservazioni intorno ad altre poco note , della nuova guinea e di altre isole papuane , raccolte del dr . odoardo beccari e dai cacciatore del . sig . a . a . bruijn . annali del museo civico di storia naturale di genova , 7 ( 56 / 61 ) , 896\u2013976 .\nscharnke , h . ( 1931 ) beitr\u00e4ge zur morphologie und entwicklungsgeschichte der zunge der trochilidae , meliphagidae und picidae . journal f \u00fcr ornithologie , 79 , 425\u2013491 . urltoken\nscharnke , h . ( 1932 ) ueber den bau der zunge der nectariniidae , promeropidae und drepanididae nebst bemerkungen zur systematik der bl\u00fctenbesuchenden passeres . journal f \u00fcr ornithologie , 80 , 114\u2013123 . urltoken\nschellart , w . p . , lister , g . s . & toy , v . g . ( 2006 ) a late cretaceous and cenozoic reconstruction of the southwest pacific region : tectonics controlled by subduction and slab rollback processes . earth - sciences review , 76 , 191\u2013233 . urltoken\nschodde , r . ( 1975 ) interim list of australian songbirds passerines . royal australasian ornithologists union , melbourne , 46 pp .\nschodde , r . ( 1991 ) concluding remarks : origins and evolution of the australasian avifauna . in : acta xx congressus internationalis ornithologici . vol . 1 . new zealand ornithological trust board , wellington , pp . 413\u2013416 .\nschodde , r . ( 2006 ) australia\u2019s bird fauna today\u2015origins and evolutionary development . in : merrick , j . r . , archer , m . , hickey , g . m . & lee , m . s . y . ( eds . ) , evolution and biogeography of australasian vertebrates . auscipub , oatlands , new south wales , pp . 413\u2013458 .\nschodde , r . & calaby , j . h . ( 1972 ) the biogeography of the australo - papuan bird and mammal faunas in relation to torres strait . in : walker , d . ( ed . ) , bridge and barrier : the natural and cultural history of torres strait . publication bg / 3 . research school of pacific studies , australian national university , canberra , pp . 257\u2013300 .\nschodde , r . & faith , d . p . ( 1991 ) the development of modern ( australasian ) avifaunas . in : acta xx congressus internationalis ornithologici . vol . 1 . new zealand ornithological trust board , wellington , pp . 404\u2013412 .\nschodde , r . & mason , i . j . ( 1999 ) the directory of australian birds passerines . csiro publishing , melbourne , 551 pp .\nsibley , c . g . & ahlquist , j . e . ( 1982 ) the relationships of the australasian whistlers pachycephala as indicated by dna hybridization . emu , 82 , 251\u2013255 . urltoken\nsibley , c . g . & ahlquist , j . e . ( 1984 ) the relationships of the papuan genus peltops . emu , 84 , 181\u2013183 . urltoken\nsibley , c . g . & ahlquist , j . e . ( 1985 ) the phylogeny and classification of the australo - papuan passerine birds . emu , 85 , 1\u201314 . urltoken\nsibley , c . g . & ahlquist , j . e . ( 1987 ) the lesser melampitta is a bird of paradise . emu 87 , 66\u201368 . urltoken\nsibley , c . g . & ahlquist , j . e . ( 1990 ) phylogeny and classification of birds . a study in molecular evolution . yale university press , new haven , 976 pp .\nsibley , c . e . & monroe , b . l . jr . ( 1990 ) distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world . yale university press , new haven , 1111 pp .\nstresemann , e . ( 1914 ) beitr\u00e4ge zur kenntnis der avifauna von buru . novitates zoologicae , 21 , 358\u2013400 .\ntruswell , e . m . ( 1989 ) australian rainforests : the 100 million year record . in : webb , l . j . & kikkawa , j . ( eds . ) , australian tropical rainforests : science , values , meaning . csiro publishing , melbourne , pp . 7\u201322 .\nvaurie , c . ( 1949 ) a revision of the bird family dicruridae . bulletin of the american museum of natural history , 93 , 199\u2013342 .\nvaurie , c . ( 1962 ) family dicruridae . in : mayr , e . & greenway , j . c . jr . ( eds . ) , check - list of birds of the world , a continuation of the work of james l . peters . vol . 15 . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts , pp . 137\u2013157 .\nwolters , h . e . ( 1977 ) die vogelarten der erde . eine systematische liste mit verbreitungsangaben sowie deutschen und englischen namen . lief . 3 . paul parey , hamburg & berlin , pp . 161\u2013240 .\nwolters , h . e . ( 1979 ) die vogelarten der erde . eine systematische liste mit verbreitungsangaben sowie deutschen und englischen namen . lief . 4 . paul parey , hamburg & berlin , pp . 241\u2013320 .\nwolters , h . e . ( 1980a ) die vogelarten der erde . eine systematische liste mit verbreitungsangaben sowie deutschen und englischen namen . lief . 5 . paul parey , hamburg & berlin , pp . 321\u2013400 .\nwolters , h . e . ( 1980b ) die vogelarten der erde . eine systematische liste mit verbreitungsangaben sowie deutschen und englischen namen . lief . 6 . paul parey , hamburg & berlin , pp . 401\u2013452 .\nxeno - canto ( 2014 ) melampitta lugubris , melampitta gigantea . naturalis biodiversity center , leiden . available from : urltoken ( accessed 11 march 2014 )\nzuccon , d . & ericson , p . g . p . ( 2012 ) molecular and morphological evidences place the extinct new zealand endemic turnagra capensis in the oriolidae . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 62 , 414\u2013426 . urltoken\npasseri\nredirects here . for the surname , see passeri ( surname ) .\nsorry , your browser either has javascript disabled or does not have any supported player . you can download the clip or download a player to play the clip in your browser ."]}
{"id": 246, "summary": [{"text": "archips argyrospila , the fruit-tree leafroller moth , is a moth of the tortricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in most of the united states and southern canada .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is 6-10.2 mm for males and 8.5-11.7 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults have a variable forewing colour consisting of combination of reddish brown , dark brown and tan .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from mid may to july in one generation per year .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on a wide range of plants and are considered a pest on apples and pears .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "recorded host plants include : medicago , malus , prunus , taxodium distichum , phaseolus , vaccinium , betula , acer negundo , aesculus , ceanothus , cercocarpus , citrus , quercus , eriodictyon , vitis , crataegus , carya , gleditsia triacanthos , humulus , syringa , avena , allium , maclura pomifera , pyrus , rheum , sassafras and juglans species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "first instar larvae bore into the buds of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "later instars roll or tie leaves together or tie them to fruit .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "they feed on the leaves , flowers , buds or fruits of the host plant .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "pupation takes place within the larval shelter . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "archips argyrospila", "paragraphs": ["subspecies : a . argyrospila columbiana ( british columbia ) , a . argyrospila vividana ( colorado )\nspecies archips argyrospila - fruit - tree leafroller moth - hodges # 3648 - bugguide . net\nlate instar a . argyrospila larvae may be confused with larvae of choristoneura rosaceana and other archips species .\narchips argyrospila completes a single generation per year . adults are present from mid - may through july .\narchips argyrospila is native to north america and is found throughout the continental united states and southern canada .\nargyrospila walker , 1863 ( retinia ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 373 . tl : usa , georgia . holotype : bmnh . female .\narchips argyrospila has been recorded from a long list of plants , many of which are not primary hosts . under outbreak conditions the larvae feed on any plant near the primary host , and the following host list contains both primary and incidental hosts .\nduring the first half of the 20th century outbreaks of argyrospila would completely defoliate large areas of vegitation . the species was brought under control with the introduction of pesticides in the mid - 1950 ' s .\nduring the first half of the 20th century , outbreaks of a . argyrospila would completely defoliate large areas of vegetation . the species was brought under control with the introduction of pesticides in the mid - 1950 ' s .\nabiephagus razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 : 106 no type\nparedreus razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 : 76 no type\npulcher razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 : 105 no type\nterminas diakonoff , 1971 ( archips ) , verff . zool . staatsamml . mnchen 15 : 170 . no type\nadornatus liu , 1987 ( archips ) , sinozoologia 5 : 139 . tl : china . holotype : izas . male .\nrosaceana ishikawa , 1915 ( archips ) , bychgaizasshi 2 ( 9 ) : 778 . tl : japan . holotype : unknown . unknown .\ndavisi kawabe , 1989 ( archips ) , tinea 12 : 191 . tl : taiwan , hualien hsien , tayulin . holotype : usnm . male .\nelongatus liu , 1987 ( archips ) , sinozoologia 5 : 138 . tl : china , shanxi province , ningsgan . holotype : izas . male .\nkellerianus liu , 1987 ( archips ) , sinozoologia 5 : 137 . tl : china , yunnan province , kunming . holotype : izas . female .\nsayonae kawabe , 1985 ( archips ) , tinea 12 : 5 . tl : taiwan . nantou hsien , nanshanchi . holotype : usnm . male .\nopiparus liu , 1987 ( archips ) , sinozoologia 5 : 137 . tl : china , guizhou province , fuquan . holotype : izas . male .\npachyvalvus liu , 1987 ( archips ) , sinozoologia 5 : 140 . tl : china , sichuan province , wolong . holotype : izas . male .\nshibatai kawabe , 1985 ( archips ) , tinea 12 : 1 . tl : taiwan , chiai hsien , fenchihu . holotype : usnm . male .\nspinatus liu , 1987 ( archips ) , sinozoologia 5 : 139 . tl : china , liaoning province , dandong . holotype : izas . male .\nstrigopterus liu , 1987 ( archips ) , sinozoologia 5 : 139 . tl : china , sichuan province , wolong . holotype : izas . male .\nbaolokia razowski , 2009 ( archips ) , polskie pismo entomol . 78 : 17 . tl : vietnam , bao lok . holotype : mnhu . male .\nconfluens obraztsov , 1955 ( archips crataegana ab . ) , tijdschr . ent . 98 : 311 . tl : europe . holotype : unknown . unknown .\ntaichunganus razowski , 2000 ( archips ) , zool . studies 39 : 323 . tl : taiwan , taichung , pilushi . holotype : cmnh . female .\ntaiwanensis kawabe , 1985 ( archips ) , tinea 12 : 3 . tl : taiwan , nantou hsien , lushan spa . holotype : usnm . male .\nyunnanus razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 84 tl : china . holotype : zfmk . male .\nvagrans tuck , 1990 ( archips ) , ent . scand . 21 : 180 . tl : indonesia , east timor . holotype : bmnh . male .\nthe names associated with a . argyrospila are considered a species complex by some authors . this group includes a . eleagnanus , a . mortuana , a . myricana , and two subspecies ( a . a . columbiana and a . a . vividana ) . according to freeman ( 1958 ) , genitalic characters for the group include : an aedeagus with hooked apex and two long cornuti in the male and a bulbous sterigma and antrum in the female .\nnaltarica razowski , 2006 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 49b : 122 . tl : pakistan , gilgit naltar . holotype : isez . male .\nadults may be confused with other archips species ( especially a . semiferanus and a . negundanus ) but are unlikely to be confused with other species covered here .\nalleni tuck , 1990 ( archips ) , ent . scand . 21 : 186 . tl : thailand , khao yai national park . holotype : bmnh . male .\nbachmanus razowski , 2009 ( archips ) , shilap revta . lepid . 37 : 45 . tl : vietnam , mt . ngoclinh . holotype : mnhu . female .\nqinghai liu , 1987 ( archips decretana ssp . ) , sinozoologia 5 : 138 . tl : china . qinghai province , huangzhong . holotype : izas . male .\ncarteri rose & pooni , 2004 ( archips ) , entomon 29 : 152 . tl : india , dist . kangra , palampur . holotype : himpr . male .\nkangraensis rose & pooni , 2004 ( archips ) , entomon 29 : 150 . tl : india , dist . kangra , dharmshala . holotype : himpr . male .\nmertias rose & pooni , 2004 ( archips ) , entomon 29 : 145 . tl : india , dist . kangra , dharmshala . holotype : himpr . male .\npseudotermias rose & pooni , 2004 ( archips ) , entomon 29 : 146 . tl : india , punjab , dist . patiala . holotype : pup . male .\nsilvicolanus razowski , 2009 ( archips ) , shilap revta . lepid . 37 : 43 . tl : vietnam , fan si pan . holotype : mnhu . male .\nweixiensis liu , 1987 ( archips tharsaleopa ssp . ) , sinozoologia 5 : 140 . tl : china . yunnan province , weixi . holotype : izas . male .\nceylonicus razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 : 108 tl : sri lanka , hakgala , botanic gardens . holotype : nhrs . male .\nalbatus razowski , 1977 ( archips limatus ssp . ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 120 tl : china . holotype : zfmk . male .\nmagnifica tuck , 1990 ( archips ) , ent . scand . 21 : 194 . tl : malaysia , sabah , mt . kinabalu . holotype : bmnh . male .\nokuiho razowski , 2009 ( archips ) , polskie pismo entomol . 78 : 16 . tl : vietnam , sa pa okui - ho . holotype : mnhu . male .\nmeridana kozlov & esartia , 1991 ( archips ) , vestnik zool . 1991 ( 1 ) : 34 . tl : georgia . georgia . holotype : zmas . male .\nstrianus fernald , 1905 ( archips ) , can . ent . 37 : 399 . tl : canada , quebec . syntype ( s ) : usnm . 1 male .\nbarlowi tuck , 1990 ( archips ) , ent . scand . 21 : 193 . tl : malaysia , west pahang , genting tea estate . holotype : bmnh . male .\ndichotoma falkovitsh , 1965 ( archips ) , ent . obozr . 44 : 417 . tl : russia , primorskykrai , okeanskaya , near vladivostok . holotype : zmas . male .\nfraterna tuck , 1990 ( archips ) , ent . scand . 21 : 192 . tl : brunei , brunei ( rampayoh r . ) . holotype : bmnh . male .\ngyraleus diakonoff , 1982 ( archips ) , zool . verh . leiden 193 : 87 . tl : sri lanka , ratnapura district , uggalkaltota . holotype : usnm . male .\nsubgyraleus razowski , 2009 ( archips ) , shilap revta . lepid . 37 : 44 . tl : vietnam , kon tum , dac glei . holotype : mnhu . male .\nvivesi razowski , 2009 ( archips ) , polskie pismo entomol . 78 : 18 . tl : vietnam , sa pa , fan si pan . holotype : mnhu . female .\nasiaticus walsingham , 1900 ( archips ) , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 5 : 380 tl : korea , gensan . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nbreviplicanus walsingham , 1900 ( archips ) , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 5 : 382 tl : korea , gensan . holotype : bmnh . male .\nbrunneatus razowski , 2009 ( archips ) , shilap revta . lepid . 37 : 44 . tl : vietnam , sa pa , fan si pan . holotype : mnhu . female .\neximius razowski , 1984 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 27 ( 15 ) : 272 tl : china , yunnan province , likiang . holotype : zfmk . female .\nabietis falkovitsh , 1965 ( archips ) , ent . obozr . 44 : 414 . tl : russia . primorsky krai , okeanskaya , near vladivostok . holotype : zmas . male .\nstrojny razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 101 tl : china , hunan province , hoengshan . holotype : zfmk . male .\nwallacei tuck , 1990 ( archips ) , ent . scand . 21 : 186 . tl : indonesia , sulawesi , danau mooat , near kotamobagu . holotype : bmnh . male .\nlimatus razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 119 tl : china , shansi province , tapaishan tsinling . holotype : zfmk . male .\nstellata jinbo , 2006 ( archips ) , entomological science 9 : 335 . tl : japan , nagano , kawakami - mura , kawakami - makioka rindo . holotype : nsmt . male .\naudax razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 81 tl : japan , honshu , nara prefecture , kojindake . holotype : isez . male .\nbulbosus razowski , 2009 ( archips ) , shilap revta . lepid . 37 : 44 . tl : vietnam , sa pa , fan si pan mtns . . holotype : mnhu . female .\ncrassifolianus liu , 1990 ( archips ) , forest research 3 ( 2 ) : 137 . tl : china , gansu province , wuwei , mt . qilia . holotype : izas . male .\ndierli diakonoff , 1976 ( archips ) , zool . verh . leiden 144 : 83 . tl : nepal , prov . no . 3 east , junbesi . holotype : zsm . male .\naperta diakonoff , 1968 ( archips ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 257 ( 1967 ) : 28 . tl : philippine islands . holotype : usnm . female .\nfuscocupreanus walsingham , 1900 ( archips ) , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 5 : 384 tl : japan , kyushu , satsuma . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nrudy razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 146 tl : china , shansi province , tapaishan , tsinling . holotype : zfmk . female .\nviola falkovitsh , 1965 ( archips ) , ent . obozr . 44 : 415 . tl : russia , primorsky krai , okeanska - ya , near vladivostok . holotype : zmas . male .\nfumosus yasuda , 1961 ( archips ) , publ . ent . lab . univ . osaka pref . 6 : 60 . tl : japan . hokkaido , yamabe . holotype : opu . male .\nmimicus walsingham , in swinhoe , 1900 ( archips ) , cat . east . and aust . lepid . heterocera 2 : 573 . tl : india , ooty . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nsabrinae leraut & luquet , 1996 ( archips xylosteana ssp . ) , alexanor 19 ( 1995 ) : 250 . tl : france . var , maures , cavalaire . holotype : mnhn . female .\ncitimus razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 109 tl : afghanistan , sefed kuh , s . seite , kotkai . holotype : lnk . male .\ncompitalis razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 118 tl : china , chekiang , west tien - mu - shan . holotype : zfmk . male .\ngoyerana kruse , 2000 ( archips ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 102 : 742 . tl : usa , louisiana , assumption parish , pierre part . holotype : lsub . male .\ninanis razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 107 tl : afghanistan , safed koh , s . seite , kotkai . holotype : lnk . female .\nkangraensis rose & pooni , 2004 ( archips ) , entomon 29 : 150 . tl : india , himachal pradesh ( ? ) ( dist . kangra , dharmshala ) . holotype : unknown . male .\nunimaculata shiraki , 1913 ( archips ) , spec . rep . formosa agric . exp . stn . 8 : 344 . tl : taiwan , formosa [ taiwan ] . holotype : unknown . unknown .\npurpuratus kawabe , 1965 ( archips ) , trans . lepid . soc . japan 16 : 16 . tl : japan . honshu , gunma prefecture , mt . akagi . holotype : usnm . male .\narcanus razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 74 tl : china , chekiang province , west tien - mu - shan . holotype : zfmk . male .\ncantinus razowski , 2006 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 49b : 122 . tl : india , jammu and kashmir ( indien j & k , srinagar ) . holotype : isez . male .\nendoi yasuda , 1975 ( archips ) , bull . univ . osaka pref . ( b ) 27 : 97 . tl : japan . honshu , akita prefecture , yawata . holotype : opu . male .\nenodis razowski , 1977 ( archips ) , acta zool . cracov . 22 ( 5 ) : 86 tl : china , chekiang province , west tien - mu - shan . holotype : zfmk . male .\nissikii yasuda , 1961 ( archips ) , publ . ent . lab . univ . osaka pref . 6 : 62 . tl : japan . honshu , tokyo prefecture , asakawa . holotype : opu . male .\nmeridionalis yasuda & kawabe , 1980 ( archips ) , tinea 11 ( 2 ) : 9 . tl : japan , kagoshima prefecture , amami - oshima island , hatsuno : usnm . holotype : usnm . male .\nbrevicervicus yasuda , 1961 ( archips ) , publ . ent . lab . univ . osaka pref . 6 : 59 . tl : japan . honshu , osaka prefecture , sakai . holotype : opu . male .\nissikii kodama , 1960 ( archips ) , publ . ent . lab . univ . osaka pref . 5 : 23 tl : japan , hokaido and honshu . syntypes : opu . unknown . [ larvae , lost ]\nnigriplagana franclemont , 1986 ( archips ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 88 : 59 . tl : usa , new york , tompkins co . , mclean bogs reserve . holotype : usnm . male .\nbrevicervicus kodama , 1960 ( archips ) , publ . ent . lab . univ . osaka pref . 5 : 21 . tl : japan . honshu . syntypes ( larvae ) : opu . unknown . [ lost ]\nperatratus yasuda , 1961 ( archips ) , publ . ent . lab . univ . osaka pref . 6 : 63 . tl : japan , kyushu , kagoshima prefecture , mt . kirisima . holotype : opu . male .\nargutus diakonoff , 1976 ( archips termias ssp . ) , zool . verh . leiden 144 : 91 . tl : nepal . prov . no . 3 east , bujan , dudh kosi . holotype : zsm . male .\nfumosus kodama , 1960 ( archips ) , publ . ent . lab . univ . osaka pref . 5 : 23 . tl : japan , hok - kaido , yamabe . syntypes : opu . unknown . [ larvae , lost ]\narchips argyrospila has been recorded from a long list of plants , many of which are not primary hosts . under outbreak conditions the larvae feed on any plant near the primary host , and the following partial host list contains both primary and incidental hosts : alfalfa ( medicago sp . ) , apple ( malus sp . ) , apricot , cherry , peach , and plum ( prunus sp . ) , bald cypress ( taxodium distichum ) , beans ( phaseolus sp . ) , blueberry ( vaccinium sp . ) , birch ( betula sp . ) , boxelder ( acer negundo ) , buckeye ( aesculus sp . ) , ceanothus sp . , cercocarpus sp . , citrus sp . , oak ( quercus sp . ) , eriodictyon sp . , grape ( vitis sp . ) , hawthorn ( crataegus sp . ) , hickory ( carya sp . ) , honeylocust ( gleditsia triacanthos ) , hop ( humulus sp . ) , lilac ( syringa sp . ) , oat ( avena sp . ) , onion ( allium sp . ) , osage orange ( maclura pomifera ) , pear ( pyrus sp . ) , rhubarb ( rheum sp . ) , sassafras ( sassafras sp . ) , and walnut ( juglans sp . ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nabiephage yasuda , 1975 ( archippus ) , bull . univ . osaka pref . ( b ) 27 : 109 . tl : japan , hok - kaido , yamabe . holotype : opu . male .\nabiephaga issiki , in issiki & mutuura , 1962 ( ariola ) , publ . ent . lab . univ . osaka pref . 7 : 3 . tl : japan . honshu , koozuke [ gunma prefecture ] , manza . holotype : usnm . male .\nalberta mcdunnough , 1923 ( tortrix ) , can . ent . 55 : 167 . tl : canada , alberta , nordegg . holotype : cnc . male .\nalcmaeonis meyrick , 1928 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 455 . tl : india , assam , shillong . lectotype : bmnh . female .\ncolumbiana mcdunnough , 1923 ( cacoecia ) , can . ent . 55 : 167 . tl : canada . british columbia , salmon arm . holotype : cnc . female .\nfurvana robinson , 1869 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc 2 : 265 . tl : usa . new york . lectotype : ansp . female .\nvividana dyar , 1902 ( cacoecia ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 5 : 78 . tl : usa . colorado , platte canyon . holotype : usnm . unknown . [ lost ]\nvsignatana packard , 1875 ( tortrix ) , rep . ins . mass . injurious veg . : 238 . tl : usa . massachusetts . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ncontemptrix meyrick , in caradja , 1925 ( cacoecia ) , bull . sect . scient . acad . roum 3 : 378 . tl : china . canton . holotype : mgab . female .\natrolucens diakonoff , 1941 ( cacoecia ) , treubia 18 : 384 . tl : indonesia , java , sindangkaya . holotype : ncb . male .\nbetulana hubner , [ 1787 ] ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , beitr . gesch . schmett . 1 ( 2 ) : 3 . tl : germany , augsburg . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ndecretana treitschke , 1835 ( tortrix ) , schmett . eur . 10 ( 3 ) : 56 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : tmb . unknown .\nbiforata meyrick , 1930 ( cacoecia ) , ann . naturhist . mus . wien 44 : 224 . tl : brazil , serra do itatiaya . holotype : nhmv . female .\nbinigrata meyrick , 1928 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 456 . tl : india , assam , shillong . lectotype : bmnh . male .\ncriticana kennel , 1901 ( cacoecia ) , dt . ent . z . iris 13 ( 1900 ) : 213 . tl : russia . holotype : mnhu . male .\ncapsigerana kennel , 1901 ( cacoecia ) , dt . ent . z . iris 13 ( 1900 ) : 212 . tl : russia , primorsky k , askold , dorries . holotype : mnhn . male .\ncerasivorana fitch , 1856 ( lozotaenia ) , rep . ins . new york : 382 . tl : usa , new york . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ncrataegana hubner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 17 , fig . 107 . tl : europe , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nroborana hubner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 20 , fig . 126 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nrubromaculata schawerda , 1933 ( cacoecia crataegana var . ) , z . st . ent . verz . 18 : 76 . tl : corsica . corsica ( france ) . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ndispilana walker , 1864 ( pandemis ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus . 30 : 983 . tl : bhutan , bhutan . holotype : bmnh . male .\ndissitana grote , 1879 ( tortrix ( ptycholoma ) ) , n . am . ent . 1 : 29 . tl : usa , new york , buffalo . lectotype : bmnh . male .\neleagnana mcdunnough , 1923 ( cacoecia ) , can . ent . 55 : 166 . tl : canada , manitoba , aweme . holotype : cnc . male .\nemitescens meyrick , in joannis , 1930 ( cacoecia ) , annls soc . ent . fr . 98 ( suppl . ) ( 1929 ) : 712 . tl : ? , ( cho ganh ) . lectotype : mnhn . male .\neupatris meyrick , 1908 ( cacoecia ) , j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 18 : 614 . tl : sri lanka , ceylon [ sri lanka ] ( wellawaya ) . holotype : bmnh . male .\neuryplintha meyrick , 1923 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 53 . tl : india , bangla , darjiling , mangpu . holotype : bmnh . female .\nexpansa diakonoff , 1941 ( cacoecia ) , treubia 18 : 413 . tl : indonesia , west java , mt . gede , tjibodas . lectotype : ncb . male .\nfervidana clemens , 1860 ( lozotaenia ) , proc . acad . nat . sci . philad . 12 : 347 . tl : usa , pennsylvania . lectotype : ansp . unknown .\npalludana beutenmuller , 1892 ( tortrix ) , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 4 : 64 . no type\npaludana robinson , 1869 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc 2 : 275 . tl : usa . pennsylvania . lectotype : amnh . male .\nformosanus kawabe , 1968 ( archippus ) , tinea 7 : 122 . tl : taiwan , chiayi , alishan . holotype : usnm . male .\nischidaii razowski & kumata , 1985 ( loxotaenia ) , neue ent . nachr 17 : 11 . no type\nishidaii matsumura , 1900 ( loxotaenia ) , ent . nachr 26 : 194 . tl : japan . hokkaido , sapporo . holotype : eihu . female .\npunicae matsumura , 1931 ( cacoecia ) , 6000 illust . insects japan - empire : 1065 tl : japan . honshu , tokyo prefecture , shibuya . lectotype : eihu . female .\ngeorgiana walker , 1863 ( retinia ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 372 . tl : usa , georgia . holotype : bmnh . male .\ngrisea robinson , 1869 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 2 : 268 . tl : usa , ohio . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nbrauniana kearfott , 1907 ( cacoecia ) , trans . am . ent . soc 23 : 69 . tl : usa . ohio . lectotype : amnh . male .\ninfumatana zeller , 1875 ( tortrix ) , verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 25 : 216 . tl : usa , missouri . lectotype : bmnh . male .\ningentana christoph , 1881 ( tortrix ) , bull . soc . imp . nat . moscou 56 ( 1 ) : 64 . tl : russia , primorsky krai , vladivostok . lectotype : bmnh . female .\ninopinatana kennel , 1901 ( pandemis ) , dt . ent . z . iris 13 ( 1900 ) : 220 . tl : russia , primorsky krai , askold island . holotype : mnhn . male .\ninsulanus kawabe , 1965 ( archippus ) , trans . lepid . soc . japan 16 : 23 . tl : japan , kyushu , kagoshima prefecture , okinoerabu - jima island . holotype : usnm . male .\nmachlopis meyrick , 1912 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 1 : 4 . tl : india , assam , khasi hills . lectotype : bmnh . female .\ncompacta meyrick , 1918 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 2 : 164 . tl : india . bengal , pusa . holotype : bmnh . female .\nisocyrta meyrick , 1920 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 2 : 340 . tl : india . bengal , pusa . holotype : bmnh . female .\nseminubila meyrick , in joannis , 1930 ( cacoecia ) , annls soc . ent . fr . 98 ( suppl . ) ( 1929 ) : 711 . tl : north vietnam . tonkin , hoang su phi . lectotype : mnhn . male .\ntranscutata meyrick , 1935 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 569 . tl : indonesia . java , bogor , buitenzorg . holotype : bmnh . male .\nmagnoliana fernald , 1892 ( cacoecia ) , can . ent . 24 : 121 . tl : usa , new york , ithaca . syntype ( s ) : usnm . male .\nmenotoma meyrick , 1937 ( cacoecia ) , dt . ent . z . iris 51 : 173 . tl : china , yunnan province . holotype : bmnh . male .\nmicaceana walker , 1863 ( cacoecia ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 314 : tl : china , shanghai . holotype : bmnh . female .\neucroca diakonoff , 1958 ( cacoecia ) , beitr . ent . 8 : 119 . tl : china . south china ( canton ) . holotype : deib . male .\nobscura diakonoff , 1939 ( cacoecia micaceana var . ) , rec . indian mus . 41 : 231 . tl : india . dehra dun , new forest , kandauli . holotype : bmnh . male .\nepicyrta meyrick , 1905 ( cacoecia ) , j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 16 : 589 . tl : sri lanka . ceylon [ sri lanka ] ( maskeliya ) . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nmortuana kearfott , 1907 ( cacoecia ) , can . ent . 39 : 158 . tl : usa , pennsylvania . lectotype : amnh . male .\nmyricana mcdunnough , 1923 ( cacoecia ) , can . ent . 55 : 167 . tl : canada , ontario , algonquin park . holotype : cnc . male .\nmyrrhophanes meyrick , in caradja , 1931 ( tortriz [ sic ] ) , bull . sect . scient . acad . roum 14 : 63 . tl : china , chekiang province . holotype : bmnh . male .\nnegundana dyar , 1902 ( cacoecia ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 5 : 78 . tl : usa , colorado , pike ' s peak . syntype ( s ) : usnm . male .\nnugundana dyar , 1902 ( cacoecia ) , proc . u . s . natn . mus . 25 : 401 . no type\nnigricaudana walsingham , 1900 ( tortrix ) , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 5 : 459 tl : korea , gensan . holotype : bmnh . male .\noporana linnaeus , 1758 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , systema naturae ( 10th ed . ) : 530 . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nbathyglypta meyrick , in caradja , 1932 ( cacoecia ) , bull . sect . scient . acad . roum 15 : 23 . tl : china . shanghai . holotype : mgab . male .\ndissimilana bentley , 1845 ( lozotaenia ) , zoologist 3 : 1000 tl : united kingdom . england ( new forest ) [ united kingdom ] . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nhermanniana [ denis & schiffermuller ] , 1775 ( tortrix ) , syst . verz . schmett . wienergegend : 317 . tl : austria . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nimpervia meyrick , in joannis , 1930 ( cacoecia ) , annls soc . ent . fr . 98 ( suppl . ) ( 1929 ) : 711 . holotype : mnhn . male .\npiceana linnaeus , 1758 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) , systema naturae ( 10th ed . ) : 531 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\npieceanus yasuda , 1975 ( archippus ( archippus ) ) , bull . univ . osaka pref . ( b ) 27 : 102 no type\nsimilis butler , 1879 ( cacoecia ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 3 : 79 . tl : japan . lectotype : bmnh . female .\npackardiana fernald , 1886 ( tortrix ) , bull . u . s . dept . agric . 12 : 20 . tl : usa , maine , peaks island , casco bay . lectotype : usnm . male .\nparedraea meyrick , 1931 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 149 . tl : taiwan , taihoku . lectotype : bmnh . male .\npensilis meyrick , 1920 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 2 : 339 . tl : india , south india ( madras ) . holotype : bmnh . female .\nphilippa meyrick , 1918 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 2 : 165 . tl : india , nw india ( abbottabad ) . holotype : bmnh . male .\npruneticola meyrick , 1935 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 569 . tl : india . tarnab . holotype : bmnh . male .\nsubsidiaria meyrick , 1924 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 107 . tl : india . kashmir , srinagar . lectotype : bmnh . male .\npodana scopoli , 1763 ( phalaena ) , ent . carn . : 232 . tl : slovenia , carniola [ slovenia ] . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nameriana treitschke , 1830 ( cacoecia ) , schmett . eur . 8 : 49 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : tmb . unknown .\ncongenerana hubner , [ 1823 - 1824 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 47 , fig . 295 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nfulvana [ denis & schiffermuller ] , 1775 ( tortrix ) , syst . verz . schmett . wienergegend : 128 . tl : austria . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\npyrastrana hubner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 20 , fig . 124 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nsauberiana sorhagen , 1882 ( tortrix podana var . ) , berl . ent . z . 26 : 131 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nvulpeculana fuchs , 1903 ( tortrix ) , stettin . ent . ztg . 64 : 3 . tl : turkey . konia . holotype : unknown . female .\npulchra butler , 1879 ( ariola ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 3 : 19 . tl : japan , lectotype : bmnh . male .\npuchra anonymous , 1970 ( ariola ) , ent . rev . 49 : 268 . no type\npunctiseriata strand , 1920 ( catamacta ) , archiv f . naturgesch . 84 ( a ) ( 12 ) : 191 . tl : taiwan , [ taiwan ] . holotype : deib . unknown .\npurpurana clemens , 1865 ( loxotaenia ) , proc . ent . soc . philad . 5 : 136 . tl : usa , pennsylvania . holotype : ansp . unknown .\ngurgitana robinson , 1869 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc 2 : 263 . tl : usa . illinois . lectotype : ansp . female .\nguritana darlington , 1947 ( cacoecia ) , trans . am . ent . soc 73 : 102 . no type\nlintneriana grote , 1873 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc 4 : 424 . tl : usa . new york . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nrileyana grote , 1868 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc 2 : 121 . tl : usa , missouri . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nfervidana walker , 1863 ( cacoecia ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 313 . tl : usa . georgia . holotype : bmnh . male .\nrosana linnaeus , 1758 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , systema naturae ( 10th ed . ) : 530 . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nacerana hubner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 19 , fig . 118 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nameriana linnaeus , 1758 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , systema naturae ( 10th ed . ) : 531 . tl : north america . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\namericana gmelin , 1788 ( phalaena ) , systema naturae ( 13th ed . ) : 2504 . no type\namerina linnaeus , 1761 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , fauna svecica ( 2nd ed . ) : 343 . no type\navellana linnaeus , 1758 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , systema naturae ( 10th ed . ) : 531 . tl : north america . lectotype : lsl . male .\nhewittana busck , 1920 ( cacoecia ) , can . ent . 52 : 125 . tl : canada . nova scotia , sydney . holotype : cnc . male .\nlaevigana [ denis & schiffermuller ] , 1775 ( tortrix ) , syst . verz . schmett . wienergegend : 129 : tl : austria . vienna . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nlevigana illiger , 1801 ( tortrix ) , syst . verz . schmett . wienergegend : 2 : 57 . no type\nnebulana stephens , 1834 ( lozotaenia ) , illust . br . ent . ( haustellata ) 4 : 74 . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nobscura dufrane , 1944 ( cacoecia rosana ab . ) , bull . mus . r . hist . nat . belg 20 ( 18 ) : 8 tl : belgium . mons . holotype : irsn . male .\nochracea dufrane , 1945 ( cacoecia rosana ab . ) , bull . mus . r . hist . nat . belg . 20 ( 18 ) : 8 . tl : ? . saint - symphorien . holotype : irsn . female .\norientana krulikowsky , 1909 ( cacoecia rosana var . ) , mater . pozn . faun . ross . imp 9 : 203 . tl : russia . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\noxyacanthana hubner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 18 , fig . 117 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nsplendana kennel , 1910 ( cacoecia rosana var . ) , palaear . tortr . : 131 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : mnhu . unknown .\ntestaceana eversmann , 1844 ( tortrix ) , fauna lepid . volgo - ural . : 486 . tl : russia . kasan , orenburg . syntype ( s ) : zmas . unknown .\nvariana fabricius , 1787 ( pyralis ) , mantissa insectorum 2 : 231 . tl : germany . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nseditiosa meyrick , 1921 ( cacoecia ) , zool . meded 6 : 147 . tl : indonesia , java , buitenzorg . lectotype : ncb . female .\nbrachytoma meyrick , 1932 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 341 tl : malaysia . kuala lumpur . holotype : bmnh . male .\norientalis diakonoff , 1941 ( cacoecia seditiosa ssp . ) , treubia 18 : 414 . tl : indonesia . east java , tengger mountains , nongodjajar . lectotype : ncb . male .\nsemiferanus walker , 1863 ( lophoderus ? ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 336 . tl : ? , unknown [ north america ] . holotype : bmnh . male .\nflaccidana robinson , 1869 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc 2 : 277 . tl : usa . holotype : unknown . unknown .\nsemistructa meyrick , 1937 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 5 : 126 . tl : china , taichow . holotype : bmnh . male .\nsemistractus kawabe , 1965 ( archippus ) , trans . lepid . soc . japan 16 : 29 . no type\nsolida meyrick , 1908 ( cacoecia ) , j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 18 : 614 . tl : india , bangla , darjiling . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nsubrufana snellen , 1883 ( tortrix ) , tijdschr . ent . 26 : 187 . tl : russia , primorsky krai , suifun . syntype ( s ) : ncb . 1 male .\ncoreensis park , 1976 ( archippus ) , ty to ga 26 : 110 . tl : korea . suweon . holotype : cisk . male .\nsymmetra meyrick , 1918 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 2 : 166 . tl : congo , french congo [ congo ] ( bangi ) . holotype : bmnh . female .\ntermias meyrick , 1918 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 2 : 164 . tl : india , assam , shillong . lectotype : bmnh . male .\npomivora meyrick , 1920 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 2 : 340 . tl : india . himalaya , kumaon , ramgarh . holotype : bmnh . male .\nsarcostega meyrick , 1924 ( cacoecia ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 106 . tl : india . kumaon , muktesar . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nstenoptycha diakonoff , 1951 ( homona termias ssp . ) , ark . zool . ( 2 ) 3 : 65 . tl : india . burma ( kambaiti ) . holotype : nhrs . male .\ntharsaleopa meyrick , in caradja & meyrick , 1935 ( cacoecia ) , mat . microlepid . fauna chin . prov . : 50 . tl : china , chekiang province , tien - mu - shan . holotype : bmnh . male .\ntsuganus powell , 1962 ( archippus ) , can . ent . 94 : 842 . tl : canada , british columbia , knight inlet . holotype : cnc . male .\nxylosteana linnaeus , 1758 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , systema naturae ( 10th ed . ) : 531 . lectotype : lsl . female .\ncharacterana hubner , 1793 ( phalaena tortrix ) , samml . auser . vogel schmett . 11 , pl . 58 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ndensana villers , 1789 ( phalaena tortrix ) , c . linnaei . ent . faun . suec . descr . 2 : 416 . no type\ndensata geoffroy , in fourcroy , 1785 ( phalaena ) , ent . paris . 2 : 304 . tl : france . syntype ( s ) : mnhn . unknown .\ngilvana eversmann , 1842 ( tortrix ) , bull . soc . imp . nat . moscou 15 : 562 . tl : russia . syntype ( s ) : zmas .\nhybnerana fabricius , 1794 ( pyralis ) , entomologia systematica 3 ( 2 ) : 247 . tl : germany . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nobliquana fabricius , 1781 ( pyralis ) , species insectorum 2 : 281 . tl : great britain . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\npallens kennel , 1910 ( cacoecia xylosteana var . ) , palaear . tortr . 130 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : mnhu . unknown .\nwestriniana thunberg & borgstrom , 1784 ( tortrix ) , d . d . dissert . ent . sist . ins . svecica 1 : 21 . tl : sweden . uppland . lectotype : unknown . male .\nunless noted , all images on these pages are copyright \u00a9 2003 - 14 by todd gilligan . please do not download , copy , print , or otherwise distribute any images from these pages without the permission of the author . contact form .\nforewing color is a variable combination of reddish brown , dark brown , and tan . the majority of specimens have two contrasting triangular to semi - rectangular pale tan patches on the costa . females are generally lighter in color than males . males have a forewing costal fold .\nlast instar larvae are translucent green with a reddish - brown to dark brown mottled head and an amber prothoracic shield with brown lateral edging . the prothoracic legs are brown or black while the other thoracic legs are pale and unmarked .\nthis species completes a single generation per year . adults are present from mid - may through july .\neggs are laid in masses on the twigs of the host and covered by the female with a substance that hardens to create a smooth , hard surface . eggs are laid in june and july and do not hatch until the following year . first instar larvae hatch in late februrary to mid - may and bore into buds . later instars roll or tie leaves together or to fruit and partially emerge from the shelter to feed . larvae may feed on leaves , flowers , buds , or fruits of the host . pupation occurs within the larval shelter and adults eclose in 10 - 12 days . the adult flight period lasts approximately 3 weeks .\nchapman , p . j . and s . e . lienk . 1971 . tortricid fauna of apple in new york ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) ; including an account of apple ' s occurrence in the state , especially as a naturalized plant . spec . publ . geneva , ny : new york state agricultural experiment station . 122 pp .\npowell , j . a . 1964 . biological and taxonomic studies on tortricine moths , with reference to the species in california . university of california publications in entomology . vol . 32 . 317 pp .\nfigures 5 - 9 used with permission from university of california statewide ipm program . please visit the uc ipm web site for more information .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nadults -\nfw cream and yellow , heavily mottled with reddish to blackish brown .\nsexually dimorphic and geographically variable . males dark brown to reddish brown with distictive white markings proceding and following a median transverse fascia which becomes diffuse toward the dorsal area . hindwing gray with pale fringe . females have blurred forewing pattern . western populations vary to pale , golden tan form with white hindwing . colorado populations\nlarvae - bright green with black hc until the last instar , which has a dark gray dorsum caused by minute , black spirulae , and a browish head capsule .\nmostly apr - aug ( mpg ) , but only three weeks at any one location .\napple , pear , apricot , cherry , peach , plum , alfalfa , beans , blueberries , cedar , grapes , elms , oaks , onions . it may feed on leaves , flowers , buds , or fruits .\none generation a year . eggs are laid in june and july and hatch the following year . they are laid in masses on twigs of host . the female covers them with a substance that hardens to create a smooth , hard surface .\nin the first half of the 20th century there were severe outbreaks . they were brought under control by pesticides in the mid - 1950 ' s .\nwalker , f . , 1863 . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part xxviii \u2013 tortricites and tineites .\nlist of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part xxviii \u2013 tortricites and tineites francis walker . 1863 . british museum ( natural history ) , p . 287 - 561 .\ndictionary of word roots and combining forms donald j . borror . 1960 . mayfield publishing company .\nfield guide to moths of eastern north america charles v . covell , jr . 2005 .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 18 . 30m , 18 . 42f ; p . 149 . book review and ordering\nforewing cream and yellow , heavily mottled with reddish to blackish brown . two whitish costal spots are sharpest markings . hindwing dark gray .\napple , pear , apricot , cherries , peaches , plums , alfalfa , beans , blueberries , cedar , grapes , elms , oaks , onions , and prunus species .\nforewing color is a variable combination of reddish brown , dark brown , and tan . the majority of individuals have two contrasting triangular to semi - rectangular pale - tan patches on the costa . females are generally lighter in color than males . males have a forewing costal fold .\nlast instar larvae are 15 - 24 mm in length with a translucent green or gray abdomen . the head is reddish brown to dark brown and may be mottled in some individuals ; head markings are too variable to be diagnostic . the prothoracic shield is amber with brown lateral shading . prothoracic legs are brown or black while the other thoracic legs are pale and unmarked .\nprunus ilicifolia ( nutt . ex hook . & arn . ) d . dietr .\ncitrus x sinensis ( l . ) osbeck ( pro sp . ) [ maxima x reticulata ]\nfreeman , t . n . 1958 . the archipinae of north america ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) . the canadian entomologist supplement 7 ( vol . 90 ) : 1 - 89 .\npowell , j . a . and p . a . opler . 2009 . moths of western north america . university of california press , berkeley . 369 pp .\ntortricids of agricultural importance by todd m . gilligan and marc e . epstein interactive keys developed in lucid 3 . 5 . last updated august 2014 .\nif you have any good quality photographs and would like to contribute , please contact me by email at ian @ ukmoths . co . uk .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 06 - 16 11 : 05 : 15 page render time : 0 . 2935s total w / procache : 0 . 3584s\non apple osx , or right click on the text above to copy the link .\nadults are active from late june to late july in alberta , april to july elsewhere . ( chapman & lienk 1971 ; razowski 1977 ; forbes 1923 )\nthe adult is highly variable in wing pattern . most commonly it is heavily mottled with brown to orange . the darkest markings are normally in the basal patch , slanted median band , and postmedian blotch that can extend to the anal angle . distinctive bright yellow to cream squares are often present on the costa between the darker bands . the hindwings are typically dark grey with a lighter fringe . males have a costal fold that extends to or barely past the basal patch . the larva is green with scattered pale warts and fine setae . the prothoracic shield is dirty green with variable amounts of black or dark brown laterally and the head is shiny dark or light brown . the larva can not be reliably separated from\nand is closely similar to several other common tortricid species . ( chapman & lienk 1971 ; mackay 1962 )\nthe eggs are laid in oval batches of 20 - 100 eggs on the twigs or bark of the host tree . the first instar larvae often spin strands of silk and under ideal wind conditions can disperse to other areas . larvae construct leaf - rolls where they emerge from to feed and when disturbed the larvae either retreat or suspend down on a line of silk . populations are highly cyclical and can this species can become a pest in orchards . ( chapman & lienk 1971 ; razowski 1977 ; kruse & sperling 2001 )\nthe larvae feed on the foliage and fruit of a wide variety of deciduous trees and shrubs and occasionally forbs . it can be a serious pest in apple , pear , cherry , plum , peach , apricot , and citrus orchards . ( chapman & lienk 1971 ; kruse & sperling 2001 ; razowski 1977 ; freeman 1958 ; forbes 1923 )\nthroughout canada from the southern northwest territories and most of the us and into central america .\nthis is complex group to define and may involve cryptic species , conversely other related taxa may also belong here ( razowski 1977 ) . this species also includes a . mortuana ( kruse & sperling 2001 ) .\ncomments are published according to our submission guidelines . the eh strickland entomological museum does not necessarily endorse the views expressed ."]}
{"id": 248, "summary": [{"text": "common names : saharan horned viper , horned desert viper , more .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "cerastes cerastes is a venomous viper species native to the deserts of northern africa and parts of the middle east .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it often is easily recognised by the presence of a pair of supraocular \" horns \" , although hornless individuals do occur .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "no subspecies are currently recognised . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "cerastes cerastes", "paragraphs": ["cerastes cerastes cerastes ( linnaeus 1758 ) cerastes cerastes hoofieni werner & sivan in werner et al . 1999\ncerastes cerastes cerastes ( linnaeus 1758 ) coluber cerastes linnaeus 1758 : 217 cerastes cornutus forskal 1775 ( nom . nud . ) coluber cerastes \u2014 shaw & nodder 1792 : plate 122 gonyechis cerastes \u2014 fitzinger in treitschke 1842 vipera cerastes \u2014 boettger 1880 : 169 cerastes cornutus boulenger 1896 cerastes cerastes mutila domergue 1901 aspis cerastes \u2014 schmidt 1939 cerastes cerastes \u2014 haas 1957 cerastes cerastes karlhartli sochurek 1974 ( nom . nud . ) cerastes cerastes karlhartli \u2014 sochurek 1979 cerastes cerastes mutila \u2014 sochurek 1979 cerastes cerastes cerastes \u2014 welch 1994 : 43 cerastes cerastes \u2014 werner et al . 1999 cerastes cerastes \u2014 mcdiarmid , campbell & tour\u00e9 1999 : 367 cerastes cerastes \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 153 cerastes cerastes hoofieni werner & sivan in werner et al . 1999 cerastes cornutus boulenger 1896 aspis cerastes \u2014 mertens 1944 : 33 ( part . ) cerastes cerastes \u2014 leviton & anderson 1967 : 187 cerastes cerastes gasperettii \u2014 arnold 1980 : 319 ( part . ) cerastes cerastes hoofieni werner & sivan in werner et al . 1999 : 87\ncerastes cerastes gasperettii leviton & anderson 1967 : 183 cerastes cornutus anderson 1896 aspis cerastes \u2014 schmidt 1939 cerastes cerastes \u2014 haas 1957 cerastes cerastes gasperettii \u2014 harding & welch 1980 cerastes cerastes gasperettii \u2014 welch 1994 : 43 cerastes gasperettii \u2014 werner et al . 1999 cerastes gasperettii \u2014 mcdiarmid , campbell & tour\u00e9 1999 : 369 cerastes cerastes gasperettii \u2014 van der kooij 2001 cerastes cerastes gasperettii \u2014 henkel 2003 cerastes cerastes gasperettii \u2014 sindaco et al . 2014 cerastes gasperettii \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 153 cerastes gasperettii gasperettii \u2014 rhadi et al . 2017 cerastes gasperetti mendelssohni werner & sivan in werner et al . 1999 vipera cerastes \u2014 strauch 1869 cerastes cornutus \u2014 anderson 1896 : 71 ( part . ) aspis cerastes \u2014 mertens 1944 : 33 ( part . ) cerastes cerastes \u2014 haas 1951 : 92 ( part . ) cerastes cerastes cerastes \u2014 leviton & anderson 1967 ( part . ) cerastes cerastes gasperettii \u2014 gasperetti 1988 ( part . ) cerastes gasperettii \u2014 werner 1988 cerastes gasperetti mendelssohni werner & sivan in werner et al . 1999 cerastes gasperetti mendelssohni \u2014 kucharzewski 2011\nthe cerastes is the namesake of the saharan horned viper cerastes cerastes . the viper\u2019s knack for sidewinding seems an obvious forerunner to the cerastes\u2019 flexibility .\nmermod , c . 1970 . living area and displacement activity of cerastes - vipera and cerastes - cerastes reptilia viperidae .\nsaharan horned viper ( cerastes cerastes ) lacking supra - ocular horns and responsible for biting patient 1 .\ncerastes gasperettii mendelssohni werner & sivan in werner et al . 1999 cerastes gasperettii gasperettii leviton & anderson 1967\nrenato agazzi added the italian common name\nceraste cornuta\nto\ncerastes cerastes linnaeus 1758\n.\njohann , h . 1973 . a location of origin for cerastes - cerastes in northern tunisia serpentes viperidae .\nkey words : cerastes cerastes , macrovipera mauritanica , snake venom , characterization , biological activities , cross - reaction .\neffects of cerastes cerastes ( egyptian sand viper ) and cerastes vipera ( sahara sand viper ) snake venoms on blood coagulation : separation of coagula . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nc . michael hogan marked\ndistribution in egypt\nas visible on the\ncerastes cerastes linnaeus 1758\npage .\nc . michael hogan marked\ndistribution in egypt\nas trusted on the\ncerastes cerastes linnaeus 1758\npage .\nc . michael hogan marked\ndistribution in egypt\nas hidden on the\ncerastes cerastes linnaeus 1758\npage .\negyptian horned viper cerastes cerastes venom hyaluronidase : purification , partial characterization and evidence for its action as a spreading factor .\ncerastes cerastes : north africa , from morocco and mauritania to egypt and northern sudan , southern israel , western jordan .\ncerastes gasperetti : arabian peninsula , iraq , western iran . cerastes vipera : sahara from mauritania to egypt , israel .\njungnickel , j . & prokoph , w . 2005 . haltung und nachzucht der \u00e4gyptischen w\u00fcstenotter cerastes cerastes cerastes ( linnaeus 1758 ) . elaphe 13 ( 4 ) : 25 - 30\n(\ncerastes cerastes ( desert horned viper )\n, 2004 ; george , 2002 ; ludwig , et al . , 2003 )\n2004 .\ncerastes cerastes ( desert horned viper )\n( on - line ) . accessed march 07 , 2010 at urltoken .\neffects of cerastes cerastes ( egyptian sand viper ) and cerastes vipera ( sahara sand viper ) snake venoms on blood coagulation : separation of coagulant and anticoagulant factors and their correlation with arginine esterase and protease activities .\nsterer y . 1992 . a mixed litter of horned and hornless cerastes cerastes . israel journal of zoology , 37 : 247 - 9 .\negyptian horned viper cerastes cerastes venom hyaluronidase : purification , partial characterization and evidence for its action as a spreading factor . - pubmed - ncbi\nlife - threatening envenoming by the saharan horned viper ( cerastes cerastes ) causing micro - angiopathic haemolysis , coagulopathy and acute renal failure : clinical cases and review .\ntrutnau , l . 1981 . beobachtungen an der hornviper cerastes cerastes ( l . 1758 ) . herpetofauna 3 ( 13 ) : 11 - 16 - get paper here\nlife - threatening envenoming by the saharan horned viper ( cerastes cerastes ) causing micro - angiopathic haemolysis , coagulopathy and acute renal fail . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nto cite this page : anderson , i . 2011 .\ncerastes cerastes\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ncerastes ( tsn 634421 ) at integrated taxonomic information system . accessed 20 march 2007 .\nmohamed ah , khaled lz . 1966 . effect of venom of cerastes cerastes on nerve tissue and skeletal muscle . toxicon , great britain , 3 : 233 - 4 .\ncerastes cerastes is capable of life - threatening envenoming in humans . optimal treatment of envenoming is by early administration of specific antivenom , and avoidance of ineffective and potentially - dangerous ancillary methods .\nwerner , y . l . , le verdier , a . , rosenman , d . & sivan , n . 1991 . systematics and zoogeography of cerastes ( ophidia : viperidae ) in the levant : i . distinguishing arabian from african cerastes cerastes . the snake 23 : 90 - 100\ndiscussion : cerastes cerastes is capable of life - threatening envenoming in humans . optimal treatment of envenoming is by early administration of specific antivenom , and avoidance of ineffective and potentially - dangerous ancillary methods .\nthe use of ground - borne vibrations for prey localization in the saharan sand vipers ( cerastes ) .\nvenoms of cerastes cerastes , macrovipera mauritanica , bitis arietans and naja haje were extracted by manual stimulation , centrifuged , lyophilized and kept at - 20\u00bac at the experimental center of the pasteur institute of morocco .\nc . c . cerastes - mohave desert sidewinder compared to c . c . laterorepens - colorado desert sidewinder\nwerner yl , verdier a , rosenman d , sivan n . 1991 . systematics and zoogeography of cerastes ( ophidia : viperidae ) in the levant : 1 , distinguishing arabian from african\ncerastes cerastes .\nthe snake , the japan snake institute , yabuzuka honmachi , nittagun , gunma prefecture , japan , 23 : 90 - 100 .\nmorain , m . , b . young . 2003 . vertical burrowing in the saharan sand vipers ( cerastes ) .\n22 . djebari fl , martin - eauclaire mf . purification and characterization of a phospholipase a 2 from cerastes cerastes ( horn viper ) snake venom . toxicon . 1990 ; 28 ( 6 ) : 637 - 46 . [ links ]\nthe genus and species are named after the greek \u201ckeras\u201d ( = horn ) after the horns many species of the genus display . cerastes cerastes hoofieni was named after mr . jacob haim hoofien ( 1913 - 1997 ) who studied middle eastern herpetology .\nclinical study , said the oxford journal , \u201chas demonstrated the ability of c . cerastes to cause complicated and potentially fatal envenoming\u2026\u201d\nthe use of ground - borne vibrations for prey localization in the saharan sand vipers ( cerastes ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nthis subspecies , crotalus cerastes cerastes - mohave desert sidewinder , is found in south - central california south and east of the sierras south to roughly the san bernardino county line . the species crotalus cerastes - sidewinder , is found in the southern california deserts , east through southern nevada to extreme southwestern utah , into western arizona , and south into northeast baja california mexico , and northwest sonora , mexico .\nactivity cycles and foraging behaviors of free - ranging sidewinder rattlesnakes ( crotalus cerastes ) : the ontogeny of hunting in a precocial vertebrate .\ntachoua , w . , boukhalfa - abibm , h . , laraba - djebari , f . hemorrhagic metalloproteinase , cc hsm - iii , isolated from cerastes cerastes venom : purification and biochemical characterization . journal of biochemical & molecular toxicology . 28 / 2 / 2017 .\nschl\u00fcter , u . 2002 . die hornvipern ( cerastes ) nordafrikas . draco 3 ( 10 ) : 74 - 78 - get paper here\n25 . boukhalfa ah , meksem a , laraba - djebari f . purification and biochemical characterization of a novel hemorrhagic metalloproteinase from horned viper ( cerastes cerastes ) venom . comp biochem physiol c toxicol pharmacol . 2009 ; 150 ( 2 ) : 285 - 90 . [ links ]\n\u25ba hyaluronidase enzyme ( cchaseii ) was purified from the dangerous egyptian horned viper cerastes cerastes . \u25ba cchaseii biochemical properties was investigated . \u25ba the spreading property of the enzyme was confirmed . \u25ba these studies could be potentially useful for production of more efficient antisera for management of viper envenomation .\nthe color of the snake helps to camouflage it against sand or rocky ground , especially when it is partially buried . cerastes cerastes is an ambush hunter , lurking quietly in a half - buried position until an unwary lizard or rodent comes within reach , and then lunging quickly to capture its prey .\nthe sds - page protein profiles were analyzed following coomassie blue staining . figure 1 shows that all venoms differ in composition . each of the venoms from cerastes cerastes and macrovipera mauritanica contains a pool of proteins with different molecular weights . the naja haje venom profile reveals protein bands of lower molecular weights .\nthe desert horned vipers ( cerastes cerastes and c . gasperettii ) are the most familiar snakes of the great deserts of north africa and the middle east , including the plains of iraq . they are responsible for many human snake bites . in western countries , they are popular among exotic - snake keepers .\nthe cerastes , \u201chorned\u201d , is one of the many snakes born from the blood of medusa in the libyan desert . it receives a passing mention in lucan\u2019s catalogue of snakes . another cerastes mentioned by theophrastus and pliny , in the form of a two - horned herbivorous worm , is obviously a caterpillar .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - arabian horned viper ( cerastes gasperettii )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - arabian horned viper ( cerastes gasperettii )\ntitle =\narkive species - arabian horned viper ( cerastes gasperettii )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nsecor , s . m . 1994 . ecological significance of movements and activity range for the sidewinder , crotalus cerastes . copeia 1994 : 631 - 645 .\nsidewinder , horned rattlesnake , sidewinder rattlesnake , mojave desert sidewinder ( for c . c . cerastes ) , [ 2 ] sidewinder rattler . [ 7 ]\nsidewinder , horned rattlesnake , sidewinder rattlesnake , mojave desert sidewinder ( for c . c . cerastes ) , [ 3 ] sidewinder rattler . [ 8 ]\nactivity cycles and foraging behaviors of free - ranging sidewinder rattlesnakes ( crotalus cerastes ) : the ontogeny of hunting in a precocial vertebrate . - pubmed - ncbi\nbackground : the desert horned vipers ( cerastes cerastes and c . gasperettii ) are the most familiar snakes of the great deserts of north africa and the middle east , including the plains of iraq . they are responsible for many human snake bites . in western countries , they are popular among exotic - snake keepers .\nschneemann , m . , r . cathomas , s . laidlaw , a . el nahas , r . theakston , d . warrell . 2004 . life - threatening envenoming by the saharan horned viper ( cerastes cerastes ) causing micro - angiopathic haemolysis , coagulopathy , and acute renal failure : clinical cases and review .\nalthough cerastes are often referred to as horned vipers , only the two larger species , c . cerastes and c . gasperettii , are known to have horns , and even these do not always have them . individuals with and without horns occur within the same populations and even within the same litters . [ 2 ]\nmorain , m . , b . young . 2002 . the use of ground - borne vibrations for prey localization in the saharan sand vipers ( cerastes ) .\nschmid , a . 2014 . haltung und nachzucht der arabischen hornviper ( cerastes gasperetii gasperettii ) . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 19 ( 110 ) : 46 - 50\nsecor , s . m . 1995 . ecological aspects of foraging mode for the snakes crotalus cerastes and masticophis flagellum . herpetological monographs 9 : 169 - 186 .\n19 . fahmi l , makran b , pl\u00e1 d , sanz l , oukkache n , lkhider m , et al . venomics and antivenomics profiles of north african cerastes cerastes and c vipera populations reveals a potentially important therapeutic weakness . j proteomics . 2012 ; 75 ( 8 ) : 2442 - 53 . [ links ]\nsouth - west iran ( 2 ) ( 6 ) , and cerastes gasperettii mendelssohni , which is restricted to the arava valley in israel and jordan ( 6 ) .\nmacrovipera mauritanica and cerastes cerastes venoms act on two subunits of fibrinogen ( \u03b1 and \u03b3 ) . this activity is not detected in naja haje venom ( figure 5 ) . indeed , the ability of mm and cc venoms to degrade the \u03b1 and \u03b3 chains of fibrinogen was evident . however , \u03b2 chain degradation was not detectable .\nmertens , robert 1944 . einige beobachtungen \u00fcber die hornviper ( aspis cerastes ) . wochenschrift ( bl\u00e4tter ) f\u00fcr aquarien - und terrarienkunde 1944 ( 2 ) : 33 - 35\njoger , u . & courage , k . 1999 . are palearctic \u2018rattlesnakes\u2019 ( echis and cerastes ) monophyletic ? . kaupia ( darmstadt ) ( 8 ) : 65 - 81\naccording to the oxford journal of medicine , c . cerastes has two close relatives . one , the horned and similar - sized c . gasperettii , occupies a range extending from southern israel eastward across iraq into eastern iran . the other , the hornless and much smaller c . vipera , shares much of the same range occupied by c . cerastes .\nmohamed ah , abdel - baset a , hassan a . 1980 . immunological studies om monovalent and bivalent cerastes antivenin . toxicon , great britain , 18 : 384 - 7 .\nthese predominantly nocturnal snakes typically inhabit sandy deserts . c . cerastes also found in stony regions with sparse vegetation . not found higher than 1 , 500 m above sea level .\nmertens , r . 1937 . the type designations of the ophidian genera cerastes and coronella , established by laurenti in 1768 . copeia 1937 ( 1 ) : 70 - get paper here\nwerner , y . , n . sivan . 1992 . systematics and zoogeography of cerastes ( ophidia : viperidae ) in the levant : 2 . taxonomy , ecology , and zoogeography .\ncerastes cerastes and macrovipera mauritanica venoms are characterized by their ability to degrade fibrinogen subunits ( i . e . \u03b1 and \u03b3 chains ) . however , nh ( belonging to elapidae family ) venom does not display any detectable hemorrhagic activity . nevertheless , we highlighted the presence of edema with symptoms of myotoxicity , very lower proteolytic and phospholipase activities and an absence of fibrinogenolytic activity .\nthe dark segment of the rattle closest to the body on an adult c . c . cerastes is brown , the dark segment of the rattle closest to the body on an adult c . c . laterorepens is black . the dark rattle segment may not become fully black on c . c . laterorepens until the snake is an adult with 3 or more rattle segments . the last dark marks on the tail do not always correspond to the color of the dark rattle segment . c . c . cerastes has 21 scale rows . c . c . laterorepens has 23 scale rows . c . c . laterorepens has a higher number of ventral scales than c . c . cerastes . for more information see klauber , 1944 c . cerastes subspecies .\nthe present study aimed to evaluate the biochemical , enzymatic and biological properties of venoms of the most dangerous moroccan snakes , namely cerastes cerastes and macrovipera mauritanica . to study the cross - reactivity that may exist between the venoms , specific horse antivenoms were produced with the objective of identifying the best candidate or mixture for producing a highly protective antivenom to fight snake envenomation in north africa .\ntwo men bitten while handling captive saharan horned vipers ( cerastes cerastes ) in europe developed extensive local swelling and life - threatening systemic envenoming , characterized by coagulopathy , increased fibrinolysis , thrombocytopenia , micro - angiopathic haemolytic anaemia and acute renal failure . the clinical picture is explicable by the presence in c . cerastes venom of several thrombin - like , factor - x - activating , platelet - aggregating , haemorrhagic and nephrotoxic components . in one case , prophylactic use of subcutaneous epinephrine may have contributed to intracranial haemorrhage . the roles in treatment of heparin ( rejected ) and specific antivenom ( recommended ) are discussed .\ncrotalus cerastes - hallowell , 1854 - proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , vol . 7 , p . 95 from original description citations for the reptiles and amphibians of north america \u00a9 ellin beltz\nsubach , a , scharf , i & ovadia , o . 2009 . foraging behavior and predation success of the sand viper ( cerastes vipera ) . canadian journal of zoology 87 : 520 - 528 . pdf\nthe horns of a cerastes have two documented functions . they are used as lures to attract birds , with the snake buried under the sand with only the horns protruding . horned snakes can also be found guarding wild pepper plants in arabia , and they use their horns to gore and kill people . to harvest the pepper , fire must be set to burn out the cerastes , blackening the pepper as a result .\nalthough it would seem that laurenti changed his mind in 1768 and decided to name this genus aspis , instead of cerastes as he did earlier , this was eventually rejected . the iczn later placed the name cerastes on the official list of generic names in zoology ( name no . 1539 ) , while the name aspis was placed on the official index of invalid generic names in zoology ( name no . 1630 ) . [ 1 ]\nwerner , yehudah l . ; sivan , naomi 1992 . systematics and zoogeography of cerastes ( ophidia : voperidae ) in the levant : 2 . taxonomy , ecology , and zoogeography . the snake 24 : 34 - 49\nstout snakes with very distinct , triangular head . tip of the snout blunt , nostrils directed upwards . c . cerastes sometimes has a horn - like protuberance over each eye , consisting of a single scale . in c . vipera the eyes are set at an angle and directed upwards . length of c . cerastes 50\u201360 cm ( max . 85 cm ) , c . vipera on average 35 cm ( max . 50 cm ) .\nthis snake has a variety of other popular names , for instance : sahara horned viper , north african horned viper , african desert horned viper , horned desert viper , greater cerastes , asp , or simply , horned viper .\ncohen ac , meyers bc . 1970 . a function of the horn in the sidewinder rattlesnake crotalus cerastes , with comments on other horned snakes . copeia , american society of ichthyologists and herpetologists , 3 : 574 - 5 .\nm . schneemann , r . cathomas , s . t . laidlaw , a . m . el nahas , r . d . g . theakston , d . a . warrell ; life - threatening envenoming by the saharan horned viper ( cerastes cerastes ) causing micro - angiopathic haemolysis , coagulopathy and acute renal failure : clinical cases and review , qjm : an international journal of medicine , volume 97 , issue 11 , 1 november 2004 , pages 717\u2013727 , urltoken\nit is said that helen of troy , while eloping with paris , stepped on a cerastes\u2019 back and broke it . this is why they move in such a sinuous , crooked fashion , causing their scales to rustle as they go .\nwebber , m . m , x . glaudas and j . a . rodr\u00edguez - robles . 2012 . do sidewinder rattlesnakes ( crotalus cerastes ) cease feeding during the breeding season ? copeia 2012 ( 1 ) : 100 - 105 .\nwhile there do not appear to be any major threats to this species as a whole , the newly described subspecies cerastes gasperettii mendelssohni may be threatened by virtue of its restricted range and the destruction of its habitat for agriculture ( 7 ) .\nno more than 2 cubits ( about a meter ) long , the cerastes is sandy - colored and white , with red streaks across its back . the skin is very soft and stretchable . on the head are two , four , or eight horns , described as worm - like or ram - like . the fangs are like those of a viper and are not crooked . instead of a backbone , a cerastes has a cartilaginous spine , making it the most flexible of all snakes .\ncrotalus cerastes is a venomous pit viper species belonging to the genus crotalus ( rattlesnakes ) and found in the desert regions of the southwestern united states and northwestern mexico . three subspecies are currently recognized , including the nominate subspecies described here . [ 3 ]\nthe arabian horned viper is found in the middle east and throughout the arabian peninsula . there are two subspecies , cerastes gasperettii gasperettii , which occurs in the united arab emirates , yemen , oman , israel , jordan , iraq , kuwait , saudi arabia and\ncerastes cerastes and macrovipera mauritanica venoms of morocco are very toxic and contain several proteins that differ by molecular weights . both venoms are characterized by not only high hemorrhagic and phospholipase a 2 activities but also their ability to degrade the \u03b1 and \u03b3 chains of fibrinogen . our results highlight the high immunogenicity of cc , which leads to the induction of a horse antivenom that is highly protective against cc , mm and ba whole venoms . indeed , this protective capacity is higher when compared to the mm - specific antivenom product .\nwagner , philipp & thomas m . wilms 2010 . a crowned devil : new species of cerastes laurenti , 1768 ( ophidia , viperidae ) from tunisia , with two nomenclatural comments . bonn zool . bull . 57 ( 2 ) : 297\u2013306 - get paper here\nthis clinical study has demonstrated the ability of c . cerastes to cause complicated and potentially fatal envenoming , a warning to those exotic - snake enthusiasts who keep this species in captivity , and to those who live , work , travel and go to war in its extensive eremic domain .\nwerner , y . l . , sivan , n . , kushnir , v . and motro , u . ( 1999 ) a statistical approach to variation in cerastes ( ophidia : viperidae ) , with the description of two endemic subspecies . kaupia , 8 : 83 - 97 .\nreiserer , r . s . and g . w . schuett ( 2008 ) aggressive mimicry in neonates of the sidewinder rattlesnake , crotalus cerastes ( serpentes : viperidae ) : stimulus control and visual perception of prey luring . biological journal of the linnean society 95 : 81 - 91 ( 11 ) .\nvenom glands are highly specialized tissues that possess a high capacity for protein secretion , and are a rich source of active proteins . snake venoms are known to contain a complex mixture of pharmacologically active molecules , including organic and mineral components , small peptides and proteins . according to their major toxic effect , snake venoms may be conveniently classified as neurotoxic ( elapidae ) or hemorrhagic ( viperidae ) . for instance , envenomings by macrovipera mauritanica and cerastes cerastes are characterized by hemorrhaging and abnormalities in the blood coagulation system , while the venom of the cobra naja haje is mainly neurotoxic and affects the nervous system ( 5 ) .\nsecor , s . m . 1992 . a preliminary analysis of the movement and home range size of the sidewinder , crotalus cerastes . pages 389 - 393 in j . a . campbell and e . d . brodie , jr . , editors . biology of the pitvipers . selva , tyler , texas .\nin the face of such a historical depth of medical opinion , we were surprised to be confronted by two cases of potentially fatal envenoming caused by captive specimens of the saharan horned viper ( c . cerastes ) . we attempt to attribute the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms to known constituents of the venom of this fabulous snake .\ncommon names : horned vipers , [ 2 ] north african desert vipers . [ 3 ] cerastes is a genus of small , venomous vipers found in the deserts and semi - deserts of northern north africa eastward through arabia and iran . [ 3 ] [ 1 ] three species are currently recognized . [ 4 ]\nvenomous ! has been considered as subspecies of c . cerastes by leviton et al . has been erroneously reported from lebanon ( joger 1983 ) . distribution : not in iraq fide habeeb & rastegar - pouyani 2016 . morphology : both hornless and horn - bearing specimens are known in this species . however , the subspecies mendelssohni is hornless .\ncerastes species are not known to be particularly ill - tempered (\nfairly placid\n) , but when threatened they will often stand their ground and form c - shaped coils that are rubbed together to produce a rasping or crackling sound , similar to echis . with enough provocation , they will strike from this position . [ 2 ] [ 3 ]\nthe sidewinder ( crotalus cerastes ) , also known as the horned rattlesnake and sidewinder rattlesnake , [ 3 ] is a venomous pit viper species belonging to the genus crotalus ( rattlesnakes ) and is found in the desert regions of the southwestern united states and northwestern mexico . three subspecies are currently recognized , including the nominate subspecies described here . [ 4 ]\nfirst , dried venoms were biochemically investigated . gel electrophoresis analysis demonstrated several protein bands certainly responsible for almost all of the observed biological effects ( 6 , 19 , 20 ) . proteolytic activity , studied following the casein test , was low compared to other venoms reported in the literature ( e . g . philodryas venom ) . phospholipase a 2 activity is an important characteristic presented by cc and mm venoms . we estimated this activity to be four times higher in cc venom than in mm venom and in comparison to the positive control . our results are in concordance with the recently reported studies ( 6 , 21 ) . pla 2 has been purified and characterized since 1990 from algeria cerastes cerastes ( 22 ) .\nthe three poorly defined subspecies are in need of taxonomic study ( ernst 1992 ) . three subspecies are recognized by crother et al . ( 2008 ) , though they state that douglas et al . ( 2006 ) , using mtdna , resolved several clades within cerastes , with only one corresponding to a currently recognized subspecies ( c . c . laterorepens ) .\nwerner , y . l . , n . sivan , v . kushnir & u . motro . 1999 . a statistical approach to variation in cerastes ( ophidia : viperidae ) with the description of two endemic subspecies , in u . joger . ( ed . ) : phylogeny and systematics of the viperidae . kaupia ( darmstadt ) ( 8 ) : 83 - 97\nin both of our patients , use of large doses of polyspecific antivenom with activity against c . cerastes venom proved decisive in curtailing the coagulopathy , but did not prevent the evolution of profound renal failure . this was also the case in victims of russell ' s viper ( daboia siamensis ) bite in myanmar , even when antivenom was administered within 1\u20132 h of envenoming . 48\nbrown , t . w . , and h . b . lillywhite . 1992 . autecology of the mojave desert sidewinder , crotalus cerastes , at kelso dunes , mojave desert , california , usa . pages 279 - 308 in j . a . campbell and e . d . brodie , jr . , editors . biology of the pitvipers . selva , tyler , texas .\nsince some of these toxins exert opposing actions , the net effect , for example on platelets , may depend on the composition of the venom injected by a particular snake on a particular occasion . the large intraspecies variation in venom composition is now well recognized 43 and geographical variation in c . cerastes venom has been documented . 44 this has obvious implications for antivenom production and efficacy .\nacute renal failure is an expected consequence of this process , but in rats , the effects of sub - lethal doses of c . cerastes venom were interpreted as causing mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis leading to acute tubular necrosis by direct nephrotoxicity and ischaemia . there was cortical necrosis resulting from thrombosis and bleeding . 45 however , in neither of our patients was renal biopsy justified , and so we have no information about histopathological changes .\nunlike echis , to which they bear a passing resemblance , cerastes species are not known to be ill - tempered and their venom , which is a cytotoxin , is not particularly potent . [ 3 ] bites can be painful and should always be taken seriously , but little venom is injected and few fatalities are known . bites do occur , especially in the suez canal region , but no statistical data in available . [ 2 ]\nno other snake can endure thirst as long as the cerastes . they seldom or never drink . as for reproduction , they bring forth live young . they are solitary and aggressive towards humans , but the psilli of libya live in harmony with them . if one of the psilli is lightly bitten they spit on the bite to heal it . a stronger bite requires antivenin made by gargling water and spitting it into a pot for the victim to drink . the most severe cases are cured by lying naked upon the equally naked sufferer .\ncerastes bites cause necrosis , priapism , madness , dimness of sight , scabs , sharp pain like the pricking of needles , and inevitable death within nine days . topsell recommends cutting off stricken flesh to the bone or outright amputation . the wound should then be dressed with goat dung and vinegar or garlic , or barley - meal , or cedar , rue , or nep juice , or otherwise salt , honey , or pitch . daffodil , rue , radish - seed , cumin , wine , castoreum , calamint , and emetics should be imbibed .\ncerastes are small snakes , averaging less than 50 cm in length , but are relatively stout in appearance . the head is broad , flat and distinct from the neck . the head is covered with tubercularly keeled scales , which usually number 15 or more across , and a supraorbital horn may be present over each eye in some species . the snout is short and wide and the eyes , which are set well forward , are small to moderate in size . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] the body is short , stout and cylindrically depressed . the tail is short and tapers abruptly behind the vent . [ 2 ] the dorsal scales are small , with serrated keels , in 23 - 35 rows at midbody . [ 3 ]\nfor many organisms , reproduction can take up large portions of an animal\u2019s energy reserves and can be very time consuming . this is especially true for females . during pregnancy , females must carry around the weight of developing offspring in addition to providing nutrients . these costs of reproduction may interfere with other activities that females might engage in like foraging and feeding . previous studies have shown that reproductive females can exhibit seasonal anorexia , where females will cease feeding during the reproductive season . seasonal anorexia is hypothesized to alleviate conflicts between reproduction and feeding by allowing a female more time and energy to engage in reproductive activities . drs . javier a . rodr\u00edguez - robles , xavier glaudas and i decided to investigate possible tradeoffs between reproduction and feeding in the sidewinder rattlesnake ( crotalus cerastes ) .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ this website is dedicated to the libyan desert ( or eastern sahara ) , one of the least explored and most strikingly beautiful places on this planet . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _\nthe libyan desert contains general background information on the libyan desert , including geography , a detailed account of and various original documents relating to its history and exploration , descriptions and photo galleries of the main rock art and archaeological sites ( wadi sora , the real\ncave of swimmers\n, karkur talh rock art sites , ain doua , abu ballas and others ) and information on the desert ' s fauna and flora .\nexpeditions provides news updates and itineraries for expeditions planned by fliegel jezerniczky expeditions , as well as reports and many photos from past expeditions . section also provides practical information for expedition participants .\nresources provides a selection of high resolution landsat images of the libyan desert , as well as links to the few websites , and a comprehensive bibliography of various books books and articles related to exploration , history and rock art of the libyan desert , including a full listing of the various editions of alm\u00e1sy ' s writings . there are some hard to find old books and maps available .\n2010 november - western uweinat from libya we returned to libya after a long absence to explore the remaining\nwhite spots\nat western jebel uweinat . we had an unexpectedly hassle free and absolutely superb trip , making long treks on the granite part of the mountain resulting in a number of important new rock art finds .\n2010 october trip account something quite different for a change , this expedition focused on the wwii history of the libyan desert , retracing the egyptian part of alm\u00e1sy ' s operation salam route and visiting the numerous sdf and lrdg wrecks still littering the desert .\n2010 june - upper brandberg , namibia the account of our first expedition to the rock art sites of the upper brandberg mountain , namibia . we had a very tough , but amazingly beautiful ten days on the top of the brandberg , seeing many of the principal sites , a trip we plan to repeat on a regular basis .\n2010 march trip account we had a very pleasant and fruitful trip to uweinat and the gilf kebir except for the weather . the week long windless heatwave at uweinat , coupled with freezing mornings and a sandstorm later in the trip will be long remembered . . .\nrock art of the libyan desert second expanded edition now available ! the second edition of the illustrated catalogue of all known rock art sites in the libyan desert had been published in october 2009 , now available for purchase . nearly 300 new sites and over 4000 new photographs were added . note : a special discount applies to those who purchased the first edition .\n2009 november trip account we returned to uweinat after a year and a half ' s absence . our objectives were to ascend the summit , and explore some remaining blank spots in the upper areas of the mountain , all of which were met with spectacular results .\n8 th august , 2009 - 10 th anniversary of the website launch it was ten years ago that the precursor to this website made its modest debut . since then we have come a long way , the event is celebrated with several updates , a little facelift , and the announcement of new expeditions .\ni have finally managed to complete the project of translating all of alm\u00e1sy ' s writings relevant to the libyan desert into english , including a corrected and annoted transcript of the operation salaam diary . pdf or cd versions may be ordered on - line .\n2009 february trip account the account of our trip organised together with bc archaeology travel to the gilf kebir , with a fine new find in the middle section of wadi abd el melik , and an astonishingly green wadi hamra .\na pharaonic inscription at uweinat ! in late 2008 mark borda and mahmoud marei have discovered a pharaonic inscription at jebel uweinat , a most amazing find that will require a complete re - thinking of our understanding of the deep desert travel capabilities of the ancient egyptians .\n2008 march trip account traces of an astonishing amount of recent rainfall were observed all accross the gilf kebir , an area where except for a few isolated patches no fresh vegatation was oserved over the past ten years .\nthe lost bag of signalman alec ross in august 2007 , a bag of a wwii british soldier was found near wadi sora , with all personal belongings . here is the fascinating story , with photos of the finds .\n2007 october trip account an account of our october expedition , organised primarily to explore unsurveyed parts of jebel uweinat . we did make some splendid rock art finds , however the highlight was to observe the aftermath of yet another summer rain , which left pools large enough to swim in all over the mountain .\n2007 march trip account with video footage an account of our march expedition to visit the rock art sites of jebel uweinat and the gilf kebir , illustrated for the first time with digital video footage .\nit rained at uweinat ! ! ! the miracle we ' ve been waiting for seven years repeated itself ! on our last visit in october , karkur talh and other valleys were filled with lush green vegetation , and millions of yellow flowers . the flora and fauna pages have been extensively updated with the noted new species .\nnew rock art finds in the wadi wahesh instead of the cancelled sudan trip , we decided to make a two week expedition , principally to jebel uweinat , to continue exploration of the unknown parts . in the upper reaches of the wadi wahesh ( south uweinat ) we found a very rich group of paintings , some of them in a hitherto unknown style .\n2004 october trip account added the account of our october trip to jebel uweinat and the gilf kebir . the highlight of the trip was undoubtedly the show put on by a horned viper , who proceeded to have it ' s dinner right in front of our cameras .\nunpublished historic photographs by f . g . b . arkwright bimbashi ( capt . ) arkwright was commanding officer of the no . 1 . motor machine gun battery of the sdf , occupying bir murr at uweinat in 1934 . his sons , anthony and philip discovered these photos in a family album , and have very kindly permitted them to be shared with all of us . some photos show alm\u00e1sy , as well as the ascent of uweinat .\nexploration of arkenu & western uweinat account of our 2003 october trip to libya . exploration and new rock art discoveries at arkenu , karkur idriss and karkur ibrahim . visit to jebel sherif and south uweinat thwarted by libyan officialdom .\nmystery of the\nwhite blob\nsolved traverse of the great sand sea , exploration and new rock art discoveries near wadi sora and karkur talh . all in the latest trip account .\nspectacular rock art sites discovered a number of truly spectacular paintings and dozens of other new sites were found during our expedition to uweinat and the gilf kebir in october , 2002 .\nthe sdf kufra convoys the little known history of the sudan defence force truck convoys supplying kufra from wadi halfa in 1941 - 42 . contains an account intended for bagnold ' s never published lrdg history .\nunpublished bagnold photographs stephen bagnold , son of ralph alger bagnold , has most graciously provided scans of unpublished photos of the early expeditions .\nthis site is optimised for 600 x 800 resolution or greater and microsoft ie5 . copyright notice : text and photos from this site may be freely copied and used for private , educational and research purposes , mentioning the source ( for websites , please provide a link ) . contents may not be used for any commercial purposes or publication without permission . site design by claire spottiswoode , birding africa\nhoofieni : sw corner of arabian peninsula ( endemic ) . type locality : king khalid airbase , saudi arabia , ( 18\u00b018 ' n , 42\u00b044 ' e )\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nal - quran , s . 2009 . the herpetofauna of the southern jordan . american - eurasian j . agric . & environ . sci . , 6 ( 4 ) : 385 - 391 [ this journal has a dubious record , see urltoken\narnold e n 1980 . the scientific results of the oman flora and fauna survey 1977 ( dhofar ) . the reptiles and amphibians of dhofar , southern arabia . journal of oman studies special report ( no . 2 ) : 273 - 332 - get paper here\nbar , aviad and guy haimovitch 2012 . a field guide to reptiles and amphibians of israel . pazbar ltd , 246 pp . - get paper here\nbauer , aaron m . ; jonathan c . deboer , dylan j . taylor 2017 . atlas of the reptiles of libya . proc . cal . acad . sci . 64 ( 8 ) : 155 - 318 - get paper here\nboettger , o . [ as o . b\u00f6ttger ] 1880 . die reptilien und amphibien von syrien , palaestina und cypern . ber . senckenb . naturforsch . ges . , frankfurt / m . , 1879 - 1880 : 132 - 219 - get paper here\nboulenger , george a . 1891 . catalogue of the reptiles and batrachians of barbary ( morocco , algeria , tunisia ) , based chiefly upon the notes and collections made in 1880 - 1884 by m . fernand lataste . tr . zool . soc . 13 : 93 - 164\nbrandst\u00e4tter , f . 2002 . schlangen in der bibel . beitr\u00e4ge zur literatur und geschichte der herpetologie und terrarienkunde 2 : 29 - 34\ncarranza s , xipell m , tarroso p , gardner a , arnold en , robinson md , et al . 2018 . diversity , distribution and conservation of the terrestrial reptiles of oman ( sauropsida , squamata ) . plos one 13 ( 2 ) : e0190389 - get paper here\ncorkill , n . l . and cochrane , j . a . 1966 . the snakes of the arabian peninsula and socotra . j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 62 ( 3 ) : 475 - 506 ( 1965 ) - get paper here\ncrochet , pierre andre ; raphael leblois , julien pierre renoult 2015 . new reptile records from morocco and western sahara herpetology notes 8 : 583 - 588 - get paper here\ndamas - moreira , isabel , beatriz tome , james harris , joao p . maia and daniele salvi . 2014 . moroccan herpetofauna : distribution updates . herpetozoa 27 ( 1 / 2 ) : 96 - 102\ndobiey , m . & vogel , g . 2007 . venomous snakes of africa / giftschlangen afrikas . edition chimaira , terralog 15 , 150 pp . - get paper here\ndunaev e . a . , orlova v . f . 2003 . diversity of snakes ( on the materials of the exposition of the zoological museum of the moscow state university ) . moscow : moscow state university press , 376 pp\negan , d . 2007 . snakes of arabia . motivate publishing , dubai , 208 pp .\ngarci\u0301a - cardenete , luis ; m . victoria flores - stols & sau\u0301l yubero 2017 . new cases of syntopy between viperid snakes ( viperidae ) in the atlantic sahara go - south bull . ( 2017 ) , 14 , 139 - 141 - get paper here\ngeniez , p . ; mateo , j . a . ; geniez , m . & pether , j . 2004 . the amphibians and reptiles of the western sahara ( former spanish sahara ) and adjacent regions . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 228 pp . [ reviewed in reptilia gb 44 : 81 ]\nhaas , georg 1957 . some amphibians and reptiles from arabia . proc . cal . acad . sci . 29 ( 3 ) : 47 - 86 - get paper here\nhabeeb , israa nadhim & nasrullah rastegar - pouyani 2016 . geographical distribution of the snakes of iraq mesopotamia environmental journal 2 ( 3 ) : 67 - 77\nherrmann , h . w . ; joger , u . ; lenk , p . & wink , m . 1999 . morphological and molecular phylogenies of viperines : conflicting evidence ? . kaupia ( darmstadt ) ( 8 ) : 21 - 30 - get paper here\nibrahim , adel a . 2013 . the herpetology of the suez canal zone , egypt . vertebrate zoology 63 ( 1 ) : 87\u2013110 - get paper here\njoger u 1983 . book review : harding & welch , venomous snakes of the world , pergamon press , 1980 . salamandra 19 ( 1 - 2 ) : 99 - 102 - get paper here\njohann , h . 1981 . herpetologische eindr\u00fccke auf einer reise durch die sahara . herpetofauna 3 ( 13 ) : 17 - 21 - get paper here\nleviton , a . e . & anderson , s . c . 1967 . survey of the reptiles of the sheikdom of abu dhabi , arabian peninsula . part ii . systematic account of the collction of reptiles made in the sheikdom of abu daby by john gasperetti . proc . cal . acad . sci . ( 4 ) 39 : 157 - 192 - get paper here\nlinnaeus , c . 1758 . systema natur\u00e6 per regna tria natur\u00e6 , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . tomus i . editio decima , reformata . laurentii salvii , holmi\u00e6 . 10th edition : 824 pp . - get paper here\nmallow , d . ludwig , d . & nilson , g . 2003 . true vipers : natural history and toxinology of old world vipers . krieger , malabar , florida , 410 pp . [ review in hr 35 : 200 , reptilia 35 : 74 ]\nmartens , harald 1997 . a review of\nzoogeography of amphibians and reptiles of syria , with additional new records\n( herpetozoa 9 ( 1 / 2 ) , 1996 ) . herpetozoa 10 ( 3 / 4 ) : 99 - 106 - get paper here\nmattison , chris 2007 . enzyklop\u00e4die der schlangen . blv - verlag , 272 pp .\nmcdiarmid , r . w . ; campbell , j . a . & tour\u00e9 , t . a . 1999 . snake species of the world . vol . 1 . herpetologists\u2019 league , 511 pp .\nmonzel , markus m 2012 . gifte , gifttiere , menschen \u2013 eine geschichte voller ( miss ) verst\u00e4ndnisse . draco 13 ( 51 ) : 4 - 25 - get paper here\npadial , j . m . 2006 . commented distributional list of the reptiles of mauritania ( west africa ) . graellsia , 62 ( 2 ) : 159 - 178\nphelps , t . 2010 . old world vipers . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 558 pp . [ critical review in sauria 33 ( 3 ) : 19 and hr 43 : 503 ]\nschleich , h . h . , k\u00e4stle , w . , kabisch , k . 1996 . amphibians and reptiles of north africa . koeltz , koenigstein , 627 pp .\nschmidt , k . p . & marx , h . 1956 . the herpetology of sinai . fieldiana 39 ( 4 ) : 21 - 40 - get paper here\nschmidt , k . p . 1939 . reptiles and amphibians from southwestern asia . publ . field mus . nat . hist . , zool . ser . , 24 : 49 - 92 - get paper here\nschmidtler , j . f . 2013 . wiederentdeckung herpetologischer beitra\u0308ge von l . fitzinger mit beschreibungen neuer taxa in f . treitschkes ( 1842 / 1843 ) popula\u0308rer naturgeschichte \u201cnaturhistorischer bildersaal des thierreiches\u201d ( amphibia , reptilia ) . herpetozoa 26 ( 1 / 2 ) : 15 - 26\nschnurrenberger , h . 1959 . observations on behavior in two libyan species of viperine snakes . herpetologica 15 ( 2 ) : 70 - 72 - get paper here\nschnurrenberger , hans 1963 . fishes , amphibians , and reptiles of two libyan oases . herpetologica 18 ( 4 ) : 270 - 273 - get paper here\nshaw , g . & nodder , f . p . 1793 . the naturalist ' s miscellany [ . . . ] , vol . iv . london , nodder & co . , plates 111 - 146 , 158 unnumbered pages [ published in monthly issues between august 1 , 1792 , and july 1 , 1793 ] - get paper here\nsochurek , e . 1979 . die schlangen nordafrikas . mitt . zool . ges . braunau 3 ( 8 / 9 ) : 219 - 226\nsochurek , e . 1986 . die vier formen der w\u00fcstenottern . elaphe 8 ( 1 ) : 4 - 5 , 20 , 4\nsow , andack saad ; fernando mart\u00ednez - freir\u00eda , pierre - andr\u00e9 crochet , philippe geniez , ivan ineich , hamidou dieng , soumia fahd , jos\u00e9 carlos brito 2015 . atlas of the distribution of reptiles in the parc national du banc d\u2019arguin , mauritania . basic and applied herpetology - get paper here\ntrape j - f and mane\u0301 y . 2015 . the snakes of niger . amphibian & reptile conservation 9 ( 2 ) [ special section ] : 39\u201355 ( e110 ) - get paper here\ntrape , j . - f . & man\u00e9 , y . 2006 . guide des serpents d\u2019afrique occidentale . savane et d\u00e9sert . [ senegal , gambia , mauritania , mali , burkina faso , niger ] . ird editions , paris , 226 pp . - get paper here\ntreitschke , r . ( hrsg . ) 1839 . naturhistorischer bildersaal des thierreiches . nach william jardine bearbeitet , nebst einem vorworte von karl vogel ; 4 b\u00e4nde . pesth & leipzig ( c . a . hartleben ) , [ 1839 , 1841 , 1842 , 1843 for the 4 volumes ]\nvenchi , alberto and roberto sindaco 2006 . annotated checklist of the reptiles of the mediterranean countries , with keys to species identification . part 2 - snakes ( reptilia , serpentes ) . annali del museo civico di storia naturale\ng . doria\n, genova , xcviii : 259 - 364\nwagner , p . 2008 . the good , the bad , and the ugly . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 13 ( 69 ) : 85 - 88 - get paper here\nwallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\ngeneral shape small , depressed , tapered , relatively thick bodied snake with a short tail . can grow to a maximum of about 0 . 90 metres . head is broad , flattened , covered in small scales , roughly triangular shaped when viewed from above and very distinct from narrow neck . snout is very short and broad . canthus is indistinct . eyes are small to medium in size , prominent , set to the side of the head and well forward , with vertically elliptical pupils . nostrils directed upward . there is often a long horn above each eye consisting of a single scale . specimens without this horn - like scale have a prominent brow ridge . dorsal scales have apical pits , are heavily keeled , large vertebrally and smaller laterally , oblique with serrated keels . ventrals have lateral keels and subcaudals are keeled posteriorly .\nhabitat up to about 1500 metres in sandy ( including dunes ) and rocky hill desert ."]}
{"id": 252, "summary": [{"text": "condor is the common name for two species of new world vultures , each in a monotypic genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the name derives from the quechua kuntur .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "they are the largest flying land birds in the western hemisphere .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they are : the andean condor ( vultur gryphus ) which inhabits the andean mountains .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the california condor ( gymnogyps californianus ) currently restricted to the western coastal mountains of the united states and mexico and the northern desert mountains of arizona in the united states . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "condor", "paragraphs": ["[ htcondor - users ] condor 8 . 5 . 8 - condor _ q behavior\nre : [ htcondor - users ] condor 8 . 5 . 8 - condor _ q behavior\nsubject : re : [ htcondor - users ] condor 8 . 5 . 8 - condor _ q behavior\nprev by date : re : [ htcondor - users ] condor 8 . 5 . 8 - condor _ q behavior\nprevious by thread : re : [ htcondor - users ] condor 8 . 5 . 8 - condor _ q behavior\n09 / 30 / 15 08 : 34 : 52 / opt / condor / local . btbal3600 / condor _ config . local\nlike their relative , the california condor ( gymnogyps californianus ) , the andean condor has bald head which keeps their feathers clean after poking inside carcass .\nearn miles with alaska mileage plan\u2122 whenever you fly with condor or alaska airlines .\nordered at home , delivered on board . duty - free shopping with condor .\nfirst legal protection specifically directed to the condor . california fish & game code .\nwhitson , m . , and p . whitson . 1969 . breeding behavior of the andean condor ( vultur gryphus ) . condor 71 : 73 - 75 .\ncondor advisory committee formalized . endangered wildlife research program initiated at patuxent wildlife research center , us fish and wildlife ; fred sibley assigned to full - time research on condor\nreceive condor news and most up - to - date deals per e - mail . keep up to date with our latest offers , route news and other condor news .\nandean condor soaring in the andes of peru . source : peru cultural society . the andean condor is classified as near threatened by the iucn red list of threatened species .\nphotograph of a spectacularly preserved fossil condor skull from grand canyon national park in arizona .\n09 / 30 / 15 08 : 34 : 52 using config source : / btbal3600 / opt / condor - 8 . 2 . 8 / etc / condor _ config\ngailey , j . , and n . bolwig . 1973 . observations on the behavior of the andean condor ( vultur gryphus ) . condor 75 : 60 - 68 .\nfind new or used condor other 296iks rvs for sale from across the nation on rvtrader . com . we offer the best selection of condor other rvs to choose from .\nthe iucn red list of threatened species lists the andean condor as a \u201cnear threatened\u201d species .\nif you are travelling on business or in a commercial vehicle please click here for condor ferries freight .\n09 / 30 / 15 08 : 34 : 53 output file : / opt / condor - 8 . 2 . 8 / local . btbal3600 / execute / dir _ 5593 / _ condor _ stdout\n09 / 30 / 15 08 : 34 : 53 error file : / opt / condor - 8 . 2 . 8 / local . btbal3600 / execute / dir _ 5593 / _ condor _ stderr\n09 / 30 / 15 08 : 34 : 53 about to exec / opt / condor - 8 . 2 . 8 / local . btbal3600 / execute / dir _ 5593 / condor _ exec . exe\nthe female condor will deposit one or two eggs on her nest built on inaccessible ledges of large rocks .\ni would expect that ` condor _ q ` would be the same as ` condor _ q deck ` . is what i am seeing expected behavior , have i misconfigured something , or is this a bug ?\nkoford , c . b . 1953 . the california condor . national audubon society , research report 4 .\ncondor has increased its fees for pre - bookable ancillaries , such as extra baggage , meals or sports baggage .\ncurrent threats to the california condor include poisoning from scavening animals killed with lead shot and flying into power lines .\ni know that 8 . 5 . 8 is a development release but i was messing around with our condor build system and i noticed some unexpected ( to me ) behavior . when calling condor _ q there is a failure :\na possible ancestral california condor fossil is a 1 to 1 . 5 million year - old fossil found in florida ,\nweight : 17 - 29 lbs ( 8 - 13 kg ) . ( andean condor is approximately 30 lbs . )\ndaily food requirement of full grown captive condor is 570 gm - 1 kg ( approximately 1 - 2 lbs ) .\nsepse condor sanctuary ( 35 , 000 acres ) established by us forest service . enlarged to 53 , 000 acres in\nthe california condor became extinct in the wild ( ew ) in 1987 when last 8 individuals were taken into captivity .\nkaplan , m . ( 2002 ) the plight of the condor . new scientist , 2363 : 34 - 36 .\nwhitston , m . , p . whitston . 1969 . breeding behavior of the andean condor ( vultur gryphus ) .\nandean condor may descend to sea - level , and feed on dead whales , seals and seabirds near or along the beaches . inland , andean condor feeds mainly on large ungulates , and today domestic stock , which are important food resources .\nthe california condor ( gymnogyps californianus ) is a member of the family cathartidae or new world vultures , a family of seven species , including the closely related andean condor ( vultur gryphus ) and the sympatric turkey vulture ( cathartes aura ) .\na bespoke bicycle is a rarity . at condor cycles it is what we ' ve done every day for 70 years .\nthe california condor dates from late pleistocene ( around 40 , 000 years ago ) to modern times . ( emslie 1988 )\ncalifornia condor distribution adapted from urltoken according to iucn fact sheet click here or on map for detailed distribution ( iucn ) .\ndirected secretary of interior to develop a register of endangered species . condor included on first official list of endangered species in 1967\niucn is 44 mature individuals . the wild population currently numbers 231 individuals in total ( california condor recovery program 2012 ) .\n. publicity measures include a website and near - weekly condor articles in local newspapers ( d . cooper and j . grantham\nauthenticated ( 25 / 11 / 02 ) by james christian . former california condor release attendant for the peregrine fund . urltoken\ngailey , j . , n . bolwig . 1973 . observations on the behavior of the andean condor ( vultur gryphus ) .\nuna publicaci\u0107\u00b3n compartida de condor tool & knife inc . ( @ condortk ) el 2 jul , 2018 a las 4 : 38 pdt\nin january of 2010 a wild - born , captive condor died at nearly 80 years old at the beardsley zoo in bridgeport connecticut .\nspeziale , k . , s . lambertucci , o . olssonb . 2008 . disturbance from roads negatively affects andean condor habitat use .\ncondor cycles 49 - 53 gray ' s inn road london wc1x 8pp + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7269 6820 customer . service @ urltoken\nprotection / threats / status : andean condor is threatened by indirect poisoning used for predators , and by the lead in the carcasses . disturbances , illegal shooting and persecution play an important role in the declines of this species . andean condor is listed as endangered and protected under cites\ndon\u00e1zar , j . , j . feijoo . 2002 . social structure of andean condor roosts : influence of sex , age and season .\nreadiness in adult california condors , although i have observed similar characteristics in a captive california condor that had undergone periods of exertion and excitement .\ncalifornia condor : bald eagle juvenile is noticeably smaller , has brown belly , long tail , and shows long head and neck projection in flight .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - andean condor ( vultur gryphus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - andean condor ( vultur gryphus )\ntitle =\narkive species - andean condor ( vultur gryphus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - california condor ( gymnogyps californianus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - california condor ( gymnogyps californianus )\ntitle =\narkive species - california condor ( gymnogyps californianus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe andean condor ( vultus gryphus ) is one of the 7 species of new world vultures found in warm and temperate areas of the american continent .\nrios - uzeda , b . , r . wallace . 2007 . estimating the size of the andean condor population in the apolobamba mountains of bolivia .\nadditional regulations may apply if you fly on airlines other than condor , e . g . if feeder or connecting flights are operated by other airlines .\ndna studies of the 14 founder individuals of the current condor population indicates that they belonged to three distinct sub populations . ( geyer et al 1993 ) .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 condor cycles limited . registered in england and wales ( no . 05351196 ) . registered office : 66 prescot street , london , e1 8nn .\nlast california condor is brought in from the wild on easter sunday . this young adult male joins 26 captive birds at the san diego and los angeles zoos .\nthe andean condor is considered threatened but is in far better shape than its california cousin . reintroduction programs are working to grow populations of these south american birds .\nthe andean condor ranges across the andes , in venezuela , colombia , ecuador , peru , bolivia and paraguay , south to argentina and chile ( 10 ) .\nwhat\u2019s in a name ? the name \u201ccondor\u201d comes from cuntur , which originated from the inca name for the andean condor . their scientific name , gymnogyps californianus , comes from the greek words gymnos , meaning naked , and refers to the head , and gyps meaning vulture ; californianus is latin and refers to the birds\u2019 range .\nthe andean condor played an important role in inca mythology . today the yawar fiesta which dates back from the time of the spanish conquest in the 1500s is celebrated in regions of the andes . during this celebration a condor , representing the indians , is tied to the back of a bull , which represents the spaniards . the condor attacks the bull with its beak while the bull tries to desperately get rid of it . young men chase the animal trying to show courage to their communities .\ngymno comes from the greek word for bare or naked ( referring to the\nbald\nhead of the condor ) . gyps is the greek word for vulture .\ntwo anthropogenic factors , lead poisoning and shooting , have contributed disproportionately to the decline of the species in last 100 years . although publicity associated with the condor recovery program has reduced the likelihood of condors being shot , one person was arrested as recently as 2004 for shooting a california condor . high lead levels , primarily obtained from the ingestion of fragments of lead bullets and shot remains a pervasive problem throughout the historical foraging range of the california condor . for more information , please see lead exposure .\npoulsen , h . 1963 . on the behavior of the south american condor ( vultur gryphus l . ) . z . tierpsychol . 20 : 468 - 473 .\ndue to loss of several birds , l . a . zoo begins power - line and human aversion programs for all condor release candidates . captive population 85 , wild population 3\nfrom : htcondor - users [ mailto : htcondor - users - bounces @ xxxxxxxxxxx ] on behalf of deck , william sent : thursday , january 12 , 2017 11 : 34 am to : htcondor - users mail list < htcondor - users @ xxxxxxxxxxx > subject : [ htcondor - users ] condor 8 . 5 . 8 - condor _ q behavior\ndiet : andean condor feeds mainly on carcasses of large and medium - sized mammals such as ungulates , guanacos , cattle , but also marine mammals and large seabirds along the coasts .\nfrom : htcondor - users [ mailto : htcondor - users - bounces @ xxxxxxxxxxx ] on behalf of john m knoeller sent : thursday , january 12 , 2017 12 : 47 pm to : htcondor - users mail list < htcondor - users @ xxxxxxxxxxx > subject : re : [ htcondor - users ] condor 8 . 5 . 8 - condor _ q behavior\npostures of displaying california condors are very similar to those described for andean condors . however , if published photographs are representative , the andean condor holds its body more nearly vertical than does the california condor , and does not bend its neck as far forward ( whitson and whitson 1969 , fig . 1 ; gailey and bolwig 1973 , figs . . 1c , 1e , 5 ) . gailey and bolwig ( 1973 , fig . 1d ) showed a female andean condor with head and neck bent far downward and inward , but its wings were held almost fully open as in the\nsunning\nposition . among the pictures of displaying andean condors , one of a male bird in poulsen ( 1963 , fig . 4 ) most closely resembles the posture of the california condor .\ncaptive population of 52 birds . 2 california condors and 2 andean condors are released in the los padres national forest 1 / 14 . 10 / 6 - 1 california condor dies from ingestion of ethylene\nhendrickson , s . , r . bleiweiss , j . matheus , l . de matheus , n . j\u00e1come , e . pavez . 2003 . low genetic variability in the geographically widespread andean condor .\neverything reported above is in full agreement with koford ( 1953 : 77 - 80 ) . he assumed that only the male california condor actively displays , and i never saw anything to indicate otherwise . i was never close enough to displaying condors to know if their courtship is accompanied by hissing or other sounds , as is that of the andean condor ( whitson and whitson 1969 , gailey and bolwig 1973 ) .\nthe california condor is the largest land bird in north america , and once dominated the western skies . sadly , the species declined throughout much of the 20th century until only drastic measures saved it from extinction .\nbehaviour : andean condor feeds on carcasses and it is mainly a scavenger , feeding on dead animals . this large condor is able to tear muscles and viscera through the skin of the largest carcasses . around the carcasses , when they are feeding with other vultures\u2019 species , there are some ritual displays in order to recognize the dominant birds , and conflicts are avoided or quickly resolved . usually , the largest species are dominant .\nreproduction : andean condor male performs courtship displays , by standing erect with opened wings , and producing some clicking noises with the tongue . at this moment , the bare skin of the neck turns bright yellow . breeding season occurs from february to june in peru and in september - october in chile . andean condor does not build any structure . it nests on the bare ground of cliff - ledges or in shallow caves .\nat carcasses , california condors dominate other scavengers . the exception is when a golden eagle is present . although the condor weighs about twice as much as an eagle , the superior talons of the eagle command respect .\nstarving fledgling wanders into an area of summer homes . after unsuccessful reintroduction attempt , bird is given to the l . a . zoo . this bird ( topatopa ) was only california condor in captivity for 15 years .\nandean condors have been extremely important as a cultural symbol in the andes mountains of south america for thousands of years . in the ancient inca culture of peru the condor represents one of the three realms of existence , the heavens ; while the jaguar represents the earth and the snake the underworld . these three cultural references appear all over inca society , including in their architecture . the site of machu picchu , which was a royal vacation home , is built in the shape of a condor if viewed from the top of a nearby mountain . there is also a massive stone altar in the site that is shaped like a huge condor with wings spread high .\nwe designed condor to give pilots the complete experience of soaring on their pc . the key to this experience is the feeling of immersion in the environment . precise aerodynamics and weather physics drive the ongoing development . the condor simulator with state of the art graphics , real time control feedback , and cockpit sounds immerses you , the pilot , in the experience and is the closest you can come to flying a glider without ever leaving the ground .\nat 1105 five adult condors and several ravens were at the carcass , but only one condor was actively feeding . another condor ( from general appearance , probably the\nmale\nfrom the earlier courtship ) displayed to the feeding bird , then walked around the carcass , displaying to the group collectively . none of the condors responded to the displaying bird . courtship activity ceased after several minutes when two golden eagles flushed the condors and ravens from the carcass .\ncalifornia condor : very large raptor with black body , bare - skinned red - orange head , and white wing patches . sexes are similar . juvenile has gray - skinned head and dull gray wing patches . exceptionally rare bird .\npoulsen ( 1963 ) noted that an andean condor may display when not in the presence of other condors . on 2 february 1973 , john c . borneman and i observed an adult california condor roosting alone on a rock cliff . it sat quietly through the morning hours , preening occasionally . at 1205 it began swaying from side to side , walking in small circles with head and neck drooped forward and wings half opened . all actions were similar to those described above , except the stooped posture was less pronounced and the neck and head were neither swollen nor intensely colored . the condor displayed for perhaps one minute , sat quietly for another minute , then left its perch and circled out of sight .\nthe andean condor is adapted for exceptionally low mortality and low reproductive output , and is therefore highly vulnerable to human persecution , which persists over most of its range ( 2 ) ( 10 ) . the andean condor is killed for sport , and farmers kill it as a pest because they mistakenly believe it kills their livestock ( 7 ) ( 9 ) . additionally , condors have been affected by pesticides that have been carried up the food chain ( 7 ) ( 9 ) and by poison placed for mammalian predators ( 8 ) . as the andean condor mates for life , and shares parental duties , the death of a mate also has a knock - on impact on the other partner and the chick ( 7 ) .\ncalifornia condor : prefers large carcasses , such as deer , cattle , and beached marine mammals , but readily feeds on smaller carrion . leaves roost to begin foraging late in morning , after strong thermals form , often returning to a known carcass .\nthis is because when you don\u2019t specify a username , by default condor _ q will ask the schedd to send only jobs for the current user , which it determines by using authentication on the connection to the schedd to determine who you are .\nthe california condor is the largest flying bird in north america . their wings may stretch nearly 10 feet from tip to tip . when in flight , these huge birds glide on air currents to soar as high as a dizzying 15 , 000 feet .\nthe andean condor is classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , listed on appendix i of cites ( 3 ) and listed on appendix ii of the convention on migratory species ( cms ) ( 4 ) .\nspecies status california condors ( gymnogyps californianus ) were listed as endangered under the federal endangered species act on march 11 , 1967 . as of oct 31 , 2012 , the total condor population was 409 birds and 232 of those were in the wild .\nbased on the novel\nsix days of the condor\nby james grady and screenplay\nthree days of the condor\nby lorenzo semple jr . and david rayfiel , condor follows cia analyst joe turner who stumbles onto a plan that threatens the lives of millions . joe has always been conflicted about his work for the cia . but when something he ' s discovered gets his entire office killed , leaving joe as the only survivor and forcing him to go on the run , the theoretical reservations he ' s harbored turn into all - too - real moral dilemmas . under pressure , joe will be forced to redefine who he is and what he ' s capable of in order to discover the truth and to stop a plot that threatens the lives of millions .\nflight : andean condor spends most of the daytime soaring in the thermals created by valleys and mountains . the large wings are well adapted for soaring flight . they use the rising air currents and rarely perform flapping flight , always in order to save energy .\nthe researchers believe this huge bird surpasses the previous recorder - holder , argentavis magnificens - a condor - like bird from south america with an estimated wingspan of 5 . 7 - 6 . 1m ( 19 - 20ft ) that lived about six million years ago .\nthe original decline of the california condor followed the extinction of many large mammals in north america ( 5 ) . despite legal protection since 1900 ( 10 ) , the 20th century decline was due to human induced pressures such as trapping , shooting , egg collecting and lead poisoning following ingestion of carcasses killed with lead shot ( 2 ) . unfortunately lead poisoning still occurs regularly and remains the condor ' s greatest threat ; other current threats include collisions with power lines , shooting , and both deliberate and accidental poisoning ( 12 ) .\nandean condor roosts in groups in cliff ledges . these large birds have to save energy by avoiding fights at carcasses , soaring in thermals during several hours apparently effortless , and storing fat reserves when food resources are abundant . these vultures can remain several days without feeding .\nlambertucci , s . , a . trejo , s . di martino , j . sanchez - zapata , j . donazar , f . hiraldo . 2009 . spatial and temporal patterns in the diet of the andean condor : ecological replacement of native fauna by exotic species .\nproposed determination of critical habitat for snail darter , american crocodile , whooping crane , california condor , indiana bat , and florida manatee ; 40 fr 58308 58312 ( percina ( imostoma ) sp . , crocodylus acutus , grus americana , gymnogyps californicus , myotis sodalis , trichechus manatus )\nthis species is found in high mountains , lowland deserts , open grasslands , along coastlines and in alpine regions ( 9 ) . unlike many birds , the andean condor does not build nests , but rather lays its eggs among boulders or in caves or holes ( 9 ) .\nthe condor\u2019s bare head is an adaptation for hygiene since they eat dead and rotting meat and must , for the most part , stick their heads into the carcasses to feed . as unappetizing as this may seem to us , scavengers like condors are vital to the natural ecosystem .\nfossil records reveal that the california condor once ranged over much of the southern united states , south to nuevo leon , mexico , and east to florida , as well as upstate new york . the disappearance of the condor from much of this range occurred about 10 , 000 - 11 , 000 years ago . by the time of the arrival of european settlers in western north america , condors occurred only in a narrow pacific coastal strip from british columbia to baja california norte . after the 1930s the condors were found primarily in central california , north of los angeles .\nthe 2016 artwork features three iconic pleistocene (\nice age\n) animals from the united states\u2014 saber - toothed cat , long - horned bison , and a condor flying above . the landscape is an idealized representation of southern nevada within what is now tule springs fossil beds national monument .\none study of 40 condor nest sites ( both recent and formerly active ) found bones of immature cattle most often represented along with a wide variety of medium - sized mammals such as rabbits , ground squirrels , pocket gophers , coyotes , foxes , and weasels . ( collins et al 1999 )\nthe andean condor inhabits high peaks of the andes mountains of south america at elevations of up to 16 , 000 ft or 5 , 000 m . its habitat ranges from colombia in the north , to ecuador , peru , bolivia , argentina and chile in the southern end of the continent .\none reason california condor recovery has been slow is their extremely slow reproduction rate . female condors lay only one egg per nesting attempt , and they don\u2019t always nest every year . the young depend on their parents for more than 12 months , and take 6 - 8 years to reach maturity .\na condor can fly over a hundred miles in a single flight ! they have a remarkable ability to soar on thermals , or currents of warm air that provide lift . this allows them to fly for a considerable distance without even flapping . condors roost in tall snags or on cliff faces to elude terrestrial predators . roosts may also serve a social function , as it is common for 2 or more condors to roost together and leave a roost together . depending upon weather conditions and the hunger of a bird , a california condor may spend most of its time perched on a roost .\nthe california condor is one of our nation ' s most magnificent birds , with wings spanning an amazing nine and half feet ! it is black in color with white underwing patches and a bald head with very few feathers . the color of the head varies from white to orange to reddish purple .\n. in 2008 an agreement was struck between the tejon ranch and five conservation organisations to preserve 240 , 000 acres of the 270 , 000 acre property as an open space in return for not opposing the development of the remaining land , providing a vast amount of foraging habitat for the condor ( l . kiff\ncalifornia condor : found in arid foothills and mountain ranges of southern and central california ; also seen in northern arizona and southern utah . requires large areas of remote country for foraging , roosting , and nesting . condors roost on large , old growth trees or snags , or on isolated rocky outcrops and cliffs .\n: april 11 , first condor chick hatches in the wild ( ventura county ) the chick\u2019s parents were captive - reared at the los angeles zoo and san diego wild animal park , then released into the wild at the age of one by the usfws in 1995 . two more chicks later hatch but none survive .\nfinkelstein , myra , zeka kuspa , noel f . snyder and n . john schmitt . 2015 . california condor ( gymnogyps californianus ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nnative to a wide variety of north american habitats , the condor is historically restricted to the pacific coastline and inland to the sierras ( 8 ) . inhabits rocky , open scrubland , coniferous forest and oak savannah ( 3 ) . nests have been recorded in rock cavities as well as in large sequoia trees ( 3 ) .\ntowards the end of the 1980s , with only eight individuals left in the wild , it was clear that the extinction of this bird was imminent . the remaining wild individuals were taken into captivity and incorporated into an intensive conservation breeding programme run by san diego wild animal park , los angeles zoo and the peregrine fund ( 13 ) . a variety of techniques were used in the breeding programme including double - clutching and the rearing of chicks with hand puppets , and in 1992 the first condors were released back into the wild ( 14 ) . numerous hurdles have had to be overcome , not least teaching captive birds to avoid power cables , but in the spring of 2002 the first wild condor chick for two decades hatched ( 13 ) . the rescue of the californian condor is an ongoing conservation programme but the successes so far have been inspiring and the population continues to climb ( 8 ) ; today the condor can once again be seen soaring over the rocky californian landscape .\nmeretsky , v . j . , snyder , n . f . r . , beissinger , s . r . , clendenen , d . a . and wiley , j . w . ( 2000 ) demography of the california condor : implications for reestablishment . conservation biology , 14 : 957 - 967 . available at : urltoken\ncalifornia condor recordings by vincent gerwe \u00a9 cornell lab of ornithology macaulay library cornell lab of ornithology 159 sapsucker woods road ithaca new york 14850 united states of america tel : + 1 ( 607 ) 254 - 2404 fax : + 1 ( 607 ) 254 - 2439 email : macaulaylibrary @ urltoken website : www . birds . urltoken / macaulaylibrary\nhabitat and range : andean condor frequents mainly the mountainous areas where it can fly in thermal currents . it occurs amongst the higher peaks of the andes . it may be found in low grasslands in argentina , and along the sea coast in peru and southern chile . it occurs in the andes , from western venezuela to tierra del fuego .\ncalifornia condor : a single pale green or blue egg is laid in a shallow cave or rock crevice ; no nesting material is added , but the pair may manipulate rocks and other objects to form a crude nest . incubation ranges from 54 to 58 days and is carried out by both parents ; produces no more than one brood every other year .\npostures to those described above are adopted by other cathartid vultures , but differences in coloration do not result in similar emphasis . for example , the black vulture does not have striking plumage patterns . color and pattern may assist or reinforce the courtship behavior of the california condor , but the ceremony itself is probably phylogenetically the older character ( lorenz 1937 ) .\nas one of the largest flying birds in the world , the andean condor ( vultur gryphus ) forms an awesome sight over the south american skies ( 5 ) , as it soars gracefully on huge , motionless wings ( 6 ) . these magnificent birds have glossy black plumage with white flight feathers on the wings ( 7 ) and a distinctive downy , white ruff around the neck ( 8 ) . the bare skin on the head of the andean condor varies in colour , but is usually reddish - pink at the base of the neck , and more mottled greyish - pink or yellow on the head ( 2 ) . these birds have large feet with powerful claws and sharp , hooked beaks that allow them to easily tear apart their scavenged prey ( 9 ) . the andean condor is the only american vulture to show sexual dimorphism , with males possessing a large , fleshy lump on the front of their heads , called a caruncle , and neck wattles that are absent in females ( 2 ) ( 9 ) . juvenile andean condors are a dull brown colour ( 2 ) .\n: march 25 , first egg laid by a wild , re - introduced california condor in the grand canyon national park . the egg was found broken , a common occurrence . later this year 2 eggs are laid in the same nest . scientists retrieve one because of probable incubation difficulties . chick is hatched june 17 , and is raised by a pair of captive birds\nduring each observation , the neck and cheeks of the displaying condor were much distended ; the bright red chest patch was inflated prominently ; the orange head was especially bright ; and the bluish - gray band at the base of the neck appeared as a pale ring , with a conspicuous rose - red spot on the ventral side below the bill . the condor at whom each display was directed , and also one other bird in the group , also had distended necks and cheeks , but their color was not as intense as that of the displaying bird . the remaining condors were duller in color , and no swelling of head , neck , or check patch was evident . bright coloration and distension of head and neck may be general indications of reproductive\nrecovery attempts for the andean condor have been made through captive breeding and reintroduction programmes , which have been moderately successful ( 7 ) . captive - bred andean condors have so far been reintroduced into the wild in colombia and venezuela , and early reports indicate that that some of these birds have begun to breed ( 8 ) . these results are extremely encouraging and provide hope for the successful preservation of this magnificent bird . a similar project is currently underway in argentina , and there is potential for reintroductions to be made throughout the species\u2019 former range ( 10 ) . however , it is imperative that an education campaign to try to reduce hunting of the andean condor accompanies such measures , if reintroduced individuals are to be given the best possible chance of survival .\nonce a condor reaches six or seven years of age , he or she is ready to find a mate for life . condors will breed once every other year , with an elaborate courtship flight and dance leading up to mating . before that , an appropriate nest site must be found . condors build simple nests , often using caves in cliff faces to shelter their young from predators . raising a condor chick requires tremendous energy and time , so a pair will usually lay only one egg per season . however , they may lay a replacement clutch if their first or even second egg is lost . the egg is incubated by both parents and hatches after approximately 56 days . both parents share responsibilities for providing the nestling with food and warmth . at two to three months of age , condor chicks leave the nest but remain in the vicinity of the nest where they are fed by their parents . the chick takes its first flight at about six to seven months of age but may not become fully independent until the following year . chicks learn from their parents how to fly and find food . parents will look after their young up to two years after hatching .\nthe coastal condor population may have survived the widespread extinctions at the end of the pleistocene because they ate marine mammals ( that did not become extinct ) rather than terrestrial food sources ; by contrast , isotope studies reveal that a black vulture that did become extinct fed only on large animals living on land ( many of which became extinct ) . ( fox - dobbs et al 2006 ) ,\ni can actually submit to the schedd i am attempting to query . i can work around this issue by setting condor _ q _ only _ my _ jobs = false ( which makes sense ) . i inherited the authentication settings and they have not been changed in quite some time . it looks like now would be a good time to take a look . thanks for the help .\nprior to 1973 , the courtship display of the california condor had been described ( koford 1953 , wilbur and borneman 1972 ) , but no photographs of the event had been published . on 31 january 1973 , i had the opportunity to photograph a pair in courtship in the sespe condor sanctuary ( los padres national forest ) , ventura county , california . i had seen similar activity 20 february 1970 , 26 february 1971 , 3 february 1972 , and 14 december 1972 . the photos are not particularly sharp , and i suspect that a lot of courtship photos have been taken since the captive breeding program began . still , i think this is interesting as one of the few photo records of how the original , pre - captive breeding , condors behaved . by way of explanation :\n: three chicks hatch in california ' s ventura county back country . there are now 97 condors living in the wild in california , arizona and baja . there are 124 birds in captivity at the wild animal park , l . a . zoo and the peregrine fund ' s world center for birds of prey ; the jonsson center for wildlife conservation established in oregon by the oregon zoo for condor recovery efforts .\nthe california condor population steadily declined during the 20th century until there were only about 22 known to exist in the world . the last of the free - flying condors were taken into captivity in 1987 in order to save the species from extinction . efforts to reintroduce california condors began in early 1992 , and continue to this day . today , they can be found primarily in california , arizona and baja california , mexico .\n) , which forage by smell whereas andean condors forages by sight . larger andean condors are much better adapted at tearing into the tough hide of a fresh kill . the smaller vultures benefit from the labors of the condor and feed on what is left of the newly opened carcass . within the last century or so there has been an ecological shift in food availability across much of the andean condors ' range as native megafauna species (\nlarge vultures perform sunning behaviour in the morning , because their body temperature falls several degrees at night in order to save the energy . the sun helps them to recover the normal level . but sunning is also used for feathers . during the flight at high elevation , the strong winds may bend the feather\u2019s tips upwards . andean condor needs the sun\u2019s heat for recovering the normal feather\u2019s shape . feathers\u2019 maintenance is an important behaviour for so large birds .\nthe display posture of the california condor gives prominence to most of the bird ' s brilliant colors and striking patterns . the orange of the head , the gray neck ring , and most of the red chest patch are conspicuous to the display partner . the white patches under the wings flash almost like mirrors as the bird sways from side to side . only the rose pink neck spot and a portion of the red chest patch are obscured from view .\nit appears to me that the job is hung on transferring output for an hour after running the job to completion . then after an hour the condor daemon copying the data is determined to be hung and is killed . however we see the output file transferred to the schedd . similar behavior is observed on all the jobs that don\u2019t \u201cfinish\u201d . the behavior only seems to appear in longer running jobs as all of the jobs are setup in the same way .\nthe spectacular but endangered california condor is the largest bird in north america . these superb gliders travel widely to feed on carcasses of deer , pigs , cattle , sea lions , whales , and other animals . pairs nest in caves high on cliff faces . the population fell to just 22 birds in the 1980s , but there are now some 230 free - flying birds in california , arizona , and baja california with another 160 in captivity . lead poisoning remains a severe threat to their long - term prospects .\nthe california condor was originally widespread throughout north america , but by the 1800s they were restricted to the west coast , from british columbia to baja california . in the 1970s only 30 individuals remained , all of which were confined to a small area of california ( 6 ) , and on easter sunday 1987 the species became extinct in the wild when the last individual was taken into captivity ( 8 ) . an extensive conservation effort has been undertaken to re - introduce captive - bred condors back into the wilds of california , arizona and mexico .\n2017 ) . a huge step has been taken towards eliminating the threat of lead - poisoning with the signing in 2007 of the ridley - tree condor preservation act , which requires the use of non - lead ammunition within the species ' s range in california and was implemented in 2008 . as of february 2009 , 99 % of hunters were compliant with the act . the arizona game and fish department is now distributing safer lead - substitute bullets free of charge to hunters within the foraging range of the condors ; similar programmes are being initiated in california ( l . kiff\ncalifornia condors are the largest north american land birds and among the largest flying birds in the world . an adult condor will weigh about 22 pounds and can have a wingspan of up to 9 . 5 feet . adults are mostly black with white underwing patches . similar to their relatives , the vultures , they have no feathers on their heads or feet . juvenile condors are grayish - black , with short feathers on their heads that they lose as they grow older . the bright orange - red colored head and the white patches under the wings are easy ways to distinguish adult california condors from juveniles . males and females cannot be distinguished by size or plumage characteristics .\ncondors are obligate scavengers , meaning they feed only on carcasses of animals . a condor ' s sharp beak and strong neck muscles allow them to tear into animal hide and feed . they forage widely as far as 150 miles a day looking for deer , elk , livestock and marine mammals . having located a potential food item , condors frequently remain in the air circling high above the carcass before landing . circling behavior is thought to serve as a signal to other condors in the area , guiding them to potential food sources . condors apparently depend on visual rather than olfactory cues to locate food . having to face changes in food availability , condors have been documented not feeding for a periods up to 14 days .\nandean condors roost on cliff faces and use thermal currents to lift off in the morning , and then spend most of the day soaring on updrafts looking for food . these birds scavenge on the remains of sheep , llamas , cattle , seals and occasionally newborn animals or the eggs of seabirds . the andean condor\u2019s excellent eyesight allows it to spot a carcass from several miles away , and this bird is also known to watch the behaviour of other animals or follow smaller scavenging birds to find a carcass ( 7 ) . its sharp , curved beak can easily tear through the flesh and hides of the toughest carcasses ( 7 ) ( 9 ) . up to 40 andean condors have been observed together at a single large carcass ( 2 ) .\n. the first chick born in mexico for over 75 years hatched in april 2007 . it is hoped these birds will range widely enough to be effectively connected with birds in the southern u . s . a . , and a bird from the baja population was seen in san diego county in april 2007 . 2015 was an important year for the species in terms of its recovery in the wild as it was the first year when the number of individuals that died in the wild was less than the number of juveniles that fledged ( silber 20116 ) . second generation birds have recently matured to breeding age , but no population can be deemed sustainable , and without substantial reductions in the use of lead - based ammunition within the condor ' s range none are likely to become so ( finkelstein\nthe andean condor has a long lifespan , in excess of 50 years , but breeds very slowly ( 7 ) . sexual maturity is not attained until 7 to 11 years , after which these birds , like all condors , mate for life ( 7 ) . the male conducts an elaborate courtship display involving drawing the body up and fully extending the wings , as well as making loud tongue clicks , while the reddish skin of the neck becomes bright yellow ( 8 ) . the female lays a single egg every other year , which both the male and female take turns to incubate ( 7 ) for about 54 to 58 days ( 8 ) . the young andean condors take a lot of time and effort to raise , being unable to fly until they are six months old and remaining reliant upon the adults for up to two more years ( 2 ) ( 7 ) .\nthe critically endangered california condor is a member of the new world vulture family ( cathartidae ) , and has an impressive wingspan of just less than three metres ( 5 ) . the featherless head and neck are a reddish - orange colour ; a few black feathers sprout from the head and there is a ruff of fine , glossy black feathers around the neck ( 6 ) . the neck has an inflatable pouch , which is important in courtship ( 7 ) . the plumage is black in colour with large white patches under each wing ( 6 ) . males and females are indistinguishable by size or plumage ( 8 ) . juveniles are grey and adult feathers do not replace this down until the age of five to seven months ( 6 ) . sub - adults retain a grey head until they reach maturity at five to seven years of age , when they acquire the full colouration of an adult ( 6 ) .\nat 1006 on 31 january 1973 , two adult condors were on the ground near a deer carcass we had placed as supplemental feed . one golden eagle and several ravens were also near the carcass . one condor , the presumed male , half - opened its wings , with the primary feathers hanging vertically . with neck extended and head bowed , the\nmale\nswayed from side to side in front of the\nfemale .\nwhile at close quarters , the\nmale\ntwice kicked one foot at the bowed head of the\nfemale ' ( described by koford 1953 : 77 ) .\nhe\nthen turned and walked some 10 meters away from the\nfemale ,\nstill swaying from side to side with head bent forward . the\nfemale\nfollowed about half the distance , then the\nmale\nturned and came back toward her , still displaying . the courtship ended at 1010 when the eagle , which had been standing on the deer carcass and feeding , flew away . both condors moved quickly to the carcass and began to feed .\napologies for the boring font , it\u2019s needed to keep the parallel texts in line .\nthe english translations are a mixture of my own , and my adaptations to those by p . gelles and g . mart\u00ednez in the english version , alias :\nare therefore found in these texts only in spanish loanwords which have not been fully assimilated to quechua pronunciation .\nthe first passage in particular , where gregorio relates his time as a press - ganged conscript in the peruvian army ( where spanish was the only language it was permitted to speak ) , has an even greater number of loanwords from spanish than is usual in quechua .\nthis is largely due to the context of the peruvian army , an institution entirely dominated by spanish .\nin the english translation of the first text have also been put in bold if they are ones that english has borrowed from french .\nthe suffixes given here are in the form and spellings used in the official quechua alphabet for southern quechua ( ayacucho , cuzco , puno , bolivia ) .\nbe aware , though , that he presents the bolivian forms of these , uses a slightly different spelling system and some different names , but suffixes should still be recognisable as the same as the ones given here .\nbernard comrie , martin haspelmath , balthasar bickel , william croft , christian lehmann , dietmar zaefferer , and others .\nsie verwenden einen veralteten browser mit sicherheitsschwachstellen und k\u00f6nnen nicht alle funktionen dieser webseite nutzen . hier erfahren sie , wie einfach sie ihren browser aktualisieren k\u00f6nnen .\nthis site uses cookies as explained in our cookies policy . by using urltoken you agree to our policy .\nplease note our cookie policy . by closing this message , you are agreeing to our use of cookies .\nplease enter the date in the following format : dd / mm / yy , e . g . 29 / 10 / 2016\nget your holiday off to a relaxing start and enjoy access to exclusive airport lounges .\nfrom where in the us can you fly to germany , the uk and beyond ? find your local airport .\nhaute cuisine takes to the skies : discover our exquisite premium and special menus .\nwhere from in canada ? we fly you to europe from a few canadian airports .\nmore : we ' ve extended the frequencies to seattle so that the route is now available throughout the entire year .\nthis website uses cookies as explained in our cookie policy . by using urltoken you agree to this policy .\nmake your american dreams come true ! flights to the u . s . from just\nout of the airplane and into the car . book your sixt rental car right here , e . g . for barbados or martinique !\nmore comfort , exquisite premium menus and much more . book your enhanced flight now and save ."]}
{"id": 262, "summary": [{"text": "palace malice ( foaled may 2 , 2010 ) is an american thoroughbred racehorse best known for winning the 2013 belmont stakes .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "after winning one minor race as a two-year-old he made steady improvement in the early part of 2013 , being placed in the risen star stakes and blue grass stakes and running prominently in the kentucky derby before winning the belmont stakes , and the 2014 metropolitan handicap .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he went on to win the jim dandy stakes and finish second against older horses in the jockey club gold cup .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "as a four-year-old in 2014 he won his first four races including the gulfstream park handicap , new orleans handicap and metropolitan handicap .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "after two races in 2015 , he was retired as a five-year-old and sent to stand at stud at three chimneys farm . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "palace malice", "paragraphs": ["palace malice ( curlin\u2013palace rumor , by royal anthem ) , who carried the silks of cot campbell and . . .\npalace malice fans everywhere felt a sudden burst of adrenaline when today\u2019s press release from dogwood hit the presses . the announcement of the sale of 50 percent of palace malice to\n; orb , 15 ; palace malice , 1 ; goldencents , 1 ; verrazano , 1 .\npalace malice upsets the preakness and derby winners and takes the last leg of the 2013 triple crown .\nthe complete story of palace rumor and background of the palace malice purchase can be found here . it is a case of fact being stranger than fiction . urltoken\nit is with great disappointment that we announce the retirement of palace malice ,\nsaid dogwood . . .\nleading saratoga trainer todd pletcher , who conditions verrazano and palace malice , had no excuses for the favorite . but he did mention a slow break as the excuse for dogwood ' s palace malice under hall of fame jockey mike smith .\nat the end of the day , the biggest strength from palace malice ' s pedigree unsurprisingly comes from the sire .\npalace malice overtakes oxbow to capture belmont stakes palace malice outdueled preakness winner oxbow down the stretch and went on to win the 145th running of the belmont stakes in an upset on saturday at belmont park . check out this story on urltoken urltoken\noxbow took the lead with a half - mile to go . but smith had palace malice moving with him , the two in tandem around the far turn . palace malice took command rounding for home , but oxbow did not capitulate easily .\nsame can be said for palace malice \u2026the belmont was his first win all year long and just the second in his career .\npalace malice justified the high opinion pletcher has had of the colt since last summer , when he considered the son of curlin perhaps his best 2 - year - old . yet coming into the belmont , palace malice had only a maiden victory on his record .\npalace malice comes from curlin ' s first crop , which only solidifies this pedigree as a top - notch one in the sport .\npalace malice and archwarrior , who both broke their maidens at saratoga , are both scheduled for breezes next week at palm meadows . palace malice , who came up with sore shins after impressively winning on august 4 , is being pointed to an allowance race in february .\npalace malice was a popular sleeper pick to perform well at the derby , but a 12th - place finish didn\u2019t meet those expectations .\npalace malice proved best when drawing well clear of 11 - 10 favorite normandy invasion down the long fair grounds race course stretch . . .\npalace malice has turf routing attributes in his female family and springs from the same line as the most famous belmont stakes winner in history .\nas ' malice at the palace ' brawl turns 10 , impact lasts wednesday , nov . 19 , is the 10 - year anniversary of the malice at the palace when players and fans fought during an indiana pacers - detroit pistons game . check out this story on urltoken urltoken\nfor now , palace malice , trained by todd pletcher , will battle with his old rival in the 1 , 800 - metre event .\nin the louisiana derby , palace malice had nowhere to run , getting clear in midstretch when it was way too late and coming in seventh .\nit ' s no surprise that palace malice comes from sire curlin , one of the most famous colts of the new age of horse racing .\npalace malice\u2019s running style may make that task extremely difficult on the long track as well . a horse that loves to race just off the pace in a stalking position , palace malice\u2019s endurance will be tested , especially down the stretch when he may potentially have to overcome tremendous sprinters in orb and oxbow .\nstarting the race on the 12th post , palace malice faced the tricky proposition of trying to find inside position . smith , a hall of fame jockey , inched his horse ever so slowly on the inside early in the race , guiding palace malice with the level of comfort you only see from the best .\nif any horse is going to derail palace malice , will take charge is the right horse to do so . photo : will take charge , trixie hammer\npalace malice \u2019s season hit the top level when he came with a late run to steal the grade 1 metropolitan handicap at belmont in june under velazquez .\npalace malice is a three - year - old colt by two - time horse of the year curlin out of a royal anthem mare ( palace rumor ) , trained by todd pletcher and ridden by hall of fame jockey mike smith .\npalace malice outdueled preakness winner oxbow down the stretch and went on to win the 145th running of the belmont stakes in an upset on saturday at belmont park .\npalace malice broke his maiden at belmont park on august 4 , 2012 , the first of curlin ' s offspring in the united states to win a race .\noxbow ( left ) , palace malice ( right ) , and orb all have a shot at this year ' s 3 - year - old eclipse award .\npalace malice revenged his sire curlin ' s heartbreaking belmont stakes loss with a decisive , gritty victory over the preakness and kentucky derby heroes . the unheralded palace malice had a simple maiden victory entering the test of champions , although he did fight to a neck defeat in the blue grass stakes and place in three other contests .\nwinner of the grade 1 metropolitan mile , and three other graded stakes in 2014 , classic winner palace malice is ready to go back in training immediately . . .\npalace malice wins the 145th belmont stakes followed by oxbow , winner of the preakness , and orb , winner of the kentucky derby . photograph : al bello / getty images\nwednesday , nov . 19 , is the 10 - year anniversary of the malice at the palace when players and fans fought during an indiana pacers - detroit pistons game .\nas palace malice was passing oxbow , smith said he heard stevens yell over to him , \u201cgo on with it , big boy . you\u2019re going better than me . \u201d\nhere is the replay again , watch the last 300 yards or so very carefully . there is not one horse running a step including the winner palace malice . in fact , with about 100 or so yards to go palace malice , to me , looks completely spent , yet no - one could catch him and he wins by open lengths ?\nthis week ' s spotlight stallion is palace malice , a 6 - year - old son of curlin that will be standing his first season in 2016 at three chimneys farm .\npalace malice got his three year old season rolling with a runner - up finish in a gulfstream park allowance sprint . in his two - turn debut in the risen star , palace malice gave a good account of himself . flying wide the whole way , the todd pletcher trainee unleashed his run from eighth place and was up for third money in a blanket finish , beating future preakness winner oxbow by a slender nose . after a jockey change , palace malice had a tough trip in the louisiana derby and finished seventh . he redeemed himself in his first try over the polytrack . looking like a winner in the blue grass stakes , palace malice was headed at the wire by java ' s war .\nwhile orb would ultimately come charging forth , it was too late . this was palace malice ' s day . everyone else\u2014even triple crown race winners\u2014were merely hoping for second place .\npalace malice faces a stiff test of his breeders\u2019 cup classic credentials when he tackles will take charge and eight other rivals in the grade 1 whitney handicap at saratoga on saturday .\npalace malice won the race with relative comfort , extending his lead to 3 . 25 lengths by the time he crossed the finish line . palace malice finished the race in 2 : 30 . 70 , according to the associated press . that mark is less than a second better than ruler on ice ' s time from a year ago , indicating a relatively slow field thanks to the extremely fast track in elmont , n . y . , on saturday . palace malice recouped a purse of $ 600 , 000 for the victory .\nbred in kentucky by w . s . farish out of the royal anthem mare palace rumor , palace malice is undefeated in four starts in 2014 , all of them graded stakes . he earned an automatic berth to the nov . 1 breeders ' cup dirt mile at\npalace malice is a dark bay horse with a small star and is 16 hands tall . he was bred in kentucky by w . s . farish . he is from the first crop of foals sired by the 2007 preakness stakes and breeders ' cup classic winner curlin . his dam , palace rumour , won the 2006 audubon oaks and is a half - sister to maya ' s storm and jumpifyoudare . palace malice is her only stakes winner .\na colt from the first crop of classic winner palace malice brought a winning bid of $ 185 , 000 during wednesday ' s session of the 2017 keeneland november sale . . .\npalace malice proved his class in the $ 1 . 25 million metropolitan handicap ( gr . i ) at belmont park , winning the second grade i of his career . . .\nthe horse ' s background boasts enough royalty to show that the belmont stakes victory was no fluke and that palace malice is worthy of being in orb and oxbow ' s company .\n2 . palace malice - - i typically value grade 1 wins over anything , but classic wins along with select breeders ' cup races are essentially super grade 1s in an era of too graded races to begin with . that ' s a long - winded way of saying palace malice ' s belmont stakes win means more to me than verrazano ' s wood and haskell combined . palace malice also finished second in the blue grass on polytrack and looked good in the jim dandy . a travers win unquestionably moves him to the head of the class .\npalace malice ' s first crop of foals have arrived this spring , with accolades for the offspring of the belmont s . ( g1 ) and metropolitan mile ( g1 ) winner . . .\nthe rich eisen show hosted former indiana pacers starter stephen jackson . he shared his inside thoughts about one of the most infamous sports moments in us history \u2013 the \u201cmalice at the palace . \u201d\nmuch like orb a few weeks ago , very few came in expecting a result of significance from palace malice . the three - year - old colt failed to enter the preakness stakes after a frustrating 12th - place run at the kentucky derby . of the five horses pletcher entered into the field , palace malice was one of the least talked - about\u2014a forgotten member of the fearsome fivesome .\n@ dbethbiles : cot campbell said palace malice will miss metropolitan because his\npreparation has not been all we wanted .\nhere is a nice memory of pal and i in aiken over winter .\nwill take charge has won once this year , at grade 2 level , but finished ahead of palace malice when touched off by the subsequently retired mucho macho man in the classic in santa anita .\npalace malice jockey mike smith described the cinematic scene as he caught up to oxbow at the belmont stakes and shared the encouraging words he got from preakness - winning jockey gary stevens in the final stretch .\ndogwood stables ' belmont stakes ( gr . i ) winner palace malice proved his class july 27 at saratoga race course , powering to victory in the $ 600 , 000 jim dandy s . . .\npalace malice is trained by todd pletcher , who had five different horses in the field . this marks his second belmont win in the past six years , the other being rags to riches in 2007 .\nafter sprinting twice over the dirt , palace malice ' s dam palace rumor found a home on the lawn , not surprising , as a daughter of royal anthem out of a mare by red ransom . she was a solid turf allowance class runner who won a listed stakes at 1 1 / 16 miles . overall palace rumor collected a 16 - 5 - 1 - 1 ( $ 111 , 833 ) race record . palace malice is his dam ' s second foal to race and the first to earn blacktype . he has a two year old half sister by city zip and a yearling half sibling by mineshaft .\npalace malice returned $ 4 . 70 , $ 3 . 70 , and $ 2 . 90 while goldencents paid $ 5 . 80 and $ 4 . 80 . romansh brought $ 7 . 90 , while\nall too often , pedigrees get overlooked by bettors in exchange for trainers , jockeys and recent successes . but there ' s no doubting the value of a strong racing background , which palace malice showed saturday .\nas expected , the trio of verrazano , orb and palace malice took the majority of the wagering action from the public in the lead to the travers . verrazano went to the post at odds of 8 / 5 , while orb and palace malice pegged at 5 / 2 on the tote board . palace malice broke poorly from the gate and raced at the back of the pack but made a late run to get into the top four inside the final furlong . verrazano tracked the early leaders but faded badly in the stretch , putting into doubt any chances that he ' ll be a serious contender for the breeders ' cup classic .\npalace malice is by two - time horse of the year curlin , now emerging as one of america\u2019s most important young sires , and is bred on a very similar cross to hot young sire english channel . \u201d\npalace malice ' s damsire royal anthem was an international turf router , racing against the best of his generation . he earned victories in the grade / group 1 judmonte international , canadian international and gulfstream park breeders ' handicap . he placed behind daylami in the breeders ' cup turf and swain in the king george & queen elizabeth diamond stakes . royal anthem is a young broodmare sire and palace malice is only his second stakes winner .\npalace malice , a $ 200 , 000 keeneland 2 - year - old purchase last year , now is 2 - 3 - 1 in eight starts , earning $ 871 , 135 with the $ 600 , 000 payday .\none night turned the 2004 - 05 indiana pacers from a title contender into the most dysfunctional franchise in the nba . ten years later , we check in with the key figures from\nthe malice at the palace .\npalace malice has carved out a career on dirt , but he has the pedigree to be competitive over turf and synthetics , too . remember , sire curlin was second in a grade 1 turf event . additionally , palace malice carries the very classy turf attributes of theatrical and roberto on his distaff side . his sire line of smart strike and deputy minister are also noted for producing champion class turf runners . although palace malice may continue his immediate career on dirt , it would be intriguing to see him face top competition over the lawn and synthetics if he stays in training as a four year old . could the breeders ' cup turf or uae world cup be in his future ?\nin order to be assured of getting in the kentucky derby , palace malice ran back two weeks later in keeneland ' s blue grass , finishing second by a neck after jumping tire tracks . hence the blinkers in the derby .\ngoing into the derby , pletcher decided to tinker with the colt ' s equipment . probably not a good idea before the biggest race of the three year old season . after adding blinkers to the colt ' s arsenal , pletcher watched as palace malice set a torrid pace in the derby and faded to a gasping 12 th place . so far , palace malice has a 8 - 2 - 3 - 1 ( $ 871 , 135 ) race record .\nit was his first success at grade 1 level and cot campbell , president of dogwood stables , which owns the four - year - old colt , outlined this week that palace malice\u2019s campaign will be geared towards the breeders\u2019 cup .\npalace malice finished 1 - 1 / 2 miles in 2 : 30 . 70 , and was able to prevail with a final quarter - mile in 27 . 58 and the last half - mile in a staggering 54 . 23 .\neven before palace malice proved a doughty winner of saturday ' s belmont stakes , the last glittering jewel in the us triple crown , the three - race series had provided enough compelling storylines to write something approaching the great american novel .\npalace malice took the lead at the quarter pole ( a mile in 1 : 36 . 2 ) and slowly inched away for the conclusive win and paid $ 29 . 60 , $ 11 . 20 , and $ 6 . 70\npalace malice is unbeaten in four runs this season and will break from gate 5 under john velazquez as the overwhelming favourite to pick up the lion\u2019s share of the enhanced $ us1 . 5 million ( dh5 . 5 million ) purse .\n( curlin \u2013 palace rumor , by royal anthem ) was sold for $ 25k at the 2011 keeneland september yearling sale . a year later at the keeneland april 2012 two year olds in training auction , palace malice caught the eye of veteran bloodstock agent cot campbell and as an agent for dogwood stables , he shelled out $ 200k for the chestnut colt .\nrounding the turn palace malice shifted gears and found running room between horses , easily clearing the tiring broadway empire on his inside before digging deep to pass goldencents to his outside within the furlong grounds . the 4 - year - old son of\nthe move was swift , beautiful and everything you ' d expect from a horse with a hall of famer on top . palace malice continued his triumphant speed down the back stretch , opening a gaping lead over the field for the win .\nthe early pace was , as expected , strong with frac daddy and freedom child contesting the lead for the first half - mile in a swift 46 . 66 seconds , with oxbow sitting in the garden spot as the field entered the backstretch . oxbow took over the lead about midway down the backstretch while freedom child and palace malice remained within striking distance . as the field rolled towards the judge , palace malice assumed command of the race while his rivals spun their wheels in the final furlongs .\nthe preakness winner soared up to third place , as joel rosario kept orb back\u2014likely conserving energy for a final triumphant push to the front . palace malice was running fifth through the first turn , being taken wide into the corner to avoid the fray .\non june 8 , 2013 , ridden again by smith , started at odds of 13 . 8 / 1 for the belmont stakes . smith tracked across from a wide draw to position the colt behind the leaders as frac daddy set a fast early pace . oxbow went to the front at halfway but the preakness winner was overtaken by palace malice on the turn into the straight . palace malice drew clear in the last quarter mile to win by three and a quarter lengths from oxbow , with orb in third . palace malice prepped for the travers stakes with a run in the jim dandy stakes at saratoga race course on july 27 . starting the 27 / 20 favorite , he took the lead in the straight and won by a length from will take charge .\nthe blaze - faced chestnut , a son of unbridled ' s song out of multiple grade i winner take charge lady , finished ahead of kentucky derby winner orb , who was third , while belmont stakes and jim dandy stakes winner palace malice ran fourth .\nhe came up just short against rags to riches in the belmont stakes . otherwise , we ' d be talking about palace malice channeling some of his sire ' s belmont glory and curlin being two places in the kentucky derby away from a triple crown .\ncalled\nthe best horse in america\nafter capturing four graded stakes in a row in 2014 , including the stallion - making met mile , palace malice will stand the upcoming breeding season at three chimneys farm . palace malice is the leading earner of 2 - time horse of the year curlin , and retires with career earnings of $ 2 , 691 , 135 , scoring the rare combination of wins in the grade 1 belmont stakes and the grade 1 metropolitan hcp , where he ran 3 / 5ths off the stakes record defeating goldencents , a 2 - time grade 1 breeders ' cup mile winner . in four years , palace malice started 19 times , with seven wins including a trio of grade 2 ' s \u2013 the jim dandy stakes , the gulfstream park handicap and the new orleans handicap ; as well as a victory in the grade 3 westchester stakes . ranked atop the handicap division for the better part of his four year old season , palace malice owns the highest beyer speed figure up to a mile in 2014 .\nclearly one of the best horses in the nation this year , palace malice has won 7 - of - 17 lifetime starts in his three year career to date . among his six graded stakes , he holds the unique distinction of winning two of america\u2019s most prestigious races at decidedly different distances . in fact by winning the 12 - furlong belmont stakes and the one - turn met mile , palace malice accomplished something that no other horse has been able to do in more than 30 years by completing the prestigious new york double .\ndogwood stable ' s palace malice , on the shelf since an even sixth - place finish in the 2013 breeders ' cup classic ( gr . i ) , showed no signs of rust with a gritty victory in the $ 250 , 000 gulfstream park h . . .\norb , oxbow , and palace malice made this the 17th time in the last 40 years that the derby , preakness , and belmont produced different winners . in those 16 previous instances , the 3 - year - old title went one of four ways with nearly identical frequency .\npalace malice , held off late surges from golden ticket , and uncaptured , to open up his 2014 handicap season with a win in the $ 250 , 000 , gii gulfstream park hcp . , for 4yo\u2019s and up , at 1 mile , winning by just a head .\nwas the just part of the news , but the really exciting part of the deal is that it opened the door for his return to racing next year . three chimneys\u2019 interest in racing palace malice in partnership with dogwood next year intrigued the man behind dogwood , cot campbell .\npalace malice is a member of lowes ' female family 2 - s . the most notable and only member of the family to win the belmont stakes is secretariat . the two distaff lines diverged in way back in the late 1800 ' s from two half sisters borne of tasmania .\npalace malice , at 8 / 5 , winner of the gii jim dandy and gi belmont stakes in 2013 opened 2014 with a very tight win in the gii gulfstream park hcp . over the always solid golden ticket . this one does his best running when stalking an early pace .\n1 ) palace malice \u2013 has a change of tactics and rated off the very quick early pace . he took command at the quarter pole and , albeit clearly exhausted at the end , ( he ran the final quarter in a very pedestrian like : 27 . 3 ) he won convincingly .\nwinstar and stonestreet sent carpe diem to seven - time eclipse award winner todd pletcher , who won the kentucky derby with the aforementioned super saver . pletcher also won the belmont stakes in 2007 with rags to riches and in 2013 with palace malice . pletcher ist he dominant trainer of the last decade .\npalace malice , the unexpected early leader of the kentucky derby five weeks ago before fading in the stretch , rallied three wide of the far turn and pulled away from his rivals to win the belmont stakes over preakness winner oxbow and kentucky derby winner orb . long shot incognito rounded out the superfecta .\nsmart strike crossed very well with mares by wild again ( by northern dancer\u2019s three - quarters relative , icecapade ) , and curlin has stakes winner stopshoppingdebbie out of a mare by that horse . palace malice could also be tried with mares by wild again sons , such as wild rush or milwaukee brew .\npalace malice flashed talent early in his racing career , breaking his maiden as a 2 - year - old at saratoga . the bay colt blossomed as a 3 - year - old , finishing second in the g1 toyota blue grass stakes before going on to capture the g1 belmont and g2 jim dandy .\npalace malice continued to improve as he got older , and had his best season as a 4 - year - old , winning four of five starts \u2013 all graded stakes \u2013 including the g1 metropolitan handicap , g2 gulfstream park h . , g2 new orleans h . , and the g3 westchester stakes .\nthis entry was posted in in the stud and tagged belmont stakes , cot campbell , curlin , dogwood stable , first - year stallion , horse racing , in the stud , kentucky equine research , palace malice , thoroughbred , three chimneys farm , todd pletcher by paulick report staff . bookmark the permalink .\npalace malice paid $ 29 . 60 as the seventh choice in the field of 14 . he also was the third choice among pletcher ' s record five horses , the others finishing fifth ( revolutionary ) , sixth ( the filly unlimited budget ) , seventh ( overanalyze ) and 12th ( midnight taboo ) .\nwe interviewed as many of the participants and witnesses as we could from that night for this oral history \u2014 everyone below is listed with his or her job title on november 19 , 2004 . or , as the most infamous night in nba history would come to be known , \u201cthe malice at the palace . \u201d\npalace malice ( usa ) b . c , 2010 { 2 - s } dp = 4 - 5 - 11 - 0 - 0 ( 20 ) di = 2 . 64 cd = 0 . 65 - 19 starts , 7 wins , 4 places , 2 shows career earnings : $ 2 , 691 , 135\npalace rumor is a half sister to two multiple stakes winning dirt sprinters , maya ' s storm ( by stormy atlantic ) and jumpifyoudare ( by jump start ) . palace malice ' s second dam whisperifyoudare didn ' t earn any blacktype and scored two wins from ten starts . her half sister sweet trip is the dam of multiple stakes winning veteran rail trip , winner of the hollywood gold cup ( g - 1 ) and earner of over $ 1 . 5 million dollars .\npalace malice , with trainer todd pletcher adding blinkers to keep the colt from looking around , unexpectedly bolted to a sizzling pace in the derby before tiring to 12th , 13 lengths behind orb . though there might not have been much he could have done that day , the belmont proved a do - over for mike smith .\nleaving the kentucky derby and preakness race winners in the dust , 15 - 1 underdog palace malice , via bovada , gave this triple crown season its third different champion in saturday ' s race at belmont park . this is the sixth time in the last eight years that the triple crown has been a three - way split .\nif you were quick to write off palace malice ' s chances in the 2013 belmont stakes , take a seat with the rest of the horse racing world . the colt with 15 - 1 odds took the 145th running in stunning fashion , but upon a closer look at the horse ' s pedigree , the win was no fluke .\ni hope everyone has had the opportunity recently to read the story of the dam , palace rumor , and the storm that destroyed barns at ellis park years ago .\nin the end , the race had a lop - sided feel to it . only a small number of horses managed to get into contention , and it was jockey mike smith aboard palace malice who stormed to victory . attached like a barnacle to the leading group , palace malice was sent to the front at the top of belmont ' s unnervingly elongated stretch , never to be caught . oxbow won the personal grudge match between the two other classic winners by finishing second . after sitting close to the pace , oxbow stuck on admirably to the task , beaten 3 \u00bc lengths . orb , in his customary early position casually watching events unfold from the rear , stayed on for third .\nit ' s no secret that palace malice gets a unique stamina advantage from his sire , who won a total of five races at the 1 1 / 4 - mile distance . stamina is usually the first thing experts look at when examining a horse ' s pedigree , due to the rigorous and extensive distance of each of the triple crown legs .\nin the 145 th edition of the belmont stakes , palace malice ' s final time of 2 : 30 . 70 for 1 \u00bd miles is comparable to the last three belmont stakes results of union rags ( 2 : 30 . 42 ) ruler on ice ( 2 : 30 . 88 \u2013 sloppy ) and drosselmeyer ( 2 : 31 . 57 ) .\nwhen he comes out of a race finishing second , he almost always comes back to win his next race . he did this in the jim dandy / travers , the classic / clark , the santa anita handicap / oaklawn handicap . if any horse is going to derail palace malice , i think will take charge is the right horse to do so .\no\u2019neal said he learned of this in his court cases . the detroit news reported in 2005 , \u201cone fan who filed a federal suit against the pacers and two players for assault had a history of alleged incidents at the palace . he threatened to pour a drink on houston rockets star yao ming at a game earlier in november . that fan , charlie haddad , was banned dec . 2 from the palace . he was confronted at half - time during the nov . 19 game with the pacers by palace security officials . \u201d\nmost say that this year is the year for palace malice , and i have a hard time arguing with perfection . this is by far his toughest challenge yet this year . just this year , he has beaten four of the eight other horses in this race . last out , he stole the met mile from grade one winner and breeders\u2019 cup champion goldencents . this whitney is well within the scope for palace malice , as we have seen , he has almost no distance limitations . he won the belmont stakes last year , over oxbow and orb , the other two triple crown race winners . he has really figured this whole winning thing out , and i think the connections have really figured him out as well .\npalace malice is a valuable addition to the strengthening roster at three chimneys , as he possesses a superb physical to go along with an amazing body of work as a racehorse . he sprinted at two , went the classic distance at three , and showed off his miler versatility at four . this season didn ' t work out due to nagging injury , but his legacy as a racehorse is secure . the retirement of palace malice also continues the idea of collaboration that is a three chimneys mainstay , in that john malone ' s bridlewood farm will be a cornerstone partner in the horse , and we anticipate that a coalition of shareholder partners will be added over the next month to ensure this extraordinary horse ' s chances to succeed at stud ,\nsaid vice chair of the three chimneys ' board , doug cauthen .\npalace malice has the sire power , the looks , and the backing to be a commercial success as well as to become an important stallion , and we look forward to showing him during the september sales\nadded grant williamson , director of stallion nominations and sales at three chimneys .\non november 19th , 2004 , at the end of a blowout between the indiana pacers and detroit pistons , the unthinkable happened . a skirmish on the floor between ron artest and ben wallace carried over into the stands . what followed was arguably the ugliest incident in sports history as fans and players traded punches in what was ultimately known as \u2018the malice at the palace . \u2019\nwell , it was redemption all right . but it was for dogwood stable ' s palace malice , who saturday stalked a stern pace to beat gritty preakness winner oxbow by 3 - 1 / 4 lengths at belmont park . orb finished another 1 - 3 / 4 lengths back in third as the only horse to significantly rally over a surface where speed was doing very well .\nwith victories in the belmont stakes ( gr . i ) \u2013 in which he defeated the winners of the kentucky derby ( gr . i ) and preakness stakes ( gr . i ) \u2013 and metropolitan handicap ( gr . i ) among his six graded stakes triumphs , palace malice has strong claims to be regarded as the most versatile top level dirt performer of his crop .\npalace malice ' s win justified pletcher ' s decision to sit out the preakness . it was a third win in a triple crown race for the trainer \u2013 some way compensating for this year ' s annual derby drubbing . both orb and oxbow garlanded themselves with honor , in doing so , elevating the overall cache of this year ' s stock of three - year olds .\nolko : i was on vacation in california . my phone started ringing off the hook . both friends and family members were calling . \u201cturn on your tv . there\u2019s something happening at the palace . \u201d so of course i turned on my tv and got back on the phone to call my deputy police chief \u2014 he was speeding and said , \u201ci\u2019m not at the palace yet . i\u2019m almost there . i\u2019ll call in a couple of minutes . \u201d because the palace is such a safe venue , we only [ had ] a handful of officers there .\nthe preakness winner and freedom child paced the field for a bit from there , taking their lead into the far turn with a few lengths working to their advantage . however , by midway through the turn , it became abundantly clear that palace malice would be charging to the front . smith worked his horse around oxbow , putting a stranglehold on the race that he would not relinquish .\nand then , in a matter of minutes , that all went away .\nthe malice at the palace ,\nas it ' s commonly known now , effectively broke up the 2004 - 05 pacers before they could ever really accomplish anything . on nov . 19 , 2004 , indiana ' s trajectory as a franchise was altered unlike anything we had ever seen before , or even since .\nwhile palace malice was trying to work his way to the inside , the starting gun opened with frac daddy bolting immediately to the front of the field , with freedom child nipping close at his heels . by the time they got through the first turn of the mile - and - a - half track , frac daddy continued to hold court while oxbow made his initial push to the front .\nlong shot palace malice emerged as the hero of todd pletcher ' s record five starters in the 145th running of the grade 1 , $ 1 million belmont stakes , charging through the stretch to a 3 \u00bc - length victory over preakness winner oxbow , with kentucky derby winner and 2 - 1 favorite orb finishing third in the 1 \u00bd - mile\ntest of the champion\nat belmont park .\nwith jockey luis saez in the irons for the first time , will take charge was sent off at 9 - 1 after a runner - up finish one length behind palace malice in the july 27 jim dandy . winner of the rebel stakes at oaklawn park earlier in the season , when he finished ahead of oxbow , the big colt competed in all three triple crown races but never hit the board .\nfinal time for the 1 \u00bc - mile event was 2 : 02 . 68 on a fast track . the winner paid $ 21 . 20 , $ 8 . 60 , and $ 5 . 20 , while moreno returned $ 25 . 40 and $ 9 . 80 , and orb bringing $ 4 . 30 . behind palace malice came romansh , war dancer , verrazano , golden soul , and transparent .\n\u201cpalace malice will be examined by a panel of vets on november 15 and if he is 100 percent racing sound to the satisfaction of three chimneys and dogwood , he will be shipped to dogwood\u2019s barn in aiken , south carolina , and prepared for another campaign with todd pletcher , his trainer throughout his career , \u201d campbell said . \u201cupon retirement from racing , three chimneys will acquire full ownership of the horse . \u201d\nstephen jackson , jermaine o\u2019neal and the aforementioned ron artest served lengthy suspensions and paid hefty fines as a result of the incident . several fans received probation , community service and were banned from the palace for life .\npalace malice wrestled the lead away from oxbow at the top of the stretch and went on to win horse racing\u2019s third jewel of the triple crown series , the 2013 belmont stakes , by 3 \u00bc lengths in elmont , ny this past saturday . oxbow , the 2013 preakness winner , stayed on well to hold second while 2013 kentucky derby winner orb , who unleashed a powerful rally on the turn but flattened out late , finished third .\nwill take charge , second in the jim dandy in late july , surged at long - time leader moreno in the shadow of the wire to win the grade 1 travers stakes at saratoga . kentucky derby winner orb made a big move on the far turn and looked poised to take command of the race at the top of the stretch but could never get by moreno . orb faded to third at the wire , holding off palace malice in a photo .\npalace malice is out of mare from the male line of nureyev , a three - quarters brother to sadler\u2019s wells . combining nureyev and sadler\u2019s wells has often worked well , and the similarly - bred english channel has sired multiple graded stakes winner channel lady out of a mare by sadler\u2019s wells son , king of kings . other sources of sadler\u2019s wells in the u . s . include el prado , medaglia d\u2019oro , kitten\u2019s joy , artie schiller and horse chestnut .\none of those two scenarios is very likely to play out the remainder of the year . if one of the grade 1 winners entered in this year ' s travers ( orb , palace malice , and verrazano ) were to win the race , then he would unquestionably be the leader in the three - year - old division , and it would take a curlin - like run at the end of the year for either of the also rans to catch up .\nindianapolis \u2014 the cup of liquid flew out of the stands at the palace of auburn hills and splattered on ron artest , prompting the ugliest melee ever seen on an nba court and sending the indiana pacers into full crisis mode .\ngrade 1 winner golden ticket finished a close second in the alysheba and merits respect for trainer kenny mcpeek in this spot . the hard - trying horse just missed against palace malice earlier this season , recording a neck second in the gulfstream park h . , and the five - year - old owns a 7 - 1 - 4 - 0 under the twin spires . julien leparoux picks up the mount on the son of speightstown and golden tickets will tote 117 pounds .\nauburn hills police chief doreen e . olko : we have zillions of security plans for the palace , for all kinds of things . but none included a player going up in the stands . that just is not something anybody foresaw .\nmike said palace malice missed the break ,\npletcher said .\nhe slipped behind and dropped way back , not his characteristic spot . mike thought he was much the best ; the break killed him . it ' s horse racing . it happens every day , every race , 14 times a day sometimes . we would have liked to have won it , but we ' ve had a great meet and we ' re not going to cry about it . we ' ll regroup and try again .\nmapping out the right path to the breeder\u2019s cup is the ultimate goal for most trainers and owners of major race horses . along with the donn handicap at gulfstream park and the santa anita handicap , the new orleans handicap is a key early season destination for horsemen eager to knock off the winter layoff rust from their charges and get them back to competing for major , graded stakes purse money . palace malice followed up his scintillating 2014 score with an impressive win in the prestigious metropolitan mile on the belmont stakes undercard .\njohn green ( the fan who lobbed a drink at artest ) : i never intended to hit anyone . the day i threw the cup i forgot about the laws of physics . i hope that no one ever throws anything at the palace again . 11\n\u2022 palace malice , a 2yo colt who made his mark at the prestigious saratoga meet . the heavily backed colt lived up to his 1 - 5 odds in an $ 80 , 000 msw , rallying powerfully to a 3 1 / 2 - length victory . bred by lane\u2019s end\u2019s will farish and trained by todd pletcher for dogwood stable , the $ 200 , 000 keeapr graduate had earned a gaudy 102 bris figure running second to the highly regarded carried interest on debut at belmont july 5 . \u201che is the only curlin that we have , and we are very fond of this colt , \u201d said pletcher of palace malice . \u201cwe expected him to run well like he did first time out and maybe improve , but you never take anything for granted in this business . he\u2019s still learning , and we were happy to see him win like this . it\u2019s exciting to see a colt that is bred the way he is to show the kind of speed that he has , and you would think he would only improve as the distances stretch out . \u201d\nbroadway empire , at 57 - 1 , struck out for the early lead in the met mile and was tracked with about a one - length advantage by goldencents , making his first start of the year . a quarter went in : 23 . 01 and a half in : 45 . 76 while 124 - pound highweight palace malice , getting the rail trip from post 1 under hall of fame jockey john velazquez , moved up from seventh place to third or fourth as romansh made his outside move in pursuit of goldencents and the leader .\nfield , i see a grade one horse in each horse , no matter if they have achieved a grade one win or not . this is probably the best whitney field i have ever seen ! we have three - year - old champion will take charge , and 2013 belmont winner palace malice , who is undefeated this season . there is the veteran in prayer for relief , who won three derbies in 2011 . romansh , who captured the 2014 excelsior ( g3 ) at aqueduct , and moreno , who played bridesmaid all last year . this field is amazing !\nalthough he ' s an early may foal , palace malice flashed talent early . he received a ton of experience in his debut in early july , sitting on the rail behind the dueling pace setters , then slipping between horses to fight it out to the wire . he was beaten only a half length , but distanced the third place horse by over six lengths . in his second start , the youngster beat a nice group of maidens by 3 \u00bd lengths . part of the field included hightail , who would go on to win the breeders ' cup juvenile sprint .\nin the 2007 derby , street sense beat hard spun and curlin and earned a beyer speed figure of 110 , which has not been matched since in the derby . in the preakness , curlin caught him at the wire and the two earned beyers of 111 . in the belmont , rags to riches held off curlin in a race that earned a 107 with a final quarter in less than 24 seconds . this year , orb\u2019s derby got a 104 , oxbow\u2019s preaknesss a 106 , and palace malice\u2019s belmont , which came home in more than 27 seconds , got a 98 .\nthis tradition rich race contested at a mile and an eighth at fairgrounds race course in new orleans has been run since 1924 and annually features the best older horses in the country . the $ 500 , 000 purse and late - march timing of the race have made this classic a logical starting point for horsemen looking to campaign their stars in the handicap division . mineshaft won the new orleans handicap during his 2003 horse of the year season and 2013 belmont hero , palace malice , impressed in the 2014 renewal while making the second start of his four year - old season .\nthe leader of this group as a racehorse , two - time horse of the year , curlin ( smart strike ) sits fifth here . at this stage of his own career , he\u2019d made just two starts ( winning the rebel stakes ( gr . iii ) on the second ) and was about to runaway with the arkansas derby ( gr . ii ) , so it\u2019s very early to pass judgement here . he does have a derby possible in palace malice ( out of a mare by theatrical son , royal anthem ) , who finished third in the risen star stakes ( gr . ii ) , had a horrible trip in the louisiana derby ( gr . ii ) , and will attempt to earn his way into the first classic in the blue grass stakes ( gr . i ) . he\u2019s also had stakes winner countess curlin ( dam by private account ) and the graded stakes placed filly blue violet ( dam by silver deputy , so 3 x 3 to curlin\u2019s broodmare sire , deputy minister ) and english stakes placed filly savanna la mar ( dam by pivotal , so bred on the same broad cross \u2013 over nureyev \u2013 as palace malice ) .\npart of the problem with this pronouncement is the ongoing misuse of the word \u201cchampion , \u201d which in american thoroughbred racing has only one correct meaning : the winner of an eclipse award as the best of his division . orb , oxbow , and palace malice are not champions , though one of them might be by season\u2019s end . ( if you want to blame someone for the devaluation of this word , look no further than the breeders\u2019 cup , which insists on calling the winner of each of its races a champion , as in \u201cbreeders\u2019 cup juvenile fillies turf champion . \u201d )\nthe belmont stakes champion ' s dam , palace rumor , doesn ' t boast the same resume , but isn ' t half bad , either . she never placed at any of the triple crown legs , but had success in winning the audubon oaks at the famous ellis park in 2006 .\nthree chimneys , on the other hand , is putting a whole new spin on rushing our best horses off to stud at the drop of a hat . they certainly sweetened the deal , when they opened the door for palace malice to run next year , which helped them win the opportunity to stand the top horse at their farm , but they did more than that . they did something good for the sport of racing , and i think i can speak for millions of race fans everywhere when i say , that i am grateful . grateful for the chance to see more or this . . ."]}
{"id": 266, "summary": [{"text": "crotalus is a genus of venomous pit vipers found only in the americas from southern canada to northern argentina , colloquially known as rattlesnakes .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the name is derived from the greek word \u03ba\u03c1\u03cc\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd kr\u00f3tal\u03bfn , which means \" rattle \" or \" castanet \" , and refers to the rattle on the end of the tail which makes this group ( genera crotalus and sistrurus ) so distinctive .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "currently , 32 species are recognized . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "crotalus", "paragraphs": ["crotalus viridis viridis ( rafinesque 1818 ) crotalinus viridis rafinesque 1818 crotalus viridis viridis \u2014 klauber 1936 crotalus viridis viridis \u2014 klauber 1952 : 103 crotalus viridis viridis \u2014 stebbins 1985 : 231 crotalus viridis viridis \u2014 liner 1994 crotalus viridis viridis \u2014 conant & collins 1991 : 236 crotalus viridis \u2014 mcdiarmid , campbell & tour\u00e9 1999 : 297 crotalus viridis viridis \u2014 tennant & bartlett 2000 : 529 crotalus viridis viridis \u2014 ashton et al . 2001 crotalus viridis viridis \u2014 campbell & lamar 2004 crotalus viridis \u2014 hoser 2009 crotalus viridis \u2014 crother et al . 2012 crotalus viridis \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 196 crotalus viridis \u2014 davis et al . 2016 crotalus viridis nuntius klauber 1935 crotalus confluentus nuntius klauber 1935 crotalus viridis nuntius \u2014 klauber 1936 crotalus viridis nuntius \u2014 stebbins 1985 : 232 crotalus viridis nuntius \u2014 crother 2000 : 60 crotalus viridis nuntius \u2014 ashton et al . 2001 crotalus viridis nuntius \u2014 campbell & lamar 2004 crotalus viridis \u2014 beaman & hayes 2008 crotalus viridis nuntius \u2014 lillywhite 2014 : 23 crotalus viridis nuntius \u2014 davis et al . 2016\n5 . blue : crotalus oreganus helleri southern pacific rattlesnake 6 . orange : crotalus oreganus lutosus great basin rattlesnake 7 . red : crotalus oreganus oreganus northern pacific rattlesnake\nsnake venomics of the central american rattlesnake crotalus simus and the south american crotalus durissus complex points to neurotoxicity as an adaptive paedomorphic trend along crotalus dispersal in south america .\n2 . red : crotalus cerastes cerastes - mohave desert sidewinder 3 . orange : crotalus cerastes laterorepens - colorado desert sidewinder\nsnake venomics of the central american rattlesnake crotalus simus and the south american crotalus durissus complex points to neurotoxicity as an ad . . . - pubmed - ncbi\ngoldberg , s . 1999 . reproduction in the blacktail rattlesnake , crotalus molossus .\nnotes on identifying subspecies of western rattlesnakes , crotalus oreganus , found in california .\ncrotalus is available under the mit license . see the license file for more info .\ngeographic and ontogenic variation in venom of the western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) .\nphenotypic integration in the feeding system of the eastern diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus adamanteus ) .\nclick the banners below to learn more about these fascinating members of the genus crotalus .\npatrick leary changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : crotalus . cerastes . jpg\n.\nmackessy , stephen p . 1991 . literature : venom ontogeny in the pacific rattlesnake crotalus viridis helleri and crotalus viridis oreganus . litteratura serpentium 11 ( 5 ) : 116 - get paper here\naldridge , r . 1979 . female reproductive cycles of the snakes arizona elegans and crotalus viridis .\ndiller , l . 1990 . a field observation on the feeding behavior of crotalus viridis lutosus .\nabby greb added text to\nbrief summary\non\ncrotalus cerastes hallowell , 1854\n.\ntimber rattlesnakes ( crotalus horridus ) use chemical cues to select ambush sites . - pubmed - ncbi\ncrotalus is available through cocoapods . to install it , simply add the following line to your podfile :\nbeaupre , s . 1993 . an ecological study of oxygen - consumption in the mottled rock rattlesnake , crotalus - lepidus - lepidus , and the black - tailed rattlesnake , crotalus - molossus - molossus .\ncharland , b . 1989 . size and winter survivorship in neonatal western rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis ) .\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30e8\u30b3\u30d0\u30a4\u30ac\u30e9\u30ac\u30e9\u30d8\u30d3\nto\ncrotalus cerastes hallowell , 1854\n.\nontogeny of striking , prey - handling and envenomation behavior of prairie rattlesnakes ( crotalus v . viridis )\nhome range and behavior of the timber rattlesnake ( crotalus horridus )\nby jennifer p . adams\nhemorrhagic toxins from rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) venom . pathogenesis of hemorrhage induced by three purified toxins .\nfrom crotalus durissus terrificus showed antiviral activity against dengue and yellow fever viruses . toxicon 59 : 507\u2013515 .\nmeans , b . 2009 . effects of rattlesnake roundups on the eastern diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus adamanteus ) .\ngraves , b . 1989 . defensive behavior of female prairie rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis ) changes after parturition .\ngeographic and ontogenic variation in venom of the western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nrenato agazzi added the italian common name\ncrotalo ceraste\nto\ncrotalus cerastes hallowell , 1854\n.\namy chang selected\ngeographic range\nto show in overview on\ncrotalus cerastes hallowell , 1854\n.\nphenotypic integration in the feeding system of the eastern diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus adamanteus ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nmacartney , m . 1989 . diet of the northern pacific rattlesnake , crotalus viridis oreganus , in british columbia .\nsealy , j . b . 1996 . serpentes : crotalus horridus ( timber rattlesnake ) mating . herpetological review .\nontogeny of striking , prey - handling and envenomation behavior of prairie rattlesnakes ( crotalus v . viridis ) - sciencedirect\n( crotalus viridis viridis , ) . paper presented at meeting of the animal behavior society , tucson , az .\ncameron dl , tu at . characterization of myotoxin a from the venom of prairie rattlesnake ( crotalus viridis viridis ) .\nnatureserve explorer , 2004 .\ncrotalus molossus\n( on - line ) . accessed july 06 , 2004 at urltoken .\nexploring the venom proteome of the western diamondback rattlesnake , crotalus atrox , via snake venomics and combinatorial peptide ligand library approaches .\nmacartney , m . , p . gregory . 1988 . reproductive biology of female rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis ) in british columbia .\nweima , andr\u00e9 1992 . crotalus durissus vegrandis in captivity . litteratura serpentium 12 ( 5 ) : 81 - 85 - get paper here\nwidmer , e . 1967 . helminth parasites of the prairie rattlesnake , crotalus viridis rafinesque , 1808 , in weld county , colorado .\npetricevich vl , mendon\u00e7a rz ( 2003 ) inhibitory potential of crotalus durissus terrificus venom on measles virus growth . toxicon 42 : 143\u2013153 .\ncosewic . cosewic assessment and status report on the prairie rattlesnake crotalus viridis in canada . none . ottawa , canada : cosewic . 2015 .\ngeographical distribution of crotalus durissus with stomach contents from central region of brazil covering forest formations of amazon and atlantic forest , caatinga and cerrado .\nfood composition in individual males , females , newborns and juveniles of crotalus durissus from central region of brazil ( n = 30 snakes ) .\ns1 text . the concatenation and analysis of mitochondrial dna for the crotalus viridis complex , with best - supported models of sequence evolution provided .\nmccranie j r 1993 . crotalus durissus linnaeus , neotropical rattlesnake . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles 577 : 1 - 11 - get paper here\ncrotalus is an convenient and fast approach to create attributedstring in swift . this library is inspired by colorize which is a ruby gem colorize string .\ncameron , d . , a . tu . 1977 . characterization of myotoxin a from the venom of prairie rattlesnake ( crotalus viridis viridis ) .\ncharland , b . , p . gregory . 1990 . the influence of female reproductive status on thermoregulation in a viviparous snake , crotalus viridis .\nduvall , d . , g . shuett . 1997 . straight - line movement and competitive mate searching in prairie rattlesnakes , crotalus viridis viridis .\nhayes , w . 1992 . prey - handling and envenomation strategies of prairie rattlesnakes ( crotalus v . viridis ) feeding on mice and sparrows .\nben\u00edcio , r . a . 2016 . crotalus durissus ( south american rattlesnake ) arboreal habitat use . herpetological review 47 ( 3 ) : 477 .\nmccranie j r 1984 . crotalus vegrandis klauber . uracoan rattlesnake . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles ( 350 : 1 - 2 - get paper here\nwinchell , s . 2007 . klapperschlangen ! die gattung crotalus . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 12 ( 66 ) : 18 - 25 - get paper here\nkardong , k . , k . rochelle . 1996 . mechanical damage inflicted by fangs on prey during predatory strikes by rattlesnakes , crotalus viridis oreganus .\nsweet , s . 1985 . geographic variation , convergent crypsis and mimicry in gopher snakes ( pituophis melanoleucus ) and western rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis ) .\ndescription of the gamonts of a small species of hepatozoon sp . ( apicomplexa , hepatozoidae ) found in crotalus durissus terrificus ( serpentes , viperidae ) .\necheverrigaray , s . , grazziotin , g . , grazziotin , f . & agostini , g . 2000 . random amplified polymorphisms between two south american subspecies of rattlesnakes ( crotalus durissus collilineatus e crotalus durissus terrificus ) . braz . arch . biol . techn . 313 - 317 . [ links ]\nquinn hr . morphology , isozymes , and mitochondrial dna as systematic indicators in crotalus : ph . d . dissertation . university of houston ; 1987 .\nlatella , ian m . and howard snell . 2015 . geographic distribution : crotalus viridis ( prairie rattlesnake ) . herpetological review 46 ( 1 ) : 62\nwarning , nathanial and nora covy . 2016 . crotalus viridis ( prairie rattlesnake ) behavior / long distance swimming . herpetological review 47 ( 1 ) : 145\ndue to some unique rules for the triduum , if you attend triduum liturgies , you may hear one of the rarest of liturgical instruments : the crotalus .\nownby cl , cameron d , tu at . isolation of myotoxic component from rattlesnake ( crotalus viridis viridis ) venom . electron microscopic analysis of muscle damage .\nexploring the venom proteome of the western diamondback rattlesnake , crotalus atrox , via snake venomics and combinatorial peptide ligand library ap . . . - pubmed - ncbi\ns1 fig . plots depicting bayesian posterior probabilities that stem from assigning specimens to subspecies under equal prior probabilities in the western rattlesnake ( crotalus viridis ) complex .\ntaylor , nathan caleb and sean p . graham . 2015 . geographic distribution : crotalus viridis ( prairie rattlesnake ) . herpetological review 46 ( 4 ) : 572\nwilliam , p . , b . william . 1974 . mortality and weight changes of great basin rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis ) at a hibernaculum in northern utah .\nwe have tried to account for most of the main species of the crotalus family below . this list is arranged alphabetically by scientific name ( species extension ) .\nchepsongol , roxanne m . and douglas w . burkett . 2013 . crotalus viridis ( prairie rattlesnake ) diet . herpetological review 44 ( 3 ) : 520 - 521\nbutler , j . , t . hull , r . franz . 1995 . neonate aggregations and maternal attendance of young in the eastern diamondback rattlesnake , crotalus adamanteus .\nmacartney , m . , p . gregory , b . charland . 1990 . growth and sexual maturity of the western rattlesnake , crotalus viridis , in british columbia .\ngibbons , j . w . 1972 . reproduction , growth and sexual dimorphism in the canebrake rattlesnake ( crotalus horridus atricaudatus ) . copeia 1972 : 222 - 226 .\nfood item , ameiva ameiva , recorded in the stomach of a female crotalus durissus . specimen deposited in the cole\u00e7\u00e3o herpetol\u00f3gica da universidade de bras\u00edlia ( chunb 49673 ) .\ngloyd , howard k . , 1978 . the rattlesnakes : genera sistrurus and crotalus . society for the study of amphibians and reptiles , kansas . pg . 204 .\nthe term \u201ccrotalus\u201d is a latin term that comes from the greek word \u201ckrotalon\u201d ( \u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03c4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd ) , which means \u201crattle . \u201d ( as a result , \u201ccrotalus\u201d is also the name of a genus of rattlesnakes . ) crotaluses can come in many different designs ( see the pictures and videos at the end of this article for examples ) .\nhellebuyck , tom 2012 . captive breeding characteristics of the uracoan rattlesnake ( crotalus durissus vegrandis ) . litteratura serpentium 32 ( 4 ) : 181 - 186 - get paper here\nkauffeld , carl f . ; gloyd , howard k . 1939 . notes on the aruba rattlesnake , crotalus unicolor . herpetologica 1 : 156 - 160 - get paper here\nmccranie j r 1986 . crotalus unicolor van lidth de jeude . aruba island rattlesnake . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles ( 389 : 1 - 2 - get paper here\nto cite this page : desai , m . 2004 .\ncrotalus molossus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nto cite this page : johnson , l . 2018 .\ncrotalus adamanteus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nto cite this page : russell , h . 2017 .\ncrotalus viridis\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nto cite this page : falk , a . 2002 .\ncrotalus horridus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nclark , r . w . 2002 . diet of the timber rattlesnake crotalus horridus . j . herpetol . 36 ( 3 ) : 494 - 499 . [ links ]\nto cite this page : ingmarsson , l . 2002 .\ncrotalus atrox\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ntravaglia cardoso , silvia r . and ana c . parpinelli 2006 . crotalus durissus terrificus . a case of xanthism . herpetological bulletin 97 : 38 - 39 - get paper here\nenderson , e . f . 2010 . the occurrence of crotalus viridis in sonora , mexico . sonoran herpetologist 23 ( 7 ) : 94 - 96 . - get paper here\ndescription of the gamonts of a small species of hepatozoon sp . ( apicomplexa , hepatozoidae ) found in crotalus durissus terrificus ( serpentes , viper . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nadams , jennifer p . ,\nhome range and behavior of the timber rattlesnake ( crotalus horridus )\n( 2005 ) . theses , dissertations and capstones . 26 . urltoken\non the other hand , crotalus venom causes a persistent albuminuria and extensive tubular degeneration and cast formation , with death , preceded by great emaciation , after five to six weeks .\naeberhard , r . 2010 . interessante beobachtungen zur tragzeit der tropischen klapperschlange , crotalus durissus durissus . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 15 ( 81 ) : 7 - 9 - get paper here\ngloyd , howard k . 1936 . the status of crotalus unicolor van lidth de jeude and icrotalus pulvis ditmars . herpetologica 1 ( 2 ) : 65 - 68 - get paper here\nhansen , r . w . & bryson , r . w . , jr . 2018 . crotalus viridis ( prairie rattlesnake ) diet . herpetological review 49 : 128 - 129 .\nrokyta , d . , a . lemmon , m . margres , k . aronow . 2012 . the venom - gland transcriptome of the eastern diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus adamanteus ) .\nferrante , lucas , rafael menegucci and ibere farina machado . 2015 . crotalus durissus ( south american rattlesnake ) swimming behavior to cross geographical barrier . herpetological review 46 ( 4 ) : 640\nolivier , r . 2008 . grote verwarring rond een \u2018kleine\u2019 ratelslang : de hopiratelslang , crotalus viridis nuntius . lacerta 66 ( 1 - 3 ) : 40 - 46 - get paper here\ngolan , l . , c . radcliffe , t . miller , b . o ' connell , d . chiszar . 1982 . trailing behavior in prairie rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis ) .\nmacias - rodriguez , eduardo f . , ana gatica - colima and hector gadsden . 2013 . crotalus viridis ( prairie rattlesnake ) reproduction / combat . herpetological review 44 ( 3 ) : 521\nhammerson , g . 2007 .\ncrotalus adamanteus\n( on - line ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2007 e . t64308a12762249 . accessed november 02 , 2017 at urltoken .\nchiszar , d . , k . scudder , l . knight , h . smith . 1978 . exploratory behavior in prairie rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis ) and water moccasins ( agkistrodon piscivorus ) .\nbrown , w . s . 1993 . biology , status , and management of the timber rattlesnake ( crotalus horridus ) : a guide for conservation . ssar herp . circular no . 22 .\nhoser , r . 2009 . a reclassification of the rattlesnakes ; species formerly exclusively referred to the genera crotalus and sistrurus . australasian j . herpetol . 3 : 1 - 21 - get paper here\nrowley , paul 2003 . the development of a safe restraint method for handling adult specimens of the neotropical rattlesnake crotalus durissus . litteratura serpentium 23 ( 1 ) : 40 - 45 - get paper here\nchiszar , d . , k . stimac , t . boyer . 1983 . effect of mouse odors on visually - induced and strike - induced chemosensory searching in prairie rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis ) .\nsaviola , a . , d . pla , t . castoe , j . calvete , s . mackessy . 2015 . comparative venomics of the prairie rattlesnake ( crotalus viridis viridis ) from colorado .\nmacarthney , j . m . 1989 . diet of the northern pacific rattlesnake , crotalus viridis oreganus , in british columbia . herpetologica 45 ( 3 ) : 299 - 304 . urltoken [ links ]\nsantos , s . m . & germano , v . j . 1996 . crotalus durissus ( neotropical rattlesnake ) prey . herpetol . rev . 27 ( 3 ) : 143 . [ links ]\nfeoktistow , a . e . 1893 . on the physiology of the rattle of crotalus durissus . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 11 : 54 - 58 - get paper here\n(\npetition to list the eastern diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus adamanteus ) as threatened under the endangered species act\n, 2011 ; ernst and ernst , 2012 ; waldron , et al . , 2006 )\nduvall , d . , d . chiszar , w . hayes , j . leonhardt , m . goode . 1990 . chemical and behavioral ecology of foraging in prairie rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis viridis ) .\nbrown , william s . 1993 . biology , status , and management of the timber rattlesnake ( crotalus horridus ) : a guide for conservation . society for the study of amphibians and reptiles , oxford .\nbeaupre , s . j . 1995 . comparative ecology of the mottled rock rattlesnake , crotalus lepidus , in big ben national park . herpetologica 51 ( 1 ) : 45 - 56 . [ links ]\ngatica - colima , ana , eduardo f . macias - rodr\u00edguez and ricardo paredes - le\u00f3n . 2014 . crotalus viridis viridis ( prairie rattlesnake ) ectoparasites . herpetological review 45 ( 1 ) : 143 - 144\nmacartney , j . malcolm & patrick t . gregory 1991 . literature : reproductive biology of female rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis ) in british columbia . litteratura serpentium 11 ( 5 ) : 116 - get paper here\n(\na status assessment and distribution model for the eastern diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus adamanteus ) in georgia\n, 2015 ;\nflorida ' s venomous snakes\n, 2004 ;\npetition to list the eastern diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus adamanteus ) as threatened under the endangered species act\n, 2011 ; ernst and ernst , 2012 ; hoss , et al . , 2010 ; steen , et al . , 2007 )\nownby , c . , t . colberg , g . odell . 1986 . in vivo ability of antimyotoxin a serum plus polyvalent ( crotalidae ) antivenom to neutralize prairie rattlesnake ( crotalus viridis viridis ) venom .\nconsidering data to other viperids ( sawaya et al . 2008 ; marques et al . 2009 ; barbo et al . 2011 ) the frequency of individuals of crotalus durissus with prey in the stomach was low .\nsandner - montilla f 1980 . una nueva especie del genero crotalus ( serpentes , crotalidae , crotalinae ) del sur del estado guarico , venezuela . memorias cientifica de ofidiologia ( no . 5 ) : 1 - 12\npifano , f . & rodriguez - acosta , a . 1996 . ecological niche and redescription of crotalus vegrandis ( serpentes : crotalidae ) in venezuela . brenesia 45 - 46 : 169 - 175 . [ links ]\ndavis m . morphometrics , molecular ecology and multivariate environmental niche define the evolutionary history of the western rattlesnake ( crotalus viridis ) complex . ph . d dissertation . university of illinois at urbana - champaign ; 2012 .\nhampton pm , moon br . gape size , its morphological basis , and the validity of gape indices in western diamond - backed rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) . journal of morphology . 2013 ; 247 : 194\u2013202 .\nmurphy et al . ( 1995 ) examined variation in mtdna , allozymes , and morphology of red diamond rattlesnakes and concluded that crotalus ruber and c . exsul should be considered a single species ( c . exsul ) with three subspecies ( c . e . exsul , c . e . ruber , and c . e . lorenzoensis . smith et al . ( 1998 ) applied to the iczn to conserve the name c rotalus ruber for the red diamond rattlesnake by giving the name crotalus ruber precedence over the name c . exsul . iczn ( 2000 ) gave crotalus ruber precedence over c . exsul whenever the two names are considered to be synonyms .\nhoss , s . , c . guyer , l . smith , g . schuett . 2010 . multiscale influences of landscape composition and configuration on the spatial ecology of eastern diamond - backed rattlesnakes ( crotalus adamanteus ) .\nhoyos , m . a . 2012 . a cascavel neotropical crotalus durissus : uma abordagem morfol\u00f3gica e da hist\u00f3ria natural em popula\u00e7\u00f5es do brasil . tese de doutorado , universidade de s\u00e3o paulo , s\u00e3o paulo . [ links ]\nthe goal of the present work was to label crotalus durissus terrificus venom with 99m tc . the crude and labeled venom were then subjected to a hemolytic activity study to verify that labeling did not alter the biological activities .\ncrotalus is a genus of venomous pit vipers naturally occurring in the americas , from southern canada to northern argentina . the rattlesnakes currently found in south africa include the sidewinder ( crotalus cerastes ) , which is a desert ambush predator . members of this genus range in size from 50\u201360cm to over 150cm . most forms are easily recognised by the characteristic rattle on the end of their tails , although a few island populations are exceptions to this rule .\nquijada - mascare\u00f1as & w\u00fcster , w . 2006 . crotalus durissus complex : from yucatan to patagonia : the natural history of the neotropical rattlesnake . reptilia ( gb ) ( 49 ) : 66 - 73 - get paper here\nklauber , laurence m . 1935 . a new subspecies of crotalus confluentus , the prairie rattlesnake . transactions of the san diego society of natural history 8 ( 13 ) : 75 - 90 + 1 plate - get paper here\nthe orianne society . a status assessment and distribution model for the eastern diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus adamanteus ) in georgia . none . clayton , georgia : the orianne society . 2015 . accessed september 10 , 2017 at urltoken .\nsage , r . d . ; capredon , e . e . 1971 . la distribucion de la cascabel ( crotalus durissus terrificus ( laurentius ) en argentina y su significado zoogeographico . neotropica 17 ( 54 ) : 133 - 136\nw\u00fcster , w . & b\u00e9rnils , r . s . 2011 . on the generic classification of the rattlesnakes , with special reference to the neotropical crotalus durissus complex ( squamata : viperidae ) . zoologia 28 ( 4 ) : 417\u2013419\ngraves , b . m . , m . b . king & d . duvall 1991 . literature : natural history of prairie rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis viridis ) . litteratura serpentium 11 ( 1 ) : 24 - get paper here\njustification : crotalus durissus has been assessed as least concern in view of its very wide distribution and its tolerance of a broad range of habitats . no specific threats have been reported and this species is not undergoing significant population declines .\nshipley , b . , d . chiszar , k . fitzgerald , a . saviola . 2013 . spatial ecology of prairie rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis ) associated with black - tailed prairie dog ( cynomys ludovicianus ) colonies in colorado .\ntrutnau , l . 2002 . bemerkungen zur verbreitung , biologie und taxonomie der tropischen klapperschlange crotalus durissus sowie zur pflege und zucht der unterart c . d . terrificus . herpetofauna 24 ( 140 ) : 13 - 24 - get paper here\nthe crotalus used to be universally used , but fell out of use in the last few decades . it seems , however , to have made a little bit of a comeback lately due to an increase of interest in traditional liturgy .\ntozetti , a . m . , & martins , m . 2008 . habitat use by the south - american rattlesnake ( crotalus durissus ) in southeastern brazil . journal of natural history 42 : 1435 - 1444 . urltoken [ links ]\ncollection sites with voucher numbers of studied specimens of crotalus durissus and stomach contents from central region of brazil . chunb , cole\u00e7\u00e3o herpetol\u00f3gica da universidade de bras\u00edlia ; ibsp , instituto butantan ; mzusp , museu de zoologia da universidade de s\u00e3o paulo .\n(\npetition to list the eastern diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus adamanteus ) as threatened under the endangered species act\n, 2011 ; gibbons and dorcas , 2005 ; hoss , et al . , 2010 ; steen , et al . , 2007 )\ndiller , l . v . & wallace , r . l . 1996 . comparative ecology of two snake species ( crotalus viridis and pituophis melanoleucus ) in southwestern idaho . herpetologica 52 ( 3 ) : 343 - 360 . urltoken [ links ]\nthe intravenous injection of crotalus atrox venom produces an immediate and profound fall in systemic arterial pressure . this change was observed in both cats and dogs , and it has been seen in previous experiments with rabbits , goats , guinea pigs and monkeys .\nmagres mj , wray kp , seavy m , mcgivern jj , sanader d , rokyta dr . phenotypic integration in the feeding system of the eastern diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus adamanteus ) . molecular ecology . 2015 ; 24 : 3405\u20133420 . pmid : 25988233\nfrost , d . , g . hammerson , g . santos - barrera . 2007 .\ncrotalus viridis\n( on - line ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2007 : e . t64339a12771847 . accessed september 10 , 2017 at urltoken .\ncitation : davis ma , douglas mr , collyer ml , douglas me ( 2016 ) deconstructing a species - complex : geometric morphometric and molecular analyses define species in the western rattlesnake ( crotalus viridis ) . plos one 11 ( 1 ) : e0146166 . urltoken\nharris , h . jr . , r . s . simmons 1976 . a new subspecies of crotalus durissus ( serpentes : crotalidae ) from the rupununisavana of southwestern guyana . mem . inst . butantan 40 / 41 : 305 - 311 . - get paper here\nsant ' anna , s . & abe a . s . 2007 . diet of the rattlesnake crotalus durissus in southeastern brazil ( serpentes , viperidae ) . stud . neotrop . fauna e . 42 ( 3 ) : 169 - 174 . urltoken [ links ]\nbiological activity of the crotalus venom after the labeling process was assessed by indirect hemolytic activity . hemolytic activity of crude and labeled venom was assayed as described by cadillo et al ( cadillo et al , 1992 ) and activity was expressed as absorbance at 540 nm .\ndouglas me , douglas mr , schuett gw , porras lw . evolution of rattlesnakes ( viperidae ; crotalus ) in the warm deserts of western north america shaped by neogene vicariance and quaternary climate change . molecular ecology . 2006 ; 15 : 3353\u20133374 . pmid : 16968275\nvanzolini , p . e . & calleffo , e . v . 2002 . a taxonomic bibliography of the south american snakes of the crotalus durissus complex ( serpentes , viperidae ) . anais da academia brasileira de ci\u00eancias 74 ( 1 ) : 37\u201383 - get paper here\nanderson cg , greenbaum e . phylogeography of northern populations of the black - tailed rattlesnake ( crotalus molossus , baird and girard , 1853 ) , with the revalidation of revalidation of c . ornatus , hallowell , 1854 . herpetological monographs . 2012 ; 26 : 19\u201357 .\ngardiner , laura e . , christopher m . somers , dennilyn l . parker and ray g . poulin . 2015 . microhabitat selection by prairie rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis ) at the northern extreme of their geographic range . journal of herpetology 49 ( 1 ) : 131 - 137\ncrotalus durissus terrificus ( south american rattlesnake ) venom possesses phospholipase a 2 activity , which can lead to hemolysis , and neurotoxic activity , both of which are also expressed by crotoxin . the biological activity evaluation showed that 99m tc labeling did not alter the activity of the cv .\n(\ncosewic assessment and status report on the prairie rattlesnake crotalus viridis in canada\n, 2015 ; charland , 1989 ; chiszar , et al . , 1978 ; duvall , et al . , 1990 ; golan , et al . , 1982 ; zug and ernst , 2004 )\nbeaupre , s . j . , duvall , d . & o ' leile , j . 1998 . ontogenetic variation in growth and sexual size dimorphism in a central arizona population of the western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) . copeia 1 : 40 - 47 . [ links ]\nrudolph , d . craig ; schaefer , r . r . ; saenz , d . ; conner , r . n . 2004 . arboreal behavior in the timber rattlesnake , crotalus horridus , in eastern texas . texas journal of science . 56 ( 4 ) : 395 - 404 .\nmonteiro , h . s . a . ; silva , i . m . s . c . ; martins , a . m . c . and fonteles , m . c . ( 2001 ) , actions of crotalus durissus terrificus venom and crotoxin on the isolated rat kidney . ,\nprigioni , carlos ; borteiro , claudio ; kolenc , francisco ; colina , marcelo ; gonz\u00e1lez , enrique m . 2013 . geographic distribution and apparent decline of crotalus durissus terrificus ( laurenti 1768 ; serpentes , viperidae ) in uruguay . cuadernos de herpetolog\u00eda 27 ( 2 ) : - get paper here\nchiszar , david ; bryon k . shipley , hobart m . smith , kevin fitzgerald and anthony j . saviola . 2014 . straightness - of - path during and after vernal migration in prairie rattlesnakes , crotalus viridis , in eastern colorado . herpetology notes 7 : 425 - 436 - get paper here\nthe rattlesnakes of the genus crotalus evolved in north america and subsequently spread across central and south america ( echevarrigaray et al . 2000 ; quijada - mascare\u00f1as et al . 2007 ) . currently 41 species of crotalus are recognized , with greater a diversity in mexico and the united states ( uetz at al . 2016 ) . this genus is frequently considered as a model for studies related to ecology , due to its widespread distribution covering several habitats , including deserts , flooded areas , forest environments and open habitats ( norman , 1994 ; beaupre et al . 1998 ; place & abramson , 2004 ) .\ndepending on how you classify them , there are about 29 or 30 different species of rattlesnakes in the world . most of them fall within the crotalus family of snakes . of course , when you include the various sub - species found within each species , there are even more rattlesnakes to consider .\nfill , j . , j . waldron , s . welch , m . martin , j . cantrell , s . bennett , w . kalinowsky , j . holloway , t . mousseau . 2015 . breeding and reproductive phenology of eastern diamond - backed rattlesnakes ( crotalus adamanteus ) in south carolina .\nsalom\u00e3o , m . g . , almeida - santos , s . m . & puorto , g . 1995 . activity pattern of crotalus durissus ( viperidae , crotalinae ) : feeding , reproduction and snakebite . stud . neotrop . fauna e . 30 ( 2 ) : 101 - 106 [ links ]\nvanzolini , p . e . 1947 . notas sobre um derodimo de crotalus durissus terrificus ( laur . ) nota nomenclaural sobre leimadophis almada ( wagler , 1824 ) ( = leimadophis almadensis auct . ) . pap\u00e9is avulsos de zoologia ( s\u00e3o paulo ) 8 ( 24 ) : 273 - 283 - get paper here\nashton , kyle g . ; de queiroz , alan 2001 . molecular systematics of the western rattlesnake , crotalus viridis ( viperidae ) , with comments on the utility of the d - loop in phylogenetic studies of snakes . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 21 ( 2 ) : 176 - 189 . - get paper here\nbauder , javan m . ; holly akenson , and charles r . peterson 2015 . movement patterns of prairie rattlesnakes ( crotalus v . viridis ) across a mountainous landscape in a designated wilderness area journal of herpetology sep 2015 , vol . 49 , no . 3 : 377 - 387 . - get paper here\ndavis ma , douglas mr , collyer ml , douglas me 2016 . deconstructing a species - complex : geometric morphometric and molecular analyses define species in the western rattlesnake ( crotalus viridis ) . plos one 11 ( 1 ) : e0146166 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0146166 - get paper here\nholycross , andrew t . ; thomas g . anton , michael e . douglas , and darrel r . frost 2008 . the type localities of sistrurus catenatus and crotalus viridis ( serpentes : viperidae ) , with the unraveling of a most unfortunate tangle of names . copeia 2008 ( 2 ) : 421\u2013424 - get paper here\nthe western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) is a heavy bodied snake with a triangular shaped head . there are two dark diagonal lines on each side of its face running from the eyes to its jaws . it has dark diamond - shaped patterns along is back . the tail has black and white bands just above the rattles .\nmarchi - salvador dp , corr\u00eaa lc , magro aj , oliveira cz , soares am , et al . ( 2008 ) insights into the role of oligomeric state on the biological activities of crotoxin : crystal structure of a tetrameric phospholipase a2 formed by two isoforms of crotoxin b from crotalus durissus terrificus venom . proteins 72 : 883\u2013891 .\ncitation : muller vd , soares ro , dos santos - junior nn , trabuco ac , cintra ac , figueiredo lt , et al . ( 2014 ) phospholipase a 2 isolated from the venom of crotalus durissus terrificus inactivates dengue virus and other enveloped viruses by disrupting the viral envelope . plos one 9 ( 11 ) : e112351 . urltoken\nw\u00fcster , wolfgang ; julia e . ferguson ; j . adrian quijada - mascare\u00f1as ; catharine e . pook ; maria da gra\u00e7a salom\u00e3o < br / > and roger s . thorpe 2005 . tracing an invasion : landbridges , refugia , and the phylogeography of the neotropical rattlesnake ( serpentes : viperidae : crotalus durissus ) . molecular ecology 14 : 1095\u20131108\nalmeida - santos , selma maria ; maria da graca salom\u00e3o ; elaine aparecida peneti , < br / > paulo s\u00e9rgio de sena ; eduardo santos guimaraes 1999 . predatory combat and tail wrestling in hierarchical contests of the neotropical rattlesnake crotalus durissus terrificus ( serpentes : viperidae ) . amphibia - reptilia 20 ( 1 ) : 88 - 96 - get paper here\nthe south - american rattlesnake crotalus durissus , is restricted to south america ( campbell & lamar 2004 ) and has a discontinuous distribution ( w\u00fcster et al . 2005 ) from colombia to argentina ( vanzolini et al . 1980 ) . some populations exhibit considerable ecological variation , with closeby populations differing greatly from each other ( campbell & lamar , 2004 ) .\ncozendey , p . , novelli , i . a . , do nascimento , a . a . , peters , v . m . & de sousa , b . m . 2017 . study of the renal sexual segment of crotalus durissus terrificus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( viperidae : crotalinae ) . herpetological review 48 ( 4 ) : 743 - 746\nvalencia - herna\u0301ndez , a\u0301ngel alberto ; irene goyenechea < br / > & jesu\u0301s marti\u0301n castillo - cero\u0301n 2007 . notes on scutellation , length , and distribution of rattlesnakes ( serpentes : viperidade : crotalus ) in the state of hidalgo , mexico . acta zoolo\u0301gica mexicana ( n . s . ) 23 ( 3 ) : 29 - 33 - get paper here\ndavis , mark a . and michael e . douglas 2017 . prairie rattlesnake crotalus viridis ( rafinesque 1818 ) . in : rattlesnakes of arizona , volume i , 1st edition , editors : gordon w . schuett , martin j . feldner , charles f . smith , randall s . reiserer . eco publishing , pp . 289 - 332 - get paper here\na free - ranging specimen of crotalus durissus unicolor on aruba island was observed after striking rodent prey ( calomys hummelincki ) and after no - strike presentations . strike - induced chemosensory searching and trail following were seen after strikes . when a chemical trail was not present following a strike , the snake searched extensively near its refuge , but never emerged from it .\ncenter for biological diversity , coastal plains institute , protecting all living species , one more generation . petition to list the eastern diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus adamanteus ) as threatened under the endangered species act . none . usa : center for biological diversity , coastal plains institute , protecting all living species , one more generation . 2011 . accessed september 11 , 2017 at urltoken .\nprival , d . b . , goode , m . j . , swann , d . e . , schwalbe , c . r . & schroff , m . j . 2002 . natural history of a northern population of twin - spotted rattlesnakes , crotalus pricei . j . herpetol . 36 ( 4 ) : 598 - 607 . urltoken ; 2 [ links ]\ndavis ma , douglas mr , webb ct , collyer ml , holycross at , painter cw , et al . nowhere to go but up : impacts of climate change on demographics of a short - range endemic ( crotalus willardi obscurus ) in the sky - islands of southwestern north america . plos - one . 2015 ; 10 ( 6 ) : e0131067 . pmid : 26114622\nquijada - mascarenas , j . adrian ; ferguson , julia e . ; pook , catharine e . ; salomao , maria da graca ; thorpe , roger s . ; wuster , wolfgang 2007 . phylogeographic patterns of trans - amazonian vicariants and amazonian biogeography : the neotropical rattlesnake ( crotalus durissus complex ) as an example . journal of biogeography 34 ( 8 ) : 1296 - 1312\n% 0 report % t arboreal behavior in the timber rattlesnake , crotalus horridus , in eastern texas % j texas journal of science . 56 ( 4 ) : 395 - 404 % a rudolph , d . craig % a schaefer , r . r . % a saenz , d . % a conner , r . n . % d 2004 % > urltoken % u urltoken citation\nty - rprt ti - arboreal behavior in the timber rattlesnake , crotalus horridus , in eastern texas au - rudolph , d . craig au - schaefer , r . r . au - saenz , d . au - conner , r . n . py - 2004 jo - texas journal of science . 56 ( 4 ) : 395 - 404 l1 - urltoken ur - urltoken er - citation\nw\u00fcster , w . , ferguson , j . e . , quijada - mascare\u00f1as , j . a . , pook , c . e . & salom\u00e3o , m . d . 2005 . tracing an invasion : landbridges , refugia , and the phylogeography of the neotropical rattlesnake ( serpentes : viperidae : crotalus durissus ) . mol . ecol . 14 ( 4 ) : 1095 - 1108 . urltoken [ links ]\nholycross , a . t . , painter , c . w . , prival , d . v . , shawnn , d . e . , schroff , m . j . , edwards , t . & schwalbe , c . r . 2002 . diet of crotalus lepidus klauberi ( banded rock rattlesnake ) . j . herpetol . 36 ( 4 ) : 589 - 597 . urltoken ; 2 [ links ]\ntecn\u00e9cio - 99m tem sido o radiois\u00f3topo de escolha para procedimentos m\u00e9dicos e pesquisas experimentais . em decorr\u00eancia de suas propriedades nucleares , 99m tc \u00e9 adequado para detec\u00e7\u00e3o de alta efici\u00eancia com a vantagem do baixo risco radiol\u00f3gico . o veneno de crotalus ( cv ) apresentou propriedades antitumorais em estudos cl\u00ednicos e estudos de biodistribui\u00e7\u00e3o s\u00e3o fundamentais em pesquisas cl\u00ednicas . esse trabalho teve como objetivo obter um an\u00e1logo de veneno de crotalus marcado com 99m tc que preservasse sua atividade biol\u00f3gica . ap\u00f3s a marca\u00e7\u00e3o , a atividade biol\u00f3gica foi avaliada atrav\u00e9s do ensaio de atividade hemol\u00edtica . veneno nativo e marcado apresentaram atividade hemol\u00edtica indireta quando incubados em um meio contendo uma fonte ex\u00f3gena de lecitina . obteve - se um alto rendimento de marca\u00e7\u00e3o e a atividade biol\u00f3gica das mol\u00e9culas foi preservada . nossos resultados sugerem que 99m tc - cv pode representar uma ferramenta muito \u00fatil para estudos de biodistribui\u00e7\u00e3o .\nsouza , kariny de ; rafael damasceno fernandes coelho , paulo mauricio almeida guimar\u00e3es reis , patricia avello nicola , luiz cezar machado pereira and leonardo barros ribeiro . 2013 . predation of the spix\u2019s yellow - toothed cavy , galea spixii ( rodentia : caviidae ) by the tropical rattlesnake crotalus durissus cascavella ( serpentes : viperidae ) in the semi - arid region of brazil . herpetology notes 6 : 277 - 279 . - get paper here\nquijada - mascare\u00f1as , j . a . , ferguson , j . e . , pook , c . e . , salom\u00e3o , m . g . , thorpe , r . s . & w\u00fcster , w . 2007 . phylogeographic patterns of trans - amazonian vicariants and amazonian biogeography : the neotropical rattlesnake ( crotalus durissus complex ) as an example . j . biogeogr . 34 : 1296 - 1312 . urltoken [ links ]\nbut , during this short period of time , is anything supposed to take its place ? that\u2019s where the crotalus comes in . the church\u2019s liturgical rubrics don\u2019t prescribe a replacement for altar bells , but there is a long - standing tradition of using a wooden clapper or noise - maker in its place . this serves to both mark the same events as the altar bells , but in a less \u201csweet\u201d way and thus maintain the somber tone .\n@ misc { rudolph % 2c + d . + craig2004arboreal , title = { arboreal behavior in the timber rattlesnake , crotalus horridus , in eastern texas } , author = { rudolph , d . craig and schaefer , r . r . and saenz , d . and conner , r . n . } , journal = { texas journal of science . 56 ( 4 ) : 395 - 404 } , year = { 2004 } } citation\ncrotoxin ( crtx ) , the main proteic component of crotalus venom , displays cytotoxic activity against a variety of murine ( zwaal et al , 1975 ) and human ( corin et al , 1993 ) tumor cells in vitro . antitumor efficacy in vivo has been demonstrated on lung carcinoma ( rudd et al , 1994 ) , suggesting good specificity toward solid tumors . pharmacokinetic studies are very important for clinical trials and radioisotope - based drugs are very convenent for these approaches .\nin brazil , crotalus durissus is widely distributed , except for the states of acre and esp\u00edrito santo . in addition , there are isolated populations in open areas within savannas of the amazonian forest ( campbell & lamar 1989 ) . the diet of the species is assumed to be characterized by an extreme specialization in endothermic prey ; a feature that exists for only a few species of rattlesnake and which is thought to represent an ancestral trait ( clark 2002 ) . studies of food composition in populations from southeastern brazil indicated that rodents and small marsupials were the prey more widely eaten by rattlesnakes ( sant ' anna & abe 2007 ) ; however , birds ( vanzolini et al . 1980 ) and lizards ( santos & germano 1996 ) , can be considered as occasional food items in the c . durissus diet . in this work , we describe the feeding ecology of crotalus durissus in the central region of brazil and discus some strategies involved in the feeding of this rattlesnake .\nmarcovan porto , marco antonio de oliveira , lorenzo pissinatti , renata lopes rodrigues , julio alejandro rojas - moscoso , jos\u00e9 carlos cogo , konradin metze , edson antunes , c\u00e9sar nahoum , fab\u00edola z . m\u00f3nica , gilberto de nucci 2013 . the evolutionary implications of hemipenial morphology of rattlesnake crotalus durissus terrificus ( laurent , 1768 ) ( serpentes : viperidae : crotalinae ) . plos one 8 ( 6 ) : e66903 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0066903 - get paper here\nall food items were removed from the stomach and identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level . each of the contents was deposited in a glass container with the same identification number as the specimen ( voucher number ) . the intestinal content was determined while taking into account the type of food residue . in addition , available literature records of prey were included in this study , which analyzed the food composition for crotalus durissus from southeastern brazil ( santos & germano 1996 ; sant ' anna & abe 2007 ) .\noverall , the diet composition of the south - american rattlesnake crotalus durissus , considering information of stomach contents identified from specimens in this study in combination with literature records ( santos & germano 1996 ; sant ' anna & abe 2007 ) , show a similar feeding patterns : rodents 66 . 05 % , marsupials 3 . 98 % , unidentified mammals 28 . 38 % and reptiles 1 . 59 % ; in reference to the reptiles , only six specimens - four of which identified in females had reptiles in their stomach .\nas defined by crother et al . ( 2003 ) , following congruence of pook et al . ( 2000 ) , ashton and de queiroz ( 2001 ) , and douglas et al . ( 2002 ) , this species encompasses only the ranges of subspecies viridis and nuntius of traditionally defined c . viridis . in other words , the range extends from southern alberta and southern saskatchewan in canada , to the northern fringe of northern central mexico , west to idaho , wyoming , colorado , and extreme eastern arizona , east to the dakotas , western iowa , nebraska , central kansas , central oklahoma , and western and central texas in the united states ( stebbins 2003 , campbell and lamar 2004 ) . the ranges and relationships of crotalus oreganus and crotalus viridis in the four corners region and in northwestern colorado need further clarification ( hammerson 1999 ; brennan and holycross , 2004 ) . its elevational range extends from about 100 m asl near the rio grande ( campbell and lamar 2004 ) to at least 2 , 895 m asl ( 9 , 500 feet ) in colorado ( hammerson 1999 ) .\nmammal specialization may be related to several life history strategies ( martins et al . 2002 ) . in some species of pitvipers , it could be associated with the increased venom toxicity in juveniles ; this may be a consequence of the need to immobilize larger prey such as a mammal ( andrade & abe 1999 ) . furthermore , the adoption of a juvenile diet based on mammals is more profitable energetically than an ecthothermic diet ( martins et al . 2002 ) . in crotalus durissus populations , the low frequency of ectothermic prey could explain such eventual facts .\nthe phospholipase a 2 activity of crotalus venom is well known and this activity is responsible for breakdown of phospholipid membranes leading to hemolysis ( zwaal et al , 1975 ) . to assess biological activity of cv , its hemolytic activity was measured . crude and labeled cv did not cause direct hemolysis ( not shown ) . an indirect hemolytic activity evaluation did not show any significant difference between unlabeled ( ic50 301 . 5 + 73 \u00b5g / ml ) and labeled cv ( ic50 247 . 7 + 49 \u00b5g / ml ) ( fig . 1 ) .\nthe acute exudative glomerular lesion of the rabbit ' s kidney caused by crotalus venom does not lead to a subacute or chronic glomerulonephritis . the hemorrhagic lesion of the glomerular tuft may show a process of repair characterized by the ingrowth , into the hemorrhagic masses , of endothelial cells from the uninjured part of the tuft . this process is , however , more analogous to the organization of a red thrombus than it is to any form of glomerular lesion known in man , and can hardly serve as an experimental demonstration of the mode of development of a subacute or chronic glomerular nephritis .\napproximately 90 percent of rattlesnakes of the genus crotalus , exhibit ontogenetic shifts in food composition , changing from ectothermic to endothermic preys . these variations could be attributed to changes in morphological , behavioral and physiological characteristics during ontogeny ( mushinsky 1987 ) . alternatively a small percentage of rattlesnakes feed almost exclusively on endothermic preys , like c . durissus ( salom\u00e3o et al . 1995 ; duarte 2003 ) , c . horridus and c . molossus ( clark 2002 ) . klauber ( 1956 ) gathered these three species and another , c . basiliscus , in the\ndurissus group\n, to demonstrate this specialization .\nthe snakes examined represent a total of 452 individuals of crotalus durissus from the central region of brazil covering forest formations of the amazon and atlantic forests , caatinga and cerrado ; identified as 213 males , 167 females and 72 neonates and juveniles . we considered specimens to be neonates when their snout - vent length was smaller than 400mm ( hoyos , 2012 ) . the specimens are housed in the scientific collections of instituto butantan ( ibsp ) , museu de zoologia da universidade de s\u00e3o paulo ( mzusp ) , and universidade de bras\u00edlia ( chunb ) . animals kept in captivity prior to being deposited in a scientific collection were excluded from this study .\nthe western rattlesnake ( crotalus viridis ) is a polytypic north american pit viper [ 16 , 23 \u2013 24 ] , widely distributed across broad latitudinal and elevational gradients . it extends from the missouri river in the east , into saskatchewan , alberta , and british columbia to the north , along the west coast of the united states , and south into mexico ( fig 2 ; [ 23 ] ) . habitat includes deciduous and coniferous forests , scrub , prairie grasslands , shrub steppe , desert margins , and sand dunes as arrayed across a gradient from sea level to 4000m [ 24 ] . as a consequence , it displays considerable variation within and among populations , life stages , and subspecies .\ncrotalus venom ( cv ) produces neurotoxicity , coagulation disorders , systemic myotoxicity and acute renal failure , with possible additional heart and liver damage ( monteiro et al , 2001 and barraviera et al , 1995 ) . this venom contains enzymes , toxins ( crotoxin , crotamine , gyroxin , convulxin ) and several peptides ( barraviera et al , 1995 ) . pharmacokinetic and tissue distribution studies are very important for clinical use . although crotoxin has been labeled with 125 i for membrane interaction analysis ( krizaj et al , 1996 ) , radiolabeling of snake venom with 99m - technetium ( 99m tc ) has not been reported , neither has the utility of 99m tc \u0096based snake venom for in vivo studies been assessed .\nwe investigated food patterns in the diet composition of 452 specimens of crotalus durissus from central brazil . thirty - three items were recorded corresponding to four categories : rodents ( 75 . 76 % ) , marsupials ( 6 . 06 % ) , unidentified mammals ( 9 . 09 % ) and reptiles ( 9 . 09 % ) . adults of both sexes and some juveniles feed mostly on mammals , specifically rodents , it is the most active and abundant prey throughout the year mainly in areas from cerrado . in addition , we observed that in c . durissus there is a trend in the diet of females could be more diverse , maybe this can be associated to sexual differences involving different strategies of the feeding biology of this rattlesnake .\ntechnetium - 99m ( 99m tc ) has been the radionuclide of choice for nuclear medicine procedures and experimental research . because of its optimal nuclear properties , 99m tc is suitable for high efficiency detection with the advantage of reduced radiological waste . crotalus venom ( cv ) has been shown to reduce tumors in clinical studies and tissue distribution studies are very important for clinical use . the goal of this work was to obtain cv labeled with 99m tc which preserves its biological activity . after labeling , biological activity was assessed by hemolytic activity evaluation . labeled and crude venom caused indirect hemolysis provided that the incubation medium contained an exogenous source of lecithin . high yield radiolabeled - cv was obtained and biological activity was preserved . the results suggest that 99m tc - cv can be a useful tool for biodistribution studies .\npatrones de alimentaci\u00f3n fueron investigados en la composici\u00f3n de la dieta de 452 ejemplares de crotalus durissus de brasil central . treinta y tres \u00edtems fueron registrados , correspondientes a cuatro categor\u00edas : roedores ( 75 . 76 % ) , marsupiales ( 6 . 6 % ) , mam\u00edferos no identificados ( 9 . 09 % ) y reptiles ( 9 . 09 % ) . los adultos de ambos sexos e individuos j\u00f3venes se alimentaron b\u00e1sicamente de mam\u00edferos , en espec\u00edfico de roedores , esta es la presa m\u00e1s activa y abundante durante todo el a\u00f1o , principalmente en las \u00e1reas de cerrado . adem\u00e1s fue observado que en c . durissus existe una tendencia a que la dieta de las hembras sea m\u00e1s diversa , factor que podr\u00eda estar relacionado a las diferencias sexuales que implican diferentes estrategias de alimentaci\u00f3n en la biolog\u00eda de esta serpiente cascabel .\naccording to popular belief , one can tell the age of a rattlesnake by the number of rattles present at the end of its tail . a baby rattlesnake is born with the first segment of its rattle , called a\nbutton\n. as the snake grows ( and with each molting of its outer skin ) an additional segment is added to its rattle . younger snakes shed more often than older snakes , but on average , free - ranging snakes may molt three to six times a year . another clue to a snake ' s age is its color : timber rattlers darken as they age , and the darkest are old males . the scientific name , crotalus horridus , is formed from two latin words : crotalum , meaning\nbell or rattle ,\nand horridus , for\ndreadful\n\u2014which makes reference to its venom .\na small species of the genus hepatozoon found in a specimen of crotalus durissus terrificus from the botucatu region , s\u00e3o paulo state , brazil is described . the morphologic alterations induced in the snake ' s erythrocytes by the presence of this parasite are described . morphology and morphometric analyses were performed using the qwin lite 2 . 5 computerized image analysis system ( leica ) . the hepatozoon possessed a small and short body ( 8 . 1 + / - 0 . 5 microm long and 3 . 8 + / - 0 . 4 microm wide ) , with round extremities . the cytoplasm varied from pale blue to basophilic and had no granulations . its nucleus was large , occupied a large area of the cytoplasm , and was irregular in shape and not condensed . despite its small size , this parasite induced important changes in the host cell . total parasitemia observed was 56 . 6 % ."]}
{"id": 267, "summary": [{"text": "epinotia piceicola is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in taiwan , japan and russia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the larvae feed on picea glehnii . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "epinotia piceicola", "paragraphs": ["piceicola kuznetzov , 1970 ( epinotia ) , ent . obozr . 49 : 437 . no type\nmesopotamica obraztsov , 1952 ( epinotia ( epinotia ) ) , z . wien . ent . ges . 37 : 127 . tl : mesopotamia . mesopotamia . holotype : zsm . male .\ncremana hartig , 1960 ( epinotia ) , studi trentini sci . nat 37 : 153 . no type\nefficax meyrick , 1912 ( epinotia ) , ent . mon . mag . 48 : 35 no type\ntemerana issekutz , 1972 ( epinotia ) , schmett . sdl . burgen . : 47 . no type\nsemifuscana stephens , 1829 ( poecilochroma ( epinotia ) ) , nom . br . insects : 47 . no type\nrhododendronana hartig , 1960 ( epinotia ) , studi trentini sci . nat . acta biol . 37 : 149 . no type\nboreales kuznetzov , 1976 ( epinotia pinicola ssp . ) , trud . biol . - pochvenn . inst . 43 : 84 . no type\nhuebneri kocak , 1980 ( epinotia ) , comm . fac . sci . univ . ankara 24 ( c ) : 12 . no type\nrasdorniana issiki , in eakai et al . , 1957 ( epinotia ) , icones heterocerorum japonicorum in coloribus naturalibus 1 : 174 . no type\nmyricana mcdunnough , 1933 ( epinotia ) , entomologist 65 : 206 . tl : canada , ontario , bobcaygeon . holotype : cnc . male .\nobraztsovi agenjo , 1967 ( epinotia ) , eos 42 ( 1966 ) : 287 . tl : spain . almeria . holotype : mncnm . male .\nmonticola kawabe , 1993 ( epinotia ) , tinea 13 : 238 . tl : taiwan , hualien hsien , hohuanshan . holotype : usnm . male .\nfujisawai kawabe , 1993 ( epinotia ) , tinea 13 : 237 . tl : taiwan , nantou hsien , lushan spa . holotype : usnm . male .\nparki bae , 1997 ( epinotia ) , insecta koreana 14 : 22 . tl : korea , kangwon province , chuncheon . holotype : uib . male .\ncorylana mcdunnough , 1925 ( epinotia ) , can . ent . 57 : 22 . tl : canada , ontario , ottawa . holotype : cnc . male .\nnormanana kearfott , 1907 ( epinotia ) , can . ent . 39 : 156 . tl : canada , manitoba , aweme . lectotype : amnh . male .\npinivora issiki , in issiki & mutuura , 1961 ( epinotia ) , publ . ent . lab . univ . osaka pref . 7 : 5 . no type\nsperana mcdunnough , 1935 ( epinotia ) , can . ent . 67 : 144 . tl : canada , labrador , hopedale . holotype : cnc . male .\nautonoma falkovitsh , 1965 ( epinotia ) , ent . obozr . 44 : 428 . tl : russia , far east , okeanskaya . holotype : zmas . female .\nkasloana mcdunnough , 1925 ( epinotia ) , can . ent . 57 : 23 . tl : canada , british columbia , kaslo . holotype : cnc . male .\nremovana mcdunnough , 1935 ( epinotia ) , can . ent . 67 : 146 . tl : canada , alberta , waterton lakes . holotype : cnc . male .\nyoshiyasui kawabe , 1989 ( epinotia ) , microlepid . thailand 2 : 55 . tl : thailand , chiang mai , doi inthanon . holotype : opu . male .\nbalsameae freeman , 1965 ( epinotia ) , j . res . lepid . 4 : 219 . tl : canada , qubec , aylmer . holotype : cnc . male .\nbushiensis kawabe , 1980 ( epinotia ) , tinea 11 : 22 . tl : japan , honshu , saitama prefecture , iruma , bushi . holotype : usnm . male .\nevidens kuznetzov , 1971 ( epinotia ) , ent . obozr . 50 : 433 . tl : china , north yunnan province , likiang . holotype : mgab . male .\nnigralbanoidana mcdunnough , 1929 ( epinotia ) , can . ent . 61 : 271 . tl : canada , ontario , pt . pelee . holotype : cnc . male .\nepinotia pinicola is a species of moth of the tortricidae family . it is found in china ( henan , sichuan ) , korea , japan and russia . [ 2 ]\naquila kuznetzov , 1968 ( epinotia ( steganoptycha ) ) , ent . obozr . 47 : 567 . tl : russia , sakhalin , korsakov . holotype : zmas . male .\ntamaensis kawabe , 1974 ( epinotia ) , ty to ga 25 : 96 . tl : japan . honshu , tokyo prefecture , tama hill . holotype : usnm . male .\ncineracea nasu , ( 1991 ( epinotia ) , appl . ent . zool . 26 : 342 . tl : japan , hokkaido , bibai . holotype : opu . male .\njavierana razowski & pelz , 2007 ( epinotia ) , polskie pismo entomol . 76 : 14 . tl : argentina , tucuman , san javier . holotype : smfl . male .\nkeiferana lange , 1937 ( epinotia ) , pan - pacif . ent . 13 : 118 . tl : usa , california , san francisco . holotype : cas . male .\nniveipalpa razowski , 2009 ( epinotia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 37 : 129 . tl : vietnam , kon tum , dac glei . holotype : mnhu . female .\nthaiensis kawabe , 1995 ( epinotia ) , microlepid . thailand 3 : 54 . tl : thailand , loei province , phu luang wildlife sanctuary . holotype : opu . male .\naciculana falkovitsh , 1965 ( epinotia ) , ent . obozr . 44 : 424 . tl : russia , far east , primorsky krai , okeanskaya . holotype : zmas . male .\nbispina razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( epinotia ) , genus 19 : 549 . tl : ecuador , province pichincha , crater pululahua , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . female .\nchlorochara razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( epinotia ) , genus 19 : 547 . tl : ecuador , province cotopaxi , via la mana , pilalo . holotype : mzuj . male .\nguarandae razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( epinotia ) , genus 19 : 545 . tl : ecuador , province bolivar , balzapamba - guaranda old road . holotype : mzuj . male .\nimprovisana heinrich , 1923 ( epinotia ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 269 . tl : usa , california . holotype : usnm . male .\nlanceata razowski , 1999 ( epinotia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 333 tl : ecuador , pichincha province , 12 km nw papallacta . holotype : cmnh . male .\npanda razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( epinotia ) , genus 19 : 548 . tl : ecuador , province carchi , crater pululahua , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . male .\npenthrana bradley , 1965 ( epinotia ) , ruwenzori exped . 1952 , 2 ( 12 ) : 96 . tl : uganda , ruwenzori , nyamaleju . holotype : bmnh . male .\nelatana falkovitsh , 1965 ( epinotia ) , ent . obozr . 44 : 426 . tl : russia . far east , primorsky krai , okeanskaya . holotype : zmas . male .\nplumbolineana kearfott , 1907 ( epinotia ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 33 : 53 . tl : canada , britishcolumbia , wellington . lectotype : amnh . male .\nsagittana mcdunnough , 1925 ( epinotia ) , can . ent . 57 : 22 . tl : canada , british columbia , departure bay biological station . holotype : cnc . male .\nsalicicolana kuznetzov , 1968 ( epinotia ) , ent . obozr . 47 : 577 . tl : russia , kuril islands , kunashir , near sernovodsk . holotype : zmas . male .\namurensis kuznetzov , 1968 ( epinotia tenerana ssp . ) , ent . obozr . 47 : 574 . tl : russia . amur region , klimoutsy . holotype : zmas . female .\nussuriensis kuznetzov , 1970 ( epinotia bilunana ssp . ) , ent . obozr . 49 : 440 . tl : russia . primorsky krai , near ussuriysk . holotype : zmas . female .\ngradli rebel , 1929 ( epinotia cruciana ab . ) , verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 79 : 49 . tl : austria . holotype : unknown . unknown .\ndensiuncaria kuznetzov , 1985 ( epinotia ) , vestnik zool . 1985 ( 1 ) : 6 . tl : russia , far east , southern primorsky krai . holotype : zmas . male .\nhuroniensis brown , 1980 ( epinotia ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 82 : 504 . tl : canada , qubec , norway bay . holotype : cnc . male .\nnotoceliana kuznetzov , 1985 ( epinotia ) , vestnik zool . 1985 ( 1 ) : 5 . tl : russia , far east , southern primorsky krai . holotype : zmas . male .\nrotundata razowski & wojtusiak , 2009 ( epinotia ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 161 . tl : ecuador , prov . napo , papallacta . holotype : mzuj . male .\nrubricana kuznetzov , 1968 ( epinotia ( steganoptycha ) ) , ent . obozr . 47 : 575 . tl : russia , primorsky krai , near vladivostok . holotype : zmas . female .\nseorsa heinrich , 1924 ( epinotia ) , j . wash . acad . sci . 14 : 392 . tl : canada , british columbia , vavenby . holotype : usnm . male .\nslovacica pato ka & jaro , 1991 ( epinotia ) , acta ent . bohemoslov . 88 : 215 tl : slovakia , slovakia central ( zarnovica ) . holotype : nmpr . male .\nabnormana kuznetzov , 1973 ( epinotia ( panoplia ) ) , ent . obozr . 52 : 683 . tl : china , shansi province , mien - shan . holotype : mgab . male .\naraea diakonoff , 1983 ( epinotia ) , zool . verh . leiden 204 : 36 . tl : indonesia , sumatra , mt . bandahara , bivouac two . holotype : ncb . female .\naridos freeman , 1960 ( epinotia ) , can . ent . ( suppl . 16 ) 92 : 30 . tl : usa , montana , east glacier . holotype : cnc . male .\nbicordana heinrich , 1923 ( epinotia ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 220 . tl : canada , manitoba , aweme . holotype : amnh . male .\nbigemina heinrich , 1923 ( epinotia ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 220 . tl : usa , california , carmel . holotype : amnh . male .\nbiuncus razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( epinotia ) , genus 19 : 548 . tl : ecuador , province carchi , res . forest golondrinas , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . male .\nbrunneomacula razowski & wojtusiak , 2009 ( epinotia ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 162 . tl : ecuador , prov . sucumbios , la bonita . holotype : mzuj . male .\ncoryli kuznetzov , 1970 ( epinotia ) , ent . obozr . 49 : 437 . tl : russia , primorsky krai , near ussuriysk , mountain tayga station . holotype : zmas . female .\nheucherana heinrich , 1923 ( epinotia ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 217 . tl : usa , virginia , rosslyn . holotype : usnm . male .\nmultistrigata razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( epinotia ) , genus 19 : 547 . tl : ecuador , province carchi , res . forest golondrinas , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . male .\npinicola kuznetzov , 1969 ( epinotia ( steganoptycha ) ) , ent . obozr . 48 : 368 tl : russia , kuril islands , kunashir island , sernovodsk . holotype : zmas . male .\nsotipena brown , 1987 ( epinotia ) , j . lepid . soc . 40 ( 1986 ) : 341 . tl : usa , maryland , plummers island . holotype : usnm . female .\ntianshanensis liu & nasu , 1993 ( epinotia ) , ty to ga 44 : 60 . tl : china , xinjiang uygur autonomous region , tian mtns . . holotype : zmas . male .\ntsugana freeman , 1967 ( epinotia ) , j . res . lepid . 5 : 13 . tl : canada , british columbia , vancouver island , holberg . holotype : cnc . male .\ntsurugisana oku , 2005 ( epinotia ) , tinea 18 ( supplement 3 ) : 108 . tl : japan , shikoku , tokushima prefecture , mt . tsurugisan . holotype : eihu . male .\nvagana heinrich , 1923 ( epinotia ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 230 . tl : usa , washington , liaga . holotype : usnm . male .\nzamorata razowski , 1999 ( epinotia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 334 tl : ecuador , zamora - chinchipe province , 36 km nw zamora . holotype : cmnh . male .\natristriga clarke , 1953 ( epinotia ) , j . wash . acad . sci . 43 : 228 . tl : usa . illinois , putnam co . . holotype : usnm . male .\nalbimaculata kuznetzov , 1976 ( epinotia ) , trud . inst . zool . leningrad 64 : 23 . tl : russia . kuril islands , kunashir island , dubovoe . holotype : zmas . female .\ndigitana heinrich , 1923 ( epinotia ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 215 . tl : canada , british columbia , kaslo . holotype : usnm . male .\npiceafoliana kearfott , 1908 ( epinotia ) , j . new york ent . soc . 16 : 176 . tl : usa . new jersey , essex county park . lectotype : amnh . female .\nkoraiensis falkovitsh , 1965 ( epinotia rubiginosana ssp . ) , ent . obozr . 44 : 426 . tl : russia . far east , primorsky krai , okeanskaya . holotype : zmas . female .\nruntunica razowski & wojtusiak , 2009 ( epinotia ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 161 . tl : ecuador , prov . tungurahua , banos - runtun . holotype : mzuj . male .\nseptemberana kearfott , 1907 ( epinotia ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 33 : 51 . tl : usa , new jersey , essex county park . lectotype : amnh . male .\nsigniferana heinrich , 1923 ( epinotia ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 232 . tl : usa , california , san diego . holotype : usnm . male .\nsubviridis heinrich , 1929 ( epinotia ) , proc . u . s . natn . mus . 75 : 15 . tl : usa , california , san diego . holotype : usnm . male .\nulmi kuznetzov , 1966 ( epinotia ( panoplia ) ) , trud . zool . inst . leningrad 37 : 182 . tl : russia , primorsky krai , kangauz . holotype : zmas . male .\nchloizans razowski & wojtusiak , 2006 ( epinotia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 34 : 52 . tl : venezuela , cordillera de mrida , mrida , monte zerpa . holotype : mzuj . male .\nclasta diakonoff , 1983 ( epinotia ( asthenia ) ) , zool . verh . leiden 204 : 39 tl : indonesia , sumatra , mt . bandahara , bivouac four . holotype : ncb . female .\nmarcapatae razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( epinotia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 125 . tl : peru , prov . cusco , cordillera vilcanota , marcapata . holotype : mzuj . male .\nmeritana heinrich , 1923 ( epinotia ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 226 . tl : usa , utah , carbon co . . holotype : usnm . male .\nmaculosa kuznetzov , 1966 ( epinotia ( steganoptycha ) ) , trud . zool . inst . leningrad 37 : 177 . tl : russia . far east , primorsky krai . holotype : zmas . female .\nrussata heinrich , 1924 ( epinotia cruciana ssp . ) , j . wash . acad . sci . 14 : 391 . tl : canada . british columbia , victoria . holotype : usnm . male .\nsilvertoniensis heinrich , 1923 ( epinotia ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 214 . tl : usa , color - ado , silverton . holotype : usnm . male .\nkurilensis kuznetzov , 1968 ( epinotia tenerana ssp . ) , ent . obozr . 47 : 575 . tl : russia . kuril islands , kunashir island , near sernovodsk . holotype : zmas . male .\nussurica kuznetzov , 1968 ( epinotia tenerana ssp . ) , ent . obozr . 47 : 572 . tl : russia . primorsky krai , near vladivostok , lyanchikhe river . holotype : zmas . male .\nautumnalis oku , 2005 ( epinotia ) , tinea 18 ( supplement 3 ) : 110 . tl : japan , honshu , iwate prefecture , mt . sodeyama , kuzumaki town . holotype : eihu . male .\nalaskae heinrich , 1923 ( epinotia cruciana ssp . ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 229 . tl : usa . alaska , yukon . holotype : usnm . male .\nlongivalva kuznetzov , 1968 ( epinotia elatana ssp . ) , ent . obozr . 47 : 572 . tl : russia . kuril islands , iturup , foot of berutarube volcano . holotype : zmas . male .\ncupressi heinrich , 1923 ( epinotia hopkinsana ssp . ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 207 . tl : usa . california , cypress point . holotype : usnm . male .\nimmaculata peiu & nemes , 1968 ( epinotia ( panoplia ) ) , rev . roum . biol . zool . 13 : 342 . tl : romania , suceava , fundu moldovei . holotype : tmb . male .\nbrevivalva kuznetzov , 1968 ( epinotia elatana ssp . ) , ent . obozr . 47 : 572 . tl : russia . kuril islands , shikotan island , near krabo - zavodsk . holotype : zmas . female .\npiceae kuznetzov , 1968 ( epinotia ( steganoptycha ) ) , ent . obozr . 47 : 569 . tl : russia . kuril islands , kunashir island , near serno - vodsk . holotype : zmas . male .\nulmicola kuznetzov , 1966 ( epinotia ( hamuligera ) ) , trud . zool . inst . leningrad 37 : 179 . tl : russia , far east , primorsky krai , vladivostok . holotype : zmas . male .\nunisignana kuznetzov , 1962 ( epinotia ( hamuligera ) ) , bull . ent . soc . mulhouse 1962 : 53 . tl : russia , far east , amur region , klimoutsy . holotype : zmas . unknown .\nalbocephalaeis razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( epinotia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 124 . tl : peru , dept . huanuco , via huanuco - tingo maria , carpish . holotype : mzuj . male .\nsemifuscana stephens , 1834 ( poecilochroma ( epinotia ) ) , illust . br . ent . ( haustellata ) 4 : 140 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nfumoviridana heinrich , 1923 ( epinotia ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 208 . tl : usa , california , siskiyou co . , shasta retreat . holotype : usnm . male .\nlongistria razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( epinotia ) , genus 19 : 546 . tl : ecuador , ecuador ( province cotopaxi , san francisco de las pampas , res . la otonga . holotype : mzuj . male .\nmediostria razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( epinotia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 126 . tl : peru , dept . huanuco , via huanuco - tingo maria , carpish . holotype : mzuj . female .\nkurilensis kuznetzov , 1969 ( epinotia ( steganoptycha ) tetraquetrana ssp . ) , ent . obozr . 48 : 371 . tl : russia . kuril islands , kunashir island , near alekhino . holotype : zmas . male .\nexcruciana stephens , 1852 ( poecilochroma epinotia ) ) , list specimens br . anim . colln . br . mus 10 : 35 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nchloana razowski & wojtusiak , 2006 ( epinotia ) , acta zool . cracov . 49b : 36 . tl : ecuador , prov . morona - santiago , gualaceo - limon road , east . holotype : mzuj . male .\nethnica heinrich , 1923 ( epinotia ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 201 . tl : usa , california , san diego co . , san diego . holotype : usnm . male .\nmicroscyphos razowski & landry , in razowski et al . , 2008 ( epinotia ) , revue suisse de zoologie 115 : 199 . tl : ecuador , galapagos islands , fernandina , north side . holotype : cdrs . female .\nnigrovenata razowski & pelz , 2010 ( epinotia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 38 : 24 . tl : chile , maule , cauquenes province , r . n . fred . albert . holotype : smfl . female .\nborealis kuznetzov , 1969 ( epinotia pinicola ssp . ) , ent . obozr . 48 : 370 . tl : russia . kuril islands , paramushir island , sw servero - kuril ' sk . holotype : zmas . male .\nruidosana heinrich , 1923 ( epinotia ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 216 . tl : usa , new mexico , lincoln national forest , ruidosa canyon . holotype : usnm . male .\ntenebrica razowski & wojtusiak , 2006 ( epinotia ) , acta zool . cracov . 49b : 36 . tl : ecuador , prov . morona - santiago , gualaceo - limon road , east . holotype : mzuj . male .\nlepida heinrich , 1924 ( epinotia cruciana ssp . ) , j . wash . acad . sci . 14 : 391 . tl : usa . new hampshire , coos co . , mount washington . holotype : usnm . male .\npullata falkovitsh , in danilevsky , kuznetzov & falkovitsh , 1962 ( semasia ( epinotia ) ) , trud . inst . zool . alma ata 18 : 104 . tl : khazakhstan , zailiyskiy alatau . holotype : zmas . unknown .\nzamorlojae razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( epinotia ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 25 . tl : ecuador , province zamora chinchipe , loja - zamora ,\narcoiris\nestacion cientifica . holotype : mzuj . female .\nsiskiyouensis heinrich , 1923 ( epinotia pulsatillana ssp . ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 202 . tl : usa . california , siskiyou co . , shasta retreat . holotype : usnm . male .\ncedricida diakonoff , 1969 ( epinotia ( evetria ) ) , annls soc . ent . fr . ( n . s . ) 5 : 389 . tl : france , depart vaucluse , massif du luberon . holotype : mnhn . male .\nanepenthes razowski & trematerra , 2010 ( epinotia ) , j . entomol . acarol . res . ( ser . ii ) 42 : 60 . tl : ethiopia , bale mountains , harenna forest , karcha camp . holotype : tremc . male .\nlatiloba razowski & trematerra , 2010 ( epinotia ) , j . entomol . acarol . res . ( ser . ii ) 42 : 60 . tl : ethiopia , bale mountains , harenna forest , karcha camp . holotype : tremc . male .\natacta diakonoff , 1992 ( epinotia ) , annls soc . ent . fr . ( n . s . ) 28 : 38 . tl : madagascar , central madagascar ( massif de l ' ankaratra , manjaktompo ) . holotype : mnhn . female .\nbricelus diakonoff , 1992 ( epinotia ) , annls soc . ent . fr . 28 : 52 . tl : madagascar , east madagascar ( nord - ouest de fort - dauphin , massif d ' ando - hahelo ) . holotype : mnhn . female .\nxyloryctoides diakonoff , 1992 ( epinotia ) , annls soc . ent . fr . ( n . s . ) 28 : 55 . tl : madagascar , south madagascar ( plateau mahafaly , 11 - 12 km e ankalirano ) . holotype : mnhn . female .\nalgeriensis chambon , in chambon , fabre & khemeci , 1990 ( epinotia ) , bull . ( n . s . ) soc . ent . fr . 95 : 131 . tl : algeria , algeria ( fort de babor ) . holotype : inra . male .\ndorsifraga diakonoff , 1970 ( epinotia ) , mm . o . r . s . t . o . m . 37 : 136 . tl : madagascar , madagascar ( tsaratanana range , matsabory en dessous de l ' andohanisambirano ) . holotype : mnhn . female .\nmniara diakonoff , 1992 ( epinotia ) , annls soc . ent . fr . ( n . s . ) 28 : 53 . tl : madagascar , east madagascar ( piste d ' andapa a ambalapaiso , 25 km e andapa ) . holotype : mnhn . female .\nphyloeorrhages diakonoff , 1970 ( epinotia ( panoplia ) ) , mm . o . r . s . t . o . m . 37 : 132 . tl : madagascar , madagascar ( tsaratanana range , route d ' am - bositra a ambohimanga du sud , km 39 ) . holotype : mnhn . male .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nabbreviana fabricius , 1794 ( pyralis ) , entomologia systematica 3 ( 2 ) : 278 . tl : denmark , hafniae [ denmark ] . . lectotype : zmuc . unknown .\nlithoxylana frolich , 1828 ( tortrix ) , enum . tortr . wrtemberg : 233 . tl : germany . wrtemburg . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nstannana guenee , 1845 ( grapholitha ulmariana var . ) , annls soc . ent . fr . ( 2 ) 3 : 171 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : mnhn . unknown .\ntrimaculana donovan , [ 1806 ] ( phalaena ) , nat . hist . br . insects 11 : 25 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nulmariana duponchel , in godart , 1842 ( grapholitha ) , hist . nat . lpid . papillons fr . ( suppl . ) 4 : 406 . tl : france . syntype ( s ) : mnhn . unknown .\nulmetana lienig & zeller , 1846 ( grapholitha ) , isis von oken ( leipzig ) 1846 ( 3 ) : 241 . tl : poland . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nuniformata dufrane , 1957 ( eucosma trimaculana form ) , bull . inst . r . sci . nat . belg . 33 ( 32 ) : 8 . tl : france . holotype : irsn . unknown .\nabsconditana walker , 1863 ( sciaphila ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 351 . tl : australia , new south wales , sydney . holotype : bmnh . female .\naulacota turner , 1946 ( bactra ) , trans . r . soc . s . austral . 70 : 212 . tl : australia . new south wales , killarney , acacia plateau . holotype : anic . male .\nperplexa turner , 1916 ( eucosma ) , trans . r . soc . s . austral . 40 : 526 . tl : australia . queensland , brisbane . lectotype : anic . male .\nalbangulana walsingham , 1879 ( paedisca ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 40 . tl : usa , california , mendocino co . . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nalbicapitana kearfott , 1907 ( proteopteryx ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 33 : 47 . tl : usa , california , placer co . . lectotype : amnh . male .\nalbiguttata oku , 1974 ( hikagehamakia ) , konty 42 : 15 . tl : japan , honshu , akita prefecture , mt . akita - komagatake . holotype : eihu . male .\narctostaphylana kearfott , 1904 ( cydia ) , can . ent . 36 : 109 . tl : canada , british columbia , kaslo . lectotype : amnh . male .\nbiangulana walsingham , 1879 ( steganoptycha ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 71 . tl : usa , oregon , crooked river . . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nbicolor walsingham , 1900 ( pelatea ) , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 6 : 335 tl : japan / india , assam , naga hills . syntypes : bmnh . male , female .\nbilunana haworth , 1811 ( tortrix ) , lepid . br . ( 3 ) : 436 . tl : united kingdom , great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\ncretaceana frolich , 1828 ( tortrix ) , enum . tortr . wrtemberg : 42 . tl : germany . wrtemburg . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nbrunnichana linnaeus , 1767 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , systema naturae ( 12th ed . ) : 880 . tl : sweden , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nalbodorsana sheldon , 1935 ( eucosma brunnichana ab . ) , entomologist 68 : 229 . tl : united kingdom . england [ united kingdom ] . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nbrunneana sheldon , 1935 ( eucosma brunnichana ab . ) , entomologist 68 : 229 . tl : united kingdom . england [ united kingdom ] . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nbrunneodorsana sheldon , 1935 ( eucosma brunnichana ab . ) , entomologist 68 : 229 . tl : united kingdom . england [ united kingdom ] . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nbrunnichella kloet & hincks , 1945 ( eucosma ) , checklist brit . ins : 124 . no type\nbrunnichiana [ denis & schiffermuller ] , 1775 ( tortrix ) , syst . verz . schmett . wienergegend : 132 . no type\nochreana hauder , 1918 ( epiblema brunnichianum ab . ) , ent . z . frankf . a . m . 31 : 102 . tl : austria . linz . syntype ( s ) : smfl . unknown .\nrectana peyerimhoff , 1863 ( ephippiphora ) , bull . soc . hist . nat . colmar 3 ( 1862 ) : 126 . tl : france . alsace . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nsinuana [ denis & schiffermuller ] , 1775 ( tortrix ) , syst . verz . schmett . wienergegend : 131 . tl : austria . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ncanthonias meyrick , 1920 ( acroclita ) , exotic microlepid . 2 : 343 . tl : india , bengal , pusa . holotype : bmnh . female .\ncaprana fabricius , 1798 ( pyralis ) , suppl . entomologiae systematicae : 475 . tl : switzerland , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nbrunneofasciana sheldon , 1935 ( eucosma piceana ab . ) , entomologist 68 : 230 . tl : united kingdom . england [ united kingdom ] . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\ndivellana hubner , [ 1832 - 1833 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 53fig . 339 . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nfuscana sheldon , 1935 ( eucosma piceana ab . ) , entomologist 68 : 230 . tl : united kingdom . england [ united kingdom ] . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nfuscofasciana sheldon , 1935 ( eucosma piceana ab . ) , entomologist 68 : 231 . tl : united kingdom . england [ united kingdom ] . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nfuscomaculana sheldon , 1935 ( eucosma piceana ab . ) , entomologist 68 : 231 . tl : united kingdom . england [ united kingdom ] . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\ngriseana sheldon , 1935 ( eucosma piceana ab . ) , entomologist 68 : 230 . tl : united kingdom . england [ united kingdom ] . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nmelaleucana duponchel , in godart , 1835 ( paedisca ) , hist . nat . lpid . papillons fr . 9 : 375 . tl : france . syntype ( s ) : mnhn . unknown .\npiceana haworth , 1811 ( tortrix ) , lepid . br . ( 3 ) : 440 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nsciurana herrich - schaffer , 1852 ( uninomial ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : pl . 59 , fig . 426 . no type\nvittana westwood & humphrey , 1845 ( poecilochroma ) , brit . moths transf . 2 : 147 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\ncastaneana walsingham , 1895 ( paedisca ) , trans . ent . soc . lond . 1895 : 511 . tl : usa , colorado , loveland . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nceltisana riley , 1881 ( paedisca ) , trans . st . louis acad . sci 4 : 319 . tl : usa , texas . holotype : usnm . male .\nlaracana kearfott , 1907 ( proteopteryx ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 33 : 45 . tl : usa . ohio . lectotype : amnh . female .\nnavalis meyrick , 1912 ( proteopteryx ) , ent . mon . mag . 48 : 34 no type\ncercocarpana dyar , 1903 ( eucosma ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 5 : 297 . tl : usa , colorado , platte canyon . syntypes : amnh : 1 ; usnm : 3 male . unknown .\ncinereana haworth , 1811 ( tortrix ) , lepid . br . ( 3 ) : 451 . tl : united kingdom , great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\ncinerana stephens , 1829 ( steganoptycha ) , nom . br . insects : 47 . no type\ncriddleana kearfott , 1907 ( proteopteryx ) , can . ent . 39 : 58 . tl : canada . manitoba , aweme . lectotype : amnh . male .\npetrana hubner , [ 1811 - 1813 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 33fig . 210 . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ncolumbia kearfott , 1904 ( proteopteryx ) , can . ent . 36 : 112 . tl : canada , british columbia , wellington . lectotype : amnh . male .\nalbidorsana kearfott , 1904 ( proteopteryx columbia ssp . ) , can . ent . 36 : 113 . tl : canada . british columbia , kaslo . lectotype : amnh . female .\nmediostriana kearfott , 1904 ( proteopteryx columbia ssp . ) , can . ent . 36 : 114 . tl : canada . british columbia , wellington . lectotype : amnh . male .\ncontrariana christoph , 1882 ( grapholitha ) , bull . soc . imp . nat . moscou 56 ( 4 ) ( 1881 ) : 424 . tl : russia , primorsky krai , vladivostok . syntypes : unknown . unknown .\ncrenana hubner , [ 1814 - 1817 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 38fig . 242 . tl : europe , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ncastaneana sheldon , 1929 ( epiblema crenana form ) , entomologist 62 : 241 . tl : united kingdom . england [ united kingdom ] . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nfasciana sheldon , 1929 ( epiblema crenana form ) , entomologist 62 : 242 . tl : united kingdom . england [ united kingdom ] . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nfuscana sheldon , 1929 ( epiblema crenana form ) , entomologist 62 : 242 . tl : united kingdom . england [ united kingdom ] . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nmarmorana mansbridge , 1939 ( epiblema crenana ab . ) , entomologist 73 : 287 . tl : united kingdom . scotland [ united kingdom ] . holotype : unknown . unknown .\nmonachana fischer von roslerstamm , 1839 ( paedisca ) , abbild . berich . ergnz schmett . - kunde 1 : 139 tl : germany . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nrufimaculana mansbridge , 1939 ( epiblema crenana ab . ) , entomologist 73 : 287 . tl : united kingdom . scotland [ united kingdom ] . holotype : unknown . unknown .\ncruciana linnaeus , 1761 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , fauna svecica : 347 . tl : sweden , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nalticolana stephens , 1852 ( pamplusia ) , list specimens br . anim . colln . br . mus 10 : 100 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nangustana desmarest , 1857 ( hypermecia ) , encyclop . hist . nat . ( papillons noct . ) : 224 . no type\naugustana hubner , [ 1811 - 1813 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 32 , figs . 204 , 205 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nbrunneana frolich , 1828 ( tortrix ) , enum . tortr . wrtemberg : 75 . tl : germany . wrtemburg . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ncockleana kearfott , 1904 ( enarmonia ) , can . ent . 36 : 137 . tl : canada . british columbia ; alberta , banff ; manitoba , aweme . syntypes ( 2 ) : amnh ; usnm . 2 males .\ndireptana walker , 1863 ( sciaphila ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 338 . tl : canada . hudson bay , albany river , st . martin ' s falls . holotype : bmnh . female .\nexcaecana stephens , 1852 ( hypermecia ) , list specimens br . anim . colln . br . mus 10 : 41 . no type\nexcoecana herrich - schaffer , 1849 ( uninomial ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : pl . 51 , fig . 363 . no type\nexcoecana herrich - schaffer , 1851 ( tortrix ( grapholitha ) ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : 272 . tl : germany . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ngyllenhahliana thunberg & borgstrm , 1784 ( tortrix ) , d . d . dissert . ent . sist . ins . svecica 1 : 22 . tl : sweden . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nvilisana walker , 1863 ( sciaphila ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 338 . tl : canada . hudson bay , albany river , st . martin ' s falls . holotype : bmnh . female .\nviminana guenee , 1845 ( hypermecia ) , annls soc . ent . fr . ( 2 ) 3 : 173 . tl : france . syntype ( s ) : mnhn . unknown .\ncuphulana herrich - schaffer , 1851 ( tortrix ( syndemis ) ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : 276 . tl : europe , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ndalmatana rebel , 1891 ( grapholitha paedisca ) , verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 41 : 620 . tl : croatia , croatia ( spalato ) . lectotype : nhmv . male .\npsychodora wiltshire , 1939 ( phtheochroa ) , trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 88 : 54 . no type\npsychrodora meyrick , 1936 ( phtheochroa ) , exotic microlepid . 5 : 23 . tl : syria . bludan . holotype : bmnh . male .\ndemarniana fischer von roslerstamm , 1839 ( paedisca ) , abbild . berich . ergnz schmett . - kunde 1 : 186 tl : germany , dresden . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nderuptana kennel , 1901 ( epiblema ) , dt . ent . z . iris ( 1900 ) 13 : 290 . tl : russia , anitaurus , hadjin . holotype : mnhu . male .\nemarginana walsingham , 1879 ( proteopteryx ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 68 . tl : usa , california , mendocino co . . lectotype : bmnh . unknown .\nexquisitana christoph , 1882 ( steganoptycha ) , bull . soc . imp . nat . moscou 56 ( 4 ) ( 1881 ) : 428 . tl : russia , primorsky krai , vladi - vostok . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\npica walsingham , 1900 ( eucosma ) , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 6 : 337 tl : japan . honshu , kanagawa prefecture , yoko - hama . syntypes : bmnh . male , female .\nfestivana hubner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 9 , fig . 52 . tl : europe , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nfraternana haworth , 1811 ( tortrix ) , lepid . br . ( 3 ) : 449 . tl : united kingdom , great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nconcretana peyerimhoff , 1863 ( ephippiphora ) , bull . soc . hist . nat . colmar 3 ( 1862 ) : 132 . tl : france . alsace . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ndistinctana wilkinson , 1859 ( coccyx ) , brit . tortrices : 111 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntypes : zdug . male , female .\nproximana herrich - schaffer , 1847 ( uninomial , ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : pl . 18 , fig . 127 . no type\nproximana herrich - schaffer , 1851 ( tortrix ( coccyx ) ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : 219 . tl : germany . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ngimmerthaliana lienig & zeller , 1846 ( grapholitha ) , isis von oken ( leipzig ) 1846 ( 3 ) : 247 . tl : latvia , [ latvia ] . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ngimerthaliana herrich - schaffer , 1852 ( uninomial ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : pl . 56 , fig . 399 . no type\ngranitana herrich - schaffer , 1851 ( tortrix ( steganoptycha ) ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : 280 . tl : czech republic / germany . , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ngranitana herrich - schaffer , 1848 ( uninomial , ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : pl . 43 , fig . 303 . no type\nhamptonana kearfott , 1875 ( eucosma ) , can . ent . 39 : 153 . tl : usa , new hampshire , hampton . lectotype : amnh . male .\nhesperidana kennel , 1921 ( epiblema ) , palaear . tortr . : 609 . tl : mauritania , holotype : mnhu . unknown .\nhopkinsana kearfott , 1907 ( eucosma ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 33 : 36 . tl : usa , washington , hoquiam . lectotype : amnh . male .\nhypsidryas meyrick , 1925 ( eucosma ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 140 . tl : india , u . p . , deoban , chakrata div . . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nillepidosa razowski & wojtusiak , 2006 ( sisurcana ) , acta zool . cracov . 49b : 37 . tl : ecuador , prov . morona - santiago , gualaceo - limon road , east . holotype : mzuj . male .\nimmundana fischer von roslerstamm , 1839 ( paedisca ) , abbild . berich . ergnz schmett . - kunde 1 : 138 tl : germany , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nestreyerana guenee , 1845 ( phlaeodes ) , annls soc . ent . fr . ( 2 ) 3 : 173 . tl : france . syntype ( s ) : mnhn . unknown .\nestreyeriana lederer , 1859 ( grapholitha ) , wien . ent . monatschr . 3 : 135 . no type\nignalinonis strand , 1917 ( epiblema immundana ssp . ) , ent . mitt . 6 : 307 . tl : spain . syntype ( s ) : deib . unknown .\ninfessana walsingham , 1900 ( thiodia ) , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 6 : 404 tl : syria , haleb , shar devsky . syntypes : bmnh . male , female .\nconturbatana caradja , 1916 ( semasia ) , dt . ent . z . iris 30 : 63 . tl : russia . amur . syntypes : unknown . unknown .\ninfuscana walsingham , 1879 ( semasia ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 62 . tl : usa , california , san francisco . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\njohnsonana kearfott , 1907 ( eucosma ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 33 : 36 . tl : usa , nevada . lectotype : amnh . female .\nketamana amsel , 1956 ( steganoptycha ( epiblema ) ) , z . wien . ent . ges . 41 : 23 . tl : morocco , ketama . holotype : lnk . male .\nkochiana herrich - schaffer , 1851 ( tortrix ( grapholitha ) ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : 262 . tl : germany , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nkochiana herrich - schaffer , 1848 ( uninomial ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : pl . 32 , fig . 236 . no type\nlindana fernald , 1892 ( steganopteryx ) , can . ent . 24 : 178 . tl : canada , ontario , hamilton . lectotype : usnm . male .\nlomonana kearfott , 1907 ( tortrix ) , can . ent . 39 : 82 . tl : canada , british columbia , victoria . lectotype : amnh . male .\nveneratrix meyrick , 1912 ( tortrix ) , ent . mon . mag . 48 : 36 no type\nmaculana fabricius , 1775 ( pyralis ) , systema entomologiae : 647 . tl : sweden , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nophtalmicana hubner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 9 , fig . 51 . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nophthalmana frolich , 1828 ( tortrix ) , enum . tortr . wrtemberg : 43 . no type\nophthalmicana hubner , 1822 ( eutrachia ) , syst . - alphab . verz . : 63 . no type\nmadderana kearfott , 1907 ( eucosma ) , can . ent . 39 : 55 . tl : canada , manitoba , rounthwaite . lectotype : amnh . male .\nmajorana caradja , 1916 ( gypsonoma incarnana var . ) , dt . ent . z . iris 30 : 61 . tl : russia , far east , khabarovsky krai , radd . lectotype : mgab . male .\nleucantha meyrick , 1931 ( eucosma ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 145 . tl : japan . honshu , tokyo prefecture . holotype : bmnh . female .\nmedioplagata walsingham , 1895 ( zeiraphera ) , trans . ent . soc . lond . 1895 : 516 . tl : usa , colorado , custer co . . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nmedioviridana kearfott , 1908 ( eucosma ) , j . new york ent . soc . 16 : 168 . tl : canada , ontario , ottawa . lectotype : amnh . male .\nmelanosticta wileman & stringer , 1929 ( eucosma ) , entomologist 62 : 67 . tl : taiwan , formosa [ taiwan ] ( arizan ) . holotype : bmnh . male .\nmercuriana frolich , 1828 ( tortrix ) , enum . tortr . wrtemberg : 73 . tl : germany , wrtemburg . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nmonticolana duponchel , in godart , 1842 ( coccyx ) , hist . nat . lpid . papillons fr . ( suppl . ) 4 : 408 . tl : france . syntype ( s ) : mnhn . unknown .\nmiscana kearfott , 1907 ( eulia ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 33 : 91 . tl : usa , california , placer co . , cisco . lectotype : amnh . male .\nsemalea meyrick , 1912 ( eulia ) , ent . mon . mag . 48 : 35 no type\nmomonana kearfott , 1907 ( proteopteryx ) , can . ent . 39 : 125 . tl : canada , manitoba , rounthwaite . lectotype : amnh . female .\nsanifica meyrick , 1912 ( proteopteryx ) , ent . mon . mag . 48 : 36 . no type\nnanana treitschke , 1835 ( coccyx ) , schmett . eur . 10 ( 3 ) : 80 . tl : germany , lectotype : tmb . male .\ndomonana kearfott , 1907 ( eucosma ) , can . ent . 39 : 79 . tl : usa . massachusetts , middlesex co . , framingham . lectotype : amnh . female .\nimmetallana peyerimhoff , 1863 ( ephippiphora ) , bull . soc . hist . nat . colmar 3 ( 1862 ) : 132 . tl : france . alscae . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nnana herrich - schaffer , 1847 ( uninomial ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : pl . 18 , fig . 129 . no type\nwaltavaarana hoffmann , 1893 ( steganoptycha nanana var . ) , stettin . ent . ztg . 54 : 135 . tl : finland . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nnemorivaga tengstrom , 1848 ( coccyx ) , notis sllsk . fauna flora fenn . frh 1 : 88 . tl : finland , syntype ( s ) : zmh . unknown .\nfinimitana lederer , 1859 ( grapholitha ( paedisca ) ) , wein . ent . monatschr . 3 : 333 . no type\nfinitimana doubleday , 1859 ( coccyx ? ) , synon . list br . butterflies moths : 24 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nfinitimana stephens , 1852 ( coccyx ) , list specimens br . anim . colln . br . mus 10 : 52 . no type\nnemorivagana jones , 1884 ( coccyx ) , ent . mon . mag . 21 : 138 . no type\nrhododendrana herrich - schaffer , 1847 ( uninomial ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : pl . 20 , figs . 140 , 141 . no type\nrhododendrana herrich - schaffer , 1851 ( tortrix ( steganoptycha ) ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : 281 . tl : austria . alps . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nnigralbana walsingham , 1879 ( paedisca ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 41 . tl : usa , california , mendocino co . . syntypes : usnm ; bmnh . male .\nnigricana herrich - schaffer , 1851 ( tortrix ( coccyx ) ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : 220 . tl : germany / austria , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nnigricana herrich - schaffer , 1847 ( uninomial ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : pl . 20 , fig . 138 . no type\nsuasana peyerimhoff , 1863 ( coccyx ) , bull . soc . hist . nat . colmar 3 ( 1862 ) : 133 . tl : france . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nnisella clerck , 1759 ( phalaena ) , icones insectorum rariorum 1 : pl . 12 , fig . 6 . tl : sweden , probably sweden . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nalbodecorana krulikowsky , 1908 ( epiblema nisella ab . ) , societas ent . 23 : 18 . tl : russia . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nanana schrank , 1802 ( tortrix ) , fauna boica 2 ( 2 ) : 72 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nboeberana fabricius , 1787 ( pyralis ) , mantissa insectorum 2 : 239 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nbrunneana dufrane , 1930 ( eucosma nisella ab . ) , lambillionea 30 : 161 . tl : belgium . baudour . holotype : irsn . female .\ncuspidana haworth , 1811 ( tortrix ) , lepid . br . ( 3 ) : 451 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\ndecorana hubner , [ 1818 - 1819 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 42fig . 265 . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ndorsimaculana klemensiewicz , 1906 ( epiblema nisella ab . ) , spraw . kom . fizyorg . krakw 32 : 58 . tl : poland . syntype ( s ) : isez . unknown . [ lost ]\nfulminana krulikowsky , 1908 ( epiblema nisella ab . ) , societas ent . 23 : 18 . tl : russia . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nlepidana frolich , 1828 ( tortrix ) , enum . tortr . wrtemberg : 94 . tl : germany . wrtemburg . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nnisana guenee , 1845 ( grapholitha ) , annls soc . ent . fr . 2 ( 3 ) : 171 . tl : france . syntype ( s ) : mnhn . unknown .\npavonana donovan , [ 1793 ] ( phalaena ) , nat . hist . br . insects 2 : pl . 58 , fig . 3 . tl : united kingdom . england [ united kingdom ] . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nrhombifasciana haworth , 1811 ( tortrix ? ) , lepid . br . ( 3 ) : 451 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nrubiana haworth , 1811 ( tortrix ) , lepid . br . ( 3 ) : 450 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nsiliceana hubner , [ 1811 - 1813 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 31fig . 196 . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nstictana haworth , 1811 ( tortrix ? ) , lepid . br . ( 3 ) : 451 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nnonana kearfott , 1907 ( eucosma ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 33 : 30 . tl : usa , colorado , pueblo . holotype : amnh . female .\ncarphologa meyrick , 1912 ( eucosma ) , ent . mon . mag . 48 : 35 no type\npentagonana kennel , 1901 ( epiblema ) , dt . ent . z . iris 13 ( 1900 ) : 289 . tl : china , hadjin , sutschan . holotype : mnhu . female .\npiceae issiki , in issiki & mutuura , 1961 ( panoplia ) , microlepid . ins . injurious conif . plts . japan : 36 . tl : japan , honshu , sinano [ nagano ] , omekura . holotype : usnm . male .\npulsatillana dyar , 1903 ( eucosma ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 5 : 297 . tl : usa , colorado , foothills at boulder and golden . syntypes ( 19 ) : usnm . unknown .\npurpuriciliana walsingham , 1879 ( steganoptycha ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 72 . tl : usa , california . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\npusillana peyerimhoff , 1863 ( grapholitha ) , bull . soc . hist . nat . colmar 3 ( 1862 ) : 127 . tl : france , colmar . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\npygmaeana hubner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 12fig . 69 . tl : europe , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nradicana heinrich , 1923 ( griselda ) , bull . u . s . natn . mus . 123 : 186 . tl : canada , british columbia . lectotype : usnm . male .\nramella linnaeus , 1758 ( phalaena ( tinea ) ) , systema naturae ( 10th ed . ) : 540 . tl : europe , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ncostana duponchel , in godart , 1836 ( grapholitha ) , hist . nat . lpid . papillons fr . 9 : 510 . tl : france . syntype ( s ) : mnhn . unknown .\nfimbriana stephens , 1829 ( anchylopera ) , syst . cat . br . insects ( 2 ) : 178 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\npaykulliana fabricius , 1787 ( tortrix ) , mantissa insectorum 2 : 235 . tl : sweden . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nramana frolich , 1828 ( tortrix ) , enum . tortr . wrtemberg : 100 . no type\nsesquilunana haworth , 1811 ( tortrix ) , lepid . br . ( 3 ) : 435 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nrasdolnyana christoph , 1882 ( steganoptycha ) , bull . soc . imp . nat . moscou 56 ( 4 ) ( 1881 ) : 427 . tl : russia , primorsky krai , vladi - vostok . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nrectiplicana walsingham , 1879 ( paedisca ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 40 . tl : usa , california , mendocino co . . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nrubiginosana herrich - schaffer , 1851 ( tortrix ( steganoptycha ) ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : 282 . tl : europe , nixdorf ( nixdorf ) . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nbouchardana wilkinson , 1859 ( poecilochroma ) , brit . tortrices : 186 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntypes : zdug . male , female .\nincognatana peyerimhoff , 1863 ( retinia ) , bull . soc . hist . nat . colmar 3 ( 1862 ) : 134 . tl : france . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nrubiginosana herrich - schaffer , 1848 ( uninomial ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : pl . 26 , fig . 185 . no type\nsignatana douglas , 1845 ( sericoris ) , zoologist 3 : 844 . tl : united kingdom , great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nkroesmanniana heinemann , 1863 ( grapholitha ) , schmett . deut . schweiz 2 : 147 . tl : germany . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\npadana lienig & zeller , 1846 ( grapholitha ) , isis von oken ( leipzig ) 1846 ( 3 ) : 243 . tl : latvia / lithuania . livlandia / kurlandia [ latvia / lithuania ] . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nsignata caradja , 1903 ( sericoris ) , bull . soc . sci . bucarest 11 : 615 . no type\nsolandriana linnaeus , 1758 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , systema naturae ( 10th ed . ) : 532 . tl : europe , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nalbosinuana grabe , 1944 ( epiblema solandriana form ) , z . wien . ent . ges . 29 : 60 . tl : germany . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ncentrostriana sheldon , 1935 ( eucosma solandriana form ) , entomologist 68 : 199 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nfuscosolandriana grabe , 1944 ( epiblema solandriana form ) , z . wien . ent . ges . 29 : 60 . tl : germany . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nfuscotrapezana grabe , 1944 ( epiblema solandriana form ) , z . wien . ent . ges . 29 : 60 . tl : germany . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ngriseana sheldon , 1935 ( eucosma solandriana form ) , entomologist 68 : 175 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nochreotrapezana grabe , 1944 ( epiblema solandriana form ) , z . wien . ent . ges . 29 : 60 . tl : germany . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nparmatana hubner , [ 1814 - 1817 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 40 figs . 253 , 254 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nratana hubner , [ 1811 - 1813 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 37fig . 236 . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nrattana frolich , 1828 ( tortrix ) , enum . tortr . wrtemberg : 44 . no type\nrhenana thunberg & becklin , 1791 ( tortrix ) , d . d . dissert . ent . sist . ins . svecica 23 : 43 . tl : sweden . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nrufana sheldon , 1935 ( eucosma solandriana form ) , entomologist 68 : 175 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nrufosinuana grabe , 1944 ( epiblema solandriana form ) , z . wien . ent . ges . 29 : 60 . tl : germany . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nrusticana fabricius , 1794 ( pyralis ) , entomologia systematica 3 ( 2 ) : 254 . tl : france . no type\nsemilunana frolich , 1828 ( tortrix ) , enum . tortr . wrtemberg : 45 . tl : germany . wrtemburg . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nsemimaculana hubner , 1793 ( phalaena ( tortrix ) ) , samml . auser . vgel schmett : 8 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ntrapezana fabricius , 1787 ( pyralis ) , mantissa insectorum 2 : 228 . tl : denmark . denmark ( copen - hagen ) . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nvariegata sheldon , 1935 ( eucosma solandriana form ) , entomologist 68 : 197 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nvariegatastriana sheldon , 1935 ( eucosma solandriana form ) , entomologist 68 : 197 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nsolicitana walker , 1863 ( grapholita ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 387 . tl : canada , nova scotia . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\npackardiana clemens , 1864 ( halonota ) , proc . ent . soc . philad . 2 : 417 . tl : canada . labrador . holotype : ansp . unknown . [ lost ]\ntephrinana zeller , 1875 ( paedisca ) , verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 25 : 308 . tl : usa . massachusetts or maine . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nsordidana hubner , [ 1823 - 1824 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 47fig . 292 . tl : europe , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nstabilana stephens , 1852 ( paedisca ) , list specimens br . anim . colln . br . mus 10 : 100 . tl : united kingdom . great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nsubocellana donovan , [ 1806 ] ( phalaena ) , nat . hist . br . insects 11 : 59 . tl : united kingdom , great britain ( sussex ) . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\narctica strand , 1901 ( paedica subocellana form ) , nyt mag . naturvid . 39 : 68 . tl : norway . syntype ( s ) : deib . unknown .\nsubplicana walsingham , 1879 ( paedisca ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 41 . tl : usa , california , mendocino co . . holotype : bmnh . unknown .\nbasipunctana walsingham , 1879 ( paedisca ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 40 . tl : usa . california , lower lake . syntypes : bmnh ; usnm . female .\nsubsequana haworth , 1811 ( tortrix ) , lepid . br . ( 3 ) : 448 . tl : united kingdom , great britain . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nabiegana duponchel , in godart , 1842 ( grapholitha ) , hist . nat . lpid . papillons fr . ( suppl . ) 4 : 409 . tl : france . syntype ( s ) : mnhn . unknown .\nabiegnana guenee , 1845 ( coccyx ) , annls soc . ent . fr . ( 2 ) 3 : 179 . no type\nsubuculana rebel , 1903 ( epiblema ) , verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 53 : 92 . tl : austria , hut - tensee . lectotype : nhmv . male .\nrubuculana hauder , 1919 ( epiblema ) , z . st . ent . verz . 5 : 46 . no type\ntedella clerck , 1759 ( phalaena ) , icones insectorum rariorum 1 : pl . 10 , fig . 13 . tl : sweden , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ncembrana hubner , [ 1825 ] 1816 ( evetria ) , verz . bekannter schmett . : 379 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ncomitana [ denis & schiffermuller ] , 1775 ( tortrix ) , ank . verz . schmett . wiener - gegend . : 131 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown ."]}
{"id": 275, "summary": [{"text": "awaous banana , the river goby , is a species of goby native to fresh and brackish water stream and rivers from the southern united states through central america to venezuela and peru .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this species can reach a length of 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) sl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is important to local commercial fisheries . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "awaous banana", "paragraphs": ["awaous banana was recognized as a distinct species ( from a . tajasica ) by watson ( 1996 ) .\nawaous banana nelson et al . 2004 : 169 , 245 - 246 ; hubbs et al . 2008 : 57 .\nbanana \u2013 derived from the local vernacular , \u201cbanane\u201d , in the dominican republic ( valenciennes 1837 ; watson 1996 ) .\nformerly known as awaous tajasica .\nronald watson indicates that the proper name for this species should be awaous banana ( valenciennes , 1837 ) . watson , who is currently involved in a taxonomic revision of the genus awaous , states that there are three species in the western atlantic region : a . tajasica and awaous badius , which have restricted ranges along the coast of south america ; and the more widely ranging a . banana , which is the species found throughout the west indies and adjacent areas ( including florida ) to the north ( r . watson , personal communication )\n( gilmore and yerger 1992 ) .\nwatson , r . e . 1996 . revision of the subgenus awaous ( chonophorus ) ( teleostei : gobiidae ) . ichthyol . explor . freshwat . 7 ( 1 ) : 1 - 18 .\nwatson , r . e . , 1996 . revision of the subgenus awaous ( chonophorus ) ( teleostei : gobiidae ) . ichthyol . explor . freshwat . 7 ( 1 ) : 1 : 18 . ( ref . 13444 )\ngilmore , rg . 1992 . river goby , awaous tajasica . pp 112 - 117 in : gilbert , c . r . ( ed . ) . rare and endangered biota of florida , volume 2 , fishes . university press of florida , gainsville .\nedwards , r . j . , t . s . sturdivant , and c . s . linskey . 1986 . the river goby , awaous tajasica ( osteichthyes : gobiidae ) , confirmed from the lower rio grande , texas and mexico . texas journal of science 38 : 191 - 192 .\ngilmore , r . g . , and r . w . yerger . 1992 . river goby awaous tajasica . pages 112 - 117 in c . r . gilbert , editor . rare and endangered biota of florida . volume ii . fishes . university press of florida , gainesville , florida . xl + 247 pp .\nfreshwater ; brackish ; benthopelagic . tropical ; 23\u00b0c - 34\u00b0c ( ref . 36880 )\nnorth , central and south america : northern florida , usa southward through the greater and lesser antilles to trinidad and tobago , and from tamaulipas , mexico southward to caracas , venezuela ; central baja california sur and sonora , mexico southward to tumbes , peru .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 30 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 30499 ) ; 24 . 4 cm sl ( female )\ninhabits clear streams and rivers over sand and gravel , but also found in turbid waters with muddy bottoms . prefers clear flowing , well oxygenated streams . feeds mainly on filamentous algae ( ref . 13444 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00871 ( 0 . 00392 - 0 . 01936 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 25 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 0 \u00b10 . 00 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 46 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\ncoloration : watson ( 1996 ) described life colors of both males and females : males are olive green above , ventrally golden yellow to orange ; lower edge of upper lip and lower edge of opercle yellowish orange ; pectoral fin yellowish ; dorsal and caudal fins yellowish olive . females are olive above , some golden markings along dorsum , ventrally white ; pectoral fin with some lower rays white ; anal fin translucent on basal half , dusky on distal half with reddish rays , margin white , anal spine white . see watson ( 1996 ) for description of color in preservation ; sexual dichromatism not evident in preservation . edwards et al . ( 1986 ) described the two specimens taken in the rio grande ( texas ) : pale tan bodies with 7 to 8 dark blotches above the midline ( blotches extended to the dorsum , and the last three blotches formed bars on the dorsal surface when viewed from above ) ; venters white ; caudal fins with 4 to 6 dark bands ; dorsal fins with similar bands and coloration ; anal fins white .\ncounts : more than 70 scale rows in lateral series ; second dorsal fin rays 11 - 12 ; 11 - 13 anal fin rays ( hubbs et al . 2008 ) . watson ( 1996 ) states that pore f , in adults , usually branched on each side with 2 openings ; in small specimens ( 25 - 30 mm sl ) pore f may be in various degrees of development , ranging from a small singular pore , an oblong or oval shaped pore to 2 pores in various degrees of separation . edwards et al . ( 1986 ) described two specimens taken in the rio grande ( texas ) : numerous small teeth , 6 dorsal spines , 11 dorsal rays , 11 anal rays ; the larger individual ( 97 . 7 mm sl ) with 78 scales in the lateral series and 24 scales between origin of the dorsal and anal fins ; the smaller individual ( 85 . 0 mm sl ) with 80 scales in the lateral series and 22 scales between the origin of the dorsal and anal fins .\nmouth position : mouth large and thick with upper lip extending well beyond the lower ( gilmore 1992 ) .\nbody shape : short and stout body ; body depth goes fewer than 7 times in standard length ( ross and rhode 2004 ; hubbs et al . 2008 ) . large males ( usually over 160 mm sl ) with head broadened and dorsoventrally depressed , upper jaw and unpaired fins increase in length ( watson 1996 ) . edwards et al . ( 1986 ) described two specimens taken in the rio grande ( texas ) : maximum depth of the larger individual ( 97 . 7 mm sl ) was 17 . 3 % of standard length and head length was 26 . 9 % of standard length ; maximum depth of the smaller individual ( 85 . 0 mm sl ) was 16 . 4 % of standard length and head length was 29 . 3 % of standard length .\nexternal morphology : scales small ; body mostly scaled ; upper pectoral fin rays joined to membrane ( ross and rhode 2004 ; hubbs et al . 2008 ) . shoulder ( under gill cover ) with 2 - 3 distinct fleshy lobes ; dorsal fins separated ; pelvic fins completely united to form a round sucking disc ( ross and rhode 2004 ) .\ninternal morphology : tongue indented but not notched ( ross and rhode 2004 ; hubbs et al . 2008 ) . in large males ( usually over 160 mm sl ) number of teeth in upper and lower jaws increase ( watson 1996 ) .\nu . s . distribution : occurs from the atlantic and gulf coasts of the united states south through the west indies and central america to venezuela and from northwest mexico to northern peru ( hubbs et al . 2008 ) .\ntexas distribution : known only from the rio grange in hidalgo and cameron counties ( edwards et al . 1986 ; hubbs et al . 2008 ) .\nmacrohabitat : freshwater / estuarine ( hubbs et al . 2008 ) . amphidromous , marine to freshwater , tropical ( musick et al . 2000 ) . associated with rivers and streams ( watson 1996 ; ross and rhode 2004 ; hulsman et al . 2008 ) .\nspawning habitat : spawning occurs in fresh water with the eggs presumably drifting downstream , where they either hatch in brackish or salt water or do so before reaching there ( gilmore 1992 ; pers . comm . , r . e . watson in : gilmore 1992 ) .\nfecundity : eggs are small and number from 2 , 400 - 3 , 000 in large females ( gilmore 1992 ; pers . comm . , r . e . watson in : gilmore 1992 ) .\nmigration : eggs are released in fresh water and drift downstream where they may reach brackish or salt water before hatching ; most larvae probably reenter the parental stream , but some may be dispersed via ocean currents before returning to freshwater ( gilmore 1992 ; pers . comm . , r . e . watson in : gilmore 1992 ) .\nfood habits : feeds heavily on filamentous algae , but will ingest sand consuming detrital and algal matter associated with it ; feeds on animal matter only when other food items are unavailable ( watson 1996 ) . adult consume mostly algae ( debrot 2003 ) .\ncontreras - balderas , s . , r . j . edwards , m . d . loranzo - vilano , and m . e . garcia - ramirez . 2002 . fish biodiversity changes in the lower rio grande / rio bravo , 1953 - 1996 - a review . reviews in fish biology and fisheries 12 ( 2 ) : 219 - 240 .\nthose of aruba and bonaire . carribean journal of science 39 ( 1 ) : 100 - 108 .\ngilmore , r . g . , and p . a . hastings . 1983 . observations on the ecology and distribution of certain tropical peripheral fishes in florida . fla . sci . 46 ( 1 ) : 31 - 51 .\nhubbs , c . , r . j . edwards , and g . p . garrett . 2008 . an annotated checklist of the freshwater fishes of texas , with keys to identification of species . texas journal of science , supplement , 2 nd edition 43 ( 4 ) : 1 - 87 .\nhulsman , h . , r . vonk , m . aliabadian , a . o . debrot , and v . nijman . 2008 . effect of introduced species and habitat alteration on the occurrence and distribution of euryhaline fishes in fresh - and brackish - water habitats on aruba , bonaire , and curacao ( south carribean ) . contributions to zoology 77 ( 1 ) : 45 - 52 .\nmusick , j . a . , m . m . harbin , s . a . berkeley , g . h . burgess , a . m . eklund , l . findley , r . g . gilmore , j . t . golden , d . s . ha , g . r . huntsman , j . c . mcgovern , s . j . parker , s . g . poss , e . sala , t . w . schmidt , g . r . sedberry , h . weeks , and s . g . wright . 2000 . marine , estuarine , and diadromous fish stocks at risk of extinction in north america ( exclusive of pacific salmonids ) . fisheries 25 ( 11 ) : 1 - 30 .\nnelson , j . s . , e . j . crossman , h . espinoza - perez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , and j . d . williams . 2004 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . american fisheries society , special publication 29 , bethesda , maryland . 386 pp .\nross , s . w . , and f . c . rhode . 2004 . the gobioid fishes of north carolina ( pisces : gobioidei ) . bulletin of marine science 74 ( 2 ) : 287 - 323 .\nvalenciennes , a . 1837 . tome douzieme . in : g . cuvier and v . valenciennes , histoire naturelles des poisons . levrault , strasborg . 507 pp .\nwarren , m . l . , jr . , b . m . burr , s . j . walsh , h . l . bart , jr . , r . c . cashner , d . a . etnier , b . j . freeman , b . r . kuhajda , r . l . mayden , h . w . robison , s . t . ross , and w . c . starnes . 2000 . diversity , distribution , and conservation status of the native freshwater fishes of the southern united states . fisheries 25 ( 10 ) : 7 - 29 .\ndescription : body thin , long , and narrow with a medium - sized round eye and a terminal small mouth . pectoral fins very short , pelvic fins very short . dorsal and anal - fin bases short and caudal peduncle sharply narrowing , 10 - 14 procurrent caudal - fin rays . melanophores on the head only along the dorsal edge of the anterior premaxilla on each side and midline near the tip of the lower jaw . ventral melanophores are limited to a paired large melanophore at the mid - base of the anal fin and internal melanophores overlying the posterior swim bladder and extending down to the vent . a large deep internal vertical melanophore underlies the last anal - fin ray extending up to the lateral midline .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nbulk of range is circum - caribbean ( larger caribbean islands , coasts of mexico , central america and northern south america ) , but extends northward along the gulf and atlantic coasts of north america to south carolina ( but apparently absent from alabama , mississippi , louisiana , and texas ) ( page and burr 2011 ) . it is occasional in fresh water in florida ( page and burr 2011 ) .\ntotal adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10 , 000 . this species is uncommon in the united states ( page and burr 2011 ) .\n( 200 , 000 to > 2 , 500 , 000 square km ( about 80 , 000 to > 1 , 000 , 000 square miles ) ) bulk of range is circum - caribbean ( larger caribbean islands , coasts of mexico , central america and northern south america ) , but extends northward along the gulf and atlantic coasts of north america to south carolina ( but apparently absent from alabama , mississippi , louisiana , and texas ) ( page and burr 2011 ) . it is occasional in fresh water in florida ( page and burr 2011 ) .\noklawaha ( 03080102 ) + * , lower st . johns ( 03080103 ) + , vero beach ( 03080203 ) + , choctawhatchee bay ( 03140102 ) +\na pale yellowish tan goby with many small brownish - black blotches and vermiculations , two dorsal fins ( six spines in the first one ) , a long conical snout , small eyes set high on the head , a rounded caudal fin , no lateral line canal on body , and very small scales ( more than 60 in row along midside ) ; shoulder girdle projects into gill chamber and has fleshy tabs ( lift opercle to view ) ; pelvic fins are close together and form a disk , and a membrane connects the short pelvic spines to form a pocket at the base of the disk ; maximum total length about 30 cm ( robins and ray 1986 ) .\ndiffers from other gobies in having the following combination of characteristics : a long conical snout , smaller eyes , a yellowish tan body with brownish blotches , and fleshy tabs on the shoulder girdle ( robins and ray 1986 ) .\nthis goby occurs over sand in flowing pools and runs of streams ( page and burr 2011 ) , in well - oxygenated waters with salinities of 4 . 0 ppt or less . spawning occurs n freshwater . eggs presumably drift downstream . larvae develop in brackish or salt water . most larvae probably reenter the parental stream , but some may disperse via ocean currents before returning to fresh water ( gilmore and yerger 1992 ) .\nlife history is virtually unknown . need to determine spatial and temporal population dynamics , microhabitat requirements and early life history , particularly with regard to egg , larval , and juvenile stages .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\ngilbert , c . r . ( editor ) . 1992 . rare and endangered biota of florida . volume ii . fishes . university press of florida , gainesville , florida . xl + 247 pp .\nnelson , j . s . , e . j . crossman , h . espinosa - perez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , and j . d . williams . 2004 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . american fisheries society , special publication 29 , bethesda , maryland . 386 pp .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 2011 . peterson field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . second edition . houghton mifflin harcourt , boston . xix + 663 pp .\nrobins , c . r . , and g . c . ray . 1986 . a field guide to atlantic coast fishes of north america . houghton mifflin co . , boston , massachusetts . 354 pp .\nrobins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea , and w . b . scott . 1991 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada . american fisheries society , special publication 20 . 183 pp .\nlee , d . s . , c . r . gilbert , c . h . hocutt , r . e . jenkins , d . e . mcallister , and j . r . stauffer , jr . 1980 . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , north carolina . i - x + 854 pp .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\ngiant squid found ! ( 50 - foot - long , washed - up on beach , punakaiki , new zealand , march 1st 2015 . )\nestos son ejemplares que tengo en mi acuario , es un gobio , pero hay muy poca informacion de ellos en internet ya que las especies de peces de costa rica y sus nombres estan muy marginadas en este medio . . . para mas info y aportes entren a urltoken atte :\njessyaphrodite\nye y lu\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nidentification - large sized goby ; head broad , depressed ; snout blunt ; eyes small , close together ; mouth subterminal ; head and body flattened on bottom ; 2 - 3 elongate papillae on shoulder girdle under gill cover ; scales on body rough ; d1 \u2013 vi , d2 \u2013 11 ( 10 - 13 ) , pectoral 16 ( 14 - 17 ) , anal 11 ( 10 - 12 ) , pelvic fins fused into a disk , tail fin rounded .\nfins - d1 \u2013 vi , d2 \u2013 11 ( 10 - 13 ) , pectoral 16 ( 14 - 17 ) , anal 11 ( 10 - 12 ) , pelvic fins fused into a disk , tail fin rounded .\ncolor - bacground color brown dorsally , sides light yellowish tan , ventral surface white or pale yellow . back with a series of black reticulations anteriorly in front of and along first dorsal fin ; back crossed by about 7 black bars on sides of the anterior part of the body , the first extending from above the opercle posteroventrally onto the pectoral fin , the second crescent - shaped , curving from in front of the dorsal fin ventrally under the pectoral fin to the ventral surface of the body . sides with four black blotches , the first blotch under the 3 - 4 rays of d2 , 2nd under 9th ray d2 , third blotch posterior to the second dorsal fin , the 4th blotch at the caudal fin base . the sides of the head with 3 black bars , the forst parallel to each other , running anterior from the front of the eye to the upper lip , the third running horizontally across the cheek under the eye , posterior to the edge of the preopercle . anal and pelvic fins pinkish ; base of pectoral fin pinkish orange , the remainder yellowish , except for the black bar on the anterior part . caudal fin with 7 - 8 black vertical bars . first dorsal fin crossed by four horizontal black bars . second dorsal fin crossed by 5 horizontal black bars . ( greenfield + 1997 )"]}
{"id": 276, "summary": [{"text": "emancipation ( foaled 1979 ) was a champion australian thoroughbred racehorse .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "by bletchingly , emancipation was a grey , like her dam , ammo girl , and her damsire , gunsynd .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "she was bred by mark hough , in new south wales , after her dam was purchased from trainer tommy smith for just $ 1,700 due to her unsound conformation and her breeding ( her sire was standing at a fee of only $ 1,500 at the time ) .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "her breeder was only interested in her as a broodmare , and approached her trainer , neville begg , to recommend someone who would lease her for racing purposes . ", "topic": 19}], "title": "emancipation ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["emancipation , the no . 2 horse , was a full brother to 2013 kentucky derby winner orb and no . 4 fayeq was a half - brother to 2009 horse of the year rachel alexandra . the 3 - year - old colts are half brothers themselves , having been sired by malibu moon .\nemancipation was a top sprint specialist that stood out at major metro tracks during the 1980s .\na pre - emancipation horse race meet has been set for july 30 at the kennard\u2019s memorial turf club , bush lot farm , corentyne with in excess of million up for grabs across seven races . the rules of the guyana horse racing authority ( ghra ) will be used to govern the action and entries close on july 23 .\nat the end of that season , emancipation was fittingly accorded australian champion racehorse of the year honours .\nrageese pedigree : rageese : stallions 2018 : windsor park stud , cambridge , new zealand \u2013 nz thoroughbred horse breeding and racing .\na number of sponsors are on board joining hands with the four horsemen promotions for the much anticipated emancipation one - day horse race meet which is slated for tuesday august 1st at the port mourant ( big yard ) turf club , corentyne berbice .\npeter , who has been in the business for more than 50 years , and mark have vast experience and ducatoon park is on 141ha ( 350 acres ) of great horse country on the yorke peninsula about a hour and a half from adelaide . \u201cit\u2019s great cropping country and horse country because of the limestone base here and this is a well laid out boutique stud where everything has been planned with horse safety in mind . \u201d\nsaratoga springs , n . y . > > two horses garnered special attention from horse racing fans in race 4 at saratoga race course wednesday .\nit was entirely appropriate , therefore , that the end of the season saw emancipation declared the australian champion racehorse of the year .\nsired by australian native bletchingly , who is known chiefly for his contributions in that role even though he won four times out of five starts , emancipation\u2019s dam , ammo girl , claims gunsynd for her sire . small wonder then that emancipation was destined for greatness .\ndead heats are indicated within brackets in the premiership table above . eg . a horse with a total of 2 wins , including 1 by dead heat , will be displayed as 2\non friday at belmont park , orb ' s 3 - year - old full brother won his career debut . emancipation ( malibu moon x lady liberty ) rallied from far back to win by a length . emancipation races as a homebred for stuart janney and phipps stable , the partnership that campaigned orb .\nreturning that autumn for her final nine starts , emancipation extracted revenge on strawberry road , besting that thoroughbred in the ajc apollo stakes and chipping norton stakes .\nemancipation ' s overall record of 19 wins and one second out of 28 starts in just two seasons of racing set the mark high for sprinters of either gender .\nemancipation returned for the autumn carnival for her last nine races , where she immediately gained some measure of revenge on strawberry road by beating that thoroughbred in the ajc apollo stakes and the chipping norton stakes . next , the sydney turf club rosemount classic at rosehill fell to emancipation , after which she added her second george ryder stakes victory .\n\u201cpeter remembered the horse well and said when he came to the stables he was a physical wreck because the injury had caused some muscle wastage on one side of his body . peter said he persevered with the horse , describing him as \u2018very fast\u2019 , and said he only had him fit twice , when he was second on debut and then when he won at his next start . by then he had problems on his good side , from compensating for the weakness from his injury , and although peter was confident he could win a good race with him , the decision was made to sell the horse as a stallion prospect .\nemancipation was ridden throughout her career by ron quinton , with the exception of her win in the 1982 vrc edward manifold stakes at flemington racecourse , where kevin moses stood in .\nrace reviews the john thompson - trained zanbagh successfully defended her group ii emancipation stakes ( 1500m ) title at rosehill on saturday which perpetuated an interesting recent trend to the race .\nrace reviews john thompson\u2019s talented mare zanbagh broke through for a deserved feature race win in the $ 175 , 000 group ii emancipation stakes ( 1500m ) at rosehill on saturday .\nthis entry was posted in bloodstock , nl list and tagged claiborne farm , earth , eclipse thoroughbred partners , gulfstream park , horse racing , orb , thoroughbred , todd pletcher by paulick report staff . bookmark the permalink .\n\u201cas he was recovering steve would sometimes take the horse out for a walk and a pick , and he told us he liked him a lot . the injury meant he had a funny walk and moved his back end a bit like marilyn monroe . when he was broken in the breaker told steve , who has just moved to look after the stallions at peter liston\u2019s three bridges in victoria , the colt was \u2018phenomenal , for a three legged horse\u2019 .\nemancipation hit the board in both of his career starts but may have been a little too active in the paddock wednesday . the 3 - year - old broke last in the field of six but kept the field within striking distance . as the field turned for home emancipation moved in position to rally , but didn\u2019t have enough left to challenge the leaders . the shug mcgaughey trainee placed fourth .\n\u201ctime passed and the horse went into work with peter snowden and was named barbados . he ran a second and then won at his next two starts but was retired after just five runs and we eventually acquired him for ducatoon park just before the breeding season last year . anyway , i had never met peter , and my wife valmae and i were at a horse sale earlier this year with a nice northern meteor colt we had bred and i saw peter and decided to ask him about barbados .\nher next win came in the group 1 george main stakes . she was then beaten twice by a horse named strawberry road in the caulfield stakes and the w . s . cox plate , which seemed to indicate that 2000 m was out of her comfort zone .\nas an older mare she has trained on to win back - to - back editions of the group ii emancipation stakes ( 1500m ) at rosehill as well as the group iii tibbie stakes ( 1400m ) at newcastle .\nmaragh was unseated in the gate while on saturdaynightfling before the start of race 10 . the horse was scratched and maragh walked to an ambulance under his own power . he posted on his twitter account at 8 p . m . that he was taken to albany medical .\n\u201cwe were lucky to get him really and once again fate stepped in . i contacted bret howard at randwick bloodstock looking for a stallion and he told me barbados had been sold to asia but was back on the market as the deal had fallen through . of course i knew all about the horse , so my son mark , who is with me on the stud , and i flew to nsw and did the deal with darley\u2019s australian general manager henry plumptre , who also told us the horse \u201chad far more ability than his race record suggests\u201d .\nunraced as a two - year - old , emancipation was ridden throughout her career by ron clinton except for one occasion , that being her victory in the 1982 vrc edward manifold stakes , where kevin moses steered her to the win at flemington .\nemancipation was foaled in 1979 . australian natives bletchingly and ammo girl performed sire and dam duties , respectively . ammo girl was sired by gunsynd himself and a great , great , great grandsire came by way of the united states in man o ' war .\nher new south wales breeder had no interest in emancipation as a racer and therefore instructed her trainer to lease her for racing purposes , a decision that would prove regrettable , except from the perspective of the lessee , mr . r . lapointe of muskoka farms .\n\u201cit was a race i really wanted to try him in , \u201d rice said . \u201cthe races at a mile , a mile and a sixteenth are bigger fields that can be very competitive . sometimes at a mile and three - eights there aren\u2019t that many horses that can get that distance . i thought , if the horse isn\u2019t doing well i\u2019d scratch him . \u201d\nemancipation ( aus ) gr . m , 1979 { 3 - l } dp = 2 - 3 - 5 - 0 - 0 ( 10 ) di = 3 . 00 cd = 0 . 70 - 28 starts , 19 wins , 1 places , 0 shows career earnings : $ 550 , 510\nunraced as a two - year - old , emancipation , the grey filly competed only as a three and four - year - old , yet managed to win 19 times , six of those wins coming in group 1 races , before continuing on to pass her genes to multiple group 1 winners virage de fortune and railings .\ndam attributes : third - generation product emancipation was an australian champion with altogether 19 career victories spanning from 1200m t 1750 , including the doncaster handicap ( aus - gi ) and 4 other group i triumphs ; also , this same family features group i graduates virage de fortune , railings , and a host of winners at a mile or under .\nbadawiya ( al maher ) . 4 wins from 1200m to 1600m , a $ 362 , 425 , vrc edward manifold s . , gr . 2 , av kewney s . , gr . 2 , pakenham rc australian seed & turf h . , 3d mrc thousand guineas , gr . 1 , 4th atc emancipation s . , gr . 2 .\nfirst up in february at randwick racecourse , she won the ajc light fingers stakes , a listed race . emancipation ' s next win came in the group 2 canterbury stakes . shortly thereafter she defeated mankato over 1400 metres on a slow rosehill track to take her first group 1 victory , the george ryder stakes . she backed that with the doncaster handicap at randwick .\nwonderful grey champions emancipation and gunsynd captured the hearts of racegoers and belied their modest beginnings to become part of thoroughbred folklore . barbados , a son of modern champions redoute\u2019s choice and virage de fortune , carries the same grey colour and his pedigree features their names . although his race career was compromised by injury , he looks a valuable addition to the breeding industry in south australia .\nin distance , having in - bred in 4sx4d multiples to 1972 english and irish champion sophomore roberto , with a remarkable dosage ( dp / di ) of 24 / 1 . 53 , silver spun , stamped of his dam\u02c7\u00a6s roan coat , hails maternally from the family of five - time group i victor and australian champion emancipation , and should mainly be effective at a mile or under . .\n\u201csteve , our youngest son , was working at widden when anabaa shuttled there and of course he is the sire of virage de fortune , and then steve moved to arrowfield when redoute\u2019s choice was commanding a fee of $ 330 , 000 . steve was one of the few people allowed to handle the stallion and when we\u2019d call him once a week for a family chat , he would tell us all about the superb mares the horse was covering , including virage de fortune in her first season at stud .\nemancipation , by bletchingly . champion 3yo & 4yo & aust horse of the year . 19 wins from 1200m to 1750m , a $ 544 , 760 , ajc doncaster h . , gr . 1 , george main s . , gr . 1 , all - aged s . , gr . 1 , stc rosemount wines classic , gr . 1 , george ryder s . , gr . 1 - twice , ajc apollo s . , gr . 2 , chipping norton s . , gr . 2 , 1600m - in track record time , nsw tatt ' s rc chelmsford s . , gr . 2 , stc hill s . , gr . 2 , canterbury s . , gr . 2 , vrc edward manifold s . , gr . 2 , stc premiere s . , gr . 3 , ajc light fingers s . , l , stc tea rose s . , l , vrc carbine club s . , l , stc carnivale ' 82 h . , 2d ajc expressway s . , gr . 2 , 4th vatc caulfield s . , gr . 1 . half - sister to appreciation , joy ' s girl , deliberation ( dam of accumulation ) . dam of 7 named foals , 5 to race , 3 winners , inc : -\npeter and mark have certainly chosen a horse with an exceptional pedigree as the foundation sire at ducatoon park . his sire redoute\u2019s choice ( danehill ( usa ) - shantha\u2019s choice by canny lad ) has just won his third general sires\u2019 premiership , with his son snitzel as runner - up , with progeny earnings topping $ 10m in 2013 - 14 led by champion sprinter lankan rupee ( dam by stravinsky ) . in fact since retiring to stud in australia in 2000 redoute\u2019s choice , who won five races ( four gr . 1 including the blue diamond and caulfield guineas ) and $ 1 . 5m , has had 732 winners ( 77 . 5 % ) from 955 starters for earnings topping $ 105m .\nbred by expat stanley wootton , the man who exported star kingdom ( ire ) to australia and retained a share in the horse for his stud career , bletchingly ( by biscay , by star kingdom ) won four of his five starts and was runner - up in the other . he won the mvrc windarra handicap ( 1200m ) at his only run at three and then the vrc moomba handicap ( 1000m ) in course record time and ajc the galaxy - gr . 2 ( 1100m ) at four . he went on to sire many great horses including champion kingston town , and his name also appears in the pedigree of barbados as his golden slipper - winning son canny lad is the damsire of redoute\u2019s choice .\nredoute\u2019s choice and his sons have worked with mares from a variety of sire lines and inbreeding to the best in show family and to nijinsky has worked well , while mares featuring nijinsky\u2019s close relation the minstrel and similarly bred storm bird should suit barbados as should mares from the sir tristram tribe , particularly lonhro as his dam is by a son of mr . prospector , a line that has also worked well with redoute\u2019s choice ( and his sire danehill ) . doubling lunchtime , via pins for example , who has also worked with emancipation\u2019s family , also seems a positive way to go .\nthere is another line of star kingdom in this pedigree as emancipation\u2019s unraced dam ammo girl is by the people\u2019s champion gunsynd ( sunset hue - woodie wonder by newtown wonder ( gb ) ) , whose sire is a son of star kingdom . gunsynd ( 1967 - 1983 ) , known affectionately as the goondiwindi grey , began his career in queensland before transferring to the sydney stables of master trainer tommy smith . he won 29 of 54 starts including the epsom handicap , toorak , queen elizabeth , doncaster , caulfield stakes , cox plate , rawson stakes ( twice ) and he was beaten 1 . 25 lengths and a neck in the melbourne cup , conceding the first two 12 . 5kg and 8kg .\nlike so many great mares emancipation ( bletchingly - ammo girl by gunsynd ) , who is inbred 3mx4m to star kingdom ( ire ) , did not leave any champions , but her family is breeding on and there are plenty of stakes horses in her clan these days including dual gr . 1 winner ( caulfield cup , the metropolitan ) , railings ( zabeel ) , gr . 2 winner magneto ( scenic ) , gr . 2 winner pimms time ( pins ) , the south african gr . 1 winner rumya ( red ransom ( usa ) ) , listed winner and gr . 1 runner - up raid ( pins ) , uae oaks - lr winner raihana ( elusive quality ( usa ) ) and hk derby - hkgr . 1 runner - up jackpot\u2019s delight ( danasinga ) .\nowner : muskoka farms ( r . lapointe ) breeder : mr . mc hough , nsw winnings : 28 starts : 19 - 1 - 0 , $ 550 , 510 won : ajc doncaster h . ( g1 ) , ajc george main s . ( g1 ) , ajc chipping norton s . ( g1 ) , stc george ryder s . ( g1 , 2x ) , ajc all aged s . ( g1 ) , stc coolmore classic ( g1 ) , vrc edward manifold s . ( g2 ) , ajc light fingers s . ( g2 ) , stc cantebury s . ( g2 ) , stc hill stakes ( g2 ) , tnsw chemlsford s . ( g2 ) , ajc apollo s . ( g2 ) , stc premiere s . ( g3 ) , stc tea rose stakes ( l ) , vrc carbine club stakes ( l ) 1984 aust . horse of the year . head of the 1982 - 83 australasian 3yo & 1983 - 84 australasian 4yo + classifications . ( close )\nmichael sissian bred and raced her dam virage ( kenmare - emancipation by bletchingly ) and the filly , who was born in 1993 , proved frustrating for sissian and trainer lee freedman , running three seconds ( twice in the city ) in six starts at two and three , throwing away her chances by becoming claustrophobic in the starting stalls ( in the days before barrier blankets ) . there was no doubt virage had plenty of ability but in the end she was retired because of her antics . however she became a really good broodmare and her seven winners also include $ 730 , 000 earner and multiple gr . 3 winner avenue ( anabaa ) and stakes placed glasnost ( red ransom ) dam of gr . 3 winner slapstick ( anabaa ) and stakes placed censor ( elusive quality ) and lorna mae ( redoute\u2019s choice ) .\n\u201cmy brother and i ran kambula stud for many years and successfully stood stallions like gay gambler and imprimatur , but when i left to go out on my own a few years ago i swore i wouldn\u2019t stand another stallion . however , the industry in south australia has changed a lot in the past few years and i felt breeders needed access to a well - bred stallion in our part of the world and barbados certainly filled the bill when he was offered to us . i was prepared to look past his race record because i knew he had much more ability than that and he had been compromised by a really serious injury . that he was able to race and win told me he had plenty of courage and he really does have a superb pedigree , being inbred to speed influences danzig and bletchingly and tracing to one of the great mares in emancipation .\nit was a case of the meeting of two greys when the prix jacques le marois - gr . 1 winner kenmare covered the champion mare emancipation in the spring of 1990 . the filly who resulted from that mating was sent to south africa and was never named . however the mating was repeated two years later ( the mare visited danehill in between times ) and virage was the result in 1993 . she is among seven named foals from her dam and four of the other six were also fillies , animation ( vice regal ) , principation ( prince echo ( ire ) ) , felicitation ( danehill ) and la suffragette ( palace music ( usa ) . while the colts were the gr . 2 winner and ajc derby - gr . 1 runner - up and sire royal pardon ( vice regal ) and the city placed liberty prevails ( bakharoff ( usa ) .\n{ { race . shorttrack } } r { { race . number } }\nno horses found for your search query { { profilesearch } } , please try again .\n\u00a9 2018 racing victoria limited ( rv ) and other parties working with it . vic and sa racing materials , including fields , form and results , is subject to copyright which is owned respectively by rv and trsa and other parties working with them .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\no / b - stuart s janney iii llc & phipps stable ( ky ) ; t - claude r mcgaughey iii .\nnot a subscriber ? click here to sign up for the daily pdf or alerts .\nyour tdn download has begun . if the download does not complete , click here .\nbased in new south wales , her breeder , m . c . hough was interested in her only as a broodmare and instructed her trainer , neville begg , to lease her for any racing purposes , an event which proved fortunate for muskoka farms principle r . lapointe .\nthat same spring produced listed race wins in the sydney turf club tea rose stakes at rosehill racecourse and the victoria racing club carbine club stakes at flemington .\ncommencing as a four - year - old , she won the group 3 sydney turf club premier stakes at rosehill racecourse . next came the group 1 ajc chelmsford stakes at warwick farm racecourse and two weeks later , the group 2 hill stakes , where she overcame a dead track and won at 1750 metres , her greatest distance that ever produced a win .\nanother group 1 event , the george main stakes was her next win . she then fell twice in succession to strawberry road in the caulfield stakes and the cox plate , seeming to indicate that 2000 metres was beyond her .\nnext came the stc rosemount classic at rosehill , and another george ryder stakes .\nshe notched the win at randwick in the all aged stakes , giving her an impressive three group 1 wins in as many tries .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsky sports news takes you through all of the day ' s racing news , plus alex hammond ' s tip of the day .\nfollow the latest from the written press with the best gossip and speculation from the papers .\nsky has launched a pub finder for eager fans wanting to find a venue to watch sky sports .\nget a sports star to visit your old secondary school as part of our free schools initiative .\n> mckay cops feature and veteran under - 50 titles at malta . . .\n> ebfa / juicy juice u - 13 league\u2026 diamond utd . trounce . . .\n\u2013 den amstel crush cougars 5 - 0 \u2013 ann\u2019s grove and buxton settle with exciting 2 - 2 draw den amstel football club is on a roll and they are enjoying playing at the national track and field . . .\nthe place was julian\u2019s restaurant at church and cummings street , alberttown . the time was 8 . 00 p . m . last saturday . the . . . more\ngovernment and its actions in guyana are under intense public scrutiny . there is hardly an issue , involving government , . . . more\nby sir ronald sanders as controversy currently surrounds the appointment of a judge to the supreme court of the united states , . . . more\ni remember when marijuana became a drug of choice in guyana . it was in the 1970s when rastafari became the chant , guyanese . . . more\nan idea has been put in the public domain about the launching of a third party to represent the interests of the amerindian . . . more\ndictatorship and racism in guyanese cricket \u2014 can we talk about this , mr . jagdeo ?\nthe ppp and its leader , president jagdeo , have raised the question of race ahead of the coming election . they have made . . . more\neditor\u2019s note , if your sent letter was not published and you felt its contents were valid and devoid of libel or personal attacks , please contact us by phone or email .\nenter your email address to subscribe for free to this website and receive notifications of new content by email .\ndavid ord makes a rebecca bastiman - trained sprinter his best bet at pontefract on tuesday after he caught the eye last time .\nkeith hamer previews the evening cards at windsor , ripon and roscommon and has a tip for every race .\nashley iveson fancies shenanigans to land the feature race at pontefract - and he has a tip for every race in the uk and ireland .\n* new customers only . turnover and bet requirements apply . t & c ' s apply . excl nsw , wa , sa & vic . gamble responsibly .\nversatile mare that oozes longevity , having raced competitively for several seasons over a range of distances .\nfinished runner - up in both the group i vrc oaks ( 2500m ) at flemington and group i australian oaks ( 2400m ) at randwick during a highly successful three - year - old season .\nthis included victory in the group iii keith nolan classic ( 1600m ) at kembla grange and more than half a million dollars in prizemoney .\nthe daughter of bernadini earned her third group i placing when again runner - up in the 2017 queen of the turf stakes ( 1600m ) at randwick .\nsaturday racing some races mean more to trainers than others and for randwick\u2019s john thompson running zanbagh in saturday\u2019s group ii guy walter stakes ( 1400m ) means the world to him .\ngroup 1 racing a small weight rise will be enough for melbourne - based jockey damian lane to ride a sydney mare in saturday week\u2019s group i epsom handicap ( 1600m ) .\nrace reviews john thompson\u2019s top mare zanbagh produced a courageous effort to take out the group iii tibbie stakes ( 1400m ) at newcastle on friday .\nhorses trainer john thompson says only the track condition at randwick on saturday separates his two chances in the group ii guy walter stakes ( 1400m ) .\ntips a tough punting week concludes with the big emirates stakes meeting at flemington and there are some good chances to finish the carnival in front on saturday .\ntrackwork sydney trainer john thompson is confident his group i - winning mare first seal is heading back to her former glory days when australia\u2019s best galloper winx couldn\u2019t touch her .\nsaturday racing randwick trainer john thompson has sounded an ominous warning for first seal ' s rivals ahead of saturday ' s $ 400 , 000 group ii ronald mcdonald house golden pendant ( 1400m ) at rosehill .\n* new customers only . turnover & bet requirements apply . t & c ' s apply . excl nsw , wa , sa & vic . gamble responsibly .\nis gambling a problem for you ? call gambling help on 180 0858 858 or visit www . gamblinghelponline . org . au\nyour screen name will be seen by the racenet community when you participate in discussions or comment on our content .\nyou ' ll receive an email shortly with instructions on how to reset your password .\nin an abbreviated racing career where this gray filly competed only as a three and four year old , she managed to produce 19 victories , and one second out of just 28 starts .\nsix of her victories came in group 1 races , including consecutive victories in 1983 and 1984 in the 1500 m weight for age george ryder stakes at rosehill racecourse in sydney .\nthe spring racing carnival of that season produced two listed wins , those coming in the stc tea rose stakes at rosehill race course and the vrc carbine club stakes at flemington in melbourne . she raced four other times that spring with no wins to show for it .\nshe next appeared early in the spring racing carnival where she won the ajc light fingers stakes at randwick . her next win represented quite a leap in quality when she took the group 2 canterbury stakes .\nher first group 1 victory followed at rosehill where she took the george ryder stakes , defeating manikato in the process , and then went on to take the doncaster handicap at randwick , leaving her with 10 wins from 13 starts as a three - year - old .\nher four - year - old campaign began with a group 3 victory in the stc premier stakes at rosehill racecourse in sydney . next came warwick farm and the group 1 ajc chelmsford stakes . she backed that two weeks later with a win in the group 2 hill stakes at the greatest distance at which she was ever tried that produced a victory . she seemed by this time to be demonstrating advanced proficiency on dead tracks .\nimmediately afterwards , she took the all aged stakes at randwick race course , which resulted in her notching her third group 1 win in three tries .\nher final tally of 19 wins out of 28 jumps in a brief racing career established a record for sprinters of either gender that has only recently been surpassed .\nbest performer : mr . gnocchi ( 5 wins / highest rating : 99 ) ( retired )\nprogeny ' s racing performance : 1 of her 3 previous foals has scored , that being the statue of liberty filly new york rain , who prevails twice to date , ranging from 1008m to 1200m ; silver spun is her 4th foal .\nconditioned previously by tommy wong , and then gary moore , silver spun , with a 1 - 3 - 3 record through altogether ten ( 10 ) starts in australia , broke his maiden in a right - handed , 1100 - meter contest at wyong , new south wales on december 17 , 2016 , for a purse of aus $ 22 , 000 . coming out of that same race , second - placed wutai mountain scores twice afterwards .\nrepresents such depth has been altogether labeled as yet another ' golden generation ' in the u . s . since 1957 , especially the prowess to extend their battlefield from the track to the shed . in the case of hard spun , with seven ( 7 ) seasons of stud service to date , he has more than avenged on his old track foes in the progenitive arena : from wood memorial ( us - gi ) hero wicked strong , to questing and zo impressive , the hard and fast one - two punch through his first crop capturing two - thirds of the new york triple tiara at grade i level , sons and daughters by hard spun have posted yet another banner season in 2015 , led by diana stakes ( us - git ) winner hard not to like , gold cup at santa anita ( us - gi ) hero hard aces , and smooth roller , a winner that took the santa anita crowd by surprise the awesome again stakes ( us - gi ) .\nin course preferences , while many a hard spun has been equally talented on dirt and turf , silver spun , a proven winner on soft in australia , should also be lively with a deeper cut in the turf .\nin general outlook , bred regally from underneath , silver spun , an instant winner since switching to gary moore\u02c7\u00a6s barn in australia , has definitely put his act together , while being as impressive , if not more , through the barrier trials in hong kong . in all , he should be a nice cut - back prospect to get the job done in class 3 .\nintro to new horses\nis produced by a private company and is not official jockey club information . every effort is made to ensure the information is as accurate as possible , but the club assumes no responsibility for it .\nshug has an awesome homebred in todays 7th race at gulf . peter island is by tapit out of a grade 1 stakes placed mare by pleasant colony . resort is by pleasant colony which u rarely see anymore ( almost extinct ) also resort is out of an alydar mare does it get any better for old school breeding . pleasant colonys broodmare offspring known for huge necks . i cant wait to see this ones neck in the paddock and post parade today . also peter island worked 1 : 02 and change out of the gate at payson ( quicksand )\ntom . as i said on another thread , he ran very well today . made a huge move and was closing on the winner . he is the real deal . i said he would be better than poe and i definitely think he is .\nif he continues to develop , he will be special . i would like to see shug pull back the reins a little on him . between his 2 turf races and his 1 dirt race at gp , i hink his legs have endured as much as they can over these extremely hard surfaces . i know keeneland is dear to shugs heart . i would like to see shug and the phipps step out of the box and take a shot at the bluegrass . do not even enteryain the thought of running in the derby should they win . the race falls in perfectly with the scheduling the next turf race for 3yos is the tansylvania on 4 / 4 / 14 and at a mile . i hate cutting them back in distance and bringing them back so soon . the bluegrass almost gives them a free ride and it spaces hom perfectly . after that , shug can map out a plan that will get him to the virginia derby . but i think this guy needs about 6 weeks to recharge for the summer grind .\nanyone heard how honor code did training at payson park yesterday . inquiring minds need to know\njogged yesterday . . . at least he ' s back on the track .\nfrom drf : shug says he wants to keep close eye on honor code who has been training at payson while also confirming top billing now definite for foy .\nin case you haven ' t seen these , nyra has posted great video interviews of some of ny ' s top trainers . more tracks should do this ! here ' s link to shug ' s video - urltoken\nit appears that html was included in your comment , please remove any html code .\nsummer racing is just around the corner , with saratoga and del mar highlighting the juvenile events . this year\u2019s crop of 2 - year - olds will take their . . .\nphipps stable homebred fire away found plenty of room along the inside to power past the tiring leaders and earn his first career graded - stakes victor . . .\nreigning male turf champion world approval looks to return to his winning ways when he makes a title defense in saturday\u2019s $ 250 , 000 maker\u2019s mark dixie . . .\nwoodslane farm\u2019s homebred grade 1 - winning millionaire sadler\u2019s joy , unraced in 17 weeks following a narrow defeat in the breeders\u2019 cup turf ( g1 ) , will . . .\nhaving made a successful return to graded company in the first start for her new connections four weeks ago , four - time stakes winner take charge paula . . .\ngiven a perfect ride from irad ortiz jr . , stuart janney iii homebred on leave came with a steady run on the outside to run down a stubborn gianna\u2019s dr . . .\nphipps stable ' s fire away overtook monster bea in the stretch and outkicked his rival by a length to post his first win in more than a year , capturing . . .\nphillips racing ' s multiple graded stakes winner time and motion will try to regain her best form in a competitive edition of the grade 3 , $ 200 , 000 ath . . .\nallen stable ' s war flag ran down grand jete in deep stretch and outkicked a charging dacita by a head to win the 40th running of the grade 1 , $ 500 , 000 . . .\nit\u2019s rare that a breeder and owner can run in the same graded stakes race for three consecutive years . rarer still that the owner and breeder could wi . . .\nto use this website , cookies must be enabled in your browser . to enable cookies , follow the instructions for your browser below . facebook app : open links in external browser\nthere is a specific issue with the facebook in - app browser intermittently making requests to websites without cookies that had previously been set . this appears to be a defect in the browser which should be addressed soon . the simplest approach to avoid this problem is to continue to use the facebook app but not use the in - app browser . this can be done through the following steps :\nbefore the cookie settings change will take effect , safari must restart . to restart safari press and hold the home button ( for around five seconds ) until the iphone / ipad display goes blank and the home screen appears .\na note about relevant advertising : we collect information about the content ( including ads ) you use across this site and use it to make both advertising and content more relevant to you on our network and other sites . this is also known as online behavioural advertising . you can find out more about our policy and your choices , including how to opt - out here .\ndavid m . johnson - djohnson @ digitalfirstmedia . comhorses spring out of the gate at the start of race 4 wednesday , july 26 , 2017 at saratoga race course .\nthe bettors sent both off at about 2 - 1 odds in an $ 85 , 000 allowance race at 1 1 / 8 miles on a fast main track but the similarities between the two in this race ended there .\nthe kiaran mclaughlin trainee stalked the pacesetters for the first 3 / 4 of a mile before making a move on the second turn . fayeq reeled in battle midway and hammerin aamer by the top of the stretch then increased his lead through to the wire . the winning time was 1 : 51 . 19 and final margin of victory was 3 1 / 2 lengths .\nthe win improved fayeq to 2 - 0 - 1 in four career starts \u2014 all as a 3 - year - old .\nfayeq paid $ 6 to win . he was bred in kentucky by heaven trees farm and sold to shadwell stable at the september 2015 keenland sales for $ 800 , 000 .\nhours after voodoo song became linda rice\u2019s first winner of the 2017 meet on day 2 saturday , she saw an opportunity for the 3 - year - old english channel colt . so she entered him to run back in wednesday\u2019s race 7 at the spa \u2014 a 1 3 / 8 - mile , $ 75 , 000 allowance .\nafter voodoo song came out of saturday\u2019s win in good form , she made the final decision on whether or not he would run wednesday morning .\n\u201cthis morning he had a bright look in his eyes , \u201d rice said . \u201che cleaned up all of his dinner , he even ate his lunch so i said , alright . you open yourself up to a lot of criticism doing what i did today . you just have to hope it goes the right way . \u201d\nvoodoo song bolted out to a huge lead and continued to increase the margin throughout the first lap around a good inner - turf course .\n\u201ci tried to grab the first quarter of the race , \u201d winning jockey jose lezcano said of the ride . \u201cthen i let go of the bridle . i said if you wanna go , go . it\u2019s better than fighting the whole way and he went on to win the race . \u201d\nannouncer larry collmus noted voodoo song was on the backstretch of the final lap as the rest of the field was still making the turn .\nthe field eventually began to close in midway through the backstretch . man of wiregrass cut the lead to 6 1 / 2 lengths before vintage matters moved to within four lengths by the final turn .\nlezcano finally asked with 3 / 16 to go and voodoo song answered . he held on to win by 3 / 4 of a length . vintage matters was second followed by super hawk .\nvoodoo song was sent off as the favorite and paid $ 3 . 70 . his final time was 2 : 13 . 6 .\njamaican jockey rajiv maragh joined his native island nation in rooting for the jamaican soccer team in the gold cup final against the united states wednesday night in santa clara , calif .\njamaica pulled a huge 1 - 0 upset of mexico in the semifinal round sunday to advance to the final . the contest was not completed by press time .\n\u201ci\u2019m so proud , i think they\u2019re playing the best i\u2019ve ever seen them play , \u201d maragh said after race 5 wednesday . \u201cit\u2019s kind of a win - win for me because if jamaica or u . s . wins , i win . \u201d\nthe jamaicans are an underdog in the contest because the game is on american soil and because the population of the u . s . \u2014 323 million \u2014 dwarfs the population of jamaica \u2014 2 . 9 million .\n\u201cit would mean a lot for such a small island with such a small population to have that kind of success , \u201d maragh said . \u201ceither way they have nothing to be ashamed of to get to where they are . \u201d\nthe 32 - year - old jockey says he gets the same sort of support from fellow jamaicans in his career .\n\u201cjamaicans are passionate about a lot of stuff and sport is one of the things we\u2019re most passionate about , \u201d maragh said . \u201ci feel like wherever i\u2019m at jamaicans all over the world are behind me and happy for me . \u201d\n\u201cat albany medical my calf is bruised just as a precaution taking a mri to make sure all is well . seems fine to me , \u201d maragh said in the post .\ndavid johnson covers local sports . reach the author at djohnson @ urltoken or follow david on twitter : @ davidmichael10 .\nthe race card promises its usual excitement with the main event being for horses classified b2 and lower with special weights over eight furlongs . the the winner of this event will collect $ 1m . second place is worth $ 500 , 000 , third $ 250 , 000 and fourth $ 125 , 000 . other races will feature e class non - winners . , the f and lower open covering 5 furlongs has a winning prize of $ 400 , 000 while the l class non - winners also over 5 furlongs will see the winner taking home $ 110 , 000 . the guyana bred 3 years and older 7 furlong race will pay a $ 240 , 000 purse while the k class non - winners and l open race runs for 6 furlongs both have a first prize of $ 120 , 000 . the h1 and lower race horses will gallop for 7 furlongs with the winner guaranteed $ 250 , 000 and the j2 and lower category first place claims a $ 140 , 000 prize after covering a distance of 6 furlongs .\nenter your email address to subscribe to this website and receive free notifications of new posts by email .\nguyana times is your news , entertainment , music , fashion website . we provide you with the latest breaking news and videos straight from guyana .\neclipse thoroughbred partners ' juvenile colt earth became the first winner for his sire , kentucky derby winner orb , when he got up nearing the wire to win a five - furlong turf maiden contest at gulfstream park june 11 .\nit was the career debut for earth , who is out of mullins bay , an unraced daughter of speightstown that is a full sister to multiple graded stakes winner , bridgetown . earth was consigned by four star sales , agent , to the 2016 fasig - tipton kentucky july sale , where he was purchased for $ 190 , 000 .\nearth becomes the first winner for his sire orb , whose first crop are 2 - year - olds . orb stands at claiborne farm in paris , ky . , where his 2017 stud fee is $ 25 , 000 , stands and nurses .\nnew to the paulick report ? click here to sign up for our daily email newsletter to keep up on this and other stories happening in the thoroughbred industry . copyright \u00a9 2018 paulick report .\npublisher ray paulick ( 859 312 . 2102 ) director of advertising emily alberti ( 859 913 . 9633 ) editor - in - chief scott jagow features editor natalie voss bloodstock editor joe nevills racing news editor chelsea hackbarth contributing writers sarah e . coleman frank mitchell tom pedulla jen roytz denise steffanus photography equisport photos ( matt and wendy wooley ) eric kalet business manager carol paulick\nurltoken is published by blenheim publishing llc , 3070 lakecrest circle , suite 400 - 292 , lexington , ky 40513 . copyright blenheim publishing llc .\ncommands / dextrous ( aus ) bay / brown , 2008 , 16 . 1hh\n\u2013trial\u2013stc barrier trial , 900m , time 0 : 56 . 09 . track heavy . cocky raider was 1st and sabutai 2nd and dream choice 3rd .\n\u2013trial\u2013atc barrier trial , 800m , time 0 : 48 . 60 . track good . petrify was 1st and bench star 2nd and strange logic 3rd .\n\u2013trial\u2013hawkesbury rc barrier trial , 1000m , time 1 : 03 . 46 . track slow . arawak was 1st and spicy siam 3rd .\n\u2013trial\u2013atc barrier trial , 900m , time 0 : 56 . 47 . track heavy . resort habit was 1st and rock this world 2nd .\nillawarra tc skheme 2yo maiden h . , a $ 19 , 000 , 1000m , time 0 : 58 . 20 . track dead . carried 57 . 00kg . by the by was 1st and camlouise 3rd . trainer : peter snowden . owner : sheikh mohammed . jockey : g buckley .\natc ( rosehill ) inglis bonus 2yo h . , a $ 90 , 000 , 1300m , time 1 : 18 . 76 . track slow . carried 55 . 00kg . florentina was 1st and double ranga 2nd and leviosa 3rd . trainer : peter snowden . owner : sheikh mohammed . jockey : k mc evoy .\natc ( warwick farm ) ashcroft maiden h . , a $ 37 , 000 , 1400m , time 1 : 26 . 93 . track heavy . carried 56 . 50kg . mossmoney was 2nd and morocco 3rd . trainer : peter snowden . owner : sheikh mohammed . jockey : k mc evoy .\nnsw tatt\u2019s rc ming dynasty h . , l , a $ 100 , 000 , 1400m , time 1 : 23 . 27 . track good . carried 53 . 00kg . sangster was 2nd and darci be good 3rd . trainer : peter snowden . owner : sheikh mohammed . jockey : c reith .\nnewcastle jc spring s . , gr . 3 , a $ 176 , 900 , 1600m , time 1 : 36 . 61 . track good . carried 56 . 50kg . darci be good was 1st and rekindled alliance 2nd . trainer : peter snowden . owner : sheikh mohammed . jockey : k mc evoy .\natc ( randwick ) spring champion s . , gr . 1 , a $ 405 , 000 , 2000m , time 2 : 05 . 88 . track dead . carried 56 . 50kg . doctor doom was 1st and darci be good 2nd and sangster 3rd . trainer : peter snowden . owner : sheikh mohammed . jockey : k mc evoy .\n\u2013trial\u2013atc barrier trial , 855m , time 0 : 51 . 20 . track dead . foxwedge was 1st and salade 2nd and sandhurst 3rd .\n\u2013trial\u2013atc barrier trial , 900m , time 0 : 53 . 24 . track slow . moment of change was 1st and hot snitzel 2nd and salade 3rd .\natc ( warwick farm ) royal sovereign s . , gr . 2 , a $ 176 , 700 , 1200m , time 1 : 08 . 99 . track good . carried 56 . 00kg . hot snitzel was 1st and manawanui 2nd and moment of change 3rd . trainer : peter snowden . owner : sheikh mohammed . jockey : j parr .\natc ( rosehill ) hobartville s . , gr . 2 , a $ 201 , 700 , 1400m , time 1 : 26 . 53 . track heavy . carried 56 . 50kg . wild and proud was 1st and manawanui 2nd and moment of change 3rd . trainer : peter snowden . owner : sheikh mohammed . jockey : j parr .\natc ( randwick ) randwick guineas , gr . 1 , a $ 505 , 000 , 1600m , time 1 : 37 . 60 . track slow . carried 56 . 50kg . mosheen was 1st and said com 2nd and laser hawk 3rd . trainer : peter snowden . owner : sheikh mohammed . jockey : j parr .\natc ( rosehill ) rosehill guineas , gr . 1 , a $ 505 , 000 , 2000m , time 2 : 02 . 18 . track good . carried 56 . 50kg . laser hawk was 1st and ocean park 2nd and silent achiever 3rd . trainer : peter snowden . owner : sheikh mohammed . jockey : m zahra .\natc ( randwick ) frank packer p . , gr . 3 , a $ 126 , 300 , 2000m , time 2 : 04 . 29 . track good . carried 56 . 50kg . fat al was 1st and rekindled alliance 3rd . trainer : peter snowden . owner : sheikh mohammed . jockey : k mc evoy .\n\u2013trial\u2013atc barrier trial , 1000m , time 0 : 59 . 70 . track dead . torio\u2019s quest was 1st and fast clip 3rd .\natc ( rosehill ) theo marks h . , gr . 2 , a $ 201 , 700 , 1400m , time 1 : 22 . 29 . track good . carried 56 . 00kg . fat al was 2nd and dystopia 3rd . trainer : peter snowden . owner : sheikh mohammed . jockey : k mc evoy .\natc ( randwick ) epsom h . , gr . 1 , a $ 505 , 000 , 1600m , time 1 : 34 . 56 . track good . carried 52 . 00kg . fat al was 1st and rolling pin 3rd . trainer : peter snowden . owner : sheikh mohammed . jockey : k mc evoy ."]}
{"id": 282, "summary": [{"text": "the atlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) is a species of ray-finned fish in the family salmonidae .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is found in the northern atlantic ocean , in rivers that flow into the north atlantic and , due to human introduction , in the north pacific ocean .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "atlantic salmon have long been the target of recreational and commercial fishing , and this , as well as habitat destruction , has reduced their numbers significantly ; the species is the subject of conservation efforts in several countries . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "atlantic salmon", "paragraphs": ["feeding of atlantic salmon ( salmo salar l . ) post - smolts in the northeast atlantic\nthe atlantic salmon federation is working wherever there are atlantic salmon in north america , out at sea , and internationally .\natlantic salmon is not a true salmon . it is of the trout family . it is common knowledge that salmon die after spawning , but atlantic salmon are different .\nfor more information , and to see photo comparisons between atlantic and wild pacific salmon , visit the atlantic salmon identification guide .\n, then the salmon population become extinct . the critical area of atlantic salmon extinction (\nfeeding habits of wild and escaped farmed atlantic salmon , salmo salar l . , in the northeast atlantic\nguignion d . a conservation strategy for atlantic salmon in prince edward island . the atlantic salmon conservation foundation , 2009 . available :\n, atlantic salmon have been introduced successfully , but the actual percentage of salmon reproducing naturally is very low . most are stocked annually . atlantic salmon were native to\ncolonization : evidence suggests this is unlikely . attempts to establish atlantic salmon outside the atlantic ocean have failed , and accidental releases of juvenile atlantic salmon have not produced adults . evidence on vancouver island indicates escaped atlantic salmon have been able to produce juvenile atlantic salmon , but there is no evidence that these\nwild\natlantic salmon have returned to their natal stream and successfully spawned .\nguignion d . a conservation strategy for atlantic salmon in prince edward island . the atlantic salmon conservation foundation , 2009 . available : urltoken .\nthe state posted an identification guide to help fishers distinguish atlantic salmon from native pacific salmon species .\ngardner pinfold ( 2011 ) . economic value of wild atlantic salmon . prepared for atlantic salmon federation . canada . september 2011 . 70pp . urltoken\nfarmed atlantic salmon constitute > 90 percent of the farmed salmon market , and > 50 percent of the total global salmon market .\nfoster chw ( 1991 ) yankee salmon : the atlantic salmon of the connecticut river . cis , cambridge\nthe major difference between atlantic and pacific salmon is that atlantic salmon may spawn more than once while pacific salmon die soon after one spawn . long ago , some people made boots out of salmon skin !\nwashington has eight atlantic salmon net pens . there are two types : commercial net pens for raising atlantic salmon and enhancement net pens for wild salmon that will eventually be released .\nforward plan - in 2016 , dfo will initiate a complete review of the wild atlantic salmon conservation policy in partnership with the atlantic salmon advisory committee .\nwashington has eight atlantic salmon net pens . there are two types : commercial net pens for raising atlantic salmon , and enhancement net pens for wild salmon that will eventually be released .\natlantic salmon sounds wild . in fact , the name is not a lie . atlantic salmon are the species the farmers grow because they can not keep pacific salmon alive in cages .\natlantic salmon , through intensive breeding programs , emerged as the species most amenable . washington today is the leading farmed atlantic salmon producer in the nation . california and alaska ban the industry . no atlantic salmon farms operate in oregon .\nthe atlantic salmon federation is dedicated to the conservation , protection and restoration of wild atlantic salmon and the ecosystems on which their well being and survival depend .\nin atlantic salmon . in this case , an increasing interbreeding success rate of salmon increases its extinction risk .\ndisease transfer : consideration was given to the transfer of fish pathogens from captive and escaped atlantic salmon to native salmon stocks . there is no evidence indicating disease transfer from atlantic salmon to native pacific salmon . fish pathogens infecting atlantic salmon are endemic to washington and appear to come from native fish stocks .\natlantic and pacific salmon mating with each other because they ' re different species .\nresults from wdfw ' s 2003 - 2008 atlantic salmon surveys supported these conclusions .\nhybridization between genetically modified atlantic salmon and wild brown trout reveals novel ecological interactions .\nbeardslee rode around point williams on tuesday afternoon collecting atlantic salmon from commercial fishers .\nwe studied 25 atlantic salmon populations from france and two from scotland ( fig .\nikediashi c , billington s , stevens jr . the origins of atlantic salmon (\nthe atlantic salmon is a fish of many identities . read more . . .\nthe key distinguishing feature of atlantic salmon is black spots on the gill cover .\nwashington state posted an identification guide to help fishers distinguish atlantic salmon ( right ) from native pacific salmon species .\nbased on wdfw ' s study , the evidence strongly indicates that atlantic salmon aquaculture poses little risk to native salmon and non - salmon species .\nbeland , k . f . 1984 . strategic plan for management of atlantic salmon in the state of maine . atlantic sea run salmon commission . bangor , me .\nit\u2019s unclear whether or not these atlantic salmon will affect the chinook salmon population . the concern is that the atlantic salmon will outcompete chinook salmon for food , breed with them to create hybrids , or spread diseases like sea lice .\nwith the decline of wild atlantic salmon populations in the early 1800s , atlantic salmon have been raised in hatcheries since 1864 in an effort to enhance the wild populations and sustain the fisheries that depend on them . in the late 1970s , commercial aquaculture ventures started rearing atlantic salmon in maine . see atlantic salmon \u2013 farmed for more information .\npink salmon caught on the drowes salmon fishery , ireland \u2013 image courtsey of drowes salmon fishery .\nwarren says there isn ' t any evidence so far that atlantic salmon have spawned or crossbred with other salmon species .\n9 . carlson ,\nthe atlantic salmon in new england prehistory and history .\nfarmed atlantic salmon escape into washington state waters . here ' s why fishermen are worried\nwill escaped atlantic salmon survive \u2014 and thrive \u2014 in b . c . waters ?\nanalysis of atlantic salmon habitat dist . . . - pdf document ( 18 m )\npredation : there is no evidence of predation by atlantic salmon in fresh water , and only limited evidence in salt water . most recovered atlantic salmon have had empty stomachs .\njohnson , k . r . and wright , j . e . , female brown trout \u03c7 atlantic salmon hybrids produce gynogens and triploids when backcrossed to male atlantic salmon ,\nrecommendation 5 . 1 - increase funding levels and capacity for wild atlantic salmon enforcement .\n\u00e1lvarez d , garcia - vazquez e . maintenance of asymmetric hybridization between atlantic salmon (\ncunjak ra , therrien j . inter - stage survival of wild juvenile atlantic salmon ,\nwith atlantic salmon fishing season right around the corner , i thought it was time to catch up with taylor to talk about the state of the atlantic salmon in 2016 .\nfacts also known as : bay salmon , black salmon , caplin - cull salmon , fiddler , grilse , grilt , kelt , landlocked salmon , ouananiche , outside salmon , parr , sebago salmon , silver salmon , slink , smolt , spring salmon , winnish . conservation status : least concern location : atlantic ocean lifespan :\ncommonly expressed concerns surrounding escaped atlantic salmon include competition with native salmon , predation , disease transfer , hybridization , and colonization .\nincreased numbers of atlantic salmon have been documented in the open water fishery of lake ontario .\nnow , most atlantic salmon is farmed \u2014 less than 1 percent comes from the wild .\nfarmed atlantic salmon is primarily sold as fresh or frozen dressed fish , fillets or steaks .\ndownload the full csiro impact evaluation : atlantic salmon breeding ( csiro research publications repository ) .\ntowards selective breeding of atlantic salmon for sea louse resistance : approaches to identify trait markers .\nhillaire said lummi fishers had reported catching atlantic salmon from bellingham bay down to samish island .\na process risk model for the shelf life of atlantic salmon fillets . - pubmed - ncbi\njonsson b , jonsson n , hansen lp . atlantic salmon straying from the river imsa .\nidentification of wild and reared atlantic salmon , salmo salar l . , using scale characters .\n. noaa fisheries is working with partners to help restore wild atlantic salmon and their habitat .\nwashington has eight atlantic salmon net pens . there are two types : commercial net pens for raising atlantic salmon and enhancement net pens for wild salmon that will eventually be released . robert f . bukaty / ap hide caption\nthe majority of salmon currently consumed in the u . s . is farm raised atlantic salmon from canada , chile and norway .\nwarren said his main concern is that atlantic salmon could out - compete native chinook salmon and steelhead for food and spawning grounds .\n- farmed salmon escape . cages break in storms or from careless workers backing outboard motors into them . escaping salmon disperse quickly and then , during autumn , head for wild atlantic salmon rivers . if they successfully spawn with wild atlantic salmon , the results are disastrous for salmon in those rivers .\nthe situation has raised a few basic questions about atlantic salmon and fish farming in the northwest .\natlantic salmon today , rust says , probably grow twice as fast as when aquaculture first started .\nat lummi nation , tribal members last week were in an emergency fishery chasing down atlantic salmon .\ncsiro , 2016 . research impact evaluation \u2013 atlantic salmon breeding case study . csiro , canberra .\nthe major markets for farmed atlantic salmon are japan , the european union , and north america .\neffects of freezing and thawing processes on the quality of atlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) fillets .\nverspoor e , de leaniz cg . stocking success of scottish atlantic salmon in two spanish rivers .\nmichigan department of natural resources . atlantic salmon salmo salar . urltoken accessed july 26 , 2011 .\nthe atlantic salmon watch program has received about 40 reports of farmed atlantic salmon since the nets as a cooke aquaculture farm in the san juan islands collapsed on august 19th . ( canadian press )\n) , in the flesh of scottish atlantic salmon farmed between 2006\u20132015 ( mean \u00b1 sd ) .\nin 1951 , the washington department of fish and wildlife tried to establish wild atlantic salmon runs in the state . the department hoped to create more salmon fishing opportunities and released atlantic salmon smolts . the department tried again to establish wild runs in 1980 and 1981 . atlantic salmon were also released into lakes to establish fisheries there .\na : atlantic salmon are world renowned as a sport fish . their scientific name , salmo salar , translates roughly as \u201cleaping salmon\u201d .\nthe atlantic salmon federation provides science - based advice on the issue , and on ways to reduce the harm caused by farmed salmon .\nthe atlantic salmon recovery framework is a partnership between state , tribal , and federal resource agencies working together to identify and implement management actions with the greatest potential to further the recovery of atlantic salmon .\njordan , r . m . , and k . f . beland . 1981 . atlantic salmon spawning and evaluation of natural spawning success . atlantic sea - run salmon commission . augusta , me .\nomnr . 1995 . an atlantic salmon restoration plan for lake ontario . report prepared by the atlantic salmon working group , ontario ministry of natural resources . february 1995 , 18 pp . + appendices .\nfarmed salmon , themselves stressed by various factors , including lice , can be a reservoir of viral and bacterial diseases for wild atlantic salmon .\njuvenile atlantic salmon are intensively monitored each fall and the following spring at stations in the credit river .\na unique five - month hands - on lesson on atlantic salmon and the biodiversity of the lake ontario watershed introduces students , parents , and teachers to the atlantic salmon species , their history and restoration .\nwill escaped atlantic salmon survive \u2014 and thrive \u2014 in b . c . waters ? | cbc news\nnumerous attempts were made in the 20th century by agencies on the pacific coast to introduce and establish atlantic salmon . the most recent effort by wdfw was in 1981 , when attempted introductions were made via the release of cultured atlantic salmon smolts . no adult atlantic salmon returned as a result of the releases .\nhybridization between genetically modified atlantic salmon and wild brown trout reveals novel ecological interactions . - pubmed - ncbi\nhybridization between atlantic salmon salmo salar l . and brown trout s . trutta l . upon artificial propagation\nkhristoforov , o . l . and murza , i . g . , seasonal races of atlantic salmon\ncampos jl , posada d , moran p . introgression and genetic structure in northern spanish atlantic salmon (\ntick off a few of the most important developments in atlantic salmon conservation in the past few years .\nno wild atlantic salmon returned from any of the releases . attempts to establish wild runs \u2014 outside of the atlantic ocean \u2014 have failed across the u . s .\ncommercial fishing for atlantic salmon is currently prohibited by law and the gulf of maine population is protected under the endangered species act . substantial efforts are ongoing to restore wild atlantic salmon and their habitat . these include improving fish passage by removing or modifying dams so salmon can reach freshwater spawning and rearing areas critical to their survival , understanding and improving historically low salmon survival in the ocean , and supplementing wild populations with hatchery - raised atlantic salmon . see atlantic salmon recovery program for more information .\nbright salmon : a fresh - run salmon which has entered its natal stream . synonymous with maiden or virgin salmon .\nadult atlantic salmon are considered much more aggressive than other salmon and are more likely to attack other fish than others . where they have become an\nthe atlantic salmon trust was founded in 1967 in response to growing concerns about over exploitation of wild salmon in the faroes and greenland coastal waters .\nwashington state posted an identification guide to help fishers distinguish atlantic salmon ( right ) from native pacific salmon species . megan farmer / kuow hide caption\nit is increasingly evident through peer - reviewed scientific research conducted by asf and others , that salmon farming harms the environment and wild atlantic salmon .\nfew wild atlantic salmon are left . a troubled river in maine had one salmon return - a male , the loneliest fish on the planet .\nsalmon farming amid the region\u2019s thriving wild salmon fisheries has been fraught with controversy , with concerns that atlantic salmon could escape and cause harm to native runs . alaska went so far as to ban salmon farming in coastal waters .\nsalmon that return to scottish rivers from january to june are called \u2018spring salmon\u2019 .\ngenetically modified salmon fillets at aquabounty genetically modified salmon farm in waltham , massachusetts .\nhundreds of volunteers have contributed thousands of hours of their time to help stock atlantic salmon into suitable habitats .\n24 . carlson ,\nthe atlantic salmon in new england prehistory and history ,\np . 200 .\nto read more about atlantic and other salmon in the state ' s waters , see the dec website .\ncooke aquaculture pacific knew its cypress island facility was \u201cvulnerable\u201d before the spill that sent tens of thousands of invasive atlantic salmon into puget sound . now , the future of atlantic salmon farming in washington is in doubt .\nthere are two ways that you can support the atlantic salmon trust campaigns : 1 . make a bid on the atlantic salmon trust online auction : urltoken 2 . make a donation to the crowd funding campaign : urltoken\nthe atlantic salmon trust auction is now live and runs until 18 . 00 on the 1st july 2018 .\nhas shown no signs of atlantic salmon at any life stage in b . c . ' s waters .\ngjerde b , \u00f8deg\u00e5rd j , thorland i . estimates of genetic variation in the susceptibility of atlantic salmon (\ngjerde b , pante mjr , baeverfjord g . genetic variation for a vertebral deformity in atlantic salmon ( s\nthe washington department of fish and wildlife ( wdfw ) examined potential threats that escaped atlantic salmon could pose to native species in a 1999 report ,\natlantic salmon in washington state : a fish management perspective .\nskrupskelis k , stak\u0117nas s , virbickas t , nika n . age and size of migrating atlantic salmon ,\natlantic salmon face a number of pressures during their life cycle . these include but are not limited to :\nthe atlantic salmon , which supports a world - renowned fishery in scotland , has a fascinating life cycle .\nassociated press . 2003 . fisherman nets an atlantic salmon . anchorage daily news . october 7 , 2003 .\nuniversity of wisconsin sea grant institute . 2002 . \u201catlantic salmon . \u201d urltoken accessed july 22 , 2011 .\natlantic salmon is the highest valued commercial fishery\u2011related industry in tasmania , with annual output valued at around $ 497 million 1 . the majority of australian salmon farming is located in tasmania , where waters are among the warmest in the world for atlantic salmon culture .\nthe atlantic salmon bring with them pollution , virus and parasite amplification , and all that harms pacific salmon and our waters ,\nbeardslee says .\nsalmon fishing is tightly regulated , but the washington state department of fish and wildlife has removed fishing limits on the escaped atlantic salmon until further notice .\nthe convention for the conservation of salmon in the north atlantic ocean entered into force on 1 october 1983 and created an inter - governmental organization , the north atlantic salmon conservation organization ( nasco ) . nasco ' s objective is to conserve , restore , enhance and rationally manage wild atlantic salmon . view the convention . . .\nthe atlantic salmon , salmo salar , is the only salmon that lives in the atlantic ocean . these fish are known for the good fight they put up when hooked by an angler and for their delicious pink flesh .\natlantic salmon return to their native river , and even the same stretch of the river from which they were born , with amazing accuracy . this means that many \u2018populations\u2019 of atlantic salmon may exist within the same river .\natlantic salmon reproduce in coastal rivers of northeastern north america , iceland , europe , and northwestern russia and migrate through various portions of the north atlantic ocean . european and north american populations of atlantic salmon intermix during their at - sea stage , where they share similar summer feeding grounds off greenland .\na : atlantic salmon resemble several other salmonine species which are also present in lake ontario and its tributaries , most notably brown trout and rainbow trout ( steelhead ) . even fisheries professionals have been known to misidentify atlantic salmon . anglers are invited to submit digital photographs of a suspected atlantic salmon catch for confirmation by emailing info @ urltoken .\nthe washington department of fish and wildlife ( wdfw ) considers atlantic salmon an aquatic invasive species , but there is no evidence to date that atlantic salmon pose a threat to native fish stocks in washington through crossbreeding or disease .\neven with past escapes , he says , there are no atlantic salmon in the waters of b . c .\nsalmon can be found in both the atlantic and pacific oceans as well as inland lakes like the great lakes .\natlantic salmon from the labrador sea off west greenland , taken during a . t . cameron cruise , july\u2013august 1965\natlantic salmon ( salmo salar l . ) as a net producer of long - chain omega - 3 fatty acids\nthe populations of atlantic salmon present in the gulf of maine distinct population segment ( dps ) represent the last wild populations of u . s . atlantic salmon . at the time of listing under the esa in 2000 , there were at least eight rivers in the geographic range of the dps known to still support wild atlantic salmon populations :\ntowards selective breeding of atlantic salmon for sea louse resistance : approaches to identify trait markers . - pubmed - ncbi\n) . black or white dotted lines delimit the extinction area of atlantic salmon and brown trout population , respectively .\nhybridization between atlantic salmon salmo salar l . and brown trout s . trutta l . upon artificial propagation | springerlink\na spokeswoman said tuesday that the agency ' s program monitoring atlantic salmon sightings had no new reports this week .\na 2015 report by the department looking for atlantic salmon found none in the vancouver island streams that were surveyed .\nfleming ia , einum s . experimental tests of genetic divergence of farmed from wild atlantic salmon due to domestication .\ngrandjean f , verne s , cherbonnel c , richard a . fine - scale genetic structure of atlantic salmon (\na temporal perspective on population structure and gene flow in atlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) in newfoundland , canada .\nhutchings ja , myers ra . escalation of an asymmetric contest : mortality resulting from mate competition in atlantic salmon ,\nmuch of that success\u2014and the reason for perhaps even more hope for the future\u2014is due to the atlantic salmon federation .\nanyone who captures an atlantic salmon is asked to call the atlantic salmon watch program at 1 - 800 - 811 - 6010 and retain the head and stomach contents of the fish for analysis . ( fisheries and oceans canada )\nfarmed atlantic salmon ( salmo salar l . ) is a good source of long chain omega - 3 fatty acids\ncompetition : evidence indicates non - native salmon species do not compete well against native species . only a small percentage of atlantic salmon recovered from marine waters have preyed on fish ; there have been no observations of atlantic salmon eating fish or fish eggs in fresh water .\nchris robinson , coordinator of the ofah atlantic salmon program , said the conclusions support their plan of trying to incorporate different types of salmon into the system .\npredators or prey ? the atlantic salmon ' s predators are seals , birds , and most larger fish . predators also consist of humans for hunting / fishing . over - fishing is a great problem for the atlantic salmon . the atlantic salmon ' s prey are invertebrates , terrestrial insects , amphipods , euphausiids , gammarids , and smaller fishes ,\nwashington is no stranger to farmed atlantic salmon escapes , with spills in 1996 , 1997 and 1999 , including one of 369 , 000 fish . so far , no instance of crossbreeding between pacific and atlantic salmon has been documented .\nbut history hasn ' t shown any negative impacts or invasiveness of atlantic salmon in the natural territory of pacific salmon , says jeremy dunn , executive director of the b . c . salmon farmers association .\nbut given the shortcomings of farmed salmon , those shortcomings can be made to magically disappear in the consumer\u2019s eyes with an effective marketing program and farmed salmon marketing voodoo starts with the name , atlantic salmon .\nthe atlantic salmon bring with them pollution , virus and parasite amplification , and all that harms pacific salmon and our waters of washington ,\nbeardslee said .\nplanting of atlantic salmon eggs in kennebec river starting to pay dividends ; over the past four years , more wild adult salmon are returning to the hatching grounds .\nthe dorsal , ventral , and tail fins of atlantic salmon may be eroded or worn from containment in net pens .\nstate officials have asked fishers to catch as many atlantic salmon as they can , with no catch or size limits .\natlantic salmon are available year - round , unlike wild - caught fish . and they ' re cheap to produce .\necologist john volpe at the university of victoria , however , is concerned about the introduction of thousands of atlantic salmon .\ntechnical note : modifying atlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) jumping behavior to facilitate innovation of parasitic sea lice control techniques .\nimpact of catch - and - release practices on behavior and mortality of atlantic salmon ( salmo salar l . ) kelts\nreliance on pelagic - sourced carbon , p % , for 1sw and 2sw canadian and west greenland captured atlantic salmon .\nthe food and feeding of atlantic salmon ( salmo salar l . ) during feeding and spawning migrations in icelandic coastal waters\neffect of alternative lipid sources on long - term growth performance and quality of atlantic salmon ( salmo salar l . )\nhiggins , p . j . and talbot , c . ( 1985 ) growth and feeding in juvenile atlantic salmon (\nfed fry : atlantic salmon of hatchery origin that have fully absorbed the yolk and have begun feeding upon artificial foods .\natlantic salmon are not native to pacific waters , but are a major aquaculture species in washington state and british columbia .\nrecommendation 6 . 3 - allow seal harvests / culls in other areas where they are clearly targeting wild atlantic salmon .\neffects of freezing and thawing processes on the quality of atlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) fillets . - pubmed - ncbi\nstokesbury mj , lacroix gl . high incidence of hatchery origin atlantic salmon in the smolt output of a canadian river .\nvaliente ag , beall e , garcia - vazquez e . population genetics of south european atlantic salmon under global change .\nthe multi - sea - winter component of the atlantic salmon population is a uk biodiversity action plan priority fish species .\n) in scottish farmed atlantic salmon compared to other fish species ( blue ) and terrestrially ( green ) produced animals .\nthe atlantic salmon watch program ( aswp ) is a research program operated by fisheries and oceans canada . the purpose of the program is to study the abundance , distribution and biology of atlantic salmon in british columbia and its adjacent waters . the aswp monitors reports from commercial and sport catches and observations of atlantic salmon throughout british columbia . the program relies on recreational and commercial fishers , fish processors , government and independent field staff and hatchery workers to report observations of atlantic salmon .\nthe latest news and stories about atlantic salmon and the issues surrounding them . the latest items on salmon runs , and issues such as impacts of aquaculture and dams .\nanalysis - dfo \u2019s analysis has shown that while there is evidence that seals in estuaries of the maritime provinces eat some atlantic salmon , past and current research has not identified salmon as a staple of their diets nor is predation deemed as a significant factor influencing the atlantic salmon population trends .\nthe north atlantic salmon conservation organisation was established in 1983 under the convention for the conservation of salmon in the north atlantic . it is an international organisation that aims to conserve and promote the rational management of salmon stocks in the wild . the organisation includes all countries in which the atlantic salmon is historically found and many different measures have been taken to reduce exploitation and protect the salmon . however , numbers of salmon are not recovering and further research is being carried out into why this is the case .\nsome businesses may benefit from eco - tourism involving salmon watching , at salmon leaps or even sub - aqua , rather than salmon catching .\nthis nest of wild atlantic salmon eggs is one of three discovered by biologists . ( photo : connecticut fish and wildlife )\nin washington , 20 tribes also said all atlantic salmon farms in puget sound should be closed , with no more allowed .\nthe atlantic salmon can be distinguished by its pattern of dark spots on a light background . see also similar species information .\nthe atlantic salmon ' s sense of smell is 1000 times greater than that of a dog ( maynor , 1996 ) .\nhigh dietary epa does not inhibit \u22065 and \u22066 desaturases in atlantic salmon ( salmo salar l . ) fed rapeseed oil diets\nunfed fry : atlantic salmon of hatchery origin that have fully absorbed the yolk sac and have not been fed artificial foods .\nkolstad k , heuch pa , gjerde b , gjedrem t , salte r . genetic variation in resistance of atlantic salmon (\nwhen r \u22658 , atlantic salmons are not threatened ; when r > 15 , then salmon density starts to be chaotic .\nmanagement organisations in both ireland and scotland have concerns , although the risk to native atlantic salmon are not yet fully known .\nfishers are asked to keep the carcass or head of any atlantic salmon they catch and to give the parts to officials .\n) - the convention applies to salmon stocks which migrate beyond areas of fisheries\u2019 jurisdiction of coastal states of the north atlantic .\nthe atlantic salmon is native to the basin of the north atlantic ocean , from the arctic circle to portugal in the eastern atlantic , from iceland and southern greenland , and from the ungava region of northern quebec south to the conneticut river ( scott and crossman , 1973 ) .\nwhy are atlantic salmon being farmed in the northwest ? : the salt earlier this month , thousands of atlantic salmon escaped a net pen in washington state , raising concerns from environmentalists and questions about farming non - native species . here are some answers .\natlantic salmon are actually more closely related to brown trout than pacific salmon . that ' s why they don ' t breed with pacific salmon \u2014 even when researchers have tried to force it in the lab , rust says .\nthe aquadvantage salmon , as it is known , is an atlantic salmon that has been genetically modified so that it grows to market size faster than a non - engineered farmed salmon , in as little as half the time .\natlantic salmon typically measure 28 to 30 inches and weigh 8 to 12 pounds after two years at sea . they have a number of features to distinguish them from wild salmon :\nthe lake ontario atlantic salmon recovery team will continue to monitor and set benchmarks for the future management of stream fisheries and harvest .\neach atlantic salmon brood fish in the mnrf\u2019s harwood fcs has been implanted with a special microchip . a genetic profile for each individual fish will enable the program to obtain very accurate information about atlantic salmon found in the streams and the lake during monitoring efforts .\natlantic salmon might just be making a come - back after decades of restoration efforts . ( photo : greg thompson / usfws )\nthe wdfw says atlantic salmon is a\nfavored species\nto farm in cold marine waters because the species grows quickly and consistently , is resistant to disease , and is something people like to eat . farmed atlantic salmon are more docile than wild fish .\nthe atlantic salmon is a slender and graceful fish whose latin name means\nthe leaper .\nits distinctive characteristics make the atlantic salmon easy to recognize . it has a small head , blunt nose , small eyes , and a mouth that gapes back below its eye . the mouth contains a row of stout , conical teeth . atlantic salmon have large scales and slightly forked caudal fins . one distinguishing characteristic of atlantic salmon is the presence of an adipose fin , a feature present in all species of trout .\nan examination of the intestinal tract of atlantic salmon , salmo salar l . , parr fed different varieties of soy and maize .\na critical life stage of the atlantic salmon salmo salar : behaviour and survival during the smolt and initial post - smolt migration .\nimpact of catch - and - release practices on behavior and mortality of atlantic salmon ( salmo salar l . ) kelts - sciencedirect\nfeeding behaviour of wild atlantic salmon ( salmo salar l . ) , parr in mid - to late summer in a scottish river\nthe major disease problems affecting atlantic salmon vary with geographic location . some of the more important are included in the table below .\ncan you put those in there ?\nhe asked some commercial fishermen , who brought up a load of atlantic salmon .\nblanchet s , p\u00e1ez dj , bernatchez l , dodson jj . an integrated comparison of captive - bred and wild atlantic salmon (\nfinnengan ak , stevens jr . assessing the long - term genetic impact of historical stocking events on contemporary populations of atlantic salmon ,\nthe united states is a signatory to the convention for the conservation of salmon in the north atlantic ocean read more . . .\nafter decades of trying to get approval by in north america , genetically modified atlantic salmon has been sold to consumers in canada .\neven though wild atlantic salmon stocks have been drastically depleted , farming represents a poor alternative , given the environmental havoc it causes .\nl . , in atlantic canada . in : williams , r . w .\na : streams are critical habitat components in the life cycle of atlantic salmon . atlantic salmon require specific habitat and environmental conditions in the stream at each life stage , and it was the degradation of streams that was the principal factor in their extirpation from lake ontario . that is why the emphasis is being placed on stream habitat restoration for the ultimate recovery of atlantic salmon in the lake .\nbeginning in 2016 , a catch - and - release tributary fishery for atlantic salmon has opened in fisheries management zones 16 and 17 , for which either type of fishing licence applies . please remember to know your fish id and immediately release atlantic salmon back into the river . this year , angler diaries will be available to tributary anglers to record their catches of atlantic salmon and other species .\nasf and its partners continue to put pressure on regulators to site salmon farms away from wild atlantic salmon rivers , and to take seriously the threats of sea lice and other diseases .\nbetween 2003 and 2008 , wdfw ' s aquatic invasive species unit conducted 882 surveys for the presence of atlantic salmon across 174 water bodies , and collected 192 atlantic salmon . an analysis of otolith and scale samples strongly indicated that all of the captured juvenile fish were hatchery escapements and all of the adults were net pen escapees . there was no direct evidence of atlantic salmon spawning or hybridized specimens .\nthe goal of a self - sustaining population of atlantic salmon in lake ontario will take a further 10 - 15 years to achieve .\natlantic salmon are not native to the pacific northwest . for years , they have been bred to become easier to farm \u2014 they ' re more\nhighly domesticated ,\naccording to the washington department of fish and wildlife . most commercial fish farms raise atlantic salmon .\nresearchers say , typically , farmed atlantic salmon don ' t survive well in the wild because they ' re used to being fed .\na catastrophic failure of a large aquaculture pen near cypress island recently freed thousands of nonnative atlantic salmon into puget sound , near seattle .\nthe atlantic salmon has for centuries been named the king of fish for its power and grace . but now it is much more :\nthe new england fishery management council manages the atlantic salmon fishery to enhance the longevity of the species and the sustainability of the fishery .\nc values for the atlantic salmon being analysed , pelagic and benthic primary consumer end - member values for the model , the trophic fractionation between the base of the foodweb and the consumer , and the tissue - specific fractionation between dorsal muscle and scales in atlantic salmon .\ntailoring of atlantic salmon ( salmo salar l . ) flesh lipid composition and sensory quality by replacing fish oil with a vegetable oil blend\ngonen s , lowe nr , cezard t , gharbi k , bishop sc , houston rd . linkage maps of the atlantic salmon (\nsemenova , s . k . and slyn ' ko , v . i . , protein polymor - phism in populations of atlantic salmon\nthe body of peer - reviewed literature on the disastrous impacts of aquaculture on wild atlantic salmon has grown to overwhelming proportions , and in many cases has left wild populations fighting extinction . among the ways in which aquaculture has been proven to disastrously impact wild atlantic salmon :\nfeeding food pills to farmed atlantic salmon . the food pills contain antibiotics , pesticides and chemicals to change the color of their flesh .\nperrier c , evanno g , belliard j , guyomard r , bagliniere jl . natural recolonization of the seine river by atlantic salmon (\nas an anadromous species , atlantic salmon live in freshwater as juveniles but migrate to sea as adults before returning up river to spawn .\nthe atlantic salmon watch program has been monitoring b . c . waters since 1991 and in that time has rarely logged confirmed sightings .\nthe state has said it is worried about farmed salmon outcompeting native salmon for food and spawning grounds .\nin ten years the market for wild alaskan salmon has been replaced by farmed raised atlantic salmon . why ? one reason is wild pacific salmon is in season only one month a year . the other eleven months , wild salmon is only available frozen or in a can . not many opt for canned salmon when fresh salmon is at the seafood counter ready to be wrapped in white paper .\nthe aquabounty salmon , called aquadvantage , is an atlantic salmon that contains a growth hormone gene from a chinook salmon . in the wild , salmon produce the hormone only when the conditions are right for rapid growth . in the aquadvantage salmon , a regulatory switch from an ocean pout gene makes the fish produce growth hormone all the time , so the aquadvantage salmon grow rapidly throughout the year .\na statement from fisheries and oceans canada said the department was aware of the incident , and anyone who suspects they ' ve caught an atlantic salmon in b . c . waters should report it to the atlantic salmon watch program at 1 - 800 - 811 - 6010 .\nanalysis - dfo initially had plans to review the wild atlantic salmon conservation policy in conjunction with the atlantic salmon advisory committee . however it was advised that the review be delayed until after the ministerial committee\u2019s report , as the report may inform and provide input to the review .\nthe river has the largest population of atlantic salmon salmo salar in northern ireland , with around 15 % of the estimated spawning numbers . the majority of the salmon returning are grilse ( single wintering salmon ) , with a smaller but important number of spring salmon ( multi - wintering salmon ) also occurring . research has indicated that individual sub - catchments within the system support genetically distinct salmon populations .\nbeginning around 1990 the rates of atlantic salmon mortality at sea more than doubled , and by 2000 the numbers of atlantic salmon had dropped to critically low levels . in the western atlantic fewer than 100 , 000 of the important multi - sea - winter salmon were returning . rivers of the coast of maine , plus southern new brunswick and much of mainland nova scotia saw runs drop precipitously , and even disappear .\natlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) are found in the temperate and arctic regions of the northern hemisphere . they occur in the rivers of the countries that border both sides of the north atlantic ocean , and the baltic sea .\nfor the first time in centuries , a trio of nests containing viable wild atlantic salmon eggs have been found in the connecticut river system .\n. this figure shows the male genetic map that was constructed based on the salmap atlantic salmon br5 mapping family . ( ppt 2 mb )\n. this figure shows the male genetic map that was constructed based on the salmap atlantic salmon br6 mapping family . ( ppt 2 mb )\ntechnical note : modifying atlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) jumping behavior to facilitate innovation of parasitic sea lice control techniques . - pubmed - ncbi\ngalbreath pf , thorgaard gh ( 1995 ) sexual maturation and fertility of diploid and triploid atlantic salmon\u00d7brown trout hybrids . aquaculture 137 : 299\u2013311 .\nevropeitseva , n . v . and belyaeva , g . v . , experimental ecological analysis of pond - reared young hybrids of atlantic salmon\nthe steelhead has been domesticated for 150 years , much longer than the atlantic salmon . the optimal temperature range for the steelhead is higher than for the atlantic salmon , but since the life cycles of the two species of fish are so similar , producers often grow them together .\nthe battle over open net fish farms has taken a turn following the accidental release of atlantic salmon from a fish farm in puget sound .\njay ritchlin , a spokesman for the david suzuki foundation , said sea lice and atlantic salmon have been a problem in b . c .\nvasemagi a , gross r , paaver t , kangur m , nilsson j , eriksson lo . identification of the origin of atlantic salmon (\nnoaa fisheries service share jurisdiction for the recovery and restoration of the gulf of maine distinct population of atlantic salmon . read more . . .\nage and size of migrating atlantic salmon , salmo salar l . , and sea trout , salmo trutta l . , smolts in lithuanian rivers\ndietrich , et . al ( 2008 ) found a decrease in rainbow trout with an increase in atlantic salmon in a lake ontario tributary .\nanonymous . 1994 . more atlantic salmon stocked in bay state ponds . trout unlimited currents . greater boston chapter . feb . 4 pp .\nofah ( ontario federation of anglers and hunters ) . 2011 . lake ontario atlantic salmon restoration program . urltoken accessed july 26 , 2011 .\nsince the spill on aug . 19 , fisheries and oceans has fielded about 40 reports of atlantic salmon in b . c . waters .\nthere is hereby established an international organization that shall be known as the north atlantic salmon conservation organization , hereinafter referred to as the \u201corganization\u201d .\nhybridization : the risk of escaped atlantic salmon hybridizing with pacific salmon is low . research has demonstrated it is very difficult , even under optimal laboratory conditions , to cross - breed pacific and atlantic salmon and produce viable offspring . should this rare event occur in the wild , the offspring would be functionally sterile and incapable of reproducing .\nin the u . s . , washington and maine are the two largest atlantic salmon producing states , but they ' re small beans compared to salmon farms in canada , norway and chile .\nnet pens are used in fresh and saltwater fish farming . they ' re basically large underwater nets used for holding salmon . washington is the only west coast state where atlantic salmon are farmed .\nfigura , d . 2009 . wild atlantic salmon found in salmon river for first time in more than a century . the post - standard , syracuse , ny . august 19 , 2009 .\nwhen tasting farm raised salmon in comparison to wild pacific salmon , the taste is different . farmed salmon does not have the same texture or taste as wild salmon . that is because farmed salmon is caged and does not have to survive four years in the ocean .\natlantic salmon have a relatively complex life history that includes spawning , juvenile rearing in rivers , and extensive feeding migrations on the high seas . as a result , atlantic salmon go through several distinct phases that can be identified by specific changes in behavior , physiology , and habitat requirements .\nsea - run atlantic salmon usually attain a larger size than do landlocked ( those living in entirely fresh water ) salmon . sea - run salmon range from 2 . 3 to 9 . 1 kg and commercially caught fish average 4 . 5 to 5 . 4 kg . the world record rod - caught atlantic salmon weighed 35 . 89 kg and was caught in the tana river of norway .\nharris g . s . ( 1988 ) the status of exploitation of salmon in england and wales . in : mills d . , piggins d . ( eds ) atlantic salmon . springer , dordrecht\nwhen monitoring returns of adult atlantic salmon in each of the restoration streams , program partners look for signs of successful natural reproduction ( nests ) .\nlake ontario atlantic salmon on display at the royal ontario museum . the stuffed fish was one of five studied by eric guiry and his colleagues .\nconcern about the effects of farmed atlantic salmon on wild puget sound stocks have dogged the industry in recent decades . a september 1999 white paper by wdfw scientists found that evidence available before the summer of 1998 suggested escaped atlantic salmon were not colonizing local watersheds and were not significantly impacting native fish . \u201chowever in 1998 and in 1999 naturally produced atlantic salmon were discovered in streams on vancouver island , british columbia , \u201d the scientists wrote .\nsubstantiates that . the agency has had no reports of atlantic salmon in b . c . for about three years , according to its website .\nj\u00f8rgensen , e . h . and jobling , m . ( 1992 ) feeding behaviour and effect of feeding regime on growth of atlantic salmon ,\nstefansson , s . o . , naevdal , g . and hansen , t . ( 1990 ) growth of different families of atlantic salmon (\natlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) are important worldwide in commercial aquaculture and recreational fisheries and are cultured commercially in marine net pens in puget sound .\n. atlantic salmon are severely affected in most of the infected rivers , while brown trout are known to be resistant . hybrids have an intermediate susceptibility\nurke ha , koksvik j , arnekleiv jv , hindar k , kroglund f , et al . ( 2010 ) seawater tolerance in atlantic salmon ,\nmakhrov , a . a . , kuzishchin , k . v . , and novikov , g . g . , natural hybrids of atlantic salmon\nbut the company ' s farms along b . c . ' s west coast will continue to raise atlantic salmon despite criticism \u2014 from environmentalists and in a report on the collapse of the fraser river sockeye fishery \u2014 about the negative impact the atlantic salmon farms have on wild pacific fish .\nmoore a , russell ic , potter ece . the effects of intraperitoneally implanted dummy acoustic transmitters on the behaviour and physiology of juvenile atlantic salmon ,\ngee , a . s . and milner , n . j . ( 1980 ) analysis of 70 - year catch statistics for atlantic salmon (\nmigration pathways , speed and mortality of atlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) smolts in a scottish river and the near - shore coastal marine environment .\n1 - 800 - 811 - 6010 ( toll - free ) if they have caught or observed atlantic salmon in b . c . waters .\nirish salmon are atlantic salmon and spend their juvenile phase in rivers before migrating to sea to grow and mature . to complete their life cycle they must return to their river of origin to spawn . the salmon who adopt this life cycle are called anadromous .\natlantic salmon hatch in the rivers in spring , mature for two or three years , then swim to sea . some return to the rivers after just one year , but most spend two years at sea , eventually gathering with salmon from all across the atlantic in the waters west of greenland .\nit\u2019s open season on atlantic salmon as the public is urged to help mop up a salmon spill from a damaged net pen holding 305 , 000 fish at a cooke aquaculture fish farm near cypress island .\n] with a couple of corrections . in that table , the homologies between rainbow trout 7p and 7q were assigned an inverted orientation . as shown here , rainbow trout lg 7p corresponds to atlantic salmon lg 31 whereas rainbow trout lg 7q corresponds to atlantic salmon lg 22qa . in addition , atlantic salmon lg 1q corresponds to rainbow trout lg 29p ( i . e . , rt - 29 arms were previously reported in an inverted orientation ) ."]}
{"id": 283, "summary": [{"text": "oleria onega , the onega clearwing or onega glasswing , is a species of butterfly of the nymphalidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from colombia to southern peru .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 52 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the larvae feed on solanum species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the young larvae are transparent and consume their egg shell before beginning to feed on the host plant .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "after each moult the caterpillar consumes its shed skin .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "full-grown larvae are grey , with a yellow line along the length of the body on each side . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "oleria onega", "paragraphs": ["genetic ( rapd ) diversity between oleria onega agarista and oleria onega ssp . ( ithomiinae , nymphalidae , lepidoptera ) in north - eastern peru\ngenetic ( rapd ) diversity between oleria onega agarista and oleria onega ssp . ( ithomiinae , nymphalidae , lepidoptera ) in north - eastern peru .\ngenetic ( rapd ) diversity between oleria onega agarista and oleria onega ssp . ( ithomiinae , nymphalidae , lepidoptera ) in north - eastern peru | springerlink\noleria onega is found from colombia to peru and s . w . brazil .\noleria onega janarilla flies in ecuador and south east colombia ( d\u2019abrera 1984 ) .\ngenetic ( rapd ) diversity between oleria onega agarista and oleria onega ssp . ( ithomiinae , nymphalidae , lepidoptera ) in north - eastern peru . - pubmed - ncbi\nef - 1a - elongation factor - 1 alpha - oleria onega ssp . 2 - 1173 - ef - 1a gene & protein\noleria comprises of about 50 known species , recognisable from the distinctive venation of the hindwings .\nin common with all other ithomiines , females of oleria onega normally lay their eggs directly on the underside of leaves of their foodplants . in the case of onega the preferred foodplant is solanum mite , although other species including s . anceps , s . angustialatum and s . uleanum are also used .\na beautiful glasswing butterfly ( oleria onega ) emerges from its metallic chrysalis . i set up the time - lapse this morning with a canon 100mm macro lens while performing experiments on this species in peru .\no . onega agarista behaved as expected , always laying their eggs on solanum ; but onega ssp . nov laid them instead on rocks , stems , dead leaves and other substrates up to a metre distant from the foodplants .\nin common with most other ithomiines , lateral and altitudinal migrations of oleria species are triggered by seasonal changes in humidity .\n> tr | d5grj3 | d5grj3 _ 9neop elongation factor - 1 alpha ( fragment ) os = oleria onega ssp . 2 - 1173 ox = 672486 gn = ef - 1a pe = 4 sv = 1 idialwkfetakfyvtiidapghrdfiknmitgtsqadcavlivaagtgefeagiskngq trehallaftlgvkqlivgvnkmdsteppyseprfeeikkevssyikkigynpaavafvp isgwhgdnmleastkmpwfkgwqverkegkaegkcliealdailpparptdkalrlplqd vykiggigtvpvgrvetgvlkpgtivvfapanittevksvemhhealqeavpgdnvgfnv knvsvkelrrgyvagdsknsppkgaadftaqvivlnhpgqisngytpvldchtahiackf aeikekvdrrsgkstednpksiksgdaaivnlvpskplcveafqefpplgrfa\nin 2002 gallusser published research findings following a study of 2 onega subspecies found near tarapoto in peru . the two colonies are very close to each other , o . onega agarista being found on the relatively cool wet ne slope of the cerro escalera mountain range , while subspecies o . onega\nssp . nov\n( as yet unnamed ) is found on the hot sunny sw slope .\noleria onega agarista felder and felder and oleria onega ssp . nov . are two ithomiinae subspecies from north - eastern peru , that differ for some morphological and behavioural traits . two contact zones are known near the town of tarapoto : ahuashiyacu , where both subspecies cohabit but do not seem to hybridise , and estero ( near the village of shapaja ) , where they apparently hybridise . genetic differences between the two subspecies and between populations were investigated with random amplified polymorphic dna ( rapd ) markers . both cluster and principal coordinates analyses ( ccoa and pcoa ) performed using these data , provided a clear but weak discrimination between the two subspecies . genetic diversity is much higher within the populations than between them . moreover , the geographically more distant populations are grouped together by the genetic data . morphological traits on the wing patterns of the hybrids are intermediary between the two butterflies subspecies , while rapds data place them closer to o . onega agarista than to o . onega ssp . the individuals of the ahuashiyacu population are clearly separated into two groups , those of o . onega ssp . and o . onega agarista , by both morphology and rapds data . moreover , none of those individuals show rapd similarity with the hybrids , suggesting that hybridisation has not occurred in this population .\noleria onega agarista felder and felder and oleria onega ssp . nov . are two ithomiinae subspecies from north - eastern peru , that differ for some morphological and behavioural traits . two contact zones are known near the town of tarapoto : ahuashiyacu , where both subspecies cohabit but do not seem to hybridise , and estero ( near the village of shapaja ) , where they apparently hybridise . genetic differences between the two subspecies and between populations were investigated with random amplified polymorphic dna ( rapd ) markers . both cluster and principal coordinates analyses ( ccoa and pcoa ) performed using these data , provided a clear but weak discrimination between the two subspecies . genetic diversity is much higher within the populations than between them . moreover , the geographically more distant populations are grouped together by the genetic data . morphological traits on the wing patterns of the hybrids are intermediary between the two butterflies subspecies , while rapds data place them closer to o . onega agarista than to o . onega ssp . the individuals of the ahuashiyacu population are clearly separated into two groups , those of o . onega ssp . and o . onega agarista , by both morphology and rapds data . moreover , none of those individuals show rapd similarity with the hybrids , suggesting that hybridisation has not occurred in this population .\nmales of most oleria species visit eupatorium , from which they acquire pyrrolizidine alkaloids which they pass to the females during copulation , and which is believed to be essential for the production of viable eggs .\ni started the inventory of the butterflies of sangay national park in 2006 . since that time we make all our data available on this site as soon as we get them , even though incomplete , particularly re . identification . so they are everybody\u2019s data , and so we need your help , of you who are familiar with the butterflies from ecuador and from the andes , because : - our data are incomplete , there are butterflies that we could not identify , and obviously there will be mistakes in our work , so your comments will prove very helpful , - and maybe you know of interesting butterflies that have been collected in the park area ? and these data would be priceless . thanks\ni am particularly grateful for guiding me through difficult groups , and identifying many specimens , to : - maurizio bollino , for papilionidae and pieridae , and more particularly catasticta and leodonta that he is presently revising , - pierre boyer , one of the very best experts on andean butterflies and an outstanding fieldworker , - ernst brockmann for hesperiidae , and more precisely pyrrhopygini , eudaminae ans dalla , - robert busby and christophe faynel for lycaenidae another incredibly complex family , - bernard hermier who spent hundreds of hours helping us on hesperridae , an extremely difficult group for which there is very little documentation , - tomasz pyrcz , from warsaw jag\u00ecellonskiego university , for pronophilini , a challenging group particularly important in sangay np , and for which he is the leading expert in the world - fabio vitale , for heliconiidae and , more important , ithomiidae , another baffling group , - et keith r willmott , who is about to publish a book on the butterflies of ecuador , and who is so kind as to share with us his amazing knowledge of the butterflies from this country .\nmore recenlly andree salk made his expertise in riodinidae available to us ; we highly value it as it is a family for which we were rather helpless . jean - claude petit e . mail : rhopalducy @ urltoken\nthe ithomiini comprises of 376 known species , although it is likely that at least another 30 will be discovered in the near future . all are confined to the neotropical region .\nare unpalatable to birds , and are consequently mimicked in appearance by many other species . these include other unpalatable species ( m\u00fcllerian mimics ) , not only from the ithomiinae but also from several other butterfly families . there are also a large number of edible species ( batesian mimics ) which have evolved similar patterns . birds have the ability to memorise butterfly patterns and so learn to avoid eating noxious species , but are also fooled into ignoring similarly marked edible species .\nithomiines are characterised by having small eyes , slender abdomens and long drooping antennae that lack distinct clubs . males have a plume of long androconial scales or\nhair pencils\non the costa of their hindwings . these are hidden from view when the butterflies are at rest , but are displayed when the wings are held open during courtship . other ithomiine characteristics include a very slow and deep wing beat , and a preference for inhabiting the darkest recesses of the forest understorey .\nthere are basically 2 types of ithomiine . the first type are the black and orange - banded\ntigers\n, many of which are mimicked by other species due to their unpalatability to birds . the second type are the\nglasswings\n, recognised by their transparent or translucent wings , prominent veins , and orange wing margins . many genera contain examples of both of these types , and in some cases an individual species may produce adults of both forms according to location .\nmost novices find the ithomiini very difficult to identify . using only the patterns to identify species is very unreliable because there are so many similar species . also many species produce a variety of different colour forms according to locality and season . the best approach therefore is to use the hindwing venation and other anatomical features to identify the genus , and to then look at the wing patterns to short - list the likely species .\nthe butterflies are varied in their habitat requirements - most species occur in lowland rainforests , many others specialise in cloudforest habitats , and a few occur in deciduous forests .\nthis species is associated primarily with wet tropical rainforest habitats , and is most often found in shady damp areas in the vicinity of rivers or streams , at altitudes between 200 - 800m .\ngallusser suspected that the different oviposition strategy was influenced by egg predation , and found that the main threat came from ectatomma ants , which were common on the sw slope , but entirely absent from the ne slope . she also noted that partial deforestation and path clearance on the sw slope allowed more sunlight to penetrate , so that eggs laid on solanum in these situations would be easier for predators to locate . the implication is that ssp . nov is evolving different egg - laying behaviour as a direct result of human interference in its habitat .\nas part of the research , gallusser moved eggs from one site to another , and from one substrate to another , and studied the survival rates of 400 eggs on both mountain slopes . she found that on the sw slope , eggs positioned away from solanum had a much higher survival rate than those on the plants . laboratory and field studies however failed to provide observations of predation , even when the eggs were offered directly to the ants , so it seems possible that the mere presence of the aggressive ants on the foodplants may be enough to discourage the females from ovipositing , forcing them to lay elsewhere .\nthe eggs are white , oval , and laid singly , although several may be dotted about in close proximity by one or more females . the eggs hatch after about 3 days .\nwhen newly hatched the caterpillar is transparent . it consumes its egg shell before beginning to feed on the foodplant . after each moult it consumes its shed skin , leaving only the chitinous head capsule remaining . when fully grown it is grey with a yellow line along the length of the body on each side . it takes only about 12 days from hatching to being ready to pupate .\nthe chrysalis is pale green with shiny metallic golden reflections . the abdominal segments are compressed , and there is a dorsal hump . the overall impression is of a small leaf dripping with rain . the butterfly emerges after about a week .\nthe lifecycle from egg to adult takes about 3 weeks to complete , so in theory up to 17 generations could be produced annually . however during the dry season reproductive activity is minimal . during this period the adults aggregate with numerous other ithomiine species in small pockets within the forest . in brazil and ecuador for example i have found several such aggregations along the beds of small dry streams , where as many as 100 ithomiines of up to 10 different species could be found aestivating among the stilt - like rootlets of palms .\nthe adults are normally found in small\nleks\nof up to a dozen butterflies .\nthe males fly very slowly and almost incessantly around the lek area , only pausing to settle for a moment here and there , at which time they slowly fan their wings , probably to aid dissemination of pheromones from the androconial\nhairs\non their wings .\nfemales visit various flowers for nectar and pollen - the latter may be essential in the production of eggs and the maintenance of ovaries , as has been demonstrated to be the case with heliconiines . females also receive proteins during sperm transfer .\ngravid females fly very slowly , periodically dipping down to investigate solanum plants . having found the foodplant they then spend 2 or 3 minutes testing it , using olfactory sensors on their legs , antennae and abdomens , to determine whether it is solanum mite or another related species .\nall photographs , artwork , text & website design are the property of adrian hoskins ( unless otherwise stated ) and are protected by copyright . photographs or text on this website must not be reproduced in part or in whole or published elsewhere without prior written consent of adrian hoskins / urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nlaboratoire d ' ecologie animale et entonmologie , universit\u00e9 de neuch\u00e2tel , rue emile argand 11 , 2000 neuch\u00e2tel , switzerland .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\neach tol leaf page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a leaf at the tip of the tree of life . the major distinction between a leaf and a branch of the tree of life is that a leaf cannot generally be further subdivided into subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\norigin : evolved as an inedible species to birds and other vertebrate predators , this unique butterfly finds sanctuary inhabiting the darkest areas of the forest understorey .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the \u2018correct annotation\u2019 for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the < a href =\nurltoken\n> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =\nurltoken\n> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been imported from another database using automatic procedures . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000313\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates the name ( s ) of the gene ( s ) that code for the protein sequence ( s ) described in the entry . four distinct tokens exist : \u2018name\u2019 , \u2018synonyms\u2019 , \u2018ordered locus names\u2019 and \u2018orf names\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the \u2018taxonomic identifier\u2019 or \u2018taxid\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the location and the topology of the mature protein in the cell . < p > < a href = ' / help / subcellular _ location _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the tertiary and secondary structure of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / structure _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> family and domains < / a > section describes the position and type of a domain , which is defined as a specific combination of secondary structures organized into a characteristic three - dimensional structure or fold . < p > < a href = ' / help / domain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000259\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the checksum is a form of redundancy check that is calculated from the sequence . it is useful for tracking sequence updates . < / p > < p > it should be noted that while , in theory , two different sequences could have the same checksum value , the likelihood that this would happen is extremely low . < / p > < p > however uniprotkb may contain entries with identical sequences in case of multiple genes ( paralogs ) . < / p > < p > the checksum is computed as the sequence 64 - bit cyclic redundancy check value ( crc64 ) using the generator polynomial : x < sup > 64 < / sup > + x < sup > 4 < / sup > + x < sup > 3 < / sup > + x + 1 . the algorithm is described in the iso 3309 standard . < / p > < p class =\npublication\n> press w . h . , flannery b . p . , teukolsky s . a . and vetterling w . t . < br / > < strong > cyclic redundancy and other checksums < / strong > < br / > < a href =\nurltoken\n> numerical recipes in c 2nd ed . , pp896 - 902 , cambridge university press ( 1993 ) < / a > ) < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018sequence\u2019 section is used for sequence fragments to indicate that the residue at the extremity of the sequence is not the actual terminal residue in the complete protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / non _ ter ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href =\nurltoken\n> uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( \u2018last modified\u2019 ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\ncanon ef 70 - 300mm f / 4 - 5 . 6 is usm telephoto zoom full frame camera lens\nayres , d . r . , d . garcia - rossi , h . g . davis & d . r . strong , 1999 . extent and degree of hybridization between exotic (\n) in california , usa determined by random amplified polymorphic dna ( rapd ) . mol . ecol . 8 : 1179\u20131186 .\ninvestigated by random amplified polymorphic dna ( rapd ) markers . mol . ecol . 8 : 791\u2013802 .\nbarton , n . h . & g . m . hewitt , 1985 . analysis of hybrid zones . ann . rev . ecol . syst . 16 : 113\u2013148 .\nbarton , n . h . & g . m . hewitt , 1989 . adaptation , speciation and hybrid zones . nature 341 : 497\u2013503 .\nbuerkle , c . a . , r . j . morris , m . a . asmussen & l . h . rieseberg , 1999 . the likelihood of homoploid hybrid speciation . heredity 84 : 441\u2013451 .\nexcoffier , l . , p . e . smouse & j . m . quattro , 1992 . analysis of molecular variance inferred from metric distances among dna haplotypes : application to human mitochondrial dna restriction data . genetics 131 : 479\u2013491 .\ngaston , k . j . , 1998 . species - range size distributions : products of speciation , extinction and transformation . phil . trans . royal soc . lond . ser . b 353 : 219\u2013230 .\nguadagnuolo , r . , d . savova - bianchi & f . felber , 2001a . gene flow from wheat (\nhost . ) , as revealed by rapd and microstaellite markers . theor . appl . genet . 103 : 1\u20138 .\nguadagnuolo , r . , d . savova - bianchi & f . felber , 2001b . search for evidence of introgression of wheat (\nl . ) in central and northern europe , using isozymes , rapd and microsatellite markers . theor . appl . genet . 103 : 191\u2013196\nguadagnuolo , r . , d . savova - bianchi & f . felber , 2001c . specific genetic markers for wheat , spelt , and four wild relatives : comparison of isozymes , rapd ' s , and wheat microsatellites . genome 44 : 1\u201312 .\nhewitt , g . m . , 1988 . hybrid zones - natural laboratories for evolutionary studies . trends ecol . evol . 3 : 158\u2013167 .\nhuff , d . r . , r . peakall & p . e . smouse , 1993 . rapd variation within and among natural populations of outcrossing buffalograss , ( buchlo\u00eb dactyloides ( nutt . ) engelm ) . theor . appl . genet . 86 : 927\u2013934 .\njoron , m . , 2000 . coloration avertissante et mimetisme m\u00fcll\u00e9rien : le probl\u00e8 me de la diversification th\u00e8 se de doctorat , universit\u00e9 des sciences et techniques du languedoc , montpellier . acad\u00e9mie de montpellier .\nbutterflies : the evidence from hybrid zones , pp . 226\u2013260 in hybrid zones and the evolutionary process , edited by r . g . harrisson . oxford university press , new york .\nmallet , j . & n . barton , 1989 . inference from clines stabilized by frequency - dependent selection . genetics 122 : 967\u2013976 .\nmcmillan , w . o . , c . d . jiggins & j . mallet , 1997 . what initiates speciation in passion - vine butterflies ? proc . natl . acad . sci . 94 : 8628\u20138633 .\n) based on random amplified polymorphic dna - polymerase chain reaction . mol . ecol . 10 : 891\u2013897 .\nn\u00e8 ve , g . & e . meglecz , 2000 . microsatellite frequencies in different taxa . trends ecol . evol . 15 : 376\u2013377 .\npage , r . d . m . , 1996 . treeview : an application to display phylogenetic trees on personal computers . comp . appl . biosci . 12 : 357\u2013358 .\nrieseberg , l . h . , j . whiton & k . gardner , 1999b . hybrid zones and the genetic architecture of a barrier to gene flow between two wild sunflower species . genetics 152 : 713\u2013727 .\n) , and resurrect two subspecies . mol . ecol . 10 : 603\u2013611 .\nschneider , s . , d . roessli & l . excoffier , 2000 . arlequin version 2 . 000 : a software for population genetic data analysis . university of geneva , geneva , switzerland urltoken\nschulte , r . , 1999 . die pfeilgiftfr\u00f6sche - artenteil , peru ( vol . 2 ) inibico - waiblingen , germany , waiblingen .\non ross island , east antartica . mol . ecol . 8 : 753\u2013762 .\npopulations in a naturally fragmented landscape . mol . ecol . 10 : 35\u201340 .\nwiesing , k . , h . nybom , k . wolff & w . meyer , 1994 . dna fingerprinting in plants and fungi . crc press , boca raton .\nwilliams , j . g . k . , a . r . kubelik , k . j . livak , j . a . rafalski & s . v . tingey , 1990 . dna polymorphisms amplified by arbitrary primers are useful as genetic markers . nucl . acids res . 18 : 6531\u20136535 .\nwolf , d . , n . takebayashi & l . h . rieseberg , 2001 . predicting the risk of extinction through hybridization . conserv . biol . 15 : 1039\u20131053 ."]}
{"id": 290, "summary": [{"text": "megalagrion xanthomelas ( orangeblack hawaiian damselfly ) is a species of damselfly in the family coenagrionidae that is endemic to hawaii .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "its natural habitats are rivers and shrub-dominated wetlands .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "megalagrion xanthomelas", "paragraphs": ["david eickhoff marked\nmegalagrion xanthomelas\nas trusted on the\nmegalagrion xanthomelas\npage .\ndavid eickhoff set\nmegalagrion xanthomelas\nas an exemplar on\nmegalagrion xanthomelas selys 1876\n.\ndamselfly species that co - occur on oahu include megalagrion nigrohamatum nigrolineatum , megalagrion hawaiiense , and megalagrion oceanicum in kane ' ohe bay ; megalagrion nigrohamatum nigrolineatum , megalagrion hawaiiense , megalagrion oceanicum , and megalagrion leptodemas on the windward side ; megalagrion nigrohamatum nigrolineatum , megalagrion hawaiiense , and megalagrion xanthomelas on the leeward / pearl harbor side ( englund , 2005 ) .\nmegalagrion xanthomelas s\u00e3\u00a9lys - longchamps . the taxonomic status of this species is accepted as valid .\nisolation and characterization of 16 polymorphic microsatellite loci in the endemic hawaiian damselfly megalagrion xanthomelas ( odonata : coenagrionidae ) .\nodonata specialist group 1996 . megalagrion xanthomelas . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 10 august 2007 .\nisolation and characterization of 16 polymorphic microsatellite loci in the endemic hawaiian damselfly megalagrion xanthomelas ( odonata : coenagrion . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nresearch into habitat management would be valuable . breeding and translocation efforts are being pursued ; successful translocation of m . xanthomelas into regions of restored habitat could be a model for other threatened megalagrion species .\nenglund , r . 1998 . response of the orangeblack hawaiian damselfly ( megalagrion xanthomelas ) , a candidate threatened species , to increases in stream flow . bishop museum occasional papers 56 : 19 - 24 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 2003 . candidate assessment and listing priority assignment form - megalagrion xanthomelas . u . s . fish and wildlife service , pacific islands office . 22 pp .\npolhemus , d . a . 1996 . the orangeblack hawaiian damselfly , megalagrion xanthomelas ( odonata : coenagrionidae ) : clarifying the current range of a threatened species . bishop museum occasional papers 45 : 30 - 53 .\nreston d . j . , englund r . a . , and mcshane m . k . k . 2007 . translocation and monitoring efforts to establish a second population of the rare megalagrion xanthomelas ( s\u00e3\u00a9lys - longchamps ) on o\u2019ahu , hawai\u2019i ( zygoptera : coenagrionidae ) .\nenglund , r . a . 2001 . long - term monitoring of one of the most restricted insect populations in the united states , megalagrion xanthomelas ( selys - longchamps ) , at tripler army medical center , oahu , hawaii ( zygoptera : coenagrionidae ) . odonatologica 30 ( 3 ) : 225 - 263 .\nenglund , r . a . 2001 . long - term monitoring of one of the most restricted insect populations in the united states , megalagrion xanthomelas ( selys - longchamps ) , at tripler army medical center , oahu , hawaii ( zygoptera : coenagrionidae ) . odonatologica , 30 ( 3 ) : 255 - 263 .\nmegalagrion xanthomelas is endemic to the islands of nihau , oahu , lanai , molokai , maui , hawaii , and possibly kauai . m . xanthomelas is extirpated on maui and kauai , and was believed to have been extirpated on oahu until the discovery of a single population in 1994 . its limited habitat and small scattered populations may affect long - term stability . the species is susceptible to the effects of habitat loss and introduced species . research should focus on habitat management and protection , control of invasive species , and translocation efforts .\nmicrosatellite loci have been isolated from two species of endemic hawaiian damselflies , megalagrion xanthomelas and m . eudytum , that are of conservation concern . sixteen polymorphic loci were characterized in 32 m . xanthomelas from one population on molokai and one on hawaii island . the total number of alleles per locus ranged from two to 16 and observed population heterozygosity ranged from 0 . 0 to 0 . 963 . eleven of these loci amplified successfully in m . eudytum as well . these loci will be used to further conservation efforts and infer genetic consequences of pleistocene glaciations .\nevenhuis , n . , d . polhemus , s . swift , k . arakaki , and d . preston . 1995 . a study of the biology of the orangeblack hawaiian damselfly ( megalagrion xanthomelas ) , with special reference to conservation of the population at tripler army medical center , oahu , hawaii . bishop mus . tech . rep 8 . 81 pp .\nmoore , n . w . 1983 . territorial behaviour in the genus megalagrion mclachlan ( zygoptera : coenagrionidae ) . odonatoligica 12 ( 1 ) : 87 - 92 .\npolhemus d . a . 1993 . damsels in distress : a review of the conservation status of hawaiian megalagrion damselflies ( odonata : coenagrionidae ) . aquatic conservation 3 ( 4 ) : 343 - 349 .\nenglund r . a . 1999 . the impacts of introduced poeciliid fish and odonata on the endemic megalagrion ( odonata ) damselflies of oahu island , hawaii . journal of insect conservation . 3 : 225 - 243 .\npolhemus , d . a . 1994b . a revision of the hawaiian damselflies in the genus megalagrion ( odonata : coenagrionidae ) . unpublished report to u . s . fish and wildlife service , pacific islands office .\npolhemus , d . a . , h . oppenheimer , f . starr , and k . martz . 1999 . notable rediscoveries of megalagrion species on maui ( odonata : coenagrionidae ) . bishop museum occasional papers 59 : 27 - 29 . p\npolhemus , d . a . 2007 . biology recapitulates geology : the distribution of megalagrion damselflies on the ko ' olau volcano of o ' ahu , hawai ' i . bishop museum bulletin in cultural and environmental studies 3 : 233 - 246 .\nmoore , n . w . and w . c . gagne . 1982 . megalagrion pacificum ( mclachlan ) - a preliminary study of the conservation requirements of an endangered species . reports of the odonata specialist group , iucn 3 : 1 - 5 .\nthis species was historically common and abundant in a variety of lowland habitats through the 1970s , after which populations declined . recent surveys have found populations on the islands of hawaii , lanai , molokai , mauai , and oahu . m . xanthomelas was extirpated on kauai and was thought to be extinct on oahu until a single remnant population was found on the grounds of the at the tripler army medical facility ( englund 2001 ) . additional populations are localized on : lanai ( artificial pond at koele ) ; molokai ( mouths of pelekunu and waikolu streams , palaau wetlands on the south coast ) ; mauai ( ukumehame stream , and near anchialine pools at la perouse bay ; polhemus et al . 1999 ) ; and in coastal wetlands on hawaii ( anaehoomalu bay , hawa bay , hilea stream , hilo , honokohau , kiholo bay , ninole springs , onomea bay , and whittington beach ; polhemus 1995 ) .\nnymphs reach up to 18 - 20 mm ( 0 . 7 - 0 . 8 in . ) in length . they have three flattened leaf - like gills at the tip of the abdomen ; the gills are longer than the combined length of the last five segments of the abdomen , and each comes to a small point at the tip ( polhemus & asquith 1996 ) .\nnecessary actions include monitoring known populations and searching for new ones , habitat protection , and removal of invasive species .\ndaigle , j . 2000 . the distribution of the odonata of hawaii . bulletin of american entomology 6 ( 1 ) : 1 - 5 .\nhawaiian terrestrial arthropoda checklist . 2nd edition . 1994 . nishida , g . m . ( ed . ) hawaii biological survey , contribution no . 94 - 04 . bishop museum . honolulu , hawaii . 287 pp .\nmcpeek , m . a . 1990 . behavioral differences between enallagma species ( odonata ) influencing differential vulnerability to predators . ecology 71 : 1714 - 1726 .\npolhemus , d . a . 1995 . new heteroptera and odonata ( insecta ) records and range extensions in the hawaiian islands . bishop museum occasional papers 42 : 42 - 43 .\npolhemus , d . a . and asquith , a . 1996 . hawaiian damselflies . a field identification guide . bishop museum press , honolulu .\nselys - longchamps , e . 1876 . synopsis des agrionines , 5me legion : agrion . bull . acad . royal belgique , ( ii ) 41 ( 2 , 3 ) : 1 - 282 . as referenced : in zimmerman , e . c . 1948 . insects of hawaii , vol . 2 . apterygota - thysanoptera . university of hawaii press , honolulu .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 2007 . species assessment for the orangeblack hawaiian damselfly . available online .\nsign up for our newsletter to receive up to date information about our programs and events .\nthe xerces society \u2022 628 ne broadway ste 200 , portland or 97232 usa \u2022 tel 855 . 232 . 6639 \u2022 fax 503 . 233 . 6794 website terms of use \u2022 privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nendemic to the islands of oahu , lanai , molokai , maui and hawaii , hawaiian islands .\ndestruction of wetlands by resort development ; alteration of stream terminal reaches for agriculture ; introduced poeciliid fishes .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nnishida , g . m . , ed . 1994a . hawaiian terrestrial arthropoda checklist . second edition . hawaii biological survey , contribution no . 94 - 04 . bishop museum : honolulu , hawaii . 287 pp .\npopulations have decreased from common presence on all main hawaiian islands to 25 populations on four islands with total number of individuals estimated to exceed 1 , 000 . decline strongly associated with introduction of predatory fish and crayfish which remain a threat . coastal wetland populations on hawaii are locally abundant , but oahu population is definitely at risk .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nhistorically known from all the main hawaiian islands except kahoolawe ( 6 localities on oahu , 5 on molokai , 1 on maui , 4 on hawaii , and unspecified on kauai ) ( pohlmeus , 1996 ) . until recently , the last report on oahu was in 1935 ( williams 1936 ) and it was believed extinct on this island until 1993 , when a very small population was discovered existing in pools of an intermittent stream at the tripler army medical facility . this is the only known population of this species on oahu . its range is now reduced to 25 populations on oahu , lanai , molokai , and hawaii islands ( usfws , 2003 ) .\nthe number of individuals across all 25 populations probably exceeds 1 , 000 . a study of the single remnant oahu population ( evenhuis et al . 1995 ) indicated that the number of individuals observed at the site ranged between 20 and 100 based on multiple visits .\nthe number of individuals across all 25 populations probably exceeds 1 , 000 . a study of the single remnant oahu population ( evenhuis et al . 1995 ) indicated that the number of individuals observed at the site ranged between 20 and 100 based on multiple visits . surveys in the tripler army medical center ( oahu , hawaii ) stream indicated a robust population with numbers varying from 17 to 162 ( englund , 2001 ) .\nthe species is quite rare on oahu , localized on lanai and molokai , but locally abundant in coastal wetlands on hawaii . given its relatively broad breeding habitat requirements , recovery should be fairly easy if the significant threats to the species were incontrovertably identified and controlled . although the species as a whole receives a lower global ranking than some of the other hawaiian damselflies , the oahu population is definitely at risk .\nalthough extensive surveys have already been conducted , the habits of this species may allow it to survive in small isolated pockets . continued survey is necessary to identify any other extant populations then those already identified .\ntransplants are necessary to maintain genetic diversity ( see englund , 2001 ) but previous transplants have been unsuccessful due to predators . mitigation water flow ponds are the primary reason why the tripler army medical center ( oahu , hawaii ) population still remains and has not been extirpated , although flaws in their design have are apparent ( englund , 2001 ) .\n( 1000 - 5000 square km ( about 400 - 2000 square miles ) ) historically known from all the main hawaiian islands except kahoolawe ( 6 localities on oahu , 5 on molokai , 1 on maui , 4 on hawaii , and unspecified on kauai ) ( pohlmeus , 1996 ) . until recently , the last report on oahu was in 1935 ( williams 1936 ) and it was believed extinct on this island until 1993 , when a very small population was discovered existing in pools of an intermittent stream at the tripler army medical facility . this is the only known population of this species on oahu . its range is now reduced to 25 populations on oahu , lanai , molokai , and hawaii islands ( usfws , 2003 ) .\nthe males are black with red markings on the thorax , the first 3 , and last 3 segments of the abdomen . the females have similar color patterning , but with tan rather than red coloration . more detailed descriptions and color photos are available in polhemus and asquith ( 1996 ) .\nimmature eats primarily aquatic diptera larvae , such as midges and mosquitos . both stages are opportunistic and readily accept any moving prey within right size range .\nthe biology of the species has been studied for oahu ( evenhuis , et al . 1995 ) , and reviewed by polhemus ( 1996 ) for all islands , but more detailed studies are needed for populations on hawaii island , many of which live in mixohaline environments . research is needed to understand the actual threats to the species .\nwithin catchments there are likely no significant barriers to movement of sexually mature adults between microhabitats , with even extensive sections of inappropriate waterway or major obstructions to flow being readily traversed by adults within the flight season .\nthe few studies determining area of adult foraging habitat surrounding breeding sites have indicated a range of 30 meters to 300 meters [ see briggs ( 1993 ) for enallagma laterale ; corbet ( 1999 ) for nesciothemis nigeriensis and calopteryx haemorrhoidalis ; beukeman ( 2002 ) for calopteryx haemorrhoidalis ; and samways and steytler ( 1996 ) for chorolestes tessalatus ] . as a result , an element occurrence should include the breeding site and surrounding pond or upland habitat extending 500 m in a radius from the breeding site .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\ncordeiro , j . ( 2005 ) ; nishida , gordon m . reviewed by polhemus , dan a . ( 1997 )\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nenglund , r . a . 2005 . threats to native aquatic diversity in hawai ' i and the pacific , and challenges in their conservation . phd . dissertation , university of hawai ' i . 202 pp .\ngagne , w . c . and f . g . howarth . 1982 . assessment of endangered and threatened status of hawaiian arthropods . report to u . s . fish and wildlife service , pacific islands office , honolulu , hawaii .\nharwood , p . d . 1976 . dragonflies ( odonata ) observed in hawaii in 1973 and 1974 . proceedings of the hawaiian entomological society 22 : 251 - 254 .\npaulson , d . r . , and s . w . dunkle . 2009 . a checklist of north american odonata including english name , etymology , type locality , and distribution . originally published as occasional paper no . 56 , slater museum of natural history , university of puget sound , june 1999 ; completely revised march 2009 . online . available : urltoken\npolhemus , d . and a . asquith . 1996 . hawaiian damselflies : a field identification guide . hawaii biological survey handbook , bishop museum press , honolulu , hawaii . 122 pp .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 1998 . category and listing priority forms .\nwilliams , f . x . 1936a . biological studies in hawaiian water - loving insects . part ii order odonata . proceedings of the hawaiian entomological society 9 ( 2 ) : 273 - 349 .\nzimmerman , e . c . 1948b . odonata . pages 321 - 385 in insects of hawaii . volume 2 . univeristy of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ndepartment of biology , bucknell university , lewisburg , pa 17837 , usa , department of ecology and evolutionary biology , cornell university , corson hall , ithaca , ny 14853 , usa .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nglobal range : ( 1000 - 5000 square km ( about 400 - 2000 square miles ) ) historically known from all the main hawaiian islands except kahoolawe ( 6 localities on oahu , 5 on molokai , 1 on maui , 4 on hawaii , and unspecified on kauai ) ( pohlmeus , 1996 ) . until recently , the last report on oahu was in 1935 ( williams 1936 ) and it was believed extinct on this island until 1993 , when a very small population was discovered existing in pools of an intermittent stream at the tripler army medical facility . this is the only known population of this species on oahu . its range is now reduced to 25 populations on oahu , lanai , molokai , and hawaii islands ( usfws , 2003 ) .\nnon - migrant : no . all populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make local extended movements ( generally less than 200 km ) at particular times of the year ( e . g . , to breeding or wintering grounds , to hibernation sites ) .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km .\ncomments : immature eats primarily aquatic diptera larvae , such as midges and mosquitos . both stages are opportunistic and readily accept any moving prey within right size range .\nnote : for many non - migratory species , occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations .\ncomments : the number of individuals across all 25 populations probably exceeds 1 , 000 . a study of the single remnant oahu population ( evenhuis et al . 1995 ) indicated that the number of individuals observed at the site ranged between 20 and 100 based on multiple visits .\nreasons : populations have decreased from common presence on all main hawaiian islands to 25 populations on four islands with total number of individuals estimated to exceed 1 , 000 . decline strongly associated with introduction of predatory fish and crayfish which remain a threat . coastal wetland populations on hawaii are locally abundant , but oahu population is definitely at risk .\ncomments : the species is quite rare on oahu , localized on lanai and molokai , but locally abundant in coastal wetlands on hawaii . given its relatively broad breeding habitat requirements , recovery should be fairly easy if the significant threats to the species were incontrovertably identified and controlled . although the species as a whole receives a lower global ranking than some of the other hawaiian damselflies , the oahu population is definitely at risk .\nbiological research needs : the biology of the species has been studied for oahu ( evenhuis , et al . 1995 ) , and reviewed by polhemus ( 1996 ) for all islands , but more detailed studies are needed for populations on hawaii island , many of which live in mixohaline environments . research is needed to understand the actual threats to the species .\nneeds : transplants are necessary to maintain genetic diversity ( see englund , 2001 ) but previous transplants have been unsuccessful due to predators . mitigation water flow ponds are the primary reason why the tripler army medical center ( oahu , hawaii ) population still remains and has not been extirpated , although flaws in their design have are apparent ( englund , 2001 ) ."]}
{"id": 295, "summary": [{"text": "ctenosaura quinquecarinata , commonly known as the club tail iguana or the five-keeled spiny-tailed iguana is a species of lizard in the family iguanidae endemic to central america . ", "topic": 29}], "title": "ctenosaura quinquecarinata", "paragraphs": ["cyclura quinquecarinata gray 1842 : 59 enyaliosaurus quinquecarinatus \u2014 gray 1845 : 192 cyclura ( ctenosaura ) quinquecarinata \u2014 cope 1870 : 161 ctenosaura ( enyaliosaurus ) quinquecarinata \u2014 bocourt 1874 ( in : dum\u00e9ril & bocourt ) ctenosaura quinquecarinata \u2014 boulenger 1885 : 198 ctenosaura quinquecarinata \u2014 g\u00fcnther 1885 : 58 ctenosaura quinquecarinata \u2014 bailey 1928 enyaliosaurus quinquecarinata \u2014 smith & taylor 1950 : 76 enyaliosaurus quinquecarinatus \u2014 peters & donoso - barros 1970 enyaliosaurus quinquecarinatus \u2014 gicca 1983 ctenosaura quinquecarinatus \u2014 liner 1994 ctenosaura quinquecarinata \u2014 k\u00f6hler 2000 : 75 ctenosaura ( enyaliosaurus ) quinquecarinata \u2014 k\u00f6hler et al . 2000 ctenosaura praeocularis hasb\u00fan & k\u00f6hler 2009 ctenosaura praeocularis \u2014 malone et al . 2017\ntanya higgins added the english common name\nclub tail iguana\nto\nctenosaura quinquecarinata gray 1842\n.\ncyclura sp . ; iguana iguana ; sauromalus sp . ; iguana delicatissima ; cyclura rileyi ; cyclura ricordii ; cyclura pinguis ; cyclura nubila ; cyclura cychlura ; cyclura cornuta ; cyclura collei ; cyclura carinata ; ctenosaura similis ; ctenosaura quinquecarinata ; ctenosaura pectinata ; ctenosaura palearis ; ctenosaura oedirhina ; ctenosaura hemilopha ; ctenosaura defensor ; ctenosaura clarki ; ctenosaura bakeri ; ctenosaura acanthura ; conolophus subcristatus ; conolophus pallidus ; amblyrhynchus cristatus ; sauromalus obesus ; sauromalus australis ; sauromalus varius ; sauromalus hispidus ; sauromalus slevini ; sauromalus klauberi ; sauromalus ater ; ctenosaura sp . ; iguana sp . ; conolophus sp . ; dipsosaurus sp . ; brachylophus sp . ; amblyrhynchus sp .\ntanya higgins added the english common name\nfive - keeled spiny - tailed iguana\nto\nctenosaura quinquecarinata gray 1842\n.\nmitochondrial dna phylogeography of the mesoamerican spiny - tailed lizards ( ctenosaura quinquecarinata complex ) : historical biogeography , species status and conservation .\nburr\u00e9 , g . 2004 . bastardierung zwischen ctenosaura quinquecarinata und c . oaxana . iguana rundschreiben 17 ( 1 ) : 17 - 21\nhuy , a . 2008 . erfahrungen und nachzucht des f\u00fcnfkiel - schwarzleguans ( ctenosaura quinquecarinata ) . iguana rundschreiben 21 ( 2 ) : 5 - 9\nmitochondrial dna phylogeography of the mesoamerican spiny - tailed lizards ( ctenosaura quinquecarinata complex ) : historical biogeography , species st . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nat least two species , ctenosaura pectinata and ctenosaura similis , have been introduced into the united states in southern texas and miami , florida .\nhasbun , c . r . & g . k\u00f6hler 2001 . on the identity of the holotype of ctenosaura quinquecarinata ( gray 1842 ) . senckenbergiana biologica 81 : 247 - 255\nctenosaura quinquecarinata is known from isolated subpopulations in pacific versant nicaragua and northwestern costa rica . extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 km\u00b2 and area of occupancy is less than 500 km\u00b2 .\nk\u00f6hler , g . 1995 . freilanduntersuchungen zur morphologie und lebensweise des f\u00fcnfkiel - schwarzleguas ctenosaura quinquecarinata am isthmus von thuantepec , mexico . herpetofauna 17 ( 97 ) : 21 - 26 - get paper here\nthis is a male san esteban island spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura conspicuosa ) .\ndistribution : not listed for honduras and el salvador by k\u00f6hler ( 2000 ) . not listed for honduras by wilson & mccranie ( 2002 ) . not in mexico and el salvador fide huy ( 2008 ) . not in oaxaca fide mata - silva et al . 2015 . burr\u00e9 ( 2004 ) described hybridization between ctenosaura oaxacana and ctenosaura quinquecarinata .\nk\u00f6hler , g . & c . r . hasbun 2001 . a new species of spiny - tailed iguana from mexico formerly referred to ctenosaura quinquecarinata ( gray 1842 ) ( reptilia , squamata , iguanidae ) . senckenbergiana biologica 81 : 257 - 267\nhasbun , c . r . ; gomez , a . ; kohler , g . ; lunt , d . h . 2005 . mitochondrial dna phylogeography of the mesoamerican spiny - tailed lizards ( ctenosaura quinquecarinata complex ) : historical biogeography , species status and conservation . molecular ecology 14 ( 1 ) : 3095 - 3107 .\nctenosaura is a lizard genus commonly known as spinytail iguanas or ctenosaurs . the genus is part of the large lizard family , iguanidae and is native to mexico and central america .\nbailey , j . w . 1928 . a revision of the lizards of the genus ctenosaura . proc . us natl . mus . 73 : 1 - 55 . - get paper here\nhasb\u00fan , carlos roberto and gunther k\u00f6hler 2009 . new species of ctenosaura ( squamata , iguanidae ) from southeastern honduras . journal of herpetology 43 ( 2 ) : 192 - 204 - get paper here\ngutsche , alexander ; frank k\u00f6hler 2008 . phylogeography and hybridization in ctenosaura species ( sauria , iguanidae ) from caribbean honduras : insights from mitochondrial and nuclear dna . zoosystematics and evolution 84 ( 2 ) : 245 - 253\nthe world record sprint speed for lizards ( 21 . 5 miles / h or 34 . 6 km / h ) was attained by the costa rican spiny - tailed iguana ( ctenosaura similis ) . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]\nk\u00f6hler , g . ; w . schroth & b . streit 2000 . systematics of the ctenosaura group of lizards ( reptilia : sauria : iguanidae ) . amphibia - reptilia 21 ( 2 ) : 177 - 191 - get paper here\nkelly paul is a hobbyist with a lifelong interest in reptiles . he has bred more than two dozen species , including six ctenosaura . he has been a guest speaker at several events , including the international herpetological symposium . email him at blueghostreptile @ urltoken .\nmalone , catherine l . ; v\u00edctor hugo reynoso , larry buckley 2017 . never judge an iguana by its spines : systematics of the yucatan spiny tailed iguana , ctenosaura defensor ( cope , 1866 ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 115 : 27 - 39 - get paper here\nctenosaura care is universal . . . . . . . . there are many resources available if you do the reasearch . . . . . . . you keep one on sand and you ' ll end up with cteno jerky though . . . . . . .\nthe genus ctenosaura represents the most diverse group of iguanas with 15 currently recognized species and at least two unrecognized species . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] these species inhabit lowland dry forests , below 1 , 200 metres ( 3 , 900 ft ) elevation , on both coasts of mexico and central america . [ 3 ] all species of ctenosaura fall within one of seven clades . [ 3 ] distributions of these clades fall geographically within well established areas . [ 3 ] closely related species show allopatry whereas species from divergent clades show sympatry . [ 3 ]\nspiny - tailed iguanas are gaining popularity in the u . s . , with increasing numbers being bred in captivity . wild - caught spiny - tails are also available , most commonly the club - tailed iguana ( c . quinquecarinata ) . there are also introduced populations of the black spiny - tailed iguana ( c . similis ) and mexican spiny - tailed iguana ( c . pectinata ) in florida , and many of these two species are sold in the pet trade .\njustification : ctenosaura quinquecarinata has an extent of occurrence less than 5 , 000 km\u00b2 ( en b1 ) and an area of occupancy less than 500 km\u00b2 ( en b2 ) . total population size is not known , but it is thought that there may be fewer than 2 , 500 mature individuals . the population is severely fragmented : probably 10\u201315 isolated subpopulations ( en b1a + 2a ) and is threatened by declining area and quality of habitat as a result of deforestation and regular burning of habitat ( en b1b ( iii ) + 2b ( iii ) ) . the species is also collected for the international pet trade ( en b1b ( v ) + 2b ( v ) ) . the population is expected to decline by at least 30 % over the next ten years if current rates of habitat loss continue .\nlots of ctenosauras are from tropical dry forests . this species in particular is from very hot areas where it is very dry in nicaragua and costa rica . a small group will be fine in a 48x24x24 with peat and sand mixture as a substrate and some branches for them to bask ( 110 - 115f ) . larger species of ctenosaura are born omnivorous turning almost completely herbivorous as adults , it is believed by some people that smaller species ( like yours ) stay omnivorous throughout their entire life .\nspiny - tailed iguanas ( ctenosaura spp . ) are native to hot and dry areas of mexico and central america . they can make great pets or display animals . despite laws to protect them , most spiny - tailed iguana populations are declining in the wild due to hunting , loss of habitat and poaching for the pet trade . every effort should be made to purchase captive - born - and - bred animals because they generally are hardier and less skittish , and purchasing them helps take pressure off wild populations .\ntype locality : unknown . restricted to tehuantepec , oaxaca , by bailey 1928 .\npraeocularis : honduras ; type locality : cerro las mesitas , 10 km east of sabanagrande toward nueva armenia , montegrande , departamento francisco moraz\u00e1n , honduras , 800 m elevation , 13\u00b046 . 43\u2019n , 86\u00b011 . 83\u2019w .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nholotype : bmnh 1946 . 8 . 30 . 48 holotype : smf 79520 , an adult male , collected 8 august 1999 by carlos roberto hasb\u00fan . field tag number h4 [ praeocularis ]\nalberts , a . c . ; carter , r . l . ; hayes , w . k . & martins , e . p . ( eds . ) 2004 . iguanas - biology and conservation . university of california press , 356 pp .\narakelyan , marine s . ; felix d . danielyan , claudia corti , roberto sindaco , and alan e . leviton 2011 . the herpetofauna of armenia and nagorno - karabakh . ssar , salt lake city , 154 pp . [ isbn : 978 - 0 - 916984 - 84 - 7 . ]\nboulenger , g . a . 1885 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( natural history ) . vol . 2 , second edition . london , xiii + 497 pp . - get paper here\nbuckley , larry j . ; kevin de queiroz , tandora d . grant , bradford d . hollingsworth , john b . iverson ( chair , < br / > stesha a . pasachnik , and catherine l . stephen ( iguana taxonomy working group , itwg 2016 . a checklist of the iguanas of the world ( iguanidae ; iguaninae ) . herp . cons . biol . 11 ( monograph 6 ) - get paper here\ncope , e . d . 1870 . seventh contribution to the herpetology of tropical america . proc . amer . philos . soc . 11 : 147 - 169 [ 1869 ] - get paper here\ncope , e . d . 1886 . on the species of iguaninae . proc . amer . philos . soc . 23 ( 122 ) : 261 - 271 - get paper here\ngicca , d . f . 1983 . enyaliosaurus quinquecarinatus . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles ( 329 : 1 - 2 . - get paper here\ngray , j . e . 1842 . description of some new species of reptiles , chiefly from the british museum collection . zoological miscellany 2 : 57 - 59 . - get paper here\ngray , j . e . 1845 . catalogue of the specimens of lizards in the collection of the british museum . trustees of die british museum / edward newman , london : xxvii + 289 pp . - get paper here\ng\u00fcnther , a . c . l . g . 1885 . reptilia and batrachia . biologia centrali - am\u00e9ricana . taylor , & francis , london , 326 pp . [ published in parts from 1885 - 1902 ; reprint by the ssar 1987 ] - get paper here\nhidalgo , h . n . 1980 . enyaliosaurus quinquecarinatus ( gray ) and leptodeira nigrofasciata g\u00fcnther in el salvador . herpetological review 11 : 42 - 43 - get paper here\nk\u00f6hler , g . 2000 . reptilien und amphibien mittelamerikas , bd 1 : krokodile , schildkr\u00f6ten , echsen . herpeton verlag , offenbach , 158 pp .\nk\u00f6hler , g . 2008 . reptiles of central america . 2nd ed . herpeton - verlag , 400 pp .\nmccranie , james r . 2015 . a checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of honduras , with additions , comments on taxonomy , some recent taxonomic decisions , and areas of further studies needed . zootaxa 3931 ( 3 ) : 352\u2013386 - get paper here\nrohde , h . 1989 . zur pflege von enyaliosaurus quinquecarinatus ( gray 1842 ) . sauria 11 ( 2 ) : 11 - 13 - get paper here\nsavage , j . m . 2002 . the amphibians and reptiles of costa rica : a herpetofauna between two continents , between two seas . university of chicago press , 934 pp . [ review in copeia 2003 ( 1 ) : 205 ]\nsoli\u0301s , j . m . , l . d . wilson , and j . h . townsend . 2014 . an updated list of the amphibians and reptiles of honduras , with comments on their nomenclature . mesoamerican herpetology 1 : 123\u2013144 - get paper here\nsunyer , javier 2014 . an updated checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of nicaragua . mesoamerican herpetology 1 ( 2 ) : 186\u2013202 . - get paper here\nulber , t . & h . rohde 1989 . zur nomenklatur , verbreitung und zum aggressionsverhalten von enyaliosaurus quinquecarinatus . sauria 11 ( 3 ) : 21 - 22 - get paper here\nvilla , r . j . , and n . j . scott 1967 . the iguanid lizard enyaliosaurus in nicaragua . copeia 1967 ( 2 ) : 474 - 476 - get paper here\nwerning , h . 2003 . ein neuer schwarzleguan und eine schlangengattung aus mittelamerika . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 8 ( 40 ) : 12 - 13 - get paper here\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nendangered b1ab ( iii , v ) + 2ab ( iii , v ) ver 3 . 1\ntotal population size is not known , but perhaps is less than 2 , 500 mature individuals . the population is fragmented into 10\u201315 isolated subpopulations .\ntropical dry forest ( holdridge 1967 ) from 0\u2013250 m asl . the species is semi - arboreal , preferring rocky terrain and using hollow branches and rocks as retreats .\nhabitat loss through deforestation and regular burning of habitat , and collection for the international pet trade .\nthis species currently is not under any legal protection and is not known to occur within any protected areas . conservation actions recommended include further surveys for the species , research into genetics and life history , management and monitoring of the wild population and its habitat . it is also recommended that a population viability analysis be carried out for this species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthe number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .\nover the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .\nthe number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .\noverall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .\nthe reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .\ncurrently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .\nthe reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .\nthe reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .\ncontinent : middle - america distribution : s mexico ( from the vicinity of tehuantepec westward to puerto escondido and eastward to juchitan , oaxaca ) , nicaragua ( chontales , matagalpa , jinotega , boaco , managua , granada ) , el salvador , nw costa rica ( guanacaste ) type locality : unknown . restricted to tehuantepec , oaxaca , by bailey 1928 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nwe ' re constantly striving to improve our community to help make your monster fish keeping hobby fulfilling and interesting . comments are welcome .\ni recently picked up one of these guys at a reptile show , ( impulse buy , shame on me ) but i am having a hard time finding consistent care information on these iguanas .\nthe gentleman who sold it to me gave me a brief run down of what it eats , it ' s temperament , adult size , etc . . . basically , he said it was going to be a more tropical ( and speedy ) version of my beardie .\nbut as i started looking around for info to set - up a permanent habitat for it ( it ' s in a generic quarantine enclosure currently ) i ' m finding a wide variety of information . stuff like one saying it should be on calcium sand , another saying repti - bark , another saying eco dirt , all of which are different substrates . or that it ' s semi - arboreal and should have something to climb on and then others saying it ' s strictly ground dwelling and needs deep substrate to burrow in . that a 20gal is sufficient , then another saying anything under a 40gal is too small . you know , basically a big mash of conflicting information .\ni just want to get started on setting up an enclosure that will make my iguana healthy and happy . that ' s the most important , after that . . . any personal experience with this species is also welcome and appreciated .\nyea , i kind of figured the sand was an idiot answer , they don ' t come from areas with arid temps or sand . but i ' m still finding the care sheets and answers widely varied between the species . even on the reptile forums , they can ' t agree with each other . . . oi !\nno free man shall ever be debarred the use of arms . the strongest reason for the people to retain the right to keep and bear arms is , as a last resort , to protect themselves against tyranny in government\nbut i neeed tacos . i need them or i will explode . that happens to me sometimes\nhah ! i ' ve always had some kind . . . i ' ve got a corn snake , beardie and a customer dumped a dumpy tree frog off on me last week . ( i have everything . . . 3 chinchillas , a cat , aquatics , scorpions , etc . xd )\nactually some ctenos come from dry places where sandy soils are everywhere and some species even dig burrows to rest and lay eggs . however your species doesant dig except for egg laying purpouses and yes a sand only soil is a no - no . however if you want to create a naturalistic setup you can mix play sand , peat and clay based dirt to create a good substrate . your is one of the smallest ctenos , a semi - arboreal setup you can easily create with plywood would be great . this is a mostly hands off critter as you may already noticed , most are very shy and they can take a long time to trust you . the diet is basically a herbivorous one which you can complement with live insects such as giant mealworms and roaches . go to urltoken for great ideas on setup construction and as well for key food items for the herbivorous part of the diet .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nthe species range in size ( total length , including the tail ) from about 12 . 5 centimetres ( 4 . 9 in ) to well over 1 metre ( 39 in ) . the distinctive feature of this genus is the presence of enlarged , spiny scales on the tail .\nctenosaurs are generally omnivorous , feeding on fruits , flowers , foliage , and small animals .\nmexico , central america , and colombia . introduced to the us in florida .\nfrost , d . e . and r . e . etheridge ( 1989 ) a phylogenetic analysis and taxonomy of iguanian lizards ( reptilia : squamata ) . univ . kansas mus . nat . hist . misc . publ . 81\nfrost , d . r . , r . etheridge , d . janies and t . a . titus ( 2001 ) total evidence , sequence alignment , evolution of polychrotid lizards , and a reclassification of the iguania ( squamata : iguania ) . american museum novitates 3343 : 38 pp .\ngarland , t . , jr . 1984 . physiological correlates of locomotory performance in a lizard : an allometric approach . am . j . physiol . 247 ( regulatory integrative comp . physiol . 16 ) : r806 - r815 . pdf\nthis article was sourced from creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . world heritage encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers , open access publishing , and in compliance with the fair access to science and technology research act ( fastr ) , wikimedia foundation , inc . , public library of science , the encyclopedia of life , open book publishers ( obp ) , pubmed , u . s . national library of medicine , national center for biotechnology information , u . s . national library of medicine , national institutes of health ( nih ) , u . s . department of health & human services , and urltoken , which sources content from all federal , state , local , tribal , and territorial government publication portals ( . gov , . mil , . edu ) . funding for urltoken and content contributors is made possible from the u . s . congress , e - government act of 2002 .\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nas yellow mexican spiny - tails mature , they exhibit increasing amounts of yellow coloration .\nspiny - tailed iguanas range in size from the small yucatan spiny - tailed iguana ( c . defensor ) , which reaches an overall length of 10 inches , to the black spiny - tail , which can grow to 5 feet .\nspiny - tailed iguanas can be long lived , easily living to 15 years of age . many male spiny - tails can live up to 25 years of age or more .\ncaging requirements for spiny - tailed iguanas vary depending on the species and size of spiny - tailed iguana you keep . below are my recommended minimum enclosure sizes for a single spiny - tail or a pair . smaller spiny - tailed iguanas measuring less than 18 inches in overall length : 36 inches long , 24 inches wide , 24 inches tall spiny - tails with lengths of 18 to 40 inches : 4 feet long , 24 inches wide , 24 inches tall larger species , such as the black spiny - tailed iguana : 6 feet long by 24 inches wide by 30 inches tall .\nspiny - tailed iguanas are sun - loving saurians . outdoor enclosures are great for them . indoor enclosures should have full - spectrum bulbs running two - thirds to the entire length of the enclosure , in addition to a basking bulb ( or two , depending on the size of the cage ) at one end . to provide maximum health benefit from the full - spectrum lights , basking shelves or other sites should be situated no more than 10 inches from the bulb ( s ) . the ambient temperature in the enclosure should be between 75 and 85 degrees fahrenheit with basking areas reaching 95 to105 degrees .\ni use cypress mulch substrate with my spiny - tails . i live in arizona where it is very hot and dry , and i mist their enclosures in the morning to replicate the high morning humidity of their natural habitat . rabbit pellets can also be used , but do not mist these . provide plenty of branches and / or corkboard for your spiny - tails to climb on . various hide spots , such as cork bark hollows of appropriate size , should also be provided . i like to include live edible plants , such as hibiscus , of which both the flowers and leaves are edible , in my spiny - tail enclosures . purchase plants at least 30 days before you plan to use them , as many systemic pesticides and fertilizers may remain active in the plants and soil for at least 30 days .\nwater misting is my preferred method of watering , particularly for baby spiny - tails , as they will drink the droplets off the plants . i also keep a water dish inside the enclosure ; be sure it\u2019s heavy enough so it doesn\u2019t tip over . misting into the water dish can help draw your spiny - tails\u2019 attention to it . do not mist if you use rabbit pellets as a substrate .\nthis page requires javascript . it seems that your browser does not have javascript enabled . please enable javascript and press the reload / refresh button on your browser .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ndepartment of biological sciences , university of hull , hull , hu6 7rx , uk .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nbrand new . over 1 . 5 million happy customers . 100 % money - back guarantee . make your purchase count : support better world books ' worldwide literacy partners .\nthe threats they face include severe habitat degradation by human development and invasive species , as well as harvesting for human use . because iguanas are important seed dispersers for many native plants , their protection is vital to ecosystem health .\nthrough partnerships with government agencies , conservation organizations , and research institutions , the iucn ssc iguana specialist group guides and implements immediate and effective conservation measures for iguanas worldwide ."]}
{"id": 297, "summary": [{"text": "the rose-collared piha ( lipaugus streptophorus ) is a species of bird in the family cotingidae .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is found in humid forests growing in the tepui highlands in south-eastern venezuela , western guyana and far northern brazil .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "only the male has the rosy collar for which this species is named .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the female resembles the screaming piha , but has a cinnamon vent . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "rose - collared piha", "paragraphs": ["nobody uploaded sound recordings for rose - collared piha ( lipaugus streptophorus ) yet .\nrose - collared piha by lars petersson . cotinga family | birds cotingidae cotinga family | pinterest | venezuela , bird and flycatchers\nthe rose - collared piha ( lipaugus streptophorus ) is found in humid forests in the tepui highlands in south - eastern venezuela , western guyana and far northern brazil in south america .\nthe female looks like the screaming piha , but she has a cinnamon vent .\nthe rose - collared piha is endemic to the spectacular and poorly explored tepuis of the guianan shield . both sexes are gray overall with pink undertail coverts , but the male has a bold pink collar as well . this sexual dimorphism is unusual among pihas , as is the rose - collared ' s habit of perching in the open at the forest edge . more typical for a piha , males intermittently give a loud call , in this case a rising - falling whistle . listening for this call is generally the easiest way to detect this canopy species . currently this species is known only from the cluster of tepuis around the gran sabana on the borders of venezuela , guyana , and brazil .\nthe screaming piha is a gray songbird that averages 10\u201311 inches in height . - range the screaming piha can be found from northern south america to bolivia and brazil . status common habitat this species primarily inhabits tropical rainforests . niche fruit makes up the majority of the screaming piha\u2019s diet . more\nsnow , d . ( 2018 ) . rose - collared piha ( lipaugus streptophorus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe screaming piha is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\n22\u00b75 cm . distinctive piha ; striking sexually dimorphic plumage unique within genus . male is grey above , paler below , especially on belly ; has full collar and undertail . . .\nscreaming piha ( lipaugus vociferans ) song , single burst , part of series 4 - 6 per minute , recorded near yurimaguas , loreto , per\u00fa , 19 / 08 / 07 . sonagram created with syrinx software ( www . syrinxpc . com ) . \u201cwhee wheee - ooo\u201d or \u201cpee eeeee aaaaa\u201d if you\u2019ve been to the amazon or watched documentaries on the amazon you\u2019ll have heard the ear - splitting song of the screaming piha , the song is sometimes dubbed into movies and even sampled into music tracks , presumably to give it that tropical sounding vibe . more\nif the screaming piha has brown plumage in both sexes , why does the picture show a blue bird ? the picture is misleading . \u2014preceding unsigned comment added by 132 . 230 . 66 . 189 ( talk ) 15 : 48 , 8 december 2008 ( utc ) retrieved from\nhttp : / / en . wikipedia . more\nscreaming piha at the national aquarium in baltimoreby jennyberg 4 years ago 4 years ago : tue , apr 25 , 2006 10 : 18pm est ( eastern standard time ) more more see all show mejennyberg ' s videos * jennyberg ' s videos * staff picks 18 . i ' m the fool in the black suit to the right . by jennyberg4 months ago 17 . got latkes ? by jennyberg3 years ago 16 . me and peep by jennyberg4 years ago 15 . more\ntepuis of se venezuela ( se bol\u00edvar ) and adjacent n brazil ( mt roraima , uei - tepui ) and w guyana .\nmain call a clear , whistled \u201csueeet - su\u00e9\u00e9\u00e9eeeeoo\u201d , rising and then . . .\nmainly fruits , especially of melastomataceae , taken in flight sally or flutter ; also insects .\nfemale collecting nest material in apr ; moult ( presumably post - breeding ) begins over extended period , dec\u2013may . no other information .\nnot globally threatened . restricted - range species : present in tepuis eba . status not well known ; apparently uncommon , possibly local , but may be more numerous in some places . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nincorporates tijuca , which was found in recent genetic study # r to be embedded in lipaugus .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na female perched in darker area ( compared to the site were the male was perched ) . notice paler color intensity in crissum , . . .\nlars petersson , margareta wieser , mikko pyh\u00e4l\u00e4 , dilia e . garcia , fredrik salin .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : although this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . ( 1996 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 1 . 8 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 10 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . it is therefore suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nalthough this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : lipaugus streptophorus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 298 , 977 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nfatbirder - linking birders worldwide . . . wildlife travellers see our sister site : wand\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nspecial thanks to tropical birding for outstanding photo contributions to the bird data family of apps .\nrange data provided by infonatura / natureserve and urltoken . ridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2005 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 2 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa . additional updates and changes by urltoken 2016 .\nwhile the plumage of both sexes is dull grey , its voice is extraordinary , exceptionally loud and among the most commonly heard sounds in the amazon . the cofan people of ecuador call it the pwe - pwe yoh , which is a reference to its voice . males often gather in loose leks , where they sing to attract females .\npicture of lipaugus vociferans above has been licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial - share alike license . original source : tanya dewey , animal diversity web , university of michigan museum of zoology author : tanya dewey , animal diversity web , university of michigan museum of zoology permission : some rights reserved\nhome | wild files | n . h . animals | animals a - z | watch online\nthere are around 96 species of birds in this family . they are found in tropical and subtropical forests or forest edges in central and south america .\nsome species , like the andean cock - of - the rock , are brightly colored and have crests . other species , like the long - wattled umbrella bird , have wattles on their chests . the male long - wattled umbrella bird ' s wattle extends past his feet ! the birds in this family range in size from the 3 inch kinglet calyptura to the 20 inch amazonian umbrella bird . they eat fruits , berries , and insects .\nleast concern near threatened vulnerable endangered critically endangered extinct in the wild extinct status and range is taken from icun redlist . if no status is listed , there is not enough data to establish status .\ninfonatura species index : 1 - 50 of 64 records in family cotingidae of order passeriformes .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : data presented in infonatura at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of april 2007 . note : this report was printed on .\ntrademark notice :\ninfonatura\n, natureserve , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : \u00a9 2007 natureserve , 1101 wilson boulevard , 15th floor , arlington virginia 22209 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\ncitation : infonatura : animals and ecosystems of latin america [ web application ] . 2007 . version 5 . 0 . arlington , virginia ( usa ) : natureserve . available : http : / / infonatura . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\ncitation for bird range maps : ridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2005 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 2 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\nacknowledgement statement for bird range maps :\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\ncitation for mammal range maps : patterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2005 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 2 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\nacknowledgement statement for mammal range maps :\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\ncitation for amphibian range maps : iucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2006 . global amphibian assessment . urltoken , version 1 . 1 .\nacknowledgement statement for amphibian range maps :\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with iucn , conservation international and the global amphibian assessment .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nfeedback request : using the comment form , please note any errors or significant omissions that you find in the data . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the network of users ."]}
{"id": 301, "summary": [{"text": "the canarian houbara , chlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae , is a large bird in the bustard family .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it is a houbara bustard subspecies which is endemic to the eastern canary archipelago , in macaronesia in the north atlantic ocean , where it is a scarce and threatened non-migratory resident .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is the animal symbol of the island of fuerteventura . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "canarian houbara", "paragraphs": ["although the canarian houbara is sedentary it can act like the migratory birds , making journeys in search of similar habitats and even flying between islands .\nminden pictures stock photos - canarian houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae ) adult , feeding , fuerteventura , canary islands , march - r . . .\nleo shapiro set\ncanarian houbara ( chlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae ) ,\nel jable\nplains , lanzarote\nas an exemplar on\nchlamydotis undulata ( jacquin , 1784 )\n.\ncollins , d . 1984 . a study of the canarian houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae ) with special reference to its behaviour and ecology . \u2013 university of london , p . 119 .\nosborne , p . 1986 . survey of the birds of fuerteventura canary islands , with special reference to the status of the canarian houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata - study report no . 10 . \u2013 icbp , p . 76 .\nthis superspecies breeds in deserts and other very arid sandy areas . in the canarian part of its range , macqueen ' s is a bird of the dry lava slopes of lanzarote and fuerteventura islands .\nthe former asian subspecies , c . u . macqueenii , has now been split as a full species , macqueen ' s bustard , chlamydotis macqueenii . these two species are the only members of the chlamydotis genus . the canarian houbara is the subspecies chlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae . the dividing line between the two chlamydotis species is the sinai peninsula .\n. . . classified as bvulnerable ^ ( iucn 2009 ) , it is divided into two subspecies , c . u . undulata and c . u . fuerteventurae . whereas the former is distributed from northern mauritania to egypt ( bourass and hingrat 2015 ) , the latter is a canarian endemic subspecies designated as bin danger ^ on the spanish red list ( lorenzo 2004 ) . it is one of the canarian terrestrial birds with the smallest distribution area , with almost all the population living exclusively in lanzarote and fuerteventura ( mart\u00edn and lorenzo 2001 ; carrascal et al . 2008 ; schuster et al . 2012 ) . . . .\nthe houbara bustard is the largest bird in the canaries and is threatened by habitat destruction and alteration in critical areas basically because of pressures from tourism the canarian sub - species is endemic to flat semi - desert planes in la graciosa , lanzarote and fuerteventura , where it feeds on seeds , and small animals such as lizrads and beetles . see life project for the conservation of houbara in the canaries ( seo ) . more\nis the largest bird in the canaries and is threatened by habitat destruction and alteration in critical areas basically because of pressures from tourism the canarian sub - species is endemic to flat semi - desert planes in la graciosa , lanzarote and fuerteventura , where it feeds on seeds , and small animals such as lizrads and beetles . see\nthe arid , wild and pristine islet of lobos \u2014which we passionately show to the visitors who join our day trips from corralejo\u2014 is one of the few places along with fuerteventura , lanzarote and la graciosa , where one of the most unique bird in the spanish wildlife lives , the canarian houbara . its habitat are the arid landscapes , \u201cjables\u201d and \u201cmalpa\u00eds\u201d characterizing the eastern end of the canary islands .\ngubin , b . m . counting houbara bustards : methods of counting asian houbara bustard . \u2013 national avian research center , pp . 8 - 12 .\nmukhina , e . counting houbara bustard : the methodology of censuring breeding houbara bustard in uzbekistan . \u2013 national avian research center , pp . 16 - 17 .\nabba saleh m ( 1989 ) the status of the houbara bustard in egypt .\nhoubara conservation ( ifhc ) . we are grateful to h . h . sheikh\njustification : european regional assessment : near threatened ( nt ) eu27 regional assessment : near threatened ( nt ) within the region this species is restricted to the eastern canary islands ( spain ) , where it has a moderately small , apparently stable population which approaches the thresholds for classification as vulnerable . the canarian population is a distinct subspecies and there is not considered to be any potential rescue effect from the mainland north african population , therefore the final category is unchanged and the species is classified as near threatened ( d1 ) in both europe and the eu27 .\ngoriup . 1996 . the distribution of the houbara bustard , throughout its known range .\ngubin b . n . 2004 . the houbara bustard . almaty . pp 296 .\niucn . 2004 . birdlife species factsheet : houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata . birdlife international .\nkhan , w . a . 1996 . food and feeding behaviour of houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata macqueenii ) . \u2013 houbara foundation international of pakistan , p . 15 .\nifhc . 2014 . international fund for houbara conservation website . available at : urltoken .\ncharacterization of 22 microsatellites loci from the endangered houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulat . . .\nthe houbara bustard , chlamydotis undulata , is a large bird in the bustard family .\nrecent population trends of the houbara bustard in the canary islands . methods and conservation status\nstatus , conservation and habitat selection of the houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata fuertaventura . . .\ncombreau , o . counting houbara bustards : census of houbara bustard in kazakhstan : evaluation of two different methods . \u2013 national avian research center , pp . 4 - 7 .\ngoriup , p . d . 1983 . the houbara bustard in morocco . \u2013 icbp .\nlawrence , m . 2003 . update from china . \u2013 houbara news 5 : 3 .\nswrahio , m . i . 1982 . houbara bustard in pakistan , research and conservation .\nchaudhry , a . a . 1991 . houbara bustard in the punjab . \u2013 wwf pakistan .\ngenetic variability characterization of the moroccan houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata undulata ) inferred from pedigree analysis .\nthe realized niche of captive - hatched houbara bustards translocated in morocco meets expectations fr . . .\n. . . it is one of the canarian terrestrial birds with the smallest distribution area , with almost all the population living exclusively in lanzarote and fuerteventura ( mart\u00edn and lorenzo 2001 ; carrascal et al . 2008 ; schuster et al . 2012 ) . the available censuses reviewed herein for 1994 ( mart\u00edn et al . 1997 ) , 2004 / 2006 ( carrascal et al . 2006 ; lorenzo 2005 ; lorenzo et al . 2007 ; carrascal et al . 2008 ) and 2011 ( schuster et al . 2012 ) show a 29 % decrease over the period 2004 / 2006 to 2011 ( schuster et al . 2012 ) . the loss of habitat seems to be the main factor threatening the houbara population ( lorenzo 2004 ; carrascal et al . 2008 ) . . . .\ncms . 2007 . cms houbara bustard agreement : final act meeting . march 2007 . saudi arabia .\nlacroix , f . 2003 . the emirates center for wildlife propagation : developing a comprehensive strategy to secure a self - sustaining population of houbara bustards in eastern morocco . \u2013 houbara news 5 : 2 .\nlaunay , f . 2000 . tracking the houbara . \u2013 world birdwatch 22 : 18 - 21 .\nlaunay , f . and bailey , t . 1999 . counting houbara bustard . a technical publication of the iucn / ssc / birdlife working group on the houbara bustard . \u2013 national avian research center .\nmukhtar , a . 2000 . efforts for the conservation of houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata macqueenii ) in pakistan . ii international conference on the saker falcon and houbara bustard , pp . 215 - 218 .\ncollar nj , goriup pd ( 1983 ) the i . c . b . p . fuertaventura houbara\npatterns of genetic diversity and population structure of the threatened houbara and macqueen ' s bust . . .\nhoubara bustard conservation ; one of ead\u2019s top priorities uae , algeria cooperate to protect houbara bustard project aims to release houbara back into wild in order to help increase population in wild . algiers - the united arab emirates ( uae ) and the people\u2019s democratic republic of algeria have signed a memorandum of understanding ( mou ) whereby the two countries agreed to cooperate in the field of houbara bustard breeding and conservation . more\nmart\u00edn , a . , lorenzo , j . a . and nogales , m . counting houbara bustard : counting houbara bustard in the canary islands . \u2013 national avian research center , pp . 13 - 15\nchaudhry , i . u . 1976 . helpless houbara . \u2013 newsletter for birdwatchers : 9 - 10 .\njennings , m . c . 1988 . the former distribution of the houbara \u2013 phoenix 5 : 4 .\nstone , r . 2008 . the houbara : headed for oblivion ? \u2013 science . 321 : 1441 .\nn . w . r . c . 2003 . houbara news . \u2013 natinal avian research p . 4 .\nali , a . a . 1986 . no hope for the houbara ? \u2013 the herald : 207 - 209 .\nclarke , j . e . 1982 . the houbara bustard in jordan . \u2013 sandgrouse 4 : 111 - 113 .\ncollins , d . 1980 . aspects of the behaviour and ecology of the houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata fuertaventura ) .\ngoriup , p . d . 1999 . houbara bustard conservation makes progress . \u2013 oryx 33 : 184 - 187 .\nmian , a . 1983 . houbara demands conservation in pakistan . \u2013 wwf pakistan newsletter 2 : 1 - 3 .\ntear , t . 1988 . the tale of two houbara . \u2013 oman bird news 3 : 5 - 6 .\nwwf 1983 . houbara bustard : call for ban on hunting . \u2013 wwf pakistan newsletter 2 : 1 - 2 .\n. . . in this paper , we focus on the houbara potential habitat model sector ( fig . 2 ) . we have considered two state variables for the houbara potential habitat : the primary and secondary habitats , differing in houbara density ( lorenzo et al . 2007 ; mart\u00edn et al . 1997 ) . the houbara model sector takes into account the effects of other model variables representing the main factors governing the habitat loss , basically land use changes . . . .\ncowan , p . 2004 . are there really two species of houbara ? \u2013 britsh birds 97 : 346 - 347 .\ngaucher , p . 1991 . on the feeding ecology of the houbara chlamydotis undulata undulata . \u2013 alauda 59 : 120 .\ngoriup , p . 1996 . iucn ssc working group on the houbara bustard . first meeting . , p . 2 .\nkhan , a . m . 1986 . \u00ab five to midnight \u00bb for houbara . \u2013 dawn : 1 - 2 .\nn . w . r . c . 2001 . houbara news . \u2013 national avian research center , p . 4 .\nupton , r . 1989 . the houbara bustard and the arab falconer . \u2013 bustard studies 4 : 174 - 176 .\nanonymous . 1980 . tunisian delegation : report on the houbara bustard . \u2013 in : coles , c . l . and collar , n . j . ( eds . ) , the houbara bustard . \u2013 the game conservancy , fordingbridge , uk .\nallen , m . 1980 . houbara . \u2013 in : falconry in arabia . orbis publishing , pp . 77 - 78 .\ncollins , d . 1980 . display strategy and the mating system ( of the houbara ) . pp . 52 - 60 .\nmansoori , j . 1985 . the status of the houbara bustard in iran . \u2013 bustard studies 3 : 97 - 99 .\nmian , a . habitat requirements of the houbara bustard . \u2013 department of zoology , university of baluchistan , p . 7 .\nosborne , p . 1984 . preliminary report of the 1984 fuerteventura houbara expedition . \u2013 icbp bustard group , p . 3 .\ntigar , b . j . 1995 . a review of the diet of the houbara bustard . \u2013 national avian research center .\nthe houbara bustard is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) , considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild .\nadapted to arid conditions with little vegetation , the houbara bustard is found in sandy and stony semi - desert regions ( 5 ) .\nthis article is about the north african species . for the asian houbara that was considered a subspecies , see macqueen ' s bustard .\nfox , n . 1988 . notes on the analyses of houbara bustard stomach contents from baluchistan and punjab . p . unpublished manuscript .\nhaddane , b . 1985 . the houbara bustard in morocco : a brief review . \u2013 bustard studies 3 : 109 - 112 .\nn . w . r . c . 1997 . houbara news . \u2013 national avian research center , pp . 1 - 12 .\nthesiger , w . 1959 . houbara part . \u2013 in : arabian sands . penguin travel library , pp . 290 - 294 .\ngoriup , p . 1997 . the world status of the houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata . bird conservation international 7 : 373 - 397 .\nferguson , d . a . 1977 . a preliminary review of the literature , status and life history of the arabian and houbara bustards with recommendations for a study of the houbara in saudi arabia . \u2013 u . s . fish and wildlife service , p . 9 .\nde smet , k . 1989 . the houbara bustard in algeria : a preliminary report . \u2013 bustard studies 4 : 157 - 159 .\ngaucher , p . 1995 . breeding biology of the houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata undulata in algeria . \u2013 alauda 63 : 291 - 298 .\ngoriup , p . d . 1986 . conservation of the houbara bustard in saudi arabia . \u2013 icbp bustard group , p . 13 .\njudas , j . 2000 . r\u00e9introduction de l\u2019outarde houbara en arabie saoudite . \u2013 le courrier de la nature 182 : 44 - 45 .\nmian , a . 1986 . ecological impact of arab falconry on houbara bustard in baluchistan . \u2013 environmental conservation 13 : 41 - 46 .\nmian , a . 1986 . houbara in baluchistan : 1984 - 85 ecological studies . \u2013 wwf pakistan newsletter 5 : 4 - 6 .\nsaint jalme , m . and van heezik , y . 1996 . propagation of the houbara bustard . \u2013 keegan paul international , london .\nsaleh , m . a . 1989 . the status of the houbara bustard in egypt . \u2013 bustard studies 4 : 151 - 156 .\nsilsby , j . 1980 . the houbara bustard . \u2013 in : inland birds of saudi arabia . immel publishing , p . 47 .\nsurahio , m . i . 1985 . ecology and distribution of houbara bustards in sind . \u2013 bustard studies 3 : 55 - 58 .\nstone , richard .\nthe houbara : headed for oblivion ?\nscience , vol . 321 , 12 september 2008 , p . 1441 .\nfinn , f . 1915 . the florican - lesser florican - houbara . \u2013 in : indian sporting birds , pp . 134 - 139 .\njudas , j . 2002 . r\u00e9introduction de l\u2019outarde houbara chlamydotis [ undulata ] macqueenii en arabie saoudite . \u2013 alauda 70 : 180 - 181 .\nlaunay , f . 1989 . behavioral ecology of houbara bustard - n . w . r . c . , pp . 1 - 46 .\nmirza , z . b . 1985 . a note on houbara bustards in cholistan , punjab . \u2013 bustard studies 3 : 43 - 44 .\nplatt , j . b . 1983 . houbara research in dubai , united arab emirates . \u2013 dubai wildlife research center , p . 4 .\nplatt , j . b . 1985 . houbara bustard research in dubai , united arab emirates . \u2013 bustard studies 3 : 101 - 102 .\nroberts , t . j . 1985 . the houbara bustard in pakistan in relation to conservation . \u2013 bustard studies 3 : 35 - 37 .\nschulz , h . , schulz , m . , paillat , p . , gaucher , p . and eichakera , x . 1991 . incubation parameters of the houbara ( chlamydotis : undulata ) . houbara incubation parameters . \u2013 n . w . r . c , p . 11 .\ncollar , n . j . 1980 . the world status of the houbara : a preliminary review . \u2013 in : coles , c . l . and collar , n . j . ( eds . ) , symposium papers on the houbara bustard . \u2013 sydenhams printers , p . 12 .\nhoubara bustard , the ultimate quarry of arab falconers , is seriously threatened . excessive hunting for falconry ; heavy illegal trapping to supply birds for falcon training ; and a disturbing increase in hunting pressure in central asia over the last few years are among factors responsible for the diminishing houbara numbers . more\ncollinson , m . 2004 . are there really two species of houbara ? \u2013 a response from the tsc . \u2013 britsh birds 97 : 348 .\ngoriup , p . d . 1997 . the world status of the houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata . \u2013 bird conservation international 7 : 373 - 397 .\nkarim , s . i . and hasan , a . 1983 . houbara bustard in pakistan . \u2013 wwf pakistan newsletter 2 : 3 - 6 .\nkhan , a . m . 1983 . the art of falconry and hunting of houbara bustard . \u2013 wwf pakistan newsletter 2 : 6 - 10 .\nsasikumar , c . 1989 . houbara bustards chlamydotis undulata : a rare record from kerala . \u2013 journal of the bombay natural history society : 101 .\nslaytor , j . h . 1989 . an interim pictoral report into the diet of the houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata macqueenii ) . \u2013 nwrc .\nsyed , i . k . and abrarul , h . 1983 . houbara bustard in pakistan . \u2013 wwf pakistan newsletter 2 : 3 - 6 .\nhbwg . and ( ssc ) , h . b . w . g . o . t . i . s . s . s . c . 2001 . review of the houbara bustard confiscation and rehabilitation program of the national avian research center , 1998 - 2001 . \u2013 houbara news 4 : 4 .\nheredia , b . 1995 . action plan for the houbara bustard in the canary islands ( chlamydotis undulata fuerteventurae ) . \u2013 bird life international , uk .\nschulz , h . , schulz , m . , paillat , p . , gaucher , p . and eichakera , x . 1991 . practical implications of research on incubation parameters of the houbara ( chlamydotis undulata ) . houbara incubation parameters . \u2013 n . w . r . c , p . 12 .\nthe houbara bustard is a rare shy bird adapted to arid conditions with little vegetation and found in stony and sandy desert and semi - desert regions . more\nepidemiological study of the pathogens flow at the interface between wild birds and captive ones with special focus on the conservative breeding of houbara bustard in the uae .\nseddon , p . and van heezik , y . 1999 . counting houbara bustard in northern saudi arabia : an assessment of method . 18 - 24 . in ( launay , f . and bailey , t . , eds ) . counting houbara bustard . narc , iucn / ssc / birdlife international , cambridge .\nagrebi . 1991 . recherches sur la biologie et l\u2019\u00e9co - \u00e9thologie de l\u2019outarde houbara chlamydotis undulata undulata jacquin en alg\u00e9rie \u2013 institut national agronomique , p . 134 .\ncollar , n . j . and goriup , p . d . 1983 . the icbp fuerventura houbara expedition . \u2013 bustard studies 1 : 1 - 92 .\nferguson , d . a . 1978 . houbara bustard conservation in the middle east . \u2013 u . s . fish and wildlife service , p . 18 .\ngaucher , p . 1988 . experiments with houbara bustard . \u2013 n . w . r . c . / taif , saudi arabia , p . 3 .\ng\u00e9roudet , p . 1974 . notes marocaines sur la parade nuptiale de l\u2019outarde houbara chlamydotis undulata . \u2013 l\u2019oiseau et revue francaise d\u2019ornithologie 44 : 154 - 155 .\ngroup , i . b . 1984 . suggestions for components of a houbara conservation project in the canary islands . \u2013 icbp bustard group , p . 3 .\nmalik , m . m . 1985 . the distribution and conservation of houbara bustards on north west frontier province . \u2013 bustard studies 3 : 81 - 85 .\nmaloney , r . f . 2001 . sexing houbara bustards , chlamydotis ( undulata ) macqueeni , using footprint measurements . \u2013 ostrich 72 : 199 - 218 .\nnoir , s . 2006 . estimation des effectifs d\u2019outarde houbara asiatique ( chlamydotis macqueenii ) : fiabilit\u00e9 des m\u00e9thodes de comptages . master thesis . ephe , france .\nhoubara bustardthe houbara bustards , chlamydotis undulata , belong to the bustard family . their range includes the canary islands and north africa . the asian former subspecies has now been split as a separate species , macqueen ' s bustard , chlamydotis macqueenii . these are the only members of the chlamydotis genus . the dividing line between the two species is the sinai peninsula . the houbara bustard is largely resident in its range . this species breeds in deserts and other very arid sandy areas . more\nsexes are similar , but the female is smaller and greyer above . houbara is slightly larger and paler than macqueen ' s . both species are vocally almost silent .\ndemars , b . 2001 . recensement d\u2019une population d\u2019outardes houbara , chlamydotis undulata undulata , de l\u2019oriental marocain . \u2013 emirate center for wildlife propagation , p . 22 .\niucn . 2000 . conservation de l\u2019outard houbara ( chlamydotis undulata ) en afrique du nord et en afrique subsaharienne . congr\u00e8s mondial de la nature . \u2013 on line .\nlaunay , f . 1997 . wintering habitat use by houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata in abu dhabi and implications for management . \u2013 biological conservation 81 : 51 - 56 .\nlaunay , f . and loughland , r . 1995 . breeding system of houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata macqueeni : preliminary observations . \u2013 sandgrouse 35 : 14 - 17 .\nmian , a . 1984 . houbara in baluchistan : 1983 - 84 population status . \u2013 w . w . f . pakistan , pp . 1 - 3 .\nthe houbara bustard or north african houbara ( chlamydotis undulata ) is a large bird in the bustard family . this bustard is found in arid habitats spread across northern africa with a population on the canary islands . they are dull brown with black markings on the wings with a greyish neck and a black ruff along the side of the neck . males and females appear very similar but males are larger and heavier . this species formerly included macqueen ' s bustard , sometimes known as the asian houbara as a subspecies .\ndominguez casanova , f . 1989 . the houbara bustard in the canary islands ( spain ) : towards a recovery plan . \u2013 bustard studies 4 : 42 - 51 .\ngaucher , p . 1988 . houbara breeding season 87 - 88 . \u2013 n . w . r . c . / taif , saudi arabia , p . 3 .\nlavee , d . 1988 . why is the houbara bustard , chlamydotis undulata macqueenii , still an endangered species in israel ? \u2013 biological conservation 45 : 47 - 54 .\npaillat , p . 1987 . houbara and wildlife investigation in pakistan . \u2013 n . w . r . c . / taif , saudi arabia , p . 16 .\nseddon , p . j . 2000 . the re - introduction of houbara bustards in the kingdom of saudi arabia . \u2013 re - introduction news : 22 - 24 .\nseddon , p . 1995 . species conservation strategy for the houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata macqueenii ) in saudi arabia . unpublished report , ncwcd , riyadh , saudi arabia .\nsangster , g . 1996 . trends in systematics : taxonomy of houbara and macqueen ' s bustards and neglest of intraspecific diversity . dutch birding 18 : 248 - 256 .\n. . . this is 3 times longer than the time since differentiation of the taxa most closely related to the great bus - tard , the houbara bustard ( c . undulata ) and asian houbara bustard ( chlamydotis macqueenii ) , which are now widely accepted as 2 spe - cies ( idaghdour et al . 2004 ) . . . .\nlavee d ( 1985 ) the influence of grazing and intensive cultivation on the population size of the houbara bustard in the northern negev in israel . bustard stud 3 : 103\u2013107\nchaudhry , a . a . 1994 . houbara population in the punjab , pakistan ( 1993 - 94 ) . unpublished report , punjab wildlife research center gatwala , faisalabad mimeograph .\nhingrat , y . and saint jalme , m . 2005 . mating system of the houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata undulata in eastern morocco . \u2013 ardeola 52 : 91 - 102 .\nponomareva , t . 1983 . comportement reproducteur et distribution de l\u2019outarde houbara ( chlamydotis undulata macqueenii ) sur ses lieux de nidification . \u2013 zoologicheskij zhurnal 62 : 592 - 602 .\nseddon , p . j . 1997 . resident houbara bustard populations in saudi arabia : do summer ambient temperatures limit distribution ? \u2013 journal of arid environments 37 : : 551\u2013556 .\nbourass k , hingrat y ( 2015 ) diet of released captive - bred north - african houbara bustards . eur j wildl res 61 ( 4 ) : 563\u2013574 . doi :\nmendelssohn , h . 1980 . development of houbara ( chlamydotis undulata ) populations in israel and captive breeding . \u2013 in : coles , c . l . and collar , n . j . ( eds . ) , the great bustard , sofia , 1978 - the houbara bustard , athens , 1979 . \u2013 sydenhams printers , poole , p . 9 .\nupton , r . 1979 , 1980 . the houbara bustard and its relationship to the middle eastern falconry . \u2013 in : coles , c . l . and collar , n . j . ( eds . ) , the great bustard , sofia , 1978 - the houbara bustard , athens , 1979 . \u2013 sydenhams printers , poole , p . 3 .\nthe north african houbara bustard declined in populations in the two decades before 2004 , but unlike its near relative the asian houbara or macqueen ' s bustard , has been on the increase since . although hunted both by falconers and by hunters with guns , the extent is much less than that faced by macqueen ' s bustard in the middle east and west asia .\ngubin , b . m . 1992 . the number , distribution and state of protection of the houbara bustard in the south of kazakhstan . bustard studies , 5 , 98 - 103\nhaddane , b . 1982 . r\u00e9partition et \u00e9cologie d\u2019une esp\u00e8ce menac\u00e9e : outarde houbara . symposium international sur la gestion et la conservation de la faune sauvage mediterran\u00e9enne , p . 9 .\nlavauden , l . 1914 . notes sur houbara undulata et quelques points relatifs \u00e0 la faune ornithologique de tunisie . \u2013 l\u2019oiseau et la revue fran\u00e7aise d\u2019ornithologie 3 : 308 - 311 .\npetit , p . 1987 . houbara bustards given to the center by falconers . \u2013 n . w . r . c . / taif , saudi arabia , p . 6 .\nbailey , t . a . and kinne , j . 2001 . ventricular septal defect in a houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata macqueenii ) . \u2013 avian diseases 45 : 229 - 233 .\nb\u00e9ranger , p . - m . 2001 . etude de l\u2019habitat et des populations sauvages d\u2019outarde houbara ( chlamydotis undulata undulata ) . \u2013 universit\u00e9 d\u2019int\u00e9gration professionelle , pp . 1 - 30 .\nbouzendorf , f . and hingrat , y . 2006 . breeding success in a houbara bustard population in eastern morocco . 24th international ornithological congress - journal of ornithology , p . 117 .\ncombreau , o . and rambaud , f . 1994 . houbara habitat in mahazat as sayd . part i : vegetation . \u2013 national avian research center , pp . 1 - 45 .\ncombreau , o . and rambaud , f . 1994 . houbara habitat in mahazat as sayd . part ii : arthropods . \u2013 national avian research center , pp . 1 - 45 .\ndurand , j . 1988 . identification of a few nematodes , houbara bustards\u2019 parasites . \u2013 n . w . r . c . / taif , saudi arabia , p . 8 .\ngillet , h . 1988 . analysis of stomach contents of algerian houbara . \u2013 n . w . r . c . / taif , saudi arabia , pp . 1 - 3 .\nhemon , s . 1998 . houbara bustard captive breeding update : more then 240 chicks produced and 100 to be released in saudi arabia . \u2013 re - introduction news 16 : 6 .\njudas , jacky and routier , jean - baptiste . 2002 . survival parameters of a reintroduced asian houbara bustard population in central saudi arabia . in international ornithological congress , beijing , china .\nlaunay , f . and combreau , o . 1999 . annual migration of houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata macqueenii from the united arab emirates . \u2013 bird conservation international 9 : 155 - 161 .\nmian , a . 1997 . sustainable exploitation of houbara bustard in baluchistan ( pakistan ) through range management . pakistan journal of ornithology . 1 ( 1 - 2 ) , 1 - 18\nsymens , p . 1987 . some observations on the houbara bustard in semi captivity . \u2013 n . w . r . c . / taif , saudi arabia , p . 7 .\nalekseev , a . f . 1985 . the houbara bustard in the north - west kyzylkum ( u . s . s . r ) . \u2013 bustard studies 3 : 87 - 92 .\ncombreau , o . and launay , f . 1999 . an estimation of the nesting success in a houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata macqueeni population in kazakhstan . \u2013 sandgrouse 21 : 171 - 175 .\ncombreau , o . and smith , t . r . 1997 . summer habitat selection by houbara bustards introduced in central saudi arabia . \u2013 journal of arid environments 36 : 149 - 160 .\ncombreau , o . and smith , t . r . 1998 . release techniques and predation in the introduction of houbara bustards in saudi arabia . \u2013 biological conservation 84 : 147 - 155 .\nmian , a . 1984 . a contribution to the biology of houbara : 1982 - 83 wintering population in baluchistan . \u2013 journal of the bombay natural history society 81 : 537 - 545 .\nponomareva , t . 1985 . the houbara bustard : present status and conservation prospect ( in the u . s . s . r ) . \u2013 bustard studies 3 : 93 - 96 .\nsymens , p . 1987 . houbara bustards in semi - captivity april - june 1987 . \u2013 n . w . r . c . / taif , saudi arabia , p . 5 .\nsymens , p . 1988 . houbara bustard survey in harrat al harrah , march 1988 . \u2013 n . w . r . c . / taif , saudi arabia , p . 19 .\ntieleman , i . 2002 . physiological responses of houbara bustards to high ambient temperatures . in irene tielman ( ed . ) avian adaptation along an aridity gradient . phd groningen university . pp247 .\ntroshchenko , b . v . 1992 . a note on the distribution and numbers of houbara in northeast prikaspiy , on the border of its range . bustard studies 5 : - 104 pp .\nwarren , s . m . 1996 . an evaluation of the availability and importance of natural food in the diet of captive houbara bustard . \u2013 national avian research center , p . 36 .\ngaucher , p . 1987 . biological study on the reproduction of the houbara bustard in algeria . \u2013 n . w . r . c . / taif , saudi arabia , p . 12 .\nhartley ps , dawson b , lindsay c , mccormick p and wishart gj . 1999 . cryopreservation of houbara semen : a pilot study . zoo biology 18 ( 2 ) : 147 - 152 .\nhingrat , y . 2005 . s\u00e9lection de l\u2019habitat et structure sociale chez l\u2019outarde houbara . apports \u00e0 la conservation d\u2019une population menac\u00e9e au maroc . phd - mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle , p . 163 .\nlaunay , f . 1989 . feeding choice of a semi - captive group of houbara bustard . \u2013 n . w . r . c . / taif , saudi arabia , p . 18 .\nlavee , d . 1985 . the influence of grazing and intensive cultivation on the population size of the houbara bustard in the northern negev in israel . \u2013 bustard studies 3 : 103 - 107 .\nmian a . , and dasti , a . a . 1985 . houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata macqueenii ) in balochistan 1982 - 83 . a preliminary review bustard studies 3 : 45 - 49p .\nmian , a . 2003 . on biology of houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata macqueenii ) in baluchistan , pakistan : faunal associatiion . \u2013 on line journal of biological sciences 3 : 535 - 552 .\nporter , r . f . and goriup , p . d . 1985 . recommendations for the conservation of the arabian bustard and houbara bustard in saudi arabia . \u2013 iucn , p . 22 .\nsymens , p . 1989 . results of experimental tests of satellite transmitters for the houbara bustard . \u2013 n . w . r . c . / taif , saudi arabia , p . 5 .\nschuster c , iglesias\u2013lebrija jj , carrascal lm ( 2012 ) recent population trends of the houbara bustard in the canary islands . methods and conservation status . anim biodivers conserv 35 ( 1 ) : 125\u2013139\ncoles , c . l . and collar , n . j . 1979 . the status of houbara in u . s . s . r . \u2013 in : coles , c . l . and collar , n . j . ( eds . ) , the great bustard , sofia , 1978 - the houbara bustard , athens , 1979 . \u2013 sydenhams printers , poole , p . 1 .\nbekry , a . 1998 . l\u2019houtarde houbara ( chlamydotis undulata undulata ) . \u2013 minist\u00e8re de l\u2019agriculture du d\u00e9veloppement rural et des p\u00eaches maritimes , minist\u00e8re d\u00e9l\u00e9gu\u00e9 charg\u00e9 des eaux et for\u00eats , p . 9 .\ndeeming , d . c . 2001 . attentiveness and turning patterns during incubation in a houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata macqueenii ) nest . . \u2013 avian and poultry biology reviews 12 : 182 - 184 .\ndeschamps , c . 2006 . succ\u00e8s reproducteur et facteurs influen\u00e7ant survie au nid chez l\u2019outarde houbara dans nord marocain ( chlamydotis undulata undulata ) . \u2013 ecwp \u2013 universit\u00e9 j . monnet , p . 33 .\ngaucher , p . 1988 . the feeding behaviour of female houbara bustards during incubation period . \u2013 n . w . r . c . / taif , saudi arabia , pp . 12 - 15 .\nhinz , c . and heiss , e . m . 1989 . the activity patterns of houbara bustards : aspect of a field survey in the canary islands . bustard studies 4 : 68 \u2013 79 .\njudas , j . 1999 . reintroduction of houbara bustard in central saudi arabia . \u2013 in : science , b . p . ( ed . ) international conference on bird reproduction , p . 50 .\nmian , a . 1989 . a contribution to the biology of houbara bustard : 1983 - 84 population levels in western baluchistan . \u2013 journal of the bombay natural history society 86 : 161 - 165 .\nmian , a . 2003 . on biology of houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata macqueenii ) in baluchistan , pakistan : phytosociological analysis of habitat . \u2013 pakistan journal of biological sciences 6 : 128 - 129 .\nsymens , p . 1987 . results of experimental test of satellite - transmitters for the houbara bustard . \u2013 n . w . r . c . / taif , saudi arabia , p . 2 .\nvan heezik , y . and ostrowski , s . 2001 . conservation breeding for reintroductions : assessing survival in a captive flock of houbara bustards . \u2013 animal conservation 4 part 3 : 195 - 201 .\nvan heezik , y . and seddon , p . j . 1998 . ontogeny of behavior of hand - reared and hen - reared captive houbara bustards . \u2013 zoo biology 17 : 245 - 255 .\nvan heezik , y . and seddon , p . j . 1999 . seasonal changes in habitat use by houbara bustards chlamydotis undulata macqueenii in northern saudi arabia . \u2013 ibis 141 : 208 - 215 .\na houbara survey of lanzarote and the small island of graciosa , during december 1993 , resulted in a total count of 146 birds and an estimated total population of about 400 houbaras . these numbers are higher than found on most previous surveys of fuerteventura , considered as the main stronghold of this subspecies , and indicate that the houbara population on lanzarote is much more important than . . . [ show full abstract ]\nalekseev , a . f . 1980 . the houbara bustard in the north - west kyzylkum ( u . s . s . r . ) . \u2013 zool . zhum . 59 : 1263 - 1266 .\nbourget , l . 2007 . structure , fonctionnement et \u00e9volution du lek chez une esp\u00e8ce menac\u00e9e , l\u2019outarde houbara ( chlamydotis undulata undulata ) . \u2013 universit\u00e9 jean monnet \u2013 saint - \u00e9tienne , p . 46 .\ncombreau , o . and launay , f . 1996 . activity rhythms of houbara bustards ( chlamydotis undulata macqueenii ) in relation to some abiotic factors . \u2013 journal of arid environments 33 : 463 - 472 .\nezzerari , a . 1998 . contribution \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9tude \u00e9co - \u00e9thologique d\u2019une population d\u2019outarde houbara ( chlamydotis undulata undulata ) dans la r\u00e9gion de missour - maroc . \u2013 ecole nationale foresti\u00e8re d\u2019ing\u00e9nieurs , p . 107 .\nlaunay , f . and paillat , p . 1990 . a behavioural repertoire of the adult houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata macqueenii ) . \u2013 revue d\u2019ecologie ( terre et vie ) 45 : 65 - 88 .\nle cuziat , j . 2005 . contraintes environnementales et anthropiques influen\u00e7ant la r\u00e9partition spatiale de l\u2019outarde houbara ( chlamydotis undulata ) . aix - marseille . \u2013 universit\u00e9 paul cezanne aix - marseille , p . 223 .\nmaloney , r . f . 1998 . video monitoring observation of a houbara bustard , chlamydotis undulata nest site in mahazat as - sayd reserve , central saudi arabia . \u2013 sangrouse 20 : 36 - 39 .\nnoir , s . , barbraud , c . and judas , j . 2004 . estimated asian houbara bustard population size versus true detection probability . international symposium on ecology and conservation of steppe - land birds .\ngoriup , p . d . and collar , n . j . 1979 , 1980 . the i . c . b . p fuerventura houbara expedition , spring 1979 . \u2013 in : coles , c . l . and collar , n . j . ( eds . ) , the great bustard , sofia , 1978 - the houbara bustard , athens , 1979 . \u2013 sydenhams printers , poole , p . 4 .\ngaucher , p . 1987 . biological study on the reproduction of the houbara bustard in algeria - part ii . \u2013 n . w . r . c . / taif , saudi arabia , p . 6 .\ngubin , b . n . 1998 . action plan for the houbara bustard in central asia . unpublished draft paper , institute of zoology of national academy of sciences of republic of kazakhstan almaty , 3 february 1998 .\njacquet , j . m . 1998 . seasonal changes in food intake and body mass in captive houbara bustards ( chlamydotis undulata ) and effect of ambient temperature \u2013 journal of arid environments 38 : 359 - 370 .\nkenward , r . 1981 . a proposed study of houbara bustard ecology . \u2013 in : ecology , i . o . t . ( ed . ) . \u2013 institute of terrestrial ecology , p . 2 .\nlaunay , f . 1990 . behavioural ecology of houbara bustard \u2013 preliminary report ( january to june 89 ) . \u2013 n . w . r . c . / taif , saudi arabia , p . 46 .\nvan heezik , y . and seddon , p . j . 2002 . patch use and exploratory movements of a resident houbara bustard in northern saudi arabia . \u2013 journal of arid environments 50 : 683 - 686 .\nweigeldt , c . , schulz , h . and paillat , p . 1991 . experimental release of houbara ( chlamydotis undulata macqueenii ) in mahazat as said . \u2013 national wildlife research center , p . 40 .\nthe houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata ) is a threatened avian species that is rapidly declining throughout its range , especially in north africa , asia and the canary islands . we examined the population structure and genetic variation for the three houbara subspecies c . undulata undulata , c . u . fuertaventurae and c . u . macqueenii . a total of 266 birds from 10 populations were genotyped using . . . [ show full abstract ]\ncoles , c . l . and collar , n . j . 1980 . pakistan national council for the conservation of wildlife - report on the houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata ) . \u2013 in : coles , c . l . and collar , n . j . ( eds . ) , the great bustard , sofia , 1978 - the houbara bustard , athens , 1979 . \u2013 sydenhams printers , poole , p . 1 .\nd\u2019aloia , m . - a . 2001 . studies on the population structure of the houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata in the middle east with dna analysis techniques . \u2013 zoology in the middle east 22 : 25 - 35 .\nlaunay , f . , loughland , r . a . and mukhina , e . 1997 . preliminary observations of the incubation and covey behaviour of houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata macqueeni . \u2013 sandgrouse 19 : 51 - 55 .\nschulz , h . 1987 . the houbara ( chlamydotis undulata ) \u2013 a review on present knowledge , research priorities and methods ( with particular emphasis on radiotracking ) . \u2013 national wildlife research center , p . 22 .\nthe houbara bustard , chlamydotis undulata , is a large bird in the bustard family . contents - * 1 description * 2 taxonomy * 3 distribution and habitat * 4 behaviour * 4 . 1 breeding * 4 . more\ncomprehensive picture of the houbara bustards ' movements has become essential due to the continued decline in the houbara ' s numbers . this decline is believed to be as a result of destruction of their wintering and breeding habitat , over trapping and over hunting . now , pioneering work by researchers from the abu dhabi based , national avian research center ( narc ) , has begun to unravel the mystery of the this species ' migration routes . more\ncarrascal lm , palomino d , seoane j , alonso cl ( 2008 ) habitat use and population density of the houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata in fuerteventura ( canary islands ) . afr j ecol 46 : 291\u2013302 . doi :\n. . . the probable population trend of the houbara bustard in fuerteventura can be inferred considering the previously published information . the two most exhaustive censuses of the houbara population in fuerteventura reported 241 birds in 1994 ( mart\u00edn et al . , 1997 ) and 256 birds in 2000 ( anonymous , 2000 ) . these estimations lay inside the 90 % confidence interval , in 2005\u20132006 ( 108\u2013 258 ) , measured in this paper . . . .\nbailey , t . a . , pearson , w . and siddiqui , a . 2001 . pesticide contamination of a free - living houbara bustard captured by a falconry party in pakistan . \u2013 falco : 11 - 12 .\ngoriup , p . d . 1988 . houbara bustard field research project - progress report march - august 1988 . \u2013 n . c . w . c . d . / ryiadh , saudi arabia , p . 25 .\nmedina , f . m . 1999 . foraging use of cultivated field by the houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata fuerteventurae rothschild and hartert , 1894 on fuerteventura ( canary islands ) . \u2013 bird conservation international 9 : 373 - 386 .\nmian , a . and surahio , m . i . 1983 . biology of houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata macquenii ) with reference to western baluchistan . \u2013 journal of the bombay natural history society 80 : 111 - 118 .\nriou , s . , lawrence , m . , combreau , o . , and launay , f . in prep . male territoriality , display dispersion , and the mating system of the asian houbara bustard in southern kazakhstan .\ntigar , b . j . and osborne , p . e . 2000 . invertebrate diet of the houbara bustard chlamydotis [ undulata ] macqueenii in abu dhabi from calibrated faecal analysis . \u2013 ibis 142 : 466 - 475 .\nbaker , e . c . s . 1921 . chlamydotis undulate macqeenii . macqueen\u2019s bustard or houbara . in edward charles stuart baker ( ed . ) the game birds of india , burma and ceylon . pp 186 - 197 .\ncombreau , o . , launay , f . , al bowardi , m . and gubin , b . 1999 . outward migration of houbara bustards from two breeding areas in kazakhstan . \u2013 the condor 101 : 159 - 164 .\nd\u2019aloia , m . - a . and griffiths , r . 1999 . molecular sexing of the houbara bustard , chlamydotis undulata , and other arid - land species . \u2013 zoology in the middle east 18 : 33 - 40 .\nfacon , c . , guerin , j . - l . and lacroix , f . 2005 . assessment of a newcastle disease vaccination program in houbara bustard breeders ( chlamydotis undulata undulata ) . \u2013 journal of wildlife diseases 41 .\ngelinaud , g . , combreau , o . and seddon , p . j . 1997 . first breeding by captive - bred houbara bustards introduced in central saudi arabia . \u2013 journal of arid environments 35 : 527 - 534 .\nloughland , r . a . and launay , f . j . 1994 . houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata ) habitat selection in the western region of abu dhabi emirate . regional environmental symposium u . a . e . university .\nosborne , p . e . , launay , f . and gliddon , d . 1997 . wintering habitat use by houbara bustards chlamydotis undulata in abu dhabi and implications for management . \u2013 biological conservation 81 : 51 - 56 .\npitra , c . , d\u2019aloia , m . - a . , leckfeldt , d . and combreau , o . in press . out of china : origin and expension of the asian houbara bustard chlamydoti undulata macqueenii . - .\nseddon , p . j . , launay , f . , van heezik , y . and al bowardi , m . 1999 . methods for live trapping houbara bustards . \u2013 journal of field ornithology 70 : 169 - 181 .\nidaghdour , youssef ; broderick , damien ; korrida , amal ; chbel , faiza ( 2004 ) .\nmitochondrial control region diversity of the houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata complex and genetic structure along the atlantic seaboard of north africa\n.\n. . . contribution ratio of factors determining the houbara potential habitat we generated the houbara potential habitat map based on the environmental characteristics that determine the presence of the houbara in fuerteventura , considering the quantitative information provided by carrascal et al . ( 2008 ) and other studies dealing with the habitat preferences of the species ( mainly other qualitative factors ; mart\u00edn et al . 1996 mart\u00edn et al . , 1997 lorenzo 2004 ; carrascal et al . 2006 ; lorenzo et al . 2007 ) . information on the steppe bird community on the island ( population densities in different habitats ) can be found in seoane et al . ( 2011 ) andcarrascal et al . ( 2012 ) . . . .\nchbel , f . , idaghdour , y . , broderick , d . and korrida , a . 2002 . characterization of 22 microsatellites loci from the endangered houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata undulata ) . \u2013 molecular ecology 2 : 484\u2013487 .\nmamadou samba , s . 1999 . contribution \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9tude des habitats de l\u2019outarde houbara ( chlamydotis undulata ) en interaction avec les \u00e9cosyst\u00e8mes dans la r\u00e9gion de missour ( maroc oriental ) . \u2013 ecole nationale foresti\u00e8re d\u2019ing\u00e9nieurs , p . 82 .\nvan heezik , y . , hemon , s . and saint jalme , m . 1999 . influence of breeding experience , age and climate on breeding performance of captive houbara bustards . \u2013 national wildlife research center , p . 24 .\nthe houbara bustard is found in north africa west of the nile mainly in the western part of the sahara desert region in mauritania , morocco , algeria , tunisia , libya and egypt . some old records exist from sudan . a small population is found in the canary islands . the asian houbara or macqueen ' s bustard which was earlier included in this species occurs east of the sinai peninsula . the north african species is sedentary unlike the northern populations of macqueen ' s bustards .\ncombreau , o . , gelinaud , g . and smith , t . r . 2000 . home range and movements of houbara bustards introduced in the najd pediplain in saudi arabia . \u2013 journal of arid environments 44 : 229 - 240 .\njacquet , j . m . and launay , f . 1997 . diurnal behavioural patterns in the houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata ) in captivity : effects of temperature and day length . \u2013 applied animal behaviour science 55 : 137 - 151 .\nlaunay , f . 1989 . first results of the behaviour of a semi - captive group of houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata macqueenii ) . \u2013 n . w . r . c . / taif , saudi arabia , p . 17 .\nmensah brown , e . p . k . and pallot , d . j . 2000 . peptidergic and aminergic neurotransmitters of the exocrine pancreas of the houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata ) . \u2013 journal of morphology 244 : 23 - 29 .\ncollar , n . j . 1979 . the world status of the houbara : a preliminary review . in : coles , c . l . ; collar , n . j . ( ed . ) , symposium papers : the great bustard ( otis tarda ) , sofia , bulgaria , may 26th , 1978 [ and ] the houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata ) , athens , greece , may 24th 1979 , pp . 12 . the game conservancy , fordingbridge , u . k .\nthe houbara bustard is found in north africa west of the nile mainly in the western part of the sahara desert region in mauritania , morocco , algeria , tunisia , libya and egypt . some old records exist from sudan . a small population is found in the canary islands . the asian houbara or macqueen ' s bustard which was earlier included in this species occurs east of the sinai peninsula . the north african species is sedentary unlike the migratory northern populations of macqueen ' s bustards .\nboullenger , s . 2006 . etude d\u2019une population d\u2019outarde houbara ( chlamydotis undulata undulata ) dans le nord est du maroc : inventaire des m\u00e2les en parade et approche du syst\u00e8me socio - sexuel de l\u2019esp\u00e8ce . \u2013 ecwp - universit\u00e9 j . monnet .\ncombreau , o . , launay , f . and lawrence , m . 2001 . an assessment of annual mortality rates in adult - sized migrant houbara bustards ( chlamydotis [ undulata ] macqueenii ) . \u2013 animal conservation 4 : 133 - 141 .\nmian , a . 1989 . a contribution to the biology of the houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata macqueeni ) : some observations on 1983 - 84 wintering population in baluchistan . \u2013 journal of the bombay natural history society 85 : 9 - 25 .\nostrowski , s . and combreau , o . 1995 . a survey of causes of mortality in captive , captive bred released , and wild born houbara bustards ( chlamydotis undulata ) in saudi arabia . \u2013 in , pp . 87 - 97 .\nqiao , j . , yao , j . and combreau , o . 2002 . monitoring the incubation behaviour of the houbara chlamydotis undulata with a temperature logger dummy egg . \u2013 journal of the bombay natural history society 99 : 165 - 172 .\nramadan - jaradi , g . and ramadan - jaradi , m . g . 1989 . breeding the houbara bustard at the al ain zoo & aquarium abu dhabi u . a . e . \u2013 zool . garten 59 : 229 - 240 .\nsheldon , r . and launay , f . 1998 . monitoring houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata macqueenii distribution , populations and time of occurence within the abu dhabi emirate using a network of local rangers . \u2013 bird conservation international 8 : 1 - 9 .\nmart\u00edn a , nogales m , hern\u00e1ndez ma , lorenzo ja , medina fm , rando jc ( 1996 ) status , conservation and habitat selection of the houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae on lanzarote ( canary islands ) . bird conserv int 6 : 229\u2013239\nbailey , t . a . a . 1998 . antibody response of kori bustards ( ardeotis kori ) and houbara bustards ( chlamydotis undulata ) to live and inactivated newcastle disease vaccines . \u2013 journal of zoo and wildlife medicine 29 : 441 - 450 .\ncms . 2005 . convention sur les esp\u00e8ces migratrices . d\u00e9veloppement de nouveaux et futurs accords \u2013 outarde houbara d\u2019asie ; el\u00e9phant ouest - africain ; antilope sa\u00efga d\u2019asie centrale . 8i\u00e8me session de la conf\u00e9rence des parties . nairobi , 20 - 25 novembre 2005 .\nmarou dodo , m . 1998 . contribution \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9tude de l\u2019habitat et du r\u00e9gime alimentaire de l\u2019outade houbara ( chlamydotis undulata undulata ) dans la r\u00e9gion de missour ( province de boulemene , maroc ) . \u2013 ecole nationale foresti\u00e8re d\u2019ing\u00e9nieurs , p . 92 .\nostrowski , s . , ancrenaz , m . , saint jalme , m . and greth , a . 1995 . concurrent avian pox and newcastle disease infection in a houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata ) . \u2013 avian diseases 24 : 573 - 577 .\nostrowski , s . , dorrestein , g . m . , ancrenaz , m . and saint jalme , m . 1995 . debilitating cutaneous poxvirus lesions on two captive houbara bustards ( chlamydotis undulata ) . \u2013 avian diseases 39 : 907 - 911 .\nseddon , p . j . and van heezik , y . 1996 . seasonal changes in houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata macqueenii numbers in harrat al arrah , saudi arabia : implication for managing a remnant population . \u2013 biological conservation 75 : 139 - 146 .\ntieleman , i . b . , williams , j . b . , lacroix , f . and paillat , p . 2002 . physiological responses of houbara bustards to high ambient temperatures . \u2013 the journal of experimental biology 205 : 503 - 511 .\nwishart , g . j . , lindsay , c . , staines , h . j . and mccormick , p . 2002 . semen quality in captive houbara bustard , chamydotis undulata undulata . \u2013 reproduction , fertility and development 14 : 401 - 405\nle cuziat , j . , chadoeuf , j . , vidal , e . , roche , p . , rautureau , p . and lacroix , f . in prep . north african houbara bustard exclusion by extensive grazing activities in eastern morocco . - .\nmensah brown , e . p . k . and lawrence , p . a . 2001 . neurotransmitters regulating acid secretion in the proventriculus of the houbara bustard ( chlamydotis undulata ) : a morphological viewpoint . \u2013 journal of morphology 248 : 175 - 184 .\nnoir , s . 2003 . reliability of methods to assess density in asian houbara bustard chlamydotis macqueenii and monitoring of lek mating system during the 2002 breeding season in the mahazat as - sayd protected area . unpublished report , nwrc , taif , saudi arabia .\nostrowski , s . , saint jalme , m . and ancrenaz , m . 1998 . antibody response to newcastle disease vaccination in a flock of young houbara bustards ( chlamydotis undulata ) . \u2013 journal of zoo and wildlife medicine 29 : 234 - 236 .\npaillat , p . , gaucher , p . , khoja , a . r . and m . , s . 1987 . houbara bustard breeding project egg collecting and biological studies evaluation for 1987 . internal report . \u2013 nwrc / taif p . 13 .\nplazenet , p . 2005 . effets de la composition et de la restriction de l\u2019alimentation sur les performances de reproduction de l\u2019outarde houbara ( chlamydotis undulata undulata ) en captivit\u00e9 . \u2013 universit\u00e9 pierre et marie curie \u2013 emirates for wildlife propagation , p . 43 .\ntourenq , c . , combreau , o . , eichakera , x . and xinyib , g . 2003 . predation of ground - nesting birds by asian houbara bustard ( chlamydotis [ undulata ] macqueenii ) . \u2013 journal of arid environments 55 : 581\u2013582 .\nthe houbara bustard is found in the canary islands , north africa , iran , saudi arabia , india , pakistan , kazakhstan , china , and the uae . it breeds in deserts and other very arid sandy areas and is largely resident within its range ."]}
{"id": 311, "summary": [{"text": "neuroterus numismalis is a gall wasp that forms chemically induced leaf galls on oak trees .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it has both bisexual and agamic ( parthenogenetic ) generations and forms two distinct galls on oak leaves , the silk button gall and blister gall .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the galls can be very numerous with more than a thousand per leaf . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "neuroterus numismalis", "paragraphs": ["sometimes called the\nsmooth spangle\ngall . usually much less common that either neuroterus numismalis and neuroterus quercusbaccarum .\nsilk button galls ( neuroterus numismalis ) . chemically induced distortions on pedunculate oak ( quercus robur ) caused by the cynipid wasp neuroterus vesicator\noak silk - button spangle gall wasp ( neuroterus numismalis ) on oak ( quercus sp . ) .\nandrew harrington / galls of silk button spangle gall wasp ( neuroterus numismalis ) on oak leaf . england , uk , europe\nspangle galls on oak leaf created as a result of the plant ' s response to neuroterus numismalis wasp larvae . \u00a9 power and syred . urltoken\nsmall raised galls agent : neuroterus numismalis gall wasp ( sexual ) right : top of leaf gall showing radiating lines photo : 28th may 2013 .\ngeorgette douwma / silk button spangle galls caused by the gall wasp ( neuroterus numismalis ) and common spangle galls caused by another ( neuroterus quercusbaccarumon ) on the underside of an english oak leaf ( quercus robur ) uk .\ngeorgette douwma / silk button spangle galls caused by the gall wasp ( neuroterus numismalis ) on the underside of an english oak leaf ( quercus robur ) uk .\ncolin varndell / silk button galls on the underside of pedunculate oak leaf ( quercus robur ) caused by the gall wasp ( neuroterus numismalis ) . dorset , uk , september .\nadrian davies / silk button spangle galls on an english oak ( quercus robur ) leaf caused by a gall wasp ( neuroterus numismalis ) , surrey , england , uk , september .\nalongside spangle galls you may see silk - button galls , which look as if they\u2019ve been woven from golden threads and are made by the asexual generation of the wasp neuroterus numismalis .\ngeorgette douwma / silk button spangle galls caused by the gall wasp neuroterus numisalis and common spangle galls caused by the gall wasp neuroterus quercusbaccarumon on the underside of an english oak leaf ( quercus robur ) uk .\noyster gall agent : neuroterus anthracinus gall wasp ( asexual ) attached to midrib of leaf of english oak .\nthis gall ( note the discolouration near the tip of the leaf ) would seem to have been caused by the sexual generation of the silk button spangle gall wasp , neuroterus numismalis . for a view of the underside of this leaf and the gall see >\nsilk button gall wasp ( neuroterus numismalis ) creates 3mm diameter golden brown discs with a pronounced central depression on the underside of oak leaves in late summer - early autumn . the next generation in spring forms small oval galls on the male catkins and leaf margins .\ngeorgette douwma / silk button spangle galls caused by the gall wasp ( neuroterus numisalis ) and common spangle galls caused by another gall wasp ( neuroterus quercusbaccarumon ) on the underside of an english oak leaf ( quercus robur ) uk .\ngeorgette douwma / silk button spangle galls caused by the gall wasp ( neuroterus numisalis ) and common spangle galls caused by another gall wasp ( neuroterus quercusbaccarumon ) on the underside of an english oak leaf ( quercus robur ) uk .\nduncan mcewan / silk button spangle galls on oak casued by wasp ( neuroterus albipes ) . scotland , uk , europe\ncatkin gall agent : neuroterus aprilinus ( asexual ) gall wasp on male catkins of english oak . photo : 9th may 2009 .\nneuroterus numismalis is a gall wasp that has two generations per year . one being sexual and the other agamic ( all female and needs no male to reproduce ) . the sexual generation causes blister galls on oak leaves . whereas the agamic generation causes silk button galls on the underside of oak leaves .\nchris o & apos ; reilly / silk button and common spangle galls of gall wasps { neuroterus spp } on oak leaf . uk\ngeorgette douwma / silk button spangle galls caused by the gall wasp neuroterus numisalis on the underside of an english oak leaf ( quercus robur ) uk .\nspangle galls are made by the grubs of the asexual generation of the gall - wasp neuroterus quercusbaccarum . each gall , containing a single wasp grub , falls from the tree in autumn and overwinters in leaf - litter .\nearly oogenesis in neuroterus baccarum l . has been traced . no doubleness is observed in the chromatin threads before the diffuse state , from which they emerge paired end - to - end . the ten bivalents are arranged in a characteristic parallel series on the metaphase plate . thereafter , lateral fusion occurs and , in the mature egg , the chromatin is present as a spindle - shaped mass .\na new gall in the uk 2006 . agent : neuroterus saliens gall wasp . left - sea anemone gall in female flower ( sexual generation ) photo : 13th may 2006 . right - galls 3mm . on midrib ( both surfaces ) and leaf petiole . photo : 15th october 2006 . ( asexual generation ) . both photographs taken from the same tree on hog hill . both generations on turkey oak .\ncommon spangle gall wasp ( neuroterus quercusbaccarum ) causes yellowish gingery brown disc - like galls 3 - 4mm in diameter on the underside of oak leaves in late summer - early autumn . the galls drop to the ground in autumn and females emerge in spring to lay eggs on the male catkins . the next generation causes spherical fleshy galls 5 - 6mm in diameter on the catkins . these galls are yellowish green or reddish in colour and are known as currant galls .\nsmooth spangle galls ( neuroterus albipes ) . the galls are saucer - shaped , yellowish - green or pinkish - red discs without any hairs and up to 4mm in diameter . they form mainly on the underside of the leaf with each gall containing a single larva . pupation takes place during the winter while the galls are on the ground and females emerge in the spring . they lay eggs which give rise to small , oval , green galls which are attached to the leaf margins or the catkins . males and females emerge in may - june .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nit\u2019s great to spend time in your yard , on your patio or putzing in your garden . time spent enjoying your efforts , but if not your hobby , another family members hobby . sitting on a swing , under a tree , watching two birds playing in a verdigras leaf bird bath . watching your children or grandchildren \u201cah\u201d each time the solar lighting around them turns on and the garden becomes a magical playground . maybe compairing how tall the kids are aginst a pair of flamboyant flamingo stakes . time spent in a cotton padded swinging chair or a bradid hammock , just reading a good book .\nurltoken has the right decor to make those times most memorable . we have bird feeders and bird feeding stations for all you bird feeders . we have bird feeders for your yard , bird feeding stations for your garden and bird feeder decor for your patio and deck . we have many shapes and sizes for just about any bird feeder need you might have . bird feeders for any occasion and color to match any decor . bird feeders that sit on the table , bird feeding stations that hang and bird feeders that could make a bird feeding city .\nif it\u2019s bird houses your interested in , we have them too . wooden bird houses , tall bird houses , short bird houses and bird houses in between . blue , green , red and yellow colored bird houses and many designes to match your bird house needs . we offer standing , hanging and table top versions . instead of that bird feeding city you could build a bird house town . of course some don\u2019t like birds as much as they like frogs , or maybe they like both . urltoken has a frog for most occasions . solar powered frogs to light your way at nite or cutesy frog key holders to keep your spare key safe till you need it . maybe you are looking for simplicity , such as a frog on a mushroom . frog decor to match your uniqueness and if we don\u2019t have it contact us and we will find the right frog for you .\nhow to build your own barbeque barbeques are a great way to enjoy time with your family and friends . the food is easy to prepare and it\u2019s one of the only times when the man of the house takes over the chores . there are different shapes and sizes of bbq\u2019s on the market . if you are barbeque fan though , you might just have to build your very own \u2013 it just requires a little knowhow and hard work ;\n1 . decide where you want the barbeque hub to be placed . make sure it is away from trees , fences and anything that will catch fire if the wind catches the flames .\n2 . don\u2019t set your heart on a complex barbeque if your a rookie builder . you need something functional , not something that looks great but is of no use .\n3 . once you have decided on where you want the barbeque to be , use your grills and measure the barbeque area . at this point , you might want to lay down your bricks and see if any of the bricks will need to be cut . for rookies , it is best to avoid this and widen your area if this is the case .\n4 . clear the area of grass , stones and any other debris . dig for about 8 to 10 inches , add tamper and gravel and then pour in the cement . smooth the area and leave overnight to dry out .\n5 . lay down your bricks again and check if you have done everything right . make sure the bricks at the end fit perfectly . if you need more help , mark where your bricks will go .\n6 . before cementing your bricks , hose them down with water . mix the mortar and using the trowel lay down your bricks pressing gently into the mortar .\n7 . continue building your wall and use the level to check that everything is even . make sure the barbeque sits at a comfortable height , and also make sure the grills are placed comfortably . you don\u2019t want to burn yourself while checking the food on the lower grill etc .\n8 . two grill racks are usually enough for a normal sized family . for the grill racks , place bricks in such a way that they jut out to form notches that can support the grills . remember not to place these together or too far apart .\n9 . keep checking with the level , finish the final layer and using a hosepipe neaten the joints .\n10 . if you want you can even build an additional place where you can cement a paving slab for a side table with a cupboard below for your charcoal and other things .\nin hot summer days , we try our best to stay cool . there are various cooling methods we can employ depending upon the convenience , efficiency and budget . the shops are full of several appliances with a varying price range . each one has its benefits and disadvantages . to know which one is best for you , read on .\nan ac acts really fast when it comes to cooling your home ( ps : avoid these mistakes ) . as soon as you switch it on , the ac unit brings the temperature down to a comfortable level within a few minutes . there are various types of air conditioners : window ac , split ac , ducted unit , portable ac etc .\na tower fan gently blows cool breeze on your body and helps you cool down . it does not cool the room . when air blows on your skin , the moist on your skin evaporates and leaves you with a cool feeling . it never brings down the temperature of the room .\na good night\u2019s sleep is no luxury but necessity , and to sleep well , we need a comfortable atmosphere at night . we worry about the expense factor when purchasing an appliance . your hard - earned money should be invested for something good .\nac is considered to be luxury because of its price level . a basic unit costs no less than $ 100 . if you want an energy star rated product , the cost will go up . additional features add more to it .\na tower fan is lot cheaper than an ac . a simple unit comes only at $ 40 . additional features will cost more than that but it is always less than an ac .\nan ac unit requires lot more energy than a tower fan . an ac drags in hot air , cools it and flushes out the cool air through vents . an air conditioner pulls more electricity to run this process .\na best tower fan needs only 2400 watts in an entire day , whereas , the same power is required every hour to run an ac . therefore , you can save a great deal of money if you are running a tower fan instead of an ac . energy star rated products are designed to consume less energy , however , they don\u2019t come cheap\nfor an highest quality tower fan , take a look at this site , these guys have reviewed some great tower fans , which are great for cooling small - to medium - sized rooms .\nair conditioners are heavier and bigger appliances , therefore , they produce more noise . though , these are designed to work quietly but some amount of noise does come from them . a tower fan operates softly without disturbing your sleep .\nthe air conditioners are generally non - portable . new versions of portable acs have been launched , however , these are not as efficient as the main stream ac machines . portability helps you to carry it wherever you want and enjoy the cool breeze but acs are not good for you if you want a portable home cooling appliance .\nthe tower fans are portable . you can fix a location or keep changing it , whatever suits you . the models are lighter , sleek and smooth , therefore , helps you save more space . the weight is easy for carrying purpose .\ngone those days when only an ac would come with a remote control . the modern tower fans are also accompanied with remote control systems for an easy operation . you can easily operate , fix timers , change speed levels with the help of a remote .\ni hope that after the comparison between tower fans and acs you would be able to decide which one is the best for you . tower fans are highly recommended if you want to save a great deal of money when purchasing the unit and also when running it . whereas , the acs are only good for cooling , but these do not help you save money .\nthe flowering process in the garden represents significant transformations in the development of the vegetable plants . in some cases it signals the start of the cropping process . in other cases it represents the end of the productive life of a plant . flowering can also be a used to time events or can be a warning sign for a gardener \u2013 a sign that we may have done something wrong , or are taking a risk .\nmany of the vegetables that we eat are in fact fruit or seeds \u2013 a fruit being roughly defined the part of the plant that contains the seeds . tomatoes , peppers , aubergines / eggplant , cucumbers , courgette / zucchini and squash are all technically fruit , some being eaten at the immature stage and others when fully ripe . runner bean and french / snap / green bean pods are immature fruit , with the peas , broad beans and sweet corn being immature seeds . all of these , and more , are dependent on flowers and pollination . if the flowers are delayed or there is not sufficient pollination , then there will be no crop \u2013 in most cases .\npollination occurs with the transfer of pollen from the male flower to the female flower , or from the male part to the female part within the same flower . this pollination is done by the wind , by insects or automatically within the flower , depending on the plant and the growing conditions .\nthere are very few plants in the vegetable garden that have male and female flowers on different plants . spinach is the most common with some plants being male and some plants being female . as we eat the leaves of this plant and not the fruit or seeds , pollination is not something for a grower to worry about , unless you want to save seeds . asparagus is another example , and the yield from male plants is apparently higher , so there may be an advantage to having more male plants .\nsome vegetables have separate male and female flowers on the same plant \u2013 called \u2018imperfect\u2019 flowers \u2013 and the pollen must be transferred between them by the wind or an animal . sweet corn is one of the few crops in a vegetable garden that rely on wind pollination to ensure a decent crop . courgettes / zucchini and the closely related squash and pumpkin are the most common and vibrant examples of plants that rely on insects \u2013 or humans \u2013 to produce a crop .\nif you wanted to save seed for one variety of courgette , or if you wanted to specifically cross breed two different varieties , it is fairly easy to do with this manual pollination technique , so long as you can prevent insects from interfering in the process .\nflowers are considered to be \u2018perfect\u2019 if they contain both the male and female parts within the same flower . this obviously simplifies pollination , but the process still occurs . peas and french / green / snap beans have perfect flowers in which the pollen laden stamen brushes past the female stigmas as the flower opens \u2013 this is a self pollination process . even though bees may visit the flowers , they are not needed in the process , and very rarely do they transfer pollen from one flower to the next . this makes seed saving very convenient \u2013 though breeding is a trickier task .\ntomatoes also have perfect flowers and are self pollinating in most cases . all that is needed is for the pollen to be shaken onto the female part of the flower which is enclosed within the male part . this can be done by the wind shaking the plant , buy a buzzing insect landing on the flower , or by the gardener gently tapping or vibrating the individual flowers or the entire plant . in some of the larger beefsteak tomato varieties , the female stigma projects out of the flower a bit and can be cross - pollinated by insects carrying pollen from another flower .\nunfortunately suitable bees do not regularly come into the polytunnel , so i tried doing the triggering myself with a tiny paint brush . by holding onto the top petal of each flower , i was able to insert the brush into the flower and gently pull down the lower part , pushing open the flower and hopefully triggering the pollination just as a bee would . this seems to have worked as pods are now starting to form . it is a tedious job but a simple one . given how big the runner beans become , taking a few minutes to trigger even a few dozen flowers each morning can ensure a bigger harvest than most families can eat or freeze .\nwarning sign the premature bolting of leaf plants is one of the key signals to a grower that things are not quite right for the plants . something is stressing them , and although there is little that a grower can do to reverse this bolting process , it is a good opportunity to learn about what might be done differently . sometimes it is simply weather conditions that are inappropriate for the plant , and a grower can choose to plant earlier , later or use different varieties and crops . bolting could also indicate that the plant felt too crowded , and did not have enough space above or below ground to grow any bigger . water stress , or lack of nutrients can also be a factor , both of which a grower can do something about \u2013 next time . bolting can also be caused by transplants that were not taken care of , were too long in the pots or modules , were not hardened off enough , or received rough treatment while being transplanted .\none of the other warning sighs about flowering is the potential danger of increasing the problems with weeds . an annual weed can can go from flower to the production of viable seeds in a very short period of time . even if you pull out a flowering weed and throw it into the compost , the plant may have enough energy left in its roots and leaves to produce viable seeds , which will then be spread across the garden with the compost \u2013 unless it is a hot enough compost . vegetable plants can also become problematic weeds if you let them produce seeds . it is common to see a few old kale plants in an allotment being allowed to flower . while this is a beautiful sight , and very beneficial for pollinating bees , each of these plants can produce thousands of seeds , which can become a major weed the next year \u2013 something that i am currently experiencing . remember , one year\u2019s seeding requires seven years of weeding .\none final aspect is that the timing of the flowing of various \u2018weeds\u2019 and naturally occurring plants in the vicinity can be a very useful guide to when things could be sown or transplanted . for example , dandelions flower each spring , but at different dates , depending on the overall conditions such as weather , soil temperature , etc . this could be used a signal that conditions are right for sowing some early plants . this of course takes experience , but in the context of climate change , it is useful guide to the changes of the season and when tasks should be done , rather than relying or dates in the calendar . there is so much to observe and learn .\npeas are not usually grown in protected gardens as they don\u2019t like the heat and the space is usually considered too valuable for such a low yielding crop . but i decided to try growing some peas in the polytunnel in order to produce an early treat before anything would be available outside . summary :\nthe avola dwarf pea variety was used , which is supposed to produce an early crop from an overwintering or early spring planting . it is a round seeded variety and is supposed to grow 60cm tall . growing details include :\nthe plants were healthy in general , with no significant problems , though they grew taller than expected . the crop was a tasty and welcome treat , but yields were low and the crop was later than expected .\na total of almost 2 hours was spent on this crop , mostly on harvesting and setting up the supporting structure .\ngfi for this crop is 18 servings / hour or 16 . 5 servings / m\u00b2 .\nthis is at the low end of the scale , a very inefficient use of time and space .\na serving size was set at 50g , as they are usually eaten fresh and uncooked .\ncalculation does not include the \u2018cost\u2019 of the tunnel , water and other inputs .\nthe crop was relatively trouble free . one of the plants was damaged at base of a stem by an unknown pest . at the end of the cropping , some of the peas were eaten by a mouse .\ngrowing the peas at the side of the tunnel was a mistake as it made it more difficult and time consuming to harvest the peas .\nthe peas grew to about 120cm tall , almost twice the expected height , causing them to outgrow the supporting structure , and making harvesting more difficult .\ntry sowing earlier for an earlier harvest , possibly even in november as an overwintering crop .\nuse a heavier cropping rather than a really early variety , which would produce over a longer period of time .\nthe end of harvest in the tunnel should ideally coincide with the start of harvest of overwintering peas outside , to ensure a continuity of supply , but this is dependent on weather .\npeas are probably not as suitable as mangetout for protected cropping , given the difference in yield .\nkohlrabi is an unusual vegetable . closely related to the cabbage and the turnip , the edible component is actually a swollen part of the stem , which is similar in texture and taste to a broccoli stem , but milder and sweeter . while it is a common crop in parts of europe , it is very much a novelty here in ireland , and i trialed it in the protected garden as a hunger gap crop .\nthe kohlrabi was grown in the same bed as carrots , beetroot , chard , turnip and radish , which were all to provide a crop before the summer crop of cucumbers and melons . a purple skin azur star variety was used with the following planting details :\ntotal yield including leaves estimated at 1 . 4kg / m or 5 . 7kg / m2 .\na total of about 30 minutes was spent on this crop , most of it on the original sowing and filling in the gaps with transplants \u2013 including the time spent caring for and watering the tray of transplants .\ngfi for this crop is almost 40 servings / hour or 20 servings / m\u00b2 .\nif leaves were eaten gfi would increase to 85 servings / hr or 45 servings / m\u00b2 .\nwith full germination , gfi could increase to 70 servings / hr , 120 with leaves .\nserving size set at 100g , not including a small amount of waste from peeling .\ncalculation does not include the \u2018cost\u2019 of the tunnel , water and other imputs .\nbeyond the poor germination of the original sowing \u2013 caused by either old seed or cool conditions \u2013 the crop was trouble free and quick to produce . there were no noticeable diseases or deficiencies , but one of the bulbs split , possibly due to inconsistent soil moisture . three plants ( 15 % ) failed to produce a useable bulb before the space was needed for other crops . the crop occupied a lot of space and the big leaves crowded out the slower growing carrots and beetroot .\ngfi should be 70 servings / hour or 25 servings / m\u00b2 with tender stems .\nfinally , a few cobs of sweetcorn were ready to harvest in the protected garden ! given the cool and damp context , it is unusual to be able to eat any locally grown sweetcorn , and quite remarkable to be eating it fresh as early as july \u2013 one of the benefits of growing food in a polytunnel . it may be early in the season , but it has been a very long wait for me .\ni grew up in southern ontario , canada , near toronto , with a climate very suitable for growing corn \u2013 except for this year , with the droughts and heat wave seriously damaging many crops in the region . in the late summer many meals in our household were based around freshly harvested \u2018corn on the cob\u2019 , which had been purchased direct from a local farmer . it was a time of year that everyone eagerly anticipated , but the excellent quality of the sweetcorn spoiled me . unfortunately , or perhaps it is fortunate , i cannot tolerate the vacuum wrapped or frozen sweetcorn that is available for sale in ireland . i have gone without one of my favorite foods except when i happen to be back in canada during corn season . it has been 5 or 6 years , which is a long time to wait .\nthis year was the first time that i have successfully grown a decent sweetcorn crop here in ireland . i tried a few times outside in gardens and allotments , but never produced more than a few kernels on a tiny cob . yesterday , i harvested 3 medium sized cobs , mostly full of kernels ! of course , they were not as good as the corn i grew up on , but considering the context , they were very much appreciated .\nin the last few decades , plant breeders have developed \u2018super - sweet\u2019 varieties , which store reasonably well . the older varieties , with their fuller flavor , do not keep as well , but grow better in irish conditions . the sugars in the kernels of these varieties start to convert to starch as soon as the cob is picked . even a few hours after harvesting , the flavor could have noticeably changed . for our meal last night , i followed the harvesting advice i learned as a kid :\nheat a large pot of salted water , and when it is almost boiling walk out to the field / garden . pick the cobs you are going to eat , then run back to the kitchen . husk them quickly and boil them until just tender . eat immediately with salt and lots of butter .\nwater is one of the ways that copper may enter our bodies . the drinking of chlorinated water has been proved to an increased chance of developing colon cancer . therefore , you have to set up your hot water system carefully . the tankless water heaters are important part of the hot water system in our house . like most things involved in owning and caring for a home , tankless water heaters have always been full of promise and they are actually a lot more complex than you might think , especially when they were replacing an existing conventional water heater .\ninstallation was often complicated and costly installation is always a nightmare for homeowners even manufacturers haven\u2019t given up on the technology on improving the designs to make it easier to install . from the consumer reports , small tankless water heater can cost $ 120 - $ 350 for a unit and the installation can add $ 100 - $ 200 . while you will pay $ 800 - $ 3 , 000 or more a central tankless water heater , and the total cost will be increased up to $ 1 , 000 - $ 3 , 500 , includes the installation . how to reduce the cost of installation ? unless you\u2019re well experienced in this line that you can install the unit by yourself , it\u2019s smart to choose branded manufacturer because their advanced technology should make retrofit installations easier and less cost .\ninconsistent water temperatures this is another big bigger problem for house use . tankless water heaters are designed for providing plenty of hot water as long as the flow is high enough . one of the main reasons why the tankless water heater can\u2019t keep water temperatures due to the low water pressure . the low flow within your tankless unit results in shutting down the gas burner . the restriction in the hot water flow can cause inconsistent water temperatures as well because the mineral deposits block the shower head or faucet aerators . for the first situation , you should manually check the minimal required flow rate . the 2nd situation can be solved by cleaning every single of the unit .\ndrawbacks even the on - demand water heaters come are more efficient than standard heaters as these innovations , but they are not for every family . for example , one of the most important aspects to be taken care of when it comes to tankless water heaters is exhaust venting . if the unit can\u2019t send out the high density heat , it could cause the heater to breakdown . regarding gas supply when you consider a tankless gas water heater . the same pressure and volume are important for heating water instantly by tankless water heaters . if you area doesn\u2019t have natural gas supply because of the extremely cold incoming ground water or your new house has not set up propane supply , a tankless model might not for your needs .\ndo you suffer from back pain ? did you know that you can use herbal remedies to relieve back pain ? as people become more and more aware of the adverse side effects of painkillers and opioids , more and more are looking for alternatives to relieve pain . the good news is that there are many ways to ease the suffering without having to turn to prescription medication .\nherbs can be used for the relief of back pain , so let us take a look at a few that can ease muscle pain and reduce inflammation .\ncat\u2019s claw cat\u2019s claw can be taken orally as a tablet , capsule or by drinking it in a tea . it has anti - inflammatory properties and aids in reducing swelling . inflammation and swelling are often associated with back problems like joint inflammation , spinal arthritis and herniated discs . while this particular herb is very helpful to treat the symptoms , it should be used in moderation as it is very powerful can over stimulate the immune system .\nboswellia boswellia is commonly available in tablet form and has high anti - inflammatory properties . boswellia works by blocking a substance called leukotrienes , known to attack joints , resulting in reduced motion and pain .\ntumeric and ginger these two are very easy to add to your diet , they are delicious and in addition to their anti - inflammatory properties hold a range of other beneficial qualities .\nvalerian root valerian root has many beneficial properties and is commonly used to aid in anxiety and insomnia as it is relaxing . if you are experiencing muscle - related back pain , valerian can be a great way to ease the pain ; the relaxing properties extend to the muscles and aid to reduce nerve sensitivity . making it fantastic for conditions like muscle spasms , muscle injuries and other muscle related pain . valerian can cause drowsiness so is best taken at night .\nwhite willow bark white willow bark can be taken as a tablet or prepared as a tea . this remedy has been in use for centuries to treat inflammation . it contains salicin , a chemical with properties similar to aspirin ( acetylsalicylic acid ) which aids in pain reduction . while white willow bark has multiple benefits , it should be used in moderation as an overdose can lead to increased inflammation and worsen your pain and potentially cause other health concerns .\nthere are many ways to treat the symptoms of back pain including the use of inversion therapy ( read inversion table reviews ) , floatation therapy and physiotherapy . however , the best way to treat the symptoms of back pain and ultimately arrive at a long - term solution is , in fact , to use a combination of treatments and observe the underlying causes of the condition .\nback pain is often the result of many contributing factors including bad lifting habits , poor posture , too much time with electronic devices and poor diet . the best way to ensure the spinal health and all round wellbeing is to follow a healthy eating plan that includes all the essential nutrients , get regular exercise , develop good posture and plenty of good quality rest .\nhey ! i realize it\u2019s been a while since my last post . i have no excuses ! ok , i do have some , but i\u2019ll save those for another post .\ninstead of excuses , i have some pictures from keukenhof for you ! hans and i finally visited yesterday . even though it\u2019s just across the street , we\u2019ve been putting off a visit because we were waiting for the tulips to really come out , and for the trees and bushes to get a bit leafier . but spring is running three weeks late this year due to the cold weather we\u2019ve been having , and it\u2019s just taking tooooooooooo long\u2026 . you might notice in the pictures that there are lots of tulips still to come out . but there are lots and lots of hyacinths ( they smell soooooooo yummy ) and more varieties of daffodils than i ever knew existed .\nit\u2019s also one of the most photographed places in the world . if you\u2019re photo crazy , and you\u2019re one of those people with a ginormous camera and even more ginormous lenses , this is the place you\u2019ll want to use all that equipment . but you\u2019ll see just as many people taking pictures with their ipads or with their phones on selfie sticks ! you gotta\u2019 watch out for these people because they tend not to see past the ends of their own arms . i\u2019m not sure everyone takes the time to enjoy the beauty of the flowers they\u2019re photographing . but if ever there was a place to stop to smell the flowers\u2026 . .\nkeukenhof opened this year on march 20 and it closes on may 17 . i expect i\u2019ll visit again before it closes . april 25th is the flower parade . the flower parade is a parade of floats decorated with bulb flowers . it goes along a 40km route , starting in a town called nordwijk at about 9am , and ends in haarlem at about 8 : 30pm . it\u2019ll pass through lisse , and go by keukenhof , around 3 in the afternoon . i\u2019ll be there with my point - and - shoot to get some pictures for you !\nwe stand behind our work 100 % . hedgerow mobile is committed to delivering full customer satisfaction .\nhedgerow mobile specializes in producing high quality seed of origin - known california native grasses , forbs , sedges and rushes , providing reliable and professional service to its clients since 1997 .\nclick here to support naturespot by making a donation - small or large - your gift is very much appreciated . thank you .\nthe silk button galls are abundant on the underside of the oak leaves and can reach 3 mm across . this gall holds the agamic generation and looks like a thick , rolled edge disk with a deep central pit and gold hairs , there is no mark on the top of the leaf . it is a single cell gall holding one wasp and can be seen from august to october , until the leaves fall in autumn . the wasp larva will mature in august but remain in the gall on the ground throughout the winter , emerging the following year from february to april .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\ncopyright 2008 - 2015 martin wendt , urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\nthe\nb . britannica\nhydroid buds and forms medusae by asexual reproduction . when these mature , sexual reproduction occurs , the fertilised eggs settle out and new hydroids are formed .\nafter mating , mass migrations occur with the females returning to the sea to release their fertilised eggs . an average female carries around 85 , 000 eggs .\nthe blister galls produce the males and females of the bisexual generation in mid - summer and the fertilised eggs result in the silk button gall generation .\nthe\nb . muscus\nhydroid buds and forms medusae by asexual reproduction . when these mature , sexual reproduction occurs , the fertilised eggs settle out and new hydroids are formed .\nmating takes place in spring , and the females carry the fertilised eggs on their pleopods from march to july ; the larvae can be found in the plankton over most of the summer .\nsiboglinids are dioecious , with one gonad on each side of the trunk , within the body cavity . the fertilised eggs develop within the tubes , and hatch to produce small ciliated worm - like larvae .\nlike garden snails ,\nmertensia\nis hermaphroditic , reproducing sexually and occasionally asexually . eggs and sperm are ejected into the water and from the fertilised eggs ovoid larvae develop . the planktonic larvae of this species are long while adults grow up to .\nmost species reproduce sexually , but some populations are dominated by hermaphrodites which produce internally fertilised eggs . reproduction in\nt . cancriformis\nvaries with latitude , with sexual reproduction dominating in the south of its range , and parthenogenesis dominating in the north .\nit is formed by secretion of collateral glands , over 16 fertilised eggs are arranged in 2 rows of 8 each . they are found in genital pouch of female cockroach or mantis .\nthe krabi mouth - brooding betta probably feeds on insects , crustaceans , other small invertebrates and zooplankton . this fish is a paternal mouth brooder ; the male fish takes the fertilised eggs into his mouth and keeps them there until they hatch .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\nby creating an account , i agree to shutterstock ' s website terms , privacy policy , and licensing terms .\n\u00a9 2003 - 2018 shutterstock , inc . all rights reserved . made in nyc .\nsmall ( s ) has the shortest download time and is suitable for digital use .\nlarge ( l ) is suitable for large prints as well as digital use . it is the original image provided by the contributor .\nyou can redownload your image for free at any time , in any size .\neditorial content , such as news and celebrity images , are not cleared for commercial use . learn more on our support center .\nsign up to browse over million images , video clips , and music tracks . plus , get free weekly content and more .\n( we only support jpg and png images under 5mb and no larger than 4000px on either side at this time . )\nto provide you with additional information about how we collect and use your personal data , we ' ve recently updated our privacy policy and terms of service . please review these pages now , as they apply to your continued use of our website .\ncrab spider attacking lackey moth caterpillar duke of burgundy fritillary butterfly hamearis lucina from abo marsh fritillaries euphydryas aurinia in cop duke of burgundy fritillary butterfly hamearis lucina undersid black - tailed skimmer orthetrum cancellatum female salad burnet poterium sanguisorba subsp . sanguisorba small heath butterfly coenonympha pamphilus on plantain dingy skipper butterfly erynnis tages with damaged wing marsh fritillaries euphydryas aurinia mating\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nterms | privacy | phone : 831 . 661 . 5551 | email : info @ urltoken | \u00a9 2015 minden pictures inc | all content on this website is protected by copyright\nregister for free to receive our newsletters , add comments to blogs / articles and to save content .\nodd - shaped growths on the foliage , flowers , acorns and stems of oak trees are often caused by gall wasps .\nare the host plants for more than 30 species of gall wasp . it is the larval stage of these insects that induce the plant to produce abnormal growths , known as galls , that enclose the developing larvae .\ndifferent species of gall wasp develop inside distinctive galls affecting various structures on the tree . oak gall wasps have complex life cycles , with alternating generations that are either sexual with males and females , or asexual with females only . the two generations often produce different types of gall on different parts of the tree , and in some species the two generations alternate between native and non - native species of oak ."]}
{"id": 320, "summary": [{"text": "metanastria is a genus of moth in the family lasiocampidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the species of the genus are found in europe , japan , china , south africa , throughout india , sri lanka , myanmar , java and borneo . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "metanastria", "paragraphs": ["metanastria ; godman & salvin , 1886 , biol . centr . - amer . , lep . heterocera 1 : 200\nthe original genus of description is given in brackets . lebeda metaspila walker ( megasoma ) lajonquierea deruna moore ( gastropacha ) lajonquierea poeciloptera grunberg ( metanastria ) lajonquierea mediofasciata grunberg ( metanastria ) kunugia xichangensis tsai & lu ( dendrolimus ) kunugia tamsi lajonquiere ( cyclophragma ) kunugia omeiensis tsai & lu ( dendrolimus ) kunugia ampla walker ( odonestis ) kunugia latipennis moore ( lebeda ) kunugia fasciata moore ( lebeda ) kunugia brunnea wileman ( metanastria ) kunugia burmensis gaede ( dendrolimus ) kunugia fulgens moore ( lebeda ) kunugia dora swinhoe ( metanastria ) kunugia sumatrae swinhoe ( metanastria ) kunugia basidiscata holloway ( cyclophragma ) kunugia placida moore ( lebeda ) kunugia lineata moore ( lebeda ) kunugia basimacula walker ( megasoma ) kunugia rectifascia holloway ( metanastria ) kunugia leucopicta tams ( metanastria ) kunugia gynandra swinhoe ( metanastria ) kunugia basinigra roepke ( cyclophragma ) kunugia divaricata moore ( gastropacha ) kunugia magellani lajonquiere ( cyclophragma ) chonopla modulata swinhoe ( kosala ) paradoxopla cardinalis holloway ( pseudophyllodes ) micropacha lidderdalii druce ( odonestis )\nhardly a plague - more of a conference of cats , or perhaps a lobby of larvae ! these are lasiocampidae ( lappet moths ) of some description . in hong kong there are two species in the genus metanastria that exhibit this herding instinct , and young instars in paralebeda also are gregarious . i ' d be inclined to think these may also be a species of metanastria , or possibly lebeda . roger .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . metanastria aconyta cramer , 1777 . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .\npratt , p . d . , makinson , j . , purcell , m . , pogue , m . g . , rayamajhi , m . b . , center , t . d . rhodomyrtus tomentosa ( myrtales : myrtaceae ) : new host records for metanastria gemella ( lepidoptera : lasiocampidae ) and arna bipunctapex ( lepidoptera : lymantriidae ) . florida entomologist . 96 ( 2 ) : 641 - 642 . 2013 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\nphalaena hyrtaca cramer , [ 1779 ] ; uitl . kapellen 3 ( 17 - 21 ) : 97 , pl . 249 , f . f\nbiologia centrali - americana ; or contributions to the knowledge of the fauna of mexico and central america . zoology . lepidoptera . heterocera\nh\u00fcbner , [ 1820 ] verzeichniss bekannter schmettlinge , 1816 - [ 1826 ] verz . bek . schmett . ( 1 ) : [ 1 - 3 ] , 4 - 16 ( 1816 ) , ( 2 ) : 17 - 32 ( 1819 ) , ( 3 ) : 33 - 48 ( 1819 ) , ( 4 ) : 49 - 64 ( 1819 ) , ( 5 ) : 65 - 80 ( 1819 ) , ( 6 ) : 81 - 96 ( 1819 ) , ( 7 ) : 97 - 112 ( 1819 ) , ( 8 ) : 113 - 128 ( 1819 ) , ( 9 ) : 129 - 144 ( 1819 ) , ( 10 ) : 145 - 160 ( 1819 ) , ( 11 ) : 161 - 176 ( 1819 ) , ( 12 ) : 177 - 192 ( 1820 ) , ( 13 ) : 193 - 208 ( 1820 ) , ( 14 ) : 209 - 224 ( 1821 ) , ( 15 ) : 225 - 240 ( 1821 ) , ( 16 ) : 241 - 256 ( 1821 ) , ( 17 ) : 257 - 272 ( 1823 ) , ( 18 ) : 273 - 288 ( 1823 ) , ( 19 ) : 289 - 304 ( 1823 ) , ( 20 ) : 305 - 320 ( 1825 ) , ( 21 ) : 321 - 336 ( 1825 ) , ( 22 ) : 337 - 352 ( 1825 ) , ( 23 - 27 ) : 353 - 431 ( [ 1825 ] )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nshubhalaxmi , v , r c kendrick , alka vaidya , neelima kalagi , and alaka bhagwat . 2011 . inventory of moth fauna ( lepidoptera : heterocera ) of the northern western ghats , maharashtra , india . journal of the bombay \u2026 108 , no . 3 : 183 - 205 . urltoken\nenumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .\na catalogue of the moths of india / compiled by e . c . cotes and c . swinhoe . by cotes , e . c . s . . .\nvolume : 1 subject : moths - - india ; insects - - india ; sphingidae publisher : london : tayl . . .\ninventory of moth fauna ( lepidoptera : heterocera ) of the northern western ghats , maharashtra , india .\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ncashew , badam , moringa , sapota , jamun , guava , babul , shorea robusta , schima wallichii , nyctanthes arbor - tristis , mimusops elengi , madhuca longifolia , etc .\ncopyright \u00a9 2013 , icar - national bureau of agricultural insect resources . all rights reserved .\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ngunda subnotata walker ( bombyx ) antheraea rosieri toxopeus ( loepantheraea ) the use of the generic name ambulyx westwood in the sphingidae for species usually placed in oxyambulyx rothschild & jordan ( e . g . by diehl ( 1980 ) , d ' abrera ( 1986 ) ) follows fletcher & nye ( 1982 ) .\nsource : james a . duke . 1983 . handbook of energy crops . unpublished .\nleaves contain 70\u009680 % eucalyptol ( cineol ) . also includes terpineol , sesquiterpene alcohols , aliphatic aldehydes , isoamyl alcohol , ethanol , and terpenes ( morton , 1981 ) . tannin is not so copious in the leaves as of many other\nspecies . the kino , containing 28 . 7 % kino - tannin and 47 . 9 % catechin contains the very antibiotic citriodorol ( watt and bryer - brandwijk , 1962 ) . verma et al . ( 1978 ) found 20 . 2 %\n- pinene , and only 16 . 8 % cineole in the cv ' mysore ' . fresh leaves contain caffeic and gallic acids , dry leaves , ferulic and gentisic ( boukef et al . , 1976 ) , and quercetol , quercitrine , rutin , and a mixture of quercetol hyperoside and glaucoside . n - titriacontan - 16 , 18 - dione was identified as the compound responsible for antioxidant activity in the leaf wax ( osawa and namik , 1981 ) .\nin large doses , oil of eucalyptus , like so many essential oils has caused fatalities from intestinal irritation ( morton , 1981 ) . death is reported from ingestion of 4\u009624 ml of essential oils , but recoveries are also reported for the same amount . symptoms include gastroenteric burning and irritation , nausea , vomiting , diarrhea , oxygen deficiency , , weakness , dizziness , stupor , difficult respiration , delirium , paralysis , convulsions , and death , usually due to respiratory failure ( duke , 1984b ) . reported to cause contact dermatitis ( brooker et al , 1981 ) . sensitive persons may develop urticaria from handling the foliage and other parts of the plant ( watt and bryer - brandwijk , 1962 ) .\nreported from the australian center of diversity , bluegum , or cvs thereof is reported to tolerate narrower extremes of temperature and soil than many of the more tropical species . ( 2\nthe most extensively planted eucalypt species in the world . . . a total of 800 , 000 ha in dozens of countries . . . about half the world ' s plantation area is in portugal and spain ( little , 1983 ) . also cultivated in california , arizona , and hawaii .\nranging from cool temperate moist to wet through subtropical dry to moist forest life zones , bluegum eucalyptus is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 8 to 16 dm and annual temperature of ca 16 to 20\u00b0c . major successes have been in mild temperate climates and in cool highlands . elsewhere it fails ( nas , 1980a ) .\npropagated by seed and basket transplants ca 6 mos old . no seed treatment is required . fresh seeds germinate well but deteriorate rapidly . the tree is readily established , easily reproducing from self - sown seed . in california , seed collections from a single tree exhibit wide variation ( 2\u009680 % ) in germinative capacity after a 30 - day germination period ( ag . handbook 450 ) . seedlings like the adults are susceptible to drought , fire , and frost . grasses need to be weeded , as the tree does not compete well with grasses ( nas , 1980a ) . tree grows rapidly and coppices readily ( reaching a meter or more in a few months ) .\nusually grown on rotations of 5\u009615 years . in india ' s nilgiris , bluegum plantations are worked for fuel purposes on a 15 - year coppice ( c . s . i . r . , 1948\u00961976 ) .\nhas been reported from sites in italy , peru , portugal , and spain ( nas , 1980a ) . verma et al ( 1978 ) estimated essential oil yields between ca 40 and 45 kg / ha from 6\u00968 mt green leaves . completely dry leaves contain 1 . 27 % oil in the cv ' mysore ' . the wealth of india suggests 30 mt biomass / ha / yr in the nilgiris ( c . s . i . r . , 1948\u00961976 ) .\nabout 30 mt / ha biomass are reported . verma et al . ( 1978 ) calculated little more than 7 mt leaves per hectare , green , or 6\u00968 mt for the cv ' mysore ' , 3\u00964 mt dry leaves . in his compilation , cannell ( 1982 ) cites data on trees 9 . 5 years old , spaced at 2 , 196 trees / ha . the stem wood on a dm basis weighed 19\u009658 mt / ha , the stem bark 5\u009611 , the branches 2 . 6\u00965 . 5 , the foliage 4 . 0\u00966 . 7 , for a total standing aerial biomass of 35\u0096110 mt / ha . the cai ( current annual increment ) of stem wood was 2 . 9\u00967 . 7 m\n/ ha / yr , stem bark 0 . 7\u00961 . 5 , branches 0 . 5\u00960 . 7 , foliage 2 . 6\u0096ca 6 for a total aerial cai of 6 . 7\u009615 . 6 mt / ha / yr , the low figures representing unfertilized trees , the high reflecting ca 200 kg / ha n and 90 kg / ha p . these data were taken at victoria , australia ( 38\u00b020 ' s , 146\u00b020 ' e , elev . 150 m ) . the wood burns freely , leaving little ash , and carbonizes easily , making good charcoal . with calorific value of 4 , 800 kcal / kg , the heavy wood ( sp . grav . 0 . 8\u00961 . 0 ) is widely used for fuelwood and charcoal ( nas , 1980 ) . even the dead leaves and fallen bark are highly flammable . the charcoal is used for producer gas plants ( c . s . i . r . , 1948\u00961976 ) . cromer and williams ( austr . j . bot . 30 : 265 . 1982 ) report that it took 9 . 5 years to accumulate 30 mt / ha biomass unfertilized , but only 4 years in heavily fertilized plots .\nactinopelte dryina , armillaria mellea , cercospora epicoccoides , c . eucalypti , corticium salmonicolor , cryptosporium eucalypti , cytospora australiae , c . eucalyptina , diaporthe medusaea , didymosphaeria circinnans , diplodia australiae , fomes applanatus , f . scruposus , fusarium oxysporum\naurantiacum , ganoderma lucidum , harknessia uromycoides , hendersonia eucalypticola , laetiporus sulphureus , macrophoma molleriana , macrophomina phaseoli , monochaetia desmazierii , mycosphaerella molleriana , pestalotia truncata , pestalotiopsis funerea , pezizella carneo - rosea , pezizella oenotherae , phellinus gilvus , phyllostica extensa , physalospora latitans , p . rhodina , p . suberumpens , polyporus gilvus , p . hirsutus , p . schweinitzii , p . sulphureus , p . versicolor , poria cocos , p . versipora , sclerotinia fuckeliana , septonema multiplex , septosporium scyphophorum , stereum hirsutum\nfoliage unpalatable to livestock . the oil rich wood is resistant to termites ( nas , 1980a ) .\nagriculture handbook 165 . 1960 . index of plant diseases in the united states . usgpo . washington .\nagriculture handbook 450 . 1974 . seeds of woody plants in the united states . forest service , usda . usgpo . washington .\nboukef , k . , balansard , g . , lallemand , m . , and brenard , p . 1976 . study of flavonic heterosides and agylcones isolated from leaves of\nbrooker , s . g . , cambie , r . c . , and cooper , r . c . 1981 . new zealand medicinal plants . heinemann publishers , auckland .\nbrowne , f . g . 1968 . pests and diseases of forest plantations trees . clarendon press , oxford .\nc . s . i . r . ( council of scientific and industrial research ) . 1948\u00961976 . the wealth of india . 11 vols . new delhi .\ncannell , m . g . r . 1982 . world forest biomass and primary production data . academic press , new york .\nduke , j . a . and wain , k . k . 1981 . medicinal plants of the world . computer index with more than 85 , 000 entries . 3 vols .\nlist , p . h . and horhammer , l . 1969\u00961979 . hager ' s handbuch der pharmazeutischen praxis . vols 2\u00966 . springer - verlag , berlin .\nlittle , e . l . jr . 1983 . common fuelwood crops : a handbook for their identification . mcclain printing co . , parsons , wv .\nmorton , j . f . 1981 . atlas of medicinal plants of middle america . bahamas to yucatan . c . c . thomas , springfield , il .\nn . a . s . 1980a . firewood crops . shrub and tree species for energy production . national academy of sciences , washington , dc .\nosawa , t . and namiki , m . 1981 . a novel type of antioxidant isolated from leaf wax of eucalyptus leaves . agr . biol . chem . 45 ( 3 ) : 735\u0096739 .\nperry , l . m . 1980 . medicinal plants of east and southeast asia . mit press , cambridge .\nverma , v . p . s . , shiva , m . p . , subrahmanyam , i . v . , and suri , b . k . 1978 . utilization of eucalyptus hybrid oil from forest plantations . indian forester 104 ( 12 ) : 846\u0096850 .\nwatt , j . m . and breyer - brandwijk , m . g . 1962 . the medicinal and poisonous plants of southern and eastern africa . 2nd ed . e . & s . livingstone , ltd . , edinburgh and london .\nif this is your first visit , be sure to check out the faq by clicking the link above . you may have to register before you can post : click the register link above to proceed . to start viewing messages , select the forum that you want to visit from the selection below .\nencountered this plague of moth cats on a tree trunk . any idea what the species id is ?\nroger c . kendrick ph . d . c & r wildlife , lam tsuen , tai po , n . t . , hong kong s . a . r . hk moths website : urltoken hk moths recording project on i - naturalist : urltoken hk moths flickr site : urltoken\nthanks , roger for the information on the possible species id . it was a very interesting sight of so many cats squeezed side by side , as if they were trying to stay warm in this cold weather .\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 4 . 2 . 2 copyright \u00a9 2018 vbulletin solutions , inc . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 final / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\nwe\u2019d value your feedback on the tool . our survey takes only five minutes to complete .\ns . cumini is a fast - growing tropical and sub - tropical tree preferring moist , riverine habitats , that is valued for its fruit , timber and as an ornamental and as such has been widely introduced from its native s . . .\nformerly part of the genus , eugenia , s . cumini is now a clearly defined taxa in the genus syzygium . commonly known as jambolan it should not be confused with the rose apple ( syzygium jambos ) .\nsyzygium is a genus in the myrtaceae that includes a number of popular species cultivated for their colourful , edible fleshy fruit . it is a genus of perhaps 1000 species of trees or shrubs native to the old world tropics . the genus name syzygium is derived via latin from the greek syzygos , meaning yoked together , possibly referring to the paired leaves ( janick and paull , 2008 ) . other common names for s . cumini are black plum , damson plum , duhat plum , jamblang , jambolan plum , jamun , java plum , malabar plum and portuguese plum ( janick and paull , 2008 ) .\nthe more restricted native distribution as described by morton ( 1987 ) is accepted in this datasheet , who argued that other countries recorded as native , e . g . himalayan asia , south china , south east asian islands , east africa , eastern australia , etc . ( usda - ars , 2008 ) are actually due to introduction in pre - history . s . cumini is thus here accepted as only native to india , sri lanka and myanmar .\nthe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .\n. as a valuable fruit and forestry tree , it is likely to be further introduced .\ns . cumini prefers moist locations and will tolerate waterlogging thus is commonly found on riverbanks , but it can also survive , but less well , on drier sites once established . in its native range it is commonly cultivated and thus found in and around homesteads and agricultural land . in the pacific where it has proved most invasive , it is generally a more lowland species such as in fiji , but may be found up to 700 m hawaii and has naturalised in inland forests in fiji ( pier , 2008 ) . it invades coastal bush and savanna in south africa ( sabonet , 2006 ) .\na jaman\u2019 , with large oblong , dark - purple or bluish fruits , with pink , sweet pulp and small seeds , and \u2018kaatha\u2019 , with small acid fruits , and several named cultivars exist , especially in south - east asia .\nit propagates easily from fresh seed , and coppices and resprouts readily . s . cumini begins bearing fruit when 8\u201310 years old . seeds lose their viability quickly after maturation .\nseedlings grow slowly the first year , rapidly thereafter , and may exceeding 3 m in height after 2 years , reaching full size in 40 years . flowering occurs february - march in florida , usa , may\u2013august in sri lanka , and july\u2013august in java , indonesia , and the fruit ripens in april in french polynesia , may\u2013june in the philippines , may - july in india and florida , late summer and autumn in hawaii , september - october in java , and november - december in sri lanka ( morton , 1987 ) . dry weather during flowering and fruiting will increase fruit production . fruits need to be harvested by hand as they ripen , requiring several collections over the season , with a crops of 700 fruits possible from a 5 - year - old tree , and the production of a large tree may be overwhelming to the average household .\nwarm average temp . > 10\u00b0c , cold average temp . > 0\u00b0c , wet all year\nwhichmay cause total defoliation . the leafminer , acrocercops phaeospora , can also be a major problem , idiocerus\n( often dacus diversus in india ) , diseases recorded as found on s . cumini by inspectors of the florida department of agriculture are : black leaf spot ( asterinella puiggarii ) ; green scurf or algal leaf spot ( cephaleuros virescens ) ; mushroom root rot ( clitocybe tabescens ) ; anthracnose ( colletotrichum gloeosporioides ) ; and leaf spot caused by phyllosticta eugeniae . where invasive in florida , some trees are very susceptible to scale insects .\nseeds are the most common means of dissemination , and these are known to be consumed and spread by animals , in hawaii , mynah birds and other frugivorous birds and perhaps occasionally by feral pigs ( sus scrofa ) ( pier , 2008 ) . many other birds and mammals are known to eat the fruit , including jackals and civets , and in australia they are a favourite food of bats ( morton , 1987 ) . being a riverine species , seeds are also likely to be dispersed locally by water . long - distance dispersal has been almost entirely due to intentional introduction as a fruit , timber and ornamental species .\ns . cumini has a positive economic impact via the provision of nutritious fruit , timber and as a traded ornamental . no costs for the control of s . cumini are available .\nthe tree is venerated in south asia by buddhists and hindus . it is considered sacred to the hindu gods krishna and ganesha and is commonly planted near hindu temples ( morton , 1987 ) . where used as a street and ornamental tree , heavy fruiting can lead to masses of fruits littering pavements , roads and gardens , rapidly fermenting producing an unpleasant small and attracting insects , and as such many people want such trees replaced .\nthis large evergreen tree forms a dense cover and when forming a monoculture it can prevent other species from regenerating and growing , and although it is not an aggressive invader of undisturbed forest like the closely related s . jambos , it is known to prevent the reestablishment of native lowland forest .\nit is a multipurpose tree which is highly valued for its medicinal uses , edible fruits , for fodder , for strong heavy timber and good fuelwood . it is mainly found as a home garden fruit tree , although it is also found wild in secondary forests . it is also a host plant of the tasar silkworm , and a good source of nectar for honeybees . it is a sacred tree to hindus and buddhists . seeds used to be traded for medicinal use until the end of the 1700s , when they were widely exported from india to malaysia and polynesia , and from the west indies to europe . the tree is grown as shade for coffee in india , and being wind - resistant is sometimes planted in dense rows as a windbreak , and if topped regularly , such plantings form a dense , massive hedge .\n. the honey is of fine quality but ferments in a few months unless treated . the leaves have served as fodder for livestock and as food for tassar silkworms in india , having approximately 9 % crude protein . in zanzibar and pemba , tanzania , people use young shoots for cleaning their teeth . an essential oil distilled from leaves is used to scent soap and is blended with other materials in making inexpensive perfume . bark yields durable brown dyes of various shades depending on the mordant and the strength of the extract , and contains 8\u201319 % tannin being much used in tanning leather and preserving fishing nets .\nsyzygium species may appear similar to the untrained eye , and two other species are noted as invasive , s . jambos and s . malaccense , though may be separated by fruit colour ; the fruits of s . cumini being purplish - black when ripe whereas those of s . jambos are creamy yellow , tinged with pink . s . cumini can also be confused with the south african s . guineense ; but is distinguished by its longer leaves ( up to 150 mm ) with many closely spaced lateral veins , abruptly tapering leaf apex , oval to pear - shaped fruits , and much - branched sub - terminal inflorescence , usually arising from old leaf scars .\naiyelaagbe ioo , 1994 . fruitcrops in the cashew - coconut system of kenya : their use , management and agroforestry potential . agroforestry systems , 27 ( 1 ) : 1 - 16 ; 12 ref .\nangadi , s . g . , rajeshwari karadi , 2012 . standardization of softwood grafting technique in jamun under poly mist house conditions . , 46 ( 2 ) , 429 - 432 . urltoken\nbal , j . s . , 2003 . genetic resources of under - utilized fruits in punjab subtropics . , ( no . 623 ) , 325 - 331 .\nbalakrishna p , raman a , raman kj , 1991 . on the morphogenesis and dynamics of growth of the leaf galls of syzygium cumini ( l . ) skeels ( myrtaceae ) induced by trioza jambolanae crawford ( insecta : homoptera : psylloidea ) . phytomorphology , 41 ( 1 / 2 ) : 109 - 113\nbhagat , b . k . , jain , b . p . , singh , c . , 1999 . success and survival of intergeneric grafts in guava ( psidium guajava l . ) . , 11 ( 1 ) , 79 - 81 .\nbharad , s . , mahorkar , v . , 2011 . softwood grafting as useful method of propagation for commercial multiplication of syzygium cumini l . under semi - arid climatic conditions of india . , ( no . 890 ) , 111 - 116 . urltoken\nbhumannavar bs , 1990 . further new records of insect pests on fruit crops in south andaman . journal of the andaman science association , 6 ( 2 ) : 122 - 126\nbooth th , jovanovic t , 2000 . improving descriptions of climatic requirements in the cabi forestry compendium . a report for the australian centre for international agricultural research . csiro - forestry and forest products , client report no . 758 .\nbrandis d , 1906 . indian trees . london , uk : archibald constable & co ltd .\ncarlowitz pgvon , 1991 . multipurpose trees and shrubs : sources of seeds and inoculants . multipurpose trees and shrubs : sources of seeds and inoculants . , vii + 328 pp . ; 46 ref .\nchaturvedi an , 1984 . assessment of biomass production . indian forester , 110 ( 8 ) : 726 - 738 .\nchaudhuri akn , pal s , gomes a , bhattacharya s , 1990 . anti - inflammatory and related actions of syzygium cuminii seed extract . phytotherapy research , 4 ( 1 ) : 5 - 10 ; 24 ref .\nchovatia , r . s . , singh , s . p . , 2000 . effect of time on budding and grafting success in jamun ( syzygium cumini skeel ) . , 57 ( 3 ) , 255 - 258 .\nclarke wc , thaman , rr , eds , 1993 . agroforestry in the pacific islands : systems for sustainability . tokyo , japan ; united nations university press : x + 297 pp .\ndevarnavadagi sb , murthy bg , 1995 . performance of different tree species on eroded soils of northern dry zone of karnataka . advances in agricultural research in india , 4 : 73 - 77 .\nflora of china editorial committee , 2007 . flora of china web . cambridge , usa : harvard university herbaria . urltoken\nflorida exotic pest plant council , 2007 . florida exotic pest plant council ' s 2007 list of invasive plant species . florida , usa : florida exotic pest plant council . urltoken\ngowda , v . n . , kumar , v . , reddy , p . v . k . , 2011 . studies on vegetative propagation in jamun ( syzygium cumini ) . , ( no . 890 ) , 107 - 110 . urltoken\ngraveson r , 2012 . the plants of saint lucia ( in the lesser antilles of the caribbean ) . the plants of saint lucia ( in the lesser antilles of the caribbean ) . urltoken\nguimaraes dp , da fonseca cel , 1990 . consideracoes preliminares sobre o uso de quebra - ventos nos cerrados .\ngupta rk , 1993 . multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation . multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation . , xv + 562 pp . ; [ 18 pp . of ref + refs in text ] .\nhaldankar , p . m . , jadhav , b . b . , 2001 . softwood grafting of clove ( syzygium aromaticum ) on jamun ( syzygium cuminii ) root stock . , 29 ( 3 ) , 46 - 49 .\nhaseeb a , alam mm , 1984 . use of chopped floral plant parts in suppressing population of plant parasitic nematodes . indian journal of plant pathology , 2 ( 2 ) : 194 - 195 ; 12 ref .\nhocking d , ed . , 1993 . trees for drylands . new delhi , india : oxford and ibh .\nhossain abme , sharif m , laskar mr , 1989 . beekeeping potentials of bangladesh : ii . annual honey production by apis cerana l . at mirsarai area of northern chittagong region . bangladesh journal of zoology , 17 ( 1 ) : 75 - 82 .\njackson jk , 1987 . manual of afforestation in nepal . nepal - uk forestry research project .\njanick , j . , paull , r . e . , 2008 . the encyclopedia of fruit & nuts . . cabi , xviii + 954 pp . . urltoken 9780851996387 . doi : 10 . 1079 / 9780851996387 . 0000\nkairo m , ali b , cheesman o , haysom k , murphy s , 2003 . invasive species threats in the caribbean region . report to the nature conservancy . curepe , trinidad and tobago : cab international , 132 pp . urltoken\nkelkar sm , kaklij gs , 1997 . a simple two - step purification of antidiabetic compounds from eugenia jambolana fruit - pulp : proteolytic resistance and other properties . phytomedicine 3 ( 1996 ) , pp . 353\u2013359 .\nkhan sn , misra bm , 1996 . botrytis blight of syzygium cumini skeels in india .\nkhanna rk , 1991 . chemical examination of the essential oil from the leaves of syzygium cuminii skeels . indian perfumer , 35 ( 2 ) : 112 - 115 ; 5 ref .\nlaishram , m . , singh , y . s . , 2012 . in : germplasm status of minor and underutilized fruits of india . , bidhan chandra krishi viswandyalaya , 94 - 99 .\nli fs , yang ck , 1991 . six new species of trioza ( homoptera : psylloidea : triozidae ) from china . entomotaxonomia , 13 ( 4 ) : 263 - 274\nluna rk , 1996 . plantation trees . delhi , india : international book distributors .\nmadalageri mb , patil vs , nalawadi ug , 1991 . propagation of jamun [ syzygium cumini ] by soft wood wedge grafting . myforest , 27 ( 2 ) : 176 - 178 ; 1 unpaginated pl . ; 6 ref .\nmissouri botanical garden , 2008 . tropicos database . st louis , usa : missouri botanical garden . urltoken\nmohammed m , wickham ld , 1996 . compositional changes in jamoon ( eugenia cumini ) fruits during storage . tropical fruits newsletter , no . 18 : 3 - 4 ; 13 ref .\nmohanasundaram m , parameswaran s , 1991 . two new mite pests of eugenia jambolana in south india . madras agricultural journal , 78 ( 1 - 4 ) : 76 - 77\nmorton j , 1987 . jambolan , syzygium cumini skeels . fruits of warm climates . miami , usa : purdue university , 375 - 378 . urltoken\nnair mnb , 1989 . vestured pits in the wood of syzygium cumini . second pacific regional wood anatomy conference , october 15 21 , 1989 , college , laguna , philippines [ convened by tesoro , f . o . ] . abstracts of papers and posters . iawa - bulletin , 10 ( 3 ) : 341 .\npande dc , mathur rs , 1971 . regional volume tables for jamun ( syzygium gumini [ cumini ] , linn ) ( for gorakpur and gonda forest divisions , eastern circle , u . p . ) . bulletin , forest department , uttar pradesh , recd . 1980 , no . 35 , ii + 30 pp . ; 2 tab . usually cited as u . p . forest bulletin .\npier , 2008 . pacific islands ecosystems at risk . usa : institute of pacific islands forestry . urltoken\npunhani rk , 1995 . span tables for roof purlins and ceiling joists in some social forestry species for timber house constructions . indian forester , 121 ( 7 ) : 651 - 662 ; 4 ref .\nrai mk , 1986 . new host records of pestalotiopsis from india . indian botanical reporter , 5 ( 1 ) : 98\nrai sn , 1978 . regional volume table for syzygium cumini ( linn ) . skeel . ( data from karnataka ) . myforest , september , 137 - 140 ; 1 tab . ; 1 ref .\nrajesh kumar , singh , j . , singh , h . p . , 2006 . in : release of new jamun variety - rajendra jamun 1 . , bidhan chandra krishi viswavidyalaya , 50 - 53 .\nramanujam cgk , kalpana tp , 1993 . pollen analysis of honeys from kondevaram apiaries of east godavari district , andhra pradesh . biovigyanam , 19 ( 1 / 2 ) : 11 - 19 ; [ bb ] .\nrasoanaivo p , 1990 . rain forests of madagascar : sources of industrial and medicinal plants . ambio , 19 ( 8 ) : 421 - 424 ; 38 ref .\nriaz ra , tabassum ia , 1994 . effect of dehydration on storage stability of two varieties of jamun fruit . pakistan journal of scientific and industrial research , 37 ( 1 - 2 ) : 62 - 63 ; 7 ref .\nroy pk , rahman m , roy sk , 1996 . mass propagation of syzygium cuminii from selected elite trees .\nroyal botanic gardens sydney , 2008 . australia ' s virtual herbarium . sydney , australia : royal botanic gardens . http : / / avhtas . tmag\nsabonet , 2006 . invasive alien plants in southern africa , part 4 . eucalypts and myrtles ( myrtaceae ) . sabonet news , 7 . 2 . 106 . urltoken\nsagwal ss , 1994 . trees on marginal lands : afforestation techniques and systems . 1994 , xvii + 269 pp . ; 11 pp . of ref .\nsanjay singh , singh , a . k . , 2006 . standardization of method and time of propagation in jamun ( syzygium cuminii ) under semi - arid environment of western india . , 76 ( 4 ) , 242 - 245 .\nshakya , r . , siddiqui , s . a . , srivatawa , n . , bajpai , a . , 2010 . molecular characterization of jamun ( syzygium cumini l . skeels ) genetic resources . , 10 ( 1 ) , 29 - 39 . urltoken doi : 10 . 1080 / 15538361003676769\nshukla ks , pandey kn , pant bc , badoni sp , 1990 . carving behaviour of some indian timbers - a quantitative approach . journal of the indian academy of wood science , 21 ( 2 ) : 27 - 32 ; 5 ref .\nsiddiqui ma , alam mm , saxena sk , 1988 . seasonal fluctuation of plant parasitic nematodes associated with certain fruit trees . international nematology network newsletter , 5 ( 2 ) : 22 - 23 ; 1 ref .\nsingh g . , dagar jc , singh nt , 1997 . growing fruit trees in highly alkali soils - a case study .\nsingh , u . v . , 1996 . conservation of forest genetic resource - an ex - situ management of secondary forests . , 122 ( 9 ) , 787 - 794 .\nsu juan , wang dezhen , fu shishen , 1994 . study on phenology of some tree species grown in the tropica .\nsultan singh , singhrot rs , 1984 . studies on the propagation of jaman ( syzygium cuminii skeels ) . i . effect of sowing depth on seed germination and seedling growth . haryana journal of horticultural sciences , 13 ( 3 - 4 ) : 123 - 126 ; 2 ref .\nsumana das , banerjee ak , das s , 1995 . studies on syzygium cumini seed oil . journal of the oil technologists ' association of india , 27 ( 4 ) : 243 - 244 ; 7 ref .\ntambe tb , ramshe dg , walunjkar rb , 1993 . dryland fruit crops for scarcity zone . maharashtra journal of horticulture , 7 ( 1 ) : 105 - 106 ; 5 ref .\nteixeira cc , fuchs fd , blotta rm , costa ap da , mussnich dg , ranquetat gg , da costa ap , 1992 . plants employed in the treatment of diabetes mellitus : results of an ethnopharmacological survey in porto alegre , brazil . fitoterapia , 63 ( 4 ) : 320 - 322 ; 10 ref .\ntewari dn , 1995 . agroforestry for increased productivity , sustainability and poverty alleviation . agroforestry for increased productivity , sustainability and poverty alleviation . , v + 799 pp . ; refs at ends of chapters + 262 pp . of ref .\ntewari sk , devendra singh , nainwal rc , 2017 . horticultural management of syzygium cumini . boca raton , florida , usa , crc press , 216 - 236 .\nthantirige , m . k . , karunaratna , m . s . , 2005 . propagation of seedless wax apple ( syzygium samarangense ) . , 7271 - 278 .\ntroup rs , joshi hb , 1984 . troup ' s the silviculture of indian trees . volume v . delhi , india : controller of publications .\nus fish and wildlife service , 1995 . in : recovery plan for the kauai plant cluster . us fish and wildlife service , 270 pp . .\nus fish and wildlife service , 2008 . in : kulu ` i ( nototrichium humile ) . 5 - year review . us fish and wildlife service , 11 pp . .\nus fish and wildlife service , 2010 . in : 5 - year review , short form summary : species reviewed : schiedea kealiae ( ma oli oli ) . us fish and wildlife service , 6 pp . .\nus fish and wildlife service , 2010 . in : scaevola coriacea ( dwarf naupaka ) . 5 - year review : summary and evaluation . us fish and wildlife service , 19 pp . .\nus fish and wildlife service , 2010 . in : schiedea apokremnos ( maolioli ) . 5 - year review : summary and evaluation . us fish and wildlife service , 16 pp . .\nus fish and wildlife service , 2010 . in : schiedea spergulina var . leiopoda ( no common name ) . 5 - year review : summary and evaluation . us fish and wildlife service , 11 pp . .\nus fish and wildlife service , 2011 . in : endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; listing 23 species on oahu as endangered and designating critical habitat for 124 species . 76 ( 148 ) us fish and wildlife service , 46362 - 46593 . urltoken\nus fish and wildlife service , 2011 . in : schiedea hookeri ( no common name ) . 5 - year review : summary and evaluation . us fish and wildlife service , 20 pp . .\nus fish and wildlife service , 2013 . in : endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; determination of endangered species status for 15 species on hawaii island ; final rule . 78 ( 209 ) us fish and wildlife service , 64638 - 64690 . urltoken\nus fish and wildlife service , 2013 . in : endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; review of native species that are candidates for listing as endangered or threatened ; annual notice of findings on resubmitted petitions ; annual description of progress on listing actions . 78 ( 226 ) us fish and wildlife service , 70104 - 70162 . urltoken\nusda - ars , 2008 . germplasm resources information network ( grin ) . online database . beltsville , maryland , usa : national germplasm resources laboratory . urltoken\nusda - nrcs , 2008 . the plants database . baton rouge , usa : national plant data center . urltoken\nvaishnava mm , tripathy ak , gupta kr , 1992 . flavonoids from syzygium cumini roots . fitoterapia , 63 ( 3 ) : 259 - 260 ; 8 ref .\nverheij ewm , coronel re ( editors ) , 1991 . plant resources of south - east asia . no . 2 . edible fruits and nuts . wageningen , netherlands ; pudoc , 446 pp .\nyao ce , 1993 . species trial of some indigenous species in siquijor . canopy international , publications . 1995 , 19 ( 6 ) : 7 - 10 .\nyumnam , s . s . , swamy , g . s . k . , singh , s . r . , shira , v . d . , 2012 . effect of different arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on vegetative parameters of jamun rootstock and graft success . , 7 ( 2 ) , 237 - 241 . urltoken\none or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using .\nplease consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser .\nthe . gov means it\u2019s official . federal government websites always use a . gov or . mil domain . before sharing sensitive information online , make sure you\u2019re on a . gov or . mil site by inspecting your browser\u2019s address ( or \u201clocation\u201d ) bar .\nthis site is also protected by an ssl ( secure sockets layer ) certificate that\u2019s been signed by the u . s . government . the https : / / means all transmitted data is encrypted \u2014 in other words , any information or browsing history that you provide is transmitted securely .\npublications ( clicking on the reprint icon will take you to the publication reprint . )\na new species of gadirtha walker ( nolidae : collomeninae ) : a proposed biological control agent of chinese tallow ( triadica sebifera ( l . ) small ) ( euphorbiaceae ) in the united states -\npogue , m . g . 2014 . a new species of gadirtha walker ( nolidae : collomeninae ) : a proposed biological control agent of chinese tallow ( triadica sebifera ( l . ) small ) ( euphorbiaceae ) in the united states . zookeys . 382 : 13 - 25 .\nsullivan , j . b . , pogue , m . g . 2014 . the prominent moth , disphragis notabilis schaus , in costa rica ( lepidoptera , notodontidae ) . zookeys . 421 : 21 - 38 .\npogue , m . g . 2014 . a review of the copitarsia decolora ( guen\u00e9e ) species complex with a description of a new species of copitarsia ( hampson ) from chile ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . neotropical entomology . 43 ( 2 ) : 142 - 153 .\npogue , m . g . , ouellette , g . d . , harp , c . e . 2013 . a revision of the schinia volupia ( fitch ) species complex lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 3716 : 157 - 191 .\npogue , m . g . 2013 . revised status of chloridea westwood and [ duncan ] , 1841 for the heliothis virescens species group and the monophyly of schinia hubner [ 1818 ] using total evidence data ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . systematic entomology . 38 ( 3 ) : 523 - 542 .\nmetzler , e . h . , e . c . knudson , r . w . pool , j . d . lafontaine and m . g . pogue 2013 . a review of the genus ogdoconta butler ( lepidoptera , noctuidae , condicinae , condicini ) from north america north of mexcio with descriptions of three new species . zookeys . 264 : 165 - 191 .\npogue , m . g . 2013 . a review of the paectes arcigera ( guen\u00e9e ) ( lepidoptera , eutellidae ) species complex . zookeys . 264 : 125 - 163 .\nlandolt , p . j . , jang , e . b . , carvalho , l . a . , pogue , m . g . 2011 . attraction of pest moths ( lepidoptera : noctuidae , crambidae ) to floral lures on the island of hawaii . hawaiian entomological society proceedings . 43 : 49 - 58 .\nmanrique , v . , diaz , r . , overholt , w . a . , pogue , m . g . , vitorino , m . 2012 . description and biology of paectes longiformis pogue , a new species from brazil ( lepidoptera : euteliidae ) as a potential biological control agent of brazilian peppertree in florida . biocontrol science and technology . 22 : 163 - 185 .\nthe aventiinae , boletobiinae , eublemminae , pangraptinae , phytometrinae , and scolecocampinae ( lepidoptera : noctuoidea : erebidae ) of great smoky mountains national park , u . s . a . -\npogue , m . g . 2012 . the aventiinae , boletobiinae , eublemminae , pangraptinae , phytometrinae , and scolecocampinae ( lepidoptera : noctuoidea : erebidae ) of great smoky mountains national park , u . s . a . zootaxa . 3153 : 1 - 31 .\npogue , m . g . 2011 . using dna barcoding and genitalia to place \u201cleucochlaena\u201d hipparis ( druce ) in spodoptera guenee ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 113 ( 4 ) : 497 - 507 .\npogue , m . g . 2011 . larval description of copitarsia incommoda ( walker ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 104 ( 6 ) : 1292 - 1296 .\ndewaard , j . r . , mitchell , a . , keena , m . a . , gopurenko , d . , boyken , l . m . , armstrong , k . f . , pogue , m . g . , lima , j . , floyd , r . , hanner , r . , humble , l . m . 2010 . toward a global barcode library for lymantria ( lepidoptera : lymantriinae ) tussock moths of biosecurity concern . plos one . 5 ( 12 ) : 1 - 10 .\npogue , m . g . 2010 . a new species of schinia h\u00fcbner from the southeastern united states ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zookeys . 52 : 57 - 64 .\npogue , m . g . 2010 . the acontiinae and eublemminae of great smoky mountains national park ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . zootaxa . 2499 : 1 - 20 .\npogue , m . g . , honey , m . , zilli , a . 2010 . new synonymy in a north american species of pyrrhia h\u00fcbner , [ 1821 ] ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 112 ( 2 ) : 274 - 280 .\nthe hadeninae ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) of great smoky mountains national park , u . s . a . -\npogue , m . g . 2010 . the hadeninae ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) of great smoky mountains national park , u . s . a . . zootaxa . 2380 : 1 - 75 .\nsanders , n . j . , pogue , m . g . , dunn , r . r . 2010 . noctuid moth diversity along a temperate elevational gradient : testing the role of environmental factors , mde , and rapoport ' s rule . ecography . p . 75 - 87 .\npogue , m . g . 2009 . three new cryptic species within the dargida procinctus ( grote ) complex ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : hadeninae ) from the neotropics . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 111 : 686 - 697 .\npogue , m . g . , simmons , r . 2008 . a new pest species of copitarsia hampson from the neotropical region feeding on asparagus and cut flowers ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 101 : 743 - 762 .\npogue , m . g . 2008 . rhodoecia hampson 1908 a new synonym of pyrrhia hubner [ 1821 ] 1816 ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 110 : 810 .\npogue , m . g . 2009 . a review of the tripudia quadrifera ( zeller ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) species complex . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 111 : 68 - 97 .\nlavigne , r . j . , pogue , m . g . 2009 . ethology of omniablautus nigronotum ( wilcox ) ( diptera : asilidae ) in wyoming . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 111 : 1 - 6 .\npogue , m . g . 2007 . revision of the genus psectrotarsia dognin 1907 ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 1637 : 1 - 19 .\npogue , m . g . 2009 . lepidoptera biodiversity . in : foottit , r . , adler , p . , editors . insect biodiversity : science and society . 1st edition . blackwell science publishing . oxford , england . p . 263 - 293 .\npogue , m . g . , schaefer , p . w . 2007 . a review of potentially invasive species of lymantria h\u00fcebner [ 1819 ] ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : lymantriinae ) from subtropical and temperate regions of asia including the descriptions of three new species . forest health technology enterprise team . fhte : 1 - 223 .\npogue , m . g . 2006 . nomenclatural validation of four north american species of heliothinae ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . zootaxa . 1283 : 25 - 36 .\npogue , m . g . 2008 . inventory of the nolidae , erebidae , and noctuidae ( lepidoptera ) of plummers island , maryland . bulletin of the biological society of washington . ( 15 ) 107 - 120 .\npogue , m . g . 2006 . the noctuinae ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) of great smoky mountains national park . zootaxa . 1215 : 1 - 95 .\npogue , m . g . 2005 . the plusiinae of great smoky mountains national park ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . zootaxa . 1032 : 1 - 28 .\nbook review : butterflies of oklahoma , kansas , and north texas , by john m . dole , walter b . gerard , and john m . nelson -\npogue , m . g . 2005 . book review : butterflies of oklahoma , kansas , and north texas , by john m . dole , walter b . gerard , and john m . nelson . american entomologist . 51 : 117 .\npogue , m . g . 2004 . a new species of schinia hubner from riparian habitats along the colorado river in the grand canyon ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 788 : 1 - 4\npogue , m . g . , harp , c . e . 2004 . systematics of schinia chrysellus ( grote ) complex : revised status of schinia alencis ( harvey ) with a description of two new species ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 898 : 1 - 35\npogue , m . g . 2004 . characters to differentiate adult males of the corn earworm , helicoverpa zea ( boddie ) and the old world bollworm , helicoverpa armigera ( h\u00fcbner ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . journal of economic entomology . 97 : 1222 - 1226\nredescription of two , often - confused noctuid pests copitarsia decolora ( guenee ) and c . incommoda ( walker ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) -\nsimmons , r . b . , pogue , m . g . 2009 . redescription of two , often - confused noctuid pests copitarsia decolora ( guenee ) and c . incommoda ( walker ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 97 : 1159 - 1164 .\nsimmons , r . b . , scheffer , s . j . , pogue , m . g . 2004 . systematics of the copitarsia incommoda ( walker ) pest complex ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 97 ( 4 ) : 675 - 680 .\npogue , m . g . , harp , c . e . 2004 . a review of the schinia regia ( strecker ) species complex with a description of a new species ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 473 : 1 - 32\npogue , m . g . , harp , c . e . 2004 . a review of the schinia tertia ( grote ) species complex ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 473 : 1 - 32 .\na new species of schinia huebner ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) from texas , oklahoma , and louisiana . -\nknudson , e . , bordelon , c . , pogue , m . g . 2003 . a new species of schinia huebner ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) from texas , oklahoma , and louisiana . . zootaxa . 382 : 1 - 7\nsystematics of schinia cupes ( grote ) complex : revised status of schinia crotchii ( hy . edwards ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) -\npogue , m . g . , harp , c . e . 2003 . systematics of schinia cupes ( grote ) complex : revised status of schinia crotchii ( hy . edwards ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 294 : 1 - 16 .\npogue , m . g . , harp , c . e . 2003 . revised status of schinia unimacula smith including morphological comaprisons with schinia obliqua smith ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . journal of lepidopterists society . 226 : 1 - 8 .\nlalanne - cassou , b . , pogue , m . g . 2003 . deux nouveaux paratrachea des antilles ( lepidoptera , noctuidae , noctuinae ) . revue francaise d ' entomologie . 25 ( 4 ) : 157 - 164 .\nidentity of a sugar cane pest , scolecocampa mochisa ( schaus ) , in mexico , and a new generic synonym . -\nrevised status of the genus rolandylis gibeaux with descriptions of two new species of north american cochylini ( lepidoptera : tortricidae : tortricinae ) . -\na world revision of the genus spodoptera guenee ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . -\nspodoptera ochreum ( hampton ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) : diagnosis , description of the female genitalia , and a new host record ( asparagus ) fromperu . -\nresolution of the elaphria festivoides ( guenee ) species complex ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . -\nmisplaced catocala ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) holotypes from the e . a . browercollection . -"]}
{"id": 326, "summary": [{"text": "the white-tailed jackrabbit ( lepus townsendii ) , also known as the prairie hare and the white jack , is a species of hare found in western north america .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "like all hares and rabbits , it is a member of the family leporidae of order lagomorpha .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is a solitary individual except where several males court a female in the breeding season .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "litters of four to five young are born in a form , a shallow depression in the ground , hidden among vegetation .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "this jackrabbit has two described subspecies : l. townsendii townsendii occurring west of the rocky mountains and l. townsendii campanius occurring east of the rocky mountains . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "white - tailed jackrabbit", "paragraphs": ["in sympatry with lepus californicus - black - tailed jackrabbit , the white - tailed jackrabbit appears to be more selective over the plant species it consumes . ( b430 . w2 )\nthe white - tailed jackrabbit is thought to be extinct in missouri and possibly also nebraska and kansas ( 1 ) .\nthe white - tailed jackrabbit is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe white - tailed jackrabbit is classified as secure in the current general status of alberta wild species report . see :\nan additional threat to the white - tailed jackrabbit is competition with the black - tailed jackrabbit . this more common species has spread with the expansion of agriculture as it has a generalist diet and can exploit habitats degraded by grazing livestock . where both the white - tailed and black - tailed jackrabbits occur , the white - tailed jackrabbit tends to be displaced as it is less efficient at foraging in degraded habitats ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\nhabitat : the white - tailed jackrabbit is typically found in open grasslands , forests , pastures , and fields . [ 2 ]\nfemale black - tailed jackrabbit do not prepare an elaborate nest . they give birth in shallow excavations called\na few populations of white - tailed jackrabbits are present in wisconsin . ( b430 . w2 )\ncourtship behavior is similar to that of the black - tailed jackrabbit [ lepus californicus - black - tailed jackrabbit ] , except that the jumping behavior is more pronounced .\n( b605 . 4 . w4 )\nthe summer pelage of the white - tailed jackrabbit is yellowish to grayish - brown on the upperparts and white or pale gray on the underparts . the throat is darker .\n( b430 . w2 )\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - white - tailed jackrabbit ( lepus townsendii )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - white - tailed jackrabbit ( lepus townsendii )\ntitle =\narkive species - white - tailed jackrabbit ( lepus townsendii )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe white - tailed jackrabbit has not been the target of any known conservation measures . it is recommended that further research is conducted into this species\u00e2\u20ac\u2122 biology and populations , as well as its relationship with the black - tailed jackrabbit , so that informed conservation measures may be made in future . it is also recommended that the white - tailed jackrabbit be removed from the list of vermin in the state of wyoming ( 1 ) .\nthe white - tailed jackrabbit is most commonly found in open prairie and plains , but also occurs in montane shrublands among pine forests and alpine tundra . it has been recorded up to elevations of over 4 , 000 metres in colorado ( 1 ) ( 4 ) . where the white - tailed jackrabbit is in competition with the black - tailed jackrabbit ( lepus californicus ) , it tends to move to higher elevations ( 2 ) .\nin mountainous habitats , white - tailed jackrabbits predominate on the slopes and ridges and black - tailed jackrabbits are more common on the valley floors .\n( b430 . w2 )\nthis species is slightly larger than lepus californicus - black - tailed jackrabbit . ( b430 . w2 , b605 . 4 . w4 )\nbreeding season the breeding season of white - tailed jackrabbits lasts from february to july with a peak from march to june .\nin some areas , the white - tailed jackrabbit is considered an agricultural pest , particularly of alfalfa , corn , soybeans and winter wheat , and has been persecuted as a result ( 7 ) .\nit is distinguished from lepus californicus - black - tailed jackrabbit by the white , not black , dorsal side to the tail - as indicated by the common name . ( j469 . 288 . w1 )\nwhite - tailed jackrabbits are a large population and are considered a \u201cleast concern\u201d species by the iucn red list of threatened species .\nwhite - tailed jackrabbits ( or lepus townsendii ) are grassland species that have migrated to urban centres as their prairie habitat shrinks .\n, foxes , and wild cats . the black - tailed jackrabbit has no prey . this is because the species only feeds on plant material .\ndescription : the white - tailed jackrabbit\u2019s coat color varies with season and habitat . the back ranges from yellowish to grayish brown in color while the underside is white or grey . the throat and face are darker with coarser hair . its tail is white with a buffy dorsal stripe . their ears are rimmed in white and tipped in black . two distinguishing features are their large ears and hind legs . [ 2 ]\ndiet : white - tailed jackrabbits are strict herbivores . they want grasses , forbs , and shrubs in varying amounts . [ 2 ]\nsimilar species : the white - tailed jackrabbit is the least social of all hares . [ 2 ] they can also be distinguished from other hares due to their prominent flanges projecting from the sides . [ 1 ]\nmontana has four true rabbits\u2014pygmy rabbit , desert cottontail , mountain cottontail , and eastern cottontail\u2014and three hares\u2014white - tailed jackrabbit , black - tailed jack\u00adrabbit , and snowshoe hare . the whitetail is yellowish - gray , has a distinct white tail , and turns all white in winter except for its ear tips , which remain black . the blacktail is gray to blackish , has a black tail , and does not change color in winter .\nthe white - tailed jackrabbit really isn ' t a rabbit at all , but a hare ! confused ? well , the main difference is that baby hares are born well furred with their eyes open , and can move around shortly after birth , whereas rabbit babies are born blind , hairless , and helpless . in minnesota , our two hare species are the white - tailed jackrabbit and snowshoe hare , and our only rabbit species is the cottontail .\nwho are these creatures sharing our city with us ? that question has taken dr . john wood and his students into the streets and parks of edmonton many a wintry night . their quest : the white - tailed jackrabbit .\nin oregon , open flats and ryegrass fields , rather than sagebrush used by lepus californicus - black - tailed jackrabbit . ( j469 . 288 . w1 )\na large hare of north america , the white - tailed jackrabbit ( lepus townsendii ) is most easily recognised by its long , antennae - like ears , which are grey on the outside , white and brown on the inside , and have conspicuous black tips . this species is the only jackrabbit that has two annual moults . during the summer , the thin , coarse coat is dark brown to greyish - brown on the upperparts and white or pale grey on the underparts . in northern parts of its range , where snowfall is regular , the white - tailed jackrabbit becomes all white during winter with some grey around the eyes and throat . however , in southern parts of its range , it only develops white sides . the tail , which gives this hare its common name , it white all year round , with a dusky stripe on the upper side ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .\nwhite - tailed jackrabbits live in grasslands and shrublands throughout montana except in the far northwest . they are most common in open grassland plains east of the continental divide . ( in montana , black - tailed jackrabbits live only in the state\u2019s far southwestern corner . ) though information on white - tailed jackrabbits is scarce , the population appears to be doing fine .\ncolor : in summer , the jackrabbit is brown gray , with a white belly , feet , and tail . in winter , the fur changes to white , with somewhat darker ears . in more southern climates , jackrabbits do not change color .\nwhite - tailed jackrabbits are abundant through most of their range and have no special conservation status . they are considered\nleast concern\nby the iucn . the subspecies\nearly authors maintained that white - tailed jackrabbits adjusted well to agricultural development , but decline of numbers now seems general .\n( b605 . 4 . w4 )\nwhite tail . this sometimes has a dusky dorsal stripe . ( b430 . w2 )\nin winter , the jackrabbit browses on the buds , bark and branches of shrubs and small trees .\nthe white - tailed jackrabbit is a favorite prey of animals such as foxes , coyotes , cougars , badgers , bobcats , snakes , eagles , and owls . they avoid predators by lying perfectly still . they are also proficient swimmers , which helps them to escape predators . [ 2 ]\nwhite - tailed jackrabbits are strict herbivores . they feed on grasses , forbs , and shrubs in varying amounts . in the summer months , when many succulent plants are readily found ,\nwhite - tailed jackrabbits are an important prey source for medium to large sized predators in the ecosystems in which they live . they also impact vegetation community composition through their grazing activities .\nbuilt for speed , with a slender , lean body and well developed , long hind limbs , the white - tailed jackrabbit is capable of bursts of speed of up to 40 miles per hour . this athletic mammal is even able to jump higher than 3 . 6 metres ( 3 ) .\nthis species has greyish - brown upperparts and white underparts . the tail is also white , though has a dusky or buff stripe on the top . ( b605 . 4 . w4 )\ndr . wood compares the joy of studying the white - tailed jackrabbit to being bartholomew cubbins with his 500 hats . \u201cevery time you take one off , there\u2019s another one . you never get to essence , you\u2019re always discovering something new\u2014and the closer you look , the more fascinating it is . \u201d\nlike the pronghorn , whose open grassland range it shares , the white - tailed jackrabbit relies on eyesight and speed to avoid coyotes , bobcats , foxes , golden eagles , and other predators . a frightened jackrabbit can cover 30 feet in one leap and reach speeds of up to 35 mph in short bursts . as it bounds along , it regularly jumps 3 to 4 feet high , apparently to get a better view of its pursuer . when captured by a predator , a jackrabbit fights back by kicking with its powerful hind legs .\nwhite - tailed jackrabbits prefer open grasslands but thrive in pastures and fields . this species can also be found in forested areas up to high alpine tundra , from 40 to 4300 meters elevation .\nactivity : white - tailed jackrabbits are nocturnal . they generally feed from sunset to sunrise and rest in shallow forms during the day . they do not hibernate in the winter . [ 2 ]\nthe white - tailed jackrabbit , or\njack ,\nis the largest member of the rabbit and hare family , weighing from six to ten pounds . the long - legged jackrabbit is best recognized by its unusual style of running . when surprised , it will usually bound off with a gait resembling that of a kangaroo . but when frightened , it will drop low to the ground and accelerate to an amazingly fast speed . it is rarely seen because it is active mainly at night , and turns white in winter .\nrange : the white - tailed jackrabbit\u2019s range within the united states including : washington , oregon , california , nevada , idaho , montana , wyoming , utah , colorado , new mexico , nebraska , kansas , north and south dakota , minnesota , wisconsin , iowa , missouri , and illinois . [ 3 ]\nwhile the population status of the white - tailed jackrabbit is currently unclear , declines have been observed in many areas . in yellowstone national park , where this species was once considered abundant , there have been no sightings since the 1990s , while in grand teton national park , there have only been three sightings since 1978 ( 1 ) . the white - tailed jackrabbit has also not been seen in british colombia since 1980 ( 3 ) . the reasons behind these declines are unknown , but it is possibly due to a combination of severe weather , disease , predation , habitat destruction and habitat degradation by livestock ( 1 ) .\nthis jackrabbit finds it difficult to run in snow more than 25 cm deep . ( j469 . 288 . w1 )\nblack - tailed jackrabbits are not listed as threatened or endangered . the white - tailed jackrabbit , lepus townsendii is listed as a species of special concern by several states including california . habitat availability is threatened to some extent by development and in some areas populations are dwindling . their large numbers in orchards , agricultural fields , and rangelands can do considerable damage and ranchers and farmers often need to cull the populations .\nin summer , the white - tailed jackrabbit feeds on grasses , forbs and cultivated crops . at other times of the year , this species browses on twigs , buds and bark . it is mostly active at dusk and dawn , resting in shallow depressions at the base of bushes during the day ( 1 ) .\nthe white - tailed jackrabbit is distributed in west - central north america from the prairies of southern saskatchewan and alberta to the rocky mountains of northern new mexico , and from lake michigan in wisconsin to east of the cascade mountains of washington and the sierra nevada mountains of california .\n( b430 . w2 )\namong the most solitary of hares , the white - tailed jackrabbit is usually found alone , and only briefly interacts with other hares during the breeding season ( 2 ) . breeding takes place from late february to mid - july , when groups of males chase females . this involves dashes , jumps and circling sprints and ends in a brief copulation . female white - tailed jackrabbits may produce between 1 and 4 litters a year , usually of 4 or 5 young , after a gestation period of 30 to 43 days . the young have some ability to move around within half an hour of birth and begin foraging on their own at two weeks of age . the young are then weaned at one month old and are completely independent at two months ( 3 ) . the white - tailed jackrabbit is thought to live for up to five years ( 1 ) .\nbraun , c . e . and r . g . streeter . 1968 . observations on the occurrence of white - tailed jackrabbits in the alpine zone . j . mammal . 49 : 160 - 161 .\nwhite - tailed jackrabbits were a significant food source for early settlers of north america and continue to be a year round game animal . their pelts were once highly prized and widely used in the commercial fur industry .\na widespread species , the white - tailed jackrabbit is found across much of southern canada and the central united states . its range stretches from the great plains in saskatchewan , south to the rocky mountains in extreme northern new mexico , and east of the cascade mountains in oregon , to lake michigan in wisconsin ( 1 ) ( 6 ) .\nalthough the black - tailed part of the black - tailed rabbit\u2019s name is correct in that its tail is black , the rabbit part is not . these animals are hares , not rabbits . several factors distinguish hares from rabbits . hares have a leaner body and longer ears and legs , usually do not build nests , and their young are born well - furred with their eyes wide open . three species of hares are native to california , the snowshoe , black - tailed , and white - tailed . the latter two are commonly called jackrabbits . black - tailed are the most abundant and widespread of all the jacks and the only one found in desert habitats .\nthe white - tailed jackrabbit is the least social of all hares . in terms of communication , the species generally make no vocal noises , but screams if caught or injured . they have acute hearing and a sharp sense of smell . they also have good vision and whiskers that allow them to navigate to find food . these senses help them perceive their environment .\nthe tail remains white throughout the year , though some may have a buffy dorsal stripe . ( b430 . w2 )\nsize : white - tailed jackrabbits weigh 6 . 61 to 8 . 81 lbs ( 3 to 4 kg ) , and range from 22 to 25 . 6 inches ( 558 - 650 mm ) in total length . [ 1 ]\nwhite - tailed jackrabbits are often viewed as a threat by farmers as they can destroy crops , eat hay stores , and girdle trees ( chapman et al . , 1982 ) . because of low population densities and grassland preferences , the impact of\nwhite - tailed jackrabbits are classed as a\ngame species\nin minnesota , and during the autumn and early winter hunting season , several thousand are killed each year for their meat . but predators take several times more jacks than do hunters .\nwhite - tailed jackrabbits are one of the world\u2019s largest hares , second only to the alaskan hare . they are 2 feet long from their nose to their 3 - to 4 - inch - long stubby tail , and weigh 6 to 10 pounds . because of the animals\u2019 large ears , early settlers called them \u201cjackass rabbits , \u201d later shortened to jackrabbit . its large ears allow a jackrabbit to hear exceptionally well . also , the ears are filled with blood vessels that release body heat in summer , keeping the animal cool when temperatures rise .\nlepus townsendii is greyish brown ( lepus townsendii townsendii or yellowish ( lepus townsendii campanius ) dorsally ( white in winter in northern areas and high altitudes ) with a pale grey or white underside , black ear tips and a white tail which may have a slender buffy or dusky dorsal stripe ; when present this stripe does not extend up the back ( j469 . 288 . w1 )\nassess abundance , distribution , and trends . improve understanding of jackrabbit ecology , including habitat associations and selection . develop methods to census this nocturnal species .\nwhite - tailed jackrabbits live at a remarkably broad range of elevations , from 40 m to 4 , 300 m , and where they are in competition with black - tailed jackrabbits , they tend to move toward higher elevations . they are slightly larger than black - tails , but seem to be more selective in their dietary choices , putting them at a disadvantage where the two\ntrump spent the weekend discussing his options and will announce his pick at 9 p . m . monday from the white house .\nmale black - tailed jackrabbit reach sexual maturity at about 7 months of age . females usually breed in the spring of their second year , although females born in spring or early summer may breed in their first year . ovulation is induced by copulation . the breeding season is variable depending upon latitude and environmental factors . in the northern part of its range in idaho , black - tailed jackrabbit breeds from february through may . in utah , black - tailed jackrabbit breed from january through july , with over 75 % of females pregnant by april . the kansas breeding season extends from january to august . breeding in warm climates continues nearly year - round . two peak breeding seasons corresponding to rainfall patterns and growth of young vegetation occur in california , arizona , and new mexico . in arizona , for example , breeding peaks during winter ( january\u2013march ) rains and again during june monsoons .\nwhite - tailed jackrabbits are found throughout west - central canada and the united states with an elevation span of 40 to 4 , 300 m . they range from the great plains of saskatchewan and alberta east to extreme southwest ontario down into wisconsin and across the continent to the rocky mountains with a southern limit in central california ( wilson and ruff , 1999 ) . there has been a noted range reduction from the south east over the past half - century , notably in kansas , due to habitat alteration from increased agriculture and competition from the sympatric black - tailed jackrabbit (\nwhite - tailed jackrabbits have a number of other distinct morphological characters which reflect adaptation to their environment and ecology . enormous ears equipped with generous blood flow are used for heat dissipation in the warmer portions of the range , while they also provide an excellent means of predator detection .\nthere is little current information regarding population status in california , but evidence polnts to a serious decline . overgrazing by livestock has been cited as a principal factor ( dalquest 1948 ) , as wel ! as cultivation and other development . may now be absent from large portions of its previous range , as in lasser co . where the last records are 20 yr old . california species of special concern ( williams 1986 ) . also called white - tailed jackrabbit .\ndue to the creation of suitable habitats for this species , it has been extending its range eastwards and northwards . yet its range has been reduced in the southeast due to the changes in habitat which have left the area more suitable for the sympatric lepus californicus - black - tailed jackrabbit . ( b430 . w2 )\nreproduction : the white - tailed jackrabbit\u2019s breeding season extends from february to july with a peak from march to june . gestation typically lasts 42 days . their litter size ranges from 1 to 11 , but averages at 4 - 5 . females may have one to four litters per year , however a maximum of one litter is produced in northern climates . the young are fully weaned at one month , and sexually mature after 7 - 8 months . [ 2 ]\nthree to five males may pursue one female concurrently during mating season , leading to aggresive charging among them . the courting behaviour of white - tailed jackrabbits consists of a series of aggresive charges and jumps . circling between male and female lasts from 5 - 20 minutes and is followed by copulation .\nin summer , the coat is a grizzled brownish grey . in winter , the coat changes to pure white , except for black - tipped ears .\nduring the day , a white - tailed jackrabbit rests in a \u201cform , \u201d a shallow pit in the earth under grass clumps or shrubs . it hides there all day , ears flat on its back . jackrabbits begin foraging in the low light of evening , hopping across open areas or following trails made by other jackrabbits through sagebrush . for\u00adaging con\u00adtinues all night , especially when the moon is out . in early morning jackrabbits return to resting forms to wait out the day .\nwhite - tailed jackrabbits may be hunted , but not trapped , without a licence throughout the province , at all times of the year . see details in the alberta guide to hunting regulations . to view the guide online or to order a printed copy , visit the my wild alberta website at :\nvaries with season and habitat . the upper parts range from yellowish to grayish brown in colour , with white or grey on the underside . the throat and face are somewhat darker with coarser hair . in the northern extent of the range where there is significant snow fall during the year , a pure white colouration is attained with the possibilty of a buffy tint on the face , ears , feet and back . a slight change may be noted in the more southern range where only the sides of the animal become white while the back retains a more buffy - grey tinge . an early to late spring moult reverses this process . as the common name indicates , the tail is always white which may possess a buffy dorsal stripe . ears of this jackrabbit are rimmed in white and tipped in black year round . the juvenile pelage is similar but paler in colour with more under fur and less developed course guard hairs ( kim , 1987 ) .\ncontrary to their name , the black - tailed rabbits are actually hares , and only their tails are colored black . black - tailed rabbits are the most plentiful , while being the only hares found in desert habitats . what separates hares from rabbits are factors such as the body , ears , legs , and their young . the bodies of hares tend to be leaner , and they have longers ears and legs as well . while rabbits build nests , hares do not , and their young are born well - furred with wide open eyes . black - tailed rabbits are the plentiful , while being the only jackrabbit found in desert habitats .\nthe jackrabbit ' s breeding prowess is well known . females can give birth to several litters a year , each with one to six young . the young mature quickly and require little maternal care .\nin arid regions , white - tailed jackrabbits excrete a nearly dry feces as a means of water conservation ( chapman et al . , 1982 ) . heat is dissipated through large ears and voluntary hyperthermia has been observed with the internal body temperature rising to over 41\u00b0c at the hottest point in the day ( forsyth , 1999 ) .\nwhile we\u2019re hunting late - season pheasants , my dog often flushes what at first look like small , white deer . the creatures burst from sagebrush or brushy ravines and race across the landscape . as a pup , simon tried to catch them , but after a dozen failed attempts he gave up and now runs half - heartedly for only a few hundred yards . the white - tailed jack\u00adrabbits , which can outrun any dog except a greyhound , slow down too , bounding along just ahead of him .\nbrownish - gray in summer and white in winter , the jackrabbit lives in open areas and seldom is found near wooded windbreaks , except in the most severe winter weather . it is a prairie hare which is more abundant in wide open grasslands of the west . although both were once numerous , grasslands and jackrabbits have given way to intensive farming in minnesota ' s western counties .\nsometimes in the southern regions the sides of the body and rump may go white while the back becomes pale buffy - grey in winter . ( j469 . 288 . w1 )\neven minus the bags , edmonton\u2019s white - tailed jackrabbit population has escalated in the decades since , growing from less than 500 to nearly 3 , 000 before settling at about 2 , 600 . urban gardens and greenspaces provide ample food in an environment largely free of predators , dr . wood notes . \u201cthey do breed like bunnies . so just lower the predation rate slightly and the population will grow . \u201d in fact , the classic \u201cprairie cycle , \u201d in which populations of small mammals expand and then contract as predator numbers rise , no longer seems to apply .\nbooming jackrabbit populations can cause problems for farmers , especially in light of the animals ' healthy appetite . jackrabbits are often killed for crop protection , but in general their populations are stable and not in need of protection .\nthe black - tailed jackrabbit is illustrated on the wave\u2019s mosaic tile mural , rios de la vida ( rivers of life ) . the fountain , mural , and accompanying graphics illustrate the story of our los angeles and san gabriel rivers . although not on exhibit in the aquarium , this land mammal is included in our website animal database to expand on the information touched on in the wave fountain exhibit .\n( dark buff peppered with black ) , and its undersides and the insides of its legs are creamy white . the ears are black - tipped on the outer surface , and unpigmented inside . the\ninstead , white - tailed jackrabbits ( or lepus townsendii ) are grassland species that have migrated to urban centres as their prairie habitat shrinks . adding to the potential for confusion , they are hares , not rabbits . adults live in above - ground depressions or \u201cforms\u201d rather than in burrows , and the young ( or leveret ) are born eyes - open and fully furred . who knew ?\nlikely prey for coyotes , bobcats , and larger raptors . the black - tailed hare is a more opportunistic feeder and has been displacing l . townsendii , particularly in areas altered by humans .\n) are also imporant parts the diet ( kim , 1987 and chapman et al . , 1982 ) . this species has been known to winter in barns and feed extensively on the hay found inside ( banfield , 1974 ) . white - tailed jackrabbits are generally voracious eaters and captive specimens have been known to eat as much as . 5 kg of plant matter daily ( kim , 1987 ) .\nbehaviour the black - tailed jack rabbit does not migrate or hibernate during winter and uses the same habitat of 0 . 4 to 1 . 2 square miles ( 1 to 3 square km ) year round . the black - tailed jackrabbit can run at speeds of up to 30 miles an hour and it can jump a distance of about 20 feet . when it is trying to evade predators like coyotes , foxes , bobcats , badgers and weasels , it moves in a zig - zag pattern . it flashes the white underside of its tail when threatened by a predator . this warns other jackrabbits or danger and can also confuse the predator . it can also swim by dog - paddling with all four of its feet . it is most active at night . it usually spends the day resting in a scraped out hollow in the shade .\nmammal . the white - tailed jackrabbit is actually a hare , not a rabbit . baby jackrabbits can run immediately after being born . adults can leap 3 meters ( 10 feet ) at a time at speeds of 64 kilometers ( 40 miles ) per hour . jackrabbits are nocturnal , feeding mainly from sunset to sunrise . during the day , they hide in shallow depressions called \u201cforms\u201d that may be covered with plants . in winter , jackrabbits may burrow in snowbanks , or lie in depressions with only their eyes , flattened ears , and backs visible above the snow . jackrabbits are strong swimmers . if cornered , they will dog - paddle with all four feet .\nthe gestation period ranges from 41 to 47 days . more litters are born in warm climates : the number of litters born each year ranges from two per year in idaho to seven in arizona . litter sizes are largest in the northern portions of black - tailed jackrabbit ' s range and decrease toward the south . average litter size has been reported at 4 . 9 in idaho , 3 . 8 in utah , and 2 . 2 in arizona .\nlike most mammals , white - tailed jackrabbits are nocturnal , feeding mainly from sunset to sunrise . during the day they rest in shallow forms which are dug into the earth 10 - 20 cm in depth and are usually under some form of plant cover . elaborate and well travelled trails may be observed that connect forms between often visited feeding sites . in winter snow , forms are replaced by cave - like structures joined with many connecting tunnels .\nblack - tailed jackrabbits are a common hare that inhabit american deserts , scrublands , and other open spaces , including farms . they can consume very large quantities of grasses and plants\u2014including desert species such as sagebrush and cacti .\nthough large groups of white - tailed jackrabbits have been observed during extreme winter cold or in areas of abundant food , they are the least social of all hares ( kim , 1987 ) . only during the breeding season do small groups of 3 to 4 individuals form for courting behaviours . nests are built by females and lined with fur . though they are similar in shape to forms , nests are usually under dense cover . ( kim , 1987 ) .\npopulations of black - tailed jackrabbits undergo drastic fluctuations with numbers peaking every six to ten years . in some years more than 90 percent of western populations die from tularemia , which may or may not be related to the population changes .\nsurface of the tail is grey to white , and the black dorsal surface of the tail continues up the spine for a few inches to form a short , black stripe . the females are larger than males , with no other significant differences .\nblack - tailed jackrabbits are not listed as threatened or endangered . habitat availability is threatened to some extent by development and in some areas populations are dwindling . their large numbers in orchards , agricultural fields , and rangelands can do considerable damage and ranchers and farmers often need to cull the populations . populations of black - tailed jackrabbits undergo drastic fluctuations with numbers peaking every six to ten years . in some years more than 90 percent of western populations die from tularemia , which may or may not be related to the population changes .\nin the northern of mountainous parts of its range , there is a winter molt to a thick white pelage with tinges of buff . in southern localities or at lower elevations , there may be no color change or only a partial change .\n( b430 . w2 )\nthat are no more than a few centimeters deep . females may line forms with hair prior to giving birth , but some drop litters in existing depressions on the ground with no further preparation . young are borne fully furred with eyes open , and are mobile within minutes of birth . females do not protect or even stay with the young except during nursing . ages of weaning and dispersal are unclear since the young are well camouflaged and rarely observed in the field . captive black - tailed jackrabbit are fully weaned by 8 weeks . the young stay together for at least a week after leaving the form .\ntraffic is the major hazard for the urban hare , who can sprint as fast as 70 km an hour . for the tiny leveret awaiting their mother\u2019s brief appearances to nurse , birds post the greatest danger . dr . wood has filmed an adult jackrabbit in a lifeand - death chase to save her baby from a diving owl .\nin most areas of its range , this species turns completely white in the winter , though the ear tips remain black . however , on the plains of british columbia , kansas , nebraska and some regions of colorado , the winter coats are only slightly paler than their summer coats . (\njackrabbits are technically hares , not rabbits , though both look similar and belong to the same family , leporidae . hares are generally larger and faster than rabbits and have longer ears and feet . in addition , hares are solitary animals ( except during breeding season ) , while rabbits live in social groups . another difference is that rabbits are born blind , hairless , and helpless , while newborn hares have hair , can see , and are able to move about . both rabbits and hares have short tails and breed prolifically . white - tailed jackrabbits bear up to four litters of four or five young each year .\nthe breeding season of white - tailed jackrabbits lasts from february to july with a peak from march to june . ovulation is induced , requiring copulation or suitable stimulation . ( chapman et al . , 1982 ) . one to four litters with from 1 to 11 ( averaging 4 to 5 ) young are born each year . a maximum of one litter is produced in more nothern climates . the gestation period is commonly reported as 42 days but this length varies , possibly due to altitude and habitat ( kim , 1987 ) . this species exhibits breeding synchrony with male spermatogenesis and a postpartum estrus that facilitates conception soon after birth of young ( kim , 1987 ) .\njackrabbits are actually hares , not rabbits . hares are larger than rabbits , and they typically have taller hind legs and longer ears . jackrabbits were named for their ears , which initially caused some people to refer to them as \u201cjackass rabbits . \u201d the writer mark twain brought this name to fame by using it in his book of western adventure , roughing it . the name was later shortened to jackrabbit .\nthe preferred habitats of black - tailed jackrabbits are valleys and flat , open country such as desert brushlands , meadows , prairies , farmlands , and dunes . they like the areas to be dry and with short grass . they use many different types of vegetation and are often found in agricultural areas where they can impact fruit and grain crops . jackrabbits often inhabit pastures that have been grazed by livestock .\nblack - tailed jackrabbits spend most of their day resting in shallow , body - sized depressions that they scratch in the ground at the base of shrubs or clumps of shaded tall grass to get protection from the summer\u2019s hot sun and winter\u2019s chilling winds . they maintain trails between their resting and feeding areas . although usually most active from dusk to late in the night , no matter the time of day , they always seem to be on guard and alert for potential predators in the area . remaining still , they may move their ears to catch sounds . attacked by a predator , they defend themselves by kicking with their hind feet , biting , and shrieking loudly . they alert other jackrabbits in the area to potential danger by flashing the white underside of their tail and thumping their hind feet to give a danger signal .\nblack - tailed jackrabbits eat their own droppings to obtain the vitamins and fatty acids necessary to their well - being . unlike most other mammals , they produce two types of pellets , one of which , cecotropes , is re - digested . cecotropes are produced in a portion of the animal\u2019s digestive track called the cecum and are eaten as they emerge from the anus . bacteria and fungi in the hare\u2019s cecum are the source of the essential nutrients the jackrabbits cannot produce but need and acquire as a result of the second digestion .\nthe largest of the north american hare species , adult black - tailed jackrabbits have a total length of about 50 - 60 cm ( 20 - 24 in ) from nose to rear . the length of their tail is 6 - 9 cm ( 2 - 3 . 5 in ) , ears , 10 - 15 cm ( 3 . 9 - 5 . 9 in ) , and hind feet about 14 cm ( 5 . 5 in ) . they weigh 2 . 4 - 3 . 9 kg ( 5 . 2 - 8 . 6 lb ) . females are slightly larger than males .\njackrabbits are strict herbivores whose diet varies depending on the time of the year and their habitat . in summer months they eat cacti , sagebrush , mesquite , alfalfa , clover , other grasses , and herbaceous vegetation . in fall and winter when this food is not available , their staple diet is dried vegetation and the young bark of woody plants . they forage for food from dawn and through the night , consuming large quantities relative to their size . . black - tailed jackrabbits do not require much water and obtain nearly all they need from the plant material they consume . those living in the desert obtain most of their moisture from water - retaining plants such as cacti .\nfirst , and resorting to shrubs during the winter months . they are among the most solitary of hares and usually interact only briefly during the breeding season , when small groups may be seen . a female may produce 1 - 4 litters , usually of 4 or 5 young , each year .\nbachman , j . , 1839 . additional remarks on the genus lepus , with corrections of a former paper , and descriptions of other species of quadrupeds found in north america , p . 90 . journal of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , 8 : 75 - 105 .\nmammal species of the world ( opens in a new window ) . mammalian species , american society of mammalogists ' species account ( opens in a new window ) .\nclick to enlarge this image . ( 94kb ) click to enlarge this image . ( 67kb )\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\ngestation the state of being pregnant ; the period from conception to birth . montane of mountains , or growing in mountains . tundra treeless , grassy plains characteristic of arctic and sub - arctic regions . they are very cold and have little rainfall .\nwhitaker jr , j . o . and hamilton jr , w . j . ( 1998 ) mammals of the eastern united states . cornell university press , ithaca .\nanimals animals / earth scenes 17 railroad avenue chatham ny 12037 united states of america tel : + 01 ( 518 ) 3925500 fax : + 01 ( 518 ) 3925550 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is found in wisconsin ' s northwoods and has been profiled with the support of a wisconsin - based family who care deeply about the area . to learn more visit our eco - region pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nrelationships between this order and rodentia have been disputed for over a century . its early history was discussed by simpson ( 1945 ) , while landry ( 1999 ) provided an overview of more recent literature on the subject , discussing many synapomorphies , mostly morphological , that support the concept of a cohort glires including both orders . molecular sequence data also support the concept ( huchon et al . , 1999 ) .\n) . an accompanying range increase to the north has been observed over time ( kim , 1987 ) .\nhave large hind legs which facilitate high jumps and quick escapes from predators ( forsyth , 1999 ) . the dental formula is 2 / 1 0 / 0 3 / 2 3 / 3 = 28 with huge upper insicors for nipping plants ( chapman et al . , 1982 )\nthough females are slightly larger in size , there is no other apparent sexual dimorphism ( kim , 1987 ) .\nat birth the young weigh approximately 90 - 100 grams , have open eyes , full fur , and limited mobility within half an hour . the young begin to forage at approximately 2 weeks of age and are fulled weaned at one month . sexually maturity is reached by 7 or 8 months though there is little evidence of reproduction until the spring following their birth .\n( chapman , et al . , 1982 ; lim , 1987 ; wilson and ruff , 1999 )\nbreeding interval from 1 to 4 litters are born each year , depending on environmental conditions .\nnurse and care for their young for about 1 month . females often create nests for the protection of their young from dried grass , leaves , and hair . young are born fully furred and are capable of some level of mobility shortly after birth .\ncan run up to 55 km / hr and bound 5m into the air .\n( chapman , et al . , 1982 ; forsyth , 1999 ; lim , 1987 )\nare poorly studied but believed to be approximately 2 to 3 km in diameter never straying far from forms and known trails .\nthese animals generally make no vocalizations , but will scream if caught or injured ( banfield , 1974 ) . they are likely to rely extensively on their acute hearing and sense of smell to perceive their environment , but also have good vision and whiskers that help them in navigating and finding food . like most mammals , they probably also rely extensively on chemical cues for communicating reproductive condition .\nis a favorite prey item of animals such as red fox , grey fox , coyote , bobcat , cougar , badger , snakes , owls , eagles , and many species of hawks . the general method of predator avoidance is to lie perfectly still in the form , relying on their cryptic coloration to avoid detection , with large ears pointed slightly up for predator detection . jackrabbits may attempt to slink off silently but will bound away with surprising speed and height when surprised . zig - zag patterns as well as proficient swimming have been observed in predator escapes .\nis considered a mammal of special concern in california , where populations have declined dramatically , probably as a result of competition with livestock and overgrazing by livestock .\nis slightly larger and some subtle pelage variation is observed ( kim , 1987 ) .\nacquired its name from j . k . townsend , who collected the type specimen ( kim , 1987 ) .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nhaving markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .\nin deserts low ( less than 30 cm per year ) and unpredictable rainfall results in landscapes dominated by plants and animals adapted to aridity . vegetation is typically sparse , though spectacular blooms may occur following rain . deserts can be cold or warm and daily temperates typically fluctuate . in dune areas vegetation is also sparse and conditions are dry . this is because sand does not hold water well so little is available to plants . in dunes near seas and oceans this is compounded by the influence of salt in the air and soil . salt limits the ability of plants to take up water through their roots .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthis terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains , either without vegetation or covered by low , tundra - like vegetation .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nthe kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males , each of which also pairs with several different females .\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\namerican society of mammalogists , 2009 .\nmammals of california\n( on - line ) . american society of mammalogists , state lists . accessed july 27 , 2009 at urltoken .\nchapman , j . , j . dunn , r . marsh . 1982 . lepus townsendii . pp . 124 - 137 in j chapman , g feldhamer , eds .\nto cite this page : gosline , a . 2001 .\nlepus townsendii\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control ."]}
{"id": 327, "summary": [{"text": "the amazonian marsh rat ( holochilus sciureus ) , also known as the common marsh rat , or simply the marsh rat , is a rodent species from south america . ", "topic": 29}], "title": "amazonian marsh rat", "paragraphs": ["by : chandler stonecipher \uf076 amazonian manatee \uf076 amazonian sac - winged bat \uf076 marsh deer \uf076 toco toucan \uf076 spider monkey \uf076 white - faced tree rat \uf076 parrot .\nby : chandler stonecipher \uf076 amazonian manatee \uf076 amazonian sac - winged bat \uf076 marsh deer \uf076 toco toucan \uf076 spider monkey \uf076 white - faced tree rat \uf076 parrot . - ppt download\ndownload ppt\nby : chandler stonecipher \uf076 amazonian manatee \uf076 amazonian sac - winged bat \uf076 marsh deer \uf076 toco toucan \uf076 spider monkey \uf076 white - faced tree rat \uf076 parrot .\npresentation on theme :\nby : chandler stonecipher \uf076 amazonian manatee \uf076 amazonian sac - winged bat \uf076 marsh deer \uf076 toco toucan \uf076 spider monkey \uf076 white - faced tree rat \uf076 parrot .\n\u2014 presentation transcript :\nhershkovitz , p ( 1987 ) : first south american record of coues\u2019 marsh rice rat , oryzomys couesi . journal of mammalogy 68 , 152 - 154 .\nhartmann m ( 2001 ) active sensing capabilities of the rat whisker system . auton robots 11 : 249\u2013254 .\nmarsh cw , greer ag . forest land - use in sabah , malaysia - an introduction to danum valley .\nwyatt jl , silman mr . distance - dependence in two amazonian palms : effects of spatial and temporal variation in seed predator communities .\nrosas , fcw ( 1994 ) : biology , conservation and status of the amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis . mammal review 24 , 49 - 59 .\nbeck h , gaines ms , hines je , nichols jd . comparative dynamics of small mammal populations in treefall gaps and surrounding understorey within amazonian rainforest .\nterborgh j , losos e , riley mp , riley mb . predation by vertebrates and invertebrates on the seeds of 5 canopy tree species of an amazonian forest .\nhershkovitz , p ( 1971 ) : a new rice rat of the oryzomys palustris group ( cricetinae , muridae ) from northwestern colombia , with remarks on distribution . journal of mammalogy 52 , 700 - 709 .\npacheco , v , and ugarte - n\u00fa\u00f1ez , j ( 2011 ) : new records of stolzmann\u2019s fish - eating rat ichthyomys stolzmanni ( cricetidae , sigmodontinae ) in peru : a rare species becoming a nuisance . mammalian biology \u2013 zeitschrift f\u00fcr s\u00e4ugetierkunde 76 , 657 - 661 .\ncitation : marshall cd , wieskotten s , hanke w , hanke fd , marsh a , kot b , et al . ( 2014 ) feeding kinematics , suction , and hydraulic jetting performance of harbor seals ( phoca vitulina ) . plos one 9 ( 1 ) : e86710 . urltoken\nmarshall cd , maeda h , iwata m , furuta m , asano a , rosas f , et al . ( 2003 ) orofacial morphology and feeding behaviour of the dugong , amazonian , west african and antillean manatees ( mammalia : sirenia ) : functional morphology of the muscular \u2013 vibrissal complex . j zool 259 : 1\u201316 .\nthis species is broadly distributed , it reaches the orinoco and amazon river basins : venezuela ( including an isolated locality in the maracaibo basin , northwest of the andes ; see linares , 1998 ) , the guianas , northern and central brazil , and amazonian regions of colombia , ecuador , peru , and bolivia ( musser and carleton , 2005 ) . it also occurs in suriname ( weksler pers . comm . ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern in because of its wide distribution , presumed large population , occurrence in a number of protected areas , tolerance to some degree of habitat modification , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .\nduring a survey along the rio juru\u00e1 of the western amazon of brazil , the species was found in grass patches along the river margins and agricultural areas close to rivers ( patton et al . 2000 ) . some female specimens examined from august to november were either pregnant or lactating ; young were also observed during these months ( patton et al . 2000 ) .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t10220a115096276 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nwe think you have liked this presentation . if you wish to download it , please recommend it to your friends in any social system . share buttons are a little bit lower . thank you !\nbrazil . brazil and taiwan south america french guyana suriname guyana venezuela colombia peru bolivia paraguay argentina uruguay countries bordering .\nquiz - - poland . which one cities is the capital ? a gniezno b krak\u00f3w c warszawa .\na small introduction on\u2026 brazil . where is it ? brazil has 10 neighbouring countries ! ! to the east coast , there is the atlantic ocean the capital of brazil .\nh jeopardy geography history sports foodother q $ 100 q $ 200 q $ 300 q $ 400 q $ 500 q $ 100 q $ 200 q $ 300 q $ 400 q $ 500 final jeopardy .\nbrazil by anne and bradford flag the flag is green , blue , yellow .\nbrazil researched via : student name : deshaun newton date : 3 / 25 / 11 .\nbrazil the capital of brazil is brasilia ! o capiltal do brasil \u00e9 bras\u00edlia ! brazil .\nbrazil by wylly simons michael david about brazil \uf09b brazil is the 5 th biggest country in the world . \uf09b the amazon rainforest is very fun but full of .\n2 pt 3 pt 4 pt 5pt 1 pt 2 pt 3 pt 4 pt 5 pt 1 pt 2pt 3 pt 4pt 5 pt 1pt 2pt 3 pt 4 pt 5 pt 1 pt 2 pt 3 pt 4pt 5 pt 1pt azil br .\nbrazil\u2019s flag . about brazil ( \u4e00 ) brazil is the largest country in latin america . it spreads across almost half ( 47 . 3 % ) of south america , and occupies .\nchapter 13 cultures of south america section 3 . countries of northern south america were colonized from different european countries . because of this ,\npele \u201co rey\u201d the king of football . background he is considered by many people as the greatest football player of all time . pele was born in brazil . he .\nbaseball , basketball , crew , football , hockey , lacrosse , soccer , etc . baseball , basketball , crew , football , hockey , lacrosse , soccer , etc . lots of funding .\nthe differences between canada and the u . s . a . by mitchell .\nby hannah o and sarah world cup facts the fifa world cup was first held in 1930 , when fifa president jules rimet decided to stage an international football .\nbrazil . \uf0a8 coastal areas are more densely populated \uf0a8 the amazon basin area has very low population density .\nbrazil . people largest population in south america largest population in south america 5 th most populous country in the world 5 th most populous country .\nby using this website , you agree with our use of cookies to functioning of the site . more info in our privacy policy and google privacy & terms . necessary cookie accept\n( iucn , 2013 ; perrin , 2013 ; reeves et al . , 2002 ; rosas , 1994 )\n( committee on taxonomy , 2014 ; domning , 1981 ; iucn , 2013 ; perrin , 2013 ; reeves et al . , 2002 )\n( iucn , 2013 ; perrin , 2013 ; reeves et al . , 2002 )\n( halley & rosell , 2003 ; iucn , 2013 ; macdonald , 2006 ; rosell et al . , 2005 )\n( iucn , 2013 ; veron et al . , 2008 ; wilson , 2005 )\n( bonvicino et al . , 2005 ; iucn , 2013 ; wilson , 2005 )\n( iucn , 2013 ; percequillo et al . , 2005 ; wilson , 2005 )\n( hershkovitz , 1987 ; kirkpatrick & cartwright , 1975 ; platt et al . , 2000 ; reid , 1997 ; wilson , 2005 )\n( iucn , 2013 ; santos - moreno et al . , 2003 ; wilson , 2005 )\n( bonvicino et al . , 2013 ; d\u2019el\u00eda & pardi\u00f1as , 2004 ; wilson , 2005 )\n( aloise et al . , 2005 ; church\ufb01eld , 2007 ; duff & lawson , 2004 ; iucn , 2013 )\n( duff & lawson , 2004 ; iucn , 2013 ; krystufek et al . , 2000 )\n( church\ufb01eld , 2007 ; iucn , 2013 ; o\u2019neill et al . , 2005 ; veron et al . , 2008 )\n( church\ufb01eld , 2007 ; iucn , 2013 ; veron et al . , 2008 )\n( hussain et al . , 2011 ; iucn , 2013 ; pocock , 1941 )\n( iucn , 2013 ; m\u00e1rcia barbosa et al . , 2003 ; wilson , 2005 )\n( iucn , 2013 ; latifiana & pickles , 2013 ; poole , 2003 ; wright et al . , 2008 )\n( acharya & lamsal , 2010 ; hwang & larivi\u00e8re , 2005 ; iucn , 2013 ; rais et al . , 2009 )\n( committee on taxonomy , 2014 ; iucn , 2013 ; perrin , 2013 ; reeves et al . , 2002 )\n( iucn , 2013 ; palo & v\u00e4in\u00f6l\u00e4 , 2006 ; perrin , 2013 ; reeves et al . , 2002 )\n( cheyne et al . , 2010 ; iucn , 2013 ; veron et al . , 2006 ; veron et al . , 2008 )\n( borobia et al . , 1991 ; iucn , 2013 ; perrin , 2013 ; reeves et al . , 2002 )\n( iucn , 2013 ; perrin , 2013 ; shostell & ruiz - garcia , 2010 ; tavera et al . , 2010 )\ntable 1 . regional distribution of aquatic and semi - aquatic mammals . where applicable , endemism has been noted and refers to geographical constraint and relative range limitation of species within a specific region . species are listed taxonomically down to order , and then alphabetically through family , genus and species . where scientific names are in bold , regional distributions of subspecies have been included in a separate subspecies table , available at urltoken .\nabe , h , ishii , n , ito , t , kaneko , y , maeda , k , miura , s , and yoneda , m ( 2005 ) : a guide to the mammals of japan . tokai university press , kanagawa , japan .\nacharya , pm , and lamsal , p ( 2010 ) : a survey for smooth coated otter lutrogale perspicillata on the river narayani , chitwan national park , nepal hystrix , the italian journal of mammalogy 21 , 203 - 207 .\naloise , g , g . amori , cagnin , m , and castiglia , r ( 2005 ) : new european southern distribution limit of neomys fodiens ( pennant , 1771 ) ( insectivora , soricidae ) . mammalian biology 70 , 381 - 383 .\nanderson , s ( 1997 ) : mammals of bolivia : taxonomy and distribution . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 231 , 652 .\nbaker , c ( 1992 ) : atilax paludinosus . mammalian species 408 , 1 - 6 .\nbal\u010diauskas , l , and bal\u010diausken\u0117 , l ( 2012 ) : mediterranean water shrew , neomys anomalus cabrera , 1907 \u2013 a new mammal species for lithuania north - western journal of zoology 8 , 367 - 369 .\nbarnett , aa ( 1999 ) : small mammals of the cajas plateau , southern ecuador : ecology and natural history . florida museum of natural history , university of florida , florida , usa .\nbarreto , gr , and garc\u00eda - rangel , s ( 2005 ) : holochilus sciureus . mammalian species 780 , 1 - 5 .\nbeisiegel , bdm , and zuercher , gl ( 2005 ) : speothos venaticus . mammalian species 783 , 1 - 6 .\nbirkenholz , de ( 1972 ) : neofiber alleni . mammalian species 15 , 1 - 4 .\nbonvicino , c , lemos , b , and weksler , m ( 2005 ) : small mammals of chapada dos veadeiros national park ( cerrado of central brazil ) : ecologic , karyologic , and taxonomic considerations . brazilian journal of biology 65 , 395 - 406 .\nbonvicino , cr , fernandes , fa , maria c . viana , teixeira , br , and d\u2019andrea , ps ( 2013 ) : scapteromys aquaticus ( rodentia : sigmodontinae ) in brazil with comments on karyotype and phylogenetics relationships . zoologica 30 , 242 - 247 .\nborobia , m , siciliano , s , lodi , l , and hoek , w ( 1991 ) : distribution of the south american dolphin sotalia fluviatilis . canadian journal of zoology 69 , 1025 - 1039 .\ncarter , sk , and rosas , fcw ( 1997 ) : biology and conservation of the giant otter pteronura brasiliensis . mammal review 27 , 1 - 26 .\nchakraborty , s , sirinivasalu , c , sirinivasalu , b , pradhan , m , and nameer , p ( 2004 ) : checklist of insectivores ( mammalia : insectivora ) of south asia . zoos print journal 19 , 1361 - 1371 .\ncheyne , sm , husson , sj , and macdonald , dw ( 2010 ) : first otter civet cynogale bennettii photographed in sabangau peatswamp forest , indonesian borneo . small carnivore conservation 42 , 25 - 26 .\nchurch\ufb01eld , s ( 2007 ) : habitat use by water shrews , the smallest of amphibious . in n . dunstone , and m . l . gorman ( eds ) : behaviour and ecology of riparian mammals , vol . 71 . cambridge university press , new york , usa , pp . 49 - 69 .\ncommittee on taxonomy ( 2014 ) : list of marine mammal species and subspecies . society for marine mammalogy . urltoken .\nd\u2019el\u00eda , g , and pardi\u00f1as , ufj ( 2004 ) : systematics of argentinean , paraguayan , and uruguayan swamp rats of the genus scapteromys ( rodentia , cricetidae , sigmodontinae ) . journal of mammalogy 85 , 897 - 910 .\nde oliveira , tg ( 2009 ) : distribution , habitat utilization and conservation of the vulnerable bush dog speothos venaticus in northern brazil . oryx 43 , 247 - 253 .\ndematteo , ke , and loiselle , ba ( 2008 ) : new data on the status and distribution of the bush dog ( speothos venaticus ) : evaluating its quality of protection and directing research efforts . biological conservation 141 , 2494 - 2505 .\ndesclaux , e , abbassi , m , marquet , j - c , chaline , j , and kolfschoten , tv ( 2000 ) : distribution and evolution of arvicola lac\u00e9p\u00e8de , 1799 ( mammalia , rodentia ) in france and liguria ( italy ) during the middle and the upper pleistocene . acta zoologica cracoviensia 43 , 107 - 125 .\ndomning , dp ( 1981 ) : distribution and status of manatees trichechus spp . near the mouth of the amazon river , brazil . biological conservation 19 , 85 - 97 .\nduff , a , and lawson , a ( 2004 ) : mammals of the world : a checklist . yale university press , london .\neisenberg , jf , and redford , kh ( 1999 ) : mammals of the neotropics : the central neotropics \u2013 ecuador , peru , bolivia , brazil . university of chicago press , chicago , illinois .\neltringham , sk ( 1993a ) : the common hippopotamus ( hippopotamus amphibius ) . in w . l . r . oliver ( ed . ) : status survey and conservation action plan : pigs , peccaries , and hippos . iucn , gland , switzerland , pp . 43 - 55 .\neltringham , sk ( 1993b ) : the pygmy hippopotamus ( hexaprotodon liberiensis ) . in w . l . r . oliver ( ed . ) : status survey and conservation action plan pigs , peccaries , and hippos . iucn , gland , switzerland , pp . 55 - 60 .\nernest , ka ( 1986 ) : nectomys squamipes . mammalian species 265 , 1 - 5 .\nhalley , dj , and rosell , f ( 2003 ) : population and distribution of european beavers ( castor fiber ) . lutra 46 , 91 - 101 .\nhershkovitz , p ( 1970 ) : supplementary notes on neotropical oryzomys dimidiatus and oryzomys hammond i ( cricetinae ) . journal of mammalogy 51 , 789 - 794 .\nhoffmann , rs , and lunde , d ( 2008 ) : order soricomorpha in a . t . smith , and y . xie ( eds ) : a guide to the mammals of china . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey pp . 297 - 326 .\nhooper , et ( 1968 ) : habitats and food of amphibious mice of the genus rheomys . journal of mammalogy 49 , 550 - 553 .\nhussain , sa , gupta , sk , and de silva , pk ( 2011 ) : biology and ecology of asian small - clawed otter aonyx cinereus ( illiger , 1815 ) : a review . iucn otter speciaist group bulletin 28 , 63 - 75 .\nhutterer , r ( 2005 ) : order soricomorpha . in d . e . wilson , and d . m . reeder ( eds ) : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 2 . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , maryland , usa . , pp . 220\u2013311 .\nhwang , yt , and larivi\u00e8re , s ( 2005 ) : lutrogale perspicillata . mammalian species 786 , 1 - 4 .\nimaizumi , y , and yoshiyuki , m ( 1989 ) : taxonomic status of the japanese otter ( carnivora , mustelidae ) , with a description of a new species . bull . natn . sci . mus . , tokyo , ser . a 15 , 177 - 188 .\niucn ( 2013 ) : the iucn red list of endangered species . international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) . urltoken .\njenkins , pd , and barnett , aa ( 1997 ) : a new species of water mouse , of the genus chibchanomys ( rodentia , muridae , sigmodontinae ) from ecuador . bulletin of the natural history museum : zoology series 63 , 123 - 128 .\njenkins , sh , and busher , pe ( 1979 ) : castor canadensis . mammalian species 120 , 1 - 8 .\nkirkpatrick , rd , and cartwright , am ( 1975 ) : list of mammals known to occur in belize . biotropica 7 , 136 - 140 .\nkolomyjec , sh ( 2010 ) : the history and relationships of northern platypus ( ornithorhynchus anatinus ) populations : a molecular approach . james cook university .\nkrystufek , b , davison , a , and griffiths , hi ( 2000 ) : evolutionary biogeography of water shrews ( neomys spp . ) in the western palaearctic region . canadian journal of zoology 78 , 1616 - 1625 .\nlarivi\u00e8re , s ( 1999a ) : lontra longicaudis . mammalian species 609 , 1 - 5 .\nlarivi\u00e8re , s ( 1999b ) : lontra provocax . mammalian species 610 , 1 - 4 .\nlarivi\u00e8re , s ( 1999c ) : mustela vison . mammalian species 608 , 1 - 9 .\nlarivi\u00e8re , s ( 2001a ) : aonyx capensis . mammalian species 671 , 1 - 6 .\nlarivi\u00e8re , s ( 2001b ) : aonyx congicus . mammalian species 650 , 1 - 3 .\nlarivi\u00e8re , s ( 2002 ) : lutra maculicollis . mammalian species 712 , 1 - 6 .\nlarivi\u00e8re , s , and walton , lr ( 1998 ) : lontra canadensis . mammalian species 587 , 1 - 8 .\nlatifiana , k , and pickles , rsa ( 2013 ) : new observation of the hairy - nosed otter ( lutra sumatrana ) in sumatra . iucn otter specialist group bulletin 30 , 119 - 123 .\nmacdonald , dw ( 2006 ) : the encyclopedia of mammals . oxford university press , oxford , uk , pp . 936 .\nmaldonado , jre , and l\u00f3pez gonz\u00e1lez , ca ( 2003 ) : recent records for the neotropical river otter ( lontra longicaudis ) in guerrero , mexico . iucn otter specialist group bulletin 20 , 65 - 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quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncopyright : \u00a9 2014 marshall et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : this work was supported by a texas a & m university international research travel assistance grant to cdm , a volkswagenstiftung grant to gd , a daad german academic student exchange scholarship ( deutscher akademischer austausch dienst , daad ) , the cologne zoo , the texas a & m university department of marine biology , the university of rostock institute of biosciences , and the university of bochum department of biology . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\ncompeting interests : the primary author , christopher d . marshall , is an academic editor with plos one . however , christopher d . marshall confirms that none of the authors have any competing interests , and christopher d . marshall confirms that his position as an academic editor with plos one does not alter the authors adherence to all the plos one policies on sharing data and materials .\nthis study was conducted at the cologne zoo ( cologne , germany ) and at the marine science center at the university of rostock ( rostock , germany ) . eight adult male harbor seals participated in this study ( see table 1 for details regarding subjects ) ; the seals were well trained and were eager to participate in these novel tasks . all work was approved by texas a & m university\u2019s institute of animal care and use committee animal use protocol # 2010\u201367 , and was conducted in accordance with the european communities council directive of 24 november 1986 ( 86 / 609 / eec ) . all work at the marine science center at the cologne zoo and at the university of rostock was approved by both institutes .\na . feeding platform in place in the enclosure . b . harbor seal feeding from feeding apparatus .\nmaximum gape and gape angle during feeding events was compared to the mean maximum biological gape and gape angle for all animals in the study . each subject was digitally photographed while opening their mouth to their widest extent at the command of a trainer . maximal biological gape and gape angle was measured from scaled digital photographs using imagej ( national institutes of health , bethesda , md , usa ) .\nas characterized in bearded seals [ 23 ] , four feeding phases were differentiated : ( i ) preparatory , ( ii ) jaw opening , ( iii ) gular depression , and ( iv ) jaw closing were observed regardless of the feeding mode . phase i began at the onset of jaw opening and ended when gape increased by greater than 0 . 2 cm field \u22121 ( 1 field = 60 hz ) and the jaws rapidly opened . phase ii began when gape increased by \u22650 . 2 cm field \u22121 and persisted until maximum gape . phase iii began when gular depression increased by \u22650 . 2 cm field \u22121 . this phase overlapped with phases ii and iv , persisted the longest in duration , and concluded when gular depression returned to its original position , which was often at the end of the feeding event . phase iv began at maximum gape and concluded when the jaws closed . the timing of maximum gular depression during suction feeding events always followed maximum gape or coincided with maximum gape . little to no gular depression was observed during biting feeding events , whether seals were feeding in - water or on - land . the mean durations for phases i\u2013iv were , 0 . 02\u00b10 . 001 s , 0 . 08\u00b10 . 04 s , 0 . 16\u00b10 . 10 s , and 0 . 11\u00b10 . 07 s , respectively .\na . frame from video during in - water suction feeding trial with overlaid spatial model stick figure . b . plot of gape ( cm ) for a single suction feeding trial . c . plot of gular depression ( cm ) for a single suction feeding trial . d . plot of maximum gape angle ( degrees ) for a single suction feeding trial . e . plot of gape angle velocity ( degrees / s ; opening and closing ) for a single suction feeding trial . f . frame from video during on - land biting feeding trial with overlaid spatial model stick figure . g . plot of gape ( cm ) for a single biting feeding trial . h . plot of maximum gape angle ( degrees ) for a single biting feeding trial . i . plot of gular depression ( cm ) for a single biting feeding trial . j . plot of gape angle velocity ( degrees / s ; opening and closing ) for a single biting feeding trial .\nprincipal component ( pc ) analysis on correlations of log - transformed data demonstrated that the first 3 pc axes characterized 78 % of the variation of harbor seal feeding kinematics ( pc1 = 49 . 986 % , pc2 = 18 . 949 % , pc3 = 9 . 072 % ; table 3 ) . high loadings on pc axis 1 identified most kinematic variables , with the exception of maximum gular depression and time to maximum gular depression . pc axis 2 identified all timing kinematic variables with the exception of time to maximum gape angle closing velocity . in addition pc axis 2 had a high loadings \\ for maximum gular depression . pc axis 3 had high loadings for only maximum gular depression and time to maximum gular depression , indicating distinct differences in suction vs . biting feeding events . pearson\u2019s correlation analysis further supported the difference between suction and biting feeding kinematics and is summarized in table 4 . as shown by the pc analysis , the pearson\u2019s correlation analysis demonstrated that most , but not all , kinematic variables were positively correlated . however , gular depression and time to gular depression were distinct in that they were negatively correlated with most kinematic variables .\nharbor seals in this study used the large lateral mystacial vibrissae for exploration of the large scale features of the feeding apparatus , but then shifted to using the small medially located mystacial vibrissae for more refined and discrete tactile exploration . in particular , these small medially located mystacial vibrissae were used to locate the center of each cylinder and to protrude into each cylinder to touch recessed food items , if possible . our observation that harbor seals use different regions of the mystacial vibrissae during feeding supports the results of more focused active touch performance studies [ 67 ] , [ 68 ] in which harbor seals used the smaller medial mystacial vibrissae for detailed size discrimination , but within a different context . this active touch exploratory pattern is likely a typical pattern of how harbor seals explore new objects in their environment . such exploratory behavior and use of different regions and size of mystacial vibrissae has also been observed in california sea lions [ 69 ] , manatees and dugongs [ 45 ] , [ 47 ] , walruses [ 70 ] , and rodents [ 71 ] \u2013 [ 73 ] and likely represents a generalized mammalian pattern of tactile exploration .\nwe would like to thank lars miersch for assistance in building the feeding apparatus , kim peter and the seal trainers at the marine science center ( rostock , germany ) for their assistance in conducting the feeding trials , as well as michael bradley and meghan walker for their assistance in pressure data analysis .\nconceived and designed the experiments : cdm . performed the experiments : cdm sw wh fh gd . analyzed the data : cdm am bk . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : cdm gd . wrote the paper : cdm .\nlauder gv ( 1985 ) functional morphology of the feeding mechanism in lower vertebrates . in : duncker hr , fleischer g , editors . functional morphology of vertebrates . new york : springer - 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( 2013 ) new insights into the diets of harbor seals (\n) in the salish sea revealed by analysis of fatty acid signatures . fish bull 111 : 13\u201326 .\n) in the inland waters of the pacific northwest . plos one : e39046 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0039046 .\n) for size difference of actively touched objects . j exp biol 198 : 2317\u20132323 .\n) : how do seals judge size ? j comp physiol a 199 : 521\u2013533 .\nbrecht m , preilowski b , merzenich mm ( 1997 ) functional architecture of the mystacial vibrissae . behav brain res 84 : 81\u201397 .\ngrant ra , sperber a , prescott tj ( 2012 ) the role of orienting in vibrissal touch sensing . frontiers behav neurosci 6 : 39 .\ncarroll am , wainwright pc , huskey sh , collar dc , turingan rg ( 2004 ) morphology predicts suction feeding performance in centrarchid fishes . j exp biol 207 : 3873\u20133881 .\ngibb ac , ferry - graham l ( 2005 ) cranial movements during suction feeding in teleost fishes : are they modified to enhance suction production ? zool 108 : 141\u2013153 .\nnauwelaerts s , wilga cd , sanford cp , lauder gv ( 2007 ) substrate passively improves suction feeding in benthic sharks . published online nov . 28 , 2006 . j roy soc interface 2 : 341\u2013345 .\namerican society of mammalogists committee on marine mammals ( 1967 ) standard measurements of seals . j mamm 48 : 459\u2013462 .\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nyann hautier , 1 , * philippe saner , 1 christopher philipson , 1 robert bagchi , 1 robert c . ong , 2 and andy hector 1\nconceived and designed the experiments : yh ps cp rb ah . performed the experiments : yh ps . analyzed the data : yh ps cp ah . wrote the paper : yh ps cp rb rco ah .\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are properly credited .\nthe janzen - connell hypothesis proposes that seed and seedling enemies play a major role in maintaining high levels of tree diversity in tropical forests . however , human disturbance may alter guilds of seed predators including their body size distribution . these changes have the potential to affect seedling survival in logged forest and may alter forest composition and diversity .\nwe manipulated seed density in plots beneath con - and heterospecific adult trees within a logged forest and excluded vertebrate predators of different body sizes using cages . we show that small and large - bodied predators differed in their effect on con - and heterospecific seedling mortality . in combination small and large - bodied predators dramatically decreased both con - and heterospecific seedling survival . in contrast , when larger - bodied predators were excluded small - bodied predators reduced conspecific seed survival leaving seeds coming from the distant tree of a different species .\nour results suggest that seed survival is affected differently by vertebrate predators according to their body size . therefore , changes in the body size structure of the seed predator community in logged forests may change patterns of seed mortality and potentially affect recruitment and community composition .\nhuman - induced changes to tropical ecosystems are manifold and a major threat to biodiversity . currently , less than half of the original forests of south - east asia remains and the levels of biodiversity are predicted to decrease by 42 % during this century [ 1 ] . in the state of sabah , malaysia , our study area , local wildlife populations are depressed by hunting and are becoming depleted or extinct [ 2 ] . understanding to what extent such changes to natural wildlife populations may affect forest dynamics with regard to seed dispersal and seedling survival is an important requirement for the management of tropical forests .\n, the differences in responses of small versus large predators to logging and hunting have the potential to affect seedling survival in fundamental ways and ultimately influence dipterocarp composition and diversity . vertebrate effects on dipterocarp seedling survival may change in relative importance with changes in the abundance of predators of different body sizes\n. we focused on the seed - to - seedling transition . we show that small - bodied predators selectively predated seeds of the maternal tree , an effect that was cancelled out when large - bodied predators had access to the seeds .\nseeds of each pair of trees ( 5 pairs ) were placed between 1 and 5 m around each tree at high density ( 24 seeds , 12 seeds from the maternal tree ( conspecific ) and 12 seeds from a distant tree of a different species ( heterospecific ) and at low density ( 2 seeds , 1 con - and 1 hetero - specific ) . the experimental design consists in three exclosure treatments ( 1\u00d71 m large \u00d70 . 5 m tall ) : ( 1 ) none , fenced exclosure cage excluding both large and small vertebrate predators , ( 2 ) small , fenced exclosure cage excluding only large vertebrate predators and ( 3 ) all , open control allowing both small and large vertebrate predators ."]}
{"id": 335, "summary": [{"text": "the brahminy kite ( haliastur indus ) , also known as the red-backed sea-eagle in australia , is a medium-sized bird of prey in the family accipitridae , which also includes many other diurnal raptors , such as eagles , buzzards , and harriers .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they are found in the indian subcontinent , southeast asia , and australia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "they are found mainly on the coast and in inland wetlands where they feed on dead fish and other prey .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "adults have a reddish-brown plumage and a contrasting white head and breast which makes them easy to distinguish from other birds of prey . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "brahminy kite", "paragraphs": ["in malaysia , the brahminy kite is the iban god of war , singalang burung .\nchestnut - white kite , red - backed kite , rufous eagle , rufous - backed kite , white and red eagle - kite , white - headed fish eagle , white - headed kite , white - headed sea - eagle . .\nother names : chestnut - white kite , red - backed kite , rufous eagle , rufous - backed kite , white and red eagle - kite , white - headed fish eagle , white - headed kite , white - headed sea - eagle .\n\u201can adult brahminy kite ( haliastur indus ) feeding on a fish from the nearby fish farms . . . .\nhabitat : brahminy kite lives mainly in coastal regions , estuaries , mangroves , wetlands , and even in urban areas .\nm . eaton spotted a brahminy kite , race\ngirrenera\n, at caloundra , qld , in august 2017 .\nthe brahminy kite species is distributed in sri lanka , nepal , india , pakistan , bangladesh , southeast asia and australia .\nd . wilczynska reports spotting a brahminy kite , race\ngirrenera\n, near cairns , qld , in march 2015 .\nin his indonesian name \u2013 elang bondol \u2013 brahminy kite represents the official mascot of jakarta , the capital city of indonesia .\nthe brahminy kite species is a medium sized bird . the female kite is slightly larger than the male . the male measures 45 to 50 cm in length and weighs 400 to 650 grams .\nthe brahminy kite occupies a wide range of habitats including estuaries , mangroves , beaches , coral reefs , rivers and rice paddies .\nthe brahminy kite species are resident birds in their ranges . seasonal local movements may be made in search of food and water .\nnear - frontal view of a brahminy kite ( photo courtesy of m . eaton ) [ caloundra , qld , august 2017 ]\nnear - lateral view of a brahminy kite ( photo courtesy of p . brown ) [ darwin , nt , april 2018 ]\nthe brahminy kite is a bird of the coast , particularly mangrove swamps and estuaries . it is sometimes seen over forests and along rivers .\nthe brahminy kite species inhabits coastal plains , estuaries , rivers , lakes , swamps , marshes , reservoirs , rice fields and urban areas .\nrecommended citation : global raptor information network . 2018 . species account : brahminy kite haliastur indus . downloaded from urltoken on 9 jul . 2018\nthis entry was posted in residents of borneo and tagged birds of borneo , brahminy kite , iban myth , singalang burong . bookmark the permalink .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - brahminy kite ( haliastur indus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - brahminy kite ( haliastur indus )\ntitle =\narkive species - brahminy kite ( haliastur indus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nin indonesia , they are known as elang bondol . the brahminy kite is the official mascot of the capital and largest city of indonesia - jakarta .\nthe iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) has categorized and evaluated these brahminy kite species and has listed them as\nleast concern\n.\nnear - frontal view of a brahminy kite ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ maxwell creek , melville island , nt , november 2016 ]\nin the 1980s . but , in the last 20 years , there have been very few brahminy kite sightings in the city , \u201d he said .\na snail kite hunting for apple snails along the igua\u00e7u river in south america .\nnear - frontal view of a juvenile brahminy kite ( photo courtesy of b . hensen ) [ casuarina coastal reserve , darwin , nt , in july 2012 ]\non an overcast day the underwings of a brahminy kite can appear to be darker ( photo courtesy of p . brown ) [ darwin , nt , january 2018 ]\nthe adult brahminy kite is unmistakable , though juveniles may be confused with the whistling kite ( longer tail and distinctive underwing pattern ) or light little eagle . first - year juveniles may also be mistaken for ospreys , but are dark underneath rather than white .\nflight : brahminy kite has long , broad , rounded wings . it performs slow , deep flapping wing beats . during the breeding season , it performs acrobatic flight displays .\nthe brahminy kite is a distinctive - looking bird with its rich chestnut brown body and wings , and white head and breast . it calls with a high - pitched mew .\nknown as garudan in tamil , the brahminy kite is said to represent the vahana of lord vishnu . the bird is very similar to the black kite and may be distinguished by its reddish - brown plumage and a white patch on the head and breast , shorter wings and rounded tails .\nbrahminy kites build untidy nests using sticks , grass , seaweed , flotsam and other rubbish .\nimmature brahminy kites have brown plumages with darker upperparts , and a lighter head and underparts .\n, issued between 1976 and 1984 , featured birds . the second - highest denomination note in this series \u2013 the s $ 1 , 000 note \u2013 featured a perched brahminy kite on the front .\nbrahminy kite is an eagle that can be found across south east asia to australia . it mainly stays in coastal areas , especially mangroves forests although sometimes it can be spotted inland and on big rivers .\nthe brahminy kite is widespread across northern australia , mainly along the coastline from western australia to northern new south wales , and is more common in the north of its range . it is widespread throughout tropical asia .\nadult brahminy kite , haliastur indus , also known ( for obvious reasons ) as the red - backed sea - eagle , photographed at pulau langkawi , langkawi permata kedah ( the jewel of kedah ) , malaysia .\nthe brahminy kite ( haliastur indus ; subfamily milvinae ) ranges from india to northeastern australia . it is red - brown except for white foreparts . it eats fish and garbage . the buzzard kite ( hamirostra melanosternon ; subfamily milvinae ) of australia is a large black - breasted bird ; it lives mainly on rabbits and lizards . \u2026\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto brahminy kite utters mewing calls \u201ckeeyew\u201d usually while soaring . however , it is usually silent . in addition to mewing notes , it gives some bleating \u201cpee - ah - ah - ah\u201d .\nthe global brahminy kite population is estimated to be about 100 , 000 individual birds . these birds have very wide range and considered least vulnerable . habitat loss and use of agricultural pesticides are the main threats in their conservation .\nthe asian black kite , which are darker , have longer wings and the tail is forked , rather than rounded .\njohnny wee\u2019s images of a black - shouldered kite ( elanus caeruleus ) were photographed at singapore\u2019s lorong halus . . .\nmilvinae , have rather narrow beaks , the upper mandible being wavy - edged . they are typified by the red kite (\nlateral view of a brahminy kite with its outer eye - lid open , left , and the eye - lid closed , right ( photos courtesy of p . brown ) [ near dripstone cliffs , darwin , nt , december 2017 ]\nthese brahminy kite species feed mainly on dead fish , crabs and carrion . they also catch and feed on live preys such as small mammals , birds , reptiles , amphibians and fish . they are known to snatch feed from other birds .\nmale and female brahminy kites are very similar in appearance , although the female is normally slightly larger than the male .\nbrahminy kite has keen view and can see its prey from a distance . it is able to lift live fish from the water , but most of time , it scavenges on beaches or takes debris from the water surface seizing them with its talons . brahminy kite frequents the harbours and fish - farms where it feeds close to humans . outside the feeding periods , it rests on branches often near water . it forages as over water or over land , and soars at about 20 to 50 metres above the surface or the ground . it flushes shorebirds on mudflats into flight and pursues the weakest . it is attracted by fires in order to catch the escaped animals . brahminy kite is mostly resident in asia and australia , and performs only local movements for food .\n\u201c\u2026right in the middle , directly facing the middle door , sat the head of the longhouse , singalang burong , the coordinator of the whole world and its living beings , who took the form of a brahminy kite whenever he came down to the land .\nbrahminy kites are secure in australia . being scavengers , they benefit from waste at tips , on roadsides and in harbours .\nall raptors are carnivores . brahminy kites feed on small fish and occasionally other small animals . they also scavenge on carrion .\n\u201cresident brahminy kites in the city have slowly increased over the years and i have seen them perched on high rise buildings .\nthe brahminy kite typically hunts for fish above water . however , it is opportunistic and will take small birds , amphibians , carrion and even flying termites . the bird is also kleptoparasitic , in that it will snatch food from other raptors . it often eats while in flight .\ndiet : brahminy kite feeds on wide variety of small preys and carrion . it hunts for mammals , birds , reptiles , aquatic animals taken with the talons , crustaceans , amphibians , fish\u2026 it hawks flying insects and performs piracy from fishing birds . they gather around large carcasses where they squeal .\nthey can also be found scavenging at waste at tips and roadsides , which in the long term may cause detrimental effects on the brahminy\u2019s health .\nrange : brahminy kite lives in india , pakistan , bangladesh and southeast asia , and also in new south wales in australia where it is widespread and resident on coastal regions and along rivers . in mainland asia , this species breeds at about 2400 metres of elevation , and it occurs at 2300 metres in new guinea .\nreproduction : breeding season occurs in the dry season in tropics , and late winter and spring in subtropical range . brahminy kite usually nests in mangroves , in tall emergent tree . it nests in swampy areas in order to be secure from terrestrial predators . brahminy kite is solitary nester . the nest is a compact platform made with sticks and twigs , at about 5 to 6 metres above water , but usually between 2 and 30 metres high . the cup is about 20 cm depth , and is lined with leaves and soft materials and also human refuse . the cup may also include dried mud . the nest is reused during several years .\nthe breeding season of these kite species is from december to april in asia . they build nest with sticks and twigs on trees . the nest contains a clutch of two eggs . both the partners take part in building nest . the female kite appears to do much of incubating . both the parents take part in rearing the chicks .\nin sarawak , malaysia , for the ibans of the upper rajang \u2013 one of the indigenous groups in sarawak \u2013 brahminy kite is the form singalang burong takes every time he comes down to the land . singalang burong is the ultimate deity of incomparable qualities and superior abilities . he is also known as the god of war .\nbrahminy kite has four subspecies : h . i . indus ; h . i . intermedius ; h . i . girrenera ; h . i . flavirostris . they differ by some regional variation in plumage and bill colour . if australasian races have pure white head and breast , the birds living in salomon islands have yellow bill .\nbougainville island , papua new guinea , has a fable about brahminy kite . it tells a story how a mother left her baby under a banana tree while she was busy gardening . the baby floated into the sky , crying and transformed into kaa\u2019nang ( the local name for the bird ) , its necklace becoming the bird\u2019s feathers .\nbrahminy kites are coastal birds and can normally be found along shore lines , estuaries and in mangrove swamps . they can sometimes be seen over forests and along rivers .\nthe nest of the brahminy kite is built in living trees near water , often mangrove trees . the nest is large , made from sticks , seaweed or driftwood and lined with a variety of materials such as lichens , bones , seaweed and even paper . both parents incubate the eggs and the young are fed bill to bill with small pieces of food .\nbrahminy kites have weak feet so , although they have long , sharp curved claws , they cannot take large prey . however they are expert at snatching prey in flight .\nthe brahminy kite feeds on carrion ( dead animals ) , insects and fish . it swoops low over water , the ground or tree tops and snatches live prey or carrion from the surface . it also steals from fish - hunting birds , snatching prey in flight . it harries or bothers other birds such as gulls , whistling kites , osprey or australian white ibis .\nthe brahminy kite is a medium - sized raptor or bird of prey . 1 it is one of the commonest raptors in singapore and is frequently seen in flight over urban areas and suitable sites such as jurong lake . large groups also roost on some offshore islands , such as coney island . 2 while it commonly hunts fish , it will also feed on carrion .\nfound in coastal areas of northern and eastern australia , the brahminy kite ( haliastur indus ) can be seen performing aerial acrobatics during their mating displays . as a type of raptor ( bird of prey ) , they feed on a variety of insects , fish and other small animals . they are expert at stealing from other fish - hunting birds by snatching prey in flight .\nsanthanaraman said he sighted the bird last year in the same environs with nesting materials . the bird is known to nest in huge trees like mango , tamarind , pipal and neem , but predominantly prefers palmyra and coconut trees . it is necessary to ensure the survival of big trees in the city for raptors like the brahminy kite to return here more often , he added .\nbrahminy kites , race\ngirrenera\n, were first seen by us in july 2009 , along the rocky outcrops in various areas of the qld coastline . they were always seen hunting in rock pools from low perches . j . greaves reports seeing brahminy kites , race\ngirrenera\n, at the spit , gold coast , qld , in october 2015 .\nthe female kite weighs 430 to 700 grams . the wingspan is 110 to 125 cm . the adult has chestnut back , wings and belly . the head and breast have a contrasting white plumage .\nthe brahminy kite is generally common throughout its extensive range ( 5 ) and consequently is classified as least concern on the iucn red list ( 1 ) ( 6 ) . although this species seems to co - exist well with humans , some populations , particularly in south - east asia , have been negatively affected by hunting , habitat loss , and pesticide use ( 3 ) .\nchennai : advocate m santhanaraman and conservationist t murugavel stared in disbelief when they spotted a brahminy kite ( haliastur indus ) with twigs in its beak flying near the tvs showroom on anna salai on friday . two days later , they returned there to confirm that their eyes hadn\u2019t been playing tricks on them . it was no illusion - the bird was there at the same spot .\n\u201cmy wife and i were out cycling in the city when we spotted a pair of brahminy kites ( haliastur indus intermedius ) circling a tall building ( about 7 . 40am ) .\njuvenile brahminy kites are easy to confuse with many other birds of prey , so record only on adults which are easier to identify . ospreys , whistling kites and black - breasted kites can all look similar when on the wing ; however , brahminy kites can be distinguished by their dark \u2018fingered\u2019 wingtips , chestnut brown wings and body that is half white and half brown .\nbrahminy kites sometimes sit perched prominently on rocks on headlands or on rockfaces . their characteristic colour pattern of light - brown body with white head makes them easy to identify even over long distances .\nthis kite has a sharply contrasting plumage ; with a mostly bright chestnut body , except for white head , neck , throat , upper belly and flanks ; a white - tipped tail and black outer flight feathers .\nj . greaves reports spotting brahminy kites , race\ngirrenera\n, at alyangula , groote eylandt , nt , in september 2014 , and at maxwell creek , melville island , nt , in november 2016 .\nbrahminy kites are known to be opportunistic scavengers that will eat just about anything , including food waste ( from boats and rubbish dumps ) ; carrion ( dead animals ) , such as dead fish ; and crabs .\nadult brahminy kites have an unmistakable white head and chest with a chestnut brown coloured body . they have dark coloured eyes and a strongly hooked , yellow beak . the tail is relatively short and can have white tips .\nprotection / threats / status : brahminy kite is abundant and widespread in tropical parts of the range , benefiting from human activities . in australia , the ddt use and the disturbances threaten the species . in some parts of the range , such as in java and thailand , the species suffered decline due to pesticides , hunting and collection of nestlings at nest for sale , and loss of breeding habitat . however , the populations are not globally threatened at this moment .\nthe brahminy kite is typically found on tropical and subtropical coasts , where it occupies a wide range of habitats including estuaries , mangroves , beaches , coral reefs , dunes , saltmarshes , cliffs and village harbours . however , in india and in parts of south - east asia , it also occurs inland , by rivers , lakes , swamps , rice paddies and other wetlands , where it can be found at altitudes of up to 3 , 000 metres ( 3 ) .\ndebus , s . , marks , j . s . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . brahminy kite ( haliastur indus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\naccording to field guides brahminy kites hunt mostly in coastal mudflats and estuarine mangrove swamps , but we have also seen them on coastal rockfaces of small headlands , hunting in rock pools . they are also found on offshore islands .\n) \u2014found over much of the old world . both are large ( to about 55 cm [ 22 inches ] ) , reddish birds ( the black kite darker ) , lightly streaked on the head , with long , angled wings and notched tail . the\nthe brahminy kite is one of the medium - sized raptors ( birds of prey ) , with a white head and breast . the rest of its body is a striking chestnut brown . the very tip of its tail is white . the wings are broad , with dark ' fingered ' wing tips and the tail is short . the legs are short and not feathered , the eye is dark and the lemon yellow coloured bill is strongly hooked . it sails on level wings along shorelines and mudflats .\nthe brahminy kites ( haliastur indus ) are medium - sized raptors that are easily recognized by the white head and chest . they are also known as red - backed kites , white - and - red eagle kites or white - headed kites .\nbrahminy kites are predator / scavengers and commonly eat dead animals ( carrion ) and fish washed up on beaches or steal prey from other birds . they are an important predator / scavenger in coastal areas and their presence can indicate a healthy ecosystem .\nunlike black kites , which are scavenging birds , brahminy kites feed on fish and even small water birds from the marshlands and freshwater sources . the pollution of water bodies and marshlands has driven the birds to look for alternative sites , say naturalists .\nthe brahminy kite is normally seen alone , in pairs or occasionally in small family groups , but rarely in the large flocks formed by some kite species ( 5 ) . the timing of the breeding season differs across its range , with populations on the equator being most variable ( 3 ) . breeding pairs build an untidy nest from 2 to 30 metres above the ground usually in a prominent fork of a tall tree . the nests , which are made from sticks , grass , seaweed , flotsam and other rubbish , are reused in successive years ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the female lays one to three eggs , which are incubated for 28 to 35 days before hatching . the young fledge after 40 to 56 days but remain dependant on the parents for a further two months ( 3 ) .\n. . . the brahminy kite is categorized as least concern because of its large range and large population size ( birdlife international , 2012 ) . the few studies that exist on this species are mostly from india and australia and focus on breeding biology and behaviour ( balachandran and sakthivel , 1992 ; indrayanto et al . , 2011 ; jayabalan , 1995 ; lutter et al . , 2006 ; sivakumar and jayabalan , 2004 ) . however , despite its vast range and large global population , its ecology is still largely unknown . . . .\n. . . the brahminy kite , haliastur indus , occupies much of the region , usually near the coast , rivers or wetlands . this species is mostly a scavenger , but also takes a variety of small vertebrates ( ali & ripley 1978 ; roberts , 1991 ; ferguson - lees & christie , 2001 ; sivakumar & jayabalan , 2004 ) . two of the oriental vultures , the egyptian vulture , neophron percnopterus , and the lammergeier , gypaetus barbatus , belong to a monophyletic group ( gypaetinae ) separate from the other vultures . . . .\nan opportunistic scavenger , the brahminy kite has a varied diet that differs considerably from one population to another ( 3 ) . although it often feeds on offal and food waste from boats and rubbish tips , as well as other forms of carrion , it also hunts for live food including crabs , crustaceans , amphibians , small reptiles , fish , insects , small mammals and birds . usually it forages by soaring low above the ground or over water , but will also hunt from a waterside perch and will occasionally forage on the ground ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .\nthis large kite has a striking plumage of rufous - brown and white as an adult . the head , neck to mantle , and throat to upper belly and flanks are all white . in the nominate subspecies , indus , that is seen in the indomalayan region , the white has finely darkish streaks ( top ) .\nbehaviour : brahminy kite feeds on wide variety of food items and carrion . it feeds on mammals , birds , reptiles , amphibians , fish , arthropods , crustaceans , road - kill vertebrates , larges carcasses and offal . it may kill domestic poultry . it soars high in the air , watching for preys . it also hunts from exposed perch , and may also search on the ground . when a prey is detected , it seizes it by glide or dive , performing short chase . it hawks flying insects , snatches preys from canopy and water surface . it may perform piracy from fishing birds such as gulls and ospreys .\nthe incubation period of brahminy kite haliastur indus was 26 to 28 and nestling period was from 43 - 45 days . fresh water paddy field crabs paratelphusa sp . and fresh water fishes made 30 % in the prey items delivered to the nest . three peak periods , 0800 - 090oh , 1000 - 1200h and 1500 - 1700h were observed within a day for the delivery of prey . decline of 0 . 58 prey item / hour ( h ) / nest during the first five weeks of nestling period to 0 . 45 prey item / h / nest during sixth and seventh weeks ( pearson ' s correlation coefficient r2 = 0 . 448 ; y = 0 . 201 ) was noticed .\nbrahminy kites , race\ngirrenera\n, were also seen by us as far south as the urunga board walk , urunga heads , nsw , in january 2011 . in june 2011 seen by us further south along the nsw coast , first near old bar , nsw , then as far south as wybung head in munmorah sca .\nbrahminy kites measure about 18 - 20 inches ( 45 - 51 cm ) in length , and have a wingspan of 3 . 6 - 4 . 1 feet ( 109 - 124 cm ) . they weigh between 11 . 3 - 24 oz ( 320 - 670 g ) . the females tend to be slightly larger than the males .\nin march 2007 , mark chua came across a nesting pair of brahminy kites ( haliastur indus ) ( above ) raising two large chicks in a nest lodged high up in the fork of a tall casuarina tree ( casuarina equisetifolia ) . he managed to document the chicks in the nest , their fledging as well as many dramatic flight shots .\nbrahminy kites are medium - sized birds of prey with a white front and a brown back . head , neck and breast are white , whilte belly , wings and tail are brown . the eyes are black , the bill yellow and the feet pink with black talons . the underwing pattern shows dark - to mid - brown underwing coverts and light - brown flight feathers , of which the primaries have black tips . these black tips are also visible on the otherwise entirely brown upperwings . the yellowish - grey bill has a conspicuously long upper mandible . juvenile and immature brahminy kites are all mottled brown , with a back that is darker brown than the front . their bill is grey .\nimportant references : coates , b . j . 1985 . the birds of papua new guinea , including the bismarck archipelago and bougainville . vol . i . non - passerines . dove publications , alderley , queensland , australia . debus , s . j . s . 1994 . brahminy kite . p . 119 in del hoyo , j . , a . elliott , and j . sargatal ( eds . ) , handbook of birds of the world . vol . 2 . new world vultures to guineafowl . lynx edicions , barcelona , spain . debus , s . 1998 . the birds of prey of australia : a field guide . oxford university press , melbourne . ferguson - lees , j . , and d . a . christie .\ndescription : brahminy kite has bright chestnut plumage except on head , neck and breast which are white , slightly streaked greyish - white . the broad wings are chestnut with blackish tips . the tail is rather short , tipped buffy - white . in flight , it appears rounded . on the underparts , chin , throat , breast and upper belly are white , with fine pale grey streaks . lower belly , vent and undertail coverts are chestnut . undertail feathers are chestnut , edged buffy - white . on the underwing , coverts are chestnut whereas flights feathers are buff - white . wings are tipped black on primaries . the slender , very hooked bill is pale yellow to horn - coloured . eyes are dark brown . legs and talons are pale yellow .\n. brahminy kites have a wide - ranging distribution , from the border of india with pakistan in the west via the entire subcontinent ( including inland areas ) , bangladesh , sri lanka , via most of south - east asia ( including inland areas of cambodia and thailand ) , to basically all tropical south - east asian / pacific islands and on to australia .\nwells , d . r . ( 1999 ) . the birds of the thai - malay peninsula ( vol . 1 ) . san diego , ca : academic press , p . 136 . ( call no . : rsing 598 . 0959 wel ) ; strange , m . ( 1990 , october 7 ) . the gregarious kite that swoops and kills . the straits times , p . 7 . retrieved from newspapersg . 6 .\n, any of numerous birds of prey belonging to one of three subfamilies ( milvinae , elaninae , perninae ) of the family accipitridae . typically , a kite is lightly built , with a small head , partly bare face , short beak , and long narrow wings and tail . kites occur worldwide in warm regions . some kites live on insects ; others are primarily scavengers but also eat rodents and reptiles ; and a few are strictly snaileaters . kites are buoyant in flight , slowly flapping and gliding with wings angled back . several species are as graceful as terns .\nbrahminy pairs build untidy , compact nests using twigs , sticks , grass , seaweed , flotsam and other materials found in their habitat . the nest , once completed , is usually about 24 - 35 inches ( 60 - 90 cm ) wide and 6 - 12 inches ( 15 - 30 cm ) deep . the nest is typically situated close to water , 7 up to 99 feet ( ~ 2 - 30 meters ) above the ground - often in a prominent fork of a tall tree ; however , on rare occasions , they have nested on the ground under trees . the nests may be refurbished and reused over several seasons .\nbulgarian : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . cebuano : banog . . . chinese : ? ? , ? ? , ? ? . . . czech : lun\u00e1k brahm\u00ednsk\u00fd , lu ? \u00e1k brahm\u00ednsk\u00fd . . . danish : brahminglente . . . dutch : brahmaanse wouw . . . estonian : valgepea - purihaugas . . . finnish : bramiinihaukka . . . french : milan \u00e0 t\u00eate blanche , milan sacr\u00e9 . . . german : brahminenweih . . . indonesian : boalemba , bun\u00e9a , elang bondol , ulung - ulung . . . italian : nibbio bramino , nibbio di brahama . . . japanese : shirogashiratobi . . . malayalam : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . mamasa : teng - nge . . . malay : helang ekor cabang , helang merah . . . maltese : astun rasu bajda . . . norwegian : brahminy kite , braminglente . . . polish : kania braminska , kania brami ? ska . . . russian : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . slovak : haja brahmansk\u00e1 , orliak brahm\u00e1nsk\u00fd . . . spanish : milano brahm\u00e1n , milano bram\u00e1nico . . . swedish : brahminglada , braminglada . . . thai : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . vietnamese : di ? u l ? a\nhabitat and habits : in australia , it occurs in coastal areas , estuaries , wetlands , rivers , swamps , and clearings , often hunting over forest canopy ( debus 1998 ) . coates ( 1985 ) described the preferred habitat in new guinea as the vicinity of water , including coastal areas , swamps , and rivers , and forest clearings , forest edges , gardens , and savanna . patrols coastlines , roads , and rivers ( coates and bishop 1997 ) . when it is not soaring , it spends its time on exposed perches in trees . usually occurs singly or in pairs , but also in small family groups . it does not usually form large flocks like some kite species ( olsen 1995 ) , although it sometimes roosts communally , rarely in groups reaching three figures ( wells 1999 ) . more . . . .\nmuhammad naeem awan , hassan ali & david c . lee an annotated checklist of birds and conservation issues in salkhala game reserve , an isolated important bird area in azad kashmir , pakistan\nsimon p . mahood & jonathan c . eames a review of the status of collared laughingthrush garrulax yersini and grey - crowned crocias crocias langbianis\nsayam u . chowdhury , alexander c . lees & paul m . thompson status and distribution of the endangered baer\u2019s pochard aythya baeri in bangladesh\njeremy p . bird , berry mulligan , rours vann , philip d . round & james j . gilroy habitat associations of the manchurian reed warbler acrocephalus tangorum wintering on the tonle sap floodplain and an evaluation of its conservation status\ncolin r . trainor , philippe verbelen & ron e . johnstone the avifauna of alor and pantar , lesser sundas , indonesia\nh . l . wright , n . j . collar , i . r . lake , bou vorsak & p . m . dolman foraging ecology of sympatric white - shouldered ibis pseudibis davisoni and giant ibis thaumatibis gigantea in northern cambodia\nle manh hung , mark b . robbins , nathan h . rice & erick a . garc\u00eda - trejo survey of the avifauna at muong nhe nature reserve , dien bien province , vietnam\nphilip d . round , john m . hobday , rungsrit kanjanavanit & james s . steward a nesting pair of gecinulus woodpeckers in a likely zone of intergradation between pale - headed woodpecker g . grantia and bamboo woodpecker g . viridis\npaul j . leader & geoff j . carey zappey\u2019s flycatcher cyanoptila cumatilis , a forgotten chinese breeding endemic\nalain hennache , simon p . mahood , jonathan c . eames & ettore randi lophura hatinhensis is an invalid taxon\nsimon p . mahood , david p . edwards & felicity a . edwards bar - winged wren babbler spelaeornis troglodytoides : a first record for vietnam , with speculation for 17 further avifaunal additions\nfrank e . rheindt & james a . eaton notes on the life - history and taxonomy of muscicapa dauurica umbrosa , an overlooked bornean canopy bird\ndavid j . kelly & nicola m . marples annual survival rate and mean life - span of lemon - bellied white - eyes zosterops chloris flavissimus on kaledupa island , wakatobi , south - east sulawesi , indonesia\nnorimasa sugita , toshitaka n . suzuki , craig a . barnett & keisuke ueda an intraspecific adult killing in female japanese great tits parus major minor\njames w . burnham & eric m . wood woolly - necked stork ciconia episcopus at napahai wetland , yunnan , china\nmohammad irham , e . meijaard & s . ( bas ) van balen new information on the distribution of white - fronted microhierax latifrons and black - thighed falconets m . fringillarius in kalimantan , indonesia\nsimon p . mahood & james a . eaton the vocalisations of red - collared woodpecker picus rabieri\njames a . fitzsimons , erik meijaard , iwan hunowu , dewi prawiradilaga , janelle l . thomas & johny s . tasirin diet of the speckled boobook ninox punctulata in north sulawesi , indonesia\noriental bird club , uk registered charity 297242 , is for people around the world who are interested in birds of the oriental region and their conservation .\nour website uses cookies to improve your experience . please visit our page about cookies for more information about cookies and how we use them .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nchristidis , l . and boles , w . e . 2008 . systematics and taxonomy of australian birds . csiro publishing , collingwood , australia .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population is estimated to number > c . 100 , 000 individuals ( ferguson - lees\n. 2001 ) , while the population in china has been estimated at < c . 100 breeding pairs ( brazil 2009 ) .\nthe population is declining , especially in south - east asia , owing to loss of habitat , persecution , over - use of pesticides and , possibly , increased human hygiene resulting in reduction of available scraps ( ferguson - lees and christie 2001 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nusually silent . drawn - out descending wail , like a bleating lamb : ' pee - ah - ah - ah ' ; meowing notes .\nmedium to large ( 45 cm to 60 cm e . g . raven )\nhandbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds , volume 2 ( raptors to lapwings ) .\noccurs on the indian subcontinent , through southern china and south - east asia , south to northern australia ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . haliastur indus indus is found in pakistan , india and sri lanka through southeast asia to southern china ; h . i . intermedius occurs on the malay peninsula , and in the greater and lesser sundas , sulawesi , the philippines , and the sula islands ; h . i . girrenera occupies the moluccas , new guinea , the bismarck archipelago , and australia ; and h . i . flavirostris is restricted to the solomon islands ( 5 ) .\nclassified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 2 ) .\nenvironment agency - abu dhabi is a principal sponsor of arkive . ead is working to protect and conserve the environment as well as promoting sustainable development in the emirate of abu dhabi .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\namphibians cold - blooded vertebrates of the class amphibia , such as frogs or salamanders , which characteristically hatch as aquatic larvae with gills . the larvae then transform into adults with air - breathing lungs . coverts small feathers concealing the bases of larger flight feathers , usually on the wings or tail . crustaceans diverse group of arthropods ( a phylum of animals with jointed limbs and a hard chitinous exoskeleton ) characterised by the possession of two pairs of antennae , one pair of mandibles ( parts of the mouthparts used for handling and processing food ) and two pairs of maxillae ( appendages used in eating , which are located behind the mandibles ) . includes crabs , lobsters , shrimps , slaters , woodlice and barnacles . incubated the act of keeping eggs warm so that development is possible . subspecies a population usually restricted to a geographical area that differs from other populations of the same species , but not to the extent of being classified as a separate species .\nferguson - lees , j . and christie , d . a . ( 2001 ) raptors of the world . christopher helm , london .\nwhistler , h . ( 1963 ) popular handbook of indian birds . oliver and boyd , edinburgh .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is featured in jewels of the uae , which showcases biodiversity found in the united arab emirates in association with the environment agency \u2013 abu dhabi .\nthis species is found in barrow island . visit our barrow island topic page to find out more .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nraces girrenera and flavirostris may intergrade in bismarck archipelago # r . four subspecies recognized .\n( boddaert , 1783 ) \u2013 pakistan , india and sri lanka through se asia to s china .\nblyth , 1865 \u2013 malay peninsula , philippines , greater and lesser sundas , sulawesi and related small islands , and sula is .\n( vieillot , 1822 ) \u2013 moluccas , new guinea , bismarck archipelago and n & e australia .\ncondon & amadon , 1954 \u2013 feni is and nearby green is ( off se new ireland ) , and solomon is .\n44\u201352 cm ; male 409\u2013650 g , female 434\u2013700 g ; wingspan 110\u2013125 cm . perched adult unmistakable , with chestnut back , wings and belly and white head , neck . . .\nmostly silent outside nesting season . commonest call among pair members a plaintive , descending mew . . .\ncoasts , estuaries , rivers , lakes , swamps , marshes , reservoirs , rice fields and urban areas ; in . . .\nvariety of small animals and carrion , including mammals , birds , reptiles , amphibians , fish , arthropods , crustaceans , shellfish , cuttlefish . . .\ndry season in tropics , late winter and spring in subtropics . solitary . platform of sticks and other flotsam 40\u201360 cm wide , up to 20 . . .\ngenerally sedentary , although some breeders in s china may winter in se asia . mostly resident in . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . common to abundant and widespread in some tropical areas , where often benefits from human activity . clear - cutting of . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nsubsumed within milvus by some authors , but differs in plumage , voice and behaviour .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : haliastur indus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nwas the recording modified significantly ? no . habitat : wetland behavior : call made while foraging .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\nimage : marie louise ng , 9 january 2011 [ velociraptorize ] . nikon d3s , 70 - 200mm / f2 . 8\nyou are invited to review all of the daily mystery birds by going to their dedicated graphic index page .\nif you have bird images , video or mp3 files that you ' d like to share with a large and ( mostly ) appreciative audience , feel free to email them to me for consideration .\n\u00a9 2018 guardian news and media limited or its affiliated companies . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfemale is similar to male , but she is larger and heavier . juvenile resembles adults , but it has browner plumage with whitish edges . the white parts are rather buffy - white streaked brown . the bill is blackish . on the underparts , secondary flight feathers and undertail feathers are greyish - brown . primary flight feathers are whitish .\nfemale lays 1 or 2 white eggs with some reddish - brown markings . incubation lasts about 28 to 35 days , by female . chicks are covered with cream to rufous down . they fledge about 44 to 56 days after hatching , according to the region . they reach their sexual maturity at 2 years of age . both parents share the nesting duties . breeding pairs are sedentary .\nthe red junglefowl ( gallus gallus ) is one of four species in the genus gallus . it is the wild ancestor of the domestic . . .\nthe black - naped tern ( sterna sumatrana ) is a slender white bird found in rocky islets near the singapore coast . it was . . .\nthe blue - throated bee - eater ( merops viridis ) is a bird with blue , green and brown plumage . it is one of two bee - eater . . .\nthe olive - backed sunbird ( cinnyris jugularis ) is one of singapore\u2019s resident birds . it is very common and is encountered . . .\nthe red - whiskered bulbul ( pycnonotus jocosus ) is recognisable by its black upright crest and red patches on its cheeks . . .\nthe white - rumped shama ( copsychus malabaricus ) is a slender , predominantly black bird that has become one of the most . . .\nthe white - collared kingfisher ( todirhamphus chloris ) is one of eight documented species of kingfishers in singapore . . . .\nthe white - bellied sea eagle ( haliaeetus leucogaster ) is reputed to be singapore\u2019s largest common raptor or bird of prey , . . .\nthe black - naped oriole ( oriolus chinensis ) is a bird from the oriole family . it has yellow - and - black plumage and is . . .\nintroduced into singapore in the early 19th century , the angsana tree ( pterocarpus indicus ) belongs to the family fabaceae / leguminosae . . .\nciku ( manilkara zapota ) , a tropical fruit tree also known as sapodilla , belongs to the family sapotaceae . various species . . .\nflame of the forest ( scientific name delonix regia ) , introduced into singapore during the first half of the 19th century , . . .\nbats belong to an order of mammals known as chiroptera , a term that comes from the greek words cheiro ( \u201chand\u201d ) and ptera . . .\nmousedeer form the tragulidae family of small , even - toed ungulates in the mammalia order artiodactyla . other artiodactyl . . .\nfor nesting , the bird typically uses emergent trees in mangroves . it also nests in casuarina trees . nests are between 60 and 90 cm wide and lined with dried mud . building and repair of nests occur from late october to march . eggs are a dull chalky white , and are laid either between december and march , or in mid - june . usually two chicks are raised in the months from january to mid - august , but mostly in the earlier part of the season .\nand mudflats . it can also be found inland where there are open spaces like paddy land and old dredge mines . found throughout southeast asia , its range extends from india in the east to new guinea , the bismarck islands and australia in the west .\nmalay names : helang kembara merah ( \u201cblood - coloured eagle\u201d ) , 12 lang kawi ( \u201creddish - brown eagle\u201d ) . 13\nwells , d . r . ( 1999 ) . the birds of the thai - malay peninsula ( vol . 1 ) . san diego , ca : academic press , p . 134 . ( call no . : rsing 598 . 0959 wel ) 2 .\nlim , k . s . , & chew , j . ( 2010 ) . a field guide to the birds of singapore . singapore : nature society , p . 10 . ( call no . : rsing 598 . 095957 lim ) ; yong , d . l . , & lim , k . c . ( 2016 ) . a naturalist\u2019s guide to the birds of singapore . oxford , england : john beaufoy publishing , p . 34 . ( call no . : rsing 598 . 095957 yon ) 3 .\nlim , k . s . ( 1997 ) . birds : an illustrated field guide to the birds of singapore . singapore : sun tree publishing , p . 73 . ( call no . : rsing 598 . 095957 lim ) ; wells , d . r . ( 1999 ) . the birds of the thai - malay peninsula ( vol . 1 ) . san diego , ca : academic press , p . 136 . ( call no . : rsing 598 . 0959 wel ) 4 ."]}
{"id": 336, "summary": [{"text": "the namaqua sandgrouse ( pterocles namaqua ) , is a species of ground-dwelling bird in the sandgrouse family .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is found in arid regions of south-western africa . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "namaqua sandgrouse", "paragraphs": ["a flock of namaqua sandgrouse on approach to drink water in the arid kalahari desert .\nnest\u2010site selection , egg pigmentation and clutch predation in the ground\u2010nesting namaqua sandgrouse . . .\nnamaqua sandgrouse male , kgalagadi national park , south africa . [ photo johann grobbelaar \u00a9 ]\nnamaqua sandgrouse female , kgalagadi national park , south africa . [ photo johann grobbelaar \u00a9 ]\nthe namaqua sandgrouse is found in stony deserts , dry scrublands , sandy deserts with scattered bits of grass and dry savannas .\n\u2022 the namaqua sandgrouse is 1 of 14 species of sandgrouse in the genus pterocles , including the spotted sandgrouse , p . senegallus , and madagascar sandgrouse , p . personatus . all have three front toes and a small , raised hindtoe . two other species of sandgrouse in the genus syrrhaptes ( greek for \u201csewn together\u201d ) have only forward - facing toes that are fused together .\ndry desert conditions are no threat to the namaqua sandgrouse : its thick - soled feet can withstand hot sand , and its belly feathers carry water .\nrainfall and food availability as factors influencing the migration and breeding activity of namaqua . . .\nintroduction : namaqua sandgrouse ( pterocles namaqua ) were as the name suggests , first discovered in the region of namaqualand . typical habitats include shrubland with or without grass , areas of sandy savannah with thick vegetation and gravel desert and sandy semi - desert .\na large flock of namaqua sandgrouse seen circling a water hole in the middle of the kalahari desert . they circled a few times before landing and quickly drinking . they are regularly attacked by raptors when drinking so are very skittish .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - namaqua dove - overview\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - namaqua dove - overview\ntitle =\narkive video - namaqua dove - overview\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ndescription : medium - sized sandgrouse with vertically streaked dark brown and buff head and upper breast .\nsandgrouse mostly feed on seed and are often seen in large feeding flocks with up to 100 birds .\nde juana , e . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . namaqua sandgrouse ( pterocles namaqua ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nspline correlograms for pin - tailed and black - bellied sandgrouse with 95 % pointwise bootstrap confidence intervals and maximum lag distance of 15 km derived for 1 ) landscape scale and 2 ) microhabitat scale . a ) pin - tailed sandgrouse ; b ) black - bellied sandgrouse . distance was measured in meters ( doc 54 kb )\nc . 28 cm ; male c . 170\u2013190 g , female c . 150\u2013190 g . small sandgrouse ; like\nthough not globally threatened , certain populations of namaqua sandgrouse , including the orange free state birds , have disappeared because of severe drought and habitat destruction . but the future appears bright for the bird , due to decreased hunting and the availability of watering holes created by agricultural projects .\nnest survival can , among a variety of factors , depend on nest - site complexity and concealment , and clutch crypsis . nest - site selection by namaqua sandgrouse pterocles namaqua was strongly non - random . nests were sited within a local concentration of objects , most of them less than 15 cm high and concentrated within 30 cm of the nest centre . nest - to - object orientation was random , indicating that . . . [ show full abstract ]\n) is a bulky sandgrouse , measuring 30 to 40 cm in length . the male bird is larger and weighs about 400 to 550 grams . the female sandgrouse weighs 300 to 460 grams . the wingspan is 70 to 75 cm .\nare reasonably common throughout the tanqua karoo , and greater kestrels frequently wander into the area . if you are lucky enough to visit after recent rain , you will see that pools forming close to the road invariably attract south african shelduck , drinking flocks of namaqua sandgrouse and irruptive seedeaters such as lark - like bunting .\nthe black - bellied sandgrouse inhabit terrestrial , artificial habitats like agricultural lands , dry cereal cultivation , pastoral scrubland and fallow lands .\nferns pn , hinsley sa ( 1995 ) importance of topography in the selection of drinking sites by sandgrouse . funct ecol 9 : 371\u2013375\nthe iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) has categorized and evaluated the sandgrouse species and has listed it as of\nleast concern\n. cites ( the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ) status is \u2018not evaluated\u2019 for the black - bellied sandgrouse (\nspline correlograms for pin - tailed and black - bellied sandgrouse ( large geographical spatial scale ) with 95 % pointwise bootstrap confidence intervals and maximum lag distance of 100 km derived from 1 ) glm models ( on the left ) and 2 ) glm analyses after applying the moran eigenvector filtering function ( on the right ) . a ) pin - tailed sandgrouse ; b ) black - bellied sandgrouse . distance was measured in meters . ( doc 67 kb )\nthese sandgrouse species are distributed in the iberian peninsula , northwest africa , the canary islands , turkey , iran , cyprus , israel , kazakhstan , western china , northern pakistan , northern india . these black - bellied sandgrouse species are ground - dwelling birds . there are two recognized subspecies of these sandgrouses .\nexcavator\u2026 a namaqua sandgrouse male helps his mate form a shallow nest hollow in the very dry ground of the african desert . incubator\u2026 the sandgrouse male relieves his mate each evening at dusk and takes his turn incubating their eggs for up to 18 hours . defender\u2026 after the chicks have hatched , the male carries the egg shells away from the nest to prevent predators from locating the chicks . dispenser the male brings water back to the nest in his wet belly feathers . the young appear to nurse as they eagerly clamor for a refreshing drink .\nthe sandgrouse\u2019s activities revolve around getting water ; like clockwork , flocks visit water holes to drink , and males soak their belly feathers for transport to their chicks .\nthe breeding season of the black - bellied sandgrouse species is from march to august in most of its breeding grounds . the nest is a bare ground scrape in stony areas . the clutch may contain two to three eggs . the egg is pale buff with gray and brown spots . both the sandgrouse parents incubate the eggs .\nsandgrouse have compact bodies , but small , pigeon - like heads and necks . the different species range in length from 24 \u2013 40 cm and weigh from 150 - 500 g .\nthese black - bellied sandgrouse species do not normally occur in forests . these species occur in altitudes from 0 to 100 meters . they inhabit various artificial , desert , shrubland and grassland ecosystems .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : pterocles namaqua . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nthese black - bellied sandgrouse have small , pigeon - like heads and necks . the legs are covered by feathers up to the toes . but the toes are not feathered . the belly region is blackish .\nde juana e ( 1997 ) family pteroclidae ( sandgrouse ) . in : del hoyo a , elliot a , sargatal j ( eds ) handbook of the birds of the world . lynx edicions , barcelona , pp 30\u201359\nmart\u00edn ca , casas f , mougeot f , garc\u00eda jt , vi\u00f1uela j ( 2010b ) seasonal variations in habitat preferences of the pin - tailed sandgrouse in agrarian pseudo - steppes . ardeola 57 ( 1 ) : 191\u2013198\nthese sandgrouse populations in spain , portugal and northern africa are resident and sedentary . the populations in turkey , mediterranean and the middle east are nomadic or partially migratory . the populations in central asia are migratory , wintering in northern india and pakistan .\nthe diet of these black - bellied sandgrouse species is mostly wild seeds . wild seeds , cereals , grains , wild legumes and cultivated legumes are their primary food . they form gregarious flocks and fly to watering holes in the mornings and the evenings .\nmart\u00edn ca , casas f , mougeot f et al ( 2010a ) positive interactions between vulnerable species in agrarian pseudo - steppes : habitat use by pin - tailed sandgrouse depends on its association with the little bustard . anim conserv 13 : 383\u2013389 . doi :\nthe sandgrouse are distributed across northern , southern and eastern africa as well as madagascar ; the middle east , india through to central asia ; and the iberian peninsula ; where they are restricted to treeless open areas , such as plains and semi - deserts .\nthe black - bellied sandgrouse species are distributed in the spain , portugal , northwest africa , the canary islands , turkey , iran , cyprus , israel , kazakhstan , tajikistan , turkmenistan , uzbekistan , russia , western china , northern pakistan and northern india .\nthe important bird and biodiversity areas ( iba ) of the black - bellied sandgrouse species in portugal are castro verde plains , \u00e9vora plains , mour\u00e3o , moura e barrancos , reguengos de monsaraz , river guadiana and serra de penha garcia e campina de toul\u00f5es .\n) does not approach the thresholds for being vulnerable either under the range size criterion or under the population trend criterion or under the population size criterion . agricultural expansion , habitat loss and hunting are the main threats that may endanger the survival of these sandgrouse species .\nthe male black - bellied sandgrouse is slightly larger and has gray head , neck , and breast . the upperparts are brown and have dark markings . there is a chestnut throat patch in males . the female is pale brown with fine dark markings on upperparts , head and breast .\nsandgrouse are monogamous ( form life - long pair bonds ) . they make their nest on a slight depression in the ground . the average clutch consists of 2 eggs , occasionally up to 4 . the male and female share the incubation duties ; with the male incubating during the night and early mornings , and the female taking over during the day .\nsome of the iba of the black - bellied sandgrouse in spain are obruk plateau , hodulbaba mountain , villaf\u00e1fila , ballobar - candasnos , bardenas reales , belchite - mediana , brozas - membr\u00edo , campo de montiel , campo visiedo , hoya de guadix , la serena , layna high moors , lerida steppes , peninsula of jand\u00eda and p\u00e9trola - almansa - yecla .\n) is estimated to be around 130 , 000 - 260 , 000 mature individual birds . the overall population size of these sandgrouse species is considered to be decreasing . throughout its range it is reported to be rare to nearly common . the generation length is 5 . 6 years . their distribution size is about 17 , 400 , 000 sq . km .\nnamaqua sandgrouses can breed all year round . they are monogamous , solitary nesters , nesting in a simple scrape in the ground , often lined with grit and typically placed next to a small scrub or grass tuft . there the female lays 2 - 3 eggs which are incubated by both parents for 3 weeks . the chicks leave the nest within a day of hatching and are able to feed themselves , but rely on the male for water and protection for several weeks . during this period the male flies to watering holes and soaks his belly feathers which the young drink from .\nnear - endemic to southern africa , occurring from south - western angola through namibia to patches of botswana , the northern cape and adjacent provinces . it generally prefers gravel desert , sandy semi - desert , open dwarf shrubland and sandy savanna , while especially common in the nama karoo and southern kalahari .\nit mainly eats seeds , especially of protein - rich legumes , supplemented with flowers , small fruits and fresh leaves . it does most of its foraging in the day with its head held low , rapidly pecking the ground and flicking away soil with its beak . the following food items have been recorded in its diet :\nmonogamous solitary nester , it is not territorial , with both sexes selecting the nest site .\nthe nest is a simple scrape in the ground , often lined with grit that builds up over time and typically placed adjacent to a small shrub or grass tuft .\negg - laying season is year - round , peaking from january - may in northern namibia , april - july in the namib desert ( namibia ) , june - november in the kalahari , august - january in the nama karoo and september - february in the western cape .\nit lays 2 - 3 eggs , which are incubated by both sexes for about three weeks , with the female taking the day shift while the male incubates at night .\nthe chicks are led by their parents to an area with food approximately 12 hours after the last chick hatching , and they quickly learn how to pluck seeds from the ground . the male makes daily trips to a waterhole so that he can soak his belly feathers which the young drink from , only stopping when they reach about two months old . they can fly in short burst at about 30 days old , flying strongly about 12 days later but only becoming fully independent at least a month later .\nnot threatened , in fact common and widespread , as it has greatly benefited from the sinking of waterholes . heavy nest predation and low productivity in the nama karoo is cause for concern however , as its south african population decreased during the second half of the 20th century .\nhockey par , dean wrj and ryan pg 2005 . roberts - birds of southern africa , viith ed . the trustees of the john voelcker bird book fund , cape town .\ntwo birds seen in the distance and heard calling in the southern karoo in early spring .\nflock of 40 birds coming in to drink at a leaking cattle drinking trough . strong winds unfortunately distorting the recording .\nbird heard calling in low karoo type veld in the early morning in late winter .\ntwo birds flying by at considerable distance , going s . recording slightly filtered , and volume amplified .\ncalls audible at 0 : 00 . 25 , 0 : 03 . 4 , 0 : 06 . 9 , 0 : 10 . 5 and 0 : 13 . 1\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na large flock arriving at a waterhole and drinking alongside a couple of springboks .\ninitially two females , one then followed until it eventually joins up with a male .\nlars petersson , manakincarmelo , adam riley , roland bischoff , frans vandewalle , loutjie , trheijnen , marco valentini , w . h . schulenburg , markus lilje , holger teichmann , krzysztof blachowiak , cristiano crolle , nik borrow , fran trabalon , aleix comas , albert froneman , guy poisson , lmarce .\nmay be closely related to p . exustus . recent study # r suggests that these two together with p . orientalis may belong in a clade that includes also the two syrrhaptes species ; or , alternatively , that all five of these may form a group with p . gutturalis , p . personatus , p . coronatus , and possibly including also p . alchata and p . burchelli ; further study needed . birds from n part of range formerly separated as race ngami , those of s & se as furva . monotypic .\nsw angola and namibia e to sw zimbabwe , and s through botswana and w & c south africa ( w limpopo and free state s to s western cape ) .\n, combines long tail and dark underparts with pale underwing . male . . .\nflight call a trisyllabic nasal yelping \u201ckwel - kee - weeen\u201d and similar variations . in group , birds . . .\nsub - desert and fringes of desert , in a variety of habitats ; commoner in flat or rolling country . . .\nperiod is extended , probably dependent on rainfall : in s africa in general , all months except mar and may , with peaks during cooler months . . .\nsedentary and locally nomadic ; southern populations migratory , those breeding in karoo moving n to . . .\nnot globally threatened . common to locally abundant in much of range . usually occurs in pairs or small parties , but sometimes in fairly large flocks . now absent from former . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 293 , 608 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be common to locally abundant in much of its range ( del hoyo et al . 1997 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ndistribution : common throughout namibia less for true southern namib desert . found in etosha , skeleton coast , orange river , fish river canyon and caprivi .\ndiet : small hard seeds and at times fresh leaves , flowers and small fruits .\nbreeding : usually 2 or 3 eggs are laid in an open scape in the ground , filled with grit and plant matter to assist in the incubation period of 21 days .\n6 days - for those with tight time constraints this safari visits the two major destinations : sossusvlei & etosha . windhoek - windhoek\n4 days - an expertly guided safari through damaraland in search of desert adapted elephant & rhino . excellent choice for anyone wanting to add a specialist activity to their time in namibia\n3 or 4 days - wonderful guided hiking trip - a never to be forgotten experience .\n3 days - a well guided & informative walking trip in the namib desert .\n3 days - cultural safari in the eastern kalahari region . visit the san / bushman and batswana people . also included is a trip to a game farm where sightings of rhino and elephant are possible\n3 days - visit the sand dunes at sossusvlei . runs from windhoek - windhoek\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nas you head north from eierkop along the r355 , the landscape becomes progressively more arid until , approaching katbakkies , bushes are few and far between and the ground gleams with the mineral patina of the desert pebbles . this is classic\ncountry : birds are most often spotted , 10\u009715 km north of eierkop , as they flush near the road , and display their white rumps as they fly a short distance to perch again on a fence or low bush .\nthe commonest larks of this stretch of road are thick - billed and red - capped . spike - heeled lark is also regularly seen . it is worth keeping an eye out for pairs of superbly camouflaged karoo korhaans , although they have become scarcer here in recent years . listen for their frog - like calls at dawn , and check in the shade of the occasional roadside tree at midday . drainage lines with slightly denser scrub are good areas to search for small , restless flocks of cape penduline tit , best detected by their soft , inconspicuous call .\ntwenty - one kilometres from eierkop , turn left at the road signposted \u0091kagga kamma ; op - die - berg\u0092 , to the small picnic spot and legendary birding site popularly known as katbakkies .\nthis website is maintained by birding africa . please do not use any text , images or content from this site without permission . \u00a9 birding africa 1997 - 2009 info @ urltoken 4 crassula way , pinelands , 7405 , cape town , south africa\n30 may 09 : a tragedy unfolds at kommetjie south of cape town as 44 beached false killer whales were shot . click here for more details and pictures . 14 march 09 : raptor watch in cape town on 14 march 09\nwe thank the farmers , hunting managers and gamekeepers of madrid province for allowing us to work on their properties . the study was partially financed by the servicio de protecci\u00f3n y gesti\u00f3n de flora y fauna de la consejer\u00eda de medio ambiente y ordenaci\u00f3n del territorio de la comunidad de madrid . we would also like to thank john o\u2019keeffe for his kind revision of the language of the manuscript . finally , we would like to thank the editor and two anonymous referees for providing us with comments and suggestions which help to improve the manuscript .\namarasekare p , nisbet rm ( 2001 ) spatial heterogeneity , source - sink dynamics , and the local coexistence of competing species . am nat 158 : 572\u2013584 . doi :\n) en pastizales y cultivos de la serena ( badajoz , espa\u00f1a ) . in : fern\u00e1ndez - guti\u00e9rrez j , sanz - zuasti j ( eds ) conservaci\u00f3n de las aves esteparias y su h\u00e1bitat . junta de castilla y le\u00f3n , valladolid , pp 221\u2013228\nbarton , k ( 2010 ) mumin : multi - model inference . r package version 0 . 13 . 17\nspp . ) distributions and large - scale habitat requirements in spain : implications for conservation . environ conserv 41 : 1\u201312\nbirdlife international ( 2004 ) birds in europe , population estimates , trends and conservation status . birdlife international , netherlands\nbj\u00f8rnstad on , falck w ( 2001 ) nonparametric spatial covariance functions : estimation and testing . environ ecol stat 8 : 53\u201370\nbrambilla m , bassi e , ceci c , rubolini d ( 2010 ) environmental factors affecting patterns of distribution and co - occurrence of two competing raptor species . ibis 152 : 310\u2013322 . doi :\nburnham kp , anderson dr ( 2002 ) model selection and multimodel inference : a practical information - theoretic approach . springer , new york\nbustamante j ( 2003 ) cartograf\u00eda predictiva de variables clim\u00e1ticas : la temperatura en espa\u00f1a peninsular . graellsia 59 : 359\u2013376\nbustamante j , seoane j ( 2004 ) predicting the distribution of four species of raptors ( aves : accipitridae ) in southern spain : statistical models work better than existing maps . j biogeogr 31 : 295\u2013306 . doi :\nbutler sj , gillings s ( 2004 ) quantifying the effects of habitat structure on prey detectability and accessibility to farmland birds . ibis 146 ( suppl s2 ) : 123\u2013130\nen la provincia de albacete . in : instituto de estudios albacetenses ( ed ) ii jornadas sobre el medio natural albacetense . diputaci\u00f3n de albacete , albacete , pp 499\u2013507\nen the nature park \u201cvale do guadiana . \u201d . ardeola 54 ( 2 ) : 205\u2013215\nde borb\u00f3n mn , barros c , de juana e ( 1999 ) el gregarismo en las gangas ib\u00e9rica y ortega . in : herranz j , su\u00e1rez f ( eds ) la ganga ib\u00e9rica (\nd\u00edaz m , asensio b , teller\u00eda jl ( 1996 ) aves ib\u00e9ricas , i . no paseriformes . reyero ed . , madrid\ndormann cf , mcpherson jm , araujo mb , bivand r , bolliger j , carl g , davies rg , hirzel a , jetz w , kissling wd , kuhn i , ohlemuller r , peres - neto pr , reineking b , schroder b , schurr fm , wilson r ( 2007 ) methods to account for spatial autocorrelation in the analysis of species distributional data : a review . ecography 30 : 609\u2013628\ndray s , legendre p , peres - neto pr ( 2006 ) spatial modelling : a comprehensive framework for principal coordinate analysis of neighbour matrices ( pcnm ) . ecol model 196 ( 3\u20134 ) : 483\u2013493\nfirbank lg , petit s , smart s et al ( 2008 ) assessing the impacts of agricultural intensification on biodiversity : a british perspective . philos trans r soc b 363 : 777\u2013787\nfitzpatrick bm , fordyce ja , gavrilets s ( 2008 ) what , if anything , is sympatric speciation ? j evol biol 21 : 1452\u20131459 . doi :\ngourbiere s , faivre b , chass\u00e9 jl , auger p ( 1999 ) new method for field studies on the parapatric distribution of sibling species . c r acad sci iii sci vie 322 : 1039\u20131050\n) : closely related species with differing bioenergetic adaptations to arid zones . physiol zool 66 ( 1 ) : 20\u201342\nhutto rl ( 1985 ) habitat selection by nonbreeding migratory land birds . in : cody ml ( ed ) habitat selection in birds . academic , orlando , pp 455\u2013476\nmadro\u00f1o a , gonz\u00e1lez c , atienza jc ( 2004 ) libro rojo de las aves de espa\u00f1a . direcci\u00f3n general para la biodiversidad - seo / birdlife , madrid\nmart\u00ed r , moral jc ( 2003 ) atlas de las aves reproductoras de espa\u00f1a . direcci\u00f3n general de conservaci\u00f3n de la naturaleza - sociedad espa\u00f1ola de ornitolog\u00eda , madrid\n) en la comunidad de madrid . anuario ornitol\u00f3gico de madrid 2009\u20132010 . seo - monticola , pp 91\u201396\nmart\u00ednez c ( 2005 ) distribuci\u00f3n , abundancia , requerimientos de h\u00e1bitat y conservaci\u00f3n de aves esteparias de inter\u00e9s especial en castilla - la mancha . monograf\u00edas del museo nacional de ciencias naturales . csic , madrid\nmart\u00ednez c , de juana e ( 1996 ) breeding bird communities of cereal crops in spain , habitat requirement . in : fern\u00e1ndez - guti\u00e9rrez j , sanz - zuasti j ( eds ) conservaci\u00f3n de las aves esteparias y su h\u00e1bitat . junta de castilla y le\u00f3n , valladolid , pp 99\u2013105\nneter j , wasserman w , kutner mh ( 1990 ) applied linear statistical models . richard d . irwin , burr ridge\nosborne pe , alonso jc , bryant rg ( 2001 ) modelling landscape - scale habitat use using gis and remote sensing : a case study with great bustards . j appl ecol 38 : 458\u2013471\n) en la comunidad de madrid . in : de la puente j , p\u00e9rez - tris j , bermejo a ( eds ) anuario ornitol\u00f3gico de madrid 2005 . seo - monticola , madrid , pp 68\u201375\nr development core team ( 2009 ) r : a language and environment for statistical computing . r foundation for statistical computing , vienna , austria\nreijnen r , foppen r , meeuwsen h ( 1996 ) the effects of traffic on the density of breeding birds in dutch agricultural grasslands . biol conserv 75 : 255\u2013260 . doi :\nrodrigues r ( 1994 ) variables influencing nest - site selection by tundra birds . ecol appl 4 : 110\u2013116\nrosenzweig ml ( 1981 ) a theory of habitat selection . ecology 62 : 327\u2013335\nrosenzweig ml ( 1987 ) community organisation from the point of view of habitat selectors . in : gee hr , gillers ps ( eds ) organisation of communities , past and present . blackwell , oxford , p 576\nsantos t , su\u00e1rez f ( 2005 ) biogeography and population trends of iberian steppe birds . in : bota mb , morales mb , ma\u00f1osa s , camprodon j ( eds ) ecology and conservation of steppe - land birds . lynx edicions and centre tecnol\u00f2gic forestal de catalunya , barcelona , pp 69\u2013102\n, in the canary islands , spain . bird conserv interlarge geogr 20 : 161\u2013175\nsu\u00e1rez f , herv\u00e1s i , heranz j , del moral jc ( 2006 ) la ganga ib\u00e9rica y la ganga ortega en espa\u00f1a , poblaci\u00f3n en 2005 y m\u00e9todo de censo . seo / birdlife , madrid\nsu\u00e1rez - seoane s , osborne pe , baudry j ( 2002 ) responses of birds of different biogeographic origins and habitat requirements to agricultural land abandonment in northern spain . biol conserv 105 : 333\u2013344 . doi :\nin a low - density area of the iberian peninsula . biodivers conserv 16 : 3559\u20133574 . doi :\ntella jl , forero mg , hiraldo f , don\u00e1zar ja ( 1998 ) conflicts between lesser kestrel conservation and european agricultural policies as identified by habitat use analyses . conserv biol 12 : 593\u2013604\ntews j , brose u , grimm v et al ( 2004 ) animal species diversity driven by habitat heterogeneity / diversity : the importance of keystone structures . j biogeogr 31 : 79\u201392 . doi :\ntreisman m ( 1975 ) predation and the evolution of gregariousness . i . models for concealment fan evasion . anim behav 23 : 779\u2013800\nwhittingham mj , evans kl ( 2004 ) the effects of habitat structure on predation risk of birds in agricultural landscapes . ibis 146 : 210\u2013220 . doi :\nmart\u00edn , b . , mart\u00edn , c . a . , palac\u00edn , c . et al . eur j wildl res ( 2014 ) 60 : 625 . urltoken\nthe sabinet african epublications ( sa epublications ) service has been available online to clients with great success since 2001 . this service is the most comprehensive , searchable collection of full - text african electronic journals available on one platform which focuses on information originating from or pertaining to africa . read more . . .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . at 36 ( 59 % ) of the 61 artificial nests assumed lost to predation , definite evidence of small mammal predation was found . this included whole shell remains with a bite out the side of the shell ( 27 nests ) , a characteristic of mongoose predation of relatively large eggs ( lloyd et al . 2001 ) , or smaller , chewed shell remains ( nine nests ) . at several of these depredated nests , fresh tracks and digging marks of mongooses were also found in the soft sand after recent light rain . . . .\nhi tshering . i have just published a mongraph on the terresrial gamebirds and snipes of africa . i am also assisting a student complete her phd thesis on the breeeding and dispersal of souther ground - hornbills . ciao , rob\nfood availability and seasonal variation in nest predation pressure as factors influencing the timin . . .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\npaternal care is where the father of the offspring provides most or all of the effort needed to protect , feed or raise the young until they become independent . the most well - known example of paternal care is in seahorses , where the male broods the eggs in a pouch until they are ready to hatch . primary paternal care is most common in egg - laying species and almost unheard of in mammals .\nin order to see this content you need to have an up - to - date version of flash installed and javascript turned on .\nthe male midwife toad brings up the babies until he finds a suitable pond .\ntake a trip through the natural world with our themed collections of video clips from the natural history archive .\nnarrated by sir david attenborough planet earth was the ground - breaking series that explored the wild and beautiful parts of our planet like never before .\nfrom badgers to butterflies and frogs to foxes , garden wildlife is both varied and surprising .\na video collection featuring bugs and insects in amazing close up selected by insect expert and tv presenter george mcgavin , with goliath spiders , killer centipedes , ants and moths .\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nresources on this site are free to download and reuse according to associated licensing provision . please read the terms and conditions of usage of each resource .\nthey have long pointed wings and short legs that are feathered down to the toes , and members of the genus syrrhaptes also have feathered toes .\nthe young hatch after about 20 - 25 days ; and are able soon able to leave the nest .\nthey are able to feed themselves from the day they hatch , but have to learn foraging skills from their parents for several months .\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe images on this page are the sole property of the photographers ( unless marked as public domain ) .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nbbc natural history unit c / o bbc motion gallery getty images 101 bayham street london nw1 0ag united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 3227 2579 bbc . motiongallerysales @ urltoken urltoken\nby clicking the links above , you agree to continue to use this material in accordance with the below terms of use .\narkive videos are protected by copyright and usage is restricted . details of the copyright owners are given at the end of each video . please carefully read the following before downloading this video .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is featured in jewels of the uae , which showcases biodiversity found in the united arab emirates in association with the environment agency \u2013 abu dhabi .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\na blog dedicated to the thousands of bird species that fly , swim or walk on our planet .\nthis species is found in southern africa , from south - western angola , through namibia and botswana and into zimbabwe and western south africa .\nthese birds are 24 - 28 cm long and weigh 140 - 240 g .\nthey mainly eat small seeds from the ground , namely indigofera , lotononis , tephrosia , requernia sphaerosperma , limeum , giseckia pharnacioides , amaranthus , cleome , chenopodium , lophiocarpus burchelli and several grasses and daisies . these are complemented with flowers , small fruits and fresh leaves .\nthis species has a very large breeding range and is reported to be common to locally abundant in much of its range . the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nthe central tail feathers are short giving a wedge - shape . the wings are long and pointed . the underwings are whitish . there is a thin blackish band around the lower breast . their call is a soft\nchowrrr rrrr\nsound .\nin nature , the black - bellied sandgrouses inhabit hot deserts , semi - arid plains , semi - desert vegetation , temperate grasslands , dry tropical and subtropical shrublands and mediterranean shrub vegetations .\njavascript must be enabled in order for you to use google maps . however , it seems javascript is either disabled or not supported by your browser . to view google maps , enable javascript by changing your browser options , and then try again .\nthe kalahari gemsbok national park is situated in the sliver of land between botswana and namibia , 320 km north of upington . it is an integral part of the kgalagadi transfrontier park , which together with neighbouring wildlife management areas in botswana form one of the largest contiguous conservation areas in the world ( 3 , 7 million ha ) .\nthe kgalagadi transfrontier park has a list of approximately 280 species , of which only about 92 are resident . the remainder comprises mainly nomadic ( 17 ) , migratory ( 50 ) and vagrant ( 121 ) species . it is an important area for raptors , with at least 52 species recorded , and contributes significantly to their conservation .\na total of 239 species has been reported in the kalahari gemsbok national park during the sabap1 and sabap2 projects . four vulture species are present : white - backed vulture gyps africanus , lappet - faced vulture torgos tracheliotos , white - headed vulture aegypius occipitalis and cape vulture g . coprotheres . white - backed and lappet - faced vultures show a preference for the nossob and auob riverbeds as both have large trees suitable for roosting and nesting . other threatened breeding raptors include bateleur terathopius ecaudatus , martial eagle polemaetus bellicosus and tawny eagle aquila rapax . six species of owls are protected in this iba .\nkori bustard ardeotis kori is common along both the auob and nossob riverbeds , and ludwig ' s bustard neotis ludwigii occurs relatively frequently in summer . this iba is seasonally important for larks and sparrow - larks , including stark ' s lark spizocorys starki and black - eared sparrow - lark eremopterix australis , particularly after good rains .\nthe major biodiversity characteristic of this iba is that it is an arid ecosystem populated by large migratory and nomadic herbivores . as such it supports a fully functional large carnivore predator / prey system and is an important refuge for a large raptor community . the park has important populations of lion panthera leo , leopard p . pardus , cheetah acinonyx jubatus , brown hyaena hyaena brunnea , spotted hyaena crocuta crocuta , african wild cat felis lybica , aardwolf proteles cristatus , aardvark orycteropus afer , honey badger mellivora capensis and pangolin manis temminckii .\nthe characteristic tree species \u2013 camel thorn , grey camel thorn vachellia ( formerly acacia ) haematoxylon and shepherd ' s tree boscia albitrunca \u2013 are protected under the national forestry act . the camel thorn is regarded as a keystone species and the survival of many animal and plant species depend on it .\nthe gariep blind legless skink acontias gariepensis is almost restricted to the park . the southern african endemic dwarf beaked snake dipsina multimaculata , kalahari spade - snouted worm lizard monopeltis leonhardi , spotted desert lizard meroles suborbitalis , kalahari ground gecko colopus wahlbergii and woosnam ' s desert rat zelotomys woosnami are all common within the park .\nthis iba is well managed , with far fewer threats than the surrounding landscape . the major threats that do exist are climate change ; the slow pace at which the contractual land development with the local community is moving and associated land - use conflicts ; the scarcity of fresh water ; and the high petrol price , which will have an effect on visitor numbers . there is also a lack of funds for tourism management and development .\nhistorically , poisons were used extensively in the region to control damage - causing predators , such as black - backed jackal canis mesomelas and caracal caracal caracal . poisoning incidents involving bateleurs and white - backed vultures have been recorded in this iba , and the breeding failure in 1990 of the largest white - backed vulture colony in the park was attributed to poisoning . the inadvertent poisoning of secretarybirds is also suspected . poisons may still be used in neighbouring small - livestock farming areas , but at a lower level than previously .\nthis iba is a formally protected national park , established in 1931 . it is an integral part of the kgalagadi transfrontier park , which was officially opened in 2000 but had been in existence since 1948 through a verbal agreement between the south african and botswanan conservation authorities . the area represents a large ecosystem relatively free of human influence .\nin 1999 the khomani san community won a land claim over 25 000 ha of the park . a joint management plan between the community and sanparks exists for the ae ! hai kalahari heritage contractual park .\nsince the 1930s a total of 88 waterholes and a number of excavation dams on pans have been constructed within the park . the erection of permanent waterholes was motivated by the observation that increased human activity to the south and west of the park was apparently hindering the migratory movements of the indigenous ungulates ; by the later fencing of some borders ; and by the erroneous perception that the wildlife needed drinking water . historically , vultures and raptors drowned in the water reservoirs . poles or ladders were fitted into the reservoirs to enable raptors to escape from them and raptor drownings are now a rare occurrence . the monitoring of certain raptor species was reinstated by the ewt ' s birds of prey programme kalahari raptor project in 2010 .\nif you have any information about the iba , such as a new threat that could impact on it , please send an e - mail to iba @ urltoken or call birdlife south africa + 27 ( 11 ) 789 1122 .\nanderson md . 2000 . raptor conservation in the northern cape province , south africa . ostrich 71 : 25\u201332 .\nanderson md , kruger r . 1995 . powerline electrocution of eighteen african white - backed vultures . vulture news 32 : 16\u201318 .\nanderson md , maritz awa , oosthuysen e . 1999 . raptors drowning in farm reservoirs : impacts on southern african populations . ostrich 70 : 139\u2013144 .\nbarnes k ( ed . ) . 1998 . the important bird areas of southern africa . johannesburg : birdlife south africa .\nbgis online . 2014 . biodiversity gis , sanbi . available at www . bgis . sanbi . org . [ accessed september 2014 . ]\nbroekhuysen gj , broekhuysen mh , martin je , martin r , morgan hk . 1968 . observations on the bird life in the kalahari gemsbok national park . koedoe 11 : 145\u2013160 .\ncunningham sj , martin ro , hojem cl , hockey par . 2013 . temperatures in excess of critical thresholds threaten nestling growth and survival in a rapidly - warming arid savanna : a study of common fiscals ."]}
{"id": 342, "summary": [{"text": "the sandstone false antechinus , pseudantechinus bilarni , also known as the sandstone pseudantechinus , the sandstone antechinus , the sandstone dibbler , harney 's antechinus and the northern dibbler , is a species of small carnivorous marsupial , which has a patchy distribution in australia 's northern territory . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "sandstone false antechinus", "paragraphs": ["some sources give the vernacular name for this genus as \u201cfalse antechinus\u201d ( e . g . menkhorst 2001 ) , thus carpentarian false antechinus for p . mimulus . this formation provides somewhat greater taxonomic precision but is unnecessarily cumbersome .\nmuseum specimens of the carpentarian antechinus may have been incorrectly identified as the fat - tailed antechinus ( pseudantechinus macdonnellensis ) ( woolley 2011 ) .\n[ 3 ] a member of the family dasyuridae , the yellow - footed antechinus is the most widespread of all the members of its genus , antechinus . three subspecies of the yellow - footed antechinus are recognised :\nthe carpentarian antechinus has been recorded in rocky areas and nearby woodland . in central queensland it has been found on sandstone , granite , metamorphic and igneous geology ( lloyd et al . 2013 ; woolley 2011 ) . specific habitat descriptions include :\nthe carpentarian antechinus occurs at pungalina - seven emu , which is an australian wildlife conservancy property .\nthe yellow - footed antechinus ( antechinus flavipes ) , also known as the mardo , is a shrew - like marsupial found in australia . one notable feature of the species is its sexual behavior . the male yellow - footed antechinus engages in such frenzied mating that it ' s immune system becomes compromised , resulting in\nthe extent of occurrence of the carpentarian antechinus is 16 000 km\u00b2 ( curtis et al . 2012 ) .\nsandstone false antchinus are endemic to the area and they can crop up anywhere with massive sandstone boulders and rock sheets . nourlangie is one spot to look , and koolpin gorge is another ( koolpin is one of the nicest public campsites in kakadu ; you need to arrange a permit beforehand to stay there , which is easily done through the parks office ) . the road into koolpin is one of the best areas of the park for kakadu pebble mound mice . i\u2019ve looked but never seen them there \u2013 they live on the pebble strewn slopes on either side of the road in . they\u2019ve also been reported from quite near gunlom campsite ( a few kilometres before you get to gunlom you cross plum tree creek . try looking around there ) .\nthe sandstone antechinus is associated particularly with areas with large boulders , crevices , and scree slopes ( begg 1981 ) , but shows no close association with vegetation features ( begg 1981 , fisher et al . 2000 ) . the sandstone antechinus is a nocturnal , generalist predator of invertebrates and small vertebrates . it is restricted to rugged rocky environments . in the 12 months following a high intensity experimental fire at the little nourlangie rock site , survivorship decreased ( relative to pre - fire estimates ) , and the total population size declined ( begg et al . 1981 ) . breeding is seasonal , with young born in august and september ( begg 1981 ) . females have six nipples , but the number of young produced is typically less than this capacity ( begg 1981 ) .\ntaxonomythe yellow - footed antechinus was described in 1838 by george robert waterhouse , who noted its most distinctive feature in its species name flavipes , which means\nyellow - footed\n. the species has occasionally been combined with the brown antechinus ( a . stuartii ) .\nin november 2003 , aboriginal rangers from mubanji participated in collaborative surveys for carpentarian antechinus with scientists from the nt department of infrastructure planning and environment .\nthreatened species of the northern territory - carpentarian antechinus pseudantechinus mimulus ( woinarski , j . & s . ward , 2012f ) [ information sheet ] .\ntargeted management for northern hopping - mouse , carpentarian antechinus and butlers dunnart will benefit these other mammal species . the management actions with broadest collateral benefit are :\nwoinarski , j . & s . ward ( 2012f ) . threatened species of the northern territory - carpentarian antechinus pseudantechinus mimulus . northern territory government . urltoken\n[ 3 ] in size and body shape this species is fairly typical of its genus . the yellow - footed antechinus differs from its relatives in its comparatively\ndescriptionthe yellow - footed antechinus has a variable fur colour , but is generally somewhat greyish . other notable features include a white eye - ring and a black tip to the tail .\nthere are no data available on the diet of carpentarian antechinus in the wild , but captives consume invertebrates and possibly small vertebrates ( johnson et al . 2008 ; johnson & langford 1995 ) .\nc van dyck , s . m . ( 1995 ) ,\nyellow - footed antechinus\n, in strahan , ronald , the mammals of australia , reed books , pp . 86 ? 88 ,\non the pellew islands ; sloping sandstone hills with boulders , pavement , outcrops and rocky surface , with open woodland of darwin stringybark ( eucalyptus tetrodonta ) , e . aspera , e . kombolgiensis , acacia latifolia , a . multisiliqua , bossiaea bossiaeoides , calytrix spp . and a dense understorey and ground cover of plectrachne pungens ( curtis et al . 2012 ; johnson & langford 1995 ; maxwell et al . 1996 ) .\nthe threats affecting the carpentarian antechinus are unknown . the feral cat ( felis catus ) probably predates the species , but its rocky habitat probably provides some protection ( curtis et al . 2012 ) . fire regimes in northern australia have shifted to hot , extensive late dry season fires , and , although it is unlikely that these cause direct mortality to the carpentarian antechinus , they may impact on the abundance and availability of their prey ( curtis et al . 2012 ) .\n^ menkhorst , p . , friend , t . , burnett , s . mckenzie , n . ( 2008 ) . antechinus flavipes . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 09 october 2008 .\nthe national recovery plan for the carpentarian antechinus , butler ' s dunnart ( sminthopsis butleri ) and northern hopping - mouse ( notomys aquilo ) ( woinarski 2004 ) outlines recovery actions for the carpentarian antechinus with the aim of better communicating information about the species to stakeholders . a review of the plan in 2010 indicated that a number of activities , within the range of the species , have been initiated to abate threats associated with fire , the feral cat and information deficiencies ( dsewpac 2011ae ) .\nmuch of the range of all three species is on aboriginal lands : indeed , all recent records of butlers dunnart and northern hopping - mouse are on aboriginal lands . in the northern territory , the interests managing these lands are the tiwi land council ( butlers dunnart ) , anindilyakwa land council ( northern hopping - mouse ) , northern land council ( northern hopping - mouse and carpentarian antechinus ) , dhimurru aboriginal land management corporation ( northern hopping - mouse ) and mubanji aboriginal resource association ( carpentarian antechinus ) .\ndepartment of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities ( dsewpac ) ( 2011ae ) . review of the 2004 recovery plan for the carpentarian antechinus ( pseudantechinus mimulus ) , butler ' s dunnart ( sminthopsis butleri ) and northern hopping - mouse ( notomys aquilo ) . unpublished report .\ndetails of the microhabitat and breeding requirements of the carpentarian antechinus are unknown . the species occurs in rocky areas such as ridgelines , rock outcrops , jump - ups and boulder piles ( baam 2010 ) and is thought to hide in rock crevices during the day ( johnson et al . 2008 ) .\nparts of the range of the northern hopping - mouse occurs on lands subject to extensive strip - mining , for bauxite at gove , and for manganese on groote eylandt . the first records of the carpentarian antechinus in queensland were during a survey of the impacts of sulphur dioxide emissions around the mt isa mine ( griffiths 1998 ) .\nblack wallaroos , endemic to the arnhem land sandstone country , are findable in the right areas . i saw one up above gunlom falls ( in the middle of the afternoon ) and another while i was spotlighting on top of little nourlangie . there are antilopine wallaroos too , try looking around the gimbat area . wikins\u2019 ( formerly short - eared ) rock wallabies are quite easy to see around ubirr , while narbaleks might be possible , or so i have been told , near the jim jim falls campsite ( i have never made it there \u2013 access is difficult until quite late in the dry season and then restricted to 4wd ) .\nin queensland , the provenance of the single old record of northern hopping - mouse is so vague that it cannot be assigned with any confidence to any land tenure category , but may be in either aboriginal lands , pastoral lands , conservation reserves and / or lands managed by defence . the few recent records of carpentarian antechinus from queensland are in pastoral leasehold and freehold lands .\nvictoria . isolated populations occur in northeastern queensland and in southwestern western australia . some populations are listed as\nlocally common\n, others as uncertain . the yellow - footed antechinus occupies a variety of habitats , including dry arid scrubland and sclerophyll forest . in the north , it also inhabits coastal heaths , swamps and woodland ; in the far north it is found in tropical vine forest .\nnon - current national multi - species recovery plan for the carpentarian antechinus pseudantechinus mimulus , butler ' s dunnart sminthopsis butleri and northern hopping - mouse notomys aquilo , 2004 - 2009 ( woinarski , j . c . z . , 2004 ) in effect under the epbc act from 10 - jun - 2005 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 01 - oct - 2015 [ recovery plan ] .\nthe carpentarian antechinus is a small , carnivorous marsupial with brown fur , a reddish patch behind the ears and a white underside . body length is 70\u201390 mm , tail length is 60\u201375 mm and weight is 15\u201325 g ( curtis et al . 2012 ; strahan 1998 ) . males are smaller than females . species in the genus pseudantechinus store fat in their tail , and this becomes carrot - shaped when food is plentiful ( woinarski 2004 ) .\nbutlers dunnart sminthopsis butleri is another small ( ca . 10 - 20 g . ) terrestrial carnivorous marsupial , finer of features than for the carpentarian antechinus . it too is similar in general appearance to a range of small dasyurids occurring across australia , including the kakadu dunnart s . bindi and red - cheeked dunnart s . virginiae in northern australia . all are generally grey - brown above and pale below , with large ears and eyes , and sharply pointed muzzle .\nwoinarski , j . c . z . ( 2004 ) . non - current national multi - species recovery plan for the carpentarian antechinus pseudantechinus mimulus , butler ' s dunnart sminthopsis butleri and northern hopping - mouse notomys aquilo , 2004 - 2009 . northern territory department of infrastructure planning and environment , darwin . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 10 - jun - 2005 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 01 - oct - 2015 .\nthe carpentarian antechinus occurs in the sir edward pellew group of islands ( centre , north , south - west and vanderlin islands ) in the nt ( curtis et al . 2012 ; kitchener 1991 ) , the pungalina - seven emu area on the mainland in the nt ( nt government 2011 ) , along the selwyn range south of cloncurry in queensland ( baam 2011 ; lloyd et al . 2013 ) and on a number ridges around mt isa in queensland ( baam 2011 ; lloyd et al . 2013 ; woolley 2011 ) . the species was originally collected on alexandria station in the nt , in 1905 , but has not been recorded there since ( maxwell et al . 1996 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\naccording to groves in wilson and reeder ( 1993 ) and nowak ( 1999 ) parantechinus bilarni is a good species . however , this species has been transferred to pseudantechinus following the australasian marsupial specialist group ( maxwell et al . 1996 ) .\njustification : population size is poorly resolved but likely to be between 10 , 000 and 30 , 000 individuals ; monitoring results provide inconsistent indication of population trends , but a plausible rate of decline is 10 - 20 % over 10 years ; habitat quality is likely to be subject to ongoing decline , but management actions are having some beneficial impact on main threat ( fire ) . it does not fit criteria for threatened ; a categorisation of near threatened may be valid but population size and rate of decline are poorly defined and unlikely to approach relevant thresholds .\nthe species is present in several protected areas , notably including kakadu national park . there is some fire management in this and other reserves , which may have led to some recent improvements , but current regime is still characterised by frequent , high intensity and extensive fires .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis plan jointly considers three native mammal species from northern australia . while the three species share some similarities in ecology , status and conservation management requirements , there are also distinct differences among them in these and other features . recognising both these similarities and differences , this plan follows the standard overall framework for single species recovery plans , but provides specific information for each of the three species whenever relevant throughout , and wherever possible pools information from each of the three species accounts to derive commonalities and to highlight management issues and actions that may apply for all three species .\nthe northern hopping - mouse notomys aquilo is a medium - sized ( 25 - 50 g . ) terrestrial granivorous rodent . it has features typical of hopping - mice in general , with very long narrow hindfeet , large ears and eyes , and very long partly tufted tail ( about 150 % of head - body length ) . it is the only representative of its genus in northern australia , thus , in this area , its morphology is highly distinctive . it is sandy - brown above and paler below . hopping - mice move with a distinctive gait , such that the bipedal tracks may provide the most conspicuous signs of its presence .\nthe three species each have a somewhat complicated taxonomic history , notable for single puzzling early records followed by a long period before any subsequent specimens .\nbutlers dunnart sminthopsis butleri archer , 1979 was described relatively recently ( archer 1979 a ) ( with the vernacular name carpentarian dunnart : archer 1979 b ) , on the basis of one specimen collected on \u201ccape york\u201d in 1898 and three specimens from kalumburu wa collected in 1965 and 1966 .\na further historical record ( previously mis - identified as s . virginiae ) , collected on melville island in 1913 , was subsequently assigned to this species ( woinarski et al . 1996 ) . since the original description , examination of additional specimens from cape york peninsula and new guinea resulted in a taxonomic split of s . butleri , with that taxon now referring to only those populations from the northern nt and kimberley , and the queensland and new guinea population defined as the carpentarian dunnart s . archeri ( van dyck 1986 ) . given this treatment , the listing of \u201ccarpentarian dunnart sminthopsis butleri \u201d as a threatened species under the epbca is invalid and confusing . the listing should be of butlers dunnart s . butleri .\nthe northern hopping - mouse notomys aquilo thomas 1921 was described from a single specimen collected around the 1870s from \u201ccape york\u201d . the species was not reported again until johnson ( 1959 , 1964 ) named n . carpentarius from 13 specimens collected on groote eylandt , northern territory in 1948 . in this description , johnson did not compare this series with the type of n . aquilo , and he was apparently also unaware that donald thomson had also collected hopping - mice on groote eylandt some five years previously ( i . e . 1943 - 1944 : with these records not documented until much later : dixon and huxley 1985 ) . subsequent comparisons revealed the conspecificity of n . carpentarius with n . aquilo ( ride 1970 ) .\nschedule 1 - fauna that is rare or likely to become extinct in western australia , under the wildlife conservation ( specially protected fauna ) notice 2003 ( wildlife conservation act 1950 ) .\nin each case , the nt status is based on evaluations made in 2003 . the national status typically follows assessments made in the action plans for australian rodents ( lee 1995 ) and marsupials and monotremes ( maxwell et al . 1996 ) .\nthe primary affected interests for all three species are the australian and state / territory conservation agencies , and particularly that of the northern territory , in which the bulk of the range for all three species occurs .\nin western australia , the kimberley land council and wunambal - gaambera aboriginal corporation manages those lands near kalumburu on which butlers dunnart was recorded .\non melville island , butlers dunnart occurs in sites either in or around a developing major forestry venture ( oprated by sylvatech ) that replaces native vegetation with short - rotation exotic plantation species .\nthomson ( in dixon and huxley 1985 ) also noted that many aboriginal people appeared to have very little knowledge of northern hopping - mouse , even in sites where it appeared to be relatively common .\naboriginal rangers from dhimurru aboriginal land management corporation have conducted searches for northern hopping - mice at nanydjaka ( cape arnhem ) ipa .\nthere is some proximity in distribution between the three species considered here and the golden bandicoot isoodon auratus and golden - backed tree - rat mesembriomys macrurus , both considered vulnerable at national level .\nsuch actions will benefit not only the three mammal species considered here and at least some of the other mammals listed above , but will also have benefits for some co - occurring bird species ( such as the vulnerable partridge pigeon geophaps smithii : fraser et al . 2003 ) and , with less substantial evidence , a gamut of other plant and animal species that have been adversely affected by recent changes in fire regimes ( e . g . bowman and panton 1993 ; russell - smith et al . 1998 , 2002 ; franklin 1999 ; bowman et al . 2001 ; yibarbuk et al . 2001 ) .\nthere are no clearcut and tightly defined social and economic impacts associated with this recovery plan . much of the distribution of these three species is on aboriginal land . research on , and management of , these species may provide some limited contributions to these local economies . the three species each have some distributional overlap or convergence with large mining or forestry operations . conservation management for the species may come at some costs to these ventures , but such costs are generally likely to be low because the disturbances are generally not on lands that provide high quality habitat to these species . a possible exception is for butlers dunnart on melville island , where forestry development may occur on , or be proposed for , habitats that have high suitability for this species .\nfor information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .\nrecovery plan required , this species had a recovery plan in force at the time the legislation provided for the minister to decide whether or not to have a recovery plan ( 19 / 2 / 2007 ) . the recovery plan ( woinarski 2004 ) that was adopted for this species on 10 / 06 / 2005 ceased to be in effect from 1 / 10 / 2015 .\nsurvey guidelines for australia ' s threatened mammals . epbc act survey guidelines 6 . 5\n( department of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities ( dsewpac ) , 2011 ) [ admin guideline ] .\nlisted as near threatened ( global status : iucn red list of threatened species : 2017 . 1 list )\nthe distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .\nthe targeted assessment for the copper string environment impact statement ( eis ) involved a 10 day habitat assessment survey that preceded four trapping surveys ( baam 2011 ) . the habitat assessment was used to select the most suitable sites for four 5 - day trapping surveys . the trapping records , together with the previous records in the vicinity of the study area ( woolley 2011 ) , were incorporated into the habitat mapping methodology to map known important habitat and potential habitat for the species within the study area ( baam 2011 ) .\nnear mt isa ; woodland of migum ( eucalyptus leucophloia ) , western bloodwood ( corymbia terminalis ) , normanton box ( eucalyptus normantonensis ) , whitewood ( atalaya hemiglauca ) and acacia spp . with trioda spp . ground cover ( griffiths 1998 cited in curtis et al . 2012 ) .\nsouth - east of mt isa ; on a rocky ridge and hill - slope of igneous rock , adjoining existing powerline . tree layer dominated by migum , e . leucophylla and terminalia aridicola . sparse shrub layer dominated by acacia spp . grass layer dominated by triodia spp . , with enneapogon oblongus and very limited invasion by the environmental weed buffel grass ( pennisetum ciliare ) ( regional ecosystem ( re ) 1 . 12 . 1 / 1 . 12 . 1x1 ) ( baam 2011 ; lloyd et al . 2013 ) .\neast of mt isa ; on a midslope of rocky hillside with abundant boulder piles of igneous or metamorphic rock . very sparse tree layer dominated by migum and e . leucophylla . shrub layer dominated by terminalia aridicola and acacia spp . grass layer dominated by triodia spp . ( re 1 . 11 . 2a / 1 . 11 . 2x4 / 1 . 12 . 1 ) ( baam 2011 ; lloyd et al . 2013 ) .\neast of mt isa ; on a rocky ridge and hill - slope of metamorphic or igneous rock , adjoining existing powerline . tree layer dominated by migum and atalaya hemiglauca . mid - dense shrub layer . grass layer dominated by triodia spp . , with enneapogon oblongus and patchy invasion by the environmental weed buffel grass ( re 1 . 11 . 2a / 1 . 11 . 2x1 / 1 . 12 . 1x1 ) ( baam 2011 ; lloyd et al . 2013 ) .\non selwyn range ; on a cliff base and slope of deeply weathered granite mesa with numerous boulders . sparse tree layer dominated by migum , e . leucophylla and lancewood . shrub layer dominated by chisholm ' s wattle ( acacia chisholmii ) . diverse native grass layer dominated by triodia spp . , with aristida spp . , enneapogon spp . and themeda triandra ( re 1 . 7 . 1 / 1 . 12 . 1 ) ( lloyd et al . 2013 ) .\nthe breeding season is thought to be short occurring some time between august and october ( curts et al . 2012 ) . similar species have a litter size of 4\u20136 and it is likely that some males and females survive to breed in a second year ( curtis et al . 2012 ) . of seven females caught during july and august 1988 , none had pouch young ( johnson & langford 1995 ) .\nbuffel grass invasion could significantly change the ecology of the central queensland ridges where the species occurs ( lloyd et al . 2013 ) .\nthe mabunji aboriginal resource association received $ 25 000 of funding , through the threatened species network community grants in 2004\u201305 for the establishment of a monitoring program for this species on the sir edward pellew islands .\nbiodiversity and assessment management ( baam ) ( 2010 ) . terrestrial ecology and impact assessment report - copperstring project eis . brisbane , queensland : baam .\nbiodiversity assessment and management pty ltd ( baam ) ( 2011 ) . copperstring project seis - terrestrial ecology assessment report . report prepared for copperstring pty ltd .\ncurtis , l . k . , a . j . dennis , k . r . mcdonald , p . m . kyne & s . j . s . debus ( 2012 ) . queensland ' s threatened animals . csiro publishing .\ndepartment of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities ( dsewpac ) ( 2011j ) . survey guidelines for australia ' s threatened mammals . epbc act survey guidelines 6 . 5 . epbc act policy statement : canberra , act : dsewpac . available from : urltoken .\njohnson , k . a . & d . g . langford ( 1995 ) . carpentarian pseudantechinus . in : strahan , r , ed . the mammals of australia . page ( s ) 77 - 78 . reed books : sydney .\njohnson , k . j . , j . c . z . woinarski & d . j . langford ( 2008 ) . pseudantechinus mimulus . van dyck , s . & r . strahan , eds . the mammals of australia . page ( s ) 71 - 72 . new holland publishers .\nkitchener , d . j . ( 1991 ) . pseudantechinus mimulus ( thomas , 1906 ) ( marsupialia , dasyuridae ) : rediscovery and redescription . records of the western australian museum . 15 : 191 - 202 .\nlloyd p . , m . sanders , t . reis & a . abbott ( 2013 ) . targeted trapping surveys shed new light on the distribution and habitat characteristics of the carpentarian pseudantechinus ( pseudantechinus mimulus ) , a threatened dasyurid marsupial . australian mammalogy . 35 : 220 - 223 . urltoken\nmaxwell , s . , a . a . burbidge & k . morris ( 1996 ) . the 1996 action plan for australian marsupials and monotremes . wildlife australia , environment australia . available from : urltoken .\nnorthern territory government ( nt government ) ( 2011 ) . review of threatened species status in the nt 2011 - mammals - proposed changes involving threatened categories .\nstrahan , r . ( ed . ) ( 1998 ) . the mammals of australia , second edition , rev . sydney , nsw : australian museum and reed new holland .\nwoolley , p . a . ( 2011 ) . pseudantechinus mimulus : a little known dasyurid marsupial . australian mammalogy . 33 : 57 - 67 .\ncommonwealth of australia ( 2000 ) . declaration under s178 , s181 , and s183 of the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 - list of threatened species , list of threatened ecological communities and list of threatening processes . f2005b02653 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 16 - jul - 2000 .\ndepartment of the environment and heritage ( deh ) ( 2006sr ) . pseudantechinus mimulus in species profile and threats ( sprat ) database . unpublished species profile . canberra , act : deh . available from : urltoken .\nepbc act email updates can be received via the communities for communities newsletter and the epbc act newsletter .\ncitation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . pseudantechinus mimulus in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 05 : 37 : 45 + 1000 .\nmyoictis is a genus of marsupials in the order dasyuromorphia . it is found in new guinea .\nthe taxonomy for the specie was difficult for most biologist to understand . woolley proposed the names the four different species by recognizing the animal by the morphological differences . while also using genetic testing , scientist have found that the myoictis melas and the myoictis wallacei contain a sequence divergence of 12 . 85 % .\neach of the four species were found to have significant physical differences between them . the myoictis wavicus averages roughly 122 grams , the myoictis wallacei averages roughly 230 grams , the myoictis leucura averages roughly 220 grams , and the myoictis melas averages roughly 220 grams . the proportions of head and limb size were also found to be smaller with the smaller mass .\nthe myoictis leucura , or woolley ' s three - striped dasyure was recently described being genetically and morphologically distinct from the other members of the genus myoictis . it is more similar to the m . wavicus .\nbetween 1894 and 1895 , the myoictis leucura was found in papua new guinea , the southern side of the central cordillera . it normally lives in elevations between 650 meters and 1600 meters . the species inhabits mostly lowland and montane forest . peter dwyer has found the species to be active during the daytime and being mostly terrestrial .\n( 3rd ed . ) . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . p .\nwoolley , p . 2008 . myoictis leucura . the iucn red list of threatened species 2008 : e . t136449a4293240 .\nwoolley , p . 2005 . revision of the three - striped dasyures , genus myoictis ( marsupialia : dasyuridae ) , of new guinea , with description of a new species .\ns . crassicaudata species - group : fat - tailed dunnart ( s . crassicaudata )\ns . granulipes species - group : white - tailed dunnart ( s . granulipes )\ns . griseoventer species - group : kangaroo island dunnart ( s . aitkeni )\ns . longicaudata species - group : long - tailed dunnart ( s . longicaudata )\ns . psammophila species - group : hairy - footed dunnart ( s . hirtipes )\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 7 / 9 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\n, are endemic to australia . they are found in northern australia , western australia , and new south wales . localized extinctions of this species have been detected in new south wales and south australia . there are two regional subspecies of kultarrs .\nmorris , k . , j . woinarski , m . ellis , t . robinson , p . copley . 2011 .\nantechinomys laniger\n( on - line ) . in : iucn 2012 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2012 . 1 . accessed february 17 , 2012 at urltoken .\nnsw national parks and wildlife . kultarr . hurtsville , new south wales : nsw national parks and wildlife service . 1999 . accessed february 20 , 2012 at urltoken .\nkultarrs are small and mouse - like in appearance . the pelt is grey to sandy brown , and the long tail has brush - like dark hairs on the sides . the dark coloring around the eyes , mid - line , and top of the head varies among individuals . they are primarily nocturnal and , as such , have large round eyes and enlarged ears . they have elongated hind feet with four independent digits .\nkultarrs weigh 20 to 30 g and measure 170 to 200 mm in length . they exhibit sexual dimorphism with males being about 15 mm longer and 10 g heavier than females .\ngeiser , f . , r . baudinette , t . garland jr . . 1990 . the relationship between body mass and rate of rewarming from hibernation and daily torpor in mammals . journal of experimental biology , 151 : 349 - 359 . accessed february 23 , 2012 at urltoken .\nkultarrs inhabit : open shrubland , mallee woodland , acacia shrubland with sparse ground cover , hummock grassland , gibber , flood plains , and stony areas with sparse ground cover . the species generally prefers heavier soil types ( maxwell et al . 1996 ) . kultarrs have been recorded on severely degraded cattle country in central and western australia but this may reflect the previous relatively high productivity of these landscape types rather than any benign effect of cattle ( maxwell et al . 1996 ) .\nkultarrs inhabit arid to semi - arid plains . they prefer heavy soils including stoney , sandy , or clay filled soils . during the day , they seek cover in stumps , spinifex tussocks , cracks in the soil , and burrows of other animals . antechinomys laniger laniger prefers claypans in acacia woodlands , while a . l . spenceri prefers plains of granite and shrub lands .\ndepartment of substainability , environment , water , population and communities . action plan for australian marsupials and monotremes . canberra , australia : department of substainability , environment , water , population and communities . 1996 . accessed march 01 , 2012 at urltoken .\nstrahan , r . 1995 . mammals of australia . washington d . c . : smithsonian institution press .\n. their nocturnal lifestyle and agility help them to avoid many predators . during the day , kultarrs stay in the nest to avoid diurnal predators . juveniles stay safe in the pouch or nest . when juveniles do leave the nest , they attach to their mother ' s back .\nkultarrs utilize olfactory cues during mate selection . parents and offspring also communicate vocally . young use calls to locate their parents when they become separated . kultarrs have abnormally large eyes and ears that are adapted to their nocturnal and fossorial lifestyle .\nkultarrs are relatively long lived mammals for their size . lifespan may be impacted by their ability to enter spontaneous torpor . the oldest known kultarr lived 67 months in the wild , while the oldest in captivity lived 48 months .\ngeiser , f . 1986 . thermoregulation and torpor in the kultarr antechinomys laniger marsupiala dasyuridae . journal of comparitive physiology b biochemical systematic physiology , 156 ( 5 ) : 751 - 757 .\nlittle is known about mating systems of kultarrs . it is suspected that olfactory cues are used in mate selection .\nkultarrs are a polyoestrous mammals , and females may enter oestrus up to 6 times during the breeding season . oestrus cycles occur from july to january and may be photo - dependent . the long breeding season runs from midwinter to midsummer . breeding females have a supple pouch , elongated nipples , and long red - brown hairs . males begin spermatorrheoea in may . kultarrs have 1 to 8 offspring ( average 6 ) . gestation lasts 12 to 17 days . after birth , the young crawl into the pouch , where they remain for 30 to 48 days . weening occurs at 80 to 90 days of age in captivity . after the breeding season , the female ' s pouch regresses into a small fold . kultarrs reach sexual maturity at 11 . 5 months of age .\naverage age at sexual or reproductive maturity ( female ) : 11 . 5 months .\naverage age at sexual or reproductive maturity ( male ) : 11 . 5 months .\nfemale kultarrs feed and protect the offspring in their pouch for 30 to 48 days . after they are weaned , young remain in the nest as the mother forages . when older , they ride on their mother ' s back as she searches for food .\nstannard , h . , j . old . 2010 . observation of reproductive strategies of captive kultarrs ( antechinomys laniger ) . australian mammalogy , 32 : 179 - 182 .\nwoolley , p . 1984 . reproduction in antechinomys laniger (\nspenceri\nform ) ( marsupialia : dasyuridae ) : field and laboratory investigations . . australian wildlife research , 11 ( 3 ) : 481 - 489 . accessed february 21 , 2012 at urltoken ; = env & recid ; = 962454 & q ; = antechinomys + laniger & uid ; = & setcookie ; = yes .\nlamoreux , j . & hilton - taylor , c . ( global mammal assessment team )\nlisted as least concern even though it is declining ( at least in new south wales ) , because there is no indication of a large decline that would approach criterion a , and it is very widespread .\nantechinomys laniger is considered a species of least concern by the iucn . it is widespread , and populations are believed to fluctuate with rain levels . the us fish & wildlife service , however , listed this species as endangered in 1970 . over - grazing by cattle and sheep as well as predation by feral cats and red foxes are major threats , and localized extinctions have occurred . changes in fire regime also negatively affect kultarrs . protection of land and animal control programs have helped conserve this species . however , additional research on food habits , home range , and movement are necessary for more specific management programs .\nkultarrs appear to undergo fluctuations in population size . it is considered rare and scattered ( valente 2008 ) . this species is very difficult to trap using standard trapping techniques .\nhabitat degradation by sheep and cattle , and predation by cats and foxes are major threats to this species ( maxwell et al . 1996 ) . also , habitat alteration due to changes in fire regimes since european settlement ( dickman and read 1992 ) .\nthere is a need to develop trapping techniques to permit effective survey and monitoring of the species . other conservation measures should include implementing long - term monitoring to validate adequacy of conservation measures ; collate distribution data ; identify and determine the status of the species across its range ; construct habitat model to more accurately determine extent of source and sink habitat available to the kultarr , identify patches and allow monitoring of the changes in habitat quality , particularly due to excessive flooding and grazing . there is a need to study home range , movement , habitat and food requirements in the field if a population can be located for a 3 - 5 year population study . also , measures should include establishing adequate reserves and appropriate management inside and outside the reserve system ( maxwell et al . 1996 ) .\nthere are no known direct benefits of kultarrs on humans . they may affect populations of pest insects they prey upon .\nin the west . the latter is now relegated to subspecific status . the species name\nthe kultarr usually measures 7\u201310 cm , with a 10\u201315 cm tail . it weighs 20 - 30g ; males are larger and heavier than females .\nthe most distinctive features are the large four - toed hind legs , enabling a hopping motion , and prominent ears . it is coloured fawn grey to sandy brown above , with a white chest and darker eye - ring .\n. mating occurs in winter and spring , with young being born around august\u2013november . the species nests in soil cracks or utilises abandoned burrows of other species .\ngroves , c . p . ( 2005 ) .\norder dasyuromorphia\n. in wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . p . 32 . isbn 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 0 . oclc 62265494 .\nmorris , k . , woinarski , j . , ellis , m . , robinson , t . & copley , p . ( 2008 ) . antechinomys laniger . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 9 october 2008 .\nmorris , k . , woinarski , j . , ellis , m . , robinson , t . & copley , p . ( 2008 ) . antechinomys laniger . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 9 october 2008 .\nvalente , a . ( 1995 ) .\nkultarr\n. in strahan , ronald . the mammals of australia . reed books . pp . 57\u201358 . isbn 0 - 7301 - 0484 - 2 .\nmenkhorst , peter ( 2001 ) . a field guide to the mammals of australia . oxford university press . p . 58 . isbn 0 - 19 - 550870 - x .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nstress related death before it is one year old . this is understood to be a survival adaptation for the species ( and some other marsupials ) on the basis that the females with young in pouch are free to forage without competition from the males in the dry summer environment of the australian bush . contents\nvictoria and south australiaa . f . leucogaster , found in southwestern western australiaa . f . rubeculus , found in northeastern queensland\n[ 4 ] the mating season lasts for two weeks either in august , for southern animals ; in october , for animals from southern queensland ; or in june - july , for north queensland animals .\n[ 4 ] the diet is invertebrates , eggs , nectar and sometimes small vertebrates .\n^ groves , c . ( 2005 ) . wilson , d . e . , reeder , d . m . ed . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . pp . 29 .\nd menkhorst , peter ( 2001 ) . a field guide to the mammals of australia . oxford university press . p . 54 .\nfat - tailed dunnart ( s . crassicaudata ) s . macroura species - group : kakadu dunnart ( s . bindi )\nred - cheeked dunnart ( s . virginiae ) s . granulipes species - group :\nwhite - tailed dunnart ( s . granulipes ) s . griseoventer species - group : kangaroo island dunnart ( s . aitkeni )\ngrey - bellied dunnart ( s . griseoventer ) s . longicaudata species - group :\nlong - tailed dunnart ( s . longicaudata ) s . murina species - group : chestnut dunnart ( s . archeri )\nslender - tailed dunnart ( s . murina ) s . psammophila species - group :\ndasyuromorphia is an order of mammals that includes most of the australasian carnivorous marsupials , including quolls , dunnarts , the numbat , the tasmanian devil , and the tasmanian wolf .\nthere are two extant families of dasyurmorphians , myrmecobiidae ( with one extant species , the numbat , myrmecobius fasciatus ) and dasyuridae ( with about 20 extant genera and over 70 species , including quolls , dunnarts , and the tasmanian devil ) . a third family , thylacinidae , is assumed to have gone extinct in the 20th century with the demise of the thylacine ( thylacinus cynocephalus , also known as the tasmanian wolf or tasmanian tiger ) . dasyurmorphians are found in australia , new guinea , tasmania , and some nearby islands .\nsome dasyurmomorphians , such as the the numbat , serve in the control of social insects , and some of the larger dasyurids , such as the tasmanian devil and various quolls , play an ecological role in eating carrion , including dead wallabies and wombats . for humans , the unique appearance of dasyuromorphians add to the beauty of nature .\nwhile there is large size variation among extant members of dasyuromorphia , the body shape tends toward uniformity . dasyuromorphians move on four legs ( quadrupedal ) , have pointed and generally long snouts , have long tails ( dasyuromorphia means\nhairy tail\n) , have four toes on the front feet and four or five toes on the hind feet , and many have a clawless toe on the hind feet . dasyuromorphians have polyprotodont dentition ( multiple lower incisor teeth as opposed to diprotodont dentition with two lower incisors ) , with four upper and three lower incisors . members of the order peramelemorphia ( the bandicoots and bilbies ) are another example of marsupials that are polyprotodont , as opposed to the diprotodont kangaroos , possums , wallabies , koala , and wombats , all of which have only two lower incisors . unlike members of peramelemorphia , the feet of dasyuromorphians tend not to have syndactylous digits ( with the second and third toes fused together while maintaining separate claws ) .\nunlike herbivores , which tend to become highly specialized for particular ecological niches and diversify greatly in form , carnivores tend to be broadly similar to one another , certainly on the level of gross external form . just as northern hemisphere carnivores like cats , foxes , and weasels are much more alike in structure than , for example , camels , goats , pigs , and giraffes , so too are the marsupial predators constrained to retain general - purpose , look - alike forms\u2014forms which mirror those of placental carnivores . the names given to them by early european settlers reflect this : the thylacine was called the tasmanian tiger , quolls were called native cats , and so on .\nthe primary specialization among marsupial predators is that of size : prior to the massive environmental changes that came about with the arrival of humans about 50 , 000 years ago , there were several very large carnivores , none of them members of the dasyuromorphia and all of them now extinct . those marsupial predators among the dasyuromorphians that survived into historical times ranged from the wolf - sized thylacine to the tiny long - tailed planigale , which at 4 to 6 grams is less than half the size of a mouse . most present - day dasyuromorphians , however , tend towards the lower end of the size scale , typically between about 15 or 20 grams and about 2 kilograms , or from the size of a domestic mouse to that of a small domestic cat .\nto provide context , the table below also shows other major branches of the marsupial tree .\norder diprotodontia ( about 137 species in 11 families , including the koala , wombats , possums , potoroos , kangaroos , wallabies and others . )\nunlike most marsupials in which the females typically have an external pouch where the newborn are nursed , numbat females have no pouch . the four mammae ( milk - secreating teats ) are protected , however , by a patch of crimped , golden hair and by the swelling of the surrounding abdomen and thighs during lactation ( cooper 2011 ) .\nthe numbat is relatively small compared to many termite - consuming mammals , with a body length of about 17 . 5 to 27 . 5 centimeters ( 7 - 11 inches ) and a tail of about 13 . 0 to 17 centimeters ( 5 - 6 . 7 inches ) , or roughly 30 to 45 centimeters ( 12 - 17 . 7 inches ) in total length . the adult numbat weighs from about 280 to 550 grams ( 0 . 6 - 1 . 2 pounds ) ( ellis 2003 ) .\nthe numbat has a finely pointed muzzle , a small mouth , and small , round - tipped ears . there are five toes on the stout forefeet , and four toes on the hindfeet ; all four feet have thick and large claws ( cooper 2011 ; ellis 2003 ) . the tail is prominent and bushy . like many termite - eating animals , the numbat has an unusually long , narrow , tongue , coated with sticky saliva produced by large submandibular glands . the tongue can reach 10 centimeters from the mouth opening ( ellis 2003 ) . a further adaptation to the diet is the presence of numerous ridges along the soft palate , which apparently help to scrape termites off the tongue so that they can be swallowed .\nlike other mammals that eat termites or ants , the numbat has a degenerate jaw with up to 50 very small non - functional teeth , and although it is able to chew ( cooper 2011 ) , it rarely does so , because of the soft nature of its diet . uniquely among terrestrial mammals , there is an additional cheek tooth between the premolars and molars ; it is unclear whether this represents a supernumary molar tooth or a deciduous tooth retained into adult life . as a result , although not all individuals have the same dental formula , in general , it follows the unique pattern ( cooper 2011 ) :\nthylacinidae is an extinct family of dasyuromorphians , whose only species to survive into modern times was the thylacine ( thylacinus cynocephalus ) , also known as the tasmanian wolf or tasmanian tiger . all other thylacinids lived in prehistoric times in australia , with specimens found in the fossil record dating back to the early miocene .\ndasyuridae includes about 75 species divided into 15 genera . dasyurids are known by such common names as quolls , dunnarts , and the tasmanian devil . dasyurids are found in australia and new guinea . they inhabit a wide range of environments , including grassland , forests , and mountains , and some species are arboreal or semiaquatic .\nmany dasyurids are small and mouse - like , leading to the misnomer\nmarsupial mice ,\nbut the group also includes the cat - sized quolls , as well as the tasmanian devil . the smallest species is the pilbara ningaui , which is from 4 . 6 to 5 . 7 cm in length , and weighs just 2\u20139 grams , while the largest , the tasmanian devil , is 57\u201365 cm long , and weighs from 6\u20138 kg . the smaller dasyurids typically resemble shrews or mice in appearance , with long tails and narrow , pointed noses . the larger species bear a resemblance to such placental carnivores as mongooses or mustelids ( lee 1984 ) .\nmany features of dasyurids are considered primitive , that is , they resemble the features of the earliest marsupials , from which other species , such as kangaroos and bandicoots , later diverged . for example , all of the toes in dasyurids are separate , whereas in many other marsupials , the second and third toes are fused . similarly , many species lack a full marsupial pouch ; instead they have a simple fold of skin surrounding the teats to provide some protection to the developing young . the dentition of dasyurids is also considered primitive , and differs from that of other marsupials , with a dental formula of : .\ndasyurids are primarily insectivorous , but they will also eat small lizards , fruit , and flowers . one of the few exceptions to this rule is the tasmanian devil , which subsists mainly on vertebrate carrion ( lee 1984 ) . they have relatively simple digestive tracts , as is typical of insectivores and carnivores .\ngestation lasts from 12\u201316 days , and results in the birth of from two to 12 young , depending on species . smaller species typically breed at least twice a year , while the larger forms tend to breed just once . the length of lactation reflects this , with young dunnarts , for example , being weaned after 60\u201370 days , but young quolls only after 8\u20139 months . most dasyurid species are sexually mature at one year of age , but , again , the quolls and tasmanian devil , being larger , take longer to mature and do not reach full adulthood for about two years ( lee 1984 ) .\nbininda - emonds , o . r . p . 2007 . the delayed rise of present - day mammals . nature 446 : 507\u2013512 . pmid 17392779 .\ncooper , c . e . 2011 . myrmecobius fasciatus ( dasyuromorphia : myrmecobiidae ) . mammalian species 43 ( 1 ) : 129\u2013140 .\ncooper , c . e . , and p . c . withers . 2004 . patterns of body temperature variation and torpor in the numbat , myrmecobius fasciatus ( marsupialia : myrmecobiidae ) . journal of thermal biology 29 ( 6 ) : 277\u2013284 .\ncooper , c . e . , and p . c . withers . 2010 . gross renal morphology of the numbat ( myrmecobius fasciatus ) ( marsupialia : myrmecobiidae ) . australian mammalogy 32 ( 2 ) : 95\u201397 .\nellis , e . 2003 . myrmecobius fasciatus . animal diversity web . retrieved march 19 , 2012 .\ngroves , c . 2005 . order primates , order monotremata\n( and select other orders ) . page ( s ) 23 - 37 in d . e . wilson and d . m . reeder , eds . , mammal species of the world , 3rd edition . johns hopkins university press ) . isbn 0801882214 .\nlee , a . k . 1984 . dasyuridae . pages 838 - 845 in d . macdonald , the encyclopedia of mammals . new york : facts on file . isbn 0871968711 .\nnihranz , d . , and e . colvin . 2013 . dasyuromorphia . animal diversity web ( university of michigan - ann arbor ) . retrieved may 08 , 2014 ."]}
{"id": 344, "summary": [{"text": "macrobathra mesopora is a moth in the cosmopterigidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by meyrick in 1886 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the adult moths have off-white forewings with bold dark brown bands and patches .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are dark brown .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 1.5 cm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "it is found in australia , where it has been recorded from new south wales . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "macrobathra mesopora", "paragraphs": ["macrobathra mesopora meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 804 ; tl : blackheath , new south wales\nmacrobathra crococephala meyrick , 1936 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 2 ) : 50\nmacrobathra auratella viette , 1958 ; rev . franc . ent . 25 ( 2 ) : 119\nmacrobathra is a genus of moth in the family cosmopterigidae . most species are endemic to australia .\nmacrobathra cineralella viette , 1957 ; m\u00e9m . inst . sci . madagascar ( e ) 8 : 162\nmacrobathra vexillariata lucas , 1901 ; proc . r . soc . qd 16 : 90 ; tl : brisbane\nmacrobathra crococosma meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 510 ; tl : queensland , cairns\nmacrobathra gentilis meyrick , 1918 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 7 ) : 212 ; tl : kanara , dharwar\nmacrobathra pyrodoxa meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 10 ) : 310 ; tl : new ireland\nmacrobathra arneutis meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 7 ) : 218 ; tl : assam , margherita\nmacrobathra astrota meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 7 ) : 216 ; tl : queensland , herberton\nmacrobathra decataea meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 7 ) : 216 ; tl : queensland , townsville\nmacrobathra hedrastis meyrick , 1915 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 10 ) : 295 ; tl : tenasserim , mergui\nmacrobathra myrocoma meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 7 ) : 218 ; tl : assam , khasis\nmacrobathra notomitra meyrick , 1924 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 4 ) : 98 ; tl : bengal , pusa\nmacrobathra notozyga meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 7 ) : 217 ; tl : queensland , herberton\nmacrobathra recrepans meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 10 ) : 310 ; tl : rhodesia , umvuma\nmacrobathra synacta meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 12 ) : 364 ; tl : south australia , yutala\nmacrobathra proxena meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 7 ) : 216 ; tl : nyassaland , mt mlanje\nmacrobathra anacampta meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 7 ) : 217 ; tl : queensland , herberton , brisbane\nmacrobathra antimeloda meyrick , 1924 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 18 - 20 ) : 614 ; tl : madagascar , imerina\nmacrobathra neurocoma meyrick , 1930 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 18 - 20 ) : 614 ; tl : cameroons , lolodorf\nmacrobathra nomaea meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 7 ) : 217 ; tl : ceylon , colombo , peradeniya\nmacrobathra ochanota meyrick , 1915 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 10 ) : 295 ; tl : coorg , dibidi , 3500ft\nmacrobathra petalitis meyrick , 1915 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 10 ) : 295 ; tl : coorg , dibidi , 3500ft\nmacrobathra anisodora meyrick , 1924 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 4 ) : 98 ; tl : cape colony , kowie r .\nmacrobathra equestris meyrick , 1910 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 20 ( 1 ) : 143 ; tl : khasis\nmacrobathra hexadyas meyrick , 1906 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 30 : 35 ; tl : rosewood , queensland\nmacrobathra homocosma meyrick , 1902 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 26 : 167 ; tl : duaringa , queensland\nmacrobathra quercea moriuti , 1973 ; ty\u00f4 to ga 23 ( 2 ) : 35 ; tl : kuragaritoge , osaka pref . , honshu\nmacrobathra xanthoplaca meyrick , 1902 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 26 : 167 ; tl : melbourne , victoria\nmacrobathra monoclina meyrick , 1915 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 10 ) : 294 ; tl : ceylon , colombo ; coorg , dibidi\nmacrobathra peraeota meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 98 ; tl : portuguese east africa , magude\nmacrobathra aneurae turner , 1932 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 57 : 272 ; tl : queensland , charleville\nmacrobathra asemanta lower , 1894 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . aust . 18 : 103 ; tl : windermere , tasmania\nmacrobathra chryseostola turner , 1932 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 57 : 272 ; tl : queensland , rockhampton\nmacrobathra dasyplaca lower , 1894 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . aust . 18 : 103 ; tl : windermere , tasmania\nmacrobathra diplochrysa lower , 1894 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . aust . 18 : 104 ; tl : brisbane , queensland\nmacrobathra embroneta turner , 1932 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 57 : 274 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\nmacrobathra galenaea meyrick , 1902 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 26 : 167 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nmacrobathra phryganina turner , 1932 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 57 : 268 ; tl : queensland , toowoomba\nmacrobathra platyzona turner , 1932 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 57 : 273 ; tl : queensland , toowoomba\nmacrobathra polypasta turner , 1932 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 57 : 272 ; tl : queensland , charleville\nmacrobathra fasciata ; meyrick , 1921 , ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 98 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ afromoths ]\nmacrobathra gastroleuca lower , 1905 ; trans . r . soc . s . austr . 29 : 109 ; tl : broken hill , new south wales\nmacrobathra isoscelana lower , 1893 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . austr . 17 ( 1 ) : 182 ; tl : blackwood\nmacrobathra nimbifera turner , 1932 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 57 : 274 ; tl : queensland , national park\nmacrobathra psathyrodes turner , 1932 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 57 : 270 ; tl : queensland , bunya mts\nmacrobathra stenosema turner , 1932 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 57 : 271 ; tl : northern territory , darwin\nmacrobathra baliomitra turner , 1932 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 57 : 270 ; tl : new south wales , sydney\nmacrobathra heterocera lower , 1894 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . aust . 18 : 102 ; tl :\nbillopp\n, tasmania\nmacrobathra anemarcha meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 805 ; tl : launceston , tasmania\nmacrobathra brontodes meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 821 ; tl : rosewood , queensland\nmacrobathra dispila turner , 1932 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 57 : 273 ; tl : n . queensland , cape york\nmacrobathra euryxantha meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 803 ; tl : duaringa , queensland\nmacrobathra leucozancla turner , 1932 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 57 : 270 ; tl : n . queensland , cape york\nmacrobathra melanargyra meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 817 ; tl : brisbane , queensland\nmacrobathra melanota meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 809 ; tl : oowoomba , queensland\nmacrobathra micropis lower , 1894 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . aust . 18 : 102 ; tl : coomooboolaroo range , duaringa , queensland\nmacrobathra microspora lower , 1900 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 25 ( 3 ) : 415 ; tl : mackay , queensland\nmacrobathra niphadobola meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 810 ; tl : rosewood , queensland\nmacrobathra paracentra lower , 1893 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . austr . 17 ( 1 ) : 182 ; tl : gisborne , victoria\nmacrobathra platychroa lower , 1897 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 22 ( 2 ) : 270 ; tl : gisborne , victoria\nmacrobathra anemodes meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 819 ; tl : wirrabarra , south australia\nmacrobathra drosera lower , 1901 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 25 ( 2 ) : 96 ; tl : broken hill , new south wales\nmacrobathra harmostis meyrick , 1889 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . ( 2 ) 3 : 1678 ; tl : geraldton , west australia\nmacrobathra hemitropa meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 817 ; tl : wirrabara , south australia\nmacrobathra heterozona meyrick , 1889 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . ( 2 ) 3 : 1676 ; tl : northampton , west australia\nmacrobathra hyalistis meyrick , 1889 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . ( 2 ) 3 : 1679 ; tl : york , west australia\nmacrobathra parthenistis meyrick , 1889 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . ( 2 ) 3 : 1678 ; tl : carnarvon , west australia\nmacrobathra philopsamma lower , 1900 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 25 ( 1 ) : 47 ; tl : semaphore , south australia\nmacrobathra pompholyctis meyrick , 1889 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . ( 2 ) 3 : 1677 ; tl : york , west australia\nmacrobathra synastra meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 815 ; tl : geroge\u00b4s bay , tasmania\nmacrobathra allocrana turner , 1916 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 41 ( 2 ) : 336 ; tl : n . queensland , innisfail\nmacrobathra callispila turner , 1916 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 41 ( 2 ) : 334 ; tl : north australia , port darwin\nmacrobathra heminephela meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 806 ; tl : launceston and hobart , tasmania\nmacrobathra porphyrea meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 820 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nmacrobathra rhodospila meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 814 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nmacrobathra xuthocoma meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 813 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nmacrobathra aphristis meyrick , 1889 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . ( 2 ) 3 : 1677 ; tl : carnarvon and northampton , west australia\nmacrobathra euspila turner , 1932 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 57 : 269 ; tl : new south wales , sydney ( woy woy )\nmacrobathra phernaea lower , 1899 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 24 ( 1 ) : 112 ; tl : broken hill , new south wales\nmacrobathra syncoma lower , 1899 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 24 ( 1 ) : 112 ; tl : broken hill , new south wales\nmacrobathra trimorpha meyrick , 1889 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . ( 2 ) 3 : 1675 ; tl : carnarvon and geraldton , west australia\nmacrobathra zonodesma lower , 1900 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 25 ( 3 ) : 414 ; tl : broken hill , new south wales\nmacrobathra lychnophora turner , 1932 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 57 : 269 ; tl : queensland , bunya mts ; new south wales , allyn river\nmacrobathra callipetala turner , 1932 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 57 : 271 ; tl : n . australia , darwin ; n . queensland , cape york\nmacrobathra nephelomorpha meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 820 ; tl : toowoomba , queensland ; sydney , new south wales ; hobart , tasmania\nmacrobathra trithyra meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 808 ; tl : sydney and cooma , new south wales ; mt lofty , south australia\nmacrobathra ceraunobola meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 818 ; tl : sydney and blackheath , new south wales ; melbourne , victoria ; hobart , tasmania\nmacrobathra melanomitra meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 807 ; tl : bowenfels , new south wales ; mt lofty , wirrabara and quorn , south australia\nmacrobathra desmotoma meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 806 ; tl : brisbane and toowoomba , queensland ; newcastle and sydney , new south wales ; melbourne , victoria\nmacrobathra chrysotoxa meyrick , 1886 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 10 ( 4 ) : 804 ; tl : brisbane and toowoomba , queensland ; newcastle and sydney , new south wales ; melbourne and warragul , victoria ; launceston and hobart , tasmania\nthe adult moths have off - white forewings with bold dark brown bands and patches . the hindwings are dark brown . the wingspan is about 1 . 5 cms .\nseries 1 , volume 10 , part 4 ( 1886 ) , pp . 804 - 805 ,\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 755be193 - 8a27 - 4914 - abac - 7dc0b36af9ea\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : cee00aef - 1c98 - 42a7 - 87a6 - 1275e1d296d3\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 382205\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nthere are several matrix . why not try to find a fault ? type something to search . . .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\naspasiodes allophyla turner , 1944 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 69 ( 1 - 2 ) : 51 ; tl : queensland , injune\ns . queensland , new south wales , s . australia . see [ maps ]\nmacronemata basisticha turner , 1936 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 61 : 309 ; tl : queensland , brisbane\ngelechia constrictella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 647 ; tl : australia\ndeltozona meyrick , 1932 \u00b2 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 8 - 9 ) : 276\nstagmatophora distincta walsingham , 1891 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1891 ( 1 ) : 119 , pl . 6 , f . 57 ; tl : bathurst , gambia\ngelechia epimela lower , 1894 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . aust . 18 : 106 ; tl : brisbane\nborkhausenia ( ? ) erythrocephala lower , 1904 ; trans . r . soc . s . austr . 28 : 169 ; tl : broken hill , n . s . w :\nstagmatophora fasciata walsingham , 1891 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1891 ( 1 ) : 118 , pl . 6 , f . 56 ; tl : bathurst , gambia\nhamata meyrick , 1931 \u00b2 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 5 ) : 116\nleurozancla humilis turner , 1933 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . austr . 57 : 173 ; tl : queensland , national park\nlarva on quercus serrata , q . glauca moriuti , 1973 , ty\u00f4 to ga 23 ( 2 ) : 38\nlymnaecia subharpalea legrand , 1966 ; m\u00e9m . mus . hist . nat . paris ( a ) 37 : 65 , pl . 4 , f . 10\nlymnaecia superharpalea legrand , 1966 ; m\u00e9m . mus . hist . nat . paris ( a ) 37 : 65 , pl . 4 , f . 11\nlaverna vividella felder & rogenhofer , 1875 ; reise fregatte novara , bd 2 ( abth . 2 ) ( 5 ) : pl . 140 , f . 6\ngelechia xylopterella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 650 ; tl : moreton bay\n[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\nreise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera\n- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .\nin la faune entomologique de i ' ile de lar r\u00e9union . l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res ( except\u00e9 les tordeuses et les g\u00e9om\u00e9trides )\nwalsingham , 1891 african micro - lepidoptera trans . ent . soc . lond . 1891 ( 1 ) : 63 - 132 , pl . 3 - 7\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . ."]}
{"id": 348, "summary": [{"text": "lixus concavus , commonly called the rhubarb curculio , is a species of weevil .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "rhubarb ( rheum species ) is a host , together with dock , sunflower , and thistle . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "lixus concavus", "paragraphs": ["abstract the mature larvae and pupae of lixus ( ortholixus ) bituberculatus smreczy\u00e5\u0084ski , 1968 and lixus ( dilixellus ) neglectus fremuth , 1983 ( curculionidae : lixinae : lixini ) are described and compared with known larvae of 21 other lixus and 2 hypolixus taxa . the mature larva and pupa of lixus bituberculatus are the first immature stages described representing the subgenus ortholixus . the larva of lixus neglectus , in the subgenus dilixellus , is distinguished from the known larvae of four\nlixus concavus ) also known as rhubarb curculios are commonly found throughout the eastern united states and portions of the western united states such as utah , idaho and texas . there are known populations in ontario , canada as well .\nlixus bardanae , kulczanka szczawiowiec , bruine zuringsnuitkever on grean grass leaf in morning sun light . extreme macro horizontal crop\ninsect lixus angustatus . weevil weevil or the mallows . location : tibi . alicante . valencia . spain . europe .\nin the czech republic , slovakia and romania is provided . for lixus bituberculatus , a chicory , cichorium intybus l . ( asteraceae ) , is identified as a host plant , and lixus neglectus is found on dock rumex thyrsiflorus fingerh . ( polygonaceae ) . both\nthanks for contacting horticulture talk through our facebook page . to be honest , there are not a lot of insect pests that affect rhubarb \u2014 because it is acidic and because of the oxalate crystals in the leaves . however , based on your description , it sounds like you have rhubarb curculio ( lixus concavus ) .\nreadily distinguished by the difference in superficial bloom , bright yellow in l . concavus , whitish in l . mucidus , in which the depression at the base of pronotum & elytra is also much less marked\nde waterscheerlingsnuitkever is een kenmerkende soort van moerassen , waar ze op schermbloemen te vinden is , onder andere de waterscheerling . lixus paraplecticus is a typical species of marshes , where it can be found on umbellifers .\nare probably monophagous or oligophagous . adults of lixus bituberculatus often inhabit host plants growing in active , dry and sunny pastures with sparse patches without vegetation , being mostly active during the night in april / may and then again in september , when the highest activity levels are observed . adults of lixus neglectus inhabit dry grasslands on sandy soils with host plants , being active during the day from may to september , with the highest level of activity in may / june and september . the larvae of both\nare borers in the stem and root of the host plant , and they pupate in root or root neck . adults leave the pupation cells at the end of summer and do not hibernate in the host plants . finally , romania is a new geographic record for lixus bituberculatus . pmid : 27551208\ndistribution . this native species is found throughout the eastern united states west to idaho , utah , and texas . in canada it is known from ontario . a very similar insect , lixus mucidus leconte , may be confused with rhubarb curculio , because it shares the same geographic range , host plants , and biology . it also is native to north america .\neaton and kaufman describe the 69 north american species of lixus as large , cylindrical weevils . the american insects website says that the striking , half - inch rc is \u201ccovered with both a short gray pubescence and an orange bloom\u201d ( when the bloom is off the weevil , it looks black ) . it has club - tipped antennae and its abdomen is tapered toward the stern .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthese small , circular , brown spots are scattered over the surface of the leaf . the disease is caused by a fungus .\nthe leaf spot is common in connecticut , but does not do enough damage to the plant to require special control measures .\nthe disease is caused by soilborne fungi which cause the crown and roots to rot . the disease appears in heavy wet soils .\nfungicide applications have not been shown to be effective . control can be achieved by planting in well - drained soils .\nthe bean aphid and green peach aphid sometimes infest rhubarb . control is not usually necessary .\neuropean corn borer . this insect will sometimes tunnel in the stalks of rhubarb . control is not generally necessary .\nthe rhubarb curculio makes feeding and egg punctures in the stalks , and the sap exudes from the wounds as glistening drops of gum . the eggs laid in rhubarb do not hatch , but are killed by sap . this pest completes its life cycle in the stems of wild dock . the beetle is about half an inch in length , black , covered with yellow dust , and hibernates as an adult . it feeds upon the margins of the leaves besides puncturing the stalks . they are usually present in small numbers and can be handpicked and destroyed . removal of their other host plants , such as dock and thistle , during july when the larvae are still in them may also reduce populations .\nstalk borer , papaipema nebris . the eggs of this caterpillar are laid in the fall by the moths on surrounding grasses and weeds . after hatching in the spring the borers feed on these plants and later may migrate into adjacent rhubarb where they cause injury . the caterpillars are very active . their restless habit of frequently changing from one plant stem to another increases the damage . keeping the borders of the vegetable garden well - mowed and controlling weeds may help deny these insects their breeding grounds .\nyellow woollybear , spilosoma virginica . this caterpillar sometimes feeds upon rhubarb but does not regularly require control .\nstate of connecticut disclaimer , privacy policy , and web site accessibility policy . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 state of connecticut .\nthe entomology department ' s extension program applies the results of research to alleviate insect problems in new york state , the us , and throughout the world . this effort reflects the ever - changing needs of the state ' s agricultural industry , its recreational resources , and its urban dwellers . a primary reason for a department devoted to the multifaceted study of insects and related arthropods is to bring our collective expertise to bear on important insect - related issues of society .\na crucial mission of the cornell entomology department is to provide accurate , current , and effective educational programs and resources in entomology and related disciplines to our commercial / professional , consumer , and public clientele . we consider both cornell cooperative extension programs , partially funded by federal formula funds , as well as educational outreach programs , as important avenues for accomplishing this mission . most extension programs are closely integrated with research so there is a seamless transition between developing new knowledge and providing clients with access to this new information . we have particular strength in developing ipm solutions for diverse clientele and , especially in cooperation with the new york state ipm program , are able to move applied research to extension solutions .\nthe strong commitment of the department of entomology to outreach is reflected in our diverse efforts to effectively communicate the value of arthropods and entomological research to the broader community . these efforts include our popular annual ' insectapalooza ' event , a one - day insect fair , which attracts ~ 3 , 000 people each fall . insectapalooza reflects the culture of participation and involvement in outreach through over 30 hands - on educational and entertaining exhibits contributed by the faculty , active undergraduate community , and graduate students . insectapalooza is one of the largest and most beloved science outreach events at cornell university .\nefforts have begun to create a new ' arthropod museum ' with displays on the benefits of arthropods , innovative ways that insects avoid being eaten by predators , arthropod diversity , and many live arthropods .\nthe naturalist outreach speakers bureau trains cornell undergraduate and graduate students to do effective scientific outreach . the students form the naturalist outreach speakers bureau which goes into local classrooms in 7 upstate counties to give free hands on presentations on natural history , ecology and conservation .\nempire farm days , located in seneca falls ny , is the largest agricultural outdoor farm show in the northeast and typically draws 50 , 000 - 70 , 000 visitors . the entomology department presents a large display on insect diversity , invasive species , and insects that are of importance to local agriculture . the display is in the building housing a number of other cornell university exhibits and over the 3 - day event draws many hundreds to thousands of visitors . many of the visitors bring specimens or photos for discussion and identification . over the years the display has been organized by charlie linn ( geneva ) , with help from other faculty and graduate students ( including last year art muka , masanori seto , erik smith , heather connelly , and aloy gu ) .\nare you interested in having one of our graduate students come talk to your classroom or club ? if so visit our website and fill out the submission form and one of our graduate students will get back to you ! visit eoa here .\nthe annual , one - day insect fair hosted by the faculty , staff and students of the department of entomology at cornell university . insectapalooza is an interactive , hands - on experience that features hundreds of live insects , spiders , and other fascinating arthropods .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nweevils of south carolina ( coleoptera : nemonychidae , attelabidae , brentidae , ithyceridae , and curculionidae ) . janet c . ciegler . 2010 . clemson university , clemson , s . c . 276 pp .\nannotated checklist of the weevils ( curculionidae sensu lato ) of north america , central america , and the west indies . . . o ' brien c . w . , wibmer g . j . 1982 . mem . am . ent . inst . 34 : x + 382 pp .\ncontributed by ron m . on 12 october , 2008 - 11 : 29pm additional contributions by mike quinn , v belov last updated 2 march , 2013 - 6 : 41pm\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\nyou could not be signed in . please check your email address / username and password and try again .\nmost users should sign in with their email address . if you originally registered with a username please use that to sign in .\nto purchase short term access , please sign in to your oxford academic account above .\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\ni get bugs eating on my rhubarb stems each year . it looks like eggs under the leaves , but i\u2019ve never seen any bugs to identify . what are they and what can i do ? colorado potato beetles ? sevin ?\nthe leaf stalks of the rhubarb may show exuding sap and partial decay from late - may through early summer , due to the feeding and egg laying punctures of the rhubarb curculio . feeding injury appears as notches in the stem and on the leaf edges . sap exudes from wounds of either type and collects as glistening drops of gum when fresh . fortunately , the eggs of this insect do not hatch when deposited in rhubarb .\nthe rhubarb curculio ( or rhubarb weevil ) is a large snout beetle , about 1 / 2 inch long . it is dark colored , with a yellow powdery material dusted on its back . the yellowish covering easily rubs off when the insect is handled . the head has a downwardly curved snout , at the end of which are the mandibles ( the chewing mouth parts ) . the eggs are oblong and yellow - white in color ( similar to colorado potato beetles ) . the mature larva is a legless grub about 3 / 4 inch in length , with a brown head .\nthe only direct method of control is to hand pick the beetles from the plants during early summer and destroy them . when the beetles first emerge they are easily picked from the vegetation on which they are resting . their large size aids in finding them and helps make them easy to handle . the removal of all wild plants in which the beetles breed ( dock , thistle , and sunflower ) growing in or near the planting during july , while the curculio larvae are still in them , will also be helpful .\n\u00a9 mertie mae botanics llc and horticulture talk ! , 2011 . unauthorized use and / or duplication of this material without express and written permission from this blog\u2019s author and / or owner is strictly prohibited . excerpts and links may be used , provided that full and clear credit is given to mertie mae botanics llc and horticulture talk ! with appropriate and specific direction to the original content .\n\u00a9 mertie mae botanics llc and horticulture talk ! , 2005 - 2018 . unauthorized use and / or duplication of this material without express and written permission from this blog\u2019s author and / or owner is strictly prohibited . excerpts and links may be used , provided that full and clear credit is given to mertie mae botanics llc and horticulture talk ! with appropriate and specific direction to the original content .\nerror : twitter did not respond . please wait a few minutes and refresh this page .\nenter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nfamily giving connections , inc . kara joseph and her team are working on a project to help haitians sustain themselves at home after the destruction of the earthquake . they are looking for donations of seeds in an effort to promote long - term empowering change in this devestate country . 0\nnational junior horticulture association as a former njha - er , i definitely support the education and promotion of horticulture with today\u2019s youth . check out the website for more great information ! 0\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnomina insecta nearctica : a check list of the insects of north america , vol . 1 : coleoptera , strepsiptera\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nport huron sga , st . clair co . , michigan . 17 may 2009 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nfaba bean , lentil , lima bean , pea , snap bean , etc . )\nacyrthosiphon pisum shinji . cowpea is plagued by cow - pea weevils , callosobruchus spp . locally , a number of other pests can be important , particularly thrips , leaf miners , leafhoppers , and flea beetles .\nthe lettuce is an immensely popular vegetable . among vegetables grown in the united states , it sur -\nroyal bc museum website featuring the non - native / alien species in the province ; includes fact sheets of selected species and a current list of all alien species found in the province , including insects .\n[ cite : 593991 ] jump to : bees | wasps / ants / sawflies | diptera | lepidoptera | coleoptera | hemiptera & misc . orders | common names :\nthe common names committee of the entomological society of canada maintains and periodically updates a list of common names of insects . the list is available online as a searchable database , and is also downloadable as an excel file . in addition , there is an online form for the submission of a proposal for a new common name . the site includes recommendations for how to come up with a new common name .\nflorida dept . of agriculture and consumer services , division of plant industry . xii , 65 p . , 1989\noccasional papers of the florida state collection of arthropods , vol . 6 full text\nprice , p . w . & m . f . willson . 1979 . abundance of herbivores on six milkweed species in illinois . american midland naturalist 101 ( 1 ) : 76\u201386 .\nasclepias incarnata , a . sullivantii , a . syriaca , a . verticillata , a . amplexicaulis\n. these species occur in this order on a moisture gradient from wet to dry soil conditions . this survey revealed that 12 species occurred at an abundance of at least one individual per 100 host stems in 1 plot - year on one host species :\noncopeltus fasciatus * , lygaeus kalmii * , aphis nerii * , labidomera clivicollis * , tetraopes tetrophthalmus * , t . femoratus , t . quinquemaculatus , rhyssomatus lineaticollis * , danaus plexippus , cycnia tenera * , euchaetias egle\nare specific to milkweeds in illinois . seven of these species , marked with asterisks , were abundant enough to act as major selective forces on the life history patterns of the milkweed species , populations and clones concerned .\n) in south - east michigan are correlated with differences in microhabitat , in exposure to herbivores , and in competition . components of each species ' reproductive strategy include : number of stems per plants , number of umbels per stem , number of flowers and pods per umbel , number of seeds per pod , seed weight and annual increase in reproductive potential . components of each species ' selective regime include : the herbivore load ( measured by the frequency of plants damaged by predators or animal parasites ) , competition ( measured by the proportion of non - flowering plants and by the density of competitors ) , and environmental uncertainty ( measured by annual mortality rates ) .\nby dailey , p . j . , r . c . graves and j . m . kingsolver .\nthe coleopterists bulletin , 32 ( 3 ) : 223 - 229 . , 1978\ndailey , p . j . , r . c . graves and j . m . kingsolver . 1978 . survey of coleoptera collected on the common milkweed ,\n, at one site in ohio . the coleopterists bulletin , 32 ( 3 ) : 223 - 229 .\nl . , were collected daily for 90 consecutive days . of the 132 species listed , 18 were considered to be common ( 50 or more collected ) while the majority of species were considered temporary visitors . the host specific milkweed beetle , [ i ] tetraopes tetr\nby fall , h . f . and t . d . a . cockerell .\nfull text fall , h . f . and t . d . a . cockerell . 1907 . the coleoptera of new mexico . transactions of the american entomological society 33 : 145 - 272 .\nfull text knull , j . n . 1938 . five new species of coleoptera ( corynetidae , elateridae and buprestidae ) . ohio journal of science 38 : 97 - 100 .\nbeetle biodiversity response to vegetation restoration of mid - valley riparian woodland in the lrgv of southern texas .\nunpublished master ' s thesis , texas a & m ; university , college station . viii + 218 pp . , 2015\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nwe ' ve sent an email to please follow the instructions to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nnatural enemies . population regulation is poorly known in this little - studied insect . the only parasitoid known from rhubarb curculio is rhaconotus fasciatus ( ashmead ) ( hymenoptera : braconidae ) . the larvae apparently are cannibalistic , because although it is not uncommon to find several young larvae in the stalk of a host plant , it is rare to have more than one reach maturity in each plant .\nlife cycle and description . there is a single generation annually . the adults overwinter , emerging in april in the vicinity of washington d . c . mating and oviposition occur soon thereafter . eggs are found in april - mid - june , larvae through july or august , pupation commences in august , and adults begin emergence in september . in canada , adults do not emerge from overwintering until june , but similarly complete a new generation by september .\negg . the egg is oval in form and pale yellow , and is deposited in plant tissue at a depth of 2 - 3 mm . the eggs measure 1 . 5 - 1 . 9 mm long and 1 . 2 - 1 . 3 mm wide . they are deposited principally within the leaf petioles and flower stalk , though sometimes within the larger veins of the leaf . apparently the weevil deposits the egg within cavities made by feeding , though there are many more feeding sites than oviposition sites . duration of the egg stage is about eight days . the eggs fare poorly when deposited in rhubarb , apparently suffering from the flow of sap .\nthe larva is whitish , but with a brown head that usually bears an inverted y - shaped mark . the larva ' s body is curved or c - shaped , highly wrinkled , and lacks thoracic legs . larvae bore down through the stalk into the root , usually with only a single beetle surviving in each plant . duration of the larval stage is about 60 days , and then the larva creates a pupal cell in the base of the stem or in the roots .\nthe pupal cell is 25 - 40 mm long and 57 mm wide . it is constructed just beneath the soil surface , and the larva chews an exit hole for the adults before pupating . the pupa is whitish and measures 14 - 15 mm long . the head bears the long snout of the adult form , though the wings are twisted beneath the ventral surface of the body . the abdominal segments are marked with short spines . duration of the pupal stage is about eight days , though the adult remains in the pupal chamber for another 7 - 8 days before emerging .\nthe adult is 10 - 14 mm long , and black , but covered with fine gray hairs . rhubarb curculio is also dusted with yellow powder though this is lacking from l . mucidus , and can be rubbed off . the pronotum and elytra bear punctures . after emerging in september , adults feed briefly on host plants , then seek sheltered locations for overwintering . the adults pass the winter hidden beneath debris near the host plants .\nthe biology was described by webster ( 1889 ) , chittenden ( 1900 ) , and weiss ( 1912 ) . these species were included in the treatment of eastern beetles by downie and arnett ( 1996 ) and of canadian beetles by campbell et al . ( 1989 ) .\nthe adults of rhubarb curculio may nibble at the edge of leaves in the spring , but damage to rhubarb results principally from gnawing into the leaf stalks . the holes are oval or round , and up to 3 mm deep .\nsticky sap secretions often exude from the wounds , collecting as glistening drops of gum . feeding occurs mostly after most rhubarb , an early season crop , has been harvested . larvae seldom develop in rhubarb . nevertheless , rhubarb curculio is considered as the most injurious of the insects attacking rhubarb\u2014a plant notably free of insect pests .\nrhubarb curculio is rarely of consequence , though application of insecticides to rhubarb foliage should protect plants from injury . because its abundance is governed mostly by the presence of favored weed hosts such as dock , elimination of such weeds will eliminate the threat of damage by weevils .\nthis species of weevil is one of the largest in north america , reaching up to 1 / 2 inch in length . they are black beetles covered in a fine golden dust . like many beetles when they are alarmed they will roll over and play dead often rolling off the leaf or plant that they are feeding on . this must work well for the beetle , as i ' ve had them do this and they virtually disappear once they hit the ground never to be seen again .\nunusual to eat the leaves , i thought they were lethal . i have a few photos to share with you . i had sparrows hit a bluebird house and when i took out the nest i should have bagged it just to look over all the detrivores eating in there . always thinking of you , lol\ni fight sparrows all the time . they take over my martin houses and my bluebirds houses here as well . they are the bane of bird life . i love that detrivores brings me to mind . . . . . lol can ' t wait to see your photos . i always enjoy seeing what you find .\ni recently wrote a childrens book about butterflies and moths . it is now available for purchase on amazon . this a great way to introuduce children to one of the most popular orders of insects , the lepidoptera . there is also a section on vocabulary so they learn many scientific terms . just click the image and it will take you directly to the purchasing page .\nmore rain to come this afternoon this is the output from a dam . they are letting out the maximum and it really rumbles loud . hollyhocks make me smile . . . .\na canadian nonprofit alliance is trying to save a staple fish supply\u2014via drone photography .\nwhile doing a soil survey in our freshly mowed hay field , richard locke spotted a large spider skittering over the duff . after multiple tries we had it . . .\n\u00a9 valley news , urltoken the united states of america recently celebrated the 242nd anniversary of its declaration of independence from british colonialis . . .\nhey ya\u2019ll ! we\u2019ve been doing these neat live videos with entomologists from all different backgrounds . it\u2019s been almost a year of doing so , but they are onl . . .\n* click on the pictures for a proper look \u2026 and click again was walking around the water treatment plant and noticed this white cone on a branch . could see . . .\nthe insect world is full of drama , one of the major attractions for entomologists and naturalists and wildlife photographers . among the more rarely - witness . . .\ncheck your porch lights : it ' s palo verde rootborer season in tucson . the huge , up to 4 in long beetles emerge from the ground , mate at night , and lay egg . . .\nby carl strang this year\u2019s chapter in the series of annual bioblitzes organized by the indiana academy of sciences took place at eagle creek park in northe . . .\nif you work in the pest control industry , and are even a little geeky about insects , you would probably like the national conference of urban entomology . . . .\nit\u2019s a killer 95 degrees on the sand prairie today , so i was ecstatic when this western # hognose snake accepted several big gulps of water from my bottle ! # . . .\nback in the summer of 2015 , i made an early august trip to the white river hills region of extreme southwestern missouri . i was actually looking for one of . . .\nit was over 170 years ago that wisconsin was granted statehood . while much has changed over the decades , some things haven\u2019t\u2014like the omnipresence of agri . . .\nthe other day i went out to pick some spinach for breakfast , and i noticed this fly resting on one of the leaves : this is a lauxaniid fly in the minettia o . . .\njune 23 | 9am \u2013 3pm friends of the garden proudly presents its annual free butterfly festival on saturday , june 23 from 9 : 00 a . m . to 3 : 00 p . m . in the spr . . .\nimage : antonio rodr\u00edguez arduengo * uroplatus ebenaui * demons get such a bad rap these days . and . . . all other days , i suppose . but look at this cutie ! surely . . .\nat 10 : 15 this morning i deactivated my facebook account . i\u2019ve had the account for over a decade . no more . i can no longer in good conscience participate in . . .\nafter waking from the afternoon siesta , i stepped out of the darkness into the brilliant sunshine bathing the small balcony of my room . it did not look pro . . .\nthis article will soon be available in spanish inspired by mike van valen ' s\nthe ratsnake mess for dummies\nplease note that the information in this article . . .\nthe bug chicks - a site for parents , teachers and bugdorks . bumperstickers for the holidays !\ni was in scotland last weekend to lead a couple of bumblebee id training events . as i needed to bring a fair bit of kit with me , i drove , and passed throu . . .\ni am so very behind on getting data from the dragonfly swarm project shared here , but i wanted to get the data from this year so far up ! here\u2019s what i\u2019ve . . .\nhey , there peeps !\ni ' m not dead ! think i ' ll go for a walk !\n' nuf said ? = d * lazuli lifer * lazuli bunting appeared on the feeder ( sunday ) & i freaked out . . .\n* tufted titmouse ( baeolophus bicolor ) * * out in our first snow of the winter . only about an inch of snowfall . * .\nso , yeah . i guess i should update this thing every so often , before it gets hacked , or taken over , or deleted or something . i do still enjoy finding bugs . . .\nlast week , in the midst of my 50s , i discovered the delightful horror of allergies . when i got the sore throat , i assumed it was a cold . and then my eyes c . . .\nthe air potato , dioscorea bulbifera , is an invasive noxious weed in south florida . in a previous post , i described efforts at biological control using the . . .\nas a nature enthusiast and bird lover i spend a lot of time outdoors and one of my favorite pastimes is feeding and watching birds . several years ago i . . .\ndiamondback watersnakes ( * nerodia rhombifer * ) are a large thick - bodied , defensive , often ill - tempered snake . they are common in nw missouri and are found . . .\n( updated 3 / 22 / 13 ) the picture below started this post . it is a picture that shows up prominently high on a google image search for \u2018fire ant . \u2019 it is al . . .\ni am proud to be chosen as part of this list of entomology blogs . there are some great blogs and websites with a focus on insects and spiders , and to be included among them is an honor indeed . click this link to check out more great entomology blog posts .\nhaving trouble identifying the spider that just showed up in your house , or backyard ? let eric and the other experts at spider identification help identify it . most spiders are harmless to humans and provide a great service to us by eating untold amounts of insects . for some people though , the arachnophobia runs too deep . ease your fears and learn about the spiders living around you .\nthe mushroom king of nw missouri has his website up and running . this is a great way to interact with fellow mushroom hunters . find out where these tasty fungi are being found . post about your own finds . share your favorite recipes . coming soon will be merchandise to purchase . lets all support the mushroom king and join this fun , informative site .\nneeding a good all around field guide to insects of north america ? let me recommend this awesome , comprehensive guide . it is full of wonderful full color photos making identification simple . it is easy enough to use to be beneficial to children and adults . this is my go - to guide when trying to identify all those unique insects that show up in my yard , or anywhere else .\na good friend of mine betsy betros has written a wonderful , full color field guide to kansas city butterflies . it is fast becoming my buttefly bible . this book would be beneficial to anyone who loves butterflies and gardening . these butterflies will be found beyond kansas city ' s borders . you won ' t be disappointed in this guide , i would consider it a must - have !\nhere are some of the most colorful , spectacular and sometimes weird examples of the world ' s butterflies and moths . from the common swallowtail to the iridescent blue morpho , thomas marent ' s stunning photographs provide a close - up view of the remarkable family of insects known as lepidoptera . the macro photography complements the enlightening text written by zoologist ronald orenstein , who explains the scientific curiosities of these amazing insects .\ni feel honored to be included in the list of best blogs for 2010 .\nthank you so much for the shout out and the award geek . you put a smile on my face !\nrecently one of my regular followers recommended me for the best blog award . thank you so much paula , for believing that this blog was worthy of such an honor .\nthe boll weevil ( anthonomus grandis ) is a beetle measuring an average length of six millimeters , which feeds on cotton buds and flowers . thought to be native to central america , it migrated into the united states from mexico in the late 19th century and had infested all u . s . cotton - growing areas by the 1920s , devastating the industry and the people working in the american south . during the late 20th century it became a serious pest in south america as well . since 1978 , the boll weevil eradication program in the u . s . allowed full - scale cultivation to resume in many regions .\nboll weevils will begin to die at temperatures at or below \u22125 \u00b0c ( 23 \u00b0f ) . research at the university of missouri indicates they cannot survive more than an hour at \u221215 \u00b0c ( 5 \u00b0f ) . the insulation offered by leaf litter , crop residues , and snow may enable the beetle to survive when air temperatures drop to these levels .\nother limitations on boll weevil populations include extreme heat and drought . its natural predators include fire ants , insects , spiders , birds , and a parasitic wasp , catolaccus grandis . the insects at times engage in what seems to be almost suicidal behavior by emerging from diapause before cotton buds are available .\nin 1915 . by the mid 1920s it had entered all cotton growing regions in the u . s . , travelling 40 to 160 miles per year . it remains the most destructive cotton pest in\nhas estimated that since the boll weevil entered the united states it has cost u . s . cotton producers about $ 13 billion , and in recent times about $ 300 million per year .\nthe cotton boll weevil : a , adult beetle ; b , pupa ; c , larva .\nthe boll weevil contributed to the economic woes of southern farmers during the 1920s , a situation exacerbated by the great depression in the 1930s .\n, south carolina native mose austin recalled that his employer was adamant .\nhe don ' t want nothin ' but cotton planted on de place ; dat he in debt and hafter raise cotton to git de money to pay wid .\naustin let out a long guffaw before recounting ,\nde boll weevil come . . . and , bless yo ' life , dat bug sho ' romped on things dat fall .\naustin remembered that the following spring , his employer insisted on planting cotton in spite of warnings from his wife , his employees , and government agricultural experts :\nde cotton come up and started to growin ' , and , suh , befo ' de middle of may i looks down one day and sees de boll weevil settin ' up dere in de top of dem little cotton stalks waitin ' for de squares to fo ' m . so all dat gewano us hauled and put down in 1922 made nuttin ' but a crop of boll weevils .\nthe next year , austin ' s employer tried the same ill - fated experiment . ultimately , the man lost his farm and moved with his disgruntled wife to california .\nthe boll weevil infestation has been credited with bringing about economic diversification in the southern us , including the expansion of peanut cropping . the citizens of enterprise , alabama erected the boll weevil monument in 1919 , perceiving that their economy had been overly dependent on cotton , and that mixed farming and manufacturing were better alternatives .\nin 1983 , and it is estimated that about 90 % of the cotton farms in brazil are now infested . during the 1990s the weevil spread to\n. the international cotton advisory committee ( icac ) has proposed a control program similar to that used in the u . s .\nagain to grow cotton as an economic crop . ddt was initially extremely effective , but us weevil populations developed resistance by the mid 1950s .\nwere subsequently used , but environmental and resistance concerns arose as they had with ddt and control strategies changed .\nto determine feasibility of eradicating the weevil from the growing areas . based on the success of this , area - wide programs were begun in the 1980s to eradicate the insect from whole regions . these are based on cooperative effort by all growers together with the assistance of the animal and plant health inspection service ( aphis ) of the\n. efforts are ongoing to eradicate the weevil from the rest of the united states . continued success is also based on prohibition of unauthorized cotton growing , outside of the program , and constant monitoring for any recurring outbreaks .\nlange , fabian , alan l . olmstead , and paul w . rhode , \u201cthe impact of the boll weevil , 1892\u20131932 , \u201d journal of economic history , 69 ( sept . 2009 ) , 685\u2013718 .\nalways agin it\nplace chapin , south carolina , john l . dove , interviewer , january 24 , 1939 . american life histories , 1936\u20131940\n. journal of agricultural and food chemistry : 1995 , vol . 43 , no10 , pp . 2735\u20132739 ( 19 ref . )\nthis entry is from wikipedia , the leading user - contributed encyclopedia . it may not have been reviewed by professional editors ( see full disclaimer )\nune fen\u00eatre ( pop - into ) d ' information ( contenu principal de sensagent ) est invoqu\u00e9e un double - clic sur n ' importe quel mot de votre page web . la fen\u00eatre fournit des explications et des traductions contextuelles , c ' est - \u00e0 - dire sans obliger votre visiteur \u00e0 quitter votre page web !\nles jeux de lettre fran\u00e7ais sont : \u25cb anagrammes \u25cb jokers , mots - crois\u00e9s \u25cb lettris \u25cb boggle .\nlettris est un jeu de lettres gravitationnelles proche de tetris . chaque lettre qui appara\u00eet descend ; il faut placer les lettres de telle mani\u00e8re que des mots se forment ( gauche , droit , haut et bas ) et que de la place soit lib\u00e9r\u00e9e .\nil s ' agit en 3 minutes de trouver le plus grand nombre de mots possibles de trois lettres et plus dans une grille de 16 lettres . il est aussi possible de jouer avec la grille de 25 cases . les lettres doivent \u00eatre adjacentes et les mots les plus longs sont les meilleurs . participer au concours et enregistrer votre nom dans la liste de meilleurs joueurs ! jouer\nla plupart des d\u00e9finitions du fran\u00e7ais sont propos\u00e9es par sensegates et comportent un approfondissement avec littr\u00e9 et plusieurs auteurs techniques sp\u00e9cialis\u00e9s . le dictionnaire des synonymes est surtout d\u00e9riv\u00e9 du dictionnaire int\u00e9gral ( tid ) . l ' encyclop\u00e9die fran\u00e7aise b\u00e9n\u00e9ficie de la licence wikipedia ( gnu ) .\nles jeux de lettres anagramme , mot - crois\u00e9 , joker , lettris et boggle sont propos\u00e9s par memodata . le service web alexandria est motoris\u00e9 par memodata pour faciliter les recherches sur ebay .\nchanger la langue cible pour obtenir des traductions . astuce : parcourir les champs s\u00e9mantiques du dictionnaire analogique en plusieurs langues pour mieux apprendre avec sensagent .\ncopyright \u00a9 2000 - 2016 sensagent : encyclop\u00e9die en ligne , thesaurus , dictionnaire de d\u00e9finitions et plus . tous droits r\u00e9serv\u00e9s .\nles cookies nous aident \u00e0 fournir les services . en poursuivant votre navigation sur ce site , vous acceptez l ' utilisation de ces cookies . en savoir plus\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nshamrock , wi current view . @ nwslacrosse 6 miles nne of cataract . trained spotter . large branch wind movement . urltoken 1 week ago\nrt @ nwslacrosse : heat index values soared above 100\u00b0 today region - wide with la crosse taking the top spot at 114\u00b0 . look for more heat tomor\u2026 1 week ago\n@ nwslacrosse rainfall for june 21 , 2018 at shamrock , wi , 6 miles nne of cataract , wi : 0 . 18 inches . trained weather spotter . 2 weeks ago\n@ lmeillershow lady with tall tomatoes should dig a deeper hole and put them in . stems will develop roots and the p\u2026 urltoken 2 weeks ago\nthere are , however , a few pests which are known to feed on the rhubarb plant ; these , and how to control them , are discussed below .\ni have rarely ( over 25 years ! ) treated my rhubarb plants for pests .\nthe leaves are often dotted with holes , but they are discarded when the stalks are harvested , therefore , unless there is a major infestation of rhubarb pests ( that are also affecting the stalks of the rhubarb ) , i usually do not treat the rhubarb plants .\nto help prevent pests from damaging your rhubarb plants , it is advisable to care for the rhubarb plants in the best possible way to keep them healthy .\ncultivate the soil around the rhubarb beginning in early spring . remove dead leaves regularly , and remove all the leaves and stalks before the winter to prevent rhubarb pests from over - wintering in them .\nif you compost the rhubarb leaves , it is not advisable to put the composted leaves back onto the rhubarb garden . this will help to prevent returning rhubarb pests to your garden .\nalso , when beginning a rhubarb garden , consider where you will plant your rhubarb . gardening with plant companions in mind , is a great gardening concept . with careful planning , you can\nhelp plants help each other\nby choosing which garden companions to grow together .\nin some cases this method of planting can help attract\nhelpful\nbugs or repel\nharmful\nbugs . or , companion gardening may assist by the natural addition of nutrients into the soil , keeping plants healthy , and more resistant to pest damage .\nif you detect a possible rhubarb pest problem in your rhubarb patch , observe the entire plant ( s ) affected and determine the extent of , and characteristics of the problem .\ncheck the underside of the leaves as well as the tops , and inspect the rhubarb stalks for slugs , beetles , other insects , holes , eggs , webs , and so on .\nthese rhubarb leaves ( see photo above ) have been damaged by aphids , slugs , beetles , or other insects .\nthis ( see photo above ) rhubarb stalk ( notice the holes ) has been damaged , most likely by a rhubarb plant pest such as a rhubarb curculio beetle , or a potato stem borer .\nthis rhubarb stalk ( see photo above ) has\nscarring\ndamage , most likely caused by slugs , or other rhubarb pests .\na small amount of damage like this can easily be cut off and discarded when processing your rhubarb .\nif you cannot identify the source of the problem , consult a plant specialist at your local garden centre , and , if possible bring a photo of the rhubarb stalk or leaf affected .\nremember , seeing the damage will make it much easier for the professional to assess what is happening in your garden .\nthere are also conventional chemical herbicides which can be used for rhubarb . when treating garden plants , always remember to shield your crop from the contact sprays . check with your local garden center for a recommended product .\ni believe this is due to aphids ( for example , the\nblack bean aphid\n) or other small insects . large infestations of aphids may cause the rhubarb leaves to curl or wilt .\nflea beetles\nmay cause damage to newly planted rhubarb by their feeding on tender rhubarb leaves .\n, i have not found it necessary to treat the rhubarb leaves for these holes .\nslugs are rhubarb pests that are commonly found on the stalks and occasionally on the leaves .\nthe slug feeds at night , leaving damaged stalks and occasionally affect the leaves .\nslugs may become a problem where there is poor soil drainage or heavy weed infestation .\nafter harvesting rhubarb dispose of the leaves immediately , do not leave them to decompose alongside the rhubarb plants . slugs thrive in wet areas and around decaying matter ."]}
{"id": 351, "summary": [{"text": "common names : brown spotted pit viper , pointed-scaled pit viper , more .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "chinese name : \u9f9c\u6bbc\u82b1 trimeresurus mucrosquamatus is a venomous pit viper species endemic to asia .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "no subspecies are currently recognized . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "trimeresurus mucrosquamatus", "paragraphs": ["trigonocephalus mucrosquamatus cantor 1839 : 32 trimeresurus mucrosquamatus \u2014 g\u00fcnther 1864 : 390 trimeresurus mucrosquamatus \u2014 fischer 1886 : 66 trimeresurus mucrosquamatus \u2014 boulenger 1890 : 428 lachesis mucrosquamatus \u2014 boulenger 1896 : 552 trimeresurus mucrosquamatus \u2014 stejneger 1907 : 467 trimeresurus mucrosquamatus \u2014 smith 1943 : 507 protobothrops mucrosquamatus \u2014 hoge & romano - hoge 1983 protobothrops mucrosquamatus \u2014 kraus et al . 1996 protobothrops mucrosquamatus \u2014 tu et al . 2000 protobothrops mucrosquamatus \u2014 ziegler 2002 : 282 protobothrops mucrosquamatus \u2014 gumprecht et al . 2004 trimeresurus mucrosquamatus \u2014 sharma 2004 protobothrops mucrosquamatus \u2014 guo et al . 2006 protobothrops mucrosquamatus \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 573\nedema - producing proteins isolated from trimeresurus mucrosquamatus snake venom . - pubmed - ncbi\nsingle chain antibody fragment with serine protease inhibitory property capable of neutralizing toxicity of trimeresurus mucrosquamatus venom .\ncrystal structure of a trimeresurus mucrosquamatus venom metalloproteinase providing new insights into the inhibition by endogenous tripeptide inhibitors .\nsingle chain antibody fragment with serine protease inhibitory property capable of neutralizing toxicity of trimeresurus mucrosquamatus venom . - pubmed - ncbi\nscientific names : craspedocephalus elegans , lachesis lutea , l . luteus , l . mucrosquamatus , trimeresurus elegans , t . luteus\ncrystal structure of a trimeresurus mucrosquamatus venom metalloproteinase providing new insights into the inhibition by endogenous tripeptide inhi . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nspecies taiwan habu ( trimeresurus mucrosquamatus ) , atrolysin e [ taxid : 103944 ] from d . 92 . 1 . 9 snake venom metalloprotease\ntrimeresurus xiangchengensis zhao 1978 trimeresurus xiangchengensis zhao , jiang & huang 1979 trimeresurus xiangchengensis \u2014 welch 1994 : 117 protobothrops xiangchengensis \u2014 kraus et al . 1996 trimeresurus xiangchengensis \u2014 mcdiarmid , campbell & tour\u00e9 1999 : 348 trimeresurus xiangchengensis \u2014 peng & fiji 2000 protobothrops xiangchengensis \u2014 gumprecht et al . 2004 protobothrops xiangchengensis \u2014 malhotra & thorpe 2004 protobothrops xiangchengensis \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 573\nthe dangerously venomous trimeresurus popeiorum ( sometimes segregated into genus popeia as . . .\nin taiwan , protobothrops mucrosquamatus is held responsible for half of all venomous snakebites ( sawai 1969 ) .\nspecies taiwan habu ( trimeresurus mucrosquamatus ) , atrolysin e [ taxid : 103944 ] from d . 92 . 1 . 9 snake venom metalloprotease appears in the current release , scope 2 . 07\nthe ground - dwellers are usually of a brown colour with dark markings . among others , protobothrops flavoviridis and protobothrops mucrosquamatus belong to this group and are found in wooded or open regions , but also often in agricultural areas and inhabited regions . other ground - dwellers are the smaller mountain species ovophis monticola , trimeresurus malabaricus and trimeresurus strigatus .\nmaslin , t . paul 1942 . evidence for the separation of the crotalid genera trimeresurus and bothrops , with a key to the genus trimeresurus . copeia 1942 ( 1 ) : 18 - 24 - get paper here\nthe genus protobothrops was described to accommodate two species previously placed in the genus trimeresurus , t . jerdonii and t . mucrosquamatus . in a later revision of protobothrops , guo et al . ( 2007 ) placed 10 species in this genus .\nthis disintegrin is 100 % identical to the disintegrin of ac e9nw27 , another disintegrin of the p - ii subfamily of protobothrops mucrosquamatus .\nthe originally species - rich genus trimeresurus has recently undergone comprehensive taxonomic revision , so that there are now only 10 species that are considered true trimeresurus spp . various of the formerly well - known trimeresurus species now no longer belong to this genus ( eg . former t . albolabris , t . elegans , t . erythrurus , t . flavoviridis , t . kanburiensis , t . macrops , t . mucrosquamatus , t . okinavensis , t . purpureomaculatus , t . stejnegeri , t . tokarensis , t . trigonocephalus or t . wagleri )\ncommon names : taiwan habu , tortoise snake scientific name : trimeresurus mucrosquamatus distinguishing features : odd looking snake with large head . brown with numerous black spots . additional information : can be aggressive , attacking shadows and moving objects . found all over taiwan at lower elevations , near water and in forests .\nzhao e m 1979 . a new snake of the genus trimeresurus from sichuan , china . acta zootaxonomica sinica 4 ( 4 ) : 422 - 424\nlalremsanga , h . t . , lalbiakzuala and lalrinsanga 2017 . geographic distribution : protobothrops mucrosquamatus ( brown spotted pitviper ) herpetological review 48 ( 1 ) : 131 - get paper here\ncharacterization of three fibrinogenolytic proteases isolated from the venom of taiwan habu ( trimeresurus mucrosquamatus ) .\nhuang k . - f . , hung c . c . , chiou s . - h . biochem . mol . biol . int . 31 : 1041 - 1050 ( 1993 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]\nty - jour ti - note on a formosan viper ( trimeresurus mucrosquamatus ) from the north east frontier t2 - the journal of the bombay natural history society . vl - 33 ur - urltoken pb - bombay natural history society , cy - bombay : py - 1929 sp - 998 ep - 998 sn - 0006 - 6982 au - prater , s h er -\nvenomous ! synonymy : this species was suspected to be a synonym of trimeresurus mucrosquamatus ( indraneil das in mcdiarmid et al . 1999 ) . however , guo et al . ( 2006 ) and vogel ( pers . comm . 23 nov 2012 ) argue that it is a valid species . distribution : see map in guo et a . 2016 : 383 ( fig . 1 ) .\njustification : protobothrops mucrosquamatus is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a broad range of habitats including human - affected environments , and because there are no major widespread threats acting upon it .\nzhao , e 1978 . trimeresurus xiangchengensis - a new species of the genus trimeresurus from china . proc . symp . china soc . zool . , china soc . entomol . chengdu [ meeting abstract ] ; also cited as mater . herpetol . res . chengdu 4 : 21 [ english translation by david & tong , 1997 , shis ( 112 ) : 7 ] .\npeng g , fuji z . 2001 . comparative studies on hemipenes of four species of trimeresurus ( sensu stricto ) ( serpentes : crotalinae ) . amphibia - reptilia 22 ( 1 ) : 113 - 117 .\ntu m - c et al . 2000 . phylogeny , taxonomy , and biogeography of the oriental pit vipers of the genus trimeresurus ( reptilia : viperidae : crotalinae ) : a molecular perspective . zoological science 17 : 1147 - 1157 .\npeng , g . & fuji , z . 2001 . comparative studies on hemipenes of four species of trimeresurus ( sensu stricto ) ( serpentes : crotalinae ) . amphibia - reptilia 22 ( 1 ) : 113 - 117 - get paper here\n@ article { bhlpart154252 , title = { note on a formosan viper ( trimeresurus mucrosquamatus ) from the north east frontier } , journal = { the journal of the bombay natural history society . } , volume = { 33 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder } , url = urltoken publisher = { bombay : bombay natural history society , 1886 - } , author = { prater , s h } , year = { 1929 } , pages = { 998 - - 998 } , }\ntu , m . - c . et al . 2000 . phylogeny , taxonomy , and biogeography of the oriental pitvipers of the genus trimeresurus ( reptilia : viperidae : crotalinae ) : a molecular perspective . zoological science 17 : 1147\u20131157 - get paper here\ncreer s , malhotra a , thorpe rs , chou wh . 2001 . multiple causation of phylogeographical pattern as revealed by nested clade analysis of the bamboo viper ( trimeresurus stejnegeri ) within taiwan . molecular ecology 10 ( 8 ) : 1967 - 1981 .\nsmith , m . a . 1940 . the amphibians and reptiles obtained by mr . ronald kaulback in upper burma . records of the indian museum 42 : 465 - 486 . ( trimeresurus kaulbacki , p . 485 , plate viii , figure 5 . )\nmalhotra , anita ; thorpe , roger s . 2004 . maximizing information in systematic revisions : a combined molecular and morphological analysis of a cryptic green pit viper complex ( trimeresurus stejnegeri ) . biological journal of the linnean society 82 ( 2 ) : 219 .\nbites from most species generally only cause local effects . the following species , however , also cause more serious consequences : cryptopelitrops albolabris ( rarely fatalities ) , cryptelytrops erythrurus , protobothrops flavoviridis ( few , but regular fatalities ) , popeia popeiorum , protobothrops mucrosquamatus ( known fatalities in taiwan ) and t . purpureomaculatus .\nmalhotra , anita & thorpe , roger s . 2004 . a phylogeny of four mitochondrial gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for asian pitvipers ( trimeresurus and ovophis ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 32 : 83 \u2013100 [ erratum p . 680 ] - get paper here\nbeolens b , watkins m , grayson m . 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( trimeresurus stejnegeri , pp . 252 - 253 ) .\nzhong , guanghui ; qin liu , cao li , peihao peng and peng guo 2017 . sexual dimorphism and geographic variation in the asian lance - headed pitviper protobothrops mucrosquamatus in the mainland china asian herpetological research 8 ( 2 ) : 118 - 122 , doi : 10 . 16373 / j . cnki . ahr . 160011 - get paper here\ndavid , patrick ; tong , haiyan 1997 . translations of recent descriptions of chinese pitvipers of the trimeresurus - complex ( serpentes , viperidae ) , with a key to the complex in china and adjacent areas . smithsonian herp . inf . serv . ( 112 ) : 1 - 31 - get paper here\ncrotalid venom vascular endothelial growth factors has preferential affinity for vegfr - 1 . characterization of protobothrops mucrosquamatus venom vegf .\nchen y . - l . , tsai i . - h . , hong t . - m . , tsai s . - h . thromb . haemost . 93 : 331 - 338 ( 2005 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]\nherrmann , h . - w . ; ziegler , t . ; malhotra , a . ; thorpe , r . s . & parkinson , c . l . 2004 . redescription and systematics of trimeresurus cornutus ( serpentes : viperidae ) based on morphology and molecular data . herpetologica 60 ( 2 ) : 211 - 221 - get paper here\nseven edema - producing fractions were isolated from trimeresurus mucrosquamatus snake venom by cm - sephadex c - 50 chromatography and further purified by gel filtration on a sephadex g - 75 column . they were homogeneous as judged by electrophoresis on polyacrylamide gels . the mol . wts were estimated to be 26 , 900 ( fr . iv - 2 ) , 21 , 500 ( fr . x - 2 ) , 23 , 000 ( fr . xii - 2 ) , 21 , 800 ( fr . xiii - 2 ) , 24 , 600 ( fr . xiv - 2 ) , 80 , 000 ( fr . xviii - 1 ) and 22 , 500 ( fr . xxii - 2 ) . fraction iv - 2 had weak esterase activity , fractions x - 2 , xii - 2 , xiii - 2 and xiv - 2 possessed proteolytic activity toward casein and fibrinogen , while fractions xviii - 1 and xxii - 2 possessed phospholipase a2 activity . fractions with phospholipase a2 activity had greater edema - producing activity than those with protease and / or esterase activity . it is concluded that the edema caused by t . mucrosquamatus venom may be due to phospholipases a2 , proteases and esterases .\nsmith ma . 1943 . the fauna of british india , ceylon and burma , including the whole of the indo - chinese sub - region . reptilia and amphibia , vol . iii . \u2014serpentes . secretary of state for india . ( taylor and francis , printers . ) london . xii + 583 pp . ( trimeresurus kaulbacki , p . 512 . )\ncommon names : bamboo viper , chinese green tree viper scientific name : trimeresurus stejnegeri distinguishing features : brilliant green body , with a reddish head and tail . triangular head . additional information : primarily nocturnal . most commonly found in trees and bamboo groves . taiwan ' s most common poisonous snake , found under 1000m . can be dangerous to bikers as it often strikes from trees .\nmost species are arboreal , but ground - dwelling species do exist . the arboreal species are green ( see above ) , sometimes with markings ( e . g . cryptelytrops cantori , prothobothrops jerdoni , trimeresurus trigonocephalus or tropidolaemus wagleri ) , and possess a fairly well - formed prehensile tail . some arboreal species often live on the outskirts and in the green areas of larger cities .\ncolouring and pattern very variable . cryptelytrops albolabris , trimeresurus gramineus , cryptelytrops erythrurus , cryptelytrops macrops , popeia popeiorum and viridovipera stejnegeri are green , but without markings , or only faint ones . taxonomic differentiation of these green species , some of which are amongst the most medically important species of their genus , is difficult . morphological distinctions frequently only consist of minor differences in the head shields .\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > note on a formosan viper ( trimeresurus mucrosquamatus ) from the north east frontier < / title > < / titleinfo > < name > < namepart > prater , s h < / namepart > < / name > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < note type =\ncontent\n> 33 < / note > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > the journal of the bombay natural history society . < / title > < / titleinfo > < origininfo > < place > < placeterm type =\ntext\n> bombay : < / placeterm > < / place > < publisher > bombay natural history society , < / publisher > < / origininfo > < part > < detail type =\nvolume\n> < number > 33 < / number > < / detail > < extent unit =\npages\n> < start > 998 < / start > < end > 998 < / end > < / extent > < date > 1929 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < accesscondition type =\nuseandreproduction\n> in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder < / accesscondition > < / mods >\nbangladesh , india ( assam ; arunachal pradesh ( itanagar \u2013 papum pare district ) [ a . captain , pers . comm . ] , mizroam and many other regions ) , myanmar ( = burma ) , n / c vietnam , laos ,\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nholotype : unknown ; original description probably based on colored drawing no . 18 in bodleian library , oxford ) ( fide leviton et al . 2003 ) .\nvenomous ! distribution : possibly in bhutan ( lenz 2012 ) . see map in guo et a . 2016 : 383 ( fig . 1 ) .\nbarbour , thomas 1909 . notes on amphibia and reptilia from eastern asia . proc . new england zool . club 4 : 53 - 78 , 2 plates - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1896 . catalogue of the snakes in the british museum , vol . 3 . london ( taylor & francis ) , xiv + 727 pp . - get paper here\nboulenger , george a . 1890 . the fauna of british india , including ceylon and burma . reptilia and batrachia . taylor & francis , london , xviii , 541 pp . - get paper here\ncantor , t . e . 1839 . spicilegium serpentium indicorum [ part 1 ] . proc . zool . soc . london 1839 : 31 - 34 - get paper here\ncantor , t . 1840 . spicilegium serpentium indicorum . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 1 ) 4 : 271 - 279 - get paper here\ndas , i . 2012 . a naturalist ' s guide to the snakes of south - east asia : malaysia , singapore , thailand , myanmar , borneo , sumatra , java and bali . oxford j , ohn beaufoy publishing - get paper here\ndowling , h . g . , & jenner , j . v . 1988 . snakes of burma : checklist of reported species and bibliography . smithsonian herp . inf . serv . ( 76 ) : 19 pp . - get paper here\ngawor , a . , c . t . pham , t . q . nguyen , t . t . nguyen , a . schmitz & t . ziegler 2016 . the herpetofauna of the bai tu long national park , northeastern vietnam . salamandra 52 ( 1 ) : 23 - 41 - get paper here\ngumprecht , a . ; tillack , f . ; orlov , n . l . ; captain , a . & ryabow , s . 2004 . asian pitvipers . geitje books , berlin , 368 pp .\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1864 . the reptiles of british india . london ( taylor & francis ) , xxvii + 452 pp . - get paper here\nguo , p . ; jadin , r . c . ; malhotra , a . & li , c . 2009 . an investigation of the cranial evolution of asian pitvipers ( serpentes : crotalinae ) , with comments on the phylogenetic position of peltopelor macrolepis . acta zoologica 91 : 402 - 407\nguo , peng ; lu , shunqing ; huang , song ; zhao , hui ; zhao , ermi 2006 . hemipenial morphology of five asian pitvipers , with a discussion on their taxonomy . amphibia - reptilia 27 ( 1 ) : 19 - 23 - get paper here\nguo , peng ; qin liu , tao wen , rong xiao , ming fang , guanghui zhong , nguyen q . truong , fei zhu , robert c . jadin , cao li 2016 . multilocus phylogeny of the asian lance - headed pitvipers ( squamata , viperidae , protobothrops ) zootaxa 4093 ( 3 ) : 382\u2013390 - get paper here\nkraus , fred ; mink , daniel g . & brown , wesley m . 1996 . crotaline intergeneric relationships based on mitochondrial dna sequence data . copeia 1996 ( 4 ) : 763 - 773 - get paper here\nlenz , norbert 2012 . von schmetterlingen und donnerdrachen - natur und kultur in bhutan . karlsruher naturhefte 4 , naturkundemuseum karlsruhe , 124 pp .\nleviton , alan e . ; guinevere o . u . wogan ; michelle s . koo ; george r . zug ; rhonda s . lucas and jens v . vindum 2003 . the dangerously venomous snakes of myanmar illustrated checklist with keys . proc . cal . acad . sci . 54 ( 24 ) : 407\u2013462 - get paper here\norlov , n . ; ananjeva , n . ; barabanov , a . ; ryabov , s . & khalikov , r . 2002 . diversity of vipers ( azemiopinae , crotalinae ) in east , southeast , and south asia : annotated checklist and natural history data ( reptilia : squamata : serpentes : viperidae ) . faun . abh . mus . tierk . dresden 23 : 177 - 218\norlov , nikolai l . ; sergei a . ryabov , and nguyen thien tao 2009 . two new species of genera protobothrops hoge et romano - hoge , 1983 and viridovipera malhotra et thorpe , 2004 ( ophidia : viperidae : crotalinae ) from karst region in northeastern vietnam . part i . description of a new species of protobothrops genus . russ . j . herpetol . 16 ( 1 ) : 69 - 82 - get paper here\npan , hujun ; basundhara chettri , daode yang , ke jiang , kai wang , liang zhang and gernot vogel 2013 . a new species of the genus protobothrops ( squamata : viperidae ) from southern tibet , china and sikkim , india . asian herpetological research 4 ( 2 ) : 109\u2013115 - get paper here\nsang , nguyen van ; ho thu cuc , nguyen , quang truong 2009 . herpetofauna of vietnam . chimaira , frankfurt , 768 pp .\nsharma , r . c . 2004 . handbook indian snakes . akhil books , new delhi , 292 pp .\nsmith , m . a . 1943 . the fauna of british india , ceylon and burma , including the whole of the indo - chinese sub - region . reptilia and amphibia . 3 ( serpentes ) . taylor and francis , london . 583 pp .\nsong - mingtao 1987 . survey of the reptiles of southern shaanxi . acta herpetologica sinica 6 ( 1 ) : 59 - 64 - get paper here\nstejneger , l . 1910 . the batrachians and reptiles of formosa . proc . us natl . mus . 38 : 91 - 114 - get paper here\nstejneger , leonhard h . 1907 . herpetology of japan and adjacent territory . bull . us natl . mus . 58 : xx , 1 - 577 - get paper here\nstuart , b . l . & heatwole , h . 2008 . country records of snakes from laos . hamadryad 33 : 97\u2013106\nwall , f . 1906 . the poisonous snakes of india and how to recognize them , part ii . j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 17 : 299 - 334 - get paper here\nwallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .\nyang , jian - huan ; nikolai l . orlov & ying - yong wang 2011 . a new species of pitviper of the genus protobothrops from china ( squamata : viperidae ) . zootaxa 2936 : 59\u201368 - get paper here\nzhao , e . m . 2006 . the snakes of china [ in chinese ] . hefei , china , anhui sience & technology publ . house , vol . i , 372 pp . , vol . ii ( color plates ) , 280 pp .\nziegler , t . 2002 . die amphibien und reptilien eines tieflandfeuchtwald - schutzgebietes in vietnam . natur und tier verlag ( m\u00fcnster ) , 342 pp . - get paper here\nziegler , t . ; v . n . thanh , l . k . quyet , n . g . truong , j . hallermann ; l . v . khoi & t . m . hoang 2006 . neue verbreitungsnachweise einiger weniger bekannter vietnamesischer amphibien und reptilien . sauria 28 ( 2 ) : 29 - 40 - get paper here\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nzug , g . , de silva , r . , milligan , h . t . , wearn , o . r . , wren , s . , zamin , t . , sears , j . , wilson , p . , lewis , s . , lintott , p . & powney , g .\nthis species is widely distributed across southern asia , from india through viet nam , and is also found on taiwan . this species is found at altitudes of up to 2 , 000 m above sea level .\ng . zug ( pers . comm . ) notes that in myanmar specifically , the few records suggest it is an uncommon species in that country .\nthis species has varied habitat preferences and occurs in grassland , shrublands , and forests . it is also found around human settlements and in agricultural land .\nit is unlikely that this species is being impacted upon by any major threats across its range .\nthere are no known species - specific conservation measures in place , or needed , for this species . parts of this species ' distribution range coincide with protected areas .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmcdiarmid , roy w . , jonathan a . campbell , and t ' shaka a . tour\u00e9\nsnake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthe number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .\nover the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .\nthe number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .\noverall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .\nthe reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .\ncurrently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .\nthe reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .\nthe reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nbiochem biophys res commun . 2015 may 1 ; 460 ( 2 ) : 170 - 6 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . bbrc . 2015 . 02 . 169 . epub 2015 mar 10 .\nlee yc 1 , chen wc 2 , liang mh 3 , lee ch 4 , tsai kc 5 , chiang jr 6 , chiang lc 6 , chen cc 7 , chang cy 8 , lee ch 8 , leu sj 9 , yang yy 10 .\nthe center of translational medicine , taipei medical university , taipei , taiwan ; antibody and hybridoma core facility , taipei medical university , taipei , taiwan .\nthe school of chinese medicine for post baccalaureate , i - shou university , kaohsiung , taiwan ; department of chinese medicine , e - da hospital , kaohsiung , taiwan .\ngraduate institute of medical sciences , college of medicine , taipei medical university , taipei , taiwan .\nnational research institute of chinese medicine , ministry of health and welfare , taipei , taiwan .\ncenter for research , diagnostics and vaccine development , centers for disease control , ministry of health and welfare , taiwan .\ndepartment of medical technology , jen - teh junior college of medicine , nursing and management , miaoli , taiwan .\ngraduate institute of medical sciences , college of medicine , taipei medical university , taipei , taiwan ; department of microbiology and immunology , school of medicine , college of medicine , taipei medical university , taipei , taiwan .\nantibody and hybridoma core facility , taipei medical university , taipei , taiwan ; school of medical laboratory sciences and biotechnology , college of medical science and technology , taipei medical university , taipei , taiwan ; department of laboratory medicine , wan fang hospital , taipei medical university , taipei , taiwan . electronic address : yangyuan @ tmu . edu . tw .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\nvenom was separated into twenty fractions . the fibrinogenolytic activity was concentrated in fractions 8 , 10 , 12 , 13 and 14 . fractions 8 and 13 had the highest ratio of fibrinogenolytic and caseinolytic activities . fraction 8 possessed tosyl -\n- arginine methyl esterase activity , while the others did not . the caseinolytic activities of fractions 10 , 12 , 13 and 14 were inhibited by edta , while that of fraction 8 was not . fractions 8 and 13 were further purified by cm - cellulose and gel filtration and were homogeneous as judged by electrophoresis on polyacrylamide gel and cellulose acetate membrane . the molecular weights of the purified fractions 8 and 13 were 26 000 and 22 400 , respectively . both were single peptide chains . the specific fibrinogenolytic activity of fraction 8 was 17 mg fibrinogen / min / mg protein , while that of fraction 13 was 100 mg fibrinogen / min / mg protein . fraction 13 digested specifically the \u03b1 ( a ) chain of monomeric fibrinogen to yield two cleavage products . fraction 8 digested the \u03b2 ( b ) chain first to yield four cleavage products . when the incubation time was prolonged , the \u03b1 ( a ) chain was also partially digested by fraction 8 to yield two cleavage products .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nbiodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p\u2026 urltoken\nfrom d . 92 . 1 . 9 snake venom metalloprotease is new in scop 1 . 61\nscop : structural classification of proteins and astral . release 1 . 61 ( november 2002 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ntotal length 112 cm ( male ) , 116 cm ( female ) mm ; tail length 19 . 5 cm ( male ) , 20 . 5 cm ( female ) .\nsnout 2 - 3 times longer than eye diameter ; internasals rather small ; 5 - 10 times larger than adjacent scales ; separated by 3 - 4 small scales ; 2 large scales between internasal and supraocular ; upper head scales unequal ; obtusely keeled on posterior ; supralabial 9 - 11 ; first completely separated from nasal ; second forms anterior border of pit ; 2 - 3 series of scales between supralabials and subocular ; supraocular large , narrow and undivided ; 14 - 16 scales between them ; temporal scales smooth in 2 - 3 rows above supralabials ; above those other scales keeled .\n76 - 91 ; paired . hemipenis extends to 12th caudal plate ; forked opposite the 6th .\nao j . m . , david p . , bordoloi s . , ohler a . ( 2004 ) notes on a collection of snakes from nagaland , northeast india , with 19 new records for this state . russian journal of herpetology , vol . 11 , no . 2 , pp . 155 \u2013 162\nboulenger g . a . ( 1890 ) the fauna of british india including ceylon and burma , reptilia and batrachia . london : taylor and francis .\nboulenger g . a . ( 1896 ) catalogue of the snakes in the british museum ( natural history ) . vol . 3 , london : taylor and francis .\ncastoe t . a . , parkinson c . l . ( 2006 ) bayesian mixed models and the phylogeny of pitvipers ( viperidae : serpentes ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 39 , 91\u2013110\nfenwick a . m . , greene h . w . , parkinson c . l . ( 2011 ) the serpent and the egg : unidirectional evolution of reproductive mode in vipers ? j zool syst evol res doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1439 - 0469 , 00646\ng\u00fcnther a . ( 1864 ) the reptiles of british india . london : published for the ray society by robert hardwicke\nguo p . , malhotra a . , li p . p . , pook c . e . , creer s . ( 2007 ) new evidence on the phylogenetic position of the poorly known asian pitviper protobothrops kaulbacki ( serpentes : viperidae : crotalinae ) with a redescription of the species and a revision of the genus protobothrops . herpetological journal 17 : 237\u2013246\nhuang x . , pan t . , han d . , zhang l . , hou y . , yu l . , zheng h . , zhang b . ( 2012 ) a new species of the genus protobothrops ( squamata : viperidae : crotalinae ) from the dabie mountains , anhui , china . asian herpetological research , 3 ( 3 ) : 213\u2013218\nleviton a . e . , wogan g . o . u . , koo m . s . , zug g . r . , lucas r . s . , vindum j . v . ( 2003 ) the dangerously venomous snakes of myanmar illustrated checklist with keys . proc . cal . acad . sci . 54 ( 24 ) : 407\u2013462\nliu q . , myers e . a . zhong g . h . , hu j . , zhao h . , guo p . ( 2012 ) molecular evidence on the systematic position of the lance - headed pitviper protobothrops maolanensis yang et al . zootaxa 3178 : 57\u201362\nmalhotra a . , creer s . , pook c . e . , thorpe r . s . ( 2010 ) inclusion of nuclear intron sequence data helps to identify the asian sister group of new world pitvipers . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 54 , 172\u2013178\norlov n . l . , ryabov s . a . , shiryaev k . a . , sang n . v . ( 2001 ) on the biology of pit vipers of protobothrops genus ( serpentes : colubroidea : viperidae : crotalinae ) . russian journal of herpetology vol . 8 , no . 2 , pp . 159 \u2013 164\npan h . , chettri b . , yang d . , jiang k . , wang k . , zhang l . , vogel g . ( 2013 ) a new species of the genus protobothrops ( squamata : viperidae ) from southern tibet , china and sikkim , india . asian herpetological research , 4 ( 2 ) : 109\u2013115\nsawai y . ( 1998 ) venomous snakes and snakebite treatment in asia . russian journal of herpetology vol . 5 , no . 2 , pp . 103 \u2013 112\nsmith m . a . ( 1943 ) the fauna of british india , ceylon and burma including the whole of the indo - chinese sub - region , reptilia and amphibia . vol 3 serpentes . taylor & francis , london .\nstuart b . l . , heatwole h . ( 2008 ) country records of snakes from laos . hamadryad vol . 33 , no . 1 , pp . 97 \u2013 106\nw\u00fcster w . , peppin l . , pook c . e . , walker d . e . ( 2008 ) a nesting of vipers : phylogeny and historical biogeography of the viperidae ( squamata : serpentes ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 49 , 445\u2013459\nthis nocturnal pitviper lives on mountainsides and farmland , often in abandoned houses . it preys on frogs , lizards , birds , mice or bats . females produce 3 - 15 eggs of about 3 . 5x2 cm per clutch in summer and habitually protect them . hatchlings measure about 22 cm in total length . it is the most fearless of the common venomous snakes in taiwan and can be aggressive , attacking shadows and moving objects . the bite leaves obvious marks on the victims ; the venom contains hemorrhagic toxins , and the wound often swells with bruises and bloody blisters . especially in the countryside , even the smallest medical facility carries habu antivenom .\nis a genus of pitvipers found in central and south america . the generic name derived from the greek words\n( eye or face ) ; an allusion to the heat - sensitive loreal pit organs .\nthe chinese name \u9f9c\u6bbc\u82b1 ( gui1ke3hua1 ) means\nturtle shell ( \u9f9c\u6bbc ) pattern ( \u82b1 )\n.\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the \u2018correct annotation\u2019 for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nsnake venom metalloproteinase tm - 3 : fibrin ( ogen ) olytic protease which cleaves the aalpha chain of fibrinogen ( fga ) first followed by the bbeta chain ( fgb ) and shows relatively low activity on the gamma chain ( fgg ) .\ndisintegrin trimucrin : inhibits platelet aggregation induced by adp , thrombin , platelet - activating factor and collagen . acts by inhibiting fibrinogen interaction with platelet receptors gpiib / gpiiia ( itga2b / itgb3 ) .\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018function\u2019 section provides information relevant to cofactors . a cofactor is any non - protein substance required for a protein to be catalytically active . some cofactors are inorganic , such as the metal atoms zinc , iron , and copper in various oxidation states . others , such as most vitamins , are organic . < p > < a href = ' / help / cofactor ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018function\u2019 section describes an enzyme regulatory mechanism and reports the components which regulate ( by activation or inhibition ) the reaction . < p > < a href = ' / help / enzyme _ regulation ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > manually curated information for which there is published experimental evidence . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000269\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018function\u2019 section indicates at which position the protein binds a given metal ion . the nature of the metal is indicated in the \u2018description\u2019 field . < p > < a href = ' / help / metal ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018function\u2019 section is used for enzymes and indicates the residues directly involved in catalysis . < p > < a href = ' / help / act _ site ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the < a href =\nurltoken\n> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =\nurltoken\n> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the \u2018taxonomic identifier\u2019 or \u2018taxid\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the location and the topology of the mature protein in the cell . < p > < a href = ' / help / subcellular _ location _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section describes post - translational modifications ( ptms ) and / or processing events . < p > < a href = ' / help / ptm _ processing _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018ptm / processing\u2019 section denotes the presence of an n - terminal signal peptide . < p > < a href = ' / help / signal ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ptm / processing < / a > section describes a propeptide , which is a part of a protein that is cleaved during maturation or activation . once cleaved , a propeptide generally has no independent biological function . < p > < a href = ' / help / propep ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018ptm / processing\u2019 section describes the extent of a polypeptide chain in the mature protein following processing . < p > < a href = ' / help / chain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the ptm / processing\n: / help / ptm _ processing _ section section describes the positions of cysteine residues participating in disulfide bonds . < p > < a href = ' / help / disulfid ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the expression of a gene at the mrna or protein level in cells or in tissues of multicellular organisms . < p > < a href = ' / help / expression _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018expression\u2019 section provides information on the expression of a gene at the mrna or protein level in cells or in tissues of multicellular organisms . by default , the information is derived from experiments at the mrna level , unless specified \u2018at protein level\u2019 . < br > < / br > examples : < a href =\nurltoken\n> p92958 < / a > , < a href =\nurltoken\n> q8tdn4 < / a > , < a href =\nurltoken\n> o14734 < / a > < p > < a href = ' / help / tissue _ specificity ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the quaternary structure of a protein and on interaction ( s ) with other proteins or protein complexes . < p > < a href = ' / help / interaction _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ' interaction ' < / a > section provides information about the protein quaternary structure and interaction ( s ) with other proteins or protein complexes ( with the exception of physiological receptor - ligand interactions which are annotated in the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ' function ' < / a > section ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / subunit _ structure ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the tertiary and secondary structure of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / structure _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018structure\u2019 section is used to indicate the positions of experimentally determined beta strands within the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / strand ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > manually validated information inferred from a combination of experimental and computational evidence . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000244\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018structure\u2019 section is used to indicate the positions of experimentally determined helical regions within the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / helix ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018structure\u2019 section is used to indicate the positions of experimentally determined hydrogen - bonded turns within the protein sequence . these elements correspond to the dssp secondary structure code \u2018t\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / turn ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> family and domains < / a > section describes the position and type of a domain , which is defined as a specific combination of secondary structures organized into a characteristic three - dimensional structure or fold . < p > < a href = ' / help / domain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > manual validated information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000255\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018family and domains\u2019 section describes a short ( usually not more than 20 amino acids ) conserved sequence motif of biological significance . < p > < a href = ' / help / motif ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018family and domains\u2019 section provides information about the sequence similarity with other proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ similarities ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is in its mature form or if it represents the precursor . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ processing ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the checksum is a form of redundancy check that is calculated from the sequence . it is useful for tracking sequence updates . < / p > < p > it should be noted that while , in theory , two different sequences could have the same checksum value , the likelihood that this would happen is extremely low . < / p > < p > however uniprotkb may contain entries with identical sequences in case of multiple genes ( paralogs ) . < / p > < p > the checksum is computed as the sequence 64 - bit cyclic redundancy check value ( crc64 ) using the generator polynomial : x < sup > 64 < / sup > + x < sup > 4 < / sup > + x < sup > 3 < / sup > + x + 1 . the algorithm is described in the iso 3309 standard . < / p > < p class =\npublication\n> press w . h . , flannery b . p . , teukolsky s . a . and vetterling w . t . < br / > < strong > cyclic redundancy and other checksums < / strong > < br / > < a href =\nurltoken\n> numerical recipes in c 2nd ed . , pp896 - 902 , cambridge university press ( 1993 ) < / a > ) < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018sequence\u2019 section reports difference ( s ) between the canonical sequence ( displayed by default in the entry ) and the different sequence submissions merged in the entry . these various submissions may originate from different sequencing projects , different types of experiments , or different biological samples . sequence conflicts are usually of unknown origin . < p > < a href = ' / help / conflict ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href =\nurltoken\n> uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( \u2018last modified\u2019 ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section contains any relevant information that doesn\u2019t fit in any other defined sections < p > < a href = ' / help / miscellaneous _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nactivates the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor - 1 ( vegfr - 1 / flt1 ) , and consequently promotes the proliferation and tissue factor production of endothelial cells , the neovascularization in the chicken chorioallantoic membrane , and increases vascular permeability . also stimulates tissue - factor production and human monocyte chemotaxis .\nnucleotide sequence [ mrna ] , function , subunit , subcellular location , interaction with flt1 and kdr .\n< p > manually curated information which has been propagated from a related experimentally characterized protein . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000250\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > inferred from direct assay < / p > < p > used to indicate a direct assay for the function , process or component indicated by the go term . < / p > < p > more information in the < a href =\nurltoken\n> go evidence code guide < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018ptm / processing\u2019 section specifies the position and type of each modified residue excluding < a href =\nurltoken\n> lipids < / a > , < a href =\nurltoken\n> glycans < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> protein cross - links < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / mod _ res ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhomodimer ; disulfide - linked ( by similarity ) . interacts with high affinity with vegfr - 1 / flt1 , and with lower affinity with vegfr - 2 / kdr . does not bind to vegfr - 3 / flt4 and neuropilin - 1 ( nrp1 ) .\nthe prevalent condition due to each bacterial type of typhoid bacilli and its epidemiological observation . - nlm catalog - ncbi\nthe prevalent condition due to each bacterial type of typhoid bacilli and its epidemiological observation .\nauthor ( s ) : shimojo , kumaichi title ( s ) : the prevalent condition due to each bacterial type of typhoid bacilli and its epidemiological observation . series : gy\u014dseki , g\u014d 167 country of publication : china ( republic : 1949 - ) publisher : [ taihoku , 1933 ] description : 2 , 57 p . ill . language : english nlm id : 0243007r [ book ]\ntype locality : qianjinxiang , xiangcheng county , hengduan mountains , sichuan , elevation 3100 m .\nholotype : cib 725050 , male ; 3100 m ; 10 . 7 , 1972 .\nguo , p . , f . j . zhang , and y . y . chen . 1999 . catalogue of type specimens of reptiles in the herpetological collections of chengdu institute of biology , the chinese academy of sciences . asiatic herpetological research 8 : 43 ~ 47 - get paper here\nguo , peng ; pang , junfeng ; zhang , yaping ; zhao , ermi 2006 . a re - analysis of the phylogeny of the genus protobothrops ( reptilia : viperidae ) , with particular reference to the systematic position of p . xiangchengensis . amphibia - reptilia 27 ( 3 ) : 433 - 439 - get paper here\nmcdiarmid , r . w . ; campbell , j . a . & tour\u00e9 , t . a . 1999 . snake species of the world . vol . 1 . herpetologists\u2019 league , 511 pp .\nurutu or yarara parker ' s pit viper andean pit viper terciopelo * barba amarilla * caissaca * barbour ' s pit viper barnett ' s pit viper bocourt ' s pit viper amazonian tree - viper brazil ' s pit viper st . lucia pit viper cotiara dunn ' s pit viper fonseca ' s pit viper godmann ' s pit viper island jararaca jararaca jararacussu fer - de - lance lansberg ' s hog nose viper yellow - lined pit viper black - tailed pit viper hog - nosed pit viper jararaca pintada or wied ' s lance - head black spotted pit viper jumping viper western hog - nosed pit viper peruvian pit viper piraja ' s pit viper , jararacucu eyelash viper yucatan pit viper\n: pope ' s tree viper , [ 4 ] pope ' s bamboo pitviper . . . .\nkanburi pitviper , [ 4 ] kanburian pit viper , tiger pit v . . .\ncommon names : taiwan cobra , chinese cobra scientific name : naja naja atra distinguishing features : has typical large cobra appearance ; raises head when agitated , and neck appears like a scoop ; yellow - brown in colour additional information : can be found all around taiwan , at lower elevations , in grassy and hilly areas . poisonous though generally not aggressive .\ncommon names : hundred pacer , sharp - nosed pit viper scientific name : deinagkistrodon acutus distinguishing features : large brown or light coloured snake with dark diamonds / triangles . additional information : highly poisonous . more rare than before ; is more commonly found in southern parts of taiwan . found below 1300m in mountains , forests and bamboo groves .\ncommon name : taiwan banded krait scientific name : bungarus multicinctus distinguishing features : black body with white bands from head to tail . round head . additional information : can be found all over taiwan at lower elevations , commonly near water and rice paddies . excellent swimmer . serious bites can cause death within two hours if not treated . primarily active at night .\ncommon names : russell ' s pit viper , chain snake scientific name : vipera russelli formosensis distinguishing features : brown body with black / yellow diamonds running down the back . additional information : worldwide , this snake is believed to be responsible for more human deaths than any other snake . it is irritable and can strike very quickly . found in forests and grasslands .\n\u00a9 formosan fat tire association 2000 - 2011 . all rights reserved . site design by dennis flood .\ndistinctive characteristics of sakishimahabu : skin is brown , overlaid with a dark brown zig - zag pattern . originally found in the yaeyama islands , but has since moved to itoman city and the southern part of okinawa .\nmedium - sized , fairly stout - bodied , pitviper , adults usually 50 - 90 cm long ( max . 100 + cm ) . usually resembles the okinawan habu , p . flavoviridis , in general color & pattern but is much smaller . okinawan form often has a more grayish dorsal background color , w / a distinct orange - ish tinge to its alternating dorsal blotches .\nfound mainly in moist or wet forest edges , by openings or paths , often near cultivated crops & human habitations . limited to the ryukyu islands of japan ( irimoke , ishigaki & miyako ) .\nmainly nocturnal , mainly terrestrial , but will climb > 1 m up into bushes , bamboo or sugar cane stalks . mainly feeds on small mammals , & possibly on lizards or frogs . oviparous ( clutch size not reported ) .\nnot much known . probably mainly hemotoxic w / hemorrhagin & procoagulants . human envenomations have been reported , but rare reports of human fatalities caused by this species have not been well - document .\nindian subcontinent and southeast asia , taiwan . see link\ndistribution\nat the top of the page for detailed information .\nmostly smaller snakes under 1 m . protobothrops flavoviridis can grow to up to 2 m . triangular head clearly distinct from the body .\nthere are several hundred bites each year due to protobothrops flavoviridis on the ryukyu islands of japan . of these , approx . 50 % occur in people working in the fields and approx . 20 % in living quarters . around 25 % of cases have a severe course , with local necroses or systemic envenoming , and on average 8 patients die each year ( sawai et al . 1970 , 1971b ) ."]}
{"id": 359, "summary": [{"text": "agkistrodon bilineatus is a venomous pitviper species found in mexico and central america as far south as costa rica .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "four subspecies are currently recognized , including the nominate subspecies described here . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "agkistrodon bilineatus", "paragraphs": ["ancistrodon bilineatus g\u00fcnther 1863 agkistrodon bilineatus \u2014 stejneger 1899 : 71 agkistrodon bilineatus \u2014 gloyd & conant 1943 : 163 agkistrodon bilineatus \u2014 liner 1994 agkistrodon bilineatus \u2014 mcdiarmid , campbell & tour\u00e9 1999 : 235 agkistrodon bilineatus lemosespinali smith & chiszar 2001 agkistrodon bilineatus \u2014 savage 2002 agkistrodon bilineatus \u2014 gower et al . 2012 : 78 agkistrodon bilineatus \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 18\nagkistrodon bilineatus ( common cantil ) subsp . bilineatus [ original photo copyright \u00a9 dr julian white ]\nagkistrodon bilineatus ( common cantil ) subsp . bilineatus [ original photo copyright \u00a9 dr jurg meier ]\ndrent , jan 1991 . breeding results : agkistrodon bilineatus bilineatus . litteratura serpentium 11 ( 6 ) : 145 - get paper here\nagkistrodon bilineatus taylori h . m . smith & taylor , 1950 ( nomen nudum )\nhemorrhagic toxin from the venom of agkistrodon bilineatus ( common cantil ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nmacchiavelli , g . 1990 . reproduction of agkistrodon bilineatus bilineatus . litteratura serpentium 10 ( 5 ) : 221 - 224 - get paper here\nagkistrodon bilineatus russeolus by lambert m . surhone , mariam t . tennoe , susan f . henssonow\nboerema , h . 1989 . the keeping and breeding of agkistrodon bilineatus bilineatus . litteratura serpentium 9 ( 6 ) : 267 - 268 - get paper here\nbilinexin , a snake c - type lectin from agkistrodon bilineatus venom agglutinates platelets via gpib and alpha2beta1 .\nglycoprotein proteinase in agkistrodon bilineatus venom\nby john d . ruff , bob d . johnson et al .\ncitation : - agkistrodon bilineatus . malaysia biodiversity information system ( mybis ) . urltoken downloaded on 10 july 2018 .\nbilinexin , a snake c - type lectin from agkistrodon bilineatus venom agglutinates platelets via gpib and alpha2beta1 . - pubmed - ncbi\nburger wl , robertson wb ( 1951 ) .\na new subspecies of the mexican moccasin , agkistrodon bilineatus\n. univ . kansas sci . bull . 34 ( 1 ) : 213 - 218 . ( agkistrodon bilineatus taylori , new subspecies ) .\nbabb , r . d . and e . dugan . 2008 . geographic distribution : agkistrodon bilineatus . herpetological review 39 : 110 .\nsmetsers , peet 1993 . agkistrodon bilineatus - g\u00fcnther , the tropical mocassin . litteratura serpentium 13 ( 2 ) : 38 - 40 - get paper here\ncalmonte , t . ( 1982 ) agkistrodon bilineatus taylori - ein selten imprtierter dreieckskopf aus mexiko . : herpetofauna 4 ( 20 ) : 26 - 27\ncalmonte , t . 1982 . agkistrodon bilineatus taylori - ein selten imprtierter dreieckskopf aus mexiko . herpetofauna 4 ( 20 ) : 26 - 27 - get paper here\ncalmonte , toni 1984 . literature : agkistrodon bilineatus taylori - ein selter importierter dreieckskopf aus mexiko . litteratura serpentium 4 ( 2 ) : 82 - get paper here\nfuriani , m . 1989 . the reproduction of agkistrodon bilineatus ( g\u00fcnther , 1888 ) in captivity . litteratura serpentium 9 ( 4 ) : 142 - 144 - get paper here\npeters , uwe w . 1980 . literature : second generation breeding of the cantil ( agkistrodon bilineatus ) at taronga zoo . litteratura serpentium 1 ( 1 ) : 32 - get paper here\ntrutnau , l . 2001 . einige bemerkungen zur biologie , pflege und nachzucht der mexikanischen giftschlangenart agkistrodon bilineatus g\u00fcnther 1863 . herpetofauna 23 ( 131 ) : 5 - 14 - get paper here\nbolanos , r . , & montero , j . r . ( 1971 ) agkistrodon bilineatus g\u00fcnther from costa rica . : revista de biologia tropical 16 [ 1970 ] : 277 - 279 .\nagkistrodon taylori\n. the reptile database . www . reptile - database . org .\nhenderson , r . w . 1977 . notes on agkistrodon bilineatus ( reptilia , serpentes , viperidae ) in belize . journal of herpetology 12 ( 3 ) : 412 - 413 - get paper here\nbolanos , r . , & montero , j . r . 1971 . agkistrodon bilineatus g\u00fcnther from costa rica . revista de biologia tropical 16 [ 1970 ] : 277 - 279 . - get paper here\nconant , r . ( 1984 ) a new subspecies of the pit viper agkistrodon bilineatus ( reptilia : viperidae ) from central america . : proc . biol . soc . washington 97 : 135 - 141\ncommon names ( subsp . bilineatus ) common cantil , mocasina , castellana , gamarilla , mexican moccasin , mexican cantil\nconant , r . 1984 . a new subspecies of the pit viper agkistrodon bilineatus ( reptilia : viperidae ) from central america . proc . biol . soc . washington 97 : 135 - 141 - get paper here\nstrimple , pete 1995 . comments on caudal luring in snakes with observations on this behaviour in two subspecies of cantils , agkistrodon bilineatus ssp . litteratura serpentium 15 ( 3 ) : 74 - 77 - get paper here\ngloyd , h . k . ( 1972 ) a subspecies of agkistrodon bilineatus ( serpentes : crotalidae ) on the yucat\u00e1n peninsula , m\u00e9xico . : proc . biol . soc . washington 84 : 327 - 334 .\na . biliniatus is very hot ( maybe 2x ) compared to any of our domestic agkistrodon . al\npathogenesis of hemorrhage induced by bilitoxin , a hemorrhagic toxin isolated from the venom of the common cantil ( agkistrodon bilineatus bilineatus ) .\nownby c . l . , nika t . , imai k . , sugihara h . toxicon 28 : 837 - 846 ( 1990 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]\ngloyd , h . k . 1972 . a subspecies of agkistrodon bilineatus ( serpentes : crotalidae ) on the yucat\u00e1n peninsula , m\u00e9xico . proc . biol . soc . washington 84 : 327 - 334 . - get paper here\nagkistrodon bilineatus is a venomous pitviper species . these are heavy - bodied snakes , and share the same general body structure with cottonmouths . they have a broad , triangular - shaped head with small eyes that have vertical pupils .\nburger , w . l . & robertson , w . b . ( 1951 ) a new subspecies of the mexican moccasin , agkistrodon bilineatus . : univ . kansas sci . bull . 34 ( 5 ) : 213 - 218\nfractionation of crude agkistrodon bilineatus venom applying a size exclusion column , superdex - 75 , 16x60 mm , at ph 5 . inset of the figure shows a sds - page ( 15 % glycine , non reducing gel ) of the fractions\nburger , w . l . & robertson , w . b . 1951 . a new subspecies of the mexican moccasin , agkistrodon bilineatus . univ . kansas sci . bull . 34 ( 5 ) : 213 - 218 - get paper here\narenas - monroy , jos\u00e9 carlos , and iv\u00e1n trinidad ahumada - carrillo . ( 2015 ) agkistrodon bilineatus g\u00fcnther , 1863 ( squamata : viperidae ) : confirmation of an inland locality for central jalisco , mexico . : mesoamerican herpetology 2 ( 3 ) : 371\u2013374\nsmith , hobart m . and david chiszar 2001 . a new subspecies of cantil ( agkistrodon bilineatus ) from central veracruz , mexico ( reptilia : serpentes ) . bull . maryland herp . soc . 37 ( 4 ) : 130 - 136 - get paper here\nruff , john d . ; johnson , bob d . ; and sifford , dewey h . ( 1980 )\nglycoprotein proteinase in agkistrodon bilineatus venom ,\njournal of the arkansas academy of science : vol . 34 , article 48 . available at : urltoken\narenas - monroy , jos\u00e9 carlos , and iv\u00e1n trinidad ahumada - carrillo . 2015 . agkistrodon bilineatus g\u00fcnther , 1863 ( squamata : viperidae ) : confirmation of an inland locality for central jalisco , mexico . mesoamerican herpetology 2 ( 3 ) : 371\u2013374 - get paper here\nporras lw , wilson ld , schuett gw , reiserer r . s . 2013 . a taxonomic reevaluation and conservation assessment of the common cantil , agkistrodon bilineatus ( squamata : viperidae ) : a race against time . amphibian & reptile conservation 7 ( 1 ) : 48\u201373 - get paper here\nbeolens , bo ; watkins , michael ; grayson , michael ( 2011 ) . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( agkistrodon bilineatus taylori , p . 261 ) .\nbeolens , bo ; watkins , michael ; grayson , michael ( 2011 ) . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( agkistrodon bilineatus taylori , p . 261 ) .\ni would like to know a good cage size , good temps and humidity , and how often you should feed agkistrodon species . jon short\nhemorrhagic toxin from the venom of agkistrodon bilineatus ( common cantil ) .\nimai k . , nikai t . , sugihara h . , ownby c . l . int . j . biochem . 21 : 667 - 673 ( 1989 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]\nusa , mexico and central america . see link\ndistribution\nat the top of the page for detailed information . map 52 agkistrodon spp .\ncruz , g . ; wilson , l . d . ; espinosa , j . ( 1979 ) two additions to the reptile fauna of honduras ) eumeces managuae dunn and agkistrodon bilineatus ( gunther ) ) with comments on pelamis platurus ( linnaeus ) . : herpetological review 10 ( 1 ) : 26 - 27\nalways keep agkistrodon bilineatus clean , do not allow fecal material to sit in a cage where the snake can crawl through it . this can cause skin infections and lead to other health issues . also being a venomous snake , always remove the snake before servicing ! cleaning products such as clorhexadine solution are recommended .\ncruz , g . ; wilson , l . d . ; espinosa , j . 1979 . two additions to the reptile fauna of honduras ) eumeces managuae dunn and agkistrodon bilineatus ( gunther ) ) with comments on pelamis platurus ( linnaeus ) . herpetological review 10 ( 1 ) : 26 - 27 - get paper here\neffect of bilineobin , a thrombin - like proteinase from the venom of common cantil ( agkistrodon bilineatus ) .\nkomori y . , nikai t . , ohara a . , yagihashi s . , sugihara h . toxicon 31 : 257 - 270 ( 1993 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]\nprimary structure of a coagulant enzyme , bilineobin , from agkistrodon bilineatus venom .\nnikai t . , ohara a . , komori y . , fox j . w . , sugihara h . arch . biochem . biophys . 318 : 89 - 96 ( 1995 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]\nhere we summarize the isolation and characterisation of five bradykinin potentiating peptides , one vasodilator peptide and three bradykinin inhibiting peptides from the venom of agkistrodon bilineatus , generally known as cantil . in order to determine their ic 50 values , the inhibitory activities of the synthetic analogues of four natural bpps peptides towards angiotensin converting enzymes were also studied .\nthe subspecies ( a . bilineatus taylori ) was elevated to species status ( a . taylori ) by parkinson , zamudio and greene ( 2000 ) based on mitochondrial dna sequences .\nagkistrodon taylori is a venomous pitviper species [ 4 ] found only in northeastern mexico . it is named in honor of american herpetologist edward harrison taylor . [ 5 ]\nhabitats : a . bilineatus in dry forests and savannas , a . contortrix primarily in deciduous forests . a . piscivorus is a semi - aquatic species found in bodies of water or swamps .\nthe cantil ( agkistrodon bilineatus ) , or mexican moccasin , is a pit viper closely related to the water moccasin and copperhead of the united states . like a number of other snakes , it moves its tail in a manner thought to attract the attention of prey , enticing them to come closer or look away from the snake\u2019s business end , a behavior called caudal luring .\ntrutnau , l . 1984 . ein beitrag zur kenntnis des kupferkopfs - agkistrodon contortrix ( linnaeus 1766 ) . herpetofauna 7 ( 35 ) : 14 - 26 - get paper here\ngloyd and conant ( 1943 ) a synopsis of the american forms of agkistrodon ( copperheads and moccasins ) . : bull . chicago acad . sci . 7 : 147 - 170\ncharacterization and amino - terminal sequence of phospholipase a2 - ii from the venom of agkistrodon bilineatus ( common cantil ) .\nnikai t . , komori y . , ohara a . , yagihashi s . , ohizumi y . , sugihara h . int . j . biochem . 26 : 43 - 48 ( 1994 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]\nprimary structure and functional characterization of bilitoxin - 1 , a novel dimeric p - ii snake venom metalloproteinase from agkistrodon bilineatus venom .\nnikai t . , taniguchi k . , komori y . , masuda k . , fox j . w . , sugihara h . arch . biochem . biophys . 378 : 6 - 15 ( 2000 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]\nlavin p , mendoza - quijano f , hammerson ga ( 2007 ) . agkistrodon taylori . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2014 . 3 . downloaded on 13 april 2015 .\ngloyd , h . and conant , r . 1943 . a synopsis of the american forms of agkistrodon ( copperheads and moccasins ) . bull . chicago acad . sci . 7 : 147 - 170\ni am just interested in the care of them . are the reqirements the same as other agkistrodon , even though they are smaller ? and does anyone know if they are more or less venomous then an agkistrodon piscivorus ? ( i know that you should always treat a gun like it is loaded , whether it is a pellet gun or a . 50 cal . ) i ' m just wondering . thanks , jon short\nparkinson cl , zamudio kr , greene hw . 2000 . phylogeography of the pitviper clade agkistrodon : historical ecology , species status , and conservation of the cantils . mol . ecol . 9 : 411 - 420 .\nnad nucleosidase ( nad glycohydrolase , ec 3 . 2 . 2 . 5 ) activity in agkistrodon bilineatus venom was observed . using the cyanide assay method at ph 7 . 9 , lyophilized crude venom had an activity of 0 . 19 units / mg . chromatography of the crude venom on deae sephadex a - 50 with ammonium acetate buffer by two stage elution yielded 13 fractions . peak nad nucleosidase activity occurred at fraction x . crude venom and fraction x nad nucleosidase activities were thermolabile .\nparkinson cl , zamudio kr , greene hw ( 2000 ) .\nphylogeography of the pitviper clade agkistrodon : historical ecology , species status , and conservation of the cantils\n. mol . ecol . 9 : 411 - 420 .\nparkinson , c . l . , zamudio , k . r . & greene , h . w . 2000 . phylogeography of the pitviper clade agkistrodon : historical ecology , species status and conservation of cantils . molecular ecology 9 : 411 - 420\nsnake venom from agkistrodon contortrix mokason ( northern copperhead ) may be used as a source of disintegrins , fibrin ( ogen ) olytic activities , phospholipase a2 as well as other toxins . it may also be used as an immunogen or for proteome research .\ngloyd hk , conant r . 1990 . snakes of the agkistrodon complex : a monographic review . society for the study of amphibians and reptiles . 614 pp . 52 plates . lccn 89 - 50342 . isbn 0 - 916984 - 20 - 6 .\nparkinson , c . l . , k . r . zamudio and h . w . greene . 2000 . phylogeography of the pitviper clade agkistrodon : historical ecology , species status , and conservation of cantils molecular ecology 9 : 411 - 420 . pdf\ngloyd hk , conant r ( 1990 ) . snakes of the agkistrodon complex : a monographic review . society for the study of amphibians and reptiles . 614 pp . 52 plates . lccn 89 - 50342 . isbn 0 - 916984 - 20 - 6 .\ngloyd hk , conant r ( 1990 ) . snakes of the agkistrodon complex : a monographic review . society for the study of amphibians and reptiles . 614 pp . 52 plates . lccn 89 - 50342 . isbn 0 - 916984 - 20 - 6 .\notoh , i tend not to think that caudal luring in agkistrodon or various superficially similar behaviors in lizards have any particular relation to tail rattling . they both involve tail movement , but that\u2019s about the only similarity . different kinds of movement , different contexts , etc .\nlomonte b , tsai wc , ure\u00f1a - diaz jm , sanz lm - od , s\u00e1nchez ee , fry bggj , et al . venomics of new world pit vipers : genus - wide comparisons of venom proteomes across agkistrodon . j proteome . 2014 ; 16 ( 96 ) : 103\u201316 .\nthis entry was written by whyevolutionistrue and posted on january 14 , 2012 at 4 : 32 pm and filed under adaptation , animals with tags agkistrodon , cantil , snakes . bookmark the permalink . follow any comments here with the rss feed for this post . both comments and trackbacks are currently closed .\ni keep agkistrodon bilineatus with longer days in the summer and let natural lighting do the work . so timers come on at 8 : 00am and turn off at 6 : 00pm and natural light does the rest . during winter the lights turn on at 9 : 00am and off at 5 : 00pm and then the same , natural lighting does the rest . they prefer a well lit habitat , with a basking spot of about 29 \u00b0c ( 85 \u00b0f ) , with a cool side of 24 - 27 \u00b0c ( 75 - 80 \u00b0f ) with a nighttime drop as low as 21 \u00b0c ( 70 \u00b0f ) , works just fine .\nthe enzyme activities and their ph optima for crude lyophilized agkistrodon bilineatus venom were as follows : phosphomonoesterase ( ph 9 . 5 ) , phosphodiesterase ( ph 9 . 0 ) , 5 ' - nucleotidase ( ph 10 . 0 to 10 . 2 ) , phospholipase a , thrombin - like , n - benzoyl - l - arginine ethyl esterase ( ph 8 . 0 ) , p - toluene - sulphonyl - l - arginine methyl esterase ( ph 8 . 0 ) , protease ( ph 8 . 9 to 9 . 1 ) , and l - amino acid oxidase ( ph 7 . 5 . . . [ show full abstract ]\ntreatment summary bites by agkistrodon species vary from only minor local effects to moderate , rarely severe local effects , the latter potentially including hypovolaemic shock . major systemic effects are likely to be confined to coagulopathy , though systemic myolysis is a theoretical risk , but not paralysis . cases with major local or systemic envenoming should receive antivenom iv .\nour local missouri black rat snakes , elaphe obsoleta obsoleta , also shake their tails against dry leaves and underbrush when disturbed , making a somewhat convincing rattlesnake mimic , convincing enough to cause a momentary pause and give that lovely heart pounding rush , but i don\u2019t think they\u2019re known to use it for predation ( young eat small lizards frogs and insects but the tails are not differently colored like agkistrodon ) , just protection .\nenzymatic and toxic activities of venoms of agkistrodon species and subspecies . venoms were compared for proteinase activity on azocasein ( panel a ) , pla 2 activity ( panel b ) , hemorrhagic activity in mice ( panel c ) , and myotoxicity in mice ( panel d ) . details of experimental protocols are included in the materials and methods section . results are presented as mean \u00b1 s . d . ( n = 3 for proteinase and pla 2 activities and n = 4 for hemorrhagic and myotoxic activities ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nhome \u00bb resources \u00bb categories and criteria \u00bb 2001 iucn red list categories and criteria version 3 . 1\nsee below for the rules and requirements outlined in the iucn red list categories and criteria . version 3 . 1 ( second edition ) . for translations of this document into other languages , click here .\nthe iucn red list categories and criteria are intended to be an easily and widely understood system for classifying species at high risk of global extinction . the general aim of the system is to provide an explicit , objective framework for the classification of the broadest range of species according to their extinction risk . however , while the red list may focus attention on those taxa at the highest risk , it is not the sole means of setting priorities for conservation measures for their protection .\nextensive consultation and testing in the development of the system strongly suggest that it is robust across most organisms . however , it should be noted that although the system places species into the threatened categories with a high degree of consistency , the criteria do not take into account the life histories of every species . hence , in certain individual cases , the risk of extinction may be under - or over - estimated .\nbefore 1994 the more subjective threatened species categories used in iucn red data books and red lists had been in place , with some modification , for almost 30 years . although the need to revise the categories had long been recognized ( fitter and fitter 1987 ) , the current phase of development only began in 1989 following a request from the iucn species survival commission ( ssc ) steering committee to develop a more objective approach . the iucn council adopted the new red list system in 1994 .\nto give people using threatened species lists a better understanding of how individual species were classified .\nsince their adoption by iucn council in 1994 , the iucn red list categories have become widely recognized internationally , and they are now used in a range of publications and listings produced by iucn , as well as by numerous governmental and non - governmental organizations . such broad and extensive use revealed the need for a number of improvements , and ssc was mandated by the 1996 world conservation congress ( wcc res . 1 . 4 ) to conduct a review of the system ( iucn 1996 ) . this document presents the revisions accepted by the iucn council .\nthe proposals presented in this document result from a continuing process of drafting , consultation and validation . the production of a large number of draft proposals has led to some confusion , especially as each draft has been used for classifying some set of species for conservation purposes . to clarify matters , and to open the way for modifications as and when they become necessary , a system for version numbering has been adopted as follows :\nversion 1 . 0 : mace and lande ( 1991 ) the first paper discussing a new basis for the categories , and presenting numerical criteria especially relevant for large vertebrates .\nversion 2 . 0 : mace et al . ( 1992 ) a major revision of version 1 . 0 , including numerical criteria appropriate to all organisms and introducing the non - threatened categories .\nversion 2 . 1 : iucn ( 1993 ) following an extensive consultation process within ssc , a number of changes were made to the details of the criteria , and fuller explanation of basic principles was included . a more explicit structure clarified the significance of the non - threatened categories .\nversion 2 . 2 : mace and stuart ( 1994 ) following further comments received and additional validation exercises , some minor changes to the criteria were made . in addition , the susceptible category present in versions 2 . 0 and 2 . 1 was subsumed into the vulnerable category . a precautionary application of the system was emphasised .\nversion 2 . 3 : iucn ( 1994 ) iucn council adopted this version , which incorporated changes as a result of comments from iucn members , in december 1994 . the initial version of this document was published without the necessary bibliographic details , such as date of publication and isbn number , but these were included in the subsequent reprints in 1998 and 1999 . this version was used for the 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals ( baillie and groombridge 1996 ) , the world list of threatened trees ( oldfield et al 1998 ) and the 2000 iucn red list of threatened species ( hilton - taylor 2000 ) .\nversion 3 . 0 : iucn / ssc criteria review working group ( 1999 ) following comments received , a series of workshops were convened to look at the iucn red list criteria following which , changes were proposed affecting the criteria , the definitions of some key terms and the handling of uncertainty .\nversion 3 . 1 : iucn ( 2001 ) the iucn council adopted this latest version , which incorporated changes as a result of comments from the iucn and ssc memberships and from a final meeting of the criteria review working group , in february 2000 .\nall new assessments from january 2001 should use the latest adopted version and cite the year of publication and version number .\nin the rest of this document , the proposed system is outlined in several sections . section ii , the preamble , presents basic information about the context and structure of the system , and the procedures that are to be followed in applying the criteria to species . section iii provides definitions of key terms used . section iv presents the categories , while section v details the quantitative criteria used for classification within the threatened categories . annex i provides guidance on how to deal with uncertainty when applying the criteria ; annex ii suggests a standard format for citing the red list categories and criteria ; and annex iii outlines the documentation requirements for taxa to be included on iucn ' s global red lists . it is important for the effective functioning of the system that all sections are read and understood to ensure that the definitions and rules are followed .\nthe information in this section is intended to direct and facilitate the use and interpretation of the categories ( critically endangered , endangered , etc . ) , criteria ( a to e ) , and subcriteria ( 1 , 2 , etc . ; a , b , etc . ; i , ii , etc . ) .\nextinction is a chance process . thus , a listing in a higher extinction risk category implies a higher expectation of extinction , and over the time - frames specified more taxa listed in a higher category are expected to go extinct than those in a lower one ( without effective conservation action ) . however , the persistence of some taxa in high - risk categories does not necessarily mean their initial assessment was inaccurate .\nall taxa listed as critically endangered qualify for vulnerable and endangered , and all listed as endangered qualify for vulnerable . together these categories are described as ' threatened ' . the threatened categories form a part of the overall scheme . it will be possible to place all taxa into one of the categories ( see figure 1 ) .\nfor listing as critically endangered , endangered or vulnerable there is a range of quantitative criteria ; meeting any one of these criteria qualifies a taxon for listing at that level of threat . each taxon should be evaluated against all the criteria . even though some criteria will be inappropriate for certain taxa ( some taxa will never qualify under these however close to extinction they come ) , there should be criteria appropriate for assessing threat levels for any taxon . the relevant factor is whether any one criterion is met , not whether all are appropriate or all are met . because it will never be clear in advance which criteria are appropriate for a particular taxon , each taxon should be evaluated against all the criteria , and all criteria met at the highest threat category must be listed .\nthe different criteria ( a - e ) are derived from a wide review aimed at detecting risk factors across the broad range of organisms and the diverse life histories they exhibit . the quantitative values presented in the various criteria associated with threatened categories were developed through wide consultation , and they are set at what are generally judged to be appropriate levels , even if no formal justification for these values exists . the levels for different criteria within categories were set independently but against a common standard . broad consistency between them was sought .\nthe criteria for the threatened categories are to be applied to a taxon whatever the level of conservation action affecting it . it is important to emphasise here that a taxon may require conservation action even if it is not listed as threatened . conservation actions which may benefit the taxon are included as part of the documentation requirements ( see annex 3 ) .\nthe criteria are clearly quantitative in nature . however , the absence of high - quality data should not deter attempts at applying the criteria , as methods involving estimation , inference and projection are emphasised as being acceptable throughout . inference and projection may be based on extrapolation of current or potential threats into the future ( including their rate of change ) , or of factors related to population abundance or distribution ( including dependence on other taxa ) , so long as these can reasonably be supported . suspected or inferred patterns in the recent past , present or near future can be based on any of a series of related factors , and these factors should be specified as part of the documentation .\ntaxa at risk from threats posed by future events of low probability but with severe consequences ( catastrophes ) should be identified by the criteria ( e . g . small distributions , few locations ) . some threats need to be identified particularly early , and appropriate actions taken , because their effects are irreversible or nearly so ( e . g . , pathogens , invasive organisms , hybridization ) .\nthe data used to evaluate taxa against the criteria are often estimated with considerable uncertainty . such uncertainty can arise from any one or all of the following three factors : natural variation , vagueness in the terms and definitions used , and measurement error . the way in which this uncertainty is handled can have a strong influence on the results of an evaluation . details of methods recommended for handling uncertainty are included in annex 1 , and assessors are encouraged to read and follow these principles .\nin general , when uncertainty leads to wide variation in the results of assessments , the range of possible outcomes should be specified . a single category must be chosen and the basis for the decision should be documented ; it should be both precautionary and credible .\nwhen data are very uncertain , the category of ' data deficient ' may be assigned . however , in this case the assessor must provide documentation showing that this category has been assigned because data are inadequate to determine a threat category . it is important to recognize that taxa that are poorly known can often be assigned a threat category on the basis of background information concerning the deterioration of their habitat and / or other causal factors ; therefore the liberal use of ' data deficient ' is discouraged .\nlisting in the categories of not evaluated and data deficient indicates that no assessment of extinction risk has been made , though for different reasons . until such time as an assessment is made , taxa listed in these categories should not be treated as if they were non - threatened . it may be appropriate ( especially for data deficient forms ) to give them the same degree of attention as threatened taxa , at least until their status can be assessed .\nall assessments should be documented . threatened classifications should state the criteria and subcriteria that were met . no assessment can be accepted for the iucn red list as valid unless at least one criterion is given . if more than one criterion or subcriterion is met , then each should be listed . if a re - evaluation indicates that the documented criterion is no longer met , this should not result in automatic reassignment to a lower category of threat ( downlisting ) . instead , the taxon should be re - evaluated against all the criteria to clarify its status . the factors responsible for qualifying the taxon against the criteria , especially where inference and projection are used , should be documented ( see annexes 2 and 3 ) . the documentation requirements for other categories are also specified in annex 3 .\nthe category of threat is not necessarily sufficient to determine priorities for conservation action . the category of threat simply provides an assessment of the extinction risk under current circumstances , whereas a system for assessing priorities for action will include numerous other factors concerning conservation action such as costs , logistics , chances of success , and other biological characteristics of the subject .\nre - evaluation of taxa against the criteria should be carried out at appropriate intervals . this is especially important for taxa listed under near threatened , data deficient and for threatened taxa whose status is known or suspected to be deteriorating .\na taxon may be moved from a category of higher threat to a category of lower threat if none of the criteria of the higher category has been met for five years or more .\nif the original classification is found to have been erroneous , the taxon may be transferred to the appropriate category or removed from the threatened categories altogether , without delay ( but see point 10 above ) .\nthe term ' population ' is used in a specific sense in the red list criteria that is different to its common biological usage . population is here defined as the total number of individuals of the taxon . for functional reasons , primarily owing to differences between life forms , population size is measured as numbers of mature individuals only . in the case of taxa obligately dependent on other taxa for all or part of their life cycles , biologically appropriate values for the host taxon should be used .\nsubpopulations are defined as geographically or otherwise distinct groups in the population between which there is little demographic or genetic exchange ( typically one successful migrant individual or gamete per year or less ) .\nthe number of mature individuals is the number of individuals known , estimated or inferred to be capable of reproduction . when estimating this quantity , the following points should be borne in mind :\nmature individuals that will never produce new recruits should not be counted ( e . g . densities are too low for fertilization ) .\nin the case of populations with biased adult or breeding sex ratios , it is appropriate to use lower estimates for the number of mature individuals , which take this into account .\nwhere the population size fluctuates , use a lower estimate . in most cases this will be much less than the mean .\nreproducing units within a clone should be counted as individuals , except where such units are unable to survive alone ( e . g . corals ) .\nin the case of taxa that naturally lose all or a subset of mature individuals at some point in their life cycle , the estimate should be made at the appropriate time , when mature individuals are available for breeding .\nre - introduced individuals must have produced viable offspring before they are counted as mature individuals .\ngeneration length is the average age of parents of the current cohort ( i . e . newborn individuals in the population ) . generation length therefore reflects the turnover rate of breeding individuals in a population . generation length is greater than the age at first breeding and less than the age of the oldest breeding individual , except in taxa that breed only once . where generation length varies under threat , the more natural , i . e . pre - disturbance , generation length should be used .\na reduction is a decline in the number of mature individuals of at least the amount ( % ) stated under the criterion over the time period ( years ) specified , although the decline need not be continuing . a reduction should not be interpreted as part of a fluctuation unless there is good evidence for this . the downward phase of a fluctuation will not normally count as a reduction .\na continuing decline is a recent , current or projected future decline ( which may be smooth , irregular or sporadic ) which is liable to continue unless remedial measures are taken . fluctuations will not normally count as continuing declines , but an observed decline should not be considered as a fluctuation unless there is evidence for this .\nextreme fluctuations can be said to occur in a number of taxa when population size or distribution area varies widely , rapidly and frequently , typically with a variation greater than one order of magnitude ( i . e . a tenfold increase or decrease ) .\nthe phrase ' severely fragmented ' refers to the situation in which increased extinction risk to the taxon results from the fact that most of its individuals are found in small and relatively isolated subpopulations ( in certain circumstances this may be inferred from habitat information ) . these small subpopulations may go extinct , with a reduced probability of recolonization .\nextent of occurrence is defined as the area contained within the shortest continuous imaginary boundary which can be drawn to encompass all the known , inferred or projected sites of present occurrence of a taxon , excluding cases of vagrancy ( see figure 2 ) . this measure may exclude discontinuities or disjunctions within the overall distributions of taxa ( e . g . large areas of obviously unsuitable habitat ) ( but see ' area of occupancy ' , point 10 below ) . extent of occurrence can often be measured by a minimum convex polygon ( the smallest polygon in which no internal angle exceeds 180 degrees and which contains all the sites of occurrence ) .\nfigure 2 . two examples of the distinction between extent of occurrence and area of occupancy . ( a ) is the spatial distribution of known , inferred or projected sites of present occurrence . ( b ) shows one possible boundary to the extent of occurrence , which is the measured area within this boundary . ( c ) shows one measure of area of occupancy which can be achieved by the sum of the occupied grid squares .\nthe term ' location ' defines a geographically or ecologically distinct area in which a single threatening event can rapidly affect all individuals of the taxon present . the size of the location depends on the area covered by the threatening event and may include part of one or many subpopulations . where a taxon is affected by more than one threatening event , location should be defined by considering the most serious plausible threat .\na quantitative analysis is defined here as any form of analysis which estimates the extinction probability of a taxon based on known life history , habitat requirements , threats and any specified management options . population viability analysis ( pva ) is one such technique . quantitative analyses should make full use of all relevant available data . in a situation in which there is limited information , such data as are available can be used to provide an estimate of extinction risk ( for instance , estimating the impact of stochastic events on habitat ) . in presenting the results of quantitative analyses , the assumptions ( which must be appropriate and defensible ) , the data used and the uncertainty in the data or quantitative model must be documented .\nextinct ( ex ) a taxon is extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died . a taxon is presumed extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and / or expected habitat , at appropriate times ( diurnal , seasonal , annual ) , throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual . surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon ' s life cycle and life form .\nextinct in the wild ( ew ) a taxon is extinct in the wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation , in captivity or as a naturalized population ( or populations ) well outside the past range . a taxon is presumed extinct in the wild when exhaustive surveys in known and / or expected habitat , at appropriate times ( diurnal , seasonal , annual ) , throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual . surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon ' s life cycle and life form .\ncritically endangered ( cr ) a taxon is critically endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria a to e for critically endangered ( see section v ) , and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild .\nendangered ( en ) a taxon is endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria a to e for endangered ( see section v ) , and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild .\nvulnerable ( vu ) a taxon is vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria a to e for vulnerable ( see section v ) , and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild .\nnear threatened ( nt ) a taxon is near threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for critically endangered , endangered or vulnerable now , but is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future .\nleast concern ( lc ) a taxon is least concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for critically endangered , endangered , vulnerable or near threatened . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\nnot evaluated ( ne ) a taxon is not evaluated when it is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria .\nnote : as in previous iucn categories , the abbreviation of each category ( in parenthesis ) follows the english denominations when translated into other languages ( see annex 2 ) .\n( e ) the effects of introduced taxa , hybridization , pathogens , pollutants , competitors or parasites .\ne . quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 50 % within 10 years or three generations , whichever is the longer ( up to a maximum of 100 years ) .\na . severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than five locations .\ne . quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 20 % within 20 years or five generations , whichever is the longer ( up to a maximum of 100 years ) .\na . severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than 10 locations .\n1 . population size estimated to number fewer than 1 , 000 mature individuals .\n2 . population with a very restricted area of occupancy ( typically less than 20 km 2 ) or number of locations ( typically five or fewer ) such that it is prone to the effects of human activities or stochastic events within a very short time period in an uncertain future , and is thus capable of becoming critically endangered or even extinct in a very short time period .\ne . quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 10 % within 100 years .\none of the simplest ways to represent uncertainty is to specify a best estimate and a range of plausible values . the best estimate itself might be a range , but in any case the best estimate should always be included in the range of plausible values . when data are very uncertain , the range for the best estimate might be the range of plausible values . there are various methods that can be used to establish the plausible range . it may be based on confidence intervals , the opinion of a single expert , or the consensus opinion of a group of experts . whichever method is used should be stated and justified in the documentation .\nan assessment using a point estimate ( i . e . single numerical value ) will lead to a single red list category . however , when a plausible range for each parameter is used to evaluate the criteria , a range of categories may be obtained , reflecting the uncertainties in the data . a single category , based on a specific attitude to uncertainty , should always be listed along with the criteria met , while the range of plausible categories should be indicated in the documentation ( see annex 3 ) .\nwhere data are so uncertain that any category is plausible , the category of ' data deficient ' should be assigned . however , it is important to recognize that this category indicates that the data are inadequate to determine the degree of threat faced by a taxon , not necessarily that the taxon is poorly known or indeed not threatened . although data deficient is not a threatened category , it indicates a need to obtain more information on a taxon to determine the appropriate listing ; moreover , it requires documentation with whatever available information there is .\nunder section v ( the criteria for critically endangered , endangered and vulnerable ) there is a hierarchical alphanumeric numbering system of criteria and subcriteria . these criteria and subcriteria ( all three levels ) form an integral part of the red list assessment and all those that result in the assignment of a threatened category must be specified after the category . under the criteria a to c and d under vulnerable , the first level of the hierarchy is indicated by the use of numbers ( 1 - 4 ) and if more than one is met , they are separated by means of the ' + ' symbol . the second level is indicated by the use of the lower - case alphabet characters ( a - e ) . these are listed without any punctuation . a third level of the hierarchy under criteria b and c involves the use of lower case roman numerals ( i - v ) . these are placed in parentheses ( with no space between the preceding alphabet character and start of the parenthesis ) and separated by the use of commas if more than one is listed . where more than one criterion is met , they should be separated by semicolons . the following are examples of such usage :\nall assessments published on the iucn red list are freely available for public use . to ensure assessments are fully justified and to allow red list assessment data to be analysed , thus making the iucn red list a powerful tool for conservation and policy decisions , a set of supporting information is required to accompany every assessment submitted for publication on the iucn red list of threatened species \u2122 :\nrequired supporting information under specific conditions ( e . g . taxa assessed under specific red list categories or criteria , plant assessments , reassessed taxa , etc . ) .\ntools available for preparing and submitting assessments for the iucn red list , including the iucn species information service ( sis ) and ramas\u00ae red list ( ak\u00e7akaya and ferson 2001 ) .\nnote that the documentation standards and consistency checks for iucn red list assessments and species accounts will be updated on a regular basis .\nclick here for a summary of the five criteria ( a - e ) used to evaluate if a taxon belongs in an iucn red list threatened category ( critically endangered , endangered or vulnerable ) .\nak\u00e7akaya , h . r . and ferson , s . 2001 . ramas \u00ae red list : threatened species classifications under uncertainty . version 2 . 0 . applied biomathematics , new york .\nak\u00e7akaya , h . r . , ferson , s . , burgman , m . a . , keith , d . a . , mace , g . m . and todd , c . a . 2000 . making consistent iucn classifications under uncertainty . conservation biology 14 : 1001 - 1013 .\nbaillie , j . and groombridge , b . ( eds ) . 1996 . 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals . iucn , gland , switzerland .\nburgman , m . a . , keith , d . a . and walshe , t . v . 1999 . uncertainty in comparative risk analysis of threatened australian plant species . risk analysis 19 : 585 - 598 .\nfitter , r . and fitter , m . ( eds ) . 1987 . the road to extinction . iucn , gland , switzerland .\ng\u00e4rdenfors , u . , hilton - taylor , c . , mace , g . , and rodr\u00edguez , j . p . , 2001 . the application of iucn red list criteria at regional levels . conservation biology 15 : 1206 - 1212 .\nhilton - taylor , c . ( compiler ) . 2000 . 2000 iucn red list of threatened species . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .\niucn . 1993 . draft iucn red list categories . iucn , gland , switzerland .\niucn . 1994 . iucn red list categories . prepared by the iucn species survival commission . iucn , gland , switzerland .\niucn . 1996 . resolution 1 . 4 . species survival commission . resolutions and recommendations , pp . 7 - 8 . world conservation congress , 13 - 23 october 1996 , montreal , canada . iucn , gland , switzerland .\niucn . 1998 . guidelines for re - introductions . prepared by the iucn / ssc re - introduction specialist group . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .\niucn . 2001 . iucn red list categories and criteria : version 3 . 1 . iucn species survival commission . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .\niucn . 2003 . guidelines for application of iucn red list criteria at regional levels : version 3 . 0 . iucn species survival commission . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .\niucn . 2012 . guidelines for application of iucn red list criteria at regional and national levels : version 4 . 0 . gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk : iucn .\niucn / ssc criteria review working group . 1999 . iucn red list criteria review provisional report : draft of the proposed changes and recommendations . species 31 - 32 : 43 - 57 .\nmace , g . m . , collar , n . , cooke , j . , gaston , k . j . , ginsberg , j . r . , leader - williams , n . , maunder , m . and milner - gulland , e . j . 1992 . the development of new criteria for listing species on the iucn red list . species 19 : 16 ? 22 .\nmace , g . m . and lande , r . 1991 . assessing extinction threats : toward a re - evaluation of iucn threatened species categories . conservation biology 5 : 148 ? 157 .\nmace , g . m . and stuart , s . n . 1994 . draft iucn red list categories , version 2 . 2 . species 21 - 22 : 13 - 24 .\noldfield , s . , lusty , c . and mackinven , a . 1998 . the world list of threatened trees . world conservation press , cambridge .\nno . of vials : 10 . expiration date : ordered . last update : 2013 - 03 - 06 .\ngiftnotruf muenchen , klinikum rechts der isar tel : + 49 - 89 - 19240 ; fax : + 49 - 89 - 41402467 ; email : tox @ lrz . tum . de .\npharmacie des h\u00f4pitaux , universitaires de gen\u00e8ve tel : + 41 - 22 - 3723960 ( during business hours ) , - 3723311 ( reception ) ; fax : + 41 - 22 - 2723990 .\nkantonsapotheke z\u00fcrich tel : + 41 - 44 - 2553202 / 14 ( during business hours ) , - 2552111 ( emergency ) ; fax : + 41 - 44 - 2554546 .\nkantonsspital m\u00fcnsterlingen , institut f\u00fcr spitalpharmazie tel : + 41 - 71 - 6862244 ( during business hours ) , - 6861111 ( emergency ) ; fax : + 41 - 71 - 6862239 .\nmedical toxicology information services , guy ' s hospital tel : + 44 - 20 - 71880500 ( 24 hour antivenom line ) , + 44 - 20 - 71880600 ( administration ) ; fax : + 44 - 20 - 71880700 ."]}
{"id": 364, "summary": [{"text": "the alabama shad ( alosa alabamae ) is a species of clupeid fish endemic to the united states where it breeds in medium to large flowing rivers from the mississippi river drainage to the suwannee river , florida , as well as some gulf coast drainages .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the biology and status of this fish is little known but it has become increasingly rare .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the international union for conservation of nature has rated it \" data deficient \" and the united states national marine fisheries service has listed it as a species of concern .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "reasons for its decline are thought mainly to be because of the many locks and dams blocking access for the fish to up-river spawning grounds . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "alabama shad", "paragraphs": ["biology of the alabama shad in northwest florida ( florida . dept . of natural resources . technical series )\nthe encyclopedia of alabama tm \u00a9 2018 . alabama humanities foundation . all rights reserved . a service of auburn university outreach .\ntoday , the largest remaining population of the alabama shad is in florida\u2019s apalachicola river system below the jim woodruff lock and dam at the georgia border ( see map ) . outside of florida , spawning populations of alabama shad are thought to persist in the following systems :\nthe decline in the population of alabama shad began with overfishing in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries . other human - related threats began to disturb the shad ' s life cycle as the twentieth century progressed . particularly damaging was poor water quality due to commercial and navigational dredging ( digging up the bottom ) of the sand bars that the shad use for spawning . however , the greatest cause of decline in the alabama shad population in alabama is the series of dams built in the alabama and tombigbee rivers . these dams block the fish from their travels to spawn in the mobile basin , the region where the two rivers drain in alabama .\nbiology of the alabama shad in northwest florida ( florida . dept . of natural resources . technical series ) : urltoken james g mills : books\nthe alabama shad ( alosa alabamae ) is found in alabama in the rivers systems of the southern half of the state . it is listed as a species of special concern by the national marine fisheries service because many of its inland spawning routes have been blocked by high - lift locks and dams . alabama shad still spawn in sections of the choctawhatchee and conecuh rivers .\na member of the clupeidae fish family , alabama shad are anadromous , meaning adults live in salt water but migrate upstream into freshwater rivers to spawn .\nbarkuloo , j . m . 1993 . systematic and population status of alabama shad in rivers tributary to the gulf of mexico . panama city , florida , 1993 .\n2007 , pascagoula river symposium , 5th annual meeting , april 13 , oral presentation : growth differences in relation to flow variation between years of alabama shad and skipjack herring .\nalabama shad travel in schools . in the winter and spring , when the water temperatures are cool , the shad travel up rivers and streams to spawn . they prefer to spawn over sand , gravel , or rocky surfaces in a moderate current . the male and female will leave the area after the spawning is complete . the young remain in the stream for several months . the alabama shad ' s life span is about six years .\nmettee , m . f . , p . e . o ' neil , and t . e . shepard . 1995 . status survey of gulf sturgeon acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi and alabama shad alosa alabamae in the choctawhatchee , conecuh , and alabama river systems , 1992 - 95 . geological survey of alabama open - file report . 30 pp .\nmills , j . g . 1972 . biology of the alabama shad in northwest florida . state of florida department of natural resources , technical series no . 68 . 24 pp .\n2004 , mississippi american fisheries society , 30th annual meeting , feb . 16 - 18 , jackson , mississippi . oral presentation : prospectus presentation on master work involving the alabama shad .\n2006 - 2007 , fish america foundation , life history of the alabama shad within the pascagoula river drainage , mississippi , $ 12 , 000 , principal investigator - dr . susan adams .\n2004 , mississippi academy of sciences , sixty - eighth annual meeting , february 19 - 20 , biloxi , mississippi . oral presentation : prospectus presentation on master work involving the alabama shad .\n2004 , graduate student symposium , 20th annual meeting , april 13 - 15 , hattiesburg , mississippi . oral presentation : habitat use design for studying the alabama shad within the pascagoula river .\nduring the last several decades , the alabama shad ' s range and population have significantly declined due in large part to the construction of dams , which block annual runs upstream to historic spawning grounds .\n2006 , american society of ichthyologists and herpetologists , 85th annual meeting , july 14 - 21 . oral presentation : habitat and daily age of the juvenile alabama shad within the pascagoula basin , mississippi .\n2005 , florida american fisheries society , 22nd annual meeting , feb . 22 - 24 , ocala , florida . oral presentation : habitat and lifestage use of the alabama shad within the pascagoula basin .\n2007 - 2008 , mississippi department of wildlife , fisheries and parks , life history and population genetics of the alabama shad within mississippi , $ 16 , 000 , principal investigator - dr . jake schaefer .\nthe fisheries service listed the alabama shad as a candidate for protection under the act in 1997 \u2014 a status that confers no actual safeguards . the center petitioned the agency to protect the shad in 2010 . in 2011 the service found that listing the shad was not warranted , but after the center challenged that determination , the service issued a new 90 - day finding in 2013 , determining that protection may be warranted .\nmirarchi , r . e . , j . t . garner , m . f . mettee , and p . e . o ' neil . 2004b . alabama wildlife . volume 2 . imperiled aquatic mollusks and fishes . university of alabama press , tuscaloosa , alabama . xii + 255 pp .\n2005 - 2007 , national oceanic and atmospheric administration , status and viability of alabama shad ( alosa alabamae ) in the pascagoula river drainage , $ 18 , 000 , principal investigator - dr . jake schaefer .\nthe alabama shad was once abundant enough to support commercial fisheries in alabama , arkansas , kentucky , indiana and iowa . it is now rarely found in its historic habitat , which has been fragmented and degraded by dams , dredging and pollution . a number of states and scientific organizations have already recognized its precarious status .\nrecovery programs for the alabama shad are not yet underway , and the fish was not listed under the endangered species act as of the early 2000s , despite its endangered status on the international union for the conservation of nature and natural resources ( iucn ) red list . however , the u . s . fish and wildlife service was creating a status report on the alabama shad , hoping to begin action to protect the species .\na primary management need is the creation of fishways so that shad can migrate through or around locks and dams .\n* 2005 , mississippi american fisheries society , 31st annual meeting , march 16 - 18 , philadelphia , mississippi . oral presentation : habitat and lifestage use of the alabama shad within the pascagoula basin . awarded best talk .\n\u201ceven though the alabama shad is now only found in a fraction of the rivers it used to live in , it\u2019s not too late to recover this oceangoing fish in its historic southeast habitat , \u201d said jaclyn lopez , the center\u2019s florida director . \u201cendangered species act protection will help guide restoration efforts that will help the shad rebound . \u201d\nmettee , m . f . , p . e . o ' neil , and j . m . pierson . 1996 . fishes of alabama and the mobile basin . oxmoor house , birmingham , alabama . 820 pp .\nadams , s . b . bryant bowen , brain kreiser & paul mickle . 2004 : status and viability of alabama shad ( alosa alabamae ) in the pascagoula river drainage and rangewide population genetic structure . usda forest service annual report .\n2003 - 2004 , national marine fisheries service , graduate student grant for conducting stock assessment of the alabama shad within the pascagoula drainage and rangewide population genetic structure , $ 38 , 782 , principal investigator - dr . brian kreiser . .\ndesignated a species of greatest conservation need in numerous southern states , the alabama shad once supported commerical fisheries in alabama , arkansas , kentucky , indiana and iowa . they were once known to inhabit most gulf coast drainages from the mississippi river to the suwannee river in florida and reach into freshwater systems as far inland as eastern oklahoma , iowa and across to west virgina .\ngunning , g . e . , and r . d . suttkus . 1990 . decline of the alabama shad , alosa alabamae , in the pearl river , louisiana - mississippi : 1963 - 1988 . southeastern fishes council proceedings 21 : 3 - 4 .\nmickle , p . , j . schaefer , s . adams , and b . kreiser . 2010 . habitat use of age 0 alabama shad in the pascagoula river drainage , usa . journal of ecology of freshwater fish , 19 : 107 - 115 .\nin spring 2009 , the conservancy worked with the u . s . army corps of engineers and other partners to open the lock gates at claiborne lock and dam and millers ferry lock and dam on the alabama river ( map ) \u2013 offering species like striped bass , mullet , paddlefish and alabama shad access to spawning and feeding grounds that had been blocked for nearly 40 years .\ndistribution and abundance of the alabama shad have greatly diminished over past 20 - 50 years . the species has been eliminated from much of its former inland distribution , especially in the mobile basin and the mississippi river valley ( mel warren , pers . comm . , 1999 ; boschung and mayden 2004 ) . it is now rare or extirpated in much of the former range in alabama ( boschung and mayden 2004 ) ; it may be extirpated from the upper tombigbee , cahaba , coosa , and upper alabama rivers in alabama ( mettee , in mirarchi et al . 2004 ) . as of around 1990 , this shad evidently was still declining in the pearl river system of louisiana and mississippi ( gunning and suttkus 1990 ) . ross ( 2001 ) reported that this species may be extirpated in the pearl river .\nmickle , p . f . ; schaefer , j . f . ; adams , s . b . ; kreiser , b . r . 2010 . habitat use of age 0 alabama shad in the pascagoula river drainage , usa . ecology of freshwater fish 19 : 107 - 115 .\nlaurence , g . c . , and r . w . yerger . 1966 . life history studies of the alabama shad , alosa alabamae , in the apalachicola river , florida . proceedings of the 20th annual conference of the southeastern association of game and fish commisioners , pp . 260 - 273 .\nwelcome to your free , online resource on alabama history , culture , geography , and natural environment . this site offers articles on alabama ' s famous people , historic events , sports , art , literature , industry , government , plant and animal life , agriculture , recreation , and so much more .\nmickle , p . , b . bowen , j . schaefer , s . adams and b . kreiser . 2006 . continued assessmentof the status and viability of alabama shad ( alosa alabamae ) in the pascagoula river drainage and range - wide population genetic structure . u . s . fish and wildlife service annual report .\nin 1997 , nmfs identified the anadromous population in florida and alabama as a candidate for listing under the esa ( federal register , 14 july 1997 ) , though evidently candidate status actually was intended to be applied rangewide . recently ( federal register , 15 april 2004 ) , nmfs listed the alabama shad as a\nspecies of concern\n( no longer a candidate species ) ; the area of concern was identified as alabama , florida , and the gulf of mexico ( anadromous populations ) . in 2013 , usfws found this species may warrant listing under the esa and initiated a status review ( federal register , 19 september 2013 ) .\nstate and federal agencies are working with conservation groups and researchers to restore passage of alabama shad to their historic range upstream of jim woodruff lock and dam in the apalachicola basin . efforts to pass shad through the lock by altering lock operation schedules and providing attractant flows have resulted in the passage of shad through lake seminole and into the chattahoochee and flint river systems in georgia . a population estimate in 2007 suggested that over 1 , 000 shad migrated all the way to albany during that year ( georgia dept . of natural resources 2008 ) . this species is recognized as a species of concern by the national marine fisheries service and is state protected or listed as a species of concern in many u . s . states within its range . research into effective fish passages , restoration of hydrologic regimes , migrations , feeding , bycatch , spawning , rearing , and other habitat needs should be carried out ( meadows , adams and shaefer 2008 ) .\nboschung , h . t . , and r . l . mayden . 2004 . fishes of alabama . smithsonian institution press , washington , d . c . 960 pp .\nst . petersburg , fla . \u2014 the center for biological diversity and the national marine fisheries service reached a settlement today requiring the agency to determine by june 2016 whether it will protect the alabama shad , a rare and vanishing fish , under the endangered species act . the fisheries service made an initial finding in 2013 that protections may be warranted , but failed to provide protection .\nthe alabama shad spawns in medium - and large - sized rivers . it can be found in the eastern part of the gulf of mexico , from the mississippi delta east to the choctawhatchee river in florida and also in the cumberland , tennessee , missouri , arkansas , ouachita , and red rivers . the largest existing population occurs in the apalachicola river in northwest florida . the exact population of this species is unknown .\n% 0 journal article % t habitat use of age 0 alabama shad in the pascagoula river drainage , usa % j ecology of freshwater fish 19 : 107 - 115 % a mickle , p . f . % a schaefer , j . f . % a adams , s . b . % a kreiser , b . r . % v 19 % p 107 - 115 % d 2010 % > urltoken % u urltoken citation\nty - jour ti - habitat use of age 0 alabama shad in the pascagoula river drainage , usa au - mickle , p . f . au - schaefer , j . f . au - adams , s . b . au - kreiser , b . r . py - 2010 jo - ecology of freshwater fish 19 : 107 - 115 vl - 19 sp - 107 ep - 115 l1 - urltoken ur - urltoken er - citation\nthis spring the conservancy will support researchers from auburn university , alabama department of conservation and natural resources , and other partners to determine how to attract the greatest variety and number of fish possible into these two locks .\nlatin , alausa = a fish cited by ausonius and latin , halec = pickle , dealing with the greek word hals = salt ; it is also the old saxon name for shad =\nalli\n; 1591 ( ref . 45335 )\nonly two known spawning runs exist in the mississippi river system ; additional spawning runs occur in the florida panhandle ( mel warren , pers . comm . , 1999 ) and in southern alabama ( mettee et al . 1996 ) .\nevermann , b . w . 1902 . description of a new species of shad ( alosa ohioensis ) with notes on other food - fishes of the ohio river . report of the u . s . fisheries commission ( 1901 ) : 273 - 288 .\n@ article { mickle % 2c + p . + f . 2010habitat , title = { habitat use of age 0 alabama shad in the pascagoula river drainage , usa } , author = { mickle , p . f . and schaefer , j . f . and adams , s . b . and kreiser , b . r . } , journal = { ecology of freshwater fish 19 : 107 - 115 } , volume = { 19 } , pages = { 107 - - 115 } , year = { 2010 } } citation\n\u201cthis is a welcomed effort to re - establish the great runs of fish that once swam over 350 miles from the gulf of mexico , through the alabama river to the upland streams of the cahaba , \u201d said paul freeman , aquatic ecologist with the conservancy .\nthe fisheries service has one year after receiving a petition to list a species to issue a proposed rule , also known as a 12 - month finding . more than five years have passed since the service received the petition to list the shad , and it\u2019s been more than two years since the agency made its positive 90 - day finding .\nthe alabama shad spawns ( lays its eggs ) in rivers but spends some part of its life living in the ocean . it is a silvery - green fish that measures about 20 inches ( 51 centimeters ) in adulthood . females are larger than males . it has a distinctive pointed snout with a lower jaw jutting out from inside the mouth . it has 42 to 48 gill rakers , which are bony projections that point forward and inward from the gill raker arches to aid in the fish ' s feeding . ( gill raker arches are bony arches in the throat of fish to which the gill rakers are attached\u2014bony fish usually have four gill arches . )\nthis fish migrates between its river spawning habitat and marine nonspawning habitat . it enters river mouths from january through march and arrives in the alabama reach of the choctawhatcheee and conecuh rivers in march ( mettee et al . 1996 ) . adults have been found in the mississippi river near keokuk , iowa , from early may to late july ( coker 1930 ) .\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; anal spines : 0 . body moderately compressed , belly with distinct keel of scutes . lower jaw steeply rising within mouth ; no teeth present at front of jaws ; upper jaw with a distinct notch . the only other shad of the gulf of mexico has only 20 to 24 gill rakers . closely resembles a . aestivalis and a . pseudoharengus of atlantic coasts , but in them the lower jaw rises very steeply in the mouth ( ref . 188 ) .\nupper suwannee ( 03110201 ) , withlacoochee ( 03110203 ) + , little ( 03110204 ) + * , lower suwannee ( 03110205 ) , santa fe ( 03110206 ) , lower ochlockonee ( 03120003 ) , lower chattahoochee ( 03130004 ) , lower flint ( 03130008 ) + , ichawaynochaway ( 03130009 ) + , apalachicola ( 03130011 ) + , chipola ( 03130012 ) + , st . andrew - st . joseph bays ( 03140101 ) , choctawhatchee bay ( 03140102 ) , yellow ( 03140103 ) + , upper choctawhatchee ( 03140201 ) + , pea ( 03140202 ) , lower choctawhatchee ( 03140203 ) + , lower conecuh ( 03140304 ) + , escambia ( 03140305 ) , lower coosa ( 03150107 ) * , upper alabama ( 03150201 ) + * , cahaba ( 03150202 ) + , middle alabama ( 03150203 ) + , lower alabama ( 03150204 ) + , upper tombigbee ( 03160101 ) * , middle tombigbee - lubbub ( 03160106 ) * , lower black warrior ( 03160113 ) , middle tombigbee - chickasaw ( 03160201 ) + , lower tambigbee ( 03160203 ) * , mobile bay ( 03160205 ) , upper chickasawhay ( 03170002 ) * , upper leaf ( 03170004 ) , lower leaf ( 03170005 ) , pascagoula ( 03170006 ) , mississippi coastal ( 03170009 ) , upper pearl ( 03180001 ) , middle pearl - strong ( 03180002 ) + , middle pearl - silver ( 03180003 ) , lower pearl . mississippi ( 03180004 ) + , bogue chitto ( 03180005 ) +\nadults appear in spawning rivers january - april in southern coastal sites and are present in the upper mississippi from april to july ( coker 1930 , pflieger 1997 ) . in alabama , adults spawn in april , when water temperatures reach 18 - 20 c , and migrate downstream thereafter ( mettee et al . 1996 ) . young - of - the - year are found in the mississippi river in missouri only between mid - july and early october ( pflieger 1975 , 1997 ) . juveniles stay in fresh water for 6 - 8 months , leave rivers by winter , return to spawn usually when 3 - 4 years old . using otoliths , mettee et al . ( 1996 ) found that males were 1 - 4 years old and females were 2 - 6 years old ; this is 2 - 3 years older than previous determinations that used scale readings .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nrobins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea , and w . b . scott . 1991 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada . american fisheries society , special publication 20 . 183 pp .\nforms a geographically disjunct species pair with a . sapidissima ( berry 1964 ) .\nlimited distribution in gulf of mexico tributaries ; populations are greatly reduced due to blockage of the spawning migration by locks and dams ; habitat has been degraded by siltation and pollutants .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nimplied status under the u . s . endangered species act ( usesa ) :\ntotal adult population size is unknown . populations are small ; this species is now very rare in the entire mississippi river basin ( lee et al . 1980 , robison and buchanan 1988 , etnier and starnes 1993 , pflieger 1997 ) .\ncurrently , area of occupancy , number of subpopulations , and population size probably are declining , but the rate of decline is unknown .\neast baton rouge ( 22033 ) , east feliciana ( 22037 ) , livingston ( 22063 ) , st . helena ( 22091 ) , st . tammany ( 22103 ) * , tangipahoa ( 22105 ) , washington ( 22117 ) *\nboone ( 29019 ) , callaway ( 29027 ) , clark ( 29045 ) * , cole ( 29051 ) * , crawford ( 29055 ) , franklin ( 29071 ) , gasconade ( 29073 ) , jefferson ( 29099 ) , maries ( 29125 ) , moniteau ( 29135 ) , osage ( 29151 ) , perry ( 29157 ) , phelps ( 29161 ) , pulaski ( 29169 ) , st . louis ( 29189 ) , warren ( 29219 )\nan elongate , silvery fish , 55 - 60 scales in the lateral series ; 15 - 17 rays in dorsal fin , 18 - 19 rays in anal fin ; dorsum greenish blue ; fins generally clear , with slightly darker margin on dorsal and caudal fins ; adults are 30 - 46 cm ( mettee et al . 1996 ) .\nthis is an anadromous fish ; adults live in saltwater and migrate into medium to large coastal rivers to spawn . mettee et al . ( 1996 ) stated that actual spawning has not been observed but probably occurs in open , flowing water over sand bars in late afternoon or at night . in northwestern florida , spawning occurs at 19 - 22 c in moderate current over coarse sand and gravel ( laurence and yerger 1966 , mills 1972 ) . in missouri , young were captured in swift water about rock wing dikes in the osage river and over rocky shoals having noticeable current in the gasconade river .\nspawning adults do not feed while in freshwater . adults not in spawning condition eat aquatic insects , crustaceans , small fishes , and vegetation . juveniles eat small fishes and aquatic insects in rivers before emigrating to sea ( laurence and yerger 1966 ) .\noccurrences are based on evidence of historical presence , or current and likely recurring presence , at a given location . such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals ( including eggs and larvae ) in appropriate habitat . for anadromous populations , occurrences are based on collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more spawning adults , redds , other evidence of spawning , or larvae or juveniles in appropriate spawning / rearing habitat .\ndam lacking a suitable fishway ; high waterfall ; upland habitat that is very unlikely to be submerged even during periods of exceptionally high water ( e . g . , 100 - year flood or 1 % flood ) .\nfor anadromous populations and migratory populations that have distinct and separate spawning and nonspawning areas , the area used by each population whose spawning area is separated by a gap of at least 10 stream - km from other spawning areas within a stream system is potentially mappable as a distinct occurrence that extends down to the ocean ( but see mapping guidance ) , regardless of whether the spawning areas are in the same or different tributaries . for other ( e . g . , nonanadromous ) populations in streams , separation distance is 10 stream - km for both suitable and unsuitable habitat . however , if it is known that the same population occupies sites separated by more than 10 km ( e . g . , this may be common for migratory , nonanadromous populations ) , those sites should be included within the same occurrence . in lakes , occurrences include all suitable habitat that is presumed to be occupied ( based on expert judgment ) , even if documented collection / observation points are more than 10 km apart . separate sub - occurrences or source features may usefully document locations of critical spawning areas within a lake .\nthis specs group comprises fish species that include anadromous populations ( may also include nonanadromous populations ) , such as lampreys , sturgeons , herrings , shads , salmonids , and smelts . criteria for marine occurrences ( location use class : marine ) have not yet been established . these may not be needed for marine occurrences of species that likely will be dealt with as mixed element assemblages ( e . g . , salmonid marine concentration area ) . feature descriptor definitions : spawning area : area used for spawning but not for rearing or migration . rearing area : area used for larval / juvenile development but not for spawning or migration . migration corridor : area used for migration but not for rearing or spawning .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nbeckett , d . c . , and c . h . pennington . 1986 . water quality , macroinvertebrates , larval fishes , and fishes of the lower mississippi river - - a synthesis . tech . rep . e - 86 - 12 , u . s . army engineer waterways experiment station , vicksburg , mississippi .\nberry , f . h . 1964 . review of : s . f . hildebrand , family clupeidae , in : the fishes of the western north atlantic . copeia 1964 : 720 - 730 .\nbuchanan , t . m . 1976 . an evaluation of the effects of dredging within the arkansas river navigation system . vol . 5 . the effects upon the fish fauna . arkansas water resources research center publ . no . 47 . 277 pp .\ncarter , f . a . 1984 . fishes collected from the mississippi river and adjacent flood areas in arkansas , river mile 770 . 0 to river mile 816 . 0 . m . s . thesis , arkansas state university , jonesboro . 42 pp .\ncoker , r . e . 1929 ( 1930 ) . studies of common fishes of the mississippi river at keokuk . bulletin of the united states bureau of fisheries 45 : 141 - 225 .\njelks , h . l . , s . j . walsh , n . m . burkhead , s . contreras - balderas , e . d\u00edaz - pardo , d . a . hendrickson , j . lyons , n . e . mandrak , f . mccormick , j . s . nelson , s . p . platania , b . a . porter , c . b . renaud , j . jacobo schmitter - soto , e . b . taylor , and m . l . warren , jr . 2008 . conservation status of imperiled north american freshwater and diadromous fishes . fisheries 33 ( 8 ) : 372 - 407 .\nlimburg , k . e . , and j . r . waldman . 2003 . biodiversity , status , and conservation of the world ' s shads . american fisheries society symposium 35 .\nmiller , r . j . , and h . w . robison . 2004 . fishes of oklahoma . university of oklahoma press , norman . 450 pp .\nmoore , g . a . 1957 . fishes ( pages 31 - 210 in vertebrates of the united states , by w . f . blair et al . ) . mcgraw - hill book company , new york .\nnelson , j . s . , e . j . crossman , h . espinosa - perez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , and j . d . williams . 2004 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . american fisheries society , special publication 29 , bethesda , maryland . 386 pp .\npage , l . m . , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , n . e . mandrak , r . l . mayden , and j . s . nelson . 2013 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . seventh edition . american fisheries society , special publication 34 , bethesda , maryland .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes : north america north of mexico . houghton mifflin company , boston , massachusetts . 432 pp .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 2011 . peterson field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . second edition . houghton mifflin harcourt , boston . xix + 663 pp .\npennington , c . h . , h . l . schramm , jr . , m . e . potter , and m . p . farrell . 1980 . aquatic habitat studies on the lower mississippi river , river mile 480 to 530 . report 5 , fish studies - pilot report . environmental and water quality operational studies . misc . paper e - 80 - 1 . u . s . army corps of engineers , vicksburg . 45 pp .\npennington , c . h . , j . a . baker , and m . e . potter . 1983 . fish populations along natural and revetted banks on the lower mississippi river . north american journal of fisheries management 3 ( 2 ) : 204 - 211 .\npflieger , w . l . 1997a . the fishes of missouri . revised edition . missouri department of conservation , jefferson city . vi + 372 pp .\nrodriguez , m . a . 2002 . restricted movement in stream fish : the paradigm is complete , not lost . ecology 83 ( 1 ) : 1 - 13 .\nross , s . t . ( with w . m . brennaman , w . t . slack , m . t . o ' connell , and t . l . peterson ) . 2001a . the inland fishes of mississippi . university press of mississippi : mississippi . xx + 624 pp .\nrulifson , r . a . , and m . t . huish . 1982 . anadromous fish in the southeastern united states and recommendations for development of a management plan . atlanta , georgia .\nsanders , l . g . , j . a . baker , c . l . bond , and c . h . pennington . 1985 . biota of selected aquatic habitats of the mcclellan - kerr arkansas river navigation system . tech . rep . e - 85 - 6 . u . s . army engineer waterways experiment station , vicksburg .\nburr , b . m . , and m . l . warren , jr . 1986a . distributional atlas of kentucky fishes . kentucky nature preserves commission , scientific and technical series no . 4 , frankfort , kentucky . 398 pp .\ndouglas , n . h . 1974 . freshwater fishes of louisiana . claitor ' s publishing division , baton rouge , louisiana . 443 pp .\netnier , d . a . , and w . c . starnes . 1993 . the fishes of tennessee . university of tennessee press , knoxville , tennessee . xiv + 681 pp .\nlee , d . s . , c . r . gilbert , c . h . hocutt , r . e . jenkins , d . e . mcallister , and j . r . stauffer , jr . 1980 . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , north carolina . i - x + 854 pp .\npflieger , w . l . 1975 . the fishes of missouri . missouri department of conservation . columbia , missouri . viii + 343 pp .\nrobison , h . w . and t . m . buchanan . 1988 . fishes of arkansas . the university of arkansas press , fayetteville , arkansas . 536 pp .\nross , s . t . , and w . m . brenneman . 1991 . distribution of freshwater fishes in mississippi . freshwater fisheries report no . 108 . d - j project completion report f - 69 . mississippi department of wildlife and freshwater fisheries and parks . jackson , mississippi . 548 pp .\nsmith , p . w . 1979 . the fishes of illinois . university of illinois press , urbana . 314 pp .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecies of concern are those species about which we have some concerns regarding status and threats , but for which insufficient information is available to indicate a need to list the species under the endangered species act ( esa ) . we wish to draw proactive attention and conservation action to these species .\nspecies of concern\nstatus does not carry any procedural or substantive protections under the esa .\nfact sheets for each species are provided on the links below . note : species of concern can also be\ncandidate species\n.\natlantic - cape breton , nova scotia , to st . john ' s river , fl ( not warranted for listing 12 - month finding , aug 2013 , 78 fr 48943 )\nindo - pacific - red sea and east africa to the line islands and samoa ; north to yaeyama , south to the great barrier reef and new caledonia ; paulau , caroline , mariana in micronesia ; in u . s . it occurs in guam , american samoa , cnmi and the pacific remote island areas ( wake islands ) . ( not warranted for listing 12 - month finding , nov 2012 , 77 fr 66799 ) .\nindo - pacific - red sea to the tuamotus , north to the ryukyus , east to wake islands , south to new caledonia , throughout micronesia ; includes u . s . territories of guam and american samoa ( not warranted for listing 12 - month finding , sept 2014 , 79 fr 57875 )\npacific - sitka island , alaska to baja california , mexico . ( not warranted for listing 12 - month finding , dec 2014 , 79 fr 77998 ) .\n* nmfs reviewed the status of this species as a result of a petition to list it under the endangered species act . while esa listing was determined to not be warranted , nmfs retained this species on the species of concern list .\nthe following species were removed from species of concern list because they were either listed under the endangered species act ( esa ) or concerned about their status were removed because of new information and completion of a species of concern status report .\nthe proactive species conservation grant program supports voluntary conservation efforts designed to conserve marine and anadromous species before listing under the endangered species act ( esa ) becomes necessary . through this grant program , nmfs will provide federal assistance , in the form of grants or cooperative agreements , to support conservation efforts for species it has identified as species of concern ( soc ) .\na list of previously funded projects can be found in the proactive species conservation grants archive .\ninformation on other grant opportunities offered by office of protected resources is also available .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nadams , s . , albanese , b . & weller , r . ( freshwater fish red list authority ) , collen , b . , dewhurst , n . & ram , m . ( sampled red list index coordinating team )\njustification : alosa alabamae has been assessed as data deficient . there has been a widespread decline in this species throughout much of its range . it is now thought to be extirpated from much of its former range with large - scale declines in abundance also reported . however , there has been no quantification of the rate of range or population decline . further research is urgently needed within catchments where it is believed to be extirpated . monitoring of remaining subpopulations is also suggested to determine if these to are dramatically declining . this species ' relatively short generation length , suggests that it maybe able to recover from population declines in the absence of threats . further research is urgently needed as this species may in fact qualify for a threatened category .\nalosa alabamae is an anadromous species . adults live in saltwater and migrates into medium to large coastal rivers to spawn . mettee et al . ( 1996 ) stated that actual spawning has not been observed but probably occurs in open , flowing water over sand bars in late afternoon or at night . in northwestern florida , spawning occurs at 19\u201322\u00b0 c in moderate current over coarse sand and gravel ( laurence and yerger 1966 , mills 1972 ) . in missouri , young have been captured in swift water about rock wing dikes in the osage river and over rocky shoals with a noticeable current in the gasconade river .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nfemales reach 18 inches in length , while males reach 16 . 5 inches ;\nthe corps has approved the continuation of the project for at least two more years at both claiborne and millers ferry .\nwhen you donate today , you\u2019ll help the nature conservancy protect the most vital habitats on earth .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 the nature conservancy . terms of use | privacy policy ( updated may 2018 ) | charitable solicitation disclosures\nthe nature conservancy is a nonprofit , tax - exempt charitable organization ( tax identification number 53 - 0242652 ) under section 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) of the internal revenue code . donations are tax - deductible as allowed by law .\n* by providing your mobile phone number , you agree that the nature conservancy may contact you by mobile phone call and text message regarding the conservancy ' s programs , events and membership , subject to our mobile service provider ' s terms of use and mobile service provider ' s privacy policy .\nlearn about the places you love and find out how you can help by signing up for nature enews .\nwe ' ll be in touch soon with more nature conservancy news , updates , and exciting stories .\nmarine ; freshwater ; brackish ; pelagic - neritic ; anadromous ( ref . 51243 ) . subtropical ; 44\u00b0n - 24\u00b0n , 96\u00b0w - 81\u00b0w\nwestern central atlantic : gulf of mexico ( northern part , from the mississippi delta eastward to the choctawhatchee river in florida ; also in rivers from iowa to arkansas and across to west virginia ) . status of threat from ref . 11858 .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 51 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 188 ) ; common length : 42 . 5 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 188 ) ; max . reported age : 4 years ( ref . 12193 )\nforms schools . ascends rivers and streams to spawn in spring or early summer , the young presumably descending in autumn . marketed mostly fresh .\nspawns in freshwater in spring or early summer , ascending rivers and streams , the young presumably descending in autumn .\nwhitehead , p . j . p . , 1985 . fao species catalogue . vol . 7 . clupeoid fishes of the world ( suborder clupeoidei ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of the herrings , sardines , pilchards , sprats , shads , anchovies and wolf - herrings . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 7 / 1 ) : 1 - 303 . rome : fao . ( ref . 188 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00813 ( 0 . 00379 - 0 . 01743 ) , b = 3 . 03 ( 2 . 86 - 3 . 20 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 7 \u00b10 . 28 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tmax = 4 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 46 of 100 ) .\nthe center for biological diversity is a national , nonprofit conservation organization with more than 990 , 000 members and online activists dedicated to the protection of endangered species and wild places .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - 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line publications are scanned and captured using adobe acrobat . during the capture process some typographical errors may occur . please contact the srs webmaster if you notice any errors which make this publication unuseable .\nthe southern research station is one of seven units that make up the u . s . forest service research and development organization \u2013 the most extensive natural resources research organization in the world .\nph . d . , the university of southern mississippi , hattiesburg , mississippi , fisheries ecology . dissertation : life history and habitat use of juvenile alosa alabamae in northern gulf of mexico drainages . major advisor : dr . jake schaefer .\nm . s . , fisheries ecology , the university of southern mississippi , hattiesburg , mississippi , may 2006 . thesis : life stage and habitat use of juvenile alosa alabamae within the pascagoula river basin . major advisor : brian kreiser .\nschaefer , j . f . , b . k . kresier , p . mickle , c . champagne and d . duvernell . 2009 . patterns of co - existence and hybridization among two topminnows ( fundulus euryzonus and f . olivaceus ) in a riverine contact zone . in press , ecology of freshwater fish , 18 : 360 - 368 .\nmatamoros , w . a . , p . mickle , j . schaefer , w . arthurs , j . ikoma , r . ragsdale . 2009 . first record of agonostomus monticola ( family : mugilidae ) in mississippi freshwaters with notes of its distribution in the southern usa . in press , the southeastern naturalist , 8 ( 1 ) : 175 - 178 .\nross , s . t . , w . t . slack , r . j . heise , m . a . dugo , h . rogillio , b . r . bowen , p . f . mickle , r . w . heard . 2009 . estuarine and coastal habitat use of gulf sturgeon ( acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi ) in the north - central gulf of mexico . estuaries and coasts , 32 : 360\u2013374 .\nbowen , b . r . , b . kreiser , p . f . mickle , j . schaefer , and s . b . adams . 2009 . phylogenetic relationships among north american alosa species ( clupeidae ) . journal of fish biology , 72 : 1188 - 1201 .\nschaefer , j . f . , mickle , p . , spaeth , j . , zuber , b . , matamoros , w . , adams , s . , kreiser , b . , vigueira , p . 2006 . effects of hurricane katrina on the fish fauna of the pascagoula drainage . proceedings of the mississippi water resources board , 36 : 62 - 68 .\nschaefer , j . s . , mickle , p . s . 2010 . assessment of putative pearl darter populations in the upper pearl river ( final report ) . u . s . fish and wildlife service , no : 401819g540 .\nslack , w . t . , m . a . dugo , b . r . kreiser , p . mickle , j . s . peyton , and r . l . jones . 2005 . a survey of upper pascagoula drainage for the pearl darter , percina aurora suttkus and thompson . final project report no . 109 , contract number e - 1 segment 19 .\n2009 , environmental protection agency , national streams and rivers assessment , $ 180 , 000 , principal investigator - dr . jake schaefer .\n2009 - 2010 , mississippi department of wildlife , fisheries and parks , life history and distribution of the pearl darter in mississippi , $ 23 , 000 , principal investigator - dr . jake schaefer .\nmississippi american fisheries society , 36th annual meeting , feb . 17 - 19 , poster : daily age variability in relation to river discharge within the pascagoula river basin .\n2009 , southern division of the american fisheries society , 2009 annual meeting , january 15 - 18 . oral presentation : daily age variability in relation to river discharge within the pascagoula river basin .\n2007 , american society of ichthyologists and herpetologists , 85th annual meeting , july 14 - 21 . poster : daily age variability in relation to river discharge within the pascagoula river basin .\n2007 , mississippi american fisheries society , 33rd annual meeting , feb . 11 - 14 , poster : daily age variability in relation to river discharge within the pascagoula river basin .\n* 2006 , mississippi american fisheries society , 32nd annual meeting , feb . 11 - 14 . awarded best talk .\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .\nwe don ' t know when or if this item will be back in stock .\ninstantly receive a \u00a310 urltoken gift card if you\u2019re approved for the amazon platinum mastercard with instant spend . representative 21 . 9 % apr ( variable ) .\ncredit offered by newday ltd , over 18s only , subject to status . terms apply .\nenter your mobile number or email address below and we ' ll send you a link to download the free kindle app . then you can start reading kindle books on your smartphone , tablet , or computer - 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{"id": 375, "summary": [{"text": "oulophyllia crispa , sometimes called the intermediate valley coral , is a species of stony coral in the family merulinidae .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is native to the tropical western and central indo-pacific region .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "although this coral has a wide range , it is generally uncommon and seems to be decreasing in abundance , and the international union for conservation of nature has rated its conservation status as being \" near threatened \" . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "oulophyllia crispa", "paragraphs": ["see talk : oulophyllia crispa for individual experiences with this species , oulophyllia crispa . feel free to add your own personal experiences .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - large meandroid brain coral ( oulophyllia crispa )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - large meandroid brain coral ( oulophyllia crispa )\ntitle =\narkive species - large meandroid brain coral ( oulophyllia crispa )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\noulophyllia crispa is a species of hard coral of the family faviidae . this specimen was found at poruma island reef in the torres strait as part of a biodiversity survey in february 2013 . the taxonomic classification for this photo was performed by the aims long term monitoring project . for more information see the aims coral fact sheet for this species .\nwe recently bought a new coral it is a closed brain oulophyllia crispa . the pet store said it was rare and i have done my research on it , and i know what it eats and all . but does anyone else know anything about behavior and killing potential of other corals fish or inverts ? my emerald green crad died recently after placeing new coral in tank . could the coral have klilled him ?\n( of meandrina crispa lamarck , 1816 ) lamarck , j . - b . m . de . ( 1816 ) . histoire naturelle des animaux sans vert\u00e8bres . tome second . paris : verdi\u00e8re , 568 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of maeandrina crispa lamarck , 1816 ) lamarck , j . - b . m . de . ( 1816 ) . histoire naturelle des animaux sans vert\u00e8bres . tome second . paris : verdi\u00e8re , 568 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nit ' s not rare , i have two oulophylias a crispa and a bennet . it can ' t kill a crab . give it three of our inches of space since it can put out long stingers at night which can harm it ' s neighbors .\n( of ulophyllia crispa ( lamarck , 1816 ) ) lamarck , j . - b . m . de . ( 1816 ) . histoire naturelle des animaux sans vert\u00e8bres . tome second . paris : verdi\u00e8re , 568 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of maeandrina crispa lamarck , 1816 ) veron , j . e . n . , pichon , m . & wijsman - best , m . 1977 . scleractinia of eastern australia \u2013 part ii . families faviidae , trachyphylliidae . australian institute of marine science monograph series 3 : 1\u2013233 . [ details ]\n( of ulophyllia crispa ( lamarck , 1816 ) ) veron , j . e . n . , pichon , m . & wijsman - best , m . 1977 . scleractinia of eastern australia \u2013 part ii . families faviidae , trachyphylliidae . australian institute of marine science monograph series 3 : 1\u2013233 . [ details ]\ntype locality\nindian ocean\n( veron , 1986 ) . [ details ]\ndescription this is a submeandroid coral . in the red sea , its colonies are always small , rarely over 20 cm diameter , but are commonly . . .\nhoeksema , b . w . ; cairns , s . ( 2018 ) . world list of scleractinia .\n( of ulophyllia aspera quelch , 1886 ) quelch , j . j . 1886 . report on the reef - corals collected by h . m . s . challenger during the years 1873 - 76 . report on the scientific results of the voyage of h . m . s . challenger during the years 1873\u201379 . zoology 16 ( 3 ) : 1 - 203 , pls . 1 - 12 . [ details ]\n( of ulophyllia maxima rehberg , 1892 ) rehberg , h . 1892 . neue and wenig bekannte korallen . abhandlungen aus dem gebiete der naturwissenschaften hamburg 12 : 1 - 50 . [ details ]\n( of ulophyllia stokesiana milne edwards , 1857 ) milne edwards h ( 1857 ) histoire naturelle des coralliaires ou polypes proprement dits 2 : 1 - 631 . librairie encyclop\u00e9dique de roret , paris . [ details ]\n( of ulophyllia bonhourei gravier , 1910 ) gravier c ( 1910 ) sur quelques formes nouvelles de madr\u00e9poraires de la baie de tadjourah . bulletin du mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle 16 : 273 - 276 . [ details ]\n( of coeloria cooperi gardiner , 1904 ) gardiner j . s . ( 1904 ) . introduction , ii . astraeidae . in : fauna and geography of the maldives and laccadives archipelagoes , cambridge . 2 : 736 - 790 . [ details ]\n( of coeloria magna gardiner , 1904 ) gardiner j . s . ( 1904 ) . introduction , ii . astraeidae . in : fauna and geography of the maldives and laccadives archipelagoes , cambridge . 2 : 736 - 790 . [ details ]\n( of coeloria gigantea yabe & sugiyama , 1935 ) yabe , h . & t . sugiyama , 1935 . revised lists of the reef corals from the japanese seas and of the fossil reef corals of the raised reefs and the ry\u00fbky\u00fb limestone of japan . j . geol . soc . japan 42 502 : 379 - 403 . [ details ]\nveron , j . e . n . ( 1986 ) . corals of australia and the indo - pacific . angus & robertson publishers , london . [ details ]\nveron , j . e . n . , pichon , m . & wijsman - best , m . 1977 . scleractinia of eastern australia \u2013 part ii . families faviidae , trachyphylliidae . australian institute of marine science monograph series 3 : 1\u2013233 . [ details ]\ncairns , s . d . ; hoeksema , b . w . & van der land , j . ( 2007 ) . as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nveron jen . ( 2000 ) . corals of the world . vol . 1\u20133 . australian institute of marine science and crr , queensland , australia . [ details ]\ncairns , s . d . ; gershwin , l . ; brook , f . j . ; pugh , p . ; dawson , e . w . ; oca\u00f1a o . v . ; vervoort , w . ; williams , g . ; watson , j . e . ; opresko , d . m . ; schuchert , p . ; hine , p . m . ; gordon , d . p . ; campbell , h . j . ; wright , a . j . ; s\u00e1nchez , j . a . ; fautin , d . g . ( 2009 ) . phylum cnidaria : corals , medusae , hydroids , myxozoans . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 1 . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . pp . 59 - 101 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhuang d , benzoni f , fukami h , knowlton n , smith nd , budd af ( 2014 ) taxonomic classification of the reef coral families merulinidae , montastraeidae , and diploastraeidae ( cnidaria : anthozoa : scleractinia ) . zoological journal of the linnean society 171 : 277\u2013355 . [ details ]\n( of ulophyllia aspera quelch , 1886 ) veron , j . e . n . , pichon , m . & wijsman - best , m . 1977 . scleractinia of eastern australia \u2013 part ii . families faviidae , trachyphylliidae . australian institute of marine science monograph series 3 : 1\u2013233 . [ details ]\n( of ulophyllia stuhlmanni rehberg , 1892 ) veron , j . e . n . , pichon , m . & wijsman - best , m . 1977 . scleractinia of eastern australia \u2013 part ii . families faviidae , trachyphylliidae . australian institute of marine science monograph series 3 : 1\u2013233 . [ details ]\n( of ulophyllia stuhlmanni rehberg , 1892 ) rehberg , h . 1892 . neue and wenig bekannte korallen . abhandlungen aus dem gebiete der naturwissenschaften hamburg 12 : 1 - 50 . [ details ]\n( of ulophyllia maxima rehberg , 1892 ) veron , j . e . n . , pichon , m . & wijsman - best , m . 1977 . scleractinia of eastern australia \u2013 part ii . families faviidae , trachyphylliidae . australian institute of marine science monograph series 3 : 1\u2013233 . [ details ]\n( of coeloria gigantea yabe & sugiyama , 1935 ) veron , j . e . n . , pichon , m . & wijsman - best , m . 1977 . scleractinia of eastern australia \u2013 part ii . families faviidae , trachyphylliidae . australian institute of marine science monograph series 3 : 1\u2013233 . [ details ]\n( of coeloria magna gardiner , 1904 ) veron , j . e . n . , pichon , m . & wijsman - best , m . 1977 . scleractinia of eastern australia \u2013 part ii . families faviidae , trachyphylliidae . australian institute of marine science monograph series 3 : 1\u2013233 . [ details ]\n( of ulophyllia bonhourei gravier , 1910 ) gravier , c . ( 1911 ) . les r\u00e9cifs de coraux et les madr\u00e9poraires de la baie de tadjourah ( golfe d ' aden ) . annales de l ' institut oc\u00e9anographique de monaco . 2 ( 3 ) , 1 - 101 , pls 1 - 12 . [ details ]\n( of coeloria cooperi gardiner , 1904 ) veron , j . e . n . , pichon , m . & wijsman - best , m . 1977 . scleractinia of eastern australia \u2013 part ii . families faviidae , trachyphylliidae . australian institute of marine science monograph series 3 : 1\u2013233 . [ details ]\n( of ulophyllia stokesiana milne edwards , 1857 ) veron , j . e . n . , pichon , m . & wijsman - best , m . 1977 . scleractinia of eastern australia \u2013 part ii . families faviidae , trachyphylliidae . australian institute of marine science monograph series 3 : 1\u2013233 . [ details ]\n( of ulophyllia cellulosa quelch , 1886 ) veron , j . e . n . , pichon , m . & wijsman - best , m . 1977 . scleractinia of eastern australia \u2013 part ii . families faviidae , trachyphylliidae . australian institute of marine science monograph series 3 : 1\u2013233 . [ details ]\n( of ulophyllia cellulosa quelch , 1886 ) quelch , j . j . 1886 . report on the reef - corals collected by h . m . s . challenger during the years 1873 - 76 . report on the scientific results of the voyage of h . m . s . challenger during the years 1873\u201379 . zoology 16 ( 3 ) : 1 - 203 , pls . 1 - 12 . [ details ]\n( of ulophyllia bonhourei gravier , 1910 ) veron , j . e . n . , pichon , m . & wijsman - best , m . 1977 . scleractinia of eastern australia \u2013 part ii . families faviidae , trachyphylliidae . australian institute of marine science monograph series 3 : 1\u2013233 . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nin the indo - west pacific , this species is found in the red sea and gulf of aden , southwest indian ocean , northern indian ocean , central indo - pacific , australia , southeast asia , japan and east china sea , and the oceanic west pacific .\nthere is no species specific population information available for this species . however , there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined , and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species . this species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only ( wilkinson 2004 ) . we assume that most , if not all , mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average , the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs . reef losses throughout the species ' range have been estimated over three generations , two in the past and one projected into the future .\nthe age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years ( wallace 1999 ) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years . furthermore , based on average sizes and growth rates , we assume that average generation length is 10 years , unless otherwise stated . total longevity is not known , but likely to be more than ten years . therefore any population decline rates for the red list assessment are measured over at least 30 years .\nthis species occurs in shallow , tropical reef environments . it is found in most reef environments , but especially in lagoons . this is a fairly uncommon coral that appears to prefer reef slopes . colonies may reach several metres in diameter ( wood 1983 ) . this species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs . this species is found to 30 m .\nall corals are listed on cites appendix ii . parts of the species\u2019 range fall within marine protected areas . recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy , population , abundance and trends , ecology and habitat status , threats and resilience to threats , restoration action ; identification , establishment and management of new protected areas ; expansion of protected areas ; recovery management ; and disease , pathogen and parasite management . artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo - preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nformation by intramural polystomodaeal budding . series short , discontinuous , separated by single , acute collines . centers indistinct , linked by\nveron , j . e . n . , 1986 . corals of australia and the indo - pacific . angus & robertson .\nveron , j . e . n . , 2000 . corals of the world . volumes 1 - 3 . ? australian institute of marine science , townsville , qld .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbecause of the sheer size of our forum , we ' ve been forced to limit selling and trading to members who ' ve met a couple of criteria . ( if you ' re seeing this message , you haven ' t met them yet . ) please take a moment to acquaint yourself with our selling / trading rules to help make your stay a long and rewarding one .\ni don ' t think this coral is really rare - i have seen these on many online suppliers and in the lfs on a somewhat frequent basis - sometimes misclassified as platygyra or favia species at the lfs . i do not think it is what killed your emerald crab .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ tom current tank info : tank of the month , november 2011 : 600gal integrated system : 3 display tanks ( 120 g , 90g , 89g ) , several frag / grow out tanks , macroalgae refugia , cryptic zones . 40 + fish , seahorses , sps , lps , leathers , zoanthidae and non photosynthetic corals .\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 3 . 8 . 4 copyright \u00a92000 - 2018 , jelsoft enterprises ltd . powered by searchlight \u00a9 2018 axivo inc .\nuse of this web site is subject to the terms and conditions described in the user agreement . reef central tm reef central , llc . copyright \u00a91999 - 2014\nuser alert system provided by advanced user tagging v3 . 3 . 0 ( pro ) - vbulletin mods & addons copyright \u00a9 2018 dragonbyte technologies ltd .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\ninformation on the large meandroid brain coral is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nclassified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is affected by global climate change . to learn about climate change and the species that are affected , visit our climate change pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\ngardiner , j . s . 1904 ,\nmadreporaria , i introduction , ii astraeidae\n, ed . gardiner , j . s . ( ed . ) , fauna and geography of the maldive and laccadive archipelagoes , vol . 2 , pp . p . 756 , cambridge university press , cambridge\nmilne - edwards , h . & haime , j . 1857 , vol . 1 , p . 326 , librairie encyclop\u00e9dique de roret , paris\nveron , j . e . & hudson , r . c . l . 1978 ,\nribbon reefs of the northern region\n, philosophical transactions of the royal society of london . series b . biological sciences , vol . 284 , pp . 3 - 21\nrehberg , h . 1892 ,\nneue und wenig bekannte korallen\n, abhandlungen naturwissenschaftliche verein zu hamburg , vol . 12 , pp . 1 - 50\ngravier , c . 1910 ,\nsur quelques formes nouvdles de aladreporaires de la baic de tadjourah\n, bulletin du mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle , paris , vol . 16 , pp . 273\u2013276\nnemenzo , f . 1959 ,\nsystematic studies on philippine shallow - water sclcractinians ii suborder faviida\n, natural and applied science bulletin , university of the philippines , vol . 16 , pp . 73 - 135\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0a7913c3 - 9903 - 4920 - 8224 - cc08660a348e\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 8ed2fd9e - e59c - 4e9f - 802a - 3fbef4a6fa12\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : d713dc91 - 2bf9 - 4386 - a826 - 1c61f7db0169\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7e8e68b5 - 1cbf - 4837 - b3a6 - e2b52ca236a8\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 348225\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\ncreate date : dec . 22 , 2015 , 12 : 40 p . m .\nnerp te project 2 . 3 - monitoring the health of torres strait coral reefs ( aims )\njavascript is currently disabled or is not supported by this browser . please enable javascript for full functionality .\nsorry , there was a problem loading sequence from server . please try again and contact us if the problem persists .\nsorry , there was a problem loading genome locations from server . please try again and contact us if the problem persists .\nscroll around to explore the entire tree . click tree nodes to collapse or expand them . hover over taxon names to display additional information .\n( 1976 ) : patterns of oil - sediment rejection in corals . \u2014mar . biol . ,\n( 1977 ) : space partitioning by stony corals , soft corals and benthic algae on the coral reefs of the northern gulf of eilat ( red sea ) . \u2014helgol\u00e4nder wiss . meersunters . ,\n\u2014 & \u2014 ( 1981 ) : competition for space among coral reef sessile organisms . \u2014bull . mar . sci . ,\n( 1994 ) : the coral fauna of vitigliano : qualitative and quantitative analysis in a back reef environment ( castro limestone , late oligocene , salento peninsula , southern italy ) . \u2014boll . soc . paleontol . italiana ,\n( 1994 ) : coral facies across an oligocene fringing reef ( salento peninsula , southern italy ) . \u2014cour . forsch . - inst . senckenberg ,\n( eds . ) , red sea - key environments . \u201422\u201344 , 11 figs . , london ( pergamon press )\n( 1991 ) : reef coral survival and mortality at low temperatures in the arabian gulf : new species - specific lower temperature limits . \u2014coral reefs ,\n( 1978 ) : diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs . \u2014science ,\n( 1990 ) : paleoecology : concepts and applications . \u20142nd ed . , 502pp . , new york ( wiley )\n( 1982 ) : the distribution of coral communities across the great barrier reef . \u2014coral reefs ,\n( 1987 ) : the evolution of reef communities . \u2014 600 pp . , new york ( john wiley & sons )\n( 1973 ) : ecological and biological phenomena influencing coral species composition on the reef tables at elat ( gulf of aqaba , red sea ) . \u2014mar . biol . ,\n( 1981 ) : oligocene reef coral biofacies of the vicentin , northeast italy . \u2014in :\n( ed . ) : european fossil reef models . \u2014soc . econ . paleont . min . , spec . , publ . ,\n( 1983 ) : holocene west indian coral reefs : geomorphology , ecology and facies . \u2014facies ,\n\u2014 ( 1992 ) : modern reef development and cenozoic evolution of an oceanic island / reef complex : isla de providencia ( western caribbean sea , colombia ) . \u2014facies ,\n( 1987 ) : corals and coral reefs of the red sea . \u2014in :\n( eds . ) : red sea - key environments . \u2014128\u2013151 , 16 figs . , 5 tables , oxford ( pergamon press )\n( 1982 ) : reproduction by fragmentation in corals . \u2014mar . ecol . progr . ser . ,\nand nummulitidae in the gulf of elat , red sea . \u2014utrecht micropal . bull .\n( 1992 ) : coral communities and coral - bivalve associations in the northern red sea at safaga , egypt . \u2014 facies ,\n( 1972 ) : community structure and species diversity of hermatypic corals at eilat , red sea . \u2014mar . biol . ,\n\u2014 ( 1976b ) : settlement , mortality , and recruitment of a red sea scleractinian coral population . \u2014in :\n( ed . ) : coelenterate ecology and behaviour . \u201489\u201399 , new york ( plenum publishing corp . )\n\u2014 ( 1976c ) : recolonization of red sea corals affected by natural catastrophies and man - made perturbations . \u2014ecology ,\n( eds . ) : coral reefs : research methods . \u2014 197\u2013217 , 10 figs . , paris ( unesco )\n( 1971 ) : the coral reefs of eilat ( gulf of eilat , red sea ) . \u2014symp . zool . soc . lond . ,\n( 1977 ) : hydroids as indicator species for ecological parameters in caribbean and red sea coral reefs . \u2014proc . 3rd int . coral reef symp . , miami , florida , 119\u2013125 , 1 figs . , 1 table , miami\n( 1974 ) : morphologie , \u00f6kologie und zonierung von korallenriffen bei aquaba ( golf von aqaba , rotes meer ) . \u2014helgol\u00e4nder wiss . meeresunters . ,\n\u2014 & \u2014 ( 1981 ) : quantitative analyse der korallenbesiedlung eines vorriffareals bei aqaba ( golf von aqaba , rotes meer ) . \u2014helgol\u00e4nder wiss . meeresunters . ,\n\u2014 & \u2014 ( 1985 ) : quantitative analyse von korallengemeinschaften des sanganeb - atolls ( mittleres rotes meer ) . i . die besiedlungsstruktur hydrodynamisch unterschiedlich exponierter au\u00dfen - und innenriffe . \u2014helgol\u00e4nder . wiss . meeresunters . ,\nmontaggioni , l . f . , behairy , a . k . a . , el - sayed , m . k .\n( 1986 ) : the modern reef complex , jeddah area , red sea : a facies model for carbonate sedimentation on embryonic passive margins . \u2014coral reefs ,\n( 1992 ) : the northern bay of safaga ( red sea , egypt ) : an actuopalaeontological approach . iii . distribution of echinoids . \u2014beitr . pal\u00e4ont . \u00f6sterr . ,\n( 1984 ) : environmental influence on growth form in some massive tabulate corals from the hamilton group ( middle devonian ) of new york state . \u2014paleontogr . americana ,\n( 1995 ) : quantitative approaches to paleozonation and paleobathymetry of corals and coralline algae in cenozoic reefs . \u2014in :\n( eds . ) : marine paleoenvironmental analysis from fossils . \u2014geol . soc . spec . publ . ,\n( 1970 ) : on r - and k - selection . \u2014am . nat . ,\n( 1994 ) : the northern bay of safaga ( red sea , egypt ) : an actuopalaeontological approach . iv . thin section analysis . \u2014beitr . pal\u00e4ont . ,\n( 1989 ) : the northern bay of safaga ( red sea , egypt ) : an actuopalaeontological approach . i . topography and bottom facies . \u2014beitr . pal\u00e4ont . \u00f6sterr . ,\n( 1990 ) : the northern bay of safaga ( red sea , egypt ) : an actuopalaeontological approach . ii . sediment analyses and sedimentary facies . \u2014beitr . pal\u00e4ont . \u00f6sterr . ,\n( 1984 ) : the gulf of aqaba . ecological micropaleontology . \u2014viii + 354 pp . , berlin , ( springer )\n( 1989 ) : gesellschaftsstruktur von steinkorallen ( scleractinia ) an riffen des n\u00f6rdlichen roten meeres . \u2014 unpubl . diplomarbeit , universit\u00e4t wien , 120 pp . , wien\noken 1816 ( scleractinia : astrocoeniina : acroporidae ) in south - east africa . \u2014zool . j . linn . soc . ,\n\u2014 ( 1995b ) : effects of sand deposition on scleractinian and alcyonacean corals . \u2014marine biology ,\n( 1994 ) : the structure of coral communities at hurghada in the northern red sea . \u2014pszni marine ecology ,\n( 1995 ) : effects of sediment on the energy budgets of four scleractinian ( bourne 1900 ) and five alcyonacean ( lamouroux 1816 ) corals . \u2014j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . ,\n( 1995 ) : tissue damage in scleractinian and alcyonacean corals due to experimental exposure to sedimentation . \u2014beitr . pal\u00e4ont . ,\n( 1971 ) : principal features of reef coral ecology in shallow water environments of mah\u00e9 , seychelles . \u2014in :\n( eds . ) : regional variation in indian ocean coral reefs . \u2014symp . zool . soc . lond . ,\n\u2014 ( 1975 ) : the distribution of reef corals . \u2014rep . underwat . ass . , ( n . s . )\n\u2014 ( 1977 ) : the depth distribution of recent hermatypic corals and its paleontological significance . \u2014mem . bur . rech . geol . minieres ,\n( 1981 ) : the tropical high diversity enigma\u2014the coral\u2019s eye of view . \u2014in :\n( eds . ) : chance , change and challenge . the evolving biosphere . \u2014brit . mus . ( nat . hist . ) and cambridge univ . press , 103\u2013129 , london\n( 1984 ) : a report on the stony corals of the red sea . \u2014zoologica ,\n( 1985 ) : quantitative analyse von korallengemeinschaften des sanganeb atolls ( mittleres rotes meer ) . ii . vergleich mit einem riffarael bei aqaba ( n\u00f6rdliches rotes meer ) am nordrande des indopazifischen riffg\u00fcrtels . \u2014helgol\u00e4nder wiss . meeresunters . ,\n( 1991 ) : corals and coral communities of arabia . \u2014fauna of saudi arabia ,\n( 1992 ) : marine ecology of the arabian region . \u2014347 pp . , london ( academic press )\n( 1986 ) : the cnidom : an index of aggresive proficiency in scleractinian corals . \u2014coral reefs ,\n( 1986 ) : corals of australia and the indo - pacific . \u2014633 pp . , north ryde ( angus & robertson )\n( 1976 ) : scleractinia of eastern australia . part 1 . families thamnasteriidae , astrocoendiidae , pocilloporidae . \u2014aust . inst . mar . sci . monogr . ser . ,\n( 1979 ) : scleractinia of eastern australia . part 3 . families agariciidae , siderastreidae , fungiidae , oculinidae , merulinidae , mussidae , pectiniidae , caryophylliidae , dendrophyliidae . \u2014aust . inst . mar . sci . monogr . ser . ,\n( 1982 ) : scleractinia of eastern australia . part 4 . family poritidae . \u2014aust . inst . mar . sci . monogr . ser . ,\nveron , j . e . n . , pichon , m . & wijsman - best , m .\n( 1977 ) : scleractinia of eastern australia . part 2 . families faviidae , trachyphyllidae . \u2014aust . inst . mar . sci . monogr . ser . ,\n( 1984 ) : scleractinia of eastern australia . part 5 . family acroporidae . \u2014aust . inst . mar . sci . monogr . ser . ,\noriginal russian text \u00a9 yu . ya . latypov , 2009 , published in biologiya morya .\nlatypov , yu . ya . , reef - building corals and reefs of vietnam . 1 . the gulf of siam ,\ngardiner , j . s . , the reefs of the western indian ocean : i . chagos archipelago : ii . the mascarene region ,\nloya , y . , and slobodkin , l . b . , the coral reefs of eilat ( gulf of eilat , red sea ) ,\npillai , c . s . g . , vine , p . j . , and scheer , g . , bericht \u00fcber eine korallensammlung von den seychellen ,\nselin , n . i . , latypov , y . y . , malyutin , a . n . , and bolshakova , l . n . , species composition and abundance of corals and other invertebrates on the reefs of the seychelles islands ,\nturner , j . , klaus , r . , and engelhardt , u . , the reefs of the granitic islands of the seychelles , coral reef degradation in the indian ocean : status reports and project presentations 2000 ,\nveron , j . e . n . and hodgson , g . , annotated checklist of the hermatypic corals of the philippines ,\nveron , j . e . n . and hudson , r . c . l . , ribbon reefs of the northern region ,\nveron , j . e . n . and marsh , l . m . , records and annotated checklist of the hermatypic corals of western australia ,\nvo , s . t . and hodgson , g . , coral reefs of vietnam : recruitment limitation and physical forcing ,\nwijsman - best , m . , faure , g . , and pichon , m . , contribution to the knowledge of the stony corals from the seychelles and eastern africa ,\nlatypov , y . y . russ j mar biol ( 2009 ) 35 : 454 . urltoken\nturbinaria stellulata , commonly known as disc coral , is a species of colonial stony coral in the family dendrophylliidae . it is native to the indo - pacific region . the international union for conservation of nature has rated its conservation status as being\nvulnerable\n.\nturbinaria stellulata tends to be submassive with encrusting margins and does not produce vertical structures to any extent . the corallites are about 2 mm ( 0 . 08 in ) in diameter and have thick walls . this coral is a zooxanthellate coral that houses symbiont dinoflagellates in its tissues . it is usually some shade of brown or green , but other colours sometimes occur , depending on which species of symbiont is present . colonies are dome - shaped and grow to a diameter of about 50 cm ( 20 in ) .\nturbinaria stellulata occurs in the indo - pacific region . its range extends from the red sea and madagascar to tropical australia , southern japan and the south china sea . it occurs on upper reef slopes at depths from 2 to 15 metres ( 6 to 50 ft ) , and unlike other corals in its genus turbinaria , it seems to avoid turbid water .\nas a zooxanthellate coral , turbinaria stellulata gets part of its nutritional needs from the photosynthetic symbionts in its tissues , but also extends its polyps to feed , mostly at night . colonies are either male or female and are broadcast spawners . all the colonies in an area liberate their eggs and sperm into the sea in a spawning event which is synchronised with the phases of the moon . the planula larvae that develop form part of the plankton and eventually settle in a suitable location on the seabed .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nclosely related symbiodinium spp . differ in relative dominance in coral reef host communities across environmental , latitudinal and biogeographic gradients\nmarine ecology progress series 284 : 147 - 161 . doi : 10 . 3354 / meps284147\nabout closely related symbiodinium spp . differ in relative dominance in coral reef host communities across environmental , latitudinal and biogeographic gradients\nthis web site was designed by laure guillou and fabrice not ( biological station of roscoff , cnrs , france ) . contributions or suggestions are very welcome and can be submitted either to laure guillou or to fabrice not .\nthis page that you have visted here is a stub of the rtaw reefpedia . that means that this page has been generated , but it is yet to contain the relevant information required . so it requires some work on content within it before it is completed .\ninformation about the body shape , skeletal characteristics , how it appears , colouring etc .\nany species that look similar to this one , that may be mixed up .\nsomething about what size the it grows to in the wild , plus in captivity .\nnotes about what they do , how they inteact with others , different species etc .\nhow it reproduces , how suitable it is to breeding or captive propagation , techniques on how to etc .\nsome additional notes on it that don ' t fit in the above sections .\nlink to online magazine articles dealing with this species , genus , or family .\nthis page was last modified on 2 march 2007 , at 07 : 58 .\nprimary resource : la jeunesse , t . c . , pettay , d . t . , sampayo , e . m . , phongsuwan , n . , brown , b . , obura , d . o . , hoegh guldberg , o . , fitt , w . k . ( 2010 ) long - standing environmental conditions , geographic isolation and host - symbiont specificity influence the relative ecological dominance and genetic diversification of coral endosymbionts in the genus symbiodinium . journal of biogeography 37 , 785 - 800\nsecondary resource : franklin , e . c . , stat , m . , pochon , x . , putnam , h . m . , gates , r . d . ( 2011 ) geosymbio : a hybrid , cloud - based web application of global geospatial bioinformatics and ecoinformatics for symbiodinium - host symbioses . molecular ecology resources 12 , 369 - 373\nprimary resource : darling , e . s . , alvarez filip , l . , oliver , t . a . , mc clanahan , t . r . , c\u00f4t\u00e9 , i . m . ( 2012 ) evaluating life - history strategies of reef corals from species traits . ecology letters 15 , 1378 - 1386"]}
{"id": 378, "summary": [{"text": "the black-bellied whistling duck ( dendrocygna autumnalis ) , formerly also called black-bellied tree duck , is a whistling duck that breeds from the southernmost united states and tropical central to south-central south america .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "in the usa , it can be found year-round in parts of southeast texas , and seasonally in southeast arizona , and louisiana 's gulf coast .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is a rare breeder in such disparate locations as arkansas , georgia , tennessee , and south carolina , though it is now a common breeder in parts of central florida .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "there is a large population of several hundred that winter each year in audubon park in uptown new orleans , louisiana .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "since it is one of only two whistling-duck species native to north america , it is occasionally just known as the \" whistling duck \" in the southern usa . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "black - bellied whistling duck", "paragraphs": ["black - bellied whistling duck is nocturnal animal ( active during the night ) .\nfigure 1 . distribution of the black - bellied whistling - duck in the americas .\nvisit the bent life history for extensive additional information on the black - bellied whistling duck .\nfulvous whistling - duck fulvous whistling - ducks lack black bellies and have extensive black on their wings and back .\nblack - bellied whistling - duck : large , colorful duck with bright red bill , pink - red legs and feet . shows white wing patch , black\nunlike other ducks , black - bellied whistling duck spends a lot of time on the ground and on the trees .\nimmature fulvous whistling - duck could be confused with an immature black - bellied whistling - duck . fulvous has a white stripe on the side and dark wings without a wing stripe .\nblack - bellied whistling duck has orange - red bill , medium - sized , erect body and long neck and legs .\nblack - bellied whistling duck can reach 18 . 5 to 20 . 1 inches in length and 23 to 36 ounces of weight .\nthe oldest recorded black - bellied whistling duck was a male , and at least 10 years , 7 months when it was found in louisiana .\ndiet : black - bellied whistling - duck feeds mainly on plant matter , aquatic plants , grass and grain . it also consumes insects and molluscs .\nblack - bellied whistling duck is aquatic bird that belongs to the family of ducks . there are two subspecies of black - bellied whistling ducks that can be found in the southern parts of the usa and in the central and south america . black - bellied whistling duck inhabits freshwater ponds , lakes and marshes ( usually near the agricultural fields ) . black - bellied whistling ducks are occasionally on a target of hunters . besides hunting , major threats for their survival are draining of wetlands and pollution of the water with pesticides . despite these factors , black - bellied whistling ducks are still widespread and numerous in the wild .\nnorthern populations of black - bellied whistling ducks migrate toward the mexico and southern parts of texas in the autumn .\nblack - bellied whistling duck is reddish brown colored . it has grey face and upper part of the neck , black belly and tail and large white patch on the wings . males and females look alike .\nthe black - bellied whistling - duck is a whistling - duck which may also be called the black - bellied tree duck . it is quite a common species , with populations estimated to range between one and two million individuals . they occur in rice fields and freshwater marshes from southern texas and southern arizona south through central and south america to northern argentina . they are nocturnal feeders , and eat a diet composed mostly of plant life . in past years , hunting activities caused concern for the black - bellied whistling - duck , but recent counts have confirmed that populations are at least stable , if not growing , in north america . due to the large , stable population , the conservation status of the black - bellied whistling - duck is least concern .\nthe black - bellied whistling - duck ( formerly black - bellied tree duck ) is a highly gregarious neotropical duck that is restricted to the new world . distinguished from all other whistling - ducks by its red bill , pink feet , and white wing - patch , it is more arboreal than other whistling - ducks and vocal in flight , often repeating a whistling pe - che - che - ne . it nests primarily in natural cavities in trees but will readily use nest boxes .\nblack - bellied whistling ducks live in large flocks of around 1 . 000 birds . they produce whistle - like calls , hence the name\nwhistling ducks\n.\nthe black - bellied whistling - duck is an unusual species among north american waterfowl . with its long legs , peculiar appearance , and odd habits , it was described by one early american ornithologist as \u201cmost un - duck - like . \u201d\nflight : black - bellied whistling - duck flies mainly in the morning and in the evening . they have fast flying ability , but generally , they fly slowly , in large noisy flocks .\nfemales occasionally lay eggs in the nest of other black - bellied whistling ducks . this behavior is known as\negg - dumping\n.\nalso known as the red - billed whistling duck - or tree duck , this species is popular and commonly seen in aviaries in the usa , a little less in europe .\nthe behavior of black - bellied whistling ducks is similar to fulvous whistling ducks . they prefer the excellent feeding opportunities offered by agricultural lands in close proximity to water , rice culture , and shallow wetlands with exposed mud flats . black - bellied whistling ducks prefer to feed at night but have been observed feeding at all hours of the day .\nblack - bellied whistling duck is an omnivore ( it eats both plants and meat ) . its diet is based on seed , grass , sedges , corn , rice , wheat , insects , spiders and snails .\nblack - bellied whistling ducks form monogamous pairs ( they mate for a lifetime ) during the winter . they produce one or two broods per season .\nthey were formerly known as the black - bellied tree duck ; as this name suggests , they are quite fond of perching . additionally , tree cavities provide nesting sites .\nblack - bellied whistling ducks commonly feed at night on grain , seeds , some insects and mollusks and leaves and shoots found in fields and shallow water .\nbolen , e . g . 1967b . the ecology of the black - bellied tree duck in southern texas . ph . d . thesis , utah state univ . , logan . close\nblack - bellied whistling ducks are easily recognized . males and females look similar with red bills , pink feet , white wing patches , and black bellies . the head is brownish - gray with a white eye - ring .\nthe black - bellied whistling - duck is a boisterous duck with a brilliant pink bill and an unusual , long - legged silhouette . in places like texas and louisiana , watch for noisy flocks of these gaudy ducks dropping into fields to forage on seeds , or loafing on golf course ponds . listen for them , too\u2014these ducks really do have a whistle for their call . common south of the u . s . , black - bellied whistling - ducks occur in several southern states and are expanding northward .\nblack - bellied whistling - ducks have been expanding their range in the southern united states . we have seen some checking out our new addition to the rookery in smith oaks .\nnatural enemies of black - bellied whistling ducks are great horned owls , raccoons , snakes , bass and catfish ( all , except owls , feed on eggs and ducklings ) .\nthe black - bellied whistling - duck is mostly reddish - brown , with a black belly , a gray face , a white eye ring , and a reddish orange bill . the leading edge of the wing is similar to the chestnut color of the body . the secondary coverts are white . black primaries have a white base . long wing stripe visible in flight .\nblack - bellied whistling ducks are migratory in the northern - and southernmost limits of their range . large flocks are often observed in wintering areas in the lowlands of mexico , though formerly more abundant in interior mexico than at present . in the united states , they winter primarily in southern coastal texas . black - bellied whistling duck are widespread and common in central america and south america south to northern argentina ( scott and carbonell , 1986 ) .\nperfect for the mixed collection , black - bellied whistling ducks are not trouble makers and will cause no problems to other small species . they do best when kept in small groups .\ndescription black - bellied whistling - ducks are a flashy chestnut bird with a bright orange - red bill , pink legs , and white wing spot . both sexes look alike . whistling - ducks are not actually puddle ducks , but tree ducks .\nblack - bellied whistling - ducks have expanded their range northward in recent years , but these northern breeders often move south for the winter , while most others are resident year - round .\ndelnicki , d . e . 1973 . renesting , incubation behavior , and compound clutches of the black - bellied tree duck in southern texas . master ' s thesis , texas tech univ . , lubbock . close\nlongevity : up to 8 years description : this species , as other whistling ducks , is more closely related to geese and swans than to ducks . they have long neck and legs , and broad wings , and both sexes are similar . when in flight , black - bellied whistling - duck has training wings and rounded wings , making it bigger than it is . its red bill and legs , and the large white wing patch help to identify the species , and make the difference with the fulvous whistling duck which lacks red bill and black belly .\nprofile by richard gibbons : the black - bellied whistling - duck is a large duck with a long neck , long legs , and short tail . they have a chestnut breast and black belly with a bright pink bill and legs . their face is gray and has a broad , white wing stipe that is visible in flight . true to their name , these ducks do have a whistle for their call . black - bellied whistling - ducks hang out by shallow ponds , gold courses , city parks , and schools . their ability to adopt human - altered habitats has helped them move north into the southern united states .\nthe whistling - ducks were formerly known as tree - ducks , but only a few , such as the black - bellied whistling - duck actually perch or nest in trees . they look most like ducks , but their lack of sexual dimorphism , relatively long - term pair bonds , and lack of complex pair - forming behavior more resembles geese and swans .\njames , j . dale and jonathan e . thompson . 2001 . black - bellied whistling - duck ( dendrocygna autumnalis ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto black - bellied whistling - duck\u2019s call is a squealing \u201cpe - chee\u201d . near the nest , parents utter high - pitched , rapid piping and twittering whistles . in flight , they give high piping whistles \u201cpi - yih pyi - pyi\u201d or \u201cchee twee wee wee - wee\u2026\u201d\ndelnicki , d . and e . g . bolen . 1975 . natural nest site availability for black - bellied whistling ducks in south texas . southwest . nat . no . 20 : 371 - 378 . close\nu . s . fish & wildlife service , federal duck stamp office presents : north american waterfowl ( adobe pdf file ) james , j . dale and jonathan e . thompson . 2001 . black - bellied whistling - duck ( dendrocygna autumnalis ) , the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) . ithaca : cornell lab of ornithology ; retrieved from the birds of north america online\nbehaviour : black - bellied whistling - duck is often seen perched on trees or shrubs . it feeds on vegetal matter by grazing on the ground , and also dabbling in shallow waters . they feed on submerged vegetation , wading in shallow water . in mexico , they are often seen gleaning in harvested corn fields .\nmale and female black - bellied whistling ducks are similar in size and color . in general , black - bellied whistling ducks are long - legged , long - necked and the most erect of all ducks . they have a black belly with a chestnut nape , lower neck , chest , and back . a chestnut cap tops the head . they boast a bright orange bill , gray face , and upper neck and white eye ring . the long pink legs are easily observed while they are perched in trees .\ncain , b . w . 1976 . energetics of growth for black - bellied tree ducks . condor no . 78 : 124 - 128 . close\nhabitat : black - bellied whistling - duck lives in wooded marshes , swampy forests , flooded fields and lagoons . it avoids lakes , except with shallow water areas near the shores . they need waters with dense vegetation for feeding , and close trees for nesting . we can find them from sea level to 1500 metres of elevation .\nblack - bellied whistling - ducks have been expanding their range in the southern u . s . , and the north american breeding bird survey shows strong population growth , estimated at over 6 % per year from 1966\u20132014 . they are not on the 2014 state of the birds watch list . although it\u2019s legal to hunt whistling - ducks in season , they are only rarely targeted by hunters . like all aquatic species , black - bellied whistling - ducks are vulnerable to poor water quality\u2014in the 1980s birds in mexico were reported with high levels of ddt , dieldrin , and other persistent organic compounds . degradation or clearing of wetlands for can reduce habitat availability ; however , in general black - bellied whistling - ducks seem to be doing well around human development . back to top\nprotection / threats / status : black - bellied whistling - duck populations are increasing in united states , and they are abundant . this species damages cultivated areas in mexico , and necessary measures must be taken to control populations . healthy coastal wet areas and nest boxes benefit this species . nests on the ground are preyed upon by rats and wolverines .\nblack - bellied whistling ducks are gregarious . they can often be found perching in trees . while they prefer to nest in natural tree cavities , they will readily use nest boxes and have been reported to nest on the ground as well .\nmccamant , r . e . and e . g . bolen . 1979 . a 12 - year study of nest box utilization by black - bellied whistling ducks . j . wildl . manage . no . 43 : 936 - 943 . close\nbolen , e . g . 1967a . nesting boxes for black - bellied tree ducks . j . wildl . manage . no . 31 : 68 - 73 .\njames , j . d . 2000a . effects of habitat and spatial characteristics on the incidence of conspecific brood parasitism and nest site selection in breeding black - bellied whistling ducks . master ' s thesis , texas a & m ; kingsville , kingsville . close\nthey also are distinguished by their appearance and behaviors in the field . black - bellied whistling ducks fly slowly in shapeless formations . in flight , they show long necks , trailing legs , and broad wings , but the most distinguishing feature is the contrasting black and white between the upper and lower wings . when standing or perching , the most striking features are the bird ' s namesake stark black belly and sides , along with the red bill and pink feet . biologists recognize two subpopulations of black - bellies .\nlike black - bellies , fulvous whistling ducks breed during their first year of life . nest initiation occurs from may through august . fulvous whistling ducks nest in rice fields and in wetlands , usually over water among water - tolerant grasses and sedges . females lay 12 eggs on average , and both sexes incubate the eggs . unlike most species of waterfowl , fulvous and black - bellied whistling ducks do not add down to their nest bowls . scientists have also observed that fulvous whistling ducks do not cover their eggs when they depart the nest to feed , possibly because of the high temperatures occurring on their southern breeding grounds .\nrange black - bellied whistling - ducks are currently undergoing a range expansion . their range consists of large portions of south america and along the coast of central america . today , in the united states , black - bellied whistling - ducks are mostly found along the gulf coast , the southern portion of the mississippi river , and the florida panhandle . in south carolina they are found primarily along the coast , mostly in the southern portion of the state . they have been reported as far inland as aiken county and as far north as georgetown county .\nblack - bellied whistling - duck : breeds from the southern united states and tropical central to south central south america . it can be found year - round in southeast texas , and seasonally in arizona , and louisiana ' s gulf coast . rare breeder in such disparate locations as florida , arkansas , georgia and south carolina . occurs in quiet , shallow freshwater ponds , and estuarine wetlands and marshes .\navailable information for black - bellied whistling ducks suggests a stable population in mexico and growing population in texas . about 80 , 000 birds are generally counted along the east and west coasts of mexico each winter , and researchers estimate a breeding population of several thousand in southern texas .\nalmost independent at hatching . covered with black - and - yellow down , eyes open .\nrange : black - bellied whistling - duck breeds in extreme south of united states ( texas , arizona , and louisiana ) and also into central and south america to northern argentina . there is a population in florida . it winters from southern texas southwards . they are resident in florida . northern populations may be migratory , moving southwards , but most of populations are resident in their range , apart some local movements according to the food resources .\nducklings are covered with black and white down at birth . they are ready to leave the nest and enter the water ( or walk on the solid ground ) one or two days after hatching . black - bellied whistling ducks learn to fly at the age of 8 weeks , but they stay with their parents until the age of 6 months . they reach sexual maturity at the age of one year .\nd . a . autumnalis ( caribbean ) between 100 , 000 - 1 , 000 , 000 ; d . a . bicolor ( neotropics ) > 1 , 000 , 000 ( rose and scott , 1994 ) . black - bellied whistling ducks are susceptible to over - harvest due to their unwary nature .\nwhistling \u201cpee - chee - chee\u201d , uttered particularly vociferously in flight and becomes an almost . . .\nhi dan . i can ' t answer your question about fulgens / discolor , i just followed what is written in birds of ecuador 2001 . i did look at more of my pictures from western ecuador in manab\u00ec and they are all gray - chested . the map here on the side is not correct nor is it correct on urltoken or birds of ecuador . the species ( and fulvous whistling - duck and greater ani ) are all the way up the colombian border in nw esmeraldas and at least black - bellied whistling - duck is fairly common there and breeding . i don ' t have any pictures from there but i would assume they are all gray - chested ( = autumnalis )\ncarboneras , c . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . black - bellied whistling - duck ( dendrocygna autumnalis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nblack - bellied whistling - ducks eat mainly plant material , including smartweed , grasses , sedges , bindweed , and nightshade . they will also consume agricultural crops of sorghum , rice , corn , millet , and wheat . aquatic animals , such as snails , insects , and spiders are also consumed in small amounts .\nblack - bellied whistling ducks nest in the cavities of trees , in the nest boxes or on the ground , using little nesting material . female lays 9 to 18 eggs ( 13 on average ) from may to june . eggs hatch after 25 to 30 days . both parents participate in the incubation of eggs and rearing of chicks .\nthere are eight species of whistling ducks in the world , but only two - the black - bellied and fulvous whistling ducks - occur in the united states . scientists consider whistling ducks more closely related to geese and swans than to the\ntrue ducks .\nwith their long legs , long necks , bone structure and erect stance , they certainly look more like geese than like ducks . as with geese and swans , the plumage of both sexes of whistling ducks are very similar . they only have one molt ( in contrast to two molts in the\ntrue ducks\n) ; both parents share in the brooding of the young ; and pairs mate for life .\ndistinguished from all other whistling - ducks by its red bill , pink feet , and white wing - patch .\nmccartney , r . b . 1963 . the fulvous tree duck in louisiana . master ' s thesis , louisiana state univ . , baton rouge . close\nduring the nonbreeding season , black - bellies primarily use mangrove swamps and coastal lagoons to meet their food and cover requirements . however , similar to their goose cousins , black - bellies have adapted to feeding in agricultural environments , frequenting pastures and cattle feedlots as well as harvested rice , corn and sorghum fields when the opportunity presents itself . fulvous whistling ducks , with their long necks and legs , short tail and broad wings , also look much more like a goose than a duck .\nblack - bellied whistling ducks nest in thickets or stands of mesquite , hackberry , willow , live oak , and other trees . they forage in fields , lawns , and shallow , freshwater ponds that often contain water hyacinth , water lilies , and cattails . in the tropics , they also use mangroves , rivers , and lagoons . back to top\nperis , s . j . , b . sanchez and d . rodriguez . 1998 . range expansion of the fulvous whistling duck ( dendrocygna bicolor ) in cuba , in relation to rice cultivation . caribb . j . sci . no . 34 : 164 - 166 . close\nthose who have had the opportunity to venture to the gulf coast to hunt , bird watch or just grab some r & r ; may have encountered some long , slender ducks locally known as squealers . black - bellied and fulvous whistling ducks are most common in mexico and latin america where they are known as pichichi or pato maizal and pijia or pato silvon .\nblack - bellied whistling - duck has tawny - brown to brown - cinnamon upperparts , turning black on rump and uppertail coverts . upper wings show a broad white stripe , conspicuous in flight . flight feathers are black . underparts are paler . lower neck and chest are tawny - brown . it has black belly and flanks . undertail coverts are mottled black and white . underwings are blackish . head and upper neck are grey . crown is dark brown . we can see a dark vertical hind neck stripe . bill is bright pink - red , often yellowish at base . eyes are dark brown , with conspicuous white eye ring . legs and webbed feet are bright pinkish - red . both sexes are similar . juvenile is paler , with grey bill , legs and feet . it has duller plumage than adults , with sooty - brown belly and flanks . it reaches its adult plumage at 8 months of age . very young birds have very paler belly , with indistinct transversal bars .\nwhether nesting in natural cavities or nest boxes , black - bellied whistling - ducks typically don\u2019t build a nest ; they lay their eggs directly on whatever debris has collected there . cavity openings range from 5\u201312 inches across . when nesting on the ground , they make a scrape or a shallow bowl of grasses , with thick vegetation overhead , such as willow , mesquite , or cactus .\nblack - bellied whistling - ducks take readily to nest boxes . if you live within their range , you can make a nest box out of half - inch marine plywood . it should be about 24 inches high at the front and 20 inches at the back , with a hole about 5\u20136 inches in diameter ( see bolen 1967 in the credits section of this account for full instructions ) .\nlicenses : hunting license required . migratory bird hunting and conservation stamp ( federal duck stamp ) that is validated by the hunter signing the stamp in ink across the face of the stamp\nmeanley , b . and a . g . meanley . 1959 . observations on the fulvous tree duck in louisiana . wilson bull . no . 71 : 33 - 45 . close\naverage size whistling - ducks have an average length of 18 - 19 inches and an average weight of 1 3 / 4 pounds .\nsome western birds have obvious white crests in breeding plumage and may be identifiable , but many have black crests like eastern birds .\nreproduction : black - bellied whistling - duck nests in tree cavities ( oaks , willows and mesquite trees ) or nest - boxes , at 8 to 10 feet above the ground . it also may nest on the ground . when nest is in cavity , there is no lining with down or any other soft materials . when nest is on the ground , birds build a shallow cup with woven grasses , at base of thick vegetation as a cactus , or among reeds . this species performs egg dumping , with very numerous eggs in the same nest , from several females . generally , these nests are abandoned and eggs are lost .\npreferred habitat these whistling - ducks can be found in shallow freshwater ponds or lakes , often those containing water hyacinth , water lilies , and cattails .\nblack - bellied whistling - ducks mostly eat plants such as smartweed , grasses , swamp timothy , sedges , and agricultural crops . occasionally they eat smaller aquatic animals like snails , insects , and spiders . they usually forage at night in fields or in shallow ponds . because of their long legs , they spend more time than other ducks walking around on land or perching in trees . they are gregarious throughout the year and form flocks of up to 1 , 000 birds .\nthe white plumage of snow geese and tundra swans sometimes takes on a dirty , rusty - brown appearance . the birds aren ' t actually dirty but do show rust - colored highlights from foraging in the iron rich environments of the far north . regarding the well - known description of the sound made by a duck as a\nquack ,\nduck species in north america also variously whistle , squeak , click , and grunt .\nblack - bellied whistling - ducks eat mainly plants , including smartweed , grasses , swamp timothy , amaranth , sedges , bindweed , and nightshade . they also eat many agricultural crops including sorghum , millet , corn , rice , and wheat . they eat a smaller amount of aquatic animals such as snails , insects , and spiders . they typically forage at night , leaving roosts at sunset to fly to foraging areas . they feed in fields or by dabbling in shallow ponds . back to top\nif you\u2019re in the range of black - bellied whistling - ducks ( and that range is expanding all the time\u2014keep an eye on the species\u2019 ebird map to see where they\u2019ve been seen ) you should be on the lookout for them perching around shallow ponds ; walking in the short grass of lawns and golf courses ; and especially in agricultural fields , where these large ducks eat lots of grain . they feed nocturnally , so watch around sunset for large flocks to begin flying out to fields from their roosts .\nin north america , this species breeds mainly along coastal regions of mexico and southern texas . only the northernmost populations appear to be migratory , with wintering individuals found along both coasts of mexico . the black - bellied whistling - duck forms lifelong pair bonds and breeds in its first year . it often lays its eggs in the nests of conspecifics . the diet of this species is comprised of plant materials , especially bermuda grass and sorghum seeds . individuals are attracted to areas where corn and rice are grown and can cause damage to crops . the status of this species appears to be secure due in part to its secluded habitats and its lack of importance as a game species . it is showing signs of range expansion in the united states .\nthe northern race ( d . a . autumnalis ) breeds from southern texas through coastal mexico and central america . pairs most often partner for life and share the responsibilities of incubation and brood rearing . nests are usually located in tree cavities , nest boxes , or on the ground in grassy areas or under brush or cacti near water . ground nesting is most common where mammalian nest predators are absent . female black - bellied whistling ducks lay an average of 13 eggs and several females lay in the same nest .\nwe find two subspecies : dendrocygna autumnalis discolor , with grey band on breast , between brown neck and black belly ; dendrocygna autumnalis autumnalis , different in size .\nthis pair of black - bellied whistling ducks arrived in our pond in early may . since then i have watched and photographed and videoed a plethora of behaviors , but none like what i witnessed on the morning of august 10th . temperatures in the small box in the sun must have been almost fatal on many days that the outside temperature was in the high 90\u2019s . during the last couple of days , when instead of alternating incubation they both stayed in the box as their eggs hatched , i watched them both panting and wondered if they would be able to stick it out .\nwyss , a . j . 1996 . nesting ecology of fulvous whistling - ducks in everglades agricultural area of southern florida . master ' s thesis , auburn univ . , auburn , al . close\ntwo subspecies groups differ in plumage and are reliably distinguished in virtually all cases . the \u201cblack - eared\u201d bushtit is merely a color morph of interior subspecies , found mainly south of the us .\nthis species is perhaps the least studied of common north american waterfowl . to date , studies have been conducted primarily in agricultural regions of north and south america at the fringes of the species ' breeding distribution and have focused mostly on the duck ' s importance as an agricultural pest (\ni\u2019m curious to see black - backed oriole on this list . is there a us record for this species ? i don\u2019t see it mentioned for the us in either the aou nor aba lists .\nbruzual , j . and i . bruzual . 1983 . feeding habits of whistling ducks in the calabozo ricefields , venezuela , during the non - reproductive period . wildfowl no . 34 : 20 - 26 . close\nthree subspecies groups all reliably distinguished in the field ( although black - backed and siberian are barely distinguishable from each other in non - adult - male plumages ) . only siberian occurs regularly in north america .\nthe anatidae are represented in north america by sixty - nine species in twenty - three genera ( including the extinct labrador duck ) . members of this well known bird family include the graceful , long - necked swans , familiar geese of farm fields and golf courses , and the many species of ducks .\ncomprehensive population surveys of whistling ducks are lacking . most of our information comes from mid - winter surveys conducted by the u . s . fish and wildlife service and occasional breeding season surveys associated with short - term research projects . limited data suggest a relatively stable breeding population of around 20 , 000 fulvous whistling ducks in louisiana and texas . significant breeding populations also exist in mexico , but surveys are insufficient to document population status and trends . many breeding populations in both the united states and mexico have historically been associated with rice culture . since the 1980s , rice acreage has declined dramatically in mexico , louisiana and texas . much of this land is now being used for dryland crops and pasture , which provides little habitat for breeding fulvous whistling ducks .\nblack - bellies breed during their first year of life , establishing lifelong pair bonds during their first winter . nest initiation occurs from april through august , a period approximately one month longer than prairie nesting ducks . black - bellies nest in tree cavities and , similar to wood ducks , also have adapted to nesting in boxes . where tree cavities are lacking , black - bellies will nest on the ground , often in grasses at the base of small trees or shrubs . females lay an average of 13 eggs and both sexes incubate the eggs . experiments have revealed that removal of either the female or the male during incubation results in abandonment of the nest . apparently , participation of both the male and female is necessary for the nesting attempt to be successful . black - bellies enjoy relatively high nest success rates ( an average of 45 percent ) compared to prairie nesting ducks . most nest failures are caused by raccoons , rat snakes and golden - fronted woodpeckers .\nsince 1968 , black - bellied whistling ducks frequently have been found in central and south florida in late summer and early fall , sometimes in flocks of fulvous whistling ducks . during the florida breeding bird atlas project , 12 potential breeding records were obtained for this species in hardee , lake , manatee , palm beach , polk , and sarasota counties . three of the records occurred in natural wetlands , three in small ponds , three in phosphate mines , two in flooded agricultural fields , and one in a sewage treatment pond . since 1992 , additional birds have been reported in hamilton , hernando , indian river , leon , jefferson , orange , volusia , and wakulla counties , indicating the species continues to expand its range in florida . in recent years , ducklings have been observed in leon county during the summer . florida fish and wildlife conservation commission biologists have observed flightless young at the t . m . goodwin waterfowl management area ( brevard county ) annually since 1999 . flightless young have been observed as late as mid - november .\n3 ) black - browed albatross . while the \u201cfirst\u201d u . s . record from va was an immature and tough to identify to subspecies , later photo records ( photo of an adult off newfoundland , and maybe another from maine ) show the expected dark - eyed form t . m . melanophris ( or melanophrys , depending on whom you ask ) rather than the \u2018campbell\u2019 black - browed albatross ( t . m . impavida ) . again , many accord these forms species status .\nhohman , w . l . , t . m . stark and j . l . moore . 1996 . food availability and feeding preferences of breeding fulvous whistling - ducks in louisiana ricefields . wilson bull . no . 108 : 137 - 150 . close\nblack - bellied whistling - ducks have long legs and spend more time than other ducks walking on land or perching in trees . you may see them perched on fences , telephone lines , or in spanish moss . they are gregarious year - round , forming flocks of up to 1 , 000 birds . they form lifelong pair bonds and breed in their first year of life . males spar by chasing or nipping at each other , or with a threat display that involves stretching their neck forward and opening their bill . pairs form in winter ; courtship includes birds stretching their necks out horizontally , dipping their bill , and flicking water over the back . females often lay eggs in the nests of other whistling - ducks\u2014a behavior known as egg - dumping . individuals are attracted to areas where corn and rice are grown and can cause damage to crops . nest predators include raccoons , rat snakes , and bull snakes ; ducklings may be killed by fire ants , bass , catfish , and gar . great horned owls sometimes take adults . back to top\nyou left out ( maybe intentionally ? ) waynei black - throated green warblers . their breeding range ( coastal carolinas and virginia ) is completely different than the nominate ssp and having held skins in my hand , they appear to be identifiable in the field .\nhi jim , thanks , i\u2019m glad you find it useful . i do plan to continue adding information about subspecies , with maps , as i find the time . i did not mean to include labrador duck , but now that you\u2019ve pointed it out i think i should add all of the extinct or presumed extinct species . there are no north american records of velvet scoter .\nthey are very agile on land , standing erect and walking without the waddle so characteristic of other ducks . a tawny brown head , chest , breast and belly distinguish fulvous whistling ducks . ivory - edged side and flank feathers form a striking border between the sides and back . in north america , the species is most common in mexico , but also breeds in california , florida , louisiana and texas . most fulvous whistling ducks depart their breeding range in the united states during september and october to winter in mexico , returning north again in march and april .\nadult males occur in two distinctive forms \u2013 black - backed and green - backed \u2013 that show strong geographic basis , but variation and the occurrence of each type well within the range of the other suggests that this color difference represents a morph rather than a subspecific difference .\nwhistling - ducks are cavity nesters , but they do not excavate the cavity . both the male and female select the cavity . these ducks will also nest in nest boxes , and have been known to nest on the ground occasionally . the hen lays 9 - 18 creamy white eggs .\ndo you know how i can find information on differentiating subspecies ? i have seen a black - crowned night heron in the middle east ( subspecies nycticorax ) with what seems to be a thicker bill , but i couldn\u2019t find any evidence of this difference with the north american subspecies . can you help ?\nthe northern population breeds from central texas through coastal mexico and central america . the southern population breeds from panama south into argentina . like most of their tropical counterparts , black - bellies do not show strong migratory patterns ; instead , they move relatively short distances in response to habitat availability within their breeding range .\nall of the whistling ducks are some of my personal favorites . their unique call , awkward appearance ( it ' s those huge feet ! ! ) and adaptabiltity to aviary life make them very appealing to many breeders . this particular species is also very good for beginners , but do require a secure shelter during the coldest winter months .\ndallmeier , f . 1991 .\nwhistling - ducks as a manageable and sustainable resource in venezuela : balancing economic costs and benefits .\nin neotropical wildlife use and conservation . , edited by j . g . robinson and k . h . redford , 266 - 287 . chicago , il : univ . of chicago press . close\nkidding , right ? i\u2019ve seen a 1st cycle \u2018barrovianus\u2019 glaucous barely bigger than an adjacent california gull , and in south delta bc a huge , presumably \u2018pallidus\u2019 glaucous from siberia which towered over the nearby gw\u2019s the way a large male great black - backed would dominate the local herring gulls . yet both are called glaucous gulls .\nhi dan , thanks very much for these comments . there is a black - backed oriole record in san diego , ca , ( presumably one individual , seen off - and - on from 2000 to 2002 ) but you are correct that it hasn\u2019t been accepted by any records committee and i will remove it from this list .\na replicated study over four breeding seasons in 1985 - 8 at two lakes in veracruz , mexico ( feekes 1991 ) , found that black - bellied whistling ducks dendrocygna autumnalis using nest boxes had very low reproductive success ( 11 . 1 % success for nine attempts in 1986 , 6 . 6 % for 30 attempts in 1987 - 8 ) , mainly because of predation by opossums didelphis spp . , raccoons procyon lotor and humans . occupancy rates varied , with one of 16 pairs using boxes in 1985 ; 17 - 30 % of 30 pairs in 1986 and 40 - 75 % of 20 pairs in both 1987 and 1988 . nest boxes were made from either liana baskets or hollowed palm trunks , with the latter being the only nests used ( except for a single basket in 1985 ) . thirteen baskets were provided in 1985 and ten in 1986 ; ten trunks were provided in 1986 , 16 in 1987 and 17 in 1988 . boxes were placed in positions similar to naturally occurring nests and checked every two weeks during the breeding seasons . opossums also frequently occupied nest boxes .\nin the past i did a small bit of work for a study looking to get some morphometric data determining precisely what the difference was between a typical virens and a typical waynei , and in the measurements i was taking it appeared that the birds identifiable as waynei are smaller , slighter billed , and with significantly less black on the flanks .\nin late august and early september , fulvous whistling ducks concentrate in flooded rice fields and large ponds . this species is noted for its nocturnal feeding in rice fields , where one observer vividly described a scene in louisiana in 1943 :\nwhen we reached the fields and levees just before dusk , not a duck was seen or heard . within a few minutes , on they came in no particular formation as with ordinary ducks - singly , in pairs , in companies of a dozen or more , and in irregular groups , and in twenty minutes they were flying and squealing everywhere , hundreds of them .\nin october , flocks move to coastal marshes where they feed predominantly on the seeds of aquatic vegetation . in november , a general exodus occurs to the east and west coasts of mexico , where the birds spend the winter on coastal lagoons and rice fields .\nfulvous whistling - ducks are migratory in northern portions of their range , but elsewhere they exhibit only local movements . their return to gulf coast nesting areas in february and march coincides with the onset of planting in rice - growing areas . individuals feed almost exclusively on seeds , especially seeds of native moist - soil plants , which may be abundant in flooded ricefields . they also feed opportunistically on grain in seeded ricefields . flooding of ricefields in preparation for planting stimulates ground - nesting by birds on ricefield levees and in pastures , haylands , and small grain fields adjacent to ricefields . more commonly , however , fulvous whistling - ducks nest in flooded ricefields when plants are of sufficient stature to support eggs . the species makes only limited use of undisturbed , nonagricultural habitats for nesting in the united states .\nwhereas most ducks nesting in temperate regions pair seasonally for only 1 reproductive cycle , pair bonds of fulvous whistling - ducks are suspected to be long - term , extending over multiple nesting seasons or the lifetime of individuals , as in geese and swans . males and females share equally in incubation , and males also assist with rearing of young . thus , males contribute to parental care to a greater extent in this species than in other small - to medium - sized waterfowl . intraspecific brood parasitism is widespread in ground and over - water nests . additionally , unlike other north american waterfowl that undergo wing molt immediately after the nesting season on breeding areas or at remote northern sites traditionally used for molt , onset of wing molt is delayed in migratory fulvous whistling - ducks until their return to southern wintering areas .\nsexes are similar as in most other members of this genus , while the females may appear slightly lighter in color . the two most distinguishing features of this species are the bright pinkish - red bill and huge pink feet . the cheeks , head and neck are gray , while the crown , forehead , breast and mantle are dark brown to chestnut . the belly and underparts are black .\nalthough swans and geese are mostly white , brown , and black , many ducks showcase several shades of grays , browns , and blacks combined with fine barring and streaking to result in a variety of beautifully patterned plumages for which females of the species are well known . males in breeding plumage are more boldly patterned and often have iridescent blue or green on the head . both sexes usually show a spot of color in the wing known as a\nspeculum\n.\nfemale usually lays 12 to 16 whitish eggs , one per day . incubation lasts about 12 to 16 days , shared by both parents . precocial chicks are yellow with black spots . they leave the nest very soon after hatching , within two days , and they are able to feed themselves . but they remain with parents for up to two months . at this time , they can fly . however , they may remain in family groups for up to six months . this species produces only one brood per season , sometimes two if first is lost .\nthey form lifelong pairs and breed during the first year of their lives . the males spar by chasing each other and using a threat display . pairs usually form in winter and the females often lay eggs in the nests of other whistling - ducks . they usually nest in tree hallows , but have been known to use nest boxes and nest on the ground . interestingly enough , they do not typically build a nest . instead they lay their eggs on whatever is already in the location they chose . the eggs are white and there are typically 9 - 18 eggs in a clutch .\ndon\u2019t know if this one has been mentioned or not , but i was wondering about subspecific variation in black - whiskered vireo ( ? ) . the nominate subspecies ( vireo altiloquus altiloquus ) seems very distinctive in plumage coloration and bill size / shape to me compared to the coastal florida form v . a . barbatulus . i believe the nominate subspecies occurs as a causal spring vagrant along the gulf coast with records from louisiana and nw florida panhandle ( st . george island ) . i\u2019ve also had some birds here in alabama in the spring that i highly suspected were probably the nominate form as well .\n6 ) while on the topic of seabirds , it might be worth noting that north american records of great - winged petrel refer to gouldi ; that black - capped petrel sensu nacc includes jamaican petrel , te extinct and utterly different dark bird ; that north american forms of audubon\u2019s shearwater are quite distinct from galapagos shearwater , persian shearwater , and tropical shearwater , which nacc still lumps under audubon\u2019s ; that white - chinned petrel sensu nacc includes spectacled petrel ; and that wilson\u2019s storm - petrel may be due for some taxonomic revision , although this may or may not affect the birds that occur in the aou area . further , the nacc still lumps brown skua under great skua , and may be the only authority to do so .\nthe best references for a starting point on subspecies are pyle\u2019s identification guide to north american birds , the handbook of birds of the western palearctic , and the handbook of birds of the world . for most species you\u2019ll want to dig deeper into the literature that is cited in those books . i checked pyle for black - crowned night heron and he lumps the north american and eurasian birds in one subspecies because there are no reliable differences . in the middle east you could get other subspecies from either india or africa , which might be identifiable in the field , but i\u2019m not familiar with the literature on those . [ actually , i just checked the handbook of birds of the world and i\u2019m surprised to see that there is only one subspecies listed for all of europe , asia , and africa ! so if you see one that looks different it\u2019s probably just a local variant and not a visitor from afar . sounds to me like a good project for someone to look at dna and study plumage in detail , because it seems really unlikely that they\u2019re all the same . ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nbahamas ; cayman islands ; chile ; gambia ; grenada ; jamaica ; virgin islands , u . s .\nthe population is estimated to number 1 , 100 , 000 - 2 , 000 , 000 individuals . trend justification : the population trend is increasing in north america ( based on bbs / cbc data : butcher and niven 2007 ) .\n( amended version of 2017 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22679780a118856707 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfwc facts : the operator of a boat towing a skier may not pull the skier close enough to a fixed object or another vessel to create a risk of collision ."]}
{"id": 390, "summary": [{"text": "allogalathea elegans ( known as the feather star squat lobster , crinoid squat lobster or elegant squat lobster ) is a species of squat lobster that is sometimes kept in marine aquariums . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "allogalathea elegans", "paragraphs": ["what type of species is allogalathea elegans ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the allogalathea elegans species belongs to .\nwhich photographers have photos of allogalathea elegans species ? below , you will find the list of underwater photographers and their photos of the marine species allogalathea elegans .\nhow to identify allogalathea elegans marine species ? below , you will find the list of main identification criteria and physical characteristics of marine species allogalathea elegans . for each identification criteria , the corresponding physical characteristics of marine species allogalathea elegans are marked in green .\nwhere is allogalathea elegans found in the world ? below , you will find the list and a world map of the geographic distribution where the marine species allogalathea elegans can be found .\ndevelopment sequence . a ) allogalathea elegans ( fujita 2010 ) \u2013 a ) zoea . . . | download scientific diagram\nelegant squat lobster - allogalathea elegans ( adams , a and a . white , 1848 ) - overview - encyclopedia of life\nallogalathea elegans ( adams & white , 1848 ) , maxilla : a , first zoea ; b , . . . | download scientific diagram\nnick hope marked an unknown common name in an unknown language from\nallogalathea elegans ( adams , a and a . white , 1848 )\nas trusted .\njoanne taylor marked the classification from\nworld register of marine species ( worms )\nas preferred for\nallogalathea elegans ( adams , a and a . white , 1848 )\n.\nhi molly - - your ' s is a relative of allogalathea elegans but it ' s not a crinoid commensal . this is what a . elegans looks like - urltoken notice how the carapace is elongated forwards in a point between the eyes and then look at yours which has a blunt carapace .\n. . . of these , only one species , a . inermis , was identified at the species level . its appearance is related to changes in the taxonomy of a widespread , opportunistic symbiont of crinoids allogalathea elegans . a . elegans has recently been shown to be a species complex including four dif - ferent species , which , although genetically very dis - tinct , are morphologically very similar [ 11 ] ; we have two of these in our samples : a . elegans and a . inermis . allogalathea sp . . . .\nfig . 6 . allogalathea elegans ( adams & white , 1848 ) , maxilla : a , first zoea ; b , second zoea ; c , third zoea ; d , fourth zoea ; e , megalop . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .\ncitation :\nelegant crinoid squat lobsters , allogalathea elegans ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 5 / 25 / 2013 10 : 28 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\nhi leslie ! thanks for clarifying . i have been wondering about that . i haven ' t been able to find the exact scientific name of this one . i , too , thought the rostrum is too short to be allogalathea . either way , the one i have is the ones la is selling , and they call them allogalathea elegans . so these aren ' t crinoid commensals ? that is interesting . i wonder if they are commensal on anything .\nfigure 4 . 2 : development sequence . a ) allogalathea elegans ( fujita 2010 ) \u2013 a ) zoea i . b ) zoea ii . c ) zoea iii . d ) zoea iv . e ) megalop . b ) chirostylus stellaris ( fujita and clark 2010 ) \u2013 a ) zoea i . b ) zoea ii . e ) megalop .\ncabezas , p . ; macpherson , e . ; machordom , a . ( 2011 ) . allogalathea ( decapoda : galatheidae ) : a monospecific genus of squat lobster ? zool . j . linn . soc . 162 ( 2 ) : 245 - 270 .\nresearch allogalathea elegans \u00bb barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms\nin the case of the expensive harlequin shrimp hymenocera picta dana , 1852 , and h . elegans heller , 1861 , the main bottleneck impairing the culture of these species is the diet of juvenile and adult specimens , because they feed exclusively on sea stars .\n( of galathea elegans adams & white , 1848 ) lewinsohn , c . ( 1969 ) . die anomuren des roten meeres ( crustacea decapoda : paguridae , galatheidae , hippidae ) . zoologische verhandelingen ( rijksmuseum van natuurlijke historie , leiden ) 104 . 213 pp . [ details ]\nok , now i ' m kinda lost here . . . . crinoid commensal means what exactly ? do they need a some sort of companion with whom they share a symbiotic relationship ? the true a . elegans is stunning ! i ' ve never seen anything like that before . how are they suited for a reef enviornment ? athough i ' m sure that i ' d never find one for my tank .\n. . . in the indo - west pacific region , including mozambique , madagascar , red sea , indonesia ( banda and celebes seas ) , philippines , taiwan , new caledonia , chesterfield islands , and vanuatu ; subtidal to depth of 120 m ( cabezas et al . , 2011 ) . the present material confirms the occurrence of a . elegans in singapore , although johnson ( 1970 ) previously reported this species . . . .\n( of galathea elegans adams & white , 1848 ) baba , k . , macpherson , e . , poore , g . , ahyong , s . , bermudez , a . , cabezas , p . , lin , c . , nizinski , m . , rodrigues , c . & schnabel , k . ( 2008 ) . catalogue of squat lobsters of the world ( crustacea : decapoda : anomura - families chirostylidae , galatheidae and kiwaidae ) . zootaxa . 1905 , 220 pp . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nadams , a . & white , a . ( 1848 ) crustacea . in : adams , a . ( ed . ) the zoology of the voyage of the hms\nsamarang\nunder the command of captain sir edward belcher , c . b . , f . r . a . s . , f . g . s . , during the years 1843 - 1846 . benham and leeve , london , pp . 1 - 66 , 13 pls . [ details ]\nbaba , k . , macpherson , e . , poore , g . , ahyong , s . , bermudez , a . , cabezas , p . , lin , c . , nizinski , m . , rodrigues , c . & schnabel , k . ( 2008 ) . catalogue of squat lobsters of the world ( crustacea : decapoda : anomura - families chirostylidae , galatheidae and kiwaidae ) . zootaxa . 1905 , 220 pp . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nwebber , w . r . ; fenwick , g . d . ; bradford - grieve , j . m . ; eagar s . g . ; buckeridge , j . s . ; poore , g . c . b . ; dawson , e . w . ; watling , l . ; jones , j . b . ; wells , j . b . j . ; bruce , n . l . ; ahyong , s . t . ; larsen , k . ; chapman , m . a . ; olesen , j . ; ho , j . ; green , j . d . ; shiel , r . j . ; rocha , c . e . f . ; l\u00f6rz , a . ; bird , g . j . ; charleston , w . a . ( 2010 ) . phylum arthropoda subphylum crustacea : shrimps , crabs , lobsters , barnacles , slaters , and kin , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2010 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 2 . kingdom animalia : chaetognatha , ecdysozoa , ichnofossils . pp . 98 - 232 . [ details ]\n( of galathea longirostris dana , 1852 ) baba , k . , macpherson , e . , poore , g . , ahyong , s . , bermudez , a . , cabezas , p . , lin , c . , nizinski , m . , rodrigues , c . & schnabel , k . ( 2008 ) . catalogue of squat lobsters of the world ( crustacea : decapoda : anomura - families chirostylidae , galatheidae and kiwaidae ) . zootaxa . 1905 , 220 pp . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of galathea longirostris yokoya , 1936 ) baba , k . , macpherson , e . , poore , g . , ahyong , s . , bermudez , a . , cabezas , p . , lin , c . , nizinski , m . , rodrigues , c . & schnabel , k . ( 2008 ) . catalogue of squat lobsters of the world ( crustacea : decapoda : anomura - families chirostylidae , galatheidae and kiwaidae ) . zootaxa . 1905 , 220 pp . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of galathea deflexifrons haswell , 1882 ) baba , k . , macpherson , e . , poore , g . , ahyong , s . , bermudez , a . , cabezas , p . , lin , c . , nizinski , m . , rodrigues , c . & schnabel , k . ( 2008 ) . catalogue of squat lobsters of the world ( crustacea : decapoda : anomura - families chirostylidae , galatheidae and kiwaidae ) . zootaxa . 1905 , 220 pp . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of galathea grandirostris stimpson , 1858 ) baba , k . , macpherson , e . , poore , g . , ahyong , s . , bermudez , a . , cabezas , p . , lin , c . , nizinski , m . , rodrigues , c . & schnabel , k . ( 2008 ) . catalogue of squat lobsters of the world ( crustacea : decapoda : anomura - families chirostylidae , galatheidae and kiwaidae ) . zootaxa . 1905 , 220 pp . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nmorton b . & morton je . ( 1983 ) . the sea shore ecology of hong kong . hong kong : hong kong university press . [ details ]\nthe species has several possible body colour patterns : either uniformly dark ( red , blackish purple , orange or brown ) or dark , with either two narrow light stripes , or alternating longitudinal dark and light stripes ( patterns 1 , 3 , and 4 of baba , 1979 ) , the number and width of which varies . other colour patterns include a narrow lighter stripe in the middle of each dark stripe . pereiopods also show variable coloration : p1 uniformly dark or with longitudinal light dorsal stripe along merus , carpus , and palm , finger tips light ; some specimens with p1 uniformly dark and fingers whitish . p2\u2013p4 uniformly dark or pale on distal portion of carpus , distal portion of propodus and entire dactylus ; in some specimens , p2\u2013p4 meri dark , and carpi , propodi , and dactyli whitish .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nhaswell , w . a . 1882 ,\ndescription of some new species of australian decapoda\n, proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales , vol . 6 , no . 4 , pp . 750 - 763\nadams , a . & white , a . 1848 ,\ncrustacea . part i\n, ed . adams , a . ( ed . ) , the zoology of the voyage of h . m . s . samarang under the command of captain sir edward belcher during the years 1843\u20131846 , pp . 1 - 66 pls i - xiii , reeve , benham & reeve , london\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 04f3b944 - 5f55 - 44b6 - a76a - 6023415810e1\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7b98f0f2 - 3bff - 445f - 9a32 - 3fc58ab42242\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : dd8a8a95 - 4e52 - 456c - b9b7 - 5cb02913ab73\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 97c5dfda - c6da - 42d5 - 9db4 - fd6fb056ecfb\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 372957\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nthis species lives inside the arms of crinoids ( feather stars ) for protection . it adopts the colour pattern of its host by repositioning chromatophores ( pigment cells ) in its carapace . it feeds on plankton collected from the arms of its host .\n1 - 12 m depth , size up to 2 cm . females are larger than males .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbecause of the sheer size of our forum , we ' ve been forced to limit selling and trading to members who ' ve met a couple of criteria . ( if you ' re seeing this message , you haven ' t met them yet . ) please take a moment to acquaint yourself with our selling / trading rules to help make your stay a long and rewarding one .\njust curious , saw that la had a couple in the diver ' s den and thought thet they looked interesting . has anyone ever kept one or had any experiance with them in a reef set - up ?\ni do ! i love mine . he is very cute . he eats mysis and filter feeds . i target feed him with frozen cyclops and mysis . urltoken\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - felicia - current tank info : 55 + two 20 gallon refugiums coldwater with puffer , seahorses , gobies , crabs , starfish all from the atlantic . 90 gallon w 20 gal refugium with tilefish , swallowtail angel , blue tang , clingfish , naked clown , fancy white clown , brachio blenny , mollies\nwow that ' s sweet , nice pics ! thx for the info molly , glad to know that they ' re reef safe . is he out and about all day and takes nights off ? i take it thet stay pretty small .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ cheers , leslie so many worms , so little time . . . natural history museum of los angeles county\ni just found it - galathea inflata - and i was wrong about it not being a crinoid commensal . oops ! urltoken\nthank you so much leslie ! you are awesome ! i have been trying to id this guy for months ! being a crinoid commensal means they hitch a ride on crinoids , which are starfish like feather stars . they don ' t require their crinoids in captivity , thank goodness , because crinoids are impossible to keep in captivity .\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 3 . 8 . 4 copyright \u00a92000 - 2018 , jelsoft enterprises ltd . powered by searchlight \u00a9 2018 axivo inc .\nuse of this web site is subject to the terms and conditions described in the user agreement . reef central tm reef central , llc . copyright \u00a91999 - 2014\nuser alert system provided by advanced user tagging v3 . 3 . 0 ( pro ) - vbulletin mods & addons copyright \u00a9 2018 dragonbyte technologies ltd .\nbold black or brown droplet shaped body , with 2 white stripes on the carapace and a thin yellow line in the middle , and one 1 white stripe on the arms . long pointed rostrum with tiny spines along the edges . row of spines below and behind the ( red ) eyes . however there are many variations in appearance of this species .\nunevaluated by the iucn red list . fairly common , but well hidden between the arms of crinoids .\ntropical waters from the indian ocean and the indo - pacific . they live exclusively on crinoids ( feather stars ) .\nit feeds on plankton , as does the crinoid it lives on . the crinoid provides good locations for catching plankton .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\njoin researchgate to access over 30 million figures and 118 + million publications \u2013 all in one place .\na remarkable anomuran : the taxon aegla leach , 1820 . taxonomic remarks , distribution , biology , diversity and conservation\na squat lobster with egg shaped body , mostly with longitudinal stripes , and long front legs with claws . colour may vary according to host crinoid , in the fronds of which it is most often found .\noccurrence describes how often the species is found on surveys within its distribution . it is calculated as the % of reef sites surveyed by rls divers across all the ecoregions in which the species has been observed\nabundance is calculated as the average number of individuals recorded per rls transect , where present .\nplease use this form only for a single type of error . if you see multiple errors on the page for this species , please report these in separate forms by clicking on this button again after submitting this form\nthank you for highlighting this error . we appreciate your assistance in maintaining high quality control standards\nsmall squat lobsters , from relatively shallow waters ( found in depths from 0 - 146 m ) and often associated with crinoids .\nthey can be distinguished from the other genera by the flat and triangular rostrum ( with a carina underneath and 5 - 9 lateral teeth ) and a carapace with setiferous striae . coloration varies from solid red to black and white stripes and generally matches the crinoid colouration .\nuntil recently this was the only species in the genus . it has now four species , with slight variations in morphology ( such as length and proportion of claws ) , colour patterns and distribution .\ncommensal on crinoids , feeding on detritus . can oftern be found in pairs on crinoids\nrights we support the open release of data and information about our collections . text content on this page is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license . image content on this page is copyright wa museum .\npoore , g . c . b . ; ahyong , s . t . ; taylor , j . eds ( 2011 ) . the biology of squat lobsters . 363 p . collingwood , vic . csiro publishing\nthis home page section for this species is currently being developed and will be completed asap ! if you would like to help out or know of a great video , photo or site about this species , let us know and we ' ll notify you as soon as it is finished . our current project plan is to have all marine species home pages finished before christmas this year . if you ' d like to find out more about our ongoing projects here at marinebio , check out our marinebio projects page .\nstart or join a discussion about this species below or send us an email to report any errors or submit suggestions for this page . we greatly appreciate all feedback !\nhelp us protect and restore marine life by supporting our various online community - centered marine conservation projects that are effectively sharing the wonders of the ocean with millions each year around the world , raising a balanced awareness of the increasingly troubling and often very complex marine conservation issues that affect marine life and ourselves directly , providing support to marine conservation groups on the frontlines that are making real differences today , and the scientists , teachers and students involved in the marine life sciences .\nwith your support , most marine life and their ocean habitats can be protected , if not restored to their former natural levels of biodiversity . we sincerely thank our thousands of members , donors and sponsors , who have decided to get involved and support the marinebio conservation society .\ndeep music digitally imported urltoken proton radio * radio paradise radiotunes somafm wers 88 . 9 fm\n~ sharing the wonders of the ocean to inspire conservation , education , research , and a sea ethic ~ marinebio . org , inc . is a u . s . 501 ( c ) 3 charitable , nonprofit organization . contact : info @ urltoken all marinebio conservation society memberships and donations are tax deductible in the united states . > < ( ( ( ( \u00b0 > \u00a9 1998 - 2017 marinebio copyright & terms of use . privacy policy . > - < \u00b0\u00b0 > - <\nfor all at last returns to the sea \u2014 to oceanus , the ocean river , like the everflowing stream of time , the beginning and the end .\n- rachel carson\nyou may not duplicate , copy , or reuse any portion of the photos / html / css or visual design elements without our express written permission . any redistribution or reproduction of part or all of the contents in any form is prohibited .\nuse on websites and for limited audiences in social media , apps , or live performances .\nfestive decorations . the work of a designer - decorator . on the eve of christmas .\nsoccer ball in goal net with slowmotion . slowmotion football ball in the net .\nstage lights and different shapes art gallery . series 3 + version from 1 to 26 + orange - blue - purple and white color series\nover 10 , 966 , 411 royalty - free video clips with 81 , 058 new stock clips added weekly .\ninsights into life - history traits of munidopsis spp . ( anomura : munidopsidae ) from hydrothermal vent fields in the okinawa trough , in comparison with the existing data\nthe ibm strategic repository for digital assets such as images and videos is located at urltoken . this repository is populated with tens of thousands of assets and should be your first stop for asset selection .\n. . . here , we examined all this material analyzing both morphological and molecular characters , which include partial sequences from two mitochondrial genes ( cytochrome c oxidase subunit i and 16s rrna ) frequently used in molecular studies of squat lobsters ( machordom & macpherson 2004 ; ahyong et al . 2011 ; cabezas et al . 2011 ) . bayesian phylogenetic analysis was performed in mrbayes v3 . 2 . 1 ( huelsenbeck & ronquist 2001 ) using only the coi sequences because 16s sequencing was not successful for all species . . . .\n. . . the genetic divergence between f . cultrata n . sp . and f . chani n . sp . was 10 . 57 % ( coi ) ( table 2 ) . such divergence values are estimated to be in the upper range of molecular interspecific divergences so far found for squat lobsters , normally beyond 3 % among coi sequences and higher than 0 . 7 % among 16s sequences ( cabezas et al . 2008 cabezas et al . , 2011 poore & andreakis 2012macpherson & robainas - barcia 2013 , 2015 . . . .\n. . . symbionts were sorted accord - ing to major taxonomic groups and then identified . papers [ 5 , [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] were used to identify decapods , and paper [ 7 ] was used to polychaetes . porcelanid crabs were identified by dr . werding ( institute f\u00fcr tier\u00f6kol - ogie und specielle zoologie der justus - liebig - uni - versit\u00e4t giessen , germany ) and an ophiuroid was identified by a . martynov ( zoological museum , moscow state university ) . . . .\n. . . recently , cabezas et al . ( 2011examined numerous specimens from various localities in the indo - west pacific and described three new species based on the molecular evidence and subtle morphological characters . the present material includes two species , of which a . longimana cabezas , macpherson & machordom , 2011 , is recorded for the first time from singapore . . . .\n. . . ( fig . 8 . 1 ) , are also found in heterosexual pairs at relatively high frequency ( c . 50 % ) on their host crinoids , such as oxycomanthus bennetti ( zmarzly , 1984 ) ( cabezas et al . 2011 ) . in g . inflata , the remaining hosts are mostly occupied by single galatheids including males , ovigerous females , symbiotic chirostylids have been reported from shallow environments . . . .\nbaeza , j . a . 2011 . squat lobsters as symbionts and in chemo - autotrophic environments . ( chapter 8 ) . in : the biology of squat lobsters ( poore g . c . b . , ahyong s . t . , and taylor j . , eds ) . csiro publishing : melbourne and crc press : boca raton . pp . 249 - 270 .\nin the mediterranean sea , the intensive use of maritime space calls for integrated management to avoid cumulative impacts and user conflicts . maritime spatial planning ( msp ) \u2013 the harmonization of \u2026\n[ more ]\nthe principal expected achievements are : to provide a reduced set of parameters describing synthetically the effects of defence structures from the different points of view . to provide validated an\u2026\n[ more ]\ncoconet project full title :\ntowards coast to coast networks of marine protected areas ( from the shore to the high and deep sea ) , coupled with sea - based wind energy potential .\ntaxonomic revision of the genus paramunida baba , 1988 ( crustacea : decapoda : galatheidae ) : a morpholo . . .\nthe genus paramunida belongs to the family galatheidae , one of the most species rich families among anomuran decapod crustaceans . in spite of the genus has received substantial taxonomic attention , subtle morphological variations observed in numerous samples suggest the existence of undescribed species . the examination of many specimens collected during recent expeditions and morphological and . . . [ show full abstract ]\nmorphological and molecular description of new species of squat lobster ( crustacea : decapoda : galath . . .\nthe family galatheidae is among the most diverse families of anomuran decapod crustaceans , and the south - west pacific is a biodiversity hot spot for these squat lobsters . attempts to clarify the taxonomic and evolutionary relationships of the galatheidae on the basis of morphological and molecular data have revealed the existence of several cryptic species , differentiated only by subtle . . . [ show full abstract ]\ndeep under the sea : unraveling the evolutionary history of the deep - sea squat lobster paramunida ( de . . .\nthe diversification of indo - pacific marine fauna has long captivated the attention of evolutionary biologists . previous studies have mainly focused on coral reef or shallow water - associated taxa . here , we present the first attempt to reconstruct the evolutionary history - - phylogeny , diversification , and biogeography - - of a deep - water lineage . we sequenced the molecular markers 16s , coi , nd1 , . . . [ show full abstract ]\na new species of paramunida baba , 1988 from the central pacific ocean and a new genus to accommodate . . .\nthe genus paramunida belongs to the most diverse family of galatheoids and it is commonly reported from the continental slope across the indian and pacific oceans . examination of material collected by the noaa rv townsend cromwell cruise near christmas ( kiritimati ) island , kiribati , revealed the existence of a new species of paramunida ( p . haigae ) , which represents the fourth record of the . . . [ show full abstract ]\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\n( jl ) department of biological sciences , florida institute of technology , 150 w . university boulevard , melbourne , florida 32901 , u . s . a .\n( alr ) department of biological sciences , florida institute of technology , 150 w . university boulevard , melbourne , florida 32901 , u . s . a .\nricardo calado , junda lin , andrew l . rhyne , ricardo ara\u00fajo , lu\u00eds narciso ; marine ornamental decapods\u2014popular , pricey , and poorly studied , journal of crustacean biology , volume 23 , issue 4 , 1 december 2003 , pages 963\u2013973 , urltoken\nthe objective of the present work is to present a list of decapod crustaceans currently traded in the marine aquarium industry , highlighting possible ecological impacts of their harvest from the wild , and the main bottlenecks impairing the commercial culture of these species . possible management and conservation guidelines to preserve these highly priced marine resources are also suggested .\nin order to evaluate the number of decapod species currently traded in the marine aquarium industry , monthly surveys were conducted year round during 2002 . information was gathered from eight portuguese aquarium retail stores , seven virtual pet stores on the world wide web ( one portuguese , one german , one british , and four north american ) , and two marine aquarium hobby magazines ( tropical fish hobbyist and marine and freshwater aquarium ) . this preliminary list was complemented with the marine ornamental decapod species listed in debelius ( 1984 ) , baensch and debelius ( 1994 ) , foss\u00e5 and nielsen ( 2000 ) , dakin ( 2001 ) , fenner ( 2001 ) , and sprung ( 2001 ) . in addition , several decapod species from european warm temperate and subtropical waters were included , because recent studies have revealed the potential use of such species in the marine aquarium trade .\nthe average unitary retail value of the most heavily traded ornamental decapods was estimated based on the prices presented by virtual pet stores on the world wide web .\nspecies were grouped according to the classification proposed by martin and davis ( 2001 ) .\nthe most heavily traded marine tropical decapods , as well as potential ornamental species from european warm temperate and subtropical waters , are listed in tables 1 \u2013 4 .\ndistribution , culture profitability , commercial culture techniques , larval development , and associative behaviour of the most popular marine ornamental stenopodidean shrimp and lobsters in the aquarium trade industry . abbreviations as in table 1 .\ndistribution , culture profitability , commercial culture techniques , larval development , and associative behaviour of the most popular marine ornamental squat lobsters and anomuran crabs in the aquarium trade industry . abbreviations as in table 1 .\ndistribution , culture profitability , commercial culture techniques , larval development , and associative behaviour of the most popular marine ornamental brachyuran crabs in the aquarium trade industry . abbreviations as in table 1 .\ncaridean shrimp species ( 49 ) clearly outnumber other decapod groups , with the hippolytidae family alone accounting for 15 species . anomuran and brachyuran crabs are the next two most traded groups , with 32 and 27 species respectively . diogenid hermits clearly are the most popular anomuran species ( 20 species ) . the pricey stenopodidean shrimp , astacidea , and palinura lobsters are represented by a considerably lower number of species ( 7 , 7 , and 6 species , respectively ) ( fig . 1 ) .\nnumber of marine decapod crustacean species , per infraorder and family , traded in the marine aquarium industry ( including decapod crustacean species occurring in european warm temperate and subtropical waters ) .\nfor the majority of species , larval development is either unknown or partially described ( tables 1 \u2013 4 ) . even for the best - studied group , the brachyuran crabs ( particularly majids ) , information on larval development only exists for a reduced number of species ( table 4 ) .\nseveral ornamental decapod groups , especially caridean shrimp , display associative behaviour , either with invertebrate or vertebrate organisms ( tables 1 \u2013 4 ) . certain caridean and stenopodidean shrimp are believed to be fish cleaners ( e . g . , lysmata amboinensis , l . debelius , l . grabhami , and stenopus hispidus ) , whereas alpheus and periclimenes are known to live in close association with fish and invertebrates , respectively .\nsuitable commercial culture techniques for marine ornamental decapods are still far from being established . caridean and stenopodidean shrimp species have the highest number of established culture methodologies for traded species ( 10 % and 14 % , respectively ) or for which culture methodologies are now being developed ( 43 % and 12 % , respectively ) . no study has addressed the culture of ornamental palinurid lobsters or anomuran crabs at a commercial level ( fig . 2 ) .\nnumber of traded ornamental stenopodidean , caridean , astacidian , palinurid , anomuran , and brachyuran decapod crustaceans ( including decapod crustacean species occurring in european warm temperate and subtropical waters ) and status of the commercial culture techniques ( % ) ( established , e ; being developed , bd ; not addressed , na ) .\nthough some brachyuran and anomuran crabs also attain high market values ( e . g . , lybia tessalata ( latreille , 1812 ) , percnon gibbesi ( h . milne edwards , 1853 ) , and manucomplanus varians ( benedict , 1892 ) ) , lobsters and caridean and stenopodidean shrimp are the groups commanding the highest market prices ( table 5 ) . the high prices of certain paired specimens ( e . g . , hymenocera and stenopus ) is a consequence of their agonistic responses towards conspecifics of the same sex .\naverage commercial value ( u . s . dollars per specimen ) of some popular and highly priced marine ornamental decapod crustaceans .\nimportant bottlenecks impairing ornamental decapod culture ( namely larviculture and broodstock maintenance ) have been partially overcome in recent years ( calado et al . , 2003 ) . however , research efforts are still being focused on a very small number of traded species of the genus lysmata , stenopus , and hymenocera .\nrearing systems used to culture frail palinurid and scyllarid larvae ( illingworth et al . , 1997 ; kittaka , 1997b ; ritar , 2001 ) appear to be suitable for the culture of other decapod larvae . the system developed by calado et al . ( 2003 ) , inspired by greve ' s ( 1968 ) \u201cplanktonkreisel\u201d and other larval spiny lobster culture systems , has proven to be suitable to raise caridean , stenopodidean , brachyuran , anomuran , and lobster larvae . in addition , this system allows larvae to be fed with nutritional prey ( while assuring good water quality ) , to test settlement cues ( by placing adult specimens or host organisms in the system head - tank ) , and to provide suitable settlement surfaces for late - stage larvae .\nthough cyanide use for ornamental fish collection is now a widespread practice in the major marine ornamental exporting countries in southeast asia ( jones and steven , 1997 ) , the physiological effects of this asphyxiant in decapod crustaceans and other invertebrate organisms in coral reefs are still unknown .\nthe only suitable way to achieve a sustainable management of the collection of marine ornamental decapods , while continuing to solve the bottlenecks impairing these species ' culture , is to promote a multidisciplinary cooperation between researchers working on larval biology , population dynamics , ecology , aquaculture , and fisheries .\nthe authors thank funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a ci\u00eancia e a tecnologia ( scholarship sfrh / bd / 983 / 2000 and research project pocti / bse / 43340 / 2001 ) from the portuguese government for the financial support . we thank joana figueiredo and lueji pestana for their comments on the manuscript . we express our sincere gratitude to paul f . clark from the natural history museum , london , and two anonymous referees for their valuable comments on the manuscript . we thank martin a . moe , jr . , of green turtle publications , for making available to us his report \u201cculture of marine ornamentals : for love , for money , and for science\u201d during the marine ornamentals 2001 meeting .\nphyllosoma larvae and phylogeny of palinuroidea ( crustacea : decapoda ) : a review .\nlater stage larvae of panulirus guttatus ( latreille , 1804 ) ( decapoda , palinuridae ) with notes on the identification of phyllosomata of panulirus in the caribbean sea .\nthe influence of shell type on hermit crab growth rate and clutch size ( decapoda , anomura ) .\nthe effects of shell size and shape on growth and form in the hermit crab pagurus longicarpus .\npuerulus of the spiny lobster panulirus guttatus ( latreille , 1804 ) ( palinuridae ) .\nthe complete larval development of coenobita compressus ( crustacea : decapoda : coenobitidae ) , reared in the laboratory .\ntracking the trade in ornamental coral reef organisms : the importance of cites and its limitations .\nlarval development of the mediterranean cleaner shrimp lysmata seticaudata ( risso , 1816 ) ( caridea ; hippolytidae ) fed on different diets : costs and benefits of mark - time molting .\non the first phyllosoma stage of parribacus caledonicus holthuis , 1960 , scyllarides squamosus ( h . milne - edwards , 1837 ) and arctides regalis holthuis , 1963 ( crustacea , decapoda , scyllaridae ) from new caledonia .\nthe larval development of pagurus prideauxi leach , 1814 , under laboratory conditions ( decapoda paguridea ) .\ncomponents of reproductive effort and delay of larval metamorphosis in tropical marine shrimp ( crustacea : decapoda : caridea and stenopodidea ) .\nlarvae of decapod crustacea . part i . stenopidae . part ii . amphionidae . part iii . phyllosoma .\nlarval development and delayed metamorphosis in the hermit crab clibanarius erythropus ( latreille ) ( crustacea , diogenidae ) .\ndelayed metamorphosis in florida hermit crabs : multiple cues and constraints ( crustacea : decapoda : paguridae and diogenidae ) .\nlarval and post - larval development of the slender legged spider crab , macropodia rostrata ( linnaeus ) ( oxyrhyncha : majidae : inachinae ) , reared in the laboratory .\non palinurid and scyllarid lobster larvae and their distribution in the south china sea ( decapoda , palinuridae ) .\nassociative behaviour of the fish cryptocentrus cryptocentrus ( gobiidae ) and the pistol shrimp alpheus djiboutensis ( alpheidae ) in artificial burrows .\nculture of larval spiny lobsters : a review of work done in northern japan .\nlarval development of the snapping shrimp alpheus heterochelis say , reared in the laboratory .\ncleaning of fish ectoparasites by a palaemonidae shrimp on soft bottoms in new caledonia .\ncontribution a l ' \u00e9tude du d\u00e9veloppement larvaire de clibanarius erythropus ( latreille ) ( crustac\u00e9 decapode anomure diog\u00e9nid\u00e9 ) .\nthe puerulus of the spotted spiny lobster , panulirus guttatus ( latreille 1804 ) ( crustacea : decapoda ) .\nnote sur les puerulus de palinuridae et les larves phyllosomes de panulirus homarus ( l . ) . clef de d\u00e9termination des larves phyllosomes r\u00e9colt\u00eaes dans le pacifique \u00e9quatorial et sud - tropical ( d\u00e9capodes ) .\ncomplete larval development of the spider crab stenorhynchus lanceolatus ( brull\u00e9 , 1837 ) ( decapoda , brachyura , majidae ) , reared in the laboratory .\nthe larval and post - larval development of percnon gibbesi ( crustacea , brachyura , grapsidae ) and the identity of the larval genus pluteocaris .\nlarvae of decapod crustacea of the families diogenidae and paguridae from the bay of naples .\nthe larval development of the tropical land hermit coenobita clypeatus ( herbst ) in the laboratory .\nthe larval development of calcinus tibicen ( herbst ) ( crustacea , anomura ) in the laboratory .\nthe complete larval development of the west indian hermit crab petrochirus diogenes ( l . ) ( decapoda , diogenidae ) reared in the laboratory .\nthe larval development of the west indian sponge crab dromidia antillensis ( decapoda : dromiidae ) .\nthe larval development of the sponge crab dromia personata ( l . ) ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) reared in the laboratory .\nthe experimental culture of phyllosoma larvae of southern rock lobster ( jasus edwardsii ) in a flow - through system .\nphyllosoma larvae of a palinurid lobster , justitia longimana ( h . milne edwards ) , from the western atlantic .\nlarval and postlarval development of pisa tetraodon ( pennant , 1777 ) ( decapoda , majidea ) reared in the laboratory .\ndescription of some planktonic larval stages of stenopus spinosus risso , 1826 : notes on the genus and systematic position of the stenopodidea as revealed by larval characters .\nthe phyllosoma larvae of the spiny lobster palinurellus gundlachi von martens ( decapoda , palinuridae ) .\nl ' \u00e9toile de mer \u201ccouronne d ' \u00e9pines\u201d ( acanthaster ) et les r\u00e9cifs de la grande barri\u00e8re .\nearly growth and mortality of the caribbean king crab mithrax spinosissimus reared in the laboratory .\nstudies on decapod crustacea from the indian river region of florida . xiii . larval development under laboratory conditions of the spider crab mithrax forceps ( a . milne - edwards , 1875 ) ( brachyura : majidae ) .\nquantifying hermit crab recuitment rates and megalopal shell selection on a wave - swept shore .\nlarval development of lysmata amboinensis ( de man , 1888 ) ( decapoda : hippolytidae ) reared in the laboratory with a note on l . debelius ( bruce , 1983 ) .\nstudies on the interspecific relationship between gobbid fish and snapping shrimp . ii . life history and pair formation of snapping shrimp alpheus bellulus .\nthe early zoeal stages of alpheus heeia banner & banner , 1975 reared in the laboratory ( decapoda , caridea , alpheidae ) .\nstudies on the western atlantic arrow crab genus stenorhynchus ( decapoa , brachyura , majidae ) . i . larval characters of two species and comparison with other larvae of inachinae .\nlarviculture and effect of food on larval survival and development in golden coral shrimp stenopus scutellatus .\neffects of food and temperature on survival and development in the peppermint shrimp lysmata wurdemanni .\nmating behavior and spawning of the banded coral shrimp stenopus hispidus in the laboratory .\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\nsrilanka in stock [ archive ] - gta aquaria forum - aquarium fish & plants serving the greater toronto area .\ngta aquaria forum - aquarium fish & plants serving the greater toronto area . > vendors > aquatic kingdom > srilanka in stock\n: ( was there 2 days ago . it was my first time going there and their corals were beautiful . also saw the stingray being feed : )\nvbulletin\u00ae v3 . 8 . 8 , copyright \u00a92000 - 2018 , vbulletin solutions , inc ."]}
{"id": 392, "summary": [{"text": "umbonium vestiarium , common name the button tops , is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family trochidae , the top snails . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "umbonium vestiarium", "paragraphs": ["common button top ( umbonium vestiarium ) in sealife base : technical fact sheet .\ncommon button top ( umbonium vestiarium ) on the nparks flora and fauna website .\numbonium vestiarium ( vestigastropoda : trochidae ) button snail by jenny , 2015 , on taxo4254 .\n. the genus globulus , assigned by schumacher in 1817 , is an objective synonym of genus umbonium , meaning that both globulus and umbonium contain the same species ( i . e . u . vestiarium ) , but umbonium\numbonium vestiarium , a filter - feeding trochid by vera fretter in journal of zoology ( 20 aug 2009 ) .\nfigure 17 : description on umbonium vestiarium . image from the biodiversity heritage library . digitized by natural history museum library , london\numbonium vestiarium linnaeus 1758\n. gbif secretariat : gbif backbone taxonomy , 2013 . url : urltoken ( accessed on 11 november 2015 )\nno valid holotype was found for umbonium vestiarium . this is because the specimen ( trochus vestiarius ) that was assigned as the type actually referred to\nberry , a . j . , 1987 . reproductive cycles , egg production and recruitment in the indo - pacific intertidal gastropod umbonium vestiarium ( l . ) .\nkalyanasundaram , n . , s . s . ganti , & a . a . karande , 1972 . the habitat and the habitat - selection by umbonium vestiarium l .\nberry , a . j . , 1984 . umbonium vestiarium ( l . ) ( gastropoda , trochacea ) as the food source for naticid gastropods and a starfish on a malaysian sandy shore .\nspecies umbonium zelandicum a . adams , 1854 accepted as zethalia zelandica ( hombron & jacquinot , 1848 )\nsivadas , s . , b . ingole , & a . sen , 2012 . some ecological aspects and potential threats to an intertidal gastropod , umbonium vestiarium . journal of environmental biology , 33 : 1039 - 1044 .\n[ 30 ] chan , z . w . i . , 2013 . quantifying shell pattern and colour polymorphism in umbonium vestiarium ( l . ) ( gastropoda , trochacea ) . unpublished student report , national university of singapore , singapore . 17 pp .\nspecies umbonium striolatum a . adams , 1855 accepted as ethalia striolata ( a . adams , 1855 ) ( original combination )\nbutton snail is a suspension feeder . it belongs to genus umbonium , the only filter - feeding gastropod group with inhalant and exhalant siphons\n. no record of syntypes and lectotypes of u . vestiarium could be found . its type locality , as appointed by linnaeus in his original description , is mediterrranean , asia , and china\n( of trochus vestiarius linnaeus , 1758 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ndescription solid , rounded shells , up to 2 cm wide , similar to oxystele ( above ) but more flattened and with a glossy , highly variable . . .\ndescription solid , rounded shells , up to 2 cm wide , similar to oxystele ( above ) but more flattened and with a glossy , highly variable and colourfully patterned exterior . habitat : eulittoral sand . distribution : indo - pacific . [ details ]\ndrivas , j . ; jay , m . ( 1987 ) . coquillages de la r\u00e9union et de l ' \u00eele maurice . collection les beaut\u00e9s de la nature . delachaux et niestl\u00e9 : neuch\u00e2tel . isbn 2 - 603 - 00654 - 1 . 159 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nbosch d . t . , dance s . p . , moolenbeek r . g . & oliver p . g . ( 1995 ) seashells of eastern arabia . dubai : motivate publishing . 296 pp . [ details ]\nkilburn , r . n . ( 1977 ) taxonomic studies on the marine mollusca of southern africa and mozambique . part 1 . annals of the natal museum , 23 , 173\u2013214 . [ details ]\n( of trochus vestiarius linnaeus , 1758 ) kilburn , r . n . ( 1977 ) taxonomic studies on the marine mollusca of southern africa and mozambique . part 1 . annals of the natal museum , 23 , 173\u2013214 . [ details ]\nhickman , c . s . ( 1985 ) . comparative morphology and ecology of free - living suspension - feeding gastropods from hong kong . in : morton b , & dudgeon d , editors . proceedings of the second international workshop on the malacofauna of hong kong . the malacofauna of hong kong and southern china ii . hong kong university press , hong kong . 1 : 217 - 234 . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .\na big pile of living button snails chek jawa , feb 05 they can float , forming ' rafts ' . changi , jul 08 closeup of shell opening and operculum . tanah merah , feb 07 tanah merah , mar 10\ntiny button snails leaping away from a hunting moon snail . east coast , jun 06\ncyrene reef , dec 10 photo shared by loh kok sheng on his blog .\nfamily trochidae tan , leo w . h . & ng , peter k . l . , 1988 . a guide to seashore life . the singapore science centre , singapore . 160 pp .\ntan siong kiat and henrietta p . m . woo , 2010 preliminary checklist of the molluscs of singapore ( pdf ) , raffles museum of biodiversity research , national university of singapore .\ntan , k . s . & l . m . chou , 2000 . a guide to the common seashells of singapore . singapore science centre . 160 pp .\ndavison , g . w . h . and p . k . l . ng and ho hua chew , 2008 . the singapore red data book : threatened plants and animals of singapore . nature society ( singapore ) . 285 pp .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis species has been recorded at changi , chek jawa , cyrene reef , east coast park , tanah merah .\nraffles museum of biodiversity research rmbr has its origins in the raffles museum which was founded in 1849 . established on\u2026\ndeveloped by moving mouse \u00a9 2018 lee kong chian natural history museum . all rights reserved . terms of use .\nfigure 1 : button snails found on sandy beach ( left ) and a close - up of the snail ( right ) . photo : \u00a9 2008 & 2012 ria tan ( cc by - nc - nd 2 . 0 )\nbutton snail has round and glossy shell with various patterns and colours ( figure 2 ) . its average shell width is 1 cm , with maximum of 1 . 5 cm\n. more information about its identifying features can be found on 5 ( ii ) diagnostic features .\nfigure 2 : various shell patterns of button snail . photo : \u00a9 2015 jenny\nempty shell may be occupied by hermit crab , so do take a closer look to find out whether it is button snail or hermit crab . the main distinguishing feature is that button snail has soft body while hermit crab has claws and legs like crabs ( figure 3 and 4 ) .\nfigure 4 : hermit crab living in an empty button snail . photo : \u00a9 2005 ria tan\npolymorphism , which refers to having two or more different sizes , shapes , colours , patterns , etc . , within a population\n, is a characteristic feature of many gastropod shells . button snail exhibits particularly high polymorphism : 11 colour patterns were recorded in kalbadevi beach in india\n. however , the development and maintenance of the polymorphism is still a mystery . both genetic and environmental factors are likely to play a role , but more studies need to be conducted to investigate this . one possible mechanism is apostatic selection through differential predation rates on morphs\nhowever , this is unlikely given that the main predators of button snail , such as moon snails and sea stars , hunt primarily by smell and not visual . another possible mechanism is heat management\n, especially in tropics where solar radiation and temperatures are high . indeed , darker morphs were observed to be lower in number\nbutton snail inhabits surface layers of marine sands in shallow water and also low - shore mud flats . it prefers sand of medium grade and avoids finer sand grains or muddy sand\nit is abundant in the sandy shores in singapore ( figure 5 ; e . g . changi , chek jawa , cyrene reef , east coast park , and tanah merah )\nfigure 5 : global distribution of button snail . source : global biodiversity information facility (\nfigure 6 : distribution of button snail in singapore . base map from global biodiversity information facility ( cc by 3 . 0 )\n. this may explain why button snail is found on sandy shores , and not rocky ones . to escape predators , button snail may perform a series of rolling movements by twisting their foot side to side\nfigure 7 : labels of selected anatomy . photo : \u00a9 2012 ria tan (\nfigure 8 : path marking made as button snail creeps on sand . photo : \u00a9 2011 ria tan (\nfigure 9 : aggregation of floating button snail . photo : \u00a9 2008 ria tan (\nfigure 10 : button snail buried in sand in feeding position . left photo : \u00a9 2012 ria tan ( cc by - nc - nd 2 . 0 ) , labelled by jenny . right illustration by jenny , with reference to [ 13 ]\nfigure 11 : button snails being preyed by moon snail ( left ) and haddon ' s carpet anemone ( right ) . photo : \u00a9 2011 & 2005 ria tan ( cc by - nc - nd 2 . 0 )\nbutton snail has separate sexes ( i . e . dioious ) . similar to other trochacaeans in the family , button snail is a broadcast spawner and carries out external fertilization because it lacks the accessory reproductive organs for internal fertilisation\nthe trochophore and early veligers larvae , which are negatively gravitaxis and will orient themselves against gravity and move upwards , to have light - enhanced upward swimming . this promotes faster growth\n. as a result of weak dispersal , the offspring is likely to settle on the same shore . however , weak dispersal is favourable to button snail . given that the juvenile live and grow for one year before breeding and then die the following mid - year\nfigure 12 : different stages of development of button snail . illustration by jenny , with reference to [ 18 ]\n. therefore , over - collection may be a possible threat to button snails . they are often used as accessories in aquarium and home decorations ( figure 13 ) . human consumption is another threat : vendors may use aromatic thorns ( acacia pennata ) to pry the meat out from the shell\nhas precedence because it is older . later on , lamarck thought that the snail had\nremarkably callous\nlower surface compared to other trochus , so he gave a new name ,\nfigure 15 : description by linnaeus in 1758 . extract from g\u00f6ttinger digitalisierungszentrum ( pending approval ) . translation by jenny .\nfigure 16 : description on rotella lineolata . image from the biodiversity heritage library . digitized by natural history museum library , london\ntraditionally , phylogeny of family trochidae was constructed based on morphology such as radula and ctenidium . for instance , subfamily umboniinae , lirulariinae , and halistylinae were grouped together owing to them having monopectinate ctenidium and reduced radula\nfigure 18 : molecular phylogeny of trochidae and calliostomatidae , with subfamily umboniinae highlighted in blue , based on concatenated sequences from four genes using bayesian analysis with uncorrelated relaxed , lognormal clock using beast . source : williams\n[ 1 ] carpenter , k . e . , & v . h . niem , 1998 . fao species identification guide for fishery purposes . the living marine resources of the western central pacific . volume 1 . seaweeds , corals , bivalves and gastropods . food and agriculture organization of the united nations , rome . 686 pp .\nleimar , o . , 2005 . the evolution of phenotypic polymorphism : randomized strategies versus evolutionary branching . the american naturalist , 165 ( 6 ) : 669 - 681 .\nallen , j . a . & b . c . clarke , 1984 . frequency - dependent selection \u2013 homage to poulton , e . b\u201d . biological journal of the linnean society , 23 : 15 - 18 .\nmiura , o . , s . nishi , & s . chiba , 2007 . temperature - related diversity of shell colour in the intertidal gastropod batillaria . journal of molluscan studies , 73 ( 3 ) : 235 - 240 .\ntamaki , a . , & t . kikuchi , 1983 . spatial arrangement of macrobenthic assemblages on an intertidal sand flat , tomioka bay , west kyushu .\n( linnaeus , 1758 )\n. lee kong chian natural history museum , n . d . url : urltoken ( accessed on 7 november 2015 )\nansell , a . d . , 1969 . escape responses of 3 indian mollusks .\nheller , j . , 2015 . sea snails : a natural history . springer , switzerland . 354 pp .\nhickman , c . s . , 1992 . reproduction and development of trochacean gastropods .\n( linnaeus , 1758 )\n. flora & fauna web , n . d . url :\nsystema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata\nchildren , j . g . , 1823 . lamarck ' s genera of shells .\nquarterly journal of science , literature and the arts , 15 : 216 - 258 .\n[ 25 ] de lamarck , j . b . d . m . & c . dubois , 1825 .\nan epitome of lamarck ' s arrangement of testacea : being a free translation of that part of his works , de l ' histoire des animaux sans vertebras . longman , hurst , rees , orme , browne , and green , london . 317 pp .\nhermannsen , k . , 1851 . on some genera of shells , established in 1807 by the late h . f . link .\ncatalogue of type specimens . 4 . linnaean specimens\n. uppsala university museum of evolution zoology section , 2001 . url :\nwilliams , s . t . , donald , k . m . , spencer , h . g . , & t . nakano , 2010 . molecular systematics of the marine gastropod families trochidae and calliostomatidae ( mollusca : superfamily trochoidea ) .\nherbert , d . g . ( 1992 ) . revision of the umboniinae ( mollusca : prosobranchia : trochidae ) in southern africa and mozambique .\nhickman , c . s . , & mclean , j . h . ( 1990 ) . systematic revision and suprageneric classification of trochacean gastropods . natural history museum los angeles county science series , 35 : 1 - 169 .\ncontributions to urltoken are licensed under a creative commons attribution share - alike 3 . 0 license . portions not contributed by visitors are copyright 2018 tangient llc tes : the largest network of teachers in the world\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\nwarning : the data available reflects the progression status of knowledge or the availability of the inventories . it should never be considered as comprehensive .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nlink d . h . f . ( 1807 - 1808 ) . beschreibung der naturalien - sammlung der universit\u00e4t zu rostock . rostock : adlers erben . 1 abt . [ part 1 ] , pp . 1 - 50 ; 2 abt . [ part 2 ] , pp . 51 - 100 ; 3 abt . [ part 3 ] , pp . 101 - 165 ; abt . 4 [ part 4 ] , pp . 1 - 30 ; abt . 5 [ part 5 ] , pp . 1 - 38 [ 1808 ] ; abt . 6 [ part 6 ] , pp . 1 - 38 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 136 [ details ]\nwilliams s . t . , karube s . & ozawa t . ( 2008 ) molecular systematics of vetigastropoda : trochidae , turbinidae and trochoidea redefined . zoologica scripta 37 : 483\u2013506 . [ details ]\nshell small , compressed ; disc shaped ; solid ; surface smooth and glossy ; umbilicus present , densely calloused ; numerous colour forms of the shell present varying from white greyish to dark purple ; operculum thin , circular .\nbiju kumar , a . 2012 . \u2018kerala theerathe kadal jeevikal\u2019 ( marine animals of kerala coast - a field guide ) . kerala state biodiversity board , thiruvananthapuram , kerala , 304 pp . ( in malayalam )\nthe contents of this website is licensed under the creative commons attribution - sharealike 4 . 0 international license .\nbijukumar , a . and nair , a . s . ( eds ) . 2014 . marine biodiversity informatics for kerala . < www . keralamarinelife . in > .\nthis map is based on occurrence records available through the gbif network and may not represent the entire distribution ."]}
{"id": 395, "summary": [{"text": "eua globosa is a species of tropical air-breathing land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family partulidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is endemic to the island of ' eua , tonga .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "eua globosa is the type species of the genus eua .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the following cladogram shows the phylogenic relations of eua globosa :", "topic": 14}], "title": "eua globosa", "paragraphs": ["eua is a genus of air - breathing land snails , terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the family partulidae .\nmollusc specialist group ( 1996 ) . eua zebrina . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 7 august 2007 .\ndeforestation because of human and agricultural development is the primary threat to this species . much of the island of ' eua has been deforested ( drake\neua zebrina is a species of tropical air - breathing land snail , terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the family partulidae . this species is endemic to american samoa .\nthis species is endemic to the island of ' eua ( kingdom of tonga ) . it is the type species of the eponymous genus eua and was described in some detail ( including anatomical dissections & drawings ) by pilsbry and cooke in 1934 . additional dissections and drawings were made by y . kondo ( 1955 ) and they appear in his unpublished ph . d . thesis . the taxonomic validity of this species has been corroborated by molecular phylogenetic analysis of museum material ( lee et al . 2009 ) .\nthis ' eua island endemic was described from specimens sampled by a . t . p . powell in 1932 at bugai , 100 m elevation . yoshio kondo ( bishop museum ) sampled on ' eua in 1967 and , according to his field notes ( kept in the bishop museum malacology collection ) , he encountered a small number of specimens on a single ridge . kondo ' s notes contained expressions of concern about the logging activities he witnessed on the island and the danger they posed to the survival of endemic snails . john b . burch ( university of michigan ) returned to that location in 1970 to find the last remaining suitable habitat being cleared by bulldozer . burch recorded 60 live individuals at the site but concluded that they had little hope of survival ( burch . pers . comm . ) .\nthe last living specimens ( ~ 60 individuals ) were observed in 1970 in a small patch of native forest that was being felled by bulldozer by j . b . burch , who concluded that they had little hope of survival ( pers . comm . 2011 ) . this is the last record of living individuals of this species . in 2000 , bryan clarke , ann clarke and christopher wade mounted a sampling expedition to ' eua looking specifically for this species , but only encountered empty shells ( b . clarke , pers . comm . ) . however , this survey was primarily restricted to the ridge , and although they did look elsewhere in suitable habitat on the island , this was by no means extensive ( c . wade pers . comm . 2011 ) . this species may well be extinct .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncritically endangered ( possibly extinct ) b2ab ( iii ) ; d ver 3 . 1\nthis species is listed as critically endangered ( possibly extinct ) . it has a v\nery narrow geographic range , it is known from a single location , and there is a continuing decline in extent and quality of its habitat . no live individuals have been seen since 1970 , despite surveys to the island . further surveys are urgently recommended to determine whether or not this species is extant , and if so , to determine population size and trends .\nis an island endemic , recorded from native forest up to 100 m elevation . unlike most partulids , this taxon was / is a ground - dwelling species ( kondo 1955 ) .\nconservation efforts directed at this species at present are unknown . field work to define the current distribution of this species , as well as research on its population status and trends , is required . identification of priority sites for species conservation ( e . g . key biodiversity areas that include threatened land snails ) and reducing the impacts of human activities is also urgently needed .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\npilsbry h . a . & cooke c . m . ( 1934 ) . partulidae of tonga and related forms . bernice p . bishop museum occasional papers . 10 ( 14 ) : 1 - 22 . [ details ]\ngerlach j . ( 2016 ) . icons of evolution : pacific island tree - snails of the family partulidae . phelsuma press . isbn : 978 - 0 - 99322 - 033 - 3 . [ details ]\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there is 1 barcode sequence available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is the sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nlee t . , burch j . b . , coote t . , pearce - kelly p . , hickman c . , meyer j . - y . & foighil d . o . ( 18 august 2009 ) .\nmoorean tree snail survival revisited : a multi - island genealogical perspective\n. bmc evolutionary biology 9 : 204 . doi : 10 . 1186 / 1471 - 2148 - 9 - 204"]}
{"id": 408, "summary": [{"text": "the angolan brush-furred rat ( lophuromys angolensis ) is a species of brush-furred mouse found in angola and the southwest of the democratic republic of congo . ", "topic": 29}], "title": "angolan brush - furred rat", "paragraphs": ["thomas ' s ethiopian brush - furred rat ( lophuromys brunneus ) , also called the brown brush - furred rat or the brown brush - furred mouse , is a species of brush - furred mouse from southern ethiopia .\naccording to uniprot , zena ' s brush - furred rat ( lophuromys zena ) is a species of rat .\nthe mount cameroon brush - furred rat or roseveari ' s brush - furred mouse ( lophuromys roseveari ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\nhutterer ' s brush - furred mouse or hutterer ' s brush - furred rat ( lophuromys huttereri ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\ndieterlen ' s brush - furred mouse or mt oku brush - furred mouse ( lophuromys dieterleni ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\nlophuromys verhageni ( verhagen ' s brush - furred rat ) is a rodent belonging to the genus lophuromys .\nlophuromys dudui ( dudu ' s brush - furred rat ) is a rodent belonging to the genus lophuromys .\nthe gray brush - furred rat ( lophuromys aquilus ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\nrahm ' s brush - furred rat ( lophuromys rahmi ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\nthe ethiopian forest brush - furred rat ( lophuromys chrysopus ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\nansorge ' s brush - furred rat ( lophuromys ansorgei ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\nthe short - tailed brush - furred rat ( lophuromys brevicaudus ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\nthe rusty - bellied brush - furred rat ( lophuromys sikapusi ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\nthe yellow - spotted brush - furred rat ( lophuromys flavopunctatus ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\nthe woosnam ' s brush - furred rat ( lophuromys woosnami ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\nthe black - clawed brush - furred rat ( lophuromys melanonyx ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\nthe fire - bellied brush - furred rat ( lophuromys nudicaudus ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\nthe yellow - bellied brush - furred rat ( lophuromys luteogaster ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\nthe medium - tailed brush - furred rat ( lophuromys medicaudatus ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\n. subfamily deomyinae - spiny mice , link rat and brush - furred rats . in : happold , david c . d . ,\nrudd ' s mouse or the white - bellied brush - furred rat , uranomys ruddi , is the only member of the genus uranomys .\nthe brush - furred mice , genus lophuromys are a group of rodents found in sub - saharan africa .\ncrawford - cabral , j . 1998 . the angolan rodents of the superfamily muroidea . an account on their distribution . estudos , ensaios e documentos 161 : 1 - 222 .\nrattus lutreolus ( j . e . gray , 1841 ) - australian swamp rat\nlenoxus apicalis ( allen , j . a . , 1900 ) - andean rat\nfox ' s shaggy rat . in : happold , david c . d . ,\nloring ' s acacia rat . in : happold , david c . d . ,\nbunomys andrewsi ( allen , j . a . , 1911 ) - andrew\u00b4s hill rat\nsigmodon fulviventer allen , j . a . , 1889 - tawny - bellied cotton rat\nthe link rat ( deomys ferrugineus ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\n. subfamily lophiomyinae - maned rat . in : happold , david c . d . ,\nneusticomys mussoi ochoa g . and soriano , 1991 - musso ' s fish - eating rat\nsigmodontomys alfari allen , j . a . , 1897 - alfaro ' s rice water rat\noecomys speciosus ( allen , j . a . and chapman , 1893 ) - arboreal rice rat\noryzomys alfaroi ( allen , j . a . , 1891 ) - alfaro ' s rice rat\n. subfamily mystromyinae - white - tailed rat . in : happold , david c . d . ,\noecomys trinitatis ( allen , j . a . and chapman , 1893 ) - trinidad arboreal rice rat\nverheyen , w . , dierckx , t . and hulselmans , j . 2000 . the brush - furred rats of angola and southern congo : description of a new taxon of the lophuromys sikapusi species complex . bulletin de l\u2019institut royal des sciences naturelles de belgique , biologie 70 : 253 - 267 .\nthe subfamily deomyinae consists of four genera of mouse - like rodents that were placed in the subfamilies murinae and dendromurinae until very recently . they are sometimes called the acomyinae , particularly in references that antedate the discovery that the link rat , deomys ferugineus , is part of the clade . deomyinae is the older name and therefore has priority over acomyinae .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a degree of habitat modification , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species is largely distributed in west africa and central africa . it is found from sierra leone in west africa to tanzania and kenya in east africa and southward to northern angola . the eastern range limits are not well resolved . in tanzania its distribution is patchy , and it is found around high mountains in the appropriate altitudinal and climatic habitat . at mount nimba ( guinea ) it occurs up to 1 , 600 m asl .\nthis species inhabits dense , moist grasslands , secondary growth , agricultural fields , abandoned farmlands , swamps and grassy plantations where there is abundant low cover . in primary and secondary forests , it occurs only in patches of grassland and herbaceous cover , most especially in open areas . it is a terrestrial and nocturnal , crepuscular species . this species has both an insectivorous and omnivorous diet .\nthere are no conservation measures in place ; in vieew of its wide range it is probably present in some protected areas .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n1 . forest - > 1 . 6 . forest - subtropical / tropical moist lowland suitability : suitable 4 . grassland - > 4 . 6 . grassland - subtropical / tropical seasonally wet / flooded suitability : suitable 14 . artificial / terrestrial - > 14 . 1 . artificial / terrestrial - arable land suitability : suitable 14 . artificial / terrestrial - > 14 . 2 . artificial / terrestrial - pastureland suitability : suitable\ngrubb , p . , jones , t . s . , davies , a . g . , edberg , e . , starin , e . d . and hill , j . e . 1998 . mammals of ghana , sierra leone and the gambia . trendrine press , zennor , st ives , cornwall , uk .\nhappold , d . c . d . 1987 . the mammals of nigeria . oxford university press , london , uk .\nhappold , d . c . d . 1996 . mammals of the guinea - congo rain forest . proceedings of the royal society of edinburgh 104 : 243 - 284 .\niucn . 2016 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2016 - 3 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 07 december 2016 ) .\niucn . 2017 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2017 - 1 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 april 2017 ) .\nmusser , g . g . and carleton , m . d . 2005 . superfamily muroidea . in : d . e . wilson and d . a . reeder ( eds ) , mammal species of the world : a geographic and taxonomic reference , pp . 894 - 1531 . the john hopkins university press , baltimore , usa .\npacifici , m . , santini , l . , di marco , m . , baisero , d . , francucci , l . , grottolo marasini , g . , visconti , p . and rondinini , c . 2013 . generation length for mammals . nature conservation 5 : 87\u201394 .\nswynnerton , g . h . and hayman , r . w . 1951 . a checklist of the land mammals of the tanganyika territory and the zanzibar protectorate . journal of the east africa natural history society 20 ( 6 ) : 274 - 392 .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t12356a115104961 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ndeomyines share no morphological characteristics that can be used to separate them from other muroids , though subtle aspects of the third upper molar have been suggested . this subfamily is united solely on the basis of shared genetic mutations . these conclusions have demonstrated good statistical support using nuclear and mitochondrial dna , and dna - dna hybridization .\nbecause of the lack of physical characteristics supporting this group , it is very possible that the subfamily as it is currently recognized is subject to enlargement . many of the genera currently placed in the murinae or dendromurinae have never been included in a molecular phylogenetic analysis . potential surprises await when they are .\nall genera are found in africa , suggesting the deomyines may have originated there . the spiny mice , acomys spp . , are also found in asia .\nthomas , 1917 . in : patton , james l . , pardinas , ulyses f . j . and d ' elia , guillermo ,\nweksler , percequillo , and voss , 2006 . in : patton , james l . , pardinas , ulyses f . j . and d ' elia , guillermo ,\nthomas , 1906 . in : patton , james l . , pardinas , ulyses f . j . and d ' elia , guillermo ,\ncarleton , michael d . , banasiak , rebecca a . and stanley , william t .\ncarleton , michael d . , smeenk , chris , angermann , renate and goodman , steven m .\ncarleton , michael d . , gardner , alfred l . , pavlinov , igor ya and musser , guy g .\n. order rodentia - rodents . in : happold , david c . d . ,\n. subfamily spalacidae - mole rats . in : happold , david c . d . ,\n. subfamily cricetomyinae - pouched rats and pouched mice . in : happold , david c . d . ,\n. subfamily delanymyinae - delany ' s swamp mouse . in : happold , david c . d . ,\n. subfamily dendromurinae - african climbing mice . in : happold , david c . d . ,\n. subfamily petromyscinae - pigmy rock mice . in : happold , david c . d . ,\n. subfamily arvicolinae - voles , lemmings and muskrats . in : happold , david c . d . ,\n. subfamily gerbillinae - gerbils and jirds . in : happold , david c . d . ,\n. subfamily leimacomyinae - buttner ' s forest mouse . in : happold , david c . d . ,\n. subfamily murinae - rats and mice . in : happold , david c . d . ,\nthree - striped forest mouse . in : happold , david c . d . ,\n. subfamily otomyinae - vlei rats and whistling rats . in : happold , david c . d . ,\n. subfamily tachyoryctincae - african root - rats . in : happold , d . c . d . ,\ngroup ( rodentia : muridae : murinae ) of east africa : a morphometric reassessment and biogeographical implications .\ntaylor , peter j . , lavrenchenko , leonid a . , carleton , michael d . , verheyen , erik , bennett , nigel c . , oosthuizen , carel j . and maree , sarita\nding , x . , leigh , c . m . , goodman , s . m . , bedford , j . m . , carleton , michael d . and breed , w . g .\ncarleton , michael d . , emmons , louise h . and musser , guy g .\nvoss , r . s . and carleton , michael d . ( eds . )\nnew york : american museum of natural history . ( bulletin of the american museum of natural history ; 331 ) 450 pages .\nthey sort out like nuts and bolts : a scientific biography of guy g . musser\nschmidt , david f . , ludwig , craig a . and carleton , michael d .\no ' brien , c . , mcshea , william j . , guimondou , s . , barriere , p . and carleton , michael d .\ncarleton , michael d . , kerbis peterhans , j . c . and stanley , w . t .\n. superfamily muroidea . in : wilson , don e . and reeder , d . m . ,\n. order rodentia . in : wilson , don e . and reeder , d . m . ,\ncarleton , michael d . , musser , guy g . and pavlinov , i . ya\npallas , 1811 , is the valid name for the genus of red - backed voles . in : averianov , a . o . and abramson , n . i . ,\nsytematics , phylogeny and paleontology of small mammals - - an international conference devoted to the 90th anniversary of prof . i . m . gromov\n, short - tailed rats , malagasy voles . in : goodman , s . m . and benstead , j . p . ,\n, white - tailed tree rats , antsangy . in : goodman , s . m . and benstead , j . p . ,\n, tufted - tailed rats . in : goodman , s . m . and benstead , j . p . ,\n, big - footed mice . in : goodman , s . m . and benstead , j . p . ,\n, voalavoanala . in : goodman , s . m . and benstead , j . p . ,\n. systematics and phylogenetics of madagascar ' s native rodents . in : goodman , s . m . and benstead , j . p . ,\ncarleton , michael d . , sanchez , o . and vidales , g . urbano\ncarleton , michael d . , goodman , s . m . and rakotondravony , d .\ngoodman , s . m . , carleton , michael d . and pidgeon , m .\ncarleton , michael d . , fisher , robert d . and gardner , alfred l .\nmusser , g . g . , carleton , michael d . , brothers , e . m . and gardner , alfred l .\n. systematic studies of oryzomyine rodents ( muridae , sigmodontinae ) : diagnoses and distributions of species formerly assigned to oryzomys\ncapito\n.\n. new taxa of nesomyine rodents ( muroidea : muridae ) from madagascar ' s northern highlands , with taxonomic comments on previously described forms .\n. the rodents of the reserve speciale d ' anjanaharibe - sud , madagascar .\n. morphological differentiation among subsaharan and north african populations of the lemniscomys barbarus complex ( rodentia : muridae ) .\nmusser , g . g . , brothers , e . m . , carleton , michael d . and hutterer , r .\n. systematic studies of madagascar ' s endemic rodents ( muroidea : nesomyinae ) : a new genus and species from the central highlands .\nbrown , j . h . , carleton , michael d . , estes , j . a . , fleming , t . h . and musser , g . g .\n. a new genus for hesperomys molitor winge and holochilus magnus hershkovitz ( mammalia , muridae ) with an analysis of its phylogenetic relationships .\n. systematics and evolution . in : kirkland , d . l . and layne , j . ,\n. chapter 9 : introduction to rodents . in : anderson , s . and jones , j . k . ,\n. chapter 11 : muroid rodents . in : anderson , s . and jones , j . k . ,\n. a survey of gross stomach morphology in microtinae ( rodentia , muroidea ) .\n. phylogenetic relationships in neotomine - peromyscine rodents ( muroidea ) and a reappraisal of the dichotomy within new world cricetinae .\ndie ameisenart\nacanthomyops\nsetzt sich zusammen aus lat .\nacanthus\n, griech .\n\u00e1kanthos\n, griech .\n\u00e1kantha\n=\ndorn\nund griech .\nm\u00fdops\n, griech .\nm\u00fdein\n=\nsich schlie\u00dfen\n.\nein sch\u00f6nes beispiel einer buchstabenwanderung ( ampelwort ) ist das engl .\nadder\n=\nnatter\n. urspr\u00fcnglich hiess sie auch im englischen\nnadder\nbzw .\nnaedre\n. aus\na naedre\nwurde jedoch irgendwann\nan adder\n. zusammen mit dem\nan\nmerkt man den buchstabenklau kaum , aber allein ist der verlust offensichtlich , aber daran denkt heute kaum noch ein engl\u00e4nder .\ndas engl .\nanimal\n=\ntier\nund dt .\nanimalisch\ngehen zur\u00fcck auf lat .\nanimal\n=\ntier\n,\nlebewesen\n.\nany of various insects of the order lepidoptera , characteristically having slender bodies , knobbed antennae , and four broad , usually colorful wings . 2 . a person interested principally in frivolous pleasure : a social butterfly . 3 . sports a . a swimming stroke in which a swimmer lying face down draws both arms upward out of the water , thrusts them forward , and draws them back under the water in an hourglass design while performing a dolphin kick . b . a race or a leg of a race in which this stroke is swum . 4 . butterflies a feeling of unease or mild nausea caused especially by fearful anticipation .\netymology : middle english butterflye , from old english butorfloge : butor , butere , butter ; see butter + floge , fly ; see fly2 .\nword history : is a butterfly named for the color of its excrement or because it was thought to steal butter ? it is hard to imagine that anyone ever noticed the color of butterfly excrement or believed the insect capable of such theft . the first suggestion rests on the fact that an early dutch name for the butterfly was boterschijte . the second is based on an old belief that the butterfly was really a larcenous witch in disguise .\nhere ' s a little bagatelle ( or , very imprecisely , a bugatelle ! ) of entomology etymology . i ' ve long been fascinated by the large variety of distinct words for\nbutterfly\nin various indo - european languages . here is my butterfly collection , which i hope will be of more than\ne - vanessa - nt\ninterest .\n( das wortspiel zu\ne - vanessa - nt\nerkl\u00e4rt sich durch engl .\nevanescent\n=\nfl\u00fcchtig\nund\nvanessa atalanta\n=\nsamtschwarzer schmetterling mit wei\u00dfen flecken und roter binde\n. )\ndieser artikel ist den\nschmetterlingen\n,\nnachtfaltern\nund\nraupen\ngewidmet . man findet dazu viele \u00fcbersetzungen und etymologische hinweise ( wenn auch nicht zu allen \u00fcbersetzungen ) .\neinige quellen ( oxford english dictionary ) behaupten , die\nbutterfliege\nerhielt ihren namen , weil ihr kot der butter \u00e4hneln sollte . ( dazu pa\u00dft z . b . niederl .\nboterschijte\n. ) andere quellen ( webster ) gehen von einer mystischen erkl\u00e4rung aus , wonach hexen in der gestalt von schmetterlingen rahm und butter stahlen .\nder griech .\npetaloudia\n( modern greek ) geht zur\u00fcck auf\npetal\n=\n( bl\u00fcten - ) blatt\nund findet sich noch im wissenschaftlichen namen\nlepidoptera\nf\u00fcr\nschmetterling\n,\nfalter\n,\nschuppenfl\u00fcgler\n.\nder lat .\npapilio\nf\u00fchrte zu frz .\npapillon\n=\nschmetterling\nund engl .\npavilion\n= dt .\npavillon\n=\nein zelt mit fl\u00fcgeln\n. ( das lat .\npipilare\n=\npiepen\nkann ich jedoch nicht mit\nschmetterling\nin verbindung bringen - oder haben sie schon ' mal einen\nschmetterling\npiepen\nh\u00f6ren ? )\nder ital .\nfarfalle\n=\nschmetterling\nfindet sich wieder als bezeichnung f\u00fcr \u00e4hnlich geformte nudeln . ausserdem kann die\ncravatta a farfalla\nals\nfliege\ngetragen werden .\nder dt .\nschmetterling\nist nicht nur biologisch sondern auch sprachlich mit der\nbutterfliege\nverwandt . sein name leitet sich ab von einem s\u00e4chsischen wort\nschmetten\n, tschesch .\nsmetana\n=\nboth meaning\nrahm\n,\nsahne\n( vgl .\nschmand\n=\nmilchrahm\n) .\n( im\nschmettern\neiner arie kann man eine verwandschaft zum lat .\npipilare\nerkennen . )\nder\nfalter\n, den man sowohl im\ntagfalter\n=\nschmetterling\nals auch im\nnachtfalter\n=\nmotte\nfindet kann entweder das\nfalten\nder fl\u00fcgel beschreiben . das ahd .\nfifaltra\nk\u00f6nnte aber auch auf lat .\npipilare\nzur\u00fcck gehen .\ndie folgenden links f\u00fchren zu bildern und informationen zu\nbutterfly\nund\nbutterfly - abk\u00f6mmlingen\n.\nsmithsonian naturalist kjell b . sandved searched worldwide for 24 years to photograph these natural designs on butterfly wings .\ndas gesamte alphabet , geschrieben auf schmetterlingsfl\u00fcgeln - f\u00fcr sein lebenswerk war der fotograf kjell b . sandved fast ein vierteljahrhundert unterwegs .\nam anfang war das f . auf dem dachboden des smithsonian instituts in washington d . c . , auf einer leiter balancierend zwischen hunderten von schubladen und schachteln mit exotischen schmetterlingen , fand kjell b . sandved seine berufung . in einer alten zigarrenkiste sah er ein exemplar , dem die sch\u00f6pfung den silbrig gl\u00e4nzenden buchstaben f auf den fl\u00fcgel gemalt hatte .\nalberta bufferflies is the first comprehensive guide and reference to the butterflies of the province . life - size colour photographs complement the descriptions of every species and subspecies of butterfly known or expected to occur in alberta . full colour pictorial keys assist the novice and expert alike in identifying any butterflies encountered in the province . each species account includes habitat requirements , life history , and distribution information . colour maps illustrate species ranges in north america and confirmed records from alberta . the main flight periods as well as earliest and latest flight records are illustrated graphically for quick reference . a section on\nbutterfly cigarettes are produced in china , king size ( 85 mm ) , soft pack , 20 cigarettes in a pack . dear visitors of the site if you have more information about this brand , please edit this info . thank you for the assistance .\nbutterfly pool cigarettes are produced in china , king size ( 85 mm ) , soft pack , 20 cigarettes in a pack .\ndear visitors of the site if you have more information about this brand , please edit this info . thank you for the assistance .\nthe castle , owned by the goulaine family , houses a rare butterfly collection in addition to a museum . it hosts various functions , including weddings . wine is available for sale at the castle\u2019s vineyards .\nthe band wanted a name that sounded heavy and beautiful at the same time . trivia : their biggest hit was\nin a gadda da vida\n, which was originally called\nin the garden of eden\n. the singer was so trashed on lsd one rehearsal that it came out\nin a gadda da vida\n, and the band decided that was a better name for the song .\nwelcome to the fourth issue of cultural entomology digest . this issue focuses on butterfly and moth cultural entomological references . butterflies are perhaps the most popular group of all insects and cary symbolic meaning for almost every human culture . their general beauty and harmless demeanor allow many individuals to perceive this group in a positive light when compared to most other insect groups .\nbutterfly\nsingt sich irgendwie leichter als\nschmetterling\n- deswegen kommt dieser internationale klassiker gleich mehrsprachig daher . danyel gerard blieb zwar damit so etwas wie ein\none - hit - wonder\n, belegte aber 1971 immerhin ganze 14 wochen lang platz 1 der singlecharts . durch die mehrsprachige version kann man hier sogar von einem\neurovision\u00e4ren\nhit sprechen .\na universal native america symbol . in the apache bear dance they entice girls from the underworld . it figures prominently in the hopi migration myth , honon nyamu . butterflies are created by the zuni paiyatemu playing a flute . ajille [ navaho ] disguises himself as one , and serves as hero and origin tales . butterflies are also linked ( minor motifs ) to certain thunder bird narratives .\nbutterfly bush , . . . , also called buddleia . | butterfly chair | butterfly fish | butterfly orchid | butterfly pea | butterfly valve | butterfly weed | cabbage butterfly | emperor butterfly | leaf butterfly | milkweed butterfly , see monarch butterfly . | monarch butterfly | sea butterfly , see pteropod . | thistle butterfly | zebra butterfly\nimelda marcos was once the ' steel butterfly , ' the beautiful wife and confidante of philippine dictator ferdinand marcos .\napparently the german word for butterfly is\nmilchdieb ,\nwhich translates as\nmilk thief .\nevidently there was a theory in the middle ages that the little critters steal milk and butter , a myth possibly based on their light , colorful wings and delicate appearance . or perhaps they really did steal milk and butter . it ' s not impossible .\n[ q ] from david powell : \u201ccould the word butterfly , which has no obvious connection with butter ( outside of its name ) , possibly be an ancient corruption of flutter by , which is exactly what the creature does ? i can imagine a child mispronouncing it thusly and the result sticking in our language . \u201d\nengl .\ncastrate\n, dt .\nkastrieren\ngeht zur\u00fcck auf lat .\ncastrare\n, das wiederum auf ein substantiv mit der bedeutung\nmesser\n,\nschneidewerkzeug\nzur\u00fcck geht . eine sanskritische variante hat die bedeutung\nschlachten\n.\nbei der\nkastration\nwerden die hoden des m\u00e4nnlichen tieres entfernt , abgeschnitten .\nauf das postulierte ide .\n* kes -\n,\n* kas -\n,\n* kas - tro -\n,\n* kas - to -\n,\n* kasso -\ngehen weitere begriffe zur\u00fcck , wie\ndt .\nkassieren\n, von lat .\ncassare\n=\naufheben\n,\nannullieren\n, lat .\ncassus\n=\nleer\n,\nnichtig\ndie engl .\ncaterpillar\n=\nraupe\nhie\u00df um 1440 noch\ncatyrpel\nund geht zur\u00fcck auf frz .\nchatepelose\n=\nhaarige katze\n.\ninteressant ist der zusammenhang von engl .\npile\n=\nstapel\nund engl .\npilose\n=\nbehaart\n, die auf lat .\npilus\n=\nhaar\nzur\u00fcck gehen .\ndas haar findet man nicht nur in der suppe sondern auch in der\npille\n, die auf lat .\npila\n=\nball\nund weiter auf einen\nhaarknoten\nzur\u00fcck geht .\ndie franz\u00f6sische\nraupe\nwird nicht\nhaarige katze\nsondern\nhaariger hund\ngenannt : frz .\nchenille\n, von lat .\ncanicula\n, dem diminutiv von\ncanis\n=\ndog\n.\nder engl .\ncoach dog\n,\ncarriage dog\nwurde darauf abgerichtet , hinter einer kutsche herzulaufen .\ndas engl .\ncoach - horse\n=\nkutschen - pferd\n, scheint eine spanisch beeinfusste bezeichnung zu sein .\ncob\n=\nspider\n=\nspinne\n,\ncobweb\n=\nspider web\n=\nspinnennetz\n.\ndas engl .\ncobweb\nhiess mittelengl . noch\ncoppeweb\n, altengl .\nattorcoppa\n=\nspider\n. das altengl .\nattor\n=\ngift\n, also war die altengl . spinne ein\ngifttasse\noder aber auch\ngiftkopf\n, da man die spinne als\nkopf mit beinen\nansehen konnte .\netymologies of the word for\ndog\n- wolfgang behr ' s bibliographic listing .\nengl .\ndoodlebug\n=\nameisenl\u00f6we\nd\u00fcrfte sich aus engl .\ndoodle\n=\nnarr\n, ( vgl . dt .\nd\u00f6del\n) und engl .\nbug\n=\nwanze\nzusammen setzen .\nder ohrwurm ist gleich in zweifacher weise erkl\u00e4rungsbed\u00fcrftig . zun\u00e4chst das tier mit der bezeichnung\nohrwurm\nund dann der\nohrwurm\nim \u00fcbertragenen sinn , als melodie , die man nicht mehr aus dem kopf bekommt . der name des tieres k\u00f6nnte auf seine form zur\u00fcckgehen und auf die angst der menschen , dass er tats\u00e4chlich nachts ins ohr eines menschen krabbelt .\nim\nkluge\nfindet man unter\nohrwurm\ndie aussage , dass der fr\u00fcheste nachweis bereits im 14 . jh . zu finden ist . f\u00fcr\nearworm\nsoll es schon altenglische belege seit dem 8 . jh . geben .\ninteressant finde ich jedenfalls , dass der ursprung bereits auf die antike zur\u00fcckgeht . ohrw\u00fcrmer fanden damals tats\u00e4chlich den weg in das menschliche ohr . allerdings nicht lebend sondern getrocknet und zu pulver zerstossen . man sprach diesem pulver heilende wirkung bei der erkrankung des ohres zu . genannt wurden sie lat .\nauricula\n=\n\u00f6hrchen\n,\nohrl\u00e4ppchen\n. im franz\u00f6sischen hiessen diese mittelchen\ncure - oreille\n=\nohren - reiniger\n.\nsp\u00e4ter ging die urspr\u00fcngliche bedeutung verloren und ins gegenteil gedeutet . man sagte den ohrw\u00fcrmer dann nach , ausl\u00f6ser f\u00fcr ohrenerkrankungen zu sein und bef\u00fcrchtete sogar , dass sie sich ins gehirn durcharbeiten , so dass sie eben zu frz .\nperce - oreille\n=\nohrbohrer\nentwickelte .\nerstaunlich finde ich schon , dass sich die \u00fcbertragene bedeutung\nohrwurm\nf\u00fcr eine\neing\u00e4ngige melodie\nerst um 1987 gebildet haben soll .\nda es jedoch schon die neueengl . bezeichnung\nearwig\n=\nohrwurm\ngibt , ist die annahme berechtigt , dass der dt .\nohrwurm\n( im musikalischen sinne ) als lehn\u00fcbersetzung\nearworm\nins englische fand .\nin einem beitrag zur mailingliste der ads vom 04 . 03 . 2005 wird die frage aufgeworfen , wann\nearworm\nim englischen und\nohrwurm\nim deutschen in gebrauch kam . als fr\u00fchester nachweis f\u00fcr\nearworm\nwird in dem beitrag die newsday - ausgabe 9 / 18 / 1987 mit einem zitat des saxophonisten bobby watson angef\u00fchrt :\ni like to create little earworms\n, he says .\nthat way people who don ' t know the technical side of the music will start humming\n.\ni find the figurative\nohrwurm\n( german ) at google groups from 1991 , the appropriate english\nearworm\nfrom 1993 .\n1 ) eine art k\u00e4fer , dessen schwanz mit einer zange versehen ist , welcher sich auf faulen standen , pflanzen und in der erde aufh\u00e4lt , und welchen man f\u00e4lschlich in dem bedachte hat , da\u00df er den schlafenden gern in die ohren krieche ;\nforficula auricularia l .\nzangenk\u00e4fer\n,\nohrk\u00e4fer\n,\nohrh\u00f6hler\n,\n\u00f6hrling\n, nieders .\nohrworm\n,\ngaffeltange\n, in der schweiz\nohrenmittel\n,\nmittel\n, von\nmade\n. so freundlich als ein ohrwurm oder ohrw\u00fcrmchen , im gemeinen leben , weil dieser k\u00e4fer im gehen viele schlangenf\u00f6rmige , dem ansehen nach freundliche bewegungen macht . k\u00f6nnte ein ohrw\u00fcrmchen geschmeidiger seyn ? less .\n2 ) auch eine art asseln , welche gleichfalls einen getheilten zangenf\u00f6rmigen schwanz hat ;\nscolopendra forficata l .\nf\u00fchret den nahmen des ohrwurmes .\n3 ) bey den j\u00e4gern ist der ohrwurm , ohne plural , eine\nkrankheit an den ohren der jagdhunde\n, welche von einer scharfen feuchtigkeit herr\u00fchret , die ihnen die ohrenwund frisset .\nda die beyden ersten arten ohrw\u00fcrmer , den neuern erfahrungen zu folge , die ohren der menschen nicht mehr aufsuchen als ein jedes anderes insekt , so ist sehr wahrscheinlich , da\u00df sie ihren nahmen von ihrem zangenf\u00f6rmigen , einem\n\u00f6hre\nnicht un\u00e4hnlichen schwanze haben ; ( s .\n\u00f6hr\nund\nohr\n2 . 2 ) . die unkunde der wahren bedeutung ihres nahmens hat denn gemacht , da\u00df man ihn so gut zu erkl\u00e4ren gesucht , als man konnte , und dieses insect f\u00fcr den gef\u00e4hrlichsten feind des ohres ausgab .\nwe created this site for those of you that have a song stuck in your head and you can ' t get it out no matter what you do . using the latest in reverse - auditory - melodic - unstickification technology , we ' ve been able to allow our users to \u201cunhear\u201d songs by hearing equally catchy songs . so really all we ' re doing is making you forget your old song by replacing it with another one . . . sorry .\ndie redensart ,\nso freundlich als ein ohrwurm oder ohrw\u00fcrmchen\n, ist daher entstanden , weil dieser k\u00e4fer im gehen viele schlangenf\u00f6rmige dem ansehen nach freundliche bewegungen macht .\n3 ) bey den j\u00e4gern ist der ohrwurm oder ohrenwurm , eine krankheit an den ohren der jagdhunde , welche von einer scharfen feuchtigkeit herr\u00fchrt , die ihnen die ohren wund fri\u00dft .\nword spy has posted a 12 / 22 / 1987 article from the whole earth review , talking about ohrwurms in the figurative sense , so it seems unlikely that the english term could have predated the german term .\n. . . i should note that most authorities feel that the\ngull\nin\ngullible\nis not a\nseagull\n( =\nm\u00f6we\n) , but comes from an earlier sense of the word , meaning a\nyoung bird\nof any species . and young birds , as you seem to have discovered , are easy to fool . . . .\ndiese englische redewendung ist verwandt mit dem dt .\neinem geschenkten gaul schaut man nicht ins maul\n. hinter beiden redewendungen geht es um den zustand der z\u00e4hne des pferdes . je l\u00e4nger ( und vergibter ) sie sind , umso \u00e4lter ist das pferd . die englische redewendung bedeutet dabei\ni heard it from a reliable source\n=\netwas aus erster hand , direkt aus der quelle erfahren\n. die deutsche redewendung besagt , dass man bei einem geschenk nicht allzu anspruchsvoll sein soll .\ndarauf geht auch der ausdruck\nlong of tooth\nzur\u00fcck , um zu besagen , dass jemand schon recht alt ist ( das zahnfleisch geht zur\u00fcck = die z\u00e4hne werden l\u00e4nger ) .\nzu den informationen aus dem pferdemaul gibt es aber auch noch eine andere geschichte . die besagt , dass die briten w\u00e4hrend der napoleonischen kriege prostituierte als informantinnen einsetzten . ihre aufgabe war es wichtige informationen von den franz\u00f6sischen offizieren zu erhalten , um sie den englischen\nintelligence officers\nzu \u00fcbermitteln .\nin den berichten wurden diese informationen mit\ni got it straight from the whore ' s mouth .\ngekennzeichnet . im laufe der zeit wurde aus\nwhore ' s mouth\n=\nmund der hure\ndas maul des pferdes\nhorse mouth\n.\nbei\nurltoken\nfindet man weiter engliche redewendungen , die sich auf\nhorse\nbeziehen .\ninteressant ist z . b . auch die redewendung\nto bet on the wrong horse\n, das unterschiedliche kulturen erkennen l\u00e4sst . w\u00e4hrend man in england auf das falsche pferd wettet , setzt man in deutschland auf die falsche karte .\nall of these are unlikely given the early metaphorical uses of cat and dog to signify something noisy and violent . the most likely explanation is the simplest . the noise and violence of a storm is the metaphorical equivalent of a cat and dog fight .\njaywalk\nmeans : to cross a street carelessly or in an illegal manner so as to be endangered by traffic , and dates from 1919 .\njay birds who ventured out of their rural forests and into the urban areas often got confused . they often endangered their lives walking anywhere where they wanted , including into traffic . city people laughed at their strange behavior . so , now anyone who crosses the street in a reckless or illegal way is called a jaywalker ( and is sometimes fined ) .\ndie engl .\nmoth\n=\nnachtfalter\ngeht mit der dt .\nmotte\nauf eine skand .\nmott\n=\nmaggot\n=\nmade\nzur\u00fcck .\nder engl .\nox\nund der dt .\nochse\ngehen auf ein vorgerman .\n* ukhson\nund ide .\n* uksin\nzur\u00fcck .\ndie bedeutung von ahd .\nohso\nsoll\nsamenspritzer\ngewesen sein .\ndie bezeichnung engl .\noxbow\nf\u00fcr eine\nflussschleife\nist seit 1797 nachweisbar und geht auf das gebogene brustholz , einem teil des geschirrs zur\u00fcck , das seinen namen seit 1368 hat .\noxen\nis the only true survival in mod . eng . of the o . e . weak plural .\noxbow\nsemicircular bend in a river\nis first recorded 1797 , amer . eng . ( new england ) , in ref . to the shape of the piece of wood which forms the collar for an ox yoke ( so called from 1368 ) .\nder engl .\npetrel\n( 1676\npitteral\n, 1703\npetrel\nby dampier ) k\u00f6nnte auf den apostel\npetrus\nzur\u00fcckgehen . dieser soll \u00e4hnlich dem dt .\nsturmvogel\n\u00fcber das wasser geschwebt sein . wenn es sich dabei nicht um eine fehldeutung handelt , dann ist engl .\npetrel\neine verkleinerungsform von\npetrus\n, etwa\npeterle\n.\ndie\nbajo - nuevo - bank\nwurde auch als\npetrelinsel\nbezeichnet - vielleicht fand man hier eine gro\u00dfe anzahl sturmv\u00f6gel vor .\nthe atlantic petrel is one of the largest gadfly petrels ( pterodroma species ) , recognised by its striking white breast and abdomen . . . more 12 images 1 video\ndiscovered as recently as 1963 , barau ' s petrel remains fairly unknown due to its inaccessible and remote breeding habitat on just . . . more 4 images 0 videos\ndiablotin ( little devil ) was the name given to the black - capped petrel by the caribbean islanders whose nights were commonly . . . more 4 images 0 videos\ncook ' s petrel , named in honour of the formidable explorer captain james cook , is one of the smallest petrels , a group of oceanic . . . more 5 images 0 videos\na medium - sized seabird with long wings , the galapagos petrel is greyish - black across the upperparts , and white on the forehead and . . . more 3 images 3 videos\ndespite being called petrels , procellaria species are thought to be more closely related to calonectris shearwaters than to other . . . more 7 images 0 videos\npetrels are oceanic birds , with broad webbed feet suited to their aquatic lifestyle , and long wings that enable them to fly great . . . more 8 images 6 videos\nsomewhat resembling a penguin , the peruvian diving - petrel is a small and tubby black and white bird that flies low and fast with . . . more 3 images 1 video\nthe providence petrel is a robust seabird confined to two small islands off the east coast of australia . its plumage is almost . . . more 2 images 1 video\nthe southern giant petrel is , as the name suggests , a very large bird , with impressive long , pointed wings and a huge bill . like . . . more 22 images 8 videos\nthis small petrel belongs to a group of oceanic birds that return to land only to breed . the name petrel comes from the latin . . . more 7 images 3 videos\nthis large , marine bird is extremely similar in appearance to the white - chinned petrel ; both are bulky , almost entirely black , with . . . more 5 images 1 video\nthis large , bulky bird spends nearly all its time at sea , and has many adaptations for this oceanic life style . its plumage . . . more 7 images 0 videos\nthe stormy petrel . so named , according to tradition , from the italian petrello ( little peter ) , in allusion to st . peter , who walked on the sea .\npetrelle\n, ein feuerwerksst\u00fcck , welches eigentlich eine pastillienh\u00fclse , und ungef\u00e4hr 1 fu\u00df lang ist . ehe man solche mit gek\u00f6rntem pulver f\u00fcllet , dr\u00fcckt man sie , aber nicht so stark , breit zusammen , bis auf die gegend , wo man den trichter hineinsteckt , durch welchen das kornpulver laufen mu\u00df . wenn sie nun gef\u00fcllet ist , so legt man sie auf den tisch , und rollet mit einem runden holze dar\u00fcber , damit das gek\u00f6rnte pulver zerdr\u00fcckt werde ; alsdann beuget man sie nicht in die runde zusammen , sondern leget sie in einen zickzack , oder schlangenweise , und bindet sie in der mitte mit einem faden fest auf einander . in das umgebundene ende steckt man eine stapine oder communication , z\u00fcndet sie an , und wirft sie auf den boden , auf welchem sie herum springt , platzt und kracht .\namateur or specialist , mammals ' planet offers several thematic access to discover the mammals on the planet .\ninformation on the classification , status , the distribution on the planet . . .\nmammals are classified in 27 to 29 orders , 145 families , 1272 genus , . . .\nthis selection list introduced mammal species , grouped by the principle of comparative anatomy , morphological similarity and geographical location . ( see the menu taxinomy , for more information on the classification of mammals ) .\nscientists consider that a species is distinct by the fact that it can not reproduce with each other . this list shows all the species listed by their common name .\ndas altnorw .\nhreinn\nhat die bedeutung\nhorn\n,\ngeweih\n+\nd\u00fdri\n=\ntier\n.\nmiddle english\nreindere\n: old norse\nhreinn\n,\nreindeer\n; see\nker -\nin appendix i + middle english\nder\n=\nanimal\n; see\ndeer\n.\ndas engl .\nreindeer\n= dt .\nrentier\nist eigentlich ein\nweisser schimmel\n, da schwed .\nren\nschon\nrentier\nhei\u00dft . das aus nordischen sprachen stammende\nren\nist eine hirschart , die in diesen unwirtlichen gegenden ( polargegend ) vorkommt . im deutschen wurden aus den\nrens\nbzw . den\nrenen\ndie\nrentiere\n, das schwed .\nren\nzu\nrentier\n.\neine m\u00f6gliche\n\u00fcbersetzung\nvon\nrentier\nw\u00e4re etwa\ngeweih - tier\n.\nda es heute oft mit kurzem vokal gesprochen wird , gibt es der f\u00e4lschlichen vermutung nahrung , dass es sich um ein\nrenn - tier\nhandelt .\nauch die im englischen naheliegende\n\u00fcbersetzung\nals\ngez\u00fcgeltes tier\n( engl .\nrein\n=\nz\u00fcgel\n) ist eine volksetymologische deutung .\nm\u00f6glich w\u00e4re ein zusammenhang mit griech .\nkrios\n=\nwidder\n.\ni know about 1 , 200 words for reindeer - we classify them by age , sex , color , antlers ,\nsaid nils isak eira , who manages a herd of 2 , 000 reindeer in north norway .\nthe word\ncaribou\nderives from the micmac word\ngalipu\nand entered english in the 1660s . presumably , english - speaking hunters in north america adopted this native american word without realizing that the species already had a perfectly good english name in\nreindeer\n.\netymology : today ' s word\nrentier\nwas imported from old norse\nhreind\u00fdri\nfrom\nhreinn\n=\nreindeer\n, the more usual name for the animal +\nd\u00fdr\n=\ndeer\n. also swedish\nrendjur\nor just\nren\n, da .\nrensdyr\n, dutch\nrendier\n, german\nrentier\n.\nthe middle english word\ndeer\n, referred to all animals , as does its german cousin\ntier\n=\nanimal\n.\nold norwegian and old icelandic\nhreinn\n=\nreindeer\ncomes from the same pie root as\nhorn\n.\nder\nwort - detektiv\nweist auch auf den\nweisser schimmel\n- charakter des wortes hin .\nreindeer\nfirst appeared in middle english ( as\nrayne - dere\n) way back around 1400 ( if not earlier , records from the period being a bit spotty , of course ) . even though the word is very old , the second element is definitely our modern word\ndeer\n. the\nrein\npart derives from the old norse\nhreinn\n, which was simply the norse word for the animal . so the combination\nreindeer\nactually amounts to\nreindeer deer\n.\ntwo of santa ' s reindeer were originally named\ndunder\nand\nblixem\n, not\ndonner\nand\nblitzen\n.\ndie namen der rentiere von santa claus sind :\nrudolph\n( the red - nosed reindeer ) ,\ndasher\n,\ndancer\n,\nprancer\n,\nvixen\n,\ncomet\n,\ncupid\n,\ndonder\n( oder\ndonner\n) und\nblixen\n( oder\nblitzen\n) .\ninsbesondere um die namen der beiden letzten ranken sich einige sprachliche legenden . sicher ist wohl , dass sie urspr\u00fcnglich\ndunder\nund\nblixem\nhie\u00dfen und erst sp\u00e4ter in\ndonner\nund\nblitzen\numbenannt wurden .\nthe story of how two reindeer named\ndunder\nand\nblixem\nbecame\ndonner\nand\nblitzen\nis a complicated and confusing one , in part because a good deal of mystery remains about the origins of the poem that named them ,\na visit from saint nicholas .\nwe ' ll do our best here to trace the history of how the poem - and the names of two reindeer - changed over time .\nclaim : the character\nrudolph the red - nosed reindeer\nwas created for the montgomery ward group of department stores .\nder engl .\nrentier\n( den man gelegentlich auch als dt .\nrentier\n( mensch ) antreffen kann ) hat mit dem dt .\nrentier\n( tier ) allerdings nichts zu tun . der engl .\nrentier\nund der dt .\nrentner\n=\nruhest\u00e4ndler\ngehen zur\u00fcck auf frz .\nrente\n=\nj\u00e4hrliches einkommen\nund weiter auf lat .\nreddere\n=\nzur\u00fcckgeben\n.\nin nordengland wurde die b\u00fcrgerinitiative\nsos\n=\nsave our squirrels\ngegr\u00fcndet , um die roten gegen die aus den usa\neingewanderten\ngrauen eichh\u00f6rnchen zu sch\u00fctzen .\nsave our squirrels is the largest single - species conservation project taking place in the uk at present . launched in july 2006 , the project has the remit to deliver red squirrel conservation , information , and access projects in northumberland , cumbria , north yorkshire , and north merseyside .\nder engl .\npetrel\nk\u00f6nnte auf den apostel\npetrus\nzur\u00fcckgehen . dieser soll \u00e4hnlich dem dt .\nsturmvogel\n\u00fcber das wasser geschwebt sein . wenn es sich dabei nicht um eine fehldeutung handelt , dann ist engl .\npetrel\neine verkleinerungsform von\npetrus\n, etwa\npeterle\n.\nsein vorname\nstormy\nk\u00f6nnte darauf zur\u00fcck gehen , dass diese v\u00f6gel w\u00e4hrend eines sturms gerne schiffe umflogen in der hoffnung auf kleinere organismen aufnehmen zu k\u00f6nnen .\nder\nstormy petrel\n( frz .\np\u00e9trel - temp\u00eate\n) wird auch im \u00fcbertragenen sinn als\nschlechtes zeichen\noder auch f\u00fcr einen\nstreitbaren menschen\nbenutzt .\nden\nstormy petrel\ngibt es auch im \u00fcbertragenen sinn , als\nschlechtes omen\n,\nschlechte vorahnung\n.\n. . . the term\nstormy petrel\nin general usage anm . : als\nschlechtes zeichen\n) has come to refer to a harbinger of trouble ; perhaps people believed that the bird was seen just before a storm . . . .\nthe complete stormy petrels list , categorized by part of speech , is now available in html format . if you have new entries to add , send them to me . and let me know if you think something on the list doesn ' t belong there .\nhier gibt der autor jed hartman dem\nstormy petrel\nnoch eine weitere \u00fcbertragen bedeutung als sprachliche kategorie . seine\nstormy petrels list\nenth\u00e4lt wortverbindungen in denen mindestens ein wort auf das vorhandensein eines anderen wortes angewiesen ist . ich wei\u00df , das mir auch im deutschen schon des \u00f6fteren solche wortverbindungen aufgefallen sind . im moment f\u00e4llt mir nur der\nnie\u00dfer\nein , der immer einen\nnutzen\nhaben mu\u00df , der\nnutznie\u00dfer\n- oder umgekehrt als\nnie\u00dfnutz\n=\nnutzungsrecht\n, w\u00f6rtlich\ngenie\u00dfungs ( - recht )\n.\nconcept and registry by elliott moreton . items provided by elliott moreton except where otherwise noted . page maintained by jed hartman .\nsooner or later i ' ll mark each of the petrels as\nfirst - tier ,\nsecond - tier ,\nor\njoke ,\nas defined by elliott on the comments page . in the mean time , you ' ll have to figure out which category each item is in on your own .\nall petrels are stormy ( except , of course , those that aren ' t . this item remains on the list for historical reasons . )\nstormy petrel\nis an alteration of earlier\npitteral\n, probably so named in allusion to\nst . peter ' s walking on the sea\n, from the fact that the bird flies close to the water in order to feed on surface - swimming organisms and ship ' s refuse ; called\nstormy\nbecause in a storm the birds surround a ship to catch small organisms which rise to the surface of the rough seas ; when the storm ceases they are no longer seen .\nthe word\nunderdog\nis said to have originated in a 19th - century song or poem by david barker (\nthe under - dog in the fight\n) . can anyone supply any information about when this barker text was first published , and whether it was a song or a poem ?\n. . . apparently his first well - known poem was published in the new york evening post in 1854 ( it says here ) .\nbarker ' s book\npoems\nwas published in 1876 , apparently . no copy is immediately available to me . presumably the poem in question ( whether or not it ' s in this book ) was published in a periodical at some earlier date .\nthe poem\nthe under - dog in the fight\nwas apparently well known . this expression apparently was taken up by mark twain ( i don ' t know what date ) . i don ' t know whether it began with barker or whether it was already a stock phrase before his poem .\n1862 : dennar stuart ,\ncamp - meeting in tennessee\n, in harper ' s 26 ( 151 ) : 97 - 102 : p . 100 :\nand , bretheren , you and i know that occasionally , if not oftener , i ' ve been the under - dog in the fight . . . .\nthe distribution of the species is not fully known . according to the study by w . verheyen et al . , the species is found in west africa from the lower reaches of the congo river in eastern democratic republic of the congo and in east africa from uganda through western kenya to northern tanzania . however it remains to be seen whether l . ansorgei extends from east africa along the northern and southern rim of the congolese central forest block to the lower reaches of the congo river , or the range along the lower congo is a historical range of the species .\nthe species was first identified as l . ansorgei in mumias , nyanza province in 1896 . it is usually included in l . sicapusi , but w . verheyen et al . consider it as a distinct species in their study . l . manteufeli ( matschie , 1911 ) and l . pyrrhus ( heller , 1911 ) are considered synonyms of l . ansorgei by mammal species of the world .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndicrostonyx exsul allen , g . m . , 1919 - st . lawrence island collared lemming\npolyplax meridionalis johnson , 1962 * ( type host ? perhaps a . spinosissimus )\nhoplopleura himalayana mishra , kulkarni and bhat , 1973 * ( host sp . ? )\napodemus hermonensis filippucci , simson , and nevo , 1989 - mt . hermon field mouse\npolyplax humae khan and khan , 1985 * ( host ? , perhaps millardia sp . )\nhoplopleura sinhgarh mishra , bhat , and kulkarni , 1972 * ( mus sp . )\nvernaya fulva ( allen , g . m . , 1927 ) - red climbing mouse\nmacrotarsomys bastardi milne - edwards and g . grandidier , 1898 - bastard big - footed mouse\nakodon affinis ( allen , j . a . , 1912 ) - colombian grass mouse\nakodon urichi allen , j . a . and chapman , 1897 - northern grass mouse\nneotoma anthonyi allen , j . a . , 1898 - anthony ' s woodrat\nosgoodomys banderanus ( allen , j . a . , 1897 ) - michoacan deer mouse\nperomyscus difficilis ( allen , j . a . , 1891 ) - zacatecan deer mouse\nperomyscus furvus allen , j . a . and chapman , 1897 - blackish deer mouse\nperomyscus melanotis allen , j . a . and chapman , 1897 - black - eared mouse\nperomyscus nasutus ( allen , j . a . , 1891 ) - northern rock mouse\nperomyscus yucatanicus allen , j . a . and chapman , 1897 - yucatan deer mouse\nphyllotis osilae allen , j . a . , 1901 - bunchgrass leaf - eared mouse\nreithrodontomys gracilis allen , j . a . and chapman , 1897 - slender harvest mouse\nrhipidomys couesi ( allen , j . a . and chapman , 1893 ) - coue ' s climbing mouse\nrhipidomys ochrogaster allen , j . a . , 1901 - yellow - bellied climbing mouse\nthomasomys cinereiventer allen , j . a . , 1912 - ashy - bellied oldfield mouse .\nthomasomys rosalinda thomas and st . leger , 1926 - roslanda ' s oldfield mouse"]}
{"id": 423, "summary": [{"text": "cypraecassis testiculus , common name the reticulated cowry helmet , is a species of large sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family cassidae , the helmet snails and bonnet snails .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "there is one subspecies : cypraecassis testiculus senegalica ( gmelin , 1791 )", "topic": 5}], "title": "cypraecassis testiculus", "paragraphs": ["a cypraecassis testiculus communal egg mass and eggs are illustrated below ; apparentlyfor the first time .\ncassidae \u00bb cypraecassis testiculus senegalica , id : 160025 , shell detail \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .\n( of cypraecassis ( cypraecassis ) testiculus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]\n( of cypraecassis testiculus senegalica ( gmelin , 1791 ) ) rol\u00e1n e . , 2005 . malacological fauna from the cape verde archipelago . part 1 , polyplacophora and gastropoda . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\npredators of e . lucunter include : ruddy turnstones , arenaria interpres ; conchs ; and fish including triggerfish , grunts , jacks and wrasses ( abbott et al . 1974 ) . predation by the reticulate cowrie - helmet , cypraecassis testiculus , has also been documented for individuals in panama ( hendler 1977 ) .\n( of cypraecassis testiculus senegalica ( gmelin , 1791 ) ) bernard , p . a . ( ed . ) ( 1984 ) . coquillages du gabon [ shells of gabon ] . pierre a . bernard : libreville , gabon . 140 , 75 plates pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\npredators of this urchin include : several species of fish ( randall 1967 ) , shorebirds such as ruddy turnstones , arenaria interpres ( hendler 1977 ) , and herring gulls , larus sp . ( moore et al . 1963 ) ; the reticulate cowrie - helmet , cypraecassis testiculus ( hendler 1977 ) ; and the caribbean helmet , cassis tuberosa ( engstrom 1982 ) .\nsomeone in our group said that it was an emperor ' s helmet and i mentioned that when i sent the pictures to volunteer identifier bea in ontario . soon bea was back saying that the helmet part was right but not the emperor . it ' s the reticulate cowry - helmet , cypraecassis testiculus , a member of the helmet and bonnet snail family , the cassidae .\n( of cypraecassis mamillata salmon , 1948 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]\n( of cypraecassis neglecta verrill , 1949 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]\n( of cypraecassis minima bernard , 1984 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]\ngofas , s . ; afonso , j . p . ; brand\u00e0o , m . ( ed . ) . ( s . a . ) . conchas e moluscos de angola = coquillages et mollusques d ' angola . [ shells and molluscs of angola ] . universidade agostinho / elf aquitaine angola : angola . 140 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nrosenberg , g . ; moretzsohn , f . ; garc\u00eda , e . f . ( 2009 ) . gastropoda ( mollusca ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 579\u2013699 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of buccinum senegalicum gmelin , 1791 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]\n( of buccinum plicatum gmelin , 1791 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]\n( of cassidea crumena brugui\u00e8re , 1789 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]\n( of cassis mitellapolonica r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]\n( of cassis pileolus r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]\n( of cassis bicincta bayer , 1935 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\none of the most intriguing patterns in mammalian biogeography is the \u201cisland rule\u201d , which states that colonising species have a tendency to converge in body size , with larger species evolving decreased sizes and smaller species increased sizes . it has recently been suggested that an analogous pattern holds for the colonisation of the deep - sea benthos by marine gastropoda . in particular , a pioneering study showed that gastropods from the western atlantic showed the same graded trend from dwarfism to gigantism that is evident in island endemic mammals . however , subsequent to the publication of the gastropod study , the standard tests of the island rule have been shown to yield false positives at a very high rate , leaving the result open to doubt .\nthe evolution of gastropod body size in the deep sea is reexamined . using an extended and updated data set , and improved statistical methods , it is shown that some results of the previous study may have been artifactual , but that its central conclusion is robust . it is further shown that the effect is not restricted to a single gastropod clade , that its strength increases markedly with depth , but that it applies even in the mesopelagic zone .\nthe replication of the island rule in a distant taxonomic group and a partially analogous ecological situation could help to uncover the causes of the patterns observed\u2014which are currently much disputed . the gastropod pattern is evident at intermediate depths , and so cannot be attributed to the unique features of abyssal ecology .\ncitation : welch jj ( 2010 ) the \u201cisland rule\u201d and deep - sea gastropods : re - examining the evidence . plos one 5 ( 1 ) : e8776 . urltoken\ncopyright : \u00a9 2010 john j . welch . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : some preliminary work undertaken when jw was funded by bbsrc grant do17750 awarded to andrew rambaut . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nthe island rule states that after island colonisation , animals undergo predictable patterns of body size evolution , with larger colonising species becoming smaller , and smaller species becoming larger . the result is a graded trend from dwarfism in the largest colonists to gigantism in the smallest [ 1 ] \u2013 [ 4 ] . because insular habitats are distinctive in a number of ways , this pattern might be variously explained , and a variety of hypotheses have indeed been proposed in the literature [ 1 ] \u2013 [ 11 ] . recently , mcclain et al . [ 12 ] made an important advance by testing for analogous patterns of body size evolution in a non - insular system . specifically , they compared body sizes of animals living in deep - sea benthic habitats with their shallow - water living congeners . using the malacolog database version 3 . 3 . 3 of rosenberg [ 13 ] , mcclain et al . [ 12 ] took the gastropods of the western atlantic as a case study , and reported that a highly significant trend from dwarfism to gigantism was evident in the deep - sea species .\nhere , i re - examine whether deep - sea gastropods manifest the island rule , making use of the improved statistical methods , and data collated from the recently updated malacolog database [ 24 ] , which has been both expanded , and revised to reflect advances in gastropod systematics [ 25 ] . it is found that the central conclusion of mcclain et al . [ 12 ] is robust , and that gastropod colonists of the deep - sea benthos do indeed exhibit island - rule - like evolution .\nto demonstrate the liberal nature of the standard tests of the island rule , consider results when deep - sea habitation is defined via the midpoint of the recorded depth range , i . e . , \u201cdeep - sea species\u201d have a range midpoint below 200m , and all other species are deemed \u201cshallow - water\u201d . with this definition , 254 genera contained both deep and shallow species , and their generic mean body sizes are plotted in figure 1a . applying the standard test [ 3 ] , [ 12 ] , the ordinary - least - squares regression slope ( dashed line ) is found to be highly significantly less than one ( n = 254 ; b = 0 . 902 ; t - test p = 0 . 0015 ) , which offers strong apparent support for the island rule . however , assigning species groups to the \u201cdeep\u201d or \u201cshallow\u201d categories at random , showed that even stronger support was obtained with \u223c43 % of 100 , 000 randomized data sets , suggesting that there is nothing exceptional in the trend observed in the true data . accordingly , the standardized - major - axis slope ( solid line ) was very close to one , and the permutation test showed no significant deviation from the pattern expected if deep - sea colonization had no effect on body size evolution ( n = 254 ; b = 1 . 020 ; permutation p = 0 . 476 ) .\npart a shows how different tests of the \u2018island rule\u2019 can give qualitatively different results . \u201cdeep - sea\u201d species were defined as those with a depth range midpoint > 200m , and all other species defined as \u201cshallow - water\u201d . the ordinary - least - squares regression ( dashed line ) differs significantly from the 1\u22361 line of the null ( dotted line ) , but the standardized - major - axis regression ( solid line ) shows no significant departure . part b shows a less ambiguous case : \u201cdeep - sea\u201d species are those never observed above 400m , and \u201cshallow - water\u201d species those never observed below 200m ; body sizes are within - genus means , taking equal numbers of deep - and shallow - water species in each genus .\naveraging across species has untested statistical properties [ 30 ] , but it does have the advantage of reducing noise and the influence of anomalous data . for example , figure 1b plots results for balanced samples with \u201cdeep - sea\u201d defined as > 400m . these data are clearly noisy , and the slope is strongly influenced by a single outlier ( the largest value on both axes ) . this point represents the genus fasciolaria , which contains just a single deep - sea species , the recently discovered fasciolaria tephrina [ 32 ] . to restrict the influence of such isolated observations , mcclain et al . [ 12 ] excluded from their analyses all genera with fewer than two shallow and two deep species . despite reducing sample size by \u223c2 / 3 , this procedure strengthens the observed effect , with a highly significant departure from the null now apparent at the shallowest cutoff depth ( table 1 part b ; figure 2 ) .\nthe body sizes of deep - sea gastropods are plotted against those of their shallow - water congeners . \u201cshallow - water\u201d species were never observed below 200m , and \u201cdeep - sea\u201d species never observed above depths of a : 200m , b : 400m and c : 600m . separate standardized - major - axis regression lines are shown for the neogastropoda ( black points ) and all other groups ( grey points ) . the dotted line is the 1\u22361 expected under the null . genera with fewer than two deep and two shallow species were excluded .\nthis study has confirmed the important findings of mcclain et al . [ 12 ] that the marine gastropods of the western atlantic show a pattern of body size evolution that is analogous to the island rule , with colonists of the deep - sea benthos tending to converge in size in a graded trend ( see also [ 16 ] ) . no evidence was found of phylogenetic heterogeneity in the strength of the observed effect , as results for the neogastropoda alone were indistinguishable from those for the remaining taxa . in contrast , the strength of the effect did increase systematically with range depth , with deeper - sea species showing a stronger tendency to converge in size . nevertheless , the effect is still apparent in species inhabiting the mesopelagic zone ( 200\u20131000m ) , and so cannot be attributed to unique features of abyssal ecology .\nsince the pattern was first identified [ 1 ] \u2013 [ 3 ] the island rule has been explained in a large number of ways [ 1 ] \u2013 [ 11 ] . a powerful method of distinguishing between the competing explanations is to test for the presence of analogous patterns in systems that share some , but not all of the ecological characteristics of island habitats [ 4 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 34 ] . for example , one putative contributor to the vertebrate pattern is \u201cimmigrant selection\u201d , that is , between - lineage differences in the probability of reaching isolated islands , as opposed to differences in survival after colonisation [ 4 ] , [ 35 ] , [ 36 ] . the colonization of the deep - sea benthos differs clearly and qualitatively from the colonization of islands , and so if it is assumed that the similar patterns of body size evolution reflect a similarity of underlying cause [ 12 ] , this argues against immigrant selection as a key determinant of the graded trend that is observed in both cases .\nsimilarly , predator release is a particularly plausible explanation of the vertebrate island rule [ 1 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 6 ] , [ 11 ] ; this is partly because it can naturally account for both dwarfism and gigantism ( by assuming that large and small body sizes evolve as alternative strategies for predator avoidance ) , and partly because predator release is so clearly implicated in other unusual characteristics of island endemics ( such as tameness ) [ 37 ] , [ 38 ] . but there is little evidence that reduced predation characterises the deep - sea [ 12 ] , [ 14 ] , and indeed there is direct evidence of substantial predation acting on deep - sea gastropods [ 12 ] , [ 39 ] \u2013 [ 41 ] . the gastropod results therefore argue against the predator release hypothesis as a general explanation of the island rule [ 12 ] .\nwe are therefore still far from understanding the causes of the patterns observed \u2013 and particularly the roles of inter - and intra - specific competition [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] . a detailed clarification of where the pattern does and does not hold will be an important step toward achieving this goal [ 4 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] .\nmany thanks are due to andrew rambaut for providing a script to mine the malacolog database . many thanks also to lucy weinert , nicolas bierne , gary rosenberg , shai meiri . simon joly and an anonymous reviewer , who all greatly improved the manuscript with their comments and advice .\nconceived and designed the experiments : jw . performed the experiments : jw . analyzed the data : jw . wrote the paper : jw .\nfoster jb ( 1964 ) evolution of mammals on islands . nature 202 : 234\u2013235 .\nvan valen l ( 1973 ) pattern and balance in nature . evolutionary theory 1 : 31\u201349 .\nlomolino mv ( 1985 ) body size of mammals on islands : the island rule re - examined . am nat 125 : 310\u2013316 .\nlomolino mv ( 2005 ) body size evolution in insular vertebrates : generality of the island rule . j biogeog 32 : 1683\u20131699 .\nmacarthur rh , wilson eo ( 1963 ) an equilibrium theory of insular zoogeography . evolution 17 : 373\u2013387 . ( doi :\nroth vl ( 1992 ) inferences from allometry and fossils : dwarfing of elephants on islands . oxford survey of evolutionary biology 8 : 259\u2013288 .\nsmith fa ( 1992 ) evolution of body size among woodrats from baja california , mexico . funct ecol 6 : 265\u2013273 . ( doi :\nmarquet pa , taper ml ( 1998 ) on size and area : patterns of mammalian body size extremes across landmasses . evol ecol 12 : 127\u2013139 .\nclegg sm , owens ipf ( 2002 ) the \u2018island rule\u2019 in birds : medium body size and its ecological explanation . proc r soc b 269 : 1359\u20131365 .\npalkovacs ep ( 2003 ) explaining adaptive shifts in body size on islands : a life history approach . oikos 103 : 37\u201344 . ( doi :\nmcclain cr , boyer ag , rosenberg g ( 2006 ) the island rule and the evolution of body size in the deep sea . j biogeog 33 : 1578\u20131584 .\nrosenberg g ( 1993 ) a database approach to studies of molluscan taxonomy , biogeography and diversity , with examples from western atlantic marine gastropods . american malacological bulletin 10 : 257\u2013266 .\ndayton pk , hessler rr ( 1972 ) the role of biological disturbance in maintaining diversity in the deep sea . deep\u2013sea research 19 : 199\u2013208 .\ngage jd , tyler pa ( 1991 ) deep\u2013sea biology : a natural history of organisms at the deep\u2013sea floor . cambridge , uk : cambridge university press . 524 p .\nrex ma , etter rj , morris js , crouse j , mcclain cr , et al . ( 2006 ) global bathymetric patterns of standing stock and body size in the deep\u2013sea benthos . mar ecol prog ser 317 : 1\u20138 .\nmeiri s ( 2007 ) size evolution in island lizards . global ecol biogeogr 16 : 702\u2013708 .\nmeiri s , dayan t , simberloff d ( 2005 ) area , isolation and body size evolution in insular carnivores . ecol lett 8 : 1211\u20131217 .\nmeiri s , cooper n , purvis a ( 2008 ) the island rule : made to be broken ? proc r soc b 275 : 141\u2013148 . ( doi :\nwelch jj ( 2009 ) testing the island rule : primates as a case study . proc r soc b 276 : 675\u2013682 .\nprice td , phillimore ab ( 2007 ) reduced major axis regression and the island rule . j biogeog 34 : 1998\u20131999 .\nmartin rd , barbour ad ( 1989 ) aspects of line\u2013fitting in bivariate allometric analyses . folia primatologica 53 : 65\u201381 .\nwarton di , wright ij , falster ds , westoby m ( 2006 ) bivariate line\u2013fitting methods for allometry . biological reviews 81 : 259\u2013291 .\nrosenberg g ( 2009 ) malacolog 4 . 1 . 1 : a database of western atlantic marine mollusca . available :\nbouchet p , rocroi j\u2013p ( 2005 ) classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia 47 : 1\u2013397 .\nsmith cr , de leo fc , bernardino af , sweetman ak , martinez arbizu p ( 2008 ) abyssal food limitation , ecosystem structure and climate change . trends ecol evol 23 : 518\u2013528 .\nsokal rr , rohlf fj ( 1995 ) biometry : the principles and practice of statistics in biological research . 3rd edition . new york : w . h . freeman and co .\nr development core team ( 2006 ) r : a language and environment for statistical computing . vienna : r foundation for statistical computing . available :\nguo h , weiss re , gu x , suchard ma ( 2007 ) time squared : repeated measures on phylogenies . mol biol evol 24 : 353\u2013362 .\ngage jd , bett bj ( 2005 ) deep\u2013sea benthic sampling . in : eleftheriou a , mcintyre a , editors . methods for the study of marine benthos : third edition . oxford : blackwell science ltd . pp . 273\u2013325 .\n( mollusca : caenogastropoda ) from the southwestern caribbean . zootaxa 49 : 1\u20137 .\nmcclain cr , rex ma , jabbour r ( 2005 ) deconstructing bathymetric body size patterns in deep\u2013sea gastropods . mar ecol prog ser 297 : 181\u2013187 .\nschmidt nm , jensen pm ( 2003 ) changes in mammalian body length over 175 years - adaptations to a fragmented landscape ? conservation ecology 7 : 6 .\nreyment ra ( 1983 ) palaeontological aspects of island biogeography : colonization and evolution of mammals on mediterranean islands . oikos 41 : 299\u2013306 .\nlomolino mv ( 1984 ) immigrant selection , predatory exclusion and the distributions of microtus pennsylvanicus and blarina brevicadua on islands . am nat 123 : 468\u2013483 .\nmcnab bk ( 2002 ) minimizing energy expenditure facilitates vertebrate persistence on oceanic islands . ecol lett 5 : 693\u2013704 .\nduncan rp , blackburn tm ( 2004 ) extinction and endemism in the new zealand avifauna . global ecol biogeogr 13 : 509\u2013517 .\nvale fk , rex ma ( 1988 ) repaired shell damage in deep - sea prosobranch gastropods from the western north atlantic . malacologia 28 : 65\u201379 .\nvale fk , rex ma ( 1989 ) repaired shell damage in a complex of rissoid gastropods from the upper continental slope south of new england . nautilus 103 : 105\u2013108 .\nwalker se , voight jr ( 1994 ) palecological and taphonomic potential of deep - sea gastropods . palaios 9 : 48\u201359 .\nmccollom tm ( 1999 ) geochemical constraints on primary productivity in submarine hydrothermal vent plumes . deep sea research i : oceanographic research papers 47 : 85\u2013101 .\nwassersug rj , yang h , sepkoski jj jr , raup dm ( 1979 ) the evolution of body size on islands : a computer simulation . am nat 114 : 287\u2013295 .\nwilliams gc . natural selection : domains , levels and challenges . oxford : oxford university press . .\nraia p , meiri s ( 2006 ) the island rule in large mammals : paleontology meets ecology . evolution 60 : 1731\u20131742 . ( doi :\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\nverbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nhaiti . in the bay of cap - haitien . 2 m . circa 1980 .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 001 seconds . )\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 002 seconds . )\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngastropod ( 1 shell ) , shell spiral in shape , ovate , tapering towards the bottom , short spire , body whorl takes up most of shell ; color background orangish brown to gray to pink , brown spots or blotches in spiraling rows with lighter color in between blotches ; radiating ribs crossed by widely space , shallow spiraling grooves ; aperture side smooth , lighter colored , an orangish band about 2 / 3 ' s down and orange spot on shoulder ; aperture long , narrow , outer lip of aperture thickened , toothed on inside , dark nearly black spots on back side of lip ; columella ( inner side of aperture ) crenulate ( ridged ) ; siphonal canal short , angled back and upturned .\nthis helmet has a distinctive color pattern which helps distinguish it from other helmets .\ncopyright 2012 - 2018 . created by brenda bowling , texas parks and wildlife department .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , w . k . emerson , w . g . lyons , w . pratt , et al .\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al .\ncommon and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nbernard , p . a . ( ed . ) ( 1984 ) . coquillages du gabon [ shells of gabon ] . pierre a . bernard : libreville , gabon . 140 , 75 plates pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nrol\u00e1n e . , 2005 . malacological fauna from the cape verde archipelago . part 1 , polyplacophora and gastropoda . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nthe green sea urchin , lytechinus variegatus . photo by lh sweat , smithsonian marine station at fort pierce .\nlytechinus variegatus covering itself with fragments of algae and other debris . photo by lh sweat , smithsonian marine station at fort pierce .\nplease refer to the accompanying glossary for definitions of the descriptive terms used in this report .\nthe green sea urchin , lytechinus variegatus , is one of several urchin species common to florida and the caribbean . the spines of l . variegatus are characteristically short , and the underlying test is hemispherical with smoothly curving sides adorned with numerous small tubercles ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . tubercles are sparse on the aboral portions of the ambulacra and interambulacra , resulting in naked patches . globiferous pedicellariae are numerous and conspicuous , appearing as stalked and nearly spherical white or pink structures . the color of the test and spines is variable , and has been used to identify subspecies of l . variegatus ( serafy 1973 ) .\nl . variegatus is similar in appearance to l . williamsi . however , the latter has purple pedicellariae instead of white or pink , fewer plates in each column of the test , and 12 wedges in the spines compared to the 24 found in l . variegatus ( hendler et al . 1995 ) .\nshort - spined urchins like l . variegatus have fragile tests , which limit them to low energy areas with minimal wave impact ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . they are most common in quiet waters with rocky and sandy bottoms , and in beds of the turtle grass , thalassia testudinum . l . variegatus is reportedly intolerant of turbid waters with high quantities of suspended silt ( moore et al . 1963 ) .\nthe range of the green sea urchin extends from beaufort , north carolina southward throughout the caribbean to santos , brazil . l . variegatus atlanticus also occurs in bermuda ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . depths range from zero to 250 meters , although most individuals are found in waters less than 50 m ( serafy 1979 ) .\nthe distribution of l . variegatus within the irl remains undocumented . however , this urchin is likely most abundant in the southern lagoon , where turtle grass beds are more prevalent .\nl . variegatus reaches a total diameter of about 110 mm , with a test diameter of about 85 mm ( hendler et al . 1995 ) .\nin turtle grass beds , l . variegatus can reach extremely high numbers . although little information is available concerning the abundance of this speciesin the irl , densities of l . variegatus in other locations have been reported at 636 individuals per square meter ( camp et al . 1973 ) .\nthe green sea urchin is normally gonochoric . reproduction of hermaphroditic individuals has been linked to abnormally low water temperatures ( moore et al . 1963 ) . the spawning period of the green sea urchin is shorter in northern latitudes ( moore et al . 1963 ) . in tropical locations like panama , l . variegatus is sexually ripe throughout the year ( lessios 1985 , 1991 ) . in florida , reproduction varies with season and environmental conditions ( ernest & blake 1981 ) . mazur & miller ( 1971 ) reported a reproductive season of march to october for florida urchins held in the laboratory . spawning in panama , and possibly other locations , tends to occur during the new and full moons ( lessios 1991 ) .\npearce & cameron ( 1991 ) provide a review of the extensive literature available describing fertilization and early development in l . variegatus . full development from zygote to metamorphosis takes 33 - 43 days in the laboratory ( mazur & miller 1971 ) , and can be accelerated by increasing the water temperature ( petersen & almeida 1976 ) . salinities below 35 ppt result in decreased larval survival and developmental rates , even when the parents are acclimated to such salinities ( roller & stickle 1993 ) . in response to low food supply , larvae can increase their feeding efficiency by enlarging their ciliated bands ( boideron - metairon 1988 ) . after metamorphosis , juveniles can grow to a test diameter of about 15 mm in 6 months , and to 25 mm in 9 months ( pawson & miller 1982 , michel 1984 ) . pearse & cameron ( 1991 ) found some evidence for a difference in the number of chromosomes between male and female urchins .\nwhen population densities are high , l . variegatus can overgraze seagrass beds ( camp et al . 1973 ) . however , studies have shown that the majority of the reported 0 . 6 g dry weight of t . testudinum consumed daily by each urchin consists of dead blades , having a minimal effect on live turtle grass ( vadas et al . 1982 ) .\nl . variegatus often covers itself with plant and shell debris , holding the material in place with its tube feet ( mortensen 1943 , millott 1956 , sharp & gray 1962 , kier & grant 1965 ) . millott ( 1956 ) documented a rise in covering behavior in response to increased light levels , suggesting that the collected debris acts to shade the animal from strong light .\nthe turbellarian , syndisyrinx collongistyla , has been reported to infest the body cavity and intestines of l . variegatus ( nappi & crawford 1984 , hertel et al . 1990 ) . protozoan parasites are also reported for this urchin ( mortensen 1943 ) . the polychaete , podarke obscura , has been listed as an occasional associate ( ruppert & fox 1988 ) .\nboideron - metairon if . 1988 . morphological plasticity on laboratory - reared echinoplutei of dendraster excentricus ( eschscholtz ) and lytechinus variegatus ( lamarck ) in response to food conditions . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . 119 : 31 - 41 .\ncamp dk , cobb s & jf van breeveld . 1973 . overgrazing of seagrasses by a regular urchin , lytechinus variegatus . bioscience 23 : 37 - 38 .\nengstrom na . 1982 . immigration as a factor in maintaining populations of the sea urchin lytechinus variegatus ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) in seagrass beds on the southwest coast of puerto rico . studies neotrop . fauna environ . 17 : 51 - 60 .\nernest rg & nj blake . 1981 . reproductive patterns within sub - populations of lytechinus variegatus ( lamarck ) ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . 55 : 25 - 37 .\nhendler g . 1977 . the differential effects of season stress and predation on the stability of reef - flat echinoid populations . in : taylor dl ( ed . ) . 217 - 223 . proceedings : third international coral reef symposium . volume 1 ( biology ) . rosenstiel school of marine & atmospheric science , university of miami . miami , florida .\nhendler g , miller je , pawson dl & pm kier . 1995 . sea stars , sea urchins , and allies : echinoderms of florida and the caribbean . smithsonian institution press . washington , d . c . 390 pp .\nhertel l , duszynski dw & je ubelaker . 1990 . turbellarians ( umagillidae ) from caribbean urchins with a description of syndisyrinx collongistyla , n . sp . trans . amer . microscop . soc . 109 : 272 - 281 .\nkier pm & re grant , 1965 . echinoid distribution and habits , kay largo coral reef preserve , florida . smithsonian misc . collect . 149 : 1 - 68 .\nlessios ha . 1985 . annual reproductive periodicity in eight echinoid species on the caribbean coast of panama . in : keegan bf & bds o\u2019connor ( eds . ) . 303 - 311 . echinodermata . proceedings of the fifth international echinoderm conference . galway , 24 - 29 september 1984 . belkema , rotterdam .\nlessios ha . 1991 . presence and absence of monthly reproductive rhythms among eight caribbean echinoids off the coast of panama . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . 153 : 27 - 47 .\nmazur je & jw miller . 1971 . a description of the complex metamorphosis of the sea urchin lytechinus variegatus cultured in synthetic sea water . ohio j . sci . 71 : 30 - 36 .\nmichel hb . 1984 . culture of lytechinus variegatus ( lamarck ) ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) from egg to young adult . bull . mar . sci . 34 : 312 - 314 .\nmillot n . 1956 . the covering reaction of sea urchins . 1 . a preliminary account of covering in the tropical echinoid lytechinus variegatus ( lamarck ) , and its relation to light . j . exp . biol . 33 : 508 - 523 .\nmoore hb , jutare t , bauer jc & ja jones . 1963 . the biology of lytechinus variegatus . bull . mar . sci . gulf carib . 13 : 23 - 53 .\nmortensen t . 1943 . a monograph of the echinoidea . volume iii . ( 3 ) . camarodonta . i . orthopsidae , glyphocyphidae , temnopleuridae and toxopneustidae . ca reitzel , copenhagen . vii + 553 pp . 56 pls .\nnappi aj & ja crawford . 1984 . the occurrence and distribution of a syndesmid ( turbellaria : umagillidae ) in jamaican sea urchins . j . parasitol . 70 : 595 - 597 .\npawson dl & je miller . 1982 . studies of genetically controlled phenotypic characters in laboratory - reared lytechinus variegatus ( lamarck ) ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . in : lawrence jm ( ed . ) . 165 - 171 . echinoderms : proceedings of the international conference . tampa bay , 14 - 17 september 1981 . balkema , rotterdam .\npearse js & ra cameron . 1991 . echinodermata : echinoidea . in : giese ac , pearse js & vb pearse ( eds . ) . 513 - 662 . reproduction of marine invertebrates , volume vi , echinoderms and lophophorates . the boxwood press . pacific grove , ca .\npetersen ja & am almeida . 1976 . effects of salinity and temperature on the development and survival of the echinoids arbacia , echinometra and lythechinus . thalassia jugoslavia 12 : 297 - 298 .\nrandall je . 1967 . food habits of reef fishes of the west indies . inst . mar . sci . univ . miami . studies in tropical oceanog . no . 5 : 665 - 847 .\nroller ra & stickle . 1993 . effects of temperature and salinity acclimation of adults on larval survival , physiology , and early development of lytechinus variegatus ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . mar . biol . ( berlin ) 116 : 583 - 591 .\nruppert , ee & rs fox . 1988 . seashore animals of the southeast : a guide to common shallow - water invertebrates of the southeastern atlantic coast . university of sc press . columbia , sc . usa . 429 pp .\nserafy dk . 1973 . variation in the polytypic sea urchin lytechinus variegatus ( lamarck , 1816 ) in the western atlantic ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . bull . mar . sci . 23 : 525 - 534 .\nserafy dk . 1979 . echinoids ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . memoirs of the hourglass cruises 5 : 1 - 120 .\nsharp dt & ie gray . 1962 . studies on factors affecting the local distribution of two sea urchins , arbacia punctulata and lytechinus variegatus . ecology 43 : 309 - 313 .\nvadas rl , fenchel t & jc ogden . 1982 . ecological studies on the sea urchin lytechinus variegatus and the algal - seagrass communities of the miskito cays , nicaragua . aquat . botany 14 : 109 - 115 .\nthe rock - boring urchin , echinometra lucunter . photo by lh sweat , smithsonian institution .\ntwo echinometra lucunter feeding on the floating alga , sargassum . photo by lh sweat , smithsonian institution .\nthe rock boring urchin , echinometra lucunter , has an elongate oval test with two rows of large tubercles along the ambulacra and interambulacra , pairs of pores arranged in arcs of six , and a large peristome ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . the spines are long and slender , thickened at the base , and sharply pointed at the tips .\non the aboral side , the primary and secondary spines are dark olive green , with greenish violet to purple tips ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . the general color of the spines is blackish , although some specimens may exhibit a reddish color . test and muscle bases of the spines are shades of red - brown . tube feet on the aboral surface are light brown , and the terminal disks are dark brown to blackish . oral spines have a lighter color than aboral ones , light olive green with a violet gradient near the tips . the test and peristome are flecked with creamy brown . the tube feet near the mouth are translucent , with terminal disks that are creamy white in color , lined with a narrow dark brown band , and measuring about twice the size of those on the aboral feet .\nas with many intertidal organisms , studies have revealed differences in the structure of e . lucunter from environments with varying wave action . specimens from high - energy areas tend to have tests that are flatter , thicker , smaller , and narrower , and a distinctive pattern of insertion of ocular plates in the apical system ( lewis & storey 1984 ) .\nthe general shape and size of e . lucunter is similar to that of the reef urchin , e . viridis . however , the latter usually has a more circular test shape and longer spines , a reddish test , pore pairs in arcs of five instead of six , and conspicuously white milled rings around the base of each spine ( hendler et al . 1995 ) .\nthe rock - boring urchin is commonly found on limestone reef rock in the surf zone ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . it can be very common in shallow , exposed fore reef or reef crest habitats , occupying shallow depressions or borrows created by the abrading action of the urchin\u2019s spines and teeth on the rock surface . the success of e . lucunter in harsh environments may be partially due to its apparent resistance to stresses caused by increased temperature and salinity ( hendler 1977 ) .\nthe range of e . lucunter extends from beaufort , north carolina and bermuda southward throughout the caribbean and eastern central america to desterra , brazil . populations can also be found in west africa . the subspecies e . lucunter polypora pawson , is common at ascension and st . helena islands ( pawson 1978 ) . the depth range for this species is generally zero to 45 meters ( serafy 1979 ) .\nthe distribution of e . lucunter within the irl remains undocumented . however , this species appears to be concentrated mostly around rock jetties and other hard structures near inlets ( lh sweat , personal observation ) .\ne . lucunter reaches a maximum size of 15 cm , though most individuals are about half that size ( hendler et al . 1995 ) .\nthe abundance of e . lucunter in the irl is undocumented . however , studies have reported densities elsewhere of up to 129 individuals per square meter ( greenstein 1993 ) .\nthe annual spawning cycle for the rock - boring urchin has been reported to occur in late summer in the florida keys ( mcpherson 1969 ) , peaks in the fall in puerto rico ( cameron 1986 ) , and occurs variably throughout the year in panama ( lessios 1981 ) . lewis & storey ( 1984 ) documented one spawning event per year in urchins from high - energy environments , and two events annually in urchins from low - energy areas . tennent et al . ( 1931 ) reported that spawning in one individual takes about 15 minutes . fertilization and development are adversely affected by reducing salinity ( petersen & almeida 1976 ) . larvae of this species have been reared through metamorphosis in the laboratory ( e . g . mortensen 1921 ) .\nthe rock - boring urchin feeds mostly at night from their burrows , consuming clumps of drift algae , or venturing out of the burrow to feed and then usually returning to the same hole ( mcpherson 1969 , abbott et al . 1974 , ogden 1976 ) . in panama , individuals were observed to clear the area around their burrows of all organisms except calcareous algae ( hendler et al . 1995 ) .\nantagonistic behaviors among conspecifics have been observed for this urchin . grunbaum et al . ( 1978 ) found that intruding urchins were pushed and bit by the individual originally inhabiting the burrow , and the inhabitant won most altercations . escape responses have been observed in individuals following exposure to chemical extracts from other echinometra spp . ( parker & shulman 1986 ) .\nthe eulimid gastropod , monogamus minibulla is a parasite of the rock - boring urchin ( war\u00e9n & moolenbeek 1989 ) . the turbellarian , syndisyrinx collongistyla , has been reported to infest the intestines of e . lucunter in jamaica , s . evelinae has been found in specimens from st . barth\u00e9lemy ( hertel et al . 1990 ) . protozoans have also been reported to infest e . lucunter ( mortensen 1943 ) . the rock - boring urchin has been observed to share its burrow with several associates , including a goby , a porcelain crab , and a brittle star ( schoppe 1991 ) .\nthe burrowing behavior of e . lucunter can contribute greatly to the breakdown of coral reefs and intertidal limestone shorelines , especially when urchin population densities are high . hoskin & reed ( 1985 ) estimated that burrows are excavated in approximately 3 years . rates of erosion on coral reefs due to this excavation have been reported at 3 . 9 kg per square meter annually in the virgin islands , 7 . 0 kg per square meter annually in bermuda , and 24 g per urchin per year in barbados ( ogden 1977 ) .\nablanedo et al . ( 1990 ) found that individuals of e . lucunter accumulate certain heavy metals in the gonads , test , spines , and lantern . therefore , they can be used as an indicator species to reflect the level of environmental pollution to which they are exposed .\nabbott dp , ogden jc & ia abbott . 1974 . studies on the activity pattern , behavior , and food of the echinoid echinometra lucunter ( linnaeus ) on beachrock and algal reefs in st . croix , u . s . virgin islands . west indies laboratory special publication no . 4 . fairleigh dickinson university . christiansted , st . croix . u . s . virgin islands . iv + 111 pp .\nablanedo n , gonzalez h , ramirez m & i torres . 1990 . evaluaci\u00f3n del erizo de mar echinometra lucunter como indictor de contaminaci\u00f3n por metales pesados , cuba . aquat . living res . 3 : 113 - 120 .\ncameron ra . 1986 . reproduction , larval occurrence and recruitment in caribbean sea urchins . bull . mar . sci . 39 : 332 - 346 .\ngreenstein bj . 1993 . is the fossil record of regular echinoids really so poor ? a comparison of living and subfossil assemblages . palaios 8 : 587 - 601 .\ngrunbaum h , bergman g , abbott dp & jc ogden . 1978 . intraspecific agonistic behavior in the rock - boring sea urchin echinometra lucunter ( l . ) ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . bull . mar . sci . 28 : 181 - 188 .\nhoskin cm & jk reed . 1985 . carbonate sediment production by the rock - boring urchin echinometra lucunter and associated endolithic infauna at black rock , little bahama bank . symposia ser . underwater res . 3 : 151 - 161 .\nlessios ha . 1981 . reproductive periodicity of the echinoids diadema and echinometra on the two coasts of panama . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . 50 : 47 - 61 .\nlewis jb & gs storey . 1984 . differences in morphology and life history traits of the echinoid echinometra lucunter from different habitats . mar . ecol . prog . ser . 15 : 207 - 211 .\nmcpherson bf . 1969 . studies on the biology of the tropical sea urchins echinometra lucunter and echinometra viridis . bull . mar . sci . 19 : 194 - 213 .\nmortensen t . 1921 . studies of the development and larval forms of echinoderms . g . e . c . gad . copenhagen , denmark . xxxiii + 266 pp .\nogden jc . 1976 . some aspects of herbivore - plant relationships on caribbean reefs and seagrass beds . aquat . botany 2 : 103 - 116 .\nogden jc . 1977 . carbonate - sediment production by parrotfish and sea urchins on caribbean reefs . stud . geol . 4 : 281 - 288 .\nparker da & mj schulman . 1986 . avoiding predation : alarm responses of caribbean sea urchins to simulated predation on conspecific and heterospecific sea urchins . mar . biol . ( berlin ) 93 : 201 - 208 .\npawson dl . 1978 . the echinoderm fauna of ascension island , south atlantic ocean . smithsonian contrib . mar . sci . 2 . iv + 31 pp .\nschoppe s . 1991 . echinometra lucunter ( linnaeus ) ( echinoidea , echinometridae ) als wirt einer komplexen lebensgemeinschaft im karibischen meer . helgol\u00e4nd . meeresunt . 45 : 373 - 379 .\ntennent dh , gardiner ms & de smith . 1931 . a cytological and biochemical study of the ovaries of the sea urchin echinometra lucunter . carnegie institution of washington publication no . 27 . 1 - 46 . pls . 1 - 7 .\nwar\u00e9n a & r moolenbeek . 1989 . a new eulimid gastropod , trochostilifer eucidaricola , parasitic on the pencil urchin eucidaris tribuloides from the southern caribbean . proc . biol . soc . wash . 102 : 169 - 175 .\ndepth : 0 to 60 m ( live 0 . 3 to 3 m )\ndistribution : usa : north carolina , florida : east florida , west florida , florida keys ; usa : louisiana , texas ; mexico : quintana roo ; honduras : swan island ; colombia : offshore islands ; costa rica , panama , colombia , venezuela : islas los roques ; bermuda , bahamas : grand bahama island , abaco ( great or little ) , bimini , eleuthera , little san salvador , cat island , san salvador ( watling is . ) , long island , mayaguana ; cuba : north havana province , north matanzas , villa clara , cienfuegos , santiago de cuba , guantanamo ; jamaica , puerto rico ; virgin islands : st . john , st . croix , tortola ; st . barthelemy / st . bartholomew , barbuda ; st . vincent & the grenadines : grenada ; barbados ; trinidad & tobago : trinidad ; brazil : ceara , pernambuco , alagoas , bahia\ndistribution : cuba : pinar del rio , havana province ; puerto rico ; virgin islands : st . croix ; eastern atlantic : st . helena\nshells of gabon 140 pp . published by the author : libreville , gabon . [ stated date : - - nov 1984 . ]\nencyclop\u00e9die m\u00e9thodique . histoire naturelle des vers encyclop\u00e9die m\u00e9thodique . histoire naturelle des vers 1 345 - 757 . panckoucke : paris .\nsystema naturae per regna tria naturae . editio decima tertia systema naturae , 13th ed . , vol . 1 ( 6 ) 3021 - 3910 . lipsiae .\nsystema naturae systema naturae , 10th ed . , vol . 1 824 pp . laurentii salvii : holmiae [ stockholm , sweden ] .\nmuseum boltenianum viii + 199 pp . hamburg . [ stated date : - - sep 1798 . ]\nour collecting trip to the caribbees , including a list of shells collected mollusca 2 ( 5 ) 1 - 14 , 3 pls . [ numbered as 2 ] . [ stated date : 20 aug 1949 . ]\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmaximum reported size : 85 mm . the rounded body whorl is purplish cream overlaid with dark purple brown . often this coloration is arranged spirally in the form of indistinct chevrons . the shell is solid with a long , narrow aperture and is shaped like a small helmet shell . the aperture is bordered with whitish raised lirae which appear as teeth on the inside of the thickened outer lip . the outerlip is crossed by orange bars that coincide with dark brown markings on the dorsal side . the parietal shield is glossy and rounded . it is yellowish and overlaid with three or four orange patches , one of which is always loated at the apical end . sculpture consists of narrow axial ridges that are depressed by shallow spiral grooves to form axially elongate beads .\nlittle information available on this species . . . ripe for further investigation ! poca informacion sobre esta especie que nos lleva a investigar de una manera mas profunda !\nredfern , c . 2001 . bahamian seashells . bahamianseashells . com , inc . boca raton , florida . page : 59 . olsson , a . a . & mcginty , t . l . 1958 . recent marine mollusks from the caribbean coast of panama with the description of some new genera and species . bulletins of american paleontology vol . 39 n\u00ba304\nmerci de saisir vos informations de connexions . vous pouvez demander la cr\u00e9ation d ' un compte directement en cliquant ici\nmot de passe oubli\u00e9 ? saisissez votre adresse email ci - dessous . si vous ne retrouvez pas l ' adresse email correspondant \u00e0 votre compte merci de nous contacter directement\nthis shell has been added to your booking list . show my booking list continue browsing shell\nyou have to be logged to be able to book and buy shells . click here to log in or create an account .\nwe ' ve updated our privacy policy and by continuing you ' re agreeing to the updated terms .\nwhen you visit our site , preselected companies may use cookies or other certain information on your device to serve relevant ads and for analytics purposes . learn more\ndiscussions , photo series , how to identify or distinguish a species or between species .\ndescription : f + + , very strange specimen ! looks like hybrid of vibex and turgida ! we had some before from b . cook !\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . for additional information , see the global shipping program terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab"]}
{"id": 437, "summary": [{"text": "the snakelocks anemone ( anemonia viridis ) is a sea anemone found in the eastern atlantic ocean to the mediterranean sea .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the tentacles of anemones in deep or murky water can be a grey colour , but are otherwise usually a deep green colour with purple tips due to the presence of symbiotic algae within the tentacles that use sunlight as an energy source .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "as a result , the anemones prefer brightly lit shallow waters .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "on average the snakelock anemone is 8 cm wide . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "snakelocks anemone", "paragraphs": ["profile of the snakelocks anemone this profile contains interesting facts and information about the snakelocks anemone species .\nsome anemones such as the snakelocks anemone glow fluorescent green under ultra violet light .\ndescription of the snakelocks anemone the snakelocks anemone is a popular anemone for the aquarium setup , it adapts easily to different environments and makes an ideal home for clownfish who have a symbiotic relationship with sea anemones . this particular variety of sea anemone is eaten ! in spain , the dish is called\nortiguillas de mar\nwhich translates as sea nettles . the anemone is marinated in vinegar , coated in a tempura style batter and deep fried .\nswimming in chesil fleet through ' some sargassum , i felt a mild tingling sensation across my abdomen . this was caused by snakelocks anemone !\nwhich lives in the tentacles of the snakelocks anemone without being harmed . the presence of the zooxanthellae has been shown to improve long term survival for\nbeadlet anemone ( actinia equina ) \u2013 the most familiar sea anemone to most . found on a wide range of rocky shores , often as dark red or green blobs of jelly when out of the water at low tide . strawberry anemone ( actinia fragacea ) \u2013 similar to the beadlet anemone but larger and marked like a strawberry . snakelocks anemone ( anemone viridis ) \u2013 another familar anemone in the south west , whose brightly coloured tentacles remain extended even when disturbed . gem anemone ( aulactinia verrucosa ) \u2013 a squat anemone with many markings and a bumpy body . normally found attached to rocks on the lower shore and in pools . cloak anemone ( adamsia carciniopados ) \u2013 is a beautiful pink spotty anemone almost always found living with the hermit crab ( pagurus prideaux ) .\ndaly , s . 1999 .\nthe creature feature - snakelocks anemone\n( on - line ) . accessed april 9 , 2003 at urltoken .\nthat are found in the anemone ' s tissues . these algae are necessary for the long term survival of the sea anemone . when the numbers of algae diminish the anemone may appear dull grey in colour . the algae need light to flourish , so snakelocks anemones will be found in the sunniest pools . unlike\ntake up about 6 % - 12 % of the mass of the anemone .\nin the wild , snakelocks anemones rarely retract their tentacles because of the algae ' s need for sunlight . even when left on land after high tide the tentacles stay exposed . the tentacles are also used in conflicts with adjacent anemones . in fighting over the same territory , the red beadlet anemone ( actinia equina ) uses its blue beads while the snakelocks anemone strikes with its long tentacles . the tentacles are sticky to the human hand , but can produce a powerful sting and rash on thinner human skin . the sessile snakelocks anemone normally is the only sea anemone species in a pool , fighting off other sea anemones species . often these anemones are found living in colonies .\nscientific classification of the snakelocks anemone definition : scientific classification , or biological classification , is how biologists group and categorize species of organisms with shared physical characteristics . scientific classification belongs to the science of taxonomy .\n, is distinguished by its long greenish tentacles . the green coloration is due to the photosynthetic zooxanthellae algae growing in the tentacles ' tissues . without the chlorophyll of the algae , the anemone would appear gray or light brown . sometimes the tentacle tips are purple . the snakelocks anemone has some of the longest tentacles of all sea anemones . with up to over 200 sticky tentacles , the snakelocks anemone grows to 20 cm across and eight cm tall . the tentacles are lined with venomous stinging cells called cnidocysts .\n) and then search under the scientific name of the anemone % / or longitudinal fission .\nthe snakelocks anemone is very impressive considering its two - coloured tentacles and the length of the tentacles . this species is common on rocky seashores , especially in rock pools , and thus may be familiar to some visitors .\nhorton , a . 2000 .\nsnakelocks anemome\n( on - line ) . accessed april 9 , 2003 at urltoken .\nhiscock , k . 2003 .\n* anemonia viridis * . snakelocks anemone\n( on - line ) . marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information sub - programme . accessed july 19 , 2004 at urltoken .\n[ 2 ] dr keith hiscock , hiscock , k . , 2008 . anemonia viridis . snakelocks anemone . marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information sub - programme [ on - line ] . , 29 / 04 / 2008 .\n. as the zooxanthellae provides food , the anemone provides nitrogen . without this mutualistic interaction neither species would flourish .\ninteresting information about sea anemones sea anemones are named after the anemone flower . they are a predatory animal that releases a toxin to paralyse its prey . the prey is then moved into the anemones gastro vascular cavity . the poison secreted by a sea anemone affects fish and crustaceans . the clown fish or anemonefish however has a mutually symbiotic relationship with the sea anemone , they are not affected by its poison and live among its tentacles , indeed laying their eggs on the anemone itself . the clownfish uses the sea anemone as a form of defence from larger predators .\nsnakelocks sea anemones - anatomy the sea anemone has just one external opening . this single opening acts as both a mouth and an anus . all waste and undigested material is excreted through this opening . a sea anemone has no sense organs , its nervous system is very primitive but it does have nerves and muscles . the anemone doesn ' t have a skeleton , it keeps itself stable by closing its mouth enabling it to stay rigid . snakelocks sea anemones - movement can a sea anemone move ? although sea anemones usually remain static , they can use their pedal disc to move slowly flexing their body or using their tentacles to swim slowly to another location . they can attach themselves to a rock , the sea bed or the shell of a crustacean , a hermit crab for example . a sea anemone will only move location if they are attacked by a predator or the conditions of the water are unsuitable .\n, a family of sea anemones , commonly called \u201cnight sea anemone\u201d , distributed in the western pacific ocean ; it is also called in japanese \u201cunbachi - isoginchaku\u201d which means \u201csea - wasp anemone\u201d in okinawa ( south japan ) . the shape of the animal changes with its circumstances (\ngarcia p . j . , schein r . m . , burnett j . w . fulminant hepatic failure from a sea anemone sting .\nmassmanian a . , valcuende cavero f . v . , ramirez bosca a . r . , castells rodellas a . c . sea anemone dermatitis .\nhiscock , k . 2008 . anemonia viridis snakelocks anemone . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken\nthe snakelocks will mainly eat things like : small fish , gastropods , crustaceans , and all sorts of things that would dare enter into its jaws . whether they are dead or alive , the victims are caught by the leafy , snake - like tentacles of the snakelocks . what is keeping the victims from escaping these tentacles you ask ? well , my voracious scientist , there happen to be hundreds of tiny harpoon - like structures vested inside the snakelocks tentacles . undetectable by the naked eye , these harpoon - like structures known as nematocysts will shoot out of the snakelocks and emit a venom that may be either paralytical or even lethal . after the victim has been caught by these dangerous harpoons ( also known as stinging cells ) it is then absorbed into its body the same way a venus flytrap eats an insect .\nthe snakelocks harbor a yellow - green or yellow - brown algae called zooxanthellae as an endosymbiont . this zooxanthellae is a tissue that is fed by intense light that can only be provided by shallow waters which much light passes through . if they do not get the light needed to survive , the tentacles will retract and become colorless , indicating that the snakelocks is either dead or dying due to the lack of sunshine .\nthe snakelocks has two forms of reproduction . it reproduces by budding ( a process in which the snakelocks will make an identical half of itsself ) . this process may be known as longitudinal fission ; meaning that the\nfission\n( to split in half ) is extending along the long axis of the body , in other words , from head to the tail . this\nlongitudinal fission\ncan take hours or minutes to perform . they can also reproduce through regeneration - a bodily function in which the invertebrate will re - grow any lost appendages . considering these two reproductional functions , snakelocks is truly an amazing creature .\nsea anemones vary in size , with some tropical species reaching more than a metre in diameter . one of the largest in british waters is the horesman anemone ( urticina eques ) , reaching sizes of 35cm across . one of the smallest in britain is the rare anemone gonactinia prolifera , which rarely grows more than 5mm tall .\nare commensal . the anemone provides protection for the spider crab . the crab is immune to the possibly dangerous sting . another commensal relationship includes bucchichi ' s goby ,\nsnakelocks anemones live best attached to the bottom in shallow salt water and intertidal pools . these anemones have been found as far down as 20 meters , but are rare below 10 - 12 meters . they compete for space with\nlongitudinal fission . anemone splits into two identical halves , as illustrated ( click on the link below ) . the process can take from between 5 minutes and 2 hours .\nhaving some of the longest tentacles proves to be an advantage for these planktonivorous and carnivorous food gathers . the tentacles surround the mouth , sweeping the ocean water searching for planktonic and benthic crustaceans . during times of starvation , sea anemones will release their basal disc to move to new locations in search of better feeding areas . most sea anemones do not consume large gastropod molluscs , but they are one of the main staples for the snakelocks anemone . having over 200 tentacles increases the surface area . the large surface area is proportional to the size of the prey that can be captured . they feast on all types of small fish and palaemonid prawns . living in symbiosis with the photosynthetic algae - zooxanthellae seems to produce food and also remove waste products . after ingesting a meal , the snakelocks anemone increases the amount of oxygen it consumes because the zooxanthaellae produces oxygen as a by - product of its photosynthesis . having both long tentacles and zooxanthellae algae provides two ways of food intake . bacteria that live in the coelenteron breaks down the organic detritus for the anemone , but the detritus is a minor component of the anemone ' s overall food intake .\nthe venomous stinging cells of the snakelocks can leave a violent rash on anyone whom dares cross its tentacles . this rash may last for weeks to a month , its mark can be even more painful than a jellyfish sting . the sting may cause an irritating , itching feeling with a constant feeling of inflammation . in some cases , scars have formed from the terrible rash that the ominous sting will cause . there have also been reports of these marks being very similar to stinging nettles ( which are found on land as plants ) . in light of the latter statement , we may conclude saying that the snakelocks anemone is almost like an underwater stinging nettle .\nsnakelocks anemones are mainly sessile , but will move to escape from predators or find better food locations . the predators consist of octopi , oxystomatid crabs , and fish that find the anemones after high tide when the sea anemones are left exposed .\ncuriosities : the snakelocks anemone , like all cnidaria , can have a powerful sting . when it is touched with your fingers , the stinging cells attack the skin , but without piercing it , and the tentacles remain stuck on your fingers . as the tentacles come off easily , there is always a danger that they might reach more delicate areas such as the face , neck , inner arm , etc . , causing injuries .\nnorton r . s . , pennington m . w . , wulff h . pottasium channel blockade by the sea anemone toxin shk for the treatment of multiple sclerosis and other autoimmune diseases .\nnagai h . , oshiro n . , takuwa - kuroda k . , iwanaga s . , nozaki m . , nakajima t . novel proteinaceous toxins from the nematocyst venom of the okinawan sea anemone\nnagai h . , oshiro n . , takuwa - kuroda k . , iwanaga s . , nozaki m . , nakajima t . a new polypeptide toxin from the nematocyst venom of an okinawa sea anemone\ndutch : wasroos , draadroos french ( add . ) : ortique , an\u00e9mone beignets , ortie de mer italian : capelli di venere , anemone capelli di serpe , matrona di mare , morosa portuguese : an\u00e9mona do mar comun\nthis minireview focuses on the sea anemone , a coelenterate of the phylum cnidaria . sea anemones have sting venoms to catch and immobilize small fishes and shrimps for feeding and protection . most are not harmful for humans or only cause mild dermatitis . a few species possess highly toxic venoms and are hazardous for humans . the hell\u2019s fire sea anemone ( actinodendron plumosum ) is named for the severe skin ulceration caused by its sting [ 10 , 20 ] . envenomation by the sea anemone stichodactyla haddoni caused shock and organ failure , including fulminant hepatitis [ 22 , 24 ] . phyllodiscus semoni ( p . semoni ) is another sea anemone dangerous to humans . the sting usually induces severe dermatitis with ulceration and profound swelling in the regions of contact [ 18 , 21 ] . more serious sequelae of envenomation by p . semoni include the development of acute renal failure without evidence of dysfunction of other organs [ 18 ] .\nthis large anemone has long flexuous tentacles which are a grey - brown or bright green in colour . the green variety has purple tips to the tentacles . the tentacles rarely withdraw into the column , which is reddish or greyish brown .\nduring the mating season from june through august sperm is released and received by the ova via water flow . inside of the female ova , the zooxanthellae algae are carried into the next generation . the snakelocks anemone is oviparous , meaning the eggs are laid outside the mother ' s body . this sexual process for reproduction is less common than the asexual longitudinal fission process . longitudinal fission is a literal splitting of the sea anemone . after the splitting , they each have a simple and uncompleted ring of tentacles . the two new sea anemones have an uncentered mouth to start food consumption . many of the internal tissues are duplicated before the actual splitting process . the longitudinal fission splits laterally , starting at the basal disc . the whole fission process happens relatively quickly , it takes from 5 minutes to 2 hours .\ndescription : the anemones are pink invertebrates with a vegetable appearance and long , moving tentacles . the snakelocks anemone has two clearly different shapes distinguished in the external appearance and the habitat : one smaller form with a diameter of 2 to 5 cm , which preferably lives on well - lit rocky walls and beds with blocks up to 5 m in depth ; and another larger form with a diameter of up to 15 cm and tentacles up to 50 cm in length , which also lives on well - lit rocky walls but at depths of between 3 and 25 m .\nmizuno m . , nishikawa k . , yuzawa y . , kanie t . , mori h . , araki y . , hotta n . , matsuo s . a case report of acute renal failure following a sting presumedly by a sea anemone .\nthis anemone is very common in the most protected parts of the tidal zone . unlike other anemones , this one cannot retract its long tentacles . so , to lessen its loss of water during low tide , it reduces the exposed area of its body . it lives in symbiosis with green algae ( which give it its typical colouration ) and for that reason it inhabits places close to the surface with plenty of sunlight . besides obtaining nutrients from the algae living on its body , this anemone feeds on small fish and invertebrates , that it gathers using its venomous tentacles .\nsymbiotic algae which appears to be necessary for the long term survival of this sea anemone . ingests larger food items both dead and alive , e . g . small fish , just moulted palaemonid prawns . gastropod molluscs and all sorts of crustaceans form the bulk of the diet in limited studies .\nsoletti r . c . , de faria g . p . , vernal j . , terenzi h . , anderluh g . , borges h . l . , moura - neto v . , gabilan n . h . potentiation of anticancer - drug cytotoxicity by sea anemone pore - formimg proteins in human glioblastoma cells .\nthe sea anemone , categorized in phylum coelenterate ( cnidaria ) , class anthozoa , is armed with venom - secreting nematocysts to aid in the capture of prey and to protect from predators . most sea anemones are harmless for man or at worst cause dermatitis by contact irritants / toxins . however , venom of some sea anemones is extremely harmful for man ; actinodendron plumosum ( hell\u2019s fire sea anemone ) , actineria villosa ( okinawan sea anemone , called fusa - unbachi in japan ) and p . semoni all cause severe injury including dermatitis [ 15 , 127 ] , hepatitis [ 24 ] , renal failure [ 18 ] and anaphylactic shock [ 22 ] . the sea anemones anemonia sulcata and anemonia equine , were reported to cause severe dermatitis with hyper - and parakeratosis with many infiltrative cells in the skin [ 128 ] , while toxins from other sea anemones , including actinia equina , anemonia sulcata , anthopleura xanthgrammica , bunodosoma granulifera , bunodosoma caissarum and stichodactyla helianthus , were cytolytic , haemolytic , neurotoxic and cardiotoxic [ 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 134 , 135 ] .\nanemones have adapted to a wide range of habitats , from the muddy depths of sea lochs , to seashores , wrecks and offshore reefs . some even attach to other living creatures . the beadlet anemone is an example of a specis found on the shore , which can survive out of the water when the tide drops , by drawing its tentacles inside its body .\nleaves etc . , usually in well - lit situations . occurs mainly on the shore , from about mid - tide level downwards , mostly in localities exposed to strong wave action but also in sheltered places , and in the shallow sublittoral down to about 20 m . a conspicuous species and , if present , may well be the first anemone to catch the eye .\nchi v . , pennington m . w . , norton r . s . , tarcha e . j . , londono l . m . , sims - fahey b . , upadhyay s . k . , lakey j . t . , iadonato s . , wulff h . , beeton c . , et al . development of a sea anemone toxin as an immunomodulator for therapy of autoimmune diseases .\nwhen poked with fingers the tentacles feel incredibly sticky to the thick skin . however , when grazed on by the abdomen the tentacles can sting and raise a rash , which can last a month . there have been several reports in 1999 . this anemone was responsible for a severe blistering of a baby ' s leg on a guernsey beach in august 1999 . the sting can be worse than that of the jellyfish around britain .\nin the natural world , there are many creatures with venoms that have interesting and varied activities . although the sea anemone , a member of the phylum coelenterata , has venom that it uses to capture and immobilise small fishes and shrimp and for protection from predators , most sea anemones are harmless to man . however , a few species are highly toxic ; some have venoms containing neurotoxins , recently suggested as potential immune - modulators for therapeutic application in immune diseases . phyllodiscus semoni is a highly toxic sea anemone ; the venom has multiple effects , including lethality , hemolysis and renal injuries . we previously reported that venom extracted from phyllodiscus semoni induced acute glomerular endothelial injuries in rats resembling hemolytic uremic syndrome ( hus ) , accompanied with complement dysregulation in glomeruli and suggested that the model might be useful for analyses of pathology and development of therapeutic approaches in hus . in this mini - review , we describe in detail the venom - induced acute renal injuries in rat and summarize how the venom of phyllodiscus semoni could have potential as a tool for analyses of complement activation and therapeutic interventions in hus .\nto capture its ' food , the anemone uses the stinging power in its ' tentacles . the sweeping tentacles capture food , and then transport it to the mouth by ciliary currents . sometimes the unfortunate prey wanders mistakenly into the paralyzing tentacles or a tidal wave bring in new food specimens . inside the tentacles are cnidocyte cells . the cnidocytes contain the nematocysts that are the stinging capsules . the nematocysts respond only when both stimuli occurs - the combination of touch and food extract . as the cnidocytes paralyze the prey , the movement in the tentacles brings the food through the mouth for extra - cellular digestion . ammino acids and glucose can be directly absorbed from the sea water by the ectodermal cells on the tentacles .\npresent on the western coasts of britain from portsmouth all around to the west coast of scotland where it extends northwards to just south of cape wrath . absent from the east basin of the irish sea .\npresent mainly in the intertidal especially in pools from mid - tide downwards but not extending far into the sublittoral . however , frequently present , often in large numbers on the leaves of seagrass ( e . g .\ncolumn smooth , disk wide , tentacles long , fairly stout and flexuous - up to about 200 .\nthe column is reddish or greyish brown , the disk brown or greyish with white radial lines , tentacles grey - brown or bright green with purple tips .\npale individuals may occur where there is little or no light ( for instance when removed to an aquarium ) .\nhowson , c . m . & picton , b . e . , 1997 . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . belfast : ulster museum . [ ulster museum publication , no . 276 . ]\nlewis , j . r . , 1964 . the ecology of rocky shores . london : english universities press .\nstephenson , t . a . , 1935 . the british sea anemones , vol . 2 . london : ray society .\nmarine life information network ( marlin ) , the marine biological association of the uk ( see contact us ) \u00a9 2018 the marine biological association of the uk , all rights reserved .\nthe information ( text only ) provided by the marine life information network ( marlin ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available here . based on a work at urltoken\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nare found on the southern and western shores of britain and as far south as the mediterranean sea . they are distinguished by long flowing tentacles and will usually be found in a bright green colour , sometimes with purple tips to the tentacles . a few specimens have a\n, they do not readily retract their tentacles if left stranded on land by the retreating tide . however , in aquaria they demonstrate their ability to do so .\nintertidal pools and shallow water . requires high intensity light levels ( e . g . 50000 lux is natural in summer , 16000 lux will probably suffice in aquaria ) for the\ni got stung by something caught up in a thick canopy of sargassum at kimmeridge , dorset , in july 1999 - it bubbled up like a severe nettle sting , then turned red as it subsided to leave red weals which i still have a trace of on my stomach ( over a month later ) . i guess it was an unusual reaction to common jellyfish as i didn ' t see any\na snorkeller was stung on the soft skin on the underside of her forearm producing a large red weal after diving at kimmeridge , dorset . after 6 weeks the weal had almost disappeared , but it still itched .\ni remember years ago seeing a boy messing about with these anemones and developing a sudden and painful line of weals on his inner arm . (\ni was recently in the purbecks in dorset and whilst my daughter was swimming in a rock pool ( at dancing ledge ) she was suddenly stung by ' something ' ! ! there were no jelly fish in sight and we weren ' t sure what caused it . the sting was very painful and when it eased off , very itchy ! just after she was stung , the marks on her arm and leg were similar to those you get when stung by stinging nettles ( raised and white blotches ) . the marks , as shown in the attached picture , are now raised and red with ' a kind of tickly feeling ' when touched . could this be some kind of stinging seaweed ? ? is there such a thing in the coastal waters off the uk ?\nin dorset , part of the purbeck coastline in the south west of england .\nthere is a particular rock pool that was artificially created by a headmaster of a local boarding school sometime in the early 20th century . it forms a perfect intertidal swimming pool that attracts lots of families and bathers like myself . i was in the pool for some time leaning and sitting on the edges . i did feel a small sting quite early on but thought it was an open cut or graze from scrambling on the rocks before getting in .\nafter a long swim in the sea as well , i got out and immediatley felt a rapid burning sensation like my skin was on fire . the area bubbled up in patches , very similar to a dense collection of nettle stings . interestingly , the stings on my bottom form a neat and rather unattractive line on the edge of my bikini bottoms . there were other people in the water at the same time but they had long shorts on or wetsuits , so the stings couldn ' t penetrate . i did hear from another swimmer that a little girl who was only wearing a bikini like me , had also suffered an attack .\ni took the attached photo about ten minutes after getting out of the water . the area remained very hot and very very tender for about two days . during the following week it began to go down then it formed in red welts that look like chronic\n. it ' s become itchy and inflamed and i started to use calamine lotion again to sooth it . i hope that you will publish the photos and the story to warn people , particularly with young children , that this rock pool has a large concentration of\ni very much look forward to hearing form you . please let me know if you require any further information .\nsouth & west of the british isles . mediterranean and the atlantic coasts of portugal , france , spain .\nin the wild , this species will not retract its tentacles , although in captivity it has been shown to be able to do so .\nref : simon davy , zooxanthellae in the tissues of british sea anemones ( coelenterate society talk at the school of ocean sciences , university of wales , bangor ) .\n. photographs can be found on the following site . click on the logo .\n, has a basal diameter of 20 mm and a long tentacle stretching out of 210 mm .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nin the mediterranean sea and eastern atlantic ocean from north africa and the canary islands to the british isles , where the species is confined to the western coasts .\nrock pools in the intertidal zone as well as often in large numbers on the leaves of seagrass ( e . g . zostera marina ) in shallow waters down to 30 m . usually on hard ground or in crevices .\n, is found in shallow water throughout the mediterranean sea and north along portugal , spain , and france to the southern and western coasts of great britain . it may also occur along the african coast south of the straits of gibraltar .\nat the 10 to 12 meter line , so living above this line avoids conflict with other species and positions them closer to the sunlight . the high intensity sunlight near the surface provides energy for their symbiotic algae ( called zooxanthellae ) . around the british coast these anemones attach themselves to rocks , blades of eel - grass , or kelp .\nunderneath the mass of tentacles grows the polyp body , which is a tubular structure . the mouth lies imbedded between the tentacles . the mouth leads into the body cavity through the pharynx and into the coelenteron ( gut sac ) . as with all cnidarians , there is no anus - - undigested waste is regurgitated back out through the mouth . the gonads in\nadults of this species do not invest in their offspring except to provide yolk for their eggs .\nhas an alloimmune memory . when it is presented with a known stimulus , is has a specific remembered response . it can\nremember\nstimuli for up to five days .\n( harris , 1990 ; horton , 2000 ; shick , 1991 ; waller , et al . , 1996 )\nstephanie eaker ( author ) , southwestern university , stephanie fabritius ( editor ) , southwestern university .\nthe body of water between africa , europe , the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , and the western hemisphere . it is the second largest ocean in the world after the pacific ocean .\nreferring to an animal that lives on or near the bottom of a body of water . also an aquatic biome consisting of the ocean bottom below the pelagic and coastal zones . bottom habitats in the very deepest oceans ( below 9000 m ) are sometimes referred to as the abyssal zone . see also oceanic vent .\nused loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies . more specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits ( a continuous , modular society ) - as in clonal organisms .\nparticles of organic material from dead and decomposing organisms . detritus is the result of the activity of decomposers ( organisms that decompose organic material ) .\nhaving a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .\nthe area of shoreline influenced mainly by the tides , between the highest and lowest reaches of the tide . an aquatic habitat .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nphotosynthetic or plant constituent of plankton ; mainly unicellular algae . ( compare to zooplankton . )\na form of body symmetry in which the parts of an animal are arranged concentrically around a central oral / aboral axis and more than one imaginary plane through this axis results in halves that are mirror - images of each other . examples are cnidarians ( phylum cnidaria , jellyfish , anemones , and corals ) .\nattached to substratum and moving little or not at all . synapomorphy of the anthozoa\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\nan animal which has an organ capable of injecting a poisonous substance into a wound ( for example , scorpions , jellyfish , and rattlesnakes ) .\nanimal constituent of plankton ; mainly small crustaceans and fish larvae . ( compare to phytoplankton . )\nfautin , d . 2004 .\nanemonia viridis classification\n( on - line ) . hexacorallians of the world . accessed july 12 , 2004 at urltoken .\nto cite this page : eaker , s . 2003 .\nanemonia viridis\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\n, up to about 200 in number . the tentacles are rarely retracted but they can be completely retracted into the\nreddish or greyish brown , usually darkest above , sometimes with irregular pale streaks , acrorhagi matching the ground colour . disc brown or greyish , usually with white radial lines , tentacles grey - brown or bright grass - green with purple tips . some tentacles may bear a median longitudinal pale line , more rarely they are suffused with crimson , mainly on the aboral sides , which may extend onto the\nis unable to tolerate prolonged conditions of extreme cold ; in the exceptionally cold winter of 1963 - 64 it disappeared from many localities .\nlocally abundant on south and west coasts of the british isles , extending north to mid - scotland . common on all south - west coasts of europe and in the mediterranean .\nusing energy efficiently is the fastest and most cost effective way of cutting carbon emissions and can also help to save you money . investing in water and energy saving practices makes good financial and environmental sense .\nthe marine protection regulations 2014 came into effective on the 1st january 2015 . these form part of the wider government strategy to protect the marine environment in gibraltar as required under international , european and regional legislative frameworks .\ndisposing of waste correctly needn\u2019t be complicated . whether you are looking to throw out or recycle , from your home or your business , all waste has its proper place .\neverything you need to know about how and where to dispose of all your waste materials .\nthe marine protection regulations set out how and when you can fish in british gibraltar territorial waters . found out what is and isn\u2019t allowed and how toat your relevant permits .\nif you are planning to sell or rent your building you will need to provide an epc to the prospective buyer or tenant .\nwater heaters can contribute up to 15 % of a home\u2019s total energy use . setting the temperature to an optimal 60\u00b0c ensures a balance between meeting heating demands , fighting the growth of bacteria and not using more energy than needed .\nleds use 80 % less energy than a traditional bulb . using just one bulb could save you \u00a3100 in its lifetime ( and they last up to ten times longer than normal bulbs ) .\nturning off computers at the end of the day will make a big difference to energy consumption in the workplace . it is also good practice to not routinely switch on office equipment at the start of each day \u2013 wait until they are required where possible .\nhave a look through our thinking green website to check out the various aspects of our local environment . if there is anything you would like to learn more about , and it hasn\u2019t been covered , contact the department of the environment and climate change through our form on the link below .\nthis species is eaten in some mediterranean countries . in sardinia , \u201c orziadas \u201d and also in southwestern spain , in the gulf of c\u00e1diz region , as \u201c ortiguillas de mar \u201d ( literally ,\nlittle sea nettles\n, because of its urticant tentacles ) , are deep - fried in olive oil .\nthey will usually be located in shallow waters or certain interlocked - tidal areas . they have specific light preferences such as the light generated by 80 watts of electricity which is equivalent to 50 , 000 lux ( lux is a unit of illumination equal to 1 lumen per square meter ) .\nthis page was last modified on 24 july 2014 , at 14 : 26 .\nsometimes called the \u2018flowers of the sea\u2019 , sea anemones are actually beautiful animals , closely related to jellyfish and corals .\nlike jellyfish and corals , anemones belong to the group cnidarians . the name cnidaria comes from the latin cnidae which means \u2018nettle\u2019 . all of the animals within this group have stinging cells which they use for the capture of prey and to protect themselves against predators . sea anemones are simple animals , often attached to hard surfaces such as rocks and boulders . however there are also burrowing anemones that bury themselves in sand , mud or gravel on the sea floor .\nsea anemones have many fascinating methods of reproduction with some species using a combination of techniques . some , including beadlet and daisy anemones are vivaporous ( so are humans ! ) and reproduce through internal fertilisation , releasing fully formed young anemones from their mouths . most anemones can reproduce asexually through budding , where fragments break off and develop into new individuals . some stretch themselves along their base and split across the middle resulting in two new anemones of equal size . this method is called longitudinal fission . in others , small pieces of tissue break from the base forming tiny anemones . this method is called basal laceration .\nsea anemones can be found in oceans all over the world , but arguably some of the most beautiful are seen right here in britain . our own temperate waters support over 70 species of anenome .\nfish , and shrimps , can often be found hiding from predators inside the floating tentacles of anemones .\nmost sea anemones live attached , catching passing food with their tentacles . sea anemones can move slowly by gliding on their base . many are also capable of moving rapidly to avoid predation or competition by detaching , catching a current and re - attaching elsewhere .\nthe diet of most anemones consists of small animals such as plankton , crabs and fish , however a number of bigger sea anemones will eat much larger prey . for example , dahlia anemones can be greedy feeders that will prey on starfish and jellyfish\nanemones have rings of tentacles surrounding their central mouth . tentacles have specialised stinging cells called nematocysts . they use these to immobilise their prey so that the tentacles are then able to move the food into the mouth . the extending tentacles can also be used to catch passing food as it drifts past .\nsome sea anemones are very long lived and have been known to reach 60 - 80 years . because anemones are able to clone themselves they do not age and therefore have the potential to live indefinitely in the absence of predators or disease .\nthere are around 32 types of starfish in british waters and 1 , 500 around the world . find out about this amazing group of animals , how they feed , how they move and where they live .\nthe marine biological association conducts , promotes and supports scientific research into all aspects of life in the sea . we ' re working with our ever - growing membership to provide a clear and independent voice on behalf of the marine biological community\nbiology : there are different animal species that live in association with the anemones , for instance some fish and crabs . they normally live alone and sometimes in small groups . they are carnivores that eat small crustaceans , mussels and small fish . if the conditions are right , they can reproduce by longitudinal division , that is , asexually , but they also have oviparous sexual reproduction from may to july and separate sexes .\nhabitat : this invertebrate lives on rocks exposed to light , often from the tide line to depths of 6 metres . it is often found in shallow waters in calm bays , and withstands dirty waters very well .\nstatus : species not evaluated ( according to the red list of endangered species ) .\nby creating an account , i agree to shutterstock ' s website terms , privacy policy , and licensing terms .\n\u00a9 2003 - 2018 shutterstock , inc . all rights reserved . made in nyc .\nsmall ( s ) has the shortest download time and is suitable for digital use .\nlarge ( l ) is suitable for large prints as well as digital use . it is the original image provided by the contributor .\nyou can redownload your image for free at any time , in any size .\neditorial content , such as news and celebrity images , are not cleared for commercial use . learn more on our support center .\nsign up to browse over million images , video clips , and music tracks . plus , get free weekly content and more .\n( we only support jpg and png images under 5mb and no larger than 4000px on either side at this time . )\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nmasashi mizuno , 1 , * yasuhiko ito , 1 and b . paul morgan 2\n1 renal replacement therapy , division of nephrology , nagoya university graduate school of medicine , 65 tsurumai - cho , showa - ku , nagoya 466 - 8550 , japan ; email : pj . ca . u - ayogan . dem @ otiusay\n2 complement biology group , institute of infection and immunology , school of medicine , cardiff university , cardiff cf14 4xn , uk ; email : ku . ca . ffidrac @ pbnagrom\n* author to whom correspondence should be addressed ; email : pj . ca . u - ayogan . dem @ uzimm or pj . oc . oohay @ pj1mihsasam ; tel . : + 81 - 52 - 744 - 2205 ; fax : + 81 - 52 - 744 - 2184 .\nreceived 2012 may 31 ; revised 2012 jun 29 ; accepted 2012 jul 12 .\nthis article is an open - access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license ( urltoken ) .\n] , various situations in which envenomation by aquatic animals has injured people have been reported . culprits include cnidarians such as fire coral (\n] . components of some venoms are highly toxic for humans and can rarely cause multiple organ failure and lethal shock .\non the other hand , some toxins have found use as experimental agents and some have been investigated as therapeutics . for example , it was reported that nn - 32 purified from the venom of the cobra naja naja might have anti - cancer effects in animal models [ 41 ] . a number of venoms have been shown to have complement ( c ) activating components that directly or indirectly contribute to tissue damage [ 3 , 5 , 7 , 42 ] . one of these , the c3 - like protein cobra venom factor ( cvf ) purified from venom of the egyptian or thai cobra , is widely used as an experimental tool to induce excessive activation and consumption of c in animal models [ 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 ] . a humanized cvf has been tested as a therapeutic approach in man [ 48 , 49 ] . the c activating component of brown recluse spider ( loxosceles genus ) venom has also been proposed as a tool for biological purposes [ 50 ] .\nresearch on the venoms of marine animals has also yielded interesting and clinically relevant data . for example , dideoxpetrasynol a , a protein toxin from the sponge\n] has been proposed as a cytotoxic agent to target some cancers . several other toxin - derived agents have been shown to have antitumor activities and proposed as therapeutics [\nis a potent blocker of the kv1 . 3 potassium channel , inhibits t lymphocyte proliferation [\nwe recently reported that the venom , termed pstx - t , extracted from nematocysts of p . semoni had nephrotoxin activity and induced acute renal injuries in rodents [ 76 ] . this nephrotoxin acutely induced glomerular endothelial injuries , with a similar pathology to atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome ( ahus ) . this animal model might be attractive to analyze pathological mechanisms and to develop new agents for therapeutic use in ahus . in the present mini review , we summarize the nature and time - course of the natural venom - induced acute renal injuries and explore the mechanisms of nephrotoxicity of p . semoni venom nephrotoxin in a rodent system .\nnatural venoms represent a rare cause of acute kidney injuries . these can be broadly divided into three categories ; food poisons , biting poisons and sting poisons ( envenomation ) , as indicated in\n] . acute kidney injuries ( aki ) induced by natural venoms included acute tubular necrosis caused by impairment of renal hemodynamics , intravascular hemolysis , rhabdomyolysis , disseminated intravascular coagulation ( dic ) and direct toxin - mediated effects , including thrombotic microangiopathy similar to that observed in hus . there are many reports of renal injuries caused by snake bites [\n] , usually accompanied by systemic organ failures and / or shock . for instance , snake envenomation often induced hemolysis , rhabdomyolysis and dic , and sometimes was accompanied by acute renal failure with thrombotic microangiopathy , particularly following bites of taipan (\nrenal injuries caused by marine animal toxins can also divided into these three categories . marine envenomation can cause dermal injuries , neurotoxicity , hemolysis , and systemic shock reactions , including anaphylactic shock ; some victims developed acute renal failure (\n) . the causes of renal injuries include systemic shock , hemolysis , rhabdomyolysis , and direct nephrotoxic effects . for instance , acute renal failure with hemolysis was caused by a portuguese man - of - war sting [\n* acute tubular necrosis ; * * thrombotic microangiopathy ; * * * hemolytic uremic syndrome .\n3 . envenomation by sea anemones including p . semoni and the acute kidney injuries\na ) . the sting induces severe dermatitis with local ulceration and swelling that often takes months to resolve . we recently reported a more serious sequela of envenomation by\nphotographs of phyllodiscus semoni ( unbachi - isogintyaku ) and nematocysts . ( a ) the intact organism as found in the seas off okinawa island ; ( b ) close - up view of the globular vesicles ( white arrows ) with nematocysts . scales bar is in the upper right corner of frame b . the underwater photos were taken by m . mizuno ."]}
{"id": 439, "summary": [{"text": "hose 's palm civet ( diplogale hosei ) , also known as hose 's civet , is a civet species endemic to the island of borneo .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is listed on the iucn red list as vulnerable because of an ongoing population decline , estimated to be more than 30 % over the last three generations ( inferred to be 15 years ) and suspected to be more than 30 % in the next three generations due to declines in population inferred from habitat destruction and degradation .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "diplogale is a monospecific genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "hose 's palm civet was named after the zoologist charles hose by oldfield thomas in 1892 .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "hose collected the first specimen in sarawak in 1891 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "what little is known of the species comes primarily from 17 museum specimens worldwide .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "only in 1997 , the first living specimen was obtained and released after 2 months \u2013 there remains no hose \u2019s civet in captivity anywhere in the world . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "hose ' s palm civet", "paragraphs": ["main characteristics hose ' s palm civets have a body length between 47 and 54 cms ( 18 . 5 - 21 . 3 inches ) and a tail length between 28 and 33 cms ( 11 - 13 inches ) . they are dark brown to black in colour with a paler coloured underside . habitat hose ' s palm civets can be found in the mountainous forests of borneo . diet hose ' s palm civets feed on worms and insects . subspecies there are no subspecies of hose ' s palm civet . interesting facts hose ' s palm civet was named after the zoologist charles hose . hose ' s palm civets are only known from 15 museum specimens , the last of which was collected in 1955 . very little is known about this species . similar animals african palm civet asian palm civet banded palm civet golden palm civet masked palm civet owston ' s palm civet small - toothed palm civet sulawesi palm civet\nhose ' s palm civet - buy hose ' s palm civet by surhone , lambert m . | editor ; tennoe , mariam t . | editor ; henssonow , susan f . | editor online at best prices in india - urltoken\nfrancis , c . 2002 . an observation of hose ' s civet in brunei .\nvan rompaey , h . , j . azlan . 2004 . hose ' s civet ,\nhose ' s palm civet ( english , paperback , lambert m . surhone , mariam t . tennoe , susan f . henssonow )\nhose ' s civet is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nyasuma , s . ( 2004 ) observations of a live hose\u2019s civet diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation , 31 : 5 - 7 .\nyasuma , s . 2004 . observations of a live hose ' s civet diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation 31 : 3 - 5 .\nthe\nnew\nborneo animal , i speculated , might be an example of a rediscovered ( no longer extinct ) hose\u2019s palm civet ( diplogale hosei ) .\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - hose ' s palm civet facts\n( online ) - licensed article from wikipedia : the free encyclopedia . accessed\nyasuma , s . 2004 . observations of a live hose ' s civet diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation , 31 : 3 - 5 .\nowston ' s palm civets are named after the asian wildlife collector alan owston .\nwikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article\nhose ' s palm civet\n.\nthe parental investment of hose ' s civets is not known . the closely related\nwilting , a . , j . fickel . 2012 . phylogenetic relationship of two threatened endemic viverrids from the sunda islands , hose ' s civet and sulawesi civet .\nfrancis , c . 2002 . an observation of hose ' s civet in brunei . small carnivore conservation , 26 : 19 .\nfacts summary : the hose ' s palm civet ( diplogale hosei ) is a species of concern belonging in the species group\nmammals\nand found in the following area ( s ) : brunei darussalam , malaysia .\nof 3 months , owston ' s palm civets give birth to 1 - 3 young .\nwith reverso you can find the english translation , definition or synonym for hose ' s palm civet [ diplogale hosei ] and thousands of other words . you can complete the translation of hose ' s palm civet [ diplogale hosei ] given by the english - french collins dictionary with other dictionaries such as : wikipedia , lexilogos , larousse dictionary , le robert , oxford , gr\u00e9visse\nfrancis , c . m . 2002 . an observation of hose ' s civet in brunei . small carnivore conservation 26 : 16 .\nthe wildlife conservation society , upper baram project , malaysia , had obtained an interesting series of camera trap photos in 2004 on the unlogged areas of mount murud kecil , sarawak . one is of this slender unknown civet , shown above , with a very long tail , pale underparts and white around the muzzle , similar to hose\u2019s palm civet . this individual was photographed on the ridge of the mountain , far from the streams which are the hose\u2019s palm civet\u2019s supposed habitat .\nas opposed to this ( 2005 ) media - celebrated \u201cnew animal , \u201d i said it seemed more proper to say this might be a probable \u201crediscovery\u201d of an extinct form , the hose\u2019s palm civet , as can be seen in a drawing from the excellent lioncrusher reference site and shown directly below this paragraph . the hose\u2019s palm civet appeared to me to be what was photographed from borneo .\nnothing is known about the reproductive behavior of hose ' s civets . other members of the\nhose\u2019s civet is endemic to the island of borneo , where it occurs in sabah and sarawak ( malaysia ) and brunei ( 1 ) .\nthe markings on its face resemble a raccoons facial markings . its tail does not have rings , unlike similar palm civet species . the common palm civet has sharp claws which allow it to climb trees and house gutters .\nthe common palm civet ( paradoxurus hermaphroditus ) , also known as the\u2019 asian palm civet\u2019 \u2018musang\u2019 or the \u2018toddy cat\u2019 , is a cat - sized mammal that resides in the southeast asian tropical rainforests . the common palm civet is found from the himalayas and southern china , to the philippines , the malay peninsula and the indonesian islands .\nhose ' s civet is taken as part of general mammal hunting for food across its range . there is no evidence of specific targeting by hunters .\nfrancis , c . m . ( 2002 ) . an observation of hose ' s civet in brunei . small carnivore conservation , 26 : 16 .\nwilting , a . and fickel , j . 2012 . phylogenetic relationship of two threatened endemic viverrids from the sunda islands , hose\u2019s civet and sulawesi civet . journal of zoology , london 288 : 184\u2013190 .\nsars virus , many believe the masked palm civet to be the source of the sars outbreaks in asia in 2003 .\nwilting , a . , j . fickel . 2012 . phylogenetic relationship of two threatened endemic viverrids from the sunda islands , hose ' s civet and sulawesi civet . journal of zoology : 1 - 7 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - hose ' s civet ( diplogale hosei )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - hose ' s civet ( diplogale hosei )\ntitle =\narkive species - hose ' s civet ( diplogale hosei )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nvan rompaey , h . , j . azlan . 2004 . hose ' s civet , diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation , 30 : 18 - 19 .\nthe common palm civet is a highly adaptive animal and can live in dense forests , agricultural areas and even alongside humans .\nhose\u2019s civet has a long , sinewy body and short legs ( 4 ) . the elongated head has a pointed muzzle , with long facial whiskers ( 4 ) .\nvan rompaey , h . and azlan , m . j . 2004 . hose ' s civet , diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation 30 : 18 - 19 .\nthe common palm civets species name comes from the fact that both male and female have scent glands underneath the tail that resemble testicles . it can spray a harmful secretion from these glands . the common palm civet is solitary , nocturnal and arboreal . common palm civets spend the day asleep in a tree hollow . common palm civets are territorial .\njennings ap , mathai j , brodie j , giordano aj , veron g . 2013 . predicted distributions and conservation status of two threatened southeast asian small carnivores : the banded civet and hose\u2019s civet . mammalia 77 : 261 - 671 .\nowston ' s palm civets can be found in the forests and wooded lowlands of northern vietnam , northern laos and southern china .\nbtw , here\u2019s an interesting coincidence . i thought it might be hose\u2019s palm civet , which was first described by thomas in 1892 , 1915 . if it is thomas\u2019 flying squirrel , aeromys thomasi , i see the person that described this animal was hose , in 1900 . it appears hose and thomas were friends , associates , or , at least , overlapped each other in their discoveries . apparently , their lives are intertwined , once again , in this 2003 - 2007 dilemma .\ncommon palm civets reproduce throughout the year although it has been recorded that kittens are most often seen from october to december . kittens are born in a litter of 2 to 5 young . palm civets become sexually mature at 11 to 12 months . in captivity the common palm civet can live up to 22 years .\nthe common palm civet has black markings on its feet , ears and muzzle . it also has three rows of black markings on its main body .\ni compared the photos from mount murud kecil ( directly above ) , with this drawing ( below ) of the newly discovered borneo\ncivet .\ni thought in 2005 that a good case could to be made that the allegedly \u201cnew borneo animal\u201d was the supposedly extinct ( since 1955 ) hose\u2019s palm civet . i observed it might be similar to the above photographed\nunderreported\nunknown civet from mount murud kecil .\nthe wall street journal ran a front page lead story on the palm oil scandal .\nthe borneo rainforest is one of the few remaining natural habitats for the endangered orangutan . it is an important refuge for many endemic forest species , including the borneo elephant , the eastern sumatran rhinoceros , the bornean clouded leopard , the hose ' s palm civet and the dayak fruit bat .\nin 2005 , the world wide fund for nature released photos taken by a night time camera trap of an unknown carnivore ( nicknamed the cat - fox ) on borneo . scientists debate whether this animal is new species of civet , or a known , but rare , species ( such as hose ' s palm civet , thought previously to be extinct ) .\nit is likely that habitat loss and degradation are major threats to hose\u2019s civet , as throughout borneo , forests have been lost to logging and converted for other land - uses ( 7 ) ( 8 ) .\nhon , j . , j . azlan . 2008 .\ndiplogale hosei ( hose ' s civet )\n( on - line ) . iucn red list . accessed october 04 , 2012 at urltoken .\nbrodie , j . and giordano , a . 2011 . small carnivores of the maliau basin , sabah , borneo , including a new locality for the hose\u2019s civet diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation 44 : 1\u20136 .\nthe mating system of hose ' s civets is not known due to the elusive nature of the species and the lack of individuals in captivity .\nthe elusive hose\u2019s civet ( diplogale hosei ) is so rare that it has only been caught on film once . prior to 2004 , the only descriptions of this species came from observations of fifteen museum specimens ( 2 ) .\nsamejima , h . and semiadi , g . 2012 . first record of hose\u2019s civet diplogale hosei from indonesia and records of other carnivores in the schwaner mountains , central kalimantan , indonesia . small carnivore conservation 46 : 1\u20137 .\njennings , a . p . , mathai , j . , brodie , j . , giordano , a . j . and veron , g . 2013 . predicted distributions and conservation status of two threatened southeast asian small carnivores : the banded civet and hose ' s civet . mammalia 77 : 261\u2013271 .\nbrodie , j . , a . giordano . 2011 . small carnivores of the maliau basin , sabah , borneo , including a new locality for hose ' s civet diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation , 44 : 1 - 6 .\nwild fires were being set in borneo to clear land for logging and planting of palm oil plantations .\nindustry , and captured civets are kept specifically for the production of \u201ccivet musk . \u201d for this reason the african civet is probably the most economically important viverrid .\nthe conversion of forest to palm oil plantations is of particular concern ( 8 ) . as the demand for palm oil , which is used for food products , detergents , cosmetics and biofuel , grows , the pressure on borneo\u2019s forests is likely to increase ( 9 ) .\nthere are no known direct economic benefits of hose ' s civets , as they are almost unknown to humans and live in an unpopulated area . other members of the\nthe banded palm civet has a long pointed face , reminiscent of insectivorous mammals . it has a long body set on short legs , and five toes on each foot with retractable claws . it looks very similar to owston ' s palm civet ( chrotogale owstoni ) , except that it lacks spots on its body , and the hair on its neck points upwards instead of down along the neck . it is also similar to the rare hose ' s palm civet ( diplogale hosei ) , an endemic of northern borneo - they only differ in shape of muzzle and teeth and hose ' s civet does not have the banded pelage of the banded civet . banded civet has short , dense fur that is generally a dark cream / buff color with four to five dark bands on its back . its tail has two dark bands and the latter half of the tail is dark brown to black . there is a dark brown stripe that extends down the length of the top of the muzzle , and two stripes that extend from the top middle of the eye to the inside corner of the ears . there are two areas of white above and below each eye , and the muzzle is darker than the rest of the face .\npalm oil is principally produced in one area of the world : indonesia and malaysia . just a few years ago indonesia and malaysia accounted for 88 % of world production and 91 % of world trade in palm oil .\nsamejia , h . , g . semiadi . 2012 . first record of hose ' s civet diplogale hosei from indonesia , and records of other carnivores in the schwaner mountains , central kalimantan , indonesia . small carnivore conservation , 46 : 1 - 7 .\nwhile these are the\ntrue civets ,\nother mammalian species in other families also have the common name of civet . the african palm civet ( nandinia binotata ) is a slender - bodied , arboreal mammal that is the only extant member of the family nandiniidae . the malagasy civet or striped civet ( fossa fossana ) is a rare member of the eupleridae family ( a taxon of\nmalagasy carnivores\n) . spotted skunks , comprising the genus spilogale in the even more distant family mephitidae , are sometimes called\ncivet cats .\nas the only individual held in captivity was released after 2 and a half months , the lifespan of hose ' s civets in captivity or the wild is not known .\ncommon palm civets are classed as \u2018least concern\u2019 . it is plentiful in its natural range and is not endangered .\nmatsubayashi , h . , bernard , h . and ahmad , a . h . 2011 . small carnivores of the imbak canyon , sabah , malaysia , borneo , including a new locality for the hose\u2019s civet diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation 45 : 18\u201322 .\nvirologists have speculated that the source of the sars - cov virus , which had a significant outbreak in asia in 2003 , can be traced back to a particular species of civet , the masked palm civet . many people hunt the masked palm civet for its meat . it has been speculated that through such practices the sars virus was first introduced to humans . however , the possibility remains that the virus may have been contracted in some other unknown animal before infecting the masked palm civet . since this information has been exposed to the public , the ingestion of civets in asia has dropped drastically , going from 51 percent of people that do not eat civets to 72 percent ( ap 2006 ) .\nthe civet produces a musk ( also called civet ) highly valued as a fragrance and stabilizing agent for perfume . both male and female civets produce the strong - smelling secretion , which is produced by the civet ' s perineal glands ( not anal scent glands as in the mustelidae family and in the skunks of the mephitidae family ) .\nmatsubayashi , h . , h . bernard , a . ahmad . 2011 . small carnivores of the imbak canyon , sabah , malaysia , borneo , including a new locality for hose ' s civet diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation , 45 : 18 - 22 .\npatou ml , chen j , cosson l , andersen dh , cruaud c , couloux a , randi e , zhang s , veron g . 2009 . low genetic diversity in the masked palm civet paguma larvata ( viverridae ) . journal of zoology 278 : 218 - 230 .\nmathai , j . , juat , n . and peter , a . 2010b . carnivore records , including updated records of the endemic hose\u2019s civet diplogale hosei , from a logging concession in the upper baram , sarawak . sarawak museum journal lxvii ( 88 ) : 159\u2013188 .\nthe common palm civet weighs around 3 . 2 kilograms ( 7 pounds ) and has a body length of 53 centimetres ( 21 inches ) . the common palm has a tail length of 48 centimetres ( 19 inches ) . its long , stocky body is covered with coarse , shaggy hair that is usually a greyish colour .\n, hose ' s civets have glands for scent - marking ; how extensively they use them , however , is unknown . vocalizations have not been mentioned in any reported live observations .\nowston ' s palm civets have a body length between 51 and 64 cms ( 20 - 25 inches ) and a tail length between 38 and 48 cms ( 15 - 19 inches ) .\nhose\u2019s civet is legally protected in both sarawak and sabah ( 1 ) . it is also known to occur in a number of protected areas , such as mount kinabulu national park in sabah and ulu temburong national park in brunei ( 1 ) , which may offer its habitat some protection .\nveron g , patou ml , jennings a . p . 2015 . molecular systematics of the small - toothed palm civet ( arctogalidia trivirgata ) reveals a strong divergence of bornean populations . mammalian biology 80 : 347 - 354 .\nchen jp , andersen dh , veron g , randi e , zhang sy . 2008 . isolation and characterization of polymorphic microsatellite markers for the masked palm civet ( paguma larvata ) . biochemical genetics 46 : 392 - 397 .\nwells , k . , biun , a . and gabin , m . 2005 . viverrid and herpestid observations by camera and small mammal cage trapping in the lowland rainforests on borneo including a record of the hose ' s civet , diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation 32 : 12 - 14 .\nwells , k . , a . biun , m . gabin . 2005 . viverrid and herpesterid observations by camera and small mammal cage trapping in the lowland forests of borneo including a record of the hose ' s civet , diplogale hosei . small carnivore conservation , 32 : 12 - 14 .\nare hunted or farmed for the secretions of their scent glands , which is a valuable substance in the making of perfumes ; however , no record of harvesting hose ' s civets for this purpose exists .\nveron g . 2013 . evolutionary history and biogeography of southeast asia palm civets ( viverridae , carnivora ) . 11th international mammalogical congress . queen\u2019s university of belfast , 11th - 16th august 2013 , belfast , uk .\ncommon palm civets live in tropical forested habitats , parks and suburban gardens where mature fruit trees and fig trees grow and undisturbed vegetation .\nthe navy\u2019s red hill facility is leaking into the ground near or over the aquifer .\nthe banded palm civet ( hemigalus derbyanus ) , also called the banded civet , is a civet found in the sundaic region and occurs in peninsular myanmar , peninsular malaysia , peninsular thailand and in indonesia on the islands of sipura , sumatra and borneo . it is listed as vulnerable because of an ongoing population decline , estimated to be more than 30 % over the last three generations , inferred from over - exploitation , decline in habitat quality , and habitat destruction and degradation .\nthe common palm civet is a nocturnal omnivore . its primary food source is fruit such as chiku ( from a long - lived , evergreen tree native to the new world tropics ) , mango ( a tropical fruit of the mango tree ) and rambutan ( a medium - sized tropical tree ) . it also has a fondness for palm flower sap which , when fermented , becomes \u2018toddy\u2019 , a sweet liquor .\nlittle is known about the habitat of the rarely - seen hose\u2019s civet ( 5 ) . it has been recorded in forest , in places where the ground was exceedingly wet and moss covered the rocks and trees ( 2 ) . it is thought to inhabit areas at elevations between 450 and 1 , 700 metres ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\nphylogeny of viverridae ( civets , palm civets , genets ) , prionodontidae ( linsangs ) , herpestidae ( mongooses ) and eupleridae ( malagasy carnivores ) .\nkopi luwak , also known as caphe cut chon ( fox - dung coffee ) in vietnam and kape alamid in the philippines , is coffee that is prepared using coffee cherries that have been eaten and partially digested by the asian palm civet , then harvested from its feces .\nin sri lanka , the asian palm civet ( paradoxurus hermaphroditus ) is known as\nuguduwa\nby the sinhala speaking community . the term uguduwa and kalawedda is used interchangeably by the sri lankan community to refer to the same animal . however , the term kalawedda is mostly used to refer to a different species of the civet family , which is similar in appearance to the ring - tailed cat .\nbecause of the few records of hose\u2019s civet and the paucity of research on the species , it is difficult to characterise even the current major threats , let alone minor and future ones . based on the gis exercise as part of this assessment ( see sections on ' range description ' and ' population ' for details of this gis exercise ) , it was predicted that between 2000 and 2010 , only around 3 - 7 % of forests in potentially suitable land - cover classes were lost . this indicates that deforestation rates within the bornean central highlands have been low . although this may be the case , it is projected that higher - elevation forests will come under increasing pressure from the logging industry because much of the lowland forest has already been logged , and also from the expansion of oil palm plantations to higher elevations facilitated by climatic warming and improved cultivars ( brodie in review ) . moreover , the construction of several massive hydro - electric dams in central borneo will cause the displacement of several thousand indigenous people ; this , in turn , is predicted to increase levels of unsustainable and indiscriminate hunting practices such as the use of nets and snares to which many largely ground - dwelling species , plausibly including hose\u2019s civet , are highly susceptible . human displacement caused by hydroelectric dams is also projected to increase shifting agriculture at higher elevations and this , coupled with habitat loss through infrastructure development linked to the dams , logging and oil palm expansion , poses the threat of a fragmented landscape through which habitat specialists such as hose\u2019s civet might be less able to disperse than at present , leading to increasingly isolated populations . based on a combination of such threats , a decline of more than 10 % in the hose\u2019s civet population is very likely over the next 15 years ( approximately three generations ) .\nalthough little is known about hose\u2019s civet , it is assumed to be a nocturnal animal that rests by day in holes in rocks and tree roots . when it leaves its resting place at night , it possibly forages on small fish , shrimp , crabs and frogs near streams . it also may catch insects and other small animals on the mossy ground ( 2 ) .\ncommon palm civets forage mainly at night . the likelihood of encountering predators during the day may have favoured nocturnal foraging behaviour . the activity period , from around 6pm in the evening to 4am in the morning , is influenced by daylight . palm civets become active only after dark and retreat to rest sites just before dawn .\ndead oiled birds and tar balls came ashore at kauai ' s barking sands , polihale , nukoli , fujii , and kipu kai beaches in september 1998 . the u . s . coast guard determined through chemical analysis , that the oil was from a tesoro hose failure between the barbers point shore at the oil / chemical tanker overseas new york .\nhc & s burned bagasse to generate power for its needs . hc & s wanted to sell surplus power to meco but meco needed steady output ( firm power ) . so hc & s added 40 , 000 tons of coal per year to their bagasse , and sold electricity to meco as \u201crenewable energy . \u201d\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\nanother tesoro leak at barber ` s point occurred in 2001 involving the oil / chemical tanker overseas chicago .\n\u201d ( 2010 ) found that in the u . s . 20 , 000 people die prematurely each year from fossil fuel air pollution , and that u . s . health impacts cost $ 120 billion / year .\nthe common palm civet is also fond of coffee cherries . they eat the outer fruit and the coffee beans pass through their digestive tract . an expensive coffee called \u2018kopi luwak\u2019 is supposedly made from these coffee beans . kopi luwak is said to have a gamy flavour and sells for more than $ 100 per pound .\nvery little is known about the habits of hose ' s civet in the wild . most of what is known is based on inferences from physical characteristics , the few specimens spotted or collected , and from the observations of the single individual ever held in captivity . they are most likely nocturnal : camera traps primarily recorded the species at night , and during 2 and a half months of observation the individual in captivity only left its hole after dark . based on this individual ' s behavior and on the few records from the wild , hose ' s civets are mostly terrestrial in habit , rarely using trees for shelter or foraging ; however , a few early specimens were collected from the forest canopy . its partially webbed paws and long whiskers might be adaptations for living in moist areas , suggesting they might be semi - aquatic .\njust as there are no known direct economic benefits to humans provided by hose ' s civets , there are also no known adverse impacts . it is unlikely that they are an important reservoir of diseases that affect humans , due to their low density and range being limited mostly unpopulated areas .\nalthough the african palm civet ( nandinia binotata ) resembles the other civets , it is genetically distinct and belongs in its own monotypic family , nandiniidae ) . the malagasy civet ( fossa fossana ) was initially placed together with the true civets , but it was moved to the family eupleridae when phylogenetic analysis of dna provided strong evidence that all malagasy carnivores evolved from a single common ancestor that was a herpestid ( yoder et al . 2003 ; yoder and flynn 2003 ; gaubert et al . 2005 ) .\nmathai , j . , brodie , j . , meiri , s . , peter , a . , alfred , r . , kramer - schadt , s . and wilting , a . in prep . status of diplogale hosei in borneo .\nnowak , r . m . ( 1999 ) walker\u2019s mammals of the world . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore , maryland .\nmyers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2008 . suborder feliformia ( feliform carnivores ) animal diversity web . retrieved december 26 , 2008 .\nin sri lanka , the palm civet is known as \u2018uguduwa\u2019 by the sinhala speaking community . in most parts of the island , the civets become a menace to the people due to fact that it litters in ceilings and attics of common households and then makes loud noises at night disturbing the sleep of the inhabitants of the house ( noises are mostly due to their movements and fights ) .\njennings a & veron g . 2011 . predicted distributions and ecological niches of eight civet and mongoose species in southeast asia . journal of mammalogy 92 : 316 - 327 .\nmohd naim , andreas dwi advento , sudharto ps , jennings ap , veron g , verwilghen a , caliman jp . 2012 . the presence and distribution of small carnivores in oil palm plantation and their role in controlling rat damage : preliminary results from a camera trapping study . 4th iopri - mpob international seminar : existing and emerging pests and diseases of oil palm . advances in research and management . 13 - 14 december 2012 , bandung , indonesia .\na national academy of science study , conducted at the request of u . s . congress , analyzed energy - induced health impacts . \u201c\nverwilghen a , jennings ap , veron g , raoul f , naim m , aryawan aak , advento ad , sudharto ps , caliman jp , giraudoux p . 2016 . spatial distribution of small carnivores within oil palm plantations . icope 2016 .\nalso , the\nnew\nborneo animal and the unknown mount murud kecil civet reinforced , positively , the use of camera traps , as a method to show\nhidden\nanimals .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nvery little information exists about the ecosystem roles of hose ' s civets . as it seems to live in extremely low densities , it is unlikely that it plays a major role in ecosystem dynamics , or that it is the principal predator , prey , or host of any particular species . as it doesn ' t seem to eat fruit , it is unlikely that it acts as a seed disperser .\npatou ml , debruyne r , jennings ap , zubaid a , rovie - ryan jj , veron g . 2008 . phylogenetic relationships of the asian palm civets ( hemigalinae & paradoxurinae , viverridae , carnivora ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 47 : 883 - 892 .\npatel rp , wutke s , lenz d , mukherjee s , ramakrishnan u , veron g , fickel j , wilting a , f\u00f6rster dw . 2017 . genetic structure and phylogeography of the leopard cat ( prionailurus bengalensis ) inferred from mitochondrial genomes . journal of heredity 108 ( 4 ) : 349 - 360 . doi : urltoken\npatou ml , wilting a , gaubert p , esselstyn ja , cruaud c , jennings a , fickel j , veron g . 2010 . evolutionary history of the paradoxurus palm civets - a new model for asian biogeography . journal of biogeography 37 : 2077 - 2097 .\nyoder , a . d . , m . m . burns , s . zehr , t . delefosse , g . veron , s . m . goodman , and j . j . flynn . 2003 . single origin of malagasy carnivora from an african ancestor nature 42 : 734 - 737 . retrieved december 26 , 2008 .\ncivil defense gave an alert for community members to evacuate if they felt symptoms from pgv ' s hydrogen sulfide release and dispatched the hazardous materials response team to pgv .\njennings ap , mohd naim , andreas dwi advento , anak agung ketut aryawan , sudharto ps , caliman jp , verwilghen a , veron g . 2015 . diversity and occupancy of small carnivores within oil palm plantations in central sumatra , indonesia . mammal research 60 : 181\u2013188 .\nschipper , j . , m . hoffmann , j . duckworth , j . conroy . 2008 . the 2008 iucn red listings of the world ' s small carnivores .\na chevron pipeline ruptured on may 14 , 1996 , discharging 41 , 000 gallons of no . 6 bunker fuel oil into waiawa stream adjacent to heco\u2019s waiau power plant .\ncivet is the common name for various , small , cat - like , almost arboreal mammals in the family viverridae , characterized by a long , lithe body with relatively short legs , a long , pointed muzzle , and relatively short ears . they are native to the tropics of africa and asia . the term civet also refers to the strong - smelling secretion ( musk ) of the perianal glands that is used in perfumes and medicines .\njustification : hose ' s civet is listed as vulnerable because its population is likely to be lower than 10 , 000 mature individuals , based on an area of occupancy ( aoo ) estimated as 28 , 000 km\u00b2 ; the assumption of a very patchy distribution even within this area ; an indicative population density of one individual per km\u00b2 ( based on studies of similar - sized , largely ground - dwelling civets such as malay civet viverra tangalunga in borneo ; e . g . , col\u00f3n 2002 ) in areas considered highly \u2018suitable\u2019 for the species ; and the very low detection rates in other areas suggesting overall density to be much below this . it is also estimated that there will be an ongoing population decline of at least 10 % over the next three generations ( taken as 15 years ) . this decline is expected because of increased pressure on higher - elevation forests as a result of expansion of logging activities and monoculture plantations to higher elevations , coupled with increase in shifting agriculture and indiscriminate hunting practices using nets and snares as a result of human displacement caused by mega hydro - electric dam projects in the centre of borneo . the combination of such human - induced activities poses the threat of a highly fragmented landscape through which habitat specialists such as hose\u2019s civet may be less able to disperse than at present , leading to increasingly isolated populations . although there are no figures to support this ongoing decline in population size , it is precautionary to acknowledge that these threats will probably take place within the next 15 years , and so to classify the species as vulnerable .\ncol\u00f3n , c . p . 2002 . ranging behaviour and activity of the malay civet ( viverra tangalunga ) in a logged and unlogged forest in danum valley , east malaysia . journal of zoology , london 257 : 473\u2013485 .\npatou ml , debruyne r , jennings ap , zubaid a , rovie - ryan jj , veron g . 2008 . phylogenetic relationships of the asian palm civets ( hemigalinae & paradoxurinae , viverridae , carnivora ) . communication . xx international congress of zoology , paris , 26 - 28 aout 2008 .\nhose ' s civets are believed to primarily inhabit montane forests between 450 and 1500 m above sea level , with an additional sighting at 287 m . they are mainly a terrestrial species that forages along mossy stream banks , although some specimens have been collected from the forest canopy . the forests they inhabit are mostly mature mixed dipterocarp , but some sightings have been in recently logged areas , possibly indicating that they have some level of resilience to human activity .\nas they are very elusive animals , the exact status of hose ' s civets is uncertain . it is likely , however , that they have been adversely impacted by human activity such as logging throughout their range . low population densities could make them vulnerable to the region - wide habitat loss and degradation associated with logging and development . because of this , the iucn has listed them as vulnerable . in sarawak , malaysia , they are listed as protected .\npatou ml , wilting a , fickel j , veron g . 2009 . evolutionary history of the palm civets ( paradoxurus hermaphroditus ) - a new model for asian biogeography . communication . 7th international conference on behaviour , physiology and genetics of wildlife , 21st - 24th september 2009 , berlin , germany .\nmiettinen , j . , shi , c . and liew , s . c . 2011 . deforestation rates in insular southeast asia between 2000 and 2010 . global change biology 17 : 2261\u20132270 .\nthe 20 - mile petroleum , oils and lubricants pipeline connected the air force ` s wakakalaua fuel storage annex in wahiawa and kipapa gulch fuel storage annex in waipio with hickam air force base .\ntwo days later on january 7 , 2006 , i posted more , after some research and looking at various other cam photos ( such as these , below ) . i speculated that the animal photographed might be an extinct species of civet rediscovered .\nborneo has significant cave systems . clearwater cave has one of the world ' s longest underground rivers . deer cave is home to over three million bats , with guano accumulated to over 330 feet deep .\nwhile in route from barbers point to ulsan , south korea , the u . s . tank vessel ss omi yukon suffered major explosions and fires in the starboard fuel oil storage tanks and engine room .\njennings ap , zubaid a , veron g . 2010 . ranging behaviour , activity , habitat use , and morphology of the malay civet ( viverra tangalunga ) on peninsular malaysia and comparison with studies on borneo and sulawesi . mammalian biology 75 : 437 - 446 .\nveron g , gaubert p , franklin n , jennings ap , grassman l , 2006 . a reassessment of the distribution and taxonomy of the endangered otter civet , cynogale bennettii ( carnivora : viverridae ) of south - east asia . oryx 40 : 42 - 49 .\nassociated press ( ap ) . 2006 . civets , other wildlife off the chinese menu . fears of bird flu , sars shrink china ' s appetite for wild delicacies . msnbc . retrieved december 26 , 2008 .\nthe county but not the state reacted to community concerns and passed geothermal - based health - related ordinances . the 2016 state legislature proposed stripping the county ` s ability to enact health ordinances related to geothermal emissions .\nmohd naim , aa ketut aryawan , sudharto ps , jennings ap , veron g , verwilghen a , turner ec , putri aulia w , caliman jp . 2014 . understanding the relationship between rat populations and small carnivores in oil palm plantations : outputs for sustainable control of rats . icope 2014 , 12 - 14 feb , kuta , bali , indonesia .\nviverrids are native to africa ( except the area immediately south of the mediterranean ) , madagascar , the iberian peninsula , southern china , and southeast asia . favored habitats include woodland , savanna , and mountain biomes and , above all , tropical rainforest . in consequence , many are faced with severe loss of habitat . several species are considered vulnerable and the otter civet ( cynogale bennettii ) , a semi - aquatic civet found in forests near rivers and swampy areas of the thai - malay peninsula , sumatra , and borneo , is classified as endangered .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\ns . viverrids are among the most poorly known carnivores . they are rarely encountered , being small and secretive inhabitants of forests and dense vegetation . in addition , many species live only on islands or in small areas .\ndelgado s , vidal n , veron g , sire jy . 2008 . amelogenin , the major protein of tooth enamel : a new phylogenetic marker for ordinal mammal relationships . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 47 : 865 - 869 .\nveron g , patou ml , jennings ap . 2013 . systematics of the asian mongooses ( herpestidae , carnivora ) . 11th international mammalogical congress . queen\u2019s university of belfast , 11th - 16th august 2013 , belfast , uk .\njennings ap , veron g . 2013 . ecology of southeast asian civets ( viverridae ) and mongooses ( herpestidae ) . 11th international mammalogical congress . queen\u2019s university of belfast , 11th - 16th august 2013 , belfast , uk .\npools of submerged oil contaminated the ten acre waiawa marsh , a restricted wildlife area and home to the state ' s four endangered species of water birds , the hawaiian stilt , coot , duck , and the moor hen .\nschipper , j . , m . hoffmann , j . duckworth , j . conroy . 2008 . the 2008 iucn red listings of the world ' s small carnivores . small carnivore conservation , 39 : 29 - 34 .\nhawaiian electric company ( heco ) proposed importing palm oil from producers who adhered to just six of these standards as long as the producer was working towards \u201c no child labor \u201d and working towards \u201c free , prior and informed consent \u201d of native peoples at the particular plantation where the biofuel would come from , regardless of what the producers did on their other plantations .\n) , are semiaquatic . viverrids are mostly carnivorous , their diet consisting of small rodents such as mice and voles , birds and their eggs , reptiles , amphibians , fruits , nuts , and insects . some , such as palm civets , eat mostly fruit ; their frugivorous habit is reflected in the molars , which are larger and flatter than those of carnivourous viverrids .\nthe mystery animal\u2019s pictures were initially taken by wwf field researchers in 2003 , but the photos were kept unpublished by the wwf as research continued . the wwf decided to make public the photos with the release of a book about borneo .\njacques h , veron g , allary f , aulagnier s . 2009 . the congo clawless otter aonyx congicus ( mustelidae , lutrinae ) : a review of its systematics , distribution and conservation status . african zoology 44 : 159 - 170 .\nthere is almost no information on population estimates and breeding status of hose\u2019s civet . it has rarely been detected ; with the increasing number of studies in borneo using camera - traps , encounter rates remain very low . the paucity of research on the species prevents reliable quantitative estimates . the wide altitudinal spread of records suggest that the species ought to be common in collections ; the fact that it is not suggests very strongly that something renders it very localised , very low density , or both . moreover , the large survey effort by capable researchers using appropriate techniques in areas that seemingly ought to hold the species ( forest within the documented altitudinal and geographic range ) , still yield low encounter rates ( if at all ) , further corroborating the hypothesis of a highly patchy distribution and low density . unlike other civets , this species is apparently seldom encountered by native hunters . again , this gives credence to the hypothesis of patchy distribution and low density , although other explanations are possible such as , until recently , local hunters not venturing far from their villages or high into the mountains when hunting . as part of this assessment , a gis exercise applying data from the borneo carnivore symposium ( june 2011 ) , for which a habitat suitability analysis ( incorporating a maxent analysis and a respondent opinion assessment ) was conducted ( mathai et al . in prep . ) , estimated about 28 , 000 km\u00b2 of broadly suitable habitat for hose\u2019s civet , restricted to the higher - elevation forests of interior borneo . assuming that about two - thirds of the population are mature individuals , this would give a total of roughly 19 , 000 mature individuals if the population density is taken at 1 individual per km\u00b2 . for a ground - dwelling small carnivore with very low encounter rates , this density is likely to be much at the higher end ( see col\u00f3n 2002 for a study on the much more frequently encountered malay civet viverra tangalunga in borneo ) . hence , it is likely that the overall density in this 28 , 000 km\u00b2 area is 0 . 5 individuals per km\u00b2 ( or less ) , giving a population size of less than 10 , 000 mature individuals .\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nthe coast guard determined that the 1986 accident had two causes : \u201c contamination of the vessel ' s bunkers with flush oil during bunkering through a subsea pipeline and the absence of a flame screen in the after starboard fuel oil tank vent . \u201d\ncosson l , grassman lljr , zubaid a , vellayan s , tillier a & veron g , 2007 . genetic diversity of captive binturongs ( arctictis binturong , viverridae , carnivora ) : implications for conservation . journal of zoology 271 : 386 - 395 .\ncivet , any of a number of long - bodied , short - legged carnivores of the family viverrid ae . there are about 15 to 20 species , placed in 10 to 12 genera . civets are found in africa , southern europe , and asia . rather catlike in appearance , they have a thickly furred tail , small\u2026\naccording to reports in the times of london and other sources the\nonly evidence that exists are photographs taken by an automatically triggered camera on a jungle trail in indonesia in 2003 . infuriatingly , a large leaf obscured the creature\u2019s face as the shutter went off .\nthe musk or\ncivet\nsecreted from the perianal glands of civets is harvested for use as a base for perfumes and medicine ( myers 2000 ) . it is extracted by either killing the animal and removing the glands , or by scraping the secretions from the glands of a live animal . the latter is the preferred method today .\nmichaud m , peign\u00e9 s , veron g , fabre a - c . 2016 . diversification ph\u00e9notypique des eupleridae ( mammalia , carnivora ) , famille end\u00e9mique de madagascar . poster . 9e symposium national de morphom\u00e9trie et evolution des formes , 1 - 2 juin 2016 , paris .\nno definite information about the diet of hose ' s civets in the wild is known . the single individual that has been held in captivity ate mostly small fish , as well as chicken and lunchmeat , but refused fruit , rice , and fish that were too large to eat in a single bite or that had large scales or spines . this , along with their likely adaptations for foraging around streams , seems to indicate that fish make up most of their diet , along with other meat . fruit and other plant matter probably only contributes significantly to their diet when fish or other meat is unavailable . the individual in captivity ate about 100 g of food daily , leaving any excess .\nyoder , a . d . , and j . j . flynn . 2003 . origin of malagasy carnivora pages 1253 - 1256 in s . m . goodman and j . benstead , eds . , the natural history of madagascar . university of chicago press . isbn 0226303063 .\nstorm damage to trees and utility lines made the roads dangerous and impassable for the attempted hazmat response , and they turned back before reaching the site . the same conditions made it dangerous and impossible for residents feeling symptoms from pgv ' s h2s release to evacuate from their homes .\ngoodman sm and veron g . 2017 - in press . syst\u00e9matique des carnivora malgaches end\u00e9miques ( famille des eupleridae ) / systematics of endemic malagasy carnivora ( family eupleridae ) . in : ( s . m . goodman and m . j . raherilalao , eds . ) les aires prot\u00e9g\u00e9es terrestres de madagascar : leur histoire , descriptions et biotes / the terrestrial protected areas of madagascar : their history , descriptions and biota . s . m . goodman & m . j . raherilalao , eds . association vahatra and the university of chicago press , antananarivo and chicago .\nexxon houston spilled about 117 , 000 gallons of oil in march , 1989 , threatening beaches on the island of oahu . exxon sought to shift damages . exxon lost in district court , at the ninth circuit in 1995 , and before the u . s . supreme court in 1996 .\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nveron g , willsch m , dacosta v , patou ml , seymour a , bonillo c , couloux a , wong st , jennings ap , fickel j , wilting a . 2014 . the distribution of the malay civet viverra tangalunga ( carnivora : viverridae ) across southeast asia : natural or human - mediated dispersal ? zoological journal of the linnean society 170 : 917 - 932 .\nlinsang , any of three species of long - tailed , catlike mammals belonging to the civet family ( viverrid ae ) . the african linsang ( poiana richardsoni ) , the banded linsang ( prionodon linsang ) , and the spotted linsang ( prionodon pardicolor ) vary in colour , but all resemble elongated cats . they grow to a length of 33\u201343 cm ( 13\u201317 inches ) , excluding\u2026\non december 5 , 2005 , the world wide fund for nature ( wwf ) announced that they had discovered the first new carnivore to be found in the region since the tonkin otter - civet emerged in vietnam in 1930 . also , the wwf said it would be the first new mammal to be specifically found on the island of borneo since the borneo ferret - badger in 1895 .\nanimal rights groups , such as the world society for the protection of animals , express concern that harvesting musk is cruel to animals . between these ethical concerns and the availability of synthetic substitutes , the practice of raising civets for musk is dying out . chanel , maker of the popular perfume chanel no . 5 , claims that natural civet has been replaced with a synthetic substitute since 1998 ."]}
{"id": 454, "summary": [{"text": "the south american coati , or ring-tailed coati ( nasua nasua ) , is a species of coati , members of the raccoon family ( procyonidae ) , from tropical and subtropical south america .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "in brazilian portuguese it is known as quati .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "weight in this species is 2 \u2013 7.2 kg ( 4.4 \u2013 15.9 lb ) and total length is 85 \u2013 113 cm ( 33 \u2013 44 in ) , half of that being its tail .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its color is highly variable and the rings on the tail may be quite weak , but it lacks the largely white muzzle ( \" nose \" ) of its northern cousin , the white-nosed coati . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "south american coati", "paragraphs": ["brown - nosed coati , coatimundi , ring - tailed coati , southern coati .\nthe south american coati occupies forested habitats in south america , from colombia and venezuela in the north to uruguay and northern argentina in the south .\ncongenital glycogen storage disease in a south american coati ( nasua nasua ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nfemale south american coati live in groups which forage and rest together , but adult males are usually solitary .\nexperimental trypanosoma evansi infection in south american coati ( nasua nasua ) : hematological , biochemical and histopathological changes .\nthe south american coati is regularly hunted by humans . however , although it is often an important food source , some native people avoid eating the south american coati because of cultural taboos or taste preferences ( 4 ) .\norder carnivora family procyonidae habitat & range south american coatis are widely distributed throughout tropical and subtropical south america . most occur in the lowlands east of the andes . identification also called the ring - tailed coati , the south american\nthe south american coati is easily recognised by its reddish - brown fur , banded tail and elongated , flexible snout .\nexperimental trypanosoma evansi infection in south american coati ( nasua nasua ) : hematological , biochemical and histopathological changes . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe south american coati can be found in a number of locations including : amazon rainforest , south america . find out more about these places and what else lives there .\na south american coati which was wrongly mistaken for a ' small bear ' has been captured after it spent two months on the run .\nthe south american coati has a varied diet , and uses its flexible nose to probe into crevices and leaf litter in search of food .\nthe south american coati has a wide native distribution east of the andean chain , from colombia and venezuela southwards to northern argentina and northern uruguay .\nthe name \u2018coati\u2019 comes from native american indian words meaning \u2018belt\u2019 and \u2018nose\u2019 , referring to the way coati tuck their nose into their belly while sleeping .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - south american coati ( nasua nasua )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - south american coati ( nasua nasua )\ntitle =\narkive species - south american coati ( nasua nasua )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nfemale south american coatis live in groups which forage and rest together , but adult males are usually solitary .\nthe south american coati\u2019s elongated snout is very useful for searching crevices and holes for food ( 2 ) . studies have shown that the south american coati is an important seed disperser . when it consumes fruits , the seeds pass through its digestive tract and are then released in its droppings in other places ( 6 ) .\nthe following habitats are found across the south american coati distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .\nwhite spots are found around the south american coati\u2019s eyes . its ears are short and rounded , and have a dark outer colouring and white insides ( 4 ) . the south american coati has a distinctive elongated , pointed snout , ending in a flexible nose that protrudes beyond the end of the lower jaw ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe south american coati is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and is listed on appendix iii of cites ( 3 ) .\nnasua ( 2 species ) : south american coati ( nasua nasua ) , found over much of south america except for the southern third , and white - nosed coati ( nasua narica ) , found throughout central america and into the southwestern united states . the dwarf ( or cozumel ) coati , from cozumel island , mexico , is sometimes recognized as a distinct species , n . nelsoni .\nthe belly of the south american coati is white or yellowish to light brown , while the feet are dark brown to black ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the tail , like that of many other members of the raccoon family ( procyonidae ) , has a series of rings , which in the case of the south american coati are yellow or light brown . however , in some individuals the tail rings may be quite faint ( 4 ) . the south american coati\u2019s tail is long , slender and tapering , and is often held erect while the animal is foraging ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nmain characteristics south american coatis have a body length between 41 and 70 cms ( 16 - 28 inches ) , a tail length between 32 and 70 cms ( 12 . 5 - 28 inches ) and they weigh between 2 . 5 and 7 kgs ( 5 . 5 - 15 lbs ) . they are red / brown , grey / brown or yellow / brown in colour and they have a pale coloured underside and black feet . their long tail is marked with black rings and they have black and grey markings on their face . habitat south american coatis can be found in the forests and woodlands of south america . diet south american coatis feed on invertebrates , lizards , frogs , fruit and eggs . breeding after a gestation period of 77 days , south american coatis give birth to 3 - 4 young . they are weaned at 4 months old and reach sexual maturity at around 2 years of age . predators predators of south american coatis are snakes , large cats and humans . subspecies there are 13 subspecies of the south american coati : nasua nasua nasua nasua nasua aricana nasua nasua boliviensis nasua nasua candace nasua nasua cinerascens nasua nasua dorsalis nasua nasua manium nasua nasua molaris nasua nasua montana nasua nasua quichua nasua nasua solitaria nasua nasua spadicea nasua nasua vittata interesting facts south american coatis are also known as : southern ring - tailed coati ring - tailed coati ringtailed coati coati coatimundi similar animals ringtail red panda cacomistle common raccoon crab - eating raccoon mountain coati white - nosed coati\nsouth american coatis are prey in their native range to foxes , jaguars , pumas , ocelots and jaguarundis , and to dogs and people .\nhas been mentioned ; to date , however , there has been no confirmation of it . the south american gray fox was introduced to the\nring - tailed coati is a mammal that belongs to the order carnivores . it is also known as south - american coati , because it can be found only in south america . ring - tailed coati lives in tropical and subtropical areas of andes , colombia , guianas , uruguay and argentina . ring - tailed coati inhabits dense forests and wet jungles . this animal is listed as least concern , which means that is not on the list of endangered species .\nthe south american coati is a popular subject for zoological collections and is relatively skilled at escaping from captivity . short - term escapes from captivity have been the pathway for the records so far in gb .\ncoatis , specifically white - nosed coatis ( nasua narica ) and south american coatis ( nasua nasua ) , are south american raccoons , commonly , but incorrectly , referred to as coatimundi . they are related to both kinkajous and north american raccoons . coati are omnivores with a lot of energy and , just like their north american cousins , they forage for their food in the wild . some people opt to care for them as pets but these wild animals are not ideal for most households .\nchildren should not be allowed to play with coati . coati can bite , especially if they don ' t want you to do something , so coati are not good pets for most people .\nthe south american coati is an omnivore and eats a variety of fruit and invertebrates , including insects , spiders , scorpions , crabs , centipedes and millipedes . this species has also been known to eat vertebrates and carrion when available , and its diet varies with location and also with season ( 4 ) ( 6 ) . the south american coati has been seen eating tarantulas after rolling them around to remove their irritating hairs ( 4 ) .\nthe name \u2018coati\u2019 comes from native american indian words meaning \u2018belt\u2019 and \u2018nose\u2019 , referring to the way coatis tuck their nose into their belly while sleeping .\nsouth american coatis are the symbol of the igua\u00e7u national park in brazil . visitors can admire them up close because they roam freely around the park . since it ' s not shy , many tourists bring home pictures of the coati .\nin addition to hunting , intensive deforestation and dam - building also have negative effects on the population of the south american coati ( 1 ) ( 4 ) . coatis are also seen as interesting and inquisitive pets , and may potentially be affected by collection from the wild . the population of this species is likely to be declining , but the south american coati is still widespread and relatively common , and is not currently considered to be at risk of extinction ( 1 ) .\nthe south american coati is usually active during the day , and spends its nights sleeping in trees . however , the males are often active at night . the coati spends much of its time foraging in trees , but can also be found searching for food on the ground . it uses its tail to help keep it balanced while moving around and travels between 1 . 5 and 2 kilometres a day looking for food ( 2 ) . when disturbed in the trees , the south american coati typically jumps down and escapes across the ground ( 4 ) .\nvisitors to perth zoo these school holidays will be amongst the first to explore a new precinct , \u2018amazonia\u2019 , home to some amazing animals from the south american amazon .\nlist of mammals newly gallery : 1 . south american coati . 2 . south american sea lion . 3 . brazilian guinea pig . list of reptiles newly gallery : argentine gigant tegu . changes in the galleries birds : 1 . common moorhen . 2 . monk parakeet . 3 . sand martin . changes in the galleries insect : 1 . butterflies . 2 . other insects . go to the gallery : argentina fauna\nin tropical forests , plains and mountains in parts of south and central america .\nsouth american coatis are at risk of extinction due to habitat loss ( land clearing for mining , roads , timber and agriculture ) and being hunted by people for food .\nin the uk , the south american coati is not known to be having any impact at present on the ecosystems it inhabits . however , it is thought that this species could compete with or predate native wildlife should it become established ( 8 ) .\nthe south american coati belongs , like its cousin the raccoon , to the procyonidae family . the coati is a good climber and moves easily in trees . it is capable of reversing its feet\u2019s position by rotating its ankles which facilitates its descent from the trees head first . south american coatis live in groups of five to eight individuals , which almost always include females and young males . when they reach the age of two years , the males are excluded from the clan and live alone except during mating periods .\nthe south american coati ( nasua nasua ) is a member of the raccoon family and is easily recognised by its reddish - brown fur and elongated snout . although this species is quite variable in colour , the usual colouration is an orange or reddish to dark brown or black ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the body also often has an overlay of some yellow . the south american coati\u2019s snout , however , is dark brown to black , with more yellow hair towards the front , giving a somewhat grizzled appearance ( 4 ) .\nnowak , r . 1995 .\nwalker ' s mammals of the world , online . south american foxes\n( on - line ) . accessed november 28 , 2001 at urltoken .\nthe south american coati ( nasua nasua ) is a member of the raccoon family procyonidae . its natural range extends from southern colombia and venezuela to northern argentina and uruguay . n . nasua has been introduced to mallorca , robinson crusoe island and cambria uk . the impact on robinson crusoe island notably has been on native seabird colonies where the coati has decimated numbers .\nthe south american coati lives primarily in forest habitats , including deciduous forest , evergreen forest , gallery forest , cerrado and dry scrub forest . this species occupies a wide range of elevations , reaching up to 2 , 500 metres in the andes ( 1 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe south american gray fox occurs in a variety of habitats , from the warm , arid scrublands of the argentine uplands and the cold , arid patagonian steppe to the forests of southernmost chile .\nsightings in south cumbria in 2003\u201304 may have been the first in the wild in gb .\ndiscover our animals from north and south america including guanacos , bears and mackenzie valley wolves .\na variety of wooded landscapes are inhabited by south american coatis , including gallery forest , cerrado ( tropical and woodland savannah ) and wetlands . forests are generally preferred and open areas used more sporadically .\nthe south american gray fox ( lycalopex griseus ) , also known as the patagonian fox , the chilla , or the grey zorro , is a species of zorro , the\nfalse\nfoxes .\nthe south american coati lives primarily in forest habitats , including deciduous forest , evergreen forest , gallery forest , cerrado and dry scrub forest from columbia & venezuela to uraguay & northern argentina . they occupy a large range of elevations , reaching up to 2 , 500 metres in the andes .\nthe south american coati is widespread and common across most of its native range and is classified as of ' least concern ' for conservation by iucn . the only known non - native population is on robinson crusoe island in the juan fernandez islands in the southeast pacific ocean ( chile ) .\nthe south american coati is broadly distributed in south america . it ranges from colombia and venezuela in the north to uruguay and northern argentina in the south ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the species has been introduced to robinson crusoe , one of the juan fern\u00e1ndez islands of chile ( 1 ) ( 4 ) , and is now also found in cumbria , uk , as a result of escapes from zoos and collections and possibly through deliberate release ( 6 ) .\nthe south american coati , nasua nasua , is a member of the raccoon family ( procyonidae ) and is usually easily recognised by its reddish - brown fur , long banded tail and dark elongated snout . it is also known as the ring - tailed coati , though the rings on the tail may be quite weak . the fur colouration may also vary : there are many subspecies .\nwhen the land bridge to south america was created , invaders from the north soon moved in .\n3 . nasua nasua subsp . solitaria - coatimundi / south brazilian of argentina , brazil , uruguay\ndiet : south american coatis are omnivores . they eat fruit , nuts , invertebrates , eggs , reptiles and small mammals . they usually feed on what is most readily available and have a highly variable diet .\nmating in this species usually occurs between october and february , with births occurring in march and april . the gestation period of the south american coati lasts 74 to 77 days . in captivity , litter sizes range from one to seven young , with three to four being the most common . young south american coatis open their eyes at around ten days old . they can stand around day 19 and walk well by day 24 , and their climbing abilities develop shortly thereafter , at around 26 days old . in the wild , female south american coatis leave their group to build a nest in a tree , which is where they give birth . after five to six weeks the female returns to the group with her young ( 4 ) .\na 14 - mo - old south american coati ( nasua nasua ) was submitted for necropsy to the university of kentucky veterinary diagnostic laboratory . the coati had a history of progressive neurologic signs beginning 3 mo prior to euthanasia . at necropsy , the coati was in thin body condition , but no other significant findings were evident . histopathologic findings included moderate distension of neuronal cell bodies by finely vesiculated cytoplasm within the cerebrum , cerebellum , spinal cord , and intestinal ganglia . hepatocytes and macrophages in the lung , spleen , and liver were similarly affected . transmission electron microscopy showed numerous electrondense membranous cytoplasmic bodies , swirls , and vesicular profiles within neuronal lysosomes in the brain . to the authors ' knowledge , this is the first report of a naturally occurring congenital glycogen storage disease in a south american coati and the family procyonidae .\nthe south american , ring - tailed or brown - nosed coati is not thought to be established in gb but has occasionally been observed outside the confines of zoological collections . no instances are known of breeding in the wild in gb . like its relative the raccoon , it might have the potential to become invasive in gb .\nthe list includes some species that are already widespread such as the grey squirrel ( sciurus carolinensis ) and the muntjac deer ( muntiacus reevesii ) in the uk and the raccoon in germany , but also those that are still nibbling at the fringes , like the south american coati ( nasua nasua ) which has reached mallorca in spain .\na number of subspecies of south american coati have been recognised ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . the common name of this species comes from the native tupian indian words cua , meaning \u2018belt\u2019 , and tim , meaning \u2018nose\u2019 , and refers to the coati\u2019s habit of sleeping with its nose tucked into its belly . its scientific name , nasua , comes from the latin word for \u2018nose\u2019 , referring to its characteristically long snout ( 4 ) .\nadult male south american coatis live solitary lives while females and immature males travel in groups of up to 30 individuals . these groups vary in size depending on where they live , and the members of the group give constant vocalisations to stay in contact with each other ( 4 ) . as in the closely related white - nosed coati ( nasua narica ) , adult male south american coatis are likely to be excluded from groups by collective aggression from the females . however , during the breeding season a single adult male is allowed into each female group ( 2 ) .\nthe south american coati\u2019s front feet have long , blunt and slightly curved claws and webbing between the toes , whereas the back feet have shorter claws . this species has large canine teeth , which are usually larger in males than in females ( 4 ) , and the males are also larger than the females in overall body size ( 2 ) .\nneutering can be performed by an exotics veterinarian and is recommended before the coati reaches 6 months of age . females can become aggressive when they are in heat so spaying them is recommended for a more even tempered coati .\npet coati need to have the proper dietary ratios fed to them to stay healthy and live a long life .\nring - tailed coati can survive up to 7 years in the wild and up to 15 years in captivity .\ndid you know that pumpkins make for great enrichment for our active and curious south american coati at the san francisco zoo ? in this video , see them play and enjoy treats , while learning about these adorable creatures . we hope you ' ll want to come meet them for yourself ! plan a visit : urltoken voice - over by : tess & kate hodges\nthe coati\u2019s snout can rotate up to 60 in any direction and is used to rub their body or move objects around .\nthe south american coati occurs in several protected areas ( 1 ) and is listed on appendix iii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , meaning that this species is protected by at least one country and that country wants other members of cites to help control trade in this species . currently , the subspecies nasua nasua solitaria is protected by cites in uruguay ( 3 ) .\nanimal welfare officers began hunting the clawed coati after he was spotted up a tree in a garden in marlow , last month .\nthe name \u2018coati\u2019 comes from native american indian words cua , meaning \u2018belt\u2019 and tim , meaning \u2018nose\u2019 , referring to the way coatis tuck their nose into their belly while sleeping . its scientific name , nasua , comes from the latin word for \u2018nose\u2019 , referring to its long snout .\nbelonging to the same family as the raccoon and with a south american coati cousin , the white - nosed coati is an omnivore that commonly lives in wooded areas of mostly central america and mexico . the southern limit of its range stops in columbia , while the northern limit extends or used to extend into southeastern arizona , new mexico , south texas and the southern half of the trans pecos . the majority of the texas populations most likely died out because of habit fragmentation and destruction from land use and land cover changes taking place over the last 100 to 200 years ; however , the post oak savanna of northern south texas and the current increasing conversion from post oak savanna to post oak woodland in the dewitt county area to be more specific could have provided favorable conditions for an isolated population to survive and even thrive .\nsouth american coatis are diurnal animals . they love to swim and play in trees . their long tails are used for keeping balance while traveling in the woods . they search for animal prey by using their snouts to poke through crevices or by turning over fallen leaves on the ground . coatis are beneficial , in that larger coatis help to control rodents and insects . additionally , they can also disperse plant seeds . furthermore , although coatis are a member of the raccoon family , their appearance is different . besides , south american coatis do not wash or rub food in water as raccoons do .\nwhich animal is taipei zoo ' s star of the month ? the answer is undoubtedly the south american coatis . five coati cubs were born on march 23 , 2013 . the features of these newborn cubs are their pointy elf - like noses and tails with dark brown and yellow stripes . zoo keepers will be telling stories about the coati cubs at the children ' s zoo ( in chinese ) . don\u2019t miss the keepers ' talk from 10 : 45 a . m . to 11 : 00 a . m . on june 2nd , 9th , 16th and 23rd .\nsouth american coatis are omnivorous members of the raccoon family and have long mobile snouts , reddish fur and ringed tails . male coatis were once thought to be a separate species from the females because of their solitary habits , and were called ' coatimundis ' . the females live in highly social groups .\nif you are curious about what a coati is or are considering one as a pet this guide will point you in the right direction .\nmacroscopic anatomy of the term placenta in coati . zp = zonary chorioallantoic placenta , co / al = noninvasive chorioallantois , am = amnion .\nprofile common name : south american coati scientific name : nasua nasua classification : class mammalia , order carnivora , family procyonidae conservation status : protected under cites appendix iii in uruguay , but are not classified as threatened in other countries . distribution : coatis are broadly distributed in the tropical regions of south america , from columbia and venezuela to uruguay , northern parts of argentina and into ecuador . food habits : they are omnivorous and primarily feed on fruit , invertebrates , other small mammals and birds ' eggs . disposition : coatis are diurnal animal . they are good at climbing trees and swimming .\nplacental research in carnivores has concentrated on domestic species , which have zonary , labyrinthine placentas with an endotheliochorial barrier . although the coati , nasua nasua , is a widely distributed species in south america , data on the development of the placenta and the fetal membranes in this species are very sparse .\nthey are native to south , central and parts of north america and are commonly found in tropical forests , living primarily on a diet of insects .\npotos ( 1 species ) : kinkajou ( potos flavus ) , found from southern mexico through the northern half of south america east of the andes .\ncoati varies in color between grey , brown , red and blonde . perhaps their most notable feature is their long , pointed snout . body length averages 33 to 45 inches , half of which is made up of the tail . the average coati weighs between 4 and 16 pounds . diet the south american coati is omnivorous and primarily feeds on fruit , invertebrates , small animals , and birds ' eggs . they search for fruit using their long snout to poke through leaves and crevices and their sharp claws to rip open logs and overturn rocks . reproduction & lifespan mating takes place when fruit is in season . females , who live in groups of 15 to 30 individuals , come into heat simultaneously . one female may mate with several males . after a gestation period of 77 days , females give birth to an average of 2 to 4 young . females will remain with the group they are born into , however males will leave the group after approximately 3 years . south american coatis live an average of 7 years in the wild and up to 14 years in captivity .\nsouth american coatis were introduced to the island of robinson crusoe when two pregnant females escaped . the population has since grown and the species is causing damage to native flora on robinson crusoe , as well as possibly being the cause of the decline in the juan fern\u00e1ndez firecrown ( sephanoides fernandensis ) on the island ( 4 ) .\nmain predators of ring - tailed coati are jaguars , jaguarundis , pumas , foxes , dogs , birds of prey , snakes , crocodiles and humans .\nif this is a subspecies that by choice is found to favor a more carnivorous diet than regular white - nosed coati , it probably did not originate at this particular location but somewhere in latin america where the legend of the chupacabra is older and more prevalent . if there is not a blood - sucking subspecies of coati out there and if the animal mutilations do not match those of coati eating patterns , then there still may be something out there doing the mutilation ; however , i do believe that most sightings can be explained as a misidentity case of a recessive hairless white - nosed coati .\nthe south american coati resembles its close relative the raccoon procyon lotor of north and central america in size and general appearance . its fur is a pale brown , often reddish , with darker legs , feet , ears and markings around the face and long , pointed snout . the tail is thick and bushy , strongly ringed with darker brown , and often held aloft . the animals are active diurnally , hunting for fruit or for animal prey on the ground or high in trees .\nring - tailed coati is named because of the black rings that cover the tail . rest of the body is covered with thick , tan - colored fur .\nboth a walker and a climber , the coati owes this duality to the morphology of its paws . like humans , the coati is plantigrade . this means that it places the palm of its hand and the sole of its foot on the ground when it moves . its five fingers on each hand are roughly equal in length .\nknown for their inquisitive personalities , these south american raccoons are definitely unique . they are diurnal ( awake during the day ) , eat many different foods , can live about 14 years , and act like permanent toddlers . if coatis aren ' t bottle raised at a young age and continually socialized they can become very violent and dangerous , much like a pet primate . therefore , to increase your chances of having a loving and enjoyable pet , be sure to provide plenty of enrichment , exercise , and attention to your coati .\nthere were seven known records in gb up to 2008 , involving ten animals . during 2003\u201307 , perhaps up to ten animals were recorded in the wild in south cumbria .\npossesses a derived condition in that the organ persists , fully functional , until near term . areolae are absent in the coati and in other musteloidae , cats and hyenas [\nring - tailed coati nasua nasua at the cotswold wildlife park , burford , oxfordshire , england . photographed by adrian pingstone in june 2006 and placed in the public domain .\nfavaron po , carter am , ambrosio ce , morini ac , mess am , oliveira mf , miglino ma . placentation in sigmodontinae : a rodent taxon native to south america .\nthese are very unnatural things to do to any animal including a coati . declawing and healthy tooth removal are controversial issues . coatis have sharp claws and teeth for a reason and removing them to prevent injuries to their owners is not appropriate . if you are not prepared for everything a coati is then you should not have one as a pet .\n' the coati seemed to be favouring three gardens by the river to visit for food so we laid a humane trap with pieces of fresh fruit at one of the properties .\npotential predators of the coati include jaguars ( panthera onca ) , pumas ( puma concolor ) , ocelots ( leopardus pardalis ) and jaguarundis ( puma yagouaroundi ) ( 4 ) .\nseveral mammalian species are found in the atacama desert , including the minute near threatened atacama myotis ( myotis atacamensis ) ; elegant fat - tailed opossum ( thylamys elegans ) ; manso grass mouse ( akodon olivaceus ) ; osgood ' s leaf - eared mouse ( phyllotis osgoodi ) ; darwin ' s leaf - eared mouse ( phyllotis darwini ) and the south american gray fox ( pseudalopex griseus ) .\nguilherme trovati , r . , alves de brito , b . & barbanti duarte , j . m . ( 2010 ) habitat use and home range of brown - nosed coati ,\nring - tailed coati is an omnivore ( eats both plants and animals ) . its diet consists of small mammals , reptiles and invertebrates , eggs , nuts , seeds , fruit .\nalthough most procyonid species are not threatened at this point in time , the cozumel raccoon and cozumel ( or dwarf ) coati are highly endangered ( kays [ 2009 ] treated the former as a valid raccoon species and the latter as a subspecies of the white - nosed coati , but he noted that the cozumel coati is sometimes treated as a full species ) . the olinguito has a small range in a region with intense conversion of forest to agriculture ; the mountain coatis also have small ranges and may be threatened by conversion of their forest habitat to agriculture .\nnasua nasua is broadly distributed in south america , ranging from colombia and venezuela in the north to uruguay and northern argentina in the south ( gompper and decker 1998 ) . the species is absent from the llano grasslands of venezuela ( eisenberg 1989 ) . it has been introduced to robinson crusoe , one of the juan fern\u00e1ndez islands of chile ( miller and rottmann 1976 , pine et al . 1979 , colwell 1989 ) .\nring - tailed coati is a medium sized animal . it can weigh between 4 . 4 and 16 pounds , with length of up to 44 inches . tail measures the half of the total body length .\nfemales live in the groups composed of 15 to 30 animals . group of ring - tailed coati is better known as\nband\n. males are solitary creatures . they gather with females only during mating season .\nthe south american coati has a varied diet , comprising a range of invertebrates and fruit . it forages both in the trees and on the ground and uses its flexible nose to probe into crevices and leaf litter in search of food . adult females , infants and immature coatis live in groups of up to 30 individuals , whereas adult males are usually solitary . a pregnant female will leave their group to build a nest in a tree where she will give birth , usually to a litter size of three or four young . the infants are able to walk and climb by the time they are a month old and within six weeks of birth the female returns to the group with her young .\neveryone is welcome to see the coatis face to face in june , during the keepers ' talk . come to the children ' s zoo and meet the lovely coati cubs and their neighbors , the llamas and ponies .\ntreats can include insects such as gut loaded crickets and mealworms and pieces of cereal or crackers can also be offered . prickly pear fruits are a favorite of coatis and can be used as a training reward . be sure to stay away from sweet or salty foods though when treating your coati . diseases related to poor diets and unwanted behaviors such as food aggression or being picky can develop if you spoil your coati too much with these foods .\nnasuella ( 1 species [ but now 2 ] ) : mountain coati ( nasuella olivacea ) , found in montane forests above 2000 meters in northwestern south america . helgen et al . ( 2009 ) suggested that this might be the least studied carnivore genus globally . morphological and molecular phylogenetic investigations by helgen et al . led them to the conclusion that there are actually two distinct mountain coati species , which they referred to as the eastern mountain coati ( nasuella meridensis ) , found in the venezuelan andes and formerly recognized as a subspecies , and the western mountain coati ( n . olivacea ) , found in the andes of colombia and ecuador . their molecular phylogenetic analyses also suggested that nasuella may fall within the genus nasua as the sister lineage to nasua narica , making the genus nasua paraphyletic as currently defined , although a strong conclusion on this question will require additional morphological and genetic comparisons , including data from independent genetic markers . if this conclusion stands , however , the genus name nasuella would likely be relegated to a synonym of nasua and all the coatis and mountain coatis would be included in the genus nasua . .\nfavaron po , carter am , ambrosio ce , morini ac , mess am , oliveira mf , miglino ma : placentation in sigmodontinae : a rodent taxon native to south america . reprod biol endocrinol . 2011 , 9 : 55 -\nso now we know it is a coati . the question is , what kind ? and also , is this a new population , or has it been here the entire time , surviving in refugia in the form of the southern extension of the post oak savanna ? why do we only see this hairless type of coati in the area ? do they all have mange , or do they all share a recessive hairless trait ? there could be a few different scenarios .\nsouth american coatis were common near igazu . apparently they were too common and even dangerous for tourists . they approached visitors unceremoniously and those who recklessly held food in thin foil bags were violently attacked and deprived of their meals . in over - 30 - degree heat it was even difficult to drink without being bothered by them . one of participants of our trip ( greetings to pawe\u0142 ) sat down in a nearby restaurant and opened a can with some drink \u2013 the can placed on the table was confiscated by coatis at once . they did it swiftly , decisively and aggressively . it was not a pleasant feeling , as south american coatis are not tiny creatures , not to mention their teeth . their body length with the tail reaches 1 . 4 m , and the weight of an adult specimen can reach up to 7 kilograms . what is more , they prowled in small gangs , always successful in their attacks for tourists\u2019 food bags and drinks . they are smart and intelligent . opening a litter bin with leftovers is not a problem for them . they occur in south america , from the north to the north of argentina , except for mountainous regions on the west of the continent . they were so aggressive and unlikeable in their behavior that i did not take many pictures of them\u2026\nthe south american leaf - toed gecko ( phyllodactylus gerrhopygus ) , found only in southern peru and northern chile , occurs in the atacama desert . near - endemic amphibians are represented by the vallenar toad ( rhinella atacamensis ) , which occurs in and near oases and streams year - around . breeding occurs in permanent pools ( including livestock water tanks ) , streams and rivers . eggs are laid in long strings , and the larvae develop where these were laid . r . atacamensis achieves is highest altitude occurrence at 2574 metres near mostazal .\ncoati are not commonly seen as pets but rectal prolapses are often seen from straining to defecate due to parasites and / or diarrhea . malnutrition is also seen due to an improper diet and if multiple coatis are housed together there may be injuries from fighting .\nthe south american coati is usually active during the daytime , which is untypical of the other raccoons . another one difference is the gregarious way of life . the females of the coati live in matriarchal groups of 14 - 30 animals . the group consists of several eugamic females , as well as their impuberal cubs . the males live solitary life , and join the females only during the mating season . the animals spend most part of their active time on getting food . at night , they sleep on the trees , where they also build lairs and breed . the body length is 40 - 70cm . the tail length is 35 - 75cm . the total length is 104 . 5cm on average . the height at the shoulder is 30cm . they weigh 3 - 7kg ( the average weight is 4 . 5kg ) ; the males are heavier than the females . the head is narrow with slightly upward and very flexible nose . the ears are small and rounded , with white rims on the inner side . the fur is short , fluffy and may be of different shades of brown . the tail is long and ringed .\ndiet : primarily omnivorous , coati usually seek out fruits and invertebrates , palms , eggs , larval beetles , scorpions , centipedes , spiders , ants , termites , lizards , small mammals , rodents , and carrion when it is available and on the rare occasion can take chickens .\nring - tailed coati has highly elastic ankles , which facilitate movement toward the top of the trees and back on the ground . they can run from the tree to the ground with their head going before legs . flexible ankles are specific adaptation to the life on the trees .\nmost procyonids are generally nocturnal , spending the day sleeping in a tree cavity or rock den and only emerging after sunset . coatis , however , sleep in trees during the night and are active during the day . coatis are also the most social procyonids . females and their young travel in groups of up to 65 individuals , although smaller groups of 10 to 30 are more common . adult male coatis ( especially south american coatis ) sometimes trail along , but are more likely to forage alone . kinkajous and northern raccoons have also been found to exhibit some degree of sociality , at least under some circumstances .\nif it is a new population of simply white - nosed coati , their hairless nature could be explained by recessive trait , mange or malnutrition . if it is not mange or a recessive trait , then it could be from malnutrition because of a forced shift toward more meat in their diet from habitat limitations such as the absence of suitable vegetation for their omnivorous diet . on the other hand , if we are dealing with a healthy population of coati with no mange or malnutrition but simply a recessive trait , then this would indicate a population that has developed in relative isolation . this population has most likely been limited from traveling north along the post oak savanna by temperature and to the south , west and east by agriculture and the gulf of mexico . if this is the case , a subspecies might have developed here with noticeable genetic differences only found within this geographic region .\nall of the local biologists are saying that what was found in ratcliffe was a hairless raccoon ; however , i believe the evidence points to a hairless white - nosed coati ( nasua narica ) or a new , undiscovered subspecies . even though we live in a developed country , there is a lot of land out there , especially in a state like texas , for even megafauna to go relatively unnoticed ; however , since we are in south texas , which has one of the highest rates of biodiversity in the united states , finding weird and uncommon animals should not be a surprise .\nthe species is widespread and relatively common in areas of intact habitat , but populations are under threat from hunting and the destruction and fragmentation of forest in central and south america . however , the level of threat and the relative decline in numbers is not well known as this species is relatively unstudied .\nin argentina , this species inhabits the western semiarid region of the country , from the andean spurs ( ca . 69\u00baw ) to meridian 66\u00baw . south from the r\u00edo grande , the distribution of the fox widens reaching the atlantic coast . in chile , it is present throughout the country . its presence in\nalves - costa , c . p . , da fonseca , g . a . b . and christ\u00f3faro , c . ( 2004 ) variation in the diet of the brown - nosed coati ( nasua nasua ) in southeastern brazil . journal of mammalogy , 85 ( 3 ) : 478 - 482 .\nmost procyonids are habitat generalists , although the olinguito and mountain coatis are andean cloud forest specialists . procyonids are generally associated with trees and any forest across most of the americas is likely to be home to at least one procyonid ( as many as six species may be found in some parts of panama ) . kinkajous occur in virtually all tropical forest types from lowland tropical rainforest to high elevation cloud forest to dry forest . white - nosed and south american coatis also use a wide variety of forest types , but move into drier chaco , cerrado , and mountainous deserts as well . raccoons are tied to the aquatic environments they feed in . they find abundant habitat in wet forests , but also follow waterways and shorelines into drier habitats . in addition , northern raccoons thrive in suburban and even urban habitats ( especially since the 1970s and 1980s ) . ringtails are found in a range of forest habitat types , but are less tied to forest than other procyonids , often occurring in rocky deserts with cliffs . cacomistles are found only in rainy tropical areas , but use a range of habitats , including mature oak cloud forest , secondary forest , and overgrown pastures . some procyonids actually seem to benefit from human activity ( e . g . , northern raccoons and , to a lesser extent , ringtails ) and cacomistles , south american coatis , white - nosed coatis , and kinkajous seem to tolerate moderate forest fragmentation reasonably well , so long as they are not heavily hunted . some other procyonids , such as mountain coatis and olinguitos are believed to be far more sensitive to habitat disturbance , although little information is available for these taxa .\ncoati are dark brown , grey , or brightly rust coloured on top and white or yellow / light brown underneath . the head is narrow with the nose slightly turned upward and elongated , and is very flexible . the muzzle is brown with pale spots above , below , and behind the eye . the ears are small and fringed with white on the inside rims . their long tails are black to brown with yellow rings . adults measure 41 to 67 cm from head to the base of the tail , with the tail 32 to 69 cm to their length . coati are about 30 cm tall at the shoulder , and weigh between 3 and 6 kg . they have strong claws and forelimbs to climb and dig out food from under rotted logs and can reverse the joints of the anklebone to descend trees headfirst .\nregarding the fine structure of the fetomaternal interface , the following characters are widespread among carnivores and seemed to belong to their stem species pattern or ancestral pattern : an endotheliochorial barrier in the zonary or circumferential placenta , in addition to a yolk sac and a large allantoic sac that persist until term . in contrast , the coati and other procyonids were derived from the ancient carnivore condition , maintaining the cellular trophoblast to term [\nthe coati may be able to tolerate the post oak savanna ; however , their preference for a dense , high canopy cover woodland or forest could be the reason for increasing encounters . the suppression of fire and improper livestock rates and rotation has led to an encroachment of understory plants such as huisache , scrub oak and yaupon into an over story of live oak and post oak in much of the land in dewitt county .\n] . it is currently unclear what types of tissue - specific inflammation patterns and associated molecular mechanisms are involved in establishing specific fetomaternal contact in various regions . thus , carnivores are interesting animal models for studying the full range of interhaemal barrier differentiation and function within an individual species . the coati may be of special interest to further study persisting hemophagous organs to better understand the nature and functional significance of substance transfer in the placental areas .\nregarding the fine structure of the fetomaternal interface , the following characters are widespread among carnivores and seemed to belong to their stem species pattern or ancestral pattern : an endotheliochorial barrier in the zonary or circumferential placenta , in addition to a yolk sac and a large allantoic sac that persist until term . in contrast , the coati and other procyonids were derived from the ancient carnivore condition , maintaining the cellular trophoblast to term [ 19 - 21 ] .\nthere is an important pelt trade in south america . according to cites , from 1980 to 1983 , 381 , 000 fox skins were exported , 98 % of which were purported to have originated in argentina . over 7 , 000 skins were recorded as being exported from chile , despite the species being protected in that country . most exports were made to west germany ( 72 % ) , switzerland ( 7 . 2 % ) , and italy ( 4 . 4 % ) .\nthe data on the coati supported previous views on the ancestral placental characters of carnivores ; the maintenance of cellular trophoblasts in the barrier and the large , central hemophagous organ that persisted until near term were confirmed . the ancestral pattern of carnivores includes not only an endotheliochorial , labyrinthine placental girdle , but also extended epitheliochorial and hemochorial zones and placental function for the yolk sac . this considerable complexity of fetomaternal contact zones must have evolved before the radiation of carnivores , approximately 65 million years ago [ 25 , 26 ] . it is currently unclear what types of tissue - specific inflammation patterns and associated molecular mechanisms are involved in establishing specific fetomaternal contact in various regions . thus , carnivores are interesting animal models for studying the full range of interhaemal barrier differentiation and function within an individual species . the coati may be of special interest to further study persisting hemophagous organs to better understand the nature and functional significance of substance transfer in the placental areas ."]}
{"id": 468, "summary": [{"text": "colombian weasel ( mustela felipei ) , also known as the don felipe 's weasel , is a very rare species of weasel only known with certainty from the departments of huila and cauca in colombia and nearby northern ecuador ( where only known from a single specimen ) .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "both its scientific and alternative common name honours the mammalogist philip \" don felipe \" hershkovitz .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it appears to be largely restricted to riparian habitats at an altitude of 1,100 to 2,700 m ( 3,600 to 8,900 ft ) .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "there is extensive deforestation within its limited distribution within the northern andes of colombia and ecuador , and with less than ten known specimens , it is probably the rarest carnivoran in south america .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is considered vulnerable by the iucn .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is the second smallest living carnivore on average , being only slightly larger than the least weasel ( mustela nivalis ) and slightly smaller than the ermine or stoat ( m. erminea ) .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the upperparts and tail are blackish-brown , while the underparts are orange-buff . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "colombian weasel", "paragraphs": ["colombian weasel how did the colombian weasel become endangered ? colombia , colombian weasel what habitat / biome does the colombian weasel live in ? works cited urltoken the colombian weasel became endangered because they would chase chickens on farmers territory and the farmers would chase them back and sometimes kill one the colombian weasels habitat is colombia and possibly ecuador they like to have there habitat near water , streams , and lakes . urltoken 3 . urltoken 4 . urltoken 5 . urltoken\nhas colombian weasel mustela felipei been overlooked in collections ? | hector e . ram\u00edrez - chaves - urltoken\n* * * as of 1996 , only five specimens of the colombian weasel were known . three of them were originally mis - labeled as the long - tailed weasel , mustela frenata , before the colombian weasel had been identified as a separate species .\nthe colombian weasel is approximately 22cm ( 9 inches ) long , and one weighed 138g ( 5oz ) .\nthere is extensive deforestation in the area where the colombian weasel has been found ; however , it is not yet established whether this is having an adverse effect on the weasel .\nthe colombian weasel is one of the species that live in the tropical andes biodiversity hotspot ( cons . intl . ) .\nthe colombian weasel ( mustela felepei ) has only recently been discovered and has never been studied in the wild . two british and three colombians are hoping to instigate a detailed study of a colombian weasel population , its habitat and the effects of human activity on them .\ndistribution and habitat modelling for colombian weasel mustela felipei in the northern andes | jos\u00e9 f . gonz\u00e1lez - maya and santiago burneo - urltoken\nuntil they were identified as a separate species in 1996 , several colombian weasels were mistaken for the long - tailed weasel ( mustela frenata ) .\naka \u2026 water weasel , don felipe weasel ( after philip hershkovitz who made numerous contributions to south american fauna in the 1950s ) .\nthere have been no studies of reproduction in colombian weasels . however , in temperate\nin english - language popular culture in particular , the term ' weasel ' is associated with devious characters . a cartoon shown on cartoon network is entitled ' i am weasel ' , whose main character is a weasel . two pok\u00e9mon are based on the weasel , buizel and floatzel .\nthe colombian weasel lives in the mountain forests of the andes , from 1500 to 2000m ( 4921 to 6562ft ) over sea level . the climate is subtropical .\nbecause this species is known from so few specimens and has not been observed in the wild , there is very little known about colombian weasel behavior . like other\nin a paper entitled \u201cphylogeographic patterns of mitochondrial differentiation in the long - tailed weasel , mustela frenata \u201c , produced at the 87th annual meeting of the american society of mammalogists , it was stated that \u201cthe first mitochondrial sequences of the colombian weasel ( mustela felipei ) , used in outgroup comparisons suggest that the colombian weasel might prove a closer sister taxon to the long - tailed weasel ( mustela frenata ) than the traditional sister taxon , the american mink ( neovison vison ) .\nnot much information about the diet of the colombian weasel is known . however , weasels in general are carnivores who eat up to 40 % of their body weight each day . their typical diet includes small mammals , birds , and insects . because it is suspected that the colombian weasel may be aquatic , fish might also be a component of their diet .\nthe females are called ' bitch , doe or jill ' and males ' buck , dog , hub or jack ' . a colombian weasel group is called a ' boogle ' .\ndue to the lack of information about this rare weasel , it is assumed that , being a carnivore , the animal has a similar diet to its weasel cousins , i . e . small mammals , insects , etc . however it\u2019s also suspected that , because of its webbed feet , the colombian weasel might also include fish in its diet . habitat\nthe weasel pre - breeding season population is estimated to be 450 , 000 adults .\nas it has webbing between its toes , scientists think that this weasel may be aquatic .\npatagonian weasel ( lyncodon patagonicus , found in western argentina and central and southern chile ) .\nthere have been no reports of mating systems in colombian weasels . in the related and well - studied species ,\nfemale colombian weasels nurture their newborn young and take care of them for 2 to 3 months . in other ,\n* * * the colombian weasel is probably the rarest carnivore in south america . as of 1989 , virtually nothing was known about its distribution , its status or its ecology . ( schreiber et al . 1989 )\nthe eating inclinations of the colombian weasel : generally speaking , they eat up to forty percent of the body mass on a daily basis . the typical diet consists of : mammals , insects and birds . it is a hypothesis ( or assumption ) of some researchers / experts that colombian weasels are in fact aquatic , then it goes without saying that fish are part of their foods . the colombian weasel is basically a carnivore , lest you get confused , they have been known to attack chickens , and because of this , farmers attacked them in return .\nthe weasel ( mustela nivalis ) is the smallest member of the mustelid family and britains smallest carnivore .\nthey are pale / yellowish brown in colour although they can be darker or redder in different parts of their range . sometimes their tail has a dark brown tip and almost always their muzzle has some white colouration . habitat siberian weasels are found in the tundra , mountains and forested areas throughout east asia . they are solitary and mainly nocturnal but sometimes they hunt during the day . diet siberian weasels are ferocious and efficient predators . they mainly feed up on rodents , lizards , small birds , eggs and insects . breeding siberian weasels breed annually in spring and after a gestation period of 28 - 30 days , 2 - 12 ( average 5 ) young are born in a nest . they are taken care of by the female and when they reach a month old their eyes open . they are weaned at 2 months old and they reach sexual maturity at approximately 2 years of age . predators predators of siberian weasels are large owls and birds of prey . subspecies there are four subspecies of siberian weasel : mustela sibirica subhemachalana mustela sibirica moupiensis mustela sibirica canigula mustela sibirica hodgsoni interesting facts siberian weasels are also known as : siberian mountain weasel kolinsky himalayan weasel siberian weasel fur makes the finest water colour or oil paint brushes and is especially sought after by artists . the kolinsky sable - hair brush is produced using the winter fur of the male siberian weasel , not sable . similar animals back - striped weasel colombian weasel least weasel japanese weasel long - tailed weasel malayan weasel mountain weasel patagonian weasel\none colombian weasel weighed 138 g ( 5 oz ) . known specimens have been collected in areas close to water at elevations of 1750 and 2700 m ( 5740 ' and 8900 ' ) , an altitude where cloud forests predominate . one specimen was collected in a region of the upper suaza river valley where the river contains stretches with torrential currents which are interrupted by quiet pools ( schreiber et al . 1989 ) . however , the most recent collection was in rugged terrain but not near water . webbing between the toes and its ( mostly ) riparian distribution suggests that the colombian weasel is aquatic . five specimens of the colombian weasel have been found in the highlands of the cordillera central of western colombia and in the andes of northern ecuador . there is extensive deforestation in the area where it has been found ; however , it is not yet established whether this is having an adverse effect on the weasel .\nas of 1996 , only five specimens of the colombian weasel were known . the colombian weasel has been found in western colombia as well as the andes of northern ecuador . colombian weasels are considered to be riparian - to live near the bank of a body of water or a watercourse . several specimens have been collected in areas close to water at elevations of 1750 and 2700 m ( 5740 ' and 8900 ' ) , an altitude dominated by cloud forests . one collection was in the upper suaza river valley , where the river contains stretches with torrential currents which are interrupted by quiet pools . however , one of the most recent specimens was found in an area of rugged terrain that was not near water .\ncolombian weasels are likely to be important predators of small animals in the riparian habitats they occupy . little is know of mutualisms or parasitisms in this species .\ncolombian weasels may help humans by controlling rodent and insect pest populations in the areas they occupy . their skins are also used for coats and other clothing products .\ncats , owls , foxes and birds of prey will all try to kill weasels , although a weasel will fight hard to defend itself .\nsince the discovery of the colombian weasel , only five specimens have been obtained from western colombia ( provinces of huila and cauca ) and northern ecuador ( nowak , 2005 ) . the species was thought to be endemic to the cordillera central of colombia , but another specimen was found from andean ecuador ( schreiber\nhave broader bodies . an order of magnitude difference in size exists between the smallest and largest mustelid species . the smallest species is the least weasel (\n* * * inhabitants of areas adjoining sites where the colombian weasel was being studied were asked which mammals they were familiar with . almost all farm - dwelling people questioned had seen weasels , and usually thought of them as pests , since most encounters involved predation upon chickens or domestic guinea pigs ( fawcett et al . 1996 ) .\nproject update : 25 / 3 / 98 . the team were the first to study the recently discovered colombian weasel in the wild . the project led on to a research project on another species of weasel by a local student and an environment education poster about cloudforest mammals was initiated by the leader and iucn specialist group . it will be distributed in colombia and possibly ecuador to raise awareness and generate feedback from wardens and communities on the rarer species ( d . fawcett in litt . 1998 ) .\nafrican striped weasel ( poecilogale albinucha , found in southern africa ) . lariv\u00e8re and jennings ( 2009 ) noted that , given recent data indicating that the african striped weasel is the sister taxon to the zorilla ( ictonyx striatus ) ( koepfli et al . 2008 ) , it should probably be placed in the genus ictonyx as well .\nweasels have light brown fur on their backs and their underparts are creamy / white . the weasel is smaller than the stoat and lacks the small white patches under their chin and throat . in many weasel species , populations living at high latitudes moult to a white coat with black fur at the tip of the tail in winter . weasels have sharp eyesight and excellent hearing .\nthere has been extensive deforestation in the area where this particular weasel has been found but , to date , it hasn\u2019t been established whether this is causing an adverse effect on it or not .\nalmost nothing is known of colombian weasel ' s habitat preferences ( schreiber et al . 1989 ) , but its naked foot soles with extensive interdigital webbing and records in areas of riparian habitats suggest that the species is adapted to water - edge environments ( ram\u00edrez - chaves & patterson 2014 ) . the few specimens have been obtained from between 1 , 525 and 2 , 700 m , an altitude range where cloud forests predominate .\nat the time of the review of the family mustelidae by lariv\u00e8re and jennings ( 2009 ) , the iucn listed seven mustelid species as endangered ( giant otter , marine otter , southern river otter [ lontra provocax ] , sea otter , hairy - nosed otter [ lutra sumatrana ] , european mink , and black - footed ferret ) ; five as vulnerable ( nilgiri marten [ martes gwatkinsii ] , marbled polecat , asian small - clawed otter [ aonyx cinereus ] , smooth - coated otter , and colombian weasel [ mustela felipei ] ) ; and four as near threatened ( hog badger , wolverine , eurasian otter , and mountain weasel [ mustela altaica ] ) . of the remaining species , 35 were listed as least concern and six as data deficient . in fact , so little is known about most mustelid species that reliable status assessments are difficult . the colombian weasel ( mustela felipei ) was described only in 1978 ( izor and de la torre 1978 ) and may be the rarest carnivore in south america ( ram\u00edrez - chaves et al . 2012 ) .\ncolombian weasels communicate with vocalizations , vision , touch , and probably with scent cues . individuals of this species stand on their hind legs to search for others and emit a high - pitched sound to alert relatives in times of danger .\nthe ermine , least weasel , and long - tailed weasel ( mustela frenata ) completely change their coats between summer and winter , with a dramatic change from brown to white in the northern parts of the range and at high elevations ( in other areas , the summer coat is dark ) . interestingly , ermine and long - tailed weasels retain the black tail tip in the winter , which experiments have suggested may focus the attention of potential predators away from the body as a weasel makes its escape . japanese weasels ( mustela itatsi ) replace their dark brown summer coat with a much paler yellowish one in the winter .\nizor , r . , l . de la torre . 1978 . a new species of weasel ( mustela ) form the highlands of colombia , with comments on the evolution and distribution of south american weasels . .\none colombian weasel weighed 138 g ( 5 oz ) . known specimens have been collected in areas close to water at elevations of 1750 and 2700 m ( 5740 ' and 8900 ' ) , an altitude where cloud forests predominate . one specimen was collected in a region of the upper suaza river valley where the river contains stretches with torrential currents which are interrupted by quiet pools ( schreiber et al . 1989 ) . however , the most recent collection was in rugged terrain but not near water .\nthe weasel may travel up to 2 . 5 kilometres on a hunting expedition . weasels are good climbers and will often raid birds nests , taking the eggs and young . when ratting , its courage is even greater than the stoats .\ncolombian weasels are recognized as vulnerable with a decreasing population trend by the iucn . very little is known about their life history and population status , but their rarity and the fact that many of the areas they are thought to inhabit have been severely impacted by deforestation suggests that populations are threatened .\n. smaller carnivores that are restricted to small habitat fragments may also be at risk to predation by larger carnivores that can more easily move among fragments . hunting has been a problem for some species , while others , particularly tropical mustelids , do not seem to be declining as a result . endangered mustelids include : colombian weasels (\nadult specimens have averaged 22 cm ( 8 . 7 in ) in length , not counting the 11 . 5 cm ( 4 . 5 in ) tail , and weighed 120 to 150 g ( 4 . 2 to 5 . 3 oz ) . colombian weasels are the second smallest living carnivore , being only slightly larger than least weasels (\nweasels feed on small mammals and in former times were considered vermin since some species took poultry from farms , or rabbits from commercial warrens . certain species of weasel and ferrets , have been reported to perform the mesmerizing weasel \u2018war dance\u2019 , after fighting other animals , or acquiring food from competing creatures . in folklore at least , this dance is particularly associated with the stoat . mice and voles make up 60 % \u2013 80 % of their diet , however , they also eat rats , frogs and birds . their prey is killed with a sharp bite to the back of the neck . prey is usually taken on the ground .\nmain characteristics siberian weasels are a large species of weasel . they have a body length between 30 and 40 . 5 cms ( 12 - 15 . 9 inches ) , a tail length between 18 and 25 . 5 cms ( 7 - 10 inches ) and they weigh approximately 57 g ( 2 oz ) .\nmorphology : most mustelids are small to medium - sized carnivores with long bodies and short limbs ( some , such as the wolverine and badgers , have a stockier body shape ) . the least weasel , which is not only the smallest weasel but also the world ' s smallest carnivore , may weigh in at as little as 25 g when fully grown . sexual size dimorphism in mustelids can be striking , with males often twice the size of females . the largest mustelid is the sea otter , which can reach 45 kg , and on land , the wolverine , which can reach 18 kg . mustelids have five toes on each foot and often strong claws . their ears can be pointed forward or swiveled to the side , but not folded back .\nonly six specimens of colombian weasel , from five localities in four provinces or departments , have been obtained : from western colombia ( departments of choc\u00f3 - valle del cauca , huila and cauca ) and northern ecuador ( province of napo ) . the most northern is from 4\u00b051 ' n , and the most southern from 0\u00b025 ' n . recent re - examination of neotropical mustela specimens in many collections revealed no new m . felipei , re - affirming the conventional view of the rarity of the species ; many published accounts contain records in error or for which the reliability cannot be judged ( r\u00e1mirez - chaves et al . 2012 ) . it is however possible that the species has been under - recorded because , in this part of the andes , weasels in general are extremely challenging to identify in the field : this species is morphologically very similar to long - tailed weasel m . frenata ( r\u00e1mirez - chaves et al . 2012 ) . tirira and gonzalez - maya ( 2009 ) traced records from 1 , 525 to 2 , 700 m a . s . l . ; a record from a lower altitude was considered to be an error of identification by r\u00e1mirez - chaves et al . ( 2012 ) .\nweasels vary in length , but generally , male weasels measure around 20 \u2013 22 centimetres long and have a tail length of 6 . 5 centimetres and female weasels measure around 15 \u2013 18 centimetres long and have a tail length of 4 . 5 centimetres . the average weasel weighs about 198 grams ( 7 ounces ) , however , males usually weigh up to 115 grams and females up to 59 grams .\n) were recognized . they were found in west colombia and also in parts of north ecuador ( andes ) . the colombian weasel is labelled as riparian , and this means , living near water or a water - course , fact is , many individuals were acquired / sighted near bodies of water at elevations of 1700 to 2700 meters . there are of course exceptions , but truly exceptions at that , one recent discovery was from a place far from water . speaking of the five specimens , they had been found at the high lands of western colombia , and these areas were heavily exploited , deforestation - wise . a specimen in the distant past was found in the upper suaza ( it ' s a river ) where the body of water possesses stretches of currents mixed in with\npeaceful\npools ( and when i say mixed , interrupted is what it means here ) .\neach weasel has a territory of 4 \u2013 8 hectares ( 1 hectare is equal to 2 football pitches ) . male territories are larger than females and they may overlap with one another . the size of the territory depends on the food supply ; where there is plenty there is no need to hunt for food far and wide . the individual territories are marked with strong - smelling secretions from the anal scent glands .\nneither the stoat or weasel is in any real danger of extinction in the uk , they are however threatened by hunting , habitat loss , poisoning and both often get run over on the country lanes . they do tend to live around farms as the hedgerow habitat and plentiful food supply suits them . this often leads them into conflict with farmers , especially problematic are stoats who are very able at snatching chickens , eggs as well as game birds .\ncolombian weasels are very rare , and very little is known about them . they are found in riparian areas , near rivers and along the banks of other natural water sources . only six localities have been confirmed in colombia and ecuador . the few specimens that have been obtained were collected from altitudes ranging between 1 , 750 and 2 , 700 m where cloud forests predominate . one specimen was collected in the upper suaza river valley ( cueva de los guacharos national park ) . this part of the suaza river contains a mixture of violent currents and quiet pools .\nthe weasel family is made up of meat - eaters . when searching for food , they can cover a large area . they aren ' t afraid of prey larger than themselves . in general , members of this family live alone . females are always smaller than the males . the males also have a larger territory than the females . while female lives in an area where she can find enough food , the male tries to make his territory large enough to accompany lots of females .\nthe mustelidae ( from latin mustela , weasel ) are a family of carnivorous mammals , including the otters , badgers , weasels , martens , ferrets , minks and wolverines . mustelids are diverse and the largest family in the order carnivora . the internal classification still seems to be rather unsettled , with rival proposals containing between two and eight subfamilies . one study , published in 2008 , questions the long - accepted mustelinae subfamily , and suggests that mustelidae consist of four major clades and three much smaller lineages .\nspecies , fertilized eggs develop for approximately eight days before suspending development for 7 . 5 months . after this time , the embryos resume development , and 6 to 8 young are born 24 days later . all together , the gestation period lasts 200 to 300 days . newborn colombian weasels are blind and hairless . they measure approximately 55 mm in length and weigh up to 2 g each . they quickly develop a soft fur , which is replaced by adult fur after 3 weeks . by week 5 , their teeth have come in . their eyes open by 6 weeks of age , at which point weaning begins .\nhabitat : mustelids can be found in a great diversity of habitats , including marine ( marine otter [ lontra felina ] and sea otter ) , rivers ( north american river otter [ lontra canadensis ] and spotted - necked otter ) , temperate forest ( european pine marten [ martes martes ] and american marten [ martes americana ] ) , dry open woodlands ( african striped weasel ) , and grasslands ( black - footed ferret [ mustela nigripes ] ) . some mustelids have very broad habitat preferences . for example , ermine and least weasels can be found from grasslands to woodlands and honey badgers from forests to deserts .\njustification : colombian weasel is listed as vulnerable under c2a ( i ) , inferring a population size of at least 1 , 350 mature individuals from the current known range and a plausible population density , and assuming a continuing decline in population due to ongoing deforestation ( acknowledging the species may potentially tolerate some level of forest degradation ) . the range is sufficiently extensive to make it highly likely that no one subpopulation holds over 1 , 000 mature individuals . in addition , it is plausible that the species might meet the threshold for vulnerable under d1 ( a total population of 1 , 000 mature individuals or fewer ) if the density is only three - quarters of the arbitrary figure given in the ' population ' section ( and again assuming that the current range is not larger ) . this listing may be slightly evidentiary . indeed , a categorisation of endangered under c2a ( i ) is not out of the question , especially as no subpopulation may hold more than 250 mature individuals ; however , equally , the total population size might also be severely underestimated , especially if the range is larger than currently documented ( implying a larger population than speculated here ) . on balance , it is unlikely that this species ' s the true range has been fully documented so far , especially for a species so difficult to identify by typical mammal survey methods . hence , vulnerable seems to be a more appropriate listing , pending re - assessment when more information becomes available .\ncolombian weasel occurs in a limited geographic area where deforestation is rampant ( nowak 2005 , etter and van wyngaarden 2000 ) ; a significant proportion of the estimated range of the species has been deforested for agriculture and illicit crops . between 1990 and 2010 , forest cover net loss within the species\u00b4s known extent of occurrence ( eoo ) reached 10 % overall , and was 13 % within its suitable habitat ( areas within its eoo ) between 1 , 500 and 2 , 700 m a . s . l . ) ; for the last potential distribution model for the species ( ram\u00edrez - chaves and mantilla - meluk 2009 ) a net forest loss of 26 % was estimated for the period of 1990 - 2010 . forest lost estimates before 1990 indicate even a larger net loss ( etter and van wyngaarden 2000 ) . currently , there is only 36 % of forest cover within the eoo , 35 % within the altitudinally suitable eeo , and 25 % within the last modelled distribution . these deforestation trends are likely to continue given the historical drivers still operating in the area . the extent of the species ' s association with forest is , however , unknown , so the relationship of these deforestation statistics to the species ' s population trend is also unclear . for example , the former could overestimate the latter if the species is not particularly tied to forest , or if densities are higher in degraded and edge areas than in pristine forest ; or they could be an underestimate if the species is tied to a particularly rapidly declining microhabitat .\nweasels , european mink , and polecats ( mustela , 17 species , various species found across much of north america , europe , and asia ; in africa , the european polecat [ mustela putorius ] is present in morocco and the egyptian weasel [ mustela subpalmata ] is found in egypt ; ermine [ m . erminea ] have been introduced to new zealand and least weasels [ m . nivalis ] have been introduced to new zealand , malta , crete , the azores , and apparently s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 island ) . the domestic ferret is believed to be descended from the european polecat and is often referred to as m . putorius furo , but steppe polecats ( m . eversamanii ) may also be among the ancestors of the domestic ferret .\nmustelids vary greatly in size and behaviour . the least weasel is not much larger than a mouse , while the giant otter can measure up to 1 . 7 m ( 5 ft 7 in ) in length and sea otters can exceed 45 kg ( 99 lb ) in weight . the wolverine can crush bones as thick as the femur of a moose to get at the marrow , and has been seen attempting to drive bears away from their kills . the sea otter uses rocks to break open shellfish to eat . the marten is largely arboreal , while the badger digs extensive networks of tunnels , called setts . some mustelids have been domesticated : the ferret and the tayra are kept as pets ( although the tayra requires a dangerous wild animals licence in the uk ) , or as working animals for hunting or vermin control . others have been important in the fur trade \u2014the mink is often raised for its fur .\nsome other mustelids , such as the sable ( martes zibellina ) and american mink , are still highly valued for their fur commercially and african striped weasel skins are used in traditional ceremonies in africa . although american mink are still trapped in the wild , many millions are also bred on farms in the united states , europe , and , more recently , china . the escape of american mink from fur farms has resulted in the establishment of wild populations in europe and asia , which are believed to have negative consequences for competitors , such as european mink , as well as for native prey , such as water voles in britain . in new zealand , ermine and least weasels were introduced deliberately in the 1880s in an effort to reduce populations of introduced european rabbits . ermine have thrived , not only feeding on rabbits but also devastating local fauna , especially flightless birds . today , ermine are present in virtually all forested areas in new zealand , although least weasels are rare , presumably due to the scarcity of the smaller prey on which they specialize ( voles are absent and feral house mice are the only rodents smaller than 50 g ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nizor and de la torre ( 1978 ) suggested that m . africana and m . felipei form a monophyletic group . youngman ( 1982 ) placed m . felipei in subgenus grammogale ; abramov ( 2000 ) placed it in subgenus cabreragale .\none specimen was collected in cueva de los guacharos national park ( ram\u00edrez - chaves et al . 2012 ) . purace national park is also close to a collecting site ( schreiber et al . 1989 ) . in ecuador the species has not been recorded in any protected area ( tirira and gonz\u00e1lez - maya 2009 ) . potentially , according to models , the species could be potentially present in 10 protected areas in colombia ( ram\u00edrez - chaves and mantilla - meluk 2009 , burneo et al . 2009 ) and 14 in ecuador ( burneo et al . 2009 ) ; but no confirmed records exist from any of these areas ( ram\u00edrez - chaves et al . 2012 ) . determining the conservation needs is hampered by the minimal information on the species ' s natural history . it is therefore a high priority to find and study an extant population , particularly its habitat use and threats ( if any ) . at least five field efforts in six localities in colombia ( two adjacent to previous records ) failed to detect the species ( ram\u00edrez - chaves and patterson 2014 , j . f . gonz\u00e1lez - maya pers . comm . 2015 ) . moreover , natural habitat at three of the five known localities have been severely fragmented in recent years .\ngonz\u00e1lez - maya , j . f . , emmons , l . , helgen , k . & arias - alzate , aaa . 2016 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\n1 . profile 2 . tidbits 3 . status and trends ( iucn status , countries where currently found , history of distribution , threats and reasons for decline ) 4 . data on biology and ecology ( weight , habitat , behavior ) 5 . references\nfive specimens have been found in the highlands of the cordillera central of western colombia near san agustin , huila province and popayan , cauca province , and in the andes of northern ecuador .\nburton & pearson 1987 , cons . intl . , emmons & feer 1997 , fawcett et al . 1996 , infonatura , iucn 1994 , iucn 1996 , iucn 2000 , iucn 2003a , iucn 2004 , izor & de la torre 1978 , nowak 1999 , nowak & paradiso 1983 , schreiber et al . 1989\n\u00a9 1999 - 2014 animal info . endangered animals of the world . sj contact us .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecimens had been discovered in places at elevations of 5740 ' and 8900 ' , and in case you do not know it , these are altitudes where typical cloud forests are present .\n: these weasels have been killed in the past , because of local superstitious beliefs .\nhi we ' ve designed some great clothing for ferret lovers ! treat yourself or another ferret lover to one of these unique designs . here ' s one for example . click on the image to visit the store\nit\u2019s probably the rarest carnivore in south america and virtually nothing was known about its distribution , its status or its ecology prior to 1989 .\nit\u2019s listed on the iucn red list of threatened species as endangered ( en ) and it\u2019s considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild .\nthese weasels are considered to be riparian , which means that they probably live near the banks of a natural course of water .\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .\ncurrently you have javascript disabled . in order to post comments , please make sure javascript and cookies are enabled , and reload the page . click here for instructions on how to enable javascript in your browser .\nguests are limited to images that are no larger than 250kb , and to only jpeg , pjpeg , png file types .\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\nhas been observed from western colombia ( provinces of huila and cauca ) to northern ecuador . the species was thought to be endemic to the cordillera central of colombia until another specimen was found in andean ecuador . within this potential distribution there are 34 protected areas ( 20 in colombia and 14 in ecuador ) . there are three confirmed localities for the species in each for colombia and ecuador ; all lie within 1 , 123 to 2 , 700 m elevation .\noccurs in colombia from serrania de los paraguas in the limits between the choc\u00f3 and valle del cauca departments ( 4\u00b051\u2032n , 76\u00b025\u2032w ) through the northern andes of ecuador in mera in the province of pastaza ( 1\u00b027\u2032s , 78\u00b005\u2032w ; schreiber et al . , 1989 ; wozencraft , 2005 ) . according to the international union for conservation of nature and natural resources , there are likely to be serious threats to the protection of this species and they proposed several core regions to protect to ensure its survival . the iucn currently recognizes the species as vulnerable at a b2ab level ( ii , iii , iv , iucn red list of threatened species , 2013 ) .\n(\niucn red list of threatened species .\n, 2013 ;\nmustela\n, 2013 ; hollister , 1914 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mckelvey , et al . , 2007 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; nowak , 2005 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 )\n(\nmustela\n, 2013 ; alberico , 1994 ; anderson and martinez - meyer , 2003 ; bernal , 2004a ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; hollister , 1914 ; izor and peterson , 1985 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; youngman , 1982 )\n. the upperparts and tail are blackish - brown , the underparts are orange - buff , and the fur is quite long . little else is known about its physical appearance , though research indicates it has webbed feet to help provide stability in semi - aquatic habitats .\n( bernal , 2004b ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; emmons and helgen , 2013 ; hollister , 1914 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mckelvey , et al . , 2007 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; nowak , 2005 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 )\nrange basal metabolic rate 0 . 69 to 0 . 76 cm3 . o2 / g / hr\n, there is a monogamous pair bond , the male is attentive to the female - especially during weaning - and watches the young while she hunts for herself . both parents take care of the offspring for two to three months . however , in other species of\n, males compete for access to mating with multiple females and do not participate in the care of young .\n( eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; hijmans , et al . , 2005 ; hollister , 1914 ; hunter , 2011 ; izor and peterson , 1985 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; nowak , 2005 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 ; youngman , 1982 ;\nmustela\n, 2013 ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; hijmans , et al . , 2005 ; hollister , 1914 ; hunter , 2011 ; izor and peterson , 1985 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; nowak , 2005 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 ; youngman , 1982 )\n( bernal , 2004a ; emmons and helgen , 2013 ; hijmans , et al . , 2005 ; hunter , 2011 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mckelvey , et al . , 2007 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; nowak , 2005 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 ; youngman , 1982 )\n( anderson and martinez - meyer , 2003 ; bernal , 2004b ; bernal , 2004a ; hollister , 1914 ; hunter , 2011 ; izor and peterson , 1985 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mckelvey , et al . , 2007 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 ; youngman , 1982 )\n( hollister , 1914 ; hunter , 2011 ; izor and peterson , 1985 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; nowak , 2005 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 ; youngman , 1982 )\n( anderson and martinez - meyer , 2003 ; bernal , 2004a ; hijmans , et al . , 2005 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mckelvey , et al . , 2007 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 )\n( bernal , 2004a ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; izor and peterson , 1985 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 )\ncousins . because of their webbed feet and occurrence in riparian habitats , they are assumed to eat fish and other aquatic organisms , in addition to terrestrial small mammals and insects .\n( alberico , 1994 ; anderson and martinez - meyer , 2003 ; bernal , 2004b ; bernal , 2004a ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; emmons and helgen , 2013 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mckelvey , et al . , 2007 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 ; youngman , 1982 )\nlittle is known about predation on or anti - predator adaptations in this species . however , their coloration likely helps them blend in with the environment .\n( bernal , 2004b ; bernal , 2004a ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; hollister , 1914 ; izor and peterson , 1985 ; izor and de la torre , 1978 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 ; youngman , 1982 )\n(\nmustela\n, 2013 ; alberico , 1994 ; anderson and martinez - meyer , 2003 ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; emmons and helgen , 2013 ; hijmans , et al . , 2005 ; hollister , 1914 ; mckelvey , et al . , 2007 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; nowak , 2005 ; rageot and albuja , 1994 ; youngman , 1982 )\n( emmons and helgen , 2013 ; hijmans , et al . , 2005 ; hollister , 1914 ; hunter , 2011 ; llano , et al . , 2010 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; schreiber , et al . , 1989 ; youngman , 1982 )\n( alberico , 1994 ; anderson and martinez - meyer , 2003 ; emmons and helgen , 2013 ; hijmans , et al . , 2005 ; mesa - gonzalez , 2006 ; youngman , 1982 )\nkirsten wesner ( author ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point , christopher yahnke ( editor ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point , tanya dewey ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , shaina stewart ( editor ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nhaving markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreferring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody ( usually , but not always , a river or stream ) .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\n2013 .\niucn red list of threatened species .\n( on - line ) . accessed august 10 , 2013 at urltoken .\n2013 .\nmustela\n( on - line ) . accessed august 18 , 2013 at urltoken .\nanderson , r . , e . martinez - meyer . 2003 . modelling species\u2019 geo - graphic distributions for preliminary conservation assessments : an implementation with the spiny pocket mice ( heteromys ) of ecuador .\nbernal , e . 2004 . plan de desarrollo chivat\u00e1 - boyac\u00e1 . alcald\u00eda municipal de chivat\u00e1 .\nemmons , l . , k . helgen . 2013 . iucn red list of threatened species .\nhijmans , r . , s . cameron , j . parra , p . jones , a . jarvas . 2005 . very high resolution interpolated climate surfaces for global landareas .\nhollister , n . 1914 . . descriptions of four new mammals from tropical america .\nizor , r . , n . peterson . 1985 . notes on south american weasels . .\nllano , j . , j . salazar , j . agudelo , a . perez , j . hernandez . 2010 . estado de conocimiento de la fauna silvestre en la juridiccion de corantioquia . corporacion autonoma regional del centro de antioquia .\nmckelvey , k . , k . aubry , m . schwartz . 2007 . using anecdotal occurrence data for rare or elusive species : the illusion of reality and a call for evidentiary standards . .\nmesa - gonzalez , e . 2006 . libro rojo de los mam\u00edferos de colombia .\nnowak , r . 2005 . walker\u2019s carnivores of the world . pp . 300 - 355 in\n. baltimore , usa and london , uk . : johns hopkins university press .\nschreiber , a . , r . wirth , m . riffel , h . van rompaey . 1989 . weasels , civets , mongooses , and their relatives . an action plan for the conservation of mustelids and viverrids .\nyoungman , p . 1982 . distribution and systematics of the european mink mustela lutreola linnaeus .\nto cite this page : wesner , k . 2014 .\nmustela felipei\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\noops . a firewall is blocking access to prezi content . check out this article to learn more or contact your system administrator .\nstand out and be remembered with prezi , the secret weapon of great presenters .\nneither you , nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again .\nreset share links resets both viewing and editing links ( coeditors shown below are not affected ) .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nandienk\u00e4rpp\u00e4\nto\nmustela felipei izor and de la torre , 1978\n.\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nkolumbiank\u00e4rpp\u00e4\nto\nmustela felipei izor and de la torre , 1978\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\nfor full functionality of this site it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions for enabling javascript in your web browser . orcid uses cookies to improve your experience and to help us understand how you use our websites . learn more about how we use cookies .\nother organization identifiers provided by { { group . getactive ( ) . disambiguationsource . value } }\nsource : { { ( group . getactive ( ) . sourcename = = null | | group . getactive ( ) . sourcename = = ' ' ) ? group . getactive ( ) . source : group . getactive ( ) . sourcename } }\n{ { ( work . sourcename = = null | | work . sourcename = = ' ' ) ? work . source : work . sourcename } }\nsource : { { ( work . sourcename = = null | | work . sourcename = = ' ' ) ? work . source : work . sourcename } }\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator ."]}
{"id": 471, "summary": [{"text": "afleet alex ( born may 9 , 2002 in florida ) is an american thoroughbred race horse who , in 2005 , won two of america 's classic races , the preakness stakes and the belmont stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he is owned by the cash is king stable partnership , was trained by tim ritchey and was ridden by jeremy rose .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in twelve lifetime starts , alex won eight times ( six times in stakes , three times in g1 stakes ) , placed twice ( both in g1 stakes ) , and came in third once ( in the kentucky derby ) over 12 starts , for lifetime earnings of $ 2,765,800 . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "afleet alex", "paragraphs": ["alex ' s lemonade stand foundation and afleet alex have an important message : dream big . # preakness\nfollowing are photos of afleet alex and tapit taken on that beautiful may morning .\nafleet alex was named in honor of his sire , northern afleet , and three of the children of his owners who shared the name or nickname \u201calex . \u201d\nthe owners of thoroughbred racehorse afleet alex invite alex ' s parents to set up a lemonade stand at the kentucky derby . a few weeks later , afleet alex goes on to win the preakness stakes despite a dramatic stumble , bringing more attention to alex ' s story .\nwatching from the stands , tim richey , afleet alex ' s trainer , feared the worst .\nalex\u2019s lemonade stand is a registered service mark of alex ' s lemonade stand foundation .\nthe training regimen of top kentucky derby candidate afleet alex is unlike that of most horses in north america .\nin his racing career , afleet alex faced many obstacles . two heart - breakingly narrow losses and a lung infection\nafleet alex is relatively early in a long stud career at gainesway , now run by antony beck following his father\u2019s death in 2010 . afleet alex has the chance to match the output of his own sire , taylor made\u2019s veteran northern afleet , who has what some might call a \u201csneaky good\u201d r\u00e9sum\u00e9 , with 6 percent stakes winners through 12 crops of racing age . afleet alex is northern afleet\u2019s best offspring , but northern afleet also has sired champions amazombie and negligee , as well as multiple grade 1 winners evening jewel and teaks north .\nafleet alex is outcrossed through five generations . he is a full brother to grade ii - placed stakes winner unforgettable max\nthat summer afleet alex won his first race at delaware park by 11 lengths and his second by 12 . ritchey immediately began charting a schedule of top races for alex .\nafleet alex\u2019s triumphant display in the 2005 belmont stakes came as a timely reminder of his potential , and perhaps what might have been . as far as performances in the belmont stakes , few matched afleet alex\u2019s seven length demolition of a field .\nritchey said he does get some double takes in the mornings with afleet alex , who is currently training at churchill downs .\nscrappy t responded by bounding sideways right into the path of afleet alex , who clipped his heels . somehow , afleet alex managed to get his left front leg under him as his right splayed out in front of him ; somehow , jockey jeremy rose stayed aboard . somehow , afleet alex was back in full flight within a few strides and strode away to win brilliantly .\nchuck zacney will be watching the derby at the oaks turf club . one of afleet alex ' five owners , zacney had a great alex thrill last saturday when alex ' s son , 24 - 1 shot afleet again , won the withers stakes at aqueduct . zacney ' s cash is king stable happens to own afleet again , so that was not a vicarious thrill .\ncount kiaran mclaughlin , whose horse closing argument finished half a length in front of afleet alex in the derby but about 26 lengths behind him in the preakness , among alex\u2019s great admirers .\nthe public seemed to agree . afleet alex was the favorite for the historic preakness stakes . the race seemed to unfold perfectly . jockey jeremy rose and afleet alex waited patiently toward the back of the pack , saving energy . then with just a nudge from rose , the colt unleashed a furious burst of speed at the top of the stretch . but just as afleet alex was sailing into the lead , another horse suddenly , unexpectedly shied outward , directly into afleet alex\u2019s path . his legs tangled with afleet alex , who tripped and went to his knees . the colt\u2019s nose was in the dirt , and rose seemed about to pitch forward to the ground .\nlukas bids on a horse ' s confirmation . bloodlines are secondary . the colt just happened to be a son of afleet alex .\nalex and the amazing lemonade stand , a children ' s book telling alex ' s story , is published . it was written by alex ' s parents , liz and jay scott , and illustrated by alex ' s aunt pam howard .\niotapa , winner of last week ' s clement hirsch at del mar , is the third grade 1 winner sired by champion afleet alex .\nafleet alex has produced horses that seem to get better with age , and they can excel on any surface . photo : coglianese / nyra\nafleet alex opened up his sophomore season with a stakes win at oaklawn park in the mountain valley stakes at 6f . prepping for the derby , ritchey sent afleet alex in the rebel stakes ( g3 ) and the arkansas derby ( g1 ) before his start in the derby .\nsoon after his retirement , cash is king announced a deal with gainesway farm in lexington , kentucky . prominent breeder and owner jess jackson , who purchased afleet alex\u2019s dam maggy hawk , bought an interest in afleet alex\u2019s breeding career and assisted cash is king partners in choosing gainesway .\nwith better racing luck , afleet alex might have been the first breeders\u2019 cup juvenile / triple crown winner . the son of northern afleet finished second in the 2004 breeders\u2019 cup juvenile behind wilko after a tough , wide trip . a year later in the kentucky derby , afleet alex was wide around both turns before shifting to the inside where he just missed by a length . the 2005 preakness showcased afleet alex\u2019s athleticism when the colt was brought to his knees after clipping the heels of scrappy t in deep stretch after that colt ducked from the whip . despite the mishap , afleet alex gathered himself and powered to a 4 \u00bd length victory .\npart of afleet alex ' s earnings and merchandising proceeds were donated to alex ' s lemonade stand , a fundraising effort for juvenile cancer research started by cancer patient alexandra scott that raised some $ 3 . 5 million in 2005 thanks to publicity generated by afleet alex . afleet alex ' s owners and trainer also visited juvenile cancer wards in louisville , baltimore and new york city prior to the colt ' s triple crown races . cash is king stable ' s activities on behalf of alex ' s lemonade stand were honored by the 2005 special eclipse award .\nafleet alex ' s preakness victory was voted the \u201cmoment of the year\u201d for 2005 by the national thoroughbred racing association . it also ranked # 54\nafleet alex won his first two starts by a combined 23 \u00bc lengths at delaware park . from there , he was pointed to graded stakes .\nthough she never met afleet alex , her daughter would have hugged him , scott said :\nalex loved animals . shortly before she died , we went to a horse show and walked through the stables .\nafleet alex resides at gainesway farm , and it was great seeing him again on a sunny , breezy afternoon the day before this year\u2019s kentucky derby .\nafleet alex ( left ) , with regular jockey jeremy rose up , takes a light jog alongside trainer tim ritchey on monday morning at churchill downs .\nritchey ' s playbook will be put to the ultimate test next month , when afleet alex meets the best of his generation in the kentucky derby .\nhelped by afleet alex , alex scott\u2019s dream of raising $ 1 million to benefit pediatric cancer research has now exceeded $ 2 million . alex\u2019s lemonade stand foundation has funded dozens of grants that are helping researchers fight childhood cancer . but even that is not the end of the story .\nwhen the owners of afleet alex heard the story of alex scott and her lemonade stand , they thought of their friend john silvertand and his fight against cancer , and knew right away that they wanted to use the colt\u2019s star power to benefit the cause of cancer research . chuck zacney , the managing partner , announced that every time afleet alex did well in a race , they would donate a portion of his winnings to alex\u2019s lemonade stand . they also donated profits from the sale of afleet alex gear , and used the colt\u2019s popular website and media interviews to promote alex\u2019s lemonade stand . they even convinced the racetracks where afleet alex was appearing to sponsor alex\u2019s lemonade stands . the kentucky derby , the preakness , and the belmont stakes all featured alex\u2019s lemonade stands , spotlighted by nbc and espn . on belmont stakes day , 30 racetracks throughout the u . s . held stands in her name , raising tens of thousands of dollars .\nchildren ' s hospital of philadelphia ( alex ' s hospital ) names its oncology day hospital the\nalex scott day hospital .\nritchey trained afleet alex to one of the best 3 - year - old seasons of the previous decade , a campaign that came on the heels of triple crown runs from regional heroes funny cide in 2003 and smarty jones in 2004 , and he would add his own mark on the triple crown races . bred in florida by john martin silvertand , afleet alex was by multiple grade 2 winner northern afleet , at the time an unproven sire . afleet alex was a full brother to one of northern afleet\u2019s few stakes - winning horses to that point , unforgettable max , both being out of the hawkster mare maggy hawk .\nin the champagne , afleet alex missed the win by about a half - length to proud accolade ( yes it\u2019s true ) . the breeders\u2019 cup juvenile should have been an easy race for the colt , but afleet alex was out finished by longshot wilko ( awesome again ) by \u00be of a length . afleet alex finished the year with four wins and two seconds in six starts . he was ready to head down the road to the kentucky derby .\nafleet alex ( truenicks , sro ) : conformation , left , and nearly falling before winning the 2005 preakness stakes ( gr . i , video ) .\nchuck zacney , one of the owners of afleet alex , then a spirited 2 - year - old , was among those moved to contribute in 2004 .\ni cannot say whether afleet alex is guided by the spirit of little alex scott . but i would have to say that i witnessed a miracle . that a 4 - year - old child dying of cancer started a charity\nchuck zacney , managing partner of the cash is king syndicate , which owns afleet alex , said he has great confidence in the training route ritchey has taken .\nwe wanted to continue alex ' s work , but how would we keep people interested ?\nsaid liz scott , her mother .\nthen [ racehorse ] afleet alex comes along and takes it to another whole level .\nin the preakness , after angling his colt to the rail at the start , jeremy rose kept afleet alex well behind the pace . he made a bold move around the second turn while circling much of the field . when he was about to pass pacesetter scrappy t at the head of the stretch , scrappy t veered out directly in the path of the fast - moving afleet alex . afleet alex stumbled and nearly fell but miraculously recovered , regained his feet , and won going away .\nafleet alex\u2019s offspring aren\u2019t noted as win - early types . he has 13 % lifetime two year old winners , which is average . his babies are slower developing types and although the occasional sprinter will crop up , shorter distances really aren\u2019t their forte . afleet alex\u2019s babies are most competitive at seven furlongs to 1 1 / 8 miles , and four of his offspring have won stakes races at classic distances , including travers hero afleet express . afleet alex\u2019s progeny are at home on dirt , mud and to a lesser extent , turf and various synthetics . afleet alex is enjoying a resurgence in popularity . his son texas red won the breeders\u2019 cup juvenile last year and looked like an excellent prospect for this year\u2019s kentucky derby trail before he was injured .\nthree weeks later at the belmont stakes , along with tens of thousands of racing fans across the nation , i made a donation and enjoyed a glass of lemonade at alex\u2019s lemonade stand . i could hardly wait to see what afleet alex would do next . he did not disappoint . i got goosebumps as afleet alex powered to the lead with a dramatic rush . as the courageous little horse sped past me on the way to a seven length victory , i shouted , \u201cfly , alex , fly ! \u201d i\u2019m not sure which alex i meant .\ndancing afleet\u2019s rapid improvement at delaware park in the past six weeks gave him another graded stakes winner , and she could develop into a top horse for afleet alex , although she has yet to be tested against the nation\u2019s top 3 - year - old fillies .\nafleet alex had his greatest accomplishment in what would be the final start of his career , the belmont stakes . the bay demolished a field of ten rivals , including kentucky derby winner giacomo , by seven lengths . was the rest of the field that bad or was afleet alex that good ? the colt\u2019s final quarter of : 24 . 50 was the fastest since 1969\u2019s hero arts and letters . secretariat got his last quarter in : 25 flat . his exploits earned afleet alex three year old championship honors .\nstallion feature ; the \u201clittle superhorse , \u201d afleet alex : \u201cscrappy t blew the turn and afleet alex ! jeremy rose almost fell out of the saddle ! a dramatic occurrence at the top of the stretch ! \u201d tom durkin couldn\u2019t have called the almost catastrophic event in the 2005 preakness stakes ( g1 ) any better . afleet alex is likely best remembered for his preakness victory . the \u201clittle superhorse\u201d went to his knees at the top of the pimlico homestretch , yet managed to gather himself , and in a flash , was five lengths in front of scrappy t . afleet alex went on to win the belmont stakes ( g1 ) in even more impressive fashion before retiring prematurely .\nthe kentucky derby could have easily had a different outcome had afleet alex not gotten blocked in on the rail and had instead been on the outside , but finished third behind 50 - 1 shot giacomo and closing argument , was not a bad result . tim ritchey sent jeremy rose and afleet alex to the preakness , in search of redemption .\nafleet alex , why would you slam that back , when pete is offering seriously thought out , good advice ? why would you think afleex alex ' s fee will rise ? it could easily slump also . this is a very tricky game . to consider spending $ 40 , 000 on a stud fee , the mare needs to be worth $ 120 - 160k . if afleet alex ' s offspring do not run as expected , his fee will drop . he may fall eventually into the range where you could actually afford to buy a mare that would be justified in breeding to afleet alex .\ncoincidentally , the day before the preakness , afleet alex\u2019s jockey , jeremy rose , said of the colt , \u201cthis horse will run on broken glass if i ask him . \u201d\nit all happened so quickly , yet the horrific image of afleet alex nearly falling after clipping heels will remain embedded in the memory , forever teetering on the edge of disaster .\nas the time approached for afleet alex to resume training , ritchey , 53 , decided he would toy with a philosophy he used years ago with a horse named general g .\nalso included in the afleet alex story is\nalex ' s lemonade stand ,\nstarted by 4 - year - old alexandra\nalex\nscott , who had been diagnosed with a form of juvenile cancer . prior to her death last august , she opened a lemonade stand to raise money for her hospital and for cancer research . it reached people all over the world , eventually raising close to $ 1 . 7 million . afleet alex ' cash is king stable partners , touched by the story , have donated a portion of the colt ' s earnings to alex ' s lemonade stand .\nafleet alex came off the winter layoff to win a 6 - furlong race in an impressive 1 : 09 2 / 5 at oaklawn . two weeks later , on march 19 , he came back and ran the worst race of his life in the rebel . heading into the race , the owners wanted a high - profile jockey . though jeremy rose had ridden afleet alex for every race of his career , john velazquez , the nation\u2019s top rider in 2004 , got the mount for the rebel stakes . afleet alex finished dead last .\nafleet alex ' s owners had been modest when they said their horse was\npretty good .\ntheir horse was invited to the kentucky derby in 2005 and the scotts were invited to set up a lemonade stand there .\njust like that , alex ' s lemonade stand foundation ( alsf ) was on the world ' s stage .\nafleet alex and jockey jeremy rose stumbled on the final turn of the preakness , miraculously afleet alex was able to regain his footing and go on to win exemplifying the true determination of a champion \u2013 getting back up and fighting , no matter what challenges lay ahead . this spirit has continued to be a core part of alex ' s lemonade stand foundation .\nthat same day , in saratoga springs , new york , a young thoroughbred horse won his first major race , the sanford stakes . his name was alex , too : afleet alex . it was clear from his impressive victory that afleet alex was no ordinary racehorse , but a potential champion . gifted with unusual stamina , intelligence , and athletic grace , the plucky little horse won races , a growing number of fans , and media attention .\nin truth , breeders have never really warmed up to afleet alex , perhaps partly because of his rather unfashionable pedigree . afleet alex is the best of 72 stakes winners by his sire , northern afleet , a powerfully built miler who was a decent sire in the united states but a very good one on shuttle journeys to brazil , where he led the sire list in 2013 . afleet alex\u2019s dam , maggy hawk , by the undistinguished sire hawkster , also produced his full brother , the stakes winner unforgettable max , and her dam was the grade 1 winner qualique , by hawaii , but the next dam was by the unfashionable sensitivo . none of those names was appealing to fashion - conscious kentucky breeders , and afleet alex , though well made , is not the most imposing individual . his stud career has suffered as a consequence .\nafleet alex made his stakes debut on one of the toughest circuits for 2 - year - olds , at saratoga springs in new york . he won the sanford in stakes record time and offers reportedly as high as $ 2 million followed . cash is king had no intention of selling and turned down all offers . afleet alex followed his sanford with a win in the hopeful , also at saratoga . afleet alex closed his 2 - year - old season with two close second place finishes in the champagne at belmont park and the breeders\u2019 cup juvenile .\nafleet alex was sired by northern afleet from the prominent raise a native sire line . northern afleet had five career wins from 21 starts , including three graded stakes wins in california at distances from seven furlongs to 1 \u00bd miles . he was grade 1 placed in the malibu stakes at santa anita and the met mile at belmont park . afleet alex\u2019s dam , maggy hawk , was out of the sire hawkster , who earned $ 1 . 5 million during his career with three grade 1 stakes wins . he also set the world record for 12 furlongs at santa anita .\nafleet alex was sent off as the second choice behind bellamy road in the 2005 kentucky derby . he was among three horses in deep stretch whose nose touched the lead , but he could only manage a third - place finish behind longshot winner giacomo and even longer shot closing argument . afleet alex\u2019s next race came in the preakness at pimlico , just a few miles from the timonium sales pavilion where he was purchased by ritchey and cash is king . the second leg of the triple crown for afleet alex is the race all remember when recalling his career .\na less - than - spectacular 2009 was followed by a better 2010 for afleet alex\u2019s first crop , highlighted by afleet express\u2019s nose win in the travers . that colt had emerged in late spring with sharp wins in an allowance race at belmont and the grade 3 pegasus , along with a rough - trip third in the jim dandy . but like his sire , he would not race again after his career - defining win , in this case due to a suspensory ligament injury . afleet express stands at gainesway alongside afleet alex , and his first foals are yearlings of 2013 .\ntoday , afleet alex is living the good life , retired to a horse farm in kentucky , but i will never be able to thank that horse enough for what he did for the foundation , and for our family . this saturday , may 2 , a special horse will be in the field at the kentucky derby - materiality . what makes this horse special , his sire is none other than afleet alex . ten years after afleet alex took two out of three of the triple crown races , i cannot think of a better tribute to that special time in our lives than to see afleet alex ' s legacy continue , along with our daughter alex ' s . icing on the cake - we will be setting up a lemonade stand at the preakness this year , and know there will be signs of our alexs everywhere .\n[ afleet alex ' s ] place in horse racing lore was established at that year ' s preakness . after another horse veered into his path , their heels clipped , and afleet alex dropped almost to his knees , his nose inches from the dirt , his jockey , jeremy rose , barely hanging on . it was a feat of athleticism for both horse and jockey . instead of going down , afleet alex regained his footing and roared off to a 43 / 4 - length victory .\nhe did something champions do ,\nrose said after the race .\nthough he was the second betting choice in the derby , afleet alex finished third . the 2005 kentucky derby belonged to 50\u20131 giacomo and mike smith , while 71\u20131 long shot closing argument finished second . afleet alex finished third by a length . afterwards , of jeremy rose\u2019s ride , ritchey said , \u201che did everything right . he took the horse through traffic to give him the opportunity to win . the other two horses were just a little better . \u201d now , it was on to the preakness for afleet alex , where the horse would soon become a legend .\nsoon after , the horse ' s owners offered a percentage of his winnings to alex ' s cause , and contributions took off . so did afleet alex ' s career . there was an alex ' s lemonade stand at the kentucky derby , where the horse finished third , and others at the preakness and belmont stakes , where he won both races .\nafleet alex is currently active . his progeny tend to stay better than those of the average american sire but typically need time to mature . he stands at gainesway farm , lexington , kentucky .\non alex ' s 9th birthday , alex ' s lemonade stand foundation for childhood cancer is officially established , dedicated to funding and finding cures for all children battling cancer .\nalsf reaches the $ 80 million fundraising mark\u2014surpassing alex\u2019s original goal by $ 79 million .\nafter the belmont , ritchey intended to take afleet alex back to saratoga and point to the travers stakes . however , in late july , ritchey announced that his colt had undergone surgery to repair a small fracture . even with this setback , cash is king hoped for a return in the fall with a goal of running in the breeders\u2019 cup . in october , afleet alex\u2019s fracture had not fully healed . in december , when a test revealed a degeneration of bone in his fractured leg , a condition that increased the possibility of another break , afleet alex was retired to stud .\nlouisville , ky . - the last race of smarty jones ' brilliant career was on june 5 , 2004 . exactly 21 days later , 2 - year - old afleet alex made his debut .\nalex has sired a number of top - class horses , including travers stakes winner afleet express , who also stands at gainesway , and afleet again , winner of the breeders\u2019 cup marathon and withers stakes . in all he has sired 10 graded stakes winners , 23 black type stakes winners , and two champions .\nafleet alex was a star from the beginning . he wasn\u2019t the most expensive horse in any of the sales , but once trainer tim ritchey got his hands on the northern afleet colt , things just went right . from the beginning , the colt knew how to win . afleet alex started his career at delaware park in a 5 . 5f maiden special weight , which he won easily . from there , the colt won an allowance at delaware before shipping to saratoga to run with the big boys . in his two graded stakes races at saratoga , the 6f sanford ( g2 ) and the 7f hopeful ( g1 ) , afleet alex went to belmont to start in the g1 champagne on a four race win streak .\njust days before her first birthday , alex is diagnosed with neuroblastoma , a childhood cancer .\nalsf starts team lemon , a charity race program supporting alex ' s lemonade stand foundation .\nten years later , reflecting back on afleet alex and the national prominence alsf gained because of the horse and his owners , it ' s hard to overstate how important it was to the foundation . afleet alex ' s story will be highlighted during this year ' s preakness coverage , with josh elliott interviewing liz and jay scott . tune in to preakness coverage on nbc on saturday , may 16 to watch .\nnobody could live with afleet alex\u2019s devastating turn of foot . his lead increased with every stride , running the final quarter mile in : 24 . 50 , the fastest closer since arts and letters in 1969 .\nat the top of the stretch , he was set to engage the long - shot leader scrappy t when that rival suddenly ducked out , causing afleet alex to clip heels , stumble and nearly go down .\nalexandra\nalex\nscott , future founder of alex ' s lemonade stand foundation , is born in connecticut to parents liz & jay scott . she is the second of four children .\nafleet alex was a talented , ultra - consistent competitor and as game and determined as any horse who ever looked through a bridle . he proved all that and more with his rather miraculous victory in the preakness .\nafleet alex , the champion 3 - year - old male of 2005 , has settled into a steady stallion career at gainesway in lexington , ky . , though he has yet to sire a true breakout horse .\nit was clear that day the similarities between my daughter and afleet alex , they both showed spirit and strength to overcome adversity and race on . when the final day of the triple crown came , the belmont stakes , our immediate family couldn ' t be there , so alex ' s grandparents , aunts and uncles completed the\ntriple crown\nof lemonade stands at the race . you see , we had a prior commitment , it was the same date as alex ' s\noriginal\nlemonade stand . this would be the very first stand we would hold without alex , and while there were tears shed that day , afleet alex gave us hope for the future . when post time finally arrived , we were still cleaning up from the lemonade stand , but we all huddled inside of the elementary school where alex ' s stand is held and watched on a tv provided for just this purpose . as we anxiously awaited the outcome , afleet alex seemed to have run out of luck staying in the middle of the pack until the last turn . but then , life found his feet and afleet alex took off once again , leaving the field in his dust . he won again by many lengths , showing the spirit of our alex , to never give up , and that it is never too late to make the difference .\nthe race was also notable for colts from the first crop sired by afleet alex ( truenicks , sro ) taking first and second here , with withers stakes ( gr . iii ) winner afleet again taking second . adding in last year\u2019s hopeful stakes ( gr . i ) victor dublin \u2013 also grade i - placed this year \u2013 afleet alex now has three u . s . graded winners among his seven first crop stakes winners . to make the weekend even brighter , afleet alex\u2019s second crop was represented by sharp - looking belmont park maiden winner commonwealth rush ( dam by forest wildcat ) on friday , and avatar day ( out of a salt lake ( truenicks , sro ) mare ) was second in the premio primi passi ( gr . iii ) in italy .\nafter an easy win in the six - furlong mountain valley at oaklawn to start his 3 - year - old season , afleet alex stopped badly in the grade 3 southwest , backing up to finish last in the six - horse field . diagnosed after the race with a lung infection , afleet alex recovered in time for the arkansas derby , where all doubts about his ability were put to rest when he won by eight lengths .\nunfortunately , alex never raced again after suffering a fracture . when he was operated on , veterinarian patty hogan said she had to go through several drill heads because alex\u2019s bone was so hard .\nalex announces she is going to raise $ 1 million to help all children battling childhood cancer .\nfrom there it was on to historic saratoga race course . he \u201cdrew away when aroused\u201d and beat 10 other horses in the grade ii sanford , winning by over five lengths . next , afleet alex won the grade i hopeful on august 21 , 2004 . it was race 9 , right before the alabama where society selection would eventually win over ashado . afleet alex was bumped in the early stages by consiladator but eventually recovered and launched a rally going four - wide . the equibase chart report states that afleet alex \u201cfinished with a flurry to wear down devils disciple . \u201d he won by a neck and headed to belmont park as an undefeated horse .\nafleet alex , as was his custom , had already been out for his customary jog around the belmont oval , and was now back for his usual second tour of the track , this time for a stiff gallop .\nafleet alex began his second season with an easy victory in the six - furlong mountain valley stakes at oaklawn but ran the only bad race of his career in the grade 3 rebel stakes , finishing sixth , beaten 12 1 / 2 lengths by greater good . afleet alex recovered quickly from the lung infection behind that poor performance and booked his ticket to the kentucky derby with an eight - length romp in the grade 2 arkansas derby .\nafleet alex , who has more graded earnings than any other 3 - year - old racing , trains twice a day in a routine that has been followed three to four times a week since january . trainer tim ritchey , who devised the plan over the winter , divides afleet alex ' s training into two sessions . he has him jog when the track first opens , then brings him back later in the morning for a gallop . most horses go to the track once a day , but ritchey ' s approach , which he doesn ' t use with other horses in his stable , is custom made to balance fitness with contentment for afleet alex .\nafleet alex came out of the preakness incident with only a slight scrape on his left front ankle . \u201ci would like to see afleet alex run a stalking race and make one good three - eighths - mile run , \u201d ritchey said . \u201ci think he has a tremendous shot to win the belmont because he rates so well . he\u2019ll relax behind horses - sit , sit , sit - and when jeremy asks him , he\u2019ll make that big kick . \u201d heading in to the belmont stakes , the 1 1 / 2 - mile distance is always the big question . trainer tim ritchey believed he had afleet alex ready to go the distance . to jeremy rose , the distance wasn\u2019t daunting when you had a superior horse like afleet alex . \u201cif the preakness were a mile and a half , \u201d asked rose , \u201chow many do you think we\u2019d have won by ? \u201d\nso america ' s top two runners did no better than round out their divisional superfectas , with afleet alex behind hurricane run , motivator , and shamardal among the 3 - year - olds and saint liam in arrears of ghostzapper , azamour , and westerner in the elder division . in all , only five americans - ghostzapper , saint liam , afleet alex , leroidesanimaux , and roses in may - made the hemisphere ' s top 20 .\nit ' s really working out for alex ,\nsaid zacney .\ni give tim all the credit in the world . he picked the horse out . he ' s been his baby , his project , and he loves alex , and alex is thriving because of it .\nwhile afleet alex did not win the kentucky derby ( he came in a respectable third place ) , the kentucky derby provided us with an amazing opportunity to expose alex ' s lemonade stand to new people , and as an added bonus , the horse racing and sports media began covering the story of the two alexs .\nwhen afleet alex\u2019s career took off , no one was more excited than silvertand . diagnosed with colon cancer , and given only two months to live , silvertand elected to discontinue chemotherapy and leave it \u201cin god\u2019s hands\u201d so that he could fully enjoy afleet alex\u2019s triumphs . \u201cthe horse keeps me going , \u201d silvertand told the associated press . \u201ci truly believe he\u2019s helping me in my battle . \u201d silvertand has now survived nearly three years since his diagnosis .\nthe pace was slow and steady early on , set by longshot pinpoint . cautioned about making a move too early , jeremy rose tucked afleet alex to eighth on the inside right , saving ground for the run - in .\nin saturday ' s kentucky derby , the auxiliary starting gate will include no . 17 dublin , a son of afleet alex . in the next stall , no . 18 will be backtalk , a son of smarty jones .\nour founder alexandra \u201calex\u201d scott gave us our mission : to find cures for all children battling cancer .\nkristen thompson , left , and terese brittingham at alex ' s lemonade stand at pimlico race course .\nthis is smarty ' s second crop of 3 - year - olds , alex ' s first .\nthat win sent the horse to churchill downs as one of the favorites for the kentucky derby , and after a blistering pace cooked the front - runners , a rallying afleet alex had every chance in the stretch at odds of 9 - 2 . the final sixteenth of the 2005 derby was a free - for - all , as a trio of closers staggered to the finish , and afleet alex could only get up for third behind longshots giacomo and closing argument .\nnureyev is also broodmare sire of the highly successful us sire northern afleet \u2013the sire of , among others , us champion and dual classic winner afleet alex . the latter is himself now a successful sire at gainesway farm with his progeny including such gr1 winners as dublin , afleet express , texas red , materiality , iotapa and sharla rae . yet another successful sire out of a nureyev mare is the zafonic horse iffraaj \u2013whose dam , pastorale , is a half sister to cape sire great britain .\n4 - year - old alex announces she wants to hold a lemonade stand to help her hospital ! with the help of her older brother , alex raised an amazing $ 2 , 000 for her hospital .\nduring the first 12 days of his life , afleet alex was bottle - fed by silvertand ' s then 9 - year - old daughter lauren because his dam was unable to produce milk and a nurse mare was not immediately available .\nscrappy made a fantastic controlled run to the front with plenty left in the tank . afleet alex took a masterful ride and made a major impressive move in clear view of everyone prior to the incident . scrappy t then blew the turn going about 4 wide . i will always wonder if he would have won the race had he not blown that turn . afleet alex was really coming hard , just gobbling up ground so fast it seemed everyone else was in slow motion .\nafleet alex might not have been the best preakness winner in recent memory , but his 4 3 / 4 - length win in the 2005 pimlico classic was certainly the most dramatic and perhaps the most visually impressive of the early 21st century .\nfinally , afleet alex was retired . a new injury was discovered before the horse was shipped to gulfsteam park . \u201cit would heal , but your\u2019re looking at six to eight months , \u201d ritchey said . \u201cand with a horse of his value and his credentials , he just needs to be retired and go to stud . \u201d a deal was made for afleet alex to stand at stud in kentucky at gainesway farm in 2006 . his initial stud fee was $ 40 , 000 .\nafleet alex finished the year with two losses when he was outfinished by longshot wilko and finished second at the breeders\u2019 cup juvenile stakes . alex bobbled at the start and endured another bump with consiladator . he finished gamely but weakened slightly at the end of the race . going five - wide and eventually four - wide most of the trip had taken its toll . nevertheless , afleet alex was on the radar as one of the top derby contenders for 2005 . and he was now going to follow the same path as smarty jones and head for oaklawn to prep for the kentucky derby .\nalex ' s story attracts national attention and she appears on the oprah winfrey show and the today show .\nwe were going down , and ' little alex ' popped us up ,\nhe told her .\nthe little girl , alex scott , was loved by people everywhere who were inspired by her courage and her will to live . the little horse , afleet alex , is loved by people everywhere who are inspired by his courage and his will to win . \u201ci\u2019ve received letters from people who say when they watch this horse run it literally brings tears to their eyes , \u201d says ritchey . i am among them . and as the story continues , as afleet alex races on , with every glass of lemonade i drink this summer , i will know that i am participating in a miracle .\nthe potentially horrific scene seemed to play out in slow motion . incredibly , afleet alex did not fall . in a remarkable feat of athleticism , he somehow pulled his half - ton frame upright . then , to everyone\u2019s amazement , he recovered his stride and kept running . the astonished crowd roared as afleet alex , unhurt but clearly incensed , surged ahead and won the race by nearly five lengths . that moment will go down as one of the most remarkable in horse racing\u2019s history .\nbred in florida by john silvertand , afleet alex was plucked from the 2004 fasig - tipton midlantic sale of 2 - year - olds in training by trainer tim ritchey on behalf of the cash is king stable syndicate headed by chuck zacney . afleet alex won his first start , a 5 1 / 2 - furlong maiden race at delaware park , only a little more than a month later , cruising to an 11 1 / 4 - length victory in 1 : 03 . 85 .\nthe next two legs of the triple crown would define afleet alex\u2019s career and set him up for a strong initial reception as a stallion after he was retired later that summer . his amazing , athletic performance in the preakness \u2013 where he nearly dropped to his knees at the top of the stretch after being bumped by scrappy t and then recovered to win going away \u2013 was replayed countless times during the interregnum before the belmont , giving afleet alex national recognition for his athleticism and ability .\nafleet alex , who ran in all the triple crown races in 2005 and won the preakness after a dramatic stumble , was one of alsf ' s earliest\ncelebrity\nsupporters . the support of his owners was a turning point for the foundation . after alex passed away in 2004 , alex ' s parents , liz and jay scott , weren ' t sure how to go on without her . as jay scott wrote in a recent huffington post piece :\nif the jacksons expected great things from their colt , barbaro\u2019s delaware park predecessor , afleet alex , far exceeded his owners\u2019 expectations . five newcomers to the sport bought the florida - bred alex at maryland\u2019s 2004 fasig - tipton two - year - old in training sale for the rock bottom price of $ 75 , 000 . chuck zacney , bob brittingham , joe judge , joe lerro and jen reeves made alex the first purchase of cash is king stable . delaware park trainer tim ritchey chose alex for the group after watching the small but sturdy colt strut through the ring .\neight horses were entered in the $ 500 , 000 champagne stakes at belmont . juvenile supremacy in the east was on the line . this race was also a prep for the breeders\u2019 cup october 30 at lone star park . the champagne would be afleet alex\u2019s first attempt at 1 1 / 16 - miles . it had been deemed the battle of the unbeaten horses . proud accolade was 3 - for - 3 , while afleet alex was 4 - for - 4 heading into the champagne . sun king was also entered in the champagne and would be a familiar opponent for afleet alex through the years . but it was todd pletcher\u2019s proud accolade , the son of yes it\u2019s true , who ended up winning by a half a length .\nafleet alex ( 2004 ) \u2013 afleet alex won the sanford and the hopeful as a two - year - old , but is best known for his three - year - old season . after finishing third in the 2005 kentucky derby behind 50 - 1 shot giacomo , he came back to win a heart stopping preakness and a dominant belmont stakes . after not racing for the remainder of 2005 , he was still named champion three - year - old . he is the sire of multiple top horses , including 2014 breeders\u2019 cup juvenile winner , texas red . he also has sired iotapa , afleet express , materiality , and dublin .\nretired to gainesway in 2006 , afleet alex sired the grade 1 hopeful stakes winner dublin ( out of classy mirage , by storm bird ) , the grade 1 travers stakes winner afleet express ( expanse , by distant view ) , the grade 2 breeders\u2019 cup marathon winner afleet again ( lucky again , by wild again ) , the grade 2 winner afleeting lady ( oatsee , by unbridled ) , and the grade 2 winner harissa ( dynasty , by time for a change ) in his first crop . that was , in fact , a pretty spectacular start to any horse\u2019s stud career , but until iotapa came along in his fourth crop , those first - crop graded stakes winners were his five best offspring . afleet alex\u2019s production in between those crops was rather uninspiring .\nin the 1 1 / 2 - mile belmont , afleet alex completely dominated his opposition , winning by seven lengths . it would be his last start , however , as a hairline fracture was discovered shortly afterward , followed by a diagnosis of bone degeneration in his left foreleg . the horse was retired in december and sent to graham beck\u2019s gainesway for the 2006 breeding season . at that time , stonestreet\u2019s jackson bought a major interest in afleet alex to join cash is king and gainesway as owners .\ndespite the loss in the rebel stakes , the horse had an excuse and the road map to the derby was still going according to plan . the arkansas derby would be the third and final race leading to the first saturday in may . and just like the 2004 kentucky derby winner , smarty jones , afleet alex performed brilliantly in the arkansas derby . jeremy rose was back aboard , and afleet alex won by eight lengths , the largest margin of victory in the race\u2019s 69 - year history .\nthis is afleet alex ' s preakness 2005 run where he almost falls at the top of the stretch ! he recovers to take off and win in stunning fashion . there is footage after the race which covers slow motion footage of the near fall .\nafleet alex had surpassed his owners ' wildest dreams . zacney and his partners had purchased the horse , their first buy , at a timonium auction in 2004 for $ 75 , 000 , at the behest of tim richey , a trainer from elkton .\ncash is king stable purchased afleet alex from the 2 - year - old sale . cash is king was then a brand new partnership whose members were from the philadelphia and delaware valley area . in early 2004 , the head of the stable , chuck zacney , asked tim ritchey to buy and train a horse for cash is king . ritchey made the first purchase for cash is king for $ 75 , 000 at the timonium sale in april 2004 . that colt turned out to be afleet alex .\nafter starting off hot , alex is looking for that next big horse to put him back in the limelight .\nalex does not have history on his side . his third in the kentucky derby blew his triple crown chances .\nafleet alex ' s trainer , tim richey , was featured in the interactive program \u201ctalkin ' horses\u201d on urltoken on may 25 , 2005 , with much of the discussion focusing on the colt ' s derby and preakness performances . the transcript was later published in\nlate in 2005 , afleet alex retired , having won eight of 12 starts for $ 2 , 765 , 800 . leg injuries suffered , most likely , in the preakness ended his career . he stands at stud at gainesway farm ( ky . ) .\nafleet alex knew what it was like to fight for life . at birth , he was given little chance of survival when his mother was unable to produce milk , depriving him of critical colostrum needed to fight infection . for two weeks he was bottle - fed by breeder john silvertand\u2019s 9 - year - old daughter lauren . against the odds , afleet alex survived and grew strong . overlooked by racing\u2019s elite , he was purchased for a bargain price by a group of five philadelphia friends buying their very first racehorse .\nafleet alex raced only once more , winning the belmont by seven lengths and confirming that he was the champion of what , in retrospect , was not among the best crops in the history of american racing . none of the other runners in that year\u2019s triple crown races have become outstanding sires \u2013 flower alley\u2019s 2012 kentucky derby and preakness winner i\u2019ll have another is probably the best horse sired by any of the participants \u2013 but on balance , afleet alex is the best sire of the crop , just as he was , on balance , the best racehorse . his daughter , iotapa , the winner of the clement l . hirsch stakes at del mar on aug . 2 , is afleet alex\u2019s third grade 1 winner among his 25 stakes winners from 504 foals ages 3 and up ."]}
{"id": 497, "summary": [{"text": "the western yellow robin ( eopsaltria griseogularis ) , also known as the grey-breasted robin , is a species of bird in the family petroicidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is endemic to australia .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "in southwest western australia , it was known as bamborn by the local indigenous people . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "western yellow robin", "paragraphs": ["foraging ecology and habitat selection of the western yellow robin ( eo\nby jarrad a . cousin\ndon ' t think i ' ve seen photos of the western yellow robin before . thanks for sharing .\n) : occurs in eastern australia , so the range of this species does not overlap with that of the western yellow robin .\nthe western yellow robin , eopsaltria griseogularis , found in the south - west and south of australia , differs from the eastern yellow robin by having a grey breast . another somewhat similar species is the pale yellow robin , tregellasia capito . this species is smaller , and has a pale face and lighter underparts .\na western yellow robin , race\nrosinae\n, was also found at wave rock , near hyden , wa , in march 2017 .\niphone recording exported as mp3 from itunes . the piping call of a western yellow robin interspersed with the harsher alarm calls of the same bird .\nfrontal view of a western yellow robin ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ valley of giants , walpole , wa , march 2015 ]\nlateral view of a western yellow robin ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ valley of giants , walpole , wa , march 2015 ]\nthe eastern yellow robin was first described by ornithologist george shaw in 1790 . two subspecies are recognised ; the northern yellow robin ( subsp . chrysorrhoa ) and the nominate or eastern ( subsp . australis ) . the former was previously regarded as a separate species and called the southern yellow robin .\nthe western yellow robin occurs mainly in south - western australia , from shark bay in the north to the nullarbor plain in the east . they also occur in western parts of south australia , on the eastern nullarbor plain , but mainly on the eyre peninsula .\nj . greaves reports spotting a western yellow robin , race\ngriseogularis\n, at the valley of giants , walpole , wa , in march 2015 .\nnear - lateral view of a western yellow robin ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ valley of giants , walpole , wa , march 2015 ]\nnear - frontal view of a western yellow robin ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ wave rock , near hyden , wa , march 2017 ]\nnear - lateral view of a western yellow robin ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ wave rock , near hyden , wa , march 2017 ]\ncousin , j . a . ( 2003 ) . foraging ecology and habitat selection of the western yellow robin ( eopsaltria griseogularis ) in a wandoo woodland , western australia : conservation ecology of a declining species . retrieved from urltoken\nwestern yellow robins have a preference for open , low - density forest , woodland , mallee and scrub .\neduard sol\u00e0 set\neastern yellow robin\nas an exemplar on\neopsaltria australis ( white , 1790 )\n.\nin south - western and southern australia , from shark bay in western australia , east to the eyre peninsula in south australia .\nthe western yellow robin is a largely grey bird with a conspicuous yellow breast and , depending on the subspecies , a yellow or olive - green rump . the bill is black and the eye dark brown . though the sexes appear similar , young birds are brown with cream - coloured streaks .\neduard sol\u00e0 selected\neastern yellow robin\nto show in overview on\neopsaltria australis ( white , 1790 )\n.\nthe eastern yellow robin ( eopsaltria australis ) is an australasian robin of coastal and sub - coastal eastern australia . the extent of the eastern yellow robin ' s residence is from the extreme southeast corner of south australia through most of victoria and the western half of new south wales and north as far as cooktown . tropical northern queensland birds are mainly restricted to the warm heights of the great dividing range .\nthe eastern yellow robin is a medium sized robin . it has a grey back and head , and yellow underparts . southern birds have an olive - yellow rump , while in northern birds it is brighter yellow . the throat is off - white and , in flight , there is a pale off - white wing bar . the bill is black . both sexes are similar in plumage colour and pattern , but the female is slightly smaller . young eastern yellow robins are rufous - brown . the plumage has some paler streaks , which are confined to the wings when the birds are a little older .\nwestern yellow robins are endemic to australia . there are two races . race\ngriseogularis\nis found only on the south - western tip of wa . race\nrosinae\nhas a more widespread distribution . their range encompasses south - western wa ( up to about a line connecting exmouth , kalgoorlie and eucla , wa , but without the south - western tip ) and , on the other side of the nullarbor , which they avoid , lake eyre peninsula in sa .\nthe western yellow robin is mainly grey above , on its crown , neck and most of its upperbody and tail , though the rump and uppertail coverts are either yellow or olive green , depending on the subspecies ( yellow on griseogularis and green on rosinae ) . the chin and throat are white , grading to pale grey on the upper breast , but the rest of the underbody is yellow ; the undertail is greyish . the sexes appear similar , but young birds are very different , being brown with coarse , cream - coloured streaks .\ninsects are the main food of the western yellow robin , obtained from the ground by pouncing onto the prey from a low perch . they usually perch on a tree trunk or low branch , often perching sideways , scanning the ground for food . they often forage in flocks with other small insectivorous birds .\nthe eastern yellow robin is confined to the east and south - east of the australian mainland . the range is mostly along the coastal and adjacent areas , but does extend quite large distances inland in some areas .\neastern yellow robins are inquisitive and confident with humans , often taking handouts of food from picnickers .\ngould , 1838 \u2013 extreme sw corner of western australia ( darling range and swan r coastal plain ) , in extreme sw australia .\n: a grey back and head , with grey on the upper breast and bright yellow on the lower breast and underbelly . its rump is either yellow ( in coastal south - west w . a ) or olive - yellow ( inland and southern w . a . ) . it has a pale wing - bar visible in flight .\nour bird observatories in western australia may be a little off the track , but that\u2019s what makes them such magical places to see birds .\nboles , w . ( 2018 ) . western yellow robin ( eopsaltria griseogularis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nlike all australian robins , it is not closely related to either the european robin or the american robin , but belongs rather to the corvida parvorder comprising many tropical and australian passerines including pardalotes , fairy - wrens and honeyeaters as well as crows . it belongs to the genus eopsaltria , whose australian members are known colloquially as\nyellow robins\nas distinct from the\nred robins\nof the genus petroica .\n( mathews , 1912 ) \u2013 sw & s western australia ( except for extreme corner ) and s south australia ( mainly eyre peninsula ) .\noften seen perching sideways on the trunks of tall trees , western yellow robins inhabit eucalypt forests and woodlands , especially where there are dense shrubs and a layer of leaf litter . they pounce onto insects and other invertebrates which are on the ground , and they sometimes stay on the ground to eat them . their mournful piping calls are a characteristic of the western forests , often calling from before first light in the morning .\nwestern yellow robins occur mainly in sclerophyll forests and woodlands , especially in tall eucalypt forests such as those dominated by jarrah , karri and marri , and they also occur in mallee vegetation . they usually occur where there is a shrubby understorey and much leaf litter on the ground .\nthe effects of climate change may influence the timing of when western yellow robins start to breed and the duration of their breeding activities . help scientists answer the question :\nhow are our animals , plants and ecosystems responding to climate change ?\nby recording the observations above .\nwestern yellow robins are medium - sized robins with a grey head , upper breast and mantle . the belly and vent are bright - yellow . the upperwing coverts have a yellow tint , but are otherwise grey . the flight feathers are dark grey , while the tail is yellowish - grey . the eyes are black , the bill is grey and the legs and feet are dark pinkish - grey . juveniles have a highly cryptic plumage . the front is brown , with light lighter - brown streaking . both head and back are dark - brown , with copious lighter - brown and grey streaking .\nthe nest of the western yellow robin is small and cup - shaped , woven from small strips of bark , bound together with spider webs , often decorated with more strips of bark hanging vertically from the rim , attached by spider webs . it is usually built in a vertical fork of a tree , sapling or shrub , usually about 3 . 5 metres above the ground , but can be between 0 . 5 and 22 metres up . the female usually incubates the two eggs , and both parents feed the young birds , often with the assistance of helpers .\neastern yellow robins belong to the genus eopsaltria which translates as ' dawn - harper ' . appropriately , they are among the first birds to be heard at dawn .\nford , julian ( 1979 ) .\nspeciation or subspeciation in the yellow robins ?\n. emu 79 ( 3 ) : 103\u201306 . doi : 10 . 1071 / mu9790103 .\nat 15 to 16 cm ( 6 in ) in length , the eastern yellow robin is one of the larger australasian robins , and one of the most easily observed . pairs and small family parties establish a territory\u2014sometimes year - round , sometimes for a season\u2014and seem little disturbed by human presence . they appear not to migrate any great distance , but will make local movements with the seasons , particularly to higher and lower ground .\nthe eastern yellow robin occupies a wide range of nubs : heaths , mallee , acacia scrub , woodlands and sclerophyll forests , but is most often found in damper places or near water . like all australian robins , the eastern yellow tends to inhabit fairly dark , shaded locations and is a perch and pounce hunter , typically from a tree trunk , wire , or low branch . its diet includes a wide range of small creatures , mostly insects . breeding takes place in the spring and , as with many australian birds , is often communal . the nest is a neat cup made of fine plant material and spider web , usually placed in a fork , and expertly disguised with lichen , moss , bark , or leaves .\neastern yellow robins are found in a wide range of habitats , from dry woodlands to rainforests . they are also common in parks and gardens , and are usually first seen perched on the side of a tree trunk or other low perch .\neastern yellow robins feed on insects , spiders and other arthropods . these are caught mostly on the ground , and are pounced on from a low perch . some handouts are also taken at picnic areas . birds normally feed alone , but may also be seen in pairs or small family groups .\ndouble hmm ! ! - having looked at hanzab again you are correct . in fact i think the problem may be that the captions in schodde and mason ' s map are the wrong way around . the text in schodde and mason says\nford ' s ( 1963 ) comprehensive analysis show that yellow ' rumped ' populations in extreme southwest australia ( nominotypical\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nchristidis , l . and boles , w . e . 2008 . systematics and taxonomy of australian birds . csiro publishing , collingwood , australia .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be locally common ( flegg and madge 1995 ) . trend justification : the population is estimated to be in decline owing to habitat loss ( del hoyo et al . 2007 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nby joining the biggest community of bird lovers in australia , you can help us make a positive impact on the future of our native birdlife . the members of birdlife australia , along with our supporters and partners , have been powerful advocates for native birds and the conservation of their habitats since 1901 .\nwe are also the meeting ground for everyone with an interest in birds from the curious backyard observer to the dedicated research scientist . it doesn\u2019t matter what your interest in birds is or how much you know about them , your membership will offer you the opportunity to increase your awareness and enjoyment .\nbirdlife australia would be delighted to welcome you as a new member and we look forward to sharing our news and achievements with you throughout the coming year .\nalthough birds are usually quite easy to see , often they are more difficult to identify . you may have had the briefest glimpse or heard a snatch of its song , or perhaps it was a bird you have never seen before . the best place to look for it is here . you will discover the remarkable variety of birds that occur across australia . with stunning images of featured species and some recordings of their songs and calls , you are sure to find that mystery bird , or learn more about species you already know .\nselect a bird group . . . birds of prey bush birds parrots sea birds water birds\nyou can participate and share in activities and projects with local experts all over australia .\nvisit us in sydney olympic park where you can learn about , see and engage with australian birds up close and personal .\nvisit birdlife australia\u2019s stunning conservation reserves and sanctuaries overflowing with native birdlife and other incredible flora and fauna .\nwant to know all about our native birds ? explore , learn , discover and enjoy australia\u2019s most comprehensive bird resource .\ndiscover and identify the urban birds in your backyard . get involved by helping us gather and share information about your local birdlife .\nfind places to watch birds in their native habitat . search our listing to find the next opportunity to see your favourite birds nearby and interstate .\nwe hold regular events and activities throughout the year and some have been taking place for decades . there are many ways for keen bird lovers to get involved .\njoin our community of dedicated volunteers that help monitor and collect important data on australia\u2019s birds . we always need more citizen scientists .\nthere are many ways you can help us help our native birds . join as a member , volunteer , make a donation or a bequest . your support makes a real difference .\nfrom urgent conservation activities to ongoing data recording , explore our vital projects that make a real difference to australia\u2019s birds .\nour policies , submissions and campaigns make us the leading voice for australia\u2019s birds by influencing decision makers and stakeholders .\nresearch , monitoring and evaluation underpin all our efforts . we have a long history of expertise in the science of bird conservation .\nour education programs share knowledge and experience in a friendly hands - on environment with staff and volunteers that know and love australia ' s birds and their habitats .\nbirdlife australia has a long and proud history of excellence in publishing . our members ' magazine , journals , newsletters , and reports are all world - class .\nthe h . l . white library is the most comprehensive ornithological library in australia , containing thousands of books , journals , and media about birds and related topics .\nthe atlas is one of birdlife australia ' s greatest resources , allowing us to track changes in birds across the country . since 1998 a dedicated band of . . . more >\nbirdlife australia\u2019s beach - nesting birds project works with community volunteers across australia to help raise awareness among beach users about . . . more >\nthe shorebirds 2020 program aims to reinvigorate and coordinate national shorebird population monitoring in australia . to report on the population . . . more >\nsince european settlement one - third of australia\u2019s woodlands and 80 % of temperate woodlands have been cleared . the woodland birds for biodiversity . . . more >\n13\u00b75\u201315\u00b75 cm ; 18\u00b75\u201321\u00b75g . nominate race has grey head and neck , black lores , ill - defined pale grey supercilium from base of bill to . . .\nsong of 2 staccato piping notes followed by series of drawn - out whistles . contact call a whistled . . .\nmainly insects , also some other small arthropods and seeds . feeds mostly on ground ( 83\u201396 % of observations ) , most of remainder on . . .\nseason jul to early jan , mostly sept\u2013nov ; one or two broods . breeds as pair , often with one or two helpers . territorial throughout . . .\nsedentary ; possibly some local movements . almost all recaptures of marked individuals were made . . .\nnot globally threatened . common . in w , range around perth and darling ranges has contracted since c . 1930 owing to loss of habitat for wheat - growing ; this species continues . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nbob humphries and sally robinson , pieter de groot boersma , keith and lynn youngs , nick talbot .\nnicholas tomney , john o ' malley , lindsay hansch , peter strauss , bleedingheart , fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric pelsy , clivenealon , sam .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : eopsaltria griseogularis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\ndiet : mostly insects , which are caught mainly on the ground , with the bird pouncing onto them from a low perch .\n: its nest is cup - shaped and made of strips of bark , twigs and dead leaves bound together with spider webs and lined with fine grass and small leaves , bound together with spider web and decorated with long strips of bark . nests are usually in the fork of a tree or shrub , usually within seven\nof the ground . two eggs are laid , and they are incubated by the female , with the young birds fed by both parents .\nbreeding may occur between july and january , but mostly between september and november .\nthe map below displays the accumulated observations of these species as reported by climatewatch observers , together with the layer showing how the range of the species might change between now and 2085 , with orange areas indicating where the species might disappear , and green areas where the species range might expand .\nslater p , slater p and slater r 2009 . the slater field guide to australian birds . new holland publishers ( australia ) pty ltd .\na lot of its habitat has been destroyed through clearance for agriculture . this has reduced its area of occupancy within its range .\nearthwatch acknowledges the generous support of the australian government for funding provided by way of a citizen science grant through inspiring australia - science engagement program .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nsadly there was action out on the bay where nefarious pacific gull was trying to steal someone else breakfast but little too far out for my lense with the sun behind them . mores the pity\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7131a3b6 - 19ff - 4f12 - a4d9 - bbed888ca774\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : efa771bb - c7dd - 4e0b - aca2 - f9f437e2b064\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 467821\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nour search server encountered a problem during your search . please copy this error code { { spperror _ message } }\nmore in { { topic . val } } ( { { topic . numarticles - topic . articles . length } } )\nthe cornell lab will send you updates about birds , birding , and opportunities to help bird conservation . you can unsubscribe at any time . we will never sell or give your email address to others .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\neopsaltria griseogularis griseogularis : southern australia ( shark bay to eyre pen . , south australia )\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 296 , 457 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\naust birds bird names news 1 - 26 habitats key plants glossary plumage nests tips thumbnails gen . info sponsors photos for sale\nthe overall distribution of this species can be assessed based on sighting reports submitted by birdwatchers to urltoken .\nall sighting , photographic and audio information presented on this page has been kindly contributed by j . greaves .\nfor this species we have recorded the following call ( s ) / song . the interpretation of their meaning is our own ; comments and suggestions for improvement are welcome .\nthese pages are largely based on our own observations and those of our contributors . the structure of these bird pages is explained here . for more salient facts on any bird species please refer to a field guide .\nwould you like to contribute photos or sound recordings to this site ? if interested , please click here . credits to contributors are given here .\ndisclaimer : comments are always welcome . we give no guarantee that the information presented on these pages is always correct or up - to - date . external links are marked as such and we take no responsibility for the contents of external pages . all images on this site are protected by copyright & used by permission of the respective owners . if you wish to reproduce them or any of the material presented on this web site , please contact us : last updated : tue , 27 march 2018 , 19 : 24 - 05 : 00\nthe voice includes a variety of high bell - like piping , a repeated\nchop chop\nand some scolding notes .\nduring breeding season , breeding pairs of eastern robins may lay up to three clutches of eggs . the female builds the nest and incubates the eggs . the nest is a woven cup of bark , grasses and other vegetation , bound together with spider web and lined with finer material and leaves . it is normally built in an upright tree fork , up to 20 m above the ground , but usually within 5 m . both parents , and sometimes some other helpers , care for the young birds .\nclick here to go to the home page and find out more . | click here to join .\nbirdforum is the net ' s largest birding community , dedicated to wild birds and birding , and is absolutely free ! you are most welcome to register for an account , which allows you to take part in lively discussions in the forum , post your pictures in the gallery and more .\ndaniel , does hanzab really suggest that it ' s griseogularis around perth ? i have had a quick look at it and i don ' t read it that way . hanzab generally follows schodde and mason ( 1999 ) on passerine subspecies and it seems to be that they have done so here , and it ' s probably rosinae around perth , though the zone of integration starts not far north of perth ( as shown in the map in schodde and mason ) . murray\nhmm ! ! am i wrong in thinking that hanzab borders griseogularis to the south - west corner triangle between lancelin in the north and albany in the south ? rosinae would be north and east of this triangle and thus far from perth .\nis the one around perth too ( let me know if you want a copy of that article ) .\nand i have had a look at ford ( 1963 ) and it does suggest griseogularis is the one around perth too ( let me know if you want a copy of that article ) .\nthank you murray for explaining the origin of the problem . i would like to read this article if it is not too much trouble .\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae , copyright \u00a92000 - 2018 vbulletin solutions , inc . \u00a9 birdforum ltd 2002 - 2018\nwere classified as a single species by julian ford in 1979 on account of similarities in calls , ecology and behaviour . playback of one species ' calls in the other ' s territory evoked a response .\njennifer hammock split the classifications by eol group on flickr from eopsaltria australis ( white , 1790 ) to their own page .\ndeniz martinez set\nimage of eopsaltria australis\nas an exemplar on\npetroicidae\n.\nkari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name\nkeltaoliivisieppo\nfrom\neopsaltria australis ( white , 1790 )\nas trusted .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n> stream x\u009c\u00f5wk\u008f\u00fb6\u0010\u00be\u00fbw\u00f0\u00f6\u0016hh\u00be ap\u00e0\u00f6z\u0081\u00e6\u00f4 \u00be\u00a5 = h % z\u00a5 @ k9\u0092 c\u00ff } \u0087\u0012 - k\u00b3 \\ yen ak \u00923\u00df | 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{"id": 500, "summary": [{"text": "mystacocarida is a subclass of crustaceans , that form part of the meiobenthos .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "they are less than 1 mm ( 0.04 in ) long , and live interstitially in the intertidal zones of sandy beaches . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "mystacocarida", "paragraphs": [": new species of mystacocarida from africa . crustaceana . ( in press ) .\naspects of the biology of derocheilocaris typica ( crustacea : mystacocarida ) . ii . distribution\nexternal morphology and post - embryonic development of derocheilocaris remanei ( mystacocarida ) revisi . . .\nhessler , r . r . : a new species of mystacocarida from maine . vie milieu\nleo shapiro added text to\ntext\non\nmystacocarida pennak & zinn , 1943\n.\naspects of the biology of derocheilocaris typica ( crustacea : mystacocarida ) . ii . distribution | springerlink\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nhiekkary\u00f6mij\u00e4t\nto\nmystacocarida pennak & zinn , 1943\n.\nderocheilocaris typicus order mystacocarida family derocheilocaridae taxonomy derocheilocaris typicus pennak and zinn , 1943 . other common names none known .\n( crustacea , mystacocarida ) . iii behavioral responses to variations in selected environmental factors . ( in preparation ) .\n: mystacocarida , a new order of crustacea from intertidal beaches in massachusetts and connecticut . smithson . misc . collns\nmystacocarida ( mystacocarids ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nestudios sobre crustaceos chilenos en aguas subterreneas . iv . nuevo hallazgo de derocheilocaris galvarini dahl en chile central ( crustacea , mystacocarida )\n( mystacocarida ) , sems . a : \ue002stage 1 metanauplius ( same specimen as \ufb01g . 26 . 1a ) , ventral view\n( crustacea , mystacocarida ) on a north and south carolina beach . m . a . thesis , wake forest , college 1965 .\n: a new species and a new subspecies of mystacocarida ( crustacea ) from the mediterranean shores of israel . israel j . zool .\n( mystacocarida ) and a comparative study of the larval development of various branchiopods representing most of the systematic groups . a new species of\nmystacocarida ( mystacocarids ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\n: mystacocarida . reports of the lund university chile expedition . 1948\u20131949 , 7 . lunds univ . \u00e5rsskr . ( new ser . ) ( 2 )\nlombardi , j . , and e . e . ruppert .\nfunctional morphology of locomotion in derocheilocaris typica ( crustacea : mystacocarida ) .\nzoomorphology 100 ( 1982 ) : 1\u201310 .\npennak , r . w . , and d . j . zinn .\nmystacocarida , a new order of crustacea from intertidal beaches in massachusetts and connecticut .\nsmithsonian miscellaneous collections 103 ( 1943 ) : 1\u201311 .\na phylogenetic analysis of six of the eight orders of the branchiopoda has been almost completed . a comparative study of the phylogenetic significance of the so - called dorsal organ of the family chydoridae ( cladocera ) has been carried out . a study of the morphology and phylogeny of smaller crustaceans ( mystacocarida , leptostraca , remipedia , and branchiopoda ) has been initiated ; it comprises a description of the larval development of\nty - jour ti - a new species of mystacocarida crustacea from algoa bay south africa t2 - annals of the south african museum . annale van die suid - afrikaanse museum . vl - 66 ur - urltoken pb - south african museum , cy - cape town : py - 1974 sp - 169 ep - 175 sn - 0303 - 2515 au - mclachlan , a au - grindley , j r er -\na re - description of the post - embryonic development of derocheilocaris remanei delamare - deboutteville and chappuis , 1951 ( mystacocarida ) is presented . it includes nine stages , not ten as originally described . the first stage already has a maxillula ( though not fully developed ) and is , therefore , not an ortho - nauplius as previously reported . particular focus is on the development of the . . . [ show full abstract ]\n@ article { bhlpart93267 , title = { a new species of mystacocarida crustacea from algoa bay south africa } , journal = { annals of the south african museum . annale van die suid - afrikaanse museum . } , volume = { 66 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { cape town : south african museum , 1898 - 2004 . } , author = { mclachlan , a and grindley , j r } , year = { 1974 } , pages = { 169 - - 175 } , }\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > a new species of mystacocarida crustacea from algoa bay south africa < / title > < / titleinfo > < name > < namepart > mclachlan , a < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > grindley , j r < / namepart > < / name > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < note type =\ncontent\n> 66 < / note > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > annals of the south african museum . annale van die suid - afrikaanse museum . < / title > < / titleinfo > < origininfo > < place > < placeterm type =\ntext\n> cape town : < / placeterm > < / place > < publisher > south african museum , < / publisher > < / origininfo > < part > < detail type =\nvolume\n> < number > 66 < / number > < / detail > < extent unit =\npages\n> < start > 169 < / start > < end > 175 < / end > < / extent > < date > 1974 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < accesscondition type =\nuseandreproduction\n> in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . < / accesscondition > < / mods >\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\n. rostrum absent ; eyes sessile ; with simple ocelli ; ocular scale absent ; naupliar eyes absent . antennules ( antenna 1 ) uniramous ; peduncle and flagellum indistinguishable ; exopod well developed , whip - like . antennae ( antenna 2 ) biramous ; exopod multiarticulate . mandible biramous . maxillipeds , 1 pair ; biramous .\n; non - phyllopodous ; differentiated ( some prehensile ) . abdomen with 6 somites . epimera absent . pleopods absent . uropods well developed , 1 pair , positioned terminally or subterminally ; rami absent ; claw - like .\n. east coast of north america ; west coast of south america ; mediterranean sea ; east and west coasts of africa .\ncite this publication as : lowry , j . k . ( 1999 onwards ) . ' crustacea , the higher taxa : description , identification , and information retrieval . ' version : 2 october 1999 . urltoken .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nphylum arthropoda subphylum crustacea class maxillopoda number of families 1 thumbnail description very small , vermiform crustaceans with appendages behind those of the head strongly reduced or absent illustration : derocheilocaris typicus .\nmystacocarids have recently been grouped with , among others , copepoda , ostracoda , and cirripedia , and in the class maxillopoda . these groups all have in common shortened bodies with at most 11 trunk segments behind the head , of which six are thoracic segments . there are 13 known species of mystacocarids , which are grouped into a single family containing two genera . some scientists now classify this group at the order level .\nmembers of the genus derocheilocaris are known from the coastlines of eastern north america , including the gulf of mexico , the atlantic coast of southern europe to the tip of southern africa , as well as the mediterranean . species in the genus ctenocheilocaris are known from the southern coasts of eastern and western south america , as well as western australia .\nall mystacocarids live among the sand grains of outer coastal beaches . their distribution within one beach may be quite patchy , so they are often not found in areas where they were previously known to occur .\nmystacocarids move among sand grains . they use the antenna and mandibles as well as the surface of the trunk to push against the sand grain surfaces . in order to move efficiently , they require sand grains both above and below the body .\nmystacocarids most likely graze on microalgae and bacteria living on the surfaces of sand grains . the movements of the mouth appendages may also be responsible for capturing particles in the interstitial spaces .\nsexes are separate . copulation has not been observed , but it is known that fertilized eggs are shed freely into the interstitial habitat . development is direct , proceeding though a series of molt stages in which body somites and appendages are added in a gradual manner . beyond the first three head appendages , body somites are always added , then limb primor - dia , and finally the definitive appendage .\nno mystacocarid species are known to be threatened , even though some species are known from single localities . none are listed by the iucn .\nthese small animals are most likely only of intellectual interest , not being part of any food web leading directly to fish or other consumable marine organisms .\nvery conservative body plan , with differences among them being in the details of the appendages and the sizes of trunk structures such as the toothed furrows . has a large and robust maxillule with slight divisions of the precoxa , coax , and basis . the endites on the mouth appendages bear robust setulose setae . caudal furca short , with terminal seta almost as long as basal article . ( illustration shown in chapter introduction . )\nfound along the atlantic coast of the united states from cape cod to southern florida .\nlives deep in the beach , often several feet ( meters ) inland from the low - tide line where the seawater penetrates at high tide , but often individuals are above the water table at low tide .\nfeeds on small particles in the interstitial spaces on or microal - gae and bacteria scraped from the surfaces of sand grains .\neggs are laid freely in the beach and development is direct , proceeding from a metanauplius with four post - cephalic somites . develops through six metanaupliar , and one juvenile stage before reaching adult size . one additional molt as an adult occurs .\nfirst mystacocarid species to be discovered ; a new crustacean order was created to house it .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis class was first described in 1943 . the first specimens were collected from beeches in massachusetts and connecticut . there are 12 species described so far ; all are marine . they are found in interstitial spaces in shallow sediments . all are less than 0 . 5 mm long and show many primitive characteristics , see below .\nthere are twelve species , all microscopic 0 . 15 - 0 . 20 mm , ectoparasites of other marine crustaceans . the larvae and females attach to the host by an adhesive disc . adult males are free - swimming . they are usually found in deep waters .\ntheir bodies are enclosed within a bivalve carapace making them look like tiny clams ( see above and below ) . they are all small ranging in size from 0 . 25 mm to 8 . 0 mm . the freshwater species rarely exceed 3 mm , although the largest marine species , gigantocypris mulleri , can be as long as 30 mm .\nthere are over 8 , 000 described species , and they have existed since the cambrian . they are widespread and found in both marine and freshwater habitats at all depths . there are a few terrestrial species found in the moist leaf litter of forest floors .\nthey have diverse feeding habits including particle , plant , carrion and some are even predators on smaller animals . some species are luminescent , emitting bluish light in bursts that last 1 - 2 seconds . they are difficult to identify down to species level . when disturbed , the shell valves close tightly , leaving nothing on the outside . from the side they resemble a bean , and from above they look like an egg . like water fleas the movement of the antennae allow the animal to swim . a plate attached to the jaw vibrates setting up a current of water bringing oxygen to the shell .\nthe female lays her eggs on water plants . to the naked eye the batch of eggs looks like rust . in favourable conditions they will hatch in 6 - 8 weeks , but they can survive in dry mud as eggs for over 20 years before hatching . below is pionocypris vidua , a freshwater species .\nthere are almost 12 , 000 species described in this class so far , about 25 % are parasitic , and nearly all are less than 2 cm in length . there are around 40 species of cyclops in the uk , all are very similar .\nthey are found in all kinds of freshwater habitats , where they eat food particles suspended in the water and dead animals . they are mainly marine , but perhaps the best known group are the cyclops found in freshwater .\nthey have a characteristic body - club shaped body ending in a forked tail . usually they have a single black or red eye . they have no carapace or compound eyes . the first pair of antennae is long and the second pair is short .\nthe non - parasitic copepods are the dominant members of marine plankton , so are important in the food chain . above is cyclops strenuous .\nmost non - parasitic species have a life span of one year or less . some of the freshwater species can secrete a cyst - like covering to help them withstand periods of drying out .\nduring mating the males use their antennae to grab females . then the male simply attaches a sperm packet to the female ' s genitals . both sexes use their antennae for swimming . females can have one or two egg sacs each containing around 50 eggs ( see left and right ) . one mating is all that is required to fertilise a few successive set of egg sacs .\nleft is ergasilus versicolor , a parasitic copepod which lives in the gills of freshwater fish . only the female is parasitic . note how the second pair of antennae are modified for grasping .\nthese are small , have an elongated body with about 30 pairs of legs ( see above ) . they are mainly predatory , have many primitive features , and are found in marine caves . ! 2 species have been described so far .\nthere are nine species in this class . all are marine , shrimp - like ( see above ) and less than 4 mm long . most have an eight - segmented thorax , and a twelve - segmented abdomen . they have very primitive features , are hermaphroditic , and are without eyes or carapace . they are found in fine sediments .\nto learn more about subscribing to accessscience , or to request a no - risk trial of this award - winning scientific reference for your institution , fill in your information and a member of our sales team will contact you as soon as possible .\nlet your librarian know about the award - winning gateway to the most trustworthy and accurate \u0003scientific information .\nrecognized as an award - winning gateway to scientific knowledge , accessscience is an amazing online resource that contains high - quality reference material written specifically for students . its dedicated editorial team is led by sagan award winner john rennie . contributors include more than 9000 highly qualified scientists and 42 nobel prize winners .\ncopyright \u00a9 mcgraw - hill global education holdings , llc . all rights reserved .\nprivacy notice . any use is subject to the terms of use . additional credits and copyright information .\nplease include a link to this page if you have found this material useful for research or writing a related article . content on this website is from high - quality , licensed material originally published in print form . you can always be sure you ' re reading unbiased , factual , and accurate information .\nhighlight the text below , right - click , and select \u201ccopy\u201d . paste the link into your website , email , or any other html document .\nyour email address will be altered so spam harvesting bots can ' t read it easily . hide my email completely instead ?\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30d2\u30b2\u30a8\u30d3\u76ee\nto\nmystacocaridida\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis page was last edited on 16 may 2017 , at 03 : 51 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nannals of the south african museum . annale van die suid - afrikaanse museum .\nbiodivlibrary july is # nationalblueberrymonth ! the w . a . cox nursery co . of mississippi ' s 1920s catalog proclaimed # blueberries to\u2026 urltoken\nbiodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p\u2026 urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmclaughlin et al . 2005 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : crustaceans . american fisheries society special publication 31\nbowman , thomas e . , and lawrence g . abele / lawrence g . abele , ed . / dorothy e . bliss , ed . - in - chief\nthe biology of crustacea , vol . 1 : systematics , the fossil record , and biogeography\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 62563c97 - 1ba4 - 4118 - b99f - 3de82abfc7bd\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 283447\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\nmembers of the genus derocheilocaris are known from the coastlines of eastern north america , including the gulf of mexico , the atlantic coast of southern europe to the tip of southern africa , as well as the mediterranean . species in the genus ctenocheilocaris are known from the southern coasts of eastern and western south america , as well as western australia .\nsexes are separate . copulation has not been observed , but it is known that fertilized eggs are shed freely into the interstitial habitat . development is direct , proceeding though a series of molt stages in which body somites and appendages are added in a gradual manner . beyond the first three head appendages , body somites are always added , then limb primordia , and finally the definitive appendage .\nfeeds on small particles in the interstitial spaces on or microalgae and bacteria scraped from the surfaces of sand grains .\nsomites . develops through six metanaupliar , and one juvenile stage before reaching adult size . one additional molt as an adult occurs .\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\nmystacocarid crustaceans are characteristic members of the mesopsammon of many marine beaches . a detailed investigation of the distribution of\n, 1943 , shows that this species is most abundant on open ocean , high - energy beaches , with only scattered occurrence in estuarine beaches . a characteristic distribution pattern in beaches is shown , with maximum density occurring between mid and high - water levels . this pattern changes seasonally , with the position of maximum density moving deeper into the beach and more landward during winter months . short - term changes in distribution also occur , resulting from tidal migrations and abnormal hydrodynamic patterns ( i . e . , storms ) . longshore variability in abundance suggests the occurrence of clumps of crustaceans arranged much like beads on a string . changes in abundance or segregation of sexes and stages seasonally are not found .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\n: populationsdynamik , lebenszyklen und fortpflanzungsbiologie der mikrofauna des meeressandes . zool . anz . ( suppl . )\n: waves and beaches . the dynamics of the ocean surface , 267 pp . new york : doubleday 1964 .\n\u2014 : biologie des eaux souterraines littorales et continentales , 740 pp . paris : hermann press 1960 .\n: zur okologie der acoela ( turbellaria ) in der deutschen bucht . helgol\u00e4nder wiss . meeresunters .\n: vertical and horizontal distribution of the metazoan microfauna and of some physical factors in a sandy beach in the northern part of the \u00f8resund . ophelia\n: a quantitative study of the meiofauna of an exposed sandy beach , at robin hood ' s bay , yorkshire . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k .\n\u2014 : quantitative and experimental studies of the interstitial fauna in four swedish sandy beaches . ophelia\n: studies on the ecology of the interstitial fauna of marine sandy beaches . thesis of dept . of zoology and ask\u00f6 laboratory , university of stockholm 1968b .\n: psammolittoral marine tardigrades from north carolina and their conformity to worldwide zonation patterns . cah . biol . mar . ( in press ) .\n: studies on the diversity of the nematode fauna in intertidal sediments . fifth eur . symp . mar . biol . , venice , 1970 . ( in press ) .\n: distribution and dynamics of interstitial tardigrada at woods hole , massachusetts , usa . ophelia\n: recherches \u00e9cologiques sur la faune interstitielle des sables ( bassin d ' areachon , ile de bimini , bahamas ) . vie milieu ( suppl . )\n: how much seawater passes through intertidal intersticies ? int . revue ges . hydrobiol . ( in press ) .\n: gezeitenbedingte wanderungen von turbellarien und nematoden in einem nordadriatischen sandstrand . vie milieu . ( in press ) .\n: die quantitative verteilung und populations - dynamik des mesopsammons am gezeiten - sandstrand der nordseeinsel sylt . i faktorengef\u00fcge und biologische gliederung des lebensraumes . int . revue ges . hydrobiol .\n\u2014 : die quantitative verteilung und populationsdynamik des mesopsammons am gezeiten - sandstrand der nordseeinsel sylt . ii quantitative verteilung und populationsdynamik einzelner arten . int . revue ges . hydrobiol .\n: eine einfache methode zur extraktion der vagilen , mesopsammalen mikrofauna . fielgol\u00e4nder wiss . meeresunters .\n: the interstitial crustacea of two beaches in portugal . revta biol . , lisb .\n: an ecological study of the interstitial microfauna of some marine sandy beaches with special reference to the copepoda . ph . d . dissertation , yale university 1942 .\n\u2014 : a new method for extraction of living thalassopsammon from intertidal and subtidal marine beaches . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole\nwe use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites . close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings .\nis a member of the intertidal meiofauna in exposed sandy beaches along the coast of chile . originally described by dahl ( 1952 ) from sub - tidal sediment off isla guafo , the only other published record is from semi - fine intertidal sand in las cruces . this paper presents a variety of new records of\nbased on both quantitative and qualitative sampling of the coast of chile between 18\u00b0s and 54\u00b0s .\nis found primarily in southern chile , south of 32\u00b0 , in the intertidal zone of intermediate beaches , in fine sand ( wentworth scale ) most likely distributed between the level of the water - table and the surface , but avoiding dry sand .\nun nouveau genre de crustace mystacocaride de la zone neotropicale : ctenocheilocaris claudiae n . g . , n . sp\ncomptes rendus hebdomadaires des s\u00e9ances de l ' acad\u00e9mie des sciences . s\u00e9rie d , sciences naturelles\nemail your librarian or administrator to recommend adding this journal to your organisation ' s collection .\nfull text views reflects the number of pdf downloads , pdfs sent to google drive , dropbox and kindle and html full text views .\n* views captured on cambridge core between september 2016 - 9th july 2018 . this data will be updated every 24 hours .\nfind researchers , research outputs ( e . g . publications ) , projects and units at lund university\nthe tegumental glands of derocheilocaris typica are tricellular . their openings are formed by two transformed epidermal cells , each with a microvillar crown . these cells form a cuticular socket housing the tip of the underlying secretory cell . from the outside , the gland openings are seen as , a pit in the cuticle , from the bottom of which a thin cuticular chimney ends with a slit - like pore . the gland openings are distributed in a regular pattern on the body . cytologically , the secretory cells of the body glands fall into at least two categories , each with a specific distribution on the body . the labral tegumentary glands are morphologically similar , but have two or three secretory cells . the morphology of the mystacocaridean tegumental gland deviates clearly from that of cephalocarid and also from other crustacean tricellular tegumental glands .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nin book : atlas of crustacean larvae , chapter : 26 , publisher : johns hopkins university press , editors : joel w . martin , j\u00f8rgen olesen , jens t . h\u00f8eg , pp . 138 - 143\nin the cephalon ( \ue01fg . 26 . 1f ) ; a rather long tubular and \ue07dexible\nmany respects are larva - like ( e . g . , larval morphology of the an -\na larval ( or naupliar ) and a juvenile / adult phase . one such\nolesen ( 2001 ) and j . \ue007haug et\ue007al . ( 2011a ) , as well as on new\nimages produced for this chapter ( \ue01fgs . 26 . 1 , 26 . 2 ) . more details\nexopod where most segments bear one seta each ( \ue01fg . 26 . 1a ,\nprocesses and a distolateral seta ( \ue01fg . 26 . 2d ) . no other limbs\nand the caudal rami is seen dorsally ( \ue01fg . 26 . 2a ) . the caudal\nrami bear rows of setules ( \ue01fgs . 26 . 1a , c ; 26 . 2a , c ) . dorso -\ntrally and a long seta dorsally ( \ue01fgs . 26 . 1a ; 26 . 2a ) . on each\nmedian setation ( olesen 2001 ; j . \ue007haug et\ue007al . 2011a , their \ue01fgs .\ndorsally at the basis of each caudal ramus ( \ue01fg . 26 . 2h ) ; and\n2011a , their \ue01fgs . 8e , 9 ) . otherwise it is very similar to stage 5 .\nrected endopods . many researchers ( e . g . , hessler 1969 ; j\norigin ( e . g . , hessler and newman 1975 ; hessler 1992b ) . this\nstage 1 . c : \ue002telson of stage 1 . d : \ue002stage 2 , lateral view\n. e : \ue002telson of stage 2 . f : \ue002stage 4 , lateral view . g : \ue002maxillule , maxilla , and maxilliped of stage\n4 . h : \ue002left maxillule of stage 4 . a\u2013h of material from canet plage ( beach ) in southern france ( the type locality of the species )\n2 ( same specimen as \ufb01g . 26 . 1d ) , ventral view . f : \ue002\nleft antenna and mandible of stage 2 . g : \ue002telson of stage 2 , dorsal view\ncharacteristic seta of the right caudal ramus of stage 2 . i and j : \ue002two different views of the distal hooks of the antennal endopod . k : \ue002stage 4 ,\ntelson of stage 4 , dorsal view . a\u2013k of material from canet plage ( beach ) in southern f\nused in olesen ( 2001 ) and j . \ue002haug et\ue002al . ( 2011a ) .\ndelamare - deboutteville et chappuis et derocheilocaris typicus pennak et zinn . comptes rendus hebdomadaires des s\u00e9ances de l ' acad\u00e9mie des sciences , ser . 3 , 294 : 505\u2013510 .\non the ontogeny of the branchiopoda ( crustacea ) : contribution of development to phylogeny and classi . . .\nbranchiopods exhibit a wide range of developmental strategies , extending from a relatively anamorphic , presumably primitive , development with many larval stages in the anostraca and the upper cambrian branchiopod rehbachiella kinnekullensis walossek & muller , 1983 , to a very abbreviated development without free - living larval stages in most ciadocerans . while anamorphic developing branchiopods , . . . [ show full abstract ]\na new link between orsten - type assemblages and the burgess shale\u2014a marrella - like arthropod from the . . .\nan isolated exopod in uncompressed three - dimensional \u201corsten\u201d - type preservation from the cambrian of australia represents a new species of marrellomorpha , austromarrella klausmuelleri gen . et sp . nov . the exopod is composed of at least 17 annuli . each of the proximal annuli carries a pair of lamellae : one lamella on the lateral side and one on the median side . the distal annuli bear stout . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe cambrian species paulinecaris siveterae n . gen . n . sp . , known from two trunk fragments , represents the first record of epipods ( serving as gills and osmoregulatory structures ) in a crustacean from the swedish ' orsten ' . more - over , it is the first report of the maxillary excretory opening of a crustacean based on cambrian material of ' orsten ' - type preservation . one specimen comprises the . . . [ show full abstract ]\ncavey , m . j . and r . a . cloney : osmium - fixed and epon - embedded whole mounts of delicate specimens . trans . am . microsc . soc .\nelmgren , r . : methods of sampling sublittoral soft bottom meiofauna . oikos ( suppl . )\ngray , j . g . : sample size and sample frequency in relation to the quantitative sampling of sand meiofauna . smithson . contr . zool .\nheip , c . , n . smol and w . hautekiet : a rapid method of extracting meiobenthic nematodes and copepods from mud and detritus . mar . biol .\nhulings , n . c . and j . s . gray : a manual for the study of meiofauna . smithson . contr . zool .\nluft , j . h . : improvements in epoxy resin embedding methods . j . biophys . biochem . cytol .\nmeadows , p . s . and j . g . anderson : micro - organisms attached to marine sand grains . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k .\nores , r . o . : advantages of epoxy resin as a mounting medium for light microscopy . stain technol .\nrenaud - mornant , j . et c . delamare deboutteville : l ' originalit\u00e9 de la sous - classe des mystacocarides ( crustacea ) et le probl\u00e8me de leur r\u00e9partition . ann . sp\u00e9l\u00e9ol .\nrieger , r . m . : multiple ciliary structures in developing spermatozoa of marine catenulida ( turbellaria ) . zoomorphologie\n\u2014 , e . ruppert , g . e . rieger and c . schoepfer - sterrer : on the fine structure of gastrotrichs with description of\nruppert , e . e . : an efficient , quantitative method for sampling the meiobenthos . limnol . oceanogr .\nsterrer , w . : plate tectonics as a mechanism for dispersal and speciation in interstitial sand fauna . neth . j . sea res .\nthiel , h . , d . thistle and g . d . wilson : ultrasonic treatment of sediment samples for more efficient sorting of meiofauna . limnol . oceanogr .\nuhlig , g . , h . thiel and j . s . gray : the quantitative separation of meiofauna . helgol\u00e4nder wiss . meeresunters .\nwinborn , w . b . and d . l . guerrero : the use of a single tissue specimen for both transmission and scanning electron microscopy . cytobios\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nstudies , including revisions and descriptions of new species , of the genera of the isopod family sphaeromatidae have been continued . the long term aims of the study are to identify the phylogenetically informative characters for all genera of the family , to develop a data matrix for cladistic analyses , and to place the genera into a phylogenetically based classification , which can then be related to the evolution and biogeography of the family ( n . l . bruce ) . taxonomic studies on sphaeromatids have been continued ( n . l . bruce , with d . m . holdich , university of nottingham , and r . wetzer , university of charleston ) .\na large - scale phylogenetic and biogeographic revision of the genera of the isopod family cirolanidae comprising more than 400 species has been initiated ( n . l . bruce , with r . c . brusca , university of charleston ) . a revision of the genus\nthe chapter on marine isopods for the popular book\nfield guide to the sea shores of east africa\nhas been prepared ( n . l . bruce ) .\nhas been initiated ( n . l . bruce , j . olesen ) .\n( leptostraca ) is being described , and the phylogeny of the leptostracan genera is being analysed ( j . olesen , ph . d . project ) . a study of larval development and embryology in a\nspecies has been initiated ( j . olesen , with d . walossek , university of ulm ) . the male of the phylogenetically pivotal clam shrimp\nhas been studied and redescribed ( j . olesen , with j . w . martin , natural history museum los angeles county , and e . w . roessler , universidad de los andes , bogot\u00e1 ) . description of headpores / dorsal organs in the cladoceran family macrotrichidae has been initiated ( j . olesen , with a . kotov , a . n . severtsov institute of ecology and evolution , moscow ) . a survey of the distribution of larger danish phyllopods has been completed ( j . olesen , with j . damgaard , entomology department ) .\nhave been initiated ( r . m . kristensen , with r . huys , natural history museum , london , and j . h\u00f8eg and n . m\u00f8bjerg , zoological institute ) .\nhas been studied ( e . rasmussen ) a handbook in the series\ndanmarks fauna\non danish freshwater phyllopods has been completed * . the freshwater crustacean fauna of the nuuk area , greenland , has been analyzed with the aim of outlining the differences between coastal , low - arctic areas and inland , high - arctic areas ( u . r\u00f8en ) .\n) has been completed ( t . wolff , with a . brandt , university of hamburg ) , and a study of a new deep - sea species of an aberrant asellote family has been initiated ( t . wolff , with m . thiel , smithsonian marine station , florida ) .\nthe distribution , habitats and reproductive biology of two gnathiid species from the denmark strait and north of iceland have been studied * ( a . b . klitgaard , ph . d . project )\nthe budde - lund types of isopods have been studied . a review of the museum ' s material of the crab genera\nhas been initiated ( t . jansen , cand . scient . project ) ."]}
{"id": 505, "summary": [{"text": "the atlantic weasel shark ( paragaleus pectoralis ) is a weasel shark of the family hemigaleidae , found in the eastern atlantic ocean , from the surface to a depth of 100 m .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it can reach a length of 1.4 m.", "topic": 0}], "title": "atlantic weasel shark", "paragraphs": ["a ) atlantic weasel shark dentition , b ) atlantic weasel shark denticles . image courtesy fao\nthe little - known atlantic weasel shark . . . - dyer island conservation trust | facebook\npredators potential predators of the atlantic weasel shark are marine mammals and large fish including other sharks .\nparasites parasites of the atlantic weasel shark include copepods as documented from a specimen captured off the coast of senegal .\nthe atlantic weasel shark is found in the tropical eastern atlantic ocean from cape verde and mauritania to northern namibia and possibly north to morocco . there exists a record of this shark in the northwestern atlantic ocean off the coast of new england ( us ) .\nfood habits as a specialist feeder , the atlantic weasel shark has a strong preference for cephalopods including squid and octopi . this shark will also feed on small bony fishes .\nthere have been no documented attacks on humans by the atlantic weasel sharks . most weasel sharks are considered harmless to humans with the exception of the snaggletooth shark ( hemipristis elongatus ) which is large enough to be considered potentially dangerous .\ndenticles the dermal denticles of the atlantic weasel shark are closely spaced and partially overlap . the blades are located on short pedicels and are nearly horizontal with five longitudinal ridges .\ncommonly found inshore to offshore of the continental shelf , the atlantic weasel shark ranges from depths of a few feet ( meters ) down to more than 328 feet ( 100m ) .\nmy topic is the conservation ecology of north atlantic shark populations . i am also the principal investigator of this project .\nreproduction the atlantic weasel shark is a viviparous shark giving birth to 1 - 4 young per litter . the young measure approximately 18 . 5 inches ( 47 cm ) in length at birth . off the coast of senegal , most of the young are born during the months of may and june .\natlantic weasel sharks are caught on longlines , hook and line , bottom set gillnets , and bottom trawls . this shark is commercially important and is utilized fresh and dried salted for human consumption . it is also used in the processing of fishmeal .\nwe believe that the fact that atlantic weasel sharks occur nowhere else will have an important effect on how the local community will think about this species . therefore , the weasel shark could be used as an umbrella species to create awareness for sharks in general in this region . for example , other data deficient species with limited movements , such as the nurse shark , share the same habitats . finally , in our last expedition we not only caught juvenile weasel sharks , but various juvenile shark species - meaning one of these sites could be a multi - species nursery .\nthe enigmatic weasel shark , will it disappear before we know it ? dureuil , manuel . . dalhousie university , 30 may 2016 . experiment . doi : 10 . 18258 / 7199\nthe maximum total length of the atlantic weasel shark is 54 . 3 inches ( 138 cm ) . sexual maturity is obtained at total lengths of 31 . 5 inches ( 80 cm ) for males and 29 . 5 - 35 . 4 inches ( 75 - 90 cm ) for females .\ngarman originally described the atlantic weasel shark in 1906 as hemigaleus pectoralis . this name was later changed to the currently valid name of paragaleus pectoralis . the genus name , paragaleus , is derived from the greek\npara\nmeaning the side of , and\ngaleos\nmeaning a kind of shark . synonyms referring to this species in past scientific literature include paragaleus gruveli ( budker 1935 ) .\nthe little - known atlantic weasel shark only occurs in west africa , an area which is most acutely threatened by illegal and unregulated overfishing . in 2015 , we found a previously unknown aggregation of weasel sharks in the remote island nation of cabo verde , which could be the last stronghold of this rare and enigmatic species . we will launch a second expedition in 2016 to study the species\u2019 biology , threatened status and potential tools for its protection .\nthe primary goal of this project is to scientifically investigate the habitat use of the atlantic weasel shark at different life stages ( juveniles and adults ) , to increase the scientific knowledge about the biology of this species and to investigate opportunities for its protection . using the weasel shark as an umbrella species we hope to create awareness for sharks in this region in general , on a national and international level . this project also aims to train local researchers , to provide a better scientific infrastructure and to promote non - lethal catch and minimally invasive research methods for sharks .\neastern atlantic : cape verde and mauritania to northern namibia ( ref . 244 , 5578 ) ; possibly extending north to morocco . record from the northwest atlantic , specifically in new england , has not been verified even after an extensive survey of the area has been conducted .\nthe atlantic weasel shark is a demersal species inhabiting both inshore and offshore waters around the continental shelf in tropical to warm - temperate waters . the species occurs in shallow waters up to 100 m , and can be found quite close to land in the surf zone . common within its area of occurrence , little is known about the biology of this species ( compagno in prep . ) .\ncoloration the dorsal surface of this weasel shark is light gray to bronze , with yellow stripes running down the length of the body while the ventral surface is white . the yellow stripes are not prominent in preserved specimens . the fins have no distinguishing marks .\nthe english language common name is the atlantic weasel shark . other common names include atlantiese weselhaai ( afrikaans ) , atlantische wezelhaai ( dutch ) , atlantisk v\u00e6selhaj ( danish ) , ehoushouinon ( fon gbe ) , marajo ( spanish ) , milandre jaune ( french ) , requin ( french ) , taess ( arabic ) , tibur\u00f3n comadiza ( spanish ) , tibur\u00f3n comadreja ( spanish ) and tubar\u00e3o - doninha ( portuguese ) .\non our last expedition to cabo verde in 2015 , we installed acoustic underwater receivers in each a bay of the two islands were we found adult and juvenile atlantic weasel sharks . acoustic transmitter tags can communicate with these receivers , recording the presence of tagged individuals even in months where weather makes it impossible to be physically present .\ngreek , para = the side of + greek , galeos = a kind of shark ( ref . 45335 )\ndistributed throughout the east atlantic around the cape verde islands , and from mauritania down to angola ( compagno et al . 2005 ) . possibly occurs as far north as morocco ( compagno et al . 2005 ) and as far south as namibia ( bianchi et al . 1999 , carpenter 2008 ) . one northwest atlantic record from 1906 ( compagno et al . 2005 ) . there are no further records from the tropical atlantic , possible that the locality data from this specimen was erroneous ( compagno in prep . ) .\nthe atlantic weasel shark has a slender body and moderately long snout . the broad oval eyes are large and possess internal nictitating eyelids . the mouth is rounded and moderately long . the first dorsal fin is located in front of the pelvic fins and is larger than the second dorsal fin . the second dorsal fin is approximately two thirds the size of the first dorsal and originates slightly anterior of the anal fin origin . there are no spines on either dorsal fin . the pectoral fins are elongate and pointed . the anal fin is smaller than the second dorsal fin . the pelvic and dorsal fins as well as the ventral caudal lobe is not falcate , a character used to distinguish this shark from other weasel sharks . the caudal peduncle is slender and lacks lateral ridges . this shark also has an asymmetric caudal fin with a strong ventral lobe as well as precaudal pits . the caudal fin terminates in a narrowly rounded tip .\ni have been researching sharks since 2009 , ranging from the conservation of white sharks in south africa to shark conservation and life history studies in the north atlantic . i have a bsc in biology from the university of marburg and an msc in biological oceanography from the university of kiel . i have extensive training in working with sharks and i am holding a certificate on the care and use of fish , was trained by our university veterinarian and conducted external passive tagging , satellite tagging and surgically implanted acoustic transmitters in several shark species .\nare limited . another possibility is that the locality data for the specimen as obtained by garman is erroneous . it seems unlikely that the shark was transported alive from the eastern\nthis researcher has identified a valuable enclave of special interest in a possible weasel shark refuge and breeding area . the project goals are clearly stated and the study is very modest in the resources needed while the results will be important to move forward the agenda of achieving some protected status for some of this habitat if it in fact is a nursery area / critical habitat for this species . a lot of bang for the buck in research terms .\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 0 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 0 . a slender weasel shark with a moderately long snout , large eyes , and a short , small mouth with small , serrated upper teeth and erect - cusped lower teeth ( ref . 5578 ) . light grey or bronze with longitudinal yellow stripes , fins plain ; white below ( ref . 5578 ) .\nin our lab a study was conducted which found that globally almost half of scientifically assessed shark populations are exploited above their rebound potential . this trend is triggered by an increasing demand for shark products and unwanted bycatch in fisheries targeting other marine life . sharks have long lifespans , late maturity and slow growth , which make them extremely vulnerable to even mild exploitation rates . scientists have become concerned about declines in sharks as their depletion may have serious consequences for the structure , function and stability of marine ecosystems . indeed , sharks belong to the most threatened of all vertebrates , making adequate shark protection essential to safeguard important ecosystem services .\nfor donations of $ 250 usd and more : you can give the shark a name . we will provide you with information on this individual and its whereabouts . we will also try to send you a picture . if you like this project please help us and share it .\nwhat got me in particular is that sharks , which have been on this planet for more than 400 million years and survived several mass extinctions , can become threatened in only a few decades , by us . i therefore decided to make scientific shark research that aids their understanding and protection my priority .\nthis shark is viviparous , bearing 1 - 4 pups per litter ( mostly two ) , each about 47 cm in length . off senegal most young are born between may to june . this species reaches a maximum size of 138 cm in length , with males maturing at about 80cm and females maturing between 75 and 90 cm ( compagno\ncompagno , l . j . v . , 1984 . fao species catalogue . vol . 4 . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . part 2 - carcharhiniformes . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 4 / 2 ) : 251 - 655 . rome : fao . ( ref . 244 )\nhabitat protection is a very important tool in conservation , especially in areas where assessments are lacking and caches are not regulated . for example , temporal area closures for fishing fleets in important habitat areas can reduce the mortality on important life stages and therefore aid in stock rebuilding . pupping grounds , nursery areas and spawning grounds are critical for recruitment success and adequate protection of these sites could increase survival and the species\u2019 capacity to withstand fishing pressure . on the other hand , intensive fishing in such areas is likely to make species more vulnerable to overexploitation . there is increasing evidence that a number of different shark species utilize the same critical habitat areas in consecutive years . identifying important habitat areas is therefore critical to aid effective shark protection .\na very common inshore to offshore shark of the continental shelf occurring at depths of a few meters to slightly over 100 m ( ref . 244 ) . a specialist feeder that prefers cephalopods , also feeds on small bony fishes ( ref . 244 ) . viviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . utilized fresh and dried salted for human consumption , and processed into fishmeal ( ref . 244 ) .\na very common inshore to offshore shark of the continental shelf occurring at depths of a few meters to slightly over 100 m ( ref . 244 ) . a specialist feeder that prefers cephalopods , also feeds on small bony fishes ( ref . 244 ) . viviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . utilized fresh and dried salted for human consumption , and processed into fishmeal ( ref . 244 ) .\nthis is a very timely and well articulated project . chondrichthyan research is challenging and notoriously difficult to secure funding for . in african waters extensive unregulated fishing occurs and studies such as this are crucial to understand the ecological composition in such threatened marine regions . manuel dureuil is one of the most driven and dedicated shark scientists i have met and i look forward to seeing the outputs of this study from his team !\nthis small shark has a slender body , long snout , and large oval eyes . the fins are somewhat small except for the elongated , pointed pectoral fins , and it has an asymmetric caudal ( tail ) fin . this specialized feeder preys mostly on cephalopods like squid and octopus , but will sometimes eat small fish . because of its size , usually no bigger than 4 . 5 feet long , and its specialized diet , it is considered little to no harm to humans .\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range ? - 100 m ( ref . 5578 ) , usually 30 - 70 m ( ref . 10730 ) . tropical ; 30\u00b0n -\nmaturity : l m ? , range 75 - 90 cm max length : 140 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5578 ) ; common length : 100 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 26999 )\nviviparous ( with a yolk - sac placenta ) , with 1 to 4 young per litter . size at birth about 47 cm ( ref . 244 ) . distinct pairing with embrace ( ref . 205 ) .\n) : 17 . 7 - 25 . 9 , mean 19 . 9 ( based on 45 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5664 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00347 ( 0 . 00150 - 0 . 00799 ) , b = 3 . 09 ( 2 . 88 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 3 \u00b10 . 64 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : very low , minimum population doubling time more than 14 years ( fec = 1 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high vulnerability ( 63 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\np . gruveli is considered a synonym of p . pectoralis , following krefft ( 1968 ) , compagno ( 1979 , 1984 , 1988 ) , and cadenat and blache ( 1982 ) .\nit is a specialist feeder , primarily feeding on cephalopods , including squid and octopi . occasionally preys on small bony fishes such as soles and sardines to make up its diet ( compagno in prep . ) .\nthe meat is utilised fresh and dried - salted for human consumption and processed into fishmeal ( compagno in prep . ) .\nno conservation measures are in place . catch levels need to be quantified and monitored .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nthe iucn is a global union of states , governmental agencies , and non - governmental organizations in a partnership that assesses the conservation status of species .\nthe small mouth contains compressed teeth with distal cusplets and broad bases in the upper jaw and moderately long teeth with nearly straight smooth - edged cusps in the lower jaw . there are 26 - 30 rows of teeth in the upper jaw and 27 - 33 rows in the lower jaw with three of these rows located at the symphysis of the jaw .\n: cape verde islands and mauritania to angola , possibly northward to morocco . ? western north\n1 to 4 but mostly ( 60 % of 77 individuals ) 2 . off senegal most young are born in may and june .\nin their stomachs ( cadenat and blache , l9b2 ) . the remainder of this\nfemales reported from 83 to 117 cm ; size at birth about 47 cm .\n- and - line , gillnets , and bottom trawls ; its meat is used fresh and dried salted for human consumption , and it is processed into fishmeal .\nfollowing krefft ( 1968 ) , compagno ( 1979 ) , and cadenat and blache ( 1982 ) . the record of the\nby human agency to the\naquarial gardens\n, because of the slow transportation ( steamships ) and limited aquarial technology available at the turn of the century .\nlocality :\n. . . from the ' aquarial gardens ' , for which the collections were made off the coasts of massachusetts and rhode island .\n(\ncadenat , j . , 1950 . remarques biologiques sur leptocharias smithii m\u00fcller et henle . bull . inst . fr . afr . noire , 12 ( 2 ) : 1950 408 - 11\ncadenat , j . , 1957 . notes d ' ichtyologie ouest - africaine . 17 . biologie , r\u00e9gime alimentaire . bull . inst . fond . afr . noire ( a . sci . nat . ) , 19 ( 1 ) : 274 - 94\nkrefft , g . , 1968 . knorpelfische ( chondrichthyes ) aus dem tropischen ostatlantik . atlantide rep . , ( 10 ) : 33 - 76\ncompagno , l . j . v . , 1979 . carcharhinoid sharks : morphology , systematics and phylogeny . unpublished ph . d . thesis , stanford university , 932 p . available from university microfilms international , ann arbor , michigan\ncadenat , j . and j . blache , 1981 . requins de mediterranee et d ' atlantique . faune trop . orstom , 21 : 330 p .\nthis experiment is part of the sharks , skates , and rays challenge grant .\nyou enable real research projects . once you fund a project , you ' ll get access to progress , data , and results straight from the team .\neach project is reviewed by our team to make sure that it meets our project criteria . anyone can start experimenting .\njoin an online community of 32 , 000 explorers of science . read about our mission .\nthe 10 acoustic transmitter tags will allow us to start a detailed investigation of the habitat use over 2 to 3 years . animals tagged with these transmitters can be located continuously by already installed underwater receivers , giving us information on when an individual is present in these bays . implanting these tags requires a small surgery with sterile tools . the about 200 external marker tags are particularly critical to study the body growth rate of this species , which is important for fisheries assessment and a good indicator of species\u2019 vulnerability to fishing . the last bit we need is the tagging equipment , such as a tagging pole .\nour field work is accompanied by a veterinarian and an experienced specialists for catch and live release and safe handling of sharks , both working for decades with these animals . in this project we are also working together with the ocean tracking network urltoken local ngo\u2019s ( biosfera i and fundacao maio biodiversidade ) , the national institute for fisheries development ( indp ) and of course local students , local communities and local fishing charters\ni am currently a phd candidate of dalhousie university and the transatlantic ocean system science and technology ( tosst ) school , under the supervision of dr . boris worm . boris is a full professor at dalhousie university , focusing on the conservation of marine biodiversity worldwide . he has authored over 100 publications on these topics , many with a focus on large marine predators , specifically sharks , tuna and billfish . our scientific papers can be found here .\ni love nature and my life passion is to help conserve sharks worldwide . i am convinced that protecting nature is one of the most critical challenges we have . growing up far away from the sea , observations of birds and the local fauna in my childhood had to replace sharks . although i was always fascinated by sharks , at the time i was doing my undergraduate in biology , things became more concrete . i read boris\u2019s first articles showing that sharks might be in deep trouble .\nincreasing the biological knowledge and uncovering habitat use is important for our understanding and protection of sharks worldwide .\nacoustic tagging is ideal to provide information on presence or absence of individuals in a specific area over time . this allows us to investigate for example \u2018site fidelity\u2019 , a behavior where individuals return to key aggregation sites repeatedly over time . this is crucial information in determining if a species will benefit from habitat protection .\npassive tagging , where species are equipped with an external marker tag carrying a unique identification number , can further provide general information on species movement and densities . it is a relatively inexpensive method , independent from battery life , and therefore allows to study more individuals over longer time periods . in addition , this method allows to investigate body growth from tagged and recaptured animals . body growth of individuals is an important piece of knowledge for fisheries science .\nfurthermore , the access to the animals while tagging enable us to record all kind of biological data , such as sex , genetic samples , blood and size measurements , as well as investigating environmental preferences of animals . this can provide important information to help us understand how vulnerable the species might be to disturbances , such as fishing pressure or climate change .\nthis research is part of a greater project , the cabo verde elasmobranch research and conservation project . this project aims to support the development of comprehensive , long - term and effective science based protections measures for cabo verde elasmobranchs ( sharks , skates and rays ) , through scientific research , governmental , ngo and community based conservation projects and education . therefore , an innovative coalition of researchers , industry , local communities , governmental and non - governmental organizations has been established . the project also strives to promote and utilize only non - lethal research methods and to be as minimally invasive as possible .\nthe acoustic underwater receivers that have already been installed can also be used by other scientists doing research on other marine species , from fish to sea turtles . this means our project can help others happen in the future and may even allow to study the interaction among different marine species\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\natlantink\u00e4rpp\u00e4hai\nto\nparagaleus pectoralis ( garman , 1906 )\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public ' / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en ' ' urltoken '"]}
{"id": 510, "summary": [{"text": "the bleeding toad , fire toad , or indonesia tree toad ( leptophryne cruentata ) is a species of true toad endemic to java , indonesia .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is listed as a critically endangered species due to a drastic population decline , caused in part by habitat loss due to global climate change and the eruption of mount galunggung in 1987 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "chytridiomycosis has been identified as a possible threat , but no positive identification has been made .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is possible that the chemical cocktail secreted by the toads provides them with some resistance to the fungus . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "bleeding toad", "paragraphs": ["bleeding toad ( iskandar , 1998 , amph . java bali : 43 ) .\nthe bleeding toad is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\ninformation on the bleeding toad ( leptophryne cruentata ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe specific name\ncruentata ' is derived from the latin word for bleeding .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - bleeding toad ( leptophryne cruentata )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - bleeding toad ( leptophryne cruentata )\ntitle =\narkive species - bleeding toad ( leptophryne cruentata )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - bleeding toad on moss covered rock\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - bleeding toad on moss covered rock\ntitle =\narkive photo - bleeding toad on moss covered rock\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\npart of the range of bleeding toad is located in gunung gede pangrango national park . future conservation actions should include population surveys and possible captive breeding plans .\nthe bleeding toad , leptophryne cruentata , is listed as \u2018critically endangered\u2019 on the iucn red list of threatened speciestm . it is endemic to west java , indonesia , specifically around mount gede , mount pangaro , and south of sukabumi . this toad is most commonly found near small creeks in the mountains . the female lays her eggs in clutches in the creeks . the bleeding toad\u2019s scientific name , cruentata , is from the latin word meaning \u201cbleeding\u201d because of the frog\u2019s overall reddish - purple appearance and blood - red and yellow marbling on its back .\nthe bleeding toad , leptophryne cruentata , is listed as \u2018critically endangered\u2019 on the iucn red list of threatened species tm . it is endemic to west java , indonesia , specifically around mount gede , mount pangaro , and south of sukabumi . this toad is most commonly found near small creeks in the mountains . the female lays her eggs in clutches in the creeks . the bleeding toad\u2019s scientific name , cruentata , is from the latin word meaning \u201cbleeding\u201d because of the frog\u2019s overall reddish - purple appearance and blood - red and yellow marbling on its back .\nfire toad ( iskandar , 1998 , amph . java bali : 43 ) .\nrevised critical habitat for the arroyo toad ( anaxyrus californicus ) : proposed rule .\nveterinarian ' s assistant : i ' m sorry to hear that . the veterinarian will know what to do about this bleeding . i ' ll connect you asap . is there anything else important you think the veterinarian should know about there ?\nthe short - horned lizard is often referred to as a \u201chorned toad\u201d or \u201chorny toad\u201d because its squat , flattened shape and short , blunt snout give it a toad - ish look . there are over a dozen recognized horned - lizard species found in the deserts and semi - arid environments of north and central america , from southern canada to guatemala .\na number of studies suggest that cane toad tadpoles may impact on the growth and survival of native species through competition for food . cane toad tadpoles appear to significantly affect tadpoles of the ornate burrowing frog , limnodynastes ornatus , probably as a result of the superior competitive ability of cane toad tadpoles , rather than predation of early life stages of the species ( crossland 1997 ) .\nthe population declined drastically after the eruption of mount galunggung in 1987 . it is believed that other declining factors may be habitat alteration , loss , and fragmentation . although the amphibian chytrid fungus has not been recorded in this area , the sudden decline in a creekside population is reminiscent of declines in similar amphibian species due to the presence of this pathogen . only one individual bleeding toad was sighted from 1990 to 2003 .\nlarge scale research efforts to control toad populations , such as researching biological control solutions , have not yielded sufficiently encouraging results to justify their continuation or implementation . similarly , efforts to stop or limit toad incursion by physical barriers or removal , despite having some success at a very local scale , do not provide a broad scale solution and protection for the key biodiversity assets impacted by the cane toad .\nthe population declined drastically after the eruption of mount galunggung in 1987 . it is believed that other declining factors may be habitat alteration , loss , and fragmentation . although the amphibian chytrid fungus has not been recorded in this area , the sudden decline in a creek - side population is reminiscent of declines in similar amphibian species due to the presence of this pathogen . only one individual bleeding toad was sighted from 1990 to 2003 .\nindonesia tree toad ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 44 ) .\nany assessment of the northern quoll ' s eligibility for listing as a threatened species as a direct result of cane toad poisoning is complicated by the species having been in the process of decline prior to the arrival of the cane toad and the likelihood that other factors are also contributing to the decline . it is possible that the impact of the cane toad has accelerated a gradual decline , into a more sudden and catastrophic one .\nspecies of native snakes are also known to survive cane toad invasion . to what extent they are susceptible to cane toad toxin and whether observed impacts on individuals translates into population or species decline is uncertain . it is also not known whether these observed declines are short term or long term .\ni have a gulf coast toad that appears to be shedding skin for over a week now . much of it has come off . she soaked in\ni have a gulf coast toad that appears to be shedding skin for over a week now . much of it has come off . she soaked in her bowl , and it looks slimy . there is one part where the skin came off , and it looks reddish , like it was almost bleeding . i put on latex gloves and picked her up , but it seems to have stopped and is no longer red . she also has not been eating for three days now .\nstraughan , i . r . ( 1966 ) . the natural history of the cane toad in queensland . australian natural history 15 , 230 - 232 .\nlarval cane toads are algal , detritus and suspension feeders . while it has been shown that cane toad tadpoles readily prey upon anuran eggs , in laboratory tests in northern queensland cane toad tadpoles were not found to be significant predators of native anuran eggs , hatchlings or tadpoles . this study suggested that native tadpoles are often likely to have a greater impact on the survival of early life history stages of native anurans via predation than are cane toad tadpoles ( crossland 1998 ) .\nfreeland , w . j . ( 2004 ) . a review of the cane toad ' s ( bufo marinus lineaus ) impacts on the native australian fauna .\nseabrook , w . ( 1991 ) . range expansion of the introduced cane toad bufo marinus in new south wales . australian zoologist 27 , 58 - 62 .\nnorthern quoll populations demonstrate a normal fluctuation in numbers involving a slight decline through the dry season . they eat several species of native frogs and are known to mouth cane toads causing the release of poison from the cane toad ' s parotoid glands ( the swellings on each shoulder behind the eardrum ) . the poison is then ingested by northern quolls . symptoms of death from cane toad toxin can include bright red lips and or gums and can also include a red roof of mouth or bright red nose and nose bleeds , red ears , bleeding from the ears , a red eye , red skin pouch , bright purple teats and faeces around the anus ( oakwood 2003 ) .\nlarge bodied goannas are known to undergo initial population declines following the invasion of the cane toad . in queensland , anecdotal evidence exists of severe population declines in gould ' s goanna , varanus gouldii ; merten ' s monitor , varanus mertensi , varanus panoptes and the spotted tree monitor , varanus timorensis , in almost immediate response to cane toad colonisation ( burnett 1997 ) . however a lack of systematic surveys of these species in northern queensland precludes comparisons of pre and post cane toad abundances . eight of the twenty monitor species whose distributions overlap potential cane toad distribution were considered to be at high risk from cane toads due to their micro habitat preferences , distribution and diet ( burnett 1997 ) .\na study of native frog species from the darling downs area of southern queensland that undertook competition trials found that cane toad tadpoles may affect the growth of native anuran tadpoles under some circumstances . trials conducted in artificial ponds indicated that cane toad larvae reduced the growth of three native species , limnodynastes tasmaniensis , limnodynastes terraereginae , and notaden bennettii ( williamson 1999 ) .\nfreeland , w . j . ( 1986 ) . populations of cane toad , bufo marinus , in relation to time since colonization . australian wildlife research 13 , 321 - 329 .\nproposed designation of critical habitat for the arroyo toad ( bufo californicus ; revisions to proposed critical habitat , reopening of public comment period , and notice of availability of draft economic analysis .\nother possible impacts have been suggested for ground feeding geckos , fish and bird species . in addition , there are reports of freshwater crocodiles , crocodylus johnstoni , dying after ingestion of cane toad toxin in the borroloola and beswick communities and numerous anecdotal reports of freshwater crocodiles dying following cane toad consumption ( begg et al . 2000 , van dam et al . 2002 ) .\nthere are a number of anecdotal reports and more recently , experimental data , on the impacts of ingestion of the cane toad by native species . studies have been , and are continuing to be , undertaken on the northern quoll , vertebrate fauna in kakadu national park , reptiles , snakes , and crocodiles to determine the impact of lethal toxic ingestion of the cane toad on these species .\nover the next 10 years , the rest of the mainland top end population is expected to also disappear , along with much of the kimberley mainland population . these areas are estimated to constitute a further 30 % of the species ' pre - toad distribution . with the exception of some of its island locations , an almost total cane toad colonisation of the northern quolls range is expected .\nmore recent studies on reptiles , frogs , and the vertebrate fauna of kakadu national park are instructive and in particular recent population crashes in northern quolls provides compelling evidence that the invasion of the cane toad into new environments can cause local populations of the northern quoll to decline catastrophically . some local populations of the northern quoll persist in queensland post the introduction of the cane toad , but little information exists concerning the numbers that persist , why they persist , and there is no indication that the species is recolonising its former range habitat , or that recovery is occurring or likely to occur in the presence of the cane toad . there is no evidence that northern quolls , which are generally solitary hunters , learn to live successfully with the cane toad . the lethal ingestion of cane toad toxin poses a significant risk to the northern quoll and is a threatening process which could cause this species to become eligible for listing as extinct , extinct in the wild , critically endangered , endangered or vulnerable .\ncrossland , m . r . ( 1998 ) . a comparison of cane toad and native tadpoles as predators of native anuran eggs , hatchlings and larvae . wildlife research 25 : 373 - 81 .\nrecent studies in kakadu national park have demonstrated that local extinction of northern quolls is occurring following cane toad invasion . over the last two years this work has shown a significant decline in northern quoll populations with declines considered to be a direct result of lethal ingestion of cane toad toxin . two recent studies are notable : one involving dedicated surveys of the northern quoll at two sites and another that undertook broad scale fauna surveys .\ntranslocation of northern quolls from mainland northern territory ( i . e . as part of the island arks program ) : approximately sixty northern quolls have been translocated to toad - free astell and pobasso islands from the mainland as a safeguard against advancing cane toads severely impacting mainland populations . this program is also attempting to improve the quarantining of islands to reduce the chance of cane toad invasion and to maintain the biodiversity present there ;\nthe study concluded that 75 species are potentially at risk from the invasion of the cane toad . these represent both species of crocodile , all 14 species of tortoise , 37 of 63 species of agamid and 22 of 26 species of varanid . of these 75 at risk species , 34 were considered likely to have their range totally encompassed by the cane toad ( under predicted 2030 climate change models ) and seven have already had their range totally encompassed .\nanecdotal evidence suggests that queensland northern quoll populations have survived in small , high altitude areas associated with extremely rocky habitats . these populations would have survived cane toad invasion for over fifty years . however , there appear to be no studies documenting the size or extent of these populations or the factors that have led to the survival of these remnant populations following cane toad invasion . while northern quolls may still be present in a number of localised areas in queensland in which cane toads have been present for many years , they do not appear , to date , to be recolonising their former locations and to date there is little evidence that any substantive recovery has occurred following cane toad invasion .\nstudies have demonstrated that cane toad eggs , hatchlings and tadpoles are toxic to many native aquatic predators . it has also been suggested that there are possible impacts from cane toads on a proteocephalid tapeworm of the python , ataresia maculosus .\nsince its introduction to australia , the cane toad has spread south and west across the continent and now occurs in queensland , northern territory and new south wales . from their introductory site near cairns , the cane toad has spread throughout queensland , being recorded in brisbane in the 1940s , and was considered to occupy approximately 50 % of the state by the late 1990s ( sutherst et al . 1995 ) . during the early 1960s , the cane toad was recorded in north eastern new south wales and is now considered to occur on the north coast of new south wales as far south as the clarence river / yamba . the only confirmed breeding colony south of this area being at lake innes , near port macquarie .\nwhile this species is one of the 49 species considered to be potentially at risk from lethal ingestion of cane toad toxin ( phillips et al . 2003 in press ) , and it is likely that this is a factor in the decline of the species , there is lack of quantitative evidence that the species is declining , or has declined , as a direct result of lethal toxic ingestion of cane toad such that it would become eligible to be listed at a higher level of endangerment . nor can it be established that the cane toad is having an adverse affect on the species . additional research is needed to identify whether lethal toxic ingestion is contributing to a decline of the ornamental snake at a population or species level .\nthe most common result of low vitamin a in the diet is a condition called short tongue syndrome , first described in the wyoming toad ( anaxyrus [ bufo ] baxteri ) . the low vitamin a levels create a condition called squamous metaplasia , which results in the animal\u2019s inability to produce proper sticky mucus on the tongue . when a toad or frog tries to grasp prey , it doesn\u2019t stick to the tongue when it is retracted into the mouth , and the prey gets away .\nwilliamson , i . ( 1999 ) . competition between the larvae of the introduced cane toad bufo marinus ( anura : bufonidae ) and native anurans from the darling downs area of southern queensland . australian journal of ecology 24 : 636 - 643 .\nthe cane toad is a highly invasive species which has colonised substantial areas of the australian continent , occupying the habitats of many native species . as a result , a number of native species are considered to have experienced impacts from cane toads , most notably in relation to lethal ingestion of cane toad toxin . much of the research to date remains inconclusive at a species and population level ; is complicated by other factors of decline ; and it is uncertain to what degree species may survive short term crashes into the longer term . more recent research on the impact of lethal ingestion of cane toad toxin is compelling , particularly in relation to recent population crashes of the northern quoll in kakadu national park , northern territory . due to the symptoms and the absence of any other known cause of mortality , the deaths have been directly attributed to lethal toxic ingestion of cane toad poison . while the northern quoll is considered to have survived in isolated populations in queensland , there is little information on how successful this persistence is and no evidence that the species is recovering , or likely to recover . it is estimated that the cane toad will , in the foreseeable future , colonise almost the entire mainland range of the northern quoll and the species will continue to decline as a result .\nthe cane toad is a native of central and south america with a natural range extending from southern united states to tropical south america . cane toads have proven to be highly effective invaders of new ecosystems with their distribution now extending to over twenty new countries .\nit is evident that a major decline of the northern quoll has occurred in kakadu national park , and will continue to occur , and that northern quolls may disappear from kakadu national park altogether within the foreseeable future due to the invasion of the cane toad .\nsutherst , r . w . , floyd , r . b . , and maywald , g . f . ( 1995 ) . the potential distribution of the cane toad , bufo marinus l . in australia . conservation biology 10 , 294 - 299 .\ncrossland , m . r . ( 1997 ) . impact of the eggs , hatchlings and tadpoles of the introduced cane toad , bufo marinus ( anura : bufonidae ) on native aquatic fauna in northern queensland , australia . phd thesis , james cook university , townsville .\ncane toads eat a wide variety of prey , breed opportunistically , have a far greater fecundity than native anurans and develop rapidly particularly in warmer waters . they are considered to be an extreme generalist with a tolerance for a broad range of environmental and climatic conditions and able to potentially occupy many habitats . there is considerable concern over the impact of the cane toad on native species and in particular , invertebrate communities , through predation and competition . most significantly , they possess highly toxic chemical predator defences and many scientific and anecdotal reports exist of deaths of native predators that have attempted to consume cane toads . historically , reports on the impacts of cane toads have been largely anecdotal with little quantitative data available since the cane toad ' s introduction in the 1930s . more recent studies have been undertaken to quantify the impacts of the cane toad and include :\ntwo species listed as threatened under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 may be potentially affected by the cane toad . these species are the ornamental snake , denisonia maculata , and the green and golden bell frog , litoria aurea , both of which are listed as vulnerable under the act .\nthe green and golden bell frog has been recorded as being in decline since the 1960 ' s . the factors leading to the decline are not well understand but are likely to include predation of the tadpoles by introduced fish such as gambusia , loss of habitat through clearing and drainage , and diseases such as chytridiomycosis . the cane toad may also be a factor in the decline as the historical distribution of the green and golden bell frog has retracted to the south , such that its northern extent almost exactly correlates with the southern extent of the southern continuous distribution of the cane toad into new south wales .\npopulation declines or evolutionary responses have been recorded for varanus panoptes and varanus gouldii . one expert noted that historically , such declines have been temporary , with recovery occurring in the following year and complete population recovery being noted in the third year post invasion and that many monitor species continue to survive following cane toad invasion .\nshe is half burrowed and hiding behind a plant right now . i don ' t want to disturb her again . no areas that appear to be raw and bleeding now . it was when i picked her up and some skin came off on my glove that i noticed a thin line of pink near the top of her head . i would liken it to when you get an abrasion on your skin and the blood comes up , but i don ' t see it now and there does not appear to be any redness or blood . her eyes are bright , although the last few days i noticed her eyes half shut . she has not accepted any food in three days now .\nthere is insufficient data on the diversity of queensland ' s frog populations before cane toad invasion to determine if there has been a resulting change in frog diversity or density . in the northern territory , where the cane toad is still colonising , baselines studies have been undertaken to monitor the calling activity of native frogs to determine changes in frog communities in response to cane toad incursion . these studies , which commenced in 1996 in the roper river valley and in 1998 in kakadu national park are based on the identification of the calls of more than twenty species of frogs as well as cane toads . to date there is insufficient data from the kakadu sites to support analysis . however , initial analysis of the roper river valley provides some indication of a decline in calling rates which correlates with the incursion of cane toads . in particular , the number of frog species calling per station declined markedly between the beginning of the study in 1997 / 98 and 2001 / 02 .\nin northern queensland , the northern quoll appears to have undergone a decline during the past two decades . anecdotal evidence exists suggesting severe population declines in almost immediate response to cane toad colonisation of their habitat in three widely distributed areas of northern queensland ( burnett 1997 ) . however , lack of systematic surveys in northern queensland precludes any useful comparison between pre and post cane toad abundances of the species . despite other potential impacts , including the impacts of a rapidly expanding agricultural industry and human population growth in north east queensland , quoll species were considered to be at high risk from cane toads due to their habitat preferences , distribution and diet ( burnett 1997 ) .\nwhile there is limited quantitative information on the declines of many of these reptiles in response to cane toads , the vertebrate fauna surveys undertaken in kakadu national park do give an indication of potential impact on these species with substantial declines in cane toad invaded sites recorded for the gilbert ' s dragon and goannas ( watson and woinarski 2003a + b ) .\nthis work was based on ecoclimatic predictions of the likely eventual distribution of cane toads across australia and identified those species that will come , or have come , into contact with cane toads . the percentage of the species ' range currently encompassed by the cane toad was estimated along with the percentage of their range that is likely to become affected as cane toads reach their full extent .\none study undertaken in the western gulf of carpentaria , northern territory , reported that the abundance of beetles was significantly lower , in the short term , in sites colonised by cane toads compared to cane toad free sites ( catling et al . 1999 ) . apart from this study , there have been no studies to investigate the impact of cane toads on invertebrate prey communities in australia or elsewhere .\nover the last 10 years , the population has almost entirely been lost from the north east top end , northern territory ; cape york peninsula ; and the einasleigh uplands of northern queensland . these areas have been estimated to constitute approximately 30 - 40 % of the northern quoll ' s pre - toad distribution . the viability of these remnant populations in the wild is , at this stage , unknown .\nall stages of the cane toad ' s life cycle : eggs , tadpoles , toadlets and adult toads , are poisonous . cane toads have venom - secreting poison glands ( known as parotoid glands ) or swellings on each shoulder where poison is released when they are threatened . if ingested , this venom can cause rapid heartbeat , excessive salivation , convulsions and paralysis and can result in death for many native animals .\nmany native snakes prey on frogs using their mouths to capture and consume cane toads entirely and cannot avoid direct exposure to toxins in the cane toad ' s body . frog eating snakes are known to be susceptible to impacts ( e . g . northern death adder , acanthophis praelongus , king brown or mulga snake , pseudechis australis , western brown snake , pseudonaja nuchalis , red - bellied black snake , pseudechis porphyriacus ) .\nit appears that cane toads are more likely to have an adverse impact on terrestrial ground frogs or larger species such as the giant frog ( cyclorana australis ) and the marbled frog ( limnodynastes convexiusculus ) due to competitive interaction and in some circumstances , high densities of cane toad tadpoles in isolated pools could out compete native aquatic vertebrates and invertebrates for food resources . however there is limited quantitative data to adequately support a conclusion on such impacts .\nin the northern territory , preliminary data from an intensive radio tracking study of goannas , initiated in september 2002 , kakadu national park , has estimated an initial mortality rate of around 50 - 70 % coincident with the arrival of cane toads . it was estimated that a 50 % plus decline occurred in populations of varanus panoptes within an approximately seven month period ( late oct 2003 to late may 2004 ) coincident with the arrival and build up of cane toad numbers ( holland 2004 ) . there is evidence that most goannas died following attempted ingestion of cane toads . there is little quantitative data yet on whether or not recovery of goanna populations is likely to occur in the northern territory as it has in queensland . some species are known to persist in areas of queensland that have had cane toads present from a few to many decades but there are no quantitative data on pre - toad population sizes .\nit is evident that many species continue to maintain populations throughout their range , even in the presence of the cane toad , and there are some anecdotal reports that the wildlife impacts of cane toads may diminish over time . alternatively , a substantial body of anecdotal evidence , and more recent experimental evidence , suggests that some predator species undergo dramatic and potentially threatening declines in abundance as a result of fatal poisoning by cane toads , immediately following colonisation of their habitat .\ncane toads attain high population densities after colonisation and consume large volumes of invertebrates . while larval cane toads are algal , detritus and suspension feeders , metamorphling , juvenile and adult cane toads feed on a broad variety of small prey items , predominantly ground dwelling arthropods . cane toads are thought to consume approximately 200 food items per night , far more prey than most native frogs ingest in the same period . the bulk of the diet is usually ants , beetle and termites , although they can eat anything that fits in their mouth including a wide variety of insects , frogs , small reptiles , mammals and birds . in addition , cane toads have the potential to compete with native species for food and shelter sites . the ability of the cane toad to rapidly expand both its range and density and to consume relatively large numbers of a wide variety of prey has led to concern that the cane toad is a key factor in the decline in of many native species .\nwhile northern quolls are still present in a number of localised areas in queensland in which cane toads have been present for many years , they do not appear , to date , to be recolonising their former locations and to date there is little evidence that any substantive recovery has occurred following cane toad invasion . more recent experimental evidence from the northern territory supports anecdotal reports from cape york peninsula and other areas of queensland that northern quoll populations have been , and continue to be , severely affected by the presence of cane toads .\nradio tracking of northern quolls commenced at the mary river ranger station , northern territory in 2002 , shortly before the arrival of cane toads later that year . the mary river population declined dramatically between october and december 2002 and by march 2003 appeared to be extinct with no northern quolls being caught in the subsequent may and july trapping trips . in contrast , northern quolls at the cane toad free control site at east alligator were still abundant . six subsequent trapping sessions at the mary river site , southern kakadu , have caught no northern quolls .\nis a small and slender toad named after its characteristic red tinge and red spots or marbling . females of this species have a snout - vent length of 25 - 40 mm , while males have a snout - vent length of 20 - 30 mm . the skin is covered with small tubercles . the parotoid gland is small and sometimes indistinct . no bony ridges are present on the head . finger and toe tips are slightly swollen . the toes are webbed , with the webbing reaching up to the final subarticular tubercles on toes iii and v .\nleptophryne cruentata is a small and slender toad named after its characteristic red tinge and red spots or marbling . females of this species have a snout - vent length of 25 - 40 mm , while males have a snout - vent length of 20 - 30 mm . the skin is covered with small tubercles . the parotoid gland is small and sometimes indistinct . no bony ridges are present on the head . finger and toe tips are slightly swollen . the toes are webbed , with the webbing reaching up to the final subarticular tubercles on toes iii and v .\nthere is , to date , insufficient data quantifying the impacts from cane toad predation ( e . g . on aquatic invertebrates , insects , worms , snails etc ) and the competition effects that may occur on native species through the presence of cane toads in their habitats . it is likely that cane toads compete with native species for food and shelter but little is known of these competition effects . while it is suspected that predation and competition may play significant roles in reducing biodiversity of native species , and altering ecosystems , data concerning such impacts is neither complete or comprehensive .\npublic awareness campaigns . in 2000 , new south wales launched a new campaign to ; prevent cane toads establishing outside their existing range ; raise community awareness of cane toads including impacts on biodiversity ; increase community ownership and involvement of the cane toad issue ; and raise community awareness of native frogs and their conservation requirements . the northern territory has also undertaken public awareness campaigns to alert residents and communities to the pending arrival of cane toads , notably around darwin and rural communities . this campaign highlighted the biology and impact of cane toads ; their identification , and outlined safe methods of collection and disposal .\nfor the most part , amphibian skin is delicate ( an obvious exception would be something like a bufo toad with thick , leathery skin ) . even the act of a human hand touching the skin can cause damage . abrasive nets or transport bags can also harm the slime layer and the skin . when handling amphibians , one should wear wet latex gloves , rinsed with chlorine - free water before touching the amphibian . cage furniture , such as rocks , plants , substrate , etc . , can cause abrasions to the feet , belly , rostrum ( nose ) and skin . once the skin is damaged , the risk of infection increases dramatically .\nthe northern quoll is likely to continue to disappear over most of its mainland , and some of its island , range . based on evidence from cape york peninsula and more recently kakadu national park ( and allowing for persistence in the existing pockets in queensland and in some offshore islands ) , this reduction is estimated at about 95 % of the range ( and hence total population ) as it was in 1980 , by about 2010 . over the next 10 years , it is likely that the rest of the mainland top end population will also disappear , as will much of the kimberley mainland population , estimated to represent a further loss of approximately 30 % of the species ' pre - toad distribution .\nwhilst not likely to be the sole cause of the northern contraction in range of the green and golden bell frog , competition and predation interactions between the cane toad and the green and golden bell frog are likely to have operated in concert with other threatening processes such as frog chytrid infection , gambusia predation , and habitat loss in the decline of the green and golden bell frog in the northern parts of its range . despite these observations , at this stage there is insufficient quantitative data to indicate that cane toads are causing the green and golden bell frog to decline . such that it would become eligible to be listed at a higher level of endangerment or that it is having an adverse affect on the species .\nlethal ingestion of cane toads is thought to also pose a threat to many species of australian reptiles . both snakes and varanids prey upon frogs and have few options for prey manipulation . one study has estimated that 59 % of ' agamids ' ( dragons ) , 85 % of the ' varanids ' ( monitors ) and all of australia ' s crocodiles and freshwater turtles are potentially at risk from cane toads . this study reviewed published information on the distributions and dietary habits of australian reptiles and tested the ability of eleven ' at risk ' reptile taxa for their susceptibility to cane toad toxin ( one python , one freshwater turtle , two crocodiles , two dragons and five monitor species ) ( smith and phillips in prep ) .\nresearch sites have been established to the west of kakadu national park and it is hoped that these studies will provide information directly relevant to the management of cane toad impacts in kakadu national park as well as much of northern australia . coordination of these various studies to assess available results , identify gaps and provide support funding if required , and to consider their implications will require ongoing attention . to this end , a national approach to address cane toads is being developed by the natural resource management ministerial council . it has directed the vertebrate pests committee to review the current threat posed by cane toads ; review the state of research to abate those threats ; identify gaps in current approaches ; and assess the costs and benefits of various options for national action .\nto date , there is insufficient information to adequately quantify the likely extent of declines of many affected species . for some native species , cane toad impacts may be minor and inconsequential in the longer term , despite marked short term responses . alternatively , species may experience little immediate response but be either directly or indirectly impacted on in the longer term . most fauna populations undergo population fluctuations of varying magnitude and it is difficult to interpret changes from a baseline to a single subsequent re - sampling period . longer term population trends can only be discerned from natural fluctuations by a series of monitoring periods . it is considered that further research on the precise nature of both short and longer term impacts of cane toads on native species is required , including the impacts that are likely to come from predation and competition .\nit is considered that , at this stage , there is insufficient data to adequately quantify the exact level of impact that cane toads pose to any listed threatened species , including the ornamental snake and the green and golden bell frog . while it is likely that cane toads are having a detrimental effect , this effect is , to date , insufficiently quantified . there are also currently no data on the impact of the cane toad on a listed threatened ecological community . there is insufficient quantitative data to indicate that the threatening process could cause a listed threatened species or a listed threatened ecological community to become eligible to be listed in another category representing a higher degree of endangerment . in addition , it can not be adequately demonstrated that any listed threatened species or listed threatened ecological community is adversely affected by the threatening process .\ncane toads are large ground dwelling amphibians with a dry warty skin . they have a bony head with bony ridges over their eyes , sit upright and move in short rapid hops . their colour ranges from grey to olive brown and they have a pale belly with dark irregular spots . the average size of an adult is 10 - 15cm long but females have been recorded growing up to and over 23cm . they breed in still or slow - flowing water and can tolerate salinity levels up to 15 % . adult cane toads are active at night during the warm months of the year and can survive temperatures ranging from 5 - 40 degrees celsius . cane toad spawn occurs in long gelatinous strings with double rows of black eggs with females laying between 8 - 35 000 eggs at a time . cane toads have a life span of about five years , breed twice a year , and take between 6 - 18 months to reach sexual maturity .\na series of broad scale fauna surveys were conducted in kakadu at sites that had been surveyed up to 25 years previously . the monitoring and re - sampling of the terrestrial vertebrate fauna of kakadu national park was undertaken initially to provide some assessment of the short term impacts of colonising cane toads . the project sought to provide some assessment of the change in abundance of wildlife species in kakadu national park in the first year following the arrival of cane toads and was an assessment of short term responses only . changes in fauna abundances were examined since the last surveys and again after the arrival of cane toads . this survey also used control sites , monitored over the same period to eliminate the influence of factors other than cane toads ( e . g . fluctuations in northern quoll numbers between years due to levels of rainfall ) . while northern quolls declined to zero at the cane toad invaded sites , there was no decline at the control sites .\nanalysis of climatic variables and the adaptive abilities of the cane toad suggests that cane toads may eventually permanently inhabit the wet coastal areas of the eastern and northern parts of the continent at least as far south as port macquarie in the east of the continent and south to broome in western australia . temperature range analysis has indicated that cane toads , in warm years , could overwinter as far south as bega near the victorian border . conversely , a drop of 2 - 2 . 5 degrees celsius in mean temperature would result in a shrinkage of the suitable overwintering area to the far north coast of nsw . it was estimated , based on this model , that cane toads will further increase their range primarily throughout coastal and near coastal regions of tropical australia to encompass an area of approximately two million km2 ( sutherst et al . 1995 ) . in addition , cane toads have now been recorded well inland , at least as far south as dunmarra , northern territory .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 27 january 2014 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 january 2014 ) .\njustification : listed as critically endangered because of a drastic population decline , estimated to be more than 80 % over the last ten years , inferred from the apparent disappearance of most of the population .\nthis species occurs only on mount pangrango , mount gedeh and curug luhur , jawa barat , java , indonesia , at altitudes between 1 , 000m and 2 , 000m asl .\nin 1976 , this species was abundant within its small range . in 1987 , it was very rare following the eruption of mount galunggung . there were no records from the early 1990s until 2003 , when one individual was sighted from the cibeureum waterfall . it appears to have undergone a major decline .\nit lives in the boundary zone between moist lowland and montane forest . it breeds in very slow - moving , intermittent streams in forest where the larvae also develop .\nit appears to have declined drastically due to a volcanic eruption . however , its decline is also reminiscent of similar disappearances of montane stream - breeding amphibians in other parts of the moist tropics , and so chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out ( although this disease has not so far been recorded in this region ) .\nthis species occurs in the gunung gede pangrango national park . surveys are needed to locate this species and a captive - breeding programme might need to be established .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\nbufo cruentatus tschudi , 1838 , classif . batr . : 52 . syntypes : rmnh 2130 ( 2 specimens ) according to m . s . hoogmoed in frost , 1985 , amph . species world : 67 ; given as rmnh 2130 - 31 by gass\u00f3 miracle , van den hoek ostende , and arntzen , 2007 , zootaxa , 1482 : 32 , who noted that 2131 could not be located . type locality :\nindia orient .\n; given as java [ indonesia ] by dum\u00e9ril and bibron , 1841 , erp . gen . , 8 : 666 ; iskandar , 1998 , amph . java bali : 43 , noted that the types came from cibodas , java , indonesia .\nbufo montanus werner , 1897 , zool . anz . , 20 : 265 . holotype : nhmw 22864 , according to h\u00e4upl and tiedemann , 1978 , kat . wiss . samml . naturhist . mus . wien , 2 : 14 , and h\u00e4upl , tiedemann , and grillitsch , 1994 , kat . wiss . samml . naturhist . mus . wien , 9 : 18 . type locality :\ntijibodas ( java )\n, indonesia . synonymy by van kampen , 1923 , amph . indo - austral . arch . : 78 .\ncacophryne cruentata \u2014 brongersma , 1935 , zool . meded . , leiden , 18 : 257 - 259 .\nknown only from mount pangrango , mount gedeh , and curug luhur , jawa barat , java , indonesia , 1000 - 2000 m elevation .\nsee comment under leptophryne borbonica . see accounts by liem , 1973\n1971\n, philipp . j . sci . , 100 : 137 ( as cacophryne cruentata ) , and iskandar , 1998 , amph . java bali : 43 - 44 . see identification table by manthey and grossmann , 1997 , amph . rept . s\u00fcdostasiens : 26 , to compare this species with others in the sunda shelf region . see photograph , map , description of geographic range and habitat , and conservation status in stuart , hoffmann , chanson , cox , berridge , ramani , and young , 2008 , threatened amph . world : 195 .\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\nfor access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\nsubmit your observations of this species to inaturalist and they will appear on this map . learn more about this species on amphibiaweb .\noutlined below are the roles and responsibilities for the 4 different levels of involvement for potential partners . if your organization would like to be a part of the amazing amphibians program in either of these capacities please email amazing @ urltoken .\nsenior partner \u2013 these partners will help with multiple aspects of the program , help facilitate the completion of several species profiles , publicize each amazing amphibian and will likely have a landing page for the program on their website . this level of partner will be leading in using their communication channels to gather additional information for the program such as images and data points for inaturalist .\nstrategic partner \u2013 these partners will play an active role in creating species profiles , submitting at least three species profiles per year and actively use their social network to publicize each amazing amphibian . this level of partner will be active in using their communication channels to gather additional information for the program such as images and data points for inaturalist .\nfocal partner \u2013 partners tend to be active in a limited geographic area . this partner will submit at least one regional species profile per year and use their social network to publicize each amazing amphibian . this level of partner will be involved in using their communication channels to gather additional information at a regional level for the program such as images and data points for inaturalist .\naffiliate \u2013 these partners are interested in promoting the program but might not be in a position to provide profiles . these partners will publicize each amazing amphibian through the social media outlets ."]}
{"id": 513, "summary": [{"text": "pezosiren portelli is a basal sirenian from the early eocene of jamaica , 50 million years ago .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the type specimen is represented by a jamaican fossil skeleton , described in 2001 by daryl domning , a marine mammal paleontologist at howard university in washington , dc .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is believed to have a hippopotamus-like amphibious lifestyle , and is a perfect example of a transitional form between land and sea mammals .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "p. portelli had the typical skull and basic body shape shared by most modern sirenians , such as manatees and dugongs , but also had four limbs , not yet modified into flippers , with well-developed feet that were still adapted for walking on land . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "pezosiren", "paragraphs": ["carlos peredo marked\npezosiren\nas hidden on the\npezosiren portelli domning , 2001\npage . reasons to hide : low quality\naniko toth added an association between\npezosiren portelli , artist rendition , calvert marine museum\nand\npezosiren portelli domning , 2001\n.\ncarlos peredo added text to\nenvironment\non\npezosiren portelli domning , 2001\n.\nthe sediments from seven rivers , jamaica ( where pezosiren portelli was recovered ) . . .\ncarlos peredo added text to\nlocomotion\non\npezosiren portelli domning , 2001\n.\ncarlos peredo added text to\ntext\non\npezosiren portelli domning , 2001\n.\nwith its heavy body structure , pezosiren portelli most likely spent most of its time in water .\na restoration of pezosiren the bones in grey represent parts of the skeleton that were recovered . from domning ( 2001 ) .\nthis is a very important transition fossil between pezosiren portelli and potamosiren magdalenensis . we found it in jamaica in 2013 and it is named after us .\npezosiren portelli , named after its discoverer roger portell , was first found in jamaica in 1990 . it filled the gap between sirenians and their ancestors that lived on land .\npezosiren portelli is an important fossil because it represents the earliest known member of sirenia that was still a quadruped ( walked on four legs ) . pezosiren portelli was fully capable of walking on land , despite seemingly spending the majority of its time in the water . this is a key feature because modern sirenians ( dugongs and manatees ) have no back legs whatsoever and have completely lost the capability of emerging on land . thus , pezosiren portelli can be seen as a very early transitional species in the sirenia line ( domning , 2001 ) .\nin order to acquire more abundant food resources , pezosiren portelli developed body structrures that would enable it to live in the sea . its main food would be sea grass and algae .\nit still lives in the jamaican and african waterways but does not come to land as often as the pezosiren portelli . it thrived in warm shallow water with an overall tropic environment .\nfirst pezosiren portelli fossil was found from middle eocene rocks in jamaica . the eocene period was a period of global warming , with temperatures across the planet soaring . forests thrived and trees grew even in polar regions . jamaica in the eocene period was a coastal area on the equator . therefore , pezosiren portelli lived in tropical climate , spent most of its time in the sea but walked on land too .\npezosiren portelli is a species of extinct sirenia ( the group of animals that includes modern dugongs and manatees ) . it was named by domning in 2001 after fossils were found in seven rivers , jamaica . pezosiren portelli appeared in the early eocene ( about 53 - 49 million years ago ) and was roughly the size of the modern feral pig ( prista , estevens , agostinho , & cach\u00e3o , 2013 ) .\npezosiren is the first known quadrupedal sirenian , and represents a transitional form between terrestrial and marine sirenians . pezosiren had four limbs perfectly adapted to walking instead of flippers but at the same time the typical skull , teeth and thickened ribs of the fully aquatic , \u00e2\u20ac\u02dcnormal\u00e2\u20ac\u2122 sirenians . its pachyosteotic ribs , providing ballast , indicate that it was semi - aquatic , perhaps filling a niche similar to that of the modern hippopotamus .\nsea cows once walked on land . pezosiren leaves no doubt of that . this roughly 48 million year old mammal once trod over prehistoric jamaica , and looked akin to a hippo with the skull of a manatee . much like pakicetus in the history of early whales , pezosiren embodies a critical transitional period in the evolution of manatees and dugongs , yet the place where this amphibious sea cow was found did not match what paleontologists expected .\npezosiren was in every other respect , a modern manatee , except that it still had a definite , ( albeit reduced ) pelvis and four still fully - functional legs . the tail was missing and may have been heavier than indicated here as they evidently used them early on . otherwise , pezosiren must have occupied a similar niche to what hippos do now , spending almost all of its time walking the bottom of shallow waterways - which manatees today still do .\nif you only saw the skull of pezosiren you might be fooled into thinking it was a fully aquatic form like modern sirenians . while it\u2019s skull differs in some subtle ways , it is easily identifiable at first glance as being a relative of manatees and dugongs . the strange thing is , however , that pezosiren had four limbs and almost certainly was an amphibious creature . it could still walk on land and did not have the swimming adaptations seen in its later relatives .\nthe site is particularly noteworthy for the mammal fossils that it yields , which include the rhinoceros , hyrachyrus , and a new genus and species of fossil sea cow pezosiren portelli domning , the latter named in the 11th october edition of nature by daryl domning . this is the most complete , primitive sea cow yet discovered , and is unique to jamaica . pezosiren is a distant relation of the endangered manatee that has flippers , and lives in the shallow seas around jamaica .\ncould pezosiren , an eocene relative of modern manatees from the rock of jamaica and described by d . p . domnig in 2001 , have moved in a similar fashion ? today manatees and their relatives within the sirenia are adapted to a fully aquatic lifestyle ; their forefeet are stubby flippers , they lack hindlimbs , and they propel themselves with up - and - down oscillations of their broad tails . like whales , however , sirenians evolved from terrestrial ancestors , and pezosiren is a startling creature that helps illustrate how sirenians became adapted to aquatic life .\nthe bone is about 50 million years old . the researchers guess the animal it once belonged to resembled pezosiren more than the modern sea cow , though the bone also hints that the chambi manatee spent a lot of time in the water since the inner ear resembles that of whales .\nfor more on pezosiren portelli , see domning ( 2001 ) ; the diagram contrasting the prorastomid , protosirenid and crown - sirenian is from domning ( 2000 ) . the steller\u2019s sea cow painting is by maurice wilson . sirenians were previous covered on tet zoo in when manatees crossed the atlantic .\npezosiren was a pig - sized animal with a length of 2 . 1 m . it had a short neck , a barrel - shaped trunk , a moderate - lengthed tail and four short legs . the skeleton will eventually be displayed in the geology museum at the university of the west indies * .\nthanks for comments , brian . i would be happy to discuss pezosiren at length ( and desmostylians ) , given appropriate time and perhaps access to new images and data \ud83d\ude42 as for enamel microstructure\u2026 histology of any kind doesn\u2019t exactly push my buttons , but i know how important it can be as goes biology and evolution .\nat left is an artists ' conception of moeritherium , one of the most basal members known of the order , proboscidea which includes elephants . on the right is an artist ' s conception of pezosiren , one of the most basal members yet known of order sirenia , the family of dugongs ,\nsea cows\n, and manatees , even though no modern manatee has legs anymore . .\ni\u2019m intrigued by the diagram next to the pezosiren dot - point , suggesting that the relative positions of the center of mass and center of bouyancy have changed over the course of sirenian evolution . this is plausible enough , but are the remains of pezosiren and other eocene sirenians complete enough to allow calculation of their centers ? \u2014 i\u2019ve also had a niggle for years about moeritherium . the most recent cladograms i\u2019be seen put it closer to extant proboscidea than to sirenia or desmostylia , but its apparently aquatic life - style makes it seem like a good analogue , at least , for the ancestors of the sirenia . ( and the description of the likely life posture of desmostylia in post # 20 sounds like what embrithopoda might have evolved toward if they\u2019d had a chance ! ) prediction : new discoveries will lead to major revision in our picture of the early evolution of the thethytheria !\nsince the chambi sea cow is only represented by a single skull piece , benoit and colleagues can\u2019t say exactly what this animal looked like . based on the mammal\u2019s early age and relationships , it was probably a legged sirenian that looked more like pezosiren than a modern manatee . and even though the sirenian probably had legs able to support the animal on land , the petrosal bone contains clues that the chambi sea cow was a proficient swimmer .\nthe only other closely related fossil sea cow is prorastomus sirenoides owen , which is known from a skull and atlas vertebra found loose in quashies river , trelawny , and attributed to the stettin formation of early eocene age . the details of the legs in this form are , however , unknown . the morphology of the skeleton of pezosiren is comparable to that of similar - sized land mammals and indicates that pezosiren was capable of supporting its body weight out of water . other characteristics ( such as , details of the nasal opening and the thick ribs ) , however , suggest that it spent much of its time in the water . this new species of sea cow represents a unique glimpse of a stage in their evolution when they made the transition from the land to the sea . * donations to the sea cow fund can be sent to dr . sherene james - williamson curator , department of geography and geology , university of the west indies , mona , kingston , jamaica .\ngoing back to the post\u2019s title \u2013 i was hoping to see more discussion about pezosiren\u2026 i\u2019m working with daryl domning right now on that critter\u2019s enamel microstructure , and noticed that virtually nowhere on scienceblogs is there any mention of enamel microstructure ( aside from one post by afarensis on humans , with no images of it there ) . i wonder , why not ? there is some really cool work on what amounts to the evolution of histology , and i bet lots of people would really get into it .\nre # 37 and # 38\u2013 enamel microstructure is one of the key pieces of evidence about mesozoic mammals ( hey , if all you\u2019ve got is \u201cthe tooth , the sometimes broken and incomplete tooth , and nothing but the tooth\u201d you look at it as closely as you can ! ) . the down side ( my impression from reading ) being that there are a limited number of possible microstructures , with the derived ones having evolved repeatedly all over the family tree ! but i\u2019ll be interested to see what it tells us about pezosiren .\nin the evolutionary history of aquatic mammals , sea cows , the group that includes manatees and dugongs , once walked into the sea . it was all the rage during the early tertiary as intermediate forms of mammals adapted to a marine life . but something was missing in the history of sea cows . none of the fossil evidence till now has shown a sea cow ancestor with four legs strong enough to support its weight on land . when did they make that critical transition from land to sea and what did the animal look like ? [ daryl domning with the 50 million - year - old sea cow skeleton of pezosiren portelli . photo by christina reed . ]\nsea cows , also known as manatees , were not always the florida - dwelling gentle giants of the sea that they are today . in fact , they once walked on land . their 48 - million - year - old ancestor , pezosiren , ran all over prehistoric jamaica and resembled a hippo at first glance . but sea cows also share ancestry with elephants , which first appeared in africa around 66 million years ago . paleontologists , however , have always drawn a blank on the evolutionary link between the manatee \u2019s african and jamaican relatives\u2014until now . researchers digging around in tunisia found a skill fragment that fills the missing piece of the puzzle . national geographic continues :\nsirenian skulls even today are very similar to proboscidian skulls , especially basal forms like moeritherium . in addition , with sirenians we have a complete sequence of transitional forms from prorastomus , ( a pre - sirenian form ) to walking manatees like pezosiren to subsequent forms which still had all four legs , but weren ' t able to support their bodies out of water anymore . they had become obligate swimmers . we then we have others in which the rear limbs are so small as to be impossible to do anything with anymore . and these lead to a form where the pelvis is gone altogether , and the rear legs have dwindled to no more than a single bone .\nindeed , pezosiren looked very hippo - like . it was short and barrel - bodied , and it also had osteoslerotic bones . this was not an animal that was just dipping its toes into the water but one that was already semi - aquatic . there is little doubt that it was spending considerable time in an aquatic environment . i do not know of any studies seeking to reconstruct the locomotion of this animal , but it would seem a fair inference to suggest that while its movements would be restricted on land it would have exhibited a wider range of movements under the water . it may have moved in ways analogous to , but not exactly like , the hippos studied by coughlin and fish .\nin the big picture of mammalian evolution , sea cows are paenungulates \u2013 members of a group that also encompasses hyraxes , elephants , and extinct branches such as the double - horned arsinoitherium and the aquatic desmostylians . the earliest members of these lineages first appear in africa shortly after the end - cretaceous extinction of 66 million years ago , with the perplexing exception of the sea cows . the earliest , most archaic progenitors of today\u2019s manatees and dugongs , such as pezosiren , have been found in jamaica . anatomical and genetic evidence is clear that sea cows must have shared an african origin with the other paenungulates , but , until now , no one has picked up the fossil trail of the earliest sirenians .\nthank you for visiting nature . com . you are using a browser version with limited support for css . to obtain the best experience , we recommend you use a more up to date browser ( or turn off compatibility mode in internet explorer ) . in the meantime , to ensure continued support , we are displaying the site without styles and javascript .\nall prices are net prices . vat will be added later in the checkout .\n( eds mazin , j . - m . & de buffr\u00e9nil , v . ) 151\u2013168 ( dr friedrich pfeil , munich , 2001 ) .\n, new species ( mammalia , sirenia ) , from the late middle eocene of wadi hitan , egypt .\nthe role of phenacodontids in the origin of the modern orders of ungulate mammals .\nfossil sirenia of the west atlantic and caribbean region . v . the most primitive known sirenian ,\nfunctional significance of bone ballast in the evolution of buoyancy control strategies by aquatic tetrapods .\ni thank j . bailey , b . beatty , d . da silva , h . dixon , s . k . donovan , r . j . emry , c . flemming , f . grady , h . and j . halvorson , j . herrera , k . hickey - commins , s . hutchens , s . jabo , d . jones , i . a . koretsky , j . kramer , b . j . macfadden , c . macgillivray , r . d . e . macphee , s . mitchell , r . w . portell , t . radenbaugh , k . s . schindler , t . a . stemann , c . terranova , and b . , r . and j . toomey . field work was funded by the national geographic society ; b . and r . toomey ; the potomac museum group ; the university of the west indies ; the american museum of natural history ; and r . liberman .\nby submitting a comment you agree to abide by our terms and community guidelines . if you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate .\nnature is part of springer nature . \u00a9 2018 springer nature limited . all rights reserved .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlocality : jamaica formation : chapelton length : 2 . 5 m ( 8 feet ) price : contact us\ntriebold paleontology , inc . , is headquartered in the rocky mountain dinosaur resource center\ncopyrights \u00a9 triebold paleontology , inc . 2017 , proud members of the association of applied paleontological sciences .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : d . p . domning . 2001 . the earliest known fully quadrupedal sirenian . nature 413 : 625 - 627\nlike the hippo today , the fossilized animal could live on land or in water .\nwe think this animal spent much more of its time in the water .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\n\u00a9 2018 american geological institute . all rights reserved . any copying , redistribution or retransmission of any of the contents of this service without the express written consent of the american geological institute is expressly prohibited . for all electronic copyright requests , visit : urltoken\nhave you ever tried to walk along the bottom of a pool while fully submerged ? it isn\u2019t easy . keeping your feet on the bottom is enough of a task , and you would probably need a weight belt to take an underwater stroll . hippos ( hippopotamus amphibius ) , though , walk and even prance along the bottom of lakes and rivers with ease . how do they do it ?\nwhen compared to a whale or even a manatee ( the latter of which i will address a bit later on ) a hippo does not look especially well - adapted to life in the water . it has a low , squat body and lacks a broad tail , flippers , or any other broad surface to help propel itself through the water . neither is this amphibious mammal well - suited to quick movements on land . hippos can trot a bit , but they are so cumbersome that while walking on dry land they always keep three of their feet in contact with the ground at a time .\nthe hippo is obviously a cumbersome animal , but it is not just because of their tubby physique . parts of the appendicular skeleton of hippos are osteosclerotic , meaning that their bones are extraordinarily dense due to the replacement of porous bone with more compact bone . ( hippos have extra , lighter bone material in the large medullary cavities within their limb bones , too . ) this means that their bones act as a kind of ballast to help them achieve neutral buoyancy underwater . without this added weight they would have to actively expend a lot of energy to remain underwater ( and , conversely , too much \u201cbone ballast\u201d would make it harder to surface when they needed to come up for air ) .\nthis adaptation to aquatic life allows hippos to exhibit a greater range of locomotion under the water than on land . since they do not have to actively hold themselves down , and the watery environment buoys them up , they can walk , prance , and even \u201cfly\u201d underwater . this range of movement was recently described by biologists brittany coughlin and frank fish in the journal of mammalogy after observing the two female hippos kept at adventure aquarium in camden , new jersey . *\n* [ as a side note , these individual hippos often harass and even attempt to eat the birds kept within the enclosure . many captive birds have died from stress as a result . this raises questions about the ethics of attempting to create a \u201cnatural\u201d setting for aggressive animals in zoos and aquariums . ]\na hippo moving underwater . note how it uses minimal movement of its forelimbs to push off from the bottom .\nunfortunately the size of the hippo enclosure and the amount of time selected for study limited the observational data , but coughlin and fish still recorded 102 sequences of hippos moving underwater ( of which 32 were selected for analysis ) . the hippos did not perform their full locomotive repertoire , but they did often walk by the viewing window along the pool bottom . when they did so they moved in a sort of slow - motion gallop with only one foot ( vs . three on land ) in contact with the ground at any one time . it almost goes without saying that the hippos would not be able to move the same way on land as they did underwater .\ncoughlin , b . , & fish , f . ( 2009 ) . hippopotamus underwater locomotion : reduced - gravity movements for a massive mammal journal of mammalogy , 90 ( 3 ) , 675 - 679 doi : 10 . 1644 / 08 - mamm - a - 279r . 1 domning , d . ( 2001 ) . the earliest known fully quadrupedal sirenian nature , 413 ( 6856 ) , 625 - 627 doi : 10 . 1038 / 35098072\ntype specimen : usnm 511925 , a mandible . its type locality is seven rivers [ guys hill mbr , chapelton fm ] , which is in a lutetian estuary / bay sandstone / siltstone in the chapelton formation of jamaica .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nmoeritherium looks so much like a tapir because they ' re closely - related members of order , perissodactyla , animals with odd - numbered hooves . the tapir side of the family ( embrithopoda ) inherited three - toed feet ( on the hind legs ) , and led to things like the rhinoceras and the titanic indricathere . the five - toed side of the family ( tethytheria ) split into two major groups , proboscidea ( the elephant family ) and desmostylia , which include sea cows .\nit turns out there is more than just superficial similarity here . jugding by comparing both their skulls and their genes , elephants and manatees have a surprisingly close ancestral relationship .\nthis is the most primitive fossil found so far . we ' ve found others with legs that couldn ' t support the animal ' s body weight . but this is the first whole skeleton with legs that could support the animal ' s body weight out of water , yet has clear adaptations for aquatic life . we essentially have every stage now , from a terrestrial animal to one that is fully aquatic .\ntogether with fossils of later sirenians elsewhere in the world , these new specimens document one of the most marked examples of morphological evolution in the vertebrate fossil record . \u201d\nreduced sacroiliac articulation , but could probably still support its body weight out of the water .\nproboscidian tails dwindled into little more than fly swatters , but sirenian tails developed broad and and flat like beaver ' s tails . this is how manatees ' tails still are today . dugongs ( sea cows ) are another member of that family , and they are more derived [ evolved ] in that their tails have flukes , a much more efficient crescent shape like whales or sharks have .\nwith the exception of sea cows , sirenians are exclusively tropical . their fossils are usually found in what used to be the tethys sea , an ancient ocean that once divided the supercontinents of laurasia and gondwana . both of these further divided eventually forming the continental masses we have today . but the tethys sea is now dry land .\nevolution usually leads to a branching out of several distinct forms , rather than changing just one . that ' s how evolution theory explains biodiversity and the evident ancestry implied by taxonomy . sirenians diverged into several different families , some of which are now completely extinct , and known only from fossils . sadly , some of these species remain unnamed , and there are no available illustrations of them to show .\nhooves are essentially just really thick fingernails that cover the whole tip of the finger . whales and sirenians both evolved from separate sets of hooved land mammals , but not from the same families . whales are descended from carnivorous artiodactyls , but sirenians are descended from herbivorous tapir - like things . the idea that anything could go from hooves to fins may be a difficult one to accept . but compelling evidence of this is the fact that sirenians still have hooves . and there is no other explanation for why anything with flippers should still have finger bones , much less fingernails , and especially not hooves !\nribs are round and thick unlike the light and thin ones of other land animals , which served as ballast .\nit eats seagrass and algae and comes to land only to escape water predators . it uses its flippers and small hind legs to push itself onto land . its tail moved up and down , like modern water mammals today .\nit was found in parts of modern day columbia . it is part of the family trichechidae , which is often considered an unusual form of a modern walrus\nit lived during the late eocene epoch to early oligocene epoch . during this time , the water was still warm and the climate was still tropic .\nit stayed in the warm shallow waters and ate seagrass . it was also more well equipped for life in water due to its longer tail .\nthe sirenian ( sea cow ) is split up into two family groups : trichechidae and dugongidae . its fossil record starts from the early eocene epoch to present day . the sirenian had the most diversity during the miocene epoch . this was due to the deep nutrient - rich waters during this period . the decline of diversity was caused by climate change , availability of aquatic vegetation , and competition with other marine mammals . their closest living relative today is proboscidea , or elephants .\ni don\u2019t have time for anything at the moment , it\u2019s terrible . so here\u2019s this , from one of my talks on marine mammal diversity and evolution\u2026\ndomning , d . p . 2000 . the readaptation of eocene sirenians to life in water . historical biology 14 , 115 - 119 .\n\u2013 . 2001 . the earliest known fully quadrupedal sirenian . nature 413 , 625 - 627 .\ninteresting . i wonder what sort of transitional stage sirenians went through between their terrestrial afrotherian ancestors and the highly derived crown - sirenians we all know and love . was it some sort of semi - aquatic freshwater hippo - like herbivore , or could it have been more marine . alternatively , it may have been semi - aquatic and freshwater dwelling , but it may not have been hippo - like .\ni suppose the only way to determine for sure is to go find some more paleocene sites in africa .\nalso , the body of hydrodamalis gigas and other hydrodamalines is proportionately large relative to the head when compared to other dugongids ( and trichechids ) , an adaptation to life in colder waters .\nanyone at all interested in fossil sirenians should take time to look at jorge\u2019s blog \u2013 it\u2019s one of my favourites , i congratulate you \ud83d\ude42 one quick question you might like to answer , jorge : are sirenians particularly abundant and / or diverse in the caribbean region compared to elsewhere ( they certainly seem to be ) ? if so , any idea why ? centre of endemism ? i suspect this has already been answered in the literature but , as we all know , i\u2019m lazy .\nit\u2019s such a tragedy that steller\u2019s sea cow was hunted down so quickly after its discovery . it would have been interesting to see how it fit into its ecosystem . i\u2019m particularly curious about finding out how it interacted with the marine predators of the region such as killer whales or sharks . i find it hard to believe a slow and fairly harmless sirenian could properly fight off or outrun these predators to protect itself or its offsprings\u2026\nhow many fossils are still around ? if it was hunted by whalers , maybe they dragged the carcasses up on land to butcher them , leaving the bones on terra firma where parts of the bones may remain today . i ask , because of the success of svante p\u00e4\u00e4bo and his team at max planck institute to sequence the genomes of extinct species from old bones . of course , to get enough diversity for a * living * species you need at least 300 individuals ( more than the number of individuals likely to be preserved as specimen in museums ) , which is why i ask about the numbers\u2026\nwow , thanks ! yes , indeed , sirenians , particularly dugongids , seem to be more diverse in the western atlantic - caribbean ( wac ) region specially from the oligocene through the pliocene , domning ( 2001 ) elaborates on this . so far there are about 14 species described from that region during that interval of time ( plus at least 4 more that will be described in the next two years or so ) . during that same time interval , in the tethys / paratethys region , there are about 10 species , and from the indian region 4 are known . the seagrasses seem to have been more diverse in the wac region , so there were enough resources to sustain three ( maybe even four ) sympatric species and drive speciation . there\u2019s lots of endemism , specially when talking about dugongines ( which seem to have originated there ) . it is very likely that still more species will be discovered in the future , specially in the greater antilles . even taxa that had been thought ( for many years ) to have originated in the tethys region are showing up in earlier deposits in the caribbean !\nmattioli , s . & d . p . domning . 2006 . an annotated list of extant skeletal material of steller\u2019s sea cow ( hydrodamalis gigas ( sirenia : dugongidae ) from the commander islands . aquatic mammals 32 ( 3 ) : 273 - 288 .\nwe just made a cast copy of a steller\u2019s sea cow for a museum in scotland . such a strange animal . it\u2019s a shame the nhm in vienna has their skeleton jammed way back in a corner .\ni\u2019ve always wondered about the natural history of the steller\u2019s sea cow and happened to come across a nice overview of what is currently seen by some to be the state of these seacows back in those days , in a 2007 book \u201csteller\u2019s island\u201d by dean littlepage , in which the author suggests that these creatures inhabited only a couple of suitable off - shore environments on a handfull of islands which presented relatively warm water refuges following the submergence of beringia as the current inter - glacial proceded . previously the beringian land - mass prevented warm pacific waters from entering the arctic ocean and caused those warmer pacific waters to pool along the shores of the north pacific and it was then that their range extended from the shahkalin islands to northern california . the author suggested that at the time that the first europeans began to exploit the species they were already in reduced numbers and confined to a very limited range . here\u2019s a link to the amazon page . urltoken\ni\u2019m reading a novel , and i believe that the sirenians origins can be traced to the demostylians . but , when did steller\u2019s sea cow appear in history ? does anybody know ? i think it\u2019s a shame that it went extinct because , like the dodo , it is an odd animal and it\u2019s ecological niche is somewhat of a mystery . i recommend \u201cneptune\u2019s ark\u201d by david rains wallace for paleo - marine biology , it\u2019s very informative .\nbirger johansson : there are still tons of sea cow bones on commander islands beaches . valagos : it apparently avoided predation by staying in shallow bays protected by rocky reefs . it is unclear how it managed to colonize the islands . doug : at the time of european discovery the commander islands were the only island group in the north pacific without present or past human inhabitants . i think it\u2019s a much better explanation of the fact that the sea cow survived only there .\n1 ) as far as recent bones of hydrodamalis go \u2013 i read somewhere that most of them sitting around on bering island had already all been picked up . sorry , i can\u2019t provide a reference right now , but that\u2019s the situation as far as i\u2019m aware .\n2 ) sirenians did not evolve from desmostylians , and the inverse is also not the case . sirenians can be traced back into the eocene , while desmostylians have a fossil record only back to the oligocene , and presumably evolved in southern or east asia , and ( last i remember ) potentially share some relationship with anthracobunids . sirenians and desmostylians do share common ancestry , however , and are both marine clades of the tethytheria .\n3 ) damn , i wasn\u2019t aware that there were 27 skeletons ; that\u2019s quite a bit more than i remember . 62 skulls , damn .\ni\u2019m reading a novel , and i believe that the sirenians origins can be traced to the demostylians .\nyou can believe that , but that\u2019s not what the evidence says . desmostylia appears in the fossil record at least about 15 million years later than sirenia . the divergence between the common ancestor of sirenia - proboscidea likely happened sometime in the late paleocene or earliest eocene , whereas that of desmostylia - proboscidea ( or anthracobunidae ) by the late eocene or early oligocene . so , like bobby says , one cannot be the direct ancestor of the other .\nspeaking of desmostylids\u2026what was their m . o . ? i have a paper in my archives that suggests they were doggie - paddlers in the way of modern bears , and that they grubbed up marine flora with their tusks . but the paper is quite old . any news on these strangest of potentially semi - aquatic herbivores ?\nboesse : in the late 1980 - s finding a bone took about half an hour of walking on the beach . i would be surprised if the situation has changed that much . if you are interested , i can ask a friend of mine who works there every summer .\nre subfossil bones on bering island : there may be a lot more than the ones you can easily pick up . nordenski\u00f6ld who was there in 1879 and collected quite a lot of bones noted that the best way to find them was to probe 1 - 2 feet deep in the beach ridges . however he noted that ribs were scarcer than other bones because the locals used them as runners for sledges !\ni ask , because of the success of svante p\u00e4\u00e4bo and his team at max planck institute to sequence the genomes of extinct species from old bones .\nsteller\u2019s sea cow mitochondrial dna was extracted already in the 1990ies ( ozawa et al . , 1997 ) from bones collected on bering island . ( i am not aware of any more recent molecular studies of this species , however . )\nozawa , t . , hayashi , s . & mikhelson , v . m . 1997 . phylogenetic position of mammoth and steller\u2019s sea cow within tethytheria demonstrated by mitochondrial dna sequences . journal of molecular evolution 44 , 406 - 413 .\n@ 5 birger : you may be able to buy the bones from steller sea cows . a company called dancing man knives in alaska is selling knives with handles reportedly made of that bone , and they have been for years ( urltoken ) . i don\u2019t know where they\u2019re getting it or if its real , but it can\u2019t hurt to talk to them . their ulus are good tools , too .\nas for sirenians and desmostylians , my take was that sirenians are to seals as desmostylians were to sea - lions . that might be overly simplistic , but my uneducated thought was that desmostylians seemed to be more agile , and perhaps adapted to high energy environments , such as the kelp beds of the pacific , estuaries , and similar environments that demand a modicum of athleticism to keep from being smashed by the waves . sirenians seemed adapted more for efficient cruising than at agility .\ni like that last comparison ! it also seems reasonable to me . a few questions regarding desmostylians : \u2013 were desmostylians truly marine or were they more semi - aquatic and coasthugging creatures ? their absence beyond the northern pacific might be an indication there . - on the other hand , is it likely that they also occurred in the southern pacific or even the indian ocean ? - also , do we have any idea why demostylians went extinct ? - i recall demostylians being depicted with very short trunks ( or at least elongated noses ) . is this realistic ? \u2013 do we have any clues about the natural history of these creatures , beyond their habitat and diet ?\nit appears that i was wrong then about the abundance of bones \u2013 good ! i\u2019m glad i am , in this case . i wonder where i had heard that\u2026\nre : desmostylians \u2013 oxygen / carbon / strontium isotope data places desmostylians as feeding within somewhat fresh water ( or less saline water anyway ) . the delta o18 is marine , while the sr isotope signal appears terrestrial . so , whatever they were doing , they were doing it close to the shoreline . that being said , desmostylian fossils have only been found in marine deposits , and never in terrestrial deposits ( although it is important to recognize that many of the terrestrial deposits in california are pretty far inland \u2013 then again , so are some marine desmostylian - bearing deposits ) .\nlast i recall , desmostylians are thought to have fed upon algae or kelp ; otherwise , their posture during terrestrial locomotion is thought to have been pretty bizarre ( domning 2002 ) , with a digitigrade , chalicothere - like stance for its feet , a near vertially oriented pelvis and habitually dorsiflexed vertebral column . additionally , a paper by phil gingerich ( 2005 ) indicates that in terms of swimming style and skeletal proportions , desmostylus was most similar to the polar bear ( which is not surprising , looking at the skeleton of desmostylians ) . i don\u2019t think there\u2019s much evidence or need to invoke a trunk for desmostylians .\notherwise \u2013 they disappear sometime during the late miocene , and some of their youngest fossils ( in california , anyway ) are ~ 10 - 12 ma . this is roughly the same time that hydrodamaline sea cows start getting gigantic , and there is quite a bit of turnover in the ne pacific marine mammal fauna from the tortonian into the messinian . i can\u2019t recall of the top of my head , but there have definitely been some hypotheses proposed \u2013 perhaps jorge can help me out here , or maybe brian beatty will see this .\ni thought brian beatty had proposed that their extinction might relate to marine productivity moving farther offshore beyond the foraging range of desmostylians . alternatively , i am just imagining that .\ni think it\u2019s looking increasingly likely that the common ancestor for elephants and sirenians was aquatic . however , iirc , stable isotope analysis actually supports embrithopods being terrestrial ( or at least as terrestrial as modern elephants and such ) .\nmorgan churchill ( # 22 ) \u2013 thanks , didn\u2019t know about the stable isotope stuff . i was going on the tradition of interpreting various skeletal features of arsinoitherium as suggesting aquatic tendencies .\ni\u2019m not sure if its entirely clear why the desmostylians went extinct . it does however correlate with the proliferation of hydrodamalines . were desmostylians outcompeted by hydrodamalines ? or did they went extinct because of increase in cold climate drove the seagrasses away from their range ? i really don\u2019t know .\nwere the desmostylians eating sea - grasses ? sorry for the question , but i didn\u2019t realize that one could tell the isotopic difference between sea grasses ( angiosperms ) green algae , and kelps .\ni guess i was thinking about desmostylians eating kelp . being on the west coast of the us , one thing i do know is that kelps fluctuate enormously both within the year and between years . they\u2019re fast growing , but they also get shredded by storms , as does sea grass .\nin such a seasonal environment , i\u2019d expect any grazer to have to both endure strong seasonality ( summer feast , winter famine ) and have to move as their food plants changed . manatees in the amazon have to deal with this type of environment now .\nsince desmostylians were big , i\u2019d guess that simple environmental stochasticity drove them extinct . they may have simply gotten caught in a situation where they couldn\u2019t find big enough patches of food plants to allow them to reproduce , or they may not have been as good at surviving bad seasons as the hydrodamalines . obviously i don\u2019t know either , but i do know that the north pacific definitely does not live up to its name . it\u2019s a very unstable place .\nyes , desmostylians were eating seagrasses and yes , you can tell the difference between seagrasses and kelp . it is even possible to tell , in the case of sirenians , if they preferred large or small seagrasses , which i think its really cool !\nclementz , m . t . , k . a . hoppe & p . l . koch . 2003 . a paleoecological paradox : the habitat and dietary preferences of the extinct tethythere desmostylus , inferred from stable isotope analysis . paleobiology 29 : 506 - 519 .\nclementz , m . t . , s . sorbi & d . p . domning . 2009 . evidence of cenozoic environmental and ecological change from stable isotope analysis of sirenian remains from the tethys - mediterranean region . geology 37 : 307 - 301 .\nright now , seagrasses are rare along the california coast , and their biomass appears to be strongly seasonal ( based on my frequent walks near a seagrass bed , and the amount that washes up over time . i\u2019d still hypothesize that contraction of seagrass range may have doomed the desmostylians .\ni guess the question is , what were the miocene hydrodamalines eating ? i know that manatees eat seagrass , but steller\u2019s sea cow reportedly ate kelp . were the hydrodamalines simply more catholic in their dietary preferences ?\nindeed , hydrodamalines seem to have been eating mainly kelp , hence the trend towards reducing the dentition ( to none in hydrodamalis spp . ) and rostral deflection .\npreviously the beringian land - mass prevented warm pacific waters from entering the arctic ocean and caused those warmer pacific waters to pool along the shores of the north pacific and it was then that their range extended from the shahkalin islands to northern california .\nhard to believe that only the commander islands maintained warm enough water for this species to survive\u2013warmer than northern california ? \u2013especially when given the proven ease with which the sea cows were hunted to extinction . i can totally see the commanders as a last refuge for their population\u2013from people , all too temporarily .\nthat is not a hard - and - fast rule , there are many examples of viable populations being established from fewer individuals . if you\u2019re speculating about recreating a species from dna , trying to clone hundreds of separate individuals would probably not be the way to go . better to assemble the best possible consensus genome and fiddle with mhc genes and whatever is likely to affect viability ( but that assumes some greater hurdles can be cleared in this sf scenario , such as where to find a womb to incubate these things ! )\nbefore we could attempt to use a dugong as a surrogate mother , we would first need to know how to successfully breed dugongs under captive conditions ; afaik , dugongs have never reproduced in captivity ( and only a handful of individuals have ever even been kept in zoos and aquaria ) .\nmanatees , on the other hand , have been bred in captivity \u2013 but they are of course far more distantly related to hydrodamalis than the dugong is .\n@ vladimir dinets # 11 : interesting ! if they were confined to the commander islands because they had been hunted out everywhere else , then the present potential habitat of the sea cow might extend all the way to california . presumably it would be somewhat patchy . perhaps the sea cows would migrate seasonally between sheltered bays where they could escape the winter storm season and the more exposed coasts where the kelp forests grow . i wonder whether they could coast along on their fat reserves for a long period like migratory whales .\nfjord country might be ideal for such a creature . imagine winter herds of sea cows like so many knobbly half - sunk logs in the quiet waters of the inner parts of puget sound .\ni wonder how they avoided orcas off the commanders . or anywhere else for that matter .\nin summary : here is an english translation of steller\u2019s work on the sea cow . urltoken he based it on almost a year of continual observation of the animals in the wild .\ni infer from his account that the population in the commander islands was in marginal habitat . the animals did most of their eating in north pacific kelp forests , but hung out mainly at river mouths . they were killed regularly by sea ice and by storms coming in off the bering and they were visibly emaciated at the end of the winter . imo , this implies that they would have done better ( bred more successfully , grown bigger , grown more quickly , lived longer ? ) someplace with estuaries and kelp that was more sheltered and also warmer , possibly with more plant species . this would put their largest areas of present potential north american habitat in a range from the inside passage to puget sound and south to the golden gate . their refugium during glacial intervals might be off baja california , or for all i know the coastline that is now underwater provided more habitat . distribution on the opposite coast of the pacific would be similar , with some island herds in marginal habitat between the two main ranges .\ni\u2019m sorry i missed all this discussion , especially the part about desmostylia . i think all the salient points were made , though i would urge that a distinction between algae eating and seagrass eating is important to make . as is the difference between what isotopes and other methods can discern about diets . animal diets are unfortunately very plastic and complex , as is the nature of the data we use to study it ( isotopes , microwear , morphology ) \u2013 we all need to be cautious about understanding the nature of the data we are using . that anyone can be certain about hypotheses about competition between hydrodamalines and desmostylians without really statistically knowing what they ate or how their temporal and spatial distributions overlapped should make us all uncomfortable . moreover , modern competition studies start with systems like that and then study how resource limitation , if it exists , may play a part . we haven\u2019t established any notion about how algae or seagrasses were limited over the period of time of hydrodamaline / desmostylian spatial and temporal ranges , so how can we know it was competition ?"]}
{"id": 541, "summary": [{"text": "clea wykoffi is a species of freshwater snail with an operculum , an aquatic gastropod mollusk in the family buccinidae , the true whelks , most of which are marine . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "clea wykoffi", "paragraphs": ["- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : clea wykoffi r . a . m . brandt , 1974 - id : 5288000028\nworms - world register of marine species - clea h . adams & a . adams , 1855\noverally , clea species feed like their marine cousins . although clea helena is the most well - known in the genus , there are plenty of other species . here ' s a list from\nwhile clea gemma ( conolly 1929 ) is the type for the afrocanidia ( sub ) genus from africa .\nspecies clea fusca ( h . adams , 1862 ) accepted as anentome fusca ( h . adams , 1862 )\none more update ! i just found that canidia bocourti brot was synonymised as clea helena by brandt ( 1974 ) . best ! gianluca\nclea helena is sometimes called clea ( anentome ) helena or anentome helena . it is a member of the whelk family buccinidae , and one of very few whelks that lives its entire life in freshwater habitats . common names in the trade include assassin snail and snail - eating snail .\nclea are whelks , most of which live in the sea . like their marine relatives , clea are opportunistic carnivores that feed on both live prey and carrion . among the prey taken are snails , and it is this that has made them popular with fishkeepers . clea stay partially hidden under the sediment , and if a snail slides past , then quickly ( by snail standards ) jump into action , chasing their prey and eventually subduing it .\nmost clea live in clean , fast - flowing streams where they can be found in sandy or muddy substrates . clea helena is exceptional in being found in ponds and ditches too , and its tolerance for a wider range of water conditions is probably why this one particular species does so well in captivity .\nclea helena is not difficult to breed , though it does so slowly , and isn\u2019t likely to become a pest in the same was as many other snails . for one thing , being carnivorous , it is fussier about food , and that means an aquarium of given size will support a much smaller population of clea helena than omnivorous or herbivorous snails .\nhello guys , i thought you may be interested in some updates : 1 ) afrocanidea gemma conolly , 1929 is an invalid taxon , synonym of gutturnium muricinum ( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) it is a ranellidae ( note also the spelling of the invalid genus ) urltoken 2 ) the species list of congeners is not complete : c . broti ( deshayes 1876 ) c . cambojiensis ( reeve , 1861 ) c . funesta adams , 1861 c . fusca ( adams , 1861 ) c . scalarina ( deshayes , 1876 ) c . spinosa temcharoen , 1971 c . wykoffi brandt , 1974 some sites you may find useful : worldwide molluscan species database - bagni liggia urltoken urltoken\nsungai jernih , perlis , northern peninsular malaysia . another typical habitat for many clea species as they have abundant prey to feed on and nutrient - rich waters flowing from nearby caves .\nin the author\u2019s experience , controlling a runaway malayan livebearing snail ( or malayan trumpet snail , melanoides tuberculata ) is to use 4 - 6 clea helena per 60 litres ( about 15 us gallons ) of water . while they won\u2019t exterminate every last one of the malayan livebearing snails , the clea helena will keep the population of them small enough that they\u2019re no longer troublesome .\nusually , clea snails can be found in abundance when present in a water body . thus , when a prey is detected , a large number of snails will search and assemble around it .\nsteung saen , kampong thom , cambodia . this is the preferred habitat for clea species as it has a wide , muddy river bottom . such habitats are widespread across delta plains of southeast asian countries .\nmeanwhile , other clea snails will try to loosen the grip of the feeding predator on its prey by using their foot to\npull\nthe prey out , much like a tug - of - war game .\non the other hand , like all snails , clea helena and tylomelania spp . are vulnerable to predation when kept with large fish . cichlids , pufferfish , loaches and certain catfish ( e . g . , synodontis ) are likely to view clea helena and the smaller tylomelania as potential food . even if they don\u2019t eat them outright , fish that like to peck at things may stress these snails sufficiently that they\u2019ll cause damage and eventually death .\nclea helena are known as assassin snails and snail - eating snails precisely because they\u2019re so good at catching and killing small snails . are they worth using though ? in short , yes , but you will need quite a few of them .\nbesides malayan livebearing snails , clea helena will also eat other small snail species including physa spp . ( tadpole snails ) . they will also eat juvenile tylomelania snails , and that may be an issue if you want to keep them together .\nclea helena is a predator , and it will eat any small snails it can catch . it will likely eat fish eggs too , and quite likely immobile ( \u201cwriggler\u201d ) fish fry too . but otherwise clea helena is an excellent community tank resident . it does not harm snails that are substantially larger than it is , and things like adult nerite snails as well as tylomelania seem to coexist amicably enough . fish are at no risk at all once mobile , and even livebearer fry are ignored .\nthese are true freshwater snails and do not need salt added to the water . but having said that , the authors experience is that both clea helena and tylomelania spp . tolerate slightly brackish water conditions ( around sg 1 . 003 ) perfectly well .\n( of quadrasia crosse , 1886 ) smith e . a . ( 1895 ) observations on the genus clea , with the description of a new species . proceedings of the malacological society of london 1 : 251 - 253 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhi ! nice work you ' ve done here ! i ' m portuguese malacologist currently finishing my phd thesis on gastropods in the aquarium trade . clea helena was one of my studied species ! i wonder if you could contact me by email so we could exchange some thoughts ? rita . coelho @ urltoken kind regards , rita\nlike most other snails , clea helena and tylomelania spp . will not do well in water that is too soft or acidic . while the precise water chemistry values do not seem to be important , aim for moderately hard to hard water with a ph above neutral ( 10 - 20 degrees dh , ph 7 - 8 ) .\nhello , i am trying to id a species of clea i collected in a hill - forest torrent in brunei . i think it might be c . nigricans . however , i found descriptions of other species that are rather similar ( c . funesta , c . bockii ) and would like to share some thoughts . could you pls send me a mail to gianluca . polgar @ urltoken\nit is not possible to tell male and female clea helena apart , so to start breeding them , a small group will be necessary . when clea helena mates , pairs or groups of snails clamber over each other and seem to hold position like that for hours at a time . eventually the males and females separate , and the females go off to lay their eggs . eggs are deposited one at a time in tiny transparent blobs , usually on solid objects such as bogwood roots . hatching takes a few weeks , and it is fully six months before the juveniles are big enough ( around 8 mm ) to be seen actively hunting at the surface . before they get that big they are presumably hidden away in the sand feeding on whatever small organisms they find there . lifespan is around two years .\nclea helena is a burrowing species , and does best in tanks with a sandy substrate . if nothing else , this gives the aquarist an opportunity to watch the natural behaviour of the species . it is also more likely to reproduce successfully in a tank with a sandy substrate since the juvenile snails seem to spend a lot of time hidden underground . perhaps they need to avoid being eaten by the adults ?\ntylomelania spp . and clea helena have much to attract the aquarist keeping small , gentle freshwater fish . compared to the existing species on offer , these snails are far less likely to become a pest , and once settled in , hardy and easy to maintain . while we\u2019re not quite at the stage of having a freshwater reef tank just yet , these snails are a good few steps in that direction !\nhello i am gianluca , i am trying to id a clea that i think is c . nigricans , collected in a hill - forest torrent in brunei . however , the original description of c . nigricans adams , 1855 closely resembles that one of c . funesta and c . blockii . . . if anyone likes to share some thoughts , i would love to have a chat by email : gianluca . polgar @ urltoken cheers , gianluca\nthe assassin snail ( clea helena ) has been welcomed by fishkeepers as the single best all - around snail - killing animal in the hobby . existing choices were limited to things like pufferfish and the larger loaches , particularly botiine loaches , but these fish are often difficult to maintain , and in the case of puffers especially , tend to be nippy towards their tankmates . the assassin snail is very different . it is small , completely harmless towards fish and shrimps , and generally very easy to keep . it is also very pretty , bright yellow with chocolate brown stripes .\nalright , the next big question is probably : how does it feed ? i have heard many who discovered them congregating around rotting carcasses of frogs , dead swiflets and bats near caves . personally , i have encountered a group of clea helena feeding on picnic leftovers of fried fish at water ' s edge in sungai jernih , perlis , malaysia . so , these buccinids are no different from their marine cousins - scavengers and predators at the same time . i ' ve brought some back home for further observations of their feeding behaviour . here ' s a photo - essay of it :\ninformation on the african species is particularly void while asia ' s ones received more attention ( from the aquarium trade , not researchers ! ) . clea genus is widespread across southeast asia and have not been recorded elsewhere . it ' s abundance is notable especially in alluvial plains and around large water bodies like the irrawaddy delta ( myanmar ) , mekong river ( indochina countries ) , chao phraya river ( thailand ) and other major waterways and lakes of malaysia , brunei and indonesia ( sumatra , java , kalimantan ) . the question is - how did they managed to reach other rivers and lakes divided by tall mountain ranges and vast seas ?\non the scientific front though , little is known about this enigmatic group of snails . however , it is generally accepted that there are two genus of this family that somehow abandoned the sea in favour of creeks and ponds . the african species is categorised into the ( sub ) genus afrocanidia while asia ' s is grouped into the clea genus . now , this may shed some light to its origins . perhaps , they first appeared from a common ancestor when africa and south asia was in one piece ( called pangea ) 225 million years ago ? or did they adapted to freshwater separately ( convergent evolution ) since it is more likely to be a recent adaptation ?\nthe possible answer can be found when we turn the clock back to around 20 000 years ago . the waters of south china sea , gulf of siam , straits of malacca and java sea recede and is replaced by alternating grasslands and swamps . now , one would notice that major rivers were being drained out of this large peninsula , dubbed sundaland , by\nmega rivers\n( much like the present day amazonian basin ) . so , it ' s possible that the clea genus or its ancestor have had its early millenias conquering much of sundaland ' s freshwater systems before rising sea levels cut off many populations and from there each evolved into seperate species or subspecies .\ntylomelania spp . are almost but not quite livebearers . again , males and females are separate , so for breeding purposes a group is required . there is no easy way to sex them . once mating has taken place , the female broods the eggs internally almost to the point when they are ready to hatch . the eggs are then released , and within an hour than juvenile snail crawls out from the shell . at this point the juvenile has a shell that is a good 5 mm in length , and can be reared alongside the adults without problems . they are , however , vulnerable to predation by clea helena , so while adults of both species can be mixed , you won\u2019t get many tylomelania if they\u2019re kept together .\nadams a . ( 1855 ) . description of two new genera and several new species of mollusca , from the collection of hugh cuming , esq . proceedings of the zoological society of london . 23 : 119 - 124 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 119 [ details ]\ngalindo , l . a . ; puillandre , n . ; utge , j . ; lozouet , p . ; bouchet , p . ( 2016 ) . the phylogeny and systematics of the nassariidae revisited ( gastropoda , buccinoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 99 : 337 - 353 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of quadrasia crosse , 1886 ) houbrick r . s . ( 1986 ) transfer of quadrasia from the planaxidae to the buccinidae ( mollusca : gastropoda : prosobranchia ) . proceedings of the biological society of washington 99 ( 2 ) : 359 - 362 . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe various species of tylomelania imported from the southeast asian island of sulawesi are not kept to do a job , but because they\u2019re interesting and attractive . in the past aquarists have kept apple snails ( pomacea spp . ) but these don\u2019t always do well . in the wild most apple snails spend a few months resting in the mud , but they can\u2019t do this in an aquarium , and because of this seem to \u2018burn up\u2019 , dying within a year or so and never attaining full size . tylomelania spp . do much better in aquaria , and unlike apple snails , they do not eat plants , so can be kept in planted tanks without risk .\ntylomelania are members of the family pachychilidae , a freshwater - dwelling group within the predominantly marine cerithioidea superfamily of gastropods . there are numerous tylomelania species , and telling them apart is difficult . many retailers simply sell them as tylomelania , or else under trade names such as sulawesi elephant snails , helmet snails , rabbit snails and various other names .\ntylomelania spp . are primarily inhabitants of lakes and rivers . they are more scavengers than carnivores , and feed on various types of decaying organic matter besides carrion . they also eat some algae , though they are less dedicated algae - eaters than , say , nerite snails , which seem to eat nothing else .\nwhat makes tylomelania so remarkable is their size and variety . their shells come in a range of shapes and sizes , the biggest ones more than 10 cm ( 4 inches ) in length . ornamentation consists of different arrangements of ribs and grooves . the soft body of the animal is variable too , and can be yellow , green , grey or black .\nwater quality is important , particularly in the case of tylomelania . these are not species for immature aquaria , and are best added after the aquarium has been running for at least a couple of months . unlike the other freshwater snails kept by hobbyists , such as apple snails , these are not air - breathing snails , and they will not do well in tanks with poor water circulation or inadequate oxygen .\ntylomelania are less fussy and do well in tanks with either sand or gravel substrates . if sand is provided , they will root about a bit more naturally , and this is fun to watch , but they don\u2019t seem overly bothered by gravel substrates . tylomelania will breed successfully in tanks with either type of substrate .\nfeeding these snails is extremely easy , since both species consume any meaty food they find , including uneaten fish food . to a degree then , they\u2019re scavengers . but for optimal health they will need some food left out specifically for them . catfish pellets are a good staple , but these could be augmented with calcium - rich fare that will help them build their shells . wet - frozen brine shrimp , mysis and krill all seem to be very popular . small pieces of frozen lancefish are also welcomed , especially the more bony bits like the head that fish tend to ignore .\ntylomelania spp . are essentially non - predatory so far as aquarium fish and invertebrates go .\ngood companions are things like tetras , non - nippy barbs , rainbowfish , livebearers , corydoras catfish , bristlenose catfish and so on .\ntylomelania are excellent scavengers and a good choice for the aquarist after a snail that will consume uneaten fish food and organic detritus . they are especially good at cleaning up any leftover bones and shells , as well as things like shrimp moults .\nof course no snail actually \u201ccleans\u201d an aquarium , and that remains the job of the filter ( as well as the weekly water changes ) . but tylomelania seem to be able to compete reasonably well with things like corydoras catfish , and aquarists might even consider using these snails , perhaps alongside shrimps , as the only bottom feeders in the aquarium .\nbrandt r . a . m . ( 1974 ) . the non - marine aquatic mollusca of thailand . archiv f\u00fcr molluskenkunde . 105 : i - iv , 1 - 423 . page ( s ) : 204 , pl . 15 fig . 69 [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nsorry , the species or group that you asked for is not on the onezoom tree .\nthe open tree contains additional species not on the onezoom tree ( particularly subspecies and fossils ) . to check if this is why we cannot find your species or group , you can\n, then chances are you have entered a wrong number or a misspelt name .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nlike all snails in the clade neogastropoda , snails in this genus are carnivorous .\nthis article was sourced from creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . world heritage encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers , open access publishing , and in compliance with the fair access to science and technology research act ( fastr ) , wikimedia foundation , inc . , public library of science , the encyclopedia of life , open book publishers ( obp ) , pubmed , u . s . national library of medicine , national center for biotechnology information , u . s . national library of medicine , national institutes of health ( nih ) , u . s . department of health & human services , and urltoken , which sources content from all federal , state , local , tribal , and territorial government publication portals ( . gov , . mil , . edu ) . funding for urltoken and content contributors is made possible from the u . s . congress , e - government act of 2002 .\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nsearch their arrest records , driving records , contact information , photos and more . . .\ncopyright 2018 peekyou . com . a patent pending people search process . all rights reserved .\nfrom sungai jernih , perlis , northern peninsula malaysia . note its difference from thai varieties offered in the aquarium trade .\nis a very resilient snail . it can lay dormant for more than a month without food . in this stage , it usually buries or half - buries itself in the loose , sandy or muddy substrate .\nwhen food ( meat or snail ) is detected , it prolongs it ' s proboscis ( siphon ) and crawls out to search for its quarry . occasionally , it will also react similarly when there is movement in the water ( especially if it lives in still waters most of the time . )\nit will then wander around to locate the prey . however , it takes a straight path towards the prey if there are no others in the vicinity .\nthe first to reach the prey will grab it with its foot and inserts a thin , fleshy tube ( siphon ) into the snail and suck the animal within the shell .\n( proably excreting digestive enzymes and dissolve the prey alive before consuming it . )\nto finish its meal but that may be because of the miniature size of the prey . for larger size meals like frog carcasses , it might take a day or more to finish the entire body . most of the time , they will abandon their meal when they are full and return back when they ' re ready for the next meal .\nafter some time devouring its prey , other snails will lose interest and gradually retreats back to their hideouts , leaving the lucky snail and its meal alone . at last , when the meal is finished , the predator will crawl back to its own resting spot , leaving empty shells of the prey behind .\nnot surprisingly , buccinids aren ' t the only one which has migrated to freshwater environments in southeast asia . there are also genus\n( thailand ) of pyramidellidae . so , who knows what more lurks in the muddy depths of these tropical rivers and lakes ?\nthe melvill - tomlin collection . parts . 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 . buccinacea ( pyrenidae , buccinidae , galeodidae , nassariidae and fasciolariidae ) .\nmaps of holocene sea level transgression and submerged lakes on the sunda shelf . the natural history journal of chulalongkorn university , supplement 2 : 1 - 44 , august 2006 .\nellen e . strong , oliver gargominy , winston f . ponde , phillippe bouchet , 2008\nglobal diversity of gastropods ( gastropoda ; mollusca ) in freshwater . hydrobiologia ( 2008 ) 595 : 149\u2013166\naccording to the report : ellen e . strong , oliver gargominy , winston f . ponde , phillippe bouchet , 2008 global diversity of gastropods ( gastropoda ; mollusca ) in freshwater . hydrobiologia ( 2008 ) 595 : 149\u2013166 . freshwater buccinids are first recorded in the fossil assemblages of the miocene period ( approximately 23 - 5 million years ago ) .\na young nature - lover aspiring to be a malacologist . inspired by the amazing biodiversity of tropical rainforests and coral reefs ( snails , clams and slugs in particular ) ; intrigued by the fields of paleotology , geology and many other fields that suffix with\n- logy\n; motivated by the never ending discoveries of nature and the ecology within . traveled extensively around southeast asia & beyond . this blog showcases snapshots of my discoveries , explorations , views and admiration of the intricacies in molluscs and nature while on the journey towards achieving my childhood dream .\nlast wednesday i received an email from mike cole of cole ecological , forwarded by our good buddy tim pearce . attached to mike\u2019s message was the jpeg bel . . .\nthe ubin community came together to celebrate singapore ' s last unspoilt island from 26 may ( sat ) to 24 jun ( sun ) 2018 . here ' s a look back at pesta ubin 201 . . .\nthere are a lot of cases where you may need the help of a committed locksmith so it is of utmost importance that you have the contact number of a reliable . . .\nred - legged pademelons ( * thylogale stigmatica * ) are not sociable animals , but they put up with each other . but every now and then , especially towards the en . . .\nto come out again , mr / ms mantis shrimp\u2026 . . and true enough , patience paid off and here\u2019s he / she peeking out of his / her hole ! more of the mantis shrimp and . . .\ntoday is halloween . in my own culture , it is never part of our ' habit ' to celebrate this event . but in my adopted country , this is big ! the children are lo . . .\narticle id : 2013 - 07 - 22 - wetecol * jamilah , ms * & muhammad razali salam coastal biodiversity and conservation research group department of biological scien . . .\nthe 15th meeting of the mid - atlantic malacologists took place yesterday at the delaware museum of natural history ( dmnh ) in wilmington , delaware . i counted . . .\nthe ariophantid * hemiplecta belerang * sp . nov . from south sumatra is described in this paper . it is compared with its closest congeners , from which it is g . . .\nsnakes ! tigers ! lizards ! pangolins ! bears ! calling all wildlife in the forest ! run for your lives ! for the wildlife kingpin is freed - again . . . old habits . . .\ni pick my way along the beach the sky is blue , the tide is out , exposed pools glitter ; down i reach to touch a sea hare on the snout . * \u2013 * ( perhaps it\u2019s not . . .\nborneo is totally smaller than india or australia , but very rich with biodiversity . i am interested on terrestrial snail fauna especially the micro - terres . . .\n19 october 2009 after the not - so - satisfying snorkeling experience at bare island in the morning , i went snorkeling at little bay in the afternoon and had a . . .\nthis is a short article written on coral reef ecosystem for ekomar coffeetable book : ) .\ncoral reef ecosystem is the most diverse ecosystem in the sea . it . . .\ncopyright of jk - siputkuning , 2012 , unless stated or referenced otherwise . picture window theme . powered by blogger ."]}
{"id": 552, "summary": [{"text": "the yellow-vented bulbul ( pycnonotus goiavier ) , or eastern yellow-vented bulbul , is a member of the bulbul family of passerine birds .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is resident breeder in southeastern asia from indochina to the philippines .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it is found in a wide variety of open habitats , but not deep forest .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is one of the most common birds in cultivated areas .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they appear to be nomadic , roaming from place to place regularly . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "yellow - vented bulbul", "paragraphs": ["juvenile yellow - vented bulbul at hindhede nature park . photo credit : francis yap\nenglish : yellow - vented bulbul , dark - capped bulbul , black - eyed bulbul , white - eared bulbul , garden bulbul ; french : bulbul commun , bulbul des jardins ; german : graub\u00fclb\u00fcl ; spanish : bulbul naranjero .\nyellow - vented bulbul ( pycnonotus goiavier ) is a species of bird in the pycnonotidae family .\nenglish : madagascar bulbul , madagascar black bulbul , comoro bulbul , comoro black bulbul ; french : bulbul malgache , bulbul des comores ; german : madagaskarfluchtvogel , rotschnabel - fluchtvogel ; spanish : bulbul negro .\nenglish : ashy bulbul , brown - eared bulbul , chestnut bulbul ; french : bulbul \u00e0 ailes vertes ; german : braunohrb\u00fclb\u00fcl ; spanish : bulbul ahumado .\nenglish : yellow - whiskered bulbul ; french : bulbul \u00e0 moustaches jaunes ; german : gelbbartb\u00fclb\u00fcl ; spanish : bulbul de bigotes amarillos .\nobservations of the behaviour of the yellow - vented bulbul , pycnonotus goiavier ( scopoli ) in two instances of failed nesting .\nthe diet of yellow - vented bulbul ( pycnonotus goiavier ) in durafarm oil palm plantation , sarawak , mal . . .\nenglish : joyful bulbul ; french : bulbul joyeux ; german : dotterb\u00fclb\u00fcl ; spanish : bulbul feliz .\nenglish : crested bulbul , red - eared bulbul ; french : bulbul orph\u00e9e ; german : rotohrb\u00fclb\u00fcl ; spanish : bulbul de bigotes rojos .\nenglish : lesser icterine bulbul ; french : bulbul ict\u00e9rin ; german : zeisigb\u00fclb\u00fcl ; spanish : bulbul icterino .\nenglish : straw - crowned bulbul ; french : bulbul \u00e1 t\u00eate jaune ; german : gelbscheitelb\u00fclb\u00fcl ; spanish : bulbul bigotudo .\nthe first time ck kim had a pair of yellow - vented bulbuls ( pycnonotus goiavier ) nesting in . . .\nfrench : bulbul \u00e0 ventre rouge ; german : russb\u00fclb\u00fcl ; spanish : bulbul ventrirrojo .\nenglish : shelley ' s bulbul ; french : bulbul des monts masukus ; german : shelleyb\u00fclb\u00fcl ; spanish : bulbul de shelley .\nenglish : red - tailed bulbul ; french : bulbul \u00e0 barbe blanche ; german : swainsonb\u00fclb\u00fcl ; spanish : bulbul de cola roja .\nenglish : ashy - fronted bearded bulbul ; french : bulbul flav\u00e9ole ; german : weisskehlb\u00fclb\u00fcl ; spanish : bulbul barbudo de frente ahumado .\nfrench : bulbul d ' arabie ; german : gelbstei\u00dfb\u00fclb\u00fcl ; spanish : bulbul capirotado ; .\nfrench : bulbul crinon oriental ; german : haarb\u00fclb\u00fcl ; spanish : bulbul de lomo verde .\nfrench : bulbul \u00e0 collier noir ; german : r\u00fcttelb\u00fclb\u00fcl ; spanish : bulbul de collar negro .\nfrench : bulbul \u00e0 gorge jaune ; german : gelbkehlnicator ; spanish : bulbul de garganta amarilla .\nthe plain dark - and - white patterns on yellow - vented bulbul and on white - eared bulbul are relieved by conspicuous yellow undertail coverts ( neither is shown in these particular poses ) ; red - whiskered has a prominent red spot ( ear - tuft ) behind the eye . other fairly similar species ( e . g . , red - vented bulbul p . cafer in india , sooty - headed bulbul p . aurigaster in southeast asia ) have bright red undertail coverts .\n\u201cthe yellow - vented bulbul ( pycnonotus goiavier analis ) is a common bird and a delight to watch . been seeing numerous nests in recent weeks and occasionally had an opportunity to watch feeding behaviour .\non 14th june 2008 , a pair of yellow - vented bulbul ( pycnonotus goiavier ) suddenly arrived in my garden and perched on the branches of a tree . the vocalisation of the pair was unfamiliar .\nheather goessel\u2019s image of the yellow - vented bulbul below shows the bird eating the flowers of the starfruit ( averrhoa carambola ) . according to heather this bulbul loves the starfruit flowers and appears several times a day to snack on them . obviously the \u2026 continued\n5 . 5 in ( 14 cm ) ; 0 . 88 oz ( 25 g ) . upperparts dark green , head tinged gray . short yellow stripe above the eye , bordered on top with a black line , cheeks grayish . yellow throat , undertail greenish yellow , yellow tip on tail . conspicuous yellow wing spots . sexes alike . juvenile resembles adult , but greener fore - head and less yellow on throat .\nthe black bulbul ( hypsipetes leucocephalus ) , also known as the himalayan black bulbul or asian black bulbul , is a member of the bulbul family of passerine birds . it is found in southern asia from india east to southern china .\nphotos \u00a9 don roberson , except the yellow - wattled bulbul \u00a9 blake t . matheson and used with permission ; all rights reserved .\nthe yellow - vented bulbul is one of the most familiar birds in the parks and gardens . it can often be seen feeding on small flowering shrubs such as the sendudok ( melastoma malabaricum ) and simpoh air ( dillenia suffructicosa ) .\nhypsipetes flavala blyth , 1845 . some authors consider races of chestnut bulbul ( hemixos castanonotus ) as races of the ashy bulbul .\n138 - yellow - billed chough pyrrhocorax graculus ( resident in the valley ) .\nislam , k . , and r . n . williams .\nred - vented bulbul ( pycnonotus cafer ) , red - whiskered bulbul ( pycnonotus jocosus ) .\nin the birds of north america . 520 ( 2000 ) .\nenglish : finch - billed bulbul ; french : bulbul \u00e1 gros bec ; german : fimkenb\u00fclb\u00fcl ; spanish : pico de pinz\u00f3n copet\u00f3n .\nwhenever i am in my garden and hear this somewhat gurgling call , i know that the yellow - vented bulbuls ( pycnonotus goiavier ) are nesting in a tree nearby ( video above ) . the bulbul would initially be somewhere among the branches of the wayside \u2026 continued\nbirds in the park are - - himalayan griffon vulture , laggar falcon , peregrine falcon , kestrel , indian sparrow hawk , egyptian vulture , white cheeked bulbul , yellow vented bulbul , paradise flycatcher , black partridge , cheer pheasant , khalij pheasant , golden oriole , spotted dove , collared dove , larks , shrikes , wheatears and buntings .\nolive - yellow patch on wings . sexes alike . juvenile similar , but browner upperparts .\nfrom\nblack - crested bulbul\nto\nblack - capped bulbul , with split of multiple species . ( rasmussen & anderton 2005 , fishpool & tobias 2005 )\nmoments with a ' himalayan black bulbul ' . . . explored ! by rohit .\na pair of yellow - vented bulbuls ( pycnonotus goiavier ) built their nest in a hanging pot of orchid . the birds were extremely shy so it was difficult to capture their activities on camera . feeding behavior indicated that there were hungry chicks in \u2026 continued\n7 . 8 in ( 20 cm ) ; 1 . 5\u20131 . 9 oz ( 43\u201355 g ) . one of the most brightly colored bulbuls , yellow - green upperparts , bright yellow chin and throat , golden - green underparts . olive tail edged with yellow . sexes alike . juvenile washed - out brown , greenish under - parts .\nthe characteristic distraction call of the yellow - vented bulbuls ( pycnonotus goiavier ) in my garden has been going on for more than a week now link . the eggs must have hatched as the adults were seen bringing food to the nest ( above , \u2026 continued\nas only my second ever species of bulbul , the yellow - vented came as a bit of a contrast to the brown - eared ones of japan . while certainly one of the top ten most common birds i saw on the trip , it wasn ' t ubiquitous in the same way the brown - eared is and certainly considerably quieter . unlike in japan though , there are a number of species of bulbul present which makes identification slightly more effort , especially as there are a few similar looking species - the yellow rump but otherwise fairly drab colouration is distinctive here .\n\u201ci have shared on birds feeding on the nectar of the african tulip tree ( spathodea campanulata ) in the past link . \u201cthe brown - throated sunbirds and yellow vented bulbuls ( pycnonotus goiavier analis ) are regulars . but i have also seen little spiderhunters ( arachnothera \u2026 continued\n\u201csome time ago i posted on my long standing observations of the difference in social behaviour / organisation of yellow - vented bulbuls ( pycnonotus goiavier analis ) that dwell in cities and those in \u2018rural\u2019 environment . see : here . \u201cwells 2007 states that \u2018typical day - time social \u2026 continued\n62 - himalayan bulbul pycnonotus leucoenys ( regularly encountered throughput the year in lower reached of palas ) .\nthis bulbul eat insects and other small invertebrates , and berries , fruits , seeds , buds and nectar .\nthe yellow - vented bulbul is one of the more common resident birds in singapore . found in most habitats except dense forest , it is now slowly getting less common in urban areas . a rather dull bird , the splash of yellow undertail coverts brings some colour to its brown plumage . its rich bubbling song is often heard in the early morning and late evening in urban gardens and parks , the bulbul builds its cup - shaped nest in the most surprising locations , often close to human habitation - garden shrubs , potted plants , artificial plants and baskets hung in garages and balconies . it does not recycle its nest or reuse the old materials .\nenglish : leaflove ; french : bulbul \u00e0 queue rousse ; german : uferb\u00fclb\u00fcl ; spanish : amante de hojas .\nthe himalayan bulbul ( pycnonotus leucogenys ) , or white - cheeked bulbul , is a species of songbird in the bulbul family found in central asia . the himalayan bulbul is about 18 cm in length , with a wingspan of 25 . 5 - 28 cm and an average weight of 30 g . its head , throat , and crest are black and white . the back , side , and lengthy tail are brown , the underside is pale yellow . sexes have similar plumage . the song is a beautiful 4 - piece whistle , which resembles an accelerated oriole whistle . ( from wikipedia )\nfishpool , l . , tobias , j . & de juana , e . ( 2018 ) . yellow - vented bulbul ( pycnonotus goiavier ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nidentification : adult has brown upperparts , dark crown and loral stripe , broad white supercilium , white throat , whitish underparts with vague streaks and yellow vent .\n11 . 5 in ( 29 cm ) . large bulbul with orange - yellow crown and cheek , white throat lined with black on top , and large bill . whitish belly and orange rump , olive - green back and wings . sexes alike . juvenile duller with brownish head .\n8 . 6 in ( 22 cm ) . large , olive - green bulbul with prominent blackish crest and stout , pale - yellow , finchlike bill . gray fore - head , blackish throat , broad blackish green tail . sexes alike . juvenile resembles adult , but browner head and throat .\nbrosset , a .\nthe social life of the african forest yellow - whiskered greenbull andropadus latirostris .\nz . tierpsychol . 60 ( 1981 ) : 239\u2013255 .\nbulbuls ( p . cafer ) , were introduced to the hawaiian island of o ' ahu in the late 1960s . populations of both birds have dramatically increased . red - vented bulbuls are now found across the island , while the red - whiskered bulbul is found throughout southeastern areas . these birds are considered serious pests and threats to native bird populations .\nthe rare blue - wattled bulbul may be a hybrid ( williams 2002 ) , but more evidence needed ( dickinson and dekker 2002 ) .\n156 - black and yellow grosbeak mycerobas icterioides ( the most common grosbeak recorded in the valley , occasionally observed as a winter resident as well as breeding in the valley ) .\n5 . 9 in ( 15 cm ) ; 0 . 5\u20130 . 8 oz ( 15\u201325 g ) . top of head and upper - parts olive green , uppertail rusty , rump feathers long and fluffy . chin and throat sulfur yellow , breast and belly yellow washed with green . reddish tail . sexes alike . juvenile resembles adult but upperparts greener and washed brownish breast and throat .\nbulbuls can be quite aggressive towards members of their own species , and other species as well . some , such as the puff - throated bulbul ( criniger pallidus ) and the mountain bulbul ( hypsipetes mcclellandii ) will aggressively mob birds of prey . if the face - off is against a bulbul of the same species , the threat display may be different than against other birds . among pycnonotus , there are roughly three to seven threat displays . these include tail - flicking , tail - spreading , crest - raising , undertail - covert spreading , wing - flicking - and - spreading , and crouch display ( the latter may also be an appeasement display ) . the red - vented bulbul has been observed attacking birds by poking with its bill . the red - tailed greenbul ( criniger calurus ) and other criniger bulbuls will puff out their fluffy beard - like throat feathers , both as a preening gesture and as an aggressive display .\nthis bulbul is found in broad - leaved forests , cultivation and gardens mainly in hilly areas , but himalayan populations are known to sometimes descend into the adjoining plains in winter .\n7 . 5\u20138 . 3 in ( 19\u201321 cm ) ; 1 . 3\u20131 . 5 oz ( 38\u201345 g ) . large bulbul ; breast and head gray , few black bristles on hindneck and mantle . mantle , rump , and wings yellow - green olive . tail bright rust - maroon . chin and throat white , appears puffy and beard - like , creamy belly . sexes alike . juvenile resembles adult .\nzuccon , d . , and p . g . p . ericson . 2010 . the phylogenetic position of the black - collared bulbul neolestes torquatus . ibis 152 : 386 - 392 .\n19\u201320\u00b75 cm ; 24\u201337 g . medium - sized , noisy , conspicuous bulbul with stubby , erectile crest . nominate race has broad supercilium , crown side , cheeks and throat white . . .\nhimalayan bulbul length is about 18 cm , wingspan of 25 . 5 to 28 cm and the weight of an average of about 30 g . bird ' s head , throat , and crest are black and white . the back side , and a lengthy tail are brown , the underside and pale yellow . both sexes have the same color . the song is a beautiful 4 - piece whistle , which resembles an accelerated oriole whistle .\nalthough most bulbuls prefer areas with lots of green vegetation , a small number are found in drier scrub habitats , especially pycnonotus . the african red - eyed bulbul ( pycnonotus nigricans ) occupies drier areas , including savanna , semiarid scrub , and bushy hillsides . the northern brownbul ( phyllastrephus strepitans ) also prefers scrub , and is often the only bulbul present in the driest parts of its range .\nit was recently learned , however , that the enigmatic black - collared bulbul neolestes torquatus of central africa \u2014 which some had proposed might be a shrike \u2014 is in fact within the bulbul lineage ( zuccon & ericson 2010 ) . its origin goes back to the base of that lineage , and there is more to learn about its affinities , but it is not a shrike and is , for now , a bulbul . on the other hand , five species of assumed\ngreenbuls\nin madagascar , now known as tetrakas ( genus bernieria , xanthornixis ) , are in a new family , the bernieridae .\na black bulbul ( hypsipetes leucocephalus ) was inspecting the right choice fruits for the taking under afternoon sunshine from a twig . the sweet colour tones of the bird specially the beak was just looking gorgeous against that beautiful yellow - green bokeh backdrop . i liked the way the bird posed with the leaves standing in symmetry with perfect distances . it seems like a painting with sweet lighting . pics was taken from great himalayan national park under tirthan range , himachal pradesh , india .\n8 . 6 in ( 22 cm ) . brownish crest , back olive - brown , lemon - yellow breast and belly , white fluffy throat . wings and tail have rusty tinge . sexes alike . juvenile resembles adult but crest not as prominent and browner belly .\nmy macarthur palm ( ptychosperma macarthurii ) is fruiting again . i only noticed it during the late evening of 5th march 2018 . the palm was bearing long bunches of ripening yellow and orange fruits ( below ) . on that evening , i only managed to \u2026 continued\nthere are at least 50 species of african greenbuls in the\nafrican clade\nthat evolved in sub saharan africa . most are hard - to - see forest birds . some are canopy species , such as slender - billed greenbul ( left ) , but others are undergrowth skulkers and some bear names like brownbuls or bristlebills . some join mixed species flocks , including the brown - bodied gray - capped leaf - love phyllastrephus scandens , and the very green - and - yellow yellow - bellied greenbul ( below ) . many are birds of lowland forests , including leaf - love and yellow - bellied greenbul , but there is a set of montane species also ( roy 1997 ) . johansson et al . ( 2007 ) proposed a new phylogeny for the african greenbuls , dramatically shifting the species sequence into 13 genera .\napparently monogamous ; holds same breeding territory for several years . nest often exposed , two grayish eggs spotted with yellow , red , and gray ; spots form\ncap\non end . incubation by female , while male stays nearby and sings . young fed by both parents .\nsadly , the species with the most celebrated song , the straw - headed bulbul ( pycnonotus zeylanicus ) is now threatened as a result of being highly prized and traded for its voice . described as\na prolonged series of magnificently warbled notes , richer and more powerful by far than the songs of such celebrated performers as the nightingale and the blackbird ,\nthe song of the straw - headed bulbul is by no means typical of the pycnonotidae .\ntypically found singly or in pairs , may forage in larger groups . unusually silent for a bulbul , has soft song of\nchip , wa - da - tee , chee - tu , ti - wew .\nnonmigratory .\nonly the atriceps race of black - headed bulbul pycnonotus atriceps ( left ) is not well - differentiated from bornean populations , as it is from the most recent invasion . but whether borneo - palawan populations of black - headed bulbul should be split from mainland asian populations is not yet known . given the general molecular diversity between island populations and the asian mainland , i suspect that there will be evidence to support another split sometime ' down the road . '\nthis bulbul is found in broad - leaved forests , cultivation and gardens mainly in hilly areas , but himalayan populations are known to sometimes descend into the adjoining plains in winter . the western ghats birds may make movements related to rain .\n7 . 4 in ( 19 cm ) , 1 . 2\u20131 . 6 oz ( 35\u201346 g ) . black head with white eye - ring . brownish underparts , white in center of belly . conspicuous yellow undertail ( vent ) . sexes alike . juvenile resembles adult , but head brown .\nalthough bulbuls are a morphologically and ecologically homogenous group , they evolved into two lineages eons ago : an asian clade and an african clade ( pasquet et al . 2001 , moyle & marks 2006 ) . it makes logical sense to call those in the asian clade\nbulbuls ,\nand those in the african clade\ngreenbuls\n( johansson et al . 2007 ) . the brown - breasted bulbul of china ( right ) is a pycnonotus bulbul within that asian clade , but so is the black - fronted bulbul of southern africa shown above . rather , the asian clade arose in asia and then expanded westward , bring some\nasian bulbuls\nto africa , where there are now three common species of pycnonotus . bulbuls in the asian clade are often gray and white , or brown and white \u2014 as is brown - breasted bulbul \u2014 while the vast majority of the\ngreenbuls\nin africa are primarily green or olive in color .\ndowsett , r . j . , s . l . olson , m . s . roy , and f . dowsett - lemaire .\nsystematic status of the black - collared bulbul neolestes torquatus .\nibis 141 ( 1999 ) : 22\u201328 .\nin 1960 a population of red - whiskered bulbuls ( pycnonotus jocosus ) became established in florida when a few birds escaped while being transported from one aviary to another . this population had increased to 500 birds by 1973 , at which time it was still expanding in a southerly direction . redwhiskered bulbuls also became established in los angeles county , california , in 1968 . both the red - whiskered and red - vented\nthe black bulbul is 24\u201325 cm in length , with a long tail . the body plumage ranges from slate grey to shimmering black , depending on the race . the beak , legs , and feet are all red and the head has a black fluffy crest .\n7 . 1 in ( 18 cm ) ; 0 . 7\u20131 . 2 oz ( 22\u201335 g ) . head and hindneck olive brown , long black bristles on hindneck . bright yellow under - parts contrast with olive flanks . white conspicuous\nbeard ,\noften puffed out . sexes alike . juvenile resembles adult but is dull cinnamon on wings .\nseveral bulbuls show a preference for water and are found alongside rivers and forest streams . the gray - olive bulbul ( phyllastrephus cerviniventris ) is one such bird . infrequently entering the forest , this smallish bulbul frequently inhabits streamside thickets . primarily an insect eater in zambia , it is especially fond of feeding on logs that have fallen across streams or ravines . the swamp greenbul ( thescelocichla leucopleura ) and the leaf - love ( pyrrhurus scandens ) are also partial to water , both prefer swampy areas with luxuriant vegetation and palm trees , especially raphia and the oil palm elaeis .\n6 . 3\u20137 . 5 in ( 16\u201319 cm ) ; 0 . 6\u20131 . 1 oz ( 19\u201332 g ) . upperparts and head sooty olive , rump with rufous tinge , back and wings brownish , tail dark reddish brown . bright yellow moustache stripes on sides of throat . sexes alike . juvenile resembles adult , but more dingy brown , no moustache .\n6 . 3 in ( 16 cm ) , 0 . 7\u20131 oz ( 19\u201327 g ) . distinctive , forehead to hindneck gray , black mask continues down neck to form a broad black band across the white breast . back and tail olive - greenish brown , wings with yellow stripe . sexes alike . juvenile resembles adult but duller , crown and neck greenish .\nhimalayan bulbul habitat are at the and forests , and in the rich shrub layer . he also appear gardens and roadsides . sometimes you can also find him in the gardens and parks where human visitors , who would leave food . this invites flies and other insects that are its main food .\n3 . 6\u20134 . 2 in ( 93\u2013107 mm ) , 0 . 8\u20132 . 1 oz ( 23\u201360 g ) . thrush - sized with dark , slightly crested head , dark eye - ring and black bill . grayish brown upperparts and breast , white belly and white or yellow undertail . sexes alike , female slightly smaller . juvenile duller than adult with rusty tones .\nthe author has tried to study the food and feeding habits of bulbul . good . however , the classification of prey items is confusing . because the order hemiptera is divided into two sub divisions such as homoptera and heteroptera . hence when you are discussing about homoptera , you can not say again as hemiptera .\n5 . 9 in ( 15 cm ) ; 1 . 1\u20131 . 9 oz ( 33\u201353 g ) . gray head , back gray - olive , bright , rusty tail , feathers of tail and rump fluffy . some black bristles on nape of neck and near bill . belly creamy whitish yellow . sexes alike . juvenile mostly olive - gray with rusty wash , chin and underparts white , undertail pale rust .\nred - vented bulbuls feed on fruits , petals of flowers , nectar , insects and occasionally geckos . they build their nests in bushes at a height of around 2\u20133 m ( 6 . 6\u20139 . 8 ft ) two or three eggs is a typical clutch . nests are occasionally built inside houses or in a hole in a mud bank . in one instance , a nest was found on a floating mat of water hyacinth leaves and another observer noted a pair nesting inside a regularly used bus . nests in tree cavities have also been noted .\nmammals in the park include - - asiatic leopard ( t ) , wild boar ( c ) , golden jackal ( c ) , rhesus macaque ( v ) , leopard cat ( r ) , gray goral sheep ( v ) , barking deer ( v ) , chinkara gazelle ( r ) , red fox ( c ) , pangolin ( r ) , porcupine ( c ) , yellow throated marten ( r ) and fruit bats ( c ) .\nmost insect - eating bulbuls forage on and among vegetation , but will also sally for insects in the air and hunt along the ground on fallen logs and branches . many favor caterpillars and dragonflies , and several species have been found attending swarms of army ants . the yellow - bellied greenbul ( chlorocichla flaviventris ) frequently forages on antelopes , landing on the animal and grooming its head , ears , and even eyes , presumably searching for small insects in the antelope ' s coat .\nthe straw - headed bulbul ( pycnonotus zeylanicus ) is now threatened as a result of being highly prized for its voice and hence traded as a caged bird . listed on appendix ii of cites , some measures have been taken to protect this bird , but it is still widely traded , and captive - breeding programs are subject to theft . habitat protection might also help as long as areas are guarded .\nthe outward radiation of asian bulbuls includes the dispersal of bulbuls to islands in the indian ocean . one of those is madagascar bulbul ( right ) , which is a sooty color with a black cap and red bill . endemic bulbuls on madagascar , the seychelles ( hypsipetes crassirostris ) , r\u00e9union ( h . borbonicus ) , mauritius ( h . olivaceus ) and the comoros ( h . parvirostris ; probably two species here ) are all most closely related to other sooty bulbuls in india and asia . although the indian ocean islands are much closer to africa today than they are to india , all appear to be evolved from asian ancestors ( warren et al . 2005 ) . all are fairly similar , differing in eye color ( the reunion bulbul is white - eyed ) or belly color , and in vocalizations .\nmost bulbuls are found in pairs , or in small groups that tend to be family parties and often include juveniles . mostly monogamous and territorial , except for the yellow - whiskered greenbul ( pycnonotus latirostris ) , a lekking species , some bulbuls will form groups that defend a large home range together . both the leaf - love and the swamp greenbul will gather and chorus to defend communal territory . in the case of the swamp greenbul , the loud vocalizations are accompanied by displays of spread wings and tail .\nmany other species occur in abundance , including : rhesus macaque red fox , jackal , himalayan ibex , grey goral , stone marten , yellow - throated pine - marten , stoat , white - footed weasel , weasel , small kashmir flying squirrel , giant - red flying - squirrel , royle\u2019s pika , indian crested porcupine , long - tailed marmot , black rat , turkestan rat , house mouse , wood mouse , birch mouse , burrowing vole and shrew , vole and at least two species of bat pipistrellus .\nthe himalayan bulbul ( pycnonotus leucogenys ) is a species of songbird in the pycnonotidae family . if they are mixed with humans from a young age , they will become friendly to humans . it is found in the northern regions of the indian subcontinent as well as some adjoining areas . it is found in afghanistan , bhutan , india , nepal , pakistan and tajikistan . it is the national bird of bahrain .\nthe majority of the pycnonotidae are nonmigratory , either sedentary or only locally nomadic . banding and recapture records from asia indicate that some bulbuls remain in the same few hundred yard area for several years . a handful of the cooler - climate , temperate - zone species , such as the black bulbul ( hypsipetes madagascariensis ) , are partly migratory . flocks of several hundred of these birds move to southern china in winter .\nthis bulbul is preparing a small cup - shaped nest , made of herbs , roots and twigs . the nest is usually built in the bush or low tree branch . the female lays usually three eggs , which are incubated for 12 days . the chicks leave the nest 9\u201311 days old . flips are evaluated as two or three during the summer . during the breeding of this bird is very combative towards other birds\nthis bulbul is preparing a small cup - shaped nest , made of herbs , roots and twigs . the nest is usually built in the bush or low tree branch . the female lays usually three eggs , which are incubated for 12 days . the chicks leave the nest 9\u201311 days old . flips are evaluated as two or three during the summer . during the breeding of this bird is very combative towards other birds .\nthe taxonomy is complex with this and several other currently recognized species earlier treated as subspecies of hypsipetes madagascariensis . within asia , ganeesa has often been considered as a subspecies of h . leucocephalus , but is here treated as a separate species restricted to the western ghats ( south of somewhere near bombay ) and sri lanka , the square - tailed black bulbul . the subspecies from sri lanka humii is then placed under this species .\nforest , open woodland , gardens , and cultivated areas all constitute bulbul habitat . essentially arboreal birds , the majority of pycnonotids live in or next to forested areas , but many are well adapted to human - made habitats . many bulbuls show a preference for a particular level of the forest canopy . so as long as there is enough fruit and insects , a relatively small area of forest may support a large number of birds .\nthe taxonomy is complex with this and several other currently recognized species earlier treated as subspecies of hypsipetes madagascariensis . within asia , h . ganeesa has often been listed as a subspecies of h . leucocephalus , but is increasingly treated as a separate species restricted to the western ghats ( south of somewhere near bombay ) and sri lanka , the square - tailed black bulbul . the subspecies from sri lanka humii is then placed under this species .\nthe black bulbul is 24\u201325 cm in length , with a long tail . the body plumage ranges from slate grey to shimmering black , depending on the race . the beak , legs , and feet are all red and the head has a black fluffy crest . sexes are similar in plumage , but young birds lack the crest , have whitish underparts with a grey breast band , and have a brown tint to the upperparts . they have a black streak behind the eye and on the ear coverts .\nthe black bulbul is 24\u201325 cm in length , with a long tail . the body plumage ranges from slate grey to shimmering black , depending on the race . the beak , legs , and feet are all orange and the head has a black fluffy crest . sexes are similar in plumage , but young birds lack the crest , have whitish underparts with a grey breast band , and have a brown tint to the upperparts . they have a black streak behind the eye and on the ear coverts .\nsome bulbuls are common and easily seen , making them very familiar to old world birders in either asia or africa . an african example is black - fronted bulbul ( left ) , widespread in southern africa . it is in the genus pycnonotus , which has more than 40 species spread from south africa to japan . it is curious and conspicuous and , like most bulbuls , is a generalist forager . it is equally adept at eating insect and small vertebrates as it is in finding fruit , berries , or pollen .\nalso controversial is the placement of two of the endemic african genera neolestes and nicator . the striking plumage of the black - collared bulbul ( neolestes torquatus ) allies it with the shrikes ( malaconotidae , laniidae , or prionopidae ) , dna data ally it with other bulbuls . similarly , nicator has also been allied with the shrikes , but feather protein and dna evidence suggest the birds are bulbuls . because the three nicator species and neolestes lack a thin sheet of nostril - covering bone that is present in the rest of the bulbuls , they are sometimes placed elsewhere .\ntaxonomy aside , bulbuls are an interesting component of the old world avifauna . many are skulkers in lowland forests . others , such as mountain bulbul ( left , in china ) are found only in the highlands . many others , as we have seen , are island endemics . although almost all bulbuls are now considered\nresident ,\nthey have obviously shown the potential to evolve and to disperse over long distances , including over substantial oceanic barriers . the sheer number of species is staggering and can be daunting for the traveling birder . and we are just now finding out that we know very little about them at all .\nthe bulbul diet spans the range of fruits and berries to insects and other arthropods , as well as small vertebrates such as frogs , snakes , and lizards . a few eat nectar and pollen . the jaw apparatus of pycnonotids is rather generalized compared to other passeriform birds , and while some pycnonotids eat mainly fruit or insects , most can and do have a mixed diet . this flexibility may be critical during the dry season : since most bulbuls are non - migratory , they must take advantage of the food sources available within in their range , which can mean shifting to feeding on more plant matter when insects are not as abundant .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nioc _ names _ file _ plus - 8 . 2g : 8 . 2\nis a recently described species ( woxvold et al . 2009 ) . it is sister to\nis in prevailing usage . based on\nturdo\u00efde de gourdin\nof homblon & jacquinot , 1844 referenced in gray , 1847 . see mayr & greenway , 1960 ( peters checklist , ix )\nnigeria to s sudan , w kenya . s drcongo , nw zambia and n angola\nnow considered to be a plumage variant of icterine greenbul ( collinson et al . 2017 )\nrwenzori mts , itombwe and mt . kabobo ( e drcongo ) , w uganda , w rwanda and n burundi\nmontane tiny greenbul is split from { lowland ] tiny greenbul [ fuchs et al . 2011a ]\nbased on genetic studies . but genetic divergence may support species status . manawatthana et al . 2017\nas a junior synonym . fishpool & tobias , 2005 . the population from sabah is vocally and genetically distinct and likely represents an unnamed taxon . the subspecies epithet\n( type speciemen from e kalimantan ) has been erroneously applied to this population . eaton et al 2016 , rheindt in . litt . ( see manawatthana et al . 2017 ) .\nkuroda , 1922 as a synonym . permanently invalid . dickinson & christidis , 2014 .\ndalupiri , calayan and fuga is . ( n of luzon in n philippines )\nis a member of the afrotropical clade of bulbuls ( pycnonotidae ( johansson et al . 2008 , zuccon & ericson 2010 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as common throughout its range and abundant in lowland and mid - altitude areas of borneo ( del hoyo et al . 2005 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be increasing rapidly as this species benefits from deforestation and the creation of artificial habitats ( del hoyo et al . 2005 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nse asian\u2013sundaic subspecies and philippine subspecies form two distinct groups on basis of genetic studies # r # r , which reveal deep mtdna divergence , combined with clear differences in dawn song # r ; may be better treated as two separate species , but further study needed . proposed race personatus ( sumatra ) indistinguishable from analis ; similarly , karimuniensis ( karimunjawa i , n of java ) merged with gourdini . spelling gourdini is a justified emendation of original yourdini . six subspecies provisionally recognized .\ndeignan , 1955 \u2013 s myanmar ( tenasserim s from 12 . 5\u00b0 n ) , c & s thailand , laos ( expanding n along the mekong and its major tributaries\n\u2013 peninsular malaysia , sumatra ( including riau and lingga archipelagos , bangka , belitung ) , java ( including kangean is ) , bali , lombok and sumbawa .\ng . r . gray , 1847 \u2013 borneo ( including maratua i , off e coast ) and karimunjawa i ( n of java ) .\n\u2013 n & c philippines from luzon , polillo is and mindoro s , including most smaller islands , to panay , guimaras , negros and masbate .\nrand & rabor , 1960 \u2013 c philippines ( ticao , samar , biliran , buad , cebu , olango , camotes , leyte , bohol ) .\nmearns , 1909 \u2013 s philippines , from dinagat , nipa and camiguin sur s to mindanao ( including several offshire islets ) , basilan and sulu archipelago ( east bolod and west bolod s to sanga - sanga and bongao ) .\nintroduced in s sulawesi around ujung pandang ( analis ) and , recently , on buton i ( presumed same race ) .\nsong a choppy musical stream of notes , varied and difficult to transcribe . dawn song relatively . . .\ncoastal scrub , pioneer sea - dune scrub , semi - open banks and shoals of large rivers , scattered bushes . . .\nan opportunist and generalist , with very broad foraging niche . diet primarily fruits , also seeds and nectar ; also large quantities of . . .\ndec\u2013oct ; nests found in all months in tropical regions ; multi - brooded . nest a deep cup , typically of dry grass stems and blades , . . .\nresident , subject to some dispersive movements . non - breeding aggregations form , including large . . .\nnot globally threatened . common in se asia ; first recorded in c laos , along r mekong , in 1966 , and has since then rapidly spread north , along r mekong and some major . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\ng . r . gray , the author of this name ( gen . birds 1 p . [ 237 ] ) spells this\nthe basis for and validity of the altered spelling\ngourdini\n, as employed here and elsewhere , is unknown to me .\nthe original description in this case amounts merely to gray ' s introduction of the name , as\np . yourdini\n, together with his reference to hombron & jacquinot ( voyage au pole sud et dans l ' oc\u00e9anie sur les corvettes l ' astrolabe et la z\u00e9l\u00e9e : pendant les ann\u00e9es 1837\u20131838\u20131839\u20131840 . plate 14 , fig 1 of their atlas ) .\nas gray ' s name lacks any sort of description , it would be unavailable but for art . 12 . 2 . 7 , which for names published before 1931 permits their availability if presented\n. . . in association with an illustration . . . or with a bibliographic reference to such an illustration . . .\n( art . 12 . 2 . 7 ) . gray does indeed refer to such an illustration , namely the one noted above , where the figure is labelled :\nthe plate therefore becomes an intrinsic part of the od , as it is required in order to enable availability .\nour opinion is that the use of the spelling\ngourdin\non the plate , with an indisputable link to the species , amounts to\n. . . clear evidence of an inadvertent error . . .\nand as such requires that the spelling be corrected ( art . 32 . 5 . 1 ) . thus we agree with peters ( 9 : 247 ) in using the emended form . the use of\nyourdini\nin cbbm 6 : 140 does not come into play , as it unquestionably forms no part of the od .\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nas currently constituted probably polyphyletic ; in - depth analysis of morphology , voice , behaviour and genetics required to redefine its limits . in past , included numerous other genera .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nan individual in a tree , preening , eating insects in spiderwebs , and flying away .\nthis is one of the more common bulbuls on bali and i found it nesting in the garden of the palm garden hotel in sanur .\njosep del hoyo , philip griffin , pieter de groot boersma , green3birdy , juan sanabria , mkennewell , nick talbot , keith blomerley , desmond allen , rusli , joe angseesing , yo\u00ebl jimenez .\nlukasz michal pulawski , marcos wei , lmarce , gerrit alink , luke matam , bent . ronsholdt , paul van giersbergen , brunojadurand , bluesrock , nick talbot , ian barker , gerard visser , ken havard , arodris , marco valentini , jacob . wijpkema , djop tabaranza , guy poisson , sammy paran , lars petersson , tomas grim , manakincarmelo , mehdhalaouate , subirshakya , chairunas adha putra , pablopg , billonneau jean claude , nimali digo and thilanka edirisinghe , christophe gouraud , khaleb yordan , fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric pelsy , dannie polley , lousca , william ip , bruce ramsay , colintrainor , rose69 , holger teichmann .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : pycnonotus goiavier . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nthis species ranges from indochina , thailand , peninsular malaysia , singapore to sumatra , borneo , java , bali , lombok and the philippines .\nwhen not foraging , it spends most of the time in comfort behaviour like bathing , followed by preening .\nthe call has been documented on video : adult here and juvenile here . .\nthe nest is a cup - shaped structure of plant materials , sometimes incorporated with used used plastic bag and tissue paper .\nan adult was found entangled in a large spider ' s web but after much struggling , managed to free itself . a chick fell or was pushed from its nest and rescued - see here . it was cared for until fully recovered - see here .\n4 . insects that include ants , alate termites , grasshoppers , beetles , caterpliiars , etc . much of these are taken from the air , especially alate ants and termites ,\nsnatched by rocketing up vertically from an exposed perch into swarms passing overhead\u2026\u201d according to wells ( 2007 ) .\nbreeds all year round . the nest is cup - shaped , composing of dried plant matter like leaves , slender stems of creepers , fibres , twigs and even tissue paper . the clutch of 2 - 4 eggs takes 12 - 13 days to hatch and the chicks need 10 - 14 days to fledge . both adults help in incubating , leaving the nest regularly during the day to forage for food . only at night will one adult broods the chicks throughout the night . the first - hatched chick in a brood of two may indulge in sibilicide , kicking the younger out of the nest ( wee , 2003 ) . the fledglings are cared by both adults . although able to feed independently after four days or more , the adults remain caring for them for about a month ,\nraffles museum of biodiversity research rmbr has its origins in the raffles museum which was founded in 1849 . established on\u2026\ndeveloped by moving mouse \u00a9 2018 lee kong chian natural history museum . all rights reserved . terms of use .\nit was recorded early in the morning . unfortunately , i was not able to get the image .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nblack bulbuls feed mainly on seeds and insects , and they are often seen in small groups , either roosting or flying about in search of food . they are particularly fond of berries . they are known to feed on a wide range of berries including celtis , rosa , melia and ehretia in the himalayas . the feed on the nectar of salmalia , erythrina , rhododendron and other species . they make aerial sallies for insects . they can be quite noisy , making various loud cheeping , mewing and grating calls . the himalayan form has been reported to make a call resembling a goat kid , throwing back its neck when calling .\nit builds its nest in a tree or bush ; the nest is a cup placed in a fork and made from grasses , dry leaves , mosses , lichens and cobwebs . the lining is made up of ferns , rootlets and other soft material . both sexes participate in nest construction . two or three eggs form the usual clutch . in southern india , nesting activity begins from february and rises to a peak in may . the eggs hatch after an incubation period of 12 to 13 days and the chicks fledge after about 11 or 12 days . nest predators include birds of prey ( black - winged kite ) , snakes ( ptyas mucosus ) . adults of h . ganeesa have been known to be preyed on by the crested goshawk .\nthis article uses material from the wikipedia released under the creative commons attribution - share - alike licence 3 . 0 . please see license details for photos in photo by - lines ."]}
{"id": 558, "summary": [{"text": "invasor ( foaled august 3 , 2002 ) is a thoroughbred racehorse bred in argentina by haras clausan ( haras santa ines ) .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "the winner of the 2005 triple crown in uruguay , he was later purchased by sheik hamdan bin rashid al maktoum , who paid approximately us$ 1.4 million for the horse .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "his two biggest wins were the 2006 breeders ' cup classic , in which he defeated heavily favored bernardini and highly fancied lava man , and the 2007 dubai world cup , the world 's richest horse race .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he finished racing with a record of eleven wins in twelve starts and career earnings of $ 7,804,070 .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was voted the eclipse award for american horse of the year and led the year-end world thoroughbred racehorse rankings in 2006 .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in 2013 he was inducted into the national museum of racing and hall of fame in saratoga springs , new york . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "invasor ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["discreet cat is the only horse to have defeated invasor , finishing seven lengths ahead in the uae derby last march . invasor was fourth .\ninvasor wins the 2007 dubai world cup . ( trevor jones / blood - horse library )\ninvasor wins the 2006 breeders ' cup classic . ( alexander barkoff / blood - horse library )\nthe word\ninvasor\nfor his 2006 horse of the year is stitched in white lettering .\ntopics : barb clark , cobra , horse breed , horse breed profiles , horse breeds , p . r . e , p . r . e horses , pura raza espa\u00f1ola , pura raza espa\u00f1ola horse breed , pure spanish horse , pure spanish horse breed , pure spanish horses , spain , the foundation for the pure spanish horse\nhorse of the year and champion older horse invasor will stand at uruguay ' s haras cuatro piedras for three years , beginning with the 2015 southern hemisphere season .\ninvasor is the first thoroughbred to have won horse of the year honors in both the northern and southern hemispheres .\nthe horse illustrated article goes on to explain ( somewhat contradictory if the two horses are supposed to be a single breed ) how the lusitano developed from bullfighting and the spanish horse developed from a driving horse and a horse of beauty .\nboth argentinians and uruguayans saluted invasor as the \u201chorse of the rio plata\u201d ( the river that forms the border between argentina and uruguay ) .\nthe same three had captured the belmont stakes with a colt named jazil . now they probably have the horse of the year in invasor .\ninvasor , the 2006 horse of the year , will arrive in uruguay in time for the start of the southern hemisphere breeding season in august .\noriginal blog post : great galloper invasor and fondly remembered as the second best horse of his generation behind the phenomenal deep impact . pinkline jones obe\ninvasor was inducted into the national museum of racing\u2019s hall of fame in 2013 .\nkiaran mclaughlin , invasor ' s trainer , didn ' t share those concerns .\nthe expected showdown between invasor and the godolphin - owned discreet cat never materialised .\nhallandale beach , fla . - - invasor is ready for his 2007 debut .\ndr . fager recorded one of the greatest campaigns in the annals of american racing when he was named horse of the year , champion older horse , champion grass horse and champion sprinter in 1968 .\nblog reply : i ' d rate invasor higher than ghostzapper . in fact he ' s probably the best - performed us older horse since cigar .\ndubai ( reuters ) - invasor lived up to his billing as the world\u2019s best horse by landing the dubai world cup at nad al sheba on saturday .\nhe was just a neat horse ,\nmclaughlin said .\nhe was a fabulous horse for our family and our people .\nthird place finisher premium tap in the paddock . his trainer john kimmel said ,\nhonestly , i figured bernardini was the horse to beat . i never thought invasor would win off that layoff . he ( invasor ) proved that he ' s no fluke . my horse ran an a - race and it just shows that he belongs .\njockey edgar prado added ,\nhonestly , i figured bernardini was the horse to beat . i never thought invasor would win off that layoff . ( invasor ) proved that he ' s no fluke . my horse ran an a - race and it just shows that he belongs .\nbut that was not the last time pablo would see invasor . he traveled to dubai to watch him run in the uae derby , and , of course , he was at churchill downs to witness his horse and the pride of uruguay become an international superstar and horse of the year on two continents . when invasor added the dubai world cup the following year , he was crowned horse of the world .\nthe training of racehorses , simply expressed , is maintaining a horse in the best condition to run . exercise and feeding programs and knowledge of the individual horse are factors involved . a good trainer selects a jockey who suits the horse and , perhaps more important , enters the horse in suitable races . a trainer of a horse for a classic race not only must develop the horse into peak condition but must time the development so that the horse reaches its peak on a certain day , which is the most difficult art of all .\nin his previous races , bernardini had never been looked in the eye by another horse . fernando jara , the jockey on invasor , intended his mount to do so .\nhorse of the year and champion older horse invasor will stand at uruguay\u2019s haras cuatro piedras for three years , beginning with the 2015 southern hemisphere season . the daily racing form reports that shadwell stud near lexington , ky . , will partner with haras cuatro piedras on his ongoing career . invasor began his racing career in uruguay , capturing [ \u2026 ]\nblog reply : invasor = suzuki hayabusa gsx1300r . deep impact = mulga bill ' s bicycle .\nin june 2007 , the horse illustrated magazine , a national u . s . horse magazine , featured a beautiful photograph of a white spanish horse in traditional tack on the front cover . the front cover reads \u201cpure majesty andalusian & lusitano horses\u201d .\nas , is decorated with a bust of invasor , still considered the greatest racehorse in uruguayan history .\ninvasor , ridden by fernando jara , surprised bernardini in the stretch to win the breeders\u0092 cup classic .\ninvasor has won nine of 10 career races , with his only loss coming in dubai , in the uae derby . however , the horse is owned by dubai ' s sheik hamdan , and invasor ' s next stop will be the $ 6 million dubai world cup on march 31 .\nbut are horses from hong kong and japan ready to beat the world ? yes . and is invasor , the american - uruguayan - argentine super - horse , for real ? absolutely .\nfor his achievements , invasor was voted horse of the year and champion older male at the 2006 eclipse awards . in 2007 , he returned as strongly as ever and won the donn handicap at\njockey fernando jara gives the thumbs up in the winner ' s circle after winning the classic aboard invasor .\ninvasor was last seen winning the breeders ' cup classic in november at churchill downs in louisville , ky .\nheading into the 2006 breeders\u2019 cup classic , invasor wasn\u2019t favored to win the classic or horse of the year honors\u2014bernardini and lava man had both compiled impressive records and were the preferred choices , but when invasor beat them both in the classic , he was an undeniable choice for horse of the year , a huge rise given that he had started the year by finishing fourth in the uae derby .\nbut the biggest race of his career\u2014the breeders\u2019 cup classic at churchill downs \u2014was still to come . invasor\u2019s preparations didn\u2019t go as smoothly as hoped ; plans to run invasor in the jockey club gold cup had to be scrapped when the colt developed a fever , meaning that invasor would enter the classic having not raced in nearly three months .\ntrainer kiaran mclaughlin will see invasor inducted into the hall of fame . ( smith , bryan , freelance nydn )\ninvasor , bred in argentina , won his first five races in uruguay before he was purchased by sheik hamdan .\nsword dancer was champion 3 - year - old and horse of the year for 1959 .\nwe ' re giving up weight to each horse , but he ' s the horse of the year and he just won at 124 pounds ,\ntrainer kiaran mclaughlin said .\ndescribed as a \u201conce in a lifetime\u201d horse by trainer kiaran mclaughlin , invasor defined himself as an elite thoroughbred by winning in three countries , at seven tracks and in some of the world\u2019s most prestigious races .\nto date , invasor has been a great disappointment with only four stakes winners to his credit as of october 2016 .\nhorse racing : school ' s out in dubai as asian and u . s . horses star\npreviously unbeaten and the only horse to have been beaten invasor when he triumphed in the uae derby on world cup night last year , discreet cat proved a major disappointment and trailed in last of seven under frankie dettori .\nnowadays , invasor resides as a stallion at haras cuatro piedras in uruguay , located just a half - hour away from maronas racetrack , where invasor first lit up the racing world with his brilliance . ten years after his u . s . exploits earned him horse of the year , he\u2019s back home again , and remains a living legend .\nbred and owned by christopher t . chenery , hill prince won six of seven starts as a juvenile before a horse of the year campaign at age 3 and further success as an older horse .\nretired with 11 wins from 12 starts for earnings of more than $ 7 . 8 million , invasor was named horse of the year and champion older male in 2006 and was inducted into racing\u2019s hall of fame in 2013 .\ntom fool was champion 2 - year - old in 1951 and horse of the year in 1953 .\nin one book . . . insiders tips . . . history of the spanish horse . . .\nblog reply :\ninvasor = ferrari deep impact = volkswagen beetle\nwhy even bother ? i ' m sure in uruguay they are claiming invasor as their best ever galloper pink . . . both champions , a pity to see invasor ' s career curtailed through injury . at least deep impact may get to make ( insert his name ) with many mares during his retirement !\nafter a quick introduction , we hopped into his truck to take the short drive over to invasor\u2019s paddock . with pockets loaded full of peppermints , we disembarked from the truck to visit with the horse i had missed so dearly .\nthis entry was posted in bloodstock and tagged blushing groom , candy stripes , haras cuatro piedras , horse racing , invasor , shadwell farm , shadwell stud , thoroughbred , uruguay , uruguay breeding by paulick report staff . bookmark the permalink .\nwe were very pleased and happy ,\nmclaughlin said of invasor ' s induction .\nit was great to have the privilege of training such a great horse , probably the best horse i ' ll ever train . i hope there ' s another one , but it ' s going to be difficult to duplicate his career .\n2005 triple crown winner , champion 3 - year - old colt & horse of the year in uruguay .\nfrench - bred filly all along won four major races in the span of 41 days during 1983 en route to becoming the first foreign - based horse to be voted horse of the year in the united states .\nnamed after the guns of war , ack ack was the final horse bred and raced by harry guggenheim .\nhorse racing at the galway race course , ballybrit , county galway , connaught ( connacht ) , ireland .\ninvasor won 11 of 12 career starts , including six grade 1 or group 1 events , while becoming a champion on two continents .\ninvasor , with fernando jara around , drew the inside no . 1 post position for the 1 1 / 8 - mile race .\nfernando jara , riding invasor of argentina , rides to win the dubai world cup march 31 , 2007 . the dubai world cup , with a cash prize of 3 million pounds , is horse racing ' s richest prize . reuters / ahmed jadallah\nan 11 - year - old son of candy stripes , invasor was bred by haras clausan in argentina . invasor won his first five starts in south america during 2005 , including a sweep of uruguay\u2019s triple crown : the uruguayan 2000 guineas , gran premio jockey club , and uruguayan derby . he was honored as uruguay\u2019s horse of the year and champion 3 - year - old colt .\n\u201csheik mo , \u201d as he is known in the bluegrass , also sustained a setback \u2014 although a far lesser one . when invasor rushed past bernardini in the stretch for an emphatic length victory , sheik mohammed saw bernardini\u2019s six - race winning streak snapped and his bid for horse of the year honors dashed . to compound matters , invasor is owned by his brother , sheik hamdan .\nwhen invasor crossed the line at the head of affairs in the dubai world cup ( gr . 1 ) recently , with discreet cat trailing many lengths in his wake , there were those who thought that , knowing his comprehensive defeat of bernadini in the breeders cup classic gr . 1 back in november , invasor might have staked his claim to being the best horse in the world .\nbred in argentina and born in 2002 , invasor\u2019s ancestors hailed from all over the world . his sire , candy stripes , was born in the united states but was a son of the french - bred stallion blushing groom . furthermore , invasor\u2019s dam , quendom , was an argentinean - bred with argentinean ancestors of her own , and farther back in invasor\u2019s pedigree were horses that hailed from great britain and france .\nbarb clark : the spanish horse has been bred for centuries to be the perfect horse . their origins came about in a time when lives depended upon having an athletic , willing , functional and sturdy breed that looked majestic and beautiful . no other horse has been selected for these traits throughout centuries . if you ask anyone who owns a pure spanish horse how they would change the breed chances are you will get this answer ; \u201chow can you change perfection ? \u201d this horse is unique and once you have one it is difficult to consider any other breed .\ninvasor\u2019s achievements soon caught the attention of shadwell stable , which purchased the unbeaten colt for $ 1 . 5 million and transferred him from trainer anibal san martin to kiaran mclaughlin . in his first race outside of uruguay , invasor disappointed when fourth in the uae derby at nad al sheba in dubai , but the disappointment was only temporary . as things would turn out , the uae derby would mark invasor\u2019s only defeat .\nas a 4 - year - old , invasor won the eclipse awards for horse of the year and champion older male thanks to grade 1 victories in the pimlico special , suburban handicap , whitney handicap and breeders\u2019 cup classic . in the breeders\u2019 cup classic , invasor defeated the favored bernardini , winner of that year\u2019s preakness and travers , as well as standout lava man and european champion george washington .\nwinner of nine of 10 starts , invasor , owned by sheikh hamdan bin rashid al maktoum ' s shadwell stable and trained by kiaran mclaughlin , will be the first horse of the year to race the following year since ghostzapper won the title in 2004 .\nwho is invasor ? invasor was the top rated horse in the world in 2006 . he was u . s . horse of the year in 2006 . he was top rated horse in the world until retirement in 2007 . he is the sire to both our pennsylvania and new york offering . invasor was unquestionably one of the best racehorses in the world over the past ten years . one could argue the case for him being the best racehorse in the past ten years . what did he do ? invasor won 11 of 12 lifetime races and earned $ 7 . 8 million dollars . he raced in 9 grade 1 races world - wide , winning all nine . from may of 2006 to march of 2007 he won 6 grade 1 races at 6 different racetracks . horses left in his wake included : bernardini , discreet cat , premium tap , lawyer ron , sun king , flower alley , lava man , perfect drift , george washington , suave , david junior , wilko , wanderin boy , west virginia , ap arrow . he was rated best horse in the world . he was voted u . s . horse of the year .\nleft : sheikh mohammed bin rashid al maktoum presents the trophy to his older brother sheikh hamdan bin rashid al maktoum , the owner of invasor .\ninvasor covered the course in 1 minute , 59 . 97 seconds , just off the record of 1 : 59 : 50 set by dubai millennium in 2000 . it was only the second time a horse had run the world cup in less than 2 minutes .\n- an interactive social network game that allows horse racing fans and social gamers to train and care for thoroughbred horses .\ninvasor was privately purchased by shadwell in december 2005 . in his first start for sheikh hamdan bin rashid al maktoum and trainer kiaran mclaughlin , the horse suffered his only loss , finishing fourth to discreet cat in the group 2 u . a . e . derby .\nnow at horseracingfans . net . invasor wins the breeders cup classic championship , ending preakness winner bernardini ' s six - race winning streak . the argentina - bred horse was previously raced in uruguay where he won that country ' s triple crown . invasor ' s jockey fernando jara is the youngest to win the belmont stakes ( on jazil this year ) , and now the youngest to win the breeders cup classic .\nyet despite facing a terrific field that included preakness stakes winner bernardini and california superstar lava man , invasor prevailed . racing much farther off the pace than usual , invasor unleashed a huge rally around the far turn then kept on surging in the homestretch to reel in bernardini and triumph by a length .\ninvasor won nine top - level grade 1 races during his career ; three in uruguay , five in the united states , and one in dubai .\ninvasor\u2019s clocking of 1 : 59 . 97 in the 2007 dubai world cup is the second - fastest winning time in the history of the race .\nshipped to the united states , invasor won three consecutive grade 1 stakes during spring and summer of 2006 : the pimlico special , suburban handicap , and whitney handicap . a fever forced him to miss his final planned prep for the breeders\u2019 cup classic . but despite entering north america\u2019s richest race off a three - month layoff , invasor handily defeated bernardini , locking down honors as horse of the year and champion older male .\norganizations have long criticized horse racing . activists have sought to expose horse doping , institute a ban on horse whipping by jockeys , limit the number of races a horse ( especially three years old and younger ) can run in a season , and eliminate dirt tracks in favour of safer synthetic surfaces . two notable tragedies in the early 21st century helped propel calls for reform : the shattering of bones in one of kentucky derby champion barbaro\u2019s legs just seconds after the start of the preakness stakes in 2006 ( the horse was euthanized eight months later ) and the death of three horses during production of the tv series\nhorse racing : school ' s out in dubai as asian and u . s . horses star - the new york times\n\u201che\u2019s a special horse , if i made a mistake or fernando did he would overcome it - he\u2019s that good . \u201d\nbred in argentina by haras clausan , invasor was a bay son of candy stripes out of the interprete mare quendom . after breaking his maiden in his career debut in uruguay as a 3 - year - old in february of 2005 , invasor went on to win the uruguayan triple crown that year , capturing the polla de potrillos , gran premio jockey club and the gran premio nacional , all group 1 events . trained as a 3 - year - old by anibal san martin , invasor won all five of his starts in 2005 and was named horse of the year in uruguay .\nbred by haras clausan ( now haras santa ines ) , invasor was owned by pablo hernandez and brothers juan luis and luis alberto vio bado , who purchased invasor for the equivalent of us $ 20 , 000 . after invasor ' s sweep of the uruguayan triple crown , they sold the colt to shadwell stable ( sheikh hamdan bin rashid al maktoum ) for a reported us $ 1 . 4 million . invasor was trained in uruguay by anibal san martin and in north america by kiaran mclaughlin . retired june 23 , 2007 , after fracturing a sesamoid while training at belmont park for the suburban handicap ( g1 ) ; he had previously injured the same ankle as a young horse in uruguay , requiring surgery . invasor entered stud in 2008 in kentucky at shadwell farm . he began a three - year deal to stand the southern hemisphere season at haras cuatro pietras , uruguay , in 2015 .\ninvasor remained in training the following season , and fans showed their appreciation as he arrived on the scene for the grade 1 donn handicap at gulfstream park .\nwhen the moment of truth arrived on saturday , invasor took charge , moving into the lead in the final bend and turning back a challenge from premium tap to win by a length and three - quarters . discreet cat ran last for most of the race and eventually finished there , 23 lengths behind invasor .\nbred and owned by sam riddle , crusader was sired by man o\u2019 war out of the star shoot mare star fancy . crusader was recognized as horse of the year in 1926 and became the first horse to win consecutive runnings of the suburban handicap .\nleaving shadwell that day , my heart was full and empty at the same time . you wouldn\u2019t imagine a horse to invoke such an emotional reaction , especially not a horse you only meet a handful of times . that\u2019s horse racing , though . there\u2019s something about our hallowed sport that summons such feelings that cannot be replicated any other way or be explained . invasor was that to me , and i hope for as great things to come from his return to uruguay as those that came when he left his native land to invade america .\n2006 hoty and champion older male in the usa - - only american horse of the year to win six consecutive g1 races .\nturn the page one more time and you\u2019ll see \u201cbreed of the month ; andalusians and lusitanos . check out an exclusive photo gallery of these beautiful horses from spain and portugal . chat with other andalusian and lusitano horse enthusiasts in the horse talk forums ! \u201d\nafter his championship 2006 season , invasor won the 2007 donn handicap and ended his career in style with a victory in the $ 6 million dubai world cup .\nhall of famer invasor will return to his south american roots to stand at uruguay\u2019s haras cuatro piedras for three years , beginning with the 2015 southern hemisphere season .\nurltoken - invasor wins the dubai world cup at nad al sheba race course , avenging his only career loss at the same track in the 2006 uae derby .\ninvasor sent off as the slight 5 - 4 favorite over godolphin hope discreet cat at 11 - 8 . discreet cat defeated invasor a year ago in the uae derby , but the pair has not faced each other again until now . also in the field was 7 - 1 third choice premium tap , third in the\nfrance galop is the organization governing french horse racing . the organization was created in 1995 from the merger of three horse racing authorities : the soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d\u2019encouragement et des steeple - chases de france , the soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de sport de france , and the soci\u00e9t\u00e9 sportive d\u2019encouragement .\nhorse of the year and champion 3 - year - old male in 1994 , holy bull was bred in florida by rachel carpenter\u2019s pelican stable . he was owned and trained by jimmy croll after carpenter died prior to the horse\u2019s career debut in 1993 at monmouth park .\nin france the first documented horse race was held in 1651 as the result of a wager between two noblemen . during the reign of\nas you browse through the magazine , keep an eye out for the gorgeous friesian horse used as an advertising model on page 73 .\njara , 18 , had broken from the no . 11 post but moved inside almost immediately to save ground and his horse\u2019s energy . when he turned him loose at the quarter pole , invasor catapulted from fifth place to second , and then was nose to nose with bernardini at the 16th pole .\ninvasor won 11 of 12 career races , including the breeders ' cup classic in 2006 and the dubai world cup and the donn handicap ( above ) in 2007 .\nwinning jockey calvin borel said ,\ni knew they were going to go a little quick , but he ' s a push - button horse . when he ' s right and you ask him , he ' ll take you there .\ntrainer carl nafzger added ,\nthis is our prep for the derby . this horse is taking us every step . this horse has been brought here on his own . he ' s learning , he ' s growing , he ' s maturing . he ' s an exceptional horse .\ninvasor began his racing career in uruguay , capturing the 2005 uruguayan triple crown and earning horse of the year honors in that country . he was purchased by shadwell and went on to win six consecutive grade / group 1 races , highlighted by the 2006 breeders ' cup classic and 2007 dubai world cup .\nbred in argentina , invasor won 11 of 12 starts , more than $ 7 . 8 million in his career and was voted horse of the year and champion older male in 2006 in a season that saw him win the breeders ' cup classic , the pimlico special and the suburban and whitney handicaps .\nequitrekking interviews barb clark , executive director of the foundation for the pure spanish horse , an international resource center for the pura raza espa\u00f1ola ( p . r . e . ) horse . she shares the history and legacy of this highly - developed and talented equine breed .\ninvasor , along with lure , housebuster , mcdynamo and tuscalee , will be inducted into racing ' s hall of fame on friday morning , along with jockey calvin borel .\ndance smartly was the second filly to win the canadian triple crown and the first canadian - bred horse to win a breeders\u2019 cup race .\naffirmed became america\u2019s 11 th triple crown winner in 1978 during the first of his back - to - back horse of the year campaigns .\nknowledge of the first horse race is lost in prehistory . both four - hitch chariot and mounted ( bareback ) races were held in the\ninvasor , who completed his year with a victory over bernardini and lava man in the breeders ' cup classic , is considered the front - runner for both horse of the year and champion older male . invasor also won the pimlico special , suburban handicap , and whitney handicap . the other finalists for champion older male are lava man , who had a brilliant season in california , where he won four grade 1 races , and premium tap , who won the woodward and clark handicap .\nshadwell already has a working relationship with haras cuatro piedras as they have been standing awzaan for us for the last three years . cuatro piedras lies only about 30 minutes from maronas racetrack , where invasor won the triple crown en route to champion 3 - year - old colt and horse of the year awards .\n\u2026from the late 18th century , horse racing in kentucky has roots as deep as those of the hardy perennial bluegrass that has long nurtured the thoroughbreds raised on the state\u2019s famous horse farms , especially in the lexington area . frontiersman daniel boone was responsible for introducing colonial legislation in 1775 \u201cto\u2026\nthe article then turns its attention to andalusians and lusitanos in modern day dressage . barb clark of the foundation for the pure spanish horse promotes the pre by saying \u201cthe pre horse has proven itself in the dressage arena time and time again both internationally and here in the usa . \u201d\ninvasor is scheduled to arrive in uruguay in july . he is advertised to stand the upcoming northern hemisphere season at shadwell for a fee of $ 4 , 000 live foal .\nblog reply : invasor and deep impact great animals . perhaps the defining distinction is that impacto is widely considered the very best galloper japan has ever produced and they have had some great ones including : symboli rudolph , symboli kris s and narita brian to mention a few . i don ' t believe that invasor is being similarly considered . pinkline jones obe\nlast year . 18 - 1 forty licks , 22 - 1 kandidate , 33 - 1 vermilion , and 40 - 1 bullish luck rounded out the field , but clearly the event was billed as a two horse race between horses owned by two of the maktoum brothers , discreet cat owned by sheikh mohammed and invasor racing for sheikh hamdan . invasor was attempting to become the third breeders ' cup classic winner to win the dubai world cup , following in the footsteps of cigar and pleasantly perfect .\nbred in maryland by william l . brann and robert s . castle , challedon was recognized as horse of the year in 1939 and 1940 .\na discussion concerning the museum at the racetrack in saratoga springs , new york , from the documentary horse power : the national museum of racing .\naccording to jp , the portuguese wanted to call the horses \u201cpuro luso / espanol\u201d while the spaniards wanted to call them \u201cpura raza espanola\u201d . disagreement ensued . in 1911 , the official name for the spanish horse became \u201cpura raza espanola\u201d or pre and the portuguese horse became puro sangue lusitano .\nbefore arriving in america , invasor won the uruguayan triple crown in 2005 for trainer anibal san martin , and was purchased by sheikh hamdan bin rashid al maktoum for owner shadwell stable .\nbidding farewell to invasor : very few things get me out of bed at 6 : 30 in the morning \u2013 an extravagant breakfast maybe , or perhaps a pressing issue that needs to be handled before too late in the day . but , only visiting invasor would cause me to hop out of bed full of excitement rather than of disgust for the early hour .\nthe first horse in more than 20 years to win consecutive division championships as a sprinter , housebuster was known for decimating his competition by wide margins .\nthe first horse to win both the kentucky derby and preakness stakes while undefeated , majestic prince also achieved fame as a record - priced auction yearling .\nfrom 1791 provided a standard for judging a horse\u2019s breeding ( and thereby , at least to some degree , its racing qualities ) . in france the\n\u201cjust total class , \u201d said rick nichols , vice president and general manager of shadwell farm , when reflecting upon invasor\u2019s career . \u201che was just such an easy horse to do anything with . when we flew him to dubai , he took everything in stride . he went on the plane , took a bite of hay , and fell asleep . that\u2019s what it takes for a horse to fly around the world and compete \u2013 they\u2019ve got to have a great attitude about life . \u201d\ninvasor made two starts as a 5 - year - old in 2007 , winning the donn handicap before concluding his career with a victory in the dubai world cup . invasor\u2019s time of 1 : 59 . 97 for the 1\u00bc miles at nad al sheba was the second - fastest in the race\u2019s history behind only dubai millennium\u2019s time of 1 : 59 . 50 in 2000 .\ninvasor suffered a career - ending injury while preparing for a second start in the suburban in june 2007 and was retired to stud . he is based at shadwell in lexington , ky .\nwhat could be the best card of the young year will take place today at gulfstream park . the stakes - heavy lineup will feature a reigning horse of the year , invasor ; a turf champion , miesque ' s approval , and a colt many feel is the best 3 - year - old in the country , nobiz like shobiz .\ninvasor , who clinched horse - of - the - year honors with a victory over bernardini in the breeders ' cup classic on nov . 4 at churchill downs , will begin what his handlers hope will be a defense of that title in the $ 500 , 000 donn handicap , one of six graded stakes in hallandale beach , fla .\ndespite his mount stumbling at the start , fernando jara stayed cool , and was able to get invasor to recover enough to pip the luckless sun king ( by charismatic ) by a nose , although clearly the former would have won with ease had that incident not occurred . last year ' s travers winner flower alley ( by distorted humor ) was amongst invasor ' s victims .\na three - time horse of the year and winner of eight eclipse awards , forego was one of the most accomplished and popular horses of the 1970s .\nthe pure spanish horse was unified as a breed in the sixteenth century ( between 1567 and 1593 ) by the spanish king felipe ii who formally established the standards for the breed , which we recognize today as the pure spanish horse . during these years king felipe ii decided to bring to life the universally idealized horse that has been so long pictured in history , in bronze , in paintings . he looked at the basic horse bred in spain , selected the best of those examples which came closest to the idealized animal he desired , and directed that the idealized horse be produced . concurrent with his breeding program , the humanistic approach was spreading through spain and the teachings of the ancient greek xenophon were put into practice for the treatment and training of these carefully bred horses .\ninvasor is already well known in south america , as the argentinean - bred won the 2005 uruguayan triple crown to earn horse of the year honors in that nation . he was subsequently purchased by shadwell and went on to win six consecutive grade / group 1 races for that operation , including the 2006 breeders\u2019 cup classic and 2007 dubai world cup .\nafter winning the uruguayan triple crown , invasor was sold for $ 1 . 4 million to sheikh hamdan bin rashid al maktoum to run for shadwell stable and kiaran mclaughlin took over training duties .\nunfortunately , the dubai world cup would be invasor\u2019s last race . while training for a defense of his suburban handicap title , invasor injured his right hind ankle during a workout and was retired to shadwell farm to begin his stallion career . as a sire , he achieved mild success from limited opportunities , with ausus , winner of the 2013 modesty handicap , among his most successful foals .\nthree - time kentucky derby - winning jockey calvin borel and the racehorses housebuster , invasor , lure , mcdynamo , and tuscalee have been elected to the national museum of racing and hall of fame . borel , housebuster , invasor , and lure were selected in the contemporary category , while mcdynamo and tuscalee were chosen by the museum\u2019s steeplechase review committee . the electees will be [ \u2026 ]\ninvasor completed a hat - trick of victories for american - trained challengers on world cup night , following wins for spring at last ( godolphin mile ) and kelly\u2019s landing ( golden shaheen ) .\nalmost forgotten in the hoopla surrounding the anticipated \u201ceast versus west\u201d breeders ' cup classic ( usa - i ) duel between the top 3 - year - old colt bernardini and the top california campaigner lava man , invasor reminded everyone why it is unwise to overlook a horse beaten only once in his career and coming in off three consecutive grade i wins with impressive speed figures . already a horse of the year in uruguay , invasor nailed down american horse of the year honors with an inexorable drive that took him past bernardini to finish with his ears pricked . he began the following year in championship style with wins in the 2007 donn handicap ( usa - i ) and dubai world cup ( uae - i ) before a training injury forced him into retirement . unfortunately , his stud career has so far failed to come close to matching his racing career .\nshowcasing remarkable talent and versatility , invasor swept through his next four races like a whirlwind , winning them all by a minimum of 2 \u00bd lengths while handling longer distances , tougher competition , and even a muddy track on one occasion . by winning the uruguayan two thousand guineas , the gran premio jockey club , and the uruguayan derby , invasor successfully completed a sweep of the uruguayan triple crown .\nas impressive as invasor was , the most eye - catching display came from asiatic boy who routed his rival to win the uae derby by almost 10 lengths for south african trainer mike de kock .\nafter the donn , invasor is scheduled to make a return trip to the united arab emirates for another encounter with unbeaten discreet cat in the $ 6 - million dubai world cup on march 31 .\nfor many years , the breeders\u2019 cup classic and the dubai world cup have reigned as the two richest dirt races in the world . winning both has been the mark of a great horse ; only four horses have achieved the feat , and three of them are members of the national museum of racing\u2019s hall of fame , including the amazing international traveler invasor .\n7 . invasor the 2006 horse of the year had won the uruguayan triple crown as a three - year - old in 2005 before being sold to sheikh hamdan bin rashid al maktoum . his 2006 season included four grade i victories , culminating with the breeders ' cup classic , in which he ran down favored bernardini in the home stretch at churchill downs .\napart from aragorn , lava man - who has yet to perform well outside california - will also have to conquer a summit named invasor if he is to wrest horse of the year honours . the latter , a hardy argentinian - bred , remained undefeated in the americas when eking out victory in the gr . 1 whitney handicap at saratoga on august 5th .\nlegendary jockey tod sloan , who rode hundreds of good horses in america and europe , stated flatly : \u201chamburg was the only great horse i ever rode . \u201d\nthe horse of the year is the 6 - 5 favorite in a field of nine for saturday ' s $ 500 , 000 donn handicap at gulfstream park .\nlongfellow was referred to as the \u201cking of the turf\u201d during the 1870s . racing historian walter vosburgh said longfellow was \u201cbeyond question the most celebrated horse of the 1870s . no other horse of his day was a greater object of public notice . his entire career was sensational ; people seemed to regard him as a superhorse . \u201d\nbarb clark : the style of rider is not as important as the dedication to the horse\u2019s well being since spanish horses can easily adapt to most styles of riders . the p . r . e . horse is revered by its owners no matter how they are used . the spanish horse deserves a caring , committed owner who can provide the love and partnership these horses desire . they are best suited to be owned and ridden by individuals who really like them and consider their needs first .\nat the time of his retirement in 1959 , round table was the sport\u2019s all - time leading money earner . he had been named horse of the year in 1958 , grass champion three consecutive years ( 1957 through 1959 ) and handicap champion twice ( 1958 and 1959 . he was also the horse that literally saved claiborne farm .\nnamed horse of the year for five consecutive years from 1960 through 1964 , kelso was one of the most accomplished and unique thoroughbreds in the annals of american racing .\n\u2014involve jumping . this article is confined to thoroughbred horse racing on the flat without jumps . racing on the flat with horses other than thoroughbreds is described in the article\nskyhorse ranch - andalusian horse breeder in texas with andalusian horses for sale . breeders of pre pura raza espanola horses with cartas from spain . selling black , grey , and bay andalusians . recommend andalusian stallions at stud . pictures , history , facts , and info . spanish andalusian horse farm . bloodlines from spain in the usa .\nthe predominant color of the pure spanish horse is gray or white . many people don\u2019t realize that the gray or white horses are born black or very dark brown . this change to white is a gradual fading and can take as long as 12 years to accomplish , so that every year you have a horse of a different color .\nin a partnership between shadwell and cuatro piedras , invasor is scheduled to stand in uruguay from 2015 - 17 . he is expected to arrive around july to settle in before their breeding season begins in august .\nhad pablo hernandez not been diverted from a planned trip to haras la biznaga by airplane engine trouble , he would never have come to own invasor in partnership with the vio bado brothers . because of the plane trouble , a friend offered to drive hernandez to visit several farms in the buenos aires area\u2014among them , haras clausen , where invasor was bred and raised and where hernandez fell in love with the colt on sight .\ncolourful racing silks are a familiar element of horse racing , and their introduction dates to the formal organization of the sport in the 18th century . though they primarily serve an aesthetic purpose in the modern sport , their original use in racing was to allow spectators to distinguish one horse from another during races in an age before television and public - address systems . to this day horse owners must register a unique pattern and set of colours ( worn on the jockey\u2019s jacket and helmet cover ) with a regulatory board .\n( 2011\u201312 ) , a drama about horse racing . ( the deaths and subsequent outcry among many viewers helped lead to the abrupt cancellation of the show after just one season . ) such events\u2014augmented by the changing interests of the global sporting public\u2014contributed to the continuing decline in the popularity of horse racing through the first decades of the 21st century .\nsaeed bin suroor , trainer of discreet cat ( behind the horse on the right ) said ,\nit doesn ' t look like discreet cat stays the distance and we will drop him back to a mile . it was a disappointing performance tonight and we will see how the horse comes out of the race before making firm plans .\ninvasor , horse of the year in the united states , strode to the head of the world class with his victory in the big event at nad al sheba racecourse , the $ 6 million dubai world cup . while the field , with seven runners , was the smallest since the race began in 1996 , it was also one of the best , with champions from five countries .\nrecognized as horse of the year in 1936 \u2014 the first year of formal voting \u2014 granville was a son of triple crown winner gallant fox out of the sarmatian mare gravita .\nalysheba was a champion as a 3 - year - old , horse of the year at age 4 and retired with the highest purse earnings in the history of the sport .\ninvasor , bernardini , barbaro , and lava man - four of the marquee names from last year - on wednesday were among 28 horses and 13 people announced as finalists for 2006 eclipse awards by the national thoroughbred racing association .\ncredit : courtesy of ancce and diane e . barber entertainer and world - class rider clemence faivre delighted the crowd with her horse , gotan , and bridless dressage at the espectaculo .\nmcdynamo , who won the breeders ' cup steeplechase and colonial cup , is considered the overwhelming favorite to be named champion steeplechase horse over fellow finalists mixed up and sur la tete .\nwith a record of 11 - 0 - 0 from 12 starts and earnings of $ 7 , 804 , 070 , invasor was retired in june of 2007 . nine of his 11 victories were in group / grade 1 races .\nbarb clark : there are many historical figures that rode spanish horses but proving that can be difficult . recently there are several pure spanish horses in dressage that have reached a level of international notoriety , such as evento , who competed in the atlanta olympics , invasor , fuego de c\u00e1rdenas , norte lovera , are others who have olympic credits . the most famous spanish horse is the one that is in your barn !\nthe 2013 class will be inducted into the national museum of racing hall of fame friday morning . the ceremony is set to begin at 10 : 30 a . m . this year\u2019s inductees include three - time kentucky derby - winning jockey , calvin borel ; 2006 horse of the year invasor ; two - time breeders\u2019 cup mile winner lure ; two - time eclipse award winning sprinter , housebuster ; multiple [ \u2026 ]\na winner of 16 graded stakes races and four eclipse awards , including horse of the year in 1998 , skip away was one of the most popular and accomplished horses of the 1990s .\nswaps was the best horse to come out of california in years . he set five world records at a mile or more , three track records , and equalled an american turf record .\nthe top horse in america in 1889 and 1890 , salvator won 16 of his final 17 career starts to secure his legacy as one of the finest thoroughbreds of the 19 th century .\nall winners , including horse of the year , will be announced at the 36th annual eclipse awards dinner jan . 22 at the beverly wilshire four seasons hotel in beverly hills , calif .\ni ' m not worried when he looks back , because he does that when he knows he ' s got a lot of horse under him ,\nmclaughlin said of jara .\njockey weichong marwing proclaimed asiatic boy as the \u201cbest horse i have ridden\u201d and the bookmakers were suitably impressed , earning a 10 - 1 quote from william hill for the breeders\u2019 cup classic .\nhe led the now thirteen - year - old stallion out of his paddock and into the walking path so that we could greet him , and the memories of his dominating performances came rushing back to me . it was the fact that invasor was a triple crown winner in uruguay that attracted me to him in the first place , but his subsequent performances would ensnare me into a love affair with the south american invader . in fact , i credit my love of the entire sport to invasor , this horse who simply eclipsed older horses and colts in the pimlico special , suburban , whitney , breeders\u2019 cup classic , donn , and dubai world cup until an untimely injury forced him into retirement . i think that\u2019s how it is with many fans ; finding one horse to unwaveringly follow eventually allows the sport as a whole to consume the individual .\nblog reply : a class horse he was . would love to have seen him race against aussie horses , and thus we would have a much better gauge on where our horses rank . he is the best in the world , but sometimes i think the rating system that is used favours horses from north america . the next champion will be asiatic boy . was more impressive than invasor during the dubai meeting , bolting up in the uae derby , and unlike many other top horses , he runs on turf and dirt , and will campaign in europe as well . i think he is better than invasor . like to know peoples thoughts on asiatic boy ."]}
{"id": 559, "summary": [{"text": "the greater short-horned lizard ( phrynosoma hernandesi ) , also commonly known as the mountain short-horned lizard , is a species of lizard endemic to western north america .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "like other horned lizards , it is often wrongly called a \" horned toad \" or \" horny toad \" , but it is not a toad at all .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is a reptile , not an amphibian .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is one of seven native species of lizards in canada . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "greater short - horned lizard", "paragraphs": ["greater short - horned lizard , santa rita mtns , az . photo by jim rorabaugh\ngreater short - horned lizard , rancho los fresnos , sonora . photo by jim rorabaugh\nhodges , w . l . 2009 . greater short - horned lizard . pages 178\u2013181\ngreater short - horned lizard , rancho los fresnos , sonora . photo by jim rorabaugh .\nhatchling greater short - horned lizard , sierra la purica , sonora . photo by jim rorabaugh .\ngreater short horned lizard - bighorn canyon national recreation area ( u . s . national park service )\nno information currently exists regarding the migration patterns of greater short - horned lizards in montana .\nshort spines on head , body , and tail relative to texas horned lizard .\ncolorado parks and wildlife . short - horned lizard . natural diversity information source .\ngreater short - horned lizards have a surprising self - defense mechanism . they shoot their own blood at their enemies !\nthe gulf coast horned lizard ( phrynosoma wigginsi ) is a horned lizard species native to baja california , mexico .\nmurray , ian w . and hilary m . lease . 2013 . phrynosoma hernandesi ( greater short - horned lizard ) predation . herpetological review 44 ( 2 ) : 327\nshort - horned lizard - bryce canyon national park ( u . s . national park service )\nmartin , d . 2006 . the blood - squirting short - horned lizard . pages 35 - 37\ncairns , k . a . , babineau , j . & cairns , n . a . 2017 . phrynosoma hernandesi ( greater short - horned lizard ) . herpetological review 48 ( 4 ) : 853\nactivist spotlight - kade wilson and the\nhorny toad\ntexas horned lizard . | environmental stuff | pinterest | horned lizard , toad and lizards\nshort - horned lizard adults weigh less than a quarter . a yearling is about the weight of a dime .\nmoll , e . o . 2004 . patronyms of the pioneer west . ix . phrynosoma hernandesi ( girard , 1858 ) greater short - horned lizard . sonoran herpetologist 17 ( 6 ) : 58 - 61 .\nmoll , e . o . 2004 . phrynosoma hernandesi ( girard , 1858 ) greater short - horned lizard . patronyms of the pioneer west . sonoran herpetologist 17 ( 6 ) : 58 - 61 . - get paper here\nhorned lizard bowl , indicated subtly on the top of the skull between the eyes .\nthere is nothing cuter than a tiny baby horned lizard . nothing , i say !\nmilner , b . j . 1979 . northern short - horned lizard in southeastern alberta . alberta naturalist 9 : 90 - 92 .\nadult female short - horned lizard being consumed by plains hog - nosed snake , weld county , colorado . note the lizard is inflated to hinder consumption . photo : amy yackel adams .\nadams , a . a . y . , r . d . adams , s . k . skagen and d . j . martin 2016 . phrynosoma hernandesi ( greater short - horned lizard ) commensalism . herpetological review 47 ( 3 ) : 467 .\nshort - horned lizards will shoot blood from their eyes when threatened by a predator .\nwhat they eat : short - horned lizards eat ants , beetles and small pebbles .\npowell , g . l . 1980 . diet of the short - horned lizard in alberta . american zoologist 20 ( 4 ) : 842 .\ngoldberg , s . r . 1971 . reproduction in the short - horned lizard , phrynosoma douglassi in arizona . herpetologica 27 : 311 - 314 .\nthe greater short - horned lizard in the next five shots is apparently of the subspecies known as hernandez ' s short - horned lizard ( p . h . hernandesi ) . this individual was on the brett gray ranch , a nature conservancy property , in lincoln co . , colorado , in july , 2011 . these shots were taken with a canon eos 1d mark iv and a sigma 50 - 500mm lens and canon 580 flash .\nguyer , c . 2006 . phrynosoma douglasii ( pigmy short - horned lizard ) copulatory position . herpetological review 37 ( 1 ) : 91 - 92 .\ntaylor , b . n . 2003 . short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma hernandesi hernandesi ) . alberta species at risk report 72 : 154 - 160 .\nthe short - horned lizard is often referred to as a \u201chorned toad\u201d or \u201chorny toad\u201d because its squat , flattened shape and short , blunt snout give it a toad - ish look . there are over a dozen recognized horned - lizard species found in the deserts and semi - arid environments of north and central america , from southern canada to guatemala .\nthey are the only species of horned toads that give birth to the young live . other species of horned lizards lay eggs . in the short - horned lizard , the eggs are retained within the mother until the live young are born .\nclick the range map to learn more about the distribution of short - horned lizards in washington .\ngoldberg , s . r . 1971 . reproduction in the short - horned lizard phrynosoma douglassi in arizona . herpetologica 27 ( 3 ) : 311 - 314 .\nthe short - horned lizard is a one - reptile wrecking crew with a bizarre self - defense strategy . when defending its own life , this lizard squirts blood from the thin blood vessels around its eyes that rupture under pressure .\nmontanucci , r . r . 1984 . breeding , captive care and longevity of the short - horned lizard phrynosoma douglassi . international zoological yearbook 23 : 148 - 156 .\ni\u2019m currently making horned lizard bowls representing two species , both native to arizona and other parts of the southwest : short - horned lizards and regal horned lizards . you can tell them apart by their horn configuration : regals have an even corona of ten longish horns on the back of their skull , and short - horns have 6 very short horns divided by a deep notch .\nwhat they look like : short - horned lizards are small , flat , round lizards that have short , stubby horns . the\nhorns\nare actually a crown of short pointed scales on the back of the head .\nlinder , a . d . 1989 . short - horned lizard phrynosoma douglassi . rare , sensitive , and threatened species of the greater yellowstone ecosystem . tim w . clark , ann h . harvey , robert d . dorn , david l . genter , and craig groves , editors . pp . 50 - 51 .\nlaird , m . and r . leech . 1980 . observations on the short - horned lizard in southeastern alberta . blue jay 38 ( 4 ) : 214 - 218 .\nshort - horned lizards emerge from hibernation from late march into june . mating occurs soon after the emerge .\nwith a valid arizona hunting license , four greater short - horned lizards can be collected per year or held in possession , alive or dead , although collection is prohibited in protected areas such as national park service units without special permits . it is a species of least concern on the 2014 iucn red list . in the 100 - mile circle , the forested montane habitats of this lizard are vulnerable to the effects of climate change and wildfire . most of the higher mountain ranges in southeastern arizona where this species occurs have experienced extensive stand - replacing wildfires in the last three decades , although the effects of these fires on the greater short - horned lizard have not been studied .\ndescription : short - horned lizards are small , flat , round lizards that have short , stubby horns . the\nhorns\nare actually a crown of short pointed scales on the back of the head . like other horned lizards , they have a series of pointed scales along the edge of the body . the short tail is thin and pointed .\ncorn , p . s . and l . j . gingerich . 1987 . phrynosoma douglassii brevirostre ( eastern short - horned lizard ) . herpetological review 18 ( 1 ) : 20 .\npowell , g . l . , a . p . russell , and p . fargey . in prep . the distribution of the eastern short - horned lizard in saskatchewan , canada .\nthey are the only species of horned toads that give birth to the young live . other species of horned lizards lay eggs . in the short - horned lizard the eggs are retained within the mother until live young are born about two months later ( august to mid - september ) .\nguyer , c . and a . d . linder . 1985a . growth and population structure of the short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassi ) and the sagebrush lizard ( sceloporus graciosus ) in southeastern idaho . northwest science 59 ( 4 ) : 294 - 303 .\nashton , k . g . and k . l . ashton . 1998 . phrynosoma douglasii ( short - horned lizard ) . reproduction . herpetological review 29 ( 3 ) : 168 - 169 .\nsherbrooke , w . c . and m . d . greenfield . 2002 . phrynosoma hernandesi ( short - horned lizard ) . defensive hiss . herpetological review 33 ( 3 ) : 208 - 209 .\nsherbrooke , w . c . and f . mendoza - quijano . 2001 . phrynosoma braconnieri ( short - tailed horned lizard ) . defensive behavior . herpetological review 36 ( 1 ) : 65 - 66 .\nguyer , c . and a . d . linder . 1985b . thermal ecology and activity patterns of the short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassi ) and the sagebrush lizard ( sceloporus graciosus ) in southeastern idaho ( usa ) . great basin naturalist 45 ( 4 ) : 607 - 614 .\npack , h . j . 1918 . some habits of the pygmy horned lizard . copeia 1918 ( 63 ) : 91 - 92 .\nschowalter , d . b . 1976 . new distribution records of the horned lizard in alberta . blue jay 37 : 26 - 27 .\npowell , g . l . 1982 . the eastern short - horned lizard in alberta : basic field ecology of northern marginal populations . unpublished m . s . thesis , university of calgary , calgary , alberta .\nmontanucci , r . r . , and b . e . baur . 1982 . mating and courtship behaviors of the short - horned lizard , phrynosoma douglassi . copeia 1982 ( 4 ) : 971 - 974 .\nmontanucci , r . r . and b . e . baur . 1982 . mating and courtship - related behaviors of the short - horned lizard , phrynosoma douglassi . copeia 1982 ( 4 ) : 971 - 974 .\nreeve , w . l . 1952 . taxonomy and distribution of the horned lizard genus phrynosoma . kansas university science bulletin 34 : 817 - 960 .\nlahti , m . e . , and d . d . beck . 2007 . ecology and ontogenetic variation of diet in the pigmy short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglasii ) . american midland naturalist 159 : 327 - 339 .\nnew , e . r . 1991 . drilling in short - horned lizard country . abstract presented at the cade / caodc spring drilling conference , april 10 - 12 , 1991 . cade / caodc conference publications , calgary , ab .\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1985 . field thermal ecology of the eastern short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassi brevirostre ) in southeastern alberta . canadian journal of zoology 63 : 228 - 238 .\nlike other horned lizards , they have a series of pointed scales along the edge of the body . the short tail is thin and pointed .\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1993a . the range and status of the eastern short - horned lizard in the canadian prairies . provincial museum of alberta natural history occassional paper 19 : 279 - 290 .\npowell , g . l . , a . p . russell , and p . j . fargey . 1998 . the distribution of the short - horned lizard phrynosoma hernandesi in saskatchewan , canada . northwestern naturalist 79 : 19 - 26 .\nhammerson , g . a . and h . m . smith . 1991 . the correct spelling of the name of the short - horned lizard of north america . bulletin of the maryland herpetological society 27 ( 3 ) : 121 - 127 .\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1992b . the staus of the short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassii ) in canada . committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada , ottawa , on . 22pp .\npowell , g . l . , and a . p . russell . 1991 . distribution of the eastern short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglasi brevirostre ) in alberta , canada . northwestern naturalist . 72 ( 1 ) : 21 - 26 .\nshort - horned lizards give birth to 7 - 10 babies . the newborn are very small - measuring about 25 mm ( 1 inch ) long .\nsherbrooke , w . c . , e . r . brown , and j . l . brown . 2002 . phrynosoma hernandesi ( short - horned lizard ) . successful open - mouthed threat defense . herpetological review 33 ( 3 ) : 208 .\ngreater short - horned - lizards are lizards that look a bit like toads . in fact , they are frequently referred to as \u201c horny toads \u201c . of course , they are not toads , which are amphibians , they are in fact , lizards . they are a member of the genus phrynosoma ( which means \u201ctoad - bodied\u201d ) of which there are 15 species .\ni contacted you some time ago about a horned toad bowl . i am now ready to purchase one of the short - horned with babies . i am looking for a smaller one . do you currently have any available ?\nover recent decades short - horn lizard populations have been in decline throughout their range . destruction of their native habitat , efforts to eradicate ants\u2014their staple food\u2014and the pet trade have all contributed to this .\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1985 . growth and sexual size dimorphism in alberta ( canada ) populations of the eastern short - horned lizard , phrynosoma douglassi brevirostre . canadian journal of zoology 63 ( 1 ) : 139 - 154 .\nboth eat ants , so i depict harvester ants in their bellies . the short - horned is a live - bearer , so some have young lizards shown inside .\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1984 . the diet of the eastern short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassi brevirostre ) in alberta and its relationship to sexual size dimorphism . canadian journal of zoology 62 ( 3 ) : 428 - 440 .\nextreme southern alberta , canada , to southern durango , mexico ; western nebraska ( few historical records from western kansas ) to southeastern oregon . widest geographic distribution of any horned lizard .\nhornbeck , g . e . and j . e . green . 1990 . a reconnaissance field survey of the eastern short - horned lizard and its habitat in samedan manyberries 9 - 13 - 4 - 5 w4m . delta environmental management group ltd . calgary , ab . 27pp .\ndiet : short - horned lizards are insectivores . they eat ants , beetles and small pebbles . neonates prefer ants , yearlings like beetles and adults eat both ants and beetles .\nmathies , t . , and d . j . martin . 2008 . overwintering site selection by short - horned lizards in northeastern colorado . journal of herpetology 42 : 163\u2013171 .\nhornbeck , g . e . and j . e . green . 1991 . year two of a reconnaissance field survey of the eastern short - horned lizard and its habitat in samedan manyberries 9 - 13 - 4 - 5 w4m . delta environmental management group ltd . calgary , ab . 17pp .\nbehavior : these lizards are often highly sessile , sit - and - wait predators that feed almost exclusively on ants . crypsis is the primary form of defense of this species , but spines and inflating behaviors can prevent them from being consumed by predators . additionally , greater short - horned lizards possess the ability to shoot blood from the ocular sinus ( next to the eye ) to deter predators such as coyotes , foxes , and dogs .\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1992a . a preliminary survey of the distribution and abundance of the eastern short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassii brevirostre ) in alberta . a report submitted to the recreation , parks , and wildlife foundation , edmonton , alberta . 135pp .\nwhere they live : short - horned lizards live throughout the columbia basin and the cascades foothills in a variety of habitats including sagebrush plains , short - grass prairies and open pine forests . always found near patches of loose soil or sand for burrowing . this species is found near ant hills .\nhabitat and territory the greater short - horned lizard can be found in a variety of habitats including semiarid plains , shortgrass prairies , sagebrush deserts , shrubby plateaus , juniper , pine or fir forests , and up into the mountains , such as the pryor mountains . they are more tolerant of cooler temperatures than most other reptiles , often emerging from hibernation in april and returning to their dens in october . they range from most of montana , wyoming and colorado except for the highest elevations above 10 , 000 feet or so and extend down through much of utah , arizona and new mexico .\nbehavior : they are normally active between 60 - 80 degrees f . during hot weather , short - horned lizards are most active during the morning hours , with less activity in the afternoon .\njames j . d . , a . p . russell , and g . l . powell . 1997 . status of the eastern short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassii brevirostre ) in alberta . alberta environmental protection , wildlife management divison , wildlife status report no . 5 , edmonton , ab . 1 - 20 .\nsmith , w . 1993 . an assessment of short - horned lizard habitat and use . manyberries badlands , alberta . a report submitted to the fish and wildlife branch , alberta forestry , lands and wildlife , 7th floor , o . s . longman building , 6909 - 116th st . , edmonton , alberta t6h 4p2 .\nlahti , m . the status of dwarfed populations of short - horned lizards and great plains toads in the san luis valley , colorado . 2010 . dissertation , utah state university . 201 pp .\nmanaster , jane , horned lizards , 1997 : university of texas press , austin .\npowell , g . l . , a . p . russell . 1998 . the status of short - horned lizards , phrynosoma hernandesi in saskatchewan , canada . northwestern naturalist 79 : 19 - 26 .\nthis species is an invertivore . the diet of greater short - horned lizards includes mostly ants and beetles , as well as other insects , spiders , snails , sowbugs , and other invertebrates . individuals may sometimes gorge themselves on a single type of prey ( hammerson 1999 ) . the diet in montana is virtually undescribed ; stomach contents of three individuals from coulees near the marias river in toole county included mostly ants with a few beetles , grasshoppers , and spiders ( mosimann and rabb 1952 ) .\nshort - horned lizards range throughout short and mixed - grass prairies , pin\u00f5n - juniper , sagebrush , open conifer woodland , and mountain shrubland . they can be found at elevations up to around 3 , 353 m ( 11 , 000 ft ) , in sandy or otherwise well - drained soils and usually in areas with sparse vegetation .\nshort - horned lizards are primarily diurnal from april to september . they are not active when hibernating between october and march ( see mathies & martin 2009 for more information on hibernation site selection in weld county ) .\nroger repp was making us all look bad when he found this young horned lizard after previously finding the first and second snakes on this hike . there were five other people out looking for interesting herps at the same time , jeez .\nshort - horned lizards can be found throughout much of the eastern plains , front range , san luis valley , and west slope ( after hammerson 1999 , shipley & reading 2006 , and colorado parks & wildlife ) .\nthey prefer soft , sandy soils , near rocks where they can blend in with the background . short - horned lizards can quickly burrow into loose soil to hide . they use their small claws for digging and climbing .\nadults can handle cold and partially freeze . they are normally active between 60 - 80 degrees f . during hot weather , short - horned lizards are most active during the morning hours , with less activity in the afternoon . they prefer soft , sandy soils , near rocks where they can blend in with the background . short - horned lizards can quickly burrow into loose soil to hide . they use their small claws for digging and climbing .\ncommon name : short - horned lizard scientific name : phrynosoma douglassi size ( length ) english & metric : 2 \u00bd - 5 7 / 8\n( 6 . 3 - 14 . 9cm ) habitat : from rocky or sandy plains to forested areas . diet : insects ( primarily ants ) predators : coyotes , foxes , hawks , ravens , large snakes and lizards\nherpetologists currently recognize 13 species of horned lizards , 8 in the us and 5 in mexico .\nprimarily insectivorous . in weld county , short - horned lizards are known to feed on a variety of ant and beetle species , ground - dwelling bees , true bugs ( hemiptera ) , and other arthropods ( d . martin ,\nmountain short - horned lizards can be found throughout the summer both above and below the rim . they blend in so well to their natural surroundings , that you have to look close or you might not see them at all .\naccount compiled by : danny martin and tom mathies reviewed by : ben fisher ( text ) and lauren livo ( map ) last updated : 23 mar . 2014 by d . martin suggested citation colorado partners in amphibian and reptile conservation . 2013 . species account for short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma hernandesi ) . compiled by danny martin and tom mathies . urltoken [ accessed date here ] .\neric pianka and wendy hodge ' s excellent article on horned lizards , from the university of texas .\n) . similar to other horned lizards , this species is a sit - and - wait predator .\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1991b . parturition and clutch characteristics of short - horned lizards ( phrynosoma douglassii brevirostre ) from alberta . canadian journal of zoology 69 ( 11 ) : 2759 - 2764 .\nlahti , m . e . 2010 . the status of dwarfed populations of short - horned lizards ( phrynosoma hernandesi ) and great plains toads ( anaxyrus cognatus ) in the san luis valley , colorado . dissertation , utah state university , logan .\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1994b . movement , thermal ecology , seasonal activity , and overwintering behavior in an alberta population of the eastern short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassii brevirostre ) . a report submitted to alberta environmental protection , fish and wildlife division , 7th floor , o . s . longman building , 6909 - 116th st . , edmonton , alberta t6h 4p2\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1998 . the status of short - horned lizards ( phrynosoma douglasi ) and ( p . hernandezi ) in canada . canadian field naturalist 112 ( 1 ) : 1 - 16 .\nzamudio , k . r . , k . b . jones , and r . h . ward . 1997 . molecular systematics of short - horned lizards : biogeography and taxonomy of a widespread species complex . systematic biology 46 : 284 - 305 .\n( 1996 ) list maximum size in new mexico as 83 mm svl for males and 98 mm svl for females . short - horned lizards in the san luis valley are known to be smaller than those outside the valley ( see lahti 2010 ) .\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1993b . a radiotelemetric study of movement and thermal ecology in an alberta population of the eastern short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassii brevirostre ) . a report submitted to the fish and wildlife branch , alberta forestry , lands and wildlife , 7th floor , o . s . longman building , 6909 - 116th st . , edmonton , alberta t6h 4p2 .\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1994a . a radiotelemetric study of movement , thermal ecology , and hibernation site selection in an alberta population of the eastern short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma douglassii brevirostre ) . a report submitted to alberta environmental protection , fish and wildlife division , 7th floor , o . s . longman building , 6909 - 116th st . , edmonton , alberta t6h 4p2 .\nthe body of the greater short - horned lizard is broad and flattened . the back is spiny , with an especially noticeable single row of scales fringing each side of the body . the spines at the back of the head are about as long as they are wide at the base . the coloration of the back usually blends cryptically with the soil and can vary somewhat from region to region and at single localities . the maximum total length is about 15 centimeters . in males , there is a swelling at the base of the tail , and the tail is proportionally longer than in females . newborn young have the broad and flattened body shape , and are about 2 . 0 to 2 . 5 centimeters snout - vent length and up to 3 . 8 centimeters by the time of first hibernation .\nflat , wide body , and a tail of moderate length . it has a relatively broad head for a horned lizard , the back of which is armed with short horns separated by a deep and relatively wide notch in which the notch between the occipital ( central ) horns is wider than the length of either horn . the two occipital horns are very short and do not extend back as far as the temporal horns on each side . the ventral scales are smooth and sharply pointed at the rear . one row of enlarged fringed scales lies at the margin of the abdomen and dorsum .\npowell , g . l . and a . p . russell . 1996b . short - horned lizards ( phrynosoma douglassii brevirostre ) in grasslands national park : a report on the 1995 field season . unpublished report , parks canada , val marie , sk . 74pp .\nzamudio , kelly r . , jones , k . bruce & ward , ryk h . 1997 . molecular systematics of short - horned lizards : biogeography and taxonomy of a widespread species complex . systematic biology 46 ( 2 ) : 284 - 305 - get paper here\nchandler , j . d . 1965 . horned toad record . the blue jay 23 ( 2 ) : 92 .\nyou can download a printable pdf with 8 different species of horned lizards found in the u . s . here .\nphotos above used by permission of wade sherbrooke from his book ,\nintroduction to horned lizards of north america\n.\ndespite their spiky features , short - horned lizards are preyed upon by a number of creatures , including hawks , roadrunners , snakes , lizards , dogs , wolves , and coyotes . consequently , beyond their natural camouflage , they have adapted a pair of remarkable talents . in order to ward off hungry predators , short - horned lizards are capable of inflating their bodies up to twice their size , resembling a spiny balloon . and if this proves insufficient , some species employ one of the animal kingdom\u2019s most bizarre defensive mechanisms : they shoot blood from their eyes .\ni was somewhat puzzled by the near - complete - absence of reptiles we saw on this pleasant may morning . it was a little too cool to expect many lizards , but i did expect at least a few . instead , an hour and a half of scenic beauty passed by with nary a lizard or snake to be seen . fortunately , the herping day was saved by this cute little guy . any day with a horned lizard in it is a good day , after all .\nhabitat : these lizards can be found in a variety of habitats including short - grass prairies , sagebrush , and open forests . loose soils are necessary for thermoregulation .\nsherbroke , w . c . 2003 . introduction to horned lizards of north america . university of california press , berkeley .\nwe were passing through southern utah on our big summer trip , so we made sure to stop at beautiful navajo lake so i could visit my horned lizard friends . the first afternoon we were there i searched for an hour or so and had almost given up when i discovered this saurian marvel . what a face !\nzamudio , k . r . 1996 . ecological , evolutionary , and applied aspects of lizard life histories . ph . d . dissertation . university of washington , seattle , wa . 167 p .\nnero , r . w . 1957 . records of the horned toad in saskatchewan . blue jay 15 : 119 - 120 .\nhorned lizards favor ants , especially of the genus pogonomyrmex , harvester ants , which comprise a generous portion of their food intake .\nsherbrooke , w . c . , e . beltran - sanchez , f . mendoza - quijano , b . baur , and g . a . middendorf , iii . 2004 . is there an antipredator blood - squirting defense in the bull horned lizard , phrynosoma taurus ? herpetological review 35 ( 4 ) : 345 - 347 .\nsherbrooke , wade c . 2003 . introduction to horned lizards of north america . university of california press , berkeley , 178 pp .\ngeneral description : small ( 6 to 16 cm ) dorso - ventrally compressed lizard with sharp spines on their body . most other horned lizards have large , conspicuous spines along the head , but spines in this species are greatly reduced . limbs and tails are relatively short and lateral spines are present along the lateral edge of the body . dorsal coloration is variable ranging from gray to shades of brown with small flecks of white , red , or yellow interspersed . six to eight larger dark blotches are often present on the dorsum .\n( state secure ) . general threats to conservation include habitat loss and fragmentation , and vehicle traffic on and off road . this species is also vulnerable to illegal collection . if you find yourself with a horned lizard ( e . g . , your child brings one home ) , and you cannot immediately return it to the location of collection , please contact\ndesert horned lizard ( phrynosoma platyrhinos ) desert horned lizards have a widespread range from oregon and idaho , south through utah , nevada , western arizona , southern california and into northeastern baja and northwestern sonora , mexico . they occur at elevations from below sea level to about 6 , 600 feet throughout the great basin , mojave , and sonorandeserts . the species can be found nearwoody shrubs , cacti , rocks and yuccas in alluvial fans , flats , washes , and valleys . phrynosoma platyrhinos has two long central horns and shorter side horns . desert horned lizards have a single row of abdominal fringe scales and a smooth back with a few scattered , larger spines .\ntheir bodies are kinda chubby with short legs . they generally are a greyish , yellowish , or red - brownish color and have rows of pointed scales along its sides ( see pic above ) .\nthese are small and light weight animals . large adults can be about 10 cm ( 4 inches ) long , but many specimens are smaller . an adult lizard can easily fit in the palm of a child ' s hand .\nof the many varieties of lizard in the family phrynosomatidae , only a few have a unique adaption not seen in any other species in response to predators . they shoot a stream of blood at their enemies , from their eyes !\nhubbard , kaylan a ; anna d chalfoun , and kenneth g gerow 2016 . the relative influence of road characteristics and habitat on adjacent lizard populations in arid shrublands journal of herpetology 50 ( 1 ) : 29 - 36 . - get paper here\nthis tiny horned lizard shows again how well these lizards adapt to match the local colors . we never would have seen this little tyke except that we had stopped for awhile to coax a nightsnake into posing for some pictures . while my friend john mccaffrey and i were wrangling the little snake , brenda mccaffrey noticed one of the rocks moving , only to realize that it wasn ' t really a rock .\nthis is the only species of lizard in colorado to give live birth , an adaptation for the relatively cool environments where this species resides . sexual reproduction has been noted in march and april in weld county ( d . martin & t . mathies ,\nsherbrooke , w . c . 2003 . introduction to the horned lizards of north america . university of california press , berkeley and los angeles , california . 191 pp .\nhorned lizards are decreasing . urban encroachment , radiation , and pesticides are among the factors hurting the species . legislation has been enacted to prevent collection as pets in many states . as in all national parks , the collecting of wild animals at bryce canyon is illegal . monitoring and acting on recorded observations is crucial to survival of horned lizards .\nfailing camouflage and flight , their ultimate defense from harassment is to shoot blood from their eyes . this isn\u2019t an old wives\u2019 tale like bats getting snarled in long hair \u2014 they really do it . it works pretty well , often startling the lizard\u2019s captor into dropping it .\ndefenses from predation : short - horned lizards primarily use cryptic behavior and coloration as a defense against predation . when discovered , they may flee for cover or stand their ground . they will readily inflate their lungs to appear larger or more difficult for a predator to swallow . in some cases , they will eject blood from their orbital sinus ( the corner of the eye ) , effectively squirting blood at a predator .\nmontanucci , r . r . 1979 . notes on systematics of horned lizards allied to phrynosoma orbiculare ( lacertilia : iguanidae ) . herpetologica 35 ( 2 ) : 116 - 124 .\nzamudio et al . ( 1997 ) examined mtdna variation in short - horned lizards throughout western north america and concluded that the pacific northwest segment of the population should be recognized as a species ( p . douglasii ) distinct from the species ( p . hernandesi ) represented in the remainder of the range . in addition , there was no support for the recognition of any of the nominal subspecies ; thus each species is best regarded as monotypic .\nwhile camping at nearby valley of fires state park , my sister and i drove out at night to look for snakes on the road nearby . after half an hour or so without seeing anything interesting , we noticed a little white blob in the road as we passed by . it certainly didn ' t look like a snake , but we went back to check it out anyway . we found this little horned lizard hunkered down in the middle of the road , which is not exactly what we expected .\npianka , e . r . and w . s . parker . 1975 . ecology of horned lizards : a review with special reference to phrynosoma platyrhinos . copeia 1975 ( 1 ) : 141 - 162 .\nhoward , c . w . 1974 . comparative reproductive ecology of horned lizards ( genus phrynosoma ) in the southwestern united states and northern mexico . journal of the arizona academy of science 9 : 108 - 116 .\nparker , w . s . , and e . r . pianka . 1975 . ecology of horned lizards : a review with special reference to phrynosoma platyrhinos . copeia 1975 ( 1 ) : 141 - 162 .\nsherbrooke , wade c . 2017 . antipredator nest guarding by female horned lizards ( phrynosoma ) : iguanian parental care herpetologica dec 2017 , vol . 73 , no . 4 : 331 - 337 . - get paper here\nthese bowls are handmade from stoneware , and fired to cone 5 . each bowl is different , and each scale is done individually by hand , as is the slip - painting in their bellies . there is no glaze on these pieces , but the mineral - pigmented slips are fired in place , and are indelible . because of the lack of glaze , i don\u2019t recommend them for frequent food use , or storing liquids . primarily they are meant to be gazed at adoringly . click here to see a picture of horned lizard bowls on threestarowl . com .\nphillips , j . a . and h . j . harlow . 1981 . elevation of upper voluntary temperatures after shielding the parietal eye of horned lizards ( phrynosoma douglassi ) . herpetologica 37 ( 4 ) : 199 - 205 .\nprieto , a . a . , jr . and w . g . whitford . 1971 . physiological responses to temperature in the horned lizards , phrynosoma cornutum and phrynosoma douglassii . copeia 1971 ( 3 ) : 498 - 504 .\nmeyers , j . j . ; herrel , a . & nishikawa , k . 2006 . morphological correlates of ant eating in horned lizards ( phrynosoma ) . biological journal of the linnean society 89 : 13\u201324 - get paper here\nreeder , t . w . and r . r . montanucci . 2001 . phylogenetic analysis of the horned lizards ( phrynosomatidae : phrynosoma ) : evidence from mitochondrial dna and morphology . copeia 2001 ( 2 ) : 309 - 323 .\nphillips , j . a . , h . j . harlow , and c . l . ralph . 1980 . set - point shifts of behavioral thermoregulation in horned lizards after parietal eye manipulation . american zoologist 20 ( 4 ) : 732 .\nreeder , t . w . & montanucci , r . r . 2001 . phylogenetic analysis of the horned lizards ( phrynomomatidae : phrynosoma ) : evidence from mitochondrial dna and morphology . copeia 2001 ( 2 ) : 309 - 323 - get paper here\nmy wife and i checked for horned lizards again on the morning after i had seen only one in the afternoon . morning was better ; we ended up seeing one adult and four youngsters . horned lizards rely strongly on camouflage , so it ' s often the case that the local population will be colored to closely match the ground . you can see that from the first one pictured here . the second one had run from the rust - colored ground to some mossy ground when it heard us stomping about .\nhabitats of this lizard range from semi - arid plains to high mountains ; usually the species is in open , shrubby , or openly wooded areas with sparse vegetation at ground level ; soil may vary from rocky to sandy ( degenhardt et al . 1996 , hammerson 1999 , stebbins 2003 , werner et al . 2004 ) . when not active on the surface , the lizards burrow into the soil or occupy rodent burrows .\nleach\u00e9 , adam d . and jimmy a . mcguire 2006 . phylogenetic relationships of horned lizards ( phrynosoma ) based on nuclear and mitochondrial data : evidence for a misleading mitochondrial gene tree . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 39 ( 3 ) : 628 - 644 - get paper here\nphrynosoma douglasii commonly occurs throughout the columbia basin and the cascades foothills in a variety of habitats including sagebrush plains , short - grass prairies and occasionally in open pine forests . always found near patches of loose soil or sand for burrowing . the substrate ( soil layer ) is always well - drained . however , this species is uncommon in steppe and intermountain forest . this species is found near ant hills .\nlara - res\u00e9ndiz rafael a . , arenas - moreno diego m . , beltr\u00e1n - s\u00e1nchez elizabeth , gramajo weendii , verdugo - molina javier , sherbrooke wade c . et al . 2015 . selected body temperature of nine species of mexican horned lizards ( phrynosoma ) rev . mex . biodiv . 86 ( 1 ) : 275 - 278 . - get paper here\nif threatened by predators , horned lizards will squirt blood from the eyes . the squirting blood comes from ducts in the corners of their eyes and can travel a distance of up to three feet ( one meter ) . it ' s meant to confuse would - be predators including birds , coyotes and snakes . the photo shows an adult with blood around the eyes .\nfood sources ants provide the bulk of this lizard\u2019s food , but it also eats beetles , grasshoppers , spiders , young snakes , snails , sowbugs and a variety of other insects and invertebrates . often they will wait for their prey to come by and snap up the unsuspecting prey whole . they rely heavily on their camouflage to avoid their many predators which include hawks , owls , roadrunners , snakes , lizards , wolves and coyotes . if spotted by a predator they can inflate their bodies up to twice their normal size and with the horns protruding appear to be a very unappetizing meal .\ntoads , but flat - bodied lizards with short spines crowning the head . the trunk is fringed by one row of pointed scales , while the belly scales are smooth . the color is gray , yellowish , or reddish - brown , and there are two rows of large dark spots on the back . when threatened or aggressive , its ' colors become more intense . the mountain subspecies is primarily reddish with prominent horizontal spines , and ranges from southern utah and western colorado through arizona , new mexico , and mexico .\nthese three young horned lizards were the highlight of a nice hike through the piney forest near tonto creek . i saw the first one when one of our dogs happened near enough to it that it ran a few inches . i saw the second when another of our dogs noticed it moving and stopped to sniff in its general direction . but the third one i actually saw without any canine assistance .\nhabitat use in montana is poorly described , but appears to be similar to other regions . reports mention individuals on ridge crests between coulees , and in sparse , short grass and sagebrush with sun - baked soil ( mosimann and rabb 1952 , dood 1980 ) . on the southern exposures of the pryor mountains , carbon county , individuals occur among limestone outcrops in canyon bottoms of sandy soil with an open canopy of limber pine - utah juniper , and are also present on flats of relatively pebbly or stony soil with sparse grass and sagebrush cover ( paul hendricks , personal observation ) .\nlisten to our podcast and hear from authors , readers , and publishers from across the country and around the world .\nsign up for one of our monthly newsletters , and we ' ll keep you up to date on our latest books , events , and other activities ! to thank you for signing up , you ' ll be entered in our monthly draw to win a book from our regina collection series . contest closes on the last day of each month .\nthe press is pleased to acknowledge the support of the canada book fund , the canada council for the arts , and creative saskatchewan ' s market and export development grant program .\nuniversity of regina press is located on treaty 4 territory , the traditional lands of the cree , saulteaux , and assiniboine , and the homelands of the m\u00e9tis .\nspecies are distinguishable by the formidable crown of horns adorning their head and the numerous spines across their back . their coloring can be yellowish , gray , or reddish - brown depending on the environment they inhabit , and , combined with their shape , affords them considerable camouflage on the surface . they feed primarily on ants , waiting for one to unsuspectingly crawl by before snapping it in and swallowing it whole . they are also known to eat grasshoppers , beetles , and spiders .\nthe ominous squirting blood emanates from ducts in the corners of their eyes and can travel a distance of up to three feet . it\u2019s meant to confuse would - be predators , but also contains a chemical that is noxious to dogs , wolves , and coyotes .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nwe request that if you make use of the textual contents of this site in reports , publications , etc . that you cite and credit the author ( s ) and photographer ( s ) . all photos on this website are copyrighted . however , those found in the species account and habitat sections may be used for any noncommercial scientific , educational , or conservation purposes provided that photographs are not altered and continue to bear the copyright symbol and name of the photographer . please contact the photographer regarding commercial use of copyrighted photographs .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nusing personal observations and reviewing literature that summarize the breeding , overwintering , or migratory habitat requirements of each species ( dobkin 1992 , hart et al . 1998 , hutto and young 1999 , maxell 2000 , foresman 2012 , adams 2003 , and werner et al . 2004 ) ;\ncalculating the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of montana covered by each ecological system to get a measure of\nobservations versus availability of habitat\n.\nspecies that breed in montana were only evaluated for breeding habitat use , species that only overwinter in montana were only evaluated for overwintering habitat use , and species that only migrate through montana were only evaluated for migratory habitat use . in general , species were listed as associated with an ecological system if structural characteristics of used habitat documented in the literature were present in the ecological system or large numbers of point observations were associated with the ecological system . however , species were not listed as associated with an ecological system if there was no support in the literature for use of structural characteristics in an ecological system ,\npoint observations were associated with that system . common versus occasional association with an ecological system was assigned based on the degree to which the structural characteristics of an ecological system matched the preferred structural habitat characteristics for each species as represented in scientific literature . the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of montana covered by each ecological system was also used to guide assignment of common versus occasional association . if you have any questions or comments on species associations with ecological systems , please contact the montana natural heritage program ' s senior zoologist .\nspecies associations with ecological systems should be used to generate potential lists of species that may occupy broader landscapes for the purposes of landscape - level planning . these potential lists of species should not be used in place of documented occurrences of species ( this information can be requested at :\n) or systematic surveys for species and evaluations of habitat at a local site level by trained biologists . users of this information should be aware that the land cover data used to generate species associations is based on imagery from the late 1990s and early 2000s and was only intended to be used at broader landscape scales . land cover mapping accuracy is particularly problematic when the systems occur as small patches or where the land cover types have been altered over the past decade . thus , particular caution should be used when using the associations in assessments of smaller areas ( e . g . , evaluations of public land survey sections ) . finally , although a species may be associated with a particular ecological system within its known geographic range , portions of that ecological system may occur outside of the species ' known geographic range .\nadams , r . a . 2003 . bats of the rocky mountain west ; natural history , ecology , and conservation . boulder , co : university press of colorado . 289 p .\ndobkin , d . s . 1992 . neotropical migrant land birds in the northern rockies and great plains . usda forest service , northern region . publication no . r1 - 93 - 34 . missoula , mt .\nforesman , k . r . 2012 . mammals of montana . second edition . mountain press publishing , missoula , montana . 429 pp .\nhart , m . m . , w . a . williams , p . c . thornton , k . p . mclaughlin , c . m . tobalske , b . a . maxell , d . p . hendricks , c . r . peterson , and r . l . redmond . 1998 . montana atlas of terrestrial vertebrates . montana cooperative wildlife research unit , university of montana , missoula , mt . 1302 p .\nhutto , r . l . and j . s . young . 1999 . habitat relationships of landbirds in the northern region , usda forest service , rocky mountain research station rmrs - gtr - 32 . 72 p .\nmaxell , b . a . 2000 . management of montana ' s amphibians : a review of factors that may present a risk to population viability and accounts on the identification , distribution , taxonomy , habitat use , natural history , and the status and conservation of individual species . report to u . s . forest service region 1 . missoula , mt : wildlife biology program , university of montana . 161 p .\nwerner , j . k . , b . a . maxell , p . hendricks , and d . flath . 2004 . amphibians and reptiles of montana . missoula , mt : mountain press publishing company . 262 p .\ncope , e . d . 1879 . a contribution to the zoology of montana . american naturalist 13 ( 7 ) : 432 - 441 .\ndood , a . r . 1980 . terry badlands nongame survey and inventory final report . montana department of fish , wildlife , and parks and bureau of land management , helena , mt . 70 pp .\nhammerson , g . a . 1999 . amphibians and reptiles in colorado . university press of colorado & colorado division of wildlife . denver , co . 484 p .\nhendricks , p . 1999 . amphibian and reptile survey of the bureau of land management miles city district , montana . montana natural heritage program , helena , mt . 80 p .\nmaxell , b . a . , j . k . werner , p . hendricks , and d . l . flath . 2003 . herpetology in montana : a history , status summary , checklists , dichotomous keys , accounts for native , potentially native , and exotic species , and indexed bibliography . society for northwestern vertebrate biology , northwest fauna number 5 . olympia , wa . 135 p .\nmosimann , j . e . and g . b . rabb . 1952 . the herpetology of tiber reservoir area , montana . copeia ( 1 ) : 23 - 27 .\nnussbaum , r . a . , e . d . brodie , jr . and r . m . storm . 1983 . amphibians and reptiles of the pacific northwest . university of idaho press . moscow , id . 332 pp .\nrussell , a . p . and a . m . bauer . 1993 . the amphibians and reptiles of alberta . university of calgary press . calgary , alberta . 264 p .\nst . john , a . d . 2002 . reptiles of the northwest : california to alaska , rockies to the coast . lone pine publishing , renton , wa . 272 p .\nstebbins , r . c . 2003 . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians . 3rd edition . houghton mifflin company , boston and new york . 533 p .\n[ oea ] olson elliot and associates research . 1985 . 1983 - 1984 wildlife monitoring report for the cx ranch project . olson elliot and associates research . helena , mt .\n[ presi ] powder river eagle studies incorporated . 1998b . spring creek mine 1997 wildlife monitoring studies . powder river eagle studies incorporated . gillete , wy .\n[ usfws ] us fish and wildlife service . 1994 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; animal candidate review for listing as endangered or threatened species . federal register 59 ( 219 ) : 58982 - 59028 .\n[ vtnwi ] vtn wyoming incorporated . no date . second year ' s analysis of terrestrial wildlife on proposed mine access and railroad routes in southern montana and northern wyoming , march 1979 - february 1980 . vtn wyoming incorporated . sheridan , wy . 62 p .\n[ wesco ] western ecological services company . 1983b . wildlife inventory of the southwest circle known recoverable coal resource area , montana . western ecological services company , novato , ca . 131 p .\nallen , j . a . 1874 . notes on the natural history of portions of dakota and montana territories , being the substance of a report to the secretary of war on the collections made by the north pacific railroad expedition of 1873 . proceedings of the boston society of natural history . pp . 68 - 70 .\nbaxter , g . t . and m . d . stone . 1985 . amphibians and reptiles of wyoming . second edition . wyoming game and fish department . cheyenne , wy . 137 p .\nbenson , k . r . 1978 . herpetology of the lewis and clark expedition 1804 - 1806 . herpetological review 9 ( 3 ) : 87 - 91 .\nbrunson , r . b . 1955 . check list of the amphibians and reptiles of montana . proceedings of the montana academy of sciences 15 : 27 - 29 .\nbureau of indian affairs , department of the interior . 1981 . draft environmental impact statement . unpublished report for the crow / shell coal lease , crow indian reservation , montana .\nburroughs , r . d . 1961 . natural history of the lewis and clark expedition . michigan state university press , east lansing . 340 p .\ncarlson , j . ( coordinator , montana animal species of concern committee ) . 2003 . montana animal species of concern . helena , mt : montana natural heritage program and montana fish , wildlife , and parks . in press . 12p .\ncooper , j . g . 1869 . notes on the fauna of the upper missouri . american naturalist 3 : 294 - 299 .\ncooper , j . g . 1869 . the fauna of montana territory . ii . birds . american naturalist 3 : 31 - 35 , 73 - 84 ."]}
{"id": 562, "summary": [{"text": "the wels catfish ( / \u02c8w\u025bls / or / \u02c8v\u025bls / ; silurus glanis ) , also called sheatfish , is a large species of catfish native to wide areas of central , southern , and eastern europe , in the basins of the baltic , black , and caspian seas .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it has been introduced to western europe as a sport fish and is now found from the united kingdom all the way east to kazakhstan and china and south to greece and turkey .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it is a scaleless freshwater fish recognizable by its broad , flat head and wide mouth .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "wels catfish can live for at least fifty years . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "wels catfish", "paragraphs": ["a wels catfish attacks jeremy wade , giving him the information he was after : will a wels catfish attack a human ? apparently so .\nregardless , ferrari ' s fish is one of the biggest wels catfish recorded in recent history .\nfor more information about catfish species and groups , see bullhead ; candiru ; corydoras ; electric catfish ; madtom ; wels . the catfish is also important in aquaculture .\nthe wels catfish was put in a sling and weighed out at 280 pounds . photo is from the sportex italia facebook page\nrecently , wels catfish have been spotted in non - native habitats lunging out of the water to grab pigeons on land .\nbritton jr , pegg j , sedwick r , page r . investigating the catch returns and growth rate of wels catfish ,\nbut if there ' s an epicenter of wels catfishing , it is surely northern spain ' s river ebro . wels catfish were introduced here in 1974 and promptly went wild , growing at a phenomenal rate .\njeremy wade shows just how deadly the monstrous wels catfish can be . whatever goes into that mouth is not coming back out !\ndino ferrari hooked the huge wels catfish , which was 2 . 67m in length , last week in the po delta in italy\nmr ferrari ( pictured ) poses with his monster catch . wels catfish can grow as long as 13ft and weigh up to 62st\naccording to fish biologist and national geographic explorer zeb hogan , the animal is a wels catfish , the largest freshwater fish in europe .\ndino ferrari hooked the huge wels catfish , which was 2 . 67m in length , last week in the po delta in italy .\na wels natural diet consists of crayfish , frogs , fish , small mammals and ducklings .\none of the largest - living catfish species , the wels catfish has been recorded at a 5 metre length , although this record is doubtful and sightings today of fish this size are rare .\nvoracious predatory habits make the wels catfish a serious threat to populations of native vertebrates . water quality may also be reduced through drastic trophic alterations .\nafter weighing the wels catfish , dino and dario ferrari released the beast back into the po delta . photo is from the sportex italia facebook page\nmarket - size usda 103 catfish ready for harvest . this new variety grows faster than other catfish .\nwalking catfish - [ clarias batrachus - also hybrids with c . gareipinus , north african sharptooth catfish ]\nwels catfish are one of the few large species of freshwater fish that aren ' t endangered , hogan says . ( learn more about megafish . )\nmany other eurasian invaders arrived in ballast water , but the wels is more likely to arrive by another route . federal regulations do nothing to prevent shipping wels into the country , meaning there is no legal means of preventing wels catfish from arriving in the u . s . for use in the pet trade , fish farms , or live food markets .\nany wels catfish bigger than 6 . 5 feet is considered extremely rare . this one was 8 . 8 feet . photo from the sportex italia facebook page\nwels catfish can be distinguished from other european catfish by 6 long barbels under the lower jaw , a scaleless mucous - coated elongated body and very small dorsal fin ( britton et al . , 2010 ) .\nthe wels catfish can live for thirty years and live off annelid worms , gastropods , insects , crustaceans and fish including other catfish ; the larger ones also eat frogs , mice , rats , and even ducks .\nlocal concern : voracious predatory habits make the wels catfish a serious threat to populations of native vertebrates . water quality may also be reduced through drastic trophic alterations .\nthe wels catfish , also called sheatfish , is native to wide areas of central , southern , and eastern europe , and near the baltic and caspian seas .\nthe opinions of fishermen on the wels are diverse . many are excited about the growing population and are upgrading their equipment - - in order to catch the wels catfish , you need an extremely heavy fishing rod and large pieces of bait . but many traditional fishermen hate the wels . as soon as it appears on the scene , populations of native species seem to drop .\na large , brown catfish , differing from most other catfish by having a long , eel - like tail .\nwels catfish look extremely different to any other coarse fish found within the uk , their elongated body , large head , small eyes and six whiskers are a sure sign of a catfish . wels have a mottled creamy colouring of olive and bronze which covers most of the fish except for its underside which is pale yellow or white .\nthere is a large and growing ornamental fish trade , with hundreds of species of catfish , especially the genus corydoras , being a popular component of many aquariums . these are commonly known as cory ' s . other catfish commonly found in the aquarium trade are armored suckermouth catfish , banjo catfish , talking catfish , and long - whiskered catfish .\nthe british record fish committee unfortunately stopped accepting record claims for wels catfish and closed the record list ( see above ) , this followed a period of illegal fish smuggling into england from mainland europe , during which some claims were submitted citing fisheries with no known history of wels catfish being present . the european record for the wels catfish is 316lb 8oz ( that\u2019s an incredible 144kg & 2 . 78m long ) , ironically caught from the river po in italy where they were also introduced as an alien species .\nrod manufacturer sportex italia , which sponsors mr ferrari , claimed that the 2 . 67m wels catfish was a world record size to be caught with its torpedo spinning rod .\naccording to a british wels catfish website , they have hundreds \u201cvelcro - like teeth\u201d used to hold prey before passing food to \u201ccrushing pads\u201d at the back of the throat .\nthe wels catfish , which can reach nine feet long and weigh more than 200 pounds , is one of seven animals were recently added to michigan\u2019s list of prohibited species .\nwalking catfish has been introduced in the freshwaters of florida , with these voracious catfish becoming a major alien pest there .\nthe wels catfish s . glanis is part of the family siluridae , a group of freshwater fish native to europe , asia and africa . there are 100 species from 12 genera in the family . there are 18 silurus species , of which two are native to europe : wels catfish and aristotles catfish ( s . aristotelis ) . wels catfish is the largest fish out of the order siluriformes and can attain a maximum length of 500 cm , although it more commonly reaches 300 cm . it is the largest - bodied european freshwater fish ( copp et al . , 2009 ) .\ncatfishes range in size from a few inches to a few feet . the one ferrari caught is reportedly a wels catfish , which can get up to 15 feet long , making this 8 . 75 - foot long catfish barely above average . we ' re seeing reports that the biggest wels could be anywhere from more than 300 pounds up to 660 .\nthe wels catfish is the second - largest freshwater fish in its region , ranking behind the beluga sturgeon . the largest beluga sturgeon on record is reportedly 3 , 463 pounds .\nwels catfish are aggressive predators , however , and they ' ll eat pretty much anything they can fit in their cavernous maws . other popular baits include live and dead carp .\nrecently , another newcomer has emerged in the rhine : the goby , hardly the size of a finger , was first found in the river in 2008 and has expanded similarly to the wels catfish . the rhine fishermen society is calling it\none of the most dramatic changes in the rhine fauna that has ever been documented .\nthe wels catfish love gobies . the tiny creatures like hanging out on the riverbed , making easy prey for predator fish . whether the goby is partially responsible for the wels catfish expansion is still unclear .\n\u2191 catfish billy ' s big cat diaries . 2007 . exploring the catfish ' s senses retrieved january 4 , 2007 .\nblue catfish - [ ictalurus furcatus ] the largest mississippi catfish and the second best north american catfish for eating , after the closely related channel catfish . details & cooking . illustration by u . s . fish and wildlife service = public domain .\nitalian fisherman dino ferrari with his 280 - pound wels catfish from the po delta . it might be a world record on rod and reel . photo from the sportex italia facebook page\nthe po river and delta are known for massive wels catfish , but anything bigger than 6 . 5 feet is considered extremely rare , and this one measured 8 . 8 feet .\nit was found in the po delta , which is known for having the perfect living conditions for giant wels to flourish .\nbut mr feltham , 52 , said he was now convinced that nessie was a wels catfish - a giant fearsome fish that can grow as long as 13ft and up to 62 stone .\nvirtually all wels catfishing in europe is catch - and - release , and a fish this size will almost never be kept .\nthe wels catfish was introduced to britain , italy , spain , greece and some other countries during the last century . the species has flourished in the warm lakes and rivers of southern europe . the river danube , river po in italy and the river ebro in spain are famous for huge wels catfish , which grow up to 2 metres . these habitats contain plenty of food and lack natural predators .\ncatfish are raised in warm climates , are inexpensive , and are safe food for the local grocers . the most popular catfish in florida is the channel fish ; the second most desired is the white catfish .\ncatfish have a sweet , mild flesh which makes them important as food fish throughout the world . blue catfish and bullheads ( ictalurids ) are cultivated in north america ( especially in the deep south , with mississippi being the largest domestic catfish producer . airbreathing catfish ( clariids ) and shark catfish ( pangasiidae ) are heavily cultured in africa and asia .\n, sheatfish or wels catfish , is native to eastern europe and asia . it has been introduced to several other areas including germany , france , spain , england , greece , turkey and the netherlands .\nwels catfish are carriers of viral pathogens ; spring viraemia of carp ( svc ) and european sheatfish virus ( esv ) , which may adversely impact native fish including salmonids and amphibians . wels catfish are also hosts of specialist parasites such as trichodina siluri , myxobolus miyarii , leptorhynchoides plagicephalus and pseudotracheliastes stellifer which may be detrimental to native fish survival ( copp et al . 2009 ; copp et al . 2010 ) .\nbritton jr , pegg j , 2007 . investigating the catch returns and growth rate of wels catfish ( siluris glanis ) , using mark - recapture . fisheries management and ecology , 14 : 263 - 268 .\nthe u . k . mirror reported that ferrari ' s fish could possibly be the world ' s biggest wels catfish caught with a rod and reel , though records of this sort are difficult to confirm .\nwels , large , voracious catfish of the family siluridae , native to large rivers and lakes from central europe to western asia . one of the largest catfishes , as well as one of the largest of european freshwater fishes , the wels attains a length of about 4 . 5 m ( 15 feet ) and a weight of 300 kg ( 660\u2026\n\u2191 catfish billy ' s big cat diaries . 2007 . exploring the catfish ' s senses . big cat diaries retrieved january 11 , 2007 .\nthis large and powerful fish is becoming more popular with international anglers as internet tales and photographs of monster wels keep trickling out of europe .\nwels catfish have an elongated scaleless body , a large head , tiny eyes , and a powerful forebody with a laterally compressed tail . the cavernous mouth has hundreds of rows of very small , gripping teeth on both its top and bottom jaws . the wels catfish has six barbules : those on the upper jaw are carried straight in front to detect prey , whilst the four shorter ones on the lower jaw hang straight down .\nunlike earlier invaders , the wels is a top predator that eats other fish and even birds . type \u201ccatfish eats pigeons\u201d into a search engine if you want proof . in their native waters large specimens have become scarce .\nin the uk , wels catfish are non - native and therefore require an ilfa ( introduction of live fish act ) license for introduction as part of regulatory legislation control and enforcement . according to hickley and chare ( 2004 ) , recreational fishing and aquaculture are the predominant introductory pathways for s . glanis . unregulated activities , both intentional and accidental , from recreational fishing and flooding spates from lakes are of concern with recent reports of wels catfish in river great ouse and river thames in the uk from the catfish conservation group .\nthe cannibalistic wels catfish , also known as the sheatfish , is native to europe and can grow as long as 13ft and up to 62st - but it is exceedingly rare to catch one that is over two metres long .\nin the 1860\u2019s , in anticipation of the possible use of wels catfish to feed the masses ,\nthe times\nnewspaper suggested that the fish was\nthe most important animal introduction since the bringing of the turkey\n, describing the flesh as\nveal with a rich eel - like flavour , superior to salmon .\nhowever , the use of the wels catfish as a food source does not appear to have been as successful as was anticipated .\nthe wels catfish never played much of a role in our waters ,\nstaas says .\nthat has changed .\nhe suspects human activity may be behind the boom , in the form of uncontrolled releases . manuel lankau , biologist with the westphalia fishermen ' s association , agrees .\nit ' s highly possible that the wels catfish has spread because of fish stocking policies , and that in recent years the diverse populations have coalesced .\ncatfish , which have a sweet , mild flesh , are important as food fish throughout the world . ictalurids are cultivated in north america ( especially in the deep south , with mississippi being the largest domestic catfish producer ) . [ 25 ] in the southeastern united states , catfish are an extremely popular food . the fish , mostly channel catfish and blue catfish , are found in most waterways in the region . a favorite catfish dish is breaded with cornmeal and fried .\nnothing is known about home range sizes or patterns of movement in these catfish .\ncatfish can become very tired after a lengthy battle , always ensure that the catfish is fully rested before its release . to do this , suspend the catfish in the water until it has recovered enough to swim away under its own steam .\ncatfish have well developed sensory organs , with many such organs covering their bodies .\na post about the biggest catfish records has been well - liked by readers .\nthey also eat other catfish and may have eaten breeding females over time .\nwels catfish have been known to grow up to 15 feet ( 4 . 6 meters ) long and reach sizes of 300 to 660 pounds , depending on the source . they can live for decades , possibly as long as 80 years .\na very strong rod is required when in pursuit of wels catfish , a rod with a 3lb test curve or above is highly recommended , although a heavy duty carp rod of 2 3 / 4 lb would be sufficient for small cats .\nfor all those crazy guys who go \u2018noodling\u2019 for catfish and stick their arms down the fish\u2019s throat ! ! this would be \u2018all the catfish you can eat . \u2019\nas a starting point you can aim to look for likely features that the catfish may inhabit or patrol , such as their lairs ( see habitat ) but it is known that catfish will actively hunt and will follow both scent trails and transmissions from injured fish . so providing that your baits are well presented and attractive to the catfish , there is a good chance that a hungry wels will find your bait .\ncatfish range in size and behaviour from the heaviest , the giant mekong catfish in southeast asia and the longest , the wels catfish of eurasia . the average size of the species is about 1 . 2 metres to 1 . 6 metres , and fish more than 2 metres are very rare . the largest specimens on record measure more than 2 . 5 metres in length and sometimes exceed 100 kilograms in weight .\nthis opportunity is greater than ever before . the population of wels catfish , also known as sheatfish , is rapidly expanding in germany . the fish can grow up to be three meters ( 10 feet ) long , weigh up to 150 kilograms ( 330 pounds ) and live as long as 80 years . fishermen say the wels population has been increasing at a swift pace , and researchers are puzzled by the sudden boom .\nthe addition of wels catfish in recreational catch and release fisheries is likely to have a beneficial revenue effect . however , consideration must be given to the economic costs that are likely to arise from management control policies with the removal of s . glanis from unlicensed waters ; monitoring , removal costs and challenges in recapturing demersal species . removal of wels catfish from unlicensed lakes appears to be a priority for the environment agency in england and wales , although how successful these measures are in practice has yet to be ascertained .\nwels catfish are rumored to reach 15 feet and upwards of 600 pounds . bringing them to shore is hot work . yes , this woman is topless . maybe she was sunbathing when the fish hit ( europeans see these things differently than we do ) .\nmany species of catfish in the wild spawn once a year , with sexual maturity reached from three to five years . in catfish farms , the average time for maturity decreases .\noh , and i wanted to add : the wels in england ( where they were also introduced by man ) are only very very small compared to those at continental europe . this is probably a result of the climate , as its growth is highly dependent from temperature . the english record from 1997 was only a meager wels of 62lb ( 28 . 123 kilo\u2019s ) , and this is already exceptional big for england . so it is hard to imagine that there were any serious injuries caused by english wels .\nitalian fisherman dino ferrari , an expert at catching big wels catfish , outdid himself on thursday when he landed an enormous 280 - pounder in the po delta , a part of the famous po river , the longest river in italy at more than 400 miles .\nposter - pm - 9350 wels catfish european freshwater silurus glanis showing whiskers pat morris please note that prints are for personal display purposes only and may not be reproduced in anyway . contact details : prints @ urltoken tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 8672 2067\nthe wels catfish was first successfully introduced into the uk over 130 years ago by the duke of bedford who stocked 70 of them into his now famous lakes at woburn abbey in bedfordshire . we still consider wels catfish as rarities in britain , although their distribution is increasing every year and there are now catfish waters in nearly every county in england . for a time it was certainly true that the majority of the uk waters were within 50 miles of woburn abbey , however there was a big increase in numbers of catfish coming into the uk in the late 1990s when fish farmers and dealers starting importing cats from mainland europe with the vast majority of those coming from croatia . since then as fisheries have matured and stocks have been managed this had led to a steady if not huge availability of catfish to those looking to increase existing stocks or introduce cats into their waters for the first time . there are now over 500 licenced waters in the uk and possibly as many as 100 unlicensed you should never be too far away from a water containing wels catfish .\nan enormous catfish weighing 20 stone has been caught in italy using only a fishing rod .\nwe have an exclusive specimen carp lake with carp in excess of 37lb , a dedicated catfish lake with catfish to 40lb + and a small pleasure lake for day tickets and matches .\nbright agrotech holds tc in the highest regard and refers to her on all matters catfish .\nbullheads are a variety of american freshwater catfish that inhabits slow moving backwaters with soft bottoms . they differ from most catfish in having squared off tails and being relatively small in size .\nthe catfish lake started off with over 100 wels catfish but over the last couple of years the carp population has greatly increased so now the lake has become a good alternative to the top lake . the biggest catfish to be landed during 2016 was just short of 40lb but that is by no means the biggest catfish in the lake . the carp run to 20lb and can prove to be good sport during the day when fishing for the catfish can be tricky . for anyone looking to catch both , carp and catfish then this lake is perfect . most methods work for the catfish but worms at night and lots of halibut pellets during the day has proved to be the winning methods . if fishing for carp use smaller halibuts or fishmeal boilies and you will stand a good chance of catching both carp and catfish . we feed the carp and catfish on a mix of haibut pellets , wheat , barley and maize . fishing is by advanced booking only by calling or texting our booking line on\nwels catfish are native to eastern europe but were introduced to italy and spain in the 1970s by anglers . the fish have flourished in southern europe , enjoying a respite from natural predators , an abundance of prey , and warmer water , which helps them grow faster .\nthe wels catfish is originally from the eastern countries in europe and until recently thought to originate no further west than germany . however , they have recently been re - classified when fossilised remains of one were discovered in belgium . their near neighbours in france are still arguing amongst themselves to some extent as to whether catfish had inhabited some of their eastern rivers previously !\nfew anglers venture into eastern europe where commercial fishing is rife but this is where wels catfish are indigenous and with a lot of research and perseverance good catfishing can be found . large catfish exist in the rivers volga , ural , dneiper and don in russia , the danube in hungary , and romania , and the huge vranov reservoir system in the czech republic .\nthis is why michigan recently took the precaution of listing wels catfish as a prohibited species . the designation prohibits possession and transport of live animals . for more details on invasive species law see the fact sheet produced in cooperation with michigan sea grant and michigan state university extension .\nthe back of the catfish ' s eyes are coated with a layer of crystals that reflect light allowing for excellent vision . this allows the catfish to be an astute hunter . [ 19 ]\ncatfish have no scales . all catfish , except members of electric catfish family , possess a strong , hollow , bony leading ray on their dorsal and pectoral fins , through which a stinging protein can be delivered if the fish is irritated . in members of the family plotosidae ( eeltail catfish ) and of the genus heteropneustes ( sri lanka stinging catfish ) , this protein is so strong it can put a human being in hospital if they are unfortunate enough to receive a sting .\nand for a legitimate shot at a 200 - pound catfish , it ' s no wonder .\nthe wels catfish lays 25 , 000 eggs in one clutch . after three years , the young fish are ready to breed , and after another three years they typically grow to be a meter long . while the fish naturally spawns only once every 10 years , the summer temperatures in the rhine apparently increase the capacity to breed each year . still lankau , the biologist , says he wouldn ' t call the fish a menace .\nthe wels catfish will not deprive itself of its own basic food source by eating up all the other fish ,\nhe says .\nin asia , many catfish species are important food fish . several walking catfish ( clariidae ) and shark catfish ( pangasiidae ) species are heavily cultured in africa and asia . exports of one particular shark catfish species from vietnam , pangasius bocourti , has met with pressures from the u . s . catfish industry . in 2003 , the u . s . congress passed a law preventing the imported fish from being labeled as catfish . [ 27 ] as a result , the vietnamese exporters of this fish now label their products sold in the u . s . as\nbasa fish .\nthe mirror and nt news reported that the biggest wels catfish ever recorded was a 9 . 1 - footer from the po delta , but they differ on its weight - - one reporting it as 308 pounds , the other as 317 pounds . the method of that catch is uncertain .\nsometimes you just get lucky with the experimental items , but we found 10 secret ( and proven ) catfish baits you didn\u2019t know about that have the staying power to attract catfish time after time .\nthe large wide mouth of the wels catfish contains hundreds of small teeth that feel like velcro to the touch , these are used to move food and prey to the rear of the throat , where crushing pads crush the food prior to swallowing . surrounding their mouths catfish have six whiskers , two on the upper jaw which are used for detecting prey and four whiskers on the lower jaw .\nthe heaviest catfish are mekong giant catfish ( pangasianodon gigas ) which can reach 9 feet and over 600 pounds . unfortunately they are currently listed as critically endangered and should not be fished or eaten . the longest is the eurasian wels catfish ( silurus glanis ) which can reach nearly 10 feet and 330 pounds . this fish is common in central , southern and eastern europe , in the baltic region and the caspian sea . it is currently iuc red listed as lc ( least concern ) .\nthe enormous wels catfish is rapidly expanding in german waters . the fish can grow up to 10 feet long and weigh over 300 pounds , making recreational fishermen excited about the prospects of catching one . while biologists aren ' t yet calling the fish pests , they are puzzled by the boom .\nwith fish this size , it ' s no wonder that tales of man - eating catfish abound .\ncatfish are a tasty choice and are definitely worth considering if you plan on raising a food fish .\nanother admirable quality is that catfish are hardy , and thrive at convenient temperatures ; a system that stays around 60 - 70 degrees is ideal , and catfish will keep eating to at temperature of 55 .\nwels catfish often lay in quiet , dark lairs until ready to feed : overhanging trees , weed beds , lilies and hollows under the bank or on a lake or river bed provide ideal locations . they inhabit rivers and large lakes and ponds where they occupy both a scavenger and apex predator role .\nthere are lot ' s of possibilities when you are choosing a fish for your system . catfish are a great fish and might just be your perfect match . let ' s talk about catfish in aquaponics .\n< h2 > wels world record < / h2 > < strong > all - tackle record : < / strong > 134 . 97 kilograms ( 297 pounds , 9 ounces ) , river po , italy\nwels catfish reach sexual maturity between 3 & 5 years of age and tend to spawn when water temperatures reach a consistent 18 - 20 degrees , normally between may & july . as soon as the water is warm enough , the male catfish will find a quiet area where he can pack and smooth down the lake bed in order to build a nest , once built he will wait for a female to visit .\nmovie showing european catfish displaying beaching behavior to capture land birds , with two successful and two unsuccessful attacks .\nthe behavior of the catfish when hunting pigeons is highlighted in the study , published on dec . 5 .\nan italian angler made the catch of his life this week , hauling in a 280 - pound catfish from the po river ( above , the angler can be seen catching a slightly smaller catfish in 2013 ) .\na catfish ' s sex can be identified by looking at its genitals , two openings are present on the belly of the catfish , the anus and the genital opening . the opening towards the head is the anus , while the opening towards the tail is the genital opening . male catfish have a genital opening that is raised and pointed in appearance , whilst the female catfish have a genital opening that is rounder and shorter .\ncatfish have excellent hearing and anglers sometimes use a clonk on large waters ( a clonk is a wooden stick used to hit the water ) as the sound vibrations can be effective in luring catfish into an area .\nthough the most common catfish \u2013 channel , blue and flathead catfish \u2013 have varied preferences in their natural diets , they are all opportunistic feeders . this means that if bait is enticing enough , they will not discriminate .\nthere are more than two thousand species of catfish to be found in the world today . the smallest is fully - grown at 20 mm . the largest is reputed to attain a length of more than five metres . this fish is the european wels catfish , silurus glanis , is one of the world ' s largest freshwater fish and is the largest freshwater fish in europe . it can be found throughout europe and into asia .\nanother reason for introductions is as a biocontrol agent for controlling cyprinid fish . s . glanis was introduced to netherlands from hungary for this purpose . wels catfish occur in the flemish part of belgium . simoens et al . ( 2002 ) report that in lake schulen in flanders , large wels catfish which had been illegally introduced by anglers had successfully reproduced . introductions to rivers in spain have resulted in abundant populations in four river basins , where catfish can reach large sizes > 1 m ( carol . et al . , 2009 ) . according to linhart et al . ( 2002 ) , s . glanis has been farmed historically in austria , bulgaria , croatia , germany , france , hungary , greece , macedonia , poland , the czech republic and romania .\ngottfriend s . has been fishing for 40 years in the sieg , a tributary of the rhine in the western state of north rhine - westphalia . he shrugs as he points to an empty bucket .\nyou used to always find trout here , but the wels catfish is wiping everything out ,\nhe says . his fishermen ' s association this year got rid of all its closed seasons for catching the catfish , calling on its members to target the fish and not throw them back in the water . but that ' s not always easy . gottfried s . recently had to call in the help of a local farmer to help an exhausted fisherman pull a giant wels catfish out of the water . they needed a tractor to get the job done .\ncatfish range in size and behavior from the heaviest , the mekong giant catfish in southeast asia , and the longest , the wels catfish of eurasia , to detritivores ( species that eat dead material on the bottom ) , and even to a tiny parasitic species commonly called the candiru , vandellia cirrhosa , which are known to attack humans ( by entering the urethra of humans ) . members of most madtom species are no more than five inches ( 12 . 7 cm ) long ; some are less than two in . ( 5 cm ) long .\njeremy was lucky enough to catch a goonch catfish once before , but not so much the second time around .\nit was 3 o ' clock in the morning when the wels catfish bit . peter neumann fought with the beast for a full hour before he finally released the hook from the enormous mouth and threw the fish back into the rhine river .\nwhat would you do with such a huge animal ?\nasks neumann , an expert on the wels catfish , a large species found across europe . they don ' t taste particularly good , and they generally have very little usable meat . but catching the fish as a sport is becoming more and more popular . many anglers are discovering the opportunity to snag some of the impressive specimen right in their own backyard .\nresearchers captured a video of the catfish attacking the pigeons on the tarn . pigeons gather along the gravel to clean and bathe as the catfish - - measuring three to five feet long - - patrol the waters edge , according to discover magazine . when the catfish hunt the pigeons , they temporarily strand themselves on land for a few seconds .\nthe wels catfish , although predatory has never been demonstrated to have a detrimental impact on other species of fish in uk waters . at the time of writing there are over 500 licenced catfish waters in the uk , out of which only a handful of waters are known to have become dominated by cats and these tend to be commercial waters . just like pike , it\u2019s felt that where waters are left to find their own balance this will even itself out fairly quickly and the cats will start to control their own numbers . the reality with commercial type waters is the cats are usually well managed . the ccg have helped one or two waters out by finding new homes for these catfish often creating new catfish fisheries in the process . catfish are a positive help in fisheries in control of sick / dead fish and have the advantage of preying on crayfish , so in waters plagued by crayfish catfish can help keep them under control .\ncatfish are predatory but also scavengers and will eat most baits as well as most small animals and birds .\nif you want to thank aleece for her wonderful advice , check out her website and read up on channel catfish .\n) , with a maximum length and weight of 1 . 5 metres and 68 kilograms , and the channel catfish (\nkazakhstan in asia introduced catfish in to the river ili sytem the mid 20th century and these have now attained huge proportions with fish of over 100kg captured every season . the mighty syr darya to the west has a natural catfish population as well as perhaps the biggest catfish to be caught anywhere . life ' s just too short for the avid cat fisher !\ncatfish have inhabited all continents at one time or another . catfish are most diverse in tropical south america , asia and africa with one family native to north america and one family in europe . more than half of all catfish species live in the americas . they are the only ostariophysans that have entered freshwater habitats in madagascar , australia , and new guinea .\nthey may be brutishly ugly , but that hasn ' t stopped the wels catfish from becoming one of the most sought - after gamefish in europe , and north american anglers are starting to take notice as well .\noh yeah , we ' re seeing more americans and canadians coming over for a chance to catch these fish ,\nsays bunn .\nestimated aggregations size averaged 25 adults wels catfish and ranged from 15 to 44 adults among the 17 surveys . the groups were mainly composed of 120 - cm long individuals , followed by some 210 - cm long individuals and few 170 - cm long individuals ( a 60 - cm long individual , observed at a few occasions , was not used for the subsequent estimation of aggregation biomass , density and excretion ) . estimated body - length distribution was computed as followed : 66 % 120 cm tl , 14 % 170 cm tl and 20 % 210 cm tl . total biomass of the aggregation was estimated assuming a sex ratio of 1\u22361 and using the length - weight relationships for females and males wels catfish (\nit should come as no surprise that a eurasian catfish known for its healthy appetite , giant size and eel - like tail might pose a threat to native species in the great lakes region if it is introduced to local waters . the wels catfish is a creature of legend in its home waters around the black and caspian seas and west to germany , and before the action of the natural resources commission little could have prevented it from becoming a reality in the great lakes .\nits native area is the same region that produced successful great lakes invaders including zebra mussels , quagga mussels , round goby , and spiny water flea so there is little doubt that the wels can thrive in a climate similar to ours .\nstill , it\u2019s not every week you see such big creatures or hear a cool fish tale . cnn reports that ( after a flurry of photos to prove it was real ) ferrari released the fish back into the water . the wels catfish can live for decades , though , so maybe we\u2019ll see the same one resurface at a record - breaking size .\nlike their namesake feline companions , catfish are hunting pigeons as prey in a development scientists are calling evidence of adaptive behavior .\n\u2191 k . sutton , 2007 . understanding catfish senses . game and fish magazine online . retrieved january 11 , 2007 .\n\u2191 mississippi state university extension service . 2006 . aquaculture : catfish . msucares . com . retrieved january 3 , 2007 .\nspawning habits vary between catfish species . catfish such as the channel catfish , the blue catfish and the white catfish are nest builders . spawning occurs mostly in rivers and streams in the spring and early summer when waters warm to 70 to 85 degrees fahrenheit . catfish also will spawn in larger lakes where suitable habitat is available . eggs are deposited in nests secluded under banks or logs or over open bottom . the male chooses the nesting site , often a natural cavern or hole , clears the nest and guards the eggs and young . a female may lay 2 , 000 to 21 , 000 eggs that hatch in 6 to 10 days depending on water temperature . males protect the fry until they leave the nest in about a week .\nthe white catfish ( ameiurus catus ) eat fish as their major food , but they also eat larval aquatic insects , small crustaceans , fish eggs and aquatic plants . they may feed at night , but are not as nocturnal as other catfish .\nunless you live in antarctica , the only continent they aren\u2019t known to inhabit , there is a species of catfish nearby .\nthese characteristics , coupled with their prolific distribution , make catfish one of the most popular recreational game fish in the world .\nthere are dozens of ways to cook catfish , and even if you overcook them , they just get a bit dense .\nin the united states , catfish species may be known by a variety of slang names , such as\nmud cat\n,\npolliwogs\n, or\nchuckleheads\n. these nicknames are not standardized , so one area may call a bullhead catfish by the nickname\nchucklehead\n, while in another state or region , that nickname refers to the blue catfish .\nregardless , the meager figures that do exist document an impressive development . in the 1980s there were few reports of wels catfish catches . in 1996 there were 656 kilograms registered , a figure that jumped to 1 , 282 kilos the next year . the most recent figures come from 2010 , when fishermen caught more than 14 tons of the fish from the rhine .\ncatfish include bony - plated types and also smooth , naked types , but they do not have scales . not all catfish families have prominent barbels ; what defines a fish as being in the order siluriformes are certain features of the skull and swimbladder .\nthe colouration of wels varies greatly between individuals : usually with the back being fairly dark olive green to blue - black , giving way to paler flanks sometimes rusty in colour . this base colour is marbled with dark blotches and spots and gives way to a creamy yellow belly : providing near perfect camouflage for both stealth and low - level attack . the wels catfish is also seen in bright colours , ranging from bright orange and yellows , to albino looking forms with red eyes , whilst others grow almost entirely blue / black in colour . the fins are dark , ranging from red - brown to brown - violet .\nappearance : catfish are easily identified with long slender bodies , broad heads , wide mouths and long slender barbels . the wels catfish has two long barbels on the upper jaw and four shorter barbels on the lower jaw . these barbels are used to hunt and detect prey . the body is dark brown to black in colour with a soft yellow to white belly . the anal fin is long ( usually the half the length of the body ) and finishes right at the base of the tail fin .\nsyv\u00e4ranta j , cucherousset j , kopp d , crivelli a , c\u00e9r\u00e9ghino r . dietary breadth and trophic position of introduced european catfish\nthere are some 2200 species of catfish in as many as 40 families and many genera . the greatest number of species is found central and south america ( including one recently discovered in mexico that may have been around since dinosaur days ) . some catfish are ocean fish but most live in fresh water . catfish do not have scales but some species are covered with overlapping armor plates .\nswimming in the reservoir is now forbidden because it is feared another similar man - eating catfish is still lurking in the waters .\ncatfishes ( order siluriformes ) are a diverse group of ray - finned fish . named for their prominent barbels , which resemble a cat ' s whiskers , catfish range in size and behavior from the heaviest and longest , the mekong giant catfish from southeast asia and the second longest , the wels catfish of eurasia , to detritivores ( species that eat dead material on the bottom ) , and even to a tiny parasitic species commonly called the candiru , vandellia cirrhosa . there are armour - plated types and there are also naked types , neither having scales . despite their name , not all catfish have prominent barbel . members of the siluriformes order are defined by features of the skull and swimbladder . catfish are of considerable commercial importance ; many of the larger species are farmed or fished for food . many of the smaller species , particularly the genus corydoras , are important in the aquarium hobby . many catfish are nocturnal , but others ( many auchenipteridae ) are crepuscular or diurnal ( most loricariidae or callichthyidae for example ) .\nthere is a risk that wels catfish may impact on native fauna for a number of reasons . firstly they may increase competition for habitats of native fish , including the critically endangered eel ( anguilla anguilla ) . however , martino et al . ( 2011 ) reported that in the camargue in southern france , s . glanis consumption was not a threat to eel distribution , as their diet was mainly omnivorous . secondly , catfish are opportunistic foragers , able to switch their feeding to the most suitable resource available .\nno one knows just how large this european behemoth actually grows , but accounts dating back hundreds of years tell of giant water monsters eating peasants unfortunate enough to fall in the water . these days wels are best - known as a trophy angling prizes .\ni recommend getting local channel catfish fingerlings ( any state that has fish farms that sell fish for stocking farm ponds are likely to have some sort of catfish to sell for the local climate and that is where i would recommend getting stock normally . )\nthis species requires temperatures of 25 - 28\u00bac for optimal growth , food assimilation and breeding ( copp et al . , 2009 ) . however , there are reports of wels catfish breeding in some lakes in southern england at present temperatures ( copp et al . , 2009 ) . establishment success in france has been restricted by cold winter temperatures of < 10\u00bac ( david , 2006 ) .\nalthough the genetic structure and phylogeography have been studied in its native range , there is little information known about genetic characteristics of s . glanis in its introduced range ( copp et al . , 2009 ) . information regarding wels catfish nuclear and mitochondrial genome is sparse . the mitochondrial genome has 16 , 526 base pairs containing 37 genes , of which 13 genes are for protein synthesis , 22 trnas and 2rrnas , and a control region which functions in the same way as other vertebrate mtdnas . from phylogenetic analysis it seems likely that wels catfish represent an early diversification of siluriformes ( vittas et al . , 2011 ) . s . glanis has fewer alleles than s . aristotelis and s . triostegus but similar observed and expected heterozygosities ( krieg et al . , 1999 ) .\nthe natural resources commission took the step of adding wels and six other species to the list effective nov . 6 . other species put on the prohibited list were the stone moroko , zander , killer shrimp , yabby , golden mussel and red swamp crayfish .\nkirsten pohlmann , , frank w . grasso , thomas breithaupt . 2001 . tracking wakes : the nocturnal predatory strategy of piscivorous catfish .\ncatfish are very diverse , ranking second or third in diversity among orders of vertebrates , with almost 3 , 000 known species . [ 1 ] about one in every ten species of fish , and one in every 20 vertebrates , is a catfish . [ 2 ]\nthe madtoms of e north american streams have brightly colored patterns , but the majority of catfish are dull - colored . [ 8 ]\nalp a , kara c , \u00fc\u00e7karde\u015f f , carol j , garc\u00eda - berthou e . age and growth of the european catfish (\nif you want to see a man eating catfish , just drop by the local knights of columbus council hall any friday during lent .\nin places where non - native wels were introduced they can weigh in at over 200 pounds . the river po recently produced the igfa all - tackle record of 297 pounds , 9 ounces . this proves that these cats can thrive outside of their home range ."]}
{"id": 563, "summary": [{"text": "the greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) is a member of the stork family , ciconiidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "its genus includes the lesser adjutant of asia and the marabou stork of africa .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "once found widely across southern asia , mainly in india but extending east to borneo , the greater adjutant is now restricted to a much smaller range with only two small breeding populations ; one in india with the largest colony in assam and the other in cambodia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "populations disperse after the breeding season .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "this large stork has a massive wedge-shaped bill , a bare head and a distinctive neck pouch .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "during the day , they soar in thermals along with vultures with whom they share the habit of scavenging .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "they feed mainly on carrion and offal ; however , they are opportunistic and will sometimes prey on vertebrates .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the english name is derived from their stiff \" military \" gait when walking on the ground .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "large numbers once lived in asia , but have declined greatly , possibly due to improved sanitation , to the point of being endangered .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the total population in 2008 was estimated at around a thousand individuals .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "in the 19th century , they were especially common in the city of calcutta , where they were referred to as the \" calcutta adjutant \" .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "known locally as hargila ( derived from the bengali words for \" bone-swallower \" ) and considered to be unclean birds , they were largely left undisturbed but sometimes hunted for the use of their meat in folk medicine .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "valued as scavengers , they were once used in the logo of the calcutta municipal corporation . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "greater adjutant", "paragraphs": ["purnima devi barman explains the religious importance of the greater adjutant stork in a temple courtyard .\nthe greater adjutant is a huge stork named for its slow , measured gait , which resembles that of a military adjutant , or officer .\nthe greater adjutant is found only in two small , separate breeding populations in india and cambodia .\na conservation brigade of 70 villagers has created a safe haven for the endangered greater adjutant stork .\ngreater adjutant storks feeding on garbage dumping site in boragaon . . . . . purnima devi barman . .\nthe other 400 or so greater adjutant storks are found in the eastern indian state of bihar and in cambodia .\nsuch accomplishments have encouraged the brigade to expand their protections to other greater adjutant nesting colonies in the brahmaputra valley .\nthe diet of the greater adjutant consists of a range of animal species , and it will even take injured ducks .\ngreater adjutant storks stand near a garbage dump on the outskirts of gauhati , india , on june 5 , 2012 .\ngreater adjutant storks feeding on garbage dumping site in boragaon . . . . . purnima devi barman . . - youtube\na teacher of sankardev sishu niketan school draws a greater adjutant stork on a blackboard at dadara village , west of guwahati .\nthe greater adjutant stork is one of the most endangered bird species widely distributed in the plains of the brahmaputra valley of assam . the present global population of the greater adjutant stork is about 1 , 500 \u2014 around 900 of them are in assam .\nalthough the longest lifespan of a captive greater adjutant was 43 years , the longevity of these birds in the wild remains unknown .\nthe greater adjutant in assam takes to roosting in tall trees , a majority of which is now in privately - owned lands .\nthe greater adjutant was formerly found in south and southeast asia , but there are now just two small and separate breeding populations ; one in assam , india and one in cambodia . a migratory bird , the greater adjutant also visits viet nam , thailand and burma when not breeding\nthe greater adjutant retracts its neck in flight , probably due to the heavy bill . the large wings allow the bird to soar easily .\nyoung boys carry carcasses of greater adjutant storks , which have either succumbed to the poison laced on the garbage or plastic mixed with waste .\na greater adjutant scans a lily - filled pond for fishes . the bird ' s wetland habitat is slowly being encroached upon by construction sites .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius )\ntitle =\narkive species - greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe greater adjutant was formerly found in south and southeast asia , but there are now just two small and separate breeding populations ; one in assam , india and one in cambodia . a migratory bird , the greater adjutant also visits viet nam , thailand and burma when not breeding ( 3 ) .\nin january more than two dozen greater adjutant storks were found dead in a neighbourhood near guwahati . forensic testing is being done to learn the cause .\nchoudhury , a . 2008 . counting large gatherings of globally threatened greater adjutant leptoptilos dubius . indian birds 4 ( 4 ) : 133 - 135 .\nthe greater adjutant is the most endangered stork of the world . the iucn , international wetland research bureau ( iwrb ) specialist group on stork , ibis and spoonbill ( sis ) and the international council of bird preservation ( icbp ) have all declared the greater adjutant stork as first priority species for conservation .\nrahmani , a . , g . narayan , l . rosalin . 1990 . status of the greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) in the indian subcontinent .\ngoswami , s . k . ; patar , p . j . 2007 . fall in the number of greater adjutant nests in nagaon , assam , india .\nin this june 5 , 2012 photo , a greater adjutant stork flies by its fellow birds near deepor beel wildlife sanctuary , on the outskirts of gauhati in assam .\nsingha , h . , a . rahmani , m . coulter , s . javed . 2002 . nesting ecology of the greater adjutant stork in assam , india .\nthe greater adjutant in non - breeding plumage has bluish - grey upperparts contrasting with pale grey greater coverts and tertials . the tail is dark grey . on the underparts , body and wing - coverts are whitish . the undertail feathers are blackish .\nassam has about two - thirds of the greater adjutant stork in the world , largely in three villages just northwest of state capital guwahati . photos : anupam nath / ap\nthe greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) is a member of the stork family , ciconiidae . its genus includes the lesser adjutant of asia and the marabou stork of africa . once found widely across southern asia , mainly in india but extending east to borneo , the greater adjutant is now restricted to a much smaller range with only two small breeding populations ; one in india with the largest colony in assam and the other in cambodia .\nthe greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) is a member of the stork family , ciconiidae . its genus includes the lesser adjutant of asia and the marabou stork of africa . once found widely across southern asia , mainly in india but extending east to borneo , the greater adjutant is now restricted to a much smaller range with only two small breeding populations ; one in india with the largest colony in assam and the other in cambodia .\nthe greater adjutant is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and is listed under schedule iv of the wildlife act 1972 ( 3 ) .\ngreater adjutants are important scavengers of large carrion and likely contribute to sanitation and disease control in the environment . like many birds , greater adjutants are hosts to avian lice including\nseptember at dadara . when the village women group was offering prayers to god for the welfare of greater adjutant and for a successful breeding season ahead , they were stunned and speechless .\nrange : the greater adjutant is found in e nepal , n india and n bangladesh and indochina ( mainly in cambodia ) . it breeds only in assam valley , bihar and cambodia .\nintroduction : the greater adjutant is a huge , bulky stork of ne india and se asia . like the lesser adjutant and the marabou stork , it has a huge , thick bill and bare skin on the head . the large wingspan allows the bird to soar easily , but it flies with retracted neck due to the heavy bill . the name \u201cadjutant\u201d is derived from it stiff gait while walking on the ground . the greater adjutant has very small population that is declining rapidly . this species is threatened by habitat destruction , pollution and persecution . it is currently classified as endangered .\nsingha , h . , a . rahmani , m . coulter , s . javed . 2003 . surveys for greater adjutant leptoptilos dubius in the brahmaputra valley , assam , india during 1994\u20131996 .\ngreater adjutant stork , the world\u2019s most endangered of the stork species , has found a secure home to breed in two nondescript villages of assam\u2019s kamrup district , heralding a new chapter in its conservation .\ntree of life web project . 2008 . leptoptilos dubius . greater adjutant . version 27 june 2008 ( temporary ) . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 01 / 08 / 2013 ) .\nin a few months , the greater adjutant stork\u2014called hargilla , which means\nswallower of bones\nin sanskrit\u2014will descend on this hamlet , situated in assam ' s brahmaputra valley , to breed in large numbers .\na group of women in the brahmaputra river valley are leading a community - based effort to protect the greater adjutant ( a stork also known as the hargilla ) , which once ranged from pakistan to cambodia .\ncalls and songs : the greater adjutant is often silent away from the nest . like other ciconiidae , it performs bill - clattering during the displays , but also produces low grunting , croaking and roaring sounds .\na vast expanse of stinking garbage has become one of the favoured feeding grounds of the rare greater adjutant stork . one shudders to think of the toxic substances that these scavengers must be ingesting along with their food .\na huge stork species , the greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) has a naked pink head , a very thick yellow bill and a low - hanging neck pouch . the neck ruff is white and , other than the pale grey leading edge of each wing , the rest of the greater adjutant\u2019s body is dark grey . juveniles have a narrower bill , thicker down on the head and neck and entirely dark wings ( 2 ) .\nbarman , p . d . and sharma , d . k . in press . conservation of endangered greater adjutant stork in assam , india . wildlife institute of india envis : 192 - 199 ( in press ) .\nsometimes the women even play the part of greater adjutants themselves , donning masks in street - corner plays .\nearlier , widely distributed throughout northern and eastern india and many countries of south and south - east asia , the greater adjutant stork is currently distributed only in assam and bihar in india and a few other locations in cambodia .\nthe greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) is the largest stork species in the world , reaching 1 . 5 meters in height , and is listed on the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) red list as endangered .\nbehaviour in the wild : the greater adjutant feeds mainly at carcasses and often scavenges through garbage disposal areas . the digestive system of these large storks allows them to eat and swallow bones , giving them the name \u201chargila\u201d ( bone swallower ) .\nthe greater adjutant in breeding plumage has blackish face and forehead , whereas head and neck are redder . we can see an inflated hanging gular pouch and a reddish bulge at base of the rear neck . the upperparts are paler bluish - grey with silvery greater coverts and tertials . the neck pouch becomes bright saffron - yellow whereas the upper tibia is reddish .\n\u201cwe had to involve the locals because the bird nests on trees owned by individual households . the future of the greater adjutant stork depends on individual tree owners who used to fell trees earlier to get rid of the nests , \u201d barman said .\nsingha , h . ; rahmani , a . r . 2006 . ecology , population and conservation of greater adjutant leptoptilos dubius in assam , india . journal of the bombay natural history society 103 ( 2 - 3 ) : 264 - 269 .\nthe greater adjutant usually disperses after breeding and it is locally migratory and subject to wandering movements . it was formerly more widely distributed in india and bangladesh . it is a non - breeding visitor in nepal . but current / former status is unclear .\nphnom penh , july 27 ( xinhua ) - - globally endangered greater adjutant chicks have successfully fledged from 175 nests in the prek toal ramsar site in northwest cambodia ' s battambang province and disbursed across the country , a conservationist group said on thursday .\nthe lesser adjutant ( leptoptilos javanicus ) is a large wading bird in the stork family ciconiidae . like other members of its genus , it has a bare neck and head . it is however more closely associated with wetland habitats where it is solitary and is less likely to scavenge than the related greater adjutant . it is a widespread species found from india through southeast asia to java .\nsingha , h . , rahmani , a . r . , couller , m . c . and javed , s . ( 2002 ) nesting ecology of the greater adjutant stork in assam , india . waterbirds , 25 ( 2 ) : 214 - 220 .\nbut thanks to the efforts of the hargilla army , a conservation brigade of 70 local women , the region is now\nthe biggest greater adjutant nesting colony in the world ,\nsays purnima devi barman , a wildlife biologist with aaranyak , a conservation nonprofit in assam .\nmishra , a . ; mandal , j . n . 2009 . discovery of a breeding ground of the greater adjutant leptoptilos dubius and their conservation in the floodlands of bihar , india . journal of the bombay natural history society 106 ( 2 ) : 190 - 197 .\nandheria , a . ( 2003 ) .\nfirst sighting of lesser adjutant - stork leptoptilos javanicus from sanjay gandhi national park , mumbai\n.\nthe greater adjutant stork is the most threatened stork in the world and its population is decreasing . many historic breeding colonies of this colonial nesting bird are missing now and the bird is probably facing extinction threat . brahmaputra valley in assam is considered as the last stronghold for endangered greater adjutant and supports more than 90 % of its global population . it is now utmost important to know the current population scenario of the bird to initiate conservation measures and habitat recovery plans . the present project is aimed to initiate greater adjutant conservation programmes across the entire distribution range in assam and , based on results and recommendations of a previous project , the team will involve communities and help policy makers to improve and secure its conservation status . the current project will concentrate on the entire distribution range of greater adjutant in brahmaputra valley of assam , india . community based organisations will help to collect information on the species , spread conservation awareness messages to the masses and for save nest fall chicks in the nesting colony areas . a long term conservation action plan will be prepared and published to support existing government conservation initiatives so that the population decline can be stabilised .\nsayam u . chowdury & msh sourav ( 2012 ) .\ndiscovery of a lesser adjutant leptoptilos javanicus breeding colony in bangladesh journal = birdingasia\n.\nhowever , the greater adjutant also forages in shallow , drying pools where it searches for insects , frogs , large fish , crustaceans , and sometimes injured ducks or waders . it forages by using a tactile technique , holding its beak open underwater and waiting for passing prey between the open mandibles .\nbut fast - vanishing wetlands in and around the city has now become a major threat for the survival of the stork . guwahati has the largest concentration of the endangered greater adjutant storks in the world , and forage for food at the city\u2019s main dumping ground near the deepor beel wildlife sanctuary .\nlittle is known about the territory size for greater adjutants . male greater adjutants will advertise their claim on a suitable nesting branch with beak clattering . they are known to build nests relatively close to one another , so breeding territory size is likely small and limited to a nesting branch .\nsingha , h . ; rahmani , a . r . ; coulter , m . c . ; javed , s . 2003 . breeding behaviour of the greater adjutant - stork leptoptilos dubius in assam , india . journal of the bombay natural history society 100 ( 1 ) : 9 - 26 .\nprek toal is home to the world ' s second largest greater adjutant breeding colony after that in assam , india , the release said , adding that the site is the premier freshwater wetland area on the tonle sap great lake , and is well known for its incredible biological , social and economic resources .\nhuge , dark stork with very thick bill and pendulous neck - pouch . pinkish naked head , white neck - ruff . pale grey greater coverts and tertials contrasting with otherwise dark upperwing . underwing - coverts paler than flight feathers . juvenile has narrower bill than adult , denser head and neck - down and , initially , all dark wings . similar spp . lesser adjutant l . javanicus is smaller , lacks neck pouch , has black greater coverts and tertials\nthe national green tribunal has issued a notice to the assam government on the mass death of 26 greater adjutant storks at a garbage dump adjoining deepor beel , near guwahati . there are two ironies here : the greater adjutant , a towering , endangered stork standing over five feet tall , has been routinely documented to be subsisting almost entirely on trash in guwahati . this is a tragicomic adaptation for a hunting and scavenging bird that otherwise eats fish , rats and snakes . the second irony is that nearly all of guwahati\u2019s waste is illegally going into deepor beel , a wetland that is notified as a sanctuary and internationally considered to be important .\ntree and animal species are symbols of gods and goddesses in indian culture making ritual beliefs an important consideration as we seek to protect our rich biodiversity . indeed , i have found ritual beliefs to be a major tool for conservation awareness during my entire journey with the greater adjutant stork in a small assamese village called dadara .\nprotection / threats / status : the greater adjutant is threatened by habitat loss , both feeding and nesting habitats , through drainage of wetlands , disturbance , pollution and persecution , owing to its pest status . reduction of open rubbish dumps with carcasses and foodstuffs is a significant threat for these scavengers . the population has declined catastrophically with a recent estimation of 800 / 1 , 200 mature individuals , equating to 1 , 200 / 1 , 800 individuals . this population is rapidly decreasing . the greater adjutant is currently classified as endangered , in spite of legal protection within the range , and its presence in some protected national parks in assam , india .\ndhritiman das ' s photo of storks foraging in a dump was joint overall runner - up . the greater adjutant stork is the world ' s most endangered stork . the world ' s largest concentration of the birds is found in the urban garbage dumps of guwahati city in india , because of the destruction of surrounding wetlands .\nin their native range , where they are primarily scavengers of large carrion , greater adjutants are known by the name\nhargila ,\nmeaning bone swallower . they were once prevalent in calcutta , where their tendency to consume human corpses left to rot in the streets was valued . one record indicates that a single greater adjutant effortlessly swallowed two buffalo vertebrae , measuring approximately 30 cm in length , in less than five minutes . greater adjutants are most commonly found scavenging in mixed flocks near human garbage dumps or large carcasses . they can also be seen foraging independently near drying pools where they hunt insects , frogs , large fish , crustaceans and injured waterfowl . when foraging , greater adjutants use a method of tactile foraging where they hold their beaks open underwater and patiently wait for a prey item to swim between the open mandibles .\nthe greater adjutant feeds by sweeping its bill under the surface of the water , or by probing into the substrate . it will consume carrion , fish , frogs , reptiles , crustaceans , large insects and even injured ducks . it is also known to feed in human refuse dumps , where it will take food from other scavengers , including vultures\nwhilst legally protected in india , bangladesh , burma , thailand , cambodia and laos , and occurring in three national parks in assam , india , the greater adjutant still suffers from hunting and egg collection due to poor enforcement of protection . there has been some successful control of egg and chick collection following efforts by the wildlife protection office staff in cambodia , which resulted in higher numbers of storks the following year . it has been proposed that the greater adjutant should be moved from schedule iv to schedule i of the indian wildlife act of 1972 to give it greater priority . effective land management is necessary for the survival of this species , particularly the control of pesticide use around feeding areas and the protection of feeding areas and nesting sites found outside protected areas . further research into the seasonal movements of these birds and the threats that face them is also important ( 3 ) .\nthe greater adjutant stork breeds singly , semi - colonially or colonially in arboreal sites that have been in use for many years . characteristically , they to place their nest on very tall trees \u2014 most of them are located now on privately - owned land . the nests are usually located within within 300 metres of human habitation in densely - populated urban areas .\n135 - 150 numbers of greater adjutants are found evryday in boragaon garbage dumping site near deepar beel ramsar site ( guwahati city ) , assam . photopurnima devi barman . .\ngathering in compact colonies at the start of the dry season in october , the greater adjutant nests on large , widely branched trees with few leaves ( 4 ) . it constructs a large platform of sticks with an outer layer of bamboo stems and lines this with leaves . two to four eggs are laid between november and january . after 28 to 30 days , the eggs hatch , and the nestlings are cared for until april . at the start of the wet season , the greater adjutants migrate to northern india ( 3 ) .\nthe greater adjutant feeds by sweeping its bill under the surface of the water , or by probing into the substrate . it will consume carrion , fish , frogs , reptiles , crustaceans , large insects and even injured ducks . it is also known to feed in human refuse dumps , where it will take food from other scavengers , including vultures ( 3 ) .\nelliott , a . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . and de juana , e . ( eds ) , handbook of the birds of the world alive , lynx edicions , barcelona .\ngreater adjutants are valuable scavengers of discarded human waste , including unburied corpses as well as other large carrion . this service may have a role in preventing the spread of disease .\nguwahati : the greater adjutant stork used to be an object of revulsion in northeast india . it\u2019s not a pretty bird , with its large , dull - orange bill and gray , black and white plumage . a carnivore and scavenger , it left bits of dead animals in its nests . people thought it brought bad luck , so they destroyed nests and sometimes poisoned the birds .\nmaust , m . , clum , n . and sheppard , c . ( 2007 ) .\nontogeny of chick behavior : a tool for monitoring the growth and development of lesser adjutant storks\n.\ndadara and two nearby villages , pasariya , and singimari , are flanked by food - rich wetlands and brimming with tall trees perfect for nesting . the region has become a major stronghold for this homely creature : due mostly to deforestation and widespread development of wetlands , only between 800 and 1 , 200 greater adjutant storks remain in india and cambodia , according to the international union for conservation of nature .\nwhile greater adjutants pose no threat to humans they are often looked upon with disgust because of their general appearance , habit of defecating on their own legs , as well as diet of carrion .\nassam is the international stronghold of the greater adjutant stork , carnivore and scavenger . according to estimates from the international union for conservation of nature and natural resources only 1 , 200 of the large storks survive . assam has about two - thirds of them , largely in three villages just northwest of state capital guwahati . but the locals here felt that it brought bad luck , so they destroyed nests and sometimes poisoned the birds .\nelliott , a . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . greater adjutant ( leptoptilos dubius ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n, which may have a negative impact upon the species in the future . young birds may also become entangled in fishing nets and the species may suffer from the disturbance of arboreal animals , competition for nesting habitat from the lesser adjutant\nbut , the fortunes of the species changed as the local women took it upon themselves to save this bird . the women known as the \u2018hargila\u2019 army , for the bird\u2019s name in the assamese language , sing hymns and weave scarves and other items on handlooms with motifs of the bird to create awareness about the need to protect the species . the other 400 or so greater adjutant storks are found in the eastern indian state of bihar and in cambodia .\nreproduction of this species : the breeding season takes place between october - december and february in burma , cambodia and india . the greater adjutant nests in colonies , but now more restricted to small colonies of less than 30 pairs and scattered solitary pairs . it shares these colonies with other species such as the lesser adjutant , the asian openbill and some pelicans . the colonies are established in large trees with sparse foliage , in order to make easier both landing and take - off for these large birds . the stick nest is a large , bulky structure with a deep cup lined with fresh vegetation , placed in tree between 12 and 30 metres above the ground , and sometimes on rock ledges .\nhabitat : the greater adjutant frequents freshwater marshes and pools , freshwater swamp forest and sometimes ricefields and open areas . the species occurs in lowlands , but it may occasionally reach 1500 metres of elevation in nepal , in himalayan foothills . at other times , the birds can be seen foraging at urban disposal sites . they often gather around carcasses and at rubbish dumps in open fields but also near towns . it can be seen perched on houses and wandering about by markets for food .\nmany consider greater adjutants to be the most endangered stork in the world . captive breeding programs have failed thus far , but efforts to protect natural habitats are active . unfortunately , their tendency to nest near human settlements may prove fatal .\ni am proud of working with my team to conserve this rare bird and am happy to see greater adjutants and other important waterbirds living and breeding safely here ,\nsaid chhan chhoum , former egg collector and a nest protector .\nin the early part of the 20th century , the population size of greater adjutants is said to have numbered in the millions . they were common in northern india , bangladesh , nepal and southern vietnam . beginning in the mid 1980 ' s the population began to decline heavily . today an estimated 1 , 000 birds remain and likely breed only in the politically unstable assam state of northern india . populations are still declining and the iucn red list lists greater adjutants as endangered .\nboth male and female greater adjutants participate in nest building . after the eggs are laid , both parents also incubate the clutch for 28 to 30 . the altricial chicks are cared for by both parents until they fledge at 5 months old .\ngreater adjutants lack vocal muscles so they rely on unique behaviors and tactile forms of communication to interact with each other . males often utilize beak clattering to advertise their territory and ward off other males . males attract mates by presenting them with fresh twigs and later holding their beaks close to the female . breeding pairs also perform head bobbing rituals that likely reinforce their pair - bond . like all birds , greater adjutants perceive their environments through visual , auditory , tactile , and chemical stimuli .\nfelling of large nesting trees , pollution of freshwater systems and a decline in the disposal of human corpses in public trash dumps are all thought to contribute to the rapid loss of this species . in assam , recent reports of disease in this species also seems to be a contributing factor in its decline . results of a survey of assam residents revealed that only 30 % of those polled knew greater adjutants are endangered . greater community awareness of this unique species may help in its recovery .\nthe greater adjutant stork ( hargila in assamese ) is a threatened bird and assam is considered its last global strong hold . hargila make their nesting colonies mainly in tall , privately owned trees . with about 500 birds in three villages , the area hosts the largest nesting colony of this species in the world . the global population of this bird is about 1 , 000 individuals . the key to the survival of this species is achieving the good wishes of the villagers towards this bird . this is our work .\nthe greater adjutant is monogamous , but the pair bond does not always last for life . it is colonial nester . the males advertise their territories by perching on the nesting branch while performing bill - clattering with the bill upwards . if some females perch close to the males , they present some twigs as courtship , but they also adopt ritualized postures , holding the huge bill close to a potential mate or hiding her head under the chin . both mates perform other displays together , especially up - down bobbing motions .\n) are exceedingly rare in their range from northern india to indochina and may breed exclusively in the brahmaputra valley of assam . in the early part of the 20th century , large breeding populations of greater adjutants were common throughout northern india , bangladesh , nepal and southern vietnam .\ngreater adjutants are often seen foraging alone or in small groups . in general they are a non - migratory species but some make local movements to winter nesting sites . the name ' adjuntant ' comes from their distinctive , military - style gait . their large wingspans facilitate soaring and they are frequently found near thermals . due to their hot environments , greater adjutants defecate on their legs and the evaporation lowers body temperature ( also known as urohydrosis ) . as a result of this cooling mechanism , legs of these birds are often stained white with uric acid .\nit is possible , however , that the pandemic\u2019s close association with world war i may have caused this amnesia . while more people died from the pandemic than from world war i , the war had lasted longer than the pandemic and caused greater and more immediate changes in american society .\nthe juvenile has narrower bill than adults and the eyes are brownish - blue to bluish - brown . head and neck show denser hair - like feathering . the upperparts are duller . the wings are all - dark first , before to acquire a brown band across greater coverts and tertials .\nsingha , h . ; goswami , s . k . ; phukan , r . ; talukdar , b . k . 2006 . rehabilitation of captive - reared greater adjutants leptoptilos dubius in assam . journal of the bombay natural history society 103 ( 2 - 3 ) : 315 - 320 .\ngreater adjutants are large birds , ranging in height from 120 to 152 cm with an impressive 250 cm wingspan . a long , thick yellow bill precedes the sparsely feathered , yellow to pink head and neck . the head is typically dappled with dark scabs of dried blood and characterized by the presence of a pendulous , inflatable gular pouch . the legs are naturally dark in color but frequently appear ashen due to regular defecation on the legs . when in flight , greater adjutants are recognizable by their white underside feathers and tendency to retract their necks like a heron . a mixture of white and gray feathers , which appear darker during the non - breeding season , adorn the rest of the body . juvenile greater adjutants resemble adults , but have duller plumage and more feathers around the neck . the mass of these birds is unknown in the wild , but is estimated to be the heaviest of the storks .\ndadara proved that community driven conservation is the key to protect wildlife . there were 15 nesting trees of greater adjutants in the village in 2008 when i started my work . last year we counted 171 nests . kudos to the tree owners that from 2010 , there was not a single tree cut down in the villages .\nfor instance , the presence of storks in garbage dumps in guwahati has come to be so accepted that the state government and civil society are using the dump as release sites for birds . the same dump is also the repository for biomedical waste , which veterinarians say could potentially kill any animal if it were to be ingested . in 2016 , a greater adjutant chick that had fallen out of its nest was nursed back to health . when deemed fit for release , it was let go in a garbage dump in boragoan area of the city , which in turn leads into deepor beel . while the chick would be surrounded by trash , there was also a colony of storks living in the area to keep it company .\nscavenging in toxic environments is a harsh reality for birds . nonetheless , storks eating trash may not be a preferred choice . in assam , storks are also found in nagaon ( where they do not eat garbage ) . in bihar , greater adjutant storks have never been seen eating garbage . there are breeding populations of the species in kadwa kosi diara in the ganges and in khagaria . \u201cthis could possibly be because the garbage dumps here are smaller and the areas where the storks breed don\u2019t have significant non - vegetarian demographics , \u201d says wildlife conservationist arvind mishra . \u201cof course there is also the fact that there are natural wetlands for the storks to feed in . they eat snakes and rats in paddy fields , and fish from waterbodies . \u201d\n145 - 150 cm . huge , dark stork with very thick bill and pendulous neck - pouch . pinkish naked head , white neck - ruff . pale grey greater coverts and tertials contrasting with otherwise dark upperwing . underwing - coverts paler than flight feathers . juvenile has narrower bill than adult , denser head and neck - down and , initially , all dark wings .\nexaminations had to be adapted to the limitations of time , place , and available equipment . \u201d when fitzsimons informed hillman later that new recruits were arriving at the hospital with tuberculosis , he responded almost plaintively . \u201ci am working with the adjutant general to devise some method by which every volunteer for enlistment in the regular army will have a chest x - ray and serological test before acceptance . \u201d he asked for all available evidence of sick recruits , explaining that \u201cdata on regular army men of short service now in fitzsimons with tuberculosis will help me get the thing across . \u201d as the data and advice accumulated , in january 1942 , the adjutant general required that all voluntary applicants and reenlisting men be given chest x - rays . finally , on 15 march 1942 , mobilization regulations made chest x - rays mandatory in all induction physicals .\non average , the greater bamboo lemur consumes ten times the amount of cyanide that would be lethal to other mammals of its size . the toxin is found in the critically endangered lemur ' s main food source , madagascan giant bamboo ; how the animal safely swallows it is not yet understood . the judges highly commended this shot of a lemur munching on a toxic tidbit . ( photo : peggy boone )\na large stork with an upright stance , a bare head and neck without a pendant pouch , it has a length of 87\u201393 cm ( 34\u201337 in ) ( outstretched from bill - to - tail measurement ) , weighs from 4 to 5 . 71 kg ( 8 . 8 to 12 . 6 lb ) and stands about 110\u2013120 cm ( 43\u201347 in ) tall . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] the only confusable species is the greater adjutant , but this species is generally smaller and has a straight upper bill edge ( culmen ) , measuring 25 . 8\u201330 . 8 cm ( 10 . 2\u201312 . 1 in ) in length , with a paler base and appears slightly trimmer and less hunch - backed . the skullcap is paler and the upper plumage is uniformly dark , appearing almost all black . the nearly naked head and neck have a few scattered hair - like feathers . the upper shank or tibia is grey rather than pink , the tarsus measures 22 . 5\u201326 . 8 cm ( 8 . 9\u201310 . 6 in ) . the belly and undertail are white . juveniles are a duller version of the adult but have more feathers on the nape . [ 5 ] during the breeding season , the face is reddish and the neck is orange . the larger median wing coverts are tipped with copper spots and the inner secondary coverts and tertials have narrow white edging . the wing chord measures 57 . 5\u201366 cm ( 22 . 6\u201326 . 0 in ) in length . like others in the genus , they retract their necks in flight . in flight , the folded neck can appear like the pouch of the greater adjutant . [ 6 ] males and females appear similar in plumage but males tend to be larger and heavier billed . [ 4 ] [ 7 ]\ngreater adjutants nest in large , broad - limbed trees with sparse foliage . this choice of nesting tree is thought to facilitate landing and take - off for the large adult birds . nests are constructed out of sticks and several pairs will often occupy the same tree . while females lay 3 eggs per season , an average of 2 . 2 chicks per pair are fledged successfully each year . both parents participate in incubating eggs until they hatch after 28 to 30 days . chicks fledge at 5 months of age .\nbut the impact of garbage and toxins on species is still to be understood . traditionally , greater adjutants used to fly in the sky , alongside vultures , looking for food . as the vulture population crashed , ecologists have wondered what the fate of the storks would be . in guwahati\u2019s huge mountains of garbage , the storks discovered feeding grounds \u2013 but it is certainly an uneasy truce . among bird species , scavengers are especially at risk of poisoning because a single infected carcass can affect many birds . scavenging birds tend to feed en masse .\nthe medical department of the united states army in the world war . communicable and other diseases . washington : u . s . government printing office , 1928 , vol . ix , pp . 171 - 202 . letter , the adjutant general , to commanding generals of all corps areas and departments , 25 oct . 1940 , subject : chest x - rays on induction examinations . m . r . no . 1 - 9 , standards of physical examination during mobilization , 31 aug . 1940 and 15 mar . 1942 long , e . r . : exclusion of tuberculosis . physical standards for induction and appointment . [ official record . ]\norganophosphates were introduced around 1950 , as a replacement for the chlorinated hydrocarbons to which significant resistance had occurred ( shanahan and hart , 1966 ) . these are esters of phosphoric acid and have a wide range of activities against ticks at very low concentration in companion and livestock animals . however , their residual effectiveness is usually shorter than that of chlorinated hydrocarbons , and the risk of causing acute toxicity in livestock is greater ( drummond , 1983 ) . resistance in ticks was first recognized in 1963 and several tick species are now known to be resistant to organophosphorous acaricides ( wharton , 1967 ) .\nthe lesser adjutant tends to be widely dispersed and is very local . it is often found in large rivers and lakes inside well wooded regions . it is found in india , nepal , [ 8 ] sri lanka , bangladesh ( a colony with about 6 nests and 20 individuals was discovered near thakurgaon in 2011 . [ 9 ] ) , myanmar , thailand , vietnam , malaysia , laos , singapore , [ 10 ] indonesia and cambodia . the largest population is in india in the eastern states of assam , west bengal and bihar . it may occur as a vagrant on the southern edge of bhutan . [ 11 ] they are extremely rare in southern india . [ 12 ] [ 13 ]\nother storks are known to be monogamous , but not always paired for life . it is thought that greater adjutants follow this mating system . great adjutants are colonial nesters and will build many nests in the canopy of a single tree . males claim suitable nesting branches and advertise their territory by perching on the branch with bills upward and exhibiting bill - clattering . when females perch nearby , males will present them with twigs as part of courtship . courtship rituals consist more of courtship postures , where males will hold their beaks close to potential mates or tuck the females heads under their chins . pairs also perform up - down bobbing motions together .\nthe lesser adjutant stalks around wetlands feeding mainly on fish , frogs , reptiles and large invertebrates . they rarely feed on carrion . they may also take small birds and rodents particularly during the breeding season . they are solitary except during the breeding season when they form loose colonies . [ 2 ] the breeding season is february to may in southern india and november to january in north - eastern india . [ 14 ] the nest is a large platform of sticks placed on a tall tree . the nest diameter is more than a metre and up to a metre deep . [ 2 ] the clutch consists of three to four eggs . [ 14 ] [ 15 ] they are silent but have been noted to clatter their bill , hiss and moan at the nest . [ 6 ]\nmost people imagine that the police are insensitive to wildlife conservation , but we know differently . the police are resource - rich in emergency situations and if they want to , they can be game changers for the conservation of greater adjutants . the kamrup district superintendent of police , partha sarathi mahanta , in particular , helped us in every possible way and made our mission his own . he alone released four rescued chicks that had been hand reared by a facility run by the wildlife trust of india . the released chicks were named monalisa , lulu , saru and rima ( after the tree owner\u2019s daughters and wife ) and this simple gesture generated even more warmth and support for the birds . i still remember one bird whom we named christina , which attracted media .\nthe species breeds in the dry season ; birds congregate at the nesting areas from october onwards and lay eggs between november and january . the species breeds singly , semi - colonially or colonially in traditional arboreal sites which are sometimes used for many years , often in colonies mixed with other waterbirds , including lesser adjutant . characteristically , adjutants of both species tend to place their nest on very tall trees . of 278 clutches examined in assam , all contained 2 - 3 white eggs . similarly , at the sittang valley colony most clutches contained three eggs , while those at the needong hills comprised 3 - 4 eggs . the incubation period is 28 - 30 days . in assam , 61 . 3 % of eggs in 278 clutches produced fledglings . both sexes share nest building , incubation and feeding of the nestlings . adults wil bring water to juveniles on the nest , either to cool them down or for them to drink .\ninfluenza has long been a global public health priority because of the threat of another global pandemic . although data are available for the annual burden of seasonal influenza in many developed countries , fewer disease burden data are available for low - income and tropical countries . in recent years , however , the surveillance systems created as part of national pandemic preparedness efforts have produced substantial data on the epidemiology and impact of influenza in countries where data were sparse . these data are leading to greater interest in seasonal influenza , including implementation of vaccination programs . however , a lack of quality data on severe influenza , nonrespiratory outcomes , and high - risk groups , as well as a need for better mathematical models and economic evaluations , are some of the major gaps that remain . these gaps are the focus of multilateral research and surveillance efforts that will strengthen global efforts in influenza control in the future .\n2012 ) . in cambodia , the breeding colony at prek toal is a core area of the tonle sap biosphere reserve . greater adjutants historically bred at other sites on the tonle sap , but these colonies were abandoned by 2001 . conservation actions to reduce chick and egg collection and other forms of disturbance to the breeding colony at prek toal have been in place since the late 1990s , with permanent teams of protectors employed since 2001 . since 2001 , c . 95 % of waterbird egg and chick collection has been prevented at prek toal . it is included in waterbird conservation awareness material in laos and cambodia . in kamrup district , assam a successful community conservation programme ran from 2009 to 2014 and during this period there were no records of nesting trees being cut down and the number of successful nests grew from 65 in 2010 - 2011 to 148 in 2013 - 2014 ( barman and sharma in prep . ) .\nthe name of spanish flu came from the early affliction and large mortalities in spain ( bmj , 10 / 19 / 1918 ) where it allegedly killed 8 million in may ( bmj , 7 / 13 / 1918 ) . however , a first wave of influenza appeared early in the spring of 1918 in kansas and in military camps throughout the us . few noticed the epidemic in the midst of the war . wilson had just given his 14 point address . there was virtually no response or acknowledgment to the epidemics in march and april in the military camps . it was unfortunate that no steps were taken to prepare for the usual recrudescence of the virulent influenza strain in the winter . the lack of action was later criticized when the epidemic could not be ignored in the winter of 1918 ( bmj , 1918 ) . these first epidemics at training camps were a sign of what was coming in greater magnitude in the fall and winter of 1918 to the entire world .\nendemic mycoses represent a growing public health challenge in north america . we describe the epidemiology of 1 , 392 microbiology laboratory\u2013confirmed cases of blastomycosis , histoplasmosis , and coccidioidomycosis in ontario during 1990\u20132015 . blastomycosis was the most common infection ( 1 , 092 cases ; incidence of 0 . 41 cases / 100 , 000 population ) , followed by histoplasmosis ( 211 cases ) and coccidioidomycosis ( 89 cases ) . incidence of blastomycosis increased from 1995 to 2001 and has remained elevated , especially in the northwest region , incorporating several localized hotspots where disease incidence ( 10 . 9 cases / 100 , 000 population ) is 12 . 6 times greater than in any other region of the province . this retrospective study substantially increases the number of known endemic fungal infections reported in canada , confirms ontario as an important region of endemicity for blastomycosis and histoplasmosis , and provides an epidemiologic baseline for future disease surveillance . clinicians should include blastomycosis and histoplasmosis in the differential diagnosis of antibiotic - refractory pneumonia in patients traveling to or residing in ontario .\none year later , muraille et al . demonstrated the importance of the myd88 pathway in c57bl / 6 mice , a model of the dominant th1 response with a tendency to cure the cutaneous ulcers caused by leishmania . myd88 \u2212 / \u2212 mice had a greater number of cutaneous lesions than wild - type c57bl / 6 mice ( myd88 + / + ) . the number of lesions of the myd88 \u2212 / \u2212 mice was close to that of balb / c mice , which have a dominant th2 response and a tendency to have an increased number and severity of lesions ( 59 ) . increased levels of il - 4 and decreased levels of ifn - \u03b3 and il - 12 ( p40 ) were also demonstrated . a similar study was performed by debus et al . using c57bl / 6 mice ( myd88 \u2212 / \u2212 ) , and they obtained the same results . they therefore evaluated a group of mice with a monoclonal antibody against il - 4 , which enhanced the th1 response with higher ifn - \u03b3 levels ( 24 ) ."]}
{"id": 583, "summary": [{"text": "the marco polo sheep ( ovis ammon polii ) is a subspecies of argali sheep , named after marco polo .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "their habitat is the mountainous regions of central asia .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "marco polo sheep are distinguishable mostly by their large size and spiraling horns .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "their conservation status is \" near threatened \" and efforts have been made to protect their numbers and keep them from commercial hunting .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it has also been suggested that crossing them with domestic sheep could have agricultural benefits . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "marco polo sheep", "paragraphs": ["to get meat , they go out and hunt marco polo sheep .\nmarco polo sheep dot a snow - covered mountainside in afghanistan . george schaller hide caption\nan afghan hunter poses with a stack of marco polo sheep skulls . george schaller hide caption\nhorns of marco polo sheep can reach 6 . 2 feet in length and 60 pounds of weight .\ntable of contents . preface chapter 1 . the return of the wanderers chapter 2 . marco polo ' s youth chapter 3 . marco polo sets forth chapter 4 . marco polo ' s travels in persia and turkistan chapter 5 . marco polo reaches cathay chapter 6 . the imperial hunting grounds chapter 7 . the court of the great khan chapter 8 . marco polo among the tartars chapter 9 . marco polo ' s travels in cathay chapter 10 . marco polo ' s return chapter 11 . marco polo in the eastern seas chapter 12 . marco polo among the hindoos chapter 13 . marco polo in africa chapter 14 . homeward bound chapter 15 . a srange welcome chapter 16 . marco polo goes to the wars chapter 17 . marco polo a prisoner chapter 18 . last days of marco polo\nmarco polo sheep is a subspecies of argali sheep that belongs to the bovid family . it can be found in afghanistan , pakistan , china and tajikistan . marco polo sheep inhabits mountains , steep valleys , gentle slopes and highland pastures on the altitude from 12 . 100 to 15 . 700 feet . marco polo sheep is named after famous explorer from the 13th century who described meat and horns of these sheep in his book . number of marco polo sheep in the wild is decreasing due to commercial hunt . marco polo sheep is listed as near threatened , which means that it can become endangered in the near future .\nwhat is undeniable is the cultural change in the hunting of marco polo sheep over the past 30 years .\nmale marco polo sheep have the longest horns of any sheep\u0097the world record is 190 centimeters ( 6 . 2 feet ) \u0097making them highly seductive to hunters .\nstatus of marco polo sheep ovis ammon polii in china and adjacent countries : conservation of a vulne . . .\nmarco polo sheep migrate from mountains toward the pastures ( on the lower altitudes ) at the beginning of the winter .\n: wcs research informed the establishment of the wakhan national park ( enclosing all of the distribution range of marco polo sheep in afghanistan ) , the heartland of afghanistan\u2019s marco polo sheep population . wcs played an integral role in the park\u2019s creation and ongoing management .\nwildlife life conservation activists with the horn of a marco polo sheep that found dead in khunjerav valley . photo : ali sher roomi\n) , and is considered the longest - horned species of wild sheep . named after the explorer marco polo and first described scientifically in 1841 by edward blyth , marco polo argali occurs in the tajikistan pamir mountains [\nin total , schaller counted 624 marco polo sheep in 3 , 300 square miles ( 8 , 550 square kilometers ) of the pamirs .\nin 2003 he was able to join several local biologists on a marco polo sheep survey in tajikistan . they found that the sheep population there might have shrunk to as few as 10 , 000 animals .\n: wcs has conducted extensive public outreach programs within communities across the wakhan , teaching about the economic and societal benefits of conserving marco polo sheep .\nbear the scientific name ovis ammon polii and are among the 9 argali subspecies . they are also known as pamir argali or marco polo\u2019s argali . but why the name marco polo sheep ? they were first described by marco polo in his book the travels of marco polo and since then have been named after him . scientifically , they were first described by a zoologist by the name edward blyth in 1841 .\nmarco polo sheep can reach 6 feet in length and 278 pounds of weight . tail is usually 4 . 7 to 6 . 3 inches long .\nlocal officials in badakhshan claim that most illegal hunting and smuggling of marco polo sheep is organised by pakistani dealers based in the border province of chitral .\nmarco polo sheep are herbivores ( plant eaters ) . they consume fresh plants during the spring and summer and dig roots from the ground during the winter .\nstatus of marco polo sheep ovis ammon polii in china and adjacent countries : conservation of a vulnerable subspecies - schaller g . b . , kang a .\nwhile netflix gets ready to launch its original series , ' marco polo , ' we thought we ' d explore the real marco polo and decipher the man from the many myths .\nour marco polo sheep hunts have been described in numerous outdoor magazines and hunting publications in america and in europe , and several of our marco polo sheep hunts have been televised . several famous outdoor writers and television personalities have hunted with us ( including jim shockey and craig boddington ) and we have hundreds of references .\nthe severe toll that hunting has taken on the marco polo sheep again became clear when schaller finally got to visit afghanistan ' s wakhan corridor in late 2004 .\na man sits near the skull of a marco polo sheep in western tibet . the species is a prized trophy for hunters . galen rowell / corbis hide caption\nmosaic representing marco polo at villa hanbury , ventimiglia , italy . ( photo : wikimedia commons )\nthe park would help protect not only the marco polo sheep but the many other animals that wander across international borders\u0097siberian ibex , snow leopard , wolves , and bears .\nprized by game hunters for its spiral horns , the argali sheep is nevertheless threatened more seriously by the competition of domestic sheep for food .\nwe are proud of our continuing success rate on marco polo sheep hunts of 100 % ( well over 400 hunters ) , which is the best record in the hunting industry . our hunters have taken more sheep over 60\u2033 than those of any other hunting company . several of the largest trophies of the marco polo sheep ( over 65\u2033 ) have been taken in our hunting areas in tajikistan and we usually manage to take several sheep over 60 inches each season . we built the famous hot springs camp and we have exclusive use of it for our hunters from mid - october until mid - december ( the best period for marco polo sheep hunting ) .\nthe flagship species of the pamir mountain range , marco polo sheep traverse the remote and precipitous areas of big pamir , little pamir and the wakhjir valley of northeast afghanistan .\nschaller , g . b . 2003 . the conservation status of marco polo sheep in tajikistan . wildlife conservation society and national geographic society . , new york , usa .\ninterviews : saving the marco polo sheep some have called george schaller the globe ' s greatest living naturalist . he ' s been tracking and studying the marco polo sheep for some 20 years in a quest to create wildlife preserves in some of the world ' s most dangerous areas along the borders of afghanistan , china , tajikistan and pakistan .\narguably the most beautiful and prestigious of all the argali , or giant sheep of asia , is the marco polo argali ( ovis ammon polii ) . it is found in tajikistan , kyrgyzstan , pakistan , and china , but may only be hunted in the first two of these countries . the majestic flaring horns of the marco polo sheep can exceed 70 inches in length , making it the most impressive wild sheep trophy in the world .\nhunting for one of the most desirable trophy for trophy hunters all over the world - marco polo argali .\nnewcomer lorenzo richelmy plays marco polo in netflix & apos ; s original series . ( photo : netflix )\nthe distribution range of the near threatened marco polo argali , or marco polo sheep , ovis ammon polii is restricted to the pamir mountains , spanning afghanistan , tajikistan , china and pakistan . until the early 1970s the marco polo argali was abundant in northern areas of pakistan , particularly in the khunjerab and misgar valleys around the pamir knot , bordering china , afghanistan and . . . [ show full abstract ]\nschaller : no . the local communities , they don ' t benefit in any real way , which means they don ' t feel they gain anything from having the marco polo sheep .\naccording to current afghan law , marco polo sheep are national assets , and hunting and smuggling of sheep parts are prohibited under a decree issued by president hamid karzai , with penalties of up to two years in prison and a fine of up to 100 , 000 afghanis .\npetocz , r . g . 1973 . marco polo sheep ( ovis ammon poli ) of the afghan pamir : a report of biological investigations in 1972 - 1973 . fao , rome , italy .\n\u201cat that time a foreigner was paying 3 , 000 to 10 , 000 dollars for one shot . our most important duty was to safeguard and maintain the marco polo sheep and snow leopards . \u201d\nthe struggle for the conservation of wildlife including marco polo sheep in badakhshan gained ground after wcs resumed its activities in 2006 , and other organisations including the aga khan foundation began contributing to the effort .\nthe profits have also multiplied . abdul zahir claims to have sold a marco polo sheepskin for 5 , 000 afghanis .\nmarco polo sheep live in family groups composed of around 10 animals of one sex during the summer and spring . males and females gather in large groups ( 50 to 90 animals ) during the winter .\na three - month investigation by an iwpr reporter indicates that lack of oversight by government officials , along with poverty among local people , encourages illegal hunting of marco polo sheep without any fear of punishment .\nthe cast of marco polo includes lorenzo richelmy as marco polo ; benedict wong as kublai khan ; zhu zhu as kokachi , a mysterious woman who immediately catches marco & apos ; s eye ; and joan chen as empress chabi , kublai khan & apos ; s wife and adviser .\n( top ) karchinae lake falls under the khunjerab national park . photo : sultan gohar / world wildlife nature fund - pakistan . ( top right ) the endangered marco polo sheep . photo : snowleopardconservancy . org\nlast year , a group of three individuals was caught with a marco polo sheep with an injured hoof . mohammad sadiq said the hunters confessed that the animal was to be sent to a zoo in islamabad .\nfigure 6 . occupancy of marco polo argali ( red dots ) in the study area , eastern pamir mountains , tajikistan .\nmarco polo traveling , from the book the travels of marco polo ( il milione ) , originally published during polos lifetime ( september 15 , 1254 - january 8 , 1324 ) , but frequently reprinted and translated . ( photo : wikimedia commons )\nmarco polo sheep are best known by their large horns that are characteristic for males . horns start to grow 15 to 20 days after birth . they are shaped like corkscrew , positioned nearly parallel to the ground .\nthe sheep , which were first reported by marco polo in 1273 , prefer open terrain . when faced with danger , they don ' t run to hide under cliffs but instead take off across the rolling hills .\nto determine the status and distribution of the vulnerable marco polo sheep or argali ovis ammon polii surveys were made in the pamir mountains , where the hindu kush , karakoram , and kunlun ranges meet . in china a total of 851 marco polo sheep were observed within the taxkorgan nature reserve and 1 , 448 north of the reserve . no reliable population estimate is available for tajikistan but in five . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe entire 10 - episode season of marco polo will become available to netflix members december 12th at 12 : 01 a . m . pt . but before you watch the series , check out the scoop on the real - life exploits of marco polo .\ndr babar khan of the wwf said so far , reasonable progress has been made to protect the species like the himalayan ibex and blue sheep . the population of both species has increased but more needs to be done to achieve its original objective of sustaining a viable population of the marco polo sheep , khan added .\nkhan , m . i . and khan , n . u . h . unpublished . ambassador of peace on the roof of the world : a study report on marco polo sheep . wwf pakistan , gilgit , pakistan .\nschaller , g . b . and kang , a . l . 2008 . status of marco polo sheep ovis ammon polii in china and adjacent countries : conservation of a vulnerable subspecies . oryx 42 : 100 - 106 .\nthe management plan , originally devised to protect and conserve local wildlife failed miserably . marco polo sheep continued to be hunted , decreasing the number of marcos from 800 to a few dozen during the period between 1975 and 1993 .\nhe and his chinese colleague aili kang began a marco polo sheep survey on the chinese side of the pamirs last fall . they counted 2 , 175 animals before they had to cut the census short because of heavy snow .\nour marco polo sheep hunts take place in kyrgyzstan and tajikistan . we have arranged more marco polo sheep hunts during the last twenty years , than most of the other outfitters combined . we spend a great deal of time and energy making sure that our clients hunt in the best areas available with the most competent guides , whichever country they select . please note : we are the only american company that has its own full - time staff in tajikistan .\nno . 5 : many of us have spent a summer & apos ; s afternoon in a swimming pool playing the tag game of marco polo , but did you know that the venetian merchant also has a species of sheep named after him ? in the travels of marco polo , he mentions observing the mountain sheep on the pamir plateau in badakhshan [ now northeastern afghanistan ] . of course , the sheep weren & apos ; t named after him in his lifetime . the first scientific mention of ovis ammon polii was in 1841 by zoologist edward blyth .\nschaller : the two critical ones right now are tajikistan and afghanistan . we went with a photographer and writer , funded by the national geographic [ society ] , to make a survey of the afghan marco polo sheep . so we spent nearly two months \u2014 going by yak mostly , some by horse \u2014 up every valley , counting animals . and we saw about 625 total . so there is still a reasonable population which , if protected , will continue to exist . and tajikistan , now , they , of course , have the most marco polo sheep \u2014 they have the biggest area . but there has been very little control there . you can buy marco polo sheep meat in the restaurants in town .\nour outfitter controls several exclusive hunting concession with a size of more than 600 , 000 combined acres and offer some of the very best habitat for marco polo and ibex . each hunting areas are approximately 350 miles from bishkek to the karakol region for ibex and to the naryn region for marco polo or marco polo / ibex combination hunts . a drive of 9 - 10 is typical to reach either location from bishkek .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - marco polo argarli - overview\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - marco polo argarli - overview\ntitle =\narkive video - marco polo argarli - overview\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nfeng , j . 2000 . molecular approaches for conservation of endangered giant argali sheep ( ovis ammon ) and dwarf blue sheep ( psuedois nayaur schaeferi ) in asia . thesis , university of new york .\nno . 4 : while marco polo didn & apos ; t actually discover america , he was influential in christopher columbus & apos ; s decision to strike out for unknown territory . columbus is said to have been inspired by marco & apos ; s adventures , and took a copy of the travels of marco polo on his westward sail two centuries after marco & apos ; s journey to china .\nthe largest of all ibex , the mid - asian ibex , is found in abundant numbers in some of the same regions where we hunt marco polo sheep . many of our clients have chosen to hunt ibex following the successful sheep hunt , as no camp change is usually required . ibex hunting can be challenging , however very rewarding also . for those clients who have more time available , afghan urial sheep and other game can also be hunted in tajikistan .\n, marco polo sheep , and himalayan ibex . it is thought that the highest density of these beautiful cats may reside here . over 2 , 000 siberian ibex , widely distributed and abundant in the park but absent from neighbouring china are also present here .\nthe marco polo sheep , named after the 13th century italian explorer who first described for the western world , is considered one of the fastest and smartest of game animals . its meat is delicious and its curved horns often grow to 140 or 160 centimetres .\nsingle nucleotide polymorphisms of the adrb3 gene in six chinese sheep populations detected by pcr - s . . .\nmarco polo argali hunt special $ 16 , 995 plus $ 10 , 000 trophy fee if successful . ibex may be added to a marco polo hunt for $ 3 , 850 in advance . . trophy fees should be paid in cash after harvest and include all cites , licenses and permits for that animal .\nwildlife surveys in the pamir mountains of pakistan , afghanistan , china , and tajikistan revealed that marco polo sheep ( ovis ammon polii ) roam back and forth across the frontiers of these countries . there has been a considerable decline of wildlife in recent years . the creation of an international peace park of about 50 , 000 km2 ( 19 , 305 miles2 ) would offer the four countries one option of cooperatively protecting and managing not only marco polo sheep and other species but also the rangelands upon which the livelihood of local peoples depend .\nwe saw fewer sheep in most areas , and in some places they had vanished ,\nschaller said .\nwildlife surveys in the pamir mountains of pakistan , afghanistan , china , and tajikistan revealed that marco polo sheep ( ovis ammon polii ) roam back and forth across the frontiers of these countries . there has been a considerable decline of wildlife in recent years . the creation of an international peace park of about 50 , 000 km 2 ( 19 , 305 miles 2 ) would offer the four countries one option of cooperatively protecting and managing not only marco polo sheep and other species but also the rangelands upon which the livelihood of local peoples depend .\non his deathbed , marco was encouraged to admit that the travels of marco polo was a work of fiction , but to his dying breath he declared ,\ni did not tell half of what i saw .\nin the himalaya , there are two species of sheep , one of which is the large argali . this species\nis classified into several races , based on minor differences in horn shape and coat color ; only the marco polo sheep , a type of argali , is well - known . ( p . 4 , george schaller , stones of silence . new york , 1979 . )\nhas a management plan to protect the alpine flora in khunjerab national park that will on focus on community - based conservation with a strong element of raising environmental awareness . the aim is to control grazing , and increase the population of snow leopards , marco polo and blue sheep .\nkilling the species is now prohibited . for 18 years before the soviet invasion of 1979 , hunting of marco polo sheep was carefully regulated , with foreign hunters allowed only one shot at the animal , which stands almost a metre high and often weighs between 125 and 130 kilograms .\nbut schaller says the sheep are not yet endangered , and he believes the population can be sustained through proper management .\nghulam nabi sarfaraz , head of the environment department for the province , said his staff captured a pakistani citizen last year carrying a dead marco polo sheep near the border with chitral . he said the suspect was handed over to afghan border police and he has heard nothing about the incident since .\nhunters can expect to see good numbers of game , with great trophy quality for those who are patient and selective . marco polo are plentiful in our private hunting territory with new exclusive access inside a former national park available starting in 2015 . historical success rates on mature animals are very high , very close to 95 % long term with 100 % success over the last two seasons the average trophy size for marco polo sheep in this area of 47 to 51 inches .\npetocz , r . g . , habibi , k . , jamil , a . and wassey , a . 1978 . report on the afghan pamir . part 2 : biology of the marco polo sheep . undp / fao / dept . forests & range / min . of agriculture , kabul .\nmain predators of adult sheep are wolves , leopards and snow leopards , while foxes , golden eagle and lammergeyer prey on lambs .\npaltsyn , m . 2001 . the current distribution of the argali mountain sheep . russian conservation news 25 : 17 - 19 .\nhas been categorized in several lists , such as the appendix ii of cites and the 2000 iucn red list , as vulnerable or threatened species . o . aknazarov , pamir biological institute director , said that the total number of marco polo sheep in the tajik pamirs may only be between 3000 to 5000 animals . valdez\nhunting for one of the most desirable trophy for trophy hunters all over the world - marco polo argali . price is available in case of two hunters in the group only ! ! !\naccording to district chief feruz shah , wakhan has a population of 18 , 000 and is controlled by only a few individuals \u2013 mostly large landowners who have near - absolute influence over the hundreds of small settlements in the area . local hunters say the landowners have a hand in the continued hunting of marco polo sheep .\naccording to a survey conducted by the badakhshan provincial agriculture department , there were 4 , 000 marco polo sheep in 1971 . a survey completed in may 2011 by the american - based wild conservation society , wcs , using advanced camera traps placed at several locations in the wakhan valley , put the number at 1 , 500 .\nno . 1 : marco polo was only 15 years old when he left venice on the great adventure that took him to the court of kublai khan . his father niccol\u00f2 and his uncle maffeo polo had made the journey previously . marco barely knew his father , who had spent marco & apos ; s childhood as a traveling merchant when they left on their quest . but the death of marco & apos ; s mother convinced niccol\u00f2 that marco should accompany him on the return trip , which lasted 24 years ( 1271 - 1295 ) . the polos weren & apos ; t the first wayfarers \u2014 marco & apos ; s word \u2014 to make it to asia , but marco is the one who became most famous for it .\n. . . the population of marco polo sheep wasfound to have decreased quickly after recent kkh construction as compared with previous kkh construction . the main reason for the population decrease was found to be poaching by humans ( schaller , 2007 ) . the construction of the kkh dramatically facilitates access to the national park for visitors . . . .\nmarco polo argali hunting in tajikistan 2015 ! marco polo argali in tajikistan is a great challenge and a dream for any hunter at any place in the world . and now we are happy to announce that one more hunter made his dream reality . gustavo arredondo from the usa shot wonderful , amazing argali of 61 inch . for for more information or booking bukharan markhor hunt please visit our website urltoken\nabdul sabir , one of the civil guards , said that every week they divide into eight - member groups and go out on patrols in areas known to be used for hunting and smuggling . \u201cwe are guarding [ like ] police and we don\u2019t permit anyone to hunt marco polo sheep , \u201d he said . the civil guards are unarmed .\nmohammad sadiq , who has been security chief in wakhan district for the last four years , said there are dangerous people behind the trade , a so - called \u201cmarco polo mafia\u201d intent on making money .\nkhunjerab national park \u2013 adjacent to tashkurgan , china natural reserve \u2013 was first envisaged by zulfikar ali bhutto in 1975 to protect endangered species like marco polo sheep and their habitat . plans for the park were first drawn up in 1994 - 95 and the park boundaries included some of shimshal valley\u2019s pastures , a move not welcome by the valley\u2019s inhabitants .\nabdullah , now 60 and living in the village of bokowi village , is one of six officials who were responsible for accompanying foreigners in those days . \u201ceach tourist and foreign hunter was permitted only one shot at a marco polo sheep during their visit . if they missed , they didn\u2019t have permission to take a second shot , \u201d he recalls .\ngeist , v . 1997 . on the taxonomy of giant sheep ( ovis ammon ) . canadian journal of zoology 69 : 706 - 723 .\nthat is less than half of the sheep estimated to have been there when the area was last surveyed in 1973 by canadian biologist ronald petocz .\ncounting sheep in afghanistan\u2019s badakhshan province may be difficult , but shooting them is easy enough when the weapon of choice is an ak - 47 .\nthe sheep , known locally as \u201cnakhjipar\u201d , are found in afghanistan\u2019s northeastern badakhshan province , in the narrow wakhan valley corridor between tajikistan and pakistan .\n. . . hkh is among wwf ' s 200 global priority eco - regions and classified as endemic bird area ( eba ) of urgent biological importance ( chettri , 2008 ) . snow leopard ( uncia uncia ) , brown bear ( ursus arctos ) , black bear ( ursus thibetanus ) , astore markhor ( capra falconeri falconeri ) , blue sheep ( pseudois nayaur ) , ladakh urial ( ovis vignei ) , marco polo ' s sheep ( ovis ammon polii ) , himalayan musk deer ( moschus chrysogaster ) , himalayan ibex ( capra ibex sibirica ) , woolly flying squirrel ( eupetaurus cinereus ) and eurasian otter ( lutra lutra ) are key mammals ( roberts , 1977 ; schaller , 2008 ; ablimit et al . , 2011 ; khan et al . , 2012 ) . snow leopard , brown bear , marco polo ' s sheep , blue sheep and musk deer are protected yet not fully secure of poaching in their habitats ( rasool , 1990 , khan , 1996 ) . . . .\nwe encourage hunters to book their marco polo sheep hunts as early as possible in order to secure a license for the year they want to hunt and the period most convenient for them . we operate in tajikistan and kyrgyzstan , the venue of the hunt makes no difference to us . we will be happy to arrange your hunt in either of these countries .\nsome have called george schaller the globe ' s greatest living naturalist . now a field biologist and vice president for the wildlife conservation society ' s science and exploration program , he ' s been working for some 20 years to create international , trans - border wildlife reserves to provide vital corridors for endangered and threatened animal species \u2014 particularly the marco polo sheep .\nharris , r . b . and winnie jr . , j . 2008 . status update and progress report : marco polo argali in the afghan pamir . caprinae news 2008 ( 1 ) : 1 - 2 .\nbody of marco polo sheep is covered with woolly coat that is dark brown on the upper side and white on the underside . dark band on lateral side of the body separates these two types of wool . males have white neck ruff which becomes prominent during the winter ( at the beginning of the mating season ) . females are generally lighter in color than males .\nalthough marco polo sheep hunting can be successfully pursued at any point in the season , late october to the end of november and during the winter months of january and february are the preferred time period . post rut hunting in january can be exceptionally good as the animals recover from the december mating season and is the recommended period for those with any physical mobility disadvantage .\ngong , m . h . , dai , z . g . , zeng , z . g . , zhang , q . and song , y . l . 2007 . a preliminary survey of population size and habitats of marco polo sheep ( ovis ammon polii ) in taxkorgan nature reserve , xinjiang , china . acta theriologica sinica 27 : 317 - 324 .\ngeorge schaller : pamir means\nwide open valleys\n\u2014 rangelands , basically . and the main part of the pamir is high , rolling hills \u2014 16 , 000 to 17 , 000 feet \u2014 with broad valleys . and it ' s the main home of the marco polo sheep , which was first described by marco polo in 1273 . it ' s a sheep with the longest horns , and the world record \u2014 over the curve , it ' s 75 inches . therefore it ' s been an almost mythical animal that trophy hunters and museum hunters wanted . a hunter may pay $ 20 , 000 to $ 25 , 000 to shoot one . and ideally , that money should go to conservation , and it should go to the local communities .\nsheep can reach up to 6feet in length and 278lb in weight . unlike the horns , the tails are short going up to 6 . 3inches in length .\n. . . taxkorgan in ( china ) and the adjacent khunjerab national park ( pakistan ) constitute one of the most important wildlife areas in the mountains of asia . important populations of large ungulates and carnivores , notably marco polo sheep and snow leopard ( schaller et al . , 1987 ) provide the foundation for an international protected area in the region ( schaller , 2007 ) . the two ecologically contiguous areas were known to have thousands of marco polo sheep and ibex till the mid - nineties ( roberts , 1999 ) and inhabited by kirgiz , tajik , and brosho folks carving out a living from pastoral animals husbandry , utilizing sub - alpine and alpine pastures in a complex pastoral herding system ( knudsen , 1999 ; ablimit et al . , 2011 ; ) . . . .\nvaldez , r . ; michel , s . ; subbotin , a . ; klich , d . status and population structure of a hunted population of marco polo argali ovis ammon polii ( cetartiodactyla , bovidae ) in southeastern tajikistan .\nthe wet meadow plant community consisted of majority 44 . 2 % of grasses / sedge and 43 . 87 % sheep droppings . the most diverse vegetative class in the dry meadow was forbs with 13 . 63 % cover observed and sheep droppings was recorded as 13 . 9 % . the wet and the dry meadows were about 27 . 34 m ( 0 . 017 mi ) apart . aside from the wet meadow , the dry upland also recorded a high percentage of sheep droppings at 43 . 87 % .\ncall today or fill out the form on the right and let us know what type of experience you\u2019d like to have while marco polo sheep hunting in kyrgyzstan . we\u2019ll send you information on opportunities that match your goals . our experienced outfitters are second to none and we\u2019re happy to share personal experiences with you . if you would like more information on mid - asian ibex hunting in kyrgyzstan , click the active link .\nwith winding and long horns for distinction , marco polo sheep are among the most iconic wildlife nature has to offer . they have the longest horns any sheep species has in the word with the recorded piece having been around 2meters in length . they mainly inhabit china , tajikistan , afghanistan and pakistan where they live in steep valleys , mountains , gentle slopes and highland pastures at altitudes between 12 . 1 and 15 . 7 feet above sea level . since their discovery in 1273 by marco polo who they are named after , they have come to be appreciated and cherished by many for their unique looks and what they offer . they have especially sparkled interest from poachers who hunt them for their beautiful horns to use as trophies . they are now characterized as being near threatened species and are clearly on their way to being termed as endangered .\nmarco polo sheep are active during the day and herbivorous . in winter when the plant leaves are all covered up , they dig roots from the ground for their consumption . another survival tactic they employ during winter is the migratory movement from the mountains towards the pastures . another change is that males and female family groups combine during winter in large groups of 50 to 90 . during summer and spring , the sexes remain in separate groups each composed of 10members . their mating season is usually in december . this mating however is not for all as the males fight to get the opportunity to mate and only the dominant males get to mate with a harem of females . gestation period of marco polo sheep is about 160days and each female gives birth to one lamb . sexual maturity for females is reached at 2years for females and 5years for females .\n. . . marco polo sheep now visits qarchanai valley for lambing ( jackson , 2000 ) from may till september , and that ' s how it was seen here during summer only . however , its numbers have recently increased on the chinese side probably due to better protection by chinese authorities ( schaller and kang , 2008 ) . the ungulate biomass recorded from the study area was lower ( 278 . 97 . . .\nin this report , we described a small portion of our study area in the southeastern tajik pamirs that contained the two available datasets\u2014one dataset listed the occupancy locations of wild sheep , and the second dataset detailed transect surveys that showed surface characteristics of possible sheep habitat . using remote sensing techniques and geographic information systems ( gis ) , descriptions of the sheep habitat were presented in gis layers . we generated individual layers to obtain information on argali patterns and habitat suitability and to make the dataset available online to the rest of the research community .\nthe bride appeared splendidly dressed , with a long gauzy veil that flowed to her feet , and every part of her dress sparkling with jewels . she looked beautiful and happy , and all the world envied marco polo his possession of the fair donata loredano .\nwcs conservationist anthony simms says that for the last four years , his organisation has employed 40 local young people as \u201ccivil guards\u201d , who act as game wardens to protect the sheep .\namgalanbaatar , s . , reading , r . p . and ganchimeg , j . 2000 . concerns about the effective management and conservation of argali sheep in mongolia . strategic planning for conservation of mongolian argali sheep ( ovis ammon ) , pp . 16 \u2013 20 . mongolian ministry for nature and environment and world wide fund for nature \u2013 mongolia , ulaanbaatar , mongolia .\n. . . the marco polo sheep species represents a new model to study high - altitude adaptation mechanisms adopted by mammals . due to the sheep\ns impressively long horns , foreign hunters have for many years been willing to pay large amounts of money to take part in a hunt [ 5 ] and this is still the case today [ 2 ] . recent studies on the status of the argali population have shown a decline in numbers , caused mainly by over - hunting and subsistence poaching , as well as by competition with livestock and habitat loss [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] . . . .\nmitchell , r . m . and frisina , m . r . 2007 . from the himalayas to the rockies : retracing the great arc of wild sheep . safari press , inc .\nwildlife surveys in the pamir mountains of pakistan , afghanistan , china , and tajikistan revealed that marco polo sheep ( ovis ammon polii ) roam back and forth across the frontiers of these countries . there has been a considerable decline of wildlife in recent years . the creation of an international peace park of about 50 , 000 km 2 ( 19 , 305 miles 2 ) would offer the four countries one option of . . . [ show full abstract ]\nshot in venice , kazakhstan and malaysia , marco polo begins with marco & apos ; s arrival at the court of kublai khan and follows the youth from his teen years to adulthood as he experiences a life only few could imagine : his escapades as he travels throughout asia , visiting countries no european had seen before , and learning new languages and different cultures along the way .\nthe argali are light tan to a gray - brown , with white hairs interspersed depending on the exact species and the age of the sheep . the face and belly of the sheep are much lighter than the rest of the body . adult males have enormous horns that can reach a length of 6 . 5 feet . females also have horns , but they rarely exceed 1 foot in length .\nreading , r . p . , amgalanbaatar , s . and wingard , g . j . 2001 . argali sheep conservation and research activities in mongolia . open country 3 : 25 - 32 .\nthe khan looked at marco from head to foot , and advancing to him , smiled very pleasantly .\nthe fair donata seemed pleased with his attentions , and gradually learned to feel for the sturdy cavalier a warm affection . the course of their love ran smooth ; and when marco polo asked the consent of loredano to their betrothal , the noble councillor at once and joyfully accorded it .\nmarco polo argali hunting expeditions are scheduled to include ten full hunting days . the suggested itinerary may be lengthened or shortened upon request or due to any of the variables that hunters may encounter during their hunt . hunters need to expect two weeks in kyrgyzstan from arrival in bishkek to departure . it is also necessary to allow one to two days in bishkek at the end of a hunt for the preparation of trophies and paperwork . it is common for hunters to have ample opportunity to harvest a marco polo and an ibex over the course of a ten - day hunt .\nthe purpose of this study was to assess genetic diversity , genetic differentiation . relationship and population structure among 10 chinese sheep populations using 5 single nucleotide polymorphisms ( snps ) . in mc1r gene . the genetic diversity indices suggested that the intra - population variation levels of chinese merino and large - tailed han , breeds were lowest than kazakh fat - rumped . chinese sheep . . . [ show full abstract ]\neast meets west when netflix brings the 13th century to life with an epic series featuring the travels and adventures of venetian explorer marco polo , who spent more than two decades in the service of kublai khan , one of the greatest rulers in history who reigned over mongolia for 34 years .\npolo had accepted rusticiano ' s proposition , to dictate to him an account of his travels , with pleasure . it afforded a grateful relief from the monotony of prison life ; and , besides , marco well knew that the wonderful narrative would perpetuate his fame long after he himself was dead .\nin pursuit of the massive animals , which can weigh more than 300 pounds ( 135 kilograms ) , schaller and his colleagues often observed only the flash of white rumps as the sheep raced out of sight .\nschaller says he\npersonally would not care to shoot something just to have an ornament on the wall ,\nbut he believes trophy hunting can be a viable tool to help protect the sheep from extinction .\nhow my brother maffeo and my uncle marco would wonder to see all this splendor !\nmused marco .\nwhen i get home , and tell them about it , they will not believe me .\nhunting marco polo sheep and ibex require rifles capable of shooting accurately up to and beyond 400 yards . crosswind and angle compensation are always variables while hunting here . we recommend flat - shooting rifles in the . 270 to . 300 caliber , but it is strongly recommended that hunters arrive with a weapon that they are intimately familiar with shooting . most shots will be between 200 and 400 yards ; however , more opportunities will present themselves to hunters who have the ability to extend their range beyond 400 yards .\nishunin , g . e . 1970 . kyzylkum or severtzov\u2019s sheep ( in russian ) . ecology of vertebrates of the huratau range , pp . 140 - 160 . uzbekistan academy of science , tashkent , uzbekistan .\n[ \u201cthe tao - sze , says marco polo , wear dresses of black and blue linen ; i . e . they wear dresses made of tatters of black and blue linen , as can be seen also at the present day . \u201d ( palladius , 30 . ) \u2014 h . c . ]\nthe sketch from the life , on p . 326 , of a wandering tibetan devotee , whom i met once at hardw\u00e1r , may give an idea of the sordid bacsis spoken of by polo .\nmarco approached and made the usual humble obeisance to the monarch . kublai , raising himself on his elbow , motioned to marco to come nearer and stand by him ; for he said he had something to say to him .\namgalanbaatar , s . , reading , r . p . , lkhagvasuren , b . and batsukh , n . 2002 . argali sheep ( ovis ammon ) trophy hunting in mongolia . pirineos 157 : 129 - 150 .\nnicolo and maffeo polo , as well as marco , aroused the hostility of many of the barons ; and so unpleasant did their position at the court begin to be , despite the fondness and favor of the monarch , that they often talked together anxiously about the prospect of their being able to return to venice .\nno . 9 : not a lot is known about marco polo after his return to venice in 1295 . it is posited that he returned to the family merchant business , but it is known that he married and had three daughters : moretta , fantina , and bellela . he lived to be 70 years old .\nthe sheep can weigh from 150 pounds to 400 pounds . they are between 3 to 4 feet tall , with a body length of 4 to 6 \u00bd feet . the tail is generally less than 6 inches in length .\nkang will finish the survey this spring . but there ' s no doubt that the sheep population in china has seen a healthy increase in the last two decades , schaller says , due to china ' s antipoaching efforts .\nno . 2 : marco polo did not bring pasta back to venice from china . it is one of the most famous legends out there about the adventurer , but truth be told , pasta had made its way into the cuisine of italy prior to marco & apos ; s birth . he did , however , introduce the concept of paper money , which was used in mongolia in the 13th century , but not in europe .\n[ \u201clamas were of various extraction ; at the time of the great assemblies , and of the khan\u2019s festivities in shangtu , they erected an altar near the khan\u2019s tent and prayed for fine weather ; the whistling of shells rose up to heaven . \u201d these are the words in which marco polo\u2019s narrative is corroborated by an eye - witness who has celebrated the remarkable objects of shangtu ( loan king tsa yung ) . these lamas , in spite of the prohibition by the buddhist creed of bloody sacrifices , used to sacrifice sheep\u2019s hearts to mahakala . it happened , as it seems , that the heart of an executed criminal was also considered an agreeable offering ; and as the offerings could be , after the ceremony , eaten by the sacrificing priests , marco polo had some reason to accuse the lamas of cannibalism . ( palladius , 28 . ) \u2014 h . c . ]\n] , however , counted a total of 8649 , 8392 , and 7663 sheep in a four - year successive surveys from 2009 to 2012 . argalis usually inhabit the rolling hills that lack tall vegetation to visually scan for predators [\na much smaller area of 50 km 2 ( 4984 ha ) was isolated from the bigger study area to focus more on the landscape characteristics of the wet and dry meadows , which we think are the good habitats for sheep .\nin interviews with iwpr , local hunters abdul sabir , abdullah and abdul zahir claim that large numbers of the sheep are hunted down on the orders of wakhan\u2019s powerbrokers every year for meat , which is sometimes served at elaborate picnics .\nno . 10 : there are those who believe that marco polo never took the journey down the silk road to china and in fact , made it no further than the black sea . they believe that the adventures described in his book were made up from stories he heard from others along the road he did travel . it doesn & apos ; t help his case that there were many exaggerations in the travels of marco polo , plus there were also interesting exclusions , such as the fact that he failed to mention the use of chopsticks for eating , or that he had seen the great wall . it also helps these naysayers that no mention of marco polo has been found in any historic chinese records . on the other hand , the majority of historians are prone to believe the marco did indeed make it to china and work in the service of kublai kahn , especially because of the preponderance of cultural information in the book . plus , there are those who have used his journal to retrace his footsteps , and they declare the geography to be so accurate , they believe the trip happened .\nthe road up to the pass rises steadily , though the last 4 - 5km are much steeper , through gorges and scenery that simply gets more and more spectacular \u2013 even more landslides , even narrower , even more glaciers . about half way to the top of the pass you enter the khunjerab national park which is principally a way of collecting fees , ie . income from foreigners . most people who travel through the park never see any wildlife , so we were lucky as we saw marco polo sheep ( very rare ) , ibex , yaks and marmots .\nthus marco polo stood , on that bright april morning in 1271 , on the deck of the war - galley , and watched the glittering domes and spires of venice receding from view , while the vessel sailed down the adriatic sea , he little guessed how many years would elapse ere his eyes would greet the familiar home scenes again .\naccording to abdul zahir , in the old days hunters used british - made single - shot rifles to hunt the sheep . the soviet invasion brought the ak - 47 , which can fire dozens of bullets with one pull of a trigger .\nnot long after he had married and settled , marco polo was surprised and delighted to receive a visit from two persian travellers of high rank , who had come to venice on a commercial errand . they went to the court of the millions to see marco , of whose fame as a traveller they had heard , and to bear him a message of friendship from the fair young queen cocachin , who gratefully remembered marco ' s gallant attentions to her while journeying from cathay to persia , and who sent him a beautiful jewel in token of her gratitude . marco was grieved to learn , about a year afterwards , that this lovely young queen had died , mourned by all her new subjects and by her gallant husband ."]}
{"id": 588, "summary": [{"text": "heloxycanus patricki is a species of moth of the family hepialidae , the only member of the genus heloxycanus .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "its common names are ghost moth and sphagnum porina moth .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the species is named for its discoverer , entomologist brian patrick .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it is found in sphagnum and other moss bogs in the southern part of the south island of new zealand .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its life cycle runs in two year cycles with peak numbers of adults occurring in odd-numbered years . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "heloxycanus", "paragraphs": ["heloxycanus patricki ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 853 ( list )\nheloxycanus ( hepialidae ) ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 853 ( list )\nonly a single species of ghost moth ( heloxycanus patricki ) of this endemic new zealand genus has been discovered , by brian patrick , an otago entomologist . it appears to be restricted to the southern south island , living in sphagnum and other moss bogs from sea level to 1 , 500 metres . adults emerge early in winter in alternate years .\nthis item has been provided for private study purposes ( such as school projects , family and local history research ) and any published reproduction ( print or electronic ) may infringe copyright law . it is the responsibility of the user of any material to obtain clearance from the copyright holder .\nthe content of this field is kept private and will not be shown publicly .\nthis question is for testing whether you are a human visitor and to prevent automated spam submissions .\nall text licensed under the creative commons attribution - noncommercial 3 . 0 new zealand licence unless otherwise stated . commercial re - use may be allowed on request . all non - text content is subject to specific conditions . \u00a9 crown copyright .\nthis web site would not have been possible without the continuous support and encouragement of my wife claudia violette , the generous assistance of malte ebach , and the kind help with information and images from many professionals and enthusiasts througout the world . to everyone i am eternally grateful . 1990 . hunting korscheltellus gracilis larvae mid winter vermont .\nmy interest in ghost moth evolution began in my first graduate year when i conducted a small project looking at the occurrence of wood - boring insects at different stages of forest succession . this was followed by a phd project on the developmental ecology of\ns in new zealand where my interest encompassed all aspects of ghost moth biology .\ni am particularly interested in the evolutionary relationships between ghost moths . although other responsibilities have curtailed much of that effort of the last decade , i continue to work on developing a better understanding of the global systematics and biogeography of this much overlooked group of moths .\n( this listing is in development . my apologies in advance for any oversight ) martin albrecht phil bendle rudolph bryner clinton care don davis ( usnm )\nmonotypic . rviewed by dugdale ( 1994 ) . member of the old world oycanine clade ( grehan , in prep ) . habitat\nbiology biennial emergence of adults with peak emergece in odd - numbered years for all known populations ( cf . biennial patterns in korscheltellus gracilis ) . adults emerge in the autumn and winter .\n( lepidoptera ) of new zealand . new zealand entomologist 8 : 64 - 67 .\nnielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 ghostmoths of the world : a global inventory and bibliography of the exoporia j . nat . hist . 34 : 823 - 878\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngenus dumbletonius dugdale , 1988 trioxycanus dumbleton , 1966 characterifer walker , 1865 impletus walker , 1865 unimaculatus salmon , 1948 enysii not butler , 1877 but meyrick , 1890 sylvicola dugdale , 1988 n . syn .\naitkenhead , p . ; baker , c . r . b . 1964 : the larvae of british hepialidae . entomologist 97 : 25 - 38 .\narchibald , r . d . 1984 : some eugregarinida ( apicomplex ) from new zealand melolonthinae ( scarabaeidae : coleoptera ) and hepialidae ( lepidoptera ) . unpubl . phd thesis , university of otago , dunedin . 206 pp .\nbarratt , b . i . p . ; van toor , r . f . ; ferguson , c . m . ; stewart , \u03ba . \u03bc . 1990 : grass grub and porina in otago and southland . a guide to management and control . maf technology , invermay / n . z . tablet , dunedin . 104 pp .\nbest , \u03b5 . 1912 : maori forest lore : being some account of native forest lore and woodcraft , as also of many myths , rites , customs , and superstitions , connected with the flora and fauna of the tuhoe or ure - wera district , part \u03c0 . transactions and proceedings of the n . z . institute 41 : 231 - 285 .\nbirket - smith , s . j . r . 1974 : morphology of the male genitalia of lepidoptera , ii . monotrysia , zeugloptera , and discussion . entomologica scandinavica 5 : 161 - 183 .\nboudinot , j . 1991 : biologie d ' aenetus cohici viette ( lepidoptera hepialidae ) . pp . 167 - 175 in j . chazeau & s . tillier eds , ` zoologia neocaledonica 2 ' . memoires du museum nationale d ' histoire naturelle ( a ) 149 .\nbourgogne , j . 1949 : un type nouveau d ' appareil g\u00e9nital femelle chez les l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res . annales de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france 115 : 69 - 80 .\nbroun , t . 1915 : descriptions of new genera and species of coleoptera . bulletin of the n . z . institute 1 ( 4 ) : 267 - 346 .\nbuller , w . l . 1873 : notice of a new species of moth from new zealand . transactions and proceedings of the n . z . institute 5 : 279 - 280 , colour plate .\nbutler , a . g . 1877 : on two collections of heterocerous lepidoptera from new zealand with descriptions of new genera and species . proceedings of the zoological society of london , 1877 : 379 - 407 .\nbutler , a . g . 1879 : on a small collection of heterocerous lepidoptera from new zealand . cistula entomologica 2 : 487 - 511 .\ncarpenter , a . 1978 : a review of the biology and control of porina ( wiseana spp . ) with particular reference to the southern north island . internal report , ministry of agriculture and fisheries research division , palmerston north . 18 pp . + unnumbered bibliography .\ncommon , i . f . b . 1969 : a winglocking or stridulatory device in lepidoptera . journal of the australian entomological society 8 : 121 - 125 .\ncommon , i . f . b . 1990 : hepialoidea . pp . 140 - 150 in : ` moths of australia ' . melbourne university press . 533 pp .\ncrosby , t . k . ; dugdale , j . s . ; watt , j . c . 1976 : recording specimen localities in new zealand : an arbitrary system of areas and codes defined . n . z . journal of zoology 3 : 69 + map .\ndavis , d . r . 1975 : a review of the west lndian moths of the family psychidae with descriptions of new taxa and immature stages . smithsonian contributions to zoology 188 . 66 pp .\ndick , r . d . 1945 : ecological observations on oxycanus cervinata . n . z . journal of science and technology a 27 ( 1 ) : 32 - 38 .\ndoubleday , \u03b5 . 1843 : lepidoptera . pp . 283 - 289 in dieffenbach , e . ed . , ` travels in new zealand , with contributions to the geography , geology , botany and natural history of the country ' , vol . 2 . london , john murray .\ndugdale , j . s . 1961 : larval characters of taxonomic significance of new zealand ennomines ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) . transactions of the royal society of n . z . , zoology 1 : 215 - 233 .\ndugdale , j . s . 1974 : female genital configuration in the classification of lepidoptera . n . z . journal of zoology 1 : 127 - 146 .\ndugdale , j . s . 1986 : trioxycanus dumbleton , 1966 ( lepidoptera ) , a genus based on a misidentified type species , with proposal of new names for the taxonomic genus and species involved . z . n . ( s . ) 2462 . bulletin of zoological nomenclature 43 : 46 - 49 .\ndugdale , j . s . 1988 : lepidoptera - annotated catalogue , and keys to family - group taxa . fauna of n . z . 14 . 262 pp .\ndumbleton , l . j . 1945 : contribution to the ecology of oxycanus cervinata walk . n . z . journal of science and technology a 27 ( 2 ) : 114 - 128 .\ndugdale , j . s . 1966 : genitalia , classification , and zoogeography of the new zealand hepialidae ( lepidoptera ) . n . z . journal of science 9 ( 4 ) : 920 - 981 .\nelder , r . j . 1970 : larval taxonomy of oncopera brachyphylla turner and its distinction from oncopera mitocera ( turner ) . queensland journal of agricultural and animal sciences 27 : 123 - 128 . ( also published as queensland department of primary industries , division of plant industry bulletin no . 533 . )\nelder , r . j . 1978 : notes on the biology and descriptions of the life stages of oncopera parva tindale ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . journal of the australian entomological society 17 : 5 - 11 .\nesson , m . j . 1970 : time lapse photography for the observation of porina caterpillar behaviour . proceedings of the 23rd n . z . weed and pest control conference : 200 - 204 .\nfelder , c . ; rogenhofer , a . f . 1874 : reise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte ` novara ' um die erde ( zoologischer theil ) , \u03b2 and 2 ( abteilung 2 ) hefte 4 [ plates 15 - 107 ] .\nfenemore , p . g . ; allen , v . a . l . 1969 : oviposition preference and larval survival in wiseana cervinata ( walker ) , hepialidae . n . z . journal of agricultural research 12 : 146 - 161 .\nflower , n . e . ; helson , g . a . h . 1976 : variation in antennal sensilla of some hepialid moths ; a scanning electron microscope study . n . z . journal of zoology 3 : 327 - 331 .\nfrench , r . a . 1973 : some aspects of the population dynamics , biology and economic status of wiseana spp . unpubl . ph . d . thesis , lincoln college , canterbury .\nfrench , r . a . ; pearson , j . f . 1979 : influence of temperature on the rate of development of porina ( wiseana spp . : hepialidae ) eggs and timing of larval emergence in the field . n . z . journal of experimental agriculture 7 : 315 - 319 .\nfrench , r . a . ; pearson , j . f . 1981 : food intake and feeding behaviour of porina ( wiseana spp . : hepialidae ) . n . z . journal of experimental agriculture 9 : 383 - 386 .\ngaskin , d . e . 1964 : distinction between wiseana umbraculata and w . signata ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) with light trapping records for wellington . n . z . journal of science 7 ( 3 ) : 396 - 408 .\nglare , t . r . ; o ' callaghan , \u03bc . ; wigley , p . j . 1993 : checklist of naturally occurring entomopathogenic microbes and nematodes in new zealand . n . z . journal of zoology 20 : 95 - 120 .\ngrehan , j . r . 1979 : larvae of aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) in decaying wood . n . z . journal of zoology 6 ( 4 ) : 583 - 586 .\ngrehan , j . r . 1981 : morphological changes in the tree - phase development of aenetus virescens larvae ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . \u03bd . \u03b6 . journal of zoology 8 : 505 - 514 .\ngrehan , j . r . 1983a : larval establishment behaviour in live trees . n . z . entomologist 7 ( 4 ) : 413 - 417 .\ngrehan , j . r . 1983b : record of wiseana signata ( walker ) ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) larvae in sand dunes . n . z . entomologist 7 ( 4 ) : 417 - 418 .\ngrehan , j . r . 1983c : description of the male of the endemic new caledonian species aenetus cohici ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) .\ngrehan , j . r . 1987a : life cycle of the woodborer aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . n . z . journal of zoology 14 : 209 - 217 .\ngrehan , j . r . 1987b : evolution of arboreal tunnelling by larvae of aenetus ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . \u03bd . \u03b6 . journal of zoology 14 : 441 - 462 .\ngrehan , j . r . 1989 : larval feeding habits of the hepialidae ( lepidoptera ) . journal of natural history 23 : 803 - 824 .\ngrehan , j . r . ; moeed , a . ; meads , m . j . 1983 : observations on trioxycanus enysii ( butler ) ( sensu meyrick , 1890 ) ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) on kapiti island , new zealand , with a description of larval chaetotaxy . n . z . entomologist 7 ( 4 ) : 408 - 413 .\ngrehan , j . r . ; patrick , b . h . 1984 : notes on bog - inhabiting hepialidae ( lepidoptera ) of new zealand . n . z . entomologist 8 : 63 - 67 .\ngrehan , j . r . ; wigley , p . j . 1984 : fungal and bacterial diseases of puriri moth , aenetus virescens ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) larvae . n . z . entomologist 8 : 61 - 63 .\nguen\u00e9e , a . 1868 : new species etc . , of heterocerous lepidoptera from canterbury , new zealand , collected by mr r . w . fereday . entomologists ' monthly magazine 5 : 1 - 6 .\nhamilton , a . 1909 : notes on lepidoptera collected by \u03b7 . hamilton in various localities in the queenstown district , otago , between november 1907 and march 1908 . transactions and proceedings of the n . z . institute 41 : 11 18 .\nhardy , r . j . 1973 : larval chaetotaxy of thorax and abdomen of fraus simulans walker ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . journal of the australian entomological society 12 : 121 - 123 .\nhasenfuss , i . 1969 : zur homologie der borstenmusterelemente der larven kopfkapsel einiger monotrysischer lepidoptera . beitrage zur entomologie 19 : 289 - 301 .\nhelson , g . a . h . 1967 : adult periodicity of wiseana species ( family hepialidae ) in new zealand as revealed by light traps . transactions of the royal society of n . z . , zoology 9 ( 8 ) : 79 - 91 .\nhelson , g . a . h . 1972 : an hypothesis on the effect of atmospheric small air ions and weather fronts on the emergence of wiseana cervinata . abstract , 14th international congress of entomology : 341 .\nherrich - schaeffer , g . a . w . 1855 : synopsis familiarum lepidopterorum . pp . 82 - 132 in systematische bearbeitung der schmetterlinge von europa , zugleich als text revision und supplement zu jacob h\u00fcbner ' s sammlung europ\u00e4ischer schmetterlinge . vol . 6 .\nhinton , \u03b7 . \u03b5 . 1946 : on the homology and nomenclature of the setae of the lepidopterous larvae , with some notes on the phylogeny of the lepidoptera . transactions of the royal entomological society of london 97 : 1 - 37 .\nhorak , \u03bc . 1984 : assessment of taxonomically significant structures in tortricinae ( lep . : tortricidae ) . mit teilungen der schweizerischen entomologischen gesellschaft 57 : 3 - 64 .\nhudson , g . v . 1885 : life history of charagia virescens . entomologist , london , 18 : 30 - 36 .\nhudson , g . v . 1898 : new zealand moths and butterflies ( macrolepidoptera ) . london , west , newman & co . xix + 144 pp .\nhudson , g . v . 1905 : on some new species of macrolepidoptera in new zealand . transactions and proceedings of the n . z . institute 37 : 355 - 358 .\nhudson , g . v . 1906 : recent observations respecting the origin of the vegetable caterpillars . transactions and proceedings of the n . z . institute 39 : 195 - 196 .\nhudson , g . v . 1908 : recent observations on new zealand macrolepidoptera including descriptions of new species . transactions and proceedings of the n . z . institute 40 : 104 - 107 .\nhudson , g . v . 1920 : descriptions of two new species of hepialidae from new zealand . entomologists ' monthly magazine 56 : 277 .\nhudson , g . v . 1923 : descriptions of three new species of lepidoptera from new zealand . entomologists ' monthly magazine 59 : 179 - 181 .\nhudson , g . v . 1928 : the butterflies and moths of new zealand . wellington , ferguson & osborn . xi + 386 pp .\nhudson , g . v . 1939 : a supplement to the butterflies and moths of new zealand . wellington , ferguson & osborn . pp . 387 - 481 , pl . 53 - 62 .\nhudson , g . v . 1950 : fragments of new zealand entomology . wellington , ferguson & osborn . 188 pp . , ii + 17 p1 .\njanse , a . j . t . 1939 : on the structure of lepidopterous larvae , with special reference to the mature larva of letovenus stoll . journal of the entomological society of south africa 2 : 165 - 175 .\njanse , a . j . t . 1942 : sub - order jugata . pp . 1 - 78 in janse , a . j . t . ' the moths of south africa ' , vol . 4 ( 1 ) .\njoubert , p . c . 1975 : the ' ghost moth ' ( dalaca rufescens hampson ) in natal ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . dept of agricultural technical services technical communication 130 .\nkalmakoff , j . 1980 ( 1979 ) : enzootic virus control of wiseana spp . ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) in the pasture environment . pp . 202 - 204 in crosby , t . k . , & pottinger , r . p . ( eds ) ,\nproceedings of the 2nd australasian conference on grassland invertebrate ecology .\nwellington , government printer .\nkirby , w . f . 1892 : a synonymic catalogue of lepidoptera heterocera ( moths ) . vol . 1 : sphinges and bombyces . london . 951 pp .\nkristensen , n . p . 1968 : the anatomy of the head and the alimentary canal of adult eriocraniidae . entomologiske meddelelser 36 : 239 - 315 .\nkuznetsov , v . l . ; stekol ' nikov , a . a . 1984 : the evolution and system of higher taxa of tortricid moths ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) of the world fauna with reference to the comparative morphology of genitalia . ( 36th cholodkovsky memorial lecture , 1 april 1983 , pp . 51 - 91 . leningrad , nauka . [ p . auckland , csiro translation , 1986 . ]\nlatch , g . c . m . ; kain , w . m . 1983 : control of porina caterpillar ( wiseana spp . ) in pasturte by the fungus metarrhizium anisopliae . n . z . journal of experimental agriculture 11 : 351 - 354 .\nleonard , j . g . ; grehan , j . r . ; parker , b . l . 1992 : first instar description of korscheltellus gracilis ( grote ) and sthenopis auratus ( grote ) ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) with a consideration of cladistic relationships between setae . journal of the \u03bdew york entomological society 100 ( 4 ) : 594 - 614 .\nmacarthur , g . 1986 ( nov . ) : an electrophoretic contribution to the systematics of the genus wiseana viette ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . unpubl . ph . d . thesis , victoria university of wellington .\nmccabe , t . l . ; wagner , d . l . 1988 : the biology of sthenopis auratus ( grote ) ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . journal of the new york entomological society 96 ( 4 ) : 256 - 273 .\nmeads , m . j . 1990 : forgotten fauna : the rare , endangered , and protected invertebrates of new zealand . wellington , dsir land resources / dsir publishing . 95 pp .\nmeyrick , \u03b5 . 1890 : descriptions of new zealand lepidoptera . transactions of the n . z . institute 22 : 204 - 220 .\nmeyrick , \u03b5 . 1912 : descriptions of new zealand lepidoptera . transactions and proceedings of the n . z . institute 44 : 117 - 126 .\nmeyrick , \u03b5 . 1921 : notes and descriptions of new zealand lepidoptera . transactions and proceedings of the n . z . institute 53 : 334 - 336 .\nmiller , d . 1971 : common insects in new zealand . wellington , reed . 178 pp .\nminet , j . 1984 : contribution \u00e0 l ' analyse phylogenetique des n\u00e9ol\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res ( lepidoptera : glossata ) . nouvelle revue d ' entomologie ( n . s . ) 1 ( 2 ) : 139 - 149 .\nmishler , b . d . ; donaghue , m . j . 1974 : species concepts : a case for pluralism . systematic zoology 31 : 491 - 503 .\nmosher , \u03b5 . 1916 : a classification of the lepidoptera based on characters of the pupa . bulletin of the illinois state laboratory of natural history 12 ( ii ) . 147 pp .\nnielsen , e . s . 1989 : phylogeny of major lepidopteran groups . chapter 21 ( pp . 281 - 294 ) in fernholm , b . ; bremer , \u03ba . ; j\u00f6rnvall , h . eds , ' the hierarchy of life ' . amsterdam , elsevier .\nnielsen , e . s . ; common , i . f . b . 1991 : lepidoptera ( moths and butterflies ) . chapter 41 , pp . 817 - 915 , in : ' the insects of australia : a textbook for students and research workers ' ( 2nd edition ) , vo1 . ii .\nnielsen , e . s . ; kristensen , n . p . 1989 : primitive ghost moths . morphology and taxonomy of the australian genus fraus walker ( lepidoptera : hepialidae s . lat . ) . monographs on australian lepidoptera 1 . 206 pp .\nnielsen , e . s . ; robinson , g . s . 1983 : ghost moths of southern south america ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . entomonograph 4 . 192 pp .\nnielsen , e . s . ; scoble , m . j . 1986 : afrotheora , a new genus of primitive hepialidae from africa ( lepidoptera : hepialoidea ) . entomologica scandinavica 17 : 29 - 54 .\npatrick , \u03b2 . h . 1982 : lepidoptera of danseys pass , otago . new zealand entomologist 7 ( 3 ) : 332 - 336 .\npatrick , \u03b2 . h . 1988 : lepidoptera of the umbrella ecological district . pp . 37 - 50 in : \u03ba . j . \u03bc . dickinson ed . , umbrella ecological district , survey report for the protected natural areas programme . department of conservation , wellington .\npatrick , \u03b2 . h . 1989 : lepidoptera , cicadidae , acrididae of the manorburn ecological district . n . z . department of conservation : science & research no . 60 .\npatrick , b . h . ; barratt , \u03b2 . i . p . ; heads , \u03bc . ; child , j . 1984 : entomological survey of mt pye\u2014ajax bog , catlins state forest park . n . z . forest service , invercargill .\npatrick , b . h . ; barratt , b . i . p . ; heads , \u03bc . 1985 : entomological survey of the blue mountains . n . z . forest service , invercargill .\npatrick , b . h . ; rance , b . d . ; barratt , b . i . p . ; tangey , r . 1987 : entomological survey , longwood range . department of conservation , dunedin . 86 pp .\npatrick , b . h . ; rance , b . d . ; barratt , b . i . p . 1992 : alpine insects and plants of stewart island . department of conservation , dunedin , miscellaneous series no . 9 . 57 pp .\nperrott , d . c . f . 1974 : susceptibility to three organophosphorus insecticides of wiseana spp . larvae ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . n . z . journal of zoology 1 ( 3 ) : 355 - 364 .\nphilpott , a . 1914 : descriptions of new species of lepidoptera . transactions and proceedings of the n . z . institute 46 : 118 - 121 .\nphilpott , a . 1923 : notes and descriptions of new zealand lepidoptera . transactions and p roceedings of the n . z . institute 54 : 148 - 154 .\nphilpott , a . 1927a : new zealand lepidoptera : notes and descriptions . transactions and p roceedings of the n . z . institute 57 : 703 - 709 .\nphilpott , a . 1927b : the male genitalia of the hepialidae . transactions of the entomological society of london 75 : 35 - 41 .\nphilpott , a . 1931 : notes and descriptions of new zealand lepidoptera . transactions and proceedings of the n . z . institute 62 : 26 - 36 .\nquail , a . 1903a : on charagia virescens , dbid . transactions and proceedings of the n . z . institute 35 : 249 - 255 .\nquail , a . 1903b : on the antennae of hepialidae \u2014 lepidoptera jugatae . transactions of the entomological society of london , 1903 : 499 - 508 .\nsalmon , j . t . 1948 : new species and records of lepidoptera from the three kings islands , new zealand . records of the auckland institute and museum 3 : 309 - 311 .\nsalmon , j . t . 1958 : hybridisation between two species of oxycanus . n . z . entomologist 2 ( 2 ) : 18 - 19 .\nsattler , k . r . 1991 : a review of wing reduction in lepidoptera . bulletin of the british museum of natural history ( ent . ) 60 ( 2 ) : 243 - 288 .\nsharell , r . 1971 : new zealand insects and their story . collins , auckland and london . 268 pp .\ntillyard , r . j . 1926 : the insects of australia and new zealand . sydney , angus & robertson . xi + 560 pp .\nueda , k . 1978 : the male genitalia structure of some hepialid moths with a historical review of their terminology [ in japanese , with english summary ] . tyo ga 29 : 191 - 206 .\nueda , k . 1982 : male and female external genital structure of aenetus virescens ( doubleday ) and its male genital musculature . tyo ga 33 : 87 - 96 .\nueda , k . 1988 : new species of the genus hepialiscus hampson ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) from taiwan . bulletin of the kitakyushu museum of natural history 8 : 39 - 54 .\nvalentine , e . w . 1967 : a list of the hosts of entomophagous insects of new zealand . n . z . journal of science 10 : 1100 - 1209 .\nviette , p . e . l . 1950 : contribution \u00e0 l ' \u00e9tude des hepialidae ( 22eme note ) . hepialidae du mus\u00e9e de leiden . zoologische mededelingen 31 ( 7 ) : 67 - 77 [ n . \u03b6 . references pp . 71 - 73 ] .\nviette , p . e . l . 1961 : notes on some synonymous or preoccupied names in the lepidoptera . the entomologist , london , 94 : 38 - 39 .\nwagner , d . 1987 : hepialidae ( hepialoidea ) . pp . 347 - 349 in stehr , f . w . ed . , ` immature insects , ' vol . 1 . dubuque , kendall / hut . xiv + 754 pp .\nwagner , d . ; tobi , d . r . ; parker , b . l . ; waliner , w . e . ; leonard , j . g . 1989 : immature stages and natural enemies of korscheltellus gracilis ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america 82 ( 6 ) : 717 724 .\nwaller , j . b . 1966 : sexing of pupae of wiseana cervinata ( walker ) , hepialidae . n . z . entomologist 3 ( 1 ) : 5 .\nwalker , f . 1856 : list of the specimens of the lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum , vol . vi\u03b9 ( pp . 1509 - 1808 ) .\nwalker , f . 1865 : list of the specimens of the lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum , vol . xxxii , supplement , part 2 ( pp . 323 - 706 ) .\nwardle , p . 1991 : vegetation of new zealand . cambridge , cambridge university press . xx + 672 pp .\nwood , j . 1970 : rearing wiseana species in the laboratory . n . z . entomologist 4 ( 4 ) : 3 - 7 .\nyasuda , t . ; abe , k - i 1986 : endoclita hosei tindale ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) attacking eucalyptus in sabah , with descriptions of the immature and imaginal stages . applied entomology and zoology 21 ( 3 ) : 417 - 423 .\nyou are not permitted to download , save or email this image . visit image gallery to purchase the image .\nthis grey southern ghost moth , found recently in southland , continues to haunt entomologist brian patrick , formerly of dunedin ; who believes it may belong to a\nnew\nspecies . photo by brian patrick .\nmoth expert and museologist brian patrick is full of questions after his latest close encounter with one of new zealand ' s most unusual moths - the southern south island ghost moth .\nif anyone should know this nocturnal creature , it is mr patrick , who discovered the country ' s only known biennial moth at dansey pass in april , 1979 .\none of new zealand ' s 27 known ghost - moth species , it usually lives in moss bogs .\nit turned out that they were not only undescribed but belonged to an undescribed genus ,\nmr patrick said .\nit ' s a beautiful sight - it ' s a gorgeous species .\nhe has since shown the moth is widespread , in moss bogs from sea level to alpine wetlands , but only in otago - southland .\nunusually , it appears only once every two years , and then only in late autumn and into winter .\nthe adult moth has a wingspan of up to 4 . 5cm , but cannot eat , having no mouth parts .\nmr patrick , who is a former manager at the otago museum and former director of the central stories museum and art gallery in alexandra , has been left scratching his head over many aspects of these moths .\nhe recently encountered them again at borland mire , west southland and believes another undescribed ghost - moth species lurks in south and west southland .\nmale ghost moths found in those parts of southland are greyer and less colourful than they are near dunedin and in central otago , the catlins and northern southland , where their wings are often bright orange , with a white stripe and some black .\nby appearing only every second year , the moths deny predators , such as birds , the chance to form a well - remembered\nsearch image\nin order to target them .\nmr patrick also notes dunedin is the native - moth capital of new zealand , home to more than 750 of the country ' s more than 2000 native - moth species ."]}
{"id": 597, "summary": [{"text": "man o ' war ( march 29 , 1917 \u2013 november 1 , 1947 ) was an american thoroughbred who is widely considered one of the greatest racehorses of all time .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "during his career just after world war i , he won 20 of 21 races and $ 249,465 in purses .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was the unofficial 1920 american horse of the year and was honored with babe ruth as the outstanding athlete of the year by the new york times .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was inducted into the national museum of racing and hall of fame in 1957 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "on march 29 , 2017 , the museum opened a special exhibit in his honor , \" man o ' war at 100 \" .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "in 1919 , man o ' war won 9 of 10 starts including the hopeful stakes and belmont futurity , then the most important races for two-year-old horses in the united states .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "his only loss came at saratoga race course , later nicknamed the graveyard of champions , where he had a poor start and was beaten by a colt fittingly named upset .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "man o ' war was not entered in the 1920 kentucky derby because his owner , samuel riddle , did not believe in racing at the distance of 10 furlongs so early in a young horse 's career .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "instead , man o ' war made his three-year-old debut in the preakness stakes where he defeated upset by 1 \u00b9 \u2044 \u2082 lengths .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "man o ' war later won the belmont stakes by 20 lengths while setting a world record .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "throughout the summer and fall , he continued to dominate his fellow three-year-olds , setting multiple records while conceding large amounts of weight to his rivals .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "his final race of the year was a match race against sir barton , who had won what would later be known as the american triple crown in 1919 .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "man o ' war won by seven lengths in the first race to be filmed in its entirety .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "riddle originally intended to race man o ' war in 1921 but decided against it because man o ' war would have been assigned record weights in the handicap format used in races for older horses .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "instead , man o ' war was retired to stud , where he became a leading sire whose multiple champions included triple crown winner war admiral .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "through his sons and daughters , man o ' war is found in almost all modern american pedigrees . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "man o ' war", "paragraphs": ["l to right : man o ' war ' going to the post , beating john p . grier in the dwyer , man o ' war leading sir barton , man o ' war drinking from his trophy\nl to right : man o ' war ' as a suckling , the foaling barn where man o ' war was born , owner samuel d . riddle , man o ' war in his pasture , and jockey johnny loftus\nman o\u2019 war died three days later , on nov . 1 , 1947 .\nman o\u2019 war later developed into the compelling presence that elicited marvels from observers .\nhorse of the century : man o ' war vs . secretariat - nbc connecticut\ndrag images here or select from your computer for man o ' war memorial .\nto ask other readers questions about man o ' war , please sign up .\nseveral other graves from man o\u2019 war farm , including those of his sons war admiral and war relic , were moved as well .\nof a mile , man o\u2019 war was 20 lengths ahead . despite kummer\u2019s holding his horse in , man o\u2019 war won by a modestly estimated 100 lengths , nearly\nman o ' war : corsair is a video game of high adventure , naval combat and exploration based on the games workshop classic man o ' war table top game .\nmaurice albury building an abaco dinghy on man - o - war , ca . 19xx\nbesides , until this point man o\u2019 war had never run against an older horse .\nhorse of the century : man o ' war vs . secretariat - nbc new york\nthe gorgeous florence nightingale , one of the stars of man o\u2019 war\u2019s first crop .\npain from a man o ' war sting usually lasts about 15 - 20 minutes .\nman o ' war and will harbu . . . has been added to your cart\nman o ' war with his groom will harbut . ( blood - horse library photo )\nthere was only one problem : man o\u2019 war didn\u2019t get off to a good start .\nthere was a thickness to man o ' war that probably came from his voracious appetite .\nman o\u2019 war did not , however , race in the kentucky derby . his owner ,\nas harbut described him , man o\u2019 war was \u201cthe mostest horse that ever was . \u201d\ncolin ' s ghost : thoroughbred horse racing history \u00bb man o\u2019 war\u2026 . a \u201cgood horse\u201d\nabove / below : several other graves were moved from faraway farm , along with man o ' war ' s , to the kentucky horse park , including war relic , war admiral , brushup ( dam of war admiral ) , war kilt and war hazard . the last two named are stakes - winning daughters of man o ' war .\nfor additional reading on man o ' war , there are quite a few books available . if you already love man o ' war , any of these can bring goosebumps . and if you are just learning about man o ' war , they can also bring goosebumps . they include\nwhere man o ' war passed grier was preserved at aqueduct , called the\nman o ' war pole\nin honor of the event . man o ' war ' s time of 1 : 49 1 / 5 for the mile and an eighth was a new american record .\nman o ' war ' s only loss came at saratoga . ( blood - horse library )\nman o\u2019 war looked as if his entire life\u2019s performance was accompanied by the sound of trumpets .\nabove : man o ' war ' s stall interior . he spent his final decade here .\nman o ' war with groom will harbut ( left ) . ( blood - horse photo )\nman o\u2019 war skipped the 1920 kentucky derby \u2013 but his karmic namesake paul jones won it .\nbeaches in cornwall have seen a record number of portuguese man o\u2019war washing ashore after strong winds .\nbaton rouge is one of the man o ' war lines still vibrantly present in pedigrees today .\nthe accompanying statements from man o\u2019 war\u2019s owner , samuel d . riddle , and the then prominent trainer , sam hildreth , were provided to reporters roughly three weeks after man o\u2019 war\u2019s dwyer win .\n\u201cgiven an equal chance man o\u2019 war would undoubtedly have won the race , \u201d the saratogian stated .\nas the decades have passed and his remarkable accomplishments have seemingly become more mythic , man o\u2019 war\u2019s legend has only grown . perhaps celebrated racing writer joe palmer summed up man o\u2019 war better than anyone .\nman o ' war entered stud in 1921 and was pensioned in 1943 after suffering a heart attack .\nso man o\u2019 war proved riddle\u2019s point viz - a - viz sir barton , by seven lengths .\nfor more than 50 years man o ' war owned the unofficial title of horse of the century .\nfrom his sire\u2019s first crop , american flag was said to be cast in man o\u2019 war\u2019s image .\nthe fillies florence nightingale and maid at arms were the other superstars of man o\u2019 war\u2019s first crop .\n\u201cman o\u2019 war\u201d by page cooper & john l . treat . ny : julian mesner inc . 1950\ncountless words have been written about man o\u2019 war . on nov . 2 , 1947 , the headline of the louisville courier - journal read simply : \u201cman o\u2019 war , greatest of thoroughbreds , dies . \u201d\nand take time to google , if inspired , as many good articles have been written about man o ' war for his 100th anniversary . two of several youtube videos with man o ' war footage : urltoken\n\u201cman o\u2019 war will start in the rich early stakes , \u201d new york times , 1920 february 7 . \u201cno early racing for man o\u2019 war , \u201d daily racing form , 1920 february 8 [ \u21a9 ]\nman o\u2019 war was the horse\u2019s name . taps was provided by a bugler from the man o\u2019 war post of the american legion in lexington , kentucky . as man o\u2019 war lay in state in a silk - lined coffin , thousands filed by to pay their respects . why was this horse such a big deal ? for the answer , you have to go all the way back to man o\u2019 war\u2019s beginnings .\nman o\u2019 war was buried at faraway farm and a massive bronze statue by herbert hazeltine was eventually mounted on a marble base with only the words \u201cman o\u2019 war\u201d as the inscription . no other words were needed .\ni hope you enjoy a glimpse into my lifelong obsession . . . . chasing man o ' war .\nbeachcombers be warned : the stalwart man o\u2019 war may still sting you even weeks after having washed ashore .\n\u201cmr . riddle , i ' m prepared to pay you a million dollars for man o\u2019 war . \u201d\nman o ' war is pictured with jockey clarence kummer up at the 1920 stuyvesant handicap at jamaica racetrack .\non this day , we recognize an american legend and remember the legacy of the great man o\u2019 war .\nbefore the triple crown was established , man o ' war scared off his competition in the belmont stakes .\ndue to the man - o - war ' s below average accuracy , the foregrip is a very beneficial attachment , making the man - o - war much more accurate . due to the man - o - war ' s lower rate of fire , this makes the recoil reduction more profound , as the man - o - war ' s centerspeed has more time than other assault rifles to counteract the recoil between shots .\nthe man - o - war has its own trademarked logo , which is seen on the left side .\ndespite its appearance the portuguese man o\u2019war is not a jellyfish but a marine animal known as a siphonophores .\nwar admiral ' s remains are buried at the kentucky horse park at the foot of the statue of his sire , man o ' war .\nfor many , man o\u2019 war remains the benchmark for greatness \u2013 both in ability and of spirit \u2013 100 years after his birth . even his name stirs the emotions . as a companion piece to the article \u201cchasing man o ' war ' s ghost , \u201d below are many photos of several of my man o ' war - related shoots , as well as photographs of man o ' war by photographer james w . sames iii .\nin his final race , man o\u2019 war defeated the 1919 triple crown winner sir barton by seven lengths at the kenilworth park gold cup in windsor , ontario . it marked man o\u2019 war\u2019s 20th win in 21 races .\nchasing man o ' war ' s ghost , about my lifelong obsession with man o ' war : urltoken remarkable final tribute for majestic champion , which i wrote for daily racing form in 2011 . it includes some interesting stories related to man o ' war ' s burial day and remarkable photographs by james w . sames : urltoken\nlike his grandfather , man o\u2019 war had a violent disposition , forcing feustel to bring him along slowly in training . man o\u2019 war routinely dumped his exercise riders and was usually belligerent when his handlers attempted to saddle him .\nman o ' war ' s constant companion during his racing days was a retired show hunter named major treat .\nwhen he pulled that color print of man o\u2019 war out of a drawer , i was floored . perfection .\na leading broodmare sire himself , man o ' war had many important daughters , as well as good sons .\n\u201cman - o - war\u201d and a 25\u2019 - ish sloop being built by edwin\u2019s boat yard , ca . 1977\n\u201chow man o\u2019 war would have laughed had he known of his owner\u2019s solicitude for him , \u201d hewitt commented .\nman o ' war was the favorite in every race he started in his career . ( courtesy keeneland library )\ni thought you might like to see a memorial for man o ' war i found on findagrave . com .\nthe other highly visible son of man o ' war who has come down in pedigrees is war relic , especially through in reality and his stock .\nbased on his dominant past performances , man o\u2019 war was also forced to carry 15 more pounds than upset in the sanford . legend has it that riddle\u2019s stablehands claimed man o\u2019 war had nightmares for weeks following his only defeat .\nabove : the stallion barn in which man o ' war was housed for his final decade . as with his previous barn , man o ' war lived in the front left stall . behind the barn is the attached breeding shed .\nman o ' war acted up at the start , allowing sir barton to break on top , but the older horse held his lead for only sixty yards before man o ' war passed him . as the new york times reported :\ntiznow\u2019s 2017 contender , irap , must improve to get man o\u2019 war\u2019s sire line back in the derby winner\u2019s circle . but maybe , just maybe , the centennial year might conjure up a little bit of the man o\u2019 war magic .\naccording to ed bowen , man o\u2019 war\u2019s difficulties in that race were complicated by the concerted efforts of the opposition .\nbut in man o\u2019 war\u2019s day , there was no nba . there was no nfl . boxing and baseball were popular , but racing was just as big . and according to bill cooke , man o\u2019 war was bigger than racing :\na sting from a portuguese man o ' war can be incredibly pain and fatal , although deaths are very rare .\nwe\u2019d love your help . let us know what\u2019s wrong with this preview of man o ' war by walter farley .\nman - o ' - war suit presumably a child ' s costume intended to resemble a soldier ' s outfit .\nthe suppressor is a terrible fit on the man - o - war , as it takes away a lot of range , making the man - o - war need an extra shot to kill at longer distances . due to the man - o - war ' s low rate of fire , this makes the man - o - war much weaker as an assault rifle . the laser sight is a rather unnecessary option , as although its effect isn ' t detrimental , the man - o - war shouldn ' t be used in close quarters combat due to its unforgiving rate of fire .\nhowever , at the dawn of the 1920s , no athlete in the land was more revered than horse racing\u2019s greatest marvel , the mighty man o\u2019 war . ruth had charisma . dempsey had power . grange had speed . man o\u2019 war had all of those attributes . but instead of being a galloping ghost , man o\u2019 war was an equine freight train .\nviolet sea snails get their colour from portuguese men o ' war .\nnoted author and lithographer c . w . anderson wrote the first biography of man o ' war . titled big red , it was released by the macmillan company in september 1943 , four years before man o ' war ' s death .\nhe had the same electric presence as man o ' war . going to see man o ' war in the first half of the century was something . seeing secretariat in the second half of the century was the same thing .\nhis winning streak was at six when man o ' war raced in the sanford stakes at saratoga on aug . 13 . it is man o ' war ' s most remembered race - - because it is the only one he would lose .\nthe man o\u2019war golf links ranked one of the 5 best golf courses in myrtle beach by golftravel . about . com .\nman o ' war was foaled march 29 , 1917 on august belmont ii ' s nursery stud near lexington , kentucky .\nthe man o\u2019war is built on a 100 acre lake and offers some unique features such as back to back island greens .\nwell , no . that\u2019s not a typo . man o\u2019 war won it by 100 lengths ,\nbowen says .\n) , memorial page for man o ' war ( 29 mar 1917\u20131 nov 1947 ) , find a grave memorial no .\nwith strong westerly winds pounding our coastline we are getting many reports of portuguese man o ' war washing up .\nthis book is not intended to be a history of man o ' war . it is an historically accurate work of fiction\nthen secretariat happened ,\nsays dorothy ours , author of\nman o ' war - a legend like lightning\nand a former historian at the national museum of racing and hall of fame .\nand the debate started , well this might be the best horse since man o ' war - - maybe he ' s better than man o ' war .\nhewitt , ever the raconteur , shares an anecdote about a well - known betting man called chicago o\u2019brien . taking some pre - race grief for wagering $ 100 , 000 on 1 - 20 favorite man o\u2019 war , o\u2019brien had the perfect retort :\nthe famed racehorse man o ' war was born 100 years ago , on march 29 , 2017 . man o ' war had numerous ties to maryland and harford county in particular , where he trained and raced at the old havre de grace racetrack .\nin a 1924 article for the daily racing form , he laid out a compelling case against man o\u2019 war . making a claim that it was a pr machine ( still a relatively new concept in 1924 ) that created the man o\u2019 war legend .\nwith the exception of the few people involved in man o\u2019 war\u2019s exhumation three decades later , when he and his statue were moved to the kentucky horse park , this was the final time that man o\u2019 war was a part of our physical world .\n\u201cdomino would have been the horse we\u2019re talking about now if it hadn\u2019t been for man o\u2019 war , \u201d greg goodman said .\nabove : man o ' war and will harbut , undated negative . james w . sames iii photo , barbara livingston collection .\nabove : the stallion barn from the side - man o ' war ' s stall is at the far right , at the front of the barn . the breeding shed is to the left . below : man o ' war ' s side stall door\nman o ' war , along with several of his important sons and daughters , is present in virtually all american pedigrees today .\n\u2026\u201cthe horse of the century , \u201d man o\u2019 war . in 1920 man o\u2019 war won all 11 races in which he ran , set five records , and became the first thoroughbred to bring his total earnings to more than $ 200 , 000 . \u2026\nrequests to buy man o\u2019 war increased after his continued success . although the second statement from samuel d . riddle was taken nearly a year before the stuyvesant , the sentiment persisted throughout the riddles ' ownership of man o\u2019 war : they would not sell .\none revealed a portrait reportedly taken oct . 29 , 1947 , of man o\u2019 war . james w . sames iii , an aspiring photographer from lexington , ky . , said it was the last photograph of man o\u2019 war alive . it was mesmerizing .\nthe\nman - o - war\n, is an infantry rifle in service with winslow accord forces worldwide . the man - o - war is designed to be effective against both soft targets and the wide variety of combat robotics ubiquitous on the modern battlefield .\nnow there is the kentucky horse park , where man o\u2019 war\u2019s remains were moved in the mid - 1970s . he was buried at a spot of honor near their entrance . his grave is surrounded by a moat and beneath herbert haseltine\u2019s oversized man o\u2019 war statue .\nwelcome to the man o ' war bar and restaurant , north county dublin ' s most authentic irish venue , established in 1595 .\nweary travellers stopped at the man o\u2019war for refreshments as it was halfway along the turnpike route . wolfe tone had his breakfast here in july 1792 . other famous visitors include dr . john gamble and austin cooper who both wrote about their stay at the man o\u2019war .\n\u2026riddle to keep the great man o\u2019 war out of the kentucky derby in 1920 , thereby denying him a probable triple crown . \u2026\nthe first time johnny loftus got on him , man o ' war threw the jockey about forty feet . but according to his owner ,\ntossing johnny was the last bad move man o ' war ever made ,\nfor once he began galloping with the stable pony , major trent , and the other yearlings , man o ' war quickly became the most highly regarded horse in the barn .\nman o\u2019 war was never formally recognized as the top broodmare sire any year during his career , but his daughters produced horses of influence themselves . famous names such as kelso , sword dancer , nijinksy , buckpasser and raise a native all include man o\u2019 war through dam bloodlines . man o\u2019 war can be found in many modern thoroughbred pedigrees , such as the most recent triple crown winner american pharoah .\njohn p . grier vs . man o\u2019 war in the 1920 dwyer stakes , aqueduct race track . painting by frank b . hoffman\nyour facts really are one sided . there are many experienced horsemen who think man o\u2019 war is the greatest and they saw secretariat .\nsue : thank you and how super that you\u2019re sharing this about your own man o\u2019 war descendant . she sounds just magnificent ! abigail\nin the mural , you see man o\u2019 war parading in front of the crowd after his historic win in the 1920 belmont stakes .\nmaureen o ' hara and john wayne in a still from\nthe quiet man .\nhigh caliber and fmj will make the man - o - war deal more damage through headshots and through cover , respectively . both attachments are good fits for the man - o - war , as its high damage per shot is improved in certain conditions with these attachments .\namong man o ' war ' s best offspring was the 1937 triple crown winner war admiral , equally well known today as the loser in the 1938 pimlico match race with seabiscuit , a man o ' war grandson . he also sired american and british grand national steeplechases champion battleship . man o ' war died on nov . 1 , 1947 , at riddle ' s faraway farm in lexington , ky . his remains rest at the kentucky horse park .\nat stud man o\u2019 war was limited to about 25 mares a season but still proved a hugely influential sire . one of his sons , war admiral , won a triple crown .\na portuguese man - of - war is actually a colony of individual organisms called polyps .\nper an article by beloved historian jim bolus in a 1981 keeneland magazine , those items were re - interred with man o ' war .\nman o ' war ( no . 1 ; jockey johnny loftus ) finishing second to upset ( no . 4 ; jockey willie knapp ) in the 1919 stanford stakes , saratoga , new york . this was the only loss in man o ' war ' s remarkable career .\nthe u . s . racing hall of fame inducted man o\u2019 war in 1957 and a life - sized statue was erected at kentucky horse pack to honor the champion as well . the man o\u2019 war stakes was inaugurated in 1959 at belmont park and continues to run today .\nbill cooke recently curated an exhibit to honor man o\u2019 war on the 100th anniversary of the horse\u2019s birth . he has assembled some of the evidence of man o\u2019 war\u2019s commercial impact : cigarette tins , a razor strap embroidered with the horse\u2019s name , a jar of hair creme .\nours notes a variety of x factors that could contribute to the differences in the times posted by man o ' war and secretariat . improvements in drainage technology and the practice of hosing down the dirt have made racetracks faster ; man o ' war ran on shoes made of steel versus secretariat ' s lightweight aluminum ; and the man o ' war typically carried extra weight to give his opponents a chance of winning .\nsames , who died in 2005 at age 84 , said he had secured a prime spot that day to photograph man o\u2019 war\u2019s body lying in state . he\u2019d used his charms to convince the crane company that transported man o\u2019 war to the gravesite to give him a lift .\n, man o\u2019 war\u2019s grandson , became one of the turf\u2019s greatest campaigners and money winners in 1935\u201340 . ( a race between war admiral and seabiscuit in 1938 would become the second \u201crace of the century . \u201d ) man o\u2019 war died in 1947 and was inducted into the national museum of racing\u2019s hall of fame in 1957 .\nwill harbut died a month before his beloved man o ' war , but his family has carried on his legacy in the thoroughbred industry . his son tom harbut was an exercise rider for man o ' war ' s sons war admiral and war relic before eventually becoming the stallion manager at spendthrift farm , and his great - grandson greg harbut runs a successful bloodstock agency .\nmany honors were heaped on man o ' war during his lifetime . during world war ii , the first cavalry stationed in japan gave him the honorary military rank of\ncolonel\n.\nalthough he was left at the start , buried in traffic for part of the journey , and forced wide , man o\u2019 war still nearly won the race . the result was upset winning by a diminishing half length . man o\u2019 war blew past upset right after the finish line .\nabove / below : an exterior door on man o ' war ' s longtime stall opened into a sizable paddock . when standing in that stall , it was easy to imagine man o ' war peering out through the slats , awaiting turnout time ( photos 2000 and 2008 ) .\nman o ' war ' s male line is still represented by the leading sire tiznow . however , it is through his daughters that the big red horse ' s bloodline continues . every american champion of the last 20 years can trace their pedigree back to man o ' war .\nas for whether you should ? debatable . the man o\u2019 war\u2019s \u201csurround\u201d is about as good as the g933\u2014which is to say , good for a headset . still , the stereo output on the man o\u2019 war is so incredible i\u2019d dare say you\u2019re better off simply relying on that .\nhe has been the subject of four notable biographies : the first , man o ' war , by page cooper and roger treat , was published in 1950 , and is a classic of its kind ; walter farley , author of the black stallion series , also wrote a slightly fictional biography of man o ' war ; in 2000 . edward l . bowen wrote a biography called man o ' war : thoroughbred lengends from eclipse press ; and in 2006 , dorothy ours wrote a new , extensively sourced biography entitled man o ' war : a legend like lightning .\nman o war is my hero . i love racing and i want to be a jockey . but i cant find a riding school to go to . i have never been up on a horse . i can ' t find any info on man o ' war for my report\nmaureen o ' hara as mary kate danaher in a still from\nthe quiet man\n.\none saratoga story describes man o\u2019 war enjoying \u201cmore than 15 minutes of freedom after launching his rider more than 40 feet\u201d during a morning workout .\nloftus was backing up man o\u2019 war , trying to line him up again after his fifth lunge through the tape . without warning , pettingill sprang the webbing , apparently catching loftus by surprise . various reports said man o\u2019 war was facing the wrong way , sideways , or simply caught off guard and unprepared for the start . whatever position he was in , man o\u2019 war was left at the start and at a clear disadvantage .\nman o ' war is profiled in chapter 5 of avalyn hunter ' s american classic pedigrees 1914 - 2002 ( 2003 , eclipse press ) .\ni thought i\u2019d seen every photo of man o\u2019 war , so i was thunderstruck to find a color photo of him in 1980 in the blood - horse . the photo was accompanied by an article explaining that it was believed to be the last photo taken of man o\u2019 war alive .\nfollowing his smashing debut , man o ' war won three stakes races , at three different new york tracks , in the next 17 days .\nsituated on a hill on the original dublin to belfast road , the man o\u2019war public house has been recorded in deeds dating back to 1595 .\nhall of fame jockey , after riding man o ' war in the miller stakes . he was the regular rider of triple crown winner sir barton\nman o\u2019 war : the legacy\u201d was on display until the end of 2017 . it was an interactive exhibit at the kentucky derby museum which covered the life of man o\u2019 war , his impressive racing career , his ties to the kentucky derby and his lasting mark on thoroughbred racing .\nthis photograph of man o ' war and jockey clarence kummer was taken on july 10 , 1920 , at the old aqueduct racetrack\u2019s dwyer stakes .\nwhen the bidding began at the 1918 yearling sale in saratoga springs , man o\u2019 war looked good \u2026 but nobody recognized him as potentially great .\nprobably not , and it\u2019s a question of whether man o\u2019 war had finished his dinner before hoodwink finished the race ,\nbowen says .\nan absolutely fascinating observation from a racing writing legend , who came to these conclusions just a few years after man o\u2019 war concluded his career .\nby the way , your earlier commenter dorothy ours modestly omitted that she is the author of the best book ever written about man o\u2019 war .\nthe ceremony that gloomy afternoon included nine eulogies , lasted approximately 30 minutes and was broadcast on the radio . man o\u2019 war\u2019s casket remained open .\nin 1977 the big casket was dug up , and man o ' war was moved , along with his statue , to kentucky horse park .\namerican racing regained its legal status in 1913 , but soon the nation\u2019s focus shifted to world war i . track attendance and racing purses had plummeted significantly before man o\u2019 war rejuvenated the sport .\nman o\u2019 war returned to saratoga in august 1920 and romped in the miller stakes . he followed with a remarkable performance in the travers . andy schuttinger substituted for the injured kummer in the midsummer derby and man o\u2019 war did not skip a beat . even though he was restrained in the stretch , man o\u2019 war covered the 1\u00bc - mile distance in 2 : 01\u2158 , setting a stakes and track record that stood for 42 years .\nfor his final race , man o\u2019 war competed in a match race in canada , the 1920 kenilworth park god cup against 1919 triple crown winner sir barton . man o\u2019 war would win by seven lengths to end his career on a high note . at the time , riddle had intended to run man o\u2019 war as a 4 - year - old but decided against it due to the likelihood of carrying huge weights in handicap races .\nby the time his historic career was over , man o\u2019 war had set three world records , two american records , and three track records . the colt was a horse for the ages and he was only aged three . the decision was made to send man o\u2019 war to stud in kentucky . he would spend the next 22 breeding seasons siring 379 foals . the most successful of these offspring were war admiral and war relic . the war relic line still exists today , and man o\u2019 war appears no less than 17 times in the bloodline of 2015 triple crown champion american pharoah\nnot only did man o ' war live nobly , he died nobly as well . his groom and pal , will harbut , died suddenly in october , 1947 . man o ' war was so crestfallen that he pined away , and less than a month later died of a broken heart .\nwith loftus banned by the jockey club , riddle and feustel chose clarence kummer as man o\u2019 war\u2019s new rider and the combination proved to be a winning one . riddle decided to pass on the kentucky derby in favor of having man o\u2019 war make his 3 - year - old debut in the preakness . man o\u2019 war won easily , as he did in the withers , belmont ( a 20 - length victory ) , stuyvesant and dwyer .\na scroll from the u . s . army\u2019s first cavalry division was placed with a black ribbon on man o\u2019 war\u2019s barn . the first cavalry division had dubbed man o\u2019 war an honorary colonel . in japan , an estimated 3 , 000 members of the country\u2019s cavalry division paid their respects to man o\u2019 war with military honors as well . american racetracks held a moment of silence at 3 p . m . , coinciding with the funeral .\nrapid fire is not a good option on the man - o - war , as the attachment itself gives a very small effect , if any . note that with the increased fire rate , the man - o - war ' s centerspeed has less time to adjust between shots . this makes the rapid fire attachment incredibly detrimental for the man - o - war , as it increases the already high recoil ( although by very little ) .\nafter winning the travers , man o\u2019 war returned to belmont for the lawrence realization . by this time few owners had any interest in racing against riddle\u2019s powerhouse . only hoodwink , at 100 - 1 odds , came forward to meet man o\u2019 war . knowing hoodwink provided no legitimate threat , kummer set man o\u2019 war against the clock . the mighty colt responded by shattering the previous world record for 1\u215d miles ( 2 : 45 flat ) by more than four seconds ( 2 : 40\u2158 ) . poor hoodwink was left in the dust by an approximate 100 lengths even though the official race chart said man o\u2019 war was restrained at the end and never fully extended . man o\u2019 war\u2019s performance that day remains the belmont record for the distance .\nman o\u2019 war also became a great stallion as well as a tourist attraction for kentucky . one of his best sons , war admiral , won the triple crown in 1937 . even today , man o\u2019 war\u2019s direct male line of descent is with us , perhaps most prominently in the form of 2001 horse of the year tiznow and his sons .\nman o ' war was so dubbed by mrs . eleanor robson belmont , who traditionally named all of her husband ' s horses , including mahubah , whose name is arabic for ' good tidings ' . mrs . belmont originally wanted to call mahubah ' s colt\nmy man o ' war\nin honor of her husband ' s participation in world war i . when she sent the registration to new york , the first word was dropped and he was officially named man o ' war .\nwalter farley , author of the black stallion series , penned a fictionalized biography of man o ' war that was released in 1962 by random house .\nabove : man o ' war at faraway farm in 1932 , when he was 15 . james w . sames iii photo . sames / livingston collection\nboth were bred , raced , and managed by man o ' war ' s owner samuel riddle . he gave both a reasonable chance at stud .\nwhich makes the man o\u2019 war sort of exciting . it\u2019s razer\u2019s first foray into wireless headsets , and it sports a brand - new design aesthetic .\nthe man o\u2019war is razer\u2019s only wireless gaming headset , producing virtual 7 . 1 surround sound with a rated battery life of 14 to 20 hours .\nman o\u2019 war retired to stud in 1921 , with riddle preferring to call time on his career rather than see him assigned staggering weights in handicaps .\nriddle said he did not believe in hurrying man o\u2019 war and that he will not race again until he is prime condition . \u201d [ 2 ]\ni just wonder if the other horse in that race could even see man o\u2019 war when he crossed the finish line ,\ni ask .\ncredit for the stallion\u2019s success at stud goes to horsemen like john madden and bloodlines specialist william allison , who riddle consulted regarding man o\u2019 war\u2019s first book of mares . there is no reason to think that samuel riddle did anything but seek the expertise of knowledgeable people throughout man o\u2019 war\u2019s breeding career .\nthe handsome star shoot , sire of sir barton and grey lag . two of his daughters went to man o\u2019 war , producing mars and crusader .\nsue s . i\u2019 , always interested to learn more about man o\u2019 war and was very interested to read this . thank you so much , abigail\ndespite never running in the kentucky derby , man o ' war won numerous races , including the belmont and the preakness . the exhibit at kentucky horse park is called\nman o ' war at 100 : the mostest horse that ever was ,\na phrase coined by his groom will harbut .\nthe one exception was the dwyer . although man o\u2019 war shouldered \u201conly\u201d 126 pounds , he was conceding 18 pounds to a very good colt named john p . grier . that whitney colorbearer ran his heart out trying to press , stay with , and challenge the great champion every step of the way through a punishing pace . john p . grier will go down in racing history as the rival who forced man o\u2019 war to summon something extra . man o\u2019 war responded , finally subduing the whitney colt and driving clear in what was then american ( and world ) record time for 1 1 / 8 miles . ( for more details on man o\u2019 war\u2019s records , see dorothy ours\u2019 man o\u2019 war : a legend like lightning , appendix a . )\nthe summer of 1919 was not without controversy for man o\u2019 war . what transpired on aug . 13 that year at saratoga in the sanford memorial turned out to be the one black mark on an otherwise flawless record . for the first and only time , man o\u2019 war was defeated . the loss , however , did little to tarnish man o\u2019 war\u2019s reputation . if anything , it enhanced his legend , as he almost pulled off a miracle victory . the circumstances of the race remain shrouded in mystery and controversy . the horse that handed man o\u2019 war his only defeat was the aptly named upset .\nman o\u2019 war began experiencing heart trouble in 1943 , forcing his retirement from breeding . he died of a heart attack on nov . 1 , 1947 at faraway , less than a month after harbut\u2019s death . it required 13 men to lift man o\u2019 war\u2019s 1 , 300 - pound body from his stall . three days later , more than 2 , 000 people attended man o\u2019 war\u2019s funeral , which was broadcast on nbc radio and featured nine eulogies .\nfaraway farm , huffman mill pike , lexington , ky ( now man o ' war farm ) - where man o ' war lived from late ' 36 or early january ' 37 through his death in 1947 . he was also originally buried there before his remains were moved to the kentucky horse park .\non this day in 1920 , man o\u2019 war wins the 52nd belmont stakes , and sets the record for the fastest mile ever run by a horse to that time . man o\u2019 war was the biggest star yet in a country obsessed with horse racing , and the most successful thoroughbred of his generation .\nthe plot was surrounded by a moat 10 feet wide and 4 to 6 feet deep . sixteen pin oak trees - marking the number of years man o\u2019 war stood at stud \u2013 had been planted around it . the walkway to the site was lined with 30 hornbeam trees representing man o\u2019 war\u2019s age .\nfollowing the conclusion of world war i , the world of sport began to return to its normal course and few stars made as much of an impact on the culture of competition than man o\u2019 war .\nman o\u2019 war instead retired and went on to become an important stallion , siring 62 stakes winners from 381 named foals , including 1937 triple crown winner war admiral ( a notable sire himself ) , and war relic , whose sire line continues today . man o\u2019 war\u2019s influence on modern thoroughbred bloodlines is still intact and there is barely a pedigree in current north american racing that does not carry his name .\nas a three - year old , man o\u2019 war dominated the field . loftus was denied a jockey\u2019s license that year , so clarence kummer rode \u201cbig red , \u201d as man o\u2019 war came to be known . the horse skipped the kentucky derby , as his trainers deemed the mile - and - a - quarter race to be too grueling so early in the season , so the preakness stakes was man o\u2019 war\u2019s coming out party . he won easily .\ni can ' t help it , i believe man o ' war is one of the greatest champions to have ever put his hoofs on the race circuit . all the better to read an almost real - life biography of his life . it is clear from the beginning that walter farley is a true fan of man o ' war since you can feel his admiration of this special thoroughbred through the whole book . and i ' m totally jealous that farley was able to see man o ' war in existens . hopefully , there will be again a racehorse as signular as man o ' war in this cent\nhorse racing : the maryland farm on which man o ' war once grazed and trained is about to be turned over to luxury houses and golf courses .\nnew york - - man o ' war and secretariat , two mighty chestnut colts , ran 1 - 2 in the race for horse of the century .\n\u201cmr waggoner , many men can have a million dollars , but only one can have man o\u2019 war . i\u2019m not interested in parting with him . \u201d\nthe man o\u2019war golf course has electric carts , a driving range , a practice putting green , a pro shop , a snack bar , rental clubs , golf instructors , and servers beer and wine . the man o\u2019war course has a really cool looking clubhouse built over the lake with a nice outdoor deck .\nwas turned sideways and surrendered several jumps to his competitors . it is notable that in the match race featuring two of man o\u2019 war\u2019s most famous offspring ,\nman o\u2019 war won both the preakness and belmont stakes . he ran eleven times as a 3 - year - old and , of course , won them all . there is few who doubt that man o\u2019 war would have been the second triple crown winner in history if sam riddle had sent him to churchill downs . however , not winning the kentucky derby has done nothing to degrade man o\u2019 war\u2019s legacy as one of the greatest horses ever bred in america .\nbowen says man o\u2019 war was fortunate from the beginning . the horse was purchased by a fellow who had no reason to rush him to the track .\nthey came to commemorate the centennial of man o ' war ' s birth and to recognize his ties to harford county and its rich horse racing heritage .\nat 3 : 24 , buglers from the man o\u2019 war post of the american legion , dressed in the famous riddle silks , played the mournful taps .\nin fact , many man o\u2019 war photos are among my all - time favorites . how grand he was \u2013 although that word doesn\u2019t seem nearly strong enough . and what was he looking at in those countless times he seemed oblivious to the man holding his lead shank ? unlike many famous thoroughbreds , man o\u2019 war seemed to clearly understand he was the greatest .\nwar admiral is outcrossed through five generations . his dam brushup is a half sister to 1933 dwyer stakes winner war glory ( by man o ' war ) and to marching along ( by man o ' war ) , dam of the stakes - winning steeplechaser pebalong ( by big pebble ) . brushup is out of annette k . ( by harry of hereford ) , whose half sister seaplane ( by man o ' war ) is the dam of stakes winner aquaplane ( by high time ) and the third dam of the high - class racer and sire eight thirty .\nalthough i ' ve visited many places related to man o ' war - from his marker on the hoofprints walk of fame at saratoga to man o ' war boulevard signs in lexington - i ' m most touched by places man o ' war actually breathed , walked , raced , slept , died . also included in this blog , out of admiration for all associated with him , are will harbut ' s , and fair play and mahubah ' s , graves .\noriginally , belmont ' s wife named the horse my man o ' war , after her soldiering husband , who was stationed in france during world war i , but the\nmy\nwas later dropped .\nfollowing the lawrence realization , man o\u2019 war pushed his win streak to 13 with impressive victories in the jockey club gold cup and potomac handicap . at this point , there appeared to be no competition for man o\u2019 war \u2014 with one possible exception , sir barton , the sport\u2019s first triple crown winner in 1919 .\nman o ' war , however , is widely distributed through pedigrees and through numerous sources . a measure of how pervasive the chestnut son of fair play has become is seen from a quick count of the number of times that man o ' war appears in some of the major stakes winners over the past weekend .\ni also don\u2019t see ghosts at the place of man o\u2019 war\u2019s birth , nursery stud in kentucky . long since developed , there isn\u2019t a hint of august belmont\u2019s old lexington - area farm anymore . even a roadside historical marker , which marks the area where man o\u2019 war was born , doesn\u2019t evoke them . and if there are any whispers of man o\u2019 war around the spendthrift farm property once called hinata farm , where red originally entered stud , i haven\u2019t found them .\nthey have been washed up alongside rare violet sea snails , which feed on the men o ' war .\nimagine the people who have streamed onto this farm , now called man o ' war farm , and how they felt upon seeing the greatest of all racehorses .\nthis year , 2014 , marks the four hundred and nineteenth year of the man o\u2019war pub serving fine food and beverages in a lively and traditional irish atmosphere .\nhis racing days having ended with his defeat of sir barton , man o\u2019 war was retired to stud . he made news again , though , when his son\nthe man o ' war stakes has been held every year since 1959 and is named to honor the thoroughbred many consider to be the best racehorse in the history of u . s . racing . man o ' war won 20 of his 21 career starts . man o ' war set three world records , two american records , two track records , and equaled another track standard . he won one race by an incredible 100 lengths and triumphed in another while carrying 138 pounds .\nthe widespread impact of man o\u2019 war\u2019s influence on american thoroughbred horse racing is undeniable . in fact , he has been listed as the greatest racehorse of the 20 th century by the associated press , sports illustrated and many others . fans and followers of the sport regard man o\u2019war as the most important american racehorse ever .\npons ' grandson , mike pons , proudly held the man o ' war plaque on wednesday afternoon , as he stood in front of the entrance gate to what in man o ' war ' s day was the clubhouse at the havre de grace racetrack , and now is part of the maryland national guard military reservation .\nit took three days to bury man o\u2019 war . heavy rains kept gravediggers from their task in his paddock , which was to be his final resting place .\nwhile racing was legalized again in 1913 , world war i soon dominated the public ' s attention . attendance and purses were at record lows when man o ' war made his debut on june 6 , 1919 .\nman o\u2019 war made a furious rally to get in contention . loftus attempted to get through on the rail approaching the stretch , but he found traffic trouble and became locked in a pocket . past the eighth pole , loftus knew he had no choice but to swing his mount outside . man o\u2019 war lost valuable ground .\nrommy faversham ' s 2005 work samuel riddle , walter jeffords and the dynasty of man o ' war is the first book of the great breeders and their methods series , published by the russell meerdink company , ltd . faversham ' s book focuses on man o ' war ' s breeding career and long - term legacy .\nwhen i was young i could whinny and run with the best of \u2019em , and , with my man o\u2019 war blood , no one on our track team was faster . and if i was in the woods and a tree trunk lay across the path , i became man o\u2019 war\u2019s son battleship in the grand national ."]}
{"id": 602, "summary": [{"text": "shahtoush ( foaled 29 april 1995 ) was an irish thoroughbred racehorse and broodmare best known for winning the epsom oaks in 1998 .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in a racing career which lasted from august 1997 to september 1998 the filly ran eleven times and won three races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "shahtoush won only one minor race as a two-year-old , but showed top-class form when she finished third in the group one moyglare stud stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in 1998 she finished second in the 1000 guineas at newmarket racecourse and then returned to england to win the classic oaks over one and a half miles at epsom .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she was beaten in her two remaining races , finishing unplaced in the yorkshire oaks and the irish champion stakes . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "shahtoush", "paragraphs": ["the record book will show , primarily , that shahtoush won the oaks here yesterday . in fact , it was michael kinane .\nshahtoush will now go for the irish oaks , which is also the target for bahr . dettori has five weeks to plot his revenge .\nshould make no mistake not run , michael kinane would be free , possibly to ride aidan o ' brien ' s oaks winner shahtoush .\nshahtoush won a little snugly at the finish and she and bahr finished six lengths ahead of midnight line which also did not appear to get the trip .\nthe filly will be trying to give the maestro aidan o ' brien his third win in the race following shahtoush in 1998 and imagine three years ago .\nsecond in the english 1000 guineas at newmarket to cape verdi she runs in today ' s derby but well in arrears in the irish version , shahtoush came through to duel with frankie dettori and bahr .\ncapt keen at epsom aidan o ' brien ' s epsom weekend got off to the perfect start when the trainer ' s shahtoush stormed home the 12 / 1 winner of the english oaks under michael kinane .\nbetting : ( paddy power ) - 6 / 4 swain , 100 / 30 one so wonderful , 9 / 2 xaar , 11 / 2 shahtoush , 8 / 1 alborada , 12 / 1 tarascon , 16 / 1 sasuru , 20 / 1 happy valentine , 25 / 1 bar . ( liam cashman ) - 5 / 2 swain , 4 / 1 one so wonderful and xaar , 8 / 1 alborada , 12 / 1 shahtoush and mutamam , 16 / 1 make no mistake , 20 / 1 sasuru , 25 / 1 bar .\nas a pointer to the derby , the oaks had fingers pointing everywhere . the ballydoyle camp can hardly be downcast , but there was as much succour for godolphin . bahr ' s owners today saddle up cape verdi , who is considered much the superior . in addition , the 1 , 000 guineas winner had shahtoush five lengths back at newmarket so the form looks solid .\nsmart at two ( won the lowther stakes and finished fourth in the cheveley park stakes ) , she made a spectacular return to action when storming five lengths clear of shahtoush on that first sunday in may 1998 . she finished ninth in the epsom derby next time and wasn\u2019t seen again until the following summer , running some way below her best and bowing out with a lamentably poor run in the nassau stakes .\njohn magnier has been friends since their days at glenstal abbey school with one - time goff\u2019s auctioneer david nagle , whose wife diane , daughter of former trainer paddy sleator , co - owned and bred the vodafone oaks winners shahtoush ( 1998 ) and imagine ( 2001 ) . the nagles own barronstown stud at grange con in co wicklow , and they also bred - in partnership with magnier - the 1991 derby hero generous . sue magnier and michael tabor\u2019s previous sagitta 2000 guineas wins : 1997 entrepreneur , 1998 king of kings\nthose victories opened the floodgates to a string of other successes sporting either tabor ' s blue and orange silks or the plain dark blue colours of magnier ' s wife sue . epsom derby heroes galileo and high chaparral , champions and classic winners such as giant ' s causeway , montjeu , rock of gibraltar , hurricane run , stravinsky , fasliyev , hawk wing , johannesburg , milan , brian boru and footstepsinthesand mean that coolmore is once again producing its own stallions , while talented fillies such as imagine , shahtoush and virginia waters have enhanced an already blue - blooded broodmare band .\ninvestec derby ( 2001 galileo , 2002 high chaparral , 2012 camelot , 2013 ruler of the world & 2014 australia ) , investec oaks ( 1998 shahtoush , 2001 imagine , 2006 alexandrova , 2012 was , 2015 qualify , 2016 minding ) , qipco 1000 guineas ( 2005 virginia waters , 2012 homecoming queen , 2016 minding , 2017 winter ) , qipco 2000 guineas ( 1998 king of kings , 2002 rock of gibraltar , 2005 footstepsinthesand , 2006 george washington , 2008 henrythenavigator , 2012 camelot , 2015 gleneagles , 2017 churchill ) , st leger ( 2001 milan , 2003 brian boru , 2005 scorpion , 2013 leading light ) .\ninvestec derby ( 2001 galileo , 2002 high chaparral , 2012 camelot , 2013 ruler of the world , 2014 australia , 2017 wings of eagles ) , investec oaks ( 1998 shahtoush , 2001 imagine , 2006 alexandrova , 2012 was , 2015 qualify , 2016 minding ) , qipco 1000 guineas ( 2005 virginia waters , 2012 homecoming queen , 2016 minding , 2017 winter ) , qipco 2000 guineas ( 1998 king of kings , 2002 rock of gibraltar , 2005 footstepsinthesand , 2006 george washington , 2008 henrythenavigator , 2012 camelot , 2015 gleneagles , 2017 churchill ) , st leger ( 2001 milan , 2003 brian boru , 2005 scorpion , 2013 leading light ) .\ncape verdi returned from dubai in may 1998 and was sent straight to the 1000 guineas without a prep race . cape verdi was made 100 / 30 joint favourite and produced the best performance of her career . ridden for the first time by frankie dettori , she moved up to take the lead a furlong out before\nsurging\nclear and winning by a growing margin of five lengths from the irish - trained shahtoush . [ 9 ] the independent described the performance as an\narrogant dismissal\nof the opposition while dettori was enthusiastic :\ni ' ve never known a horse like her and she ' s amazing for a filly\n. [ 10 ] bookmakers responded by offering her at 2 / 1 for the oaks but within days were reporting significant support for the filly in the betting for the derby . [ 11 ]\ninvestec oaks record : 1998 - 1 shahtoush , 1999 - 6 sunspangled , 1999 - 8 crystal downs , 2001 - 1 imagine , 2002 - 2 quarter moon , 2002 - 4 starbourne , 2002 - 11 kournakova , 2002 - 12 maryinsky , 2003 - 2 yesterday , 2003 - pu l ' ancresse , 2004 - 2 all too beautiful , 2004 - 4 necklace , 2004 - 7 kisses for me , 2005 - 4 virginia waters , 2005 - 5 silk and scarlet , 2005 - 9 mona lisa , 2006 - 1 alexandrova , 2007 - 2 peeping fawn , 2007 - 3 all my loving , 2007 - 5 cherry hinton , 2007 - 12 nell gwyn , 2008 - 2 moonstone , 2008 - 8 savethisdanceforme , 2008 - 13 sail , 2008 - 14 tiffany diamond , 2008 - 15 adored , 2008 - 16 ice queen , 2009 - 10 perfect truth , 2010 - 2 remember when , 2010 - 10 awe inspiring , 2010 - 12 cabaret , 2011 - 2 wonder of wonders , 2011 - 5 misty for me , 2011 - 8 eirnin , 2011 - 12 why , 2012 - 1 was , 2012 - 5 maybe , 2012 - 8 betterbetterbetter , 2012 - 10 devotion , 2012 - 11 twirl , 2013 - 4 moth , 2013 - 10 say , 2014 - 6 marvellous , 2014 - 7 palace , 2014 - 14 dazzling , 2015 - 1 qualify , 2015 - 4 diamondsandrubies , 2015 - 7 together forever , 2016 - 1 minding , 2016 - 4 somehow , 2016 - 6 seventh heaven .\nit was an extraordinary performance by horse and jockey with tipperary man kinane sitting oh so patiently at the back on what was remarkably o ' brien ' s first - ever epsom runner .\neven in the straight , kinane seemed super confident that the others would come back to his filly .\nthe classic took a predictable early pattern with trophy wife cutting out the pace for her henry cecil stable companion midnight line which had been backed into favouritism .\nit was the tommy stack trained tarascon which appeared to be the likely winner inside the last two furlongs .\nthe irish guineas heroine could not quicken up and her teenage jockey jamie spence felt that she did not stay the one mile four furlongs .\nkinane smiled : ` ` i think frankie thought he had it won . i ' m sure i gave him a bit of a shock . ' '\nthe ground was riding genuinely good and the quiet - spoken o ' brien ventured : ` ` the ground for the irish guineas was just too firm and the pace did not suit either ' ' .\nthe thoughts of the 28 - year - old trainer who now leads the british trainers championship , owners diane nagle and sue magnier who bank almost \u00a3140 , 000 for this success and the jockey , then turned to last night ' s card at the curragh . but they ' ll all be back here today !\nthe coronation cup promised to be a fascinating contest and certainly lived up to that billing .\nultimately , the john dunlop - trained silver patriarch gave pat eddery his first win in the group one contest over the derby distance .\nin a frantic finish , the 7 / 2 chance swooped late to beat the favourite swain and the gallant irish filly ebadiyla .\nthere are good grounds for suggesting that ebadiyla , trained by john oxx for the aga khan , would have finished second but for being sandwiched by the other two in the last 100 yards .\ncurragh trainer oxx commented : ` ` although i ' m not sure exactly what the stewards inquiry is about , she slightly suffered and because she is a little filly and a bit timid , it may have put her off .\n` ` but it was a terrific run and i ' m delighted with that . she ' s a lot fitter and has sharpened up a lot since her last run at the curragh .\n` ` she has trained on well and , if she gets off ground , it will make a big difference .\n` ` she will run in the king george and queen elizabeth diamond stakes next . it was a wet day last year and we hope it will be soft again although it is asking a lot for it to happen two years running .\n` ` after ascot , it will be the irish st . leger and then the arc . ' '\njamie spence later received a four - day ban for his use of the whip upon tarascon . the 17 - year - old , who had ridden tommy stack ' s filly to victory in the airlie / coolmore 1000 guineas at the curragh a week last sunday , was adjudged to have used his whip above shoulder height on his mount , who finished a non - staying sixth . his suspension will run from june 15 - 18 inclusive .\nmeanwhile , pat eddery rode the st leger winner silver patriarch to win the vodafone coronation cup .\nlord howard de walden , one of racing ' s most distinguished owners , secured his 600th victory over flat and jumps when dower house squeezed home in the vodafone racing handicap .\npat spillane you know the feeling you get when an elderly relative dies . even though their demise is expected , it\u2019s still a shock . well , that\u2019s how i felt in the wake of mayo\u2019s exit from the all - ireland series .\nsteve bruce accepts that jack grealish and other aston villa stars may be sold so . . .\ncarl markham aston villa manager steve bruce is warning fans to prepare for a fire sale as the cash - strapped club look to raise much - needed funds .\n' there have been a tremendous amount of upsets ' - serena williams insists . . .\nandy sims serena williams set a new record but played down title talk as she eased into the last eight at wimbledon .\ncroatia sack coach ognjen vukojevic over ' glory to ukraine ' video ahead of . . .\n' they were f * * * * * g useless back then and they\u2019re still f * * * * * g useless ' - kieran . . .\n' everybody dies , but not everybody lives ' - how ' the great ak ' became a . . .\newan mackenna : infantile , spoiled and indulged - everything wrong with brazil is . . .\nsteve bruce accepts that jack grealish and other aston villa stars may be sold so club . . .\nreferee who has sent off three england players will officiate world cup semi - . . .\neamon dunphy says england are a ' certainty ' to beat croatia and tips raheem . . .\n' he sent videos of my body language ' - rory mcilroy reveals how email from . . .\npaul curran : super 8 structure favours dublin and kerry , and they could dominate for . . .\ncaptain hugo lloris is confident france will be ready for the challenge of . . .\nharry wilson hoping to break into liverpool ' s first team rather than head out on . . .\nan in - depth preview ahead of the france v belgium world cup semi - final in russia on . . .\nwatch :\nfootball ' s coming home !\n- england fans in russia sing ahead of . . .\nwatch fans around the world react to england ' s nail - . . .\nwatch : ' i ' m here to compete . i ' m here to win ' - wayne rooney defends dc united . . .\nif the irish filly and her three - quarter length victim , bahr , ever meet again it would be a bold punter indeed who predicted a similar outcome . the difference between the two yesterday was not their respective abilities . rather it was the level of assistance they received from their confederates in the saddle .\nfrankie dettori must have thought the classic was his as he eased bahr towards the leaders a furlong and a half from home . certainly , his main market rival , midnight line , was beginning to show the fatigue of the beaten . however , the italian was swiftly jumped by the alley mugger form of kinane . dettori fought on from there but the decisive move had been made and checkmate was inevitable . in the end the two fillies were separated by the three - quarters of a length kinane had stolen in his mind .\ni think i snuck up on frankie a little bit and gave him a surprise ,\nkinane said .\ni knew he had the ones in front covered and he was going sweet , so i suddenly shot by him . he may not have expected me to be going so well behind and when i quickened i really let her go .\nit had been a tactical masterclass from kinane throughout . he refused to get involved with a pacemaker , trophy wife , who probably broke the course record for the first five furlongs ; he refused even to get involved in the shuffling behind the leader .\nthe plan was to ride her patiently and she dropped her head immediately coming out of the gate so i left it there ,\nthe irishman said .\ni could see midnight line and some of the others getting into a fight and i was happy not to be involved . it suited me for her to be at the back to start .\nher position at the end did not displease him either .\nthis was yet another major training triumph for aidan o ' brien , who doesn ' t give quotes . he just takes classics . this was his second british gong of the season following king of kings ' 2 , 000 guineas . in between he has also collected the dante stakes with saratoga springs , a hat - trick which makes him the leading trainer in britain this year .\nthe signal to another fancied blue riband horse , greek dance , was hardly dazzling after the coronation cup , however . his newmarket galloping partner nicole pharly not only finished last in the group one contest but also became 20 lengths detached from the penultimate horse .\nit had not looked as though the filly would bring up the rear for much of the contest . that slot appeared safely booked for silver patriarch . and he won .\nthe grey exhibited in the derby last season that he is not an animal who scoots around these tight corners of surrey pleasingly . from the outset yesterday pat eddery was jumping around on his saddle so energetically that it was easy to assume someone had slipped a thistle into his breeches .\nonce silver patriarch hit the straight , however , he built up the sort of momentum that knocks down walls .\ni knew i would be struggling because he ' s a lazy type of horse and this isn ' t the best track in the world for him ,\neddery reported .\nwhen i got within four lengths of them before the dip , i thought i ' d pick them up because we know from last year that he does fly up the hill . he really picked up and went by good horses quick . on a fair track he ' d have beaten them three lengths .\nthe double doors now open for silver patriarch ' s options . as a st leger winner it could have been the slog up to cup distances for him . now he can realistically be primed for the glamour events over 12 furlongs .\nit is really down to a question of optimism and pat ' s opinion that we brought him back to a mile and a half ,\njohn dunlop , the winning trainer , said .\nwe never even entered him for the ascot gold cup and i think we will have to go to ascot now for the king george .\nwe will get an idea this afternoon whom he might be facing .\nopen an account with betfair and bet at least \u20ac5 at min odds of 1 / 5 on the sportsbook . win or lose betfair match your first bet up to \u20ac50 . free bet stakes not returned\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsky sports news takes you through all of the day ' s racing news , plus alex hammond ' s tip of the day .\nfollow the latest from the written press with the best gossip and speculation from the papers .\nsky has launched a pub finder for eager fans wanting to find a venue to watch sky sports .\nget a sports star to visit your old secondary school as part of our free schools initiative .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nnow ornina in spanish , french and italian language for all our visitors everywhere . . . spanish - italian - french\nhow to do something usefull in your life by designer adnan talalini . read more\nour earrings are handmade from a to z , silvir and stones . go to gallery\nthe word shahtoosh is originally divided to shah and toosh . shah means the king . toosh means the touch . it refers to royal touch . this is why this type of wool were given this name . to prove the authenticity of a shahtoosh shawl it should be able to pass through a small ring . ornina ' s shahtoosh are made from the throat fur of the antelopes called chirus . it is all hand - loomed and exsisted in natural colour and other amazing colours too . dry clean is recommended . i think it is a worthy gift you can give to somebody or yourself . feast your eyes on our styles of shahtoosh shawls , brand names framed with arabic writing in caligraphy style .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ntrainer aidan o ' brien is close to reaching legendary status in ireland after completing an awesome oaks - derby double at epsom with the victory of galileo .\no ' brien is in charge of the massive ballydoyle training operation , which was once run by the brilliant vincent o ' brien , who is no relation .\nthis was not just a first derby victory for the quietly - spoken 31 - year - old handler , but confirmation of the irish hold on big races across europe .\nlast year , the 7 - 1 chance sinndar claimed the premier classic for ireland with johnny murtagh on board .\nthe beautifully - bred winner sprung to prominence in may with a victory in the derrinstown stud derby trial , at leopardstown .\nhe is the first derby winner to be sired by the champion stallion sadler ' s wells .\ngolan , the 2 , 000 guineas winner , ran a solid race but just could not cope with the pace of o ' brien ' s charge and had to settle for second .\nthe huge betting plunge on the frankie dettori mount tobougg rewarded each - way punters who backed the horse down to 9 / 1 from 16 / 1 . but dettori is still without a winner in the derby .\nfor o ' brien , it was yet another success in a short but highly successful training career - mainly with flat horses .\nit was jockey michael kinane ' s second triumph in the race , having won on board commander in chief eight years ago .\ngalileo is owned jointly by sue magnier , the wife of bloodstock guru john and daughter of vincent o ' brien .\nshe shares ownership with former bookmaker michael tabor , a millionaire who grew up in the east end and is a big supporter of west ham united fc .\nmagnier picked o ' brien for one reason :\nhe trains winners , it ' s as simple as that .\nstables : ballydoyle , co . tipperary ( former base of multiple champion vincent o ' brien - no relation ) & carriganog , owning hill , co . tipperary\nchampion irish jumps trainer : every season with a licence ( ie . 1993 / 4 , 1994 / 5 , 1995 / 6 , 1996 / 7 , 1997 / 8 )\nin eight years , o ' brien has achieved what many dream of in a lifetime .\nyet he takes no credit . he praises the team in his softly - spoken way , that leaves you wondering at his calm .\nhe started to make a big impression in 1997 when winning the irish 1 , 000 guineas for fillies with classic park .\nthe trainer took the colts ' equivalent thanks to desert king , who also won the irish derby .\na year later , he won the sagitta 2 , 000 guineas with king of kings - his first runner in a british classic .\nother great o ' brien charges have included giant ' s causeway , nicknamed the iron horse because of his battling qualities .\nbut perhaps his most remarkable achievement is to have such a flattering record on the flat , while keeping the superstar jumper istabraq as well .\nin ireland , the horse is not just an obsession - he ' s a religion .\nbbc sport online asked the trainer if winning the derby with galileo can compare with istabraq ' s three champion hurdle wins at cheltenham .\nafter training istabraq , pressure is nothing . it ' s a marvellous day , but istabraq is irreplaceable ,\nhe replied .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\nhorse racing stats \u2013 runner and rider profiles for epsom oaks \u2013 . . .\nwe have profiles of all nine runners and riders for the english biggest filly\u2019s classic the epsom oaks , start time 4 : 30pm . back minding at 8 / 1 to win .\n* worked over the unique epsom downs course during the breakfast with the stars morning on tuesday , may 24 .\n* beaten a neck by seventh heaven on reappearance in listed betfred mobile oaks trial at lingfield park on may 7 .\n* success came with a length and a half victory in a mile maiden on good to soft going at nottingham in october .\n* debut came in a mile maiden at haydock park on september 26 last year when third on soft ground .\nborn : december 5 , 1980 based : kremlin cottage stables , newmarket background : he is the eldest son of lord adrian palmer and grew up in the scottish borders , learning to ride at a very young age . he went to eton . before becoming a trainer , he spent time working for cheveley park stud and john warren at highclere stud . he was assistant to trainer patrick chamings and then spent three seasons as hughie morrison\u2019s assistant . after five years as an assistant in the uk , he enjoyed a successful 15 - month spell in australia with leading trainer gai waterhouse . he returned to the uk , took out a licence in 2011 and has made an increasing impact , sending out 35 british & irish winners who earnt more than \u00a31 million in prize money last year .\n* beaten nine lengths into fifth by so mi dar in group three musidora stakes at york on may 11 .\n* got off the mark at the third attempt in a mile polytrack maiden at lingfield park in february .\n* made her debut in a mile maiden on kempton park\u2019s polytrack on november 30 , finishing fifth of 10 .\n* out of high - class racemare barshiba & a half - sister to last year\u2019s 50 / 1 group one juddmonte international heroine arabian queen .\n* stayed on take third , beaten a length , behind somehow in the listed cheshire oaks on may 4 .\n* made a winning debut in a mile polytrack maiden at kempton park on november 30 .\nother major wins include : breeders\u2019 cup marathon ( 2008 muhannak ) . , middleton stakes ( 2015 secret gesture ) , german 1 , 000 guineas ( 2012 electrelane ) , fred darling stakes ( 2005 penkenna princess , 2010 puff , 2012 moonstone magic , 2015 redstart ) , qipco british champions fillies & mares stakes ( 2015 simple verse )\nborn : september 6 , 1995 background : nephew of former jump jockey jim culloty , who won three cheltenham gold cups on best mate and trained the 2014 winner lord windermere . murphy began riding at the age of four and competed in pony races and show jumping . joined culloty\u2019s cork yard at the age of 13 before teaming up with tommy stack two years later . started riding out for ireland\u2019s champion flat trainer aidan o\u2019brien at 16 and then moved to england to work for andrew balding in october , 2012 . first win came aboard imperial glance at salisbury on june 16 , 2013 . capped 2013 with a memorable four - timer on ayr gold cup day , including in the feature on highland colori . had a three - month spell with leading australian trainer danny o\u2019brien in 2013 / 2014 . was appointed second jockey behind andrea atzeni to qatar racing ltd ahead of 2015 flat season and become first jockey to the organisation when atzeni returned to roger varian .\n* exercised at the course during the breakfast with the stars morning on tuesday , may 24 .\n* beaten four and half lengths into fourth by so mi dar in group three musidora stakes at york on may 11 .\n* runner - up to godolphin\u2019s linguistic on reappearance in the valuable tattersalls millions 3 - y - o trophy at newmarket on april 14 .\n* sole victory came easily in a mile maiden at goodwood on september 1 , 2015 .\nbackground : garry and suzanne brandt had their first runner in 2014 . the couple run the north london - based import business harlequin direct ltd and were tempted to dip their toes into racehorse ownership when meeting owner derrick bloy on holiday . harlequeen was only the second horse owned by the brandts , with their first being the four - time winner harlequin striker , also with mick channon before being switched to dean ivory\u2019s yard this year . garry gave suzanne harlequeen for her birthday and his mother telma went racing for the first time at goodwood last year when harlequeen won .\nfirst winner : gained his first two successes on the same day when golden scissors was successful on the flat at beverley and wessex warrior over hurdles at wincanton on march 30 , 1990 .\nsuccess in uk : after a relatively slow start in his first few years in britain , with the winters spent riding in india , de sousa nearly returned to brazil but the 2010 uk season saw a distinct upturn in his fortunes as he rode 100 winners , for trainers such as david o\u2019meara , geoff harker and mark johnston . in 2011 , he rode primarily for johnston and enjoyed 161 uk victories , challenging for the british jockeys\u2019 title . de sousa\u2019s first british classic ride came on outsider danum dancer in the 2007 2000 guineas , while he won the indian derby on antonios in 2009 . he was appointed as a retained rider to godolphin in february , 2012 but parted ways with maktoum family\u2019s operation in mid - 2014 despite enjoying considerable success . he has ridden as a freelance since then and became champion jockey in britain for the first time in 2015 .\nbig - race wins : dubai world cup ( 2014 african story ) , qipco champion stakes ( 2013 farhh ) , lockinge stakes ( 2013 farhh ) , dubai duty free stakes ( 2013 sajjhaa ) , premio roma ( 2012 hunter\u2019s light ) , juddmonte international ( 2015 arabian queen ) . accolades : stobart champion flat jockey 2015\n* bidding to become the first filly since kazzia in 2002 to complete the 1000 guineas - investec oaks double .\n* crowned european champion two - year - old filly last season following victories in the g1 moyglare stud stakes at the curragh & g1 dubai fillies\u2019 mile at newmarket .\n* comes in on the back of defeat having gone down by a head to jet setting in the irish 1 , 000 guineas at the curragh on may 22 , the pair clear . minding banged her head leaving the stalls . a cut and bruising were minor and have healed .\n* made her debut on june 11 , 2015 in a leopardstown seven - furlong maiden and finished second . she got off the mark next time out a similar race over six furlongs at the same course on june 25 .\n* dam was top - class over a mile and galileo won the investec derby in 2001 .\n* unbeaten in two starts this season and last time out got the better of architecture by a neck in the listed oaks trial at lingfield park on may 7 .\n* odds - on favourite when making a winning return in a mile polytrack maiden at dundalk on april 18 .\n* had the first of two starts as a juvenile at leopardstown when seventh of 13 in a seven - furlong maiden on september 12 , 2015 . two weeks later , she finished fourth in another seven furlong at newmarket .\nborn : buttevant , co cork , ireland , november 13 , 1980 . background : joined aidan o\u2019brien\u2019s ballydoyle stable as a teenager and gained his first british classic success on 50 / 1 chance qualify in the 2015 investec oaks . has ridden across the world with major success in ireland , france , the uae , the usa , canada and india . first winner : my - lorraine , sligo , june 24 , 1997 . british classic wins ( 1 ) : investec oaks ( 2015 qualify ) big - race wins include : irish derby ( 2011 treasure beach ) , irish oaks ( 2014 bracelet ) , secretariat stakes ( 2011 treasure beach ) , phoenix stakes ( 2002 spartacus ) , poule d\u2019essai des poulains ( 2007 astronomer royal ) , criterium international ( 2009 jan vermeer ) , canadian international ( 2010 joshua tree ) , american st leger ( 2012 jakkalberry ) , uae derby ( 2012 daddy long legs ) , queen elizabeth ii challenge cup ( 2011 together ) . has also enjoyed significant success in india , winning the indian derby , calcutta derby and bangalore derby in 2007 , and also rode one winner in hong kong in the 2013 / 14 season .\n* supplemented at a cost of \u00a330 , 000 following her length victory in the listed height of fashion stakes at goodwood on may 19 . snow fairy took the same 10 - furlong contest at goodwood in 2010 on her way to investec oaks glory .\n* third on debut in a 10 - furlong maiden at ascot on may 6 .\nchampion owner in britain ( 10 times ) : 1996 , 1998 , 1999 , 2001 , 2004 , 2006 , 2007 , 2012 , 2013 and 2015 .\n* overcame greenness to win the listed cheshire oaks by half a length on may 4 , with diamonds pour moi back in third .\n* made a successful reappearance on heavy ground in a 10 - furlong maiden at leopardstown on april 6 .\n* debut came in a leopardstown seven - furlong maiden on october 25 , 2015 when third to stable companion pretty perfect .\n* fifth foal of alexandrova who captured the investec , irish and yorkshire oaks in 2006 for same connections .\nborn : james anthony heffernan on july 17 , 1972 . background : based at aidan o\u2019brien\u2019s ballydoyle stable since 1996 . like o\u2019brien , gained his grounding at jim bolger\u2019s stable . twice second in the investec derby and won the investec oaks on was in 2012 . accolades : jointly ireland\u2019s champion apprentice in 1994 . british classic wins ( 1 ) : investec oaks ( 2012 was ) . other major wins include : irish derby ( 2007 soldier of fortune , 2008 frozen fire ) , irish 1 , 000 guineas ( 2001 imagine , 2008 halfway to heaven , 2011 misty for me ) , irish st leger ( 2008 septimus ) , irish champion stakes ( 2010 cape blanco , 2011 so you think ) , eclipse stakes ( 2011 so you think ) , sun chariot stakes ( 2008 halfway to heaven ) , moyglare stud stakes ( 2008 again , 2010 misty for me , 2015 minding ) , national stakes ( 2000 beckett , 2010 power ) , keeneland phoenix stakes ( 2012 pedro the great ) , pretty polly stakes ( 2011 misty for me , 2015 diamondsandrubies ) , crit\u00e9rium international ( 2006 mount nelson ) , middle park stakes ( 2011 crusade ) , secretariat stakes ( 2015 highland reel )\n* high - class two - year - old over a mile , winning the group two may hill stakes at doncaster before taking second behind ballydoyle in the group one prix marcel boussac at longchamp .\n* six and a half lengths to make up on minding after coming home sixth on return in the qipco 1000 guineas at newmarket on may 1 .\nownership of turret rocks was recently transferred from jackie , jim bolger\u2019s wife , to june judd who owned the 2009 investec oaks seventh oh goodness me . judd first owned horses in 2001 . she has had success in ireland , including with free judgement in the 2010 g3 tetrarch stakes and 2009 g3 killavullan stakes plus abigail petit in the 2005 g3 tower stakes , though she has yet to have a winner in britain .\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\nsarah healy wins her second gold as she takes 1 , 500m title . . .\nat casinorella you will find all new casino sites that is launching with a uk license .\nthe casino market in sweden is one of the fastest growing markets within the entertainment industry . urltoken has analyzed new casinos here ( in swedish ) : urltoken sinon\nurltoken offers the latest reviews of the best new online casinos in finland . visit the website to find more information about the gambling industry .\nfind yourself a brand new online casino and choose from the best at urltoken where you\u2019ll find bonuses and online slots to play for free .\nlimerick v carlow hurling qualifier game preview , team news and betting . . .\nsportsnewsireland is an irish website launched in 2009 to offer sports fans in ireland an alternative and independent source to keep them up to date with all the news from around the country . every week we bring you live score updates from all levels of gaa , rugby , soccer , racing and athletics .\nthis website uses cookies to improve your experience . we ' ll assume you ' re ok with this , but you can opt - out if you wish . accept read more\nboxing : kildare\u2019s eric donovan teams up with \u2018old friend\u2019 egan for . . .\ngaa fixtures \u2013 hurling & gaelic football in munster , ulster , leinster . . .\nwrite css or less and hit save . ctrl + space for auto - complete .\n* came with a tremendous late run to lift the 2017 investec derby , handing a fifth victory to trainer aidan o ' brien and a first for jockey padraig beggy .\n* previously made good late headway to chase home stable companion venice beach in the g3 chester vase ( 1m 4f 63y ) on seasonal return at chester on may 11 .\n* ninth behind waldgeist in the g1 criterium de saint - cloud ( 1m 2f ) in october and fourth over same trip earlier the same month in listed zetland stakes at newmarket ; successful in killarney maiden ( 1m 70y ) in august .\nborn october , 1953 , daughter of legendary trainer vincent o ' brien . husband john magnier ( born in county cork on february 10 , 1948 ) has changed the bloodstock world since teaming up with robert sangster and vincent o ' brien to buy coolmore in the 1970s . purchased potential stallions as yearlings , early successes included alleged , be my guest , el gran senor , golden fleece , sadler ' s wells and storm bird . magnier subsequently bought out partners and now owns coolmore , its american and australian offshoots , and the ballydoyle training centre . worth \u00a3783 million according to 2016 sunday times rich list . myriad other business interests include stakes in barchester nursing homes and the sandy lane hotel in barbados . formerly had stake in manchester united . homes in ireland , spain and switzerland . racing interests : sue magnier has had a share in all of aidan o ' brien ' s best horses . those to have carried the magnier dark blue silks include investec derby winners galileo , pour moi and ruler of the world . other flagbearers include king of kings , hawk wing , giant ' s causeway , imagine , george washington , duke of marmalade , dylan thomas , henrythenavigator , rip van winkle and four - time ascot gold cup scorer yeats .\nborn october 28 , 1941 , in east london . trained as hairdresser and built up arthur prince bookmaking chain before selling to coral in 1995 . married to doreen and has homes in barbados and monaco . son ashley founded global radio , europe ' s largest commercial radio group , with backing from his father . michael tabor ' s fortune grew through currency dealing and his many business interests include ownership of online bookmaker betvictor and the sandy lane hotel . valued at \u00a3625 million in 2017 sunday times rich list . racing interests : joined forces with john magnier after his thunder gulch won the kentucky derby and belmont stakes in 1995 . previously best known for owning jumpers such as the neville callaghan - trained royal derbi . best horses to carry his colours include montjeu , high chaparral , hurricane run , entrepreneur , desert king , johannesburg , stravinsky , starspangledbanner , lillie langtry , peeping fawn , misty for me , gleneagles , found and 2007 belmont stakes heroine rags to riches . churchill , winner of the 2017 qipco 2000 guineas and tattersalls irish 2 , 000 guineas this season , carried tabor ' s silks to victory .\n2000 - 15 kingsclere ; 2003 - 9 magistretti ; 2004 - 5 salford city ; 2005 - 2 walk in the park ; 2007 - 10 admiralofthefleet .\n1997 - 4 entrepreneur ; 1998 - 8 second empire , 1998 - 10 saratoga springs ; 2002 - 1 high chaparral ; 2003 - 5 balestrini ; 2007 - 17 archipenko .\nchampion irish jump trainer five times : 1993 / 94 , 1994 / 95 , 1995 / 96 , 1996 / 7 , 1997 / 98 . champion irish flat trainer 19 times : 1997 and from 1999 to 2016 . champion british flat trainer five times : 2001 , 2002 , 2007 , 2008 and 2016 . first trainer to have three consecutive investec derby wins with australia ( 2014 ) , following on from ruler of the world ( 2013 ) and camelot ( 2012 ) and has sent out five victors of the premier british classic in all .\nhis 37 irish classic winners include irish derby ( 1997 desert king , 2001 galileo , 2002 high chaparral , 2006 dylan thomas , 2007 soldier of fortune , 2008 frozen fire , 2009 fame and glory , 2010 cape blanco , 2011 treasure beach , 2012 camelot , 2014 australia ) .\nhis 55 royal ascot winners include yeats , who captured an unprecedented four gold cups ( 2006 - 2009 ) .\nmarch 31 , 1986 background : grew up in dunboyne , co meath . first sat on a horse when he was 14 whilst working for local trainer owen weldon . graduated from race ( racing academy and centre of education ) in 2003 and continued his apprenticeship with kevin prendergast . first winner : red venus , naas , july 23 , 2003 . divided time between britain and ireland in 2006 and 2007 . best season in ireland so far came in 2010 when he notched up 22 winners . rode 30 winners in australia , the first of them in july 2013 , before being suspended for a year in october 2014 after testing positive for cocaine and giving false evidence relating to the sample . returned to ireland and started working for aidan o ' brien in january , 2015 . first group race winner : hydrangea , g3 1 , 000 guineas trial , leopardstown , april 8 , 2017 british classic wins ( 1 ) : investec derby ( 2017 wings of eagles )\n* runner - up , beaten a length and three - quarters , when favourite behind fellow investec oaks runner enable in listed cheshire oaks over nearly 12 furlongs on may 10 .\n* made winning reappearance in nine - furlong maiden at tipperary on april 20 , when scoring easily by four and three - quarter lengths .\nrace record : starts 4 ; wins 1 ; 2nd 1 ; 3rd - . win & place prize money : \u00a319 , 614\n* won both starts in 2016 . victorious in a leicester maiden ( 1m ) in september followed by the listed zetland stakes ( 10f ) at newmarket the following month , when she saw off stable companion cunco by a neck .\n* she made her seasonal reappearance in the g1 prix saint - alary ( 10f ) at deauville on may 14 when the staying - on third , beaten just under five lengths , behind fellow investec oaks runner sobetsu .\n* she is a half - sister to g2 winner and dual g1 runner - up midas touch .\nrace record : starts 3 ; wins 2 ; 2nd - ; 3rd 1 . win & place prize money : \u00a357 , 953\ninvestec derby - 1997 benny the dip , 2015 golden horn ; investec oaks - 2014 taghrooda ; qipco 1000 guineas - 2000 lahan ; st leger - 1996 shantou , 2007 lucarno , 2010 arctic cosmos , 2011 masked marvel . irish classic wins ( 5 ) : irish 2 , 000 guineas - 2014 kingman ; irish derby - 2015 jack hobbs ; irish oaks - 2012 great heavens ; irish st leger - 1992 mashaallah , 2011 duncan - dh .\n* set to become first us - trained runner in investec oaks . arrived in the uk on thursday , may 25 .\n* finished runner - up in the g1 kentucky oaks over nine furlongs on dirt at churchill downs on may 5 .\n* previously second in g1 ashland stakes over an extended mile on dirt at keeneland on april 8 .\n* had a great two - year - old season in 2016 , winning g2 pocahontas stakes over extended dirt mile at churchill downs in september and finishing staying - on fourth in the g1 breeders ' cup juvenile fillies at santa anita .\n* sole run so far on turf came when a close sixth in g3 florida oaks over extended mile at tampa bay downs in march .\nrace record : starts 9 ; wins 2 ; 2nd 4 ; 3rd - . win & place prize money : \u00a3477 , 534\nnormandy farm is a 250 - acre stud farm located on lexington , kentucky ' s paris pike . the site itself dates back to the 18th century and was part of the now defunct elmendorf farm . the property gained its name from one - time owner joseph widener who , as a pilot during ww1 , was shot down over normandy , france , and sheltered in a barn by the resistance . widener vowed if he ever made it out alive , he would build a replica barn back home . the\nnormandy barn\nwas completed in 1927 . current owner nancy polk purchased the farm in 1997 following the death of her husband ralph . she previously owned a travel agency business in michigan . the broodmare band now stands at 16 after starting out at one and used to include the late miss hot salsa . polk paid $ 100 , 000 for miss hot salsa at keeneland in 2003 - the mare produced mongolian saturday , winner of the 2015 breeders ' cup turf sprint , and investec oaks contender daddys lil darling , but passed away in 2014 at the age of 19 .\ngrew up in the heart of american thoroughbred country at lexington in kentucky . he played american football and baseball at tates creek high school in lexington and , after graduating in business administration from the university of kentucky , he was set on a career in the racing industry .\n* she recorded a comfortable length and three - quarter victory over favourite alluringly , who also runs in the investec oaks toda , in the listed cheshire oaks ( 11 . 5f ) at chester on may 10 , 2017 .\n* the filly came third on her seasonal reappearance behind stable companion shutter speed in a conditions race ( 10f ) at newbury on april 21 .\n* she made a winning debut on november 28 in tapeta maiden ( 1m ) at newcastle .\nrace record : starts 3 ; wins 2 ; 2nd - ; 3rd 1 . win & place prize money : \u00a338 , 428\n* warmed up for epsom downs with a gutsy three - quarter length success over fellow investec oaks runner isabel de urbina in the listed tweenhills pretty polly stakes ( 10f ) at newmarket on may 7 .\n* landed a maiden ( 8 . 5f ) by 13 lengths at nottingham on october 12 .\n* dam mischief making won a listed mile and five furlong contest at lingfield .\nrace record : starts 3 ; wins 2 ; 2nd - ; 3rd - . win & place prize money : \u00a326 , 400\ncliveden stud represents the racing interests of philip freedman , whose father louis freedman ( 1917 - 1998 ) was a self - made property millionaire who enjoyed significant success as an owner and breeder in the post - war period with his best performers including 1987 derby and st leger hero reference point , plus 1974 oaks heroine polygamy . louis freedman bought the berkshire - based cliveden stud in 1966 , but the 130 - acre property was sold in 2005 . having previously worked as a merchant banker , philip freedman is a past chairman of the thoroughbred breeders ' association and is currently chairman of the horsemen ' s group , which represents the interests of racehorse owners , trainers , jockeys , stable staff and breeders . the best horses carrying the cliveden stud colours for philip freedman include fraulein , winner of the g1 ep taylor stakes at woodbine in 2002 , and independence , who took the sun chariot stakes in 2001 .\n* staying - on runner - up to fellow investec oaks runner horseplay , beaten three quarters of a length , in the listed tweenhills pretty polly stakes at newmarket on may 7 .\n* won only other start , taking a maiden over seven and a half furlongs in the final strides by a neck at ffos las in september .\nrace record : starts 2 ; wins 1 ; 2nd 1 ; 3rd - . win & place prize money : \u00a311 , 835\njanuary 2 , 1981 background : bred to be a jockey . his father frank was a classic - winning apprentice who was irish champion jump rider 10 times and - after a spell training - is now racing manager to owner j p mcmanus . fran berry , whose brother alan is a successful national hunt amateur , originally made his name as a jump jockey , winning the 1999 coral cup at the cheltenham festival on khayrawani . despite being 5 foot 8 inches tall , he is able to ride off 8st 8lb and now concentrates on the flat . he served as second rider behind mick kinane at john oxx ' s powerful curragh stable from 2002 until the end of 2009 when kinane retired and berry was promoted to the number one spot . but following the appointment of johnny murtagh in 2011 , he relinquished that role to become a freelance . in 2016 , he made the move across the irish sea and is now stable jockey to ralph beckett . big - race wins : national stakes ( 2010 pathfork ) , railway stakes ( 2014 kool kompany ) , american jockey club stakes ( 2013 danon ballade ) , futurity stakes ( 2010 pathfork , 2011 dragon pulse ) , park stakes ( 2009 duff ) , beresford stakes ( 2007 curtain call )\n* decisive winner of listed haras de bouquetot fillies ' trial stakes ( 10f ) on soft ground at newbury on may 20 .\n* only other start came when runner - up on debut in mile newmarket maiden ( 1m ) in april .\n* rare sales purchase for juddmonte , having gone through the ring at tattersalls as a yearling in 2015 , when she realised 600 , 000 guineas .\nrace record : starts 2 ; wins 1 ; 2nd 1 ; 3rd - . win & place prize money : \u00a341 , 237\n* winless in five starts and is bidding to become first maiden to succeed in the investec oaks since sun princess in 1983 .\n* last seen out when runner - up in the listed lingfield oaks trial ( 11 . 5f ) on may 13 .\n* was also second in listed salsabil stakes ( 10f ) at navan on april 23 .\nrace record : starts 5 ; wins - ; 2nd 3 ; 3rd - . win & place prize money : \u00a322 , 929\nis estimated to be worth $ 400 million according to forbes and is ceo of steinhoff international . born on january 22 , 1961 , jooste has transformed the south african manufacturer into\nafrica ' s ikea\nand the second largest household goods retailer in europe . among its uk brands is poundland , which this year for the first time sponsors the hill area of epsom downs racecourse . the hill is common ground and therefore admittance is free during race meetings . jooste joined steinhoff in 1988 after engineering the sale of a south african retail chain to steinhoff ' s german owners . a prolific owner in south africa , with his best horses including variety club , twice south african horse of the year ."]}
{"id": 615, "summary": [{"text": "the blue-winged parakeet , also known as the malabar parakeet ( psittacula columboides ) is a species of parakeet endemic to the western ghats of southern india .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "found in small flocks , they fly rapidly in forest clearings while making screeching calls that differ from those of other parakeet species within their distribution range .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "their long blue tails tipped in yellow and the dark wings with blue contrast with the dull grey of their head and body .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "adult males and females can be easily told apart from the colour of their beak . ", "topic": 19}], "title": "blue - winged parakeet", "paragraphs": ["these blue - winged parakeet species are non - migratory , stationary , resident birds .\nfemale blue - winged parakeet . also known as the malabar parakeet ( psittacula columboides ) . by radhakrishnan sadasivam | birds | pinterest | parakeets and bird\nthe blue - winged parrot is a slender parrot with an olive - green head and upper body , grading to light green on the fore - neck . the upper tail is green - blue , with yellow sides . the underparts are yellow , and there may be orange in the centre of the belly . a yellow facial patch extends back to the eye . a narrow , dark blue band runs from eye to eye across the forehead . the blue - winged parrot gets its name from the large , dark blue patch on the wings . the female is similar to the male , but with slightly duller colours . the blue - winged parrot is also known as the blue - banded or grass parrot ; the blue - banded or hobart grass - parrot ; and the blue - banded or blue - winged grass - parakeet .\npairs or small parties of blue - winged parrots forage mainly on the ground for seeds of grasses and herbaceous plants .\nblue - winged parrot , neophema chrysostoma ( blue fronted parakeet , nanodes venustus ) . handcoloured lithograph by gebhart after an illustration by edward lear from georg friedrich treitschke ' s gallery of natural history , naturhistorischer bildersaal des thierreiches , liepzig , 1842 .\nblue - winged parrot , neophema chrysostoma ( blue - banded parakeet , psittacus venustus ) . handcoloured engraving of a specimen in the linnean society museum from edward griffith ' s the animal kingdom by the baron cuvier , london , whittaker , 1829 .\nthe blue - winged parrot is very similar to the elegant parrot , and to a lesser extent to the rock and orange - bellied parrots .\nthe larger parakeets such as the ringneck parakeet and the regent parakeet may reach up to 25 years .\nthese parakeets species are endemic to india . they occur in the western ghats and also the adjoining eastern ghats of southern india . the blue - winged parakeet are sexually dimorphic . these parakeets are monotypic species .\nthese blue - winged parakeet species are endemic to southwestern india , distributed in the western ghats and also the adjoining eastern ghats . they occur in the states of kerala , tamilnadu , karnataka , goa and maharashtra .\nrose - ringed parakeet or ring - necked parakeet ( psittacula krameri scopoli ) . photo credit - manorma sharma .\nit is known that some of the smaller parakeets such as the budgie parakeet or budgerigar , the bourke ' s parakeet , and the elegant parakeet may reach about 10 years .\nthe blue - winged parakeet welcomed us , crying in small flocks , rapidly moving through lush foliage . interestingly enough , my friend found a room in the house of a coffee famer . this was just the beginning of my romance with coorg .\nthe iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) has categorized and evaluated the parakeet species and has listed it as of\nleast concern\n. cites ( the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ) status is \u2018not evaluated\u2019 for the blue - winged parakeet ( psittacula columboides ) .\nwhen choosing nest sites , blue - winged parrots try to get one with a small opening that will prevent predators , like grey shrike - thrushes , getting in to steal the eggs and young .\nthe blue - winged parrot inhabits a range of habitats from coastal , sub - coastal and inland areas , right through to semi - arid zones . throughout their range they favour grasslands and grassy woodlands . they are often found near wetlands both near the coast and in semi - arid zones . blue - winged parrots can also be seen in altered environments such as airfields , golf - courses and paddocks .\nlack the brilliant blue band around their necks . males generally have a greener casting to the feathers on their\nthe overall plumage of the blue - winged parakeet is bluish gray . the scapular and covert feathers are dark bluish gray . the nape and upper back are pale gray . there is pale greenish tinge around the eye region . adult parakeets have a black neck collar and males have a bluish green collar below the black collar . the underwing is pale pinkish blue . the undertail is yellow .\nthe call of the blue - winged parrot is an extremely high , thin tinkling sound , in fast , followed by slow bursts . it sounds more like the highest squeaks of a thornbill or fairy - wren than a parrot .\nmale - grey head and upperparts ; green and cheeks ; area around eyes green ; blue tinge on forecrown ; black chin and stripe on lower cheeks ; black collar encircling hindneck , bordered below by green / blue band ; green / blue lower back to upper tail coverts ; green upper wing coverts scalloped with yellow / green ; yellow / green underparts washed with pale blue ; blue central tail feathers tipped with yellow , the side tail feathers green tipped with yellow ; red upper mandible tipped with yellow , brown lower mandible . eye yellow . female - green / blue band around hindneck absent ; green on face and forecrown minimal ; pale green mantle , breast and abdomen , often suffused with grey . bill black .\nthe diet of these blue - winged parakeet species is mostly wild fruits and berries . apart from fruits , flowers , buds , tender shoots , leaves , seeds of wild plants and grass , grains , cereals , nuts and nectar are their primary food . they are mostly arboreal . they also feed from the ground .\non land , parakeet auklets walk mostly on their legs and not their toes .\nthere is a definite passage of blue - winged parrots to and from tasmania after breeding each year , leaving in march to april and returning in august to october . some birds , however , over - winter in tasmania or on the bass strait islands .\nto see this beautiful bird , you\u2019ll have to visit the yucat\u00e1n peninsula in mexico where the parrot can be found living . the discovery was made by dr miguel a g\u00f3mez garza when he was visiting a remote part of the peninsula in 2014 . the bird has been christened amazona gomezgarzai ( or the blue - winged amazon ) because of its magnificent plumage , a mix of green and blue .\n) also known as malabar parakeet , belongs to the family of parakeets , psittaculidae .\n) is a medium - sized parakeet , measuring 35 to 40 cm in length .\nthe white - winged and yellow - chevroned parakeets , natives of south america , were formerly considered subspecies of the canary - winged parakeet ( see systematics ) . their popularity as pets led to their importation and the subsequent establishment of feral populations in california and florida . more than 230 , 000 white - winged parakeets were imported from 1968 to 1972 , and large numbers of these birds apparently escaped , leading to the rapid appearance of this species in the metropolitan areas of miami , los angeles , and san francisco . in the early 1970s the miami population of white - winged parakeets was estimated at 2 , 000 , and the birds occurred on both coasts of florida . however , after 1972 , the importation of white - winged parakeets dropped to near zero .\npopulation dynamics of this species is difficult to interpret because of the irregular coverage of exotics on christmas bird counts and the tendency of u . s . observers to report both white - winged and yellow - chevroned parakeets as the \u201ccanary - winged parakeet . \u201d but the white - winged parakeet appears to have declined slowly since the early 1970s and contracted its range as imports stopped providing a source of fresh escapees . today , it is unclear how many individuals remain in california , and in miami , it appears their population numbers have dropped by approximately 99 % in the past 5 years (\nthe malabar parakeet ( psittacula columboides ) - also known as the blue - winged parakeet - is native to india where it is still locally fairly common - though their numbers have decreased due to loss of habitat and trapping for the pet trade . the range of this species is less than 50 , 000 square kilometers and , hence , it is classified as a\nrestricted - range\nspecies by the iucn . the chief threat to this species , as in the case of the alexandrine parakeet , is poaching for the illegal pet trade .\nthe main populations of blue - winged parrots are in tasmania and victoria , particularly in southern victoria and the midlands and eastern areas of tasmania . sparser populations are found in western new south wales and eastern south australia , extending to south - west queensland and occasionally into the northern territory\nblue - winged parrots are abundant in tasmania and common in victoria and south - eastern south australia ; otherwise they are uncommon . it is thought that clearing of forests has benefited this species in regard to feeding , but not in regard to breeding as potential nest sites are removed .\ncobalt - winged parakeets ( brotogeris cyanoptera ) eating clay at clay lick east anangu south the napo river yasuni national park orellana province ecuador july .\nwe have the best hand raised , healthy and very sociable scarlet , blue and gold macaw ready for sale . you can contact us for more infos\nfound in family groups or small flocks . associates with plum - headed parakeet at lower elevations .\nthere are parakeet seed mixes for birds the size of a budgerigar . a single small parakeet will eat about two tablespoons of seed a day and a half a cup of fruits and vegetables .\nthe tail of blue - winged parakeet is long , bluish with pale yellow tip . the beak is strong and the upper mandible is curved . in males the upper mandible is red with yellowish tip and the lower mandible is grayish black . in females , both the mandibles are grayish black . the irises are black and the feet are gray . their call is a repeated loud screeching sound .\nthese blue - winged parakeet species have moderate forest dependency . they inhabit tropical , subtropical , evergreen and moist deciduous forest ecosystems . these species inhabit tropical and subtropical evergreen forest , moist deciduous forest , degraded forest , secondary - growth forest , tropical and subtropical moist lowland , tropical and subtropical moist shrubland , shola grasslands and forests , farmland and plantations . they occur in altitudes from 0 to 1600 meters .\nsome of the important bird and biodiversity areas ( iba ) of the blue - winged parakeet species in south india are , amarambalam reserved forest - nilambur , aralam wildlife sanctuary , anshi national park , wynaad wildlife sanctuary , vazhachal forest division , thattekad wildlife sanctuary , talakaveri wildlife sanctuary , periyar wildlife sanctuary , nagarhole national park , bhimashankar wildlife sanctuary , kudremukh national park and indira gandhi wildlife sanctuary and national park .\nthe breeding season of these blue - winged parakeet species is during december and march in western ghats in india . they nest in high tree holes , usually more than 6 meters from the ground . they also make use of abandoned woodpecker and barbet nests . the clutch contains up to 4 eggs . both the parents incubate the eggs . the eggs hatch in about 23 days and the juveniles fledge after 30 days .\nthe malabar parakeet is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\ncockatiel mixes are for birds that are a bit bigger than the small budgie parakeet size . a medium sized parakeet will eat about three tablespoons of seed a day and 3 / 4 cup of fruits and vegetables .\ninformation on the malabar parakeet ( psittacula columboides ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\ngive your parakeet fresh drinking water every day . you can also add soluble vitamins and minerals to the water .\nwhen many people think of a parakeet as a pet , the small budgie parakeet ( budgerigar ) is often the kind that comes to mind . the budgie is one of the most popular parakeet species . besides being very friendly and playful , it is hardy and easy to care for , and one of the least expensive types of parakeets .\nschroads , c . v . 1974 . studies on a population of the canary - winged parakeet brotogeris versicolurus ( p . l . s . muller ) in dade county , florida ( aves : psittacidae ) . master ' s thesis , univ . of miami , miami , fl . close\naustralian turquoise parrot ( neophema pulchella ) , a . k . a . beautiful chestnut - shouldered grass - parakeet .\nyour first goal is to get the parakeet to accept a treat from you , which will lead to it allowing you to gently scratch its head . then you can begin to work on getting your parakeet to step up on your hand .\nmany aspects of the movements of the blue - winged parrot are poorly understood . researchers know that most blue - wings that breed in tasmania migrate to the mainland , leaving a handful behind , but what then ? do they leapfrog the populations which breed in southern australia and head inland ? do southern - australian birds migrate north , vacating their breeding areas , to be replaced by tasmanian birds ? do tasmanian birds augment southern mainland populations , with some remaining in southern australia while others from both populations head further north for the winter ? there is much to learn .\nperching australian turquoise parrot ( neophema pulchella ) , a . k . a . beautiful chestnut - shouldered grass - parakeet .\npreening australian turquoise parrot ( neophema pulchella ) , a . k . a . beautiful chestnut - shouldered grass - parakeet .\nthe species probably shares a common ancestor with the layard ' s parakeet ( psittacula calthropae ) which is endemic to sri lanka .\ntaming and training parakeets is pretty easy . parakeets become accustom to their new environment fairly rapidly . consequently very little time is required for parakeet training , they can quickly become easy to handle . repetition , patience and time are the keys to successful parakeet training !\nblue - winged parrots breed in tasmania , coastal south - eastern south australia and southern victoria . they form monogamous pairs and make their nests in a tree hollow or stump , preferably one with a vertical opening . the eggs are laid on a bed of decayed wood . the female alone incubates the eggs , leaving the nest at intervals to be fed by the male , but both parents feed the nestlings .\nnew zealand has three species of exotic parakeets , with a few subspecies . its neighboring islands are also home to several parakeet species .\ngrey of head and upper parts green instead ; black stripe across cheeks and around collar duller and narrower ; blue / green band under black stripe absent . bill pale orange in very young birds . eye grey .\nonce your parakeet has gotten over it ' s shyness , then you can work on speech training . repetition and frequency are the keys here . almost every parakeet can learn at least a few words , although they are not generally as vocal as african greys or the amazons .\nfor help with tricks and training , try chet womachs parakeet / cockatiel training course or for speech training try teach your parrot to talk .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - malabar parakeet ( psittacula columboides )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - malabar parakeet ( psittacula columboides )\ntitle =\narkive species - malabar parakeet ( psittacula columboides )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthere are 11 parakeets reported from the indian subcontinent ( please see the table below ) and the 12 th one is suspected to be a hybrid ( intermediate parakeet or rothschild\u2019s parakeet ) . only one hanging parrot species is reported from the region ( vernal hanging parrot or indian lorikeet ) . all the 11 parakeets belong to different species under the same genus ; with the vernal hanging parrot or indian lorikeet that belongs to the genus loriculus . many of the parakeets have different sub species occupying different geographical regions . they vary in size between 14 cm ( vernal hanging parrot or indian lorikeet ) , the smallest of the indian parakeets , to as big as the alexandrine parakeet ( 53 cm ) and the nicobar parakeet ( 61 cm ) . the nicobar parakeet is the largest reported parakeet . other members are intermediate in lengths between these two extremes but are all above 35 cm on average .\nparakeet auklets frequently eat plastic pellets they find floating at sea . although eating these pellets probably poses a risk , no harmful effects have yet been demonstrated .\nthe average adult malabar parakeet measures 15 inches ( 38 centimeters ) in length . the malabar parakeet has beautifully colored plumage . the male ' s overall color is a bluish - gray with a sometimes reddish - pink tint . one of the things that make this bird so striking is the double ring around the neck of the male . the lower ring is a brilliant light blue , while the top ring is more of a greenish dark gray color . they have green feathers in front of their eyes , which extend towards their beaks . the plumage on their heads is bluer in color than the rest of their bodies , though it gets progressively lighter at the top of the head . above the nares and on the cheeks the blue color is more distinct . they have a striking bright red beak with a bone - colored tip .\nthe long - tailed parakeet , the malabar parakeet and the nicobar parakeet are reported to be endemic to their localities in the subcontinent . majority of the parakeet species are sexually dimorphic and often the juvenile and sub - adults differ in coloration and plumage from the adult members . most of these species are known by various vernacular names in the ethnically and linguistically diverse subcontinent and often similar name ( s ) from different regions may or may not represent same species . the parakeets are extremely popular as pets in most parts of the subcontinent ; and hence an important point of concern for their successful conservation . the rose - ringed parakeet is one of the most common species seen as pets in home across the region . but according to traffic ( india ) eight out of 12 parakeet species has been commonly seen in the indian pet markets during their survey , indicating that ~ 67 % of the species reported form the region has been seriously impacted by poaching , illegal capture and pet trade .\nconure and small parrot mixes work well for the larger parakeets . a larger parakeet will eat about four tablespoons of seed a day and a cup of fruits and vegetables\nexercise and play are important activities for the physical well being and psychological health of your parakeet . being designed for long distance flying , parakeets need to fly ! if you keep your parakeet in a cage , you should let it out to fly a couple of hours each day . they also love to climb and chew ! natural perches and fresh twigs from willow , elder , poplar , chestnut , linden , hawthorn , and fruit trees work well for this , as does knotted hemp rope . provide your parakeet with lots of activities ! parakeet toys and other playthings they will enjoy include climbing ropes , wooden ladders , chains , bells , parrot swings , and wooden or other bird safe toys .\nin the wild the breeding season of the malabar parakeet begins in january and lasts through march . they generally nest in tall trees , taking over the nests of other birds .\nthe blue - winged amazon is , like most similar parrots , a herbivore and dines on the seeds , fruits , and flowers it finds in the tree canopy . when the research team analysed the dna of the bird , they discovered it had evolved around 120 , 000 years ago from white - fronted amazon parrots . they said because the bird was unknown until now that there were no conservation programmes in place yet to protect it . because of its rarity , and small range , they said the population needed to be conserved as a priority .\nthe white - winged parakeet is a social species that feeds , roosts , and travels in groups , while pairs remain together almost continuously . at one time , roosting assemblages in miami contained 700 or more individuals , and in south america groups of more than 1 , 000 have been reported . despite their social nature , these parakeets are extremely aggressive . studies of these parakeets have documented a well - developed array of threat displays , and suggest that even duetting by pairs is a way to improve success in agonistic interactions .\nconsider yourself lucky if you come across the mysterious blue - purple neelakurinji flowers . they are the four - leaved clovers of the forest . the hunt to find more just added to the adventure ! there is so much life in the jungle . living doesn\u2019t mean seeking shelter at home and closing ourselves but to rise and shine !\nas a minimum , parakeet cages should be large enough so that the bird ' s head does not touch the top , its tail does not touch the bottom , and it has enough room for unrestricted movements .\nmost parakeets are healthy , hardy birds . kept under optimal conditions and fed a balanced diet , they are remarkably resistant to disease . an ailing parakeet should be taken to a avian veterinarian for diagnosis and treatment .\narrowood , p . c . 1981 .\nimportation and status of canary - winged parakeets ( brotogeris versicolurus ) in california .\nin conservation of new world parrots . , edited by r . f . pasquier , 425 - 429 . washington , d . c : icbp tech . pub . 1 . smithson . inst . press . close\na distinctive little seabird with a nearly circular bill . the parakeet auklet has the widest distribution of all the alaskan auklets , but it doesn ' t form large flocks like the others , either at sea or in breeding colonies .\nthe malabar parakeet is not easily bred in captivity . males are also sometimes aggressive to females . a clutch usually consists of 3 to 5 eggs , which the hen incubates for 23 days . the chicks fledge when they are about 3 weeks old .\nin the united states , white - winged parakeets feed on a variety of fruits , seeds , buds , and flowers , relying heavily on exotic plantings of figs and other tropical species . when nesting in the u . s . , the species excavates nest cavities in palm trees , whereas in their native range , nests are built in tree cavities and the arboreal nests of termites ( isoptera ) .\nfoods available for parakeets include formulated diets , either pelleted or extruded , seed mixes , and parakeet mixes which offer a mixture of both pelleted food and seeds . there are pros and cons to feeding only a formulated diet as well as feeding only a seed diet .\nthey are most common in southwest india , western ghats strip south - western india , north to bombay , south to kerala . because the malabar parakeet is known to raid crops in some areas and can be injurious to orchards , they are considered pests in some locations .\nspecies : scientific : psittacula columboides . . . english : malabar parakeet . . . dutch : malabarparkiet . . . german : taubensittich . . . french : perruche de malabar | cites ii : fairly common in aviculture , but endangered in the wild due to loss of habitat\nparakeets in the wild are fast , long distance flyers and need a home that provides them with room to fly and exercise . as a general rule , the larger the cage , the happier your parakeet . parakeets kept in a cage need to be let out for exercise daily .\nno matter what kind of parakeet you get though , they all have some characteristics in common . all types of parakeets will stay very busy . they will be on the go , climbing and flying from perch to perch , chewing on toys and chewing on anything else they can reach .\nthe word\nparakeet\nmeans long tail , these birds generally have slender bodies and long , tapered tail feathers . they have a hooked upper bill that they use to climb , hold things , or to dig . they also use their beak to chew , break seeds , and peel fruit .\nparakeet food consisting of a good seed mixture supplemented with sprouted seed , various fruits , green foods , commercial pellets , millet spray ( for small parakeets ) , and for some , occasional mealworms are generally regarded suitable . different seed mixes for parakeets are available , depending on its size and the strength of its bill .\nparakeets are generally most receptive to training in the evening and each session is best if limited to under 20 minutes with about an hours rest in between . remember that taming and training a bird takes patience , never ' punish ' your parakeet ! this only serves to destroy the trust you ' ve spent so much time building .\nproblems in parakeet behavior usually stem from something missing in the bird ' s environment . boredom , lack of trust , lack of interaction with other birds or people can lead to problems like biting , feather plucking , and screaming . try to develop a bond of trust and spend time with your bird to help avoid these problems .\nparakeets are intelligent little birds and they are generally easy to tame . they are relatively good at learning to talk and adept at learning tricks . most exotic parakeets are also fairly easy to breed , and many can be sexed by sight . once a pair is harmonious , many types of parakeet will bond with their mate for life .\nsome of the common parakeet health problems your pet could contract are aspergillosis - respiratory infection , candidiasis , cold and sinus inflammations , diarrhea , egg binding , egg pecking , eye infections , feather plucking , frostbite , goiter or thyroid gland enlargement , mites , pacheco ' s disease , parrot fever also known as psittacosis , salmonella , worms .\nan aviary is ideal for parakeets as they need to fly . the longer and wider space is , the happier the parakeet . be sure there are horizontal bars for climbing as well . spacing of the bars for the smaller species starts at 1 / 2\n( 12 mm ) with up to 3 / 4\n( 20 mm ) for the larger parakeets .\n) . most of the new knowledge about their basic is being generated by a handful of studies in their native range , with most research conducted on north american populations largely limited to analyzing population trend data , as opposed to field observations . because of this , there is little known about their basic biology , including habitat preferences , detailed diet information , and nesting information . moreover , it remains unknown if white - winged parakeets impact native avifauna . though , if their population continues to decline as it has , any future studies on this species in north america may only serve to help understand local extinction processes .\nthe eggs laid by all the parakeets are white in color . fledglings are usually old enough to leave the protection of their nest before the onset of monsoon . chicks are usually monomorphic and show their dimorphic plumage on adulthood depending upon their species . the males usually have brighter spots , patches , marks and rings compared to the female of the species exhibiting dimorphism . most parakeets make affectionate and adorable pets . however , many species are aggressive and could bite when disturbed , threatened , irritated and provoked in self defense . in addition to humans ; other predators of the parakeet eggs and chicks include snakes , monitor lizards , mongoose , civets , monkeys and birds of prey . feral populations of different parakeet species have been well established in different cities , municipalities and towns of the subcontinent and the species have successfully adapted to the urban environment .\ncollar , n . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . malabar parakeet ( psittacula columboides ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nspeak softly to the bird to calm it and always move slowly . start from the floor and approach the bird from the side rather than head on . with a treat held between two fingers , coax it onto your hand . it may try to fly and you may have to repeat this several times . once your parakeet steps on your hand , you then start having it step up from one hand to the other .\neven though parakeets quickly adapt to their enviroment , you should give a new arrival a few days to get use to you , your voice and its cage before trying to handle it . a hand fed baby will not need much taming and can often be handled right away , as it is use to human attention . to be able to handle and train your parakeet depends first on trust , so go slowly and be consistent .\nparakeet illness symptoms to be aware of are ruffled plumage , resting often with their head tucked under their wing or rump , not eating , discharge from the nostrils or mouth , cloudy eyes , loose watery droppings , weight loss ( chest bone starts sticking out ) , large water intake , labored breathing , opening and closing it ' s mouth , listlessness , perhaps sitting on the bottom of the cage , stops talking , and growths around the beak .\nparrots are represented by over 350 species and over 80 genera across the planet but they are most well know in the regions of central and south america , africa and australasia . the parakeets ( often called the lesser parrots ) are smaller in size compared to the true parrots ; and are more common in australia and the indian subcontinent . the most popular and well known parakeet in the world is the australian budgerigar or the famous budgie or the keet ( melopsittacus undulates shaw ) and is reported to be one of the most common pets , following dogs and cats .\ndifferent species prefer different kinds of baths and some do not want a bath at all . the personal hygiene of your parakeet - for those species that like it - can include a bath or shower two or three times a week to help keep it ' s plumage in good shape . bathing can be accomplished with either a flat earthenware dish that your bird can step into and use it ' s beak to throw water on itself , or by spraying your bird with a light mist of lukewarm water . use either a hand held shower sprayer or a hose with a fine spray head .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : although this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be common throughout the core of its range ( del hoyo et al . 1997 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ncalling from a high tree on a clear day in backwoods camp . the nesting hole with the female was nearby on the same tree .\nwas the recording modified significantly ? no habitat : wet evergreen forest , with plantations at some distance . moderate human activity . behaviour : a flock of 6 birds sitting atop a bamboo grove . recording done while it was raining . some of them were puffed up .\nforest type : semi - evergreen there was a flock of around 20 birds and males were feeding the females so must have been a breeding call . you can also here the usual call in the background\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nringneck / long - tailed parakeets . . . ringneck photo gallery . . . ringneck parrots as pets ( behavior and training )\nthese parakeets are social birds and live in small groups composed of four to five individuals . on rare occasions they may be observed in small flocks . they are fairly noisy and are often heard before they are seen . they generally make their homes atop tall trees in humid deciduous and evergreen forests .\nin their natural environment these birds have been observed eating berries and other fruits such as figs , flowers , leaf buds , pollen , seeds , small nuts , and nectar .\n, and female ' s heads are gray . the bill of the female is black , as opposed to the brilliantly color bill of the male .\ncan be distinguished from adults by their orange beaks . they have plumage similar to that of the female , after their first molt they get their adult plumage , and their beaks will change to red for males and black for females .\nthe malabar parakeets are fairly uncommon in the pet trade . they are reported to be moderately noisy , which is to be expected of most parrots . if you have a wild caught individual , they may be shy at first and will take some time to adjust . like many parrots they seem to enjoy chewing and will often chew lightly on small branches . they are usually most active in , and suited for , larger aviaries .\nthese parakeets are reported to do well on a variety of foods , including millet spray , fruit , vegetables , seed mixtures ( with minimal sunflower ) , oats , and millets .\nringneck parrots are generally hardy birds . however , the following diseases havebeen reported in this species :\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\n. only wpt members gain exclusive access to some of the world ' s top parrot specialists .\nlisten to exciting podcast interviews with parrot specialists from around the world , many available for wpt members only .\ncalls are discordant and shrieky ; also scolding . also sharp notes repeated in short bursts .\ncites lexicon of parrots birdlife international i nternet bird collection parrots : a guide to parrots of the world , juniper and parr , 1998 parrots of the world , forshaw and cooper , 1977 . 2010 edition parrots of the world , forshaw , 2006 .\n3 x 1 x 2m ( 9 . 8 x 3 . 3 x 6 . 5 ft ) outside aviary in warm temperatures , with adjoining inside aviary , or walk - in avairy minimum length 4 . 5m ( 14 . 7 ft ) . use metal construction .\nseed mix of safflower , millet , canary , buckwheat and some sunflower ; millet spray ; fruits such as : apple , pear , banana , cactus fruits , orange ; vegetables such as : carrot , celery , peppers , green beans and peas in the pod ; green leaves such as : swiss chard , lettuce , sowthistle , dandelion and chickweed ; egg food for rearing ; complete pellet .\nbird - safe ( unsprayed and non - toxic ) branches with blossoms , pine , elder , willow and fir boughs , vegetable - tanned leather toys and wood block toys . light bather , so provide overhead misters or shallow water bowls .\nvertical box 9\nx 9\nx 24\n( 22 . 8cm x 22 . 8cm x 61cm ) .\nfound from 450 - 1000m ( 1476 - 3280 ft ) in upland evergreen rainforest , both primary and secondary . also found in deciduous forest with bamboo and abandoned coffee and rubber plantations .\nfeeds on seeds , fruits , particularly wild figs , buds , flowers and nectar . may take sorghum and fruit crops .\ngain exclusive access to 600 + pages of additional research , seminars and podcasts , specialists to ask your toughest questions , and dozens of other fun resources - when you become a wpt member . join today > >\n\u2191 contact us | terms & conditions | privacy policy | disclaimer | \u00a9 2018 world parrot trust . all rights reserved . | design : david occhino design\npost breeding , the juveniles may disperse and establish in new locations within the range . they may make local movements for feeding and breeding in their range . sometimes they become nomadic when dearth of food occurs .\n) has not been quantified . the overall population size of these species is considered to be stable . throughout its range it is reported to be common . the generation length is 7 . 5 years . their distribution size is about 276 , 000 sq . km .\n) does not approach the thresholds for being vulnerable either under the range size criterion or under the population trend criterion or under the population size criterion . there are no substantial threats that may endanger the survival of these species . its chicks are sometimes illegally trapped for pet trade .\n36\u201338 cm . upper mandible red with yellowish tip , lower dull brownish ; area from bill to around eye bluish green ; rest of head warm greyish , with complete black collar . . .\ncommonest vocalization a fairly high - pitched , grating screech , e . g . \u201ckrreeeh ! \u201d or similar , given in . . .\ntropical evergreen and moist deciduous forest , secondary growth , abandoned plantations , and . . .\nnot globally threatened . cites ii . a birdlife \u201crestricted - range\u201d species . common throughout core of range . clearance of forest in parts of the western ghats must have reduced . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nrecent reappraisal of higher taxonomy of parrots # r proposed arrangement into three superfamilies , here treated as families ( strigopidae , cacatuidae , psittacidae ) ; same study split psittacidae , as here defined , into three families , with additional recognition of psittrichasidae ( psittrichas to coracopsis , below ) and psittaculidae ( psephotus to micropsitta , below ) ; in present work , separation of these families considered to require further study and perhaps additional support . in the past , present family was often split into two , with recognition of family loriidae ; at the other extreme , it was sometimes considered to include all psittaciformes .\nrecent study suggested that , as currently constituted , this genus may be polyphyletic and that tanygnathus may be embedded within it # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - 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{"id": 624, "summary": [{"text": "echinus esculentus , the european edible sea urchin or common sea urchin , is a species of marine invertebrate in the echinidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in coastal areas of western europe down to a depth of 1,200 m ( 3,900 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it is considered \" near threatened \" in the iucn red list of threatened species . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "echinus esculentus", "paragraphs": ["variety echinus esculentus var . fuscus mortensen , 1903 accepted as echinus esculentus fuscus mortensen , 1903 ( accepted at subspecies rank )\nfr\u00e9d\u00e9ric ducarme marked\nfile : echinus esculentus koster . jpg\nas trusted on the\nechinus esculentus linnaeus , 1758\npage .\nvariety echinus esculentus var . glacialis d ' yakonov , 1923 accepted as echinus esculentus glacialis d ' yakonov , 1923 ( accepted at subspecies rank )\nechinus esculentus showing tube feet , spines and pedicellaria at the mewstone in plymouth .\nno alien or non - native species is known to compete with echinus esculentus .\nvariety echinus esculentus var . tenuispinus norman , 1868 accepted as echinus tenuispinus norman , 1868 ( accepted at species rank )\nvariety echinus esculentus var . tenuispina norman , 1868 accepted as echinus tenuispinus norman , 1868 ( incorrect declination of infraspecific name )\nclose up of echinus esculentus showing tube feet , spines and pedicellaria at the mewstone , plymouth .\nphylum echinodermata , class echinoidea , order echinoida , family echinidae , echinus esculentus linnaeus , 1758 .\n1 . echinus esculentus was studied from four localities in the isle of man and from one in the clyde .\nfr\u00e9d\u00e9ric ducarme added an association between\nfile : zeeegel3 . jpg\nand\nechinus esculentus linnaeus , 1758\n.\nfr\u00e9d\u00e9ric ducarme marked\nfile : zeeegel2 . jpg\nas trusted on the\nechinus esculentus linnaeus , 1758\npage .\nbay - nouailhat a . , september 2005 , description of echinus esculentus , available on line at urltoken consulted on 09 july 2018 .\na comparison of the biology of echinus esculentus in different habitats . part ii | journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom | cambridge core\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - edible sea urchin ( echinus esculentus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - edible sea urchin ( echinus esculentus )\ntitle =\narkive species - edible sea urchin ( echinus esculentus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nnichols , d . , 1979 . a nationwide survey of the british sea urchin echinus esculentus . progress in underwater science , 4 , 161 - 187 .\nechinus esculentus is probably regularly displaced to deeper water by storms . displaced specimens are able to move up the shore after displacement ( lewis & nichols 1979b ) .\nthe majority of echinus esculentus are subtidal although they occur occasionally in the lower intertidal . an increase in emergence will depress the height up the shore that this species can occur .\nbishop , g . m . , 1985 . aspects of the reproductive ecology of the sea urchin echinus esculentus l . ph . d . thesis , university of exeter , uk .\nmoore ( 1977 ) suggested that echinus esculentus was unaffected by turbid conditions . however , increased turbidity and resultant reduced light penetration is likely to affect macroalgal populations e . g . kelps , which are a preferred food species for echinus esculentus . however , it can feed on alternative prey , detritus or dissolved organic material ( lawrence , 1975 , comely & ansell , 1988 ) .\ngage , j . d . , 1992b . natural growth bands and growth variability in the sea urchin echinus esculentus : results from tetracycline tagging . marine biology , 114 , 607 - 616 .\nspecies with fragile tests , such as echinus esculentus and echinocardium cordatum were reported to suffer badly as a result of impact with passing scallop or queen scallop dredges ( bradshaw et al . , 2000 ; hall - spencer & moore , 2000a ) . kaiser et al . ( 2000 ) reported that echinus esculentus were less abundant in areas subject to high trawling disturbance in the irish sea . adults can repair non - lethal damage to the test and spines can be re - grown but most dredge impact is likely to be lethal . therefore , echinus esculentus is likely to be of intermediate intolerance to the effects of fishing activities for other species .\nwave exposure prevents urchins invading the sub - littoral fringe in exposed sites . higher levels of wave action are likely to depress the upper extent of echinus esculentus populations . decreased wave action is likely to allow the local urchin population to migrate into shallow water depths with resultant impact of algal communities . lewis & nichols ( 1979b ) reported that echinus esculentus migrated to shallow water after disturbance , an adaptation to being washed to deeper water by wave action . however , in the most wave exposed location in the british isles at rockall , echinus esculentus occurred in significant numbers as shallow as 15m below low water level ( keith hiscock pers . comm . ) .\ncomely , c . a . & ansell , a . d . , 1988 . invertebrate associates of the sea urchin , echinus esculentus l . , from the scottish west coast . ophelia , 28 , 111 - 137 .\ngage , j . d . , 1992a . growth bands in the sea urchin echinus esculentus : results from tetracycline mark / recapture . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , 72 , 257 - 260 .\nbishop , g . m . & earll , r . , 1984 . studies on the populations of echinus esculentus at the st abbs and skomer voluntary marine nature reserves . progress in underwater science , 9 , 53 - 66 .\npicton , b . e . & morrow , c . c . ( 2016 ) . echinus esculentus linnaeus , 1758 . [ in ] encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland . urltoken accessed on 2018 - 07 - 09\nlewis , g . a . & nichols , d . , 1980 . geotactic movement following disturbance in the european sea - urchin , echinus esculentus ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . progress in underwater science , 5 , 171 - 186 .\nstott , f . c . 2009 . the food canal of the sea - urchin echinus esculentus l . and its functions . * . proceedings of the zoological society of london , vol . 125 , issue . 1 , p . 63 .\nmacbride , e . w . , 1903 . the development of echinus esculentus together with some points on the development of e . miliaris and e . acutus . philosophical transactions of the royal society of london , series b , 195 , 285 - 327 .\nthe majority of echinus esculentus are subtidal although they occur occasionally in the lower intertidal . they are slow moving and unlikely to be able to return to water quickly . if exposed to desiccation it is likely to be intolerant of exposure to air and sunshine for 1 hour .\ngommez , j . l . c . & miguez - rodriguez , l . j . , 1999 . effects of oil pollution on skeleton and tissues of echinus esculentus l . 1758 ( echinodermata , echinoidea ) in a population of a coruna bay , galicia , spain .\ntyler - walters , h . , 2000 . echinus esculentus . edible sea urchin . marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information sub - programme [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . ( august , 2002 ) urltoken\nat very wave exposed sites , echinus esculentus is unlikely to be present in shallow depths because of displacement by wave action . however , presence of this species as shallow as 15m depth at rockall suggests an ability to withstand severe wave action ( keith hiscock pers . comm . ) .\nnichols , d . , 1984 . an investigation of the population dynamics of the common edible sea urchin ( echinus esculentus l . ) in relation to species conservation management . report to department of the environment and nature conservancy council from the department of biological sciences , university of exeter .\nechinus esculentus occurred in kelp beds on the west coast of scotland in currents of about 1 knot . outside the beds specimens were occasionally seen being rolled by the current ( comely & ansell 1988 ) , which may have been up to 2 . 6 knots . urchins are removed from the stipe of kelps by wave and current action . echinus esculentus are also displaced by storm action . however , urchins were found to feed normally only when provided with ' good ' water flow ( boolootian 1966 ) . after disturbance echinus esculentus migrates up the shore , an adaptation to being washed to deeper water by wave action ( lewis & nichols 1979b ) . therefore , increased water flow may remove the population from the affected area ; probably to deeper water although individuals would probably not be killed in the process and could recolonize the area if the factor returned to its pre - impact condition .\nechinus e\u017fculentus linnaeus , 1758 ( incorrect original spelling ( iczn 4th ed . , art . 32 . 5 . ) )\nkozloff , e . n . & westervelt , c . a . jr . , 1990 . syndesmis rubida sp . nov . and s . albida sp . nov . ( turbellaria : neorhabdocoela : umagillidae ) from the sea urchin echinus esculentus . cahiers de biologie marine , 31 , 323 - 332 .\nmoore ( 1977 ) suggested that echinus esculentus was unaffected by turbid conditions . similarly , comely & ansell ( 1988 ) recorded this species in the presence of suspended material up to 5 - 6 mg / l . echinoderm pedicellariae keep the test clear of settling larvae , spores and presumably sediment particles . echinus esculentus is known to ingest sediment ( comely & ansell , 1988 ) possibly to extract microalgae . therefore , an increase in siltation may not kill this species but is likely to interfere with feeding and additional scour may reduce larval settlement . the increased turbidity associated with siltation is likely to adversely affect its main food species , the kelps , benthic macroalgae and epi - fauna .\ntyler - walters , h . , 2008 . echinus esculentus edible sea urchin . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken\nechinus esculentus linnaeus , 1758 : linnaeus ( 1758 ) : 663 . [ description originale ] linnaeus , c . 1758 . systema natur\u00e6 per regna tria natur\u00e6 , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . holmi\u00e6 . ( salvius ) . tomus i : 1 - 824 . [ urltoken ]\ncomely & ansell ( 1988 ) noted that the largest number of echinus esculentus occurred below the kelp forest . similarly , lang & mann ( 1978 ) noted that young strongylocentrotus droebachiensis recruited in urchin barrens , suggesting that urchin recruitment is improved in the absence of kelp , presumably due to differences in microclimate , the absence of suspension feeders and other predators associated with kelp beds .\nunder hypoxic conditions echinoderms become less mobile and stop feeding . death of a bloom of the phytoplankton gyrodinium aureolum in mounts bay , penzance in 1978 produced a layer of brown slime on the sea bottom . this resulted in the death of fish and invertebrates , including echinus esculentus , presumably due to anoxia caused by the decay of the dead dinoflagellates ( griffiths et al . 1979 ) .\n( of echinus quinqueangulatus blainville , 1825 ) blainville , h . m . d . d . 1825 . oursin , echinus ( actinozoaires . ) . pp . 59 - 98 in dictionnaire des sciences naturelles f . g . levrault , strasbourg & paris . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 79 [ details ]\n( of echinus violaceus blainville , 1825 ) blainville , h . m . d . d . 1825 . oursin , echinus ( actinozoaires . ) . pp . 59 - 98 in dictionnaire des sciences naturelles f . g . levrault , strasbourg & paris . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 80 [ details ]\n( of echinus auranticus blainville , 1825 ) blainville , h . m . d . d . 1825 . oursin , echinus ( actinozoaires . ) . pp . 59 - 98 in dictionnaire des sciences naturelles f . g . levrault , strasbourg & paris . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 79 [ details ]\n( of echinus pseudo - melo blainville , 1825 ) blainville , h . m . d . d . 1825 . oursin , echinus ( actinozoaires . ) . pp . 59 - 98 in dictionnaire des sciences naturelles f . g . levrault , strasbourg & paris . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 77 [ details ]\nplanktonic development is complex and takes between 45 - 60 days in captivity ( macbride 1914 ) . development includes a blastula , gastrula and a characteristic , four armed echinopluteus stage that forms an important component of the zooplankton . the development of echinus esculentus is described in detail by macbride ( 1903 , 1914 ) . photographs of the echinopluteus and fully formed juveniles are given by todd et al . ( 1996 ) .\ncollecting of echinus esculentus for the curio trade was studied by nichols ( 1984 ) . he concluded that the majority of divers collected only large specimens that are seen quickly and often missed individuals covered by seaweed or under rocks , especially if small . as a result , a significant proportion of the population remains . he suggested that exploited populations should not be allowed to fall below 0 . 2 individuals per square metre .\nemson , r . h . , & moore , p . g . , 1998 . diet and gonad size in three populations of echinus esculentus . in proceedings of the ninth international echinoderm conference san francisco , california , usa , 5 - 9 august 1996 . echinoderms : san francisco ( ed . r . mooi & m . telford ) , pp . 641 - 644 . rotterdam : a . a . balkena .\nrecruitment is sporadic or variable depending on locality , e . g . millport populations showed annual recruitment , whereas few recruits were found in plymouth populations during nichols studies between 1980 - 1981 ( nichols 1984 ) . bishop & earll ( 1984 ) suggested that the population of echinus esculentus at st abbs had a high density and recruited regularly whereas the skomer population was sparse , ageing and had probably not successfully recruited larvae in the previous 6 years .\nechinus pseudo - melo blainville , 1825 ( incorrect original spelling ( mandatory changed according to iczn 4th ed . article 32 . 5 . 2 . 3 . - removal of hyphen ) )\nthe adults are slow moving and unlikely to be able to avoid smothering . a 5 cm layer of sediment is likely to affect smaller specimens more than large specimens . smothered individuals are unlikely to be able to move through sediment . however , individuals are unlikely to starve within a month . comely & ansell ( 1988 ) recorded large echinus esculentus from kelp beds on the west coast of scotland in which the substratum was seasonally covered with\nhigh levels\nof silt . this suggests that echinus esculentus is unlikely to be killed by smothering , however , smaller specimens and juveniles may be more intolerant . a layer of sediment may interfere with larval settlement . lewis & nichols ( 1979 ) found that adults were able to colonize an artificial reef in small numbers within 3 months and the population steadily grew over the following year . recruitment is sporadic or annual depending on locality and factors affecting larval pre - settlement and post - settlement survival .\nthe edible or common sea urchin ( echinus esculentus ) has a large , rounded ' shell ' , which is actually an external skeleton , correctly called a ' test ' , composed of calcareous plates . it is usually pinkish - red in colour but more rarely may be shades of yellow , green or purple ( 2 ) . the shape of the test varies depending on the depth of the water ; those of individuals living in shallow water tend to be more flat than those of individuals living in deep water ( 3 ) . the latin name for the genus ' echinus ' derives from the greek for ' spiny ' ; the test bristles with many protective reddish spines with lilac coloured tips ( 2 ) .\nechinus e\u017fculentus linnaeus , 1758 : koehler ( 1921 ) [ statut pour la france m\u00e9tropolitaine ] koehler , r . 1921 . echinodermes . faune de france , 1 : 1 - 216 , 153 fig . [ urltoken ]\nminin , k . v . 2012 . vertical trends in morphological variability of sea urchins of the genus echinus from the northeast atlantic and arctic . paleontological journal , vol . 46 , issue . 8 , p . 927 .\n( of echinus swartzii nilsson & holst , 1817 ) nilsson , s . , & holst , a . ludvig . 1817 . collectanea zoologiae scandinavicae . londini gothorum : litteris berlingianis page ( s ) : 7 - 9 [ details ]\n( of sph\u00e6rechinus esculentus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) mortensen , t . ( 1943 ) . a monograph of the echinoidea . iii , 3 . camarodonta . ii . echinid\u00e6 , strongylocentrotid\u00e6 , parasaleniid\u00e6 , echinometrid\u00e6 . 446 pp . , c . a . reitzel , copenhagen . page ( s ) : 25 - 37 [ details ]\nthe genus echinus is derived from the greek ' echinos ' meaning ' a hedgehog ' . an omnivorous grazer feeding on seaweeds ( e . g . laminaria spp . sporelings ) , bryozoa , barnacles and other encrusting invertebrates . size range varies depending on age and locality , e . g . c . 4 cm at 1 year , 4 - 7 cm at 2 years , 7 - 9 cm at 3 years and 9 - 11 cm at 4 years . this species may hybridize with echinus acutus if sympatric .\ntyler , p . a . & young , c . m . , 1998 . temperature and pressures tolerances in dispersal stages of the genus echinus ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) : prerequisites for deep sea invasion and speciation . deep sea research ii , 45 , 253 - 277\nthe common sea urchin , echinus esculentus , is the largest urchin in our waters . most commonly it is an orangey brown colour and covered in little white bumps and orange spines . sea urchins belong to the phylum , echinodermata making them closely related to starfish , sea cucumbers and brittle stars .\nechidnodermate\ncomes from the greek meaning\nspiny skin\n. these slow moving creatures use their spines , not only for protection , but also to aid movement and also for trapping floating particles of food . a sea urchins spiny exterior is attached to a series of five chalky plates , fitting together like the segments of an orange forming the urchins skeleton known as a \u201ctest\u201d .\nsimilar species : echinus acutus has not been recorded by divers but may occur in shallow water on north sea coasts . it normally lives in deep water ( 200m + ) and has fewer spines with obvious , long , robust primaries 2 - 4 times the size of the smaller secondaries .\nmiddleton , david a . j . gurney , william s . c . and gage , john d . 1998 . growth and energy allocation in the deep - sea urchin echinus affinis . biological journal of the linnean society , vol . 64 , issue . 3 , p . 315 .\nechinoderms are generally unable to tolerate low salinity ( stenohaline ) and possess no osmoregulatory organ ( boolootian 1966 ) . at low salinity urchins gain weight , and the epidermis loses its pigment as patches are destroyed ; prolonged exposure is fatal . the coelomic fluid of echinus esculentus is isotonic with seawater ( stickle & diehl 1987 ) . there is some evidence for intracellular regulation of osmotic pressure due to increased amino acid concentrations . populations in the sublittoral fringe probably encounter reduced salinity due to low water and fresh water runoff or heavy rain and may tolerate low salinity for short periods . however , echinoderm larvae have a narrow range of salinity tolerance and develop abnormally and die if exposed to reduced or increased salinity .\nbright light and shading elicit well studied reactions in echinoderms . in echinoids shading results in the ' shadow reaction ' in which the pedicellariae and spines are pointed in the direction of the shade in a defensive reaction . echinoids move away from bright light and seek out crevices and / or cover themselves with debris such as shells and drift algae , the ' covering reaction ' ( see boolootian ( 1966 ) for discussion ) . movement of boats is unlikely to be noticed , especially under a kelp canopy in which light may penetrate intermittently with passing currents . if echinoids such as echinus esculentus react to the approach of divers and snorkelers at closer proximity , the reaction is likely to be short lived and insignificant .\n( of echinus globiformis lamarck , 1816 ) lamarck , j . b . m . de . ( 1816 ) . histoire naturelle des animaux sans vert\u00e8bres . tome troisi\u00e8me . paris : deterville / verdi\u00e8re . 612 pp . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 44 [ details ]\nechinus esculentus is a globular sea urchin between 10 and 17 cm in diameter . spines are short , around 1 , 5 cm long , thick and regular . their colour is variable : greenish or pale purple . the thick test is purple and red with five clearer bands on the ambulacral plates . when extending , tube - feet are clearly visible among the spines . they are used to adhere to subtratum . the common sea urchin lives on rocks where it feeds on seaweeds , especially laminaria , or bryozoans or other small invertebrates . it is found from surface to 50 m deep , and sometimes at depths up to 1200m , in the atlantic ocean from norway to portugal , in the english channel and the north sea .\n( of echinus globiformis lamarck , 1816 ) mortensen , t . ( 1943 ) . a monograph of the echinoidea . iii , 3 . camarodonta . ii . echinid\u00e6 , strongylocentrotid\u00e6 , parasaleniid\u00e6 , echinometrid\u00e6 . 446 pp . , c . a . reitzel , copenhagen . page ( s ) : 25 - 37 [ details ]\n( of echinus schwartzii nilsson , 1817 ) mortensen , t . ( 1943 ) . a monograph of the echinoidea . iii , 3 . camarodonta . ii . echinid\u00e6 , strongylocentrotid\u00e6 , parasaleniid\u00e6 , echinometrid\u00e6 . 446 pp . , c . a . reitzel , copenhagen . page ( s ) : 25 - 37 [ details ]\n( of echinus pseudomelo blainville , 1825 ) mortensen , t . ( 1943 ) . a monograph of the echinoidea . iii , 3 . camarodonta . ii . echinid\u00e6 , strongylocentrotid\u00e6 , parasaleniid\u00e6 , echinometrid\u00e6 . 446 pp . , c . a . reitzel , copenhagen . page ( s ) : 25 - 37 [ details ]\n( of echinus quinqueangulatus blainville , 1825 ) mortensen , t . ( 1943 ) . a monograph of the echinoidea . iii , 3 . camarodonta . ii . echinid\u00e6 , strongylocentrotid\u00e6 , parasaleniid\u00e6 , echinometrid\u00e6 . 446 pp . , c . a . reitzel , copenhagen . page ( s ) : 25 - 37 [ details ]\n( of echinus violaceus blainville , 1825 ) mortensen , t . ( 1943 ) . a monograph of the echinoidea . iii , 3 . camarodonta . ii . echinid\u00e6 , strongylocentrotid\u00e6 , parasaleniid\u00e6 , echinometrid\u00e6 . 446 pp . , c . a . reitzel , copenhagen . page ( s ) : 25 - 37 [ details ]\n( of echinus aurantiacus ) mortensen , t . ( 1943 ) . a monograph of the echinoidea . iii , 3 . camarodonta . ii . echinid\u00e6 , strongylocentrotid\u00e6 , parasaleniid\u00e6 , echinometrid\u00e6 . 446 pp . , c . a . reitzel , copenhagen . page ( s ) : 25 - 37 ; note : misspelling [ details ]\n( of echinus sphaera o . f . m\u00fcller , 1776 ) m\u00fcller , o . f . ( 1776 ) . zoologiae danicae prodromus : seu animalium daniae et norvegiae indigenarum characteres , nomina , et synonyma imprimis popularium . hafniae , typiis hallageriis . 1 - 274 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 235 [ details ]\n( of echinus e\u017fculentus linnaeus , 1758 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of echinus sphaera o . f . m\u00fcller , 1776 ) mortensen , t . ( 1943 ) . a monograph of the echinoidea . iii , 3 . camarodonta . ii . echinid\u00e6 , strongylocentrotid\u00e6 , parasaleniid\u00e6 , echinometrid\u00e6 . 446 pp . , c . a . reitzel , copenhagen . page ( s ) : 25 - 37 [ details ]\n( of echinus swartzii nilsson & holst , 1817 ) mortensen , t . ( 1943 ) . a monograph of the echinoidea . iii , 3 . camarodonta . ii . echinid\u00e6 , strongylocentrotid\u00e6 , parasaleniid\u00e6 , echinometrid\u00e6 . 446 pp . , c . a . reitzel , copenhagen . page ( s ) : 26 [ as e . schwartzii ] [ details ]\nthe common sea urchin , echinus esculentus , is constantly browsing any available surface for algae or invertebrate life . in the illustration you will see that the rocks are almost bare and that is largely due to the urchins activities . in this zone , which is around about 20m , there is little wave action so the urchins are not disturbed and huge numbers are present at times . on the underside of the urchin is a five - pointed beak - like arrangement which rasps food off the rocks . this is comparitivley powerful and few organisms can resist it . in shallower areas , and particularly on steep surfaces , wave action dislodges urchins that have managed to get up there in settled weather and the algae and invertebrate life is only affected minimally . see separate picture showing a common sea urchin ' s tube feet which it uses to cling on to rocks when necessary .\n( of echinus quinquangulosus ) blainville , h . m . d . de 1834 . manuel d\u2019actinologie ou de zoophytologie . ( f . g . levrault : paris , strasbourg ) : volume 1 ( text ) , 1 - viii , 1 - 644 ; volume 2 ( atlas ) , pls i - c . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 227 [ details ]\n( of echinus aurantiacus ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of echinus quinqueangulosus ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of echinus globiformis lamarck , 1816 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of echinus schwartzii nilsson , 1817 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of echinus pseudomelo blainville , 1825 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of echinus quinqueangulatus blainville , 1825 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of echinus violaceus blainville , 1825 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of echinus sphaera o . f . m\u00fcller , 1776 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nthe common and scientific names suggest that this sea urchin is edible ( esculentus is the latin word for ' edible ' ) , yet only the reproductive organs ( roe ) can be eaten ( 5 ) . there is a large international market for sea urchin products , particularly the roe ( 6 ) . exploitation of sea urchins grew rapidly in many countries , and in many cases over - exploitation and collapse of the sea urchin populations followed ( 6 ) . there was a sea urchin fishery in cornwall in the 1980s , and the potential of a fishery in shetland has been investigated ( 2 ) . the edible sea urchin has also been collected commercially for the curio trade ( 2 ) .\nlinnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 663 [ details ]\ndistribution from low intertidal , but mainly in the sublittoral zone , down to 40 m depth , occasionally deeper , on rocks , stones or seaweed ; . . .\nkroh , a . & mooi , r . ( 2018 ) . world echinoidea database .\n( of cidaris hemisphaerica leske , 1778 ) leske , n . g . 1778 . jacobi theodori klein naturalis dispositio echinodermatum . . . , edita et descriptionibus novisque inventis et synonomis auctorem aucta . addimenta ad i . t . klein naturalem dispositionem echinodermatum . g . e . beer , leipzig , xxii + 278 pp . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 90 - 92 ; pl . 2 ( ? nicht gut leserlich ) : fig . e , pl . 40 : fig . 7 [ details ]\nhansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nmortensen , t . ( 1943 ) . a monograph of the echinoidea . iii , 3 . camarodonta . ii . echinid\u00e6 , strongylocentrotid\u00e6 , parasaleniid\u00e6 , echinometrid\u00e6 . 446 pp . , c . a . reitzel , copenhagen . page ( s ) : 25 - 37 [ details ]\nsouthward , e . c . ; campbell , a . c . ( 2006 ) . [ echinoderms : keys and notes for the identification of british species ] . synopses of the british fauna ( new series ) , 56 . field studies council : shrewsbury , uk . isbn 1 - 85153 - 269 - 2 . 272 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\ndyntaxa . ( 2013 ) . swedish taxonomic database . accessed at urltoken [ 15 - 01 - 2013 ] . , available online at http : / / urltoken [ details ]\nhansson , h . ( 2004 ) . north east atlantic taxa ( neat ) : nematoda . internet pdf ed . aug 1998 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of cidaris esculenta ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) mortensen , t . ( 1943 ) . a monograph of the echinoidea . iii , 3 . camarodonta . ii . echinid\u00e6 , strongylocentrotid\u00e6 , parasaleniid\u00e6 , echinometrid\u00e6 . 446 pp . , c . a . reitzel , copenhagen . page ( s ) : 25 - 37 [ details ]\n( of cidaris hemisphaerica leske , 1778 ) mortensen , t . ( 1943 ) . a monograph of the echinoidea . iii , 3 . camarodonta . ii . echinid\u00e6 , strongylocentrotid\u00e6 , parasaleniid\u00e6 , echinometrid\u00e6 . 446 pp . , c . a . reitzel , copenhagen . page ( s ) : 25 - 37 [ details ]\niucn red list category iucn red list 1996 low risk / near threatened ( vers . 2 . 3 ) [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nrecorded feeding on ; worms , barnacles ( e . g . balanus spp . ) , hydroids , tunicates , bryozoans ( e . g . membranipora spp . ) , macroalgae ( e . g . laminaria spp . ) , bottom material and detritus ( reviewed by lawrence 1975 ) .\nhayward & ryland , 1995b , mortensen , 1927 , fish & fish , 1996 , lawrence , 1975 , macbride , 1903 , kozloff & westervelt , 1990 , comely & ansell , 1988 , hyman , 1955 , gage , 1992 ( a ) , gage , 1992 ( b ) , nichols , 1979 , nichols , 1969 , emson & moore , 1998 , macbride , 1914 , nichols , 1984 , boolootian , 1966 , birkett et al . , 1998b , hayward & ryland , 1990 , julie bremner , unpub data , mortensen , 1927 , rees & dare , 1993 ,\ncommon on most coasts of the british isles but absent from most of east coast of england , the eastern english channel and some parts of north wales .\nabundant in the n . e . atlantic from iceland , north to finmark , norway and south to portugal . absent from the mediterranean .\nbedrock large to very large boulders small boulders artificial ( e . g . metal / wood / concrete ) rockpools under boulders caves crevices / fissures overhangs\nnichols ( 1979 ) estimates the maximum life span to be between 8 - 10 years , whereas gage ( 1992a ) reports a specimen ( based on growth bands ) of at least 16 years of age .\nthe number of eggs produced will vary with location and nutritive state of the adult but it is likely to be high . macbride ( 1903 ) states that a well - grown female contains about 20 million eggs .\nmaximum spawning occurs in spring although individuals may spawn over a protracted period . gonad weight is maximal in february / march in english channel ( comely & ansell 1989 ) but decreases during spawning in spring and then increases again through summer and winter until the next spawning ; there is no resting phase . spawning occurs just before the seasonal rise in temperature in temperate zones but is probably not triggered by rising temperature ( bishop 1985 ) . spawning may coincide with spring phytoplankton bloom although there is no evidence to substantiate this suggestion .\ncomely & ansell ( 1989 ) demonstrated differences in reproductive condition between sites and habitats . emson & moore ( 1998 ) noted that gonad size varied with diet in the isle of cumbrae , scotland ; specimens feeding on barnacles had a higher gonad index than those feeding within the kelp forest .\nsettlement is thought to occur in autumn and winter ( comely & ansell , 1988 ) . newly settled juveniles have an ambital diameter of 0 . 68 - 0 . 95mm ( nichols 1984 ) .\nlawrence , 1975 , macbride , 1903 , hyman , 1955 , gage , 1992 ( a ) , gage , 1992 ( b ) , nichols , 1979 , nichols , 1969 , emson & moore , 1998 , macbride , 1914 , nichols , 1984 , lang & mann , 1978 , bishop , 1985 , boolootian , 1966 , bishop & earll , 1984 , todd et al . , 1996 , julie bremner , unpub data , rees & dare , 1993 ,\nbiotic ( biological traits information catalogue ) by marlin ( marine life information network ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available at urltoken . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . based on a work at urltoken .\na large globular sea urchin , up to 15 - 16 cm in diameter at 7 - 8 years of age , although the largest diameter recorded was 17 . 6 cm . the test may be relatively flat in shallow water but taller in deep water . test pinkish - red but occasionally yellow , green or purple . spines closely cover the test and are reddish , usually with violet points and white bosses . primary and secondary spines and their bosses are similar in size , except in small specimens in which the primaries are conspicuous . ambulacral plates bear 3 pairs of pores . primary tubercles ( bosses ) found on every second or third ambulacral plate . all coronal plates bear pedicellariae ( modified spines ) . plates covering the mouth membrane bear small , club shaped spines as well as pedicellariae . globeriferous pedicellariae bear 1 lateral tooth below the terminal tooth . the polychaete flabelligera affinis may be found amongst its spines .\nfound on rocky substrata from the sublittoral fringe to circa 40 m , although it may be found at depths of 100 m or more .\nprimary and secondary spines and their bosses are similar in size , except in small specimens .\nturbellarian parasites syndesmis rubida sp . nov . and syndesmis albida sp . nov . ( kozloff & westervelt 1990 ) , the parasitic nematode echinomermella grayi and external parasitic amphipod euonyx chelatus ( comely & ansell 1988 )\nmoderately strong 1 to 3 knots ( 0 . 5 - 1 . 5 m / sec . )\nnichols ( 1979 ) estimates the maximum lifespan to be between 8 - 10 years , whereas gage ( 1992a ) reports a specimen ( based on growth bands ) of at least 16 years of age .\noccurred below the kelp forest . similarly , lang & mann ( 1978 ) noted that young\nrecruited in urchin barrens , suggesting that urchin recruitment is improved in the absence of kelp , presumably due to differences in microclimate , the absence of suspension feeders and other predators associated with kelp beds .\nthis marlin sensitivity assessment has been superseded by the maresa approach to sensitivity assessment . marlin assessments used an approach that has now been modified to reflect the most recent conservation imperatives and terminology and are due to be updated by 2016 / 17 .\nsea urchins are slow moving and unlikely to escape removal of their substratum . however , a proportion of the population would probably survive removal of algal substratum . investigation of the effects of algal destruction on populations of\nsuggested that populations of urchins do not migrate away from or starve in areas devoid of kelp , presumably because they are able to feed on alternative prey . areas lacking algae were dominated by young urchins up to 4 years after removal of the kelp suggesting that kelp barrens afforded improved recruitment ( lang & mann 1978 ) , presumably because of the lack of suspension feeding organisms associated with kelp beds . the presence of coralline algae in ' urchin barrens ' may encourage larval metamorphosis in echinoids ( pearce & scheibling 1990 ) .\n, 2000 ; hall - spencer & moore , 2000a ) . adults can repair non - lethal damage to the test and spines can be re - grown but most dredge impact is likely to be lethal . therefore , physical abrasion due to a passing anchor or dredge is likely to kill a proportion of the population and an intolerance of intermediate has been recorded . lewis & nichols ( 1979 ) found that adults were able to colonize an artificial reef in small numbers within 3 months and the population steadily grew over the following year . recoverability is probably high . however , recruitment is sporadic or annual depending on locality and factors affecting larval pre - settlement and post - settlement survival .\nlittle is known about the effects of heavy metals on echinoderms . bryan ( 1984 ) reported that early work had shown that echinoderm larvae were intolerant of heavy metals , e . g . the intolerance of larvae of\nto copper ( cu ) had been used to develop a water quality assessment . kinne ( 1984 ) reported developmental disturbances in\nexposed to waters containing 25 \u00b5g / l of copper ( cu ) . sea - urchins , especially the eggs and larvae , are used for toxicity testing and environmental monitoring ( reviewed by dinnel\nthe addition of nutrients may encourage the growth of ephemeral and epiphytic algae and therefore increase the food available to sea - urchin populations . lawrence ( 1975 ) reported that sea urchins had persisted over 13 years on barren grounds near sewage outfalls , presumably feeding on dissolved organic material , detritus , plankton and microalgae , although individuals died at an early age . the ability to absorb dissolved organic material was suggested by comely & ansell ( 1988 ) .\nis susceptible to ' bald - sea - urchin disease ' , which causes lesions , loss of spines , tube feet , pedicellariae , destruction of the upper layer of skeletal tissue and death . it is thought to be caused by the bacteria\nin the french mediterranean it is not known if the disease induces mass mortality ( bower 1996 ) . however , no evidence of mass mortalities of\ndo not migrate away after destroying an area of kelp , although individuals growth rate and gonad production decreases . over the next 3 - 4 years the population became dominated by younger urchins , suggesting that recruitment ( larval settlement and post - settlement survival ) was improved within the ' urchin barren ' ( lang & mann , 1979 ) . since\nis an omnivore it is likely that kelp harvesting will have little effect on the population and may improve recruitment in the short term .\nis an important grazer of epiflora and epifauna in the subtidal . it may have a keystone role in kelp communities , where grazing by sea urchins may control the lower limit of\nwas eaten in many parts of england ( pennant 1777 cited in nichols 1981 ) and may continue today locally . references to use in roman times may refer to\nmainly sold as a curio , ornament or occasionally as a receptacle and was collected by divers around the uk for the curio trade . it was the object of a specific fishery in cornwall in the 1980s . nichols ( 1981 ) pointed out that although most divers missed small specimens within kelp beds , population densities should not be allowed to fall below 0 . 2 per metre to conserve the species in the uk .\nthe possibility of a sea urchin fishery in shetland for the japanese market has been investigated recently ( penfold et al . 1996 ) .\nsea urchin development has been well studied ( macbride 1914 ) and echinoids form an important research organism in embryology , developmental biology , evolution , biochemistry and molecular biology studies .\nbirkett , d . a . , maggs , c . a . , dring , m . j . & boaden , p . j . s . , 1998b . infralittoral reef biotopes with kelp species : an overview of dynamic and sensitivity characteristics for conservation management of marine sacs . natura 2000 report prepared by scottish association of marine science ( sams ) for the uk marine sacs project . , scottish association for marine science . ( uk marine sacs project , vol v . ) . available from : urltoken\nboolootian , r . a . , 1966 . physiology of echinodermata . ( ed . r . a . boolootian ) , pp . 822 - 822 . new york : john wiley & sons .\nbower , s . m . , 1996 . synopsis of infectious diseases and parasites of commercially exploited shellfish : bald - sea - urchin disease . [ on - line ] . fisheries and oceans canada . [ cited 26 / 01 / 16 ] . available from : urltoken\nbradshaw , c . , veale , l . o . , hill , a . s . & brand , a . r . , 2000 . the effects of scallop dredging on gravelly seabed communities . in : effects of fishing on non - target species and habitats ( ed . m . j . kaiser & de s . j . groot ) , pp . 83 - 104 . oxford : blackwell science .\ndinnel , p . a . , pagano , g . g . , & oshido , p . s . , 1988 . a sea urchin test system for marine environmental monitoring . in echinoderm biology . proceedings of the sixth international echinoderm conference , victoria , 23 - 28 august 1987 , ( r . d . burke , p . v . mladenov , p . lambert , parsley , r . l . ed . ) , pp 611 - 619 . rotterdam : a . a . balkema .\nfish , j . d . & fish , s . , 1996 . a student ' s guide to the seashore . cambridge : cambridge university press .\ngriffiths , a . b . , dennis , r . & potts , g . w . , 1979 . mortality associated with a phytoplankton bloom off penzance in mount ' s bay . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , 59 , 515 - 528 .\nhall - spencer , j . m . & moore , p . g . , 2000a . impact of scallop dredging on maerl grounds . in effects of fishing on non - target species and habitats . ( ed . m . j . kaiser & s . j . , de groot ) 105 - 117 . oxford : blackwell science .\nhayward , p . j . & ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) 1995b . handbook of the marine fauna of north - west europe . oxford : oxford university press .\nhowson , c . m . & picton , b . e . , 1997 . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . belfast : ulster museum . [ ulster museum publication , no . 276 . ]\nhyman , l . v . , 1955 . the invertebrates : vol . iv . echinodermata . the coelomate bilateria . new york : mcgraw hill .\njncc ( joint nature conservation committee ) , 1999 . marine environment resource mapping and information database ( mermaid ) : marine nature conservation review survey database . [ on - line ] urltoken\nkaiser , m . j . , ramsay , k . , richardson , c . a . , spence , f . e . & brand , a . r . , 2000 . chronic fishing disturbance has changed shelf sea benthic community structure . journal of animal ecology , 69 , 494 - 503 .\nkinne , o . ( ed . ) , 1984 . marine ecology : a comprehensive , integrated treatise on life in oceans and coastal waters . vol . v . ocean management part 3 : pollution and protection of the seas - radioactive materials , heavy metals and oil . chichester : john wiley & sons .\nlawrence , j . m . , 1975 . on the relationships between marine plants and sea urchins . oceanography and marine biology : an annual review , 13 , 213 - 286 .\nmacbride , e . w . , 1914 . textbook of embryology , vol . i , invertebrata . london : macmillan & co .\nmoore , p . g . , 1977a . inorganic particulate suspensions in the sea and their effects on marine animals . oceanography and marine biology : an annual review , 15 , 225 - 363 .\nmortensen , t . h . , 1927 . handbook of the echinoderms of the british isles . london : humphrey milford , oxford university press .\nnational biodiversity network ( nbn ) atlas website . available from : http : / / www . nbnatlas . org . accessed 01 april 2017\nnichols , d . , 1969 . echinoderms ( 4th ed . ) . london : hutchinson & co .\nnichols , d . , 1981 . the cornish sea - urchin fishery . cornish studies , 9 , 5 - 18 .\npearce , c . m . , & scheibling , r . e . , 1990 . induction of metamorphosis of larvae of the green sea urchin , strongylocentrotus droebachiensis , by coralline red algae . biological bulletin , marine biological laboratory , woods hole , 179 , 304 - 311 .\npenfold , r . , hughson , s . , & boyle , n . , 1996 . the potential for a sea urchin fishery in shetland . urltoken 2000 - 04 - 14\npicton , b . e . & costello , m . j . , 1998 . biomar biotope viewer : a guide to marine habitats , fauna and flora of britain and ireland . [ cd - rom ] environmental sciences unit , trinity college , dublin . , urltoken\nsmith , j . e . ( ed . ) , 1968 . ' torrey canyon ' . pollution and marine life . cambridge : cambridge university press .\ntodd , c . d . , laverack , m . s . & boxshall , g . a . , 1996 . coastal marine zooplankton : a practical manual for students . 2nd ed . cambridge : cambridge university press .\nursin , e . , 1960 . a quantitative investigation of the echinoderm fauna of the central north sea . meddelelser fra danmark fiskeri - og - havundersogelser , 2 ( 24 ) , pp . 204 .\nmarine life information network ( marlin ) , the marine biological association of the uk ( see contact us ) \u00a9 2018 the marine biological association of the uk , all rights reserved .\nthe information ( text only ) provided by the marine life information network ( marlin ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available here . based on a work at urltoken\ndescription : the common sea urchin in shallow water in the british isles . globular in shape and pink in colour . the spines are abundant , relatively short and more or less all of one size in larger specimens . up to 15cm . diameter .\nhabitat : an almost ubiquitous species on hard substrata in northern britain especially in the infralittoral zone where it grazes on algae and encrusting animals .\ndistribution : found around most of the british isles but becomes rare in s . devon and dorset and absent in the eastern part of the english channel . also reported to be absent in parts of anglesey and n . wales .\ndistribution map from nbn : interactive map : national biodiversity network mapping facility , data for uk .\ntest usually globular , more rarely depressed or subconical ; up to 16 cm in horizontal diameter . colour of test an intense red , on which the white spines are very conspicuous . more rarely it is pale purplish or pale green .\nwith few , usually thin , plates , mostly imbedded in the skin , which appears rather naked . three pore pairs in each ambulacral plate (\ntest closely covered with short spines , among which the primaries are scarcely conspicuous . in smaller specimens , the secondary spines are not as large as the primary ones . only every second or third ambulacral plate carries a primary spine .\nare fairly large , usually with only one lateral tooth on each side , below the end tooth . tridentate\nit is mostly found on hard - substrata with algae , but is found till depths of 1200 m .\nin the north sea , the species is common in all areas with hard - substrata . elsewhere it is distributed from finmark and iceland to the coast of portugal . it is not known from the mediterranean .\nmortensen , t . h . , 1927 . handbook of the echinoderms of the british isles . humphrey milford , oxford university press : 471 pp .\nmoyse , j . & p . a . tyler , 1990 . echinodermata . in : p . j . hayward & j . s . ryland ( eds ) : the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe , volume 2 , molluscs to chordates . clarendon press , oxford : 839 - 871 .\npicton , b . e . , 1993 . a field guide to the shallow - water echinoderms of the british isles . immel publishing : 96 pp .\nthe external skeleton of the edible sea urchin is known as the \u2018test\u2019 , the colour of which may vary from pinkish - red to purple , green or yellow .\nan omnivorous species , the edible sea urchin feeds on marine plants and invertebrates .\nthe common sea urchin browses on seaweeds and invertebrates ( 2 ) , moving along the sea floor by means of ' tube feet ' , which project out from the spines ( 4 ) . the mouth is located centrally on the underside of the test , and is furnished with a group of 5 specialised calcareous plates , known as an ' aristotle ' s lantern ' which acts as a jaw ( 4 ) .\nthe sexes are separate , breeding takes place in spring , and fertilisation is external ( 3 ) . a microscopic four - armed larval stage forms ; this ' echinopluteus ' larva is free - swimming and makes up an important part of the plankton for around 8 weeks , before undergoing a complex metamorphosis into a small urchin ( 3 ) . maturity is reached at between one and three years of age , and estimates of maximum lifespan vary from 10 to 16 years of age ( 3 ) ."]}
{"id": 625, "summary": [{"text": "mylodon is an extinct genus of ground sloth that lived in the patagonia ( argentina and chile ) area of south america until roughly 10,000 years ago . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "mylodon", "paragraphs": ["a delightfully grouchy looking ground sloth , mylodon darwinii . ( art by tabitha paterson )\nyou can download standardized annotation of the hemibarbus mylodon mitogenomic sequence via the links below .\nmylodon went extinct in patagonia at the end of the last glacial period , about 10 , 000 years ago .\nthese fascinating statements caused an unprecedented popular uproar across the world and led to a\nmylodon rush\nand soon expeditions from several nations were crisscrossing patagonia in search of a live mylodon , the \u201cmamifero misterioso\u201d [ mysterious mammal ] .\nameghino\u2019s mylodon paper irritated moreno who was sure that the skin that he had found was very old and did not belong to an extant mylodon as contended by ameghino . he also believed that ameghino had made up the \u201cpangolin\u201d story .\nin 1898 about the mylodon , but it was not based on the mylodon cave\u2019s skin ; he wrote about another skin that , according to him , had been found by his brother in santa cruz province , argentina . [ 4 ]\nmylodon bones have been found in several patagonian sites , but the most famous is the mylodon cave ( 51\u00b035\u2032 s , 72\u00b038\u2032 w ) , located 25 km ( 15 . 5 mi . ) north of the chilean town of puerto natales ( see my map\nin april 1899 a team led by dr . rudolph hauthal , a geologist who worked for moreno at la plata , did some additional excavations and retrieved more bones and mylodon dung . [ 1 ] based on their findings , they re - named the mylodon\nowen and darwin also comapred the fossils to the genus megatherium \u2013 another type of giant ground sloth . mylodon and megatherium were once thought to be closely related , but are now considered to be different families . darwin\u2019s bones were the type bones for mylodon .\ndescription of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen , with observations on . . . megatherioid quadrupeds in general\nlower jaw of the mylodon , a giant ground sloth that lived in patagonian south america from the pleistocene to about 10 , 000 years ago . the smooth molars indicate that the mylodon ate leaves and tender buds of trees . illustration from louis figuier ' s the w\nthis entry was posted in ground sloth and tagged beagle , charles darwin , cueva del milodon , dna , ermotherium , glyptodon clavipes , ground sloth , macrauchenia patachonica , megalonyx , mylodon cave , mylodon darwinii , nothrotheriops , richard owen , soft tissue . bookmark the permalink .\ndescription of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen , with observations on . . . megatherioid quadrupeds in general /\nthe \u201crhinoceros\u201d that darwin pulled out of the cliffs of punta alta a couple of days ago was actually the jaw of a mylodon \u2013 a giant ground sloth . in fact , richard owen called it mylodon darwinii \u2013 possibly the first species that darwin discovered to bear his name .\nnobody\u2019s quite sure what happened to the mylodon or why it eventually disappeared . it could be that , like so many other species , it was hunted to extinction by humans . or it could simply be that natural changes in the climate caused many of the plants it lived off to die out , leaving it without food . but one thing\u2019s for sure , these days the closest you can get to a mylodon is visiting the mylodon\u2019s cave !\nironically , both woodward\u2019s and haupthal\u2019s work indicated that the skin belonged to a pampean ground sloth of the grypotherium genus , very closely related to the mylodon but not a mylodon . thus the name neomylodon listai disappeared into oblivion . this pleased moreno as it disproved ameghino and deprived him of his moment of fame .\nlower jaw of the mylodon , a giant ground sloth that lived in patagonian south america from the pleistocene to about 10 , 000 years ago . the smooth molars indicate that the mylodon ate leaves and tender buds of trees . illustration from louis figuier ' s the world before the deluge , 1867 american edition .\n( a ) skull of mylodon darwinii as featured in reinhardt ( 1879 ) . ( b ) skull of glossotherium robustum as featured by owen ( 1842 ) .\ndetails - description of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen , with observations on . . . megatherioid quadrupeds in general / - biodiversity heritage library\nthanks for the comment john . here is a nice article discussing if mylodon darwinii did survive until around 150 years ago : click here . ( jan freedman . 21st september 2014 )\ndescription of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen , with observations on the osteology , natural affinities , and probable habits of the megatherioid quadrupeds in general .\nthe skin was so remarkably preserved by the cold conditions in the cave that at its discovery some people hypothesised that the mylodon must have been killed recently . expeditions were sent out across patagonia looking for a live mylodon , however none was ever found and modern carbon dating techniques later placed the skin at anywhere from 10 , 200 to 13 , 560 years old .\n( lista\u2019s new mylodon ) after the late argentine explorer ram\u00f3n lista who , according to ameghino , had actually seen and shot at one of these beasts a few years earlier [ 3 ] .\nmylodon jaw fossil collected at punta alta , published by smith , elder & co , 65 cornhill , london ( from zoology of the voyage of the beagle vol . 1 , richard owen ) :\ndescription of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen , with observations on . . . megatherioid quadrupeds in general : owen , richard : free download , borrow , and streaming : internet archive\nmcafee , robert ,\ndescription of new postcranial elements of mylodon darwinii owen 1839 ( mammalia : pilosa : mylodontinae ) , and functional morphology of the forelimb\n( 2016 ) . pcom scholarly papers . 1851 . urltoken\n' eubradys antiquus belongs to eubradys ' according to leidy 1853 ' eubradys antiquus is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' eumylodon chapadmalensis belongs to eumylodon ' according to kraglievich 1925 ' eumylodon chapadmalensis is recombined as glossotherium chapadmalense ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' eumylodon chapadmalensis is recombined as glossotherium chapadmalense ' according to kraglievich 1928 ' megalonyx harlani is recombined as paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' megalonyx potens belongs to megalonyx ' according to leidy 1853 ' megalonyx potens is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' mylodon garmani is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' mylodon renidens is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' mylodon sodalis is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' mylodon sulcidens is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' mylodon tenuceps belongs to mylodon ' according to stock 1917 ' mylodon tenuceps is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' mylodon tenuceps is a subjective synonym of mylodon harlani ' according to stock 1925 ' nothrotherium graciliceps is a subjective synonym of nothrotheriops shastensis ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' nothrotherium shastense is recombined as nothrotheriops shastensis ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' nothrotherium texanum is recombined as nothrotheriops texanus ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' oryctotherium missouriense belongs to oryctotherium ' according to harlan 1841 ' oryctotherium missouriense is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' oryctotherium oregonense belongs to oryctotherium ' according to perkins 1843 ' oryctotherium oregonense is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' paramylodon nebrascensis is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' paramylodon belongs to mylodontidae ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995\nwoodward , who had inspected the mylodon\u2019s hide , correctly expressed his surprise that such a remarkable creature if still alive somewhere in patagonia had never been seen by any of the other scientists and explorers who had been in the region .\namongst the 15 or so new mammals identified by richard owen in the crates of fossils was the fairly large sloth , mylodon darwinii . this large beast was described on the basis of a jawbone and named in honour of its discoverer .\nh\u00f6ss , m . , et al . ( 1996 ) , \u2018molecular phylogeny of the extinct ground sloth mylodon darwinii \u2018 , proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the u . s . a . , 93 , 181 - 85 . [ full article ]\nmylodon probably subsisted on the foliage of trees and shrubs . well - developed claws were probably used to dig up tubers or to hold branches while the animal stripped them of leaves . mylodon and its relatives were the dominant group of south american ground sloths ; they are distinguished from other ground sloths by the presence of upper canine teeth , triangular cheek teeth , and a small first toe on the hind limbs . two closely related genera , paramylodon and glossotherium , were widely distributed and even spread into many regions of north america .\ni ' m looking for information on expeditions at the beginning of the 20th century to find evidence of a living mylodon . you mention illing ( 1898 ) . do you know where i would find information on this , or other expeditions ( other than prichards ) ?\ndescription of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen ; with observations on the osteology , natural affinities and probable habits of the megatherioid quadrupeds in general by owen , richard : r . and j . e . taylor / john van voorst hardcover - urltoken\n[ \u2026 ] i actually wrote a little bit about one member of the mylodonitidae family last year when darwin extracted one of its jaw bones near punta alta . that particular species was ultimately named after darwin by richard owen ( for more on mylodon darwinii see darwin\u2019s sloth ) . [ \u2026 ]\nwe ' re sorry ; this specific copy is no longer available . here are our closest matches for description of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen ; with observations on the osteology , natural affinities and probable habits of the megatherioid quadrupeds in general by owen , richard .\nwhen during a lecture , the then leading british authority in zoology , sir edwin ray lankester announced that the mylodon may still be alive somewhere in patagonia , mr . pearson , the owner or london\u2019s daily express newspaper quickly funded an expedition to hunt it down under the leadership of hesketh prichard . [ 5 ]\ndescription of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen , with observations on the osteology , natural affinities , and probable habits of the megatherioid quadrupeds in general . by richard owen . conservator of the museum of the royal college of surgeons in london . pub . by direction of the council\nty - book ti - description of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen , with observations on . . . megatherioid quadrupeds in general / vl - 1842 ur - urltoken cy - london , py - 1842 au - owen , richard , au - hunterian museum ( royal college of surgeons ) er -\nameghino also said that at first he was puzzled by the description that lista gave of his pangolin and unsuccessfully tried to identify the animal . when he finally got a piece of the skin from his brother , he had no doubts that lista ' s pangolin was a variety of mylodon . its smaller ossicles implied that it was a smaller species .\nthe mylodon ' s cave has a gaping mouth , filled with toothy stalactites at the entrance . it\u2019s hard to imagine today , but the cave was once a blank face of rock at the far extreme of a glacial lake . as patagonia\u2019s wicked winds whipped up waves across the lake\u2019s surface , they battered the sandstone cliff and gradually gouged out the cave .\nthough hauthal was convinced that there were no giant sloths alive anywhere in patagonia , several expeditions were sent to search for them such as illing\u2019s ( 1898 ) at general paz lake and hesketh prichard\u2019s ( 1900 / 1 ) , who covered 2 . 900 km ( 1 , 800 mi . ) along the southern andes . neither of them f0und any signs of mylodon .\nthe first part of the mylodon to be discovered was a portion of it\u2019s hairy skin , which was found by german explorer hermann eberhard towards the end of the 19th century . taking the skin with him on his travels , questions soon arose about what sort of animal it could have come from , which piqued the interest of otto nordenskj\u00f6ld who further explored the cave .\namong these large sloths , was the mylodon , a herbivore about 3 m ( 10 ft . ) long , 1 , 5 m ( 5 ft . ) high and weighing more than one ton ( 2 , 204 lb . ) . its thick reddish haired hide was embedded with tiny dermal bones or \u201cossicles\u201d . these bean - sized bones acted as flexible protective armor against predators .\n. . . considering the atlas ( c1 ) , the wider occipital condyles of mylodon could be necessary to support its longer skull ( ~ 3 cm longer , sensu esteban , mcafee , 2007 and is well developed as in many other sloths and xenarthrans . the proximal end is displaced , with a medial flare that likely serves as mechanism for reorienting the line of action for elbow extension . . . .\nit was here at mylodon that i met grace , girlfriend 2 . a wren writer , who worked for the master at arms . we were together in that camp right up to when we were demobbed . the rest is as they say history , grace has always said that she should not have gone out with somebody also on the base staff , it stopped her meeting other boys , and she would certainly have got many others , she was such a looker . in lowestoft we started having potato and gravy pies probably the forerunner of the instant food shops like mcdonalds . at this time i advanced to leading wireman . it was now the run up time to the dday landings , this combined with the geographical position of lowestoft mylodon was in the forefront of perations . i was pleased that having gone through the london blitz i was playing evens a small part in the final stage of the war . although my part was fairly modest it was a good feeling . ve day celebrations came and went in lowestoft and our duties changed to decommissioning the landing craft along the banks of the river . following vj day with everyone being demobbed , mylodon by then had become a demobb centre i drew the short straw and had to stay and decommission the base .\n. . . glossotherium the surface is deeper and shorter . the radial notch that articulates with the head of the radius is ovate , concave , and transversely expanded , although its width is less than that in glossotherium ( mcafee , 2007 ) . the interosseous membrane ridge / scar is rather straight as it extends from the lateral point of the capitulum and radial notch toward the distal end in glossotherium but the ridge exhibits a more meandering course in mylodon . . . .\nsince the first discovery of the mylodon skin in 1895 , the remains of ancient humans have been found in the cave along with the bones of many animals that are now extinct , such as sabre - toothed cats , dwarf horses and litopternas ( a kind of hoofed mammal ) . there are so many bones and remains in the cave that it has been theorised that early humans used the cave as a natural trap , herding wild animals inside so they could be easily killed and eaten .\n. . . which the forelimb elements all represent the left side of the animal . this specimen is a young adult as the radius , ulna , and other elements in this specimen show incomplete growth and fusion ; the skull dimensions are also smaller than other mylodon specimens ( esteban mcafee , 2007 ) . comparisons are also made to ypm 15696 ( glos sotherium robustum ; complete right forearm except for the scaphoid ) , which has elements that conform to the radial fig . 2 ) . . .\non the approach to the mylodon\u2019s cave you take a well - maintained path through lenga and \u00f1irre trees , which are both kinds of nothofagus trees native to southern south america . draped in old man\u2019s beard lichen , the wood has an enchanted feel that makes it even more bizarre when you see the silhouette of a giant sloth , dwarf horse and saber - toothed cat peeking between the tree trunks . fortunately , the silhouettes are just life - sized representations designed to give visitors an idea of scale .\nwe now know that this was all wishful thinking ; the pen\u2019s \u201crock walls\u201d were just cave - ins of the cave\u2019s ceiling . it is also likely that the animals clustered in caves for company or were dragged there by the some non - human predator . the mylodon remains from eberhardt cave have been dated to 10 , 832 + / - 400 years bp and 12 , 984 + / - 76 years for droppings and bone collagen respectively ; [ 13 ] coincidental with the end of the megafauna\u2019s era .\n@ book { bhl104843 , title = { description of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen , with observations on . . . megatherioid quadrupeds in general / } , volume = { 1842 } , copyright = { public domain . the bhl considers that this work is no longer under copyright protection } , url = urltoken note = urltoken publisher = { london , } , author = { owen , richard , and hunterian museum ( royal college of surgeons ) } , year = { 1842 } , pages = { 284 } , }\neberhard took this piece of skin and hung it on a tree by his home and when dr . nils otto gustaf nordenskj\u00f6ld ( 1869 - 1928 ) , a swedish geologist , geographer , and polar explorer visited the region a year later , he showed him the skin . nordenskj\u00f6ld , quickly guessed that it belonged to some extinct creature and did some digging in the cave , unearthing bones and dung which , together with more pieces of skin , were sent back to sweden , where dr . einar l\u00f6nnberg would later ( 1899 ) identify it as belonging to a mylodon . [ 2 ] [ 3 ]\nlestodon is the most represented taxon among the xenarthrans and also from the whole sample studied for uruguay ( table ii ) . the nisp of lestodon from uruguay represents 31 % of the remains ( 479 specimens ) and its abundance is 9 % of the individuals present in the total studied fauna . among the most represented sloths , glossotherium follows , whose nisp corresponds to 4 % of the total sample studied ( 57 specimens ) and its abundance represents 1 . 4 % of the individuals . for megatherium the nisp of the uruguayan sample only represents 1 % of the remains ( 9 specimens ) and its abundance represents 0 . 1 % of the individuals . scelidotherium ' s nisp is very small , 0 . 3 % ( 5 specimens ) , and so its abundance was of 0 . 1 % , although mylodon presents even lower values , with a nisp of only 0 . 1 % ( 2 specimens ) and an abundance that represents 0 . 05 % of the individuals of the studied fauna .\nfor the total remains studied from the province of buenos aires ( table iii ) , the most represented taxon among the xenarthrans and among the whole analysed sample is scelidotherium ( nisp = 293 specimens ) , since its remains constitute 15 % of the studied fossils from the province and its abundance represents 9 % of the individuals . the second most represented taxon of the whole sample is glossotherium , whose nisp reaches 14 % of the studied remains ( 274 specimens ) and its abundance represents 7 % of the individuals . megatherium ' s nisp corresponds to 9 % of the remains ( 164 specimens , third place ) , and its abundance is 3 % of the individuals analysed in this fauna . among sloths , l . armatus follows , whose nisp represents 4 % of the studied remains ( 83 specimens ) and its abundance corresponds to 2 % of the individuals of the analysed fauna . finally , mylodon ' s nisp corresponds just to 2 % of the studied remains ( 34 specimens ) and its abundance to 1 % .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nan . acad . bras . ci\u00eanc . vol . 86 no . 1 rio de janeiro mar . 2014\na fauna de mam\u00edferos do pleistoceno da am\u00e9rica do sul inclui animais de grande tamanho que t\u00eam despertado o interesse dos cientistas durante mais de dois s\u00e9culos . aqui tencionamos atualizar o conhecimento da sua paleoecologia e disponibilizar nova evid\u00eancia a respeito de dois enfoques : energ\u00e9tica vs . densidade populacional e abund\u00e2ncia relativa de taxa f\u00f3sseis . para determinar se as faunas estavam balanceadas , modelos de densidade populacional foram aplicados a v\u00e1rias faunas sulamericanas e os resultados comparados com os que melhor descrevem a paleoecologia das faunas africanas . os resultados dos estudos de abund\u00e2ncia para a o uruguai e a prov\u00edncia de buenos aires durante o piso / idade lujanense revelam que as pregui\u00e7as comedoras de vulto ( lestodon e glossotherium ) foram mais abundantes no primeiro territ\u00f3rio . no entanto , os mais seletivos scelidotherium e megatherium eram mais abundantes no segundo . embora os valores obtidos tinham sido corrigidos para evitar tendenciamentos tafon\u00f4micos de tamanho , as regress\u00f5es lineares de abund\u00e2ncia vs . massa corporal n\u00e3o se ajustaram ao esperado para consumidores prim\u00e1rios e secund\u00e1rios . as faunas do pleistoceno da am\u00e9rica do sul se comportam diferentemente do que os modelos atualistas sugerem . mudan\u00e7as no n\u00edvel do mar e , portanto , da \u00e1rea dispon\u00edvel poderiam dar conta dessas diferen\u00e7as ; a possibilidade de que uma grande plan\u00edcie aluvial na \u00e1rea hoje submersa poderia explicar mudan\u00e7as estacionais , o que poderia modificar os c\u00e1lculos da energ\u00e9tica e da abund\u00e2ncia .\nthere are also other reasons for why the lujanian fauna causes fascination : one of its members , megatherium , was studied under a modern palaeontological approach as early as the final years of the 18 th century by cuvier himself ( cuvier 1796 ) and , even before that , it was the first extinct vertebrate reconstructed in life position ( bru de ram\u00f3n 1784 - 1786 ) . only a few decades later did the megafauna become one of the major sources of inspiration for darwin ' s ideas on evolution ( vizca\u00edno et al . 2009 ) .\nit should be added to former reasons the very large size of several of its members , as many species are proposed to have had adult body masses above one tonne ( fari\u00f1a et al . 1998 , 2013 , bargo et al . 2000 , vizca\u00edno et al . 2012 ) . moreover , their palaeoautecological traits are very peculiar and the studies on their palaeosynecology ( fari\u00f1a 1996 ) have shown unexpected trophic relationships , as discussed below .\ndetermination of the number of individuals per taxa present in a fossil assemblage is a prerequisite to perform many palaeoecological studies , especially those that involve relative or absolute abundance populations ( badgley 1986 ) . taphonomic context of an assemblage provides information to choose the appropriate quantification method : in this work the relative abundance in the lujanian community will be assessed using damuth ' s ( 1982 ) model , and such outcome will be integrated with those of the reanalysis just described above .\nall of the taxa found in the luj\u00e1n local fauna and listed in tonni et al . ( 1985 ) were classified according to their probable diet . nomenclature and taxonomy were updated as per prevosti and vizca\u00edno ( 2006 ) , soibelzon et al . ( 2005 ) and other sources . the masses of the extinct taxa were taken from previous estimations in literature ( smith et al . 2003 ) . those species whose masses were estimated to have been less than 10 kg were not considered in order to avoid the problem of the biases in fossilisation , preservation , and collection ( behrensmeyer and hill 1980 , damuth 1982 , see fari\u00f1a 1996 for further discussion ) .\nto estimate the population density of each herbivorous species , the general equation in damuth ( 1981 ) was used : log d = - 0 . 75 log m + 4 . 23\nwhere d is population density in number of individuals per square kilometre , and m is the body mass expressed in grams . this equation is empirical and was obtained from the study of many diverse modern ecosystems . the standard error of the slope is 0 . 026 . if the average minus one s . e . were used rather than - 0 . 75 there would be no important differences in the results .\nthe basal metabolic rate of these herbivores was recalculated , as per fari\u00f1a ( 1996 ) , following the equation in peters ( 1983 ) : log r = - 0 . 25 log m + 0 . 6128 where r is the per - second mass - specific metabolic rate ( in j kg \u20131 s \u20131 ) , and m is the body mass expressed in grams .\ndue to sound thermodynamical reasons related to the loss of free energy as the trophic level increases , and to biomechanical reasons related to limb bone strength allometry ( sorkin 2008 ) , the modern carnivora are known to be less abundant than their potential prey . thus , a different equation must be used to estimate their population density ; that obtained by damuth ( 1993 ) for african flesh - eaters ( same symbols as above ) : log d = - 0 . 64 log m + 2 . 23 .\nthe basal metabolic rate of species belonging to carnivora is also described by a specific formula , because predators tend to consume more energy than herbivores , even at rest , and that , other things being equal , expenditure tends to be even higher as body size increases . thus , an appropriate equation , also from peters ( 1983 ) , was used : log r = - 0 . 27 log m + 0 . 6551 .\npleistocene : apart from luj\u00e1n , this model was also tested in other 14 south american faunas ( see fig 1 ) . faunal lists were obtained from the paleobiology database and the criterion for choosing them was the presence of at least two carnivore species within them . body masses were obtained from smith et al . ( 2003 ) and other sources ( casamiquela 1984 , hartwig and cartelle 1996 , pomi 2008 ) .\nlinear regressions for the five models applied to the fifteen south american faunas . all variables are given in j m \u20132 year \u20131 . dotted line represents the regression and solid line the expected ratio ( slope = 1 ) .\nfour more models were also tested in these faunas . the first one was a modification of the calculation of population density for the carnivores , since this was an important issue of debate in prevosti and vizca\u00edno ( 2006 ) . the equation was obtained from carbone and gittleman ( 2002 ) : log d = - 0 . 88 m + 2 . 296 , where d is the population density expressed in individuals per 100 km 2 and m is the body mass in kg .\nthe second new model was a modification of the model in fari\u00f1a ( 1996 ) in the calculation of the secondary productivity . this was made following western ( 1983 ) : log p = 0 . 67 log m s + log n + 1 . 14 , where p is the net productivity expressed in kcal km \u20132 year \u20131\u2013 n is the population density ( individuals per km 2 ) and m s is the equivalent in kcal of the animal ' s body mass . in order to obtain m s the body mass in gr was multiplied by the caloric value of the mammalian body , 1 . 5 kcal g \u20131 ( banse and mosher 1980 , western 1983 ) . production values were transformed into j m \u20132 year \u20131 in order for them to be comparable to the values of the carnivore ' s energetic requirements .\nthe third new model was a mixture of both the first and second models . population density of the carnivores was calculated following carbone and gittleman ( 2002 ) and secondary productivity was calculated following western ( 1983 ) .\nthe fourth new model changed the way population density was calculated , as well as the secondary productivity . the population density was calculated following silva et al . ( 2001 ) . the equations used were those for herbivores and carnivores :\ncarnivores : log d = 1 . 41 \u2013 1 . 83 ( log m ) \u2013 0 . 34 ( log m 2 ) + 0 . 28 ( log m 3 )\nwhere d is the population density expressed in individuals per square km , and m their body mass in kg . secondary productivity was calculated following western ( 1983 ) .\nin all the models used , if there was a difference of 15 % between the secondary productivity and the carnivores energetic requirements , the fauna was considered balanced .\nregarding the remains from the province of buenos aires , two different counts were performed : one involving all the specimens assigned to the lujanian age , and a differential one including only the remains from the local faunas of luj\u00e1n , paso otero and quequ\u00e9n salado - indio rico . each of these localities owns a characteristic local fauna that considered together define the typical faunistical association of the lujanian .\nthe masses of the studied taxa were taken as per the energetics section and also from gonz\u00e1lez ( 2001 ) and toledo ( 1996 ) .\nto estimate abundance the counts were based on the number of identified specimens ( nisp ) , understanding that specimen refers to a bone , tooth or fragment ( klein and cruz - uribe 1984 ) . mni counts tend to diminish values of the most common species and overestimate those of odd species ( damuth 1982 , arribas and palmqvist 1998 ) . nisp counts did not consider glyptodont scutes nor cervid antlers .\nif the model used in fari\u00f1a ( 1996 ) is applied to fifteen south american faunas , including the luj\u00e1n local fauna , and the secondary productivity is compared to the energetic requirements of the carnivores , then no faunas are ecologically balanced ( table i ) and the relationship between these two variables is rather weak ( r 2 = 0 . 3 ; figure 1a ) . the first new model applied here ( modified from fari\u00f1a 1996 ) does not show any balanced faunas either , and the relationship between both variables is weak ( r 2 = 0 . 28 ; table i , figure 1b ) .\nsecondary productivity of the herbivores and requirements of the carnivores for south american faunas . coloured cells indicate balanced faunas .\nthe productivity model shows that there are only three balanced faunas in this continent ( table i ) . the regression shows that the secondary productivity and the carnivores ' requirements are not closely related ( r 2 = 0 . 3 ; figure 1c ) . the model that combines productivity and carnivore density shows similar results to those obtained using the first model ( table i , figure 2d ) .\nthe last model , i . e . , productivity + silva et al . ( 2001 ) , indicates that there are two balanced faunas in south america ( table i ) , and that the relationship between the variables is even worse than that seen in the other models ( r 2 = 0 . 16 ; figure 1e ) . the present fauna of the serengeti was included as an actualistic control and was found to be balanced with this model .\nthe uruguayan sample analysed is composed of 1568 specimens ( nisp ) , 81 of them juveniles . a percentage of 4 . 5 % ( 71 specimens ) was identified at the order level , while 20 . 7 % ( 324 specimens ) were classified at the family or subfamily level and the remaining 74 . 8 % ( 1173 specimens ) were classified at the generic level .\nthe sample from the province of buenos aires includes 1889 specimens ( nisp ) , 51 of them juveniles . a percentage of 0 . 4 % ( 7 specimens ) was identified at the order level , 4 . 1 % ( 77 specimens ) were classified at the family or subfamily level and 95 . 5 % ( 1805 specimens ) were identified at the generic level .\ntaxa counts of primary ( a ) and secondary ( b ) consumers in the considered sample for uruguay , including size category , estimated body mass , number of specimens ( adults / juveniles , nisp ) and estimated relative abundance .\ntaxa counts of primary ( a ) and secondary ( b ) consumers in the considered sample for the province of buenos aires , including size category , estimated body mass , number of specimens ( adults / juveniles , nisp ) and estimated relative abundance .\nwith regard to the size categories in primary consumers , the most represented one in uruguay was category ii ( between 10 and 100 kg ) including 13 taxa . in the province of buenos aires and the localities of luj\u00e1n , paso otero and quequ\u00e9n salado - indio rico , the most represented body size category was the iii ( between 100 and 1000 kg ) , with 13 and 12 taxa respectively .\nthe discussion will follow the main topics addressed in this paper ( energetics and abundance ) and other subjects that can provide additional information relevant to the results presented here : food preferences and abundance , size of predators and isotopes .\nin the model employed in fari\u00f1a ( 1996 ) , the luj\u00e1n local fauna was not balanced . however , this model explained well the ecology of other local faunas : venta micena , lower pleistocene of spain ( palmqvist et al . 2003 ) , chapadmalalan and barranca de los lobos , plio - pleistocene of argentina ( vizca\u00edno et al . 2004 ) , puesto la costa and campo barranca , miocene of argentina ( vizca\u00edno et al . 2010 ) . as said above , these results rely on the condition of the models being taxon - free , hence independent of phylogenetical variables ( although they are included in the inference of the basal metabolism ) . this is why a phororhacid ( a large predatory tertiary running bird ) was included in the energetic calculations of the miocene faunas of argentina studied in vizca\u00edno et al . ( 2010 ) .\nit was also very useful as a starting point to develop other mathematical models that tried to explain the peculiar ecology of the megamammals that inhabited the continent .\nprevosti and vizca\u00edno ( 2006 ) suggested that the approach used in fari\u00f1a ( 1996 ) was not accurate , since the carnivore population densities were not the ones found by this author . according to the authors , who compiled the information from several sources about carnivore population ecology , they stress that those populations are affected by several ecological factors that should have been taken into account , like prey abundance and diseases . these authors also suggested that the mylodontids should have been less abundant , given their low metabolic rates .\nit is important to address the fact that prevosti and vizca\u00edno ( 2006 ) studied only one side of the imbalance proposed by fari\u00f1a ( 1996 ) , i . e . , the relationship between the secondary productivity and the requirements of the carnivores . fari\u00f1a ( 1996 ) showed that there was another side to that imbalance , the primary productivity in the luj\u00e1n local fauna having been too low for the herbivores to survive . again in this case , it should be noted that these models are time - averaged ( see below ) , i . e . they are instantaneous and not dynamic simulations , such as the evolutionary impact on species populations by a new predator ( see , for instance , alroy 2001 ) . this issue was not considered in the models used , since there was not enough data on primary productivity in the different areas of the south american continent to make comparisons with .\neven though the analysed faunas were corrected in order to avoid taphonomic biases , in all the studied cases the obtained values for the slope in the graph of abundance vs . body mass did not fit damuth ' s ( 1982 ) model ( - 1 . 05\u00b10 . 25 ) : log a = - 1 . 05 ( log m ) .\nas proposed by damuth ( 1982 ) , the \u201cassemblage\u201d studied does not need to be very defined : the fauna of a whole formation can be considered as an assemblage if we suspect that it is the same community of individuals ( again , vaguely defined ) . in this sense , the fossiliferous localities considered in the analysis for uruguay and the province of buenos aires correspond to the studied temporal lapse ; for this reason , it is assumed that the registered taxa are members of the same palaeocommunity . the specimens from the localities included in the counting , constitute a random sample of the then hypothetic living assemblage .\nit must be taken into account that the classification of the studied taxa into certain ecological feeding categories following miljutin ( 2009 ) , where within the primary consumers we include the herbivorous and the frugivorous taxa , and within the secondary consumers the animalivorous taxa , reflects an a priori categorization that might imply some difference with the real habits of the taxa . for example , conepatus , described as an omnivorous mainly insectivorous ( gonz\u00e1lez 2001 ) was included within the secondary consumers .\nregarding the abundance of secondary consumers presented in this work , all the registered genera in the studied region were counted ( 9 for the analysed sample from uruguay , table iib , and 11 for the province of buenos aires sample , table iiib ) , resulting in a greater number of studied taxa than in the original analysis ( fari\u00f1a 1996 ) . this increment is also due to the inclusion of minor size taxa such as dusicyon and lontra , which results in a higher number of secondary consumers than the registered in south american tertiary faunas and is also consistent with observations in extant south american faunas ( prevosti and vizca\u00edno 2006 and their references ) .\nfinally , in the studied sample for uruguay lestodon armatus is the most represented taxon ( nisp = 31 % ) and its abundance corresponds to 9 % of the studied fauna . the records of megatherium and scelidotherium in uruguay are scarce : nisp of the sample reaches only 1 and 0 . 3 % of the studied specimens , respectively , and its abundances 0 . 1 and 0 . 05 % of the individuals of the studied fauna . in contrast , in the province of buenos aires , scelidotherium is the most represented taxon of the sample ( nisp = 15 % ) and its abundance is similar to that observed for l . armatus in uruguay ( 9 % ) , whereas megatherium constitutes the third most represented taxon ( nisp = 9 % of the studied specimens ) and its estimated abundance is 3 % of the individuals analysed in this fauna , hardly greater that the observed for l . armatus ( 2 % ) .\nsloths muzzle analyses developed by bargo ( 2001a ) and bargo et al . ( 2006 a , b ) propose that in megatherium americanum and scelidotherium leptocephalum narrower muzzles are indicative of selective or mixed feeder habits , and their prensile lips were used to select plants or parts of plants . mcdonald ( 1997 , cited in bargo et al . 2006b ) stated that s . leptocephalum probably looked for buried food with the help of its forelimbs , even if it could also feed on other vegetation closer to the substrate level .\npreliminary observations of growth lines on glyptodont teeth suggest the potential for reconstruction of many aspects of the life history of these mammals , including the search for seasonal periodicities and growth rhythms .\nthe averages of the obtained values of \u03b4 13 c for lestodon armatus from uruguay ( - 18 . 8 % , czerwonogora et al . 2011 ) and glossotherium robustum from the province of buenos aires ( - 20 . 5 % , czerwonogora et al . 2011 ) indicate a preference for c3 vegetation and rather open environments , similar to those currently found in northern patagonia . those results are compatible with the ones obtained in modern primary consumers in open habitats ( deniro and epstein 1978 ) .\nmoreover , those high values of 15 n are congruent with some marks found in a fragmentary left rib of a very large mammal , probably a giant sloth or a mastodont . the spacing of the damage marks fits well with the distance between the mesiodistal lophs of the teeth ( fari\u00f1a 2002 ) .\nafrican mammalian faunas in the pleistocene are very similar ( if not identical ) to those existing today , so the model that best explains their dynamics could be the starting point used to study other faunas in the rest of the continents . the south american mammals that lived in the pleistocene are different from those existing today , so the model may have to be modified to address this issue . however , this cannot be done until the faunas in the paleobiology database are improved both in number of species and in quantity .\none could then speculate on the possibility that mammals might have experienced seasonal migrations , which would have resulted in a more efficient usage of vegetation by the herbivores . the dramatic reduction of the available area subsequent to the end of the glacial period , together with the effects of the end - pleistocene human arrival in the americas , must have been crucial factors in the extinction of this fauna .\nall these approaches open new and exciting possibilities for future research on the unique and bizarre mammals from south america , whose design and evolutionary history captivated george gaylord simpson and many others like us .\nalroy j . 2001 . a multispecies overkill simulation of the end - pleistocene megafaunal mass extinction . science 292 : 1893 - 1896 . 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[ links ]\nbargo ms , vizca\u00edno sf , archuby fm and blanco re . 2000 . limb bone proportions , strength and digging in some lujanian ( late pleistocene - early holocene ) mylodontid ground sloths ( mammalia , xenarthra ) . j vert paleontol 20 : 601 - 610 . [ links ]\nbehrensmeyer ak and hill ap . 1980 . eds . fossils in the making : vertebrate paleoecology and taphonomy . university of chicago press , 338 p . [ links ]\nbru de ram\u00f3n jb . 1784 - 1786 . colecci\u00f3n de l\u00e1minas que representan a los animales y monstruos del real gabinete de historia natural . 2 volumes . imprenta de andr\u00e9s de sotos : madrid , spain , p . 76 . [ links ]\ncarbone c and gittleman jl . 2002 . a common rule for the scaling of carnivore density . science 295 : 2273 - 2276 . [ links ]\ncasamiquela r . 1984 . critical catalogue of some chilean fossil vertebrates . i . the deers : complementary considerations on antifer ( antifer niemeyeri n . sp . ) , the pleistocene giant deer . quat south amer ant pen 2 : 41 - 45 . [ links ]\ncione al and tonni ep . 1999 . biostratigraphy and chronological scale of uppermost cenozoic in the pampean area , argentina . in : tonni ep and cione al ( eds ) , quaternary vertebrate paleontology in south america : quat south amer ant pen 12 : 23 - 51 . [ links ]\ncione al and tonni ep . 2001 . correlation of pliocene to holocene southern south american and european vertebrate - bearing units . in : rook l and torre d ( eds ) , neogene and quaternary continental stratigraphy and mammal evolution : b soc paleontol ital 40 : 167 - 173 . 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[ links ]\nczerwonogora a . 2010 . morfolog\u00eda , sistem\u00e1tica y paleobiolog\u00eda de los perezosos gigantes del g\u00e9nero lestodon gervais 1855 ( mammalia , xenarthra , tardigrada ) . phd thesis . universidad nacional de la plata , argentina . [ links ]\nczerwonogora a and fari\u00f1a ra . 2013 . how many pleistocene species of lestodon ( mammalia , xenarthra , gravigrada ) ? j syst palaeont 11 : 251 - 263 . [ links ]\nczerwonogora a , fari\u00f1a ra and tonni ep . 2011 . diet and isotopes of late pleistocene ground sloths : first results for lestodon and glossotherium ( xenarthra , tardigrada ) . n jb geol pal\u00e4ont abh 262 : 257 - 266 . [ links ]\ndamuth j . 1981 . population density and body size in mammals . nature 290 : 699 - 700 . [ links ]\ndamuth j . 1982 . analysis of the preservation of community structure in assemblages of fossil mammals . paleobiol 8 : 434 - 446 . [ links ]"]}
{"id": 628, "summary": [{"text": "the payara , hydrolycus scomberoides , is a species of dogtooth tetra .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this predatory fish is found in the amazon basin , where the tapaj\u00f3s river appears to the eastern limits of its range .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it was the first of four species to be described in the genus hydrolycus . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "payara", "paragraphs": ["payara foundation is the home for payara server\u2019s and payara micro\u2019s code and documentation .\npayara foundation relies on the payara community for contributions to the payara server source code and documentation .\npayara micro maven plugin has three goals ; payara - micro : bundle , payara - micro : start and payara - micro : stop .\nto use payara micro is very easy . now payara micro is integrated with any ides by using payara micro maven plugin .\nupdated repository for payara dockerfiles . this repository is for the full profile of payara server .\npayara server & payara micro docker images are available for you to download from the docker hub .\nglassfish is a trademark of the eclipse foundation . payara is a trademark of the payara foundation .\nyou get exclusive access to extensively tested , fully supported binary builds of payara server and payara micro .\npayara foundation is a uk not for profit organisation that organises the development and promotion of payara server .\npreviously , there is a problem that it ' s difficult to develop applications for payara micro without payara server because no ides support payara micro directly . now it has solved to use payara micro maven plugin .\npayara server 5 development is coordinated by the payara foundation , a uk not - for - profit organisation .\nyou can now watch ondrej mihalyi , payara support engineer and steve millidge , payara ceo talks from . . .\nyou will benefit from payara\u2019s partnership with azul , providing you with access to use zulu enterprise - fully - supported builds of openjdk - with payara server and payara micro .\nyou get exclusive access to monthly releases of payara server and payara micro including crucial fixes and patches via the features stream .\nyou can request specific fixes to be backported to the version of payara server and payara micro you use in production where possible .\nmultibytecode ( charset = cp 932 ) is included in domain . xml . \u00b7 issue # 1827 \u00b7 payara / payara \u00b7 github\nusing payara support is also a vital form of contribution towards payara server development . our customers ' support subscriptions fund development and engineering effort of the payara server open source project - we would not be able to make the continuous improvements to payara server without their help ! to find out more about the payara support download our brochure here .\ngithub - payara / payara : payara server is an open source middleware platform that supports reliable and secure deployments of java ee ( jakarta ee ) applications in any environment : on premise , in the cloud or hybrid .\npayara 172 has various new features that are highly cloud - focused . a part of them , payara micro maven plugin is provided . it ' s a small but useful tools to develop applications running on payara micro .\n\u00a9 payara 2018 . all rights reserved . java & java ee are registered trademarks of oracle and / or its affiliates . glassfish is a registered trademark of eclipse foundation . payara and its logos are a trademark of payara foundation .\ni\u2019m very satisfied with the speediness and quality of replies from the payara\u2019s support team .\nour commercial support services give you 24 hour support for your production payara server environment .\nthe payara is featured in the first season of the animal planet show river monsters .\nlink to core documentation is broken + description looks outdated . - payara server \u00b7 gitbook\npayara ( cynodontidae et al . ) id and care guide 2 . 01 | urltoken\nraise tickets for bugs , incidents or questions related to payara server or payara micro , including any general questions you may have about configuration , deployment , security , monitoring and troubleshooting .\ngoal payara - micro : start doesn ' t use uber jar in default . the goal supports various option of payara micro , thus it ' s not specified to uber jar .\nif you want to know more information , see payara micro maven plugin ' s page .\nthe second is uber jar . we may run it either on cli directly or via the plugin ' s goals ; payara - micro : start and payara - micro : stop . the way to use the plugin can be integrated with any ides , so we ' re able to develop applications for payara micro easily even if we don ' t use payara server .\npayara foundation is a not - for - profit with the mission to ensure the continued development and maintenance of payara server as open source software for the benefit of its community of users .\nyes - payara will swim in schools of 6 or more in a very , very large space .\nitac software is happy with the level of commercial support payara has provided to our company since 2015 . all tickets raised were fast resolved , we are certainly pleased with the payara developers ' team reaction time .\nthe payara is almost identical in appearance to its close relative the sabertooth characin hydrolycus armatus , but the payara is almost twice as large . the payara can also be distinguished from its cousin by a small circular dark spot on its gill cover , while the same marking on h . armatus is more of a bar shape .\nwe are a dedicated team of professionals devoted to open source , java , our customers , and the community . we are major contributors to the development and engineering effort of the payara server open source project and the payara foundation .\nwe are a dedicated team of professionals devoted to open source , java , our customers , and the community . we are major contributors to the development and engineering effort of the payara server open source project and the payara foundation .\n1 unit = 1 payara server java virtual machine ( jvm ) , das or instance . 1 unit = 5 payara micro java virtual machines ( jvms ) . 1 unit = 6 cpu cores . cores can be physical or virtual .\nwe take glassfish , support it , add fixes , add enhancements and we release it as open source payara server .\nthere are also many types of frozen fishes that are very suitable for inclusion in the diet of tanked payara . since payara are more often sold as juveniles , common silversides work extremely well as a staple food fish due to their smaller size . of course , as the payara grow , their food will have to increase in size and quantity , too .\npayara baits payara feed on a number of baitfish , and i imagine most fish found in their area that are small enough to get in their mouths would work . where to get the big payara they are only found in the amazon . venezuela has historically had the best fishery for big ones at uraima falls but that has become a much dicier destination due to safety concerns . columbia , peru , and bolivia all have good fisheries , and bolivia is where i caught the fish pictured . other payara resources these guys are the best in the business at putting people on payara : urltoken , urltoken\nthe support team replies are speedy and the payara engineers are always happy to go the extra mile to clarify a query .\nsee here for all versions of payara server including tar . gz format , web profile , embedded and multi - language .\nwe have added full jcache support , enhanced jbatch functionality , replaced shoal with hazelcast for session clustering and are driving development of payara micro . a completely new way of running war applications on top of an embedded glassfish core , payara micro is ideally suited to cloud and microservice architectures with elastic clustering and no installation . payara micro can run war applications simply , using :\nwe have to create a war file before run payara - micro : bundle . the goal assumes the war file exists .\nirving , texas - - ( business wire ) - - exxon mobil corporation ( nyse : xom ) today announced it has discovered additional oil in the payara reservoir offshore guyana , increasing the total payara discovery to approximately 500 million oil - equivalent barrels .\npayara server 5 is a patched , enhanced , and supported application server derived from glassfish server open source edition 5 . x .\nthe following example dockerfile will build an image that starts payara server and deploys myapplication . war when the docker container is started :\na hot fix is a patched module , or modules , of payara server which we can provide to you if an urgent solution is required . these personalized fixes enable you to get a rapid problem solution for your current version of payara server running in production .\nthe payara is a large , difficult fish to keep . the biggest concerns with the payara are lack of space and food , and providing pristine water that is highly oxygenated . even if these needs are met , payara mysteriously do not survive long in captivity . they often live only for 6 months to a year , with only a few reports of keeping them for up to 2 years .\nthe payara ' s diet mainly consist of smaller fish ; they impale other fish with their sharp teeth and consume them . in the\npayara is a large fish species found in the amazon river basin and that is a popular fish among sport fishers . payara fishing allures a relatively large number of tourists to different fast moving waters in their natural habitats in brazil , bolivia , peru , ecuador and venezuela .\npayara micro , compatible with eclipse microprofile , is perfect for microservice and cloud environments . this microservices - ready version of payara server enables you to run war files from the command line without any application server installation . it is small , less than 70mb in size , and incredibly simple to use . with its automatic and elastic clustering , payara micro is designed for running java ee applications in a modern virtualized infrastructure .\nwe received guidance through professional support on payara server clustering features as web session and ejb which contributed to a quick resolution of our issue .\npayara server is a fully supported , developer - friendly , open source application server . payara server\u2019s architecture is innovative , cloud - native and optimized for production deployments . the application server , compatible with eclipse microprofile , is built and supported by a team of devops engineers dedicated to the continued development and maintenance of the open source software and committed to optimizing payara server as the best option for production java ee applications .\nyou will receive full support for a growing number of payara integration components including maven plugins , cloud connectors , docker images and ide connectors .\nthe docker container specifies the default entry point , which starts the default domain domain1 in foreground so that payara server becomes the main process .\nin default , this plugin uses payara micro 4 . 1 . 1 . 171 . unfortunately , this version cannot run on windows platform because of its bug . ( therefore payara micro 4 . 1 . 1 . 171 . 0 . 1 was released instead of it . )\npayara can reach a length of 120 cm or 47 inch and a weight of 18 kg ( 40 pounds ) they are extremely aggressive predatory fish that is found in fast moving water and rapids . payara fish are capable of eating fish that are half their own body size .\nthe payara are mainly known as a game fish and are prized by fisherman for their fighting ability . this is a member of the cynodontidae family , which are called sabre toothed tiger fish , dogtooth characins , or dogteeth tetras . the hydrolycus genus consists of four species . collectively , they are called pirandir\u00e1 or payara . its common names are vampire tetra , vampire characin , payara characin , and sabre toothed tiger fish .\nfeed your payara feeder fish and other live food . make sure to offer them a varied diet . you can often teach your payara to accept dead food such as frozen food and pieces of fish and it is sometimes possible to teach them to accept pellets although this isn\u2019t always the case .\nthe payara ' s most noticeable feature is the two long fangs protruding from its lower jaw . these fangs can be 4 to 6 inches long .\npayara fish usually hunts in open water rather then at the surface so sinking fish lures such as spoon and jigs are the best choice . make sure that you have enough line on your reel when fishing this fish since a payara easily can peel of up to 150 yards of line in the first few seconds of the fight . payara are usually fished on a catch and release basic since larger specimens today are becoming quite rare in many waters .\nthe default entry point starts the server in the domain1 domain . if you want to start it with a different domain , e . g . payaradomain , you may provide the domain name in the payara _ domain environment variable . the following would start payara server in payaradomain , without changing the entry point :\nthere are a lot of smaller payara and peixe - cachorro species present in the same areas and these usually makes better aquarium fish for the normal aquarist .\npayara micro 172 or later , it shows urls and rest endpoints in the end of starting log . so we ' re able to obtain the paths definitely .\nthe payara developer support service has been relevant to us not only in terms of sorting out issues but it has also contributed to expand our knowledge about the server .\nit best not too . that fish is a threat to other fish and even bigger fish . you can learn more info at payara , social behaviors . : )\npayara fish is mainly suitable for public aquariums and is not suitable to be kept in private aquariums unless their demand for space and fast moving water can be meet and most aquarist are not capable of meeting the requirements . a payara requires a very large aquarium or a large pond . i would not recommend keeping them in aquarium tanks / ponds smaller then 500 gallons ( 2000 l ) due to their size and even then it might be impossible to keep more then one payara due to their aggressiveness . i can however vouch for the fact that a payara fish makes a fascinating addition to any aquarium large enough to house them even if i haven\u2019t had the pleasure to keep one myself .\nin order to deploy applications , you can mount the $ deploy _ dir ( / opt / payara41 / deployments ) folder as a docker volume to a directory , which contains your applications . the following will run payara server in the docker and will start applications that exist in the directory ~ / payara / apps on the local file - system :\nit\u2019s regularly confused with the payara , h . armatus , though that species grows considerably larger , is popular with sports anglers and unsuitable for all but the very largest home aquaria .\n\u201cpayara - 2 confirms the second giant field discovered in guyana , \u201d said steve greenlee , president of exxonmobil exploration company . \u201cpayara , liza and the adjacent satellite discoveries at snoek and liza deep will provide the foundation for world class oil developments and deliver substantial benefits to guyana . we are committed to continue to evaluate the full potential of the stabroek block . \u201d\npayara server is an open source middleware platform that supports reliable and secure deployments of java ee ( jakarta ee ) applications in any environment : on premise , in the cloud or hybrid .\nthis microservices - ready version of payara server is perfect for cloud environments . compatible with eclipse microprofile 1 . 2 , small ( < 70mb ) and incredibly simple to use , it enables you to run war files from the command line without any application server installation . with its automatic and elastic clustering , payara micro is designed for running java ee applications in a modern virtualized infrastructure .\nthe well was successfully drilled by exxonmobil affiliate esso exploration and production guyana limited and encountered 59 feet ( 18 meters ) of high - quality , oil - bearing sandstone in the payara field .\npayara server is a patched , enhanced and supported application server derived from glassfish server open source edition 4 . x . visit urltoken for full 24 / 7 support and lots of free resources .\nlatest version of payara micro maven plugin is 1 . 0 . 0 - snapshot , thus it ' s not on maven central repository . at first we check out from github and build it .\npayara are as earlier mentioned much appreciated sport fish due to the impressive fights they put up . payara fish is usually considered to be one of the fiercest struggling freshwater fishes , offering a larger fight then other popular fishes from the area such as peacock bass . they also add to the sport of catching them by jumping up and down out of the water in a similar way to salmon .\nsince version 172 , payara server supports running asadmin commands automatically after the domain is started , including the deploy command to deploy applications . this is the preferred way to deploy applications on docker container startup .\n< build > < plugins > < ! - - snip - - > < plugin > < groupid > fish . payara . maven . plugins < / groupid > < artifactid > payara - micro - maven - plugin < / artifactid > < version > 1 . 0 . 0 - snapshot < / version > < / plugin > < ! - - snip - - > < / plugins > < / build >\nwhen running the domain1 domain , payara server automatically deploys all deployable files in the directory specified by the $ autodeploy _ dir environment variable ( it refers to the autodeploy directory in the domain directory of domain1 ) .\nbecause basically those are still young juvenile as an adult sabre tooth tetra can actually reach maximum length of 26 inches . there are also different variants of the fish and the most popular is the red tailed payara .\npayara server 5 is a drop in replacement for glassfish server open source with the peace of mind of quarterly releases containing enhancements , bug fixes and patches including patches to dependent libraries , as required , including tyrus , eclipse link , jersey and others . our vision is to optimise payara server and make it the best server for production java applications with responsive 24 / 7 dedicated incident and software support from the best middleware engineers in the industry .\nlarge catfishes should be excluded from a setup containing payara , as their nighttime forays will inadvertently freak out the payara and perhaps cause them to damage themselves by slamming into the tank\u2019s glass , canopy , and decorations , as well as into other fishes . that having been said , though , i did see one nice display of h . armatus that contained several large pleco - type sucker - mouth catfish . needless to say , the tank was spotless !\nour global team of specialist payara server support engineers delivers 24 / 7 production , development & migration support directly to our customers worldwide . when our customers need support \u2013 they get it straight from the engineers rather than an outsourced help desk employee .\npayara are characins belonging to the subfamily cynodontinae , the root of which literally translates from latin into \u201cdogtooth\u201d in english . they are capable of exceeding 3 feet in total length and nearly 40 pounds in overall weight\u2014now that\u2019s a big , toothy tetra !\nthis runs goal payara - micro : bundle with goal install . so that we may do only one step ` mvn install ` to build an application and create uber jar . ( i think it ' s very useful , don ' t you ? )\npayara generally do very poorly in aquariums that have bad water quality . on the whole , payara are very sensitive to water containing a high level of dissolved metabolites . i have found , through trial and error , that the best way to maintain proper water quality is to perform very large and very frequent water changes . never change a large percentage of water and clean the filter at the same time , however , as doing so will surely destroy too much of the beneficial bacteria colony , resulting in the aquarium becoming unbalanced . an unbalanced aquarium will have rising and falling levels of toxic compounds , such as ammonia , ammonium , and nitrites . payara that are exposed to these compounds will often break out in lesions , which quickly become infected and may lead to death .\nif you do want to try and keep tankmates with payara , there are a few species that i have seen work . first are some of the larger barbs , like spanner or tinfoil barbs . silver dollars seem to work well , too . some folks have kept large peacock bass in with their payara , but i fear that the peacock bass are too aggressive when it comes to feeding time , thus i would hesitate to house them together . the same is true for other large cichlids , like wolf cichlids or oscars .\nthis microservices - ready version of payara server is perfect for cloud environments . compatible with eclipse microprofile 1 . 2 , small ( < 70mb ) and incredibly simple to use , it enables you to run war files from the command line without any application server installation .\nthe ph , hardness , and alkalinity of an aquarium containing payara are not nearly as critical , so long as extremes are avoided . a general ph of 7 ( neutral ) is good . hardness and alkalinity measuring in the \u201cmoderate\u201d range is perfectly acceptable as well .\nthe enlarged canine teeth exhibited by payara enable them to trap their prey , thus allowing them to hold onto the fish until they can be positioned safely for ingestion , which occurs whole and head - first . only rarely are the eaten fishes actually punctured by the huge canines , but rather are held behind them before being swallowed . in aquariums , payara are more likely to just swallow the fish whole without employing this holding action ; perhaps in absence of a strong current , the need to hold their prey firmly is greatly reduced .\nthe support provided by payara has always been appropriate to the severity level of issues reported by bmw group . out - of - cycle patches were provided for more important issues which helped to fix problems in a short amount of time . regardless of where the root cause of the problem is located , either in payara server source code or application source code , the support team helped to find a solution and resolve the issue . bmw group has found that all major blocking issues have been resolved and newly found bugs are dealt with appropriately .\nsize information is wrong . hydrolycus scomb . is the smallest of the four payara species . h . armatus being the largest ( reaching 4\u2019 + in the wild and 2\u2019 + in aquariums ) . i have personally owned both species , and still own my hydrolycus armatus .\nin the wild , payara are often seen in groups , but in captivity , they tend to become belligerent towards their own species when kept in small groups . they can be kept in a school of 6 or more in a very , very large space or singly .\nthis fish will not survive if it feels crowded , so even though other large fish , such as a pacu or large catfish , will probably be able to survive in the same tank , the payara will do better if kept in a single species , single specimen tank .\njust a quick glance at their teeth should tell you that payara are obviously carnivorous by nature , and specifically they are considered piscivorous\u2014that is , they eat fishes . in aquariums , and as with all types of predatory fishes , it is best to attempt to convert these predators to a diet of non - living foods . today we are blessed with a variety of various types of fresh and frozen foods like never before . i cannot stress enough the importance of converting payara to a diet of fresh smelt , mackerel , or other type of non - living food fish .\npayara server installation is located in the / opt / payara41 directory . this directory is the default working directory of the docker image . the directory name is deliberately free of any versioning so that any scripts written to work with one version can be seamlessly migrated to the latest docker image .\npayara are extremely difficult to keep . these large predacious fish are best cared for in public aquariums or by the most experienced fish keepers with the space , financial ability , and dedication to care for them . they sometimes refuse food in captivity , and once feeding , need a varied diet of fish .\ni would like to thank paul reiss of acute angling for providing top - shelf information from first - hand knowledge of payara in their native waters , and i would like to extend a special thanks to the fine members of urltoken for their continued support and helpful knowledge about the predators covered in my column .\npayara or vampire characin are not exactly rare , but smaller , aquarium - sized specimens are hard to find . when shipped from south america , they take up a lot of space , which makes shipping costs high . if you are lucky enough to find one for sale , the price will be high .\nin his career as a producer and host of hunting and fishing shows for cable television , trevor gowdy has tangled with a wide range of trophy game fish , including 1 , 000 - pound hammerheads in the florida keys , giant stingrays off the coast of thailand and razor - toothed payara below venezuela\u2019s uraima falls .\nafter you have converted your payara to feed on non - living whole fishes , the next step is to get them to consume a variety of other forms of seafood . i have used chopped squid , clam , and fish flesh with good success over the years . but i should also mention here that i primarily have kept the sister species h . scomberoides , which is a smaller , more aquarium - tolerant species of payara that should not be confused with the mighty h . armatus . regardless , the care of h . scomberoides is nearly identical to that of its bigger cousin\u2014only with h . armatus everything must be much , much larger !\nbecause payara server doesn ' t allow insecure remote admin connections ( outside of a docker container ) , the admin interface is secured by default ( in both the default domain1 as well as payaradomain ) , accessible using https on the host machine : https : / / localhost : 4848 the default user and password is admin .\ntankmates are probably a no - no on a long - term basis . sure , while h . armatus is young it will be fine , as long as the tankmates cannot be swallowed and are not overly aggressive to the point that the payara stress out from their presence . i tend to err on the side of caution , however , and fear that tankmates will cause more harm than good with these fish\u2014especially at the going rate for h . armatus these days ! don\u2019t get me wrong , plenty of people keep payara with other fishes and have zero problems , i just prefer to maintain them in a single - species , single - specimen type of aquarium setup .\npayara are carnivorous piscivores . they only eat live foods , and they love fish , preferably live ones . appropriate aquarium fare includes live foods such as feeder fish , earthworms , and river shrimps . these fish could probably be trained to eat whole dead fish , such as frozen silversides and lancefish , but this has not been confirmed .\npayara are true giants in the fish world . known more as game fish than aquarium fish in their native waters , these fascinating creatures are a sight to behold in a large display aquarium . they grow to immense proportions and consume only meaty foods , but their care is easy so long as the basics are afforded to them . while volumes can be written about this interesting and exciting group of fishes , it simply cannot be done here . i invite you to visit one of the fine internet discussion forums advertised in this column for more information on these fishes and to speak to other hobbyists who are just as interested in learning all there is to know about the venerable payara .\nas strategic members of the eclipse foundation , we invest our resources and expertise to improve , innovate and develop open source technologies . we are involved in shaping the future of the industry via our direct contribution to eclipse jakarta ee ( payara\u2019s director , steve millidge , is a project management committee member ) , eclipse microprofile , eclipse ide and many other projects .\n< build > < plugins > < ! - - snip - - > < plugin > < groupid > fish . payara . maven . plugins < / groupid > < artifactid > payara - micro - maven - plugin < / artifactid > < version > 1 . 0 . 0 - snapshot < / version > < executions > < execution > < goals > < goal > bundle < / goal > < / goals > < / execution > < / executions > < configuration > < payaraversion > 4 . 1 . 2 . 172 < / payaraversion > < useuberjar > true < / useuberjar > < / configuration > < / plugin > < ! - - snip - - > < / plugins > < / build >\npayara are found in south america in the rio amazonas and its tributaries above the mouth of rio tapaj\u00f3s as well as in the orinoco river in venezuela . they inhabit clean , fast - flowing rivers where the water is turbulent , including rapids and at the bottom of waterfalls . they are often found in loose groups and feed on smaller fish , but the bulk of their diet consists of piranhas .\nspecies . however , the payara are a migratory fish and begin reproduction with the onset of the rainy season . they move from lakes and river channels into the rising waters of large rivers , migrating long distances upstream for spawning and feeding . presumably , it would be difficult to impossible breed them in an aquarium and would require a very large tank . for a description of breeding characin fish , see\nthe ideal tank for payara is one that has minimal decorations , as these fish will often strike them while in pursuit of prey\u2014especially if offered live fishes as feeders . the tank should have the sides and back painted black , or at least dark in color . this will bring out the fish\u2019s best colors . payara tend to inhabit deeper waters , so they are not accustomed to overly bright light , which may stress them in the ultra - clear water of an aquarium . speaking of lighting , the tank\u2019s illumination should be minimal and only afford the hobbyist to see sections of the tank clearly , which is generally referred to as \u201cspotlighting . \u201d several very large enclosures that i have seen have utilized this illumination technique ; it is really effective , visually speaking , and the fish seem to do very well with it .\nthe payara can reach up to almost 4 feet ( 117 cm ) in length and weigh just over 39 pounds ( 17 . 8 kg ) in the wild . in captivity , it is unlikely to reach more than about 12 inches ( 75 cm ) . its body is an iridescent silver , and its fins are semi - transparent , tinged with black towards the outer portions , and sometimes spotted with white .\nis a remarkable characin , but it is not your typical tetra . one look at the mouth of this fish and there will be no doubt that the payara is a vicious carnivore . this incredible fish has two large fangs on its lower jaw . these fangs can be 4 to 6 inches long . in fact , the two main lower teeth are so long that upper jaw has holes for them to fit into .\nwas described by cuvier in 1819 . the species is not listed on the iucn red list . other common names for this species are vampire tetra , vampire characin , vampire fish , cachorra , and chambira . the genus , which consists of four species , is collectively known as pirandir\u00e1 or payara . as members of the cynodontidae family , they are known as sabre toothed tiger fish , dogtooth characin , or dogteeth tetra .\nthe payara ' s elongated body is streamlined and very powerful . it tapers towards the tail and has a large , fan - shaped caudal fin . the head is large with a prominent , upturned mouth full of needle - sharp teeth and two long fangs . the two main lower teeth are so long that the upper jaw has holes for them to fit into . these fangs can be 4 to 6 inches long !\na payara aquarium should be decorated with large rocks and large pieces of bogwood to create hiding places for these fishes . plants are not required since plants are unusual in the fast moving waters they normally live in , in the wild . the aquarium should be very well circulated and you can not create to much water movement for these fishes as long as they are provided with a few large rocks behind which to rest .\nthe group collectively known as payara contains several species , but i will only be covering the venerable hydrolycus armatus in this article . the largest of the clan , h . armatus is capable of growing to more than 3 feet in total length , thus making it a very highly sought - after food and game fish in its native waters of northern south america\u2014specifically the rio orinoco drainage and the vast , winding rivers of the guyanas .\nh . armatus is a powerful , sleek , and fast - moving species that is adept at living in several habitats across its native range . paul reiss , a well - known professional fisherman and the owner and operator of acute angling , reports that payara are most commonly found in extremely fast - flowing water . in aquariums , we have found that they do not necessarily need such strong current in order to thrive , but they do prefer water that has some degree of turbulence to it .\nthese fish often only survive for 6 months to a year , with just a few having been reported as living up to 2 years . their short lifespan may be a result of a large bio load , resulting in nitrogenous waste . an extremely large aquarium is necessary to support a school of payara , and as they mature , their habitat requirements change . juveniles may live in less turbulent water , but adults are found in fast - moving currents , like rapids and the base of waterfalls .\none of the most striking displays that i have ever seen was a very large aquarium in germany , probably somewhere in the range of 2000 or 3000 gallons . the tank contained a single h . armatus and several huge , fully mature river stingrays . it had a deep sandbed and dim lighting . the payara was like a ghost swimming in and out of the shadows . i remember being surprised to see how little current there was in the tank , but the fish were all very healthy and flawless in condition .\nas strategic members of the eclipse foundation , the payara team is dedicated to helping shape the future of open source . our involvement allows us to support the sustainability of the community , participate in marketing programs , and have direct access to the governance of both the jakarta ee working group and the eclipse foundation . as active committers to the eclipse microprofile initiative we are also contributing to optimizing enterprise java for microservices architectures to help enterprises make their journey into the cloud , working closely with customers to shape jakarta ee to meet their future needs .\nthe payara , which is also sold as the saber tooth barracuda , vampire fish , vampire tetra , or saber tusk barracuda , is a popular species for large , aggressive aquariums . it can grow large enough to outgrow a lot of fish tanks , which presents a problem to the uneducated aquarist . it is recommended that they be fed live food , such as goldfish . they should be kept with fish that they cannot fit in their mouths , for example : siamese tigerfish , arowanas , gars , pacus , catfish , and pig - nosed turtle .\nthey are easily frightened so you must be careful not to make any quick movements when around their tank . payara have been known to fatally injure themselves by swimming into the sides of the aquarium when disturbed . it helps to cover the sides and back of the tank with either a dark aquarium background or paint them with a dark color . an overly bright light will also stress them out , so keep the lighting moderate and have some areas that are dim . a more subdued lighting coupled with a dark backdrop will bring out their best coloring too .\nthe payara is an extremely large predatory fish . because of their large adult size , and their propensity for schooling as juveniles , they need a very large aquarium . when first purchased as small juveniles , they may initially be kept in a large home aquarium . but eventually , be prepared to invest in a tank of 500 gallons or more with a better - than - average filter system . they require excellent water quality , and it must be well oxygenated . younger specimens may be fine with moderate water movement , but adults need strong , turbulent currents .\npayara are fast and aggressive feeders . these fish usually swallow their prey whole but will sometimes chop them into smaller , bite - sized pieces . they get large , too , so if you want to keep one as a pet , be prepared to have a very high feeder - fish bill . in fact , it can grow to about twice the size of its almost identical looking relative , the sabertooth characin hydrolycus armatus . this fish can reach up to about 4 feet ( 117 cm ) in length and weigh up to 40 lbs ( 18 kg ) , though aquarium specimens are usually only reach a quarter of that size , around 12 inches .\nthe vampire tetra can be kept in a large aquarium , but it takes a lot of work by a very advanced hobbyist to accomplish this . they are occasionally available and will readily adapt to aquarium life , but they are most often short - lived . they often only survive for 6 months to a year in captivity , with just a few having been reported as living up to 2 years . their short lifespan is due , in part , to their diet and their need for a top quality environment . vampire characin need a varied diet , so just feeding them goldfish is inadequate . sometimes , payara refuse to feed . it seems that once they reach about 12 inches , they mysteriously die .\nmy first experiences with payara were some 20 years ago now ( i can\u2019t believe i am even old enough to say that ! ) . anyway , i can remember cruising through the aisles of my favorite pet shops , and once in a while i would come across these big flashy silver fish with absolutely gargantuan teeth . i remember thinking they were such ugly and nasty critters , almost freakish - looking water wolves . who on earth would want such a thing in their tank ? granted , at the time i was into barbs and smaller \u201ccommunity\u201d species , and big predatory fishes were simply not an option for my 20 - gallon aquarium . fast - forward to 2006 and my , how things have changed !\ni would recommend attempting to train your payara off live food at an early age . i have had better luck with them learning this at a young age . it seems the older they get the more stubborn they get . the last batch i have obtained was a pack of 5 armatus at roughly the size of a quarter . they were actually to small to even eat rosies ( or tuffies ) so they were fed guppies up until about 2 inches . at that point they were switched to rosies . kept on rosies for about another 1 - 1 . 5 inches . i believe i made a mistake in how long i fed rosies . i believe you may have better luck getting them off live if you are to start feeding goldfish as soon as they are big enough to eat them . this will greatly increase your chances in getting them to go after krill as they are both orange in color , and the shape of freeze dried krill has more in common with goldfish then a rosie does .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndespite its fearsome appearance this species does not tend to attack similarly - sized fishes .\nit will eat fishes it can fit into its mouth , but there ' s no need to feed it live food in captivity .\nhydrolycus : from the greek hydro , meaning \u2018water\u2019 , and lykos , meaning \u2018wolf\u2019 .\nscomberoides : from the greek skombros , meaning \u2018tuna , mackerel\u2019 , and the suffix - oides , meaning \u2018similar to\u2019 .\ntype locality is given simply as \u2018brazil\u2019 but this species is currently understood to be widespread in the central and upper amazon river system in brazil , bolivia , peru and ecuador , with the rio tapaj\u00f3s in brazil appearing to mark the downstream limit of its range .\nthis species is pelagic and adults tend to be associated with flowing stretches of main river channels and larger tributaries of both white and black water rivers .\nreproduction occurs between november and april and adults perform long upstream migrations in order to do so .\nthe aquarium should ideally be designed to resemble a flowing stream or river with a substrate of variably - sized rocks , sand , fine gravel , and some larger water - worn boulders .\nthis can be further furnished with driftwood roots and branches if you wish but be sure to leave plenty of open swimming space .\nwhile the majority of aquatic plants will fail to thrive in such surroundings hardy genera such as microsorum , bolbitis , or anubias spp . can be grown attached to the d\u00e9cor .\nlike many fishes that naturally inhabit running waters it\u2019s intolerant to the accumulation of organic wastes and requires spotless water at all times in order to thrive .\nit also does best if there is a high proportion of dissolved oxygen and moderate degree of water movement so external filter s , powerheads , airstones , etc . , should be employed as necessary .\nas stable water conditions are obligatory for its well - being this fish should never be added to biologically - immature aquaria and weekly water changes of 30 - 50 % aquarium volume should be considered mandatory .\na tightly - fitting cover is essential as this species is a prodigious jumper , and it may also prove beneficial to cover the back and sides of the aquarium in order to reduce the chances of it swimming into the glass since it can be skittish , especially in confined surroundings .\nnewly - imported specimens often refuse to accept anything but live fishes but most can be weaned onto dead alternatives once recognised as edible .\nlike the vast majority of predatory fishes this species should not be fed mammalian or avian meat like beef heart or chicken , and similarly there is no benefit in the long - term use of \u2018feeder\u2019 fish such as livebearers or small goldfish which carry with them the risk of parasite or disease introduction and at any rate tend not have a high nutritional value unless properly conditioned beforehand .\nbest kept alone or with similarly - sized , non - aggressive fishes since it\u2019s actually quite peaceful with those too large to be considered food .\nit can also be maintained in a group in a suitably - sized aquarium but the purchase of at least three specimens is advisable .\njuveniles tend to adopt a presumably cryptic , oblique , \u2018head - down\u2019 position and lurk among the d\u00e9cor whereas adults are fully pelagic .\nthis species may be referred to using a variety of names including \u2018scomb\u2019 , \u2018sabre tooth tetra\u2019 , \u2018sabre tusk barracuda\u2019 , \u2018dog tooth characin , \u2018vampire fish\u2019 , \u2018cachorra\u2019 or \u2018pirandir\u00e1\u2019 ( the latter two names being used in brazil where they\u2019re also applied to congeners ) .\nit can be told apart from all congeners by the following combination of characters : serrations present on the exposed field of scales in specimens larger than 100 mm sl ; pelvic - fin base inserted laterally , distinctly above ventral profile of body ; a black spot at the base of the innermost pectoral - fin rays .\nhydrolycus can be easily - separated from other genera in the family cynodontidae by the fact that the dorsal - fin origin is located distinctly anterior to a vertical through the anal - fin origin plus the dorsoventral enlargement of the mesethmoid spine is almost round in shape from a lateral view and enlarged in hydrolycus scomberoides , h . armatus and h . tatauaia .\nit\u2019s sometimes included in the putative subfamily cynodontinae alongside cynodon and rhaphiodon , these being separated from other characiformes by a series of derived features plus their oblique mouth shape and highly - developed dentary canine teeth .\nthe latter fit into a pair of corresponding openings in the upper jaw which allows the mouth to be closed completely .\ncynodontinae contains two primary monophyletic lineages , one comprising the genus hydrolycus and the other a clade with cynodon and rhaphiodon spp . , with members sometimes referred to collectively as \u2018dogtooth characins\u2019 .\nreis , r . e . , s . o . kullander and c . j . ferraris , jr . ( eds . ) , 2003 - edipucrs , porto alegre : i - xi + 1 - 729 check list of the freshwater fishes of south and central america . cloffsca .\ntoledo - piza , m . , 2000 - american museum novitates 3286 : 1 - 88 the neotropical fish subfamily cynodontinae ( teleostei : ostariophysi : characiformes ) : a phylogenetic study and a revision of cynodon and rhaphiodon .\ntoledo - piza , m . , n . a . menezes and g . m . dos santos , 1999 - ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 10 ( 3 ) : 255 - 280 revision of the neotropical fish genus hydrolycus ( ostariophysi : cynodontinae ) with the description of two new species .\nhow do you keep h . armatus ? surely it needs an absolutely enormous tank ?\nyes , they require truly massive specifically designed tanks . i currently have my hydrolycus armatus in a 300gal custom tank . i will be building his next home 500gal aquarium this summer .\nwe were impressed not only by the level of support but also with the speedy replies following up our phone session .\nthrough a successful campaign of podium placements earlier this year , emma has been confirmed a sele . . .\nbasic , full version of our java application server . innovative , cloud - native and optimized for production deployments . derived from glassfish open source edition , with a full administration console . see the data sheet .\nyou need the right java application server to develop and deploy applications that enable you to stay one step ahead of your competitors . changing business demands require a flexible java middleware platform that supports continuous development , reliability , and secure deployments of java\u2122 enterprise edition ( java ee ) applications in any environment : on premise , in the cloud or hybrid .\nas founding members and active committers to the eclipse microprofile initiative , we contribute to optimize enterprise java for microservices architectures with the aim to drive forward industry innovation , further develop and contribute to the open source community .\nwe can guarantee that our expert engineers will be available if you have any issues with your mission critical application server . we understand the importance of having a fully functioning system and we are ready to help you support yours ."]}
{"id": 634, "summary": [{"text": "alviniconcha is a genus of deep water sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family provannidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "these snails are part of the fauna of the hydrothermal vents in the indian and western pacific ocean .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "these and another genus and species within the same family ( ifremeria nautilei ) are the only known currently existing animals whose nutrition is derived from an endosymbiotic relationship with proteobacteria : a member of bacteria from class epsilonproteobacteria occurs as an endosymbiont of the gills of alviniconcha hessleri . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "alviniconcha", "paragraphs": ["provannidae \u00bb alviniconcha hessleri , id : 118698 , shell detail \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .\none of them , alviniconcha strummeri , is named after joe strummer , the lead singer of the clash .\nthe other four new species are alviniconcha kojimai , a . boucheti , a . marisindica and a . adamantis .\nthe mitochondrial coi gene sequences from the alviniconcha gastropods are available at the ddbj under accession numbers ab235211 to ab235227 .\n\u201cthe name also recognizes the surface of alviniconcha shells : the spiky periostracum resembles the fashion of punk rock bands . \u201d\nspecies alviniconcha adamantis s . b . johnson , war\u00e9n , tunnicliffe , van dover , wheat , schultz & vrijenhoek , 2014\nspecies alviniconcha boucheti s . b . johnson , war\u00e9n , tunnicliffe , van dover , wheat , schultz & vrijenhoek , 2014\nspecies alviniconcha kojimai s . b . johnson , war\u00e9n , tunnicliffe , van dover , wheat , schultz & vrijenhoek , 2014\nspecies alviniconcha strummeri s . b . johnson , war\u00e9n , tunnicliffe , van dover , wheat , schultz & vrijenhoek , 2014\nthis spiky mollusk is called alviniconcha strummeri , named after joe strummer , the late frontman for the clash . taylor & francis online hide caption\nonly strummeri have been named after a musician : the other alviniconcha species get their monikers from things like research facilities and gastropod experts . \u201cthe name highlights the \u2018hardcore\u2019 nature of alviniconcha snails , that inhabit the hottest , most acidic and most sulphidic microhabitats at indo - pacific hydrothermal vents , \u201d researchers wrote . \u201cthe name also recognises the surface of alviniconcha shells : the spiky periostracum resembles the fashion of punk rock bands . \u201d\ncoupling of the host and endosymbiont lineages of alviniconcha gastropods showed that , although alviniconcha sp . type 2 is associated with bacterial endosymbionts from two related \u03b5 - proteobacterial lineages , each of the other alviniconcha lineages harbors bacterial endosymbionts from one distinct lineage within either the \u03b3 - or \u03b5 - proteobacteria . these host - symbiont relationships in alviniconcha gastropods could potentially be used to motivate for the recognition each host lineage as a separate species . furthermore , since alviniconcha sp . types 1 and 2 harbor \u03b3 - and \u03b5 - proteobacterial endosymbionts , respectively , and , given that they appear to exclusively inhabit adjacent hydrothermal vents in the manus and north fiji basins , then the possibility that they occupy separate ecological niches should be explored further .\nnovel chemoautotrophic endosymbiosis between a member of the epsilonproteobacteria and the hydrothermal - vent gastropod alviniconcha aff . hessleri ( gastropoda : provannidae ) from the indian ocean\nalviniconcha kojimai , a . adamantis , a . marisindica and a . boucheti ( clockwise ) . image credit : shannon b . johnson et al .\n\u201cthe name highlights the \u2018hardcore\u2019 nature of alviniconcha snails that inhabit the hottest , most acidic and most sulfidic microhabitats at indo - pacific hydrothermal vents . \u201d\nalviniconcha strummeri is known from hydrothermal vent localities at 1 , 850 m depth in the southern lau basin , especially at the tui malila vent site .\nnovel chemoautotrophic endosymbiosis between a member of the epsilonproteobacteria and the hydrothermal - vent gastropod alviniconcha aff . hessleri ( gastropoda : provannidae ) from the indian ocean \u2020\nalviniconcha strummeri , a new species of deep - sea snail named after joe strummer of the clash . image credit : shannon b . johnson et al .\nthe principle aim of the present study was to identify and clarify the host - endosymbiont lineages of the alviniconcha gastropods from the southwest pacific ocean . in addition , we attempted to determine the nature of the carbon metabolism and the trophic relationships between alviniconcha and their endosymbionts using bulk and compound - specific carbon isotopic analyses .\nworms - world register of marine species - alviniconcha strummeri s . b . johnson , war\u00e9n , tunnicliffe , van dover , wheat , schultz & vrijenhoek , 2014\nthe alviniconcha sp . from the lau basin harbors a \u03b3 - proteobacterial endosymbiont that is phylogenetically distinct from those found in other alviniconcha lineages ( fig . 2 ) . the \u03b3 - proteobacterial endosymbiont is closely related to the endosymbiont of the \u201cscaly - footed\u201d hydrothermal gastropod from the central indian ridge with which it shares a sequence identity of ca . 95 % .\na group of marine biologists headed by dr robert vrijenhoek from the monterey bay aquarium research institute has described five new species of deep water alviniconcha snails from the western pacific and the indian ocean .\nwittenberg , j . b . , and j . l . stein . 1995 . hemoglobin in the symbiont - harboring gill of the marine gastropod alviniconcha hessleri . biological bulletin 188 : 5 - 7 .\na snail so hardcore it ' s named after a punk rocker inspired by the snails ' spiky shells and acid - loving nature , researchers named the new species alviniconcha strummeri , after clash frontman joe strummer .\nsince johnson had such success in calling the spiky , acid - loving mollusks punk - rock snails , she and her colleagues decided to name them alviniconcha strummeri , after the late joe strummer , frontman for the clash .\nfive new alviniconcha species were collected during several expeditions ( 1993 - 2008 ) to various segments of the north fiji , lau , manus and mariana back - arc basins , the mariana volcanic arc and the central indian ridge .\nhairy things aren\u2019t just for ye landlubbers . the deep - sea is home to several hairy critters including the hairy vent snail , alviniconcha . the hairy appearance are actually spines protruding from the periostracum , a thin organic layer that coats the mineralized shell of a snail . alviniconcha \u2018s shell is very thin . it is this biologist\u2019s opinion that the spines might help keep off fouling creatures , such as drilling limpets . but no one knows for sure quite yet .\na species of deep sea snail with the bold , spiky aesthetic of early clash fans has been named after joe strummer . alviniconcha strummeri are golf ball - sized invertebrates that live around 2 , 000 metres beneath the surface of the ocean .\nshannon b . johnson et al . molecular taxonomy and naming of five cryptic species of alviniconcha snails ( gastropoda : abyssochrysoidea ) from hydrothermal vents . systematics and biodiversity , published online december 3 , 2014 ; doi : 10 . 1080 / 14772000 . 2014 . 970673\ndenis , f . , d . jollivet , and d . moraga . 1993 . genetic separation of two allopatric populations of hydrothermal snails alviniconcha spp . ( gastropoda ) from two south western pacific back - arc basins . biochemical systematics and ecology 21 : 431 - 440 .\nto better understand the phylogenetic relationships among host lineages , the upstream region of the coi gene was amplified by pcr using primers lco1490 and hco2198 ( 5 ) for each of the five host lineages : a . hessleri ( smr - 93 - 10 in reference 12 ) , alviniconcha sp . type 1 ( mb - 96 - 16 in reference 14 ) , alviniconcha sp . type 2 ( fb - 90 - 7 in reference 12 ) , alviniconcha aff . hessleri ( the first specimen in reference 11 ) , and alviniconcha sp . from the lau basin ( fig . 1 ) . the primers coi - 7 ( 20 ) and coi - d ( 16 ) were used to amplify the coi fragment of ifremeria nautilei , a member of the provannidae from the north fiji ( haplotype f4 in reference 13 ) and the manus basins ( haplotype m1 in reference 13 ) . ifremeria was used as the outgroup for phylogenetic analysis . the conditions for pcr were 94\u00b0c for 60 s , followed by 30 to 40 cycles of 92\u00b0c for 40 s , 50\u00b0c for 60 s , and 72\u00b0c for 90 s .\nkojima , s . , r . segawa , y . fijiwara , k . fujikura , s . ohta , and j . hashimoto . 2001 . phylogeny of hydrothermal - vent - endemic gastropods alviniconcha spp . from the western pacific revealed by mitochondrial dna sequences . biological bulletin 200 : 298 - 304 .\nphylogenetic analysis also revealed that the sequence identities between the host lineage from the lau basin specimen and the four other host lineages ranged from 88 . 3 to 91 . 6 % , which is markedly lower than the identities among these lineages themselves , which ranged from 98 . 8 to 100 % . it is therefore proposed that the gastropod from the lau basin represent a new distinct lineage in the genus alviniconcha . the finding of marked genetic differentiation in the lau basin specimen is consistent with a previous study in which 20 enzymatic systems in alviniconcha gastropods from the lau and north fiji basins were analyzed ( 1 ) .\nspecimens of alviniconcha sp . type 1 from the pacmanus field d in the manus basin and the white lady site in the north fiji basin were found to harbor closely related \u03b3 - proteobacterial endosymbionts ( fig . 2 ) . similarly , the sequence identities among \u03b3 - proteobacterial endosymbionts within the manus and north fiji basins were greater than 99 . 3 and 97 . 8 % , respectively . sequence identities between specimens from the two basins were greater than 97 . 7 % . the endosymbionts of alviniconcha sp . type 1 were related to free - living thiomicrospira spp . with sequence identities of less than 90 % .\nkojima , s . , k . fujikura , t . okutani , and j . hashimoto . 2003 . phylogenetic relationship of alviniconcha gastropods from the indian ocean to those from the pacific ocean ( mollusca : provannidae ) revealed by nucleotide sequence of mitochondrial dna . venus ( japan journal of malacology ) 63 : 65 - 68 .\nin the present study , the symbiotic relationship in alviniconcha gastropods from the southwest pacific was defined more clearly by using molecular phylogenetic analyses and carbon isotopic characterizations . further ecological and anatomical studies of these uniquely evolved gastropod assemblages might increase our understanding of the gastropod - proteobacterial endosymbioses that have been discovered in hydrothermal vent ecosystems around the globe .\nphylogenetic relationships among the five alviniconcha lineages known to date . the tree was constructed by using the mp method with two lineages of ifremeria nautilei used as outgroup taxa . numbers at the branch nodes represent bootstrap values ( 1 , 000 replicates ) obtained from the mp , nj , and the ml methods ; only values greater than 50 % are indicated .\ndistance tree of the members of the \u03b3 - and \u03b5 - proteobacteria , as well as the alviniconcha endosymbionts based on near - complete 16s rrna gene sequences ( 1 , 160 nucleotides ) . bootstrap values ( in percent values ) are based on 1 , 000 replicates ( nj and mp ) and are shown for branches with more than 50 % bootstrap support .\nalviniconcha also has blue blood due the respiratory pigment hemocyanin and carries very enlarged gills . my measurements indicate that the dry weight of the gills can get up to 21 % of the total dry mass ( excluding shell ) . for comparison , the average intertidal intertidal snail has 4 - 7 % of its total body weight devoted to the gills . this makes sense since alviniconcha has a very reduced stomach and digestive tract . it gets most , if not all , of it\u2019s nutrition from chemoautotrophic bacteria housed in its gills .\nchemoautotrophic\nmeans that the bacteria oxidize hydrogen sulfide as an energy source , normally a toxic chemical to most animal life . but these extreme snails can bring in the goods for their bacterial helpers and thrive en masse .\nalviniconcha strummeri will now vie with amaurotoma zappa , named for frank , in the collections of malacologist music fans . those who are not simply interested in snails may also pursue exemplars of the isopod cirolana mercuryi , named from freddie , jaggermeryx naida , an extinct \u201clong - legged pig\u201d named after mick , and myrmekiaphila neilyoungi , a spider who is apparently looking for a heart of gold .\nsuzuki , y . , t . sasaki , m . suzuki , y . nogi , t . miwa , k . takai , k . h . nealson , and k . horikoshi . 2005 . novel chemoautotrophic endosymbiosis between a member of the epsilonproteobacteria and the hydrothermal - vent gastropod alviniconcha aff . hessleri ( gastropoda : provannidae ) from the indian ocean . applied and environmental microbiology 71 : 5440 - 5450 .\nthe alviniconcha gastropods that harbor \u03b3 - proteobacterial endosymbionts have biomass \u03b4 13 c values ranging from \u221230 . 0 to \u221230 . 7 with fatty acids depleted of 13 c relative to the biomass by 5 . 3 to 7 . 7 ( table 2 ) ; these findings are consistent with the chemoautotrophy of the calvin - benson cycle and the subsequent synthesis of fatty acids from 13 c - depleted acetyl - coa ( 21 ) . as with alvinoconcha aff . hessleri , the biomass \u03b4 13 c value of other alviniconcha gastropods that harbor \u03b5 - proteobacterial endosymbionts have values ranging from \u221210 . 3 to \u221213 . 4 with fatty acids enriched in 13 c relative to the biomass by 2 . 9 to 7 . 3 ( table 2 ) . since the 13 c enrichment of fatty acids relative to biomass is a characteristic of fatty acid synthesis from 13 c - enriched acetyl - coa produced through the rtca cycle , the observed isotope fractionation patterns are most likely to reflect the chemoautotrophy typical of the rtca cycle . although the carbon isotopic composition of hydrothermal co 2 from the sites and enzymatic activity of key enzymes involved in the two chemoautotrophic cycles were not examined in the present study , it seems likely that the \u03b3 - and \u03b5 - proteobacterial alviniconcha endosymbionts assayed in the present study are chemoautotrophs that convert co 2 into organic matter via the calvin - benson and rtca cycles , respectively .\nsuzuki , y . , s . kojima , t . sasaki , m . suzuki , t . utsumi , h . watanabe , h . urakawa , s . tsuchida , t . nunoura , h . hirayama , k . takai , k . h . nealson , and k . horikoshi . 2006 . host - symbiont relationships in hydrothermal vent gastropods of the genus alviniconcha from the southwest pacific . appl . environ . microbiol . 72 : 1388 - 1393 .\njohnson , s . b . ; war\u00e9n , a . ; tunnicliffe , v . ; dover , c . v . ; wheat , c . g . ; schultz , t . f . ; vrijenhoek , r . c . ( 2014 ) . molecular taxonomy and naming of five cryptic species of alviniconcha snails ( gastropoda : abyssochrysoidea ) from hydrothermal vents . systematics and biodiversity . 1 - 18 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\njohnson , s . b . ; war\u00e9n , a . ; tunnicliffe , v . ; dover , c . v . ; wheat , c . g . ; schultz , t . f . ; vrijenhoek , r . c . ( 2014 ) . molecular taxonomy and naming of five cryptic species of alviniconcha snails ( gastropoda : abyssochrysoidea ) from hydrothermal vents . systematics and biodiversity . 1 - 18 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 13 , fig . 2 . 4 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\njohnson , s . b . ; war\u00e9n , a . ; tunnicliffe , v . ; dover , c . v . ; wheat , c . g . ; schultz , t . f . ; vrijenhoek , r . c . ( 2014 ) . molecular taxonomy and naming of five cryptic species of alviniconcha snails ( gastropoda : abyssochrysoidea ) from hydrothermal vents . systematics and biodiversity . 1 - 18 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 13 , fig . 2 . 5 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\ndescription alviniconcha hessleri was discovered and described almost 20 years ago ( 7 ) and is a mesogastropod in the family provannidae ( 14 ) . it is named both after the submersible alvin ( \u201calvin\u2019s shell\u201d ) and the preeminent deep - sea biologist , robert r . hessler . the snail is roughly spherical in shape and has a thin carbonate shell ( if allowed to air - dry , it will fall to pieces within weeks ! ) the protoconch is almost never visible and juvenile shells show considerable variation in sculpture ( 3 , 14 ) . the spiny appearance of this snail is part of the periostracum and can erode away in larger specimens . speaking of size , we have seen specimens up to 88mm in length , larger than a softball !\nbiogeography originally described from the mariana trough west of the philippines , these snails populate many of the back - arc basins in the western pacific , including the manus , north fiji , and lau back - arc basins . additionally , a . hessleri is reported from the central indian ridge . genetic data suggest there is 2 genetically distinct populations living hundreds of meters apart in the north fiji basin , the dominant genotype being most similar to populations from the manus basin ( 5 ) . populations from the lau basin are also genetically separated from those from the north fiji basin ( 1 ) . furthermore , populations from southwest pacific back - arc basins are distinct from those from the mariana trough are distinct from all of the western pacific back - arc basins ( 6 ) . the central indian ridge populations of alviniconcha are distinct from all other populations ( 4 , 13 ) , though most closely related to populations from the mariana trough ( 4 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ncorresponding author . mailing address : frontier research system for extremophiles , japan agency for marine - earth science and technology , 2 - 15 natsushima - cho , yokosuka 237 - 0061 , japan . phone : 81 - 468 - 67 - 9710 . fax : 81 - 468 - 67 - 9715 . e - mail :\nshannon johnson , a researcher at the monterey bay aquarium research institute , found that when she talked to youngsters about sea snails , she communicated a little more effectively if she skipped the technical description and called them\npunk - rock snails .\ntheir entire shells are covered in spikes ,\njohnson explains .\nand then the spikes are actually all covered in fuzzy white bacteria .\nthese punk rock snails live thousands of feet underwater , crowded around the mouths of chimneys of hydrothermal vents \u2014 the kind of place that might survive the apocalyptic\nnuclear error\nin the clash album london calling .\nthey live in hot , acidic poison , basically , so they ' re pretty hardcore ,\nshe says .\nnot only was a he a punk - rock icon \u2014 he ' s kind of one of the originators of the punk movement \u2014 but he also was kind of an environmentalist ,\nshe says .\nhe started a foundation that was planting trees all over the world . he ' s a neat guy .\nstrummer is not the only big name with his own namesake animal . a wooly lemur from madagascar is named after john cleese \u2014 the avahi cleesei . a frog in the amazon that makes a shrill , bat - like call is named after ozzy osbourne .\nthe ramones each have their own trilobite , and there ' s a parasitic wasp named after shakira . the scientists who discovered the wasp say it causes the caterpillar it inhabits to wriggle and writhe , which reminds them of shakira ' s energetic dancing .\nwar\u00e9n a . & bouchet p . ( 1993 ) new records , species , genera , and a new family of gastropods from hydrothermal vents and hydrocarbon seeps . zoologica scripta 22 : 1 - 90 . [ details ]\ndesbruy\u00e8res , d . , m . segonzac & m . bright ( eds . ) . ( 2006 ) . handbook of deep - sea hydrothermal vent fauna . second edition denisia 18 : 1 - 544 . ( copepods 316 - 355 ) ( polychaeta 183 - 296 ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nphoto on left courtesy of c . fisher / ridge2000 . photo on the right from linda zelnio .\nwant to know more about this hairy little friend ? i wrote a detailed article on this snail for deep sea news over a year ago . - kaz\n@ doppleganger : don\u2019t forget to send it to carl zimmer for his science tattoo gallery too .\nthese deep - sea animals live in the hottest and most acidic waters near hydrothermal vents .\nbecause these snails live in these extreme conditions , they have severely degraded shells ( size varies between 2 . 5 - 10 cm ) covered in spikes or have no shells at all .\n\u201ccollections were conducted with the remotely operated vehicles ( rov ) jason ii and ropos , with the st212 trenching rov , and with the human - occupied vehicle shinkai 6500 , \u201d dr vrijenhoek and his colleagues wrote in a paper in the journal systematics and biodiversity .\n\u201cnamed in honor of joe strummer , the lead vocalist and guitarist from the clash , a british punk band , \u201d the scientists wrote .\na . kojimai is known from hydrothermal vent localities at 1 , 480 to 2 , 700 m depths in the manus , fiji and lau basins , in the western pacific . a . boucheti lives near hydrothermal vents at 1 , 300 to 2 , 700 m depths in the manus , fiji and lau basins , in the western pacific .\na . marisindica occurs at hydrothermal vents at 2 , 400 to 3 , 300 m depths on central indian ridge , in the indian ocean : kairei and edmunds vent fields . and a . adamantis lives near hydrothermal vents at 350 m depth on east diamante seamount .\njuvenile australopithecus climbed trees , 3 . 32 - million - year - old foot fossil shows\n\u00a9 2011 - 2018 . sci - news . com . all rights reserved . | back to top\nthis page was last edited on 15 may 2017 , at 11 : 43 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nin order to access this website , please configure your browser to support cookies .\n877 . 705 . 1878 ( toll - free , u . s . & canada ) 773 . 753 . 3347 ( international )\nwhen you think of hydrothermal vents , what comes to mind first ? is it the gushing black smoke out of a chimney ? perhaps you envision the enormous tubeworms with their red velvety plumes sticking out of their white tubes . some may even be familiar with the dense swarms of blind shrimp . what may not come to mind are big hairy snails !\nphysiology a . hessleri has blue blood due to hemocyanin , but also contains hemoglobin in concentrations similar to chemoautotrophic bivalves from other hydrothermal vents ( 15 ) . the gill of this beast is enlarged and can get up to 21 % of the total soft - body mass ( dry weight , unpublished data ) . a normal snail\u2019s gills from the intertidal may weigh around 4 - 7 % of the total soft - body weight .\ndesbruy\u00e8res , d . , a . - m . alayse - danet , s . ohta , and scientific parties of biolau and starmer cruises . 1994 . deep - sea hydrothermal communities in southwestern pacific back - arc basins ( the north fiji and lau basins ) : composition , microdistribution and food web . marine geology 116 : 227 - 242 .\nhasegawa , k . , k . fujikura , and t . okutani . 1997 . gastropod fauna associated with hydrothermal vents in the mariana back - arc basin : summary of the results of 1996 \u201cshinkai 6500\u201d dives . jamstec journal of deep sea research 13 : 69 - 83 .\nkojima , s . , s . ohta , t . miura , y . fujiwara , and j . hashimoto . 2000 . molecular phylogeny study of chemosynthetic - based communities in the manus basin . jamstec journal of deep sea research 16 : 7 - 13 .\nokutani , t . , and s . ohta . 1988 . a new gastropod mollusk associated with hydrothermal vents in the mariana back - arc basin , western pacific . venus ( japan journal of malacology ) 47 : 1 - 9 .\npranal , v . , a . fiala - medioni , and j . guezennec . 1997 . fatty acid characteristics in two symbiont - bearing mussels from deep - sea hydrothermal vents of the south - western pacific . journal of the marine biological association of the uk 77 : 473 - 492 .\nstein , j . l . , s . c . cary , r . r . hessler , s . ohta , r . d . vetter , j . j . childress , and h . felbeck . 1988 . chemoautotrophic symbiosis in a hydrothermal vent gastropod . biological bulletin 174 : 373 - 378 .\nurakawa , h . , n . dubilier , y . fujiwara , d . e . cunningham , s . kojima , and d . a . stahl . 2005 . hydrothermal vent gastropods from the same family ( provannidae ) harbour e - and g - proteobacterial endosymbionts . environmental microbiology 7 : 750 - 754 .\nvan dover , c . l . , s . e . humphris , d . fornari , c . m . cavanaugh , r . collier , s . k . goffredi , j . hashimoto , m . d . lilley , a . l . reysenbach , t . m . shank , k . l . von damm , a . banta , r . m . gallant , d . g\u00f6tz , d . green , j . hall , t . l . harmer , l . a . hurtado , p . johnson , z . p . mckiness , c . meredith , e . olson , i . l . pan , m . turnipseed , y . won , c . r . young iii , and r . c . vrijenhoek . 2001 . biogeography and ecological setting of indian ocean hydrothermal vents . science 294 : 818 - 823 .\nwar\u00e9n , a . , and p . bouchet . 1993 . new records , species , genera , and a new family of gastropods from hydrothermal vents and hydrocarbon seeps . zoologica scripta 22 : 1 - 90 .\nhairy crabs , hairy snails , \u2026 what\u2019s next ? nice article , kevin . thanks ! i hope you do more .\nyep , they have a thin operculum . i\u2019m not sure how they keep from being predated , but a few observations from the field : 1 ) many of these snails are covered in white bacteria 2 ) when i crushed some snails incidentally , the crabs came pouring out of the woodwork toward the crushed snails .\nso , it is unclear what the palatability of the snails are but it seems they were probably being eaten by the crabs . now , the reason why this certain crab may be highly associated with the snail in the first place is because it might be grazing the the bacteria off the snails shell . crabs are very opportunistic and if they sense an easy snack they might go for an injured snail . we don\u2019t have much evidence to back up the claim , but just one of several things to consider .\nit looks like you haven\u2019t added any widgets to this sidebar yet . to customize this sidebar , go add some !\n\u00a9 2006 - 2018 science 2 . 0 . all rights reserved . scienceblogs is a registered trademark of science 2 . 0 , an education nonprofit operating under section 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) of the internal revenue code . contributions are fully tax - deductible .\njoe strummer doing his best snail impression . photograph : george rose / getty images\nthe strummer - indebted snails are one of five new species identified in a paper that was published in the journal systematics and biodiversity . \u201cbecause they look like punk rockers in the 70s and 80s and have purple blood and live in such an extreme environment , we decided to name one new species after a punk rock icon , \u201d shannon johnson , a researcher at california\u2019s monterey bay aquarium research institute , told the santa cruz sentinel ( via exclaim ) .\n\u00a9 2018 guardian news and media limited or its affiliated companies . all rights reserved .\ntotal dna was extracted from the head - food region of the specimens from the three back - arc basins by grinding , digestion with sodium dodecyl sulfate , and extraction with phenol and chloroform . the downstream region of the coi mitochondrial gene ( approximately 690 bp ) was amplified by the pcr using primers coi - b (\n) . the pcr conditions were as follows : 94\u00b0c for 60 s followed by 30 to 40 cycles at 92\u00b0c for 40 s , 50\u00b0c for 60 s , and 72\u00b0c for 90 s . the nucleotide sequence of the amplified fragment was determined by using an abi3100 sequencer and a prism big dye terminator sequencing kit ( applied biosystems , inc . , foster city , ca ) with primers coi - b , tw - 2 (\nphylogenetic relationships were estimated by the maximum - parsimony ( mp ) method using a multiple , equally parsimonious , heuristic search with tree bisection - reconnection and 1 , 000 random addition sequence replicates , the maximum - likelihood ( ml ) method of the paup * package ( version 4 . 0b10 ) ( 23 ) , and the neighbor - joining ( nj ) method ( 19 ) of the mega package ( version 2 . 19 [ 16 ] ) .\n) , except that the endosymbiont dna was extracted from the dissected gill tissue by using a dneasy kit ( qiagen , valencia , ca ) in accordance with the manufacturer ' s instructions . endosymbiont 16s rrna gene sequences were amplified by pcr using la\n) . the pcr conditions were 96\u00b0c for 120 s , followed by 27 to 30 cycles of 96\u00b0c for 20 s , 53\u00b0c for 45 s , and 72\u00b0c for 120 s . the amplified 16s rrna gene sequence products were cloned by using an original ta cloning kit ( invitrogen , carlsbad , ca ) before being sequenced with an abi 3100 sequencer and drhodamine sequencing kit according to the manufacturer ' s recommendations ( perkin - elmer / applied biosystems ) .\na single phylogenetic clone type ( phylotype ) was obtained from the clone type analysis . the partial sequence was extended and manually aligned by using the secondary structures with arb ( 18 ) . evolutionary analysis was performed by the nj and mp methods using paup ( 23 ) based on 1 , 160 nucleotide positions ( 64 to 1417 [ escherichia coli numbering ] ) , which have more than 50 % identity across the sequences analyzed .\nthe bacterial 16s rrna gene sequences from the gill endosymbionts are available at the ddbj under the accession numbers ab235228 to ab235239 .\n) . the gastropod specimens were dissected into gill and mantle tissues , which were then lyophilized . the carbon isotopic compositions of the cultures and the acid - fumed gastropod tissues were analyzed by using a thermo electron delta\nadvantage mass spectrometer connected to an elemental analyzer ( ea1112 ) through a conflo iii interface . the measured isotopic composition was expressed as \u03b4\nc abundance ratio for the pee dee belemnite carbonate standard . the values of \u03b4\n) . briefly , approximately 20 mg of the gastropod tissue was incubated in 1 ml of anhydrous methanolic hydrochloric acid at 100\u00b0c for 3 h . the fatty acid methyl esters ( fames ) were then extracted with\n- hexane . the identities of the fames were subsequently determined by comparison of their retention times and spectra to those of known fame standards by gas chromatography - mass spectrometry ( gcq ; shimadzu , tokyo , japan ) . the oven temperature was set to 140\u00b0c for 3 min before being increased to 250\u00b0c at a rate of 4\u00b0c / min with he at a constant flow of 1 . 1 ml / min through a db - 5ms column ( 30 m by 0 . 25 \u03bcm by 0 . 25 mm ; j & w scientific , folsom , ca ) . standard nomenclature was used for fatty acids , which were designated in an\nthe \u03b4 13 c values of the fames were determined using the gc - carbon - isotope ratio ms using a thermo electron delta plus advantage mass spectrometer connected to a gas chromatograph ( agilent 6890 ; agilent , mountain view , ca ) through a gc / c / c / iii interface as described previously ( 22 ) . the oven temperature was set to 120\u00b0c for 3 min before being increased to 300\u00b0c at a rate of 4\u00b0c / min with he at a constant flow of 1 . 1 ml / min through an hp - 5 column ( 30 m by 0 . 25 \u03bcm by 0 . 25 mm ; agilent ) . the isotopic compositions of the fames were measured with an internal isotopic standard ( 19 : 0 , \u03b4 13 c = \u221229 . 80 ) with a correction made for the additional carbon atom from the methanol - derivatizing reagent ( \u03b4 13 c = \u221239 . 04 ) . the internal isotopic standard reduced measurement errors to within 1 for all isotopic analyses .\ngastropods and their distribution in the south west pacific basins , a nucleotide sequence for the downstream region of the coi mitochondrial gene ( 696 bp ) was determined for a single specimen from the vai lili site in the lau basin , as well as several sites in the manus and north fiji basins . as summarized in table\nsp . type 2 occurred in pacmanus field e and at the vienna woods site in the manus basin and in the starmer ii site in the north fiji basin . consequently , it appears that the distribution of\nspp . types 1 and 2 within the fields and sites examined in the present study does not overlap . instead , despite the relatively close geographic proximity of\nto determine the phylogenetic affiliations of gill endosymbionts , the host lineages of which were identified above , were analyzed based on their 16s rrna gene sequences . the examination of at least eight clones generated from a 16s rrna gene - sequence library from the gill filaments of each gastropod showed only one 16s rrna gene sequence . as shown in fig .\nin this and previous studies , the phylogenetic relationships of host gastropods and their bacterial endosymbionts were conducted in conjunction with bulk and compound - specific carbon isotopic analyses at a global scale across five tectonic settings . analysis of fatty acid profiles of gastropod tissues revealed that the symbiont - free mantle tissue contained substantially more monosaturated c\n) . this finding suggests that endosymbiont cells are consumed by , and incorporated into , the host gastropods .\nwe thank the captains and crews of the r / v yokosuka and natsushima and the shinkai 2000 and 6500 for their technical expertise . we also thank toshiyuki yamaguchi and yasunori kano for helpful discussions .\ncorresponding author . mailing address : extremobiosphere research center , japan agency for marine - earth science & technology , 2 - 15 natsushima - cho , yokosuka , kanagawa 237 - 0061 , japan . phone : 81 - 46 - 867 - 9710 . fax : 81 - 46 - 867 - 9715 . e - mail :\nspp . ( gastropoda ) from two south western pacific back - arc basins .\ndesbruyeres , d . , a . - m . alayse , s . ohta , et al .\n. deep - sea hydrothermal communities in southwestern pacific back - arc basins ( the north fiji and lau basins ) : composition , microdistribution , and food web .\nfolmer , o . , m . black , w . hoeh , r . a . lutz , and r . c . vrijenhoek .\n. wide variation of chemical characteristics of submarine hydrothermal fluids due to due to secondary modification processes after high temperature water - rock interaction : a review , p .\nhasegawa , t . , t . yamaguchi , s . kojima , and s . ohta .\nhashimoto , j . , s . ohta , a . fialamedioni , j . - m . auzende , s . kojima , m . segonzac , y . fujiwara , j . c . hunt , k . gena , t . miura , t . kikuchi , t . yamaguchi , t . toda , h . chiba , s . tsuchida , j . ishibashi , k . henry , m . zbinden , a . pruski , a . inoue , h . kobayashi , j . - l . birrien , j . naka , t . yamanaka , c . laporte , k . nishimura , c . yeats , s . malagun , p . kia , m . oyaizu , and t . katayama .\n. hydrothermal vent communities in the manus basin , papua new guinea : results of the bioaccess cruises ' 96 and ' 98 .\n. fractionation of the isotopes of carbon and hydrogen in biosynthetic processes , p .\nkojima , s . , k . fujikura , t . okutani , and j . hashimoto .\ngastropods from the indian ocean to those from the pacific ocean ( provannidae : mollusca ) revealed by nucleotide sequences of mitochondrial dna .\nkojima , s . , r . segawa , y . fujiwara , k . fujikura , s . ohta , and j . hashimoto .\nkojima , s . , r . segawa , y . fujiwara , j . hashimoto , and s . ohta .\n, between the north fiji basin and the manus basin revealed by nucleotide sequences of mitochondrial dna .\nkojima , s . , r . segawa , j . hashimoto , and s . ohta .\n. molecular phylogeny of vestimentiferans collected around japan revealed by the nucleotide sequences of mitochondrial dna .\nkumar , s . , k . tamura , i . b . jacobsen , and m . nei .\n. mega2 : molecular evolutionary genetics analysis software . arizona state university , tempe .\n. john wiley & sons , inc . , new york , n . y .\nludwig , w . , o . strunk , r . westram , l . richter , h . meier , yadhukumar , a . buchner , t . lai , s . steppi , g . jobb , w . forster , i . brettske , s . gerber , a . w . ginhart , o . gross , s . grumann , s . hermann , r . jost , a . konig , t . liss , r . lussmann , m . may , b . nonhoff , b . reichel , r . strehlow , a . stamatakis , n . stuckmann , a . vilbig , m . lenke , t . ludwig , a . bode , and k . h . schleifer .\n. the neighbor - joining method : a new method for reconstructing phylogenetic trees .\nshimayama , t . , h . himeno , j . sasuga , s . yokobori , t . ueda , and k . watanabe .\nsuzuki , y . , t . sasaki , m . suzuki , k . h . nealson , and k . horikoshi .\nsuzuki , y . , t . sasaki , m . suzuki , y . nogi , t . miwa , k . takai , k . h . nealson , and k . horikoshi .\n. paup * : phylogenetic analysis using parsimony ( * and other methods ) , version 4 . 0b10 . sinauer associates , sunderland , mass .\nurakawa , h . , n . dubilier , y . fujiwara , d . e . cunningham , s . kojima , and d . a . stahl .\n. hydrothermal vent gastropods from the same family ( provannidae ) harbour \u03b5 - and \u03b3 - proteobacterial endosymbionts .\n. gastropoda and monoplacophora from hydrothermal vents and seeps ; new taxa and records .\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nfiji . lau bassin . valufa ridge . site vailili . 23\u00b013 ' s . 176\u00b038 ' w . biolau expedition , taken by submarine , 1750 m . july 1989\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 002 seconds . )\nhas blue blood due to hemocyanin , but also contains hemoglobin in concentrations similar to chemoautotrophic bivalves from other hydrothermal vents ( 15 ) . the gill of this beast is enlarged and can get up to 21 % of the total soft - body mass ( dry weight , unpublished data ) . a normal snail\u2019s gills from the intertidal may weigh around 4 - 7 % of the total soft - body weight .\nthe digestive system is very reduced for the size of this snail . for instance , war\u00e9n & bouchet ( 14 ) state , \u201cthe stomach is small , about 10mm3 in a specimen 45mm high and a shell volume of about 60 , 000 mm3 . a specimen of\nliving in the same environment , grazing the surface , has a stomach of 1 . 5mm3 at a shell of 75mm3 . this means that\nhas a stomach which is 100 times large in relation to the body volume . \u201d ( pg . 63 )\nhas separate sexes . they lay down flat , semi - transparent egg capsules on the rock which contains about 20 - 25 embryos ( 14 ) . larvae of\nat north fiji and lau basins ( ( 2 ) , unpublished data ) . several copepods of the genus\ncommonly forms the center of a \u201cbull\u2019s eye\u201d pattern we observe at the lau basin ( documented by war\u00e9n & bouchet ( 14 ) for the north fiji basin ) , where is occupied the hottest part of the hydrothermal field with the highest concentrations of sulfide ( unpublished data ) . crabs of the genus\n. my \u201cpet hypothesis\u201d is that the spines of the snail keep off fouling critters , perhaps those that might drill through its thin and fragile shell . still needs to be tested though\u2026\noriginally described from the mariana trough west of the philippines , these snails populate many of the back - arc basins in the western pacific , including the manus , north fiji , and lau back - arc basins . additionally ,\nis reported from the central indian ridge . genetic data suggest there is 2 genetically distinct populations living hundreds of meters apart in the north fiji basin , the dominant genotype being most similar to populations from the manus basin ( 5 ) . populations from the lau basin are also genetically separated from those from the north fiji basin ( 1 ) . furthermore , populations from southwest pacific back - arc basins are distinct from those from the mariana trough are distinct from all of the western pacific back - arc basins ( 6 ) . the central indian ridge populations of\nare distinct from all other populations ( 4 , 13 ) , though most closely related to populations from the mariana trough ( 4 ) .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\n\u201cdescriptions cannot be made full enough and accurate enough to satisfy later workers . each generation of taxonomists must see the actual specimens used by earlier generations , and i think the tendency now is , or should be , to make descriptions short , but of course explicit and carefully calculated , and to make specimens widely available . \u201d\nthe naming of organisms following standardized conventions is the basis for linking new information to existing knowledge . it is also the basis for biological classification , effective communication , and extrapolation of findings about organisms . the mere accession numbers of dna sequences ( or other strings of numbers lacking an agreed system of the numbers\u2019 innate significance ) do not permit extrapolation of information about morphological traits , biogeographic ranges , or sharing of published knowledge across disciplines , all of which is possible with a widely used naming convention . most researchers are using the conventions of the linnaean system , with the fixed starting points being linnaeus\u2019s treatments of plants and animals ( 1753 , 1758 ; persoon and fries for certain fungi and the names of lichens ) .\n\u201cthe combined nucleotide sequences of the holotype strain . . . . the complete list of diagnostic d1 - d2 lsu , its ( iternal transcribed spacer ) / 5 . 8s and ssu gen - bank sequences which can be used as a genetic type for this species are reported in supplementary material . \u201d similarly for the other species\nunspecified substitutions in nuclear its \u201c rhizoplaca polymorpha consists of specimens recovered within \u2018clade ivc\u2019 in leavitt et al . ( 2011a ) , which is supported as a lineage distinct from all other populations according to coalescent - based genetic analysis of multiple genetic loci . \u201d\n\u201cthe least inclusive clade containing organisms with nuclear rrna its sequences with genbank accessions gq850318 , gq850355 gq850368 . . . \u201d\n\u201cwith an its sequence ( genbank jq693160 ) that is distinct from other members of the gamsii / elongata clade , deviating in the its1 region from other species in the clade ; with a 94\u201397 % similarity . with a sister group relationship to a possibly polyphyletic clade containing mortierella sclerotiella ( basal ; genbank hq63031 , ex type ) , m . cogitans ( genbank hq630281 , ex type ) , and m . acrotona ( genbank hq630328 , ex type ) . \u201d\n685 snails collected from 327 hosts , incl . type material , deposited in various collections\nthis species differs by ssu , lsu and its2 dna sequences ( jn636069 ) from all other species , listed in tables 1 and 2 . \u201cnote that these ribosomal dna sequences may vary within the species\u201d\nto date , two papers have discussed dna - based formal diagnoses ( cook et al . 2010 ; tripp and lendemer 2014 ) . both overlooked that the practice began 15 years ago ( westheide and hass - cordes 2001 ) , and they either focused on a hypothetical example ( ( cook et al . 2010 ) or examples from 2012 and 2013 ( tripp and lendemer 2014 ) . tripp and lendemer ( 2012 ) also raised a potential problem with one type of dna diagnosis , namely genetic distances , which i take up in the \u201cdiscussion\u201d section . no previous paper has surveyed the conceptual and factual history of dna - based formal naming , and the absence of a review of how taxonomists have incorsporated molecular characters into protologs has led to uncertainty and reinventing of the wheel ( cook et al . 2010 ; j\u00f6rger and schr\u00f6dl 2013 ) .\nspecies are always delimited against already known species ( linnaeus 1753 , 1758 ; mayr 1992 ; naciri and linder 2015 ) . this holds true regardless of whether they are conceived as created ( linnaeus 1753 , 1758 ) or as the result of evolution ( mayr 1992 ) . huge numbers of \u201ccryptic\u201d species\u2014a term only meaningful relative to the particular technology used for studying organisms\u2014can be distinguished with genomic data , and taxonomists are facing the challenge of naming at least some of this organismal diversity as it may be relevant for their research interests . it is useful then to consider how earlier taxonomists facing large numbers of new species mastered the task .\nthe combination of the type method ( i . e . , name - bearing specimens deposited in one or more collections ) and the discrete nature of nucleotide characters ( substitutions or insertions / deletions of codons ) begs reconsideration of linnaeus\u2019s focus of diagnosing species by features that distinguish them from their known closest relatives , instead of describing mixed sets of traits that vary at different hierarchical levels . here , i consider the ways in which taxonomists have incorporated dna characters directly into the publication of new species names , and i also review the history of dna - based formal naming . i conclude with recommendations about best practice dna - based diagnosis .\ni compiled published molecular diagnoses through internet searches , surveying relevant journals and corresponding with colleagues . a molecular diagnosis involves the formal naming of a taxon by listing the dna or protein characters in which it differs from its closest relative ( s ) in the protolog , thus associating it with a binomial latinized name and the type material with its place of deposition . i checked that the molecular data indicated in the diagnosis were accessible in the cited database , usually the national center for biotechnology information ( ncbi : http : / / www . ncbi . nlm . urltoken , accessed 28 april 2016 ) .\nmy survey focused on species names . an example of a molecular diagnosis of a higher taxon is that of the family ambuchananiaceae seppelt & h . a . crum ex a . j . shaw , \u201cfam . nov . plantae heterogeneae in morphologia , synapomorphis molecularibus in dna nuclei mitochondri et plasti unitae . type :\n, p . 1523 ) . of course , this was before botanists abolished the latin requirement on 1 january 2012 . the baselines for bacterial names are\ndna - based formal diagnoses of new species of eukaryotes ( mainly fungi , animals , and plants ) since 2000 ( based on data in table 1 ) . i am aware of only one molecular diagnosis published in 2015 ( irimia and gottschling 2016 ) .\nthe first to discuss how dna characters might be used in species diagnosis were don reynolds and john taylor ( 1991 ) who clarified that the exsisting rules of the international code of botanical nomenclature ( as it was then still called ) allowed dna - based species naming and that dna itself could serve as the type element . they provide two hypothetical examples of new fungal species names , one with a mix of dna and morphological type materials and the other with dna type material only , and call on herbaria to prepare for storing dna material as types . almost a quarter of a century has passed since this prescient article , but taxonomists are still feeling the need to defend the use of dna characters in protologs ( cook et al . 2010 ; j\u00f6rger and schr\u00f6dl 2013 ; tripp and lendemer 2014 ) , and the approach is only slowly becoming more common ( fig . 1 ) .\nby november 2015 , 98 molecular diagnoses of species of acoelomorpha , alveolata , angiospermae , annelida , arachnida , arthropoda , ascomycota , chordata ( reptilia and pisces ) , fungi , lepidoptera , mollusca , and nematoda have been published ( table 1 ) . relatively few protologs refrain from also providing a morphological description ( brower 2010 ; molina et al . 2011 ; leavitt et al . 2013 ) .\nthis form of clade - based diagnosis ( \u201cthe least inclusive clade containing\u2026\u201d ) has been challenged by tripp and lendemer ( 2012 ) , who have requested the committee on the application of the code of nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants to decide on the validity of this form , which in their view goes against the requirement in article 32 . 2 ( d ) that a diagnosis cannot describe properties such as purely aesthetic features , economic , medicinal or culinary usage , cultural significance , cultivation techniques , geographical origin , or geological age . this matter is currently unsolved , and i have not found examples from outside fungi and lichens of this form of diagnosis ( table 1 ) .\n) . in most studies , dna diagnostic features serve to corroborate morphological differences . for example , diagnostic coi substitutions that agree with shell characters clearly diagnose species of parasitic snails , but \u201cimpoverished anatomical details [ alone ] do not allow identification\u201d (\n) , but fern\u00e1ndez - triana and colleagues decided not to use dna barcoding traits as species diagnoses , instead using the form \u201csequences in bold : 2 , barcode compliant sequences : 2 . \u201d\nbetween january 1935 and 2012 , botanists ( and mycologists ) had to write any diagnosis in latin ( table lists three such molecular diagnoses ) . since 2012 , however , a few plant species have been diagnosed with nucleotide substitutions described in english ( table 1 ) , and one study even provides both molecular and morphological diagnoses and molecular and morphological descriptions ( gonz\u00e1lez et al . 2013 ) .\na key advantage of molecular diagnoses is their utility for more precisely characterizing type material than is possible with morphological traits . the better a type collection ( including syntypes and paratypes ) is characterized , the more reliable the identification of future specimens . this does not mean that unidentified specimens in the future will need to be sequenced for identification . instead , identification may continue to rely on morphological matching of preserved specimens or , increasingly , of images using machine learning . having stringent diagnoses that specify dna differences among closely related species ( or subspecific taxa ) can facilitate identification in those cases where the correct identification of a specimen is crucial , for example , for parasites of crops or of animals , especially us , but also for specimens that are incomplete , poorly preserved , or immature , so that diagnostic features are missing . also , as pointed out by cook et al . ( 2010 ) , it is often quicker and cheaper to use diagnostic dna features than to rely on the traditional expert - centered paradigm of identification ."]}
{"id": 650, "summary": [{"text": "agonochaetia intermedia is a moth of the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in austria , switzerland , hungary and russia ( the volga-don region and the southern ural ) . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "agonochaetia intermedia", "paragraphs": ["huemer , p . ( 1989 ) das weibchen von agonochaetia intermedia sattler , 1968 ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) . mitteilungen der schweizerischen entomologischen gesellschaft , 62 , 387\u2013389 .\nagonochaetia quartana n . sp . , 1990\u201d ( zsm ) ( examined by ok ) .\npovolny\u0301 , d . ( 1990 ) on agonochaetia quartana sp . n . and its allies ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) . shilap revista de lepidopterologia , 18 , 146\u2013157 .\nthe holarctic genus agonochaetia is reviewed and a new species , agonochaetia shawinigan landry , sp . nov . is described from qu\u00e9bec , canada . in addition , a new glandiductor - bearing genus and species , canarischema fuerteventura karsholt , gen . nov . , sp . nov . is described from the canary islands . comparative diagnoses , a key to species , illustrations of external aspect , male and female genitalia are provided for all species . most species of agonochaetia are rarely collected and known only from their types or from very few specimens . dna barcodes are provided for four of the species from which dna was recovered . analysis of dna barcodes suggests that agonochaetia may be paraphyletic . phylogenetic relationships to other gnorimoschemini genera bearing a pair of glandiductors above the phallus are discussed .\nthe holarctic genus agonochaetia is reviewed and a new species , agonochaetia shawinigan landry , sp . nov . is described from qu\u00e9bec , canada . in addition , a new glandiductor - bearing genus and species , canarischema fuerteventura karsholt , gen . nov . , sp . nov . is described from the canary islands . comparative diagnoses , a key to species , illustrations of external aspect , male and female genitalia are provided for all species . most species of agonochaetia are rarely collected and known only from their types or from very few specimens . dna barcodes are provided for four of the species from which dna was recovered . analysis of dna barcodes suggests that agonochaetia may be paraphyletic . phylogenetic relationships to other gnorimoschemini genera bearing a pair of glandiductors above the phallus are discussed .\nthe holarctic genus agonochaetia is reviewed and a new species is described from qu\u00e9bec , canada . in addition , a new related genus and species is described from the canary islands . comparative diagn\u2026\n[ more ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na new species of fish , pseudoliparis swirei , published in zootaxa ( 4358 : 161 - 177 ) by gerringer , m . e et al . was voted among top 10 new species described in 2017 .\na new species of madagascan crickets described by mustafa \u00fcnal and george beccaloni in zootaxa was featured in a national geographic story . well done mustafa and george !\na new species of wolf spider , lycosa aragogi , is named after aragog\u2014the famous fictional spider from \u201charry potter\u201d book series by j . k . rowling . the new species is similar to the animatronic puppet version of the character used in the film \u201charry potter and the chamber of secrets\u201d , which is actually based on a wolf spider . the naming of the new species is dedicated to the 20th anniversary of harry potter book series .\nmariah o . pfleger , r . dean grubbs , charles f . cotton , toby s . daly - engel\nidentification of nipaecoccus ( hemiptera : coccomorpha : pseudococcidae ) species in the united states , with descriptions of nipaecoccus bromelicola sp . n . and the male of n . floridensis beardsley\n2011 - 01 - 26 by & van nieukerken , dr erik j . karsholt , dr ole & by dr ole karsholt\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 license\npesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi\njean - fran\u00e7ois landry canadian national collection of insects , arachnids and nematodes ; ottawa research and development centre , agriculture and agri - food canada , ottawa , ontario k1a 0c6 , canada .\nvazrick nazari canadian national collection of insects , arachnids and nematodes ; ottawa research and development centre , agriculture and agri - food canada , ottawa , ontario k1a 0c6 , canada .\noleksiy bidzilya institute for evolutionary ecology of the national academy of sciences of ukraine , 37 academician lebedev str . , 03143 , kiev , ukraine .\npeter huemer tiroler landesmuseen betriebsges . m . b . h . , sammlungs - und forschungszentrum , naturwissenschaftliche sammlungen , krajnc - stra\u00dfe 1 , 6060 hall in tirol , austria .\nole karsholt zoological museum , natural history museum of denmark , universitetsparken 15 , dk - 2100 k\u00f8benhavn \u00f8 , denmark .\nbidzilya , o . v . ( 2000 ) new faunistic records of gelechiid - moths ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) from the southern siberia with description of three new species . beitr\u00e4ge zur entomologie , 50 , 385\u2013395 .\nbidzilya , o . v . ( 2001 ) two new species of gelechiid - moths from central asia ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) . shilap revista de lepidopterologia , 29 , 161\u2013163 .\nbraun , a . f . ( 1921 ) two weeks collecting in glacier national park . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , 73 , 1\u201323 .\ncaradja , a . ( 1920 ) beitrag zur kenntnis der geographischenverbreitung der mikrolepidopteren des palaearktischen faunen - gebietes nebst beschreibung neuer formen . deutsche entomologische zeitschrift iris , 1920 , 75\u2013180 .\ndewaard , j . r . , ivanova , n . v . , hajibabaei , m . & hebert , p . d . n . ( 2008 ) assembling dna barcodes : analytical methods . in : cristofre , m . ( ed . ) , methods in molecular biology : environmental genetics . humana press , totowa , pp . 275\u2013293 . urltoken\nelsner , g . , huemer , p . & tokar , z . ( 1999 ) die palpenmotten ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) mitteleuropas . frantisek slamka , bratislava , 208 pp .\ngregersen , k . & karsholt , o . ( 2017 ) taxonomic confusion around the peach twig borer , anarsia lineatella zeller , 1839 , with description of a new species ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) . nota lepidopterologica , 40 ( 1 ) , 65\u201385 . urltoken\nheikkil\u00e4 , m . , mutanen , m . , kekkonen , m . & kaila , l . ( 2013 ) morphology reinforces proposed molecular phylogenetic affinities : a revised classification for gelechioidea ( lepidoptera ) . cladistics , 3 , 563\u2013589 . urltoken\nhodges , r . w . ( 1983 ) check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey and the wedge entomological research foundation , london , xxiv + 284 pp .\nhuemer , p . ( 1988 ) a taxonomic revision of caryocolum ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) . bulletin of the british museum of natural history ( entomology ) , 57 , 439\u2013571 .\nhuemer , p . & hebert , p . d . n . ( 2011 ) cryptic diversity and phylogeography of high alpine sattleria \u2014 a case study combining dna barcodes and morphology ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) . zootaxa , 2981 , 1\u201322 .\nhuemer , p . & karsholt , o . ( 1999 ) gelechiidae i ( gelechiinae : teleiodini , gelechiini ) . in : huemer , p . , karsholt , o . & lyneborg , l . ( eds . ) , microlepidoptera of europe . vol . 3 . apollo books , stenstrup , pp . 1\u2013356 .\nhuemer , p . & karsholt , o . ( 2010 ) gelechiidae ii ( gelechiinae : gnorimoschemini ) . in : huemer , p . , karsholt , o . & nuss , m . ( eds . ) , microlepidoptera of europe . vol . 6 . apollo books , stenstrup , pp . 1\u2013586 .\nhuemer , p . & mutanen , m . ( 2012 ) taxonomy of spatially disjunct alpine teleiopsis albifemorella s . lat . 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( 2007 ) taxonomic review of the leek moth genus acrolepiopsis ( lepidoptera : acrolepiidae ) in north america . the canadian entomologist , 139 ( 3 ) , 319\u2013353 .\nlandry , j . - f . , nazari , v . , dewaard , j . r . , mutanen , m . , lopez - vaamonde , c . , huemer , p . & hebert , p . d . n . ( 2013 ) shared but overlooked : 30 species of holarctic microlepidoptera revealed by dna barcodes and morphology . zootaxa , 3749 ( 1 ) , 1\u201393 . urltoken\nlee , s . , hodges , r . w . , brown , r . l . ( 2009 ) checklist of gelechiidae ( lepidoptera ) in america north of mexico . zootaxa , 2231 , 1\u201339 .\nmcdunnough , j . ( 1939 ) check list of the lepidoptera of canada and the united states of america . part ii . microlepidoptera . memoirs of the southern california academy of sciences , 2 , 1\u2013171 .\nm\u00fcller - rutz , j . ( 1922 ) die schmetterlinge der schweiz ( 4 . nachtrag ) . mitteilungen der schweizerischen entomologischen gesellschaft , 13 , 217\u2013259 .\nnazari , v . ( 2017 ) review of neopalpa povolny\u0301 , 1998 with description of a new species from california and baja california , mexico ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) . zookeys , 646 , 79\u201394 . urltoken\npark , k . t . ( 1996 ) illustrations and discussions on type - specimens of gelechiidae ( lepidoptera ) described by a . caradja . insecta koreana , 13 , 59\u201375 .\npitkin , l . m . ( 1984 ) gelechiid moths of the genus mirificarma . bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) , entomology series , 48 ( 1 ) , 1\u201370 .\npitkin , l . m . ( 1986 ) a technique for the preparation of complex male genitalia in microlepidoptera . entomologist\u2019s gazette , 37 , 173\u2013179 .\nponomarenko , m . g . 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( 1988 ) versuch einer numerisch - taxonomischen l\u00f6sung der phylogenetischen beziehungen im rahmen der gelechioiden tribus gnorimoschemini ( lepidoptera ) . stapfia , 16 , 209\u2013247 .\nrebel , h . ( 1903 ) studien \u00fcber die lepidopterenfauna der balkanl\u00e4nder . ( tafel iii ) . annalen des naturhistorischen museums in wien , 18 , 123\u2013347 .\nronquist , f . , teslenko , m . , van der mark , p . , ayres , d . l . , darling , a . , h\u2019ohna , s . , larget , b . , liu , l . , suchard , m . a . & huelsenbeck , j . p . ( 2012 ) mrbayes 3 . 2 : efficient bayesian phylogenetic inference and model choice across a large model space . systematic biology , 61 , 539\u2013542 . h urltoken\nsakamaki , y . & ueda , t . ( 2013 ) gelechiidae . in : hirowatari , t . , nasu , y . , sakamaki , y . & kishida , y . ( eds . ) , the standard of moths in japan . vol . 3 . gakken education publishing , tokyo , pp . 45\u201350 , 262\u2013313 . [ in japanese ]\nsauter , w . ( 1961 ) \u00fcber einige von j . c . de la harpe , j . m\u00fcller - rutz und p . weber aus der schweiz beschriebene kleinschmetterlinge ( lep . ) . mitteilungen der schweizerischen entomologischen gesellschaft , 33 , 264\u2013274 .\nsattler , k . ( 1961 ) \u00fcber gelechia terrestrella zeller , 1872 ( lep . , gelech . ) . mitteilungen der schweizerischen entomologischen gesellschaft , 34 , 301\u2013302 .\nsattler , k . ( 1967 ) the nearctic obscurusella group of the genus chionodes ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) . the canadian entomologist , 99 ( 1 ) , 75\u201385 . urltoken\nsattler , k . ( 1968 ) die systematische stellung einiger gelechiidae . deutsche entomologische zeitschrift , n . f . , 15 , 111\u2013131 .\ntamura , k . , stecher , g . , peterson , d . , filipski , a . & kumar , s . ( 2013 ) mega6 : molecular evolutionary genetics analysis version 6 . 0 . molecular biology and evolution , 30 , 2725\u20132729 . urltoken\nthomann , h . ( 1956 ) die psychiden und mikrolepidopteren des schweizerischen nationalparkes und der angrenzenden gebiete . ergebnisse der wissenschaftlichen untersuchungen des schweizerischen nationalparks , 5 , 379\u2013446 .\nzeller , p . c . ( 1872 ) bemerkungen \u00fcber einiger graub\u00fcndner lepidoptern . stettiner entomologische zeitung , 33 , 97\u2013120 .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\naspect , male and female genitalia are provided for all species . most species of\n, and thus established the presence of the genus in the nearctic region . povoln\u00fd ( 1990 ) described\npovoln\u00fd , 1990 based on a single female from bulgaria . more recently , two new species have been\nponomarenko ( 2008b ) , a species described from the russian far east based on a unique female .\nall palearctic species have been found in xeric steppe habitats up to elevations of about 2000 m . one of the\n2010 ) are known from a single to a handful of specimens . the paucity of m\nwidely allopatric samples are concerned , or when only one sex is available . dna barcodes are now used widely in\nspecies delineation to help interpret or supplement ambiguous morphological data and to associate sexes ( e . g .\ndna barcodes for four of the recognized species but the few barcoded specimens were males only .\nuseful external features that allow some species to be recognized with certainty . even recognition of a member of\nsynopsis of the genus . the existence of the new species has been known to jf\nnational museum of natural history , smithsonian institution , washington d . c . , usa\n30 % ethanol ) for 24 hours . following staining , wings were rinsed in 70 % ethanol where loose scales and matted\nd dataset http : / / dx . doi . org / 10 . 5883 / ds -\nagonocha . three new sequences ( ky818714\u20136 ) were deposited in genbank ( table 1 ) . unco\n( mcmc ) runs starting from different random trees , each with three heated chains and one cold chain .\nto adjacent structures among species . such differences can be assessed visually with ease but are more difficult to\nabsolute size differences . terms for genitalia and abbreviations are shown in figs 23\u201324 . wing length was\nthe genitalia were never described previously . the other species have been previously described and illustrated in\nconform to the format presented here inasmuch as allowed by the limited material available . attempts to describe\nin a certain lack of precision and comparability . although we strived to standardize the descriptions as much as\npostmedian area and along termen . labial palpus slender , segment 3 shorter than 2 . antenna wit\nbroad , ratio width / length = 0 . 26\u20130 . 30 in fw , 0 . 30\u20130 . 36 in hw\nnotch ( tgn / tgl = 0 . 40\u20130 . 67 ; ratio may vary\ndepending on amount of flattening ) . uncus trapezoid , 0 . 3\u20130 . 4x\nwith shallow medial indentation . gnathos with proximal arms short , stubby , apices club - like or hatchet - like and not\nof proximal arms of gnathos . vinculum transverse , with a deep v - shaped medio -\n1 . 6x length of valva . cucullus extended beyond apex of uncus , narrow , inner\n( ventral ) margin variously widened or lobate in distal third , distal \u00bc slender , digitiform or pointed . sacculus\nfrom phallus , situated on each side and slightly dorsad of phallus at end of deep inpocketing of diaphragma . phallus\nelevations up to 2000 m . even less is known about the nearctic species : no host or habitat information is known for\n( margellan ) , southern part of european russia ( southern ural mts . and v\n( hokkaido ) , and two from north america ( one in the east , one in the west ) .\ngenus ( huemer & karsholt 2010 ) as well as for assessing species distributions .\nfrom external characters alone . despite the broad ( wide ) wings that are characteristic of\nparticular venational features which differed from other gnorimoschemini were observed . povoln\u00fd ( 2002b )\n, povoln\u00fd ( 1965 ) did not specify the distinguishing features of both genera . sattler ( 1968 )\nthe fact that the morphological information available is not readily comparable for all the species .\nsaccus longer than valva complex ( sal / vll > 1 . 3 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .\n- shaped , vincular processes humped , mesially wide , with rounded tip . . . . . . . . . . . .\nrocesses pointed and extended markedly beyond posterior margin of vinculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . .\napex of antrum extended to middle of anterior apophyses . . . . . . . .\ncollection of | annette f . braun . \u201d [ red , printed ] ; \u201cgenitalia slide | vnz 78 \u2642\u201d [ green printed ] ( ansp ) ( examined\nusnm142500 ( usnm ) . 1 \u2642 banff , 19 jul 1922 , 7200 ft . , specimen #\n. hodges , specimen # usnment01349736 , slide usnm142571 ; 2 \u2642 , lawrence co . , spearfish creek ,\nwhite . underside of body and legs , except hind tibia and tarsus , dark brown , sparsely dusted with white . hind tibia\negumen elongate with roundly arched anterior notch ( tgn / tgl = 0 . 55 ) .\nseveral short setae , without indentation . gnathos with proximal arms short , stubby ,\nembedded in apical part of culcitula . culcitula a large , elongate , pouch - like lobe extended from apex of uncus to\nbasally , about 1 . 3x length of valva , apex slightly dilated . cucullus basally narrow , inner ( ventral ) margin with\nular thorn projected dorsally , slightly longer ( 1 . 24x ) than saccus , caecum bulbous ,\nabout 0 . 15x length of phallus , inception of ductus ejaculatorius dorso - anterior on caecum .\nwestern usa and canada . known from colorado , montana ( glacier national park ) alberta\nnational park , but this is not reflected on the holotype labels . the upper surface coloration varies among the few\nspecimen from banff and another from colorado are dark brown . most specimens are nearly or over 100 y\nholotype \u2640 , \u201ckasakew . \u201d \u201cholotype brachmia impunctella \u2640 car . rom\u00e4nia\u201d ( mgab ) .\nphotos of the type , its labels and the genitalia slide ( prepared by park , 1996 ) were examined .\n, somewhat larger , wings rounded and stretched at the apex . palps , sensor yellow , last not\nringed . general color light - yellow clay . the dot at the beginning and end of the cell and in the crease barely\nyellow clay . \u201d ( caradja 1920 ) . [ description translated from german . ]\ndescription ( based on photograph of the holotype ) . adult . wingspan not measured ( scale not available from\nmodifications , with short longitudinal folds posteroventrally ; anterior apophysis about 2 . 4x length of segment v\nindistinct traces of small darker spots in the terminal portion . however , given that the type specimen is over 100\nabout the same length as the hook . other species have a differently shaped antrum and signum , however , marked\ngenitalia nor of the external appearance of the specimen was provided . the description above was developed from\npovoln\u00fd , 1965\u201d [ white hand - written ] ; \u201cht\u201d [ white hand - written ] ; \u201cst . 321\u201d [ dissection label , yellow typed ] ;\ntegumen with tgn / tgl = 0 . 67 , latero - ventral flange large and broadly rounded .\nthin , apices club - like and not mesially joined ; mesio - distal arm indictinct . culcitula a large , elongat\nlobe extended from near apex of uncus to below apex of proximal arms of gnathos . v\nnarrow , digitiform , with rounded and incurved apex . sacculus with apex club - like , incurved . paired glandiductor\nlobes needle - like , outwardly curved , longer than phallus , anterior 1 / 4 dilated . phallus straight , stubby , apex with\nother types of gelechiidae which were borrowed from various european museums . it will be soon transferred to the\nmuseum f\u00fcr naturkunde in berlin as it belongs to the staudinger collection deposited in that institution .\n. type locality : sarepta [ krasnoarmeysk ] , russia . huemer ( 1989 : 387 ) ; elsner\nholotype \u2642 \u201cs - russia , sarepta , 10 . 7 . 1864 , h . c\nhary mts . , 450 m , berchogur vill . 3 km nw , 4 . vi . 2011 ( k .\nm s , sand dunes / sandy steppe , 25 . vi . 2002 ( k . nupponen ) ( gen . slide\nmead . , 10 . vii . 1996 ( jalava & kullberg ) ( gen . prep . in gly\ncerol ) ( mzh ) ; 1 \u2642 [ russia ] , transbaikalia , chita reg . ,\nmuc ) ; 1 \u2642 , ditto but 3 . vi . 1983 ( tlm\nf ) ; 1 \u2640 , ditto , but 20 . vi . 1987 ( p .\nmf ) ; 1 \u2640 , switzerland , zermatt , 19 . vii . 1934 ( g\nfor a re - description see huemer & karsholt ( 2010 : 296 ) .\ntegumen , apical margin lined with several fine setae , without indentation . gnathos with proximal arm\nwith triangular projection dorsally , 1 . 5x length of saccus , caecum moderately bulbous , 0 . 25x length of phallus .\ni shorter ( 0 . 5x ) than wide , weakly sclerotized ; anterior apophysis 3 . 5x\nof about 2000 m . they fly at dusk and are attracted to light ( huemer & karsholt 2010 ) .\nype locality : shebalino , altai , russia . povoln\u00fd ( 2002a : 105 ) .\nr - n , middle stream of inja river , 28 jun 1989 ( artemieva ) ( gen . slide 163 / 15 , o .\nwingspan 13\u201316 mm . head and thorax grey brown . labial palpus recurved , segment 2 brown ,\n( tgn / tgl = 0 . 41 ) . uncus elongate , narrowed apically , with triangular incision at the top . gnathos ring - shaped .\na broad , widened medially , apex pointed , extending over the top of uncus . sacculus 2\u20132 . 5x narrower and about\n1 / 3 shorter than valva , curved inwards in distal 1 / 3 , with small apical thorn . posterior margin of v\nshort medial humps , medial incision narrow , lateral projections broadly rounded . saccus slender\ntegumen and uncus . glandiductor lobe needle - shaped , about length of phallus , weakly broadened at base . phallus\nl = 0 . 87 ) , and short , square , almost truncate , vincular lobes .\npe locality : slivno , bulgaria . povoln\u00fd ( 2002a : 105 ) ; huemer &\nfor a re - description see huemer & karsholt ( 2010 : 297 ) .\nantrum slenderly triangular , 1 . 5x length of sviii , distal edge roundly concave , anterior portion tapered to about \u00bc\n, but lacks dark spots in the forewings and has the antennae more distinctly ringed . the female antrum is\nnot of zsm as stated by povoln\u00fd ( 1990 ) . it seems likely that the holotype is one of the two specimens\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 63e1c708 - 2c93 - 4083 - 8e6a - 89476968f237\nwingspan 21 mm . head grey brown , collar ochreous brown . thorax and tegulae dark brown .\nish white suffused with dark brown . hindwing upper surface dark brown , darker than forewing ,\ntegumen elongate with deep and roundly arched anterior notch ( tgn / tgl = 0 . 54 ) .\nband embedded in apical part of culcitula . culcitula a large , elongate , pouch - like lobe extended from apex of uncus\nbroadened basally , about 1 . 6x length of valva , apex slightly dilated . cucullus narrow , inner ( ventral ) margin\ntriangular thorn projected dorsally , slightly longer ( 1 . 2x ) than saccus , caecum bulbous , about 0 . 15x length of\ndarker than that of the forewing . in genitalia the saccus is the longest of all\nspecies ( sal / vll ratio = 0 . 66\u20130 . 89 ) . in\nsacculus , although dilated , is indistinctly concave and the tip pointed and less produced .\nportage\u201d , \u201cportage on the crest\u201d , or \u201cangled portage\u201d . it refers to the narrow and steep portage at the base of the\npeople who inhabited the region when the french explorers arrived in the early 1600s . the species name is a noun\n( fig 8 ) are pin marks . the very dark hindwings in this otherwise non - descript brown gelechiid is what\n1 . type locality : berg\u00fcn , switzerland . lectotype designated by sattler ( 1961 ) ( bmnh ) .\n2 : 241 . type locality : st . maria , m\u00fcnstertal , switzerland . synonymized by sattler\nhuemer ) ( bnmc ) . 1 \u2640 , romania , dobrogea , rez . canaraua petii\n: no holotype or lectotype seems to have been designated . m\u00fcller - rutz ( 1922 )\ntegumen elongate with evenly arched anterior notch ( tgn / tgl = 0 . 43 ) . uncus 0 . 3x\nfree from proximal arms , a sizable band embedded in apical part of culcitula . vinculum transverse , mesio - posterior\nalmost 90\u00b0 , basal portion thicker , apex mucronate . paired glandiductor lobes regularly curv\nprojected dorsally , 1 . 6x length of saccus , caecum bulbous , about 0 . 25x length of phallus , inception of ductus\nantrum funnel - shaped with sides sub - parallel , 1 . 25\u20131 . 6x length of sviii , distal edge broadly concave ,\nto above 2000 m . thomann ( 1956 ) found the species in late ju\nother three species for which females are known . this throws some doubt as to the validity of the species based on\nexternal and genitalia characters among european populations was noted by huemer & karsholt ( 2010 : 295 ) .\nbidzilya 2000 : 392 , fig . 6 ( \u2642 genitalia ) . type locality : tuva , russia .\ngrey on inner surface , darker with numerous brown scales on outer surface . third segment greyish brown , paler on\nfrom base , with black chevron mark at 2 / 3 from base , and a white diffuse spot at 3 / 4 of costa . cilia light brown .\ntegumen elongate with deep and roundly arched anterior notch ( tgn / tgl = 0 . 57 ) .\nshort setae , with shallow but sharp medial indentation . gnathos with proximal arms short , stubby\nimal arms of gnathos . vinculum transverse , with shallow v - shaped mesio - posterior\napex of uncus , ventral edge barely widened in distal third . sacculus bent at almost 90\u00b0 in basal portion and slightly\nconstricted , apex rounded . paired glandiductor lobes needle - like , outwardly curved and slightly sinuate in distal\ner ( 1 . 17x ) than phallus , anterior \u00bc dilated . phallus slig\nterminal , pale transverse band across the distal third . the postmedian spot at the end of cell is chevron - shaped and\nincurved in its basal portion and has a rounded apex , and the ventral edge of cucullus is only slightly dilated .\nsaccus ( sal / vll = 0 . 66 ) , vincular lobes more widely separated with the caudal margin of vinculum\nwhite ; flagellum thickened , yellow in male ; slender , ringed blackish brown and white in female . forewing white\nopen ( damaged in preparation examined ) ; cup absent . hindwing with m1 extended from rs beyond cell ; cell\ntegumen with shallow anterior notch ( tgn / tgl = 0 . 35 ) , posterior margin\nextended beyond margin of tegumen notch , tongue - shaped . culcitula absent . vinculum transversely very narrow ,\nrounded ; anterior notches arched ; saccus thin , as long as valva ( sal / vll = 1 . 0 ) . cucullus broad , tapering from\nmiddle towards pointed apex , ventral edge smoothly curved without protrusion or lobe . sacculus about half length\nof cucullus , incurved , inner margin irregular , apex pointed . paired glandiductor l\ndorsally , caecum slightly bulbous with collar - like constriction around opening of ductus ejaculatorius .\nislands , and \u201cschema\u201d ( greek : figure or shape ) . the second part of the nam\narchipelago justified , in our view , a separate genus . when present , the culcitula is typically\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : b9b264b5 - cd83 - 4a1f - 9a61 -\npe \u2642 , spain , \u201ckanar . inselen fuerteventura bco . [ barranco de ] esquinzo , 15 . 12 . 2006\n3 \u2642 , same data as holotype ; 1 \u2642 , ditto but 3 - 16 . x . 2000 ; 2 \u2642 , 25 . ix .\nouter surface . scape of antenna white mottled with black ; flagellum thickened , yellow . forewing white mottled\nthe type series shows only slight variation , apart from being more or less worn .\nflagellum of the male antenna , and by the patches of black scales surrounded by yellow brown in the forewing . in\nmale genitalia , the glandiductors have a wide anterior opening as do the internal ducts .\nsituated in the atlantic ocean about 100 km west of morocco . it is considered the oldest of the canary islands ,\nhaving not been submerged for about 20 million years . the species name is a noun in apposition .\nearly stages and host - plant unknown . the type series was collected at light during the winter months\ndiaphragma and dorsally bracing , but free from , the phallus in the male genitalia . each of these \u201cneedles\u201d contains\nabdominal organs found in primitive lepidoptera . the internal duct and soft tissues being digested during koh\nmaceration accounts for the fact they have been overlooked or misinterpreted previously . the presence of the\nspecies - group but did not refer specifically to them . ponomarenko ( 2008a )\n2017 ) , but here they are attached to the complex and asymmetrical valvae . gregersen & k\nmelanized and contrasting with unmelanized posterior section ( figs . 17\u201318 ) . the unmelanized condition is\nfeatures of the first tergite have rarely been considered . it is beyond the scope of this paper to assess its possible\nostium bursae in the female genitalia ( huemer & karsholt 1999 ; ponomarenko 2009 ) . however , one or both of\nthese traits are absent in several genera . moreover , an acrinoid signum , t\n( ethmiinae ) , and cosmopterigidae ( chrysopeleiinae ) . the reduction of muscle m7 in m\ninferences based on this reduction are highly tentative . neither kaila ( 2004 ) nor heikk\nhowever , taxon sampling was limited and did not include glandiductor - bearing gnorimoschemines .\nstar ) . 44 , bayesian inference of relationships between selected gnorimoschemini genera based on coi barcode data . v\ntribe gnorimoschemini formed a natural group and no \u2018outgroup\u2019 was included . besides the fact that this kind of\nappear unorthodox ( typological , e . g . defined as \u2018taxon - name - oid\u2019 ) and excessively fragm\nhave more than 15 states ) , not to mention that the character matrix is printed in tiny , almost unreadable typeset .\nto obscure higher relationships . it is also sensitive to sparse taxon sampling whereby relativ\ner , it lacks glandiductors and has a mesio - distal process of the gnathos .\nwe thank mark metz ( smithsonian institution , washington d . c . , usa ) and klaus sattler ( natural history\nin the usnm which were unknown to us and promptly issued a loan for us to examine them .\nnew species of gelechiid - moths from central asia ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) .\n. & karsholt , o . ( 1999 ) gelechiidae i ( gelechiinae : teleiodini , gelechiini ) .\nsouthern ural mountains , part ii : list of recorded species with taxonomic notes ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) .\n, brown , r . l . ( 2009 ) checklist of gelechiidae ( lepidoptera ) in america north of mexico .\nm\u00fcller - rutz , j . ( 1922 ) die schmetterlinge der schweiz ( 4 . nachtrag ) .\nn type - specimens of gelechiidae ( lepidoptera ) described by a . caradja .\npovoln\u00fd , d . ( 2002b ) synopsis of the genera of the tribe gnorimoschemini ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) .\n1961 ) \u00fcber einige von j . c . de la harpe , j . m\u00fcller - rutz und p\ntaxonomy of spatially disjunct alpine teleiopsis albifemorella s . lat . ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) revealed by molecular data and morphology - how many species are there ?\ngelechiidae ii ( gelechiinae : gnorimoschemini ) . microlepidoptera of europe . volume 6 : 1 - 586\ncompilation of literature and collection records , for the provinces and territories of canada .\nthe remarkable endemism of moths in white sands national monument , otero co . new mexico , us\na study of moths in white sands national monument along a transect 2 . 4 km and 300 m documented over 650 described species of moths in 9 years . approximately 40 undescribed species , nearly all of w\u2026\n[ more ]\nreview of neopalpa povoln\u00fd , 1998 with description of a new species from california and baja californ . . .\nthe monotypic genus neopalpa was described in 1998 by czech entomologist dalibor povoln\u00fd based on two male specimens from santa catalina island , california , which he named n . neonata . the female of this species was discovered recently based on a dna barcode match and is described . in addition , a new species with marked differences in morphology and dna barcodes from southern california and . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe identities of doryphora orthogonella staudinger , 1871 and anacampsis azosterella herrich - sch\u00e4ffer , 1854 are discussed and they are confirmed as belonging to the genera stomopteryx heinemann , 1870 and syncopacma meyrick , 1925 , respectively . both species are redescribed based on types and additional new material . the adults and the male genitalia of both species are illustrated . a lectotype . . . [ show full abstract ]\narmatophallus gen . n . , a new genus of gelechiid moths ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) from the afrotropic . . .\narmatophallus , gen . n . , is established for six species : a . exoenota ( meyrick , 1918 ) , comb . n . ( ex gelechia ) ( = gelechia xylophaea meyrick , 1921 , syn . n . ) ; a . crudescens ( meyrick , 1920 ) , comb . n . ( ex gelechia ) ; a . kuehnei , sp . n . ( rwanda ) ; a . akagericus , sp . n . ( rwanda ) ; a . hackeri , sp . n . ( yemen , ethiopia ) ; and a . indicus , sp . n . ( india ) . the systematic position of the new genus is briefly . . . [ show full abstract ]\nnatural history museum ( 2014 ) . dataset : collection specimens . resource : specimens . natural history museum data portal ( data . nhm . ac . uk ) . urltoken\nan open source project by the natural history museum ' s biodiversity informatics group .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nje ne saurais que trop vous conseiller l\u2019ouvrage du groupe d\u2019etude des invert\u00e9br\u00e9s armoricains sur les pyrales de la manche . a retrouver sur le site pour le commander .\ntribu de la sous - famille des gelechiinae qui compte 102 esp\u00e8ces visibles en france .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a fact about agonopterix cratia ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for agonopterix cratia ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nhave a fact about agonopterix alstromeriana ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for agonopterix alstromeriana ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a fact about agonopterix dierli ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for agonopterix dierli ? write it here to share it with the entire community ."]}
{"id": 652, "summary": [{"text": "satyrium fuliginosum , the sooty hairstreak , is a butterfly of the lycaenidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in western north america from british columbia to central california , east to wyoming and northern colorado .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 24 \u2013 30 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the upperside is drab dark grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the underside is grey to greyish brown .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the forewing sometimes has a line of white-bordered dark spots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from july to august .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "adults feed on flower nectar .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on lupinus . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "satyrium fuliginosum", "paragraphs": ["sooty hairstreak ( satyrium fuliginosum ) ( w . h . edwards , 1861 )\nsatyrium fuliginosum tildeni mattoon & austin , 1998 . type locality : siskiyou mountains , siskiyou county , california\nsooty hairstreak satyrium fuliginosum ( w . h . edwards , 1861 ) | butterflies and moths of north america\nsatyrium fuliginosum albolineatum mattoon & austin , 1998 . type locality : boardman ridge , north coast range , lake co . , ca\nbutterflies of canada - sooty hairstreak ( satyrium fuliginosum ) ( w . h . edwards , 1861 ) - canadian biodiversity information facility ( cbif )\nsatyrium fuliginosum semiluna klots , 1930 ; bull . brooklyn ent . soc . 25 ( 3 ) : 161 , f . 5 - 6 ; tl : teton co . wyoming\nsatyrium fuliginosum tildeni mattoon & austin , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 53 ) : 682 , f . 5 - 8 ; tl : california , siskiyou co .\nsatyrium fuliginosum albolineatum mattoon & austin , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 53 ) : 684 , f . 9 - 12 ; tl : california , lake co .\nsatyrium fuliginosum maculadistinctum mattoon & austin , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 53 ) : 685 , f . 17 - 20 ; tl : nevada , lyon co .\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) fuliginosa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) semiluna ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) behrii ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) acadica ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) californica ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) sylvinus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) titus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) edwardsii ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) calanus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) caryaevorus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) kingi ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) liparops ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) auretorum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) tetra ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) fuliginosa fuliginosa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) fuliginosa tildeni ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) fuliginosa albolineatum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) semiluna semiluna ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) semiluna maculadistinctum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) behrii behrii ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) behrii crossi ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) behrii columbia ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) acadica acadica ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) acadica montanensis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) acadica coolinensis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) californica californica ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) californica cygnus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) californica obscurafacies ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) californica brashor ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) californica wapiti ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) sylvinus sylvinus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) sylvinus dryope ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) sylvinus putnami ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) sylvinus itys ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) sylvinus desertorum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) sylvinus nootka ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) sylvinus megapallidum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) titus immaculosus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) titus watsoni ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) titus occidentalis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) titus winteri ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) titus campus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) edwardsii edwardsii ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) edwardsii meridionale ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) calanus calanus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) calanus falacer ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) calanus godarti ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) calanus albidus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) liparops liparops ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) liparops strigosa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) liparops fletcheri ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) liparops aliparops ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) liparops floridensis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) auretorum auretorum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) auretorum spadix ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) auretorum fumosum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium saepium ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium chalcis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium fulvescens ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium chlorophora ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium provo ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium rubrotenebrosum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium caliginosum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium subaridum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium obscurofuscum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( satyrium ) saepium latalinea ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsierra nevada of california north in mountains through northern california into southern oregon ( west of great basin ) . some populations further north in the cascades show similarities to s . fuliginosum , but are classed as s . semiluna when the two are split as separate species .\n= satyrium fuliginosa fuliginosa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\n= satyrium semiluna maculadistinctum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\n= satyrium behrii behrii ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 203\n= satyrium behrii behrii ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\n= satyrium acadica acadica ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 204\n= satyrium californica californica ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\n= satyrium sylvinum putnami ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 205\n= satyrium edwardsii edwardsii ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\n= satyrium calanus calanus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\n= satyrium calanus falacer ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 207\n= satyrium liparops liparops ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\n= satyrium liparops strigosa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\n= satyrium liparops fletcheri ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 208\n= satyrium auretorum auretorum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\n= satyrium saepium saepium ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 209\nsatyrium lais ; huang , 2001 , neue ent . nachr . 51 : 76 ( note )\nsatyrium volt ; huang , 2001 , neue ent . nachr . 51 : 77 ( note )\nsatyrium redae ; huang , 2001 , neue ent . nachr . 51 : 77 ( note )\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) favonius ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) ilavia ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 211\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) polingi ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 211\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) favonius favonius ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) favonius ontario ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 210\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) favonius autolycus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 211\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) favonius violae ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 211\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) polingi polingi ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 211\nsatyrium ( fixsenia ) polingi organensis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 211\nsatyrium siguniangshanicum murayama , 1992 ; nature & ins . 27 ( 5 ) : ( 39 - 41 )\nsatyrium minshanicum murayama , 1992 ; nature & ins . 27 ( 5 ) : ( 39 - 41 )\nsatyrium neoeximia murayama , 1992 ; nature & ins . 27 ( 5 ) : ( 39 - 41 )\nsatyrium kongmingi murayama , 1992 ; nature & ins . 27 ( 5 ) : ( 39 - 41 )\nsatyrium pseudopruni murayama , 1992 ; nature & ins . 27 ( 5 ) : ( 39 - 41 )\nsatyrium tshikolovetsi bozano , 2014 ; nachr . ent . ver . apollo nf 35 ( 3 ) : 141\nsatyrium mardinus van oorschot , van den brink , van oorschot , 1985 ; ent . berl . 45 : 145\n= satyrium austrina yoshikoae ( koiwaya , 1996 ) ; huang , 2001 , neue ent . nachr . 51 : 77\nsatyrium titus carrizozo holland , 2010 ; j . lep . soc . 64 ( 3 ) : ( 166 - 171 )\ndistinction from s . semiluna as a distinct species from s . fuliginosa is debated , and needs further study in potential areas of contact . s . semiluna is distinguished by the presence ( sometimes faint ) of a\nstigma\nor\nsex brand\non the upper front wing of the males ( lacking in s . fuliginosum ) , and by distribution . zone of contact should be near the east base of the sierra nevada and northward across southwestern oregon .\nsatyrium calanus albidus scott , 1981 ; papilio ( n . s . ) 1 : 5 ; tl : nw hayden , routt co . , colorado\n= satyrium favonius ; robbins & nicolay , 2002 , j . lepid . soc . 55 ( 3 ) : 100 ; [ nl4a ] , # 349\nsatyrium eximium zhejianganum tong , 1994 ; in chou , monographia rhopalocerum sinensium 1 - 2 : 770 , 660 , f . 71 ; tl : longquan , zhejiang\nsatyrium edwardsii meridionale gatrelle , 2001 ; taxonomic rep . 3 ( 2 ) : 5 , f . 2 , 7 ; tl : south carolina , aiken co .\nthis subspecies is a little smaller and grayer than nominate fuliginosum , and the male has a stigma . it occurs widely in the central and southern sierra and in the northern great basin . there is at least one population in siera valley which , however , has only been found once at our study site . males perch atop sagebrush in the midst of shrub - steppe . both sexes can be found far from any blooming nectar sources , but they do visit yarrow , brassicaceae ( e . g . cardaria pubescens ) and sulphur flower ( eriogonum umbellatum ) .\nsatyrium californica brashor kondla & scott , 2006 ; papilio ( n . s . ) 12 : 45 , pl . 4 ; tl : mica creek , near osoyoos , british columbia\nsatyrium californica wapiti fisher , 2006 ; papilio ( n . s . ) 12 : 46 , pl . 6 ; tl : hwy 133 nr oliver , gunnison co . , colorado\nsatyrium sylvinus nootka fisher , 1998 ; papilio ( n . s . ) 11 : 4 , f . 9 - 10 ; tl : wellington , vancouver is . , british columbia\nsatyrium liparops floridensis gatrelle , 2001 ; taxonomic rep . 3 ( 3 ) : 7 , f . 20 - 23 ; tl : withlacoochee state forest , citrus co . , florida\nsatyrium ( superflua ) khowari charmeux , 2004 ; phegea 32 ( 1 ) : 9 , 16 ( list ) ; tl : pakistan , w . chitral , vall\u00e9e du bumburet , 2600m\nsatyrium acaudatum balasagyna korb , 2011 ; zool . zh . 90 ( 5 ) ent . review 91 ( 4 ) : 525 ; tl : kyrgyzstan , kirgizian range , tatyr , golubinyi waterfall\nsatyrium ( superflua ) goniopterum lukhtanov , 1995 ; nachr . ent . ver . apollo nf 16 ( 1 ) : 52 , f . 5 ; tl : usbekistan , s\u00fcdwestlicher teil des ghisar - gebirge , tuda , 2400m\nsatyrium ( superflua ) persepolis eckweiler & ten hagen , 2003 ; nachr . ent . ver . apollo nf 23 ( 4 ) : 213 ; tl : iran , fars , shiraz , kuh - e derak , 2000 - 2300m\nsatyrium xumini huang , 2001 ; neue ent . nachr . 51 : 76 , f . 32 - 33 , 36 , pl . 4 , f . 26 ; tl : 50 km ne of batang , sichuan - tibet border\nno tails . upperside drab dark gray . underside gray to grayish brown ; forewing with a line of white - bordered dark spots which may be lacking .\nmales patrol and occasionally perch to seek receptive females . females lay eggs singly on host plant or at its base in litter .\nlocal within its range . british columbia south to central california , east to wyoming and northern colorado .\ng4 - apparently secure globally , though it might be quite rare in parts of its range , especially at the periphery .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nlycaena suasa boisduval , 1869 . type locality : gold lake , sierra county , california\ntailless , dorsal drab gray , underwing grayish to brown , with the fw usually having a line of dark dots circled in white , and the hw can have some whitish dots .\nsimilar species of blues in genus plebejus will usually show at least some blue scaling above , even in females ( none in sooty hairstreaks ) ; they will have a white fringe ( dull grayish in sooty hairstreaks ) ; and , the front wing will have a very strong black bar at the end of the discal cell ( often there is a second black spot in the middle of the cell as well ) , while this spot is absent to weak and usually not black in sooty hairstreaks . the pattern of the lower side will usually have a\nsmoother\nlook in blues , and will look dirty or\nsooty\nin the hairstreaks . also , the sooty hairstreaks will most often have the dark postmedian spots dull in color ( sometimes only faint ) , while in the blues they are usually bold and black . fresh individuals are much easier to identify than faded worn specimens .\nbutterflies through binoculars : the west : a field guide to the butterflies of western north america ( butterflies and others thr jeffrey glassberg . 2001 . oxford university press .\nbutterflies of north america ( kaufman focus guides ) jim p . brock , kenn kaufman . 2003 . houghton mifflin co .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthis is interpreted as the entity occurring on castle peak and on a tiny area of donner pass . it is larger and darker than subspecies semiluna , and the males lack a stigma . males perch territorially , often on the matted ecotype of bitterbrush ( purshia ) growing along the ridgetop between basin and castle peaks . females walk a lot . both sexes often visit mule ' s ears ( wyethia mollis ) flowers , as well as sulphur flower ( eriogonum umbellatum ) . one flight in the second half of the alpine season , generally july - september . at donner often in june , and disappearing quickly ( presumably because the colony is so small ) . host plants , perennial species of lupinus , including l . arbustus and l . albicaulis .\nspecies - tailless and sooty gray , matching the sooty gray volcanic landscape . they ' re quite common above timberline lodge at mount hood , where their caterpillar host plants , lupines\nmt . hood , clackamas co . , or 8 / 7 / 06 .\n( sulphur - flowered buckwheat ) , which is the most abundant species on mt . hood .\nmt . hood , clackamas co . , or 8 / 8 / 06 .\n, which has a more prominent blackish cell - end bar on the forewing and a whitish fringe .\na worn boisduval ' s would look quite similar to a worn sooty , but even a worn boisduval ' s would show a trace of blue above , which sooty lacks .\nanother thing i ' ve noticed from looking at my photos at high resolution is that the top side of antennal club tips of sooty hairstreak are tan to orange - brown , while those of boisduval ' s blue are white ( though the underside of the antennal clubs can be orangish ) . if this is consistent and still true for very worn individuals , it might help id some tricky individuals .\nthe taxonomic status of various populations of sooty hairstreak is confusing . the high - elevation population of\nphotographed here flies in late summer , but nearby is a middle - elevation population that flies in may . the sagebrush sooty hairstreak\nwas recently elevated to species status . it differs subtly in wing shape and structure from\ncompletely lack . the stigma is on the upper surface of the forewing , so you can ' t see it these photos . andy warren discusses the differences in detail in his 2005 book\nbutterflies of oregon : their taxonomy , distribution , and biology .\nsagebrush sooty hairstreak and square - spotted blue habitat above timberline lodge on mt . hood , clackamas co . , or 8 / 7 / 06 .\ndiagnosis : the small ( wingspan : 24 to 30 mm ) , rounded wings of this drab species are sooty brown on the upper surface and grey to brown , with tiny black white - rimmed spots , on the underside . it looks very much like a female blue .\n, which has the spots on the underside better developed , has been found in southwestern alberta .\nrange : the sooty hairstreak has a spotty distribution in the western u . s . it occurs in canada at osoyoos and keremeos in british columbia , and there is an old record from waterton lakes in alberta .\n) , which has whiter fringes and has a black discal spot in the centre of the forewing below , and often above as well .\nabundance : the sooty hairstreak is uncommon to rare in most of its range .\nhabits : the sooty hairstreak is always found near lupines , often in sagebrush areas at middle altitudes in the mountains . it should be looked for in fields , meadows , and along roadsides where lupines grow .\nremarks : despite its blue - like appearance , foodplant use , and patrolling behaviour , this species is definitely a hairstreak . the reasons for this convergence are unknown , although the fact that the larvae of boisduval ' s blue , like those of many blues , are tended and protected by ants may be a clue .\n\u00a9 2002 . this material is reproduced with permission from the butterflies of canada by ross a . layberry , peter w . hall , and j . donald lafontaine . university of toronto press ; 1998 . specimen photos courtesy of john t . fowler .\nsome split this into several genera . when i get complete information , i may follow . until then , there are some tentative groupings using thegenus name in quotes . as i don ' t have the complete picture , these groupsdo not include all species .\ncallipsyche ( scudder , 1876 ) ; bull . buffalo soc . nat . sci . 3 : 106 ; tl : thecla behrii , edwards\nlycaena fuliginosa edwards , 1861 ; proc . acad . nat . sci . philad . 13 : 164 ; tl : california\nthecla behrii edwards , 1870 ; trans . amer . ent . soc . 3 ( 1 ) : 18 ; tl : lako mono , california\ncallipsyche behrii crossi field , 1938 ; j . kansas ent . soc . 11 ( 4 ) : 130 ; tl : nederland , colorado\ncallipsyche behrii columbia mcdunnough , 1944 ; can . ent . 76 ( 9 ) : 190 ; tl : fairview , b . c .\nthecla acadica edwards , 1862 ; proc . acad . nat . sci . philad . 14 : 55 ; tl :\nnear london\n[ ontario ]\n; f . m . brown , eff & rotger , 1955 , ( missp . )\nstrymon acadica montanensis watson & comstock , 1920 ; bull . amer . mus . 42 ( 10 ) : 451 ; tl : montana\nstrymon acadica coolinensis watson & comstock , 1920 ; bull . amer . mus . 42 ( 10 ) : 451 ; tl : idaho\nthecla californica edwards , 1862 ; proc . acad . nat . sci . philad . 14 : 223 ; tl : california\n600x626 ( ~ 47kb ) underside usa : robinson canyon rd , ( 47\u00b001 ' 01n 120\u00b042 ' 41w ) , kittitas co . , wa , 26 . 7 . 1999 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n700x882 ( ~ 86kb ) underside usa : robinson canyon rd , ( 47\u00b001 ' 01n 120\u00b042 ' 41w ) , kittitas co . , wa , 26 . 7 . 1999 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\nthecla sylvinus boisduval , 1852 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . ( 2 ) 10 : 287 ; tl : california\n700x745 ( ~ 53kb ) underside usa : fr9705 , ( ~ 47\u00b018n 120\u00b041w ) , kittitas co . , wa , 30 . 7 . 1999 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n600x738 ( ~ 63kb ) underside usa : dry falls / sun lakes state park , grant co . , wa , 9 . 7 . 2000 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n700x759 ( ~ 59kb ) underside usa : fr 9705 nr . liberty and lion gulch , ( 47\u00b017 ' 49n 120\u00b039 ' 58w \u00b10 . 5km ) , kittitas co . , wa , 14 . 8 . 2001 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n:\nplain county , colorado\n[ error , placer co . , california ]\nhesperia titus fabricius , 1793 ; ent . syst . 3 ( 1 ) : 297\n1000x819 ( ~ 93kb ) underside usa : dry falls / sun lakes state park , grant co . , wa , 8 . 7 . 2000 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n600x810 ( ~ 55kb ) underside usa : dry falls / sun lakes state park , grant co . , wa , 9 . 7 . 2000 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n1100x917 ( ~ 122kb ) underside usa : utah , uintah co . , ashley national park , start of fr - 020 ( 40\u00b040 ' 35\nn 109\u00b029 ' 14\nw ) , 1 . 8 . 2012 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n= strymon titus titus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 206\nstrymon titus immaculosus comstock , 1913 ; bull . brooklyn ent . soc . 8 ( 3 ) : 33 , pl . 2 , f . a - g ; tl : provo , utah\nstrymon titus watsoni barnes & benjamin , 1926 ; bull . south . calif . acad . sci . 25 ( 3 ) : 94 ; tl : kerrville , texas\nharkenclenus titus occidentalis austin & emmel , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 42 ) : 507 , f . 27 - 30 ; tl : nevada , pershing co .\nharkenclenus titus winteri gatrelle , 2004 ; taxonomic rep . 4 ( 6 ) : 10 , f . 23 - 26 ; tl : sherborn [ middlesex co . , massachusetts ]\nharkenclenus titus campus gatrelle , 2004 ; taxonomic rep . 4 ( 6 ) : 10 , f . 9 - 18 ; tl : iow , shelby co .\nthecla edwardsii grote & robinson , 1867 ; trans . amer . ent . soc . 1 : 172 ; tl : canada\nrusticus calanus h\u00fcbner , [ 1809 ] ; samml . exot . schmett . 1 : pl . [ 100 ] , f . 1 - 4\n1200x844 ( ~ 120kb ) underside usa : alabama , 22 . 5 . 2002 , photo \u00a9 vitaly charny\n1000x1099 ( ~ 139kb ) underside usa : alabama , 20 . 6 . 2005 , photo \u00a9 vitaly charny\n1000x1072 ( ~ 110kb ) underside usa : alabama , 27 . 5 . 2006 , photo \u00a9 vitaly charny\nstrymon boreale lafontaine , 1970 ; j . lep . soc . 24 ( 2 ) : 83 , f . 1 - 4 , 7\nstrymon falacer godarti field , 1938 ; j . kansas ent . soc . 11 ( 4 ) : 129 ; tl : rosement , teller co . , colorado\nstrymon caryaevorus mcdunnough , 1942 ; can . ent . 74 ( 1 ) : 1 ; tl : merivale , ontario\nstrymon kingi klots & clench , 1952 ; amer . mus . novit . 1600 : 2 ; tl : savannah , georgia\nthecla liparops le conte , 1833 ; hist . l\u00e9p . am . sept . ( 9 / 10 ) : 99 , ( 11 - 22 ) pl . 31 , f . 1 - 4 ; tl : screven co . , georgia\nthecla strigosa var . liparops fletcher , 1904 ; can . ent . 36 ( 5 ) : 124 ( preocc . thecla liparops le conte , 1833 ) ; tl : manitoba , rounthwaite\nstrymon liparops aliparops michener & dos passos , 1942 ; amer . mus . novit . no . 1210 : 3 ; tl : glenwood springs , colorado\nthecla auretorum boisduval , 1852 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . ( 2 ) 10 : 288 ; tl : california\nthecla saepium boisduval , 1852 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . ( 2 ) 10 : 288 ; tl : california\n800x763 ( ~ 61kb ) underside usa : fr9705 , ( ~ 47\u00b018n 120\u00b041w ) , kittitas co . , wa , 30 . 7 . 1999 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n600x701 ( ~ 50kb ) underside usa : table mtn , kittitas co . , wa , 30 . 7 . 1999 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n1600x1370 ( ~ 278kb ) underside usa : pike national forest , sugar creek on cr - 67 ( about 39\u00b018 ' n 105\u00b010 ' w ) , douglas co . , co , 29 . 7 . 2012 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\nlarva on ceanothus cuneatus , c . velutinus , c . sanguineus , c . macrocarpus , less cercocarpus betuloides [ nab ]\nargus ( gerhard , 1850 ) ; versuch mon . europ . schmett . ( 1 ) : 4 ; tl : lycaena ledereri , boisduval\ntranscaucasia , asia minor , anatolia , caucasus , caspian , palestine , samos . see [ maps ]\nlycaena ledereri boisduval , 1848 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . ( 2 ) 6 : xxix\ntrancaucasia , kopet dagh ? , ghissar , w . pamirs , turkey , iran , afghanistan . see [ maps ]\nstrymon ledereri hyrcanica riley , 1939 ; novit . zool . 41 ( 4 ) : 360 ; tl : n . persia\narmenia hyrcanica ; [ bru2 ] : 102 , pl . 52 , f . 31 - 39\nfixsenia cyri nekrutenko , 1978 ; dopovidi akad . nauk . ukr . rsr ( b ) 1978 ( 1 ) : 83\neuristrymon ( clench , 1961 ) ; in p & a . erlich ( eds . ) , how to know the butterflies : 184 , 212 ; tl : thecla favonius , smith\nthecla herzi fixsen , 1887 ; in romanoff , m\u00e9m . l\u00e9pid . 3 : 279 , pl . 13 , f . 4 ; tl : korea ,\npung - tung\n( the mountains at about 38\u00b0 n . lat . / 128\u00b0 e . long . )\nnordmannia herzi ; [ bru2 ] : 104 , pl . 53 , f . 10 - 12\n369x300 ( ~ 33kb ) underside male the onon river right bank floodland 5 km upstream of the village nizhnii tsasuchei , onon district , se chita province ( dahuria ) , transbaikalia , siberia , russia . 1st july 1996 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\nlarva on malus mandschurica , m . baccata [ baru ] , m . pallasiana [ bru2 ] , 104\neu , am , siberia , amurland , korea , japan . see [ maps ]\n533x400 ( ~ 48kb ) underside female an edge of a swampy pine forest at the right branch of the ob ' river , the novosibirsk environs at the village nizhnyaya eltsovka , novosibirsk province , west siberia , russia . 4th july 1993 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\n400x583 ( ~ 35kb ) underside female the ora rivulet valley 2 km nort of the village motkovo , moshkovo district , novosibirsk province . 28th june 1997 ( on an inflorescence of aegopodium podagraria l . ) , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\n623x899 ( ~ 124kb ) upperside underside male russia : s . tuva , korumnug - taiga mts . ( 1200m ) , 8 - 25 . 6 . 2002 , vashchenko a . & b . leg . photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\n654x657 ( ~ 125kb ) underside russia , moscow area , 12 . 6 . 2010 ( 36\u00b025 ' e , 56\u00b000 ' n ) , photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\nlarva on prunus padus , rubus idaeus [ sprk ] , padus , prunus , sorbus [ baru ] , padus avium , padus asiatica , prunus spp . [ bru2 ] , 104\nthecla pruni var . jezoensis matsumura , 1919 ; thous . ins . japan . addit . 3 : 616 , pl . 48 , f . 1 ; tl : hokkaido\nseu , ceu , asia minor , lebanon , iraq , iran - s . ural . see [ maps ]\nstrymon spini bofilli de sagarra , 1924 ; butll . inst . catal . hist . nat . ( 2 ) 4 ( 9 ) : 200 ; tl : albarracin ( arag\u00f3 ) , 1100m\n647x875 ( ~ 122kb ) upperside underside ukraine : kherson region , 15 . 5 - 20 . 6 . 2003 , makarenko leg . photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\nmelantho ( klug , 1834 ) ( lycaena ) ; in ehrenberg , symbolae phys . , ins . 4 : pl . 40 , f . 10 - 11\ntransbaikalia , amur , ussuri , n . china , korea . see [ maps ]\nthecla spini var . latior fixsen , 1887 ; in romanoff , m\u00e9m . l\u00e9pid . 3 : 271 ; tl : pung - tung [ e . korea ]\nnordmannia latior ; [ bru2 ] : 105 , pl . 53 , f . 31 - 33\n800x600 ( ~ 96kb ) underside male the onon river left bank , shaded by willow thickets , 7 km upstream of the village nizhnii tsasuchei , onon district , chita province , se transbaikalia ( dahuria ) , siberia , russia . 11th july 1996 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\nlarva on rhamnus davurica , r . ussuriensis , ( ussuri ) armeniaca sibirica , ( transbaikailia ) [ bru2 ] , 105\nceu , seu , am , s . ural , ne . china , korea , japan . see [ maps ]\nmajuscula ( jachontov , 1911 ) ( thecla ) ; mitt . kaukas . mus . 5 : 313\n609x812 ( ~ 87kb ) underside sweden , ekebo , julita , 31 . 7 . 2004 , photo \u00a9 leif wahlberg\nlarva on quercus , ulmus , u . laevis , ulmus propinga , alnus , fraxinus , tilia , ( arboreal rosaceae ) prunus , malus , padus [ baru ]\nceu , seu , caucasus , transcaucasia , s . siberia , transbaikalia , far east\n800x600 ( ~ 70kb ) underside male a tree of ulmus pumila l . on the onon river righht bank floodland , 7 km upstream of the village nizhnii tsasuchei , onon district , se chita region , transbaikalia , siberia , russia , 4th july 1995 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\n1040x955 ( ~ 376kb ) underside russia , west siberia , omsk , the 30th anniversary of victory park . 15th july 2007 ( on sorbaria sorbifolia ) , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\nstrymon fentoni butler , [ 1882 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1881 ( 4 ) : 854 ; tl : yesso\n: korea ,\npung - tung\n( the mountains at about 38\u00b0 n . lat . / 128\u00b0 e . long . )\nnordmannia eximia ; [ bru2 ] : 105 , pl . 53 , f . 22 - 24\naltai , sayan , transbaikalia , amur , ussuri , mongolia , ne . china , korea . see [ maps ]\nthecla fulvofenestrata fixsen , 1887 ; in romanoff , m\u00e9m . l\u00e9pid . 3 : 279\nnordmannia prunoides ; [ bru2 ] : 106 , pl . 53 , f . 37 - 40\n533x400 ( ~ 54kb ) underside female a rocky ridge crest on the adon - chelon elevation , at the mountain tsagan - obo , 10 km nnw of the village tasyrkhoi , s chita province ( dahuria ) , transbaikalia , siberia , russia . 9th july 1996 ( on its foodplant spiraea aquilegifolia pallas ) , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\nlarva on spiraea media , spiraea spp . , ( not padus or rhamnus ? ) [ bru2 ] , 106\nnordmannia runides ; [ baru , ( note ) ] ; [ bru2 ] : 106 ( note ) , pl . 53 , f . 47 - 48\nseu , ceu , sw . siberia , asia minor , caucasus , transcaucasia , lebanon , s . ural . see [ maps ]\nprinoptas ( zerny , 1932 ) ( thecla ) ; dt . ent . z . iris 46 : 176 ; tl : lebanon\nstrimon [ sic ] esculi neglecta de sagarra , 1926 ; butll . inst . catal . hist . nat . ( 2 ) 6 ( 6 - 7 ) : 136\nnordmannia esculi reisseri de bros & schmidt - kohl , 1979 ; mitt . ent . ges . basel 29 ( 1 ) : 16 ( nom . nud . ) ; tl : chefchaoune ( morocco )\nnordmannia esculi mauretanica ; [ bmat ] : 25 , pl . 9 , f . 8 - 18\nstrimon [ sic ] acaciae fumosa de sagarra , 1926 ; butll . inst . catal . hist . nat . ( 2 ) 6 ( 6 - 7 ) : 135\nnordmannia abdominalis ; [ bru2 ] : 107 , pl . 53 , f . 44 - 46\nlycaena myrtale klug , 1834 ; in ehrenberg , symbolae phys . , ins . 4 : 1 , pl . 40 , f . 15 - 16\nthecla thalia leech , [ 1893 ] ; butts china japan corea ( 2 ) : 367 , pl . 30 , f . 15\nstrymon thalia ; [ bow ] : pl . 206 , f . 35 ( text )\npapilio favonius smith , 1797 ; in smith & abbot , nat . hist . rarer lepid . ins . georgia 1 : 27 , pl . 14 ; tl : georgia\nlarva on quercus virginiana , q . laurifolia , q . ilicifolia , q . alba gifford & opler , 1983 , j . lep . soc . 37 ( 2 ) : 104\nstrymon polingi barnes & benjamin , 1926 ; bull . south . calif . acad . sci . 25 ( 3 ) : 94 ; tl : brewster co . , texas\npseudothecla ( strand , 1910 ) ; ent . rundsch . 27 : 162 ( repl . erschoffia tutt , [ 1907 ] ) ; tl : thecla lunulata , erschoff\nn . iran , kashmir , baluchistan , w . tien - shan , nw . himalaya , chitral - mussoorie . see [ maps ]\nthecla sassanides kollar , [ 1849 ] ; denkschr . akad . wiss . wien . 1 : 51 ; tl : schiraz [ s . iran ]\nlarva on amygdalus bucharica , a . spinosissima , cerasus verrucosa [ bru2 ] , 103\ns . ghissar ? , ghissar - darvaz , w . pamirs . see [ maps ]\nthecla lunulata erschoff , 1874 ; in fedschenko , travels in turkestan . 2 ( 5 ) : 7 , pl . 1 , f . 5 ; tl : [ . . between iori an dashty - kazy in zeravshan valley , uzbekistan ]\nnw . tian - shan , inner tian - shan , darvaz , alai . see [ maps ]\nthecla lulunala f . acaudata staudinger , 1901 ; cat . lep . palaearct . faunengeb . 1 : 70 ; tl : ferg . [ fregana valley , uzbekistan ]\nthecla mirabilis erschoff , 1874 ; in fedschenko , travels in turkestan . 2 ( 5 ) : 7 , pl . 1 , f . 4 - 5 ; tl : zeravshansky mts .\nderia ( moore , 1865 ) ( thecla ) ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1865 ( 2 ) : 507 , pl . 31 , f . 11 ; tl : uper kunawur\nlais ( leech , 1893 ) ( thecla ) ; butts china japan corea ( 2 ) : 363 , pl . 29 , f . 4 ; tl : china\nstrymonidia inouei shir\u00f4zu , 1959 ; konty\u00fb 27 ( 1 ) : 91 , pl . 8 , f . 9 - 10 \u2640 ; tl : vicinity of musha , formosa\nthecla percomis leech , 1894 ; butts china japan corea ( 2 ) : 366 , pl . 29 , f . 5\nthecla patrius leech , 1891 ; entomologist 24 ( suppl . ) : 58 ; tl : pu - tsu - fong , 10000ft\nstrymonidia patrius ; [ bow ] : pl . 10 , f . 32 ( text only )\nthecla v - album oberth\u00fcr , 1886 ; \u00e9tud . d ' ent . 11 : 20 , pl . 4 , f . 23 ; tl : tibet\n? strymon v - album ; [ bow ] : pl . 206 , f . 37\nstrymon ornata ; [ bow ] : pl . 206 , f . 37 ( text )\nstrymon persimilis riley , 1939 ; novit . zool . 41 ( 4 ) : 360 ; tl : yunnan\nstrymon dejeani riley , 1939 ; novit . zool . 41 ( 4 ) : 360 ; tl : siao - lou\nfixenia oenone minyonensis yoshino , 1999 ; neo lepidoptera 4 : 4 , f . 29 - 30 , 33 - 34 ; tl : mt . meilishueshan , deqin , n . yunnan\nfixenai oenone benzilanensis yoshino , 1999 ; neo lepidoptera 4 : 5 , f . 31 - 32 , 35 - 36 ; tl : xiancheng , sw . sichuan\nstrymon marcidus riley , 1921 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 9 ) 8 ( 47 ) : 600 ; tl : persia , harir ; karind gorge\nthecla mera janson , 1877 ; cistula ent . 2 : 156 ; tl : matzabaro , about 200 miles nw of yedo\nstrymonidia mera ; [ bow ] : pl . 10 , f . 30 ( text only )\nthecla myrtale var . armena rebel , 1901 ; ann . hofmus . wien . 16 : 165\njebelia nakamura , 1975 \u00b2 ; j . ent . ( b ) 44 ( 3 ) : ( 283 - 295 )\nthecla eximia watarii matsumura , 1927 ; ins . matsumurana 2 ( 2 ) : 117 , pl . 3 , f . 3 ; tl : formosa\niyonis ( oxta & kusunoki , 1957 ) ; trans . shikoku ent . soc . 5 : 101\nstrymonidia iyonis kibiensis shir\u00f4zu & nanba , 1973 ; ty\u00f4 to ga 23 ( 3 & 4 ) : 65 , f . 1 - 4 ; tl : niimi city , okayama pref .\nlarva on rhamnus yoshinoi , r . japonica , r . japonica var . decipiens shir\u00f4zu & nanba , 1973 , ty\u00f4 to ga 23 ( 3 & 4 ) : 65\nthecla yangi riley , 1939 ; novit . zool . 41 ( 4 ) : 358 ; tl : china , foochow\nsayrium kuboi chou & tong , 1994 ; in chou , monographia rhopalocerum sinensium 1 - 2 : 771 , 661 , f . 72 ; tl : hangzhou , zhejiang\nthecla saitua tytler , 1915 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 24 ( 1 ) : 132 , pl . 3 , f . 25\nthecla formosana matsumura , 1910 ; ent . zs . 23 ( 50 ) : 221 ; tl : formosa , koshun ; horisha\nmuksuria churkin & pletnev , 2010 ; ; tl : tadzhikistan , peter i mts , depshal vill . , 2500m\nzabirovi churkin & pletnev , 2010 ; ; tl : tadzhikistan , pamirs , vanchsky mts , gushkon riv . vall , 2000m\nturkmanica churking & pletnev , 2010 ; turkmenistan , kopetdagh mts . , 15km e of mokhur , ipai - kala vill . , 1100m\nthecla ilicoides gerhard , 1850 ; versuch mon . europ . schmett . ( 1 ) : 3 , pl . 4 , f . 5a - c\nthecla ilicoides var . maculatus gerhard , 1850 ; versuch mon . europ . schmett . ( 1 ) : 3 , pl . 4 , f . 4\nthecla acaciae [ ? ] acaciaeformis verity , 1914 ; boll . soc . ent . ital . 45 : 229\nthe dates of e . j . c . esper ' s die schmetterlinge in abblidungen . . . 1776 - [ 1830 ] ; archives of natural history ( 1981 ) 10 ( 2 ) : 251 - 254\nbutterflies of north america . 2 . scientific names list for butterfly species of north america , north of mexico .\n[ spl ] varis , v . ( ed ) , ahola , m . , albrecht , a . , jalava , j . , kaila , l . , kerppola , s . , kullberg , j . , 1995\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\n[ l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res recueillis par m . kindermann aux environs d ' odessa et au pied du caucase ]\nlycaenidae\n, pp . 176 - 288 in p & a . erlich ( eds . ) ,\ndescriptions of certain species of diurnal lepidoptera found within the limits of the united states and of british america . - no . [ 1 ] - 3\ndie schmetterlinge in abbildungen nach der natur mit beschreibungen . theil i . die tagschmetterlinge . band 1\nversuch einer monographie der europ\u00e4ischen schmetteringsarten : thecla , polyomattus [ sic ] , lycaena , nemeobius . als beitrag zur schmetterlingskunde\nreport of h . huang ' s 2000 expedition to se . tibet for rhopalocera\nstudies on the family lycaenidae ii . new taxa and records from turkey lycaeniden - studie ii . neue taxa und meldungen aus der t\u00fcrkei ( lep . lycaenidae )\nsystema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum clases , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , symonymis , locis . tomis i . 10th edition\nlist of diurnal lepidoptera collected by capt . a . m . lang in the n . w . himalayas\nsome undescribed rhopalocera from mesopotamia and n . w . persia ; and other notes\nsynonymic list of the butterflies of north america , north of mexico . ( 2 ) rurales\ndie macrolepidopteren des amurgebiets . i . theil . rhopalocera , sphinges , bombyces , noctuae in romanoff ,\na natural history of the british lepidoptera . a text - book for students and collectors\nnotes on some new and interesting butterflies from manipur and the naga hills . part 1 - 3\nzerny , 1932 lepidopteren aus dem n\u00f6rdlichen libanon dt . ent . z . iris 46 : 157 - 191\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\npieridae ( 22 species ) duponchel 1832 . ( whites , orangetips , & sulfurs )\nbutterflies comprise one of the major subdivisions of the insect order lepidoptera . approximately one hundred and twenty species of butterfly and several additional subspecies have been recorded , mostly by amateur observers , in lake and klamath counties , oregon . these insects , well known for the beauty they lend to warm summer days , are also an integral part of the ecosystems they inhabit . many pollinate plants and serve as food sources for birds . recent work has shown that the health of native ecosystems can be be monitored by the abundance and distribution of these insects . recording the species from a geographic area can provide a baseline from which to judge the effects of changes over time that may be occuring .\nthe checklist that follows is an attempt to provide an approximation of the number and kind of species occuring at the present time in this area . anyone who sights a species not on the below list is invited to report their observation to the forest ecologist , robert wooley at 541 - 576 - 7564 . to see a full size photo of the butterflies below click on the image .\nthe branded skipper is one of the most common butterflies in the great basin sagelands and the pine forests of the cascades . it nectars frequently at flowers in the asteraceae or sunflower family .\nbecker ' s white is frequently observed nectaring on thistles and other members of the sunflower family .\na common skipper emerging in late july and august frequently visiting rabbitbrush . this skipper lays its eggs on desert saltgrass a species of alkaline flats .\negg of sandhill skipper on desert saltgrass . observing where butterflies lay their eggs can be a challenging photographic pursuit requiring both physical agility and acute observation skills . information gleaned from making these observations can be very valuable to the conservation of both the insects and plants they interact with .\na male sonora skipper ( on left ) courting a female . male skippers establish territories they patrol . when a female enters their territory courtship ensues with the male displaying and attempting to win the females attention .\ntelling skippers apart requires a fine sense of observing details . the juba skipper has longer more pointed wings than the branded skipper and slightly different markings .\nthere are many species of blue butterflies . telling them apart is often difficult . one of the more easily identified blues is the arrowhead with its distinctive arrowhead shaped white wing marks . the ancient greek word for butterfly is psyche incorporated into the genus name of this species . to the greeks the mysterious metamorphosis that takes place from the ugly caterpillar to the beautiful butterfly was associated with the transformation sometimes seen in the human psyche"]}
{"id": 659, "summary": [{"text": "sigaus childi is an endangered protected species of grasshopper known only from the alexandra district of the south island of new zealand .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is one of just two species of grasshopper listed for protection under the new zealand wildlife act 1953 ( the other is brachaspis robustus ) .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the genus sigaus is endemic to new zealand . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "sigaus childi", "paragraphs": ["dowle , morgan - richards & trewick . 2014 . bmc evol . bio . 14 ( 216 ) > > sigaus childi\nthe genus sigaus is endemic to new zealand and with all but one species endemic to the south island . there are nine species of sigaus .\nsigaus childi was described as a new species in 1999 . it is closely related to s . minutus from the mackenzie basin . there are 16 species of grasshopper in nz .\njamieson , c . 1999 . new zealand j . zool . 26 ( 1 ) : 44 > > sigaus childi urn : lsid : orthoptera . speciesfile . org : taxonname : 58218\npca traditional species diagnostics . principle component analysis using morphological character states used in traditional species diagnostics of adult sigaus grasshoppers from south island new zealand . morphologically , sigaus childi is readily separated from s . australis , f = females ( triangles ) ; m = males ( squares ) .\ndiscriminant analysis with cross - validation using the character states employed in traditional species diagnosis for adult grasshoppers of the sigaus australis complex in south island , new zealand . sigaus childi ( in bold ) individuals were correctly grouped together . the total squared difference between the two groups was 274 .\nsample map . sample locations in south island , new zealand , of the sigaus australis complex grasshoppers used in this study . the two main species sigaus australis ( green ) and sigaus childi ( pink ) are morphologically very different ; s . childi tends to be smaller and more camouflaged to its local habitat than s . australis . the \u2018central group\u2019 and \u2018area of sympatry\u2019 defined here are used to analyse subsets of the specimens . hatched circles represent locations with both species present .\njamieson cd : distribution and abundance of sigaus childi jamieson ( orthoptera : acrididae ) , a central otago endemic grasshopper . science for conservation 110 . 1999 , department of conservation , wellington , new zealand\ngene flow is traditionally considered a limitation to speciation because selection is required to counter the homogenising effect of allele exchange . here we report on two sympatric short - horned grasshoppers species in the south island of new zealand ; one ( sigaus australis ) widespread and the other ( sigaus childi ) a narrow endemic .\ngene flow is traditionally considered a limitation to speciation because selection is required to counter the homogenising effect of allele exchange . here we report on two sympatric short - horned grasshoppers species in the south island of new zealand ; one ( sigaus australis ) widespread and the other ( sigaus childi ) a narrow endemic .\nsnp loci . ( a ) frequency distribution of locus specific f st values for each of the 74 snp loci sampled between the grasshoppers sigaus childi and sigaus australis in sympatry . ( b ) bayescan plot of 74 snp loci with a single marker ( log ( po ) > 1 ) showing slight departure from neutrality ; the vertical line is the 5 % po threshold of false discovery .\nmorris sj . 2003 . two new species of sigaus from fiordland , new zealand ( orthoptera : acrididae ) . the new zealand entomologist , 26 : 65 - 74\njamieson cd . 1999 . a new species of sigaus from alexandra , new zealand ( orthoptera : acrididae ) . new zealand journal of zoology , 26 : 43 - 48\nminimum spanning networks . minimum spanning network of four of the six mtdna ( coi 519 bp ) haplogroups ( figure a ) within the sigaus australis grasshopper complex , show sharing ( grey ) of identical haplotypes between s . childi ( white ) and s . australis ( black ) . haplotype spot size is proportional to number of individuals with a particular haplotype and branch length estimates nucleotide differences .\nextensive gene flow between the grasshoppers sigaus australis 1 and s . childi 2 in sympatry was revealed using migrate - n with 74 rad - seq snp makers . theta ? is an estimate of population size , ? = 4n e ? in the snps , where n e is population size and ? is mutation rate , population size was generally large as is expected for grasshoppers . mutation scaled migration rates ( m ) were converted into nm ( number of migrants per generation ) via ? 1 m 2 - > 1 = 4 nm 1 . the results show extensive gene flow in both directions .\nas with the mtdna data we sought evidence of genetic structure concordant with taxonomy and morphology using analysis of the correlation of genotypes between species by grouping the samples according to the morpho - species s . australis and s . childi and estimating f ct . no significant genetic differentiation between the morpho - species was found within the central group : f ct = 0 . 01780 ( p ? = ? 0 . 18573 ) , or the area of sympatry f ct = ? 0 . 07424 ( p ? = ? 0 . 65494 ) , although these samples were not all taken from the same generation . this result was consistent with the inference from structure .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthis version was republished on 7 may 2018 to make a correction to schedule 10 .\ndoc ' s endangered species ambassador , nicola toki tells us all about this critter .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ndowle ej 1 , 2 , morgan - richards m 3 , trewick sa 4 .\necology group , iae , massey university , private bag 11222 , palmerston north , 4442 , new zealand . eddy . dowle @ cawthron . org . nz .\ncoastal and freshwater group , cawthron institute , nelson , new zealand . eddy . dowle @ cawthron . org . nz .\necology group , iae , massey university , private bag 11222 , palmerston north , 4442 , new zealand . m . morgan - richards @ massey . ac . nz .\necology group , iae , massey university , private bag 11222 , palmerston north , 4442 , new zealand . s . trewick @ massey . ac . nz .\nof the 79 putatively neutral markers ( mtdna , microsatellite loci , its sequences and rad - seq snps ) all but one marker we examined showed extensive allele sharing , and similar or identical allele frequencies in the two species where they co - occur . we found no genetic evidence of deviation from random mating in the region of sympatry . however , analysis of morphological and geometric traits revealed no evidence of morphological introgression .\nbased on phenotype the two species are clearly distinct , but their genotypes thus far reveal no divergence . the best explanation for this is that some loci associated with the distinguishing morphological characters are under strong selection , but exchange of neutral loci is occurring freely between the two species . although it is easier to define species as requiring a barrier between them , a dynamic model that accommodates gene flow is a biologically more reasonable explanation for these grasshoppers .\npmid : 25318347 pmcid : pmc4219001 doi : 10 . 1186 / s12862 - 014 - 0216 - x\nalternative hypotheses . alternative hypotheses to explain the relationship between morphological differentiation and gene flow in this study of grasshoppers in new zealand . two morphologically defined species exist that have a common ancestor and may share identical alleles due to decent , but as distinct species derived alleles are also expected . ( a ) an abrupt speciation event is expected to result in accumulation of distinct traits and genotypes , including at neutral loci . ( b ) sharing of neutral genetic alleles might be maintained by ongoing gene flow whilst alleles at some loci are subject to selection . morphological difference is an observable expression of genetic loci under diverging selection . ( c ) hybridisation or reticulation is expected to result in individuals with intermediate forms .\nreferences : batchelor cl . 196 ) . preliminary observations of alpine grasshoppers ina habitat modified by deer and chamois . proceedings of the new zealand ecological society , 14 : 15 - 26\nbigelow rs . 1967 . the grasshoppers of new zealand , their taxonomy and distribution . university of canterbury publications , christchurch , new zealand .\ndowle ej , morgan - richards m . & trewick sa . 2014 . morphological differentiation despite gene flow in an endangered grasshopper . bmc evolutionary biology , 14 : 216 - 231\neades dc , otte d , cigliano mm . & braun h . 2014 . family acrididae macleay , 1821 . orthoptera species file . version 5 . 0 / 5 . 0 . retrieved on : december 8th , 2014 : urltoken\nhutton fw . 1897 . the grasshoppers and locusts of new zealand and the kermadec islands . proceedings and transactions of the new zealand institute , 30 : 135 - 150\nhudson l . 1970 . identification of the immature stages of new zealand apine acridid grasshoppers ( orthoptera ) . transactions of the royal society of new zealand : biological sciences , 12 : 185 - 20\nkey khl . & colless dh . 1993 . a higher classification of the australian acridoidea ( orthoptera ) . ii . * subfamily cantanopinae . invertebrate systematics , 7 : 89 - 111\nsalmon jt . 1950 . a new species of acrididae ( insecta : orthoptera ) from new zealand . transactions of the royal society of new zealand , 78 : 69\ntrewick sa . 2001 . identity of an endangered grasshopper ( acrididae : brachaspis ) : taxonomy , molecules and conservation . conservation genetics , 2 : 233 - 243\ntrewick sa & morris s . 2008 . diversity and taxonomic status of some new zealand grasshoppers . doc research and development series no . 290 , department of conservation , wellington , new zealand , 40p .\ntrewick sa . 2008 . dna barcoding is not enough : mismatch of taxonomy and genealogy in new zealand grasshoppers ( orthoptera : acrididae ) . cladistics 24 : 240 - 254 .\nvon wattenwyl kb . & fea l . 1893 . r\u00e9vision du syst\u00e8me des orthopt\u00e8res et description des esp\u00e8ces rapport\u00e9es par m . leonardo fea de birmanie . vol . 33 . tipografia dei r . istituto sordo - muti .\ngenetic introgression occurs when two genetically distinct populations come into contact enabling individuals from each to interbreed . when this occurs through secondary contact the process has usually been regarded as hybridisation [\n] . the fertility of resulting offspring mediates gene flow between populations . this situation underpins the popular biological species concept [\n] . here we report on flightless new zealand short - horned grasshoppers ( orthoptera : acrididae ) . most of the fifteen new zealand species , in four endemic genera , occupy subalpine native grasslands above the tree line [\nare relatively large ( adult females ~ 26 mm ) and abundant in south island subalpine grasslands between 1000 and 1800 m asl . sympatric with this widespread species is the microendemic\nis also present in this region , but the two species are readily distinguished by their appearance . an intriguing feature of\nis that their colour patterns appear to be specific to the substrate on which individuals are found . colour patterns within\n) that grows on rocks in some areas of central otago . although , inferences of camouflage are subjective they support the conjecture that these grasshoppers are under selection by visual predators .\nare more boldly patterned , often with longitudinal stripes , and tend to be colour - pattern variable within locations .\n] . or perhaps divergence has occurred and been maintained despite gene flow . genetic exchange between populations might be experienced at different rates across the genome ; selection could operate on some loci to limit local exchange of alleles even when net ( genome wide ) gene flow continues . these alternatives make different predictions about the pattern of morphological and genetic character sharing ( figure\nin order to understand the evolution of this system we applied six types of data ; morphology , mtdna sequencing , microsatellite genotyping , multi - copy nuclear sequencing , single nucleotide polymorphisms ( snp ) and spatial position . we used these putatively independent data to contrast species integrity as characterised by morphology ( subject to natural selection ) and neutral characters that allowed us to test the stability of species delimitation , assess the extent and evenness of gene flow and thus gain an understanding of where these grasshopper populations are in the speciation continuum .\n) . the first four components of the pca accounted for > 95 % of the variation . thus the morphometric data based on traditional taxonomic characters suggest there are just two morphological entities :\ngeometric analysis of the grasshopper pronotum gave a similar result to that of traditional morphology . pca analysis of the 14 landmark measurements showed two major groupings ( figure\nwas likely due to their extremely cryptic shape formed by the \u2018broken\u2019 edge of the pronotum resulting in little uniformity within species . the\ngrasshopper pronotum shape ( pca analysis from morphoj ) : ( i ) pca for both species from all areas , with pronotum shape changes indicated along the pc1 axis . the two major groupings comprise\n) , with pronotum shape changes indicated along the pc1 axis . within the area of sympatry there was no clear evidence of morphological intermediates .\nneighbour joining tree of mtdna haplotypes ( coi , 519 bp ) and a distribution map showing the spatial distribution of haplogroups . the circled clades ( dashed circles ) are used in the network analysis ( figure\n? < ? 0 . 001 t - square 1291 . 4541 ) but there was no overlap between the two forms . thus we found no evidence of morphological intermediates in adults or juveniles .\nb ) . the mtdna clusters did not correspond to current taxonomic groups or morphological types . mtdna sequences from\nancestry . the high genetic diversity detected at alexandra appears to be a result of the meeting of three distinct mtdna clades that otherwise have separate ranges .\n( black ) . haplotype spot size is proportional to number of individuals with a particular haplotype and branch length estimates nucleotide differences .\n? 0 . 1410 ) and the power of this test was limited by smaller within - clade sample sizes . there was no statistical support for population genetic differentiation between\nthe three microsatellite loci surveyed each had between 16 and 18 alleles . no evidence of linkage disequilibrium was detected and hardy - weinberg expectations were met in the majority of population samples . a positive relationship between geographic distance and genetic differentiation ( pairwise f\n] showed evidence of extensive gene flow among populations . the optimum ? k was k = 2 ( figure\nc ) . there was no support for k = 3 , which was unexpected given that the data encompassed two morphologically distinct species and spatial structure had already been indicated . it is important to note that although the microsatellite dataset covers a similar geographical range to that of the mtdna dataset there is little similarity in the genetic structure detected . to reduce the possible influence of uneven sample size of the two species we restricted the data to include sampling only from the area of sympatry ( figure\n] analysis found no support for genetic partitioning within these data ( i . e . k = 1 ) , contrary to the expectation that the two morphologically defined species would represent discrete genetic units ( figure\na ) . a test for deviations from expected frequencies of neutral loci in bayescan indicated that one marker may have been subject to diversifying selection , log ( po ) > 0 alpha 0 . 878 ( figure\nb ) . a blast search of the sequence containing this snp did not result in any matches to known sequences on genbank . mean population pairwise f\nwas low ( 0 . 025 ) , with a confidence interval that effectively included zero ( ci 2 . 5 % 0 . 001 , ci 97 . 5 % 0 . 053 ) , providing little evidence that these samples represent more than one population , with random mating . population differentiation estimated with structure suggested extensive sharing of genetic material among populations , with no species structure detected ( figure\nhas a comparatively wide geographic range that can be subdivided into a number of phylogeographically distinct mtdna haplogroups .\nin terms of habitat , geographic range and genetic diversity ; in stark contrast to its clear morphological distinction . despite occuring in sympatry , no phenotypic intermediates were detected . we found no evidence of genetic partitioning in putatively - neutral mtdna sequence , microsatellite , its sequence loci or snp data . none of the mtdna diversity detected within\nsuggesting recent ( and on - going ) gene flow . the snp data show no population structure and extensive gene flow between the two species in sympatry , with one marker showing some sign of diversifying selection . the presence of more than one its1 - its2 sequence within the genomes of single grasshoppers is also consistent with recent gene flow near the township of alexandra . concerted evolution normally results in homogenisation of variation in the rrna cassette containing its [\ngenerated by different local environmental conditions . extreme plasticity is known to occur in other grasshoppers such as the locust (\n] , but despite altitudinal separated from subalpine areas , these habitats are climatically similar in terms of their extreme day / night and seasonal temperature cycles . more pertinent is the fact that\nare sympatric in the lowland semiarid environment of central otago . they occur at the same places at the same times with , for example , specimens of both morphotypes used in our analysis collected as adults within metres of each other in little valley , alexandra on the same day . these circumstances are inconsistent with an interpretation of phenotypic differences being driven by environmental induced plasticity . although we cannot exclude this possibility , a novel type of micro - environmental control of grasshopper development would need to be invoked .\n] , however the sharing of identical mtdna haplotypes and sharing of alleles across neutral nuclear loci in these two species suggests that very recent and / or ongoing reticulation is more likely . gene flow is expected to homogenise variation between species and it has traditionally been considered that speciation is unlikely to proceed in the presence of gene flow . many models of speciation have emphasized partitioning of populations by some extrinsic process ( e . g . allopatry ) as a prerequisite [\n] . however , if selection on particular loci is sufficiently intense , the effects of gene flow could be mitigated . models that accommodate permeability of putative species boundaries and acknowledge that selection can be locus - specific rather than genome wide are not new [\n, is a small , highly cryptic species of grasshopper suggesting it has been or is under selection from visual predators . in contrast ,\nlimited our sample sizes and precluded any observation of mating behaviour and juvenile colouration and survival where the species are sympatric . further examination might reveal morphological intermediates .\n] . expansion of grass and herbs following reduction of forest that may previously have formed a habitat barrier between the alpine and lowland grasshoppers may have facilitated population mixing . the area now shared by\nwas further modified by european introduction of plants and grazing animals , and mining practices in the last 150 years . these changes could have facilitated increased gene flow , but were analogous to the effects of pleistocene climate cycling . disentangling their respective influence on the grasshoppers is not simple [\nthe taxonomic status of these species is problematic , as traditional methods cannot resolve the conflicting information from morphology and genetics resulting from the process of evolution . although\nit is morphologically well differentiated , and in our relatively small snp dataset we were able to find one marker possibly under selection . models of speciation with gene - flow predict a continuum from partially isolated populations to reproductive isolation [\ndo not appear to be losing morphological distinction , but our neutral genetic data does show extensive gene flow . the absence of any morphological hybrids suggests selection is intense , removing relatively conspicuous intermediates and holding these two species apart . this may provide them the opportunity to diverge at other loci .\n] . there is a grand irony that while for many , genetic methods are seen as tools for testing species status ( e . g . dna barcoding ) , genetic data are actually the key to revealing that speciation is not clear cut [\n] . in our study we found that the only characters that reliably distinguished species were morphological , whilst 78 neutral genetic markers showed that distinct morphotypes do not correspond to genetically isolated units .\nwe collected grasshoppers by hand when they were active during the new zealand summer season ( december - march , between 1995 and 2009 ) . sampling included all recognised members of the\nis widespread in subalpine habitat with a few populations extending down to low elevation ( ~ 300 m asl ) areas in some locations .\n, sample sizes were limited and sampling spanned more than one overlapping generation ( c . f . usual assumptions of population genetic models ) . sampling from different generations , which are already overlapping is , however , not likely to increase the similarity of population allele frequencies , and therefore we do not consider this will have hindered any of the analyses .\nspecimens were confirmed by simon morris ( pers comm . to sat ) . individuals were preserved by freezing or in 95 % ethanol and identified following bigelow [\ncomplex grasshoppers in two ways . the first used the traditional species diagnostic characteristics , although we note that much of the information used to distinguish some of these taxa has been geographic location and altitude [\n] . male genitalia are taxonomically informative for some grasshopper species but consistent differences have not been reported among species in this complex . for instance , male genitalia in\nadults were distinguished by the tegmina concealing the relictual hind wing , which is the case only in the last instar . juveniles were excluded from this morphometric analysis . the data were analysed using discriminant analysis and principle component analysis ( pca ) approaches implemented in minitab 15 [\n. a pca was applied to all the morphological characters and the scores saved . pca required no\ngrouping , allowing us to determine whether the data could be partitioned into taxonomically meaningful groups based solely on the documented morphological character states .\nas an alternative to the traditional taxonomic characters , we tested for shape differences of the pronotum among species using geometric analysis . this method is more powerful and avoids any circularity that could arise from using traditional species characteristics as the sole morphological traits analysed . much of the taxonomy in the\n) that were obtained with the aid of a dissecting microscope we tested whether shape variation could be detected from metric data . using imagej [\n] , 14 landmarks were identified around the perimeter of the dorsal surface of the pronotum on each image of each grasshopper and measured . the landmarks were selected to maximise variation among individuals . these measurements were analysed using morphoj [\n] . a procrustes fit aligned by principal axes was performed to eliminate size differences before a procrustes anova was used to examine the error of image capture . this analysis revealed that the error arising from image capture variation was biologically irrelevant : mean squares for image capture was 32 times smaller than the variation found between individual grasshoppers . juveniles , adults and both sexes were included in the analyses and tested to confirm they did not partition in the results . principal component and discriminant analyses with cross validation were each preformed on the averaged value for each individual from all four species ( 34 ?\n] . dna from specimens preserved for more than one year , was extracted using incubation at 55\u00b0c with proteinase k and a ctab buffer ( 2 % hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide , 100 mmol / l tris - hcl ph8 . 0 , 1 . 4 mol / l nacl , 20 mmol / l edta ) , followed by a combined phenol / chloroform / isoamyl alcohol ( 25 : 24 : 1 ) cleanup . extractions were eluted in water and diluted as necessary for pcr reactions . primers c1 - j - 2195 and li - n - 3014 [\n] were used to target the 3 ' portion of coi . polymerase chain reactions ( pcrs ) were performed in 10 \u03bcl volumes using abgene red hot taq ( thermo fisher scientific ) . thermocycling conditions were 94\u00b0c for three minutes ; 94\u00b0c for 45 seconds , 52\u00b0c for 45 seconds and 72\u00b0c for 75 seconds repeated 36 times ; followed by a 2 minute final extension . cycle sequencing used perkin elmer bigdye 3 . 1 chemistry following the manufacturer ' s protocols analysed on an abi prism 377 dna sequencer ( applied biosystems , inc . , foster city , california ) . sequences were checked using sequencher version 4 . 10 . 1 ( gene codes ) and aligned with existing data using seal version 2 . 0 and geneious pro version 5 . 3 . 4 [\ngeneious was used to estimate a neighbour - joining tree for all the lineages . network version 4 . 5 . 1 . 6 . [\n] was used to estimate haplotype networks within clades . to test for a correlation between genetic and geographic distance ( expected under a model of isolation by distance ) , mantel tests [\n] with 10 , 000 randomizations to assess the significance of distance correlations . distance by distance analysis was applied to all data and separately to data within haplo - groups .\nscreening of fifty microsatellite loci revealed three that were polymorphic and amplified consistently among a subset of dna samples from the target taxa . the loci were checked for large allele dropout , stuttering , and null alleles using 1000 randomisations in microchecker version 2 . 2 . 3 [\npopulations were treated as a single population for this purpose . although there was evidence of null alleles in some of the loci within some of the populations (\n) . the analyses were run using an admixture model with correlated allele frequency , 100 , 000 generations of burn - in followed by 100 , 000 generations , and the number of groups ( k ) set from 1 to 20 ( 10 replicates each ) . the optimum value of k was found using the ? k method except for k = 1 , which was determined by examination of the bar - plots and structure harvester [\nnuclear sequences representing the internal transcribed spacers ( its1 and its2 ) of the rrna cluster and the intervening rrna 5 . 8s gene were obtained using the primers its4 and its5 [\n] . pcr conditions and sequencing followed standard protocols as above . sequences were aligned using geneious pro version 5 . 3 . 4 [\n] and checked by eye . sequences were generated for all grasshoppers from the area of sympatry of\n( the alexandra region ) . alignment and comparison of unambiguous with ambiguous sequences allowed us to identify the most likely combinations of sequences that gave the observed heterozygotes ( s3 ) . where sequence variants differed by single nucleotide substitutions we could identify and resolve the polymorphism . where sequence variation involved indels the resulting length polymorphism was evident by abrupt onset of sustained nucleotide ambiguity at the indel position , but sequencing in both directions allowed identification of the combination of sequences involved . to examine the number of families of its per grasshopper genome we interrogated a dna dataset generated by high throughput sequencing . genomic dna from a single\nindividual was sequenced on an illumina hi - seq 2000 ( beijing genomics institute ) resulting in > 1gb of sequence . the sequence was de - novo assembled via velvet [\n] and the results viewed in tablet version 1 . 12 . 09 . 03 [\n] . the resulting contigs were blasted to genbank and all matches to its were selected , aligned , mapped back and , checked for copy number .\nsingle nucleotide polymorphic ( snp ) anonymous nuclear markers were generated using high throughput sequencing , with individual dna fragments coded so we could identify individual grasshopper genotypes . the double digest rad - seq protocol [\n] was applied with minor modifications . we estimated genome size to help us optimise the selection of endonucleases and sequencing coverage . to do this we used flow - cytometry on a facscalibur system and cellquest software ( bd biosciences , san jose , ca , usa ) , following staining of cells with propidium iodide and reference to an internal control ( chicken or locust ) . our estimates of the\ngenome were approximately 11 . 9 pg ( consistent with estimates of other short - horned grasshopper species (\ndata were generated using an illumina hi - seq ( new zealand genomics limited ) , and sorted using the stacks version 0 . 99992 pipeline [\n] . settings for coverage and sites per read were adjusted iteratively . read coverage settings vary in the literature [\n] , so we initially ran trials ranging from 7 to 30 reads , but found no alteration in the results . we report results using an optimum coverage of 15 reads per individual ( excluding all stacks with a lower coverage ) , a maximum of two mismatches between reads for a single individual as well as allowing four mismatches between primary and secondary reads within ustacks . we allowed the program to remove any potentially spurious highly repetitive stacks . in cstacks we allowed 3 mismatches between samples when generating the snp set ( - m 15 - n2 - m4 - n3 - t ) . we restricted our analysis to a single snp per putative locus ( always the first ) , thus avoiding potential problems of non - independence between markers . data file conversion for programs was performed using pgdspider version 2 . 0 . 4 . 0 [\nas calculated for each putative - locus across all loci in stacks , and an amova was run in genodive version 2 . 0b24 [\n] was used to estimate population differentiation using an admixture model with correlated allele frequency . a burnin of 100 , 000 generations was followed by 10 replications of 100 , 000 generations with the number of groups ( k ) set from 1 to 3 . the optimum value of k was found from ? k method , via structure harvester , except for k = 1 , which was determined by examination of the bar - plots [\ngene flow between the two populations in sympatry was estimated using migrate - n version 3 . 5 . 1 [\n] , although algorithms that test for gene flow are often not ideal for situations where gene flow is very high , which is likely in this case . migrate - n was implemented with the bayesian inference strategy . initial runs involved only half the markers as we optimised settings . the starting values for ? and m were generated initially from f\nwith subsequent runs using the resulting ? and m values . the uniform prior distributions were used for both parameters with slice sampling ; one long chain was run recording every 5 steps after a burnin of 50 , 000 with a static heating scheme with five chains . four runs were conducted on half the data before three final runs on all loci were undertaken using the starting values for ? and m of the previous run . bayescan version 2 . 01 [\n] was used to examine the individual markers for evidence of selection using the default settings . prior odds of a neutral model were 10 times more likely than the model with selection at a locus . this prior was tested further by changing it to one , without any identifiable change in results . the alpha value was used to determine the direction of selection with a positive value suggesting diversifying selection and a negative value suggesting balancing selection . results were viewed in r version 3 . 0 . 0 using an fdr of 0 . 05 [\nassembly is available on genbank ( km576254 ) . its data indicating snp and indel variation is available in additional file\nejd , sat and mmr conceived and designed experiments and collected grasshoppers . ejd and sat carried out molecular analysis . ejd carried out morphometric analysis . ejd , sat and mmr drafted and edited paper . all authors read and approved the final manuscript .\nadditional file 1 : extended methods . further details on methodology . includes details on the microsatellite discovery methodology , along with primer sequences . as well as details on sample number / location at each analysis . as well as a table indicating snp and indel variations / positions in its sequencing . ( docx 146 kb )\nadditional file 2 : geometric morphometrics . procrustes fit values for geometric morphometrics . ( txt 94 kb )\nadditional file 3 : snp and microsatellites . spreadsheet of snps and microsatellites values across populations used in this study . 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152 . 10 . 1111 / j . 1558 - 5646 . 2008 . 00526 . x .\nbigelow rs : the grasshoppers of new zealand . 1967 , university of canterbury , christchurch , new zealand\nmcglone ms : plant biogeography and the late cenozoic history of new zealand . n z j bot . 1985 , 23 : 723 - 749 . 10 . 1080 / 0028825x . 1985 . 10434240 .\nmcglone ms , duncan rp , heenan pb : endemism , species selection and the origin and distribution of the vascular plant flora of new zealand . j biogeogr . 2001 , 28 ( 2 ) : 199 - 216 . 10 . 1046 / j . 1365 - 2699 . 2001 . 00525 . x .\nwardle p : distribution of native forest in the upper clutha district , otago , new zealand . n z j bot . 2001 , 39 ( 3 ) : 435 - 446 . 10 . 1080 / 0028825x . 2001 . 9512747 .\n) : taxonomy , molecules and conservation . conserv genet . 2001 , 2 ( 3 ) : 233 - 243 . 10 . 1023 / a : 1012263717279 .\ntrewick sa , morris s : diversity and taxonomic status of some new zealand grasshoppers . doc reseach & development series # 290 . 2008 , science & technical publishing , department of conservation , wellington , new zealand\ntrewick sa : dna barcoding is not enough : mismatch of taxonomy and genealogy in new zealand grasshoppers ( orthoptera : acrididae ) . cladistics . 2008 , 24 ( 2 ) : 240 - 254 . 10 . 1111 / j . 1096 - 0031 . 2007 . 00174 . x .\npritchard jk , stephens m , donnelly p : inference of population structure using multilocus genotype data . genetics . 2000 , 155 ( 2 ) : 945 - 959 .\nganley ar , kobayashi t : highly efficient concerted evolution in the ribosomal dna repeats : total rdna repeat variation revealed by whole - genome shotgun sequence data . genome res . 2007 , 17 ( 2 ) : 184 - 191 . 10 . 1101 / gr . 5457707 .\napplebaum s , heifetz y : density - dependent physiological phase in insects . annu rev entomol . 1999 , 44 ( 1 ) : 317 - 341 . 10 . 1146 / annurev . ento . 44 . 1 . 317 .\ngarnier bj : the climate of new zealand , a geographic survey . 1958 , e . arnold , london\nhubbard jce , wilson jb : a survey of the lowland vegetation of the upper clutha district of otago , new zealand . n z j bot . 1988 , 26 ( 1 ) : 21 - 35 . 10 . 1080 / 0028825x . 1988 . 10410097 .\n( scleractinia , cnidaria ) based on a mitochondrial and a nuclear marker : reticulation , incomplete lineage sorting , or morphological convergence ? . mol biol evol . 2001 , 18 ( 7 ) : 1315 - 1329 . 10 . 1093 / oxfordjournals . molbev . a003916 .\n) sparrows : pseudogenes , hybridization , or incomplete lineage sorting ? . auk . 2001 , 118 ( 1 ) : 231 - 236 . 10 . 1642 / 0004 - 8038 ( 2001 ) 118 [ 0231 : avimgo ] 2 . 0 . co ; 2 .\ncoyne ja , orr ha : speciation . 2004 , sinauer associates , sunderland , ma\nfeder jl , egan sp , nosil p : the genomics of speciation - with - gene - flow . trends genet . 2012 , 28 ( 7 ) : 342 - 350 . 10 . 1016 / j . tig . 2012 . 03 . 009 .\npeccoud j , ollivier a , plantegenest m , simon j - c : a continuum of genetic divergence from sympatric host races to species in the pea aphid complex . proc natl acad sci . 2009 , 106 ( 18 ) : 7495 - 7500 . 10 . 1073 / pnas . 0811117106 .\n. bot j linn soc . 2010 , 163 ( 4 ) : 473 - 485 . 10 . 1111 / j . 1095 - 8339 . 2010 . 01065 . x .\nforsman a , karlsson m , wennersten l , johansson j , karpestam e : rapid evolution of fire melanism in replicated populations of pygmy grasshoppers . evolution . 2011 , 65 ( 9 ) : 2530 - 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794 . 10 . 1111 / j . 1471 - 8286 . 2004 . 00770 . x .\nbeerli p : comparison of bayesian and maximum - likelihood inference of population genetic parameters . bioinformatics . 2006 , 22 ( 3 ) : 341 - 345 . 10 . 1093 / bioinformatics / bti803 .\nbeerli p : how to use migrate or why are marko chain monte carlo programs difficult to use ? . 2009 , cambridge university press , new york\nfoll m , fischer mc , heckel g , excoffier l : estimating population structure from aflp amplification intensity . mol ecol . 2010 , 19 ( 21 ) : 4638 - 4647 . 10 . 1111 / j . 1365 - 294x . 2010 . 04820 . x .\nfoll m , gaggiotti o : a genome - scan method to identify selected loci appropriate for both dominant and codominant markers : a bayesian perspective . genetics . 2008 , 180 ( 2 ) : 977 - 993 . 10 . 1534 / genetics . 108 . 092221 .\nr core team : r : a language and environment for statistical computing . vienna , austria : r foundation for statistical computing ; 2013 . retrieved from http / / . , [\njohnson m , zaretskaya i , raytselis y , merezhuk y , mcginnis s , madden tl : ncbi blast : a better web interface . nucleic acids res . 2008 , 36 ( suppl 2 ) : w5 - w9 . 10 . 1093 / nar / gkn201 .\nthis article is published under license to biomed central ltd . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license (\n) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original work is properly credited . the creative commons public domain dedication waiver (\n) applies to the data made available in this article , unless otherwise stated .\nby using this website , you agree to our terms and conditions , privacy statement and cookies policy . manage the cookies we use in the preference centre .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\northoptera species file ( version 5 . 0 / 5 . 0 ) home search taxa key help wiki\ndisplay . you can modify these specifications at any time by clicking the\nchange items displayed\nbutton in the header .\nif you want your changes to be preserved for future sessions , you should login . to do this , click on the logo in the upper left corner .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 . except where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution - 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{"id": 660, "summary": [{"text": "the whitaker 's shrew ( crocidura whitakeri ) is a species of mammal in the family soricidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in western sahara , algeria , morocco , tunisia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland , rocky and sandy coasts .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is a fairly common species and the international union for conservation of nature has rated its conservation status as being of \" least concern \" . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "whitaker ' s shrew", "paragraphs": ["embed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - whitaker ' s shrew\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - whitaker ' s shrew\ntitle =\narkive photo - whitaker ' s shrew\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - whitaker ' s shrew ( crocidura whitakeri )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - whitaker ' s shrew ( crocidura whitakeri )\ntitle =\narkive species - whitaker ' s shrew ( crocidura whitakeri )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthere are no specific conservation plans in place for whittaker\u2019s shrew ( 1 ) .\nwhitaker , j . , d . pascal . 1971 . external parasites of the arctic shrew in minnesota . . journal of mammalogy , 52 : 202 .\nwhitaker , j . , w . hamilton . 1998 . mammals of the eastern united states . new york : cornell university press .\nthe vagrant shrew ( sorex vagrans ) , also known as the wandering shrew , is a medium - sized north american shrew . at one time , the montane shrew and the orizaba long - tailed shrew were considered to belong to the same species .\nblair , w . n . ( 1926 ) blair ' s white - toothed shrew . scillonian 5 : 164 - 5 .\nthe arctic shrew ( sorex arcticus ) , also known as the blackback shrew or saddlebacked shrew , is a medium - sized shrew found in canada and the northern united states . separate species status has been proposed for the maritime shrew ( sorex maritimensis ) which is found in new brunswick and nova scotia and had been considered to be a subspecies of the arctic shrew . the tundra shrew ( sorex tundrensis ) was formerly considered to be a subspecies of the arctic shrew .\nthe apennine shrew ( sorex samniticus ) is a species of shrew in the soricidae family . the mammal is endemic to italy .\n1990 . comparison of species - shrews . pp . 492 - 493 in s parker , s schmizs , b grzimek , eds . grizimek ' s encyclopedia , vol . 1 , 1st edition . farmington hills , mi : mcgraw - hill .\n, but in general , olfaction is the strongest and most developed sense in shrews . a large portion of a shrew ' s brain is devoted to olfaction .\nowen , james g . ; hoffmann , robert s . ( 15 december 1983 ) .\nchakraborty , s . , pradhan , m . s . & subramanian , k . a . 2002 . crocidura nicobarica . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 30 july 2007 .\ncarmen , ma .\nsorex palustris water shrew\n. animal diversity web .\n, a female lesser white - toothed shrew and her young may form a\ncaravan\nwhen foraging for food or seeking a place of safety ; each shrew grips the tail of the shrew in front so that the group stays together .\ncomments : see george ( 1988 ) for an electrophoretic study of systematic relationships among sorex species . s . monticolus ( which now includes s . m . obscurus ) is considered distinct from s . vagrans ( hennings and hoffman 1977 ) . sorex vagrans sonomae ( of california and oregon ) were elevated by carraway ( 1990 ) to full species status ( including 2 subspecies : sonomae and newly described tenelliodus ) . sorex monticolus bairdii , which formerly has been included in sorex vagrans , was regraded by carraway ( 1990 ) as a distinct species , sorex bairdii with 2 subspecies ( bairdii and permiliensis ) . jones et al . ( 1992 ) and hutterer ( in wilson and reeder 1993 ) followed carraway ( 1990 ) in regarding s . vagrans , s . monticolus , s . bairdii , and s . sonomae as separate species . carraway ( 1990 ) subsumed s . trigonirostris into s . vagrans and did not indicate that trigonirostris deserved even subspecific status .\nchurchfield , s . 1990 . the natural history of shrews . ithaca , ny : cornell university press .\nwilson , d . , s . ruff . 1999 . water shrew , sorex palustris . pp . 38 - 39 in the smithsonian book of north american mammals . vancouver : ubc press .\nbreeding interval : arctic shrew females give birth to one or two litters each year .\nand they may also prefer areas with more acidic soils than other local shrew species .\nnatureserve ( whittaker , j . c . , hammerson , g . & norris , s . j . )\nchurchfield , s . 1990 . the natural history of shrews . ithaca , new york : comstock publishing associates .\nharris , s ; yalden , d . w .\nmammals of the british isles\n. the mammal society .\nlike all female mammals , water shrew mothers provide their young with milk after they are born .\nthe tail of the shrew is bicolored , gradually ranging from brown above to more gray underneath .\nthe nicobar shrew or nicobar white - tailed shrew ( crocidura nicobarica ) is a critically endangered species of mammal in the soricidae family . it is endemic to the great nicobar island of india .\ntype : miller , g . s . 1901 jun 27 . proceedings of the biological society of washington . 14 : 95 .\ntype : miller , g . s . 1902 may 29 . proceedings of the united states national museum . 24 : 776 .\nthe ansell ' s shrew ( crocidura ansellorum ) is a species of mammal in the soricidae family . it is endemic to zambia . its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests . it is threatened by habitat loss .\nthe excessive use of pesticides to control locusts may be affecting whittaker\u2019s shrew , either by reducing the availability of its insect prey , or by poisoning the shrew when it ingests insects containing the chemicals ( 1 ) . however , this threat is not believed to be placing the species at risk of extinction at present ( 1 ) .\nthe breeding period of the ornate shrew starts in late february and ends in late september or october .\nvan zyll de jong , c . 1999 . tundra shrew . pp . 44 - 45 in d wilson , s ruff , eds . the smithsonian book of north american mammals . washington d . c . : smithsonian institution press .\nnowak , r . m . ( 1999 ) walker\u2019s mammals of the world . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore , maryland .\namori , g . ( small nonvolant mammal red list authority ) & stuart , s . n . ( global mammal assessment team )\nspecies of the crocidura genus are more commonly called \u2018white - toothed shrews\u2019 , a name that distinguishes them from the closely related red - toothed shrews , whose teeth are coloured by iron deposits ( 2 ) . very little is known about whittaker\u2019s shrew , but crocidura shrews generally have short , smooth , thick fur and a long , bristly tail ( 3 ) . the colouration of whittaker\u2019s shrew is said to be similar to the lesser white - toothed shrew ( crocidura suaveolens ) , which has brownish - grey fur on the back , a white belly and white legs ( 4 ) .\nwater shrews are short - lived . the typical life span of a water shrew is about 18 months .\n. like other shrew species , it has a high metabolic rate and needs to feed frequently . it eats\nchurchfield , s . ( 1988 ) shrews of the british isles . shire natural history series no 30 . shire publications , princes risborough .\nin 1975 the species was recorded from campbell bay national park to the galathea river , but in a subsequent survey in 1984 , no specimens were observed in the same area ( s . s . saha pers . comm . ) . the population is considered to be decreasing .\nshrew species communicate with different types of calls as well , for example , chirps are sometimes used in courtship .\nthe only known predators of arctic shrews are owls . the remains of an arctic shrew have been found in a\nthe black shrew ( suncus ater ) is a white - toothed shrew only known from mount kinabalu in the malaysian state of sabah on the island of borneo . it is listed as a critically endangered species due to habitat loss and a restricted range . it is the smallest shrew of its kind and lives in parts of middle asia .\nmacdonald , s . 2003 . the small mammals of alaska : a field handbook of the shrews and small rodents . unpublished : unpublished draft .\ntype : miller , g . s . 1909 may . annals and magazine of natural history ( ser . 8 ) . 3 : 417 .\nair bubbles are trapped in the thick fur when the animal dives underwater . the air bubbles help the shrew with buoyancy and also allow it to engage in a behavior called \u201cwater - walking\u201d . the water shrew can dive underwater for about 15 seconds , but is only able to if it is swimming vigorously . the air bubbles allow the shrew to swim , but as soon as the shrew stops swimming , then it will shoot back up to the surface .\nthe gueldenstaedt ' s shrew ( crocidura gueldenstaedtii ) is a species of mammal in the soricidae family . it is found in armenia , azerbaijan , china , georgia ( country ) , greece , kazakhstan , kyrgyzstan , russia , taiwan , turkey , and uzbekistan .\n2004 . alpine shrew . pp . 254 - 260 in d kleiman , v geist , m mcdade , m hutchins , eds . grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , vol . volume 13 , 2nd edition edition . farmington hills , mi : gale group .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nmutchler , s . 2011 .\nsorex minutus\n( on - line ) . animal diversity web . accessed april 06 , 2011 at urltoken .\nstone , r . 1995 . eurasian insectivores and tree shrews - status survey and conservation action plan . iucn / ssc insectivore , tree shrew and elephant shrew specialist group : 1 - 164 . accessed april 05 , 2011 at urltoken .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\nits feet have a fringe of hairs , more visible on the larger hind feet , which allow this animal to run on the water ' s surface .\nthe alpine shrew is nocturnal and is a skilled climber , using its tail for balance . it uses scent glands on its\nshrews of similar size have a gestation period around 21 days , but no definitive information on the ornate shrew is available .\nthe alpine shrew is found in the mountains and uplands of central and eastern europe and parts of france . its range includes the\nclough , g . 1963 . biology of the arctic shrew , sorex arcticus . american midland naturalist , 69 : 69 - 81 .\nshrews have limited visual ability . the eyes of shrews are very small , and the optic region of the shrew brain is small .\nbuckner , c . 1970 . direct observation of shrew predation on insects and fish . the blue jay , 28 : 171 - 172 .\n. there is a stretch of territory through baja where the shrew is not found , then it is found again near the southern tip .\nit is listed on appendix iii of the bern convention . a major part of the alpine shrew ' s range in the carpathians is covered by the carpathians reserve ( about 45 , 000 ha ) and national park ( about 70 , 000 ha ) . there is a need for monitoring , particularly of isolated subpopulations .\nmacdonald , d . w . and tattershall , f . t . ( 2001 ) britain ' s mammals - the challenge for conservation . the wildlife conservation research unit , oxford urltoken\nand is known as the scilly shrew . skull and tooth measurements of individuals from scilly are found to be intermediate in size of those in the\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - water shrew ( neomys fodiens )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - water shrew ( neomys fodiens )\ntitle =\narkive species - water shrew ( neomys fodiens )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nshrews can make and hear sounds in high frequencies . calls are made for defense and courtship . they are also made when an shrew is afraid .\nconaway , c . 1952 . life history of the water shrew ( sorex palustris ) . amer . midland nat . , 48 : 219 - 248 .\nthe nicobar shrew is a nocturnal and semi fossorial species , which lives among leaf litter in tropical moist deciduous forest ( molur et al . 2005 ) .\nspitzenberger , f . 1996 . zoogeogeography of autria ' s mammal fauna . an interim report on atlas work in progress . proceedings of the 1st european congress of mammalogy , 1 : 55 - 65 .\nand sent it to mr f w smalley\nwho had the largest collection of rodents in the country\n. in 2010 , a scilly shrew made headlines on\n. it was only discovered as the ship was about to arrive in penzance . the shrew was flown back to the isles of scilly the next day on a\nthe ornate shrew is found along portions of the west coast of north america and a few near shore islands . the northern extent is around 39 degrees latitude in\nglobal range : sakhalin island ; siberia , from the pechora river to chukotka , south to the altai mountains ; mongolia and northeastern china ; alaska ; yukon , northwest territories , canada ( hutterer , in wilson and reeder 1993 ) . according to rausch and rausch ( 1993 ) , s . tundrensis is limited to the nearctic and the eurasian populations comprise a complex of sibling species distinct from s . tundrensis .\nticul alvarez , s . , matson , j . , castro - arellano , i . , woodman , n . , de grammont , p . c . & hammerson , g . ( 2008 ) .\nthe lesser white - toothed shrew found in a variety of habitats , among shrubs in coastal sand dunes or dense plants in rocky deserts , humid or arid conditions .\nmacdonald , d . w . , and tattersall , f . t . ( 2001 ) . britain ' s mammals - the challenge for conservation . the wildlife conservation research unit , oxford university . available from urltoken\nlvarez - castaeda , s . t . , matson , j . , castro - arellano , i . , woodman , n . , de grammont , p . c . & hammerson , g . a .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nlawrence , w . , k . hays , s . graham . 1965 . arthropodous ectoparasites from some northern michigan mammals . occasional papers of the museum of zoology , university of michigan , 639 : 1 - 7 .\ngeorge , s . b . ( 1988 ) .\nsystematics , historical biogeography , and evolution of the genus sorex\n. journal of mammalogy 69 ( 3 ) : 443\u2013461 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 1381337 .\nthis shrew has a wide distribution in europe , extends eastwards to japan and also occurs in north africa ( 3 ) . it does not occur on mainland britain , but is present on jersey and sark in the channel islands and is also found on the scilly isles ( 3 ) , where it is thought to be represented by a subspecies known as the scilly shrew ( c . s . cassiteridum , endemic to the scilly isles ( 6 ) . it is believed to have originally been introduced to the scilly isles ( 4 ) and has since evolved into a new subspecies .\nbaird , d . , r . timm , g . nordquist . 1983 . reproduction in the arctic shrew , sorex arcticus . journal of mammalogy , 64 : 298 - 301 .\nthis shrew inhabits dry and rocky areas with little plant life , as well as coastal sand dunes , where it takes shelter in the burrows of rodents or among rocks ( 1 ) .\n, fungi and green vegetation . once it ' s caught , the food is held by the fore feet and torn to pieces using the teeth through upward thrusting of the head . water shrews can live without food for up to 3 hours , but captive shrews have been found to feed almost every 10 minutes . the amount of food required by a water shrew has been estimated to be 0 . 95 g / day .\nplatt , w . , n . blakley . 1973 . short - term effects of shrew predation upon invertebrate prey . proceedings of the iowa academy of science , 80 : 60 - 66 .\ncomments : some recent literature regards sorex alaskanus as a subspecies of s . palustris ( junge and hoffman 1981 ; jarrel and macdonald 1989 ; jones et al . 1992 ; harris , in wilson and ruff 1999 ) , whereas other authors have regarded s . alaskanus as a distinct species ( hall 1981 ; beneski and stinson 1987 ; george 1988 ; hutterer , in wilson and reeder 1993 ; carraway 1995 ; baker et al . 2003 ) . inadequate material has prevented conclusive studies ( cook et al . 1997 ) . see george ( 1988 ) for an electrophoretic study of systematic relationships among sorex species . taxonomy of s . palustris currently is being studied by suzanne mclaren ( carnegie museum nat . hist . , pittsburgh , pa ) .\nin which the males are in general bigger and heavier than the females . the size of the shrew can be anywhere from 130\u2013170 mm and weigh from 8 - 18 grams . their tails range from 57\u201389 mm . the shrew contains black and brown fur colors and changes depending on the season . the color will change to lighter brown in the summer and a black color in the winter .\nthe lesser white - toothed shrew is a medium - sized shrew . the upperparts of the body and side grayish or reddish brown in color . tail relatively long . tail color varies from grayish to brownish above , paler below with bristles dispersed along the entire length . distinctive line dividing the upperparts from the underparts . underparts and feet whitish . snout broad . ears small but distinguished . eyes small .\nthe sicilian shrew ( crocidura sicula ) is a species of mammal in the soricidae family . it is found in sicily ( italy ) and gozo ( malta ) . its natural habitat is temperate shrubland .\ndiurnal animal with maximum activity from 5 to 8 pm , otherwise hiding between shrubs or under rocks . feeds on snails , earthworm and arthropods , especially insects . lesser white - toothed shrew secretes pheromones to communicate with other individuals . it is typically a solitary species . lesser white - toothed shrew breeds from one to seven times throughout the year , but mainly from march to may . female gives birth to five litters each containing from one to six young after a gestation period of around 28 days . the young open their eyes at 10 days and reaches sexual maturity after 3 months . lesser white - toothed shrew can live for 2 . 5 years .\nit is listed on appendix iii of the bern convention . subspecies c . s . caneae , endemic to crete , is on appendix ii of the bern convention ( as c . ariadne ) . it occurs in protected areas within its range . no specific conservation actions are recommended .\nhutterer , r . , g . amori , b . kry\u0161tufek , h . meinig , s . bertolino , f . spitzenberger , j . zima . 2010 .\nsorex alpinus\n( on - line ) . iucn red list . accessed march 06 , 2011 at urltoken .\nfeldhamer , g . a . , drickamer , l . c . , vessey , s . h . , merritt , j . f . and krajewski , c . ( 2007 ) mammalogy : adaptation , diversity , ecology . third edition . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore , maryland .\njohnston , r . f . & rudd , r . l . ( 1957 ) .\nbreeding of the salt marsh shrew\n. journal of mammalogy 38 ( 2 ) : 157\u2013163 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 1376305 .\ngillihan , s . w . & foresman , k . r . ( 2004 ) .\nsorex vagrans\n. mammalian species : number 744 : pp . 1\u20135 . doi : 10 . 1644 / 1545 - 1410 ( 2004 ) 744 < 0001 : sv > 2 . 0 . co ; 2 .\nthe alpine shrew ( sorex alpinus ) is a species of mammal in the soricidae family . it is found in the alpine meadows and coniferous forests of southern european mountain ranges : the alps , the pyrenees , the carpathian mountains and the balkans .\nwhittaker\u2019s shrewcan be found across north africa , in morocco , algeria , tunisia and egypt , the spanish northern african territories of ceuta and melilla , and possibly also in western sahara and libya . it is distributed over a large altitudinal range , from sea level to up to 1 , 800 metres ( 1 ) .\nthis species is found from southern british columbia , canada south to monterrey , california , and east to idaho , western montana , and northern utah in the united states . a disjunct subspecies s . vagrans orizabae found in the transverse volcanic belt of mexico was recently elevated to species status ( carraway , 2007 ) .\nstiff hairs along the sides of the hind feet are found only in the water shrew and the pacific water shrew ( sorex bendirii ) . the latter , a pacific northwest species , differs in being slightly larger ( 8 . 9 - 9 . 7 cm , 3 . 5 - 3 . 8 inches , body length ) and dark brown rather than blackish - gray ( burt and grossenheider 1976 ) . see carraway ( 1995 ) for a key to western north american soricids based primarily on dentaries .\nthe average life expectancy of a vagrant shrew has been estimated at a little over six months . however , they can live much longer ; although few survive for more than seventeen months , a few survive their second winter and reach two years of age .\npossessing an extremely high metabolism , shrews have to feed every two to three hours to meet the demands of this high energy requirement , and often eat more than their body weight in food every day ( 6 ) . the diet of crocidura shrews typically consists of invertebrates , frogs , toads and lizards , and the bodies of recently killed animals ( 5 ) . another consequence of a shrew\u2019s high metabolism and resultant active lifestyle is a rather short life span ( 2 ) ; shrews rarely live longer than a year , making them the shortest lived mammals in the world ( 6 ) .\ntype for crocidura suaveolens catalog number : usnm 105801 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of mammals sex / stage : female ; adult preparation : skin ; skull collector ( s ) : e . zollikofer year collected : 1900 locality : zuberwangen , sankt gallen , switzerland , europe\nhutterer , r . ; amori , g . ; kry\u0161tufek , b . ; meinig , h . ; bertolino , s . ; spitzenberger , f . ; zima , j . ( 2008 ) . ' sorex alpinus ' . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 2013 - 08 - 21 .\nthe appenine shrew is endemic to the italian peninsula . it is recorded from the appenines to calabria , at altitudes between 300 m and 1 , 160 m , but its exact distribution is poorly known ( hausser 1990 , 1999 , amori and aloise 2005 ) .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthe water shrew is a boreal species , also inhabiting relict habitat in southern mountains . it requires high quality water , preferably mountain streams , and abundant cover such as rocks , logs , or overhanging stream bank . suitable management consists primarily of maintaining these conditions . there are many areas ( e . g . , state and national parks ) in which habitat is adequately protected . the southern range of the water shrew may be shrinking through habitat fragmentation and local extirpation , but current information is inadequate to allow an evaluation of this hypothesis .\nstewardship overview : the water shrew is a boreal species , also inhabiting relict habitat in southern mountains . it requires high quality water , preferably mountain streams , and abundant cover such as rocks , logs , or overhanging streambank . suitable management consists primarily of maintaining these conditions .\nbuchler , e . r . ( november 1976 ) .\nthe use of echolocation by the wandering shrew ( sorex vagrans )\n. animal behaviour 24 ( 4 ) : 858\u2013873 . doi : 10 . 1016 / s0003 - 3472 ( 76 ) 80016 - 4 .\nalthough there is little information available on the biology of whittaker\u2019s shrew , it is likely to be similar to be other crocidura species . crocidura shrews typically give birth to litters containing between one and ten young , which weigh just one gram each at birth . the young are hairless for their first week of life , and do not open their eyes until 13 days old , but are weaned after about 20 days and are sexually mature after just two to three months ( 5 ) . if shrew families have to move before the young are fully grown they do so by \u2018caravanning\u2019 ; the immature shrews form a line behind the mother , with each one holding onto the hind end of the one in front with its teeth . the grip between individuals in the chain is so strong that if the mother is lifted off the ground then all of the family are lifted up too ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .\nthe american water shrew tends to breed from december to september and females usually have a three week gestation period where offspring will be born in the spring and summer . they usually produce two to three litters during that time . these litters can contain anywhere from three to ten offspring .\nthis species occurs from yukon and northwest territory to quebec in canada ; southwards to north dakota , south dakota , minnesota , michigan , and wisconsin in the united states ( hutterer , in wilson and reeder 1993 ; kirkland and schmidt 1996 ) . the disjunct populations in nova scotia and new brunswick have now been elevated to species status ( s . maritimensis ) .\nthere is little information about the mating habits of the arctic shrew , however males of most shrew species mate with many females , and compete with other males for females , so the assumption is that arctic shrews behave similarly . in wisconsin , the breeding season lasts from february to august , and the breeding season is shorter in more northern areas , from april to august . arctic shrew females give birth to one or two litters each year , and these litters range in size from 4 to 10 offspring , with an average of 7 offspring per litter . the gestation period ranges between 13 and 21 days , so the young stay with their mother until 5 to 6 . 5 weeks after conception , and males make no contribution to parental care . when they are born , young arctic shrews are helpless . their mother and are cares for them until the end of the weaning period , 20 to 24 days after birth . both female and male arctic shrews reach sexual maturity after one year . as much as 50 percent of all juveniles die in the first month , but the average lifespan of an arctic shrew in the wild is around 18 months .\nloss of alpine water courses due to water abstraction and hydroelectric power is also a threat , as is loss of habitat owing to intensification of winter tourism in the alps . human land use is a direct threat and climate change may be a future indirect threat as a result of range shifts in other species that may be direct competitors with s . alpinus when ranges overlap .\nlukacova , l . , e . dannelid , j . hausser , m . macholan , j . zima . 1996 . g - banded karotype of the alpine shrew , sorex alpinus ( mammalia , soricidae ) , from the sumava mts . . folia zoologica , 45 : 223 - 226 .\ntype for sorex tundrensis merriam , 1900 catalog number : usnm 99286 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of mammals sex / stage : unknown ; adult preparation : skin ; skull collector ( s ) : w . osgood year collected : 1899 locality : saint michaels [ = michael ] , alaska , united states , north america\narctic shrews can be found in a variety of habitats , but populations are highest in moist grassy areas near lakes , bogs , swamps , and ditches . in the upper peninsula of michigan , arctic shrew populations are the densest in spruce and tamarack swamps , as well as near lakes and streams .\ntype for crocidura nicobarica miller , 1902 catalog number : usnm 111788 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of mammals sex / stage : female ; adult preparation : skull ; remainder in fluid collector ( s ) : w . abbott year collected : 1901 locality : great nicobar island , nicobar islands , andaman and nicobar is , asia\noccurs in a variety of habitats ( 2 ) , favouring dry ground , and has even adapted to living on the seashore and grassy sand dunes in the scilly isles ( 4 ) . like the greater white - toothed shrew , it often occurs close to man , living around outbuildings ( 3 ) .\nmanagement research needs : research is needed on geographic variation in habitat requirements . further research should be conducted on dispersion pattern and dispersal . research is needed on the effects of land and stream pollution on water shrew survival . the minimum population size needed to maintain genetic viability in a fragmented habitat should be investigated .\nthe nicobar shrew has been recorded from campbell bay national park ( possibly now extinct here ) and galathea national park in great nicobar islands ( chakraborty et al . 2004 ; molur et al . 2005 ) . additional studies are needed into the distribution , abundance , general ecology and threats to this little - known species .\ntype for sorex alpinus catalog number : usnm 112928 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of mammals sex / stage : male ; adult preparation : skin ; skull collector ( s ) : f . boettcher year collected : 1901 locality : mauseklippe , bodethal [ = bodetal ] , harz mountains , sachsen - anhalt , germany , europe elevation ( m ) : 630\nis classified as\nnear threatened\non the iucn ' s red list of threatened species , however , more data are needed to determine broad population trends . major threats include the loss of alpine rivers and streams due to water extraction and hydroelectric power and increasing winter tourism in mountains of central europe . climate change may pose a significant threat in the near future as range shifts may increase interspecific competition for resources .\ncharacteristic mammals of the ecoregion include : ornate shrew ( sorex ornatus ) , puma ( puma concolor ) , fringed myotis bat ( myotis thysanodes ) , california chipmunk ( tamias obscurus ) , bobcat ( lynx rufus ) , coyote ( canis latrans ) , san joaquin kit fox ( vulpes macrotis ) and bighorn sheep ( ovis canadensis ) .\nlike all shrews , the arctic shrew has a voracious and insatiable appetite due to its quick metabolism . it eats insects , worms and small invertebrates , with a large proportion of its diet made up of larch sawflies , though arctic shrews in captivity have been fed dead voles fly pupae , and mealworms . the only known predators of arctic shrews are owls .\nthe lesser white - toothed shrew has a wide global distribution . it occurs in the palaearctic , extending from the atlantic coast of spain and probably portugal ( where its occurrence needs further confirmation ) extending eastwards through europe and asia to siberia . the southernmost edge of its distribution reaches sinai ( egypt ) , asia minor , israel , saudia arabia , iran and china .\nstockley , p . , j . searle . 1994 . characteristics of the breeding season in the common shrew ( sorex araneus ) : male sexual maturation , morphology and mobility . pp . 181 - 188 in j merritt , g kirkland , r rose , eds . advances in the biology of shrews , special publication no . 18 . pittsburgh : carnegie museum of natural history .\nhibernation a winter survival strategy characteristic of some mammals in which an animal ' s metabolic rate slows down and a state of deep sleep is attained . whilst hibernating , animals survive on stored reserves of fat that they have accumulated in summer . in insects , the correct term for hibernation is ' diapause ' , a temporary pause in development and growth . any stage of the lifecycle ( eggs , larvae , pupae or adults ) may enter diapause , which is typically associated with winter .\nthe water shrew is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . it is partially protected in the uk under schedule 6 of the wildlife and countryside act , 1981 ( 3 ) . listed under schedule iii of the bern convention , and classified as a species of conservation concern under the uk biodiversity action plan , although not a priority species ( 7 ) .\nthe water shrew ( neomys fodiens ) is the largest of the british shrews ( 2 ) ; it has black upper parts and a whitish underside , between which there is a clear demarcation ( 4 ) . typically for most shrews , the snout is long and the eyes and ears are small ( 2 ) . the fur is short and dense , and there are often tufts of white around the eyes and on the ears ( 2 ) . stiff hairs border the feet and form a keel on the underside of the tail ( 2 ) , which aid in swimming ( 4 ) . this species is a ' red - toothed shrew ' ; iron is deposited in the enamel of the tooth - tips , making them more resistant to wear - and - tear , and giving them a red appearance ( 6 ) .\nthis shrew is the smallest of the ' white - toothed shrews ' ( 2 ) ; it lacks the deposition of iron in the tips of the teeth seen in red - toothed shrews ( 4 ) . the upper surface of the body is greyish or reddish brown in colour ; and the underside is paler ( 3 ) . the tail is covered in short bristly hairs ( 3 ) , and long whisker - like ( 2 ) white hairs ( 3 ) . although smaller and lighter , this species is very similar in appearance to the greater white - toothed shrew ( crocidura russula ) ( 2 ) , so much so that the only truly reliable method to distinguish between the two species is by examination of the teeth , and the relative sizes of the tail and hind feet ( measurements above ) ( 3 ) .\nmany shrews have such uniformly grayish coats that separate species cannot easily be distinguished , but both the summer and winter coats of the tundra shrew are highly distinctive . its summer pelage is tricolored , dark brown on the back , pale gray on the underparts , and brownish - gray or pale brown in between . its longer winter fur is brown on the back and grayish on the sides and underparts . the tundra shrew is common , though limited , in distribution in alaska and extreme northwestern canada , where it inhabits hillsides and other well - drained areas with dense vegetation . its food habits are not well known , but insects , earthworms , and parts of a small grass flower were found in the digestive tracts of some specimens . embryo counts in a small sample of pregnant females averaged 10 , which is high for shrews . links : mammal species of the world\nthe reddish - gray musk shrew ( crocidura cyanea ) is a species of mammal in the soricidae family . it is found in angola , botswana , democratic republic of the congo , lesotho , malawi , mozambique , namibia , nigeria , south africa , swaziland , tanzania , zambia , and zimbabwe . its natural habitats are temperate forests , subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical high - altitude grassland , and caves .\nof 1 / 1 5 / 1 1 / 1 3 / 3 with a total of 32 teeth . they swim well and make short dives in search of food . the shrew prefers aquatic insects such as ; stone flies and crane flies . they are known to also feed on small fish , vegetation , and snails . shrews require a lot of food and cannot go without food for anymore than three hours because of their high metabolic rate .\nthe breeding season can occur from april to august , but may be shorter in the north of the species ' range . arctic shrew females give birth to 1 or 2 litters each year . litters range from 4 to 10 offspring , with an average of 7 young per litter . shrews are pregnant for between 13 and 21 days . females nurse their young for 20 to 24 days . both female and male arctic shrews reach sexual maturity after one year .\nthe least dwarf shrew ( suncus infinitesimus ) is a species of mammal in the soricidae family . it is found in cameroon , central african republic , democratic republic of the congo , kenya , nigeria , south africa , swaziland , tanzania , and uganda . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , temperate grassland , subtropical or tropical dry lowland grassland , subtropical or tropical high - altitude grassland , and arable land .\nmanagement requirements : protection of habitat , especially water quality , is the primary management consideration . guidelines should be developed for activities with potentially adverse impacts such as logging . during timber harvest , buffer strips should be maintained along potential water shrew habitat ( christian , pers . comm . , 1994 ) . pesticide use that might impact aquatic / riparian invertebrate populations should be avoided whenever possible . in some cases it may be desirable to reintroduce shrews from nearby populations to restored habitat .\nit is uncommon in the western part of its range , occurring at much lower densities than its congener c . russula ( libois et al . 1999 ) . further east it is more common . described as abundant and ubiquitous in at least parts of its global range ( harrison and bates 1991 ) . in the steppe forest zone in ukraine it is the most abundant shrew species , both in natural and agricultural habitats ( i . zagorodnyuk pers . comm . 2006 ) .\nthe alpine shrew is endemic to europe , where it has a disjunct range in the alps , the balkans , the carpathians , and a number of isolated mountains in germany , czech republic and poland ( spitzenberger 1999 , meinig 2004 ) . it previously occurred in the pyrenees , where it is thought to have gone extinct in the early 20th century , and in the harz ( spitzenberger 1999 ) . its vertical range is from 200 to 2 , 500 m ( spitzenberger 1999 ) .\n, fungi and green vegetation ( wilson and ruff , 1999 ) . once in possession , the food is held by the fore feet and torn to pieces using the teeth through upward thrusting of the head ( sorenson , 1962 ) . water shrews can live without food for up to 3 hours , but captive shrews have been found to feed almost every 10 minutes ( nagorsen , 1996 ) . the amount of food required by a water shrew has been estimated to be 0 . 95 g / day .\nin wisconsin , the breeding season is from february to august . the breeding season is shorter in more northern areas , from april to august . arctic shrew females give birth to 1 or 2 litters each year . litter sizes range from 4 to 10 offspring , with an average of 7 offspring per litter . the gestation period ranges between 13 and 21 days . the lactation period ranges between 20 and 24 days . the time from conception to weaning lasts between 5 and 6 . 5 weeks . both female and male arctic shrews reach sexual maturity after one year .\nglobal range : ( > 2 , 500 , 000 square km ( greater than 1 , 000 , 000 square miles ) ) boreal and montane regions of labrador , nova scotia , and new england across canada to east - central alaska ( cook et al . 1997 ) , south to the northern great lakes region and in the western mountains to mid - california , nevada , utah , and new mexico ; a small , disjunct population in arizona ' s white mountains has not been observed in recent years ( hoffmeister 1986 ) ; another apparently disjunct series of populations in the appalachians ranges from southwestern pennsylvania to north carolina , tennessee , and georgia ( laerm et al . 1995 , brimleyana 22 : 47 - 51 ) . hall ( 1981 ) mapped the ranges of the subspecies .\nthe alpine shrew is 6 to 7 . 7 centimetres ( 2 . 4 to 3 . 0 in ) in length , not including a tail as long as its body , and weighs between 5 . 5 and 11 . 5 g ( 0 . 2 and 0 . 4 oz ) . it is a uniform greyish - black on its dorsal ( upper ) surface and greyish - brown on its underparts . the tips of its teeth are reddish - brown and it has a long pointed snout , small black eyes and rounded pink ears . its legs and feet are white and the underside of its hairy tail is yellowish .\noccupies a variety of habitats , but populations are highest in moist grassy areas near lakes , bogs , swamps , and ditches . specifically , in the upper peninsula of michigan , arctic shrew populations are the densest in spruce and tamarack swamps , as well as near lakes and streams . they are often found in clearings in boreal forests , as well as marshes . other occasional habitats include dry fields , old fields , mixed conifer swamps , dense grasses adjacent to ditches , mixed grasses , strawberries and ferns at forest clearings , alder thickets , and dry marsh with grasses , sedge hammocks , forbs , cattail , willow , and red - osier shrubs .\nthe arctic shrew is most distinctive in its tricolored fur . it is dark brown or black on its back from its head to the base of its tail , while its flanks are a lighter brown , and its underside is lighter still grayish brown . even its tail is bi - colored , dark brown on the dorsal side , and gradually fading to a lighter brown on the ventral side . the fur is grayer in winter time , and its tricolor is most marked during the winter months from october to june , for the fur is thicker and brighter . arctic shrews molt twice a year , and the tricolor bands in the fur are less prominent in younger shrews .\nwater shrews are almost invariably found near streams or other bodies of water , where they find food and also escape from predators . these shrews readily dive to stream bottoms , paddling furiously to keep from bobbing to the surface\u2014their fur , full of trapped air , makes them buoyant . they feed on aquatic invertebrates , insect larvae , and even small fish . in the water they are susceptible to predation from larger fish and snakes . on land , water shrews have a more typical shrew diet , feeding on a variety of invertebrates , including earthworms , snails , and insects . they also eat fungi and green vegetation . links : mammal species of the world click here for the american society of mammalogists species account\nof the approximately 30 mammalian species of mammals present , one of them ( an endemic bat ) lives only in pine - oak forests . the level of endemism is high , and this is well demonstrated by the proportion of endemic species with respect to total recorded species . more than ten percent of the mammalian species found at sierra de la laguna are endemic . one notable mammal found along the far west coast , including california and baja , is the ornate shrew ( sorex ornatus ) . there are several threatened mammals found in the sierra de la laguna pine - oak forests , including : the mexican long - tongued bat ( choeronycteris mexicana nt ) . the isolation of this region has contributed to the scarcity of predators , and to the poor competitive ability of some animals . rodents and lagomorphs are virtually absent from the region\narctic shrews are found in a variety of habitats in highest density of 3 to 5 individuals per acre and each individual arctic shrew appears to limit its range to one tenth of an acre . of their various habitats , they found in greatest quantity and density in areas near bodies of water , such as lakes , streams , marshes , wetlands , bogs , swamps , ditches or open areas near wetlands . in the upper peninsula of michigan , they are found densely in spruce and tamarack swamps , in addition to other typical habitats . arctic shrews have been found in clearings in boreal forests , and occasionally in mixed conifer swamps , dry or old fields , dense grasses near ditches , mixed grasses , in the undergrowth of forest clearings , alder thickets , and dry marsh with grasses , sedge hammocks , forbs , cattail , willow , and red - osier shrubs .\nwater shrews are relatively large shrews with males tending to be longer and heavier than females . the total length of a water shrew can range between 130 and 170 mm , and the weight ranges from 8 to 18 grams . although the color of the fur may be variable , it is generally black or grey - black on the back and a silvery - grey on the belly , but appears more black in the winter and becomes more brown in the summer . water shrews can have tails varying from 57 to 89 mm in length . the tail is dark above and white or grey below . the hind feet ( 18 to 21 mm ) are larger than the fore feet and have a trim of 1 mm long stiff hairs on the toes and the inner and outer sides of the feet . a fringe of smaller stiff hairs is also found on the fore feet .\narctic shrews are solitary animals . adults are territorial . in one laboratory study , whenever two arctic shrews were placed together in a cage , one was dead within several days , though there was no sign of injury to the dead shrew and the cause for this mortality is unclear , however the result of this forced interaction has been repeatedly observed . arctic shrews are active during day and night , though there are contradicting reports on levels and cycles of activity throughout the day . one claim is that they are least active during mid - morning , while other reports describe alternating periods of activity and rest , with an average of fourteen periods of activity daily . arctic shrews are very active and move quickly . periods of inactivity are spent lying on the ground , either on one side or with the ventral side down , body rolled up , and head tucked under the body . grooming consists of wiping the forefeet rapidly along the mouth .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : a relatively widespread species in north africa , with no major threats at the presente , hence is listed as least concern .\npopulation size and trends are unknown . it is a very difficult species to find and to track in the field .\nc . whitakeri seems to be dependent on dry and stony habitats , with sparse vegetation ( i . e . , steppe or subdeserts ) . it is also found in sandy coastal dunes . the species shelters among rocks and in rodent burrows .\nno major threats are known . the main natural predator of this species is the barn owl . it can be affected by pesticides , which are used massively against locusts in the southern part of its range .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t41366a115519360 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nclassified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\ngenus a category used in taxonomy , which is below \u2018family\u2019 and above \u2018species\u2019 . a genus tends to contain species that have characteristics in common . the genus forms the first part of a \u2018binomial\u2019 latin species name ; the second part is the specific name . invertebrates animals with no backbone , such as insects , worms , and spiders . metabolism the total of all the chemical reactions that take place in an organism , in order to produce energy and the basic materials needed for important life processes . the speed at which an organism carries out these processes is called its metabolic rate ."]}
{"id": 672, "summary": [{"text": "deroplatys desiccata , known by the common names giant dead leaf mantis and ( less-frequently ) malaysian dead leaf mantis , is a species of praying mantis from southeast asia . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "deroplatys desiccata", "paragraphs": ["dead leaf mantis , dead leaf praying mantis ( deroplatys desiccata ) . threat display\ndead leaf mantis ( deroplatys desiccata ) at bugworld in bristol zoo , bristol , england .\na dead - leaf mantis ( deroplatys desiccata ) on the hand of an assistant at the audubon insectarium in new orleans .\nmalaysian dead leaf mantis ( deroplatys lobata ) at the omaha henry doorly zoo .\nwhere to buy deroplatys desiccata ( giant dead leaf mantis ) with reviews . photographic print decor by paul starosta . deroplatys desiccata ( giant dead leaf mantis ) ; and other animals ; insects & bugs ; praying mantis ; praying mantis ( photography ) - paul starosta wall art ; posters ; and prints for home wall coverings are available . . . .\nphotographic print decor by paul starosta . deroplatys desiccata ( giant dead leaf mantis ) ; and other animals ; insects & bugs ; praying mantis ; praying mantis ( photog . . .\ndead - leaf mantis ( deroplatys dessicata ) at the audubon insectarium in new orleans .\nclick the button below to add the dead - leaf mantid - deroplatys dessicata to your wish list .\nthe dead leaf mantis , or deroplatys desiccata , is a large mantis from malaysia that is camouflaged as a dead leaf . it looks amazing ! they are not very easy to keep and breed , but it is definately possible .\na malaysian dead leaf mantis ( deroplatys lobata ) at the omaha henry doorly zoo , omaha , nebraska .\nderoplatys desiccata is not very aggressive to members of its species , but it is better not to house them together in one enclosure . sooner or later cannibalism will happen . until l4 ( fourth instar ) the nymphs can be kept together when fed constantly .\ni have noticed that deroplatys do well when given large prey items more infrequently , rather than a myriad of small prey many times a week . ( frogparty )\nwaldbronn , germany . 1st feb , 2017 . insect breeder adrian kozakiewicz holds up a praying mantis ( deroplatys desiccata ) in waldbronn , germany , 1 february 2017 . kozakiewicz and his insects became popular on different social media networks , including 270 , 000 likes on facebook , 55 , 000 followers on instagram and hundreds of thousands of views on his youtube channel . photo : uli deck / dpa / alamy live news\nsku : ap - fi3025 dimensions : 7 . 000\nw x 8 . 000\nh x 1 . 625\nd scientific name : deroplatys dessicata origin : malaysia shipping restrictions : international wildlife export fees apply\nthey are slightly smaller than the deroplatys desiccata . males grow up to 5 cm long and females grow up to 9 cm long . males are very skinny in comparison to the females and they are very capable of flight so take care not to lose them . after the 2nd molt , 8 segments can be counted on the males abdomen while 6 on the females . and the females prothorax shield is more cryptic and wavy whereas the males\u2019 are diamond - shaped .\nthis is my deroplatys desiccata dead leaf mantis . the enclosure is a simple bug net enclosure that can be purchased online , they don ' t cost much either . as always , i appreciate you taking the time to watch my content . don ' t forget to hit that like button if you enjoyed the video and subscribe so that you don ' t miss my future content . facebook urltoken twitter , snapchat & instagram @ tarantuladan merchandise urltoken fancy a game ? my xbl gt is tarantuladan take care of yourself and i ' ll see you in the next video .\ni have been keeping deroplatys , or dead leaf mantids for years , and they are clearly one of the masters of disguise . they have camouflage down to a science . i love looking at the intricate leaf patterns on the adults wings . they mimic dead leaves perfectly , especially the females .\nbreeding dead leaf mantids is generally simple . i have had some casualties in the past , but i have come to learn that waiting 3 weeks instead of 2 before introducing the male and female greatly reduces the chance of cannibalism . all in all , i would recommend this species to anyone . they are just too cool to pass up . the pics below are of d . desiccata and d . lobata .\nthis cryptic mantis lives to mimic dead leaves hence the name . i consider them to be one of the most beautiful mantids out there . their coloring ranges from dark gray to light mottled gray . they also possess a broad prothorax that looks ripped and crumpled like a leaf . d . lobata shield looks different from d . desiccata , but still serves the same purpose . when threatened , they will unfurl their wings to display their bright colorings . but nymphs will freeze and throw themselves to the ground with all legs folded to look like a dead leaf .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nm . beier . 1935 . mantodea . fam . mantidae . subfam . orthoderinae - choeradodinae - deroplatynae . genera insectorum de p . wytsman 201 : 1 - 10\neach tol leaf page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a leaf at the tip of the tree of life . the major distinction between a leaf and a branch of the tree of life is that a leaf cannot generally be further subdivided into subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\nwe will inform you when the product arrives in stock . just leave your valid email address below .\nthis spinney looking fellow is camouflaged to mimic decaying , crumpled leaves . the colours range from a mottled brown , pale orangey brown through to an almost black . size depends on species and sex , but range from 75 - 85mm in size . females are substantially larger and heavier then males .\nif you disturb them , they will gently rock as if they have been caught in the breeze . and if they feel threatened , they will throw them selves to the ground , lying motionless on the floor .\nmalaysia . all of these species can be found here as well as borneo , indonesia and sumatra . being hot countries , you should keep the temperature at about 25 - 30c with a humidity in the region of 70 - 80 % . this is slightly warmer and more humid than other species of mantids are normally kept .\nish ! ! ! these mantids may look fragile , but are a relatively hardy species . please be aware that if the humidity is not right , the mantis can have problems shedding . they can have difficulty in discarding the old skin and become tangled and crippled in the old one ( especially when young ) . to help prevent this from happening , spray the cage every few days with a fine mister .\nthe cage should have a reasonably sized floor area , covered in dead leaves . a thick branch or stem should be provided for him / her to hang off .\ndead leaf mantids can be kept together . i never thought these could be keep together apart from very young , but i have been proven wrong . if ample food and space is provided then they live very happily together . even when they do become hungry they would prefer to hunt for live foods on the ground instead of attaching each other .\nthe adults ( both sexes ) can live together too . it ' s best i think , to pair a male up with two females , incase there are any fights between the males .\ndo your research before you commit to buying any pet , please do your own independent research .\nthe ideal temperature is about 26 \u00b0 c , but keeping them warmer is also good to about 35 \u00b0 c . do not keep them cooler than 22 \u00b0 c . at night you can allow the temperature to drop until 18 \u00b0 c . this species likes a slightly higher humidity , so it is important to spray water reguarly . a target humidity is about 50 to 80 % . keep the enclosure well ventilated . as with all species of praying mantis , the enclosure needs to be at least 3 times the length of the animal is height , and at least 2x the length of the animal in width . for an adult female this means the enclosure has to be at least 27 cm in height and 18 cm in width . a nice size for a terrarium would be 30 x 20 x 30 cm or bigger , so there is room for perches and decoration such as dead leaves .\nwhen adult , the differences between males and females are not to be missed . the male is long and slender , while the female is broad and bulky . she has a huge shield on the prothorax , while the male has a small shield . for nymphs you can use the sexing method of counting the number of segments on the abdomen , as described here . approximately 2 to 4 weeks after both partners reach adulthood , a mating attempt can be made . make sure that the female has eaten a lot in the days before the mating attempt . the female can be quite aggressive to the male , so if you see excessive aggression you have to remove the male and try again later . try to minimize disturbance . mating can take several hours , when the male leaves the back of the female he must be removed from the enclosure to keep him alive .\nthe adult molt can be dangerous for the gigantic female if the container is too small or there are sticks in the way . ( orin )\ndeadleaf mantids are hearty feeders but rarely attack others of the same size . ( orin )\nwhile dessicata will absolutely use vertical space in a terrarium , they can often be found mere inches above the substrate , resting face down on branches waiting for prey to come near . truly exceptional camouflage helps them to disappear amongst dead leaves and bark . ( frogparty )\ncage furnishings , e . g . molting surfaces , perches , d\u00e9cor , plants , etc .\nhatchlings are huge and take the large d . hydei or l1 schultesia readily . ( orin )\nprey preference is extremely broad , and flying prey , crickets , roaches etc are all relished greatly . a good varied diet for this species could include dubia roaches , crickets , silkworms , large moths , waxworms . ( frogparty )\nthe females pronotum is about one and a half times longer than wide with downward pointed sides while the males is rounded . males are nearly as long as females but are less massive . sexual dimorphism is difficult to identify on hatchlings but blatant after a few molts . ( orin )\nmating is the only real challenge with this species . the females seldom eat the males but the problem is males rarely show interest and hand mating is realistically impossible . the mating terrarium can include a 60 - watt incandescent light directly over one spot to increase temperature which may help the males become lively . ( orin )\neach female normally produces three to five oothecae that are stocky and an inch wide by 3 / 4 to an inch long . females live up to a year following maturity and can be alive when their offspring mature but rarely form good oothecae after the first five months . oothecae contain around 30 - 40 . the gestation period varies greatly under similar conditions so don ' t give up on an ootheca until it has been at least two full months . ( orin )\nphotos : up to five may be posted at the bottom of the completed template . please limit these photos to no more than one of an ootheca , two of nymphs ( different instars ) , one of an adult female , and one of an adult male .\nsign up for a new account in our community . it ' s easy !\ntags : shop in warragul - drouin , ballarat , launceston , bunbury , nowra - bomaderry .\nthe new mantis ultralight ( ul ) tents are 25 - 30 % lighter than the ever popular original mantis tents . the mantis ul 2 has doors and vestibles on both sides . both mo . . .\nframed art print decor by an unknown artist . christy mattewson & john mcgraw ; ny giants ; baseball photo - new york ; ny ; and other sports ; baseball ; new york giants . . .\nart print decor by pop ink - csa images . giant fish jumping into boat ; and other wall art ; posters ; and prints for home wall coverings are available . . . .\nseason : all seasons ; gender : women ' s ; earring type : stud earrings ; jewelry type : stud earrings ; occasion : casual , daily ; material : alloy ; material shown color : gold , silver . . .\nplus size tree leaf printed bow design v neck t - shirt . . .\nitf approved pressurised ball , suitable for all levels of play on all court surfaces . premium woven cloth . . . .\na soft string with the feel and playability of natural gut . the central core consists of thousands of microfibres individually treated with a premium thermo elasti . . .\nperfect racket for improving players offering a blend of power and control without sacrificing comfort . comes with a length head cover with shoulder strap for easy . . .\nconstruction : 100 % high modulus carbon . head size : 100 sq in . balance : 335mm . unstrung weight : 265g . string pattern : 16x19 . includes full cover . . . .\nmaterial : pu leather ; pattern : panda ; for : samsung ; phone / tablet accessories compatibility : a5 ( 2017 ) , a3 ( 2017 ) , a3 ( 2016 ) , a5 ( 2016 ) ; hard / soft : hard ; type : full body ; feat . . .\nthis listing was ended by the seller because the item is no longer available .\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . for additional information , see the global shipping programme terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . if you reside in an eu member state besides uk , import vat on this purchase is not recoverable . for additional information , see the global shipping programme terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab\nthis item will be sent through the global shipping programme and includes international tracking . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\napplicable ) . if the item comes direct from a manufacturer , it may be delivered in non - retail packaging , such as a plain or unprinted box or plastic bag . see the seller ' s listing for full details . see all condition definitions - opens in a new window or tab\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\nour framed insects are made - to - order . please allow up to two weeks for your order to be completed . if you need your order sooner than this , please contact us at 212 - 343 - 1114 x401 or fabrication @ urltoken and we will do our best to accommodate you !\ncustomers with shipping addresses outside of the us will be charged an additional $ 168 . 00 for us fish & wildlife services processing fees . please allow up to 60 days for your order to be processed . read our full international wildlife shipping policy here .\nwe promise to never spam you , and just use your email address to identify you as a valid customer .\nthis product hasn ' t received any reviews yet . be the first to review this product !\na landmark in manhattan\u2019s soho art district since 1993 and currently located in greenwich village , the evolution store is nyc\u2019s premiere retail destination for science and natural history collectibles , artifacts , gifts , and home decor . our store offers a museum quality atmosphere creating a unique and intimate shopping experience .\nstore : returns are accepted within two weeks with receipt . no refunds - store credit / exchange only .\nweb : returns are accepted within two weeks of receipt . in case of damage , free shipping label provided .\nplease note that pictured specimens are representative of specimens available . usda interstate movement permits may be required for some live species .\nit\u2019s best to keep these at around 24 - 30 c ( 75 - 86 f ) . a heat mat or heat lamp is may be used to maintain the desired temperature . keep the temperature cooler at night to lengthen the lifespan of the mantis . warmer temperature speeds up the metabolism of the mantis and will shorten its life span and in contrast , cooler temperature slows its metabolism and lengthens the life span , but both extremes could kill it . keep humidity at a constant 70 - 80 % .\ntheir cage should be well ventilated with lots of twigs and leaves for the mantis to perch on . they don\u2019t require much room as they are not active predators , but they do need room to molt . the suggested width and height is usually 3x the length of the mantis . this species is not as vicious as other species and even adults are able to live communally ( both tiny males and females ) , but nevertheless , if you have a small number of nymphs , they should be separated into separate containers after the first molt to remove all chances of cannibalism .\nthis species has no specific needs , but can be picky , so a varied diet is best . start out with fruit flies for nymphs and move to pinhead crickets for larger nymphs and crickets , mealworms , wax worms , and other larger insects for sub - adult and adults\u2026although adults can be a bit more picky than nymphs . they especially love flying insects like moths . it\u2019s recommended that the size of the feeder insect does not exceed 1 / 3 the mantis length . do not overfeed them , overfeeding will speed up their metabolism and can and will shorten their life span . feed them as much as it will eat in one day and do not feed it for another 2 days . as for watering , this type will get its fluid from its food , but it can sometimes be seen drinking off droplets from the side of the cage so misting the cage every once in a while is best .\nselect a suitable pair after 2 weeks since their last molt . it would be best to mate the mantids after 3 - 4 weeks instead . 2 weeks may be too soon and the female may not be mature enough to be bred . introduce the female into the males enclosure and leave them alone . this could take hours or days for the male to make his move\u2026although a mature male should mount the female within a couple hours after introduction . or you could feed the female and during her feeding , put a male behind her and if he is ready , he will jump on her back\u2026but this method could be a bit difficult due to the timid nature of the males . after a while of holding on , the male will bend his abdomen down to connect with hers and mating will commence . the male may remain on the female for up to 2 days ( even after copulation ) . afterwards , he will run away and he must be removed or else he might eaten .\nabout 3 - 4 weeks after mating , the female will make her first ootheca . this species can lay around 4 - 6 oothecae with a period of 4 - 6 weeks in between each ootheca . after 6 weeks of incubation at 30 c ( 86 f ) and 70 - 80 % humidity , as many as 100 large nymphs will hatch out from each ootheca . these can be fed fruit flies a day or two after hatching . then continue to care for them as this care sheet suggests .\ni recieved a grapesized ootheca and after 1 week or so of incubation at high humidity , about 100 nymphs hatched out ! the nymphs were surprisingly large for the ootheca that they came out of . after a day or drying out , they started to eat large fruit flies . i think i\u2019ll start to feed them house flies after their next molt , which should come after a week or so after hatching .\nthe nymphs have been a success . they\u2019ve grown quite large since hatching and they are now subadults . the males have obviously grown faster than females so i must slow down their growth now . they are still living together and only one case of cannibalism have been observed , the rest are content to hang upsidedown with their cage mates . i will try to see if this is a communal species , if not , at least tolerant of each other .\nit\u2019s confirmed , this is a communal species . i\u2019ve kept all the nymphs together up until l5 and everything went well . then i separated the males from the females and raised them separately . they are now subadults and one of the males is already a full adult . the females are not far behind !\nafter the females have matured , i introduced the males into the females\u2019 tank . surprisingly , they are quite docile towards each other . the first mounting took place approximately 1 day after introduction . even after copulation , the male is still attached to the female for another 2 days .\nthe dead leaf mantis is a large and comparatively long lived mantis species originating from malaysia . they mimic dead leaves and prefer slightly warmer and more humid conditions than many other mantis species .\n\u00a9 urltoken v2 . 3 - solon ' s revenge provider ( s ) of this digital community guarant thee nothing page generation took 0 . 00959 sec\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe ' ve sent an email to please follow the instructions to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nsingle handheld shot with nikon d750 + schneider kreuznach apo - componon hm 90mm f / 4 . 5 : ) .\nthis site uses cookies . by continuing to use this site , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . learn more .\ni have had my praying mantis for three months now . she was a nymph when i got her but she recently had her last molt into adulthood and has beautiful wings . she just layed her eggsac . does anybody know how much longer she has to live once she has layed her eggs ? she still has quite an appetite .\nonce they deposit an ootheca , their time ' s very limited ( i . e . under four months ) .\nthe ooth is infertile as well , i think , unless you forgot to mention the presence of an introduced male .\nshe will probably lay more eggs . . . she may drop between 6 and eight ootheca before it ' s all over . it ' s no too late to find a male !\ni captured a female praying mantis the other week , and have been keeping her . she has ate a lot and before she laid , what i guess is eggs , she was very agressive . spreading wings , and attacking every move i made ! ! it was unreal ! the next morning , there was this brown , hard , gooey cocoon looking thing stuck on the side of the cage ( wire ) . it is about the size of a quarter i guess .\nis that her eggs ? since i got her from the wild , is it fertile ? if it is , when will they hatch , what do they look like , etc . ? ? i have no idea how to take care of baby mantis ? ! and she has eaten like 5 crickets a night ? !\nsounds like eggs to me . they will hatch in a few weeks if kept warm . if you aren ' t ready for them to hatch , you can put it in the refrigerator until you are .\nseparate them and feed small pinhead crix and / or fruit flies . giv them plenty of ventilation . mist them some too . you don ' t need any substrate but you will want to have a stick , artificial plant leaf etc for them to climb on . i have kept mantids nearly every summer since 1979 . the babys are kinda delicate so expect a few of them to die off .\ni got a real good book while back from swift inverts . it ' s called mantids : keeping aliens . it is only $ 10 and has much useful info .\nlook for the threads carolina mantid and chinese mantid appreciation thread . i posted some mantid pics there .\nhey everyone . i just recently ordered a pretty good book on mantids , but withe the recent passing of my mantis friend , i have found myself in need of more immediate answers .\nmantids will lay ootheca wether they ' ve mated or not . they won ' t be fertile if they haven ' t mated ( unless it ' s b . borealis ) . i don ' t think it effects their lifespan either way .\nmost species will lay more than one before death , but there may be exceptions . if it was an adult when collected , it may have already laid several before you found it .\ni don ' t know of any way to check the fertility , but if the female was adult when captured there ' s a good chance any oothec would be fertile .\nthank you so much ! i also received some good advice from the folks at insectadventures . com , so i think i ' m as prepared as possible for whatever may happen with these ootheca .\ni am so sorry to ressurect this thread , but i was just curious . i understand that egg sacs of any kind affect the lifespan of the female mantid . however , let ' s just say - in general - what is the lifespan of a male and female mantid ? ! ! ! ! i just want a rounded number if possible . thanks all .\nit has everything to do with what species you have ! i am assuming you have a locally caught species ( e . g .\n) , if it is any of these , the females will live an average of 3 more months ( in captivity ) plus or minus a month . the males will live an average of one more month ( in captivity ) plus or minus 3 weeks .\nseems like this thread is very old so i hope someone still responds . . . i have a preying mantis whom i found with a broken leg , i ' ve had her for over a month now , she has laid an ootheca , after which she continued to eat crickets then , she stopped eating altogether - for about a week , i thought she would die , she seemed very weak . . . . until , today . . . . she ate a moth i offered her . . .\noh - i believe she ' s the chinese variety , small brownish green . . .\nseems like this thread is very old so i hope someone still responds . . . i have a preying mantis whom i found with a broken leg , i ' ve had her for over a month now , she has laid an ootheca , after which she continued to eat crickets then , she stopped eating altogether - for about a week , i thought she would die , she seemed very weak . . . . until , today . . . . she ate a moth i offered her . . . any idea what ' s going on with her . . . much appreciated ! oh - i believe she ' s the chinese variety , small brownish green . . .\nmantids slow right down towards the end . eventually she ' ll just stop eating . they become clumsy and uncoordinated and lose their ability to grip . they lie down on the floor and die .\nit sucks that praying mantises ' lives are so short . they would make such great companions if they lived 10 years !\nmantids slow right down towards the end . eventually she ' ll just stop eating . they become clumsy and uncoordinated and lose their ability to grip . they lie down on the floor and die . it ' s bloody horrible .\nit ' s\nbloody horrible\nbut completely true like basin79 said . at this time of year they are all pretty much doomed no matter what .\nbefore arachnids i specialized in mantids and mid spring to late october is pretty much the standard life for mantids ( meaning the dawn of warmth to the first sign of frost ) . there ' s a decent chance that the ootheca is fertile but unfortunately your mantis has reached the end of its life . the best thing you can do now is try to keep the mother as comfortably as possible til she meets her end and then put the ootheca outside in a safe place so it can\nweather\nuntil next spring where you can then watch them hatch and then collect a specimen or two to rear .\ni have a wild praying mantis that hangs around my front and back porch . . . it looks like a juvenile to me , looks pretty healthy to me . . . if i wanted to make it offerings what would i give it .\nwhy do praying mantis die after laying their eggs . . . what does not allow them to live for more han one year ?\nthat ' s simply how their life cycle works . it ' s extremely common , and not just among insects . many animals and plants die after reproducing .\nbiologists have spent years trying to figure out the exact reason so many creatures do this , and have come up with any number of theories . sometimes the breeding process is simply too destructive to their bodies to live very long afterwards . in other cases it seems that limited resources means that for the offspring to thrive , their parents have to ' get out of the way ' so to speak .\nwith many small animals though , their odds of long term survival simply aren ' t good enough to build a body that can last very long . all evolution cares about is how many offspring you can produce , and if your time is limited due to predation or approaching winter then evolution will select for the individuals that produce the most eggs in the shortest amount of time , and will do so at the cost of everything else .\nregistration is free , and dedicated forums exist for the discussion of tarantulas , true spiders , centipedes & scorpions . we also have classifieds , reviews , bite / sting / breeding reports and more ! .\nhtml public\n- / / wapforum / / dtd xhtml mobile 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\njoel is a popular keynote speaker with conservation , corporate , and civic groups .\njoel is the founder of the photo ark , a groundbreaking effort to document every species in captivity before it\u2019s too late .\nevery purchase goes directly to support our mission : getting the public to care and helping to save species from extinction .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nvery cool ! i collected a malaysian leaf katydid when i went to borneo , but was unable to keep it .\noh fantastic ! borneo is a part of the world i have yet to visit but its on my list for sure ."]}
{"id": 673, "summary": [{"text": "commonly known as cuckoo wasps or emerald wasps , the hymenopteran family chrysididae is a very large cosmopolitan group ( over 3000 described species ) of parasitoid or kleptoparasitic wasps , often highly sculptured , with brilliant metallic colors created by structural coloration .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are most diverse in desert regions of the world , as they are typically associated with solitary bee and wasp species , which are also most diverse in such areas . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "cuckoo wasp", "paragraphs": ["the cuckoo wasps are classified in the family chrysididae , order hymenoptera . the pacific cuckoo wasp is chrysis pacifica ; the large blue cuckoo wasp is chrysis coerulans .\ndetailing the physical features , habits , territorial reach and other identifying qualities of the cuckoo wasp .\nby inserting her ovipositor into the pot of a potter wasp and laying an egg , the cuckoo wasp finds food and shelter for her young .\ncuckoo wasps are common in brisbane suburban . they are usually seen flying slowly looking for wasp nest .\nstrohm e , laurien - kehnen c , bordon s . escape from parasitism : spatial and temporal strategies of a sphecid wasp against a specialised cuckoo wasp .\na cuckoo wasp ( primeuchroeus species ) . note the apparently 3 - segmented abdomen . image copyright wa museum\nthe scientists combined data from the transcriptome - - showing which genes are active and being transcribed from dna into rna - - and genomic ( dna ) data from a number of species of ants , bees and wasps , including bradynobaenid wasps , a cuckoo wasp , a spider wasp , a scoliid wasp , a mud dauber wasp , a tiphiid wasp , a paper wasp and a pollen wasp ; a velvet ant ( wasp ) ; a dracula ant ; and a sweat bee , lasioglossum albipes .\nthe name\ncuckoo wasp\nrefers to the fact that these wasps lay eggs in the nests of unsuspecting hosts .\nthe small cuckoo wasp is commonly found on large gum tree trunks , especially those holes on tree trunk . please check this\nthe cuckoo wasp\u2019s larvae consume the provisions procured by the solitary wasps for their own young . the name cuckoo wasp derives from this form of larceny . other species of cuckoo wasps directly attack and kill the young of other insects . some sneak down the galleries of ground nesting bees like plasterer bees ( link to march 27 , 2006 ) we met a few weeks ago . once inside , the female wasp lays an egg on the bee\u2019s baby and the cuckoo wasp larva devours the unfortunate victim . one wonders why hard - working solitary bees and wasps tolerate this nonsense from cuckoo wasps . it turns out that at least one species of cuckoo wasp produces an odor that closely resembles the smell of its host . this chemical cloak probably helps the cuckoo wasp sneak into the nest of its victim undetected to perform its nefarious deeds .\n) while the nest host collect food for larvae . cuckoo wasp larvae hatch and feed on the food or the host larvae .\nthe pacific cuckoo wasp parasitizes mason bees . the parasite ' s larva feeds on the bee ' s larva after the bee has spun its cocoon . the large blue cuckoo wasp , a cleptoparasite , lays its eggs in the nests of solitary wasps in the hornet family . the cuckoo wasp larva kills the host larva and eats the caterpillars that have been captured by the host for food .\ndesign by oleg ko\ncuckoo wasp ,\nmicrosoft\u00a8 encarta\u00a8 online encyclopedia 2009 urltoken \u00a9 1997 - 2009 microsoft corporation . all rights reserved .\nthere are many cuckoo wasp species and they look very similar . usually they are metallic blue or green in colour and are coarsely sculptured . most species are external parasites of other wasp larvae . females lay eggs in nest of other wasps (\ncuckoo wasps family : chrysidiae commonly called cuckoo wasps , the wasps in the family chrysidiae are often beautiful and metallic blue , green or red . some species are thieving parasites ( cleptoparasites ) who lay their eggs in the nests of solitary bee species . the cuckoo wasp larva kills the solitary bee larva and then feeds on the stored provisions within the bee nest . like hive wasps , spider wasps , sphecid wasps , and bees , female cuckoo wasps have modified egg - laying devices which allow them to sting . common cuckoo wasp species are about 1 / 2\nlong .\na cuckoo in wolves ' clothing ? chemical mimicry in a specialized cuckoo wasp of the european beewolf ( hymenoptera , chrysididae and crabronidae ) by dr . strohm and colleagues and microsoft\u00ae encarta\u00ae online encyclopedia 2007 were used as resources for this bug of the week . to learn more about cuckoo wasps , please visit the following web sites .\njewel wasp stalked by zebra spider on red mason bee nest box ! . mov\nfemales showed fairly large proportions of both . furthermore , cuckoo wasps had similar proportions of the (\nthe cuckoo wasps are so called because some species lay eggs in the nests of other solitary wasps and bees in a manner analogous to some cuckoos ( bird order cuculiformes ) , which lay eggs in the nests of other birds . the cuckoo wasp female places her egg in the unfinished and untended nest of another wasp or bee . the nest is later sealed by the owner after she has placed her own egg there along with food for her future larva . the cuckoo wasp larva either eats the other larva or starves it to death by devouring all the food .\nin both oviposition strategies , detection of the cuckoo wasp female by the beewolf female might decrease the cuckoo wasp ' s success . first , when encountered in the nest , cuckoo wasps might be carried to the nest entrance by beewolf females and thrown out [ 27 ] . mostly , cuckoo wasps are not severely harmed due to the solidity and strong sculpturing of their cuticle and their ability to adopt a rolled - up defensive posture that protects the most vulnerable parts of the body ( legs , mouthparts , antennae [ 22 , 28 ] ) . nevertheless , the wings are rather unprotected and might be injured by a beewolf female . second , if beewolves females detect signs of the presence of cuckoo wasps they might remove bees from the nest that have possibly been parasitized [ 25 ] . thus , a cuckoo wasp should avoid detection to minimize wastage of time and investment . this means that cuckoo wasp females should avoid detection when they are encountered by a host female in the nest . however , it would probably be even more important for the cuckoo wasps not to leave any detectable traces of their presence when they had entered the nest and oviposited on a paralyzed honeybee .\ncuckoo wasps get their name thanks to their parenting strategy . similar to the cuckoo bird , cuckoo wasps lay their eggs in the nests of other bees . when a cuckoo wasp larva hatches , it eats the other bee larvae and then consumes the stores of food left in the nest . because of this behavior , the cuckoo wasp is a parasite to a variety of other bee and wasp species . even the eggs of walkingsticks are not off limits . the adult cuckoo wasp may be an emerald , gold , or garnet color , and has black eyes , wings , and legs . it is tiny compared to other bees , but its dimpled , shimmering body is bright enough to attract attention . adults drink flower nectar and have very small stingers . they tend to curl up when threatened if they are unable to escape . they are active during the summer and can be found in a wide variety of habitats and natural areas , but are often seen visiting flowers .\nthese social wasp species earn themselves the alternate name of a \u2018cuckoo wasp\u2019 , due to their reproductive habits : the females sneak inside the nests of other hymenopteran insects such as mason bees , where an egg is laid from which larvae emerge and proceed to devour the contents of the nest .\ncuckoo wasp , common name for a group of mostly small , stinging wasps . cuckoo wasps are brilliant metallic blue , green , or reddish in color . they are parasites that lay their eggs in the nests of bees , wasps , and certain other insects , which are called their hosts . there are approximately 3000 species of cuckoo wasps throughout the world , including about 230 species in the united states and canada . cuckoo wasps are also called gold wasps , ruby wasps , and jewel wasps .\nwe conclude that h . rutilans females closely mimic the composition of cuticular compounds of their host species p . triangulum . the occurrence of isomeric forms of certain compounds on the cuticles of the cuckoo wasps but their absence on beewolf females suggests that cuckoo wasps synthesize the cuticular compounds rather than sequester them from their host . thus , the behavioral data and the chemical analysis provide evidence that a specialized cuckoo wasp exhibits chemical mimicry of the odor of its host . this probably allows the cuckoo wasp to enter the nest with a reduced risk of being detected by olfaction and without leaving traitorous chemical traces .\nthree cuckoo wasps from siberian and baltic amber ( hymenoptera : chrysididae : amiseginae and elampina . . .\nwe observed interactions between cuckoo wasps ( h . rutilans ) and beewolf females in the field in a beewolf nest aggregation on the campus of the university of w\u00fcrzburg . over several years there were about 100 \u2013 500 beewolf nests ( easily detectable due to the characteristic nest mounds ) and 50 \u2013 500 h . rutilans females ( determined by capture - mark - recapture methods [ 55 ] , e . strohm , unpubl . data ) . behavioral interactions between beewolf females and cuckoo wasps at 24 focal nests ( located on an area of about 10 \u00d7 5 m ) were recorded for a total of 54 hours . we observed whether beewolf females showed any signs of disturbance or agonistic behavior when a cuckoo wasp was present in the vicinity of their nests . we recorded the following behaviors of cuckoo wasps and beewolf females : 1 . landing of h . rutilans on nest mound . 2 . time it stayed on nest mound ( for stays > 4 sec . ) . 3 . whether the nest was open or closed . 4 . whether the cuckoo wasp entered the nest . 5 . the time the cuckoo wasp stayed in the nest and whether the nest owner was at home or not . 6 . behavior of the cuckoo wasp during its stay outside the nest ( running , sitting hiding , no exact durations were recorded ) . 7 . whether the cuckoo wasp tried to oviposit on a bee when a female returned with prey . 8 . whether and how a female responded to the presence of a cuckoo wasp when returning with prey .\ncalifornia cuckoo wasps in the family chrysididae ( hymenoptera ) lynn s . kimsey . 2006 . uc press .\nthe bright , metallic shades of cuckoo wasps make these little jewels easy to spot despite their small stature .\nthe adult cuckoo wasp ' s back is well armored and with abdomen concave beneath . when disturbed , it curl up into a ball . this is a defense behavior against the attack by angry nest host .\nthis page contains pictures and information about the cuckoo wasps that we found in the brisbane area , queensland , australia .\nthese are the cuckoo wasps ( family chrysididae ) in the superfamily chrysidoidea , and the tiphiid wasps ( family tiphiidae ) , scoliid wasps ( family scoliidae ) , and velvet ants ( family mutillidae ) in the superfamily vespoidea . cuckoo wasp s are mostly brilliant metallic - green or - blue in colour and have intricate sculpturing on the exoskeleton . they\u2026\nlearn about the tarantula hawk ( pepsis species ) , a type of large spider wasp that preys on tarantulas .\nherzner g , strohm e . fighting fungi with physics : food wrapping by a solitary wasp prevents water condensation .\nas the same compound for beewolves , cuckoo wasps and honeybees are most probably identical since their mass spectra and the retention times are identical . thus , the comparison between beewolf females and cuckoo wasps is not confounded by the incompletely identified alkenes .\ncuckoo wasps are only seen occasionally due to their small size and secretive habits . however , in open , sunny habitats they are often abundant on flowers and small shrubs , where they feed on nectar . cuckoo wasps often lurk near the burrows of their hosts , waiting for an opportunity to sneak in and lay an egg . they have a thick , hard cuticle ( outer covering ) that is covered with pits . the cuticle provides protection from stings and strong biting mandibles of host insects , which may attack the cuckoo wasp . in addition , the underside of the abdomen is concave and allows the wasp to roll up into a protective ball , another defensive mechanism . although cuckoo wasps sting , their stinger is very small .\nall cuckoo wasps are solitary ( nonsocial ) , external parasites , mostly of full - grown bee or wasp larvae . species of the genus cleptes are parasitic on sawfly larvae ; those of mesitiopterus are parasitic on the eggs of the walkingstick .\ntsuneki k . , 1957 - ecological problems centering around the microdistribution of the cuckoo wasp populations . appendix : key to the japanese species of the holonychinae . the insect ecology , 6 ( 14 ) : 11 - 23 . [ in japanese ]\nin observation cages in the laboratory , h . rutilans females ( n = 7 ) were observed to enter beewolf nests ( n = 6 beewolf nests ) and oviposit on the couched bees ( n = 4 ) . although in five cases the beewolf female entered the nest while a cuckoo wasp was present and came close to ( less than 2 cm , n = 5 ) or even passed ( n = 3 ) the cuckoo wasp in the burrow , the host female did not show any signs of detection of the brood parasitoid or disturbance . notably , the cuckoo wasp either ran to a distant part of the nest when a beewolf female approached or it remained motionless at the periphery of the nest burrow until the female had passed .\nparasitoids feed on the larva of the host and cleptoparasites\nsteal\nthe host ' s food . the food - stealing behavior of cleptoparasite species resembles that of the cuckoo bird and gave rise to the cuckoo wasp ' s name . hosts of parasitoid species include bees , sphecid wasps , potter wasps , sawflies , silk moths , and the eggs of stick insects . cleptoparasitic species feed on provisions of sphecid wasp nests , which may include dead spiders , true bugs , aphids , or thrips .\ncuckoo wasps can be divided into two chief types based on their lifestyles : parasitoids and cleptoparasites . parasitoids feed on the larva of the host and cleptoparasites\nsteal\nthe host ' s food . in both cases the host larva dies . the food - stealing behavior of cleptoparasite species resembles that of the cuckoo bird and gave rise to the cuckoo wasp ' s name . hosts of parasitoid species include bees , sphecid wasps , potter wasps , sawflies , silk moths , and the eggs of stick insects . cleptoparasitic species feed on provisions of sphecid wasp nests , which may include dead spiders , true bugs , aphids , or thrips .\ntrexler j . c . , 1984 - aggregation and homing in a chrysidid wasp . oikos , 43 : 133 - 137 .\ntsuneki k . , 1946 - how to collect the cuckoo wasps . seibutsu , 1 ( 3 ) : 189 . [ in japanese ]\ntsuneki k . , 1957 - microdistribution of the cuckoo wasps population . annotationes zoologicae japonenses , 30 ( 2 ) : 86 - 90 .\nmost cuckoo wasps ( chrysididae ) lay their eggs in the nests of solitary wasps or bees . among the exceptions is an african species that is parasitic on the tsetse fly . tiphiidae and scoliidae are mostly parasites of beetle grubs that live in the soil . the female wasp digs into the soil to locate the grub , stings and paralyzes it , and deposits an egg on it . the wasp larva lives on the outside of the grub .\ntano t . , 1969 - wasp collecting journey to the ya\u00e9yama group , the ryukyus . life study ( fukui ) , 13 : 72 - 79 .\nstrohm e , herzner g , goettler w . a\nsocial\ngland in a solitary wasp ? the postpharyngeal gland of female european beewolves ( hymenoptera , crabronidae )\ntheunert r . , 1997 - eine goldwespe als brutschmarotzer einer wegwespe ( insecta : hymenoptera ) . [ a chrysidid wasp as a brood parasite of a pompilid wasp ( insecta : hymenoptera ) . ] . mitteilungen des internationalen entomologischen vereins e . v . frankfurt a . m . , 22 ( 1 - 2 ) : 9 - 10 .\nthe wasp in the above photos was collected by our friend ben inside his house in brisbane during mid summer . we set it free after we took those photos . please check this\nmost species are external parasites of wasp and bee larvae ; one subfamily ( cleptinae , one genus , cleptes ) attacks sawfly larvae , another subfamily ( amiseginae ) the eggs of walkingsticks .\nthe uc davis results also provide a new perspective on lower cretaceous fossil cariridris bipetiolata , originally claimed to be the oldest fossil ant . scientists later reinterpreted it to be a spheciform wasp .\nshown above is a beetle grub being fed upon by the larva of a tiphiid wasp . the tiphiid larvae is the smaller insect in the picture . ( r . bessin , 2000 )\n] ) . cuckoo wasps also show relatively large amounts of the unsaturated c25 : 1 and c27 : 1 . in contrast to beewolves where individuals had only large proportions of one of these unsaturated compounds ,\nin a recognition bioassay in observation cages , beewolf females responded significantly less frequently to filter paper discs treated with a cuticular extract from h . rutilans females , than to filter paper discs treated with an extract from another cuckoo wasp species ( chrysis viridula ) . the behavior to paper discs treated with a cuticular extract from h . rutilans females did not differ significantly from the behavior towards filter paper discs treated with the solvent only .\nbecause their hosts possess stings and biting mandibles , cuckoo wasps have evolved some defences , namely a thick integument and an ability to roll their body into a ball with their legs tucked in . these adaptations account for cuckoo wasps\u2019 distinctive form : the thorax often having cavities for the reception of legs and the abdomen being flat or hollow on the underside and covered above with three convex plates , the third plate commonly bearing teeth on its hind margin .\nthe scientists discovered that the ancestral aculeate wasp was likely an ectoparasitoid , which attacks and paralyzes a host insect and leaves its offspring nearby where they can attach to the outside of the host and feed from it .\ntarbinsky yu . s . , 2000 - the gold wasp of the genus brugmoia ( hymenoptera , chrysididae ) of the tien - shan and adjacent territories . vestnik zoologii , 34 ( 3 ) : 23 - 27 .\nas the name \u2018cuckoo wasps\u2019 suggests , females lay their eggs in the nests of other insects . among the most common hosts for cuckoo wasps are the various mud - daubing wasps that build their nests around houses , sheds and other human constructions . this accounts for many finds , people either noticing the brightly coloured wasps hovering about walls as they search for a host nest , or finding them after they\u2019ve entered a building and got trapped on the inside of a window pane .\ntogashi i . , 1993 - hymenopterous insects settling in cottage with a thatched roof in shiramine , ishikawa prefecture ( part 3 ) . eumenid and cuckoo wasps . bull . biogeogr . soc . japan 48 ( 1 ) : 59 - 63\n| it ' s a ruby - tailed wasp . ruby - tailed wasps belong to the order hymenoptera , that includes sawflies , bees and wasps . here in the u . k . we have a number of . . .\nthe map below showcases ( in red ) the states and territories of north america where the cuckoo wasp may be found ( but is not limited to ) . this sort of data can be useful in seeing concentrations of a particular species over the continent as well as revealing possible migratory patterns over a species ' given lifespan . some species are naturally confined by environment , weather , mating habits , food resources and the like while others see widespread expansion across most , or all , of north america .\npelecinid wasp photo courtesy usda . other photos courtesy r . bessin , k . seltmann , and b . newton , university of kentucky the kentucky critter files are maintained by blake newton , department of entomology , university of kentucky . contact : blaken @ urltoken\ncuckoo wasps belong to one subdivision ( the tribe chrysidini ) of the world - wide family chrysididae . all members of this family are parasitic on other insects . other than the iridescent chrysidini , though , members of this family are small , dullcoloured insects unlikely to come to one\u2019s attention .\nfield observations suggest that cuckoo wasps are attacked by beewolves in front of their nest , most probably after being recognized visually . in contrast , beewolves seem not to detect signs of the presence of these parasitoids neither when these had visited the nest nor when directly encountered in the dark nest burrow .\nwasp , any member of a group of insects in the order hymenoptera , suborder apocrita , some of which are stinging . wasps are distinguished from the ants and bees of apocrita by various behavioral and physical characteristics , particularly their possession of a slender , smooth body and legs with\u2026\nthere are hundreds of species of narrow - waisted solitary wasps that live in kentucky . most of them are ant - like in appearance , with narrow waists and thread - like antennae . all solitary wasps have 4 membranous wings except for a few types , such as velvet ants , which do not have any wings . the best way to distinguish a solitary wasp from a social , hive - dwelling wasp is to observe behavior : hive wasps will stay close to their hive and return to it often during their routine ; solitary wasps may have a small burrow or nest that they return to , but it will be much smaller than the hive of a social wasp . in addition , you will rarely see solitary wasps interacting with other wasps , while hive - dwelling wasps will often communicate with one another , often by touching antennae or legs .\nspider wasp s ( pompilidae ) usually build nests in rotten wood or in rock crevices and provision them with spiders . the potter , or mason , wasps ( subfamily eumeninae ) of the vespidae build nests of mud , which are sometimes vaselike or juglike and may be found attached to twigs\u2026\nlike all wasps , solitary wasps have complete metamorphosis with egg , larva , pupa , and adult stages . many large narrow - waisted solitary wasps ( such as mud - daubers , cicada killers , and potter wasps ) build small nests or burrows in which they lay eggs . within this burrow , the wasp encloses an insect or spider that has been stung and paralyzed . when the wasp eggs hatch , the tiny wasp larvae feed on the paralyzed prey items , and receive no further care from the mother . small internally - parasitic wasps , such as ichneumon and braconid wasps , do not build nests or burrows . instead , they hunt for insects , insect larvae , or insect eggs and lay their own eggs inside . when the larvae hatch , they feed and grow inside the host . most solitary wasps are active in summer and fall and overwinter as eggs or pupae .\ntarbinsky yu . s . , 1999 - a key and a characteristic of the golden wasp species groups of the genus chrysis l . ( hymenoptera , chrysididae ) from tien shan and adjacent territories . news of the national academy of sciences of kyrghyz republic - 1999 ( 2 ) : 50 - 57 .\nalthough most hymenoptera have wings , there are a few exceptions . the 2mm ichnuemon wasp pictured below is completely wingless . winglessness occurs in at least one species of most of the hymenopteran families , showing biologists that it is fairly common for a group of insects to evolve from winged to wingless over time .\nconstruct cells of mud under bark or among stones . some species construct the nest before capturing the spider ; others capture the spider first , then set it aside until the nest is completed . a single spider and a single egg are placed in the nest . the spider , alive but paralyzed , is eaten by the wasp\namong the most exquisite wasps to be found in australia are the cuckoo wasps ( or emerald wasps ) which are almost wholly bright iridescent green , blue or purple . the body surface is deeply and densely pitted , imparting a glittery appearance . some northern hemisphere species have gold or reddish tints and are termed \u2018gold wasps\u2019 and \u2018ruby wasps\u2019 , respectively .\ntarbinsky yu . s . , 2000 - \u043e\u0441\u044b - \u0431\u043b\u0435\u0441\u0442\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0438 \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 chrysis [ gr . ignita ] ( hymenoptera , chrysididae ) \u0442\u044f\u043d\u044c - \u0448\u0430\u043d\u044f \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u0435\u0440\u0440\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0439 . [ the golden wasp genus chrysis [ gr . ignita ] ( hymenoptera , chrysididae in tien - shan and adjacent territories ] . tethys entomological research ( almaty , kazakhstan ) ] , 2 : 193 - 204 .\n] . some components could not be identified and for some alkenes the position of the double bond and its configuration could not be determined due to the small amounts on the cuticles . however , neither of the unidentified components occurs on beewolf females and cuckoo wasps . thus , they do not confound the similarity between these two groups that are most important to our question . the alkenes listed in one line in table\nsolitary wasps and parasitic wasps are an important component in a variety of ecosystems : almost all solitary wasp species provide insects or spiders to their larvae , either by laying their eggs in burrows provisioned with prey or by laying their eggs inside insect hosts . most species are very specific about the types of prey that they hunt . mud - daubers , for instance , pack their mud tubes with spiders . wasp species that are internal parasites will usually lay their eggs in only one or two insect species and are specific about which stage in the life - cycle that they attack : some species attack only larvae , some attack only eggs , some attack only adult insects or pupae . most adult solitary wasps feed on nectar . solitary wasps are found in most kentucky habitats , from farms and lawns to forests and stream sides .\nspiders captured and paralyzed by the sting of the spider wasp are fed to the young . ( certain wasps other than pompilids also capture spiders for this purpose . ) adult spider wasps are commonly found on flowers and either on the ground or hovering above it in search of prey . the nest , or cell , is made in soil , on rotten wood , or among rocks . species of the north american genus\nthis dazzling gem of an insect conjures up the image of an exotic species , perhaps living in the depths of some tropical forest far away from the monotone shores of the uk . however , the ruby - tailed wasp is actually a relatively common species in this country : it can be found on warm sunny days from april to august in many back gardens , particularly around stone walls , piles of wood or on waste ground .\nwe hypothesized that cuckoo wasps either mimic the chemistry of their beewolf host or their host ' s prey . we tested this hypothesis using gc - ms analyses of the cuticles of male and female beewolves , cuckoo wasps , and honeybee workers . cuticle extracts of hedychrum nobile ( hymenoptera : chrysididae ) and cerceris arenaria ( hymenoptera : crabronidae ) were used as outgroups . there was little congruence with regard to cuticular compounds between h . rutilans females and honeybees as well as females of c . arenaria and h . nobile . however , there was a considerable similarity between beewolf females and h . rutilans females . beewolf females show a striking dimorphism regarding their cuticular hydrocarbons with one morph having ( z ) - 9 - c25 : 1 and the other morph having ( z ) - 9 - c27 : 1 as the major component . h . rutilans females were more similar to the morph having ( z ) - 9 - c27 : 1 as the main component .\nlarvae of cuckoo wasps develop at the expense of the host\u2019s offspring , feeding either on the fully developed host larvae or on the stored food in the host nest ( usually paralysed caterpillars or spiders ) . either way , the host\u2019s larvae die so , strictly speaking , chrysidines are not true parasites . they are more correctly termed \u2018parasitoids\u2019 when they feed on and kill the host larvae or \u2018cleptoparasites\u2019 ( \u201cclepto\u201c deriving from a greek word meaning \u2018thief\u2019 ) when they feed on the host\u2019s provisions .\ntiphiid wasps family : tiphiidae tiphiids are shiny black wasps that are similar in size ( 1 3 / 4\nlong ) , shape , and behavior to scoliid wasps . like scoliids , tiphiid wasp females hunt in soil for beetle grubs on which they place single eggs . because they kill turf - damaging beetle grubs , some tiphiid wasps species are considered beneficial . you can see a picture of a tiphiid larva feeding on a beetle grub in the life cycle section above .\nsphecid wasps family : sphecidae there are many species of sphecid wasps in kentucky . most are shiny black or metallic blue , some with bright red , yellow , or orange markings . the most common sphecid wasps are in the subfamily sphecinae and are called\nthread - waisted wasps .\nthese sphecids have a long , narrow , antlike appearance . most thread - waisted wasps build their nests underground . some sphecids , often called\nmud - daubers ,\nmake mud nests for their larvae which they attach to the sides of rocks and buildings . the cicada killer wasp ( sphecius specious ) is also a type of sphecid wasp . at 1 1 / 2 ,\ncicada killers are the largest wasps found in kentucky . they are commonly seen in late summer as they hunt for cicadas which they use to provision their eggs in underground burrows . like many sphecid wasps , cicada killers are able to sting people , but they will not do so unless provoked .\nhymenoptera , even those equipped with a sting , are sought as food by other animals . skunks , badgers , field mice , shrews , and other animals attack bee nests for the insects as well as for the honey . the larvae of the wax month ( galleria mellonella ) live in bee nests , where they eat beeswax , thus damaging the nest . the cuckoo bee ( anthophorinae ) , a close relative of the bumblebee , lays its eggs in bumblebee nests , where the larvae are cared for and nourished by bumblebee workers .\nthese large wasps are called spider wasps because their young feed on paralyzed spiders . they generally are black or brown but some are brightly colored or metallic . spider wasps are common and are often observed searching for spiders on lawns . others can be seen moving quickly along the trunks of fallen trees , flitting their wings . like other stinging wasps ( including hive wasps , bees , and cuckoo wasps ) , female spider wasps have their egg laying device modified into an effective ( and sometimes painful ) stinger . common kentucky spider wasps are about 1\nlong .\nfemale cuckoo wasps are widely believed to be unable to sting , the sting apparatus being reduced and supposedly non - functional , yet cases are known where people have received painful stings from larger species . a long , thin appendage may sometimes be seen extending from the tip of the female abdomen . this is not a \u2018stinger\u2019 but an ovipositor used for inserting eggs into a nest of a host . observations of oviposition are few but one author noted that a female of stilbum cyanurum wet the mud wall of a host nest , softening it , then inserted its ovipositor to deposit an egg .\naccording to kimsey & bohart ( 1990 ) , four genera of cuckoo wasps occur in australia . stilbum includes just one species , s . cyanurum , which is the largest and most impressive of all . it is distinguished by having a strong , concave , median projection on the rear of the thorax and four downward pointing teeth on each side of the thorax . it breeds in the nests of mud - dauber wasps ( delta and sceliphron ) which are commonly found on the walls of buildings . it may also parasitize the nests of some megachilid bees . this species is found throughout australia and much of the eastern hemisphere . its size varies markedly .\nvelvet ants family : mutillidae velvet ants are large ( 1\nlong ) wasps in the family mutillidae . although they are wasps , they are called ants because the females do not have wings . male velvet wasps usually have shiny black wings . velvet ants are covered in dense hair , and most species are bright red or orange with black markings , although some species are metallic green . common velvet ant females place their eggs in the larval and pupal chambers of bee and wasp nests . large velvet ants have very long stingers and are sometimes called\ncow killers ,\nbut they will only sting if grabbed or if stepped on with bare feet .\nthere are two evolutionary options for h . rutilans femalesto avoid olfactory detection by beewolves . first , cuckoo wasps could mimic the odor of the honeybees that are temporarily couched in the main burrow . second , h . rutilans females might mimic their beewolf host . we consider the imitation of the cuticular compounds of the beewolf host the better alternative , since the host ' s hydrocarbon profile can be found all over the nest walls due to the digging activity ( kroiss and strohm unpubl . data ) and also on the honeybees . this is because in order to prevent the paralyzed bees from molding they are treated by the beewolf females with a secretion from the postpharyngeal gland that is identical to the beewolves ' cuticular hydrocarbons [ 29 - 31 ] .\nh . rutilans might employ a combination of strategies to evade detection . if encountered in the nest , they run away or remain motionless . they possibly leave only very small amounts of decisive and traitorous substances in the nest . most notably , the composition of their cuticular hydrocarbons is very similar to that of their host . thus , h . rutilans females seem to be able to avoid detection when directly encountered by a beewolf female in the nest . much more important , however , is the reduction of the conspicuousness of scent marks left in the nest burrow or on the bee during oviposition . this is to our knowledge the first reported evidence for chemical mimicry ( sensu [ 19 ] ) in a parasitoid of a solitary wasp .\nflowering plants bring more than beauty to a garden . many beneficial insects , the kind that help reduce pests on our plants , depend on nectar and pollen to provide nutrients necessary for life . we met some of these characters in previous episodes of bug of the week such as the parasitic ichneumon wasp ( need link to april 7 , 2008 ) , the lovely green lacewing ( link to april 10 , 2006 ) , and the flower flies ( link to may 8 , 2006 ) . a constant array of flowering plants in a landscape may help make it more sustainable . a favorite flowering perennial in my landscape is yarrow . this showy member of the aster family has many medicinal uses in addition to being an excellent attractor of pollinators and pest - eating beneficial insects .\nduring warm months , solitary wasps are commonly found in lawns , gardens , field crops , woodlands , and weedy fence rows . most species fly slowly as they search for prey or visit flowers for nectar . although solitary wasps are less likely to sting than hive - dwelling wasps , some ( like sphecid wasps ) will sting when captured , so it is best to capture them with an insect net and immediately place them in a sturdy container . although solitary wasps usually fly slowly , they are almost always on the move , so it can be difficult to get a good picture . the best technique is to keep your camera focused on a flower that is being visited by lots of insects - within a few minutes , a wasp will probably visit , and you can snap a picture .\nin order to assess whether beewolf females respond to the presence of h . rutilans females at all we observed the behavioral interactions outside of the nest . to test whether h . rutilans females employ chemical camouflage inside the nest we conducted to sets of behavioral experiments . first , in observation cages we recorded the interaction of the cuckoo wasps with beewolf females inside the nest burrow . second , we conducted a recognition bioassay by assessing the response of beewolf females towards filter discs treated with different extracts : solvent only , cuticular extracts of another chrysidid , chrysis viridula , and cuticular extracts of h . rutilans . we predicted that beewolf females should ignore the discs treated with solvent only ( negative control ) , they should respond to the discs treated with c . viridula extract ( positive control ) and they should not ( or only weakly ) respond to h . rutilans extracts .\na priori , chemical camouflage and mimicry seem unlikely to evolve in a chrysidid wasp that attacks a solitary host . chemical camouflage , i . e . the acquisition of mimetic compounds from a solitary host by a parasitic species , might be problematic since , in contrast to parasites of social hosts , there is little opportunity to sequester cloaking chemicals . social host species possess large nests and a large number of colony members that might serve as sources for the relevant compounds . brood parasites of solitary brood caring hymenoptera have rarely been studied in detail [ 53 ] . the only example of chemical camouflage in a brood parasite of a solitary species comes from nomada bees . in some species of this genus , females have been reported to acquire mimetic odors by being perfumed by males during mating . females of these species seemed not to elicit aggressive responses when encountered by host females of the genus andrena [ 2 ] . chemical cloaking in chrysidid wasps has not yet been reported .\nbeewolf females often attacked and evicted h . rutilans when they encountered them in front of their nest . this seems to be the rule for interactions between hosts and chrysidids although linsenmaier [ 37 ] reported that there are also cases where chrysidids do not elicit antagonistic behavior by their hosts . prolonged stays at hosts ' nests as observed in h . rutilans , have also been reported for other chrysidids [ 22 , 37 , 38 ] . staying in vicinity of the host nest might allow the chrysidids to adjust the timing of oviposition to the most suitable stage of the provisioning cycle or to enter the nest in the absence of the host female . that h . rutilans females placed themselves under some cover ( e . g . leaves ) during prolonged stays might , besides the reduction of water loss , represent an attempt to hide themselves from the host females . other chrysidid species also seem to hide near the entrance of a host nest and inspect the nest or brood cell after the host female has deposited provisions and departed for a new foraging flight [ 37 ] . this suggests that , similar to beewolves , most host species might recognize cuckoo wasps visually outside the nest . since most chrysidids are brightly colored ( see e . g . drawings in [ 37 ] ) this is not surprising .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nwith some exceptions , chrysidids are generally colored and their structural coloration is due to light interference , and it varies with the viewing angle .\nmany species are characterized by colors with metallic glares , green , blue , copper , gold , etc . , and some colorations seem to be typical of precise geographic regions .\nthe lo boscelidiini and the allocoeliini lack any metallic coloration ; their colors are brown , black , reddish and , in the some cases , white .\nthe amisegini are generally from brown to black , with little metallic glares from green to blue on face and thorax ; the abdomen is generally non - metallic ( metallic in duckeia ) .\nthe coloration of the cleptini is very variable . some species are completely non - metallic black . cleptes species are generally metallic on head and thorax , the abdomen being non - metallic . typical of almost all the european cleptes is the metallic color of the head and of the thorax ( mainly red in females and green - blue in males ) , with a non - or not completely metallic abdomen .\nthe chrysidini and the elampini are always colored with metallic colors . in europe the commonest colors are the green - blue on head and thorax , with a copper or golden abdomen . the species of southern spain , n africa and middle east tend to be completely copper - or brass - colored . in tropical asia we observe the diffusion of a pattern with green body and a copper - colored spot on both sides of the second abdominal tergite in species belonging to even distant genera ( the reason is unknown ) , while in the philippines chrysidids are purple with a red - shining head . some hedychridium show a reddish non - metallic abdomen .\nin parnopes a clean chromatic distinction based on the geographic distribution is observed . the african and american species tend to be colored of uniform blue , green , purple . in the palearctic species , instead , the abdomen is often different from the rest of the body and generally non - metallic .\nwhite colorations are generally reduced to spots and stripes on mandibles , antennal articles , tegulae , legs , abdominal tergites ; in the species of the loboscelidiini and the elampini they are not observed .\nfrom : kimsey l . s . & bohart r . m . , 1991 - the chrysidid wasps of the world . oxford university press , ix - 652 .\ncolor can be altered from the chemicals used in order to kill , to preserve or to rehydrate specimens .\ncolor has a diagnostic value in many cases , but not always , because each species shows a variability both chromatic and morphologic .\nfor citation purposes agnoli g . l . & rosa p . , urltoken website , interim version 16 - may - 2012 , url : urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nin our area , 4 subfamilies with 227 spp . in ~ 30 genera ( most diverse in the west , with 166 spp . in ca alone\n) . worldwide , 5 subfamilies with > 3000 described ( ~ 4 , 000 estimated ) spp . in > 80 genera\nsome species are parasitoids and others cleptoparasites . either way the host larva dies .\nthe female sting has been modified into an egg - laying tube with highly reduced valvulae and poison gland . as a result , unlike most other aculeates , chrysidids cannot sting and can be easily handled .\na synopsis of the chrysididae in america north of mexico bohart r . m . , kimsey l . s . 1982 . memoirs of the american entomological institute 33 : 1 - 266 .\nthe chrysidid wasps of the world kimsey l . s . , bohart r . m . 1990 . oxford university press . 652 pp .\nagnoli g . l . , rosa p . ( 2012 ) database of chrysididae ( chrysis . net website , interim version 10 - apr - 2012 )\namerican insects : a handbook of the insects of america north of mexico ross h . arnett . 2000 . crc press .\nphotographic atlas of entomology and guide to insect identification james l . castner . 2000 . feline press .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\ndo you like this article ? support our project , so we could place more interesting information here ! click here for details .\nantennae : ants and bees both have a pair of antennae on the head that senses their surroundings .\nhead : the head contains the insect ' s compound eyes , antennae , and mandibles .\nabdomen : contains various organs including the heart , gut , venom glands , and anus .\nlegs : ants and bees have three pairs of legs attached to the thorax ( center - body section ) .\nnote : ants , bees and wasps are part of the hymenoptera order because they share many similarities .\nan insect ' s reach is not limited by lines drawn on a map and therefore species may appear in areas , regions and / or states beyond those listed below as they are driven by environmental factors ( such as climate change ) , available food supplies and mating patterns . grayed - out selections below indicate that the subject in question has not been reported in that particular territory . u . s . states and canadian provinces / territories are clickable to their respective bug listings .\nsite disclaimer | privacy policy | cookies | site map urltoken \u2022 content \u00a92005 - urltoken \u2022 all rights reserved \u2022 site contact email : insectidentification at gmail . com . the urltoken logo is unique to this website and protected by all applicable domestic and international intellectual property laws . written content , illustrations and photography is unique to this website ( unless where indicated ) and not for reuse in any form . material presented throughout this website is for entertainment value and should not to be construed as usable for scientific research or medical advice ( regarding bites , etc . . . ) . please consult licensed , degreed professionals for such information . by submitting images to us ( urltoken ) you acknowledge that you have read and understood our site disclaimer as it pertains to\nuser - submitted content\n. when emailing please include your location and the general estimated size of the specimen in question if possible .\ncsiro , division of entomology , melbourne university press , 2nd edition 1991 , pp 973 .\n- by paul zborowski and ross storey , reed new holland , 1996 , p187 .\nan insider look into the things we find most interesting about the fascinating world of bugs .\na method of defense used by some bugs and insects is the ability to create and distribute toxins to hunt prey or to fend off would - be predators . we often describe these organisms as venomous and poisonous interchangeably , but do these terms mean the same thing ? let\u2019s find out in this month\u2019s fact or fake .\nrespondents to a 2014 orkin survey said that bed bugs are one of their most feared pests . and for good reason \u2013 two in three pest control professionals say bed bug infestations are still on the rise , according to a \u2026\nif you were stung by a bee during your outdoor activities , how would you rank the pain ? on a scale of one to ten ? from bearable to extremely bad ? no matter how you classify the feeling , everyone\u2019s experience will be different . and while the concept of pain and discomfort is subjective , the schmidt pain index categories the worst of the worst in insect stings for easy comparison ."]}
{"id": 687, "summary": [{"text": "the kamchatka flounder , atheresthes evermanni , is a flatfish of the family pleuronectidae .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "it is a demersal fish that lives at depths of between 20 metres ( 66 ft ) and 1,200 metres ( 3,900 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "its native habitat is the temperate waters of the northern pacific .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it can grow as long as 100 centimetres ( 39 in ) in length , and can weigh up to 8.5 kilograms ( 19 lb ) . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "kamchatka flounder", "paragraphs": ["nmfs is prohibiting directed fishing for kamchatka flounder in the bering sea and aleutian islands management area ( bsai ) . this action is necessary to prevent exceeding the 2015 kamchatka flounder initial total allowable catch ( itac ) in the bsai .\nselect another tour : kamchatka in early summer bears and volcanoes active volcanoes of kamchatka discover kamchatka for yourself dog sledding heli - skiing heli excursion to the komandorsky islands kamchatka nature and culture kamchatka tour geology & volcanology kurilskoye lake : bears and salmon . mountaineering for the experts river fishing river floating ski tours trek in kronotsky reserve wilderness mountaineering and trekking\ngeneral information : until recently , harvest of arrowtooth and kamchatka flounder mainly occurred as bycatch in other higher valued fisheries . however , with the advent of technologies to improve meat quality and additional markets for arrowtooth flounder , a directed fishery has emerged . arrowtooth flounder is currently the most abundant groundfish species in the goa and most of the world\u2019s arrowtooth flounder comes from alaska fisheries . arrowtooth flounder is harvested as a directed fishery or as bycatch in other fisheries throughout the calendar year mostly by catcher processors in the bsai ranging in size from 110 to 295 feet , and by a combination of catcher vessels and catcher processors in the goa . catcher processors harvest multiple species , conduct primary processing aboard the vessel , and freeze their products on board . catcher vessels exclusively deliver to shoreside processors or other vessels . for the 2011 season , kamchatka flounder was classified separately from arrowtooth and the quota was split off from the total arrowtooth flounder quota . arrowtooth and kamchatka flounder are caught together in the northern bering sea and aleutian island areas .\nthe flounder refers to commercial species , although the fat meat has a good taste of the intense watering .\nthis action is necessary to prevent exceeding the 2016 total allowable catch of kamchatka flounder in the bsai and is issued pursuant to 50 cfr 679 . 20 ( d ) ( 1 ) ( iii ) .\npolutov , i . a . and tikhonov , v . i . , new data about the distribution of arrowtooth flounder\nin the 1930\u20131960s walleye pollock was the most important dietary component of kamchatka flounder in the western bering sea ( vernidub 1938 , gordeeva 1954 , novikov 1974 ) . no fishery offal was detected in stomach contents during previous studies for the same reason as for greenland halibut . according to novikov ( 1974 ) and orlov ( 2000 ) the most important dietary components of kamchatka flounder in the nk area were also shrimps , fish and cephalopods .\nin the eastern part of their range , in the waters of the western bering sea , kamchatka flounder overlap with arrowtooth flounder ( atheresthes stomias , halibut strelozuby american , arasuka - abura - garei ) which are very similar in appearance . kamchatka flounder slightly larger in size ( the maximum length of 94 cm , while arrowtooth flounder up to 84 cm ) and have only a single row of teeth on lower jaw . they are well distinguished from each other provision of the left eye . the upper eye not reaching the upper profile of the head is not visible from the blind side , which is typical of the flatfish position . on arrowtooth flounder , one eye can be easily seen from the blind side of the body . the scales are more strongly ctenoid and the anterior nostril bears a long flap .\nkamchatka flounder , atheresthes evermanni , is a flatfish of the family pleuronectidae . . . . urltoken 5 flathead sole flatfish . atheresthes evermanni . glyptocephalus zachirus . hippoglossoides elassodon . eelpouts . . . \u00a9 2004 teresa jewell . more\nkamchatka flounder in the western bering sea was noted . the diets of the species considered in both study areas are compared , and diet variations depending on fish size , capture depth , area , and sex are analyzed . more\nseason : bsai : may 1\u2013december 31 , generally targeted may - august . iquique does not fish for arrowtooth flounder in the goa\nthe kamchatka flounder , atheresthes evermanni , is a flatfish of the family pleuronectidae . it is a demersal fish that lives at depths of between 20 metres ( 66 ft ) and 1 , 200 metres ( 3 , 900 ft ) . more\nmore than thirty species of fish can be found in kamchatka rivers , lakes , and seas , surrounding the peninsula . among them are salmon , herring , flounder , halibut , cod , sea perch , crucial and others . it is of special interest that some species of wild animals and birds widely spread in similar natural zones on the mainland , are not found in every place of kamchatka due to its harsh climate with long snowy winters . in particular , kamchatka has no snakes or frogs . neither do we have starlings , storks , herons , or swallows . it was only a few years ago that sparrows appeared in kamchatka and succeeded in settling here .\nthe national marine fisheries service ( nmfs ) is prohibiting directed fishing for kamchatka flounder in the bering sea and aleutian islands management area ( bsai ) , effective 12 noon , alaska local time , may 26 , 2016 , according to james w . balsiger , administrator , alaska region , nmfs .\nthis paper presents the results of studies on the morphology of arrowhead flounders , the kamchatka flounder atheresthes evermanni ( 35 specimens ) , and the american arrowtooth flounder a . stomias ( 37 specimens ) collected in pacific waters of the northern kuril islands and southeastern kamchatka in 1998\u20131999 . the morphology of the discussed species is compared with that of arrowtooth flounders from other areas . from this comparison , available information on the sharp increase in the density of the american arrowtooth flounder in the surveyed area ( since 1997 ) , and similarities in size compositions of the fish in kuril and aleutian waters , a conclusion has been made about the penetration of this species from aleutian pacific waters into the area of the northern kuril islands and southeastern kamchatka . this is a result of expansion of the geographical range of this species due to general water warming in the northwestern pacific during the second half of the 1990s .\nthe number of stomachs used in the analysis was : greenland halibut 589 / 411 and 203 / 93 in the wbs and nk , respectively ; kamchatka flounder 446 / 184 and 1443 / 300 in the wbs and nk , respectively ; pacific halibut 262 / 206 and 386 / 270 in the wbs and nk .\neuropeans , who first appeared in kamchatka in the 18 th century , were stunned with the extensive number of brown bears . their size was terrifying , but the local bears , unlike their siberian relatives , happened to be quite harmless . perhaps the reason of kamchatka bears ' peaceful personality is their fish ' diet ' that they prefer to the meat one . since the dawn of times , ample salmon has been the basic food for the master of kamchatka , and the major source of fat stocks that allowed bears to survive through the long kamchatka ' s winter .\n( catalogue of vertebrates of kamchatka and adjacent marine waters ) , petropavlovsk - kamchatskii : kamchatskii pechatnyi dvor , 2000 , pp . 7 - 69 .\na . m . orlov , \u201ctrophic relationships of predatory fish in pacific waters off the northern kuril islands and southeastern kamchatka , \u201d gidrobiol . zh .\nthe diet of kamchatka flounder in the wbs consisted mostly of fish offal ( 53 . 4 % w ) , fishes ( 33 . 3 % w ) - mainly walleye pollock ( 15 . 5 % w ) and pacific herring ( 10 . 4 % w ) and cephalopods ( 12 . 7 % w ) mainly red squid ( 11 . 9 % w ) . in the nk this species eat mainly shrimps ( 53 . 7 % w ) , various fishes ( 26 . 3 % w ) , and cephalopods ( 18 . 6 % w ) . walleye pollock ( 5 . 1 % w ) was the most important fish in the diet of kamchatka flounder off the northern kuril islands and se kamchatka . mesopelagic fishes ranked second ( approximately 2 . 4 % w ) followed by spectacled sculpin ( triglopsscepticus ) ( 2 . 2 % w ) . differences in diet composition between the areas may also result from wbs kamchatka flounders being considerably larger than nk fishes ( 54 . 83 and 49 . 37 cm , respectively ) .\nthe kamchatka flounder ( atheresthes evermanni ) , also known as arrowtooth halibut , halibut strelozuby asian , abura - garei , \u043f\u0430\u043b\u0442\u0443\u0441 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0437\u0443\u0431\u044b\u0439 \u0430\u0437\u0438\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 ( in russian ) , is a relatively large flatfish which is widely distributed from northern japan , sea of japan through the sea of okhotsk to the western bering sea , western kamchatka north to anadyr gulf and east to the eastern bering sea shelf . in u . s . waters they are found in the aleutian islands and the shelikof strait in alaska where they generally decrease in abundance from west to east .\nshuntov ( 1966 ) documented differences in the occurrence of squids , fishes and invertebrates in stomachs of various size groups for greenland halibut and kamchatka flounder . size - dependent diet differences of pacific halibut in the western bering sea were first described by napazakov and chuchukalo ( 2001 ) and novikov ( 1964 ) showed differences in the occurrence in stomachs of fishes and invertebrates for three halibut size groups : 30\u201360 , 60\u201390 and > 90 cm . orlov ( 1977 ) reported on distinctions in diet depending on fish size for all three halibut species in the pacific waters off the northern kuril islands and southeastern kamchatka .\na . m . orlov , \u201cecological characteristics of the feeding of some pacific predatory fish of south - east kamchatka and northern kuril islands , \u201d russ . j . aquat . ecol .\norlov , a . m . 2000 . trophic relationships of predatory fishes in the pacific waters off the northern kuril islands and southeastern kamchatka . gidrobiologicheskii zhurnal . 5 : 19\u201333 ( in russian ) .\ndifferences in diet between various parts of nk study areas may be explained by differences in predator size ( 62 . 2 , 55 . 2 and 39 . 4 cm for greenland halibut ; 51 . 9 , 40 . 3 , and 35 . 9 cm for kamchatka flounder ; and 52 . 7 , 54 . 9 , and 65 . 2 cm for pacific halibut in the southern , middle and northern parts respectively ) and probably by faunal differences .\ngreenland halibut was \u2265 29 , for kamchatka flounder , \u2265 31 and of pacific halibut , \u2265 45 . the diet of greenland halibut in the wbs consisted mostly of fish offal ( 44 . 4 % w ) , fishes ( 42 . 5 % w ) and cephalopods ( 13 . 1 % w ) . walleye pollock was the major fish species consumed ( 30 . 8 % w ) followed by pacific herring ( 8 . 9 % w ) . more\ndiet composition of all three species changed with size ( figure 2 ) . in the wbs , increase in greenland halibut size was accompanied by an increase of fishes and fish offal and decrease of cephalopods in the diet . in the nk , larger greenland halibut ( size groups 46\u201380 cm ) ate more cephalopods ( 86 . 6 % w ) . the role of cephalopods in the wbs fish ' s diet of the same size group was considerably lower ( only 28 . 0 % w ) . small nk individuals ( fl < 45 cm ) ate mostly euphausiids , shrimps and fish . the role of fish offal in the diet of wbs kamchatka flounder increased with size . fish prey were important for all size groups . cephalopods played an essential role ( 34 . 6 % w ) in the diet of specimens 41\u201350 cm long . in the nk an increase in kamchatka flounder size was accompanied by a decrease in consumption of shrimps and increase of cephalopods and fish .\nsheiko , b . a . and tranbenkova , a . g . , new for the fauna of russia and rare fish species found for the first time in the waters of kamchatka , kuril and commander islands ,\ntokranov , a . m . and orlov , a . m . , some problems of the biology of rare species of liparid fish ( liparidae ) in the pacific waters of the northern kuril islands and southeastern kamchatka ,\norlov , a . m . 1997 . ecological characteristics of the feeding of some pacific predatory fish of south - east kamchatka and northern kuril islands . russian journal of aquatic ecology . 6 ( 1\u20132 ) : 59\u201374 .\n( conservation of biodiversity in kamchatka and adjacent seas ) , collection of materials of ii scientific conf . , petropavlovsk - kamchatskii , april 9\u201310 , 2001 , petropavlovsk - kamchatskii : kamshat , 2001 , pp . 187 - 190 .\nthe kamchatka flounder is a predatory benthic marine fish , inhabits the sandy - muddy bottoms of continental slope and shelf in the great depths from 20 to 1200 m at a temperature of bottom waters from - 0 . 3 to + 10 \u00b0c . the maximum concentrations are confined to the isobaths of 300 - 700 m , but in the summer live in the middle of the water column . on the shelf rests mainly juveniles . the active predator : the composition of food in all areas dominated by fish , mainly pollock , benthic crustaceans , shrimp and squid .\ndifferences in the diet between males and females are mostly related to size ; average size of males in both areas were shorter than females : 63 . 5 vs . 74 . 1 cm and 53 . 8 vs . 55 . 7 cm for greenland halibut in wbs and nk , respectively ; 52 . 3 vs . 56 . 6 cm and 40 . 9 vs . 42 . 9 cm for kamchatka flounder , respectively ; and 72 . 5 vs . 75 . 9 cm and 59 . 9 vs . 62 . 3 cm for pacific halibut , respectively .\nthe feeding habits of halibut in the western bering sea have been investigated by vernidub and panin ( 1937 ) , vernidub ( 1936 , 1938 ) , novikov ( 1974 ) and shuntov ( 1966 ) . recently published papers on feeding and ecology of four halibut species in the western bering sea deal mostly with food rations and seasonal changes of feeding intensity ( napazakov and chuchukalo 2001 ) or the diet of pacific halibut ( chikilev and palm 2000 ) . other publications have dealt with the feeding habits of the species in the kuril - kamchatka area ( novikov 1974 , orlov 2000 ) . however , descriptions of diet in these papers were based on the frequency of occurrence of dietary components in stomachs . a recent paper by moukhametov ( 2002 ) mostly concerned food rations of pacific halibut . no studies have been conducted recently of the feeding of greenland halibut , kamchatka flounder , and pacific halibut based on quantitative data on stomach contents in the northwestern pacific . this paper describes diets depending on size , sex , depth of capture and area , of three halibut species inhabiting the western bering sea ( wbs ) and pacific waters off the northern kuril islands and southeastern kamchatka ( nk ) .\na . m . orlov , \u201crole of fishes in predator diets of the pacific slope of the northern kuril islands and southeastern kamchatka . forage fishes in marine ecosystems , \u201d univ . alaska sea grant college program rep . , no . 97 - 01 , 209\u2013229 ( 1997b ) .\nkamchatka flounders eat mostly fish offal at shallower depths ( 201\u2013400 m ) and mainly pacific herring , walleye pollock and other fish at greater depths . in the nk this species fed predominantly on shrimp and fish at shallower depths ( 101\u2013300 m ) ; at greater deeper depths they ate mainly red squid and fish .\nin the kronotsky park a very old nest was found , its height reaches nearly two meters ! the eagles loyally used the nest for years , renovating and expanding it , until the erman birch which held this\naerodrome\nfinally cracked . an eagle usually lays two eggs , but only one of the two survives . the steller ' s sea eagle is very cautious and protective of his privacy . kamchatka is the only place on earth where these eagles reside . the eagle ' s population ( over 4 , 000 birds with a 1 , 000 nesting pairs on the peninsula ) is relatively stable and this status can be maintained as long as unless the human beings don ' t start their\nvictorious\nmarch across wild kamchatka .\neven though after winter hibernation bears are very hungry , they still do not represent a threat to the warm - blooded species , except for ground squirrels , which bears sometimes dig right out from of the winter burrow . it may seem incredible , but the huge predator follows an almost exclusively vegetarian diet for several months before the rivers are full of fish . in july you can observe an idyllic picture of bears grazing like domestic cattle in the forest ' s berry fields and in the coastal tundra . kamchatka ' s bears are pragmatic and cowardly . they are easily satisfied and save themselves from a lot of trouble that bears in the siberian taiga face . this is why nine in ten kamchatka bears prefer to run away from a potentially dangerous situation .\nthe animal world of kamchatka is diverse with such important species as brown bear , which is common to see as you travel , red fox , arctic fox , hare , sable , mink , wolf , lynx , elk , reindeer , snow sheep , otter , and others . among the sea mammals are seal , fur seal , sea - lion , and sea otter . there are frequent sightings of dolphins , and occasionally , whales .\nno other bird in kamchatka can rival with steller ' s sea eagle in beauty and majesty . this relict predator inhabits both coasts of the peninsula . its disproportionately large beak and monstrous claws can cause lethal wounds to a deer or a sheep ; however , they are mostly used to catch salmon . the steller ' s sea eagle is one of the biggest russian birds , its wings stretch up to 2 , 5 meters , and it has enormous nests .\nthe diet of all three species consisted of a wide spectrum of items ( table 1 ) . total number of identified organisms in stomach contents of greenland halibut was \u2265 29 , for kamchatka flounder , \u2265 31 and of pacific halibut , \u2265 45 . the diet of greenland halibut in the wbs consisted mostly of fish offal ( 44 . 4 % w ) , fishes ( 42 . 5 % w ) and cephalopods ( 13 . 1 % w ) . walleye pollock was the major fish species consumed ( 30 . 8 % w ) followed by pacific herring ( 8 . 9 % w ) . red squid ( berryteuthis magister ) ( 11 . 2 % w ) was most common cephalopod prey . in the nk greenland halibut consumed mainly cephalopods ( 73 . 6 % w ) , small crustaceans ( 10 . 6 % w ) , shrimps ( 8 . 5 % w ) and fishes ( 7 . 3 % w ) . red squid ( 69 . 4 % w ) was most common prey among cephalopods but the northern smoothtongue ( leuroglossus schmidti ) was the most important fish prey ( 3 . 3 % w ) . differences in diet composition between the areas may be explained by the larger size of wbs fish ( 69 . 30 cm vs . 58 . 62 cm ) and regional faunistic distinctions .\nfemale kamchatka flounders in the wbs fed mostly on fishery offal ( 64 . 4 % w ) while males consumed more fishes ( 50 . 6 % w ) , especially pacific herring - 25 . 1 % w and red squid ( 22 . 2 % w ) . in the nk , females ate more shrimps ( 59 . 8 % w ) and large fish ( 27 . 4 % w ) while males fed mostly on red squid ( 26 . 6 % w ) and small fish species ( 25 . 0 % w ) . nevertheless , the most abundant prey items of male diets by weight were shrimps - 45 . 8 % .\nfood composition of pacific halibut hippoglossus stenolepis has been considered in three areas of the northwestern pacific : in the western part of the bering sea , in pacific waters off the northern kuril islands and southeastern kamchatka , and waters off the southern kuril islands . the main food items in all studied regions were shrimp , cephalopods , and fish . it has been noted that fish offal plays a considerable role in the feeding of h . stenolepis in the western part of the bering sea . changes in food composition in relation to fish growth , depth of catch , and sex of individuals have been analyzed ; and differences in the composition of food items consumed by h . stenolepis in different parts of the studied areas have been considered .\nif you are serious in your intention to meet a kamchatka ' s bear , forget a fairy - tale image of a foolish bumpkin . this is an animal of enormous strength and endurance , excellent reaction , and exact movements . its teeth break a bone of any size , its claws can shift boulders , it can climb almost vertical slopes , and sit in the icy water for hours . bears are wonderful swimmers , they can catch up with a horse at a short distance . though bears can not run long distances , they are the first - class walkers that can cover a good hundred kilometers a day . the only thing is that bears can ' t do very well is climb trees : they are presumably too heavy for it . . .\nthe diet of kamchatka flounders in the western part of wbs consisted mostly of fish ( 71 . 2 % w ) and cephalopods ( 22 . 7 % w ) ; in the eastern part they ate mainly fish offal ( 73 . 6 % ) ; fish prey ranked second . in the nk area , the importance of cephalopods decreased from south to north while the reverse was true for shrimps . thus , in the southern part of the study area cephalopods were the most important dietary component ( 53 . 7 % w ) , in the mid - part they were second in importance ( 22 . 4 % w ) but in the north , cephalopods were negligible ( 1 . 6 % w ) . shrimp presence increased from 8 . 6 % w in the south to 82 . 9 % w in the north .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ncyndy parr changed the thumbnail image of\natheresthes evermanni jordan & starks . 1904 . flatfishes ; atheresthes .\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nthey have elongated body , depth is 1 / 3rd of a length , and head length is 1 / 3rd in length , covered with relatively large , thin scales . mouth is large with upper jaw reaching to or very slightly past the vertical from posterior margin of lower eye . mouth armed with sharp , long and slender teeth with arrow - shaped points , in a single row on lower jaw , their length unequal . teeth arranged in two rows on the upper and lower jaws ; a double row of smaller teeth on side of upper jaw , the outer row the smaller ; they grow larger anteriorly , become curved inward , fanglike and some of them depressible . 3 + 10 gill rakers rather slender , the longest a trifle less than half length of eye .\nprofile of snout on same curve with that behind eye ; very slightly depressed above eye . the eyes are on one side of the body , scarcely reaching to upper profile , the lower one the more anterior . the upper eye is almost on the edge of the head . interorbital appearing rather flat and moderately broad , the bone , however , narrow and convex , its width less than half diameter of pupil ; nostrils close together , the posterior of eyed side in a broad , short tube , anterior in a narrower , longer tube ; anterior nostril of blind side with a long flap nearly a third as long as upper eye , broadening toward its tip and becoming conspicuously opaque white ; snout with many pores scattered among the irregularly placed scales .\nscales very finely ctenoid , the spinules short , fine , and numerous , only seen upon careful examination with a lens ; many scales have only a few irregular spinules ; others are entirely without them , appearing as if they had been rubbed off ; head and body everywhere with numerous , small , cycloid supplementary scales crowded in ; scales of blind side all cycloid ; snout , mandible , maxillary , and interorbital with numerous small cycloid scales , those on latter extending out on eyeball to edge of iris ; all fins rather closely covered with fine scales . lateral line is straight , just slightly bending upward from opposite tip of pectoral . pectoral of eyed side longer and more pointed than that of blind side ; first ray of dorsal inserted above anterior margin of pupil ; ventral short , scarcely reaching to front of anal . caudal fin shallowly concave on posterior outline .\nmouth large , upper jaw extends beyond the vertical center of the eye . the upper eye is almost on the edge of the head . caudal fin slightly sinuate . lateral line is straight . arrow shaped teeth in 2 rows . scales are cycloid .\neye of the body is olive - brown to dark brown , without markings , light the blind side . differ from most other fish from the family of flatfish more elongated body . the asymmetry of the skull is preserved , but it is expressed to a lesser extent than in plaice .\nreach sexual maturity between the ages of 7 to 17 years ( usually 10 - 14 years ) . the males reach sexual maturity at 7 and up years , females - in 10 and up years . spawning takes place during the cold season , in winter and spring - october to april at depths ranging from 120 to 1000 m at a water temperature of 2 to 10 \u00b0c . females emit spawn at depths ranging from 300 to 1000 m at a temperature of 2 - 10 \u00b0c , the number of eggs varies from 300 , 000 to 3 . 5 million . the eggs are pelagic , large , thin , long , hatch at a temperature of 6 \u00b0 c after 16 days and undergo development with the conversion , as well as eggs of other flatfishes . a notable feature of the larvae is the presence of spines over the eyes and on the operculum , which are absent in the larvae of other halibut . the average life is up to 30 years . males are at maximum performance smaller than females at 20 - 27 cm lives up to 20 years .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed ) . catalog of fishes . urltoken electronic version accessed 03 - nov - 2014\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\npage , l . m . , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , n . e . mandrak , et al . , eds .\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nsize : length to 86 cm , whole fish weight to 7 . 7 kg , general h & g / t size : . 5 - 2 . 0 kg .\nsize specification : h & g / t weight per fish m : 2 \u2013 3 kg s : 1 \u2013 2 kg ss : . 5 \u2013 1 kg sss : \u2013 500 grams\ngreek , atheres = spike + the name of astyanax , hector\u00b4s son in the greek mithology ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 20 - 1200 m ( ref . 50550 ) . temperate ; 66\u00b0n - 35\u00b0n , 130\u00b0e - 153\u00b0w ( ref . 6793 )\nnorth pacific : sea of japan and the sea of okhotsk north to the anadyr gulf , through the eastern bering sea to the aleutian islands and the shelikof strait in alaska .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 100 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 559 ) ; common length : 54 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 56527 ) ; max . published weight : 8 . 5 kg ( ref . 56527 ) ; max . reported age : 33 years ( ref . 55701 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 98 - 116 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 76 - 94 . mouth very large ; gill rakers slender ; caudal fin strong and lunate ( ref . 559 ) .\ncooper , j . a . and f . chapleau , 1998 . monophyly and intrarelationships of the family pleuronectidae ( pleuronectiformes ) , with a revised classification . fish . bull . 96 ( 4 ) : 686 - 726 . ( ref . 30193 )\n) : 0 . 7 - 5 . 4 , mean 1 . 7 ( based on 287 cells ) . phylogenetic diversity index ( ref .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00708 ( 0 . 00611 - 0 . 00820 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 3 . 02 - 3 . 10 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref .\n) : 4 . 3 \u00b10 . 2 se ; based on diet studies .\n) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( assuming tm > 4 ; tmax = 33 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n( annotated list of fish of russian far - eastern seas ) , vladivostok : pacific institute of scientific fisheries and oceanography , 2000 .\ndudnik , yu . i . , kodolov , l . s . , and polytov , v . a . , on the problem of distribution and reproduction of sablefish ,\nkodolov , l . s . , kulikov , m . yu . , and syutina , t . i . , peculiarities of distribution and spatial structure of fish in the mainland slope and submarine elevations of the northern pacific ,\n( biology of fish and invertebrates in the northern pacific ) , vladivostok : far - eastern state university , 1991 , pp . 21 - 38 .\n( fishes of the sea of japan and the adjacent parts of the okhotsk and yellow seas ) , st . - petersburg : nauka , 1993 , part 6 .\n( commercially important fish of continental slope of the northern pacific ) , moscow : pishchevaya promyshlennost ' , 1974 .\npromyslovo - biologicheskie issledo - vaniya ryb v tikhookeanskikh vodakh kuril ' skikh ostrovov i prilezhashchikh raionakh okhotskogo i beringova morei v 1992\u20131998 gg .\n( biological field investigations of food fish in pacific waters of the kuril islands and adjacent waters of the okhotsk and bering seas in 1992 - 1998 ) , moscow : all - union institute of scientific fisheries and oceanography , 2000 , pp . 187 - 215 .\npertseva - ostroumova , t . a . , reproduction and development of arrowtooth flounders\ntokranov , a . m . and orlov , a . m . , distribution and some features of ecology of a new for the fauna of russia species of sculpins , the aleutial lord\n( biological backgrounds of stable development in coastal marine ecosystems ) , rep . abstr . internat . conf . , murmansk , april 25\u201328 , 2001 , apatity : murmansk marine biological institute , 2001 , pp . 236 - 237 .\n( modern problems in fish systematics ) , rep . abstr . all - russian conf . , st . - petersburg , november 17\u201319 , 1998 , st . - petersburg : zoological institute ras , 1998 , pp . 62 - 63 .\nsheiko , b . a . and fedorov , v . v . , chapter 1 : class cephalaspidomorphi - lampreys . class chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes . class holocephali - chimeras . class osteichthyes - bony fishes ,\n( integrated studies of the ecosystem of the sea of okhotsk ) , moscow : all - russian institute of scientific fisheries and oceanography , 1997 , pp . 64 - 67 .\nallen , m . j . and smith , g . b . , atlas and zoogeography of common fishes in the bering sea and northeastern pacific ,\nbouwens , k . a . , paul , a . j . , and smith , r . l . , growth of juvenile arrowtooth flounders from kachemak bay , alaska ,\nbouwens , k . a . , smith , r . l . , paul , a . j . , and rugen , w . , length at and timing of hatching and settlement for arrowtooth flounders in the gulf of alaska ,\n, san francisco : california academy of science , 1998 , vol . 1 - 3 .\ncooper , j . a . and chapleau , f . , monophyly and relationships of the family pleuronectidae ( pleuronectiformes ) , with revised classification ,\nhare , s . r . and mantua , n . j . , empirical evidence for north pacific regime shifts in 1977 and 1989 ,\nmatarese , a . c . , kendall , a . w . , jr . , blood , d . m . , and vinter , b . m . , laboratory guide to early life history stages of northeast pacific fishes ,\nwilimovsky , n . j . , peden , a . , and peppar , j . , systematics of six demersal fishes of the north pacific ocean ,\nyang , m . - s . and livingston , p . a . , food habits and diet overlap of two congeneric species ,\nzimmermann , m . and goddard , p . , biology and distribution of arrowtooth ,\nmukhametov , i . n . & orlov , a . m . russian journal of marine biology ( 2002 ) 28 : 178 . urltoken\neffective 1200 hours , alaska local time ( a . l . t . ) , june 6 , 2015 , through 2400 hours , a . l . t . , december 31 , 2015 .\n732 north capitol street , nw , washington , dc 20401 - 0001 202 . 512 . 1800\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\noriginal russian text \u00a9 a . m . orlov , i . n . moukhametov , 2007 , published in voprosy ikhtiologii , 2007 , vol . 47 , no . 6 , pp . 783\u2013793 .\ne . a . best and g . st . - pierre , \u201cpacific halibut as predator and prey , \u201d iphc tech . rep . , no . 21 ( 1986 ) .\nr . d . brodeur and p . a . livingston , \u201cfood habits and diet overlap of various eastern bering sea fishes , \u201d u . s . dept . comm . noaa tech . memo . nmfs f / nwc - 127 ( 1988 ) .\nw . n . eschmeyer , e . s . herald , and h . hamman ,\n( dvnts akad . nauk sssr , vladivostok , 1984 ) [ in russian ] .\nk . t . gordeeva , \u201cfeeding of halibuts in the bering sea , \u201d izv . tikhookean . nauchno - issled . inst . rybn . khoz . okeanogr .\nd . e . kramer , w . h . barss , b . c . paust , et al . , \u201cguide to northeast pacific flatfishes , \u201d mar . adv . bull . , no . 47 , 1\u2013104 ( 1995 ) .\np . a . livingston , a . ward , g . m . lang , and m . - s . yang , \u201cgroundfish food habits and predation on commercially important prey species in the eastern bering sea from 1987 to 1989 , \u201d u . s . dep . comm . noaa tech . memo . nmfs - afsc - 11 ( 1993 ) .\nl . v . mikulich , \u201cfeeding of flatfish off the coasts of southern sakhalin and the southern kuril islands , \u201d izv . tikhookean . nauchno - issled . inst . rybn . khoz . okeanogr .\ni . n . moukhametov , \u201cfeeding and food diets of halibuts inhabiting pacific waters off the northern kuril islands . biology , state of resources , and habitat conditions of hydrobionts of the sakhalin - kuril region and adjacent water areas , \u201d tr . sakhalin . nauchno - issled . inst . rybn . khoz . okeanogr .\nschmidt ) in the bering sea , \u201d tr . vses . nauchno - issled . inst . rybn . khoz . okeanogr .\n( pishch . prom - st\u2019 , moscow , 1974 ) [ in russian ] .\nfish feeding ecology and digestion . gutshop\u201998 . symp . proc . int . congr . biol . fish , towson univ . , baltimore , 1998\necosystem approaches for fisheries management . alaska sea grant college program . ak - sg - 99 - 01\na . m . orlov and i . n . moukhametov , \u201cfeeding characteristics of greenland halibut\nv . p . shuntov , a . f . volkov , o . s . temnykh , and e . p . dulepova ,\nm . - s . yang , \u201cfood habits of the commercially important groundfishes in the gulf of alaska in 1990 , \u201d u . s . dep . comm . noaa tech . memo . nmfs - afsc - 22 ( 1993 ) .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 20 - 1200 m ( ref . 50550 ) . temperate , preferred 5\u00b0c ( ref . 107945 ) ; 66\u00b0n - 35\u00b0n , 130\u00b0e - 153\u00b0w ( ref . 6793 )\nthe most important bird species are the magnificent steller ' s sea eagle , golden eagle and peregrine , rock and willow ptarmigan , black - billed capercailye , long - tailed hawk , and owl . some birds , for instance partridges , capercailye and swans , - stay on the peninsula throughout the year , while others - in particular geese and ducks , - come to this remote place every spring for nesting . the coastal cliffs and rocky islands are inhabited by sea gulls , cormorants , puffins , and others .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nafter the effective date of this closure the maximum retainable amounts at 50 cfr 679 . 20 ( e ) and ( f ) apply at any time during a trip .\nthis information bulletin only provides notice of a fishery management action . for the purposes of complying with any requirements of this action , you are advised to see the actual text of the action in the federal register .\nthis is an official united states government website . the national oceanic and atmospheric administration ' s national marine fisheries service is an agency of the u . s . department of commerce .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\ndeep sea 2003 : conference on the governance and management of deep - sea fisheries . part 2 : conference poster papers and workshop papers . queenstown , new zealand , 1\u20135 december 2003 and dunedin , new zealand , 27 - 29 november 2003 .\nr . melville - smith 1 , r . gould 2 and l . bellchambers 1 1 department of fisheries , western australian marine research laboratories p . o . box 20 , north beach wa 6920 , australia < rmsmith @ urltoken > < lbellchambe @ urltoken > 2 department of fisheries 3rd floor atrium , 170 st george ' s terrace perth wa 6000 , australia < rgould @ urltoken >\nin western australia several large crab species occur in the offshore waters . however , only three , the giant crab , ( pseudocarcinus giga ) , the champagne crab ( hypothalassia acerba ) and the crystal crab ( chaceon bicolor ) are of commercial importance .\nthe biogeographical boundary separating the cool water of the south coast of the state from the warmer waters of the west coast has provided a logical boundary between crustacean fisheries in western australia ( figure 1 ) . these fisheries are managed as the south coast deep sea crab fishery ( scdscf ) and the west coast deep sea crab interim managed fishery ( wcdscimf ) . permit holders in the west coast deep sea crab interim managed fishery are entitled to take champagne , giant and crystal crabs but not rock - lobsters . the wcdscimf operates along side australia ' s largest rock - lobster fishery , the west coast rock - lobster managed fishery ( wcrlmf ) , where fishing generally occurs in 0\u2013200 m . although managed separately licencees in the wcrlmf are permitted to retain 12 deep - sea crabs , primarily champagne crabs , per day per boat . on the other hand , licencees in the south coast deep sea crab fishery are entitled to take champagne , giant and crystal crabs and as a result of the licensing framework surrounding the development of this fishery most fishers are also entitled to take southern rock lobster ( jasus edwardsii ) .\nthe department of fisheries have records of various fishers from the 1960s , 1970s and 1980s expressing interest in establishing commercial fishing operations based on champagne , giant and \u2018deep - sea crabs\u2019 on the west coast . although most of these proposed ventures did not go any further , some small - scale exploratory fishing targeting champagne crabs by rock - lobster fishers was undertaken between 1985 and 1990 with some rekindled interest in the 1990s . champagne crab catches peaked between 30 and 45 tonnes from 1997 to 1999 , before decreasing to negligible levels ( < 100 kg ) from 2001onwards . the decrease in catches was in part due to a decline in champagne crab stocks , however low beach prices and increased interest in the more valuable crystal crab also contributed ( k . smith , murdoch university , australia , pers . comm . ) . therefore , on the west coast , management of giant and champagne crabs is primarily focused on ensuring biological sustainability and maintaining breeding stocks of the species rather than developing a viable commercial fishery .\ncrystal crabs have only been targeted on the west coast since the late 1990s and the wcdscimf is now almost entirely dependent on the size and productivity of the crystal crab resource .\nfigure 1 map of the w . a . coastline showing the crystal crab management zones and depth contours between 500\u20131000 m\nboth giant and champagne crabs landings have been larger and more regular in the south coast crustacean fishery than on the west coast . since 1990 the combined giant and champagne crab catch has , in most years , been in excess of 30 tonnes , with occasional annual catches reaching 40 to 50 tonnes . in the past , crystal crabs have not formed a significant contribution to the south coast crustacean fishery , apart from one year ( 2002 ) when over 10 tonnes were landed before a moratorium was placed on targeting the species pending further research . the size and distribution of the fishable stock in this region is unknown .\nin 1991 it was recognized that with increasing interest in deep - sea crabs of all species there was a need to move to more formal management . in january 1992 following a request for expressions of interest , the minister for fisheries issued a press release announcing that by 1 april 1992 a plan would be in place to develop the fishery . this resulted in more than 80 expressions of interest for endorsements to take deep - sea crabs outside the rock - lobster fishery . in response , in june 1993 , 53 endorsements were approved ( 49 on the south coast and four on the west coast ) . a one - tonne catch per year minimum performance criteria was placed on each approved vessel . following a review of these allocations , in may 1993 a further three endorsements were granted on the west coast . in 1992 a commercial fisherman working in cooperation with the commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation ( csiro , hobart , australia ) conducted some limited research fishing . the fishing focused on champagne and giant crabs , but was of limited success due to the size of the fishing vessel used and lack of gear suitable for fishing in depths greater than 150 m .\nnew complexities were introduced into the management of both the scdscf and wcdscimf when permit holders realized the potential quantities of crystal crab available and the species ' commercial value . the dilemma is one that besets the managers of many new fisheries : i . e . on one hand faced with a previously unfished resource that has a potentially long term yield , together with an industry geared up and keen to exploit it ; while on the other hand having no catch history , biological information , or information on the spatial extent of the fishery . given the current focus in western australia on the exploitation of crystal crab , this paper deals only with a description of crystal crab catches on the west and south coasts of western australia and the proposed management of this resource .\ncrystal crabs occurring off the western australian coast are considered at this stage to be chaceon bicolor , a species which is also found in the central pacific from the emperor seamount chain to eastern australia ( manning and holthuis 1989 ) and along the west and north coast of australia ( jones and morgan 1994 ) . at this stage chaceon appears to have a wide distribution , although some systematics experts have suggested that further work may show that the pale coloured specimens found off the western australian coast are a different species to the purple , tan and yellowish coloured specimens of c . bicolor found in the pacific . the depth distribution of chaceon species is reported to be between 275 and 1 600 m ( manning and holthuis 1989 ) . however on the western australian coast the species has only been reported in commercial catches from 450 to 1220 m ( lance hand , bellenden nominees , geraldon , australia , western australian museum records ) .\nuntil 1995 the take of deep - sea crabs seaward of the 200 m isobath was the responsibility of the australian commonwealth government and some 22 vessels were licensed by the commonwealth to fish for deep - sea crabs in commonwealth managed waters off western australia . however , under the offshore constitutional settlement agreement of 1995 , and on the basis of the links with the state managed rock - lobster fisheries , management of deep - sea crab fisheries became a state government responsibility .\nthe fishery for crystal crabs began in 1997\u20131998 when one fisher undertook exploratory fishing for deep - sea crabs on the west coast between 34\u00b0 24 ' and 22\u00b0 19 s ' in depths of 540 to 1080 m . the promising catches of crystal crabs by this exploratory fishing trip generated more interest in commercially exploiting this fishery on the west coast and by the end of 1999 the catch had increased to almost 25 tonnes .\nthe fishery was originally open to all 595 west coast rock - lobster fishers as the fishery had historically taken small quantities of deep - sea crab ( mainly champagne crabs ) as byproduct in their rock - lobster traps . however , to take deep - sea crabs out of the rock - lobster fishing season ( 15 november to 30 june ) a specific fishing boat licence endorsement was required . in april 1999 , 26 vessels on the south coast and six vessels on the west coast had acquired these licence endorsements as a result of earlier interest and activity related to deep - sea crabs .\nthe need to more formally manage these fisheries arose in 1998 in addressing reporting requirements that environment australia proposed to impose as a condition of export approval under section 10a of the wildlife protection ( regulation of exports and imports ) act 1982 . the downturn in the asian economy and concerns about its impact on rock - lobster export prices also resulted in increased targeting of deep - sea crabs by rock - lobster fishers during the 1998\u20131999 rock - lobster season and increased interest from rock - lobster fishers wanting to target deep - sea crabs outside the rock - lobster fishery . there was also increased attention from rock - lobster processors interested in processing and marketing champagne crabs and other deep - sea crabs . in april 1999 these issues culminated in the existing endorsement holders , through the western australian fishing industry council ( wafic ) , asking the minister for fisheries to restrict the catch of deep - sea crabs by rock - lobster fishers .\nin may 1999 , in order to prevent overexploitation , the department indicated its intention to separately manage the crystal crab fishery and obtained support from the minster for fisheries to consult with existing licencees regarding how this fishery should be managed . existing licencees were subsequently advised of the department ' s intentions by letter . this letter in part said : \u201cit is envisaged that , depending on the number of applicants , access will be granted to those who best demonstrate a financial and personal commitment to the ongoing development of their nominated fishery . \u201da subsequent letter of 18 june 1999 referred to access being granted to \u201cthose who best demonstrate a personal and financial commitment to developing a sustainable , market - orientated snow ( crystal ) crab fishery . \u201d"]}
{"id": 689, "summary": [{"text": "colomesus asellus , the amazon puffer , asell puffer , south american freshwater puffer or peruvian puffer .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "is a species of pufferfish confined to the amazon , essequibo and orinoco basins in tropical south america .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is a popular aquarium species . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "colomesus asellus", "paragraphs": ["cyndy parr set\nimage of colomesus asellus\nas an exemplar on\ncolomesus asellus ( m\u00fcller and troschel , 1849 )\n.\nasellus : derivation unclear ; possibly from the latin asellus , meaning \u2018small donkey\u2019 .\na ) colomesus tocantinensis nov . sp . \u2013 tocantins ( holotype pnt . uerj . 405 highlighted in white ) ; b ) colomesus asellus \u2013 iquitos ; c ) colomesus asellus \u2013 bel\u00e9m .\nthe analyses included the following taxa : tetraodon nigroviridis , tetraodon biocellatus , sphoeroides testudineus , lagocephalus laevigatus , colomesus asellus , colomesus psittacus , and the freshwater colomesus from the tocantins drainage .\nthe two species can be distinguished by size ( colomesus psittacus being much larger when mature ) and colouration . colomesus asellus has a black patch on the underside of the caudal peduncle , a feature not seen on colomesus psittacus .\nolder books sometimes describe the south american pufferfish as colomesus psittacus , a name that actually belongs to a related species that lives in estuaries and shallow marine habitats . the correct scientific name for the south american pufferfish is in fact colomesus asellus .\npufferfish generally have a reputation for being aggressive loners , but one species that isn ' t is the south american pufferfish colomesus asellus , often simply called the sap .\nits really hard to identify c . asellus from c . psittacus , the best way i found out is to count the black bars on their body . c . asellus has 5 bars and c . psittacus has 6 .\ncolomesus species diagnosed by six to seven basal pterygiophores and nine rays in the anal fin ( contra ten to eleven in both c . asellus and c . psittacus ) ; ten basal pterygiophores and rays in the dorsal fin ( contra eleven for both c . asellus and c . psittacus ) ; the absence of dermal flaps across the chin ( contra its presence uniquely in c . asellus ) ; a caudal peduncle with eight vertebrae ; and an opercle with a posterior ventral border subdivided in a ventral and a posterior region , the herein called \u201cinverted v\u201d shape ( contra the triangular opercle exhibited by both c . asellus and c . psittacus ) .\ncoi amplicons were obtained from all the specimens included in the analyses . the obtained sequences clearly identified both previous accepted colomesus species ( c . asellus and c . psittacus ) , therefore being in accordance with the previous morphological diagnose presented by [ 46 ] .\ncolomesus psittacus is a component of the marine aquarium trade , however there no indications at present time of declines from harvesting .\nthere are no known species - specific conservation measures in place for colomesus psittacus however its distribution overlaps with several marine protected areas .\naraujo - lima , c . a . r . m . , d . savastano , and l . cardeliquio jord\u00e3o , 1994 - revue d ' hydrobiologie tropicale 27 ( 1 ) : 33 - 38 drift of colomesus asellus ( teleostei : tetraodontidae ) larvae in the amazon river .\ncolomesus tocantinensis nov . sp . urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 9b8accb5 - ff55 - 4514 - 901b - 6366fb6ea307\nthe color pattern of colomesus tocantinensis nov . sp . is essentially the same as that of colomesus asellus , with five transverse dark bars across the dorsal region of the body . a dark blotch on the underside of the caudal peduncle , which is a state used by [ 46 ] to diagnose colomesus asellus , is present or absent , being vestigial to unobservable or absent in several specimens . the interspaces between the dark bars are light yellow , with gradually decreasing pigmentation and becoming white in the ventral region ( figure 6 ) . however , the light yellow to pale pattern presented by c . tocantinensis nov . sp . clearly contrasts with the gold - yellow pattern present in specimens from iquitos and bel\u00e9m .\nspecimens of colomesus asellus were collected from three distinct populations with about 2200 km of mean distance separating them . the collection localities were ilha do mosqueiro , bel\u00e9m , brazil ; upper tocantins river - porto nacional , tocantins , brazil ; and nanay river - iquitos , peru ( figure 1 ) .\namazon puffer fish aka colomesus asellus are awesome fish . they are generally considered as peaceful and get to about 4 inches and can live in planted tanks with other fish . if you ' ve enjoyed this video and haven ' t already subscribed to our channel , please click that subscribe button now .\ni finally picked up my first colomesus asellus puffer today . it is cute , fun , and very crazy . it hasn ' t stopped swimming even to rest ! it ' s always swimming around the tank ; sometimes\npacing ,\nother times\nhunting ,\nand sometimes\nsearching !\nthe nasal sac is higher than that presented in the specimens of c . asellus . two large lateral and anteromedial nostrils are present . they are similar to those found on c . psittacus , rather than the two small nostrils exhibited by c . asellus . the anterior surface of the nasal sac is smooth while the posterior surface of it is folded as in c . psittacus , exhibiting a \u201ct - shaped\u201d ridge with a relatively small dorsal flap . this flap seems much smaller than the one found on c . asellus , although more flexible when compared to c . psittacus .\n2 oliveira , js . , fernandes , scr . , schwartz , ca . , bloch , c . , melo , jat . , pires , or . , freitas , jc . toxicity and toxin identification in colomesus asellus , an amazonian ( brazil ) freshwater puffer fish , toxicon , doi : 10 . 1016 / j . toxicon . 2006 . 04 . 009\noliveira , j . s . , s . c . rego fernandes , c . a . schwartz , c . bloch jr . , j . a . taquita melo , o . r . pires jr . , and j . c . de freitas , 2006 - toxicon 48 ( 1 ) : 55 - 63 toxicity and toxin identification in colomesus asellus , an amazonian ( brazil ) freshwater puffer fish .\nthe neighbor - joining ( nj ) and maximum - likelihood ( ml ) result trees are presented in figures 2 and 3 , respectively . the genus colomesus was recovered as monophyletic inside the group formed by the sampled sphoeroides species , in except for sphoeroides pachygaster . lagocephalus was recovered in a basal phylogenetic position in relation to sphoeroides and colomesus , therefore corroborating recent results such as those presented by [ 43 ] \u2013 [ 45 ] .\nbased on a comprehensive analysis including both morphological and molecular methodologies using the cytochrome c oxidase i gene , we were able to discuss aspects of the phylogeny and phylogeography of the south american freshwater pufferfishes of the genus colomesus .\ntyler , j . c . , 1964 - proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 116 : 119 - 148 a diagnosis of the two species of south american puffer fishes ( tetraodontidae , plectognathi ) of the genus colomesus .\ncolomesus was recovered deep inside the group formed by the remaining sphoeroides species , therefore suggesting sphoeroides as paraphyletic , with s . pachygaster being recovered as basal in relation to all the remaining sphoeroides species in all the analyses . additionally , colomesus was also recovered as the sister - taxa of the group formed by the species sphoeroides nephelus , s . tyleri , and s . greeleyi in the nj result , although it was recovered as the sister - taxa of s . greeleyi in the ml results .\ndeep sequence divergence was observed regarding the freshwater colomesus from the tocantins drainage ( figure 5 ) . the mean sequence divergence of the specimens from both bel\u00e9m and iquitos was estimated at 1 . 079 % , while the tocantins distances ranged from 1 . 955 % to 3 . 063 % , with a mean distance of 2 . 166 % . the observed sequence divergence values together with the congruence observed from both molecular and morphological phylogenetic approaches used here suggest the existence of an overlooked species within the genus colomesus .\nthe presence of dermal flaps across the chin is another character used by [ 46 ] to distinguish c . asellus from c . psittacus . no dermal flaps could be seen in the examined specimens from the tocantins river , although they are always present in examined specimens from iquitos and bel\u00e9m .\nthe neighbor - joining ( nj ) and maximum - likelihood ( ml ) trees that encompass the genera triodon , diodon , chilomycterus , lagocephalus , tetraodon , takifugu , sphoeroides , and colomesus , were constructed using the mega 5 . 06 software [ 40 ] .\nour molecular results based on the coi marker agrees with the recent results such as [ 43 ] \u2013 [ 45 ] , and suggest that the genus sphoeroides should be revised , mainly regarding the phylogenetic position recovered for the genus colomesus , deeply nested within the sphoeroides tree , and the basal position recovered for s . pachygaster . we plan further investigations along these lines to reconcile any conflicts between these molecular hypotheses presented herein and morphologically based interpretations [ 47 ] of the phylogeny of the taxa of colomesus , sphoeroides , and lagocephalus .\ncitation : amaral crl , brito pm , silva da , carvalho ef ( 2013 ) a new cryptic species of south american freshwater pufferfish of the genus colomesus ( tetraodontidae ) , based on both morphology and dna data . plos one 8 ( 9 ) : e74397 . urltoken\nin brazil , some marine puffers are sporadically consumed by the local population , and poisoning cases were reported . in spite of there being no reports of food poisonings or even consumption of freshwater puffers by people in the amazon region , we strongly recommend that consumption of the brazilian puffer fish c . asellus should be avoided .\nwithin the genus colomesus , c . asellus can be immediately identified by possessing a unique transverse row of dermal flaps across the chin which is absent in its congeners c . psittacus and c . tocantinensis . it can be further told apart from the very similar c . tocantinensis by possession of 10 ( vs . 9 in c . tocantinensis ) anal - fin rays , 11 ( vs . 10 ) dorsal - fin rays , a triangular ( vs . notched ventrally , appearing as an inverted v ) opercle , base colour in dorsal portion of body golden yellow ( vs . light yellow to pale ) .\ni bought two colomesus asellus 4 months ago with my christmas money , and they have been a joy to have ! they constantly follow their reflection up and down the front of the tank . as i am new to the hobby , and am only 13 years old , i am not sure if this is normal . i keep them in a 120 litre community tank , and have not experienced any problems so far . they have cleared my tank of snails , and i feed them red bloodorms three times a week . they are still young and are about 4 cm long , but are growing fast !\ni have a group of six colomesus asellus in a 120 l planted freshwater tank . they are relatively peaceful amongst themselves - except at feeding time ! i would not personally keep them as community fish . they are extremely active and entertaining little fish . they are a true freshwater puffer , although some people occasionally keep them in mild brackish conditions . as with all puffers , snails need to comprise a major part of the diet to keep their teeth trimmed - mine readily accept malaysian trumpet snails ! small snails should be fed , approximately the size of the puffer ' s eye or slightly larger . overgrowth teeth is a common problem with\nthe t20g10 monoclonal antibody raised against ttx and used as an indirect competitive enzyme immunoassay showed very low affinity for c . asellus body extracts , indicating that ttx and its analogues are not the main toxic components of the extracts . this antibody was effective in detecting the presence of ttx in a total extract of sphoeroides spengleri , which is one of the most toxic puffer fish found in the atlantic ocean coast . extracts of c . asellus were toxic when intraperitoneally administered into mice . the hplc profile showed no traces of ttx but only the presence of paralytic shellfish poisons ( saxitoxin - stx , gonyautoxin 2 - gtx 2 , and gonyautoxin 3 - gtx 3 ) . these toxins were also confirmed by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry .\namaral , c . r . l . , p . m . brito , d . a . silva and e . f . carvalho , 2013 - plos one 8 ( 9 ) : 1 - 15 a new cryptic species of south american freshwater pufferfish of the genus colomesus ( tetraodontidae ) , based on both morphology and dna data .\ncolomesus : from the ancient greek \u03c7\u03c9\u03bb\u00f3\u03c2 ( chol\u00f3s ) , meaning \u2018physically defective , crippled\u2019 , and \u03bc\u03ad\u03c3\u03bf\u03c2 \u200e ( m\u00e9sos ) , meaning \u2018middle\u2019 , presumably in reference to the frontal bones being narrowed , not connected to the orbit , and with the elongated postfrontals connected to the prefrontals ( see gill 1884 , also note misspelling of \u03c7\u03c9\u03bb\u00f3\u03c2 as \u03ba\u03bf\u03bbo\u03c2 ) .\nthe skull is partially similar to those found in colomesus asellus described and figured by [ 46 ] , although the frontals exhibit a wide posterior border and prominently participate in the orbital margin ( figures 7 \u2013 9 ) . the prefrontals are triangular and articulate medially with the ethmoid , which posteriorly articulates with the frontals and anteriorly with the palatines ( figure 8 ) . the supraoccipital is roughly triangular and well developed , with an elongate posterior process which covers the first vertebrae ( figure 8 ) . the sphenotics articulate postero - laterally with the frontals and , in the examined specimens , they neither contact nor closely approach the prefrontals . the lateral wing of the sphenotics is only partially developed ( figure 8 ) . posterior to the sphenotics , the pterotics ( figures 7 and 8 ) articulates posteriorly with the slender supracleithrum and medially with the epiotics , which articulates medially with the supraoccipital ( figure 9 ) .\nin lateral view , the skull is characterized by the wide preopercle with about 110 degrees between both horizontal and vertical rami ( figure 7 ) , with the preopercular canal running along its anterior border , and by the opercle which is divided in two distinct regions , having ventral and posterior wings , the herein called \u201cinverted v\u201d shape , distinct from the condition found in all other examined specimens of colomesus ( figure 10 ) . the subopercle is sturdy , with two small dorsal processes .\nthe holotype ( pnt . uerj . 405 ) is 29 , 62 mm sl ( figure 6 ) , with 10 , 37 mm hl ; the entire type - series ranges from 27 . 02 mm to 34 . 9 mm sl . the meristic and morphometric data of the type series is presented in table 2 . the extent of the dorsal and ventral lateral lines is similar to those found in c . asellus . the prickles extend along the dorsal , lateral , and ventral surfaces of the body , from the level of the eye to the origin of the dorsal fin .\nalthough the influence of marine incursions after the miocene is still under debate , the caribbean ( or miocene ) marine incursion , via the llanos basin ( colombia - venezuela ) , is well accepted based on both geological and paleontological evidence , suggesting that these incursions may have isolated marine taxa within the western south america freshwater environments [ 48 ] \u2013 [ 52 ] . this might be the case for the freshwater tetraodontids . as pointed by [ 53 ] , this scenario predicts that the distribution of the marine sister groups of marine lineages should be related with the caribbean or western atlantic , the age of freshwater taxa should be coincident with marine incursions , and the biogeographic congruence should be observed among multiple unrelated taxa , conditions only partially filled by the genus colomesus .\ngreek , kolos = short , truncated + greek , mesos = a half ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; demersal ; ph range : 5 . 5 - 7 . 2 ; dh range : 5 - 15 . tropical ; 22\u00b0c - 28\u00b0c ( ref . 13614 )\nsouth america : amazon river basin from peru to maraj\u00f3 island , including tributaries araguaia and guapor\u00e9 rivers ; orinoco river basin near the mouth ; essequibo river basin .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 12 . 8 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 79673 )\nfound mostly in freshwater and coastal streams , but can tolerate brackish water . sometimes kept in aquariums ( ref . 26938 ) .\nortega , h . and r . p . vari , 1986 . annotated checklist of the freshwater fishes of peru . smithson . contrib . zool . ( 437 ) : 1 - 25 . ( ref . 6329 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 7500 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 03236 ( 0 . 01891 - 0 . 05537 ) , b = 2 . 85 ( 2 . 71 - 2 . 99 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 51 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 14 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nduring a meeting of the international society on toxinology , which took place in paris , france , we found out that this species has been sold in japan by aquarists and the japanese scientists started to perform studies using these commercial specimens bought in shopping centers at ueno station , tokyo . at this time we should ask , how do these fish from amazon get to the shopping centers in japan ?\n1 freitas , jc . , rangel , m . , oliveira , js . , zaharenko , aj . , rozas , e . an outline on marine toxinology studies in the brazilian coast . comm . toxicol . , 2003 , 9 , 1 - 22 .\n3 oliveira , js . , pires junior , or . , morales , rav . , bloch junior , c . , schwartz , ca . , freitas , jc . . toxicity of puffer fish - two species ( lagocephalus laevigatus , linaeus 1766 and sphoeroides spengleri , bloch 1785 ) from the southeastern brazilian coast . j . venom . anim . toxins incl . trop . dis . , 2003 , 9 , 76 - 88 .\n4 sawaya , p . , toxic marine invertebrates \u0097 venomous and noxious fishes of freshwater . mem . inst . butantan , 1966 , 33 , 31 - 34 .\ncaixa postal 577 18618 - 000 botucatu sp brazil tel . / fax : + 55 14 3814 - 5555 | 3814 - 5446 | 3811 - 7241 jvat @ urltoken\n, freshwater to brackish puffers , burrfishes / porcupinefishes , tobies / sharpnose puffers , boxfishes , puffy & mr . nasty ,\nthe explanation for this surely comes from its distinctive mode of reproduction . most other freshwater pufferfish guard their eggs and fry , but south american pufferfish do not . they simply scatter their eggs onto the substrate , and the fry , once they emerge , spend a period of time floating down the river as plankton . consequently south american pufferfish have no reason to be territorial . in fact they are not tied to one particular place at all , and instead migrate up and down rivers , often moving into lakes for part of the year .\nindeed , being such active swimmers makes south american puffers very distinctive in terms of aquarium maintenance . things like caves and other hiding places are largely irrelevant . while they certainly like a quiet corner behind a plant when they ' re sleeping , these fish are otherwise constantly on the move . so aquarium space and water current are much more important than is the case with other , usually less active , puffer species .\nfishbase and other academic sources report a maximum length of 15 cm , but aquarium fish never get that big ; 7 - 8 cm ( about 3 inches ) is usual .\nsouth american pufferfish are found in a variety of habitats , from quite soft and acidic rivers like the rio negro through to the estuary of the amazon river . in other words , water chemistry itself is not particularly important . anything between ph 6 - 8 , 5 - 20 degrees dh will suit them well . while not common in brackish water habitats , they will do well in low salinity systems up to around sg 1 . 005 .\non the other hand , as with all pufferfish , water quality should be good . by pufferfish standards , south american puffers can be considered hardy , and they are certainly less sensitive to nitrate than things like tetraodon mbu . but that doesn ' t mean that they will put up with bad water quality for long . generous filtration and regular water changes are essential . taking into consideration their need for strong water current , canister filters ( either internal or external ) offering water turnover of 6 - 10 times the volume of the tank per hour are in order . change 25 - 50 % of the water per week , aiming for less than 20 mg / l nitrate if possible , and certainly no more than 50 mg / l .\nunlike almost all other freshwater pufferfish , south american pufferfish are not territorial and exhibit no aggressive behaviour towards their own kind or other species . in fact they are nervous when kept singly , and become much less\nneurotic\nwhen kept in groups . during the daytime fish will follow one another around briefly , often squabbling over food ; but at night ( or if alarmed ) they will settle on the substrate as a group .\nin the wild breeding seems to be similar to that of pelagic pufferfish , with the parents exhibiting no broodcare at all . the eggs are relatively small and the fry are planktonic . breeding behaviour has not been ( knowingly ) observed in aquaria , and in all probability rearing the fry will be very difficult .\nin broad terms these fish are hardy , and when sick respond well to medications ( such as esha 2000 for finrot and fungus ) and heal quickly .\nhowever , two aspects of healthcare need mentioning . for whatever reason , south american puffers are very prone to whitespot ( ick ) and are often among the first fish to show the symptoms such as\nflashing\nagainst rocks and the white cysts on the skin . treatment needs to be prompt if serious problems are to be avoided . i have used esha exit to treat whitespot on south american puffers without any problems , but because puffers tend to be sensitive to certain chemicals , it ' s a good idea to observe your fish closely during any treatment . alternatively , adding tonic salt to the aquarium at a dose of 3 grammes per litre and raising the temperature to around 28 degrees c should kill the parasites without doing the pufferfish any long - term harm .\nthe other major healthcare issue with south american puffers is the rate at which their teeth grow . even by pufferfish standards , this species has peculiarly fast - growing teeth . while some hobbyists ( myself included ) have managed to slow down tooth growth by manipulating the diet so that it contains crunchy foods like snails , in reality most aquarists will find themselves needing to\ntrim\nthe teeth one or more times per year .\nwhile this might sound a bit nerve - wracking , it ' s actually pretty easy and a lot less stressful for the fish than having an overgrown beak that prevents it feeding properly .\nwhether or not the south american pufferfish is a good community fish can be argued both ways . on the one hand , it is not aggressive and it doesn ' t view live fish as food , except perhaps livebearer fry but on the other hand the south american puffer is a confirmed fin - nipper . when hungry it will view the fins of slow - moving and long - finned fish as food . while not unusual in this regard ( many tetras and barbs behave the same way ) this does mean that it can ' t be kept with many of the most popular community fish . angelfish , gouramis , congo tetras , livebearers , corydoras and so on are all likely to be nipped .\nin my experience , the safest tankmates are those that hide all day ( like synodontis catfish ) and those that are very fast swimmers ( such as glassfish and bleeding heart tetras ) . but if this approach is to work the tank will need to be reasonably large so that these fish can keep out the way of the puffers .\nthe ideal situation though is surely to keep a group of south american puffers by themselves . being nicely coloured , constantly active , and not too big , a pack of half a dozen specimens would look great in a 125 - 180 litre / 33 - 44 gallon tank .\noften pushed as the\ncommunity tank puffer\nthis is only fair up to a point , and these are still nippy fish at time . but they are quite easy to keep , hardy , and generally very well behaved aquarium fish . for the aquarist looking for a pufferfish species that is exciting to watch as well as attractive and interesting , it ' s hard to think of a better species than the south american puffer !\noccurs throughout much of the amazon basin in brazil , colombia , peru , and ecuador , including the amazonas / solim\u00f5es main channel plus the rios par\u00e1 , tocantins , jari , xingu , tapaj\u00f3s , uatum\u00e3 , madeira , trombetas , negro , purus , tef\u00e9 , japur\u00e1 / caquet\u00e1 , juru\u00e1 , juta\u00ed , i\u00e7\u00e1 / putomayo , javary , ampiyacu , amacayac\u00fa , napo , nanay , mara\u00f1\u00f3n , and ucayali , with its range extending at least as far upstream as pucallpa in eastern peru .\nthere are also numerous records from drainages north of the amazon mouth including the essequibo and waini in guyana , and lower orinoco in venezuela . it appears to be absent from french guiana and suriname .\nhas been recorded in lower , middle , and upper river basins with habitats including sandbars , beaches , floodplain lakes , banks with overhanging vegetation , and fast - flowing rapids over bedrock , boulders , and stones . it is mostly collected from habitats with high oxygen levels , suggesting that it may be sensitive to low oxygen availability .\nit is adaptable , penetrating into tributaries of the upper amazon , but also occuring in the amazon and orinoco delta regions , although it does not tend to be found in highly acidic black - waters .\nthe maximum recorded length in wild specimens is 128 mm , but aquarium reports suggest 70 \u2013 80 mm to be typical .\nchoice of d\u00e9cor is not especially critical though it should be maintained in a well - decorated set - up . the addition of floating or overhanging vegetation and driftwood roots or branches also seems to be appreciated .\nthis species is intolerant of organic waste and require spotless water in order to thrive . moderate levels of dissolved oxygen and water movement are also recommended , meaning additional powerheads , pumps , etc . , should be employed as necessary . a linear flow pump may prove a useful addition , while weekly water changes of 30 - 50 % should be considered mandatory .\nwild examples can be delicate and sensitive to white spot / ich post - import , so a lengthy quarantine period may be required .\ntetraodontids lack true teeth , the jawbone itself being modified into four fused toothlike structures . these grow continuously at a surprising rate , so offer regular meals of shelled invertebrates such as snails , crab legs , cockles , etc . , in order to maintain them at a reasonable length . there is some evidence to suggest that aufwuchs form a significant proportion of the natural diet , therefore it may be worth permitting or even encouraging algal growth on hard items of d\u00e9cor .\nadditional foods can include chopped shellfish , small earthworms , and live or frozen chironomid larvae ( bloodworm ) , artemia , etc . dried products should not form the principal component of the diet , although pelleted formats with a very hard consistency may prove useful .\nnot aggressive as such but unsuitable for the general community aquarium , and best - maintained alone or in a larger set - up with other fluvial fishes .\nthis species naturally forms loose aggregations and can behave nervously in the absence of conspecifics . ideally a group of 6 or more should be purchased .\nthis species exhibits a spawning strategy comparable to that of marine puffers and in contrast to the majority of freshwater tetraodontids , with high fecundity , relatively small eggs , and no parental care . limited studies in the central amazon basin suggest that spawning occurs in main river channels or close to banks at the mouths of floodplain lakes and tributaries during periods of high water . the pelagic larvae are washed into nursery zones in floodplain lakes where they complete their development , returning to river channels when flood waters recede .\nthis species is also referred to as \u2018south american puffer\u2019 , \u2018sap\u2019 , \u2018amazonian puffer\u2019 , \u2018peruvian puffer\u2019 , or \u2018brazilian puffer\u2019 in the ornamental trade .\nit is distinguished from c . psittacus by its smaller adult size ( max . 128 mm sl vs . 289 mm sl in c . psittacus ) , possession of 13 - 16 ( vs . 17 - 19 ) pectoral - fin rays , presence of 5 ( vs . 6 ) transverse dark bands dorsally on the body , and predominantly freshwater , fluvial ( vs . brackish , coastal ) ecology .\nother defining characters of tetraodontids include a tough skin usually covered with small spines , a beak - like dental plate divided by a median suture , a reduced gill opening anterior to the pectoral - fin base , no pelvic fins or spinous fin rays , typically short - based dorsal and anal fins , and no ribs .\nm\u00fcller , j . and f . h . troschel , 1849 - im auftrag sr . m\u00e4jestat des k\u00f6nigs von preussen ausgef\u00fchrt von richard schomburgk v . 3 . berlin : 618 - 644 fische . in : reisen in britisch - guiana in den jahren 1840 - 44 .\ngill , t . n . , 1884 - proceedings of the united states national museum 7 ( 26 - 27 ) : 411 - 427 synopsis of the plectognath fishes .\nhelfman , g . , b . b . collette , d . e . facey , and b . w . bowen , 2009 - wiley - blackwell : 1 - 736 the diversity of fishes : biology , evolution , and ecology , 2nd edition .\nnelson , j . s . , 2006 - john wiley & sons , hoboken , n . j . : i - xix + 1 - 601 fishes of the world . 4th edition .\nortega , h . and r . p . vari , 1986 - smithsonian contributions to zoology 437 : iii + 1 - 25 annotated checklist of the freshwater fishes of peru .\nreis , r . e . , s . o . kullander and c . j . ferraris , jr . ( eds ) , 2003 - edipucrs , porto alegre : i - xi + 1 - 729 check list of the freshwater fishes of south and central america . cloffsca .\nmy own fish store tour . freshwater pufferfish , nano fish , rare plecos , planted aquariums .\nmy amazonian , a . k . a . patagonian puffer fish , i love him ! i breed snails for him in a separate 2 , 5 gallon tank . he also loves frozen bloodworms , but he really needs snail to keep his teeth at correct size .\ntypes of freshwater puffer fish for your aquarium | golden puffer , dwarf , amazonian etc .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed ) . catalog of fishes . urltoken electronic version accessed 03 - nov - 2014\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nbetta fish care infographic , a handy cheat sheet that will benefit any keepers of siamese fighting fish .\nfish tank care . guide to fish care with a simple look at aquarium filtration , how to clean a fish tank , and a fish tank maintenance schedule .\npiranhas , one of the most efficient predators with razor sharp teeth and a ferocious nature . piranha fish species , description , information , habitat , and more !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\nwe have two large iridescent sharks we are looking to find another home for . our tank is too small and they are very large . do you have a big tank ? do you know they can grow 3 - 4 feet ? where are you located ?\nlooking for medaka rice fish . what ever species you may have for sale .\ni ' m looking to but a balloon kissing gourami . any idea where i can get one ?\ni live in simcoe ontario . i need help trimming my amazon bee puffer ' s teeth . can anyone help me ? i tried it myself but had no success . norma\nthe amazon puffer , also known as the south american pufferfish ( sap ) , is a very popular member of the tetraodontidae family of puffer fish . although many puffers look cute and comical , most of them have a mean streak and will at least do some kind of damage to tank mates that are slow or that have long fins . the amazon puffer is the exception to this rule . it is a peaceful fish , almost to the point of being shy so they cannot be kept with aggressive tank mates . even so it is a puffer and can nip fins , though usually just at feeding time .\nthe peaceful nature of this south american freshwater puffer , and the fact that it is one of the few puffers that naturally exists in pure freshwater makes , it a good choice for a community tank . constantly on the move , this is an active , intelligent , and curious fish . they appreciate a well planted aquarium along with some open swimming space .\nbecause of the puffers habit of nipping , long - finned slow moving fish like angelfish and gouramis are not recommended . most other fast moving community fish will do fine . keep in mind that puffers need much more space then typical community fish so the 1 inch a gallon rule does not apply . amazon puffers will need 15 gallons per puffer , so keep that in mind when stocking your tank .\nthe amazon puffer normally grows to around 3 inches , but they have been recorded to reach around 5 inches . they are very hardy and can live in a wide range of water types . puffers are recommend for intermediate to advance fish keepers . this is because of the possible need to have to trim your puffers teeth to prevent overgrowth .\nwatch the video to see how an amazon puffer might interact inside a well populated and nicely planted community tank . though the video doesn ' t always focus on the amazon puffer , it does for a while and the fish can be seen clearly many times and can also be seen flitting through the plants and decor in the background .\nin their natural habitat the amazon puffer feeds on benthic crustaceans , fish , planktonic invertebrates , and plants .\ndiffer from other fresh water puffers in that they do not guard their eggs . they spawn in rivers during the wet season leaving their in eggs on the river bottom and the larvae drift downstream . breeding has not yet been successful in captivity .\ngroups - they get nervous when kept solitary , so groups of 3 or more are preferred .\nthe amazon puffer looks a bit like an overstuffed bumblebee , thus its alternate common name ' bee puffer ' . these fish may have a golden cast to the upper parts of their bodies getting lighter and whiter on the underside , and with several dark bold partial bands . like many of the pufferfish however , the coloring of the amazon puffer can vary . not all will be as bold in coloration ; some may be more uniform in color and the band patterning may be faint .\nthe most prominent identification of this puffer is a large dark spot on the underside just before the caudal fin . this dark spot is how to tell the difference between the amazon puffer and the banded puffer\nis larger then the amazon . amazon puffers have been record to grow to a maximum length of around 5 inches ( 14cm ) . the pufferfish can be quite long lived in the aquarium , many living for 10 or more years .\npuffer fish have the ability to ' puff ' themselves up with water or air if threatened . this is a defense mechanism to help keep them from being eaten . another defense of many puffer species , including this puffer , is to produce toxic substances in their flesh that is poisonous if eaten .\n5 . 0 inches ( 12 . 70 cm ) - normally these fish reach around 3 inches in length , but have been recorded to grow up to 5 inches ( 14 cm ) .\nthe amazon puffer is for the most part an easy fish to keep . because they are a migratory fish caught in the wild , they can be kept in many different environments and be healthy and happy . but these fish are not for everyone ! they are scaleless so are prone to more diseases . they also have a fast growing teeth that will at one time or another need to be physically clipped . even with the proper diet in an aquarium setting it is inevitable that you will need to clip their teeth .\nthe amazon puffer needs more space the most\ncommunity\ntype fish . they require 15 gallons per puffer , so take space may become an issue . they also require bigger filters and more frequent water changes because they are such messy eaters . but if you are up for the challenge , these guys will make for an exciting and attractive addition to your tank .\nit is very important to feed your puffer shelled foods daily as this will help to keep their teeth from overgrowing to often . do not introduce malaysian trumpet snails ; there shells are much to hard and will break the puffers teeth . this being said it is still likely that a amazon puffer owner will still need to trim their puffers teeth one or 2 times a year . if their teeth become overgrown they will not be able to eat and will starve .\nsome of diet - be careful with feeder fish however , as they can pass disease when introduced to your tank .\nseveral feedings per day - be careful not to over feed , these fish will beg constantly .\nsince puffer fish do not have gill covers or scales , they are thought to be more susceptible to diseases , nitrite , nitrate and ammonia levels . like all puffers , the amazon puffer is not a good fish to cycle an aquarium with . also because they usually don ' t eat all of their food ( messy eaters ! ) , these fish will usually put more load on the aquarium filtration requiring more frequent water changes and better maintenance in general .\na generous weekly water change of 30 % to 50 % is the standard recommendation for a puffer aquarium . a larger then normal canister filter will be required and should turn the tank over 6 - 10 times per hour . this south american freshwater puffer is especially sensitive upon arrival to a new aquarium , though once it is acclimated it is quite hardy .\nthe amazon puffer doesn ' t require a large aquarium , so a 15 gallon aquarium will work fine . however if you want to keep more than one or some other species with them , a well planted 20 - 30 gallon aquarium is better . this puffer fish is a freshwater species that migrates into brackish to fresh water areas . it can do well in low salinity environments up to sg 1 . 005 .\nthe setup of you aquarium is extremely important in keeping your curious puffer healthy and stress free . it is important to remember these puffers are wild caught and swim up and down currents in nature . this makes it important to have some rotating power heads to create current . puffers are very messy eaters so providing a larger canister filter that will turn the tank water over 6 to 10 times per hour is recommend . this type of filtration will also help with water movement .\nthe substrate for the tank should be made up of sand ; puffers enjoy rooting around in the sand . you will notice when the puffer fish see their reflection they frantically go up and down the glass . to stop their anxiety planting the tank with tall plants with twisted rooted plant throughout the tank and especially each corner will cut down the reflection . these plant will also provide needed cover and a swimming area to weave in and out of to keep them entertained .\nin the wild these puffers can be found floating in small groups under logs and plants . so have some floating drift wood in the tank to make them feel secure . the top of the tank should have a secure complete cover , these guys are great jumpers .\nyes - a nano tank is fine as long as it meets the size requirements and has proper filtration .\nthe amazon puffer fish are peaceful so they can be kept with other non - aggressive species in a community tank . even so this is still a puffer and will nip fins , though usually just at feeding time . it is always good to have 3 or more amazon puffers together . slower moving long - finned fish are not recommend ( angel fish , gourami , long fin tetras ) .\nwith a properly setup aquarium that does not cause the puffer boredom it can be a great tank mate . amazon puffers are none to enjoy the attention of their owners and get excited when they see you . they can be taught little tricks with food reward systems which also helps keep them from getting bored and feeds their natural curiosity .\nyes - the amazon puffer is venomous if it is consumed , as these fish harbor toxic substances in their flesh .\nmay be aggressive - these puffer fish feed on benthic crustaceans in the wild .\nthe amazon puffer fish has not been bred in captivity . in the wild ,\ndiffer from other fresh water puffers in that they do not guard their eggs . they spawn in rivers during the wet season leaving their in eggs on the river bottom and the larvae drift downstream .\nthe amazon puffer does not have gill covers or scales which make it more prone to disease . puffers are normally the first fish in a tank to show signs of ick and will twitch and rub around the tank . they respond well to most medication and normally heal quickly . never use copper in an amazon puffer tank .\nanother common issue , though not a disease ; puffer ' s teeth grow very fast and if not wore down or clipped will lead to overgrowth and starvation . in an aquarium ; even when feeding snails and other shelled foods , there is still normally a chance you will have to trim their teeth . this sound much worse then it is . to accomplish this carefully place puffer in a container of water without exposing them to the air . add 3 drops of clove oil per liter of water ; this will temporarily sedate the puffer so you can hold the puffer in your hand more easily . you will need cuticle clippers ; use these to clip bottom and top teeth . once done put puffer in a container or net that will have the current flowing over them . once awake release back into tank .\nbecause the amazon puffer is wild caught it could carry internal parasites , so if it hasn ' t been done a de - worming would be smart . for more information about freshwater fish diseases and illnesses , see aquarium fish diseases and treatments .\namazon puffer fish are commonly available from pet stores and online , and are moderately priced .\nglen s . axelrod , brian m . scott , neal pronek , encyclopedia of exotic tropical fishes for freshwater aquariums , tfh publications , 2005\ni live in simcoe ontario . i need help trimming my amazon bee puffer ' s teeth . can anyone help me ? i tried it myself but had no success .\njust to let everyone know , i did successfully trim my amazon puffer ' s teeth . it ' s funny , they were shy of me before i did it and now they are always at the front of the tank when i look at them . it ' s like we ' ve bonded lol\nhello . if you add live purple rock they will trim their teeth by chewing on live rock . hope this helps .\ni have a 10 gallon tank along with 5 goldfish , i ' ve got hiding spots and decor and fake plants . i was at walmart and saw the litter spotted green puffer . the lady in the fish department gave me very little info on him . she said he eats just flakes , and use the aquarium salt . i bought him and the jungle aquarium salt . thankfully i still have a can of blood worms to hold him over besides the flakes until i go buy some other foods / snails for him . little did i know what i was getting into . what kind of snails would i buy to feed him ? i ' m going to go buy some real plants for him to nibble on too . do you think my little guy will survive in my tank ?\nspotted puffers ( tetraodon nigroviridis ) from walmart are typically brackish water and will not survive , sadly in your tank . puffers are referred to as ' aqua dogs ' due to their personality , and the fact that they chew on whatever they can . keep your wires out of reach . they will grow up to 5 ' and they are semi - aggressive . they really need their own tank and brackish water is not too hard to keep , sort of between salt and fresh . as little juveniles , like many fish , they are found in fresh water , then migrate to estuaries , or brackish water . if it is still young enough to deal with the fresh water , it will go after your goldfish .\ni would suggest buying another tank for your puffer if you are in love with it , and look up a little more information and your puffer will reward you with years of companionship . they do need to be entertained too ! if you don ' t want to do all of this , then i would say to return the puffer to the store .\nif you want a true freshwater puffer , they are out there , just do the research before buying , and even then , do not put in with goldfish . hope that helps and have fun with your spotted aqua dog !\nthey are not gold fish but * glofish * their little neon tetra sort of fish and i ' ve been keeping a eye on them and they seem to be getting along . i do plan on getting him a 20gal tank tomorrow just for him . he is quite adorable and i do want to keep him , hoping he lives and heals because his fins are severely chewed up . i read they are omnivorious and need alot of meat like live crustaceans and freezed bloodworms or shrimp and snails to keep there teeth in check . he ' s only a inch big right now , would anyone recommend what to feed him till he gets bigger ?"]}
{"id": 693, "summary": [{"text": "corynactis is a genus of colonial anthozoans similar in appearance to sea anemones and in body format to scleractinian stony corals .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "these animals are cnidarians in the family corallimorphidae . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "corynactis", "paragraphs": ["species corynactis mediterranea sars m . , 1857 accepted as corynactis viridis allman , 1846\nthe corynactis genus are disease resistant , and only affected by improper husbandry . warmer water than suggested will eventually kill any corynactis from temperate waters .\ncorynactis viridis on the wreck of the mohegan at the manacles , southwest cornwall .\ncorynactis viridis on the hull of the wreck of the city of westminster , manacles , southwest cornwall .\na cluster of corynactis californica at the monterey bay aquarium , ca . polyps are 1 to 1 . 5 cm diameter .\n( of corynactis allmanni ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of corynactis allmannii ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - jewel anemone ( corynactis viridis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - jewel anemone ( corynactis viridis )\ntitle =\narkive species - jewel anemone ( corynactis viridis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\n( of corynactis allmani thompson , 1847 ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of corynactis gracilis farquhar , 1898 ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of corynactis haddoni farquhar , 1898 ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of corynactis mollis farquhar , 1898 ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of corynactis albida stuckey , 1909 ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of corynactis viridis var . chrysochlorina gosse ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of corynactis viridis var . hyalocera fischer ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of corynactis viridis var . smaragdina gosse ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of corynactis viridis var . tephrina gosse ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nto cite this page : rouse , i . 1999 .\ncorynactis californica\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\n( of corynactis mediterranea sars m . , 1857 ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nthe corynactis genus will only get along with their own species , and will not even tolerate mushroom species outside their colony . even in one genus , if the color is different , again a different species , the weaker mushroom will detach and find another location . strong water movement will also cause them to detach as well . slow moving fish and shrimp run a risk of being consumed by the corynactis genus .\npicton , b . e . & morrow , c . c . ( 2016 ) . corynactis viridis allman , 1846 . [ in ] encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland . urltoken accessed on 2018 - 07 - 09\nencyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland marine life information network - uk to biodiversity heritage library ( 114 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 6 publications ) ( from synonym corynactis mediterranea sars m . , 1857 ) to encyclopedia of life to encyclopedia of life ( from synonym corynactis mediterranea sars m . , 1857 ) to genbank ( 8 nucleotides ; 0 proteins ) to marine species identification portal to pesi to usnm invertebrate zoology cnidaria collection ( 50 records ) to itis\ncare needs to be taken when housing these animals . the corynactis genus are aggressive . if they are near another coral they can cause other corals to loose tissue , recess and / or die . they typically overtake other corals as they multiply . the\nthis view shows corynactis californica in front and the orange cup coral balanophyllia elegans in the back , to show their similarities and differences . note the empty skeletons of balanophyllia elegans encrusting the rock . photo at monterey bay aquarium by dave cowles , august 2010 .\n( of corynactis gracilis farquhar , 1898 ) den hartog , j . c . & van der land , j . ( 2000 - 2007 ) . as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of corynactis haddoni farquhar , 1898 ) den hartog , j . c . & van der land , j . ( 2000 - 2007 ) . as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of corynactis mollis farquhar , 1898 ) den hartog , j . c . & van der land , j . ( 2000 - 2007 ) . as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of corynactis mediterranea sars m . , 1857 ) den hartog , j . c . & van der land , j . ( 2000 - 2007 ) . as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nager , o . e . d . ( 2001 ) corynactis viridis . jewel anemone marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information sub - programme . [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . ( november , 2003 ) urltoken\nnanette e . chadwick , department of zoology , univ . of california , berkeley , interspecific aggressive behavior of the corallimorpharian corynactis californica ( cnidaria : anthozoa ) : effect on sympatric corals and sea anemones , licensed to jstor by american society of ichthyologists and herpetologists , copyright 2000 - 2006\nthis is a short and squat anemone with a smooth column . the anemone has up to 100 tentacles , each ending in a small knob . corynactis viridis is brilliantly coloured and can be green , pink , red , orange or white in various combinations . usually the disc , tentacles and tentacle tips are contrasting colours .\nager , o . e . d . ( 2001 ) corynactis viridis . jewel anemone marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information sub - programme . [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 27 / 11 / 2003 ] . available on - line at : urltoken\nager , o . e . d . 2007 . corynactis viridis jewel anemone . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken\nthe jewel anemone ( corynactis viridis ) is so - called because of its spectacular colouration . individuals may be bright green , orange , red , pink or white and the tentacles and their tips are typically contrasting colours ( 3 ) . the body of this anemone , correctly known as the \u2018column\u2019 is smooth , and has a rather squat appearance ( 3 ) . up to 100 tentacles , each terminating in a small swelling , are arranged in three rings around the mouth , which is situated at the top of a small cone ( 4 ) .\nfautin , d . g . ( 2013 ) . world list of corallimorpharia .\nvan der land , j . ; den hartog , j . h . ( 2001 ) . actiniaria , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 106 - 109 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\ncairns , s . d . ; gershwin , l . ; brook , f . j . ; pugh , p . ; dawson , e . w . ; oca\u00f1a o . v . ; vervoort , w . ; williams , g . ; watson , j . e . ; opresko , d . m . ; schuchert , p . ; hine , p . m . ; gordon , d . p . ; campbell , h . j . ; wright , a . j . ; s\u00e1nchez , j . a . ; fautin , d . g . ( 2009 ) . phylum cnidaria : corals , medusae , hydroids , myxozoans . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 1 . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . pp . 59 - 101 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of pseudocorynactis den hartog , 1980 ) van der land , j . ; den hartog , j . h . ( 2001 ) . actiniaria , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 106 - 109 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of pseudocorynactis den hartog , 1980 ) nomenclator zoologicus online . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of sphincteractis zamponi , 1976 ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of sphincteractis zamponi , 1976 ) van der land , j . ( ed ) . ( 2008 ) . unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( urmo ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of draytonia duchassaing de fombressin & michelotti , 1864 ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ncorynactus californica are found in abundance on temperate rocky shores and on tropical coral reefs . they can be found anywhere from the lower intertidal zone to at least 50 meters in depth .\nreproduce asexually by fission and budding . aggregations of different colors produce polyps of the same color ; color of the species appears to be controlled genetically .\ncorynactus californicus can be found forming clonal aggregates , which cover large areas of hard substrate . they can be found on rock reefs , where they attain densities of up to 3000 polyps per square meter . they have an aggressive nature and may extrude their mesenterial filaments onto other anthozoans , such as corals and sea anemones . this contact with\ncorynactus californica extrudes mesenterial filaments onto its prey , which includes brine shrimp , other sessile organisms living within its community , and pieces of dead fish . the mesenterial filaments are used for digestion and absorption of food in the coelenteron . if the prey is too large to take into the coelenteron , the mesenterial filaments are used to digest it externally .\nincrease the density of rock oysters and mussels by protecting them from predatory sea stars .\ncompetition from this species may reduce the diversity of the marine communities in which they dwell .\nbody of water between the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , australia , asia , and the western hemisphere . this is the world ' s largest ocean , covering about 28 % of the world ' s surface .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\na form of body symmetry in which the parts of an animal are arranged concentrically around a central oral / aboral axis and more than one imaginary plane through this axis results in halves that are mirror - images of each other . examples are cnidarians ( phylum cnidaria , jellyfish , anemones , and corals ) .\nstructure produced by the calcium carbonate skeletons of coral polyps ( class anthozoa ) . coral reefs are found in warm , shallow oceans with low nutrient availability . they form the basis for rich communities of other invertebrates , plants , fish , and protists . the polyps live only on the reef surface . because they depend on symbiotic photosynthetic algae , zooxanthellae , they cannot live where light does not penetrate .\nchadwick , nanette e . 1987 . interspecific behavior of the corallimorpharion corynactuscalifornica : effects on sympatric corals and sea anemones . the biological bulliten , 173 : & 110 - 25 .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthe jewel anemone reproduces by splitting in half , using a process called \u2018longitudinal fission\u2019 .\nthis anemone is often found in very large aggregations in suitable habitats , particularly on vertical surfaces ( 2 ) . it reproduces asexually by means of \u2018longitudinal fission\u2019 , in which means that individuals spilt in half . sometimes this fission is not complete and two anemones may remain partially attached ( 5 ) .\nthis anemone is common on the south and western coasts of britain ( 4 ) and reaches the northern extreme of its range in the shetland isles ( 3 ) . it is found as far south as the mediterranean ( 4 ) .\nyou can view distribution information for this species at the national biodiversity network atlas .\nfound on rocks in shaded places such as beneath overhangs and in crevices on the lower shore ( 2 ) , extending down to the sublittoral to depths of about 80 m ( 3 ) .\nthere may be further information about this species available via the national biodiversity network atlas .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nasexually of asexual reproduction : reproduction that does not involve the formation of sex cells ( \u2018gametes\u2019 ) . in many species , asexual reproduction can occur by fission ( or in plants \u2018vegetative reproduction\u2019 ) ; part of the organism breaks away and develops into a separate individual . some animals , including vertebrates can develop from unfertilised eggs , this process , known as parthenogenesis gives rise to offspring that are genetically identical to the parent . sublittoral a marine zone between the littoral zone ( the shallow zone where light reaches the bed , subject to submersion and exposure by tides ) and depths of around 200m .\nfish , j . d . and fish , s . ( 1989 ) a student\u2019s guide to the seashore . unwin hyman ltd . , london .\ngibson , r . , hextall , b . and rogers , a . ( 2001 ) photographic guide to the sea & shore life of britain and north - west europe . oxford university press , oxford .\npicton , b . e . and morrow , c . c . ( 2002 ) [ in ] encyclopaedia of marine life of britain and ireland . ( september , 2003 ) urltoken\ngetty images 101 bayham street london nw1 0ag united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 800 376 7981 sales @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis is a uk rocky shore species . visit our habitat page to learn more .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nden hartog , j . c . & van der land , j . ( 2000 - 2007 ) . as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nfautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\n) ( average height and diameter is 1 cm ) . may be colored red , crimson , pink , purple , pale blue , lavender , brown , orange , buff , or nearly white .\nhow to distinguish from similar species : there are no other anemone - like species in our area with club - tipped tentacles . the orange cup coral balanophyllia elegans is of similar size and often similar color ( photo ) but has a hard skeleton and does not have club - tipped tentacles .\ngeographical range : this species is said to be common in some areas of southern california but i have not often encountered it . it occurs from british columbia to san martin island , baja california but is rarely found intertidally north of california .\nhabitat : rocky shores ( under rock ledges ) , concrete wharf pilings , plastic foam floats . especially where there are strong currents .\nbiology / natural history : the knobbed tentacles contain very large cnidae , easy to view under the microscope . undischarged cnidae have osmotic pressures up to 140 atmospheres . has been observed in the lab to defend against attack by anthopleura elegantissima by extending its cnidae - rich mesenteries through the mouth . this species reproduces asexually by longitudinal fission . clones are all the same color . feeds on copepods , nauplius larvae , and other small animals .\ngeneral references : barnes , 1980 gotshall and laurent , 1979 kozloff , 1993 morris et al . , 1980\ngeneral notes and observations : locations , abundances , unusual behaviors , etc . :\nsince they do not have a solid skeleton as does balanophyllia elegans , the polyps can stretch out quite tall , as seen in this photo . taken at monterey bay aquarium by dave cowles , august 2010 .\nthese individuals from the monterey bay aquarium show another color variation - - strongly white tentacles .\nreaches its northern limit in shetland . it is found around the south and west coasts of britain and all around ireland .\nrecorded around the british isles , south - west europe and into the mediterranean .\noccurs from the lower shore and into the subtidal to about 50 m ( sometimes to 80 m ) on rocks , in caves and beneath overhangs where it is shaded from light . the anemone is often found in dense aggregations especially on vertical rock faces .\nbase up to 10 mm in diameter and up to 15 mm in height .\nfish , j . d . & fish , s . , 1996 . a student ' s guide to the seashore . cambridge : cambridge university press .\nhayward , p . , nelson - smith , t . & shields , c . 1996 . collins pocket guide . sea shore of britain and northern europe . london : harpercollins .\nhayward , p . j . & ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) 1995b . handbook of the marine fauna of north - west europe . oxford : oxford university press .\nhowson , c . m . & picton , b . e . , 1997 . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . belfast : ulster museum . [ ulster museum publication , no . 276 . ]\njncc ( joint nature conservation committee ) , 1999 . marine environment resource mapping and information database ( mermaid ) : marine nature conservation review survey database . [ on - line ] urltoken\nmanuel , r . l . , 1988 . british anthozoa . london : academic press . [ synopses of the british fauna , no . 18 . ]\npicton , b . e . & costello , m . j . , 1998 . biomar biotope viewer : a guide to marine habitats , fauna and flora of britain and ireland . [ cd - rom ] environmental sciences unit , trinity college , dublin . , urltoken\nmarine life information network ( marlin ) , the marine biological association of the uk ( see contact us ) \u00a9 2018 the marine biological association of the uk , all rights reserved .\nthe information ( text only ) provided by the marine life information network ( marlin ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available here . based on a work at urltoken\nusually forms dense colonies of many specimens on rocks . although the meaning of its latin name (\n) is green , the colour of the specimens is very variable , green , orange , red , etc .\nand belongs to the order corallimorpharia ( not to order actiniaria ) . it occurs in mediterranean sea and around west europe .\nmini reef aquarium guide . reef aquarium setup for large reef tanks , nano reef tanks , pico reef or micro reef aquariums with reef tank lighting , filtration , choosing coral reef animals , and problem solving !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\ni ' d love to give your clam a new house . i have 110g reef tank set up 25 hrs . he ' d love it !\ni would like to purchase a quantity of aiptasia for my berghia nudibranch . if you have some available , please respond . bobtc100 @ urltoken\ngenus come in oranges , greens , pinks , and reds , which can be almost fluorescent and are extremely vibrant . these colors look especially awesome with animals that have clear tentacles and contrasting colored tips . to top that off , those tentacles can then be branching tentacles .\nthe strawberry anemone , or club tipped anemone , is an amazing variation to the corallimorphidae family . these corallimorphs grow only to 1\n( 2 . 5 cm ) , so they can be kept in a small nano reef of just 1 gallon or more . some other common names it is known by are the california sea anemone , californian coral anemone , club tipped sea anemone , california club - ray , and strawberry corallimorpharian .\nthis is truly an amazing animal that will be a great addition to your cold water aquarium . only a few relatives of this group live in warmer waters . for the most part , chillers are essential for these mushroom corals . they also cannot handle high water flow and need very little light . its suggested that they be hand fed at night as many\nthe strawberry anemone is a hardy , durable cold water species . they do need cool temperatures that would require a chiller . but if given a cold water reef environment with proper care and feeding , they can do well . also with the correct husbandry they will reproduce in captivity .\nwas described by carlgren in 1936 . other common names this mushroom coral is known by are california sea anemone , californian coral anemone , club tipped sea anemone , california club - ray , and strawberry corallimorpharian .\nis commonly known as the jewel coral anemone . other common names these corallimorphs are known for are white ball corallimorph , and orange ball corallimorph .\ngenus are found in the eastern pacific and north atlantic oceans in temperate waters . there are only a few that are from tropical waters , but these are rare and not as available to aquarists . the\nis found in the eastern pacific ocean , carpeting the bottom of the cambell river in british columbia and monterey bay in california .\ngenus are sometimes found attached to live rock , although are also found in sandy and rocky areas near the reefs . they are found at various depths , often in groups . the members of the\nfamily , in contrast to true anemones , are not colonial . they may live in groups but there is no contact between the individuals .\nare found in various other areas as well , like shaded vertical rocks over 300 feet deep ( 90 m ) and also tide pools in temperatures that range from 59\u00b0 to 68\u00b0 f ( 15\u00b0 - 20\u00b0 c ) . under the correct husbandry they will reproduce in captivity . predators are unknown .\ngenus are basically a coral without a skeleton and their internal structures are the same as stony corals . these corals are closely related to stony corals with basilar muscles , and are less like anemones except for the fact that neither have a calcareous skeletal structure .\nthe top of their body or the upper surface is called the oral disc . the stalk area , which is very small , is called the column and it is located just above the pedal disc which is where they attach to surfaces . on the surface , or oral disc , they have feeding tentacles to capture prey that hold several types of stinging cells . the tentacles are clear to white and have club shaped or fringed tips . they can be white , pink , red , orange , green , and clear in color . the\nis bright red with clear to white tentacles with fringed tentacle tips that can be white or clear .\nthese corals grow to about 1\n( 2 . 5 cm ) depending on the species but their life span is unknown .\nthis corallimorph is rarely available for sale . if you are able to acquire them , the strawberry anemone is quite hardy . they are moderate to difficult to care for since they need cool temperatures that would require a chiller . they also cannot handle high water flow and need very little light . they may need to be hand fed at night as many are nocturnal .\nspecies , yet general good husbandry , water quality , temperature and appropriate feedings are basic . some\nmushroom corals ares from warm and temperate waters . obviously , the warm water species are easier to care for with basic mushroom husbandry .\nthe strawberry anemone or club tipped anemone is a carnivore from temperate waters . all the cool water\nanemones need to be hand fed small pieces of raw fish , shrimp , mussel flesh , and tubifex worms . feed 2 to 3 times per month . warm water\nneed to be fed the same foods several times a week to encourage division .\nwater changes of 10 % bi - monthly or 20 % a month are typical . monitor your water quality for your particular situation and adjust your water changes accordingly . do not over skim since the\ngenus need nutrients to survive on and will not do well in a pristine environment . provide proper magnesium levels , also some claim proper iodine levels are beneficial . due to their toxins , active carbon is also a good idea with larger groups of mushrooms .\nthe typical reef environment is what is needed for your strawberry anemone ; i . e . live rock in a reef environment for cold water . they need live rock or some other solid material they can attach to . this is a cold water animal and a chiller is needed to provide the proper environment .\nwill extrude their mesenteries into certain sea anemones and corals and kill them . they will extend their filaments resulting in all other corals , including zoanthids , to retract , move , or die .\nthe first is called budding , which is when the mushroom will allow a small piece of tissue to grow and form from the parent , which in turn becomes a new animal .\nthe second way is laceration , which happens when they move slowly over the surface and leave behind\nmini - me\npieces that will eventually form into mushrooms .\nthe third way is fission , which is seen a lot in bubble tip anemones , and this is when they basically split themselves right in half , though the center and then wrap back around themselves to create 2 smaller versions .\nthe fourth is called transverse fission where the top is pinched off and floats away to reattach in another spot and start a new colony . the stalk that remains , reforms into a new mushroom clone .\nwill use fission and pedal laceration most of the time , but have also used external fertilization resulting in free - swimmng larva . propagating is fairly easy :\nusing sharp scissors or a scalpel , cut the mushroom in half right down the center , through the mouth .\nif a second cut is wanted , take one of the halves you just cut and cut again through the mouth .\nplace the mushrooms on loose rubble in water flow that is weak to very low . it would be suggested to do this in a small\nrecovery\ntank with the same water as the main display since they may get lost and they also will be exuding a lot of toxins from their little surgery . this will allow them to reattach to a piece of rock and heal , then at that point , they can be moved to the main display .\nthe smell you will experience are the toxins these animals use for pushing other corals out of their growth path . it would be prudent to wash your hands if you didn ' t use gloves . within a few days all of your\ncuts\nwill become new mushrooms and they can now be glued , sewn or pinned where you would like if they have not attached to the rubble .\ngenus are very rarely for sale . they are very difficult to come by and pricing is not possible at this time .\nhelmut debelius and hans a . baensch , marine atlas volume 1 ( baensch marine atlas ) , microcosm ltd , 1997\ncopyright \u00a9 [ animal - world ] 1998 - 2015 . all rights reserved .\ndescription : a small clonal anemone with a smooth column up to 15mm in height and diameter . the disc is wide , the tentacles have rounded knobs at their tips , up to 100 in number . the colour is often brilliant green , red , pink , orange , white or brown , in various combinations , usually the tentacle knobs contrast with the colour of the column . reproduces by longitudinal fission , ie . dividing in half vertically . sometimes the resulting anemones do not separate completely .\nhabitat : lives on rocks , occurring in shaded places low on the shore , or sublittorally down to about 50m , always in strong wave action or tidal streams . usually occurs in large aggregations consisting of patches of similarly coloured clones .\ndistribution : frequent on south and west coasts as far north as northern scotland ; also occurs around southwest europe and in the mediterranean .\nsimilar species : the cup - corals caryophyllia smithii and caryophyllia inornata also have knobbed tentacles of similar appearance , but they possess hard calcareous skeletons .\ndistribution map from nbn : interactive map : national biodiversity network mapping facility , data for uk .\n. sometimes fission is imperfect and the anemones remain connected by a narrow strand of basal tissue .\nand disc , often kept short and almost hidden by the overhanging marginal tentacles .\n: very variable and often brilliant . of the many varieties one of the commonest is bright translucent emerald green , with brown\n- shafts and crimson acrospheres ; a marginal ring of crimson is common in this form . other colours which may occur are white , pink , red , orange , etc . , in various combinations . usually the acrospheres are coloured differently from the\n. the disc is usually plain and translucent , with the mesenteric insertions clearly visible , but in some forms it is splashed with opaque white .\non rocks , occurring on the lower shore in caves or beneath overhangs sheltered from the light . more common sublittorally , down to about 80 m , often forming dense aggregations , particularly on vertical rock faces .\nfrequent to locally abundant on south and west coasts of britain , to extreme northern scotland , and all around ireland . also around south - west europe and in the mediterranean .\n( of melactis annulata verrill , 1867 ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of ropalactis annulata ( verrill , 1867 ) ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nsolitary or semi - colonial corallimorphidae possessing a weak sphincter muscle . acrospheres very distinct .\nsorry , there are no images or audio / video clips available for this taxon .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 697, "summary": [{"text": "the eastern cherry fruit fly , rhagoletis cingulata ( loew ) , is a species of tephritid or fruit flies in the genus rhagoletis of the family tephritidae . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "rhagoletis cingulata", "paragraphs": ["the western cherry fruit fly , rhagoletis indifferens curran , once considered a subspecies of rhagoletis cingulata , occurs in the western united states from idaho and washington southward into california .\nfigure 2 . adult female cherry fruit fly , rhagoletis cingulata ( loew ) . graphic by division of plant industry .\ncherry fruit fly , mouche des cerises , prunus spp . , quarantine pest , regulated non - quarantine pest , rhagoletis cingulata complex\nrhagoletis cingulata attacks both sweet and sour cherries while rhagoletis fausta primarily attacks the sour cherries . because both species are native to the united states , their original food must have been the wild species of cherry .\nrhagoletis cingulata also has been reared from plum ( prunus spp . ) , fringe tree ( chionanthus virginica l . ) and wild olive ( osmanthus americanus ( l . ) gray ) .\nfigure 1 . reported distribution of the cherry fruit fly , rhagoletis cingulata ( loew ) , in florida . figure by g . j . steck and b . d . sutton , division of plant industry .\nlyon mw . larvae of the cherry fruit fly , rhagoletis cingulata , as a pseudoparasite . jama . 1925 ; 84 ( 14 ) : 1041 . doi : 10 . 1001 / jama . 1925 . 26620400004013d\npelz - stelinski ks , gut lj , stelinski ll , liburd oe , isaccs r . 2005 . captures of rhagoletis mendax and r . cingulata ( diptera : tephritidae ) on sticky traps are influenced by adjacent host fruit and fruit juice concentrates . environmental entomology 34 : 1013 - 1018 .\nthese two species closely resemble a third pest species , the apple maggot , rhagoletis pomonella ( walsh ) . the adults of all three species have banded wings .\nr . cingulata is an important pest of cherries in eastern north america . in europe , where it is found in cherry growing regions , it attacks late cherry varities , often tart cherries .\nthe black cherry fruit fly , rhagoletis fausta ( osten sacken ) , the third species in this complex , occurs across southern canada southward to new york in the east and to california along the west coast .\nhtml public\n- / / softquad software / / dtd hotmetal pro 6 . 0 : : 19990601 : : extensions to html 4 . 0 / / en\nhmpro6 . dtd\nno scientific name , common name or tsn was entered in the search text box . please enter a value into the empty text box .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthese flies are 4\u20135 mm long , just a little smaller than a house fly , and generally black with yellow margins on the thorax . the scutellum is white , the tibiae and tarsi are yellowish , and there are transverse and oblique blackish markings on the wings . the eastern cherry fruit fly has four white crossbands on the abdomen , which are not found on the black cherry fruit fly . the blackish bands on the wings of the black cherry fruit fly are more pronounced .\nthe maggots found in the fruit are yellowish white , up to 1 / 4 inch long and\u2014typical of fly larvae\u2014are pointed at the head end . key characters for the separation of the larval stage from related species are given by phillips ( 1946 ) .\na weevil , the plum curculio , conotrachelus nenuphar ( herbst ) is the most serious pest of cherries and plums , and its larvae may be mistaken for those of the fruit flies . however , plum curculio larvae have heavy chewing mandibles and a bluntly rounded head which readily distinguish them from fruit fly larvae which have sharp - pointed , downward - curved mouth hooks and a sharply pointed head .\nadults emerge from the ground during the spring when cherries are about half grown and feed for a few days on materials on the surface of the leaves and fruit before laying eggs . this is the most vulnerable stage in the fruit fly life cycle and the best time for control . each female may deposit 300 to 400 eggs . only one larva matures in a fruit , although more than one egg may be deposited in a single fruit . after oviposition the eggs hatch in five to eight days , and the young larvae tunnel directly to the surface of the cherry seed . they pass through three instars at an average of 11 days at 77\u00b0f .\nby the time the cherries are ripe , the larvae mature , drop to the ground , and burrow into the soil to a depth of one to three inches where they pupate and eventually overwinter . at first , infested cherries do not fall from the tree and may develop sunken areas . by harvest time as many as 75 % of the cherries may be infested . larvae are likely to be in the fruits of early varieties when harvested , and may pass undetected and be distributed around the country . a few flies emerge in august and september as a second generation , but about 99 % require a year to complete a life cycle .\ndavidson rh , peairs lm . 1966 . insect pests of farm , garden , and orchard . john wiley & sons , inc . , new york . 675 pp .\nphillips vt . 1946 . the biology and identification of trypetid larvae ( diptera : trypetidae ) . memoirs of the american entomological society 12 : 161 .\ngarman p , et al . 1956 . plant pest handbook . connecticut agricultural experiment station bulletin 600 : 1 - 194 .\nglasgow h . 1933 . the host relations of our cherry fruit flies . journal of economic entomology 26 : 431 - 438 .\nmetcalf cl , flint wp , metcalf rl . 1962 . destructive and useful insects , their habits and control . mcgraw - hill book co . , inc . , new york . 1087 pp .\npelz - stelinski ks , gut lj , isaccs r . 2006 . vertical position of traps influences captures of eastern cherry fruit fly ( diptera : tephritidae ) . florida entomologist 89 : 80 - 82 .\nquayle hj . 1941 . insects of citrus and other subtropical fruits . comstock publishing co . , inc . , ithaca , new york . 583 pp .\nstone alan , et al . 1965 . a catalogue of the diptera of america north of mexico . usda agricultural handbook no . 276 . 1696 pp .\nwhite im , elson - harris mm . 1994 . fruit flies of economic significance : their identification and bionomics . cab international . oxon , uk . 601 pp .\nauthor : h . v . weems , jr . ( retired ) , florida department of agriculture and consumer services , division of plant industry .\npublication date : march 2001 . latest revision : january 2012 . reviewed april 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nfrom michigan to new hampshire , southward to florida , over the entire middle and eastern region of the united states and in southeastern and south central canada .\nthe fruits of rosaceae ( prunus serotina ( primary native host ) and 6 other spp . )\nadults emerge from the ground when cherries are half grown , feed on moisture on leaves and fruits at first . lay eggs , up to 400 eggs . larvae hatch in five to eight days and tunnel directly to the surface of the cherry seed . they pass through three instars at an average of 11 days at 77\u00b0f .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nyour browser doesn ' t support javascript or you have disabled javascript . please enable javascript , then refresh this page . javascript is required on this site .\neuropean union funding : for a one - year period ( 2017 - 12 - 16 to 2018 - 12 - 15 ) , eppo has been awarded an eu grant for the further development of the eppo code system ( agreement nb : sante / 2017 / gs / eppo / s12 . 768842 ) . the eu commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information from this project subsequently included in the eppo global database .\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\nattacked fruit will be pitted by oviposition punctures , around which some discoloration usually occurs . infested fruits appear normal until the maggot is nearly full - grown , at which time sunken spots appear . maggots and their frass inside the cherry render the fruit unsalable . infested fruits are more susceptible to fungi . the third larval instar forms one to three holes ( about 1 mm in diameter ) through the skin of the cherry , before it leaves it for pupation in the soil ( frick et al . , 1954 ) .\nupon detection , fallen and infected fruit should be removed and destroyed . this aspect is very important , but normally rarely executed as it costs time and money .\nas a new and environmentally friendly measure , progress has been made with bait sprays ( food bait mixed with low quantities of insecticides ) containing spinosad as an insecticide ( e . g . yee and chapmann , 2005 ; pelz - stelinski et al . , 2006b ; yee and alston , 2006 ; k\u00f6ppler et al . , 2008 ) . bait sprays can be applied as spot treatments on the trees . in comparison with cover sprays , the amount of insecticide used is drastically reduced with bait sprays . constraints in their effectiveness are high population densities and rainfall , because bait sprays up to now are not rainfast . furthermore , infestation sources , i . e . untreated host trees , should not be in the vicinity in order to avoid immigration of fertile females .\nrichard baker , claude bragard , thierry candresse , gianni gilioli , jean - claude gr\u00e9goire , imre holb , michael john jeger , olia evtimova karadjova , christer magnusson , david makowski , charles manceau , maria navajas , trond rafoss , vittorio rossi , jan schans , gritta schrader , gregor urek , irene vloutoglou , wopke van der werf and stephan winter .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbosik , joseph j . , chairman , et al . ( committee on common names of insects )\nnorrbom , a . l . , l . e . carroll , f . c . thompson , i . m . white and a . freidberg / f . c . thompson , ed .\nfruit fly expert identification system and systematic information database . myia , vol . 9\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthis article is only available in the pdf format . download the pdf to view the article , as well as its associated figures and tables .\nthe case of pseudoparasitism here recorded occurred in a boy , aged 22 months . the child is normal in every way . his mother is intelligent , very attentive to him , and carefully supervises his eating ; at least , that is her intention . about aug . 1 , 1924 , she noticed worms in the child ' s stool and consulted dr . milo k . miller of this city . the rather scant stool in which the worms were found was submitted to me for examination . i removed from it six fly larvae , one cherry pip , and a small red bead . three of the larvae were well preserved , but appeared dead . the other three showed the effects of their passage through the human alimentary canal . the larvae were submitted to the bureau of entomology of the united states department of agriculture for identification . mr . f . c . bishop of that bureau reported that they had been identified by mr . c . t . green\ncustomize your jama network experience by selecting one or more topics from the list below .\nour website uses cookies to enhance your experience . by continuing to use our site , or clicking\ncontinue ,\nyou are agreeing to our\ncaught near the village lahonci , desnjak and savci ( eastern part of slovenia ) and radmozanci , close to the slovene - hungarian border ."]}
{"id": 699, "summary": [{"text": "the hoplias aimara , also known as anjumara , manjuma , anjoemara and wolf fish , is a species of freshwater fish found in the rivers of south america . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "hoplias aimara", "paragraphs": ["the hoplias aimara taxonomy paper pdf download site is found right above the video .\nthe most formidable hoplias exported is the king of wolffish : the aimara , or trair\u00e3o ( hoplias aimara and / or h . macrophthalmus ) . juveniles and young adults sport a small black spot behind the gill cover .\nfirst data on the parasites of hoplias aimara ( characiformes ) : description of two new species of gill monogeneans ( dactylogyridae ) .\ntotal weight ( wt ) , standard length ( lp ) and sex of the specimens of hoplias aimara shown in figure 1 .\nspecimens of hoplias aimara examined fresh with their anal fins ( lines indicating the format ) and gonads ( indicated by arrows ) .\nthe newest member of hoplias is also the second most imported species . it was known as hoplias sp . black for many years and described as hoplias curupira in 2009 .\nhoplias aimara is a species of large size and low population density , characteristics that difficult their collection , transportation and storage of specimens in collections .\nfirst data on the parasites of hoplias aimara ( characiformes ) : description of two new species of gill monogeneans ( dactylogyridae ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nvideo of my aimara eating a 10\nmackerel and the armatus eating a 7\none .\nadditional info : although originally described in 1847 by valenciennes , a further description was carried out in 1907 by pellegrin and named hoplias macrophthalmus . further studies were carried out and proved this to be the same species . as hoplias aimara was used first that name takes precedence and the name hoplias macrophthalmus is now defunct .\nmala and aimara are night and day . from what i have seen , aimara needs to be w / lots of mid / upper level swimmers to coexist . its a huge risk as aimara are known to attack nets ( just an example of aggression ) . . . but its getting it to work is where the prize lays\ni can ' t truly say with aimara but i have a curupira with my bass and it works out .\nthe wolffish family has something for everyone : hoplerythrinus unitaeniatus , the smallest , will reach just over 20cm / 8\u201d , while the largest ( hoplias aimara ) will reach 130cm / 51\u201d and more than 30kg / 66lb .\nmattox , g . m . t . , m . toledo - piza & o . t . oyakawa . 2006 . taxonomic study of hoplias aimara ( valenciennes , 1846 ) and hoplias macrophthalmus ( pellegrin , 1907 ) ( ostariophysi , characiformes , erythrinidae ) . copeia , 2006 : 516 - 528 . [ links ]\nthe knowledge of the sex of individuals is important to conserve exploited fish species , as is the case of hoplias aimara , once , knowing their reproductive period , females can be avoided by fishing for the maintenance of fish stocks .\nmoreira j , scholz t , luque jl . first data on the parasites of hoplias aimara ( characiformes ) : description of two new species of gill monogeneans ( dactylogyridae ) . acta parasitol . 2015 ; 60 : 254 - 60\nhoplias microlepis , usnm 293250 , 176 . 2 mm sl , pirre river , tuira , panama .\nthe sub - family consists of three genera , totalling 16 species . the largest group is the genus hoplias with 11 species and we assume that h . aimara and macrophthalmus are separate species , although h . macrophthalmus may be a synonym .\nkaryotypes of hoplias lacerdae and hoplias aimara arranged from giemsa - stained ( a , f ) and c - banded ( b , g ) chromosomes . sequentially dapi - ( c , h ) and cma3 - ( d , i ) stained metaphase chromosomes of both species documenting the gc - rich positive heterochromatic blocks ( arrowed ) . images from h . lacerdae and h . aimara are represented in ( e ) and ( j ) , respectively . bar = 5 \u03bcm bar = 5 \u03bcm\npiranhas are pussycats ! the hoplias of south america are the predators to really fear , says oliver lucanus .\nhoplias aimara shows sexual dimorphism in the morphology of the anal fin in both fresh and fixed specimens . this information adds important data about this species , since this characteristic is visible even in fixed fishes and this process does not cause stiffening of the fins .\nmy point of view like fisher and keeping fish for 9 years is that an aimara smaller or same size of the p . bass will happen nothing .\ndurrieu , g . , maury - brachet , r . and boudou , a . ( 2005 ) goldmining and mercury contamination of the piscivorous fish hoplias aimara in french guiana ( amazon basin ) . ecotoxicology and environmental safety 60 ( 3 ) : 315 - 323 . urltoken\naimara have large and fearsome mouths and will attempt to swallow any other fish in the aquarium , including large loricariids , which their powerful jaws can break apart .\nmoreira j , scholz t , luque jl . first data on the parasites of hoplias aimara ( characiformes ) : description of two new species of gill monogeneans ( dactylogyridae ) . acta parasitol 2015 ; 60 ( 2 ) : 254 - 60 urltoken accessed july 9 , 2018 .\nmattox , g . m . t . , m . toledo - piza and o . t . oyakawa ( 2006 ) taxonomic study of < i > hoplias aimara < / i > ( valenciennes , 1846 ) and < i > hoplias macrophthalmus < / i > ( pellegrin , 1907 ) ( ostariophysi , characiformes , erythrinidae ) . : copeia 2006 ( 3 ) : 516 - 528 .\nmoreira j & scholz t & luque jl . ( 2015 ) . first data on the parasites of hoplias aimara ( characiformes ) : description of two new species of gill monogeneans ( dactylogyridae ) . acta parasitologica , 60 , pp . 254 - 60 . doi : 10 . 1515 / ap - 2015 - 0036\npreferred diet : aimara are not fussy eaters and will except most meaty foods , shrimps , crabs , crayfish , and fish meats are all accepted and variety will help ensure good health .\nno problem once they don ' t fit in each other mouth . . . here in brazil aimara and p . bass live in the same river , lake or dam ! ; d\nmoreira j , scholz t , luque jl :\nfirst data on the parasites of hoplias aimara ( characiformes ) : description of two new species of gill monogeneans ( dactylogyridae ) .\nacta parasitologica , vol . 60 , no . 2 , 2015 , pp . 254 - 60 , urltoken accessed july 9 , 2018 .\nnew and previously described species of urocleidoides ( monogenoidea : dactylogyridae ) infecting the gills and nasal cavities of hoplias malabaricus ( characiformes : erythrinidae ) from brazil .\nmolecular characterization of urocleidoides cuiabai and u . malabaricusi ( monogenea : dactylogyridae ) from the trahira fish hoplias aff . malabaricus in the paran\u00e1 river , brazil .\nhoplias microlepis ( lectotype of macrodon microlepis ) , bmnh 1864 . 1 . 26 . 221 , 269 . 7 mm sl , chagres river , panama .\nhoplias aimara chromosomes showing the 18s rdna ( red ) and 5s rdna ( green ) sites , the ag - nor bearing chromosome pair , and the distribution of ( caa ) 10 , ( ga ) 15 and ( ca ) 15 microsatellites . most conspicuous ( caa ) 10 sites in the long arms of a submetacentric chromosome pair are indicated by arrows . bar = 5 \u03bcm\ntherefore , this study aimed to complete cytogenetic data for another rather neglected hoplias species using conventional and molecular cytogenetic methods . it was aimed to ( 1 ) enhance the knowledge of the karyotype structure of these species ( 2 ) investigate the chromosomal relationships among them and ( 3 ) highlight the contrasting evolutionary pathways inside hoplias genus .\nknown common or trade names : giant trahiras , giant wolf fish , usually called \u2018aimara\u2019 it is important to understand that common names can be applied to many individual species and does not guarantee the correct identification of the fish in question .\nunlike erythrinus and hoplias these wolffish hunt in roving packs , cornering groups of smaller fish , especially characins , or chasing crustaceans and insects in the substrate or along the surface .\ndistribution and environment : across most of the northern parts of south america , brazil , columbia , venezuala , guyana , french guiana and suriname . including rio tocantins , rio xingu , rio tapajos , rio jar , and rio trombetas , in coastal drainages of the guyanas , suriname , and state of amapa , brazil . hoplias aimara live in differing habitats including large rivers , rapids , waterfalls and flooded forest floor environments .\ngill , t . 1903 . a new name ( hoplias ) for the genus macrodon . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 16 : 49 - 52 . [ links ]\nhoplias aimara ( valenciennes , 1847 ) : le bail et al . ( 2012 ) [ statut pour la guyane fran\u00e7aise ] le bail , p . - y . , covain , r . , jegu , m . , fisch - muller , s . , vigouroux , r . & keith , p . 2012 . updated checklist of the freshwater and estuarine fishes of french guiana . cybium , 36 ( 1 ) : 293 - 319 .\nsize : the largest hoplias species with the largest captured record at 120cm . the largest rod and reel record being 101cm . they will easily reach 50cm + in aquaria and often much more .\nmost interesting are hoplias . usually only three species are exported for the hobby and most common is h . malabaricus , being widespread in both the amazon and orinoco lowlands and exported frequently from peru .\nhoplias malabaricus are lazy , moving only when food is added to their environment . juveniles will eat virtually any frozen or live food , but do well with frozen mysis , smelt or cocktail shrimp .\nminor injuries sustained in territorial fights usually heal quickly . large wild hoplias are often caught with severe injuries , missing eyes , deformed jaws and amputated pectoral or ventral fins , but seem otherwise normal .\ngill ( 1903 ) proposed a new name , hoplias , to include all erythrinids previously classified in macrodon , since the latter genus was preoccupied in the sciaenidae . starks ( 1906 ) was the first author to use the new combination for hoplias microlepis , an act followed by subsequent auhors ( e . g . , regan , 1908 , meek & hildebrand , 1916 , eigenmann , 1921 ) .\ntherefore , a general chromosomal conservatism found in the four hoplias species analyzed contrasts with the extensive karyotype diversity that has been observed in other erythrinidae species , notably in the congeneric species h . malabaricus .\nblanco , d . r . , r . l . lui , m . r . vicari , l . a . c . bertollo & o . moreira - filho . 2011 . comparative cytogenetics of giant trahiras hoplias aimara and h . intermedius ( characiformes , erythrinidae ) : chromosomal characteristics of minor and major ribosomal dna and cross - species repetitive centromeric sequences mapping differ among morphologically identical karyotypes . cytogenetic and genome research , 132 : 71 - 78 . [ links ]\nhowever , south america is home to another group of fish that are far more voracious and much more aggressive . this is the family of the amazon wolffishes and they have many names , including trair\u00e3o ( sp . \u2019trai - ron\u2019 ) , aimara , guabina and fasaco .\nnevertheless this species is best kept by experts who can handle the long - term requirements of these big fish . unlike other wolffish h . aimara prefers fast moving water and can be more sensitive in bad water conditions . in low oxygen environment they become very intolerant of each other .\nhoplias curupira are more aggressive , both to each other and towards the keeper . it\u2019s is not unusual to find one approaching the front glass with flaring gills or viciously attacking any object used to trap them .\nmorphometric data of hoplias microlepis . standard length in mm ; values 1 - 14 are percentages of the standard length and values 15 - 22 are percentages of head length . n = number of examined specimens , sd = standard deviation .\nroberts , t . 1969 . osteology and relationships of characoid fishes , particularly the genera hepsetus , salminus , hoplias , ctenolucius , and acestrorhynchus . proceedings of the california academy of sciences , 35 : 391 - 500 . [ links ]\nkaryotypes of hoplias intermedius and hoplias brasiliensis arranged from giemsa - stained ( a , f ) and c - banded ( b , g ) chromosomes . sequentially dapi - ( c , h ) and cma3 - ( d , i ) stained metaphase chromosomes of both species documenting the gc - rich positive heterochromatic blocks ( arrowed ) . images from h . intermedius and h . brasiliensis are represented in ( e ) and ( j ) , respectively . bar = 5 \u03bcm\nos peixes podem exibir dimorfismo sexual conforme suas estrat\u00e9gias reprodutivas . em algumas esp\u00e9cies essa diferencia\u00e7\u00e3o j\u00e1 \u00e9 bem conhecida , no entanto , novos estudos t\u00eam aumentado o n\u00famero de esp\u00e9cies que n\u00e3o precisam de dissec\u00e7\u00e3o dos indiv\u00edduos para o reconhecimento do seu sexo . a esp\u00e9cie hoplias aimara , apesar de muito bem estudada ainda n\u00e3o apresentava registro da presen\u00e7a de caracteres sexuais secund\u00e1rios externos . o conhecimento tradicional de ribeirinhos indicou a possibilidade da exist\u00eancia de dimorfismo sexual para esta esp\u00e9cie que foi estudada em duas unidades de conserva\u00e7\u00e3o no estado do amap\u00e1 , a reserva de desenvolvimento sustent\u00e1vel do rio iratapuru e o parque nacional montanhas do tumucumaque . os indiv\u00edduos capturados , ainda frescos , tiveram sua nadadeira anal examinada e seu sexo confirmado atrav\u00e9s de sua dissec\u00e7\u00e3o . indiv\u00edduos fixados tamb\u00e9m passaram pelo mesmo procedimento . atrav\u00e9s do formato da nadadeira anal , seja em indiv\u00edduos frescos ou fixados , foi poss\u00edvel inferir o sexo de cada indiv\u00edduo , que foi confirmado atrav\u00e9s de sua dissec\u00e7\u00e3o . a esp\u00e9cie hoplias aimara apresenta dimorfismo sexual manifestado na morfologia de sua nadadeira anal . indiv\u00edduos depositados em cole\u00e7\u00f5es podem ter seu sexo observado sem sua dissec\u00e7\u00e3o , acrescentado informa\u00e7\u00f5es importantes \u00e0 biologia dos esp\u00e9cimes .\no grupo de esp\u00e9cies hoplias malabaricus representa um dos problemas taxon\u00f4micos mais complexos na sistem\u00e1tica de peixes neotropicais , com ampla distribui\u00e7\u00e3o em quase todas as bacias da am\u00e9rica do sul e parte da am\u00e9rica central e grande varia\u00e7\u00e3o ou sobreposi\u00e7\u00e3o de prov\u00e1veis caracteres diagn\u00f3sticos . o grande n\u00famero de esp\u00e9cies nominais , muitas delas sem material - tipo conhecido , \u00e9 um fator complicador nessa quest\u00e3o . atualmente , pelo menos tr\u00eas esp\u00e9cies nominais podem ser inclu\u00eddas no grupo de esp\u00e9cies hoplias malabaricus , com base no formato das margens mediais dos dent\u00e1rios e presen\u00e7a de dentes na l\u00edngua : hoplias malabaricus , h . teres e h . microlepis , a \u00faltima sendo a \u00fanica esp\u00e9cie exclusivamente trans - andina do g\u00eanero conhecida at\u00e9 o momento . apresentamos aqui um estudo taxon\u00f4mico de hoplias microlepis , com exame dos s\u00edntipos e exemplares coletados mais recentemente , incluindo uma redescri\u00e7\u00e3o da esp\u00e9cie . hoplias microlepis distribui - se nas bacias da costa pac\u00edfica do panam\u00e1 e sudoeste da costa rica , al\u00e9m da bacia do r\u00edo guayas no equador e regi\u00e3o pr\u00f3xima \u00e0 sua foz ( r\u00edo tumbes , noroeste do peru ) . registros da esp\u00e9cie na costa atl\u00e2ntica do panam\u00e1 s\u00e3o restritos \u00e0 zona do canal , sugerindo dispers\u00e3o atrav\u00e9s do canal do panam\u00e1 . s\u00e3o designados tamb\u00e9m lect\u00f3tipo e paralect\u00f3tipos .\nborn , g . g . & l . a . c . bertollo . 2001 . comparative cytogenetics among allopatric populations of the fish hoplias malabaricus . cytotypes with 2n = 42 chromosomes . genetica , 110 : 1 - 9 . [ links ]\nborn , g . g . & l . a . c . bertollo . 2006 . a new sympatric region for distinct karyotypic forms of hoplias malabaricus ( pisces , erythrinidae ) . brazilian journal of biology , 66 : 205 - 210 . [ links ]\nazevedo , p . , gomes , al . , 1943 . contribui\u00e7\u00e3o ao estudo da biologia da tra\u00edra hoplias malabaricus ( bloch , 1974 ) . boletim da ind\u00fastria animal , vol . 5 , no . 4 , p . 15 - 64 . [ links ]\nhoplias lacerdae chromosomes showing the 18s rdna ( red ) and 5s rdna ( green ) sites , the ag - nor bearing chromosome pair and the distribution of ( caa ) 10 , ( ga ) 15 and ( ca ) 15 microsatellites . bar = 5 \u03bcm\nin the aquarium h . aimara is prized , but not easy to keep . particularly large specimens will even hit the glass when the aquarium is approached , breaking their jaws , teeth , or glass itself . at over 30cm / 12\u201d they are difficult to keep \u2014 at over 100cm / 40\u201d they are best kept in acrylic tanks and left to experts .\ncioffi , m . b . & l . a . c . bertollo . 2010 . initial steps in xy chromosome differentiation in hoplias malabaricus and the origin of an x1x2y sex chromosome system in this fish group . heredity , 105 : 554 - 561 . [ links ]\ncioffi , m . b . , c . martins & l . a . c . bertollo . 2009a . comparative chromosome mapping of repetitive sequences . implications for genomic evolution in the fish , hoplias malabaricus . bmc genetics , 10 : 34 - 45 . [ links ]\ndergam , j . a . & l . a . c . bertollo . 1990 . karyotypic diversification in hoplias malabaricus ( osteichthyes , erythrinidae ) of s\u00e3o francisco and alto paran\u00e1 basins , brazil . brazilian journal of genetics , 13 : 755 - 766 . [ links ]\noyakawa , o . t . 1990 . revis\u00e3o sistem\u00e1tica das esp\u00e9cies do g\u00eanero hoplias ( grupo lacerdae ) da amaz\u00f4nia brasileira e regi\u00e3o leste do brasil ( teleostei : erythrinidae ) . unpublished ms . c . dissertation , universidade de s\u00e3o paulo , s\u00e3o paulo , 114p . [ links ]\nh . curupira will try to swallow fish almost up to their own size and may attack larger fish . when keeping them in a community aquarium choose only robust tank mates of considerably larger size . breeding behaviour is not known in the aquarium , but likely similar to other hoplias species .\nmap of northwestern south america and part of central america showing geographic distribution of hoplias microlepis based on material examined herein ( star and dots ) and records from literature ( squares ) . star indicates type - locality at chagres river , panama . some symbols may represent more than one lot .\noyakawa , o . t . & g . m . t mattox . 2009 . revision of the neotropical trahiras of the hoplias lacerdae species - group ( ostariophysi : characiformes : erythrinidae ) with descriptions of two new species . neotropical ichthyology , 7 : 117 - 140 . [ links ]\nconservative karyotype characteristics ( i ) shared by different hoplias species contrasted with highly divergent karyotypes ( ii ) displayed by representatives of h . malabaricus group , with seven major karyomorphs ( a - g ) . in ( ii ) , boxed karyomorphs share morphological chromosomal characteristics which differ between the two boxed sets\ncioffi , m . b . , e . kejnovsky & l . a . c . bertollo . 2011a . the chromosomal distribution of microsatellite repeats in the genome of the wolf fish hoplias malabaricus , focusing on the sex chromosomes . cytogenetic and genome research , 132 : 289 - 296 . [ links ]\naguirre , w . e . , v . r . shervette , r . navarrete , p . calle & s . agorastos . 2013 . morphological and genetic divergence of hoplias microlepis ( characiformes : erythrinidae ) in rivers and artificial impoundments of western ecuador . copeia , 2013 : 312 - 323 . [ links ]\nrosa , r . , m . caetano - filho , o . a . shibatta & l . giuliano - caetano . 2009 . cytotaxonomy in distinct populations of hoplias aff . malabaricus ( characiformes , erythrinidae ) from lower paranapanema river basin . journal of fish biology , 75 : 2682 - 2694 . [ links ]\noyakawa , ot . and mattox , gmt . , 2009 . revision of the neotropical trahiras of the hoplias lacerdae species - group ( ostariophysi : characiformes : erythrinidae ) with descriptions of two new species . neotropical ichthyology , vol . 7 , no . 2 , p . 117 - 140 . urltoken . [ links ]\nthe erythrinidae is a neotropical characiform family comprising three extant genera , erythrinus scopoli , hoplerythrinus gill , and hoplias gill , the latter constituting the most speciose of the three ( oyakawa , 2003 ) . oyakawa ( 1990 ) and oyakawa & mattox ( 2009 ) defined three groups within hoplias : the h . macrophthalmus group which comprises a single valid species , h . aimara ( valenciennes ) ( see mattox et al . , 2006 ) , the h . lacerdae group currently including five valid species ( h . australis oyakawa & mattox , h . brasiliensis ( spix ) , h . curupira oyakawa & mattox , h . intermedius ( g\u00fcnther ) and h . lacerdae miranda - ribeiro , see oyakawa & mattox , 2009 ) and the h . malabaricus group , still lacking a proper taxonomic approach . contrary to what was mentioned by blanco et al . ( 2010 ) , h . aimara is not included in the h . lacerdae group , but rather assigned to the h . macrophthalmus group ( see mattox et al . , 2006 ; oyakawa & mattox , 2009 ) . this error has been repeated by subsequent authors ( e . g . , blanco et al . , 2011 ; cioffi et al . , 2012 ; marques et al . , 2013 ) . similarly , h . microlepis ( g\u00fcnther ) and h . teres ( valenciennes ) were not included in the h . lacerdae group as stated by marques et al . ( 2013 ) , but rather belong to the h . malabaricus group ( see below ) .\nbertollo , l . a . c . , m . s . fontes , a . s . fenocchio & j . cano . 1997 . the x1x2y sex chromosome system in the fish hoplias malabaricus . i . g - , c - and chromosome replication banding . chromosome research , 5 : 493 - 499 . [ links ]\nbifi , a . g . 2013 . revis\u00e3o taxon\u00f4mica das esp\u00e9cies do grupo hoplias malabaricus ( bloch , 1794 ) ( characiformes : erythrinidae ) da bacia do rio da prata . unpublished ph . d . dissertation , universidade estadual de maring\u00e1 , paran\u00e1 , 51p . avaliable from : urltoken ( 28 aug 2013 ) . [ links ]\ncioffi , m . b . , c . martins , l . centofante , u . jacobina & l . a . c . bertollo . 2009b . chromosomal variability among allopatric populations of erythrinidae fish hoplias malabaricus : mapping of three classes of repetitive dnas . cytogenetic and genome research , 125 : 132 - 141 . [ links ]\nbertollo , l . a . c . , g . g . born , j . a . dergam , a . s . fenocchio & o . moreira - filho . 2000 . a biodiversity approach in the neotropical fish hoplias malabaricus . karyotypic survey , geographic distribution of cytotypes and cytotaxonomic considerations . chromosome research , 8 : 603 - 613 . [ links ]\nblanco , d . r . , r . l . lui , l . a . c . bertollo , v . p . margarido & o . moreira - filho . 2010 . karyotypic diversity between allopatric populations of the group hoplias malabaricus ( characiformes : erythrinidae ) : evolutionary and biogeographic considerations . neotropical ichthyology , 8 : 361 - 368 . [ links ]\nmarques , d . f . , f . a . santos , s . s . silva , i . sampaio & l . r . r . rodrigues . 2013 . cytogenetic and dna barcoding reveals high divergence within the trahira , hoplias malabaricus ( characiformes : erythrinidae ) from the lower amazon river . neotropical ichthyology , 11 : 459 - 466 . [ links ]\nhoplias brasiliensis chromosomes showing the 18s rdna ( red ) and 5s rdna ( green ) sites , the ag - nor bearing chromosome pair , and the distribution of ( caa ) 10 , ( ga ) 15 and ( ca ) 15 microsatellites . most conspicuous ( caa ) 10 sites in the proximal region of a metacentric chromosome pair are indicated by arrows . bar = 5 \u03bcm\nexcluding h . malabaricus , little cytogenetic information is available for other hoplias species . some previous data points towards one similar karyotype , with an invariable 2n = 50 and the absence of differentiated sex chromosomes [ 8 \u2013 10 ] . thus , such conserved karyotypes contrast with the extensive chromosome diversity that has been observed in other erythrinidae species , and particularly among the representatives of the h . malabaricus group .\nsantos , u . , c . m . v\u00f6lcker , f . a . belei , m . b . cioffi , l . a . c . bertollo , s . r . paiva & j . a . dergam . 2009 . molecular and karyotypic phylogeography in the neotropical hoplias malabaricus ( erythrinidae ) fish in eastern brazil . journal of fish biology , 75 : 2326 - 2343 . [ links ]\nsuch conserved karyotypes contrasts with the extensive karyotype diversity that has been observed in other erythrinidae species , particularly in the congeneric species h . malabaricus . nevertheless , what forces drive such particularly different modes of karyotype evolution among closely related species ? different life styles , population structure and inner chromosomal characteristics related to similar cases in other vertebrate groups can also account for the contrasting modes of karyotype evolution in hoplias genus .\nhoplias intermedius chromosomes showing the 18s rdna ( red ) and 5s rdna ( green ) sites , the ag - nor bearing chromosome pair , and the distribution of ( caa ) 10 , ( ga ) 15 and ( ca ) 15 microsatellites . note the general distribution pattern of microsatellites and a more conspicuous ( caa ) 10 site in the short arms of a submetacentric chromosome ( arrows ) . bar = 5 \u03bcm\nerythrinidae is a small family of freshwater fishes composed by three genera , hoplias gill 1903 , erythrinus scopoli 1777 and hoplerythrinus gill 1895 [ 1 ] . its species are characterized by a remarkable karyotype diversity with 2n ranging from 39 to 54 chromosomes and the occurrence of single and multiple sex chromosome systems in some species . thus , they represent an interesting and suitable model to investigate the process of chromosomal evolution among fishes [ 2 \u2013 5 ] .\nquerol , mvm . , querol , e . , pessano , e . , azevedo , clo . , tomassoni , d . , brasil , l . and lopes , p . , 2003 . reprodu\u00e7\u00e3o natural e induzida de hoplias malabaricus ( bloch , 1794 ) , em tanques experimentais , na regi\u00e3o de uruguaiana , pampa brasileiro . uruguaiana , pucrs . biodiversidade pampeana , vol . 1 , no . 1 , p . 46 - 57 . [ links ]\nin an expedition to the jari river to inventory fish as a part of the biodiversity corridor project of amap\u00e1 ( ci - brasil / iepa / ibama / gea - amap\u00e1 ) , locally hired assistants confirmed the sex of captured big trahiras ( h . aimara ) without examining the gonads . about 3 of 6 boatmen hired stated that the sex of the fishes could be easily determined by simply analysing the shape of the anal fins . since no related data for this species were available in the literature , it was necessary to confirm this characteristic by dissecting the gonads , which was performed for analysing and verifying the sex of the collected fishes .\nhoplias microlepis . - starks , 1906 : 772 [ comparison with hoplias malabaricus , citation to guayaquil , ecuador ] . - regan , 1908 : 167 [ redescription , citation to rio chagres , panama and western ecuador ] . - meek & hildebrand , 1916 : 303 [ diagnosis in key , citation to both slopes of panama and the western slope of ecuador ] . - eigenmann , 1921 : 508 - 511 [ citation , distribution ] . - eigenmann , 1922 : 169 [ diagnosis in key , citation to pacific slope of southern ecuador and both slopes of central panama ] . - hildebrand , 1938 : 290 [ distribution ] . - bussing , 1966 : 218 [ citation to puntarenas , costa rica ] . - g\u00e9ry , 1977 : 102 [ diagnosis in key , citation to pacific slope of southern ecuador , panama and costa rica ] . - ortega & vari , 1986 : 10 [ checklist , citation to peru ] . - oyakawa , 2003 : 240 [ checklist , distribution ] . - barriga , 1991 : 31 [ checklist ] . - ortega et al . , 2011 : 39 [ checklist , citation to peru ] . - barriga , 2012a : 110 [ distribution , endemism in guayas basin ] . - barriga , 2012b : 213 [ citation to ecuador with photograph ] . - aguirre et al . , 2013 [ morphological and genetic divergence among populations in ecuador ] .\nhoplias microlepis ( paralectotypes of macrodon microlepis ) . ( a ) bmnh 1864 . 1 . 26 . 222 , 222 . 8 mm sl , chagres river , panama ; ( b ) bmnh 1864 . 1 . 26 . 309 , 175 . 6 mm sl , chagres river , panama ; ( c ) bmnh 1860 . 6 . 16 . 128 , 276 . 6 mm sl , west ecuador ; ( d ) bmnh 1860 . 6 . 16 . 154 - 155 , 96 . 6 mm sl , west ecuador ; ( e ) bmnh 1860 . 6 . 16 . 154 - 155 , 108 . 2 mm sl , west ecuador ; ( f ) bmnh 1860 . 6 . 16 . 154 - 155 , 118 . 5 mm sl , west ecuador .\nhubbs ( 1953 ) made a few taxonomic considerations regarding hoplias microlepis . in the heading of the section concerning this species , he erroneously cited the year of publication as 1860 instead of 1864 . although g\u00fcnther ( 1864 ) in the original description of h . microlepis mentioned the species as occurring in guatemala , hubbs ( 1953 ) correctly stated that this was in error since g\u00fcnther ( 1864 ) only examined the syntypes from western ecuador and chagres river , panama . in addition , hubbs ( 1953 ) selected chagres river as the type locality of h . microlepis , probably due to the better condition of specimens from this locality among all seven syntypes ( figs . 1 - 2 ) . however , as hubbs ( 1953 ) did no designate a lectotype , his act is not valid and the type locality should encompass the localities of all syntypes together ( article 76 of iczn , 1999 ) . nevertheless , among the syntypes , specimens from chagres river are indeed the best ones in overall condition and we herein selected one of them as the lectotype , which establishes chagres river , panama as the type locality .\nsouth america : tributaries of middle and lower amazon basin , including rios trombretas , jari , tapaj\u00f3s , xingu , tocantins , and in the coastal rivers of guyana , suriname , fr guiana ; rios araguari and amap\u00e1 , state of amap\u00e1 , brazil ; lower reaches of r\u00edo orinoco , venezuela .\nmaturity : l m ? , range 22 - 22 cm max length : 100 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12225 ) ; max . published weight : 40 . 0 kg ( ref . 12225 )\nfrequently occurs in counter current zones of principal rivers and creeks . feeds mainly on fish but also on other animals that fall into the water like small terrestrial invertebrates . is active at dusk and at night . reproduction takes place at the onset of the rainy season from december to march . depending on the size , the female can carry around 6 , 000 to 60 , 000 eggs ( ref . 12225 ) . known for the quality of its flesh ( ref . 27188 ) .\nplanquette , p . , p . keith and p . - y . le bail , 1996 . atlas des poissons d ' eau douce de guyane . tome 1 . collection du patrimoine naturel volume 22 , mnhn , paris & inra , paris . 429 p . ( ref . 12225 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5001 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00724 ( 0 . 00435 - 0 . 01206 ) , b = 3 . 13 ( 2 . 98 - 3 . 28 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 7 \u00b10 . 55 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tm = 1 ; fec = 6 , 000 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 37 of 100 ) .\nthanks to some advice from locals , jeremy finally caught the fish that eluded him for years .\nthe river monsters star offers some kind words for the people that helped make the show successful - the fans .\njeremy reels in an elusive tapah , a fish he has spent years trying to catch .\njeremy illustrates how you can use a variety of bait and lures to reel in a black bass .\njeremy wade doesn\u2019t need the water to reel us in . see what happened when he visited the animal planet office !\njeremy reels in a giant trevally and barracuda , but isn\u2019t convinced they\u2019re the strange fish attacking fishermen near new britain .\nleave the hook at home . see how jeremy caught a needlefish with just some rope and line .\njeremy was lucky enough to catch a goonch catfish once before , but not so much the second time around .\njeremy reveals what he did to reel in the biggest catch of his river monsters career .\njeremy meets with locals to find out what kind of monster fish could be terrorizing the rivers of western nepal .\nit took island ingenuity and some line to reel in the elusive and dangerous needlefish .\nof all the fish jeremy has reeled in , the lau lau stands out as his most meaningful catch .\nit wasn\u2019t a fish , but rather a machine that left jeremy trembling hundreds of feet beneath the surface .\ntrying to reel in this fish off the coast of indonesia is a battle that pushes jeremy to his physical and mental limits .\nextreme angler jeremy wade is on the hunt for fish with a taste for human flesh . this rip - roaring ride mixes action and adventure with mysteries , edge - of - the - seat chase and a battle of wills between man and nature .\nin new hampshire , conservation officers of new hampshire fish and game who work tirelessly to preserve and protect the natural resources of the granite state . they are on call 24 / 7 , responding to life and death situations in order to protect the public .\nthroughout washington state , the department of fish and wildlife police are protecting animals and citizens and busting criminals . whether the officers are on land or water , they are ready and willing to risk their lives .\ndr . dee : alaska vet follows veterinarian dee thornell as she treats everything from sled dogs to reindeer . dr . dee and her staff handle extreme cases and unique clients in the alaskan frontier .\nbasketball superstar and wildlife advocate yao ming travels to africa to help spread awareness about the cruelty of poaching . yao sees for himself the evidence of a losing battle , where africa ' s giants are senselessly slain every day for their tusks .\nadventurers eric larsen and ryan waters race 500 miles unassisted across the arctic ocean as they battle weather , nature , climate change and their own fortitude in their attempt to reach the geographic north pole in record time .\ngiant pandas are facing extinction , but in central china , two panda centers are embarking on a remarkable experiment to breed captive pandas in order to release them into the wild .\nadventurers , wildlife fanatics and good friends rene and wayne travel to patagonia in search of a very special , unique puma . encountering a host of other interesting critters along the way , they remain true to their quest of finding the elusive\nno tail .\nmeet eccentric individuals and their unusual pets including a man whose lions are starting to outgrow their home , a texan couple obsessed with the buffalo who roam their home , and an internet sensation whose best friend is a polar bear .\nthirty years after the worst nuclear radiation catastrophe in history , 100 times the combined amount of the hiroshima and nagasaki bombs , two scientists have now been allowed total access to the area surrounding the infamous chernobyl nuclear power plant .\neverything ' s bigger in texas , including the job of texas game wardens who protect the lone star state ' s natural resources and police its 27 million citizens . this elite force patrols and protects more than a quarter million square miles .\nhighlighting both the controversial whaling trade and the tactics that sea shepherd and its staff and volunteers use to attempt to cripple it , whale wars documents the group ' s three - month sojourn across the icy antarctic waters at the far end of the globe .\ntoucan nation is about grecia , a colorful toucan whose story sparks international outrage after her beak is mutilated . seeking to right a wrong and restore the toucan ' s beak , veterinarians and animal rescuers join forces with a team of 3d printers to build a prosthetic beak .\nexplore the incredible creatures that survive in the wild lands of costa rica . from bizarre and unique monkey rituals to a bat that catches fish to a sloth with an unusual set of friends , journey through an extraordinary land where nature continues to surprise and delight .\njoin steve and terri irwin - the hardest working couple in the natural world - as they rappel into caverns , tread through the jungle , and cross the high seas to rescue and protect threatened animals around the world .\nventure into the strange and wonderful world of the federal duck stamp contest , the only juried art competition run by the u . s . government . this film explores the eccentric nature of the contestants who enter each year for a chance at wildlife art stardom .\nrenowned bear handler jeff watson says goodbye to his family and friends and sets out on an adventure into the wilderness of southern indiana to teach his two 700 lb . grizzly bears bob and screech how to survive on their own in the wild . all - new series premieres nov . 12 at 10 / 9c .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 discovery communications , llc . the world ' s # 1 nonfiction media company .\nthis video contains content from discovery communications , who has blocked it in your country on copyright grounds .\nno freshwater fish has a more fearsome reputation than the piranha , but , as many aquarists soon learn , these are actually quite timid . they get nervous when the aquarium is approached and prefer to bite pieces of other fishes\u2019 fins rather than devour them whole .\ndespite their reputation wolffish can be good aquarium fish and are surprisingly interesting with other fish or in groups . special rules apply , but these fish are hardy and easy to maintain .\nwithin their genus the species are similar and you\u2019ll need to know where your fish were collected to have an idea of what species belong where . brazil , colombia and venezuela don\u2019t export their wolffish species , so the list narrows .\nseveral others are highly endemic and have rarely been exported . assume that an aquarium wolffish belongs to one of five species .\nhoplerythrinus unitaeniatus is easily identified by its single horizontal stripe and elongate body , and exported occasionally from peru and colombia . it can be kept in a small school in a large aquarium .\ntheir swimbladder is not as reduced as much as the other genera , so they are much more surface oriented and active than other wolffish . they can also do well in a community tank with other larger fishes such as catfishes , cichlids and larger characins , such as myleus and leporinus .\nhoplerythrinus will accept dry foods such as pellets , freeze - dried shrimp and insects , and sometimes even flake foods more readily than their relatives .\nhoplerythrinus also prefer flood zone habitats with mild or no currents and several hundred individuals can migrate deep into flooded plains or forests during the rainy season .\nthe other small species occasionally found in the hobby is erythrinus erythrurus , often called the redfin wolffish . juveniles especially can show attractive red , yellow and even purple hatch marks on their flanks over an overall brown or burgundy body .\nmargins of the unpaired fins can be bright red , yellow or white . the body shape is more stout than hoplerythrinus and the swimbladder is reduced much further \u2014 to the point that the species swims in open water only when it wants to grab prey from the water column .\nerythrinus are more solitary , so groups require large aquariums with plenty of hiding places , allowing each fish to claim a territory . short lengths of clay or pvc pipe make ideal caves for a relatively shy fish that may fight with conspecifics .\nfish that do not challenge them for territory and do not fit in their mouth are usually ignored .\nideal tank mates are sturdy characins such as myleus and metynnis . large - bodied cichlids such as astronotus , hoplarchus and cichla also fare well .\nerythrinus will feed on live fish , crustaceans , worms and insects , and only slowly get used to frozen foods .\nerythrinus is found in swampy shoreline habitats and shallow clear or blackwater streams deep inside the forest . besides insect larvae , all examined had apistogramma , moenkhausia and nannostomus in their stomachs .\nany wolffish bought in an aquarium shop will probably belong to this particular species .\ncolour can range from mottled grey to brown and , depending on place of origin , almost black .\nin nature they are solitary , found in slow moving waters of virtually any habitat . the smaller the fish the shallower the habitat , and it\u2019s not unusual to find finger - long h . malabaricus in less than 5cm / 2\u201d of water , stalking aquatic insects and small fish . as the fish mature they become less tolerant of each other and move to deeper water .\nadult h . malabaricus are not overly aggressive , but require a larger territory . along riverbanks adults are usually spaced 3 - 4m / 10 - 13\u2019 apart .\nas with all wolffish species , aquarium water chemistry is of little importance , as these fish can adapt to just about any common range of values .\nthey are often more active at dusk and dawn , so keep lighting subdued to allow them to show more activity during the day . kept as a group of equal sizes they get along well until becoming sexually mature at 20cm / 8\u201d .\nas they mature , females develop a more robust shape and rounded stomach . they will become increasingly intolerant until a pair has formed , then will usually get along well and lay close together .\nbreeding can usually be induced by first dropping the temperature , raising it to 28 - 29\u00b0c / 82 - 84\u00b0f and slightly dropping the level of water .\nduring breeding the male digs shallow pits in which 2 , 000 - 10 , 000 yellowish eggs are laid in a cluster . he guards the nest and larvae until they hatch and spread out in the shallow water to hunt small prey .\nin the aquarium the young will immediately eat artemia nauplii and grow rapidly , eventually cannibalising each other .\nthis fish will occur sympatrically with h . malabaricus , but usually occurs in a different niche .\nthe black wolffish prefers river banks of faster rivers , especially major tributaries of the middle orinoco .\nthe body is more stout and less elegant than h . malabaricus and overall colour is a more uniform black or dark brown . the eyes are usually equally dark and less apparent . a maximum 30cm / 12\u201d size is considerably smaller than the 45cm / 18\u201d commonly reached by h . malabaricus .\nblack wolffish seem to prefer large shrimp and larger fishes . stomach contents examined in the orinoco region revealed macrobranchium spp shrimp , juveniles of several cichlid species and larger sized leporinus .\nlarge wolffish can cause deep cuts to a keeper\u2019s hands . handle them with the same respect as a powerful reptile of equal size . such extreme aggression also means the fishes can be fed directly with large tweezers and the fish quickly learn to take large cocktail shrimp or smelt from them .\nit\u2019s much larger and aggressive than the others and in nature is found in fast - flowing rivers and rapids where it preys on anything that moves . this species is absolutely fearless !\nthese monsters may also be kept together . if aquarium size allows , the animals are moderately territorial and will display to each other with flared gills and fins , but rarely bite each other . pairs are formed at 50cm / 20\u201d and harmonise well together .\nmoving adults can be dangerous because the fish will bite even out of the water and their 3cm / 1 . 2\u201d long teeth can penetrate most gloves and easily break plastic bags used in transport .\nwhy not take out a subscription to practical fishkeeping magazine ? see our latest subscription offer .\n\u00a9 1955 - 2016 bauer consumer media limited are authorised and regulated by the financial conduct authority ( firm reference no . 710067 ) media house , peterborough business park , peterborough , pe2 6ea .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\njuvenile description : the juveniles have a slim profile with relatively large eyes for their physical size . because of their large eventual size they maintain this immature shape well up to 50cm .\nwater parameters : generally unfussy as long as extremes are avoided . anywhere between a ph of 6 . 5 and 8 will be fine . tropical temperatures of 23c \u2013 30c\ntank size : because of the large size of the fish a large aquarium should be provided . 240cm x 90cm x 60cm \u2013 96\u201d x 36\u201d x 24\u201d .\nbreeding : breeding is unknown in captivity but should require a vast aquarium . successfully putting two together would be an achievement .\navailability : once rare and very expensive they have become readily available although still expensive compared to most other fish . only the venezuelan / columbian example is readily available as export form other locations is now illegal . when available other locality caught specimens are more expensive . they have been widely kept in asia for some time now and apart from a few specimens have only recently become widely available elsewhere .\nwe ' re constantly striving to improve our community to help make your monster fish keeping hobby fulfilling and interesting . comments are welcome .\ni wouldn ' t do it . . . but you never know ? try it lol\nhaha yeah . i already kept mala wolf with orinos . . . no problem ; s\nhaha yeah . i already kept mala wolf with orinos . . . no problem ; s i do think you won ' t have any problem ! ; d\ni would guess as long as he is under 15 - 18\nthat the brutal personality they carry would be absent . giving you higher chances for it to work . . . i would try it and have a tank divider or 2nd cycled tank ready to seperate . i usually try new combos on my days off since i am not a fan of the jdm ( less tankmates , higher chance ' s of aggression ) .\none thing remains & promises from our heavenly father we will not be defeated , for we will always remain victorious in the lord . thank you jesus for joey ( r1 ) has victory in you\ni could get a cycled tank prepared for him incase it all goes pete tong .\nthis fish doesn ' t eat what doesn ' t fit , they are not catfish . . . i ' m used to this fishes , they are not that brutal as jeremy and other people says . . .\nthey will not bite you while you swin in a lake or spot of water , they you not carry a 2 years old children down to the deep .\ngood luck with the future new fish . if we don ' t try , we will never know . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nthe evolution of secondary sexual characteristics is usually the result of a disparity in the parental investment of males and females ( trivers , 1972 ; andersson , 1994 ) . in some cases , this disparity can be exclusively attributed to size differences between males and females .\nmany teleost fishes do not exhibit any sexual dimorphism , even during the spawning season , and do not show sexual characteristics or permanent ornaments . on the other hand , some fishes show permanently dimorphic traits that are not necessarily associated with internal fertilization ( rapp py - daniel and fernandes , 2005 ) . when present , sexual characteristics can be easily recognized in some species whereas , in others , a detailed examination is required for identification of these characteristics ( godinho , 2007 ) . typically , in any fish , sex can be determined by visual inspection of the gonads ( primary sexual characteristics ) , which normally requires dissection ; however , in mature fishes , these characteristics are quite evident .\nthe objective of this study was to prove the existence of sexual dimorphism in the species hopliasaimara after riverine people indication that recognized accurately the sex of the individuals without the dissection of them .\nconsequently , on capture of the fishes during subsequent expeditions in the context of the same mission , a process was initiated to confirm the information provided by the assistants , intensifying the fishery of this species . the fishes analysed were collected during expeditions to sustainable development reserve of iratapuru river and montanhas do tumucumaque national park , which were state and federal conservation units , respectively . in sustainable development reserve of iratapuru river , specimens were captured between november 22 and 23 , 2004 ( 0\u00b016\u203235\u2033n , 53\u00b006\u203224\u2033w ) , from jari river , municipality of laranjal of jari . in montanhas do tumucumaque national park , specimens were captured between september 4 and 14 , 2005 ( 3\u00b029\u203251\u2033n ; 52\u00b018\u20320\u2033 w ) from anotai river , municipality of oiapoque ."]}
{"id": 700, "summary": [{"text": "corythoichthys ocellatus , the ocellated pipefish or orange-spotted pipefish , is a marine pipefish found in the western pacific ocean .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "belonging to the family syngnathidae , it grows up to 10 cm long , and is found in the first 12 m of the warm tropical seas off the coast of australia .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "ovoviviparous , the male carries the eggs in a brood pouch found under the tail . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "corythoichthys ocellatus", "paragraphs": ["thompson , vanessa j . & dianne j . bray , corythoichthys ocellatus in fishes of australia , accessed 10 jul 2018 , urltoken\nan ocellate pipefish , corythoichthys ocellatus , in lembeh straits , north sulawesi , indonesia . source : rickard zerpe / flickr . license : cc by attribution - sharealike\ncorythoichthys is from the greek , korys , korythos for helmet and ichtys meaning fish . the specific name ocellatus is for the dark - ringed ocelli on the body .\ncorythoichthys ocellatus herald 1953 , bull . u . s . natl . mus . 202 ( 1 ) : 267 , fig . 41a , purvis bay , florida island , solomon islands .\ncorythoichthys ocellatus inhabits coastal waters in the philippines , palau , indonesia , papua new guinea , australia ' s great barrier reef , and fiji to depths of 15 m ( dawson 1977 , 1985 ; kuiter 2000 ) .\ncitation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . corythoichthys ocellatus in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 04 : 22 : 15 + 1000 .\nthere are no known conservation actions in place for corythoichthys ocellatus . the species occurs in the great barrier reef marine park , where there is a regional management plan ( commonwealth of australia 2015 ) . corythoichthys ocellatus , like all other syngnathids , is protected from exploitation in australia under the environmental protection and biodiversity conservation act ( 1999 ) . the species is not listed in any international legislation or trade regulations . it ' s likely the species would benefit from international efforts to mitigate climate change .\njustification : corythoichthys ocellatus is a reef - associated coastal marine pipefish that inhabits the indo - pacific from the philippines and indonesia to fiji and australia ' s great barrier reef . they inhabit sand , algae and rubble near coral and rocky reefs . they may be susceptible to coral reef declines that are occurring globally , but they are able to utilize other habitat types . there are no other substantial known threats , and the species is protected in part of its range . therefore corythoichthys ocellatus is listed as least concern .\nto date there have been no dedicated surveys or population estimates for corythoichthys ocellatus . the species may be declining as a result of coral reef habitat degradation and loss . further research is needed in order to determine population size and trends in abundance for this species .\ncorythoichthys ocellatus has not been detected in trade , but pipefishes are known to be targeted and are kept as bycatch for the aquarium trade and traditional medicine ( vincent et al . 2011 , lim et al . 2011 ) . it ' s possible that this species is involved .\ncolour pattern similar to that of c . schultzi . the long snout and ocellate markings separate c . ocellatus from all other congeners except c . schultzi . c . ocellatus has lower total ring and dorsal ray counts ( average = 46 and 23 versus 51 and 28 in c . schultzi ) and the ventral surface of the trunk rings is more heavily pigmented . c . schultzi also reaches a larger size ( 144 mm versus around 120 mm in c . ocellatus ) .\ndawson , c . e . 1977 . review of the pipefish genus corythoichthys with description of three new species . copeia 1977 ( 2 ) : 295 - 338\nallen , g . r . & m . v . erdmann . 2008 . corythoichthys benedetto , a new pipefish ( pisces : syngnathidae ) from indonesia and papua new guinea . aqua , international journal of ichthyology 13 ( 3 - 4 ) : 121 - 126 .\ncorythoichthys ocellatus occurs in sand , algae , and rubble habitats adjacent to coral or rocky reefs ( kuiter 2000 , allen and erdmann 2012 ) . little is known about their feeding ecology , but they are thought to consume small planktonic and / or benthic crustaceans such as harpacticoid copepods , gammarid amphipods , and mysids , similar to other pipefishes ( howard and koehn 1985 , kendrick and hyndes 2005 ) . the species is ovovivparous , and males brood eggs in a pouch beneath their tail before giving birth to live young ( dawson 1985 ) .\ncorythoichys ocellatus may be threatened by coral reef degradation and loss that has occurred as a result of coastal development , pollution , destructive fishing practices such as trawling and dynamite use , ocean acidification , and rising sea surface temperatures ( bruno and selig 2007 , carpenter et al . 2008 , de ' ath et al . 2012 ) . they are however able to utilize a variety of other habitats , and so it is unclear how much or if they are declining along with corals .\ngreek , korys , korythos = helmet + greek , ichtys = fish ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 1 - 12 m ( ref . 5316 ) . tropical ; 9\u00b0n - 24\u00b0s\nwestern central pacific : celebes and philippines to palau , the solomon islands , and australia .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 10 . 3 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 1602 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 22 - 25 ; anal soft rays : 4 . has a color pattern very similar to c . schultzi .\ninhabits rubble patches of shallow sheltered reefs ( ref . 37816 ) . found to a depth of 12 m . ovoviviparous ( ref . 205 ) . the male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail ( ref . 205 ) .\nmyers , r . f . , 1991 . micronesian reef fishes . second ed . coral graphics , barrigada , guam . 298 p . ( ref . 1602 )\n) : 26 . 5 - 29 . 4 , mean 28 . 8 ( based on 1002 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5002 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00049 ( 0 . 00022 - 0 . 00111 ) , b = 3 . 10 ( 2 . 91 - 3 . 29 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\na pale brown pipefish with many distinct dark - edged orange spots or rectangles , whitish speckles , a dark stripe on the lower third of the gill cover extending forward below the eye , and a series of narrow whitish bands encircling the body . ocellate pipefish are often seen in pairs on shallow rubble reefs .\ntropical western central pacific , from indonesia , the philippines , palau , papua new guinea , the solomon islands , fiji and australia . known from the great barrier reef , queensland ; inhabits coral rubble , algal reefs and inshore areas to about 15 m .\ndorsal fin 22 - 25 ; trunk rings 15 - 16 ; tail rings 29 - 32 .\nhead length in sl 5 . 7 - 7 . 1 ; body depth in hl 3 . 5 - 5 . 4 ; snout long , snout length in hl 1 . 7 - 2 . 0 , snout depth in snout length 7 . 3 - 8 . 8 ; prenuchal and nuchal ridges smooth ; median snout ridge usually with slight dorsal emargination ; eye prominent .\ndorsal fin origin usually at or behind the anterior margin of the first tail ring .\noverall light greenish - yellow , body covered in small pupil - sized orange spots that are often dark ringed as ocelli , especially over the back of the trunk ; ventral surface of anterior 4 - 5 trunk rings heavily shaded or blotched with brown ; no dark blotch ventrally on anal ring ; head with diffuse dark stripe on lower third of opercle extending forward below eye ; dorsal fin without spots .\nreproduction : ovoviviparous ( gives birth to live young ) . the eggs are brooded by the males in a pouch under the tail . the pouch protects the dorsal surface and side of the egg mass , leaving the ventral surface is exposed . males begin brooding at around 58 mm sl .\neggs : eggs deposited in 2 - 17 transverse rows within a gelatinous matrix .\naustralian government legislation : marine listed under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 .\nallen , g . r . & m . adrim . 2003 . coral reef fishes of indonesia . zool . stud . 42 ( 1 ) : 1 - 72 .\ndawson , c . e . 1985 . indo - pacific pipefishes ( red sea to the americas ) . gulf coast research laboratory , ocean springs , mississippi . 230 pp .\nherald e . s . 1953 . family syngnathidae : pipefishes , pp . 231 - 278 , figs 36 - 44 in : schultz l . p . , herald e . s . , lachner e . a . , welander a . d . & woods l . p . ( eds ) . fishes of the marshall and marianas islands . vol . 1 . families asymmetrontidae through siganidae . bull . u . s . natl . mus . 202 ( 1 ) : 1 - 685 , figs . 1 - 90\nhoese , d . f . , d . j . bray , j . r . paxton & g . r . allen . 2006 . fishes . in beesley pl & wells a ( eds ) zoological catalogue of australia . volume 35 abrs & csiro publishing : australia 2178 pp .\nkuiter , r . h . 2000 . seahorses , pipefishes and their relatives . chorleywood , uk : tmc publishing . 240 pp .\nlaboute , p . & r . grandperrin . 2000 . poissons de nouvelle - cal\u00e9donie . editions catherine ledru : 520 pp .\nmyers , r . f . 1999 . micronesian reef fishes . a comprehensive guide to the coral reef fishes of micronesia . 3rd revised ed . coral graphics , guam . 330 pp , 192 pls .\npogonoski , j . j . , d . a . pollard & j . r . paxton . 2000 . conservation overview and action plan for australian threatened and potentially threatened marine and estuarine fishes . environment australia , canberra . 375 pp .\nrandall , j . e . , g . r . allen & r . c . steene . 1997 . fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . crawford house publishing , bathurst , australia .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndawson , c . e . 1985 . indo - pacific pipefishes ( red sea to the americas ) . the gulf coast research laboratory ocean springs , mississippi , usa .\naustralia ( coral sea is . territory , queensland ) ; fiji ; indonesia ( lesser sunda is . , papua , sulawesi ) ; palau ; papua new guinea ( bismarck archipelago , north solomons , papua new guinea ( main island group ) ) ; philippines ; solomon islands ( south solomons )\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t65365054a115415754 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthe ocellate pipefish can be recognised by the pupil - sized orange spots on the body and tail .\nthe map below shows the australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in australian museums . source : atlas of living australia .\ndawson , c . e . 1985 . indo - pacific pipefishes ( red sea to the americas ) . gulf coast research laboratory , ocean springs , mississippi , usa . pp . 230 .\nkuiter , r . h . 2000 . seahorses , pipefishes and their relatives . a comprehensive guide to syngnathiformes . tmc publishing pp . 240 .\nmyers , r . f . 1999 . micronesian reef fishes . coral graphics . pp . 330 .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nyearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,\ncodes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases\n, pp . 15 pp . + appendices\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 8fe96228 - cbaf - 4cc8 - b94a - 8e8cc6f4e159\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ae91f5e4 - 571f - 4d21 - bec0 - 745628d61c47\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b2d9ec8c - 7aa2 - 4075 - a1fb - 147eee87fe76\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 432644\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfor information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .\nlisted as least concern ( global status : iucn red list of threatened species : 2017 . 1 list )\nthe distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .\ncommonwealth of australia ( 2000c ) . declaration under section 248 of the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 - list of marine species . f2008b00465 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken .\nepbc act email updates can be received via the communities for communities newsletter and the epbc act newsletter .\nthis database is designed to provide statutory , biological and ecological information on species and ecological communities , migratory species , marine species , and species and species products subject to international trade and commercial use protected under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( the epbc act ) . it has been compiled from a range of sources including listing advice , recovery plans , published literature and individual experts . while reasonable efforts have been made to ensure the accuracy of the information , no guarantee is given , nor responsibility taken , by the commonwealth for its accuracy , currency or completeness . the commonwealth does not accept any responsibility for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of , or reliance on , the information contained in this database . the information contained in this database does not necessarily represent the views of the commonwealth . this database is not intended to be a complete source of information on the matters it deals with . individuals and organisations should consider all the available information , including that available from other sources , in deciding whether there is a need to make a referral or apply for a permit or exemption under the epbc act .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\ninhabits rubble patches of shallow sheltered reefs ( ref . 37816 ) . found to a depth of 12 m . ovoviviparous ( ref . 205 ) . the male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail ( ref . 205 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 704, "summary": [{"text": "the scarlet-banded barbet ( capito wallacei ) is a species of bird in the capitonidae family .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "discovered in 1996 and formally described in 2000 , the scarlet-banded barbet is endemic to humid highland forest growing on a ridgetop known as peak 1538 in the remote cordillera azul national park in south-western loreto , peru ( mistakenly listed as being in ucayali , peru , in its formal description ) .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "while it remains fairly common , its range is tiny and the total population has been estimated at less than 1000 individuals .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "consequently , it is rated as vulnerable by birdlife international and iucn .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "a strikingly coloured species , it measures 19 cm ( 7.5 in ) long .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the cap and nape are scarlet , while a broad white supercilium separates the crown from the black ear coverts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "most of the upperparts are black , except for the yellow back and large white rump patch .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "below , the throat and upper breast are white , bordered below by a broad scarlet band , while the rest of the underparts are yellow . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "scarlet - banded barbet", "paragraphs": ["nobody uploaded sound recordings for scarlet - banded barbet ( capito wallacei ) yet .\nso what ' s so special about this bird then ? the scarlet - banded barbet was only discovered in 1996 ( and described in 2000 ) by dan lane and dr . john o ' neill on a\nwhile scarlet - banded barbet and cordillera azul antbird are our main target many other birds which have been recorded will also be searched for as well . these include chestnut - tipped toucanet , scaled , fiery - throated and scarlet - breasted fruiteaters , the foothill form of long - tailed woodcreeper which is soon to be described as a new species .\nscarlet - banded barbet was discovered in 1995 on an isolated peak in the cordillera azul , the head waters of rio cushabatay and was formally described to science in 2000 . for many years the only way to see it was doing a 10 day expedition with a 2 - 3 grueling hike to reach the peak .\nalso known as the scarlet - belted barbet , this stunningly beautiful bird constitutes one of the most dramatic ornithological discoveries of recent years . to date it is known solely from an isolated plateau covered in cloud forest between the rivers huallaga and ucayali , in north - central peru , where the population is estimated to number fewer than 1000 individuals . in consequence , birdlife international treats the scarlet - banded barbet as vulnerable to extinction . fortunately , the barbet\u2019s montane home is remote , which should help serve to protect it . the cap and nape are scarlet , while a broad white supercilium separates the crown from the black ear coverts . most of the upperparts are black , relieved by the yellow back and large white rump patch . below , the throat and upper breast are white , bordered below by a broad scarlet band , while the rest of the underparts are yellow , becoming paler distally .\n19 cm . very striking , recently discovered barbet . cap and nape scarlet . broad white supercilium starting from just in front of eye . black lores , area below eye and ear - coverts . scapulars mostly black ( yellow\nv\nin female ) . back yellow , large white rump and black tail . throat and upper breast white , bordered below by a broad scarlet band . lower breast and belly bright yellow , fading to yellowish - white in undertail coverts .\nshort , l . l . , horne , j . f . m . & de juana , e . ( 2018 ) . scarlet - banded barbet ( capito wallacei ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nc . 19\u00b75 cm ; 65\u201378 g . distinctive black , white , yellow and red barbet . male has red cap , with red extending to middle of back , white and yellow mid - back to . . .\nthe morning of the 15th dawned and my luck did not appear to be in as i missed a green jay near the tents . after an early breakfast it was back on the trail , stopping only to fill all the water bottles from the stream , located in a steep gully about 30 minutes from camp . with the park guards re - cutting the trail through the steep and dense rainforest it appeared that it had been a long time since anyone had walked this way . when it became apparent that we were ascending a ridge to the peak , the habitat dramatically changed to epiphyte - laden cloud forest with trees of reduced stature . trailing behind the main group , i realised that if any barbets were flushed by them , then my chances of connecting with the barbet were reduced . i was the only birder in the group although most of the others were keen to see what all the fuss was about . with a one - track mind i struggled on to get to the front , stopping only to note some blue - winged mountain - tanagers and slate - throated redstarts . it was here that i heard soft\nbrrrr\ncalls from two birds i was unable to locate . catching up with my colleagues i found them talking excitedly - two of them had observed a scarlet - banded barbet . taking the lead from this point and with my senses in a heightened state of alert , i searched along the trail for my very own barbet . suddenly i was surprised to find the habitat opening out , scrub taking over from tree cover , and the open sky . we had reached the top !\nexpedition to a remote corner of rainforest in peru in a range of hills known as the cerro cinco puntas . this finding was remarkable in many respects . while it resembles other barbets , its plumage is unique - boldly patterned with conspicuous red , yellow , black and white . the bird was found on an unnamed peak in an area which had never been surveyed or explored before due its remoteness . the cloud forest habitat favoured by the barbet is fairly small and restricted to a small altitudinal zone near the top of a mountain which has come to be known as barbet peak or peak 1538 .\n1 . o ' neill , john p . daniel f . lane , andrew w . kratter , angelo p . capparella & cecilia fox . 2000 . a striking new species of barbet ( capitonidae : capito ) from the eastern andes of peru . the auk 117 ( 3 ) : 569 - 577 .\nit was remarkable how small the cloud forest habitat was - probably only a couple of hundred metres in elevation around the peak looked suitable , and we had passed up through it so quickly . taking a few photographs and then ignoring a canopy flock coming through , i headed back down to where today ' s barbet had been sighted . after an hour i was beginning to panic and some of the party were beginning to head back down . i tried to locate more of the soft\nbrrr\ncalls which i had heard earlier . they appeared to be uttered by some hidden birds which were also making tapping sounds on the branches . suddenly agustine came racing up the trail to tell me had seen five barbets ! i was down at the spot in no time and very soon . . . there they were . a splendid pair of scarlet - banded barbets . observing them call i realised i had been hearing them all along . then , another pair . yes , they are striking birds but so are many of the common birds in south america . what made these moments particularly special was the knowledge that very few people had shared the same experience of the species . and then a slightly uncomforting thought . the habitat here seems so small , perhaps even fragile , on the ridge of this peak - what is its future in the face of climate change ? this year was one of the driest periods in recent times in the amazon and we have all seen the reports in the news . i feel extremely fortunate to have seen the barbet and its magical habitat and thank everyone involved in this expedition .\ninlcudes hotel ( but not dinner ) in tarapoto on the night prior to day 1 , guiding , camping equipment including sheets , blankets and pillows , tranport and all the food until lunch on day 4 . note that there will be a $ 500 per group for hiring the 4 wd needed to get to the barbet site . this means one person pays the full $ 500 , and a group of two pays $ 250 per person etc .\ni was lucky enough to be working for several weeks in the parque nacional cordillera azul - peru ' s newest national park - and even luckier to be on barbet peak after many days travel and field work from contamana on the rio ucayali and rio cushabatay . so , i ' ll pick up the story on 13 august 2005 when , after several days in a peque - peque , my colleagues ( prof . james mallet , dr . kanchon dasmahapatra & laura roberts ) and i finally left the boat behind to begin our trek to towards the peak . we camped that night on the bank of the rio cushabatay at boca de chambira and set off early next morning with two inrena guardaparques ( agustine and raul from puesto de control 106 and 16 respectively ) and three bearers ( milton and his two brothers ) to help us re - cut the trail and carry food and equipment . by lunchtime we reached quebrada paco after several hours of continuous walking . although this stretch of the trek is fairly flat , the combined heat , humidity and a large rucksack made for less than a pleasant experience . however , this was nothing compared with next two days of continuous uphill struggling .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nneotropical birds is an authoritative , online resource for life histories of neotropical birds . these accounts are intended primarily for ornithologists , especially those based in the neotropics , but will also prove useful to wildlife biologists , conservationists , amateur ornithologists with strong interests in avian natural history , and biology teachers and students .\nhelp build the world ' s best resource for neotropical birds . contribute text , photos , audio , video , maps , translations , and sightings .\nwe want any information , photos , audio , video , or map data you have about a species . full articles are great , smaller sections are just as valuable . both receive full publication credit and peer recognition .\na brief review of some of the important species - level changes that are incorporated in the 2014 revisions to the ebird / clements checklist .\nfebruary 14 - 17 ( friday to monday ) is the 17th annual great backyard bird count ( gbbc ) . to participate , just go birding during this timeframe and make sure to enter your checklists in ebird .\nauthority : o ' neill , lane , kratter , capparella et al . , 2000\nthis recently described species is only known from one small mountain top where its population must be very small , and it is therefore listed as vulnerable . however , further investigation through the 50 - km long mountain ridge may reveal the species to be less at risk .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : capito wallacei . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nsister - species of c . fitzpatricki ( which see ) ; perhaps also close to c . hypoleucus , c . quinticolor or c . niger . monotypic .\nnc peru e of andes : known only from isolated low plateau nw of contamana , between r huallaga and r ucayali .\nsong a fast , low - pitched trill of c . 2 seconds , \u201ctdddddd - \u201d , resembles distant . . .\nmontane and submontane forest , wet and moss - festooned , some of it stunted , at 1350\u20131500 m . . . .\nfruits and their seeds ; most likely insects , as well . occurs in mixed - species foraging flocks , at up to 10 m in trees .\nmoult and gonadal condition of jul specimens indicate season probably mar\u2013may . nest and eggs undescribed , and no other information .\nvulnerable . discovered only in jul 1996 , and currently known only from two very small and isolated areas in nc peru ; has not been located in other areas of peru , and is . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ntraditionally , all barbets were lumped into a single family under this name . in recent decades , increasing weight of evidence # r # r # r # r indicates : separate families should be recognized for species from america ( capitonidae ) , asia ( megalaimidae ) and africa ( lybiidae ) ; american barbets further divisible by recognition of aberrant family semnornithidae ; and american barbets are closer to toucans than to old world barbets .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 294 , 036 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\n. 2000 ) . the ridge is on the east bank of the upper r\u00edo cushabatay , 77 km west - north - west of contamana in loreto . the ridge is long ( > 50 km ) and narrow ( o ' neill\n. 2000 ) and , in spite of searches at suitable elevations in the adjacent cordillera azul , this species remains known only from peak 1538 ( d . lane and t . s . schulenberg\nthe population is estimated to number 250 - 999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records , descriptions of abundance and range size . this is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size , and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated extent of occurrence is likely to be occupied . this estimate is equivalent to 375 - 1 , 499 individuals in total , rounded here to 350 - 1 , 500 individuals . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 12 . 8 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 26 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . it is therefore suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations .\n. 2007 ) . epiphytes , especially bryopytes , bromeliads and orchids , cover most of the trunks and large branches of the short trees ( 10 - 20 m ) . the predominant trees near the summit are melastomes and clusias . the forest floor has a deep ( up to 1 m ) spongy cover of mosses intermixed with leaf litter and soil . the wet , epiphyte - covered montane forest changes abruptly to taller and drier subtropical forest below 1 , 250 m .\nthere is little human habitation in the watershed , and none above 300 m . only a small amount of hunting is conducted by infrequent visitors . however , deforestation is extensive on the west slope of the adjacent cordillera azul , especially in the drainage of the r\u00edo biabo .\nsearch for the species on the western slope and in the northern cerros del sira . assess the size of its population . gather more information on its ecology and life history . seek protected status for the isolated ridge .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nbarbets ( capitonidae ) are small , brightly coloured birds with proportionally large heads , prominent bills and characteristic bristles around the beak area . closely related to toucans , there are 83 known species distributed across the tropics of africa , asia and central & south america . the neotropics host 15 species , seven which occur in peru in two genera\non the 14th we began the climb to the 1086 metre camp . after five hours of determined trekking , the occasional impressive vista and stop to gulp down some water , we reached pucacurillo . the camp here showed signs from the few previous expeditions here . feeling the effects of dehydration and the disheartening news that the nearest water was another 30 minutes walk away we resorted to acquiring some liquid from a nearby trickle / stagnant - looking pool . in what may have been a bit of overkill , the resulting water was filtered , boiled and treated with iodine . that night i slept like a log , troubled only by that feeling that any twitcher ( not that i belong to that tribe of birders ) knows - how bad would i feel , after having the extreme fortune to be here , to leave without laying eyes on the capito ? tomorrow was the final ascent to the peak where this very special bird had hidden from the ornithological world for so long .\n2 . clements , james f & noam shany . 2001 . a field guide to the birds of peru . ca : ibis publishing company . lynx edicions .\nsouth america | north america | asia | c . america & caribbean | europa | africa | australia and oceania\nrecently a new site has been discovered very near an extremely rough but nonetheless a road allowing much easier access . this is still a rough trip with camping and extremely bumpy 4wd ride to get to the base , but the rewards are high with a number of other seldom seen birds in the same area . in 2017 , a new species of antbird was described from this same area - cordillera azul antbird . read more about it on urltoken .\nif the departure dates don ' t fit you , please suggest another date .\nwe shall travel to bellavista after with stop at the dry scrub of quebrada upaquihua to check for birds as huallaga slaty antshrike , ashy - headed greenlet , planalto hermit , rufous casiornis , mishana tyrannulet , comb duck , stripe - chested antwren and others . night in bellavista hotel monteverde .\nit takes about four hours by 4wd to get to the village which will serve as our base camp . on the way we shall look for napo sabrewing which has been seen along the road .\ngrey - tailed piha , rose - fronted parakeet , foothill and slaty antwren , rufous - breasted antthrush . scaled antpitta , foothill schiffornis , short - tailed antthrush , ash - browed and chestnut - throated spinetails , yellow - throated spadebill , yellow - cheeked becard , andean lanisoma , roraiman flycatcher and jet , yungas and blue - rumped manakin .\ngrey - mantled wren , and many tanagers such as blue - browed , golden - eared and straw - backed tanagers . the local form of white - crowned tapaculo also needs some attention as this complex surely includes more than one species based on the difference in the songs . at night we can search for vermiculated screech - owl and band - bellied owl .\nadditional birding in the morning , until early afternoon if necessary . on the way down we\u2019ll make stops to look for birds we may have missed . we drive to tarapoto , where we may take a late evening flight back to lima or stay overnight to continue to explore more of northern peru .\ntelephone : + 51 - 1 - 652 76 89 . from the us : 011 - 51 - 1 - 652 76 89 . cell : 988 555 938 ( gunnar ) or 999 007 886 ( elia gallo ) - email : kolibriexp @ urltoken"]}
{"id": 708, "summary": [{"text": "agamyxis pectinifrons , the spotted talking catfish , spotted raphael catfish or whitebarred catfish , is a species of thorny catfish found in the amazon basin where it has been recorded from bolivia , brazil , colombia and peru .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "this species grows to a length of 15 centimetres ( 5.9 in ) sl . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "agamyxis pectinifrons", "paragraphs": ["agamyxis : with ( very ) much slime . pectinifrons : with a comb on the forehead , ( probably refers to the toothed dorsal fin spine . )\ntable 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations\u2020 . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of agamyxis pectinifrons are found here .\nagamyxis : from the greek agan , meaning much , and myxa , meaning mucus ; in reference to the mucus produced by the fish .\nfuller , p . , 2018 , agamyxis pectinifrons ( cope , 1870 ) : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 3 / 1 / 2009 , peer review date : 4 / 1 / 2016 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018\nhis month we concentrate on a very weird member of the doradidae family , namely the\nspotted talking catfish\nagamyxis pectinifrons . this catfish has been in the hobby for many years and is sometimes overlooked in the quest for the more gaudy colours of the members of the loricariidae family , i . e . the l - numbers , but as you can see in the picture below it can even rival them in the colourful stakes .\nthere are two species in this genus , the aforementioned a . pectinifrons and a . albomaculatus ( peters , 1877 ) . a . pectinifrons is found in ecuador and peru while a . albomaculatus is only found in venezuela . there is not a great deal of differences as far as i can see in the 2 species apart from maybe albomaculatus being a bit slimmer and having more spots . there also seems to be a different pattern in the caudal fin . the first thing you notice is the weird shape reminiscent of the\nhunchback of notre dam\nand old specimens can get very hunchbacked in their advancing years . this is a very long lived species with reports of 17 years longevity and are very hardy to boot ! .\ndoradids are often referred to collectively as \u2018talking catfishes\u2019 in reference to the fact that many of them are able to produce audible sounds . in some genera ( e . g . acanthodoras , agamyxis ) these are produced via stridulation of the pectoral spines within their sockets , with the pelvic girdle possibly involved in projection of the resultant noise . the \u2018elastic - spring apparatus\u2019 is also used to produce sound , this comprising a highly - specialised arrangement of the parapophyses of the fourth vertebrae , the swim bladder plus associated muscles and ligaments .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\na basic setup for the\nspotted talking catfish\nwould be a not too brightly lit aquarium with bogwood or equivalent for them to hide away in the roots or in the crevices of carefully stacked stonework . substrate is not a great issue with either rounded gravel or sand . a regime of monthly water changes should keep this catfish happy for many years .\nit is very nocturnal as are most members of this family and you must be aware of their pectoral spines as they can lock them and if your fingers are in the road it can be mighty painful ! . if catching this species for any reason you must not use a net as their spines will get hopelessly entangled . a better method is to lower a container to scoop it up in . if you must handle this fish , make sure that you grasp it forward of the pectoral spines in the head area . in common with most of the doradidae family when out of the water , it can create a sound by grating its fin bones in each socket and amplifying the noise via the swim bladder , which is one reason why it commands the common name of the \u0093spotted talking catfish\u0094\nd 1 / 5 ; a 1 / 11 ; p1 / 5 . dorsal spine toothed on both anterior and posterior surfaces . spinous scutes confined to the posterior half of the body . 3 pairs of barbels . caudal shape , truncate .\ndark brown to blue - black , with numerous pale blotches / spots on the head and body . underside somewhat paler , similarly marked . fins dark , with pale stripes and spots which may run together to form transverse bars . old individuals are almost uniformly dark brown with white blotches on the belly .\ngood community catfish although very nocturnal . may eat very small fish or fry on night time forages .\nno reports on the breeding of this species in captivity but may lay its eggs in floating plants in its natural habitat .\na good practice is to drop tablet food at dusk , in the area where it resides . it will eat a wide variety of foods including flake , and frozen foods such as bloodworm .\nif you found this page helpful you can help keep scotcat running by making a small donation , thanks .\nthis is another fish that can destroy a good net when attempting to transfer them . although it can be a bit painful , it is possible to move this fish by hand . this is best practiced with small fish and rubber gloves initially , but seasoned pros can literally pluck these fish from underneath a rock . you must get a finger between each pectoral fin and the catfishes body with your thumb above the head . due to a reflex driven defensive mechanism the fish will lock its pectoral fins , trapping your fingers ! i recall reading that this action is used by the fish when caught to make itself as difficult to swallow as possible . the fish will remain locked to your fingers until you transfer it and submerge it once again when it will release and dart off to the nearest dark refuge .\nwhether you transfer the fish by this or more conventional methods you will probably hear why it is called a talking catfish during the transfer . the fish emits a high pitched croaking noise which can be surprisingly loud . the fish achieves this by grinding the base of its pectoral fin bone against its shoulder bone ; much like the noise you can make by grinding your teeth , but louder ! most , if not all , of the 80 - 100 members of the family can\ntalk\nin this manner . amongst these are some true giants ( 4ft + ) which i would very much like to hear .\ncopyright information for the images used in this article can be found on the species ' full cat - elog page .\n150mm or 5 . 9\nsl . find near , nearer or same sized spp .\nthe light coloured spots that make this fish so attractive range from brilliant white to pale yellow in different batches of imports .\nwill eat any food that reaches it . bloodworm and sinking catfish tablets are best as they can be ' ' aimed ' ' at the fishes daytime hide - out .\nneeds a dark refuge , but smaller individuals will spend the day in dense vegetation just as happily .\nsome details , although sketchy . seems to be a bubble nest builder or at least lay its eggs on floating vegetation at the water surface .\nget or print a qr code for this species profile , or try our beta label creator .\nhas this page been useful ? please donate to our monthly hosting costs and keep us free for everyone to enjoy ! explore our youtube channel , facebook page or follow us on twitter .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 urltoken , part of the aquatic republic network group of websites . all rights reserved . cite this website . by accessing this site you agree to our terms and conditions of use . our privacy policy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe type locality is given as \u2018pebas , equador\u2019 by cope ( 1870 ) but this apparently refers to the settlement of the same name located east of the city of iquitos in loreto region , northern peru , an area once disputably claimed by ecuador . the precise extent of its natural range is a little unclear , though it appears restricted to parts of the amazon basin in bolivia , brazil , colombia and peru .\nthis species is found in various habitat - types but shows a preference for slow - moving or still waters with an abundance of submerged or floating structures , among which it conceals itself during daylight hours . the whitewater ca\u00f1o yarina , a tributary of the r\u00edo pacaya located close to the confluence of the r\u00edos mara\u00f1on and ucayali represents a typical biotope . the main channel is around 100 m wide although the surrounding terrain is inundated for the majority of the year with a short period of low water between july and september with flooded forest comprising 85 % of the area . where there is open water , around 40 % of it is covered by \u2018floating meadows\u2019 consisting of rafts of macrophytes which tend to form most thickly around lake and stream margins .\nthe conditions in ca\u00f1o yarina are typical of amazonian whitewaters with dissolved sediment reducing visibility and the water stained darker during the high water period due to decomposing organic materials . plant species involved in the formation of floating meadows mostly include polygonium sp . , pistia stratiotes , eichhornia crassipes , paspalum sp . and an unidentified leguminous species , with others including unidentified members of the genera azolla , neptunia , ludwigia , salvinia , utricularia and echinochloeta .\nduring an expedition conducted by the swedish museum of natural history in 1981 this species was collected from a \u2018 floating meadow \u2018 near pebas alongside numerous other species including bunocephalus coracoideus , trachelyopterus galeatus , lepthoplosternum altamazonicum , anadoras grypus , oxydoras niger , pterodoras granulosus , leiarius marmoratus , sorubim elongatus , pseudorinelepis genibarbis , apistogramma agassizii , a . eunotus , apistogrammoides pucallpaensis , cichlasoma amazonarum , heros efasciatus , hypselecara temporalis , mesonauta mirificus , prochilodus nigricans and rivulus ornatus plus unidentified species of farlowella , pimelodus , pyrrhulina , mylossoma and gymnotus .\nbest maintained in a dimly - lit set - up with a soft , sandy substrate and plenty of cover in the form of aquatic vegetation , tangles of driftwood or artificial caves of some kind . bright lighting isn\u2019t really appreciated since this species is largely nocturnal by nature .\nthis species is an omnivorous generalist and will accept most commonly - encountered prepared and frozen foods . a varied diet comprising good quality , dried , sinking pellets or tablets supplemented by regular meals of live or frozen bloodworm , tubifex , mosquito larvae , etc . is ideal , and the occasional whole or chopped earthworm will provide valuable additional protein .\nnon - aggressive though adult individuals may consume very small fishes . it makes an excellent addition to a medium - to - large - sized community of amazonian species alongside peaceful characins , cichlids and other catfishes , for example . it\u2019s gregarious by nature so will display more natural behaviour when kept in a group of 4 or more specimens , though can be maintained individually if you wish , and it will also group together with similarly - looking relatives such as platydoras armatulus , acanthodoras spinosissimus , and amblydoras hancockii .\nno reports of breeding in the hobby other than via the use of hormones to artificially induce the process .\nthis species , which may also be referred to by the alternative vernacular names \u2018spotted raphael\u2019 , \u2018white - spotted\u2019 or \u2018white - barred\u2019 catfish , is very common in the trade and despite its adult size is recommended to beginners and experienced aquarists alike since it is hardy , attractive and relatively - long - lived . the light body markings are highly variable in terms of exact placement and may be either white or pale to darkish yellow in colour .\nit is very similar in appearance to the congener a . albomaculatus with the most useful distinguishing character seemingly represented by collection locality since the latter is known only from the r\u00edo orinoco drainage in venezuela . both species are probably sold under the same trade names .\nmembers of the family doradidae can be distinguished from all other siluriformes by possession of a unique infranuchal scute , a dermal bone consisting of an elongate plate formed by expansion of a ligament located between the posterior nuchal plate and the rib on the sixth vertebra . this feature is associated with the lateral line canal and represents the first in a series of prominent midlateral scutes exhibited by most doradids . there are two major lineages recognised within the family , one with simple barbels and a comparatively flattened head , the other with fimbriate barbels and a relatively deep head .\nwithin the order siluriformes doradids are most closely related to the family auchenipteridae , most commonly referred to as \u2018driftwood\u2019 catfishes by aquarists , and these two were grouped together in the superfamily doradoidea by sullivan et al . ( 2006 ) . in their molecular phylogenetic analysis doradoidea appeared to form a sister group pairing with the family aspredinidae ( banjo catfishes ) with this constituting a significant departure from earlier hypotheses in which the african family mochokidae and asian sisoridae were assumed to be most closely - associated with doradids and aspredinids , respectively . the authors stopped short of naming this putative aspredinidae - doradoidea clade , for the time being at least , ostensibly because certain prominent theories of fish biogeography would require substantial re - assessment if it were accepted .\ntake care when netting doradids for any reason since the pectoral fin spines and body scutes easily become entangled in the mesh of standard aquarium nets and can break human skin in many cases .\ncope , e . d . 1870 - proceedings of the american philosophical society 11 : 559 - 570 contribution to the ichthyology of the mara\u00f1on .\ncorrea , s . b . , w . g . r . crampton , l . j . chapman and j . s . albert . 2008 - journal of fish biology 72 : 629\u2013644 a comparison of flooded forest and floatingmeadow fish assemblages in an upper amazon floodplain .\nferraris , c . j . , jr . 2007 - zootaxa 1418 : 1 - 628 checklist of catfishes , recent and fossil ( osteichthyes : siluriformes ) , and catalogue of siluriform primary types .\nortega , h . and r . p . vari . 1986 - smithsonian contributions to zoology 437 annotated checklist of the freshwater fishes of peru .\nreis , r . e . , s . o . kullander and c . j . ferraris , jr . 2003 - in : checklist of the freshwater fishes of south and central america doradidae ( thorny catfishes ) .\nswedish museum of natural history . 1999 - ichthyology section , department of vertebrate zoology , swedish museum of natural history , stockholm , sweden . nrm ichthyology collection database .\ngreek , agamai = to admire , to astonish + greek , myxo = mucus ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; demersal ; ph range : 5 . 8 - 7 . 5 ; dh range : ? - 20 . tropical ; 20\u00b0c - 26\u00b0c ( ref . 1672 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 15 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 37054 )\nsabaj , m . h . and c . j . ferraris jr . , 2003 . doradidae ( thorny catfishes ) . p . 456 - 469 . in r . e . reis , s . o . kullander and c . j . ferraris , jr . ( eds . ) checklist of the freshwater fishes of south and central america . porto alegre : edipucrs , brasil . ( ref . 37054 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 7500 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01413 ( 0 . 00605 - 0 . 03300 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 21 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 8 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 19 of 100 ) .\nan unusual species of catfish that despite its look makes a peaceful community species for larger sized fish .\nbetta fish care infographic , a handy cheat sheet that will benefit any keepers of siamese fighting fish .\nfish tank care . guide to fish care with a simple look at aquarium filtration , how to clean a fish tank , and a fish tank maintenance schedule .\npiranhas , one of the most efficient predators with razor sharp teeth and a ferocious nature . piranha fish species , description , information , habitat , and more !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\nwe have two large iridescent sharks we are looking to find another home for . our tank is too small and they are very large . do you have a big tank ? do you know they can grow 3 - 4 feet ? where are you located ?\nlooking for medaka rice fish . what ever species you may have for sale .\ni ' m looking to but a balloon kissing gourami . any idea where i can get one ?\ni have one of these spotted raphael catfish . i never knew what he was until this evening after searching online . i ' ve had him for ten or more years . we ' ve always . . . ( more ) nikki\nis a very pretty fish . the body is a dark brown to blackish color adorned with an irregular pattern of small spots that can range from brilliant white to pale yellow . the fins are dark too , with both spots and stripes that may run together forming crosswise bars . this striking white - on - black patterning makes it very attractive and desirable , yet no two look fish look exactly the same !\nthis fish is a member of the doradidae family . due to its spotted appearance and its ability to vocalize it ' s also commonly known as the spotted talking catfish . it will produces sounds ,\ncroaks\nor\nclicks ,\nby rubbing its pectoral fins across grooves in the shoulder , usually heard when removing it from its tank . a few other descriptive common names it is known by include white spotted talking catfish , white spotted doradid , white - spot dorydid , talking catfish , and thorny catfish .\nthe doradidae family as a group is known as thorny catfish , which is actually a very appropriate descriptive name . they are tough skinned catfish with a well - developed nuchal shield in front of the dorsal fin and bony lumps , forming thorny scutes , along the lateral line . this family is also called\ntalking catfish\nbecause they can produce audible sounds by rotating their pectoral spines in their sockets . this particular doradid catfish is also one of the\nrafael catfish\n. another well known rafael is the\nthe spotted raphael catfish is very hardy and tolerant of most water conditions . it makes a great choice for a beginner or any other aquarist . being nocturnal , it is a bit shy and will look for a nice comfortable hiding place during the day . like the raphael catfish , it likes to burrow in the soft river bottom in the wild , so provide a corner of fine gravel or sand . they also like to wedge themselves into tight spaces , so some hiding places in the hollows of roots or driftwood are appreciated .\nthey will not harm plants , in fact some floating plant cover will help keep the tank dimly lit , which keeps them happy . if plants are provided , as juveniles they will spend their day in the vegetation . they will start to come out in the evening as it gets dark , to scavenge along the bottom of the tank for tasty morsels . to get the best viewing of these fish , you can add some moonlight led ' s to the tank and watch this little cleaner come to life .\nthe spotted raphael is a peaceful catfish and does well in a community aquarium . its an excellent companion with most other medium to large fish , only very small fish may get snacked on . with its armored thorny protection it can even be kept with more aggressive tankmates . south and central american cichlids , larger characins , pimelodus , and trichogaster are all good choices . it can be kept singly , but in the wild this is a gregarious species , and a group of 4 or more can be happily kept in a good sized aquarium . it will also school with similar looking catfish relatives .\nthorny catfish have a strong first spine on their pectoral fins , which can be used as a defensive weapon . they tend to stick out these side spines out in a very rigid manner , especially when stressed . to catch them it ' s best to use a glass container or plastic bag as these spines can easily get caught in a net . trying to get them untangled is not only stressful , but a bit dangerous . a prick from the spines of this fish is quite painful !\nwas described by cope in 1870 . they are found in the amazon basin , occurring in bolivia , brazil , colombia , and peru . they are not listed on the ucn red list of endangered species . other common names they are known by are spotted talking catfish , white spotted talking catfish , white spotted doradid , white - spot dorydid , talking catfish , and thorny catfish .\nit is one of the\nrafael catfish\n. other rafael ' s include three almost identical striped species with each originating from different localities , the raphael catfish\nit belongs to the doradidae family , which are known as thorny catfish . these are tough skinned catfish with a well - developed nuchal shield in front of the dorsal fin and bony lumps , forming thorny scutes , along the lateral line . this family is also called\ntalking catfish\nbecause they can produce audible sounds by rotating their pectoral spines in their sockets . the doradidae family is by no means the only types of catfish that can make vocalizations , the squeaker catfish of the mochokidae family are also noted as being very vocal .\n. unlike the spotted talking catfish , it is not suitable for a community aquarium as it will eat smaller fish . another is the painted talking catfish\n. this is a very pretty with an almost paisley type design in its patterning , and it is also a very peaceful fish that does well in a community aquarium .\nspotted raphael catfish are found in a variety of habitats but seem to be most comfortable in slow to still moving water with a lot of plants and roots for concealment . during the rainy season these fish will normally migrate into the flooded food rich forests . in the wild they feed on crustaceans , worms , insects , and plant matter .\ngroups - they are gregarious in nature and will school with their own kind and with other similar - looking relatives .\nthe spotted raphael catfish have a cylindrical , arrow - shaped body with a flattened belly . females are more full bodied than males . they can reach up to 5 . 9 inches ( 15 cm ) in length . they are known to have a lifespan of about 10 years , however hobbyists have reported them living up to 15 to 20 years .\nthese catfish have a large head with small eyes . the mouth is large and there are three pairs of barbels , one on the upper jaw and two on the lower . as with all in its genus , they are tough skinned catfish with a well - developed nuchal shield in front of the dorsal fin . bony bony lumps form thorny scutes along the lateral line .\nthe dorsal fin stands erect and they have a strong first spine on their pectoral fins . they are called\ntalking catfish\nbecause they have the ability to produce audible sounds by rubbing their pectoral fins across grooves in the shoulder . this sound is amplified by the swim bladder . croaks or clicks will often be heard when removing them from their tank .\nthe pectoral spines can be extended out to the side in a very rigid manner and be used as a defensive weapon . these spines can easily become entangled in a net . untangling them is stressful to the fish and a bit dangerous for the keeper , as a prick from these spines can be quite painful .\nthe body color is a dark brown to bluish - black with an irregular pattern of small spots that can range from brilliant white to pale yellow . the fins are dark too , with both spots and stripes that may run together forming crosswise bars . their bellies are normally lighter in color with similar spots . as these catfish age they become more of a solid darker color with a white underside . no two look fish look exactly the alike .\n. in fact these two are so similar in looks that to distinguish them , you need to know where they are collected . the spotted raphael is from the amazon basin in bolivia , brazil , colombia and peru , while the spiny catfish has a very restricted occurrence , known only from the r\u00edo orinoco drainage in venezuela .\n10 years - they have an average lifespan of 10 years , however in captivity they have been known to live as much as 15 to 20 years .\nthe spotted raphael catfish is fairly hardy , making it a great choice for a beginning fish keeper . they are fairly small and and not very picky about what they eat . these are bottom scavengers that do a great job cleaning the tank .\ntheir water requirements are very easy to meet and their temperament is of a peaceful nature , making them good community fish . there is not usually much of a need to upgrade to a bigger tank as much as it is with some of the larger catfish , unless you want to increase the number of fish you ' re keeping . they do have sharp spines on the dorsal fins and so should be transported using a glass or plastic container rather than a net .\nthe spotted raphael catfish are omnivores and not fussy terms of feeding . in the wild they will feed on a variety of crustaceans , worms , insects , and plant matter . they are bottom feeders , and in the aquarium they will eat any food that reaches them . feed them daily , being nocturnal they prefer to be fed right before or after the lights are turned off on the aquarium .\nto keep a good balance give them high quality sinking pellets everyday , along with freeze - dried bloodworms and tubifex . they will also eat all kinds of live , frozen , and prepared foods , including flakes , that have sunk to the bottom . protein foods are important for them , so the occasional whole or chopped earthworm is good as a regular treat . they will eat snails , so can be employed to clean up a snail overpopulation , as long as the aquarium ' s conditions are suitable for this fish .\nomnivore - they do eat some plant matter in the wild , but protein is the main staple of their diet .\nyes - they will eat any foods that reach the bottom of the aquarium .\ndaily - this fish is nocturnal and prefers to be fed right before or after lights out in the aquarium .\nthese are hardy fish that tolerate most water conditions . in the wild the shallow flood waters of its homeland can cool off drastically at night , and they then tolerate temperatures as low as to 15\u00b0 c for a short period . but extremes should be avoided in the aquarium to avoid stress and illness .\nthey are very low maintenance and their tank only requires water changes of 30 % a month . there really isn ' t much that needs to be done for the easy going catfish . this is one of the catfish that have sharp spines not only on the dorsal fins but on the pectoral fin as well . it is better to capture them in a glass or plastic container for transport .\nmonthly - these low maintenance fish only require water changes of 30 % a month .\nthe spotted raphael catfish are moderately sized fish . they need a minimum sized tank of 35 gallons , with 45 gallons or more being better . they tend to be nocturnal , getting most active in the evening and nighttime when they come out to scavenge for food . they may seem shy during the day , spending much of their time hiding , but once they are comfortable they will come out for a swim around . as with most catfish they enjoy well oxygenated waters and this can be accomplished using an undergravel filter and a powerhead . they prefer slightly acid water with low hardness .\nprovide a dimly lit setup with hiding places . plants , twisted roots , and driftwood are the best decor . they will not harm plants and will appreciate some in floating cover as well , to help reduce the light . when young they tend to hide in dense vegetation , but they also like to wedge themselves into tight crevices and to burrow . provide a sandy or fine gravel bottom with at least one corner without plants .\n35 gal ( 132 l ) - a 35 gallon tank is minimum , but 45 gallons or more is better , especially for a larger community .\nthe spotted raphael catfish are peaceful bottom scavengers . they are a good community fish and are friendly with other medium to large community tank mates , avoid fish that are so small they could be considered food . they can be kept singly , but they have a gregarious nature and enjoy being in groups of 4 or more . they will also school with similar looking catfish relatives . with its armored thorny protection it usually be kept with more aggressive tankmates . south and central american cichlids , larger characins , pimelodus , and trichogaster are all good choices .\nno - although not venomous , the spotted raphael catfish is armed with a set of spines sharp enough to do damage to the aquarists hand .\nyes - this fish is gregarious and enjoys the company of its own kind , keeping 4 or more is recommended .\nmonitor - can usually be kept with semi - aggressive and even aggressive fish such as cichlids .\nthreat - is aggressive - the raphael catfish are sometimes used to rid an aquarium of snails .\nthe spotted raphael catfish has rarely been bred in captivity other than artificially with the use of hormones . some spawning success has said to have happened , but reported as being accidental and there is little information is available .\nit is believed that they may be a bubble nest builders in nature , with eggs laid among floating plants . it has been reported that other species of small doradidae could be called nest builders . in the tank they may gather up general debris or find an area with old leaf litter and tidbits of wood , and try to hide beneath it . then other fish of the same species will tend to swim around this\nnest .\nbut whether they had a successful spawn has not been reported . for information on the breeding of catfish in the aquarium , see : breeding freshwater fish : catfish .\nthe spotted raphael catfish are fairly hardy when mature , but are subject to the same diseases as other tropical fish . disease is not usually a problem in a well maintained aquarium and these catfish are very resilient . the most common problem that happens to this fish are injuries from netting and transportation . take great caution when catching and removing this fish . high nitrate levels can also cause these catfish to develop infected barbels ; this makes it difficult for them to navigate and eat normally . maintain nitrate levels below 20 ppm through regular water changes .\nbecause they are a scaleless fish , catfish can be treated with pimafix or melafix but should not be treated with potassium permanganate or copper based medications . malachite green or formalin can be used at one half to one fourth the recommended dosage . take care when treating disease as the\nthe best way to proactively prevent disease is to give your fish the proper environment and give them a well balanced diet . the closer to their natural habitat the less stress the fish will have , making them healthier and happy . a stressed fish will is more likely to acquire disease . anything you add to your tank can bring disease to your tank . not only other fish but plants , substrate , and decorations can harbor bacteria . properly clean or quarantine anything that you add to an established tank so not to add new diseases to the tank . for information about fish diseases and illnesses , see aquarium fish diseases and treatments .\nthe spotted raphael catfish , also commonly called the spotted talking catfish , is readily available at pet stores and online , and is reasonable in price .\nlee finley , catfishes : the complete guide to the successful care and breeding of more than 100 catfish species , t . f . h publications , inc . 2003\ndr . r\u00fcdiger riehl and hans a . baensch , aquarium atlas vol . 1 , publisher hans a . baensch , 1991\ni have one of these spotted raphael catfish . i never knew what he was until this evening after searching online . i ' ve had him for ten or more years . we ' ve always called him the screamer because he would screw when taken out of the water . anyway , this guy , or girl ? , has literally lived it ' s entire life inside a ceramic hide . it would grow too fat to get out , we ' d break it out eventually and it would go into another one . it ' s never swam around . the other dy we broke him out again and made sure there wasn ' t anything else for him to get stuck in . i ' m interested to see if he starts to swim around finally . he is currently snug between some rocks . he can definitely get out though if he wants .\nthey don ' t move around much during the day . i ' ve had a striped raphael for quite a long time and got the spotted one a year ago . they hide all day until night . i thought for sure my spotted one was stuck in a piece of driftwood . i tried like hell to get him out but couldn ' t . two nights later after i feed the tank and turned lights off here he comes wiggling out of the wood . i used to have ceramic hides but a friend of mines striped cut his soft belly on a one and got an infection and died so now i only use driftwood and rocks ( smooth ) .\ni have a raphael and he is indeed my favorite fish . believe it or not , i have had him for more than 30 years ! ! i bought him as a tiny baby about 1980 . he has outlived all other tankmates and even a disasterous event that killed every other fish in the tank for an unknown reason . he is quite large and loves to hide in a cave all the time . does anyone know how long these fish live ?\nat least two years prior to giving him to me . i gave my community tank to my brother when i went away to college . all his fish died except for the raphael . he then gave him to a neighbor who had a large cichlid tank . the neighbors fish all died except for the raphael . by this time i had moved back to the area and took the fish back . he ' s been doing great ever since . there have been a few times when i was moving him that i thought he was dead , since he did not swim or move at all , and he just layed upside down at the bottom of the bucket . seems like he was in some kind of suspended animation . this is my favorite fish , even though he doesn ' t move much during the day . he ' s had hundreds of tank mates over the last two decades and he ' s outlasted them all .\nupdate , 9 years later and my spotted raphael is still going strong . he is at least 27 years old now . he still perks up whenever i drop food in the tank and he seems as healthy as ever . it ' s amazing that an aquarium fish can live this long .\nhi community ! my spotted raphael was purchased in chico ca when i was a whole three years old . she ' s still doing strong to this day , which surprised be at first , considering i ' m currently 22 and i ' ve moved states twice .\nknowing nothing about keeping a fish , i kept her in a 20 gallon tank her whole life with a log in the back , with enough room to enter / exit from either side . she ' s roughly four and a half inches long and very fat .\nshe ' s extremely social , has never attacked my water snails or clams ( large invasive canal snails / clams ) , and always , without fail , eats anything i drop next to her log - even during the day . she ' s currently 20 years old and stil going strong .\ni really think it ' s due time the article be updated to show they live at least an average of 15 / 20 years , considering the other comments i ' ve read . anyway they ' re amazing fish , and having read the comments and article , i ' ll be upgrading to a 45 gallon tank and attempt to find another spotted raphael for her to be friends with .\nthank you for your story , and the great info . we have updated the article to include the longer lifespan that is possible in captivity .\ncopyright \u00a9 [ animal - world ] 1998 - 2015 . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthe nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .\nthis information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .\nthe data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .\ncitation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .\ncontact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\naquascaping - aquarium ideas from petfair 2013 , \u0142\u00f3d\u017a , poland , pt . 6\nit is not possible to visually sex this fish and there have been no records of it being bred in captivity .\nthis fish is generally peaceful towards similar sized or larger fish but can pose a threat to smaller fish .\nthis fish is generally nocturnal , young fish may venture out during the day for food but will otherwise remain hidden until after dark .\ntypical thorny catfish shape , dark base colour covered with attractive small light - coloured spots . these spots range from bright white to pale yellow .\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 03 : 04 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\nfreshwater ; demersal ; ph range : 5 . 8 - 7 . 5 ; dh range : ? - 20 . tropical ; 20\u00b0c - 26\u00b0c ( ref . 1672 ) , preferred ?\nopening hours monday - thursday : 7 . 00 am - 14 . 30 pm friday : closed\nthe spotted raphael catfish is also called the\ntalking catfish\n. this is because it seems to ' talk ' when you take it out of the aquarium ! ( actually it ' croaks ' or ' clicks ' faintly when it ' talks ' . )\nthis fish is peaceful and does well in a community aquarium . being nocturnal , the spotted raphael catfish or talking catfish is a bit shy and will look for a nice comfortable hiding place during the day .\nthe spotted raphael catfish , like the striped raphael , likes to burrow in the soft river bottom so provide a corner of fine gravel or sand . they also like some plant cover and hiding places like the hollows of roots . they will not harm plants .\nit is best to catch the spotted raphael catfish or talking catfish with a glass rather than a net as they are prone to sticking out their side spines in a very rigid manner when they are stressed . they can easily get caught in a net . not only is it difficult on both the fish and you when you try to get them untangled , it is also a bit dangerous . a prick from the spines of this fish is quite painful !"]}
{"id": 712, "summary": [{"text": "motobdella montezuma is a species of leech which is only found in montezuma well , central arizona , united states .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is a nocturnal pelagic predator that feeds almost exclusively on the endemic amphipod hyalella montezuma , which it detects using passive sonar and swallows whole . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "motobdella montezuma", "paragraphs": ["phylogenetic relationships of three genera of erpobdellidae ( hirudinoidea ) , with a description of a new genus , motobdella , and species , motobdella sedonensis .\nhyalella montezuma , a new species ( crustacea : amphipoda ) from montezuma well , arizona .\ngovedich , f . r . , d . blinn , p . keim , and r . w . davies . 1998 . phylogenetic relationships of three genera of erpobdellidae ( hirudinoidea ) , with a description of a new genus , motobdella , and species , motobdella sedonensis . canadian journal of zoology 76 : 2164 - 2171 .\nleech , glossiphoniidae , helobdella blinni sp . n . , new species , montezuma well\n, the well and montezuma castle preserve extraordinary examples of prehistoric sinagua cliff dwelling sites .\n- and watkins , r . c . 1977 . hyalella montezuma a new species ( crustecea : amphipoda ) from montezuma well , arizona . - hydrobiologia 52 : 175 - 184 .\nmontezuma well ( mowe ) became a detached unit of montezuma castle national monument in 1943 to protect the\nobjects of scientific interest\nlocated there . nps interpretation of montezuma well focuses on three major scientific themes : native american prehistory , water chemistry , and unique biology .\nerpobdella montezuma ( hirudinoidea : erpobdellidae ) , a new species of freshwater leech from north america .\nwagner vt , blinn dw . ( 1987 ) montezuma well : the living desert oasis . urltoken\nyet other aquatic organisms flourish in their place . many of these other aquatic organisms are only found there , including the endemic leech motobdella montezuma . former northern arizona university ( nau ) professor dean blinn identified and documented the life - history of many of these endemic organisms in the 1980s and 1990s including 12 undescribed species of :\nproclaimed the montezuma castle national monument on december 8 , 1906 , including 840 acres on and around montezuma well . after passage of the national park service organic act in 1916 , the monument was transferred to the newly formed national park service .\nmontezuma well is a limestone sinkhole in the verde valley . arsenic seeps naturally from the rocks , which makes the water toxic to most living things . a research team at northern arizona university discovered the montezuma well leech has a unique way of dealing with arsenic .\nlocation of helobdella blinni sp . n . a the northeast side of montezuma well ; and b the swallet where the leeches were collected .\ntravertine : a mineral deposit of calcium carbonate that forms through precipitation in a hot spring , like montezuma well , or from the calcium - rich water on cave dripstones .\nhevly , r . h . 1974 . recent paleoenvironments and geological history of montezuma well . - j . ariz . acad . sci . 9 : 66 - 75 .\nblinn , d . w . , dehdashti , b . , runck , c . , and davies , r . w . ( 1990 ) . the importance of prey size and density in an endemic predator - prey couple ( leech erpobdella montezuma - amphipod hyalella montezuma ) . j . anim . ecol . , 59 : 187 - 192 .\n- and barry , w . t . 1973 . montezuma well , arizona , as a habitat . - j . ariz . acad . sci . 8 : 7 - 13 .\na leech occupies the top spot in the food chain at montezuma well near camp verde . surprisingly , its body contains the highest level of arsenic ever recorded in a living organism .\ngovedich , f . r . , blinn , d . w . , keim , p . , and davies , r . w . ( 1998 ) . phylogenetic relationships of three genera of erpobdellidae ( hirudinoidea ) , with a description of a new genus ( motobdella ) and species , m , sedonensis . can . j . zool . , 76 ( 12 ) : 2164 - 2171 .\npelagic : living in or relating to open water , especially surface waters to the middle depths . this would be away from the shore of montezuma well where the leeches feed on the amphipod at night .\nendemic : indigenous to , and restricted to , a particular area . the leech and amphipod studied are endemic to montezuma well , meaning they ' re found only in this location and nowhere else on earth .\nbatchelder , g . l . 1974 . postpluvial ecology of montezuma well , yavapai co . , arizona . - final rep . arizona archaeol . ctr . , nat . park serv . p . 18 .\nusa , arizona : yavapai county , montezuma well ( 34 . 6491\u00b0n , 111 . 7522\u00b0w ( dd ) ) , aquatic system , under rocks , 10 june 2012 , r . k . beresic - perrins .\nrunck , c . and d . w . blinn . 1990 . population dynamics and secondary production by ranatra montezuma ( heteroptera : nepidae ) . journal of the north american benthological society 9 : 262 - 270 .\n) . this location is thermally constant year - round ( 19\u201324\u02dac ) and is continuously replenished by two vents located at the well bottom . montezuma well is 0 . 76 ha in area and approximately 20 m deep . most of the shoreline drops off immediately into open water , except at the northeast corner where water drains through a shallow region called the \u201cswallet\u201d and empties into wet beaver creek which is located east of montezuma well ( fig .\nusa : az : yavapai co . , montezuma well 34 . 6491\u00b0n , 111 . 7522\u00b0w ( dd ) , 10 . vi . 2010 , aquatic system , under rocks , rk beresic - perrins , holotype ( usnm )\nmontezuma well is a quiet but spectacular example of a large , limnocrene ( pool - forming ) spring . it is one of the best - studied springs ecosystems in the world , thanks in large measure to the dedicated research of\nblinn , d . w . , davies , r . w . , and dehdashti , b . ( 1987 ) . specialized pelagic feeding by erpobdella montezuma ( hirudinea ) . holarctic ecol . , 10 : 235 - 240 .\nfry , d . , b . obit , j . matson and s . m . shuster . 2007 . laboratory survivorship of leeches from montezuma well , arizona . iii undergraduate research expo , northern arizona university , flagstaff . pdf .\n( 14 specimens ) usa : az yavapai co . , montezuma well 34 . 6491\u00b0n , 111 . 7522\u00b0w ( dd ) , 10 . vi . 2010 , aquatic system , under rocks , rk beresic - perrins , paratypes ( usnm )\n- , singhal , r . n . and blinn , d . w . 1985 . erpobdella montezuma , a new freshwater leech from north america ( arizona , usa ) . - can . j . zool . 63 : 965 - 969 .\ne . montezuma was collected from montezuma well on 11 different days to examine the seasonal diet of the leech . leeches ( 0 . 2 - 0 . 6 g wet wt . ) were collected in nets at different time intervals 2 hours prior and up to 6 hours after sunset on 8 dates and near sunrise on the remaining 3 dates . to sample various specimens and locations , different sampling techniques were used . petite dredges were used to collect specimens in sediment , vertical nets collected from the water column to quantify plankton prey , and net tows were used in the littoral zone to quantify potential prey in the vegetation . ( to make sure the scientists had all the information they needed , different types of collections at different locations were made at varying times in montezuma well . )\nboucher , p . , blinn , d . w . and johnson , d . b . 1984 . phytoplankton ecology in an unusually stable environment ( montezuma well , arizona , u . s . a . ) . - hydrobiologia 119 : 149 - 160 .\ndavies , r . w . , r . n . singhal and d . w . blinn . 1985 . erpobdella montezuma ( hirudinoidea : erpobdellidae ) , a new species of freshwater leech from north america . canadian journal of zoology 63 : 065 - 969 .\nberesic - perrins rk , govedich fr , banister k , bain ba , rose d , shuster sm ( 2017 ) helobdella blinni sp . n . ( hirudinida , glossiphoniidae ) a new species inhabiting montezuma well , arizona , usa . zookeys 661 : 137\u2013155 . urltoken\nlittoral zone : the zone in a body of fresh water where light penetration to the bottom is sufficient for the growth of plants . this is where most of the aquatic plants grow in montezuma well and where the amphipods migrate to in the evening , from the pelagic zone .\nin other words , the leeches are coated in a slimy toxic skin . foust said this is probably how they protect their internal organs . other top predators in montezuma well metabolize the toxin and get rid of it . unlike the leech , they have lower concentrations of arsenic than their prey .\ndavies , r . w . , singhal , r . n . , and blinn , d . w . ( 1985 ) . erpobdella montezuma ( hirudinoidea : erpobdellidae ) , a new species of freshwater leech from north america . can . j . zool . , 63 ( 4 ) : 965 - 969 .\nthe well was probably first seen by europeans during the 1583 spanish expedition of antonio de espejo , who described an abandoned pueblo ( likely montezuma castle ) and a pond ( likely montezuma well ) . a railroad survey in the mid - 1880s reported abandoned indian villages in the verde valley , but it was edgar mearns , a military physician stationed at fort verde , who in 1884 was the first scientist to see the site . the smithsonian institution took notice of the well , sending cosmos mindeleff in 1892 and jesse w . fewkes in 1895 to investigate . by 1930 , a total of 185 archaeological sites had been identified in the verde valley and surrounding plateau .\nberesic - perrins , r . , d . rose , k . banister , f . govedich and s . shuster . 2013 . helobdella blinni ( hirudinoidea : glossiphoniidae ) a new species inhabiting montezuma well , arizona . society for integrative and comparative biology meeting , san francisco , ca usa , january 2013 . abstract . pdf .\nmontezuma well ' s significance is due , in part , to its unique water chemistry and ecosystem . as we continue to identify endemic species , we help define the well ' s unique environment and distinguish it from all other locations in the region and world . similarly , research provides invaluable insight into the development and evolution of the mowe ecosystem .\nblinn , d . w . 2008 . the extreme environment , trophic structure , and ecosystem dynamics of a large , fishless desert spring : montezuma well , arizona . in stevens , l . e . and v . j . meretsky , editors . every last drop : ecology and conservation of aridlands springs in north america . university of arizona press , tucson , in press .\nmontezuma well\u2014a collapsed carbonate caldron 368 feet across and 55 feet deep\u2014lies at 3 , 618 feet elevation in the verde valley . its waters likely are derived from the southern colorado plateau just to the north , and undoubtedly have a lengthy and circuitous flow path . the springs well up from the bottom of a collapsed limestone sink and discharge through a natural tunnel at a rate of about 1 , 100 gallons per minute into\nmowe ' s uniqueness includes a constant water temperature between 69 - 74 o f \u2013cool in the summer and warm in the winter ; ducks love this and return every fall to bathe in their own spa . the well also has elevated levels of dissolved co 2 from the travertine and naturally occurring arsenic . due to these chemical properties , that include a lack of oxygen , fish cannot breathe in the well . there ' s even an anecdote from some of the first owners of montezuma well in the late 1800s , who tried to stock the well for fishing . in the morning all the poor fish were belly up , and the family none the richer .\nfrom an ecosystem standpoint , the well\u2019s vegetation supports a very large population of amphipods that serve as a prey base . by day , montezuma well\u2019s predator assemblage is dominated by the small , red , desert firetail damselfly , as well as the water scorpion and giant water bug . by night , a horde of endemic leeches swarms up from the depths . the larval damselflies and waterbugs are visual predators in the dense pondweed vegetation around the pool\u2019s periphery . leeches spend their days in the ooze at the bottom of the well , swimming to the surface to feed at night . both sets of predators feed on the endemic amphipod , which spends the day in moderately deep open water , avoiding direct sunlight and the predators in the peripheral vegetation . the amphipod moves to the outer margins of the weed beds at night to avoid predation by leeches .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngovedich , fredric r . , dean w . blinn , paul keim , and ronald w . davies\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\ndean w . blinn , ronald w . davis and behrooz dehdashti northern arizona university\nthe range of prey species taken by freshwater predatory leeches is normally quite high and changes seasonally with prey availability . while leeches sometimes do ingest whole body prey , they more commonly suck out body fluids . when whole bodies are ingested the exoskeletons are normally quickly evacuated .\nin collections taken for microscopic analysis of leech gut contents , animals were individually packaged and preserved to stop digestion . ( if the leeches were kept alive , they would continue to digest they food and the scientist wouldn ' t be able to accurately find out what they were eating . ) all visible prey in the dissected gut was counted for each animal .\namphipod : any small , flat - bodied crustacean of the order amphipoda , having one set of limps adapted for swimming and another for hopping . they look like tiny shrimp .\ndiel : pertaining to a 24 - hour period , a regular daily cycle . the leeches and amphipods follow one diel cycle .\nmean : the average ; statistical term for the average of a series of values , calculated by adding together all of the values and dividing by the number of different values .\nquantitative : numerical , or capable of being expressed in numbers ; derived from measurements or other numerical values , e . g . , 10 leeches .\nblinn , d . w . and dehdashti , b . 1984 . the nocturnal feeding behaviour of erpobdella punctata ( hiudinoidea ) in a near thermally constant environment . - ( abstr . ) 47th annual meeting , am . soc . . limnol . oceangr . , vancouver , b . c . , p . 9 .\n- , wagner , v . t . and grim , l . n . 1986 . surface sensilla on the predacious fresh - water leech eprobdella montezuama : possible importance in feeding . - trans . am . micros . soc . 105 : 21 - 30 .\ncole , g . a . 1983 . textbook of limonolgy . - 3rd ed . c . v . mosby , co . , pp . 401 .\ndavies , r . w . 1969 . the production of antisera for detecting species triclad antigens in the gut of predators . - oikos 20 : 248 - 260 .\n- and everett , r . p . 1975 . the feeding of four species of freshwater hirudinoidea in southern alberta . - verh . int . verein . limnol . 19 : 2816 - 2827 .\n- , wrona , f . j . and everett , r . p . 1978 . a serological study of prey selection oby nephelopsis obscura verrill ( hirundinoidea ) . - can . j . zool . 56 : 587 - 591 .\n- , wrona , f . j . and linton , l . 1979 . a serological study of prey selection by helobdella stagnalis ( hidrudinoidea ) . - j . anim . ecol . 48 : 181 - 194 .\n- , wrona , f . j . and wikialis , j . 1981 . inter - and intraspecific analysis of the food niches of two sympatric species of erpobdellidae ( hirudinoidea ) in alberta , canada . - , oikos 37 : 105 - 111 .\nelliott , j . m . 1973 . the diel pattern , drifting and food of the leech erobdella octoculuta ( l . ) ( hirudinea : erpobdellidae ) in a lake district stream . - j . anim . ecol . 42 : 451 - 461 .\nfeigenbaum , d . and reeve m . r . 1977 . prey detection in the chaetognatha : response to a vibrating probe and experimental determination of attack distance in large aquaria . - limnol . oceanogr . 22 : 1052 - 1058 . giguere , l . a . and dill , l . m . 1979 . the prey response of chaoborus larvae to acoustic stimuli , and the acoustic characteristics of their prey . - z . tierpsychol . 50 : 113 - 123 .\nivlev , v . s . 1961 . experimental ecology of the feeding fishes . - new haven , conneticut : yale univ . press .\nkirk , k . l . 1985 . water flows produced by daphnia and diaptomous : implications for prey selection by mechanosensory predators . - limnol . oceanogr . 30 : 679 - 686 .\nnations , j . d . , hevly , r . d . , landye , j . j . and blinn , d . w . 1981 . the paleontology . paleoecology and depositional history of the miocene - pliocene verde formation , yavapi county , arizona . - in : stone , c . and jenny , j . p . ( eds ) geol . soc . digest 13 : 133 - 149 .\nwrona , f . j . , davies , r . w . and linton , l . 1979 . analysis of the food niche of glossiphonia complanata ( hirudinoidea : glossiphoniidae ) . - can . j . zool . 57 : 2136 - 2142 .\nyoung , j . o . 1981 . a comparitive study of the food niches of lake - dwelling triclads and leeches . - hydrobiologia 84 : 91 - 102 .\n- and ironmonger , j . w . 1979 . the natural diet of eprobdella octoculata ( l . ) ( hirudinea : erpobdellae ) in british lakes . - arch . hydrobiol . 87 : 483 - 503 .\n- and ironmonger , l . w . 1980 . alabratory study of the food of three species of leeches occuring in british lakes . - hydrobiologia . 68 : 209 - 215 .\n- and proctor , r . m . 1985 . oligochaetes as a food resource of lake dwelling leeches . - j . freshwat . ecol . 3 : 181 - 187 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nklemm , d . j . , w . e . moser and m . j . wetzel . 2010 . classification and checklist of the leeches ( phylum annelida : class clitellata : subclass hirundinida ) occurring in north america north of mexico . accessed : 25 june 2010 . online . available : urltoken\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe leech feeds exclusively on a type of shrimp , and the arsenic consumed in the shrimp is then stored in the leech\u2019s body .\n\u201cthe other thing that\u2019s interesting is the arsenic seems to be moved from the gut of the organism up to the skin or surface of the organism . we don\u2019t know what that mechanism is ,\nsaid richard foust , lead author of the study and former nau chemistry professor .\nplease read our contributor confidentiality policy , kjzz ethics and practices guidelines and fcc public inspection files . kjzz supports equal employment opportunities and works against discrimination in employment . for more information , please see kjzz ' s employment and eeo information page .\nfor questions or comments about this website , please contact the kjzz webmaster . for general comments or questions see the contact kjzz page for a listing of contacts by topic . please note : station policy mandates that listeners who win on - 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0001\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nrebecca k . beresic - perrins , 1 fredric r . govedich , 2 kelsey banister , 1 bonnie a . bain , 2 devin rose , 1 and stephen m . shuster 1\n1 department of biological sciences , northern arizona university , 617 s . beaver st . , po box 5640 flagstaff , az , 86011 - 5640 ,\n2 department of biological sciences , southern utah university , 351 w . university blvd . cedar city , ut , 84720 ,\ncopyright rebecca k . beresic - perrins , fredric r . govedich , kelsey banister , bonnie a . bain , devin rose , stephen m . shuster\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( cc by 4 . 0 ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\n( linnaeus , 1758 ) , all of which inhabit the swallet ( fig .\nwe documented number of eyes and their placement , color pattern , presence of papillae , number of and structure of gastric caecae , body size , presence of nuchal scute , gonopore placement , egg size and number , and number of offspring using a nikon binocular dissecting microscope . we then deposited the examined materials in the invertebrate zoology collection at the smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history ( usnm ) .\nwhole dna was extracted from the caudal suckers of the individual leeches using a qiagen dneasy blood & tissue kit ( cat . no . 69504 ) , with each sample incubated overnight in a water bath set at 54\u00b0c . using\noxidase subunit i ( coi ) was amplified . the primers were lco1490 5\u2019 - ggtcaacaaatcataaagatattgg - 3\u2019 and hco2198 5\u2019 - taaacttcagggtgaccaaaaaatca - 3\u2019 (\n) . the pcr product was purified through the use of the qiaquick pcr purification protocol ( cat . no . 28104 ) , checked for pcr product using gel electrophoresis , and sequenced with an abi prism 3730 sequencer ( applied biosystems ) . we imported the seven \u201ccleanest\u201d sequences and 71 comparative sequences ( table\n) and then corrected the alignments by hand . we partitioned the data and performed the substitution model test by codon in partitionfinder (\n) and included 1 , 000 nonparametric bootstrap replicates . we used mrbayes for bayesian inference analysis with ten million generations with a 25 % burn - in and our support was assessed based on clade posterior probabilities (\n) to construct parsimony phylogenies with 100 random additions . we performed the parsimony analysis twice , treating the deletions in the sequences as a 5\nstate and then as missing data . we performed an uncorrected p - distance analysis to examine nucleotide differences between sequences with 1 , 000 replicates in mega7 . 0 . 18 (\ninternal and external morphology of helobdella blinni sp . n . a dorsal view of the eyes and extended proboscis b crop and post caecae c testisacs d ventral view of internal eggs which have not been oviposited yet e ventral view of white eggs that have been oviposited f ventral view of attached and detached offspring .\ndiagram of the external and internal morphology of helobdella blinni sp . n . ( drawn by rebecca beresic - perrins and fredric govedich ) .\nlength of specimens 11 to 22 mm ( mean + se 16 . 6 + 3 . 2 n = 24 ) and width 3 to 8 mm ( 5 . 7 + 1 . 1 n = 28 ) ( table\n) . individual color ranges from translucent with brown spots to dark brown ( fig .\n) . no dorsal papillae ; one pair of eyes located at somite ii ( 0 . 07 + 0 . 02 mm diameter , n = 11 ) , distance between eyes 0 . 1 to 0 . 03 mm apart ( n = 13 ) . a scallop - shaped nuchal scute is present on the dorsal side , length 0 . 293 to 0 . 432 mm ( 0 . 335 + 0 . 05 n = 9 ) and width 0 . 27 to 0 . 386 mm ( 0 . 32 + 0 . 04 n = 9 ) . one annulus separates the female and male gonopores . the caudal sucker diameter averages 1 . 6 + 0 . 3 mm ( n = 27 ) . the eggs ( diameter 0 . 5 + 0 . 15 mm , n = 28 ) are laid on the ventral side of the parent in soft - walled transparent cocoons ( 7\u201311 eggs per cocoon , n = 7 ) . the mouth is located subterminally in the oral sucker ( figs\naverage oral sucker diameter is 0 . 7 + 0 . 19 mm ( n = 15 ) , proboscis length is 3 . 5 + 1 . 1 mm ( n = 17 ) ( table\n) . diffuse salivary glands are located near the anterior of the first pair of crop caecae . there are five pairs of smooth crop caecae and one lobed pair of posteriorly directed post caecae . six pairs of compact testisacs are located in between each of the crop caecae . the intestine contains four pairs of caecae , with the first two pairs anteriorly directed and the other two pairs posteriorly directed . the intestine leads into an unraised anus located two annuli from the caudal sucker ( figure\ndevelopment and growth . this species breeds year - round with peaks in spring and fall . our specimens had an average of 7 to 11 white eggs ( diameter 0 . 5 + 0 . 15 mm , n = 7 ) fixed to their ventral surface . laboratory collections ( 2007\u201310 ) of helobdella blinni documented the eggs hatching 1 to 2 weeks after ovipositing ( beresic - perrins 2010 ) . once hatched , the young attach to the ventral surface of the parent , allowing the parent to hunt for food and feed the young , occasionally feeding along with them . prey consists of oligochaetes and other invertebrates . the average number of young per adult is 7 + 3 . 3 ( n = 97 ) ranging from 1 to 14 offspring . the young remain attached to the parent for an additional four to five weeks after hatching . once the juveniles leave the parent , they tend to aggregate together on rocks ( beresic - perrins 2010 ) .\n. we include the posterior probabilities and maximum - likelihood branch supports > 50 . the arizona populations of\nsp . n . , supported by both the bayesian and parsimony analyses . the results of the uncorrected p - distance analysis revealed a difference of 13 . 3 % ( 233 nucleotides included ) between the two groups ( table\n( washington ) which is supported by both bayesian inference and maximum - likelihood .\nstate in our first analysis and in our second , we treated the deletions as missing data . in the resulting 5\n, running the spectrum from grey to pink . additionally , they have a descending pair of post caecae , whereas\ndifferences in brooding season and size between helobdella blinni sp . n . , helobdella stagnalis , and helobdella c . f . helobdella .\nare slightly longer ( body length 11\u201322 mm , 16 . 6 + 3 . 2 , n = 24 ) than\nspecies , both from the same region ( rio de flag and oak creek , arizona populations ) and from europe ( uk sample ) . the sequences yielded a 13 . 3 % \u201317 . 4 % genetic difference between\nalthough currently classified as helobdella c . f . modesta , the arizona populations from the rio de flag and oak creek may be an additional undescribed species based on our molecular analysis . our next step is to investigate these populations more closely , comparing them to other local populations , including white horse lake and j . d . dam lake , az which also contain helobdella modesta .\nhigher level relationships of leeches ( annelida : clitellata : euhirudinea ) based on morphology and gene sequences .\ncontributions to the ecology and biology of the danish freshwater leeches ( hirudinea ) .\nberesic - perrins rk . ( 2010 ) the life - history and parental care in an arizona population of helobdella stagnalis ( hirudinea : glossiphoniidae ) . master\u2019s thesis , flagstaff , arizona : northern arizona university .\nviaggio del dott . a . borellinella republica argentina e nel paraguay . 21 . hirudine\u00b4es . bollettino dei musei di zoologia ed .\na comparison of the life cycle of helobdella stagnalis ( linn . 1758 ) ( hirudinoidea ) in two different geographical areas .\nthe morphology of ozobranchus margoi ( apathy ) ( hirudinoidea ) , a parasite of marine turtles .\nfolmerr o , blackr m , hoehr w , lutzr r , vrijenhoekr r . ( 1994 )\ndna primers for amplification of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit i from diverse metazoan invertebrates .\ngovedich fr , blinn dw , keim p , davies rw . ( 1998 )\nthe first record of the genus helobdella ( hirudinoidea : glossiphoniidae ) from australia , with a description of a new species , helobdella papillornata .\na new leech species from north america , helobdella californica nov . sp . ( hirudinea : glossiphoniidae ) .\nthe golden gate leech helobdella californica nov . sp . ( hirudinea : glossiphoniidae ) : occurrence and dna - based taxonomy of a species restricted to san francisco .\nlai y - t , chang c - h , chen j - h . ( 2009 )\ntwo new species of helobdella blanchard 1896 ( hirudinida : rhynchobdellida : glossiphoniidae ) from taiwan , with a checklist of hirudinea fauna of the island .\nlanave c , preparata g , sacone c , serio g . ( 1984 )\nlanfear r , calcott b , ho sy , guindon s . ( 2012 )\nlife history and production of the leech helobdella stagnalis ( l . ) ( hirudinea ) in a shallow eutrophic reservoir in south wales .\nleidy j . ( 1851 ) gen . nov . myzobdella . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 5 : 243 .\nlinnaeus c . ( 1758 ) systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . tomus i . editio decima . holmiae , laurentii salvii .\nthe breeding , growth and age structure of a population of the leech helobdella stagnalis ( l . ) .\nfurther notes on the leeches ( piscicolidae ) living on fresh - water fishes of north america .\nmiller ma , pfeiffer w , schwartz t . ( 2010 ) creating the cipres science gateway for inference of large phylogenetic trees . in : proceedings of the gateway computing environments workshop ( gce ) , new orleans , la , 1\u20138 .\nleeches of the united states national museum . proceedings of the u . s .\nmoser we , klemm dj , richardson dj , wheeler ba , trauth se , daniels ba . ( 2006 )\nmoser we , richardson dj , hammond ci , lazo - wasem e . ( 2011 )\nmolecular characterization of helobdella modesta ( verrill , 1872 ) ( hirudinida : glossiphoniidae ) from its type locality , west river and whitneyville lake , new haven county , connecticut , usa .\nmoser we , fend sv , richardson dj , hammond ci , lazo - wasem ea , govedich fr , gullo bs . ( 2013 )\na new species of helobdella ( hirudinida : glossiphoniidae ) from oregon , usa .\nthe life history and reproduction of the leech helobdella stagnalis ( hirudinea : glossiphonidae ) in the river ely , south wales .\na new freshwater leech species of helobdella ( annelida : glossiphoniidae ) from central mexico .\noceguera - figueroa a , le\u00f3n - r\u00e8gagnon v , siddall me . ( 2010 )\ndna barcoding reveals mexican diversity within the freshwater leech genus helobdella ( annelida : glossiphoniidae ) .\nrodriguez fj , oliver jl , marin a , medina jr . ( 1990 )\nsalas - montiel r , phillips aj , de leon gp , oceguera - figueroa a . ( 2014 )\ndescription of a new leech species of helobdella ( clitellata : glossiphoniidae ) from mexico with a review of mexican congeners and a taxonomic key .\nsawyer rt . ( 1972 ) north american freshwater leeches , exclusive of the piscicolidae , with a key to all species . illinois biological monographs , univ . of illinois press , urbana .\nphylogeny of leeches ( hirudinea ) based on mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit i .\nphylogeny and revision of the leech genus helobdella ( glossiphoniidae ) based on mitochondrial gene sequences and morphological data and a special consideration of the triserialis complex .\ndna - barcoding evidence for widespread introductions of a leech from the south american helobdella triserialis complex .\nraxml version 8 : a tool for phylogenetic analysis and post - analysis of large phylogenies .\nswofford dl . ( 2003 ) paup * version 4 . phylogenetic analysis using parsimony ( * and other methods ) .\ntavare s . ( 1986 ) some probabilistic and statistical problems on the analysis of dna sequences . in : lectures in mathematics in the life sciences , vol . 17 , 57\u201386 .\nthe reproductive biology of the leech helobdella stagnalis ( l . ) in utah lake , utah .\nvaillant l . ( 1890 ) histoire naturelle des anneles marin et d\u2019eau douce . 3 / 2 , ordre hirudiens ( hirudines ) ou bdelles , paris , 477\u2013542 .\ngonimosobdella klemmi n . gen . , n . sp . ( hirudinida : piscicolidae ) from cyprinid fishes in arkansas , illinois , and missouri , usa .\nphylogeny of the fish leeches ( oligochaeta , hirudinida , piscicolidae ) based on nuclear and mitochondrial genes and morphology .\n. one of the few large limnocrene springs on the colorado plateau , it likely contains the highest concentration of endemic ( unique ) species of any single spring in north america . ecosystem studies in the well have helped us understand the evolution of unique species . located just off interstate 17 near mcguireville , and part of\n. the well\u2019s water is relatively constant in temperature , varying from 64 degrees to 77 degrees f , with relatively little dissolved oxygen but a high concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide and relatively high concentration of arsenic . the well has existed at least through the holocene epoch ( 12 , 000 years ) and likely much longer . as an evolutionary microcosm , the pool is essentially free of flood - related disturbance and seasonal impacts . despite its harsh water chemistry , it provides a stable , highly productive environment for the life within it . this , it appears , is a formula for endemism .\n, and a new genus and species of leech . in addition to unique species , the well supports several regionally rare aquatic beetles and other insects , including\n, a tiny member of the giant waterbug family , and a delicate marsh treader .\nconcerns over archaeological site pot - hunting and excavation encouraged area residents to propose the area as a national monument .\ngrand canyon wildlands council , inc . 2002 . a hydrological and biological inventory of springs , seeps and ponds of the arizona strip , final report . arizona water protection fund , phoenix .\nspringer , a . e . , l . e . stevens , and r . harms . 2006 . inventory and classification of selected national park service springs on the colorado plateau : nps cooperative agreement number ca 1200 - 99 - 009 . national park service , flagstaff .\narizona heritage waters dr . larry stevens museum of northern arizona 3101 north fort valley road flagstaff , az 86001 ( 928 ) 523 - 5211 ext . 204 email dr . stevens\ndr . abe springer nau department of geology box 4099 flagstaff , az 86011 ( 928 ) 523 - 7198 email dr . springer\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nmedicinal leeches became infamous for their utility in bloodletting popularized in the 19 th century , and have seen a recent resurgence in post - operative treatments for flap and replantation surgeries , and in terms of characterization of salivary anticoagulants . notorious throughout the world , the quintessential leech family hirudinidae has been taken for granted to be monophyletic , as has the non - bloodfeeding family haemopidae .\nthis study is the first to evaluate molecular evidence from hirudinid and haemopid leeches in a manner that encompasses the global scope of their taxonomic distributions . we evaluated the presumed monophyly of the hirudinidae and assessed previous well - accepted classification schemes . the hirudinidae were found not to be monophyletic , falling instead into two distinct and unrelated clades . members of the non - bloodfeeding family haemopidae were scattered throughout the tree and among traditional hirudinid genera . a combination of nuclear 18s rdna and 28s rdna with mitochondrial 12s rdna and cytochrome c oxidase i were analyzed with parsimony and with bayesian methods .\nthe family hirudinidae must be refined to include only the clade containing hirudo medicinalis ( european medicinal leech ) and related leeches irrespective of bloodfeeding behavior . a second clade containing macrobdella decora ( north american medicinal leech ) and its relatives may yet be recognized in semiscolecidae in order to avoid paraphyly . the african distribution of species from each of the divergent hirudinid clades suggests that a deep divergence took place in the history of the medicinal leeches hundreds of millions of years ago .\nmedicinal leech\nis a common name that describes bloodfeeding clitellate annelids in the family hirudinidae of the order hirudinida . the use of leeches for bloodletting has been a part of western medicine since galen [\n, for physician ( merriam - webster dictionary ) . their utility has also been recorded in several eastern traditions , having been documented in the charaka samhita ( maurya period , roughly 3rd century bce ) as one of five treatments for an imbalance of humors and by wang ch ' ung ( 27 - 100 a . d ) [\ncenturies , european leech populations were over - harvested and leeches became increasingly scarce in parts of western europe . consequently , various countries , such as italy , hungary , and poland , with seemingly abundant sources , began exporting large numbers in order to satisfy the high demand . as early as 1823 , restrictions were put in place to manage the number of leeches being exported through hannover , germany , and collecting seasons were instituted in russia ; these represent some of the first measures in history meant to conserve an animal species [\n] to relieve post - operative venous congestion in patients recovering from tissue flap and replantation surgery . their application in this regard proved so successful that european medicinal leeches were approved by the us food and drug administration in june , 2004 as a medical device due to their mechanically relieving venous congestion and delivering anti - coagulants [\n] was only possible in light of the newly available purified hirudin , though it would later be supplanted by widely available and less expensive heparin .\n. in fact , within the family hirudinidae , approximately 200 species have been described from all continents , save for antarctica . some of these species are used in medical practices in place of\ntraditionally , the family hirudinidae included any sanguivorous , swimming , freshwater leech with three jaws ( one dorsal and two ventrolateral ) and a distinctively caecate crop . richardson [\n] analyses found the family hirudinidae to be split into two major clades with the terrestrial leeches and the non - bloodfeeding haemopidae falling in between . all taxonomic revisions of the family until now have been performed only with morphological characters [ e . g . , [\n] ] . here , we revisit the phylogenetic relationships and systematics of the family hirudinidae while testing the monophyly of the family , and for the first time utilizing an expanded taxon sampling from each continent with representatives of most previously proposed subfamilies .\nthe combined dataset had a total of 6086 characters ( 18s : 2034 characters , 28s : 2162 characters , 12s : 575 characters , co1 : 1315 characters ) . the parsimony analysis produced 9 equally parsimonious trees with 8266 steps while the harmonic mean of log - likelihood values from two runs of the bayesian ( bi ) analysis averaged - 44555 . 69 . the log - likelihood of the topology produced by the maximum likelihood analysis was - 43311 . 984 .\npresumed - monophyletic hirudinidae would require 179 extra steps ( templeton test : z = - 8 . 299 ,\n> 0 . 0001 ) . the harmonic mean of log - likelihood values constraining traditional hirudinids to be monophyletic was - 45054 . 72 ( yielding a bayes factor of - 998 . 06 ) . similarly , with this constraint under the likelihood criterion , monophyly of hirudinidae was rejected with treefinder [\n- values were highly significant ( shimodiara - hasegawa < 0 . 000001 , approximately unbiased test < 0 . 000001 ) . the harmonic mean of log - likelihood values constraining traditional hirudinids and traditional haemopids together to be a monophyletic group was - 44589 . 01 ( yielding a bayes factor of - 66 . 64 ) . similarly , with this constraint under the likelihood criterion , monophyly of hirudinidae + haemopidae was rejected with treefinder [\n- values , while not as profound as in the simple case of constraining hirudinidae to be monophyletic , still were significant at the 5 % level ( shimodiara - hasegawa = 0 . 0195 , approximately unbiased test = 0 . 0164 ) .\nmaximum parsimony and bayesian inference tree topology based on 18s rdna , 28s rdna , 12s rdna , and coi datasets combined . posterior probabilities are above the node and jackknife values are below the node . branch lengths in orange corresponds to terrestrialism , branch lengths in blue correspond to traditional members of the family hirudinidae , and branch lengths in green correspond to traditional members of the family haemopidae .\nvaried among analyses and received little support in each of parsimony ( jackknife = 32 ) and bi ( pp = 0 . 54 ) analyses . between the two principal hirudinid clades was a paraphyletic assemblage of terrestrial leeches in the families haemadipsidae and xerobdellidae . the parsimony analysis found the genus\nindividuals were clustered by locality with caribbean individuals closely related to those from thailand . representatives of the genus\nwith high support values ( jackknife = 100 ; pp = 1 . 00 ) .\nthe family hirudinidae , long taken for granted to be monophyletic , is not . hirudinid leeches , characterized as relatively large , vermiform , swimming leeches that feed on blood by making an incision with three armed jaws , fall into two separate clades : one typified by the north american"]}
{"id": 720, "summary": [{"text": "adhemarius mexicanus is a species of moth in the family sphingidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by balc\u00e1zar-lara and beutelspacher , in 2001 , and is known from mexico , where it is found from oaxaca to jalisco . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "adhemarius mexicanus", "paragraphs": ["sphingidae , adhemarius sp . , in my eyes it is either adhemarius dariensis or adhemarius mexicanus . not really sure about the species , they look very similar . urltoken urltoken i try to get closer . . .\nadhemarius globifer is a species of moth in the family sphingidae . it was described by dyar and 1912 , and is found from mexico to southern arizona . adults are probably on wing year round . . . .\n: jalisco ; to puebla : patla ; veracruz : jalapa ; and oaxaca .\nthe pronunciation of scientific names is troublesome for many . the\nsuggestion\nat the top of the page is merely a suggestion . it is based on commonly accepted english pronunciation of greek names and / or some fairly well accepted\nrules\nfor latinized scientific names .\nthe suggested pronunciations , on this page and on other pages , are primarily put forward to assist those who hear with internal ears as they read .\nthere are many collectors from different countries whose intonations and accents would be different .\nsome of the early describers / namers chose genus and species names indicating some character of the insect , but more often , they simply chose names from greek or roman mythology or history .\nthose species names which end in\nensis\nindicate a specimen locale , and those which end in\ni\n, pronounced\neye\n, honour a contempory friend / collector / etc .\n, possibly chose the name from adhemarus , the fifth and last of the old counts of querci ( verdun , france ) who died in 880 ad .\nprobably produces at least two broods annually . hubert mayer reports a july flight in patla , puebla , mexico .\nlisted below are primary food plant ( s ) and alternate food plants . it is hoped that this alphabetical listing followed by the common name of the foodplant will prove useful . the list is not exhaustive . experimenting with closely related foodplants is worthwhile .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright \u00a9 2013 www . sphingidae - museum . com . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nproject noah is a tool to explore and document wildlife and a platform to harness the power of citizen scientists everywhere .\nthank you so much ! @ bayucca : ) time not to see you , greetins ! i investigate too .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook"]}
{"id": 722, "summary": [{"text": "incisitermes minor is a species of termite in the family kalotermitidae known commonly as the western drywood termite .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is native to western north america , including the western united states and northern mexico .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it has been found in many other parts of the united states , all the way to the east coast .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it has been reported from toronto .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it has been introduced to hawaii .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it has been noted in china and it is not uncommon in japan .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "this is an economically important pest of wooden structures , including houses .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "in california and arizona alone its economic impact is estimated to be about $ 250 million per year .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "within a single colony there are three types of termites , the alates , soldier , and worker .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "this eusocial species is a dark brown color and has an orange head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the colonies are most active during the spring and summer , preferring to be active in higher temperatures . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "incisitermes minor", "paragraphs": ["compound eye formation in the termite incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nphysiological and behavioral adaptations of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) ( . . .\nspecies status of incisitermes spp . ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in japan : status of incisitermes spp . in japan\ninfluence of environmental factors on activity patterns of incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in naturally infested logs .\ninfluence of environmental factors on activity patterns of incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in naturally infested logs . - pubmed - ncbi\nnesting ecology and cuticular microbial loads in dampwoof ( zootermopsis angusticollis ) and drywood termites ( incisitermes minor , i . schwarzi , crytotermes cavifrons ) .\nfigure 1 . alate of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by b . j . cabrera , university of florida .\nfigure 2 . locations of confirmed records of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . map by john warner , university of florida .\nindrayani y . , yoshimura t . , imamura y . a novel control strategy for dry - wood termite incisitermes minor infestation using a bait system .\nspecies incisitermes minor - western drywood termite . ( bugguide . net / node / view / 469117 ) . accessed august 16 , 2016 . [ images ]\nfigure 3 . head capsule of a western drywood termite soldier , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by r . h . scheffrahn , university of florida .\nfigure 5 . king and queen of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by r . h . scheffrahn , university of florida .\nharvey ( 1934 ) provides a highly detailed description of the biology and life history of incisitermes minor . the life cycle is typical for that of other drywood termites .\n2013 - 0504 - eb060704 - iso00099 - incisitermes _ minor [ 1057h39s , e , i , tree - oak - bark ] { exd } - g . jpg\nthe most destructive drywood termites in the u . s . include the western drywood termite ( incisitermes minor ) and the tropical rough - headed drywood termite ( cryptotermes brevis ) .\nmessenger mt , scheffrahn rh , su n - y . 2000 . first report of incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in louisiana . florida entomologist 83 : 92 - 93 .\nfigure 7 . fecal pellets collecting under a door that is infested by the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by b . j . cabrera , university of florida .\ngrace jk , cutten gm , scheffrahn rh , mcekevan dk . 1991 . first infestation by incisitermes minor of a canadian building ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . sociobiology 18 : 299 - 304 .\nthe western drywood termite is not a\ntypical\nincisitermes in that several characteristics ( color , wings , ocellus , arolium , soldier eye , etc . ) are distinct from most other species of incisitermes .\nfigure 9 . soldiers , alates and\nworkers\n( pseudergates ) of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by r . h . scheffrahn , university of florida .\nthe western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , is the most common structure - infesting drywood termite in the southwestern united states . originally described as kalotermes minor by hagen ( 1858 ) , incisitermes minor was reclassified into the genus incisitermes by krishna ( 1961 ) . in california , incisitermes minor infestations are still sometimes referred to by some pest control operators as\nkalos\nand designated with a\nk\non termite inspection reports . currently , there is only one kalotermes species in the united states ( kalotermes approximatus ( snyder ) , found in florida and the southeastern u . s . north to virginia ) . some members of the kalotermitidae are called drywood termites because colonies live entirely within sound , dead , dry wood . drywood termites do not require any contact with the ground .\nthe distribution and biology of the common dry - wood termite , kalotermes minor , pp . 201\u2013207\nincisitermes minor is found in the coastal and lower montane regions of southern california . its range extends up the coast to northern california and onward in a discontinuous distribution along the coasts of oregon and washington . it is also found extensively in the central valley of california up to sacramento and in isolated pockets in the high desert where trees are present . towards the east , incisitermes minor ' s range extends to central arizona and southward it extends into baja california and sonora , mexico . the relative ease of intracontinental travel and commerce coupled with the fact that infested wood can be easily transported has resulted in isolated occurrences of incisitermes minor infestations throughout the united states , including florida .\nfigure 6 . characteristic damage and galleries in wood made by the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . ( wood in galvanized metal funnel ) . photograph by b . j . cabrera , university of florida .\nlewis v , leighton s , tabuchi r , haverty m . seasonal and daily patterns in activity of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . insects . 2011 ; 2 ( 4 ) : 555 - 563 .\nlewis , v . ; leighton , s . ; tabuchi , r . ; haverty , m . seasonal and daily patterns in activity of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . insects 2011 , 2 , 555 - 563 .\nhowever , lenz questioned whether reproductive decision - making in i . minor had a similar response as that of in c . secundus ( lenz and yoshimura , personal communication ) . an experiment set up in orphaned i . minor colonies using the same ratio model of nest value and colony size , as in c . secundus , drove a much slower response in the neotenic production rate . incisitermes minor did not produce the same response as c . secundus , suggesting that the model might not fit [ 36 ] . this inference contradicts harvey\u2019s description [ 10 ] about the emergence of replacement reproductives in i . minor colonies . further work is necessary to unravel the factors that trigger and regulate neotenic numbers in orphaned i . minor groups .\nlewis , vernard ; leighton , shawn ; tabuchi , robin ; haverty , michael . 2011 .\nseasonal and daily patterns in activity of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) .\ninsects 2 , no . 4 : 555 - 563 .\nthen the major question arises : to what extent does \u201cthe suitable environmental condition\u201d facilitate the emergence of reproductives in i . minor ?\nfigure 4 . comparison of the fecal pellets of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) ( right ) , and smaller west indian powderpost drywood termite , cryptotermes brevis ( walker ) ( left ) . photograph by b . j . cabrera , university of florida .\ninfestation of the invasive dry - wood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) was first reported in japan in 1976 at a residential house in tokyo . since then , records of i . minor have steadily increased , and more than half of the prefectures in japan are listed as infested areas at present . the integrated management of i . minor consists of two phases : the individual technological phase and the regional phase . recent research efforts have been overcoming the technological issues , and the regional systematization of management system will be the next target . the development of novel preventive / remedial strategies against i . minor may have a positive effect on the wood preservation industry in japan .\ninfestation of the invasive dry - wood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) was first reported in japan in 1976 at a residential house in tokyo . since then , records of i . minor have steadily increased , and more than half of the prefectures in japan are listed as infested areas at present . the integrated management of i . minor consists of two phases : the individual technological phase and the regional phase . recent research efforts have been overcoming the technological issues , and the regional systematization of management system will be the next target . the development of novel preventive / remedial strategies against i . minor may have a positive effect on the wood preservation industry in japan .\nalthough harvey ( 1934 ) acknowledged secondary reproductives may appear in the colony to supplement egg production , the existence of more than one pair of functional reproductives in an incisitermes minor colony - - even in older , larger ones - - remains unlikely . luykx ( 1986 ) believed that what appeared to be extra reproductives in colonies of incisitermes schwarzi were probably the result of a mixture of two different colonies . atkinson ( unpublished ) examined the caste composition of 38 incisitermes minor colonies and never found more than one pair of reproductives in a colony . however , he noted that some replacement reproductives may not have been fully melanized ( darkened ) and could have been overlooked in colonies in which no reproductives at all were found .\ncabrera , b . j . and m . k . rust . 1994 . the effect of temperature and relative humidity on the survival and wood consumption of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . sociobiology . 24 ( 2 ) : 95 - 113 .\nhimmi sk , yoshimura t , yanase y , oya m , torigoe t , akada m , imadzu s . nest - gallery development and caste composition of isolated foraging groups of the drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . insects . 2016 ; 7 ( 3 ) : 38 .\nnest - gallery extension from natal colony to adjacent timber activity by an i . minor colony . ( a ) entrance hole in spruce a timber ; and ( b ) i . minor colony emerged from the attic floor to attack the adjacent bottom surface of spruce b and sugi timbers .\ninfestations have also been found in arkansas , iowa , maryland , new jersey , new york , oklahoma , ohio , and texas . a heavily infested structure was reported in toronto , canada ( grace et al . 1991 ) . recently , incisitermes minor has been found in georgia ( scheffrahn et al . 2001 ) , south carolina ( hathorne et al . 2000 ) and louisiana ( messenger et al . 2000 ) . the latter is significant to florida because incisitermes minor was taken from a park tree in new orleans indicating that it can survive outdoors in a non - mediterranean , subtropical climate . this apparently was the case with three boat infestations in florida where termites and damage were found in wood located outside the cabins . in southern california and florida , yachts , sailboats , and small pleasure craft harboring mature colonies may serve as floating sources of introduction outside incisitermes minor ' s native range as they set sail for ports of call around the world .\nvernard r . lewis , shawn leighton , robin tabuchi , james a . baldwin , michael i . haverty ; influence of environmental factors on activity patterns of incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in naturally infested logs , journal of economic entomology , volume 106 , issue 1 , 1 february 2013 , pages 338\u2013346 , urltoken\nin california , incisitermes minor occurs naturally in oak and riparian woodlands , river washes and canyons with trees . colonies are often found in the dead portions of california laurel , willow , cottonwood , oak , and sycamore trees and in stumps , downed logs , and large , dead branches on the ground . in urban and suburban areas , incisitermes minor is often found in rose , pyracantha , and oleander bushes , and alder , almond , apricot , ash , avocado , carob , cherry , citrus , elderberry , mulberry , ornamental pear , peach , plum and walnut trees . the western drywood termite infests sound , dry wood in human - made structures , as well as furniture and other wooden items .\nin one case study , conducted in the laboratory at the university of florida , fort lauderdale research and education center , incisitermes minor workers in structural lumber initiated a large infestation . in april 1990 , western drywood termite - infested wood was cut into sections and placed on a laminate - covered plywood bench top not previously exposed to incisitermes minor . a few days later , workers were observed trailing from the exposed wood galleries to the juncture between the bench top and wall . over the years , fecal pellets were observed falling from the bench top . in 2000 , the entire 24 foot length of the bench top had pellets falling from it . known flights from the bench top occurred in september 1999 and july 2001 .\nincisitermes minor is the most common species of drywood termite infesting structures in the southwestern portion of the united states . these termite swarmers ( alates ) are dark brown with smoky - black wings and a \u00bd - inch long body . soldier termites have a large , brown - colored head and two large mouthparts that look like teeth extending well beyond the head .\nhimmi , s . k . ; yoshimura , t . ; yanase , y . ; oya , m . ; torigoe , t . ; akada , m . ; imadzu , s . nest - gallery development and caste composition of isolated foraging groups of the drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . insects 2016 , 7 , 38 .\nhimmi , s . k . ; yoshimura , tsuyoshi ; yanase , yoshiyuki ; oya , masao ; torigoe , toshiyuki ; akada , masanori ; imadzu , setsuo . 2016 .\nnest - gallery development and caste composition of isolated foraging groups of the drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) .\ninsects 7 , no . 3 : 38 .\nthe galleries of incisitermes minor are typical of other drywood termite species , albeit a bit larger and more cavernous . they consist of irregular excavations that extend throughout the sapwood , across both spring and summerwood , and sometimes into the heartwood . some galleries are spacious enough to accommodate large aggregations of termites while others are so narrow that termites can only pass through in single file . another characteristic feeding behavior is that incisitermes minor will excavate towards the outer surface of the wood without actually breaking through it , thus leaving a paper thin , outer protective layer . infested wood sometimes appears sound , but upon close inspection and mechanical probing this outer shell can be easily broken , revealing the underlying galleries and large amounts of frass ( fecal pellets ) .\nthere are three common species of drywood termites found in the south . you can identify the species by looking at certain features of either the swarming termites or solider termites . incisitermes snyderi are the most common species found . the reproductive termites are light yellow in color and are 7 / 16 inch long . the wings are uniformly transparent . their swarming tends to occur at night , and tend to swarm towards lights . cryptotermes brevis are similar in appearance to incisitermes snyderi . the body of the swarmers for incisitermes minor are dark and measure approximately 9 / 16 inch long . their wings are yellow , brown or colorless and will swarm during the day - time . for both species of incisitermes , the soldiers are about 5 / 16 inches long with dark yellow - brown heads with strong mandibles . the head of the soldier for cryptotermes brevis is square shaped , black in color with very short mandibles . the worker termites are smaller than the soldiers with soft , white bodies .\ntermite nest architecture has important biological attributes , as the whole structure represents a morphological expression of the sum of behavioral patterns which relate to a better understanding of their feeding ecology . the nest - gallery system of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor , inside naturally infested wood was visualized by x - ray computed tomography . drywood termites are . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe hypothesis that western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , nymphs are negatively phototactic was tested . significantly more nymphs were found under the covered half of a petri dish than under the uncovered half exposed to either incandescent or fluorescent light , whereas there was no significant preference for either the covered or uncovered side when exposed to red darkroom . . . [ show full abstract ]\n. . . the hypothesis that western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , nymphs are negatively phototactic was tested . significantly more nymphs were found under the covered half of a petri dish than under the uncovered half exposed to either incandescent or fluorescent light , whereas there was no significant preference for either the covered or uncovered side when exposed to red darkroom light . t . . .\nluykx p . 1986 . termite colony dynamics as revealed by the sex - and caste - ratios of whole colonies of incisitermes schwarzi banks ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . insectes soc . 33 : 221 - 248 .\nthree of the more common home - invading termite species are eastern subterranean termites , pacific dampwood termites , and southeastern drywood termites . their scientific names are reticulitermes flavipes , zootermopsis angusticollis , and incisitermes snyderi , respectively .\nthe western drywood termite , incisitermes minor , is california\u2019s second most important termite pest after the subterranean termite and is the most common species of drywood termite . it is a native insect that has been here millions of years , mostly infesting dead wood in trees along rivers , washes , and arroyos . drywood termites are commonly found along the pacific coastal region extending into the central valley and deserts of southern california .\nnumber of i . minor ( hagen ) individuals of various castes dissected from five infested and two uninfested loquat [ eriobotrya japonica ( thunb . ) lindl . ] logs after completion of all experiments\nmean ae ring down counts resulting from the constant temperature experiment correlated with the total number of i . minor dissected from each of the five infested logs . data were transformed to the natural log .\nthe documentation of colonization process of foraging groups of i . minor in previously unoccupied timbers using x - ray ct has provided better understanding on how isolated groups of i . minor develop and maintain the nest - gallery system ; as well as to sustain the colony . in establishing nest - gallery , i . minor showed selective foraging activities and adaptability to different timber enviroments . stigmergic behaviors were observed in the way of isolated groups of i . minor maintain the nest - gallery system , which was expressed in sealing a tunnel gallery that ends at the outer edge of the timber ; and transporting fecal pellets to particular chambers located beneath timber surface . the isolated groups of i . minor showed dynamic change in caste composition to sustain the colony . in both groups in which the primary reproductive are absent , a replacement reproductive has emerged from pseudergate stage . however , the sexes of replacement reproductive , time interval and the suitable conditions to facilitate the emergence of replacement reproductive are not been fully understood yet .\nan x - ray computed - tomographic examination of nest - gallery development from timbers naturally infested by foraging groups of incisitermes minor colonies was conducted . this study documents the colonization process of i . minor to new timbers and how the isolated groups maintain their nest - gallery system . the results suggested that development of a nest - gallery within a suitable wood item is not random , but shows selection for softer substrate and other adaptations to the different timber environments . stigmergic coordinations were expressed in dynamic changes of the nest - gallery system ; indicated by fortification behavior in sealing and re - opening a tunnel approaching the outer edge of the timber , and accumulating fecal pellets in particular chambers located beneath the timber surface . the study also examines the caste composition of isolated groups to discover how i . minor sustains colonies with and without primary reproductives .\nwe quantified the response of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , to heat within two galleries routed into a wood cross . nymphs were placed in the gallery of the right arm and after 2 h , the gallery temperature was raised > 40\u00b0c . trials also were conducted with the addition of alates or soldiers to groups of nymphs . termites moved only as far as necessary to avoid . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe nesting biology of the drywood termite , incisitermes minor , is poorly understood . to date , no published data are available regarding the in situ nest - gallery development of i . minor . three naturally infested sitka spruce ( picea sitchensis bong . carriere ) timbers were analyzed by x - ray computer tomography to observe the structure of the first royal chamber and the termite\u2019s nest - founding behavior . one timber was infested by a group of termites which emerged from their natal nest . the other two timbers were infested by dealate reproductives from the nuptial flight . the study revealed that the drywood termite engages in outside foraging activity and has great foraging flexibility . computer tomographic images also revealed that i . minor reproductives showed anatomical selectivity in their nest - founding activity . the structure of the initial royal chambers varied to follow the anatomical texture of the timbers , which resembled either a european pear shape or a cashew nut shape .\nthree - min ae ring down counts from 24 november 2009 until 26 january 2010 , for five sensors ( 1\u20135 ) in i . minor - infested logs and two sensors ( 6\u20137 ) in uninfested logs under constant temperature conditions .\n. . . those larvae that did not meet either early larvae ( lem ) or late larvae body size criteria were considered mid larva ( lm ) . observations from this study failed to produce characteristics separating late i . minor larvae in to either a worker or nymphal caste , consistent with the notion that i . minor follows a basically linear pathway ( cabrera and rust 1999 ) . thus , late larvae would act as workers ( reviewed in watanabe et al . 2014 ) . . . .\nafter a drywood termite colony has matured ( several years ) , winged alates ( swarmers ) are produced that leave the colony to establish new colonies . swarming activity ( nuptial flights ) generally occurs at dusk or during the night and they tend to fly towards areas of greatest light intensity , gathering around lights or illuminated windows . however , the dark western drywood termite ( incisitermes minor ) is a daytime swarmer . swarming of arizona species occurs in early to late summer with certain species swarming during the winter months of january and february also .\nlemaster et al . ( 1997 ) found no periodicity in feeding of i . minor in a 24 - h day . however , the investigation only ran for 1 wk and was conducted under constant temperature conditions . indrayani et al . ( 2006 ) also used ae technology to monitor i . minor feeding when affected by different laboratory temperatures and relative humidity ; however , they did not report diurnal or seasonal ae activity . using ae monitoring during an investigation of local chemical treatments in a field study in southern california , activity of i . minor infestations in untreated locations of structures declined during winter months ( v . lewis , unpublished data ) . because this field study involved only four posttreatment inspection dates , it was not possible to make definitive statements on seasonal foraging of drywood termites .\ntwenty - four different combinations of six temperatures ( 15\u00b0 , 20\u00b0 , 25\u00b0 , 30\u00b0 , 35\u00b0 , and 40\u00b0c ) and four relative humidity ( rh ) ( 60 % , 70 % , 80 % , and 90 % ) conditions were used for pseudergates of the western dry - wood termite incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . the feeding activities of the termites were monitored by the detection of generated acoustic emission ( ae ) events from feeder wood blocks in a test chamber . temperature and rh showed independent and interactive significant effects on the feeding activity of i . minor . the optimal temperature and rh conditions for the feeding activities were 35\u00b0c and 70 % , respectively , and the optimal combinations were 35\u00b0c - 70 % and 35\u00b0c - 80 % with an exceptionally higher feeding activity at the combination condition of 30\u00b0c - 70 % .\nlittle research has been conducted on the movement patterns of drywood termites . currently , only the speed of locomotion of i . minor ( 1 . 4 cm / s ) in response to temperature and light is known ( cabrera and rust 1994 , 1996 , 2000 ) . rust et al . ( 1979 ) inferred movement of the drywood termite incisitermes fruticavus rust from studies that measured daily changes in temperature inside galleries for the jojoba shrub , simmondsia chinensis ( link ) ; however , the daily or seasonality of movement of drywood termites within structures in california remains poorly understood .\nby examing the color of neotenic bodies in the isolated groups from both spruce timbers and comparing it with harvey\u2019s description , it seems that the neotenics in those groups had just emerged . the fact that we didn\u2019t find any eggs indicated that the secondary reproductives had not yet reached complete development . harvey described that secondary reproductives emerged in perfect molt just one month after isolation ; however , our case in both spruce timbers indicates a much longer time for the colony to adjust its caste composition . atkinson [ 33 ] reported that seasonal trends in colony composition were relatively weak in i . minor . he observed that all or most of the alates in i . minor colonies appeared to emerge whenever suitable environmental conditions were present . this might mean that the emergence of replacement reproductives in the isolated groups of i . minor in spruce timbers occurred when the groups met \u201csuitable environmental conditions\u201d [ 33 ] .\nplots of ae ring down counts over time under constant darkness from 19 august 2009 to 25 august 2009 for five sensors that contain live colonies of i . minor . the smooth line is a running average of the ae ring down counts for 30 min before until 30 min after the data points .\n. . . in addition , individual late - larval workers ( pseudergates ) may deviate from this straight developmental pathway through regressive or stationary molts ( miller 1969 ; noirot and pasteels 1987 ) . cabrera and rust ( 1999 ) observed caste differentiation in i . minor and reported four larval instars and two nymphal instars aside from alates and soldiers . luykx ( 1986 ) and luykx et al . ( 1986 ) described three larval stages and four immature worker stages along with pseudergates , nymphs , soldiers , reproductives , and alates for i . schwarzi , a close relative of i . minor . . . .\nincisitermes minor has at least seven instars and it probably takes more than a year for a nymph to develop from the egg to an alate or soldier ( harvey 1934 ) . the duration of each instar is variable depending on prevailing environmental conditions and available resources . the average size of the fifth to seventh instar ranges from approximately 6 . 5 to 9 . 5 mm long and they weigh from 10 to 15 mg . western drywood termite nymphs have relatively large amounts of fat body and the larger nymphs are very robust . the percent fat content of dry weight of late instar nymphs is approximately 18 percent ( k . haagsma , unpublished data ) .\nnymphs of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , were tested for their feeding preferences on wood and extracts of 11 tree species . the amount of wood consumed was inversely proportional to its specific gravity , but methanol extracts of least preferred woods were also least preferred when termites were confined to paper treated with extracts . in choice tests , only paper treated with extract of wood from which the colony developed and untreated and methanol - treated controls were significantly fed upon . ponderosa pine extract applied to douglas fir and sugar pine significantly decreased the amount of wood consumed . resistance to termite feeding appeared to depend on the presence of repellent chemicals in the wood .\nin florida , incisitermes minor has a spotty distribution from the panhandle down to miami ( where it was probably first introduced into florida [ hickin 1971 ] ) and has been found on both coasts of the peninsula . scheffrahn et al . ( 1988 ) reported two incidences of infestation and since then there have been 22 more confirmed records ( scheffrahn , unpublished data ) . of all records , three occurred on boats - - two of these from southern california - - that were subsequently fumigated . three other infestations were associated with furniture that was traced to the pacific coast . so far , all the florida infestations have only been found in structural lumber , not in natural wood .\nbecause drywood termites ( family kalotermitidae ) are single piece nesters and can live deep in wood , there are few reports of seasonal or daily cycles of feeding or foraging behavior . seasonal activity patterns of drywood termites are very important for their detection and treatment . a common seasonal activity for drywood termites is swarming . in california , the western drywood termite incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , swarms during the day , starting in summer and continuing into fall ( ebeling 1978 ) . feeding and foraging are important drywood termite activities ; however , little is known about when they occur or what drives them . the cryptic behavior of drywood termites inside wood hinders studies that explore their normal feeding and foraging behavior . acoustic emission ( ae ) technology has been used to detect the presence of drywood and dampwood termites in wood ( lewis and lemaster 1991 , lemaster et al . 1997 ) and recently has been used to explore seasonal and daily patterns foraging and feeding activity of i . minor ( lewis et al . 2011 ) .\n. . . however , it might well be that hodotermes mossambicus exhibit aggressive behaviour at the nest entrance under more natural conditions in the field . the fact that nestmate discrimination in the trophallaxis bioassay was primarily found when larvae were used as donors might just reflect that this group is under natural conditions much more involved in the behaviour of feeding nestmates than any other caste , as has been demonstrated in incisitermes minor by cabrera and rust ( 1999 ) . in addition , non - nestmates recognized by larvae are almost certainly intruders which should be discriminated in the context of nestmate feeding behaviour , whereas foragers might meet non - nestmates frequently outside the nests in behavioural contexts where nestmate discrimination does not pay . . . .\nthe purpose of our study was to explore for patterns of seasonal or daily feeding and movement of i . minor in naturally infested logs as measured by ae technology . such knowledge would greatlyimprove inspection success , pre - and post - treatment evaluations of remedial measures againstinfestations and enable more detailed investigations into the natural history of drywood termites .\nthree types of experiments were designed to evaluate the performance of a bait system intended to control incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . in the first type of experiment , type i , the effectiveness of the bait in a small wood specimen was evaluated . in the second type , type ii , the bait effectiveness was evaluated in a larger wood specimen . feeding arena lumber with artificial galleries was prepared for the type iii experiment so that the response of the insects to the gel could be observed . in general , the average percentage of termites that died after being exposed to the gel formulation in all three types of experiment was more than 60 % , and in the gel control the average percentage of live termites was more than 95 % in types i and iii , and more than 75 % in type ii . these results suggest that the gel bait system used in this study has the potential to eliminate i . minor colonies . further investigation will be necessary to increase the reliability of the bait system as a control measure against dry - wood termites .\nmean daily activity patterns for i . minor in each of five logs ( sensors 1\u20135 ) . the heavy , dark line is the mean ae ring down count . the gray line is the temperature trace ( \u00b0c ) collected simultaneously for each ae data point . ae data for all logs were collected from 15 june 2008 to 15 may 2009 .\nincisitermes minor is a tremendous pest in california and arizona with an estimated annual economic impact of $ 250 million ( m . rust , unpublished ) , mainly in damage and treatment costs . a survey of structural inspection reports conducted in san bernardino , riverside , and orange counties in southern california between september 1992 and april 1993 revealed that the western drywood termite accounted for approximately 55 percent of the total inspections for wood - destroying organisms . near the coast , they accounted for > 75 percent of the inspections ( t . atkinson , unpublished data ) . the western drywood termite will continue to torment homeowners and keep termite control companies busy , especially in newly developed areas in california where urban sprawl is running rampant . further infestations are likely to be discovered in florida .\nthere are few reports of diurnal or seasonal ae activity data for i . minor . using 100 i . minor workers contained in an artificially infested wooden block held at constant temperature and humidity , lemaster et al . ( 1997 ) reported ae events results from a single sensor during a 7 - d test . there was no statistically significant cycling or periodicity found in ae activity . the plot of ae activity appeared flat and hovered between the values of 100 and 200 events per hour . no ring down count data were reported . the maximum ae event results reported by lemaster et al . ( 1997 ) compared favorably with the maximum events reported for the current study , although we report here only ae ring down count data . indrayani et al . ( 2006 ) conducted a second ae activity study . for this laboratory study i . minor workers ( 10 ) also were used in small wooden blocks to test the affects of varying temperature and humidity . the tests were of short duration , only 12 h . this study reported that the optimum temperature for peak ae activity was 30\u00b0c .\ntwo kinds of nest - founding activities have been identified in drywood termites [ 5 ] : ( 1 ) from nuptial flight by pairing dealate reproductives ; or ( 2 ) from nest - gallery extension through colony foraging to a new piece of adjacent timber [ 8 ] . in this paper , we present a case study of nest - gallery development from timbers naturally infested by an i . minor colony through foraging activity . the study was intended to capture the colonization process of foraging groups of i . minor in previously unoccupied timber and how the groups maintain their nest - gallery system . the study also examines the caste composition of isolated groups in search of a better understanding of how one - piece nester types sustain their colonies .\nthe introduction of x - ray computed tomography ( ct ) as a non - destructive approach to analyzing termite nests has brought us a better understanding of the nesting biology of this cryptic insect . fuchs et al . [ 1 ] were the first to introduce ct as a useful tool for providing a three - dimensional ( 3d ) view of the hidden gallery system of drywood termite cryptotermes secundus , though at a low - resolution display . perna et al . presented detailed images of gallery networks [ 2 ] of cubitermes sp . and used them to analyze their topological defense strategy [ 3 ] and efficiency [ 4 ] , while himmi et al . [ 5 ] used x - ray ct to analyze the initial structure of the royal chamber of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor .\nwhen we were certain that we had completed all experimentation by using the five i . minor - infested logs , we dissected these five logs , as well as the uninfested logs , and counted all live individuals by caste ( table 1 ) . the single alate found in each of the untreated logs was because of natural swarming activity from some of the logs in the test building . we regressed the line ( ln ) of the mean ae ring down counts from the constant temperature experiment ( the most recent experiment before log dissection ) for all seven logs against the ln of the total number of individuals remaining . a highly significant relationship was found ( r 2 = 0 . 92 ) between the i . minor population and ae activity ( fig . 7 ) .\n. . . the timbers were laid in random positions , without considering whether tangential sections , radial sections , sapwood parts , and heartwood parts were oriented in any particular direction . the experimental set - up was conducted on august 3 , 2012 , 1 month before i . minor swarming season in the wakayama area , which was reported to be in september [ 10 ] . . . .\nthe mean daily ae ring down count ( black line ) from five sensors ( 1\u20135 ) in i . minor - infested logs ( 1\u20135 ) and two sensors ( 6\u20137 ) in uninfested logs under constant temperature conditions . the mean has been smoothed with a loess ( nonparametric regression ) smoother . the gray line is the smoothed mean temperature profile across all observations . ( online figure in color . )\nseasonal activity patterns of drywood termites have an important impact on our ability to detect these structural pests and treat infestations . for example , the presence of alates and shed wings within infested structures are often the first signs of the presence of drywood termites . in california , the annual dispersal flights of incisitermes minor ( hagen ) occur during the day in the fall [ 1 ] . feeding and foraging , including excavation of wood , are important drywood termite activities ; however , little is known whether they occur randomly or follow an underlying pattern . the cryptic behavior of drywood termites hinders studies on their feeding and foraging biology . because direct observation is impossible in wood naturally infested by drywood termites , we must rely on indirect methods of observation . a method that has proven extremely useful is the quantification of vibrations within termite - infested wood using acoustic emission ( ae ) technology .\nthe purpose of this study was to investigate the nature of the circadian cycle of activity in i . minor : the role or influence of temperature and light on patterns of feeding and foraging as measured by vibrational activity in naturally infested wood . by knowing when drywood termites are most active and whether physical features of their environment affect their activity , inspections and posttreatment evaluations of remedial treatments could be greatly improved .\nthe hourly averages for ae ring down counts for each active and inactive log , as well as temperature and relative humidity , were plotted for the 11 - month period . the mean daily activity pattern for i . minor in each of the five logs ( sensors 1\u20135 ) , represented by ae ring down counts , was graphed in relation to the mean temperature ( \u00b0c ) over a 24 - hour period .\nplots of ae ring down counts under constant darkness as a function of temperature in five i . minor - infested logs and two uninfested logs . the temperature values are \u201cjittered\u201d so that they do not land exactly on top of each other . all sensors associated with infested logs show a positive relationship with temperature . each data point represents 3 - min recordings taken at least two times / h / d / sensor over 7 d .\nactivity of colonies of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor , was measured with acoustic emission ( ae ) technology in five loquat ( eriobotrya japonica ) logs . termite activity , whether it was feeding , excavation or movement , was monitored for 11 months under ambient conditions in a small wooden structure maintained at the university of california richmond field station . ae , temperature , and humidity data were measured in 3 - minute increments . termite activity was greater during the warmer summer months compared to the cooler winter months . termites in all five logs displayed a similar daily cycle of activity , peaking in the late afternoon . seasonal and daily fluctuations in termite activity were significantly associated with temperature , whereas humidity did not appear to have a noticeable effect on termite activity . possible mechanisms that drive the seasonal and daily cycles in termite activity , as measured by ae technology , and the possible implications for inspections and post - treatment analysis are discussed .\nsummary : differences in feeding and trophallaxis among castes of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , were determined using rubidium ( rb ) as a tracer . both 5th - and 6th - instar nymphs and 3rd - and 4th - instar larvae fed directly on rb - treated paper and acted as both donors and recipients in trophallactic exchanges with other larvae and nymphs , and as donors for soldiers and alates . soldiers and alates did not feed on rb - treated paper suggesting that they do not feed directly on wood and are completely dependent on nymphs for their nutritional needs . larvae paired with rb - fed nymphs received the greatest amount of rb suggesting that there may be a hierarchy of trophallaxis in drywood termites . transfer efficiency , the percentage of the total rb intake of donors that is passed to the recipients , ranged from 1 . 1 % ( nymphal donors to alate recipients ) to 16 . 6 % ( larval donors to nymphal recipients ) .\nthere is considerable variance in the number of i . minor extracted from naturally infested logs and structural wood , and ranges from 7 to 2 , 943 [ 19 , 21 , 30 - 32 ] . also clearly evident , larger colonies and infestations produce greater ae activity . and also clearly evident is that when drywood termites are allowed to search and forage for wood naturally under ambient conditions , their activity follows a cyclic pattern common to many terrestrial animals .\n. . . naturally , new colony dissemination is facilitated by swarming activities in the dispersal flight season . swarming occurs during the summer to the fall on bright , sunny days which attract alates to emerge from the colonies ( positive phototaxis ) 10 111213 . in addition to information on swarming activities , information on the nutritional ecology of i . minor and its feeding preferences for various timbers are also very important for investigating initial nest - gallery establishment . . . .\nthere are only a few reports available on seasonal or daily activity for i . minor as measured by ae technology . using 100 workers contained in an artificially infested wooden block held at constant temperature and humidity , lemaster et al . [ 22 ] presented ae event results over seven days from a single sensor . no statistically significant cycling or periodicity in ae measurements could be detected . the plot of termite activity appeared flat and ranged from just 100 to 200 ae events per hour .\nlittle research has been conducted on the movement patterns of drywood termites . currently , only the speed of locomotion of i . minor ( 1 . 4 cm / s ) in response to temperature and light is known [ 26 , 27 ] . movement of the drywood termite i . fruticavus rust was inferred from studies that measured daily changes in temperature inside galleries for the jojoba shrub , simmondsia chinensis ( link ) [ 28 ] ; however , the seasonal movement of drywood termites within structures remains poorly understood .\nstaurojoenina is a large and structurally complex genus of hypermastigont parabasalians found in the hindgut of lower termites . although several species of staurojoenina have been described worldwide , all staurojoenina observed to date in different species of north american termites have been treated as the same species , s . assimilis . here , we characterize staurojoenina from the north american termite neotermes jouteli using light microscopy , scanning electron microscopy , and phylogenetic analysis of small subunit ribosomal rna , and compare it with s . assimilis from its type host , incisitermes minor . the basic morphological characteristics of the n . jouteli symbiont , including its abundant bacterial epibionts , are similar as far as they may be compared with existing data from s . assimilis , although not consistently identical . in contrast , we find that they are extremely distantly related at the molecular level , sharing a pairwise similarity of ssu rrna genes comparable to that seen between different genera or even families of other parabasalians . based on their evolutionary distance and habitat in different termite genera , we consider the n . jouteli staurojoenina to be distinct from s . assimilis , and describe a new species , staurojoenina mulleri , in honor of the pioneering parabasalian researcher , miklos muller .\nn2 - staurojoenina is a large and structurally complex genus of hypermastigont parabasalians found in the hindgut of lower termites . although several species of staurojoenina have been described worldwide , all staurojoenina observed to date in different species of north american termites have been treated as the same species , s . assimilis . here , we characterize staurojoenina from the north american termite neotermes jouteli using light microscopy , scanning electron microscopy , and phylogenetic analysis of small subunit ribosomal rna , and compare it with s . assimilis from its type host , incisitermes minor . the basic morphological characteristics of the n . jouteli symbiont , including its abundant bacterial epibionts , are similar as far as they may be compared with existing data from s . assimilis , although not consistently identical . in contrast , we find that they are extremely distantly related at the molecular level , sharing a pairwise similarity of ssu rrna genes comparable to that seen between different genera or even families of other parabasalians . based on their evolutionary distance and habitat in different termite genera , we consider the n . jouteli staurojoenina to be distinct from s . assimilis , and describe a new species , staurojoenina mulleri , in honor of the pioneering parabasalian researcher , miklos muller .\nab - staurojoenina is a large and structurally complex genus of hypermastigont parabasalians found in the hindgut of lower termites . although several species of staurojoenina have been described worldwide , all staurojoenina observed to date in different species of north american termites have been treated as the same species , s . assimilis . here , we characterize staurojoenina from the north american termite neotermes jouteli using light microscopy , scanning electron microscopy , and phylogenetic analysis of small subunit ribosomal rna , and compare it with s . assimilis from its type host , incisitermes minor . the basic morphological characteristics of the n . jouteli symbiont , including its abundant bacterial epibionts , are similar as far as they may be compared with existing data from s . assimilis , although not consistently identical . in contrast , we find that they are extremely distantly related at the molecular level , sharing a pairwise similarity of ssu rrna genes comparable to that seen between different genera or even families of other parabasalians . based on their evolutionary distance and habitat in different termite genera , we consider the n . jouteli staurojoenina to be distinct from s . assimilis , and describe a new species , staurojoenina mulleri , in honor of the pioneering parabasalian researcher , miklos muller .\nabstract =\nstaurojoenina is a large and structurally complex genus of hypermastigont parabasalians found in the hindgut of lower termites . although several species of staurojoenina have been described worldwide , all staurojoenina observed to date in different species of north american termites have been treated as the same species , s . assimilis . here , we characterize staurojoenina from the north american termite neotermes jouteli using light microscopy , scanning electron microscopy , and phylogenetic analysis of small subunit ribosomal rna , and compare it with s . assimilis from its type host , incisitermes minor . the basic morphological characteristics of the n . jouteli symbiont , including its abundant bacterial epibionts , are similar as far as they may be compared with existing data from s . assimilis , although not consistently identical . in contrast , we find that they are extremely distantly related at the molecular level , sharing a pairwise similarity of ssu rrna genes comparable to that seen between different genera or even families of other parabasalians . based on their evolutionary distance and habitat in different termite genera , we consider the n . jouteli staurojoenina to be distinct from s . assimilis , and describe a new species , staurojoenina mulleri , in honor of the pioneering parabasalian researcher , miklos muller .\n,\n. . . because of this hidden ecology , i . minor can be easily transported around the world within an infested piece of wood as a result of human activities . originally from the southwestern usa and northern mexico [ 2 ] , infestations of this invasive species have been reported in canada [ 4 ] , china [ 5 ] , and hawaii [ 6 ] , and more than half of the prefectures in japan are listed as infested areas789 10 . in our modern and mobile society , the introduction of such wood - inhabiting termites to new areas is very hard to prevent . . . .\nlewis et al . ( 2011 ) investigated activity of colonies of i . minor with acoustic emission ( ae ) technology in naturally infested logs . activity , whether it was feeding , excavation , or movement , was monitored for 11 mo under ambient conditions in a small wooden structure . ae , temperature , and humidity data were measured in 3 - min increments . termite activity was greater during the warmer summer months compared with the cooler winter months . termites in all logs displayed a similar daily cycle of activity , peaking in the late afternoon . seasonal and daily fluctuations in termite activity were significantly associated with temperature , whereas humidity had a less noticeable effect on termite activity ."]}
{"id": 726, "summary": [{"text": "isotelus is a genus of asaphid trilobites from the middle and upper ordovician period , fairly common in the northeastern united states , northwest manitoba , southwestern quebec and southeastern ontario .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "one species , isotelus rex , is currently the world 's largest trilobite ever found as a complete fossil . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "isotelus", "paragraphs": ["this is an isotelus eye . the eye appears as a smooth bump on a cephalon fragment .\nthis is a genal spine . it is one of the most common fragments of the isotelus found .\nisotelus maximus range in size from less than a millimeter to as long as 24 inches . the exoskeleton of this giant of trilobite is usually found in fragments . for this reason , most people only find parts of isotelus trilobite . isotelus maximus has been found whole , but this is quite unusual and a great treasure . usually , complete specimens of isotelus are found in hundreds of pieces that must be meticulously reassembled . you will probably be satisfied finding parts of isotelus often several inches long . you may get lucky and find a complete specimen of enrolled isotelus as small as a pebble . the pictures below will help you find and identify evidence to what this fascinating giant trilobite looked like .\nhansen , m . c . 1989 . large isotelus found : ohio geology newsletter ( spring 1989 ) : 6 .\nshrake , d . 2005 . isotelus : ohio\u2019s state fossil . geofacts no 6 , pgs . 1 - 2 .\ndescription : in proportion , i am sure that isotelus are found in very low numbers compared to the ubiquitous flexicalymenes . this one , in fact , is the first mt . orab isotelus ever acquired by pangaea fossils . it appears to be in very good condition . it would make a nice addition to any mid - western ordovician collection . isotelus maximus is the state fossil of ohio .\noccasionally , you will find part of a pygidium of isotelus with one or more thoracic segments still attached . this is a rare treasure .\nthat lived during the ordovician period . it\u2019s fossils are common within several formations that outcrop in southwestern ohio . the largest isotelus trilobite to be found in ohio is about 16 inches long though the largest known trilobite isotelus rex found in manitoba , canada is from the same genus .\nin 1985 , the ohio government made isotelus ohio ' s official fossil . isotelus is a trilobite that existed between 430 and 480 million years ago . at this point in time , an ocean covered much of what is now ohio . isotelus is evidence of this , as it was a marine organism . a trilobite was an invertebrate creature that had a hard outer shell or skeleton . two lines crossed the body of the trilobite , making it appear to be in three parts . trilobite means\nthree - lobed creature .\nisotelus primarily lived during the ordovician age . they were one of the largest trilobites , with some of these animals reaching nearly thirty inches in length . isotelus no longer exist , becoming extinct approximately 430 million years ago .\nthe trilobite anatomy chart was done with an isotelus replica from a specimen found by dan cooper , dry dredger member . the isotelus fragments shown are from the collections of the dry dredgers , an association of amateur geologists and fossil follectors . the cincinnati trilobite fragment identifier was written and produced by bill heimbrock , dry dredger member .\nthe other side of the isotelus h ypostoma also has distinct markings . fine ridges like corduroy run diagonally across each lobe . the interior of the hypostoma is hollow .\nthis is the largest complete trilobite specimen ( \u201cin captivity\u201d ) from the cincinnati region . the world record is held by an isotelus specimen from the ordovician of manitoba that measures 70 cm ( 27 . 6 \u201c ) long . cmc ip50168 - isotelus maximus , late ordovician , adams county , ohio . anonymous donation in memory of dr . richard durrell .\nisotelus gigas dekay occurrence : reference : ross , 1979 ; babcock , 1996 lacks genal spines or has shorter genal spines than i . maximus ; also more triangular cephalic and pygidial margins than i . maximus\nthe most famous specimen of isotelus from ohio was discovered in 1919 while digging an outlet tunnel during the construction of the huffman dam near dayton . this giant trilobite specimen measures 14 \u00bd inches long . a couple elementary school classes in dayton proposed naming this specimen of the official state fossil . while declining to designate only that specific specimen , the legislature instead passed a bill naming the genus isotelus in 1985 .\nlate ordovician , about 450 , 000 , 000 b . p . ; 1 - 2950 isotelus rex ; holotype specimen ; collected by d . m . rudkin et al . ; churchill , mb ; 1998\nisotelus , a late ordovician trilobite , was designated the official state invertebrate fossil of ohio on june 20 , 1985 . after seeing a beautiful specimen of isotelus at the dayton museum of natural history ( now known as the boonschoft museum of discovery ) , third grade students from beavertown school in kettering , and fourth grade students from st . anthony school in dayton decided to try to get this trilobite designated as the official state fossil of ohio . a letter campaign to representatives robert l . corbin and robert e . hickey convinced them to sponsor legislation in the ohio house of representatives . senator charles horn agreed to do the same in the ohio senate . although the students wanted one particular specimen of isotelus collected from huffman dam near dayton in 1919 to represent ohio , the genus isotelus was designated as the official state invertebrate fossil ( shrake , 2005 ) .\nthe pygidium , or\ntail section\nof the isotelus is one contiguous plate . consequentially , it is often found complete in the fossil record . however , small fractures are usually visible due to the exoskeleton ' s fragile nature .\nthe center of the isotelus hypostoma is often found separated from the two lobes . the result is a shell fragment with what appears to be a lip . this is a loosely applied description because if trilobites had lips , they would certainly be soft body parts .\nisotelus is an exceptional choice for your state fossil representative . this trilobite fossil has played a pivotal role in the pursuit of scientific knowledge to understand the history of life in this region . its scientific and historical importance is unparalleled in ohio , and is a hallmark to the global significance of paleontological and geological resources in our state .\nthe hypostoma , or\nmouth plate\nof the isotelus is a very recognizable body part that is commonly found as the result of molting . found on the underside of the trilobite , the hypostoma looks like a pair of fang - like lobes with distinctive curvy lines and a pair of\ndimples\nabove the lobes . oddly enough , one lobe is typically bigger than the other . click the picture to see these markings . the side shown in this picture faces outward on the underside of the trilobite .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\n, expressed maximally in the orders asaphida , redlichiida , and lichida . below , depicted in scale alongside a familiar object , are some of the largest recorded specimens :\n( from new york ) , in contrast , have not been found at full size as complete specimens , but large disarticulated parts result in reconstructions of the sizes indicated below . however , many large specimens of\nhas likewise been found as a complete specimen over 300 mm in length . the total length of\nis a moderately effaced asaphid trilobite lacking terminal spines or prolongations , and the holotype specimen was found in a carbonate unit showing little evidence of distortion or compaction . all dorsal sclerites of the holotype are closely articulated , suggesting this is not an exuvium . at about 720 mm long , 400 mm in maximum width ( across the cephalon ) , and 70 mm in height ( at the posterior midpoint of the cephalon ) , it is the largest complete trilobite specimen ever found .\nand some of the earliest described species were considered to be among the biggest trilobites then known . indeed , several specific epithets , including those of\nlocke , 1838 , were coined in reference to their comparatively large size . hansen ( 1989 ) reported complete specimens of\nwith lengths up to 410 mm . prior to the discovery of the 720 mm\nexamples of large non - asaphide trilobites include redlichiide cambropallas ( holmidae , 230 mm ) and acadoparadoxides ( paradoxididae , 390 mm ) , out of the cambrian of morocco ( geyer , 1993 ) . many large specimens emerge each year out of morocco , but they are often at least partially restored . however , some very large complete specimens have been prepared .\ntreatise on invertebrate paleontology , pt . o , arthropoda 1 , trilobita , revised , volume 1\ngeological society of america and university of kansas press , lawrence , 530 p .\nel genero uralichas delgado , 1892 ( trilobite , lichida ) en al ordovicico de la peninsula iberica .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njournal of paleontology . ( journal , magazine , 1927 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : journal of paleontology . publisher : [ tulsa , okla . ] society of economic paleontologists and mineralogists . isbn / issn : 0022 - 3360 oclc : 1754714\nsociety of economic paleontologists and mineralogists . ; paleontological society . ; american association of petroleum geologists . ; geological society of america .\naddress for accessing the journal using authorization number and password through oclc firstsearch electronic collections online . subscription to online journal required for access to abstracts and full text\naddress for accessing the journal from an authorized ip address through oclc firstsearch electronic collections online . subscription to online journal required for access to abstracts and full text\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nvols . 7 - 10 , 12 - 13 , 15 - < 17 > include section\nbibliography and index to new genera , species and varieties of foraminifera\n( varies ) - - by h . e . thalmann . editors : 1927 - mar . 1930 , j . a . cushman ; june 1930 - mar . 1937 , r . c . moore ( with j . b . reeside , 1935 - mar . 1937 , c . w . cooke , apr . 1937 - mar . 1939 ) ; may 1939 - < 43 > c . w . cooke ( with n . d . newell , may 1939 - july 1942 , j . m . weller , sept . 1942 - < 43 > ) .\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\njournal of paleontology . / society of economic paleontologists and mineralogists . ; paleontological society . ; american association of petroleum geologists . ; geological society of america . ; ; [ tulsa , okla . ] society of economic paleontologists and mineralogists .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nand was characterized by its distinctive flat shape . the head and the tail were well developed and large relative to the whole\n. the number of thoracic segments was small , and the eyes were large and crescentic in shape .\nordovician period , in geologic time , the second period of the paleozoic era . it began 485 . 4 million years ago , following the cambrian period , and ended 443 . 8 million years ago , when the silurian period began . ordovician rocks have the distinction of occurring at the highest elevation on earth\u2014the\u2026\ntrilobite , any member of a group of extinct fossil arthropods easily recognized by their distinctive three - lobed , three - segmented form . trilobites , exclusively marine animals , first appeared at the beginning of the cambrian period , about 542 million years ago , when they dominated the seas . although\u2026\narthropod , any member of the phylum arthropoda , the largest phylum in the animal kingdom , which includes such familiar forms as lobsters , crabs , spiders , mites , insects , centipedes , and millipedes . about 84 percent of all known species of animals are members of this phylum . arthropods are\u2026\nfossil , remnant , impression , or trace of an animal or plant of a past geologic age that has been preserved in earth\u2019s crust . the complex of data recorded in fossils worldwide\u2014known as the fossil record\u2014is the primary source of information about the history of life on earth . only a small fraction of\u2026\nameura , genus of trilobites ( extinct arthropods ) found as fossils in north america rocks dating from the late carboniferous to the late permian period ( from 318 million to 251 million years ago ) . ameura is characterized by a well - developed cephalon ( head ) and a long pygidium ( tail region ) that\u2026\nwe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles . you can make it easier for us to review and , hopefully , publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind .\nencyclop\u00e6dia britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience .\nyou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered .\nat the bottom of the article , feel free to list any sources that support your changes , so that we can fully understand their context . ( internet urls are the best . )\nyour contribution may be further edited by our staff , and its publication is subject to our final approval . unfortunately , our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions .\nour editors will review what you ' ve submitted , and if it meets our criteria , we ' ll add it to the article .\nplease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors , and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed .\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\ncorrections ? updates ? omissions ? let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article ( requires login ) .\nif you prefer to suggest your own revision of the article , you can go to edit mode ( requires login ) .\nour editors will review what you\u2019ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\ntwo big trilobites have been found in the caesar creek spillway . this one is on display in the visitor center . the other one is in the smithsonian . photo credit ; erin shaw - odnr caesar creek naturalist\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0\nthis fragment of the genal area shows part of the genal spine and a distinct hole that characterizes the genal area .\nhere , the entire\nfree cheek\nwas found encased in crinoid stems and matrix . note the apparently large eye .\nthe ends of thoracic segments are often found cemented together in groups preserving the distinctive shape of the pleural lobe .\nindividually , the ends of each thoracic segment resemble the paddle on an oar of a boat . this commonly found fragment is often mistaken for a hypostoma ( mouth plate ) , but is missing the fine lines on its surface .\nsingle thoracic segments are often found on the surface of a rock . it appears as a unique brown stripe .\nthe dry dredgers and individual contributors reserve the rights to all information , images , and content presented here . permission to reproduce in any fashion , must be requested in writing to admin @ urltoken . www . urltoken is designed and maintained by bill heimbrock .\nall original material copyright 2008\u20132016 . no part of this site may be reproduced without written permission .\nthe content and opinions expressed on this web page do not necessarily reflect the views of nor are they endorsed by the university of georgia or the university system of georgia .\nmon - sat : 10 a . m . to 5 p . m .\nmeet your state representative . i am not referring to your state senator or your district representative . this is your representative of ohio\u2019s rich and significant paleontological past .\nfoerste was a dayton area high school teacher , a renowned and prolific paleontologist , and an important member of the \u201ccincinnati school\u201d of paleontology . the \u201ccincinnati school\u201d was not a formal educational institution , but rather refers to a dedicated group of amateur paleontologists active in the cincinnati area in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . each was a passionate collector and scholar of cincinnati fossils , and the fame of cincinnati grew from the research publications of these \u201cgentlemen naturalists . \u201d all were associated with the cincinnati society of natural history , a predecessor of cincinnati museum center . since the time of the \u201ccincinnati school , \u201d many cincinnatians have contributed to our understanding of the history of life . today , the university of cincinnati department of geology features one of america\u2019s foremost paleontological programs . the dry dredgers , an award - winning association of amateur fossil collectors , and the longest running such group in the united states , is still going strong today . the extensive fossil collections of the cincinnati society of natural history , the university of cincinnati , and many \u201ccincinnati school\u201d and \u201cdry dredgers\u201d members , now reside at cincinnati museum center and form the largest collection of late ordovician fossils in the world .\nthe majority of the states in the united states have an official state fossil designation . several states have\nunofficially designated thanks to a fossil being designated as the \u201cstate dinosaur\u201d or \u201cstate stone\u201d . there are 7 states without a state fossil designation , arkansas , hawaii , indiana , iowa , minnesota , new hampshire and rhode island .\n(\nking lizard\n) is a genus of early whale that lived 40 to 34 million years ago in the late eocene . basilosaurus represents one of the earliest whales although it is actually descended from land mammals . the front flippers had an elbow joint and the back flippers where hind legs would have been are greatly reduced in size . it ' s estimated it could reach gigantic sizes of 40 - 60 feet in length . these ancient whale fossils are most abundant in alabama but fossil remains of the basilosaurus cetoides may not be removed from the state without prior written approval of the governor .\nthe woolly mammoth or mammuthus primigenius was a species of mammoth . the common name for the extinct elephant genus mammuthus . it was about the size of a modern day elephant , covered in fur and lived from 400 , 000 years ago to as recent as 4 , 000 years ago . it first evolved in eurasia and entered alaska from siberia over the bering land bridge around 65 , 000 years ago . it ' s fossils are frequently found in alaska by gold miners after being washed out of stream banks .\narizana is famous for it ' s vast petrified forest , so it makes sense that arizona ' s state fossil would be the most plentiful species of fossil tree in that forest , araucarioxylon arizonicum . petrified wood is fossil wood that has been turn to a fossil via permineralization . that is the organic wood material was replaced with minerals by water after it was buried . the petrified forest national monument is located north of i - 40 east of holbrook and is from the triassic age , approximately 200 million years ago .\narkansaurus , a bipedal coelurosaurian dinosaur , is the only dinosaur whose remains have been found in arkansas . joe b . friday discovered the dinosaur ' s fossilized foot in a gravel pit near lockesburg in 1972 when he was out looking for a cow .\n) are abundant at the la brea tar pits in los angeles . smilodon is one of the most recognizable of the ferocious saber - toothed cats which roamed the americas up until 11 , 000 years ago . they could weight up to 350 kg and had massive , 8 inch long upper canine teeth which they used to prey on large ice age mammals .\nthe spike - tailed stegosaurus is one of the most iconic and recognizable dinosaurs . it ' s rare fossils can be found in the jurassic aged morrison formation of colorado . it is believed that a typical stegosaurus weighed ten tons but had a brain that was only about 2 ounces ( the size of a walnut ) while probably not the brightest of the dinosaurs it had a formidable array of armored plates , and a spiked tail with which to defend itself .\nthe connecticut valley is home to one of the most impressive dinosaur track sites in the world . tracks of many different types of dinosaurs have been found preserved in the valley ' s sandstone dating back to the early jurassic . eubrontes is the name given to the three - toed tracks but no skeletal remains have been found of their creator and the specific genus of dinosaur is not yet known . these tracks were the first known dinosaur fossils to be discovered in north america .\nbelemnites are an extinct group of squid - like cephalopods that lived during the jurassic and cretaceous . they had a hard , internal , cone shaped structure that is often preserved as a fossil though it is not technically a shell . they had 10 arms but unlike modern squid these arms had small hooks instead of suckers .\nbelemnites of the species belemnitella americana are found abundantly in the exposures of the mount laurel formation along the banks of the chesapeake and delaware canal . the fine - grained sands and silts of the mount laurel were deposited in a shallow sea during the late cretaceous .\ncurrently , florida does not officially recognize a state fossil but it ' s state stone is actually a fossil , so we ' ll count it . the state stone , err fossil is agatized coral and the most commonly found type found in florida is anthozoa .\nagatized\nis a common name given to fossils that have been replaced by silica and contaminate minerals which provide the color . agatized / fossilized coral is found in several florida locations and may have been formed when runoffs of silt rich is clay and silica buried an eocene aged coral reef . some of the first inhabitants of florida some 5 , 000 years ago used this agatized coral as a material for making stone tools and points .\ngeorgia ' s state fossil is the fossil shark tooth without any specific species or genus identified . fossil shark teeth are common in deposits ranging the cretaceous through the miocene in georgia . the reason shark teeth are so common is that sharks shed their teeth frequently during their lifetime and an adult shark may have left behind many thousands of teeth on the seafloor . the most impressive of these fossil shark teeth found in georgia are those of the\nwas discovered in 1928 by a cattle rancher near hagerman , idaho , hence the name . it is one of the oldest horses of the equus genus appearing 3 . 5 million years ago and is believed to be very similar to the african zebra . nearly 200 fossil horse skeletons have been recovered from the hagerman fossil beds national monument .\n) was a soft - bodied invertebrate of unknown affinities that lived in the the waters of muddy estuaries during the pennsylvanian period , 300 million years ago . its fossils have only been found in the mazon creek fossil beds of illinois , united states . it lacks characteristics of any modern phyla and paleontologists speculate that it may be a representative of a stem group to one of the many phyla of worms .\nwas a giant , predatory marine lizard that could reach sizes of up to 50 feet in length . pteranodon is a type of pterosaurs which included some of the largest known flying reptiles , with wingspans up to 20 ft .\nbrachiopod shells are probably the most commonly found fossils in kentucky . they are so many different species of fossil brachiopods found in kentucky , the state simply designated the entire group as the state fossil .\nare marine animals that superficially resembled clams , but are a completely different phylum with a vastly different internal structure .\npetrified palm wood is the louisiana state fossil and is characterized by prominent rod - like structures within the regular grain of the petrified wood . in louisiana , petrified palm wood belongs to the genus\n. it is found within the catahoula formation , which consists almost entirely of sediments deposited within broad , low - lying coastal plains during the oligocene period about 30 million years ago .\npertica is a genus of extinct vascular plants of the early to middle devonian ( around 420 to 380 million years ago ) . pertica quadrifaria ( the type species of the genus ) was described in 1972 from compression fossils found in the trout valley formation of northern maine , usa . it was an upright plant which grew to perhaps as much as a 3 feet in height .\necphora gardnerae gardnerae is a species of large carnivorous sea snail lived during the miocene epoch , and became extinct more than five million years ago . the shells are found as fossils in maryland and virginia . ecphora was one of the first fossils from the new world to be illustrated in a scientific work in europe .\nthe connecticut river valley of western massachusetts is one of the world ' s richest sources of prehistoric dinosaur tracks . the dinosaur tracks in the connecticut valley date from about 180 million to 210 million years ago . they are actually the first recorded dinosaur tracks being first discovered by a farmer ' s son in the early 1800 ' s . the prints were first thought to be the marks of ancient birds . no one can be certain which dinosaurs made the prints , but it ' s believed the largest ( more than a foot in length ) may have been made by dilophosaurus , a 20 - foot long meat - eating dinosaur .\nmammut americanum or the american mastodon is the youngest and most widely known member of the genus mammut . mastodons where relatives of elephants and mammoths and lived in michigan during the pliocene and pleistocene .\nwhich is a rock containing fossilized rugose coral ( hexagonaria percarinata ) was designated the michigan state stone in 1965 .\npetoskey stones are found in the gravel point formation of the traverse group . they are fragments of a coral reef that was originally deposited during the devonian period . the fragments were then natural polished by glaciers and are found over a wide area .\nthe name comes from an ottawa indian chief , chief pet - o - sega . the city of petoskey , michigan , is also named after him , and is the center of the area where the stones are found .\nlike alabama , mississippi has designated a primitive whale ( or rather two of them ) as their state fossils .\ncrinoids , sometimes commonly referred to as sea lilies are animals not plants . they are echinoderms related to starfish , sea urchins and brittle stars .\nmaiasaura is a large type of duck - billed dinosaur in montana during the upper cretaceous period , about 76 . 7 million years ago . maiasaura was large , attaining an adult length of about 30 ft and had the typical hadrosaurid flat ( duck - billed ) beak . . it had a small , spiky crest in front of its eyes , which may have been used in headbutting contests between males during the breeding season .\nthe mammoth was adopted as the nebraska state fossil in 1967 . the world\u2019s largest mammoth skeleton , nicknamed \u2018archie\u2019 was discovered in lincoln county , nebraska and is currently on display at the university of nebraska state museum . archie is 25 feet , seven inches long and is estimate to have weighed a staggering 15 tons .\nthe mammoth was an elephant but much larger than the modern day version , hence the name . the remains on three different species of mammoth that roamed the plains during the pleistocene period have been found in nebraska .\nshonisaurus is a gigantic genus of ichthyosaur that could reach lengths of nearly 50 feet . an ichthyosaur is an extinct marine reptile resembling a dolphin , with a long pointed head , four flippers , and a vertical tail .\nin 1920 a large bone - bed of shonisaurus fossils was discovered near berlin , nevada in the triassic aged luning formation . excavations thirty years later would reveal the remains of 37 large individuals . these were named shonisaurus , which means\nlizard from the shoshone mountains\n, after the where the fossils were found . this area is now encompassed by berlin\u2013ichthyosaur state park . shonisaurus was designated as the state fossil of nevada in 1984 .\nhadrosaurus foulkii was a type of duckbilled dinosaur that roamed the forests and swamps along new jersey ' s coastline 80 million years ago . it was probably about 25 feet long and 10 feet tall . hadrosaurs are believed to have stood on their hind legs while grazing , and had a mouthful of hundreds of tiny , blocky teeth that would have functioned to grind leaves and other vegetation .\nhadrosaurus foulkii was the dinosaur known from more than isolated teeth to be found in north america . a of hadrosaurus foulkii skeleton was discovered in 1858 by william foulke in a marl pit near haddonfield , new jersey . in 1868 , it became the first mounted dinosaur skeleton in the world and it was named the state dinosaur of new jersey in 1991 .\ncoelophysis bauri is an extinct species of coelophysid dinosaur that lived during the late triassic period , approximately 200 million years ago . it was a small , theropod dinosaur , about 6 feet in length and only weighing around 50 lbs . it was most likely a carnivore , preying on small reptiles , amphibians and early triassic mammals .\nthe remains of hundreds of skeletons of coelophysis were discovered at ghost ranch during the 1940s . because of the large number of remains that have been found it is probably the best known dinosaur of the triassic . coelophysis was adopted as the official fossil of new mexico by law in 1981 .\neurypterus is an extinct genus of \u201csea scorpion\u201d that lived during the silurian period from around around 432 to 418 million years ago . the first discovered species of the genus was eurypterus remipes . eurypterus averaged at about 5 to 9 inches in length and possessed spine - bearing appendages with a large paddle they used for swimming .\neurypterus remipes lived along the bottom of the shallow , brackish sea that covered much of new york over 400 million years ago . the first fossil of eurypterus was found in 1818 by s . l . mitchill . it was first thought to be a fossil catfish and wasn\u2019t correctly identified as an arthropod until years later . it was named the official state fossil of ny in 1984 .\n. megalodon is the largest known predator in the history of the planet having been estimated to reach sizes of up to 60 feet long . huge serrated teeth up to 7 1 / 2 inches have been discovered . it ' s a good thing that this gigantic shark went extinct about 2 . 6 million years ago .\nare relatively common fossils in north carolina . they are popularly collected by divers in the rivers and offshore after they erode out of the miocene aged hawthorn formation . these fossil teeth were adopted as the official state fossil of north carolina in 2013 .\nteredo wood the name that is given to wood that was bored into by small marine mollusks called shipworms . thus , petrified teredo wood would be the fossils of this wood bearing the distinctive boreholes .\nduring the paleocene ( around 60 million years ago ) parts of north dakota were covered by warm water swamps , similar to florida today . sequoias and other trees growing in these swamps fell into the water and were washed out to sea become driftwood . they would then be bored into by the marine shipworms . under the right conditions this driftwood would become fossilized and replaced with silica through the process of petrification .\nis a common fossil in the cannonball formation of south - central north dakota . it was designated the north dakota state fossil in 1967 .\nis a genus of allosaurid dinosaur from the late jurassic ( ~ 151 million years old ) morrison formation of oklahoma . it was a truly massive predator , estimated to have reached a maximum size of 34 - 43 feet in length . the first bones of saurophaganax were found in the early 1930s near kenton , oklahoma . since that time , discoveries have been rare and fragmentary .\nthe metasequoia or \u201cdawn redwood\u201d is a deciduous conifer that flourished from 34 to 5 million years ago . it\u2019s fossils are common in rocks of these ages in oregon and many other areas of the pacific northwest . it was made the official oregon state fossil in 2005 after intense lobbying by a local fossil enthusiast who presented every legislator with a metasequoia fossil . it\u2019s an appropriate fossil for the state , because of the states prominent timber heritage .\nphacops may be the most widely recognizable type of trilobite fossil in the world . phacops rana is a species of the genus that can found in pennsylvania ' s devonian aged rocks . trilobites are an extinct marine arthropod that occurred abundantly during the paleozoic era .\nphacops rana was named the official state fossil of pennsylvania in 1988 after being proposed to lawmakers by a elementary school science class .\nbecame the official state fossil of south carolina in 2014 . south dakota is the sixth state to make a mammoth the state fossil , and the second most recent to official name a state fossil . it almost didn\u2019t happen because of months of delays by creationist lawmakers who tried to add amendments referring to the book of genesis and god ' s creation to the law .\n\u201cthe columbian mammoth , which was created on the sixth day with the other beasts of the field , is designated as the official state fossil of south carolina and must be officially referred to as the ' columbian mammoth , ' which was created on the sixth day with the other beasts of the field .\nit took much pleading by state residents to keep religion out of science but eventually the bill passed free of religious amendments .\nprior to 1988 the official state fossil of south dakota was the cycad , a type of palm like mesozoic plant . legislators decided to change it to one of the most recognizable dinosaurs to all - time , triceratops .\nthe horned dinosaur triceratops is one of the most common dinosaur fossils in the cretaceous aged hell creek formation that outcrops in south dakota . many fine specimens of this large , rhinocerous looking herbivore have been discovered in south dakota .\npterorigonia is an extinct genus of that is a common fossil in the cretaceous aged rocks in west tennessee . about 70 million years ago , much of tennessee was covered by a shallow sea . in 1998 pterorigonia thoracica was named as the official state fossil of the state .\nthe early cretaceous sauropod dinosaur paluxysaurus jonesi is estimated to have been about 60 feet long , 26 feet of that being it\u2019s long neck . it is a relative of brachiosaurus & camarasaurus and its tracks can be viewed at dinosaur valley state park near glen rose , texas . complete skeletons of this dinosaur are unknown , and most material is fragmentary .\noriginally the official state dinosaur was pleurocoelus but that designation only lasted seven years when the bones were determined to have come from a different genus and species , paluxysaurus jonesi . in 2009 governor rick perry signed house concurrent resolution no changing the name of the state dinosaur to match .\ntexas ' s state stone , petrified palmoxylon wood also happens to be a fossil .\nallosaurus is a well - known predatory dinosaur that lived during the jurassic period and probably hunted in packs . it averaged about 25 - 30 feet in length and is the most common dinosaur fossil found in the morrison formation that outcrops in eastern utah . over 60 skeletons , representing both adults and juveniles of the species have been found in one quarry in utah along . it\u2019s skull could reach up to 3 feet in length with backwardly curving teeth . it could open its jaw very wide and it has been theorized that it used it\u2019s upper jaw like a hatchet to attach prey .\nvermont has two state fossils designated , a state terrestrial ( land ) fossil and a state marine fossil .\nthe \u201cmount holly mammoth\u201d was designated as the state terrestrial fossil in 2014 . discovered in 1848 , the mount holly mammoth consists of a partial mammoth found in a peat bog on mt . holly while making an excavation for a railroad .\nin making this excavation , the workmen found at the bottom of the bed , resting upon gravel which separated it from the rock below , a huge tooth . the depth of the peat at that place was eleven feet . soon afterwards one of the tusks was found , about eighty feet from the place of the tooth mentioned above , which was a grinder . subsequently the other tusk and several of the bones of the animal were found near the same place . these bones and teeth were submitted to the inspection of professor agassiz , who pronounced them to be extinct species of elephant . the directors of the r . & b . r . r . to whom they belong , placed them in the museum of the university of vermont , for preservation , and for the illustration of our fossil geology . \u201d\nin 1993 a fossil beluga whale skeleton was designated as the official vermont marine fossil . vermont is the only state that designates a fossil symbol from a species that still exists today .\nholds the distinction of being the first fossil described in north america in 1687 . it was named to honor thomas jefferson because of his interest in natural history and to celebrate the chesapeake bay , the largest estuary in the world . fossils of this 4 million year old shellfish are commonly found in streams and beaches of southeastern virginia . it is an index fossil for the lower yorktown formation .\nwashington is one of six states to have the woolly mammoth , designated as a state fossil , but at least they were one of the first to do so . so , it\u2019s the other states being unoriginal . petrified wood ( a fossil ) is also designated as the state stone . fossilized remains of the columbian mammoth were found on the olympic peninsula in western washington and petrified wood at several localities in eastern washington .\njeffersonii is an extinct giant ground sloth that lived in north america from the late miocene ( 10 million years ago ) through the pleistocene ( 11k years ago ) it was nearly 10 feet high and weight up to a ton . it is one of the most unusual north american ice - age mammals . it had thick hair that enabled the species to endure colder temperatures and range farther north than other ground sloths . it\u2019s name latin for \u201cgreat claw\u201d from the fact that it had a giant claw .\nlike the state fossil of virginia the species is named after fossil lover and third president of the united state , thomas jefferson . his lecture on megalonyx to the american philosophical society in 1797 marked the beginning of vertebrate paleontology in north america . in 2008 megalonyx jeffersonii was officially adopted as the west virginia state fossil .\nin 1985 the trilobite calymene celebra was adopted as the official wisconsin state fossil . trilobites are extinct marine arthropods which dominated the seas during the paleozoic period . calymene celebra lived during the silurian period , at a time when warm , shallow seas covered the state . its fossils are common in the vast niagara dolomite outcroppings which are exposed in the state .\nwyoming has both a state fossil , designated in 1987 and a state dinosaur designated in 1994 .\na genus of fossil herring was designated at the official state fossil . 45 - 50 million years ago , several large , freshwater lakes covered the southwestern part of wyoming , as well as areas of utah and colorado . periodically there were mass die - offs of fish in the lake , potentially caused by volcanic eruptions , temperature fluctuations , or algal blooms . a low oxygen environment at the bottom of the lake allowed for beautiful preservation of these fish as fossils . today these fossils are found in huge numbers at several quarries near kemmerer , wy . knightia is the most common of the fossil fish from the green river formation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthis trilobite was discovered during field research on the hudson bay shoreline , where it lay exposed for only 1 . 5 hours each tide cycle . the crew worked quickly , using hammers , pry bars , and chisels to separate it from the surrounding bedrock .\ntrilobites lived in ancient seas from the early cambrian period ( about 540 , 000 , 000 years ago ) . they probably ate live and dead animals on the sea floor . this trilobite may have grown so large because it lived in warm waters with ample food , as churchill was near the equator at the time .\ntrilobites are extinct arthropods that were the dominant creatures in seas of the early paleozoic era . most trilobites are up to a few centimetres long . this fossil , measuring more than 70 centimetres in length , is the largest complete specimen in the world , and is listed in the guinness book of world records .\nimages copyright the manitoba museum . copy and use outside this website prohibited without prior permission .\nthe manitoba museum acknowledges we are on treaty 1 land , and the homeland of the m\u00e9tis nation . these lands are the traditional territories of the anishinaabeg , ininiwak , and nakota nations . the museum is committed to collaborating with all indigenous peoples of this province including the dakota , anishininiwak , dene and inuit .\nwe also acknowledge the harms of the past and are committed to improving relationships in the spirit of reconciliation , and we extend our appreciation for the opportunity to live and learn on these traditional lands .\nmanitoba museum is accredited by imagine canada for excellence in non - profit accountability , transparency and governance .\nonline access is provided for research purposes only . for rights and reproduction requests or more information , go to\nyour session has expired . for your security , we have logged you out . would you like to log in again ?\na spectacular , museum - quality example of the official ohio state fossil , it is complete , down to the genal spines . it measures 9\nin length on an 11 3 / 4\nx 10 1 / 2\nmatrix . resin . ohio .\nwe are currently unable to calculate your contract price for this item . list price is being displayed temporarily . when your order is processed , you will be invoiced at your contract price even though list price is displayed now\nwhatever you have to say , positive or negative , is important to us .\nurltoken will publish your name as urltoken user . you can use this name , or edit and save a nickname . we recommend authors use their first and last initial .\nward ' s science allows users to contribute both positive , negative ratings and review content . we\u2019ve put together some general guidelines for having them published successfully . once you submit a review to us , it is read only . we do not modify submitted review content under any circumstance , at any time during our professional moderation . the intention of reviews , is to guide customers into quality purchase decisions based on unbiased relevant feedback\ninappropriate content : profane , offensive , illicit , or inappropriate words or phrases . any content related to safety concerns , or children , legal interests , threats , medical advice , spam , fraud , business ' s practices , politics , religion , or other matters that don ' t address the customer experience with the product being reviewed .\nmention of price : do not share a definitive price of the reviewed product .\npromotional content / links / cross - 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{"id": 727, "summary": [{"text": "the ouachita madtom ( noturus lachneri ) is a catfish of the family ictaluridae.the first specimens of the species were collected in 1952 it was not until 1969 that they were recognised as a species .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the ouachita madtom is similar to the tadpole madtom except the ouachita madtom has one internasal pore while the tadpole madtom has two , and 16 to 18 anal rays while the tadpole madtom has only 14 to 16 .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is also similar to the slender madtom but differing in the sack of serrae on the pectoral spine , having more caudal rays , and usually eight pectoral rays while the slender madtom has 9 .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the maximum length of an ouachita madtom is about 2.7 inches . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "ouachita madtom", "paragraphs": ["information on the ouachita madtom is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe ouachita madtom is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\ngrowth and reproduction in the ouachita madtom\nby r . tumilson and j . o . hardage\nfeeding and reproductive biology of ouachita madtom ( joseph n . stoeckel , charles j . gagen , and richard w . standadge )\nouachita madtom noturus lachneri taylor 1969 identification : the ouachita madtom is similar to the tadpole madtom , noturus gyrinus , but can be distinguished by its shorter , flatter head and its more slender body . the body is tan , dark gray or brown above and white below . the fins sometimes have dark borders . to 4 in . ( 10 cm ) total length . range : the ouachita madtom is found in the upper saline river system and in an adjacent small tributary of the ouachita river in central arkansas . this species is uncommon . habitat : the ouachita madtom inhabits flowing rocky pools and runs of creeks and small rivers . similar species : the tadpole madtom , noturus gyrinus , has a longer and more rounded head , and a chubbier body .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - ouachita madtom ( noturus lachneri )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - ouachita madtom ( noturus lachneri )\ntitle =\narkive species - ouachita madtom ( noturus lachneri )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nrobison , h . w . , and g . l . harp . 1985 . distribution , habitat and food of the ouachita madtom , noturus lachneri , a ouachita river drainage endemic . copeia 1985 : 216 - 220 .\ngagen , c . j . , r . w . standage , and j . n . stoeckel . 1998 . ouachita madtom ( noturus lachneri ) metapopulation dynamics in intermittent ouachita mountain streams . copeia 1998 : 874 - 882 .\n( burr and warren 1986 ) . the least madtom is abundant and stable in\ntopminnow as from the ouachita r . dr . , louisiana , north to ( lake\nthe neosho madtom and the multifaceted nature of population limiting factors ( mark l . wildhaber )\nscientists recently proposed that 17 species including the ouachita madtom , a whiskery fish found in arkansas , be removed from a petition that had called for its protection under the endangered species act .\nfilters and templates : stonefly ( plecoptera ) richness in ouachita mountains streams , u . s . a\nstatus assessment of the carolina madtom : a rare north carolina epidemic ( christopher j . wood and robert b . nichols )\ntumilson , r . and hardage , j . o . ( 2014 )\ngrowth and reproduction in the ouachita madtom ( noturus lachneri ) at the periphery of its distribution ,\njournal of the arkansas academy of science : vol . 68 , article 19 . available at : urltoken\n[ conservation , management , and ecology of nongame catfish ] control of gonadal maturation of the margined madtom ( joseph n . stoeckel and richard j . neves )\nthe ouachita madtom was the only madtom from arkansas to be captively propagated at cfi . international paper funded an effort to determine whether this madtom species from the saline river system near hot springs was relatively more or less difficult to captively spawn than other species that cfi has attempted . three nests were spawned and the young reared with varying success to produce more than 60 young madtoms . these efforts reinforced previous findings that suggest that a wide range of variation exists in the ease with which different madtom species will spawn in captivity . most upland species have proven more difficult than larger river and lowland species , although the reasons are still unclear . many of the excess propagated individuals were utilized in 2008 for electrofishing injury experiments by russ bohl ( university of tennessee , knoxville ) . in fall 2009 , all surviving individuals ( n = 22 ) were transferred to the chattahoochee national fish hatchery , ga .\nthe ouachita madtom , noturus lachneri , is a small , uniformly - colored catfish endemic to the upper saline and ouachita river drainages in central arkansas ( robison and buchanan , 1988 ) , where it is often found in shallow pools associated with clear , high gradient , rock - bottomed streams ( robison and harp , 1985 ) . distribution , habitat , diet , and conservation status of n . lachneri . were examined by robison and harp ( 1985 ) . however , information on parasites of this endemic species has not been reported . herein , we report on species richness and mean abundance of hehninth parasites of n . lachneri .\nthe ouachita madtom ( noturus lachneri ) occurs primarily in drainages of the upper saline river and in a few small tributaries to the ouachita river in arkansas , usa . we collected specimens by hand and by use of aquarium dipnets on 29 occasions from 20 october 1999 through 25 july 2000 in cooper creek , presently a feeder creek into lake catherine on the ouachita river . total length was measured , reproductive attributes were noted , and individuals were released at the capture site ( with exception of 3 gravid females retained to assess fecundity ) . we recognized 2 age ( size ) classes during most of the year based on a plot of length - frequency distributions . regression of total length against time indicated a mean growth rate of 0 . 14 mm / day for the population , and 0 . 20 mm / day for juveniles during warmer months . hatchlings were found from 27 june through 4 november .\nthomas , m . r . , burr , b . m . , 2004 . noturus gladiator , a new species of madtom ( siluriformes : ictaluridae ) from coastal plain streams of tennessee and mississippi . ichthyol . explor . freshwaters 15 : 351 - 368 .\nouachita madtoms ( noturus lachneri ) at conservation fisheries , a native stream fish breeding center in knoxville . this is a rare stream fish that has a limited range in arkansas and is listed as vulnerable on the iucn red list , but it still isn\u2019t listed under the esa .\nfiorillo , riccardo a . ; thomas , r . brent ; warren , melvin l . , jr . ; taylor , christopher m . 1999 . structure of the helminth assemblage of and endemic madtom catfish ( noturus lachneri ) . the southwestern naturalist , vol . 44 , no . 4 , december 1999\ndistinctive ; clearly differentiated by several characters ( see starnes 1995 ) . see grady and legrande ( 1992 ) for a study of phylogenetic relationships , modes of speciation , and historical biogeography of noturus madtom catfishes . see lundberg ( 1992 ) for a synthesis of recent work on the systematic relationships of ictalurid catfishes .\nbridge repair and construction have decimated local populations . commercial gravel operations , stream channelization , and clearcut logging have degraded habitat ( robison and buchanan 1988 ) . impoundments for a water supply for little rock and benton are a potential threat ( robison and buchanan 1988 ) . ouachita madtoms and associated fishes apparently die in substantial numbers as streams dry in summer , so these communities potentially could be impacted by land management practices that increase the extent of stream drying , through alterations of the hydrologic regime ( e . g . , diversions for drinking water , irrigation ) ( gagen et al . 1998 ) . land management practices that increase sediment load may decrease pool depth thereby reducing source habitat for riffle - dwelling species as well as reducing habitat for pool - dwelling species such as the ouachita madtom ( gagen et al . 1998 ) . unintentional barriers to fish passage , such as low - water road crossings could significantly affect fish community structure by altering the natural recolonization dynamics in intermittent streams ( gagen et al . 1998 ) .\nbridge repair and construction have decimated local populations . commercial gravel operations , stream channelization , and clearcut logging have degraded habitat ( robison and buchanan 1988 ) . impoundments for a water supply for little rock and benton are a potential threat ( robison and buchanan 1988 ) . ouachita madtoms and associated fishes apparently die in substantial numbers as streams dry in summer , so these communities potentially could be impacted by land management practices that increase the extent of stream drying , through alterations of the hydrologic regime ( e . g . , diversions for drinking water , irrigation ) ( gagen et al . 1998 ) . land management practices that increase sediment load may decrease pool depth thereby reducing source habitat for riffle - dwelling species as well as reducing habitat for pool - dwelling species such as the ouachita madtom ( gagen et al . 1998 ) . unintentional barriers to fish passage , such as low - water road crossings could significantly affect fish community structure by altering the natural recolonization dynamics in intermittent streams ( gagen et al . 1998 ) .\ntotal adult population size is unknown but likely exceeds 10 , 000 . this species has been reported as never abundant at any locality within its range ( robison and harp 1985 ) , or rare to uncommon ( page and burr 2011 ) , but gagen et al . ( 1998 ) found high population densities of ouachita madtoms in several tributaries to the alum fork of the saline river .\ngrady , j . m . , and w . h . legrande . 1992 . phylogenetic relationships , modes of speciation , and historical biogeography of the madtom catfishes , genus noturus rafinesque ( siluriformes : ictaluridae ) . pages 747 - 777 in r . l . mayden , editor . systematics , historical ecology , and north american freshwater fishes . stanford university press , stanford , california . xxvi + 969 pp .\nthe small , discontinuous range is restricted to the upper saline river system and a small unnamed tributary of the ouachita river below remmel dam , in central arkansas ( robison and buchanan 1988 , page and burr 2011 . see robison and harp ( 1985 ) for localities . range extent is not more than a couple hundred square kilometres ( e . g . , see map in robison and harp 1985 ) . range may be severely fragmented .\nthe small , discontinuous range is restricted to the upper saline river system and a small unnamed tributary of the ouachita river below remmel dam , in central arkansas ( robison and buchanan 1988 , page and burr 2011 . see robison and harp ( 1985 ) for localities . range extent is not more than a couple hundred square kilometers ( e . g . , see map in robison and harp 1985 ) . range may be severely fragmented .\n( 250 - 1000 square km ( about 100 - 400 square miles ) ) the small , discontinuous range is restricted to the upper saline river system and a small unnamed tributary of the ouachita river below remmel dam , in central arkansas ( robison and buchanan 1988 , page and burr 2011 . see robison and harp ( 1985 ) for localities . range extent is not more than a couple hundred square kilometers ( e . g . , see map in robison and harp 1985 ) . range may be severely fragmented .\nthis species is represented by a small number of occurrences ( subpopulations ) . robison and harp ( 1985 ) mapped 17 collection sites that represent probably more than 10 but not more than 15 distinct occurrences . total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 10 , 000 . this species has been reported as never abundant at any locality within its range ( robison and harp 1985 ) , or rare to uncommon ( page and burr 2011 ) , but gagen et al . ( 1998 ) found high population densities of ouachita madtoms in several tributaries to the alum fork of the saline river . extent of occurrence , area of occupancy , and number of subpopulations apparently have not decreased by more than 25 % compared to the historical situation . trend in population size is unknown . warren et al . ( 2000 ) and jelks et al . ( 2008 ) categorized the status as\nthreatened\n( not\ncurrently stable\n) . trends are not well documented , but this species may be declining . some local extirpations may be temporary . for example , madtoms can rapidly recolonize from large , deep pools stream reaches from which they have been extirpated as a result of drought ( gagen et al . 1998 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ntaylor , w . r . 1969 . a revision of the catfish genus noturus ( rafinesque ) with an analysis of higher groups in the ictaluridae . smithsonian institution , u . s . national museum bulletin 282 : 1 - 315 .\njustification : this species is listed as endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 1 , 000 sq km , area of occupancy is less than 500 sq km , distribution may be severely fragmented , and habitat quality is subject to ongoing degradation .\nthis species is characteristic of pools , backwaters , and runs of creeks and small rivers ( page and burr 2011 ) of moderate to high gradient , with clear , cool water , gravel - rubble - sand bottoms , and alternating pools and riffles . usually it occurs in shallow pools , buried in gravel / cobble or in debris and vegetation along edges , sometimes in very shallow riffles under large rocks ( robison and allen 1995 ) . it may seek smaller tributaries for spawning . young have been found in a pool over shale bedrock in a small tributary ( robison and harp 1985 ) .\nbetter information on abundance and population trend is needed . unpolluted , unsilted habitats should be maintained .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\nr . tumilson , henderson state university follow j . o . hardage , henderson state university\nrobins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea , and w . b . scott . 1991 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada . american fisheries society , special publication 20 . 183 pp .\nsmall , fragmented range in arkansas ; threatened by degradation and loss of habitat from logging , commercial gravel operations , housing developments , and bridge / road building .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nknown area of occupancy may be less than 100 square kilometers or not much more than this , particularly during periods of stream drying . .\nthis species is represented by a small number of occurrences ( subpopulations ) . robison and harp ( 1985 ) mapped 17 collection sites that represent probably more than 10 but not more than 15 distinct occurrences .\nwarren et al . ( 2000 ) and jelks et al . ( 2008 ) categorized the status as\nthreatened\n( not\ncurrently stable\n) . trends are not well documented , but this species may be declining . some local extirpations may be temporary . for example , madtoms can rapidly recolonize from large , deep pools stream reaches from which they have been extirpated as a result of drought ( gagen et al . 1998 ) .\nextent of occurrence , area of occupancy , and number of subpopulations apparently have not decreased by more than 25 % compared to the historical situation . trend in population size is unknown .\na slender , brownish to gray catfish with an adnate adipose fin , terminal mouth , nearly equal jaws , 10 preoperculomandibular pores , and a single internasal pore ( robison and allen 1995 ) .\ndiffers from noturus gyrinus in having one internasal pore ( vs . 2 ) and 16 - 18 anal rays ( vs . 14 - 16 ) ( robison and allen 1995 ) . differs from n . exilis in lacking serrae on the pectoral spine , and in having more caudal rays and typically 8 pectoral rays ( vs . 9 ) ( robison and allen 1995 ) .\ndensity was 17 . 2 - 204 ( mean 95 ) per 100 sq m in riffle and pool habitats at six sites ; density ranges up to 32 per sq m in pools along dried up stream reaches ( gagen et al . 1998 ) .\nmayflies and chironomids are primary food items ( smith 1982 , robison and harp 1985 ) ; also eats beetles , caddisflies , isopods , copepods , and gastropods .\noccurrences are based on evidence of historical presence , or current and likely recurring presence , at a given location . such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals ( including eggs and larvae ) in appropriate habitat .\nmadtoms are generally regarded as sedentary , at least over the short term , but dispersal characteristics are unknown . separation distance is arbitrary but reflects the likely low probability that two occupied locations separated by less than several kilometers of aquatic habitat would represent truly independent populations over the long term . because of the difficulty in defining suitable versus unsuitable habitat , especially with respect to dispersal , and to simplify the delineation of occurrences , a single separation distance is used regardless of habitat quality .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\njelks , h . l . , s . j . walsh , n . m . burkhead , s . contreras - balderas , e . d\u00edaz - pardo , d . a . hendrickson , j . lyons , n . e . mandrak , f . mccormick , j . s . nelson , s . p . platania , b . a . porter , c . b . renaud , j . jacobo schmitter - soto , e . b . taylor , and m . l . warren , jr . 2008 . conservation status of imperiled north american freshwater and diadromous fishes . fisheries 33 ( 8 ) : 372 - 407 .\nlee , d . s . , c . r . gilbert , c . h . hocutt , r . e . jenkins , d . e . mcallister , and j . r . stauffer , jr . 1980 . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , north carolina . i - x + 854 pp .\nlundberg , j . g . 1992 . the phylogeny of ictalurid catfishes : a synthesis of recent work . pages 392 - 420 in r . l . mayden , editor . systematics , historical ecology , and north american freshwater fishes . stanford university press , stanford , california . xxvi + 969 pp .\nnelson , j . s . , e . j . crossman , h . espinosa - perez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , and j . d . williams . 2004 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . american fisheries society , special publication 29 , bethesda , maryland . 386 pp .\npage , l . m . , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , n . e . mandrak , r . l . mayden , and j . s . nelson . 2013 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . seventh edition . american fisheries society , special publication 34 , bethesda , maryland .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes : north america north of mexico . houghton mifflin company , boston , massachusetts . 432 pp .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 2011 . peterson field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . second edition . houghton mifflin harcourt , boston . xix + 663 pp .\npetersen , j . c . , and b . g . justus . 2005 . the fishes of hot springs national park arkansas , 2003 . u . s . geological survey scientific investigations report 2005 - 5126 . 13 pp .\nrobison , h . w . and t . m . buchanan . 1988 . fishes of arkansas . the university of arkansas press , fayetteville , arkansas . 536 pp .\nrobison , h . w . and r . t . allen . 1995 . only in arkansas : a study of the endemic plants and animals of the state . university of arkansas press , fayetteville , arkansas .\nstarnes , w . c . 1995 . taxonomic validation for fish species on the u . s . fish and wildlife service category 2 species list . 28 pp .\ntaylor , w . r . 1969 . a revision of the catfish genus noturus ( rafinesque ) with an analysis of higher groups in the ictaluridae . smithsonian institution , u . s . national museum bulletin 282 . 315 pp .\nstate natural heritage data centers . 1996a . aggregated element occurrence data from all u . s . state natural heritage programs , including the tennessee valley authority , navajo nation and the district of columbia . science division , the nature conservancy .\nstate natural heritage data centers . 1996b . aggregated element occurrence data from all u . s . state natural heritage programs , including the tennessee valley authority , navajo nation and the district of columbia : export of freshwater fish and mussel records west of the mississippi river in 1997 . science division , the nature conservancy .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nstart typing to search for web content . . . visit the reading room to search for documents .\nriccardo a . fiorillo ; r . brent thomas ; melvin l . warren ; christopher m . taylor\nyou may send email to pubrequest @ urltoken to request a hard copy of this publication .\n( please specify exactly which publication you are requesting and your mailing address . )\nwe recommend that you also print this page and attach it to the printout of the article , to retain the full citation information .\nthis article was written and prepared by u . s . government employees on official time , and is therefore in the public domain .\nusing molecular genetic tools to identify extremophile bacteria from deep in arkansas\u2019s blanchard caverns .\nstudies of non\u2013native species of invasive trees and shrubs that occur naturalized in arkansas , their ability to become established in the local flora , and what factors influence this process .\ntungoil tree ( aleurites fordii hemsl . ) ( euphorbiaceae ) new to the arkansas flora .\nnegundo chaste tree ( vitex negundo l . ) ( verbenaceae ) new to the arkansas flora .\nchinese flame tree ( koelreuteria bipinnata franch . ) new to the arkansas flora .\neffects of agriculture and indigenous villages on coral reef composition in kuna yala , panama .\nichthyofaunal assemblages in three proximate but ecologically diverse streams in clark county , arkansas .\ngeographic variation within an isolated population of big - eared bats in oklahoma , kansas and texas .\nrecovery of sea urchin populations , st . ann ' s bay , jamaica .\ndiversity of lamium ( lamiaceae ) in arkansas , including occurrences of lamium hybridum and flower color forms .\ncomment suwannee river , florida to the mississippi river ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) .\ncomment enters kentucky\u2019s waters during the spawning run ( burr and warren 1986 ) .\nlife history from january - march . eggs are deposited over coarse sand and gravel\nbetween mid - july and early october ( pflieger 1975 ) . juveniles stay in fresh\ncomment and southern illinois to the gulf of mexico in the mississippi river basin .\nto veracruz , mexico . the species is now extirpated or very rare in the\ncomment county near maysville ( trautman 1981 ) . j . p . kirtland noted this species\nhabitat / this species is one of the largest freshwater fishes in the u . s . . the largest\nlife history known gar collected in louisiana was 9 feet 8 . 5 inches and weighed 302\nrivers and their bayous , oxbows , and backwaters . the have been known to\nlife history current below and above riffles and in pools up to 1 . 75 meters deep ( burr\nsubstrates and boulders , tree snags , or water willow as cover . spawning is\nsupporting aquatic life ranges from 51 . 5 % to 90 . 0 % of stream miles\ncomment species of buffalo ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) . some authorities regard this\nmississippi and ohio rivers . in the ohio river , pearson and krumholz ( 1984 )\nhistory environments ( burr and warren 1986 ) . the species has also been reported to\nbeing a large dietary component ( becker 1983 , minckley et al . 1970 ) . spawning\nsubstrates from bedrock to gravel ( piller et al . 2003 ) . piller et al . ( 2003 )\n2008 , 17 records ) , 05140206 lower ohio ( 1996 - 2008 , 13 records ) . although\nwere fully supporting of aquatic life use ( kentucky division of water 2008 ) . the\ng - trend the blackfin sucker is endemic to the barren river drainage basin . the\ncomment and a portion of northern tennessee ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) . in\nlife history or rubble substrates in creeks and medium sized rivers ( natureserve 2004 ) .\nearly spring ( march and april ) . after hatching , the young are found in\nkey currently exists only in the upper barren river ( huc 05110002 ) . nearly\n2b gravel / sand removal or quarrying ( e . g . , mineral excavation )\nlife history 5 m in width ( burr and warren 1986 ) . typically found in sluggish pools of\n60 : 40 ( burr and warren 1986 ) . this species is usually also associated with\nspecies is broadly distributed in the southeastern u . s . and often abundant in\n( mettee et al . 1996 ) . according to natureserve ( 2004 ) , this species is\nhabitat / little is known about the biology of this species . spawning occurs in mid -\nlife history to late spring in shoal areas of small streams ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) . in\nportion ( approximately 10 % ) of the species\u2019 range ( natureserve 2008 ) .\nhistory and around submerged logs and stumps . less frequently , or more sporadically , it\nor gravel in current ( burr and warren 1986 ) . the blackfin shiner is a schooling\n( robison and buchanan 1988 , ross 2001 ) . in tennessee , the spawning period\nobservations of males in breeding condition ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) . eggs are\nbreeding males ( heins 1990 , pfleiger 1997 , boschung and mayden 2004 ) .\nsome degree ( burr and warren 1986 , woods et al . 2002 ) .\ncomment caney fork , tennessee , to rockcastle river , kentucky ( natureserve 2004 ) .\nand little south forks , and buck creek ( burr and warren 1986 ) .\ncomment cumberland river ( below the falls ) where it is known from five localities . it\nstreams ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) . spawning occurs in mid - april through\nearly may as water temperature approaches 15 c ( 60f ) . sexual maturity is\nreached at age - 1 . life span is 2 . 5 years . food consists of about half\nmayflies . maximum total length is 100 mm sl ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) .\nhuc8 are good as 73 . 1 % of assessed streams were found to be fully\nsupporting aquatic life . a total of 43 . 7 miles of streams in this huc8 are\ncomment mississippi river from obion creek south ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) . it\nlife history in raceways and riffles on the coastal plain ( burr and warren 1986 ) . this\ninclude 27 . 8 % ( bayou du chien - mayfield huc8 ) and 37 . 0 % ( obion creek\n2f riparian zone removal ( agriculture / development ) . burr and warren ( 1986 )\ncomment was elevated to species status by etnier and starnes ( 1986 ) . this species is\n( etnier and starnes , 1993 ) . although species continues to be common in\ns - trend in kentucky , this species is confined to terrapin creek in graves county .\naquatic vegetation is present ( etnier and starnes , 1993 ) . bell and timmons\nfrom 33 - 116 to 65 - 201 mature ova per age - 1 female . although bell and\ncomment creeks , graves county ( burr and warren 1986 ) . within terrapin creek , it\n1984 ( burr and warren 1986 , d . eisenhour , morehead state university ,\nlife history to fast current ( natureserve 2004 ) . specific habitat includes sand - gravel\ncomment degrees n ( lee and gilbert 1980 ) . in the eastern hemisphere , it occurs\nkentucky , missouri , wyoming , and oregon ( page and burr 1991 ) . the species\nin depths greater than 1 . 5 m with substrates of rock , sand , and mud ( burr and\nhabits ( lee and gilbert 1980 , becker 1983 ) . in the great lakes and areas to the\nbays over and or on gravel shoals ( becker 1983 , holm et al . 2009 ) . in rivers ,\nside channels behind deposition bars ( u . s . fish and wildlife service 2003 ) . the\nlower ohio - bay , and 05140206 lower ohio . pre - 1967 records are available for\nthe lower kentucky river ( 05100205 ) and licking river ( 05100101 ) . the most\nbrush - whiteoak ( 1993 , photo record ) ( compton et al . 2004 ) . although the ohio\ng - trend the central mudminnow occurs in north central north america in the st .\ncreek and running slough , fulton county ( burr and warren 1986 ) . it is\ncoastal plain ( clay 1975 ) . this species usually prefers non - turbid water\nshallow water during the spring water temperatures reach 13\u00b0 c ( 55\u00b0 f ) .\nsupporting aquatic life range from 27 % ( obion creek huc ) to 74 . 9 %\nnone ( kentucky lake huc ) to 124 . 4 ( bayou du chien - mayfield creek\ncomment river drainage ( burr and warren 1986 ) . it has been collected both above\nlife history may be taken in medium sized streams ( burr and warren 1986 ) . it occurs in\nassociated with large , flat stones ( page 1983 ) . spawning takes place in\napril when water temperatures are around 13\u00b0 c . ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) .\ncommon food items include mayflies , midges , and stoneflies ( page 1983 ) .\n1986 ) . sexual maturity is reached at one year of age . spawning occurs from\nmid - march to early june . females contain 26 - 116 eggs and deposit them\non dead leaves , twigs , rock and filamentous algae . eggs are not guarded and\nhatch in 5 - 13 days based on temperature . life span is 1 . 5 years . principal\nchien \u2013 mayfield ( huc 08010201 ) , and obion creek ( huc 08010202 ) .\nmississippi \u2013 memphis huc ) to 74 . 9 % ( lower tennessee - kentucky lake\neasternmost records from the state ( burr and warren 1986 ) . it is considered\nhabitat records predate 1984 . the bayou du chien - mayfield ( huc 08010201 )\ncontains the largest number of records ( 17 ) , only one of which is post - 1984 .\nlife history streams , and sloughs ( burr and warren 1986 ) . it occurs over substrates of\nsand or clay overlain with silt and organic debris ( burr and warren 1986 ) .\net al . 1996 ) and april to september in florida ( natureserve 2004 ) . nest\ngrowth is fairly slow and lifespan is approximately six years ( mettee et al .\nwatersheds have fewer than ten ( kentucky division of water 2002 , 2004 ) .\nand tennessee and the fish to be rare and extremely localized . jenkins , in\ndarter is presented in etnier and starnes ( 1993 ) as etheostoma sp . ( this\ndarter was officially describes after their book went to press ) . at that time\nof the duskytail darter to be confined to 4 . 3 stream miles of the big south\nin kentucky was only about a 4 . 8 - mile reach between the mouth\ntroublesome creek ( the majority ) and the mouth of oil well branch . the\nwell ) occurred under slab shaped stones during april - june . eggs are laid in\nwith complement of eggs ranging from 79 - 103 per \u201cnest rock\u201d . these nests\nsupporting aquatic life include 90 . 0 % of the 75 . 5 miles of stream assessed\ndrainage from red river upstream ( burr and warren 1986 ) . it is common in\nlife history starnes 1993 ) . spawning occurs from april to june at temperatures of\nabout 18 - 20\u00b0c in gravel - cobble raceways . this species may be an\nsupporting aquatic life ranges from 48 . 4 % to 90 . 0 % of streams surveyed\nwithin these watersheds , in which up to 404 . 4 stream miles have been\n4a acid mine drainage other coal mining impacts . burr and warren ( 1986 )\n4b waste water discharge ( e . g . , sewage treatment ) . burr and warren ( 1986 )\n4d oil and gas drilling operations associated runoff . burr and warren ( 1986 )\nalso be found in pools adjacent to habitat . eggs are thought be to attached\nage range of breeding females is 1 - 2 years ( natureserve 2004 ) . eggs are laid\nsingly on horizontal and vertical surface and they hatch in 6 \u2013 8 days . life\nspan is 3 years . diet consists primarily of midge larvae ( etnier and starnes\n17 states in the u . s . ( natureserve 2004 ) . over its range it is common and\ncomment in the mississippi river at cairo , illinois ( burr and warren 1986 ) . burr and\nand crossman 1973 ; pflieger 1975 ) . it relies on flood flows to spawn\npeak flows , when the temperature is warmer and the bottom is more stable .\ninto smaller streams to spawn ( scott and crossman 1973 ; pflieger 1975 ) .\ncomment small portion of north - central tennessee . in kentucky , it is considered\ncomment river , and the south fork of the kentucky river ( natureserve 2004 ) . it is\nlife history gradients ( natureserve 2004 ) . inhabits quiet water areas , especially slow\nspring and peaks from mid - march through mid - april . this species may be\nbarren river drainages are 80 . 0 % and 92 . 6 % ( respectively ) of stream miles\ncomment to trinity r . dr . , texas ; former mississippi embayment north to\nelsewhere ( page and burr 1991 ) . as the golden topminnow is secure in\nmost of its range , natureserve indicates g5 as its global status . however ,\ncomment 1970 from reelfoot lake , ( sisk 1973 ) . the first notable population\n( 1973 ) reported a series of 14 ( each date ) from open pond , fulton county .\nspecial concern category ( branson et al . 1981 ) . both open fork and\nshoreline ( burr and warren 1986 ) . as are most fundulus , the golden\ntopminnow is a surface dweller . etnier and starnes ( 1993 ) report it to\nhabitat kentucky ( huc - 8 ) are located within huc 08010202 ( obion creek ) . of\nthe 28 . 7 miles of stream assessed within this huc , 27 . 8 % of the waters\nwere fully supporting , 56 . 0 % partially supporting , 16 . 2 % not supporting ,\ndivision of water 2002 ) . however , one of the current and primary known\n( pg . 74 , kentucky atlas and gazetteer , 1997 ) . this refuge should help\npopulation occurring above the fall line . it is reported to be c \\ common in\ns - trend in kentucky , this species is sporadic and seasonally rare . its known\nhabitat / restricted to small lowland creeks , ditches , and wetlands . in small gravel\nsupporting aquatic life include 27 . 8 % ( obion creek huc ) and 56 . 0 %\ncomment from terrapin creek in graves county . burr and mayden ( 1979 ) reported\ncomment over a large part of the central united states . recently recognized as a\nflowing riffles and runs . during periods of low water , when riffles and runs\nkey known to occur only in the barren river ( huc 05110002 ) . habitat\n( page and burr 1991 ; pflieger 1975 ) . spawning occurs during late spring\nemergent vegetation and hatch in 4 - 30 days at temperatures of 13 - 34 c .\ns - trend this species is endemic to the upper kentucky river system . it is\nlife history may be taken in streams . this species usually occupies sluggish pools and\nsexual maturity is reached at age 1 . females contain 67 - 265 mature eggs .\ndipterans , caddisflies , stoneflies , and beetle larvae ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) .\nhabitat basin . habitat conditions fully supporting aquatic life range from 48 . 4 %\n( north fork kentucky river huc 05100201 ) to 88 . 5 % ( upper kentucky\ncomment tributary ) , kentucky . in the upper green river drainage , it is common in\npitman , and goose creeks . in the gasper river drainage , it is most common\nhabitat few records also in the barren river ( huc 05110002 ) . habitat conditions\nin the upper green river and 92 . 6 % in the barren river watersheds .\n113 . 1 in the the upper green and 14 . 7 for the barren river drainages\nrarely enters creeks , streams , or rivers ( burr and warren 1986 ) . spawning\n20 , 000 eggs per female . food consists of microcrustacea and midge larva .\nlife span is 5 or 6 years . maximum size to 394 mm ( 15 . 5 inches ) total\nlength and nearly 1 kg ( 2 . 2 lbs ) ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) .\nhabitat loss , construction of dams , and pollution . over the years , this\ncomment mississippi , cumberland , and tennessee rivers ( burr and warren 1986 ) .\nthe lake sturgeon ( trautman 1981 ) . burr and warren ( 1986 ) reported eight\nriver , 3 ; cumberland river , 1 ) for this species in kentucky . since 1984 ,\nfeet over firm sand , gravel , or rock ( pflieger 1975 ) . the oldest individual\nwas reported to be 154 years of age and weighing 207 pounds . . spawning\noutside bends over rocks / boulders in water between 1 and 15 feet in depth .\nhabitat river that lie within four different huc8 units . the most recent record is\nsupporting aquatic life range from none ( highland - pigeon huc ) to 51 . 5 %\nterrapin creek , although confined to a small range ( d . eisenhour , morehead\nhabitat / occurs in lowland creeks and small rivers across its range ( natureserve ) . in\nlife history the south , it occupies relatively shallow , clear riffles with moderate current .\noccurs from mid - june through early - july ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) .\nsnags or similar organic cover ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) . if available , they\nlife history and warren 1986 ; jenkins and burkhead 1993 ; natureserve 2004 ) . primary\n( etnier and starnes 1993 ) . spawning occurs in shallow , gravel / cobble riffles\nwhere eggs can be buried in the gravel / cobble substrate ( natureserve 2004 ) .\nsupporting aquatic life range include 55 . 8 % of stream miles surveyed in the\nupper green river and 92 . 6 % in the barren river watersheds . number of\nfound between pre - 1984 and post - 1984 data ( d . eisenhour , morehead state\nsand / silt substrates in pools ( burr and warren 1986 ) . such habitats are\neggs and young are carried in the gill chamber for 4 to 5 months . only 10 %\nhabitat ( huc 05110001 ) , and rough river ( huc 05110004 ) drainages . habitat\n2004 ) , with good populations in the licking river ( d . eisenhour , morehead\nriver drainages ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) . this species has been collected in\nmaturation , it is now limited to the upper reaches ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) .\ncomment south fork of the cumberland river drainage . ( burr and warren 1986 ;\nriver has turned up only two specimens ( m . compton , ky division of\nlife history upland river systems ( burr and warren 1986 ; natureserve 2004 ) . typical\nlate - july ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) . lifespan is approximately 4 years .\ndrainages , and formerly in lake erie ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) . because the\nrare fishes ( branson et al . 1981 ) , but was later removed because it was thought\nto be more common that previously believed ( burr and warren 1986 ) . although\nhistory zooplankton on which it feeds . adults must have access to gravel bars subject to\nthe species prefers depths greater than 1 . 5 m , seeking deeper water in late fall\nartificial structures ( e . g . , below dams ) that create eddies and reduce current\nvelocity ( southall and hubert 1984 ) . paddlefish have been reported to spawn in\nbelow upstream impoundments ( e . g . , stancill et al . 2002 ) . in the lower\n( 08010100 ) , and bayou du chien - mayfield ( 08010201 ) watershed units . sections\nkentucky lake ( 06040005 ) , and lower tennessee river ( 06040006 ) . habitat\nthree records are available for the licking river ( 05100101 ) . the licking river\ncomment cumberland river in wayne county . it was judged to be most abundant in\na 6 - mile reach of the little south fork ( u . s . fish and wildlife service\ncobble , pebble , and gravel mixed with clean sand ( u . s . fish and wildlife\nservice 1997 ) . peak spawning occurs from june to early july ( u . s . fish\npalezone shiner for 20 years , very little is known about its biology ( u . s .\nhabitat in the south fork cumberland ( huc 0513014 ) watershed , wayne county .\ncomment south to louisiana and west to the guadaloupe river in texas ( clemmer 1980 ) .\nskelly and sule 1983 , warren and burr 1988 , kwak 1991 , pflieger 1997 ) .\nreduction of the species\u2019 habitat or range ( jelks et al . 2008 ) .\ncomment and upper cumberland basins in kentucky ( burr and warren 1986 ) . until\nrecent collections because of its close similarity to other minnows ( e . g . , bigeye\nhistory collected along the margin of the stream lined with water willow ( justicia sp . ) ;\nwarren 1986 ) . biology and life history of populations in kentucky are unknown .\nriver , habitat conditions fully supporting aquatic life include 90 % of the 75 . 5\nmiles of stream assessed within the watershed , and 52 . 3 stream miles are\ns - trend there is only one substantiated record for the pallid sturgeon in kentucky .\nlife history pounds ) with a large flat shovel - like snout ( natureserve 2004 ) . it inhabits\nspawning runs . life span has been estimated to be up to 50 years . the\noldest individual to - date was a 41 - year - old female weighing 37 . 5 pounds\nmollusks , annelids , eggs of other fishes , and other fishes ( natureserve 2004 ) .\nwithin this huc is able to fully support aquatic life . most ( 64 . 2 % ) can\nonly partially support aquatic life , while 35 . 8 % are considered to be non -\nlife history and small to large rivers . it is common and can be very abundant in the\ngreat plains ( page and burr 1991 ) . it lives in schools near the bottom and\nand flathead chubs , and the red , sand and emerald shiners ( pflieger 1975 ) . in\nwest ( gilbert 1980 , page and burr 1991 , natureserve 2008 ) . in canada , it\nhuron in southern ontario ( parker et al . 1988 , natureserve 2008 ) . recently , the\nand red river ( burr and warren 1986 , meade et al . 1986 ) . although these small ,\nmakes them vulnerable to habitat loss and degradation . in wisconsin , lyons et al .\nportion of its diet consists of terrestrial insects ( schwartz and norvell 1958 ) ."]}
{"id": 741, "summary": [{"text": "chiasmia simplicilinea is a moth in the family geometridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in eastern and southern africa from ethiopia to south africa and in ivory coast & madagascar .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "known foodplants of the larvae of this species are mimosoideae , acacia dealbata and acacia mearnsii . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "chiasmia simplicilinea", "paragraphs": ["chiasmia simplicilinea is a moth in the family geometridae . it is found in eastern and southern africa from ethiopia to south africa and in ivory coast & madagascar .\ncopyright : mark hyde , bart wursten , petra ballings and meg coates palgrave , 2002 - 18 hyde , m . a . , wursten , b . t . , ballings , p . & coates palgrave , m . ( 2018 ) . flora of zimbabwe : lepidoptera - butterflies and moths : chiasmia simplicilinea . urltoken retrieved 9 july 2018 site software last modified : 26 december 2016 8 : 34pm ( gmt + 2 ) terms of use\ncopyright : mark hyde , bart wursten , petra ballings and meg coates palgrave , 2002 - 18 hyde , m . a . , wursten , b . t . , ballings , p . & coates palgrave , m . ( 2018 ) . flora of zimbabwe : insect details : individual images : chiasmia simplicilinea image1 . urltoken retrieved 9 july 2018 site software last modified : 26 december 2016 8 : 34pm ( gmt + 2 ) terms of use\ncopyright : mike bingham , annette willemen , bart wursten , petra ballings and mark hyde , 2011 - 18 bingham , m . g . , willemen , a . , wursten , b . t . , ballings , p . and hyde , m . a . ( 2018 ) . flora of zambia : lepidoptera - butterflies and moths : chiasmia simplicilinea . urltoken retrieved 9 july 2018 site software last modified : 7 february 2018 12 : 03am terms of use\nchiasmia - species dictionary - southern africa : ispot nature - your place to share nature . ispot is a website aimed at helping anyone identify anything in nature . once you ' ve registered , you can add an observation to the website and suggest an identification yourself or see if anyone else can identify it for you .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nlarva a green looper with fine white lines and a cream central line and black dots on each segment .\ntanzania , zambia , mozambique , zimbabwe , south africa as far as the eastern cape .\na junior subjective synonym of gonodela maculosa warren , 1899 , synonymized by prout ( 1932a : 486 ) .\nswinhoe c . 1904c . on the geometridae of tropical africa in the national collection . - transactions of the entomological society of london 1904 ( 3 ) : 497\u2013590 .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more"]}
{"id": 751, "summary": [{"text": "the sailfin roughshark ( oxynotus paradoxus ) is a species of dogfish shark in the family oxynotidae , found in the eastern north atlantic from scotland to senegal between latitudes 41 \u00b0 n and 11 \u00b0 n , at depths of between 265 and 720 m ( 869 and 2,362 ft ) .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "its length is up to 1.2 m ( 3.9 ft ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its reproduction is ovoviviparous .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "o. paradoxus is thought to be a slow-moving predator of small benthic animal .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the sailfin roughsharks is found near the eastern atlantic ocean at those depths .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "however , it has been reported to be found on the shores of morocco , recently reported in the mid-atlantic ridge , and in the azores water .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species is an uncommon bycatch of bottom trawls , though there is insufficient information for the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) to assess its conservation status . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "sailfin roughshark", "paragraphs": ["en - sailfin roughshark , fr - humantin , sp - cerdo marino velero .\naverage size of the sailfin roughshark is 29 . 5 inches . maximum total length recorded was 46 . 4 inches .\nposted in creature feature . tags : deep sea , oxynotus paradoxus , sailfin roughshark , shark biologist . leave a comment \u00bb\nthe angular roughshark ( oxynotus centrina ) is a rough shark of the family oxynotidae . [ 1 ]\nhurst , richard .\nfactsheet : angular roughshark .\nfactsheet : angular roughshark . n . p . , n . d . web . 30 november 2013 . < urltoken > archived december 5 , 2013 , at the wayback machine . .\nbiologist carl linnaeus described the angular roughshark , o . centrina , in 1758 . this name was later finalized and accepted by the scientific community as the official name for the species in 1976 . [ 2 ]\njustification : the sailfin roughshark ( oxynotus paradoxus ) is an uncommon deepwater bottom shark found at depths from 265\u2013720 m . the species reaches a maximum reported size of up to 118 cm total length . moderately abundant in deeper offshore waters off the british isles . the species is probably taken as bycatch of offshore trawling fleets but no information is available on frequency . the species\u2019 known depth range is entirely within the range of deepwater fisheries operating in the northeast atlantic , although the mid - atlantic ridge and southern part of its range probably offer some refuge from fishing pressure . furthermore , it is possible that the sailfin roughshark is continuously distributed along the northeast and eastern central atlantic floor , deeper than presently known . alternatively , separate slope and ridge populations may exist . given the paucity of information available on this species it is assessed as data deficient . research is needed to better define the distribution , population structure and the impact of fisheries on the species .\ndownward we descend to explore more mysterious creatures in the deep ! the sailfin roughshark ( oxynotus paradoxus ) is another deep water species about which little information has been discovered . what we do know about this deep water shark is based on what scientists have visually observed . their bodies are a triangular shape , short and bluntly snouted with large denticles ( skin teeth ) covering the surface of their skin . the dorsal fins are very noticeable with tall sail - like fins which contains spines . as for the anal fin , well , it doesn\u2019t have one , which is somewhat atypical for a shark . you will find this uncommon species along the atlantic slope from scotland to senegal .\nscientific synonyms and common names oxynotus paradoxus frade , 1929 synonyms : oxynotus paradoxus frade , 1929 oxynotus paradoxus frade , 1929 , bull . soc . port . sci . nat . , 10 ( 22 ) : 263 - 267 , fig . 1 - 2 ( off morocco ) . holotype : mb no . t 114 . oxynotus paradoxus : frade , 1932 : pl . xx norman , 1932 : 77 - 79 , fig . 1 , pl . i fraser - brunner , 1935 : 320 tucker & palmer , 1949 : 930 - 931 krefft , 1955 : 158 - 160 , fig . i tortonese , 1956 : 168 bigelow & schroeder , 1957 : 1417 rae & lamont , 1960 : 78 cadenat , 1961 : 232 blacker , 1962 : 264 , 266 rae & pirie , 1967 : 30 ; 1968 : 201 went , 1968 : 36 wheeler , 1969 : 63 - 64 , fig . wheeler & blacker , 1969 : 313 maurin & bonnet , 1970 : 14 - 15 , fig . 9 ledoux , 1970 : 320 - 321 , fig . 3 . centrina paradoxa : cadenat , 1950 : 312 . common names : sailfin roughshark [ en ] humantin [ fr ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nnortheast atlantic : along the atlantic slope from scotland ( including the northern north sea ) , to ireland , southern england , france , spain , portugal , madeira , the canary islands , the azores ( compagno in prep , azevedo , sousa and brum 2003 ) . also recently reported from the mid - atlantic ridge ( hareide and garnes 2001 ) . eastern central atlantic : morocco , mauritania , sahara , senegal , and possibly southwards to the gulf of guinea . not recorded in the mediterranean ( compagno in prep ) . based on the presence of this species in the azores and mid - atlantic ridge , a bathybenthic habitat has been suggested , with spring reproductive migrations to the continental shelf . this represents a significant westward extension of its previously known geographic distribution . it is possible that o . paradoxus is continuously distributed along the north - eastern atlantic floor , deeper than presently known . alternatively , separate slope and ridge populations may exist ( azavedo et al . 2003 ) .\nfrance ; mauritania ; morocco ; portugal ( azores , madeira , portugal ( mainland ) ) ; senegal ; spain ( canary is . , spain ( mainland ) ) ; united kingdom ( great britain ) ; western sahara\nmoderately abundant off the british isles . catches in the waters of the british isles indicate that o . paradoxus is rare in inshore waters ( three individuals were reported from irish inshore waters by quigley and flannery 1994 ) , but numerous others have been caught in deeper offshore waters ( ni mhurachu and o\u2019connor 1987 , henderson 1996 , quigley and flannery 1996 ) .\nan uncommon deepwater bottom shark found on the continental slope at depths from 265\u2013720 m . its maximum size is about 118 cm total length ( tl ) , while size at birth about 25 cm tl . reproduction is ovoviviparous .\nthis species is an uncommon bycatch of offshore trawling fleets ( compagno 1984 ) . there is a continuing trend for deepwater fisheries in the northeast atlantic , with overall concern for the status of deepwater species . trawl and gillnet fisheries operate throughout the species\u2019 known depth range in areas of the northeast atlantic ( see ices 2006 , 2007 for further information on the fisheries ) , but no information is available on the bycatch of this species . the mid - atlantic ridge and southern part of the species\u2019 range , off the western africa coast , may offer some refuge from fishing pressure , particularly if the species\u2019 is continuously distributed along the northeast and eastern central atlantic floor , deeper than presently known .\nno measures are in place . further research is required to determine the true extent of the range of the species . like many poorly known deepwater species , research is also required into life history characteristics .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngreek , oxys = sharp + greek , noton = back ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; bathydemersal ; depth range 265 - 720 m ( ref . 35388 ) . deep - water ; 41\u00b0n - 11\u00b0n , 13\u00b0w - 3\u00b0w ( ref . 54694 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 120 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 35388 ) ; common length : 85 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . )\nfound on the continental slope . probably feeds on small bottom invertebrates and fishes . ovoviviparous .\ncompagno , l . j . v . , 1984 . fao species catalogue . vol . 4 . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . part 1 - hexanchiformes to lamniformes . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 4 / 1 ) : 1 - 249 . rome , fao . ( ref . 247 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5625 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 \u00b10 . 60 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( fec assumed to be < 100 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high vulnerability ( 63 of 100 ) .\ndiagnosis : small sharks with body triangular in cross - section , very deep and very compressed .\nbigelow , h . b . ; schroeder , w . c . 1957 . a study of the sharks of the suborder squaloidea . bull . mus . comp . zool . harv . , 117 ( 1 ) : 1 - 150 , fig . 1 - 16 , pl . iiv .\nblacker , r . w . 1962 . rare fishes from the atlantic slope fishing grounds . ann . mag . nat . hist . , ( 13 ) 5 : 261 - 271 , fig . 1 - 2 .\ncadenat , j . 1950 . note sur les merlus de la c\u00f4te occidentale d ' afrique . congr . p\u00eaches p\u00eacher . un . franc . d ' outre - mer , inst . col . marseille : 128 - 130 .\ncadenat , j . 1961b . notes d ' ichtyologie ouest - africaine . xxxiv . liste compl\u00e9mentaire des esp\u00e8ces de poissons de mer ( provenant des cotes de l ' afrique occidentale ) en collection \u00e0 la section de biologie marine de l ' i . f . a . n . \u00e0 gor\u00e9e . bull . inst . fr . afr . noire , ( a ) 23 ( 1 ) : 231 - 245 .\nfrade , f . 1929 . une nouvelle esp\u00e8ce ou une aberration individuelle de l ' oxynotus centrina ( l . ) . bull . soc . port . sci . nat . , 10 ( 22 ) : 263 - 267 , fig . 1 - 2 .\nfraser - brunner , a . 1935 . new or rare fishes from the irish atlantic slope . proc . r . ir . acad . , 42 ( b - 9 ) : 319 - 326 , fig . 1 - 5 .\nkrefft , g . 1955 . ichthyologische mitteilungen aus dem institut f\u00fcr seefischerei der bundesforschungsanstalt f\u00fcr fischerei . iv . 6 . weitere bemerkenswerte fische aus den gew\u00e4ssern des island - f\u00e4r\u00f6er - r\u00fcckens . zool . anz . , 154 ( 7 / 8 ) : 157 - 164 , fig . 1 - 2 .\nledoux , j . c . 1970 . les dents des squalid\u00e9s de la m\u00e9diterran\u00e9e occidentale et de l ' atlantique nord - ouest africain . vie milieu , 21 ( 2a ) : 309 - 362 , 21 fig .\nmaurin , c . ; bonnet , m . 1970 . poissons des c\u00f4tes nord - ouest africaines ( campagnes de la ' thalassa ' , 1962 et 1968 ) . rev . trav . inst . ( scient . tech . ) pech . marit . , 34 ( 2 ) : 125 - 170 , fig . 1 - 26 .\nnorman , j . r . 1932 . note on a shark , oxynotus paradoxus frade , new to the british fauna . proc . zool . soc . lond . , ( 5 ) : 77 - 79 , fig . 1 , pl . i .\nrae , b . b . ; pirie , s . f . 1968 . scottish records of rare fishes 1967 . annls biol . , copenh . , 24 ( 1967 ) : 201202 .\ntortonese , e . 1956b . leptocardia , ciclostomata , selachii . fauna ital . , 2 : 334 p . , 163 fig .\ntucker , d . w . ; palmer , c . 1949 . new british records of two rare deep - sea fishes : oxynotus paradoxus frade and aphanopus carbo lowe . nature , lond , 146 ( 4178 ) : 930 - 931 , 1 fig .\nwent , a . e . j . 1968 . rare fishes taken in irish waters in 1967 . ir . nat . j . , 16 : 35 - 39 .\nwheeler , a . 1969 . the fishes of the british isles and north - west europe . macmillan , london , melbourne and toronto : i - xvii + 1 - 163 , 5 + 177 fig . , + 392 fig . ( princ . sp . ) + 92 n . num . fig . , 16 pl . , maps .\nwheeler , a . ; blacker , r . w . 1972 . rare and little - known fishes in british seas in 1968 and 1969 . j . fish biol . , 4 : 141 - 170 , 1 fig .\nvery little has been documented on this particular shark . they have a short , blunt snout , high , sail - like dorsal fins with spines , no anal fin . first dorsal spine inclined backward , high , thick , triangular body with large , rough denticles .\nthis species has lanceolate upper teeth , and lower bladelike teeth in less than 12 rows .\nnortheast atlantic : scotland to canaries , azores , senegal , and possibly gulf of guinea . they inhabit continental slope , from depths of 869 . 4 feet to 2 , 362 . 2 feet .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nsorry , no definitions found . check out and contribute to the discussion of this word !\nlog in or sign up to get involved in the conversation . it ' s quick and easy .\nwordnik is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organization , ein # 47 - 2198092 .\na female angular rough shark ca . 60 cm of tl , from the sea of marmara . | fishbase link : urltoken learn more about it at urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndogfish sharks are the second largest of shark orders with 119 species . dogfish come in all shapes , sizes , and colors and they live in almost every ocean habitat and depth . this group of sharks are an exercise in extremes . dogfish are represented by what is thought to be the smallest shark species ( dwarf lantern shark , which only grows to about 6 inches ) and some of the largest ( greenland and sleeper sharks ) .\nthese sharks can also be found at extreme depths , down to thousands of meters ! some species have nasty - looking spines accessorizing their dorsal fins , while others hardly look like a shark at all with tall sail - like dorsal fins . other species are bioluminescent , with dazzling displays of vivid greenish bands potentially used to attract and confuse prey , or to hide from predators . dogfish sharks are an excellent example of the exciting biodiversity that can be found among sharks !\nmarine ; most species bottom oriented . widely diversified and wide - ranging , dogfish sharks are in coastal and oceanic waters , from cool temperate to deep tropical waters\ndiverse as are the species . range from boney fishes , crustacea , to marine mammals\ncarpet sharks derive their name from both their bottom - dwell [ . . . ]\nmackerel sharks include the most famous sharks such as the t [ . . . ]\ndogfish sharks are highly diverse with the second largest gr [ . . . ]\nbullhead sharks are relatively inelegant for a shark , living [ . . . ]\nsawsharks resemble sawfish , with a long , toothy , sword - like [ . . . ]\nshark savers is a program of wildaid , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organization . copyright \u00a9 2018 wildaid . all rights reserved .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\n: urltoken contains images of sharks , skates , rays , and a few chimaera ' s from around the world . elasmodiver began as a simple web based\nto help divers find the best places to encounter the different species of sharks and rays that live in shallow water but it has slowly evolved into a much larger project containing information on all aspects of shark diving and shark photography .\nthere are now more than 10 , 000 shark pictures and sections on shark evolution , biology , and conservation . there is a large library of reviewed shark books , a constantly updated shark taxonomy page , a monster list of shark links , and deeper in the site there are numerous articles and stories about shark encounters . elasmodiver is now so difficult to check for updates , that new information and pictures are listed on an elasmodiver updates page that can be accessed here :\nthe taxonomy of sharks and rays is a subject that remains in hot debate . although the majority of elasmobranch families have been nailed down there will always be individual species that don ' t quite fit the characteristics of their sibling species . consequently species are occasionally reclassified or simply listed as awaiting review . one of the most confusing of families is the potamotrygonidae - the fresh water stingrays of south america . not only do these ray species adopt extremely varied patterns that are sometimes visually indistinguishable from other species , they also produce hybrids in certain parts of their ranges leaving us wondering what exactly a true species is anyway .\namong shark taxonomists conservative estimates of the number of known shark species is now approaching 500 . combined with the 700 or more species of rays and skates there are well over a thousand valid species of elasmobranches . in the past many more species were described only to be discounted later as being synonymous with elasmobranches already described from other geographic areas . in recent years this problem has lessened because taxonomic data has become easier to share over the internet . however , taxonomists are as vain as the rest of us and in their efforts to be the first to describe ( and name ) a new species there is often a counterproductive lack of collaboration .\nsome abyssal species have been described from only one or two specimens captured during deep water trawls . this implies that in all likelihood there are many shark and ray species lurking on the abyssal plain that have not yet been seen or captured . the best example being the relatively recent discovery of the megamouth shark . if this large and slow moving shark could remain hidden until the 1980 ' s , who knows how many other elasmobranches have gone unnoticed .\nfollowing is a list ( in need of an update ) of all the described species of elasmobranchs . included at the bottom are the holocephali ( the chimaeras or ghost sharks ) that share many characteristics with modern sharks and rays but are thought to be descended from a different group of cartilaginous fishes that thrived during the late devonian period .\noccasionally new species of sharks and rays are described by science . in some cases they have been well known for a while e . g . the western wobbegong but no one has gotten around to describing them . more exciting is when a deep water trawl or a lucky diving expedition uncovers a species that the scientific community was completely unaware of . this page on elasmodiver highlights the discovery of these species . many thanks to helmut nickel who somehow manages to find out whenever a new species is described and diligently informs the rest of the lay community of shark fanatics through shark - l . without his input i wouldn ' t have a clue .\nif you have information about a species i have overlooked please email me the information and i will add it to the list .\nincludes a key to identifying the genus of the dasyatidae ( whiptail stingrays ) .\nincludes a key to identifying the genus of the potamotrygonidae ( river stingrays ) .\nphylum chordata - animals that at some point in their life cycle have the following : pharyngeal slits ( a series of openings connecting the inside of the throat to the outside of the neck . in fish these become gill slits ) , dorsal nerve cord ( a bundle of nerve fibres running down the back , connecting the brain with the organs and extremities , a notochord ( a cartilaginous rod supporting the nerve cord ) , post anal tail ( an extension of the ' back ' past the anal opening ) .\nsubphylum vertebrata - animals with a vertibral column or backbone and neural crest cells which are released as the nerve cord is forming , these cells move through the body to form major nerves , neural ganglia , and many head and facial features . other features that separate vertebrates from other chordates include : a relatively well - developed brain , paired complex eyes , a muscularized mouth and pharynx , and a well - developed circulatory system with a heart .\nclass chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes lacking true bone . chondrichthyes can be split into two distinct subclasses elasmobranchii and bradyodonti .\nsubclass elasmobranchii - sharks , skates and rays ( and some fossil relatives ) . elasmobranchs have an upper jaw that is not fused to the braincase and separate slitted gill openings .\nsubclass holocephali - includes forms with an upper jaw fused to the braincase and a flap of skin , the operculum , covering the gill slits . the holocephalii includes the chimaeras and ratfishes , which are relatively rare , often deep - water , mollusc - eating forms .\nnarcine brevilabiata - ( offshore species found on continental tropical waters , known from a depth of 49 m ) .\nnarcine prodorsalis - ( continental waters both inshore and offshore . known from a depth of 49m ) .\nnarcine vermiculatus - vermiculate electric ray ( benthic on soft bottoms in protected coastal areas ) .\ntemera hardwickii - pari karas ( malay / indonesian . found inshore and offshore )\nj . p . c . b . da silva & m . r . de carvalho , 2011\ntarsistes philippii jordan , 1919 no common name . known from one dried head from chile\nrhynchobatus immaculatus peter r . last1 , hsuan - ching ho2 , 3 , * & rou - rong chen3 2013\ncallorhinchus milii ( elephantfish ) occurs on continental shelves of cool temperate areas of australia and new zealand to depths of at least 200 m . migrates into large estuaries and inshore bays in spring to breed .\nchimaera monstrosa ( rabbit fish ) atlantic . upper continental slopes , 40 to 100m .\nhydrolagus affinis ( smalleyed rabbitfish , atlantic chimaera ) eastern atlantic , mediterranean . continental slopes to deep - sea plains .\nhydrolagus lemures ( blackfin ghostshark ) common and wide - ranging chimaera of the australian outer continental shelf and upper slopes .\nhydrolagus mirabilis ( large - eyed rabbitfish ) moderately common on continental slopes . feeds on small fishes and invertebrates . oviparous\nharriotta haeckeli ( smallspine spookfish ) north atlantic , taken in 1800 - 2600 m ; specimens collected by russian vessels from submarine seamounts of the indian ocean in 1400 - 1730 m ; off st . helens ( tasmania ) in 1480 - 1700 m .\np . o . box 8719 station central , victoria , bc . , v8w 3s3 , canada\nhtml public ' / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en ' ' urltoken '\noxynotus paradoxus frade , 1929 , bull . soc . portugaise sci . nat . , 10 ( 22 ) : 22 , fig . 1 . holotype : in museu bocage , lisbon , apparently lost in a fire that destroyed the museum . type locality : off morocco .\nfieldmarks : short , blunt snout , high , sail - like dorsal fins with spines , no anal fin , first dorsal spine inclined backward , high , thick , triangular body with large , rough denticles , lanceolate upper teeth , lower bladelike teeth in less than 12 rows , blackish coloration .\nspiracle small and circular . supraorbital ridges not greatly expanded and not forming a knob in front of spiracles . apices of dorsal fins narrowly triangular , posterior margins strongly concave ; first dorsal spine inclined backward . blackish or dark brown , without prominent markings .\nan uncommon deepwater bottom shark found on the atlantic continental slope , at depths from 265 to 720 m . moderately abundant off british isles . ovoviviparous .\ncaught in bottom trawls . used for fishmeal . uncommon as a bycatch of offshore trawling fleets .\nfao species catalogue vol . 4 . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date part 1 - hexanchiformes to lamniformes . compagno , l . j . v . 1984fao fisheries synopsis . , ( 125 ) vol . 4 , part 1 .\nhabitat : coral covered and muddy bottoms , deepwater location : southwest pacific , west atlantic , east atlantic , mediterrean , caribbean , and west pacific size : description : their is very little known about roughsharks due to limited studies . they are identified by their triangular fin and large eyes . diet : worms , crustaceans , mollusks , and small fish feeding habits : slow swimmers offspring : 7 - 23 pups per litter lifespan : unknown status : not evaluated threatened by : bycatch\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nroughsharks ( oxynotidae ) are a group of small sharks that are mostly bottom - dwellers . they have a stout , laterally - compressed body , no anal fin , and a prominent ridge along the abdomen . their lower teeth point backwards and the upper teeth are larger in the back of the mouth .\nkento furui added an unknown common name in an unknown language to\nzameus\n.\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30d3\u30ed\u30a6\u30c9\u30b6\u30e1\nto\nzameus squamulosus ( g\u00fcnther , 1877 )\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngeonetwork opensource allows to easily share geographically referenced thematic information between different organizations . for more information please contact\nthe raster dataset of soil drainage has a spatial resolution of 5 * 5 arc minutes and is in geographic projection . information with regard to soil drainage was obtained from the\nderived soil propert\ncr\u00e9\u00e9e le 28 janvier 1976 , la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 fran\u00e7aise d\u2019ichtyologie s\u2019est d\u00e9velopp\u00e9e et internationalis\u00e9e rapidement . malgr\u00e9 un changement de statut en 1988 , ses objectifs n\u2019ont pas vari\u00e9 depuis 1976 . c\u2019est pour r\u00e9pondre au quatri\u00e8me point de ses objectifs \u2013 assurer la liaison entre ses membres par la diffusion d\u2019une publication sp\u00e9cifique \u2013 que la revue cybium fut cr\u00e9\u00e9e d\u00e8s 1977 . la sfi a pris aussi l\u2019initiative de publier ou d\u2019aider \u00e0 publier certains ouvrages qui ont fait l\u2019objet ou non de num\u00e9ros sp\u00e9ciaux de la revue .\ncybium , \u00e9dit\u00e9e par la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 fran\u00e7aise d\u2019ichtyologie , publie des articles originaux , des articles de synth\u00e8se , des r\u00e9sum\u00e9s de th\u00e8se , des analyses bibliographiques et des informations int\u00e9ressant les membres de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 ou l\u2019ensemble des ichtyologistes . les sujets trait\u00e9s doivent avoir un rapport direct avec l\u2019ichtyologie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale , fondamentale ou appliqu\u00e9e , qu\u2019il s\u2019agisse de poissons d\u2019eau douce ou de poissons marins , actuels ou fossiles .\nthe europeen society of marine biotechnology ( esmb ) and the tunisian association of bioressources valorization ( atvab ) will organize the international congress for marine biotechnology on 17th - . . . lire la suite\nvous trouverez ci - dessous le le compte rendu des rif18 ainsi que le livre des r\u00e9sum\u00e9s et quelques photos .\nseminiferous tubule number and surface : validation of objective parameters to estimate reproduction activity of male european anchovy ( engraulis encrasicolus , l . )\nphysiculus sudanensis paulin , 1989 , a junior synonym of p . dalwigki kaup , 1858 ( teleostei , gadiformes , moridae ) , with a redescription of p . dalwigki\ng . prestes - carneiro , p . b\u00e9arez , k . dillenseger , t . yunoki\nfound on the continental shelf and upper slope to at least 430 m ( ref . 247 ) . feeds on bony fish , also shrimp , mysids and squid ( ref . 5578 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 ) , with 5 to 7 young in a litter ( ref . 247 ) . probably uses its saw to stun and kill prey ( ref . 5578 ) . sometimes caught by sports anglers ( ref . 5578 ) .\nwarm - temperate and subtropical continental shelves and upper slopes from the western cape of south africa to southern mozambique and southeastern madagascar . normally absent from the cold - temperate west coast of south africa , north from cape town . depth range 37 m to at least 500 m . bimodal distribution off the southern cape coast of south africa . most records are from between 20 and 21 on the outer continental shelf of the western cape ( cape agulhas and cape infanta , 60 to 160 m , mostly 70 to 140 m ) and between 25 and 27 longitude on continental shelf and upper slope of eastern cape from port elizabeth to port alfred ( 70 to 290 m , mostly 80 to 120 m ) . few intermediate records between these two areas , no records below 300 m on the cape coast . possible pupping grounds in eastern cape ( near algoa bay ) and off kwazulu - natal . off central kwazulu - natal , occurs at 73 to 430 m , mostly below 110 m . has been taken at 360 m off delagoa bay , mozambique and at 425 to 500 m off southeastern madagascar ( compagno in prep . a ) .\nwestern indian ocean : off madagascar and from southern mozambique to cape agulhas , south africa .\nfound on the continental shelf and upper slope to at least 430 m . feeds on small fish ( including @ champsodon @ ) , crustaceans and squids . adults are partially segregated from young by occuring in greater depths . ovoviviparous , with 5 to 7 young in a litter ( others have 7 to 17 developing eggs ) .\nthe only shark with a saw - snout and 6 pairs of gill slits ( ref . 5578 ) . pale brown above , white below ( ref . 6587 ) .\noffshore benthic and epibenthic species on the warm - temperate and subtropical continental shelves and upper slopes of southern africa and madagascar at 37 m to at least 500 m , with apparent tropical submersion northeastwards along its range and onto the uppermost slopes . bimodal distribution in south african cape waters may be linked to restricted habitat ( possibly related to feeding ) . biology , ecology and behaviour sketchily known . ovoviviparous , with 5 to 7 pups / litter ( but 7 to 17 developing eggs recorded ) . populations partially segregated ; young occur in shallower water than adults off kwazulu - natal , south africa . possible pupping grounds in eastern cape ( near algoa bay ) and off kwazulu - natal . feeds on small fish , crustaceans and squid . predators poorly known but include tiger shark ( compagno in prep . a ) . known life history parameters size at maturity : 110 cm total length ( tl ) ( females ) ; 83 cm tl ( males ) . maximum size : at least 112 cm tl ( males ) and 136 cm tl ( females ) . size at birth : 35 to 37 cm tl . average annual fecundity or litter size : 5 to 7 young per litter in two females ; others with 1 to 17 eggs .\ndepth range based on 138 specimens in 1 taxon . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 90 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 42 - 915 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 8 . 693 - 18 . 507 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 6 . 303 - 21 . 685 salinity ( pps ) : 34 . 738 - 35 . 415 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 4 . 287 - 4 . 730 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 525 - 1 . 634 silicate ( umol / l ) : 7 . 117 - 24 . 114 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 42 - 915 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 8 . 693 - 18 . 507 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 6 . 303 - 21 . 685 salinity ( pps ) : 34 . 738 - 35 . 415 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 4 . 287 - 4 . 730 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 525 - 1 . 634 silicate ( umol / l ) : 7 . 117 - 24 . 114 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\ndepth : 60 - 430m . from 60 to 430 meters . habitat : demersal . found on the continental shelf and upper slope to at least 430 m . feeds on small fish ( including @ champsodon @ ) , crustaceans and squids . adults are partially segregated from young by occuring in greater depths . ovoviviparous , with 5 to 7 young in a litter ( others have 7 to 17 developing eggs ) . sometimes caught by anglers ( ref . 5578 ) .\ndemersal ; marine ; depth range 60 - 430 m ( ref . 5578 ) , usually 60 - ? m\nfeeds on fish , cephalopods , benthic invertebrates and zooplankton ( ref . 5578 ) .\novoviviparous , with 5 to 7 young in a litter ( others have 7 to 17 developing eggs ) . size at birth about 35 cm . embryos feed solely on yolk ( ref . 50449 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there is 1 barcode sequence available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is the sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\npliotrema warreni is a southern african endemic with a relatively restricted geographic distribution , depth range of 37 m to at least 500 m , and possibly a discontinuous habitat distribution . likely a relatively unproductive species , with fairly small litters and relatively large size at maturity compared with some other sawsharks . vulnerable to net gear because of its morphology . taken as discarded , unmonitored bycatch in demersal trawlers throughout much of its range . although population and trend data are lacking , levels of bycatch of this species are considered likely to be unsustainable . p . warreni is assessed as near threatened due to concerns regarding its vulnerability to this unmonitored fishing pressure and its restricted distribution .\nbycatch of demersal bottom trawlers off south africa and southern mozambique . intensive offshore trawl fisheries occur in its known range , but trends in occurrence of this species as bycatch are unmonitored . it is apparently unutilized and discarded ( compagno in prep . a ) . probably not sufficiently common in bycatch to be worth marketing .\nthe sixgill sawshark , pliotrema warreni , the only member of the genus pliotrema , is a sawshark of the family pristiophoridae . presence of 6 pairs of gill slits highlights this genus among sharks ; outside hexanchiformes order , pliotrema is the only shark with more than 5 gill slits . unlike other sawsharks , the barbs on this shark ' s rostrum continue onto the sides of the head . its barbels are also closer to its mouth than in other species . at maximum , females can reach over 136 cm long , and males can reach over 112 cm long .\n, at depths of between 37 and 500 m . this shark lives in the\nzones of the continental shelf . adults are partially segregated from juveniles , as they naturally tend to aggregate at lower depths .\n, sixgill sawsharks are able to find their prey and then incapacitate them with their rostrum . their known diet includes small fish , crustaceans , and squids . the only observed predator of the sixgill sawshark is the\n, though it is likely other large sharks predate this species . these sharks , like other sawsharks , are\n. they are thought to breed annually , giving birth to around five to seven pups per litter . it is possible that they come to inshore pupping grounds to give birth . the pups are around 35 cm at birth , and they later mature at around 83 cm if they are male , and around 110 cm if they are female .\n. this is because of their restricted geographical range , small litters , high age of maturity , and extreme vulnerability to bottom trawling fishing . though they are not sought after in any market , they are frequently caught as by - catch and disposed . because of their deep habitat , sixgill sawsharks are not considered a threat to people .\nfowler , s . l . 2004 . pliotrema warreni . in : iucn 2013 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2013 . 2 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 30 december 2013 .\ncompagno , leonardo , dando , marc and fowler , sarah . sharks of the world . princeton university press . 2005 . pg 131 - 132 .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2006 ) .\npliotrema warreni\nin fishbase . may 2006 version .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nmax length : 120 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 35388 ) ; common length : 85 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . )\nmarine ; bathydemersal ; depth range 265 - 720 m ( ref . 35388 )\ndeep - water , preferred 18\u00b0c ( ref . 107945 ) ; 41\u00b0n - 11\u00b0n , 13\u00b0w - 3\u00b0w ( ref . 54694 )\npd 50 = 0 . 5625 many relatives ( e . g . carps ) 0 . 5 - 2 . 0 few relatives ( e . g . lungfishes )\nlow , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( fec assumed to be < 100 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhow do you become a shark biologist ? first , stay in school ! you would need to study hard and earn a masters or phd . it might seem hard or scary , but it is worth it to be able learn and become an expert in something that interests you . you can do it ! as a shark biologist you will learn all about shark life processes , answering questions about how large they grow , how fast they grow , their mating rituals , the physics of sharks\u2019 movements , behavior , diet , and diseases . there is so much to learn and discover , and if you want to , you can be the discoverer !\nas a shark biologist , you generally would focus your studies on one species in great detail , though you may learn lots about other species as well . because sharks in the wild can be hard to observe , it can take many years to collect information and address one question . you may use many different types of technology to help in your exploring endeavors . you would spend time in the field but you would also work in a lab as you experiment and analyze data . then , of course , you would dedicate a good amount of time to reading and studying to further knowledge , helping you on your pathway to understanding .\nso if you love the water and you are flexible , hard worker , and outside the box thinker , you might just be a shark biologist in the making . you can practice now by researching your very own question on sharks .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\ncontrary to popular belief , sharks do occur around the coasts of britain . in fact we have over 40 species ! including some of the fastest , rarest , largest and most highly migratory in the world !\nat least 21 species live in british waters all year round . you\u2019re very unlikely to encounter one during a trip to the beach . yet , you may find evidence of smallspotted catsharks or nursehounds . these species reproduce by laying eggs . and you can often find their empty eggcases washed up in the strandline .\nhelp us search the coastline for shark , skate and ray eggcases ! eggcase hunting is great fun for all the family and you\u2019ll be helping shark conservation . \u25ba visit our great eggcase hunt project to find out more .\nas well as the 21 resident sharks , there are at least 11 deepwater shark species . including the portuguese dogfish , black dogfish , kitefin shark and gulper shark .\nsadly , over 50 % of our british sharks are now under threat . this includes the once common angelshark , which is now rarely encountered . today they ' re listed as critically endangered on the iucn red list . in 2008 , we helped to secure domestic protection for them in uk waters . and now they\u2019re one of the most heavily protected sharks in the northeast atlantic .\nin the warmer months you may be lucky enough to spot the world\u2019s second largest fish . the filter - feeding basking shark ! often seen basking in the sun ( thus it ' s name ) and feasting on plankton . basking shark season tends to be may - october . and there are a few hotspots around the british isles where you ' ll most likely spot them . find out more by visiting our basking shark project .\nother seasonal visitors include the blue shark and shortfin mako . blue sharks are highly migratory and can travel over 5 , 700 miles ( 9 , 200 km ) in a single trip . the shortfin mako is the fastest shark on record . they can reach speeds of up to 30mph ! enabling them to catch fast - swimming prey such as tuna and swordfish .\nsome sharks , such as the smooth hammerhead and frilled shark , may occasionally enter our waters .\nthere ' s much debate about whether white sharks are in british waters . but , as exciting as that would be , it ' s very unlikely . there ' s been no confirmed sightings or strong evidence to suggest they ' re here . yet , british waters do provide good conditions for white sharks , so it ' s not impossible . the closest confirmed report was of a female white shark . captured in 1977 in the northern bay of biscay \u2013 168 miles off land\u2019s end , cornwall . in 2014 , a tagged white shark called lydia was documented as the first of its species to cross the mid - atlantic ridge . although she was still 1 , 000 miles from british shores .\nwe keep a close eye on such reports . so , if a white shark were to be sighted in uk waters , we\u2019d be the first to know .\nshark sightings are all too often sensationalised in the media to generate news . causing unnecessary concern and even fear .\nonly a few sharks are potentially dangerous to humans . none of these have ever been reported in british waters . there have also been no unprovoked shark bites in british waters since records began in 1847 . with so many shark species under threat we think that seeing a shark in british waters should be a cause for celebration . not alarm .\nthere are many ways you can help sharks . from getting involved in our projects , becoming a member or adding your voice to one of our campaigns . find out more by visiting our get involved page .\n\u00a9 2018 shark trust ( unless otherwise attributed ) . registered charity no . 1064185 . registered company no . 3396164 . website by fear of mice .\nyour id and password were blank . would you like to create a new account ?\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nat birth , they are less than 25 cm ( 9 . 8 in ) and they mature at about 50 cm ( 20 in ) . most records are of individuals less than 1 m ( 3 . 3 ft ) , but they can reach about 1 . 5 m ( 4 . 9 ft ) . their litter size is seven or eight pups off angola to 23 in the mediterranean . they have ridges over their eyes that expand into large , rounded knobs , which are covered with enlarged denticles \u2013 these are absent in other species of rough sharks . they possess very large spiracles that are vertically elongated , being almost as high as the length of their eyes . their first dorsal spine is oriented slightly forward . they feed on worms , crustaceans , and mollusks . [ 3 ]\noxynotus centrina has a compressed body , triangular in cross section , with a broad and flattened head . the snout is flat and blunt . just like all of the oxynotus species , they have two relatively large dorsal fins that are sail - like , and no anal fin . their color scheme is grey ogayr grey - brown dorsally with dark blotched on its head and sides . however , one identifying feature is the light horizontal line below the eyes on the cheek . [ 4 ]\nsince it shares the northeast atlantic with another species of oxynotus , other distinguishing features include the extremely large spiracles , their dorsal fins , and their large dermal denticles above their eyes . like most of the oxynotus species , o . centrina has lanceolate upper teeth and blade - like lower teeth , with 12 rows of teeth on either side . [ 4 ]\noxynotus centrina usually moves by gliding on the bottom of the sea , sometimes hovering over the sandy or muddy surfaces of the seabed . [ 5 ]\nthey occur in the eastern atlantic from norway to south africa , including the entire mediterranean . they may also occur off mozambique . they prefer coralline algal and muddy bottoms on continental shelves and upper slopes at depths of 50 to 660 m ( 160 to 2 , 170 ft ) , but occur mostly below 100 m ( 330 ft ) . [ 3 ]\nmale and female angular roughsharks are reported to mature at about 50\u201370 cm . although , some studies have shown that females mature at a slightly larger size than males . being an ovoviviparous species , o . centrina produces 10 - 12 pups usually between 21 and 24 cm in length . [ 4 ]\nsome data has been gathered on this species of oxynotus in the period from 1994 to 1999 in the mediterranean . o . centrina was only present in 0 . 6 % of the tows during this period at a depth of 100 to 200 m . regional indexes indicate this species is more common in the western central mediterranean and lower index in the western and eastern mediterranean . however , o . centrina was completely absent from the eastern central mediterranean . [ 2 ]\nin 1948 , trawl surveys indicated that o . centrina was once present , but uncommon , in the adriatic . although , the species has been absent in subsequent studies in the adriatic , suggesting a possible extinction of that species in the area . however , recent studies , done by lipej in 2004 , show that some juveniles have been caught in the central adriatic . also , some data collected during the surveys in the balearic sea and the ionian sea found one specimen at 800 m in the western ionian sea , suggesting that the population of o . centrina , in the east - central mediterranean , has an unknown population . [ 2 ]\nhowever , this species was absent in the northeast atlantic in a study of deepwater longline fishing for sharks near the canary islands . this is important because this species was abundant in this region until 1997 . [ 2 ]\noxynotus centrina in a minor bycatch of offshore fisheries such as trawl fleets . although this can have a negative impact on the species , as stated above , the species had been thought extinct in the adriatic , decreased fishing has led to their rediscovery . [ 2 ]\nthis species , sometimes caught by fishermen in the mediterranean , has little to no commercial value . also , it is thought to bring bad luck to fisherman if caught and kept . although when released , it has never been reported to survive . [ 2 ]\nthe iucn red list of threatened species has deemed this species of oxynotus as vulnerable due to consistent landings by fisherman and bycatch by deepsea fisheries . [ 2 ]\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2006 ) .\noxynotus centrina\nin fishbase . july 2006 version .\noxynotus centrina .\n( angular rough shark ) . n . p . , n . d . web . 1 december 2013 . < urltoken > .\ncompagno , l . , dando , m . and fowler , s . sharks of the world . princeton field guides isbn 0 - 691 - 12072 - 2\nangular rough shark ( oxynotus centrina ) .\nangular rough shark videos , photos and facts . n . p . , n . d . web . 1 december 2013 . < urltoken > .\nthis page was last edited on 16 february 2018 , at 15 : 12 .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\nthat give them a\nsmooth\nappearance . both species are slender - bodied with long heads , two\nin honor of henry b . bigelow ( who , along with william c . schroeder and\nthis species may also be referred to as the smooth lanternshark or the blurred smooth lanternshark .\n, the blurred lanternshark has a slender body , large head , and short tail . the snout is wedge - shaped and slightly flattened , tapering to a point . the\nare large , with short flaps of skin in front . the eyes are oval in shape with a deep anterior notch in the\nthan the pelvic fins , and bear a straight , grooved spine in front . the second dorsal fin is half again as tall as the first and bears a longer , curved spine . the pectoral fins are rounded at the tips , with the distance between them and the medium - sized , angular pelvic fins about equal to the distance between the dorsal fins . the\nwith a well - developed lower lobe and a broad upper lobe with a ventral notch near the tip . the small , blocky dermal denticles are densely but irregularly arranged , each with a flat , truncate crown . the coloration is brown or gray above , with a pale spot over the\n, and black below extending in faint markings over the sides of the head , under the pectoral fins , over the pelvic fins , and below the caudal peduncle .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 7 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files ."]}
{"id": 754, "summary": [{"text": "the southern black rhinoceros or cape rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis bicornis ) is an extinct subspecies of the black rhinoceros that was once abundant in south africa from the cape province to transvaal , southern namibia , and possibly also lesotho and southern botswana .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "it was brought to extinction by excessive hunting and habitat destruction around 1850 . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "southern black rhinoceros", "paragraphs": ["home \u00bb diceros bicornis ssp . minor ( south - central black rhinoceros , southern - central black rhino )\nthe black rhinoceros is one of two species of rhinoceros native to africa , and the southern black rhinoceros is one of four subspecies of black rhino . during the last century , the black rhino has suffered the most drastic decline of all rhino species .\ngreater one - horned rhinos : rhinoceros sondaicus ( also called indian rhino ) . subspecies : rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus , rhinoceros sondaicus inermis , rhinoceros sondaicus sondaicus\nwhite rhinos : ceratotherium simum ( southern white rhinoceros ) , ceratotherium cottoni ( northern white rhinoceros ) . iucn lists these as subspecies of ceratotherium simum .\nthe feeding ecology of eastern black rhinoceroses ( diceros bicornis michaeli ) in southern serengeti national park , tanzania .\ndiceros bicornis bicornis , western south africa , southern namibia . extinct since about 1800 .\ndna diversity analysis of similar region of mtdna of the kenyan and southern african rhinoceros showed that the two populations are distinct with only one shared mutation and nine fixed differences . the southern africa rhinoceros population had lower haplotype diversity and nucleotide diversity relative to the kenyan population ( table 2 ) .\nthe other three more numerous subspecies are found in the eastern and southern african countries . today putative\nblack rhinoceros : the term black was probably chosen to distinguish it from the white rhinoceros ( ceratotherium simum ) , although both species are not distinguishable by colour .\nthe black rhinoceros is listed as \u2018critically endangered\u2019 by the iucn 3 . 1 .\nthe black rhinoceros or hook - lipped rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis ) is a species of rhinoceros , native to eastern and central africa including kenya , tanzania , cameroon , south africa , namibia , zimbabwe , and angola . although the rhinoceros is referred to as black , its colors vary from brown to gray .\nother than the above , there are three other subspecies that have been driven to extinction . the southern black rhinoceros ( d b bicornis \u2020 ) , which used to be the largest of the subspecies , used to be found in abundance from the cape of good hope to the southern parts of namibia . the other two are the north - eastern black rhino ( d b brucii \u2020 ) and the western black or west african black rhinoceros ( d . b . longipes \u2020 ) .\nsubspecies : southwestern black rhinoceros ( d . b . bicornis ) classified as vulnerable ( vu ) ; eastern black rhinoceros ( d . b . michaeli ) and south - central black rhinoceros ( d . b . minor ) are both classified as critically endangered ( cr ) ; western black rhinoceros ( d . b . longipes ) classified as extinct ( ex ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nwhen population is at equilibrium neutrality the nucleotide diversity ( ) and the number of nucleotide segregating sites ( ) are indistinguishable and this is seen in both southern africa ( d . b . minor ) and kenyan ( d . b . michaeli ) rhinoceros . tajima - d analysis of southern africa rhinoceros dataset showed a positive value while kenyan group subset had a weak negative value ( table 1 ) .\nthe population of the black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis ) fell to about 2 , 400 individuals in 1995 , down from a likely number of several hundred thousand at the start of the 20th century , when it ranged over most of southern africa . the white rhinoceros ( ceratotherium simum ) historically had a smaller geographic\u2026\nwhite rhinos and black rhinos live in the grasslands and floodplains of eastern and southern africa . greater one - horned rhinos can be found in the swamps and rain forests of northern india and southern nepal . sumatran and javan rhinos are found only in small areas of malaysian and indonesian swamps and rain forests .\ndiceros bicornis minor , northern namibia , eastern south africa , botswana , zimbabwe , mozambique , zambia , malawi , southern uganda , tanzania .\nthere are now three remaining recognized ecotypes / subspecies of black rhinoceros occupying different areas of africa . a fourth recognised subspecies\nfossil rim participates in the international rhino foundation\u2019s southern black rhino sustainability program , which is a coordinated international effort to establish and maintain a viable population in captivity to save the species .\nthe black rhinoceros has brachydont and lophodont teeth , with a thin layer of cement . the white rhinoceros is more specialized , for the cheek teeth are hypselodont and have a thick cement layer . \u2026\nwhite rhinos are\nnear threatened ,\nwhich means they may be considered threatened by extinction in the near future . southern white rhinos have an increasing population ; there are 20 , 405 southern white rhinos . however , the northern white rhino is considered\nextinct\nin the wild .\nprehensile - lipped rhinoceros : refers to the same characteristic hooked - upper lip .\nthe other african rhinoceros is the white rhinoceros ( ceratotherium simum ) . the word\nwhite\nin the name\nwhite rhinoceros\nis a misinterpretation of the afrikaans word wyd , itself derived from the dutch word wijd for wide , referring to its square upper lip , as opposed to the pointed or hooked lip of the black rhinoceros . these species are now sometimes referred to as the square - lipped ( for white ) or hook - lipped ( for black ) rhinoceros .\nfor the same sample size the eastern african d . b . michaeli had higher genetic diversity ( haplotypes = 10 ) compared to the southern africa d . b . minor ( haplotypes = 6 ) with seven fixed differences and only one shared mutation ( table 2 ) . the apparent low diversity in the southern africa black rhinoceros infer a population bottleneck [ 27 , 29 ] . for the mtdna region analyzed , the fixed nucleotide polymorphic site differences between the two populations were seven with only one shared polymorphic site indicating that gene flow between the eastern and southern african and rhinoceros populations is restricted . since mtdna is maternally inherited , this may imply that the female rhinoceros founding population has behavioral restricted movements within an ecological range .\nthe black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis ) is the most well known of the five living rhinoceros species , with its aggressive reputation and highly publicised international conservation drive . black rhinoceros are in fact grey in colour and are distinguished from the other african species ( which is also grey ) the white rhinoceros ( ceratotherium simum ) , by its pointed , prehensile upper lip ; white rhinoceros have square lips ( 2 ) . both african rhinoceros species possess two horns , made from clumped fibres rather than bone , and the taller front horn may be 60 centimetres or longer ( 4 ) .\ns . m . brown and b . a . houlden , \u201cconservation genetics of the black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis ) , \u201d\ngenus , found in the eastern and southern countries of africa , including south africa , kenya , zimbabwe , mozambique , namibia , tanzania , and zambia .\npeter dollinger & silvia geser .\nblack rhinoceros\n. world association of zoos and aquariums . retrieved 2007 - 10 - 09 .\nthe species overall is classified as critically endangered , and one subspecies , the western black rhinoceros , was declared extinct by the iucn in 2011 .\nwwf factsheet ; black rhinoceros diceros bicornis\n( pdf ) . world wildlife fund . october 2004 . retrieved 2007 - 10 - 09 .\nbeing browsers instead of grazers , the upper lip of the black rhinoceros is pointed down to facilitate the stripping off the leafy contents of branches .\n\u2026species of rhinoceroses are the black or prehensile - lipped rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis ) and the white or square - lipped rhinoceros ( ceratotherium simum ) . the terms black and white are misleading , since both species are grayish to brownish , but the names are well established in common usage .\nof rhinoceros . the black rhinoceros typically weighs between 700 and 1 , 300 kg ( 1 , 500 and 2 , 900 pounds ) ; males are the same size as females . it stands 1 . 5 metres ( 5 feet ) high at the shoulder and is 3 . 5 metres ( 11 . 5 feet ) long . the black rhinoceros occupies a variety of habitats , including open\n\u2026species of rhinoceroses are the black or prehensile - lipped rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis ) and the white or square - lipped rhinoceros ( ceratotherium simum ) . the terms black and white are misleading , since both species are grayish to brownish , but the names are well established in common usage . \u2026\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis )\ntitle =\narkive species - black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe longest known black rhinoceros horn measured nearly 1 . 5 m ( 4 . 9 ft ) in length . [ 18 ] sometimes , a third , smaller horn may develop . these horns are used for defense , intimidation , and digging up roots and breaking branches during feeding . the black rhino is smaller than the white rhino and has a pointed and prehensile upper lip , which it uses to grasp leaves and twigs when feeding . [ 18 ] the white rhinoceros has square lips used for eating grass . the black rhinoceros can also be distinguished from the white rhinoceros by its size , smaller skull , and ears ; and by the position of the head , which is held higher than the white rhinoceros , since the black rhinoceros is a browser and not a grazer . this key differentiation is further illustrated by the shape of the two species mouths ( lips ) : the\nsquare\nlip of the white rhinoceros is an adaptation for grazing , and the\nhooked\nlip of the black rhinoceros is an adaptation to help browsing .\nthe black rhinoceros inhabits a variety of habitats , ranging from the deserts of namibia through wooded grasslands to broadleaved woodlands and acacia savannahs ( 4 ) .\nj . n . garnier , m . w . bruford , and b . goossens , \u201cmating system and reproductive skew in the black rhinoceros , \u201d\nhook - lipped rhinoceros : the narrow upper lip of the black rhino is adapted to feeding from trees and bushes and is perfect for ripping of leaves .\nthe south - western rhino ( diceros bicornis bicornis ) which is better adapted to the arid and semi - arid savannas of namibia , southern angola , western botswana and western south africa .\ny . moodley , i . m . russo , d . l . dalton et al . , \u201cextinctions , genetic erosion and conservation options for the black rhinoceros\nthe black rhinoceros is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and is listed on appendix i of cites ( 3 ) .\nw . l . linklater , k . adcock , p . du preez et al . , \u201cguidelines for large herbivore translocation simplified : black rhinoceros case study , \u201d\nthe south - central black rhino ( diceros bicornis minor ) is the most numerous of all black rhino subspecies .\nthere are five extant subspecies with the chobe black rhinoceros ( d . b . chobiensis ) , found in chobe valley of angola , namibia and botswana , the uganda black rhino ( d . b . ladoensis ) , found in south sudan through uganda into western kenya and ethiopia , the eastern black rhino ( d . b . michaeli ) , endemic to tanzania . the south central ( d . b . minor ) and south western ( d . b . occidentalis ) subspecies are found in countries across southern africa .\nthe black rhinoceros is a herbivore that eats leafy plants , branches , shoots , thorny wood bushes and fruit . the black rhinos diet helps to reduce the amount of woody plants which results in more grasses growing for the benefit of other animals .\nthe white and the black ( diceros bicornis ) rhinoceros live in africa , while the indian , the javan ( r . sondaicus ) , and the sumatran ( dicerorhinus sumatrensis ) rhinoceros live in asia . the precarious state of the surviving species ( all but one are endangered ) is in direct contrast to the\u2026\ngroves , c . p . ( 1967 ) .\ngeographic variation in the black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis linnaeus , 1758 )\n. zeitschrift f\u00fcr s\u00e4ugetierkunde ( 32 ) : 267\u2013276 .\nthe west african rhino ( diceros bicornis longipes ) , the world conservation union ( iucn ) announced on 7 july 2006 that the west african black rhinoceros has been tentatively declared as extinct .\nuganda black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis ladoensis ) \u2013 former distribution from south sudan , across uganda into western kenya and southwesternmost ethiopia . black rhinos are considered extinct across most of this area and its conservational status is unclear . probably surviving in kenyan reserves .\neastern black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis michaeli ) \u2013 had a historical distribution from south sudan , ethiopia , down through kenya into north - central tanzania . today , its range is limited primarily to tanzania .\nrookmaaker , l . c . ( 2004 ) .\nhistorical distribution of the black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis ) in west africa\n( pdf ) . african zoology 39 ( 1 ) : 63\u201370 .\nblack rhinoceros have been poached to the brink of extinction due to the demand for their horn , both for use in chinese traditional medicine and for traditional dagger handles in yemen , the demand for which exploded in the 1970s due to the increased income of oil - rich gulf states ( 7 ) . it is estimated that between 1970 and 1992 , around 96 percent of the black rhinoceros population was lost ( 8 ) .\ne . h . harley , i . baumgarten , j . cunningham , and c . o ' ryan , \u201cgenetic variation and population structure in remnant populations of black rhinoceros , diceros bicornis , in africa , \u201d\nchobe black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis chobiensis ) \u2013 a local subspecies restricted to the chobe valley in southeastern angola , namibia ( caprivi strip ) and northern botswana . nearly extinct , possibly only one surviving specimen in botswana .\nthe word \u201crhinoceros\u201d is derived from the greek rhino ( nose ) and ceros ( horn ) . like the white rhino , the black rhino is actually gray and has two horns . however , the black rhino has a pointed , prehensile upper lip , which distinguishes it from the white rhino .\nskin : the black rhino , as indeed does all other rhinoceros species , boasts a gray - colored and thick layered skin . this kind of armor - like skin helps to protect its wearer from sharp grasses and thorns .\ns . m . muya , m . w . bruford , a . w . - t . muigai et al . , \u201csubstantial molecular variation and low genetic structure in kenya ' s black rhinoceros : implications for conservation , \u201d\nthe black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis ) , is sometimes called the \u2018hooked - lip rhino\u2019 . the rhinoceros is a mammal in the order perissodactyla and is native to the eastern and central areas of africa including kenya , tanzania , cameroon , south africa , namibia and zimbabwe . although the rhino is referred to as black , it is actually more of a grey - white colour in appearance . it will sometimes take on the colour of the soil that it lives around .\nwith only 5 , 000 black rhino left in the wild to . . .\nthe black rhinos habitats are mostly bushy plains , rugged hills and scrub lands .\nthe intraspecific variation in the black rhinoceros was discussed by various authors and is not finally settled . the most accepted scheme considers seven or eight subspecies , of which three became extinct in historical times and one is on the very brink of extinction :\npoaching remains the greatest threat to the white rhinoceros . its horn is used in asia for traditional medicines and , more recently , as a status symbol . . .\nboth species have similar gray coloration as the word \u2018white\u2019 has actually been misinterpreted from \u2018wide\u2019 . so , the two are often hard to distinguish . the primary difference is that the black rhinoceros has pointier lips while the white rhino has wider lips to aid it in grazing . additionally , the black rhino also has relatively smaller skull .\nrookmaaker , l . c . ( 2005 ) .\nreview of the european perception of the african rhinoceros\n( pdf ) . journal of zoology 265 : 365\u2013376 .\nshoulder height : black rhinos stand at approximately 1 . 6 metres tall at the shoulder\nfemale black rhinos tend to sleep less than the males by almost half the time .\nfemale black rhinos will use their horns to protect their young from predators such as lions and hyenas . although they are fierce , black rhinos do have a softer side .\nrange includes namibia , southern angola , western botswana , and south - western and south - eastern south africa ( up to the kei river ) , although today they occur only in namibia ( the stronghold ) and south africa with a sighting of one animal in angola and unconfirmed reports of possibly another three animals .\nthere is need to readjust current conservation management paradigms for the black rhinoceros where precaution strategies in the translocation of endangered species bring only small , incremental improvements [ 27 , 28 , 34 ] . rhinoceros are herbivores without substantial predators and are resilient to ecological challenges [ 35 ] ; therefore their translocation for restocking to improve genetic diversity is feasible . since there is no reproductive barrier in african black rhinoceroses , the genetic diversity improvement will involve pilot outbreeding programs among the fragmented populations across the ecological range [ 5 , 27 , 29 ] .\nthe black rhino is smaller than the white rhino and is more agile in movement . black rhinos can still show considerable bouts of aggression , even though they are mainly shy and solitary animals . black rhinos tend to live alone , except when breeding and raising offspring .\nthere were barely more than 5 , 000 black rhinos in africa as of 2015 . the black rhinos at fossil rim can be viewed on the behind - the - scenes tour .\nblack rhinoceros follow the same trails that elephants use to get from foraging areas to water holes . they also use smaller trails when they are browsing . they are very fast and can get up to speeds of 56 kilometres per hour ( 35 mph ) running on their toes .\nkenya wildlife service ( kws ) records show that these impacts reflected on kenyan black rhinoceros numbers where catastrophic decline was from an estimated 20 , 000 individuals in 1970 to 398 in 1991 and then this slightly rebounded to about 631 in 2014 [ 7 , 8 ] . this was through conservation strategy developed to intensively manage the remaining rhinos within small rhino sanctuaries where kws periodical translocated the surviving rhinoceros into the high security sanctuaries to limit poaching and enhance breeding [ 9 , 10 ] .\nwwf : black rhino info ( hits : 2170 ) extensive information by the world wildlife fund on the black rhino . covers physiology , threats , habitat and much more . [ w ] urltoken\nbecause of its build and armor - like skin , rarely do natural predators like lions and crocodiles prey on the black rhinoceros . on occasions , a crocodile may drag one into the water to kill it , or a pride of lions may join forces to bring down a sub - adult .\nsociability : black rhinos can be either solitary and territorial , or semi - social and less aggressively - territorial , depending on the habitat . incredible footage from the recent bbc africa series recorded a group of black rhinos congregating socially at a waterhole , thus disproving myths that black rhinos are strictly solitary\nwhite rhino ( ceratotherium simum ) : 17 , 500 individuals , living in africa , in long and short - grass savannahs . black rhino ( diceros bicornis ) : 4 , 240 individuals , living in africa , primarily in grasslands , savannahs and tropical bush lands . greater one - horned rhino ( rhinoceros unicornis ) : 2 , 800 - 2 , 850 individuals , living in northern india and southern nepal , mainly on flood plains , grasslands and occasionally in woodland . sumatran rhino ( dicerorhinus sumatrensis ) : 200 individuals , living in dense tropical forest , mainly on the indonesian island of sumatra and on borneo . javan rhino ( rhinoceros sondaicus ) : 40 - 50 individuals , living in indonesia ( approximately 35 - 50 ) and in vietnam ( fewer than five ) . in indonesia , javan rhinos live only in java\u2019s ujung kulon national park .\nthe name \u2018white rhinoceros\u2019 is taken from the afrikaans word describing its mouth : \u201cweit\u201d , meaning\nwide\n. early english settlers in south africa misinterpreted the\nweit\nfor\nwhite\n.\nwas distributed from southern sudan , ethiopia , and somalia , through kenya into northern - central tanzania and rwanda . its current stronghold is kenya . smaller but growing numbers occur in northern tanzania . the single animal that survived in rwanda has died . one important free - ranging population occurs outside its range in a private game reserve in south africa . contractually , these\nd . n . thuo , j . o . junga , j . m . kamau , j . o . amimo , f . m . kibegwa , and k . e . githui , \u201cpopulation viability analysis of black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis michaeli ) in lake nakuru national park , kenya , \u201d\nblack rhinos are not actually black , according to the international rhino foundation . they probably got that name from the dark , muddy soil they like to wallow in or to distinguish them from white rhinos .\nthe greatest threat to black rhinos is poaching to satisfy demand for traditional chinese medicine in east asia .\nblack rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis ) has suffered dramatic decline of all mammals in the recent history and the species is currently categorized as critically endangered in the international union of conservation for the nature red list ( iucn ) [ 1 , 2 ] . between 1960s and 1980s wanton illegal poaching and loss of habitat due to increased human developments in areas that were formerly wilderness resulted in approximately 96 % decline ( 65 , 000 to 3 , 800 individuals ) in population black rhinoceros across their range in africa [ 3 , 4 ] . in recent years , conservation measures have resulted in increase of in situ black rhino numbers from of 2475 individuals in 1993 to approximately 4880 in 2010 [ 2 , 5 , 6 ] .\nberger , joel ; cunningham , carol ( 1998 ) .\nnatural variation in horn size and social dominance and their importance to the conservation of black rhinoceros\n. conservation biology 12 ( 3 ) : 708\u2013711 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1523 - 1739 . 1998 . 97207 . x .\n. once lived in south sudan , northern central african republic , southern chad , northern cameroon , northeastern nigeria and south - eastern niger . the range possibly streched west to the niger river in western niger , though this is unconfirmed . a far greater former range in west africa as proposed earlier [ 13 ] is doubted by a 2004 study . [ 4 ] the last known wild specimens lived in northern cameroon . in 2006 an intensive survey across its putative range in cameroon failed to locate any , leading to fears that it was extinct in the wild . [ 6 ] [ 14 ] on november 10 , 2011 the iucn declared the western black rhinoceros extinct . [ 6 ]\nblack rhinos have a \u2018prehensile\u2019 lip \u2013 \u2018prehensile\u2019 meaning \u2013 adapted for grasping and holding . the black rhinos prehensile lip is used much like a finger to select and pick the twigs and leaves that they prefer .\nfor more information about aza safe and its commitment to black rhino conservation , please contact safeblackrhino @ urltoken .\nblack rhinoceros are mainly solitary creatures , occupying overlapping home ranges ( 5 ) . in this long - lived species females reach sexual maturity at around five to seven years old and give birth to a single calf every two to four years ( 6 ) . births can occur throughout the year and each calf tends to remain with its mother until the birth of her next offspring . rhinoceros have poor eyesight but a keen sense of smell and hearing ( 5 ) . they are inquisitive and often aggressive towards humans and other animals ( 4 ) .\nlimited hunting of specific individual surplus black rhino males to further demographic and genetic metapopulation goals only recently sanctioned by cites . black rhinos however are currently only openly sold in south africa and in all other range states black rhino on communal or private land are managed on a custodianship basis for the state . black rhinos are primarily threatened by illegal killing for horn . live specimens for translocation invariably taken from natural habitat with the occasional zoo animal being reintroduced .\nthe scientific name for the black rhino is diceros bicornis . diceros being from the greek di for \u201ctwo\u201d and ceros meaning \u201chorn\u201d . bicornis is from the latin bi for \u201ctwo\u201d and cornis meaning \u201chorn\u201d . throughout history the black rhino has been referred to using quite a lot of different scientific names . view a list of black rhino scientific names .\nwhite rhinos are also sometimes called ' the square - lipped rhinoceros ' . their upper lip lacks the prehensile \u2018hook\u2019 of some of the other rhino species . the white rhino is the largest species of land mammal after the elephant .\nblack rhinos : diceros bicornis ( black rhino ) . subspecies : diceros bicornis bicornis , diceros bicornis brucii , diceros bicornis chobiensis , diceros bicornis ladoensis , diceros bicornis longipes , diceros bicornis michaeli , diceros bicornis minor , diceros bicornis occidentalis\nblack rhinos browse for food in the morning and evening and sleep or wallow during the hottest part of the day .\nto protect black rhinos from poaching and habitat loss , wwf is taking action in three african rhino range countries : namibia , kenya , and south africa . together , these nations hold about 87 % of the total black rhino population .\nin the wild , under natural conditions , the black rhino can survive up to anywhere between 35 to 50 years .\nthe black rhinoceros lives in habitats consisting of thick shrubbery and bush - land , with some woodlands about . they are not territorial in nature and often their home ranges change seasonally , depending on the availability of watering holes and food . the ranges of female rhinos are generally wider than that of their male counterparts , more commonly when they are accompanied by their young . black rhinos of both sexes tend to have an area at higher grounds where they come often to rest .\ntimothy w . oloo , robert brett & truman p . young ( 1994 ) .\nseasonal variation in the feeding ecology of black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis l . ) in laikipia , kenya\n. african journal of ecology 32 ( 2 ) : 142\u2013157 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1365 - 2028 . 1994 . tb00565 . x .\nthe black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis ) , once the most numerous rhino species at an estimated 850 , 000 individuals , declined to less than 100 , 000 animals by 1960 as a result of hunting and habitat loss . from that point , a poaching - driven decline reduced populations by approximately 98 % to 2 , 400 animals by the mid - 1990s .\nrookmaaker , l . c . and groves , c . p . ( 1978 ) .\nthe extinct cape rhinoceros , diceros bicornis bicornis ( linnaeus , 1758 )\n( pdf ) . s\u00e4ugetierkundliche mitteilungen 26 ( 2 ) : 117\u2013126 .\nthe black rhinoceros is a herbivorous browser that eats leafy plants , branches , shoots , thorny wood bushes , and fruit . [ 33 ] their diet can reduce the amount of woody plants , which may benefit grazers ( who eat grass ) , but not competing browsers . it has been known to eat up to 220 species of plants . it can live up to 5 days without water during drought . black rhinos live in primarily grasslands , savannas , and tropical bushland habitats .\nr . h . emslie , r . amin , and r . kock , \u201cguidelines for the in situ re - introduction and translocation of african and asian rhinoceros , \u201d 2009 , occasional paper of the iucn species survival commission no . 39 .\nas of 2010 , around 96 % of the total black rhino population was in four countries : south africa ( 39 % of total ) , namibia ( 36 % ) , kenya ( 12 % ) , and zimbabwe ( 9 % ) . of the three extant subspecies of black rhino , populations of the south - western ( d . b . bicornis ) and southern - central ( d . b . minor ) are more robust at approximately 1 , 900 and 2 , 200 animals , respectively , compared to 7 - 800 animals of the eastern subspecies ( d . b . michaeli ) . the west african subspecies ( d . b . longipes ) was declared extinct in 2011 .\narkive - black rhino ( hits : 1101 ) the black rhino on arkive , a unique collection of thousands of videos , images and fact - files illustrating the world ' s species to save their digital footprint for future generations . [ w ] urltoken\nthe taxonomy of the subspecies of the black rhino remains unresolved and needs further study . there are two parallel views at present .\nblack rhinos have a prehensile lip that is used much like a finger to select and pick the leaves and twigs they prefer .\nestes , richard d . the safari companion . post mills , vermont : chelsea green publishing co . , 1993 . martin , esmond and chryssee bradley . run rhino run . london : chatto and windus , 1982 . schenkel r . and l . schenkel - halliger . mammalia depicta : ecology and behavior of the black rhinoceros . berlin : verlag , paul , and parey , 1969 .\nthe black rhino wallows itself in mud during the hottest parts of the day to keep itself cool and as a protection against termites .\n\u2026white rhinoceroses , as well as black rhinoceroses , assorted species of antelope , wildebeests , zebras , giraffes , and numerous birds . \u2026\nno , black rhinos are not black at all . the species probably derives its name as a distinction from the white rhino ( which is not white at all either ) or from the dark - colored local soil that often covers its skin after wallowing in mud .\nwwf launched an international effort to save wildlife in 1961 , rescuing black rhinos\u2014among many other species\u2014from the brink of extinction . thanks to persistent conservation efforts across africa , the total number of black rhinos grew from 2 , 410 in 1995 to more than 5 , 000 today .\nin the 2015 edition of the occasion , \u2018save the rhino\u2019 organization clarified that only 5055 black rhinoceros are left in the world . this number used to be close to 500 , 000 at the start of the 20 th century , and if the current down - trend is not addressed in earnest , the iucn will have to declare the creature to be officially \u2018extinct\u2019 in the not - so - distant future .\nusing their prehensile lip , black rhinoceros feed on the leaves and twigs of a variety of woody plants and herbs ( 4 ) . foraging often occurs in the cool of dawn and dusk ; they spend much of the rest of the day resting in the shade or wallowing in shallow water holes , coating their skin in mud to protect it from the harsh sun and to deter biting flies ( 2 ) .\nblack rhinos are the smaller of the two african rhino species . the most notable difference between white and black rhinos are their hooked upper lip . this distinguishes them from the white rhino , which has a square lip . black rhinos are browsers rather than grazers , and their pointed lip helps them feed on leaves from bushes and trees . they have two horns , and occasionally a third , small posterior horn .\ndaniel boettcher ( november 9 , 2011 ) .\nwestern black rhino declared extinct\n. bbc . retrieved 2011 - 11 - 10 .\nsouth - western black rhinoceros ( diceros bicornis occidentalis ) \u2013 a small subspecies , adapted to survival in desertic and semi - desertic conditions . originally distributed in north - western namibia and southwestern angola , today restricted to wildlife reserves in namibia with sporadic sightings in angola . these populations are often erroneously referred to d . b . bicornis or d . b . minor but represent a subspecies to their own . [ 11 ]\nblack rhino mothers are very affectionate towards their young and will look after them for years , protecting them and teaching them how to survive independently . unlike a white rhino calf , a black rhino calf will run behind its mother . young black rhinos will live with their mother until another sibling is born , they are about 2 years old when this happens and are almost adult size and ready to go off and live independently .\ncurrent threat : poachers remain the biggest threat to the black rhino . however , with strict protection and effective biological management , black rhino numbers are slowly recovering and currently , there are approximately between 5 , 040 and 5 , 458 animals ( according to figures published by iucn in 2016 )\nthe black rhinos skin harbours many external parasites , which are eaten by birds such as the ox peckers and egrets that live with the rhino .\nblack rhinos , sumatran rhinos and javan rhinos are\ncritically endangered ,\nwhich is the list ' s highest risk category . there are 5 , 055 black rhinos , fewer than 100 sumatran rhinos and only 35 to 44 javan rhinos . [ related : javan rhino officially extinct in vietnam ]\nrhinoceroses are large , herbivorous mammals identified by their characteristic horned snouts . the word\nrhinoceros\ncomes from the greek\nrhino\n( nose ) and\nceros\n( horn ) . there are five species and 11 subspecies of rhino ; some have two horns , while others have one .\nblack rhino information\n. international rhino foundation . archived from the original on 2007 - 08 - 10 . retrieved 2011 - 02 - 04 .\nblack rhinos travel alone except while breeding or raising offspring . juveniles remain with the mother until they are completely weaned just before a new baby is born .\nblack rhinos have a tendency to attack just about anything , this is because of their poor eyesight . black rhinos have been known to attack trees and rocks by mistake . they rely heavily on their strong sense of smell and well developed hearing . if it catches a smell of an unfamiliar presence , then it will instinctively charge mistaking it as a threat . most of their \u2018charges\u2019 are bluffs but because they act in this way , they have been given a bad reputation as being aggressive and dangerous . black rhinos do however , live in harmony with other animals generally . black rhinos will attack other animals though if their territory is threatened , they also fight amongst themselves . black rhinos will fight each other over territory and females \u2013 even courting males and females sometimes fight one another . black rhinos use the larger of their two horns as a weapon when fighting . sometimes it can break off , however , this regenerates and grows back eventually .\nsean markey ( july 12 , 2006 ) .\nwest african black rhino extinct , group says\n. national geographic . retrieved 2007 - 10 - 09 .\npopulations of black rhino declined dramatically in the 20 th century at the hands of european hunters and settlers . between 1960 and 1995 , black rhino numbers dropped by a sobering 98 % , to less than 2 , 500 . since then , the species has made a tremendous comeback from the brink of extinction . thanks to persistent conservation efforts across africa , black rhino numbers have doubled from their historic low 20 years ago to between 5 , 042 and 5 , 455 today . however , the black rhino is still considered critically endangered , and a lot of work remains to bring the numbers up to even a fraction of what it once was\u2014and to ensure that it stays there . wildlife crime\u2014in this case , poaching and black - market trafficking of rhino horn\u2014continues to plague the species and threaten its recovery .\nmajority of the extant black rhinoceros belong to subspecies diceros bicornis minor and diceros bicornis michaeli . other subspecies include diceros bicornis longipes and diceros bicornis bicornis . the d . b . michaeli ( eastern black rhino ) is found in kenya and tanzania while d . b . minor is found in tanzania to south africa [ 3 , 11 ] . although there are apparently no marked geographic or reproductive barriers between the subspecies , they occupy different ecological zones . there have not been any rigorous studies on migration and reproductive gene flow between the subspecies although some authors suggest that each subspecies may have distinct genetic or behavioral adaptations to their local environments [ 3 , 12 ] .\nthe sable antelope gets its name from the russian word for \u201cblack . \u201d its coat is short and glossy for females and young sable . their coloration . . .\nandrew meldrum ( july 12 , 2006 ) .\nwest african black rhino feared extinct\n. the guardian ( london ) . retrieved 2007 - 10 - 09 .\ndu toit , r . ( 1987 ) .\nthe existing basis for subspecies classification of black and white rhino\n( pdf ) . pachyderm 9 : 3\u20135 .\nre - establishment of black rhino in zambia\n( pdf ) . zambia wildlife authority / frankfurt zoological society . 2008 . retrieved 2012 - 10 - 09 .\nthe gestation period of a female black rhino is 16 months . she will give birth to one single calf . the calf will weigh about 100 pounds at birth .\nthe black rhino once roamed most of sub - saharan africa , but today is on the verge of extinction due to poaching fueled by commercial demand for its horn .\ncommunity engagement will also play a role in south africa , where we are looking to conserve black rhino through community governance , training , and identification of alternative livelihood opportunities .\nr . m . anderson - lederer , w . l . linklater , and p . a . ritchie , \u201climited mitochondrial dna variation within south africa ' s black rhino\ndistinctive characteristics : black rhinos are smaller than white rhinos , and have less of a pronounced hump on the back of their necks . they also have a smaller head , as unlike the white rhino , they are browsers , so eat from higher bushes or trees , requiring less muscle strength around their necks than white rhinos . the most distinguishable characteristic between a black and a white rhino is that black rhinos have a hooked lip , as opposed to a flat - based lip , which is related to their eating habits\nboth black and white rhinoceroses are actually gray . they are different not in color but in lip shape . the black rhino has a pointed upper lip , while its white relative has a squared lip . the difference in lip shape is related to the animals ' diets . black rhinos are browsers that get most of their sustenance from eating trees and bushes . they use their lips to pluck leaves and fruit from the branches . white rhinos graze on grasses , walking with their enormous heads and squared lips lowered to the ground .\none of the largest land animals , black rhinos are extremely agile for their size and can reach speeds of 30 mph when charging . although they have poor eyesight , their hearing is acute . black rhinos have long , tube - shaped ears that act as funnels for sound . they can swivel their ears in all directions , picking up noises from great distances .\npatton , f . ( 2011 ) .\nblack rhino spearheads malawi wildlife makeover\n( pdf ) . swara ( east african wildlife society ) 2011 ( 1 ) : 48\u201353 .\nbetween 2010 - 2014 alone , 78 aza - accredited zoos and aquariums reported investing over $ 4 . 2 million towards rhinoceros conservation - with more than $ 1 . 5 million directly benefiting black rhinos . the aza community supported organizations such as the international rhino foundation , a charity dedicated to the global conservation of rhinos through allocation of funds towards projects and species in need . in addition , for over two decades , aza - accredited institutions have provided financial support to the lewa wildlife conservancy in kenya , through the american association of zoo keepers bowling for rhinos program . lewa is home to 12 % of kenya ' s black rhino population , making it an integral partner to aza - accredited zoos and aquariums that are dedicated to rhino conservation .\nthe east african black rhino ( diceros bicornis michaeli ) prefers highland forest and savanna habitat . it also has a longer , leaner , and curved horn and it\u2019s skin is more grooved .\nrunning speed : black rhino can move extremely fast and have been recorded at highs of 55 km / h . they can change direction surprisingly quickly and can run right through scrub and bushes\npoaching history : during the 19th century , as european influence over land use and trade strengthened , the black rhino , which was the most numerous rhino species with several hundred thousand animals , was hunted relentlessly across most of africa . by 1970 there were an estimated 65 , 000 animals left . today , the black rhino remains a rare sight due to an increase in poaching\nthe overall life span of the black rhino is between 25 \u2013 40 years , in captivity they live a little longer because they are more protected \u2013 usually to about 45 years old .\nblack rhinoceros became critically endangered species in the 1970s mainly due to poaching and historical game hunting during colonial era and also due to expansion of agricultural land in africa [ 25 \u2013 27 ] , prompting implementation of remedial conservation strategies to intensively manage the remaining population within high security sanctuaries [ 5 , 9 ] . these management fragments started with low numbers of founding population with periodical translocation between the sanctuaries managed in coordination with local government wild life services [ 7 , 28 ] . the low numbers of founding population have implications in genetic variability and resilience of the subspecies .\nsenses : like white rhinos , black rhinos have poor eyesight , and cannot easily detect an observer standing more than 30 metres away . they do however have an excellent sense of smell and hearing\nmichael milstein ( june 26 , 2007 ) .\nshop owner pleads guilty to selling black rhino horn\n. u . s . fish & wildlife service . retrieved 2007 - 06 - 29 .\nthe south - western black rhino ( diceros bicornis bicornis ) is better adapted to dry climates and occurs in the arid savannas . the main difference with the others subspecies is the large and straight horn .\nblack rhinos are heavy browsers that restrict woody plants from over - growing in their habitat . this is important because it allows grasses to grow which provides food for many other animals on the grassy plains .\nthe west african black rhino ( diceros bicornis longipes ) is the rarest and most endangered subspecies , with only 10 surviving in 2003 . but on july 8 , 2006 the subspecies was declared to be extinct .\nthe black - footed cat , or small - spotted cat , is one of the smallest cat species in the world . weighing in at 2 - 5 pounds and measuring 14 - 20 inches . . .\ntrue to their feeding habits , the chewing mechanism of the black rhino is two - phased , with a cutting ectoloph , or a ridge on their upper molar tooth and a grinding loph near the tongue .\nthe black rhino has the highest rate of mortal combats for any mammal ; 50 % fights between males and 30 % fights between females end with one or both combatants dying because of combat - related injuries .\nthe black rhino has a wide vocal range and can possibly communicate the same way as an elephant can by frequencies well below the range of human hearing . breathing is also an important part of rhino communication .\nadult black rhinoceroses are solitary in nature , coming together only for mating . mating does not have a seasonal pattern , however , births tend to be towards the end of the rainy season in drier environments .\nfigure 1 : evolutionary relationship among global rhinoceros inferred using the nj method . the percentage of replicate trees in which the associated taxa clustered together in the bootstrap test ( 1000 replicates ) is shown next to the branches . the tree is drawn to scale , with branch lengths inferring evolutionary distances . the analysis involved 50 nucleotide sequences and there were a total of 254 positions in the final dataset . analyses were conducted in mega6 .\nexcept for females and their offspring , black rhinos are solitary . females reproduce only every two and a half to five years . their single calf does not live on its own until it is about three years old .\nthe results of the assessments of all species of scombrids ( tunas , bonitos , mackerels and spanish mackerels ) and billfishes ( swordfish and marlins ) were published recently in the magazine science . the detailed results now on the iucn red list show that the situation is particularly serious for tunas . five of the eight species of tuna are in the threatened or near threatened categories . these include : southern bluefin ( thunnus maccoyii ) , critically endangered ; atlantic bluefin ( t . thynnus ) , endangered ; bigeye ( t . obesus ) , vulnerable ; yellowfin ( t . albacares ) , near threatened ; and albacore ( t . alalunga ) , near threatened . this information will be invaluable in helping governments make decisions which will safeguard the future of these species , many of which are of extremely high economic value .\nthe department of biodiversity & conservation biology ( hits : 1231 ) black rhino information by the department of biodiversity & conservation biology . a resource from the the university of the western cape , south africa . [ w ] urltoken\nthe black rhino is not as solitary as it is often thought to be . males may tolerate other males , as long as they remain submissive , and females sometimes allow an unrelated juvenile to accompany her and a calf .\n) to wetter forested areas . the highest densities of rhinos are found in savannas on nutrient - rich soils and in succulent valley bushveld areas . black rhino are browsers and favour small acacia ' s and other palatable woody species (\nbetween 1970 and 1992 , the population of this species decreased by 96 % . in 1970 , it was estimated that there were approximately 65 , 000 black rhinos in africa \u2013 but , by 1993 , there were only 2 , 300 surviving in the wild . intensive anti - poaching efforts have had encouraging results since 1996 . numbers have been recovering and still are increasing very slowly . there are currently approximately 5 , 000 black rhinos surviving . with the growing purchasing power of many asian countries , and the existence of organized gangs of poachers who sell rhino horn to black market syndicates in some range countries , the poaching threat remains great and anti - poaching efforts must be continued and accelerated .\nin namibia , wwf is leading a consortium of national ngos to help implement the country\u2019s ambitious law enforcement strategy to combat wildlife trafficking . wwf also supports the namibian government in its effort to update its plan to grow black rhino populations , in part by moving rhinos from parks with significant populations to others that historically held rhinos but currently do not\u2014a process known as translocation . we\u2019re also taking other security measures to protect both black and white rhinos , such as dna sampling .\nthere are 3 subspecies of black rhino , the south - central rhino ( diceros bicornis minor ) , which is the most numerous and once ranged from central tanzania south through zambia , zimbabwe and mozambique to northern and eastern south africa .\nover time , habitat loss has led to isolated , high - density rhino populations . these populations have slow growth rates , which can cause numbers to stagnate and eventually decline . they also raise the risk of disease transmission . to ensure a healthy and growing black rhino population , rhinos from high - density areas must be moved to low density areas with suitable habitat . wwf is supporting these efforts and partnering with government agencies and other ngos to establish new black rhino populations .\ncurrent numbers in captivity : at the end of 2004 , there were 277 black rhinos in captivity . through the past 200 years ( until 1998 ) , there have been 775 animals recorded in zoos , of which 292 were born in captivity\nan adult black rhinoceros stands 140 \u2013 170 centimetres ( 57 . 9 \u2013 63 inches ) high at the shoulder and is 3 . 3 \u2013 3 . 6 metres ( 10 . 8 \u2013 11 . 8 feet ) in length . an adult weighs from 800 to 1400 kilograms ( 1 , 760 to 3 , 080 pounds ) , some may weigh 1820 kilograms ( 4 , 000 pounds ) , with the females being smaller than the males . the rhinos two horns on their skull are made of keratin with the larger front horn typically 50 centimetres long , some can measure up to 140 centimetres . sometimes , a third smaller horn may develop . these horns are used for defence , intimidation and digging up roots and breaking branches during feeding ."]}
{"id": 755, "summary": [{"text": "chromodoris magnifica is a sea slug , a species of nudibranch , a shell-less marine gastropod mollusc in the family chromodorididae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is the type species of the genus chromodoris . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "chromodoris magnifica", "paragraphs": ["michael wunderli marked\nsea slug chromodoris magnifica\nas trusted on the\nchromodoris magnifica\npage .\nmichael wunderli marked\nred sea nudibranch - chromodoris magnifica\nas trusted on the\nchromodoris magnifica\npage .\nwhat type of species is chromodoris magnifica ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the chromodoris magnifica species belongs to .\n7 . the magnificent chromodoris ( chromodoris magnifica ) grows to at least 6cm in length .\nwhich photographers have photos of chromodoris magnifica species ? below , you will find the list of underwater photographers and their photos of the marine species chromodoris magnifica .\nchromodoris magnifica or c . annae from : franca wermuth , august 16 , 2007\nchromodoris magnifica vs c . magnifa from : erwin kodiat , december 6 , 2005\n1 . the magnificent chromodoris ( chromodoris magnifica ) is a tropical opisthobranch species that belongs to the nudibranch family chromodorididae .\nhow to identify chromodoris magnifica marine species ? below , you will find the list of main identification criteria and physical characteristics of marine species chromodoris magnifica . for each identification criteria , the corresponding physical characteristics of marine species chromodoris magnifica are marked in green .\nnick hope added the english common name\nmagnificent chromodoris\nto\nchromodoris magnifica ( quoy & gaimard 1832 )\n.\ncolour form of chromodoris magnifica from : asther m . lau , september 12 , 2003\nchromodoris magnifica from w . australia from : clay bryce . , april 26 , 1999\nalso known as nudibranchs , chromodoris magnifa , magnifa sea slug , magnificent chromodoris .\nre : chromodoris magnifica or c . annae from : nerida wilson , august 20 , 2007\nwhere is chromodoris magnifica found in the world ? below , you will find the list and a world map of the geographic distribution where the marine species chromodoris magnifica can be found .\nchromodoris quadricolor or c . magnifica ( 2 ) from : marina poddubetskaia , march 10 , 2003\nmichael wunderli marked\nslug on mushroom algae\nas trusted on the\nchromodoris magnifica\npage .\nit ' s strange , but chromodoris magnifica ( red band , back and white body ) is still alive through all this .\nfollow - up : the orange one is chromodoris quadricolor ( blue instead of white under actinics ) . food for nudibranches in compiled here . food habits of nudibranchs for chromodoris quadricolor it is sponge latrunculia magnifica .\nchromodoris africana eliot , 1904 ( additional source ) chromodoris albolineata bergh , 1879 accepted as chromodoris lineolata ( van hasselt , 1824 ) ( basis of record ) chromodoris annae bergh , 1877 ( basis of record ) chromodoris boucheti rudman , 1982 ( original description ) chromodoris burni rudman , 1982 ( original description ) chromodoris clavata risbec , 1928 accepted as chromodoris striatella bergh , 1877 ( source of synonymy ) chromodoris colemani rudman , 1982 ( original description ) chromodoris elisabethina bergh , 1877 ( basis of record ) chromodoris elisabethina var . africana eliot , 1904 accepted as chromodoris africana eliot , 1904 ( basis of record ) chromodoris funerea collingwood , 1881 accepted as chromodoris lineolata ( van hasselt , 1824 ) ( basis of record ) chromodoris hamiltoni rudman , 1977 ( additional source ) chromodoris kuiteri rudman , 1982 ( original description ) chromodoris lineolata bergh , 1874 accepted as chromodoris striatella bergh , 1877 ( source of synonymy ) chromodoris lineolata ( van hasselt , 1824 ) ( basis of record ) chromodoris lochi rudman , 1982 ( original description ) chromodoris magnifica ( quoy & gaimard , 1832 ) ( basis of record ) chromodoris maritima ( baba , 1949 ) accepted as hypselodoris maritima ( baba , 1949 ) ( basis of record ) chromodoris striatella bergh , 1877 ( basis of record ) chromodoris strigata rudman , 1982 ( original description ) chromodoris westraliensis ( o ' donoghue , 1924 ) ( additional source ) chromodoris willani rudman , 1982 ( original description ) doris lineolata van hasselt , 1824 accepted as chromodoris lineolata ( van hasselt , 1824 ) ( basis of record ) glossodoris maritima baba , 1949 accepted as hypselodoris maritima ( baba , 1949 ) ( basis of record ) glossodoris westraliensis o ' donoghue , 1924 accepted as chromodoris westraliensis ( o ' donoghue , 1924 ) ( basis of record ) hypselodoris maritima ( baba , 1949 ) ( basis of record ) hypselodoris nigrolineata ( eliot , 1904 ) ( additional source ) hypselodoris regina ev . marcus & er . marcus , 1970 ( additional source )\ndear bill , here is a chromodoris magnifica feeding on red sponge . found at the very edge of the reef facing the flat sandy bottom in lankayan island .\nchromodoris africana or c . quadricolor from : umut tural , february 10 , 2006\nanybody - looking for in - depth info ( good articles , personal experiences at forums ) on keeping sea slug chromodoris magnifica . best i could find is sea slug forum .\ncitation :\nmagnificent chromodoris nudibranchs , chromodoris magnifica ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\n3 . it is closely related to two other species with similar colour patterns : chromodoris kuiteri , from the north east coast of australia and chromodoris africana , from the western indian ocean .\ndescribed as chromodoris ? lineata var . nigrolineata eliot , 1904 sensu rudman ( 1982 ) [ details ]\nin my specimens the orange band can be said submarginal and they seem to fit a little the description of chromodoris magnifica . so , the confusion persists . so , i\u2019d like to have your opinion on these new photos . thank you in advance .\nrudman 1998 - 2010 . chromodoris kuiteri , factsheet & related messages , sea slug forum , australian museum , sydney .\nthe chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : chromodoris quadricolor , c . lineolata and hypselodoris nigrolineata colour groups\n6 . similar to other members of the chromodoris genus this species is known to feed on sponges . in the philippines it has been observed feeding on an orange sponge .\ndistinguishing characteristics none of the species of chromodoris of the mediterranean sea has a pattern of black and whitish - blue band , with orange rhinophores , gills and mantle edge .\nrudman , w . b . ( 1982 ) . the chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : chromodoris quadricolor , c . lineolata and hypselodoris nigrolineata colour groups .\ndear marina , i hope as more photos are added that we can alleviate any confusion . in c . magnifica there is a distinct white outer band on the mantle while in c . quadricolor there can be a thin whitish edge to the mantle . usually its translucent or uncoloured and i think the way it appears in photos is dependent on the way it is lit when photographed . in general terms the mantle in c . quadricolor is more elongate , with a relatively narrow mantle skirt while in c . magnifica the mantle is more ovate with a relatively wide mantle skirt .\nrudman , w . b . ( 1982 ) . the chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : chromodoris quadricolor , c . lineolata and hypselodoris nigrolineata colour groups . zoological journal of the linnean society . 76 : 183 - 241 . page ( s ) : 216 [ details ]\nalso , being very close relatives , they had different reactions on touch the porites ( christmas tree rock ) : the now dead one cruised over it without any problems ( very light touch , when going over dusters , they didn ' t closed ) , and the c . magnifica sharply moved back twice , as after touching very hot water , then didn ' t repeated the try .\ndear bill , i\u2019m just back from southern red sea diving cruise , near brothers islands . i saw there many more sharks than nudibranchs , but somehow i found some species . i would like to reopen the discussion about the specimens of chromodoris quadricolor i found a year ago in the northern red sea . i think , the specimens i found in the south are the same and they seem to be quite common also . but now , my photos are better .\nrudman , w . b . ( 1984 ) . the chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : a review of the genera . zoological journal of the linnean society . 81 ( 2 ) : 115 - 273 . page ( s ) : 131 [ details ]\ngosliner , t . m . ; behrens , d . w . ; vald\u00e9s , \u00e1 . ( 2008 ) . indo - pacific nudibranchs and seaslugs . a field guide to the world ' s most diverse fauna . sea challengers natural history books , washington . 426 , pp . page ( s ) : 204 [ details ]\ndebelius , h . & kuiter , r . h . ( 2007 ) nudibranchs of the world . conchbooks , frankfurt , 360 pp . isbn : 978 - 3 - 939767 - 06 - 0 page ( s ) : 166 [ details ]\njohnson r . f . ( 2011 ) breaking family ties : taxon sampling and molecular phylogeny of chromodorid nudibranchs ( mollusca , gastropoda ) . zoologica scripta 40 ( 2 ) : 137 - 157 . page ( s ) : 137 [ details ]\njohnson r . f . & gosliner t . m . ( 2012 ) traditional taxonomic groupings mask evolutionary history : a molecular phylogeny and new classification of the chromodorid nudibranchs . plos one 7 ( 4 ) : e33479 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nto barcode of life ( 1 barcode ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 9 publications ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 9 nucleotides ; 15 proteins ) to sea slug forum ( via archive . org ) to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nknown only from indonesia , papua new guinea and eastern australia . also the philippines ( in messages below ) .\nheron island , great barrier reef , queensland , september 1983 . photo : bill rudman .\nlocality : lankayan island , north east off the coast of sabah , malaysia , sulu sea . depth : 23 - 25 meters . length : 3 - 5 cm . april 2003 . edge of the reef close to flat sandy bottom . photographer : sergey parinov\nthanks very much for this . it is another record of the many striped form of this species and is only the second record we have of this species feeding [ see #\n. in you upper photo the buccal bulb can be clearly seen everted onto the sponge .\ni will need to check the identification but we seem to be building up evidence for some of these black - lined species feeding on red poecilosclerid sponges .\nlike snails and other sea slugs , the magnificent sea slug is a gastropod . most gastropods have a hard shell outside ( not the magnificent sea slug , though ) and a muscular foot that they use to move around .\nthough it can\u2019t see , it has two tentacles on its head called rhinophores and two near its mouth called oral tentacles , which allow it to smell , taste , and feel its way around the reef . the feathery parts on the back of its body are gills that it uses to breathe in water .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n2 . it can be found occurring throughout the indo - western pacific region and has been found in the warm tropical waters of indonesia , malayasia , philippines , papua new guinea and queensland in australia .\n4 . this species can be recognised by the orange mantle edge which has a thin white stripe at the edge , the pale blue colouration in the middle of the mantle and the dark blue / black stripes . the gills and rhinophores are both coloured orange .\n5 . this species can be found living on coral reefs from depths of 5 metres to at least 30 metres .\nhtml public\n- / / ietf / / dtd html 3 . 0 / / en\nhtml . dtd\nis one of several , very similarly striped chromodorids bearing black , white and orange , or blue , black , white and orange longitudinal bands . this bright coloration is thought to be aposomatic , or warning coloration . these species are warning wanton predators that they maintain a highly effective chemical defense system . these chemical metabolites and the role of aposomatism as both an offensive and defensive strategy have recently been meticulously reviewed by\nas one might expect , others species of reef invertebrates have , over millions of years , been selected for survival by mimicking animals with such a warning / defense system . looking very similar to a toxic model gains you protection from predators that have all ready made the mistake of tasting the nasty one , and learned to avoid it . notably , there are three species of polyclad flatworm , one shown above with its\nmodel , that are believed to use their mimic coloration for defense . photographs of both are also found on page 157 of\nalthough it has not been determined if these three flatworms might also defend themselves chemically , like other flatworms that have been studied , we know from cimino & ghiselin that chromodorids in this color group contain chemical metabolites called rearranged spongiane diterpenoids , which are produced by bacterial symbionts in the sponges they feed on . if you would like more detailed information about the specific metabolites and the sponges they come from , i refer you to the monograph cited above\npresently again live in their native country , the netherlands . they started diving during the 14 years that they lived in china and korea . marcel has bsac instructor diving level . diving took them pretty much all over asia and many other places . nudibranchs became their main interest after several trips to the philippines and indonesia . marion is \u201cspotter\u201d for the nudibranchs and marcel is taking the pictures .\nis retired from us airways after 27 years as a pilot . . . , flying captain on an airbus 330 internationally .\ndiving since 1970 . . . with over 5200 dives logged . shoots nikon d - 300 in subal housing with ikelite strobes . macro mate on 105mm for supermacro\njim ' s photography has been featured in a number of books and publications including helmut debelius ' nudibranchs and sea snails of gosliner , behrens and williams coral reef animals of the indo - pacific . a photo of jim petting a shark in\nsleeping shark caves\noff isla mujeres island , mexico , taken by amy foster his significant other , recently appeared in dave behrens ' diving guide to cozumel , cancun & the riviera maja .\njim has been a solid supporter of the slug site since day one . his countless contributions put him near the top of the list of photographers who have greatly expanded our knowledge of sea slugs . there are a lot of kids in the formative stage of their education who are getting their first introduction to our sea slug friends via the great photographs jim and other contributors have made to the site . my hat is off to jim for making this presentation possible !\n\u00a9 the slug site , michael d . miller 2010 . all rights reserved .\ni ' ll continue web search , but - just in case if somebody already have this knowledge - post it , please .\nhmm i ' ve heard as long as you are feeding them nudi ' s are quite easy to keep . cover the intakes and you should be allright . make sure to keep aggressive fish away from it . if it dies it probably releases some toxin .\nif you are thinking of keeping one i say go for it if you can provide it the right types of sponges . looks like a beautiful critter .\na little more details , please - what are right types of sponges ? i had seen photos of it on the red sponges , but all i could see in lfs are only orange ones , tree and ball .\ni don ' t really know a lot about them really . i ' ve seen red ball sponges which i hear they eat but haven ' t seen it first hand so i can ' t really tell you . sometimes it ' s not only 1 species of sponge it will eat , it is many types . i think the purple ones eat a bunch of sponges . not sure about these ones . ask the lfs to feed it or something ? lol .\ni don ' t think it will eat corals . probably a sponge only feeder . these guys are from japan ( and other parts of asia ) i think so maybe take a look at what sponges are available from that area ?\ni had bought all the sponges available locally in trade - they are not interested at all . browsing lr and a glass for now .\nyesterday was alive , couldn ' t see it earlier because they browsed inside the lr caves . have to watch the other one more frequently .\n- all sponges i could find in lfs were bought for their potential feeding nov 17 . blue one was with a white necrotic patch .\n- blue sponge continued to die , removed from the tank nov22 , partial water changes and big bag of new carbon . no visible changes in the overall tank health .\n- nov 24 - tank looks bad , first reacted lps and serpent stars , lps closed and expelled a lot of mucus , stars are looking for escape , cucumbers closed , water started look slightly cloudy . then was found the dead sea slug . did water change 30 % , more new carbon and dosed prime . water continue to become more cloudy , condition of the tank habitants worsened , fish is affected too ( looks like they have allergies ) . one more 30 % water change in the evening ( aged water from the bigger tanks with healthy habitants ) .\n- nov25 - very bad , water is slightly cloudy , everything is closed tightly , mucus everywhere , mandarin is blind ( white irises ) , bit no signs of acute suffering , chromises have reddened eyes and nasal cavities , all breathing hard . while preparing emergency new water , sand - siffting sea cucumber ( silver - gray ) expelled it ' s viscera . noticed and removed pretty fast . then - the end of the world . chromises ' eyes reddened even more , bulged as in the\ntotal recall\n, really scary .\ntank was disassembled , everything was washed in the new water before being put in the temporary tanks with the aged water from the big tank . aragonite and water were disposed . macroalgae is still alive , but died in the pico with the blue sponge frags .\nevening - 2 cucumbers that left have severe skin lesions , but nobody else eviscerated . golden sand sifting cucumber was put asleep . pink is pretty bad but holds onto the life . sps are bleached , suspected to be dead . condylatris anemone still alive through all of this and two sucking into the power filter grid half of year before .\nif i still had my conditioning\nno suffering\nas the primary and not relaxed to the\nkeeping alive at all costs ( including suffering )\n, i should put to sleep all fish except scooter blenny , who is pale , but relatively active and even eating . now is too late , to catch them have to disassemble the new tank . just hoped somehow that being in the good water will reverse bulging or the white eyes .\nwhat provoked what - hard to say , but result was as of a potent military chemical weapon . never again .\nthat sounds like total chaos . sorry to hear of the melt down . i find it insane that they only eat that one sponge . i was under the guidance that they would eat more than just the one .\nis that the sponge they eat ? i ' ve seen something very much like it before . if i ever stumble across it again i ' ll let ya know . at least you aren ' t the only one who learns from this lesson 0 _ o .\nmost likely , the last one will be finished during this week - looks not good and expels chemical , that cause stars and cukes die , and corals to close pretty fast . placed it alone in cycled 2 . 5g tank .\nthis list is an attempt to compile all of the published food data for nudibranchs . more than 4 , 600 nudibranch papers were perused in an effort to find as much of the published food data as possible .\nseaslugforum lists id species with links to the discussions with the people who tried to keep them , pity that no follow - ups how it ended .\nwhat i tried : orange ball sponge ( cinachyra sp . ) , orange tree sponge ( ptilocaulis sp . ) , spiny orange sponge ( acanthella acuta ) , blue sponge ( haliclona sp . ) and htchhikers sponges . no interest at all .\n- sps ( birdsnest , elkhorn stylophora , 2 christmas tree rock porites ) - are dead , smelly , continue removing deal tissue and daily water changes . worms are alive , but lost featheriness ( main branches were not lost ) , general look of the wet hen .\n- large lps ( flat tank ) : open brains / donuts - all alive , works in trachyphillia .\n- main , now 10g tank , all is in good shape - with lr , 2 babies tridacna ( amasingly ok ) , condylatris anemone , lobos , candycanes , yellow polyps , white xenia and white lemnalia , hitchhiker sea squrts and sponges . scooter blenny and 1 chromis of 3 are alive and relatively well , no visible damage .\n- sea slug removed in separate quarters , reacts badly on a small temperature drop during rearranging tanks .\n- sps corals set separately for die - off ( as lr curing ) , nothing more in this tank - high ammonia and nitrites . sponges went there too ( out of hardware ) .\n- will be dead in hours - cucumbers and all serpent stars . mostly breathing apparatus and skin lesions . golden spiky sand - sifting cucumber and pink - green filter feeder pentacta anceps will nor expell guts , silver - grey sand - sifting one - will .\n- most sensitive and indicative is cynarina lacrimalis ( translucent brain ) , when the 2nd good - looking sea slug was temporarily places in their tank - closed in minutes .\n- not affected at all ( visibly ) - crustaceans : mintrax crabs , sexy shrimps , mysiids , gammarus - like pods .\nwater changes , adding bacteria for cycling , fresh carbon daily , purigen , daily filter floss changes . testing for ammonia and nitrites .\nthis is so sad , but it was such a good read ! like reading a straight - up horror novel . the zombie genre has nothing on this thread !\nsign up for a new account in our community . it ' s easy !\ndiversity and distribution of subtidal benthic molluscs from the dampier archipelago , western australia ; results of the 1999 dredge survey ( da2 / 99 ) john d . taylor and emily a . glover\na survey of the benthic molluscs of the dampier archipelago , western australia shirley m . slack - smith and clay w . bryce\nsea slugs , also called nudibranchs or butterflies of the ocean , ingest toxic chemicals from the sponges they eat and store away the single most noxious compound to use against their predators later on . by preventing certain cellular processes , latrunculin a is highly toxic to fish , fungus , and even some cancer cell lines . the findings are published in plos one this week .\na team led by karen cheney from the university of queensland studied five closely - related nudibranch molluscs ( pictured below ) collected by scuba divers in the great barrier reef and from south east queensland in australia . the team dissected each nudibranch into two or three parts : internal organs , the mantle ( the back surface ) , and in some cases , the mantle rim , where the defensive mantle dermal formations are located . ( the mantle rim is that yellow , orange , or pink border . )\nonly latrunculin a was present in the storage reservoirs of the mantle rim ; a variety of other compounds were found in the internal organs . that means the sea slugs selected just one toxic chemical weapon to sequester and accumulate in a part of their mantle that\u2019s the most exposed to would - be predators .\nmany products used to make drugs are molecules that plants and animals use to protect themselves . studying marine molluscs has already led to the discovery of many biologically potent chemicals with analgesic , anti - inflammatory , antiviral , and anticancer activity .\nthis website uses cookies to improve user experience . by continuing to use our website you consent to all cookies in accordance with our cookie policy .\norange band around the mantle is some distance from the edge , black longitudinal lines and translucent red rhinophores and gills .\noccurrence describes how often the species is found on surveys within its distribution . it is calculated as the % of reef sites surveyed by rls divers across all the ecoregions in which the species has been observed\nabundance is calculated as the average number of individuals recorded per rls transect , where present .\nplease use this form only for a single type of error . if you see multiple errors on the page for this species , please report these in separate forms by clicking on this button again after submitting this form\nthank you for highlighting this error . we appreciate your assistance in maintaining high quality control standards\nis a large species and one of a group of similarly coloured and patterned nudibranchs .\nthe primary mantle colour is black . there are four white or very pale blue longitudinal lines . these are narrow and most usually form an inner and outer loop . the innermost loop passes from forward of and between the rhinophores posteriorly to encircle the gills and then continues as a single line . the outer loop runs sub - marginally around the whole mantle . both loops are contained entirely within the basal black colour . these lines are usually continuous but may be broken or even overlapping . the mantle margin carries a wide orange band and the border between black and orange is not distinct but is instead rather diffuse . the colours and pattern upon the foot are much similar .\nthe lamellate rhinophores and large gills are also orange but can sometimes be of a darker ( richer ) shade compared to the mantle margin .\nthe spawn is pale orange and is laid as a flat spiral . there is no extra - capsular yoke .\nwe normally sight this species in the 50 to 70 mm range but we have recorded one large specimen at 120 mm in length . it is common at certain sites in our survey area .\n( no black diffusing into the orange , a very thin white marginal band and the black appears to be arranged into three broad bands ) . these last two species have an east african , red sea and western indian ocean distribution . the first impression received on sighting\nis that of a predominately black species and that , combined with the diffusion of the black into the orange margin usually helps to settle any confusion .\ndistribution is limited to the coastal waters and offshore reefs of queensland and new south wales , eastern australia and also lord howe island . we are not entirely convinced that a few reports from western australia represent this species .\nmarshall & willan 1999 . nudibranchs of heron island , great barrier reef , backhuys publishers .\nwilson n . 2002 . egg masses of chromodorid nudibranchs , malacologia , 2002 , 44 ( 2 ) : 289 - 305 .\nyonow n . 2008 . sea slugs of the red sea , pensoft publishers , bulgaria .\nand seen and embraced a host of changes and developments in diving and underwater photographic equipment and practices since then . he dived the great barrier reef , australia for many many years however for the past ten years he has focused his efforts almost entirely upon the\ndocumenting the sea slugs of the region . to adequately survey the area he operates both a 5 metre rib on the sunshine coast and a 10 metre powercat out of scarborough on moreton bay . together with\nhe has retired from his engineering business and recently taken on the critter id column in sportdiving magazine ( formerly by the late & great neville coleman ) with the assistance of several world - renowned experts . visit his website : urltoken and use the critter id portal there to have your critters identified or confirmed and published in the magazine .\n\u00a9 the slug site , michael d . miller 2013 . all rights reserved .\ncreated to help individuals around the world identify tropical fish found during their scuba dive and snorkelling excursions .\ndate : february 08 , 2003 location : safaga , egypt , red sea site : tobia iv depth : 11m . size : about 55mm photos : marina poddubetskaia - nembro website\nthe photos in your second message are also c . quadricolor . best wishes , bill rudman\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis home page section for this species is currently being developed and will be completed asap ! if you would like to help out or know of a great video , photo or site about this species , let us know and we ' ll notify you as soon as it is finished . our current project plan is to have all marine species home pages finished before christmas this year . if you ' d like to find out more about our ongoing projects here at marinebio , check out our marinebio projects page .\nstart or join a discussion about this species below or send us an email to report any errors or submit suggestions for this page . we greatly appreciate all feedback !\nhelp us protect and restore marine life by supporting our various online community - centered marine conservation projects that are effectively sharing the wonders of the ocean with millions each year around the world , raising a balanced awareness of the increasingly troubling and often very complex marine conservation issues that affect marine life and ourselves directly , providing support to marine conservation groups on the frontlines that are making real differences today , and the scientists , teachers and students involved in the marine life sciences .\nwith your support , most marine life and their ocean habitats can be protected , if not restored to their former natural levels of biodiversity . we sincerely thank our thousands of members , donors and sponsors , who have decided to get involved and support the marinebio conservation society .\ndeep music digitally imported urltoken proton radio * radio paradise radiotunes somafm wers 88 . 9 fm\n~ sharing the wonders of the ocean to inspire conservation , education , research , and a sea ethic ~ marinebio . org , inc . is a u . s . 501 ( c ) 3 charitable , nonprofit organization . contact : info @ urltoken all marinebio conservation society memberships and donations are tax deductible in the united states . > < ( ( ( ( \u00b0 > \u00a9 1998 - 2017 marinebio copyright & terms of use . privacy policy . > - < \u00b0\u00b0 > - <\nfor all at last returns to the sea \u2014 to oceanus , the ocean river , like the everflowing stream of time , the beginning and the end .\n- rachel carson\nshort description body smooth and dorso - ventrally flattened , brightly colored . mantle ovate with a broad overhang of the edge , and the posterior end of the foot extending beyond the mantle when the animal is crawling . rhinophores lamellated and the branchial plume located mid - dorsally in the posterior part of the notum .\ncolor : notum with two whitish - blue bands and three wider black ones . all around there is a white band , followed by another wider of orange color , and a white edge . rhinophores and gills darker orange than the band in the mantle edge .\ncommon size : usually 40 - 50 mm ; the mediterranean specimen measured 20 mm .\nbiology / ecology this species , like other species of the family chromodorididae , feeds on sponges .\nhabitat : the single specimen recorded in the mediterranean was found at 30 m in depth , in a place close to several submarine springs ( cattaneo vietti , 1986 ) . in the red sea c . quadricolor can be found on coral reefs a few meters deep .\ndistribution worldwide : restricted to the red sea and the eastern african coast . mediterranean : only known from one specimen collected in 1982 in capo martola , imperia , ligurian sea , italy ( cattaneo vietti , 1986 ) .\nbarash a . and zenziper z . , 1994 . notes on opisthobranchia from the red sea . part iii .\ncattaneo vietti r . , chemello r . and giannuzzi - savelli r . , 1990 . atlas of mediterranean nudibranchs . la conchiglia , roma , 264 p .\nrudman w . b . , 1977 . chromodorid opisthobranch mollusca from the indo - west pacific . zoological journal of the linnean society , 52 ( 3 ) : 175 - 199 .\nwe\u2019ve partnered with invision to make it easier to search and download our images in sketch and adobe\u00ae photoshop\u00ae .\n{ { t ( ' more _ than _ one _ credit ' , { zero : calc . totalcreditcost } ) } }\nonce this video clip is done converting , you ' ll be able to download it from your video conversion queue or download history .\neditorial use only photos don ' t have any model or property releases , which means they can ' t be used for commercial , promotional , advertorial or endorsement purposes . this type of content is intended to be used in connection with events that are newsworthy or of general interest ( for example , in a blog , textbook , newspaper or magazine article ) .\nthis format requires a quick conversion ( usually under 5 mins ) before download begins , or you can get the largest and smallest formats immediately .\ncrop for social , add text and more with istock editor . open in editor\nby clicking\nconfirm download\nyou agree that you ' ve read and agree to all applicable license agreements for this download .\ndid ask shop what they ate and she said he was an alage eater . . . . . . . . . .\nposts : 4 , 269 likes received : 0 location : rhondda valley south wales .\nsorry for the bad news but they won ' t eat algae of any description . they feed on certain types of small encrusting sponges that as far as i know can ' t be kept successfully in aquariums .\nas they are slowly starving to death anyway i ' d be inclined to remove them . if they die in your tank they ' ll take everything with them as they release toxins . also don ' t touch one with bare hands as a guy in a local lfs became very ill after removing a live one from a tank and poking it out of a net with his finger . the toxin they release can be directly absorbed through the skin .\ntake it back to the shop for a refund , they shouldn ' t be selling such things to anyone regardless of experience .\nalso you shouldn ' t buy things without knowing what they are / how to care for them first . if you see something you want , ask the store to hold it while you go home and research .\ntake it back to the shop for a refund , they shouldn ' t be selling such things to anyone regardless of experience . also you shouldn ' t buy things without knowing what they are / how to care for them first . if you see something you want , ask the store to hold it while you go home and research .\nin all fairness he did ask at the shop didnt he ! ! ! if we cant take advice from our lfs the so called experts who can we . im sure weve all gone into a lfs seen something asked there advice and took them to there word\nrazer , i think foo was just pointing out that it ' s better to do your own research than taking advice from someone who has a financial gain from the answer . i like many others have fallen foul of the advice from the\nso called experts\nand now don ' t buy on impulse but have a good read up or google beforehand .\none thing i would just like to add is that the lfs that i now use have books on marine fish , corals and inverts all ready to you to look through and read up on any livestock within the shop befor you buy them .\ninpulse buying is a nightmare to which i have fallen victim many times . da you should take the nudibranch back to the shop and ask for a refund and hopefully they should take it back . let us know how you get on dude\nthis site uses cookies to help personalise content , tailor your experience and to keep you logged in if you register . by continuing to use this site , you are consenting to our use of cookies .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we\u0092ll send you a link to reset your password .\nsorry , this image isn ' t available for this licence . please refer to the license restrictions for more information .\non the alamy prints site ( powered by art . com ) choose your frame , the size and finish of your photo .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nplus , you ' ll be the first to receive updates on our newest content , features , and special offers .\nmarketplace clips are for sale by artists . they earn 100 % commission on purchases and you save 40 % off when you become a member . it ' s a win - win !\nvideoblocks works best with the latest technology . please upgrade your browser to ensure the best experience ."]}
{"id": 757, "summary": [{"text": "asemonea tenuipes is a species of salticidae ( jumping spiders ) which can be found on andaman islands and in such countries as burma , india , sri lanka , and thailand .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is commonly referred to as tailed jumper . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "asemonea tenuipes", "paragraphs": ["asemonea tenuipes ( \u2642 , \u2640 ) ( o . pickard - cambridge , 1869 )\nasemonea tenuipes ( pickard - cambridge o . , 1869 ) | species | india biodiversity portal\nlyssomanes tenuipes o . pickard - cambridge , 1869c : 65 , pl . 5 , f . 50 - 52 ( d m ) . asemonea tenuipes peckham & peckham , 1886 : 340 . asemonea tenuipes peckham , peckham & wheeler , 1889 : 243 , pl . 12 , f . 5 , 19 ( m , d f ) . asemonea cingulata thorell , 1895 : 314 ( d m ) . asemonea tenuipes simon , 1901a : 399 , f . 399 - 400 , 412 ( m ) . lyssomanes andamanensis tikader , 1977a : 205 , f . 25a - c ( d m f ) . lyssomanes bengalensis tikader & biswas , 1978 : 259 , f . 4 - 6 ( d f ) . asemonea tenuipes wanless , 1980d : 240 , f . 2d ; 18a - i ( m , s f ) . lyssomanes bengalensis tikader & biswas , 1981 : 107 , text - f . 21 - 23 ( f ) . lyssomanes andamanensis tikader & biswas , 1981 : 109 , f . 201 - 203 ( m f ) . asemonea tenuipes pr\u00f3szy\u0144ski , 1984a : 3 ( f ) . asemonea tenuipes roy , saha & raychaudhuri , 2016 : 23 , f . 19a - e , 25h , 27q ( f ) . asemonea tenuipes pr\u00f3szy\u0144ski , 2017b : 125 , f . 54h - i , 55a ( m f ) .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . asemonea tenuipes ( pickard - cambridge o . , 1869 ) . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .\na revision of the spider genera asemonea and pandisus ( araneae : salticidae ) . bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( zool . ) 39 ( 4 ) : 213 - 257\nasemonea tenuipes ( male ) photographed at karnala . a little more than 1 cm long . canon eos 500d , canon 100mm macro usm lens aperture - priority ae tv 1 / 60 av 9 . 0 ec 0 iso 1600 hand held cropped and did a little bit of nr in lightroom 3 . ( no significant detail loss due to the nr ) also tried a vertical crop , but it looked a little tight for my taste . thanks , c & c awaited .\nwanless , f . r . ( 1980d ) . a revision of the spider genera asemonea and pandisus ( araneae : salticidae ) . bulletin of the british museum of natural history ( zool . ) 39 : 213 - 257 . - - show included taxa\nthe main id characteristic of the genus asemonea is the pair of elongated spinnerets ( of the male ) that give it a\ntailed\nappearance . also , the eye arrangement is peculiar to the genus , the most notable feature being that the front of the head is occupied by only the pair of very large anterior median eyes . will also share an image of a female of this species shortly .\nno . xxxx sri lanka , india , andaman is . , burma , thailand\nlsid : [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 032356 ]\npeckham , g . w . & peckham , e . g . ( 1886 ) . genera of the family attidae : with a partial synonymy . transactions of the wisconsin academy of sciences , arts and letters 6 : 255 - 342 . - - show included taxa\npeckham , g . w . , peckham , e . g . & wheeler , w . h . ( 1889 ) . spiders of the subfamily lyssomanae . transactions of the wisconsin academy of sciences , arts and letters 7 : 222 - 256 . - - show included taxa\npickard - cambridge , o . ( 1869c ) . descriptions and sketches of some new species of araneida , with characters of a new genus . annals and magazine of natural history ( 4 ) 3 : 52 - 74 . - - show included taxa\npr\u00f3szy\u0144ski , j . ( 1984a ) . atlas rysunk\u00f3w diagnostycznych mniej znanych salticidae ( araneae ) . wy\u017csza szkola rolniczo - pedagogiczna , siedlcach 2 : 1 - 177 . - - show included taxa\npr\u00f3szy\u0144ski , j . ( 2017b ) . pragmatic classification of the world ' s salticidae ( araneae ) . ecologica montenegrina 12 : 1 - 133 . - - show included taxa\nroy , t . k . , saha , s . & raychaudhuri , d . ( 2016 ) . a treatise on the jumping spiders ( araneae : salticidae ) of tea ecosystem of dooars , west bengal , india . world scientific news 53 ( 1 ) : 1 - 66 . - - show included taxa\nsimon , e . ( 1901a ) . histoire naturelle des araign\u00e9es . paris 2 , 381 - 668 . - - show included taxa\nthorell , t . ( 1895 ) . descriptive catalogue of the spiders of burma . london , pp . 1 - 406 . - - show included taxa\ntikader , b . k . ( 1977a ) . studies on spider fauna of andaman and nicobar islands , indian ocean . records of the zoological survey of india 72 : 153 - 212 . - - show included taxa\ntikader , b . k . & biswas , b . ( 1978 ) . two new species of spiders of the family lyssomanidae from india . proceedings of the indian academy of science 87 ( b ) : 257 - 260 . - - show included taxa\ntikader , b . k . & biswas , b . ( 1981 ) . spider fauna of calcutta and vicinity : part - i . records of the zoological survey of india , occasional paper 30 : 1 - 149 . - - show included taxa\nas external resources , the world spider catalog links here to species pages of other databases . they may contain further information for the given species . the databases , listed as external resources , however , are not managed by world spider catalog and the information given there is not necessarily in agreement with the world spider catalog . all responsibility for such data is with the external database .\npr\u00f3szy\u0144ski , j . ( 2016 ) . monograph of salticidae ( araneae ) of the world 1995 - 2015 . part ii . global species database of salticidae ( araneae ) . version may 5th , 2016 , online at urltoken .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ncephalothorax oval shaped . median eyes prominent . thick yellow band in the mid dorsum of the cephalothorax and blackish cover laterally . abdomen cylindrical . ends with an extended spinnerets ventrally . spinnerets modified as a tail like outgrowth . abdomen is black colored anteriorly . a yellow mark lies near the posterior end . legs are positioned straight during rest . less chitinized . possess hairs\ngupta , r . , devi , o . s . & islam , m . ( eds . ) 2015 . common spiders from select protected areas of upper assam . assam state biodiversity board . guwahati . pp . 189 .\ndescribes average size , max , range ; type of size ( perimeter , length , volume , weight . . . ) .\ncephalothorax elongate with elevated ocular region . cephalothorax is black with a yellow band in the mid - dorsal area and orange coloured ocular region in males . females are uniformly cream coloured . eight eyes are arranged in four rows , anterior lateral eyes and posterior median eyes are present on distinct tubercles . ocular area covered with yellow - white hairs . abdomen of male is elongated , yellow coloured with an orange patch and a white mark near the tip . females have cream coloured abdomen . distinct tail like slender spinnerets present . legs are long , slender , cream coloured and covered with spines\ndescribes the general appearance of the taxon ; e . g body plan , shape and color of external features , typical postures . may be referred to as or include habit , defined as the characteristic mode of growth or occurrence associated to its environment , particularly for plants . comprising its size , shape , texture and orientation . example : tree , shrubs , herbs . may also be referred to include anatomy .\nactive hunter . rest under irregular build web . caring the eggs is displayed among both the sexes\nrelations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment . variables of interest to ecologists include the composition , distribution , amount ( biomass ) , number , and changing states of organisms within and among ecosystems .\ngeneral description of the sites where the species is found ( ecosystem , forest , environment or microhabitat ) . includes realm ( e . g terrestrial etc ) and climatic information ( e . g boreal ) ; also includes requirements and tolerances ; horizontal and vertical ( altitudinal ) distribution . also includes information referring to territorial extension of the individual or group in terms of its activities ( feeding , mating , etc . ) , associated mostly to vertebrates .\nprefer habitats of slightly hilly areas . seen generally under broad leaves of short heighted trees\nenumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .\nthis is a very first attempt to compile a checklist of spiders from gujarat . it is a result of prim . . .\na total of 86 species of spiders belonging to 56 genera of 20 families have been recorded from the . . .\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\nspiders of the sub - family lyssomaninae . trans . wisconsin acad . sci . arts . lett . , madison , wisconsin 7 : 222 - 256 , pl . xi - xii\nhistoire naturelle des araignees . deuxieme edition . paris ( roret ) 2 ( 3 ) : 381 - 668\ndescriptions and sketches of some new species of araneida , with characters of a new genus . ann . mag . nat . hist . , london 4 ( 3 ) : 52 - 74\natlas rysunkow diagnostcznych mniej znanych salticidae ( araneae ) [ atlas of drawings of less known salticidae ( araneae ) ] . wsrp , siedlce 1 - 177\ntwo new species of spiders of the family lyssomanidae from india . proc . indian acad . sci . 87 ( b ) : 257 - 260\nspider fauna of calcutta and vicinity . part - i . rec . zool . sur . india 1 - 149\ni found this tiny spider under the leaves of jamaica cherry ( muntingia calabura ) tree . the spider was hardly 2mm in size . this shy and reclusive spider tried hiding from my view by going around the leaf in circles . i was able to capture it with lot of difficulty . here are five photos i could manage \u2026\nimages and content copyright \u00a9 2006 - 2018 krishna mohan . please contact me to purchase prints or for image publication license .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nw w w . i n d i a w i l d s . c o m\nlovely composition . the different shades of green look nice . the clean background adds to the composition . good details . thanks for sharing .\nnot sure about id . it is exciting to view images of such small creatures . slightly more space between the leaf edge and the right frame would have been better . thanks for sharing . cheers , sabyasachi\nhi . . abhisehek nice shot . i like the plane bg . and nice eye contact . i think , not sure . . this is tutelina elegans jumping spider . you can check video of tutelina elegans male and female . urltoken\nbhavya , it ' s not tutelina elegans . thanks all the same for your help . i found a few pages on the net showing this spider . . . but none of them have identified it beyond\njumping spider\n. will update this thread with the id if i find it .\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 4 . 2 . 5 copyright \u00a9 2018 vbulletin solutions inc . all rights reserved .\ngreat to know the difference between the male and female of the species . the water drop effectively conveys the size . thanks for sharing . cheers , sabyasachi\nyes . . nice to see the difference between male and female . . from which site did you find the id . ? ?\nthanks bhavya , i got the id from a friend who is documenting spiders . will send you a link to his page if you are interested .\nlooks like more than a record image to me . the water droplet helps to compare the size . how do you sight these in the field , as these being so small wont be seen easily . would like to know the technique you use . thanks for sharing the information . look forward to more .\nthank you mrudul , glad that you appreciate it . this ( and the male ) was found in the garden of my place near karnala , so i had a smaller area to search in . searching for the same spider in a large forest would have been far more difficult . in any case , there is no specific technique as such . using a macro lens for a few months gets one into the habit of looking for subjects under every leaf , rock , etc . in fact i would not recommend macro lenses for you people who specialise in mammals and birds , since you might end up searching only under leaves and rocks , and neglecting the larger animals\nusing a macro lens for a few months gets one into the habit of looking for subjects under every leaf , rock , etc . in fact i would not recommend macro lenses for you people who specialise in mammals and birds , since you might end up searching only under leaves and rocks , . . .\nwith my considerable bulk , twisting and turning to get the right angle to click these fellows under a leaf or rock . . . nah . . . i leave that to you , joshi , bhargava and others . . .\nthat would be tough abhishek ! with my considerable bulk , twisting and turning to get the right angle to click these fellows under a leaf or rock . . . nah . . . i leave that to you , joshi , bhargava and others . . .\nyou , mrudul , praveen , bhargava and others are wonderful at shooting tigers , other mammals , birds etc . i am perfectly happy with you guys continuing to focus on those , and will always look forward to your contributions in those fields .\ncopyright \u00a9 for the photos by r . r . jackson , 2000 . copyright \u00a9 for the page by j . proszynski , 2000 ."]}
{"id": 759, "summary": [{"text": "the grass goby ( zosterisessor ophiocephalus ) is a species of goby native to the mediterranean sea , the sea of azov and the black sea .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is currently the only known member of its genus . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "grass goby", "paragraphs": ["reproductive cycle and life history traits of the grass goby , zosterisessor ophiocephalus ( gobiidae ) . . .\nage and growth of the grass goby zosterisessor ophiocephalus pallas , 1811 in the gulf of gabes ( tuni . . .\nscaggiante m , mazzoldi c , petersen cw , rasotto mb ( 1999 ) . sperm competition and mode of fertilization in the grass goby\nmazzoldi c , scaggiante m , ambrosin e , rasotto mb ( 2000 ) . mating system and alternative male mating tactics in the grass goby\nota d , marchesan m , ferrero ea ( 1996 ) sperm release behavior and fertilization in the grass goby . j fish biol 49 : 246\u2013256\nin the marbled and grass gobies ) we can consider it as an occasional infestation .\na list is presented of metazoan parasites that infect seven gobiid fishes ( the toad goby mesogobius batrachocephalus , monkey goby neogobius fluviatilis , racer goby n . gymnotrachelus , bighead goby n . kessleri , round goby n . melanostomus , ratan goby n . ratan , and syrman goby n . syrman ) from the dniester estuary ( black sea ) . infections by thirteen species of metazoa parasites , including four . . . [ show full abstract ]\nmarbled goby was rather rare ( 5 , 7 and 8 fishes respectively ) .\n. mode of sexual selection determined by resource abundance in two sand goby populations .\n. parental behaviour in relation to the occurrence of sneaking in the common goby .\nco - immigration of the marbled goby and its specific parasites to the black sea .\npujolar jm , locatello l , zane l , mazzoldi c ( 2012 ) . body size correlates with fertilization success but not gonad size in grass goby territorial males . plos one 7 ( 10 ) , 46711 .\nfauna of this goby . so , the core species in the parasite component community are most -\nmarbled goby is annual small - sized fish ) was completed . it was a cause of successful\n. the influence of oxygen stress on female choice for male nest structure in the common goby .\nexperiments were performed from 24 april to 23 may 2002 for the grass goby and from 4 july to 7 august for the black goby . aquaria used for the experiments ( 60 \u00d7 36 \u00d7 40 cm high , 70 l ) were divided in two equal sections by a glass partition , attached to the bottom and sides with silicone , to prevent water and sperm flow across sections ( figure 1 ) . every aquarium was provided with a sandy bottom , water temperature was kept at 16\u00b0c for grass goby and 22\u00b0c for black goby , and water was renewed daily . the artificial light regimen followed natural conditions , and fish were fed once a day with fresh black mussel meat .\nskolbekken r , utne - palm ac ( 2001 ) . parental investment of male two - spotted goby\nreproductive biology of the rock goby , gobius paganellus ( actinopterygii : perciformes : gobiidae ) , on . . .\nsize distribution of male and female two - spotted goby in early ( may ) and late ( july ) reproductive season .\nmagnhagen c ( 1998 ) . alternative reproductive tactic and courtship in the common goby . j fish biol 53 : 130\u2013137 .\nactually , it ' s more like eat and be eaten for most organisms . while plants and some bacteria can make their own food , other organisms must eat living things to survive . this makes them predators . you might not think of a grass - munching cow as much of a predator , but cows are indeed the predators of their grass prey .\nfeeding habits of the black goby , gobius niger ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , in the gulf of gabes ( southern tuni . . .\nsimilar to the ones of other gobiid species in the black sea , is typical for the marbled goby ( kvach , 2005 a ) .\nimmler s , mazzoldi c , rasotto mb ( 2004 ) . from sneaker to parental male : change of reproductive traits in the black goby ,\nforsgren e , kvarnemo c , lindstr\u00f6m k ( 1996 ) . mode of sexual selection determined by resource abundance in two sand goby populations . evolution 50 : 646\u2013654 .\n) . this result basically implies a change in mating tactic among the smaller males . the sperm seen in the sdgs of small and intermediate sized males in the late breeding season could be sperm left over from a time when the sdgs functioned primarily for sperm storage ( an earlier sneaking period ) , or that the sdgs continue to be used as sperm storage as well as mucin producers . the grass goby ,\n[ \u2026 ] in biology makes sense ! , amy dapper writes about one consequence of sex , among grass gobies : \u201csneaker\u201d males with specialized sperm . and jeremy yoder ( yours truly ) takes a look at daisies that attract pollinators by fooling them [ \u2026 ]\nas an added bonus , i ( bravely ) searched youtube for videos of goby mating behavior and found this lovely video of a pair of trimma gobies , set to adele\u2019s crazy for you .\nof course , the cows themselves are prey to other animals , like humans and coyotes . now we have a simple food chain , with grass plants making food at the bottom , cows as middle predators , and then humans and coyotes as\ntop predators .\nmobley kb , amundsen t , forsgren e , svensson pa , jones ag ( 2009 ) . multiple mating and a low incidence of cuckoldry for nest - holding males in the two - spotted goby ,\n. sexual selection and sex roles in the sand goby . in : behaviour and conservation of littoral fishes ( almada vc , oliveira rf , gon\u00e7alves ej , eds ) . lisboa : ispa ; 249\u2013274 .\nbenthic , inshore , brackish water , estuaries and lagoons , on mud and eel - grass meadows . commercial in the black sea and in sivash ( ref . 2058 ) . occasionally recorded in freshwater , but there are no documented records of actual occurrence in european freshwaters ( ref . 59043 ) .\nthe researchers , part of the rasotta lab group at the university of padova , studied the mating behavior and sperm competition strategies of the grass gobies that inhabit the venetian lagoon . grass gobies exhibit alternative mating strategies . the larger males directly compete for access to , and guard , female mates . in contrast , less competitive males avoid direct competition and instead sneak copulations with females already guarded by other males . this variation in behavioral strategies allowed locatello et al . to ask whether guarding and sneaking males may also employ alternative sperm competition strategies . they hypothesized that the two types of males may differ in the degree to which they invest in high quality seminal fluid or high quality sperm .\ncitation : utne - palm ac , eduard k , jensen kh , mayer i , jakobsen pj ( 2015 ) size dependent male reproductive tactic in the two - spotted goby ( gobiusculus flavescens ) . plos one 10 ( 12 ) : e0143487 . urltoken\nterritorial males spent more time patrolling the territory ( time out of the nest ) when one and four sneakers were present rather than in the absence of sneakers ( table 1 , figure 2a ) . attacks ( rapid movements toward the sneaker compartment ) were observed only when sneakers were present ( table 1 , figure 3a ) . considering only the trials in which sneakers were present , territorial males performed more attacks when there were four sneakers compared to a single sneaker in the black goby ( f 1 , 20 = 6 . 12 , p = . 022 ) but not in the grass goby ( f 1 , 11 = 0 . 21 , p = . 66 ) . after the female was introduced , territorial males decreased the time spent patrolling the territory and attacking the sneakers , and male territorial behavior did not differ according to the number of sneakers ( table 1 , figures 2b and 3b ) .\nto test how territorial males respond to the presence of sneakers , we measured the behavior and sperm output of territorial males facing different levels of sperm competition in the grass and black gobies . our aim was to investigate whether territorial males adjust their sperm output to the number of sneaker males attending the spawn and to test whether they respond to the presence of sneakers by increasing their mate guarding and courtship rate .\n] . ontogeny could to some extent explain why we find predominantly small sized , presumably younger males ( born late in season ) , with sneaker type gonads early in the breeding season , but which develop a more dominant gonad structure with older age later in the season . in a laboratory study on the black goby (\nin the two - spotted goby , nest defence , brood care and courtship are energetically demanding [ 22 ] , which probably causes increasing mortality rates of nest holding males over the season . thus one should expect to find smaller males using a sneaking strategy , especially early in the breeding season when male\u2014male competition is at its highest .\n] the two - spotted goby exhibits sexual size dimorphism , where males are on average larger than females . however , in the presented studied population on the west norwegian coast ( bergen ) this size dimorphism is reversed as average female size is slightly larger than average male size , caused by a large proportion of very small males (\nthe results of the experiments demonstrated that , while both \u2018guard\u2019 and \u2018sneaker\u2019 sperm performed equally well in seminal fluid from males with the same behavioral strategy , the sperm of sneaker males had increased performance in the seminal fluid of guarding males . conversely , the sperm of guarding males had reduced preformance in the seminal fluid of sneaking males . furthermore , when sperm was exposed to a mixture of seminal fluid from both types of males , the sperm of \u2018sneaker\u2019 males again outperformed that of \u2018guard\u2019 males . all together , these results indicate that grass goby males also exhibit alternative sperm competition strategies , such that \u2018guard\u2019 males invest in higher quality seminal fluid at the expense of sperm quality ( measured by swimming speed ) and that \u2018sneaker\u2019 males invest in higher quality sperm at the expense of seminal fluid quality .\n] . however , the authors of this study speculate that the tendency to observe fewer small colourless males late in the breeding season could be because these smaller males have changed mating tactics , from sneaker to the more colourful territorial males . also the presented findings somewhat contradict a study of cuckoldry reported in a two - spotted goby population on the west coast of sweden [\nthe diet of the black goby , gobius niger in the gulf of gabes ( southern tunisia ) was described from analysis of stomach contents of 1055 specimens . samples were collected monthly by trawls from february 2009 to january 2010 . in the laboratory , the total length ( tl ) was measured and prey items in the stomach contents were identified to large taxonomic groups . overall , 654 stomachs were empty . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthree different sampling locations on the west coast of norway were selected in order to obtain samples as representative as possible of the habitat of the two - spotted goby . these locations were the inner and outer fanafjord and the kvalen raunefjord , all located north of bergen , which differed in terms of exposure , temperature and salinity . fish used in the histological studies where captured by beach seine in may and july 2008 at the kvalen raunefjord location .\ngobies are the most diverse fish family on the reef , with more than 200 species described . with their generally small sizes and ability to adapt to a wide variety of specialized habitats , gobies have become the most diverse marine fish family in the world . this does not mean they are always successful at avoiding predators , though . for instance , the blueband goby ( valenciennia strigata ) is eaten by a variety of predators , including the venomous coneshell .\nconeshells ( conus spp . ) are gastropod mollusks , closely related to the more familiar and harmless land snails . with beautiful , ornately designed shells , coneshells are highly sought - after by shell collectors . these gastropods have evolved as deadly predators , however ; a single puncture from their venomous radula ( modified tooth ) can rapidly paralyze and even kill a human . of course , coneshells evolved not to defend themselves against collectors , but to efficiently kill prey , such as the blueband goby .\nthe rock goby gobius paganellus is one of the most common gobiid fish on the southern tunisian coast and this study provides the first detailed information on its reproductive biology in the gulf of gabes . a total of 356 males ( 8 . 9 - 14 cm total length , tl ) and 273 females ( 9 . 1 - 14 . 3 cm tl ) were analyzed . specimens were dissected and their gonads and livers were removed . mean size at sexual . . . [ show full abstract ]\n] ) , females now resort to courting smaller males ( several females were seen courting small males in the late breeding season ( july ) , while early in the breeding season ( may ) we only observed males courting females . pers . obs . a . c . utne - palm and m . hordnes during a transect snorkeling survey at the same study sites , 2008 ) . in contrast , such a size related tactic change over the breeding season was not found in the sand goby (\ngrass gobies are external fertilizers , meaning that both sexes release their gametes into the aquatic environment where fertilization takes place . this characteristic allowed the researchers to separate sperm and seminal fluid and set up a reciprocal experimental design in which sperm performance is tested in different seminal fluid environments ( table 1 ) . using this design , they tested sperm performance ( swimming speed ) in the presence of a single type of seminal fluid from either males with the same or different mating strategies . they also performed a second experiment in which sperm from either \u2018guard\u2019 or \u2018sneaker\u2019 males was exposed to a mixture of seminal fluid from both type of males , which more closely mimics the environment of competing sperm .\nin birds , traits associated with good genes and those associated with paternal care are not necessarily the same ( m\u00f8ller and jennions , 2001 ; soler et al . , 1998a ) . in the sand goby , females do not invite sneaker males to sneak ( svensson , 2004 ) , and they probably have no control over parasitic fertilizations . therefore , in contrast to many birds , indirect benefits such as good genes or genetic compatibility have to be provided by the same individual as the direct benefits . this abolishes the potential intersexual conflict between females and nest - holding males over simultaneous parasitic spawnings .\nmale behaviors used in the statistical analyses are the time the males spent ( 1 ) completely inside the nest , ( 2 ) with head visible in nest opening , ( 3 ) outside the nest , ( 4 ) fanning ( with head visible in nest opening ) , and ( 5 ) displaying toward female ( outside the nest ) ; as well as the number of bouts the males performed ( 6 ) nest building from the inside of the nest , ( 7 ) nest building from the outside of the nest , and ( 8 ) rubbing the anal - urogenital area toward the ceiling inside the nest . the sand goby male prepares mucus trails by rubbing the anal - urogenital area ( personal observation ) .\na study from the west coast of sweden , [ 19 ] ( where we find the traditionally reported size dimorphism \u2642 > \u2640 ) previously showed that over the short breeding season of the two - spotted goby there was a transition from a strong male\u2013male competition with intensive courting males in the beginning of the season to a strong female\u2013female competition with actively courting females towards the end of the season . this observation has recently been supported by further studies in the same location ( gullmarsfjorden , west coast of sweden ) , reporting that i ) the size of nest holding males decreased over the season\u2014indicating a decrease in male\u2014male competition [ 20 ] , and ii ) courtship is typically initiated by males and terminated by females early in the season , while the opposite pattern is found late in the season [ 21 ] .\nin svensson and kvarnemo ( 2003 ) , sand goby males built much smaller nest openings in the presence of sneaker males , suggesting that the nest opening may work as a defense or camouflage against sneaker males . however , we have found no behavioral or genetic support for this to be true ( svensson , 2004 ) . similarly , in the azorean rock - pool blenny , parablennius sanguinolentus parvicornis , nests in the field with associated satellite males did not have larger openings than nests without satellites . on the other hand , nests with two openings had an associate satellite male much more often than nests with one ( oliveira et al . , 2002 ) . in the present study , we hypothesized that males should be more engaged in nest building when experiencing a sneaker male compared to when not , which was not the case .\nmarine ; brackish ; demersal ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 30 - ? m ( ref . 2058 ) . subtropical ; 47\u00b0n - 28\u00b0n , 6\u00b0w - 42\u00b0e\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 29 . 9 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 115022 ) ; max . reported age : 5 years ( ref . 4696 )\niteroparous , females produce more than one batch of eggs within the breeding season ( ref . 50965 ) .\nmiller , p . j . , 1979 . gobiidae . p . 483 - 515 . in j . c . hureau and th . monod ( eds . ) check - list of the fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and of the mediterranean ( clofnam ) . unesco , paris . vol . 1 . ( ref . 4345 )\n) : 14 - 20 . 1 , mean 17 . 1 ( based on 26 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00813 ( 0 . 00495 - 0 . 01335 ) , b = 3 . 08 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 22 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tm = 2 - 3 ; fec > 5 , 000 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 55 , 2 sd range = 0 . 29 - 1 . 04 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 6 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 32 , based on : 1 k , 2 tgen , 1 tmax , 4 fec records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 45 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nbulgaria ; croatia ; france ( corsica , france ( mainland ) ) ; greece ( east aegean is . , greece ( mainland ) , kriti ) ; italy ( italy ( mainland ) , sardegna , sicilia ) ; libya ; monaco ; romania ; russian federation ( european russia , south european russia ) ; slovenia ; tunisia ; turkey ( turkey - in - asia , turkey - in - europe ) ; ukraine ( krym , ukraine ( main part ) )\nthe species is locally abundant and assumed to have a stable population , although harvested in some parts of its range .\nthis species is harvested for food in some parts of its range . the species has commercial importance in parts of its range , including in the black sea and in sivash ( berg 1965 ) . miller ( 1986 ) documents tissue contaminants ( pcbs , ddt etc . ) and heavy metal concentrations in fish from greek and italian habitats , which may affect consumers .\nthe species habitat may be impacted locally but there are no known widespread threats .\n. however , it likely occurs in marine protected areas . it was assessed globally as data deficient in 1996 and as least concern in the mediterranean ( abdul malak\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\naegean sea : 22700 - 787 ( 1 spc . ) , may 2000 , bozcaada island , 9 m , l . eryilmaz . inland water : 22700 - 626 ( 1 spc . ) , 1975 , bueyuekcekmece lagoon , istanbul , n . meri\u00e7 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nmaking sense of life as we know it , in the light of evolution .\nhowever , sperm constitute only a small portion of the male ejaculate transferred to females during mating . the rest , up to 90 % , is composed of a myriad of proteins and other compounds that constitute the seminal fluid . in addition to being produced in abundance , seminal fluid proteins are also diverse . for example , scientists have found that males , of many species , produce dozens , if not hundreds , of different types of seminal fluid proteins . so , what then , do all these proteins do ? it turns out that these protein are involved in many different processes that indirectly influence male reproductive success , including influencing female physiology and interacting with a male\u2019s own , as well as rival , sperm .\nthese fascinating results suggest many exciting avenues for future research . for example , from a mechanistic perspective : how exactly does seminal fluid composition vary between \u2018guard\u2019 and \u2018sneaker\u2019 males ? do many different proteins to differ in presence or concentration ? or does variation in one or very few seminal fluid proteins produce the observed differences in sperm performance ? furthermore , from an evolutionary perspective , we can ask : why do the males differ at all ? what constraints keep males from producing both high quality sperm , like the \u2018sneakers\u2019 , and high quality seminal fluid , like the \u2018guards\u2019 ?\nlocatello , l . , f . poli , and m . b . rasotto ( 2013 ) tactic - specific differences in seminal fluid influence sperm performance . proc r soc b 280 : 20122891 .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nthis study was supported by m . u . r . s . t . 60 % .\nfagen rm , young dy ( 1978 ) temporal patterns of behaviors : durations , intervals , latencies , and sequences . in : colgan pw ( ed ) quantitative ethology . wiley , new york , pp 79\u2013114\nhaccou p , meelis e ( 1992 ) statistical analysis of behavioral data . oxford university press , oxford\nkemadjou nijwa jr , muller p , klein r ( 2004 ) variations of sperm release in three batches of zebrafish . j fish biol 64 : 475\u2013482\npall . ( pisces , gobiidae ) in laguna di venezia e osservazioni sulle caratteristiche dei riproduttori . lav soc ven sc nat 27 : 47\u201356\nmarconato a , rasotto mb , mazzoldi c ( 1996 ) on the mechanism of sperm release in three gobiid fishes ( teleostei : gobiidae ) . environ biol fish 46 : 321\u2013327\nparker ga ( 1990 ) sperm competition games : raffles and roles . proc royal soc lond b 242 : 121\u2013126\nscaggiante m , rasotto mb , romualdi c , pilastro a ( 2005 ) territorial male gobies respond aggressively to sneakers but do not ad just their sperm expenditure . behav ecol 16 : 1001\u20131007\nsiegel s , castellan nj ( 1992 ) statistica non parametrica . mcgraw - hill , new york , p 477\nsokal rr , rohlf fj ( 1995 ) biometry , 3rd edn . freeman , new york , p 880\nstoltz ja , neff bd ( 2006 ) sperm competition in a fish with external fertilization : the contribution of sperm number , speed and length . j evol biol , 1873\u20131871\nmalavasi , s . , lugli , m . , torricelli , p . et al . environ biol fish ( 2008 ) 82 : 279 . urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nit is characterized by a squat body , swollen cheeks and big lips . it has not swimming - bladder , thus it can not do long moving and lives on the bottom , to which it sticks by the pelvic fin . the eyes are shifted to the top of the head , to allow a complete vision , even if it is covered with sand .\nmale looks after the eggs : it oxygenates them with its fins , defends from predators , and it cleans them with a germicidal mucus .\nit lives in brackish environment , estuary and lagoons , on the muddy bottoms or in phanerogames prairies .\nfemale goes in the den and lays the eggs sticking them to the stones that constitute the vault of the deg . hatching happens 5 - 6 days after fertilization .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\ndipartimento di biologia , universit\u00e0 di padova , viale g . colombo 3 , 35131 padova , italy e - mail : rasotto @ urltoken tel . : + 39 - 49 - 8276191 ; fax : + 39 - 49 - 8276199\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\naddress correspondence to a . pilastro . e - mail : andrea . pilastro @ urltoken .\ninstead of adjusting sperm expenditure ( evans et al . , 2003 ; pilastro et al . , 2002 ; simmons and kvarnemo , 1997 ) , males could alternatively respond to the presence of competing males by guarding the mate or the nest ( alonzo and warner , 2000a ; birkhead and m\u00f8ller , 1992 ; komdeur , 2001 ; zamudio and sinervo , 2000 ) or making the nest less accessible to sneakers ( svensson and kvarnemo , 2003 ) . evidence of a trade - off between mate guarding and sperm expenditure has been found in some fish species , suggesting that both strategies are expensive in terms of time and / or energy ( candolin and reynolds , 2002 ; henson and warner , 1997 ; marconato et al . , 1996 ; warner et al . , 1995 ) .\nfish were housed at chioggia hydrobiological station of the university of padova . at the end of the experiments they were released back into the wild . housing and experimental procedures have been conducted in accordance with italian national law ( dl116 / 92 ) .\nplan view of the experimental tank ( 60 \u00d7 36 \u00d7 40\u2013cm height ) . the tank was divided in two equal - sized compartments : the compartment of the territorial male contained a plastic nest ( 20 - cm long and with a diameter of 15 cm ) and a ripe female confined into a transparent plexiglas tube . the sneaker compartment contained zero , one , or four competitor sneakers , according to the treatment .\nwe tested all distributions for normality using shapiro - wilks test . some behavioral observations were not normally distributed , and we therefore used log transformation when appropriate . we compared territorial male behavior and sperm expenditure under three conditions , that is , with zero , one , and four sneakers , using a generalized linear model ( glm ) model in which territorial male behavior and sperm expenditure were the dependent variables , number of attending sneakers was the fixed factor , and identity of territorial male was the random factor ( to control for repeated observations ) . the test was repeated for each of the two phases of the experiment ( before and after female introduction ) . probabilities are two tailed . where not otherwise stated , mean \u00b1 se is reported . statistical analyses were performed using spss 12 .\ntime spent patrolling the territory ( time out of the nest , s ) by the territorial male according to the number of sneakers ( zero , one , or four ) and the phase of the experiment . ( a ) after the introduction of the sneakers and before the introduction of the female ( s out of nest 20 min \u22121 ) ; ( b ) after the introduction of the female ( s out of nest 20 min \u22121 ) . data were log transformed .\ntime spent attacking the sneakers ( i . e . , hitting the transparent divider , s ) by the territorial male according to the number of sneakers ( zero , one , or four ) and the phase of the experiment . ( a ) after the introduction of the sneakers and before the introduction of the female ( s of attack 20 min \u22121 ) ; ( b ) after the introduction of the female ( s of attack 20 min \u22121 ) . data were log transformed .\nthe results of glm in which territorial male behavior was the dependent variable , the number of attending sneakers the fixed factor , and territorial male identity the random factor are shown . interactions were nonsignificant and were removed from the model .\ncourtship behavior and sperm released of territorial male according to the number of sneakers ( zero , one , or four ) . ( a ) courtship rate of territorial male ( seconds of display 20 min \u22121 ) ; ( b ) sperm release ( log of sperm concentration , sperm per milliliter ) by the territorial male . data were log transformed .\neach territorial male was tested in the three conditions ( with zero , one , and four attending sneakers ) .\nwe wish to thank the staff of the chioggia hydrobiological station for their kind support during the experiments and chris petersen , tommaso pizzari , and three anonymous referees for commenting on various versions of the manuscript . this study has been partially supported by institutional research grants ( ex60 % ) from the university of padova and grants from the italian ministry for research and university ( cofin2000 ) to a . p . and m . b . r .\na . allocation to mate guarding or increased sperm production in a mediterranean wrasse .\nb . female choice , conflict between the sexes and the evolution of male alternative reproductive behaviours .\n. sperm competition games : inter - and intra - species results of a continuous external fertilization model .\n. sperm competition in birds : evolutionary causes and consequences . london : academic press .\n. male mating behavior and ejaculate expenditure under sperm competition risk in the eastern mosquitofish .\n. associations between body size , mating pattern , testis size and sperm lengths across butterflies .\n. i pesci delle acque interne italiane . rome : istituto poligrafico e zecca dello stato .\n. male and female alternative reproductive behaviors in fishes : a new approach using intersexual dynamics .\n. mate guarding in the seychelles warbler is energetically costly and adjusted to paternity risk .\n. on the mechanism of sperm release in three gobiid fishes ( teleostei : gobiidae ) .\n. is sperm cheap ? limited fertility and female choice in the lemon tetra ( pisces , characidae ) .\n. sperm competition and the evolution of ejaculates : towards a theory base . in : sperm competition and sexual selection ( birkhead tr , m\u00f8ller ap , eds ) . london : academic press ; 1\u201354 .\n. sperm competition games : individual assessment of sperm competition intensity by group spawners .\n. sperm competition and the evolution of animal mating systems . london : academic press .\n. sperm competition in fishes : the evolution of testis size and ejaculate characteristics .\n. sexual conflict : males with highest mating success convey the lowest fertilization benefits to females .\n. fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . paris : unesco .\n. polygyny , mate - guarding , and posthumous fertilization as alternative male mating strategies .\nadepartment of biology , university of padova , via u . bassi 58 / b , i - 35131 padova , italy\nbcribi biotechnology centre , university of padova , via u . bassi 58 / b , i - 35131 padova , italy\n\u00a9 the author 2005 . published by oxford university press on behalf of the international society for behavioral ecology . all rights reserved . for permissions , please e - mail : journals . permissions @ urltoken\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nthis study aims to extend the current knowledge on biology aspects , such as age and growth , to the gulf of gabes ( southeast of tunisia ) . the determination of the von bertalanffy growth parameters of\u2026\n[ more ]\ndiet shifts of gobius paganellus ( teleostei , gobiidae ) from the gulf of gabes ( central mediterranean . . .\nthe aim of this paper is to describe the diet of the population of gobius paganellus from the gulf of gabes , looking at seasonal and ontogenetic shifts and identifying the main preys . this species is an intertidal fish sparsely distributed on the tunisian coast . a total of 629 specimens with total lengths ranging from 8 . 9 to 14 . 3 cm were captured on the gulf of gabes . in the laboratory , the tl . . . [ show full abstract ]\nzosterisessor ophiocephalus is currently an important component of the eastern mediterranean inshore fisheries . in tunisia it was recorded for the first time in the gulf of gabes in 1993 , where it is now an important fished species . in this study age and growth parameters were determined in the gulf of gabes ( southeast of tunisia ) based on otolith analysis of 824 specimens caught between . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe retinal vascularization of zosterisessor ophiocephalus is described by scanning electron microscopy of vascular corrosion casts . the retina is vascularized sclerad by the choroidal body and the choriocapillaris , and vitread by the lentiform body and by a dense network of hyaloid vessels . in the bodies there is a parallel arrangement of capillaries indicating a counter current exchange mechanism . the well developed vascularization and its correlation with the hypoxic conditions of the muddy habitat of the species are discussed .\nali , m . a . , m . anctil & h . m . mohideen . 1968 . structure r\u00e9tinienne et la vascularization intraoculaire chez quelque poissons marins de la r\u00e9gion de gasp\u00e9 . can . j . zool . 46 : 729\u2013745 .\nanctil , m . 1968 . intraocular vascular supply in some marine teleosts . rev . can . biol . 27 : 347\u2013355 .\nbarnett , c . h . 1951 . the structure and function of the choroidal gland in teleostean fish . j . anat . 85 : 113\u2013119 .\ncollin , s . p . 1989 . topographic organization of the ganglion cell layer and intraocular vascularization in the retinae of two teleosts . vision res . 29 : 765\u2013775 .\ncopeland , d . e . 1980 . functional vascularization of the teleost eye . pp . 219\u2013280 .\n: j . a . zadunaisky & h . davson ( ed . ) current topics in eye research , volume 3 , academic press , new york .\nfonner , d . b . , j . r . hoffert & p . o . fromm . 1973 . the importance of the counter current oxygen multiplier mechanism in maintaining retinal function in the teleost . comp . biochem . physiol . 46a : 559\u2013567 .\nhanyu , i . 1959 . on the falciform process , vitreal vessels and other structures of the teleost eye . i . various types and their interrelationship . bull . japan . soc . sci . fish . 25 : 595\u2013613 .\nkenchington , w . & s . choy . 1989 . enhanced vascularization of the central nervous system in two species of mud - burrowing fish . env . biol . fish . 24 : 237\u2013240 .\nlametschwandter , a . , u . lametschwandter & t . weiger . 1984 . scanning electron microscopy of vascular corrosion caststechnique and applications . scan . electron . microscopy ii : 663\u2013695 .\nlazzari , m . , v . franceschini , g . minelli & f . ciani . 1993 . choroidal and iris angioarchitecture of the newt \u2014 a scanning electron - microscopic study of vascular corrosion casts . experientia 49 : 277\u2013281 .\nlythgoe , j . n . 1979 . ecology of vision . clarendon press , oxford . 244 pp .\n: p . j . p whitehead , m . - l . bauchot , j . - c . hureau , j . nielsen & e . tortonese ( ed . ) fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean , volume 3 , unesco , paris .\n) study of micro - corrosion casts . cell tissue res . 249 : 101\u2013209 .\n. scanning electron - microscopic study of vascular corrosion casts . cell tissue res . 250 : 465\u2013473 .\nmunk , o . 1970 . on the occurrence and significance of horizontal band - shaped retinal areas in teleosts . vidensk . meddr . dansk . naturh . foren . 133 : 85\u2013120 .\n: coexistence of falciform process and vitreal vessels . env . biol . fish . 36 : 385\u2013388 .\nnegishi , k . & k . sugawara . 1973 . evidence for anoxia sensitivity of the synaptic region at the outer plexiform layer in the fish retina . vision res . 13 : 983\u2013987 .\nnicol , j . a . c . 1989 . the eyes of fishes . clarendon press , oxford . 308 pp .\nof the seas and freshwaters in italy ) . comitato talassografico italiano memoria ccxlii . 169 pp .\n( pallas , 1811 ) ( pisces , gobiidae ) . ph . d . thesis , university of ljubljana , ljubljana , 140 pp .\n, teleostei , gobiidae ) under different light intensities : a behavioural and morphological study . boll . zool . 61 , supp1 . 1994 : 36 .\npagotto , g . & g . campesan . 1980 . abitudini alimentari di specie ittiche della laguna di venezia . i\u00b0 contributo :\n( pallas , 1811 ) ( pisces , gobiidae ) , adulto ( food selection in fish species from the lagoon of venice . ist report :\n( pallas , 1811 ) ( pisces , gobiidae ) , adults ) . atti museo civico storia naturale trieste 32 : 1\u201318 .\nsivak , j . g . & p . i . roth . 1978 . possible role of fundus circulation as an intraocular colour filter in certain fishes . rev . can . biol . 37 : 85\u201390 .\nvernberg , j . b . & f . j . vernberg . 1972 . environmental physiology of marine animals . springer verlag , berlin . 346 pp .\nwittenberg , j . b . & b . a . wittenberg . 1974 . the choroid rete mirabile of the fish eye . i . oxygen secretion and structure : comparison with the swimbladder rete mirabile . biol . bull . 146 : 116\u2013136 .\nota , d . & lahnsteiner , f . environ biol fish ( 1996 ) 45 : 319 . urltoken\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncontributed equally to this work with : a . c . utne - palm , k . eduard\ncopyright : \u00a9 2015 utne - palm et al . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited\ndata availability : the data are all contained within the paper and its supporting information files .\nfunding : this study was funded by the university of bergen through the contributing work of a master student .\nin common with most teleost fishes displaying alternative mating tactics , a conditional tactic seems to be most common in species of the family gobidae . in gobies , larger males usually adopt the dominant mating tactic ( territorial nest holders ) , while the smaller males adopt the parasitic tactic ( sneakers ) [ 12 \u2013 14 ] . even more drastically , some gobies change their sex and hence their reproductive tactic completely [ 15 ] .\nto make it easier to distinguish between the lines in cases where they overlap , the lines for early and late season are placed 0 . 015 units to the left and right on the x - axis , respectively . average lengths related to season are marked with arrows . sample size females n = 600 , males n = 533 .\nthe present study was undertaken to determine firstly , whether the small males discovered in the bergen population display a parasitic spawning tactic . secondly , if so we wanted to determine whether the prevalence of this spawning tactic changes over the course of the breeding season .\nfish samples were collected during the early ( may ) and late ( july ) breeding season in 2006 and 2008 , using a beach seine ( 30 m long , 3 m high , mesh size 3\u20135 mm in the catch area ) . some modifications were made to the seine to ensure that it followed the topography without lifting off the bottom by the macro algae ; this included additional weights to the bottom line and floaters on the top line . to ensure that a true representative sample of nest holding males was collected ( hiding in their nest on the bottom ) one seine net was first set to effectively enclose our sampling area , after which the enclosed area was sampled twice with a second beach seine , before finally the outer seine was hauled in .\nall statistics and plots were performed using r version 3 . 2 . 2 ( r development core team 2015 , urltoken ) . fish size was compared between sex and season by using a linear mixed effects model ( lme ) with the predictor total length of the fish ( cm ) and the two categorical predictors season and sex . station was set as a random effect factor . sample sizes for males and females were 533 and 600 , respectively . demography was investigated by making simple frequency plots of fish lengths depending on sex and season . additionally , for each sex we made size - frequency distributions over early and late season for the 25 % smallest and largest fish , respectively . this allowed us to get a clearer picture of eventual demographic differences between males and females over the season .\nfor male fish , the investment in seminal duct gland ( sdg ) and testes were compared between early and late season , i . e , may vs july . we did this by using five different models to cover the most commonly used methods from earlier studies e . g . [ 24 , 33 ] .\nmodel a , gsi : the response variable was the gonadosomatic index ( gsi ) and the two predictors were total length and season .\nmodel b , sdgi : the response variable was the seminal duct gland index ( sdgi ) and the two predictors were total length and season .\nmodel c , testis mass : the response variable was log ( testis weight ) and the predictors were log ( soma mass ) and season .\nmodel d , sdg : the response variable was log ( seminal duct gland weight ) and the two predictors were log ( soma mass ) and season .\nmodel e , relative investment in sdg : the response variable was log ( seminal duct gland weight / testes weight ) and the two predictors were log ( soma mass ) and season .\nin the models about sdg and testes investment the sample size was reduced from 533 to 506 as we were lacking sdg and testes measurements for 27 of the fish ( due to problems separating the testes and sdg during dissection ) .\ncondition factor was analysed for females and males in one model , allowing for a three way interaction between the predictors ; total length of the fish , season and sex . we used an lme for this purpose and the random effect factor was the same as explained in the models above .\nbased on histological findings on whether the sdgs contained sperm or not we divided the males into either \u201csneakers\u201d ( size range with sperm in sdg ) and \u201cterritorial\u201d males ( size range without sperm in sdg ) for early and late season . finally , we performed a linear regression ( log ( y ) = log ( a ) + b * log ( x ) , where y refers to sdg and testes weight and x to soma weight ) , to look at possible difference in \u201cb\u201d ( slope ) between groups ( sneakers and territorial ) and season [ 33 , 36 , 37 ] .\nall aspects of this study , including field sampling , fish transportation , and killing of fish ( by overdose of ms222 ) , were approved in advance by the animal care committee at the university of bergen . this committee closely follows the strict regulations of the european commission directive for animal used for scientific purposes . collection of fish along the norwegian coast does not require permission . the field collections did not involve endangered or protected species .\nthe comparison of fish size depending on sex and season revealed no interaction between the two predictors , i . e . the change in size when going from early to late season is the same for the two sexes ( lme ; f 1 , 1127 = 1 . 385 , p = 0 . 240 ) . however , there was a significant effect of both sex and season , where the mean size of males is significantly smaller than females ( lme ; f 1 , 1127 = 98 . 185 , p < 0 . 001 , fig 1 ) and mean size is significantly smaller in the early compared to the late breeding season ( lme ; f 1 , 1127 = 22 . 087 , p < 0 . 001 , fig 1 ) . among all male fish sampled in this study , the ones belonging to the size range representing the 25 % smallest males are more represented in the early compared to the late breeding season , with 100 and 33 small males sampled in the early and late breeding season , respectively . the same trend was also observed for the 25 % largest males with 82 and 51 large males in the early and late breeding season , respectively . for females , the 25 % smallest individuals were represented with 92 and 58 females sampled in the early and late breeding season , respectively , while the 25 % largest females , were represented with 66 and 84 females sampled in the early and late breeding season , respectively . thus , our results indicate a higher mortality or a different growth rate among larger males compared to females in the late breeding season .\nthe model for gsi showed a significant interaction between the two predictors total length ( including second order polynomial ) and season ( lme ; f 2 , 498 = 21 . 763 , p < 0 . 001 , fig 2 ) . this indicates that the relationship between gsi and fish length changes from early to late in the breeding season . fig 2 shows that this is mainly due to the high proportion of small fish having high gsi values in the early compared to the late breeding season . this is supported by the treatment contrasts from the model ( the summary output of r ) : early season has significantly higher mean than late season ( contrast between mean of early and late season ; t 498 = 14 . 256 , p < 0 . 001 ) , and the relative decrease in gsi depending on total length is steeper in early compared to late season ( contrasts between first order polynomials of early vs late season ; t 498 = 6 . 483 , p < 0 . 001 ) . the untransformed mean gsi in early and late season is 1 . 981 ( se = 0 . 084 ) and 0 . 778 ( se = 0 . 026 ) , respectively . for a complete list of results from the model see supporting information material ( model a in s1 file ) .\nscatterplots showing gonadosomatic index gsi ( gsi = ( testes weight + sdg weight ) / body weight * 100 ) related to total length for early and late reproductive season .\nthe solid lines represent the mixed effect model . the grey horizontal lines represent the average of the full dataset\u2014independent of season and soma mass . early season has significant higher mean than late season and the relative decrease in gsi depending on total length is steeper in early compared to late season ( for more details see results ) . n = 506 ."]}
{"id": 763, "summary": [{"text": "the sharpsnout stingray or wingfin stingray ( dasyatis geijskesi ) is a species of stingray in the family dasyatidae , found from off venezuela to northern brazil .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it inhabits shallow , brackish water , shifting towards the coast in the dry season and away from it in the rainy season .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "typically measuring 70 cm ( 28 in ) across , this dark brown ray is easily identifiable by its long , projecting snout and elongated , acutely pointed pelvic fins .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "its diet consists of bottom-dwelling invertebrates .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "reproduction is aplacental viviparous , with females bearing one to three pups annually .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "naturally uncommon and slow-reproducing , the sharpnose stingray is under pressure by both artisanal and commercial fisheries , leading the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) to assess it as near threatened . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "sharpsnout stingray", "paragraphs": ["wikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article\nsharpsnout stingray\n.\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - sharpsnout stingray facts\n( online ) - licensed article from wikipedia : the free encyclopedia . accessed\n; the roughtail stingray , d . centroura ( mitchill , 1815 ) ; the wingfin stingray , d . geijskesi boeseman , 1948\nfacts summary : the sharpsnout stingray ( dasyatis geijskesi ) is a species of concern belonging in the species group\nfishes\nand found in the following area ( s ) : brazil , french guiana , guyana , senegal , trinidad and tobago , venezuela . this species is also known by the following name ( s ) : wingfin stingray .\ndasyatis guttata bloch & j . g . schneider , 1801 ( longnose stingray )\ndasyatis margaritella compagno & t . r . roberts , 1984 ( pearl stingray )\nbennett ' s stingray , dasyatis bennetti ( m\u00fcller & henle , 1841 ) .\npale - edged stingray , dasyatis zugei ( m\u00fcller & henle , 1841 ) .\n; the longnose stingray d . guttata ( bloch & schneider , 1801 ) ; the brazilian large - eyed stingray , d . marianae gomes , rosa & gadig , 2000\ndasyatis parvonigra last & w . t . white , 2008 ( dwarf black stingray )\nshort - tail stingray or bull ray , dasyatis brevicaudata ( hutton , 1875 ) .\nround stingray , taeniura grabata ( \u00e9 . geoffroy saint - hilaire , 1817 ) .\nstingray city in grand cayman allows swimmers , snorkelers , and divers to swim with and feed the stingrays .\nhistorical and anecdotal evidence strongly suggest that the once - abundant estuary stingray has declined substantially across its range .\nmeyer , p . 1997 . stingray injuries . wilderness environ med 8 ( 1 ) : 24 - 8 .\nrequirements of the estuary stingray appear to be rather stringent , as significant numbers are only found at particular locations .\na stingray buried in the sand in saba . stingrays can be hard to see when they cover themselves with substrate .\n^ estuary stingray ( 31 august 2007 ) . queensland department of environment and resource management . retrieved 6 november 2011 .\nhave been reported for the southwestern atlantic ( in brazilian waters ) : the southern stingray , d . americana hildebrand & schroeder , 1928\nthe queensland government has listed the estuary stingray on the back on track species prioritisation framework , to facilitate the development of conservation measures .\na stingray in dark waters . stingrays are dangerous for humans because it is hard to see them when they ' re in dark waters .\nwhile not independently valuable as a food source , the stingray ' s capacity to damage shell fishing grounds can lead to bounties being placed on their removal .\nmartin , r . a . 2008 . biology of sharks and rays : stingray city limits . reefquest centre for shark research . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\npassarelli , n . , and a . piercy . 2008 . atlantic stingray . florida museum of natural history , ichthyology department . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nhabitat degradation is another major threat to the estuary stingray , especially given its habitat specificity . its range encompasses some of the most urbanized areas in australia , where there is extensive\ndasyatis ( greek\ndasys\nmeaning rough or dense and\nbatus\nmeaning skate ) is a genus of stingray . the members of the genus neotrygon were formerly included in dasyatis .\n, and the bluntnose stingray , d . say ( lesueur , 1817 ) . the other dasyatid stingrays known from brazil are : the pelagic stingray , pteroplatytrygon violacea ( bonaparte , 1832 ) and the chupare stingray , himantura schmardae ( werner , 1904 ) ( dasyatidae ) ( ribeiro , 1907 , 1923 ; figueiredo , 1977 ; charvet - almeida et . al . , 2000 , gomes & gadig , 2003 ) . the atlantic stingray d . sabina ( lesueur , 1824 ) , according to garman ( 1913 ) , has been recorded from north carolina ( usa ) to brazil . bigelow & schroeder ( 1953 : 376 ) , cited the brazilian record of this species , referring to it as\n. . . probably not on good evidence\n. herein we describe a new species of dasyatis\n\u2191 t . r . roberts , makararaja chindwinensis , a new genus and species of freshwater dasyatidid stingray from upper myanmar , the natural history bulletin of the siam society 54 ( 2006 ) : 285\u2013293 .\nflint , d . , and w . sugrue . 1999 . stingray injuries : a lesson in debridement . new zealand med j 112 ( 1086 ) : 137 - 8 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nalthough edible , stingrays are not a dietary staple and are not considered a high - quality food . however , they are consumed , including fresh , dried , and salted ( mceachran 2004 ) . stingray recipes abound throughout the world , with dried forms of the wings being most common . for example , in singapore and malaysia , stingray is commonly barbecued over charcoal , then served with spicy sambal sauce . generally , the most prized parts of the stingray are the wings , the\ncheek\n( the area surrounding the eyes ) , and the liver . the rest of the ray is considered too rubbery to have any culinary uses .\nthe estuary stingray ( dasyatis fluviorum ) , also called the estuary stingaree or brown stingray , is a species of stingray in the family dasyatidae . endemic to eastern australia , it typically inhabits shallow , mangrove - lined tidal rivers , estuaries , and bays in southern queensland and new south wales . this yellow - brown to olive ray grows to at least 93 cm ( 37 in ) across . it has a diamond - shaped pectoral fin disc and a mostly smooth , whip - like tail bearing both dorsal and ventral fin folds . it can additionally be identified by its long , narrow nostrils and the row of thorns along the midline of its back .\nthe estuary stingray has a diamond - shaped pectoral fin disc about as wide as long , with gently convex anterior margins and broadly rounded outer corners . the snout is wide and triangular , and tapers to a point . the small , widely spaced eyes are immediately followed by the\nhugo ricardo secioso santos , ulisses leite gomes , patricia charvet - almeida ( 2004 ) : a new species of whiptail stingray of the genus dasyatis rafinesque , 1810 from the southwestern atlantic ocean ( chondrichthyes : myliobatiformes : dasyatidae ) . zootaxa 492 , 1 - 12 : 1 - 1 , urltoken\nin the cayman islands , there are several dive sites called stingray city , grand cayman , where divers and snorkelers can swim with large southern stingrays ( dasyatis americana ) and feed them by hand . there is also a\nstingray city\nin the sea surrounding the caribbean island of antigua . it consists of a large , shallow reserve where the rays live , and snorkeling is possible . in belize , off the island of ambergris caye there is a popular marine sanctuary called hol chan . here divers and snorkelers often gather to watch stingrays and nurse sharks that are drawn to the area by tour operators who feed the animals .\n\u2191 p . r . last , b . m . manjaji , and g . k . yearsley , pastinachus solocirostris sp . nov . , a new species of stingray ( elasmobranchii : myliobatiformes ) from the indo - malay archipelago , zootaxa 1040 ( 2005 ) : 1 - 16 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nsantos , h . r . s . and m . r . de carvalho . 2004 . description of a new species of whiptailed stingray from the southwestern atlantic ocean ( chondrichthyes , myliobatiformes , dasyatidae ) . boletim do museu nacional do rio de janeiro , nova s\u00e9rie . zoologia no . 516 : 1 - 24 .\nstingray is the common name for any of the various cartilaginous fish comprising the family dasyatidae , characterized by enlarged and flat pectoral fins continuous with the side of the head , no caudal fin , eyes on the dorsal surface , and narrow , long , and whip - like tail , typically with one or more venomous spines . marine , brackish water , and freshwater species are known .\nstingrays are popular targets of ecotourism . dasyatids are not normally visible to swimmers , but divers and snorkelers may find them in shallow sandy waters . usually very docile , their usual reaction being to flee any disturbance . nevertheless , certain larger species may be more aggressive and should only be approached with caution by humans , as the stingray ' s defensive reflex may result in serious injury or even death .\ndasyatids generally do not attack aggressively or even actively defend themselves . when threatened , their primary reaction is to swim away . however , when attacked by predators or stepped on , the barbed stinger in their tail is whipped up . this attack is normally ineffective against their main predator , sharks . the breaking of the stinger in defense is non - fatal to the stingray , as it will be regrown .\nsome adult rays may be no larger than a human palm , while other species , like the short - tail stingray , may have a body of six feet in diameter , and an overall length , including their tail , of fourteen feet . stingrays can vary from gray to bright red in color and be plain or patterned . dasyatids are propelled by motion of their large pectoral fin ( commonly mistaken as\nwings\n) .\ndepending on the size of the stingray , humans are usually stung in the foot region . surfers or those who enter waters with large populations of stingrays have learned to slide their feet through the sand rather than stepping , as the rays detect this and swim away . stamping hard on the bottom as one treads through murky water will also cause them to swim away . humans who harass stingrays have been known to be stung elsewhere , sometimes leading to fatalities . contact with the stinger causes local trauma ( from the cut itself ) , pain and , swelling from the venom , and possible later infection from bacteria . immediate injuries to humans include , but are not limited to , poisoning , punctures , severed arteries , and possibly death . fatal stings are very rare . on september 4 , 2006 , australian wildlife expert and television personality steve irwin was pierced in the chest by a stingray barb while snorkeling in australia and died shortly after .\nwhile the estuary stingray has gained infamy for consuming farmed shellfish such as oysters , it mainly feeds on crustaceans and polychaete worms . it is aplacental viviparous , with the unborn young sustained to term by maternal histotroph (\nuterine milk\n) . once common , this species has apparently declined across much of its range , likely from a combination of habitat degradation , mortality from commercial and recreational fishing , and persecution by shellfish farmers . as a result , the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has assessed it as vulnerable .\nthis stingray is caught as a bycatch ( hooking , netting and entanglement ) in artisanal and industrial fisheries aimed at large catfish that are present in the amazon estuary . this species is also taken regionally as a secondary option subsistence food source . fishery industries tend to show an interest in large dasyatids as a source of minced fish products , implying that exploitation pressure and population depletion may increase in the future . intrinsic factors probably also represent a threat for this species as to most other elasmobranchs species ( camhi et al . 1998 ) , particularly given this species ' large size and low fecundity .\njustification : this is an amended version of the 2006 assessment to accommodate the change in genus name . a large , relatively uncommon , stingray that is found on the northern coast of south america in the western central and southwest atlantic , mainly in estuarine and coastal areas near the amazon river mouth . very limited data are available about the habitat and ecology of this species . pregnant females are observed with only one to three pups per litter . population trends and dynamics are completely unknown . the species is taken as bycatch by both artisanal and industrial fisheries , which continue to be unregulated . it is used regionally as a subsistence food source but as a secondary option due to its dark ( reddish ) coloured flesh . fishery industries tend to show an interest in large dasyatids as a source of minced fish products , implying that exploitation pressure and population depletion may increase in the future . base - line studies and fishery monitoring are required for this species , but given its inshore occurrence in fished regions , relatively restricted range and habitat , biology and apparent interest to industrial fisheries , the species is assessed as near threatened .\ntreatment for stings includes application of near - scalding water , which helps ease pain by denaturing the complex venom protein , and antibiotics . immediate injection of local anesthetic in and around the wound is very helpful , as is the use of opiates such as intramuscular pethidine . local anesthetic brings almost instant relief for several hours . any warm to hot fluid , including urine , may provide some relief . vinegar and papain are ineffective . ( urine is a folk remedy for box jellyfish stings but is ineffective for such , whereas vinegar is effective for box jellyfish stings . ) pain normally lasts up to 48 hours , but is most severe in the first 30\u201360 minutes and may be accompanied by nausea , fatigue , headaches , fever , and chills . all stingray injuries should be medically assessed ; the wound needs to be thoroughly cleaned , and surgical exploration is often required to remove any barb fragments remaining in the wound . following cleaning , an ultrasound is helpful to confirm removal of all the fragments ( flint and sugrue 1999 ) . not all remnants are radio - opaque ; but x - ray radiography imaging may be helpful where ultrasound is not available .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . , fricke , r . and van der laan , r . ( eds ) . 2016 . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . updated 29 september 2016 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 29 september 2016 ) .\nlast et al . ( 2016 ) placed dasyatis colarensis , d . garouaensis , d . geijskesi , d . margarita , d . margaritella , and urogymnus ukpan within their newly described genus fontitrygon . the two western atlantic species ( f . colarensis and f . geijskesi ) differ significantly from the other taxa in this genus and may prove to be non - congeneric with the four species from western african ( last et al . 2016 ) .\nthis species has a relatively restricted geographic range ( northern atlantic coast of south america ) , ranging from northern brazil to the venezuelan coast , including french guiana , guyana , suriname and trinidad and tobago ( cervig\u00f3n et al . 1992 , uyeno et al . 1983 ) . it is found mainly in the region of influence of the amazon river discharge . during the dry season it is found closer to the shore and is present in the maraj\u00f3 bay region ( authors ' observations ) .\nthis species is not very common as other dasyatid species throughout its distribution range . population size , trends and dynamics remain unknown for this species .\nresearch actions are required for this species . preliminary base - line studies are in progress to obtain further data on the biology , ecology , uses and fishery data of this species . captures should also be monitored to observe if they are within a sustainable range and to verify if there are tendencies of increase . industries that recently began processing minced fish products are very likely to show an interest for this species as for other dasyatids . habitat maintenance and conservation are desired for most coastal species that are likely to be susceptible to environmental changes . education and public awareness could also contribute to the understanding that future increases in catches should be carefully studied and monitored . the development and implementation of management plans ( national and / or regional e . g . , under the fao international plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks : ipoa - sharks ) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region . see anon . ( 2004 ) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of f . geijskesi .\ncharvet - almeida , p . & de almeida , m . p . 2016 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmarine ; brackish ; demersal ; depth range 5 - 80 m ( ref . 114953 ) , usually 5 - 25 m ( ref . 5217 ) . tropical\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 150 cm wd male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5217 ) ; common length : 70 . 0 cm wd male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5217 )\ndisc is narrowly projecting to snout , pelvic fins with long anterior margins . narrowly pointed falcate outer corners . upper surface dark brown , lower surface pale with darker margins and teeth as yellowish white ( ref . 6902 ) .\nfound in shallow waters on sandy bottoms generally between 5 and 25 m depth . reported from a depth of 810 m ( ref . 13608 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 ) .\nexhibit ovoviparity ( aplacental viviparity ) , with embryos feeding initially on yolk , then receiving additional nourishment from the mother by indirect absorption of uterine fluid enriched with mucus , fat or protein through specialised structures ( ref . 50449 ) . distinct pairing with embrace ( ref . 205 ) .\ncervig\u00f3n , f . , r . cipriani , w . fischer , l . garibaldi , m . hendrickx , a . j . lemus , r . m\u00e1rquez , j . m . poutiers , g . robaina and b . rodriguez , 1992 . fichas fao de identificaci\u00f3n de especies para los fines de la pesca . gu\u00eda de campo de las especies comerciales marinas y de aquas salobres de la costa septentrional de sur am\u00e9rica . fao , rome . 513 p . preparado con el financiamento de la comisi\u00f3n de comunidades europeas y de norad . ( ref . 5217 )\n) : 27 - 28 . 3 , mean 27 . 6 ( based on 302 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5156 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00646 ( 0 . 00274 - 0 . 01522 ) , b = 3 . 11 ( 2 . 90 - 3 . 32 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 7 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( assuming fecundity < 100 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : very high vulnerability ( 90 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n2 . land / water management - > 2 . 1 . site / area management 3 . species management - > 3 . 1 . species management - > 3 . 1 . 1 . harvest management 3 . species management - > 3 . 1 . species management - > 3 . 1 . 2 . trade management 4 . education & awareness - > 4 . 1 . formal education 4 . education & awareness - > 4 . 3 . awareness & communications\n5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 4 . fishing & harvesting aquatic resources - > 5 . 4 . 3 . unintentional effects : ( subsistence / small scale ) [ harvest ] \u2666 timing : ongoing 5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 4 . fishing & harvesting aquatic resources - > 5 . 4 . 4 . unintentional effects : ( large scale ) [ harvest ] \u2666 timing : ongoing\n0 . root - > 100 . 1 . old 1 . 1 . 1 - policy - base actions - > management plans - > development 1 . research - > 1 . 2 . population size , distribution & trends 1 . research - > 1 . 3 . life history & ecology 1 . research - > 1 . 6 . actions 3 . monitoring - > 3 . 1 . population trends\nanonymous . 1979 . groot surinaams kookboek met exotische creoolse , hindoestaanse , indonesische , chinese en europese recepten . stichting eerste surinaamse huishoud en nijverheidsschool te paramaribo .\nanonymous . 2004 . report on the implementation of the un fao international plan of action for sharks ( ipoa\u2013sharks ) . ac20 inf . 5 . twentieth meeting of the cites animals committee , johannesburg ( south africa ) , 29 march\u20132 april 2004 .\nboesman , m . 1948 . some preliminary notes on surinam sting rays , including the description of a new species . zoologische mededeelingen 31\u201347 .\nbor , p . h . f . 2002 . nederlandse naamlijst van de recente haaien en roggen ( chondrichthyes : elasmobranchii ) van de wereld . urltoken\ncamhi , m . , fowler , s . , musick , j . br\u00e4utigam , a . and fordham , s . 1998 . sharks and their relatives : ecology and conservation . occasional paper of the iucn species survival commission 20 .\ncervig\u00f3n , f . , cipriani , r . , fischer , w . , garibaldi , l . , hendrickx , m . , lemus , a . j . and claro , r . 1994 . caracter\u00edsticas generales de la ictiofauna . in : r . claro ( ed . ) ecolog\u00eda de los peces marinos de cuba . pp : 55\u201370 . instituto de oceanolog\u00eda de la academia de ciencias de cuba y centro de investigaciones de quintana roo .\ncervig\u00f3n , f . , cipriani , r . , fischer , w . , garibaldi , l . , hendrickx , m . , lemus , a . j . , m\u00e1rquez , r . , poutiers , j . m . , robaina , g . and rodriguez , b . 1992 . fichas fao de identificaci\u00f3n de especies para los fines de la pesca . gu\u00eda de campo de las especies comerciales marinas y de aquas salobres de la costa septentrional de sur am\u00e9rica . preparado con el financiamento de la comisi\u00f3n de comunidades europeas y de norad . food and agricultural organization of the united nations ( fao ) , rome , italy .\ncharvet - almeida , p . 2001 . ocorr\u00eancia , biologia e uso das raias de \u00e1gua doce na ba\u00eda de maraj\u00f3 ( par\u00e1 , brasil ) , com \u00eanfase na biologia de plesiotrygon iwamae ( chondrichthyes : potamotrygonidae ) . masters dissertation . bel\u00e9m , museu paraense em\u00edlio goeldi & universidade federal do par\u00e1 .\ncompagno , l . j . v . 1999 . checklist of living elasmobranchs . in : w . c . hamlett ( ed . ) sharks , skates , and rays : the biology of elasmobranch fishes . john hopkins university press , maryland . p . 471 - 498 .\niucn . 2016 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2016 - 3 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 07 december 2016 ) .\niucn ssc shark specialist group . specialist group website . available at : urltoken .\nlast , p . r . , naylor , g . j . p . and manjaji - matsumoto , b . m . 2016 . a revised classification of the family dasyatidae ( chondrichthyes : myliobatiformes ) based on new morphological and molecular insights . zootaxa 4139 ( 3 ) : 345 - 368 . urltoken\nuyeno , t . , matsuura k . and fujii , e . ( eds ) 1983 . fishes trawled off suriname and french guiana . japan marine fishery resource research center , tokyo , japan .\nthis article is only an excerpt . if it appears incomplete or if you wish to see article references , visit the rest of its contents here .\nthe tasmanian devil is endemic to australia . although this species is called tiger ( named for its stripes ) and wolf ( due to its canid - like appearance ) , it is not a member of the cat or wolf family . it is a member of the marsupial family . other members of this family include kangaroos and koala bears .\nthe last known tasmanian tiger died in a zoo in hobart , tasmania in 1936 , but there have been hundreds of unconfirmed sightings , and a reserve has been set up in southwestern tasmania in the hopes that possible surviving individuals can have adequate habitat .\nlist of all endangered animals . list of all endangered plants . list of all endangered species ( animals & plants ) . by species group ( mammal , birds , etc ) . . . united states endangered species list . browse by country , island , us state . . . search for an endangered species profile .\nare you inspired by endangered animals ? check out our games and coloring pages ! more to come soon .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhome | wild files | n . h . animals | animals a - z | watch online\nthere are around 69 species in this family . most species are found in shallow tropical and subtropical oceans around the world , although some species in africa and south america are found in rivers and lakes .\nthey have rounded or oval shaped pectoral fins and long , whip - like tails with one or more poisonous barbed spines on the near the base of their tails . they have small mouths , no anal fin , and no caudal fin .\nmost of the species in this family spend their time partially buried under the sand or mud on the ocean floor . they use their pectoral fins to stir up worms , crustaceans , and mollusks . they are viviparous . that means they give birth to live young .\nleast concern near threatened vulnerable endangered critically endangered extinct in the wild extinct status and range is taken from icun redlist . if no status is listed , there is not enough data to establish status .\ndisc very thin , rhomboidal , about as wide as long , angular at front , outer and rear corners abruptly rounded or angular ; snout long , protruding beyond front margin of disc , its length > 4 times distance between eyes ; pelvic fins very wide and pointed laterally ; nostrils with a large fringed curtain between them and the mouth ; floor of the mouth has fleshy papillae ; teeth with low oval or angular crowns ; tail long and slender , ending in a point ; tail base broad , depressed ; 1 large , serrated , venomous spine on top of tail ; no tail fin or dorsal fins , tail without dorsal keel behind the spine and with a ventral fleshy ridge , height of the ventral ridge \u00bd that of height of the tail above it ; a single row of tubercles along the midline of the back from the nape to the tail base .\nevi , an amazon company , was founded in 2005 under the name true knowledge . the team started out with a mission to make it possible to access the world ' s knowledge simply by asking for information using natural language .\nwe\u2019re part of the amazon alexa team based in amazon ' s innovative cambridge development centre , alongside other amazon teams including prime air , core machine learning , amazon devices and amazon web services .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\nvolume 107 , number 1 , pages 19 - 30 , doi : 10 . 3354 / dao02661\naccess to full text articles is controlled by ip number or by user password .\nif you have a user - id and password , please enter them above .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\nthis study proved the illegal commercialization of pristis perotteti , a critically endangered sawfish species in brazil .\ndna sequences of two mitochondrial genes were highly effective to discriminate 12 ray and eight shark species .\nthis molecular approach can be used in authenticity and forensics of food products derived from this fish group .\npristis perotteti , the largetooth sawfish , is one of most endangered elasmobranchs because of fisheries and habitat degradation . its commercialization in brazil is prohibited , but fresh or salted fillets of this fish can be found in markets , labeled as \u201csharks\u201d . in this study we performed genetic analyses on \u201cshark\u201d samples from two important fishery - trading ports in northern brazil ( vigia and bragan\u00e7a ) . based on partial dna sequences of the mitochondrial 16s and cyt b genes , 24 ( 55 % ) out of 44 samples were unequivocally identified as p . perotteti while the others comprised eight species of the families carcharhinidae and ginglymostomatidae . these results show that fishing surveillance and monitoring have not been effective to prohibit the commercialization of this highly endangered species .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\ncomprises 37 species and occurs worldwide ( compagno , 1999a , b and gomes et al . 2000 ) . six species of dasyatis\ndepth range based on 2708 specimens in 28 taxa . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 963 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 0 - 479 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 7 . 337 - 28 . 215 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 072 - 19 . 966 salinity ( pps ) : 31 . 668 - 37 . 612 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 1 . 746 - 6 . 538 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 047 - 1 . 601 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 756 - 35 . 349 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 0 - 479 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 7 . 337 - 28 . 215 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 072 - 19 . 966 salinity ( pps ) : 31 . 668 - 37 . 612 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 1 . 746 - 6 . 538 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 047 - 1 . 601 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 756 - 35 . 349 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\ndepth range based on 1 specimen in 1 taxon . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 4 - 4 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nsepkoski , jack ( 2002 ) .\na compendium of fossil marine animal genera ( chondrichthyes entry )\n. bulletins of american paleontology 364 : 560 .\nfroese , rainer , and daniel pauly , eds . ( 2013 ) . species of dasyatis in fishbase . august 2013 version .\nlast , p . r . & white , w . t . ( 2013 ) : two new stingrays ( chondrichthyes : dasyatidae ) from the eastern indonesian archipelago . zootaxa , 3722 ( 1 ) : 1\u201321 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n) : 27 - 28 . 3 , mean 27 . 6 ( based on 302 cells ) . phylogenetic diversity index ( ref .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00646 ( 0 . 00274 - 0 . 01522 ) , b = 3 . 11 ( 2 . 90 - 3 . 32 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref .\n) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( assuming fecundity < 100 ) .\nsome preliminary notes on surinam sting rays , including the description of a new species .\n( boeseman , 1948 ) : in : database of modern sharks , rays and chimaeras , www . shark - references . com , world wide web electronic publication , version 07 / 2018\ndisc is narrowly projecting to snout , pelvic fins with long anterior margins . narrowly pointed falcate outer corners . upper surface dark brown , lower surface pale with darker margins and teeth as yellowish white\ndemersal ; brackish ; marine ; depth range 5 - 25 m ( ref .\nhost - parasite list / parasite - host list ( version : 01 . 04 . 2015 ) 544 pp , 5 , 37 mb new !\necologically , stingrays are important components of aquatic food chains , consuming mollusks , crustaceans , tube anemones , amphipods , and small fish , while being preyed upon by a multitude of sharks , such as the white , tiger , and bull sharks , and even alligators in the case of freshwater species ( passarelli and piercy 2008 ) . while they provide some culinary value for humans , one of their chief values may be more internal\u2014the wonder and beauty provided by their unique form , swimming behavior , and colors .\nstingrays are members of the chondrichthyes or\ncartilaginous fishes ,\na major class of jawed fish that includes the sharks , rays , and skates . members of chondrichthyes are characterized by skeletons made of rubbery cartilage rather than bone , as in the bony fishes . the chondrichthyans have jaws , paired fins , paired nostrils , scales , and two - chambered hearts . two subclasses of chondrichthyes are recognized , elasmobranchii ( sharks , rays , and skates ) and holocephali ( chimaera , sometimes called ghost sharks ) .\ntaxonomy for levels between elasmobranchii and genera is unsettled , with diverse taxonomies . for example , some classifications consider the sharks a sister group with the rays and skates , placing these two groups into different superorders , while other classifications place the rays and skates as a subsection of the sharks ( mceachran 2004 ) . that is , some view sharks and rays together forming a monophyletic group , and sharks without rays a paraphyletic group , while others see sharks sharing a common ancestor with rays and skates as sister groups ( nelson 2004 ) .\nthe same taxonomic diversity is apparent at the level of the family dasyatidae . dasyatidae is variously placed in the order rajiformes ( agbayani 2004 ) , or in the order myliobatiformes ( passarelli and piercy , 2008 ) . this is because in some classifications the order rajiformes is split into two or three orders , with myliobatiformes being an extra order and including the traditional rajiformes families of dasyatidae ( stingrays ) , gymnuridae ( butterfly rays ) , mobulidae ( manta rays ) , myliobatidae ( eagle rays ) , and others ( itis 2004 ) .\nfurthermore , what genera and families are included in dasyatidae vary with taxonomic scheme . nelson ( 1994 ) recognizes two subfamilies , dasyatinae ( stingrays or whiprays ) and potamotrygoninae ( river sitngrays ) , and he recognizes nine genera , as does agbayani ( 2004 ) . itis ( 2004 ) elevates the second subfamily of river stingrays ( which are the freshwater rays in south america ) to the family level as potamotrygonidae , recognizing six genera .\nunless otherwise stated , this article will follow the narrower view of dasyatidae of itis ( 2004 ) , which will be equivalent to subfamily dasyatinae of nelson ( 1994 ) .\nin stingrays , as with all rays in the traditional order rajiformes , the anterior edge of the pectoral fin , which is greatly enlarged , is attached to the side of the head anterior to the gill openings ( nelson 1994 ) . they also have ventral gill openings , and the eyes and spiracles are on the dorsal surface ( nelson 1994 ) . in addition , they lack an anal fin and lack a nictitating membrane with the cornea attached directly to the skin around the eyes ( nelson 1994 ) .\nin members of dasyatidae\u2014subfamily dasyatinae , in nelson 1994\u2014the disc is less than 1 . 3 times as broad as it is long ( nelson 1994 ) . they lack a caudal fin and the tail is long , with the distance from the cloaca to the tip much longer than the breadth of the disc ( nelson 1994 ) .\ndasyatids are common in tropical coastal waters throughout the world , and there are fresh water species in asia ( himantura sp . ) , africa , and florida ( dasyatis sabina ) . nelson ( 1994 ) reports that several tropical species of dasyatidae ( subfamily dasyatinae ) are known only from freshwater , and some marine species are found in brackish and freshwater on occasion .\ntheir stinger is a razor - sharp , barbed , or serrated cartilaginous spine , which grows from the ray ' s whip - like tail ( like a fingernail ) , and can grow as long as 37 centimeters ( about 14 . 6 inches ) . on the underside of the spine are two grooves containing venom - secreting glandular tissue . the entire spine is covered with a thin layer of skin called the integumentary sheath , in which venom is concentrated ( meyer 1997 ) . the venom contains the enzymes 5 - nucleotidase and phosphodiesterase , which breakdown and kill cells ; and the neurotransmitter serotonin , which provokes smooth - muscle contractions ( layton 2008 ) . this venomous spine gives them their common name of stingrays ( a compound of\nsting\nand\nray\n) , but the name can also be used to refer to any poisonous ray .\nstingrays may also be called the\nwhip - tailed rays ,\nthough this usage is much less common .\na group or collection of stingrays is commonly referred to as a\nfever\nof stingrays .\nthe flattened bodies of stingrays allow them effective concealment in sand . smell and electro - receptors are used to locate prey , similar to those of sharks . some sting rays ' mouths contain two powerful , shell - crushing plates , while some species only have sucking mouth parts . rays settle on the bottom while feeding , sometimes leaving only their eyes and tail visible . coral reefs are favored feeding grounds and are usually shared with sharks during high tide .\nmating season occurs in the winter . when a male is courting a female , he will follow her closely , biting at her pectoral disc . during mating , the male will go on top of the female ( his belly on her back ) and put one of his two claspers into her vent ( martin 2008 ) .\nmost rays are ovoviviparous , bearing live young in\nlitters\nof five to ten . the female holds the embryos in the womb without a placenta . instead , the embryos absorb nutrients from a yolk sac , and after the sac is depleted , the mother provides uterine milk ( passarelli and piercy 2008 ) .\nin addition to their ecological role in aquatic food chains , stingrays offer a number of values to humans , in terms of food , various products , and ecotourism .\nthe skin of the ray is rough and can be used as leather ( mceachran 2004 ) . the skin is used as an underlayer for the cord or leather wrap ( ito ) on japanese swords ( katanas ) due to its hard , rough texture that keeps the braided wrap from sliding on the handle during use . native american indians used the spines of stingrays for arrowheads , while groups in the indo - west pacific used them as war clubs ( mceachran 2004 ) .\nmany tahitian island resorts regularly offer guests the chance to\nfeed the stingrays and sharks .\nthis consists of taking a boat to the outer lagoon reefs then standing in waist - high water while habituated stingrays swarm around , pressing right up against a person seeking food .\nwhile most dasyatids are relatively widespread and unlikely to be threatened , there are several species ( for example , taeniura meyeni , dasyatis colarensis , d . garouaensis , and d . laosensis ) where the conservation status is more problematic , leading to them being listed as vulnerable or endangered by iucn . the status of several other species are poorly known , leading to them being listed as data deficient .\nhimantura hortlei last , manjaji - matsumoto & kailola , 2006 . [ 1 ]\npacific chupare , himantura pacifica ( beebe & tee - van , 1941 ) .\nwhite - edge freshwater whip ray , himantura signifer ( compagno & roberts , 1982 ) .\npastinachus solocirostris ( last , manjaji & yearsley , 2005 ) . [ 4 ]\n\u2191 p . r . last , m . manjaji - matsumoto , and p . j . kailola , himantura hortlei n . sp . , a new species of whipray ( myliobatiformes : dasyatidae ) from irian jaya , indonesia , zootaxa 1239 ( 2006 ) : 19 - 34 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\n\u2191 m . manjaji - matsumoto and p . j . last , himantura lobistoma , a new whipray ( rajiformes : dasyatidae ) from borneo , with comments on the status of dasyatis microphthalmus , ichthyological research 53 ( 3 ) ( 2006 ) : 291ff . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nagbayani , e . 2004 . family dasyatidae : stingrays . in r . froese and d . pauly ( eds . ) , fishbase . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . 2003a . dasyatidae jordan , 1888 . itis taxonomic serial no . : 160946 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . 2003b . rajiformes . itis taxonomic serial no . : 160806 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . 2004 . myliobatiformes . itis taxonomic serial no . : 649685 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nlayton , j . 2008 . how do stingrays kill ? how stuff works . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nmceashran , j . d . 2004 . rajiformes . in b . grzimek , s . f . craig , d . a . thoney , n . schlager , and m . hutchins . grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , 2nd edition . detroit , mi : thomson / gale . isbn 0787657786 .\nnelson , j . s . 1994 . fishes of the world , 3rd edition . new york : john wiley & sons . isbn 0471547131 .\nnew world encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the wikipedia article in accordance with new world encyclopedia standards . this article abides by terms of the creative commons cc - by - sa 3 . 0 license ( cc - by - sa ) , which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution . credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the new world encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the wikimedia foundation . to cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats . the history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here :\nnote : some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed .\nthis page was last modified on 3 june 2008 , at 13 : 34 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution / share - alike license ; additional terms may apply . see terms of use for details .\na long - snouted species of dasyatis with a broad , almost rounded disk . eyes and spiracle relatively small . tips of pectoral fins bluntly rounded . pre - orbital length much longer than distance between the spiracles ( > 35 % sl ) , with pronounced concave margins of snout . snout pointed and very long . the dorsal surface has a broad patch of medial denticles and a medial line of tubercles . additional denticles on the interorbital space are often present . pelvic fins very short but extremely broad in width , often extending beyond lateral disk margins . ventral finflap low but much more pronounced than dorsal finflap .\nlast , p . r . , naylor , g . j . p . , & manjaji - matsumoto , b . m . 2016 . a revised classification of the family dasyatidae ( chondrichthyes : myliobatiformes ) based on new morphological and molecular insights . zootaxa , 4139 ( 3 ) : 345 - 368 .\nprovisionally placed in the genus fontitrygon by last et al . ( 2016 ) with other large atlantic estuarine rays .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\n. between the long and narrow nostrils , there is a short and broad\nskirt\nof skin with a weakly fringed posterior margin . the small , bow - shaped mouth is surrounded by deep furrows and contains a row of five papillae across the floor , with the outermost pair tiny and set apart from the others . the teeth are small and arranged into pavement - like surfaces . there are five pairs of\nthe tail measures twice as long as the disc , and is broad and flattened at the base . on its upper surface is at least one , often two serrated stinging spines . past the spines , the tail quickly tapers to become whip - like and bears a well - developed keel above and a long , low fin fold beneath . there are wide patches of small\nwith flattened crowns between the eyes and over the middle of the back , along with a midline row of enlarged thorns that become progressively longer until they reach the base of the sting . aside from the thorns at the base , the tail is smooth . this species is yellowish to greenish brown above , lightening towards the disc margins and darkening past the tail spine , and white below . it grows to at least 93 cm ( 37 in ) across , and possibly reaches a width of 1 . 2 m ( 3 . 9 ft ) .\nbut recent observations have shown this is not the case . additional species records from the\nand have sandy to muddy bottoms . this species is rarely found outside these sheltered areas , though it has been recorded to a depth of 28 m ( 92 ft ) in offshore waters . it inhabits marine and\nas well as it has been known to swim upriver beyond the limit of high tide . surface water temperatures within its range vary from 24\u201329 \u00b0c ( 75\u201384 \u00b0f ) in the north to 17\u201323 \u00b0c ( 63\u201373 \u00b0f ) in the south .\nsustained initially by yolk and later by histotroph (\nuterine milk\n) produced by the mother . females probably produce offspring every year .\nthe newborns measure around 11 cm ( 4 . 3 in ) across and 35 cm ( 14 in ) long .\nand in hays inlet ; such fresh or brackish environments may serve as nurseries .\nmales mature at around 41 cm ( 16 in ) across and seven years of age , and females mature at around 63 cm ( 25 in ) across and 13 years of age .\nthis disparity in maturation size between the sexes is among the widest known for stingrays .\nthe maximum lifespan is estimated to be 16 years for males and 23 years for females .\nalthough it is not commercially utilized , it faces a number of other threats . this species is captured incidentally by commercial bottom trawl and\nmortality is exacerbated by the practice of\nspiking\n, in which the ray ' s cranium is pierced with a metal bar or sharpened stick so as to move it . it is also readily caught , and often killed , by\nsurveys in moreton bay have found fishing - related effects , such as embedded hooks and mutilated tails , in over 10 % of the population .\nfinally , this ray ' s reputation for damaging shellfish has led to persecution by commercial shellfish farmers .\n( mpas ) are located within its range , but at present they lack adequate protection from fishing . as this ray remains locally abundant in hervey bay and parts of moreton bay , these areas may become important centers for preserving the species .\nlast , p . r . ; stevens , j . d . ( 2009 ) . sharks and rays of australia ( second ed . ) . harvard university press . pp . 435\u2013436 . isbn 0674034112 .\nlast , p . r . ( 2002 ) .\nfreshwater and estuarine elasmobranchs of australia\n. in fowler , s . l . , t . m . reed and f . a . dipper . elasmobranch biodiversity , conservation and management . iucn . pp . 185\u2013193 . isbn 2831706505 .\nogilby , j . d . ( 25 august 1908 ) .\non new genera and species of fishes\n. proceedings of the royal society of queensland 21 : 1\u201326 .\n^ froese , rainer , and daniel pauly , eds . ( 2010 ) .\ndasyatis fluviorum\nin fishbase . january 2010 version .\npierce , s . j . ; scott - holland , t . b . ; bennett , m . b . ( april 2011 ) .\nreexamination of the trypanorhynch cestode collections of a . e . shipley , j . hornell and t . southwell , with the erection of a new genus ,\n\u2014 conservation status data deficient ( iucn 3 . 1 ) [ 1 ] \u2026\n\u2014 conservation status near threatened ( iucn 3 . 1 ) [ 1 ] \u2026"]}
{"id": 768, "summary": [{"text": "the buka island mosaic-tailed rat or buka island melomys ( melomys spechti ) is a species of rat in oceania .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is endemic to buka island , in the autonomous region of bougainville in northeastern papua new guinea . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "buka island mosaic - tailed rat", "paragraphs": ["dusky mosaic - tailed rat ( m . aerosus ) \u2022 rossel island mosaic - tailed rat ( m . arcium ) \u2022 bannister ' s rat ( m . bannisteri ) \u2022 bougainville mosaic - tailed rat ( m . bougainville ) \u2022 grassland mosaic - tailed rat ( m . burtoni ) \u2022 cape york mosaic - tailed rat ( m . capensis ) \u2022 short - tailed mosaic - tailed rat ( m . caurinus ) \u2022 fawn - footed mosaic - tailed rat ( m . cervinipes ) \u2022 yamdena island mosaic - tailed rat ( m . cooperae ) \u2022 dollman ' s mosaic - tailed rat ( m . dollmani ) \u2022 manusela mosaic - tailed rat ( m . fraterculus ) \u2022 snow mountains grassland mosaic - tailed rat ( m . frigicola ) \u2022 seram long - tailed mosaic - tailed rat ( m . fulgens ) \u2022 riama island mosaic - tailed rat ( m . howi ) \u2022 white - bellied mosaic - tailed rat ( m . leucogaster ) \u2022 papua grassland mosaic - tailed rat ( m . lutillus ) \u2022 manus island mosaic - tailed rat ( m . matambuai ) \u2022 obi mosaic - tailed rat ( m . obiensis ) \u2022 pavel ' s seram mosaic - tailed rat ( m . paveli ) \u2022 bramble cay mosaic - tailed rat ( m . rubicola ) \u2022 black - tailed mosaic - tailed rat ( m . rufescens ) \u2022 buka island mosaic - tailed rat ( m . spechti ) \u2022 long - tailed talaud mosaic - tailed rat ( m . talaudium )\nlarge - scaled mosaic - tailed rat ( m . lanosus ) \u2022 large mosaic - tailed rat ( m . rattoides )\ngressit ' s mosaic - tailed rat ( p . gressitti ) \u2022 long - nosed mosaic - tailed rat ( p . levipes ) \u2022 lorentz ' s mosaic - tailed rat ( p . lorentzii ) \u2022 thomas ' s mosaic - tailed rat ( p . mollis ) \u2022 moncton ' s mosaic - tailed rat ( p . moncktoni ) \u2022 p . naso \u2022 lowland mosaic - tailed rat ( p . platyops ) \u2022 mountain mosaic - tailed rat ( p . rubex ) \u2022 p . steini\nponcelet ' s giant rat ( s . ponceleti ) \u2022 florida naked - tailed rat ( s . salamonis ) \u2022 bougainville naked - tailed rat ( s . salebrosus ) \u2022 isabel naked - tailed rat ( s . sapientis ) \u2022 buka island naked - tailed rat ( s . spriggsarum )\nlarge - toothed hairy - tailed rat ( b . dentatus ) \u2022 luzon hairy - tailed rat ( b . granti ) \u2022 hamiguitan hairy - tailed rat ( b . hamiguitan ) \u2022 dinagat hairy - tailed rat ( b . russatus ) \u2022 mindanao hairy - tailed rat ( b . salomonseni )\nbunn ' s short - tailed bandicoot rat ( n . bunnii ) \u2022 short - tailed bandicoot rat ( n . indica )\nsundaic mountain long - tailed giant rat ( l . ciliatus ) \u2022 edwards ' s long - tailed giant rat ( l . edwardsi ) \u2022 millet ' s long - tailed giant rat ( l . milleti ) \u2022 neill ' s long - tailed giant rat ( l . neilli ) \u2022 long - tailed giant rat ( l . sabanus ) \u2022 mentawai long - tailed giant rat ( l . siporanus )\ndinagat bushy - tailed cloud rat ( c . australis ) \u2022 giant bushy - tailed cloud rat ( c . schadenbergi ) \u2022 panay cloudrunner ( c . heaneyi ) \u2022 ilin island cloudrunner ( c . paulus )\ngiant naked - tailed rat ( u . anak ) \u2022 biak giant rat ( u . boeadii ) \u2022 giant white - tailed rat ( u . caudimaculatus ) \u2022 emma ' s giant rat ( u . emmae ) \u2022 masked white - tailed rat ( u . hadrourus ) \u2022 bismarck giant rat ( u . neobritanicus ) \u2022 king rat ( u . rex ) \u2022 great key island giant rat ( u . siebersi )\nthe fawn - footed mosaic - tailed rat , or fawn - footed melomys ( melomys cervinipes ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae . it is found only in australia .\nlong - tailed shrew rat ( t . macrocercus ) \u2022 tate ' s shrew rat ( t . rhinogradoides )\nthis poorly - known species has been recorded from the islands of bougainville and buka in papua new guinea , and from choiseul island in the solomon islands . the elevational range of the species is unknown .\nnilgiri long - tailed tree mouse ( v . nilagirica ) \u2022 nolthenius ' s long - tailed climbing mouse ( v . nolthenii ) \u2022 asiatic long - tailed climbing mouse ( v . oleracea )\nsouthern giant slender - tailed cloud rat ( p . cumingi ) \u2022 northern luzon giant cloud rat ( p . pallidus )\npalawan pencil - tailed tree mouse ( c . calamianensis ) \u2022 indomalayan pencil - tailed tree mouse ( c . gliroides ) \u2022 koopman ' s pencil - tailed tree mouse ( c . karlkoopmani ) \u2022 large pencil - tailed tree mouse ( c . major ) \u2022 gray - bellied pencil - tailed tree mouse ( c . muroides ) \u2022 small pencil - tailed tree mouse ( c . pusillus )\nloring ' s rat ( t . loringi ) \u2022 black - tailed tree rat ( t . nigricauda ) \u2022 acacia rat ( t . paedulcus ) \u2022 shortridge ' s rat ( t . shortridgei )\ncutch rat ( c . cutchicus ) \u2022 elvira rat ( c . elvira )\ndefua rat ( d . defua ) \u2022 ivory coast rat ( d . eburneae )\nanderson ' s white - bellied rat ( n . andersoni ) \u2022 brahma white - bellied rat ( n . brahma ) \u2022 cameron highlands white - bellied rat ( n . cameroni ) \u2022 chinese white - bellied rat ( n . confucianus ) \u2022 coxing ' s white - bellied rat ( n . coninga ) \u2022 dark - tailed tree rat ( n . cremoriventer ) \u2022 oldfield white - bellied rat ( n . culturatus ) \u2022 smoke - bellied rat ( n . eha ) \u2022 large white - bellied rat ( n . excelsior ) \u2022 montane sumatran white - bellied rat ( n . fraternus ) \u2022 chestnut white - bellied rat ( n . fulvescens ) \u2022 limestone rat ( n . hinpoon ) \u2022 lang bian white - bellied rat ( n . langbianis ) \u2022 narrow - tailed white - bellied rat ( n . lepturus ) \u2022 hainan white - bellied rat ( n . lotipes ) \u2022 white - bellied rat ( n . niviventer ) \u2022 long - tailed mountain rat ( n . rapit ) \u2022 tenasserim white - bellied rat ( n . tenaster )\nred tree rat ( p . melanurus ) \u2022 malayan tree rat ( p . parvus )\nbagobo rat ( b . bagobus ) \u2022 camiguin forest rat ( b . gamay ) \u2022 lagre luzon forest rat ( b . luzonicus )\nsalokko rat ( t . arcuatus ) \u2022 lovely - haired rat ( t . callitrichus ) \u2022 celebes rat ( t . celebensis ) \u2022 sulawesi montane rat ( t . hamatus ) \u2022 small - eared rat ( t . microbullatus ) \u2022 sulawesi forest rat ( t . punicans ) \u2022 tondano rat ( t . taerae )\nbanahao shrew rat ( r . banahao ) \u2022 isarog shrewlike rat ( r . isarogensis ) \u2022 mount data shrew rat ( r . soricoides ) \u2022 tapulao shrew rat ( r . tapulao )\ncentral sulawesi spiny rat ( e . centrosa ) \u2022 sulawesi spiny rat ( e . leucura )\ndelacour ' s marmoset rat ( h . delacouri ) \u2022 marmoset rat ( h . longicaudatus )\ncommon rock rat ( z . argurus ) \u2022 arnhem land rock rat ( z . maini ) \u2022 carpentarian rock rat ( z . palatilis ) \u2022 central rock rat ( z . pedunculatus ) \u2022 kimberley rock rat ( z . woodwardi )\nmuennink ' s spiny rat ( t . muenninki ) \u2022 ryukyu spiny rat ( t . osimensis ) \u2022 tokunoshima spiny rat ( t . tokunoshimensis )\nbeccari ' s margareta rat ( m . beccarii ) \u2022 elegant margareta rat ( m . elegans ) \u2022 little margareta rat ( m . parvus )\nlesser bandicoot rat ( b . bengalensis ) \u2022 greater bandicoot rat ( b . indica ) \u2022 savile ' s bandicoot rat ( b . savilei )\nabyssinian grass rat ( a . abyssinicus ) \u2022 sudanian grass rat ( a . ansorgei ) \u2022 blick ' s grass rat ( a . blicki ) \u2022 nairobi grass rat ( a . nairobae ) \u2022 neumann ' s grass rat ( a . neumanni ) \u2022 african grass rat ( a . niloticus ) \u2022 guinean grass rat ( a . rufinus )\nharrington ' s rat ( d . harringtoni ) \u2022 yalden ' s rat ( d . yaldeni )\nnorthern water rat ( p . rufilatus ) \u2022 short - haired water rat ( p . wilhelmina )\ngray - bellied mountain rat ( l . bryophilus ) \u2022 mindanao mountain rat ( l . sibuanus )\nsloggett ' s vlei rat ( m . sloggetti ) \u2022 bush vlei rat ( m . unisulcatus )\nmirza\u2019s western moss rat ( m . louiseae ) \u2022 mirza\u2019s eastern moss rat ( m . norahae )\nangolan vlei rat ( o . anchietae ) \u2022 angoni vlei rat ( o . angoniensis ) \u2022 barbour ' s vlei rat ( o . barbouri ) \u2022 burton ' s vlei rat ( o . burtoni ) \u2022 cuanza vlei rat ( o . cuanzensis ) \u2022 ruwenzori vlei rat ( o . dartmouthi ) \u2022 dent ' s vlei rat ( o . denti ) \u2022 dollman ' s vlei rat ( o . dollmani ) \u2022 southern african vlei rat ( o . irroratus ) \u2022 mount elgon vlei rat ( o . jacksoni ) \u2022 tanzanian vlei rat ( o . lacustris ) \u2022 laminate vlei rat ( o . laminatus ) \u2022 large vlei rat ( o . maximus ) \u2022 western vlei rat ( o . occidentalis ) \u2022 afroalpine vlei rat ( o . orestes ) \u2022 saunder ' s vlei rat ( o . saundersiae ) \u2022 tropical vlei rat ( o . tropicalis ) \u2022 typical vlei rat ( o . typus ) \u2022 uzungwe vlei rat ( o . uzungwensis )\nluzon striped rat ( c . whiteheadi ) \u2022 mindoro striped rat ( c . mindorensis ) \u2022 isarog striped shrew - rat ( c . gonzalesi ) \u2022 blazed luzon shrew rat ( c . silaceus ) \u2022 sibuyan striped shrew rat ( c . sibuyanensis )\narid thicket rat ( g . aridulus ) \u2022 g . brevirostris \u2022 bunting ' s thicket rat ( g . buntingi ) \u2022 gray - headed thicket rat ( g . caniceps ) \u2022 mozambique thicket rat ( g . cometes ) \u2022 woodland thicket rat ( g . dolichurus ) \u2022 forest thicket rat ( g . dryas ) \u2022 giant thicket rat ( g . gigas ) \u2022 ruwenzori thicket rat ( g . ibeanus ) \u2022 eastern rainforest thicket rat ( g . kuru ) \u2022 macmillan ' s thicket rat ( g . macmillani ) \u2022 ethiopian thicket rat ( g . minnae ) \u2022 shining thicket rat ( g . poensis )\nmountain water rat ( b . habbema ) \u2022 shaw mayer ' s water rat ( b . shawmayeri )\nkemp ' s thicket rat ( t . kempi ) \u2022 hatt ' s thicket rat ( t . major ) \u2022 charming thicket rat ( t . venustus )\nandrew ' s hill rat ( b . andrewsi ) \u2022 yellow - haired hill rat ( b . chrysocomus ) \u2022 heavenly hill rat ( b . coelestis ) \u2022 fraternal hill rat ( b . fratrorum ) \u2022 heinrich ' s hill rat ( b . heinrichi ) \u2022 inland hill rat ( b . penitus ) \u2022 long - headed hill rat ( b . prolatus )\nlong - footed rat ( t . apoensis ) \u2022 spiny long - footed rat ( t . echinatus )\nmountain spiny rat ( m . alticola ) \u2022 small spiny rat ( m . baeodon ) \u2022 bartels ' s spiny rat ( m . bartelsii ) \u2022 dollman ' s spiny rat ( m . dollmani ) \u2022 hellwald ' s spiny rat ( m . hellwaldii ) \u2022 sumatran spiny rat ( m . hylomyoides ) \u2022 malayan mountain spiny rat ( m . inas ) \u2022 fat - nosed spiny rat ( m . inflatus ) \u2022 mo ' s spiny rat ( m . moi ) \u2022 musschenbroek ' s spiny rat ( m . musschenbroekii ) \u2022 chestnut - bellied spiny rat ( m . ochraceiventer ) \u2022 pagai spiny rat ( m . pagensis ) \u2022 palawan spiny rat ( m . panglima ) \u2022 rajah spiny rat ( m . rajah ) \u2022 red spiny rat ( m . surifer ) \u2022 watts ' s spiny rat ( m . wattsi ) \u2022 whitehead ' s spiny rat ( m . whiteheadi )\nethiopian white - footed mouse ( s . albipes ) \u2022 ethiopian narrow - headed rat ( s . albocaudata ) \u2022 gray - tailed narrow - headed rat ( s . griseicauda ) \u2022 rupp ' s mouse ( s . ruppi )\nmountain giant sunda rat ( s . infraluteus ) \u2022 bartels ' s rat ( s . maxi ) \u2022 m\u00fcller ' s giant sunda rat ( s . muelleri )\nglover allen ' s shaggy rat ( d . alleni ) \u2022 crawford - cabral ' s shaggy rat ( d . cabrali ) \u2022 fox ' s shaggy rat ( d . foxi ) \u2022 african marsh rat ( d . incomtus ) \u2022 montane shaggy rat ( d . montanus ) \u2022 angolan marsh rat ( d . nudipes ) \u2022 robert ' s shaggy rat ( d . robertsii ) \u2022 west african shaggy rat ( d . rufulus ) \u2022 rwandan shaggy rat ( d . rwandae ) \u2022 d . shortridgei \u2022 tanzanian shaggy rat ( d . sua )\nmanipur bush rat ( h . humei ) \u2022 h . loujacobsi \u2022 yunnan bush rat ( h . yunnanensis )\ncommon rufous - nosed rat ( o . hypoxanthus ) \u2022 ghana rufous - nosed rat ( o . ornatus )\nlesser small - toothed rat ( m . elegans ) \u2022 eastern small - toothed rat ( m . major )\nlesser stick - nest rat ( l . apicalis ) \u2022 greater stick - nest rat ( l . conditor )\nbrants ' s whistling rat ( p . brantsii ) \u2022 littledale ' s whistling rat ( p . littledalei )\ncansdale ' s swamp rat ( m . cansdalei ) \u2022 edward ' s swamp rat ( m . edwardsi ) \u2022 big - eared swamp rat ( m . longipes )\nde vis ' s woolly rat ( m . aroaensis ) \u2022 alpine woolly rat ( m . gunung ) \u2022 subalpine woolly rat ( m . istapantap ) \u2022 rothschild ' s woolly rat ( m . rothschildi ) \u2022 bosavi woolly rat ( m . sp . nov . ) \u2022 arfak woolly rat ( m . sp . nov . ) \u2022 foja woolly rat ( m . sp . nov . )\nblack - footed tree - rat ( m . gouldii ) \u2022 golden - backed tree rat ( m . macrurus )\nbocage ' s rock rat ( a . bocagei ) \u2022 red rock rat ( a . chrysophilus ) \u2022 grant ' s rock rat ( a . ( micaelamys ) granti ) \u2022 hinde ' s rock rat ( a . hindei ) \u2022 tete veld aethomys ( a . ineptus ) \u2022 kaiser ' s rock rat ( a . kaiseri ) \u2022 namaqua rock rat ( a . ( micaelamys ) namaquensis ) \u2022 nyika rock rat ( a . nyikae ) \u2022 silinda rock rat ( a . silindensis ) \u2022 tinfields rock rat ( a . stannarius ) \u2022 thomas ' s rock rat ( a . thomasi )\nshort - footed luzon tree rat ( c . melanurus ) \u2022 white - bellied luzon tree rat ( c . phaeurus )\nwestern white - eared giant rat ( h . dammermani ) \u2022 eastern white - eared giant rat ( h . goliath )\nsand - colored soft - furred rat ( m . gleadowi ) \u2022 miss ryley ' s soft - furred rat ( m . kathleenae ) \u2022 kondana soft - furred rat ( m . kondana ) \u2022 soft - furred rat ( m . meltada )\nsmall white - toothed rat ( b . berdmorei ) \u2022 bower ' s white - toothed rat ( b . bowersi ) \u2022 kenneth ' s white - toothed rat ( b . mackenziei ) \u2022 manipur white - toothed rat ( b . manipulus )\ncelebes shrew rat ( c . celebensis ) \u2022 northern luzon shrew rat ( c . fallax ) \u2022 mindanao shrew rat ( c . melanius ) \u2022 katanglad shrew mouse ( c . suncoides )\nrakali ( h . chrysogaster ) \u2022 western water rat ( h . hussoni ) \u2022 new britain water rat ( h . neobrittanicus ) \u2022 ziegler ' s water rat ( h . ziegleri )\nbell groove - toothed swamp rat ( p . campanae ) \u2022 creek groove - toothed swamp rat ( p . fallax ) \u2022 hopkins ' s groove - toothed swamp rat ( p . hopkinsi ) \u2022 issel ' s groove - toothed swamp rat ( p . isseli ) \u2022 least groove - toothed swamp rat ( p . minor )\nl . arfakensis \u2022 long - footed water rat ( l . elegans ) \u2022 ernst mayr ' s water rat ( l . ernstmayri ) \u2022 l . paulus \u2022 fly river water rat ( l . signatus )\nthis text was originally published in the book terrestrial ecoregions of the indo - pacific : a conservation assessment from island press . this assessment offers an in - depth analysis of the biodiversity and conservation status of the indo - pacific ' s ecoregions .\nchampion ' s tree mouse ( p . championi ) \u2022 d ' entrecasteaux archipelago tree mouse ( p . fergussoniensis ) \u2022 large tree mouse ( p . loriae ) \u2022 chestnut tree mouse ( p . macrourus ) \u2022 prehensile - tailed rat ( p . mollipilosus ) \u2022 gray - bellied tree mouse ( p . sylvestris )\njustification of ecoregion delineation distinct island groups were placed in their own ecoregions : the solomon islands rain forests [ aa0119 ] and the vanuatu rain forests [ aa0126 ] . we followed stattersfield et al . ( 1998 ) in delineating these ecoregions . mackinnon ( 1997 ) did not extend his assessment beyond the island of bougainville in the solomon islands . however , we followed bouchet et al . ( 1995 ) and separated the distinctive dry forests in new caledonia from the moist forests to delineate the new caledonia rain forests [ aa0113 ] and the new caledonia dry forests [ aa0202 ] . stattersfield et al . ( 1998 ) did not show this distinction .\ndavis et al . ( 1995 ) identified two centres of plant diversity on bougainville island : mt . balbi to southern coast , containing the largest stands of bamboo forest in papuasia and remnant stands of terminalia brassii , and mt . takuan - tonolei harbour , containing natural stands of terminalia brassii and more than 1 , 000 vascular plant species .\nthe solomon islands rain forests [ aa0119 ] are true oceanic islands with high vertebrate endemism , including single - island endemics , restricted - range mammals , and an astounding sixty - nine bird species found nowhere else in the world . large areas of naturally restricted lowlands below 400 m either have been or are under threat of logging or clearance for subsistence agriculture . introduced cats have eliminated most native mammals on guadalcanal .\nturkestan rat ( rattus pyctoris ; obs . rattus turkestanicus ) \u2013 afghanistan , china , india , iran , kyrgyzstan , nepal , and pakistan\nhendrickson , r . ( 1983 ) more cunning than man : a complete history of the rat and its role in civilization , kensington books . isbn 1 - 57566 - 393 - 7 .\nmatthews , i . ( 1898 ) . full revelations of a professional rat - catcher , after 25 years\u2019 experience . 1st ed . manchester : friendly societies printing co . isbn 1 - 905124 - 64 - 3 .\nbishop moss - mouse ( p . berniceae ) \u2022 huon smalltoothed moss - mouse ( p . carlae ) \u2022 laurie\u2019s moss - mouse ( p . eleanorae ) \u2022 one - toothed shrew - mouse ( p . ellermani ) \u2022 mottled - tailed shrew mouse ( p . fuscus ) \u2022 german ' s one - toothed moss mouse ( p . germani ) \u2022 eastern shrew mouse ( p . murinus ) \u2022 musser ' s shrew mouse ( p . musseri ) \u2022 western shrew mouse ( p . occidentalis ) \u2022 woolley\u2019s moss - mouse ( p . patriciae ) \u2022 southern small - toothed moss - mouse ( p . pumehanae ) \u2022 white - bellied moss - mouse ( p . sandrae )\nash - grey mouse ( p . albocinereus ) \u2022 silky mouse ( p . apodemoides ) \u2022 plains rat ( p . australis ) \u2022 bolam ' s mouse ( p . bolami ) \u2022 kakadu pebble - mound mouse ( p . calabyi ) \u2022 western pebble - mound mouse ( p . chapmani ) \u2022 little native mouse ( p . delicatulus ) \u2022 desert mouse ( p . desertor ) \u2022 shark bay mouse ( p . fieldi ) \u2022 smoky mouse ( p . fumeus ) \u2022 eastern chestnut mouse ( p . gracilicaudatus ) \u2022 sandy inland mouse ( p . hermannsburgensis ) \u2022 long - tailed mouse ( p . higginsi ) \u2022 central pebble - mound mouse ( p . johnsoni ) \u2022 western chestnut mouse ( p . nanus ) \u2022 new holland mouse ( p . novaehollandiae ) \u2022 western mouse ( p . occidentalis ) \u2022 hastings river mouse ( p . oralis ) \u2022 country mouse ( p . patrius ) \u2022 pilliga mouse ( p . pilligaensis ) \u2022 heath mouse ( p . shortridgei )\njahn , g . c . , p . cox , s . mak , and n . chhorn ( 1999 )\nfarmer participatory research on rat management in cambodia\n, in g . singleton , l . hinds , h . leirs and zhibin zhang [ eds . ] ecologically - based rodent management aciar , canberra . ch . 17 , pp . 358\u2013371 . isbn 1 - 86320 - 262 - 5 .\np . coetzeei \u2022 dalton ' s mouse ( p . daltoni ) \u2022 de graaff ' s soft - furred mouse ( p . degraaffi ) \u2022 delectable soft - furred mouse ( p . delectorum ) \u2022 deroo ' s mouse ( p . derooi ) \u2022 hartwig ' s soft - furred mouse ( p . hartwigi ) \u2022 jackson ' s soft - furred mouse ( p . jacksoni ) \u2022 lukolela swamp rat ( p . lukolelae ) \u2022 least soft - furred mouse ( p . minor ) \u2022 misonne ' s soft - furred mouse ( p . misonnei ) \u2022 cameroon soft - furred mouse ( p . morio ) \u2022 muton ' s soft - furred mouse ( p . mutoni ) \u2022 gotel mountain soft - furred mouse ( p . obscurus ) \u2022 peter ' s soft - furred mouse ( p . petteri ) \u2022 forest soft - furred mouse ( p . rostratus ) \u2022 tullberg ' s soft - furred mouse ( p . tullbergi ) \u2022 verschuren ' s swamp rat ( p . verschureni )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmusser , guy g . , and michael d . carleton / wilson , don e . , and deeann m . reeder , eds .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vol . 2\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nmelomys bougainville was previously considered to be a subspecies of m . rufescens . there is still some doubt as to whether or not it is distinct from m . rufescens .\njustification : listed as data deficient in view of an absence of recent information on its conservation status and threats as well as continuing doubts as to its taxonomic validity .\nthe natural history of this species has not been recorded . it is suspected to have similar habits to m . rufescens , and occur in disturbed habitats , rural gardens , and possibly within houses ( flannery 1995 ) .\nit is not known if the species is present in any protected areas . further studies are needed into the distribution , habitat , ecology , and threats to this species . there is also some doubt as to whether or not it is distinct from m . rufescens , and further taxonomic research is a priority .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\njavascript has been deactivated in your browser . reactivation will enable you to use the vocabulary trainer and any other programs .\nyou are not signed in . please sign in or register for free if you want to use this function .\nwe are using the following form field to detect spammers . please do leave them untouched . otherwise your message will be regarded as spam . we are sorry for the inconvenience .\nthank you ! your message has now been forwarded to the pons editorial department .\ncollect the vocabulary that you want to remember while using the dictionary . the items that you have collected will be displayed under\nvocabulary list\n.\nif you want to copy vocabulary items to the vocabulary trainer , click on\nimport\nin the vocabulary list .\nplease note that the vocabulary items in this list are only available in this browser . once you have copied them to the vocabulary trainer , they are available from everywhere .\nunique : the editorially approved pons online dictionary with text translation tool now includes a database with hundreds of millions of real translations from the internet . see how foreign - language expressions are used in real life . real language usage will help your translations to gain in accuracy and idiomaticity !\nenter a word ( \u201cnewspaper\u201d ) , a word combination ( \u201cexciting trip\u201d ) or a phrase ( \u201cwith all good wishes\u201d ) into the search box . the search engine displays hits in the dictionary entries plus translation examples , which contain the exact or a similar word or phrase .\nthis new feature displays references to sentence pairs from translated texts , which we have found for you on the internet , directly within many of our pons dictionary entries .\na click on the tab \u201cusage examples\u201d displays a full inventory of translations to all of the senses of the headword . usage examples present in the pons dictionary will be displayed first .\nthe pons dictionary delivers the reliability of a dictionary which has been editorially reviewed and expanded over the course of decades . in addition , the dictionary is now supplemented with millions of real - life translation examples from external sources . so , now you can see how a concept is translated in specific contexts . you can find the answers to questions like \u201ccan you really say \u2026 in german ? \u201d and so , you will produce more stylistically sophisticated translations .\nthe \u201cexamples from the internet\u201d do , in fact , come from the internet . we are able to identify trustworthy translations with the aid of automated processes . the main sources we used are professionally translated company , and academic , websites . in addition , we have included websites of international organizations such as the european union . because of the overwhelming data volume , it has not been possible to carry out a manual editorial check on all of these documents . so , we logically cannot guarantee the quality of each and every translation . this is why they are marked \u201cnot verified by pons editors\u201d .\nwe are working on continually optimizing the quality of our usage examples by improving their relevance as well as the translations . in addition , we have begun to apply this technology to further languages in order to build up usage - example databases for other language pairs . we also aim to integrate these usage examples into our mobile applications ( mobile website , apps ) as quickly as possible .\nthe examples come from the entire data collection of the pons dictionary and are all editorially certified .\nenglish turkish online dictionary tureng , where you can search in more than 2 million words in categories and different pronunciation options .\nthis species is endemic to australia , where it ranges from tropical forests of north - eastern queensland south to central coastal new south wales ( moore and burnett 2008 ) .\nit is found in closed tropical moist forest , semi - deciduous vine thicket , bottle tree scrub , and wooded swamps in queensland , but in the south of its range it also occurs in wet sclerophyll forest and coastal woodlands ; also in mangrove forest . the species can breed throughout the year , with females giving birth to up to three young after a gestation period of about 38 days ( moore and burnett 2008 ) .\nlamoreux , j . ( global mammal assessment team ) & amori , g . ( small nonvolant mammal red list authority )\nlisted as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .\nit is common and often abundant where it occurs . it is less common in new south wales where habitat for the species is limited ( moore and burnett 2008 ) .\nit is present in a number of protected areas . taxonomic work is needed to determine whether this is a species complex .\nthis species has long been commonly known by the descriptive english common name fawn - footed melomys , but during the 1990s there was a push for such names to be replaced with indigenous australian names . accordingly , in 1995 the\npublished recommendations for the common names of rodents . they compiled two indigenous australian names for this species :\nhowever this recommendation was not prescriptive , and it remains to be seen to what extent it will be adopted .\nburnett , s . & winter , j . ( 2008 ) . melomys cervinipes . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 10 october 2008 .\nbraithwaite r . w . et al . ( 1995 ) . australian names for australian rodents . australian nature conservation agency . isbn 0 - 642 - 21373 - 9 .\nmusser , g . g . ; carleton , m . d . ( 2005 ) .\nsuperfamily muroidea\n. in wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . pp . 894\u20131531 . isbn 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 0 . oclc 62265494 .\nh . alleni group : allen ' s wood mouse ( h . alleni )\nh . anselli group : ansell ' s wood mouse ( h . anselli )\nh . baeri group : baer ' s wood mouse ( h . baeri )\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nmueller - dombois and fosberg ( 1998 ) outlined seven broad natural vegetation types in the ecoregion , including coastal strand vegetation , mangrove forests , freshwater swamp forests , two types of lowland rain forests , seasonally dry forest and grassland ( only on guadalcanal ) , and montane rain forest . bougainville also contains floodplain forest , a transitional submontane rain forest , forest on ancient limestone , and vegetation on recent volcanic surfaces .\nseasonally dry forest is found only on the leeward ( north ) side of guadalcanal . these forests consist of mixed deciduous forest and themeda australis grassland . the canopy is composed of pometia pinnata , vitex cofassus , and kleinhovia hospita . the deciduous species are pterocarpus indicus , antiais toxicaria ( moraceae ) , ficus spp . , and sterculia spp . the grassland probably is related to periodic burning by humans ( mueller - dombois and fosberg 1998 ) .\nthe fagaceae species that generally mark montane rain forest in the region ( castanopsis , nothofagus , and lithocarpus ) are absent in the solomons . instead , a reduction in stature ( from 25 to 35 m in the lowlands to 15 to 20 m in the uplands ) is apparent . syzygium , metrosideros , ardisia , psychotria , schefflera , ficus , rhododendron , dacrydium , and podcarpus pilgeri have been collected in the mountains of the solomons ( mueller - dombois and fosberg 1998 ) .\nthe outlying coral atolls support depleted lowland rain forest , remnant coastal and swamp vegetation , and pandanus thickets . the vegetation is a product of generally poor soils combined with human alteration ( mueller - dombois and fosberg 1998 ) .\nbiodiversity features overall richness and endemism in the solomon islands range from low to high when compared with those of other ecoregions in indo - malaysia . bird and mammal endemism are high .\nthere is a clear difference between the mammalian faunas of the solomon islands and the bismarck archipelago and richer new guinea to the west . except for pteropodid bats , the solomons and bismarcks have many fewer mammals than new guinea , and the solomons , unlike new britain , contain no marsupials . east beyond the solomons there are even fewer mammal species . almost all the mammal species have their origins in or via new guinea ( flannery 1990 ) .\nfamily species pteropodidae melonycteris fardoulisi * pteropodidae melonycteris woodfordi * pteropodidae dobsonia inermis * pteropodidae nyctimene vizcaccia * pteropodidae nyctimene major pteropodidae pteralopex anceps * pteropodidae pteralopex atrata * pteropodidae pteralopex pulchra * pteropodidae pteralopex sp . * pteropodidae pteropus admiralitatum pteropodidae pteropus howensis * pteropodidae pteropus mahaganus * pteropodidae pteropus rayneri * pteropodidae pteropus rennelli * pteropodidae pteropus woodfordi * rhinolophidae anthops ornatus * molossidae chaerephon solomonis * muridae melomys bougainville * muridae melomys spechti * muridae solomys ponceleti * muridae solomys salamonis * muridae solomys salebrosus * muridae solomys sapientis * muridae uromys imperator * muridae uromys porculus * muridae uromys rex *\nbird diversity drops off sharply from new guinea as one moves east across the pacific to the solomons . whereas new guinea has seventy - one families and subfamilies of birds , the solomons have forty - four . the solomons are considered a center of bird endemism , with at least seven endemic genera . the dropoff in diversity seen in other animal groups as one moves east from new guinea is also consistent with that seen in birds . whereas new guinea has seventy - one families and subfamilies of birds , and the solomons have forty - four , vanuatu has thirty - one ( keast 1996 ) .\nbetween november and april of each year the solomon islands are subject to tropical cyclones , which are an important source of natural disturbance to the islands ' forests . extreme droughts are also a natural event and occur irregularly at intervals of six to twenty years ( mueller - dombois and fosberg 1998 ) .\ncurrent status a large australian - run copper mine was located in bougainville , but it was shut down because of civil unrest several years ago . introduced species are a special concern here , and most native mammals have been eliminated from guadalcanal by cats . hunting native species is common ( stattersfield et al . 1998 , ) . many bird species in the solomons are vulnerable simply because of their small natural ranges ( stattersfield et al . 1998 ) .\nonly one protected area , 930 km2 surrounding mt . balbi on bougainville , exists in the ecoregion ( table 3 ) . a gap analysis , based on detailed vegetation and habitat type mapping , has never been performed to determine whether the existing protected area network adequately covers all habitats with protected areas that are large enough to maintain all critical ecological processes .\ntable 3 . wcmc ( 1997 ) protected areas that overlap with the ecoregion .\necoregion numbers of protected areas that overlap with additional ecoregions are listed in brackets .\ntypes and severity of threats large areas of the naturally limited natural forest below 400 m have been logged or are planned to be logged . an adequate survey of timber resources has not been conducted ( stattersfield et al . 1998 ; thistlethwait and votaw 1992 ) .\nforest clearing for subsistence agriculture is an ongoing threat . most households are self - sufficient ( seven out of eight ) , and because population growth is high there is pressure to clear land . this is especially true around urban areas because the population is mobile and many people move to the outskirts of overcrowded urban centers . satellite imagery indicates that the area under cultivation doubled between 1972 and 1992 ( thistlethwait and votaw 1992 ) .\nudvardy ( 1975 ) placed all the ecoregions in the new guinea and melanesia bioregion , with the exception of new caledonia , into the papuan biogeographic province of the oceanian realm . new caledonia was placed in the new caledonian biogeographic province .\nreferences references for this ecoregion are currently consolidated in one document for the entire indo - pacific realm . indo - pacific reference list\nworld wildlife fund 1250 24th street , n . w . washington , dc 20037\nthe genus rattus is a member of the giant subfamily murinae . several other murine genera are sometimes considered part of rattus : lenothrix , anonymomys , sundamys , kadarsanomys , diplothrix , margaretamys , lenomys , komodomys , palawanomys , bunomys , nesoromys , stenomys , taeromys , paruromys , abditomys , tryphomys , limnomys , tarsomys , bullimus , apomys , millardia , srilankamys , niviventer , maxomys , leopoldamys , berylmys , mastomys , myomys , praomys , hylomyscus , heimyscus , stochomys , dephomys , and aethomys .\nthe genus rattus proper contains 64 extant species . a subgeneric breakdown of the species has been proposed , but does not include all species .\nbarnett , s . anthony ( 2002 ) the story of rats : their impact on us , and our impact on them , allen & unwin , crows nest , nsw , 202 pages , isbn 1 - 86508 - 519 - 7 .\nleung , lkp ; cox , peter g . ; jahn , g . c . ; nugent , robert ( 2002 ) .\nevaluating rodent management with cambodian rice farmers\n.\nmusser , g . g . and m . d . carleton . 1993 .\nfamily muridae\nin d . e . wilson and d . m . reeder eds .\nmammal species of the world a taxonomic and geographic reference\n, smithsonian institution press , washington , d . c . pp . 501\u2013755 .\nnowak , r . m . ( 1999 ) walker ' s mammals of the world vol . 2 . johns hopkins university press , london .\nsullivan , robert ( 2004 ) . rats : a year with \u0646\u064a\u0648\u064a\u0648\u0631\u0643 ' s most unwanted inhabitants . granta books , london .\nsullivan , robert ( 2005 ) . rats : observations on the history and habitat of the city ' s most unwanted inhabitants . bloomsbury usa . isbn 1 - 58234 - 477 - 9 .\nstriped field mouse ( a . agrarius ) \u2022 alpine field mouse ( a . alpicola ) \u2022 small japanese field mouse ( a . argenteus ) \u2022 a . avicennicus \u2022 chevrier ' s field mouse ( a . chevrieri ) \u2022 south china field mouse ( a . draco ) \u2022 yellow - necked mouse ( a . flavicollis ) \u2022 himalayan field mouse ( a . gurkha ) \u2022 caucasus field mouse ( a . hyrcanicus ) \u2022 sichuan field mouse ( a . latronum ) \u2022 pygmy field mouse ( a . microps ) \u2022 broad - toothed field mouse ( a . mystacinus ) \u2022 western broad - toothed field mouse ( a . ( mystacinus ) epimelas ) \u2022 ward ' s field mouse ( a . pallipes ) \u2022 korean field mouse ( a . peninsulae ) \u2022 black sea field mouse ( a . ponticus ) \u2022 kashmir field mouse ( a . rusiges ) \u2022 taiwan field mouse ( a . semotus ) \u2022 large japanese field mouse ( a . speciosus ) \u2022 wood mouse ( a . sylvaticus ) \u2022 ural field mouse ( a . uralensis ) \u2022 steppe field mouse ( a . witherbyi )\nbarbary striped grass mouse ( l . barbarus ) \u2022 bellier ' s striped grass mouse ( l . bellieri ) \u2022 griselda ' s striped grass mouse ( l . griselda ) \u2022 hoogstral ' s striped grass mouse ( l . hoogstraali ) \u2022 senegal one - striped grass mouse ( l . linulus ) \u2022 buffoon striped grass mouse ( l . macculus ) \u2022 mittendorf ' s striped grass mouse ( l . mittendorfi ) \u2022 single - striped grass mouse ( l . rosalia ) \u2022 rosevear ' s striped grass mouse ( l . roseveari ) \u2022 typical striped grass mouse ( l . striatus ) \u2022 heuglin ' s striped grass mouse ( l . zebra )\nluzon cordillera forest mouse ( a . abrae ) \u2022 camiguin forest mouse ( a . camiguinensis ) \u2022 luzon montane forest mouse ( a . datae ) \u2022 large mindoro forest mouse ( a . gracilirostris ) \u2022 mount apo forest mouse ( a . hylocoetes ) \u2022 mindanao montane forest mouse ( a . insignis ) \u2022 mindanao lowland forest mouse ( a . littoralis ) \u2022 small luzon forest mouse ( a . microdon ) \u2022 least forest mouse ( a . musculus ) \u2022 long - nosed luzon forest mouse ( a . sacobianus )\nmount isarog shrew mouse ( a . luzonensis ) \u2022 sierra madre shrew mouse ( a . musseri ) \u2022 cordillera shrew - mouse ( a . kalinga )\nhildegarde ' s broad - headed mouse ( z . hildegardeae ) \u2022 woosnam ' s broad - headed mouse ( z . woosnami )\neisentraut ' s striped mouse ( h . badius ) \u2022 father basilio ' s striped mouse ( h . basilii ) \u2022 moon striped mouse ( h . lunaris ) \u2022 miller ' s striped mouse ( h . planifrons ) \u2022 temminck ' s striped mouse ( h . trivirgatus ) \u2022 peters ' s striped mouse ( h . univittatus )\nsouthern groove - toothed shrew mouse ( m . argenteus ) \u2022 northern groove - toothed shrew mouse ( m . richardsoni )\nranee mouse ( h . margarettae ) \u2022 minahassa ranee mouse ( h . minahassae ) \u2022 lesser ranee mouse ( h . pusillus )\ngreater tree mouse ( c . forbesi ) \u2022 lamia ( c . lamia ) \u2022 lesser tree mouse ( c . vates )\nwhite - toothed brush mouse ( c . albidens ) \u2022 c . kirrhos \u2022 r\u00fcmmler ' s brush mouse ( c . ruemmleri ) \u2022 c . shawmayeri\nlowland brush mouse ( p . bruijni ) \u2022 shaw mayer ' s brush mouse ( p . mayeri )\nforrest ' s mouse ( l . forresti ) \u2022 lakeland downs mouse ( l . lakedownensis )\nspinifex hopping mouse ( n . alexis ) \u2022 northern hopping mouse ( n . aquilo ) \u2022 fawn hopping mouse ( n . cervinus ) \u2022 dusky hopping mouse ( n . fuscus ) \u2022 mitchell ' s hopping mouse ( n . mitchellii )\nh . aeta group : beaded wood mouse ( h . aeta ) \u2022 h . grandis h . alleni group : allen ' s wood mouse ( h . alleni ) \u2022 angolan wood mouse ( h . carillus ) \u2022 stella wood mouse ( h . stella ) \u2022 walter verheyeni ' s mouse ( h . walterverheyeni ) h . anselli group : ansell ' s wood mouse ( h . anselli ) \u2022 arc mountain wood mouse ( h . arcimontensis ) h . baeri group : baer ' s wood mouse ( h . baeri ) h . denniae group : montane wood mouse ( h . denniae ) \u2022 h . endorobae \u2022 h . vulcanorum h . parvus group : little wood mouse ( h . parvus )\nawash multimammate mouse ( m . awashensis ) \u2022 southern multimammate mouse ( m . coucha ) \u2022 guinea multimammate mouse ( m . erythroleucus ) \u2022 hubert ' s multimammate mouse ( m . huberti ) \u2022 verheyen ' s multimammate mouse ( m . kollmannspergeri ) \u2022 natal multimammate mouse ( m . natalensis ) \u2022 dwarf multimammate mouse ( m . pernanus ) \u2022 shortridge ' s multimammate mouse ( m . shortridgei )\nangolan multimammate mouse ( m . angolensis ) \u2022 brockman ' s rock mouse ( m . brockmani ) \u2022 verreaux ' s mouse ( m . verreauxii ) \u2022 yemeni mouse ( m . yemeni )"]}
{"id": 772, "summary": [{"text": "the springer 's sawtail catshark ( galeus springeri ) is a little-known species of catshark , belonging to the family scyliorhinidae , found in waters 457 \u2013 699 m ( 1,499 \u2013 2,293 ft ) deep off the islands of the antilles , from cuba to the leewards .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "a small , slim-bodied species reaching a length of 48 cm ( 19 in ) , the springer 's sawtail catshark can be identified by its color pattern of horizontal dark stripes in front of the first dorsal fin , and dark dorsal saddles behind .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is additionally characterized by the presence of saw-toothed crests , made of enlarged dermal denticles along both the dorsal and the ventral edges of the caudal fin .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the springer 's sawtail catshark is oviparous .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) presently lacks the information to assess its conservation status . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "springer ' s sawtail catshark", "paragraphs": ["springer ' s sawtail catshark [ galeus springeri ] meaning , s . . . | english cobuild dictionary\n\u201cthe particular highlight for me was in fact the smallest shark we captured , a springer\u2019s sawtail catshark .\nsearch springer ' s sawtail catshark [ galeus springeri ] and thousands of other words in english cobuild dictionary from reverso . you can complete the definition of springer ' s sawtail catshark [ galeus springeri ] given by the english cobuild dictionary with other english dictionaries : wikipedia , lexilogos , oxford , cambridge , chambers harrap , wordreference , collins lexibase dictionaries , merriam webster . . .\nlittle is known of the natural history of the longfin sawtail catshark . reproduction is\ndr . dean grubbs studies one of the most exciting discoveries so far in the project , a 47cm long springer ' s sawtail catshark , a species which is very new to science , having only been described in 1998 .\nvirtually nothing is known of the natural history of the longnose sawtail catshark . males and females\nthe atlantic sawtail catshark reaches a maximum known length of 45 cm ( 18 in ) .\nthe atlantic sawtail catshark is rarer than the blackmouth catshark , which shares its range . its natural history is poorly understood . reproduction is\n, a new species of sawtail catshark from the caribbean sea ( chondrichthys , scyliorhinidae )\n.\nfigaro striatus gledhill , last & w . t . white , 2008 ( northern sawtail catshark )\nthe largest known specimen of the southern sawtail catshark measured 43 cm ( 17 in ) long .\nclose - up of the denticle crest along the dorsal caudal fin margin of the longfin sawtail catshark .\nspringer , s . ( 1966 ) .\na review of western atlantic cat sharks , scyliorhinidae , with descriptions of a new genus and five new species\n.\nspringer ' s sawtail catshark is found in the western central atlantic from lesser antilles , puerto rico , northern hispaniola , and cuba . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe lined catshark or banded catshark ( halaelurus lineatus ) is a species of catshark , belonging to the family scyliorhinidae . it is found in the waters off the coasts of beira , mozambique to east london , and south africa between latitudes 19\u00b0 s and 31\u00b0 s , from the surface to 290 m . it can grow up to 56 cm in length .\nnakaya , k . , s . tanaka , and c . mccormack ( 2008 ) .\nbozzanao , a . , r . murgia , s . vallerga , j . hirano and s . archer ( 2001 ) .\nthe photoreceptor system in the retinae of two dogfishes ,\nrenowned shark expert stewart springer described the longfin sawtail catshark in a 1966 issue of the united states fish and wildlife service fishery bulletin , based on a 31 cm ( 12 in ) long female collected off panama on may 30 , 1962 . he named the species after french zoologist jean cadenat , who described the similar african sawtail catshark ( g . polli ) . springer and other authors would subsequently come to regard g . cadenati as a subspecies of the roughtail catshark ( g . arae ) . in 1998 and 2000 , hera konstantinou and colleagues published revisions of the g . arae species complex in which they elevated g . a . cadenati back to the rank of full species , along with the other subspecies g . a . antillensis .\nafter a polynesian word for\nshark\n. however , lesson ' s description and name were forgotten .\ncompagno , l . j . v . , m . dando and s . fowler ( 2005 ) .\nsp . nov . , a new species of sawtail catsharks ( charcharhiniformes : scyliorhinidae ) from new caledonia\n.\none of the key characteristics of figaro , the ventral crest of denticles on the caudal fin , is also present in several species of the genus parmaturus , as well as the springer ' s sawtail catshark ( g . springeri ) and the mouse catshark ( g . murinus ) . [ 6 ] figaro also closely resembles the genus asymbolus in several morphological characters , including the fusion of the pelvic fin inner margins in adult males . more research is required to elucidate the relationships between figaro , galeus , asymbolus , and parmaturus . [ 4 ]\nstafford - deitsch , jeremy ( 1988 ) . shark : a photographer ' s story . sierra club books .\nragonese , s . , g . nardone , d . ottonello , s . gancitano , g . b . giusto , and g . sinacori ( 2009 ) . in the strait of sicily ( central mediterranean sea )\nhorie , t . and s . tanaka ( 2000 ) .\nreproduction and food habits of two species of sawtail catsharks , galeus eastmani and g . nipponensis , in suruga bay , japan\n. fisheries science 6 : 812\u2013825 .\nknowledge management platform . it allows users to manage learning and research . visit defaultlogic ' s other partner sites below :\nvirtually nothing is known of the natural history of the longnose sawtail catshark . males and females mature sexually at around 66\u201371 cm ( 26\u201328 in ) and 68\u201378 cm ( 27\u201331 in ) long respectively .\nwhile specific data is lacking , the longnose sawtail catshark is likely taken as bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries . the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed it under data deficient .\nall package plans include unlimited data transfer , ip switches , and simultaneous connections . it ' s 13 times faster than vpn .\nto the tiger catshark , until it was described as a separate species in 1975 .\nthe blackmouth catshark has well - developed eyes and ampullae of lorenzini for finding prey .\ntachikawa , h . and t . taniuchi ( february 20 , 1987 ) .\ngaleus longirostris , a new species of the sawtail catshark from japan\n. japanese journal of ichthyology 33 ( 4 ) : 352\u2013359 .\n[ uk ] ; [ slang ] refers to the dog ' s habit of licking its testicles . by extension ( and not without humor ) the latter probably taste good ! ex : among their albums ,\nmaster of puppets\nis likely the dog ' s bullocks !\nrichard h . backus , stewart springer and edgar l . arnold , jr . a contribution to the natural history of the white - tip shark , pterolamiops longimanus ( poey ) , 1956 , deep - sea research vol . 3\nsoto , j . m . r . ( 2001 ) .\ngaleus mincaronei sp . nov . ( carcharhiniformes , scyliorhinidae ) , a new species of sawtail catshark from southern brazil\n. mare magnum 1 ( 1 ) : 11\u201318 .\nthe longfin sawtail catshark ( galeus cadenati ) is a rare , little - known species of catshark , part of the family scyliorhinidae . once thought to be a subspecies of the roughtail catshark ( g . arae ) along with the antilles catshark ( g . antillensis ) , it inhabits deep water off the caribbean coasts of panama and colombia . this slim - bodied species has a marbled dorsal color pattern and a prominent crest of enlarged dermal denticles along the dorsal edge of its caudal fin . it can be distinguished from similar species by its relatively longer anal fin and small adult length of under 35 cm ( 14 in ) . the longfin sawtail catshark is oviparous . the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) currently lacks the data to assess its conservation status .\nalso known as an atlantic false catshark , the false catshark is the only member of the genus pseudotriakis . this species is found nearly globally , in deepwater habitats up 6 , 200 feet .\nour product my ip hide is much faster than web proxies and it ' s compatible with all the websites . it can save your precious time .\nfsucml is a research and educational facility on a relatively pristine stretch of florida\u2019s gulf coast approximately 100 km south of the fsu main campus in tallahassee .\nkonstantinou , h . and j . r . cozzi , 1998 . galeus springeri , a new species of sawtail catshark from the caribbean sea ( chondrichthyes , scyliorhinidae ) . copeia 1998 ( 1 ) : 151 - 158 . ( ref . 28030 )\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\nthe dwarf sawtail catshark has a slim , firm body and a distinctively short , rounded snout . the nostrils are divided by triangular flaps of skin on their anterior rims . the horizontally oval eyes are placed somewhat high on the head , and equipped with rudimentary\nthe australian spotted catshark is endemic to the coastal waters of australia , at depths up to 575 feet . resting motionless among coral reefs , this species of catshark exhibits a capacity for camouflage during the daylight hours .\n. the fins are significantly larger than most other shark species , and are conspicuously rounded . the shark ' s nose is rounded and its eyes are circular , with\nalso known as s green - eye spurdog , this species is distributed throughout temperate and subtropical waters globally , typically at depths between 13 and 3 , 130 feet .\nthe longnose sawtail catshark has been recorded from south of japan , off the islands of amami oshima , ogasawara , and izu . this demersal species inhabits upper insular slopes at a depth of 350\u2013550 m ( 1 , 150\u20131 , 800 ft ) , and is reportedly rather common .\nkonstantinou , h . ; j . r . cozzi ( 1998 ) .\ngaleus springeri , a new species of sawtail catshark from the caribbean sea ( chondrichthys , scyliorhinidae )\n. copeia . 1998 ( 1 ) : 151\u2013158 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 1447711 .\nthe first known specimen of the longnose sawtail catshark was hooked on a bottom longline off the ogasawara islands in 1983 . the new species was described by hiroyuki tachikawa and toru taniuchi in a 1987 issue of the japanese journal of ichthyology , and given the specific epithet longirostris from the latin longus (\nlong\n) , and rostrum (\nsnout\n) . a 68 cm ( 27 in ) long female caught off amami oshima was designated as the type specimen . within the genus , this species most closely resembles the broadfin sawtail catshark ( g . nipponensis ) .\nthe longfin sawtail catshark may be caught incidentally in bottom trawls meant for shrimp , though no specific information is available . its small range potentially renders it susceptible to overfishing . given a lack of information , the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed this species as data deficient .\nthe international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) does not have enough specific data on the broadfin sawtail catshark to assess it beyond data deficient . it is caught incidentally to an unknown degree in bottom trawls operated by commercial deepwater fisheries off japan and in the east china sea . [ 1 ]\nthe southern sawtail catshark ( galeus mincaronei ) is a species of catshark , part of the family scyliorhinidae , endemic to southern brazil . it inhabits deepwater reefs on the upper continental slope at a depth of 236\u2013600 m ( 774\u20131 , 969 ft ) . reaching at least 43 cm ( 17 in ) in length , this slim - bodied species closely resembles the antilles catshark ( g . antillensis ) . it has a prominent crest of enlarged dermal denticles along the dorsal edge of the caudal fin , as well as a distinctive color pattern of dark oval blotches , outlined in white , along its back . the southern sawtail catshark is oviparous , with females producing reddish egg capsules . the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has assessed it as vulnerable ; it is often taken as bycatch and may be threatened by intensifying squid fishing .\nthe broadfin sawtail catshark has a slim , firm body and a head comprises less than one - fifth of the total length . the snout is rather long , flattened , and pointed , with large nostrils that bear triangular skin flaps on their anterior rims . the sizable eyes are horizontally oval and equipped with rudimentary\nthis page is based on the copyrighted wikipedia article broadfin sawtail catshark ; it is used under the creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license ( cc - by - sa ) . you may redistribute it , verbatim or modified , providing that you comply with the terms of the cc - by - sa\nthe biology of hasselt ' s bamboo shark is poorly known . the species is a common bottom dweller , endemic to the indo - west pacific , specifically around thailand , malaysia and indonesia .\nthis exciting new direction of shark research will continue to investigate and explore the deep - water inhabitants of the bahamas and provide much needed information on this minimally studied area of the world\u2019s oceans .\nthe australian sawtail catshark is a common , yet poorly known species , endemic to australian waters . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\ncompagno , l . j . v . ; dando , m . ; fowler , s . ( 2005 ) . sharks of the world . princeton university press . pp . 233\u2013234 . isbn .\nigl\u00e9sias , s . p . , g . lecointre and d . y . sellos ( 2005 ) .\nextensive paraphylies within sharks of the order carcharhiniformes inferred from nuclear and mitochondrial genes\n.\nalso known as owston ' s dogfish , the roughskin dogfish is a virtually unknown deepwater species . its range lies within tropical , subtropical , and temperate waters at depths up 4 , 920 feet .\nthe broadfin sawtail catshark is endemic to the northwest pacific from japan and the kyushu - palau ridge . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe northern sawtail catshark is an undescribed species found only around northeast australia off the coast of queensland . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe blacktip sawtail catshark is endemic to the western pacific , more specifically japan , taiwan and the philippines . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe dwarf sawtail catshark , one of the smallest sharks , is found only off luzon in the philippines . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nalso known as plunket ' s shark , this uncommon shark remains virtually unknown . its geographic range is limited to southeastern australia , and new zealand , at depths between 720 and 5 , 085 feet .\nalong with the velvet lanternshark , this shark is one of the world ' s smallest shark species . the lower portion of its body is luminescent , which helps to protect its from lurking predators below .\nalso known as the chilean catshark , the redspotted catshark is commonly found in the coastal waters of the southeastern pacific , from central peru to southern chile . this nocturnal species is typically solitary , residing in caves and crevices during the day and emerging at night to feed\nthe longnose sawtail catshark is found only within the northwest pacific islands of amami - oshima , ogasawara and izu . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe slender sawtail catshark is found only from northern australia , at depths between 950 and 1 , 540 feet . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe southern sawtail catshark is endemic to the western central atlantic , at depths up to 2 , 460 feet . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nanguilla ; antigua and barbuda ; cuba ; dominican republic ; guadeloupe ; haiti ; jamaica ; montserrat ; puerto rico ; saint kitts and nevis ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s .\nthe longfin sawtail catshark is a rare species found in the western central atlantic , from panama and colombia , venezuela . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe african sawtail catshark is found from southern morocco to namibia , at depths of between 650 and 2 , 360 feet . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nigl\u00e9sias , s . p . ; m . h . du buit & k . nakaya ( 2002 ) .\negg capsules of deep - sea catsharks from eastern north atlantic , with first descriptions of the capsule of\nthe atlantic sawtail catshark is known only from a holotype found off cape spartel , on the northwest coast of morocco , at 1 , 770 feet . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nfederov ' s catshark is a deepwater species , found only on the tohoku slope , japan , at depths between 320 and 4 , 920 feet . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthis article is part of project scyliorhinidae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each catshark , including made - up species .\nthe graceful catshark is an uncommon and poorly known bottom - dwelling shark found in the western pacific ocean , from japan to vietnam and northwestern java .\nthis article was sourced from creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . world heritage encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers , open access publishing , and in compliance with the fair access to science and technology research act ( fastr ) , wikimedia foundation , inc . , public library of science , the encyclopedia of life , open book publishers ( obp ) , pubmed , u . s . national library of medicine , national center for biotechnology information , u . s . national library of medicine , national institutes of health ( nih ) , u . s . department of health & human services , and urltoken , which sources content from all federal , state , local , tribal , and territorial government publication portals ( . gov , . mil , . edu ) . funding for urltoken and content contributors is made possible from the u . s . congress , e - government act of 2002 .\nrafinesque likely intended g . mustelus to be the type species for galeus , but of his listed species he furnished a description only for g . melastomus . therefore , in 1908 henry weed fowler designated g . melastomus as the type species of galeus , establishing the genus to contain the sawtail catsharks . [ 5 ] pristiurus became a junior synonym , though it continued to appear in scientific literature for some time after . fowler ' s definition of galeus gained widespread acceptance after henry bryant bigelow and william charles schroeder ' s 1948 taxonomic review . [ 3 ] [ 6 ] in 1952 , philip orkin advocated that pristiurus take precedence over galeus , based on david starr jordan and barton warren evermann ' s ( possibly questionable ) designation of g . mustelus as a type species for galeus in 1896 . [ 7 ] leonard compagno and most other recent authors have not upheld his proposal , in the interests of taxonomic stability . [ 3 ]\ncompagno , l . j . v . , m . dando and s . fowler ( 2005 ) . sharks of the world . princeton university press . p . 224 . isbn 978 - 0 - 691 - 12072 - 0 .\nrinelli , p . , t . bottari , g . florio , t . romeo , d . giordano , and s . greco ( 2005 ) . ( chondrichthyes , scyliorhinidae ) in the southern tyrrhenian sea ( central mediterranean )\ncompagno , l . j . v . , m . dando and s . fowler ( 2005 ) . sharks of the world . princeton university press . pp . 227\u2013228 . isbn 978 - 0 - 691 - 12072 - 0 .\ncompagno , l . j . v . , m . dando and s . fowler ( 2005 ) . sharks of the world . princeton university press . pp . 228\u2013229 . isbn 978 - 0 - 691 - 12072 - 0 .\nfanelli , e . , j . rey , p . torres , and l . gil de sola ( 2009 ) .\nfeeding habits of blackmouth catshark\ntursi , a . , g . d\u2019onghia , a . matarrese , and g . piscitelli ( 1993 ) .\nobservations on population biology of the blackmouth catshark\nthe broadfin sawtail catshark is an opportunistic predator known to consume a wide variety of bony fishes ( including sardinops melanostictus , glossandon semifasciatus , chlorophthalmus albatrossis and lanternfishes ) , cephalopods ( including sepiolid and enoploteuthid squid ) , and crustaceans ( including isopods , krill , and decapods ) . young sharks exhibit greater variation in diet across seasons than immature and mature sharks , which consistently feed predominantly on fish . the dietary composition of young sharks in suruga bay differs from that of the co - occurring gecko catshark ( g . eastmani ) , perhaps to reduce interspecific competition . [ 5 ]\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from world library are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\nthe southern african ' s appearance greatly resembles the frilled shark , save for a more elongated head and a shorter body . several collected specimens in its range have yielded little information regarding its biology , other than it has remained virtually unchanged over time .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from icloud ebook library are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\nthe longfin sawtail catshark does not co - occur with either g . arae or g . antillensis . it has only been found in the caribbean sea off panama and colombia , though confusion with its sister species could have obscured the full extent of its distribution . demersal in nature , it is a rare inhabitant of the upper continental slope , at depths of 431 to 549 m ( 1 , 414 to 1 , 801 ft ) .\ndeep - sea chondrichthyans , like many deep - water fishes , are very poorly understood at the most fundamental biological , ecological and taxonomic levels . our study represents the first ecological investigation of deep - water elasmobranch assemblages in the bahamas , and the first assessment of species - specific resilience to capture for all of the species captured . standardised deep - water longline surveys ( n = 69 ) were conducted september to december 2010 and 2011 between 472 m and 1024 m deep , resulting in the capture of 144 sharks from 8 different species . these included the cuban dogfish , squalus cubensis , the bigeye sixgill shark , hexanchus nakamurai , the bluntnose sixgill shark , hexanchus griseus , the smooth dogfish , mustelus canis insularis , the roughskin dogfish , centroscymnus owstoni , springer ' s sawtail catshark , galeus springeri and the false catshark , pseudotriakis microdon . preliminary genetic analysis indicated two or more species of gulper sharks , centrophorus spp . ; however , for the present study they were treated as a single species complex . water depth and distance from the rocky structure of the exuma sound wall were inversely correlated with species richness , whereas seabed temperature was directly correlated with species richness . these variables also had a significant influence on the abundance and distribution of many species . expanded depth ranges were established for s . cubensis and h . nakamurai , which , in the case of s . cubensis , is thought to be driven by thermal preferences . at - vessel mortality rates increased significantly with depth , and post - release mortality was thought to be high for some species , in part due to high post - release predation . this study highlights the importance of utilising strategic geographic locations that provide easy access to deep water , in combination with traditional expedition - based deep - ocean science , to accelerate the acquisition of fundamental ecological and biological insights into deep - sea elasmobranchs .\ndeep - sea chondrichthyans , like many deep - water fishes , are very poorly understood at the most fundamental biological , ecological and taxonomic levels . our study represents the first ecological investigation of deep - water elasmobranch assemblages in the bahamas , and the first assessment of species - specific resilience to capture for all of the species captured . standardised deep - water longline surveys ( n = 69 ) were conducted september to december 2010 and 2011 between 472 . m and 1024 . m deep , resulting in the capture of 144 sharks from 8 different species . these included the cuban dogfish , squalus cubensis , the bigeye sixgill shark , hexanchus nakamurai , the bluntnose sixgill shark , hexanchus griseus , the smooth dogfish , mustelus canis insularis , the roughskin dogfish , centroscymnus owstoni , springer [ u + 05f3 ] s sawtail catshark , galeus springeri and the false catshark , pseudotriakis microdon . preliminary genetic analysis indicated two or more species of gulper sharks , centrophorus spp . ; however , for the present study they were treated as a single species complex . water depth and distance from the rocky structure of the exuma sound wall were inversely correlated with species richness , whereas seabed temperature was directly correlated with species richness . these variables also had a significant influence on the abundance and distribution of many species . expanded depth ranges were established for s . cubensis and h . nakamurai , which , in the case of s . cubensis , is thought to be driven by thermal preferences . at - vessel mortality rates increased significantly with depth , and post - release mortality was thought to be high for some species , in part due to high post - release predation . this study highlights the importance of utilising strategic geographic locations that provide easy access to deep water , in combination with traditional expedition - based deep - ocean science , to accelerate the acquisition of fundamental ecological and biological insights into deep - sea elasmobranchs .\nreproduction in the atlantic sawtail catshark is oviparous , with females carrying multiple maturing eggs at once . mating and spawning occur year - round . this species is caught incidentally by commercial deepwater fisheries throughout its range , but the impact of fishing pressure on its population is uncertain as it is not recorded separately from g . melastomus . given its restricted distribution , it has been assessed as near threatened by the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) .\nthe greenland shark lives further north than any other species . this skin of this species contains the toxin trimethylamine oxide , which upon digestion produces effects similar to extreme intoxication . greenland sharks are immune to each other ' s toxic flesh , and therefore have been known be cannibalistic .\nalso known as baxter ' s dogfish , this species is a moderately common deepwater shark . this species is found only around new zealand , between 2 , 800 and 4 , 680 feet . laternsharks possess luminescent organs , which many of the species utilize to attract their deepwater prey .\nthe dwarf sawtail catshark ( galeus schultzi ) is a little - known species of catshark , belonging to the family scyliorhinidae , found exclusively in the deep waters off luzon in the philippines . unlike other members of its genus , this slender , diminutive shark has a short , rounded snout and very short furrows at the corners of its jaws . it has indistinct darker saddles beneath each dorsal fin and two dark bands on the caudal fin , as well as a prominent crest of enlarged dermal denticles along the upper caudal fin margin . the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) does not currently have sufficient information to assess the conservation status of this species .\nthe african ribbontail catshark is a poorly known species found in the western indian ocean , from tanzania , south africa , and mozambique , at depths between 180 and 1 , 575 feet .\nstanton , doug ( 2003 ) . in harm ' s way : the sinking of the uss indianapolis and the extraordinary story of its survivors ( 1st owl books ed . ed . ) . new york : h . holt . isbn 978 - 0 - 8050 - 7366 - 9 .\nthis exciting new direction of shark research will continue to investigate and explore the deep - water inhabitants of the bahamas and provide much needed information on this minimally studied area of the world ' s oceans . the complete press release , with additional photos , can be found at the bahamas weekly .\nan arched , mallet - shaped head distinguishes the scoophead shark from other hammerheads . its distribution is limited to the eastern atlantic , from panama to southern brazil ; and the eastern pacific , from the gulf of california to ecuador and peru . little is known of the scoophead ' s biology .\nthese students are incredibly lucky as there are very few people who have ever seen most of the species they will be working with this semester - it\u2019s a truly unique opportunity for them , \u201d said edd brooks , program manager of the shark research and conservation program at the cape eleuthera institute .\nthe atlantic sawtail catshark ( galeus atlanticus ) is a little - known species of catshark , part of the family scyliorhinidae , found in a small area of the northeastern atlantic ocean , centered on the strait of gibraltar and the albor\u00e1n sea . it is found on or close to the bottom over the continental slope , mostly at depths of 400\u2013600 m ( 1 , 300\u20132 , 000 ft ) . this shark closely resembles , and was once thought to be the same species as , the blackmouth catshark ( g . melastomus ) ; both are slender with a series of dark saddles and blotches along the back and tail , and a prominent crest of enlarged dermal denticles along the dorsal edge of the caudal fin . it differs subtly from g . melastomus in characters including snout length , caudal peduncle depth , and the color of the furrows at the corner of its mouth .\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\npascal , l . , l . daniel , and s . bernard ( 2000 ) . observations of chondrichthyan fishes ( sharks , rays and chimaeras ) in the bay of biscay ( north - eastern atlantic ) from submersibles . proceedings of the 3rd european elasmobranch association meeting , boulogne - sur - mer , 1999 .\nalso known as a carter gilbert ' s lanternshark , this rare deepwater species remains virtually unknown . its range is thought to be limited to the caribbean coast of colombia , in depths between 900 and 1 , 150 feet . laternsharks possess luminescent organs , which many of the species utilize to attract their deepwater prey .\nthe harlequin catshark is the only member of the genus ctenacis , and is known only from the holotype . the species is found in the western indian ocean off somalia , at depths between 230 and 560 feet .\nalso known as a dusky smoothhound , this species is one of the most abundant sharks on the east coast of the u . s . this species has also been observed in freshwater , however its biology is unequipped to survive this environment for extended periods of time . the smoothhound is a migratory species , traveling seasonally in the spring and autumn months .\nthe striped catshark is endemic to the southeast atlantic , exclusively south africa , at depths up to 330 feet . this nocturnal species is typically solitary , residing in caves and crevices during the day and emerging at night to feed .\ngaleus is a genus of catshark , belonging to the family scyliorhinidae , commonly known as sawtail catsharks in reference to a distinctive saw - toothed crest of enlarged dermal denticles , found along the upper edges of their caudal fins . [ 3 ] they are found in the atlantic , the western and central pacific , and the gulf of california , inhabiting deep waters at or close to the sea floor . members of this genus are rather small , slim sharks with firm bodies and thick , rough skin . their heads are usually fairly long and pointed , and have large mouths with well - developed furrows at the corners . they have large pectoral and anal fins , and two similar dorsal fins placed well back . many species are ornately patterned with dark saddles and / or blotches . sawtail catsharks feed on various invertebrates and fishes , and may be either egg - laying or live - bearing . these harmless sharks are sometimes caught as bycatch but are of minimal commercial value .\nmcmillan ' s cat shark is a small , rare and poorly known deepwater shark . its distribution is limited to madagascar and new zealand . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe longhead catshark is endemic to the indo - west pacific from seychelles , japan , east china sea , philippines , australia , new caledonia , and mozambique . the longhead is also the first cartilaginous fish species on record bearing rudimentary hermaphroditism .\nil s ' agit en 3 minutes de trouver le plus grand nombre de mots possibles de trois lettres et plus dans une grille de 16 lettres . il est aussi possible de jouer avec la grille de 25 cases . les lettres doivent \u00eatre adjacentes et les mots les plus longs sont les meilleurs . participer au concours et enregistrer votre nom dans la liste de meilleurs joueurs ! jouer\nrafinesque , c . s . ( 1810 ) . caratteri di alcuni nuovi generi e nuove specie di animali e piante della sicilia , con varie osservazioni sopra i medisimi . ( part 1 involves fishes , pp . [ i - iv ] 3 - 69 , part 2 with slightly different title , pp . ia - iva + 71 - 105 ) . pls . 1 - 20 .\nthe biology of the antilles catshark is virtually unknown . its distribution is limited to the western central atlantic , from the northern slopes of cuba , hispaniola , puerto rico , jamaica , and the caribbean , at depths between 490 and 2 , 295 feet .\nthe chain catshark is a nocturnal species , often observed resting at the bottom during the daylight hours . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\ncastilho , r . , m . freitas , g . silva , j . fernandez - carvalho , and r . coelho ( 2007 ) .\nmorphological and mitochondrial dna divergence validates blackmouth , galeus melastomus , and atlantic sawtail catsharks , galeus atlanticus , as separate species\n. journal of fish biology 70 : 346\u2013358 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1095 - 8649 . 2007 . 01455 . x .\nthe tiger catshark ( halaelurus natalensis ) is a species of catshark , belonging to the family scyliorhinidae . it is found over sandy areas and near reef peripheries off south africa and perhaps mozambique , from close to shore to usually no deeper than 100 m ( 330 ft ) . reaching a length of 50 cm ( 20 in ) , this small , slim shark has a broad , flattened head with an upturned snout tip . it can additionally be identified by its dorsal colour pattern of ten dark brown saddles on a yellowish brown background .\nthe onefin catshark is the only member of the genus pentanchus , and also the only shark with 5 pairs of gill slits and one dorsal fin . the only known specimen , and the holotype , was found in the western central pacific ocean from the mindanao sea in the philippines .\nthe pygmy ribbontail catshark is one of the two smallest living sharks . its range is limited to the indo - pacific oceans , from tanzania , the gulf of aden , india , the andaman islands , vietnam , and the philippines , at depths between 230 and 2 , 460 feet .\nthe whitebodied catshark is endemic to the western pacific , from southern new caledonia to the seamounts of the norfolk and lord howe ridges . catsharks are a relatively unknown group of sharks , often recognized for their slender bodies and flattened snout , as well as cat - like slits for eyes .\nthe african spotted catshark is endemic to the western indian ocean off natal , south africa , southern mozambique , madagascar , kenya and tanzania . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nwhen foraging , the blackmouth catshark swings its head from side to side to employ its senses more effectively . it likely relies mainly on vision and ampullae of lorenzini that are evenly arranged , which enhances spatial resolution and is best suited for localizing fast - moving prey . [ 27 ] [ 28 ]\nthe flaccid catshark is a deepwater species , found only around new zealand . this species is so named for its flaccid , seemingly bloodless body . catsharks are a relatively unknown group of sharks , often recognized for their slender bodies and flattened snout , as well as cat - like slits for eyes .\nrincon , g . and c . m . vooren ( 2006 ) .\ntaxonomic and biological records on the south atlantic marbled catshark , galeus mincaronei soto , ( elasmobranchii : scyliorhinidae ) off the southern brazilian coast\n. pan - american journal of aquatic sciences 1 ( 1 ) : 1\u20137 .\nlittle is known of the natural history of the longfin sawtail catshark . reproduction is oviparous ; mature females have a single functional ovary , on the right , and two functional oviducts . a single egg matures within each oviduct at a time . the egg is enclosed within a flask - shaped capsule roughly 4 . 9\u20135 . 1 cm ( 1 . 9\u20132 . 0 in ) long , 1 . 2\u20131 . 4 cm ( 0 . 47\u20130 . 55 in ) across the top , and 1 . 6 cm ( 0 . 63 in ) across the bottom ; there are coiled tendrils at the upper two corners . females mature at about 29\u201334 cm ( 11\u201313 in ) long ; adult males are unknown and the largest known immature male measured 29 cm ( 11 in ) long .\nthe australian blackspotted catshark is endemic to western australia in the eastern indian ocean . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe spatulasnout catshark is a deepwater species endemic to the western pacific , from the philippines , east and south china seas , to suruga bay , japan . catsharks are a relatively unknown group of sharks , often recognized for their slender bodies and flattened snout , as well as cat - like slits for eyes .\nbottom - dwelling and inactive , the tiger catshark feeds on a wide variety of fishes and invertebrates from on or near the sea floor . an oviparous species , the female retains her eggs internally until the embryos are at an advanced state of development , resulting in a relatively short hatching time after laying . between 12 and 22 encapsulated eggs are produced at a time , which the female attaches to the bottom . the tiger catshark is caught incidentally by commercial and recreational fishers but has no economic value . it has been listed as data deficient by the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) , pending more information .\nthe narrowmouthed catshark is endemic to central chile around the straits of magellan to argentina . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe polkadot catshark is endemic to the waters around northern uruguay in the southwest atlantic . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe deepwater catshark is endemic to the western and eastern atlantic from morocco and northwest africa . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe iceland catshark is a deepwater species endemic to the western atlantic and eastern atlantic oceans . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe gecko catshark is a poorly known , yet common shark , endemic to the western pacific . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe longfin catshark is a deepwater species , found in the western pacific from japan , the philippines , east and south china seas , and the kyushu - palau ridge . catsharks are a relatively unknown group of sharks , often recognized for their slender bodies and flattened snout , as well as cat - like slits for eyes .\nthe panama ghost catshark is a deepwater species endemic to the eastern central pacific , exclusively panama . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\none of the larger members of the genus , the longnose sawtail catshark grows to at least 80 cm ( 31 in ) long . this species has a rather stout body and a flattened head . the snout is notably long , with a rounded tip . the nostrils are large and divided by triangular skin flaps on their anterior rims . the large , horizontally oval eyes are equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) and have thin ridges underneath . there is a medium - sized spiracle behind each eye . the mouth forms a wide arch and bears well - developed furrows around the corners . the tooth rows number 60\u201370 in either jaw ; each tooth is small , with a narrow central cusp and 3\u20136 smaller lateral cusplets . the five pairs of gill slits are short , with the fifth pair over the pectoral fin bases .\nthe australian marbled catshark is endemic to western australia , in very shallow waters up to 13 feet . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe blackmouth catshark is endemic to the northeast atlantic , at depths up to 6 , 145 feet . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe brownbanded catshark is a rare and poorly known species , endemic to the indo - west pacific . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe coral catshark is a common inshore shark found on coral reefs within the indo - west pacific . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe gulf catshark is endemic to the waters around southwestern australia , at depths up to 650 feet . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nsawtail catsharks pose no danger to humans and have little economic value , though varying numbers are caught incidentally by deepwater commercial fisheries . some of the larger species , such as g . melastomus and g . polli , are occasionally utilized for meat , fishmeal , and / or leather . [ 12 ] the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed g . atlanticus and g . mincaronei , both of which have very restricted distributions , as near threatened and vulnerable respectively . [ 17 ] [ 18 ]\nthe cloudy catshark is found only off the izu peninsula of japan , at depths up to 330 feet . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe lizard catshark is found off southern brazil , at depths of between 400 and 1 , 430 feet . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe longnose catshark is a deepwater species endemic to the eastern central pacific , from central and southern california to the gulf of california , at depths up to 6 , 200 feet . catsharks are a relatively unknown group of sharks , often recognized for their slender bodies and flattened snout , as well as cat - like slits for eyes .\nthe smallfin catshark is a deepwater species , endemic to the western atlantic from the gulf of mexico off florida , gulf of campeche , panama , colombia , and off french guiana . catsharks are a relatively unknown group of sharks , often recognized for their slender bodies and flattened snout ; as well as cat - like sits for eyes .\nthe tiger catshark is endemic to the southeast atlantic , from cape agulhas to east london in south africa . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe western spotted catshark is endemic to southwestern australia , at depths between 328 and 1 , 310 feet . catsharks are so named for their slender bodies and cat - like eyes . despite being the largest family of sharks , catsharks are relatively unknown . this may be attributed to a combination of both their nocturnal lifestyle and deepwater habitat .\nthe longfin sawtail catshark reaches a maximum known length of 35 cm ( 14 in ) , smaller than g . antillensis and comparable to g . arae . this species is slender , with a broad head and a moderately long , pointed snout . the large eyes are horizontally oval , equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) , and lack prominent ridges underneath . a modest spiracle is located behind each eye . the nostrils are large and partially covered by anterior triangular flaps of skin . the mouth is wide and curved , with fairly long furrows around the corners . the teeth have a long central cusp flanked on either side by one or two pairs of lateral cusplets . the upper jaw of the type specimen contained 62 tooth rows . the five pairs of gill slits are small , with the fourth and fifth pairs located over the pectoral fin bases ."]}
{"id": 776, "summary": [{"text": "memnon ( foaled 1822 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse and sire best known for winning the classic st leger stakes in 1825 .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in a racing career which lasted from 1824 until 1828 he ran fifteen times and won nine races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "bred and originally trained in yorkshire , he was unbeaten in two races as two-year-old in 1824 , including the champagne stakes and won the york version of the st leger the following spring .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in the st leger at doncaster in september 1825 , he was successful as the heavily backed favourite in a record field of thirty runners .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "memnon was later trained at newmarket and recorded his most important subsequent victory when winning the ascot gold cup as a five-year-old in 1827 .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "after standing as a breeding stallion for five years in england with moderate results , he was sold and exported to russia . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "memnon ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["all the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for prince memnon . prince memnon is a gelding born in 2012 august 30 by shaft out of allates\nprince memnon ( g . by shaft ) . 3 wins . see below .\n' arrows ; and memnon was aiming his strong spear . [ 35 ] the old man of\nprince memnon has managed to win 3 races in his career so far . on 4th jul 2016 at kembla grange , prince memnon scored his most significant win to date , getting the money in the\nhe has proven a profitable horse for the punters over the journey . if you had backed prince memnon throughout his career you ' d have achieved a 38 % return on investment .\npythian 7 for megacles of athens four - horse chariot race 486 b . c .\nhis defeats led to opinions regarding his merit being revised : from being a potential\nhorse of the century\nhe was now seen as simply\na good horse .\nthe\nmemnon\nis one of only a handful of surviving original locomotives from the 1840s . it is also the sole surviving newcastle locomotive . the coal - burning\nmemnon\nis one of the least altered locomotives in the b & o railroad museum ' s collection . it has blind ( flangeless ) center drivers . in 1853 , the\nmemnon\nwas rebuilt and in 1884 , it was renumbered as the no . 13 , the\nmemnon\nwas withdrawn from service in 1892 and restored for the world ' s columbian exposition .\nwelcome to horseracing . com . au , australia ' s premier site for horse racing news .\nhis defeats led to opinions regarding his merit being revised : from being a potential\nhorse of the century\nhe was now seen as simply\na good horse .\n[ 23 ]\nking of the ethiopians who came with a great force to defend troy . memnon is son of tithonus 1 and eos . the father of tithonus 1 is laomedon 1 , who is also father of priam 1 . after his death , memnon was made immortal by zeus at his mother ' s request .\nbe the first to review \u201cwest bank valley of the kings incl . camel or horse ride\u201d cancel reply\nfor a 2000 guinea match race between their horse and barefoot , but the offer was not accepted .\nthe horse was then off the course for four months before his final race in at newmarket in october . by this time , lonsdale , finding himself in financial difficulties , had sold the horse for \u00a33 , 000 to\nduring the 2003 roundhouse roof collapse at the b & o railroad museum , the\nmemnon\nwas severely damaged . its restoration from this event was completed in february 2008 .\nmemnon ( gb ) b . h , 1822 { 11 - g } dp = 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 ( 0 ) di = inf cd = inf\npetrarch was a difficult horse to bring to peak condition , as he suffered throughout his racing career from intermittent kidney trouble .\nwest bank valley of the kings incl . camel or horse ride \u00bb guided tours of luxor , egypt \u2013 eye of horus tours\npetrarch earned prize money of \u00a311 , 700 in 1876 , making him the most financially successful horse of the year in britain .\nreference point was voted 1987 british horse of the year by the racecourse association , attracting twelve of the twenty votes . [ 16 ]\nbizarre became the first horse to retain the title winning in 1824 and 1825 and by that time trainer william chifney was well on the way to training his five winners of the race , accomplished thanks to : anticipation ( 1816 ) , belville ( 1818 ) , marcellus ( 1823 ) , memnon ( 1827 ) and zinganee ( 1829 ) .\nin the lower middle panel , the left image , which is partially obscured in this photograph , shows achilles dragging the body of hector behind his horse , while priam is labelled in the background ( 483 - 7 ) . in the iliad , this is a long poignant scene ; vergil devotes 5 lines to the full episode , with the first two lines devoted to achilles dragging hector and the last line describing priam ' s humiliating attempt to gain back his son ' s body . on the right , memnon [ mennon ] , the king of ethiopia , lies dead on a funeral bed with birds above him , a reference to a story told in book 13 of ovid ' s metamorphoses in which zeus turns the smoke from memnon ' s funeral pyre into smoke to appease memnon ' s mother . memnon is mentioned in line 489 , but vergil has him alive with masses of troops . the scene portrayed here comes from the iliad , rather than the aeneid .\nin september at doncaster orville won the two mile free handicap sweepstakes and a four mile match race against mr mellish ' s horse stockton .\nenjoy this private guided tour to see the highlights of the ancient west bank monuments in luxor . these highlights include valley of the kings ( necropolis of thebes ) , temple of queen hatshepsut , the only woman ever to reign over egypt as pharaoh , and the colossi of memnon . you also have the option of taking 2 - hour camel or horse ride .\nwhat happened to . . . trempolino ? | sporting life - horse racing news | live racing results , racecards , live betting shows\ntips identifying patterns in a horse ' s form can lead to value - priced winners and there is a good example at goulburn on monday .\non 3 december 2009 conduit was awarded the roa / sportingbet . com outstanding older horse for 2009 by british racehorse owners ' association . [ 36 ]\n, john randall and tony morris rated coronach the forty - second best british horse of the 20th century and the best derby winner of the 1920s .\nmemnon ( 1822 ) was a product of richard watt ' s bishop burton stud in yorkshire , from whence issued three doncaster st . leger winners , an oaks winner , and many great distance runners in the first decades of the nineteenth century . memnon ' s dam , manuella ( 1809 ) , by dick andrews , was a bishop burton product who ran for two years , her best win the epsom oaks ; she raced for w . n . w . hewitt , and returned to bishop burton when her career on the turf was done . she was out of watt ' s exceptional broodmare , mandane , also the dam of st . leger winner altisidora , the great stayer lottery and brutandorf . manuella was also the dam of memnon ' s sisters nitocris and margellina ( see below ) .\nin 1844 , the b & o began using 0 - 8 - 0 type locomotive . one of the b & o ' s primary locomotive builders , ross winans used this wheel arrangement because it produced maximum tractive effort by evenly distributing all of the locomotive ' s weight on its drivers . in 1848 , the b & o purchased six 0 - 8 - 0 locomotives from outside manufacturers for its freight service . the\nmemnon\nwas built by the newcastle manufacturing company in delaware . during the civil war , the\nmemnon\nwas used as a freight engine to haul troops and supplies for the union army . since the civil war , it has been given the nickname\nold war horse .\n. these correspond to the first three letters of horse names that exist in our database . click on on of the letter combinations to get a detailed list of horses .\n. he had legitimate excuses however , as the contest was run at a\nmuddling pace\nand he came back from the race a sick horse , with a high temperature .\nconduit was awarded the eclipse award as american champion male turf horse for 2008 [ 34 ] and finished runner - up to gio ponti for the same award in 2009 . [ 35 ]\nthere are more than one million horses in our database . to search through and find a horse by name , first click on the first letter of the horses name from the list below .\nthe final and decisive action was , though , the idea of the wooden horse . odysseus , inspired by athena , thought up the ruse to get a body of men inside the walls of troy . first , the greeks all sailed off into the sunset leaving a mysterious offering to the trojans of a gigantic wooden horse which in reality concealed a group of warriors within . just to make sure the trojans took the horse within the city , sinon was chosen to stay behind and tell a cock and bull story about the greeks having given up and left a nice present . the trojans did take the horse inside the city walls but whilst they were enjoying a drunken celebration of their victory , the greeks climbed out of the horse , opened the city walls for the returning greek army , and the city was sacked and the population slaughtered or enslaved . helen was taken back to argos and of the trojan heroes only aeneas escaped to eventually set up a new home in italy .\n. in a racing career which lasted from august 1801 until october 1807 the horse ran thirty - four times and won twenty races . in his early career he was based in yorkshire and won the\nin their book a century of champions , john randall and tony morris rated coronach the forty - second best british horse of the 20th century and the best derby winner of the 1920s . [ 24 ]\nreference point was given a timeform rating of 139 , the eleventh highest awarded to any horse up to that time , and higher than those of nijinsky , alleged and troy . [ 16 ] in their book a century of champions , john randall and tony morris rated reference point the thirty - sixth best british horse of the 20th century and the second best derby winner of the 1980s behind shergar . [ 5 ]\n, created a controversy when he refused to pay the \u00a39 , 000 he had lost by wagering on petrarch in his ascot defeats , claiming that the horse had not been allowed to run on its merits .\na year later fame and glory\u2019s run came to an end as the grey horse colour vision gave frankie dettori another gold cup victory , leading home a godolphin one - two ahead of the luckless opinion poll .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for montana warrior . montana warrior is a gelding born in 2011 august 26 by flying spur out of rose of montana\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for stroke of eight . stroke of eight is a gelding born in 2010 november 5 by valixir out of october miss\nhawkesbury rc brook group h . , a $ 27 , 000 , 1300m , time 1 : 18 . 13 . track soft ( 5 ) . carried 59 . 00kg . prince memnon was 1st and uratta belle 2nd and magic panther 3rd . trainer : g l frazer . owner : k w bastian . jockey : t angland .\ngoulburn drc weddings on track maiden h . , a $ 20 , 000 , 1300m , time 1 : 17 . 95 . track good ( 4 ) . carried 59 . 00kg . prince memnon was 1st and crown me jacko 2nd and millster 3rd . trainer : s i singleton . owner : t p j conn & d skelly . jockey : b el - issa .\n, one of the classic horse races . the race was established by colonel barry saint leger in 1776 and was named for him in 1778 . an event for three - year - old colts and fillies , it is run annually in september at\nin the 2008 world thoroughbred racehorse rankings , conduit was ranked the sixth best horse in the world with a rating of 126 . [ 32 ] in the 2009 rankings , he was assigned a mark of 125 , placing him seventh in the world . [ 33 ]\nas at epsom and ascot , there were rumours that the race had not been entirely fair : it was reported that petrarch had been heavily backed to win by kisber ' s owners , the baltazzi brothers , who therefore stood to profit from the poor running of their own horse .\ncoronach was a british thoroughbred racehorse and sire . he was a champion two - year - old who went on to become only the third horse to complete the derby , eclipse stakes and st leger treble ( tulyar , in 1952 , become the most recent and fourth horse to equal the feat ) [ 2 ] as a three - year - old in 1926 , a year in which he also won the st . james ' s palace stakes . he won the coronation cup at four , but was beaten in his two remaining starts by his long - standing rival colorado\nin april however , he took part in a public trial race in which he was beaten by lord dupplin ' s other classic entry kaleidoscope . although dawson had warned the owner that petrarch was not fully fit , the trial convinced dupplin that kaleidoscope was the better horse and he wagered accordingly .\nthe war itself does not end with hector\u2019s funeral , and virgil continues the account . hector is replaced by prince memnon of ethiopia , a great warrior , and the trojans have the upper hand for a time . but achilles soon kills memnon as well , driving the trojans back to the scaean gates . there , however , paris kills achilles with apollo\u2019s help : paris shoots an arrow and the god guides it to achilles\u2019 heel , his one vulnerable spot . ( thetis tried to make the infant achilles invulnerable by dunking his body in the mystical river styx but forgot to submerge the heel by which she held him . ) the greeks decide achilles\u2019 divine armor should be given to either odysseus or ajax , the two greatest greek warriors remaining . when odysseus is chosen , ajax plots revenge , but athena makes him go crazy . ajax massacres some cattle , then comes to his senses and , mortified , kills himself .\n. you keep it on your right hand and [ 20 ] uphold the commandment , one of the precepts which they say once in the mountains the son of philyra enjoined on the powerful son of peleus , when he was separated from his parents : first of the gods , worship the son of cronus , the loud - voiced ruler of lightning and thunder ; [ 25 ] and never deprive your parents of such honor during their allotted lifetime . long ago , too , powerful antilochus showed that he had this way of thinking ; [ 30 ] he died for his father ' s sake , by awaiting the man - slaying commander of the ethiopians , memnon . for the horse kept nestor ' s chariot from moving , since it had been wounded by\ntriple crown , in british horse racing , championship attributed to a colt or filly that in a single season wins the races known as the two thousand guineas , the derby , and the saint leger . in britain the term triple crown is also applied\u2014though far less commonly\u2014to a filly that in a single season\u2026\norville failed to win in three starts in 1803 . at york in may he finished second to lennox in a two mile sweepstakes . at the same course in august he finished second to duxbury in a four mile race and second again when beaten by mr mellish ' s horse stockton four days later .\ngainsborough , ( foaled 1915 ) , english racehorse ( thoroughbred ) who won the british triple crown , consisting of the two thousand guineas at newmarket , the derby at epsom downs , and the saint leger at doncaster in 1918 . the horse later became a stud of worldwide importance , being the sire of the\u2026\norville began his five - year - old season by winning a two mile sweepstakes at york on 29 may . he returned to york in august when he finished last of the five runners behind haphazard in a four mile subscription race and second to r garfoth ' s horse by traveller in a similar event two days later .\ncharles the twelfth was a\nvery fine and racing - like\ndark brown horse standing sixteen hands high [ 1 ] bred by major nicholas yarburgh of heslington hallin north yorkshire . [ 2 ] yarburgh sent the colt into training with john scott who trained forty classic winners at his base at whitewall stables , malton , north yorkshire .\nfor although you have been taught by me thus gently the art of horsemanship , and are suited to such a horse as i , some day you shall ride on xanthus and balius ; and you shall take many cities and slay many men .\n( the centaur chiron to young achilles . philostratus , imagines 2 . 2 ) .\nin 2016 the cream very much rose to the top as order of st george showed a terrific turn of foot to win most impressively . the aidan o\u2019brien trained four year old evoked memories of ardross , such was his class \u2013 and like that horse before him , went on to place in the prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe later in the year .\nbut more drama awaited in 1988 . the horse first past the post was the much - travelled ex - spanish and now french - trained royal gait , who won the race decisively , running away from his rivals in the final furlong under american jockey cash asmussen . however , in the home straight , as the front running el conquistador dropped back , rolling against the rails , royal gait made contact and the tired horse stumbled and unseated his rider tony clark . royal gait proceeded to romp away from sadeem , the stable mate of el conquistador , eventually finished five lengths to the good . but the stewards saw a problem and sensationally disqualified royal gait despite the fact he was clearly the best horse in the race . furthermore it seemed a matter of conjecture as to whether he was fully to blame for the el conquistador incident . but the decision was made and sadeem won the race . royal gait later won a champion hurdle but his life ended tragically short as he collapsed and died after finishing fourth in a race at leopardstown . sadeem meanwhile , made good use of his luck and landed a second gold cup in 1989 .\ndespite the race\u2019s long and illustrious history , some of the most momentous gold cups have taken place in recent years . yeats became the most successful horse in gold cup history when he won his fourth consecutive renewal in 2009 . then in 2013 estimate won the race marking the first time in 207 years of the gold cup that the race had been won by the reigning monarch .\nin the top right panel , troilus , the youngest son of priam , hangs upside down , holding onto his chariot with his knees and holding onto the reins in an attempt to regain control of his horse ( 475 - 8 ) . achilles in his own chariot stabs him in the neck with a sword , a reference to the full event which is commonly found in archaic art ( ocd ) . the crown of troilus is shown under the horse of achilles . with such a limited space , the arrangement of key elements is a bit awkward and forced , but brant does manage to fit in most of the important details ; he does not show troilus ' s javelin dragging on the ground , which would be extremely difficult to show with the cramped arrangement .\nindeed , my dreaded master , we will once more bring you safely home today . yet the hour of your death is drawing near ; and it is not we who will be the cause of it , but a great god and the strong hand of destiny .\n( xanthus 1 , achilles ' horse , to its master . homer , iliad 19 . 408 ) .\nwhen le moss retired at the end of 1980 , charles st george , one of the dominant owners of the era , purchased ardross and sent him to henry cecil . the horse struck up an immediate partnership with lester piggott and was a quite brilliant winner of the gold cup in 1981 and again in 1982 , ending his career with an agonising defeat by inches in the arc de triomphe .\nin the morning , you will be picked up from your hotel in central luxor or harbor by an air - conditioned vehicle for a full guided trip of about 5 hours . first , you will be transported to the necropolis of thebes also known as the valley of the kings on the west bank of luxor . this ancient necropolis is a must - see for luxor travelers . there , you will visit 3 ancient and mysterious tombs . your egyptologist tour guide will be on hand to advise you as to which tombs to visit . after visiting the tombs , you will be transported to the temple of queen hatshepsut , the only woman ever to reign over egypt as pharaoh . afterwards , you will be taken to see the colossi of memnon , the two largest ancient statues in egypt which date back to the era of king amenhotep iii . once you are finished , you will be taken for a camel or horse ride for an additional 2 hours . upon completion of the experience , your guide will take you back to your luxor accommodation .\ncolour vision was back to defend his title in 2013 but the race held more sensation as her majesty the queen watched her own horse estimate \u2013 trained by michael stoute \u2013 now a knight , who had won the race way back in 1978 with shangamuzo . estimate beat simenon by a dramatic neck after such a long contest but the winning margin was irrelevant given the scenes of frivolity that greeted the royal winner .\nhis sire , blacklock , was a great stayer with a huge stride . he had a deep shoulder and girth , and a muscular neck , vertical pasterns , and an unattractive head with a roman nose , all traits which he passed on to many of his offspring . his sire , whitelock , was a fair stayer and winner of four and two mile heats , but had an indifferent race record and was used as a country stallion after he was retired from the turf . blacklock ' s dam , a mare by coriander , had been purchased for \u00a33 by francis moss at the york horse market , and her foal , blacklock , was sold to a yorkshire horse dealer , thomas kirby , for \u00a340 when a yearling , who sold him at age two to richard watt of bishop burton , near beverley , yorkshire . blacklock ' s dam later produced the st . leger winner theodore ( 1819 ) .\n1 . achilles is killed by paris and apollo , as hector 1 foretells in hom . il . 22 . 359 , and also the immortal horse ( xanthus 1 ) says\nby a god and a mortal\nin 19 . 416 . yet we also learn that thetis had foretold achilles that he would die by the arrows of apollo ( hom . il . 21 . 275ff . ) , a prophecy that quintus smyrnaeus evokes in fall of troy 3 . 95 .\nconduit was then aimed the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes at ascot and was made 13 / 8 favourite . conduit ' s preparation for the race was highly unusual . the ballymacoll stud received a series of messages threatening to kill the horse if he ran in the race . the police were alerted , and the british horseracing authority arranged extra security for conduit on his journey to ascot . a man was later arrested and convicted of\nthreatening to damage property\n. [ 22 ]\nairborne was a tall , rangy grey horse bred at castletown geoghegan , county westmeath , [ 3 ] in ireland by harold boyd - rochfort , the brother of the successful trainer cecil boyd - rochfort . as a yearling he was sent to the sales where he was bought for 3 , 900 guineas [ 4 ] by the british plastics manufacturer and racehorse - breeder john ferguson . ferguson sent the colt to be trained by the former jockey richard \u201cdick\u201d perryman [ 5 ] at his beaufort house stables at newmarket , suffolk .\nairborne was not a success as a stallion . the best of his runners on the flat was the filly silken glider who finished second in the oaks and won the irish oaks in 1957 . the best horse he sired however , was the irish - trained jumper flyingbolt . airborne ' s progeny had won approximately \u00a325 , 000 in stakes up until the end of 1955 . [ 17 ] his last recorded foals were conceived in 1961 . [ 18 ] he died on 11 september 1962 of heart failure . [ 19 ]\nin europe , he won the st . leger stakes in 2008 and britain ' s most prestigious [ 1 ] weight - for - age race , the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes in 2009 . he is known internationally for being the only horse to record two outright wins in the breeders ' cup turf . in each of his breeders ' cup wins , he ran under 2 : 24 . 00 , recording the two fastest times in the race ' s history up to that time . conduit is currently standing at stud in hokkaido , japan .\nmandane ( 1800 ) won one small match at brighton for her owner and breeder , thomas panton and was sold to yorkshire breeder and sportsman richard watt and was installed at his bishop burton stud , where she became one of the best broodmares of the early nineteenth century , producing manuella ( oaks winner , later dam of st . leger winner memnon and other good winners ) , altisidora ( st . leger winner ) , lottery ( doncaster cup and other distance races , sire of st . leger winner chorister ) , who continued the tramp sire line , and brutandorf ( chester cup , influential sire ) . other pot - 8 - os daughters included the ancestress ( 1796 ) of the 1834 racehorse cardinal puff ; radish ( 1787 ) , the grandam of the good race filly whizgig ( 1825 ) , and the grandam ( 1792 ) of american eclipse ( 1814 ) . - - patricia erigero\nthe war involved several more exciting episodes including achilles\u2019 fight with and killing of the ethiopian king memnon and the amazon penthesilea who both came to the aid of the trojans . achilles was even said to have fallen in love with the beautiful amazon just at the moment he killed her with his spear . achilles himself met his destiny and was killed by an arrow to his only weak spot , his ankle , shot by paris and guided by apollo . odysseus and ajax squabbled over the hero\u2019s magnificent armour and ajax went mad with disappointment when he lost out on the prize . slaughtering a herd of sheep he thought were greeks , he fell on his sword in a messy and pointless suicide . philokteles got revenge for his father , achilles , by fatally shooting paris with the legendary bow of hercules . finally , odysseus even managed to get into the city in disguise and steal the sacred palladion statue of athena .\nreference point was a dark - coated bay horse bred by his owner , louis freedman , at his cliveden stud in berkshire , england . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] he was sired by mill reef the 1971 epsom derby winner who went on to be leading sire in great britain and ireland in 1978 and 1987 . reference point ' s dam , home on the range , was a high class racemare who won the sun chariot stakes in 1981 . apart from reference point , the best of her progeny was known ranger , who won nineteen races in europe and north america . [ 4 ]\nin november , despite press rumours that suggested he would bypass the race , [ 26 ] conduit traveled back to america for the breeders ' cup , run for the second successive year at santa anita . he was made odds - on favourite against six opponents for the turf . the american gelding presious passion led from the start and ran the first half mile in 45 . 14 , opening up a lead of at least eight lengths . conduit was held up before moving into second at the start of the straight , although he stumbled after colliding with the filly dar re mi . conduit ' s\nrelentless charge\n[ 27 ] took him past presious passion a furlong and a half out , and although the gelding rallied\ngamely\n, the colt won by half a length . [ 28 ] the winning time of 2 : 23 . 75 was the second fastest recorded in the race , behind only conduit ' s 2008 win . the normally taciturn [ 29 ] moore said of conduit ,\nhe ' s very game . he ' s a great horse - a once in a lifetime horse\n. [ 30 ] his record of two wins in the race had previously been achieved by high chaparral , although high chaparral ' s second win was achieved in a dead heat with johar .\nmandane ' s sire was pot - 8 - os , a top racehorse and significant influence on thoroughbred breeding after he retired to stud at richard ( 1st earl ) grosvenor ' s oxcroft stud in cambridgeshire . among his sons were waxy , who won the derby in 1793 , and later became the principal conduit of the eclipse sire line , and champion , the first horse to win both the derby and the st . leger . pot - 8 - os was also a good broodmare sire ; among his many good daughters was parasol ( 1800 , from prunella ) , who won 31 races and then produced two classic winners and the influential sire partisan .\nthe brown laurel ( 1824 ) was born at heslington hall , near york , bred by major nicholas yarburgh from wagtail , who was also bred by the major . wagtail was by prime minister , a half - sister to tranby . laurel was a brother to belinda , who ran second in the doncaster st . leger , and a half - brother to st . leger winner charles xii . he became a great cup horse , and ran until to the age of seven . he ran twice at the age of three , not placing in the york st . leger , and running\na bad third\nto matilda in the doncaster st . leger .\ncoronach , a big , handsome chestnut horse standing 16 . 2 hands high [ 3 ] with a white blaze , white socks on his hind feet and a light - coloured mane and tail , was bred by his owner lord woolavington . [ 4 ] he was sired by the unbeaten champion , hurry on , making him a representative of the godolphin arabian sire line . [ 5 ] apart from coronach , hurry on sired the winners of seven classics including the derby winners captain cuttle and call boy . his most influential son was the ascot gold cup winner precipitation , who sired four classic winners . coronach was the fifth foal of the mare wet kiss who finished fourth in the 1916 oaks .\nbrutandorf was sold to john clifton of lytham hall , lancashire , a long - time supporter of the northern turf . he won the sapling stakes at age three , and second to canteen in the gascoigne stakes . he ran unplaced in the 1824 doncaster st . leger , won by jerry , and the doncaster cup of that same year . in 1826 , age five , he had some success , winning the chester cup , beating nine horses , and two days later winning the stand cup there , beating the good horse longwaist by a short neck in an exciting race in which longwaist ' s owner , jack mytton , lost \u00a315 , 000 . he also won the tradesmen ' s cup that year .\nbred and raced by ballymacoll stud of county meath , conduit was sired by 2003 european horse of the year dalakhani out of the mare , well head , a daughter of fourteen - time champion sire sadler ' s wells . [ 2 ] dalakhani has proved to be a successful sire , especially of middle and long distance performers . apart from conduit , his best runners have included reliable man ( prix du jockey club ) , duncan ( irish st . leger ) , moonstone ( irish oaks ) and integral ( falmouth stakes ) . [ 3 ] well head was unraced half sister to the champion stakes winner spectrum . apart from conduit , her best foal was the great voltigeur stakes winner , hard top .\nlottery , by tramp , was born in 1820 . he was an attractive 16 hand high horse with a dubious temperament , aggravated by mismanagement . he won eleven races in his four seasons on the turf , and ran second seven times . he was a great stayer who won at distances up to four miles , his triumphs included the doncaster cup , lincoln cup and york cup . many considered him the best of his generation . retired to stud in yorkshire , he became a source of stamina : he got one classic winner , chorister , who won the st . leger . his son sheet anchor , who continued the tramp branch of the eclipse sire line , had a brief career on the turf and at stud produced some good horses , mostly stayers .\nthe iliad concludes with the burial of patroclus and the funeral games established in his honor , the restoration of hector ' s corpse to priam , and the burial of hector , for which achilles allows an armistice of eleven days . immediately after the death of hector the later legends bring the amazons to the help of the trojans , and their queen penthesilea is slain by achilles . then appears memnon at the head of an ethiopian contingent . he slays antilochus son of nestor , but is himself slain by achilles . and now comes the fulfillment of the oracle given to agamemnon at delphi ; for at a sacrificial banquet a violent quarrel arises between achilles and odysseus , the latter declaring craft and not valour to be the only means of capturing troy . soon after , in an attempt to force a way into the hostile town through the scaean gate , achilles falls , slain by the arrow of paris , directed by the god . after his burial , thetis offers the arms of her son as a prize for the bravest of the greek heroes , which provokes a fight among the greeks for the title and the arms . odysseus wins , and his main competition , the telamonian ajax , kills himself .\nwhisker ' s daughter , catherina ( 1830 , family 6 - b ) , owned by her breeder , mr . barrow , ran 171 races between her first start in the oaks of 1833 and her last run at hednesford in 1841 , and won seventy - five of them , many over a distance , including the manchester cup and heaton park ' s king ' s cup . after her lengthy career on the turf , she went on to produce nine foals , her last at age twenty - seven . her daughter , sweetheart ( 1847 , by touchstone ) won the july stakes , and her son , phaeton ( 1851 , by phlegon ) , was a good race horse that won the criterion stakes and king edward stakes . her female line petered out after a few generations .\nreference point ( 26 february 1984\u2013 december 1991 ) was a british thoroughbred race horse and sire . in a career which lasted from august 1986 to october 1987 he ran ten times and won seven races . as a three - year - old he overcame sinus problems before winning york ' s dante stakes , the derby , ascot ' s king george vi and queen elizabeth diamond stakes , the great voltigeur and st . leger in 1987 . it was not until 2012 that another derby winner contested the st . leger ; when camelot attempted , and failed , to win the english triple crown . his final race of the season resulted in failure in the prix de l ' arc de triomphe at longchamp , paris when an abscess was later found to have been responsible for his below - par performance .\nthrough brutandorf ( by blacklock ) , mandane was second dam of the half - bred gaylad , who won the grand national in 1842 . brutandorf ' s son , physician , sired the 1845 grand national winner cure - all , and through his son the cure , was grandsire of jealousy , another mare who won the grand national , this time in 1861 . brutandorf ' s son , the stayer hetman platoff , sired the cossack , who in turn sired the french - bred 1865 grand national winner alcibiade ; hetman platoff ' s daughter , rackety girl , who was sold to france , was grandam of the french - bred reugny , who won the grand national in 1874 . mandane ' s daughter , oaks winner manuella ( by dick andrews ) , produced , in addition to st . leger winner memnon , belzoni , who became a good hunter sire , and who got the half - bred vanguard , winner of the 1843 grand national . the ascetic son , irish - bred cloister , who ran second twice in the grand national before winning in 1893 , had two lines to mandane through his dam ; he descended tail - female from manuella via her daughter margelina , and he also descended from brutandorf ' s daughter , siberia . - - by patricia erigero\nvenice beach ( aus ) ( bay 2005 - stud 2010 ) . unraced . out of a half - sister to sw northerly ( australian horse of the year in 2003 . mvrc ws cox p . , gr . 1 ) , sw north boy ( vrc ascot vale s . , gr . 2 ) and sw northern song ( vrc chairman\u2019s club s . , gr . 3 ) . grandson of a half - sister to sw canon song ( vatc merson cooper s . , gr . 3 ) , sw duchess katrin ( vrc beck\u2019s bier s . , l ) and sp japaco . sire of 12 rnrs , 5 wnrs , inc . bay truffle , turkey beach , just two vees , night time lover , pride of venice and of the placegetters por una cabeza , ellie beach , giddy up venice , oz picasso , etc .\nthe top central panel has two images . the left side shows automedon , achilles ' charioteer , on horseback , in the midst of soldiers , stabbing someone in the back with his sword . this is odd because neither the iliad nor the aeneid has him doing much of the combat fighting , and it does not make sense to show him on a horse . it would make more sense to show achilles , rather than his charioteer . the right side shows diomedes killing rhesus ( 469 - 73 ) , with ulysses leading the horses of rhesus to the greek camp . ulysses ( odysseus ) is not included in vergil ' s description , though he led the attack on the camp of rhesus with diomedes . here , brant lets his knowledge of the iliad and other external sources influence his illustration ; the attack on rhesus takes place in book 10 of the iliad .\nlottery ' s daughter , rebecca , became the dam of the great racemare , alice hawthorn , who was the dam of derby winner thormanby , and who became the tail - female ancestress of many top stakes winners . two of his daughters , heads or tails and frolicsome fanny , the dam of the good racemare nina ( dam of planet ) , became influential in american pedigrees . lottery was sold to france in 1834 , where he got some good winners , and where his son alteruter , also became a good sire after his exportation to france . lottery also had an influence on steeplechasing bloodlines in england , france and ireland . mandane ' s son , brutandorf , was a bay colt of 1821 . he was in the first crop by blacklock , who had been purchased as a yearling by watt , and who ran him exclusively in the north of england ; blacklock was the first horse watt actually retained as a stallion for his stud .\nthe colonel , a blaze - faced chestnut bred at the wyvill constable burton stud , yorkshire , in 1825 , was out of a mare called my lady ' s dam , by delpini . a successful family descends from gascoigne stakes winner my lady ( 1818 , by comus , family 8 - k ) , with stakes winners all over the world ; delphine , by whisker ( see below ) was a daughter of my lady . the colonel was purchased by edward petre as a yearling , and was sold , after his st . leger win , to king george iv for \u00a34 , 000 . he was a small , speedy horse ,\nhigh and fighting\nin his action , and even as an aging stallion was called\nthe beau - ideal of an english thoroughbred .\nhe was in - bred 4 x 4 to eclipse , 4 x 4 to herod , 3 x 4 to highflyer , 4 x 5 to blank , 5 x 5 to snap .\n, his mind reeling , shouted to his son ; the cry he hurled did not fall to the ground ; his god - like son stayed on the spot and paid for his father ' s rescue with his own life , [ 40 ] and because he accomplished this tremendous deed he seemed to the younger men to be the greatest man of his time in excellence towards his parents . these things are past . of men alive today , thrasybulus [ 45 ] more than anyone has approached his father ' s standard , and he rivals his father ' s brother in every splendor . he manages his wealth with intelligence , reaping not an unjust or arrogant youth , but the wisdom found in the quiet haunts of the pierian muses . [ 50 ] earth - shaking poseidon , he is devoted to you , who rule over horse - races , and his thoughts are pleasing to you . his sweet temperament , when he associates with his drinking companions , surpasses even the bee ' s intricate honeycomb .\nthe trojans are overjoyed and celebrate their victory and the departure of the greeks . sinon in the night opens the door of the horse . the heroes descend , and light the flames that give to the greek fleet the agreed - upon signal for its return . thus troy is captured ; all the inhabitants are either slain or carried into slavery , and the city is destroyed . the only survivors of the royal house are helenus , aeneas , hector ' s wife andromache , and cassandra , who is taken as a war prize by agamemnon . the greeks run riot in the conquered city and their offenses set off divine outrage . for many of the greeks , their sufferings are far from over . their voyages home , in greek nostoi , are fraught with troubles . only nestor , diomedes , neoptolemus , philoctetes , and idomeneus reach home in safety ; while menelaus and odysseus first have to undergo wanderings for years . the locrian ajax is killed at sea , and agamemnon immediately after his arrival home .\nstoute had originally planned to rest the colt after the st leger , but conduit came out of the race exceptionally well [ 18 ] and was brought back to a mile and a half and fast ground for the breeders ' cup turf at santa anita park . moore held up conduit in the early stages before moving the colt up into a challenging position entering the straight . having been switched to the outside , conduit produced a strong late run to catch eagle mountain inside the final furlong and win by one and a half lengths . his winning time of 2 : 23 . 42 was the fastest recorded in the twenty - five runnings of the race , although , as the breeders ' cup has been run on many different tracks , times are not directly comparable . [ 19 ] after the race , stoute praised the colt and suggested that he could improve further , saying ,\nhe\u2019s a beautifully balanced horse with a good turn of foot , and he keeps getting better .\n[ 18 ]\ncoronach made his debut in july when he won a maiden race at salisbury . he then won the rous memorial stakes at goodwood in\neffortless\nstyle , leading the sporting life to describe him as\none of the best two - year - olds in england\n. [ 8 ] coronach completed his hat - trick in the champagne stakes at doncaster , leading from the start and beating lex by four lengths without being seriously challenged . [ 9 ] coronach was coughing after his doncaster win but appeared to have made a full recovery by october . [ 10 ] on his final start he was beaten a neck by lex in the middle park stakes at newmarket . he had legitimate excuses however , as the contest was run at a\nmuddling pace\nand he came back from the race a sick horse , with a high temperature . [ 11 ] despite his defeat he was rated the equal best two - year - old ( with legatee ) in the free handicap on a mark of 126 lbs . [ 12 ]\nemancipation ( f bletchingly ) champion 3yo & 4yo & aust horse of the year . 19 wins from 1200m to 1750m , a $ 544 , 760 , ajc doncaster h . , gr . 1 , george main s . , gr . 1 , all - aged s . , gr . 1 , stc rosemount wines classic , gr . 1 , george ryder s . , gr . 1 - twice , ajc apollo s . , gr . 2 , chipping norton s . , gr . 2 , 1600m - in track record time , vrc edward manifold s . , gr . 2 , nsw tatt ' s rc chelmsford s . , gr . 2 , stc hill s . , gr . 2 , canterbury s . , gr . 2 , premiere s . , gr . 3 , ajc light fingers s . , l , vrc carbine club s . , l , stc tea rose s . , l , carnivale ' 82 h . , 2d ajc expressway s . , gr . 2 . dam of 3 winners -\nthe decision was made to aim reference point for both the st leger and the prix de l ' arc de triomphe . in his prep race he ran in the great voltigeur stakes at york in august . he won comfortably at odds of 1 / 10 , but sustained a minor injury when slipping on the heavily - watered ground . [ 12 ] only six horses opposed him in the st leger at doncaster in september . he started the 4 / 11 favourite and won by one and a half lengths from mountain kingdom . the win took his earnings to \u00a3774 , 275 , a record for a horse racing exclusively in britain . [ 13 ] on his final start , reference point started odds - on favourite for the prix de l ' arc de triomphe at longchamp in october . as usual , he led from the start , but in the straight he weakened abruptly and finished eighth behind trempolino . [ 14 ] he returned from the race lame , and was found to be suffering from an abscess in his foot . [ 15 ] reference did not race again and was retired to stud .\nif you are not a member of a partner institution , whole book download is not available . ( why not ? )\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nbay colt , 1812 . by waxy - penelope by trumpator darley arabian sire line : whalebone branch . family 1 - o\nemma ( 1824 ) was bred by the earl ' s trustees , and later sold , or more likely leased , by coal magnate and banker william russell who , in 1796 , had purchased brancepeth castle , about four miles south of durham . she was a modesty successful runner , winning three of her four juvenile races , including a 500 sovereign match against sharpshooter at doncaster , and place din four of her six races at age three , including third in doncaster ' s gascoigne stakes to two colts . retired to john bowes ' streatlam stud , she produced seventeen foals , including two derby winners - - mundig and cotherstone - - trustee , an influential sire in america , and mowerina , the dam of english triple crown winner west australian and other good winners .\nthe liver chestnut maid of lune ( 1831 ) was one of the first horses to run , in york , in the colors of john bowes after he reached his majority . retired to stud in 1835 , her first foal was mickleton maid ( 1836 ) , by the good two - miler velocipede . she won the park hill stakes , and went on to produce some daughters whose descendants were successful and numerous enough to propel maid of lune to head her own branch of family 7 ( family 7 - b ) , including some english classic winners and a great many successful horses in japan . another daughter of maid of lune , heather bell ( 1842 , by bay middleton ) , was an important tail - female ancestress of top winners in south africa . maid of lune remained in the streatlam stud until her death in 1853 , having produced fifteen foals for bowes ."]}
{"id": 781, "summary": [{"text": "assert ( 17 april 1979 \u2013 1995 ) was an irish thoroughbred racehorse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "as a two-year-old he was beaten by golden fleece on his debut but went on to win the beresford stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in the following year he was again beaten by golden fleece in a trial race but went on to win four group one races : the prix du jockey club , irish derby , benson & hedges gold cup and joe mcgrath memorial stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was rated the best middle-distance horse in europe in 1982 by timeform .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was retired to stud at the end of his three-year-old season and became a successful sire of winners . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "assert ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["virtually all newer modems allowing the behavior of the dcd signal to be configured . typical options available include\nalways assert dcd\n,\nassert dcd only when connected\n, and\nalways assert dcd except immediately after sensing a disconnect\n.\nhis horse is too clever for his own good . love seeing horses assert their intelligence in the faces of those who think horses are not\u2026\n2nd dam : sommes sound by assert . winner at 3 . dam of 9 winners :\ncats are always on their high horse . get it ? cats ? high horse ? only this horse is lying down , but i guess\ncats are always on\u2026\nnearco was inbred 4 \u00d7 4 to assert , meaning that this stallion appears twice in the fourth generation of his pedigree .\nhorse are blessings beyond counting every day , not just on thanksgiving . when i count my blessings , i count my horse twice .\nthe american paint horse is a color breed unlike the pinto which it resembles . the primary difference between the paint and the pinto is the stipulation that to be registered as a paint , the horse must be either a quarter horse or thoroughbred . the paint horse is generally found with a stock horse build , although some are used for racing .\ntom fool - - born in 1949 , purchased by mrs . harry payne whitney , greentree stable . trained by john m . gaver , second horse in history to win the handicap triple crown . horse of the year and handicap horse of 1953 .\nc : hoppel ' s horse & cattle co . b : george strawbridge jr .\nassert began his three - year - old season in the nijinsky stakes over ten furlongs in may in which he again finished second to golden fleece . two weeks later , assert was moved up in distance for the gallinule stakes over one and a half miles at the curragh and recorded a wide - margin victory over rivellino .\nassert began his three - year - old season in the nijinsky stakes over ten furlongs in may in which he again finished second to golden fleece . two weeks later , assert was moved up in distance for the gallinule stakes over one and a half miles at the curragh and recorded a wide - margin victory over rivellino . [ 4 ]\nbecause of this , in many instances it is not possible to determine whether a horse is gaited when it is standing still . movement is necessary to tell if a horse is gaited .\ngolden fleece was sangster ' s representative in the epsom derby and so assert was sent to contest the french equivalent , the prix du jockey club over 2400m at chantilly racecourse four days later . starting the 2 . 2 / 1 favourite he took the lead from real shadai in the straight and pulled clear to win by three lengths . he was the first foreign trained - horse to win the race since its inception in 1836 . three weeks later , assert started 4 / 7 favourite for the irish derby at the curragh , with the american - bred , british - trained silver hawk appearing to provide his only serious opposition . assert took the lead and quickly went clear of the field to win very easily from silver hawk by a margin officially recorded as eight lengths ( timeform made it ten lengths ) . assert became the first horse to win both the prix du jockey club and irish derby .\nwelcome to horseracing . com . au , australia ' s premier site for horse racing news .\nthe concept of leadership as advocated in many training manuals proves to be unreliable in the horse .\ngolden fleece was sangster ' s representative in the epsom derby and so assert was sent to contest the french equivalent , the prix du jockey club over 2400m at chantilly racecourse four days later . starting the 2 . 2 / 1 favourite he took the lead from real shadai in the straight and pulled clear to win by three lengths . he was the first foreign trained - horse to win the race since its inception in 1836 . [ 5 ] three weeks later , assert started 4 / 7 favourite for the irish derby at the curragh , with the american - bred , british - trained silver hawk appearing to provide his only serious opposition . assert took the lead and quickly went clear of the field to win very easily from silver hawk by a margin officially recorded as eight lengths ( timeform made it ten lengths ) . [ 4 ] assert became the first horse to win both the prix du jockey club and irish derby . [ 6 ]\nthe quarter horse is truly an american breed of horse . it was created to compete in quarter racing , one of the earliest forms of horse racing in america . the founding stallion was a thoroughbred named janus , imported to america in 1756 . he was a famous sire of great racers in colonial america . the quarter horse proved capable of many tasks besides racing . when the pioneers moved westward , the quarter horse found a new role on the cattle range where its explosive speed and intelligence proved ideal for herding cattle . the quarter horse became a choice mount for rodeo riders . today the breed is also used for show jumping and combined training . the quarter horse is one of the most versatile horses .\nthe standardbred horse is considered to be the fastest harness horse in the world . harness racing has been a passion in the united states since the early 1800s . then , the morgan horse reigned as the supreme harness horse . but an event occurring in 1849 ended the morgan dynasty . this event was the foaling of a horse named hambletonian\u00eds 10 , the foundation sire of the standardbred horse . the breed gains its name from the fact that a horse must meet a certain\nstandard\nof either timed speed at the mile or breeding in order to be properly registered . the increased brilliance of the standardbred breed itself has reduced times for the mile by a minute - down 30 percent from the original record .\ncoolmore manager christy grassick said :\nwe all feel privileged to have been involved with such a special horse .\nfor more details on the entire 12 - horse field , see the free arkansas derby pps courtesy of brisnet .\nfrom the time of julius caesar ' s occupation of what is now belgium , the belgian horse has enjoyed a great reputation as a powerful and versatile horse . the belgian draft horse is called the brabant horse in europe , and in america it is called the belgian . the belgian is the descendant of the type of horse used by knights as war horses . richard the lionhearted imported many belgians to england . when the mounted knight became obsolete , the belgian ' s strength was utilized in agriculture . the belgian has been exported throughout the world to improve local stock . it has greatly influenced the shire , clydesdale , and suffolk punch of britain , and the rheinesh horse of germany .\ngeneral george washington ( riding white horse ) and his staff welcoming a provision train of supplies for the continental army .\nassert was a bay horse with a white blaze and three socks bred in ireland by the moyglare stud . he was from the first crop of foals sired by be my guest , an american - bred stallion who won the waterford crystal mile when trained in ireland by vincent o ' brien . be my guest ' s other offspring included on the house , pentire go and go and luth enchantee . assert ' s dam irish bird , was a half - sister of irish ball , a colt who finished third in the epsom derby before winning the irish derby in 1971 . a year before foaling assert , irish bird had produced bikala , who won the prix du jockey - club 1981 . another of her foals was eurobird , a filly who won the irish st leger .\nassert was a bay horse with a white blaze and three socks bred in ireland by the moyglare stud . he was from the first crop of foals sired by be my guest , an american - bred stallion who won the waterford crystal mile when trained in ireland by vincent o ' brien . be my guest ' s other offspring included on the house , pentire go and go and luth enchantee . assert ' s dam irish bird , was a half - sister of irish ball , a colt who finished third in the epsom derby before winning the irish derby in 1971 . a year before foaling assert , irish bird had produced bikala , who won the prix du jockey - club 1981 . another of her foals was eurobird , a filly who won the irish st leger . [ 2 ]\n. street cry , though , proved much his best sire - son , to the extent that one can confidently assert that he proved himself a significantly better sire than his father had been . and that is very high praise indeed .\nlonhro has been able to assert his dominance in an era increasingly bereft , with the exception perhaps of defier , of genuine wfa competition , which is also a reflection of how well hawkes has placed the five - year - old .\nou know you are a horse lover when you see a golf course and think about how it would make a great pasture .\nas a yearling assert was sent to the ales in france and was bought for 160 , 000 francs ( approximately \u00a316 , 000 ) and entered the ownership of robert sangster . he was trained throughout his racing career by david o ' brien .\nbe my guest , also a member of the 1974 foal crop was purchased privately and he won the desmond stakes and the waterford crystal mile in 1977 . he went on to sire belmont stakes winner go and go and irish derby winner assert .\nthe creation of the american paint horse association was due in part to the fact that horses of paint coloring were discriminated against by other associations . for instance , the american quarter horse association will not register a spotted horse regardless of its breeding , however excellent or pure . many owners of spotted horses feel their horses receive poor marks from show judges due to color . in fact , in some shows judges have been known to refuse the entries of spotted horses . therefore , there are now a considerable number of shows restricted to spotted horses . ironically , in the old west , cowhands would pay considerably more for a spotted horse than a horse of conventional coloring .\nwhat an amazing , amazing horse . sad to learn . god speed . . . . . . . . . . . .\na fabulous horse , who enjoyed a very long and productive life . the world was blessed to have witnessed such an incredible animal .\nthe minstrel was named horse of the year in both ireland and england . he went on to sire breeders\u2019 cup mile winner opening verse , but his greatest claim to fame in the breeding shed is through his grandson , american horse of the year cigar by palace music .\nthe ancestor of the hanoverian horse was the german\nwar horse\nof the middle ages . with the passing of the armored knight , the hanoverian was bred with spanish and oriental horses to change its conformation for use as a cavalry horse . this new hanoverian horse was capable of working under saddle , in harness on the farm or drawing carriages . in 1735 , king george ii of england ( a german ) founded the famous landgestiit celle which is to this day the official stud and training facility with over 200 stallions . today the hanoverian has been crossed with more thoroughbred blood , as well as , trakehner . it proves a superlative hunter , dressage and show jumping horse .\nit is the most phenomenal record for any horse to be champion sire 14 times - a record that is likely to remain unequalled .\nkingston town , like lonhro a handsome , near - black individual , was the first australian horse to win more than $ 1 million .\nas a yearling assert was sent to the ales in france and was bought for 160 , 000 francs ( approximately \u00a316 , 000 ) and entered the ownership of robert sangster . he was trained throughout his racing career by david o ' brien . [ 3 ]\nin 1981 , assert was given a rating of 113 by the independent timeform organisation , nineteen pounds below their top - rated two - year - old colt wind and wuthering . in the official international classification he was rated thirteen pounds behind the top - rated green forest . in the following season he was rated the second - best three - year - old in europe ( and the joint - second - best horse of any age ) behind golden fleece . timeform rated him on 134 , a pound ahead of golden fleece and level with ardross and green forest as the best horse of the year . he was also named the year ' s best middle - distance horse by timeform .\na 1937 exhibition of appaloosas in art and an article on the breed in the western horseman magazine created a new interest in the indian ' s spotted horse . the result was the incorporation of the appaloosa horse club in 1938 . it barely stayed alive through world war ii , but new research on the spotted horse in the old world interested more people in the breed . the first all - appaloosa show was held at lewiston , idaho , in 1948 . in 1950 , the appaloosa horse club was recognized by the national association of stallion registration boards . canada and england also formed appaloosa horse clubs and many regional clubs were formed within the u . s . the modern appaloosa is a fast - growing and popular breed .\nthe morgan breed was founded by a horse foaled in 1789 in west springfield , massachusetts . as a young horse , he was called figure . according to the new england custom at the time , he was named after his owner , justin morgan . when morgan died , the horse was sold . justin morgan proved to be a proponent sire that produced a breed which could haul logs one day and win an important race the next .\nin 1981 , assert was given a rating of 113 by the independent timeform organisation , nineteen pounds below their top - rated two - year - old colt wind and wuthering . in the official international classification he was rated thirteen pounds behind the top - rated green forest . [ 3 ] in the following season he was rated the second - best three - year - old in europe ( and the joint - second - best horse of any age ) behind golden fleece . timeform rated him on 134 , a pound ahead of golden fleece and level with ardross and green forest as the best horse of the year . he was also named the year ' s best middle - distance horse by timeform . [ 4 ]\nveuvelicious ( 11f , medicean , assert ) . 2 wins at 2 , a $ 174 , 100 , atc fernhill h . , l , mrc sensational springvale 2yo p . , 3d atc schweppervescence h . , gr . 3 , mrc say it with flowers 2yo h .\nthe pinto horse is a color breed in contrast to most other breeds which are defined by their genetic ancestry . in america , the pinto is regarded as a proper breed . pintos have a dark background coloring and upon this color random patches of white . the pinto coloration may occur in any breed or specific conformation . however , the pinto horse association of america does not accept horses with appaloosa , draft , or mule breeding or characteristics . in the american west , the pinto has traditionally been regarded as a horse the american indian favored as a war horse since its coloring provided a natural camouflage .\nin 1982 dr o\u2019brien\u2019s son maintained the family stranglehold on the joe mcgrath memorial as his outstanding 3 year old colt assert \u2013 a dual derby winner and most recently the winner of the benson and hedges gold cup , routed his rivals , with kind of hush best of the rest .\nobviously , the most outstanding feature of the miniature is its size . it stands up to 34 inches . other than height , standards require the horse to be of good conformation , looking much like a horse of larger proportions . it is known for its intelligence and alertness . it appears in any color .\nsince 1942 , hundreds of thousands of horses have already suffered and died to support the premarin drug industry .\nwhat no horse said ever . someday i\u2026\nthe precise origins of the quarter horse have been argued incessantly and vigorously , almost from its very beginning . we know with certainty that the most important influence on the quarter horse came from the thoroughbred horse , janus , imported as a ten - year - old to america in 1756 . janus stood at stud for 24 years , but the origin of the mares he was bred with is the subject of dispute . historians variously maintain that the ancestors were spanish horses , chickasaws , galloway \u00eds , hobbies and so on . the characteristics of the quarter horse , then , are due to a host of influences from different breeds .\nmyth # 2 : gaited horses require special tack tradition is important in all breeds , but in particular the ones from south and central america . while traditional saddles and tack are used on some horse in the show ring , these horses may be ridden in any saddle or bridle that you or i may choose for a \u201cregular\u201d horse . the main thing to keep in mind is that many gaited horses have long sloping shoulders and shorter backs ( but this is true of many breeds ) . the key with gaited horses , as with all other breeds , is to ensure that the saddle allows the shoulder to move forward freely and that the saddle does not interfere with the hip . . myth # 3 : gaited horse require special shoeing once again a gaited horse is a horse first . some gaited horse breeders expand the mystique that special farriers and special shoes and angles are necessary \u201cto get the gait\u201d or \u201cto hit a lick . \u201d such statements disregard the fact that every horse is an individual and should be trimmed and shod in accordance with their conformation . many gaited horses are even shown barefoot .\nthe pinto does not have consistent conformation since it is bred for color . when the darker color is black , the horse is often described as piebald . when the darker color is anything but black , the horse is described as skewbald . pintos may be from a variety of breeds , ranging from thoroughbred to miniatures .\nafter many years of careless breeding and little attention , the paso fino found favor in puerto rico as a unique breed . in 1943 , the federacion del deporte de caballos de silla de puerto rico was formed in an effort to improve the horse . the improvements manifested quickly , making an elegant and calm - natured horse .\nassert ( ire ) b . h , 1979 { 8 - c } dp = 10 - 2 - 10 - 8 - 0 ( 30 ) di = 1 . 31 cd = 0 . 47 - 11 starts , 6 wins , 3 places , 0 shows career earnings : $ 612 , 317\nthis horse is found in any solid color with white markings permissible on the legs and face . the head is large and refined , with intelligent eyes . the long neck is heavy but not overly so . the morab is a muscular horse with long sloping shoulders and a deep chest . the back is relatively short and strong .\nsoft - gaited horses exist because they can transport people in comfort . as long as there has been recorded history of horses , there have been records of gaited horses . in fact , historically , the term \u201csaddle horse\u201d referred to a gaited horse . after all , if the horse was the only mode of transportation , does it not make sense to have one that was as comfortable as possible ? today , people still appreciate the soft gaits of these horses . what makes gaited horses unique ?\nthe most important thing to remember is that gaiting requires participation of the horse\u2019s whole body . the combination of conformation , brain , nervous system and muscles impacts movement .\narabians are found in a wide variety of uses , including hunting , jumping , endurance , dressage , trail riding and work on ranches . the first horse show devoted exclusively to the arabian was held in california in 1945 . by 1949 , the a . h . s . a . had established a separate arabian division . arabian horse races were first held at laurel , maryland in 1959 . at the other extreme of competition , the arabian international cutting horse jubilee began at filter , idaho in 1970 .\nthe belgian draft horse is descended from the war horse of the middle ages . its location of origin is brabant , in what is now belgium . belgians , as the breed is known in america , differ slightly from its european ancestor the brabant . american dealers imported mostly sorrel stock , and these colors were passed on through subsequent generations .\nthe first belgian was imported to america by dr . a . g . van hoorebeck of illinois in 1866 . the belgian is the most popular work horse in america .\nvoice 1 : bob brown has thrown down the gauntlet to the greens nsw . he obviously wants to force through changes to turn the greens into an electoral machine . i think he overestimates his cache among greens nsw members . more than ever we need to assert our right to run this organisation as we see fit .\nin addition to its elegant conformation , the american saddle horse is an outstanding performer . there are three types of saddle horse : the harness type , and the three and five - gaited types . the harness type is shown in light harness put to a light , four - wheeled vehicle . it performs the walk and the park trot . the three - gaited saddle horse works at the walk , trot and canter . the five - gaited saddle horse works at the latter gaits as well as the slow - gait and the rack . the slow - gait is a four - beat gait with remarkable action . the rack resembles the slow - gait although it is done at a much higher speed .\nthe acknowledged foundation sire of the tennessee walking horse is allan f - 1 ( also called black allan ) who was foaled in kentucky in 1886 . his sire was a standardbred ( allendorf ) and his dam a morgan ( maggie marshall ) . the breed became officially registered in 1935 with the founding of the tennessee walking horse breeders ' and exhibitors ' association . the breed was originally a type of horse used by farmers and plantation owners for use as a mount in the field where its gait and endurance were highly valued .\nmy own horse , charlie , definitely brings out the best in me . he is sweet , loving , forgiving , curious , and always greets me enthusiastically . i think that\u2026\nalthough they perform the \u201cgaits\u201d naturally , it must be recognized that the horse\u2019s balance is affected when carrying the weight of the rider . many gaited horses are \u201cwired\u201d to perform many gaits and when the balance of the load is changed , the horse changes the gait . while it is wonderful to praise the athleticism of the gaited horse , changing gaits with every shift in the riders balance is not necessarily fun , but it is challenging and intriguing . it is up to the rider to determine which gait he or she wants and to work with the horse to achieve that gait . the gait is inherited , but degree of training affects the natural or inherited ability . this fact is true of all horses .\nassert was then matched against older horses for the first time in britain ' s most prestigious weight - for - age race , the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes over one and a half miles at ascot racecourse on 24 july . he started the 10 / 11 favourite ahead of his half - brother bikala who had beaten a strong field in the prix ganay on his previous start . the other main contenders were kalaglow , height of fashion and glint of gold . assert went past bikala on the turn into the straight and held off a strong challenge from glint of gold , but was caught inside the final furlong and beaten a neck by kalaglow . on 17 august assert was ridden by pat eddery in the eleventh running of the benson and hedges gold cup over ten and a half furlongs at york racecourse . starting the 4 / 5 favourite against six british - trained opponents , he took the lead from the start and pulled clear in the straight vo win easily by six lengths from norwick . a month later , assert started the 1 / 4 favourite for the joe mcgrath memorial stakes over ten furlongs . with roche back in the saddle , he went eight lengths clear in the straight before being eased down to win by three lengths from kind of hush . timeform described the race as being\nlittle more than an exercise gallop\nfor the winner . on 3 october , assert started 5 / 2 favourite for the prix de l ' arc de triomphe on very soft ground at longchamp racecourse . he was well - positioned turning into the straight but dropped away in the closing stage and finished eleventh of the seventeen runners behind akiyda .\nassert was then matched against older horses for the first time in britain ' s most prestigious weight - for - age race , the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes over one and a half miles at ascot racecourse on 24 july . he started the 10 / 11 favourite ahead of his half - brother bikala who had beaten a strong field in the prix ganay on his previous start . the other main contenders were kalaglow , height of fashion and glint of gold . assert went past bikala on the turn into the straight and held off a strong challenge from glint of gold , but was caught inside the final furlong and beaten a neck by kalaglow . on 17 august assert was ridden by pat eddery in the eleventh running of the benson and hedges gold cup over ten and a half furlongs at york racecourse . starting the 4 / 5 favourite against six british - trained opponents , he took the lead from the start and pulled clear in the straight vo win easily by six lengths from norwick . a month later , assert started the 1 / 4 favourite for the joe mcgrath memorial stakes over ten furlongs . with roche back in the saddle , he went eight lengths clear in the straight before being eased down to win by three lengths from kind of hush . timeform described the race as being\nlittle more than an exercise gallop\nfor the winner . [ 4 ] on 3 october , assert started 5 / 2 favourite for the prix de l ' arc de triomphe on very soft ground at longchamp racecourse . he was well - positioned turning into the straight but dropped away in the closing stage and finished eleventh of the seventeen runners behind akiyda .\nthere are few breeds which can match the gracefulness of the american saddle horse in the show ring . however , this breed has a rich history far removed from the show world . the breed was originally known as the kentucky saddle horse . it was created to serve the needs of farmers and planters who often have to remain in the saddle from dawn until dusk supervising work in the fields . the horse bred for this role needed an even gait which would provide a smooth ride , and the stamina to work long hours . sometimes the horse would also have to work in harness . in addition to the breed ' s celebrated role as a showman , it is also successful in trail riding , show jumping and dressage .\nmyth # 7 : gaited horse are only for the elderly or for inexperienced riders it is a compliment that gaited horses work for people who are elderly , handicapped or inexperienced riders . however , you need not be frail or incompetent to be attracted to gaited horses . there is nothing wrong with liking a smooth comfortable ride on a sensible and good tempered horse .\nassert made his racecourse debut in a maiden race over one mile at leopardstown racecourse in september . he showed his inexperience ( ran\nvery green\n) but finished second behind the impressive winner golden fleece . three weeks later he was ( theoretically at least ) moved up in class for the group three beresford stakes over a mile at the curragh . ridden by christy roche , he took the lead early in the straight and won easily by four lengths from the odds - on favourite longleat . on his final appearance of the year , assert was sent to england for the group one william hill futurity at doncaster racecourse . he started third favourite but finished eighth of the thirteen runners behind count pahlen .\nthe paso fino is said to be a direct ancestor of the imported spanish horses of the 16th century with the only variations being those that helped suit the horse to the new climate . the horse is known primarily for its unique step for which it is named . in addition to the paso fino , the horse also exhibits two other natural four - beat gaits : the paso corto and the paso largo . the paso fino is a slow and collected gait , the paso corto covers long distances at a steady gait , and the paso largo is a faster four beat .\nrespected turf historian bill whittaker considers lonhro to be the best wfa horse since kingston town who , between 1979 and 1982 , won 30 of his 41 starts and was only four times unplaced .\nassert made his racecourse debut in a maiden race over one mile at leopardstown racecourse in september . he showed his inexperience ( ran\nvery green\n) but finished second behind the impressive winner golden fleece . three weeks later he was ( theoretically at least ) moved up in class for the group three beresford stakes over a mile at the curragh . ridden by christy roche , he took the lead early in the straight and won easily by four lengths from the odds - on favourite longleat . on his final appearance of the year , assert was sent to england for the group one william hill futurity at doncaster racecourse . he started third favourite but finished eighth of the thirteen runners behind count pahlen . [ 3 ]\nin response to this abuse , friends of sound horse was formed in 1997 . fosh is a national leader in the promotion of natural , sound gaited horses and in the fight against the abuse and soring of tennessee walking horses . fosh has three main areas of focus : \u2022 teaching sound training principals for gaited horses , \u2022 sanctioning sound gaited horse shows and events \u2022 working to end soring .\ndominance hierarchies in horses primarily influence priority access to limited resources of any kind , resulting in predictable contest outcomes that potentially minimize aggressive encounters and associated risk of injury . levels of aggression in group - kept horses under domestic conditions have been reported to be higher than in their feral counterparts but can often be attributed to suboptimal management . horse owners often express concerns about the risk of injuries occurring in group - kept horses , but these concerns have not been substantiated by empirical investigations . what has not yet been sufficiently addressed are human safety aspects related to approaching and handling group - kept horses . given horse ' s natural tendency to synchronize activity to promote group cohesion , questions remain about how group dynamics influence human\u2013horse interactions . group dynamics influence a variety of management scenarios , ranging from taking a horse out of its social group to the prospect of humans mimicking the horse ' s social system by taking a putative leadership role and seeking after an alpha position in the dominance hierarchy to achieve compliance . yet , there is considerable debate about whether the roles horses attain in their social group are of any relevance in their reactions to humans . this article reviews the empirical data on social dynamics in horses , focusing on dominance and leadership theories and the merits of incorporating those concepts into the human\u2013horse context . this will provide a constructive framework for informed debate and valuable guidance for owners managing group - kept horses and for optimizing human\u2013horse interactions .\nthe arabian is one of the most popular breeds of horse in america . the arabian horse registry of america , inc . ( which was originally called the arabian horse club of america ) was founded in 1908 . the following year , the first stud book was published and listed 71 purebred arabs in american held by 11 owners . by 1978 , a total of 167 , 501 arabians had been registered and the number of registered owners was 53 , 872 , including canada and mexico . the highest ( non - syndicated ) price paid for an arabian as of this writing was $ 350 , 000 paid for a stallion , cometego , in 1977 .\nclassic empire has a newfound zest for the job , however , after moving to the bucolic environs of winding oaks farm near ocala . if his four works there are any indication , the pioneerof the nile colt may be ready to re - assert himself as the leader of his generation . and he\u2019s fired fresh in the past , although arguing a potentially swift pace from post 2 leaves him no margin for error .\n. h . lawrence\u2019s \u201cthe horse dealer\u2019s daughter\u201d is about a woman , mabel pervin , who suffers with depression after the death of her father . with her mother dying when she was fourteen , her siblings and her father with his business as a horse dealer were all she knew . when her father passes away , all she is left with is her father\u2019s debt and her three brothers who treat her with little respect , if any at all . a series of events leads her to a revelation of herself that revitalizes her being , allowing her to love and be loved . \u201cthe horse dealer\u2019s daughter\u201d demonstrates a woman\u2019s movement from feeling insignificant and unappreciated to empowered and cared for .\na few years back . i ' ve come across these story - based debunking attempts many times . these types strenuously assert to maintain in the public mind that human cf creation is still a strong possibility where in reality it is not unless the design is small and simple . i for one will investigate any such story and relate my findings to readers on this site , elsewhere and in the field . please take cf\nit\u2019s a long way from tipperary to the tracks that host classics and their biggest fear was that the horse would not be able to fly and complete in races in england and france or worse yet injure himself or his handlers severely .\ninclude betty 12 , f ( eltish , assert ) : $ 752 , 280 , 5 wins , mother goose [ g1 ] , fantasy s . [ g3 ] , remington park oaks [ l ] , suncoast s [ l ] , 2nd black - eyed susan [ g2 ] , pin oak valley view s . [ l ] , 3rd coaching club american oaks [ g1 ] , heavenly prize invitational s . [ l ] .\nthe tennessee walking horse ' s most distinguishing characteristic is its gait , the\nrunning walk .\nthis gait was not developed merely for show purposes , but was created to carry the rider in a smooth , comfortable fashion . the running walk allows the rider to retain a secure seat involving little exertion or movement . as a result of careful selective breeding of the tennessee walker , the running walk is now inherited . this breed also has an even temperament with an excellent disposition . the tennessee walking horse was first bred by farm owners as a strong , comfortable mount on which they could supervise the work in the fields . now the breed is a distinguished horse more often found in the show ring .\ndianne little is a native calgarian who was introduced to gaited horses in 1981 . she has been a director for the alberta walking horse assoc and the canadian registry of the tennessee walking horse , and is vice - president of friends of sound horses , a leader in the promotion of natural , sound , gaited horses . dianne is also director of judges for the independent judges association , a training and licensing body for sound , natural and ethical judging of all gaited breeds .\nthe pony of the americas breed was founded in 1954 in iowa . the foundation sire was black hand # 1 . among the breeds influencing the poa are the arab , thoroughbred , quarter horse , appaloosa , welsh pony and shetland pony .\nexterminator - - born in 1915 , purchased in 1918 as a work horse for sun beau , the derby favorite . when sun beau broke down before the race , exterminator , raced at thirty to one odds , was the surprise winner .\ndespite the number of gaited breeds and their growing popularity , there is no doubt that gaited horses and gaited horse owners are a minority in the horse industry in alberta , and throughout much of north america . we \u201cgaited horse people\u201d are sometimes seen as not being part of the horse world . that is not true - we are just different . in order to be part of the majority i would have to move to such places as tennessee , kentucky , peru , columbia , or puerto rico . i have no desire to do that , so i will remain part of the minority , celebrate the uniqueness of gaited horses and show you why a journey with gaited horses may be in your future . what is a gaited horse ? this is a challenging question to answer . the webster dictionary defines gait as \u201cany of the various foot movements of a horse , as a walk , single - foot , rack , amble , trot , pace , canter or gallop\u201d and as \u201ca style of foot movement said of horses . \u201d in everyday speech , however , i think we all know that the term \u201cgaited horses\u201d is not used to describe all horses . the more common definition ( and the one i will use ) is that gaited horses are a subset of horses of various breeds where the intermediate gait is a gait without suspension \u2013 the intermediate gait is not the trot . gaited horses are frequently referred to as \u201csoft - gaited\u201d .\n- 2016 - 0104 - ea , page 35 , line 132 and 133 , stated the wild horse population on the range was less than in holding ( 47 , 403 in holding ) , according to blm officials in january of 2016 .\nthe precise origins of the welsh cob are unknown . it can be said , however , that much of the cob ' s character comes from the welsh mountain pony . during the 11th and 12th centuries the pony was crossed with spanish horses to create a larger horse , the powys cob and the welsh cart horse . with the mix of the norfolk roadsters and yorkshire coach horse , including a touch of arabian in the 18th and 19th centuries , the modern welsh cob was produced . there are four stallions in particular that have influenced the welsh cob : trotting comet , foaled in 1836 , cymro llwyd , a dun foaled in 1850 , alonzo the brave , foaled in 1866 , and true briton , foaled in 1830 .\njustin morgan ' s most important sons - those which carried on the best morgan qualities - were sherman , woodbury , bulrush , and revenge . perhaps the most famous morgan in harness racing was the great ethan allen . in 1867 at the age of 18 , he won a match race with hambletonian ' s famous son dexter , the supreme trotter of that time . the morgan became a popular mount in the american west after the civil war . it remained the favored horse for carriage work until the automobile superseded horse - drawn vehicles . besides justin morgan , one of the most famous morgan horses was black hawk . he was sired by sherman morgan and out of an unknown mare . it is said she was a from canadian breed stock . black hawk was foaled in new hampshire in 1833 . he was not an attractive horse and was high - strung in his youth . his owner nearly had him gelded . he became a pre - eminent sire and his get were at one time considered a separate breed of horse :\nblack hawks ,\nnot morgan\u00eds . he was the first stallion in american to receive a stud fee of $ 100 , a considerable sum for the 1800 ' s . among his many offspring was the famous trotter ethan allen . although black hawk died in 1856 , he was still considered the second greatest morgan sire in 1900 . the standardbred owes its greatest characteristic - namely speed - to hambletonian\u00eds , who proved to be history ' s greatest progenitor of both gait and speed . but the morgan greatly influenced the standardbred ' s stamina and conformation . some 90 percent of modern american saddlehorses such as wing commander and rex peavine trace to peavine , a great - grandson of black hawk . allen f - 1 , the founding sire of the tennessee walking horse was a descendent of black hawk on his dam ' s side . some authorities assert that steel dust , foaled about 1845 and one of the greatest sired in the history of the quarter horse , was a morgan .\nthe morgan horse is a native american breed with an outstanding reputation for its elegance and versatility . while many breeds have found greatness due to their brilliance at a certain task , the morgan ' s greatness is based on its versatility . it is used in carriage harness , under saddle , in the show ring , sport events , and in many general purpose activities and tasks . the foundation sire , justin morgan , was foaled in massachusetts in 1789 . he was a proponent sire and an extraordinary worker for his size . for many years , the morgan horse was the fastest horse for harness racing . it also earned a great reputation as a cavalry mount in the civil war . the morgan is the only breed accepted as the basis for the cavalry remount service .\nwhittaker went a step further with his assessment and said lonhro had the best finishing sprint at distances from 1400 to 2000 metres of any horse he had seen in the past 60 years , including bernborough , shannon , tulloch , kingston town and super impose .\nhorsemen the world over hold strong views on how best to breed a decent horse , and while the traditional need for a good individual will rank high on the list , the one indispensable ingredient at the top of most people ' s lists , is pedigree .\nin the official international classification for 1981 , wind and wuthering was rated the second best two - year - old in europe , three pounds behind the french - trained colt green forest . the independent timeform organisation , however , named wind and wuthering their best two - year - old with a rating of 132 , two pounds ahead of green forest . timeform argued that although green forest had won more major races , the form of wind and wuthering ' s dewhurst win was clearly superior to anything achieved by the french colt . in 1982 , wind and wuthering was rated 127 by timeform , seven pounds behind the top - rated three - year - olds assert and green forest . in the international classification he was rated twelve pounds below the top - rated horse golden fleece .\nbret hanover - - foaled in 1962 , the\nbig bum\nas he is known , won 62 of 68 career races , and was voted horse of the year for three consecutive years , 1964 - 1966 . he now stands at stud at castleton farm in kentucky .\nmovement several different styles of movement are associated with gaited horses , but they all yield an efficient and comfortable to ride gait . all styles can be summarized as : \u2022 the convex or dorsal flex is roundly collected - the neck is arched , the body is rounded and the head is carried in a vertical position . found most often in the missouri fox trotter , mountain horse or paso fino \u2022 the concave or ventral flex is strung out \u2013 travels with a hollow back and a neck that is not overly flexed the hind end on this animal tends to be behind the horse . to facilitate the pace and the stepping pace . \u2022 the combination of the convex and concave allows the horse to travel with characteristics of both types . \u2022 a level back \u2013 middle or square gaits as the paso llano and the running walk .\nthere wasn\u2019t a horse that they wanted they could not or would not buy . at least for now . that would become increasingly more difficult in years to follow when other players entered the market on the same premise , but not yet , the bloodstock world was their oyster .\nsome trainers have said the one - to two - mile gallops often given to modern - day horses are just as important as breezes or timed workouts used to be . i don ' t know if they ' re right or wrong . you ' d have to ask the horse .\nmain sunday ( 10f , qui danzig , sovereign dancer ) . 4 wins from 1450m to 2400m , r276 , 200 , turffontein picnic sites at the emerald cup h . , 2d turffontein betting world international h . , 3d turffontein owa ceiling system p . , world horse welfare h .\nit is said that the paso fino descends directly from horses brought to the caribbean islands in the early 1500s . the islands ' hilly and rocky terrain negated the use of fast horses . over time this spanish stock , mainly jennet , was selected for a slow , steady , collected gait . existing in such isolated environments some inbreeding took place and the horses declined in size and naturally passed on the unique gaits required to traverse the island terrain . after time , mainly to increase size , these horses were crossed by breeders with arabian , american saddle horse , tennessee walking horse and morgan . only the morgan seemed to improve the breed without nullifying the gaits of the native horses . the horse is now becoming popular in the u . s . ; strains that were developed separately in puerto rico , peru , and colombia are now being merged into a single strain .\nunfortunately , money , power and ego are precursors to abuse , and one unfortunate by product of the gaited horse industry is the abuse to which some breeds are subjected . the most blatant abuse is suffered by the tennessee walking horse , my breed of choice . the horse protection act ( hpa ) was passed to stop the abuse of all horses in the show ring , but the only horses named specifically in the act are tennessee walking horses , spotted saddle horses and racking horses . these were and continue to be the worst - abused animals . the abuse to which they are exposed spans the gamut from chemical soring to pressure shoeing and everything in between . under the hpa , the legs of horses from these breeds must not have evidence of any foreign substances on them , they must not have scars on their pasterns , and they must not be sore . they must be examined for soundness prior to showing . examination of these horses now includes the same sniffers that are used for national security . this tests for any chemicals used on the legs . starting this year , thermography will be used to detect inflammation from pressure shoeing . this sounds very scientific and positive , but there are never enough funds to enforce the rules at every show . although it is a federal offense to contravene the horse protection act , few charges are laid . while the abuse of the twh is the most evident , all breeds of horse are subjected to abuse ."]}
{"id": 783, "summary": [{"text": "parazacco spilurus also known as the predaceous chub , is a species of fish in the family cyprinidae distributes in the pearl river system , the hainan island and northern vietnam . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "parazacco spilurus", "paragraphs": ["( of parazacco spilurus spilurus ( g\u00fcnther , 1868 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nthe genus parazacco comprises two species viz . p . spilurus and p . fasciatus . the division of the genus into two distinct species that was maybe not warranted caused by the lack of clarity and incomplete data in previous descriptions of syntypes of p . spilurus . therefore , we re - examined , redescribed , and illustrated the external morphology of syntypes of p . spilurus , type species of the genus . the syntypes were found to be smaller in body size than that of specimens observed in the original description of p . fasciatus , the conclusions are that the two species are not distinct and recommend that they be put under one species name , p . spilurus , although further study is recommended .\n( of aspius spilurus g\u00fcnther , 1868 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of zacco spilurus ( g\u00fcnther , 1868 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\narai r . , kato k . 2003 . gross morphology and evolution of the lateral line system and infraorbital bones in bitterlings ( cyprinidae , acheilognathinae ) , with an overview of the lateral line system in the family cyprinidae . the university museum , the university of tokyo , bulletin 40 : 1 - 42 .\nb\u0103n\u0103rescu p . m . 1968 . revision of the genera zacco and opsariichthys ( pisces , cyprinidae ) . v\u0115stn\u00edk \u010deskoslovensk\u00e9 spole\u010dnosti zoologick\u00e9 32 : 305 - 311 .\nbookstein f . l . , chernoff b . , elder r . l . , humphries j . m . , smith g . r . , strauss r . e . 1985 . morphometrics in evolutionary biology . the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia . philadelphia . 277 p .\nchen y . y . 1982 . a revision of opsariichthine cyprinid fishes . oceanologia et limnologia sinica 13 : 293 - 299 .\nchen y . y . , chu x . l . 1998 . danioninae . in : y . y . chen ( ed . ) . fauna sinica . osteichthyes . cypriniformes ii . beijing , science press . pp : 19\u201361 .\nfujita t . , hosoya k . 2005 . cephalic lateral line systems in the far eastern species of the genus phoxinus ( cyprinidae ) . ichthyological research 52 : 336 - 342 .\ng\u00fcnther a . 1868 . catalogue of the fishes in the british museum . catalogue of the physostomi , containing the families heteropygii , cyprinidae , gonorhynchidae , hyodontidae , osteoglossidae , clupeidae , hirocentridae , alepocephalidae , notopteridae , halosauridae , in the collection of the british museum . volume seventh . order of the trustees . london , 512 p .\nhubbs c . l . , lagler k . f . 2004 . fishes of the great lakes region . revised edition . university of michigan press . michigan . 276 p .\nhosoya k . 1983 . geographic variation of number of vertebrae in squalidus . the freshwater fishes 9 : 43 - 48 .\nkoller o . 1927 . fische von der insel hainan . annalen des naturhistorischen museums in wien 41 : 25 - 49 .\nkottelat m . 2001 . freshwater fishes of northern vietnam . a preliminary checklist of the fishes known or expected to occur in northern vietnam with comments on systematics and nomenclature . environment and social development unit , east asia and pacific region , the world bank . washington dc . 123 p .\nkottelat m . 2013 . the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibliography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries . raffles bulletin of zoology 27 : 1 - 663 .\nmai d . y . 1978 . identification of the fresh - water fishes of north vietnam . scientific & technology , publisher . ha noi . 340 p .\nyue p . q . , chen y . y . 1998 . china red data book of endangered animals . pisces . science press , beijing , hong kong , new york . 247 p .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 11 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 35840 )\npale brown on back of the body ; white on belly ; tinged with red brown and irregular zones on sides of body ; red on belly of the head and a dark round spot in base of caudal fin . ( ref . 45563 ) . a row of pelvic scutes from the base of pelvic fin to the anus ; snout pointed sharply . lateral line curves downward on trunk and upward back the central axis after expanding the caudal peduncle ; dorsal fin short , without hard spine and its origin opposite behind the origin of the pelvic fin ; anal fin well developed ( ref . 45563 ) .\nye , f . and p . song , 1991 . danioninae . p . 67 - 79 . in j . - h . pan , l . zhong , c . - y . zheng , h . - l . wu and j . - h . liu ( eds ) . 1991 . the freshwater fishes of guangdong province . guangdong science and technology press , guangzhou . 589 pp . ( ref . 33345 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 7500 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00617 ( 0 . 00349 - 0 . 01089 ) , b = 3 . 20 ( 3 . 03 - 3 . 37 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 26 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nhas been assessed as data deficient . it has a relatively wide range , but in the second half of the last century , stocks of\nin china declined continually ( wang 1998 ) , due to overfishing and river regulations ( e . g . dams ) , however its current trend ( over the past 10 years ) is unknown . more research is needed on the species population trends to identify if this species qualifies as threatened .\nhas an east asia distribution . it is known from the pacific coastal drainages in southeastern china ( e . g . jiulongjiang , zhangjiang , hangjiang and the pearl river ) , some rivers in hainan island and the red river system in northern viet nam ( ye and song 1991 , wang 1998 , kottelat 2001 ) .\nin china have declined continually ( wang 1998 ) . the population trend in the last 10 years are unknown .\ninhabits small tributaries of rivers and little brooks with clear water and strong current velocities ( wang 1998 ) .\nare destructive fishing practices and river modification ( e . g . dam construction ) ( wang 1998 ) .\nit is not known if there are any conservation measures in place . more research and monitoring is recommended .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\npredaceous chub is one the commonest freshwater fishes found in local unpolluted streams . it has a long , streamlined and laterally compressed body and a protrusible lower jaw . its mouth is terminal without barbel . the body is generally pale pink with a distinct black mid - lateral band running from operculum to caudal peduncle and ends with a black spot on caudal fin base . the black band becomes less prominent in adult .\na widespread species occurring in most unpolluted hill streams in both upper and lower courses .\nlam , k . s . ( 2002 ) . freshwater fish in hong kong . agriculture , fisheries and conservation department , friends of the country parks and cosmos books ltd . , hong kong .\nlee , v . l . f . , lam , s . k . s . , ng , f . k . y . , chan , t . k . t . and young , m . l . c . ( 2004 ) . field guide to the freshwater fish of hong kong . agriculture , fisheries and conservation department , friends of the country parks and cosmos books ltd . , hong kong .\nman , s . h . and hodgkiss , i . j . ( 1981 ) . hong kong freshwater fishes . the urban council , hong kong .\nwang , s . , yue , p . q . and chen , y . y . ( 1998 ) . china red data book of endangered animals \u2013 pisces ( in chinese ) . science press , beijing .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of zacco asperus nichols & pope , 1927 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 794, "summary": [{"text": "lycodon alcalai , also known as alcala \u2019s wolf snake , is a species of colubrid snake found on the islands of batan and sabtang in the philippines . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "lycodon alcalai", "paragraphs": ["lycodon alcalai ota & ross 1994 lycodon alcalai \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 391\nlycodon alcalai and l . chrysoprateros differ from all other philippine species of lycodon in lacking transverse light bands on all of the body and tail . lycodon alcalai differs from l . chrysoprateros in having more than 200 ventral scales ( less than 195 in l . chrysoprateros ) .\nlycodon lineatus reinhardt 1843 : 241 cyclocorus lineatus \u2014 dum\u00e9ril , 1853 cyclocorus lineatus \u2014 dum\u00e9ril , bibron & dum\u00e9ril 1854 : 386 cyclocorus lineatus \u2014 boulenger 1893 : 327 cyclocorus lineatus \u2014 leviton 1967 cyclocorus lineatus lineatus \u2014 mcleod et al . 2011 cyclocorus lineatus \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 202 cyclocorus lineatus alcalai leviton 1967 cyclocorus lineatus alcalai \u2014 gaulke 2011 : 268 cyclocorus lineatus alcalai \u2014 gaulke 2013 cyclocorus lineatus alcalai \u2014 supsup et al . 2016\nlycodon alcalai is a member of the genus lycodon , a genus of snakes commonly known as wolf snakes . [ 4 ] the genus belongs to the snake family colubridae , the largest snake family , with member species being found on every continent except antarctica . [ 5 ]\nlycodon\n. the reptile database . www . reptile - database . org .\nlycodon zawi\n. the reptile database . www . reptile - database . org .\nthe species name alcalai was chosen to honor the naturalist a . c . alcala , who made significant contributions to herpetology in the philippines . [ 3 ]\nthe international union for conservation of nature considers lycodon alcalai to be a species of least concern , based on a survey in 2007 . the islands that it inhabits are well protected , have very few inhabitants , and do not experience anthropogenic environmental disturbances such as hunting or logging . [ 1 ]\nnota bene : a binomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a genus other than lycodon .\nphilippines ( lubang , luzon , mindoro , polillo ) alcalai : negros , cebu , panay ; type locality : ridge on the north side of the maite river , 5 km west of valencia .\nsiler et al . ( 2013 ) concluded that dinodon species are nested within the lycodon tree and noted that dinodon ( the more recently described genus ) should therefore be treated as a junior synonym of lycodon . based on their own molecular phylogenetic studies , guo et al . ( 2013 ) also suggested that dinodon should be synonymized with lycodon . lei et al . ( 2014 ) also found that dinodon species are nested within lycodon . based on molecular phylogenetic and morphological analyses , lei et al . further concluded that oligodon multizonatum ( an endemic species known from sichuan and possibly gansu provinces in china ) actually falls within lycodon as well .\npili , arman n . ; y\u00f1igo luis c . del prado 2018 . alcala\u2019s triangle - spotted snake cyclocorus lineatus alcalai on sibuyan island , romblon province , philippines seavr 2018 : 16 - 17 - get paper here\nparatype for lycodon alcalai catalog number : usnm 266604 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of amphibians & reptiles sex / stage : male ; preparation : ethanol year collected : 1985 locality : batan island , 3 km ene of basco , on w slope of mt . iraya , batanes province , batan island group , philippines elevation ( m ) : 320 to 320\ngaulke , m . 2002 . a new species of lycodon from panay island , philippines ( reptilia , serpentes , colubridae ) . spixiana , 25 , 85\u201392 .\nparatype for lycodon alcalai catalog number : usnm 266603 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of amphibians & reptiles sex / stage : female ; preparation : ethanol year collected : 1985 locality : batan island , ca . 2 . 5 km ene of basco , west slope of mt . iraya , batanes province , batan island group , philippines elevation ( m ) : 150 to 150\nlanza , b . 1999 . a new species of lycodon from the philippines , with a key to the genus ( reptilia serpentes colubridae ) . tropical zoology , 12 , 89\u2013104 .\ngaulke , m . 2002 . a new species of lycodon from panay island , philippines ( reptilia , serpentes , colubridae ) . spixiana 25 ( 1 ) : 85 - 92 - get paper here\nota h . ross c a . 1994 . four new species of lycodon ( serpentes : colubridae ) from the northern philippines . copeia 1994 ( 1 ) : 159 - 174 . - get paper here\nlanza , b . 1999 . a new species of lycodon from the philippines , with a key to the genus ( reptilia : serpentes : colubridae ) . tropical zoology 12 : 89 - 104 - get paper here\nlei , j . , x . sun , k . jiang , et al . 2014 . multilocus phylogeny of lycodon and the taxonomic revision of oligodon multizonatum . asian herpetological research 5 ( 1 ) : 26\u201337 .\nguo , p . , l . zhang , q . liu , et al . 2013 . lycodon and dinodon : one genus or two ? evidence from molecular phylogenetics and morphological comparisons . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 68 : 144\u2013149 .\nlycodon is among the most species - rich genera of asiatic colubrids , with more than three dozen described species , including numerous small - island endemics ( phylogenetic analyses by siler et al . [ 2013 ] suggest . that some of these island endemics in the phillipines may not warrant recognition as full speciies , but also suggest the presence of substantial cryptic diversity , indicating that the true number of lycodon species may be greater than currently recognized ) . lycodon species occur throughout central to southeast asia , from regions east of the caspian sea , eastern iran and india to southern china , the indo - australian archipelago , the ryukyu islands of japan and the philippines ( lanza 1999 ; siler et al . 2013 ) .\nsiler , c . d . , c . h . oliveros , a . santanen , and r . m . brown . 2013 . multilocus phylogeny reveals unexpected diversification patterns in asian wolf snakes ( genus lycodon ) . zoologica scripta , 42 : 262\u2013277 .\nsiler , c . d . , c . h . oliveros , a . santanen , and r . m . brown . 2013 . multilocus phylogeny reveals unexpected diversification patterns in asian wolf snakes ( genus lycodon ) . zoologica scripta 42 ( 3 ) : 262 - 277 .\nregarding inferences about the historical biogeography of lycodon , siler et al . ( 2013 ) note that with few exceptions , the results observed in their study are consistent with many of the biogeographic expectations for vertebrates in asia and the philippines ( see siler et al . 2013 for details and discussion ) .\nfitzinger li . 1826 . neue classification der reptilien nach ihren nat\u00fcrlichen verwandtschaften . nebst einer verwandtschafts - tafel und einem verzeichnisse der reptilien - sammlung des k . k . zoologischen museums zu wien . vienna : j . g . heubner , five unnumbered + 67 pp . + one plate . ( lycodon , new genus , p . 57 ) . ( in german and latin ) .\nboulenger ga . 1893 . catalogue of the snakes in the british museum ( natural history ) , volume i . , containing the families . . . colubrid\u00e6 aglyph\u00e6 , part . . london : trustees of the british museum ( natural history ) . ( taylor and francis , printers ) . xiii + 448 pp . + plates i - xxviii . ( genus lycodon , p . 348 , figure 23 ) .\ntype species : lycodon lineatus reinhardt 1843 is the type species of the genus cyclocorus dum\u00e9ril et al . 1854 . type genus : cyclocorus dum\u00e9ril 1853 : 460 is the type genus of the subfamily cyclocorinae weinell & brown 2017 . phylogenetic definition ( cyclocorinae ) : cyclocorinae refers to the clade originating in the last common ancestor of oxyrhabdium leporinum ( gu\u0308nther , 1858 ) , cyclocorus lineatus ( reinhardt , 1843 ) , the unnamed lineage represented by ku 337269 , and all species that descend from that ancestor . it can also be conceived of as the largest crown - clade containing members of the genera cyclocorus , hologerrhum , myersophis , and oxyrhabdium , and members of the unnamed lineage represented by ku 337269 . distribution : see map in leviton 1967 .\ntype locality : batan island ( 20 ' 25 ' n , 121\u00b0 58\u2019 e ) , batan island group , approximately 2 . 5 km ene of basco on the w slope of mt . iraya , elevation 150 m .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nholotype : - pnm 990 , an adult male ; captured 30 may 1985 , by r . s . kennedy and party . paratypes . usnm 266603 , an adult female , same data as holotype . usnm 266604 and usnm 319282 , adult males from approximately 3 km ene of basco on the w slope of mt . iraya , alt . 320 m ; captured 9 june 1985 , by c . a . ross and party . usnm 291412 , an adult male from same locality as holotype ; captured 7 march 1988 by c . a . ross and a . fidel . usnm 291413 , an adult male from approximately 1 km ne of basco , alt . 130 m ; captured 12 march 1988 by a . fidel .\nnamed after dr . angel chua alcala ( b . 1929 ) , biologist and herpetologist who has studied the reptiles and amphibians of the philippines for 50 years , mostly in collaboration with walter c . brown .\nbeolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here\nwallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\n, named for large teeth in both jaws . asian wolf snakes are placed in the genera\n, is a small , drab species with a metallic sheen and lives chiefly on lizards . it can grow to lengths of about 50 cm ( 20 inches ) . the\nsnake , ( suborder serpentes ) , any of more than 3 , 400 species of reptiles distinguished by their limbless condition and greatly elongated body and tail . classified with lizards in the order squamata , snakes represent a lizard that , over the course of evolution , has undergone structural reduction , \u2026\nreptile , any member of the class reptilia , the group of air - breathing vertebrates that have internal fertilization , amniotic development , and epidermal scales covering part or all of their body . the major groups of living reptiles\u2014the turtles ( order testudines ) , tuatara ( order rhynchocephalia\u2026\nvertebrate , any animal of the subphylum vertebrata , the predominant subphylum of the phylum chordata . they have backbones , from which they derive their name . the vertebrates are also characterized by a muscular system consisting pimarily of bilaterally paired masses and a central nervous system\u2026\nchordate , any member of the phylum chordata , which includes the vertebrates , the most highly evolved animals , as well as two other subphyla\u2014the tunicates and cephalochordates . some classifications also include the phylum hemichordata with the chordates . as the name implies , at some time in the life\u2026\nwe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles . you can make it easier for us to review and , hopefully , publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind .\nencyclop\u00e6dia britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience .\nyou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered .\nat the bottom of the article , feel free to list any sources that support your changes , so that we can fully understand their context . ( internet urls are the best . )\nyour contribution may be further edited by our staff , and its publication is subject to our final approval . unfortunately , our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions .\nour editors will review what you ' ve submitted , and if it meets our criteria , we ' ll add it to the article .\nplease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors , and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed .\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\ncorrections ? updates ? omissions ? let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article ( requires login ) .\nif you prefer to suggest your own revision of the article , you can go to edit mode ( requires login ) .\nour editors will review what you\u2019ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern because , although its extent of occurrence is 86 km\u00b2 , it is common , somewhat adaptable , and does not appear to be in decline .\nthis species is endemic to the philippines , where it is known from batan island ( 70 km\u00b2 ) ( ota and ross 1994 ) , the neighboring sabtang island ( 16 km\u00b2 ) , with recent reports of the species from calayan island ( oliveros et al . 2004 ) . it may be found on other smaller neighboring islands . it is a lowland species found up to 320 m asl .\nanimals have been recorded from the forest floor and from bushes ( ota and ross 1994 ) , and may be found at forest edges , and in adjacent agricultural areas . it may feed on reptilian eggs ( ota and ross 1994 ) .\nthere currently seem to be no major threats to this species . it is found in areas that are well protected , with a low human population density , no logging , hunting , or other potential threats .\nthe area that it is found in is generally well protected . further studies are needed into the distribution of this species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n. 2004 ) . it may be found on other smaller neighboring islands . it is a lowland species found up to 320 m asl .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis species is endemic to the philippines , where it is known from batan island ( 70 km ) ( ota and ross 1994 ) , the neighboring sabtang island ( 16 km ) , with recent reports of the species from calayan island ( oliveros et al . 2004 ) . it may be found on other smaller neighboring islands . it is a lowland species found up to 320 m asl .\nparatype : ota , h . & ross , c . a . 1994 . copeia . 1994 ( 1 ) : 159 , figures 2 - 5 .\nlisted as least concern because , although its extent of occurrence is 86 km , it is common , somewhat adaptable , and does not appear to be in decline .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nbinaday , j . w . b . 2017 . cyclocorus lineatus ( reinhardt\u2019s lined snake ) diet . herpetological review 48 ( 3 ) : 671 .\nboulenger , g . a . 1893 . catalogue of the snakes in the british museum ( nat . hist . ) i . london ( taylor & francis ) , 448 pp . - get paper here\nbrown , rafe m . ; ferner , john w . ; sison , rogelio v . ; gonzales , pedro c . ; kennedy , robert s . 1996 . amphibians and reptiles of the zambales mountains of luzon island , republic of the philippines . herpetological natural history 4 ( 1 ) : 1 - 22\nbrown ; rafe ; cameron siler , carl oliveros , luke welton , ashley rock , john swab , merlijn van weerd , jonah van beijnen , dominic rodriguez , edmund jose , arvin diesmos 2013 . the amphibians and reptiles of luzon island , philippines , viii : the herpetofauna of cagayan and isabela provinces , northern sierra madre mountain range . zookeys 266 ( 2013 ) special issue : 1 - 120 < br / > doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 266 . 3982 - get paper here\ndevan - song , anne and rafe m . brown 2012 . amphibians and reptiles of luzon island , philippines , vi : the herpetofauna of the subic bay area . asian herpetological research 3 ( 1 ) : 1\u201320 - get paper here\ndum\u00e9ril , a . m . c . , g . bibron & a . h . a . dum\u00e9ril 1854 . erp\u00e9tologie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale ou histoire naturelle compl\u00e8te des reptiles . vol . 7 ( partie 1 ) . paris , xvi + 780 s . - get paper here\ndum\u00e9ril , andr\u00e9 marie constant 1853 . prodrome de la classifcation des reptiles ophidiens . m\u00e9m . acad . sci . , paris , 23 : 399 - 536 - get paper here\ngaulke , m . 2011 . the herpetofauna of panay island , philippines . edition chimaira , 390 pp .\ngaulke , m . 2013 . abenteuerurlaub auf den philippinen . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 18 ( 100 ) : 114 - 125 - get paper here\nleviton , a . e . 1967 . contributions to a review of philippine snakes , ix . the snakes of the genus cyclocorus . philippine j . sci . 94 ( 4 ) : 519 - 533 [ 1965 ] - get paper here\nmcleod , david s . ; cameron d . siler , arvin c . diesmos , mae l . diesmos , vhon s . garcia , angela o . arkonceo , kelvin l . balaquit , charlene c . uy , mariden m . villaseran , earle c . yarra , rafe m . brown 2011 . amphibians and reptiles of luzon island , v : the herpetofauna of angat dam watershed , bulacan province , luzon island , philippines . asian herpetological research 2 ( 4 ) : 177\u2013198 - get paper here\nrasmussen , j . b . & b . hughes 1996 . description of some new snake species . i . [ english translation of the original danish text of t . reinhardt 1843 ] . steenstrupia 22 : 13 - 39\nreinhardt , j . t . 1843 . beskrivelse af nogle nye slangearter . danske vidensk . selsk . afhandl . 10 : 233 - 279 . - get paper here\nsiler , c . d . ; l . j . welton ; j . m . siler ; j . brown ; a . bucol ; a . c . diesmos ; r . brown . 2011 . amphibians and reptiles , luzon island , aurora province and aurora memorial national park , northern philippines : new island distribution records . check list 7 ( 2 ) : 182 - 195 - get paper here\nthompson , j . c . 1913 . contributions to the anatomy of the ophidia . proc . zool . soc . london 1913 : 414 - 426 - get paper here\ntoledo - bruno , angela grace ; daryl g . macas , dave p . buenavista , michael arieh p . medina , ronald regan c . forten 2017 . amphibian and reptile diversity in mt . kalatungan range natural park , philippines environmental and experimental biology 15 : 127\u2013135 , doi : 10 . 22364 / eeb . 15 . 11 - get paper here\nweinell , j . l . , & brown , r . m . 2017 . discovery of an old , archipelago - wide , endemic radiation of philippine snakes . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 119 : 144\u2013150 [ 2018 ] - get paper here\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nthe species prefers lowland habitats , not being found more than 320 meters above sea level . [ 1 ] it is frequently found in shrubs or on the forest floor , as well as at the edge of the forest , and occasionally in adjacent agricultural fields . it is thought to feed on the eggs of other reptiles , by slitting them open with its blade - like teeth . [ 3 ]\nota , hidetoshi ; ross , charles a . ( 1 february 1994 ) .\nfour new species of\nbauer , aaron m . ( 1998 ) . cogger , h . g . ; zweifel , r . g . , eds .\nthis page was last edited on 8 march 2018 , at 12 : 38 .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\nthe phylogenetic results of siler et al . ( 2013 ) provide evidence of deeply divergent lineages within some taxa ( l . effraensis , l . subcinctus ) that may represent cryptic species . some of the lineage diversity revealed appears to correspond to taxonomic entities previously identified ( currently recognized as subspecies or synonyms ) and some does not . on the other hand , as noted above , genetic results suggest that species diversity within several clades may be overestimated , rather than underestimated , by current taxonomic treatments . between these two extremes lie species with moderate genetic structure observed among populations ( l . muelleri , l . aulicus complex ) .\n( guo et al . 2013 and references therein ; siler et al . 2013 and references therein )\npyron , r . a . , h . k . dushantha kandambi , c . r . hendry , et al . 2013 . genus - level phylogeny of snakes reveals the origins of species richness in sri lanka . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 66 : 969\u2013978 .\nmish fc ( editor in chief ) . 2004 . merriam - webster ' s collegiate dictionary , eleventh edition . springfield , massachusetts : merriam - webster , incorporated . 40a + 1 , 623 pp . isbn 0 - 87779 - 809 - 5 . (\nlycopodium\n, p . 742 ;\nodonate\np . 860 ) .\nthe species is known only from the single juvenile type specimen collected at gyobyu , taikkyi township , pegu ( = bago ) district , myanmar ( smith 1943 ) . this area has been intensively surveyed recently but the species has not been recovered ( g . wogan pers . comm . 2011 ) ."]}
{"id": 799, "summary": [{"text": "dendrochirus zebra , known commonly as the zebra turkeyfish or zebra lionfish among other vernacular names , is a species of marine fish in the family scorpaenidae .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "zebra turkeyfishes are widespread throughout the tropical waters of the indo-west pacific including the red sea . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "dendrochirus zebra", "paragraphs": ["maggie whitson marked\nzebra turkeyfish ( dendrochirus zebra )\nas trusted on the\ndendrochirus zebra\npage .\nclick the button below to add the dwarf / zebra lionfish ( dendrochirus zebra ) to your wish list .\ndendrochirus zebra has not been evaluated for the iucn red list of threatened species .\ndendrochirus zebra is known under several different names in english , such as zebra lionfish , zebra firefish , and zebra turkeyfish . it is a member of the family scorpaenidae where you will find the scorpionfishes .\nthe dwarf lionfish looks similar to the zebra lionfish , dendrochirus zebra . the easiest way to tell them apart is by the lack of spotted bands crossing the pectoral fins of the zebra lionfish .\nnistha sirapattarapongkul added the thai common name\n\u0e1b\u0e25\u0e32\u0e2a\u0e34\u0e07\u0e42\u0e15\u0e25\u0e32\u0e22\u0e02\u0e27\u0e32\u0e07\nto\ndendrochirus zebra ( cuvier , 1829 )\n.\nnistha sirapattarapongkul added the thai common name\n\u0e1b\u0e25\u0e32\u0e2a\u0e34\u0e07\u0e42\u0e15\u0e41\u0e04\u0e23\u0e30\u0e49\u0e49\u0e21\u0e49\u0e32\u0e25\u0e32\u0e22\nto\ndendrochirus zebra ( cuvier , 1829 )\n.\na zebra lionfish , dendrochirus zebra , at south solitary island , new south wales , 12 february 2013 . source : ian v . shaw / reef life survey . license : cc by attribution\nmaggie whitson marked the classification from\nspecies 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013\nas preferred for\ndendrochirus zebra ( cuvier , 1829 )\n.\nthe largest scientifically measured zebra lionfish was 25 cm / 9 . 8 in .\nthe zebra lionfish is an egg - layer . it has spawned in captivity .\ncitation :\nzebra turkeyfishes , dendrochirus zebra ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\njustification : dendrochirus zebra is widespread throughout the indo - pacific and can be locally abundant in parts of its range . there are no known major threats ; therefore , it is listed as least concern .\nrizzari jr , l\u00f6nnstedt om . 2014 cooperative hunting and gregarious behaviour in the zebra lionfish ,\nlionfish of this species , dendrochirus , are allowed to be shipped into the state of florida . only species of the genus pterois are banned .\nthe zebra lionfish can be confused with the dwarf lionfish , but you can tell them apart by looking at the pectoral fins . if the pectoral fins are adorned with spotted bands , you are looking at a dwarf lionfish , not a zebra .\nremarks : the genus dendrochirus differs from pterois by having the pectoral rays connected to each other almost to tips . favoured by aquarists . dorsal fin spines extremely venomous .\njustification : dendrochirus bracypterus is widespread throughout the indo - pacific and is not uncommon . there are no known major threats ; therefore , it is listed as least concern .\ndendrochirus zebra is widespread throughout the indo - west pacific , from the red sea and east africa west to tonga , north to southern japan , and south to australia ( poss 1999 , allen and erdmann 2012 ) . this species is generally found at depths of 2 - 75 m ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) .\n( a ) mean change in proportion of time d . zebra initiators spent in front of prey compartment ( grey bars ) and predator holding area ( white bars ) before and after prey were released into chamber . ( b ) number of times initiators ( grey bars ) and responders ( dark grey bars ) displayed fin - signals after prey had been added . ( c ) mean number of prey caught by solitary d . zebra , two d . zebra or a d . zebra and p . antennata hunting together during a 10 - min hunting trial .\ndendrochirus zebra is a marine , reef - associated species , normally found on coral or other rocky substrates of reef flats , in addition to being encountered in lagoons and caves in small groups ( lieske and myers 1994 ) . during the pelagic stage of its life cycle , d . zebra travel large distances and ends up in sub - tropical areas ( kuiter and tonozuka 2001 ) . this species has a maximum standard length of 20 centimeters ( poss 1999 ) .\n] , it could help explain the exceptionally high prey capture rates of lionfish predators . in this study , we investigated whether the zebra lionfish (\nthe zebra lionfish has a reddish body decorated with five dark bars . in large specimens , the five major dark bars will alternate with thin dark bars . there is a dark spot on the cheek of the fish . the flamboyant colouration is a warning signal that lets other animals know that the zebra lionfish is venomous .\nthe d . zebra is a lion that often succumbs to illness relatively quickly upon acquisition . this beautiful example is a healthy specimen owned and photographed by william lyon .\nthe zebra lionfish looks similar to the dwarf lionfish . the easiest way to tell them apart is by the presence of spotted bands crossing the pectoral fins of the dwarf lionfish .\nthe zebra lionfish ' s striking colouration is a\nwarning\nto potential predators that the species has poisonous dorsal fin spines . the species is widely distributed throughout the tropical indo - pacific .\nthe zebra lionfish is widely distributed throughout the tropical indo - pacific . in australia it is found from shark bay , western australia , around the tropical north , and south to sydney , new south wales .\n( of pterois zebra cuvier , 1829 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nis known as the zebra lionfish or dwarf lionfish . it has red , white , and black vertical stripes along the body ; large , fan - like pectoral fins ; and tall , quill - like dorsal fins .\nresearch dendrochirus zebra \u00bb barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms\n( of pseudomonopterus zebra ( cuvier , 1829 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( a ) the study species d . zebra . ( b ) the flared fin display sequence by initiator predators . ( c ) experimental labyrinth chamber . ( photo credit : oona l\u00f6nnstedt . ) ( online version in colour . )\nunlike d . brachypterus and d . barberi , this species is not sexually dimorphic , although very subtle differences between the sexes have been reported , such as larger heads and bodies in male specimens . it is also reported that just prior to spawning , the female zebra takes on a brilliant white color with a dark midsection . since it is virtually impossible to sex this species , and males will fight , it\u2019s best to keep a single specimen of d . zebra per tank .\nthe zebra lionfish can be distinguished by a combination of characters including its long pectoral and dorsal fins , its colouration , the number of scales in the lateral line and the number of pectoral fin rays . the striking colouration is a\nwarning\nto potential predators that this species has poisonous dorsal fin spines .\nthe zebra lionfish is a carnivore species that should be kept on a meaty diet in the aquarium . you can for instance feed it live fish and various types of live shrimp . it is important to keep the diet varied and include many different animals . some specimens can be trained to accept crustacean flesh .\nin the wild , this little lion is fond of sheltered areas with lower current flow , so be sure to provide it with some sheltered areas in which to rest and avoid fast laminar flow . in the wild , d . zebra preys mainly on crabs and shrimp , although they will occasionally eat small fish , and like all lionfish is a crepuscular hunter .\nit is not advisable to house zebra lionfish in an aquarium smaller than 30 gallons / 115 litres . it is important to include numerous suitable hiding spots in the set up . don\u2019t worry if your lionfish spends most of its time hiding when newly introduced to your aquarium ; it will become braver eventually if the aquarium contains enough hiding spots into which it can retreat .\ndendrochirus brachypterus is distributed throughout the indo - west pacific , from the red sea and east africa west to samoa , and australia to the philippines ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) . records from the hawaiian islands ( e . g . , poss 1999 ) require verification . it is frequently found at depths of 2 to 80 m ( allen and erdmann 2012 ) , although it is more usually found in waters less than 60 m ( h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) .\nthe zebra lionfish is primarily found on corals , among rubbles , and over reef flats with rocky bottoms , but you can also encounter it in coastal as well as outer reef environments in sheltered lagoons and caves . most specimens stay in the 3 - 60 m / 10 - 197 feet range , but some have been encountered at a depth of 80 meters / 262 feet .\nthe zebra lionfish lives in the indo - west pacific . its geographical range stretches from east africa and the red sea to samoa . the northernmost specimens are found south of japan , while the southernmost specimens inhabit the waters of australia . this species is found from 30\u00b0n to 15\u00b0s . during the pelagic stage , the offspring can travel great distances since they are transported by currents and they can reach sub - tropical parts of the ocean .\nthis is a marine , reef - associated fish , most frequently found in reef flats , shallow lagoons , and in areas with sandy substrates ( kuiter and tonozuka 2001 ) . the adults of this species reach a maximum standard length of 15 cm , but can sometimes grow to be as big as 25 cm ( poss 1999 ) . the juveniles are sometimes found in small groups of about 10 individuals on small reef outcroppings , whereas the adults are found on sponges ( kuiter and tonozuka 2001 ) . dendrochirus brachypterus are nocturnal . this species feeds on small crustaceans ( myers 1999 ) .\nour study provides the first experimental demonstration of mutually beneficial cooperative hunting between pairs of predators . zebra lionfish use a highly stereotyped flared fin display to signal for hunting support to members of the same and a different species of lionfish , and hunting partners actively respond to initiators with a fin display . when hunting cooperatively , the predators used their large extended pectoral fins to herd prey into a corner and then took turns to strike and feed on the prey .\nbodied pterois volitans . d . zebra can be identified by a dark spot on the lower portion of the operculum , the presence of two white spots ( sometimes more of a free - form white hourglass ) on the caudal peduncle , and dark concentric bands at the base of its beautiful webbed pectoral fins . the pectoral fin membranes extend almost to the fin ray tips , forming a non - incised web . like most lionfish , the body pattern consists of alternating dark brown / reddish and light brown / off - white stripes .\ngreek , dendron = tree + greek , cheir = hands ; with tree like marks ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 3 - 80 m ( ref . 30874 ) , usually ? - 60 m ( ref . 37816 ) . tropical ; 30\u00b0n - 30\u00b0s , 32\u00b0e - 163\u00b0w\nindo - west pacific : red sea and east africa to samoa , north to southern japan and the ogasawara islands , south to australia and lord howe island .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 25 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 1602 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 13 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 10 - 11 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 6 - 7 . body reddish with 5 dark bars , alternating with thin dark bars in large specimens ; median fins with small dark spots ; dark spot on cheek ( ref . 4313 ) . mid - dorsal spines longer than body depth ( ref . 37816 ) .\nfound on coral , rubble , or rock bottoms of reef flats ( ref . 9710 ) ; also in coastal to outer reef habitats in sheltered lagoons and in caves , sometimes in small aggregations . usually shallow , from 3 - 60m ( ref . 30874 ) but also reported to 80 m depth . pelagic stages travel great distances and expatriate to sub - tropical zones ( ref . 48635 ) . spawned in captivity ( ref . 37816 ) .\nspawn in pairs . courtship and spawning occur at night . males aggressive , females are smaller and develop almost white face when in courtship . spawning occurs at the apex of a short and rapid paired ascent resulting in a gelatinous mass of 2 , 000 to 15 , 000 eggs . hatching occurs 36 hours later and larvae settle out in a few weeks at a size of 10 - 12 mm .\nmyers , r . f . , 1991 . micronesian reef fishes . second ed . coral graphics , barrigada , guam . 298 p . ( ref . 1602 )\n) : 24 . 3 - 29 , mean 27 . 8 ( based on 1518 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5078 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01148 ( 0 . 00449 - 0 . 02935 ) , b = 3 . 09 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 31 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 \u00b10 . 66 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 46 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\ndwarf lionfish , small : over 1 - 1 . 5\n, indo pacific\ndwarf lionfish , medium : over 1 . 5 - 3 . 5\n, indo pacific\ndwarf lionfish , large : over 3 . 5 - 5 . 5\n, indo pacific\ndue to availability and individuality of each species , colors and sizes may vary .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2015 . catalog of fishes . updated 7 january 2015 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 7 january 2015 ) .\namerican samoa ; australia ; british indian ocean territory ; china ; christmas island ; comoros ; disputed territory ( paracel is . , spratly is . ) ; djibouti ; egypt ; eritrea ; fiji ; french southern territories ( mozambique channel is . ) ; india ; indonesia ; israel ; japan ; jordan ; kenya ; korea , republic of ; madagascar ; malaysia ; marshall islands ; mauritius ; mayotte ; micronesia , federated states of ; mozambique ; myanmar ; new caledonia ; norfolk island ; palau ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; r\u00e9union ; samoa ; saudi arabia ; seychelles ; solomon islands ; somalia ; south africa ; sri lanka ; sudan ; taiwan , province of china ; tanzania , united republic of ; thailand ; timor - leste ; tonga ; vanuatu ; viet nam ; wallis and futuna ; yemen\nthis species is not uncommon , and is locally abundant in some parts of its range ( japan ) ( h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) .\nthis species is taken for the aquarium trade , and is of minor use to commercial fisheries ( h . motomura pers . comm . 2015 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthe map below shows the australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in australian museums . source : atlas of living australia .\nhoese , d . f . , bray , d . j . , paxton , j . r . & g . r . allen . 2006 . fishes . in beesley , p . l . & a . wells . ( eds ) zoological catalogue of australia . volume 35 . abrs & csiro publishing : australia . parts 1 - 3 , pages 1 - 2178 .\nhutchins , b . & r . swainston . 1986 . sea fishes of southern australia . complete field guide for anglers and divers . swainston publishing . pp . 180 .\nkuiter , r . h . 1993 . coastal fishes of south - eastern australia . crawford house press . pp . 437 .\nkuiter , r . h . 1996 . guide to sea fishes of australia . new holland . pp . 433 .\ndescription common in the philippines where it is exported for the aquarium trade ; rare in micronesia . inhabits shallow reef areas .\ndescription common in the philippines where it is exported for the aquarium trade ; rare in micronesia . inhabits shallow reef areas . [ details ]\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhong kong marine fish database . afcd . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nremark d . zebrae in < 355 > . type species of genus . [ details ]\nfound on coral , rubble , or rock bottoms of reef flats ( ref . 9710 ) ; also in coastal to outer reef habitats in sheltered lagoons and in caves , sometimes in small aggregations . usually shallow , from 3 - 60m ( ref . 30874 ) but also reported to 80 m depth . pelagic stages travel great distances and expatriate to sub - tropical zones ( ref . 48635 ) . spawned in captivity ( ref . 37816 ) .\nclassification from species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013 selected by maggie whitson - see more .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis species is highly venomous and this venom can , under certain circumstances , be fatal .\nin case of poisoning , it is vital to have as much information as possible regarding the species / poison . have telephone number for the poison hotline close to the aquarium . since people can have different reactions to poisons , take precautions necessary to ensure your safety and that of your surroundings .\nthese fish prefer live feed , such as live fish or shrimp . some specimens refuse\ndead\nfood altogether , while others can be trained to accept it . its easiest to move the frozen food around in front of the fish with a pair of tweezers . as soon as the fish shows interest and \u201cattacks\u201d , let go of the food .\nthey will try to eat all fish , shrimps and similar life forms that are small enough to fit in itheir mouth .\nthey should be fed a couple of times a week . the fish and shrimps used as foods , must remain whole to give the lionfish the optimum nutrition . the food must not be thawed naturaly , this helps to retain all the goodness .\nsuitable live food are : mollies , guppies and ghostshrimp . the feeder fish or shrimp should be fed with nutritious feed , like cyclop - eeze for example .\nthis is problematic when working with ones hands in the tank , without the fish coming too close with its venomous spines .\nscorpion - / lionfish ( scorpaenidae ) are both pretty and interesting because of their special appearance and behaviour .\nthey are generally hardy and do not need a large swimming area , but do often require feeding with small live fish and / or shrimps . some will quickly begin eating frozen fish or shrimp whilst others will refuse to eat\ndead\nfood . their food must be highly nutritious and varied . they must not be fed too often . feed them a large meal twice a week .\nthese fish are mostly peaceful , but will eat anything that fits into their mouth . one might be surprised by how large their prey can be , they can even swallow fish which nearly match their own length . they will also eat each other , if the size difference is large enough . their venomous spines do not guarantee that they will not be eaten by other predatory fishes .\ndo be cautious when having your hands in the aquarium as these fish are very poisonous .\nsome scorpionfish require a special substrate , either coral gravel or fine sand , as this resembles their natural habitat .\nbe careful when catching scorpion - / lionfish as they can easily get caught in the net .\nscott w . michael . 2001 . reef fishes volume 1 - tfh publications / microcosm ltd . - ( english ) henry c . schultz . 2002 . scorpionfish : masters of camouflage - reefkeeping magazine - ( english ) greg and renee hix . scorpionfish in the home aquarium - lionfish lair - ( english ) greg and renee hix . lionfish in the home aquarium - lionfish lair - ( english ) daniel pomfret - 2007 . venomous beauties : a look at scorpionfishes in the home aquarium - tropical fish hobbyist magazine - ( english )\nfroese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2014 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . urltoken , version ( 08 / 2014 ) .\nminimum volume\nindicates the size of the tank needed to house this species under optimal conditions .\nthis is based on a medium size animal , which you want to keep for several years . it might be possible to keep smaller specimens for a limited period in a smaller tank . a larger tank might be needed for fully - grown specimens .\nhardiness\nindicates how resistant this species is to disease and how well i tolerates bad conditions in general . some species doesn ' t handle transportation very well , but that doesn ' t mean that the species isn ' t hardy under the right conditions .\nin this case , a\nnormal\naquarium is a reef aquarium with mixed corals or a fish only aquarium with an approximately salinity of 1 . 026 ( sg ) and a temperature close to 26\u00b0c . species requiring more than a 4000 - liter tank are considered not suitable for home aquarium .\nspecial aquariums may cover tanks with low salinity , sub - tropical temperature , deep sand bed , sea grass etc .\nalways reef safe : no sources indicate that this species will harm corals or other invertebrates .\noften reef safe : only a few aquarists has reported problems keeping this species with corals and other invertebrates .\nreef safe with caution : this species may be a threat to some types of invertebrates .\nreef safe with luck : most specimens will harm corals and / or other invertebrates , but you might be lucky .\nnot reef safe : this species is a threat to most corals and / or other invertebrates .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na 50 gallon or larger aquarium with numerous hiding places is suitable . it will hide while acclimating to its new environment . the top spines are venomous , causing reactions similar to a bee sting . to treat the sting , soak the affected area in hot water ( 100 - 110\u00ba f ) .\nwhen first introduced into the aquarium , live saltwater feeder shrimp should be used to entice this fish to eat . the dwarf lionfish diet consists of meaty foods such as live shrimp ( including ornamental shrimp ) , live fish , and sometimes , crustacean flesh .\n72 - 78\u00b0 f , dkh 8 - 12 , ph 8 . 1 - 8 . 4 , sg 1 . 020 - 1 . 025\nwe promise to never spam you , and just use your email address to identify you as a valid customer .\nthis product hasn ' t received any reviews yet . be the first to review this product !\ncopyright \u00a9 2007 - 2018 sydney discus world aquariums online store . all rights reserved .\nthis home page section for this species is currently being developed and will be completed asap ! if you would like to help out or know of a great video , photo or site about this species , let us know and we ' ll notify you as soon as it is finished . our current project plan is to have all marine species home pages finished before christmas this year . if you ' d like to find out more about our ongoing projects here at marinebio , check out our marinebio projects page .\nstart or join a discussion about this species below or send us an email to report any errors or submit suggestions for this page . we greatly appreciate all feedback !\nhelp us protect and restore marine life by supporting our various online community - centered marine conservation projects that are effectively sharing the wonders of the ocean with millions each year around the world , raising a balanced awareness of the increasingly troubling and often very complex marine conservation issues that affect marine life and ourselves directly , providing support to marine conservation groups on the frontlines that are making real differences today , and the scientists , teachers and students involved in the marine life sciences .\nwith your support , most marine life and their ocean habitats can be protected , if not restored to their former natural levels of biodiversity . we sincerely thank our thousands of members , donors and sponsors , who have decided to get involved and support the marinebio conservation society .\ndeep music digitally imported urltoken proton radio * radio paradise radiotunes somafm wers 88 . 9 fm\n~ sharing the wonders of the ocean to inspire conservation , education , research , and a sea ethic ~ marinebio . org , inc . is a u . s . 501 ( c ) 3 charitable , nonprofit organization . contact : info @ urltoken all marinebio conservation society memberships and donations are tax deductible in the united states . > < ( ( ( ( \u00b0 > \u00a9 1998 - 2017 marinebio copyright & terms of use . privacy policy . > - < \u00b0\u00b0 > - <\nfor all at last returns to the sea \u2014 to oceanus , the ocean river , like the everflowing stream of time , the beginning and the end .\n- rachel carson\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nwe are a cmas / tda 5star itc ( instructor training center ) dive academy . . .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nallen , g . r . and r . c . steene ( 1988 ) fishes of christmas island indian ocean . : christmas island natural history association , christmas island , indian ocean , 6798 , australia . 197 p .\nanonymous ( 2001 ) on reef fisheries exploitation and trade in indonesia . : p . 41 - 44 . in country status overview 2001on reef fisheries exploitation and trade in indonesia . ministry of marine affairs and fisheries , telepak indo . found . and international marine alliance ( ima ) indonesia . indonesia .\ncarl , h . ( 2003 ) danish fish names . : zoological museum of copenhagen . unpublished .\nchinese academy of fishery sciences ( 2003 ) chinese aquatic germplasm resources database . : urltoken\ndepartment of fisheries malaysia ( 2009 ) valid local name of malaysian marine fishes . : department of fisheries malaysia . ministry of agriculture and agro - based industry . 180 p .\nduong , t . t . ( 2001 ) mot so loai ca thuong gap o bien viet nam ( viet nam ' s common marine fishes catalogue ) . : ministry of fisheries of viet nam - fisheries information center of viet nam . 195 p .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( 1986 ) scorpaenidae . : p . 463 - 478 . in m . m . smith and p . c . heemstra ( eds . ) smiths ' sea fishes . springer - verlag , berlin .\neschmeyer , william n . , ed . , 1998 : catalog of fishes . special publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3 . 2905 .\nfao - fies ( 2017 ) aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . : retrievef from urltoken ( accessed 08 / 06 / 2017 ) .\nfischer , w . , i . sousa , c . silva , a . de freitas , j . m . poutiers , w . schneider , t . c . borges , j . p . feral and a . massinga ( 1990 ) fichas fao de identifica\u00e7ao de esp\u00e9cies para actividades de pesca . guia de campo das esp\u00e9cies comerciais marinhas e de \u00e1guas salobras de mo\u00e7ambique . : publica\u00e7ao preparada em collabora\u00e7ao com o instituto de investiga\u00e7ao pesquiera de mo\u00e7ambique , com financiamento do projecto pnud / fao moz / 86 / 030 e de norad . roma , fao . 1990 . 424 p .\nfricke , r . ( 1999 ) fishes of the mascarene islands ( r\u00e9union , mauritius , rodriguez ) : an annotated checklist , with descriptions of new species . : koeltz scientific books , koenigstein , theses zoologicae , vol . 31 : 759 p .\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication .\nhoese , d . f . , d . j . bray , j . r . paxton and g . r . allen ( 2006 ) fishes . : in beasley , o . l . and a . wells ( eds . ) zoological catalogue of australia . volume 35 . 2 australia : abrs & csiro publishing , 1472 p .\nkailola , p . j . ( 1987 ) the fishes of papua new guinea : a revised and annotated checklist . vol . ii scorpaenidae to callionymidae . : research bulletin no . 41 , research section , dept . of fisheries and marine resources , papua new guinea .\nkullander , s . o . ( 2003 ) list of swedish names . cd version . : personal communication , september 2003 .\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . < em > china science press . < / em > 1267 pp .\nmindanao state university at naawan ( 1995 ) rapid resource appraisal of davao gulf . : mindanao state university at naawan foundation for science and techology development , inc .\nmohsin , a . k . m . , m . a . ambak and m . n . a . salam ( 1993 ) malay , english , and scientific names of the fishes of malaysia . : occas . publ . fac . fish . mar . sci . univ . pertanian malays . 11 : 226 p .\nmyers , r . f . ( 1991 ) micronesian reef fishes . : second ed . coral graphics , barrigada , guam . 298 p .\noops . a firewall is blocking access to prezi content . check out this article to learn more or contact your system administrator .\nstand out and be remembered with prezi , the secret weapon of great presenters .\nneither you , nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again .\nreset share links resets both viewing and editing links ( coeditors shown below are not affected ) .\ndon\u2019t forget to click on the arrow after the scientific names to hear it pronounced correctly .\nthe lightning bolt appearance in the eye of this lion is the retinal tapetum lucidum . it\u2019s a membrane on back of the retina , that makes the most out of all available light for this crepuscular hunter .\nday , and emerging to hunt in the dim light of the evening and pre - dawn hours . it is during these low - light hours that the wild , striped patterns and dermal tassels of the lionfish allow them to blend in with shadows and reef growth , similar to the way tigers and leopards blend into the vegetation on land .\nthis diagram depicts all of the key anatomical landmarks spoke of throughout this guide .\nclick on the picture of the cuticle above to see our lion actively shedding .\ndiagram illustrating the difference between total length ( tl ) and standard length ( sl ) measurements .\ncomparison showing the juvenile ( left ) and adult ( right ) phases of d . barberi . note the hint of red in the iris of the juvenile versus the deep red of the adult .\nin terms of habits , this fish is a bit more cryptic than d . brachypterus , however , not terribly so . like pretty much all lionfish , they do indeed learn to recognize the \u201cfood god\u201d and will be there to greet you .\ncare for this lionfish is similar to that of the fuzzy dwarf . as mentioned , this delightful little lion isn\u2019t super common , and isn\u2019t the showiest , but well worth keeping if you can find one .\nthe fu manchu may be a little shy at first , but will warm up to you in no time .\nthis little lionfish is one of the most striking dwarf lions in appearance as well as one of the hardest to keep . the base color of this species is red / orange with dark , almost black mottled stripes and specks on its body with white highlights on its face , mandibular extensions , and fins . these mandibular appendages resemble a mustache , and have given rise to this fish\u2019s most common name fu manchu . the second dorsal fin is adorned with two eyespots ( ocellae ) , which give this fish its species name : biocellatus , which means \u201ctwo eyes\u201d . it should be noted , however , that some specimens do indeed have a third ocellus on this fin ( we jokingly refer to these specimens as triocellatus around our house ) . their pectoral fins are smoothly rounded and resemble a fandango dancer\u2019s fans , with only the lower few ray tips forming a serrated edge . all in all , the fu is a very handsome fish .\nyou\u2019re probably already wondering why the fu manchu is considered a bit tough to keep . there are a few reasons : first , these fish tend to be poor shippers , so acquiring a healthy specimen is of utmost importance . secondly , they are shy , especially at first , and can be rather difficult to wean onto prepared foods . to that end , it is important for this fish to have plenty of rockwork with caves and overhangs to shelter in until it is acclimated to its surroundings . in my experience , the fact that cryptic fish have places to hide will actually make them more adventurous simply because they know that have a safe house handy if needed .\nclick on the picture to see a video of the fast respiratory rate of our d . biocellatus . this is normal for this species .\nwhile we\u2019re discussing the feeding habits of d . biocellatus , we would like to mention their fascinating and bizarre hunting behavior . once a prey item is sighted , the fish will creep up and begin to shake its head from side - to - side while it flares its opercula . once it is within striking range of its prey , the lionfish will begin to rhythmically twitch its dorsal spines back - and - forth while vibrating the lower tips of its pectoral rays to confuse the food item . finally , the lion strikes and sucks its hapless prey into its mouth a la hoover .\nwhile most lionfish exhibit slow , even respirations , it is important to realize that the fu manchu\u2019s normal breathing rate always seems to be rather fast , so don\u2019t worry if you notice this . one final note regarding the fu manchu is that it is probably the most intolerant of conspecifics of any of the lionfish species . even in larger setups , these fish will seek each other out and fight . it is conjectured that a m - f pair may not fight , however , unlike d . brachypterus , d . biocellatus is not sexually dimorphic / dichromic , thus it is impossible to discern the sex of this species .\nwhenever we\u2019re asked to recommend a single dwarf lionfish species , this is our choice , hands down . fuzzies are pretty , hardy , and personable fish , and have relatively small mouths when compared to many other lionfish species . as their most popular common name implies , the scales of this lionfish have a fuzzy appearance to them . although these fish come in three basic color morphs ( brownish , red , and yellow ) , they can be virtually any combination of these hues . the brownish morph is the most common , and the yellows are a pretty rare find , as this color morph is only found in fish that hail from the lembeh strait and typically command a high price ( $ 300 - $ 400 usd ) .\nalthough a little tight , a properly aquascaped 30 gallon tank will house a single specimen , m - f - f trios can be kept in larger setups of at least 60 gallons . it is important for multiple fuzzies be properly sexed as males will indeed fight .\nfuzzies are generally out and about once they become accustomed to their setup and will brazenly beg to the food god when they see someone enter the room . even so , they should be provided with caves and overhangs to give them that comfort factor . in fact , many fuzzies have their own special attention - getting antics , such as learning to spit water at their keepers ( they\u2019re surprisingly accurate ! ) .\nthis little lion makes a great community / reef fish ( with proper tankmates of course ) , and pretty much keep to themselves as long as their tankmates aren\u2019t snack - size and show them the same respect .\nin general , captive care for this fish is similar to that of the fuzzy dwarf .\nour specimen took readily to stick feeding , and eats the standard scorp fare of fish , shrimp , squid , lobster , etc . we serve at \u201cchez scorp\u201d , although , in the wild , this fish feeds primarily on crustaceans . to that end , picky eaters or new fish that are being conditioned should be offered live ghost shrimp , small crawfish , or fiddler crabs as first foods .\nthe antennata makes a great addition to a medium to large fish - only or reef display . a final word regarding tankmates : p . antennata has a rather large mouth , even by lionfish standards , so bear this in mind when choosing tankmates .\nwe consider our p . mombasae to be the peppermint angel of the lion world .\nas far as feeding is concerned , once weaned , they\u2019re a typical lionfish that will soon recognize its keeper and will pray to the food god , hoping for a handout . they do perch a bit , but they spend a good amount of time in the water column as well . this lion isn\u2019t super common but is a real eye - catcher and a fabulous fish if you happen to find one .\nonce you learn the differences in their spot pattern , the mombasae ( left ) and the antennata ( right ) are easily distinguishable .\nthe p . radiata is harder to find than some of the other lions and often suffer during shipping , but their beauty is undebatable and they are a lucky find .\ngiven our love for all things scorp , we have a hard time saying that a particular lionfish is the prettiest , but this species would definitely be on the short list . it is one of the species that we most often field questions about , simply based on looks alone . speaking of looks , this fish is easily identified by the two horizontal white stripes on its caudal peduncle . radiata lions exhibit broad vertical body bands that are typically dark red / maroon / brown , sometimes with a darkish green / black tint to them . these dark bands are separated by thin , stark white stripes . the lower rays of their long pectoral fin are connected by a membrane near the body up to about a quarter of their length , and the membranes of their second dorsal , anal and caudal fins lack color or markings , hence one of this fish\u2019s common names : clearfin lionfish . this species typically sports a pair of supraorbital antennae .\nalthough there are other attributes that id a radiata , the tail pattern is unique to its species .\nradiata lions tend to ship poorly , so finding a pristine , healthy specimen may take some patience . however , a few minor dings should heal up and disappear in pretty short order with good food and low - stress tank conditions . another thing makes this fish a bit more of a find ( and more expensive ) is the fact that in the wild , it is a bit rarer than many lionfish species .\nlike the other medium lionfish species , p . radiata feeds on crustaceans ( mostly crabs and sometimes shrimp ) in the wild . therefore , a new fish that is being conditioned ( or stubborn weaners ) should be offered live ghost shrimp , small crawfish , or fiddler crabs as first foods . radiated lionfish approach their prey in an interesting forward - tilted , head - down attitude with their pectoral fins outstretched . this species has been dubbed difficult to keep due them being poor shippers , the fact that they are intolerant of poor water quality , and are sometimes difficult to feed / wean . however , although our specimen did look a bit rough from being in the procurement chain , it is a solid stick - feeder and will eat almost anything it is offered .\nrussel\u2019s lionfish can best be described as a volitans in a slightly smaller package , both in habits and care . it is often seen offered for sale under the incorrect common name red volitans . i actually asked the owner of an aquarium shop why he mis - id\u2019d this fish , and he told me \u201cthe people who really know , know , but most people don\u2019t , and it avoids confusion\u201d . i can\u2019t say i agree with the logic , especially since he has a bit of a passion for oddball fish , but i guess it works for some folks .\nthe p . russelii is most easily identified by the lack of spots on its caudal and median fins , which also gives rise to one of its common names clearfin lionfish . its white body is adorned with reddish - brown vertical bands , which are sparser and more widely spaced than those of the p . volitans . additionally , russel\u2019s lionfish lack the dark markings under its chin that the volitans has . once you see a russel\u2019s , you won\u2019t mistake them as p . volitans thereafter .\nnote the spots on the caudal fin ( tail ) of the p . volitans that is absent on the p . russelii . occasionally a russels will have spots on their tail , so it\u2019s not an identifier .\nnote the lack of chin markings of the p . russelii to the left .\nthis fish is bold , and is almost always out and about in the water column . it is extremely tolerant of tankmates ( unless it thinks they\u2019re snack - size ) , and handles polluted water very well . if you like p . volitans , but don\u2019t quite have the room for one , p . russelii is for you !\nthis species is what one would have to consider thee lionfish . whenever a person mentions that they keep a lionfish , it is most likely a p . volitans . at this writing , we have kept nine species of lionfish , and although each species has its own allure , there is nothing quite like an adult p . volitans in terms of sheer presence and graceful beauty . they make the ultimate centerpiece fish for the larger aquarium . unfortunately , these fish are often offered as 2\u201d juveniles , and many keepers are unaware as to how large and / or how fast these fish can grow , so many specimens end up being cramped and tank - stunted instead of being able to spread their fins and cruise about their tank .\np . volitans is typically very easy to feed and wean , and weaning is often accomplished by simply adding a chunk of food to the water column , as this species has a voracious appetite . their maximum prey size is often underestimated by aquarists who watch in horror as their adult volitans slurps down a 6\u201d + long tankmate in the blink of an eye .\nthis species is probably the most forgiving of all lionfish species in terms of water quality and other forms of negligence visited on them by the aquarist . in fact , in the past , this fish was sometimes used to cycle new setups , as they could handle the various spikes in water chemistry . one of the most often made mistakes with this fish is to under - tank it . even a smaller adult will end up being a 12\u201d cube ( including fins ) , so they require a minimum front - to - back depth of 18\u201d just to be able to turn around comfortably .\nthink a lion and a trigger make good tankmates ? click on the picture to see jerry barbian\u2019s video as to why this coupling may become a problem .\npeople frequently try to mix volitans with triggers . some people have had success , which can be found more frequently with the pelagic species of triggers . and then there is the more common outcome of a lion and a trigger below . it\u2019s your risk . have a plan \u201cb\u201d if it doesn\u2019t work out .\nin a two year span , this lion went from a walnut to a football .\naverage size : 5\u201d - 6\u201d tl ( ~ 13 \u2013 15 cm ) natural habitat : usually found on open reef flats , in sheltered coastal bays and fine sand or muddy habitats . care level : difficult minimum tank size : 30 g ( ~ 114 l ) frozen food conversion : difficult\nthe electric blue bands of the pectoral fins , lends to the beauty of the fish .\nas flash colors to warn away and confuse predators . the pelvic fins of the bluefin are typically black , hence the common name \u201cblackfoot lionfish\u201d . finally , the trailing edge of their caudal fin is perfectly straight ( squared - off ) , with the uppermost ray elongated to form a streamer . if it weren\u2019t for the difficulty in keeping this fish , it may very well be the perfect lionfish in terms of appearance and size .\nanother interesting habit of the bluefin is the fact that they are often seen out in the open resting or even partially buried in shallow depressions which they excavate in the soft substrate . when startled , this lion will rear up in its depression , directing the business ends of its dorsal spines toward the attacker . if the attacker persists , it will flash its pectorals and rotate itself 360\u00ba in an effort to bewilder the offender as well as to have the ability to defend itself in place . it will leave its foxhole only as a last resort .\nthis little lion is definitely a rare find , and a special case , as to have even a small chance of keeping it alive for any appreciable length of time , it must be kept under temperate conditions ( less than 65\u00baf ) . we have been fortunate enough to have had our specimen under our care for well over a year , however , the early months were indeed rough ) .\nwe consider the p . heterura to be the most beautiful out of all the lions . we had ours 1 year 7 months before we lost him when he jumped out of the tank . cover your tanks !"]}
{"id": 816, "summary": [{"text": "the white sucker ( catostomus commersonii ) is a freshwater cypriniform fish inhabiting the upper midwest and northeast in north america , but is also found as far south as georgia and new mexico in the south and west .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the fish is commonly known as a \" sucker \" due to its fleshy papillose lips that suck up organic matter and aufwuchs from the bottom of rivers and streams .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "other common names for the white sucker include bay fish , brook sucker , common sucker , and mullet .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the white sucker is often confused with the longnose sucker ( catostomus catostomus ) , because they look very similar . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "white sucker", "paragraphs": ["other names : sucker , common sucker , eastern sucker , mullet , brook sucker , gray sucker , mud sucker , slender sucker , mullet , whitehorse . the ojibwe name is namebin . the phrase\nnamebinikaa\nmeans\nthere are many white suckers\nin ojibwe . that ' s a phrase that good roughfishers should keep handy !\nin colorado , the white sucker is replacing native suckers in the rio grande and colorado river drainages ( walker 1993 ) . hybridization between native flannelmouth and bluehead sucker , and non - native white sucker\nyoung provide considerable forage for game species . white sucker x longnose sucker hybrids have been found in several places in montana .\nthe white sucker is best described as having a\ntorpedo shaped\nbody .\ndistribution of the white sucker in north america ( after scott & crossman 1973 ) .\nendocrine changes during natural spawning in the white sucker , catostomus commersoni . ii . steroid hormones .\nmap of white sucker distribution across the united states . ( credit : u . s . geological survey )\nin manitoba , there are 7 species of suckers , but the white sucker is by far the most common .\nendocrine changes during natural spawning in the white sucker , catostomus commersoni . ii . steroid hormones . - pubmed - ncbi\nhealth of white sucker within the st . louis river area of concern associated with habitat usage as assessed using stable isotopes\nyellow perch , rock bass , blue gill / pumpkinseed , white perch , white bass , & crappie .\nwhite suckers average about a pound but fish of up to 7 pounds have been caught . extremely large white suckers can be confused with common carp - but the white sucker has smaller scales , no barbels , and a slimmer profile .\nsaint - jacques , n . , h . harvey , d . jackson . 2000 . selective foraging in the white sucker (\nmostly eat their eggs or small white suckers up to about 203 mm long . small white suckers are also eaten by\nstate of michigan . 2013 .\nwhite sucker , catostomus commersonii ( pictured ) longnose sucker , catostomus catostomus\n( on - line ) . www . michigan . gov . accessed october 21 , 2013 at urltoken .\na doppelganger for the longnose sucker , the white sucker also mimics the longnose sucker ' s actions and habits to a tee . with a toothless smile perfect for its bottom - feeding diet , the white sucker spends most of its time in warm , shallow waters . you will find these fish near obstructions and windfalls that create divets in great lakes bays , estuaries , and tributaries , but a search in deeper lake superior waters will garner a white sucker spotting , too . as an adult predator when lake trout are scarce , sea lampreys prove a challenge to this fish ' s existence , as it has for the longnose sucker . the white sucker is no wannabe of its longnose relative , though ; it ' s its own fish , and it ' s quite happy to have it that way .\nminnesota department of natural resources . 2013 .\nwhite sucker catostomus commersonii\n( on - line ) . accessed october 20 , 2013 at urltoken .\n. the latter two primarily feed on eggs and small white suckers up to about 203 mm long . small white suckers are also eaten by\nthe white sucker is distributed throughout much of north america . it occurs almost everywhere in manitoba , except in a small region of the extreme north of the province .\nwhite suckers that are less than a year old form schools of several hundred fish . adult and juvenile white suckers feed day and night but are more active at night when they move into shallower water . white suckers coordinate their movement so they are inshore during the evening and offshore by morning . in stream habitats , large white suckers can be found in deep pools . white suckers can be very good at moving long distances , in one such case , an individual white sucker ended up 56 km away from the area it was tagged 5 years before .\nyoung white suckers less than a year old form schools of several hundred fish . adult and juvenile white suckers feed day and night but are more active at night when they move into shallower water . white suckers tend to coordinate their movement so they are inshore during the evening and offshore by morning . in stream habitats , large white suckers can be found in deep pools . white suckers are also excellent dispersers , particularly after spawning . in one such case , an individual white sucker ended up 56 km away from the area it was tagged 5 years previously .\nwhite suckers are an important food source for several fish and land animal species .\nsutton , m . 2009 . blue sucker stock characteristics in the wabash river indiana - illinois , usa .\nassembly of ribosome - depleted rna isolated from white sucker included a linear contig of 3 , 519 bp with blastx similarity to hepadnaviruses . our finished genome , 2014 wshbv rr173 ( genbank accession number\nand white suckers grow most efficiently in conditions that are 19 to 26 degrees celsius .\nbreeding season white suckers breed in the spring , usually from april to early may .\nwhite suckers are an important food source for several species of fish and land animals .\ncommonly feed on white suckers during foraging . they are also fed on by bass ,\nwhite suckers are tremendous fighters . the average sucker weighs several pounds , so be ready for battle if you tangle with one on a stream ! the fight of a sucker is usually a series of strong , determined runs , but occasionally they will surprise you by jumping and even tailwalking when hooked . the rubbery lips of the sucker hold hooks well , so be sure to bring a forceps along to disgorge hooks . and congrats , catching white suckers on flies is a challenge that few anglers pursue .\nyeager , b . , k . semmens . 1987 . early development of the blue sucker , cycleptus elongatus .\nmap of white sucker sample locations . these include the st . louis river , green bay and lower fox river , milwaukee estuary , detroit river and maumee river areas of concern , and the root river .\nmestl , g . 2009 . seasonal use distributions and migrations of blue sucker in the middle missouri river , usa .\nwhere do they live ? the white sucker is one of minnesota ' s most common fish , and it is the most widely spread distributed sucker in minnesota . it is most common in the eastern and northern portions of the state . white suckers are benthic ( bottom dwellers ) and live in all kinds of lakes and streams from clean , stream - fed brooks to slow - moving , turbid ( cloudy ) rivers .\nconservation and management the white sucker is the most common sucker in minnesota and one of the most abundant of all species . it had no special conservation status , but is considered an important forage species for many sport fish . it is also a very important bait species and is reared for that purpose , as well as commercially collected\nresearchers puzzle over precisely how teleost fishes , such as this spotted sailfin sucker catfish , evolved a dazzling array of forms .\nopisthomyzon , a 30 - million - year - old remora . white box shows suction disk .\nprevalence of core protein rna transcription in liver tissue of white sucker collected in the great lakes ( united states ) region . ( a ) absolute number of fish with detectable transcripts . ( b ) normalized copy number of transcripts .\nwhite suckers feed at night . adult diet consists of insect larvae , mollusks , and other invertebrates .\nthe white sucker is the most common species of sucker in north america . although scorned by many anglers , it is not only a fun and spunky game fish , but an ecologically important species as well . in recent years , more and more open - minded anglers have been giving this common , hard - fighting , and delicious species the recognition it deserves .\nwhite suckers could be a valuable sport fish , although they are not caught as often as some other species . these fish are caught by commercial fisheries as food for both humans and animals , including pets . white suckers are also farmed in ponds . the most important economic value of white suckers is in their use as food or bait . the bait industry for white suckers was valued at $ 300 , 000 in wisconsin in 1968 . white suckers have sweet , white flesh , although it is not as firm as some other sport fish . likewise , white suckers contain large bones between their muscle segments that can make them difficult to prepare , but they can be smoked , filleted , or ground into patties .\nburr , b . , j . garvey . 2006 . ecology of larval blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) in the mississippi river .\nthe longnose or northern sucker ( catostomus catostomus ) is also widely distributed in northern north america , and it also occurs in eastern siberia . the long - nose sucker generally inhabits cooler waters and occurs in deeper lakes and larger rivers and streams than the common sucker . this species is exploited commercially on the great lakes and elsewhere , although it is not considered to be a high - value species of fish . other species of suckers are more local in distribution , for example , the sacramento sucker ( c . occidentalis ) of northern california .\n; see also table s1 in the supplemental material ) . these samples were preserved in rnalater ( life technologies , grand island , ny ) for a transcriptome assembly project ( prjna282680 ) and quantitative gene expression analyses . a liver sample from a white sucker collected from michael brook near carmel , ny , was included for this purpose as well . tissue was not collected for dna applications from these fish . in an attempt to collect samples suitable for dna analysis , we collected white sucker (\ndaugherty , d . , t . bacula , m . sutton . 2008 . reproductive biology of blue sucker in a large midwestern river .\nalthough white suckers feed on fish eggs , this does not seen to adversely affect the populations of other fish .\nthere are over one hundred species of suckers . the common or white sucker ( catostomus commersoni ) is a widespread species throughout much of northern and central north america . this species has a round mouth , useful for feeding on its usual prey of bottom - dwelling insects , crustaceans , molluscs , and other invertebrates . the common sucker is a relatively large species , attaining a length of up to 1\u2026\nthe white sucker catostomus commersonii is a freshwater teleost that is endemic to river systems in the midwestern and northeastern united states . the widespread distribution and life history of white suckers has made them a target species in numerous contaminant - monitoring and effects studies ( 1 , \u2013 3 ) . the prevalence of tumors in white sucker is currently used as an indicator of exposure to environmental contaminants and is also a criterion used in the assessment and listing or delisting of areas of concern ( aocs ) throughout the great lakes region . fish tumors or other deformities , specifically in white sucker or brown bullhead , are listed as one of the \u201cbeneficial use\u201d impairments at great lakes aocs ( 4 ) . in 2010 , the great lakes restoration initiative specifically targeted certain priorities , one of which was the evaluation and monitoring of progress in aocs ( 5 ) . one component of this program was the assessment of wild populations present at potentially impacted sites . a suite of biomarkers ranging from the molecular to the organismal level was developed for multiple fish species ( 6 ) . during the development of a hepatic transcriptome for white sucker , we identified the presence of a novel hepatitis b - like virus .\nthese fish can be found in most every stream flowing into either lake erie or lake ontario come spring and early summer . spearing was once a legal method for taking these fish in the tributaries , but that option is no longer available to anglers . instead , try fishing with dew worms at night . a state record sucker was caught in the niagara river several years ago but it failed to make the books because of a low level of awareness . the top white sucker is five pounds , three ounces ; the record redhorse sucker is 11 pounds , 11 ounces .\neitzmann , j . , a . makinster , c . paukert . 2007 . distribution and growth of blue sucker in a great plains river , usa .\nfor invertebrate prey . removing white suckers from areas with both species causes more invertebrates and fewer zooplankton to be eat by yellow perch , which increases their growth rates . however , removing white suckers does not significantly increase the population of yellow perch .\nsnyder , d . e . , and r . t . muth . 1990 . description and identification of razorback , flannelmouth , white , utah , bluehead , and mountain sucker larvae and early juveniles . colorado division of wildlife tech . publ . no . 38 . 152 pp .\nthe recently redescribed summer sucker ( catostomus utawana ) of the adirondack region of new york formerly was included in this species ( see morse and daniels 2009 ) .\n(\nstatus report on blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) , a candidate endangered or threatened species\n, 1993 ; eitzmann , et al . , 2007 )\na large group of fish , numerous species of suckers inhabit new york state ' s waters . some , such as the redhorse , are only found in a few waters in the state , while others , such as the white sucker , can be found all over new york state .\nwhite suckers are a very common and wide - ranging species with large population sizes and are considered a species of least concern .\nwhen they are younger and smaller , white suckers are preyed on by northern pike , muskellunge , bass , walleyes and atlantic salmon .\njuvenile white suckers show a more mottled coloration . they are often sold in bait shops as bait for northern pike and flathead catfish .\n, and algae . adult white suckers mostly feed on zooplankton and invertebrates , but they may also specialize in one or the other .\nwhite suckers feed on fish eggs ; however , it does not seem to have a negative impact on the populations of other fish .\nwhite suckers are an under - utilized , yet potentially valuable sport fish . they are caught using worms , spears , dip nets , wet flies , and spinning lures . commercial fisheries catch them using seines , fyke , pound nets , gill nets , and trawls . their catch is then used as food for both humans and animals , including pets . white suckers are also farmed in ponds and pursued by anglers using spears , hooks , and fishing line . the most important economic value of white suckers lies in their use as food or bait . the bait industry for white suckers was valued at $ 300 , 000 in wisconsin in 1968 . white suckers have sweet , white flesh that is not as firm as that of other sport fish . additionally , white suckers contain large bones between their muscle segments that may render them unappetizing to some . still , they can be smoked , filleted , or ground into patties to produce tasty dishes .\naccording to this hypothesis , the sucker - footed bat fossils showed up right where scientists expected to find them : at the literal and figurative base of the noctilionoidea family tree .\nwhite suckers are commonly confused with longnose suckers , which are related as bottom - feeding fish . both use fleshy lips to suck up organic material from the beds of rivers and streams as food and look very similar . the main difference between the two is that the longnose sucker has grey or dark , olive - colored sides .\ncitation hahn cm , iwanowicz lr , cornman rs , conway cm , winton jr , blazer vs . 2015 . characterization of a novel hepadnavirus in the white sucker ( catostomus commersonii ) from the great lakes region of the united states . j virol 89 : 11801\u201311811 . doi : 10 . 1128 / jvi . 01278 - 15 .\nread pairs were quality screened and adapter trimmed prior to de novo assembly into contigs with clc genomics workbench , version 7 . as part of routine efforts to screen for contaminating sequences , blastx searches identified contigs with sequence similarity to hepadnaviruses , which we then culled from our white sucker transcriptome assembly , which is to be described elsewhere .\nthe discovery also shows that , like many island - dwelling , relict species , sucker - footed bats have not always been confined to their present range\u2014they once swooped through the african skies .\nit ' s impossible to know from the fossils if the extinct species had already evolved their characteristic sucker - feet , but the teeth shed light on another aspect of bat evolution . the presence of sucker - footed bats in africa at least 37 million years ago supports the theory that this family is one of the most primitive members of a lineage that now dominates south america .\n(\nstatus report on blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) , a candidate endangered or threatened species\n, 1993 ; eitzmann , et al . , 2007 ; yeager and semmens , 1987 )\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . status report on blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) , a candidate endangered or threatened species . north dakota state office : ecological services . 1993 .\nmale and female blue suckers change coloration during the spawning season . males also develop visible bumps on their heads during this time , so visual and tactile cues are likely important in blue sucker communication .\nstudies into the fish have focused on its life cycle , including reproductive abilities , how white suckers use their habitats and what types of prey they prefer .\nfor benthic invertebrate prey . removal of white suckers from areas with both species results in higher utilization of benthic invertebrates for food and lower consumption of zooplankton by yellow perch , which in turn increases the growth rate of adults . however , removal of white suckers does not significantly increase the population of yellow perch .\nthere are over one hundred species of suckers . the common or white sucker ( catostomus commersoni ) is a widespread species throughout much of northern and central north america . this species has a round mouth , useful for feeding on its usual prey of bottom - dwelling insects , crustaceans , molluscs , and other invertebrates . the common sucker is a relatively large species , attaining a length of up to 10 in ( 45 cm ) , and a weight of 2 . 2 lb ( 1 kg ) . the common sucker is often found in lakes and ponds . these fish generally run up nearby streams to spawn in gravel beds in the springtime , but they sometimes lay their eggs in gravel along shallow lakeshores . individuals of this species can live as long as 12 years .\nwhat eats them ? white suckers are an important forage fish for several of minnesota ' s sport fishes . these include walleye , brook trout , muskellunge , northern pike , largemouth and smallmouth bass . additional predators are burbot and , in lake superior , sea lamprey . small white suckers also fall prey to fish - eating birds such as herons , loons , bald eagles , and osprey . many smaller white suckers are a much used bait in minnesota , and many are commercially harvested for that purpose .\nwhite suckers are freshwater fish native to north america . they occur all across canada , from newfoundland and labrador to british columbia , as well as in the yukon and northwest territories and in all of the great lakes . they are found in both lakes and rivers , usually in shallow water where they feed on bottom on worms , clams , insect larvae and occasionally fish eggs . white suckers are robust and adaptable fish , surviving many adverse water conditions that other fish could not tolerate . this coupled with their high abundance and widespread occurrence has lead to the use of white suckers as environmental monitors for toxic chemicals and pulp mill effects , and various diseases including papillomas and liver tumours . they are not usually fished except for bait . white sucker serve as food for pike , muskellunge , bass , walleye , burbot , atlantic salmon , brook trout and a variety of birds and mammals .\nwhite suckers occupy a wide range of habitats including streams , rivers , and lakes but are usually found in small creeks with cold , clear water and small or medium - sized rivers . white suckers are also highly tolerant of polluted , murky , and anoxic waters , as well as a wide array of stream gradients . they do not require dense vegetation and prefer temperatures between 11 . 8 and 20 . 6 degrees celsius . lethal ph for white suckers ranges from 3 . 0 to 3 . 8 .\nthe long slim body of the sharksucker is dark gray or dark brownish gray with a dark belly . there is a broad darker brown or dark gray stripe with white edges on each side that extends from the jaw to the base of the caudal fin with interruptions from the eyes and pectoral fins . the pectoral fins and ventral fins are black with or without a pale edge while the dorsal and anal fins are dark gray or black with white margins . the caudal fin is black with distinct white corners .\n(\nstatus report on blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) , a candidate endangered or threatened species\n, 1993 ; eitzmann , et al . , 2007 ;\nspecies profile : minnesota department of natural resources\n, 2012 )\n(\nstatus report on blue sucker ( cycleptus elongatus ) , a candidate endangered or threatened species\n, 1993 ; daugherty , et al . , 2008 ;\nspecies profile : minnesota department of natural resources\n, 2012 )\nthe white sucker is quite adaptable . it has been collected from virtually all types of water in montana : muddy , clear , warm , cold , running and standing . as the position of the mouth suggests , it feeds on the bottom and eats an omnivorous diet of detritus and insects . the white sucker is distributed throughout montana ' s eastern drainage and is present in our northern watershed as well . they are most abundant in the many reservoirs of eastern montana . in montana the largest specimens have been about 5 pounds . large females can produce over 100 , 000 eggs and suckers can produce large populations in short periods of time . any type of attempted population control by man is usually a losing proposition . ( fwp ) see snyder and muth ( 1990 ) for a guide to the identification of larvae and early juveniles .\na 2010 study , overseen by the university of wyoming , found that white suckers readily hybridized with bluehead suckers and flannelmouth suckers in order to survive in a stream they weren\u2019t native to .\nwhite suckers can live in many different habitats including streams , rivers , and lakes but are mostly found in small creeks with cold , clear water and small or medium - sized rivers . white suckers are also very tolerant of polluted , murky , and oxygen poor waters . they do not need dense vegetation and prefer temperatures between 11 . 8 and 20 . 6 degrees celsius .\nresearchers at north dakota state university found in 2011 that white suckers have a size - selective approach to eating . the fish tend to pass up small organisms , instead going for larger prey .\nwhite suckers have a long , round body and grow to a length of about 241 mm and a maximum weight of about 2 . 5 kg . they are olive brown to black on their back and lighter , or white on their belly , with dusky or clear fins . breeding males have a gold coloration on their backs and red ( or less commonly cream or black ) stripes across their sides . they have a toothless , sucking mouth and their lower lip is about twice as thick as their upper lip . white suckers have a shorter snout than their close relatives ,\nwhite suckers have a long slender body and a dark back with silvery colored sides and a white belly . the dark coloration on the fish can vary - the most common color is yellowish - brown , but bright yellow , golden , and greenish variations exist . the mouth points down , allowing the fish to pick up food from the bottom . the head is rounded between the eyes .\nthe white perch is a close relative of the white bass and striped bass . the most recognizable trait of this silvery fish is its purple throat . it differs from silver bass in that it has a dark back . small worms are the best bait . they are usually found in six to eight feet of water near the bottom . the state record is three pounds , one ounce .\ncolor is dusky olive brown to nearly black above , shading to cream or white below . dorsal fin has 11 to 13 rays . scales are medium sized , 60 to 75 in lateral line .\nmost species in the sucker family occur in the americas , over a range that extends from the boreal forest of north america through much of central america . a few other species occur in eastern siberia , and there is one isolated species in eastern china .\nwhen they are spawning , male white suckers may show\nhead trembling\nbehavior , by vibrating their heads rapidly from side to side towards a nearby female or to other males in the area . males , however , do not compete with each other for mates . along with head trembling , male white suckers may also spread their pectoral fins , extend their dorsal fin , and stick out their jaw .\nwhite sucker spawning and upstream breeding runs last for six weeks in the spring , or early summer in more northern regions . upstream breeding runs usually occur at night and spawning typically lasts from april to early may . this is timed to occur shortly after ice melts from a spawning area , the duration of spawning may be related to the water temperature . male white suckers reach the spawning area earlier than females and outnumber them . white suckers do not build nests or defend a territory . the spawning area usually has quick running water and a gravely substrate , but spawning can sometimes occur in lakes if conditions allow . males may show\nhead trembling\nbehavior ( vibrating their heads rapidly from side to side for a short time ) towards a nearby female who has come to rest at the bottom of a rapid . head trembling may also be directed at other males in the spawning area , although males do not fight for access to mates . along with head trembling , male white suckers also spread their pectoral fins , extend their dorsal fin , and protrude their jaw .\nfriedman\u2019s research now gives us a richer hypothesis for how the remora got its sucker . some of the remora\u2019s closest living relatives , like cobia , tag along with bigger fish to scavenge on their scraps . the ancestors of remoras may have lived a similar life .\nin the spring , adult male white suckers develop a very distinctive black horizontal stripe . the coloration above and below the stripe lightens , and they develop hard bumps called tubercules on the tail and anal fin .\nwhite suckers are highly underrated as a food fish . in the past , white suckers were passed over for other fish because of their many small , free - floating bones . but their flesh is firm and flaky , and their flavor sweet and delicious . there are several methods for getting around those bones , including grinding , canning , pickling , and scoring . check the recipes section for more info on eating suckers .\nwhite suckers can be found throughout the northeast and midwest united states . they can also be found in portions of the upper northwest . they survive in rivers , streams and most any other type of water body .\nwhite suckers are present in many habitats , from large windswept lakes to tiny , shallow streams . in small streams , white suckers are usually found in slower , deeper sections of the stream , though actively feeding fish often can be seen finning in the main channel . all good trout streams have healthy populations of white suckers - the young of which provide food for the largest trout in the stream . in larger rivers , white suckers roam the rocky flats or congregate in eddies and current breaks . in lakes , suckers often spend most of the year roaming the bottom in deep water . in the springtime , they migrate into streams connected to the lake to find spawning gravel . suckers spawn in shallow riffles . in some lakes , all the suckers in the lake may spawn on a single patch of sandy gravel where a trickle of water flows out .\nwhite suckers are a very robust , common , and wide - ranging species with large population sizes and are therefore designated as a species of least concern according to the iucn red list . in a 1958 study focusing on the removal of the species , 12 , 750 white suckers were removed from a southern wisconsin stream over a 3 - year period . afterwards , it was estimated that 7 , 411 suckers still remained in the stream .\nlittle is known about blue sucker behavior . observation in the wild is difficult due to swift currents and turbid waters that these fish inhabit . it it assumed that blue suckers hug the bottom of the main stem of river systems and wait for the current to bring food to them .\nthe adult worm - averaging 30mm in length and 13 mm in width , fasciola hepatica is one of the largest flukes in the world . the adult worm has a very characteristic leaf shape with the anterior end being broader than the posterior end and an anterior cone - shaped projection . the fluke possesses a powerful oral sucker at the end the anterior cone and a ventral sucker at the base of the cone which allow it to attach to the lining of the biliary ducts . each worm possesses ovaries and testes which are highly branched and allow for individual flukes to produce eggs independently .\nduring spawning , male white suckers may show\nhead trembling\nbehavior , vibrating their heads rapidly from side to side towards a nearby female , who rests at the bottom of a spawning area , or to other males in the spawning area . males , however , do not compete with each other for access to mates . along with head trembling , male white suckers may also spread their pectoral fins , extend their dorsal fin , and protrude their jaw .\n, and midge larvae carried to them by currents . as white suckers mature , their mouthparts move to their underside , allowing them to bottom - feed . as adults , they feed additionally on fish , fish eggs , plants ,\n, and midge larvae carried to them by currents . as white suckers age , their mouthparts move to their underside , allowing them to bottom - feed . as adults , they also feed on fish , fish eggs , plants ,\nimportance we report the first full - length genome of a hepadnavirus from fishes . phylogenetic analysis of this genome indicates divergence from genomes of previously described hepadnaviruses from mammalian and avian hosts and supports the creation of a novel genus . the discovery of this novel virus may better our understanding of the evolutionary history of hepatitis b - like viruses of other hosts . in fishes , knowledge of this virus may provide insight regarding possible risk factors associated with hepatic neoplasia in the white sucker . this may also offer another model system for mechanistic research .\nas north american bats face a death toll approaching 7 million , university of akron scientists reveal new clues about their killer , white nose syndrome , or wns . the ua researchers reveal that the deadly wns fungus can likely . . .\n) . to avoid the inclusion of pgrna or viral mrna in the genome model , we isolated dna from an ethanol - preserved liver . resequencing was conducted on a single , pcr - positive fish collected from the root river ( white sucker hepatitis b virus [ wshbv ] rr173 ) . the dna was extracted using a dneasy kit ( qiagen , valencia , ca ) as per the manufacturer ' s protocols . primers were designed to resequence the complete genome and confirm a circular architecture . we used primer3 , version 2 . 3 . 4 (\nwhite suckers eat mostly insect larvae , just like trout do , so a wide variety of trout flies will work very well for white suckers . white suckers use their keen eyesight to hunt down free - floating prey to a greater extent than most species of suckers . but while trout sometimes feed on insects anywhere in the water column , white suckers concentrate on insects that are on , or very close to , the bottom . so let\u2019s say you\u2019ve found yourself a fine pod of large white suckers in a nice section of water , or a good pool that looks like it should hold some . what\u2019s next ? in my opinion , any rig that gets the fly down to the fish and moves it along drag - free will work . for many people , this is a shot - and - indicator rig . others forego the indicator and fish by feel . both methods will work , as long as the fly is traveling right along the bottom at the same speed as the current . my favorite tactic is to fish an indicator rig directly upstream or slightly across , allowing the offering to drift down through the school of suckers . the take of a white sucker is very subtle . if using an indicator , watch it closely . the indicator will either pause or dip for a fraction of a second before the fish spits out the fly . suckers have an amazing sense of taste and will reject a fake insect almost instantly . if not using an indicator , you\u2019ll need to develop a sixth sense to detect strikes . wait for a slight hesitation in drift , a slight increase or decrease in tension , or a small tap on the line . in either case , you must strike quickly , but softly , to avoid breaking your tippet .\nwhite suckers have a long , round body and grow to an average length of 241 mm and a maximum weight of about 2 . 5 kg . they have olive brown to black coloration on their back and a lighter colored , or white belly , with dusky or clear fins . breeding males gain gold coloration on their backs and red ( or less commonly cream or black ) stripes across their sides . they have a toothless , sucking subterminal mouth with no barbels . the mouth region is additionally characterized by thick pappilose lips , with a lower lip that is about twice as thick as the upper lip . white suckers have fewer lateral line scales ( between 55 and 58 ) and a shorter snout than their close relatives ,\nsuckers are a main food item of osprey and eagles . they are fun to fish for and although few people have tried them , they are excellent to eat . they have firm , white , light - tasting meat , especially during spring .\ntransmission electron micrographs showing both complete virions of approximately 40 nm in diameter and smaller particles assumed to be composed of self - assembled virus surface proteins . the two types of particles from gradient - purified white sucker serum have a strong resemblance to those of other hepatitis b - like viruses from mammals and birds . virus was stained using 1 % phosphotungstic acid ( a ) and 0 . 5 % uranyl acetate ( b ) . scale bar , 100 nm . images were processed using adobe photoshop and included the adjustment of brightness and contrast and application of the unsharp mask filter .\nyoung white suckers , up to about 10 cm in size , are light brown or beige coloured and have three , very distinct , dark spots on their sides : one behind the gill plate , another about mid body and the third before the tail .\nembryos of white suckers develop quicker in warmer temperatures . organs begin developing the day eggs are fertilized . soon afterwards , the embryo becomes mobile , develop a circulatory system , and grow longer . larvae hatch after about 5 to 7 days and are 21 to 25 mm in length , with slanted mouths and short intestines . when white suckers are less than 51 mm long , they feed in shallow water , 15 to 20 cm deep and along lake shores . in some populations , white suckers are mature by the time they are 2 years old , however , on average , suckers are mature by age 3 . in other populations , males mature at a faster rate ( 2 years old ) than females ( 3 years old ) but all are mature by age 4 .\nwhite suckers spawn and breed upstream for six weeks in the spring , or early summer in northern areas . upstream breeding usually happens at night and spawning usually lasts from april to early may . this happens shortly after ice melts from a spawning area , the length of spawning may be related to the water temperature . male white suckers reach the spawning area earlier than females and outnumber them . white suckers do not build nests or defend a territory . the spawning area usually has quick running water and a gravely substrate , but spawning can sometimes occur in lakes if conditions are correct . males may show\nhead trembling\nbehavior ( vibrating their heads rapidly from side to side for a short time ) towards a nearby female who has come to rest at the bottom of a rapid . head trembling may also be directed at other males in the spawning area , although males do not fight for mates . along with head trembling , male white suckers also spread their pectoral fins , extend their dorsal fin , and stick out their jaw .\nwhite suckers have long , round bodies with light - colored underbellies and darker - colored sides , usually splashed with a dark green , grey , copper or black . their fins are rayed in a similar fashion to other cypriniform fishes , like carp and chub .\ntoday , the sucker - footed bats consist of two species , myzopoda aurita and m . schliemanni , endemic to madagascar . in contrast to almost all other bats , they don ' t cling upside - down to cave ceilings or branches . sucker - footed bats roost head - up , often in the furled leaves of the traveler ' s palm , a plant in the bird - of - paradise family . to stick to such a smooth surface , the bats evolved cup - like pads on their wrists and ankles . scientists previously suspected the pads held the bats up by suction , but recent research has demonstrated the bats instead rely on wet adhesion , like a tree frog .\nassessment of the presence of wshbv dna in white sucker from the root river ( racine , wi ) via endpoint pcr identified a prevalence of 20 % among sampled fish ( n = 20 ) . the prevalence of virus was not statistically different from that observed at the geographically proximate milwaukee river site ( fisher ' s exact test , p = 0 . 3 ) . we detected viral dna in the plasma samples from the same four root river individuals that were positive by pcr ( data not shown ) . absence of amplicons from numerous individuals confirmed that this pcr primer set does not amplify an endogenous viral relic .\nhow big do they get ? how long do they live ? white suckers in minnesota normally grow to about 300 mm ( 20 in ) and weigh in at about 0 . 9 - 1 . 4 kg ( 2 - 3 lbs ) . lunkers can go 2 . 3 kg ( 5 lbs ) . minnesota ' s hook and line record for this fish is 4 . 12 kg ( 9 lbs 1 oz ) . it was caught in big fish lake in stearns county . white suckers typically live for about 10 - 12 years .\ninstead of being used as food for humans , white suckers commonly are used as bait for bigger and more prized game fish . this occurs when they are still small and appear similar to minnows . if they are eaten by humans , they are normally processed and sold as mullets .\nembryonic development of white suckers is faster in warmer temperatures . organs begin developing on the same day as fertilization , indicated by the formation of a head region . soon afterwards , the embryo becomes mobile , develops its circulatory system , and increases in length . their larvae hatch after about 5 to 7 days and are 21 to 25 mm in length , with slanted mouths and short intestines . when white suckers are less than 51 mm in length , they tend to feed in shallow water , 15 to 20 cm deep and along lake shores . in some populations , white suckers are mature by the time they are 2 years old , however , on average , suckers are mature by age 3 . in other populations , males mature at a faster rate ( 2 years old ) than females ( 3 years old ) but all are mature by age 4 .\na team of researchers described the two bat species from several sets of fossilized jawbones and teeth unearthed in the sahara . the findings , reported feb . 4 in the open - access journal plos one , represent the first formal description of the family in the fossil record and show the sucker - footed bat family to be at least 36 million years older than previously known .\nwhite suckers can be caught on just about any tackle . the most effective method is light or ultralight spinning tackle . four to six pound test monofilament should be used , along with small , sharp hooks . worms or live aquatic nymphs are the best baits for suckers . fish directly on the bottom , either with a stationary rig with a sliding sinker , or with a drifting rig that moves along the bottom with the current . white suckers can be light biters , so a sensitive rod and light line is a good choice . using a bankstick helps detect the lightest bites .\na study from the u . s . epa found that the fish\u2019s growth is affected by temperature changes of water . levels of low light are also advantageous to the fish\u2019s development , with better growth rates seen in white suckers who had been exposed to low light rather than no light at all .\n) are a highly ubiquitous species . their range is over 2 . 5 million square kilometers , stretching from east of the mackenzie river to labrador in canada , and into 40 states in the eastern and midwestern united states . white suckers are also an introduced species in the colorado river drainage basin .\n, and algae . however , their feeding pattern is nonrandom . adult white suckers feed primarily on zooplankton and benthic invertebrates with mild seasonal variation , but they may also specialize in one or the other as a form of resource partitioning , or selectively feed on the largest individuals if resources are abundant .\nthe northern redhorse or redfin sucker ( moxostoma macrolepidotum ) occurs widely in central north america . the lake or northern chub ( couesius plumbeus ) is a small minnow - sized fish that occurs widely across northern north america . this is an important forage and bait fish . the lake chubsucker ( erimyzon sucetta ) occurs in the eastern united states , including lake saint clair and lake erie .\nhepatocellular carcinoma is associated with hbv infection in humans . hepatic tumors are not uncommon in white sucker inhabiting the great lakes regions , and prevalence of this pathology is used as an indication of contaminant exposure . liver tissue preserved in z - fix ( anatech ltd . , battle creek , mi ) was therefore processed for histopathological observation via graded alcohols , paraffin infiltration , and embedding . tissues were sectioned at 5 \u03bcm and stained with hematoxylin and eosin . hepatic tumors included hcc , hepatic adenoma ( ha ) , cholangioma ( co ) , and cholangiocarcinoma ( cc ) . tumor and virus data were converted to a binary data set , and jaccard binary dichotomy coefficients were determined to evaluate dissimilarity .\ntoday , madagascar sucker - footed bats live nowhere outside their island home , but new research shows that hasn ' t always been the case . the discovery of two extinct relatives in northern egypt suggests the unusual creatures , which evolved sticky footpads to roost on slick surfaces , are primitive members of a group of bats that evolved in africa and ultimately went on to flourish in south america .\nthe fry of white suckers eat plankton and other tiny invertebrates until they are about 15 mm long . up to this size their mouths still point forward to accommodate catching food up in the water column . once they reach 15 mm , their mouths rotate downward and they switch to the adult habit of bottom feeding .\nsuckers are a family of freshwater fishes ( the catostomidae ) that includes about 65 species worldwide , with most of these in north america . they ' re all fairly robust or stout fishes , with species ranging in size from small ( about 15 cm ) to large ( up to 45 cm ) in length . nearly all species in the family have the characteristic downward - pointing\nsucker\nmouth .\nhow do they reproduce ? the spawning season in minnesota for the white sucker begins in april and goes into early may . the fish move to the shallows of the lakes or up into stream headwaters unless a barrier stops them . once there they pick spots that have a gravel or coarse sand bottom . there is no nest made and the eggs go without care from the parents . the white suckers pair up , usually two males to one female . the spawning normally takes place at night , starting at dusk . with a male on either side of her , the female begins to lay her eggs while males fertilize them . the eggs are spread out by the current and the movement of the fish . eventually they sink to the bottom . depending on her size , a female will lay 20 , 000 - 50 , 000 eggs during the complete spawning period . the embryos develop for 5 - 10 days before they hatch , depending on water temperature . it takes another 1 - 2 weeks before they leave the gravel and drift downstream .\nwhite suckers reproduce in shallow waters and are believed to be influenced by changes in water temperature to begin the process . this can be caused by runoff from early snow melt or other factors . females of the species lay near 10 , 000 eggs and it is not uncommon for them to be fertilized by multiple males .\nwhite suckers primarily spawn in the spring , usually early may to early june . adults migrate from lakes into gravelly streams , when stream temperatures reach 10 o c . spawning sites are in shallow waters with a gravel bottom adults will return to specific spawning site ; thousands may migrate to the site at a particular period .\nscientific name :\ncatostomus\nis from the greek ,\nkata\n, meaning downward , and the greek\nstoma\n, meaning mouth . so\ncatostomus\nis clearly a reference to the downward pointing mouth of a sucker . the specific name ,\ncommersonii\nis from the fish being named for an early french naturalist : philibert commerson . ( thanks go to adam labatore , for pointing this out ! )"]}
{"id": 818, "summary": [{"text": "hampala dispar is a southeast asian species of cyprinid , endemic to the basin of the mekong .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is found in thailand , laos and cambodia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "individuals may reach a length of 35 cm . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "hampala dispar", "paragraphs": ["y . taki and a . kawamoto , 1977 - japanese journal of icthyology 24 ( 1 ) : 61 - 65 differentiation of the cyprinids , hampala macrolepidota and h . dispar .\nthe mun river at ubon ratchathani , eastern thailand , type locality of h . dispar .\ndispar : from the latin dispar , meaning \u2018unlike , dissimilar\u2019 , in reference to the differences in colour pattern and morphology which separate it from h . macrolepidota , the type species of this genus .\nalthough it needs plenty of space h . dispar makes a more suitable aquarium resident than the more commonly - traded congener h . macrolepidota due to its significantly smaller adult size .\ndoi , a . and y . taki , 1994 - japanese journal of ichthyology 40 ( 4 ) : 405 - 412 a new cyprinid fish , hampala salweenensis , from the mae pai river system , salween basin , thailand .\nj . r . ryan and y . b . esa , 2006 - zoological science 23 ( 10 ) : 893 - 901 phylogenetic analysis of hampala fishes ( subfamily cyprininae ) in malaysia inferred from partial mitochondrial cytochrome b dna sequences .\njuveniles of the two species can appear very similar as the body blotch is extended vertically in young h . dispar , plus both display a broadish dark band across the caudal peduncle , a second , thinner band across the base of the caudal - fin , and a small blotch above the anal - fin . all of these markings are less intense in h . dispar while in h . macrolepidota there is additional dark patterning above and below the eye and running downwards from the nape to the pelvic fins .\nit is worth noting that the body markings tend to fade in very large specimens of all hampala spp . , and it\u2019s possible that additional species will be described in the future as a phylogenetic study published in 2006 concluded that the form of h . bimaculata from central and southern parts of the malaysian state of sarawak , borneo ought to be considered distinct , for example .\nhampala spp . are voracious feeders especially when maintained in numbers . some aquarists have observed that the \u2018alpha\u2019 individual in a group will lead the others in a pack - style behaviour , and anglers\u2019 reports state that the water surface will literally boil when a shoal is feeding . so enthusiastically does it attack food that it\u2019s sometimes recommended as a useful tankmate for fastidious or newly - introduced fishes that are refusing to eat .\nh . macrolepidota is easy to identify by colour pattern , which comprises a dark vertical band originating anterior to the dorsal - fin and extending below the lateral line , plus the presence of black marginal stripes in both lobes of the caudal - fin . h . dispar possesses only a single dark blotch - like marking on the body and has less well - defined marginal stripes on the caudal lobes .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : the species is endemic to the mekong basin in thailand , lao pdr , and cambodia . it is adaptable to a range of habitats and is considered least concern at present .\ndescribed from the mun river at udon , thailand . endemic to the mekong basin in thailand , lao pdr , and cambodia ( mekong , tributaries and the tonle sap lake ) .\npredominantly a riverine fish , preferring clear , well - oxygenated , running water with substrates of sand , gravel , rock or mud . an adaptable species , it can also be found in both upland and lowland waters . during the rainy season it migrates into areas of inundated forest to feed and spawn .\nrainboth 1996 ) , and in swamps , marshes and slow - flowing waters ( m . kottelat pers . comm . 2011 ) it is now also found inhabiting many stiller and / or permanent bodies of water as a result of human activity including agriculture and damming of river channels . anecdotal accounts from aquarists suggest that it feed chiefly on crabs , shrimp and insects but also smaller fishes .\nlikely to be impacted in parts of its range by overfishing and perhaps habitat degradation .\nresearch is required on the species distribution , population trends , threats , and habitat and ecology .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 35 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 30857 )\nhas a round midlateral blotch under the dorsal - fin origin in adults and a plain grey caudal fin ( ref . 27732 ) ; juveniles lack black teardrop - shaped marking on cheek ; barbel always shorter than eye width ( ref . 12693 ) .\noccurs in slowly moving or standing water habitats ( ref . 12693 ) . encountered also in rapid - running mountain streams of the middle mekong ( ref . 12975 ) . common in impoundments , with small individuals frequenting areas of dense vegetation . feeds mainly on prawns , crabs , and shrimps , along with some insect larvae and some fish as well . breeds at the start of the rainy season and the young are found in seasonally flooded habitats in june . marketed fresh ( ref . 12693 ) .\nrainboth , w . j . , 1996 . fishes of the cambodian mekong . fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes . fao , rome , 265 p . ( ref . 12693 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5078 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00955 ( 0 . 00519 - 0 . 01756 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 2 . 90 - 3 . 22 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 7 \u00b10 . 61 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 49 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nconsidered endemic to the section of the mekong river basin which flows through northern laos before forming the border with thailand and eventually entering cambodia just below the khone pha pheng falls . it\u2019s distribution thus overlaps that of its widespread congener h . macrolepidota .\ntype locality is \u2018monam mun at udon , thailand\u2019 , which appears to correspond to the lower section of the mun river , a tributary which joins the mekong in ubon ratchathani province , eastern thailand .\npredominantly a riverine fish preferring clear , well - oxygenated , running water with substrates of sand , gravel , rock or mud although it is adaptable and can be found in both upland and lowland , standing or flowing waters .\nduring the rainy season it is known to migrate into areas of inundated forest to feed and spawn , and can now be found in many impounded water bodies as a result of human activity such as agriculture and damming of river channels .\nchoice of d\u00e9cor is not as critical as water quality and the amount of open swimming - space provided . however should you possess the means to both provide and decorate a sufficiently - sized aquarium this species a set - up designed to resemble a flowing river with a substrate of variably - sized rocks and gravel , some large water - worn boulders and perhaps a couple of driftwood branches is recommended .\nlike many fishes that naturally inhabit running waters it\u2019s intolerant to the accumulation of organic wastes and requires spotless water at all times in order to thrive . it also does best if there is a high level of dissolved oxygen and a decent level of water movement in the tank so external filters , powerheads , etc . , should be employed in order to obtain the desired effect .\nbe sure to fit the aquarium with a heavy , tightly - fitting cover as larger cyprinids can be quite skittish at times and usually possess a powerful leap .\npredatory with a capacious mouth . stomach analyses of wild specimens from cambodia have shown it to feed chiefly on crabs , shrimp and insects with some smaller fish also taken . in the aquarium it will accept dried foods but should not be fed these exclusively with daily meals of live and frozen foods key to keeping it in the best of health .\nsmaller specimens can be offered bloodworm , small earthworms , chopped prawn and suchlike while adults will take whole prawns , larger earthworms , mussels , whitebait , etc . take care not to overfeed as it will gorge itself given the opportunity .\nit should not be fed large amounts of mammalian / avian meat such as beef heart or chicken . some of the lipids contained in these meats cannot be properly metabolised by the fish and can cause excess deposits of fat and even organ degeneration . similarly there is no benefit in the use of \u2018feeder\u2019 fish such as livebearers or small goldfish which carry with them associated risks such as the introduction of parasites or disease .\ncaptures its prey using suction rather than aggressively biting and otherwise peaceful with anything it can\u2019t swallow , although its speed of movement and feeding habits suggest that slow - moving or timid tankmates would probably be out competed . smaller specimens are easy to maintain alongside other species but as they grow become increasingly powerful and domineering when food is available meaning companions must be chosen with care .\nsimilarly - sized cyprinids , characids , catfishes and larger botiid loaches perhaps constitute the best choices . a large mekong - themed community could be an interesting project with options including barbonymus , cyclocheilichthys , osteochilus , and hypsibarbus wetmorei species among many others .\nthough gregarious by nature it is a shoaling rather than schooling species which develops a distinct pecking order and therefore should always be maintained in a group of five or more . if only two or three are present the subdominant fish may be subjected to excessive antagonism whereas solitary specimens tend to act rather nervously .\nh . sabana also has a single body marking but a higher count of circumpeduncular scales ( 30 - 32 ) and relatively few lateral line scales ( 12 - 15 ) compared to its congeners . h . ampalong , h . bimaculata and h . salweenensis can be trickier to separate since they all have two body blotches . h . ampalong possesses more lateral line scales than h . salweenensis ( 28 - 31 vs . 26 - 27 ) whereas in h . bimaculata the body markings are saddle - shaped and the anterior blotch is positioned underneath the posterior half of the dorsal - fin ( below the dorsal - fin origin in the other two ) .\nsmith , h . m . , 1934 - journal of the siam society , natural history supplement 9 ( 3 ) : 287 - 325 contributions to the ichthyology of siam . ix - xix .\nkottelat , m . , 2013 - raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 27 : 1 - 663 the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibiography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries .\nsmith , h . m . , 1934 - journal of the siam society , natural history supplement v . 9 ( no . 3 ) : 287 - 325 contributions to the ichthyology of siam . ix - xix .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\noccurs in slowly moving or standing water habitats ( ref . 12693 ) . encountered also in rapid - running mountain streams of the middle mekong ( ref . 12975 ) . common in impoundments , with small individuals frequenting areas of dense vegetation . feeds mainly on prawns , crabs , and shrimps , along with some insect larvae and some fish as well . breeds at the start of the rainy season and the young are found in seasonally flooded habitats in june . marketed fresh ( ref . 12693 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nfreshwater ; benthopelagic ; potamodromous ( ref . 51243 ) . tropical , preferred ?"]}
{"id": 820, "summary": [{"text": "clivina is a genus of ground beetle native to the palearctic , the nearctic , the near east and north africa .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it contains the following species :", "topic": 26}], "title": "clivina", "paragraphs": ["clivina ( clivina ) euphratica putzeys , 1866 ; ali 1966 : 15 ; balkenohl 2003 : 219 .\nwho or what is clivina extensicollis\nclivina extensicollis is a species of ground beetle in the subfamily scaritinae .\nsource :\nvanek - s * 1984 * larvae of the palaearctic species clivina collaris and clivina fossor ( coleoptera , carabidae , scaritini ) .\nrediscovery of clivina morio dejaen with the description of leucocara , a subgen . n . of clivina latreille ( coleoptera , carabidae , clivinini ) .\narticle : clivina demarzi spec . nov . , a new flightless clivina from the northern territory of australia ( insecta , coleoptera , carabidae , scaritinae )\nclivina dentipes dejaen , 1825 , by original designation : kult 1947 : 31 .\nclivina alabama , habitus ( dorsal view ) ; scale bar = 1 mm .\ndetails - clivina demarzi spec . nov . , a new flightless clivina from the northern territory of australia ( insecta , coleoptera , carabidae , scaritinae ) - biodiversity heritage library\nclivina collaris ( herbst ) actual length : 5 . 0 - 5 . 5 mm\nclivina lobata bonelli , 1813 cf . lobata bonelli , 1813 ? ( teste bulirsch )\nrediscovery of clivina morio dejean with the description of leucocara , a new subgenus of clivina latreille . . . y . bousquet . 2009 . zookeys 25 : 37 - 48 .\nclivina fossor ( linnaeus ) actual length : 5 . 5 . - 6 . 5 mm\nhighland lake blount co . april 2009 t . n . king / paratype clivina alabama bous\ncombination from the genus - name \u201c clivina \u201d and the specific epithet \u201c urophthalma \u201d .\nkult 1947 : 35 examined the type of clivina urophthalma putzeys , 1863 and compared it with his clivina urophthalmoides kult , 1947 ; van emden 1947 : 862\u2013863 did this as well , both authors agreed in the interpretation of clivina urophthalma putzeys , 1863 in comparison to clivina urophthalmoides kult , 1947 . the specimen of clivina urophthalma putzeys , 1863 in kult\u2019s collection fits very well putzeys\u2019 description ( putzeys 1863 : 37\u201338 ) and the interpretation of above mentioned authors .\ndrag images here or select from your computer for mary clivina ste . marie monigal memorial .\ncarabidae , clivinini , clivina : subgenus semiclivina moved to genus rank . - bugguide . net\nshare your memories of clivina d j with future generations . click here to add a memory .\nfigure 2 : clivina alabama , habitus ( dorsal view ) ; scale bar = 1 mm .\nmoved from clivina . id ' d from specimen , now a photo - voucher . thanks lisa .\nclivina ( leucocara ) laevifrons chaudoir , 1842 ; ali 1966 : 15 ; balkenohl 2003 : 220 .\ndescription of a new species of clivina latreille from southeastern united states with a key to nort . . .\ndescription of two new species of clivina latreille ( coleoptera , carabidae , clivinini ) from southeastern united states .\n20 - ix - 30 - xii - 2001 p . skelley , panel bit / holotype clivina choatei bousquet &\ndid clivina d j serve in the military ? commemorate their service . click here to add military service information .\nclivina tanganyikana is a species of ground beetle in the subfamily scaritinae . it was described by kult in 1959 .\nbanerjee - t - c ; nayer - t - k * 1981 * seasonal changes in phenology of clivina helferi putzs .\ni thought you might like to see a memorial for mary clivina ste . marie monigal i found on findagrave . com .\nbilliongraves provides you with rich family data found on the headstone of clivina d j turner . add these records to your family tree !\nthe more we know about clivina d j , the more family history work we can do for you . click here to add a relationship\npollock - d - a * 1991 * range extension and new provincial record for clivina collaris ( herbst ) ( coleoptera : carabidae ) .\nyes sir , i did , and your choice was the single entry above clivina . can ' t get much more blind than that !\nbilliongraves has teamed up with partners to provide confirmed matches to other sources . find more family by viewing other records for clivina d j turner .\ncarabus auratus l . and clivina fossor l . ( coleoptera : carabidae ) : new records of two introduced taxa in the northwest and northeast u . s . a\ncarabus auratus l . and clivina fossor l . ( coleoptera : carabidae ) : new records of two introduced taxa in the northwest and northeast u . s . a\npausch - r - d ; pausch - l - m * 1980 * observations on the biology of the slender seedcorn beetle , clivina impressifrons ( coleoptera : carabidae ) .\narticle : carabus auratus l . and clivina fossor l . ( coleoptera : carabidae ) : new records of two introduced taxa in the northwest and northeast u . s . a\ndesender - k * 1983 * ecological data on clivina fossor ( coleoptera , carabidae ) from a pasture ecosystem . 1 . adult and larval abundance , seasonal and diurnal activity .\ncarabus auratus l . and clivina fossor l . ( coleoptera : carabidae ) : new records of two introduced taxa in the northwest and northeast u . s . a\nthe grave site of clivina d j turner . cemetery : matamata cemetery , location : matamata , waikato , new zealand . birth : not available , death : 13 dec 2005 .\nmilitary headstones often have information about when and where a person served in the military . we can use this information to connect you to other people who served with clivina d j turner\nciao a tutti ! in questo video continuo la presentazione degli insetti della mia collezione e , stavolta , vi mostrer\u00f2 uno scaritino : clivina fossor . i precedenti video di . . .\ncarabus auratus l . and clivina fossor l . ( coleoptera : carabidae ) : new records of two introduced taxa in the northwest and northeast u . s . a [ 1986 ]\nty - jour ti - clivina demarzi spec . nov . , a new flightless clivina from the northern territory of australia ( insecta , coleoptera , carabidae , scaritinae ) t2 - spixiana . vl - 10 ur - urltoken pb - zoologische staatssammlung m\u00fcnchen , cy - m\u00fcnchen : py - 1987 sp - 187 ep - 190 sn - 0341 - 8391 au - baehr , m er -\ndetails - carabus auratus l . and clivina fossor l . ( coleoptera : carabidae ) : new records of two introduced taxa in the northwest and northeast u . s . a - biodiversity heritage library\nbanerjee - t - c ; nayek - t - k ; mondal - a - s * 1981 * the influence of moonlight on the catches of clivina helferi putzeys ( coleoptera : carabidae ) .\nused two keys ; dillon & dillon , and arnett ' s . got it down to scarites > clivinini on both , then to possibly clivina via arnett . how close am i ? ? ? ?\na new species of clivina , c . myops , is described from north carolina ( type locality : raleigh , wake co . ) and a key to the north america species of the fossor group is included .\nvan emden 1947 : 862\u2013863 examined type material of clivina oxyomma putzeys , 1868 , the specimen represented in kult\u2019s collection fits well van emden\u2019s interpretation of this species and the short description of putzeys ( 1868 : 10 ) .\nclivina subgenus semiclivina kult 1947 : 31\u201332 ; reichardt 1977 : 391 ; nichols 1988a : 154 ; 1988b : 91 ; ball 2001 : 136 ; lorenz 2005 : 145 ; baehr 2008 : 23 ; bousquet 2009 : 41 .\nclivina d j turner is buried in the matamata cemetery at the location displayed on the map below . this gps information is only available at billiongraves . our technology can help you find the gravesite and other family members buried nearby .\nthe subgenera of clivina latreille in the western hemisphere , and a revision of subgenus antroforceps barr ( new status ) , with notes about evolutionary aspects ( coleoptera : carabidae : clivinini ) . spec . publ . japan coleopt . soc .\n@ article { bhlpart66793 , title = { clivina demarzi spec . nov . , a new flightless clivina from the northern territory of australia ( insecta , coleoptera , carabidae , scaritinae ) } , journal = { spixiana . } , volume = { 10 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { m\u00fcnchen : zoologische staatssammlung m\u00fcnchen , 1977 - } , author = { baehr , m } , year = { 1987 } , pages = { 187 - - 190 } , }\ncicindela torussa ; cic . viridicollis ; galeria erythrodera ; cymindis sulcicollis ; callieda rubricollis ; clivina limbipennis ; c . bipustullata ; morio monilicornis ; oodes insularis ; bembidion apicale ; acilius circumcriptus ; belonuchus agilis ; philontus varians ; platysthetus exiguus ; lispinus striola ; piestus erythropus ; dicrepidius sagranianus .\ncicindela torussa ; cic . viridicollis ; galeria erythrodera ; cymindis sulcicollis ; callieda rubricollis ; clivina limbipennis ; c . bipustullata ; morio monilicornis ; oodes insularis ; bembidion apicale ; acilius circumcriptus ; belonuchus agilis ; philontus varians ; platysthetus exiguus ; lispinus striola ; piestus erythropus ; dicrepidius sagranianus . - nypl digital collections\nsloane , t . g . 1896 ,\non the australian clivinides ( fam . carabidae ) . revision of the australian species of the genus clivina with the description of a new genus , clivinarchus\n, proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales , vol . 21 , pp . 143 - 257\nthe genera clivinopsis bedel 1895 and torretassoa schatzmayr & koch 1933 have been recorded in iraq for the first time . new records of several species of dyschirius bonelli 1810 dyschiriodes jeannel 1941 ( dyschiriini w . kolbe 1880 ) and clivina latreille 1802 ( clivinini rafinesque 1815 ) are given . the identification key to the species of dyschiriini from iraq is provided .\ngeneral research division , the new york public library . ( 1838 - 1857 ) . cicindela torussa ; cic . viridicollis ; galeria erythrodera ; cymindis sulcicollis ; callieda rubricollis ; clivina limbipennis ; c . bipustullata ; morio monilicornis ; oodes insularis ; bembidion apicale ; acilius circumcriptus ; belonuchus agilis ; philontus varians ; platysthetus exiguus ; lispinus striola ; piestus erythropus ; dicrepidius sagranianus . retrieved from urltoken\nthis is the only species of clivina that occurs in alberta . similar to dyschirius in habitus , but larger . piceous or brown , head and elytra often reddish , antennae and legs bright red . first pro - tarsal segment with dentiform prominence . basal lateral tooth of pro - tibia rudimentary or disappeared . last abdominal sternitemoderately shiny , not dull . length 5 . 5 - 6 . 5 mm .\ngeneral research division , the new york public library .\ncicindela torussa ; cic . viridicollis ; galeria erythrodera ; cymindis sulcicollis ; callieda rubricollis ; clivina limbipennis ; c . bipustullata ; morio monilicornis ; oodes insularis ; bembidion apicale ; acilius circumcriptus ; belonuchus agilis ; philontus varians ; platysthetus exiguus ; lispinus striola ; piestus erythropus ; dicrepidius sagranianus .\nthe new york public library digital collections . 1838 - 1857 . urltoken\ngeneral research division , the new york public library .\ncicindela torussa ; cic . viridicollis ; galeria erythrodera ; cymindis sulcicollis ; callieda rubricollis ; clivina limbipennis ; c . bipustullata ; morio monilicornis ; oodes insularis ; bembidion apicale ; acilius circumcriptus ; belonuchus agilis ; philontus varians ; platysthetus exiguus ; lispinus striola ; piestus erythropus ; dicrepidius sagranianus .\nnew york public library digital collections . accessed july 9 , 2018 . urltoken\nlebia viridis . lebia atrivirens . lebia smaragdula . brachinus cephalotes . b . conformis . b . fumans . b . perplexus . agonum octopunctata . a . cupripenne . anchomenus extensicollis . clivina lineolata . galerita americana . cimindis pilosa . scarites subterraneus . dyschirius globulosus . calathus gregarius . lithographs colored by hand , 1854 . paper size 11 1 / 4 x 8 3 / 4\n( 285 x 225 mm ) . good condition .\nty - jour ti - carabus auratus l . and clivina fossor l . ( coleoptera : carabidae ) : new records of two introduced taxa in the northwest and northeast u . s . a t2 - journal of the new york entomological society . vl - 95 ur - urltoken pb - allen press [ etc . ] , cy - lawrence , kan . : py - 1987 sp - 10 ep - 13 sn - 0028 - 7199 au - nelson , robert e au - reynolds , ross a er -\nthe australian clivinini 1 . the genera ancus putzeys , aspidoglossa putzeys , clivinarchus sloane , platysphyrus sloane , pseudoclivina kult , rhysocara sloane , syleter andrewes , the subgenera paraclivina kult , semiclivina kult , and the atrata - , biplagiata - , brevicornis - , coronata - , coryzoides - , cribrosa - , debilis - , denticollis - , grandiceps - , incerta - , lobata - , obliquata - , obsoleta - , orbitalis - , planiceps - , sulcaticeps - , tranquebarica - , and wurargae - groups of the genus clivina latreille . with a note on a record of the genus parathlibops basilewsky ( scapterini ) ( carabidae , scaritinae ) .\nbaehr , m . 2008 ,\nthe australian clivinini 1 . the genera ancus putzeys , aspidoglossa putzeys , clivinarchus sloane , platysphyrus sloane , pseudoclivina kult , rhysocara sloane , syleter andrews , the subgenera paraclivina kult , semiclivina kult , and the atrata - , biplagiata - , brevicornis - , coronata - , coryzoides - , cribrosa - , debilis - , denticollis - , grandiceps - , incerta - , lobata - , obliquata - , obsoleta - , orbitalis - , planiceps - , sulcaticeps - , tranquebaria - and wurargae - groups of the genus clivina latreille . with a note on a record of the genus parathlibops basilewsky ( scapterini ) ( carabidae , scaritinae )\n, coleoptera , vol . 12 , pp . 1 - 220\nyakushimana nakane , 1963 , cicindela yakushimanus nakane & ishida , 1961 , pterostichus yakushimanus nakane , 1955 , therates yakutiae nilsson & larson , 1990 , agabus yakutiae nilsson , 1990 , hydroporus yamaguchii kasahara , 1991 , platynus [ colpodes ] yamajii kasahara , 1995 , apatrobus yamajii kasahara , 1993 , pterostichus yamaokai ishikawa & kubota , 1994 , carabus yamato nakane , 1953 , carabus [ apotomopterus ] yamato miyatake , 1985 , tenomerga yamatonis habu , 1975 , agonum [ platynus ] yamauchii takami & ishikawa , 1997 , carabus yamauchii u\u00e9no , 1993 , oroblemus yamauchii morita , 1992 , pterostichus yamauchii u\u00e9no , 1982 , yamautidius yamizonis u\u00e9no , 1988 , kurasawatrechus yanfoueri morvan , 1996 , xestagonum [ colpodes ] yangmingensis deuve , 1995 , carabus yangminshanicus font , 1997 , carabus yangpachensis hieke , 1997 , amara yangxianensis deuve , 1999 , carabus yanjinganus imura & mizusawa , 1998 , carabus yanmenensis deuve , 1996 , carabus yanoi jedlicka , 1951 , bembidion yanoi kult , 1951 , clivina yanoi nakane , 1963 , lymnastis yanoi kult , 1949 , reicheiodes [ dyschirius ] yanyuanicus cavazzuti , 1996 , carabus yao imura , 1999 , carabus yaophilus deuve , 1990 , carabus yaraligozi s . battoni , 1982 , carabus yasudai u\u00e9no , 1972 , caecidium yasudai ishikawa , 1971 , carabus [ procrustes ] yasudai u\u00e9no , 1973 , trechus yasuii habu , 1974 , negreum [ platynus ] yasujense morvan , 1973 , bembidion [ nepha ] yasumatsui habu , 1953 , perigona yasumatsui habu , 1955 , synuchus [ calathus ] yatsenkokhmelevskyi iablokoff ? khnzorian , 1960 , duvalius [ trechus ] yatsuana nakane , 1960 , nippononebria yatsuensis straneo , 1955 , pterostichus yatsuensis morita , 1997 , trichotichnus yayeyamensis sat\u00f4 , 1971 , orectochilus yedoensis kan\u00f4 , 1933 , cylindera [ cicindela ]\nsnizek , ( cdw ) . 4247 paratypes : argentina : 2 ex . , argentine republic , villa ana , f . c . s . fe , december 1924 , k . j . hayward , paratype clivina marquardti van emden , ( cdw ) ; 1 ex . , dtto , january 1926 , ( cdw ) ; 1 \u2640 , dtto , december 1925 , at light , ( cdw ) ; 1 \u2642 , argentine , prov . corrientes , zw . lago ibera & santo tome , 26 . 09 . 1997 , ( cdw ) ; 84 \u2642 , 69 \u2640 , 4046 ex , argentina ne , s of corrientes , river parana , 16 . 01 . 2009 , leg . m . snizek , ( cbp , cdw , cbm , nmw ) ; 1 \u2642 , 1 \u2640 , argentina , nc , gran chaco , salada riv . , s of macapilo ( se salta ) , 20 . 01 . 2009 , leg . m . snizek , ( cdw ) ; 3 \u2642 , 3 \u2640 , argentina nw , salta prov . , chicoana riv . , el carril , 28 . 01 . 2009 , leg . m . snizek , ( cdw ) ; 6 \u2642 , 8 \u2640 , argentina nw , salta prov . , andes mts . , n of cachi , 2600 m , 25 . 01 . 2009 , leg . m . snizek , ( cdw ) ; 8 \u2642 , 5 \u2640 , argentina n , s of salta ( 50 km ) , e of coronel moldes , 23 . 01 . 2009 , leg . m . snizek , ( cdw ) ; 1 ex . , s - amerika : argentinia , prov . entre rios / dept colon , 5 . - 10 . ii . 1989 , leg . liebig , ( cbm ) ; brazil : 2 \u2642 , 1 \u2640 , corumba , matt . grosso , cl . urophthalmoides kult , paratypes ( cdw ) ; 3 \u2642 , corumba , matt . grosso , cl . urophthalmoides kult , ( cdw ) ; paraguay : 2 ex . paraguay , s . antonio , ( cdw ) ; 1 \u2642 paraguay , prov . pres hayes , buffalo bill , 23 . 16s 58 . 54w 108 m , 01 . 12 . 2010 sv . bily leg . , ( cdw ) ; 2 ex . , paraguay asuncion , 2 . x . 1991 , ( cbm ) .\nmaintaining and updating the site requires a lot of time and effort . therefore , we are forced to introduce a partially paid access . we expect that the costs will not be too burdensome for you , and your money will help us in the development of interactive keys , and more dynamic updates of the site .\nyour subscription will be activated when payment clears . view the status of your subscription in your account .\nthis project help increase the availability of scientific knowledge worldwide . contributions at any level help sustain our work . thank you for your support .\n\u00a9 carabidae of the world , 2007 - 2018 \u00a9 a team of authors , in in : anichtchenko a . et al . , ( editors ) 2007 - 2018\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\n20 spp . ( of which 3 adventive ) in 4 subgenera in our area , ~ 400 spp . in 9 subgenera worldwide\ncatalogue of geadephaga ( coleoptera , adephaga ) of america , north of mexico bousquet y . 2012 . zookeys 245 : 1\u20131722 .\nillustrated identification guide to adults and larvae of northeastern north american ground beetles ( coleoptera : carabidae ) yves bousquet . 2010 . pensoft publishers .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nclick here to support naturespot by making a donation - small or large - your gift is very much appreciated . thank you .\nsize 6 to 7 mm . this beetle is all dark brown with studded rows or lines running the length of its elytra . it has adaptations for a life underground . the tarsal segments on the front pair of legs are broadened for digging . this enables exploitation other food sources .\ncommon in leicestershire and rutland . there were a total of 178 vc55 records for this species up to march 2015 .\nbiodivlibrary july is # nationalblueberrymonth ! the w . a . cox nursery co . of mississippi ' s 1920s catalog proclaimed # blueberries to\u2026 urltoken\nbiodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p\u2026 urltoken\nthis is a taxonomically difficult genus , probably due for a modern revision . many species are difficult to distinguish ; i have done the best i can on these , and believe the identifications to be correct on the specimens figured . i have provided links to photos of key criteria identified by lindroth for three species .\nprobably throughout much of maine ; on sand and finer inorganic substrates , at margins of rivers as well as still waters ( lakes and ponds ) . this specimen is from sidney ( kennebec county ) . easily distinguished by the divergent raised lines on the first complete abdominal segment . ( usually much darker than this teneral specimen . )\neastern north america , south at least to louisiana ; in nova scotia , new brunswick , and southern quebec and ontario in canada .\nprobably more widely distributed in maine , but thus far known only from specimens collected at skowhegan , along the kennebec river . this is one of the two specimens collected at that site .\na european introduction , known in massachusetts from 1838 , but thus far only documented from widely spaced sites across north america : massachusetts , new hampshire , quebec , ontario , ohio , manitoba , british columbia and washington state .\ntranscontinental in north america , from the canadian maritimes to british columbia and washington state , south at least to georgia .\noften confused with c . fossor , but narrower and flatter , with more parallel - sided elytra . the protibiae of the two species seem to be very reliable for separations . this specimen is from newport ( somerset county ) .\nin southern ontario and southern quebec , in the u . s . west to minnesota and colorado , south to alabama and texas .\nknown in the state from three specimens only , from berwick and belgrade ; this is one of two collected in belgrade ( kennebec county ) . identified by both y . bousquet and g . e . ball . the belgrade record was the first from new england for this species .\ngenerally down the length of the appalachians , from pennsylvania and new york south to alabama , florida and texas .\nbousquet , y . , and a . larochelle , 1993 : catalogue of the geadephaga ( coleoptera : trachypachidae , rhysodidae , carabidae including cicindelinae ) of america north of mexico .\nlindroth , carl h . , 1961 - 1969 : the ground - beetles ( carabidae , excl . cicindelinae ) of canada and alaska , parts 1 - 6 . opuscula entomologica , supplementa xx , xxiv , xxix , xxiii , xxxiv , xxxv ; lund , sweden : entomogiska sallskapet ; xlviii + 1192 pp .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\non apple osx , or right click on the text above to copy the link .\nin habitus , but larger . piceous or brown , head and elytra often reddish , antennae and legs bright red . first pro - tarsal segment with dentiform prominence . basal lateral tooth of pro - tibia rudimentary or disappeared . last abdominal sternitemoderately shiny , not dull . length 5 . 5 - 6 . 5 mm .\nthis introduced species has a rather disjunct distribtion across the northern united states and most of canada . in alberta this species in known only from the edmonton area .\ncomments are published according to our submission guidelines . the eh strickland entomological museum does not necessarily endorse the views expressed .\ndescription : a small ( 5 . 5 - 6 . 5mm ) , black ground beetle with fossorial habits , found commonly under stones , among litter and in grass tussocks on all types of open ground . it has the thorax divided from the abdomen by a waist and the forelegs are modified for digging as in the related dyschirius species .\nworld distribution : a common eurasian boreo - temperate species ( 55 ) found across the whole of europe and siberia to kamchatka , and introduced to north america .\necology : a widespread species of arable cultivation preferring open , loamy habitats , but also common in hedge banks and riparian habitats . there are records for several hill and mountain summits where it occurs on well - drained peaty or gravelly soils to about 800m altitude .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na treatise on the western hemisphere caraboidea ( coleoptera ) : their classification , distributions , and ways of life , volume iii . carabidae - loxomeriformes , melaeniformes\nlocation : new york city inventory number : 92408 price : $ 65 . 00\npublisher : published new york ; d . appleton & co . , boston ; gould , kendall & lincoln .\nplate 18 . from\nnatural history of new york . agriculture of new - york : composition and distribution of the soils and rocks . . . more common and injurious species of insects .\ntext on plate ; e . emmons , jr . del . , lith . of richd . h . pease , albany . text sheet included .\n150 lexington avenue new york , ny 10016 t ( 212 ) 683 - 3950 f n / a info @ urltoken www . urltoken\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : author : c1b72c11 - 229f - 449c - 8763 - 6898c950a3a7\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : author : b32c97f5 - 7d05 - 4887 - 9399 - 236c9c8af75d\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : b60ad52d - 0e19 - 4963 - b42f - c4a3e2047e33\nthe nominotypical subgenus and is known from six specimens collected in northern florida . \ue01ee species is\namong others by its smaller size and wider elytral striae . \ue01ee second species ,\nbarr and is known from two specimens collected in north - central alabama . \ue01ee\nfers among others in the absence of eyes and in having the pronotum and elytra proportionally wider .\n17 species of which three are adventive on this continent . \ue01eese species are arrayed in\ntance across both elytra . \ue01ee standardized body length ( sbl ) is the sum of the lengths\nof head , pronotum , and elytra , as speci\ue01ced above . \ue01ee apparent body length ( abl ) is\nthe length measured from the apex of the mandibles to the apex of the abdomen .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 00e3504b - 3898 - 4ff5 - 81c1 - 83097a64d4e4\nholotype , male , labeled : \u201cflorida : levy co . 4 . 0mi sw archer\nco . 4 . 0mi sw archer on rt . 24 ; 1 - 16 - v - 2001 p . skelley , panel bit\u201d ; 2 specimens\nlabeled \u201cflorida : levy co . 4 . 0mi sw archer 25 - i - 1992 ; heyer , skillman , skel -\nley geomys chambers\u201d ; 2 females labeled \u201cgilchrist co . n . bell , 1mi . s . rt . 340 on\nrt . 129 / 40 ; 4 - xii - 1997 to 20 - iii - 1998 ; p . skelley\nsupraorbital seta near level of posterior edge of eye . eye small , \ue01bat . antennomere 2\nnot acuminate , apex more or less rounded , not quite reaching apex of lobe .\nsion , deep . proepisternum with punctures on anterior half . metepisternum with punc -\nas wide or almost so as corresponding intervals , sides of striae wavy . intervals \ue01bat ;\n\ue01cve setigerous punctures ; intervals 6 and 7 not carinate near base . lateral edge along\nwithout coxal lines ; visible sternites with coarse , shallow but dense punctures laterally .\nhave been in the burrows . \ue01ee holotype and paratypes collected in \u201cpanel bit\u201d were\nfar away from any rodent burrows . \u201cbit\u201d stands for \u201cburrow intercept trap\u201d and was\ncounties which are part of the northern brooksville ridge . \ue01eis is one of many isolated\nand animals . a brief discussion of this area is given in bousquet and skelley ( 2010 ) .\nthe median lobe of the aedeagus did not di\ue01der signi\ue01ccantly between the two species .\nwill key out to couplet 6 . \ue01ee following modi\ue01ccation should be made to incorpo -\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 4937b489 - b81c - 496f - a78f - 5925d330d7f6\nholotype labeled : \u201cal : 0 . 5 mi s highland lake blount co . oct . 22 ,\n2009 t . n . king / blind carabid hl - 10 . 22 . 09 rock 1000\u2019 [ handwritten ] / holotype\ncollection of insects , ottawa , ontario . paratype ( 1 specimen ) labeled : \u201cal : 0 . 5 mi s\nquet . \u201d \ue01ee specimen is deposited in r . michael brattain collection ( lafayette , indiana ) .\npeal suture very shallow . frons without median fovea . eye absent . antennomeres 6\u201310\n6 and 7 carinate through most of length ; interval 3 with \ue01cve setigerous punctures .\npine / hardwood area above a stream following heavy rains ( r . michael brattain , per -\nconvex , and the interval 6 carinate only on anterior fourth . \ue01ee genitalia of the two\nwill key out to couplet 2 . \ue01ee following modi\ue01ccation should be made to incorporate\neyes absent . pronotum slightly transverse ( pl / pw = 0 . 96\u20130 . 98 ) ; elytra pro\neyes present , small . pronotum elongate ( pl / pw = 1 . 11 - 1 . 17 ) ; elytra propor\ncarabidae ) from florida . \ue01ee coleopterists bulletin 64 : 45\u201349 . doi : 10 . 1649 / 0010 - 065x -\ntaxonomic remarks about semiclivina ( kult , 1947 ) new status , with description of uroclivina subgen . n . , and of two new species from south america ( coleoptera , carabidae , scaritinae , clivinini )\nmade keys for the identification of all genera and species - group taxa of cerambycidae in canada and alaska and provided data about distribution , host plants , etc .\nbook review : cat\u00e1logo de los carabidae ( coleoptera ) de la pen\u00ednsula ib\u00e9rica / catalogue of the carabid . . .\nreview of the tribe melolonthini in the southeastern united states ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : melolo . . .\nthis paper reviews the tribe melolonthini ( scarabaeidae , melolonthinae ) in the southeastern united states , primarily in the states of mississippi , alabama , georgia , and northern florida . four new species are described : gronocarus inornatus , hypothyce burnei , polyphylla donaldsoni , and polyphylla woodruffi . one new synonymy is made : gronocarus multispinosus howden is synonymized under . . . [ show full abstract ]\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nfound in sweep net . sweeping through weeds and grass in a open field .\ncontributed by lisa i . on 7 may , 2015 - 10 : 46pm last updated 28 june , 2017 - 2 : 24am\nthis new state record for ky is added to the post - 2012 caraboid registry . thank you brad for alerting us .\ndownload the free billiongraves mobile app for iphone and android before you go to the cemetery and it will guide you right to the gravesite .\nundefined\nwikipedia : the free encyclopedia . wikimedia foundation , inc . 22 july 2004 . web . 10 aug . 2004 . ,\n* by entering your email address you will create a new free billiongraves account .\ndownload the free bg app and you ` ll be able to contribute , and have access to our worldwide headstone database .\n\u00a9 2018 billiongraves holdings , inc . . all rights reserved / terms of use / privacy policy\ndicheirotrichus mannerheimii ( r . f . sahlberg , 1844 ) nt nu bc lb mb qc yt\nlawrence , kan . : allen press [ etc . ] , 1893 - 2007 .\nnative to the palaearctic , adventive in na and now widespread in ne . & nw . na ( nf - on - mn to pa - ? il - wi ; bc - or to sk - wy )\nthe ground beetles ( coleoptera : carabidae ) of the maritime provinces of canada . . . c . g . majka , y . bousquet , & s . westby . 2007 . zootaxa 1590 : 1\u201336 .\nel material contenido en esta p\u00e1gina puede ser libremente utilizado bajo los t\u00e9rminos de la licencia creative commons . cualquier uso de car\u00e1cter comercial debe ser consultado previamente con los autores . este obra est\u00e1 bajo una licencia creative commons atribuci\u00f3n - nocomercial - compartirigual 3 . 0 unported .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nwikinow lets you discover the news you care about , follow the topics that matter to you and share your favourite stories with your friends .\n\u0096f\u0098 - \u0004 ; \u001b\u00bez\u00bd\u00a3\u00b9\u00ab\u00ea6\u00f6\u00be p\u00f4 \u0096 ) \u00e4n\u00fe < - \u00ea\u00b6n\u00e2\u00ec\u00a3\u0089\u0010 $ \u0005\u00874p\u00e6e\u008c\u000e\u00ec\u00926 $ \u0005\u0007\u0001h\u00edk\u00e7\u00e1\u00b1\u0018\u00f1 ( 5\u00e7 5\u0081\u0002 ? \u00e4 ` g ` x\u009e \u008f\u00ea\u00b7\u00a9\u00f1 _ \u0080e\u00a8q @ \u00b7\u00acw\u00f3\u00e8\u00ec\u0001\u00b8\u0080\u0005o\u00fd\u008cq\u0000\u00a3e\u00bd \\ vn\u0004\u00b8\u00e7\u00f6\u009bzx\u009b\u00f3\u00ea - e\u00b8\u00e3\u0018\u00a7\u00fa\u00f4\u00f8\u00d7b + \u00ecc\u0013\u00ef\u0018 \u0016\u008c\u00aa\u009f ! \u0001\u00e9d\u00a6\u00ee\u00e0\u0093wu\u009b @ \u00f1 ! \u0005\u0098\u00d7\u00e8 $ \u000e\u0095\u00b2 ~ \u008a\u00ef / \u00f06\u0094\u000e\u00f3\u001a\u00aa\u00bb\u00fb\u00acf\u0084\u0001 - 4\u001b ^ o\u00e1\u00f8\u00b6n\u00ab\u00f8\u00f6\u00e7q\u00b6\u00f1\u00ee\u00fd7\u00fb\u0095\u00fd\u00b0j { \u0084\u00f4\u00e9\u009ae\u00ea\u00a4x\u00b8\u00fc\u00ed\u00e5\u00ec\u00ea\u00eb\u009f\u0017\u007fg\u00feo1\u008fd\u00f6 \u00ef\u0086 4\u00e6\u00e5\u0097\u00e8\u00ecg\u00e4b & \u0091p\u0014\u0094\u00e7\u00e6j\u00f6\u00e7 ? \u009f\u00b3\u00ef ~ \u00efn\u0092\u0014\u00f6\u00b7\u00b86\u0005\u008f \u00eb { \u008c # \u0002\u00aa ~ w\u00edn\u00ac t ` / \u0013a\u0010\u0014u\u00bb\u00ea\u0013t\u0087\u00e2\u00e1\u00bc\u0081\u0006 { i\u00e6\u00ec\u0000\u00f9 \u00fd\u00bapp\u00e0\u00ed\u009b\u00f5\u00aa\u009a ' \u00e3p \u0019\u00a8 \u0080\u00e5b\u00e7f\u0006 # aur8u\b\u000e\u00f5\u00f6a\u0084 \\ \u0088h\u00b9\u008fa\u00b2\u00a6\u00abd ( \u00a2\u0099 % \u0088p\u008a2k\u00bb\u00f1\u00e1\u00fdg\u00e7\u00efn\u00a1\u0016\u00a5\u00fd\u00fbn\u00ac\u00ab \u00e4\u00be\u00fd\u00ad\u00d7i\u00ee\u00ef\u0086 ` \u00f5\u0010\u00ec\u00fb\n\u00fd\u00bf\u007f ` m % \u00f5\u0097\u00e5\u00f8\u00ec\u00b5\u0090\u00f3\u0013y\u0088\u0006\u00e0 \u00e4 \\\n\u00edqkd\u00f6 > 6\u008d\u00a3 ^ \u00123\u009cvc\u00a7\u0019\nnx1\u009c\u00f6\u00f9\u00f3 t\u0098n\u00f1\u00f3\u00fer\u00e3s ` rnu\u008a\u000f\u00fe\n33\u00ecb\u008c\u00a7\u00ee8\u008a\u00a4\u00bb\u00ac\u00be\u00ed\u008b\u0092\u00aa $ \u00e2 ! \u00e8u\u0095\u0084\u00b9 = \u008ewho ( \u00a2kl\u00ec\u0099\u00fckx \u0000\u00f4\u00bd f\u00fc\u00bd\u0082\u00ff\u00d7\u009b\u00f2i\u00b7\u009d\u00bbz\u0093 \u00ad > ni\u00a3\u00d7u\u00ecip\u00bd\u0099w ~ \u00bb\u0019\u00e3\u0081\u009c\u00a8\u00a1x\u0018 : \u0096 ` % \u00f4\u00abg\u0089 \u0001\u00f2\u00d7\u00f5\u009d\u00fb % \u0082\u0003\u00f7\nce\u008ej , \u0016\u00f5\u008e\u0016u\u00e4\u00eb\u008e\u00af ) \u00b3ob\b % p r\u00fc\u0013\u00e3\u00edv\u00b0 u\u00ea\u00e0v\u008ab \u009f\u00eb\u00edx\u001a\u0019\u00fd + ( \u00e7k\u00e1\u00f4 _ & \u0092\u0019\u0095 w\nm ? \u00f1p ) \u0096me ' \u00f7\u00f7\u00e2\u0014\u00f8m\u00e4\u00be\u00bd . \u00b9\u008eq\u009a\u00e0\u00f4\u0090 ' \u000fa\u00fa\u00e5 \u00b2e\u00acv\u00fd \u00a1 ypk ] b\u0089\u0004 & \u00fb\u00f6\u00e1\u0017k\u00ee \u00ff\u00f6\u00f1\u00a7 $ ' \u00f2\u00ef0\u00df _ \u00f6\u0013\u00fc\u0089k\u00a4\u0012\u00ec ` m : $ s\u00afu\u00e2\u0002\u00f9\u0005kp\u00f4\u00b9\u0018\u0003\u0015\u00ae\u0014\u00f8 \u00ac\u00f0\u001a10\u00a8cs\u00fe\u0092\u00ec\u00bb\u0016 , i\u0018\u00df\u0087\u00bc\u00e3 = \u00bbu\u00eb\u00ea\u00e7\u00bai\u0094b\u00b0\u00e6\u0005e\u00e3\u0000b = \u00b8\u00aa\u00ef\u00e3\u0091\u008c\u00be\u0000q\u00fdl\u00e6\u00e9\u00ed\u00ea\u0098x\u0086\u0095gj\u00f0bx\u00b8\u00f9t . \u00fd\u00aa\u0016\u0098\u0082\u00b0l \u00e2\u0099\u009b7\u00fb\u008e\u0016\u00ea ` hjp\u00e7\u00f9 \u0005 # } io\u0080\u0002l\u00ed\u000e \u009b\u00f8no\u00b0\u00f1\b9\b2\u00fc\u0018 _ \u00bc ~ \u001b ! \u009e\u00ee < \u00fejc % \u00eb\u00ed\u00e65\u00ff\u00f6k\u009f\u00bf | \u0087 ? \u00a32t , \u0004 ` \u0088\u00e9\u00e8\u008c\u00e0s ? i _ \u00ba ! 5 \u008a\u00a5\u0088\u00e2\u0086\u00ab\u00eax\u00fc # \u0094t\u008e\u008e\u00a4 | srx\u00b4\u00f3 ( \u00e3 { \u00ac\u00f9\u00f20\nz\u008f\u00ae\u00a5\u0016 \u00e1\u00a7\u00b55\u0087n\u00bd , \u009dk\u00f2\u00f2\u00eas\u00b6d - \u00e6p ` _ z\u00f9 \u00f7 ( \u008e - 9\b\u009e\u009e\u00ec\u00ba\u00e3 _ \u009br\u00a4\u000f8\u00ac\u0090\u00073\u00ee\u0010\u0096\u009f\u00aa\u0004g\u0095\u0014\u00a9t # \u00e6\u00f8\u00fc5\u00fbd\u00fe\u00e0\u00b6 ` ^ \u00a3\u00e3p\u00fe\u00b6\u00ad\u00e7\u0094\u00a56 ( \u00f58\u008a\u00ff\u00ebdd = \u00a6k\u0016\u00e2\u00fe\u00f2u\u00f5c\u0096\u00ac\u00fd\u00bb\u00e3\u00b8\u00f5 [ \u001b\u00fe 2\u00f2oh\u00a1u\u009c\u00e2\u00edi\u00e8p\u009etn\u00fc\u00f6pb\u008f\u0091 > \u0016o _ g\u00e4\u00ec4\u00fd _ \u0080\u0001\u0000\u000e\u00b393 endstream endobj 14 0 obj < < / length 1423 / filter / flatedecode > > stream h\u0089\u0094wkr\u00fbf\u0010 = \u0001\u00ef\u0080m * \u00f2\n\u00e8\u00fc ? \u00eb8e\u00af\u0092m\u00a2te\u00e1 db\u0012 , \u008a ` \u0001\u00b0\u0018\u00e7 & \u00b9m\u0006\u0098n\u0090\u00ea\u0019h\u00e4\u0086u ( n\u00ef\u00f4\u00e7\u00f5\u00eb\u00d7e\u00e1j\u00e6xq\u00bb\u00fd\u00fc\u00f4 \u008a\u00fb\u00af\u001bv m\u008b\u00fb\u00f3\u00e6\u00fb\u00f8\u00ef\u00bf\u009b\u009fx\u00e9\u009d\u009e\u00ee\u0014 } 3\u00e0\u00b1\u00d7f\u00a2\u00e4l\u008ef\u009c\u009b ; \u00edl\u00b4k\u0088u\u000f\u00dfr\u0099\u00d7\u008f \u00b7\u00ac\u008c6\u00e7\u00ae\u00ee\u00eb\u00e3p\u0013\u00f3 < \u00e8\u00a4m \u0094\u008e\u00e7\ne7\u00fe\u0001 ) \u00fc\u00b6\u00fb } \u00bd ] \u00a85 / \u0095t ` ` \u00e1 ` \u00f7\u00adkh\u00fa \u00e0\u00fb\u00e9\u00e9z\u00ee\u00fce\u00b1 qx\u00ec : 5 : n \\ r - & \u00e1\u00ac\u00af\u009e\u00b3v\u00bc\u0014\u00fc\u0081o\u008e\u0001p\u00eb\u00aei\u0017\n\u00111\u0092\u0095\u00a8 ' \u0011\u008d\u00ede\u0000\u0019\u00fc { b ' \u00f6\u0081b\u00fap\u00f9 : ph\u0019aqg ^ \u00fe\u000e [ \u00ed\u0010\u000fvd7\u009f\u00eb\u00a4q\u0010 = \u00ee\u00884 + v\u0082 ! \u00ed\u00e5 = | \u00abhuv\u00f5\u00a6\u00f0\u00f0\u0017\u0017\u00f3\u00f3hawu\u00d75\u0014 ` \u00f4\u009b\u0092\u0002\u00ee y = 6\u00e3 } \u00b5 ' \u00e7\u00f7p\u00fe0d\u00b0\u0002 @ \u000e ] u\u00ecf '\nh\u00a33\u0002 ! \u00b2\u00af\u00b6k\u00e4 & \u00a1\u00f8k 2\u009e\u00b0z4 t\u0004 ' , \u00a5\u00ba\u00b1\u0016\u00f0 ~ \u007fj\u00f0 | \u00bc\u001a3v\u0005\u00ec\u0088\u0000e\u00b5\u000e3bgf8 = . l\u0091\u00e0 j\u00a6 @ g\u00ac\u0015 - \u00a5\u00eb ' \u00fe\u00e8\u00b4w\u00b9\u0086j\u009e\u00fav\u00b7\u0000 < \u00e1 \u00f6 ] \u0000m\u00ed\u00fbm\u00b5hdzj8 / 5 \u00b3\u00fa } \u00b5\u00a4\u00e8 \u00f0 @ \u00b94 \u008e\u0001\u00f14\u00b4\u0018\u008f\u0010\b\u0019\u00ee\u0011 ` \u008b\u00e4\u0015\u00e6b : \u00f3\u0014tz\u00fb\u00f54\u0098 ' \u009c , \u00e3 * \u0002\u00fbea\u00aa\u008d\u00ef ) \u009e\u0000 \u00b3\u00d7 \u00e9k\u0087u\u00b8 \u00a8\u00d7b\u0005\u00aef\u008e\u008e\u00adq \u00e3\u00a9 : \u00f0j\u0097\u00f8urbf\u0015\u00e0\u00e2v\u00a9e\u0003 ! e \u008e\u00fdm\u00df\u009efav [ \u00e4\u0002 ~ ew\u00fb\u00a8 $ \u00e6\u009b\u00e1\u008dj\u00df\u00e6 ' y @ \u000f\u00a7tpnoc\u00933 : \u00e0g2 : \u00f4\u00f56\u008b\u00e9 \u00f5\u00bc\u00ed\u00f4\u00fd\u0088yg0b\u00e8\u00e0 \u00a3u\u00eal\u0082\u00836\u00a4\u0084\u0002r\u00e5\u00ea\u00ea3 mw0\u008a2\u00b1\u00f4\u00f7 \u009d\u0011\u00f1\u0019\u00192\b \u00e4\u00f0gq \u008f ] \u00fbo\u00f3 \u009a\u009c\u00b2\u00fbwl\u0090i\u00f5 wo \u0088\u00e0\b\u00e2\u00f3\u0082p\u008f ] \u0098\u0011\u00b28 { | \u0014\u0010d9\u00ebw\u0087 \u008e\u008b\u00f7 \u009b\u00b8\u00e0\u00b5c\u0002\u0019\u00e8 n\u00f4\u009e\u00a5\u009a\u0017\u00e5 ] \u009e\u00b9\u00e2\u00fc\u00b7\u00fe : \u00b7\u00ae \u00f4\u00b2tk\u0015 + \u0003q\u0092p\u0018r\u009fw4\u00b6\u00ab\u0004\u0087k\u0097\u0007\u008d\u00e2\u00f2\u00ef\u00a1\u00e9\u00ab \u00b0 = \\ l \u0018\u00e3\u009f [ j ' \u00e8\u009a\u00933\u00f5 \u0017\u000f\u00ff\u001a8\u00fc ) \u00ebkc\u0095px \u000e\u009e | \u00aah\u00e7 ? \u00ee\u00f5\u0091\u00f3\u00b8sw\u00e8 n\u00ee2 \u00df\u00f1 ! | \u009cw $ f8s\u00fb \u00fa\u00a6 _ \u0018\u00a6\u0093 \u00e2\u00ab\u0091\u007f\u00ad\u00a8 \u0082\u00a9\u00f4kd - u\u00ef\u00a3\u0080\u0098\u00970\u00f4m\u0081\u00f9\u00fb\u0081j0\u00ec\u00b6\u009f\u00b3\u00e5 % dw\u00fb - ? a\u00e2\u0092\nrj\u0007\u00fb + \u00900\u00b1\u00b3\u00a8x\u0084\u0083g\u0094\u00e5g\u00b2\u00fc7\u00a6r\u009add @ k\u0014\u00bb\u00a6z\u00ae\u0087d\u00a8\u00ed\u00fb\u00a5\u00b3\u0099 % j\b\u00fc\u00be\u00b2\u0003k\u008a @ $ - \u00e2\n> / font < < / f0 25 0 r / f1 26 0 r / f2 27 0 r / f3 28 0 r / f4 29 0 r / f5 30 0 r / f6 31 0 r / f7 32 0 r / f8 33 0 r / f9 34 0 r / f10 35 0 r / f11 36 0 r > > / procset [ / pdf / text / imageb ] > > endobj 18 0 obj < < / s / javascript / js < 746869732e6c61796f75743d2254776f506167654c656674223b0d0a > > > endobj 19 0 obj < < / length 7978 / filter / flatedecode > > stream x\u009c\u00bd = \u00fbr\u00fcfv _ \u007f ` \u00e5e\u00b9 . k\u00f4w\u0000\u009b\u00fati\u00f4e\u00fe\u00e8\u0096\u0012i\u00e3\u00aady\u0000a\u0090\u0083\u0015\u0006\u0098\u00e5 ` d\u00f3\u00ff\u0091\u00ffm \u00f4\u0005\u0014\u00ee\u00fd\u00e0\u00a8\u00b6\u00ea + \u0092\u009898 } \u00ee\u00d7\u00fe\u00e73 \u00a1 c\u00e8 \u00fe\u0017\u0084d\u0017\u0086\u00f2 _ ; $ \u007f\u00f3 \\ \u00fe\u009f @ w\u00e9\u00e1\u00ea\u00f9\u008b\u00ec\u0010\u0089\u00e8\u00ea\u00bb\u00f2\u00f9\u007f \\ = { \u00f5\u00e1\u0019\u00bd\u00fap = so = \u00fdo\u00f5\u00f0\u008c\u00f1 \u0097 x\u00b4 \u00e47 } \u00b8\u00f3\u008f } \u00f8\u00ed\u0019ft\u00fd\u00f3\u008fg / ~ \u0090\u008f\u00ec\u0002\u00f8\u00e1\u00fe\u0099\u00fc\u00efi > e\u0018\u00bf\u00fa\u0090 < \u00bb ~ \u00fb\u00fa\u00a7 ? _ } \u00f8\u0087\u00f9 \u00fcf\u00ff\u00ec9\u0081\u00ef\u0091\u00efe\u0084\u00fa\u00eb\u00f5\u00df\u00fe\u00fe\u00fd ? \u007fy\u00f9y\u00fe\u008d\u00fe9\u008a\u0002x ^ \u00fe ! \u008c\u00f4\u00e3o ; o\u00fe\u00f0\u00fc\u008cw\u0098g\u00fa\u009b ) \u00e7\u00ea\u00f1\u00f77 ? } \u00ff\u00ebm\u00e7\u00f9\u00ef\u009b\u009f\u00bf\u00ff0 } \u0006 $ v\u0082\u00a9c ` d\u00f2\u0010\u00e4n < 9\u00048q\u00ac ^ \u00f5o \u00e8\u00bb\u00e6g\u00b2\u0093\u009f78 \u00eae\u00bf\u001by\u0092\u00f1\u00b0\u0001h\u00f0\u008e ` \u0001\u0000\u009f\u0003\u00a5\u0003\u00f5\u00a9\u00bf\u00bf\u00ef\u009e\u00f2 { \u00fd3 \u00a3\u00ee\u008b\u00ea\u00efaj\u00f4\u00e7 ^ \u00fe\u00f2\u00f9\u0098\u0002\u00efv\u0004 \u00fa\b1 # \u00f3o\u0086\u0002\u00a4 e\u00e6k _ \u008d\u00a1\u001b2x4\u0012\u00bb\u0000\u0088 ? thp\u0014\u009a\u001b ~ ~ y\u00f3\u00e6\u00fb . 7\u00fc\u00b2\u0088f \\ 2 . 0 , \u00f0\u008c\u00b0 \u009a\u0089\u000e\u00e3j , \u0004s\u0087 * : \u0090\u0083e\u00901\u0097\u00df\u0000\nc % \u00e7\u00f6d & \u00fc\u00f1\u0080\u008d # \u00ee\u001a @ ^ \u00bez3\u00e8\u00a9x\u0017 2\u00ebv\u00d7wx\u00f1\u009b \u00a2\u00f8\u001ak\u0001\u009c\u0092m\u00fc\u0093m + \u0099\u00f9\u00a9n @ \u0081\u00a4\u0005\u0002 > y } u\u00fe\u009b _ \u0011\u0012\u00a8 _ = t\u00e5\u00b9\u00b8k ~ - \u00e9\u0012\u0011\u00f5\u00fb\u00fb4\u00ad\u00f3\u00f4\u00a41 % ! w\u00bfn\u00ea\nfunded in part by award deb0447694 from the national science foundation to m . caterino .\ncontent of database e : \\ www _ da ~ 1 \\ portal \\ carab _ zr . dbf ( project\ncoleoptera\n) - part 2\nfuester - r - w ; taylor - p - b * 1996 * differential mortality in male and female gypsy moth ( lepidoptera : lymantriidae ) pupae by invertebrate natural enemies and other factors .\nfrisch - b ; fleissner - g ; fleissner - g ; brandes - c ; hall - j - c * 1996 * staining in the brain of pachymorpha sexguttata mediated by an antibody against a drosophila clock - gene product : labeling of cells with possible importance for the beetle ' s circadian rhythms .\nfranzen - m * 1995 * new records of carabus irregularis fabricius , 1792 from rhineland - palatinate ( coleoptera : carabidae ) .\nfinch - s ; edmonds - g - h * 1994 * undersowing cabbage crops with clover - the effects on pest insects , ground beetles and crop yield .\nfinch - s * 1996 * effect of beetle size on predation of cabbage root fly eggs by ground beetles .\nfernandez - cortes - j - a * 1996 * a new specie [ species ] of laemostenus ( antisphodrus schaufuss , 1865 ) from andalusia ( spain ) ( coleoptera : carabidae ) .\nfedorenko - d - n * 1996 * reclassification of world dyschiriini , with a revision of the palearctic fauna ( coleoptera , carabidae ) .\nfavilli - l * 1996 * notes on the predators of cephalota circumdata leonschaeferi ( cassola ) in the faunistic oasis of the orbetello ' s lagoon ( grosseto , tuscany ) ( coleoptera , cicindelidae ) .\nfasel - p ; fuhrmann - m * 1994 * [ the carabidae ( coleoptera ) fauna from a south westphalian heathland in the nature reserve\nkerstall\nnear bad berleburg - hemschlar . ]\nfarkac - j ; plutenko - a * 1996 * new species of pterostichus from the far east of russia ( coleoptera : carabidae ) .\nfadl - a ; purvis - g ; towey - k * 1996 * the effect of time of soil cultivation on the incidence of pterostichus melanarius ( illig . ) ( coleoptera : carabidae ) in arable land in ireland .\nfabbri - r - a * 1996 * contribution to the knowledge of the carabids from emilia - romagna .\neyre - m - d ; lott - d - a ; garside - a * 1996 * assessing the potential for environmental monitoring using ground beetles ( coleoptera : carabidae ) with riverside and scottish data .\neversham - b - c ; roy - d - b ; telfer - m - g * 1996 * urban , industrial and other manmade sites as analogues of natural habitats for carabidae .\netonti - m * 1995 * typhlotrechus bilimeki droveniki subsp . nov . from bosnia ( coleoptera : carabidae , trechinae ) .\nerwin - t - l * 1996 * arboreal beetles of neotropical forests : agra fabricius , the cayennensis complex ( coleoptera : carabidae : lebiini : calleidina ) .\nernsting - g ; isaaks - j - a * 1997 * effects of temperature and season on egg size , hatchling size and adult size in notiophilus biguttatus .\nerjiomin - p - k * 1996 * a new ground beetle species of the genus pterostichus ( coleoptera , carabidae ) from tuva and mongolia .\nekbom - b ; borg - a * 1993 * predators , meligethes and phyllotreta in unsprayed spring oilseed rape .\nduffield - s - j ; jepson - p - c ; wratten - s - d ; sotherton - n - w * 1996 * spatial changes in invertebrate predation rate in winter wheat following treatment with dimethoate .\ndrovenik - b ; steiner - s * 1995 * contribution to the knowledge of the beetle fauna of gotenica near kocevje ( slovenia ) and surroundings ( coleoptera ) .\ndrovenik - b * 1996 * atranus collaris ( menetries , 1832 ) in slovenia ( coleoptera : carabidae ) .\ndrovenik - b * 1995 * some rare or new species to the beetle fauna of slovenia ( coleoptera ) .\ndrovenik - b * 1994 * contribution to the knowledge of the fauna of the genus bembidion latreille , 1802 of slovenia ( coleoptera : carabidae ) .\ndownie - n - m ; arnett - r - h - jr * 1996 * the beetles of northeastern north america . volume 1 : introduction ; suborders archostemata , adephaga , and polyphaga , thru superfamily cantharoidea .\ndouglas - m - e * 1996 * in memoriam mont a . cazier ( 1911 - 1995 ) .\ndostal - a * 1996 * [ elaphrus weissi sp . n . a new carabid species from greece ( coleoptera : carabidae ) . ]\ndostal - a * 1996 * [ remarks on the systematic position of the genus distichus motschulsky , 1857 and related genera ( coleoptera : carabidae , scaritini ) . ]\ndornieden - k ; suhrig - a ; doring - c ; judas - m * 1996 * [ an analysis of regional distribution patterns of ground beetles and spiders . ]\ndonabauer - m * 1996 * [ description of two philippine colliurinae ( coleoptera : carabidae ) . ]\ndoberski - j ; lyle - l * 1997 * a study of the ground beetles ( carabidae ) of corsican pine plantations in thetford forest , eastern england .\ndigweed - s - c ; currie - c - r ; carcamo - h - a ; spence - j - r * 1995 * digging out the ' digging - in effect ' of pitfall traps : influences of depletion and disturbance on catches of ground beetles ( coleoptera : carabidae ) .\ndieterich - m * 1996 * methods and preliminary results from a study on the habitat function of the gravel bar interior in alluvial floodplains .\ndeuve - t ; kalab - j * 1996 * [ the description of a new pagocarabus from qinghai ( coleoptera , carabidae ) . ]\ndeuve - t * 1996 * description of three anophtalmic cave - dwelling trechinae from a karst in hunan , china ( coleoptera , trechidae ) .\ndeuve - t * 1996 * description of a new troglobitic coleoptera of the genus eustra from a karst in south vietnam ( paussidae ) .\ndeuve - t * 1996 * description of a new cratocephalus from the fergana range ( col . carabidae ) .\ndeuve - t * 1996 * new trechus from tibet and adjacent lands ( coleoptera , trechidae ) .\ndeuve - t * 1996 * [ description of trechus xiwuensis n . sp . , from north west sichuan ( col . , trechidae ) . ]\ndeuve - t * 1996 * [ contribution to the knowledge of the genera carabus l . and cychrus f . in china . ( coleoptera , carabidae ) . ]\ndeuve - t * 1996 * [ contribution to the knowledge of the genera carabus l . , cychrus f . and cychropsis boileau of asia ( coleoptera , carabidae ) . ]\ndeuve - t * 1997 * [ new carabus and cychrus from sichuan and yunnan , china ( coleoptera , carabidae . ) ] .\ndettner - k ; scheuerlein - a ; fabian - p ; schulz - s ; francke - w * 1996 * chemical defense of giant springtail tetrodontophora bielanensis ( waga ) ( insecta : collembola ) .\ndesender - k ; baert - l * 1996 * easter island revisited : carabid beetles ( coleoptera : carabidae ) .\ndesender - k - r - c * 1996 * diversity and dynamics of coastal dune carabids .\nden - nijs - l - j - m - f ; lock - c - a - m ; noorlander - j ; booij - c - j - h * 1996 * search for quality parameters to estimate the condition of pterostichus cupreus ( col , carabidae ) in view of population dynamic modelling .\nden - boer - p - j ; van - dijk - t - s * 1996 * life - history patterns among carabid species .\nde - vries - h - h ; den - boer - p - j ; van - dijk - t - s * 1996 * ground beetle species in heathland fragments in relation to survival , dispersal , and habitat preference .\nde - vries - h - h * 1996 * metapopulation structure of pterostichus lepidus and olisthopus rotundatus on heathland in the netherlands : the results from transplant experiments .\nde - la - rua - p ; serrano - j ; hewitt - g - m ; galian - j * 1996 * physical mapping of rdna genes in the ground beetle carabus and related genera ( carabidae : coleoptera ) .\ndavid - b ; dommergues - j - l ; magniez - jannin - f * 1996 * morphospace exploration as exemplified by ground beetles ( coleoptera ) of north - east france .\ndaffner - h * 1996 * [ revision of anophthalmus species and races with long and dense hair covering of the body ( coleoptera , carabidae , trechinae ) . ]\ncurrie - c - r ; spence - j - r ; niemela - j * 1996 * competition , cannibalism and intraguild predation among ground beetles ( coleoptera : carabidae ) : a laboratory study .\ncurrie - c - r ; digweed - s - c * 1996 * effect of substrate depth on predation of larval pterostichus adstrictus eschscholtz by adults of p . melanarius ( illiger ) ( coleoptera : carabidae ) .\ncolombini - i ; chelazzi - l * 1996 * environmental factors influencing the surface activity of eurynebria complanata ( coleoptera , carabidae ) .\ncoll - m - t ; heneghan - l ; bolger - t * 1995 * carabidae fauna in two irish conifer stands : a comparison with those of some other european forests .\ncilgi - t ; wratten - s - d ; robertson - j - l ; turner - d - e ; holland - j - m ; frampton - g - k * 1996 * residual toxicities of three insecticides to four species ( coleoptera : carabidae ) of arthropod predator .\ncilgi - t ; holland - j - m ; turner - d - e ; frampton - g - k ; wratten - s - d ; jepson - p - c * 1994 * pesticide drift and the potential toxicity to beneficial carabids .\nchistyakov - y - a [ ed . ] * 1992 * [ insects from khingan nature reserve . part 1 . ]\nchen - z - z ; willson - h - r * 1997 * species composition and seasonal distribution of carabids ( coleoptera : carabidae ) in an ohio soybean field .\nchavanon - g ; zitouni - n ; bouraada - k * 1995 * scarites striatus dejean ( scaritidae ) et geotrogus araneipes fairmaire , two coleoptera , new for the fauna of morocco .\nchaabane - k ; loreau - m ; josens - g * 1996 * individual and population energy budgets of abax ater ( coleoptera , carabidae ) .\ncavazzuti - p * 1997 * [ description of cychrus ( kryptocychrus ) loccai , new subgenus and new species of the cychrini tribe endemic to china ( coleoptera , carabidae ) . ]\ncavazzuti - p * 1996 * [ fifth contribution to the knowledge of carabus from china . c . ( apotomopterus ) of the delavayi - patroclus group , with description of three new subspecies . ( coleoptera , carabidae ) . ]\ncavazzuti - p * 1996 * [ new carabini from china 1 . descriptions of new cychropsis and cychrus from sichuan and yunnan . ( coleoptera , carabidae ) . ]\ncavazzuti - p * 1996 * [ fourth contribution to the knowledge of carabus l . from china . new species and subspecies of the subgenus archaeocarabus semenov , rhigocarabus reitter and pseudocoptolabrus reitter , from southern sichuan . ( coleoptera , carabidae ) . ]\ncavazzuti - p * 1997 * [ description of new cychrus f . and carabus l . from the provinces of sichuan , yunnan and guizhou , southern china ( coleoptera , carabidae ) . ]\ncassola - f ; werner - k * 1996 * additional data on the tiger beetle fauna of new guinea : results of the explorations of a . riedel in new guinea 1990 - 1994 ( coleoptera : cicindelidae ) .\ncassola - f ; rihane - a * 1996 * notes on the tiger beetle fauna of the sultanate of oman ( coleoptera : cicindelidae ) .\ncassola - f ; probst - j * 1995 * a new cylindera species ( subgenus leptinomera rivalier ) from brunei , northern borneo ( coleoptera : cicindelidae ) .\ncassola - f ; kippenhan - m - g * 1997 * a new species of oxygonia from ecuador ( coleoptera : cicindelidae ) .\ncassola - f * 1996 * studies on tiger beetles . 84 . additions to the tiger beetle fauna of sulawesi , indonesia ( coleoptera : cicindelidae ) .\ncassola - f * 1995 * studies on tiger beetles . 76 . on some new or poorly known african species ( coleoptera , cicindelidae ) .\ncasale - a ; ledoux - g * 1996 * new or poorly known sphodrids from afghanistan ( coleoptera , carabidae , sphodrina ) .\ncasale - a ; giachino - p - m ; vailati - d ; vigna - taglianti - a * 1996 * present knowledge and biogeography of the genus duvalius in greece , with description of duvalius ( euduvalius ) ruffoanus n . sp . ( coleoptera , carabidae , trechinae ) .\ncardenas - talaveron - a - m ; bach - de - roca - c * 1993 * description of the larval stadia of calathus granatensis vuillefroy , 1866 ( col . carabidae ) .\ncardenas - a - m ; hidalgo - j - m * 1996 * the reproductive biology and larval development of carabus ( hadrocarabus ) lusitanicus ( fabricius , 1801 ) ( coleoptera : carabidae ) .\ncaoduro - g * 1995 * first observations of the behaviour in captivity of two troglobitic species from monti lessini , verona : italaphaenops dimaioi ghidini ( coleoptera , carabidae ) and serradium hirsutipes verhoeff ( large form ; strasser , 1981 ) ( diplopoda , polydesmidae ) .\ncammaerts - r ; cammaerts - m - c * 1992 * response of the myrmecophilous beetle edaphopaussus favieri ( carabidae , paussinae ) to 3 - ethyl - 2 , 5 - dimethylpyrazine , the only known component of its host trail pheromone .\ncallot - h - j ; schott - c * 1993 * [ catalogue and atlas of the coleoptera of alsace . volume 5 - carabidae . ]\nbutterfield - j * 1996 * carabid life - cycle strategies and climate change : a study on an altitude transect .\nbutovsky - r - o * 1995 * the motorway influence on mass structure of carabid communities ( coleoptera , carabidae ) in forest ecosystems of moscow region .\nbulokhova - n - a * 1995 * species composition and structure of dominance of carabids ( coleoptera , carabidae ) in meadow ecosystems of southwestern russia ( bryansk province ) .\nbulirsch - p * 1996 * species of the genus dyschirius ( coleoptera : carabidae ) from turkey .\nbruneau - de - mire - p * 1995 * [ new data on stomis benoiti jeannel 1953 ( col . carabidae ) and speophyes lucidulus delarouzee 1860 ( col . catopidae ) . ]\nbruneau - de - mire - p * 1995 * [ amara ( bradytus ) majuscula chaudoir : an expanding asian species newly arrived in france ( coleoptera , carabidae ) . ]\nbroder - j * 1994 * anophthalmus daffneri sp . n . from slovenia ( coleoptera : carabidae , trechinae ) .\nbrezina - b ; imura - y * 1997 * a new subgenus and two new species of carabus ( s . lat . ) ( coleoptera , carabidae ) from shaanxi and sichuan , china .\nbrezina - b * 1996 * a new carabus - species and subspecies from the mountainous regions of gansu and sichuan , central china ( coleoptera , carabidae ) .\nbraunert - c ; coulon - j * 1996 * progress in the knowledge of carabid beetles ( coleoptera carabidae and cicindelidae ) of the nature reserve of la truchere - ratenelle ( france , department of saone - et - loire ) .\nbraunert - c * 1996 * [ faunistics , ecology and endangerment of tiger beetles ( coleoptera , cicindelidae ) of luxembourg . ]\nbrandstetter - c - m ; kapp - a ; schabel - f * 1993 * [ the carabids from vorarlberg and liechtenstein . 1 . part . ( carabidae ) . ]\nbrandstetter - c - m ; kapp - a * 1996 * [ interesting beetle records from vorarlberg ( austria ) and the principality of liechtenstein ( 2 ) . ( coleoptera ) . ]\nbracht - jorgensen - h ; toft - s * 1997 * role of granivory and insectivory in the life cycle of the carabid beetle amara similata .\nbousquet - y ; smetana - a * 1995 * a review of the tribe opisthiini ( coleoptera : carabidae ) .\nbousquet - y * 1996 * [ description of two new north american species of the genus dyschirius bonelli ( coleoptera : carabidae : clivinini ) . ]\nbousquet - y * 1996 * taxonomic revision of nearctic , mexican , and west indian oodini ( coleoptera : carabidae ) .\nborges - p - a - v * 1996 * seasonal activity of a ground - beetle ( coleoptera : carabidae ) assemblage in the remnant of a salty - lake from terceira ( azores ) .\nbognolo - m ; etonti - m * 1996 * anophthalmus driolii n . sp . from southwestern slovenija ( coleoptera : carabidae , trechinae ) .\nbocher - j * 1995 * palaeoentomology of the kap kobenhavn formation , a plio - pleistocene sequence in peary land , north greenland .\nblake - s ; foster - g - n ; fisher - g - e - j ; ligertwood - g - l * 1996 * effects of management practices on the carabid faunas of newly established wildflower meadows in southern scotland .\nbisio - l * 1996 * results of two years researches on the subcortical dromiini in some localities of piedmont .\nbernhardt - k - g * 1995 * seed burial by soil burrowing beetles .\nbelousov - i - a ; kabak - i - i * 1996 * to the knowledge of the asiatic species of the genus trechus clairville ( insecta : coleoptera : carabidae ) .\nbelousov - i - a ; kabak - i - i * 1994 * two new subspecies of ground - beetle carabus eous a . mor . ( coleoptera , carabidae ) .\nbelousov - i - a ; kabak - i - i * 1994 * to the knowledge of ground - beetles of the genus trechus clairv . ( coleoptera , carabidae ) from the sayan - altay mountains system .\nbell - r - t ; bell - j - r * 1995 * the rhysodini ( insecta : coleoptera : carabidae ) of cuba .\nbarr - t - c - jr * 1995 * notes on some anillines ( coleoptera , bembidiinae ) from southeastern united states , with descriptions of a new genus and two new species .\nball - g - e ; kavanaugh - d - h ; moore - b - p * 1995 * sugimotoa parallela habu ( coleoptera , lebiini ) : redescription , geographical distribution , and relationships based on cladistic analysis of adult structural features .\nball - g - e * 1996 * vignettes of the history of neotropical carabidology .\nbalkenohl - m * 1996 * new clivinini from the oriental region ( coleoptera : carabidae , scaritinae ) .\nbalanca - g ; de - visscher - m - n * 1997 * impacts on nontarget insects of a new insecticide compound used against the desert locust ( schistocerca gregaria ( forskal 1775 ) ) .\nbaker - g - t ; monroe - w - a * 1995 * sensory receptors on the adult labial and maxillary palpi and galea of cicindela sexguttata ( coleoptera : cicindelidae ) .\nbaehr - m * 1997 * revision of the pseudomorphinae of the australian region . 2 . the genera pseudomorpha kirby , adelotopus hope , cainogenion notman , paussotropus waterhouse , and cryptocephalomorpha ritsema . taxonomy , phylogeny , zoogeography . ( insecta , coleoptera , carabidae )"]}
{"id": 831, "summary": [{"text": "cheilosia pagana is a holarctic species of hoverfly .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "like most cheilosia it is black , and because of this may often be overlooked as a hoverfly .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "one identifying feature is a large red to orange 3rd antennal segment . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "cheilosia pagana", "paragraphs": ["kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\npunasarvikeilanen\nto\ncheilosia pagana ( meigen , 1822 )\n.\ni think the first picture is not c . proxima but female c . pagana .\ncheilosia 2 description for pagana group\neyes bare , legs partly yellow , face without erect hairs\nseems to fit . the large orange antennae suggest pagana or soror . difficult to tell if the aristae are\ndensely pubescent at base\nor bare from this photo so can ' t take this any further . again i welcome any comments . sandy\nnamngivning : cheilosia pagana ( meigen , 1822 ) . originalbeskrivning : syrphus paganus . systematische beschreibung 3 : 292 . synonymer : eristalis maculicornis bonsdorff , 1861 , eristalis magnicornis bonsdorff , 1861 . etymologi : pagana fem . av paganus = lantlig , by - ; pagus ( lat . ) = by ; suffixet - anus ( lat . ) . uttal : [ tjejl\u00f3sia pag\u00e1na ]\nthanks brian after reading some more literature it seems soror doesn ' t fly until june so it ' s more than likely c . pagana . cheers , sandy\ncheilosia pagana ( meigen , 1822 ) : speight ( 2013 ) [ statut pour la france m\u00e9tropolitaine ] speight , m . c . d . 2013 . species accounts of european syrphidae ( diptera ) , 2013 . syrph the net , the database of european syrphidae , 72 : 316 pp . , syrph the net publications , dublin . [ urltoken ]\none of the smallest cheilosia . the female has an exceptionally large , orange coloured , third antennal segment . the males often have strong reflective grey triangles on the sides of the abdomen . they have bare arista and the female has an entirely black scutellum .\na checklist of the syrphidae ( diptera ) recorded from finland . three species of syrphidae , platycheirus modestus ide , 1926 , cheilosia barovskii ( stackelberg , 1930 ) and mallota tricolor loew , 1871 , are published as new to the finnish fauna . platycheirus modestus is also new to the palaearctic .\ncheilosia barovskii ( stackelberg , 1930 ) . a previously unpublished record . five females were collected in 30 . 5 . 1937 from ta : s\u00e4\u00e4ksm\u00e4ki ( leg . k . e . kivirikko ) and one female in 20 . 5 . 2013 from n : sipoo ( leg . t . j\u00e4rvel\u00e4inen ) .\nit is probably c . pagana . at the moment i have been capturing quite a few . from a picture you will not be able to see if the eyes are hairy ( for the similar c . bergenstammi ) , or whether there is pubescence at the base of the arista ( c . soror ) . both of these species are usually seen a little later . even with a microscope i have to look carefully at eyes and arista as it is only with the right light and background that it is obvious .\nclick here to support naturespot by making a donation - small or large - your gift is very much appreciated . thank you .\nvaried habitats both woodland and open often on early flowering plants such as blackthorn , and on umbellifers .\nlarvae have been found in the roots of cow parsley but may also use other umbellifers .\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there is 1 barcode sequence available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is the sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nit is black , and because of this may often be overlooked as a hoverfly . it is little recorded , and is considered scarce throughout some parts of its range .\nare known to inhabit semi - liquid , decaying tissue of the roots of plants . there is a rearing record from decaying roots of\nstubbs , alan e . ; falk , steven j . ( 1983 ) . british hoverflies : an illustrated identification guide . british entomological & natural history society . pp . 253 , xvpp .\nvan veen , m . p . ( 2004 ) . hoverflies of northwest europe , identification keys to the syrphidae ( hardback ) . utrecht : knnv publishing . p . 254 . isbn 90 - 5011 - 199 - 8 .\nhtml public ' - / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en ' ' urltoken '\nlast update : 27 . 09 . 04 09 : 03 added by : gerard pennards dimensions : 400 x 300 pixels filesize : 37 . 33kb comments : 0 rating : none number of views : 2475\nusername password not a member yet ? click here to register . forgotten your password ? request a new one here .\ndue to fact this site has functionality making use of your email address , any registration using a temporary email address will be rejected .\nhelp again can any1 give me the full title of kulon . allat . kozlem thx\ncopyright \u00a9 2004 - 2018 paul beuk , images in diptera gallery and forum of their respective owners powered by php - fusion copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 by nick jones . released as free software without warranties under gnu affero gpl v3 . simpleasthat\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhundk\u00e4xblomfluga f\u00f6rekommer \u00f6ver hela landet och \u00e4r ( \u00e5tminstone i svealand ) p\u00e5 m\u00e5nga h\u00e5ll mycket vanlig . i danmark , norge och finland f\u00f6rekommer den ocks\u00e5 allm\u00e4nt , men saknas ovanf\u00f6r tr\u00e4dgr\u00e4nsen . den f\u00f6rekommer vidare i hela \u00f6vriga europa samt \u00f6sterut genom sibirien och mongoliet till stilla havet ( inklusive kamtjatka och \u00f6n sachalin ) liksom i japan och nordamerika . s\u00f6derut \u00e4r den ocks\u00e5 k\u00e4nd fr\u00e5n turkiet , kaukasus och kazakstan .\nde skattade v\u00e4rdena som bed\u00f6mningen baserar sig p\u00e5 ligger alla inom intervallet f\u00f6r kategorin livskraftig ( lc ) .\nhundk\u00e4xblomfluga f\u00f6rekommer p\u00e5 \u00f6ppna marker i anslutning till l\u00f6vskog ; i bryn och gl\u00e4ntor , p\u00e5 \u00e4ngar , i hagmarker och tr\u00e4dg\u00e5rdar samt l\u00e4ngs v\u00e4grenar . flugorna sitter i vegetationen . hanarna sv\u00e4var ( ofta i antal ) ett par meter upp och s\u00e4tter sig vid kyligare v\u00e4derlek ofta f\u00f6r att vila p\u00e5 solbelysta tr\u00e4dstammar . i sverige p\u00e5tr\u00e4ffas arten framf\u00f6r allt i samband med blombes\u00f6k . den har setts bes\u00f6ka minst ett 40 - tal olika v\u00e4xter , fr\u00e4mst flockblommiga och korgblommiga v\u00e4xter ( familjerna apiaceae och asteraceae ) men ocks\u00e5 t . ex . l\u00f6nn acer platanoides , ramsl\u00f6k allium ursinum , sommargyllen barbarea vulgaris , blodrot potentilla erecta , prunusar prunus spp . , sm\u00f6rblommor ranunculus spp . och viden salix spp . i sverige p\u00e5tr\u00e4ffas flugan fr\u00e5n april till september , i s\u00f6dra europa redan fr\u00e5n mitten av mars . larven har hittats i r\u00f6tter av hundk\u00e4x anthriscus sylvestris och str\u00e4tta angelica sylvestris .\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\nnationalnyckeln till sveriges flora och fauna . tv\u00e5vingar : blomflugor : eristalinae & microdontinae . diptera : syrphidae : eristalinae & microdontinae . 2009 . artdatabanken , slu , uppsala .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\ncorresponds to a report on the basis of at least one observation proved within a period of 10 years ( 20 years for little - known invertebrates ) preceding the year and no presumption of extinction since obtaining the last data nor doubt on reproductive and implemented nature of this population . for migratory species , the presence indicated concerns areas of reproduction .\nthe last reliable sighting is older than 10 years compared to the reference date , no recent specific research and no presumption of extinction from that date [ vertebrates , invertebrates and plants well studied ( rhopalocera , grasshoppers , dragonflies . . . ) ] ;\nthe last reliable observation being older than 20 years , no recent specific research and no presumption of extinction from that date [ poorly known taxa : fungus , many invertebrates . . . ] .\nthis point covers the absence , more difficult by nature to demonstrate than presence . this status is based on one or more of the following criteria :\nthis status must be assigned to a department in which the presence of the species is casual .\nparticular case of absence due to a proven extinction less than a half century ago ( older disappearances are treated as\nno probable or definite\n) .\nin the state of knowledge , we can not comment on the presence or absence in the current department . this is the default status when not comprised in one of the previous categories or whenever there is doubt .\nwarning : the data available reflects the progression status of knowledge or the availability of the inventories . it should never be considered as comprehensive .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nright now the scientific names on some species do not show on the site - we are working to fix this problem which should be solved after the back - up this morning .\n. the female has an exceptionally large , orange coloured , third antennal segment . the males often have strong reflective grey triangles on the sides of the abdomen . they have bare arista and eyes and the female has an entirely black scutellum .\nit can be seen from march to october peaking may / june and august .\nthe larvae inhabit semi - liquid , decaying tissue in the roots of plants . for example , there is a rearing record from decaying roots of\nvaried habitats both woodland and open . adults are usually found on flowers , often white umbells such as\nball s . g . and morris r . k . a . , 2000 .\nprovisional atlas of british hoverflies ( diptera , syrphidae ) , 167 pages . isbn 1 870393 54 6 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( cc by 4 . 0 ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nadults of syrphidae ( hoverflies or flower flies ) are mimics of bees , bumblebees , wasps and sawflies . syrphid flies are active visitors of flowers for nectar and pollen and therefore they are important pollinators . the syrphid adults are excellent fliers and often seen hovering .\nthe finnish hoverfly species were last listed by kerppola ( 2013 ) with additions and omissions of species and with some nomenclature changes .\nidentification : the finnish syrphid fauna is best covered for identification by haarto and kerppola ( 2007a ) and bartsch ( 2009 ) although some species are missing in these books . most of the species can be identified by external characters but some species require male genitalic characters for reliable determination .\nneoascia annexa ( m\u00fcller , 1776 ) was included in the finnish species list in fauna europaea ( speight 2004 ) . authors have not found any specimens or publications that reliably show neoascia annexa to belong in the finnish fauna .\nparagus punctulatus ( zetterstedt , 1838 ) was included in the finnish species list in fauna europaea ( speight 2004 ) . authors have not found any specimens or publications that reliably show parasyrphus punctulatus to belong in the finnish fauna .\nparasyrphus relictus ( zetterstedt , 1838 ) : the status of parasyrphus relictus is unclear and the type material is lost ( speight 2013 ) . parasyrphus relictus was excluded from finnish checklist by haarto and kerppola ( 2007b ) .\nsphaerophoria sp . b was discovered as a deformed specimen of sphaerophoria laurae goeldlin , 1989 .\ntemnostoma meridionale ( krivosheina & mamayev , 1962 ) was included in the finnish species list in fauna europaea ( speight 2004 ) . authors have not found any specimens or publications that reliably show temnostoma meridionale to belong in the finnish fauna .\nmelanostoma mellinum ( linnaeus , 1758 ) and melanostoma dubium ( zetterstedt , 1837 ) form a species complex and it is very doubtful whether present species concepts provide an accurate reflection of the number of melanostoma species ( speight 2013 ) .\nplatycheirus modestus ide , 1926 . a previously unpublished record . a new species to the palaearctic . one male was collected in 4 . 7 . 2008 from obb : tornio ( leg . i . kakko ) .\ndasysyrphus spp . both dasysyrphus venustus ( meigen , 1822 ) and dasysyrphus hilaris ( zetterstedt , 1843 ) are known to contain several species ( haarto and kerppola 2007a , bartsch 2009a ) .\nmyolepta nigra ( loew , 1872 ) was erroneously included in the list of finnish flies ( hackman 1980 ) instead of helleniola nigra ( zetterstedt , 1843 ) = chrysosyrphus niger ( hackman 1982 ) .\nthe used nomenclature of the species eristalis nemorum ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , eristalis arbustorum ( linnaeus , 1758 ) and eristalis horticola ( de geer , 1776 ) follows the proposal in case 3259 by chandler et al . ( 2004 ) and the usage of these names is confirmed in opinion 2153 by iczn ( international commission on zoological nomeclature ) ( 2006 ) .\nmallota tricolor loew , 1871 . a previously unpublished record . one male was collected in 4 . 8 . 1977 from ta : h\u00e4meenlinna ( leg . m . raekunnas ) and another male in 13 . 6 . \u20136 . 7 . 2013 from sa : joutseno ( leg . j . vil\u00e9n ) .\nmicrodon mutabilis ( linnaeus , 1758 ) and microdon myrmicae sch\u00f6nrogge , barr , wardlaw , napper , gardner , breen , elmes & thomas , 2002 form a species complex the species of which can be separate only by characters of the larvae and the puparia ( bartsch 2009b ) . in the finnish checklist microdon mutabilis represents either of the two species or include both of the species .\nhaarto a , kerppola s ( 2014 ) checklist of the family syrphidae ( diptera ) of finland . in : kahanp\u00e4\u00e4 j , salmela j ( eds ) checklist of the diptera of finland . zookeys 441 : 233\u2013249 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 441 . 7251\neristalis latreille , 1804 ( insecta , diptera ) : proposed confirmation that the gender is feminine ; musca nemorum linnaeus , 1758 , m . arbustorum linnaeus , 1758 and m . horticola de geer , 1776 ( currently eristalis nemorum , e . arbustorum and e . horticola ) : proposed conservation of usage of the specific names by designation of neotypes .\nopinion 2153 ( case 3259 ) eristalis latreille , 1804 ( insecta , diptera ) : confirmation that the gender is feminine ; musca nemorum linnaeus , 1758 , m . arbustorum linnaeus , 1758 and m . horticola de geer , 1776 ( currently eristalis nemorum , e . arbustorum and e . horticola ) : usage of the specific names conserved by the designation of neotypes .\nkahanp\u00e4\u00e4 j . ( 2010 ) k\u00e4rp\u00e4set . in : rassi p , hyv\u00e4rinen e , jusl\u00e9n a , mannerkoski i . ( eds )\nin : zhang z - q . ( ed ) animal biodiversity : an outline of higher - level classification and survey of taxonomic richness .\nspecies accounts of european syrphidae ( diptera ) , 2013 . syrph the net , the database of european syrphidae"]}
{"id": 834, "summary": [{"text": "the indus river dolphin ( platanista gangetica minor ) is a subspecies of freshwater river dolphin found in the indus river ( and its beas and sutlej tributaries ) of india and pakistan .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this dolphin was the first discovered side-swimming cetacean .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it is patchily distributed in five small , sub-populations that are separated by irrigation barrages .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the indus dolphin does not form easily defined groups who interact .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "instead , they 're typically found in loose aggregations .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "from the 1970s until 1998 , the ganges river dolphin and the indus dolphin were regarded as separate species ; however , in 1998 , their classification was changed from two separate species to subspecies of a single species ( see taxonomy below ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it has been named as the national mammal of pakistan . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "indus river dolphin", "paragraphs": ["blind river dolphin , ganges dolphin , ganges susu , indus river dolphin , south asian river dolphin , susu .\nhome \u00bb platanista gangetica ssp . minor ( indus dolphin , indus river dolphin , susu )\nthe indus river dolphins is one of only a handful of freshwater dolphins in existance today ; others include the chinese river dolphin , ganges river dolphin and amazon river dolphin .\nthe indus river dolphin as the name suggests can be found swimming in the indus river which is located in pakistan .\nthe indus river dolphin , indus blind dolphin or locally known in pakistan as bhulan , is one of two subspecies of the south asian river dolphin ( platanista gangetica ) .\nan indus river dolphin ( platanista minor ) being released as part of a dolphin rescue operation in pakistan . the indus river and ganges river dolphins are from the same genus .\nindus river dolphins are found only in pakistan . like other freshwater dolphins , the indus river dolphin is an important indicator of the health of a river .\npictures : indus river dolphin # 1 ( 3 kb jpeg ) ( cetacea ) ; indus river dolphin # 2 ( 31 kb jpeg ) ( swiss cet . soc . )\n* * * the indus river dolphin is one of the world ' s rarest mammals .\nthe indus river dolphin comes to the surface to breathe about every 30 - 120 seconds .\nthe indus river dolphin is one of around 80 known species of cetacea and one of around 40 known species of dolphin .\nplataniste or ganges river dolphin ( platanista gang\u00e9tica ) , karnaphuli river , bangladesh .\nplataniste or ganges river dolphin ( platanista gangetica ) , karnaphuli river , bangladesh .\nthe indus river dolphin occurs in the indus river delta & rann of kutch global 200 ecoregion . ( olson & dinerstein 1998 , olson & dinerstein 1999 )\nthe indus river dolphin sometimes carries its young on its back , above the surface of the water .\ndespite researchers best efforts the indus river dolphin is not well known and research regarding these marine mammals remains scarce .\nunlike other species of dolphin the indus river dolphin appears to form loose bonds with other dolphins and has a preference towards smaller pods rather than large aggregations .\nbangladeshi fisherman with a plataniste or ganges river dolphin ( platanista gang\u00e9tica ) , karnaphuli river , bangladesh .\nwhen the indus was a free - flowing river , the indus river dolphin would migrate upstream into the smaller tributaries during the monsoon rains and migrate downstream to the main channels in the dry season .\nsinha , r . 2002 . an alternative to dolphin oil as a fish attractant in the ganges river : conservation of the ganges river dolphin .\n2006 : occurs in the indus river system in pakistan ( iucn 2006 ) .\nin addition to the name indus river dolphin it has also been referred to as the \u201cside swimming dolphin\u201d because it is often seen swimming on its side and the \u201cblind dolphin\u201d due to its extremely poor eyesight .\nbecause the indus river dolphin is considered blind it has to rely primarily on echolocation to navigate the ocean and search for food .\nthe survey was started on march 21 from chashma barrage and concluded at sukkur barrage , covering the entire indus river dolphin distribution range .\nbhaagat , h . b . 1999 . introduction , distribution , conservation and behavioural ecology of indus blind dolphin ( platanista indi ) in river indus ( dolphin reserve ) , sindh - pakistan . tiger paper 26 : 11 - 16 .\nwwf monitors the indus river dolphin populations and tracks their movements with radio tags . these tags revealed for the first time that the dolphins can cross the barrage gates in both upstream and downstream directions . in 2001 , wwf coordinated the largest indus river dolphin survey ever conducted .\nsukkur barrages , legally designated as the indus dolphin reserve . the habitat of this subspecies is reduced to\nthe indus river dolphin is endemic to the rivers of the lower indus river basin in pakistan . historically it occurred in the indus river mainstem and the sutlej , beas , ravi , chenab , and jhelum tributaries . it ranged from the indus delta upstream to the himalayan foothills where rocky barriers or shallow water prevented further upstream movement . currently the distribution of the indus river dolphin is severely fragmented and dramatically reduced in extent . the linear extent of its occurrence has declined from approximately 3 , 400 km ( 2100 mi ) of indus river mainstem and its tributaries in the 1870 ' s to approximately 1 , 000 km ( 600 mi ) of the mainstem at present . an estimated 99 % of the indus river dolphin population occurs in only 690 linear km ( 430 mi ) . currently the indus river dolphin is limited to three subpopulations in the indus mainstem located between the chashma and taunsa , taunsa and guddu , and guddu and sukkur barrages . ( iucn 2006 )\nhe further said that the population of indus river dolphins is assessed every five years . the first comprehensive study conducted by wwf - pakistan in 2001 revealed that about 1 , 100 dolphins exist in the indus river . the survey in 2006 revealed a total abundance of 1 , 750 dolphins in the indus river . while , the population of the indus river dolphin was about 1 , 452 , according to a survey conducted in 2011 .\nthe indus river dolphin is endemic to the rivers of the lower indus river basin in pakistan . historically , it ranged from the indus delta upstream to the himalayan foothills where rocky barriers or shallow water prevented further upstream movement . currently the distribution of the indus river dolphin is severely fragmented and dramatically reduced in extent . the linear extent of its occurrence has declined from approximately 3 , 400 km ( 2100 mi ) of indus river mainstem and its tributaries in the 1870 ' s to approximately 1 , 000 km ( 600 mi ) of the mainstem at present . currently the indus river dolphin is limited to three subpopulations in the indus mainstem located between the chashma and taunsa , taunsa and guddu , and guddu and sukkur barrages . ( iucn 2006 )\nbhaagat , h . b . 2002 . status , population abundance , strandings and rescues of indus blind dolphin ( platanista minor ) in river indus ( pakistan ) . tiger paper 29 : 9 - 12 .\nsome communities who rely heavily on fishing think of the indus river dolphin as competition for fish so poaching still occurs sporadically despite a ban on hunting .\nthe indus river dolphin is a marine mammal which means it\u2019s warm - blooded , breathes air , gives birth and produces milk to feed its young .\nthe indus river dolphin was considered by some researchers as a distinct species for several decades ( 1970s\u20131990s ) and was listed as such in the 1996 red list . its range is disjunct with that of the other subspecies , ganges river dolphin ,\nthe problem is further exacerbated by climate change ; reduced glacial cover and weakening monsoon rains in northern pakistan are predicted to dramatically reduce indus river discharge within 50 years . declining river flows have been highlighted as perhaps the greatest threat to the long - term survival of the indus river dolphin .\nthe study stresses maintenance of river flows , mortality monitoring , arrangements for rescue and community involvement as methods to help conserve the indus dolphin , which may otherwise go the way of china\u2019s now extinct \u2018baiji\u2019 dolphin .\nindus river dolphin ( platanista gangetica minor ) skulls collected by georgio pilleri and stored in the stuttgart museum of natural history , germany . photo : gill braulik\nreeves , r . r . and chaudhry , a . a . 1998 . status of the indus river dolphin platanista minor . oryx 32 : 35\u201344 .\nreview of status , threats , and conservation management options for the endangered indus river blind . . .\nthe indus river dolphin ( platanista gangetica minor ) is a freshwater cetacean that occurs only in the indus river system in pakistan and india . this review provides a comprehensive summary of issues surrounding indus dolphin conservation , and includes a description of their distribution , the threats they face and a discussion of conservation and research activities , options and priorities . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthese dolphins are located in the lower to mid sections of the indus river which is located in pakistan .\n* * * in pakistan , conservation is a provincial responsibility . the government of sind has given the indus river dolphin full legal protection and established the indus river dolphin reserve . the legal protection was widely publicized in an intensive campaign at all levels of government and society , and seems to be observed . the dolphin population in the reserve appears to be increasing . ( klinowska 1991 )\nthe indus river dolphin ( platanistagangetica minor ) is a freshwater cetacean and a global priority species . it is endemic to the indus river system in pakistan and is listed as endangered in the international union for the conservation of nature ( iucn ) red list of threatened species .\ncurrently the indus river dolphin has been placed in conservation by the government of sind and there appears to be an increase in reproduction for dolphins currently in the reserve .\nkarachi : wwf - pakistan , in collaboration with the wildlife departments of sindh , punjab and khyber pakhtunkhwa , successfully concluded the fourth indus river dolphin survey on tuesday .\nsomething sorrowful is happening with the indus river dolphin : there are only about 1 , 100 individuals left in the wild , mainly in the part of the indus river in pakistan , which makes this species one of the most threatened in the world . why is this happening ?\nsince 2000 , wwf and the sindh wildlife department have rescued 80 dolphins from irrigation canals . wwf also educates fishermen who are engaged in promoting ecotourism activities , particularly dolphin watches , about the importance of protecting the indus river dolphin .\nindus river dolphins generally travel in pairs although they have been spotted in pods consisting of 10 or more dolphins .\nthe presence of dolphin in a river system signals a healthy ecosystem . since the river dolphin is at the apex of the aquatic food chain , its presence in adequate numbers symbolizes greater biodiversity in the river system and helps keep the ecosystem in balance .\nthe indus and ganges river dolphin populations , previously treated as separate species , have recently been reduced to subspecies of a single species . the new species is named the\nganges river dolphin\n( platanista gangetica ) , with two subspecies - the ganges river dolphin ( platanista gangetica gangetica ) and the indus river dolphin ( p . g . minor ) . under this new assignment of scientific names , the newly named species as well as the two subspecies retain the listing of\nendangered\nby the iucn . ( iucn 2003a , reeves 2004 )\nthe indus river dolphin ( platanista gangetica minor ) is one of the world\u2019s most threatened cetaceans . it is endemic to the indus river system in pakistan . its population is fragmented into five sub - populations due to six irrigation barrages on the indus river . the largest sub - population of this subspecies is found between guddu and sukkur barrages , legally designated as the indus dolphin reserve . the habitat of this subspecies is reduced to one fifth of its historic distribution range . the main threats to the indus dolphin are illegal fishing , water pollution and stranding in irrigation canals . there is also a potential risk of inbreeding due to the confined population in the indus dolphin reserve . escalating illegal fishing activities in sindh province are the consequences of revised fisheries legislation , which subsequently increased dolphin mortality in its high density areas . illegal fishing practices include overnight netting across the river and use of poisonous pesticides to maximize fish catches , and both of these activities have increased dolphin by - catch in sindh province .\nthe dolphin ' s vision has probably degenerated because of the poor visibility of the waters in the ganges river .\nthe indus river dolphin measures between 1 . 5 - 2 . 5 m ( 5 - 8 ' ) in length and weighs 80 - 90 kg ( 180 - 200 lb ) .\nthe indus river is a major river that runs through packistan , afghanistan , india and china allowing various locals to travel and transport goods from one location to the next .\nthe main reason for the decline of the indus river dolphin was the construction of numerous dams and barrages , starting in the 1930 ' s , that have fragmented the population and reduced the amount of available habitat . another severe threat to the survival of the indus river dolphin is probably the increasing withdrawal of water . dolphins no longer occur in the lower reaches of the indus because upstream water extraction leaves downstream channels virtually dry for several months each year .\n, chemical pollution and depleting flows , is now largely confined to a 189 - kilometre stretch of the indus falling within the sindh dolphin reserve .\ndespite its great physical resemblance to the ganges river dolphin , this subspecies differs from the other by some physical characteristics .\n) make up a majority of the ganges river dolphin ' s diet . other fish , such as a gobies (\nis \u201cblind river dolphin\u201d . their external ears might help receive echolocation signals , which are intermittent pulses rather than continuous whistles . though indus river dolphins are very vocal , they use sounds for communication only about 5 % of the time that they vocalize .\nthis toothed cetacean is closely related to the ganges dolphin ( platanista gangetica gangetica ) , and with this dolphin , they form a small group of surviving dolphins belonging to a family of river cetaceans .\nwdc funded gill braulik to undertake two projects in pakistan , focusing on the indus river dolphin . listed as \u2018endangered\u2019 by the world conservation union , indus river dolphin are among the world\u2019s most endangered dolphins . the remaining populations are severely fragmented by dams and barrages , have suffered enormous ( 50 - 80 % ) range declines in the last hundred years and are threatened by declining freshwater supplies , pollution , capture in fishing nets and hunting .\npilleri , g . and zbinden , k . 1973\u201374 . size and ecology of the dolphin population ( platanista indi ) between the sukkur and guddu barrages , indus river . investigations on cetacea 5 : 59 - 69 .\nthe indus river dolphin has a long beak and a stocky body . it has a low triangular hump on its back in place of a ' true ' dorsal fin . it is gray - brown in color , sometimes with a pinkish belly . the eyes are extremely small , resembling pinhole openings slightly above the mouth . the indus river dolphin measures between 1 . 5 - 2 . 5 m ( 5 - 8 ' ) in length and weighs 80 - 90 kg ( 180 - 200 lb ) . the indus river dolphin generally occurs in the deepest river channel and is less common in secondary channels and small braids . reported habitat preferences include channel constrictions , confluences , and deep , low - velocity water .\n\u2018the indus dolphin is a marvel of evolutionary adaptation and the department is taking all relevant organizations on board for conservation and protection of the mammal , \u2019 he added .\n\u2013 river traffic . the high traffic in the river cause collisions with the propels of boats that injure them severely .\nuntreated sewage from communities that reside along irrigation canals and the banks of the indus river directly pollutes the water . washing clothes and utensils in the river also causes pollution . industrial pollution has allegedly caused a massive quantity of fish deaths in urban areas , which affects the indus river dolphins\u2019 food supply . pesticides from sugarcane and cotton crops also pollute the riverbank .\nindus river dolphins use their echolocation abilities combined with their highly toothed , long snouts to forage for many bottom - dwelling animals including fish and invertebrates .\nchaudhry , a . a . and khalid , u . 1989 . indus dolphin population in punjab . proceedings of the pakistan congress of zoology 9 : 291 - 296 .\nto mitigate the identified threats , wwf encourages local communities along a 164km - stretch of important dolphin habitat in the upper ganges river to use natural fertilizers ; not to dispose of domestic sewerage in the river ; to improve sewerage management ; to reforest the river bank ; and to ban commercial fishing and sand - mining activities . wwf also monitors dolphin populations and threats in important dolphin habitats in other areas of the country .\nbraulik , g . t . 2004 . conservation and status of the indus river dolphin , platanista gangetica minor , in 2001 . draft report , in preparation for journal submission . [ direct inquiries to : gillbraulik @ downstream . vg ]\nindus river dolphins each eat about a kilogram of benthic fish and invertebrates daily , it is not clear how strongly they impact any of their prey populations .\ndr sandeep behera , wwf - india\u2019s freshwater species coordinator , patrolling for gharials and ganges river dolphins on the chambal river .\nindus river dolphint limiting factors * some limiting factors found in my dolphin ' s ecosystem are food and habitat . dolphins normally travel together , so maybe they can ' t get the food they need . also , when humans build dams , it gives less space for them . biotic / abiotic factors * some biotic factors in my dolphin ' s ecosystem are the other animals and plants that share the same habitat , there could also be some trees near the river . * some abiotic factors are the rocks that lie near by . also , the ecosystem * the indus river is located in asia . * the temperature in the river part located in the river part located in sindh and punjab is endangerment * the indus river dolphin is endangered because people are hunting them for oil , skin , and meat . * if my animal became extinct the prey that the dolphin eats would over populate and the other animals wouldn ' t do so well in the river . to save my dolphin endangerment part 2 from becoming extinct , fishermen are now using different methods to catch fish , and people stopped hunting them . but poachers still hunt them . * so far the indus river dolphin ' s population is in the 100s , there are not many anymore left . ecosystem part 2 normally 100 degrees f . in jacobabad it is often 120 degrees f , in summer time . * in the indus river , the dolphins prefere murky , fresh , and brackish water . * the human interaction within the indusriver is that some humans go to swim ecosystem part 3 or catch fish and dolphins . usually , when they catch fish , the dolphins get caught in the fishing nets . food web / energy consumers - indus river dolphin , catfish , gobies producers - algae , grass , plants * my animal on the food web is the top predetor . biotic / abiotic factors river that the dolphin lives in is an abiotic factor . limiting factors part 2 * it can impact the indus river dolphin because if it cannot have enough food , it can die from starvation . and if the dam is providing little amount of space , the dolphin wouldn ' t have room to swim . * food and habitat are biotic factors . references urltoken urltoken urltoken part 2 urltoken urltoken\nthe ganges subspecies is hunted locally for food , and to extract oil which is used as a fish attractant . the indus dolphin is no longer used by humans or for trade .\n* * * although its eye lacks a lens , and it is sometimes referred to as being blind , the indus river dolphin ' s eye does seem to function as a direction - finding device by using the direction and intensity of light .\nsmith , b . , b . ahmed , m . edrise ali , g . braulik . 2001 . status of the ganges river dolphin or shushuk\nthe main reason for the decline of the indus river dolphin was the construction of numerous dams and barrages , starting in the 1930 ' s , that have fragmented the population and reduced the amount of available habitat . another severe threat to the survival of the indus river dolphin is probably the increasing withdrawal of water . dolphins no longer occur in the lower reaches of the indus because upstream water extraction leaves downstream channels virtually dry for several months each year . accidental capture in fishing nets ; pollution ; and hunting for meat , oil and traditional medicine have also had an impact . ( iucn 2006 )\nreeves , r . r . 1998 . conservation status of the indus rver dolphin in pakistan . ibi reports ( international marine biological research institute , kamogawa , japan ) 8 : 1\u20139 .\nthe indus river dolphin , as suggested by its name , inhabits the river of the same name in pakistan , in an area of \u200b\u200b690 kilometers . in the past , these cetaceans swam freely along the 3 , 500 kilometers of the river , but the problems associated with the growth of human population and its activities confined them to a small part of the river . there are populations between the dams of sukkur , guddu , chashma and taunsa .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - ganges river dolphin ( platanista gangetica )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - ganges river dolphin ( platanista gangetica )\ntitle =\narkive species - ganges river dolphin ( platanista gangetica )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nsome people hunt indus river dolphins for their meat and oil . people in some areas eat the dolphin meat , while others use it as a fishing lure , though studies indicate that fish flesh is just as effective . the dolphin\u2019s oil is used for medicinal purposes , its supposed effectiveness as an aphrodisiac , and to rub on one\u2019s skin .\nthe indus and ganges - brahmaputra river systems have existed for at least 40 million years and evidence suggests they have been largely separate for at least five million years . although the indus and ganges are ancient rivers , historically rivers near the indus - ganges drainage divide have been captured repeatedly and it is possible that there was faunal exchange between river systems even in relatively recent times . the fish fauna is similar between the two river systems , however there has been speciation of some catfish and carp species .\nwwf has initiated a project to survey ganges river dolphin populations in the karnali river and its tributaries . the project will also analyze threats to the dolphins and their habitats , and provide recommendations to decision and policy makers on dolphin conservation . awareness - raising activities will also be carried out at a local level .\nkasuya , t . and nishiwaki , m . 1975 . recent status of the population of indus dolphin . scientific reports of the whales research institute ( tokyo ) 27 : 81 - 94 .\nbecause these marine mammals live in the indus river they do not face the same natural threats other dolphins are known to face such as attacks from sharks or killer whales .\npublic awareness and support for conservation of the ganges river dolphin is virtually non - existent , and although the wildlife protection act of india mandates dolphin conservation as a priority , little has been done at the government level to implement or enforce the law .\nnowak , r . 2003 . ganges and indus dolphins , or susus . pp . 128 - 130 in\nthe ganga river dolphin platanista gangetica roxburgh , 1801 is a globally endangered cetacean found in the river system of ganga , brahmaputra and meghna in bangladesh and india . a survey and research were conducted from 2012\u20132014 to explore the behaviour , abundance , habitat use and potential threats of the dolphin in the lower , middle and upper stretches of the river ganga and its tributaries . . . [ show full abstract ]\nover 37 , 000 miles of irrigation canals lead to dolphins becoming stranded in the irrigation canals and because these instances usually go unreported and many indus river dolphins die without being rescued .\nmirza , a . h . and khurshid , s . n . 1996 . survey of the indus dolphin platinista minor in sindh . world wide fund for nature - pakistan & sindh wildlife department . 17 pp .\nalthough it is not usually considered to be gregarious , relatively high densities of the indus river dolphin are found at sites where rivers join , in areas where the current is relatively weak , off the mouths of irrigation canals , and near villages and ferry routes . in the indus , about 40 - 45 % of the dolphin population is found at junctions of tributaries with the mainstream , at least during the dry season , presumably being attracted to these areas by concentrations of prey . ( culik 2003c )\nthe indus river dolphin generally occurs in the deepest river channel and is less common in secondary channels and small braids . reported habitat preferences include channel constrictions , confluences , and deep , low - velocity water . as water levels drop in the winter , dolphins are concentrated in the remaining deep areas , including the head ponds upstream of barrages . ( iucn 2006 )\nit is a dolphin not commonly seen by humans and therefore , little studied . evidently lonely , it swims alone or in small groups of 2 or 3 individuals in shallow waters . like its relative the ganges river dolphin ( platanista gangetica gangetica ) , it usually swims sidewards .\n, however , they most likely spend much time and energy on their offspring . since females are pregnant for up to 11 months , newborns are about half the size of their mothers at birth , calves nurse up to a year after birth , indus river dolphin offspring are probably very costly .\ncurrently exists only in the freshwater indus river . however , some paleontologists believe that river dolphins might have evolved from marine - dwelling relatives that eventually moved to estuaries and then rivers as seawater levels rose and fell during the miocene . though this species prefers water deeper than 3 meters , indus river dolphins have special adaptations such as swimming on their sides that enable them to exist in shallower waters as well . the temperature of the water ranges from 8 - 33 degrees c .\nin 1997 , wwf india developed a plan of action for the conservation of the ganges river dolphin . wwf ' s objective for freshwater cetaceans is to ensure that habitat degradation and fisheries bycatch do not threaten any species of freshwater cetacean . specifically for the ganges river dolphin , wwf aims to reduce or eliminate the threats caused by fisheries bycatch and habitat degradation by 2012 .\na long thin snout , rounded belly , stocky body and large flippers are characteristics of the ganges river dolphin . although its eye lacks a lens ( this species is also referred to as the\nblind dolphin\n) , the dolphin still uses its eye to locate itself . the species has a slit similar to a blowhole on the top of the head , which acts as a nostril .\nthe indus is a highly managed river and during the dry season all of its flow is diverted for irrigation and municipal uses . for several months of the year large scale water extraction causes the river downstream of hyderabad to be completely dewatered ( i . e . dry ) before reaching its delta . this large - scale and increasing diversion of water from the indus river has severally reduced the quantity of dolphin habitat and is the primary reason for its extirpation from 80 % of its former range . the remaining dolphins are concentrated into the only section of the indus river that is consistently flowing throughout the year . pakistan is one of the most water stressed countries on earth , its semi - arid climate combined with large ( 167 million in 2006 ) and rapidly expanding ( 2 . 09 % ) population are placing enormous and unsustainable pressure on existing water sources particularly the indus river . available water per capita is plummeting and is approaching 1000 cubic meters per person down from 5600 cubic meters per capita in 1947 . the country is entering a water crisis and as its greatest source of freshwater is the indus river system there are numerous plans to further exploit the river by constructing dams and increasing water diversion with little consideration of the environmental and social impacts this may cause .\non the behaviour , abundance , habitat use and potential threats of the gangetic dolphin platanista ga . . .\ndeliberate killing for meat and oil was a traditional and widespread practice until at least the early 1970s ( pilleri and zbinden 1973 - 74 ) . the indus dolphin became a protected species in the early 1970s and within a few years , and following some prosecutions in the courts , dolphin hunting largely ceased ( bhatti and pilleri 1982 ) .\nin 1972 , indus dolphins were protected under the wildlife act of sindh and in 1974 the government of sindh declared the indus river between the sukkur and guddu barrages a dolphin reserve . the government of punjab prohibited deliberate killing of dolphins in the punjab wildlife protection act in 1974 and established the taunsa wildlife sanctuary and chashma wildlife sanctuary in 1983 and 1984 , respectively ( chaudhry 1989 , reeves et al . 1991 , reeves and chaudhry 1998 ) . enforcement of regulations prohibiting dolphin hunting appears to have arrested the rapid population declines reported by pilleri and zbinden ( 1973 - 74 ) for these river segments . a long - term programme to rescue dolphins trapped in irrigation canals and return them to the indus mainstem has had good success in reducing mortality .\nthe indus river dolphin feeds on several species of fish ( e . g . gobies , catfish and carp ) , invertebrates ( e . g . prawns ) , and possibly turtles and birds . it does much of its feeding at or near the bottom , using echolocation , swimming on one side , and probing the river bottom with its snout and its flipper . ( culik 2003c )\nindus river dolphins are one of only four river dolphin species and subspecies in the world that spend all of their lives in freshwater . they are believed to have originated in the ancient tethys sea . when the sea dried up approximately 50 million years ago , the dolphins were forced to adapt to its only remaining habitat\u2014rivers . only 1 , 816 exist today in the lower parts of the indus river in pakistan . numbers declined dramatically after the construction of an irrigation system . most dolphins are confined to a 750 mile stretch of the river and divided into isolated populations by six barrages . they have adapted to life in the muddy river and are functionally blind . they rely on echolocation to navigate , communicate and hunt prey including prawns , catfish and carp .\nthe ganges river dolphin , or susu , inhabits the ganges - brahmaputra - meghna and karnaphuli - sangu river systems of nepal , india , and bangladesh . this vast area has been altered by the construction of more than 50 dams and other irrigation - related projects , with dire consequences for the river dolphins . the ganges river dolphin lives in one of the world ' s most densely populated areas , and is threatened by removal of river water and siltation arising from deforestation , pollution and entanglement in fisheries nets . in addition , alterations to the river due to barrages are also separating populations . a recent survey conducted by wwf - india and its partners in the entire distribution range in the ganga and brahamaputra river system - around 6 , 000 km - identified fewer than 2 , 000 individuals in india . this dolphin is among the four\nobligate\nfreshwater dolphins - the other three are the baiji now likely extinct from the yangtze river in china , the bhulan of the indus in pakistan and the boto of the amazon river in latin america . although there are several species of marine dolphins whose ranges include some freshwater habitats , these four species live only in rivers and lakes .\nbhatti , m . u . and pilleri , g . 1982 . status of the indus dolphin population ( platanista indi blyth 1859 ) between sukkur and guddu barrages in 1979 - 1980 . investigations on cetacea 13 : 245 - 52 .\nthis subspecies is endemic to the rivers of the lower indus basin in pakistan . historically it occurred in the indus mainstem and the sutlej , beas , ravi , chenab , and jhelum tributaries . it ranged from the indus delta upstream to the himalayan foothills where rocky barriers or shallow water prevented further upstream movement . development of the vast indus basin irrigation system has severely fragmented the dolphin population within a network of barrages ( low , gated , diversion dams ) and water diversion has dramatically reduced the extent of dolphin habitat . current occupancy is effectively limited to three subpopulations in the indus mainstem located between the chashma and taunsa , taunsa and guddu , and guddu and sukkur barrages . a few individuals still remain above chashma barrage and below sukkur barrage ( braulik 2003 , reeves and chaudhry 1998 , reeves 1998 ) ( see figure 1 in the supplementary material ) .\nthis species inhabits parts of the ganges , meghna and brahmaputra river systems in india , nepal , bhutan and bangladesh , and the karnaphuli river in bangladesh ( 6 ) .\nalthough the killing of this dolphin for meat and oil is thought to have declined , it still occurs in the middle ganges near patna , in the kalni - kushiyara river of bangladesh , and in the upper reaches of the brahmaputra . in fisheries for large catfish in india and bangladesh , dolphin oil and body parts are used to lure prey , and ganges river dolphins are used to this end .\nganges river dolphins are top predators in their river ecosystems . they are important in controlling and maintaining healthy fish and crustacean populations , their primary sources of food . unfortunately , these river dolphins are experiencing the adverse effects of human environmental impacts and are highly endangered .\ncommenting on the current survey , he said that the current population trend looks positive and official results will reflect efforts made by wwf - pakistan with support of wildlife departments to conserve a viable population of the indus river dolphin by reducing fatalities due to canal stranding through rescue operations , capacity building sessions with officials of concerned departments and community awareness .\nindus river dolphins have extremely poor eyesight , perhaps since vision is nearly useless to navigate the murky rivers in which they live . they instead rely on echolocation to perceive their environment . indeed , one of the common names for\nthe movements of the ganges river dolphin follow seasonal patterns , although the details are not well known . however , it seems that animals travel upstream when water level rises , and from there enter smaller streams .\ndr . gillian t . braulik , member international union for the conservation of nature ( iucn ) cetacean specialist group , and a dolphin conservation expert provided the survey team with initial technical assistance based on her expertise of previously leading dolphin surveys .\nprevious population and distribution this species was once common throughout the indus river system in pakistan , from the himalayan foothills to the mouth of the indus , and in the main tributaries between . as early as in the early 1970s , the range and population size had declined dramatically and most of the remaining population lived between the sukkur and guddu barrages in sind province . current population and distribution the species is now present in only about one - fifth of its nineteenth - century range . the construction of the indus irrigation system has contributed to the dramatic decline of dolphins . today , only fragmented , small populations remain in a 1 , 375 - km stretch of the indus river , separated by irrigation weirs or barrages . this dolphin is distributed from jinnah to kotri barrages , but the largest numbers are found from taunsa to sukkur . the centre of abundance , a 170 - km stretch between guddu and sukkur barrage , was declared as a sanctuary for the species in 1974 . a survey coordinated by wwf and carried out in 2001 with partners showed that the total population of the indus dolphin is approximately 1 , 100 .\nreeves , r . r . , chaudhry , a . a . and khalid , u . 1991 . competing for water on the indus plain : is there a future for pakistan\u2019s river dolphins ? environmental conservation 18 : 341\u2013350 .\ntotal length of the river is 3 , 180 km ( 1 , 980 mi ) .\nbraulik , g . t . 2003 . indus dolphin conservation project . comprehensive survey and status report . march - april , 2001 . report for the world wide fund for nature \u2013 pakistan , po box 5160 , ferozepur road , lahore , 54600 , pakistan .\nthe indus ( platanista gangetica minor ) and ganges ( platanista gangetica gangetica ) river dolphins occur only in freshwater in the separate indus and ganges - brahmaputra river systems in south asia . both subspecies are listed as \u2018endangered\u2019 by the world conservation union , and they are among the world\u2019s most endangered dolphins . both river dolphin populations are severely fragmented by dams and barrages , have suffered enormous ( 50 - 80 % ) range declines in the last hundred years and are threatened by declining freshwater supplies , pollution , capture in fishing nets and hunting . the two subspecies are the only members of the genus platanista which is a very primitive and ancient cetacean group only distantly related to modern delphinids .\na new wwf survey says there are now an estimated 1 , 816 indus river in pakistan\u201450 % more than the 1 , 200 dolphins estimated after an initial census in 2001 when the species appeared to be on the brink of extinction .\nthe indo river dolphin has a carnivorous diet being fish the principal part of its food . herring , common carp , gobio , mahseer fish , and catfish are some of the species included in the diet of platanista gangetica minor . additionally , this dolphin eats prawns , clams , and shrimp , consuming about 1 kg of food per day .\ndolphins are expected to have been extirpated from the subansiri river because of periodic dramatic declines in river discharge from the newly completed lower subansiri hydroelectric project ( baruah et al . 2012 ) .\ninhabits the ganges and indus rivers and the many associated tributaries and connected lakes . this species is restricted to freshwater . there are two subspecies :\nwwf and the sindh agriculture extension department improve agricultural practices near dolphin habitat to reduce pollution in the indus river . farmer field schools are used to create widespread awareness among farming communities about how inappropriate irrigation practices and the indiscriminate use of toxic chemicals affects dolphins . experts work with participating farmers to demonstrate the benefits of using less water and chemicals on cash crops like cotton .\nrashmi sanghi . our national river ganga : lifeline of millions . springer science & business media ,\nthe main reason for the initial decline of the indus river dolphin population was the construction of numerous dams and barrages that began in the 1930s . this construction split the population into small groups , degraded their habitat and impeded migration . now the major threats include accidental capture in fishing nets , plus they are hunted for their meat , oil and for use in traditional medicines .\nthe indus river dolphin ( platanista gangetica minor ) is found in primarily 3 subpopulations separated by irrigation barrages ( low , gated - dams ) . the populations are estimated as 602 ( guddu - sukkur ) , 258 ( taunsa - guddu barrages ) and 84 ( chashma - taunsa barrages ) individuals . the metapopulation was estimated to number approximately 1 , 200 animals in 2001 .\nindus dolphins generally occur in the deepest river channel and are less common in secondary channels and small braids ( braulik 2006 ) . during the low - water season ( october to april ) , barrages divert almost all river water such that dolphin habitat downstream of sukkur barrage and in some tributary segments has been eliminated and so have the dolphins . as water levels drop in the winter , dolphins are concentrated in the remaining deep areas , including the head ponds upstream of barrages . a comprehensive habitat study demonstrated that indus dolphins selected locations in the river with significantly greater mean depth , maximum depth , cross - sectional area , and hydraulic radius , and significantly narrower river width and a lower degree of braiding than areas where dolphins were absent ( braulik et al . 2012 ) . channel cross - sectional area was the most important factor affecting dolphin presence and abundance , with the area of water less than 1 m in depth exerting the greatest influence . indus dolphins avoided channels with small cross - sectional area ( < 700m 2 ) , presumably owing to the risk of entrapment and reduced foraging opportunities .\nthe ganges river dolphin was recognised as a separate species in the 1970s , although some controversy remains surrounding its relationship with the indus river dolphin ( p . minor ) ( 5 ) . it has a fairly stocky body with a long beak that thickens at the tip , with light grey - brown skin that becomes paler on the body , often with a tinge of pink ( 6 ) . the flippers are large and the dorsal fin is undeveloped , being more of a triangular ridge than a fin . the forehead rises steeply and the eyes are very small . females tend to be larger than males ( 5 ) . the local name \u2018susu\u2019 is said to refer to the noise this dolphin makes when it breathes ( 6 ) .\nbeing a mammal , the ganges river dolphin cannot breathe in the water and must surface every 30 - 120 seconds . because of the sound it produces when breathing , the animal is popularly referred to as the ' susu ' .\nthe indus river dolphin feeds mostly on several species of fish and invertebrates . it does much of its feeding at or near the bottom , using echolocation , swimming on one side , and probing the river bottom with its snout and its flipper . although it is not usually considered to be gregarious , relatively high densities are found at sites where rivers join , in areas where the current is relatively weak , off the mouths of irrigation canals , and near villages and ferry routes .\nkhan , m . and niazi , m . 1989 . distribution and population status of the indus dolphin , platanista minor . in w . f . perrin , r . l . brownell jr . , k . zhou and j . liu ( eds ) biology and conservation of the river dolphins , pp . 77 - 80 . iucn species survival commission occasional paper no . 3 .\nthe ganges river dolphin or susu , lives in one of the most densely populated regions of the world . one of the main threats to the species is loss of habitat due in large part to the creation of dams and irrigation projects .\nin the 19th century , ganges river dolphins were once found in ' large schools ' close to urban centres along the river . nowadays , groups are considerably smaller , and individuals may also be found alone . the average size of a number of groups surveyed recently in the ganges river system was two individuals .\nin 1972 , dolphins were protected under the wildlife act of sindh and in 1974 the government of sindh declared the indus river between the sukkur and guddu barrages a dolphin reserve . the government of punjab prohibited deliberate killing of dolphins in the punjab wildlife protection act in 1974 and established the taunsa wildlife sanctuary and chashma wildlife sanctuary in 1983 and 1984 , respectively ( reeves et al . 1991 , reeves and chaudhry 1998 , chaudhry and khalid 1989 ) . enforcement of regulations prohibiting dolphin hunting appears to have arrested the rapid population declines reported by pilleri and zbinden ( 1973\u201374 ) for these river segments . a programme sponsored by the united nations development programme ( undp ) to rescue dolphins trapped in irrigation canals and return them to the indus mainstem has had some success in reducing mortality ( braulik 2002 , bhaagat 2002 ) .\ndespite their relatively high profile as endangered dolphins very little is known about these animals and there is confusion and uncertainty about their taxonomy . on the basis of very little morphological information the accepted classification of these river dolphins has changed multiple times from subspecies to separate species and back again . the reclassification in 1998 of the two dolphin populations from species to subspecies has caused confusion in south asia where the dolphins occur , has reduced the perceived importance of the indus dolphin inside pakistan and may have negatively impacted conservation efforts by lowering their priority for allocation of international funds .\nlast month ( december 2015 ) recommends translocating the 1 , 200\u20141 , 700 surviving dolphins upstream of the indus , which flows from the himalayas to the arabian sea .\nmake a symbolic dolphin adoption to help save some of the world ' s most endangered animals from extinction and support wwf ' s conservation efforts .\nindus river dolphins are roughly the same color as the river , gray or brown , though they sometimes are lighter on their undersides . their \u201cbeaks\u201d are distinctively swollen at the tip and very long , reaching 20 % of the length of their bodies , with large , visible teeth . in contrast to their \u201cbeaks\u201d , their dorsal fins are rather small and reduced compared to other river dolphins . large flippers and flukes , combined with long and remarkably flexible necks , probably help the dolphins navigate effectively .\nas a result , there has been a serious decrease in fish production , while the extraction of river water and siltation from deforestation are also degrading the species ' habitat . in some cases , habitat alterations have resulted in the genetic isolation of dolphin populations .\nganges river dolphins occupy freshwater river systems in southern asia . they inhabit the ganges and indus river systems and their many tributaries , streams , and connecting lakes . they are found in tributaries that run through the hills and lowlands in nepal ( roughly 250 meters above sea level ) and sometimes in flood plains and areas of rivers with heavy currents . these river dolphins prefer areas that create eddy countercurrents , such as small islands , river bends , and convergent tributaries . since these animals occupy a vast area of river systems , they can tolerate a wide variance of temperatures ; some as cold 8 degrees celsius to warm waters above 33 degrees celsius ( 46 . 4f to 91 . 4f ) . they inhabit depths from 3 to 9 meters and must surface every few minutes for air . in the monsoon season , ganges river dolphins locally migrate to tributaries and then back to larger river channels in the dry , winter season . they also move along the coast of the bay of bengal when monsoons flush freshwater out along the southeastern coast of india .\nindus river dolphins generally occur in the deepest river channel and are less common in secondary channels and small braids ( bhatti and pilleri 1982 , braulik 2003 ) . reported habitat preferences include channel constrictions , confluences , and deep , low - velocity water ( kasuya and nishiwaki 1975 , khan and niazi 1989 , braulik 2004 ) . during the low - water season ( october to april ) , barrages divert almost all river water such that dolphin habitat downstream of sukkur barrage and in some tributary segments has been eliminated . as water levels drop in the winter , dolphins are concentrated in the remaining deep areas , including the head ponds upstream of barrages .\nthis project aimed to understand which hydrological habitat ( depth and velocity ) dolphins depend upon in the dry season . this information is vital to understanding the impact of decreasing river flows on dolphins , will provide valuable information for managing the dolphin population and for lobbying the government and water management authorities to maintain sufficient water in the river for a functioning ecosystem which includes dolphins ."]}
{"id": 842, "summary": [{"text": "graphania petrograpta is a moth of the noctuidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by edward meyrick in 1929 from a specimen collected by george hudson near lake wakatipu in january .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is endemic to new zealand . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "graphania petrograpta", "paragraphs": ["graphania petrograpta is a moth of the noctuidae family . it was described by meyrick in 1929 . it is found in new zealand .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n[ read before the wellington philosophical society , 28th august , 1929 ; received by the editor , 9th september , 1929 ; issued separately , 30th november , 1929 . ]\nagain indebted to my esteemed correspondent , mr . g . v . hudson , for supplying me with the interesting material for the following notes and descriptions of new species . they include the record of a tasmanian monotypic genus from new zealand for the first time , a sufficiently rare occurrence ; the only other case in the micro - lepidoptera is\n\u2642 \u2640 . 36\u201337 mm . head , palpi brown . antennae \u2642 dentate , moderately fasciculate - ciliated . thorax whitish - ochreous , suffused brown anteriorly , with a bent anterior white bar edged dark fuscous in front . forewings elongate - triangular , termen obliquely rounded ; pale ochreous ; veins finely brownish , posteriorly more or less sprinkled dark fuscous or blackish ; slender whitish streaks along upper and lower margins of cell ; a fine brownish streak above lower of these from before middle of wing expanded to fill space between veins 4 and 5 to termen ; in \u2642 wedge - shaped brownish spots resting on termen between veins 5\u20138 , in \u2642 more faintly indicated ; a narrow brownish streak between veins 3 and 4 from near origin to termen , some whitish suffusion before base of this ; a narrow reddish - brown streak somewhat sprinkled dark fuscous along fold from base to middle , continued by broader but lighter brownish suffusion above fold to termen ; no black dots ; cilia pale ochreous , \u2640 tinged brownish . hindwings rather dark grey ; cilia ochreous - grey - whitish .\nwaiouru ( towards mt . ruapehu ) , december , at sugar ( hudson ) ; 2 ex . mr . hudson has other examples . allied to sulcana and stulta , but quite distinct from either .\n\u2642 . 33\u201335 mm . head , palpi , thorax light brown slightly speckled whitish , palpi sprinkled blackish on outer side of joint , thorax anteriorly with fine blackish bar edged whitish speckling posteriorly . antennae flatly dentate , very shortly ciliated . forewings light brown , slightly reddish - tinged ; veins finely grey , upper and lower margins of cell tinged whitish ; a white dot following lower angle of cell ; second line represented by a curved series of blackish dots on veins , first also by two or three dots : cilia light reddish - brown . hindwings rather dark grey ; cilia pale reddish - brown , outer half whitish .\nwellington , december ( o ' connor ) ; 2 ex . i believe this to be the other sex of micrastra , which was described from the female only ; the\nblackish dots on veins ( not mentioned in my description ) are indistinctly indicated in the female also , and accompanied with minute white specks ; the female differs otherwise by more reddish colouring , and development of white speckling .\n\u2642 . 37 mm . head , palpi reddish - brown . thorax reddish - brown , mixed whitish on dorsum , inner edge of tegulae sprinkled white . antennae dentate , moderately fasciculate - ciliated . forewings rather short - triangular , broader than in micrastra , termen rather obliquely rounded , crenulate ; dull reddish - brown ; veins ( except towards costa ) mixed dark fuscous and slightly sprinkled white ; first and second lines indicated by obscure grey - whitish dots on veins ; orbicular and claviform indicated by faint greyish suffusion ; distinct white dots on each side of lower end of transverse vein ; three or four indistinct whitish dots on costa posteriorly ; terminal edge blackish , with minute white dots on veins : cilia light red - brownish , tips grey - whitish . hindwings rather dark grey ; cilia ochreous - whitish , suffused light ochreoua towards base .\nwaiouru , december , at sugar ( hudson ) ; 1 ex . much like micrastra , and also resembles leucania phaula , but obviously distinct from both by shorter and broader wings .\n\u2640 . 42 mm . head , palpi , thorax fuscous mixed whitish and blackish . forewings elongate - triangular , termen obliquely rounded , waved ; grey , irrorated blackish and whitish ; a small white spot in middle of base ; lines white , blackish - edged , waved , subbasal curved , first rather irregular , slightly bent on fold , second sinuate , subterminal parallel to termen , slightly indented near extremities ; median band darker grey irrorated blackish , without white irroration , median shade obscurely blackish , dentate ; spots outlined white and then blackish , claviform small , wedge - shaped , resting on first line , orbicular rather oblique , oval , reniform narrow , slightly bent in middle : cilia grey narrowly barred white . hindwings grey ; cilia light grey , slenderly barred whitish , outer half whitish .\nlake wakatipu , at sugar , january ( hudson ) ; 1 ex . not very near any other known to me .\nthis , of which i am indebted to mr . philpot for examples , is a good species ; it is superficially distinguishable from mutans by the absence of the two strong dentations of subterminal line found in that insect .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 39\u201340 mm . head , palpi , thorax whitish - ochreous , partially tinged or mixed brown ( more strongly in \u2642 ) and slightly sprinkled blackish . antennae \u2642 filiform , ciliated ( \u00be ) . forewings distinctly narrower posteriorly than in pascoi , termen somewhat more oblique , crenate ; pale ochreous , scattered black scales ; subbasal , first , and\nsecond lines indicated by brown margins , only distinct on costa , elsewhere irregularly and acutely dentate , faint , especially in \u2640 ; cell tinged brownish ; orbicular roundish , outlined brown , claviform obsolete , reniform rather narrow , curved transverse , partially ( \u2642 ) or almost wholly ( \u2640 ) dark fuscous , posteriorly pale - edged ; an elongate patch of grey or fuscous suffusion , in \u2640 partially suffused blackish , occupying submedian area from near base to subterminal line ; subterminal line nearly straight , dentate , with two much stronger teeth on veins 3 and 4 , ochreous - whitish , on lower \u2154 strongly edged anteriorly dark brown in \u2642 , blackish in \u2640 , and followed in middle and at lower end by similar blotches or suffusion : cilia \u2640 brown , \u2642 brownish - ochreous , with pale ochreous bars . hindwings dark grey ; cilia light reddish - brown , tips tinged whitish .\narthur ' s pass , bred from larvae feeding on nothofagus , january ( hudson ) ; 2 ex . closely allied to pascoi , but distinct .\nwellington , during winter ( hudson ) ; 1 ex . mr . hudson has other specimens . allied to insignis , but with the antennal pectinations longer ( insignis a 3 , b 2 ) , basal dash of forewings dark red - brown instead of black , both dentations of subterminal line reaching termen , and otherwise very distinct .\nnot reaching dorsum ochreous - yellow ; broad irregular basal and ante - median white fasciae , and a nearly straight transverse white median streak , these all disappearing on yellow areas ; curved entire post - median and subterminal white streaks , latter sometimes partly macular . hindwings beneath blackish ; veins , broad suffusions along upper and lower margins of cell and dorsum , and praesubterminal and terminal fasciae ochreous - yellow ; broad subbasal fascia and straight transverse antemedian streak white , disappearing on yellow areas ; curved postmedian and subterminal entire white streaks .\nmt . arthur tableland ( 4 , 500 feet ) , arthur ' s pass ( 3 , 500 feet ) , and otira gorge . the description of the undersurface is not given in my original description ; it affords an easy distinction from the following species .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 16 - 19 mm . head , palpi black , \u2640 mixed white . thorax black , hairs somewhat mixed yellow - whitish , especially in \u2640 , front and tegulae \u2642 sprinkled white scales . abdomen black , segmental margins more or less irrorated white , more strongly beneath . forewings triangular , termen rounded , rather oblique ; dark fuscous , slightly and irregularly sprinkled whitish ; subbasal , first , median , second , and subterminal white or whitish lines or slender streaks , first two rather curved , median somewhat irregular or slightly angulated in middle , second more or less obtusely angulated in middle , subterminal irregular , usually macular or sometimes almost obsolete : cilia white barred grey . hindwings dark grey ; a somewhat obtusely angulated whitish or yellow - whitish postmedian line ; in \u2640 also an oblique yellow - whitish antemedian shade or streak , and macular subterminal line ; cilia white , indistinctly barred grey . forewings beneath dark fuscous with five yellowish - white fasciae , first two broad and confluent , occupying basal \u2156 of wing , third moderate , straight or rather angulated , fourth moderate , angulated , fifth narrow , mostly macular . hindwings beneath blackish , \u2642 with broad oblique ante - median and curved postmedian yellow - whitish fasciae and some irregular irroration , \u2640 also with broad subbasal fascia , and posterior fascia confluent with a subterminal fascia nearly extending to termen .\narthur ' s pass , 5 , 000 feet ( hudson ) ; 7 ex . ( 3 \u2642 , 4 \u2640 ) . has been confused with the preceding , from which it is readily distinguished by the small size , different undersurface , absence of yellow on abdomen , etc .\nhaving received from mr . hudson a specimen certified by mr . philpott himself as regilla philp . ( trans . n . z . inst . 58 , 360 ) , i must express my decided opinion that it is not specifically distinguishable from the common and variable perornata , with which it is stated to have been \u201cconfused . \u201d\n\u2640 . 34 mm . head whitish - fuscous , a blotch of dark fuscous suffusion on crown . palpi second joint dark fuscous with whitish - fus -\ncous hairs beneath , terminal joint white . antennae with obliquely projecting teeth ( nearly 1 ) . thorax whity - brownish , an antemedian brown and purplish band . abdomen brown irrorated white , a dorsal series of small dark brown spots , undersurface white . forewings elongate - triangular , costa rather sinuate , termen rather obliquely rounded , waved , more strongly on 6 ; grey , with strong raised transverse dark fuscous strigulae , partly tinged ferruginous ; a pinkish - white basal patch , edge strongly convex , extending to \u00bc of disc , a small linear black mark within it in middle ; second line well - marked , slender , dark fuscous , from \u00be of costa to dorsum before tornus , with strong acute indentation above middle and stronger one on fold , preceded by slight whitish tinge , especially on upper third and widening towards costa ; a terminal fascia of white suffusion , with some fine fuscous strigulation : cilia whitish mixed ferruginous - fuscous with darker lines , especially a dark fuscous basal line , and finely barred white . hindwings and cilia uniform whitish .\n\u2642 . 22\u201325 mm . head , thorax brown . palpi brown , white towards base beneath . forewings very elongate - triangular , termen rather oblique ; brown , with slight ferruginous tinge ; first and second lines fine , whitish , first slightly bent , second excurved in disc , indented on fold ; claviform forming a small round white spot ; anterior and lower edge of discal forming an inverted ? - shaped whitish mark ; an irregular terminal fascia of whitish irroration ; a terminal series of white dots : cilia light brownish . hindwings whitish - grey , greyer posteriorly ; a grey mark on transverse vein ; a curved whitish shade at \u00be ; terminal edge white with some dark grey dots ; cilia whitish , a fine light grey subbasal line .\nwaitati , november ( clarke ) ; 2 ex . apparently allied to phalerias .\nan example from tararua range , 4 , 000 feet ( hudson ) has the ground - colour immediately beneath the white costal streak suffused darker grey .\n\u2640 . 23 mm . forewings more pointed than \u2642 , costa more arched , termen more oblique ( thus , with smaller size , showing some tendency to reduction ) . hindwings rather dark grey ( in \u2642 whitish ) .\narthur ' s pass , january ( hudson ) . the species was described from a single male taken in the same locality , and appears to be rare , though other males have been recorded .\n\u2640 . 19 mm . head , thorax grey . palpi dark grey , slightly speckled white . forewings rather elongate , costa gently arched , apex pointed , termen very obliquely rounded ; glossy bluish - grey ; extreme costal edge dark grey on basal \u00bc , then finely whitish to near apex ; plical stigma rather elongate , blackish ; a fine indistinct whitish inwards - oblique line from dorsum before tornus reaching half across wing , beyond this some obscure fuscous irroration crossing wing obliquely : cilia grey - whitish irrorated fuscous . hindwings dark fuscous ; cilia grey , darker within a faint slender whitish subbasal line .\nflora creek , january ( hudson ) ; 1 ex . inconspicuous but distinct , perhaps allied to nycteris .\n\u2642 . 15 mm . head whitish . palpi whitish , second joint irrorated dark grey except apex . thorax grey - whitish , posteriorly tinged pale fulvous on margins . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex obtuse , termen rounded , rather strongly oblique ; ochreous - whitish , becoming pale ochreous - yellowish posteriorly and towards dorsum anteriorly ; a very oblique fascia of grey suffusion from base of costa to middle of dorsum ; costal spots of grey irroration at \u2153 and \u2157 ; a subtriangular blackish blotch on dorsum about \u00be , surrounded by broad\nlight fulvous irroration or suffusion extending to tornus and \u00be across wing : cilia whitish - ochreous . hindwings grey ; cilia pale grey .\nwellington , november ( hudson ) ; 1 ex . a distinct and ornamental form ; may be placed near plagiatella .\nhead with appressed scales ; tongue developed . antennae \u00be , \u2642 strongly ciliated , scape moderate , with pecten . labial palpi moderately long , recurved , second joint not reaching base of antennae , with appressed scales , terminal joint nearly as long as second , slender , acute . posterior tibiae clothed with hairs above . forewings 2 from near angle , 7 absent , 11 from middle . hindwings 1 , elongate - ovate , cilia \u00be 3 and 4 connate , 5\u20137 nearly parallel .\n\u2642 . 12 mm . head , palpi brownish . antennal ciliations 3 . thorax fuscous . forewings elongate , costa slightly arched , apex obtuse - pointed , termen very obliquely rounded ; fuscous ; stigmata obscure , dark grey , plical rather obliquely beyond first discal , an obscure ochreous - whitish dot beneath second discal : cilia light fuscous . hindwings rather dark grey ; cilia light grey , with darker subbasal shade .\n\u2642 . 16\u201317 mm . head light ochreous - brownish . palpi whitish , anterior edge blackish , second joint laterally brownish except a white line adjoining black edge . thorax fuscous . forewings elongate , rather dilated , costa slightly arched , apex obtuse - pointed , termen sinuate , rather oblique ; ochreous - fuscous ; stigmata forming small obscurely darker spots , plical somewhat before first discal , second discal forming a transverse sometimes interrupted mark ; an angulated fascia of darker suffusion beyond this faintly perceptible , and some towards termen : cilia grey . hindwings light grey , a grey discal dot ; cilia whitish - grey , a greyish subbasal line . apex of valva rather obtuse ( in hamatella rather acute ) .\nwellington , march ( hudson ) ; christchurch , january ; 2 ex . allied to hamatella , of which i formerly regarded it as a grey form .\n\u2642 . 17 mm . head , thorax white mixed grey . palpi white , second joint mixed dark grey , terminal joint with blackish median band and subbasal ring , anterior edge dark grey towards tip . forewings elongate , slightly dilated , costa gently arched , apex obtuse , termen obliquely rounded ; grey - whitish irrorated grey ; an irregular grey streak mixed blackish from base of costa above fold to elongate black plical stigma ; light grey suffusion with irregularly scattered black scales extends also to dorsum at base , over posterior part of cell , above fold to extremity , and forms an irregular excurved fascia at \u2154 , a terminal fascia confluent with this beneath , and spots on costa at \u2153 and \u2158 ; an elongate blackish mark representing second discal stigma beneath this a spot of ochreous - whitish suffusion : cilia whitish mixed grey and blackish - grey except towards base . hindwings light grey ; cilia whitish , a light grey subbasal line .\na curious variety taken by mr . hudson at wellington has the veins of forewings marked with suffused white lines .\nphotographer : birgit e . rhode ( or ber ) unless otherwise specified in the body of the image . images on this page are published under the cc - by 4 . 0 international licence unless otherwise specified .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more"]}
{"id": 845, "summary": [{"text": "cephonodes janus is a moth of the sphingidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from queensland , flores and new caledonia .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 50 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "this species has a very narrow opaque margin around the wings , and a uniformly brown abdomen . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "cephonodes janus", "paragraphs": ["cephonodes janus ( miskin , 1891 ) = hemaris janus miskin , 1891 = cunninghami ( schaufuss , 1870 ) .\ncephonodes janus simplex , female , upperside . new caledonia , loyalty islands , lifou\ncephonodes janus simplex , female , underside . new caledonia , loyalty islands , lifou\nhome \u00bb cephonodes janus simplex , female , upperside . new caledonia , loyalty islands , lifou\ncephonodes janus simplex , female , upperside . new caledonia , loyalty islands , lifou | sphingidae taxonomic inventory\nsynonymized with cephonodes janus as a subspecies by rothschild & jordan , 1903 , novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 465\nthe adult moths in this genus soon lose the scales from the wings , leaving them transparent . the moths then resemble bumble bees , hence the name ' bee hawks ' for the moths in\n. this species has a very narrow opaque margin around the wings , and a uniformly brown abdomen . the moth has a wingspan of about 5 cms .\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\n: angiospermivora regier , c . mitter , kristensen , davis , van nieukerken , rota , simonsen , k . t . mitte , kawahara , yen , cummings & zwick , 2015\n: euheteroneura regier , c . mitter , kristensen , davis , van nieukerken , rota , simonsen , k . t . mitte , kawahara , yen , cummings & zwick , 2015\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nrothschild , l . w . 1896 ,\nsome undescribed lepidoptera\n, novitates zoologicae , vol . 3 , pp . 231 - 232\nrothschild , l . w . 1894 ,\nnotes on sphingidae , with descriptions of new species\n, novitates zoologicae , vol . 1 , pp . 65 - 98 pls 5 - 7\nmiskin , w . h . 1891 ,\na revision of the australian sphingidae\n, proceedings of the royal society of queensland , vol . 8 , pp . 1 - 28\nrothschild , l . w . & jordan , k . 1903 ,\na revision of the lepidopterous family sphingidae\n, novitates zoologicae , ser . supplement , vol . 9 , pp . i - cxxxv , 1 - 972 , pls 1 - 67\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 666afd75 - f983 - 48c3 - 88d9 - 8afa57928324\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : a5fb5f86 - 9f97 - 40b6 - 8d06 - a2543a29184e\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0964c714 - 99ef - 456b - bb87 - bbba04bafc16\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 309562\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright \u00a9 2013 www . sphingidae - museum . com . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more"]}
{"id": 850, "summary": [{"text": "the grotto salamander ( eurycea spelaea ) \u2014 also called the ozark blind salamander \u2014 is a species of salamander in the family plethodontidae .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "it is now considered a member of the genus eurycea , but was originally described as typhlotriton speleus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is endemic to the united states , specifically the karst regions beneath the springfield and salem plateaus of the ozark mountains part of arkansas , kansas , missouri , and oklahoma .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are freshwater springs , inland karsts , and caves .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is not currently threatened , but vulnerable to changes in groundwater quality and reduction in bat population .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the grotto salamander was discovered in 1891 on the ozark plateau , and described by leonhard hess stejneger in 1892 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "this plateau remains the only area in which grotto salamanders have been found . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "grotto salamander", "paragraphs": ["grotto salamander ( typhlotriton spelaeus ) = kansas : endangered federal : n / a grotto salamander photo by suzanne l . more\njim stout has discovered that a rare species of grotto salamander has a diet much different from what was expected . more\ngrotto salamanders can be found from southern missouri south to adjacent northern arkansas and west to northeast oklahoma and extreme southeast kansas . within the midwest the grotto salamander is only found in missouri . more\nthe grotto salamander population was larger than we thought the cave could support ,\nstout said .\nthings didn ' t add up at first .\nthe researchers also noticed a significant drop in the grotto salamander population when the migrating bats were not there . more\nthe grotto salamander is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\nthe only known kansas populations of grotto salamanders are found in the ozark plateau region of cherokee county .\nthe grotto salamander ( typhlotriton spelaeus ) is a species of salamander in the plethodontidae family . it is monotypic within the genus typhlotriton . it is endemic to the united states . its natural habitats are freshwater springs , inland karsts , and caves . more\nand the grotto salamander , typhlotritron spelaeus . there is some question whether the southern redback in caves is just a confusion with the ozark zigzag salamander , plethodon dorsalis , as the outward appearances of the two are similar , and they are closely related . more\ngrotto salamander typhlotriton spelaeus photo by cryptobranchidae\n. . . . when the adult cave salamanders disappear , their larva soon appear in the same mud filled pools that the adults were previously in . more\nfenolio db , niemiller ml , bonett rm , graening go , collier ba , stout jf . life history , demography , and the influence of cave - roosting bats on a population of the grotto salamander (\nbowles bd , sanders ms , hansen rs . ecology of the jollyville plateau salamander (\nchippindale pt , price ah , hillis dm . a new species of perennibranchiate salamander (\ngeorgetown : williamson county conservation foundation ; 2012 . ecological studies of the georgetown salamander (\ntumlison r , cline gr . further notes on the habitat of the oklahoma salamander ,\nmcallister , c . t . , bursey , c . r . , trauth , s . e . , and fenolio , d . b . ( 2006 ) . ' ' helminth parasites of the grotto salamander ,\nonly at grotto falls can you actually walk behind the cascading waterfall , one of the most unique views and photo opportunities in the great smoky mountains national park . take the roaring fork motor nature trail and then follow the trillium gap trailhead to reach grotto falls .\nthe grotto salamander is most abundant in caves that harbor high numbers of bats ( hendricks and kezer 1958 ; bonett and chippindale 2004 ; brandon 1971 ) . from late april to october , and particularly during the summer , gray bats (\nlowe wh . linking dispersal to local population dynamics : a case study using a headwater salamander system .\na roundtrip hike to grotto falls measures 2 . 6 miles and generally takes the average hiker about two to three hours\u2014allowing for a casual stroll to enjoy nature and the scenic landscape . during your time on the grotto falls trail , you will cross four small streams without the help of a bridge .\npierce ba , mcentire kd , wall ae . population size , movement , and reproduction of the georgetown salamander ,\nus fish and wildlife service endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; 4 ( d ) rule for the georgetown salamander .\ndiaz ph , fries jn , bonner th , alexander ml , nowlin wh . mesohabitat associations of the threatened san marcos salamander (\nhillis dm , chamberlain da , wilcox tp , chippindale pt . a new species of subterranean blind salamander ( plethodontidae : hemidactyliini :\nthis is the only species of blind salamander in missouri . adults are true troglobites , living in total darkness and requiring caves with a spring or stream running through them . the delicate balance of cave ecosystems , grotto salamanders and their spring and cave habitats need to be protected from disturbance , including water and groundwater pollution .\nsteffen m , irwin k , blair a , bonett r . larval masquerade : a new species of paedomorphic salamander ( caudata : plethodontidae :\nbesharse , j . c . , and brandon , r . a . ( 2005 ) . ' ' postembryonic eye degeneration in the troglobitic salamander\nstejneger , l . ( 1892 ) . ' ' preliminary description of a new genus and species of blind cave salamander from north america . ' '\ndyer , w . g . ( 1975 ) . ' ' parasitism as an indicator of food sources in a cave - adapted salamander habitat . ' '\nbendik nf , morrison ta , gluesenkamp ag , sanders ms , o\u2019donnell lj . computer - assisted photo identification outperforms visible implant elastomers in an endangered salamander ,\nhaurwitz rkm . amphibian finds itself in middle of austin debate : endangered or not , the tiny barton springs salamander is becoming center of urban - growth argument .\nmartin sd , harris ba , collums jr , bonett rm . life between predators and a small space : substrate selection of an interstitial space - dwelling stream salamander .\nthe cave salamander inhabits underground fresh and well - oxygenated water systems in karst formations , where the water temperature is cool ( between 6\u00bac and 12\u00bac ) ( 3 ) .\ngrotto salamanders are 3 - 5 inches long and have a brownish purple to pinkish white body color . adults are blind and are found only in cave interiors . larvae of this species have functional eyes and live in streams or spring flows near cave openings .\nhendricks , l . j . , and kezer , j . ( 1958 ) . ' ' an unusual population of a blind cave salamander and its fluctuation during one year . ' '\na popular scientific film dealing with our studies of biological peculiarities of endemic cave salamander supports this presentation and was recently created in collaboration with national tv of slovenia ( bulog et al . 2003 ) .\nin the peculiar ecosystem within a cave , grotto salamanders function as predators to insects and other small prey . meanwhile , they and their larvae serve as prey to larger creatures , such as mammals venturing into caverns . even their bodies , after they die , serve as nutrients for future cave life .\nschegel , p . ; bulog , b . ( 1997 ) .\npopulation - specific behavioral electrosensitivity of the european blind cave salamander , proteus anguinus\n. journal of physiology ( paris ) 91 : 75\u201379 .\ndurand , j . p . ( 1976 ) . ' ' ocular development and involution in the european cave salamander , proteus anguinus laurenti . ' ' the biologial bulletin , 151 ( 3 ) , 450 - 466 .\nschlegel p . ( 1996 ) . ' ' behavioral evidence and possible physical and physiological mechanisms for earth magnetic orientation in the european blind cave salamander , proteus anguinus . ' ' m\u00e9moires de biosp\u00e9ologie , 23 , 5 - 16 .\nschlegel p . ( 1996 ) . ' ' behavioral evidence and possible physical and physiological mechanisms for earth magnetic orientation in the european blind cave salamander , proteus anguinus . ' ' m\u00e3\u00a9moires de biosp\u00e3\u00a9ologie , 23 , 5 - 16 .\nthe grotto falls hike is definitely worth your time ! the beautiful trail winds uphill through lush vegetation and past mountain streams . since the hike to the fall is uphill , your return trip is completely down hill . don\u2019t miss your opportunity to walk behind a waterfall \u2013 you may get a little wet , but you won\u2019t get drenched .\n) make use of caves as maternity roosts ( hendricks and kezer 1958 ; bonett and chippindale 2004 ; brandon 1971 ) . bats deposit feces ( guano ) within the cave , leading to an increase in invertebrates associated with the guano . grotto salamander larvae eat isopods , fly larvae , and snails ( brandon 1971 ; petranka 1998 ) , but in a highly unusual move for animals that are normally thought of as strictly carnivorous , grotto salamander larvae also consume bat guano ( fenolio et al . 2006 ) . bat guano is a source of high nutrition in a resource - poor environment ( the cave ) since bats have short digestive tracts and fast digestion times and do not extract the full nutritive value of food items . guano has been found to contain twice the protein content and about two - thirds the calories of an equivalent volume of big mac hamburger . microbial biofilms on the guano may provide extra nutritive value . the nutritive value of guano was found to be higher in terms of protein content , caloric density , and essential mineral content than a potential prey item , cave - dwelling gammarid amphipods ( fenolio et al . 2006 ) .\nyou\u2019ll enjoy the soothing sounds of the falling water and maybe catch sight of a salamander or two at this natural oasis . many visitors describe the experience of walking behind the thunderous power of waterfall to be the highlight of the trip .\nen route to the 25 - foot waterfall , be prepared for a gentle , but steady ascent\u2014an elevation gain of 585 feet . the trail is considered an easy to moderate hike , requiring sturdy shoes and the ability walk along an uneven , unpaved nature trail . at the end of the grotto falls trail , you will reach the magnificent waterfall !\ngori\u010dki , s . , and trontelj , p . ( 2006 ) . ' ' structure and evolution of the mitochondrial control region and flanking sequences in the european cave salamander proteus anguinus . ' ' gene , 378 , 31 - 41 .\nschegel , p . , and bulog , b . ( 1997 ) . ' ' population - specific behavioral electrosensitivity of the european blind cave salamander , proteus anguinus . ' ' journal of physiology ( paris ) , 91 , 75 - 79 .\n) . inclusion of ca and mh categorical site - level covariates improved upon the continuous covariates model , decreasing the aic value by over 8 units . mh was positively correlated with salamander presence , while ca was negatively correlated , though not significantly (\nthe species authority is : stejneger , l . ( 1892 ) . ' ' preliminary description of a new genus and species of blind cave salamander from north america . ' ' proceedings of the united states national museum , 15 , 115 - 117 .\nisteni\u010d , l . and bulog , b . ( 1984 ) . ' ' some evidence for the ampullary organs in the european cave salamander proteus anguinus ( urodela , amphibia ) . ' ' cell and tissue research , 235 , 393 - 402 .\nisteni\u010d , l . ; bulog , b . ( 1984 ) .\nsome evidence for the ampullary organs in the european cave salamander proteus anguinus ( urodela , amphibia )\n. cell tissue res 235 : 393\u2013402 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf00217865 .\nbizjak - mali , l . and bulog , b . ( 2004 ) . ' ' histology and ultrastructure of the gut epithelium of the neotenic cave salamander , proteus anguinus ( amphibia , caudata ) . ' ' journal of mophology , 259 , 82 - 89 .\nthe cave salamander is dependent on large aquatic cave systems . tourism , economic changes and industrial pollution are the main threats to this species as the caves are affected by the land - use above . its populations are also under pressure from collectors for the aquarist trade ( 3 ) .\ngrotto salamanders are most active during spring and summer months when moisture levels in caves are high , food is abundant , and courtship is taking place . adults feed on aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates , including flies , mosquito larvae and beetles . adults may function as a top predator in some cave systems . predators have not been reported although larvae are likely to be vulnerable to crayfish ( brandon 1971 ; petranka 1998 ) .\nguillaume , o . ( 2000 ) . ' ' role of chemical communication and behavioral interactions among conspecifics in the choice of shelters by the cave - dwelling salamander proteus anguinus ( caudata , proteidae ) . ' ' canadian journal of zoology , 78 ( 2 ) , 167 - 173 .\nkos , m . ; bulog , b . et al . ( 2001 ) .\nimmunocytochemical demonstration of visual pigments in the degenerate retinal and pineal photoreceptors of the blind cave salamander ( proteus anguinus )\n. cell tissue res 303 : 15\u201325 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s004410000298 .\ngrotto salamanders are protected by the kansas nongame and endangered species conservation act and administrative regulations applicable thereto . any time an eligible project is proposed that will impact the species\u2019 preferred habitats within its probable range , the project sponsor must contact the ecological services section , kansas department of wildlife , parks and tourism , 512 se 25th ave . , pratt , kansas 67124 - 8174 . department personnel can then advise the project sponsor on permit requirements .\nfenolio , d . b . , graening , g . o . , collier , b . a . , and stout , j . f . ( 2006 ) . ' ' coprophagy in a cave - adapted salamander ; the importance of bat guano examined through nutritional and stable isotope analyses . ' '\nguillaume , o ( 2000 ) .\nrole of chemical communication and behavioural interactions among conspecifics in the choice of shelters by the cave - dwelling salamander proteus anguinus ( caudata , proteidae )\n. can . j . zool . 78 ( 2 ) : 167\u2013173 . doi : 10 . 1139 / z99 - 198 .\nthe trillium gap trail leading to grotto falls offers views of vibrant foliage , including large hemlock trees and a variety of wildflowers . you\u2019ll see both yellow and white trillium , from which the trail takes its name as well as snowy white violets and the delicate blooms of stitchwort . dutchman\u2019s breeches also can be found along this trail . look for the white blooms that resemble men\u2019s pants hanging by their cuffs from a clothesline . the wildflowers are especially vibrant in may ( late spring ) .\ncaves represent a fragile ecosystem vulnerable to disturbance and pollution . long - term monitoring will be needed to determine population trends of these animals ( petranka 1998 ) . this species occurs within several protected areas , but local threats include degradation of ground water quality and forest clear - cutting , which indirectly affects the salamander by changing bat populations ( hammerson 2004 ) .\n) . it is unclear whether this demographic pattern is due to dispersal from their natal site , as eggs were not observed during our study ( and are rarely observed in the wild ; n bendik , pers . obs . , 2015 ) . juveniles may actively avoid adults to escape predation or drift downstream in the current after hatching from their natal sites , as in other aquatic salamander larvae (\nbulog b . , schlegel p . et al . ( 2002 ) . non - visual orientation and light - sensitivity in the blind cave salamander , proteus anguinus ( amphibia , caudata ) . in : latella l . , mezzanotte e . , tarocco m . ( eds . ) . 16th international symposium of biospeleology ; 2002 sep 8\u201315 ; verona : societ\u00e9 internationale de biosp\u00e9ologie , pp . 31\u201332 .\nproteus anguinus lives in the subterranean fresh water biotopes of the dinaric karst , from the isonzo - soca river in south - eastern venezia guilia , italy through the southern half of slovenia , southern croatia , and parts of bosnia and herzegovina to the trebisnjica river in eastern herzegovina ( sket 1997 ) . it has been introduced in the parolini grotto , vicenza , northern italy and tular near kranj in slovenia . it may occur in montenegro but this has not yet been confirmed ( kalezic and dzukic 2001 ) . the variant known as the black olm ( formerly described as the subspecies proteus anguinus parkelj ; see comments ) is found in bela krajina , southeast slovenia ( stet and arntzen 1994 ; griffiths 1996 ) .\nwas 0 . 92 and 0 . 74 , respectively . model - averaged estimates of bi - weekly survival and detection probability based on mean body length ( 24 . 8 mm ) ranged from 0 . 61\u20130 . 66 and 0 . 11\u20130 . 55 , respectively . movement probability , corrected for imperfect detection , was 0 . 15 ( se = 0 . 07 ) for an average length salamander . a full list of model selection results and model - averaged parameter estimates for both capture - recapture analyses are provided in\na cave - dwelling salamander . this is the only known blind , troglobitic salamander which undergoes a complete metamorphosis . adults are white , pinkish white , or light brown on the dorsum and venter . the reduced eyes are dark spots visible through the partially fused eyelids . adults are 36 - 70 mm snout to vent length ( 75 - 135 mm total length ) with 16 - 19 costal grooves . sexually mature males have a slightly swollen upper lip and a pair of cirri ( papilla - like extensions from the upper lip ) . like many other plethodontid salmanders , males also have a mental gland , a raised area on the chin used in courtship . hatchlings are 13 mm snout to vent length ( 17 mm total length ) . the larvae have bushy gills and a moderately high dorsal tail fin . larvae are lightly pigmented ( tan dorsally , often weakly stippled or mottled ) and have functional eyes . the eyes become atrophied and the eyelids fuse at metamorphosis ( brandon 1970 ; 1971 ; petranka 1998 ; besharse and brandon 2005 ) .\nproteus anguinus lives in subterranean waters , and is therefore a difficult subject for field observations . it does occur in caves that are accessible to humans , but as these contain hardly any adults , these accessible parts of caves must be seen as marginal parts of the biotope . most observations on the life history of this salamander have been made in captivity . they have been bred in the subterranean laboratory of the cnrs , in the french pyrenees ( station d ' ecologie exp\u00e9rimental du cnrs , at moulis , france ) for more than 50 years , since 1955 . the following life history account is made using data from observations on captive salamanders .\nproteus anguinus is thought to be the longest - lived amphibian species . using data spanning more than 50 years from a 400 - animal captive breeding colony at the cnrs in moulis , france , the predicted maximum lifespan is over a century , and the average adult olm lifespan is 68 . 5 years ( voituron et al . 2010 ) . if the predicted maximum lifespan is accurate , it is more than double that of the next longest - lived species , the japanese giant salamander ( andrias japonicus , at 55 years . individual specimens have been kept under semi - natural conditions in concrete basins for up to 70 years ( prof . b . bulog , personal communication ) . this species reaches sexual maturity at 15 . 6 years and lays 35 eggs every 12 years , on average ( voituron et al . 2010 ) .\nwe performed two studies to examine e . tonkawae ecology at the individual , population and metapopulation scale to understand surface habitat use of this threatened , aquatic salamander endemic to the metropolitan area of austin , texas . our first study was motivated by the surface critical habitat initially proposed for this and two similar species , which was based on the maximum distance ( 50 m ) e . naufragia had been recorded to move during a single study near a spring ( us fish and wildlife service , 2012 ) . using data from repeated capture - recapture surveys during a single season , we generated estimates of superpopulation size at various distances upstream and downstream from the spring , quantified the movement of individuals between these areas , and documented the demographic structure of the population to determine whether the proposed critical habitat boundaries adequately reflect habitat used or potentially used by e . tonkawae .\nthe cave salamander is a rare amphibian with an unusual appearance , shaped by several million years of living in dark , subterranean caves in central europe ( 2 ) . its skin lacks pigment , giving its body a white , pasty appearance . it also has a pink hue due to blood capillaries near the skin , and as its translucency shows the contours of the internal organs . this strange fleshy skin led to this species ' common name , the human fish , as people thought this bizarre amphibian resembled a small human ( 3 ) . this cave dwelling amphibian ' s four limbs are short and feeble , and its eyes are so poorly developed that it is blind ( 2 ) . its head is elongated with a round snout , and on each side of the head there are three distinctive scarlet gill tufts that are used in respiration , although adults develop lungs as well ( 2 ) . males are smaller than females , and can be distinguished from females during breeding season by their larger cloaca ( 3 ) .\nelongate and slender salamander with small , thin extremities . the front legs bear three toes , the rear legs two toes . the flattened tail is markedly shorter than the trunk . the head is elongated with a rounded snout . eyes are poorly developed and covered by skin in the nominate subspecies . there are three pink external gills on each side of the head . the translucent skin also shows the contours of the internal organs on the ventral site of the body , making it easy to determine the sex of adults . juveniles sometimes show a faded spotting . dark pigmentation can be induced by exposure to light . this shows that these animals do not display albinism , as commonly thought , because they still possess the ability to produce melanin . the variant previously described as a subspecies ( p . anguinus parkelj , the black olm , now shown to be phylogenetically nested well within p . anguinus ; see comments ) has a permanent dark pigmentation of the skin , and probably functional eyes . it also has a shorter head than p . a . anguinus .\ncritical habitat for many species is often limited to occupied localities . for rare and cryptic species , or those lacking sufficient data , occupied habitats may go unrecognized , potentially hindering species recovery . proposed critical habitat for the aquatic jollyville plateau salamander ( eurycea tonkawae ) and two sister species were delineated based on the assumption that surface habitat is restricted to springs and excludes intervening stream reaches . to test this assumption , we performed two studies to understand aspects of individual , population , and metapopulation ecology of e . tonkawae . first , we examined movement and population demographics using capture - recapture along a spring - influenced stream reach . we then extended our investigation of stream habitat use with a study of occupancy and habitat dynamics in multiple headwater streams . indications of extensive stream channel use based on capture - recapture results included frequent movements of > 15 m , and high juvenile abundance downstream of the spring . initial occupancy of e . tonkawae was associated with shallow depths , maidenhair fern presence and low temperature variation ( indicative of groundwater influence ) , although many occupied sites were far from known springs . additionally , previously dry sites were three times more likely to be colonized than wet sites . our results indicate extensive use of stream habitats , including intermittent ones , by e . tonkawae . these areas may be important for maintaining population connectivity or even as primary habitat patches . restricting critical habitat to occupied sites will result in a mismatch with actual habitat use , particularly when assumptions of habitat use are untested , thus limiting the potential for recovery .\nalthough adults aggregate in suitable spots as in cracks and under rocks , males establish a territory when breeding , which is furiously protected from competing males . when a female enters such a territory , the courtship begins . the male fans with his tail in the direction of the female ' s head . the male touches the female ' s cloaca with his snout . the female then touches the male ' s cloaca with her snout and then follows the male who walks 5 - 10 cm forward after which the male deposits a spermatophore . the pair then moves forward again until the female can take up the spermatophore with her cloaca . courtship can be repeated several times within a few hours . after leaving the male ' s territory , the female establishes an egg - laying territory . after 2 - 3 days the female starts to lay eggs and can continue doing so for up to 25 days , laying a total of up to 70 eggs under rocks . eggs are guarded by the female . the diameter of the eggs directly after laying is 4 - 5 mm and can increase through water uptake to 8 - 9 mm . unconfirmed historical observations of vivipary exist ; it was long thought that female proteus gave birth to only two well - developed young at lower temperatures and laid eggs at higher temperatures , but this has not been confirmed by rigorous observations . the eggs develop in 182 days at 8\u00bac , 140 days at 10\u00bac , 123 days at 11\u00bac , and in 86 days at 15\u00bac . development of larvae is highly temperature - dependent . at 10\u00bac it takes another 14 years to reach sexual maturity . there is no clear metamorphosis ; p . anguinus is a neotenic salamander , maintaining external gills , tail fin and other juvenile characteristics throughout its life .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species can be found in the salem and springfield plateaus in the ozark region of missouri , oklahoma , arkansas , and kansas , usa ( conant and collins 1991 , collons 1993 , johnson 2000 ) .\njohnson ( 2000 ) mapped occurrences in 25 counties in missouri . most of the rest of the range is in arkansas , where an out - of - date review by brandon ( 1970 ) indicated 12 locations ( he showed 15 in missouri ) .\nadults inhabit caves . larvae are found in surface spring runs as well as in cave waters . most abundant in caves that have a large number of bats . probably attaches eggs to rocks in or near water .\nit is unthreatened range wide , but vulnerable to factors that degrade ground water quality or that negatively impact bat populations ( such as water pollution , and clear - cutting of forest ) .\nlong - term monitoring is needed to assess the viability of populations ( petranka 1998 ) . it occurs in several protected areas .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nfind local mdc conservation agents , consultants , education specialists , and regional offices .\nadults are beige to pink . a cave - dweller , this species lacks gills and is partly or completely blind . the head is rather wide and flat . the tail is long , rounded and finless . there are 16\u201319 grooves along the side . eyes are small , reduced and covered or partially covered by a fusion of the eyelids . the eyes may appear sunken . larvae have gills , functional eyes , broad tail fins and more pigment , being brown to dark gray , sometimes with spots or streaking on the sides and tail .\nadults eat mainly small insects . they occur in greater abundance in caves with many bats , probably because they feed on insects attracted to the bat guano . larvae probably eat tiny freshwater amphipods and other small aquatic invertebrates .\nthe survival of this species requires healthy cave ecosystems , which in turn require clean groundwater and lack of disturbance by humans . a species of conservation concern .\nthis species breeds during the period of greatest food supply , which for them is in winter and early spring . fertilization is internal ( as with most salamanders ) , and the eggs are probably attached to stones in or near water in caves . the larvae are aquatic and inhabit cave streams and sometimes also springs or streams that flow out of caves or grottoes . they may take 2\u20133 years to transform into adults .\nthe smooth gracefulness of these vulnerable pink salamanders , reminds us of the overall delicacy of their cave ecosystem . it is important to be extremely careful to respect caves , their inhabitants and the archaeological artifacts they contain . \u201cwalk softly , and leave no trace . \u201d\nmissouri\u2019s herptiles comprise 43 amphibians and 75 reptiles . amphibians , including salamanders , toads , and frogs , are vertebrate animals that spend at least part of their life cycle in water . they usually have moist skin , lack scales or claws , and are ectothermal ( cold - blooded ) , so they do not produce their own body heat the way birds and mammals do . reptiles , including turtles , lizards , and snakes , are also vertebrates , and most are ectothermal , but unlike amphibians , reptiles have dry skin with scales , the ones with legs have claws , and they do not have to live part of their lives in water .\nwe protect and manage the fish , forest , and wildlife of the state . we facilitate and provide opportunity for all citizens to use , enjoy , and learn about these resources .\nrestricted to two plateaus in the ozark region of southern missouri , extreme southeastern kansas , and adjacent areas in arkansas and oklahoma . missouri distributions in 25 counties were mapped by johnson ( 2000 ) . adults are not known outside of the twilight and dark zones of caves and sinkholes , but larvae are found in cave entrances and springs as well as nearby creeks . adults may be found in water or on moist vertical rock walls which extend out of the water . sandy or gravelly substrates are preferred by the larvae ( hendricks and kezer 1958 ; brandon 1970 , 1971 ; petranka 1998 ; trauth et al . 2004 ) .\ncourtship has not been described . mating occurs from late spring through summer . oviposition likely occurs from late summer to fall when females disappear from the surface . oviposition sites have not been documented , but presumably are in rocky crevices . female attendance of eggs is likely . clutch size from one female was 13 ( brandon 1971 ; petranka 1998 ) .\nthe larval period lasts from 1 - 3 years ( brandon 1971 ) or 2 - 6 years or longer depending on locality and conditions . adults are known to live for at least 12 years in captivity , but their lifespan in the wild is unknown . if\nis comparable to cave fish and crayfish their lifespan may be considerably longer , 20 - 25 years , than terrestrial salamanders as a response to energy resource limitations ( fenolio et al . 2014 , fenolio , personal communication ) .\nthis species is unique in that it starts life as a fully sighted larva but then metamorphoses underground into a terrestrial adult that loses its pigment and becomes blind , with the eyelids eventually fusing ( brandon 1970 ; 1971 ; petranka 1998 ; besharse and brandon 2005 ) . however , it is likely that some light sensitivity remains in the eye structures because adults have photophobic behavior . there three main hypotheses explaining why the eye forms but then becomes vestigial and loses its color . the first is that there is a link between the genes that code for skin pigment and eye pigment . however , this would not explain the loss of the structure in the eye . the second hypothesis is that early development of the eye plays a role in skull development . this hypothesis is supported by the fact that many blind cavefish also have eyes early in development that are completely loss after the skull is formed . the third hypothesis is that the loss of the eye helps the species conserve energy ( fenolio personal , communication ) . the energy economy hypothesis for loss of eyes was reviewed by jeremy niven ( 2015 ) , who argued that the cost of developing and maintaining eyes is substantial as illustrated by a positive correlation in eye and brain size in fish in comparisons of cave , intermediate / hybrid , and terrestrial fish , which indicates that when eyes are present a substantial portion of the brain is needed for visual processing , and oxygen consumption rates . energy savings from loss of eyes could reduce the amount of time needed for foraging and allow energy to be re - invested in other physiological processes , including reproduction . this hypothesis is reasonable for\nconsidering the resource limitation it experiences . lastly , hypotheses two and three are not mutually exclusive and may both be accurate explanations ( fenolio , personal communication ) .\ncould be retained as a clade name , for example in phylocode . because mitochondrial dna sequence divergence within\nbonett , r . , and chippindale , p . t . ( 2004 ) . ' ' speciation , phylogeography , and evolution of life history and morphology in plethodontid salamanders of the\namerican society of ichthyologists and herpetologists , 84 . 1 - 84 . 2 .\n( caudata : plethodontidae ) , from northern arkansas and southern missouri , u . s . a . ' '\ntrauth , s . e . , robison , h . w . , and plummer , m . v . ( 2004 ) .\nmeredith j . mahoney , additions by david b . wake and k . whittaker ( molge at yahoo . com ) , museum of vertebrate zoology , uc berkeley\nedited by kellie whittaker ; updated by ann t . chang ( 2016 - 02 - 22 )\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nstatewide comprehensive outdoor recreation plan ( s . c . o . r . p )\nas defined by kansas administrative regulations , critical habitats include those areas documentedas currently supporting self - sustaining population ( s ) of any threatened or endangered species of wildlife as well as those areas determined by the kansas department of wildlife , parks and tourism to be essential for the conservation of any threatened or endangered species of wildlife .\nall caves and associated spring flows within that portion of cherokee county lying south and east of a line beginning at the kansas - missouri border junction with u . s . highway 66 at sec . 13 , t34s , t25e , then extending westerly and southerly along u . s . 66 to the kansas - oklahoma border at sec . 14 , t35s , r24e .\nrecent molecular studies have shown that it is a close relative of species of the genus eurycea that occur nearby . it differs strikingly from these species in its larger size and cave - related features , but because it is phylogenetically nested within the euryea multiplicata complex , bonett and chippindale placed it in eurycea . thus its name was change from typhlotriton spelaeus to eurycea spelaea ( bonett and chippindale 2004 ) .\nin an alternative to linnean classification , the name typhlotriton could be retained as a clade name , for example in phylocode . because mitochondrial dna sequence divergence within e . spelaea is relatively great , some of the populations might be recognized as distinct species ( two additional species were described in the past but now included within e . spelaea ; bonett and chippindale 2004 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbehler , j . l . , and f . w . king . 1979 ( 1987 ) . the audubon society field guide to north american reptiles and amphibians . 3rd ed . alfred a . knopf , new york . 743 pp .\nconant , r . , and j . t . collins . 1998 . a field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central north america . 3rd ed . , expanded . houghton mifflin co . , boston . 616 pp .\ntrauth , s . e . , h . w . robison , and m . v . plummer . 2004 . amphibians and reptiles of arkansas . university of arkansas press , fayetteville . 421 pp .\nerror . page cannot be displayed . please contact your service provider for more details . ( 26 )\nvisitors have the opportunity to hear the fall\u2019s power and see the water cascaded into the pool in front of them . walking behind a large waterfall is an experience like none other and not to be missed !\nafter the waterfall , if you wish to continue to the summit of mount leconte , use our trillium gap trail hike review .\nthe most authoritative source for restaurants , attractions , & cabin rentals in the smoky mountains .\n> stream x\u00fa\u00ect\u00dfksq\u0014 ? \u00f7\u00ee\u00d7\u00fd\u000fc\u00b3\u00ed\u00a65\u00b9\u00ea0\u00b3\u0019\u0003\u00ed\u0097p\u00b6\u0010\u00f3\u00b2tk\u00f6\u0010\u0083er1\u00e9\u00a5 r\u0088\u000f\u00bbkrq\u00e14a\u00ed\u0084 % > x\u0019\u00ac\u0090j\u00f9\u00e3tz\u0090j\u00ea\u00920 _ \u0084 | \u00f1 ^ * | \u00e8\u00a1\u0087\u00ee\u00f7\u00fep + \u00ff\u0081 . \u00df\u00fb\u00fd ~ \u00ee9\u009fs\u00ee\u00e7\u00b0\u00fd / \u0000\u00f0\u0000\u008a * p\u00e2\u00ee\u0000\u0013\u00a4 \u0013\u00fa\u00f4\u00f821\u00e1\u00a4\u008c\u00b8\u0019\u0081\u00a2 ( \u00e08 ' \u00e9\u00eax\u00f4\u00b3 | \u009d\u00ebb\u00e2\u00b0\u00b87\u0002 + u\u00f4 [ \u00be . 8\u00e9jn \u00b8\u00e9\u008e\u00f0\u00e3\u00ea - \u00ba\u0087\u00f7bt\u00ed\u0013 ) , 6\u0097\u00ecj\u00aalt\u0003eu\u009d ] \u007f\u00ec\u0016 ] n\u00fa\u00ae\u00f5im\u00aao\u00bc\u00bb\u009f\u00ed\u00e9 ; \u00bd\u00b5 + \u00ef\u00ff\u00f2\u0081\u00eak\u00b7s\u00fe ` \u00b4\u00e6\u0013 + ~ m ) \u00d7u\u00a9\u00ba\u00e81\u00aa11\u00ea\u00f27 : \u0002\u00e6 ~ u @ u \u00f8 ~ og\u00b3\u00b7\u0013\u00ee\u00e1\u00bd\u00bf\u00b4u\u00ea * \u00fa\u0002\u00e5\u0084\u00e9\u00e0\u00b5\u00b5 # \u00f6\u00a9\u0081\u00f8\u00f4\u00f0\u00f0\u00f0j | dd\u00e5\u00f5\u00f4\u00f4\u00e0\u00fd\u00f9\u00f9 { c\u00af\u00e3\u00f1\u00a1\u00a1\u00f8\u0000n\u00ab\u00ab\u00f1\u00f8\u00b6z\u00e3\u00ed { \u00fb\u00bc ` \u00f6\u0094\u00f5\u00a8\u00bex\u00a16\u0086\u0004\u00ec ~ \u00e7\u00be\b : sa\u00ebq1\u00a41\u00a3\u00b9\u0014\u00ae4g ; \u00ec\u009fri\u008dor\u00ba\u00b1\u0095\u00b1\u00f9zk\u009d\u00be \\ j\u0099 % \u00a6\u00e6\u00d7 - \u0098r\u00f4\u00dfq\u00a2\u00fe\u00b2\u00e7 / \u00fb [ \u0090\u007f\u00ba\u0001a\u009d ) b\u00f3\u00ea\u00eb - j\u0017\u00bf\u00fcoz\u00f9\u00ef\u0094\u00ea aibv\u00a5\u00bd\u00e6\u00f5q\u008b\u0004\u00bf\u00fc\u00e8 zb\u0084p ` ? 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\u00e3m\u00fb } \u00e31 i\u00b8\u0004u a\u00a8\u0019\u00f8\u0007 ? jj\u0096w\u0005\u008f\u0014\u00aev\u0084\u00e2\u00fa\u00ed \\ \u009f\u00b5na\u00e3\u00fda\u00a4\u0097q\u00ba\u008c\u007f\u00e7\u00ec\u00ff\u0000\u00f7\u00f0\u00f0\u00e1x\u009c\u0003qh @ \u00e6w\n\u0081 ; \u0012 . \u00a5v\u00e9\u00e4\u00f3\u0006\u00f7\u0090\u00f3\u001bq\u00b9\u00e1o\u00b5l\u0000\u00eb\u0089 tev\u00e9s\u00f8p\u0017\u00e5 \u009e ; \u00e2\u00a9\u0010\u00ebb\u00f6\u00e9\u00e3\u00ea\u00fck\u0083\u00f0\u00ef5 \u00fa\u00ef ? \u00e7\u00ea _ \u00fb\u00ec\u00f3p\u0082\u0080\u0080 @ \u00a4\u00ea\u00f3\u00b8\u008e } \u00a21\u00e0\u00e7\u00f2\u008fc\u00f2\u00949\u0004\u0011\u00f4u\u00f7\u00ab7 \u0091\u00e9\u00b5\u0013 ue\u0091t\u0001 # * \u00bb \u00eavf\u0000epk8\u00e6\u00ef\u00e5q\u0094 ; \u0003 ( \u00e0\u00ff\u0000\u00b5s\u0004 \u00e5h , \u000fr { s\u0019\u00027\u001b\u00b2 : \u0003\u00e6i\u0088\u008dp\nthe average total length lies between 23 - 25 cm . they may grow up to 30 cm and rarely more than 30 cm . black proteus can grow up to 40 cm or more . males are somewhat smaller than females . other sexually dimorphic characteristics include the shape and size of the cloaca during breeding activity , with the males having a larger and more elongated swollen cloaca than the females .\nsket and arntzen ( 1994 ) described black populations of proteus as a separates subspecies , and defended this taxonomic decision based on the limited amount of morphological ( morphometric ) differentiation that arntzen and sket ( 1997 ) observed between the two subspecies . however , goricki and tronteltj ( 2006 ) found little differentiation between the two subspecies at the molecular level and questioned whether the designation of subspecies was appropriate . subsequently tronteltj et al . ( 2007 ) reported that both\nsubspecies\nwere nested within a southeastern slovenian clade of p . anguinus and that the division was in fact simply intra - lineage diversity .\nproteus is the only cave - adapted vertebrate in europe . current genetic research under the direction of dr . boris sket of the university of ljubljana suggests that proteus anguinus is actually a complex of several species , with phylogenetic analysis revealing six cryptic lineages ( see trontelj et al . 2007 ) .\nfunctional - morphological and environmental studies of proteus have been performed at the department of biology , biotechnical faculty ( bf ) , university of ljubljana , slovenia for more than thirty years , with the most recent twenty years under the guidance of prof . dr . boris bulog .\narntzen , j . w . , and sket , b . ( 1997 ) . ' ' morphometric analysis of black and white european cave salamanders , proteus anguinus . ' ' journal of zoology ( london ) , 241 ( 4 ) , 699 - 707 .\nbizjak - mali , l . ( 1995 ) . histological , histochemical and ultrastructural analysis of the digestive tract of proteus anguinus ( amphibia , caudata ) , master of science thesis . university of ljubljana , biotechnical faculty , department of biology , slovenia .\nboehme , w . , grossenbacher , k . , and thiesmeier , b . ( 1999 ) . handbuch der reptilien und amphibien europas , band 4 / i : schwanzlurche ( urodela ) . aula - verlag , wiesbaden .\nbons , j . and beniez , p . ( 1996 ) . amphibiens et reptiles du maroc ( sahara occidental compris ) . asociacion herpetologica espa\u00f1ola , barcelona .\nbulog b . ( 1989 ) . ' ' differentiation of the inner ear sensory epithelia of proteus anguinus ( urodela , amphibia ) . ' ' journal of morphology , 202 , 325 - 338 .\nbulog b . et al . ( 2003 ) . black proteus : mysterious dweller of the karst in bela krajina . ljubljana : tv slovenia , video tape\nbulog b . , and schlegel , p . ( 2000 ) . ' ' functional morphology of the inner ear and underwater audiograms of proteus anguinus ( amphibia , urodela ) . ' ' pfl\u00fcgers archive , 439 ( 3 ) , 165 - 167 .\nbulog , b . , mihajl , k . , jeran , z . , and toman , m . ( 2002 ) . ' ' trace element concentrations in the tissues of proteus anguinus ( amphibia , caudata ) and the surrounding environment . ' ' water , air , and soil pollution , 136 ( 1 - 4 ) , 147 - 163 .\ndumas , p . and chris , b . ( 1998 ) . ' ' the olfaction in proteus anguinus . ' ' behavioural processes , 43 , 107 - 113 .\ngasc , j . - p . ( 1997 ) . atlas of amphibians and reptiles in europe . societas europaea herpetologica , bonn , germany .\ngriffiths , r . a . ( 1996 ) . newts and salamanders of europe . t . and a . d . poyser , london .\nhonegger , r . e . ( 1981 ) . threatened amphibians and reptiles in europe . akademische verlagsgesellschaft , wiesbaden .\nisteni\u010d , l . and bulog , b . ( 1979 ) . ' ' the structural differentiations of the buccal and pharyngeal mucous membrane of the proteus anguinus laur . ' ' biolo\u0161ki vestnik , 27 , 1 - 12 .\nisteni\u010d , l . and sojar , a . ( 1974 ) . ' ' oxygen consumption of proteus anguinus . ' ' acta carsologica , 6 , 299 - 305 .\nistenic , l . and ziegler , i . ( 1974 ) . ' ' riboflavin as ' ' pigment ' ' in the skin of proteus anguinus l . ' ' naturwissenschaften , 12 , 686 - 687 .\nkalezic , m . , and dzukic , g . ( 2001 ) . ' ' amphibian status in serbia and montenegro ( fr yugoslavia ) . ' ' froglog , 45 .\nkos , m . ( 1992 ) . ' ' fine structure of of the skin of proteus anguinus laurenti ( urodela , amphibia ) and comparison of the skin of the pigmentless and pigmented specimen . unpublished dissertation . ' '\nkos , m . , bulog , b . , sz\u00e9l , a . , and r\u00f6hlich p . ( 2001 ) . ' ' immunocytochemical demonstration of visualpigments in the degenerate retinal and pineal photoreceptors of the blind cavesalamander ( proteus anguinus ) . ' ' cell and tissue research , 303 ( 1 ) , 15 - 25 .\nn\u00f6llert , a . and n\u00f6llert , c . ( 1992 ) . die amphibien europas . franckh - kosmos verlags - gmbh and company , stuttgart .\nschlegel p . a . , briegleb w . , bulog b . , steinfartz s . ( 2006 ) . ' ' revue et nouvellesdonn\u00e9es sur la sensitivit\u00e9 a la lumiere et orientation non - visuelle chez proteus anguinus , calotriton asper et desmognathus ochrophaeus ( amphibiens urodeles hypog\u00e9s ) . ' ' bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 herp\u00e9tologique de france , 118 , 1 - 31 .\nsket , b . ( 1997 ) . ' ' distribution of proteus ( amphibia : urodela : proteidae ) and its possible explanation . ' ' journal of biogeography , 24 , 263 - 280 .\nstet , b . , and arntzen , j . w . ( 1994 ) . ' ' a black , non - troglomorphic amphibian from the karst of slovenia : proteus anguinus parkelj n . ssp . ( urodela : proteidae ) . ' ' bijdragen tot de dierkunde , 64 ( 1 ) , 33 - 53 .\nstuart , s . , hoffmann , m . , chanson , j . , cox , n . , berridge , r . , ramani , p . , and young , b . ( eds ) ( 2008 ) . threatened amphibians of the world . lynx edicions , iucn , and conservation international , barcelona , spain ; gland , switzerland ; and arlington , virginia , usa .\nstumpel - rieks , s . e . ( 1992 ) . nomina herpetofaunae europaeae . aula - verlag , wiesbaden .\ntrontelj , p . , douady , c . , fi\u0161er , c . , gibert , j . , gori\u010dki , s . , lef\u00e9bure , t . , sket , b . , and zak\u0161ek , v . ( 2007 ) . ' ' a molecular test for cryptic diversity in ground water : how large are the ranges of macro - stygobionts ? ' ' freshwater biology , 54 , 727 - 744 .\nuiblein , f . , durand , j . p . , juberthie , c . , and parzefall , j . ( 1992 ) . ' ' predation in caves : the effects of prey immobility and darkness on the foraging behaviour of two salamanders , euproctus asper and proteus anguis . ' ' bahavioural processes , 28 , 33 - 40 .\nvoituron , y . , de fraipont , m . , issartel , j . , guillaume , o . , and clobert , j . ( 2010 ) . ' ' extreme lifespan of the human fish ( proteus anguinus ) : a challenge for ageing mechanisms . ' ' biology letters , published online before print july 21 , 2010 , doi : 10 . 1098 / rsbl . 2010 . 0539 .\nbons , j . and beniez , p . ( 1996 ) . amphibiens et reptiles du maroc ( sahara occidental compris ) . asociacion herpetologica espa\u00e3\u00b1ola , barcelona .\nbulog b . , and schlegel , p . ( 2000 ) . ' ' functional morphology of the inner ear and underwater audiograms of proteus anguinus ( amphibia , urodela ) . ' ' pfl\u00e3\u00bcgers archive , 439 ( 3 ) , 165 - 167 .\nisteni\u010d , l . and bulog , b . ( 1979 ) . ' ' the structural differentiations of the buccal and pharyngeal mucous membrane of the proteus anguinus laur . ' ' biolo\u00e5\u00a1ki vestnik , 27 , 1 - 12 .\nkos , m . , bulog , b . , sz\u00e3\u00a9l , a . , and r\u00e3\u00b6hlich p . ( 2001 ) . ' ' immunocytochemical demonstration of visualpigments in the degenerate retinal and pineal photoreceptors of the blind cavesalamander ( proteus anguinus ) . ' ' cell and tissue research , 303 ( 1 ) , 15 - 25 .\nn\u00e3\u00b6llert , a . and n\u00e3\u00b6llert , c . ( 1992 ) . die amphibien europas . franckh - kosmos verlags - gmbh and company , stuttgart .\nschlegel p . a . , briegleb w . , bulog b . , steinfartz s . ( 2006 ) . ' ' revue et nouvellesdonn\u00e3\u00a9es sur la sensitivit\u00e3\u00a9 a la lumiere et orientation non - visuelle chez proteus anguinus , calotriton asper et desmognathus ochrophaeus ( amphibiens urodeles hypog\u00e3\u00a9s ) . ' ' bulletin de la soci\u00e3\u00a9t\u00e3\u00a9 herp\u00e3\u00a9tologique de france , 118 , 1 - 31 .\ntrontelj , p . , douady , c . , fi\u00e5\u00a1er , c . , gibert , j . , gori\u010dki , s . , lef\u00e3\u00a9bure , t . , sket , b . , and zak\u00e5\u00a1ek , v . ( 2007 ) . ' ' a molecular test for cryptic diversity in ground water : how large are the ranges of macro - stygobionts ? ' ' freshwater biology , 54 , 727 - 744 .\nthe species is restricted to subterranean aquatic habitats within the dinaric alps , ranging from southern slovenia and adjoining north - east italy through coastal croatia and karst regions of bosnia and herzegovina . it has yet to be officially recorded in western parts of montenegro despite considerable anecdotal evidence of its presence ( kalezic and dzukic , 2001 ) . the species has been introduced to a cave of the subterranean laboratory of the cnrs france in the pyrenees ( c . miaud pers . comm . ) , and one of the north - eastern italian populations ( in the vicenza area ) was introduced in the 1800s ( p . edgar pers . comm . ) ."]}
{"id": 857, "summary": [{"text": "bothrops ammodytoides is a venomous pit viper species endemic to argentina .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "no subspecies are currently recognized .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "common names : patagonian lancehead , yararanata , patagonian pit viper . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "bothrops ammodytoides", "paragraphs": ["bothrops ammodytoides leybold 1873 : 80 rhinocerophis nasus garman 1881 bothrops patagonicus m\u00fcller 1885 bothrops burmeisteri koslowsky 1895 : 369 lachesis ammodytoides \u2014 boulenger 1896 bothrops ammodytoides \u2014 amaral 1929 bothrops ammodytoides \u2014 peters & orejas - miranda 1970 bothrops ammodytoides \u2014 cei 1993 bothrops ammodytoides \u2014 welch 1994 : 31 bothrops ammodytoides \u2014 mcdiarmid , campbell & tour\u00e9 1999 : 253 rhinocerophis ammodytoides \u2014 fenwick et al . 2009 bothrops ammodytoides \u2014 carrasco et al . 2012 rhinocerophis ammodytoides \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 648\nbothrops ammodytoides by lambert m . surhone , mariam t . tennoe , susan f . henssonow\nbothrops ammodytoides , a venomous pit viper species endemic to argentina ; common name yarar\u00e1 \u00f1ata .\nsome toxic and enzymatic activities of bothrops ammodytoides ( yarar\u00e1 \u00f1ata ) venom . - pubmed - ncbi\nregistros de yarar\u00e1 \u00f1ata ( bothrops ammodytoides ) en catamarca . n\u00f3tulas faun\u00edsticas ( segunda serie ) , 190 .\nrhinocerophis nasus ( garman , 1881 ) , a junior synonym of bothrops ammodytoides ( leybold , 1873 ) .\nrhinocerophis alternatus , r . ammodytoides , r . cotiara , r . fonsecai , r . itapetiningae , and r . jonathani .\nbothrops microphthalmus cope 1876 : 182 bothrops microphthalmus \u2014 cope 1879 : 277 lachesis microphthalmus boulenger 1896 lachesis pleuroxanthus boulenger 1912 : 423 bothrops microphtalmus [ sic ] \u2014 p\u00e9rez - santos & moreno 1988 porthidium microphthalmum \u2014 sch\u00e4tti & kramer 1993 bothrops microphthalmus \u2014 welch 1994 : 33 bothrops microphthalmus \u2014 mcdiarmid , campbell & tour\u00e9 1999 : 267 bothrocophias microphthalmus \u2014 gutberlet & campbell 2001 bothrops microphthalmus \u2014 lehr et al . 2002 bothrocophias microphthalmus \u2014 carrasco et al . 2012 bothrocophias microphthalmus \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 113\nthe lancehead pit viper group of 39 species of south american pit vipers were formerly all grouped into the genus bothrops . recent changes in taxonomy of the bothrops genus has resulted in the bothrops genus being split into three genera : bothropoides , rhinocerophis and bothrops . however , some experts have argued in favor odfretaining the one gneus , bothrops ( 1 ) . the current taxonmy of three genera is used by the reptile database ( 2 ) .\nnomenclatural instability in the venomous snakes of the bothrops complex : implications in toxinology . . .\ndiet generalists including a high proportion of mammal prey ( 42 . 8\u201360 % in b . ammodytoides and b . itapetiningae ) or mammal speciesalists .\nscrocchi , g . 1997 . acerca de la localidad tipo de bothrops ammodytoides leybold ( serpentes : viperidae ) y pseudotomodon trigonatus ( leybold ) ( serpentes : colubridae ) . cuadernos de herpetolog\u00eda 11 ( 1 - 2 ) : 69 - 70 .\ncarrasco , paola a . ; leynaud , gerardo c . ; scrocchi , gustavo j 2010 . redescription of the southernmost snake species , bothrops ammodytoides ( serpentes : viperidae : crotalinae ) . amphibia - reptilia 31 : 323 - 338 - get paper here\nscrocchi , g . j . 1997 . acerca de la localidad tipo de bothrops ammodytoides leybold ( serpentes , viperidae ) y pseudotomodon trigonatus ( leybold ) ( serpentes : colubridae ) . cuadernos de herpetologia 11 ( 1 - 2 ) : 69 - 70 - get paper here\nsystematics of the bolivian and peruvian species of the genus bothrops ( serpentes : viperidae : crotal . . .\nwe did not examine individuals of bothrops lutzi , but based on priorir work that elevated this species out of the bothrops neuwiedi complex ( silva , 2000 , 2004 ) , we include it in the genus bothropoides .\ncertain species were recovered in different positions in different analyses . bothrops pictus was the only species not recovered in a species group in analysis 11 : it was sister to the remainder of the bothrops + bothriopsis clade ( p . = 97 ) . in parsimony analysis 10 , however , a sister relationship between b . pictus and the b . alternatus clade was supported by a bootstrap value of 56 ; this relationship was not recovered in the majority - rule consensus of the shortest trees . in all other cases of alternative placements , the species relationships were supported with posterior probability and bootstrap values of less than 65 . species with alternative placements were bothrops andianus , bothrops barnetti parker , 1938 , bothrops mattogrossensis amaral , 1925 , bothrops sanctaecrucis hoge , 1966 , and bothrops venezuelensis sandner - montilla , 1952 .\nthe generic name is derived from the latin rhinocer , meaning \u2018nose - horn\u2019 , referring to the strongly upturned snout of r . ammodytoides , and ophis , meaning \u2018snake\u2019 . names ending in this suffix are masculine .\nbothrops insularis is known only from queimada grande island , off the coast of s\u00e3o paulo , southeastern brazil ( campbell and lamar 1989 ) .\na further motivation for synonymizing bothriopsis with bothrops is that because the arboreal species bothrops punctatus and bothrops osborneiei are more closely related to the terrestrial or semiarboreal bothrops atrox group than to the arboreal genus bothriopsis ( table 1 ) , there is little reason to recognize bothriopsis as a separate genus ( w\u00fcster et al , 2002 ) . arboreality has evolved several times within the crotalinae ( gutberlet & harvey , 2004 ; malhotra & thorpe , 2004 ; castoe & parkinson , 2006 ) , and it can be argued that the continued recognition of bothriopsis serves to cast taxonomic light on an additional instance of this phenomenon .\netymology ( genus ) : the generic name rhinocerophis is derived from the latin rhinoceros , meaning \u2018nose - horn\u2019 , referring to the strongly upturned snout of r . ammodytoides , and ophis , meaning \u2018snake\u2019 . names ending in this suffix are masculine .\nthe knowledge that bothrops is paraphyletic has led to taxonomic arguments about how to revise the content of this genus . some suggest synonymizing bothriopsis with bothrops , and also mention the possibility of synonymizing the small , cohesive sister genus bothrocophias with bothrops ( salom\u00e3o et al , 1997 ; w\u00fcster et al , 2002 ) . others propose dividing bothrops into smaller monophyletic genera ( parkinson , 1999 ; gutberlet & campbell , 2001 ; harvey , aparicio & gonzales , 2005 ; castoe & parkinson , 2006 ) . there is no completely objective criterion for distinguishing between these options , but a comprehensive phylogeny provides the best information for evaluating taxonomic alternatives .\n. . . another interesting aspect revealed by this study is the potential area of expansion of bothrops ammodytoides . this species is the southernmost venomous snake in the world ( campbell and lamar 2004 ; carrasco et al . 2010 ) and its southern expansion would imply that ophidism could reach human populations never affected by it and thus without the appropriate infrastructure and / or adequate personnel to cope these accidents . . . .\nbothrops alternatus , a venomous pit viper species found in brazil , paraguay , uruguay and argentina ; common names yarar\u00e1 grande ( argentina ) , urutu ( brazil ) .\ncross neutralization of bothrops jararacussu venom by heterologous antivenoms . we have studied the immunochemical cross - reactivity and cross - neutralization of the lethal potency , hemorrhagic , necrotizing , procoagulant and ( indirect ) hemolytic activities of bothrops jararacussu venom by the standard antivenoms produced in argentina . these antivenoms are horse immunoglobulin f ( ab ` ) 2 fragments . . . [ show full abstract ]\nw\u00fcster et al ( 2002 ) also suggest that although bothrops + bothriopsis contains greater morphological and natural history diversity than other genera , it appears to be no older based on cyt b divergence levels . our cyt b genetic distance results suggest that although the major lineages certainly contain less genetic divergence than bothrops + bothriopsis , their divergence levels are similar to those of other recognized genera .\nvenomous ! synonymy : lachesis pleuroxanthus has been synonymized with bothrocophias microphthalmus by most recent authors ( e . g . campbell & lamar 2004 , wallach et al . 2014 ) . however , the ncbi taxonomy still has an entry for bothrops pleuroxanthus ( taxid 157557 ) , based on an unpublished study by w . w\u00fcster ( submitted in aug 2000 . taxonomy : sch\u00e4tti & kramer 1993 didn\u2019t justify their allocation of microphthalmus to porthidium , hence it has been assigned to bothrops by some authors ( w . w\u00fcster , pers . comm . ) . subspecies : bothrops microphthalmus colombianus has been elevated to species status .\nsch\u00e4tti b ; kramer e 1993 . ecuadorianische grubenottern der gattungen bothriechis , bothrops und porthidium ( serpentes : viperidae ) . revue suisse de zoologie 100 ( 2 ) : 235 - 278 - get paper here\nbayesian markov chain monte carlo ( mcmc ) 50 % majority - rule consensus phylogram , excluding taxa with morphological data only ( analysis 11 ) . the phylogram is derived from an analysis of 2343 bp of mitochondrial dna and 85 gap - weighted or majority - coded morphological characters . the posterior probabilities are shown above nodes ; bootstrap values from parsimony analysis of the same data set alre shown below nodes ( analysis 10 ) . the parsimony analysis shows minor topological differences from bayesian analysis ; refer to figure s1 for parsimony cladogram . grey circles indicate posterior probabilities of 95 or greater and bootstrap values of 70 or greater . letters correspond to major lineages : a , bothrocophias clade ; b , bothrops alternatus clade ; c , bothrops neuwiedi + bothrops jararaca clade ; d , bothriopsis clade ; e , bothrops atrox clade .\n. . . pitvipers within the genus group bothrops sensu lato have been widely studied , with results published by carrasco et . al . ( 2010 ) , jansen ( 2008 ) and others . . . .\nbayesian markov chain monte carlo ( mcmc ) 50 % majority - rule consensus phylogram , including taxa with morphological data only ( analysis 8 ) . the phylogram is derived from an analysis of 2343 bp mitochondrial and 85 gap - weighted or majority - coded morphological characters . the posterior probabilities are shown above nodes ; bootstrap values from parsimony analysis of the same data set alre shown below nodes ( analysis 7 ) . the parsimony analysis shows minor topological differences from the bayesian analysis ; refer to figure s3 for the parsimony cladogram . grey circles indicate posterior probabilities of 95 or greater , and bootstrap values of 70 or greater . dashes indicate support values of less than 50 . letters correspond to the major lineages : a , bothrocophias clade ; b , bothrops alternatus clade ; c , bothrops neuwiedi + bothrops jararaca clade ; d , bothriopsis clade ; e , bothrops atrox clade .\ntwelve species ( bothriopsis bilineata , b . oligolepis , b . taeniata , bothrocophias microphthalmus , bothrops andianus , b . atrox , b . jonathani , b . moojeni , b . neuwiedi , b . sanctaecrucis , crotalus durissus , lachesis muta ) and five genera of pitvipers are known from bolivia . known ranges of several species are expanded to accommodate recently collected material and bothrops andianus is reported from . . . [ show full abstract ]\nisolation , amino acid sequence and biological characterization of an ' aspartic - 49 ' phospholipase a ( 2 ) from bothrops ( rhinocerophis ) ammodytoides venom .\nclement h . , costa de oliveira v . , zamudio f . z . , lago n . r . , valdez - cruz n . a . , bernard valle m . , hajos s . e . , alagon a . , possani l . d . , de roodt a . r . toxicon 60 : 1314 - 1323 ( 2012 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]\nkuch , u . & freire , a . 1995 . notes on morphology , reproduction and medical importance of the poorly known small - eyed lancehead , bothrops microphthalmus cope , 1876 in ecuador . herpetozoa 8 - get paper here\nbothrops ammodytoides , the smallest representative of this genus , is found only in argentina . venom was extracted from thirty adult specimens ( 35 - 70 cm in length , 90 - 300 g in weight ) captured in the province of buenos aires and kept in captivity . venom yield was 3 - 30 mg . sds - page showed strong bands at 14 . 0 ; 23 - 25 ; 45 ; 54 and 63 kda and weak bands at 17 . 0 ; 30 . 0 ; 40 . 0 and 85 . 0 kda . toxic . . . [ show full abstract ]\nyarara or ' ' ' yarar\u00e1 ' ' ' is the common name of the venomous pit viper species bothrops jararaca endemic to southern brazil , paraguay , and northern argentina . also known as yarar\u00e1 perezosa ( argentina ) , jararaca ( brazil )\nbothrops mattogrossensis and b . pubescens were elevated from subspecies of b . neuwiedi by silva ( 2000 , 2004 ) . bothrops pubescens was not included in the final analyses because of the lack of speciesmens , but preliminary analyses recovered it in a clade with b . neuwiedi and b . diporus . based on this and on its membership in the b . neuwiedi complex , we suggest that it belongs to the b . neuwiedi lineage . bothrops mattogrossensis was recovered in the b . alternatus and b . jararaca + b . neuwiedi + b . alternatus clades in alternative analyses ( figs 2 , s3 , s4 , s7\u2013s9 ) , but the morphology that originally classified this species as b . neuwiedi suggests that it also belongs in the b . neuwiedi clade .\nprelacunal and second supralabial fused . species sympatroxic with b . jararaca either have fewer supralabials or fewer ventrals , or both . in all species , subcaudal scales divided , 7 or 8 supralabial scales , 153\u2013227 ventral scales , mesial spines on hemipenes absent or present bothrops\n. . . la yarar\u00e1 \u00f1ata ( bothrops ammodytoides ) es una serpiente solenoglifa de la familia viperidae end\u00e9mica del centro y sur de la argentina , habitando sus zonas \u00e1ridas y semi\u00e1ridas siendo la serpiente de distribuci\u00f3n m\u00e1s austral y t\u00edpica de las provincias fitogeogr\u00e1ficas del monte y patag\u00f3nica ( cabrera , 2001 ; giraudo y scrocchi , 2002 ; carrasco et al . , 2010 ) . se distribuye en las provincias de buenos aires , catamarca , chubut , c\u00f3rdoba , jujuy , la pampa , la rioja , mendoza , neuqu\u00e9n , r\u00edo negro , salta , san juan , san luis , santa cruz y tucum\u00e1n ( carrasco et al . , 2010 ; giraudo et al . , 2012 ) . . . .\nvenomous ! this species might be the southernmost snake species worldwide ( to 47\u00b0 ) . type species : rhinocerophis nasus garman 1881 is the type species of the genus rhinocerophis garman 1881 . note , however , that rhinocerophis has been synonymized with bothrops by carrasco et al . 2012 .\n. . . it comprises at least 50 species , some of them described recently ( campbell and lamar 2004 ; da silva and trefaut rodrigues , 2008 ; barbo et al . , 2012barbo et al . , , 2016 ) . the group is present in different ecoregions of the continent , from tropical and subtropical forests to arid and semiarid regions , and from sea level to altitudes of more than 3000 m ( campbell and lamar , 2004 ; carrasco et al . , 2009 carrasco et al . , , 2010 ) . the bothrops complex ( bothrops sensu lato ) is extremely diverse in its morphological and ecological traits . . . .\nmost species are found in south america east of the andes , exclusive of uruguay , southern paraguay , and central to southern argentina ( campbell & lamar , 2004 ) . bothrops caribbaeus and b . lanceolatus are found on the caribbean islands of saint lucia and martinique . bothrops osbornei , b . punctatus , and b . asper range through peru , ecuador , and portions of colombia west of the andes , and b . asper ranges northwards in middle america through the countries of panama , costa rica , nicaragua , honduras , guatemala , belize , and mexico . see campbell & lamar ( 2004 ) for range maps of individual species .\n. . . it comprises at least 50 species , some of them described recently ( campbell and lamar 2004 ; da silva and trefaut rodrigues , 2008 ; barbo et al . , 2012 barbo et al . , , 2016 ) . the group is present in different ecoregions of the continent , from tropical and subtropical forests to arid and semiarid regions , and from sea level to altitudes of more than 3000 m ( campbell and lamar , 2004 ; carrasco et al . , 2009 carrasco et al . , , 2010 ) . the bothrops complex ( bothrops sensu lato ) is extremely diverse in its morphological and ecological traits . . . .\nthe generic name is derived from the greek bothros , referring to the facial pit , and also referring to the currently named genus bothrops . the term oides means \u2018similar to\u2019 or \u2018having the nature of\u2019 , thereby recognizing the affinity of these species with other terrestrial south american pitvipers . names ending in this suffix are masculine .\njustification : bothrops insularis is known only from one location : a small island off southeastern brazil ( total area 43 ha ) . the species ' highly restricted range and continuing decline in habitat quality , as a result of removal of vegetation by people from the brazilian navy who keep the lighthouse , qualify it for the critically endangered category .\n. . . those authors also resurrected the genus rhinocerophis garman 1881 to allocate the species of b . alternatus group , diagnosed by 27 mitochondrial characters and one\u2013two palatine teeth as unique morphological synapomorphy . based on new data , carrasco et al . ( 2010 ) pointed out that the morphological analysis by fenwick et al . ( 2009 ) was incomplete and rejected the use of rhinocerophis , which made the bothrops complex paraphyletic with respect to bothriopsis and bothropoides ( carrasco et al . , 2010 ) . the lack of an exclusive morphological character in rhinocerophis and bothropoides , and a diagnosis based only on molecular data , indicates that splitting of the genus bothrops into two or more genera is still premature . . . .\nfenwick , allyson m . ; ronald l . gutberlet jr , jennafer a . evans , christopher l . parkinson 2009 . morphological and molecular evidence for phylogeny and classification of south american pitvipers , genera bothrops , bothriopsis , and bothrocophias ( serpentes : viperidae ) . zoological journal of the linnean society 156 ( 3 ) : 617 - 640 - get paper here\nallyson m . fenwick , ronald l . gutberlet , jennafer a . evans , christopher l . parkinson ; morphological and molecular evidence for phylogeny and classification of south american pitvipers , genera bothrops , bothriopsis , and bothrocophias ( serpentes : viperidae ) , zoological journal of the linnean society , volume 156 , issue 3 , 1 july 2009 , pages 617\u2013640 , urltoken\nbothrops andianus , b . asper , b . atrox , b . brazili , b . caribbaeus , b . isabelae , b . jararacussu , b . lanceolatus , b . leucurus , b . marajoensis , b . moojeni , b . muriciencis , b . osbornei , b . pirajai , b . punctatus , b . sanctaecrucis , and b . venezuelensis .\nwe have studied the immunochemical cross - reactivity and cross - neutralization of the lethal potency , hemorrhagic , necrotizing , procoagulant and ( indirect ) hemolytic activities of bothrops jararacussu venom by the standard antivenoms produced in argentina . these antivenoms are horse immunoglobulin f ( ab ' ) 2 fragments from animals immunized with 1 ) crotalus durissus terrificus venom ( monovalent . . . [ show full abstract ]\nmembers are short to elongate , of moderate girth to stout , and are terrestrial , lacking a prehensile tail . dorsal colour brown to black , with spade - shaped dorsal markings , generally with spots between spades ( r . alternatus , r . fonsecai ; no spots between spades in r . jonathani , and sometimes missing in r . cotiara ) , or trapezoidal dorsal markings , with spots between trapezoids ( r . itapetiningae ) , or with chequered pattern ( r . ammodytoides ) . spade - shaped dorsal markings and a postorbital stripe on head , with distinctive black bars on the gulars of r . alternatus , r . cotiarara , r . fonsecai , and r . jonathani .\ncarrasco , p . a . , mattoni , c . i . , leynaud , g . c . & scrocchi , g . j . ( 2012 ) . morphology , phylogeny and taxonomy of south american bothropoid pitvipers ( serpentes , viperidae ) . \u2014zoologica scripta , 41 , 109\u2013124 . south american bothropoids comprise a monophyletic and greatly diverse group of pitvipers that were initially included in the genus bothrops and later assigned to five genera . until recently , . . . [ show full abstract ]\nwe examined the scalation of 42 species , hemipenes of 21 species , and skulls or skeletons of 13 species ( appendix 2 and appendix s1 ) . when possible , speciesmens were acquired from throughout the range of each species . scale and hemipenial data for bothrops alcatroz marques , martins & sazima , 2002 were taken from the description of the holotype . observations of colour pattern were taken from colour plates in campbell & lamar ( 2004 ) . males and females were treated together . some juveniles were coded for scale characters , as scalation does not change with ontogeny , but skeletal data were only collected from presumed adults .\nbothriopsis oligolepis and b . medusa could not be included in the final analyses because too few speciesmens were available ( appendix 1 ) . preliminary analyses placed b . oligolepis within bothriopsis , and its green coloration , prehensile tail , and arboreal lifestyle suggest that the current designation is correct . the semi - arboreal lifestyle of b . medusa in addition to its venezuelan distribution ( campbell & lamar , 2004 ) places it with either bothriopsis or with the bothrops atrox group ( table 4 ) . the tan , brown , grey or olive coloration is unlike most bothriopsis species , but the pattern of transverse bands on the dorsum is similar to bothriopsis species and is unlike the spade - shaped dorsal markings on most of the b . atrox group speciesmens . we suggest retaining the current designation until more data are available .\nthe alpha2beta1 integrin is a major collagen receptor that plays an essential role in the adhesion of normal and tumor cells to the extracellular matrix . here we describe the isolation of a novel metalloproteinase / disintegrin , which is a potent inhibitor of the collagen binding to alpha2beta1 integrin . this 55 - kda protein ( alternagin ) and its disintegrin domain ( alternagin - c ) were isolated from bothrops alternatus snake venom . amino acid sequencing of alternagin - c revealed the disintegrin structure . alternagin and alternagin - c inhibit collagen i - mediated adhesion of k562 - alpha2beta1 - transfected cells . the ic50 was 134 and 100 nm for alternagin and alternagin - c , respectively . neither protein interfered with the adhesion of cells expressing alphaiibeta3 , alpha1beta1 , alpha5beta1 , alpha4beta1 alphavbeta3 , and alpha9beta1 integrins to other ligands such as fibrinogen , fibronectin , and collagen iv . alternagin and alternagin - c also mediated the adhesion of the k562 - alpha2beta1 - transfected cells . our results show that the disintegrin - like domain of alternagin is responsible for its ability to inhibit collagen binding to alpha2beta1 integrin .\nwe have previously demonstrated that alternagin - c ( alt - c ) , a disintegrin - like protein from the venom of the brazilian snake bothrops alternatus , induces human vascular endothelial cell ( huvec ) proliferation by up - regulating the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor ( vegf ) . here , we show that alt - c is also able to induce in vivo angiogenesis using the model of matrigel plug in nude mice . fibroblast growth factor ( fgf ) alone or supplemented with alt - c was mixed with melted matrigel and subcutaneously injected in nude mice . after two weeks , the matrigel plugs were removed and analyzed to verify endothelial cell migration and new vessel formation . alt - c ( 1 and 10 ng ) strongly induced endothelial cell migration as well as the formation of new vessels . however , in higher concentrations , alt - c strongly inhibited angiogenesis . in low concentrations ( 1 and 10nm ) , alt - c also up - regulates the expression of vegf receptor 2 ( vegfr2 , kdr ) mostly after 48 hr , but it did not affect vegfr1 ( ftl - 1 ) in huvec cells as demonstrated by real - time pcr analysis . however , in higher concentrations ( 100 nm ) the expression of both receptors is down - regulated . a peptide derived from alt - c primary structure also affects huvec proliferation in vitro and angiogenesis in vivo . in conclusion , the present study shows for the first time the in vivo angiogenesis induced by a disintegrin - like molecule and the modulation of vegfrs as well .\nalternagin - c ( alt - c ) , a disintegrin - like protein purified from the venom of the brazilian snake bothrops alternatus , interacts with the major collagen i receptor , the alpha ( 2 ) beta ( 1 ) integrin , inhibiting collagen binding . here we show that alt - c also inhibits the adhesion of a mouse fibroblast cell line ( nih - 3t3 ) to collagen i ( ic ( 50 ) 2 . 2 microm ) . in addition , when immobilized on plate wells , alt - c supports the adhesion of this cell line as well as of human vein endothelial cell ( huvec ) . alt - c ( 3 microm ) does not detach cells that were previously bound to collagen i . alt - c ( 5 nm ) induces huvec proliferation in vitro , and it inhibits the positive effect of vascular endothelial growth factor ( vegf ) or fgf - 2 on the proliferation of these cells , thus suggesting a common mechanism for these proteins . gene expression analysis of human fibroblasts growing on alt - c - or collagen - coated plates showed that alt - c and collagen i induce a very similar pattern of gene expression . when compared with cells growing on plastic only , alt - c up - regulates the expression of 45 genes including the vegf gene and down - regulates the expression of 30 genes . fibroblast vegf expression was confirmed by rt - pcr and elisa assay . up - regulation of the vegf gene and other growth factors could explain the positive effect on huvec proliferation . alt - c also strongly activates akt / pkb phosphorylation , a signaling event involved in endothelial survival and angiogenesis . in conclusion , alt - c acts as a survival factor , promoting adhesion and endothelial cell proliferation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nuetz , p . & jir\u00ed hosek ( eds . ) , the reptile database , ( http : / / www . reptile - database . org )\nmcdiarmid , roy w . , jonathan a . campbell , and t ' shaka a . tour\u00e9\nsnake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nargentina ( tucuman to chubut and patagonia , neuqu\u00e9n , rio negro , mendoza , la pampa , buenos aires , san juan , san luis , la rioja , c\u00f3rdoba , catamarca ) . type locality : norte de argentina\nholotype : mcz r - 2063 , but unlocated fide mcdiarmid et al . 1999 .\ncampbell , j . a . & lamar , w . w . 1989 . the venomous reptiles of latin america . comstock publishing / cornell university press , ithaca\ncarrasco , p . a . , c . i . mattoni , g . c . leynaud , and g . j . scrocchi . 2012 . morphology , phylogeny and taxonomy of south american bothropoid pitvipers ( serpentes , viperidae ) . zoologica scripta 41 : 109 - 124 - get paper here\ncarrasco , p . a . ; harvey , m . b . & mu\u00f1oz saravia , a . 2009 . the rare andean pitviper rhinocerophis jonathani ( serpentes : viperidae : crotalinae ) : redescription with comments on its systematics and biogeography . zootaxa 2283 : 1\u201315 - get paper here\nkoslowsky , j . 1895 . batracios y reptiles de rioja y catamarca . rev . mus . la plata 6 : 359 - 370 - get paper here\nleybold , f . 1873 . excursi\u00f3n a las pampas argentinas , hojas de mi diario santiago , 108 pp . - get paper here\nmcdiarmid , r . w . ; campbell , j . a . & tour\u00e9 , t . a . 1999 . snake species of the world . vol . 1 . herpetologists\u2019 league , 511 pp .\nminoli i , morando m , avila lj 2015 . reptiles of chubut province , argentina : richness , diversity , conservation status and geographic distribution maps . zookeys 498 : 103 - 126 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 498 . 7476 - get paper here\nscrocchi , g . j . ; moreta , j . c . & kretzschmar , s . 2006 . serpientes del noroeste argento [ jujuy , salta , tucum\u00e1n , catamarca , la rioja , santiago del estero ] . fundaci\u00f3n miguel lillo , tucum\u00e1n , 178 pp .\nscrocchi , gustavo j . ; cristian s . abdala , javier nori , hussam zaher 2010 . reptiles de la provincia de ri\u0301o negro , argentina fondo ed . rionegrino , 249 pp .\nwallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . patterns of coloration ) and ecology ( e . g . macromicrohabitat , feeding habits ) ( martins et al . , 2002 ; carrasco et al . , 2010 carrasco et al . , , 2012 ) may be attributed to ancestor - descendant relationship . on the other hand , the phylogeny of fig . 1would imply that morpho - ecological similarities among\nneuwiedi\nand\njararaca\nwith other groups of species respectively , might be attributed to convergent evolution because of inhabiting similar habitats . . . .\n. . . habita preferentemente roquedales , zonas de suelos arenosos o salitrosos . su distribuci\u00f3n altitudinal va desde el nivel del mar hasta m\u00e1s de los 3 . 000 m s . n . m . , siendo la altura m\u00e1xima a la que n\u00f3tulas faun\u00edsticas - segunda serie , 190 ( 2016 ) : 1 - 5 fue encontrada los 3 . 700 m s . n . m . , en tres cruces , provincia de jujuy ( moreta en carrasco et al . , 2010 ) . su alimentaci\u00f3n incluye lagartijas y roedores ( cei , 1993 ; g\u00f3mez ales et al . , 2013 ) . . . .\n. . . literature and museum records with acronyms or specific localities were quoted literally . we include these records from revisionary literature : abdala ( 2005 ) , abdala ( 2007 ) , avila et al . ( 2001avila et al . ( , 2003avila et al . ( , 2006aavila et al . ( , 2007aavila et al . ( , 2007bavila et al . ( , 2012 ) , abdala et al . ( 2012b ) , breitman et al . ( 2011b ) , carrasco et al . ( 2010 ) , avila ( 2008a , 2008b ) , cei ( 1973acei ( , 1974cei ( , 1986cei ( , 1993cei ( , 2003 , cei and castro ( 1973 ) , cei et al . ( 2001cei et al . ( , 2003 , cei and scolaro ( 1980 ) , cei and scolaro ( 1999 ) , cruz et al . ( 1999 ) , daciuk and miranda ( 1980 ) , etheridge and christie ( 2003 ) , gallardo ( 1960 ) , giambelluca ( 1999 ) , giraudo et al . ( 2012 ) , giraudo and scrocchi ( 2002 ) , ibarg\u00fcengoyt\u00eda and schulte ii ( 2001 ) , kluge ( 1964 ) , koslowsky ( 1898 ) , lobo ( 2005 ) , lobo andquinteros ( 2005a , 2005b ) , lobo et al . ( 2010 ) , montero ( 1996 ) , nenda et al . ( 2007 ) , schulte ii et al . ( 2004 ) , scolaro ( 1976ascolaro ( , 1976bscolaro ( , 1990scolaro ( , 1993scolaro ( , 2005scolaro ( , 2006 ) , scolaro and cei ( 1979 , 1997 , 2006 ) , scolaro et al . ( 2005scolaro et al . ( , 2013 , scolaro and ibarg\u00fcengoyt\u00eda ( 2007 ) we constructed a hexagonal cell grid ( white et al . 1992 , white 2000 ) with each en - tire perimeter cell having an area of 2 , 787 km 2 , covering the entire territory of chubut province . the resulting grid contained 106 hexagons . . . .\n. . . this lineage occupies a wide range of environments and vegetation types , from lowland central american and amazonian rain forests to open areas in the andes and patagonia ( campbell & lamar , 2004 ) . even with extensive accumulated knowledge on natural history , taxonomy and phylogenetic relationships of pitvipers ( hoge & romano\u2013 hoge , 1981 ; martins et al . , 2001 ; marques et al . , 2002 ; campbell & lamar , 2004 ; harvey et al . , 2005 ; cisneros - heredia et al . , 2006 ; carrasco et al . , 2009 carrasco et al . , , 2010 , among others ) , patterns of endemism , geographical distribution , and phylogenetic diversity in this group have never been assessed , hampering effective conservation action . here , we provide a conservation assessment based on evolutionary distinctiveness ( isaac et al . , 2007 ) and phylogenetic diversity ( faith , 1992 ) indexes for neotropical pitvipers . . . .\n. . . all records were georeferenced and mapped in arcview 9 . 0 ( esri , 2009 ) , according to usual geographical information system techniques . distribution records were obtained mainly from the literature ( e . g . gutberlet & campbell , 2001 ; campbell & lamar , 2004 ; harvey et al . , 2005 ; silva & rodrigues , 2008 ; carrasco et al . , 2009 carrasco et al . , , 2010 ) , with additional data obtained by revision of voucher specimens in large brazilian herpetological collections ( instituto butantan , mzusp , mpeg and chunb ) , after checking for accurate taxonomy and the most precise locality information . . . .\n. . . this lineage occupies a wide range of environments and vegetation types , from lowland central american and amazonian rain forests to open areas in the andes and patagonia ( campbell & lamar , 2004 ) . even with extensive accumulated knowledge on natural history , taxonomy and phylogenetic relationships of pitvipers ( hoge & romanohoge , 1981 ; martins et al . , 2001 ; marques et al . , 2002 ; campbell & lamar , 2004 ; harvey et al . , 2005 ; cisneros - heredia et al . , 2006 ; carrasco et al . , 2009 carrasco et al . , , 2010 , among others ) , patterns of endemism , geographical distribution , and phylogenetic diversity in this group have never been assessed , hampering effective conservation action . . . .\n. . . distribution records were obtained mainly from the literature ( e . g . gutberlet & campbell , 2001 ; campbell & lamar , 2004 ; harvey et al . , 2005 ; silva & rodrigues , 2008 ; carrasco et al . , 2009 carrasco et al . , , 2010 , with additional data obtained by revision of voucher specimens in large brazilian herpetological collections ( instituto butantan , mzusp , mpeg and chunb ) , after checking for accurate taxonomy and the most precise locality information . . . .\n. . . data records ( see suppl . fig . 1 carrasco et al . 2009 carrasco et al . , 2010 ) . . . .\n. . . the specimens examined and their origins are detailed in appendix s1 . morphological techniques and terminology used followed carrasco et al . ( 2009 carrasco et al . ( , 2010 ) . with few exceptions ( see appendix s1 ) , we examined the external morphology , cranial osteology and hemipenial morphology of most taxa . . . .\nbothropoids are a highly diverse group of pitvipers whose phylogeny is not yet sufficiently clear given the uncertain , unclear or conflicting position of many species . our goal is to assess the con\u2026\n[ more ]\nanalyzing distributional patterns of amphibians and reptiles to inform conservation decisions , with special focus on argentina .\nto generate useful spatial information for decision makers analyzing biogeographical and ecological patterns of amphibians and reptiles considering the most important human pressures .\nthe rare andean pitviper rhinocerophis jonathani ( serpentes : viperidae : crotalinae ) : redescription w . . .\nrhinocerophis jonathani is one of the few species of the neotropical pitvipers that inhabit xeric areas at elevations above 2000 m in the andes . we redescribe the species based on new specimens found in southern bolivia and northwestern argentina and provide new data on lepidosis , coloration , hemipenial morphology and the first description of cranial osteology . rhinocerophis jonathani exhibits . . . [ show full abstract ]\nrevision of the venomous snakes of bolivia . ii : the pitvipers ( serpentes : viperidae )\nsince nomenclature is intended to reflect the evolutionary history of organisms , advances in our understanding of historical relationships may lead to changes in classification , and thus potentially in taxonomic instability . an unstable nomenclature for medically important animals like venomous snakes is of concern , and its implications in venom / antivenom research and snakebite treatment have . . . [ show full abstract ]\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nde roodt ar 1 , dolab ja , hajos se , gould e , din\u00e1poli h , troiano jc , gould j , dokmetjian jc , carfagnini jc , fern\u00e1ndez t , amoroso m , segre l , vidal jc .\ninstituto nacional de producci\u00f3n de biol\u00f3gicos , anlis dr . carlos g . malbr\u00e1n , buenos aires , argentina .\n< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the \u2018correct annotation\u2019 for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nsnake venom phospholipase a2 ( pla2 ) that displays low systemic toxicity and causes severe symptoms only at very high concentrations ( 15 mg / kg ) . has neither coagulant nor anticoagulant activity . pla2 catalyzes the calcium - dependent hydrolysis of the 2 - acyl groups in 3 - sn - phosphoglycerides .\n< p > manually curated information for which there is published experimental evidence . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000269\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nprotein sequence , function , catalytic activity , subcellular location , disulfide bonds , mass spectrometry , toxic dose .\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> function < / a > section describes the catalytic activity of an enzyme , i . e . the chemical reaction it catalyzes . this information usually correlates with the presence of an ec ( enzyme commission ) number in the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section . < p > < a href = ' / help / catalytic _ activity ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > manual validated information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000255\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018function\u2019 section provides information relevant to cofactors . a cofactor is any non - protein substance required for a protein to be catalytically active . some cofactors are inorganic , such as the metal atoms zinc , iron , and copper in various oxidation states . others , such as most vitamins , are organic . < p > < a href = ' / help / cofactor ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > manually curated information which has been propagated from a related experimentally characterized protein . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000250\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018function\u2019 section indicates at which position the protein binds a given metal ion . the nature of the metal is indicated in the \u2018description\u2019 field . < p > < a href = ' / help / metal ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018function\u2019 section is used for enzymes and indicates the residues directly involved in catalysis . < p > < a href = ' / help / act _ site ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the < a href =\nurltoken\n> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > inferred from direct assay < / p > < p > used to indicate a direct assay for the function , process or component indicated by the go term . < / p > < p > more information in the < a href =\nurltoken\n> go evidence code guide < / a > < / p >\n< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =\nurltoken\n> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > manually curated information that is based on statements in scientific articles for which there is no experimental support . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000303\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > manually curated information which has been inferred by a curator based on his / her scientific knowledge or on the scientific content of an article . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000305\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the \u2018taxonomic identifier\u2019 or \u2018taxid\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the location and the topology of the mature protein in the cell . < p > < a href = ' / help / subcellular _ location _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the disease ( s ) and phenotype ( s ) associated with a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / pathology _ and _ biotech _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ' pathology and biotech ' < / a > section describes the lethal dose ( ld ) , paralytic dose ( pd ) , effect dose ( ed ) or lethal concentration ( lc ) of a protein toxin . < p > < a href = ' / help / toxic _ dose ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section describes post - translational modifications ( ptms ) and / or processing events . < p > < a href = ' / help / ptm _ processing _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018ptm / processing\u2019 section describes the extent of a polypeptide chain in the mature protein following processing . < p > < a href = ' / help / chain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the ptm / processing\n: / help / ptm _ processing _ section section describes the positions of cysteine residues participating in disulfide bonds . < p > < a href = ' / help / disulfid ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ptm / processing < / a > section describes post - translational modifications ( ptms ) . this subsection < strong > complements < / strong > the information provided at the sequence level or describes modifications for which < strong > position - specific data is not yet available < / strong > . < p > < a href = ' / help / post - translational _ modification ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the expression of a gene at the mrna or protein level in cells or in tissues of multicellular organisms . < p > < a href = ' / help / expression _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018expression\u2019 section provides information on the expression of a gene at the mrna or protein level in cells or in tissues of multicellular organisms . by default , the information is derived from experiments at the mrna level , unless specified \u2018at protein level\u2019 . < br > < / br > examples : < a href =\nurltoken\n> p92958 < / a > , < a href =\nurltoken\n> q8tdn4 < / a > , < a href =\nurltoken\n> o14734 < / a > < p > < a href = ' / help / tissue _ specificity ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the tertiary and secondary structure of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / structure _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018family and domains\u2019 section provides information about the sequence similarity with other proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ similarities ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the checksum is a form of redundancy check that is calculated from the sequence . it is useful for tracking sequence updates . < / p > < p > it should be noted that while , in theory , two different sequences could have the same checksum value , the likelihood that this would happen is extremely low . < / p > < p > however uniprotkb may contain entries with identical sequences in case of multiple genes ( paralogs ) . < / p > < p > the checksum is computed as the sequence 64 - bit cyclic redundancy check value ( crc64 ) using the generator polynomial : x < sup > 64 < / sup > + x < sup > 4 < / sup > + x < sup > 3 < / sup > + x + 1 . the algorithm is described in the iso 3309 standard . < / p > < p class =\npublication\n> press w . h . , flannery b . p . , teukolsky s . a . and vetterling w . t . < br / > < strong > cyclic redundancy and other checksums < / strong > < br / > < a href =\nurltoken\n> numerical recipes in c 2nd ed . , pp896 - 902 , cambridge university press ( 1993 ) < / a > ) < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018sequence\u2019 section reports information derived from mass spectrometry experiments done on the entire protein or on biologically active derived peptide ( s ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / mass _ spectrometry ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href =\nurltoken\n> uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( \u2018last modified\u2019 ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section contains any relevant information that doesn\u2019t fit in any other defined sections < p > < a href = ' / help / miscellaneous _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncarrasco , p . a . , mattoni , c . i . , leynaud , g . c . and scrocchi , g . j . 2012 . morphology , phylogeny and taxonomy of south american bothropoid pitvipers ( serpentes , viperidae ) . zoologica scripta 41 : 1 - 15 .\ncritically endangered b1ab ( iii ) + 2ab ( iii ) ver 3 . 1\nhilton - taylor , c . & pollock , c . m . ( red list programme office )\nthe main threat to the species is the destruction of habitat . large areas of the island have been destroyed through repeated burning . the continuation of such activities threaten the survival of the species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nbernarde , p . s . , albuquerque , s . , barros , t . o . & turci , l . c . b . 2012 . snakes of rondo\u0302nia state , brazil . biota neotrop . 12 ( 3 ) : - get paper here\nbernarde , p . s . , albuquerque , s . , barros , t . o . & turci , l . c . b . 2012 . serpentes do estado de rond\u00f4nia , brasil . biota neotrop . 12 ( 3 ) : 1 - 29 - get paper here\nboulenger , george a . 1912 . descriptions of new reptiles from the andes of south america , preserved in the british museum . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 10 : 420 - 424 - get paper here\ncatenazzi , a . , lehr , e . & von may , r . 2013 . the amphibians and reptiles of manu national park and its buffer zone , amazon basin and eastern slopes of the andes , peru . biota neotrop . 13 ( 4 ) : 269 - 283"]}
{"id": 858, "summary": [{"text": "the golden cave catfish ( clarias cavernicola ) is a critically endangered species of airbreathing catfish .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "this cavefish is only known to live in the aigamas cave , otjozondjupa region , namibia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "they lack pigmentation and are up to 16.1 cm ( 6.3 inches ) in standard length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they have very small eyes that are covered with skin , and are probably effectively blind .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they feed on detritus and invertebrates that fall into the lake in which they live .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the population is estimated at 200 \u2013 400 individuals .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "little is known about its reproduction , and attempts to breed it in captivity have failed .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the population is threatened by chance events and water extraction from the cave lake , which has resulted in a drop of the water level .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is the only known cavefish in mainland southern africa . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "clarias cavernicola", "paragraphs": ["the following term was not found in nucleotide : clarias cavernicola [ orgn ] .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2011 ) .\nclarias cavernicola\nin fishbase . december 2011 version .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - cave catfish ( clarias cavernicola )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - cave catfish ( clarias cavernicola )\ntitle =\narkive species - cave catfish ( clarias cavernicola )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nskelton ( 1996 ) . clarias cavernicola . 2006 . iucn red list of threatened species . iucn 2006 . urltoken . retrieved on 11 may 2006 . listed as critically endangered ( cr b1 + 2c , e v2 . 3 )\nbruton , m . n . ( 1995 ) .\nthreatened fishes of the world : clarias cavernicola trewavas , 1936 ( clariidae )\n. environmental biology of fishes 43 ( 2 ) : 162\u2013162 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf00002486 .\nthe cave catfish ( clarias cavernicola ) is a freshwater , cave - dwelling fish ( 2 ) . this unusual fish lacks pigment and appears a pinkish white colour ( 3 ) . it has an extended eel - like body , with long dorsal and anal fins ( 4 ) . the head has a rectangular shape and the rounded snout ( 2 ) carries four pairs of thread - like barbels ( 5 ) . on the upper surface of the head the eyes are either entirely absent or extremely small and covered with skin ( 2 ) . the latin species name , cavernicola , means ' cave dwelling ' .\nclarias : from the greek chlaros , meaning lively ; in reference to the ability of the fish to live for long periods out of water . caverna , cave in latin and colere , to dwell , in latin .\nteugels , g . g . , 1986 . a systematic revision of the african species of the genus clarias ( pisces ; clariidae ) . ann . mus . r . afr . centr . , sci . zool . , 247 : 199 p . ( ref . 248 )\ntrewavas [ e . ] 1936 : 70 , pl . 2 ( figs . 7 - 9 ) [ novitates zoologicae . a journal of zoology in connection with the tring museum v . 40 . eleonora trajano , maria elina bichuette , b . g . kapoor , biology of subterranean fishes , science publishers ( 2010 ) . guy g . teugels , a systematic revision of the african species of the genus clarias ( pisces ; claridae )\nthe cave catfish is a freshwater , cave - dwelling fish ( 2 ) . this unusual fish lacks pigment and appears a pinkish white colour ( 5 ) . it has an extended eel - like body , with long dorsal and anal fins ( 3 ) . the head has a rectangular shape and the rounded snout ( 2 ) carries four pairs of thread - like barbels ( 4 ) . on the upper surface of the head the eyes are either entirely absent or extremely small and covered with skin ( 2 ) . the latin species name , cavernicola , means ' cave dwelling ' .\nclarias species are characterized by having an elongated body ; a soft rayed dorsal fin extending to , or nearly to , the caudal fin base ; a soft rayed anal fin extending from just behind the anus to the caudal fin base ; pectoral fins each with a serrated anterior bony spine ; head depressed , covered largely by firmly sutured , surface sculptured bony plates forming a protective helmet ; four pairs of flagellate barbels ( nasals , maxillaries , inner and outer mandibulars ) ; air breathing organs derived from the 2nd and 4th epibranchials within a superbranchial chamber . in common with most cave - dwelling animals , this species is devoid of pigment , in life the skin color is creamish flushed with pink or orange . the eyes vary from weakly developed to non - existant .\nafrica : known only from the type locality , aigumas cave , north otavi , namibia . major threat is depletion of ground water ( ref . 7248 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 16 . 1 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 7248 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 71 - 76 ; anal soft rays : 66 - 61 . devoid of pigment . eyes extremely small ; covered with skin ; dorsally located . head rectangular in dorsal outline ; snout broadly rounded . frontal fontanelle long and narrow ; occipital fontanelle long and oval - shaped . supraorbital and ` dermosphenotic ' bones fused . premaxillary tooth plate rather broad . gill rakers long , slender and distantly set . suprabranchial organ greatly reduced . openings of the secondary sensory canals regularly arranged along flanks .\nlacks pigment . lives in caves ( ref . 248 ) and is adapted to life underground ( ref . 78218 ) ; over shelves in open , clear water . feeds on bat droppings , animal carcasses and terrestrial insects that fall into the lake ( ref . 7248 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00813 ( 0 . 00358 - 0 . 01848 ) , b = 2 . 99 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 17 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 8 \u00b10 . 26 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( assuming tm = 1 ; fec = 50 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 17 of 100 ) .\nthis cave - dwelling fish feeds opportunistically on particles that fall into the lake , from bat droppings to animal carcasses and insects ( 2 ) . due to the lack of light in the cave where it lives , the cave catfish is sightless , detecting prey by means of taste buds and other senses on the barbels ( 4 ) . there is currently no data available on its breeding habits ( 3 ) .\nthe cave catfish is found only in the aigamas cave in namibia ( 2 ) .\nthe cave catfish inhabits open , clear water over rocky shelves ( 6 ) .\nthe cave catfish is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe cave catfish is found only within a single cave in namibia and is therefore at inherent risk of extinction due to any chance event . the main threat to the species comes from the depletion of ground water within the cave , and the exploitation of aquifer water may pose the most serious threat in the long - term ( 3 ) .\nthe protection of the aigamas cave is vital in the conservation of this species , and the present owner is sympathetic to the sensitivity of the cave , only allowing access or collection of the cave catfish with a nature conservation permit ( 3 ) . twenty captive specimens were held in the national zoological gardens ' aquarium in pretoria for several years ( 3 ) , but no longer persist ( 7 ) . there is also a move to provide legislative protection for this rare and unique fish ( 3 ) .\nauthenticated ( 6 / 9 / 02 ) by professor paul skelton . managing director , south african institute of aquatic biodiversity ( saiab ) urltoken\nanal fin in fish , an unpaired fin on the under surface of a fish , behind the anus . barbels fleshy projections near the mouth of some fish . dorsal fin in fish , the unpaired fin found on the back of the body .\npaxton , j . r . and eschmeyer , w . n . ( 1994 ) encylopedia of fishes . unsw press , sydney .\nskelton , p . h . ( 1987 ) south african red data book - fishes . south african national scientific programmes report , 137 : 33 - 35 .\nsands , d . ( 1985 ) catfishes of the world , volume 5 : bagridae and others . dee bee books , preston .\nskelton , p . h . ( 2001 ) a complete guide to the freshwater fishes of southern africa . revised edition . struik publishers , cape town .\nunderwater video services po box 282 constantia cape town 7848 south africa tel : + 27 21 794 3595 fax : + 27 21 794 5449 charles @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncritically endangered b1ab ( iii ) + 2ab ( iii ) ver 3 . 1\nsnoeks , j . ( freshwater fish red list authority ) & darwall , w . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment unit )\njustification : occurs in a single location ( aigamas cave , namibia ) . there is a threat to the cave ' s water source and thus to the species environment from ground water extraction . the potential threat of illegal collectors for the aquarium trade also exists . given that the area of the lake is 18 m x 2 . 5 m and that the water level has been steadily dropping due to water extraction the species qualifies as critically endangered under criterion b due to restricted range , single location and ongoing decline in the extent of available habitat .\nknown only from the type locality : aigamas cave , otavi , namibia . the pool is 18 m by 2 . 5 m in area , and 30 to 52 m deep ( proudlove 2006 ) .\nsubterranean waters of the aigamas cave system . rocky substrates . water temperature is around 25\u00b0c and the species appears to live over shelves of shallow water up to 15 m in depth ( proudlove 2006 ) .\ndepletion of ground water ; the cave lake has been used as a water supply in an otherwise very dry area ( proudlove 2006 ) . pumping of water has reduced the depth of the lake from 70 m to 50 m since 1921 ( skelton 1990 , bruton 1995 ) . potentially exploitation from aquarists .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis cave - dwelling fish feeds opportunistically on particles that fall into the lake , from bat droppings to animal carcasses and insects ( 2 ) . due to the lack of light in the cave where it lives , this species is sightless , detecting prey by means of taste buds and other senses on the barbels ( 3 ) . there is currently no data available on its breeding habits ( 5 ) .\nlacks pigment . lives in caves ( ref . 248 ) and is adapted to life underground ( ref . 78218 ) ; over shelves in open , clear water . feeds on bat droppings , animal carcasses and terrestrial insects that fall into the lake ( ref . 7248 ) .\nafrica : known only from the type locality , aigumas cave , north otavi , namibia . major threat is depletion of ground water ( ref . 7248 ) .\n16 . 1 cm sl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 7248 ) )\ndevoid of pigment . eyes extremely small ; covered with skin ; dorsally located . head rectangular in dorsal outline ; snout broadly rounded . frontal fontanelle long and narrow ; occipital fontanelle long and oval - shaped . supraorbital and ` dermosphenotic ' bones fused . premaxillary tooth plate rather broad . gill rakers long , slender and distantly set . suprabranchial organ greatly reduced . openings of the secondary sensory canals regularly arranged along flanks .\nsubterranean waters of the aigamas cave system . rocky substrates . water temperature is around 25c and the species appears to live over shelves of shallow water up to 15 m in depth ( proudlove 2006 ) .\ndescribed from caves in south - west africa . feeds on insects and worms ( ref . 248 ) .\noccurs in a single location ( aigamas cave , namibia ) . there is a threat to the cave ' s water source and thus to the species environment from ground water extraction . the potential threat of illegal collectors for the aquarium trade also exists . given that the area of the lake is 18 m x 2 . 5 m and that the water level has been steadily dropping due to water extraction the species qualifies as critically endangered under criterion b due to restricted range , single location and ongoing decline in the extent of available habitat .\nclassified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list 2007 ( 1 ) .\nthe cave catfish is found only within a single cave in namibia and is therefore at inherent risk of extinction due to any chance event . the main threat to the species comes from the depletion of ground water within the cave , and the exploitation of aquifer water may pose the most serious threat in the long - term ( 5 ) .\nthe protection of the aigamas cave is vital in the conservation of this species , and the present owner is sympathetic to the sensitivity of the cave , only allowing access or collection of the cave catfish with a nature conservation permit ( 5 ) . twenty captive specimens were held in the national zoological gardens ' aquarium in pretoria for several years ( 5 ) , but no longer persist ( 7 ) . there is also a move to provide legislative protection for this rare and unique fish ( 5 ) .\nthey appear similar to white eels , up to a length of 16 . 1 cm ( 6 . 3 inches )\n. they have very small eyes , and are probably effectively blind . they feed on detritus that falls into the lake in which they live . the population is estimated at 150\nindividuals . little is known about its reproduction , and attempts to breed it in captivity have failed . the population is threatened by chance events and aquifer depletion that threatens to drain the lake .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nunderground lake at aigamas cave , north of otavi , about 19\u00b025 ' s , 17\u00b018 ' e , namibia , southwestern africa .\n161mm or 6 . 3\nsl . find near , nearer or same sized spp .\nthe genital papilla , which is to the right of the anus as you look at the fish with its head to the left , is elongated and pointed in males while it is round and relatively larger ( and larger than the anus ) in females . in ventral view especially , females are much broader in the body than males of equal age and rearing practices .\nafrica : namibia : inhabits the crystal clear waters of a subterranean small lake , lying at the bottom of the aigamas cave . there are reports of similar fishes from other caves within the same dolomitic limestone region .\nwild fish are coprophagous , eating bat guano ; they also eat coprophagous invertebrates and small shrimps . it is thought larger fish cannibalize smaller individuals which is not unusual in the cave environment .\nthis is a specialized species and the suggestions for the genus in general would be much too boisterous .\nget or print a qr code for this species profile , or try our beta label creator .\nhas this page been useful ? please donate to our monthly hosting costs and keep us free for everyone to enjoy ! explore our youtube channel , facebook page or follow us on twitter .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 urltoken , part of the aquatic republic network group of websites . all rights reserved . cite this website . by accessing this site you agree to our terms and conditions of use . our privacy policy .\naigamas cave ( namibia ) . they appear pinkish white in color because a lack of pigment and look generally like an eel ; they typically grow to about 16cm in length . most inidividual specimens show virtually no sign of eyes on the surface of their head , and others appear to have eyes , but they are greatly obscured by flesh . because this , this species is effectively blind . as far as their diet goes , they are bottom - feeders ; they consume only algea and micro - organisms .\nin may of 2015 , scientists found the golden cave catfish to essentially climb completely vertical walls in order to reach food .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nformat summary genbank genbank ( full ) fasta asn . 1 xml insdseq xml tinyseq xml feature table accession list gi list gff3"]}
{"id": 861, "summary": [{"text": "the puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata ) , also known as the puerto rican parrot or iguaca , is the only extant bird endemic to the archipelago of puerto rico belonging to the neotropical genus amazona .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "measuring 28 \u2013 30 cm ( 11.0 \u2013 11.8 in ) , the bird is a predominantly green parrot with a red forehead and white rings around the eyes .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "two subspecies have been described , although there are doubts regarding the distinctiveness of the form gracilipes from culebra island , extinct since 1912 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "its closest relatives are believed to be the cuban amazon ( amazona leucocephala ) and the hispaniolan amazon ( amazona ventralis ) .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the puerto rican amazon reaches sexual maturity at between three and four years of age .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it reproduces once a year and is a cavity nester .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "once the female lays eggs she will remain in the nest and continuously incubate them until hatching .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the chicks are fed by both parents and will fledge 60 to 65 days after hatching .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "this parrot 's diet is varied and consists of flowers , fruits , leaves , bark and nectar obtained from the forest canopy .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the species is the only remaining native parrot in puerto rico and has been listed as critically endangered by the world conservation union since 1994 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "once widespread and abundant , the population declined drastically in the 19th and early 20th centuries with the removal of most of its native habitat ; the species completely vanished from vieques and mona island , nearby to the main island of puerto rico .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "conservation efforts commenced in 1968 to save the bird from extinction .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "in 2012 , the total estimated population was 58 \u2013 80 individuals in the wild and over 300 individuals in captivity . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "puerto rican amazon", "paragraphs": ["puerto rican amazon social behavior also known as puerto rican parrot , red - fronted amazon . synonymspsittacus vittatus . spanishamazona de puerto ri\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\npuerto rican cookery and millions of other books are available for amazon kindle . learn more\nthe puerto rican parrot\u2019s common names are either the puerto rican parrot or the puerto rican amazon . both names are very commonly used . the genus and species is amazona vittata .\nhurricanes are a major threat to the puerto rican amazon and many other central american parrot species .\nsaving the critically endangered puerto rican amazon ( a . vittata ) through successful integration of . . .\npuerto rican parrot at the new puerto rican zoo juan a rivero exhibit in mayaguez . photograph by jose almodovar .\ndel hoyo , j . , a . elloit , j . sangatal . 1997 . puerto rican amazon . pp . 468 in\nif you ' re a seller , fulfillment by amazon can help you increase your sales . we invite you to learn more about fulfillment by amazon .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata )\ntitle =\narkive species - puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nbrian published an article in wpt\u2019s psittascene describing his work on the puerto rican parrot .\n. the extant botanical collections and nomenclatural types of agustin stahl , puerto rican botanist .\nhealth and reproductive assessment of selected puerto rican parrots ( amazona vittata ) in captivity .\nbrian returns to puerto rico for a year of intensive data collection on pair behavior and nesting success in the puerto rican parrot .\nbrian ramos\u2019s grant to study the puerto rican parrot is renewed by the world parrot trust .\nbrian hosts a successful visit by tim and his co - advisor scott carleton to the puerto rican parrot conservation project in puerto rico .\nthis book provides a comprehensive analysis of the competing discourses on puerto rican identity on the island and within the us diaspora that have characterized puerto rico\u2019s historical and cultural discourses . it also underscores the transnational nature of puerto rican migration .\nallele frequencies ( f ) have been determined in the puerto rican population for all 332 loci .\nthis is my fact board about the puerto rican parrot for a 5th grade endangered species project .\nthe large home range and high mobility of puerto rican amazons likely make them an important seed disperser .\nthe puerto rican parrot , also known as the puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata ) , is one of the rarest birds on earth . it is the only native parrot in puerto rico ( the only place where they live in the wild ) . according to the u . s . fish & wildlife service , only 34 - 40 remain in the wild and 143 are in captivity . below are interesting facts about the endangered puerto rican parrot .\n. wild relatives of guaran\u00e1 ( paullinia cupana ; sapindaceae ) show high diversity in western brazilian amazon .\nthe puerto rican parrot is a vertebrate . it lives in the southeast region , in puerto rico only . it is in the birds group . the scientific name for the puerto rican parrot is the amazona vittata . it is an endangered species and there are only about 24 - 26 free puerto rican parrots left in the wild . the description of the puerto rican parrot is its tail is short and squared - off . the color of the parrot is mostly green . more\nhealth and reproductive assessment of selected puerto rican parrots ( amazona vittata ) in captivity . - pubmed - ncbi\nfulfillment by amazon ( fba ) is a service we offer sellers that lets them store their products in amazon ' s fulfillment centers , and we directly pack , ship , and provide customer service for these products . something we hope you ' ll especially enjoy : fba items qualify for free shipping and amazon prime .\nrange : puerto rican parrot is endemic to puerto rico . this critically endangered species survives at mid - level in the wet forest of luquillo national forest reserve .\nthe puerto rican amazon is the only parrot native to a us territory ; it is also distinguished by quite possibly being the bird that helped lead columbus to land on his first voyage ( please see article below ) .\necological services in the caribbean , starts evaluation and selection process for a third site to release puerto rican parrots .\nif you visit the caribbean national forest while you are in puerto rico , you may be fortunate enough to see a puerto rican amazon parrot . this attractive bird is endemic to puerto rico , but it is also critically endangered . in 2006 the remaining wild population was estimated to have dropped to as few as forty - four birds .\n] . following this example , we will direct future work on the puerto rican population structure towards total genome arrays .\n\u2022conservation trust of puerto rico relationship to other classification schemes puerto rican dry forest boundaries were derived from the subtropical dry forest life zone of ewell and whitmore ( 1973 ) .\nlos bejucos de puerto rico , vol . 1 ( the vines of puerto rico , a field guide )\nthe puerto rican parrot is the only endemic or native parrot in puerto rico . one of the rarest birds in the world , this parrot and its habitat are strictly protected by federal and puerto rican laws as an endangered species . it is illegal to possess , buy or sell the parrot or any part of it ( including feathers , eggs and nests ) . the puerto rican parrot is a small amazon parrot , about 11 inches ( 29 cm ) in length and weighing about 10 ounces ( 270 g ) . more\npeople unaware of this species plight are sometimes confused by all the concern\u2026after all , parrots abound throughout puerto rico . however , these pet trade escapees are introduced species , which actually worsen the puerto rican amazon\u2019s plight by competing for food and nest sites , and , possibly , through hybridization .\namazona vittata the true puerto rican parrot is severely endangered and rarely , if ever seen . hispaniolan parrot is common in some areas of puerto rico . orange crowned parrot is also a somewhat common bird in puerto rico now . more\nsponsored products are advertisements for products sold by merchants on amazon . com . when you click on a sponsored product ad , you will be taken to an amazon detail page where you can learn more about the product and purchase it .\nwilson , k . , r . field , m . wilson . 1995 . successful nesting behavior of puerto rican parrots .\nthis interdisciplinary portrait of the development of the us puerto rican community illustrates how the historical and socioeconomic development of island puerto ricans intertwines with migration and the formation of a stateside diaspora . the book provides valuable statistical data on puerto ricans .\nauthenticated ( 21 / 06 / 2006 ) by dr . thomas white , wildlife biologist with the u . s . fish and wildlife service , and coordinator for the releases of captive - reared puerto rican parrots , puerto rican parrot recovery program . urltoken\nadmixture is of great relevance to apply pharmacogenetics and personalized medicine in the puerto rican population . as multigene models are developed to predict drug response , the range of possible allelic combinations in the puerto rican populations is certain to exceed that in populations without admixture .\nthe diet of the puerto rican parrot is sierra palm fruits , tabonoco fruit , other wild fruits , flowers and tender shoots .\nthe puerto rican parrot is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) , facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild .\npuerto rican parrot population used to be 1 , 000 , 000 and now there\u2019s only 47 remaining ! the puerto rican parrot is the only native parrot in puerto rico . it is one of the rarest birds in the world . this parrot and its habitat are strictly protected by federal and puerto rican laws because it is an endangered species . it is against the law to own , buy or sell the parrot or any part of it . more\npuerto rican amazons are very vocal and produce a wide variety of squawks . in flight they make a distinct bugling call . like many\nthe purpose of this study was to determine distribution frequencies of 332 snps from 196 cardiometabolic and neuroendocrine genes in the puerto rican population . another goal of this work was to apply these physiogenomic markers for inferring the puerto rican population structure , following a bayesian clustering algorithm .\ndiet : puerto rican parrot feeds mainly on seeds , leaves , flowers , fruits , bark and nectar found in the forest canopy .\nthe puerto rican parrot , began in the second half of the 20th century . according to iucn , as of 2002 , there were 21 threatened species in puerto rico : two mammals , eight breeding birds , eight reptiles , and three amphibians . contents - * 1 origin of puerto rican fauna * 2 mammals * 2 . more\nfernandez - mendez e ( 1970 ) historia cultural de puerto rico . san juan , puerto rico : ediciones el cem\u00ed .\nthe puerto rican amazon\u2019s decline is largely due to deforestation . it nests only in pre - existing holes in tall , mature trees . when these trees are cut , the parrots cannot nest , or they use sites that are vulnerable to predators , competitors and hurricanes .\nusing allelic dissimilarity and bayesian clustering analysis , the population structure of the puerto rican island - wide sample was found to be highly heterogeneous .\nif the recovery objective is met , puerto rican parrots will be down listed to threatened ( instead of endangered ) by the year 2020 .\npuerto rican parrots at breeding facility puerto rican parrots at el yunque breeding facility \u2013 photo : william humphrey black whiskered vireo black whiskered vireo ( makes a pretty bird call here at the raniforest inn ) the information and photographs on this web site come from puerto rico ' s birds in photographs ( paperback ) by mark w . oberle . more\namazon giveaway allows you to run promotional giveaways in order to create buzz , reward your audience , and attract new followers and customers .\n, as would be expected . it will be necessary to obtain a larger sample to encompass the amerindian component in the puerto rican population more distinctively . the sample size of 100 individuals falls within the same order of magnitude as multiple previously published admixture studies of the puerto rican population [\npuerto rico was formerly entirely forested and , historically , the puerto rican amazon was abundant in all forest types ( 2 ) , including scrub , moist montane and lowland forests , and mangroves ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . the species is now restricted to montane rainforest at elevations of 200 to 600 metres above sea level ( 7 ) .\nprotection / threats / status : puerto rican parrot is critically endangered , living in restricted range in puerto rico . this species suffered habitat loss with deforestation , human developments and trapping for illegal pet - trade .\nsalari k , choudhry s , tang h , et al . genetic admixture and asthma - related phenotypes in mexican american and puerto rican asthmatics .\nthe world\u2019s population of about 600 puerto rican amazons ( amazona vittata ) resides in the rio abajo state forest and the el yunque national forest .\nanother huge danger for the puerto rican parrot are hurricanes because they don\u2019t only wipe out the population but a strong hurricane can destroy their habitat .\npuerto rican parrots are one of about 34 species of amazon parrots found in the americas . amazona vittata are known for the bright red shock of feathers at their forehead , white rings around their eyes and the shimmering blue feathers under their wings , usually visible when they dart overhead .\nthe puerto rican amazon is covered with green feathers which have blue edges . the plumage on their foreheads is shaded bright red while their eyes look incredibly large due to distinctive white ovals which surround the actual eye . from the underside a bird watcher might note that the wings are bright blue and the tail is yellow - green . there is no difference in color between the sexes and the bird measures between 28 and 30 cm in length . thus the puerto rican amazon is smaller many other members of the amazona parrot species but this size is not at all uncommon .\na critique of the deficiencies of puerto rican migration studies published between the 1940s and 1960s by north american and other foreign scholars , and a class analysis of colonialism , the development of capitalism on the island , and the combination of factors that propelled puerto rican labor migration at different historical periods .\ndescription : puerto rican parrot is endemic to puerto rico . this species belongs to the genus \u201camazona\u201d which gathers small to medium - sized parrots coming from the new world , particularly south america , mexico and caribbean .\nthe puerto rican parrot is native to puerto rico and lives in the east and north - east of the island . the two forests that it is found mainly in are el yunque and rio abajo national forests .\nin addition to the introduced parrots mentioned earlier , the island\u2019s 3 large hawks pose a threat to the already depleted puerto rican amazon population . added to this is the species\u2019 need for an intact habitat that supports varied food sources\u2026it has been documented as feeding upon over 50 types of plants .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - red - spectacled amazon feathers\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - red - spectacled amazon feathers\ntitle =\narkive photo - red - spectacled amazon feathers\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nparrots , they can even learn to speak human words . puerto rican amazons perceive their environment through visual , tactile , auditory , and chemical stimuli .\nplease see my articles did parrots help columbus find america ? and the thick billed parrot for further information on puerto rican amazons and us native parrots .\nconservation efforts to help puerto rican amazons recover has helped researchers learn more about how ecosystem and animal behaviors work . resource managers in the lesser antilles have used successful techniques developed on the puerto rican amazons to help improve other local endangered parrot populations . these endangered parrots also attract avid birders to the area .\nmarch 16 marks a historic two - fer for the wright lab ! chris ' s paper on playbacks of duets and solos the yellow - naped amazon is accepted by animal cognition , and ted ' s paper on cryptic speciation in the mealy amazon is accepted pending minor revisions by conservation genetics .\nthis groundbreaking study remains the only comprehensive history of us puerto ricans that examines the factors that contributed to their migration and documents the neglected experiences of the pre\u2013world war ii puerto rican community in new york . special attention is given to numerous community organizations created by puerto ricans . first edition 1983 .\ngreat cookbook ! i ' m tired of eating the same puerto rican food over & over . there ' s plenty of new recipes in this book .\nlindsay , g . , w . arendt , j . kalina , g . pendleton . 1991 . home range and movement of juvenile puerto rican parrot .\nthe puerto rican parrot had to adapt when the humans started expanding into their habitat and started cutting down trees to build houses , boats , and developments .\nfree 5 - 8 business - day shipping within the u . s . when you order $ 25 of eligible items sold or fulfilled by amazon .\nmainland puerto ricans currently represent 1 . 2 % of the us population and 9 . 6 % of the hispanic population in the usa [ 101 ] . similar to others in latin america , the puerto rican population originated as a result of admixture between amerindians , whose ancestors had migrated from the amazon basin and arrived in puerto rico 2200 years before present , and spaniard and west - african individuals . the island of puerto rico thus is endowed with a distinctive population in terms of its gene flow . there are growing numbers of puerto ricans in the usa , as puerto rico has been a us territory or commonwealth since 1898 . admixture studies in puerto ricans , either in the island or the continental usa , have been scarce .\nin 1954 jose rodriguez vidal counted only 13 parrots in el yunque national park . that is when the scientists stepped in and started recovery programs to help save the puerto rican parrot . there are many challenges like hurricanes , predators and the monogamous behavior makes recovery difficult . the scientists are still working to learn about the puerto rican parrot to prevent their extinction and the last few years have been quite successful . looks like the puerto rican parrot might make it after all !\nit was thought that puerto rican amazons would destroy the corn industry in puerto rico . as a result of this fear , farmers killed hundred of birds . population numbers were later assessed to be too small to impact the industry .\nin 1492 in puerto rico , the puerto rican parrot\u2019s population thrived with approximately one million parrots . but after christopher columbus came to puerto rico in 1506 and the spaniards began to settle the island the parrot\u2019s habitat became destroyed . the spaniards started cutting down the palo colorado tree which was the nesting tree of the puerto rican parrot . this tree was a great material for building ships . as a result the population of the parrot was affected and started to drop .\npuerto rican parrot is a gregarious species , but during the breeding season , the nest - site id defended , mainly by loud calls , against invading pairs .\nuse of the puerto rican parrot captive recovery program and husbandry techniques as a model for management of birds in captivity based in the particular needs of this species .\nfrancez pac , ramos lpv , palha tjrf , santos seb . haplotype diversity of 17 y - str loci in an admixed population from the brazilian amazon .\ninstantly receive a \u00a310 urltoken gift card if you\u2019re approved for the amazon platinum mastercard with instant spend . representative 21 . 9 % apr ( variable ) .\njuvenile puerto rican amazons have an average home range of 22 + / - 12 ha . this increases to an average of 1243 ha after joining an adult flock .\npuerto rican parrots live in the forest and can mostly be found in the tree canopy . loss of habitat by deforestation is the main reason for them becoming endangered .\nribeiro - rodrigues em , palha tjbf , santos seb . allele frequencies data and statistic parameters for 13 str loci in a population of the brazilian amazon region .\nin this photo taken thursday june 23 , 2011 , a puerto rican parrot is pictured inside a fly cage at el yunque national forest protected habitat in luquillo , puerto rico . the parrots are one of about 34 amazon parrots ' species found in the americas . they are known for the bright red shock of feathers at their forehead , white rings around their eyes and the shimmering blue feathers under their wings . the puerto rican parrot has hovered at the edge of extinction for decades but is now making a bit of a comeback . ( ap photo / ricardo arduengo )\nthe puerto rican parrot ( amazona vittata ) had shared its habitat with the peaceful taino indians for centuries before the arrival of european settlers in the caribbean . status and trends upon arrival of the spanish in 1493 , the puerto rican parrot lived in all major habitats of puerto rico and the adjacent smaller islands of culebra , mona , vieques , and possibly the virgin islands ( snyder et al . 1987 ) . more\nthe puerto rican parrot is the only endemic parrot found within the united states and its territories and is one of the ten most endangered birds in the world . upon the arrival of columbus to puerto rico in 1493 , the puerto rican parrot numbered approximately a million birds . by the 1930\u2019s that number had reduced to approximately 2000 birds . by 1954 to an estimated 200 birds . by 1964 to 70 birds . more\nthe puerto rican parrot mostly flies but sometimes it walks . it is a fast moving animal and that is important for its survival because its predators are also fast moving .\nwith a total population numbering 295 birds , only 60 of which live in the wild , the puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata ) holds the unenviable title of one of the world\u2019s 10 most endangered birds . a subspecies , a . v . gracilipes , once found on neighboring culebra , mona and vieques islands , is now extinct .\nthe first comprehensive collection of essays and interviews aimed at documenting the political and social activism of diverse puerto rican organizations since the 1960s , and their collective struggles for civil rights , community empowerment , and the liberation of puerto rico from us colonial rule .\ntwo wild populations have been established . that at rio abajo is comprised entirely of captive - bred birds , while the loquillo national forest ( el yunque ) in eastern puerto rico is home to both wild and released individuals . before releases were initiated , detailed studies of the hispaniolan parrot ( amazona ventralis ) were conducted in the dominican republic and used as a template for the puerto rican amazon\u2019s return to the wild .\nfrancez pac , ribeiro - rodrigues em , santos seb . allele frequencies and statistical data obtained from 48 aim indel loci in an admixed population from the brazilian amazon .\ngreat cookbook ! i ' m tired of eating the same puerto . . .\n. naturalization and invasion of alien plants in puerto rico and the virgin islands .\n. lista de especies de traqueofitos de punta guayan\u00e9s , yabucoa , puerto rico .\ni have used this book for almost 40 years and was so excited to be able to give one of the same to a friend who is eager to learn puerto rican cooking .\nflight : puerto rican parrot performs fast flight with rapid wing beats . it prefers to fly along valleys and ridges rather than over peaks . this species is usually noisy in flight .\nmajor studies on puerto rican migration , especially those written by north american scholars in the 1950s and 1960s , were focused on problem - oriented or blaming - the - victim cultural - deficit models commonly found in studies of poverty among us minorities . these studies tended to recycle some common stereotypes and misconceptions about the disadvantaged conditions of puerto rican migrants . the emergence of puerto rican studies as a field of academic inquiry in the late 1960s and 1970s fostered new historical and socioeconomic analyses of puerto rican migration and the formation of a us diaspora . it also generated a sustained critique of the shortcomings of previous scholarship and addressed the connections between us colonial domination in puerto rico and the structural and political factors that propelled island puerto ricans to migrate to the united states . new migration studies also began to document the history of puerto rican settlement and formation of stateside communities , and to draw attention to migrants\u2019 productive lives and contributions to us society . this new historiography about the diaspora includes several notable works . centro history task force 1979 and centro oral history task force 1998 introduce groundbreaking historical and socioeconomic frameworks for analyzing puerto rican labor migration . s\u00e1nchez korrol 1994 is the first study to offer a detailed account of the historical development of new york city\u2019s puerto rican community during the early decades of the 20th century . this particular book emphasizes the collective activism of pioneer migrants to create numerous cultural , social , and political community organizations that facilitated the process of adaptation and survival in us society . torres and vel\u00e1zquez 1998 , an edited volume on the puerto rican movement , includes a substantive number of examples that illustrate different forms of social and political engagement during the years of the civil rights movement . duany 2002 analyzes the contemporary transnational dynamics of a puerto rican nation moving between the island and the many us communities of settlement . the increasing demographic dispersion of puerto ricans to other geographic destinations besides new york city has compelled researchers to focus on the establishment and evolution of other communities . whalen and v\u00e1zquez - hern\u00e1ndez 2005 is an edited volume that emphasizes old and new patterns of puerto rican settlement at various geographic locations . lastly , few puerto rican migration studies provide a historical narrative that interweaves the history of puerto rico with the formation of its diaspora . duany 2002 , acosta - bel\u00e9n and santiago 2006 , and ayala and bernabe 2009 stand out in this regard .\nmorera b , barrantes r , marin - rojas r . gene admixture in the costa rican population .\npopulation of puerto rican parrot was once estimated at around a million individuals . as of 2008 there are around fifty left in the wild , and around 220 in breeding programmes run by the multi - agency puerto rican parrot recovery program ( which originally involved scientists and managers from the us fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) , the us forest service and the puerto rico department of natural and environmental resources , with added support provided by the world wildlife fund ) . more\nbonilla c , shriver md , parra ej , jones a , fernandez jr . ancestral proportions and their association with skin pigmentation and bone mineral density in puerto rican women from new york city .\nbehaviour : puerto rican parrot feeds mainly on seeds , fruits , leaves , flowers and bark of numerous plants\u2019 species such as trees , shrubs and vines . it usually avoids the small fruits .\noleksyk tk , guiblet w , pombert jf , valentin r , martinez - cruzado jc : genomic data of the puerto rican parrot ( amazona vittata ) from a locally funded project . gigascience .\nfrancez pac , rodrigues emr , fraz\u00e3o gf , borges ndr , santos seb . allelic frequencies and statistical data obtained from 12 codis str loci in an admixed population of the brazilian amazon .\nwhile the puerto rican parrot\u2019s life expectancy is from 20 to 25 years , the first parrot to be born in captivity in 1979 , pepo , is still alive and he is 33 years old .\noriginally throughout forests on puerto rico ranging from moist montane forest down to littoral . . .\nvery interesting use of a puerto rico asthma population for admixture mapping of potential disease loci .\n. the effects of hurricane hugo and posterior recuperation in toro negro forest , puerto rico .\nthis purchase was replacing my old one lost in relocating from nj to fl . i ' ve had a copy of puerto rican for over 30 years and love it to death . it ' s a great book for cooking puerto rican food . the recipes are easy to understand and follow , and the food always turns out great . i ' m so glad i was able to replace it !\nthe puerto rican sample was found to be broadly heterogeneous . we observed three main clusters in the population , which we hypothesize to reflect the historical admixture in the puerto rican population from amerindian , african and european ancestors . we present evidence for this interpretation by comparing allele frequencies for the three clusters with those for the same snps available from the international hapmap project for asian , african and european populations .\ncity council speaker melissa mark - viverito says the popular outrage that has sent longtime parade sponsors scurrying in horror is being \u201corchestrated\u201d by \u201can ultra right - wing\u201d element that favors puerto rican statehood over independence .\nthe puerto rican parrot ( amazona vittata ) has become an iconic and high - profile conservation species . the cornerstone of the recovery plan for this critically endangered species is an active captive breeding program , management of the wild population , and a long - term reintroduction program . in 2002 , 40 adult puerto rican parrots that had not produced viable offspring were selected for . . . [ show full abstract ]\nchristian , c . , t . lacher jr , m . zamore , t . potts , g . burnett . 1996 . parrot conservation in the lesser antilles with some comparison to the puerto rican efforts .\nlacy rc , flesness nr , seal us , ballou jd , foose tj , bruning d , dierenfeld e , kollias gv , snyder nfr , wildt d : puerto rican parrotamazona vittatapopulation viability analysis and recommendations .\nthe puerto rican parrot\u2019s behavior is mostly calm . they are always in groups because if there is any danger , they can protect and help each other . the puerto rican parrot is a monogamous species , which means that they chose their mate and stay with them for life . this makes it hard to recover the species from being endangered because it takes more time to reproduce . the connection between the two parrots is so strong that if the mate dies it can take up to ten years for the parrot to look for another mate . the puerto rican parrot lives in families of at least ten parrots but is also very territorial .\npuerto rico and formerly neighbouring islands of mona and culebra ; possibly vieques and st . thomas .\npopulation stratification of the puerto rico sample as represented by the structure version 2 . 2 triangle plot\nthe population of wild puerto rican parrots , among the most endangered birds in the world , has languished for decades , with several dozen remaining birds unable to break through the bottleneck that prevents their numbers . . .\nthe puerto rican parrot is herbivorous and it feeds on flowers , fruits , leaves , bark and nectar . they nest in vacant tree trunk cavities and show a preference for certain types of trees . they usually nest between seven and fifteen meters above the ground and the male will usually find the nesting site , though both the male and female will inspect it , clean it and settle in it . the puerto rican amazon mates for life and reproduces only once a year . the female lays only two to four eggs , which she incubates herself . the chicks are very dependent and remain with the parents for a year after hatching .\nadmixture in the population of the island of puerto rico is of general interest with regards to pharmacogenetics to develop comprehensive strategies for personalized healthcare in latin americans . this research was aimed at determining the frequencies of snps in key physiological , pharmacological and biochemical genes to infer population structure and ancestry in the puerto rican population .\nthe number one predator of the puerto rican parrot is the puerto rican red tail hawk . other enemies are the puerto rican boa constrictor , bats , snakes , honey bees , black rats , indian mongoose , the mosquito parasite and the pearly - eyed thrasher . the mosquito parasite eats them alive by releasing a substance almost like morphine and they will be feeding themselves from the flesh of the parrot without the parrot feeling it . the pearly - eyed thrasher is the most damaging because it goes down into the parrots nest and instead of eating one egg or one parrot like the others predators , it will eat all the eggs or all the chicks .\n) . puerto rican amazons usually search for food in pairs . they have also been known to feed on corn crops , a food source that only recently became available to them through agricultural changes in the past century .\nthe puerto rican parrot has gone through hard times and good times but the recovery programs have helped a lot with the population . there are many challenges to still come for the puerto rican parrot because their favorite nesting tree , the palo colorado is endangered itself . in addition hurricanes will continue to be a threat for the population . as scientists are learning more about the parrots\u2019 behavior and habitat they will be able to help them better in the future .\ngenome variation and ancestry in the puerto rican population were analyzed using 332 snps from 196 cardiometabolic and neuroendocrine genes . according to the results , a trichotomous structure with european , amerindian and west - african contributions can be ascertained ( see\nthe puerto rican parrot , amazona vittata , is the only native parrot species in puerto rico and , unfortunately , it is an endangered species . therefore , it is very important for the department of natural and environmental resources ( dner ) to preserve existing individuals and their habitat , as well as supervising recovery programs for the species . more\nribeiro dos santos akc , pereira jm , lobato mrf , carvalho bm , guerreiro jf , santos seb . dissimilarities in the process of formation of curia\u00fa , a semi - isolated afro - brazilian population of the amazon region .\nthe puerto rican amazon reaches sexual maturity between three and four years of age . it reproduces once a year and is a cavity nester . once the female lays eggs she will remain in the nest and continuously incubate them until hatching . the chicks are fed by both parents and will fledge 60 to 65 days after hatching . this parrot ' s diet is varied and consists of flowers , fruits , leaves , bark and nectar obtained from the forest canopy .\nthe numbers of this endangered parrot dropped to 13 ( in the wild ) a few years ago . find puerto rican parrot facts in this article , inclduing its life and what measures are being taken to prevent them from becoming extinct .\nthe puerto rican parrot is a one - foot long bird . it has an emerald green body , a red forehead , wide white eye rings , blue primary wing feathers , flesh colored bill and feet , and a pale beak .\nin my opinion it\u2019s the best puerto ricsn cook book . i mean , my mother had this book .\n( asclepiadaceae ) from puerto rico and a new name for a jamaican species of calyptranthes ( myrtaceae ) .\ncollar , n . , boesman , p . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nvallinoto imvc , vallinoto acr , valente cmd , guerreiro jf . allele frequency distributions of six hypervariable loci ( d1s80 , apob , d4s43 , vw1 , f13a and dys19 ) in two african - brazilian communities from the amazon region .\nhabitat : puerto rican parrot frequents wet forests from moist mountainous forests down to coastal scrub forests and mangroves . this species was formerly in most forested areas in mountains and lowlands . it is now confined between 200 and 600 metres of elevation .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto puerto rican parrot utters distinctive \u201ckar\u2026kar\u201d while flying . each note is given on descending scale . it also gives loud squawks when taking off , and some chuckling notes . when perched , both mates perform duets .\n. stahl y la botanica en puerto rico . in : acevedo - rodriguez , pedro ( ed . ) ,\n. stahl and the botany of puerto rico . in : acevedo - rodriguez , pedro ( ed . ) ,\nagustin stahl ' s estudios para la flora de puerto rico , illustrated facsimile of the first edition . 3 volums\nwhere found : puerto rico and formerly neighbouring islands of mona and culebra ; possibly vieques and st . thomas .\nthe puerto rican parrot ( amazona vitatta ) is losing habitat to severe weather conditions . whether it is a matter of climate change is being debated . ecologists and activists are trying to determine the effect of climate change on bird species . in its report \u201cstate of the bird 2010 , \u201d the u . s . fish and wildlife service reported that climate change is adversely affecting the habitat of the only parrot species native to the united states , the puerto rican parrot ( amazona vitatta ) . more\nthe puerto rican amazon parrot ( amazona vittata ) is also sometimes called the iguaca \u2013 a name given to the bird by the ta\u00efno indians based on the sound that the parrots make . the puerto rican parrot is so critically endangered that it is listed as one of the ten most endangered bird species on the planet . despite the fact that efforts to save this species from extinction started in 1968 , it currently seems as though conservationists may be facing a loosing battle . therefore , if you are fortunate enough to see one during your travels , you can count yourself among the privileged few . while these birds were once abundant on both the mainland and the surrounding islands , they are now restricted mainly to the protected forests of the caribbean national forest .\npalha tjbf , ribeiro - rodrigues em , ribeiro - dos - santos a , guerreiro jf , moura lss , santos s . male ancestry structure and interethnic admixture in african - descent communities from the amazon as revealed by y - chromosome strs .\nthe puerto rican parrot is unique in that , since 2001 , all known nesting in the wild has occurred in standardized artificial cavities , which also provided us a unique opportunity to evaluate nest site selection without confounding effects of the actual nest cavity characteristics . more\nthe puerto rican parrot ( amazona vittata ) has become an iconic and high - profile conservation species . the cornerstone of the recovery plan for this critically endangered species is an active captive breeding program , management of the wild population , and a long - term reintroduction program . in 2002 , 40 adult puerto rican parrots that had not produced viable offspring were selected for reproductive assessment at 2 aviary populations in puerto rico ( iguaca and r\u00edo abajo ) , which are the only sources of parrots for release . the goal was to enhance reproductive potential and produce productive pairings in an attempt to augment the population growth and provide ample individuals for reintroduction . seven hispanolian amazon parrots ( amazona ventralis ) that were used as surrogate parents for the puerto rican parrots were also included in the study . this assessment included physical examination , endoscopic evaluation , hematologic and plasma biochemical profiles , viral screening , and hormonal assays . results of general physical examination and hematologic and plasma biochemical testing revealed overall good health and condition of this subset of the population of puerto rican parrots ; no major infectious diseases were found . endoscopic examination also revealed overall good health and condition , especially of females . the apparent low fertility of male birds warrants further investigation . the findings helped to define causes of reproductive failure in the selected pairs and individual birds . new pairings resulting from the assessment helped to augment reproduction of this critically endangered species .\nagustin stahl ' s estudios para la flora de puerto rico , illustrated facsimile of the first edition . 3 volums .\nn\u00fa\u00f1ez - garc\u00eda , f . and torres - b\u00e1ez , p . ( 2008 ) technical / agency draft recovery plan for the puerto rican parrot ( amazona vittata ) . u . s . fish and wildlife service , georgia , usa . available at : urltoken\nreproduction is difficult because the puerto rican parrot is monogamous , so when a male finds a female and she accept him ( or vice versa ) those first weeks are the most crucial for their reproduction . that\u2019s why it is so important not to bother them .\nin 1989 hurricane hugo struck destroying about 60 % of el yunque national forest . this devastated the puerto rican parrot population and only 24 birds survived . that\u2019s when the program got more aggressive by building aviaries , monitoring areas , and studying the parrots more closely .\na pair of puerto rican parrots at their nest on the island ' s luquillo national forest . fewer than 45 birds remain in the wild , making this one of the world ' s most endangered species . ( courtesy u . s . fish and wildlife service ) may 6 , 2008 - berkeley - the population of wild puerto rican parrots , among the most endangered birds in the world , has languished for decades , with several dozen remaining birds unable to break through the bottleneck that prevents their numbers from growing . more\nfor inference of the major ancestry contributions within the puerto rican population , a bayesian clustering algorithm was used . the analysis of the pg - array derived informative markers data with the structure version 2 . 2 software shows that the samples readily separate into three clusters . in\nthough the puerto rican amazon has several natural predators \u2013 none of these have been more detrimental to the longevity of the bird than man . loss of habitat and capture of live birds for pets have been among the leading causes for this bird\u2019s near extinction . while captive breeding efforts are paying off , the wild bird population is still perilously close to extinction . so the next time you see one of these inquisitive looking birds , spare a thought for all the hard work that is going into preserving them for future generations .\nformerly known as amazona vittata , the puerto rican parrot is sadly close to extinction . considered as a magnificent parrot that was once abundant throughout the south american country of puerto rico , this bird is now just a small , wild population that lives in the caribbean national forest rainforest . to ensure this parrot exists , a number of programs have been created providing needed research and intervention . more\nmaricao is puerto rico ' s top coffee growing region , with lush vegetation , spectacular birdlife . . . . read more\ntang h , choudhry s , mei r , et al . recent genetic selection in the ancestral admixture of puerto ricans .\nchoudhry s , burchard eg , borrell ln , et al . ancestry - environment interactions and asthma risk among puerto ricans .\na moderate correlation between skin color ( melanin index ) and ancestry has been reported using 36 aims in a puerto rican sample settled in new york city [ 46 ] . this relationship was explained as a result of population structure due to admixture stratification in the puerto rican sample . the individuals were of primarily european ancestry ( 53 . 3 \u00b1 2 . 8 % ) but also had relatively large proportions of west african ( 29 . 1 \u00b1 2 . 3 % ) and amerindian ( 17 . 6 \u00b1 2 . 4 % ) ancestry .\nthey thought the species is going to be extinct , so we need to keep in captivity a representation of what was a puerto rican parrot ,\nsaid velez , who has worked for the program for 21 years .\nbut the species really showed resilience .\nancestral contributions to the puerto rican population have been estimated by using polymorphic blood group and protein marker data , as 45 % european , 37 % west african , and 18 % amerindian [ 39 ] . notably , analysis of mitochondrial dna in puerto ricans living in the island revealed a higher amerindian contribution of nearly 53 % [ 38 ] . by contrast , both a set of 61 y chromosome snps ( y - snps ) and 11 core y - short tandem repeats ( strs ) pointed to a much larger european paternal contribution in puerto ricans [ 40 ] . despite regional variation , there have been reported low levels of hispanic y - str haplotype heterogeneity in previous surveys , although the higher frequency of african - derived y chromosomes in the east is consistent with a greater contribution of puerto rican and cuban hispanics to east coast us populations [ 41 \u2013 43 ] . the contributions of the three parental populations to contemporary puerto ricans have been ascertained using a set of 35 autosomal ancestry informative markers ( aims ) [ 44 ] . the analysis provided evidence of a puerto rican gene - pool having european , west african and amerindian origins , with larger european and west african components but an unquestionable amerindian contribution .\nlike most parrots , puerto rican amazons are diurnal . they are usually found foraging in the trees for most of the day . these birds fly in flocks , but are usually sedentary in their nest during the breeding season , using their green plumage to hide and be secretive .\nthe results from this study provide further evidence of the unique trihybrid model of genetic admixture in the puerto rican population . evidence for the trihybrid model was also obtained by comparing allele frequencies for the three clusters with those for the same snps in reference populations from the hapmap project .\nin the past , the prognosis would have been grim .\nthat probably would have been a dead bird ,\nsaid jafet velez , a biologist who manages the puerto rican parrot breeding center in the el yunque national forest , one of two such facilities on the island .\nestablishing additional populations in the wild is a pivotal recovery action outlined in the recovery plan for the puerto rican parrot . with a third wild population in puerto rico we will minimize the species\u2019 risk of extinction and foster its recovery because it is unlikely that catastrophic events ( e . g . , hurricanes ) , and other threats ( e . g . , predation ) , will affect equally all three locations .\nwith only 40 puerto rican parrots left in the wild , the species is pretty close to extinction . however , dr . jaime collazo , an associate professor of zoology at north carolina state university , refuses to let that happen . and , in a move aimed at improving the species more\nthe puerto rican amazon typically occurs in pairs , with nests made in natural tree cavities and used year after year ( 2 ) . the breeding season is from late february to july ( 7 ) and the clutch size ranges from two to four eggs , although many pairs fail to lay eggs in a season ( 2 ) . incubation is performed by the female only , and lasts for around 26 days ( 6 ) . young fledge at approximately nine weeks of age ( 6 ) ( 8 ) and reach sexual maturity after three to five years ( 8 ) .\nthe achievement of the assembled puerto rican parrot genome is an important milestone for unusual reasons . first , the genome project was funded by student organized art and fashion shows dedicated to the effort plus scores of small personal donations by puerto rican people who wanted to be part of it . that could only happen when the cost of reagents had dropped so precipitously that it can be afforded within a $ 10 , 000 usd budget . second , the analysis and annotation took place in a modest university setting where students of genome bioinformatics were trained to drive assemblers , to stitch together contigs and scaffolds , and to begin the genome annotation process . third , the puerto rican parrot is a harbinger for the many parrot genomes we shall be seeing in the near future : the opportunity to explore speciation and adaptive radiation among island species of these parrots is too tempting to pass up ( figure"]}
{"id": 866, "summary": [{"text": "danio dangila , the moustached danio , is a freshwater fish , and is the largest of the true danio species at up to ( 6 in ) long .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "its name is from its particularly long barbels .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it is sometimes kept in aquariums . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "danio dangila", "paragraphs": ["danio dangila \u2013 moustached danio ( danio meghalayensis , danio deyi ) . ( n . d . ) . retrieved march 13 , 2017 , from urltoken\nthe redfin danio resembles a zebra danio with blood - red fins . it may be a colour morph of the orange - finned zebra danio , danio kyathit\ndanio rerio ( f . hamilton , 1822 ) ( zebrafish or zebra danio )\ndangila : appears to be derived from a local vernacular name for the species .\nwith a maximum length of 15cm ( 5 . 9 inch ) , danio dangila is a rather large danio species . its beautiful colors make it worthwhile to keep them in your aquarium .\ndanio margaritatus ( t . r . roberts , 2007 ) ( celestial pearl danio or galaxy rasbora )\ndanio dangila can be found in india , nepal and bangladesh . here it can be found in the ganga , brahmaputra and meghna basins .\narmi , t . g . ( n . d . ) . danio dangila summary page . retrieved march 13 , 2017 , from urltoken\nthe danio genus comprises many of the species of danionins familiar to aquarists . the common name\ndanio\nis used for members of the genera danio and devario .\nthis fish was first collected in 2009 and appears to be a form of d . dangila .\ndanio dangila was first described by hamilton in 1822 . after several years it received the name perilampus reticulatus as well . the latter is currently seen as a synonym .\nsystematic position phylum : chordata class : actinopterygii ( ray - finned fishes ) order : cypriniformes ( carps ) family : cyprinidae ( carps and minnows ) genus : danio species : d . dangila\ndanio dangila is a peaceful specie . it won\u2019t bother other species and are not aggressive to other mustached danios . although , it should not be placed in a tank with fish that suffer quickly from stress . danio dangila is a rather active fish . additionally , the fish needs to be placed in a school . if the amount of mustached danios is too low , the fish might suffer from stress and it will not show its best colors .\ndanio dangila is a relatively large sized danio . it has a yellow base color with a complex dark green pattern over its body . the dorsal - , tail - and anal fins show the dark green coloration as well . all the other fins are completely transparent . this specie can easily be recognized by its long barbels . the common name : mustached danio , refers to these long barbels .\ndanio : from dhani , a bengalese vernacular term for small , minnow - like cyprinids .\ndespite living in hillstream areas , these fish don\u2019t prefer extreme strong currents like some other hillstream fishes . a moderately strong current is sufficient for these fish . however , do make sure that the water is clean and well oxygenated as danio dangila is intolerant to pollution .\nknown as the moustached danio because of its two pairs of extended barbels , one pair being particularly long .\nbeing carnivores , danio dangila should not be fed with herbivore foods . algae wafers are therefore not appropriate for these fish . they will accept all types of food including factory foods . however , to keep the fish in the best shape , life and frozen foods should be offered on occasion as well .\nthe care of members of the genus danio is rather similar and easily generalized . they are easy to keep .\nhybrids between some danio species have been bred ; the young can be raised to maturity , but are sterile .\ndanio dangila isn\u2019t the easiest fish to breed . it is know that the eggs are scattered between small leaved plants . when the eggs are spawned , they will hatch after 48 hours . 2 days later , the fry will be able to swim freely . that is your cue to start feeding them artemia nauplia .\nthe hikari danio is a new species of danio recently discovered in burma , and first exported in 2002 / 2003 . it is still awaiting a scientific name , and is temporarily referred to as danio sp .\nhikari\n. it has blue and yellow varieties with the yellow being male and the blue female . it appears to be closely related to danio kerri . it may be a subspecies of this fish , but this does not seem to be the case .\nthe genus danio contains only the type species , d . dangila , separated on the basis of its larger size and the shape of the caudal - fin , which in adults is only slightly emarginate or even truncate in shape , a feature it shares only with tinca tinca ( the common tench ) among other cyprinids .\nthe meghalaya population was described as d . meghalayensis sen & dey 1985 , but having been revalidated by fang ( 2004 ) this name is once again considered to be a synonym of d . dangila following kottelat ( 2013 ) . it has a predominantly striped , as opposed to spotted , patterning on the body and a greater proportion of red colouration in the fins than the majority of other d . dangila populations .\ndanio quangbinhensis ( t . t . nguyen , v . t . le & x . k . nguy\u1ec5n , 1999 )\nthey have two pairs of long barbels , and are generally characterised by horizontal stripes ( with the exception of the glowlight danio , panther danio and black barred danio which have vertical bars ) . they range from 4\u201315 cm ( 1 . 75\u20136 in ) in length . they generally do not live for more than two to three years , and are probably annual fish in the wild .\nfroese , rainer , and daniel pauly , eds . ( 2012 ) . species of danio in fishbase . june 2012 version .\nknown as the moustached danio because of its two pairs of extended barbels on its top lip , one pair being particularly long .\nsome species of danio , such as the zebra danio , are among the easiest aquarium fish to breed . other species , such as danio kyathit , are far harder to spawn . all scatter their eggs over the substrate . the eggs are not adhesive , and hatch within two or three days . eggs will be eaten enthusiastically unless protected by a layer of marbles or heavy substrate planting .\nthe burma zebra danio or kp01 danio is a tropical fish belonging to the minnow family ( cyprinidae ) . it is believed to originate in myanmar . this fish was discovered in 2006 and is believed to be a separate species from the zebra danio ( which occurs many miles away in india ) to which it has a close resemblance . however , it is more likely to be closely related to the yoma danio ( also from myanmar ) , and is believed to be a similar size , 6 - 9 cm , to the latter .\nthe genus name devario was suggested for the larger species with danio being applied only to the smaller fish ( with the exception of the type species , d . dangila which can grow to around 89 mm sl ) . recent molecular studies by mayden et al . ( 2007 ) and fang et al . ( 2009 ) resulted in further changes , with the latter study considering the genus danio to be composed of three subclades . these were subsequently split into distinct genera by kottelat ( 2013 ) , as follows :\nconway , k . w . , w . - j . chen and r . l . mayden , 2008 - zootaxa 1686 : 1 - 28 the ' celestial pearl danio ' is a miniature danio ( s . s ) ( ostariophysi : cyprinidae ) : evidence from morphology and molecules .\nfang , f . , 2003 - copeia 2003 ( 4 ) : 714 - 728 phylogenetic analysis of the asian cyprinid genus danio ( teleostei , cyprinidae ) .\nessentially a large , gold spotted danio . a distinguishing feature of this species are its large barbels . it dwells in mountain streams and prefers water slightly cooler than the average tropical fish . at the least , keep in a tank that is not overstocked and has good filtration and plenty of oxygen . some authors consider danio meghalayensis to be a geographical variant of this species .\nin the wild , the burma zebra danio is likely found in rivers in a tropical climate and prefer water with a 6 . 5 - 7 . 0 ph , a water hardness of 5 . 0 - 12 . 0 dgh , and an ideal temperature range of 75 - 82\u00b0f ( 24 - 28\u00b0c ) . the burma zebra danio is oviparous ( an egg layer ) .\nfollowing fang ( 2003 ) danio spp . are characterised by the presence of an a stripe on the anal - fin and two or more p stripes on the caudal , plus some internal characteristics such as enlarged nasal lamellae .\nsen n and dey sc . 1985 . two new fish species of the genus danio hamilton ( pisces : cyprinidae ) from meghalaya , india . journal assam scientific society v . 27 ( no . 2 ) : 60 - 68 .\nkullander , s . o . ( 2015 ) . taxonomy of chain danio , an indo - myanmar species assemblage , with descriptions of four new species ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters , 25 ( 4 ) , 357 - 380 .\nolder , molecular , phylogenies tended to agree that it represented a monophyletic group consisting of two major clades ; the \u2018 danio devario \u2018 group containing the larger , deeper - bodied species and the \u2018 d . rerio \u2018 clade comprising the smaller , slimmer fish .\nkullander , s . o . , 2015 . taxonomy of chain danio , an indo - myanmar species assemblage , with description of four new species ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) . ichthyol . explor . freshwat . 25 ( 4 ) : 357 - 380 . ( ref . 101154 )\nkullander , s . o . ( 2012 ) : description of danio flagrans , and redescription of d . choprae , two closely related species from the ayeyarwaddy river drainage in northern myanmar ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters , 23 ( 3 ) : 245 - 262 .\nhowever in 2003 fang conducted a more detailed study based on morphological characters which included members of other related genera , and the results suggested for the first time that the genus danio as previously considered represents a polyphyletic grouping , i . e . , not all members derived from a single common ancestor .\nfang , f . , m . nor\u00e9n , t . y . liao , m . k\u00e4llersj\u00f6 and s . o . kullander , 2009 - zoologica scripta 38 ( 1 ) : 1 - 20 molecular phylogenetic interrelationships of the south asian cyprinid genera danio , devario and microrasbora ( teleostei , cyprinidae , danioninae ) .\nfang , fang ; douglas , m . e . ( 2003 ) . douglas , m . e . , ed .\nphylogenetic analysis of the asian cyprinid genus danio ( teleostei , cyprinidae )\n. copeia 2003 ( 4 ) : 714\u2013728 . doi : 10 . 1643 / ia03 - 131 . 1 .\nspence , rowena and gabriele gerlach , christian lawrence and carl smith ( 2007 ) .\nthe behaviour and ecology of the zebrafish , danio rerio\n( pdf ) . biological reviews for the cambridge philosophical society 83 ( 1 ) : 13\u201334 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1469 - 185x . 2007 . 00030 . x . pmid 18093234 .\nnguyen , v . h . , nguyen , t . h . & mua , b . c . ( 2010 ) : a new fish species of the danio hamilton , 1822 that was found in the ky son district , the northern central province of nghe an , vietnam . vietnam journal of biology , 32 ( 4 ) : 62 - 68 .\ndorsal soft rays ( total ) : 11 - 12 ; anal soft rays : 15 - 19 ; vertebrae : 34 - 38 . danio dangila can be distinguished from all congeners except d . assamila , d . catenatus , d . concatenatus , and d . sysphigmatus by produced first ray in pectoral and pelvic fins , large cleithral spot , and pattern of dark rings enclosing light interspaces on the side . it differs from those species by having vertically extended cleithral spot ( vs . round in all other species ) , absence of complete anterior interstripe ia ( vs . present in d . assamila and d . concatenatus ) , round rings in series along side , width of dark perimeter of about same width as diameter of light centre ( vs . elongate in d . assamila and d . sysphigmatus , with narrower perimeter in d . sysphigmatus ) , ring pattern usually extending onto caudal peduncle ( present on part of caudal peduncle in d . catenatus and d . concatenatus , absent in d . assamila and d . sysphigmatus ) , and 32 - 34 lateral line scales ( vs . 35 - 38 in d . sysphigmatus ) ( ref . 101154 ) .\ndanio dangilla is assessed as least concern since it has a wide distribution . although there is reduction in the population due to exploitation from nature for ornamental trade , it has been successfully bred in icar ( indian council of agricultural research ) research stations of assam and meghalaya . fish farmers have also learnt the technique . trends in wild populations must be monitored and if the captive breeding does not sustain the ornamental trade , the species has to be reassessed .\nmayden , r . l . , k . l . tang , k . w . conway , j . freyhof , s . chamberlain , m . haskins , l . schneider , m . sudkamp , r . m . wood , m . agnew , a . bufalino , z . sulaiman , m . miya , k . saitoh , s . he , 2007 - journal of experimental zoology , molecular development and evolution 308b : 642\u2013654 phylogenetic relationships of danio within the order cypriniformes : a framework for comparative and evolutionary studies of a model species .\nasia : india , bangladesh , nepal and myanmar ( ref . 4832 ) . reported from bhutan ( ref . 40882 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 15 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 85009 )\nlives in mountain streams . reaches to about 15 cm ( ref . 4832 ) ; reported to attain up to 8 . 3 cm sl ( ref . 41236 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00724 ( 0 . 00324 - 0 . 01618 ) , b = 3 . 07 ( 2 . 88 - 3 . 26 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 0 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 25 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njuffe bignoli , d . , chaudhry , s . , barbhuiya , a . h . & dahanukar , n .\nis known from mountain streams belonging to ganga - brahmaputra drainage of bihar , northern bengal , northeastern india , and nepal . it was also reported from umroi stream and rheophilic torrent near barapani , khasi hills meghalaya , india .\nrecent field surveys show that population in the wild might be reducing due to ornamental fish trade ( w . vishwanath pers . comm . 2010 )\nmost of the specimens were collected from the rocks and stones which compose the bottom of several clear mountain streams .\nthis is a beautiful species which attains a length of about 15 cm . it is of no use as food . it is highly exploited for ornamental fish .\nfurther survey work is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline , or is undergoing extreme population fluctuations .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfemales of the meghalaya population are noticeably deeper - bodied and less colourful than males .\nat 90 days of age , colour pattern of the young fish strongly resembles that of the adults .\nsaid to be found throughout the ganges river basin although most records we\u2019ve been able to find correspond to nepal and the brahmaputra drainage in india and bangladesh .\nthe type specimens were apparently collected from the district of munger , bihar state , india through which the main ganges channel flows , although all have since been lost .\nit\u2019s also been reported from tributaries of the brahmaputra in bhutan , and , more recently , from myanmar where it appears to be quite widely distributed as some collections occurred as far south as the state of mon .\nbased on images it seems the fish can vary considerably in patterning depending on locality ; the populations formerly referred to as d . meghalayensis ( see \u2018notes\u2019 ) are known only from the known from the east khasi hills district of meghalaya state , north - east india , for example .\nthe type series was collected from \u2018mountain streams\u2019 but the species has been collected from sluggish , swampy environments with dense marginal vegetation .\ngiven its extensive natural range it would seem this species is adaptable and able to colonise various habitat types at varying altitudes .\nin the barak river drainage , which flows through the north - east indian states of nagaland and assam before bifurcating at the bangladesh border , symaptric species include barilius barna , b . bendelisis , b . dogarsinghi , laubuca laubuca , esomus danricus , devario aequipinnatus , d . annandalei , d . devario , rasbora daniconius , r . rasbora , crossocheilus latius , garra gotyla , g . lissorhynchus , g . nasuta , balitora brucei , acanthocobitis botia , botia rostrata and lepidocephalichthys guntea .\nnot difficult to keep in a well - maintained set - up though we recommend aquascaping the tank to resemble a flowing stream or river with a substrate of variably - sized , water - worn rocks , sand , fine gravel and perhaps some small boulders .\nthis can be further furnished with driftwood roots or branches , and while the majority of aquatic plants will fail to thrive in such surroundings hardy types such as microsorum , bolbitis or anubias spp . can be grown attached to the d\u00e9cor should you wish .\nsince it naturally occurs in pristine habitats it\u2019s intolerant to accumulation of organic pollutants and requires spotless water in order to thrive .\nthough torrent - like conditions are unnecessary it also does best if there is a high proportion of dissolved oxygen and decent water movement so a good - sized external filter or powerhead ( s ) should be employed as necessary and weekly water changes of 30 - 50 % aquarium volume considered routine .\nph : weakly acidic to neutral water within the range 6 . 5 \u2013 7 . 5 is usually recommended .\nprobably preys on insects and their larvae in nature . in the aquarium it\u2019s a largely unfussy feeder and will accept most foods .\na good quality dried product can be used as the staple diet but this should be supplemented with regular meals of small live and frozen fare such as chironomid larvae ( bloodworm ) , daphnia , artemia , etc . , for the best colouration and conditioning .\nnot an aggressive fish but may upset very slow - moving or timid tankmates with its constant activity and vigorous feeding behaviour so can only be considered appropriate for larger tanks containing robust , similarly - sized fishes .\nthere are plenty of suitable choices including many cyprinids , loaches , cichlids , catfishes and characins although as always when selecting a compatible community of fish proper research is essential .\na community based around one of its native countries or river basins would also make a worthwhile project with some interesting alternatives ( see \u2018habitat\u2019 ) .\nit\u2019s a schooling species by nature and ideally should be kept in a group of at least 8 - 10 specimens .\nmaintaining it in decent numbers will not only make the fish less prone to bouts of skittishness but will result in a more effective , natural looking display while any aggressive behaviour will normally be contained as the fish concentrate on maintaining their hierarchical position within the group .\nsexually mature females are usually rounder - bellied and exhibit a white stripe towards the distal edge of the anal - fin which is red in males .\nthe differences are especially clear when the fish are in spawning condition as the males intensify in colour and the females fill with eggs .\nlike many cyprinids this species is an egg - scatterer that exhibits no parental care .\nif the fish are in good condition they should spawn often , and in a densely - planted , mature aquarium it\u2019s possible that small numbers of fry may start to appear without intervention .\nin general , however , d . devario has proven tricker than other danios with the usual methods tending not to yield results .\nwhen only a single pair is used the larger females tends to chase the male incessantly , for example , and the only successful report we know of is that of u . s . aquarist dennis ball whose group of 8 adult fish of the meghalaya population spawned during a thunder storm following a period of being conditioned with live foods .\nalthough a clump of taxiphylum was present in the aquarium the fish chose to spawn within the coarse gravel substrate with the females leading and males behind .\nthe first fry were observed approximately 48 hours after the spawning event and became free - swimming after a further 48 hours .\nfrom this point onwards they were offered artemia nauplii and branded fry foods , and grew very quickly reaching 12 - 15 mm within 30 days .\nthe vernacular name refers to the fact this species possesses exceptionally long barbels . considering its apparent abundance in nature it remains uncommon in the hobby and little is written regarding its captive care .\n\u2013 p stripe : or \u201cpigment stripe\u201d is the central , dark , lateral stripe on the body which extends into the caudal - fin in some species . stripes above it are numbered p + 1 , p + 2 , etc . and those beneath p - 1 , p - 2 , p - 3 . \u2013 a stripe : the central stripe on the anal - fin ; the proximal stripe ( above it ) is a + 1 and the distal stripe ( beneath ) a - 1 . \u2013 d stripe : the submarginal dorsal - fin stripe .\nthe genus has undergone some significant taxonomic reshuffling in recent years following the publication of a series of phylogenetic studies .\nthe former species d . erythromicron , d . margaritatus , d . choprae and d . flagrans are grouped together in the revalidated genus celestichthys roberts , 2007 . these exhibit unique body patterning consisting of vertical bars ( c . erythromicron , c . choprae , c . flagrans ) or light spots ( c . margaritatus ) and possess either very short barbels or none at all .\nthe remaining species , of which b . rerio is thought to be the most ancient , are included in the revalidated genus brachydanio weber & de beaufort , 1916 .\nhamilton , f . , 1822 - edinburgh & london : i - vii + 1 - 405 , pls . 1 - 39 an account of the fishes found in the river ganges and its branches .\ngurung , d . b . , s . dorji , u . tshering and j . t . wangyal , 2013 - journal of threatened taxa 5 ( 14 ) : 4880 - 4886 an annotated checklist of fishes from bhutan .\nkar , d . and n . sen , 2007 - zoo ' s print journal 22 ( 3 ) : 2599 - 2607 systematic list and distribution of fishes in mizoram , tripura and barak drainage of northeastern india .\nkottelat , m . , 2013 - the raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 27 : 1 - 663 the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibiography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries .\n132 dead fish ! \ud83d\ude29imported fish unboxing . freshwater pom pom crabs , zebra danios , platies , tetras\noops ! it appears that you have disabled your javascript . in order for you to see this page as it is meant to appear , we ask that you please re - enable your javascript !\ndistribution : bangladesh , india , myanmar and nepal ( talwar and jhingran , 1991 ) .\nmorphology : body elongate and laterally compressed . abdominal profile more convex than that of dorsal . oblique mouth consists of two pairs of barbells ( maxillary and rostral ) . caudal fin slightly emarginated . lateral line concave and complete with 36 - 40 scales . rahman ( 1989 and 2005 ) reported that there are 38 scales in lateral line .\nolive in the back , sides and abdomen silvery with several blue lines . anal fin with two or three stripes . head 5 . 0 , height 3 . 5 - 4 . 0 in total length , eye 3 . 0 in head , snout 0 . 8 ( rahman , 1989 ) .\nfin formula : d ii 9 - 11 ; a ii - iii 12 - 15 ; p i 11 - 12 ; v i 7 ( talwar and jhingran , 1991 ) d . 11 - 13 ( 2 / 9\u201411 ) ; p 1 . 13 ; p 2 . 7 - 8 ; a . 16 - 18 ( 3 / 13 - 15 ) ( rahman , 1989 and 2005 )\nhabitat : rahman ( 1989 ) collected several specimens from streams near cox\u2019s bazar ( bangladesh ) . inhibits mountain streams ( talwar and jhingran , 1991 ) .\nimportance : of no interest to fisheries ( talwar and jhingran , 1991 ) .\nhamilton f . 1822 . an account of the fishes found in the river ganges and its branches . edinburgh & london . an account of the fishes found in the river ganges and its branches . : i - vii + 1 - 405 , pls . 1 - 39 .\nmcclelland j . 1839 . indian cyprinidae . asiatic researches v . 19 ( pt 2 ) : 217 - 471 , pls . 37 - 61\nrahman aka . 1989 . freshwater fishes of bangladesh , 1st edition , zoological society of bangladesh , department of zoology , university of dhaka , dhaka - 1000 , pp . 103 - 104 .\nrahman aka . 2005 . freshwater fishes of bangladesh , 2 nd edition , zoological society of bangladesh , department of zoology , university of dhaka , dhaka - 1000 , pp . 120 - 121 .\ntalwar pk and jhingran ag . 1991 . inland fishes of india and adjacent countries , vol . i , oxford & ibh publishing co . pvt . ltd . new delhi - calcutta , pp . 366 - 257 .\nstudent , department of fisheries , university of rajshahi , rajshahi - 6205 , bangladesh . more . . .\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\nlicense . you may use any content ( of this site ) only non - commercial purpose with proper citation under the same license at your own caution . | the contents and opinions expressed herein are those of the author ( s ) and do not necessarily reflect the views of bdfish . |\n( icv - poland ) impact value : 76 . 37 e - issn : 2347 - 5129 , p - issn : 2394 - 0506\ncopyright \u00a9 2013 - 2018 . all rights reserved . international journal of fisheries and aquatic studies\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nlives in mountain streams . reaches to about 15 cm ( ref . 4832 ) ; reported to attain up to 8 . 3 cm sl ( ref . 41236 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nwe use cookies to personalise content and ads , to provide social media features and to analyse our traffic . we also share information about your use of our site with our social media , advertising and analytics partners who may combine it with other information you\u2019ve provided to them or they\u2019ve collected from your use of their services\nsexing can be done by looking at the analfins of the fish . females have a white border while males show a red border . in addition females are fuller bodied than males .\nresearch showed a rather broad range of body length of these fish . records vary between 6 ( 2 . 3 inch ) cm to 15 cm ( 5 . 9 inch ) . as a consequence , the fish can become rather sizable .\nresearch in the rivers : siang , siyom , sonkosh and charju showed that this specie lives in areas we consider hillstream biotopes . these streams often provide clear , cool water that is fast flowing .\nduring research in the river siang , the water parameters were measured during summer and winter . these measurements show that they differ between seasons . during the summer the temperatures are between 20 and 26 \u00b0c ( 68 - 79\u00b0f ) . furthermore , ph was found to range between 6 . 5 and 7 . 5 . the winters are considerably colder with temperatures dropping to : 9\u00b0c to 11\u00b0c ( 48 - 52\u00b0f ) . the ph , however , is relatively constant and ranging from 6 to 7 . 5 . despite the differences in temperature between winter and summer , it is recommended to keep the aquarium temperature at 16\u00b0c to 24\u00b0c ( 16 - 75\u00b0f ) .\nin order to let the aquarium be a resemblance to its natural habitat , decorations should consist of rocks and driftwood . the substrate can consist of gravel or sand . in order to bring some plants to the tank , microsorum sp . or anubias sp . could be attached to the decorations .\nbagra , k . , & das , d . n . ( 2010 ) . fish diversity of river siyom of arunachal pradesh india : a case study . our nature , 8 ( 1 ) , 164 - 169 .\nbaro , d . c . , sharma , s . , & baishya , r . a . ( 2014 ) . status of ornamental fish diversity of sonkosh river , bodoland territorial council , assam , india . science vision , 14 ( 1 ) , 28 - 33 .\ndas , b . k . , boruah , p . , & kar , d . fish diversity and habitat mapping of river siang in arunachal pradesh using remote sensing and gis . innovative energy technology systems and environmental concerns : a sustainable approach , research india publications , new delhi , india , 2014b , 13 - 20 .\ntesia , c . , & bordoloi , s . ( 2012 ) . ichthyofaunal diversity of charju river , tirap district , arunachal pradesh , india . asian journal of experimental biological science , 3 ( 1 ) , 82 - 86 .\nchanna burmanica is a relatively small snakehead species endemic to area ' s in northern myanmar . because of it ' s remote area of distribution it is not found in the trade often . experiences show that this species is relatively peaceful . it should be kept in lower tropical watertempatures\nchanna bankanensis is a small snakehead species from indonesia that requires tropical water temperature and very soft water . very intolerant to conspecifics\nchanna stewartii is a relative small snakehead species . in general it tends to be very intolerant towards conspecifics and other fishspecies . best is to keep solitary or as a formed couple . requires a seasonal drop in watertemperature below tropical levels\naborichthys elongatus is an active hillstream fish from india and can be a great addition to your hillstream aquarium .\nchanna punctata is a relatively small snakehead species ( maximun 35 cm ) , that is not overly aggressive . depending on area of captivity subtropical or tropical temperatures are required\nchanna orientalis or ceylon dwarf snakehead grows maximum 10 cm and is due to its mild temperament and ability to withstand constant tropical temperatures one of the species that is most suitable for keeping in the aquarium . since it is endemic to only a smart part of sri lanka , it is very rare in the aquarium trade\namong specialist aquarists there is large demand for channa aurantimaculata resulting in high prices . it is a medium sized and colourful snakehead species , than is intolerant to conspecifics but combines well with other robust fish . these must be able to stand the necessary seasonal drop in temperature during below tropical levels .\nchanna cyanospilos grows maximum 22 cm and is a small snakehead species that is closely related to channa melasoma . it is reportedly intolerant to conspecifics and other fish species . it is rare in the aquarium trade .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . no available public dna sequences . download fasta file\n, meaning\nof the rice field\n. the native bangla name for the fish is\nwas first described in the early 19th century by francis hamilton , a surgeon working for the british east india company . about a century later ( 1916 ) , the genus was split ; the larger species into\nthese varieties are recognized in the aquarium trade , but are not considered valid species .\nthey are native to the fresh water rivers and streams of southeast asia , but many species are brightly colored , and are available as aquarium fish worldwide . a number of the species , only recently discovered in remote inland areas of myanmar , do not yet have scientific names .\nin the wild , these fish consume various small aquatic insects , crustaceans , and worms , as well as plankton in the case of fry .\nall of these fish are primarily surface feeders . they are omnivorous in the aquarium and will accept a wide variety of foods , though flake food is appropriate . living in aquaria , live / frozen flaked foods are suitable , especially brine shrimp and sinking tablets . danios are voracious eaters ; timid feeders may starve in community tanks with danios . when conditioning danios for breeding , it is advisable to feed them plenty of fresh foods .\nalthough boisterous and liable to chase each other and other fish , they are good community fish and will not generally attack each other or other fish , although they occasionally nip fins , more by accident than design ; like most fish , they will eat eggs and any fish small enough to fit into their mouths .\nthey are best kept in a tank long enough for their active swimming , preferably with a current from a power filter ( or at least airstone ) as they often live in fast - flowing streams in the wild . generally , this also results in them being subtropical with cooler temperatures . they are good jumpers , so a tight - fitting lid is recommended .\nas a schooling fish , they prefer to be in groups of six or more . danios prefer water with a ph between 6 . 0 and 8 . 0 , hardness no more than 19 . 0 dgh , a carbon hardness of 8 to 12 kh , and a temperature range of 68\u201380\u00b0f ( 20\u201326\u00b0c ) ; the lower end of the temperature range is ideal .\nthis article is a stub . we can not complete the encyclopaedia without your help . you can contribute to the aquarium wiki by expanding this article . dont be shy ! .\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 03 : 25 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c42d7 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3257953e - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32579fd6 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32a6d6f3 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nasia : india , bangladesh , nepal and myanmar ( ref . 4832 ) . reported from bhutan ( ref . 40882 ) .\nfroese r . & pauly d . ( eds ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase ( version feb 2018 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 75d37d2f - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .\nback olive , abdomen silvery , sides with several narrow blue lines , which in the anterior half or two - third of the body from a beautiful network . a dark spot behind the gill covers . anal fin with two or three blue stripes .\ni am manabendra nath , proprietor of the asian aqua farm , office come residential address is village - bhatenda ( east ) , p . o . & p . s . - rajarhat , kolkata - 700135 , west bengal , india . my occupation is ornamental fish export and import . i had been started from my business the year 1998 .\ni am now busy with selling imported ornamental fish to all over india and export indian wild collection of ornamental fish . my import export code no . is 0209021616 , issued by the joint director general of foreign trade , kolkata . my export permit no . is wb1 / of / 294 / 12 issued by the marine products export development authority and import permit no . is 0250000270 / 4 / 14 / 00 issued by the director general of foreign trade , government of india and animal husbandry dairying and fisheries , ministry of agriculture .\nmy company always maintain the guideline of animal quarantine department of india and selling out disease free , good quality live ornamental fish . i can supply good quality my own farm breed angel fish all over year .\ntropical fish urltoken - the ultimate uk fish keeping resource for all types of tropical and marine fish , including fish books , articles , fish shops , fish clubs and more .\nour rating is shown below based on tff user reviews of our shop and ordering service .\nsome of the above images have been provided by tropicalfishfinder . please be aware that variations within species mean that the fish you are sent may not be identical to the fish in the photographs .\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00724 ( 0 . 00324 - 0 . 01618 ) , b = 3 . 07 ( 2 . 88 - 3 . 26 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref .\n) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in"]}
{"id": 868, "summary": [{"text": "platydemus manokwari , also known as the new guinea flatworm , is a large predatory land flatworm that has become an invasive species in many countries .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "native to new guinea , it was accidentally introduced to the soil of many countries .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it was also deliberately introduced into two pacific islands in an attempt to control an invasion of the giant east african snail .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it eats a variety of invertebrates including land snails , and has had a significant negative impact on the rare endemic land snail fauna of some pacific islands .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it has become established in a wide variety of habitats .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "it was recorded in 2014 from a hothouse in caen , france , its first finding in europe , and in 2015 from new caledonia , wallis and futuna islands , singapore , solomon islands , puerto rico ( first record in the caribbean ) , and florida , usa .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the researchers said that \" while most of the infected territories reported until now were islands , the newly reported presence of the species in mainland us in florida should be considered a potential major threat to the whole us and even the americas \" . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "platydemus manokwari as an invasive species", "paragraphs": ["100 of the world\u2019s worst invasive alien species . a selection from the global invasive species database .\n100 of the world\u2019s worst invasive alien species . a selection from the global invasive species database .\n100 of the world\u2019s worst invasive alien species . a selection from the global invasive species database .\nspecies which are introduced into a new ecosystem have the potential to become invasive . some of the qualities that define an invasive species are :\nrecommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : platydemus manokwari . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .\njust as the environment can help push out an invasive species , so too can a well adapted native on rare occasions .\nplatydemus manokwari ( new guinea flatworm ) ; on an empty shell of the giant african snail , lissachatina fulica .\nmy ' the invasive land planarian platydemus manokwari . . . ' article was published 2 years ago today in @ thepeerj urltoken\nplatydemus manokwari ( new guinea flatworm ) ; translucent cocoon , with young about to hatch .\nrichardson dm ( 1998 ) forestry trees as invasive aliens . conserv biol 12 : 18\u201326\nthe global invasive species database is managed by the invasive species specialist group ( issg ) of the iucn species survival commission . it was developed as part of the global initiative on invasive species led by the global invasive species programme ( gisp ) and is supported through partnerships with the national biological information infrastructure , manaaki whenua - landcare research and the university of auckland . conditions of use .\nauckland : iucn / ssc invasive species specialist group ( issg ) ; 2000 .\nwhen both native and introduced species use the same resource , introduced species can competitively exclude native species . in hawaii , an introduced passerine bird ,\nsugiura s . seasonal fluctuation of invasive flatworm predation pressure on land snails : implications for the range expansion and impacts of invasive species .\neldredge , l . g . and smith , b . d . 1994 . introductions and transfers of the triclad flatworm platydemus manokwari . tentacle 4 : 8 . summary : details of spread of platydemus manokwari\nthe platydemus manokwari , commonly known as the flatworm , grows to about two inches long , and has a greenish backside with a light underbelly\u2014 an underbelly that contains a mouth right in the middle .\nin fact , there are even books devoted to taking advantage of the potential of using invasive species as a potential food source .\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\nsugiura s , tsuru t , yamaura y ( 2013 ) effects of an invasive alien tree on the diversity and temporal dynamics of an insect assemblage on an oceanic island . biol invasions 15 : 157\u2013169 . doi :\ninformations on platydemus manokwari has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .\nrt @ plathelminthe4 : my ' the invasive land planarian platydemus manokwari . . . ' article was published 2 years ago today in @ thepeerj https : / / t\u2026\nsugiura , s . & y . yamaura . 2009 . potential impacts of the invasive flatworm platydemus manokwari on arboreal snails , biol invasions 11 : 737 - 742 .\nfood habit of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp , 1962 ( tricladida : terricola : rhynchodemidae ) , known . . .\nthe international union for conservation of nature included the worm on its most recent list of the 100 worst invasive alien species . the usda classifies invasive species as plants , animals or pathogens that are non - native to an ecosystem ,\nwhose introduction causes or is likely to cause harm .\nthe occurrence of the invasive flatworm platydemus manokwari in the jardin des plantes , caen , in the department of basse - normandie ( normandy , france ) , is the first record of the species in europe .\nplatydemus manokwari has been recorded to feed mainly on land gastropod molluscs , and also on earthworms , insects and nemerteans .\nlemos vs , canello r , leal - zanchet am . carnivore mollusks as natural enemies of invasive land flatworms .\nsecretariat of nobanis 2012 . riskmapping for 100 nonnative species in europe . copenhagen : nobanis\u2014european network on invasive alien species . available at urltoken .\nchiba s ( 2010a ) invasive non - native species\u2019 provision of refugia for endangered native species . conserv biol 24 : 1141\u20131147 . doi :\ninvasive species might be bad for the environment , but many of them are good enough to eat .\n, as well as other plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nsugiura s ( 2009 ) seasonal fluctuation of invasive flatworm predation pressure on land snails : implications for the range expansion and impacts of invasive species . biol conserv 142 : 3013\u20133019\nin some cases , the best policy for dealing with invasive species is just to leave them alone , particularly if they occupy a crucial ecological niche that they or other invasive plants and animals forced another species to vacate .\nlowe s , browne m , boudjelas s , de poorter m ( 2000 ) 100 of the world ' s worst invasive alien species a selection from the global invasive species database . issg , ssc , iucn , auckland\nconvention on biological diversity what are invasive alien species ? 2009 . available at urltoken ( accessed 6 february 2014 )\n) . thus , resource competition with introduced plant species has negatively impacted native plant species .\nsugiura s ( 2009 ) seasonal fluctuation of invasive flatworm predation pressure on land snails : implications for the range expansion and impacts of invasive species . biol conserv 142 : 3013\u20133019 . doi :\nthe global invasive species database was developed and is managed by the invasive species specialist group ( issg ) of the species survival commission ( ssc ) of the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) . it was developed as part of the global initiative on invasive species led by the erstwhile global invasive species programme ( gisp ) in 2000 . the gisd over the past two years and has been redesigned with support from the abu dhabi environment agency , the italian ministry of environment and ispra - the institute for environmental protection and research , italy . terms and conditions of use\none common tactic for reducing populations of invasive species is simply to make their importing them from their native habitat illegal .\nthe worm ( platydemus manokwari ) is on the\n100 worst invasive alien species\nlist , and is now newly located in new caledonia , singapore , the solomon islands , puerto rico and florida , according to the study , which is published in peerj .\nplatydemus manokwari has been recorded from more than 15 different territories , in asia and oceania ; our record in france is the first for europe .\nde beauchamp , p . 1963 . platydemus manokwari in . sp . , planaire terrestre de la nouvelle - guin\ufffde hollandaise . bulletin de la soci\ufffdt\ufffd zoologique de france 87 ( 5 - 6 , december 1962 issue ) : 609 - 615 . summary : the original description of platydemus manokwari .\n) , an invasive alien species on the ogasawara islands . in : kawakami k , okochi i ( eds ) restoring the oceanic island ecosystem . springer , tokyo , pp 145\u2013152 . doi :\nplatydemus manokwari is able to prey on a variety of gastropod molluscs , on nemerteans , earthworms and woodlice , and on other species of land planarians . all reports of prey refer to adults .\nsugiura , s . 2009 . seasonal fluctuation of invasive flatworm predation pressure on land snails : implications for the range expansion and impacts of invasive species , biological conservation 142 : 3013 - 3019 .\ndepending upon the outcome of an environmental risk assessment and related investigations , threats from platydemus manokwari may need to be responded to in a similar manner to the invasive new zealand flatworm arthurdendyus triangulatus . this species is now subject to an eppo standard regarding import requirements ( eppo , 2000a ) and nursery inspection , exclusion and treatment ( eppo , 2000b ) for the flatworm ( murchie , 2010 ) . the problem with p . manokwari is that even though it is primarily an environmental threat , it does not \u201cindirectly affect plants through the effects on other organisms\u201d . consequently there is the possibility that responsibility for managing this invasive species may fall between the remits of agricultural and environmental regulatory bodies . this could delay effective management of p . manokwari .\np . manokwari is a large predatory flatworm , originally discovered in new guinea , which has been deliberately introduced into some pacific islands in an attempt to control an invasion of the giant east african s . . .\nuntil now , platydemus manokwari was confined to the indo - pacific region . the present record in france is a significant westerly extension of the occurrence of p . manokwari from the indo - pacific region to europe .\na worm called one of the world ' s\nworst\ninvasive species by conservationists has been found in the united states for the first time , an international team of researchers announced on tuesday .\nthe land planarian platydemus manokwari de beauchamp , 1963 or \u201cnew guinea flatworm\u201d is an invasive species , recorded in 15 countries in the world , and recently in france in a hothouse ( justine et al . , 2014 ) . platydemus manokwari is the only flatworm listed in the \u201c100 world\u2019s worst invasive alien species\u201d ( lowe et al . , 2000 ) ; it is a predator of land snails and is considered a danger to endemic snails wherever it has been introduced . its distribution records , reproduction , biology , prey lists , impacts , and possible control options were recently reviewed ( justine et al . , 2014 ) .\nwinsor l . the new guinea flatworm\u2014 platydemus manokwari : predator of land snails . 1999 . terrestrial flatworms infosheet no . 6 . james cook university .\np . manokwari feeds on live land snails of an endemic species of the ogasawara islands , japan ( mandarina aureola ) under laboratory conditions ( okochi et al . , 2004 ) . p . manokwari also feeds on live snails of the predatory species euglandina rosea as well as other snail and slug species ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ) . furthermore , p . manokwari feeds on dead earthworms , and thus can survive in areas where snails have been absent since their invasion ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ; sugiura et al . , 2006 ) . p . manokwari feeds on live flatworms of other species ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ) .\np . manokwari feeds on live land snails of an endemic species of the ogasawara islands , japan ( mandarina aureola ) under laboratory conditions ( okochi et al . , 2004 ) . p . manokwari also feeds on live snails of the predatory species euglandina rosea as well as other snail and slug species ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ) . furthermore , p . manokwari feeds on dead earthworms , and thus can survive in areas where snails have been absent since their invasion ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ; sugiura et al . , 2006 ) . p . manokwari feeds on live flatworms of other species ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ) .\nwith it . genetic testing reveals that there are two different geographic lineages but areas where the beetle is invasive , they have hybridized . the two lineages may be considered as two separate species .\nstate fish and wildlife departments monitor the potential introduction of invasive plants and animals from outside their jurisdictions . alligatorweed , for example , is an invasive aquatic plant that originated in south america and can not only endanger native species , but also put humans at risk by reducing water quality .\nthe serious negative environmental impacts of platydemus manokwari on the biodiversity of native land snails in the indo - pacific are well documented . the risks posed by the incursion of this species in france have not yet been assessed . the european union has recently proposed new legislation to prevent and manage the rapidly growing threat to biodiversity from invasive species ( european commission , 2013 ) . the proposal centres on a list of invasive alien species of concern for europe , which will be drawn up with the member states using risk assessments and scientific evidence . whether or not platydemus manokwari will be included on this list remains to be seen .\neldredge lg , smith bd , 1994 . introductions and transfers of the triclad flatworm platydemus manokwari . tentacle , 4 : 8 ( also reprinted as \u2018triclad flatworm tours the pacific\u2019 in alien , 2 : 11 , 1995 ) .\nkawakatsu , m . , m . nishino & a . ohtaka . 2007 . platydemus manokwari , used previously as a biological control agent abroad for the giant african snail , japanese journal of limnology 68 : 461 - 46 .\n) , other snail - eating flatworm species ( e . g . , unidentified species of the genus\ndisturbance by introduced species ( e . g . , disturbance of seabird colonies by goats ) is an important factor leading to the local extinction of native species ( chiba et al .\nprovide an overview of the spread of the flatworm to islands in the pacific .\nbad news : notorious invasive worm just found in u . s . - seeker\nour promise peerj promises to address all issues as quickly and professionally as possible . we thank you in advance for your patience and understanding .\njustine jl , winsor l , gey d , gros p , th\u00e9venot j , 2014 . the invasive new guinea flatworm platydemus manokwari in france , the first record for europe : time for action is now . peerj , 2 : e297 . urltoken\n) . for extinct and declining native species at local sites and / or islands , i considered studies that reported direct observations of feeding on native species by introduced species as evidence of predation and herbivory impacts . gut content analysis that documented feeding on native species by introduced species was also considered evidence of predation . native species that are in decline can share resources ( e . g . , foods ) with introduced species . i considered such resource sharing between native and introduced species a competition impact .\neasin ( european alien species information network ) terrestrial alien species in europe . 2014 . available at urltoken .\njessica th\u00e9venot analyzed the data , reviewed drafts of the paper , provided administrative contacts and information concerning regulation of invasive species , made maps .\ngurevitch j , padilla dk ( 2004 ) are invasive species a major cause of extinctions ? trends ecol evol 19 : 470\u2013474 . doi :\npredation of terrestrial flatworms by herpetofauna has also been investigated . the flatworm bipalium adventitium hyman , 1943 , invasive in north america , was offered by ducey et al . ( 1999 ) to six species of salamanders and two species of snakes ; none of the herpetofaunal species tested treated bipalium adventitium as a potential prey item .\n, an endemic land snail of the ogasawara islands . glob environ res 17 : 29\u201337\nwinsor l , 1999 . the new guinea flatworm - platydemus manokwari : predator of land snails . terrestrial flatworm infosheet no 6 . townsville , australia : james cook university .\nuh oh ! invasive asian carp shown to have reproduced in great lakes . . .\nthe distribution and food habit of the flatworm species platydemus manokwari which is known to be a predator of land snails , were examined on chichijima island of the ogasawara ( bonin ) islands , japan . p . manokwari was distributed over a wide area of the island . few live land snails were found in the area where p . manokwari was distributed . further , it was revealed that p . manokwari fed not . . . [ show full abstract ]\nwaterhouse & norris ( 1987 ) considered that p . manokwari appeared to be an opportunistic carnivore and generally unselective in the choice of prey . success of platydemus manokwari as a biological control agent for achatina fulica can be attributed to its polyphagy , resistance to starvation , ability to survive and reproduce on alternative prey and potential to reproduce rapidly in synchrony with prey populations ( winsor , johns & barker , 2004 ) .\ninvasive species specialist group ( issg ) a specialist group of the species survival commission ( ssc ) of the world conservation union ( iucn ) ; 2000 . 12pp first published as special lift - out in aliens 12 , december 2000 updated and reprinted version : november 2004 .\nit\u2019s very flat , it\u2019s two inches long and less than a quarter inch wide . it\u2019s black and olive in color with a stripe down its back ; it has an elongated head with big black eyes and mouth in the middle of its belly . it\u2019s name is platydemus manokwari and although on first glance it just seems a harmless ground - dwelling worm , in fact it can climb trees . which it does to eat snails , and eat them it does . the new guinea flatworm , as p . manokwari is commonly called , consumes snails with voracity and endangers endemic species . it is considered such a threatening invasive species that it holds the distinction of being the only land planarian ( flatworm ) to be included in \u201c100 worst invasive alien species\u201d list .\nwe recently identified non - indigenous terrestrial flatworms found in a hothouse in caen ( france ) as the new guinea flatworm platydemus manokwari de beauchamp , 1963 . the identity of these flatworms was subsequently confirmed by molecular analysis of coi sequences . platydemus manokwari is among the \u201c100 world\u2019s worst invader alien species\u201d ( lowe et al . , 2000 ) . in this paper , we present evidence for the identification of the species in france , the first record in europe , and provide a brief review of the records of the species in the world , lists of its known prey , and possible control options .\njust posted on eddmaps tools & training page is a pdf for\neddmaps : using the bugwood smartphone apps\n. this pdf provides an easy to use guide for collecting and reporting data on invasive species with the bugwood smartphone apps .\nthe status of invasive plants , vertebrates , arthropods , molluscs , and crustaceans , and options for a regional invasive species strategy for the south pacific are presented in this series of articles from the south pacific regional environment programme , 2000 .\n. . . the introduction of the snail - eating flatworm platydemus manokwari ( tricladida : rhynchodemidae ) has been considered a cause of the extinction of native land snails on several pacific islands . although p . manokwari is known to attack land snails on the ground , whether p . manokwari attacks snails on trees remains unclear . to clarify the effect of p . manokwari on arboreal snails , we examined survival . . .\nshimizu y ( 1988 ) vegetation of mt . kuwanoki in the bonin ( ogasawara ) islands with reference to the invasion of an introduced tree species (\nwinsor l , 1998 . the role of the atrial diverticulum in the copulatory apparatus of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp ( tricladida : terricola ) . hydrobiologia , 383 : 83 - 89 .\nzavaleta es , hobbs rj , mooney ha ( 2001 ) viewing invasive species removal in a whole - ecosystem context . trends ecol evol 16 : 454\u2013459\ni would suggest that anyone interested in invasive species should check out their local eppc , ipc , or equivalent organization to learn how they can participate .\nis a serious concern in the conservation of the land snails . accidental introductions as well as intentional ones should be actively prevented . artificial removal in japan of\nplatydemus manokwari occurs at pindaunde station , mt . wilhelm at 3625 m altitude ( de beauchamp , 1972 ; winsor , 1990 ) , where it was found under stones together with platydemus longibulbus ( de beauchamp , 1972 ) and platydemus pindaudei ( de beauchamp , 1972 ) , and at kainantu at 1558 m altitude in the eastern highlands of new guinea ( winsor , 1990 ) . the natural range of this upland species has yet to be determined .\nas yet there are no known specific biological control methods for platydemus manokwari . terrestrial flatworms are considered to be top - level predators in the soil ecosystem ( sluys , 1999 ) . although nothing appears to be known about natural enemies of platydemus manokwari , examples of predation on other species of land planarians by soil and associated fauna are known , mostly under laboratory conditions . they include an instance of predation of the neotropical species obama trigueira ( e . m . froehlich , 1955 ) by enterosyringia pseudorhynchodemus ( riester , 1938 ) ( froehlich , 1956 ) , and predation of five species of land planarians by p . manokwari ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ) . a chance field observation led to laboratory findings that arthurdendyus triangulatus was eaten by larvae and adults of species of a carabid and a staphylinid beetles ( gibson , cosens & buchanan , 1997 ) .\nbeauchamp p de , 1962 . platydemus manokwari n . sp . planaire terrestre de la nouvelle - guin\u00e9e hollandaise . bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 zoologique de france , 87 : 609 - 616 .\ninvasion of a site by platydemus manokwari may directly and indirectly impact on native and introduced arboreal , terrestrial soil and to a much lesser extent semi - aquatic slow - moving invertebrate fauna .\nis considered to have competitively excluded native trees . other introduced plants , such as\neuropean commission press release 09 / 09 / 2013 . environment : new eu action to protect biodiversity against problematic invasive species . 2013 . available at urltoken .\n) . each cocoon contained an average of 5 . 2 juveniles ( 3 to 9 ) (\n, on an oceanic island after feral goat extermination . weed res 50 : 472\u2013480 . doi :\nabe t , wada k , kato y , makino si , okochi i ( 2011b ) alien pollinator promotes invasive mutualism in an insular pollination system . biol invasions 13 : 957\u2013967 . doi :\nthe platydemus manokwari , also called the new guinea flatworm , poses a major threat to the planet ' s snail biodiversity , according to an article published in the scientific journal peerj .\nit is considered a danger to endemic snails wherever it has been introduced ,\nthe report states .\niwai n , sugiura s , chiba s . prey - tracking behavior in the invasive terrestrial planarian\nis it time to start thinking of recipes for new guinea flatworm ? ( see why here : cooking invasive species may be the new ethical food frontier . )\nin a series of trials by lemos , canello & leal - zanchet ( 2012 ) the native neotropical carnivorous mollusc rectartemon depressus ( heynemann , 1868 ) was found to successfully predate upon specimens of at least 10 species of geoplanid terrestrial flatworms as well as five undescribed species of geoplana , and also the introduced species bipalium kewense . whether other species of carnivorous molluscs successfully predate upon flatworms is not yet known . platydemus manokwari predates upon at least two species of carnivorous molluscs observed in the field ( ohbayashi et al . , 2005 ) : the rosy wolf snail euglandina rosea ( de f\u00e9russac , 1821 ) and gonaxis quadrilateralis ( preston , 1901 ) ; both these mollusc species were introduced in an attempt to control the giant african snail achatina fulica in the pacific region ( davis & butler , 1964 ; lydeard et al . , 2004 ) .\na study by princeton researchers in 2011 found that invasive ship rats brought to new zealand ' s north island when europeans first arrived devastated local populations of birds and bats . as pollinators , the native species were an important part of the ecosystem , but the ship rats have filled that role . as one of the researchers explained in a press release ,\nthe killer stepped in to do the job of its victim .\nbugwood ' s invasive species coordinator and eddmaps data coordinator were in chapel hill , nc for the joint southeast exotic pest plant council and north carolina invasive plant council meeting . it was held at the north carolina botanical garden and was attended by representatives of the southeastern u . s . from all fields concerned with invasive species : industry / commercial agents , university researchers and staff , state and federal agency employees , etc .\nanonymous . 2000 . flatworm ( platydemus manokwari ) in samoa . sapa newsletter april - june 2000 - issue 2 / 00 3 - 4 . summary : records presence in samoa . good illustration .\nplatydemus manokwari with white pharynx protruding from the underside , ingesting soft tissues of a specimen of the mediterranean snail . ( photo : pierre gros ) / cc by - nc - sa 4 . 0\nbut even getting to an airport could be risky , u . s . officials warned . the u . s . state department issued an alert sunday urging its citizens on the island to shelter in place and not to go to an airport unless travelers had confirmed their departing flight was taking off .\nrepresentative examples of top - down impacts by introduced species on native species in the ogasawara islands . a introduced green anole lizard , anolis carolinensis ; b introduced flatworm , platydemus manokwari ; c introduced goat , capra aegagrus ; d endemic butterfly , celastrina ogasawaraensis ; e endemic snail , boninosuccinea ogasawarae ; f endemic plant , lobelia boninensis\nhot water tolerance of p . manokwari has been reported , but sugiura ( 2008 ) reports that immersion in water at \u2265 43\u00b0c for 5 min ) kills p . manokwari .\n) . these impacts were not included in this survey . additionally , positive impacts of introduced species on native organisms and negative impacts of native species on introduced species were excluded from this study .\nextremes in the density of dorsal pigmentation may cause p . manokwari to be confused with platydemus bivittatus recorded from milne bay , new guinea , and platydemus quadristriatus from the tonga islands . specimens with heavily pigmented dorsal stripes , as may occur in old individuals , could approach the external appearance of p . bivittatus , but would lack the fine dark median pre - ocular stripe present in the latter species . also the distance between the mouth and gonopore in p . bivittatus is considerably less than in a similar sized specimen of p . manokwari . the two species can be readily distinguished on the basis of their internal anatomy . similarly , specimens of p . manokwari in which only the margins of the brown dorsal stripes are evident on a lighter ground colour ( as in a specimen from lockhart river , queensland , australia ) approach p . quadristriatus , although may be distinguished from this species by a pale dorsal median stripe present in p . manokwari .\nbarker , g . m . 2002 . molluscs as crop pests . cabi publishing .\naustralopacifica sp . , bipalium kewense , bipalium sp . , platydemus sp . 1 ; p . sp . 2\ncompiled by : dr . robert h . cowie , center for conservation research and training , university of hawaii & iucn / ssc invasive species specialist group ( issg )\nmolluscs are very uncommon in human - modified habitats in northern australia . the accidental spread of the species can readily occur . one such transfer of the species in australia is reported ; the flatworm harboured in the hollow tuber of a houseplant alocasia sent from cardwell , queensland , to weipa , cape york peninsula ( waterhouse and norris , 1987 ) . the invasiveness of the species in some pacific countries is probably further promoted by the deliberate introduction as a biocontrol agent by humans , and the ready availability of preferred prey , such as achatina and native mollusc species . the proximity of agricultural land to native forest in these areas may also facilitate the spread of the species . the occurrence of the species in native cloud forest at 675 metres altitude on pohnpei ( eldredge and smith , 1994 ) , and in forest at 365 metres altitude on anatahan island ( kawakatsu and ogren , 1994 ) , together with the arboreal habits and fecundity of p . manokwari are particular causes for concern . p . manokwari is included in the 100 worst invasive species in the global invasive species programme ( gisp ) database urltoken\nmolluscs are very uncommon in human - modified habitats in northern australia . the accidental spread of the species can readily occur . one such transfer of the species in australia is reported ; the flatworm harboured in the hollow tuber of a houseplant alocasia sent from cardwell , queensland , to weipa , cape york peninsula ( waterhouse and norris , 1987 ) . the invasiveness of the species in some pacific countries is probably further promoted by the deliberate introduction as a biocontrol agent by humans , and the ready availability of preferred prey , such as achatina and native mollusc species . the proximity of agricultural land to native forest in these areas may also facilitate the spread of the species . the occurrence of the species in native cloud forest at 675 metres altitude on pohnpei ( eldredge and smith , 1994 ) , and in forest at 365 metres altitude on anatahan island ( kawakatsu and ogren , 1994 ) , together with the arboreal habits and fecundity of p . manokwari are particular causes for concern . p . manokwari is included in the 100 worst invasive species in the global invasive species programme ( gisp ) database urltoken\nto celebrate , uab sustainability held an electric car show \u201cto help people see the different options that are out there if they wanted to purchase an electric vehicle , \u201d said julie price , uab sustainability manager .\nyamashita n , ishida a , kushima h , tanaka n ( 2000 ) acclimation to sudden increase in light favoring an invasive over native trees in subtropical islands , japan . oecologia 125 : 412\u2013419 . doi :\nthe garlic mustard , a noxious plant that spreads rapidly , is evolving a counter - resistance , setting off a kind of chemical warfare among the native and invasive species .\npredation by platydemus manokwari on acusta despecta sieboldiana and bradybaena similaris eggs did not occur during the experiment . some p . manokwari individuals were observed crawling on the eggs , but they did not seem to recognize them as food . however , once snails hatched , p . manokwari individuals of various sizes ( 5\u2013270 mg ) preyed on hatchlings of a . d . sieboldiana , although the smallest p . manokwari specimen ( 2 mg ) did not . predation behaviours were not observed , but one p . manokwari individual was found holding a cleared snail shell , covering it with its ventral body near the pharynx . platydemus manokwari should be able to move small snails to its pharynx using its muscular body ; thus , no \u2018gape limit\u2019 for predation on land snail hatchlings should exist . although insufficient number of b . similaris hatchlings prevented us from conducting predation experiments on hatchlings of this species , hatchlings of b . similaris were also predated right after hatching , indicating that our result should be robust for multiple species of snails .\nthe 2 - mg p . manokwari specimen did not feed on hatchlings of a . d . sieboldiana . this individual may have been too small to attack a snail by itself . as gregarious attacks by p . manokwari allow them to prey on larger land snails ( sugiura , 2010 ) , small p . manokwari individuals may only be able to feed on land snails when joining larger p . manokwari in attacking snails . kaneda et al . ( 1990 ) reported that the size of p . manokwari hatchlings ranged from 0 . 8 to 26 . 4 mg ( mean \u00b1 sd , 11 . 77 \u00b1 6 . 56 ) , and extremely small hatchlings usually died within a few days . in our experiment , the smallest p . manokwari individual that preyed on snail hatchlings was 5 mg , which suggests that almost all active p . manokwari , regardless of size , could prey on snails as small as 2 mm .\n. it is an effective predator that poses a serious threat to native snails . vulnerable native snails threatened by\nplatydemus manokwari has been used as a biological control agent for the giant african snail . alien soil animals can be unintentionally introduced by commercial trade among islands and continental landmasses ( sugiura 2008 ) . globalisation of commercial trade may have helped the transfer to non - invaded areas ( sugiura 2009 ) . movement of ornamental plants , potted plants , and other materials with soil can transfer p . manokwari to new areas ( sugiura 2009 ) . quarantine procedures for potted plants and other soil containing materials that can carry invasive flatworms are needed to protect against invasions in warming temperate areas ( sugiura 2008 , in sugiura 2009 ) . platydemus manokwari can readily be transported by soil on construction machines ( okochi et al . 2004 ) .\na university of georgia study conducted in 2012 found that some native clearweed plants in the peach state have evolved resistance to garlic mustard , an invasive plant first introduced 150 years ago to the united states from europe .\nplatydemus manokwari has a most unpleasant astringent taste ( l winsor , pers . obs . , 1994 ) , just as has been noted for other species ( dendy , 1891 ) . bellwood ( d bellwood , pers . comm . to lw , 1997 ) in his private urban garden , remarked that free - range domestic bantams that noticed p . manokwari on an upturned log pecked at , took the flatworms into their mouths , then immediately rejected them ; when at a much later time p . manokwari was subsequently noticed by the bantams they refused to peck at the flatworms . this is similar to behaviour of domestic fowls offered caenoplana spenceri ( dendy , 1891 ) . predation of flatworms by native species of birds has not been reported .\nfreed la , cann rl ( 2009 ) negative effects of an introduced bird species on growth and survival in a native bird community . curr biol 19 : 1736\u20131740 . doi :\nbowdich and other achatinidae as pests in tropical agriculture . in : barker gm , editor .\nfirst - person essays , features , interviews and q & as ; about life today .\ndid you know that there is an interactive database of invasive species eradications on islands ? the database of island invasive species eradications has compiled information worldwide for islands that have eradication programs for invasive species . you can click on any of the marked islands and a details box will popup and show what the target species are , what stage the program is in ( in progress , successful , or failed ) , and the last date of progress update . many of the islands off of the u . s . coast have eradicated ungulates ( sheep , goats , deer , etc . ) , rabbits , dogs , cats , and rodents . you can also search by a few different filters if you are interested in a certain species , place , or eradication status or method .\nan undesirable consequence of globalization , a relatively modern phenomenon , has been an increase in the number of biological invasions that challenge the conservation of biodiversity and natural resources ( secretariat of nobanis , 2012 ; simberloff , 2014 ) . invasive alien species ( ias ) have been defined as \u201cplants , animals , pathogens and other organisms that are non - native to an ecosystem , and which may cause economic or environmental harm or adversely affect human health . in particular , they impact adversely upon biodiversity , including decline or elimination of native species\u2013through competition , predation , or transmission of pathogens\u2013and the disruption of local ecosystems and ecosystem functions\u201d ( convention on biological diversity , 2009 ) .\na number of species of terrestrial flatworms will , when moisture conditions are right , seek prey above the ground . platydemus manokwari has been observed feeding on both juvenile and adult partulid snails at heights above one metre in trees , and in captivity the flatworm fed on specimens of partula sp . and pythia sp . ( eldredge & smith , 1995 ; hopper & smith , 1992 ) . experimentally , p . manokwari has been shown to track artificially created snail scent trails on the ground ( iwai , sugiura & chiba , 2010 ) , and up trees , supporting the hypothesis that the introduction of p . manokwari is an important cause in the rapid decline or extinction of native arboreal snails as well as ground - dwelling snails on pacific islands ( sugiura & yamaura , 2008 ) .\nsatoshi , c . 2003 . species diversity and conservation of mandarina , an endemic land snail of the ogasawara islands . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 4 march 2006 ]\ntiger prawns in the gulf , asian carp in the great lakes and many other species have been put on the menu in their respective locales in an attempt to thin their numbers .\nin france , the current situation is that p . manokwari is confined to a single hothouse in the jardin des plantes in caen , but is not eradicated . eradication is still an issue of concern , because the species could be a major threat to various soil invertebrates , especially snails , including endemic species ( justine et al . , 2014 ) .\njones hd . the african and european land planarians faunas , with an identification guide for field workers in europe .\njones hd . the african and european land planarian faunas , with an identification guide for field workers in europe .\nthis invasive plant is swallowing the u . s . at the rate of 50 , 000 ba . . .\ncorlett rt ( 2010 ) invasive aliens on tropical east asian islands . biodivers conserv 19 : 411\u2013423 . doi :\nto find final - stage eggs , p . manokwari might have to cross over an egg by chance , because no trail would exist for the flatworm to follow . platydemus manokwari and land snails are often found beneath stones or logs , sharing microhabitats that are close to each other ( winsor et al . , 2004 ) , and encounters between p . manokwari and land snail eggs should occur frequently . as eggs cannot escape , predation by p . manokwari on final - stage eggs should have a strong influence on snail mortality rates . moreover , invasive flatworms have been found in many pacific islands , where minute genera , whose shells are less than 10 mm , constitute 60 % of the snail fauna ( vagvolgyi , 1976 ) . for effective conservation of land snails , we need to recognize that flatworms can act as significant predators on them , including small - bodied snails and hatchlings , leaving only early - stage eggs free from predation .\nmean survival rates of eggs ( a , experiment 1 ) and hatchlings ( b , experiment 3 ) of acusta despecta sieboldiana under predation by platydemus manokwari ( flatworm ) and without predation ( control ) . five eggs or hatchlings were placed in a container with one individual p . manokwari on day 0 . bars indicate se .\nmany diurnal insect populations have been declining as a result of predation by introduced lizards ( fig .\nin this study , i investigated intratrophic and intertrophic interactions by introduced species that have had significant negative impacts on native species in the ogasawara islands . many native species have been negatively impacted by introduced predators and herbivores ( table\npennsylvania is enlisting the help of the public to fight the spread of aquatic invasive species . two signs they are posting to help increase public awareness of the problems caused by aquatic invasives .\nkaneda m , kitagawa k , ichinohe f , 1990 . laboratory rearing method and biology of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp ( tricladida : terricola : rhynchodemidae ) . applied entomology and zoology , 25 ( 4 ) : 524 - 528 .\nkaneda m , kitagawa k , nagai h , ichinohe f , 1992 . the effects of temperature and prey species on the development and fecundity of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp ( tricladida : terricola : rhynchodemidae ) . research bulletin of the plant protection service , japan , no . 28 : 7 - 11 .\np . manokwari invasion can affect human health , because p . manokwari is a paratenic host of the nematode angiostrongylus cantonensis which causes \u2018angiostrongyliasis\u2019 ( asato et al . , 2004 ) . fresh vegetables contaminated with infected p . manokwari can be a source of human infection ( asato et al . , 2004 ) .\nterrestrial flatworms ( land planarians ; terricola ) are predators of various soil invertebrates , such as earthworms , land snails , slugs , and arthropods ( ogren 1995 , winsor et al . 2004 , in sugiura 2009 ) . it was revealed that in the chichijima island , japan , p . manokwari fed not only on live land snails including predatory species , but also on other food resources such as live flatworms or a land nemertean species and the carcasses of slugs and earthworms ( ohbayashi et al . 2005 ) . while p . manokwari feeds on slow - moving soil animals such as earthworms , it prefers live snails over other organisms ( sugiura 2010 ) .\njustine j - l , winsor l , gey d , gros p , th\u00e9venot j . the invasive new guinea flatworm\nnutrition terrestrial flatworms ( land planarians ; terricola ) are predators of various soil invertebrates , such as earthworms , land snails , slugs , and arthropods ( ogren 1995 , winsor et al . 2004 , in sugiura 2009 ) . it was revealed that in the chichijima island , japan , p . manokwari fed not only on live land snails including predatory species , but also on other food resources such as live flatworms or a land nemertean species and the carcasses of slugs and earthworms ( ohbayashi et al . 2005 ) . while p . manokwari feeds on slow - moving soil animals such as earthworms , it prefers live snails over other organisms ( sugiura 2010 ) .\nohbayashi t , okochi i , sato h , ono t , 2005 . food habit of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp , 1962 ( tricladida : terricola : rhynchodemidae ) , known as a predatory flatworm of land snails in the ogasawara ( bonin ) islands , japan . applied entomology and zoology , 40 ( 4 ) : 609 - 614 .\np . manokwari , described by beauchamp in 1962 , was first found at the dutch new guinea agricultural research station in the coastal town manokwari , northwestern irian jaya , indonesia . it is the\nrhynchodemid turbellarian\nconsidered to be responsible for the disappearance of the giant african snail in some parts of manokwari ( schreurs , 1963 ; mead , 1979 ) . the species platydemus joliveti , collected in 1969 from pindaude station on mt wilhelm , new guinea , was considered to be a neo - adult p . manokwari by winsor ( 1990 ) . flatworm specimen numbers 2078 and 2080 identified as\nmicroplaninae sp .\nfrom anatahan island , northern mariana islands ( kawakatsu and ogren , 1994 ) , are also considered to be p . manokwari ( l winsor , james cook university , townsville , australia , personal communication , 2004 ) .\n, from a specimen collected in brest ( france ) and kept in the mnhn collection as mnhn jl95 , was used as outgroup for the nj tree . for several specimens only \u201cshort\u201d sequences were obtained (\nplatydemus manokwari ( new guinea flatworm ) ; ( a ) dorsolateral aspect showing typical pattern of markings ; ( b ) anterior end showing eyes ; ( c ) ventrolateral aspect showing typical pattern of markings . ( drawings not to scale . )\nkaneda , m . , kitagawa , k . , ichinohe , f . 1990 . laboratory rearing method and biology of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp ( tricladida : terricola : rhynchodemidae ) , applied entomology and zoology 25 ( 4 ) : abstract .\nas humans have spread across the islands of the world we have taken with us , either purposefully or inadvertently , a remarkable array of plant and animal species ( see box 11 . 2 ) . these anthropogenic introductions are variously called exotic , alien or non - native species . some species persist simply as domesticated ( animal ) or cultivated ( plant ) species , while others become naturalized , i . e . they form self - sustaining populations within modified habitats ( henderson et al . 2006 ) . of these , some become feral or invasive , expanding into intact or semi - intact habitats . of this subset , a few species cause serious ecological impacts . these species are termed ecosystem transformers ( henderson et al . 2006 ) . based on a review of numerous case studies , williamson ( 1996 ) has suggested that only about 10 % of introduced species become established , with in turn about 10 % of these species achieving pest status .\n) . additionally , intense herbivory by introduced mammals such as goats has caused the extinction of or decline in native plant species on islands ( e . g . , campbell and donlan\nthree of the chargers are in the hourly section , and six are in an area used for long - term parking .\nthe introduction of the snail - eating flatworm platydemus manokwari ( tricladida : rhynchodemidae ) has been considered a cause of the extinction of native land snails on several pacific islands . although p . manokwari is known to attack land snails on the ground , whether p . manokwari attacks snails on trees remains unclear . to clarify the effect of p . manokwari on arboreal snails , we examined survival rates of land snails experimentally placed on tree trunks ( 0 . 5\u20132 . 0 m above the ground ) in a forest on chichijima , ogasawara ( bonin ) islands , in the northwestern pacific ocean . the survival of snails experimentally placed on tree trunks with artificially created snail scent trails rapidly decreased for 7 days , and the mortality was caused by p . manokwari predation . however , snails placed on tree trunks without snail scent trails were not attacked by p . manokwari . therefore , p . manokwari climbed tree trunks , likely tracking the snail scent . we found that over 40 % of the snails placed on tree trunks with snail scent trails were eaten by p . manokwari within 7 days . this experiment supports the hypothesis that p . manokwari predation is an important cause of the rapid decline or extinction of native arboreal snails on pacific islands .\nsome species of terrestrial planarians ( flatworms ) are among the predators of land snails , but their predatory impacts have not been sufficiently studied . flatworms are known to follow snail trails to find prey and enter shells to consume snails ; however , eggs ( which do not have trails to follow ) and snails whose shells are too small for flatworms to enter may not be eaten . to determine whether an invasive flatworm , platydemus manokwari , preys on snail eggs or small land snails , we conducted a laboratory experiment in which we fed five eggs or five hatchlings ( 2 mm in diameter ) of a common land snail species found in japan to p . manokwari individuals of various sizes . egg predation did not occur within 10 days , but hatchling predation commenced on the first night ; only 9 % of the hatchlings remained on day 10 . platydemus manokwari did not recognize early - stage eggs as food , but started preying on eggs just before they hatched . flatworms can therefore be a significant predator on land snails , preying on even tiny land snails , leaving only early - stage eggs free from predation .\nuntil now , platydemus manokwari was confined to the indo - pacific region within the bounds of the ogasawara islands , japan in the north ; near mackay in queensland , australia to the south ; french polynesia to the east ; with the most westerly extent of the flatworm in the maldives . the caen record of this species is a significant westerly extension of the occurrence of p . manokwari from the indo - pacific region to europe .\n) , but generally are not collected from soil or litter using dry extraction methods such as berlese - funnel extractors . extracting terricola from soil samples using wet extractors such as those of macfayden or kempson ( in\nhistoric biological invasions include the passive dispersal of terrestrial flatworms , also known as land planarians . the main driver for this was probably horticulturalists of the 19th century using the then recently invented wardian cases to safely transport back to the hothouses and gardens of europe rare plants , together with soil containing cryptic exotic animal species ( winsor , johns & barker , 2004 ) . as a consequence , over 30 species of land planarians have established themselves as non - indigenous species in various countries outside their native range ( winsor , johns & barker , 2004 ) .\nmuniappan r , duhamel g , santiago rm , acay dr , 1986 . giant african snail control in bugsuk island , philippines , by platydemus manokwari . . ol\u00e9agineux , 41 ( 4 ) : 183 - 188 ; [ 5 pl . ] .\nmuniappan , r , g . duhamel , r . m . santiago & d . r . acay . 1986 . giant african snail control in bugsuk island , philippines , by platydemus manokwari , oleagineux 41 ( 4 ) : 183 - 188 .\n) is an invasive species found primarily in the southwest u . s . , though it has been documented in several counties across the whole southeast . the biggest concern with buffelgrass is that it can transform a shrub and scrub habitat into a grassland , crowding out all the native vegetation , and can rapidly deplete the soil of nutrients . it is prized as a pasture grass in many areas due to the same reasons that make it a successful invasive ; rapid establishment , high yield , high nutrient load , and adaptability to many weather conditions and environments ."]}
{"id": 880, "summary": [{"text": "the mountain brushtail possum , or southern bobuck ( trichosurus cunninghami ) , is a nocturnal , semi-arboreal marsupial of the family phalangeridae native to southeastern australia .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it was not described as a separate species until 2002 . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "mountain brushtail possum", "paragraphs": ["the results indicated that the northern mountain brushtail possum from new south wales and queensland was indeed a different species from the southern mountain brushtail possum found in victoria .\nthe type specimens of the mountain brushtail possum now reside in the australian museum mammal collection .\nmountain brushtail possum predators have not been well - reported . they are preyed on by non - native foxes (\nmeasurements such as this one of the head length on this sedated mountain brushtail possum have been used to differentiate two distinct species \u2013 the short - eared possum that ranges from central nsw to central queensland , and the mountain brushtail possum that is distributed south from sydney to central victoria .\nviggers , k . , d . lindenmayer . 2002 . the other brushtail possum .\nmountain brushtail possums are a little larger than the common brushtail possum , weighing between 2 . 5kg to 4 . 5kg . they also have some other features that distinguish them from the common brushtail possum . their ears are slightly smaller and more rounded , and are usually darker in colour .\nthe mountain brushtail possum ' s diet consists mainly of plant food such as leaves , fruits , berries , flowers , bark , fungi and lichens .\nlarge decaying logs provide important runways for animals like the mountain brushtail possum \u2013 and assist them move through the dense ground cover that characterizes tall wet eucalypt forests .\nmountain brushtail possums , or southern bobucks , are native to southeastern australia , ranging from victoria to central queensland .\nmountain brushtail possums are sometimes described as a destructive pest in southeastern australian pine plantations ( iucn red list ) .\nthe short - eared possum \u2013 a new species recently separated from the mountain brushtail possum by workers supported by the herman slade foundation . differences in ear length , foot length , tail structure and genetic variability distinguish the two species .\nlindenmayer , d . , j . dubach , k . viggers . 2002 . geographic dimorphism in the mountain brushtail possum t . caninus : the case for a new species .\nmountain brushtail possums may influence vegetation community structure through their herbivory . allergic reactions to ectoparasites on the skin may be one of the main causes of the disease ' rumpwear ' in mountain brushtail possums ( hufschmid , handasyde , and beveridge , 2010 ) .\nas a result , the existing species , trichosurus caninus , was renamed the short - eared possum , and the southern population was identified as a new species . the new southern species , trichosurus cunninghamii , retains the common name mountain brushtail possum .\nmontane ash forests where the mountain brushtail possum occurs are also used extensively for timber and paper production . current clearfelling methods are known to have significant negative impacts on populations of the species .\nan adult animal emerging from a tree hollow . an individual mountain brushtail possum may use up to 20 different hollows in 20 different years in any given year ( photo : esther beaton ) .\ncontact - your local licenced possum specialist . for brisbane and surrounds call peter the possum man on ( 07 ) 3250 1111 .\nthe mountain brushtail possum occurs in the wet sclerophyll and sub - tropical forests from victoria to central queensland , and for many years has been the subject of detailed ecological studies by dr lindenmayer . the studies showed distinct differences in external body measurements between northern and southern populations of mountain brushtail possum , which led the team to investigate further by extracting dna from blood samples in order to examine genetic differences between the populations .\n) , which is found directly to the north of mountain brushtail possums . no sexual dimorphism is apparent ( lindenmayer , dubach , and viggers , 2002 ) .\nhowever , dr david lindemayer , a regular associate of the australian museum , and colleagues from the australian national university recently discovered that the well known mountain brushtail possum , trichosurus caninus , was in fact not one species , but two .\nviggers , k . l . and lindenmayer , d . b . ( 2000 ) . a population study of the mountain brushtail possum , in the central highlands of victoria . australian journal of zoology , 48 , 201 - 216 .\nthe mountain brushtail possum , or bobuck as it is also commonly called , is one of the largest species of arboreal marsupials living in wet sclerophyll forests in south - eastern australia , and cool temperate rainforests patches in nsw and south eastern qld .\nmountain brush - tails breed in march - may with occasional births outside this timeframe .\nlindenmayer , d . b . , dubach , j . , and viggers , k . l . ( 2002 ) geographic dimorphism in the mountain brushtail possum \u0096 the case for a new species . australian journal of zoology , 50 , 369 - 393 .\nviggers , k . l . , and lindenmayer , d . b . ( 2002 ) . the other brushtail possum . nature australia spring 2002 , 47 - 55 .\ntheir reproductive cycle is very similar to that of the common brushtail possum . they become sexually mature at around two years of age , but rarely breed in this first year .\nif your best efforts of excluding your possum / s fail then further advice and assistance may be your last resort . ecologically - minded possum advice , specialist trapping requirements , and legislative compliant release methods should be employed by licensed professionals for effective possum management .\nviggers , k . l . and lindenmayer , d . b . a review of the biology of the mountain brushtail possum . in : goldingay , r . l . and jackson , s . ( editors ) . possums and gliders . csiro publishing , melbourne . ( in press ) .\nit is rare these days for a new species of possum to be discovered in australia . the last recorded discovery was of the daintree river ringtail possum , pseudochirulus cinereus , in 1945 .\nlarge wire cage traps baited with apple are used to catch the mountain brushtail possum . green apples are used as the preferred bait \u2013 probably because the ethylene used to ripen \u201cgranny smith\u201d apples is attractive to animals while they are foraging ( perhaps because is resembles the smell of truffles which animals consume in several seasons of the year ) .\nwires rescue hotline received a call from a local club to rescue a possum stuck in an industrial bin used for food scraps . the possum was stuck in the bin and due to depth of the bin unable to get back out .\nmountain brushtail possums are found within the tall forest of the great dividing range and along the coast from south - east queensland to new south wales and victoria . they are patchily distributed and prefer to inhabit dense subtropical rainforests , wet sclerophyll and also tall eucalypt forests .\nmountain brushtail possums are medium - sized ( 2 . 6 to 4 . 2 kg ) marsupials . they have thick , light gray - brown fur , and long , dark gray , bushy tails . they differ morphologically from their close relatives , short - eared possums (\nin the event a possum is accidentally trapped during the process either reopen the closed entry point or remove a tile or raise a sheet of iron on your roof to allow exit . if this fails contact a local licensed reputable possum handler for immediate assistance .\nimage below shows mum possum shortly after rescue in bens rescue basket on route to leoni , clearly stressed and frightened by her ordeal .\nmost mountain brushtail possum females give birth to one baby a year . the offspring spend approximately 6 months in the pouch , then 1 to 2 months riding on the mother\u2019s back . males spend the least amount of time with their female partners when the females are carrying young on their back , and are therefore much less involved in the care of offspring . juveniles remain with their mothers until they are approximately 18 months old .\npossums communicate with each other in different ways , including using smells , sounds and visuals . some sounds they use are hisses , clicks , guttural coughs and screeching . the noises of the common brushtail possum are very similar to that of the mountain brushtail . they also have a variety of scent glands that provide each other with information such as identity , sex , and whether they are in season . they have around 11 scent - producing glands which are found on their sternum and cloaca , in their mouth and pouch , under their chin , on their ears and in between their digits .\nthis project is a long - term field - based study of the mountain brushtail possum and aims to provide new insights into the ecology , population dynamics and life history of this long - lived marsupial . the proposed work will have significant implications for the conservation of the mountain brushtail possum , particularly for predicting its response to logging - induced habitat changes and estimating the species\u0092 prospects for long - term persistence in australian forests designated for paper and wood production . for example , the results of the investigation will help mapping and planning refugial conservation areas for wildlife conservation within wood production forests . this will , in turn , assist the improved integration of wildlife conservation and wood production in multi - use landscapes . the project is based around a trap - recapture study that has been running since 1991 at a 35 ha site at cambarville in the montane ash forests of the central highlands of victoria .\nthey tend to stay with their mother for much longer than other possum species . lifespan can be as long as 17 years , possibly longer . mountain brushtails live in hollow logs mainly found in old trees , so please think before cutting down that old tree , someone may call it home .\nboth male and female mountain brushtail possums appear to be long - lived , reaching at least 12 years of age . however , it appears as though fewer males reach that age than females ( martin and handasyde , 2007 ) . they are perhaps the longest lived marsupial ( viggers and lindenmayer , 2002 ) .\nhufschmid , j . , k . handasyde , i . beveridge . 2010 . the role of host and environmental factors in the epidemiology of rumpwear in brushtail possums .\nthe southern animals of this species have olive grey fur . here on the north coast , the mountain brushtail can have a variety of colors , from the common grey colour to golden , black , brown and a combination of all . sexual maturity is reached at about 3 years of age . the female gives birth to normally only one young . pouch life is approximately 120 days , after which the juvenile possum will travel part time on mums back . mortality rate at this stage can be high .\nthe possum box you placed in your tree as option a may become the new home for your excluded visitor and provides a\nwin win\nsolution for all .\nboth male and female adult mountain brushtail possums have a mean home range size of 6 . 0 hectares , plus or minus 0 . 4 hectares . the home ranges of subadults are significantly smaller . however , this data was gathered in a forest setting . therefore , the home ranges of those populations living in scrub settings is unstudied and unknown ( martin , 2006 ) .\nso what can you do to try deterring a resident possum from your home ? mountain brush - tail possums are often responsible for sleepless nights for suburban home occupants during entry , exit and general movements associated with roof and wall cavities . placement of a possum box in a tree around your property is advised as your first option . these are available from produce stores , specialist artificial home constructors or you can make your own ( see this site ) . the exclusion of possums from your home is quite simple requiring a small effort on your own behalf .\nmum possum was taken back to the club the following evening and released back in to a large fig tree , joey delighting leoni but sticking her head out of the pouch as mum as released .\nboth were taken in to care by leoni . mum possum was given re hydration fluid and some native food and it did not take long before she was fast asleep with much movement within her pouch .\nmountain brushtail possums are nocturnal , staying in dens during the day and leaving at night to forage . they are sedentary , often remaining in the same small home range for their entire lives . adults form strong pair - bonds and often share the same suite of different dens with their offspring . the home ranges of paired individuals overlap as well , as opposed to non - paired individuals , who remain more exclusive in their home ranges .\nmountain brushtail possums breed once yearly , in january and february . offspring remain in the pouch for approximately 6 months and then ride on their mother\u2019s back for another 1 to 2 months . offspring are usually weaned around september . juveniles remain close to their mothers until they are approximately 18 months old . females become sexually mature between 2 and 5 years of age ; males between 2 and 3 years ( martin , handasyde , taylor , and coulson , 2007 ) .\nmountain brush - tail possums have proven highly adaptable to urban environments using trees , wildlife corridors , natural gullies , roofs and wall cavities often moving via telegraph poles , cabling and fences for traveling and foraging within close proximity to favored moist forest habitat .\nit is a frightening thought as to how many animals may in fact go to the tip or even worse go in to the compactors when the bins are emptied , the operator of the compacter not aware that a live animal such as mum possum is trapped .\npossums should not be relocated more than 25 meters from the point of capture after proofing has been conducted . be sure to ask contractors what methods they employ and choose the one which provides a solution for yourself and the best welfare outcome for the possum / s being trapped .\ntrapping and further management of mountain brush - tail possums should be done in accordance with requirements stipulated by the environmental protection agency and permits are issued to operators after examination as to the knowledge and suitability of the permit holder to actively manage suburban possums . often these permit holders are able to provide proofing measures to exclude further entry .\nwires carer ben went on the rescue and had to hop in to the bin himself in order to reach the possum . she was fairly easy to catch due to being extremely stressed and worn out from having most likely spent considerable time trying to get out , it was also discovered that she was in fact a female with a large joey in the pouch .\nplace the paper back into the space and wait for the resident possum to make his early evening exit . inspect the locality every 10 - 15 minutes to determine when this has occurred and simply block the point of entry with a hard fixture like sheet iron . tightly compressed chicken wire reinforced with expandable building foam available in a can is ideal for hard to reach spaces . in some cases the replacement of a single tile or re - fixing of an iron sheet will solve the problem .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , occurrence in a number of protected areas , lack of major threats , and because it is not currently in decline .\nthis species occurs from ulladulla in southern new south wales , south to wombat forest and mount cole in central victoria . it occurs from sea level up to 1 , 300 m asl ( but usually above 300 m ; martin 2008 ) .\nit is a mostly scansorial species , of various tall open and closed forest types . it can occur in exotic pine plantations and is a pest in regenerating pine plantations . the female gives birth to a single young after a gestation period of between 15 and 17 days ; the young have a pouch life of five to six months ( martin 2008 ) . along the snowy river it dens in rocky crevices instead of tree holes or logs .\nthere are no major threats to this species . clearance of land for agriculture and forestry is a threat in some parts of its range . foxes also can be a problem .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ntail often used to grasp branches but cannot support its own body - weight .\nmales generally larger & heavier than females & may have reddish fur across shoulders .\nmales use scent glands under the chin , on the chest & near the anus to mark territory yet lack the characteristic staining of the chest like the common brush - tail as the fluid excreted is clear .\narboreal ( tree - living ) occupying tall , open and closed forest and extending along margins of riparian forests .\nnocturnal , spending daylight hours asleep in tree hollows , dead branches , thick ferns , epiphytes or even fallen logs .\nnatural diet consists of leaves , flowers & fruit of native plants . capable of digesting leaves & fruits often toxic to other species . also eats insects , bird eggs and scavenge meat if available .\ncommunication is via scent markings , deep coughing & hissing noises when encountering other individuals .\nthreats include ; land clearing & loss of habitat , and in urban areas road - deaths & dog attacks .\nfemales may breed from 2 years of age but are generally more successful after the third and subsequent years .\na further 2 - 5 months is spent riding on the mothers back & suckling from her .\nafter weaning may persist in the area they are raised for a further 18 - 36 months .\nhuman dwellings provide abundant warm , dry shelters , lots of available food plants from manufactured gardens and opportunity to scavenge from litter and rubbish bins .\nhand feeding by residents and leaving domestic pet - food outside can also assist possums .\ninspect your roof for signs of obvious signs of entry . access is often gained by broken tiles , lifting corrugated iron sheets , deteriorating timber eaves , loose guttering and poor workmanship by builders .\nobvious signs include hair and urine staining . feacal matter may also accumulate directly below the entry point .\ninspect the entire roof . possums may utilise more than one location and will look for other localities if the usual access is sealed .\nplace loosely\nscrunched up\nballs of newspaper in the entry of probable sites and inspect over a two day period to see which localities are being utilised . the paper will be either pushed out or pulled into the roof space .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nopen daily 9 . 00am - 5 . 00pm closed christmas day bedtime for some of our animals is 4 : 30pm .\njuly 24 is when i celebrate my birthday . my love decided to surprise me early with this stunning bouquet . every day\u2026 urltoken\nurltoken - & nbspthis ; website is for sale ! - & nbspwildlifemountain ; resources and information .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 38c09756 - aa0c - 49e1 - 8e4b - a70d881c9382\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 58bb799f - 40f4 - 4c0e - b0fa - bfee111ef8a2\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f2024309 - 4e07 - 4948 - b4f1 - 0208dc7a3691\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 600275\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nall possums are territorial . let us make sure that they continue to have a place amongst us .\nwe urge that all industrial bins which all have lids are actually closed . it is extremely tempting for animals such as possums to take advantage of food left in bins , once inside they are not able to escape .\n( lindenmayer , et al . , 2002 ; martin and handasyde , 2007 ; martin , 2006 )\nrelies on sight , hearing , touch , smell , and taste . its whiskers enhance it ' s perception .\nleaves , fungi , lichens , buds , fruit , and sometimes bark . acacia is an integral part of their seasonal diet , with different species of the plant consumed at different times of the year .\n) and may also be taken by large snakes or raptors . the main threat to populations is human action \u2013 the clearance of land for forestry and agriculture .\n( hufschmid , et al . , 2010 ; menkhorst , et al . , 2011 )\nis of least concern , according to the iucn , and populations are considered stable .\nhelen mccreary ( author ) , yale university , eric sargis ( editor ) , yale university , rachel racicot ( editor ) , yale university , tanya dewey ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in australia , new zealand , tasmania , new guinea and associated islands .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\nirlbeck , n . , i . hume . 2003 . the role of acacia in the diets of australian marsupials \u2013 a review .\nmartin , j . 2006 . den - use and home - range characteristics of bobucks , trichosurus cunninghami , resident in a forest patch .\nmartin , j . , k . handasyde . 2007 . comparison of bobuck demography in two habitat types in the strathbogie ranges , australia .\nmartin , j . , k . handasyde , a . taylor , g . coulson . 2007 . long - term pair - bonds without mating fidelity in a mammal .\nmenkhorst , p . , d . taggart , m . ellis , r . martin . 2011 .\nthe iucn red list of threatened species\n( on - line ) . accessed april 10 , 2012 at urltoken .\nto cite this page : mccreary , h . 2012 .\ntrichosurus cunninghami\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\na project undertaken at the centre for resource & environmental studies , the australian national university , canberra and managed by david lindenmayer ."]}
{"id": 882, "summary": [{"text": "the lamniformes ( from the greek word , lamna \" fish of prey \" ) are an order of sharks commonly known as mackerel sharks ( which may also refer specifically to the family lamnidae ) .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it includes some of the most familiar species of sharks , such as the great white shark and extinct megalodon , as well as more unusual representatives , such as the goblin shark and the megamouth shark .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "members of the order are distinguished by possessing two dorsal fins , an anal fin , five gill slits , eyes without nictitating membranes , and a mouth extending behind the eyes .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "also , unlike other sharks , they maintain a higher body temperature than the surrounding water . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "lamniformes", "paragraphs": ["( lamniformes : cretoxyrhinidae ) from the niobrara chalk of kansas . bulletin of the new mexico museum of natural history 35 : 185\u2013192 .\nfao species catalogue . vol . 4 . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . part 1 . hexanchiformes to lamniformes\nthe vertebrae had stacks of lines called lamellae around the outside , suggesting the bones once belonged to a broad scientific classification of sharks called lamniformes that includes sand tiger sharks , great white sharks , goblin sharks and others , frederickson said .\ncompagno , l j . v . 2001 . sharks of the world : an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date , volume 2 ; bullhead , mackerel and carpet sharks ( heterodontiformes , lamniformes and orectolobiformes ) . fao . rome , italy .\nhansen bb , cuny g , rasmussen bw , shimada k , jacobs p , heilmann - clausen c ( 2013 ) associated skeletal and dental remains of a fossil odontaspidid shark ( elasmobranchii : lamniformes ) from the middle eocene lilleb\u00e6lt clay formation in denmark . bulletin of the geological society of denmark 61 : 37\u201346 .\nlamniformes have two dorsal fins , neither of which is spined . they also have an anal fin , five gill slits and small spiracles ( in most species ) , which are situated behind the eyes . the eyes have no nictitating membrane , and usually roll back in the case of frontal impact in order to protect them .\nlamniformes mackerel sharks most mackerel sharks have long snouts and mouths that stretch behind the eyes . they also feature two dorsal fins and an anal fin . these species range from intertidal areas to open ocean at depths of nearly 4 , 000 ft . embryos of these sharks dine on their younger siblings and fertilized eggs in the womb .\ninterestingly , lamniformes have a special adaptation . this involves their circulatory system and allows them to retain heat generated by cellular metabolic processes . this is in contrast to other cold - blooded sharks and fish and allows them to spend energy on hunting and travelling rather than on trying to maintain a beable body temperature as the water temperature around them cools .\nlamniformes are ovoviviparous . eggs are fertilised and hatched internally . however , this group also displays a phenomenon known as oophagy , which dictates that the first pup to hatch in the oviduct should devour the other unfertilised eggs in the oviduct . this pup is born strong , beable and with trained killer instincts in preparation for its independent life in the open waters .\ncompagno , l . j . v . , 1984 . fao species catalogue . vol . 4 . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . part 1 - hexanchiformes to lamniformes . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 4 / 1 ) : 1 - 249 . rome , fao . ( ref . 247 )\ncompagno , l . j . v . ( 2001 ) . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . volume 2 . bullhead , mackerel and carpet sharks ( heterodontiformes , lamniformes and orectolobiformes ) . fao species catalogue for fishery purposes . no . 1 , vol . 2 . rome , fao . 269p . [ details ]\nlamniformes , also known as mackerel sharks , is one of the most well - known groups as it includes famous species and feared hunters , like the great white shark , basking shark , mako ( shortfin and longfin ) and megamouth . this group has a particularly large mouth , ideal for seizing and immobilising large prey as well as for tearing off chunks of meat from hapless victims . the megalodon , now extinct , was also part of this fascinating group . other members include the goblin and thresher sharks .\nlamniformes only live in saltwater , and cannot survive in freshwater rivers or lakes . different species are able to live in the shallower , warmer coastal areas or the deeper , colder waters of the open seas . they also withstand varying temperatures to make them one of the most prolific and abundant known shark groups . the smallest lamnoid is the crocodile shark , which reaches about 1 . 1 metres in length . the largest is the basking shark , growing to an impressive length of approximately 9 . 8 metres .\nwhether or not omnh 68860 belongs to leptostyrax remains unclear ; however , the unique vertebral morphology and gigantic size indicate the presence of a very large shark during the mid - cretaceous of north america . the mid - cretaceous is increasingly being recognized as an important time in shark evolutionary history , as the fossil record improves and increasingly reveals previously unknown diversity . although lamniformes likely evolved in the jurassic , it is not until the aptian when multiple genera appear together in a single assemblage . similarly , size increased for the entire order , with multiple families containing relatively large species by the late cretaceous [ 29 ] . this increase in size and diversity was likely influenced by the warming trend beginning in the mid - cretaceous ; where midocean temperatures at 30\u201335\u00b0n paleolatitude rise from 13\u201314\u00b0c in the early albian to 28\u201329\u00b0c in the cenomanian [ 30 ] . however , more research is needed to determine the cause of gigantism in lamniform sharks .\ndespite their rows of ragged teeth and vicious appearance , sand tiger sharks are actually rather docile , usually attacking humans only in self - defense .\nsand tiger sharks , also known as gray nurse sharks , have a deceivingly ferocious look . they are large - bodied and display a mouthful of sharp teeth that protrude in all directions , even when the mouth is shut . despite this , they are a docile , non - aggressive species , known to attack humans only when bothered first .\nsand tiger sharks are brownish - gray with rust - colored spots on top and white underneath . they have a flattened , cone - shaped snout and a distinctive , oblong tail with a notched , upper lobe that is significantly longer than the lobe below . individuals range in size from 6 . 5 to 10 . 5 feet in length .\ntheir name comes from their tendency toward shoreline habitats , and they are often seen trolling the ocean floor in the surf zone , very close to shore . they are found in warm or temperate waters throughout the world ' s oceans , except the eastern pacific .\nsand tigers are the only shark known to come to the surface and gulp air . they store the air in their stomachs , which allows them to float motionless in the water , seeking prey . they are voracious predators , feeding at night and generally staying close to the bottom . their staple is small fish , but they will eat crustaceans and squid as well . they occasionally hunt in groups , and have even been known to attack full fishing nets .\nalthough this species is widespread and is not widely fished for food , it has one of the lowest reproduction rates of all sharks and is susceptible to even minimal population pressure . for this reason , it is listed as vulnerable and is protected in much of its range .\nafter keigo mitsukuri ; he worked in zoological names with y . iwasaki , 1896 ; imperial university\nmarine ; bathydemersal ; depth range 30 - 1300 m ( ref . 43278 ) , usually 270 - 960 m ( ref . 43278 ) . deep - water ; 48\u00b0n - 55\u00b0s , 180\u00b0w - 180\u00b0e\nwestern atlantic : guyana ( ref . 6871 ) , suriname ( ref . 13608 , 11228 ) and french guiana . eastern atlantic : france ( bay of biscay ) , madeira , portugal , and south africa . western indian ocean : off south africa . western pacific : japan , australia ( south australia , new south wales ) , new zealand ( ref . 26346 ) . eastern pacific : usa ( southern california ) ( ref . 43278 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? , range 264 - 322 cm max length : 617 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 83323 ) ; common length : 200 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5217 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 0 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 0 . flat , bladelike , elongated snout , tiny eyes without nictitating eyelids , soft , flabby body , slender , very long cusped teeth in long , protrusible jaws , long caudal fin without a ventral lobe ( ref . 247 ) . pinkish - white with bluish fins , becoming brownish grey after death ( ref . 5578 , 11228 ) .\nfound on outer continental shelves and upper slopes , but rarely in shallow water close inshore ( ref . 247 , 43278 ) . jaws are highly specialized for rapid projection from the head to snap up small animals ( ref . 247 ) . feeds on jacopever , pelagic octopus and crabs ( ref . 5578 ) . ovoviviparous , embryos feeding on yolk sac and other ova produced by the mother ( ref . 50449 ) . probably slow - moving and neutrally buoyant ( ref . 6871 ) . utilized dried salted ( ref . 247 )\nexhibit ovoviparity ( aplacental viviparity ) , with embryos feeding on other ova produced by the mother ( oophagy ) after the yolk sac is absorbed ( ref . 247 , 50449 ) . distinct pairing with embrace ( ref . 205 ) .\n) : 3 . 8 - 13 . 7 , mean 8 . 3 ( based on 1037 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 1 \u00b10 . 62 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : very low , minimum population doubling time more than 14 years ( fec assumed to be < 10 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : very high vulnerability ( 90 of 100 ) .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\nthree large lamniform shark vertebrae are described from the lower cretaceous of texas . we interpret these fossils as belonging to a single individual with a calculated total body length of 6 . 3 m . this large individual compares favorably to another shark specimen from the roughly contemporaneous kiowa shale of kansas . neither specimen was recovered with associated teeth , making confident identification of the species impossible . however , both formations share a similar shark fauna , with leptostyrax macrorhiza being the largest of the common lamniform sharks . regardless of its actual identification , this new specimen provides further evidence that large - bodied lamniform sharks had evolved prior to the late cretaceous .\ncitation : frederickson ja , schaefer sn , doucette - frederickson ja ( 2015 ) a gigantic shark from the lower cretaceous duck creek formation of texas . plos one 10 ( 6 ) : e0127162 . urltoken\ncopyright : \u00a9 2015 frederickson et al . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited\ndata availability : site data for omnh v1727 are available by request from the department of vert . paleontology at the ( sn ) omnh .\nfunding : this paper received funding from the open access fund from the university of oklahoma libraries . the funder had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nthe specimens described herein , omnh 68860 , were collected in the duck creek formation of tarrant county , texas ( fig 1 ) . the duck creek is the second lowest formation of the lower cretaceous washita group ( albian ) [ 3 ] . underlying the duck creek is the basal kiamichi formation , which shares a contact with the duck creek defined lithologically by a transition from pebble - conglomerates and breccias to limestone , and faunally by a sharp decrease in gryphaea and schloenbachia [ 4 , 5 ] . the duck creek is conformably overlain by the fort worth formation ; the intervening contact is lithologically inconspicuous but is instead marked biostratigraphically by the appearance of holaster simplex , hemiaster elegans , and exogyra americana [ 5 ] .\na map of albian - age rocks in tarrant county , texas , showing the approximate location of omnh v1727 .\nwithin tarrant county , the duck creek formation is approximately 13 m thick and is comprised of limestone , marl , and chalky marl deposits exposed in the western half of the county ( fig 1 ) [ 4 ] . the duck creek formation is subdivided into two primary units based on lithology , and four primary zones based on fauna . lithologically , the first 7 m above the base of the duck creek are dominated by limestone . above 7 m , limestone beds become increasingly indurated , decrease in thickness , and are further interlaminated by marl or marly limestone [ 4 , 6 ] . biostratigraphic zones consist of three ammonoid faunas including the basal desmoceras zone , followed by the schloenbachia zone and a scaphites zone ; the uppermost faunal zone is marked by the appearance of the brachiopod genus kingena [ 4 ] .\nthe base of a measured section at v1727 begins within the duck creek formation and correlates both lithologically and faunally with the ammonoid - rich limestone beds as described by winton and adkins [ 4 ] ( fig 2 ) . limestone dominates the measured section from the base to 6 m , where the first thinly - bedded marl deposits occur . despite significant portions of the section being covered by talus , the lithological transition to marl - dominated strata above 6 m is clearly defined and further supported by the appearance of kingena among the talus . the uppermost strata of the measured section consist of weathered , kingena - bearing marl with various echinoid fragments belonging to holaster simplex . these taxa imply the transition to the overlying fort worth formation ; however , no in situ bedforms were observed ; thus , at present , the contact can be inferred but not directly observed .\ninitially , the three vertebrae discussed herein were collected from a displaced block of limestone resting among marl debris situated above the lower limestone strata of the duck creek formation . further specimens bearing similar dimensions , taphonomic characteristics , and proximity to omnh 68860 were recovered in situ by a private collector within the indurated limestone beds lying just below the kingena - bearing marls approximately 11 . 5 m above the base of section ( fig 3 ; l . hall , personal communication ) . the lithology of the strata containing the shark vertebrae found in situ matches the remaining matrix from omnh 68860 . furthermore , taphonomic similarities shared among all vertebrae indicated that the specimens recovered by the private collector must indeed represent one individual ( discussed below ) . the stratigraphic origin of the shark vertebrae can therefore be confidently placed below the lower kingena - bearing marl and within the indurated limestone of the upper duck creek formation , approximately 10 . 5 m above the base of the section .\nthe surrounding lithology correlates with the indurated limestone bedforms 10 . 5 m above the base of the measured section ( photo courtesy of l . hall , 2013 ) .\nin order to estimate the total body lengths from individual vertebra , we made comparisons with cretaceous sharks that possess a more robust postcranial fossil record . as it is impossible to determine vertebral position in a shark based on isolated vertebrae alone [ 1 ] , we conservatively regard the vertebra with the maximum centrum diameter as the largest vertebra in the entire individual . this ensures that the estimates achieved represent the smallest hypothetical length possible for this specimen . additionally , we assume that the relationship between vertebral size and total body length is consistent between well - represented species and omnh 68860 . this assumption is reasonable because most pelagic sharks have a consistent body form [ 2 ] .\nsimilarly , gottfried et al . [ 7 ] used a different formula to calculate the total body length of individual vertebra in carcharocles megalodon using carcharodon carcharias as a proxy .\nno permits were required for the described study , which complied with all relevant regulations .\nomnh 68860 ; three vertebral centra , discovered by members of the paleontology club of the university of wisconsin - milwaukee , and prepared and curated at the sam noble oklahoma museum of natural history in norman , oklahoma . specimens were prepared by k . davies at snomnh using a 10 % buffered acetic acid bath for two of the three specimens . additional vertebrae have also been recovered from the same site , but these specimens were not collected by the authors and are currently in a private collection .\nindurated limestone interval of the duck creek formation ( lower cretaceous : washita group ) of north - central texas .\nthe vertebrae were recovered at omnh locality v1727 , northwest of fort worth , tarrant county , texas ( fig 1 ) . locality data are on file at omnh and are available upon request from qualified investigators .\nwhen discovered , all three vertebrae were disarticulated and were separated by a thin layer of limestone . the centra were recovered in a single vertical stack , with one vertebra situated perpendicular to the other two . all three are approximately the same size and proportions , implying that they represent vertebrae from the same area of the body . the largest , most - rostral vertebra measures approximately 110 mm in diameter , with a width of 34 mm ( fig 4 ) . all three are rostrocaudally biconcave ( amphicoelous ) and roughly spherical in outline , with little to no deformation as a result of crushing . both of the articular surfaces possess well - marked concentric lamellae on each vertebra . as in other lamniform sharks , all three vertebrae have multiple thin , radial lamellae circumventing at high densities around the outer surface of each centra . these lamellae measure up to 1 . 3 mm in diameter and run rostrocaudally with occasional bifurcations ( fig 4 right and left lateral view ) . both articular surfaces possess a well - developed corpus calcareum , with a thickness measuring approximately 6 mm each .\nomnh 68860 in ( descending order ) rostral , caudal , ventral , right lateral , dorsal , and left lateral views .\neach vertebra possesses readily distinguishable cartilage foramina on both the dorsal and ventral surfaces . the dorsal surface was identified using techniques described by shimada et al . [ 11 ] , where the midline foramina with the smallest inter - pit distance in each centrum are designated the basidorsal cartilage foramina . surprisingly , each of the two prepared vertebrae has multiple dorsal and ventral foramina ( five ventrals , seven dorsals each ) . the two foramina on the midline are generally the largest ; however , most do not extend to contact the corpus calcareum . all foramina are generally square with rounded corners and have a relatively smooth septum traveling into the vertebra . the additional foramina on the dorsal and ventral surface range in size , from 5 . 2\u201316 . 0 mm wide .\nthere were no other shark fossils associated with omnh 68860 . however , all three possessed traces of encrusting ostreids on the articular surfaces , indicating that these vertebrae were exposed at the surface for some period of time . further , pyrite has developed near the center of both articular surfaces on the largest vertebra . the smallest of the three vertebrae retains a cast of the next vertebra\u2019s corresponding articular surface , giving this specimen a concavo - convex appearance in lateral view . the three centra also possess a single radial fracture ( 37 mm long in each vertebra ) . the common location of this fracture indicates that breakage occurred prior to the rearrangement of the vertebrae . although it cannot be completely determined whether omnh 68860 represents reworked material , abrasion is minimal , indicating that transportation was not extensive .\nusing the formulas of shimada [ 2 ] and gottfried et al . [ 7 ] , and the maximum vertebral diameter of 110 mm , the minimum total length of the individual represented by omnh 68860 is calculated to be 6 . 3 and 6 . 6 m respectively . according to these calculations , omnh 68860 would rival the largest cretoxyrhina mantelli specimens ( 6\u20137 m ) [ 2 ] in total length and approximately equal the length of the largest documented extant great white shark ( carcharodon carcharias ) ( 6 . 4 m ) [ 12 ] .\nboth omnh 68860 and kuvp 16343 represent relatively large mesozoic lamniform sharks ; however neither specimen would be considered extraordinary compared to some cenozoic species . for example , an associated specimen of carcharocles angustidens from the late oligocene has an estimated total body length of 6 . 6 \u2013 9 . 3 m [ 16 ] ; roughly matching that omnh 68860 and kuvp 16343 . neither species , however , comes close to the maximum length estimates for the largest lamniform shark , carcharocles megalodon . total length estimates for this species vary depending on the method , but multiple techniques yield a gigantic size ranging from 9 . 2\u201316 m [ 3 ] .\nmorphological similarities between the kiowa and the duck creek sharks are further supported by the age of their respective assemblages . resemblances between the early cretaceous marine faunas of texas and kansas have long been recognized [ 17 ] , and more recent studies have indicated that the kiowa fauna correlates with that of the uppermost fredericksburg group and the lower washita group of texas [ 18 ] . the index fossil inoceramus comancheanus is found in the lower duck creek formation and the middle kiowa shale , demonstrating that at least some of the kiowa shale is equivalent in age to the duck creek formation . based on their stratigraphy , the kiowa shale and duck creek have both been placed in the upper albian stage of the lower cretaceous [ 19 ] .\nof the two lamniform species found in both formations , leptostyrax macrorhiza tend to be larger . in fact , teeth of this species represent some of the largest known shark fossils from the albian of texas , making it the most appealing suspect for the identification of omnh 68860 . however , these teeth are still generally smaller than those of the late cretaceous cretoxyrhina mantelli , a species with known vertebral proportions similar to those of omnh 68860 [ 15 , 20 ] . however , biostratigraphic evidence suggests that the texas vertebrae are not from c . mantelli , as teeth from this species do not appear in texas until the cenomanian [ 15 ] . further comparisons of omnh 68860 to those vertebrae of c . mantelli from the niobrara formation demonstrate stark differences .\nunlike most sharks , c . mantelli has a surprisingly complete fossil record , with multiple specimens preserving both teeth and postcranial material . vertebrae from this species tend to be large , exhibiting typical lamnoid - type centra , with a pair of cartilage foramina for both the neural and haemal arches ( personal observation ) . numerous radiating lamellae are also present that progressively decrease in number caudally down the vertebral column . these vertebrae differ from omnh 68860 in size , shape , and number of the cartilage foramina . specifically these foramina in omnh 68860 do not contact the corpus calcareum , are squarer , and are more numerous than in any published specimens of c . mantelli [ 11 , 20 ] .\nanother late cretaceous lamniform shark with known postcranial material is cardabiodon ricki . c . ricki was first described based on teeth and vertebrae from the cenomanian of australia [ 21 ] . subsequently , teeth were also described from the cenomanian of kansas [ 22 ] and the turonian of central montana [ 23 ] . superficially , vertebrae from c . ricki are more comparable to the texas specimens than any of c . mantelli ; for example , the vertebrae are more elongate , have a thick corpus calcareum , and small cartilage foramina . however , omnh 68860 can be differentiated in that they have thinner and less densely spaced radial lamellae , square cartilage foramina , and concentric lamellae . these features , plus the absence of cardabiodon teeth from the albian of north america , make it unlikely that the texas specimen belongs to this genus .\naside from leptostyrax macrorhiza , the only other lamniform shark known from both the kiowa shale and the duck creek formation is cretalamna appendiculata . the genus has a relatively long temporal range throughout the cretaceous , with a worldwide distribution [ 24 , 25 ] . in texas , there is an apparent size shift in teeth of c . appendiculata through the early to late cretaceous , where albian teeth tend to be relatively small , but gradually increase until reaching their largest sizes ( up to 30 mm ) in the maastrichtian . these larger late cretaceous specimens are considerably abundant in marine fossil sites [ 15 ] .\nreconstruction of the large lamniform sharks from the duck creek formation and kiowa shale .\nkuvp 16343 and omnh 68860 are both reconstructed as leptostyrax macrorhiza and modeled after an odontaspidid . this reconstruction was based on dental similarities shared between eoptolamnidae and odontaspididae [ 14 ] . both specimens represent the smallest calculated estimate based on the formula of shimada [ 2 ] . cretalamna appendiculata is reconstructed as a classic lamnid shark based on shared dental patterns between this genus and members of the family lamnidae [ 26 ] .\nalternatively , a third lamniform species is recognized in the albian of texas and kansas . carcharias amonensis , an odontaspidid , has been reported from the upper albian paw paw formation and the lower kiowa shale [ 15 , 27 ] . although this species is not known from associated vertebral material , known teeth are relatively small ( 11 mm in maximum height [ 15 ] ) , making this species an unlikely candidate for the vertebrae . given the absolute size and distinct morphology of omnh 68860 , it is highly unlikely that these vertebrae belong to any commonly known shark from the duck creek formation , except possibly leptostyrax macrorhiza .\nthis discovery has further implications on the ecology of mesozoic oceans . in modern oceans , many large lamniform sharks are apex pelagic predators of marine and nearshore ecosystems . chondrichthyans the size of omnh 68860 would be among the largest predatory animals of the albian oceans , dwarfed only by some of the contemporaneous pliosaurs [ 31 , 32 ] . fossil tooth marks on dinosaurs [ 33 ] , mosasaurs [ 34 ] , plesiosaurs [ 35 ] , teleost fishes [ 36 ] , and turtles [ 37 ] , indicate that large lamniform sharks of the late cretaceous occupied the ecological position of generalist predator and scavenger , much as they do today . the discovery of omnh 68860 highlights an important ecological transition during the albian , where lamniform sharks begin to take on the massive sizes and trophic abilities seen most predominately in later occurring species . further , both omnh 68860 and kuvp 16343 represent albian species with minimum total lengths between 6 . 3\u20138 . 3 m . this suggests that the late early cretaceous was home to some of the largest mesozoic lamniform sharks of north america .\nlarge shark vertebrae were recovered from the lower cretaceous duck creek formation of texas . these vertebrae represent a single animal of approximately 6 . 3 m in minimum total length , making this individual one of the largest documented sharks from the early cretaceous of n . america .\nthis specimen has unique morphology undocumented in any other cretaceous shark from north america , but shares large size with a contemporaneous vertebra from the kiowa shale of kansas .\nwe hypothesize that these vertebrae belong to leptostyrax macrorhiza based on their size and co - occurrence in both the duck creek formation and kiowa shale . however , without associated teeth , this identification cannot be confirmed .\nthe albian oceans contained some of the largest lamniform sharks of the mesozoic , which hypothetically represented an ecological precursor to the large sharks of the late cretaceous and cenozoic .\nconceived and designed the experiments : jaf sns jad - f . analyzed the data : jaf sns . wrote the paper : jaf sns .\nbecker ma , chamberlain rb , chamberlain ja ( 2008 ) large carcharhinoid - type shark vertebrae in the upper cretaceous of new jersey : evidence for an anacoracid origin . northeastern geology and environmental sciences 30 : 118\u2013129 .\n, based on the vertebral growth increments . journal of vertebrate paleontology 28 : 21\u201333 .\nscott rw , benson dg , morin rw , schaffer bl , oboh - ikuenobe fe ( 2002 ) integrated albian - lower cenomanian chronostratigraphy standard , trinity river section , texas . us gulf coast cretaceous stratigraphy and paleoecology perkins memorial volume : 277\u2013344 .\nwinton wm , adkins ws ( 1919 ) the geology of tarrant county . university of texas bulletin 1931 : 1\u2013122 .\nbullard fm ( 1931 ) the geology of grayson county , texas . university of texas bulletin 3125 : 1\u201371 .\nperkins bf , albritton cc jr . ( 1955 ) the washita group in the valley of the trinity river , texas . fondren science series 5 : 1\u201327 .\n. in : klimley ap , ainley dg , editors . great white sharks : the biology of\nhuxley th ( 1880 ) on the application of the laws of evolution to the arrangement of the vertebrata and more particularly of the mammalia . proceedings of the zoological society of london 1880 : 649\u2013662 .\nbonaparte cljl ( 1838 ) selachorum tabula analytica . nuovi annali della scienze naturali , bologna ( 1 ) 2 : 195\u2013214\nberg ls ( 1958 ) system der rezenten und fossilen fischartigen und fische . berlin : deutscher verlag wissenschaften . 310 p .\nshimada k ( 1997 ) gigantic lamnoid shark vertebra from the lower cretaceous kiowa shale of kansas . journal of paleontology 71 : 522\u2013524 .\nkriwet j , klug s , canudo ji , cuenca\u2010bescos g ( 2008 ) . a new early cretaceous lamniform shark ( chondrichthyes , neoselachii ) . zoological journal of the linnean society 154 : 278\u2013290 .\nwelton bj , farish rf ( 1993 ) the collector\u2019s guide to fossil sharks and rays from the cretaceous of texas . lewisville , texas : before time . 204 p .\nst . john op ( 1887 ) notes on the geology of southwest kansas : kansas state board of agriculture , 5th biennial report : 132\u2013152 .\ncobban wa , reeside jb jr . ( 1952 ) correlation of the cretaceous formations of the western interior of the united states : geological society of america , bulletin , 63 : 1011\u20131044 .\nscott rw ( 1970 ) paleoecology and paleontology of the lower cretaceous kiowa formation , kansas . the university of kansas paleontological contributions 52 : 5\u201394 .\nfrom the niobrara chalk in kansas . journal of vertebrate paleontology 17 : 642\u2013652 .\nsiverson m ( 1999 ) . a new large lamniform shark from the uppermost gearle siltstone ( cenomanian , late cretaceous ) of western australia . transactions of the royal society of edinburgh : earth sciences 90 : 49\u201366 .\ndickerson aa , shimada k , reilly b , rigsby ck ( 2013 ) . new data on the late cretaceous\nlamniform shark based on an associated specimen from kansas . transactions of the kansas academy of science 115 : 125\u2013133 .\ncappetta h ( 1987 ) handbook of palaeoichthyology . volume 3b . mesozoic and cenozoic elasmobranchii : chondrichthyes . stuttgart ; new york : gustav fisher verlag . 193 p .\nsiverson m , lindgren j , newbrey mg , cederstr\u00f6m p , cook td ( 2013 ) . late cretaceous ( cenomanian\u2013campanian ) mid - palaeolatitude sharks of\n, from upper cretaceous niobrara chalk of kansas . journal of vertebrate paleontology 27 : 584\u2013602 .\neverhart mj ( 2009 ) first occurrence of marine vertebrates in the early cretaceous of kansas : champion shell bed , basal kiowa formation . transactions of the kansas academy of science 112 : 201\u2013210 .\nunderwood cj ( 2006 ) diversification of the neoselachii ( chondrichthyes ) during the jurassic and cretaceous . paleobiology 32 : 215\u2013235 .\npuc\u00e9at e , l\u00e9cuyer c , sheppard sm , dromart g , reboulet s , grandjean p ( 2003 ) thermal evolution of cretaceous tethyan marine waters inferred from oxygen isotope composition of fish tooth enamels . paleoceanography 18 : 1\u201312 .\n. a gigantic cretaceous pliosaur . memoirs of the queensland museum 10 : 1\u20137 .\nkear bp ( 2003 ) cretaceous marine reptiles of australia : a review of taxonomy and distribution . cretaceous research 24 : 277\u2013303 .\neverhart mj , hamm sa ( 2005 ) a new nodosaur specimen ( dinosauria : nodosauridae ) from the smoky hill chalk ( upper cretaceous ) of western kansas . transactions of the kansas academy of science 108 : 15\u201321 .\neverhart mj ( 2004 ) late cretaceous interaction between predators and prey . evidence of feeding by two species of shark on a mosasaur . palarch , vertebrate palaeontology series 1 : 1\u20137 .\n( teleostei : ichthyodectiformes ) from the niobrara chalk ( upper cretaceous ) of kansas . mosasaur 7 : 35\u201339 .\nshimada k , hooks ge iii ( 2004 ) shark - bitten protostegid turtles from the upper cretaceous mooreville formation of alabama . journal of paleontology 78 : 205\u2013210 .\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndistribution : marine ; all oceans . upper lobe of caudal fin greatly elongate , caudal fin almost one - half of total length ; third to fifth gill openings over origin of pectoral fin . ovoviviparous , embryos feeding on yolk sac and other ova produced by the mother ( ref . 50449 ) .\nthe list below must not be used as an authority reference synonymy list like those found in scientific published revisions , which must be the source to be used and cited eventually when they exist .\nrather , it reflects the current content of fishbase , and the progress with respect to synchronization with the catalog of fishes . however , we think it can be useful for users to assess the quality of information in fishbase , to start new work on the family , or to cross - check with other lists .\nbut we appreciate to be cited in publications when this list has been of any working value . in particular , for published scientific , we suggest then to cite it in the material and method section as a useful tool to conduct the research , but again , not as a taxonomic or nomenclatural authority reference .\nunless it is explicitly precised , the list is not complete , please search all original names published for the family in the catalog of fishes ( genera , species ) , including those with uncertain or unknown status , that are not included in fishbase when they are not attached to a valid species .\nthis list uses some data from catalog of fishes ( not shown but used to sort names ) .\nin the column coff , the digit indicates the status of synchronization with coff : 0 : not checked ; 1 : same status ; 2 : different status ; 3 : other combination ; 4 : synonym in coff ; 5 : species / subspecies issue ; 6 : synonym of another species in coff ; 7 : not in coff ; 8 : should not be in coff . the coff version currently used is the one published on 23 - 07 - 2014 ( ref . 97102 ) .\nwhen subfamilies are recognized , nominotypical subfamily first then other subfamilies by alphabetical order .\ntype genus of the family first ( or of subfamily when subfamilies are recognized ) then other genera by chronological order of description ( and alphabetical order ) .\ntype species of the genus first by chronological order ( and alphabetical order ) , with last listed misapplied names in a light gray font .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n) , about 40 inches long , cape cod ; and upper and lower teeth from front part of mouth of a larger specimen from new jersey , about natural size . from bigelow and schroeder . drawings by e . n . fischer .\nthe large size of the second dorsal fin , and of the anal as well ( which is about equal to the first dorsal instead of much smaller ) is of itself enough to distinguish this species from all other gulf of maine sharks . the fact that the first dorsal fin is located but little in front of the pelvics , and that the trunk seems crowded with fins of equal size , is a useful field mark . we may also point out that the pectoral fins are not much larger than the other fins\u2014triangular rather than sickle - shaped ; that the upper lobe of the tail is nearly one - third as long as head and body together and notched near its tip , with the lower lobe about one - third as long as the upper lobe ; and that the head is flat above , the snout short , conical with rather sharp tip . the teeth also ( alike in the two jaws ) are diagnostic , being long , narrow , sharp - pointed , and smooth - edged , with one ( rarely two ) small spurs (\ndenticles\n) on either side near the base .\nmost of the sand sharks that are caught in the northern part of their american range , from delaware bay to cape cod , are immature , of perhaps 4 to 6 feet . but adults up to 8 or 9 feet long are reported there from time to time , especially from the vicinity of nantucket , where a commercial shark fishery yielded many of them in\nthe early 1920 ' s . and large ones , alone , have been reported from north carolina , southward . the greatest recorded length is 10 feet 5 inches , from southwestern florida . and the sand shark does not mature sexually until perhaps 7 feet long , or more . a weight of 250 pounds is recorded for one 8 feet 10 inches long , showing how much lighter a fish this is , length for length , than various other sharks .\nlight gray - brown above , darkest along back , snout , and upper sides of pectorals , paling on the sides to grayish white on lower surface ; sides of trunk rearward from pectorals variously marked with roundish to oval spots , of which there may be upwards of 100 , varying in color from yellowish brown to ocher yellow . the rear margins of the fins are edged with black on some specimens , but not on others .\nthe eggs of the sand shark are hatched within the parent and are retained there until the resultant young are ready for independent existence , but there is no placental connection between mother and developing embryo . it has recently been discovered that while a ripe female contains a large number of eggs , only two embryos develop as a rule , one in each oviduct ; they are nourished ( at least largely ) by swallowing the unfertilized eggs [ 30 ] with which the stomach of the embryo becomes greatly distended . females with large embryos have so far been reported only from florida and from louisiana , whereas others taken near woods hole have contained eggs only , making it likely that the small specimens that are so common along southern new england have come from a more southerly birthplace .\ncoastal waters on both sides of the atlantic ; maine to florida and brazil in the west ; mediterranean , tropical west africa , canaries , and cape verdes in the east ; also south africa ; represented in argentine waters and in the indo - pacific by close relatives .\nin august 1947 we saw a large one at the surface pursuing a striped bass , that was being hauled aboard a fishing boat on a hand line , in the eastern side of cape cod bay , where fishermen tell us that this is not an unusual happening . but this appears to be the northern boundary to their occurrence in any numbers , or with regularity . true , they are recorded at cohasset , on the southern shore of massachusetts bay , where we caught one about 4 feet long , years ago in boston bay , and at lynn , mass . but so rarely does it stray north of cape ann that it has been reported only\ntwice from casco bay , and once from st . andrews , new brunswick , near the mouth of the bay of fundy , its most northerly known outpost , where one was taken in a weir in 1913 .\nin new england waters the sand shark occurs only as a summer visitor . the winter home of those that summer along the northeastern united states is not known , nor has any increase been noted in florida waters ( where they are taken at all times of year ) coincident with their winter disappearance from the northern part of their range . like various bony fishes they may move offshore , and perhaps southward , to escape winter chilling .\nthere were commercial fisheries for the sand shark around nantucket during the first quarter of the present century , but these were short lived , reputedly because of exhaustion of the local stock . and the sand shark is of no commercial importance on the new england coast at present . westward from cape cod it is of some interest to anglers , who catch considerable numbers , both as objects of special pursuit , for it takes almost any natural bait readily , or incidentally while surf casting for better fish . but it is not plentiful enough in the gulf of maine to be worth fishing for .\nthere is no record of attacks by sand sharks on human beings in north american waters , though bathers often come close to them . our own experience bears this out ; in fact , it is looked upon as a harmless nuisance on the new england coast wherever it is plentiful enough to be familiar . but its relative ( or relatives ) of east indian waters have a more sinister reputation .\n[ 30 ] for an account of the embryos , see springer , copeia , 1948 , no . 3 , pp . 153 - 156 .\ntwo dorsal fins , without spines ; anal fin present ; five gill slits , last two may be above pectoral fin ; spiracles usually present , small and behind eyes ; eyes without nictitating membrane ; mouth extending well behind eyes .\ngreek eulanein , elasmos = metal beaten out + greek brangchia = gills . ref . 45335 .\ngreek , lamna , - es = shark + latin , forma = shape ( ref . 45335 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncarroll , r . l . , 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . \u2013w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698 .\ncarroll , r . l . , 1988 : appendix . 594 - 648 . in carroll , r . l . , 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . \u2013w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698\nfrickhinger , k . a . , 1995 : fossil atlas \u2013 fishes . \u2013mergus \u2013 publishers for natural history and pet books , hans a . baensch , malle , germany , 1 - 1088 .\nlong , d . j . , 1992 : sharks from the la meseta formation ( eocene ) , seymour island , antarctic peninsula . \u2013journal of vertebrate paleontology : vol . 12 , # 1 , pp . 11 - 32\nlong , j . a . , 1995 : the rise of fishes : 500 million years of evolution . \u2013johns hopkins university press , baltimore & london , pp . 1 - 223\nmould , b . , 1995 - 1997 : the nomenclature and distribution of the recent elasmobranchii . \u2013inet : urltoken\nnelson , j . s . , 1994 : fishes of the world . \u2013john wiley & sons inc . , new york , 1994 , xx - 600\nwilliams , g . s . , 1999 : a listing of fossil sharks and rays of the world . \u2013inet : gainesville ' s creek fossils : urltoken\nnew fossils unearthed in texas suggests that sharks during the early cretaceous were much larger than previously thought . the top image shows the estimated body size of a shark fossil found in a 100 - million - year - old deposit in kansas . the middle shark ' s size . the bottom shark is another known shark species that trawled the ancient oceans .\na giant shark the size of a two - story building prowled the shallow seas 100 million years ago , new fossils reveal .\nthe massive fish , leptostyrax macrorhiza , would have been one of the largest predators of its day , and may push back scientists ' estimates of when such gigantic predatory sharks evolved , said study co - author joseph frederickson , a doctoral candidate in ecology and evolutionary biology at the university of oklahoma .\nthe ancient sea monster was discovered by accident . frederickson , who was then an undergraduate at the university of wisconsin - milwaukee , had started an amateur paleontology club to study novel fossil deposits . in 2009 , the club took a trip to the duck creek formation , just outside fort worth , texas , which contains myriad marine invertebrate fossils , such as the extinct squidlike creatures known as ammonites . about 100 million years ago the area was part of a shallow sea known as the western interior seaway that split north america in two and spanned from the gulf of mexico to the arctic , frederickson said .\nwhile walking in the formation , frederickson ' s then - girlfriend ( now wife ) , university of oklahoma anthropology doctoral candidate janessa doucette - frederickson , tripped over a boulder and noticed a large vertebra sticking out of the ground . eventually , the team dug out three large vertebrae , each about 4 . 5 inches ( 11 . 4 centimeters ) in diameter . [ see images of ancient monsters of the sea ]\nyou can hold one in your hand ,\nbut then nothing else will fit , frederickson told live science .\nafter poring over the literature , frederickson found a description of a similar shark vertebra that was unearthed in 1997 in the kiowa shale in kansas , which also dates to about 100 million years ago . that vertebra came from a shark that was up to 32 feet ( 9 . 8 meters ) long .\nby comparing the new vertebra with the one from kansas , the team concluded the texas shark was likely the same species as the kansas specimen . the texan could have been at least 20 . 3 feet ( 6 . 2 m ) long , though that is a conservative estimate , frederickson said . ( still , the texas shark would have been no match for the biggest shark that ever lived , the 60 - foot - long , or 18 m , megalodon . )\nby analyzing similar ecosystems from the mesozoic era , the team concluded the sharks in both texas and kansas were probably leptostyrax macrorhiza . previously , the only fossils from leptostyrax thatpaleontologists had found were teeth , making it hard to gauge the shark ' s true size . the new study , which was published today ( june 3 ) in the journal plos one , suggests this creature was much bigger than previously thought , frederickson said .\nstill , it ' s not certain the new vertebrae belonged to leptostyrax , said kenshu shimada , a paleobiologist at depaul university in chicago , who unearthed the 1997 shark vertebra .\nit is also entirely possible that they may belong to an extinct shark with very small teeth so far not recognized in the present fossil record ,\nshimada , who was not involved in the current study , told live science .\nfor example , some of the largest modern - day sharks are plankton - feeding forms with minute teeth , such as the whale shark , basking shark and megamouth shark .\neither way , the new finds change the picture of the early cretaceous seas .\npreviously , researchers thought the only truly massive predators of the day were the fearsome pliosaurs , long - necked , long - snouted relatives to modern - day lizards that could grow to nearly 40 feet ( 12 m ) in length . now , it seems the oceans were teeming with enough life to support at least two top predators , frederickson said .\nas for the ancient shark ' s feeding habits , they might resemble those of modern great white sharks , who\neat whatever fits in their mouth ,\nfrederickson said . if these ancient sea monsters were similar , they might have fed on large fish , baby pliosaurs , marine reptiles and even full - grown pliosaurs that they scavenged , frederickson said .\nfollow tia ghose on twitter and google + . follow live science @ livescience , facebook & google + . originally published on live science ."]}
{"id": 887, "summary": [{"text": "dibbler is the common name for parantechinus apicalis , an endangered species of marsupial .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is an inhabitant of the southwest mainland of western australia and some offshore islands .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is a member of the order dasyuromorphia , and the only member of the genus , parantechinus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the dibbler is a small , nocturnal carnivore with speckled fur that is white around the eyes . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "dibbler", "paragraphs": ["dibbler / server - client - classification . conf at master \u00b7 tomaszmrugalski / dibbler \u00b7 github\ndibbler ( parantechinus apicalis ) recovery plan ( pdf - 281 . 81 kb )\n2011 - 05 - 11 : dibbler 0 . 8 . 0 has been released . that is a new release after long time . dibbler development just resumed .\ndibbler uses poslib library to communicate with dns servers ( dns update mechanism ) .\ntoplis and dibbler , publishers of artistic and educative works for the discerning connisseur .\nyou selected southern dibbler ( english ) . this is a common name for :\nperth zoo breeds dibblers for release into the wild as part of the dibbler recovery plan . for more information , on the dibbler recovery plan 2003 \u2013 2013 see urltoken\nthe wizard rincewind had a theory that equivalents of dibbler are everywhere . this theory is borne out by the appearance of several versions of dibbler throughout the discworld series :\nyou can also browse source directly with your web browser : dibbler sources at github .\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / client - addrparams . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / client - auth . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / client - autodetect . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / client - custom . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / client - fqdn . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / client - stateless . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / client - ta . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / relay - 1interface . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - 3classes . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - addrparams . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - auth . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - extraopts . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - fqdn . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - leasequery . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - relay . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - route . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - script . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - stateless . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - subnet . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - ta . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / scripts / bison - sanitizer . py\nto generate windows installer , a cool inno setup tool was used . dibbler user ' s guide was written in latex , dibbler developer ' s guide was generated using doxygen .\n2011 - 09 - 05 : dibbler source has been moved to git repository at github .\nall these dibbler - variants appear to be based at the same address in monkey street .\nconduct fox control , and if appropriate , feral cat control , to protect mainland dibbler populations .\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / client - prefix - delegation . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / relay - echo - remoteid . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - bulk - lq . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - client - classification . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - guess - mode . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - per - client . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - prefix - delegation . conf\n/ usr / share / licenses / dibbler - docs - 1 . 0 . 1 / license\ncommunity participation is strongly recommended for recovery activities , including monitoring existing and reintroduced populations , habitat protection , promoting public awareness of the dibbler and its threatened status and canvassing communities for dibbler sighting reports .\nfair go dibbler sold the archetypal pie floaters on the lost continent of fourecks ( the last continent ) .\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / examples / server - relay - interface - id . conf\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / scripts / notify - scripts / server - notify . sh\nthe dibbler ( parantichinus apicalis ) recovery plan ( 2004 ) ( friend 2004 ) provides detailed management documentation for the dibbler , as does the action plan for australian marsupials and monotremes ( maxwell et al . 1996 ) .\npoint - me - own - bone dibjla , an aboriginal dibbler from fourecks in the discworld 2 pc game .\ndibbler 0 . 4 . 0 is available in the pld linux distribution , which supports various non - x86 architectures .\n/ usr / share / doc / dibbler / scripts / notify - scripts / client - notify - linux . sh\nthe term dibbleganger has been coined by an unsung genius to describe the many morphic resonances of dibbler around the disc .\ndibbler himself has also used various extremely flimsy alternative names to lend credence to his various business ventures . these include :\nsee changelog for a complete list of changes . if you find bugs , please report them on dibbler bugzilla . if you need help or want to share your thoughts , take a look at one of two mailing lists : dibbler or dibbler - devel . please do not contact author directly , unless you want to report security issues or discuss confidential matters .\ndibbler is a portable dhcpv6 implementation . it supports stateful ( i . e . ipv6 address granting and ipv6 prefix delegation ) as well as stateless ( i . e . option granting ) autoconfiguration for ipv6 . this package contains dibbler documentation .\nif you use dibbler and live in a country not listed above , let me know so i can update this list .\nthe dibbler recovery plan 2003 \u2013 2013 includes actions to protect and monitor existing populations , maintain a captive breeding colony to provide animals for translocations , establish new populations through translocations , encourage community involvement in dibbler recovery and improve our knowledge of the species .\ndibbler ( parantechinus apicalis ) recovery plan 2003 - 2013 ( friend , t . , 2004a ) [ state recovery plan ] .\ndickman , c . r . ( 1986 ) . return of the phantom dibbler . australian natural history . 22 : 33 .\nif you are thinking about joining or contributing to the dibbler project , you may want to see this developer ' s todo list .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - dibbler ( parantechinus apicalis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - dibbler ( parantechinus apicalis )\ntitle =\narkive species - dibbler ( parantechinus apicalis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nif you have successfuly run dibbler on onther architectures or systems , let me know so i can update this list . if you would like to have dibbler running on some other architecture not mentioned above , and you are ready to provide me access to such hardware , let me know .\nhere ' s newest stable version . if you need , for some reason , older releases , you can find them in the dibbler directory .\nmills , h . , b . spencer . 2003 . polymorphic microsatellites identified in an endangered dasyurid marsupial , the dibbler ( parantechinus apicalis ) .\ndiet : the dibbler is a carnivore and feeds mostly on ground - dwelling insects and other invertebrates but also eats small lizards , birds and mammals .\nwolfe , k . , h . robertson , r . bencini . 2000 . the mating behavior of the dibbler , parantechinus apicalis , in captivity .\nthis is an article about dibbler . it was published on the contel ' 05 conference , held in zagreb , croatia . my presentation is also included .\nother names : southern dibbler the dibbler was first described as phascogale apicalis by grey ( 1842 ) but was reassigned soon afterwards to the antechinus genus . the antechinus was later reassessed and split into two , resulting in the dibbler being placed in the newly created parantechinus genus ( tate 1947 , in friend 2004 ) . no subspecies have been described although mainland specimens are significantly larger than island animals and genetic studies suggest genetic differentiation between mainland and island populations ( friend 2004 ; woolley 1991 ) .\nanother issue that i have encountered is a lack of access to non - x86 architectures . i would like to develop dibbler versions for other architectures , eg . 64 - bit or mac . so , if you are a well prospering company and you find dibbler useful , consider supporting open source development and donating some of your equipment .\nall versions are stored in the / dhcpv6 / dibbler / directory . take note that they are kept for archeological / sentimental purposes only . please use latest version only .\nfauna species profiles - dibbler parantechinus apicalis ( gray , 1842 ) ( western australia department of environment and conservation ( wa dec ) , 2010g ) [ information sheet ] .\nthis project was started in 2003 as master thesis by tomasz mrugalski and marek senderski of computer science faculty on gdansk university of technology . this project is named dibbler ( after famous cmot dibbler from fantastic discworld series by terry pratchett ) . if you are interested in porting it to other systems / architectures , contact tomasz mrugalski for info and guidelines .\ntime zone - to avoid time - related ambiguation , each host should have timezone set properly . dibbler is able to pass this parameter to all clients , who request it .\nmoro , d . ( 1999 ) . our island home : dibbler recovery on islands off western australia . in : newsletter of the australian mammal society . november : 42 .\nthreats : the dibbler is threatened by loss of habitat caused by land clearing , die - back disease and wildfires . introduced predators such as foxes and cats also prey on them .\nthere are reports that dibbler has problems on ubuntu 14 . 04 . that was traced to a linux kernel issue and is fixed in 3 . 15 . 2 . see bug # 302 .\nmorcombe , m . k . ( 1967 ) . the rediscovery after 83 years of the dibbler antechinus apicalis ( marsupialia , dasyuridae ) . western australian naturalist . 10 : 102 - 111 .\nusers : mailing list was created to support dibbler users . feel free to discuss any topic related to dibbler or dhcpv6 in general . you can also ask for help here . if you want to subscribe , please send mail with subject\nsubscribe\nto urltoken . you will receive confirmation request shortly . you can also subscribe to mailing list using www browser . there are list archives available .\nthe dibbler was thought to be extinct by the early 1900s ! in 1967 a pair was collected by chance from cheyne beach on the south coast of western australia . since then , only small numbers have been found in two isolated locations . the dibbler used to be widespread throughout near - coastal areas across much of south - west western australia and also on the eyre peninsula in south australia .\nsurveys were carried out in the fitzgerald river national park for dibblers , and found that the dibbler population in the park has increased in number since the application of fox control ( script 2006 ) .\nmiller , s . , r . bencini , h . mills , d . moro . 2003 . food availability for the dibbler ( parantechinus apicalis ) on boullanger and whitlock islands , western australia .\nmuir , b . g . ( 1985 ) . the dibbler ( parantechinus apicalis : dasyuridae ) found in fitzgerald river national park , western australia . western australian naturalist . 16 : 48 - 51 .\nin the compleat ankh - morpork , it is revealed that dibbler is one half of a publishing house based on monkey street called toplis & dibbler . the identity of the mysterious mr toplis , if he exists , is not yet known . but this publishing firm is responsible for the magazines back street pins and girls , giggles and garters . top - quality works for the discerning connoisseur of art , naturally .\ndibbler client now configures received prefix with / 128 , not / 64 . this will likely raise some eyebrows , but that how dhcpv6 is supposed to work . please see bug # 222 for extra details .\nanother article about dibbler . this one describes dns update issues and some authentication related topics . it was published on the it ' 2008 conference , held in gdansk , poland . my presentation is also included .\nwoolley , p . a . ( 1977 ) . in search of the dibbler , antechinus apicalis ( marsupialia : dasyuridae ) . journal of the royal society of western australia . 59 : 111 - 117 .\nbencini , r . , c . mcculloch , h . mills , a . start . 2001 . habitat and diet of the dibbler ( parantechinus apicalis ) on two islands in jurien bay , western australia .\nfuller , p . j & burbidge , a . a . ( 1987 ) . discovery of the dibbler , parantechinus apicalis , on islands at jurien bay . western australian naturalist . 16 : 177 - 181 .\nferal predators introduced predators , such as foxes , prey on dibblers . for instance , a radio - tracking study found the remains of a radio - collared dibbler in fox scat in the fitzgerald river national park in 2001 ( friend 2004 ) . the arrival of foxes in nsw in the 1920s coincides with the decline of dibblers over much of their historical range . likewise , cats are known to take dibblers and are present throughout their mainland range ( woolley 1977 ) . while feral cats and foxes are absent on the islands inhabited by the dibbler , the possibility of their introduction poses a serious potential threat to the dibbler ( friend 2004 ) .\nthe dibbler occurs within a number of reserves : fitzgerald river , torndirrup , peniup and waychinicup national parks . in addition , boullanger , whitlock and escape islands are designated class a nature reserves under western australian environmental protection legislation .\nbaczocha , n . & a . n . start ( 1996 ) . status and ecology of the dibbler ( parantechinus apicalis ) in western australia . half - yearly report . department of conservation and land management , perth .\nwoolley , p . a . ( 1971 ) . observations on the reproductive biology of the dibbler , antechinus apicalis ( marsupialia : dasyuridae ) . journal of the royal society of western australia . 54 : 99 - 102 .\nntp servers - to prevent clock misconfiguration and drift , ntp protocol can be used to synchronize clocks . however , to successful use it , location of near ntp servers must be known . dibbler is able to configure this information .\ndibbler 0 . 7 . 1 has been ported to embedded devices , e . g . wireless router linksys wrt54g . currently there is an ongoing work to update openwrt ' s repositories with updated 0 . 7 . 1 version .\ndibbler ' s nickname was inadvertently suggested to him in night watch by the transported samuel vimes , who instantly rued it . this in itself is a time paradox ( which was of course evened out by the history monks ) .\ndibbler appeared in the cosgrove hall animations of soul music and ( despite not being in the book ) wyrd sisters , in which his appearance seemed to be modelled on private joe walker , the spiv in dad ' s army .\nthe dibbler ' s status as\nendangered\non the iucn red list of threatened species was based on an inferred , observed , or projected continuing decline in the number of mature individuals in the population ( ammsg 1996 ) .\nmiller , susan , roberta bencini , harriet mills & dorian moro ( 2003 ) . food availability for the dibbler ( parantechinus apicalis ) on boullanger and whitlock islands , western australia . wildlife research . 30 : 649 - 654 .\nwoolley , p . a . ( 1995b ) . southern dibbler , parantechinus apicalis . in : strahan , r . , ed . the mammals of australia . page ( s ) 72 - 73 . reed books , sydney .\ncut - me - own - throat dibbler appears in the discworld computer game . he also appears in discworld 2 , along with many of the other dibblers , including d ' blah and point - me - own - bone dibjla ( who is exclusive to the game ) . additionally , in discworld noir , cmot dibbler is mentioned in the game on an octarine parrot bill and is said to be the one who gave lewton his imp - powered coffee machine .\n2011 - 11 - 13 : dibbler 0 . 8 . 1 release candidate 1 is released . this release introduces number of useful additions , new features and the usual bug fixes . in particular , the highlights of this release are :\nit was on this day in 1936 that australia said farewell to the very last tasmanian tiger . behind the scenes of perth zoo a new generation of joeys is bringing hope for preventing the endangered numbat and dibbler from facing the same fate .\nconcern that mus was depressing dibbler numbers led to their introduction to escape island ( moro 2003 ) . a study of the feasibility of eradicating the mice has been carried out ( friend et al . 2009 ) and the dibbler recovery team is overseeing a project aimed at carrying out the eradication ( j . friend pers . comm . ) . mills et al . ( 2006 ) found that the boullanger and whitlock island subpopulations had low levels of heterozygosity and high levels of inbreeding compared with mainland populations . the whitlock island dibbler subpopulation appears to have been founded by animals from boullanger island , but founder effects and isolation have resulted in two genetically distinct subpopulations . there is evidence of some genetic exchange , but only as a rare event .\nnormal and temporary addresses - depending on its purpose , client can be configured to ask for normal ( ia na option ) or temporary ( ia ta option ) . although use of temporary addresses is rather uncommon , both dibbler server and client support it .\nthe male dibbler can grow to 14 cm long ( between head and body ) and its tail can grow to 11 . 5 cm long . males weigh up to 100 g while the slightly smaller female weighs up to 75 g ( strahan 2004 ) .\ntrapping surveys found that the dibbler uses all habitats on boullanger island yet , on whitlock island , significantly greater trapping success rates were recorded in the dunal scrubland dominated by nitraria billardierei and foredune heath than in succulent heath ( bencini et al . 2001 ) .\nthe original article was at cut - me - own - throat dibbler . the list of authors can be seen in the page history . as with the discworld wiki , the text of wikipedia : wikipedia is available under the wikipedia : gnu free documentation license .\ngiven the very small size of boullanger and whitlock islands ( 25 ha and 5 . 2 ha respectively ) it is possible that a particularly severe storm , cyclone or drought could wipe out dibbler populations on one or both of the islands ( friend 2004 ) .\nwoolley , p . a . & valente , a . ( 1982 ) . the dibbler , parantechinus apicalis ( marsupialia : dasyuridae ) : failure to locate populations in four regions in the south of western australia . australian mammalogy . 5 : 241 - 245 .\nbencini , r . , c . mcculloch , h . r . mills & a . start ( 2001 ) . habitat and diet of the dibbler ( parantechinus apicalis ) on two islands in jurien bay , western australia . wildlife research . 28 : 465 - 468 .\n2011 - 02 - 11 : i ' m happy to announce that my 7 year struggle to complete my ph . d . is finally over . it appears that i will finally have some time to reinvigorate dibbler . there are many things happening lately in dhcp world , so it seems i ' ll be busy in the near future . in the mean time , dibbler became quite outdated . please send a note to the mailing list regarding missing features that you find the most urgent to develop . cheers , tomasz mrugalski , ph . d .\ndibbler is a portable dhcpv6 implementation . it supports stateful ( i . e . ipv6 address granting and ipv6 prefix delegation ) as well as stateless ( i . e . option granting ) autoconfiguration for ipv6 . currently linux 2 . 4 or later and windows xp or later are supported . it features easy to use install packages ( clickable windows installer and rpm and deb packages for linux ) and extensive documentation ( both for users as well as developers ) . dibbler is developed under gnu gpl licence . it means that it is free for all , including commercial usage .\nall areas where dibblers are known to occur are conservation reserves managed by the western australian department of environment and conservation , which conducts ongoing research and management of the dibbler . in areas occupied by dibblers , management focuses on maintaining significant areas of long - unburnt habitat and preventing the spread of\n2013 - 07 - 30 : dibbler 1 . 0 . 0 release candidate 1 has been released ! this version is being released today to celebrate 10th anniversary of the dhcpv6 protocol . the rfc3315 that defines it was published exactly 10 years ago - on 30th july of 2003 . according to the author ' s knowledge , dibbler is currently the only implementation that implements every feature mentioned in the rfc3315 . please note that feature complete does not mean bug free ; - ) this release brings in all outstanding rfc3315 features that used to be missing in previous releases . in particular :\nwhen dibbler ' s business plans fail , he falls back to selling ( mostly ) ' pies with personality ' and ' pig ' sausages - in - buns on the streets of ankh - morpork . he has been accused of ' not being able to make both ends meat . '\nseabirds the importance of seabirds and seabird burrows to the dibbler is currently being investigated . it appears that a complex set of interactions between seabirds and dibblers affect the reproductive success of the dibbler and influences the rate of facultative male die - off by increasing the level of resources available to dibblers ( wolfe et al . 2004 ) . seabirds can significantly increase the availability of resources by increasing the concentration of nutrients in the soil , ultimately leading to an increase in the abundance of primary ( plants ) and secondary ( plant eaters ) consumers ( wolfe et al . 2004 ) .\nthe dibbler ' s need for long - unburnt vegetation may be related to high invertebrate density in thick leaf litter accumulations or to the cover afforded by dense vegetation which protects against predators , including birds of prey and , at mainland sites , the introduced fox and feral cat ( friend 2004 ) . in the absence of foxes , the dibbler may occupy vegetation at an earlier stage of recovery after fire ( friend 2004 ) . dibblers on boullanger and whitlock islands often enter seabird burrows , although it is unclear whether this is for refuge , foraging or rest ( friend 2004 ) .\n2015 - 08 - 09 : dibbler 1 . 0 . 1 has been released . it contains a number of bug fixes that were already released in the 1 . 0 . 1 release candidate 1 and several new fixes . one of them may have security implications , so upgrade is strongly encouraged .\nthe dibbler is a carnivorous marsupial which is brownish - grey above , freckled with white , and greyish - white tinged with yellow below . dibblers are readily distinguished by the white rings around their eyes , a tapering , hairy tail , and the freckled appearance of its fur ( strahan 2004 ) .\nhabitat modification the distribution of the dibbler declined dramatically following european settlement , with population numbers falling so low that it was considered extinct by 1904 ( bencini et al . 2001 ) . much of the distributional decline was probably due to extensive land clearing and modification of heathland habitat for farming and grazing .\ndescription : the dibbler is a small marsupial with coarse brownish grey fur , speckled with white . it has distinctive white eye - rings and a tapering hairy tail . they are very agile animals and , despite spending much of their time on the ground , often climb bushes to lick the nectar from flowers .\ncommon name : dibbler scientific name : parantechinus apicalis habitat : it lives in low banksia heath on sand in the sout west of western australia . diet : eats a variety of small invertebrates and also nectar from flowers . size : it grows to a maximum of 145mm plus a tail of 115mm . it weighs about 100grams .\nduring dibbler development , i have encountered several problems with equipment availability . this project has no budget and i develop everything in my home . i have several computers , so i can build basic configuration . however , i don ' t have any fancy hardware , so i can ' t verify any of the more advanced setups .\nthe dibbler is a small brownish - grey animal with flecks of white through its coat . the underside is greyish - white tinged with yellow . it has a tapering hairy tail and distinctive white rings around each eye . males are significantly larger than females , with some reaching up to 120 g and females reaching about 80 g .\nanalysis of dibbler scats from boullanger and whitlock islands showed that the diet is dominated by arthropods ( 65 % ) with some vegetable ( 25 % ) matter ( bencini et al . 2001 ) . scat analysis has identified beetles , cockroaches , grasshoppers , termites , ants and spiders in the diet of the dibbler , as well as the remains of feathers and lizard scales ( bencini et al . 2001 ; fuller & burbidge 1987 ) . dibblers are also reported to feed on house mice ( mus musculus ) , which are abundant on boullanger and whitlock islands , as well as vegetable material ( dickman 1986 ) . plant matter was identified from approximately 25 % of scats from boullanger and whitlock islands , and it has been suggested that the proportion of plant matter eaten may vary seasonally or be dependent on the availability of other prey . plant matter may also represent a source of water for the dibbler as there are no free water sources on the islands ( bencini et al . 2001 ) .\nother dibbler equivalents include ratonasticthenes from ephebe , mentioned in the science of discworld . it was previously thought they might all be related , but the discworld companion explains that this is parallel evolution . ' wherever people are prepared to eat terrible food , ' it says , ' there will be someone there to sell it to them . '\nfriend , t . ( 2004 ) . non - current dibbler ( parantechinus apicalis ) recovery plan 2003 - 2013 . department of conservation and land management . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 18 - aug - 2005 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 01 - oct - 2015 .\nfire the majority of dibblers have been found in areas free from fire for 10 years or longer . the boullanger and whitlock islands , for example , have not been burnt in recent times ( friend 2004 ) . it is possible that the presence of long - unburnt habitat becomes even more important to the dibbler when predators , such as raptors , foxes and cats , are present , as such vegetation can provide dense cover and protection from predators . high intensity wildfires in heathland habitats remove all vegetation and restoration of dense cover following a wildfire can take decades in drought affected areas . frequent or extensive fire in the range of the dibbler must therefore be considered a threat ( friend 2004 ) .\nestablish a captive breeding program and translocate captive - bred individuals to suitable secure locations ( three additional mainland locations are recommended ) . when considering future sites for translocation of the dibbler , invertebrate surveys should be conducted to determine whether an area had sufficient diversity and number of invertebrates to support a population of dibblers ( miller et al . 2003 ) .\ndibbler authentication - it is a rewritten mechanism used in earlier versions . it has number of advantages compared to delayed authentication , but has a number of advantages over it . first , it secures the whole transmission , including initial solicit message . second , it offers much stronger digests : hmac - md5 , hmac - sha1 , hmac - sha224 , hmac - sha256 , hmac - sha384 and hmac - sha512 . as this is dibbler specific extension , it is not expected to inter - operate with any other implementations . third , it does not require to maintain strict client duid - key - id bindings on the server side , as clients send id of the key they used to protect their transmissions .\nthere are a number of threatening processes operating in the range of the dibbler , many of which are likely to be affecting its survival . these include predation , fire , habitat degradation and destruction , diseases affecting food plants , competition with introduced mice and activities that might cause seabirds to abandon islands ( friend 2004 ; wolfe et al . 2004 ) .\nin ankh - morpork , dibbler ' s nickname cmot comes from his claims along the lines of\nselling this at such a low price that it ' s cutting me own throat\n. the omnian dhblah makes a similar claim earning him the nickname cut - me - own - hand - off . not all dibblers make claims about the pricing aspect . the agatean dibhala says\nmay i disembowel meself honourably !\nwhen customers complain about the low quality of his merchandise ( in interesting times ) . no dibblers have been found in \u00fcberwald as of yet , but since the local lore strictly prohibits the purveyance of dodgy sausages , locating a dibbler there may require a closer inspection of the local gibbets .\npopulation numbers in many of australia ' s small carnivorous marsupials ( dasyurids ) are affected by annual die - off of males , leading to extreme natural fluctuations in population numbers . however , the rate of die - off in dibbler males , and thus the intensity of natural fluctuations , also fluctuates from year to year and between locations in response to resource availability .\nfollowing european settlement , the distribution of the dibbler declined and it became confined to the western and southern coasts of western australia . while specimens were collected during the 1800s , by the late 19th century it was considered rare . while a specimen was collected in 1904 ( bencini et al 2001 ) , it was in 1967 that the dibbler was re - discovered in a survey at cheyne beach , western australia ( morcombe 1967 ) . in 1985 dibblers were found in fitzgerald river national park and two further populations were found on the boullanger and whitlock islands off the western australian coast ( dickman 1986 ; fuller & burbidge 1987 ) . its current distribution represents a decline of around 90 % of its former range ( moro 2003 ) .\ndevelopers : second list is dedicated to free exchange of thoughts between people engaged in the dibbler development . sadly , this list will be even more desolated then the previous one . if you want to subscribe , please send mail with subject\nsubscribe\nto urltoken . you will receive confirmation request shortly . you can also subscribe to mailing list using www browser . there are list archives .\na character named c ! mot is briefly mentioned in the also people , a doctor who virgin new adventures novel by ben aaronovitch , running a t - shirt stall in the marketplace of whynot . aaronovitch has confirmed that c ! mot is intended as a parallel dibbler , although how similar he is to the original ( since the people have an entirely non - capitalist society ) is unknown .\nrelay support - in a larger network , which contains several ethernet segments and / or wireless areas , sometimes centrally located dhcpv6 server might not be directly reachable . in such cace , additional proxies , so called relays , might be deployed to relay communication between clients and a remote server . dibbler server supports indirect communication with clients via relays . standalone , lightweight relay implementation is also available . clients are capable of talking to the server directly or via relays .\ntrapping is the primary method used to survey dibbler populations . the escape island translocated population was surveyed using up to 100 elliott aluminium folding traps ( 320 x 900 x 1 000 mm ) spaced at approximately 20 m intervals . traps were set along three rows that extended the entire length of the island . trapping was conducted over three to four nights at key times of the year : pre and post breeding ( february - april ) and pre and post dispersal ( september - november ) ( moro 2003 ) .\nthe dibbler has a very small area of occupation of substantially less than 500 km 2 . on the mainland there are few , small , fragmented subpopulations that are inferred to be declining and require management to survive . an ongoing continuing decline is demonstrated by the recent loss of several subpopulations . it occurs naturally on two very small islands and , on the mainland , it survives naturally only in fitzgerald river national park . it has been introduced ( assisted colonisation ) to another small island , and has been reintroduced to one mainland location .\na reassessment of standard morphological characters within the carnivorous marsupials led tate ( 1947 ) to suggest splitting antechinus into four smaller genera , placing the dibbler in the new genus parantechinus as the type - species . subsequent studies supported this concept , including the work of woolley ( 1982 ) using penis morphology . there are , however , various views amongst morphologists on the inclusion of other species within the genus . molecular systematics has also supported a variety of arrangements within this section of the dasyuridae , and generic groupings are far from settled ( krajewski and westerman 2003 ) .\nthe dibbler once occurred widely with subfossil records suggesting a range from dirk hartog island ( shark bay ) and the zuytdorp cliffs north of geraldton , near jurien , to peak charles ( 130 km north east of esperance ) and east to the eyre peninsula , south australia . early specimens , all from western australia , came from moore river ( near today\u2019s new norcia ) , wanneroo , near kojonup , king george sound ( albany ) and \u2018salt river\u2019 ( pallinup river , 100 km north east of albany ) ( ride 1970 ; maxwell et al . 1996 ; friend 2004 ) .\nphytophthora dieback disease in native plants caused by phytophthora cinnamomi can extensively alter the structure and floristic composition of heath and mallee - heath communities ( friend 2004 ) . the mainland habitats inhabited by dibblers , particularly on the south coast , contain very susceptible plant species . the alteration of dibbler heathland habitat by plant diseases must be considered a potential threat . on the islands , however , the highly calcareous soils and different plant communities make the introduction of p . cinnamomi less likely . regardless , the transport of p . cinnamomi to islands should be minimised through rigorous application of simple hygiene measures ( friend 2004 ) .\nhouse mice mice ( mus musculus ) are abundant on boullanger and whitlock islands and have probably co - existed with dibblers for many years . mice were first recorded on boullanger island in 1959\u00961961 and on whitlock in 1985 ( ford 1963 ; fuller & burbidge 1987 ) . while dibblers are known to occasionally eat mice ( dickman 1986 ) the interactions between the two are unknown . mice may compete for resources ( food and space ) with dibblers and increase the risk of disease transmission and , as such , must be considered a potential threat to the long - term viability of the dibbler ( friend 2004 ) .\nthis implementation is developed using tools listed below . it may , of course , work with newer / older versions . even with other compilers . marek senderski developed winxp version using microsoft visual c + + 2003 , 2005 and 2008 editions . bison + + has been merged into cvs , so there should be no more problems with obtaining bison + + . note that bison + + is available in debian gnu / linux distribution . in parenthesis is version which has been used to develop dibbler . it will work for sure , but there ' s pretty good chance that other versions will work , too . here ' s the list :\n2013 - 04 - 27 : dibbler 0 . 8 . 4 release candidate 1 has been released . there is no single major new feature , just a lot of bug fixes . in particular , relay support has been rewritten . it is now possible to select subnet based on interface - id or value of linkaddr field set by the relay . client classification has been improved and now can be used to differentiate between 2 or more classes , e . g . docsis3 . 0 and erouter in cable networks . confirm support has been cleaned . daemon mode no longer has issues when reading from socket descriptor 0 . see changelog for a complete list of changes .\nthe dibbler was formerly widely distributed throughout south - western australia ( woolley 1995b ) , with subfossil records from zuytdorp cliffs and dirk hartog island in shark bay , south to yanchep , and from albany east to the eyre peninsula in south australia . the most inland record ( subfossil ) is from peak charles , about 150 km north of esperance ( maxwell et al 1996 ) . historical collections have been mainly confined to western australia , from the moore river area around perth , king george sound ( albany ) and the pallinup river ( formerly salt river ) east of albany . some collections may have also been made from an unknown location in south australia ( maxwell et al . 1996 ) .\n2014 - 07 - 13 : the second release candidate for dibbler 1 . 0 . 0 has been released . due to other obligations , 1 . 0 . 0rc1 was available for a very long time and i never had a chance to release 1 . 0 . 0 final . in the mean time , quite a few of fixes and small features were added ( changelog mentions 35 items , but i ' m sure some of them were not listed ) . so formally this is a second rc , but it contains unexpectedly large changes for an rc . keep that in mind . this time i expect the delay between rc and final to be much shorter ( couple weeks ) . couple changes worth mentioning :\nthe total population size of the dibbler is unknown . there is no information on the number of individuals inhabiting the mainland sites though some population estimates have been made for the three small offshore islands . it was estimated that 300 individuals inhabited boullanger and whitlock islands in 1990 ( flannery 1990a ) although by 1998 this estimate had dropped to 180 ( friend 2004 ) . at least 131 individuals in the translocated population on escape island were known to be alive in 2000 though this dropped to 67 the following year ( moro 2003 ) . of these 67 individuals known to be alive in 2001 , 63 were born on escape island , suggesting that the translocated population had bred successfully and that , as such , the population would increase ( moro 2003 ) .\n2015 - 04 - 07 - ihar hrachyshka < ihrachys @ redhat . com > - 1 . 0 . 1 - 0 . rc1 . 2 - package examples and scripts directories into - docs package . 2015 - 04 - 02 - ihar hrachyshka < ihrachys @ redhat . com > - 1 . 0 . 1 - 0 . rc1 . 1 - removed dibbler - common package , instead put _ sharedstatedir in each package that needs it . - added check section ( disabled for now due to upstream bug ) . - cleaned up scripts and examples for non - linux platforms . - removed group tags . - build - docs package as noarch . - preserve timestamps for files installed with ` install ` and ` cp ` . 2015 - 03 - 26 - ihar hrachyshka < ihrachys @ redhat . com > - 1 . 0 . 1 - 0 . rc1 - initial package build .\n2013 - 01 - 20 : dibbler 0 . 8 . 3 has been released . the biggest feature is a rewritten address and prefix allocation engine . both follow the same algorithm now . it is possible to reserve specific address and / or prefix for a given host . the host can be referenced by duid , remote - id or link - local address . both in - pool and out - of - pool reservations are now supported . support for ddns is now significantly improved . secure dns updates using tsig are now supported . many , many bugs were fixed and the fqdn handling code is now much more robust . the code now compiles on solaris 11 . it is not yet fully usable , and there are outstanding problems with link - layer address detection , but it is better than nothing . script execution is now improved as well . it is called when receiving stateless configuration ( after receiving reply to inf - request ) and extra options ( like fqdn and vendor - specific info ) are now properly passed . see changelog for a complete list of changes .\nj . a . friend wildlife management program no . 38 department of conservation and land management , july 2003\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nendangered b2ab ( i , iii , iv , v ) ver 3 . 1\nintroduced foxes and cats are known to prey on this species , and are found throughout its known mainland range , though they are not present on the islands . the plant disease phytophthora cinnamomi is a threat to dibblers , as it adversely alters their habitat . introduced mice are also a potential threat on boullanger and whitlock islands , due to competition ( friend 2004 ) . because this species is dependent on habitat that has not been recently burned , frequent and intense fire is a major threat .\n\u00b7 carry out genetic monitoring and management of reintroduced populations . this has not commenced yet due to lack of funding\nsince rediscovery in 1967 , there have been numerous searches for dibblers on the mainland , often without success , even at locations where specimens had been obtained opportunistically ( e . g . woolley and valente 1982 ) . discovery of relatively abundant island subpopulations in 1985 led to several studies on the species\u2019 biology and ecology , captive breeding ( lambert and mills 2006 ) and an introduction to escape island , which is free from introduced mammals . discovery in fitzgerald river national park in 1984 led to further studies , captive breeding and translocations .\ndieback . volunteers are involved in translocations and monitoring . current management aligns to actions in the recovery plan ( friend 2004 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\ndibblers are most active at dawn and dusk . they feed on ground - dwelling insects and other invertebrates but will also eat small lizards , small birds and small mammals . they are well adapted carnivores , with strong jaws and tiny sharp teeth , and are also incredibly agile and able to run through seemingly impenetrable undergrowth with ease . not only are they well equipped for foraging in the undergrowth , but they can also run up trees and rocks . their broad feet have claws on the toes , and grooves running along the feet pads which act as suckers ( 4 ) .\nfemales have one oestrous cycle per year , and mating occurs in march or april ( 2 ) . following a gestation period of 44 days , the female gives birth to 8 young . the infants live and nurse in their mother ' s pouch for several weeks before growing too large ( 2 ) .\nthis species is restricted to two small islands ( boullanger and whitlock ) off the southwest western australian coast . it also occurs on the australian mainland in three widely separated areas ( 4 ) .\ninhabits dense heath habitat and appears to prefer sites with sandy soils ( 4 ) .\nclassified as endangered ( en b1 + 2ce ) on the iucn red list 2003 ( 1 ) .\nthis species has been lost from 90 % of its former range in australia ( 4 ) . it is not known why this marsupial is so rare , although surveys suggest various factors . land clearing and habitat fragmentation are thought to be significant causes of its decline . in addition , the frequent burning of heathland and litter may reduce the availability of invertebrates in the area . predation by introduced mammals such as foxes and cats are also considered a threat to this species ( 4 ) .\nfor further information on this species and latest news see : perth zoo wildlife and conservation projects . urltoken\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nmarsupial a diverse group of mammals characterised by their reproduction . the embryo is born 11 - 35 days after conception . the tiny newborn crawls into the marsupium ( pouch ) and attaches to a teat where it stays for a variable amount of time . they also differ from placental mammals in their dentition . oestrous the time of ovulation ( release of an egg from the ovary ) in female mammals , when the female becomes receptive to males , also known as \u2018heat\u2019 .\nmacdonald , d . ( 2001 ) the new encyclopedia of mammals . oxford university press , oxford .\nkennedy , m . ( 1992 ) australian marsupials and monotremes . an action plan for their conservation . iucn , gland , switzerland .\nauscape international po box 1024 , bowral nsw 25a76 australia tel : ( + 61 ) 2 4885 2245 fax : ( + 61 ) 2 4885 2715 sales @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nplease do not contact author directly and instead use mailing lists for discussion or bugzilla for bug reports . contact author directly only if discussing security issues or other confidential matters .\nexperimental support means that this architecture lacks confirmation by users that everything is fully functional or there are known deficiencies .\nthere are reports that reconfigure messages are sent to the wrong address if the client connected via relays . see bug # 303 .\nissue tracker on github has been disabled . it was awkward to use both bugzilla and github .\nreconfigure support . server is now able to load database , check it against existing configuration and send reconfigure to clients that have configuration out of date . clients are able to accept incoming reconfigure messages and initiate reconfiguration .\nreconfigure - key authentication . server is now able to generate reconfigure - key when responding to clients and later use that key to sign reconfigure messages . clients are able to store received key and later confirm that incoming reconfigure message is properly signed .\ndelayed authentication - clients and server are able to leverage pre - configured keys to sign later parts of the messages exchange .\nreplay detection - both client and server can now detect whether receiving message is a new one or it is replayed by attacker .\nclient is now able to act according to received m ( managed ) and o ( other configuration options ) in router advertisements , if configured to do so .\nserver and client now checks database against changes in the network interfaces and tries to update it if possible . that should be helpful if you happen to lost and recreated an interface ( e . g . broken ppp connection ) .\nsupport for routing configuration was added . yes , you read that correctly . recent draft draft - ietf - mif - dhcpv6 - route - option defines provisioning mechanism that delivers routing information over dhcpv6 . although this implementation is not entirely complete ( there are certain limitations , see user ' s guide ) , it is very usable . this feature was tested with excellent isc dhcp implementation and is interoperable . you may want to read routing configuration over dhcpv6 for additional information ."]}
{"id": 894, "summary": [{"text": "diodon holocanthus , known commonly as the longspined porcupinefish or freckled porcupinefish among other vernacular names , is a species of marine fish in the family diodontidae . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "long - spine porcupinefish", "paragraphs": ["my dvd features long - spine porcupinefish and video from the king cruiser wreck .\nthe long - spine porcupinefish is a small species of porcupinefish that can be found in both endless ocean games .\nlong - spine porcupinefish dried 5 - 7 inches taxidermy real - $ 9 . 95 | picclick\nlong - spine porcupinefish populate coral reefs in warm waters throughout the indo - pacific region and the caribbean sea .\nthe long - spine porcupinefish has dark patches on its sides and back . it has long spines that protrude from all over its body , except for the fins and face .\ncommon names for this fish include balloonfish , balloon porcupinefish , blotched porcupinefish , brown porcupinefish , freckled porcupinefish , hedgehog fish , and spiny puffer .\ndeadly long - spine porcupinefish . . looks like he ' s smiling ! | nature ' s beauty | pinterest | fish , aquariums and creatures\nthe long - spine porcupinefish has an elastic stomach , flexible skeletal structure , and stretchy skin , all which allow it to inflate like a balloon .\nhuman interaction : long - spine porcupinefish is used in chinese medicine , and is captured at the surface with a hand net . it is poisonous if not prepared correctly .\nthe long - spine porcupinefish has powerful jaws with teeth joined together to form a beak . it uses that beak to crush the shells of the sea urchins and shellfish that it eats .\nthis long - spine porcupinefish ( diodon holocanthus ) or\nballoonfish\non the seabed next to the king cruiser was missing its tail , but still able to swim around very fast .\nthe short spine porcupinefish are nocturnal feeders , feeding mainly on crustaceans , gastropods and sea urchins . hermit crabs are included in their diet .\nround and covered with countless long spines , this fish has an endearing face with a small mouth and big eyes . its distinctive long spines evolved from scales .\na single long - spine porcupinefish can often be found under a zoom - mode glow near where the player has parked the gabbiano . sometimes , a glow with one of these fish in it will appear on the underside of the boat directly .\nit has long spines that protrude from all over its body , except for the fins and face .\nwhen frightened , the long - spine porcupinefish swallows a large amount of water and inflates a pouch by its stomach . by doubling in size and raising the spines all over its body , it attempts to intimidate its predators . some pieces of its skeleton are missing so as not to hinder its expanding .\na set of 4 long spines with their bases near dorsal - and anal - fin bases and their pointed ends extending over caudal peduncle . two very long spines ( longer than rays of pectoral fins ) in pectoral - fin axil ( ref 9680 ) .\nthe blackblotched porcupinefish occurs in tropical waters and is found on coral reefs , rocky reefs and inshore waters .\nhe longspined porcupinefish diodon holocanthus , is also known as the spiny ballonfish . they can be easily confused with the\nthis species has a very wide distribution and a genetic analysis is warranted . leis ( 1978 ) noted some differences in spine morphology between pacific and north atlantic specimens .\nwhen it spawns , the female porcupinefish deposits thousands of eggs close to the ocean floor , which the male immediately fertilizes .\n\u00ab a large number of species of porcupinefish are inedible : their viscera or skin often contains a toxin that is particularly dangerous to humans . \u00bb\nlight grey body with pale belly , immovable spines , short on head grading to long at rear , 2 - 4 round black blotches on side , pale pectoral fin base , and unspotted fins .\nthe unique features of this fish give it protection against predators . when threatened , the long - spine porcupinefish will fill its body with air or water , which makes its body swell like a balloon . this makes it too large to fit into the predator\u2019s mouth . also when \u201cinflated , \u201d the spines all over its body are fully extended , making it even less of a desirable meal to the predator . such a defense mechanism requires a flexible stomach , vertebrae , and sides . this structure could not have happened by chance , random processes , but was designed by the creator .\nbreeding : the longspine porcupinefish is not likely to spawn in the home aquarium . reproduction in this species is quite violent , with males biting females during spawning .\naquarium conditions : the aquarium of the longspine porcupinefish should be large \u2014 a 75 - gallon aquarium or larger is best . make sure to provide your longspine porcupinefish with some good hiding places , although they spend little time under cover once they acclimate . instead , they regularly have their snouts plastered against the glass looking for their food providers .\n, also known as the porcupinefish . however , an easy way to tell these two apart ( without getting too close ) is by checking for spots on the fins :\nthe body of the balloonfish is covered in long , sharp spines that extend when the fish inflates by taking in water . all members of the family diodontidae are capable of inflation , and may also change in color when threatened .\ncare considerations : one thing to keep in mind is that longspine porcupinefish are very prone to diseases , often breaking out with cryptocaryon at the drop of a hat . apparently , the longspine porcupinefish can even harbor the cysts of this parasite , in a dormant state , in their internal organs . but if you drop the specific gravity for several weeks ( to around 1 . 012 ) , they should recover . one thing you should never do is to encourage your longspine porcupinefish to inflate . this causes the fish stress , and if it should ingest air it may have a difficult time belching it out . hopefully , the longspine porcupinefish will work it all , but there\u2019s nothing the hobbyist can do in such circumstances .\nphysical description : the longspine porcupinefish has a bulbous head and a short tail . the body is covered with sharp spines that lay backwards until it inflates with water . the longspine porcupinefish inflates in this manner when threatened by predators . ( on occasion , you may see this fish inflate for no apparent reason as if practicing for those times when inflating might save its life ! )\nthe blackblotched porcupinefish has erectile spines on the head and body . like all members of the family , it can inflate its body with water , and turn itself into a very spiny ball .\ndifficulty : the longspine porcupinefish can be an easy fish to keep once you convince it to eat aquarium fare . most individuals , in time , will greedily accept chopped seafood , frozen krill and frozen preparations for marine carnivores . if you feed the longspine porcupinefish a varied diet , at least once a day , it will stay happy and healthy and could live more than a decade in your aquarium .\ndiodon holocanthus has large spots scattered about its light brown body and darker saddles . the longspine porcupinefish reaches a length of about 15 inches . its larger cousin d . hystrix ( known simply as the porcupinefish ) reaches a massive 28 inches in length . it is a more elongate diodon sp . that has numerous small spots ( much smaller than the size of the eye ) all over its body and tail .\nleis , j . m . 2006 . nomenclature and distribution of the species of the porcupinefish family diodontidae ( pisces , teleostei ) . memoirs of museum victoria . 63 ( 1 ) : 77 - 90 .\nwith fun facts about more than 100 animals , this long - awaited aquarium guide includes beautiful pictures and reveals the incredible facts and design features that point to our amazing creator . this handy size guide is excellent for school field trips and family trips to your favorite aquarium !\nit is similar to the freckled porcupinefish , diodon holocanthus , but the latter has much longer spines , particularly on the head , and the blotch on the top of the head is continuous between the eyes . ,\nadult longspine porcupinefish are usually solitary and are only seen in pairs or groups during mating . they are often seen wedged into small crevices on the reef during the day and will sometimes inflate wedging themselves into the crevice . they are slow swimmers usually propelling themselves with their pectoral , dorsal and anal fins but they are capable of a faster burst of speed when they use their caudal fins . porcupinefish are more agile than they look and can change direction quickly .\n\u201cet phone home . \u201d that famous movie phrase comes to mind every time i come to face - to - face with a longspine porcupinefish , also known as the balloonfish . its large head and big eyes give it an alienlike appearance . the longspine porcupinefish is also a fish full of personality . in fact , it has more charm than a lot of the people i have met during my travels through life ! but this ocean - bound et is not suitable for everyone .\nleis , j . m . 2006 ,\nnomenclature and distribution of the species of the porcupinefish family diodontidae ( pisces , teleostei ) .\n, memoirs of museum victoria , vol . 63 , no . 1 , pp . 77 - 90\nif you have an acrylic aquarium , be aware that some longspine porcupinefish have been known to bite and cause scratches on the acrylic with their hard beaklike teeth . for a fish with teeth that can crush sea urchins and mollusk shells , scratching plastic is not that great a feat . acceptable water parameters for the longspine porcupinefish are a ph of 8 . 1 to 8 . 4 , specific gravity of 1 . 019 to 1 . 025 and a water temperature of 74 to 82 degrees fahrenheit .\nbegins to develop spines . the larvae metamorphosize after about 3 weeks ( flmnh ) . after this metamorphosis , fins and fin rays are present , the teeth are formed , and adult olive and brown coloring develops ( flmnh ) . dark spots appear on the belly , which may help camouflage the juveniles in floating sargassum from underwater predators such as the mahi mahi ( flmnh ) . the juvenile loses this underside spotting when it reaches the adult stage . at this point in development , spine elongation and body growth occur . the larval stage of\nlongspine porcupinefish have a light olive brown background color with brown or black dots across the body . light brown blotches are spread across the body . the eyes are prominent as with most nocturnal feeders and are covered with a blotch which runs across the head from eye to eye . the anal and dorsal fins are set back close to the caudal peduncle . usually the fins are a transparent yellow colour . when not inflated the spines lie flat on the body pointing backwards towards the tail .\n, also known as the balloonfish or spiny puffer , can reach lengths from about 30 . 5 to 61 cm . it has dark patches along its sides and back , but perhaps its most telling feature is the long spines that protrude from all over its body , excluding the fins and face . the spines are actually modified scales , which lay flat against its body most of the time ( waikiki aquarium 1999 ) . in some relatives of the balloonfish , a toxic chemical , tetrodotoxin , is found in the skin and spines . however , only trace amounts of tetrodotoxin have been found in balloonfish , mainly concentrated in the ovaries ( chen and chou 1998 ) . in appearance ,\nthe longspined porcupinefish grow quite large and are messy eaters and therefore require a large aquarium . even with good filtration frequent water changes are necessary and any excess food should be vacuumed out . as saltwater fish go they are very hardy and easy to feed . because they are easy to catch they are also quite cheap . they have been kept in captivity for up to 15 years . as fish go they are intelligent and soon learn who feeds them and will swim up and down the side of the aquarium when they spot their feeder .\nbody a robust oval , inflatable ; head wide and blunt ; a pair of small barbels on chin ; eyes large ; nasal organ a flat short tentacle with 2 openings ; teeth fused into a strong , parrot - like beak with two plates that lack a front groove , large , opens widely at front ; gill opening a vertical slit before pectoral base ; pectorals large ; fins without spines ; no pelvic fins ; dorsal fin 13 - 14 ; anal fin rays 13 - 14 ; pectoral rays 22 - 25 ; body and head covered with numerous long ( > eye ) , erectible , 2 - rooted , slender , round spines ; 12 - 16 spines in an approximate row from top of snout to dorsal fin ; 12 - 15 spines between lower jaw and anus ; anterior middle spines on top of head longer than longest spines posterior to pectoral fins ; no spines on tail base .\ngreek , di = two + greek , odous = teeth ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 2 - 200 m ( ref . 5951 ) , usually 2 - 35 m ( ref . 40849 ) . subtropical ; 37\u00b0n - 39\u00b0s , 8\u00b0e - 55\u00b0w ( ref . 55210 )\ncircumtropical in distribution . western atlantic : canada ( ref . 5951 ) , florida , usa and the bahamas to brazil ( ref . 7251 ) . eastern atlantic : 30\u00b0n to 23\u00b0s ( ref . 6951 ) ; also south africa ( ref . 4423 ) . western indian ocean : southern red sea to madagascar , reunion and mauritius ( ref . 53568 ) . pacific ocean : southern japan south to lord howe island and east to the hawaiian and easter islands ( ref . 37816 ) . also from southern california , usa to colombia ( ref . 11482 ) and the galapagos islands ( ref . 5227 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 50 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 7251 ) ; common length : 15 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 55763 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 13 - 15 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 13 - 15 . pelagic juveniles with spots , particularly prominent on belly ; adults with dark blotches across back and spots between the blotches ; fins without spots ( ref . 4423 ) . 14 to 16 spines in an approximate row between snout and origin of dorsal fin ; with a large brown bar above and below each eye ; a broad transverse brown bar on occipital region of head ( ref . 13442 ) .\ninhabit shallow reefs to open , soft bottoms . also in areas with rocky substrata . sometimes form groups ( ref . 9710 , 48637 ) . occur on open muddy substrates as well as on rich soft - bottom and coral reefs . juveniles often with floating sargassum rafts . young and sub - adults may form small groups ( ref . 48637 ) . benthopelagic ( ref . 58302 ) . juveniles pelagic to about 6 - 9 cm . solitary . feed on mollusks , sea urchins , hermit crabs , and crabs at night ( ref . 9680 ) . relatively poor swimmers ( ref . 9710 ) . used in chinese medicine ( ref . 12166 ) . captured at the surface using a hand net ( ref . 26165 ) .\nleis , j . m . , 1984 . diodontidae . in w . fischer and g . bianchi ( eds . ) fao species identification sheets for fishery purposes . western indian ocean fishing area 51 . vol . 2 . ( ref . 3393 )\n) : 21 . 5 - 29 , mean 27 . 3 ( based on 2666 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5313 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 04467 ( 0 . 02239 - 0 . 08910 ) , b = 2 . 87 ( 2 . 68 - 3 . 06 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 9 \u00b10 . 2 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 27 of 100 ) .\nporcupinefishes are slow - swimming , medium - sized fishes that are found mostly in shallow temperate and tropical marine waters . the teeth in both jaws are fused into a parrot - like\nbeak\n. the family name diodontidae literally means ' two teeth ' . diodontids use these fused teeth and plates on the roof of the mouth to crush hard - bodied prey such as molluscs and sea urchins .\nporcupinefishes are covered in spines . they can inflate their bodies into a ball - shape by swallowing water . the inflation of porcupinefishes is a defence mechanism , and as such there is no limit to the number of times an individual can inflate ( and deflate ) . if the fish inflates at the surface it is likely to ingest air , which can be difficult to expel . this can lead to death of the fish because it floats and cannot leave the surface . however , if the fish inflates under water , it ingests only water and has no problem deflating once the danger has passed .\nthe body is brown to grey above shading to white below . there are white - margined dark blotches on the back and sides , and the fins are normally unspotted .\nthe species is occurs in tropical waters of the indo - west and central pacific , from south africa , north to japan , south to australia and east to the marshall and society islands .\nin australia it is known from the central coast of western australia , around the tropical north and south on the east coast to southern new south wales .\nthe map below shows the australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in australian museums . click on the map for detailed information . source : atlas of living australia .\nallen , g . r . 1997 . marine fishes of tropical australia and south - east asia . western australian museum . pp . 292 .\nhoese , d . f . , bray , d . j . , paxton , j . r . & g . r . allen . 2006 . fishes . in beesley , p . l . & a . wells . ( eds ) zoological catalogue of australia . volume 35 . abrs & csiro publishing : australia . parts 1 - 3 , pages 1 - 2178 .\nrandall , j . e . , allen , g . r . & r . c . steene . 1997 . fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . crawford house press . pp . 557 .\nkids mode hides stuff that\u2019s just for parents and adds some fun . enjoy !\nthe teeth of both the upper and lower jaws of this fish are fused , forming a solid , heavy beak . this beak makes cracking the shells of snails , sea urchins , and hermit crabs easy .\nby continuing browsing this site , you accept the use of cookies for statistical purposes .\nremplissez le formulaire ci - dessous pour vous inscrire aux newsletters de l ' aquarium .\ntry watching this video on urltoken , or enable javascript if it is disabled in your browser .\nthese fish have large eyes , small mouths , and round bodies covered in spines . they are generally light - brown on the back and white on the belly . they can be seen year - round when they approach your boat .\nalthough it is not poisonous like other blowfish , it has a distinctive means of self - defence . it swallows a large quantity of water , swelling its body and causing the spines that normally lie flat on its body to stick up . once it has gone into this defensive posture , a predator cannot attack without being pierced by the spines .\nit has 400 - 600 spines , so it ' s probably a waste of time trying to count them .\nthese small fish appear in ciceros strait , around coordinates c - 2 and f - 5 .\nthese small creatures float around slowly and seemingly aimlessly . they puff up their bodies with poked or prodded , but they respond well to being fed .\nin endless ocean 2 , the creatures under the zoom - mode glow at coordinates c - 2 are risky to attempt to find , as great white sharks patrol that area during the daytime . however , at night , the sharks move , leaving that space open to safely explore .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . and fricke , r . ( eds ) . 2015 . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . updated 1 october 2015 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 1 october 2015 ) .\ncarpenter , k . e . , comeros - raynal , m . , harwell , h . & sanciango , j .\njustification : this species is widely distributed and occurs over soft bottom and reef . there are no known major threats , therefore it is assessed as least concern .\ndiodon holocanthus is of minor commercial importance to the fisheries industry and aquarium trade ( miyasaka 1993 , fujita et al . 1997 ) . it is eaten in the ryukyu ' s and taiwan ( leis pers . comm . 2011 ) . it is also dried and sold as curios in parts of its range . there are reports that this species is toxic to humans , however this needs to be substantiated .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2015 : e . t193817a115332473 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nwe spent 2 1 / 2 weeks scouring the wailea and makena beaches for snorkeling opportunities . the weather and sea conditions were variable and much more so than we have experienced in west maui . . . but we persisted , played it safe when the visibility was poor , and ended up seeing a lot of beautiful sealife . the beauty of snorkeling in maui is the . . .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyour igfa account is your personal portal to member benefits , including world records , videos , photos , and the latest in game fish conservation .\nthe international game fish association is a not - for - profit organization committed to the conservation of game fish and the promotion of responsible , ethical angling practices through science , education , rule making and record keeping .\n\u00a9 2015 international game fish association , 300 gulf stream way , dania beach , fl 33004 .\nwhich is similar in looks but has much shorter spines and slightly different markings on the face . as with all pufferfish or blowfish , they have the ability to swallow water or air and inflate themselves . this enlarges them making it more difficult for predators to swallow them and furthermore raises the spines presenting an unpalatable looking meal .\nas further protection they have a symbiotic relationship with types of bacteria such as pseudoalteromonas tetraodonis , which produces tetradotoxin which is a powerful neurotoxin .\nthey can grow up to 29 cm in length . the mouth is proportionally fairly large and if one observes them closely , the skin around the mouth is slightly wrinkled .\nlongspine porcupine fish are prolific spawners , the male pushes the female to the surface and large numbers of eggs are released and fertilized . after several days of floating near the surface the eggs hatch and the larvae are well formed . after three or so weeks the fins and teeth develop and the juveniles migrate to inshore areas when they have reached six to seven cm in length .\nthey are eaten in japan as sashimi and chirinabe in the notorious dish known as fugu . the tetradotoxin found in the fish is around 1200 times more poisonous than cyanide and the attraction is to put ones life in the hands of the chef who cuts the meat , hopefully leaving out the more poisonous parts which would certainly kill . if the chef gets it right a mild tingling and a feeling of euphoria will be felt .\nin some areas the fish are blown up and sold as ornaments or as lamp shades . due to the increased controls on transporting such goods this practice is hopefully dying out .\nwhile they do not eat other fishes in the wild , any crustacean and some corals are fair game for them . because their teeth continue growing throughout their life , they require hard foods to keep their teeth worn down . because of their solitary nature only one fish may be kept in a tank . if you have one you should not stress them to watch them puff up .\nkingdom : animalia phylum : chordata class : actinopterygii order : tetraodontiformes family : diodontidae genus : diodon species : d . liturosus\ncurrently you have javascript disabled . in order to post comments , please make sure javascript and cookies are enabled , and reload the page . click here for instructions on how to enable javascript in your browser .\n; the people , places and creatures underwater which are normally too hidden , too fast , or too inaccessible , for most to ever see or experience . seaunseen invites you to see this unseen sea through underwater videography and photography , and experience the world underwater .\nthe species is exploited in the following sector ( s ) : - aquarium enthusiasts . - chemistry / pharmacy . used in the clothing , footwear or crafts industries for the manufacture of articles ( jewellery , etc . ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nproject noah is a tool to explore and document wildlife and a platform to harness the power of citizen scientists everywhere .\nwow , in our own dialect in e . samar , philippines we call it\notit\n. thanks jellis !\noops . a firewall is blocking access to prezi content . check out this article to learn more or contact your system administrator .\nstand out and be remembered with prezi , the secret weapon of great presenters .\nneither you , nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again .\nreset share links resets both viewing and editing links ( coeditors shown below are not affected ) .\nlight olive to pale brown , shading to white ventrally ; small black spots on upper two - thirds of head and body ; a brown bar from above to below eye ; a broad brown bar across occipital region through eye , and another across middle of back ; a large oval brown blotch above each pectoral fin and another around dorsal - fin base ; fins pale , without spots .\ncircumtropical distribution ; southern california to the gulf of california to northern peru and all the offshore islands .\nballoonfishes are circumtropical in distribution . these fish are found in the western atlantic from florida , usa to the bahamas and brazil , in the eastern atlantic around 30\u00b0n - 23\u00b0s , and in south africa . in the eastern pacific from hawaii to pitcairn and the easter islands , and from southern california , us to colombia and the galapagos islands . they are reef fish with a depth range of 2 - 100 m .\nballoonfish are nocturnal predators , generally hiding in crevices in the reef during the day . the teeth are fused forming a strong , beak - like mouth for consuming snails , sea urchins , and hermit crabs . these fish are relatively poor swimmers .\njuveniles are consumed by pelagic predatory fishes such as tuna and marine mammals such as dolphins . adults fall prey to sharks .\nthey reproduce via dioecism ( sexes are separate ) and fertilization is external with a spawning frequency of one clear seasonal peak per year .\nresilience to fishing pressure : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years extinction vulnerability to fishing : low to moderate vulnerability ( 28 of 100 )\nresearch diodon holocanthus \u00bb barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms\nstart or join a discussion about this species below or send us an email to report any errors or submit suggestions for this page . we greatly appreciate all feedback !\ncitation :\nballoonfishes , diodon holocanthus ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\nhelp us protect and restore marine life by supporting our various online community - centered marine conservation projects that are effectively sharing the wonders of the ocean with millions each year around the world , raising a balanced awareness of the increasingly troubling and often very complex marine conservation issues that affect marine life and ourselves directly , providing support to marine conservation groups on the frontlines that are making real differences today , and the scientists , teachers and students involved in the marine life sciences .\nwith your support , most marine life and their ocean habitats can be protected , if not restored to their former natural levels of biodiversity . we sincerely thank our thousands of members , donors and sponsors , who have decided to get involved and support the marinebio conservation society .\ndeep music digitally imported urltoken proton radio * radio paradise radiotunes somafm wers 88 . 9 fm\n~ sharing the wonders of the ocean to inspire conservation , education , research , and a sea ethic ~ marinebio . org , inc . is a u . s . 501 ( c ) 3 charitable , nonprofit organization . contact : info @ urltoken all marinebio conservation society memberships and donations are tax deductible in the united states . > < ( ( ( ( \u00b0 > \u00a9 1998 - 2017 marinebio copyright & terms of use . privacy policy . > - < \u00b0\u00b0 > - <\nfor all at last returns to the sea \u2014 to oceanus , the ocean river , like the everflowing stream of time , the beginning and the end .\n- rachel carson\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\npaulin , c . , stewart , a . , roberts , c . & mcmillan , p . 1989 ,\nnew zealand fish : a complete guide\n, national museum of new zealand miscellaneous series , vol . 19 , pp . 1 - 279\nogilby , j . d . 1910 ,\non new or insufficiently described fishes\n, proceedings of the royal society of queensland , vol . 23 , no . 1 , pp . 1 - 55\ncuvier , g . l . 1818 ,\nsur les diodons , vulgairement orbes \u00e9pineux\n, m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle , paris , vol . 4 , pp . 121 - 138 2 pls\ncompiled by roberts , c . d . ; paulin , c . d . ; stewart , a . l . ; mcphee , r . p . ; mcdowall , r . m . , king , c . m . ; roberts , c . d . ; bell , b . d . ; fordyce , r . e . ; nicol , r . s . ; worthy , t . h . ; paulin , c . d . ; hitchmough , r . a . ; keyes , i . w . ; baker , a . n . ; stewart , a . l . ; hiller , n . ; mcdowall , r . m . ; holdaway , r . n . ; mcphee , r . p . ; schwarzhans , w . w . ; tennyson , a . j . d . ; rust , r . ; macadie , i . 24 : phylum chordata : lancelets , fishes , amphibians , reptiles , birds , mammals , checklist of new zealand chordata . living lancelets , jawless fishes , cartilaginous fishes , and bony fishes . in : new zealand inventory of biodiversity volume 1 .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f4c58bc8 - 1c3d - 4332 - b767 - 6ccedea9d3d1\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 8bf9220b - f30f - 4978 - abe9 - f63f4880bb35\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 444561\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhabitat : lagoons , muddy bottoms , rocky bottoms , rocky reefs , soft bottom and shallow reefs .\nwe\u2019ve partnered with invision to make it easier to search and download our images in sketch and adobe\u00ae photoshop\u00ae .\n{ { t ( ' more _ than _ one _ credit ' , { zero : calc . totalcreditcost } ) } }\nonce this video clip is done converting , you ' ll be able to download it from your video conversion queue or download history .\neditorial use only photos don ' t have any model or property releases , which means they can ' t be used for commercial , promotional , advertorial or endorsement purposes . this type of content is intended to be used in connection with events that are newsworthy or of general interest ( for example , in a blog , textbook , newspaper or magazine article ) .\nthis format requires a quick conversion ( usually under 5 mins ) before download begins , or you can get the largest and smallest formats immediately .\nby clicking\nconfirm download\nyou agree that you ' ve read and agree to all applicable license agreements for this download .\n$ 9 . 95 buy it now 22d 4h , $ 16 . 50 shipping\n- 3 , 413 + items sold . 0 % negative feedback . great seller with very good positive feedback and over 50 ratings .\n3 , 413 + items sold . 0 % negative feedback . great seller with very good positive feedback and over 50 ratings .\ncopyright \u00a9 2008 - 2018 picclick \u00ae llc . all rights reserved . . . . with a mighty hand and outstretched arm ; his love endures forever .\noccurrence describes how often the species is found on surveys within its distribution . it is calculated as the % of reef sites surveyed by rls divers across all the ecoregions in which the species has been observed\nabundance is calculated as the average number of individuals recorded per rls transect , where present .\nplease use this form only for a single type of error . if you see multiple errors on the page for this species , please report these in separate forms by clicking on this button again after submitting this form\nthank you for highlighting this error . we appreciate your assistance in maintaining high quality control standards\nis distributed circumtropically throughout the world ( hobson 1974 ; flmnh ) . in the u . s . it is found along the pacific coast , the florida keys and hawaii ( hobson 1974 ; waikiki aquarium 1999 ) . it is widespread in the caribbean and eastern asia ( hobson 1974 ; flmnh ) .\nadult balloonfish are found in relatively shallow areas of the ocean . they prefer grassy flats , coral reefs , and mangrove areas ( randall 1967 ; flmnh ; nagelkerken et . al 2000 ) . the larvae however , are found in the pelagic ( open water ) zone ( flmnh ) . they bob around in their shells for about 4 days before hatching ( flmnh ) .\nballoonfish expand by swallowing mouthfuls of air or water when attacked by a predator . the balloonfish swallows air , when attacked by avian predators , or water , when attacked by piscine predators ( brainerd 1994 ) . after ingestion through the mouth , the air or water reaches the highly elastic stomach , which has been described as a\nlarge dilatable sac with robust esophageal and pyloric sphincters\n( rosen , 1912 ) . the stomach , which has lost its digestive function , plays a key role in the inflation process ( brainerd 1994 ) . in diodontidae , the stomach is a simple sac , whereas in tetraodontidae the stomach is divided into two parts by a pyloric sphincter . as the stomach expands , it pushes the peritoneal lining into the ample peritoneal space . the peritoneal cavity expands towards the head to the mandible and towards the tail to enclose the unpaired fins ( brainerd 1994 ) .\nalso facilitates inflation . because the balloonfish lacks pleural ribs and a pelvic girdle , expansion is not as strictly inhibited as in most fish . the vertebral column is also highly flexible . it bends in an arc towards the dorsal side of the fish , allowing\nin addition to the elastic stomach , generous peritoneal space and skeletal structure , balloonfish skin is also specialized for inflation ( brainerd 1994 ) . the skin of\nis highly elastic because of microfolds in the epidermis and collagen fibers of the dermis . these allow\nto extend through 40 % of its initial length before it begins to stiffen ( brainerd 1994 ) .\nreproduces through sexual processes , just like most other fish . sexual reproduction maintains genetic diversity within the species , which is important for preventing disease and adapting to changes in the environment over time . during spawning season , a male pushes a female to the surface and they immediately spawn ( flmnh ) . the round eggs float in the water . until they are 10 days old ,\nlarvae retain a thin shell covering , which is then lost ( flmnh ) . at this time ,\nis yellow with red spots and well - developed functional mouth , eyes and gas bladder ( flmnh ) .\nis threatened , it sucks water or air into its body , causing the dangerous spines to stick out at right angles from its body ( brainerd 1994 ) . the entire body swells two to three times in diameter as the stomach expands ( brainerd 1994 ) . it is not surprising that very few predators consume balloonfish .\nthe process of inflation is called an\nanti - predatory defense mechanism\n. this means that\ndemonstrates the most pronounced spherical shape of all pufferfish when inflated ( brainerd 1994 ) . the extremely inflated body shape also helps\navoid\ngape - limited predators\n. these are predators that can ' t open their mouths wide enough to swallow\nwhen it is inflated . in hawaii , the only known predator of adult balloonfish is the tiger shark ( waikiki aquarium 1999 ) .\nare fused , forming a solid , heavy beak ( hobson 1974 ; waikiki aquarium 1999 ) . this beak makes cracking the shells of snails , sea urchins and hermit crabs a breeze . with the help of its relatively large eyes ,\nfeeds at night on these delicacies of the coastal zone ( waikiki aquarium 1999 ) . as for catching its prey ,\ncertainly does not rely on speed . it is actually a slow - swimming predator ( waikiki aquarium 1999 ) . what\ncan do is maneuver into tricky positions using its pectoral , pelvic and anal fins . this is especially helpful in complex habitat such as coral reefs .\nuses its tail primarily for steering and for occasional bursts of speed ( waikiki aquarium 1999 ) .\nis a nocturnal predator and remains hidden during the day ( hobson 1974 ; waikiki aquarium 1999 ; flmnh ) . individuals have been observed resting near ledges and shallow caves of the rocky sea floor in the gulf of california and ledges or holes in the florida keys in the daytime ( hobson 1974 ) . in coral reefs around hawaii and the west indies ,\n' main food source is pagurid crabs ( hermit crabs ) and prosobranch gastropods , which include familiar marine organisms such as abalones , limpets , top shells , periwinkles , boat shells , conchs , moon snails , and whelks ( hobson 1974 ; flmnh ; randall 1967 ; waikiki aquarium 1999 ) .\nare however , a relatively common novelty for tourists on vacation in tropical areas ( flmnh ) .\nthe body of water between africa , europe , the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , and the western hemisphere . it is the second largest ocean in the world after the pacific ocean .\nbody of water between the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , australia , asia , and the western hemisphere . this is the world ' s largest ocean , covering about 28 % of the world ' s surface .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nstructure produced by the calcium carbonate skeletons of coral polyps ( class anthozoa ) . coral reefs are found in warm , shallow oceans with low nutrient availability . they form the basis for rich communities of other invertebrates , plants , fish , and protists . the polyps live only on the reef surface . because they depend on symbiotic photosynthetic algae , zooxanthellae , they cannot live where light does not penetrate .\nbrainerd , e . l . , 1994 . pufferfish inflation : functional morphology of postcranial structure in diodon holocanthus ( tetraodontiformes ) .\nchen , c . - y . and h . - n chou , 1998 . detection of tetrodotoxin by high performance liquid chromatography in lined - moon shell and puffer fish .\nflorida museum of natural history ( flmnh ) ,\nballoonfish\n( on - line ) . accessed october 18 , 2000 at urltoken .\nhobson , e . s . , 1974 . feeding relationships of teleostean fishes on coral reefs in kona , hawaii .\nnagelkerken , i . , m . dorenbosch , et al , 2000 . day - night shifts of fishes between shallow - water biotopes of a caribbean bay , with emphasis on the nocturnal feeding of haemulidae and lutjanidae .\nrandall , j . e . , 1967 . food habits of reef fishes of the west indies .\nrosen , n . , 1912 . studies on the plectognaths . 2 . the air sac with notes on other parts of the intestines .\nwaikiki aquarium , january 1999 .\nmarine life profile : pufferfish\n( on - line ) . accessed october 18 , 2000 at urltoken .\nto cite this page : kenzie , j . 2000 .\ndiodon holocanthus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\ngreek , tragos = goat + greek , ichthys = fish ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 26 - 137 m ( ref . 58489 ) . tropical\nindo - west pacific : northern australia and arafura sea . does not occur in southern australia or new zealand ( ref . 9680 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 30 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3132 )\nfound on soft bottoms to at least 30 m ( ref . 9680 ) . presumably feeds on hard - shelled invertebrates ( ref . 9680 ) . frequently trawled but not marketed ( ref . 9680 ) .\nallen , g . r . and r . swainston , 1988 . the marine fishes of north - western australia : a field guide for anglers and divers . western australian museum , perth . 201 p . ( ref . 3132 )\n) : 23 . 2 - 28 . 2 , mean 26 . 9 ( based on 295 cells ) . phylogenetic diversity index ( ref .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 03090 ( 0 . 01311 - 0 . 07285 ) , b = 2 . 89 ( 2 . 68 - 3 . 10 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref .\n) : 3 . 5 \u00b10 . 37 se ; based on food items .\nunderwater photography size : 14 . 2 mpixels ( 40 . 5 mb uncompressed ) - 4607x3072 pixels ( 15 . 3x10 . 2 in / 39 . 0x26 . 0 cm at 300 ppi )\nlife on white | urltoken - 38468 images of animals on a white background ( isolated on white ) for around 1175 different animal species .\n38468 royalty free images online and around 1175 different animal species , for as low as : 9818 images not yet online ( raw pictures can be viewed upon request ) . 1526 images available in rights managed exclusively here ."]}
{"id": 899, "summary": [{"text": "otiorhynchus sulcatus , commonly known as the black vine weevil or simply vine weevil , is native to europe , but common in north america as well .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it is a pest of many garden plants . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "otiorhynchus sulcatus", "paragraphs": ["field attraction of the vine weevil otiorhynchus sulcatus to kairomones . - pubmed - ncbi\nblack vine weeveil ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ) - \u00a9 can stock photo inc . / zollster\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nbreitmaulr\u00fcssler\nto\notiorhynchus sulcatus germar\n.\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\ngefurchter lappenr\u00fcssler\nto\notiorhynchus sulcatus germar\n.\nhans - martin braun added the english common name\nvine weevil\nto\notiorhynchus sulcatus germar\n.\nandersen mn , 1991 . greenhouse weevil ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ) . gartneryrket , 81 ( 5 ) : 12 - 13\nanon . , 1980 . black vine weevil ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ) - kansas - a new state record . cooperative plant pest report , 5 : 35 .\nkacic s , vitanovic e , zanic k , katalinic m , 2009 . control of the ( otiorhynchus sulcatus f . ) weevil in protected cultivation . ( suzbijanje pipe ( otiorhynchus sulcatus f . ) u za ? ticenom prostoru . ) glasilo biljne za ? tite , 9 ( 3 ) : 153 - 157 . urltoken\nbackhaus gf , 1994 . biological control of otiorhynchus sulcatus f . by use of entomopathogenic nematodes of the genus heterorhabditis . acta horticulturae , no . 364 : 131 - 142\nfregonese a , zandigiacomo p , 1992 . otiorhynchus sulcatus ( fabr . ) , a curculionid beetle damaging ornamental plants in nurseries . informatore agrario , 48 ( 35 ) : 73 - 77\nb . bassiana was isolated from the adults of o . sulcatus in japan (\nkovacevic z , 1971 . otiorhynchus species in yugoslavia and their geographic distribution . zast . bilja . , 1 - 103 .\nwesterman pr , zeeland mg van , 1989 . comparison of heterorhabditis isolates for control of otiorhynchus sulcatus at low temperatures . mededelingen van de faculteit landbouwwetenschappen , rijksuniversiteit gent , 54 ( 3b ) : 1115 - 1123\nsteiner wa , 1996 . melanization of steinernema feltiae filipjev and s . kraussei steiner in larvae of otiorhynchus sulcatus ( f . ) . fundamental and applied nematology , 19 ( 1 ) : 67 - 70 ; 11 ref .\nbaird cr , dorschner kw , nyberg cj , 1992 . biology of the black vine weevil otiorhynchus sulcatus on hop in idaho ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . journal of the entomological society of british columbia , 89 : 31 - 37\ncross jv , burgess cm , 1997 . localised insecticide treatment for the control of vine weevil larvae ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ) on field - grown strawberry . crop protection , 16 ( 6 ) : 565 - 574 ; 17 ref .\nlone rs la , clarke rg , 1981 . larval development of otiorhynchus sulcatus ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) and effects of larval density on larval mortality and injury to rhododendron . environmental entomology , 10 ( 2 ) : 190 - 191\nmaier ct , 1981 . reproductive success of the black vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus ( f . ) , fed different foliar diets and evaluation of techniques for predicting fecundity . environmental entomology , 10 ( 6 ) : 928 - 932\nmasaki m , ohmura k , ichinohe f , 1984 . host range studies of the black vine weevil otiorhynchus sulcatus ( fabricius ) ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . applied entomology and zoology , 19 ( 1 ) : 95 - 106\npenman dr , scott rr , 1976 . impact of black vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus ( f . ) , on blackcurrants and strawberries in canterbury . new zealand journal of experimental agriculture , 4 ( 4 ) : 381 - 384\nmoorhouse er , charnley ak , gillespie at , 1992 . a review of the biology and control of the vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . annals of applied biology , 121 ( 2 ) : 431 - 454\nmoorhouse er , gillespie at , charnley ak , 1993 . selection of virulent and persistent metarhizium anisopliae isolates to control black vine weevil ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ) larvae on glasshouse begonia . journal of invertebrate pathology , 62 ( 1 ) : 47\nwesterman pr , zeeland mg van , 1994 . infectivity and pathogenicity of the insect parasitic nematodes heterorhabditis spp . and steinernema spp . for otiorhynchus sulcatus at different temperatures . bulletin oilb / srop , 17 ( 3 ) : 65 - 69\nmasaki m , ohto k , 1995 . effects of temperature on development of the black vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus ( f . ) ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . research bulletin of the plant protection service , 31 : 37 - 45 .\nreibnitz c von , backhaus gf , 1992 . analysis of the incidence and control of otiorhynchus sulcatus in tree nurseries . results from a survey in lower saxony and schleswig - holstein . gesunde pflanzen , 45 ( 2 ) : 54 - 60\nthere are some weevles which cause damage in the horticulture and the amenities . an important pest species in the ornamentals is the vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus , while the rose beetle , phylloperta horticola , causes a lot of damage in the grassland .\nshanks ch jr , chase dl , chamberlain jd , 1984 . resistance of clones of wild strawberry , fragaria chiloensis , to adult otiorhynchus sulcatus and o . ovatus ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . environmental entomology , 13 ( 4 ) : 1042 - 1045\ngembauffe n , coremans - pelseneer j , tillemans f , hemptinne jl , 1990 . otiorhynchus sulcatus f . ( coleoptera , curculionidae ) alimentary choices . first results . mededelingen van de faculteit landbouwwetenschappen , rijksuniversiteit gent , 55 ( 2b ) : 541 - 544\nschirocki a , hague ngm , 1994 . the effect of temperature on the susceptibility of the black vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus to different isolates of steinernema and heterorhabditis . bulletin oilb / srop , 17 ( 3 ) : 61 - 64 ; 6 ref .\nsaito t , ikeda f , 1983 . beauveria bassiana ( bals . ) vuill . isolated from the black vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus fabr . ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . japanese journal of applied entomology and zoology , 27 ( 4 ) : 307 - 308\ntol rwhm van , 1993 . control of the black vine weevil ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ) with different isolates of heterorhabditis sp . and metarhizium anisopliae in nursery stock . proceedings of the section experimental and applied entomology of the netherlands entomological society , 4 : 181 - 186\ncolour illustration of leaf damage caused by adult o . sulcatus next to crescent - shaped larva and adult .\nmoorhouse er , fenlon js , gillespie at , charnley ak , 1992 . observations on the development , oviposition and fecundity of vine weevil adults , otiorhynchus sulcatus ( fabricius ) ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . entomologist ' s gazette , 43 ( 3 ) : 207 - 218\ncommon name vine weevil scientific name otiorhynchus sulcatus plants affected ornamental plants and fruits , especially those grown in containers main symptoms adult weevils notch leaf margins ; grubs eat roots , causing plant death . most active adult weevils : spring to late summer ; grubs : summer to spring\nkakouli t , schirocki a , hague ngm , 1994 . factors affecting the control of otiorhynchus sulcatus with entomopathogenic nematodes , in strawberries grown on raised beds . proceedings - brighton crop protection conference , pests and diseases , 1994 , vol . 2 . , 945 - 946 ; 3 ref .\ncasteels h , clercq rde , miduturi js , 1995 . phenological observations on the black vine weevil otiorhynchus sulcatus f . in belgium during the decade 1985 - 1994 . mededelingen - faculteit landbouwkundige en toegepaste biologische wetenschappen , universiteit gent , 60 ( 3a ) : 657 - 661 ; 12 ref .\nmracek z , jiskra k , kahounova l , 1993 . efficiency of steinernematid nematodes ( nematoda : steinernematidae ) in controlling larvae of the black vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) in laboratory and field experiments . european journal of entomology , 90 ( 1 ) : 71 - 76\nmoorhouse er , gillespie at , charnley ak , 1994 . the influence of temperatures on the susceptibility of vine weevil , otiorhynchus sulcatus ( fabricius ) ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) , larvae to metarhizium anisopliae ( deuteromycotina : hyphomycetes ) . annals of applied biology , 124 ( 2 ) : 185 - 193\ndoss rp , shanks ch jr , 1988 . the influence of leaf pubescence on the resistance of selected clones of beach strawberry ( fragaria chiloensis ( l . ) duchesne ) to adult black vine weevils ( otiorhynchus sulcatus f . ) . scientia horticulturae , 34 ( 1 - 2 ) : 47 - 54\n, o . sulcatus is mainly ground - living , though it is occasionally found on herbaceous vegetation , less frequently on trees .\nin south - central washington , usa , adults of o . sulcatus fed on the berry pedicels and cluster stems of concord grapes (\nesbjerg p , 1977 . ear weevils ( otiorrhynchus sulcatus fabr . ) . manedsoversigt over plantesygdomme , 500 ( june 1977 ) : 56\nclark ke , hartley se , brennan rm , jennings sn , mcmenemy ls , mcnicol jw , mitchell c , johnson sn , 2012 . effects of cultivar and egg density on a colonizing vine weevil ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ) population and its impacts on red raspberry growth and yield . crop protection , 32 : 76 - 82 . urltoken\nh . bacteriophora has an active foraging strategy and occurs deep in the soil profile . it was effective against larvae of o . sulcatus , which occurs near roots . soil temperature influenced the results . at 22\u00b0c , the nematode killed o . sulcatus within 1 week . at 16\u00b0c , h . bacteriophora was not effective against larvae of o . sulcatus 2 weeks after treatment ( kaya et al . , 1993 ) .\nlisted fragaria vesca , saxifraga sp . , taxus baccata , rudbeckia laciniata , cyclamen persicum and vitis vinifera as food plants of o . sulcatus .\nof eight varieties of raspberry assessed for five characters , glen clova was the most resistant to o . sulcatus ( anon . , 1975 ) .\ntusnadi ck , merkl l , 1985 . recent damage by otiorrhynchus sulcatus f . in hungary . novenyvedelem , 21 ( 8 ) : 369 - 370\nreibnitz c von , backhaus gf , 1994 . investigations on demand for biological control of otiorhynchus spp . and cost structure of production methods for entomopathogenic nematodes ( heterorhabditis ) . gartenbauwissenschaft , 59 ( 5 ) : 199 - 206\no . sulcatus was first detected in hawaii , usa , at kokee state park on the island of kauai , in march and april 1976 ( anon . , 1976 ) . o . sulcatus was first found in japan in 1981 in sunto gun , shizuoka prefecture ( masaki et al . , 1984 ) .\nevenhuis hh , 1978 . bionomics and control of the black vine weevil otiorrhynchus sulcatus . mededelingen van de faculteit landbouwwetenschappen rijksuniversiteit gent , 43 : 607 - 611\nlozzia gc , 1983 . otiorrhynchus sulcatus in cultivated flowers of the lake maggiore region . informatore fitopatologico , 33 ( 7 / 8 ) : 15 - 19\nall otiorhynchus sulcatus adults are female and each can lay several hundred eggs during spring and summer . the eggs are brown and less than 1mm ( about 1 / 16in ) in diameter , making them very difficult to see in soil . larger yellowish - brown spherical objects seen in potting composts are likely to be controlled - release fertiliser pellets added by the nursery that raised the plants .\nbarratt bip , lauren dr , snelling cm , ferguson cm , 1989 . carbaryl for control of black vine weevil ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ( f . ) ) on rhododendrons . proceedings of the forty second new zealand weed and pest control conference , taranki country lodge , new plymouth , 8 - 10 august , 1989 . palmerston north , new zealand : new zealand weed and pest control society inc . , 262 - 265\nin hungary , the adults of o . sulcatus attacked the flowers of rhododendron simsii and gerbera sp . leaving spots of excreta on them , but the leaves remained intact (\nbarratt bip , ferguson cm , jackson ta , harvey ic , 1989 . control of black vine weevil ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ( f . ) ) larvae with parasitic nematodes and fungal pathogens . proceedings of the forty second new zealand weed and pest control conference , taranki country lodge , new plymouth , 8 - 10 august , 1989 . palmerston north , new zealand : new zealand weed and pest control society inc . , 259 - 261\nin the dordogne , france , suggestions for prevention of o . sulcatus attacks include the use of healthy plants , careful soil preparation and crop rotation ( felici , 1981 ) .\nevenhuis hh , 1982 . control of the black vine weevil otiorrhynchus sulcatus ( coleoptera , curculionidae ) . mededelingen van de faculteit landbouwwetenschappen , rijksuniversiteit gent , 47 ( 2 ) : 675 - 678\nstenseth c , vik j , 1979 . the effect of black polythene mulch on the development of otiorrhynchus sulcatus on strawberry plants . gartneryrket , 69 ( 912 / 914 ) : 7 pp .\nnielsen dg , 1989 . minimizing otiorhynchus root weevil impact in conifer nurseries . insects affecting reforestation : biology and damage [ edited by alfaro , r . i . ; glover , s . g . ] victoria , canada ; forestry canada , pacific and yukon region , 71 - 79\nthree species of nematodes were tested in the field and greenhouse as potential biological control agents against o . sulcatus in british columbia , canada . heterorhabditis heliothidis at doses of from 5000 to 20000 infective stages per 50 ml water reduced the numbers of o . sulcatus on potted strawberry plants in the greenhouse by 83 - 97 % . an outdoor application of h . heliothidis at 500 and 5000 nematodes / litre of soil gave significantly better control of larvae of o . sulcatus on potted lodgepole pine trees ( pinus contorta ) than did a diazinon drench ( rutherford et al . , 1987 ) .\ncone ww , 1963 . the black vine weevil , brachyrhinus sulcatus , as a pest of grapes in south central washington . journal of economic entomology , 56 ( 5 ) : 677 - 680 .\nroot weevils can be recognized by their short snouts , stout swollen bodies ( otiorhynchus looks almost ' inflated ' ) , elongate elbowed antennae and enlarged femur on all legs . all are parthenogenic . 8 - 11 mm in length . adults can live for three or more years and lay eggs each spring .\nin berlin , germany , o . sulcatus larval damage to the roots of sansevieria trifasciata did not at first result in the visible withering of the leaves noticed on less sturdy plants , but it was severe (\nskadow k , karl e , 1967 . injurious occurrence of o . sulcatus on sansevieria . nachrichtenblatt des deutschen pflanzenschutzdienstes , berlin , ( n . f . ) 21 ( 11 ) : 213 - 214 .\nmarchal m , 1977 . fungi imperfecti isolated from a natural population of otiorrhynchus sulcatus fabr . ( col . curculionidae ) . revue de zoologie agricole et de pathologie vegetale , 76 ( 4 ) : 101 - 108\nbogatko w , labanowski g , 1993 . chemical control of the black vine weevil ( otiorrhynchus sulcatus f . ) on ornamental crops . journal of fruit and ornamental plant research , 1 ( 3 ) : 93 - 101\non strawberries in massachusetts , usa , the nematodes steinernema carpocapsae , s . glaseri and heterorhabditis bacteriophora caused 82 - 91 % mortality , when tested for control of o . sulcatus ( driesche and hauschild , 1987 ) .\n) . in belgium , the time of appearance of o . sulcatus varied from year to year and was largely dependent on weather conditions ( temperature ) and type of culture ( open field , container culture or greenhouse ) (\nbluel s , kaserer h , 1989 . investigations on the control of otiorrhynchus sulcatus f . on vines and ornamental plants . mitteilungen klosterneuburg , rebe und wein , obstbau und fruchteverwertung , 39 ( 3 ) : 124 - 129\na study in switzerland , showed that late instar ( l 4 - 6 ) o . sulcatus can encapsulate and melanize invasive juveniles ( ij ' s ) of steinernema feltiae and s . kraussei that enter their digestive tracts . dissection of o . sulcatus larvae , exposed at 9\u00b0c to nematode isolates found in the swiss alps , revealed up to nine melanized ij ' s in the mid - gut region . encapsulation of ij ' s occurred exclusively in insect larvae so that they died from the nematode treatment . the observed immune response in o . sulcatus larvae is therefore unimportant for the infectivity of s . kraussei and s . feltiae at 9\u00b0c ( steiner , 1996a ) .\nthumb | fra\u00dfbild thumb | unterseite des adulten k\u00e4fers der gefurchte dickmaulr\u00fcssler ( otiorhynchus sulcatus ) , auch breitmaulr\u00fcssler genannt , ist ein k\u00e4fer aus der familie der r\u00fcsselk\u00e4fer ( curculionidae ) . die erwachsenen tiere ( imagines ) ern\u00e4hren sich polyphag , haupts\u00e4chlich von bl\u00e4ttern , knospen oder jungen pflanzentrieben von landwirtschaftlichen kulturen und zierpflanzen , w\u00e4hrend die larven an wurzeln fressen . bevorzugte pflanzengattungen und - arten sind beispielsweise erdbeeren , rhododendren , kirschlorbeer , pfaffenh\u00fctchen und eiben r . van tol , 2002 : fatal attraction . novel strategies for vine weevil control . academisch proefschrift . isbn 90 76894 21 3\u2026\nin central washington , usa , the larvae of o . sulcatus fed on the roots of concord grapes , first on the phloem tissue , girdling the roots , but the xylem was left intact , except in cases of severe injury (\nin greenhouse trials there was 70 - 95 and 35 - 50 % control of o . sulcatus with 1000 infective juveniles / 250 ml pot of heterorhabditis sp . ( hf85 ) and s . carpocapsae ( s25 ) , respectively , in 10 - 20 days . the doses of s . carpocapsae had a significant effect , whereas contact days were significant for hf85 , a cold active strain , gave 99 % control of o . sulcatus while s . carpocapsae gave only 56 % control . in field experiments , 10 , 000 infective juveniles / plant of s . carpocapsae and heterorhabditis sp . gave 10 - 20 and 10 - 40 % control of o . sulcatus , respectively ( miduturi et al . , 1994 ) .\nmiduturi js , clercq r de , casteels h , grisse ade , 1994 . effect of temperature on the infectivity of entomopathogenic nematodes against black vine weevil ( otiorrhynchus sulcatus f . ) . parasitica , 50 ( 3 / 4 ) : 103 - 108\nin laboratory studies , the effect of a range of temperatures ( 5 - 30\u00b0c ) on the infectivity of heterorhabditis sp . and steinernema carpocapsae against o . sulcatus was tested . an increase in temperature resulted in an increase in infectivity of both nematodes . a 100 % mortality of o . sulcatus was obtained when heterorhabditis sp . was kept at 20\u00b0c for 12 days . a maximum mortality of 65 % was obtained with s . carpocapsae at 20 and 25\u00b0c ( miduturi et al . , 1994 ) .\nwhen o . sulcatus adults were fed on eight strawberry genotypes , the lowest number of fertile eggs were produced after feeding on totem . among eight red raspberry cultivars , the longest preoviposition periods were after feeding on leo and glen prosen . loganberry and the rubus idaeus ss . strigosus selection kilburne gave similar preoviposition periods to these cultivars . since both leo and glen prosen are r . occidentalis derivatives , it is suggested that this species might be of value in breeding for resistance to o . sulcatus ( cram and daubeny , 1982 ) .\nthe efficacy of two isolates of s . carpocapsae ( all biosys 25 and uk biosys 252 ) and two isolates of heterorhabditis ( uk isolate nemasys h and uk isolate fightagrub ) was investigated against o . sulcatus at a range of temperatures , on a temperature gradient plate . the temperature profiles for both steinernema isolates were similar ( 15 - 32\u00b0c ) , but the heterorhabditis isolates were dissimilar : nemasys h was more effective at 13 - 28\u00b0c , while fightagrub infected o . sulcatus larvae up to 35\u00b0c ( schirocki and hague , 1994b ) .\nthe influence of leaf pubescence on the resistance of 25 clones of beach strawberry to o . sulcatus was investigated in no - choice tests under greenhouse conditions . adults of the weevil fed significantly more on some clones than on others . fecundity was correlated with feeding . the density of simple hairs on the abaxial leaf surface varied significantly between clones , and hair density was negatively correlated with feeding by the beetle . the results suggest that leaf pubescence plays a role in the resistance of certain beach strawberry clones to feeding by o . sulcatus adults ( doss and shanks , 1988 ) .\nin the netherlands , comparative studies of o . sulcatus and its predators in abandoned strawberry fields and in fields treated with insecticides indicated that carabid adults and larvae ( notably those of bembidion ustulatum which fed on eggs ) were active predators , but were unable to exert effective control in treated fields (\ngordon sc , woodford jat , grassi a , zini m , tuovinen t , lindqvist i , mcnicol jw , 2003 . monitoring and importance of wingless weevils ( otiorhynchus spp . ) in european red raspberry production . bulletin oilb / srop [ proceedings of the iobc / wprs working group ' integrated plant protection in orchards ' subgroup ' soft fruits ' , dundee , scotland , 18 - 21 september , 2001 . ] , 26 ( 2 ) : 55 - 60 .\nin washington , usa , it was thought that mowing off strawberry fields after harvest would reduce populations of o . sulcatus . in 1975 and 1976 , about 60 % of adults died after the foliage was mowed off and removed ; there was 0 - 12 % mortality in unmowed plots ( garth and shanks , 1978 ) .\nexotic wingless weevils being found in several parts of the uk ( barclay mvl , the coleopterist 12 ( 2 ) : 41 - 56 , 2003 ) . otiorhynchus armadillo and o . salicicola are two european wingless weevils that have become established in britain . one species , o . armadillo , is a known pest of raspberry in northern italy and is a cause for concern . fortunately , as yet , there are no reports of this weevil in commercial raspberry plantations in the uk .\nfood preferences of o . sulcatus adults were studied in the laboratory at ld 16 : 8 with corresponding temperatures of 23 and 17\u00b0c and 80 % rh , using five plant species ( fragaria grandiflora , chenopodium album , senecio vulgaris , rhododendron ponticum and fuchsia spp . ) . r . ponticum was the least preferred plant , while strawberry was the most preferred (\nin western france , three species of the nematode order rhabditida , one species of bacterium ( bacillus cereus ) and five species of deuteromycete ( metarhizium flavoviride , m . anisopliae , paecilomyces fumosoroseus , beauveria bassiana and b . brongniartii ) were isolated from o . sulcatus . m . anisopliae caused the highest rate of mortality ( 28 % ) by natural infection (\nsteinernema carpocapsae was applied to beds of euonymus fortunei in an urban park in philadelphia , usa to evaluate its potential for controlling o . sulcatus . although no significant difference was attributed to nematode treatments , weevil damage in non - irrigated beds was lower than in irrigated beds . irrigation management may be helpful for controlling this pest ( owen et al . , 1991 ) .\nthe biology of o . sulcatus in a commercial vineyard in coastal california , usa , was studied in 1984 - 86 . adult emergence began in the first week of april and continued until early july , with peaks in mid - to late may , but the pattern differed from year to year . oviposition began in mid - may and continued for 6 - 8 weeks (\nthe reproductive success of o . sulcatus fed different foliar diets was compared to evaluate the suitability of known and potential hosts for adults . foliar diets , arranged in order of decreasing fecundity , were taxus cuspidata , t . canadensis , kalmia latifolia and cornus florida . fecundity and length of preoviposition period were negatively correlated , indicating that the latter could be used to forecast potential fecundity (\nin a study of weevil diversity and abundance during 3 consecutive years of sampling ( 1997 - 1999 ) in two vineyards in southern quebec , o . sulcatus was thought to represent the greatest potential threat based on adult abundance at one of the sites and the negative impact of this species in other wine - making regions in north america ( bouchard et al . , 2005 ) .\ntemperature profiles were obtained for two isolates of s . carpocapsae ( all and uk ) and two isolates of heterorhabditis ( nemasys - h and fightagrub ) against late - instar larvae of o . sulcatus . efficacy was clearly delineated for each isolate as : s . carpocapsae 14 - 33\u00b0c ; nemasys - h 14 - 28\u00b0c ; and fightagrub 14 - 33\u00b0c ( schirocki and hague , 1994a ) .\ndie gattung otiorhynchus stammt aus europa . der gefurchte dickmaulr\u00fcssler ist in regionen mit gem\u00e4\u00dfigtem klima endemisch . via import von pflanzenmaterial wurde er in verschiedene andere weltregionen verschleppt und breitete sich auf verschiedene pflanzenarten aus . in den usa , kanada , japan , neuseeland , s\u00fcdost - australien und tasmanien ist er heute ein bedeutender sch\u00e4dling . die erwachsenen tiere sind d\u00e4mmerungs - oder nachtaktiv und leben an krautigen pflanzen oder kleineren geh\u00f6lzen . dort treten sie von april bis oktober in erscheinung . die einschleppung des sch\u00e4dlings erfolgt oft mit dem substrat oder \u00fcber getopfte pflanzen , von denen sie sich dann auf die verschiedenen pflanzenarten ausbreiten .\na commercial formulation of the entomophilic nematode h . bacteriophora was tested for the control of o . sulcatus in nursery cyclamen stock in new zealand during 1990 . more than 1400 plants were treated with 80 nematodes / cm\u00b2 using syringes . the number of infested pots was reduced from 27 to 3 . 8 % following treatment and the number of weevils was reduced by 73 % ( garnham and mcnab , 1990 ) .\nthree of five isolates of heterorhabditis sp . and m . anisopliae controlled larvae of o . sulcatus on thuja occidentalis in containers in the field in the netherlands during september - october 1991 . in open ground , two of three isolates of heterorhabditis sp . tested were effective as was m . anisopliae . the efficacy of heterorhabditis sp . was determined by soil temperature and antagonism in soil ( van tol , 1993 ) .\nin a 4 - year ( 2007 - 2010 ) field study that simulated colonization by o . sulcatus in rubus idaeus plantation comprising two cultivars ( glen ample and glen rosa ) , o . sulcatus abundance on raspberry plants was found to be negatively related to plant height . heavily infested plants had lower shoot and root biomass in cultivars glen ample ( 62 % and 60 % , respectively ) and glen rosa ( 50 % and 12 % , respectively ) , significantly smaller berries ( 5 . 1 g and 2 . 8 g , respectively , in glen ample and 3 . 3 g and 2 . 7 g , respectively , in glen rosa ) and smaller yields ( 2 . 93 kg and 0 . 99 kg in glen ample and 2 . 80 kg - 1 . 71 kg in glen rosa , respectively ) ( clark et al . , 2012 ) .\nthe cowpea trypsin inhibitor gene from cowpea ( vigna unguiculata ) , which confers resistance to insect pests , has been inserted into strawberry cultivars by agrobacterium - mediated gene transfer . greenhouse trials in which transformants were challenged by larvae of o . sulcatus established that this heterologous gene may have value in the soft fruit industry and it is envisaged that plants containing this gene will be resistant to chewing insects ( graham et al . , 1996 ) .\nthe six larval instars of o . sulcatus completed development from eggs inoculated onto container - grown rhododendrons in 84 days when grown indoors at 18 - 22\u00b0c or 211 days outdoors in oregon , usa . larval mortality was greatest during instars i - iii . during instars iv - vi , mortality increased with increasing insect density . underground stem tissue was fed on exclusively by instars iv - vi , and the amount of tissue removed increased with larval density ( la\nmortality of o . sulcatus larvae at 10 , 15 , 20 and 25\u00b0c following treatment with 100 million conidia / ml suspensions of six m . anisopliae isolates was temperature - dependent . in all cases , the lt50s ( time taken to kill 50 % of the test population ) were inversely related to temperature , but the nature of this response varied between isolates . strain 101 - 82 was the most virulent isolate at 25\u00b0c , with an lt50 of 3 . 7 days , but it was the least virulent isolate at 15\u00b0c and it failed to kill any o . sulcatus larvae at 10\u00b0c . in contrast , strain 159 - 83 had the lowest virulence at both 20 and 25\u00b0c , whereas it was the most virulent isolate at 10\u00b0c with an lt50 of 20 days . the mortality rates followed a similar pattern and were positively related to temperature in all cases with the exception of strain 159 - 83 at 25\u00b0c ( moorhouse et al . , 1994 ) .\nthe parasitic nematode heterorhabditis bacteriophora and the fungal pathogens metarhizium anisopliae and beauveria bassiana were used in a trial for the control of larvae of o . sulcatus in nursery rhododendron stock in new zealand in 1988 . larvae of the pest were added to planter bags containing rhododendron plants and the control organisms were added 2 weeks later . after 5 weeks , h . bacteriophora , m . anisopliae and b . bassiana had achieved 93 , 32 and 39 % control , respectively ( barratt et al . , 1989a ) .\na large number of isolates of entomophilic nematodes were evaluated for their efficacy against o . sulcatus in strawberries at 9 , 12 and 20\u00b0c . no marked differences were found between heterorhabditis spp . and steinernema spp . at 20\u00b0c , but the isolates responded differently to low temperatures . three isolates ( hfsel , huk 211 and s . kraussei mr ) gave almost 50 % control at 9\u00b0c and , in addition to k122 and hb1 ' 87 , these isolates also performed well at 12\u00b0c ( westerman and zeeland , 1994 ) .\nthe temperature profile relating to the efficacy of the uk isolate of s . carpocapsae against o . sulcatus on strawberry was clearly delineated between 15 and 33\u00b0c . the nematode can be delivered through a drip irrigation system without loss of viability , and the distribution of the nematodes through two t - tapes along and across the raised beds was very satisfactory . nematodes can be applied either during the late summer or early autumn or in the late spring when temperatures are high enough to give satisfactory control ( kakouli et al . , 1994 ) .\nin the lago maggiore district of italy , o . sulcatus has one generation a year , but development times varied greatly with temperature and were different in field and greenhouse crops . in the field , eggs were present from mid - april to early june , larvae from late may to early october , pupae from late september to the end of november , and adults ( which overwintered ) from the beginning of november to mid - april . the main larval damage occurred in the summer in the field , and in the winter in the greenhouse (\nseveral clones of the wild beach strawberry ( fragaria chiloensis ) were compared with clones of commercial strawberries ( f . x ananassa ) ( both species are octoploid ) , for resistance to feeding by adults of o . sulcatus . weevils fed less and had lower fecundity on f . chiloensis leaves than on f . x ananassa leaves . the f . chiloensis clones cl - 5 and gcl - 8 also increased the preoviposition period of newly emerged adults . egg production correlated closely with the amount of feeding on a clone ( shanks et al . , 1984 ) .\nin japan , of 108 candidate plant species in 49 families , the adults of o . sulcatus fed on the leaves of 101 species , in 46 families . in tests with 68 candidate species in 29 families , the larvae fed on the roots of 55 species in 24 families . of these , 90 species in 45 families are new food - plant records for the adults and 46 species in 21 families are new food - plant records for the larvae . the results indicated that the preferred food - plants of both adults and larvae are in the family rosaceae (\nin idaho , usa , although some adults survived winter conditions , o . sulcatus overwintered primarily as developing larvae associated with hop root systems 5 - 50 cm deep in the soil . pupation began in mid - april with soil temperatures of 15 - 17\u00b0c and concluded in mid - to late april . adult emergence began in early may and was complete by late may to early june in 1986 - 88 . the preoviposition period averaged 26 days in the field . the mean number of eggs laid per adult female was 290 ( with a range of 22 - 1230 ) . eggs hatched in 12 - 22 days at 21\u00b0c (\nlarvae of o . sulcatus were reared at three densities ( 0 , 2 or 8 ) on plants of taraxacum officinale with and without infection by the mycorrhizal fungus , glomus mosseae . on plants without the fungus , 84 % of larvae developed to the last instar , however , only 43 % reached the last instar on infected plants . the differential survival of larvae was evident in their effects on plant biomass . significant interactions were found between larval density and infection , indicating that the mycorrhizal presence mitigated the effects of herbivory at low densities of larvae . infection by g . mosseae thus conferred some degree of resistance in roots to this insect ( gange et al . , 1994 ) .\nisolates was temperature - dependent . in all cases , the lt50s ( time taken to kill 50 % of the test population ) were inversely related to temperature , but the nature of this response varied between isolates . strain 101 - 82 was the most virulent isolate at 25\u00b0c , with an lt50 of 3 . 7 days , but it was the least virulent isolate at 15\u00b0c and it failed to kill any o . sulcatus larvae at 10\u00b0c . in contrast , strain 159 - 83 had the lowest virulence at both 20 and 25\u00b0c , whereas it was the most virulent isolate at 10\u00b0c with an lt50 of 20 days . the mortality rates followed a similar pattern and were positively related to temperature in all cases with the exception of strain 159 - 83 at 25\u00b0c (\nthe ability of steinernema feltiae , s . rara and steinernema sp . strain tlein , steinernema sp . strain pac and steinernema sp . strain cuban to control larvae of o . sulcatus was studied in the laboratory and in the field in the czech republic . of the five strains tested in the laboratory , s . feltiae strain hyl gave the best results , providing 100 % elimination of larvae on azaleas [ rhododendron sp . ] . three releases of this nematode ( 300 , 000 infectives / plant ) were performed in three beds of rhododendron during 1989 - 90 , resulting in 72 - 88 % protection of plants in beds and 52 - 77 % protection in adjacent plots . only 30 % of plants survived in untreated plots ( mracek et al . , 1993 ) .\nthe biology of o . sulcatus was studied in the laboratory at 20 - 22\u00b0c and ld 16 : 8 on strawberry leaves . eggs were transferred to impatiens plants at 20\u00b0c and ld 14 : 10 . the time from pupation to adult emergence was 14 . 10 days at 20\u00b0c and newly emerged adults remained in the pupal cells for 2 - 5 days following emergence . the pre - oviposition period lasted 5 - 23 weeks , with the majority ( 94 % ) of adults beginning oviposition 5 - 8 weeks after emergence . the 32 adults which survived the first weeks after emergence had a mean longevity of 46 . 5 weeks . mean fecundity was 830 eggs / adult , with a viability of 80 . 8 % . two distinct egg - laying cycles were observed : the first extended from late spring to october and the second from late november until the following summer . a third cycle extending into the spring of the final year was also indicated (\nin japan , the development of o . sulcatus was investigated at constant temperatures of 12 , 15 , 18 , 21 and 26\u00b0c . the development threshold temperatures for eggs , larvae plus prepupae , pupae , and the preoviposition period were 6 . 32 , 2 . 45 , 6 . 09 and 8 . 44\u00b0c , respectively . the thermal constants for eggs , larvae plus prepupae , pupae and the preoviposition period were 186 . 43 , 2061 . 93 , 182 . 85 and 571 . 10 day - degrees c , respectively . the rate of development from the first to the fifth larval instar was greater at higher temperatures , but development of the sixth and seventh instars was slower at higher temperatures . the developmental zero of the first to fifth instars was - 0 . 66 , - 0 . 40 , 1 . 66 , 2 . 83 and 2 . 40\u00b0c , respectively . almost all larvae pupated at temperatures between 12 and 21\u00b0c , but at 24 and 26\u00b0c , only one larva pupated . larvae moulted 4 - 5 times at 15\u00b0c , 5 - 6 times at 18 and 21\u00b0c , 6 - 8 times at 24\u00b0c , and 6 - 9 times at 26\u00b0c (\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 final / / en\nlegless , curved larvae are white to pinkish in colour , and have brown heads . the mandibles are short . the body segments appear somewhat wrinkled and hairy . half - grown larvae overwinter in the soil .\nboth the adult and larval stages are damaging to seedlings . the adult weevils live above ground feeding on cotyledons and on the bark of seedlings at night . root weevil larvae are subterranean , feeding on the roots of many kinds of plants including conifer seedlings in nursery beds .\ngenerally this insect attacks various broad - leaved plants such as berries and rhododendrons . however , coniferous seedlings can also be utilized as hosts .\nthis insect can cause very significant damage in a forest nursery situation . rhododendrons are a favourite food of these weevils . rhododendrons around a nursery can give valuable indication of damage levels by these insects .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n. within this genus at least three are important pests of soft fruit in the uk . they are the vine weevil (\n) . the first two weevils are particularly important in northern britain . there have been recent reports of\nthe image above shows adult vine weevil ( left ) and clay - coloured weevil ( right ) . ( click on image to enlarge )\nadult vine weevils have been reported to feed on more than 100 different plant species . the insects feed on leaves in a characteristic notching pattern . larvae of the vine weevil attack plant root , which decreases plant development and production . many plant species die when attacked by vine weevil larvae . in soft fruit , raspberry plants can tolerate moderate infestation whilst low numbers of larvae can kill young strawberry and blackcurrant plants . in raspberry , adult weevils shelter in the foliage during the day and can be dislodged during harvest resulting in contaminated crops .\nvine weevils are parthenogenetic ( only females , reproduction without males ) and only reproduce once a year . many adult weevils emerge in late spring and early summer , when a feeding frenzy commences before of egg - laying . some adults emerging later in the year can survive overwinter given favourable conditions . eggs laid on the plant or soil surface hatch after several days and the larvae burrow into the soil where they can feed on plant roots . after several developmental moults , the majority of weevils overwinter as larvae before pupating at the start of spring .\ncontrol of these insects has become more difficult with the withdrawal of many of the persistent organochlorine - based insecticides . current insecticidal control in soft fruit is by application of sprays or drenches of a small number of products ( consult your fruit advisor for up - to - date recommendations ) . nematodes as a biocontrol method have been investigated , although they have been found to be ineffective in cooler climates . a suitable control method for vine weevils is currently being sought .\n) is locally important pests in raspberry plantations in east and central scotland . unlike the vine weevil , most damage to raspberry is caused by feeding of adult weevils in the spring . these weevils have a much narrower host range than vine weevil . they feed on hardy ornamental shrubs , most notably , rhododendrons and raspberry . these weevils have a similar geographic range to vine weevil and have recently been found feeding on raspberry in north - west usa . also , like vine weevil , all the adults appear to be parthenogenic females .\nraspberry : the most noticeable damage to raspberry is adult feeding to the buds and expanding fruiting laterals in the spring , and to newly planted canes . these animals feed after dark and have been observed on the cane when the air temperature was 4\u00bac . most severe damage occurs when weevils emerge early in the season and feed on the expanding buds . if the secondary buds are also chewed , then yields can be severely affected . later emergence results in a different form of damage . adult weevils frequently chew the petioles of the expanding flower laterals . these subsequently break either in strong winds or by the increasing weight of the developing flowers and fruit . there is no evidence to show that larval feeding to the roots causes any noticeable loss of yield .\nimage of adult clay - coloured weevil feeding on raspberry fruiting lateral at night . note damage to leaflets and to main lateral .\nsevere damage to young fruiting laterals ( right ) caused by early attack by clay - coloured weevil in the spring . cane on left not attacked .\nhardy ornamental nursery plants : adult feeding damage to perennial plants , such as rhododendron , is very similar to that caused by vine weevil and consequently much of the damage may be wrongly attributed . the most common symptom is notching on leaves , particularly those closer to the ground . there appears to be no significant damage caused by larval feeding .\nlaboratory studies at scri have shown that the adults have the potential to live for one or two years . given an adequate food supply adult have several periods of egg laying in any one year . they have also the potential to lay in excess of 100 eggs per annum .\nclay - coloured weevil adults emerge in early spring . they climb up the plant after dark and feed on developing buds and flower shoots . they shelter in the soil and debris at the base of the plant . eggs are laid in the soil and soon hatch . the larvae feed on the roots , often at the depth of about 50 cm . when fully mature , they pupate in earthen cells and emerge as adults .\nthe level of reported damage caused by clay - coloured weevil to raspberry started to increase about 10 years after the withdrawal of ddt in the 1970s . since then several products have been used to manage adult numbers on the canes early in the spring ( consult your fruit advisor for current recommendations ) . although some have been successful at reducing the damage , the insect still remains a problem . the relative lack of success of insecticidal control has resulted in a reappraisal of this pest and new work to understand its behaviour has begun .\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ninsects and arachnids of canada series , part 25 . coleoptera , curculionidae , entiminae . donald e . bright , patrice bouchard . 2008 . 2008 . nrc research press , ottawa , ontario , canada .\nimmigrant phytophagous insects on woody plants in the united states and canada : an annotated list mattson w . j . , niemela p . , millers i . , inguanzo y . 1994 . general technical report nc - 169 . st . paul , mn : usda forest service , north central forest experiment station .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\nwe\u2019d value your feedback on the tool . our survey takes only five minutes to complete .\n. it is subspherical , ca 1 mm in diameter , at first pearly - white , gradually becoming brown and finally black .\nbody white , crescent - shaped , widest near thorax , tapered posteriorly ; skin asperities semi - globular with only a more or less short , spinous point or spicule , especially on dorsal folds ; with some prominent setae on each segment ; body length 9 . 0 - 10 . 5 mm . head free , subdepressed , emarginate posteriorly , widest behind middle ; testaceous to pale ferruginous , a longitudinal strip over seta des 1 paler , anterior margin of head narrowly chestnut - brown , tentorial rib brown , mandibles bidentate apically , mandibular scrobe broadly and suffusedly paler ; endocarina absent ; pigmented ocellar spots small , but rather distinct ; labium with premental sclerite with proximal margin ' y ' - shaped ; head width 1 . 52 - 1 . 82 mm . pronotum transverse with smooth rectangular plate . abdominal segments each with 3 dorsal folds ; spiracles on abdominal segments 1 - 8 , lateral , bicameral . anus terminal with 4 lobes .\n. it is yellowish - white , with a maximum length of 10 mm and width at the pronotum of 2 . 6 mm . the urogomphi are relatively short and curved mesad .\n) published in previous versions of the compendium are based on an interception record which is considered invalid .\nor the museum of entomology , university of valle , colombia , and has not been reported in colombia by the institute of natural sciences , national university of colombia .\nthe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .\no ' brien and wibmer , 1982 ; rutherford et al . , 1987 ; li et al . , 1995 ; eppo , 2014\no ' brien and wibmer , 1982 ; zervos et al . , 1994 ; eppo , 2014\no ' brien and wibmer , 1982 ; baird et al . , 1992 ; eppo , 2014\nla and lone clarke , 1981 ; o ' brien and wibmer , 1982 ; berry et al . , 1997 ; eppo , 2014\no ' brien and wibmer , 1982 ; owen et al . , 1991 ; eppo , 2014\ninstituto colombiano agropecuario , 2013 , personal communication ; seymour et al . , 1985 ; eppo , 2014\ncoremans - pelseneer and tillemans , 1991 ; casteels et al . , 1995 ; eppo , 2014\nschirocki and hague , 1994b ; lola - luz et al . , 2003 ; eppo , 2014\ndel and bene parrini , 1986 ; abbazzi et al . , 1995 ; baraldi and baraldi , 1996 ; eppo , 2014\ncross et al . , 1995 ; crook , 1996 ; graham et al . , 1996 ; cross and burgess , 1997 ; eppo , 2014\noccurred in a horticultural nursery in berlin , germany , in 1967 . larval damage to the roots did not at first result in the visible withering of the leaves noted on less sturdy plants , but it was severe . the adults caused serious damage to the leaves , especially of the rosette - forming variety , causing heavy losses (\ncaused injury to concord grapes in south - central washington , usa , by feeding on the berry pedicels and cluster stems . injury resulted in reduced berry weight and loss of berries or portions of the cluster . weekly counts on 20 tagged clusters provided estimates of loss ( in tons / acre ) for grapes grown in different cover - crop conditions ; they were 3 . 36 for no cover crop , 3 . 45 for oats and vetch , 2 . 42 for lucerne , 3 . 08 for creeping red fescue (\n, a pest of concord grapes in central washington , usa , were placed in screened cages containing single concord vines . it was found that 11 adults per cage resulted in complete defoliation and nearly complete fruit loss in the first season . the threshold of economic loss was 1 - 3 adults per plant per season . an index was developed for estimating root injury caused by larval feeding . the larvae fed first on the phloem tissue , girdling the roots , but the xylem was left intact , except in cases of severe injury . vigour and fruit yield over a 3 - year period were not significantly affected by root injury (\n) were found in only 3 fields , but notched leaves characteristic of their feeding were found in 40 fields , indicating a greater prevalence than perceived by growers . damage to the leaves of strawberry plants was positively correlated with the number of years in production , suggesting that it takes some time for the flightless weevils to migrate into and to increase to damaging numbers in fields (\nis one of the most ubiquitous and damaging species in the genus . larvae of these flightless , parthenogenetic species destroy roots ; adults may cause unacceptable defoliation during 4 weeks of maturation feeding and a 3 - month oviposition period .\n, such as the use of polythene mulches , has increased its pest status . infestations are most common in europe ( where it originated ) and the usa . nearly 150 plant species have been identified as potential hosts of\n. the root - feeding larval stage is the most damaging . severe damage by the leaf - feeding adults is less common (\nis still an important pest infesting many ornamental plants in tree nurseries . year - round infestation was reported in greenhouse cultures by 10 farmers ( von\nis an important pest of hops in idaho , usa . primary damage occurred as nearly mature larvae girdled small roots and rhizomes during feeding in the spring (\nthree virus diseases are causing increasing damage to grapevines in europe and elsewhere , referred to as mottling , yellow mosaic and fan leaf disease . in experiments , the first virus was transmitted from diseased to healthy plants by adults and larvae of\nlook at the foliage of plants for signs of adult damage . the adults eat irregularly - shaped notches from the leaf margin . feeding takes place at night , but the small black weevils may be seen during the daytime in the leaf litter or some other dark place . dig up wilting plants or tip plants out of pots , to find small , creamy - white , curved , legless larvae with pale - brown heads , feeding at the roots , or burrowing into the corm if this is present .\n. although no significant difference was attributed to nematode treatments , weevil damage in non - irrigated beds was lower than in irrigated beds . irrigation management may be helpful for controlling this pest ("]}
{"id": 901, "summary": [{"text": "kleskunsaurus is an extinct genus of scincomorph lizard from the late cretaceous of alberta , canada .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it was first named by paleontologists randall l. nydam , michael w. caldwell , and federico fanti in 2010 , and the type species is kleskunsaurus grandeprairiensis .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the genus is named after kleskun hill park , located east of grande prairie in peace river country .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "fossils have been found from the park in a bentonitic paleosol that is part of the campanian wapiti formation . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "kleskunsaurus", "paragraphs": ["how can i put and write and define kleskunsaurus in a sentence and how is the word kleskunsaurus used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528kleskunsaurus\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528kleskunsaurus\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528kleskunsaurus\u9020\u53e5 , kleskunsaurus meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\n\n' kleskunsaurus\n' is an extinct genus of scincomorph lizard from the late cretaceous of alberta , canada .\nkleskunsaurus is an extinct genus of scincomorph lizard from the late cretaceous of alberta , canada . it was first named by paleontologists randall l .\nit was first named by paleontologists randall l . nydam , michael w . caldwell , and federico fanti in 2010 , and the type species is\nkleskunsaurus grandeprairiensis\n.\ngenus : kleskunsaurus nydam , caldwell , & fanti , 2010etymology : in reference to kleskun hill park , where the type and only specimen was found , and greek , sauros , ' lizard ' .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nfurther reading - \u202d \u202cborioteiioidean lizard skulls from kleskun hil\u202d ( \u202cwapiti formation\u202d ; \u202cupper campanian\u202d ) \u202c , \u202d \u202cwest - central alberta , \u202d \u202ccanada . \u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202cjournal of vertebrate paleontology\u202d \u202c30\u202d ( \u202c4\u202d ) \u202c : 1090 - 1099 . \u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202cr . \u202d \u202cl . \u202d \u202cnydam , \u202d \u202cm . \u202d \u202cw . \u202d \u202ccaldwell\u202d & \u202cf . \u202d \u202cfanti\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c2010 .\ncontent copyright www . prehistoric - wildlife . com . the information here is completely free for your own study and research purposes , but please dont copy the articles word for word and claim them as your own work . the world of prehistory is constantly changing with the advent of new discoveries , as such it is best if you use this information as a jumping off point for your own research . privacy & cookies policy\nsize does not always matter , said kat ormay , paleontology program manager for grande prairie regional college .\na recently named 2007 microfossil discovery from the kleskun hills area is only millimetres across - the width a pinky fingertip , if even - but it might be one of the most significant discoveries made in that area .\nit ' s a brand - new genus and species of fossil lizard from the cretaceous ,\nsaid the college paleontology education liaison , michael burns .\nthis is the first time any fossil lizard from the cretaceous in north america has been found that actually has multiple skull bones preserved . so this actually has quite a broad significance even beyond just the fossil locality at kleskun itself .\neverybody that studies fossil reptiles is going to look at this thing and they ' re going to know that there ' s something special going on up here - there ' s something significant coming out of the fossil localities in the grande prairie area , starting to garner more and more global scientific attention .\nour dot on the map is getting more and more substantial ,\nagreed ormay .\nit was named in this month ' s edition of the journal of vertebrate paleontology by randall nydam of midwestern university ' s department of anatomy in arizona , michael caldwell of the university of alberta ' s department of biological sciences and department of earth and atmosphere sciences and federico fanti of the university of bologna ' s ( italy ) department of earth and geo - environmental sciences .\nbut before their involvement , it was a summertime expedition that led to finding the skull in the first place , and quite by accident .\nall of a sudden tetsuto ( miyashita ) says ' i think i found a skull ' and he holds up his palm with something in it , and actually it was a lizard skull - a right lower and upper jaw - with 21 teeth in it ,\nsaid ormay .\nthat was a socognathus unicuspis skull - a species of lizard first discovered in southeastern alberta in 1996 , though not in nearly as complete condition as this example was .\nwe were down there looking at microfossils and something shiny kind of gleamed in the sun . i had a magnifying glass and i saw these things - teeth - and i didn ' t really know what it was but i knew it wasn ' t a rock . i knew it was some sort of fossil . i gave it over to federico and he jumped up and down with joy ,\nsaid graber .\ni had no idea - i just saw a shiny thing in the field .\nthese discoveries have led to further searching of the kleskun hills area , with more expected to come .\nburns said it brings attention for an area of research the everyman does not necessarily think of .\na lot of the public outreach has to do with dinosaurs because they ' ve been popularized over the years . . . but from a scientific standpoint we want to look at everything . just a dinosaur is kind of like a character in a book - like harry potter without the rest of the story , the characters and background , setting and plot . it ' s kind of exciting but not all that enthralling ,\nhe said .\nwhat we ' re looking for is not only the animal but the story surrounding the animal .\nchoose among a variety of subscription packages and stay up to date with convenient home delivery and our on the go digital e - edition .\n\u00a9 2018 daily herald tribune . all rights reserved . a member of sun media community newspapers part of postmedia network .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : r . l . nydam , m . w . caldwell , and f . fanti . 2010 . borioteiioidean lizard skulls from kleskun hil ( wapiti formation ; upper campanian ) , west - central alberta , canada . journal of vertebrate paleontology 30 ( 4 ) : 1090 - 1099\nparent taxon : scincomorpha according to r . l . nydam et al . 2010\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\netymology : in reference to the town of grande prairie , alberta , located near the type locality .\nlocality : kleskin hill park locality , approximately 25 km northeast of grande prairie , grande prairie county , alberta province , canada .\nage : late campanian stage , upper senonian subepoch , upper gulf epoch , late cretaceous .\nmaterial : incomplete skull preserving the partial remains of the bones bordering the left orbit , portions of the right and left maxillae , and right and left dentaries .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nepub free chicago bank of commerce , petitioner , v . charles mc pherson and ewald j . pfeiffer , as executors and trustees , etc . , of charles f . ruggles , deceased . u . s . supreme court transcript of record with supporting pleadings ibook 9781270244189"]}
{"id": 921, "summary": [{"text": "the hornyhead turbot , pleuronichthys verticalis , is a flatfish of the family pleuronectidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is a demersal fish that lives on soft sand and mud bottoms at depths of between 9 and 200 metres ( 30 and 656 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "its native habitat is the subtropical waters of the eastern pacific , from point reyes in california to magdalena bay in baja california , and the northern and central eastern parts of the gulf of california .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it can grow up to 37 centimetres ( 15 in ) in length . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "hornyhead turbot", "paragraphs": ["genomic and phenotypic response of hornyhead turbot exposed to municipal wastewater effluents . - pubmed - ncbi\na challenge in developing this platform was the scarcity of hornyhead turbot sequence data in genbank . although dna sequences have been described for the european turbot\nzeng ey , tran k . distribution of chlorinated hydrocarbons in overlying water , sediment , polychaete , and hornyhead turbot (\nthe sediment to turbot bsaf in the 7 - day study was 0 . 006 and 0 . 0028 for male hornyhead turbot fed 3g and 10g of worms exposed to pv sediment / kg turbot , respectively . accumulation of \u03c3ddt in the liver of male hornyhead turbot from ingestion of either 3 g or 10 g of pv sediment - exposed worm / kg turbot after the 7 days exposure provided a bmf from worm to turbot of 0 . 91 and 4 . 09 for turbot fed 3g and 10 g of pv sediment - exposed worm / kg turbot , respectively .\nthe hornyhead turbot can be confused with a series of other righteye flounders including the c - o sole , pleuronichthys coenosus , the diamond turbot , pleuronichthys guttulatus , the ocellated turbot , pleuronichthys ocellatus , and the spotted turbot , pleuronichthys ritteri , but none have the mottled coloration or spine in front of the eyes .\ntrophic transfer and effects of ddt in male hornyhead turbot ( pleuronichthys verticalis ) from palos verdes superfund site , ca ( usa ) and comparisons to field monitoring .\n) . an obstacle to this goal was that there are few gene sequences for hornyhead turbot in genbank . although dna sequence is available from a related demersal species (\n* data taken from lacsd ( 2014 ) . pv , palos verdes ; sd , san diego reference site ; high ddt , turbot gavaged with ddt solution equal to 30 g worm wet wt . / kg of turbot body for 28 days ; low ddt , turbot gavaged 9 g of worm wet wt . / kg of turbot body wet for 28 days ; ddt 3g / kg worm , turbot fed with 3g of sediment - treated worm / kg of turbot body weight for 7 days ; ddt 10g / kg worm , turbot fed with10g of sediment - treated worm / kg turbot body weight for 7 days .\ntrophic transfer and effects of ddt in male hornyhead turbot ( pleuronichthys verticalis ) from palos verdes superfund site , ca ( usa ) and comparisons . . . - pubmed - ncbi\n. the bile extract of turbot treated with 10g of pv sediment exposed worms / kg turbot showed comparable eeq to that of bile of turbot caught from pv . in the 28 - day study , eeqs of liver extracts of fish treated with \u03c3ddt were significantly lower than that of liver extracts of turbot collected from pv (\nrempel - hester ma , hong h , wang y , deng x , armstrong j , gully j , schlenk d . site - specific effects of 17\u03b2 - estradiol in hornyhead turbot (\n) . in addition , the eeqs in bile extracts of laboratory fish were similar to values observed in fish collected from pv . the bmfs for worm to turbot for eeq ( calculated as a ratio ) was 1 . 14 and 1 . 29 for turbot fed 10 g of pv sediment - exposed worm / kg turbot and turbot collected from pv , respectively .\nin mexican waters the hornyhead turbot have a limited distribution in waters of the pacific being found from magdalena bay northward along the central and northwest coasts of baja and in the northern third of the sea of cortez .\n- ddd with 36 % of the total . the \u03c3ddt concentration in turbot gavaged with the solution of \u03c3ddt equivalent to 9g of worm / kg turbot was not significantly different from the control group (\n= 5 . 87 for o , p\u2019 - ddd to 6 . 91 for p , p\u2019 - ddt ) , there is an increased risk of bioaccumulation . lipid normalized concentrations of total ddts measured in the hornyhead turbot (\n] , which to visual inspection seem healthy , motivated these agencies to collaborate with the southern california coastal water research project ( sccwrp ) and university research groups in long beach , riverside and san diego to develop a microarray tool as a sensitive and quantitative measure of endocrine disruption in hornyhead turbot , a sentinel species collected from southern california waters . a species that has been relatively well studied in this area over the past ten years is the hornyhead turbot (\n) . available sequences from other species including medaka , stickleback and zebrafish also were used , in addition to hornyhead turbot - specific cdna sequences obtained via degenerate pcr . multiple alignments were constructed using clustal x to uncover conserved regions [\nrelationships between \u03c3ddt concentration in livers and vtg mrna in male turbot sampled from pv and sd ( a ) and in male turbot gavaged with \u03c3ddt for 28 days ( b ) , and between \u03c3ddt concentrations and er\u03b1 mrna ( c ) and er\u03b2 mrna in livers from turbot sampled from pv and sd ( d ) .\nforsgren kl , bay sm , vidal - dorsch de , deng x , lu g , armstrong j , gully jr , schlenk d . annual and seasonal evaluation of reproductive status in hornyhead turbot at municipal wastewater outfalls in the southern california bight .\n] . these data with killifish and lake trout are consistent with exposure of the field hornyhead turbots to either xenoestrogens or anti - androgens .\ndeng x , rempel ma , armstrong j , schlenk d ( 2007 ) seasonal evaluation of reproductive status and exposure to environmental estrogens in hornyhead turbot at the municipal wastewater outfall of orange county , ca . environ toxicol 22 : 464 - 471 . doi :\nthe hornyhead turbot are caught primarily as a by - catch of deep water trawlers . they are very difficult to catch via hook and line due to their small mouths . they are a poorly documented and poorly studied species that is of limited interest to most .\nhornyhead turbot , pleuronichthys verticalis . fish provided by the commercial fishermen of bah\u00eda kino , sonora , march 2015 . lengths : 20 . 0 cm ( 7 . 9 inches ) . photo courtesy of maria johnson , prescott college kino bay center , kino bay , sonora .\nforsgren kl , bay sm , vidal - dorsch de , deng x , lu g et al . ( 2012 ) annual and seasonal evaluation of reproductive status in hornyhead turbot at municipal wastewater outfalls in the southern california bight . environ toxicol chem 31 : 2701 - 2710 . doi :\nreyes ja , vidal - dorsch de , schlenk d , bay sm , armstrong jl , gully jr , cash c , baker m , stebbins td , hardiman g , kelley km . evaluation of reproductive endocrine status in hornyhead turbot sampled from southern california ' s urbanized coastal environments .\nmrna of vitellogenin and estrogen receptors in livers of turbot collected from san diego and palos verdes ( near site 8c ) ( a ) and in turbot fed 7days with worms exposed to pv sediments ( b ) and in turbot gavaged with a ddt mixture for 28 - days ( c ) . each value represents the mean of 4 - 6 animals + sd . * p < 0 . 05 .\nthe hornyhead turbot , pleuronichthys verticalis , whose common spanish name is platija cornuda is a member of the righteye flounder or pleuronectidae family , known collectively as platijas in mexico . globally , there are eight species in the genus pleuronichthys , five of which are found in mexican waters , all in the pacific .\ncitation : baker me , vidal - dorsch de , ribecco c , sprague lj , angert m , lekmine n , et al . ( 2013 ) molecular analysis of endocrine disruption in hornyhead turbot at wastewater outfalls in southern california using a second generation multi - species microarray . plos one 8 ( 9 ) : e75553 . urltoken\nddt metabolite concentrations in sediment , worm , and turbot liver tissue ( ng / g ) . each value represents the mean ( \u00b1 sd ) .\naccumulation of \u03c3ddt was also observed in the liver of male hornyhead turbot gavaged with a ddt isomer mixture equal to 30g of pv - sediment treated worm / kg turbot ( 517 \u00b1152 ng / g dry weight ) after 28 days of exposure . the \u03c3ddt concentration in liver of gavaged animals was lower than liver concentrations observed in animals collected from pv as well as those treated with sediment - contaminated worms in the laboratory . in accordance with the composition of the \u03c3ddt mixture derived from worm body burdens (\na new cohort of male hornyhead turbot was collected for this project as part of a southern california collaborative marine monitoring study in may and june 2006 . table 1 shows steroids and thyroxine levels in fish collected from five field sites near outfall discharges and a reference area . chemical analysis for selected compounds detected in sediments from these areas is presented in table 2 .\nin the 28 - day study , turbot were individually weighed and then individuals were randomly divided into 8 l aquaria containing 32\u2030 artificial seawater . turbot were allowed to acclimate for one week prior to exposure and fed clean earthworms three times per week . during acclimation and exposure , 75 % water exchange occurred every - other day . for the 28 - day feeding exposure , turbot were fed clean worms three times per week in the morning and gavaged two hours later from one of the three treatments , control ( saline solution ) , ddt metabolite solution equal to 9g worm wet wt . / kg of turbot body ( low ddt ) , 30g of worm wt . / kg of turbot body wet wt . ( high ddt ) . ddt metabolite concentrations were based on initial 4 day exposures of worms in 8c sediment (\nthe rationale for use of 60 - mer oligonucleotides in the second generation platform described here is that they provide more specificity than cdna - based microarrays accommodate sequence differences and species specific codon usage [ 29 - 31 ] . the novelty of this platform is that it used highly conserved probes from several fish species , permitting application of the array to studies involving hornyhead turbot and zebrafish [ 19 ] .\n] . in this earlier study , we tested the multi - species applicability of this tool using microarray measurements of gene expression in zebrafish , which are phylogenetically distant from turbot . the effects of estradiol and the aquatic pollutant nonylphenol on liver gene expression in male zebrafish were investigated with this microarray , demonstrating its applicability for measuring endocrine responses in turbot and other fish [\nin the second study , the contribution of ddt and its metabolites were evaluated by a 28 - day gavage study . male hornyhead turbot were collected from off the coast of san diego ( sd ) ( 32 o 39 . 94\u2019 n ; 117 o 19 . 49\u2019 w ) , at the city of san diego ' s wastewater monitoring reference site , approximately 150 km south of the pv site in february / march of 2014 . based on the 7 - day study , turbot were acclimated with feeding as described above , and depurated of \u03c3ddt for one month prior to the bioaccumulation experiment . the acclimation time was less than that of oc turbot due to lower concentrations of ddts measured in fish collected from sd determined from previous studies ( maruya et al . 2012 ) .\nhornyhead turbot , pleuronichthys verticalis . fish provided by the commercial fishermen of the greater los cabos area , july 2012 . length : 21 . 5 cm ( 8 . 5 inches ) . note the significant loss of color of this long frozen fish and that the head spines have been removed . identification courtesy of h . j . walker , jr . , scripps institution of oceanography , la jolla , ca .\nin order to use q - pcr to determine if the microarray data was accurately monitoring changes in hepatic gene expression in the hornyhead turbot , we cloned , via reverse transcriptase pcr , partial fragments corresponding to highly conserved regions in 5 target genes of interest , namely vtg1 , vtg2 , cyp1a , er\u03b1 / esr1 and er\u03b2 / esr2 . identities of the fragments were confirmed by sanger dna sequencing . the primer sequences used for pcr are provided in the supporting information ( table s2 ) . the sequence data have been deposited into genbank ( accession numbers fj042791 - fj042800 ) . these short hornyhead turbot - specific sequences obtained using multi - species conserved primers were used for sybr green quantitative pcr experiments on ten individual turbot sampled from the field . after real time pcr amplification , a melt curve was carried out , in which the temperature was raised by a fraction of a degree and the change in fluorescence was measured . this revealed similar peaks in all the samples indicating that a specific dna fragment corresponding to the predicted size was detected .\nin the 7 - day study , 40 worms were transferred to a 1 - l beaker containing 40 g ( wet wt . ) sediment and 350 ml of 32\u2030 artificial seawater at 20 \u00b0c . the overlying water was aerated via continuous bubbling , and the water level maintained by adding artificial seawater as needed . at the end of a 4 - day exposure , the worms were harvested by sieving the sediment slurry through a 100 - mesh sieve . the relatively short exposure time was chosen through preliminary experiments to avoid potential toxicity effects to the test organism ( jia et al . 2014 ) . worms were then divided by wet wt . low ( 3g of worm / kg of turbot body weight ) and high ( 10g of worm / kg turbot wt . ) and fed to corresponding turbot . a subset of worms was flash frozen and stored at \u201380 \u00b0c for later extraction and chemical / bioassay analysis . turbot were individually weighed , randomly divided into 8 l aquaria containing 32\u2030 artificial seawater , and allowed to acclimate in single aquaria for one week prior to exposure . during acclimation turbot were fed earthworms three times per week . during acclimation and exposure , 75 % water exchange occurred every - other day . for the 7 - day feeding exposure , turbot were fed worms daily from one of four treatments ( 4 - 6 fish per treatment ) , 3 g worm wet wt . / kg of turbot wet wt . clean sediment ( control ) , 3 g worm wet wt . / kg of turbot wet wt . pv 8c sediment , 10 g worm wet wt . / kg of turbot wet wt . clean sediment ( control ) , 10 g worm wet wt . / kg of turbot wet wt . pv 8c sediment . at the end of 7 day , fish were euthanized with ms - 222 , weighed , and liver and bile were collected and flash frozen and stored at \u221280 \u00b0c for later evaluation .\ntrophic transfer of ddt - contaminated sediment to worms and fish for 7 days in the laboratory corresponded to field measurements of ddt residues in fish . \uf076 in vitro bioassay of estrogenic and ahr responses in the turbot from 7 - day laboratory treatments corresponded to those of field caught turbot from palos verdes . \uf076 in vivo ahr and er biological responses in fish exposed to . . . [ show full abstract ]\nin addition to the trend toward higher vtg mrna in turbot from the pv site , significant induction of er\u03b1 and er\u03b2 mrna in livers of male fish from pv relative to those from sd indicated a greater exposure to estrogenic compounds at the pv site . a significant correlation was found between hepatic vtg , er\u03b1 , er\u03b2 mrna and \u03c3ddts in field - collected male turbot indicated that ddt and its metabolites may contribute to the\nbuilding on this initial study , a \u201csecond generation\u201d microarray was constructed that includes additional gene targets such as zona pellucida protein ( also known as choriogenin ) , glutathione s - transferase - \u03b1 , metallothionein and heat shock protein 90 , which are diagnostics for endocrine disruption and the presence of metals and stress responses . we used this optimized tool in a new and more ambitious study to investigate endocrine disruption in hornyhead turbot ( a species which remains to have its genome sequenced ) collected near outfalls for municipal wastewater for los angeles county sanitation districts ( lacsd ) , orange county sanitation district ( ocsd ) , city of los angeles environmental monitoring division ( claemd ) , and city of san diego metropolitan wastewater department ( mwwd ) . as reported here , this multi - species microarray was able to characterize changes in gene expression in hornyhead turbot collected from wastewater outfalls for municipal wastewater in coastal waters off of southern california . we correlated gene expression data from microarray analysis and q - pcr with a series of phenotypic endpoints in fish from impacted sites . this validates our multi - species approach as a practical diagnostic screening tool to monitor responses to contaminants in hornyhead turbot collected from different sites , despite the genetic heterogeneity in wild fish , which would be expected to diminish the resolution of the microarray output . we also note that the multi - species microarray can be potentially adapted to monitoring endocrine disruption near other population centers in other fish species , for which there are few available gene sequences .\nthe q - pcr based gene expression profiling of hornyhead turbots from selected field sites is presented in figure 4 . all data are presented as gapdh - normalized fold changes of gene expression in the hornyhead turbot liver from impacted sites with respect to reference fish . the fold change data shown were derived from the mean log 2 ratio between each fish and two laboratory reference fish . the fish used as a reference for these q - pcr studies were the fish used for microarray experimentation , designated a and c as described above and previously housed in a clean - water laboratory setting for four weeks . the dynamic range of the fold changes observed with the q - pcr analysis was as anticipated much greater than with the microarray analysis . however qualitative agreement was generally observed with the direction of the fold changes . er\u03b2 / esr2 was strongly down - regulated in all samples , vtg1 and vtg2 transcripts were up - regulated in all samples , with greater than a 6 - fold induction observed in six hornyhead turbots . cyp1a was up - regulated in seven fish . thus , these q - pcr assays validate the microarray analysis for these genes in these fish .\nin the 7 - day laboratory study , 4 - 6 fish per treatment were exposed to worms that were contaminated in the lab via a 4 - day exposure in pv and reference sediments . male hornyhead turbot were collected by otter trawl at a reference site off the coast of orange county ( oc ) ( 33 o 36 . 06\u2019 n ; 118 o 05 . 20\u2019 w ) , ~ 30 km south of site 8c on the pv shelf . twenty five to thirty turbot were collected during february of 2012 and 2013 at the oc site and in february 2014 at the pv site . turbot were either sampled for blood , liver and bile or transported to the laboratory and acclimated in artificial seawater ( 32\u2030 instant ocean ) for six months to depurate potential ddt metabolites . during acclimation and depuration , each fish was individually fed live earthworms three times per week before initiating the polychaete experiment . liver tissues , blood plasma ( 3 , 000 \u00d7 g supernatant ) , and bile were frozen and stored at \u221280 \u00b0c for subsequent chemical and biological measurements .\nprevious work has quantified the bioavailability of \u03c3ddt to benthic invertebrates from several sediment samples from pv in laboratory studies ( bao et al . , 2013 ; jia et al . , 2014 ) . however , it is unclear whether laboratory exposures can mimic trophic transfer from benthic invertebrates to fish ( zeng and tran 2002 ) . the objectives of the present study were 1 ) to measure the uptake of \u03c3ddt from pv sediment to an indigenous marine polychaete worm ( neanthes arenaceodentata ) , and evaluate their transfer to hornyhead turbot ( pleuronichthys verticalis ) ; 2 ) to investigate the transfer of estrogen , aryl hydrocarbon , glucocorticoid , and anti - androgen receptor ligands from sediments to biota ; 3 ) to assess if the er related mrna responses in turbot from diet - derived or chemical - only exposures in the laboratory mimic those of turbot caught from pv ; and 4 ) to determine the contribution of \u03c3ddt to the er responses . ultimately , the results from this integrated study will help our understanding of potential bioaccumulation and effects of \u03c3ddt found in the pv superfund area on demersal fish species .\nthe hornyhead turbots are found demersal over and within sandy and muddy bottoms at depths up to 1 , 625 feet . they reach a maximum length of 37 cm ( 15 inches ) . they are opportunistic well - camouflaged ambush predators that lie in wait half - submerged on the ocean floor consuming crustaceans and small fish .\n) captured near wastewater outfalls are used for monitoring exposure to industrial and agricultural chemicals of ~ 20 million people living in coastal southern california . although analyses of hormones in blood and organ morphology and histology are useful for assessing contaminant exposure , there is a need for quantitative and sensitive molecular measurements , since contaminants of emerging concern are known to produce subtle effects . we developed a second generation multi - species microarray with expanded content and sensitivity to investigate endocrine disruption in turbot captured near wastewater outfalls in san diego , orange county and los angeles california . analysis of expression of genes involved in hormone [ e . g . , estrogen , androgen , thyroid ] responses and xenobiotic metabolism in turbot livers was correlated with a series of phenotypic end points . molecular analyses of turbot livers uncovered altered expression of vitellogenin and zona pellucida protein , indicating exposure to one or more estrogenic chemicals , as well as , alterations in cytochrome p450 ( cyp ) 1a , cyp3a and glutathione s - transferase - \u03b1 indicating induction of the detoxification response . molecular responses indicative of exposure to endocrine disruptors were observed in field - caught hornyhead turbot captured in southern california demonstrating the utility of molecular methods for monitoring environmental chemicals in wastewater outfalls . moreover , this approach can be adapted to monitor other sites for contaminants of emerging concern in other fish species for which there are few available gene sequences .\nin recent years , as more knowledge has accumulated about the effects of chemicals such as bpa , organotins and phthalates , it has become clear that endocrine disruption is complex and involves the altered expression of many genes [ 2 , 4 , 7 ] . an important advance in detecting the effects of xenobiotics was the development of high - density dna microarrays or biochips [ 23 - 25 ] . this technology provides a sensitive and comprehensive snapshot of alterations in endocrine responses in fish that may be exposed to low levels of endocrine disrupting chemicals [ 19 , 26 - 28 ] . microarrays enable analysis of complex environmental chemical mixtures by providing transcriptomic profiles or signatures based on the contaminants present . however , it is important to link the molecular responses with physiological changes to determine if the responses at the gene expression level can cause down stream biological effects . we used an optimized microarray tool to examine gene expression in hornyhead turbot , a species which has not yet had its genome sequenced and annotated . this microarray is an improvement over an earlier microarray tool , which was developed using multi - species probes and validated by studying gene expression profiles in zebrafish , a species that is phylogenetically distant from turbot . this earlier work revealed that our multi - species microarray approach was suitable for measuring endocrine responses in turbot and other fish [ 19 ] . the rationale for use of 60 - mer oligonucleotides in the second generation platform described here is that they provide more specificity than cdna - based microarrays accommodate sequence differences and species specific codon usage [ 29 - 31 ] . the novelty of this platform is that it used highly conserved probes from several fish species , permitting application of the array to studies involving hornyhead turbot and zebrafish [ 19 ] .\nwe examined hepatic rna from male fish collected from the field using the multi - species microarray . the characteristics of male hornyhead turbot sampled and the chemical analysis of sediments from the sites where the fish were captured are provided in tables 1 and 2 respectively . m - a scatter plots were used to examine differences in mrna expression levels between the indicated fish samples and a pooled reference sample , derived from three individual control fish samples a , b , and c ( figure 2 ) . this same pooled reference sample ( a + b + c ) was used for every comparison . differences in gene expression in hornyhead turbot liver relative to the reference fish were determined using a threshold of log 2 intensity ratio > 2 . the bottom row of plots in figure 2 was used to compare the pooled reference ( a + b + c ) versus the individual reference fish reference samples , a , b , and c respectively that comprised the reference . this revealed that the order in which the mixing and labeling of control rna was carried out had minimal effects on the overall performance of the pooled reference , as no differential gene expression was detected . the ma plots revealed differential gene expression profiles between the pooled reference and hornyhead turbot sampled from the five field sites in southern california . although we noted a heavy tail of outliers for the reference fish a versus the pooled reference ( second panel , bottom row ) , further analysis revealed that this resulted from an array hybridization artifact . we selected just the probes that are present in this tail ( m < - 1 . 5 ) , and plotted their row and column coordinates in a 2d plot ( figure s2 ) . the probes were concentrated along a line , evidence that this represents a microarray artifact , and that caution is warranted when performing differential expression measurements using microarrays .\nsamples of sediment from the sites where the hornyhead turbot were collected have been analyzed previously for a number of legacy and emerging chemicals [ 21 , 22 ] . a suite of 89 legacy and emerging contaminants were measured in the sediments . several contaminants were found at detectable levels amongst them legacy organochlorine pesticides and personal care compounds . many of the detected compounds such as ddts or triclosan are known to elicit endocrine and stress responses [ 21 ] . as seen in table 2 , several of the sediments contained 4 - nonylphenol , an estrogenic chemical , polybrominated diphenyl ethers ( pbdes ) , which are flame retardants , and polychlorinated biphenyls ( pcbs ) . the sediment obtained from dana point indicated that it was the least contaminated site of those examined . based on the physiochemical properties of these analytes , chemicals present in these sediments would be expected to enter the food chain of the turbot .\npereiro p , balseiro p , romero a , dios s , forn - cuni g et al . ( 2012 ) high - throughput sequence analysis of turbot ( scophthalmus maximus ) transcriptome using 454 - pyrosequencing for the discovery of antiviral immune genes . plos one 7 : e35369 . doi :\nmill\u00e1n a , g\u00f3mez - tato a , fern\u00e1ndez c , pardo bg , alvarez - dios ja et al . ( 2010 ) design and performance of a turbot ( scophthalmus maximus ) oligo - microarray based on ests from immune tissues . mar biotechnol ny 12 : 452 - 465 . doi :\nto get another metric for the presence of pollutants at the five sites in southern california , we used the multi - species microarray to investigate hepatic gene expression in these fish . the liver was our primary focus because it is the key organ involved in detoxification . the improved multi - species array contained expanded probe content ( table s1 ) including targets with defined roles in endocrine pathways and processes [ 6 , 37 - 40 ] , in addition to well - defined biomarkers for contaminant exposure [ 41 ] . microarray analysis detected differences in hepatic gene expression patterns in male hornyhead turbot from all five areas compared to laboratory reference fish . we focused on the salient changes in expression patterns below .\nthis study relates the occurrence of sediment - associated ddts to biologically meaningfully responses in a locally abundant flatfish via trophic transfer as well as through direct ddt solution exposure . analytical chemistry results indicate the bioaccumulation of ddt and metabolites from sediment to worm to fish . eeqs in bile of turbot from the 7 - day laboratory treatments corresponded to those of field caught turbot from the ddt contaminated palos verdes shelf . similarly , gr activities were higher in worms exposed to pv sediment . there was a discrepancy in er - regulated mrna expression in male hornyhead turbots between the 7 - day ( diet - derived exposure ) and 28 - day study ( gavaged \u03c3ddt solution exposure ) , indicating occurrence of anti - estrogens within sediment - exposed worms , or pharmacokinetic factors associated with dietary exposure impaired the bioavailability of \u03c3ddts . a longer duration of exposure at lower doses may be required to elicit estrogenic activities in laboratory experiments that would allow for modeling of the exposure and effects of ddt in fish from historically contaminated sites such as palos verdes .\nthe majority of the exposed turbot also exhibited down - regulation of cyp3a . we previously noted a modest repression of cyp3a in zebrafish exposed to 4 - nonylphenol and a strong repression following estradiol exposure [ 19 ] . similar results have been reported in trout [ 41 , 51 ] , suggesting an important role of sex hormones in cyp3a expression .\ntranscript abundance of er\u03b1 and er\u03b2 was significantly upregulated in male turbot collected from pv relative to fish from sd . there was a trend toward an increase in vtg mrna expression but significant increases were not observed . in laboratory studies , no significant treatment effects were observed with the transcripts , compared with controls , for male fish in the 7 - day study (\n] to design 60 - mer microarray probes . each copy of an individual gene from several fish species was subjected to a pair - wise blast comparison with the corresponding gene from other fish to insure that the dna sequence contained 80 % and 90 % identity thereby increasing the likelihood that the homologous turbot sequence would contain at least 85 % identity to one of the oligonucleotides . the gene names and corresponding gene symbols are provided in the supporting information (\nrelative turbot liver mrna transcript levels were measured by real - time quantitative rt - pcr in a lightcycler 480 as described previously [ 19 ] . rna was dnase treated and negative rt controls without reverse transcriptase addition were included . amplification and melting curves were carefully examined for all assays . we investigated gapdh and \u03b2 - actin as reference transcript for these particular studies and noted that both performed equally well in q - pcr experiments . both were detected with a cp value of approximately 26 . we opted to use gapdh to normalize all expression values , although \u03b2 - actin would have been equally suitable . each sample was run in triplicate and mean values were reported . normalized gene expression values were obtained using lightcycler relative quantification software . relative gene copy numbers were derived using the formula 2\u03b4ct where \u03b4ct is the difference in amplification cycles required to detect amplification product from equal starting concentrations of turbot liver rna .\n) . liver extracts of turbot collected from pv showed significantly higher eeq than extract of livers from fish collected from the sd reference site . ahr and gr activities measured in extracts of sediment collected from pv were significantly higher than those detected in sediments from sd . significantly higher levels of anti - ar activities were also observed in the pv sediment extracts compared to the sd sediment extracts . in each bioassay , no significant increase was observed with er or ahr activities in worms (\nother mrna targets impacted in exposed fish included the peptide hormone hepcidin ( hepc1 / hamp1 ) , metallothionein ( mt ) and glutathione s - transferase alpha ( gst\u03b1 ) . hepcidin is a peptide hormone produced by the liver [ 52 , 53 ] . hepcidin is a negative regulator of iron absorption and mobilization . thus , low levels of hepcidin promote iron absorption , and are indicative of an iron deficiency . hepcidin also serves as an antimicrobial peptide [ 54 ] . hepc1 was down - regulated strongly in all fish examined relative to the reference fish . this could be due to lower oxygen in the water in the field sites compared to the oxygen in the clean - water laboratory setting . another potential cause for lower hepcidin levels could be exposure to a xenoestrogen because robertson et al . [ 55 ] , recently demonstrated that exposure to estradiol decreased expression of hepcidin - 1 and blocked the induction of hepcidin - 2 expression by bacterial exposure in largemouth bass . this suggests that exposure of hornyhead turbot to either xenoestrogens or low oxygen levels may make fish more susceptible to disease by blocking production of hepcidin .\na : gene expression changes were investigated in male turbot liver collected from exposed fish sampled from sanitation districts in san diego , orange county , dana point , los angeles city and los angeles county in california that are considered impacted . control fish were obtained from a separate monitoring station in dana point , a relatively non - impacted area and maintained in a clean - water laboratory for four weeks . the control reference sample consisted of a pool of labeled crna from three control fish , designated a , b , and c .\ntogether , the results obtained using the multi - species microarray and q - pcr to assess the endocrine status of male hornyhead turbots in five coastal field stations indicate that these fish were exposed to a mixture of endocrine disruptors capable of interacting with the estrogen and thyroid responses . despite the genetic heterogeneity of these wild fish and differential exposure to chemicals , food and environment the multi - species microarray identified differences in gene expression among fish captured from different field sites . these results validate this tool for comparisons of endocrine - disrupting contaminants at different sites and highlight the utility of the multi - species microarray approach as a sensitive diagnostic for the presence of endocrine disruptors in the aquatic environment .\nwe amplified partial turbot transcripts using conserved sequences from other fish species to guide the choice of primer design . gene - specific primers were designed using oligowiz software [ 29 ] . all the amplicons were directly sequenced using the respective forward and reverse pcr primers . sequencing reads were subjected to a series of quality control measures , including a phred quality score > 20 , and manual trace inspection . the identity of each sequence was confirmed by blast searches . these sequences have been deposited into genbank ( accession numbers fj042791 - fj042800 ) . primer sequences are outlined in the supporting information ( table s2 ) .\nlaboratory tests with marine flatfish were conducted to investigate associations among gene expression , higher biological responses and wastewater effluent exposure . in the present study , male hornyhead turbot ( pleuronichthys verticalis ) were exposed to environmentally realistic ( 0 . 5 % ) and higher ( 5 % ) concentrations of chemically enhanced advanced - primary ( pl ) and full - secondary treated ( htp ) effluents from two southern california wastewater treatment plants ( wwtp ) . hepatic gene expression was examined using a custom low - density microarray . alterations in gene expression ( vs . controls ) were observed in fish exposed to both effluent types . fish exposed to 0 . 5 % pl effluent showed changes in genes involved in the metabolism of xenobiotics , steroids , and lipids , among other processes . fish exposed to 5 % pl effluent showed expression changes in genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism , stress responses , xenobiotic metabolism , and steroid synthesis , among others . exposure to 5 % htp effluent changed the expression of genes involved in lipid , glutathione and xenobiotic metabolism , as well as immune responses . although no concentration - dependent patterns of response to effluent exposure were found , significant spearman correlations were observed between the expression of 22 genes and molecular and / or higher biological responses . these results indicate that microarray gene expression data correspond to higher biological responses and should be incorporated in studies assessing fish health after exposure to complex environmental mixtures .\nbsaf values for sediment to worms were similar to those determined from bao et al . ( 2013 ) and jia et al . ( 2014 ) , who observed a linear relationship of worms , total ddt observing bsaf values of 0 . 003 - 0 . 006 . the calculated bmf and bsaf values in this study ( 4 . 09 and 0 . 007 , respectively ) were comparable to previous values determined from lacsd ( 4 . 06 and 0 . 0026 , respectively ) ( lacsd 2014 ) . the higher values of \u03c3ddts in turbot from the fish exposed in the laboratory fed sediment - contaminated worms is consistent with biomagnification studies previously reported in the pv shelf ( zeng and tran 2002 ) .\nthere was a robust correlation between expression of vtg and zp mrnas ( r = 0 . 99 ; p < 0 . 001 ) . this is reasonable because both genes are biomarkers for xenoestrogens and 4 - nonylphenol ; a plastic degradate detected in the sediments from where the turbot were collected . correlation analysis also revealed that expression of both genes showed very strong significant association with age , weight and length of the fish . furthermore , we found negative correlations of thyroid receptors and vtg / zp transcripts ( r ranged from - 0 . 5 to - 0 . 4 ; p < 0 . 05 ) , which could in part explained the lower thyroxine concentrations found in the plasma of these fish [ 46 ] .\n) . however , 7 - day trophic transfer experiments with \u03c3ddt failed to alter hepatic vtg , er\u03b1 and er\u03b2 mrna , even though body burden residues ( and biliary eeqs ) in fish were similar to those collected in the field . in the 28 - day study where fish were only treated with \u03c3ddt by gavage , vtg and er\u03b2 mrna were significantly upregulated in the liver of male turbot exposed , despite lower body burdens compared to the 7 - day food - borne fish and fish collected from pv . in addition , even though overall \u03c3ddt concentrations were lower in the 28 - day laboratory treated fish relative to pv fish , vtg mrna significantly correlated with hepatic \u03c3ddt residues in both field and the 28 day exposure .\nthe hornyhead turbots have elongated oval fusiform highly compressed bodies that are widest in the middle ; their body depth is 49 to 53 % of standard length . they are dark brown to yellowish brown with irregularly - shaped dark marbled blotches and small cream colored spots . their blind side is off - white . they have relatively large eyes on their right side with the top eye preceding the lower eye . they have a ridge between their eyes and a prominent sharp back - pointing spine at the rear end of the ridge , a key to identification . they have a small asymmetrical mouth . their anal fin has 44 to 51 rays ; their caudal fin is small and rounded with a wide base ; their dorsal fin has 65 to 75 rays ; their pectoral fin on the eye - side has 10 to 12 rays ; and their pelvic fins are symmetrical and found on both sides of the body . they have 12 to 17 gill rakers and a straight lateral line that originates above their eyes .\nmulti - species sybr green q - pcr validation of multi - species microarray for ( a ) cyp3a ( b ) vit1 ( c ) vit2 ( d ) esr1 / er\u03b1 ( e ) esr2 / er\u03b2 specific transcripts . gapdh - normalized fold changes ( based on triplicate measurements ) of gene expression in turbot liver from selected impacted sites with respect to reference fish are presented . each fold change was derived from the mean log 2 ratio between each fish and a reference derived from two control fish . vit1 and vit2 transcripts were strongly up - regulated in all fish . er\u03b1 was down - regulated in one fish and up - regulated in two others relative to control fish . er\u03b2 was down - regulated in all fish examined relative to control fish . cyp3a was up - regulated in eight and down - regulated in two fish .\nafter these initial optimization and platform comparison experiments , we assessed alterations in hepatic gene expression in male hornyhead turbots collected during a collaborative marine monitoring study in 2006 at five field stations in southern california that vary in magnitude of contaminant exposure . our objective was to use the microarray tool to assess gene expression levels for key biomarkers of endocrine disruption . levels in plasma of vitellogenin , testosterone , estradiol , cortisol and thyroxine were determined in the fish selected for microarray analysis [ table 1 ] [ 19 , 32 - 34 ] . table 1 reveals that there is substantial variation in hormone levels among the fish collected from different sites and between fish from the same site . this may be due to a combination of factors including genetic heterogeneity in wild fish , variation in the age and life histories of the fish as well as variations in exposure to chemical contaminants , diet and reproductive status [ 1 , 35 , 36 ] . this variability among the fish in levels of plasma hormone and vitellogenin levels posed a challenge for evaluating the exposure of fish from the five sites to endocrine disruptors .\nwells were coated with 100\u00b5l of 0 . 8\u00b5g / ml california halibut vtg ( provided by amanda palumbo of uc , davis ) in 50mm carbonate buffer . non - specific binding wells were coated with 1 % non - fat milk in 50 mm carbonate buffer . plates were then incubated at 37c for 2h . wells were washed three times with 10mm tris - phosphate buffer saline ( tpbs ) , then blocked with 200\u00b5l of 2 % non - fat milk in tpbs for 45min at 37c . the wells were then washed again three times with tpbs . standards ( purified halibut vtg ) and samples were diluted in tpbs . primary antibody ( rabbit anti - turbot vtg purchased from cayman chemical , ann arbor , mi ) diluted in tpbs was added to standards and samples at a ratio of 1 : 1 , for a final concentration of antibody of 1 : 1000 . these solutions were then incubated for 2h at 37c . one hundred microliters of each solution was then added in triplicate to the wells and incubated again for 2h at 37c . the wells were then washed three times with tpbs . the secondary antibody ( goat anti - rabbit labeled with alkaline phosphatase purchased from biorad in hercules , ca ) was diluted to 1 : 2000 in tpbs then added to the wells and incubated for 45 min at 37c . the wells were washed twice with tpbs and once with pbs . the substrate p - nitrophenylphosphate diluted in diethanolamine buffer was added to each well at volume of 100\u00b5l . the plate was then incubated for about 1h in dark . the absorbance was measured with a microplate reader at a wavelength of 405nm .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is relatively widespread in the eastern pacific . although it is caught as by - catch in shrimp trawling , there are no major threats for this deep water species , and no current indication of population decline . it is listed as least concern .\nthis species is endemic to the eastern pacific , and is found from central california to magdalena bay , mexico and in the northern and central eastern part of the gulf of california ( cooper and chapleau , 1998 ) .\nno population information is available for this species . it is relatively common in california , usa and rare in the gulf of california .\nthis species lives in offshore areas over soft sand and sandy mud substrates to depths of 237m ( galv\u00e1n - maga\u00f1a et al . 2000 ) .\nthere are no major threats known for this species . it is sometimes caught as bycatch in shrimp and other trawling activities .\nthere are no known conservation measures for this species . however , this species distribution falls partially into a number of marine protected areas in the eastern pacific region ( wdpa 2006 ) .\nvan der heiden , lea , b . & findley , l . 2010 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngreek , pleura = side , ribe greek , ichthys = fish ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 9 - 200 m ( ref . 9331 ) . subtropical ; - 25\u00b0n\neastern pacific : point reyes in central california , usa to southern baja california , mexico ; isolated population in northern the gulf of california .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 37 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2850 )\neschmeyer , w . n . , e . s . herald and h . hammann , 1983 . a field guide to pacific coast fishes of north america . boston ( ma , usa ) : houghton mifflin company . xii + 336 p . ( ref . 2850 )\n) : 9 . 7 - 18 . 5 , mean 15 . 5 ( based on 20 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5078 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00955 ( 0 . 00571 - 0 . 01597 ) , b = 3 . 11 ( 2 . 97 - 3 . 25 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 1 \u00b10 . 32 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 42 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nvidal - dorsch de 1 , bay sm , ribecco c , sprague lj , angert m , ludka c , ricciardelli e , carnevali o , greenstein dj , schlenk d , kelley km , reyes ja , snyder s , vanderford b , wiborg lc , petschauer d , sasik r , baker m , hardiman g .\nsouthern california coastal water research project , costa mesa , ca , usa . dorisv @ urltoken\nresearch support , u . s . gov ' t , non - p . h . s .\ncrago j 1 , xu eg 2 , kupsco a 3 , jia f 3 , mehinto ac 4 , lao w 4 , maruya ka 4 , gan j 3 , schlenk d 3 .\nschool of freshwater sciences , university of wisconsin , milwaukee , milwaukee , wi 53204 , usa .\ndepartment of environment sciences , university of california , riverside , ca 92521 , usa . electronic address : genboxu @ ucr . edu .\ndepartment of environment sciences , university of california , riverside , ca 92521 , usa .\nsouthern california coastal water research project authority , 3535 harbor blvd , costa mesa , ca 92626 , usa .\npmid : 27049791 pmcid : pmc4879599 doi : 10 . 1016 / j . envpol . 2016 . 03 . 060\npalos verdes superfund site and ddts concentrations . site 8c sediment location as well as fish sampling locations , zones 1 - 3 , from are labeled . modified from figure 4 - 1 in epa ( 2009 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncopyright : \u00a9 2013 baker et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : this work was supported in part by a contract from the sccwrp and usc sea grant program ( noaa grant # na06oar4170012 , cfda no . 11 . 417 , project ce - 17 ) . the authors also wish to acknowledge partial financial support and assistance from the los angeles sanitation districts , orange county sanitation district , city of san diego public utilities department , wastewater branch , environmental monitoring and technical services division and the city of los angeles , environmental monitoring division . gh gratefully acknowledge support from nih grants dk063491 , ca023100 and dk080506 and uc senate grant rk126h - hardiman . c . ribecco and a . martella were recipients of training grants from \u2018the campus world program\u2019 . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript ."]}
{"id": 938, "summary": [{"text": "the ball 's blue ( lepidochrysops balli ) is a species of butterfly in the lycaenidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is endemic to south africa .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the wingspan is 32 \u2013 34 mm for males and 34 \u2013 36 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on the wing from late november to february .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on selago divaricata .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they burrow into the immature flower-buds of their host plant and consume the interior . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "lepidochrysops balli", "paragraphs": ["the ball ' s blue ( lepidochrysops balli ) is a species of butterfly in the lycaenidae family . it is endemic to south africa . the wingspan is 32\u201334 mm for males and . . .\nfacts summary : lepidochrysops is a genus of insects of concern and found in the following area ( s ) : lesotho , south africa .\nwikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article\nlepidochrysops\n.\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - lepidochrysops spp . facts\n( online ) - licensed article from wikipedia : the free encyclopedia . accessed\nlibert , m . 2001 euchrysops butler et lepidochrysops hedicke : deux genres distincts ? description de quatre nouvelles especes et de deux nouvelles sous - especes ( lepidoptera , lycaenidae ) . lambillionea 101 , 351 - 371 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\n\u00a9 2016 , butterfly conservation society , ghana - african butterfly research institute - icom ltd .\nthe ball ' s blue is a species of butterfly in the lycaenidae family . it is endemic to south africa . the wingspan is 32\u201334 mm for males and 34\u201336 mm for females . adults are on the wing from late november to february .\nthis art print displays sharp , vivid images with a high degree of color accuracy on high quality canvas . a member of the versatile family of art prints , this high - quality reproduction represents the best of both worlds : quality and affordability .\ndelivery time 7 - 18 days to usa and 14 - 30 days to worldwide .\nposter is packaged in tube , this is 100 % that your poster will be in perfect condition .\ntracking number for all orders , you can check it in 24 hours on your postal service .\n2010 - 2018 \u00a9 gotposter . com . all rights reserved . privacy policy dmca\nthis article is only an excerpt . if it appears incomplete or if you wish to see article references , visit the rest of its contents here .\ncreatures with albinism and leucism are beautiful and rare animals . they have all the characteristics of others of their species except they are white in color . the lack of melanin generally results in the animal looking bleached all over , appearing white or pink . it happens in many animals ranging from squirrels to whitetail deer . here are ten incredible and rare , white - colored creatures that you ' ll probably never see in real life .\nlist of all endangered animals . list of all endangered plants . list of all endangered species ( animals & plants ) . by species group ( mammal , birds , etc ) . . . united states endangered species list . browse by country , island , us state . . . search for an endangered species profile .\nare you inspired by endangered animals ? check out our games and coloring pages ! more to come soon .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nan extremely diverse african genus . most of the species are endemic to the cape region of south africa . larvae feed on lamiaceae and verbenaceae in early instars , and then are taken into ant nests , where they are tended by the ants , consuming ant larvae and pupae , until they pupate ( larsen 2005 ) .\nackery , p . r . , smith , c . r . & vane - wright , r . i . ( ed . ) 1995 carcasson ' s african butterflies . canberra : csiro .\nlarsen , t . b . 2005 butterflies of west africa . stenstrup , denmark : apollo books .\ncorrespondence regarding this page should be directed to andrew v . z . brower at\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\neach tol branch page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a branch of the tree of life . the major distinction between a branch and a leaf of the tree of life is that each branch can be further subdivided into descendent branches , that is , subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 940, "summary": [{"text": "xanthotaenia is a monotypic butterfly genus in the family nymphalidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "its single species is xanthotaenia busiris , the yellow-banded nymph .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they can be identified by a yellow strip along their forewings . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "xanthotaenia", "paragraphs": ["xanthotaenia busiris ( westwood , 1858 ) = clerome ( xanthotaenia ) busiris westwood , 1858 .\nxanthotaenia obscura butler , 1883 ; ent . mon . mag . 20 : 54 ; tl : nias\nxanthotaenia busiris is the only member of its genus . it is found in myanmar , thailand , malaysia , sumatra and borneo .\n? xanthotaenia busiris batuensis rothschild , 1916 ; novit . zool . 23 ( 3 ) : 300 ; tl : batu is .\nxanthotaenia westwood , 1858 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . ( 2 ) 4 ( 6 ) : 187 ; ts : clerome busiris westwood\nxanthotaenia polychroma hagen , 1898 ; ent . nachr . 24 ( 13 ) : 201 , pl . 1 , f . 5 ; tl : mentawej\nparin , n . v . , 1992 . pseudotrichonotus xanthotaenia ( pseudotrichonotidae , aulopiformes ) - - new species from the saya de malha bank . j . ichthyol . 32 ( 7 ) : 128 - 131 . ( ref . 41477 )\npenz , c . , devries , p . j . & kirton , l . 2006 early stages of xanthotaenia busiris ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae ) , and the first report of a larval anal comb in the nymphalidae . malayan nature journal 59 , 51 - 61 .\nresearch by pe\u0148a & wahlberg , released in 2008 , using molecular evidence to trace the butterfly ' s ancestry , implies that that the genus xanthotaenia should be placed in the ' primitive ' satyrine tribe zetherini , indicating that it is closely allied to neorina , penthema , ethope and callarge .\nxanthotaenia busiris is semi - crepuscular in behaviour , and is normally only active up until about mid - morning . it can however sometimes be disturbed later in the day - its presence being given away as it flies , by a flash of bright yellow from the bar across the upper forewings .\nxanthotaenia busiris ; moore , 1878 , proc . zool . soc . lond . 1878 ( 4 ) : 827 ; [ ebw ] ; [ bow ] : pl . 139 , f . 11 ; [ bor ] , 494 ; [ bmp ] : 126 , pl . 15 , f . 24 , pl . 63 , f . 18 - 19 ( larva ) , 20 ( pupa )\nxanthotaenia has traditionally been placed in amathusiini , but eliot ( in corbet et al . 1992 ) pointed out that the larval stages clearly place it among traditional satyrines . penz et al . ( 2006 ) published a formal description of the immature stages and corroborated this perspective . molecular evidence ( pe\u00f1a & wahlberg 2008 ; wahlberg & brower , unpubl . ) imply that the genus is allied to the basal zetherina .\nthis large forest - dwelling species was for many years considered to be a member of the former subfamily amathusiinae . that subfamily no longer exists , taxonomists having decided to relegate it to the level of a tribe of the morphinae ( now the morphini , a tribe of the satyrinae ) . eliot however was convinced that the butterfly was neither an amathusiine or a morphiine , pointing out that the larval stages had more in common with the traditional satyrinae .\nthe uncertainties were finally cleared up in 2006 , when penz et al published a formal description of the immature stages which corroborated this view . they also provided evidence that the caterpillar possesses an ' anal comb ' - a structure normally only found in the hesperiidae and certain moth families , which is used to catapult the larval droppings away from the feeding site .\nthis species is found in primary rainforest , at elevations between about 100 - 300 metres .\nthe caterpillar is smooth , green , and has head horns and a pair of caudal prongs . the foodplant is rattan palm calamus ( arecaceae ) .\nboth sexes seem to spend most of their lives skulking at ground level among the undergrowth , and are usually seen in the vicinity of stands of ginger ( zingiberaceae ) , often in company with the amathusiine faunis canens .\nall photographs , artwork , text & website design are the property of adrian hoskins ( unless otherwise stated ) and are protected by copyright . photographs or text on this website must not be reproduced in part or in whole or published elsewhere without prior written consent of adrian hoskins / urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na monotypic genus of southeast asia . this relatively large satyrine has a conspicuous yellow band across the distal third of its forewing . adults frequent the forest floor and are often found associated with rotting fruits . larvae feed on\ncorbet as , pendlebury hm , and eliot jn . 1992 . the butterflies of the malay peninsula . malayan nature society , kuala lumpur .\npe\u00f1a , c . & wahlberg , n . 2008 prehistorical climate change increased diversification of a group of butterflies . biology letters ( royal society ) 4 , 274 - 278 .\ncorrespondence regarding this page should be directed to andrew v . z . brower at\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\n. yellow - banded nymph . version 10 march 2009 ( under construction ) .\neach tol leaf page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a leaf at the tip of the tree of life . the major distinction between a leaf and a branch of the tree of life is that a leaf cannot generally be further subdivided into subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\nthe butterflies of the malay peninsula . fourth edition revised by j . n . eliot with plates by bernard d ' abrera\na list of the lepidopterous insects collected by mr . ossian limborg in upper tenasserim , with descriptions of new species\nnotes on amathusiidae , brassolidae , morphidae , etc . , with descriptions of new forms\nwestwood , 1858 on the oriental species of butterflies related to the genus morpho trans . ent . soc . lond . ( 2 ) 4 ( 5 ) : 158 - 160 ( 1857 ) , ( 6 ) : 161 - 189\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\ngreek , pseudes = false + greek , thrix , - ichos = hair + greek , noton = back ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 87 - 110 m ( ref . 41477 ) . tropical\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 6 . 0 cm sl ( female )\ndorsal soft rays ( total ) : 33 ; anal soft rays : 13 ; vertebrae : 49 . head pointed . body beam - like . mouth small . upper jaw protrusible ; protruding slightly beyond the lower one when mouth is closed . interorbital space is very narrow ; just less than 1 / 3 of eye diameter . branchiostegal rays 6 . gill rakers spinelike , 4 + 1 + 8 . caudal fin rays 8 - 10 ( ref . 41477 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 5 \u00b10 . 2 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 87 - 110 m ( ref . 41477 ) . tropical , preferred ?\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nurltoken is a brazilian scientific electronic library ( iheringia , revista brasileira de entomologia , zoologia . . . )\nto sign my photos of flat - faced longhorned beetles . of course , it is possible for any site to create a link towards any page of urltoken or for any publication to cite a resource without express authorization . for any question about rights of reproduction and use , contact me ! how to quote this website ?\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\nviereck , h . l . 1925 . a preliminary revision of the campopleginae in the canadian national collection , ottawa . canadian entomologist . 57 : 176 - 181 , 198 - 204 , 223 - 228 , 296 - 303 .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution , non - commercial , no derivative works cc by - nc - nd licence .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\ntermens of both wings are prominently scalloped . the hindwing is more strongly toothed at vein 4 .\n, the wings are dark brown . on the forewing , there is a series of pale bluish submarginal spots , becoming larger in subapical area and then smaller again along the costal border . in the male , the subapical spots are closer to the apex than in the female . the hindwing is reddish brown with rather pale postdiscal spots .\nthe wings are strongly mottled brown . at the apex of the forewing , there is a ` thumb - print\u2019 ( a triangular area in a lighter shade ) of varying prominence among specimens . a white spot can be found in the centre of the costa on the hindwing , but this can be absent or inconspicuous in certain specimens .\nthe common palmfly is the most widespread species of its genus in the indo - australian region . locally , it is also a rather common species with widespread occurrence across multiple habitats . typically the adults are shade - loving , and usually sighted flying along the edge of vegetated area and in the vicinity of a clump of palm trees . the adults have the habit of puddling and visiting flowers for mineral and energy intakes .\nthe early stages of the common palmfly is polyphagous and feed on the leaves of a number of host plants in the arecaceae ( palmae ) family . thus far , four of them are fully identified and listed above .\nthe eggs of the common palmfly are laid singly on a leaf blade of the host palm tree , typically on the underside . each\negg is almost spherical with a slightly protruding top ( diameter : 1 . 3 - 1 . 4mm ) . the egg is initially white when freshly hatched but turns yellow on the following day . the surface is faintly and irregularly reticulated .\ntwo views of a mature egg of the common palmfly . note the clearly visible head and body setae of the caterpillar .\nthe egg takes about 4 days to hatch . the young caterpillar emerges by eating away part of the egg shell . the rest of the egg shell becomes the first meal for the newly hatched , which has a length of about 3mm . its cylindrical body is\npale yellowish . the large head capsule is black in color and has three pairs of prominent protuberances lining the perimeter with the apical pair being the largest and longest . each protuberance ends with a thick setae bearing a transparent droplet at its tip . rows of fine setae , also bearing terminal droplets , run along the length of the body dorso - laterally and laterally . a pair of long pale - yellow processes occur at the posterior end of the body , each of which ends with a drop - bearing black setae .\ntwo views of a newly hatched caterpillar near the empty egg shell , length : 3mm .\nonce the newly hatched moves on to feed on the young leaves , its body starts to take on a green undertone . several contrasting bands , yellow in color and of varying widths , adorn the body surface dorsally and laterally .\ntwo views of 1st instar caterpillar , late in this stage , length : 5 . 5mm .\na common palmfly caterpillar just before its moult to the 2nd instar ( top ) , and soon after the moult ( bottom ) .\nthe body of the 2nd instar caterpillar is similarly marked as in the late 1st instar . the most obvious change is in the head capsule where the three pairs of protuberances becomes longer and the setae they bear shorter . the apical pair also takes on a few short side branches . small pale yellow patches appear laterally and apically on the head capsule . the pair of anal processes are longer proportionately and mostly black in coloration . numerous short fine setae cover the body surface . of the several yellowish bands running lengthwise , the dorso - lateral pair running up to the upperside of the anal processes becomes the most prominent of all . this instar lasts about 4 days with the body length reaching up to 10 . 5mm before the moult to the 3rd instar .\nhead capsules : 1st instar ( left ) and 2nd instar ( right ) .\nthe 3rd instar caterpillar is similar in appearance to the 2nd instar caterpillar with the only obvious change being in the appearance of the head capsule . now the ground colour of the head capsule is yellow except for two lateral reddish brown patches running vertically from the apical pair of protuberances , which are also reddish brown in color . the other protuberances turn yellowish with their short terminal setae still brown to black in color . this instar takes about 4 days to complete with body length reaching about 16 - 17mm .\na common palmfly caterpillar just before its moult to the 3rd instar ( top ) , and soon after the moult ( bottom ) .\nretaining very much the same body features from the earlier two instars , the 4th instar caterpillar distinguishes itself in having proportionally longer apical protuberances on the head capsule and the anal processes being mostly yellowish to pinkish in coloration . this instar lasts 3 . 5 to 4 days with the body length reaching about 26mm .\na common palmfly caterpillar just before its moult to the 4th instar ( top ) , and soon after the moult ( bottom ) .\nhead capsules : 3rd instar ( left ) and 4th instar ( right ) .\nthe 5th and final instar brings about another change in the appearance of the head capsule . now white patches cover the frontal and middle area , stretching up into the apical protuberances . the long and slender anal processes are mostly pinkish in coloration .\na common palmfly caterpillar just before its moult to the 5th instar ( top ) , and soon after the moult ( bottom ) .\nthe 5th instar lasts for 3 . 5 - 4 days , and the body length reaches up to 40mm . on the last day , the caterpillar ceases feeding , its body becomes shortened but with essentially no change in body color . it wanders around in search of a pupation site . typically it comes to a halt on the underside of leaf blade where the caterpillar spins a silk pad to which it attaches its graspers and then rests in a head - down posture .\npre - pupatory larva at three time points . left : early stage ; middle : mid - way , right : late stage with the onset of pupation only minutes away .\npupation takes place 1 day after the caterpillar assumes the haed - down posture .\nthe green pupa has yellowish strips running on the dorsum of the thorax , dorso - laterally and laterally on the abdomen and the leading edges of the wing case . these yellow strips are outlined in pink . the pupa also has a pair of short cephalic horns , and its dorsum is angled at the thorax .\nafter about 6 - 6 . 5 days of development , the pupal skin turns translucent as the development within the pupal case comes to an end . the pupa is mostly black at this point . the following day , the adult butterfly emerges from the pupal case . it then perches on the pupal case or nearby to expand and dry its wings before taking its first flight .\nthe butterflies of the malay peninsula , a . s . corbet and h . m . pendlebury , 4th edition , the malayan nature society .\na photographic monograph on hong kong butterflies , volume 1 , hong kong lepidopterists\u2019 society .\nthe winds have shifted and now the prevailing winds are coming from a north - easterly direction , usually bringing heavy rains to many parts of south - east asia . the monsoon months traditionally brings closure to many activities in nature areas in malaysia , where the national parks and nature reserves are closed for the safety of visitors . i recall being shown the flood level at endau - rompin national park in malaysia , where the debris from a recent flood clearly indicated the water line before the water receded . nothing out of the ordinary , except that the debris line was about two - thirds up a line of trees that was about 15m high !\nthe 11th month of the year , november always brings happy anticipation of the christmas holiday season . indeed , cheery and glittering decorations are already up in many shopping malls in singapore . in multi - cultural singapore , november 2010 also saw the celebration of deepavali and hari raya haji by the hindu and muslim communities respectively .\n) . the english common name of the butterfly is rather curious , as \u201ctawny\u201d often refers to a \u201cwarm sandy colour\u201d which the species displays very little of . perhaps the pale buff submarginal border on the upperside of the hindwing is distinctive enough to give the butterfly a \u2018tawny\u2019 descriptor .\nanother unique feature of this species is its scientific name . it is one of only a handful of butterfly species to share the name of mammals and in this case , a specific genus of the big cats , panthera . a rather interesting reference , since the butterfly bears no resemblance in any way to the famous carnivorous and predatory cats .\nthe tawny palmfly is a forest denizen , where it skulks close to the forest floor in well - shaded localities . it is usually very skittish and flies off the moment it senses any movement towards it . the species is best observed when feeding on the ripened fruits of the singapore rhododendron ( melastoma malabathricum ) \u2013 when it is less skittish and allows an observer to move in closer to it .\nit doesn\u2019t fly rapidly but displays an erratic flight when flying around , searching for food sources or moving around its preferred habitats . very often , it stops and perches on the upper surfaces of leaves with its wings folded upright . in the field , we have , thus far , not encountered an individual sunbathing with its wings opened flat before .\nthe tawny palmfly is dark brown above and the hindwing has a pale buff border bearing a series of white - centred black submarginal spots . the underside bears the usual reddish - brown striations of the genus elymnias ( collectively called the palmflies ) which helps to camouflage the butterfly when settled amongst the forest litter .\nthe female of this species makes an interesting audible clicking sound with its hindwings when it flutters about its host plant laying eggs . the caterpillar of this species feeds on a variety of palms found in the forests .\nalthough it is a species that is primarily found in forested areas , and in particular , in habitats where various species of palmae grow , it has also been observed with regularity at urban parks and gardens as well . sometimes it flies in the company of its closely related species , the common palmfly .\n, the forewings are orangey brown with a series of white spots in a broad black apical border . the hindwings have a narrow dark border and a few black spots featured at both the cell edge and end - cell . in form\n, the hindwings are almost white throughout . the male has a subtornal brand on the hindwing just below vein 3 .\n, the wings are similarly marked as per the upperside but with apical border orangey brown on the forewing , and wing margins marked with a series of prominent and white marginal spots .\nbeing the more common of the two . this species is typically found where its host plants are cultivated . such locations include hortpark , butterfly trails , butterfly gardens in schools and housing estates and even certain park connectors . the adults typically visits flowers in the vicinity of its host plant and has a fondness for sap exuded by\na plain tiger perching on a fern frond in a closed - wing pose .\nlocal host plants for the plain tiger : giant milkweed ( left ) and blood flower ( right ) .\nthe eggs of the plain tiger are laid singly on the leaf of the host plant , typically on the underside . t\nhe milky white egg is shaped somewhat like a bullet - head ( diameter : 0 . 95mm , height : 1 . 3mm ) . the egg surface is ribbed with ridges running longitudinally . the micropyle sits atop .\nthe egg takes about 2 . 5 - 3 days to hatch . the young caterpillar emerges by eating away part of the egg shell . the rest of the egg shell becomes the first meal for the newly hatched , which has a length of about 2 . 2mm . its cylindrical body is\nmostly white with a yellowish undertone , and has a fair number of short fine setae . the large head capsule is black in color and there is a small black patch at the posterior end . a pair of short sub - dorsal protuberances can be found on each of the following four segments : 1st and 2nd thoracic segments , 2nd and 8th abdominal segments . of these , the prothoracic pair is black in color and the remaining pairs in orangey brown . the thoracic legs and prolegs are all black in color .\nonce the newly hatched moves on to feed on leaf lamina over the next few hours , its body starts to take on a green undertone . the growth is rather rapid with the body length doubling to about 4 . 5mm in 1 . 5 day , and after just 1 . 5 to 2 days from hatching , it moults to the 2nd instar .\ntowards the final hours of the 1st instar , the last three pairs of protuberances turn dark brown and pairs of oval - shaped yellow spots appear on the dorsum from the 2nd thoracic segment to the 8th abdominal segment .\ntwo views of a 1st instar caterpillar , late in this stage , length : 4 . 3mm .\nthe body of the 2nd instar caterpillar is whitish in ground color . one obvious change is the lengthening of those black protuberances on the 2nd thoracic segment , 2nd and 8th abdominal segments the pair of protuberances on the 1st thoracic segment remains subdued in size . a diffused yellow band runs sub - spiracularly .\nthe subdorsal paired yellow spots are embedded in dark patches which extend laterally to the subspiracular yellow band .\nnoteworthy is that there is only one ( rather than two ) elongated yellow dorsal spot on the 9th abdominal segment . the black head capsule now has a triangular white patch on the frons and a prominent white arch . this instar lasts only 1 to 1 . 5 days with the body length reaching 9mm before the moult to the 3rd instar .\ntwo views of a 2nd instar caterpillar , early in this stage , length : 5 . 7mm\ntwo views of a 2nd instar caterpillar , late in this stage , length : 8 . 5mm\nthe 3rd instar caterpillar is similar in appearance to the 2nd instar caterpillar , one obvious change is in the three pairs of processes which are proportionately longer . the head capsule also has an outer white arch at the rear periphery . this instar takes about 1 - 1 . 5 days to complete with body length reaching about 12mm .\nretaining very much the same body features from the previous instar , the 4th instar caterpillar distinguishes itself in having proportionately longer processes , with the mesothoracic pair the longest and having a strong tendency to flex forward . this instar lasts 2 days with the body length reaching about 21mm .\ntwo views of a 4th instar caterpillar , late in this stage , length : 12mm .\ntwo views of a 4th instar caterpillar , late in this stage , length : 16mm .\nthe 5th and final instar appears similar to the previous two instars but again with proportionately longer and filamentous processes , particularly so for the mesothoracic pair . all six processes now have a crimson coloration at the basal portion .\ntwo views of a 5th instar caterpillar , early in this stage , length : 26mm .\ntwo views of a 5th instar caterpillar , late in this stage , length : 39mm .\nthe 5th instar lasts for 2 - 3 days , and the body length reaches up to 42mm . on the last day , the caterpillar ceases feeding , and its body becomes shortened and decolorized , most notably in the yellow and crimson coloration . it wanders around in search of a pupation site . typically it comes to a halt on a branch / stem or a leaf underside , where the caterpillar spins a silk pad from which it soon hangs vertically to take on the pre - pupatory pose .\npupation takes place about 0 . 75 days after the caterpillar assumes the hanging posture .\nthe barrel - shaped pupa suspends itself from the silk pad with no supporting silk girdle . the pupa could be green , pink even white in coloration . it has a median transverse line marked with a series of black spots and an outer series of yellow spots .\nafter about 5 days of development , the pupal skin turns translucent as the development within the pupal case comes to an end . the prominent white spots on the forewing upperside also become discernible . the following day , the adult butterfly emerges from the pupal case .\nto conservation ecologists or purist nature enthusiasts and you may get a bit more than just raised eyebrows \u2013 experience has shown that there have been passionate objections and heated arguments about this . there are , of course , valid causes for concern , but the other side of the argument also has pertinent points favouring re - introductions .\nfor those who may not be aware , re - introduction is the intentional and deliberate release of species back into the wild . these species are either bred , or captured and released from other areas where the species still exists . in various taxonomic groups , it usually involves species that are critically endangered or extinct in the wild . technically , re - introduction usually involves the returning of species into locations or regions where they were previously found or recorded with a fair measure of confidence , but are now extinct . hence some practitioners of re - introduction programmes prefer to call it \u201cre - establishment\u201d .\nre - introduction programmes have been more predominantly focused on mammals and vertebrates like birds and occasionally amphibians . there are some well - known programmes since the early 1980\u2032s where biologists have studied the impacts of re - introducing a species into the habitat it once existed in .\nhabitat and preferred localities that the butterfly can survive and thrive \u2013 those species which survive in the forested areas which are protected are more likely to be sustainable .\nlarger and more robust species that are easier to be bred and withstand environmental pollution .\nits early stages and whether the caterpillars may cause other species ( even besides butterflies ) to be affected by their presence .\nwhether the intentional cultivation of the host plant may affect the floral ecological balance .\nthere have been several successes of butterfly re - introduction programmes in the west , in particular , two examples being the karner blue ( lycaeides melissa samuelis ) in ohio , usa and the large blue ( phengaris arion ) butterfly which was declared extinct in the uk in 1979 , but has been successfully re - introduced .\nit is not known whether there have been any similar re - introduction programmes in southeast asia , nor any research papers done to document if there have been any successes . thus far , internet searches have delivered only reports of butterfly re - introductions from western countries .\nfrom those checklists , a selection of e . g . 5 - 6 species could be done , and studies conducted on populations of these species where they still exist . the nearest populations of some of these species would be a mere hour\u2019s drive up north into the malaysian state of johor .\nonce observations and reports are made of these species in their natural habitats and general behaviour and habits of the species , host plants , early stages and so on , the search for possibly similar habitats be made in singapore , where the species could be re - introduced . one premise that should be established would be the availability of the caterpillar host plant in singapore , its abundance , and extent of spread across the island . care must be taken , of course , that the host plant is already native to the singapore flora checklist and not to introduce an exotic species of plant to singapore .\nprior to the re - introduction programme , the host plant must be cultivated , perhaps under the national parks board\u2019s supervision , at locations like singapore\u2019s urban parks , gardens , park connectors and so on , where the cultivation of the plants can be supervised and observed .\nonce there is enough critical mass of the host plant ( that is , assuming that the plant is not common in the first instance ) , then the import of pupae or wild - captured males and females of the target species is released into the wild . unlike mammals , there is no need to \u2018train\u2019 the released butterflies to hunt or adapt to its new surroundings .\nit has always been a subject of debate , whether human intervention is advisable where the survival of a species is concerned . they may have gone extinct for a good reason , and bringing them back into the environment may not necessarily be a good thing . however , one can always argue that a species has gone extinct , precisely because of human intervention in the first instance ( like development , land clearing , removal of a plant species , pollution in the environment , and so on ) . hence where humans have been the cause for the extirpation of a species , it would only be right that humans make amends to bring the species back .\nthe debate will not ever end , as there will always be proponents on both sides , extolling the pros and cons of whether to re - introduce a species , or not . as a supporter of butterfly re - introduction , i would personally recommend that further observations and studies continue to be carried out before a pilot scheme for a re - introduction be attempted .\n\u2013 re - introduction case studies from around the globe : edited by pritpal s . soorae \u2013 \u00a9 2008 iucn / ssc re - introduction specialist group\n\u2013 not quite yet the number of spartans who made history under king leonidas at the battle of thermopylae . but that\u2019s the number of articles on this blog with this post , chugging along with at least an article a week , sometimes more , for the past three years .\nit is now 11 nov 2010 , and this blog has soldiered on since it was set up on 16 aug 2007 and the first articles on our beloved butterflies started on 5 nov 2007 . since then , we have produced articles of interest about butterflies , ranging from behaviour and ecology , early stages , conservation , photography , travelogues and so on . in a manner of speaking , we can now celebrate our third anniversary of this butterflies of singapore blog .\ni would like to thank my fellow members at butterflycircle , many of whom had written articles for this blog , or have been willing to share their photographic works of butterflies . in particular , my sincere thanks to horace tan , who has written some of the most engaging and informative articles on the early stages of singapore\u2019s butterflies available to date \u2013 complete from egg to eclosion and many with amazing video clips of the butterflies\u2019 moulting , pupation and eclosion .\nwe hope that this blog will be able to continue in the years to come as we endeavour to share and learn more about our beloved flying jewels in singapore and beyond our shores . this is our contribution to biodiversity conservation and education in singapore and for all and sundry to learn and enjoy the articles .\nthere have been a couple of unkind individuals who have criticised and trivialised the articles and even the recent field guide that was a culmination of years of effort and the combined work of many butterflycircle members . to these unhappy individuals , we can only express our sympathy , as it merely reflects their childish behaviour and unfortunate upbringing that they seek only to destroy the work that others have done .\nwe would urge them to make peace with whatever unhappiness that they have in their lives , and channel their energies to do their own part in promoting the appreciation of butterflies and spend their time more productively , instead of making unsavoury remarks from the sidelines \u2013 which only undermines their own credibility and wins them no respect from the nature community in singapore .\nwe are , however , encouraged by the growing membership in butterflycircle , and with more mature and sincere individuals who are able to contribute productively in this hobby and past - time pursuit that has yielded happy times and pleasant memories out in the field together .\nwe also wish to thank all the guests and readers of this blog , most of whom had left complimentary comments and cheery well - wishes on the blog\u2019s articles . we are encouraged and happy to know that our efforts are not in vain , as there are many readers from singapore and all over the world who appreciate , and have benefited from our work .\nwith that , please join us in the journey ahead , as we continue to do our work in butterfly conservation , learning and sharing on this blog . for our work is never finished and there are more and more things to learn in the years to come . happy 3rd birthday to the butterflies of singapore blog !"]}
{"id": 945, "summary": [{"text": "tonalist ( foaled february 11 , 2011 ) is an american thoroughbred racehorse best known for winning the 2014 belmont stakes , beating the favored california chrome , who was attempting to win the triple crown .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "tonalist won the peter pan stakes in may 2014 .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he is the first horse since a.p. indy in 1992 to win the peter pan/belmont double .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "later in the year he defeated older horses to win the jockey club gold cup . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "tonalist", "paragraphs": ["commissioner finished a head behind tonalist in second , while medal count finished a length away in third . tonalist\u2019s winning time was 2 minutes , 28 . 52 seconds\ncalifornia chrome falls short in bid for triple crown , finishing fourth behind winner tonalist .\ntonalist worked five furlongs the same day , getting five furlongs in 1 : 00 1 / 5 .\ntonalist will stand his debut season for $ 40 , 000 at lane ' s end in kentucky .\ntonalist , left , riddent by joel rosario , edges out commissioner with javier castellano at the finish line .\ntonalist ( left ) gets up to win the belmont over commissioner with medal count ( background ) third .\nhe certainly wasn\u2019t ignored because of looks . tonalist is a majestic animal on a track full of them .\n\u201ctonalist is a beast , \u201d said gary stevens , the jockey who has won with bayern , another intriguing classic pick . \u201cif tonalist runs the way he did that day at belmont , nobody will beat him . \u201d\nwe love the new picture at belmont park of @ tonalist . he ' s keeping an eye on us urltoken\ntonalist , who came in at 12 / 1 , upset california chrome ' s quest for history on saturday .\nfour - time grade 1 winner tonalist has been retired and will stand the 2016 season at lane\u2019s end farm .\ninitially , there were a number of reasons why tonalist would win , as i pointed out in a column last friday where i picked tonalist to win . with an excellent win at belmont in the peter pan , tactical speed and top jockey joel rosario in the irons , tonalist certainly was a horse who figured to have a good chance .\nplenty of @ tonalist options for # favoritephotosof15 but rather like simplicity of following rest of set into am sun . urltoken\nso important that certain winners \u2014 shared belief , california chrome and tonalist \u2014 would be horse of the year frontrunners .\n@ tonalist look at those legs ! ! next yr will be exciting when his foals arrive . # tonalisttuesday # lanesend urltoken\ntonalist was among the horses considered to be california chrome ' s biggest threats , along with ride on curlin and commanding curve .\ntonalist , whose broodmare sire is pleasant colony , was the first starter in a triple crown race owned by evans , 70 .\ncampaigned by owner evans and trainer clement , tonalist recorded seven wins in 16 starts and earned $ 3 , 647 , 000 .\ncalifornia chrome , center , is flanked by wicked strong , left , and tonalist , right , as they run down the backstretch .\n\u201ctapit is the most important stallion in america and tonalist is his best son\u201d said will farish . \u201ctonalist is his only g1 winning son at a mile and a quarter , from a tremendous female family . he\u2019s exactly the kind of stallion we want to stand . \u201d\nrobert\nshel\nevans leads tonalist into the winner ' s circle after the colt , who he purchased privately as a yearling , won the belmont stakes on june 7 . tonalist is a grandson of pleasant colony , who was bred and raced by evans ' father .\nthe time for the 12 furlongs in the $ 1 . 5 million event was 2 : 28 . 52 . tonalist , a son of\nowner of tonalist , robert s . evans , is presented with the trophy from new york gov . andrew cuomo after winning the race .\nno . 3 most accomplished colt of all time from the preeminent a . p . indy sire line , behind only california chrome & tonalist\ntonalist is hardly a true underdog , but the belmont winner may once again upset the favorite at santa anita . starting wide from the no . 11 post , tonalist will be able to play to his strengths and trail the field before kicking up for a strong closing finish .\nthe photo finish for tonalist was a thriller . coming out of the first turn in last , tonalist burst through with a brilliant effort , clocking a 1 : 37 : 14 time as he stretched out ahead of stable mate , red vine . with odds of 2 / 1 , tonalist was the second - favourite behind private zone , who entered the race as the defending champion and the preferred choice of the oddsmakers .\ntonalist\u2019s dam is by pleasant colony , who came up short to finish third in the belmont in 1981 on his way to eclipse champion 3yo colt honors . pleasant colony was bred and raced by buckland farm , helmed by thomas mellon evans , whose son robert \u201cshel\u201d evans owns tonalist .\nit was a warm 50 degrees yesterday , & new addition tonalist ( tapit ) seemed to enjoy the sun as much as we did . urltoken\nwhat made you want to look up tonalist ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\ntonalist won the 146th belmont stakes saturday , denying the heavily favored california chrome his chance to become the first triple crown winner in 36 years .\ntonalist covered the mile and a half in 2 : 28 . 52 and returned $ 20 . 40 to win on a $ 2 bet .\n\u201cwe\u2019re in the business of classic thoroughbreds , and [ tonalist ] certainly fits our program , \u201d lane\u2019s end\u2019s bill farish said . \u201ca . p . indy , lemon drop kid , union rags won races like the belmont and gold cup , and we are confident tonalist will continue that success . \u201d\nneither tonalist nor commissioner ran in the derby or preakness . medal count , the third - place finisher , didn ' t run in the preakness .\ncalifornia chrome ' s bid to win the triple crown came up short , with tonalist winning the belmont stakes . re - live the race now .\nhe didn\u2019t exactly smoke the competition , but an astounding burst down the home stretch allowed tonalist to submit a wild climax in a strangely paced race .\ntonalist , a strapping bay colt , spent much of the first 14 months of his life at woodslane farm in fauquier county , va . , where owners rene and lauren woolcott bred their mare settling mist to the sire tapit . tonalist was sold as a yearling to robert evans , the owner of courtland farm in easton , md . , who kept tonalist in maryland for about a month before sending him to new york - based trainer cristophe clement .\nfor the 37th consecutive year , there will be no triple crown winner . for bettors that put their money on tonalist , that ' s good news .\nrichard mellon evans owned pleasant colony , and richard s . evans , his son , bought tonalist after nobody else did at the fasig - tipton sales .\nin the peter pan , tonalist will have the opportunity june 7 to capture the triple crown race that eluded his maternal grandsire while carrying robert evans ' colors .\ntonalist ' s most recent work was sat at belmont . simon -\nlooks in great order , really developing the 2nd half of the year\n# tvgworks\ncalifornia chrome ' s bid to complete racing ' s elusive triple crown ended in disappointment when he finished fourth behind tonalist in the belmont stakes saturday . ( reuters )\nwith an impressive end to his 2015 campaign , the four - year old tonalist is a strong candidate to return for a season as a five - year old .\ntonalist becomes the third belmont stakes winner on the active lane\u2019s end roster , joining lemon drop kid ( 1999 ) and union rags ( 2012 ) . the farm\u2019s flagship sire is the pensioned horse of the year and two - time leading general sire a . p . indy , winner of the 1992 belmont and tonalist\u2019s paternal great - grandsire .\njoel rosario poses for photos atop tonalist after winning the 146th running of the belmont stakes horse race , saturday , june 7 , 2014 , in elmont , new york .\nfrom the pleasant colony mare , settling mist , tonalist descends from the immediate female family of multiple grade 1 winner riskaverse and horse of the year , havre de grace .\ntonalist \u2013 after two second - place finishes , tonalist will be trying to get back to his winning ways at saratoga , away from his home base of belmont park at which all but one of his wins have come . the son of tapit is focusing on the whitney as a rematch with honor code , the horse who denied him in the met mile .\none of three thoroughbreds to beat california chrome in a triple crown race this year was tonalist , who won the belmont stakes ahead of second - place commissioner and third - place medal count . tonalist also won the grade 2 peter pan stakes and the grade 1 gold cup stakes on the way to qualifying for the breeders ' cup classic , where he finished fifth .\n\u201che\u2019s just kind of a big horse , \u201d rosario said of tonalist , \u201cand he has one long stride . he just grinds it , and he keeps on going and going . \u201d\npresumably , coburn has some understanding of the horse business . tonalist was on the kentucky derby trail and was going to race in the wood memorial , the new york prep for the derby .\ntonalist improved his record to 5 - 2 - 1 from 10 career starts and pushed his earnings to just more than $ 2 million with the $ 90 , 000 winner ' s share .\nit would be the win pleasant colony didn ' t get ,\nsaid evans . the veteran horseman admitted that if tonalist didn ' t win , however , he would be rooting for\npiloted by junior alvarado , effinex defeated some staunch competition , including a winner of multiple grade 1 races in tonalist , mylute , neck ' n neck and the big brown colt coach inge .\nindeed , for a second or two at the top of the stretch when california chrome looked like he might join the fray , tonalist seemed to hang just a touch , but then he came on again to nail a dead game commissioner at the wire . i think with a better trip tonalist would have been an easy winner , but he got there first and that\u2019s all that matters .\nout of settling mist , tonalist had stamped himself as one of the most impressive individuals raised at the sweezeys ' timber town stable near lexington but had hit a major growth spurt before the sale .\ntonalist , who entered the 146th running of the belmont stakes with 12 - 1 odds , upset race favorite california chrome , demolishing any chance for the first triple crown winner since affirmed in 1978 .\ntonalist was wearing blinkers until the gold cup . \u201cmy mistake , \u201d clement said . \u201cwhen we took them off , he was less aggressive and he was able to stay out of trouble . \u201d\nsince the belmont victory , tonalist has finished in the top three in each of his three starts , including a win at the grade 1 jockey club gold cup stakes in his last start . tonalist will close strong , and if the pace set ( by bayern and / or moreno ) is too strong to start , he stands an excellent chance of usurping the field at the finish line .\nin response , robert evans , tonalist\u2019s owner , chose diplomacy over confrontation . when asked what his thoughts on coburn\u2019s comments were , he replied : \u2018i don\u2019t think i have a comment on that . \u201d\ntonalist also won the grade 2 peter pan stakes and grade 3 westchester , and placed in five other graded stakes , three of those grade 1 events . he bankrolled $ 3 , 647 , 000 .\ntonalist , ridden by joel rosario , races to the finish line en route to winning the 146th running of the belmont stakes at belmont park on june 7 , 2014 , in elmont , new york .\ntonalist paid out $ 6 . 40 , $ 3 . 70 and $ 2 . 70 while clement earned his 100th victory of the 2015 season as well thanks to a remarkable 2015 cigar mile win .\nhis most recent showing was a third - place finish behind tonalist and wicked strong in the gold cup , but his first - place effort in the grade 2 suburban shows the potential this horse possesses .\nwith the win , tonalist will now enjoy a rest though there are no set plans for the graded stakes winner who claimed the peter pan stakes , jockey club gold cup and belmont stakes in 2014 . he repeated at the jockey club gold cup this season , while also crossing first at the westchester handicap . tonalist has undoubtedly earned a long rest , but there are no stud plans for the well known runner .\n( the eventual winner of the grade i besilu stables florida derby ) in an allowance optional claiming contest at the south florida oval . an illness prevented tonalist from competing in the april 5 urltoken wood memorial ( gr . i ) , which in turn kept him from earning a slot in the kentucky derby starting gate . when tonalist ' s health improved , the peter pan was targeted with an eye toward the belmont .\ntonalist , a bay colt by tapit , was making his fifth career start and was coming off a four - length victory in the may 10 peter pan stakes . he was bred in kentucky by woodslane farm .\ntonalist returned victorious to belmont in the fall , capturing the jockey club gold cup ( g1 ) by 1 \u00be lengths over a packed field featuring current or future grade 1 winners and v . e . day .\ncarrying 8 - 1 odds , tonalist paid $ 20 . 40 , $ 9 . 60 and $ 7 . commissioner paid $ 23 . 20 and $ 3 . 20 and medal count paid $ 13 . 20 .\n, tonalist , and california chrome , who took a position inside behind the leaders . the early fractions were mild ; : 24 . 06 for the opening quarter - mile and : 48 . 52 for the half .\ntonalist will stand for $ 40 , 000 lfsn and will be available for inspection at lane\u2019s end by appointment . please call chance timm , jill mccully or levana capria for more information at 859 - 873 - 7300 .\nsomebody ( or a few people ) bet something in the neighborhood of a few hundred thousand to win on tonalist just before post time . that\u2019s the only way a horse could drop that much right before the bell rings .\nhe also took aim at the connections of horses that skip the kentucky derby and preakness stakes in order to arrive at belmont with a full tank of gas \u2013 as was the case with tonalist , trained by christophe clement .\ncoming from off the lead , as was his wont , tonalist surged to win the belmont by a head , once again over commissioner , to end eventual two - time horse of the year california chrome\u2019s triple crown bid .\nbut he was monstrous in this long race . three , four and even five horses wide throughout the first turn , tonalist never got near the rail to save ground the entire race . three and even four wide around that long , sweeping second turn ( remember , belmont is the only track in the country that is one lap for a mile - and - a - half ) , tonalist had every reason to quit when he turned for home .\ntonalist was 9 - to - 1 at the belmont and edged commissioner at the wire . he was 5 - to - 1 on friday for saturday\u2019s breeders\u2019 cup classic , the third choice behind undefeated shared belief and california chrome .\ninstead , tonalist , who didn ' t compete in the kentucky derby or preakness stakes , held off commissioner at the finish to win by a head . medal count finished third , and california chrome and wicked strong tied for fourth .\nrosario then snapped california chrome ' s bid for the 2014 triple crown with a triumph at the preakness stakes aboard tonalist . with a similar horse name , he will get the mount for tourist amid a highly competitive field of 10 .\ncommissioner maintained the lead through six furlongs in 1 : 12 . 84 as tonalist and general a rod swapped positions just behind . jockey victor espinoza then was forced to go around the leaders through one mile in 1 : 37 . 13 .\n. the piece is a classic zwara gouache \u2013 the white river , a bridge , reflections on the water , tonalist background . all to good effect and the bonus of semi - prominent indianapolis subject matter . \u2013curt churchman , fine estate art\nbut clement was not surprised . tonalist is the grandson of pleasant colony , which won the first two legs of the crown in 1981 . that horse was trained by johnny campo , who was approached by abc\u2019s jim mckay after the derby .\nrenowned trainer thomas clement doubled down by running tonalist and red vine in the 2015 cigar mile . the gamble paid off big time . the victory bags clement his first win at the cigar mile , held at the aquaduct in new york .\ninstead of a historic win by their favorite , the huge crowd at belmont park in elmont , new york , witnessed a dramatic finish in which tonalist , ridden by joel rosario , overtook commissioner in his last strides to win by a head .\nevans and trainer christophe clement both declined comment on coburn\u2019s declaration following the belmont that fresh horses , such as tonalist , should not be allowed to start in the final two legs of the triple crown if they did not start in the derby .\nlargely because of the pleasant colony tie , evans decided to purchase tonalist privately from his breeders , rene and lauren woolcott of woodslane farm , after the colt failed to meet his reserve and was bought back for $ 195 , 000 at saratoga .\ntonalist , no . 11 ridden by joel rosario , races to the finish line en route to winning the 146th running of the belmont stakes at belmont park on june 7 in elmont , n . y . ( al bello / getty images )\nbut tonalist got sick with a lung infection and was unable to make the wood , and his intelligent trainer , christophe clement , instead decided to back off and get him healthy and into a good prep race , the peter pan , at belmont .\nin november , tonalist now holds a perfect 4 - for - 4 record in races at belmont , including the belmont stakes , the jockey club gold cup stakes ( gr . i ) , and the peter pan stakes ( gr . ii ) .\ntonalist crosses the finish line to win the belmont stakes on june 7 in elmont , new york . california chrome , far left , was bidding to become the first triple crown winner since 1978 , but instead finished in a dead heat for fourth .\nthe woolcotts were left scratching their heads when he failed to meet his reserve , but luckily tonalist had caught the eye of evans . after his private purchase the colt was sent to be broken by bill harrigan at miacomet farm near georgetown , ky .\nalthough evans will make the call , clement seems to think tonalist will run next year . a win for california chrome probably will keep him running , too . that\u2019s welcome in a sport plagued by early retirements , thanks to the lucrative breeding business .\nthe younger evans spoke with daily racing form shortly after tonalist\u2019s belmont victory . \u201cit was quiet after he didn\u2019t win , \u201d he remarked about pleasant colony\u2019s placing in the belmont . of tonalist , he added , \u201che\u2019s 17 hands , a great big boy , sort of like his grandfather\u2026 i\u2019ve been in the game a long time , and i know you have to be patient , take care of the horse , and that\u2019s what we [ evans and trainer christophe clement ] did\u2026 christophe had him just right . \u201d\nthe long - bodied tonalist was slow to develop , making just one start as a juvenile . he was briefly considered for the kentucky derby trail before a lung infection and a foot issue caused him to miss the wood memorial in april . the colt subsequently earned his place in the belmont with a four - length victory may 10 over commissioner in the grade 2 peter pan stakes at belmont . evans praised the patience of clement \u2013 who also was winning his first classic \u2013 in getting tonalist to the starting gate .\nbill farish continued , \u201cwe\u2019re in the business of classic thoroughbreds and he certainly fits our program . a . p . indy , lemon drop kid , union rags won races like the belmont and gold cup and we are confident tonalist will continue that success . \u201d\neffinex settled a bit around the 3 / 4 - mile mark and kicked out two wide to get away from the fading street babe . from there , effinex was able to reel in coach inge while also managing to hold off a hard - charging tonalist .\ntonalist was bred by rene and lauren woolcott , whose 240 - acre woodslane farm near the plains , va . originally into steeplechasing , they got involved with thoroughbreds in 2006 and they purchased settling mist at the 2007 keeneland november sale through agent patrick lawley - wakelin .\na lung infection kept tonalist out of the kentucky derby and preakness . that was pointed out , angrily , by steve coburn , co - owner of california chrome , who said it was the \u201ccoward\u2019s way out\u201d to ambush the favorites at the end of the trail .\nwhile the focus saturday evening at belmont was correctly on california chrome as he attempted to become the first triple crown winner since affirmed in 1978 , it was tonalist who ran an unbelievable mile - and - a - half race to just beat out a dead game commissioner .\ntonalist , who broke from the outside 11 post , came into the belmont off an impressive four - length victory over the track in the peter pan stakes ( gr . ii ) may 10 in just his fourth career start . the belmont winner is trained by christophe clement .\ncongratulations to the connections of all of fasig - tipton\u2019s 2015 eclipse award - winning sales graduates and nominees , including : american pharoah , stellar wind , tepin , nyquist , songbird , tonalist , stopchargingmaria , airoforce , dortmund , rock fall , wavell avenue , and stephanie\u2019s kitten .\na newcomer to the triple crown series , tonalist broke his maiden in january of his three - year - old season and captured the peter pan s . ( g2 ) by 4 lengths over future graded stakes winner commissioner on may 10 prior to his start in the belmont .\nand there several runners with a chance as they turned for home through 10 furlongs in 2 : 02 . 43 . commissioner , after opening a clear advantage , held resolute along the rail and was caught in the final few jumps by tonalist , who was ridden by joel rosario .\ntonalist , whose four grade 1 victories were highlighted by the 2014 belmont stakes , has been retired and will stand the 2016 season at lane ' s end in versailles , ky . the son of reigning leading sire tapit will stand for $ 40 , 000 in his initial season .\ntonalist was a kentucky derby candidate but had to miss the may 3 classic at churchill downs because of a brief illness . the victory was the first in a triple crown event for clement , a new york - based frenchman heretofore best known for his prowess with older turf horses .\nit\u2019s the biggest question facing handicappers heading into the breeders\u2019 cup classic , as none of three - year - olds\u2014triple crown champion american pharoah , his travers foil keen ice , and familiar foe frosted\u2014have faced older horses . last year , wins by then - three - year - olds shared belief in the pacific classic and tonalist in the jockey club gold cup portended a strong hand from that age group , and they delivered on that promise by sweeping the superfecta with bayern winning , toast of new york second , california chrome third , shared belief fourth , and tonalist fifth .\ntonalist ' s owner , robert s . evans , had indicated immediately after the cigar mile that the son of tapit would stay in training at age 5 , but a deal was worked out with lane ' s end to bring him to stud immediately rather than having him race next year .\nbeholder\u2019s scratch threw me for a little bit of a loop , but part of the reason i liked her was that i preferred the elders to the three - year - olds , and i thought she was the best of that group , and now i feel that tonalist is the best .\njockey victor espinoza settled california chrome , the 5 / 4 favorite , behind the heels of the initial leader , commissioner , as the field trundled along at a moderate pace . along the backstretch , tonalist and general a rod joined commissioner to form a wall of horses in front of california chome .\ncarrying evans\u2019s colors , the lightly raced tonalist edged commissioner by a head to win the belmont stakes as california chrome finished in a dead heat for fourth , joining pleasant colony among the 13 horses since affirmed in 1978 to win the kentucky derby and preakness stakes but fall short of the triple crown .\nhe was going easy ,\nrosario said of tonalist .\ni didn ' t want to be too far behind . when i got to the three - eighths pole i was a little confident . i was worried a little bit turning for home , but he started picking them up .\ntwo horses that should not get the benefit of the doubt for their breeders ' cup classic losses are tonalist , whose championship aspirations ended with his fifth - place finish , and california chrome , who was a no - excuse third to bayern and lost for a second time in three meetings against that rival .\ntonalist ( usa ) b . c , 2011 { 3 - l } dp = 5 - 17 - 18 - 1 - 1 ( 42 ) di = 2 . 82 cd = 0 . 57 - 16 starts , 7 wins , 4 places , 2 shows career earnings : $ 3 , 697 , 000\nby the way , tonalist took an incredible amount of \u201clate\u201d money at the belmont . while his morning line was 8 - 1 , when he was 15 - 1 earlier on belmont day , some \u201cexperts\u201d actually suggested that he couldn\u2019t win because he wasn\u2019t being bet . if you understand the game , you know that\u2019s an absurdity on belmont day . in fact , he held at 11 - 1 for about an hour before post . but when the race was over , tonalist had been hit from 11 - 1 to a low 9 - 1 ( $ 20 . 40 ) , an astounding drop given the handle on the belmont .\ntonalist is out of the winning pleasant colony mare settling mist , whose four stakes - producing half - sisters include the dams of horse of the year havre de grace and grade 1 winner riskaverse . it is the family of leading sire raja baba , champion plugged nickle , and grade 1 winners sauce boat and christiecat .\nthose words were gentler than those of steve coburn , who co - owns the colt with perry martin . coburn assailed tonalist for not competing in the triple crown ' s first two legs . instead of facing fresh horses in the belmont , coburn believes only those who start the kentucky derby should be eligible for the belmont .\n2015 cigar mile results 1 . tonalist ( 2 / 1 ) 2 . red vine ( 8 / 1 ) 3 . matrooh ( 6 / 1 ) 4 . mshawish ( 10 / 1 ) 5 . private zone ( 6 / 5 ) 6 . full of mine ( 99 / 1 ) - marking ( scratched )\ncalifornia chrome , the kentucky derby and preakness champion , was valiant in the role of history , but in the end he was no match for the spoiler , portrayed to perfection on saturday by tonalist , who ran the flawless sort of the race , with the same finishing kick , that chrome had run in louisville and baltimore .\ncathy sweezey ( of consignor sweezey and partners ) kept dragging me over to see tonalist ( at the sale ) ,\nevans said .\nshe took him out of the stall and told me he was the best horse she ' d ever been around ; she loved him , and i had to buy him .\ntonalist # 11 , ridden by joel rosario , races to the finish line en route to winning the 146th running of the belmont stakes at belmont park on june 7 , 2014 in elmont , new york . california chrome # 2 tied for fourth in his bid for the triple crown . ( photo by al bello / getty images ) tonalist # 11 , ridden by joel rosario , races to the finish line en route to winning the 146th running of the belmont stakes at belmont park on june 7 , 2014 in elmont , new york . california chrome # 2 tied for fourth in his bid for the triple crown . ( photo by al bello / getty images )\nin stark contrast , tonalist , with jockey joel rosario on board , showed zest aplenty up front . after a thrilling duel with commissioner , he passed the wire a head to the good . medal count ran on for third , while california chrome and wicked strong were a further length - and - three - quarters away in fourth .\nthe triple crown went unclaimed for a 36th year as tonalist captured the 146th running of the grade 1 , $ 1 . 5 million belmont stakes on saturday at belmont park by a head over commissioner , with kentucky derby and preakness winner california chrome finishing in a dead - heat for fourth in the\ntest of the champion .\nonly tonalist is back this year , and much has been made of his inability to win outside of new york , but his classic last year wasn\u2019t bad . he was running at the end , and finishing behind california chrome and shared belief is not that bad considering either horse would have had a big chance in this year\u2019s race .\namid the 120 , 000 gathered to witness the first triple crown winner for 36 years , the sharp pain of disappointment was more palpable than a sucker punch to the gut as california chrome trailed home only fourth\u2014in a dead - heat with wicked strong\u2014behind tonalist in the 146 th running of the $ 1 . 5m belmont stakes at belmont park .\non saturday , jockey joel rosario , who had also guided the colt\u2019s win in the peter pan stakes , took tonalist on a flawless ride , sitting comfortably in third place for much of the race , about a length off pacesetter commissioner\u2019s lead . he started to close at the homestretch , catching then passing commissioner to win by a head .\ncalifornia chrome , the 4 - 5 favorite under victor espinoza , made a menacing outside move in upper stretch but had no final punch . near the early lead while saving ground , he was angled out on the final turn and had every chance to go past commissioner , but it was tonalist who closed best while california chrome labored home .\ntonalist burst into national prominence with his victory in the belmont stakes , in which eventual horse of the year california chrome finished fourth in a triple crown bid . the victor went on to pick up two editions of the jockey club gold cup , and concluded his career with a final grade 1 tally in the cigar mile on nov . 28 .\ntonalist shattered , once again , the notion that a horse today can win three races in five weeks at three different distances in an era where horses are bred and trained for speed , not stamina and , generally speaking , rarely race ( six or seven times a year for today\u2019s top horses ) . california chrome finished in a dead heat for fourth .\ncigar mile h . ( g1 ) : robert evans\u2019 tonalist ( tapit ) had just one beat in midstretch but powered home dramatically on the outside to post a neck tally . the standout four - year - old colt finished off one mile on the fast main surface in 1 : 37 with john velazquez in the silks and is expected back in 2016 for trainer christophe clement .\nthe three horses who beat california chrome on saturday \u2014 tonalist , commissioner and medal count \u2014 combined to make just one start in either the derby or preakness . in fact , only two of california chrome\u2019s 10 rivals saturday \u2014 ride on curlin and general a rod \u2014 had also competed in both the derby and preakness . most trainers these days seek a tactical advantage by resting their horses .\ntonalist , with joel rosario riding , posted a narrow victory over commissioner in the 146th belmont stakes before a packed house saturday at belmont park as california chrome faded in the final furlong to finish in a dead heat for fourth , becoming the 12th kentucky derby and preakness winner to fail in the test of the champion since affirmed became the last horse to sweep the triple crown in 1978 .\none of the top older horses this year , tonalist has won six graded stakes from a mile to a mile and a half with earnings over $ 3 . 6m . he has run triple digit beyers in all of his seven starts this year , including the cigar mile ( g1 ) and a repeat win in the jockey club gold cup ( g1 ) . through sixteen lifetime starts , nine of which came in g1 company , he\u2019s been off the board only twice . his career best 111 beyer is the 4th highest up to a mile this year . a leading three year old in 2014 , tonalist won three graded stakes including the belmont ( g1 ) and the jockey club gold cup ( g1 ) becoming the second three year old to accomplish that feat since easy goer in 1989 .\ninfluences are too many to list but i\u2019m interested in masters of light ; particularly spanish artist joaquin sorolla y bastida , the australian impressionists of the heidelberg school and the lesser known australian tonalist painters . also contemporary artists henry hensche , stuart shils , tibor nagy , kim cogan , jeremy mann ( the list goes on and on\u2026 ) stimulate my fascination with the different moods created by ever changing light .\nthe new york - bred colt has experienced tremendous success at belmont , his home park , with two other wins at the track apart from his triple crown triumph last june . unlike most horses , tonalist ' s final tune - up did not come at santa anita , as he has only had some casual gallops at the california track . nevertheless , he has received excellent reviews for his recent form :\ntonalist\u2019s ties to racing success run deep , as his pedigree is littered with belmont winners . the tapit colt was bred by rene and lauren woolcott\u2019s woodslane farm in the plains , va . the couple , with a steeplechase background but relative newcomers to thoroughbred flat racing at the time , purchased the winning pleasant colony mare settling mist for $ 800 , 000 out of the 2007 keeneland november breeding stock sale . she is a half - sister to four stakes producers , including easter bunnette , dam of 2011 horse of the year havre de grace , and the bink , dam of multiple grade 1 winner riskaverse . tonalist\u2019s pedigree also includes champion sprinter plugged nickle , 1992 belmont winner and breed - shaping sire a . p . indy , 1999 belmont winner and champion lemon drop kid , and 1990 preakness winner summer squall .\nalong with the win , tonalist will pick up a the bulk of the $ 1 . 5 million total race purse , receiving $ 800 , 000 . for second and third place , commissioner and medal count will take home $ 280 , 000 and $ 150 , 000 , respectively . the purse is higher than ever before in 2014 . it ' s up from $ 1 million , where it had been since 1998 .\nalthough tonalist was an outside purchase , evans has found success with his own breeding program . his other top runners have included shared interest , a homebred daughter of pleasant colony who won the grade 1 ruffian handicap in 1993 . she went on to earn broodmare of the year honors , producing 1999 breeders\u2019 cup juvenile fillies winner cash run and grade 1 king\u2019s bishop stakes winner forestry , both of whom evans sold for seven figures as young horses .\nthe big bay continued to show his affinity for \u201cbig sandy\u201d with a win in the westchester s . ( g3 ) in his four - year - old debut . he then successfully defended his jockey club gold cup title by 4 \u00be lengths over grade 1 winners wicked strong , effinex , and constitution . in the final win of his exceptional career , tonalist gamely outfinished his rivals for a neck victory in the cigar mile ( g1 ) .\nhonor code \u2013 after a breakthrough win in the grade i metropolitan handicap ( the met mile ) over tonalist at belmont park , honor code is stretching back out to 1 - 1 / 8 miles as he targets the grade i whitney for trainer shug mcgaughey . the four - year - old son of a . p . indy is among the last and looks to be a promising older horse as he continues to train well and look good in his races .\n\u201ci want to thank christophe clement and his team for their great work . this horse retired sound and only ran on lasix . what he\u2019s been able to accomplish is a great testament to the horsemanship of christophe , \u201d said owner r . s . evans . \u201ci\u2019m very excited to partner with lane\u2019s end on the next stage of this horse\u2019s career . tonalist will be a great fit there . they have an excellent reputation of making racehorses like him into prolific stallions . \u201d\nprivate zone just couldn\u2019t get anything going in this race despite coming out of the gates in the lead . it simply seemed like private zone wasn\u2019t ready to put forth his best effort as he faded down the mile stretch and watched helplessly as tonalist thundered ahead . he would fade to fifth , beating out 99 / 1 longshot full of mine . the highly touted mshawish , who debuted on dirt for the first time , checked while matrooh was able to slip in with a show .\ntonalist , a 9 - 1 shot coming out of the outside ( no . 11 ) gate , skipped both the kentucky derby and preakness and was the least experienced horse in the field , having raced only four times previous to the belmont . but one of those races was an impressive , four - length win may 10 in the peter pan stakes on the same belmont track where he prevailed saturday . his dazzling workouts in the days leading up to this race were the talk of the track .\ntonalist was sent to wayne and cathy sweezey\u2019s timber town stable in lexington , ky . , to prep for the 2012 fasig - tipton saratoga selected yearling sale . but despite his loaded catalog page , the colt , who was going through a growth spurt at the time , failed to meet his reserve with a high bid of $ 195 , 000 . robert evans had yearlings in the sweezeys\u2019 consignment who also failed to sell but was urged to take a closer look at the colt sharing the barn .\ntonalist was awesome in the peter pan , winning by four lengths in the slop and making him a prime candidate for the belmont . under the coburn theory , you should have to race in all three triple crown races . but what if a horse gets sick before a prep race , gets injured walking out of his stall a day or a week before the derby , or gets a fever the day before or the day of the derby , he should then be not allowed to participate in any triple crown race ?\nin what can only be described as a bizarre turn of events , one of california chrome\u2019s owners , steven coburn , lost his mind and took the low road after the defeat . with kenny rice of nbc letting him rant on on national television , coburn , one of the sorest losers ever , went on an incredible rant , saying that racing in one leg of the triple crown \u201cwas a coward\u2019s way out . \u201d he later told yahoo ! sports that the connections of tonalist were \u201ccheaters\u201d by only racing in one leg of the triple crown .\ntonalist , owned by robert s . evans and trained by christophe clement , returned $ 20 . 40 after finishing the 1 1 / 2 - mile distance in 2 : 28 . 52 over a fast track . commissioner , on the lead throughout under javier castellano at 28 - 1 , only gave way in the final yards when losing by a head . medal count , a 24 - 1 shot , was third , another length back , while california chrome dead - heated for fourth with wicked strong , another three - quarters of a length back .\nwhile the chase for the first winner of all three triple crown races in 36 years was evidently newsworthy , the hoopla did overshadow amazing performances by a variety of thoroughbreds during the 2014 season . two - time horse of the year wise dan continued his dominance , bayern ripped through the competition and tonalist denied california chrome of an historic glory . perhaps the biggest surprise of the year was take charge brandi , who ascended from practically nowhere to take home a breeders ' cup event against significant odds , establishing herself as a favorite for 2014 juvenile filly of the year .\n2015 saratoga season seasoned with superstars : july 24 , 2015 , marks another summer start at saratoga race course in saratoga springs , new york . saratoga is over 150 years deep in history surrounding the great sport of horse racing , and its meet has always given horse racing some of its greatest moments . the travers , woodward , and whitney are only a few races that draw superstar horses each year . this year promises to be no different . some horses that the horseman and fan need to watch out for upon their visits to saratoga this year include carpe diem , frosted , tonalist , and honor code . here\u2019s a look at some small profiles of prominent and likely saratoga visitors .\nso much of an approach to your question depends on whether one is a tonalist ( and emphasizes values ) or a colorist ( and emphasizes hues / temperatures ) . tonalists and colorists may use very different approaches to the issue you raise . sling paint ! virgil ah , virgil , you hit the nail on the head in my case . i just started landscape painting last year , and have such a hard time with it , much more so than figure painting or still life . i recently figured out through looking in many landscape art books ( not just watercolor ) , that part of my problem is trying to prioritize which approach to use for a painting , i think i want to be a colorist , but in reality , think i ' m more of a tonalist painter . mitchel albala ' s\nlandscape painting\nbook ( not watercolor ) explores this with some examples , like the dutch painters of the 17th century focusing on value contrast ( tonalists with little colors in their paintings ) , versus impressionists , who used a color priority approach and less value contrast . zoodlemaker and anyone else interested in landscape paintings , i ' d recommend checking out mitchel albala ' s book even though he focuses on oil painting . another book i ' ve found helpful is ian roberts '\nmastering composition\n, which deals not only with landscaping , but still life and even some figure work . i ' m still struggling , but feel i ' m on a better path after reading those two books . barbara\nz , you ' ve asked a good question for which there is no single answer . char has given you a good explanation of atmospheric perspective , which is used to give a three - dimensional appearance to landscape paintings on two - dimensional surfaces . so much of an approach to your question depends on whether one is a tonalist ( and emphasizes values ) or a colorist ( and emphasizes hues / temperatures ) . tonalists and colorists may use very different approaches to the issue you raise . yet another approach might found in how painters handle shape and form . for example , are forms flat / two - dimensional , or are the forms modeled / three - dimensional ? probably the best answer is for you to search lots of landscape paintings , see what works , what doesn ' t and what you like / dislike . in the end , it ' s your painting ! sling paint ! virgil\n\u201che\u2019s 17 hands , a great big boy , sort of like his grandfather , pleasant colony , \u201d evans said . \u201cchristophe doesn\u2019t push horses . he takes great care of his horses , and i\u2019m patient . i\u2019ve been in the game a long time , and i know you have to be patient , take care of the horse , and that\u2019s what we did . \u2026 he was sick before the wood memorial , and we couldn\u2019t run him in it , so we couldn\u2019t run in the derby , [ and ] we aimed for the peter pan . christophe clement did a good job of getting him ready , and he surprised me . it wasn\u2019t a very nice day \u2013 there were thunderstorms , lots of rain , and a muddy track . and [ tonalist ] just galloped , and that\u2019s the clue he was a good horse because he was only three - quarters fit . so we had four weeks to get ready for [ the belmont ] , and christophe had him just right . \u201d\nstarbucks to eliminate plastic straws by 2020 instead , starbucks said it will use a strawless lid that it designed , developed , and manufactured .\nboris johnson quits as uk ' s may faces mounting brexit crisis the british foreign secretary quits , accusing the prime minister of flying\nwhite flags\nof surrender in brexit negotiations with the eu .\nworld cup 2018 : fans around the globe unite see the sights as fans from around the world gather to watch the 2018 world cup .\nthe baseball report : all - star rosters announced , machado trade talks heat up the lineups for the midsummer classic have been released , and one a . l . starter could be on the move soon .\nthis week in golf : kevin na dominates sunday at the greenbrier kevin na won a military tribute at the greenbrier going away , with a 6 - under sunday that included five birdies in his first 10 holes .\nbest farmers markets in new york whether you\u2019re making an afternoon grocery run or searching for the perfect premade picnic basket , these markets are sure to help you find whatever it is that you need .\nbest places for fresh fish in new york new york has some of the best fish markets where you can find a variety of fresh fish at . check out these five markets for any of your fish cravings .\nfurry friend finder : jilly bean & june bug in this edition of \u201cfurry friend finder , \u201d cbs2\u2019s cindy hsu and vanessa murdock introduce jilly bean and june bug .\nbest ways to celebrate fourth of july in ny from barbecues and baseball to contests and fireworks , check out some of the best ways to celebrate the fourth of july in new york .\nbonus extra : coney island part 2 , a deeper dig go behind the scenes with cbs2 ' s elle mclogan .\ndrivers endure high gas prices , dangerous weather on so - called ' terrible tuesday ' with 40 million americans on the road and gas prices up 62 cents per gallon , travelers are warned to expect the worst .\ndelta bans pit bulls from flying as service animals the updated policy comes after two incidents where employees were bitten by a customer ' s emotional support animal .\nwhile one of california chrome\u2019s owners turned himself into a national fool in a matter of minutes , the focus should be on the race , not the self - proclaimed \u201cdumb - ass\u201d owner ."]}
{"id": 959, "summary": [{"text": "ansonia penangensis is a species of toad in the family bufonidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is endemic to penang island , malaysia .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "records from elsewhere represent other species ; the mainland records are referable to ansonia malayana and ansonia jeetsukumarani .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "its natural habitats are rocky streams in rainforests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "ansonia penangensis", "paragraphs": ["information on the penang stream toad ( ansonia penangensis ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nfigure 1 . ( e ) natural habitat of ansonia penangensis ( photo : evan quah s . h . ) .\nfigure 1 . ( a ) ansonia penangensis ( usmhc 0001 ) from penang hill , penang , west malaysia ( b ) ventral view of a . penangensis ( usmhc 0001 )\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - penang stream toad ( ansonia penangensis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - penang stream toad ( ansonia penangensis )\ntitle =\narkive species - penang stream toad ( ansonia penangensis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nansonia penangensis \u2014 inger , 1954 , fieldiana , zool . , 33 : 239 . inger , 1960 , fieldiana , zool . , 39 : 476 .\nansonia penangensis is a species of toad in the family bufonidae . it is endemic to malaysia . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and rivers .\nbufo ( ansonia ) penangensis \u2014 mocquard , 1890 , nouv . arch . mus . natl . hist . nat . paris , ser . 3 , 2 : 160 .\n( c ) tadpole of a . penangensis clinging onto rock in stream of fast flowing stream\npeter paul van dijk , jeet sukumaran , indraneil das , norsham yaakob , leong tzi ming , yodchaiy chuaynkern 2004 . ansonia penangensis . the iucn red list of threatened species 2004 : e . t164782a115305123 . urltoken\n( d ) partially metamorphosed froglet of a . penangensis ( all photos : evan quah s . h . ) .\nvan dijk , p . p . , sukumaran , j . , das , i . , yaakob , n . , tzi ming , l . & chuaynkern , y . 2004 . ansonia penangensis . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 21 july 2007 .\nbufo penangensis \u2014 boulenger , 1882 , cat . batr . sal . coll . brit . mus . , ed . 2 : 287 .\nthere is much confusion surrounding the status of this species relative to ansonia malayana . populations that have been assigned to this species on the isthmus of kra and from fraser ' s hill in malaysia are considered here to refer to a . malayana , a position which is supported by grismer ( 2006 ) ( who treats a . penangensis as endemic to penang island ) . however , it is not clear that these two species are distinct from each other , and further taxonomic work is needed . records of a . penangensis from sumatra , indonesia , are now assigned to a . glandulosa .\nsimilar to other species of ansonia that show very limited and specific ranges ( grismer 2006a , b ; wood et al . 2008 , matsui et al . 2009 ) , a . penangensis is endemic only to penang island . earlier reports by berry , 1975 of this species occurring sympatrically with a . malayana is erroneous . berry , 1975 never listed any vouchered specimens that were deposited at any museums or institutions . exhaustive searches have not yielded any evidence of the presence of a . malayana on penang island .\nansonia penangensis stoliczka , 1870 , j . asiat . soc . bengal , 39 : 152 . syntypes : location not designated ; zsic 2717 - 18 , 3585 - 86 considered syntypes by chanda , das , and dubois , 2001\n2000\n, hamadryad , 25 : 102 - 103 , who discussed them . sclater , 1892 , list batr . indian mus . : 27 , listed only 3585 - 86 and questioned whether they were actually syntypes . type locality :\non penang , two near the great water - fall ( above alexandra bath ) , and two in a narrow gorge about half way up the penang hill\n, malaysia .\nnatural history : all individuals were collected between 1900 - 2100 h , following periods of afternoon precipitation . all specimens were found on the ground amongst leaf litter near a trail in evergreen forest with a thin canopy and gaps in the canopy , approximately 300 m from a river ( figure 1e ; n 05 . 44\u00ba , e 100 . 28\u00ba , 263 m elevation ) . tadpoles were found , clinging onto the rocks in fast flowing portions of the river ( figure 1c ) . these observations are similar to the remarks made by boulenger ( 1912 ) and flower ( 1899 ) who noted the tadpoles of a . penangensis can be found in swift - flowing hill - streams . a partially metamorphosed froglet was also observed ( figure 1d ) . the tadpole and the partially metamorphosed froglet were not collected , but these findings indicate breeding by a . penangensis in this river .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as vulnerable because it is known from only a single location .\nthis species is known only from penang island , malaysia . its altitudinal range is not known .\nthere is very little information . the collection of tadpoles on penang hill in 2004 represents the first records of the species in over 100 years ; this absence of records might be a reflection of inadequate surveying effort .\nthe forest habitat at the type locality is well protected ; other potential threats are presently unknown .\nthe hill forests on penang hill are currently protected as a catchment area for georgetown , and the lower reaches are within the penang botanical gardens . nonetheless , the population status of this species requires careful monitoring , given that it is known only from a single location .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\npeter paul van dijk , jeet sukumaran , indraneil das , norsham yaakob , leong tzi ming , yodchaiy chuaynkern . 2004 .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2004 : e . t164782a115305123 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nas endemic to penang island ) . however , it is not clear that these two species are distinct from each other , and further taxonomic work is needed . records of\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\npenang stream toad ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 39 ) .\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\nfor access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nnew & recent described flora & fauna species from all over the world esp . asia , oriental , indomalayan & malesiana region\n\u0e1b\u0e49\u0e32\u0e22\u0e01\u0e33\u0e01\u0e31\u0e1a : 2011 , amphibia - caudata , anura - frog , author : l . l . grismer , bufonidae , herpetology - frog ; reptile snake , malaysia , redescription , rediscovery , zootaxa\nwuodendron b . xue , y . h . tan & chaowasku wuodendron praecox ( hook . f . & thomson ) b . xue , y . h . tan & x . l . hou in xue , tan . . .\n[ botany \u2022 2017 ] begonia fulgurata | \u0e14\u0e32\u0e14\u0e14\u0e32\u0e23\u0e32\u0e23\u0e31\u0e28\u0e21\u0e35 \u2022 a new species ( sect . diploclinium , begoniaceae ) from chiang mai , northern thailand\nbegonia fulgurata c . - i peng , c . w . lin & phutthai \u0e14\u0e32\u0e14\u0e14\u0e32\u0e23\u0e32\u0e23\u0e31\u0e28\u0e21\u0e35 | | doi : 10 . 3767 / blumea . 2017 . 62 . 03 . 01 urltoken be . . .\nchamaelirium viridiflorum l . wang , z . c . liu & w . b . liao in liu , feng , wang & liao , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / phytotaxa . 357 . . . .\ngreat - billed seed - finch sporophila maximiliani ( cabanis , 1851 ) in ubaid , silveira , medolago , et . al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / . . .\nendocerids with their filtering apparatus in mironenko , 2018 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2018 . 1491565 reconstruction by andre . . .\naristolochia tongbiguanensis j . y . shen , q . b . gong & s . landrein in gong , landrein , xi , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 6165 / tai . . . .\nbagualosaurus agudoensis pretto , langer & schultz , 2018 doi : 10 . 1093 / zoolinnean / zly028 illustration : jorge blanco c . . .\nthe hypothetical phylogenetic relationships of ceratosaurs based on current topologies . the main source is from wang et al . ( 2016 . . .\nnipponosaurus sachalinensis nagao , 1936 in takasaki , chiba , kobayashi , et al . , 2018 \u30cb\u30c3\u30dd\u30ce\u30b5\u30a6\u30eb\u30b9 | | doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2017 . . . .\nbegonia medogensis jianw . li , y . h . tan & x . h . jin in li , tan , wang , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 3897 / phytokeys . 103 . 25392 . . .\n[ herpetology \u2022 2011 ] myron karnsi & m . resetari \u2022 . . .\n[ herpetology \u2022 2011 ] a reptile survey in a dry dec . . .\n[ herpetology \u2022 1995 ] 6 new brookesia | b . ambreens . . .\n[ herpetology \u2022 2006 ] 3 new rhampholeon | r . beradu . . .\n[ herpetology \u2022 2002 ] lipinia nitens ( peters , 1871 ) . . .\n[ ichthyology \u2022 2008 ] 5 new puntius ( teleostei : cyp . . .\n[ ichthyology \u2022 2005 ] puntius tiantian & p . didi \u2022 . . .\n[ ichthyology \u2022 2008 ] puntius reval \u2022 a new barb ( t . . .\non this day ( july 10th ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .\nanomaloglossus meansi : a new species of cryptic forest frog from the wokomung and ayanganna sky islands of southern guyana .\nthe benefits and costs of academic travel . or\nthere and back again ; again and again\ncanon renueva su gama de 70 - 200 mm f : 2 . 8 y f : 4\nplants go extinct , but sometimes species are rediscovered . this one after 151 years .\ni ' m killing antediluvian salad but even in death there is rebirth . . .\nnecps carnivorous plant show : sept . 9 - 10 at tower hill botanical garden\nthis is a particularly beautiful species of centrolenid - the granular glass frog , cochranella granulosa .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 10 / 15 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files ."]}
{"id": 963, "summary": [{"text": "the puerto rican sharp-shinned hawk , ( accipiter striatus venator ) , falc\u00f3n de sierra or gavil\u00e1n pecho rufo in spanish , is an endemic subspecies of the north american sharp-shinned hawk , occurring only in puerto rico .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "discovered in 1912 and described as a distinct sub-species , it has been placed on the united states fish and wildlife service list of endangered species because of its rapidly dwindling population in puerto rico .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it can be found in the toro negro state forest . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "puerto rican sharp - shinned hawk", "paragraphs": ["no critical habitat rules have been published for the puerto rican sharp - shinned hawk .\nother names : cuban sharp - shinned hawk ( fringilloides ) , eastern sharp - shinned hawk ( velox ) , haitian sharp - shinned hawk ( striatus ) , mexican sharp - shinned hawk ( suttoni ) , pacific sharp - shinned hawk ( perobscurus ) , puerto rican sharp - shinned hawk ( venator ) , sharpshin .\nlittle information but it is likely that the puerto rican subspecies of sharp - shinned hawk ( accipiter striatus venator ) is a common predator . the stomach contents of a single sharp - shinned hawk contained the remains of a puerto rican vireo ( wetmore 1916 ) .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1997 .\npuerto rican broad - winged hawk and puerto rican sharp - shinned hawk recovery plan .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service , atlanta , georgia .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 9 sept . 1994 .\nendangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; determination of endangered status for the puerto rican broad - winged hawk and the puerto rican sharp - shinned hawk .\nfederal register urltoken\npuerto rican sharp - shinned hawk .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nfigure 1 . distribution of the sharp - shinned hawk in north and middle america .\nthe iucn 3 . 1 has listed sharp shinned hawk as \u201cleast concern\u201d . but , the subspecies puerto rican sharp - shinned hawks or accipiter striatus venator are termed as \u201cendangered\u201d by the \u201cus fish and wildlife service\u201d list of threatened or endangered species .\npuerto rican sharp - shinned hawk .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\ndelannoy , c . a . and a . cruz . 1988 . breeding biology of the puerto rican sharp - shinned hawk ( accipiter striatus venator ) . auk no . 105 : 649 - 662 . close\npuerto rican broad - winged hawk .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nthe puerto rican sharp - shinned hawk ( accipiter striatus venator ) - - a nother subspecies of the sharp - shinned hawk - - is a small forest hawk . currently it is restricted to five isolated mountain - forest areas . primarily it feeds on small birds . if you are fortunate you may see one streak by in the forest . nest failures , deforestation , and habitat loss due to construction have played a significant role in the decline of this species .\n. . . the widespread habitat loss likely limits options for territory switching , and it is not unexpected that ridgway ' s hawk would have a high re - occupancy rate . high re - occupancy rates were also documented in the endangered puerto rican sharp - shinned hawk accipiter striatus venator ( delannoy and cruz 1988 ) and the puerto rican broad - winged hawk buteo platypterus brunnescens ( hengstenberg and vilella 2005 ) . nesting trees of ridgway ' s hawk were predominantly hispaniola royal palms , with much less frequent use of emergent native hardwoods . . . .\npuerto rican broad - winged hawk .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nthe sharp shinned hawk is known to have some predators including the peregrine falcons , red - tailed hawks , cooper\u2019s hawks ( resemble sharp shin in coloration and plumage ) , and the marsh hawks .\nrecommended citation : global raptor information network . 2018 . species account : sharp - shinned hawk accipiter striatus . downloaded from urltoken on 9 jul . 2018\nsharp shins get their name from the occurrence of laterally compressed , sharp keels on their long legs .\n. . . the broad - winged hawk and sharp - shinned hawk of puerto rico were found to have 50 % and 29 % nest success , respectively . puerto rican sharp - shinned hawks suffered not only from high nestling mortality , but also desertion of clutches ( delannoy and cruz 1988 ) , which was not seen to be a factor in ridgway ' s hawk nest failures . ridgway ' s hawks produced only one brood per season , similar to other tropical buteo species , with an annual fledging rate of 0 . 64 fledglings ( table 3 ) . . . .\ntook a video of sharp shinned hawk hunting in the wood pile . taken with phone from approximately 25ft . , little shaky . would you like to see ?\nthe southern population of sharp shinned hawk is sometimes categorized into three different species \u2013 the rufous - thighed hawk ( a . erythronemius ) , plain - breasted hawk ( a . ventralis ) , and white - breasted hawk ( a . chionogaster ) . the species as a whole can also be classified into the following subspecies :\nthe u . s . fish and wildlife service published a recovery plan for the puerto rican sharp - shinned hawk in 1997 . it only survives in the maricao , toro negro , guilarte , and carite commonwealth forests ( managed by the commonwealth of puerto rico ) , and in the caribbean national forest ( u . s . forest service ) . its survival is absolutely dependent on the protection of its habitat in these areas of remnant forest . this can be accomplished by conserving these forests against destructive uses in forestry , road - building , and other threatening developments . in addition , the endangered hawk must be strictly protected against any shooting . the populations of the puerto rican sharp - shinned hawk should be monitored , and research undertaken into its biology and habitat needs .\ndistribution of the sharp - shinned hawk in north and middle america and the western caribbean . this species also breeds in puerto rico and south america . in north america , breeding occurs very locally west to the dashed line . see text for details .\nin maricao state forest , puerto rican vireos join mixed foraging flocks consisting of puerto rican tody ( todus mexicanus ) , puerto rican tanager ( nesospingus speculiferus ) , elfin - woods warbler ( setophaga angelae ) , and other wintering wood - warblers such as northern parula ( setophaga americana ) , american redstart ( setophaga ruticilla ) , and black - and - white warbler ( mniotilta varia ) ( willis 1973 ) . mixed flocks have not been observed in the dry forest of gu\u00e1nica ( j . faaborg , personal communication ) .\nthe puerto rican broad - winged hawk was first reported in puerto rico in 1878 . he reported this species as\ncommon\nin the\ninterior\nof puerto rico , and in 1883 it was reported as\ntransient\n. in the first half of the 20th century , the species was not observed , and in 1927 it was believed to have become extinct . a specimen was collected in 1935 in luquillo ( caribbean national forest ) and described it as a distinct resident subspecies , the puerto rican broad - winged hawk ( buteo platypterus brunnescens ) . sightings were reported again in 1936 and 1963 from the luquillo , utuado and maricao forests .\nconservation : common in north america , but the west indian island endemic populations are threatened or endangered . the puerto rican race is endangered , and the population was recently estimated at only 154 birds ( goodrich 2006 ) . as a species , the sharp - shinned hawk is categorized as a species of\nleast concern\nby birdlife international ( 2007 ) . more . . . .\nstudies on breeding and nesting habitat of this species , in 1986 discovered that the sharp - shinned hawk population in maricao nests in both natural and modified calophyllum plantation habitats . plantation nest sites tended to have large canopy trees and fewer understory than natural forest nest sites . sharp - shinned hawks appear to select plantation and natural forest nest sites with similar vegetative structure and topography . results suggested that vegetation structural requirements ( closed canopies and dense stands ) are sought by the puerto rican sharp - shinned hawks in the selection of nest sites in maricao and apparently in other parts of its range in puerto rico . furthermore , these authors reported low reproductive success , high desertion of eggs , and high nestling mortality due to parasitism by the warble fly philornis spp .\ncommon names include \u201csharp - shin , \u201d \u201csharpie , \u201d \u201cblue darter , \u201d \u201clittle blue darter , \u201d and \u201cbird hawk . \u201d\nmurray , jr . , b . g . 1964 . a review of sharp - shinned hawk migration along the northeastern coast of the united states . wilson bull . no . 76 : 257 - 264 . close\nsize : height of sharp shin hawks varies significantly . a male sharp shin hawk measures about 9 . 1 - 11 . 8 inches ( 23 - 30cm ) in length . its wingspan is about 17 - 23 inches ( 42 - 58cm ) . the female sharp - shinned hawk measures about 11 - 15 inches ( 29 - 37cm ) in length . it has the wingspan of about 23 - 27 inches ( 58 - 68cm ) .\nmueller , h . c . and d . d . berger . 1970 . prey preferences in the sharp - shinned hawk : the roles of sex , experience , and motivation . auk no . 87 : 452 - 457 .\nthe u . s . fish and wildlife service published a recovery plan for the puerto rican broad - winged hawk in 1997 . it only survives in the rio abajo and carite commonwealth forests ( managed by the commonwealth of puerto rico ) , and in the caribbean national forest ( u . s . forest service ) . its survival is absolutely dependent on the protection of its habitat in these areas of remnant montane forest . this can be accomplished by conserving these forests against destructive uses in forestry , road - building , and other threatening developments . in addition , the endangered hawk must be strictly protected against any shooting . the populations of the puerto rican broad - winged hawk should be monitored , and research undertaken into its biology and habitat needs .\nthe puerto rican broad - winged hawk ( buteo platypterus brunnescens ) is a subspecies of the broad - winged hawk and is found in isolated mountain areas preferring to hunt from lofty perches . this hawk\u2019s prey consists of frogs , lizards , other birds and insects . as of 1992 its population on the island was estimated at approximately 124 individuals . the cause of its decline has been due to forest destruction and habitat loss due to construction .\npredators likely include sharp - shinned hawk ( accipiter striatus ) , red - tailed hawk ( buteo jamaicensis ) , barn owl ( tyto alba ) , pearly - eyed thrasher ( margarops fuscatus ) , and indian mongooses ( herpestes mungo , mustelidae ) ( waide 1996 ) . additionally , adult diptera and nematodes likely feed on puerto rican tody ( waide , 1996 ) . mongooses prey on puerto rican tody and its nestlings , especially if nest burrows are below 0 . 8 m above the ground ( kepler 1972 ) . several animal species may cause a nesting pair of todies to abandon their nest , even if the animal does not harm the eggs , including frogs , lizards , scorpions , stinging ants , snakes , whipscorpions , snake - like lizards , and tarantulas ( kepler 1972 ) .\neyes : the eye color of sharp shins is generally deep red with yellow borders .\nkerlinger , p . 1984 . flight behaviour of sharp - shinned hawks during migration ii : over water . anim . behav . no . 32 : 1029 - 1034 . close\nbackyard bird feeders do attract sharp - shinned hawks from time to time . most bird watchers prefer to discourage this behavior , although studies indicate that feeders don\u2019t greatly increase a bird\u2019s chances of being taken by a sharp - shinned hawk\u2014the hawks get the great majority of their diet elsewhere . if a hawk starts hunting regularly in your yard , the best thing to do is to take down your feeders for a couple of weeks . the hawk will move on and the songbirds will return when you put your feeders back up . here\u2019s more about how to cope with predators and pests in your yard .\nthe puerto rican broad - winged hawk populations are extremely small and limited to only three montane forests . significant adverse effects to this species or its habitat could drive it to extinction . the potential for illegal shooting , increased human disturbance and loss of prime habitat in the forests constitute serious threats to the continued survival of the species .\n) , the sharp - shinned hawk is a small , slender , feisty accipiter , with short , rounded wings and a long , narrow tail . although small mammals and even insects appear in its diet , this forest - dwelling predator feeds almost entirely on small birds .\nmueller , h . c . and d . d . berger . 1967a . fall migration of sharp - shinned hawks . wilson bull . no . 79 : 397 - 314 . close\nthe buteo platypterus brunnescens ( puerto rican broad - winged hawk ) is a dark chocolate brown , small - size hawk that measures approximately 15 . 5 in ( 39 cm ) . it is smaller than the buteo platypterus platypterus but larger than the lesser antillean sub - species . this is the darkest subspecies of the broad - winged hawk . in adults , the tail , broadly banded with black and white , and the rufous breast are characteristic . immature birds have dark bars on the breast and lack the distinctive tail bands of the adult . broadwings flap more than the similar but larger red - tailed hawk .\nmany coraciiformes roost huddled in groups or in cavities to conserve energy required for thermoregulation , but puerto rican tody roosts singly in trees ( kepler 1972 , merola - zwartjes and ligon 2000 ) . females , but not males , sometimes enter torpor when ambient air temperatures are low ( merola - zwartjes and ligon 2000 ) . the basal metabolic rate of puerto rican tody varies throughout the year , and their body temperatures are consistently lower than expected for their mass ( oniki 1975 , merola - zwartjes and ligon 2000 ) .\na hawk has started hunting the feeder birds in my yard . what can i do ?\nmeyer , k . d . 1987 . sexual size dimorphism and the behavioral ecology of breeding and wintering sharp - shinned hawks . phd thesis , univ . of north carolina , chapel hill . close\nbildstein , keith l . and kenneth d . meyer . 2000 . sharp - shinned hawk ( accipiter striatus ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nplatt , j . b . 1973 . habitat and time utilization of a pair of nesting sharp - shinned hawks - a telemetry study . master ' s thesis , brigham young univ . , provo . close\nas is true of many members of the genus , the sharp - shinned hawk has especially long middle toes and large eyes , useful attributes for catching highly mobile prey . the species is the most sexually dimorphic of all north american raptors , with males averaging only 57 % of the body mass of females (\nextant breeding populations of the puerto rican sharp - shinned hawk were located in the mountain forest of the maricao commonwealth forest , toro negro commonwealth forest , guilarte commonwealth forest , carite commonwealth forest and caribbean national forest . sixty individuals were counted in island - wide surveys conducted in 1983 and a breeding density of 1 . 9 hawks per sq mi , 0 . 73 hawks per sq km , was estimated . in 1985 , 72 individuals were counted and a breeding population of 2 hawks per sq mi , 0 . 76 hawks per sq km , ( 230 - 250 island - wide ) were estimated in island - wide surveys . in 1992 , 110 sq mi ( 285 . 6 sq km ) censuses yielded 82 sharp - shinned hawks ; 40 in maricao , 30 in toro negro , 10 in carite and two in caribbean national forest . an overall population of 129 individuals has been estimated for these forests in 1992 . although the guilarte forest population was not censured in 1992 , a population of 25 individuals was estimated for the forest in 1985 . although the sharp - shinned hawk was previously known from the karst region of rio abajo and guajataca commonwealth forests in 1986 , there was no evidence of its presence in these areas . fossil evidence indicates that the species was once more widespread in the karst region . in 1986 sharp - shinned hawks were searched for but not sighted in cambalache , vega , susua , and guanica forests . 1994 observations indicate the hawk does exist in and around the susua forest .\ntheir diet mainly consists of small birds like thrushes , sparrows , warblers , and american robins . the sharp shins can eat woodpeckers , swifts , doves , shorebirds , quails , and even the falcons . occasionally sharp - shinned hawks prey on grasshoppers , moths , and small rodents like voles and mice . the fledglings and nestlings of other birds constitute their babies\u2019 diet .\nthe puerto rican boa ( epicrates inornatus ) is found throughout the island , and lives in el yunque below an elevation of 1200 feet ( 365 meters ) . although the recovery plan for the boa was approved in 1986 , its ecology is only now being understood through research conducted by the usda forest service international institute of tropical forestry .\nfeathers and color : the birds have a \u201chooded\u201d appearance since the feathers at the back of their neck and on the crown are dark . the adults have slaty blue - gray hue above . on the breast , they have straight , narrow red - orange bars . the juvenile sharp shinned hawk is predominantly brownish and has coarse vertical marks on top of white underparts .\nit has been recorded that sharp shinned hawks live for about 3 years on an average . however , certain individuals may live for over 10 years . usually the fledgling and nestling mortality rates are quite high , especially during the first winter and fall after hatching .\nin flight , the sharp shinned hawk has great agility , being able to speed through the dense forests for surprising its prey , especially the songbirds . they don\u2019t stoop on their prey from an overhead position . they have the ability to pounce on their prey from low perches . in the open spaces , the hawks usually adopt a unique flap - and - glide style of flying .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service boqueron ecological service field office p . o . box 491 boqueron , puerto rico 00622 telephone : ( 809 ) 851 - 7297\nu . s . fish and wildlife service boqueron ecological services field office p . o . box 491 boqueron , puerto rico 00622 telephone : ( 809 ) 851 - 7297\nthe brownish dorsal coloration and yellow eye safely age the bird as a juvenile . note the narrow pencil thin legs typical of sharp - shinned hawk , and the long toes used for capturing birds on the wing . all three accipiters can have bold white superciliums in their first year , contrary to some field guides which consider this a diagnostic character of northern goshawk . ; photographer jerry and sherry liguori\nthe puerto rican parrot ( amazona vittata ) is one of the ten rarest birds in the world and is only found on the island of puerto rico . the island parrot population was estimated to number in the hundreds of thousands when first encountered during columbus ' second voyage of discovery . it dropped to a low of 13 birds in 1975 . after this date the population reached an estimated 47 birds in the wild , declining again to 23 birds after hurricane hugo in 1989 . currently the wild flock is climbing but challenges are many and its future still hangs in the balance . there are a total of 79 adult birds in captivity in the aviaries of the el yunque national forest and rio abajo state reserve . the remaining parrots and their nesting habitat are constantly monitored and managed through a cooperative effort between the forest service , the u . s . fish and wildlife service , and the puerto rican department of natural resources .\nknowledge of the biology of the puerto rican broad - winged hawk is limited . food - habit studies were conducted on one of the three nests found in the caribbean national forest in 1976 and one nest found in rio abajo in 1978 . the prey types taken included centipedes , frogs , lizards , mice , rats , and birds ( as large as 7 oz or 200 g ) . studies of breeding biology , habitat requirements and other aspects of this species ' biology are not available in the literature .\nviverette , c . b . , s . struve , l . j . goodrich and k . l . bildstein . 1996 . decreases in migrating sharp - shinned hawks at traditional raptor - migration watchsites in eastern north america . auk no . 113 : 32 - 40 . close\nsharp - shinned hawks historically have been described as vicious bird killers\u2014even by many ornithologists . in the first few decades of the twentieth century , gunners shot thousands of this species at cape may point , nj ; hawk mountain , eastern pennsylvania ; and other sites along important eastern migration corridors . even so , the species is known for hunting songbirds in parks and near houses , and is often seen taking prey at bird feeders (\nthe center of sharp - shinned hawk courtship and territorial activities in maricao forest was located in the north - central and eastern parts , within the sub - tropical lower montane wet forest and subtropical wet forest life zones . in the carite forest , territorial and courtship activities occurred in the northeastern and north - central parts , within the caimitillo - granadillo forest types . in toro negro , these activities took place in the elfin woodland , sierra palm , caimitillo - granadillo and tabonuco forest types . in the caribbean national forest , the only two sharp - shinned hawks sighted ( a solitary territorial pair ) were detected in the south - central part of the forest , confined to the palo colorado forest type of the lower montane forest life zone .\nsongbirds make up about 90 percent of the sharp - shinned hawk\u2019s diet . birds the size of american robins or smaller ( especially warblers , sparrows , and thrushes ) are the most frequent prey ; bigger birds are at less risk , though they\u2019re not completely safe . studies report quail , shorebirds , doves , swifts , woodpeckers , and even falcons as prey . sharp - shins also eat small rodents , such as mice and voles , and an occasional moth or grasshopper . while nesting , much of the food for their babies is the nestlings and fledglings of other birds . back to top\nsharp - shinned hawks are birds of the forest and forest edge , and are not found where trees are scarce or scattered , except on migration . they require dense forest , ideally with a closed canopy , for breeding . while favoring forests that contain conifers , they also nest in stands of aspen in colorado , oak - hickory forest in missouri , and the hardwood forests of the east . they occupy a wide range of elevations , from sea level to near treeline . in the winter season , look for sharp - shinned hawks at forest edges , in somewhat more open habitats than the dense forests they breed in , as well as in suburban areas with bird feeders . back to top\nthroughout their range , sharp - shinned hawks favor conifer trees ( pine , spruce , or fir ) as nesting sites , but may also use aspens and hardwood trees . the nest is always placed under dense forest cover , usually toward the top of a tall tree , but well under the canopy . most nests are anchored between horizontal limbs and the tree trunk .\nimportant references : bent , a . c . 1937 . life histories of north american birds of prey . order falconiformes ( part 1 ) . u . s . national museum bulletin 167 . bildstein , k . l . , and k . meyer . 2000 . sharp - shinned hawk ( accipiter striatus ) . in a . poole and f . gill ( eds . ) , the birds of north america no . 482 . the birds of north america , philadelphia , pa . ferguson - lees , j . , and d . a . christie .\ntodies are very tolerant of other species and rarely pursue them , reserving territorial defense primarily for conspecifics ( kepler 1972 ) . todies have been observed in territorial defense against black - throated blue warblers ( setophaga caerulescens ) , pearly - eyed thrashers ( margarops fuscatus ) , puerto rican emeralds ( chlorostilbon maugaeus ) , black - whiskered vireos ( vireo altiloquus ) , bananaquits ( coereba flaveola ) , american redstarts ( setophaga ruticilla ) , indian mongooses ( herpestes mungo ) , and a cow ( bos taurus ) with calf ( kepler 1972 ) .\ncoqui frogs are plentiful and considered a national treasure on the forest . there are currently 13 species of coquis . these tree frogs are endemic ( only found ) in puerto rico . a satellite population of coquis has recently been discovered in hawaii possibly transported there in plants .\nholthuijzen , a . m . a . , l . oosterhuis and m . r . fuller . 1985 .\nhabitat used by migrating sharp - shinned hawks at cape may point , new jersey , usa .\nin conservation studies of raptors . , edited by i . newton and r . d . chancellor , 317 - 327 . cambridge , ma : i . c . b . p . tech . publ . 5 . close\nvery little is known about the rio abajo and carite forest populations . however , it appears that the existence of the rio abajo population was known in 1936 and 1963 . in 1987 it was believed that the rio abajo forest sustained not more than 50 individuals . in 1992 , 26 broad - winged hawks , or an estimated population of 52 individuals , were reported in the rio abajo forest . the puerto rican broad - winged hawk was unknown from the carite forest until 1980 , when the existence of a resident population present year - round was reported . in 1992 , 20 broad - winged hawks were censused in the carite forest and a population of 22 individuals was estimated . in the carite forest the species has been reported from the elfin , caimitillo , granadillo , tabonuco , and slope forest types .\nsharp - shinned hawks are \u201cpursuit hunters\u201d , often surprising their prey on the wing by bursting out from a hidden perch with a rush of speed . they are versatile : small birds may be taken in the air or on the ground ; they may pounce from perches as little as 3 feet above the ground to catch rodents ; and they catch some insects on the wing . sharp - shins make great use of cover and stealth to get close to their prey , surprising it at close range rather than diving from great heights . they are agile and acrobatic fliers , navigating dense woods at high speeds by using their long tail as a rudder . in open areas they sometimes fly very low , hugging ground contours to remain hidden to prey until the last moment . during their breeding season , sharp - shinned hawks are quiet , elusive , and nest in solitary pairs under deep forest cover ; this may be to avoid their own predation at the claws of the similar but much larger northern goshawk . sharp - shins get a bit more gregarious at migration , sometimes traveling in small groups at that time ; they are typically the most numerous birds seen at hawk watches . this species and other accipiters fly with a characteristic \u201cflap - flap - glide\u201d pattern : typically 3 to 6 shallow wingbeats followed by a short glide . they also take advantage of thermals and updrafts to save energy by soaring , but rarely flap steadily except when in hot pursuit of prey . adults feed their young for several weeks after the young can fly , as the fledglings gain hunting skills . back to top\nthey are quite widespread in the greater antilles , south america , central america , and north america . the a . s . striatus occurs in north america , including the forested areas of canada and usa . the resident populations are found in temperate regions of puerto rico , hispaniola , cuba , mexico , canada , and the us . the white - breasted hawk is found in highlands that include nicaragua , el salvador , guatemala , honduras , and southern mexico . plain - breasted hawks are found in central bolivia , peru , ecuador , colombia , western venezuela , and in coastal mountains of colombia and northern venezuela . rufous - thighed hawk predominantly occurs in southern and eastern brazil , southeastern bolivia , northeastern argentina , paraguay , and uruguay .\ndistribution : nearctic / neotropical . breeds from western and central alaska east through canada to newfoundland , south locally to central california , northern texas , and south carolina , and in the highlands of mexico to oaxaca ; endemic populations on cuba , hispaniola , and puerto rico ; winters from southern canada to panama and bahamas . more . . . .\npuerto rican vireos forage at all forest levels but are most frequently seen closer to the ground in the shrub and subcanopy layer ( raffaele 1989 , woodworth , unpublished data ) . they primarily glean insects from foliage , but are also reported to sally - hover ( cruz 1984 ) . like many vireo species , they are most often detected first by their loud and repetitive vocalizations while remaining out of sight in thick vegetation ( raffaele 1989 , usda forest service 2010 ) . they seem to be intolerant of intruders near the nest site or young , and actively scold and even attack potential predators ( spaulding 1937 ) . their scolding , shrad call elicits responses from other species including bananaquits ( coereba flaveola ) , tanagers , and grassquits ( raffaele 1989 ) .\nsharp - shinned hawks are widely dispersed and seldom - seen nesters that breed mainly in large stands of deciduous , coniferous , and mixed pine - hardwood forests and pine plantations . in temperate areas , nesting coincides with the annual peak in songbird abundance . the species ' secretive nature and the dense vegetation of its nesting habitat make it difficult to find and study during the breeding season . the early stages of nesting , in particular , are little studied . the bird is best seen , and most frequently studied , on migration , when large numbers of individuals concentrate along major migratory corridors and bottlenecks , particularly in the east .\nallen , p . e . , l . j . goodrich and k . l . bildstein . 1996 . within - and among - year effects of cold fronts on migrating raptors at hawk mountain , pennsylvania , 1934 - 1991 . auk no . 113 ( 2 ) : 329 - 338 . close\nbednarz , j . c . , jr . klem , d . , l . j . goodrich and s . e . senner . 1990b . migration counts of raptors at hawk mountain , pennsylvania , as indicators of population trends , 1934 - 1986 . auk no . 107 : 96 - 109 . close\nmueller , h . c . , n . s . mueller , d . d . berger , g . allez , w . r . robichaud and j . l . kaspar . 1997 . the phenology of autumnal hawk migration at cedar grove , wisconsin . passenger pigeon no . 59 : 207 - 218 . close\n. . . it is also likely that red - tail populations have been little affected by the island ' s past forest loss because they use edge habitats of forest fragments in suburban and agricultural areas ( santana c . et al . , 1986 ; nimitz , 2005 ) . in contrast to red - tailed hawks , both sharp - shinned and broadwinged hawks require extensive forest ( raffaele , 1989 ) and are believed to have declined island wide , due to forest loss and hunting ( rivera and cott\u00e9 - santana , 1977 ; wiley , 1985 ; delannoy and cruz , 1988 ) , as well as recently in the lef ( see below ) . the recent rarity of the two species in the lef , however , has made it difficult to study them there . . . .\n. . . it is also likely that red - tail populations have been little affected by the island ' s past forest loss because they use edge habitats of forest fragments in suburban and agricultural areas ( santana c . et al . , 1986 ; nimitz , 2005 ) . in contrast to red - tailed hawks , both sharp - shinned and broadwinged hawks require extensive forest ( raffaele , 1989 ) and are believed to have declined island wide , due to forest loss and hunting ( p\u00e9rez rivera and cott\u00e9 - santana , 1977 ; wiley , 1985 ; delannoy and cruz , 1988 ) , as well as recently in the lef ( see below ) . the recent rarity of the two species in the lef , however , has made it difficult to study them there . . . .\n) , also called gavilan pajarero ( spanish ) and epervier brun ( french ) , is the small hawk originated from hispaniola . they are the smallest among the 3 kinds of north american accipiters . the female raptors are bigger than the male . these birds frequent domestic backyards in urban areas during winter and burst out from bushes to snatch small birds off the branch .\nsharp shinned hawks\u2019 breeding ranges are completely allopatric , i . e . they occur in non - overlapping or separate geographic locations . their nests comprise of flat and broad mass of twigs , especially the conifer twigs . the nests are bounded with chips of bark . although both the sexes equally bring nesting materials , the female takes active part in the construction . these hawks usually favor the conifer trees like fir , spruce , and pine as the nesting sites . sometimes they may also utilize the hardwood trees and aspens . the breeding pairs generally defend their breeding territory vigorously . the breeding age for the species is 2 years . the territory is displayed and the females are attracted by the males . the breeding behaviors comprise circular flights as well as side - by - side perching together with \u201cpeeping\u201d vocalization .\nlittle study has focused solely on aspects of territory in puerto rican vireo . tossas ( 2002 ) found a mean territory size of 0 . 86 + 0 . 20 ha while another study found an average territory size close to 5 ha ( woodworth 1995 ) . like most tropical resident species , breeding pairs ( and presumably unmated males ) are territorial throughout the year and exhibit high site fidelity between seasons ( woodworth 1995 ) . a study of color - banded males ( n = 26 ) showed that 23 individuals remained in the same territory for each breeding season they were resighted ( 2 - 4 years ) . the other 3 individuals moved to adjacent territories only after the disappearance of a neighbor ( woodworth 1995 ) . females appear to be highly site faithful as well . of 3 color - banded females , 1 remained in her territory for 3 years while 2 were resident for 4 ( woodworth 1995 ) . also of note , there were 4 cases of a banded female staying on territory and pairing with a new male after the disappearance of her original mate ( woodworth 1995 ) .\nthese hawks inhabit various kinds of forests and woodlands dominated by broad - leaved trees ( such as oaks ) and conifers . the temperate forests include the biggest populations of these hawks and during winter , they migrate farther south . the subspecies ventralis , chionogaster , madrensis , and suttoni are generally found in temperate or upper tropical highlands at altitudes of 980 ft to 9840 ft . however , the rufous - thighed hawk or a . s . erythronemius occurs in the subtropical and tropical regions .\nthe female lays about 3 - 6 eggs and there is an interval of 2 days between each egg . the eggs usually have greenish , purple , or bluish - white hue . incubation starts after the hawk lays the third egg and it persists for nearly 30 days . although both the sexes can participate in incubation , the female hawks do the larger share of the task . the time taken by the nestlings to fledge is 21 - 25 days . after fledging , the nestlings remain with their adults for over a month .\nincreased pressure for new right - of - way access to farms through the carite forest land and the establishment of new communication facilities could also destroy prime habitat or bring human activities too close to broad - winged hawks , as with the destruction of substantial caimitillo - granadillo habitat occurred in the right - of - way - access through camino el seis in the north - central part of the carite forest . a new communication facilities along an access road through sector farallon in the northwestern part of the forest is located where the highest broad - winged hawk densities have been reported .\na 1992 census of 80 sq mi three forests ( rio abajo , carite and caribbean national forest ) yielded 58 broad - winged hawks or an estimated population of 124 individuals . sightings of the broad - winged hawk have been reported from other areas , such as cayey ( next to the carite forest ) , utuado , jayuya , adjuntas , villalba , and the maricao and toro negro but it has been established that the maricao and toro negro forests do not have resident populations . broad - winged hawks have been searched for , but not sighted , in upland forested habitats in utuado , jayuya , adjuntas , orocovis , and barranquitas as of 1992 .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nthe nest is a broad , flat mass of dead twigs , usually conifer twigs , sometimes lined with flakes of bark . both members of the pair bring nesting material to the site , but the female does most or all of the construction . the shallow , platform - like nest is usually 1\u20132 feet in diameter and 4\u20136 inches deep . the eggs and young often sit more on than in this wide , open - topped nest .\ndull - white or pale - blue splotched with brown , violet , red , or hazel .\nlutmerding , j . a . and a . s . love . longevity records of north american birds . version 2015 . 2 . patuxent wildlife research center , bird banding laboratory 2015 .\npeterson , r . t . 1990d . a field guide to western birds . boston , ma : houghton mifflin co .\nsauer , j . r . , d . k . niven , j . e . hines , d . j . ziolkowski , jr . , k . l . pardieck , j . e . fallon , and w . a . link ( 2017 ) . the north american breeding bird survey , results and analysis 1966\u20132015 . version 2 . 07 . 2017 . usgs patuxent wildlife research center , laurel , md , usa .\nsibley , d . a . ( 2014 ) . the sibley guide to birds , second edition . alfred a . knopf , new york , usa .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service regional office , division of endangered species 1875 century blvd . , suite 200 atlanta , georgia 30345 urltoken\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\ntaxonomy : probably closely related to the eurasian sparrowhawk , a . nisus . formerly considered to include several neotropical populations , including chionogaster of middle america , ventralis of the andes , and erythronemius of lowland southern south america ( stresemann and amadon 1979 , amadon and bull 1988 , aou 1998 ) , but these forms were treated as four separate species by sibley and monroe ( 1990 ) , thiollay ( 1994 ) , and ridgway and greenfield ( 2001 ) . earlier , pinto ( 1938 ) and hellmayr and conover ( 1949 ) treated a . erythronemius as a full species , and friedmann ( 1950 ) and stiles and skutch ( 1989 ) considered a . chionogaster and a . erythronemius as separate species from a . striatus . however , there are apparently no published data to support this split ( remsen et al . 2008 ) , and ferguson - lees and christie ( 2001 ) provided arguments against it . the american ornithologists ' union south american classification committee urltoken is soliciting proposals on this matter .\nmovements : partial migrant and altitudinal migrant in some areas ( bildstein 2006 ) . northern populations of striatus are largely long - distance migrants , but the west indies and mexican subspecies are sedentary . more . . . .\nhabitat and habits : occurs in lowlands to montane levels . in many portions of temperate north america , this species tends to prefer coniferous forewsts , whereas cooper ' s hawks are found in hardwood stands . in tropical areas , it prefers scrubby second growth , hedgerows , agricultural land with scattered trees , coffee plantations , and suburban areas ( stiles and skutch 1989 ) . the cuban form fringilloides occurs in forests at moderate to high elevations ( garrido and kirkconnell 2000 ) , and the hispaniolan race inhabits mature forests in interior hills and mountains , most often in pine , shade coffee and broadleafed forest ( latta et al . 2006 ) . may soar to moderate heights , but not for detecting prey . more . . . .\nfood and feeding behavior : feeds mainly on birds , but also takes small mammals . hunts from a concealed perch , or catches prey at the end of a long , furtive , low - flying approach . more . . . .\nbreeding : builds a stick nest located high in a tree , usually in dense vegetation . clutch size is 2 - 5 eggs , usually 4 , which are white with bold brown blotches and spots .\na . elliott , and j . sargatal ( eds . ) , handbook of birds of the world . vol . 2 .\nresearchers : bildstein , keith crocoll , scott enderson , james gallardo del angel , julio cesar goodrich , laurie kennedy , pat rodr\u00edguez santana , freddy smith , keith b . smith , brian smith , jeff speiser , robert\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nweight : these hawks usually weigh around 87 - 218 g ( 3 . 1 - 7 . 7 oz ) . since these female accipiters are bigger , they have a 50 percent weight advantage over the males .\ntail : these hawks have tails with prominent corners with a square , narrow white tip . the external tail feathers are typically the largest .\nbeak : their hooked beaks are well suited for tearing flesh of its prey .\nfeet : these hawks have yellow feet and legs . the legs are pencil - like and thin which make them look long .\nthese hawks can migrate over long - distances ; however , the populations in western mountains and the appalachians may stay there year - round . the birds that breed in canada and the northern u . s . usually leave their breeding place and migrate to southern central america or winter in continental united states .\nthe females and males communicate with each other with a series of kik - kik - kik calls or a melancholic squeal . these calls are made during courtship . the males usually have louder voices since they\u2019re smaller than females . mated pairs generally call each other at the time of reproduction , making the nesting period the noisiest . brooding females and nestlings usually produce a high - pitched , thin call to ask for food when the prey is brought to the nest by the males .\ntheir excellent eyesight and long middle toes help them in capturing the agile , small birds that constitute their diet . many ornithologists also think that the notable size difference between females and males is the adaptation that reduces competition for food between the sexes . the female hawks hunt preys that are large enough for the males to tackle .\nduring migration , the birds usually gather in specific areas as they have the ability to follow identical landscape features .\nthe adult keeps on feeding the offspring even when they\u2019ve fledged . in the beginning , the adults usually drop the dead prey for the offspring to consume . when the fledglings become experienced and skilled , the parents pass the prey to the youngsters in flight .\nthey do not swallow the feathers of their prey . instead , they carry it to a low branch or stump and pluck the feathers prior to eating them .\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .\n\u00a9 2018 ( animal spot ) . all rights reserved . reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited .\nin the mid 1980s , the population in the caribbean national forest was estimated to be 40 - 60 individuals and 15 - 20 breeding pairs . the broad - winged hawks were more often seen in the eastern side of the caribbean national forest , and the tabonuco and palo colorado forest types were reported to be the preferred habitats for the species . in 1992 , 12 broad - winged hawks were sighted in the caribbean national forest and the population was estimated at 22 individuals .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthis species has a large , discontinuous range in the americas . it occurs from alaska ( usa ) and canada south to panama , and populations are also found in the west indies , in hills and mountains from venezuala and colombia through ecuador and peru to western bolivia , and from southern brazil through uruguay and paraguay to south - east bolivia and northern argentina .\n( rich et al . 2004 ) trend justification : this species has undergone a large and statistically significant increase over the last 40 years in north america ( 226 % increase over 40 years , equating to a 34 . 3 % increase per decade ; data from breeding bird survey and / or christmas bird count : butcher and niven 2007 ) . note , however , that these surveys cover less than 50 % of the species ' s range in north america .\nthe species inhabits a wide variety of habitats , depending on the region , including boreal coniferous forests , temperate deciduous woodland , tropical and subtropical cloud forest , gallery forest and semi - open savanna woodland , from sea level to 2 , 700 m . outside the breeding season , north american birds can be found in almost any terrain , including urban areas with trees .\nhabitat alteration , especially removal of forest , is thought to affect some populations .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nnatureserve explorer species reports \u2014 natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports \u2014 itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library \u2014 the u . s . fish and wildlife service\u2019s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nthe introduction article is just the first of 11 articles in each species account that provide life history information for the species . the remaining articles provide detailed information regarding distribution , migration , habitat , diet , sounds , behavior , breeding , current population status and conservation . each species account also includes a multimedia section that displays the latest photos , audio selections and videos from macaulay library\u2019s extensive galleries . written and continually updated by acknowledged experts on each species , birds of north america accounts include a comprehensive bibliography of published research on the species ."]}
{"id": 966, "summary": [{"text": "the kirikuchi char , salvelinus leucomaenis japonicus , is a freshwater fish in the salmonidae family .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is endemic to the kii peninsula of central honshu in japan .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is the southernmost population of the char genus salvelinus and is considered a relict in its region .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is usually considered a subspecies of the whitespotted char salvelinus leucomaenis but was listed as a separate species in the iucn red list ( 1996 ) .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "other subspecies of the whitespotted char s. leucomaenis have , however , been introduced in the area of the kirikuchi char , which has led to extensive hybridization .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "kirikuchi char remain in two separate headwater streams of the totsu river system , and they retain little genetic variation . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "kirikuchi char", "paragraphs": ["kirikuchi char - urdu meaning and translation of kirikuchi char , translation , multiple word search ( seperate words with space ) , english to urdu machine translation of kirikuchi char and more .\nthe kirikuchi char , salvelinus leucomaenis japonicus , is a freshwater fish in the salmonidae family . content licensed under creative commons attribution . source : urltoken\nin its region . other fish of the same genus have , however , been introduced in the area , and the kirikuchi char is hybridizing with them extensively .\nthe kirikuchi char , salvelinus leucomaenis japonicus , is a freshwater fish in the salmonidae family . it is endemic to the kii peninsula of central honshu in japan .\noccurrence of deformed fish and their fitness - related traits in kirikuchi charr , salvelinus leucomae . . .\nloss of genetic variation and effective population size of kirikuchi charr : implications for the man . . .\nsato t ; demise t ; kubota h ; nagoshi m ; watanabe k ( 2010 ) hybridization , isolation , and low genetic diversity of kirikuchi char , the southernmost populations of the genus salvelinus transactions of the american fisheries society 39 2010 , 1758 - 1774 .\n. . . the kirikuchi char salvelinus leucomaenis japonicus , the southernmost nonanadromous population of the genus salvelinus , is endemic to the kii peninsula , central honshu , japan , and is a genetically and morphologically distinct local population of s . leucomaenis ( hosoya 2000 ; yamamoto et al . 2004 ; see also sato 2007 ) . this char is now categorized as endangered on the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) red list ( iucn 2008 ) and as a threatened local population in the japanese ministry of the environment ' s red data book ( tanaka 2003 ) . . . .\nkirikuchi charr , salvelinus leucomaenis japonicus , is the southernmost population of the genus salvelinus . it is endemic to the kii peninsula , central honshu island , japan . as a consequence of anthropogenic disturbances , a few populations of kirikuchi charr with low genetic diversity now survive only in small , isolated habitats . this study investigated the occurrence of deformed individuals . . . [ show full abstract ]\nkirikuchi char ( salvelinus leucomaenis japonicus ) in part of a tributary of the kiso river in nagano prefecture , japan . video credit : bys488 license : cc by 3 . 0 : urltoken details of the licenses can be found on this channel ' s\nabout\npage . link to this video\u2019s license : urltoken in this video , no changes or modifications have been made to the original material . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -\n. . . in the past , kirikuchi charr populations persisted as a large metapopulation in the drainage . however , their habitats have recently been reduced and fragmented by human - induced factors , such as the construction of erosion - control dams and stocking of non - native salmonids ( sato , 2007 ) . consequently , the two kirikuchi charr populations would persist in unnatural , above - waterfall habitats through the stocking of some individuals by local fishermen , indicating that the time since the fragmentation of the two populations is relatively short , probably several decades to 100 years . . . .\n. . . japanese fi sheries biologists are making a dedicated effort to protect the kirikuchi charr ( a trout ) , salvelinus leucomaenis japonicas ( fig . 9 . 1 ) . threatened by over - fi shing and habitat destruction , the charr occurs in a few remaining watersheds ( sato 2007 ) . to understand how to save the charr , biologists track tagged fi sh , monitoring their diet and growth rate . . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nwhats wrong with secretary kim \uc601\uc900\uc774 \uc7ac\ub2a5\uad50\uc721 \uc2dc\uc791\ud588\ub2c8 ? ( \uc790\uae30\uc758 \uc77c\uc740 \uc2a4\uc2a4\ub85c . . . \ud558\uc9c0\ub9c8 . . . ) 180704 ep . 9\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nthis article was sourced from creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . world heritage encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers , open access publishing , and in compliance with the fair access to science and technology research act ( fastr ) , wikimedia foundation , inc . , public library of science , the encyclopedia of life , open book publishers ( obp ) , pubmed , u . s . national library of medicine , national center for biotechnology information , u . s . national library of medicine , national institutes of health ( nih ) , u . s . department of health & human services , and urltoken , which sources content from all federal , state , local , tribal , and territorial government publication portals ( . gov , . mil , . edu ) . funding for urltoken and content contributors is made possible from the u . s . congress , e - government act of 2002 .\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\nkottelat , m . 1996 . salvelinus japonicus . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 5 august 2007 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\ndramatic decline in population abundance of salvelinus leucomaenis after a severe flood and debris f . . .\na dramatic change in population abundance of salvelinus leucomaenis following a catastrophic flood event was investigated . population density declined by c . 98 % after the flood in a river section affected by debris flow . the isolation of the affected population and habitat change caused by flooding may have impeded population recovery .\nthis study explored the risk of predation by trout ( non - host predator ) on adult hairworms gordionus chinensis . ten percent of trout ( 18 out of 187 trout ) ingested adult hairworms in a japanese headwater stream of the totsu river . all hairworms were ingested by trout that had also ingested their insect definitive hosts ( camel crickets : tachycines elegantissima and t . asynamorus ) . trout had . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe present study examined fish assemblages in ten tributaries with different environmental characteristics in the upper drainages of the agano river system , northern honshu , japan . seven fish species ( five families ) were found in the 10 tributaries examined . white - spotted charr salvelinus leucomaenis and sculpin cottus pollux were common in almost all tributaries . masu salmon onchorhynchus . . . [ show full abstract ]\nsmall , isolated populations may face extinction due to a combination of inbreeding depression and other threats . effective population size ( ne ) is one comprehensive measure that allows us to evaluate the genetic status of a population , and to make management decisions regarding genetic viability . we simulated loss of genetic variation and estimated ne for two small , isolated populations of . . . [ show full abstract ]"]}
{"id": 976, "summary": [{"text": "humboldt 's hog-nosed skunk , also known as the patagonian hog-nosed skunk ( conepatus humboldtii ) is a type of hog-nosed skunk indigenous to the open grassy areas in the patagonian regions of argentina and chile . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "humboldt ' s hog - nosed skunk", "paragraphs": ["hog - nosed skunks are found in southern north america , central america and portions of south america . there are several distinct species : molina ' s hog - nosed skunk , the striped hog - nosed skunk , humboldt ' s hog - nosed skunk and the american hog - nosed skunk ( which includes eastern hog - nosed and western hog - nosed skunks ) .\nhumboldt ' s hog - nosed skunk - conepatus humboldtii humboldt ' s hog - nose skunk is found in argentina and chile . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\npicture of the striped hog - nosed skunk by washington l . s . vieira , licensed under\nweylan shaw ( author ) , humboldt state university , brian arbogast ( editor ) , humboldt state university .\nthe hog - nosed skunk has an interesting evolutionary history among skunk species . according to natural history magazine :\nall hog - nosed skunks live in the americas . the north american species ranges farther north than any other member of the genus , living in mexico and the united states as far north as colorado . the other species reside in central and south america . striped hog - nosed skunks live as far north as southern mexico and as far south as northern peru and eastern brazil . the range of molina ' s and humboldt ' s hog - nosed skunks overlaps . molina ' s hog - nosed skunks live throughout central south america , while humboldt ' s skunks live exclusively in chile and argentina .\nmolina ' s hog - nosed skunk - conepatus chinga molina ' s hog - nosed skunk is found in argentina , bolivia , brazil , chile , paraguay , peru , and uruguay . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe humboldt ' s hog - nosed skunk , patagonian hog - nosed skink is listed as least concern ( lr / lc ) , lowest risk . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\na young / baby of a humboldt is called a ' kit ' . a humboldt group is called a ' surfeit or stink ' .\nthe pelts of hog - nosed skunk were exported a great deal between 1960 and 1980 . the pelts of\nin the wild . however , similar species of hog - nosed skunk have lived up to 7 years in captivity .\nhog - nosed skunks eat primarily insects and small mammals , particularly rodents . for this reason , farmers find their presence beneficial as they prey on pests that destroy crops . some have a more specialized diet - - striped hog - nosed skunks prefer to hunt and eat termites , while molina ' s skunks favor spiders and beetles . these skunks are solitary , nocturnal creatures , foraging at night and returning to dens or burrows during the day . molina ' s hog - nosed skunks are more territorial , while humboldt ' s hog - nosed skunks tend to roam more and never return to the same den twice .\nhog - nosed skunks generally prefer open grasslands , scrublands and forests . striped hog - nosed skunks ' habitat depends on the season . during the rainy season when food is more plentiful , they tend to stay in deciduous forests , but during the dry season , they expand into more open territory in search of food . molina ' s hog - nosed skunks prefer foraging in open canyon and steppe areas , though they retreat to forests to rest . while humboldt ' s hog - nosed skunks also prefer open grasslands , they often forage near the barns and sheds of human dwellings .\nthe amazonian hog - nosed skunk , striped hog - nosed skunk is listed as least concern ( lr / lc ) , lowest risk . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\namerican hog - nosed skunk - conepatus leuconotus [ in ] the american hog - nosed skunk is found from southeastern texas , southern arizona and southern new mexico south through central america to northern nicaragua . source : audubon guides intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nhog - nosed skunks have a broad , bald snout much like that of a pig . like their namesake , the hog - nosed skunk uses its strong sniffer to root around in the ground for food , which includes grubs , beetles and insect larvae . combined with long , sharp claws and a powerful upper body , hog - nosed skunks are powerful diggers .\nhog - nosed skunks grow to about 2 feet long on average , and weigh between 5 and 10 pounds . in addition to their distinctive noses , skunks in this genus have coarser fur than skunk species . the fur is mostly black , with white stripes that differ in pattern depending on the species . humboldt ' s hog - nosed skunks have one or two white stripes down their sides . the same two white stripes are present for molina ' s hog - nosed skunks , but their tails are almost completely white . striped and north american hog - nosed skunks have a single white stripe running down their backs , but striped skunks ' single stripe splits into two , with their tails covered with short black and white hairs .\nnever returned to the same den during the day . patagonian hog - nosed skunks forage exclusively in green grassy areas .\nstriped hog - nosed skunk - conepatus semistriatus the striped hog - nosed skunk is found in belize , brazil , colombia , costa rica , ecuador , honduras , mexico , nicaragua , panama , peru , and venezuela . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\npatagonian hog - nosed skunks are found in chile and argentina from 38 to 42 degrees south to the strait of magellan .\npatagonian hog - nosed skunks primarily eat insects . they may however feed on small mammals , shrubs , and fruit in addition to insects .\nan ancestor of hog - nosed skunks and a spotted skunk - like form appeared in the early pliocene records of mexico . shortly after that , the hog - nosed skunks managed to migrate into south america , taking advantage of a newly formed land bridge connecting north and south america . this is part of a major geologic event called the great american biotic interchange , or gabi , and hog - nosed skunks were among the earliest carnivores to expand to the south .\nlike many skunk species , hooded skunks have more than just one name . this species is sometimes called the long - tailed mexican skunk , southern skunk , white - sided skunk or zorillo .\nthe eastern spotted skunk is the only skunk that can climb trees , according to the adw .\nhumans carry their babies for 9 months , but that\u2019s nothing compared to these amazing creatures .\nhooded skunk - mephitis macroura most of the hooded skunk ' s diet is made up of insects . source : audubon guides intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\npygmy spotted skunk - spilogale pygmaea the pygmy spotted skunk is found along the pacific coast of mexico .\nhog - nosed skunks have bare noses from all the rooting around they do when hunting for food to eat . ( photo : patagonian stock ae / shutterstock )\nthey all stink , but there ' s much more to the skunk world than just the black - and - white stripes of pep\u00e9 le pew .\nthe american hog - nosed skunk is not only among the largest skunk species at more than 2 feet long and weighing up to 10 pounds , it is also the only species that lacks the familiar white medial bar between the eyes . the all - black face and distinctive nose make this type of skunk easy to identify .\nhog - nosed skunks primarily eat insects and prey that are considered crop pests , so they can be particularly beneficial to have on a farm or in a garden .\nvery little is known about this particular species of hog - nosed skunk ( e . g . population density , mating system , etc . ) . more research into the natural history of this species is required for complete understanding .\nthe eastern hog - nosed skunk is the largest of all the skunk species , according to the animal diversity web ( adw ) . it typically grows to 27 . 56 to 31 . 50 inches ( 70 to 80 cm ) and weighs 4 . 41 to 9 . 91 lbs . ( 2 to 4 . 5 kg ) .\nthe striped hog - nosed skunk is quite the solitary little mammal . being both loners and nocturnal , their mating habits and reproduction cycles are not widely documented . it is assumed that these are similar to that of other skunk species , which means that mating generally occurs in the spring and results in one litter of 2 - 5 offspring per year . they most likely retreat underground or into some type of den or burrow to give birth . the lifespan of this animal is not known for longevity , and at this time the striped hog - nosed skunk does not appear on any endangered species or conservation lists .\npatagonian hog - nosed skunks are solitary creatures that are active mainly at night . home ranges of individual skunks may overlap and range from 9 . 7 ha to 16 . 4 ha . during the daylight hours\nmueller , jennifer .\nfacts about the hog nose skunks\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\n) , also referred to as the amazonian hog - nosed skunk , is a neotropical mammal . this means that they are generally found in central and south america , from southern mexico continuing south eastwards into peru and eastern brazil . the striped hog - nosed skunk is similar in size to an average domestic house cat , perhaps slightly smaller . their size is about 57 cm ( 22 inches ) in length with an average weight of 1 . 6 kg ( 3 . 5 lbs ) , and the male of the species is generally larger than the female .\nmueller , jennifer .\nfacts about the hog nose skunks .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / hog - nose - skunks - 7452 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nthere are four species of spotted skunk , all of which are found from central america north into canada . two species , the eastern spotted skunk and the pygmy spotted skunk , are considered to be vulnerable to extinction .\nmueller , jennifer . ( n . d . ) . facts about the hog nose skunks . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / hog - nose - skunks - 7452 . html\nlasts approximately 9 weeks . patagonian hog - nosed skunks bear 3 to 7 altricial young . the reason for such a small litter is believed to be the relatively small number of mammae possessed by the females . female patagonian hog - nosed skunks have 3 pair of mammae , as opposed to other species of skunks , which may have more . young are not \u201cweaned\u201d in the traditional sense , but simply stop nursing when able to take in a regular diet .\na young / baby of a striped hognosed skunk is called a ' kit ' . a striped hognosed skunk group is called a ' surfeit or stink ' .\nthere are reports that hog - nosed skunks in the andes are immune to the venum of pit vipers . this might indicate an historic case of predation on these skunks by snakes which is no longer of importance , or it may indicate that the skunks prey on pit vipers .\nstriped skunk - mephitis mephitis the striped skunk is black with two broad white stripes on back . source : audubon guides intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nwestern spotted skunk - spilogale gracilis the western spotted skunk is found in the western united states . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthis type of skunk is probably the most commonly known . found throughout north america from central mexico into canada , the striped skunk is content living anywhere from the most pristine wilderness to the heart of urban centers . it ' s black - and - white markings are familiar and even fear - inducing to those who have had an unfortunate run - in with its spray .\nno skunk species is currently endangered , according to the international union for conservation of nature . except for one , all are listed on the union ' s red list of threatened species as\nleast concern .\nthe pygmy spotted skunk is listed as vulnerable due to and ongoing population loss estimated to be more than 30 percent over the past three generations of the species .\nhas no real natural predators , although certain species of skunks have been preyed upon by raptors such as great - horned owls . the lack of natural predators may be in fact due to the skunk\u2019s ability to emit a powerful smelling musk out of anal glands on its rear end .\nbefore spraying , a skunk will often charge at an attacker , stomp its front legs or hiss .\nstink badgers were only recently classified as part of the skunk family . ( photo : nicoolay / istockphoto )\nwestern spotted skunk - spilogale gracilis the western spotted skunk is black , with horizontal white stripes on its neck and and shoulders . source : audubon guides intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nthe striped skunk is found across most of southern canada , all over the united states and in northern mexico .\nstriped skunk - mephitis mephitis the striped skunk is found throughout most of the united states . it is also found in canada and mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nskunk are one of four wild animals considered to be primary carriers of the rabies virus , according to the humane society .\nin appearance , the striped hog - nosed skunk is similar to the common skunk found in north america with some slight differences . their coat is predominately black in color with the white stripe forming at the back of their necks and extending down their back where it divides into two stripes . the tail is black and white but not as bushy as that of other species and their coat is very coarse , lacking the qualities for which the north american skunk is valued . the nose is long and extends into a pig - like\nsnout\nwhich is used to root in the earth , and the front feet have strong sharp claws for digging . like all skunks , they have anal glands which are capable of spraying a foul - smelling musk when threatened .\nthe skunk\u2019s most memorable trait is its smell . when frightened , skunks will shoot a smelly , oily substance from a gland underneath their tails with a range of up to 10 feet ( 3 meters ) , according to national geographic . the scent from this gland can last for days , but isn\u2019t harmful . most animals leave skunks alone unless they can\u2019t find other prey . before spraying , a spotted skunk will do a handstand on its front paws and aim its tail without taking its eyes off its attacker .\nhabitat use for patagonian hog - nose skunks ranges from grass and shrub land to rocky outcroppings . they may also be found around human dwellings ( e . g . houses , sheds , etc . ) .\nthe spray is an oily liquid that the skunk can shoot up to 10 feet . it ' s so powerful that it can induce vomiting and can temporarily blind anyone unfortunate enough to get spritzed in the eyes . the stink lasts for days and is next to impossible to get out . ask a dog owner whose pet got sprayed , and they ' ll confirm how tough it is to wash away .\nalina bradford is a contributing writer for live science . over the past 16 years , alina has covered everything from ebola to androids while writing health , science and tech articles for major publications . she has multiple health , safety and lifesaving certifications from oklahoma state university . alina ' s goal in life is to try as many experiences as possible . to date , she has been a volunteer firefighter , a dispatcher , substitute teacher , artist , janitor , children ' s book author , pizza maker , event coordinator and much more .\ndespite the \u201cbadger\u201d label , these smelly critters fall squarely in the skunk family . their appearance is part of the misnomer , since they lack a long bushy tail like other skunk species . instead , they have a similar look to badgers with their robust , stocky body shape and stumpy tails .\nhooded skunk - mephitis macroura the hooded skunk is found in el salvador , guatemala , honduras , mexico , nicaragua , and in the united states in southwestern texas , southwestern new mexico , and southeastern arizona . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\neastern spotted skunk - spilogale putorius eastern spotted skunks are good climbers . source : audubon guides intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nhas a bare , broad , projecting face that lacks the thin white line down the middle . this allows it to be easily distinguished from similar species of skunk .\nnot all skunks come with stripes . this adorable species sports a black - and - white dappled coat that , while technically isn ' t spotted , is the source of this variety ' s name . rather than the ventral stripes of other species , spotted skunks have stripe - like patches of white in patterns distinct to each individual .\njennifer mueller began writing and editing professionally in 1995 , when she became sports editor of her university ' s newspaper while also writing a bi - monthly general interest column for an independent tourist publication . mueller holds a bachelor of arts in political science from the university of north carolina at asheville and a juris doctor from indiana university maurer school of law .\nstriped skunk - mephitis mephitis striped skunks are nocturnal . they spend the day sleeping in underground burrows . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthere is more variety in the skunk family than you may have suspected . going far beyond the familiar waddling , black - and - white striped critter roaming many suburban backyards , there are a wide variety of lesser - known skunk species \u2014 including two found in the malay islands of southeast asia . but they all have two things in common : an infamously unmistakable aroma and a single ancestry source .\nthese small stinkers are found in the united states , canada , south america and mexico . stink badgers , which were recently considered part of the skunk family , are found in indonesia and the philippines .\nthe markings of the coat are used to warn predators . if they ignore this warning the skunk will lift up his tail and raising the hairs making it look bigger . he grinds his teeth and stomps his front paws on the floor . most predators leave it at that , but the persistent one is in for a nasty surprise . the skunk aims his anal glands towards the attacker and sprays quite accurately a yellow , oily foul smelling fluid onto his goal . a skunk can spray 10 up to 16 . 4 feet . the coat pattern serves as a warning to predators . should they ignore the warning , the skunk flares his tail , spreads out the tail hair , grinds his teeth and will stomp on the ground with his front legs . most predators will leave it at this , but the single enemy that remains gets a nasty surprise . the skunk points the anal glands on the attacker and sprays a yellow , oily , smelly liquid . it can spray nine to sixteen feet , but the vapor that is released can carry up to thirty three feet away . the smell will hang around for a long time and can be smelled from afar . however , the skunk is very sparse with his fluid , since he has only enough for five or six attacks and it takes a few weeks before the liquid is replaced . only the american eagle owl , which has a poor sense of smell , is a formidable natural enemy of the skunk . the vast majority ends up becoming the victims of automobiles though .\nhooded skunks get their name from the cap of long fur on the top of their heads and the backs of their necks , which can look almost like a furry cape . they have color pattern variations , including a single wide , white dorsal stripe ( pictured here ) , or they may be entirely black except for the white hood and some white on the tail . this skunk has a longer tail and softer fur than its striped skunk cousins .\nthe striped skunk ( mephitis mephitis ) is the best known skunk and also the most common skunk kept as a pet . this species natural range is almost completely in north america . they inhabit a variety of ecological niches ; deserts , forests , prairies , agricultural landscapes and suburban sites . the striped skunks head to vent length is between 13 to 23 . 5 inches and weighs 4 . 4 to 13 . 3 lbs . the tail length is between 7 to 15 . 7 inches . in general males are a heavier build than females . the striped skunk has black fur with two wide white stripes running along the sides of the back . the shoulders and nape of the neck are also white . the amount of white varies per individual ; some are almost entirely black but there are also near white animals . on the face there is a narrow white stripe . the tail is long haired and fluffy .\neastern spotted skunk - spilogale putorius eastern spotted skunks are found throughout much of the eastern united state south through central america to el salvador . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\naccording to pbs ,\ndna and evidence from the fossil record suggest that the mephitidae family derived from a single common ancestor about 30 to 40 million years ago . the descendants of this ancient skunk have evolved into 12 of the stinkiest and most intriguing species on the planet .\ndespite the smelly trouble they can sometimes cause , striped skunks \u2014 and all skunk species \u2014 are quite beneficial . they have an omnivorous diet and help with everything from keeping insects like grasshoppers , beetles , crickets and wasps in check to spreading seeds of fruits and berries and cleaning up fallen fruit .\nthe hooded skunk is found from the southwestern united states all the way down to costa rica . this species can be found in a variety of habitats , according to the university of michigan .\nhooded skunks can live in several habitats , from dry lowlands to boreal forests or plateaus , and many habitats in between . these skunks may be found in high - elevation ponderosa pine forests , deciduous forests , forest edges , riparian zones , rocky canyons , grasslands , pastures , and arid desert lowlands . in oaxaca , mexico , where they are the most common skunk species , they prefer grasslands and marshes over scrublands .\nit is not permitted in most european countries to descent skunks ( or any other mammal ) and is not necessary . a skunk will , if well socialized , not use his anal glands . only very young skunks lack full control over their anal glands and may\nleak\n. well cared for skunks have a neutral smell and often take on the smell of their surroundings . this is because the coat can absorb odors due to a special hair structure . a skunk that sleeps in straw will smell like straw and when they sit a while in the lap of someone wearing perfume it will , after a few minutes , smell like that perfume . a well cared for skunk doesn ' t smell as unpleasant as you might think . . . descented skunks , however , may be imported and sold . note that if the descenting procedure isn ' t followed out correctly they might loose control of the small remainders of their anal glands and have a slight\nskunkie\nodor .\nuntil recently , skunks were considered part of the mustelid family , related to weasels , otters and badgers . molecular analysis has shown that skunks should be recognized as a single family , mephitidae , according to the adw . also , stink badgers , which occur in indonesia and the philippines , have just recently been considered part of the skunk family .\nexplorers reported as early as the 16th century that native americans kept skunks in and around their villages . the first western settlers also welcomed skunks around their farms to kill off pests such as mice and rats . by breeding skunks on fur farms since the mid - 19th century quite a lot of colors and markings have been bred . there are brown , gray , apricot and white skunks . when the fur market collapsed after the american civil war ( 1861 - 1865 ) , the fur breeders have focused on the pet industry . artis was the first dutch zoo in 1939 that had skunks in their collection . since the 70 ' s they have also been kept as pets in the netherlands .\nthe oldest known fossil remains of a skunk is found in germany ( europe ) and has been dates back to 12 million years ago . up to 1997 the skunks were considered as members of the weaselfamily ( mustelidae ) . but recent dna research has put them in their own family , the skunks ( mephitidae ) . the family has 12 members devided in 4 genera .\na skunk is an omnivore . the natural diet consists of rodents , insects , lizards , eggs of ground - nesting birds , amphibians , vegetables , fruits and berries . the striped skunk is a solitary nocturnal animal , is largely crepuscular and nocturnal , and they sleep during the day in a quiet corner . it does not hibernate , but he goes into winter rest in cold regions . in the fall they grow a thick fat layer , to come through the food - poor winter months to come . often several skunks spend their winter rest together in a den . sometimes they use an existing shelter such as a tree or a hollow space between the rocks . occasionally they dig their own den . striped skunks sometimes use hollow walls and crawl spaces as an accommodation . in general , winter dens and maternity dens are underground , others are above ground .\nthe mating season is from february to april . gestation lasts 62 to 66 days , including the prolonged gestation of 19 days . the skunk gets 3 - 9 young per litter and they are born in may . at birth the kits are blind and covered with peach - like fuzz . the characteristic striped markings are already clearly recognizable . after six to seven weeks the young are weaned and go with the mother on the hunt . they live up to 3 to 6 years in the wild and 6 to 10 years in captivity .\nlike its skunk relatives , and true to its name , the stink badger can spray a foul - smelling secretion as a form of self - defense . for the sunda stink badger , this is the second tack it takes when threatened . its first strategy is to play dead like an opossum . when it is forced to squirt a predator , it can spray the secretion only about 6 inches . the palawan stink badger , on the other hand , has a far more noxious smelling secretion which it can spray up to a meter away and will do so as the first line of defense . in other words , they\u2019re not to be trifled with .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nwhile many authors have traditionally considered skunks a subfamily ( mephitinae ) within mustelidae , recent molecular evidence indicates that skunks do not lie within the mustelid group and should be recognised as a single family , mephitidae ( wozencraft 2005 ) .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern because it is widespread in an area of relatively little - encroached habitat and it is common , sometimes occurring at high densities ( cofr\u00e9 and marquet 1999 ) .\nthe species is found in southern argentina and adjacent parts of chile ( redford and eisenberg 1989 ) .\nolrog and lucero ( 1981 ) state that it is locally common in argentina . there is some indication that the numbers of c . humboldtii have decreased ( broad et al . 1988 ) , but the numbers killed each year in patagonia are not known and unpublished data show that population levels have been stable from 1989 to 1993 . population density value estimated for chile is 89 individuals / km\u00b2 ( cofr\u00e9 and marquet 1999 ) .\nthe pelts of c . humboldtii were exported a great deal between 1960 and 1980 although of lesser value than other conepatus species . in 1983 , c . humboldtii was protected against export in argentina and chile . these animals are apparently still used in the pet trade ( chapman and feldhamer 1982 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nis approximately 50 to 60 cm in length counting the tail which is 15 to 18 centimeters in length . these animals weigh between 1100 to 4500 g . both males and females are black and may have 1 or 2 stripes down the side of their bodies . they are sexually dimorphic with the males being slightly larger .\nundergoes similar development as other mustelidae . at birth young weigh approximately one ounce . growth to adulthood usually takes up to 3 months ( chapman and feldhammer 1982 ) .\n( chapman and feldhamer , 1982 ; fuller , et al . , 1987 )\nthe parental care of this species has not been described . however , other skunks give birth to altricial young , which are kept in a den or nest until they are able to walk about . the mother provides the young with food in the form of milk , and protection .\ncommunicates by bodily gestures to ward off potential danger . this may be stamping its feet or raising its rear in the air . like other skunks , it is known to eject a foul smelling secretion from its anal glands if threatened . little is known of mating behavior of\nprobably affects populations of insects and other small mammals it preys upon . to the extent that it digs in the soil for burrowing or to locate its insect prey , this species probably also helps to aerate the soil .\nwas protected against export in argentina and chile . these animals are apparently still used in the pet trade .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nfound in coastal areas between 30 and 40 degrees latitude , in areas with a mediterranean climate . vegetation is dominated by stands of dense , spiny shrubs with tough ( hard or waxy ) evergreen leaves . may be maintained by periodic fire . in south america it includes the scrub ecotone between forest and paramo .\nin mammals , a condition in which a fertilized egg reaches the uterus but delays its implantation in the uterine lining , sometimes for several months .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthis terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains , either without vegetation or covered by low , tundra - like vegetation .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nthe business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\nto cite this page : shaw , w . 2002 .\nconepatus humboldtii\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nclassification from integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) selected by c . michael hogan - see more .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\npatagonianskunkki\nto\nconepatus humboldtii gray , 1837\n.\nc . michael hogan marked\nrange description\nas visible on the\nconepatus humboldtii gray , 1837\npage .\nc . michael hogan marked\nrange description\nas trusted on the\nconepatus humboldtii gray , 1837\npage .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .\nor conepatus humboldtii is listed on the iucn red list ( 1996 ) as lower risk / least concern .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we\u0092ll send you a link to reset your password .\nthis image can ' t be licensed for personal use ( e . g . personal prints ) .\nsorry , this image isn ' t available for this licence . please refer to the license restrictions for more information .\non the alamy prints site ( powered by art . com ) choose your frame , the size and finish of your photo .\nby clicking ok , you ' re confirming your use isn\u2019t personal ( e . g . personal prints ) .\nthe species is found in southern argentina and adjacent parts of chile ( redford and eisenberg , 1989 ) .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\none dancer wears a black and white zebra body suit with a painted face . women enter in animal print with skulls as hair pieces\nchanges to represent habitats e . g . warm wash in the caf\u00e9 to cool wash in the penguin section\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nduring dry seasons they can be predominately found in deciduous forests , shrub woodlands , and occasionally grasslands . they tend to avoid desert areas and thickly wooded forests , preferring more sparsely wooded areas . during the wet season , the skunks tend to be more selective , sticking to higher levels of elevation where food is plentiful . the omnivorous creatures feed on insects , fruit and eggs , invertebrates , and small vertebrates such as lizards and small mammals .\nblack - and - white striped skunks are the most well - known , but they have some adorable stinky cousins . ( photo : globalp / istockphoto )\nthose 12 species fall into five distinct types of skunks . here they are , each beneficial to their ecosystems and surprisingly cute in their own smelly way .\nstriped skunks are perhaps the most familiar species in north america . ( photo : bildagentur zoonar gmbh / shutterstock )\nspotted skunks have a particularly beautiful coat pattern . ( photo : action sports photography / shutterstock )\nspotted skunks grow to be one to two feet in length and are agile climbers , often taking to the trees and walking along branches , which is why they ' re sometimes called tree skunks . taking advantage of a diverse diet , spotted skunks will happily feast on fruits and other easy foods , but also will go after tougher prey such as snakes .\nwhile forests and shrub - covered areas offer a great habitat , spotted skunks are content setting up dens around homes , farms and other places where it might be easy to have a run - in with this cute but stinky creature . luckily they give plenty of warning , including stomping and rising up to walk on their front feet .\nhooded skunks have a ' hood ' of white fur on their heads and down their necks . ( photo : dmitrij rodionov , dr / wikimedia commons )\nthere are two species of stink badger \u2014 the palawan stink badger , or pantot , and the sunda stink badger , or teledu . they\u2019re found on the western islands of the malay archipelago where they root around for invertebrates , eggs , worms and other goodies under the cover of night .\ncheck out a stink badger in action as it moves around looking for grub ( literally ! ) in the middle of the night .\njaymi heimbuch ( @ jaymiheimbuch ) focuses on wildlife conservation and animal news from her home base in san francisco .\nthe black - footed cat may be tiny , but it will walk 20 miles in pursuit of prey .\nhumpback whales have been witnessed foiling killer whale hunts from antarctica to the north pacific .\ntry our newsletter for optimistic innovations , seasonal recipes , strong communities and the smartest ways to lead a sustainable lifestyle .\natacama desert . cactus and other rare plants show their best appearance during the blooming season after the occasional winter rain . | pinterest | desert cact\u2026\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\naverage measurements ( in mm ) : femur length 56 . 8 , humerus length 46 . 7 , radius length 39 . 1 , skull length 63 . 3 , tibia length 57 . 0\nestimated body mass : 666 . 4 g based on femur length , humerus length , and tibia length\nskunks are small , furry animals with black and white stripes . some skunks are striped , and some are spotted or have swirl patterns on their fur . no matter the pattern , the black - and - white coloring is a warning sign to anyone who may harm this small creature . they pack a wallop of a defense mechanism \u2014 noxious odors produced from their well - developed scent glands .\nskunks are typically around the size of house cats . they grow to 8 to 19 inches ( 20 to 48 centimeters ) long and weigh around 7 ounces to 14 lbs . ( 198 grams to 6 kilograms ) . their tail adds another 5 to 15 inches ( 13 to 38 cm ) to their length .\nskunks live in forest edges , woodlands , grasslands and deserts . they typically make their homes in abandoned burrows , but will also live in abandoned buildings , under large rocks and in hollow logs .\nit is important to remember that most skunks are not aggressive and won\u2019t harm humans unless they are threatened , according to the humane society .\nskunks are nocturnal and forage for food while most animals and humans sleep . though you typically see skunks by themselves , they gather to mate . a group of skunks are called a surfeit .\nskunks are omnivores , which means they eat both meat and vegetation . their diet consists of plants , insects , larvae , worms , fruit , eggs , reptiles , small mammals and fish .\nlittle is known about the biology of stink badgers , according to the adw .\nfemale skunks give birth every year . their gestation period often lasts around two months and they give birth to two to 10 offspring at a time .\nbaby skunks are called kits . kits are blind when born , since their eyes are sealed shut until around the age of 3 weeks , according to the san diego zoo . they are weaned at 2 months old . after they are weaned , they leave the den and at to 10 to 12 months old they are ready to have their own kits .\nskunks have very short lives and often live only around three years . in captivity they can live a little longer , usually seven to eight years .\nthere are four species of spotted skunks . western spotted skunks ( pictured ) extend from central mexico through the western united states to british columbia ; southern spotted skunks occur from central mexico south to central costa rica ; eastern spotted skunks are found from eastern canada , down the appalachians to northeast mexico .\npoachers tried to kill rhinos in south african reserve . instead , a pride of lions killed them .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhome | wild files | n . h . animals | animals a - z | watch online\nthere are 12 species of in this family . skunks are found in north , central , and south america . stink badgers are found in indonesia and the philippines .\nmembers of this family are black , brown , or gray and have white stripes or spots . skunks and stink badgers are about the size of a domestic cat and have squat bodies ; bushy tails ; and powerful , stubby legs . they have a gland under their tails that emits a spray with strong odor . this spray is used to warn away predators . in addition to smelling bad , this spay also causes a stinging sensation .\nskunks and stink badgers are nocturnal and spend the day in a burrow or den or hidden under rocks or a log . they have strong front claws that help them dig into the soil for food . they are omnivores and eat vegetation , insects , larvae , worms , small birds , eggs , small mammals , and reptiles . skunks and stink badgers are solitary , although some species may gather together in a den in cold weather .\nleast concern near threatened vulnerable endangered critically endangered extinct in wild extinct status and range is taken from icun redlist . if no status is listed , there is not enough data to establish status .\npalawan stink - badger - mydaus marchei the palawan stink - badger is found in the philippines . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\npalawan stink - badger - mydaus marchei unlike most species in this family , the palawan stink - badger is diurnal . that means it is active during the day . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nsunda stink - badger - mydaus javanensis the sunda stink - badger is found on the indonesian islands of sumatra , java , borneo , and north natuna islands . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe legislation governing the keeping of skunks varies from country to country . please refer to your local laws .\nour privacy / cookie policy contains detailed information about the types of cookies & related technology on our site , and some ways to opt out . by using the site , you agree to the uses of cookies and other technology as outlined in our policy , and to our terms of use .\nnote : depending on which text editor you ' re pasting into , you might have to add the italics to the site name ."]}
{"id": 989, "summary": [{"text": "fascioloides magna , also known as giant liver fluke , large american liver fluke or deer fluke , is trematode parasite that occurs in wild and domestic ruminants in north america and europe .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "adult flukes occur in the liver of the definitive host and feed on blood .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "mature flukes measure 4 to 10 cm in length \u00d7 2 to 3.5 cm in width , and have an oval dorso-ventrally flattened body with oral and ventral sucker .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the flukes are reddish-brown in colour and are covered by tegument .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "as with other digenean trematodes , the life cycle includes intramolluscan phase in snails .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the parasite is currently distributed in wild ruminants in north america and europe , including austria , canada , czechia , croatia , germany , hungary , italy , poland , serbia , slovakia , and usa . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "fascioloides magna", "paragraphs": ["giant liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) , an important liver parasite of ruminants .\nforeyt wj , leathers cw . experimental infection of domestic goats with fascioloides magna .\ndistribution of potential intermediate hosts for fasciola hepatica and fascioloides magna in montana , usa .\nsusceptibility of bighorn sheep ( ovis canadensis ) to experimentally - induced fascioloides magna infections .\nexperimental infection of lymnaeid snails in wisconsin with miracidia of fascioloides magna and fasciola hepatica .\nefficacy of triclabendazole against natural infections of fascioloides magna in wapiti . - pubmed - ncbi\npredilection site of fascioloides magna is the liver , occasionally the lungs and the intestine .\nlife history and biology of fascioloides magna ( trematoda ) and its native and exotic hosts .\ndescribe the pathophysiology of fascioloides magna ( the large american liver fluke ) infections in cattle .\na natural infection of fascioloides magna in a llama ( lama glama ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nfascioloides magna ( bassi , 1875 ) in feral swine from southern texas . - pubmed - ncbi\nsequences of primers used to amplify fragments of fascioloides magna mitochondrial genome . ( docx 13 kb )\nmolecular characterization of fascioloides magna ( trematoda : fasciolidae ) from south - western poland . . .\nadult stage of the giant liver fluke , fascioloides magna . the photo was taken by martin ka\u0161n\u00fd .\nkennedy mj , acorn rc . moraiko dt . survey of fascioloides magna in farmed wapiti in alberta .\nsummary of statistical parameters for 11 microsatellite loci of fascioloides magna from europe . ( docx 26 kb )\nwherefrom and whereabouts of an alien : the american liver fluke fascioloides magna in austria : an overview .\ndistribution of potential intermediate hosts for fasciola hepatica and fascioloides magna in montana , usa . - pubmed - ncbi\nsusceptibility of bighorn sheep ( ovis canadensis ) to experimentally - induced fascioloides magna infections . - pubmed - ncbi\nexperimental infection of lymnaeid snails in wisconsin with miracidia of fascioloides magna and fasciola hepatica . - pubmed - ncbi\nsummary of statistical parameters for 11 microsatellite loci of fascioloides magna from north america . ( docx 31 kb )\nrecovery of fascioloides magna ( digenea ) population in spite of treatment programme ? screening of ga . . .\nprevalence of fascioloides magna in galba truncatula in the danube backwater area east of vienna , au . . .\nlankester mw . parelaphostrongylus tenuis ( nematoda ) and fascioloides magna ( trematoda ) in moose of southeastern manitoba .\nmule deer ( odocoileus hemionus ) and elk ( cervus elaphus ) as experimental definitive hosts for fascioloides magna .\nfascioloides magna ( a , a ) and fasciola hepatica ( b , b ) , adults and eggs .\ndiagnosis and therapy of liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) infection in fallow deer ( dama dama ) in serbia .\neffect of fascioloides magna ( digenea ) on fecundity , shell height , and survival rate of pseudosuccin . . .\nthe origin of the giant liver fluke , fascioloides magna ( trematoda : fasciolidae ) from croatia determ . . .\nimpact of the giant liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) on elk and other ungulates in banff and kootney national parks .\nfascioloides magna , the giant liver fluke , parasite of cattle , sheep and other livestock . biology , prevention and control\nfascioloides magna - the giant liver fluke - parasite of cattle , sheep and other livestock . biology , prevention and control\ndutson vj , shaw jn , knapp se . epizootiologic factors of fascioloides magna ( trematoda ) in oregon and southern washington .\nwherefrom and whereabouts of an alien : the american liver fluke fascioloides magna in austria : an overview . - pubmed - ncbi\nforeyt wj . hunter rl . clinical fascioloides magna infection in sheep in oregon on pasture shared by columbian white - tailed deer .\nmule deer ( odocoileus hemionus ) and elk ( cervus elaphus ) as experimental definitive hosts for fascioloides magna . - pubmed - ncbi\ndiagnosis and therapy of liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) infection in fallow deer ( dama dama ) in serbia . - pubmed - ncbi\npursglove sr , prestwood ak , ridgeway tr , hayes fa . fascioloides magna infection in white - tailed deer of southeastern united states .\n. in : the giant liver fluke , fascioloides magna : past , present and future research . springerbriefs in animal sciences . springer , cham\nand figure s2 . models of historical gene flow of fascioloides magna populations tested in migrate and estimates of relative population sizes . ( docx 218 kb )\nforeyt wj , todd ac . development of the large american liver fluke , fascioloides magna , in white - tailed deer , cattle , and sheep .\nerhardov\u00e1 - kotrl\u00e1 b : the occurence of fascioloides magna ( bassi , 1875 ) in czechoslovakia . prague : academia ; 1971 : 1 - 124 .\nprimer pairs and multiplex panels for 11 microsatellite loci applied in fascioloides magna genotyping ( modified according to min\u00e1rik et al . 2014 ) . ( docx 19 kb )\nprevalence of fascioloides magna in red deer in southwestern slovakia in the respective years during the period of 2005\u20132015 . n \u2013 number of examined red deer , np \u2013 number of red deer infected with f . magna , % \u2013 prevalence of fascioloidosis\nto cite this page : nguyen , s . 2011 .\nfascioloides magna\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nactive ingredients with efficacy against flukes are usually called flukicides or fasciolicides . the following anthelmintics have reported efficacy against fascioloides magna in livestock ( mainly cattle , sheep , goats ) :\ncomparison of a + t content of mitochondrial genomes of fascioloides magna ( fm ) , fasciola hepatica ( fh ) and fasciola gigantica ( fg ) . ( docx 20 kb )\ninfection with fascioloides magna ( digenea ) causes serious damage to liver tissue in definitive hosts represented by ruminants , especially cervids . the distribution of f . magna includes the indigenous areas in north america , and the areas to which f . magna was introduced - central europe , southeast europe , and italy . the north american intermediate host of f . magna , the freshwater snail . . . [ show full abstract ]\ndistribution of intermediate hosts of fascioloides magna based on baker ' s ( 1911 ) division of north american regions embracing natural drainage areas , and after dunkel et al . ( 1996 )\nfalt\u00fdnkov\u00e1 a , hor\u00e1\u010dkov\u00e1 e , hirtov\u00e1 l , novobilsk\u00fd a , modr\u00fd d . scholz t . is radix peregra a new intermediate host of fascioloides magna ( trematoda ) in europe ?\na young , female llama ( lama glama ) was euthanized following the onset of hindleg paresis and paralysis . live trematodes , identified as fascioloides magna , were identified from the liver of this animal . this represents the first report of f . magna in a llama .\n\u0161pakulov\u00e1 m , rajsk\u00fd d , vod\u0148ansk\u00fd j , sokol j : giant liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) , an important liver parasite of ruminants . bratislava : parpress ; 2003 : 61 .\npopulation structure and genetic interrelationships of giant liver fluke fascioloides magna from all enzootic north american regions were revealed in close relation with geographical distribution of its obligate definitive cervid hosts for the first time .\ncomparative analysis among mt genomes of f . magna , fa . hepatica and fa . gigantica\nexamination of definitive hosts and determination of f . magna / f . hepatica adults / eggs\nanalyses of population size changes . wilcoxon sign - rank tests for heterozygosity excess in native and introduced areas of fascioloides magna under a two - phase model ( tpm ) and stepwise mutation model ( smm ) from bottleneck and coalescent estimates of theta ( \u03b8 ) for source and introduced f . magna populations\nin last few years , a great effort has been made to understand genetic interrelationships of european and north american populations of giant liver fluke fascioloides magna ( trematoda , fasciolidae ) . in europe , spatial distribution of this parasite is evidently dynamic and ongoing process since new f . magna populations have constantly been emerging . most recently , occurrence of f . magna in red . . . [ show full abstract ]\nfor the first time , radix labiata was confirmed as the snail host for f . magna under natural conditions and , together with the finding of f . magna infection in cattle , we can expect further transmission of f . magna from wildlife to livestock in localities shared by these hosts .\nfor dead - end hosts such as cattle or horses , most infections with fascioloides magna remain without clinical symptoms . the massive cysts in the liver tissue can impair the liver function . and the livers are condemned at slaughter .\nthe large american liver fluke , fascioloides magna , is an economically relevant parasite of both domestic and wild ungulates . f . magna was repeatedly introduced into europe , for the first time already in the 19th century . in austria , a stable population of f . magna has established in the danube floodplain forests southeast of vienna . the aim of this study was to determine the genetic diversity . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe complete f . magna mt genome sequence is 14 , 047 bp . the gene content and arrangement of the f . magna mt genome is similar to those of fasciola spp . , except that trn e is located between trn g and the only non - coding region in f . magna mt genome . phylogenetic relationships of f . magna with selected trematodes using bayesian inference ( bi ) was reconstructed based on the concatenated amino acid sequences for 12 protein - coding genes , which confirmed that the genus fascioloides is closely related to the genus fasciola ; the intergeneric differences of amino acid composition between the genera fascioloides and fasciola ranged 17 . 97\u201318 . 24 % .\norganization of the mitochondrial genome of fascioloides magna . the scales are approximate . all genes are transcribed in the clockwise direction , using standard nomenclature . \u201cncr\u201d refers to the only non - coding region in f . magna data . the a + t content is shown for each gene or region of the mt genome and represented by colour\nn a number of f . magna specimens from the respective usa state or canadian ( ca ) province\nschematic presentation of the most possible scenarios of migration routes of f . magna on both continents using migrate\nmarinkovic d . nesic v . 2008 . zlatibor , serbia , and changes on the liver of fallow deer ( dama dama ) caused by american giant liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) infection . the proceedings of savetovanje veterinara srbije , 20 .\nthe first preventative measure against fascioloides magna is is to keep livestock from sharing pastures with deer . if this is not possible , in endemic regions keeping the pastures dry will reduce the suitable habitats for infected snails , e . g . :\nchoquette lp , gibson gg , simard b . fascioloides magna ( bassi , 1875 ) ward , 1917 ( trematoda ) in woodland caribou , rangifer tarandus caribou ( gmelin ) , of northeastern quebec , and its distribution in wild ungulates in canada .\nfascioloides magna is a flatworm parasite native to north america . its final hosts are deer , moose , and related cervids , but it can infect cattle , sheep , goats , horses , buffaloes , etc . if they share the pastures with wild cervids .\nphylogenetic relationships of fascioloides magna and other trematodes . tree inferred from the concatenated amino acid sequence dataset for 12 protein - coding genes from 19 trematodes was performed by bayesian inference ( bi ) . gyrodactylus derjavinoides ( nc _ 010976 ) was chosen as the outgroup\njuh\u00e1sov\u00e1 \u013e , bazsalovicsov\u00e1 e , kr\u00e1lov\u00e1 - hromadov\u00e1 i , karamon j . a genetic structure of novel population of fascioloides magna from poland , podkarpackie province , indicates an expanding second european natural focus of fascioloidosis . acta parasitol . 2016 ; 61 : 790\u20135 .\ndunkel , a . m . , rognlie , m . c . , johnson , g . r . , & knapp , s . e . ( 1996 ) . distribution of potential intermediate hosts for fasciola hepatica and fascioloides magna in montana , usa .\nrepresentatives of the trematode family fasciolidae are responsible for major socio - economic losses worldwide . fascioloides magna is an important pathogenic liver fluke of wild and domestic ungulates . to date , only a limited number of studies concerning the molecular biology of f . magna exist . therefore , the objective of the present study was to determine the complete mitochondrial ( mt ) genome sequence of f . magna , and assess the phylogenetic relationships of this fluke with other trematodes based on the mtdna dataset .\nno . if livestock is infected with stomach flukes , they are not contagious for humans , neither through contact , nor after consuming meat , milk or blood of contaminated animals , nor through the feces . the reason is that fascioloides magna is not parasitic for humans .\nfor aberrant hosts such as sheep and goats , infection with fascioloides magna is mostly fatal , usually about 6 months after infection , often without previous clinical signs . excessive fluke migration leads to strong bleeding and peritonitis , heavy damage to the liver tissue and subsequent fibrosis .\nfor the natural definitive hosts , i . e . various deer species , infections with fascioloides magna are mostly benign , without clinical symptoms , although the animals may be weakened ( weight loss , lethargy , depression , etc . ) . nevertheless , massive infections can be fatal .\nrehbein s , hamel d , reindl h , visser m , pfister k . fascioloides magna and ashworthius sidemi \u2013 two new parasites in wild ungulates in germany . in : program & abstracts of european multicolloquium of parasitology xi . cluj - napoca , romania . 2012 . p . 565 .\nfascioloides magna is a parasitic flatworm found within the livers of infected deer and other ruminants . adult liver flukes are flat , oval , purple - gray in color , and up to 8 cm ( 3 . 15 in ) long and 3 cm ( 1 . 2 in ) wide .\nthe high - resolution melting ( hrm ) method , recently optimized as a reliable technique for population study of the european fascioloides magna populations , was applied to determine an origin of f . magna individuals from croatia . the structure and frequency of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit i ( 439 bp ; cox1 ) haplotypes of 200 croatian flukes coming from 19 red deer ( cervus elaphus . . . [ show full abstract ]\nfascioloides magna is a pathogenic fluke introduced to europe ca 140 years ago . as it is spreading over the continent , new intermediate and definitive hosts might be involved in transmission of the parasite . in europe , several studies reported potential new intermediate snail hosts ( radix spp . ) for f . magna , and also several cases of fascioloidosis of wild and domestic animals were published . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthis means that if a flukicide fails to achieve the expected efficacy , chance is very high that it is not due to resistance but either the product was used incorrectly , or it was unsuited for the control of fascioloides magna . incorrect use is the most frequent cause for failure of antiparasitic drugs .\nduring the past decade , fascioloides magna , the large american liver fluke , has spread within free - living deer in wetlands of the danube in lower austria . the aim of this study was to determine the current infection rates with f . magna and other digenean parasites in the intermediate host snail galba truncatula from risk areas in lower austria . a total of 3444 g . truncatula were collected and . . . [ show full abstract ]\nfascioloides magna is a pathogenic fluke introduced to europe ca 140 years ago . as it is spreading over the continent , new intermediate and definitive hosts might be involved in transmission of the parasite . in europe , several studies reported potential new intermediate snail hosts ( radix spp . ) for f . magna , and also several cases of fascioloidosis of wild and domestic animals were published . however , the data based on molecular and histological analyses confirming these findings remained unreported . this study aims to refer to unique findings of f . magna in european snails and domestic animals ( the first observation in the czech republic in the last 30 years ) and demonstrate the use of molecular techniques in determination of f . magna .\nfascioloides magna ( trematoda : fasciolidae ) is an important liver parasite of a wide range of free - living and domestic ruminants ; it represents a remarkable species due to its large spatial distribution , invasive character , and potential to colonize new territories . the present study provides patterns of population genetic structure and admixture in f . magna across all enzootic regions in north america and natural foci in europe , and infers migratory routes of the parasite on both continents .\nthe giant liver fluke , fascioloides magna , is a possible contributing factor to moose ( alces alces ) declines in north america , but evidence linking f . magna infection directly to moose mortality is scarce . this review identifies knowledge gaps about the transmission and impact of f . magna infection on moose and proposes new directions for research and management of this parasite . we suggest that the importance of intermediate snail hosts has been largely neglected in current management discussions and warrants greater emphasis . the intermediate hosts responsible for f . magna transmission likely vary by region and recent genetic evidence suggests that f . magna was restricted to several isolated refugia during cervid extirpation events in north america . this distributional history represents several coevolutionary and pathological implications for definitive hosts of f . magna . we suggest that f . magna infections are most ecologically significant as they relate to sublethal impacts and multiple parasitic infections . in assessing infection risk on landscapes , most models rely heavily on monitoring white - tailed deer ( odocoileus virginianus ) , but this approach only measures risk indirectly . the reliability and accuracy of models would probably improve if snail habitat in ephemeral wetlands was included as a predictor variable .\ndevelopment of the deer liver fluke , fascioloides magna , was studied in seven domestic goats , each experimentally inoculated with 250 metacercariae . six infected goats died between 89 and 195 days ( mean 139 ) after inoculation . infection did not develop in the seventh goat . mortality was the result of unrestricted fluke migration before maturation or encapsulation of the flukes . a total of 144 f magna ( mean intensity of 24 . 0 ) were recovered from inoculated goats , representing 8 . 2 % of the metacercariae administered . growth rate of f magna in goats was similar to that in cattle , white - tailed deer , and sheep .\ninfection with fascioloides magna ( digenea ) causes serious damage to liver tissue in definitive hosts represented by ruminants , especially cervids . the distribution of f . magna includes the indigenous areas in north america , and the areas to which f . magna was introduced\u2014central europe , southeast europe , and italy . the north american intermediate host of f . magna , the freshwater snail pseudosuccinea columella ( lymnaeidae ) , is an invasive species recorded in south america , the caribbean , africa , australia , and west and southeast europe . in europe , galba truncatula is the snail serving for transmission , but p . columella has potential to become here a new intermediate host of f . magna . little is known about interactions between f . magna and p . columella . in this study , the susceptibility of p . columella ( oregon , usa ) to the infection by a single miracidium of the czech strain of f . magna and the influence of f . magna on snail fecundity , shell height , and survival were evaluated . the data show that the oregon strain of p . columella is a highly suitable host for the czech strain of f . magna , with the infection rate of 74 % . in addition , a negative effect on survival rate of infected snails was recorded only in the late phase of infection . the infection was accompanied by a major reduction in egg mass production and by a decrease in the number of eggs per egg mass . the shell height of infected snails did not significantly differ from that in unexposed controls .\nfascioloides magna is up to 100 mm long , 2\u20134 . 5 mm thick , 11\u201326 mm wide , and oval ; it is distinguished from fasciola spp by its large size and lack of an anterior projecting cone . it is found in domestic and wild ruminants ; deer are the reservoir host . the life cycle resembles that of fasciola spp .\nnucleotide differences were also found in ribosomal rna genes : between f . magna and fa . hepatica ( rrn l , 18 . 3 % ; rrn s , 22 . 2 % ) and between f . magna and fa . gigantica ( rrn l , 16 . 6 % ; rrn s , 21 . 4 % ) as well as in trna genes ( 16 . 3 % between f . magna and fa . hepatica and 16 . 0 % between f . magna and fa . gigantica ) . meaningful sequence comparisons of ncrs in mt genomes of the three fasciolid trematodes is not possible , because there is only one ncr present in f . magna mt genome , while in both fa . hepatica and fa . gigantica there are two ncrs .\nthis monograph presents complex data on fascioloides magna from all aspects of its research ( general information , distribution , spectrum of hosts ) and summarizes the latest information on molecular structure of informative genes which were recently applied in resolving taxonomy and biogeography of this veterinary important parasite . the giant liver fluke , fascioloides magna , is important liver parasite of free - living and domestic ruminants . due to its biology , distribution , medical impact , and invasive character , this liver fluke attracts attention of wide spectrum of specialists \u2013 veterinary doctors , hunters and farmers , as well as scientists . the parasite utilizes wide range of free living and domestic ruminants as definitive hosts , with various pathological impacts ranging from moderate infections towards lethal effects . fascioloides magna is of north american origin where it occurs in five enzootic regions . it was introduced to europe along with its deer hosts in 19th century and it has established three permanent natural foci . the giant liver fluke represents an outstanding model for studying the origin , spatial distribution , migratory routs , and invasion processes of introduced species .\ninfection with fascioloides magna , the large american liver fluke , was diagnosed in two moose ( alces alces ) and six wapiti ( cervus elaphus ) from central saskatchewan . this is believed to be the first record of the parasite in the province . fecal samples collected from wild wapiti at five sites in the commercial forest zone in saskatchewan contained eggs believed to be those of f . magna . trematode eggs were not found in feces from five captive herds of wapiti in the province , nor in samples from wild wapiti in moose mountain provincial park . operculate eggs were found in feces of wild wapiti from cypress hills , but these were believed to be from trematodes other than f . magna . the distribution and significance of f . magna in canada , based partially on responses to a mail questionnaire , are reviewed .\nexperimental infections of two different populations of lymnaea fuscus in france and sweden , with a czech isolate of fascioloides magna were carried out to determine if this lymnaeid species enables parasite larval development . species identification of both snail populations was performed using the morphology of the copulatory organ , and also confirmed by sequencing of the internal . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe present study determined the complete mt genome sequence of the pathogenic liver fluke f . magna and revealed its close relationship with the species of fasciola . the complete mt genome data of f . magna provides a resource for further investigations of the phylogeny , epidemiology , biology and population genetics of the family fasciolidae and other trematodes .\nthe infected bulls came from a south bohemian biofarm with restricted therapeutic intervention and ideal natural condition for transmission of f . magna , e . g . , wet pastures , natural streamlet and no effective fences . erhardov\u00e1 - kotrl\u00e1 [ 1 ] carried out detailed research in the same locality and marked this locality as f . magna free after 6 cattle postmortem examinations and 282 examinations of the red deer faecal samples . therefore , our results indicate that f . magna can spread in the czech republic .\nin this paper two unique field findings of f . magna are described : larval stages of f . magna in the intermediate host r . labiata , and adult worms in the \u201cnon - specific definitive host\u201d bos primigenius f . taurus ( highland cattle ) ; the latter case is the first report of fascioloidosis in the czech republic in the last 30 years . moreover , we refer to a unique case of co - infection of the same individual definitive host by f . magna and f . hepatica .\nhowever , commercial anthelmintic products may not include label claim against fascioloides magna in some countries . as for other fluke species , migrating immatures are the most harmful ; therefore efficacy against these stages is essential . products without efficacy against immature flukes will not protect livestock from migrating flukes and need to be administered more frequently . triclabendazole is the active ingredient with the highest efficacy against immature stages .\ntwo unique records of snail intermediate hosts ( r . labiata ) and mammalian definitive hosts ( bulls of highland cattle ) naturally infected with f . magna are reported in our study . molecular techniques were used to confirm host / parasite determination ; on this basis the adults of f . magna were discriminated from f . hepatica presented in the same liver . in addition , species identity of the morphologically uniform fasciolid eggs was proved . the prevalence of f . magna in r . labiata was comparable to some findings of f . magna in g . truncatula and , therefore , r . labiata might represent a potential vector of f . magna in localities ecologically unsuitable for g . truncatula ( e . g . localities with acid soils ) . ability of the parasite to be transmitted from wildlife to livestock represents a serious risk , especially for farmers breeding the animals less tolerant to f . magna infection ( e . g . , goats and sheep ) , and those animals whose are for some reason ( e . g . ecological farming ) under restrictions in terms of anthelmintic treatment . therefore , the danger of f . magna transmission should be taken into account in farm management .\nthe giant liver fluke , fascioloides magna , is a veterinary important liver parasite of free living and domestic ruminants . this originally north american parasite was introduced along with its cervid hosts to europe where it has established three permanent natural foci - in northern italy , central and southern parts of the czech republic and the danube floodplain forests . the first record on . . . [ show full abstract ]\n. . . it may parasitize various wild and domestic herbivores . in the area of central europe this fluke can be found mainly in cervids - like red deer ( cervus elaphus ) and fallow deer ( dama dama ) ( kasny et al . , 2012 ) . fascioloides magna originated from north america , where it occurs in five major enzootic regions ( pybus , 2001 ) . . . .\n. . . as noticed above , goats are aberrant hosts in which f . magna infection is lethal within 6 months , and it is not patent ( foreyt and leathers 1980 ; foreyt and todd 1976 ) . however , few authors rarely observed adult flukes of f . magna , including the presence of the eggs in the feces , in sheep ( foreyt 1990 ; swales 1935 ) . in our study , the appearance of f . magna eggs in the feces of one goat confirmed these former results . . . .\nfascioloides magna is a digenean parasite of various wild ruminants . it was originally introduced to europe from north america in the 19th century and first recorded in the wild in austria in 2000 at fischamend , southeast of vienna . later , several cases were detected in the danube backwater region between vienna and bratislava . the lymnaeid snail galba truncatula is known to act as . . . [ show full abstract ]\nfascioloides magna parasitizes in a broad spectrum of final hosts , mainly free living and domestic ruminants . final hosts of giant liver fluke are divided into three types ( definitive , dead - end and aberrant ) according to interrelationships between the parasite and the host , the ability of fluke to reach maturity and produce eggs , pathological changes within the host organism , and the potential . . . [ show full abstract ]\n. . . the giant liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) is a liver parasite which infects a variety of wild and domestic ruminants in north america and europe ( swales , 1935 ; erhardov\u00e1 - kotrl\u00e1 , 1971 ) . on this last continent , fascioloidosis occurs currently in austria , croatia , the czech republic , hungary , italy , serbia and slovakia ( kr\u00e1lov\u00e1hromadov\u00e1 et al . , 2011 ) . . . .\ntwo snails of r . labiata naturally infected with f . magna were found ; mature cercariae and daughter rediae were observed . maturity of cercariae was checked by histological methods , however , their ability to encyst was not confirmed . co - infection of f . magna and fasciola hepatica in the liver of two highland cattle bulls was proved . adult fasciolid flukes producing eggs were found in the liver pseudocysts ( f . magna ) and the bile ducts ( f . hepatica ) . identification of intermediate hosts , intramolluscan stages , adult flukes and eggs was performed by sequencing the its2 region . connection of f . magna pseudocysts with the gut ( via the bile ducts ) was not confirmed by means of histological and coprological examinations .\nfascioloides magna ( bassi , 1875 ) ( fasciolidae ; digenea ; trematoda ) is a large visceral parasite of ruminants originating from north america . due to the international wild animal trade , f . magna was introduced to europe in the later half of the 19 th century , probably with the white - tailed deer ( odocoileus virginianus ) [ 1 ] and wapiti ( cervus elaphus canadensis ) [ 2 ] ; the parasite adapted to the local hosts ( e . g . red deer , fallow deer ) and started to spread . recent reports from at least six countries in central europe can be found [ 3 - 9 ] .\na diagnosis can be made at necropsy by identifying f . magna within the liver of an infected animal . deer liver fluke infections can also be diagnosed by identifying fluke eggs within the feces .\nthe present study revealed a complex picture of the population genetic structure and interrelationships of north american and european populations , global distribution and migratory routes of f . magna and an origin of european foci .\nsection of radix labiata hepatopancreas with fascioloides magna rediae and immature ( a ) , mature ( b ) cercariae . stained with hematoxylin and eosin . hp , hepatopancreas tissue ; c , cercaria ; r , redia ; t , tegument of redia ; a , acetabulum ; os , oral sucker ; tc , tail of cercaria ; cgp , cystogenous gland products . white arrowheads point to cercarialcystogenous glands . black arrowheads point to cercarial cystogenous products released from the glands .\nbetween 1971 and 1975 , fascioloides magna was found in 46 of 67 ( 69 % ) feral swine ( sus scrofa ) in southern texas . flukes were recovered from swine in areas where f . magna commonly has been recovered from white - tailed deer and cattle . one to 12 flukes were recovered from each infected animal . their presence was indicated by black hematin pigment on the liver and various other internal organs . eggs were not detected in the gallbladder or feces of infected animals although mature flukes and eggs were recovered in the livers suggesting that , like cattle , feral swine can be infected but are aberrant hosts for the parasite and do not disseminate eggs .\nthe determination of f . magna mt genome sequence provides a valuable resource for further investigations of the phylogeny of the family fasciolidae and other trematodes , and represents a useful platform for designing appropriate molecular markers .\nthe presence of american liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) in croatian wild ruminant species was detected for the first time in january 2000 . at the same time , the problem of adequate parasitological monitoring and treatment appeared in the captive deer population . quarantine and health screening protocols , as well as migration and transportation influence had to be evaluated in red deer husbandry . non - invasive methods were introduced to estimate the prevalence of f . magna in the semi - farm rearing system . coprological analysis has been performed on 264 faecal samples . the most effective antiparasitic treatment was implemented on herd and individual treatment . treatment was extended to the free - ranging population of deer in the same region .\nthe datasets supporting the conclusions of this article are included within the article and its additional files . the complete mt genome sequence of f . magna is deposited in the genbank database under the accession number kr006934 .\nfascioloidosis of wild and domestic ruminants is caused by giant liver fluke , fascioloides magna ( trematoda ; fasciolidae ) . in slovakia , the parasite is present in the danube floodplain forests permanent focus for almost 30 years . here we provide data on 11 - year survey of f . magna acquired from 137 red deer ( cervus elaphus ) hunted in the southwestern hunting grounds ( districts kom\u00e1rno and dunajsk\u00e1 streda ) . almost 47 % of all examined deer , including males , females and fawns , were infected with f . magna . during the studied period , the prevalence ranged between 33 . 3 % ( 2009 ) and 63 . 6 % ( 2007 ) . prevalence of fascioloidosis varied between sexes and age categories ; while the lowest overall prevalence was detected in females ( 33 . 3 % ) , higher values were documented for red deer males ( 50 . 6 % ) and fawns ( 43 . 3 % ) . a presence of giant liver fluke in studied regions of southwestern slovakia deserves future attention and ongoing monitoring due to a possible threat of f . magna infection of domestic ruminants in overlapping regions .\n. . . the giant liver fluke , fascioloides magna ( bassi , 1875 ) , introduced to europe in the 19th century from north america , is an important parasite of wild and domestic ruminants ( swales 1935 , erhardov\u00e1 1961 , erhardov\u00e1 - kotrl\u00e1 1971 ) . red deer ( cervus elaphus ) , fallow deer ( dama dama ) and roe deer ( capreolus capreolus ) are common european definitive hosts of the fluke ( erhardov\u00e1 1961 , erhardov\u00e1 - kotrl\u00e1 1971 ) . . . .\nthe veterinary important parasite of ruminants , giant liver fluke fascioloides magna ( trematoda : fasciolidae ) , isolated from liver of farmed fallow deer ( dama dama ) from podkarpackie province ( southeastern poland ) was genotypized by mitochon - drial cytochrome c oxidase ( cox1 ) and nicotinamide dehydrogenase ( nad1 ) markers . the data on this newly emerged population were compared with mitochondrial haplotypes of recently detected polish population of f . magna from lower silesian wilderness ( southwestern poland ) and with european populations of the parasite from all three natural foci ; northern italy , czech republic and the danube floodplain forests . the flukes from podkarpackie province were found to be genetically identical with flukes from czech republic and lower silesian wilderness in poland . it is evident that central and southwestern czech republic , recognized as one of the endemic area of f . magna in europe , has been enlarging and parasite has been invading several novel localities in poland .\npathological changes in bovine liver caused by f . magna infection . a , macroscopic photo of dissected liver tissue ; b , microscopic photo \u2013 section of lesion with eggs and inflammatory infiltrate of polymorphonuclear leukocytes , stained with hematoxylin and eosin ; c , microscopic photo \u2013 section of fibrotic portobiliar space and adjacent liver parenchyma , stained with green gomori trichrome . p , pseudocyst ; lp , liver parenchyma ; e , egg of f . magna ; ipmn , infiltrate of polymorphonuclear leukocytes ; isl , inner space of lesion ; mr , migratory route through parenchyma with pigment deposits caused by f . magna juvenile worms ; flt , fibrotic liver tissue .\nb metacercariae of f . magna were found on the wall of petri dish after dissection of experimentally infected r . labiata ( pankr\u00e1c 2013 , unpublished ) , but experimental infection of a definitive host was not performed .\ngiant liver fluke has established permanent natural foci on two continents . north america represents the original continent of the parasite occurrence , while europe is the continent where f . magna was introduced along with its cervid hosts . in north america , f . magna occurs in five enzootic regions across the united states and southern canada : ( 1 ) the northern pacific coast ; ( 2 ) the rocky . . . [ show full abstract ]\nin august 1992 , six mule deer ( odocoileus hemionus hemionus ) fawns and four elk ( cervus elaphus ) calves ( n = 2 ) or yearlings ( n = 2 ) each were inoculated orally with 50 , 250 , or 2 , 000 metacercariae of the liver fluke fascioloides magna to evaluate their potential to serve as definitive hosts . animals were maintained for up to 403 days . three mule deer each inoculated with 50 metacercariae survived the infection and shed eggs in feces ; thus mule deer can function as definitive hosts for f . magna . the other three mule deer inoculated with 50 ( n = 1 ) or 250 ( n = 2 ) metacercariae died from fluke infection on days 91 , 150 , and 162 days postinoculation , respectively , and only immature f . magna were recovered . one elk calf inoculated with 2 , 000 metacercariae died from fluke infection 44 days after inoculation . the remaining three elk , each inoculated with 250 metacercariae , survived infection , and two of the three shed eggs in feces . the third elk contained only one immature f . magna at necropsy . the prepatent period in mule deer and elk was approximately 6 to 7 months .\nthree captive rocky mountain bighorn sheep ( ovis canadensis canadensis ) , consisting of a female lamb , a yearling ram , and a 2 1 / 2 - yr - old castrated ram were inoculated orally with 50 ( n = 1 ) or 100 ( n = 2 ) metacercariae of fascioloides magna in november 1991 . all three sheep died from fluke infection on post - inoculation days 104 , 140 , and 197 , respectively . numbers of f . magna recovered were 3 ( 3 % ) , 18 ( 36 % ) , and 21 ( 21 % ) . all dukes were immature and were recovered from liver ( n = 36 ) , lungs ( n = 2 ) , or peritoneal spaces ( n = 4 ) . two white - tailed deer ( odocoileus virginianus ) , each were inoculated orally with 100 metacercariae at the same time as the bighorn sheep . eggs of f . magna were detected in the feces of the deer on postinoculation days 199 and 211 , respectively . both deer remained healthy for the year - long experiment . thus , bighorn sheep are susceptible to infection with f . magna and are likely to die within approximately 6 months of exposure .\ndiscussion : fascioloides magna , the large american liver fluke or deer liver fluke , is a common parasite of elk . the flukes are usually confined to the fibrotic cysts in the liver and , except for causing some liver damage , are of little clinical consequence . in this case , aberrant migration of the immature flukes was observed in the spinal cord and was considered a likely cause of the reported hind limb paralysis prior to death . the emaciation of this animal was considered to be due to marked gastrointestinal parasitism .\n. . . several studies on susceptibility of stagnicolid species to f . magna have already been reported . in north america , both s . palustris and s . palustris nuttuliana were shown as suitable intermediate hosts of f . magna ( swales , 1935 ; griffiths , 1962 ) . however , l . palustris has also been synonymised with nearctic stagnicolid species such as hinkleyia ( stagnicola ) elodes ( burch , 1989 ) in the past . . . .\nat the nucleotide level , sequence differences in protein - coding genes ranged from 13 . 1 to 24 . 2 % ( between f . magna and fa . hepatica ) and from 12 . 8 to 26 . 2 % ( between f . magna and fa . gigantica ) , with cox 1 , nad 1 , nad 4l and cyt b being the most conserved genes , and nad 6 , nad 5 and nad 2 being the least conserved genes among those three species . at the amino acid level , sequence differences ranged from 9 . 2 to 25 . 4 % between f . magna and fa . hepatica , and from 8 . 4 to 27 . 8 % between f . magna and fa . gigantica : cox 1 , cyt b , nad 4l and nad 1 were the most conserved protein - coding genes , while nad 6 , nad 2 and nad 5 were the least conserved .\nthe complexity of the life cycle of fascioloides magna and its ability to invade new region is ensured by the presence of suitable intermediate hosts , in particular aquatic pulmonate mollusks , in which larval development of the parasite takes place . this chapter summarizes intermediate snail hosts of giant liver fluke specific in north america and europe . in north america , six species of the family lymnaeidae were found to be naturally infected with f . magna ( lymnaea caperata , lymnaea modicella , stagnicola palustris nuttalliana , pseudosuccinea columella , galba bulimoides techella and fossaria parva ) . in europe , galba ( syn . lymnaea ) truncatula , radix labiata and radix peregra were found to be naturally infected . besides natural infections , number of snail species were experimentally infected with f . magna in order to determine their potential to serve as the intermediate hosts of giant liver fluke . the mature cercariae able to develop into infective metacercariae stages , were detected in snails of the genera lymnaea and pseudosuccinea ( family lymnaeidae ) in north america and in lymnaeid genera galba , lymnaea , omphiscola , pseudosuccinea and stagnicola in europe . it is evident , that broader spectrum of aquatic mollusks is susceptible to f . magna infection and may serve as its potential intermediate hosts .\n. . . later , ka\u0161n\u00fd et al . ( 2012 ) provided an extensive monitoring of fascioloidosis in the czech republic , which showed a regular occurrence of the parasite in the south - western part of the country . besides , f . magna was detected also close to the german and polish border in the western and northern part of the czech republic that more strongly supported the assumption of a high risk of spread of f . magna to the neighbouring european countries ( ka\u0161n\u00fd et al . 2012 ) . the presented result on close genetic interrelationships between f . magna from poland and the czech republic indicate that the czech focus of fascioloidosis has probably been much larger that previously expected . . . .\nwhile the eggs of f magna resemble those of fasciola hepatica , this is of limited use ; eggs usually are not passed by cattle and sheep and probably not by alpacas and llamas . recovery of the parasites at necropsy as well as differentiation of f hepatica is necessary for definitive diagnosis . when domestic ruminants and deer share the same grazing , the presence of disease due to f magna should be kept in mind . mixed infections with f hepatica are seen in cattle .\nthe prevalence of f . magna - infected r . labiata in sedli\u0161t\u011b was 0 . 18 % ( similarly low prevalence from the same locality has been reported by falt\u00fdnkov\u00e1 et al . [ 16 ] ) , and the prevalence of infected g . truncatula snails was 64 % ( 100 % in 2011 ) ; such prevalence rate is quite unusual ( e . g . [ 14 ] ) and it indicates a high contamination of the locality by f . magna eggs .\n. . . fascioloides magna , known as the large american liver fluke , giant liver fluke or deer fluke , is an important digenetic trematode of the family fasciolidae [ 3 , 4 ] . this species , which is of north america origin [ 5 , 6 ] and invasive in european countries [ 7 ] , has high potential to colonize new geographic territories ( a variety of wild and domestic ungulates [ 3 , [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] ) , and can establish expanding populations from a natural epidemic focus through translocated hosts [ 5 , 6 , 11 ] . migration of f . magna immature flukes within the host body often leads to profound damage to the liver and other organ tissues [ 8 , 12 ] , causing economic losses worldwide [ 13 ] . . . .\n. . . a wide spectrum of mammals can be infected with f . magna ; these animals can generally be divided into three groups with respect to compatibility of the host and the parasite , and pathological impact of the fluke [ 11 , 23 , 24 ] . successful completion of the f . magna life cycle with eggs released via bile ducts to the host intestine is enabled in\nspecific definitive hosts\nsuch as red deer ( cervus elaphus ) , fallow deer ( dama dama ) and roe deer ( capreolus capreolus ) [ 1 , 11 ] . infection with f . magna is tolerated by red deer and fallow deer which can survive , usually with hardly distinguishable symptoms , severe infection by hundreds of flukes . . . .\n( bassi , 1875 ) , the large liver fluke of ruminants in canada with observations on the bionomics of the larval stages and the intermediate hosts , pathology of fascioloidiasis magna , and control measures . can j res 1935 , 12 , 177\u2013215 .\n. . . since p . columella is a common snail in european greenhouses adapting to the central european climatic conditions [ 22 ] , potential risk of f . magna transmission via this snail can not be excluded [ 20 ] . a wide spectrum of mammals can be infected with f . magna ; these animals can generally be divided into three groups with respect to compatibility of the host and the parasite , and pathological impact of the fluke [ 11 , 23 , 24 ] . successful completion of the f . magna life cycle with eggs released via bile ducts to the host intestine is enabled in\nspecific definitive hosts\nsuch as red deer ( cervus elaphus ) , fallow deer ( dama dama ) and roe deer ( capreolus capreolus ) [ 1 , 11 ] . . . .\nliver flukes are parasites . parasites are organisms that live on or in another organism for survival purposes and contribute nothing or harm the organisms they parasitize . effective control of any parasite requires some knowledge about them , including what they are , where they come from and how they live . the fluke we are concerned about on canadian elk farms is the giant liver fluke ( fascioloides magna ) . it is a very large parasitic flat worm which lives as an adult in a thick - walled cyst within the liver of elk and deer . the adult liver fluke averages about 2 inches long and 1 inch wide .\nfourteen free - ranging adult wapiti ( cervus elaphus nelsoni ) were captured in banff national park , alberta ( canada ) and held in captivity near edmonton . a 24 % suspension of triclabendazole at doses of 30 to 100 mg / kg body weight was drenched into the rumen of eight females and four males . two male wapiti were used as untreated controls . animals were killed and examined at 4 ( n = 3 ) , 6 ( n = 4 ) , or 8 ( n = 4 ) wk after treatment . efficacy was 90 % against immature fascioloides magna collected 4 wk after treatment and 98 % against adult flukes collected 4 , 6 or 8 wk after treatment . all 32 flukes recovered from control wapiti were active and apparently healthy . treatment at 50 to 60 mg / kg is recommended against f . magna in wapiti . a protocol for treating infected wapiti is outlined .\n. . . the czech focus of fascioloidosis was restricted to the above mentioned regions of the country until the finding of novobilsk\u00fd et al . ( 2007 ) who reported the presence of f . magna in the south - western border of the czech republic indicating a threat of its possible spread into germany . later , ka\u0161n\u00fd et al . ( 2012 ) provided an extensive monitoring of fascioloidosis in the czech republic , which showed a regular occurrence of the parasite in the south - western part of the country . besides , f . magna was detected also close to the german and polish border in the western and northern part of the czech republic that more strongly supported the assumption of a high risk of spread of f . magna to the neighbouring european countries ( ka\u0161n\u00fd et al . 2012 ) . . . .\ngeographic origin of fascioloides magna from southwestern slovakia analyzed in current study . 1 \u2013 vojka nad dunajom , 2 \u2013 bod\u00edky , 3 \u2013 \u010d\u00ed\u010dov , 4 \u2013 tr\u00e1vnik , 5 \u2013 kl\u00ed\u017esk\u00e1 nem\u00e1 , 6 \u2013 holiare , 7 \u2013 t\u00f4\u0148 , 8 \u2013 zemianska ol\u010da , 9 \u2013 vel\u2019k\u00e9 kosihy , 10 \u2013 okolicn\u00e1 na ostrove , 11 \u2013 zlatn\u00e1 na ostrove , 12 \u2013 calovec , 13 \u2013 chot\u00edn , 14 \u2013 sv\u00e4t\u00fd peter , 15 \u2013 modrany , 16 \u2013 b\u00e1torov\u00e9 kosihy , 17 \u2013 b\u00fa\u010d , 18 \u2013 kravany nad dunajom , 19 \u2013 sv\u00e4t\u00fd juraj , pere\u0161 . the respective localities were visualized using the diva - gis available from urltoken"]}
{"id": 1001, "summary": [{"text": "cryptarius is a genus of catfishes ( order siluriformes ) of the family ariidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it includes two species , c. daugeti and c. truncatus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "cryptarius species originate from brackish waters of south and southeast asia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "c. daugeti originates from the mekong river basin and inhabits large rivers .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is found in brackish and fresh waters of cambodia and vietnam .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "this species has a maximum length of 26 centimetres ( 10 in ) tl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "c. truncatus originates from estuaries and lower courses of rivers from the chao phraya to sumatra and java , including the lower mekong .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it inhabits brackish waters of thailand , cambodia , indonesia , and malaysia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this species has a maximum length of 42 cm ( 17 in ) in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this fish species feeds on fishes and crustaceans .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "c. truncatus is marketed fresh . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "cryptarius", "paragraphs": ["froese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2008 ) .\ncryptarius daugeti\nin fishbase . jan 2008 version .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2008 ) .\ncryptarius truncatus\nin fishbase . jan 2008 version .\nremarks . no specimen of c . daugueti ( chevey , 1932 ) could be obtained for examination and data from descriptions available in the literature do not contain reliable information as to inclusion of the species into any of the genera we recognize . thus , the inclusion of c . daugueti in cryptarius\nsix species from the ariidae family were also used in this study . the number of specimens per species for training and testing the model were 18 and 10 , respectively . the classification results obtained from this family are shown in table 4 . overall accuracy of the model in this family was \u223c93 % which is slightly less than the other two families . the lowest classification accuracy ( 80 % ) in this family was for the nemapteryx caelatus . two specimens of the nemapteryx caelatus species were predicted as the cryptarius truncatus . three species namely arius maculatus , hexanematichtys sagor and plicofollis argyropleuron had 100 % correct prediction results . the accuracy of the model for the cryptarius truncatus and osteogeneiosus militaris species was 90 % . both of these species had one specimen that was misclassified as nemapteryx caelatus .\nin each target species ( rows ) , numbers of specimens are indicated in the corresponding predicted species ( columns ) . species are dendrophysa russelli ( 1 ) , johnius belangerii ( 2 ) , johnius carouna ( 3 ) , otolithes ruber ( 4 ) , panna microdon ( 5 ) , nemapteryx caelatus ( 6 ) , arius maculatus ( 7 ) , cryptarius truncatus ( 8 ) , hexanematichtys sagor ( 9 ) , osteogeneiosus militaris ( 10 ) , plicofollis argyropleuron ( 11 ) , coilia dussumieri ( 12 ) , setipinna taty ( 13 ) , thryssa hamiltonii ( 14 ) .\nto test the model with more species , all three families were combined ( total number of 14 species ) and the results of the classification are demonstrated in table 5 . from each species , 18 and 10 specimens were used to train and test the model , respectively ( total numbers of 252 images for the training and 140 images for the testing ) . all 14 species were predicted by the proposed model with an overall accuracy of \u223e92 % . eight of these species , three from the sciaenidae , three from the ariidae , and two from the engraulidae family , were classified with the accuracy of 100 % . three species showed the identification accuracy of less than 90 % ( dendrophysa russelli : 80 % , nemapteryx caelatus : 70 % , and cryptarius truncatus : 70 % ) . nemapteryx caelatus and cryptarius truncates , both from the ariidae family , had the most numbers of misclassified specimens among the 14 species used in this study . the classification accuracy for otolithes ruber , osteogeneiosus militaris , and setipinna taty was 90 % . it is worth - noting that there was no cross - family misclassification for all six species that had at least one misclassified specimen ( all six species had specimens correctly classified in their families ) . as a result , developing a model that first identifies the family and then species cannot lead to an improvement in the overall accuracy of the system .\nfound in estuaries and lower courses of rivers from the chao phrya to sumatra and java , including the lower mekong . the species can be quite abundant at times . feeds on fishes and crustaceans . caught with trawls , seines , traps and hook - and - line . marketed fresh . the genus cryptarius can be distinguished by the following exclusive ( 1 to 5 ) characters : ( 1 ) vomer arrow shaped ; ( 2 ) epioccipital posterior process contacting median crest associated with neural spine of fourth vertebra ; ( 3 ) anterior part of interopercle very long and pointed ( fig . 43 ) ; ( 4 ) anterior part of metapterygoid contacting quadrate through an indented articulation , most of the remaining part of this bone simply contacting the quadrate . ( 5 ) posterior portion of second basibranchial very wide ( fig . 45 ) ; ( 6 ) mesethmoid moderately thick at median portion .\nwestern central pacific : estuaries and lower courses of rivers from the chao phraya to sumatra and java , including the lower mekong .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 42 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12693 )\noccurs in estuaries , lower courses of rivers ( ref . 12693 ) . feeds on fishes and crustaceans . marketed fresh ( ref . 12693 ) .\nrainboth , w . j . , 1996 . fishes of the cambodian mekong . fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes . fao , rome , 265 p . ( ref . 12693 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 7500 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00525 ( 0 . 00324 - 0 . 00851 ) , b = 3 . 14 ( 2 . 99 - 3 . 29 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 \u00b10 . 67 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 51 of 100 ) .\n420mm or 16 . 5\nsl . find near , nearer or same sized spp .\nget or print a qr code for this species profile , or try our beta label creator .\nhas this page been useful ? please donate to our monthly hosting costs and keep us free for everyone to enjoy ! explore our youtube channel , facebook page or follow us on twitter .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 urltoken , part of the aquatic republic network group of websites . all rights reserved . cite this website . by accessing this site you agree to our terms and conditions of use . our privacy policy .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of arius truncatus valenciennes , 1840 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of tachysurus truncatus ( valenciennes , 1840 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cephalocassis truncatus ( valenciennes , 1840 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hemipimelodus cochlearis fowler , 1935 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nkailola , p . j . / carpenter , kent e . , and volker h . niem , eds .\nfao species identification guide for fishery purposes : the living marine resources of the western central pacific , vol . 3 : batoid fishes , chimaeras and bony fishes , part 1 ( elopidae to linophrynidae )\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthis site makes extensive use of javascript . please enable javascript in your browser .\nvalenciennes in cuvier & valenciennes , 1840b : 64 . type locality : java , indonesia . holotype : mnhn b - 0590 .\nfowler , 1935 : 101 , fig . 25 . type locality : paknam , thailand . holotype : ansp 60767 . paratypes : ansp 60768 - 73 .\nmaterial examined : ansp 60768 ( 3 al , 166 - 190 mm tl ) ( 1 c & s ) , thailand , paknam , siam , at the mouth of the me nam chao phya , south of bangkok ; ummz 181176 ( 4 al , 227 - 290 mm tl ) ( 1 c & s ) , cambodia , battambang , tonle sap ( great lake ) nw basin , mekung dr ; usnm 103189 ( 2 al , 246 - 283 mm tl ) , thailand , menam chao phya , koh yyai , c . siam .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nsouth and southeast asia . : thailand , cambodia , indonesia and malaysia . type locality : java , indonesia\nrainboth , w . j . 1996 fishes of the cambodian mekong . fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes . fao , rome , 265 p . marceniuk , alexandre p . ; menezes , na\u00e9rcio a . ( 2007 ) .\nsystematics of the family ariidae ( ostariophysi , siluriformes ) , with a redefinition of the genera\nzootaxa 1416 : 1\u2013126 .\nyour current browser isn ' t compatible with soundcloud . please download one of our supported browsers . need help ?\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013\nsmallest 420mm , largest 420mm , average 420mm , most commonly 420mm . all sl .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\ncan be distinguished by the following exclusive ( 1 to 5 ) and shared ( 6 to 14 ) characters : ( 1 ) vomer arrow shaped ; ( 2 ) epioccipital posterior process contacting median crest associated with neural spine of fourth vertebra ; ( 3 ) anterior part of interopercle very long and pointed ( fig . 43 ) ; ( 4 ) anterior part of metapterygoid contacting quadrate through an indented articulation , most of the remaining part of this bone simply contacting the quadrate ( fig . 44 ) ; ( 5 ) posterior portion of second basibranchial very wide ( fig . 45 ) ; ( 6 ) mesethmoid moderately thick at median portion ( shared with amphiarius , arius caelatus\n, potamosilurus , sciades assimilis , s . bonillai , s . felis , s . platypogon , s . sagor and s . seemanni ) ; ( 7 ) anterior part of anterior cranial fontanel indistinct , not limited by a mesial expansion of orbitosphenoid ( shared with galeichthys\n, potamosilurus ( with exception of p . velutinus ) and sciades ] ; ( 9 ) posterior projection of epioccipital process contacting a small portion of the diagonal crest associated with neural spine of fourth vertebra ( shared with amphiarius , aspistor\n, potamosilurus and sciades ( with exception of s . platypogon ) ] ; ( 11 ) wing - like process of parasphenoid absent ( shared with batrachocephalus\nsupplementary morphological characters . cephalic shield granulated visible under the skin ; lateral ethmoid and frontal bones limiting a large fenestra clearly visible under the skin ; medial groove of neurocranium very distinct , limited by frontal bones and / or on supraoccipital ; posterior cranial fontanel moderately developed , long and narrow ; fenestra limited by supraoccipital , pterotic and sphenotic absent ; fossa limited by pterotic , supracleithrum and extrascapular very reduced ; epioccipital not invading dorsal portion of cephalic shield ; occipital process triangular , moderately long and wide , narrowing progressively toward its posterior end ; anterior and median nuchal plates fused and indistinct , forming a structure of semi - lunar aspect ; tooth plates associated with vomer absent ; accessory tooth plates small transversely elongated and oval shaped , bearing conical teeth ; maxillary barbels fleshy and cylindrical ; two pairs of mental barbels ; base of adipose fin very short , less than one - half the length of anal - fin base ; lateral line not bifurcated at caudal region , reaching base of caudal - fin upper lobe ; cleithrum narrow , with second dorsal process on its upper portion ; posterior cleithral process moderately long and distinct from second dorsal process of cleithrum .\nalexandre p . marceniuk , na\u00e9rcio a . menezes ( 2007 ) : systematics of the family ariidae ( ostariophysi , siluriformes ) , with a redefinition of the genera . zootaxa 1416 , 1 - 126 : 54 - 55 , urltoken\nthis species has a maximum length of 42 cm ( 17 in ) in length .\nmarceniuk , alexandre p . ; menezes , na\u00e9rcio a . ( 2007 ) .\nsystematics of the family ariidae ( ostariophysi , siluriformes ) , with a redefinition of the genera\n( pdf ) . zootaxa 1416 : 1\u2013126 .\nnote that a preprint of this article also exists , first published november 19 , 2015 .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , reproduction and adaptation in any medium and for any purpose provided that it is properly attributed . for attribution , the original author ( s ) , title , publication source ( peerj ) and either doi or url of the article must be cited .\nbackground . fish species may be identified based on their unique otolith shape or contour . several pattern recognition methods have been proposed to classify fish species through morphological features of the otolith contours . however , there has been no fully - automated species identification model with the accuracy higher than 80 % . the purpose of the current study is to develop a fully - automated model , based on the otolith contours , to identify the fish species with the high classification accuracy .\nmethods . images of the right sagittal otoliths of 14 fish species from three families namely sciaenidae , ariidae , and engraulidae were used to develop the proposed identification model . short - time fourier transform ( stft ) was used , for the first time in the area of otolith shape analysis , to extract important features of the otolith contours . discriminant analysis ( da ) , as a classification technique , was used to train and test the model based on the extracted features .\nresults . performance of the model was demonstrated using species from three families separately , as well as all species combined . overall classification accuracy of the model was greater than 90 % for all cases . in addition , effects of stft variables on the performance of the identification model were explored in this study .\nconclusions . short - time fourier transform could determine important features of the otolith outlines . the fully - automated model proposed in this study ( stft - da ) could predict species of an unknown specimen with acceptable identification accuracy . the model codes can be accessed at urltoken and urltoken . the current model has flexibility to be used for more species and families in future studies .\nfourteen fish species from three different families namely engraulidae , sciaenidae , and ariidae were used in this study . short - time fourier transform ( stft ) is a conventional signal processing technique ( allen , 1997 ; oppenheim , schafer & buck , 1999 ; rabiner & schafer , 1978 ) which to our knowledge has not yet been employed in the area of otolith image processing . stft was applied in this study to extract morphological features of the otolith contours .\nimages of the right sagittal otoliths were captured using a stereomicroscope ( olympus dp25fw , 6 . 3x magnification ) attached with a digital camera . proximal view of the otolith , dorsal edge facing up and posterior end facing the positive direction , was used in this study . the proposed image identification system was implemented in matlab ( matlab \u00ae release 2013a , the mathworks , inc . , kuala lumpur , malaysia ) . figure 1 illustrates the schematic diagram of the fully - automated image recognition model represented in this study . different stages of this system are detailed as follows .\n( a ) shows different stages for training the model , and the testing part of the system is illustrated in the ( b ) .\ndiscrimination among different fish species was based on the 1d representation of the otolith outline . firstly , the external outline of the surface contours of the otolith had to be extracted and then , distances between the center of gravity and the contour points had to be calculated . for this purpose , the grayscale image of the otolith was converted to the binary image with the threshold value of 0 . 1 . choice of this threshold value ( 0 . 1 ) resulted in obtaining the binary images for the otoliths with a wide range of transparency . after clearing the borders and filling the holes , the small objects ( objects that had fewer than 50 , 000 pixels ) were removed from the binary images . then , coordinates of the boundary ( outline ) pixels as well as the center of gravity were calculated . by having these coordinates , characteristic 1d signals , which are the distances between the boundary pixels and center of gravity as a function of the corresponding angles , were determined . figure 2 shows an image of the otolith with its representative 1d signal .\nimage of an otolith ( a ) with its corresponding 1d signal ( b ) .\n1d signal was obtained by calculating the radius , distances between the boundary pixels ( red ) and the center of gravity ( blue ) , as a function of angle .\n1d spatial - domain signals obtained from the previous stage were down - sampled to 1 , 000 points ( samples ) by interpolation using fast fourier transform ( fft ) . in this study , short - time fourier transform ( stft ) was applied as a feature extraction method on the resampled signals . stft of the original ( 1d ) signals were determined by using gaussian window function . repeated trials of many combinations of two parameters , the number of points of the window function and the number of overlapped samples , were made to achieve the best classification result . the best match of 100 points of the window and 40 overlapped samples resulted in the division of each signal into 16 segments . the type of windowing function also affected the performance of the identification system . to explore this effect , results obtained using different windowing techniques were compared in the next section . figure 3 shows the spectrogram ( using stft with the sampling frequency ( f s ) of 2 \u03c0 ) obtained from the 1d spatial - domain signal illustrated in fig . 2 . the color bar in fig . 3 indicates the power spectral density ( psd ) estimate of each segment . each segment of the original signal consisted of 129 frequency components . absolute values and phase angles of the frequency components of each segment were determined and then standardized by calculating the corresponding z - scores ( z _ abss : z - scores of the absolute values and z _ angs : z - scores of the angles ) . in each segment of the signal , two important parameters were determined : maximum of the z _ abss ( max abs ) and maximum of z _ angs ( max ang ) . having 16 segments in each signal , 32 attributes ( 16 max abs + 16 max ang ) were extracted from each representative signal . in this way , each otolith image was converted to a 32 - element vector in which the first 16 elements were max abs values and the rest were the values of max ang . the contribution of each feature type ( absolute and angle ) to the performance of the model was also explored and the obtained results are demonstrated in the next section .\nthe original signal was resampled to 1 , 000 points before calculating the short - time fourier transform ( stft ) . the color bar indicates estimates of the power spectral density ( psd ) . stft of the spatial - domain signal was calculated with sampling frequency of 2 \u03c0 .\nthe characteristic vectors obtained from the previous stage were utilized as inputs to the discriminant analysis ( da ) classifier in order to train and test the identification system . fourteen species from three different families were used in this study ( table 1 ) . all otoliths were extracted from fish obtained from fish landing sites or the wet markets . no ethics clearance was required from the university of malaya\u2014institutional animal care and use committee ( um - iacuc ) .\nthree different fish families ( sciaenidae , ariidae , and engraulidae ) were used separately to train and test the model . in addition , the proposed image identification model was evaluated for all 14 species combined .\nthree species namely coilia dussumieri , setipinna taty and thryssa hamiltonii from the engraulidae family were used in this study . from each species , 20 specimens ( otolith images ) were used for training the model . then , the trained model was tested with 10 specimens per species ( total of 30 images for testing the model ) . table 2 demonstrates the confusion matrix obtained from the predicted species in this family .\nthe predicted species ( columns ) are compared with the species confirmed by an expert ( rows ) .\nall of the 10 specimens from the coilia dussumieri and setipinna taty species were classified correctly . for the thryssa hamiltonii species , one specimen was misclassified as the setipinna taty species . overall , 29 out of 30 specimens from the engraulidae family ( \u223c97 % ) were correctly predicted as the target species .\nfive species of the sciaenidae family were also used to evaluate performance of the identification system . in this family , 19 specimens per species ( total number of 95 specimens ) were used to train the system , and then the trained model was tested with 50 specimens ( 10 specimens per species ) . the predicted results of this family are presented in table 3 . among five species in this family , three species ( johnius belangerii , johnius carouna and panna microdon ) were identified with 100 % accuracy . two other species ( dendrophysa russelli and otolithes ruber ) had one misclassified specimen each . in this family , similar to the engraulidae family , there was no species with classification accuracy of less than 90 % . the proposed model identified five species of the sciaenidae family with an overall accuracy of 96 % .\nthe columns indicate the predicted species by the identification model , while rows indicate the target species .\noutputs of the identification model ( columns ) are compared with the target species ( rows ) .\nconfusion matrix for the identification results obtained from 14 species of three different families .\nto explore the contribution of max abs and max ang to the performance of the system , each feature type was separately used to train and test the model . table 6 shows the classification results obtained by using each feature type separately ( 16 - element vector ) and their combined features ( 32 - element vector ) . for all four data sets used in this study , the best identification result was achieved using the 32 - element vector . for the engraulidae , sciaenidae and the combined families , using only the max ang resulted in higher accuracy compared to using only the max abs . however , the performance of the model was better for the ariidae family by using the 16 - element vector obtained from the absolute features ( max abs ) . this result suggests that both phase and absolute features should be taken into account when the model is trained with different fish families .\nperformance of the model using absolute , phase angle , and combined features ( rows ) for all four data sets ( columns ) used in this study .\nusing each window function ( rows ) , the model performance was calculated for all four datasets ( columns ) .\nas mentioned in the previous section , the windowing function used to calculate stft of the representative signals could influence the performance of the model . to explore this effect , the identification system was trained and tested with several types of the window function . however , the number of points of window ( 100 ) and the number of overlapped points ( 40 ) were fixed for all types of window function tested . the overall accuracy obtained from three families , as well as the combined families , are compared and shown in table 7 .\nusing the gaussian window function led to the highest classification accuracy ( 97 % ) in the engraulidae family . in the sciaenidae family , the best result ( 96 % ) was achieved by using four functions namely gaussian , hamming , kaiser , and rectangular . the most accurate prediction ( 93 % ) in the ariidae family was obtained by using the gaussian function . in the combined families , using the rectangular function resulted in the highest overall accuracy ( 94 % ) . however , utilizing the rectangular windowing function led to relatively poor performance of the model in the engraulidae ( 87 % ) and ariidae ( 83 % ) families . taking into accounts all the results obtained using these 16 functions , the gaussian window function was selected in this study due to its good performance in all the four data sets .\nthe identification model proposed in this study could predict the species of an unknown specimen from the engraulidae , sciaenidae , and ariidae family with the overall accuracy of 97 % , 96 % , and 93 % , respectively . even after combining three families the accuracy of the model remained above 90 % ( \u223c92 % ) , which is noticeably higher than the results obtained by the identification model proposed in the most related study ( \u223c72 % ) ( parisi - baradad et al . , 2010 ) . it is noted that training datasets used in the present study were relatively small ( 19 , 20 , and 18 specimens per species for sciaenidae , engraulidae , and ariidae family , respectively ) . using more samples in the training sets could lead to increasing the accuracy of the model .\ntwo spectral analysis methods namely fourier transform ( ft ) and wavelet transform ( wt ) have been applied in the previous studies as the feature extractors ( castonguay , simard & gagnon , 1991 ; parisi - baradad et al . , 2005 ; parisi - baradad et al . , 2010 ) . short - time fourier transform ( stft ) has been utilized in the present study , for the first time in the area of otolith image recognition , to extract the spectral features of the 1d signal obtained from the fish otolith contour . by using the maximum ( standardized ) values of the absolutes and phase angles of the stft - transformed signal , a relatively low number of features ( 32 ) was extracted which is desired for the classification systems applying machine learning techniques . on the other hand , multiscale decomposition of the 1d signal using wavelet transform ( wt ) as proposed by parisi - baradad et al . ( 2005 ) and parisi - baradad et al . ( 2010 ) resulted in the extraction of a large number of attributes .\nas was demonstrated in the previous section ( table 7 ) , the choice of window function had a direct effect on the performance of the system . in addition to the type of windowing function , the number of points of the window function and the number of overlapped samples played important roles in the classification results . the proposed model was also tested with a variety of these two parameters ( not reported here ) , and the best match was selected ( i . e . , 100 window points and 40 overlapped samples ) . each 1d signal was broken into 16 segments by setting these two parameters to the optimized values . these two parameters were however optimized for the gaussian window only . the performance of other window types ( see table 7 ) may be increased by changing the values of these two parameters ( i . e . , changing the number of segments / spatial resolution ) .\nin this study , only proximal view of the otolith image was used to develop the identification model . however , adding other views ( e . g . , anterior , dorsal ) could lead to improving the performance of the model . adding other views would be more crucial when other families and species are added to the system . the same procedure , as used for the proximal view , can be applied on the other views of the otolith image . however , other types of the window function , probably with different spatial resolutions , could be more effective in analyzing the other views . in that case , a characteristic vector can be extracted from each view of the otolith . consequently , each specimen can be represented by a combination of up to six vectors ( depending on the number of views ) , rather than only one vector corresponding to the proximal view . by this way , more important morphological features could be extracted from the otolith contour .\ntwo classification techniques namely decision tree and discriminant analysis were tested in this study ( the results obtained by the decision tree are not shown here ) and the latter was selected due to more accurate results . however , there are other classification methods such as naive bayes , nearest neighbors , support vector machine , and neural network which may improve the performance of the model in future studies .\na fully - automated identification system ( stft - da ) has been proposed in this study to classify the fish species based on the morphological characteristics of the otolith outline contour . fourteen species from three families were used to develop and evaluate performance of the model . combining the short - time fourier transform ( stft ) , as the feature extractor , with the discriminant analysis ( da ) , as the classifier , led to improving the accuracy of the species classification in comparison with the existing automated model . the stft windowing as well as classification technique had significant effects on the performance of the model . future enhancements of the proposed model may be needed to include more species into the system .\nwe would like to thank cecilia chu and suellina binti sulaiman for capturing the otolith images . the university of malaya is acknowledged for providing research facilities .\nnima salimi conceived and designed the experiments , performed the experiments , analyzed the data , contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools , wrote the paper , prepared figures and / or tables .\nkar hoe loh performed the experiments , contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools , reviewed drafts of the paper .\nsarinder kaur dhillon and ving ching chong conceived and designed the experiments , reviewed drafts of the paper .\nthe following information was supplied relating to ethical approvals ( i . e . , approving body and any reference numbers ) :\n1 . university of malaya - institutional animal care and use committee ( um - iacuc ) .\n2 . no approval was required since project was based on dead fish collected from fish landings .\ndata sets ( otolith images ) as well as matlab codes are available as supplemental information .\nthis work was supported by university of malaya research grants ( umrg ) , rp008 - 2012c and rp008 - 2012a . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nchanges in the ratio of the sulcus acusticus area to the sagitta area of pomatoschistus minutus and p . lozanoi ( pisces , gobiidae )\na web - based environment for shape analysis of fish otoliths . the aforo database\ncomparison of different otolith shape descriptors and morphometrics for the identification of closely related species of lutjanus spp . from the persian gulf\nour promise peerj promises to address all issues as quickly and professionally as possible . we thank you in advance for your patience and understanding .\nfollowing\nis like subscribing to any updates related to a publication . these updates will appear in your home dashboard each time you visit peerj .\nyou can also choose to receive updates via daily or weekly email digests . if you are following multiple publications then we will send you no more than one email per day or week based on your preferences .\nnote : you are now also subscribed to the subject areas of this publication and will receive updates in the daily or weekly email digests if turned on . you can add specific subject areas through your profile settings .\npeerj feeds - 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{"id": 1009, "summary": [{"text": "stictane filiformis is a moth in the family erebidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by holloway in 2001 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found on borneo .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of primary dipterocarp forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the length of the forewings is about 5 mm . ", "topic": 9}], "title": "stictane filiformis", "paragraphs": ["13stictane filiformis holloway , 2001 borneo , peninsular stictane filiformis holloway , 2001 , moths of borneo7 : 438 , figs . 9 c , 424 . tl : sabah . malaysia\nstictane filiformis is a moth in the arctiidae family . it was described by holloway in 2001 . it is found on borneo .\nstictane filiformis ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 2 ( list )\nstictane filiformis holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 436 , f . 9c , 424 ; tl : sabah , poring , 1800ft , e of mt kinabalu\nstictane umbrata van eecke : holloway , 2001 , moths of borneo7 : 433 .\nstictane elegans bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )\nstictane gemina bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )\nstictane kualabohi bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )\nstictane mlcochi bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )\nstictane pectenicorniculum bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )\nstictane rectilinea snellen : fang , 1982 , icon . het . sin . : 194 , fig . 1393 .\nstictane fractilinea snellen : fang , 1982 , icon . het . sin . : 194 , fig . 1392 .\nselect a genera blavia walker - blavia caliginosia walker chrysoscota hampson - chrysoscota brunnea swinhoe - chrysoscota cotriangulata sp . n . stictane hampson gen . rev . - stictane serrata sp . n . - stictane parvipectinata sp . n . - stictane ciliata sp . n . - stictane filiformis sp . n . - stictane pectinata sp . n . - stictane muara sp . n . narosodes moore - narosodes punctana walker - narosodes hampsoni draudt tampea snellen - tampea reversa walker - tampea accepta butler comb . n . - tampea nodosa sp . n . - tampea sp . 2053 neoduma hampson - neoduma ectozona hampson tospitis walker - tospitis nulliferana walker darantasia walker - darantasia cuneiplena walker - darantasia seria sp . n . heliosia hampson - heliosia monosticta hampson stictosia hampson - stictosia flexilisana walker - stictosia flava van eecke comb . n . - stictosia crocea sp . n . - stictosia decubitana walker stat . rev . eurosia hampson - eurosia melanopera hampson diduga moore - diduga annulata hampson - diduga pectinifer hampson - diduga trichophora hampson - diduga dorsolobata sp . n . - diduga ciliata sp . n . - diduga barlowi sp . n . hemonia walker - hemonia orbiferana walker - hemonia rotundata snellen\nstictane rectilinea snellen : hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phal . br . mus . , 2 : 258 .\nstictane fractilinea snellen : hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phal . br . mus . , 2 : 259 .\nstictane chinesica draudt : dubatolov , kishida and wang , 2012 , tinea22 ( 1 ) : 49 , fig . 52 .\nbayarsaikhan , ulziijargal & bae , yang - seop , 2015 , three new species of stictane hampson , 1900 ( erebidae , arctiinae ) from cambodia , with checklist of stictane , zootaxa 3981 ( 2 ) , pp . 241 - 252 : 250 - 252\nstictane ciliata ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 2 ( list )\nstictane elegans ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 2 ( list )\nstictane gemina ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 2 ( list )\nstictane kualabohi ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 2 ( list )\nstictane mlcochi ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 2 ( list )\nstictane muara ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 2 ( list )\nstictane parvipectinata ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 2 ( list )\nstictane pectenicorniculum ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 2 ( list )\nstictane pectinata ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 2 ( list )\nstictane serrata ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 2 ( list )\nstictane costinotata wileman & south : holloway , 2001 , moths of borneo7 : 433 . 6stictane bipunctulata ( van eecke , 1927 ) indonesia\nstictane pectinata holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 436 , f . 9e , 428 ; tl : sarawak , gunong mulu nat . park\nstictane obscura inoue : kishida , 2011 , the standard of moths in japan ii : 154 , pl . 2 - 021 : 15 , 16 .\nstictane ciliata holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 435 , f . 9b , 419 , 427 ; tl : brunei , 30 - 60m , labi\nstictane obliquilinea hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phal . br . mus . , 2 : 258 , pl . 25 : 5 . tl : sri\n12stictane pectinata holloway , 2001cambodia , borneo stictane pectinata holloway , 2001 , moths of borneo7 : 436 , figs . 9 e , 428 . tl : sarawak .\n14stictane ciliata holloway , 2001 borneo stictane ciliata holloway , 2001 , moths of borneo7 : 435 , figs . 9 b , 419 , 427 . tl : brunei .\n15stictane parvipectinata holloway , 2001 borneo stictane muara holloway , 2001 , moths of borneo7 : 435 , figs . 9 d , 421 , 429 . tl : sarawak .\nstictane obliquilinea hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 258 , pl . 25 , f . 5 ; tl : ceylon , hambantota\nstictane serrata holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 433 , f . 9f , 420 , 425 ; tl : sabah , poring , 1800ft , e of mt kinabalu\nstictane parvipectinata holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 435 , pl . 8 , f . 9d , 421 , 429 ; tl : sarawak , gunong mulu nat . park\nstictane bipunctulata ; [ mob7 ] , 433 ( note ) ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 2 ( list )\nstictane obliquilinea ; [ mob7 ] , 433 ( note ) ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 2 ( list )\nstictane umbrata ; [ mob7 ] , 433 ( note ) ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 2 ( list )\n10stictane serrata holloway , 2001 borneo , peninsular stictane serrata holloway , 2001 , moths of borneo7 : 433 , figs . 9 f , 420 , 425 . tl : borneo \u2013 malaysia sabah .\n11stictane muara holloway , 2001 borneo stictane muara holloway , 2001 , moths of borneo7 : 438 , figs . 8 d , e , 9 h , i , 418 . tl : brunei .\nstictane muara holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 438 , f . 8d - e , 9h - i , 418 ; tl : brunei , 1m , 3km wsw of muara , kampong kapok\nstictane chinesica ; dubatolov , kishida & wang , 2012 , tinea 21 ( 4 ) : 49 , f . 52 ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 2 ( list )\n18stictane pectenicorniculum bucsek , 2012cambodia , peninsular stictane pectenicorniculum bucsek , 2012 , erebidae , arctiinae ( lithosiini , arctiini ) of malaysiamalay peninsula - malaysia : 96 , pl . 16 : 239 . tl : malaysia ( endau rompin state park ) .\n20stictane mlcochi bucsek , 2012cambodia , peninsular stictane mlchochi bucsek , 2012 , erebidae , arctiinae ( lithosiini , arctiini ) of malay malaysiapeninsula - malaysia : 97 , pl . 16 : 241 . tl : malaysia ( endau rompin state park ) .\n22 sticyane fuscus bucsek , 2014cambodia , peninsular stictane fuscus bucsek , 2014 , erebidae , arctiinae ( lithosiini , arctiini ) of malay malaysia peninsula - malaysia ( supplementum ) : pl . 4 , fig . 54 . tl : malaysia ( pahang distr . ) .\nstictane fractilinea ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 259 , f . 174 ; dubatolov , kishida & wang , 2012 , tinea 21 ( 4 ) : 50 ( note ) ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 3 , 2 ( list ) ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 54\nstictane rectilinea ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 258 ; [ mob7 ] , 433 ( note ) ; dubatolov , kishida & wang , 2012 , tinea 21 ( 4 ) : 50 ( note ) ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 5 , 2 ( list ) ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 54\n5mm . the antennae are filiform . the forewing facies is distinctive , with the medial fascia relatively basal , an angled fascia through the discal dot and no submarginal row of dots . there are three dots on the margin distal to the discal dot and one near the tornus with a distinct gap of paler colour in between . in the genitalia the valves are shorter than in the three species just described , with only sparse setation distally . the saccular process is a short , triangular flap . there is a prominent furca , like the tongue of a reptile , extending dorsally from between the valve bases . the aedeagus vesica has several narrow diverticula , and three robust cornuti in its central portion .\nholotype . sabah : poring , 1800ft . , e . of mt . kinabalu , 20 - 23 . i . 1976 ( e . w . classey ) , bm arctiid slide 4920 .\nthe single specimen was taken in primary dipterocarp forest at 600m on the eastern slopes of g . kinabalu .\n, 5mm . the male antennae are serrate to narrowly bipectinate with dense ciliae , but the facies is otherwise much as in ciliata except the medial fascia has a fainter second fascia just distad and parallel . the male genitalia are distinctive in having a marginal , straight , subapical spine distally to the more sinuous saccular one , flanking the densely setose cucullus . the aedeagus vesica ( not everted ) has numerous cornuti . the female genitalia have a broad corpus bursae and a long , reflexed appendix bursae . there are fields of long spines in the basal , slightly sclerotised part of the appendix , and a few also in the neck of the ductus . there is a finer scobination of shorter spines in the distal part of the corpus bursae .\nholotype . brunei : 1m , 3km wsw of muara , kampong kapok , edge of mangrove forest , i - ii . 1992 ( e . w . classey ) , bm arctiid slide 5473 .\n1 as holotype , 1 ( slide 4923 ) sabah : 5m . s . mt . trus madi , 1800 ft . 18 - 28 . viii . 1977 ; 1 ( slide 4928 ) brunei : seria , 2\u00ba forest , 30m . iv . 1981 ( i . gauld ) .\nall males are from near mangrove on the coast . single females were taken at the type locality , at 30m in disturbed forest at seria near the brunei coast ( slide 4928 ) , and in primary forest at 600m on g . trus madi in sabah ( slide 4923 ) . the forewings of these last two females are illustrated in figs9h , i , that from seria having more typical facies .\n= manoba ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 558 ; [ nhm card ]\nmicrotane hampson , 1901 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 8 ( 45 ) : 183 ; ts : microtane fusca hampson\nmanoba bipunctulata van eecke , 1927 ; zool . meded . 10 ( 8 ) : 117 , ( 9 : pl . 4 , f . 15 ) ; tl : sumatra , fort de kock\nchina ( shanghai , guangdong , fujian , guangxi ) . see [ maps ]\nsikkim , sumatra , ceylon , java , thailand , china . see [ maps ]\n= ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 259 ; [ nhm card ] ; kirti , joshi & singh , 2013 , acta zool . cracov . 56 ( 1 ) : 3\nmicrotane fusca hampson , 1901 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 8 ( 45 ) : 183 ; tl : ceylon , matel\u00e9\nmanoba munda de joannis , 1928 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 97 : 258 , pl . 2 , f . 1 ; tl : cho ganh\nmanoba paucilinea de joannis , 1928 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 97 : 259 , pl . 2 , f . 8 ; tl : cho ganh\npitane rectilinea snellen , 1879 ; tijdschr . ent . 22 : 91 , pl . 10 , f . 7 ; tl : celebes\nmanoba umbrata van eecke , 1927 ; zool . meded . 10 ( 8 ) : 118 , ( 9 : pl . 4 , f . 16 ) ; tl : sumatra , fort de kock\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nnew records of lichenmoths from the nanling mts . , guangdong , south china , with description of new genera and species ( lepidoptera , arctiidae : lithosiinae )\nillustrations of typical specimens of lepidoptera heterocera in the collection of the british museum . part 9 . the macrolepidoptera heterocera of ceylon\nlepidoptera van celebes verzameld door mr . m . c . piepers , met aanteekeningen en beschrijving der nieuwe soorten\nnatuurlijke historie . achtse afdeeling . lepidoptera door p . c . t . snellen , met eene inleiding door joh . f . snelleman . midden - sumatra\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nmanoba umbrimedia de joannis , 1928 , ann . soc . ent . france , 97 : 257 , pl . 2 : 2 . tl : vietnam ( tonkin ) .\noriginal description ( de joannis , 1928 , in french ) . wingspan 14 mm . female : forewing pale gray , slightly dusted with dark ; antemedial series of dark spots barely visible , regularly curved ; median band dark , curved medially outwards , followed by a broad dark shadow ; two dark discoidal spots ; postmedian series of dark spots ; with dark patch before apex ; subterminal series of dark spots , first one strong ; terminal series of dark spots ; fringe gray ; hindwing gray .\npitane rectilinea snellen , 1879 , tijd . v . ent . , 22 : 91 , pl . 10 : 7 . tl : indonesia ( sulawesi ) . indonesia , thailand\nhemonia rectilinea snellen : kirby , 1892 , cat . het . 1892 : 364 .\nmanoba rectilinea snellen : fang , 2000 , fauna sin . , ins . 19 , lep . , arctiidae : 187 , pl . 5 : 26 . 2stictane fractilinea ( snellen , 1880 ) china , india , java , sri\npitane fractilinea snellen , 1880 , midd - sum . lep . , 4 ( 2 ) : 38 . tl : indonesia ( sumatra ) . lanka , sumatra , thailand\nhemonia fractilinea snellen : kirby , 1892 , cat . het . 1892 : 364 .\neugoa multipuncta hampson , 1893 , ill . het . br . mus . , 9 : 81 , pl . 158 : 3 . sri lanka\nmanoba fractilinea snellen : draudt , 1914 , macrolep . world10 : 196 , pl . 16 : a .\nmanoba fractilinea snellen : fang , 2000 , fauna sin . , ins . 19 , lep . , arctiidae : 187 , pl . 5 : 25 . 3stictane obliquilinea hampson , 1900sri lanka\nmicrotane fusca hampson , 1901 , ann . mag . hat . hist . ( 7 ) 8 ( 45 ) : 183 . tl : sri lanka\neurosia costinotata wileman & south , 1919 , entomologist52 ( 670 ) : 50 . tl : philippines\nmanoba bipunctulata van eecke , 1927 , zool . meded . 10 ( 8 ) : 118 . tl : indonesia ( sumatra ) . 7stictane umbrata ( van eecke , 1927 ) peninsular malaysia ,\nmanoba umbrata van eecke , 1927 , zool . meded . 10 ( 8 ) : 118 . tl : indonesia ( sumatra ) . indonesia\nmanoba rectilinear form chinesica draudt , 1931 , macrolep . world2 ( suppl . ) : 69 . tl :\nmanoba rectilinea [ ssp . ] chinesica inoue , 1976 , bull . fac . domest . sci . otsuma wom .\nmanoba rectilinea draudt : fang , 2000 , fang , 2000 , fauna sin . , ins . 19 , lep . , arctiidae :\n9stictane obscura ( inoue , 1976 ) japanmanoba obscura inoue , 1976 , bull . fac . sci . otsuma women\u2019s university12 : 1 - 12 . tl : japan ( honshu ) .\nmanoba obscura inoue : inoue , 1982 , moths of japan i : 645 , ii : pl . 156 : 28 , 29 , pl . 348 : 3 , 4 .\n16stictane kualabohi bucsek , 2012 peninsular malaysiastictane kualabohi bucsek , 2012 , erebidae , arctiinae ( lithosiini , arctiini ) of malay peninsula - malaysia : 95 , pl . 16 : 236 . tl : malaysia ( kampung kuala boh vill . ) .\npeninsula - malaysia : 95 , pl . 16 : 238 . tl : malaysia ( tanah rata env . )\npeninsula - malaysia : 96 , pl . 16 : 240 . tl : malaysia ( endau rompin state park ) .\n21stictane argenteus bucsek , 2014 peninsular malaysiastictane argenteus bucsek , 2014 , erebidae , arctiinae ( lithosiini , arctiini ) of malay peninsula - malaysia ( supplementum ) : pl . 4 , fig . 55 . tl : malaysia ( pahang distr . ) .\n23stictane uniformis bucsek , 2014 peninsular malaysiastictane uniformis bucsek , 2014 , erebidae , arctiinae ( lithosiini , arctiini ) of malay peninsula - malaysia ( supplementum ) : pl . 4 , fig . 56 . tl : malaysia ( negeri sembilan ) .\n24stictane munda ( de joannis , 1928 ) comb . nov . vietnammanoba munda de joannis , 1928 , ann . soc . ent . france , 97 : 257 , pl . 2 : 2 . tl : vietnam ( tonkin ) .\n25stictane paucilinea ( de joannis , 1928 ) comb . nov . vietnammanoba munda de joannis , 1928 , ann . soc . ent . france , 97 : 259 , pl . 2 : 8 . tl : vietnam ( tonkin ) .\n26stictane umbrimedia ( de joannis , 1928 ) comb . nov . vietnammanoba umbrimedia de joannis , 1928 , ann . soc . ent . france , 97 : 257 , pl . 2 : 2 . tl : vietnam ( tonkin ) .\nde joannis , 1928 , ann . soc . ent . france , 97 : 257 , pl . 2 : 2 . tl : vietnam ( tonkin ) .\noriginal description ( de joannis , 1928 , in french ) . wingspan 14 mm . female : forewing pale gray , slightly dusted with dark ; antemedial series of dark spots barely visible , regularly curved ; median band dark , curved medially outwards , followed by a broad dark shadow ; two dark discoidal spots ; postmedian series of dark spots ; with dark patch before apex ; subterminal series of dark spots , first one strong ; terminal series of dark spots ; fringe gray ; hindwing gray .\n, tijd . v . ent . , 22 : 91 , pl . 10 : 7 . tl : indonesia ( sulawesi ) . indonesia , thailand\n: fang , 2000 , fauna sin . , ins . 19 , lep . ,\n, midd - sum . lep . , 4 ( 2 ) : 38 . tl : indonesia ( sumatra ) . lanka , sumatra , thailand\n& south : holloway , 2001 , moths of borneo 7 : 433 . 6\nvan eecke , 1927 , zool . meded . 10 ( 8 ) : 118 . tl : indonesia ( sumatra ) . 7\nvan eecke , 1927 , zool . meded . 10 ( 8 ) : 118 . tl : indonesia ( sumatra ) . indonesia\n: fang , 2000 , fang , 2000 , fauna sin . , ins . 19 , lep . ,\n, bull . fac . sci . otsuma women\u2019s university 12 : 1 - 12 . tl : japan ( honshu ) .\n, moths of japan i : 645 , ii : pl . 156 : 28 , 29 , pl . 348 : 3 , 4 .\n: kishida , 2011 , the standard of moths in japan ii : 154 , pl . 2 - 021 : 15 , 16 .\n, moths of borneo 7 : 433 , figs . 9 f , 420 , 425 . tl : borneo \u2013 malaysia sabah .\n, moths of borneo 7 : 438 , figs . 8 d , e , 9 h , i , 418 . tl : brunei .\n, moths of borneo 7 : 436 , figs . 9 e , 428 . tl : sarawak .\n, moths of borneo 7 : 438 , figs . 9 c , 424 . tl : sabah . malaysia\n, moths of borneo 7 : 435 , figs . 9 b , 419 , 427 . tl : brunei .\n, moths of borneo 7 : 435 , figs . 9 d , 421 , 429 . tl : sarawak .\n) of malay peninsula - malaysia : 95 , pl . 16 : 236 . tl : malaysia ( kampung kuala boh vill . ) .\npeninsula - malaysia : 95 , pl . 16 : 238 . tl : malaysia ( tanah rata env . )\n) of malaysia malay peninsula - malaysia : 96 , pl . 16 : 239 . tl : malaysia ( endau rompin state park ) .\npeninsula - malaysia : 96 , pl . 16 : 240 . tl : malaysia ( endau rompin state park ) .\n) of malay malaysia peninsula - malaysia : 97 , pl . 16 : 241 . tl : malaysia ( endau rompin state park ) .\n) of malay peninsula - malaysia ( supplementum ) : pl . 4 , fig . 55 . tl : malaysia ( pahang distr . ) .\n) of malay malaysia peninsula - malaysia ( supplementum ) : pl . 4 , fig . 54 . tl : malaysia ( pahang distr . ) .\n) of malay peninsula - malaysia ( supplementum ) : pl . 4 , fig . 56 . tl : malaysia ( negeri sembilan ) .\nde joannis , 1928 , ann . soc . ent . france , 97 : 259 , pl . 2 : 8 . tl : vietnam ( tonkin ) .\nno known copyright restrictions apply . see agosti , d . , egloff , w . , 2009 . taxonomic information exchange and copyright : the plazi approach . bmc research notes 2009 , 2 : 53 for further explanation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . ."]}
{"id": 1044, "summary": [{"text": "temnothorax albipennis is a species of small ant in the subfamily myrmicinae .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it occurs in europe and builds simple nests in rock crevices . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "temnothorax albipennis", "paragraphs": ["the above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see temnothorax albipennis for further details\njunior synonym of temnothorax unifasciatus : nylander , 1856b pdf : 92 ; of temnothorax nylanderi : smith , 1858a pdf : 120 ; of temnothorax tuberum : emery , 1924f pdf : 256 .\n( 2013 ) nest - seeking rock ants ( temnothorax albipennis ) trade off sediment packing density and structural integrity for ease of cavity excavation .\nuntil recently the ant temnothorax albipennis was known as leptothorax albipennis ( = tuberointerruptus ) and had been misidentified as temnothorax tuberum in britain . it appears that all mainland records of temnothorax tuberum refer to t . albipennis ( orledge , 1998 ) . whether the channel islands records for t . tuberum are similarly in error is unknown , although they are included here on the t . albipennis map . workers of t . albipennis are smaller than those of leptothorax acervorum , and generally distinguishable from workers of the three other british temnothorax species , by their combination of darkened antennal clubs , straight and relatively short propodeal spines , and rather poorly - defined darkening on their gasters .\nimage showing a marked temnothorax albipennis colony . colonies may be marked in this way so that individuals can be tracked in order to determine what behaviours they demonstrate .\nrevived from synonymy and senior synonym of temnothorax tuberointerruptus : orledge , 1998 : 31 .\ncombination in leptothorax : orledge , 1998 : 31 ; in temnothorax : bolton , 2003 pdf : 271 .\nsalata , s . & borowiec , l . 2013 . temnothorax albipennis ( curtis , 1854 ) in poland and identification of the t . tuberum species complex ( hymenoptera formicidae ) . genus ( wroclaw ) 24 , 403 - 413 .\ntemnothorax albipennis workers forage singly . they scavenge small arthropods and may also take small live invertebrates ( orledge , 1995 ) . no carbohydrate sources have been documented , but the author ' s observation of large numbers of workers on umbellifer flowers suggests that nectar is taken .\nplateaux , l . & cagniant , h . 2012 : 436 : we conclude from all these observations that leptothorax tuberum unifasciatointerruptus is a hybrid of temnothorax unifasciatus and temnothorax albipennis . hybridization works in both directions , parents may be alternately of the two species , and males are from the parthenogenetic egg of the queen mother . note that both species exist also in places ( especially in luberon and ventoux ) where the where the form was found . we therefore ask : t . albipennis x t . unifasciatus = l . tuberum unifasciatointerruptus forel .\non continental europe t . albipennis has been recorded from the netherlands , southern france , northern spain , south and central germany and central italy .\nbolton , b . 2003 . synopsis and classification of formicidae . mem . am . entomol . inst . 71 : 370pp ( page 271 , combination in temnothorax )\nin britain , t . albipennis colonises warm , south - facing , open rocky areas , typically coastal cliffs , screes , undercliffs , slumped cliff slopes and old quarries .\nwiezik , m . 2005a . first records of leptothorax albipennis and l . nadigi ( hymenoptera , formicidae , myrmicinae ) from slovakia . biol\u00f3gia ( bratisl . ) 60 : 170 ( page 170 , see also )\nplateaux , l . & cagniant , h . 2012 . quelques synonymies dans le genre temnothorax mayr , 1855 ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) . bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france 117 ( 4 ) , 427 - 440 .\nby contrast , in established temnothorax albipennis colonies , the aggregate is stable and is contained inside a nest rather than being exposed in the open . in t . albipennis , decisions to leave an established nest are not solely a function of group size [ 14 ] . even more than for a temporary aggregation , individual decisions to leave a stable collection of nest - mates may be affected by a wide variety of inter - related factors such as age or physical caste [ 15 ] , genetic predisposition [ 16 ] , physiological status [ 17 , 18 ] , reproductive status [ 19 ] , dominance interactions [ 20 , 21 ] , previous experience and spatial location [ 22 ] .\nwe tested the exit dynamics of t . albipennis ant colonies under the following three experimental conditions . note , all colony - size statistics were collected in a census immediately prior to the commencement of removal of workers as they left the nest .\norledge , g . m . 1998 . the identity of leptothorax albipennis ( curtis ) ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) and its presence in great britain . syst . entomol . 23 : 25 - 33 pdf ( page 31 , revived from synonymy , combination in leptothorax and senior synonym of tuberointerruptus )\nwe assumed that a similar process applies to individual ants within intact colonies , but in combination with social information . consistent with earlier experimental work on the collective decision making of temnothorax ants , we incorporated the use of quorums in our model ( 31 ) . when the population of ants at a nest site surpasses a threshold , commitment to that site increases significantly ( 32 , 33 ) . with this addition , the site acceptance probabilities now depend on the number of ants at the site as follows :\ntuberointerruptus . leptothorax tuberointerruptus bondroit , 1918 : 126 ( w . q . ) switzerland . [ first available use of leptothorax tuberum var . tuberointerruptus forel , 1874 : 86 . nomen nudum . leptothorax tuberum r . interruptus var . tuberointerruptus forel , 1915d : 24 ( in key ) ; unavailable name . ] status as species : betrem , 1926 : 217 . subspecies of interruptus : novak & sadil , 1941 : 93 . revived status as species : seifert , 1994 : 22 . junior synonym of albipennis : orledge , 1998 : 31 .\ni first determined whether ants assess nest population throughout the emigration or only until they begin to transport . i induced emigrations and followed recruiters until they switched from tandem runs to transports . i then emptied the new nest of ants and noted whether the recruiters continued to transport or reverted to tandem runs . two colonies of t . albipennis were housed in observation nests constructed of thin cardboard or wood partitions sandwiched between glass microscope slides ( 50 \u00d7 76 mm ) . these colonies and all others used in this study were collected at portland bill , dorset , u . k . ants were individually marked with four drops of paint on the head , thorax , and gaster . emigrations were induced by removing the roof slide from the old nest , forcing the ants to find a new home .\nthirty - two colonies of t . rugatulus were used for the colony - level tests . half of them were small ( 20\u201380 workers ) , and half were large ( 150\u2013250 workers ) . an additional eight medium - sized colonies ( 100\u2013130 workers ) provided 16 worker ants ( 2 ants per colony ) for the individual tests . only a minority of workers in temnothorax colonies participate actively in nest - site scouting and transport of nestmates and brood items , whereas the rest of the colony waits at the home nest ( 24 , 33 ) . to ensure that we tested only these active ants , we placed brood items outside of the colony\u2019s nest and selected workers that attempted to retrieve them . we reasoned that ants willing to leave the nest and retrieve brood were likely to carry out similar tasks during colony emigrations ( 34 ) .\nthe collective choice of a new home by emigrating colonies of the ant t . albipennis depends critically on the detection of a nest - mate quorum by the ants evaluating each candidate site . the quorum allows ants to condition their full commitment to a site\u2014signaled by the switch from slow tandem runs to rapid transports\u2014on the parallel decisions of their nest mates ( pratt et al . , 2002 ) . in this study , i show that quorum detection depends on direct contact between an ant and her nest mates at the site , probably acting through density - dependent encounter rates . i further show that ants cease monitoring the presence of a quorum once they have made the switch to transport , failing to revert to tandem runs even if the site ' s population falls well below the quorum . finally , my observations suggest that quorum detection is not instantaneous but requires ants to invest 1\u20132 min patrolling the site to gather information .\na markov chain model was used to describe the temnothorax house hunting process . in the model , each ant begins in the exploring state , from which she can either find the better nest , entering state a , or the worse nest , entering state b . if the ant fails to find either nest , she continues exploring . once at a site , she may also leave and find the other site , with some probability . with each subsequent nest visit , the ant enters state ca i or cb i , where i represents the number of comparisons she has made between nests . this number is incremented each time the ant goes from a to b , or from b to a . at each state the ant has a probability of accepting the nest she is currently assessing , modeled as the final states a and b . si appendix , table s2 provides a summary of model states ; si appendix , table s3 the model\u2019s transition probabilities ; and si appendix , table s4 a description of the model parameters . the flowchart in si appendix , fig . s4 summarizes all possible state transitions .\nfrom a previous dataset in which individually marked t . albipennis ants were allowed to freely leave and return to the nest [ 14 ] , we obtained the times that each ant left the nest over a 5 day period . from this , for each ant , we calculated the mean waiting time between successive exits . it should be emphasized that here the waiting time refers to the time elapsed between successive exits by the same ant . we then took the inverse of each ant ' s mean waiting time , giving the mean exit rate for each ant . thus , we obtained the distribution of the instantaneous decay probabilities ( exit rates ) within each of seven colonies . these rate distributions were well fitted by a log - logistic distribution . a variable that follows a log - logistic distribution is one in which the logarithm of the variable is logistically distributed ( electronic supplementary material , figure s2 ) . at the start of each run of the simulation , every \u2018ant\u2019 in the colony was assigned an individual exit rate from the distribution . in every time step , each ant decided whether to leave the nest by comparing its exit probability to a uniformly distributed random number between 0 and 1 . if the ant ' s exit probability was greater than this random number , the ant leaves the nest . we recorded the same statistics for these simulated ants , as for the real ants . for comparison , we also ran the model without any individual variation , by assigning the mean instantaneous decay probability from the log - logistic distribution to all the ants , which is a homogeneous poisson process .\nthese ants inhabit grasslands and light scrub , especially on lime subsoil and are sometimes common in dunes . they nests in rock crevices and rubble or in tree stumps and in dry fallen branches . colonies are reported as monogynous , with up to 200 workers , and may form temporary polydomous systems ( salata & borowiec , 2013 ) .\nthis species is a host for the endoparastic fungus myrmicinosporidium durum ( espadaler & santamaria , 2012 ) .\nthe following information is derived from barry bolton ' s new general catalogue , a catalogue of the world ' s ants .\ncurtis , j . 1854 . on the genus myrmica and other indigenous ants . trans . linn . soc . lond . 21 : 211 - 220 ( page 218 , worker , male described )\nespadaler , x . , santamaria , s . 2012 . ecto - and endoparasitic fungi on ants from the holarctic region . psyche article id 168478 , 10 pages ( doi : 10 . 1155 / 2012 / 168478 ) .\nnylander , w . 1856b . synopsis des formicides de france et d ' alg\u00e9rie . ann . sci . nat . zool . ( 4 ) 5 : 51 - 109 ( page 92 , junior synonym of unifasciatus )\nsmith , f . 1858a . catalogue of hymenopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part vi . formicidae . london : british museum , 216 pp . ( page 120 , junior synonym of nylanderi )\nthis page was last modified on 31 october 2016 , at 00 : 51 .\nyou must log in to access this functionality . you may create an account , or log in anonymously , here .\n0 times found in rocks ( rocky - calcareous grasslands ) , 4 times found in pinar , 0 times found in unknown , 3 times found in bosque claro de p . sylvaticus , 2 times found in robedal / casta\u00f1ar , 1 times found in agr\u00edcola , 0 times found in dry grassland , 1 times found in pinar ( p . sylvaticus ) cerrado , 1 times found in pinar en dunas , 1 times found in pinus sylvestris , . . .\n1 times nido en toc\u00f3n , 2 times nido en piedra , 1 times madera , 2 times forrajeando , 2 times bajo corteza ymusgo p sylvaticus , 1 times sous pierres , 1 times nido dentro de piedra , 1 times nido bajo piedra , 1 times nbp , 1 times bajo corteza pino , 1 times bajo corteza p sylvaticus , . . .\nantweb content is licensed under a creative commons attribution license . we encourage use of antweb images . in print , each image must include attribution to its photographer and\nfrom urltoken\nin the figure caption . for websites , images must be clearly identified as coming from urltoken , with a backward link to the respective source page . see how to cite antweb .\nantweb is funded from private donations and from grants from the national science foundation , deb - 0344731 , ef - 0431330 and deb - 0842395 . c : 1\nbritish mainland records come only from southern england and from wales . most are from sites on or near the coast , a notable exception being the record from castle drogo , south devon ( alexander , 1983 ) . there are no confirmed records from ireland .\nlisted as a nationally notable ( na ) species ( falk 1991 ) . work for this atlas has shown that the species is currently known from 40 post - 1970 10 km squares on mainland britain and so the status should be revised .\nalate males and females are produced during june and july and have left the nest by the middle of august ( from data in partridge ( 1993 ) ) . there are no field records of swarming , but laboratory observations suggest that mating flights occur during the two hours following sunrise ( plateaux 1984 ) .\nnests are most frequently found between rock laminae , in rock cavities and crevices , on rock surfaces under mat - forming plants , or on soil under stones . between rock laminae the workers often surround the nest with a ' wall ' of soil particles and rock fragments . there are several records of nests within the dead stems of herbaceous and shrubby plants , in rotting wood and in old snail shells . near dungeness , kent , nests have also been found amongst pebbles and gorse roots , and in peat over pebbles ( felton , 1965 ) . colonies rarely exceed 350 workers , and have a single queen . adult workers are produced each year during the summer months .\nmany people know organisms only by the common names , or\nvernacular\nnames . unlike scientific names , common names are almost always different for speakers of different languages . they may also vary regionally within a language . this tab shows all the common names provided to eol for this organism from a variety of providers , including eol curators . currently we can only set one preferred common name per language on a given eol page , but all the names should be searchable .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nt . o . richardson , 1 , 2 , * k . christensen , 3 , 4 n . r . franks , 2 h . j . jensen , 3 , 5 and a . b . sendova - franks 1\n* author for correspondence ( ku . ca . lotsirb @ nosdrahcir . mot ) .\nmany purely physical complex systems , in which there are both stochasticity and local interactions between the components , exhibit record dynamics . the temporal statistics of record dynamics is a poisson process operating on a logarithmic rather than a linear time scale ( i . e . a log - poisson process ) . record dynamics often drive substantial changes in complex systems when new high water marks in partially stochastic processes trigger new events . social insect colonies are exemplary complex biological systems in which many of the local interactions of the components have been moulded by natural selection for the common good . here , we combine experimental manipulation of ant colony demography with modelling to test the hypothesis that social interactions are the mechanism underlying the record dynamics . we found that compared with the control , log - poisson statistics were disrupted in colonies in which the pattern of interactions was modified by the removal of the brood , and disappeared completely in \u2018callow\u2019 colonies composed entirely of very young workers from the same age cohort . we conclude that a subtle interplay between the demography of the society and the pattern of the interactions between the ants is crucial for the emergence of record dynamics . this could help identify what makes an ant colony a cohesive society .\nthere may be safety in numbers [ 1 ] , so for many social animals , individuals are more likely to remain in a group the larger it is . hence , when deciding whether to leave the safety afforded by the group , individuals may often take the size of the group into account [ 2 \u2013 4 ] .\ncomplex systems in which events are governed by record dynamics exhibit rapidly , and crucially non - exponentially , declining event rates ( the rates are proportional to the inverse of time , hence events accumulate at a constant rate in logarithmic time ) . further , such systems always include strong interactions between the component parts . record dynamics have been shown to govern rapidly declining event rates in a diverse variety of non - equilibrium systems , for example declining extinction rates [ 27 \u2013 29 ] , the \u2018tangled nature\u2019 model of macroevolution [ 25 , 30 ] , fluctuating commodity prices [ 31 ] , type - ii superconductors [ 32 ] , colloidal gels [ 33 ] and relaxation of the angle of repose in vibrated sandpiles [ 34 ] .\nhere , we use experimental manipulations of colony structure in combination with modelling to investigate the mechanisms underlying the log - poisson characteristics of nest exits when ants are experimentally prevented from returning home ( richardson et al . 2010 ) . our experiments compare ( i ) control colonies where worker and brood demographies have not been manipulated with ( ii ) \u2018no - brood\u2019 colonies where worker demography is not manipulated but the brood has been removed and ( iii ) colonies that have a full brood complement but all the workers belong to the same cohort of very young \u2018callow\u2019 workers . with our models , we compare statistics generated by two scenarios based on the poisson process against the well - known log - poisson statistics generated by a record dynamics process .\nour second experimental manipulation was to construct callow colonies in which all the workers belonged to the same age - cohort of very young workers . both worker developmental stage and experience influence , and are influenced , by social interactions . hence , the motivation for this manipulation was to check whether a narrower distribution of probabilities for performing some action could still reproduce the log - poisson statistics found in unmanipulated colonies .\n) with food and water provided ad libitum . all colonies had a single queen that showed normal behaviour for a fertilized queen , for example a strong tendency to take up a central position within the colony .\napparatus for automated removal of ants as they leave the nest . ( a ) microscope - slide nest ( 50 \u00d7 35 \u00d7 1 mm ) ; ( b ) high - resolution webcam ; ( c ) computer running automated motion - detection software ; ( d ) compressed air supply ; ( e ) access tube through which ants could access the exploration arena prior to the removal , and through which they left the nest during the removal . the access tube contained an inner tube and nozzle arrangement that delivered the pressurized air , hitting the ant from behind .\nsixty - four hours prior to the beginning of the period when ants were removed as they left the nest , each colony was stimulated to emigrate to a new nest by removing the roof of their original nest . during this \u2018settling - in\u2019 period , no food or water was provided to the colonies , although they were allowed access to an exploration arena ( 100 \u00d7 100 mm ) , which was accessible via a tube attached to the front of the nest (\nduring the period when ants were removed as they left the nest , the exploration arena was disconnected . then , every time an ant walked to the glass tip of the access tube , its motion was detected by the high - resolution webcam ( logitech qc deluxe ) positioned immediately above (\n) . this webcam was attached to a pc running automated motion detection software , thus sensing the exit of the ant . when an ant was detected leaving the nest , the computer opened a valve , releasing a short ( 0 . 2 s ) burst of pressurized air through the inner tube , hitting the ant from the rear , and resulting in the ant being blown out of the access tube , into a collection dish .\nnine unmanipulated colonies with brood present ( median n adults = 90 , inter - quartile range ( iqr ) = 34 ; median n brood = 127 , iqr = 111 . 8 ) .\neight unmanipulated colonies with all brood removed ( median n adults = 118 , iqr = 24 ; median n brood = 0 . 5 , iqr = 4 . 8 ) . the brood was removed during the enforced emigration into the experimental nest , that is 64 h prior to commencement of experimental ant removal . in some colonies , the queen laid a few eggs after the removal of the brood , hence the median n brood is non - zero .\neight callow colonies were constructed ( median n adults = 101 , iqr = 67 , median n brood = 77 , iqr = 45 . 5 ) in the following way . the queen plus a retinue of 10 adults were removed from each of eight unmanipulated colonies , thus creating eight \u2018proto - colonies\u2019 . then , the 10 adult workers from each proto - colony were marked using pactra paint . these adult workers were used to perform the crucial task of helping the late - stage pupae eclose into callows , after which the adult workers were removed . we then collected brood items from 20 donor colonies , and sorted them according to their developmental stage ( eggs , larvae , pre - pupae and pupae ) . each proto - colony received a complement of brood containing equal proportions of eggs , larvae and pupae . we aimed to ensure there were equal numbers of workers and brood in each colony . the modal length of time from the point at which the majority of the pupae had eclosed , until the emigration into the experimental nest , was 12 days . newly eclosed callows are extremely sluggish , hence the delay to allow time for them to acquire some mobility . although not all the late - stage pupae eclosed at exactly the same time , the variation was relatively low , with the delay between the first and last eclosions of approximately 2 days .\nwhich is the expectation from a homogeneous poisson process , such as radioactive decay .\n( a ) the mean proportion of the colony remaining , normalized by the starting colony size , in logarithmic time ( log - linear axes ) . in a log - poisson process , n ( t ) grows , on average , at a constant rate in logarithmic time , hence 1 \u2212 ( n ( t ) / n t = 1 ) will decrease at a constant rate in logarithmic time . open circles , control ( n = 9 ) ; filled grey circles , no - brood ( n = 8 ) ; filled black circles , callow colonies ( n = 8 ) . ( b ) the proportion of the original colony remaining in the nest , as a function of time ( note linear - log axes ) . the proportion of the original colony remaining 1 \u2212 ( n ( t ) / n t = 1 ) , at the end for the experiment was : for the control , median = 0 . 39 , iqr = 0 . 47 ; no - brood , median = 0 . 37 , iqr = 0 . 27 ; callows , median = 0 . 50 , iqr = 0 . 12 . as in a homogeneous poisson process , the number remaining in the nest declines exponentially over time in the callow colonies ( \u03bb = \u22122 ) but not in the control or the no - brood colonies . the linear fit is a guide to the eye only .\n, that occurs simply due to there being fewer and fewer ants \u2018available\u2019 to leave the nest .\n) is negative , this indicates social amplification , that is , the smaller the aggregate , the higher the exit rate and hence the shorter the residence times of those remaining . however , we found\n> 0 , so the smaller the aggregate , the lower the exit rate and hence the longer the residence times , which we term social inhibition . the rate\nexit rate as a function of the proportion remaining than did the no - brood colonies . we again found a qualitatively different pattern in the callow colonies , in which the\n; electronic supplementary material , figure s4 ) . in other words , when colonies were constructed so as to minimize the variation in the ants ' exit probabilities , the\nexit rate was stationary , and thus the absolute exit rate was dependent only upon the finite number of ants in the nest .\nin the controls against those in the no - brood and callow colonies . we used glms of the form , response \u223c colony + experiment + covariate + experiment * covariate , where \u2018 * \u2019 denotes interaction . this interaction term determines whether the coefficients ( i . e .\n) are significantly different in the no - brood and callow colonies , compared with the control . the standardized residuals from the above glms were slightly more right skewed than a normal distribution ; however , the qualitative differences between the coefficients were the same when individual regressions were preformed on the ensemble average data depicted in\n( a ) control , ( b ) no brood , and ( c ) callows . each data point represents the ensemble average , that is an average across the colonies . the curved lines are lowess regressions ( degree of smoothing , f = 0 . 5 , n steps = 2 ) . row 1 : testing for social amplification ( m < 0 ) or social inhibition ( m > 0 ) . rows 2\u20134 : testing for log - poisson statistics . logarithmic binning was used throughout for time plotted on the x - axis . row 2 : checking that the per capita exit rate behaves like r k / n t \u221d t \u2212 \u03b2 . row 3 : variance - to - mean ratio , < vmr > , of the normalized accumulated number of events over time . if the timing of events obeys log - poisson statistics , the vmr will be constant over time . row 4 : open square boxes , the waiting time between exits , < t k \u2212 t k \u2212 1 > , as a function of time . filled circles , the ratio , < x > , that is , the ratio of the waiting time between exits , t k \u2212 t k \u2212 1 , to the time of occurrence of the previous ( k \u2212 1 ) th event , t k \u2212 1 , as a function of the time of occurrence of t k \u2212 1 .\n; electronic supplementary material , figure s3 ) . however , as the callow colonies showed a qualitatively different decrease in the event rate that was not well described by linear regressions of the form log\n) , that is , the waiting time between exits increases more rapidly when the brood is present , compared with when the brood is absent .\ntesting for quantitative differences between the control and no - brood colonies . the callows were excluded from the comparison as they displayed qualitatively different temporal statistics . glms of the same form as in\nrate and the waiting times were significantly different in the control versus no - brood colonies .\n) of the accumulated number of events , that is , the vmr is equal to one , and does not vary over time . if the event rate is only\nto a log - poisson variable . however , the same cannot be said for callow colonies , in which the < vmr > increases rapidly over time .\nin the poisson process , the waiting time is stationary , exponentially distributed ( i . e .\n) and there is no correlation between successive waiting times . similarly , in a log - poisson process , the logarithmic waiting times ( ln\n) and without temporal correlation . however , here we wish to compensate for the falling colony size by calculating the logarithmic waiting times on a\n) , and are not temporally correlated ( electronic supplementary material , figure s1 ) . however , in the callow colonies ,\nare considerably more right - skewed , non - stationary and temporally correlated , while in the no - brood colonies these metrics are again intermediate between poisson and log - poisson .\nthe cumulative distribution of the per capita logarithmic waiting times , p ( \u03c4 / n t ) > x . ( a ) controls , ( b ) no - brood colonies , ( c ) callows . in a poisson process , the waiting times are exponentially distributed , ( p ( t k \u2212 t k \u22121 > x ) = e \u2212 \u03bbx ) , and similarly in a log - poisson process the logarithmic waiting times ( ln t k \u2212 ln t k \u22121 = ln ( t k / t k \u22121 ) = \u03c4 ) are exponentially distributed ( p ( \u03c4 > x ) = e \u2212 \u03bbx ) . each line represents a different colony .\nthe mechanism described above is a natural null model because it is so simple , and also because the poisson statistics it produces are well studied . however , the temporal statistics of a poisson process operating on a logarithmic time scale , that is \u2018log - poisson\u2019 statistics , characterizing the nest exit dynamics in unmanipulated colonies ( richardson et al . 2010 ) , suggest an alternative mechanism of record dynamics [ 25 , 26 ] derived from the statistical mechanics of complex systems . in this scenario , individual exits are triggered when a fluctuating variable , the \u2018record signal\u2019 , reaches a never - before - seen ( record ) level . if the record signal is uncorrelated in time , the increment between successive record values will rapidly decrease , and the interval between successive records will rapidly increase . clearly , there are strong interactions between ants [ 41 \u2013 43 ] , and the interaction rate\u2014measured by the collective activity\u2014fluctuates non - periodically over time [ 44 \u2013 46 ] .\nhere we assume that within each colony there is a distribution of intrinsic decay probabilities , and that a \u2018decay\u2019 event is equivalent to an exit . then , the declining exit rate will be because of the diminishing number of ants , but also because on average the more \u2018unstable\u2019 ants leave the nest before those with lower exit probabilities . this model is essentially a non - homogeneous poisson process that incorporates a finite - size effect .\nhere we present an alternative phenomenological explanation for the production of the observed log - poisson statistics . we assume that an event occurs ( an ant leaves the nest ) whenever a fluctuating record signal hits a new maximum ( or minimum ) value . then , the temporal stochasticity of the signal itself is responsible for regulating the exit rate , rather than the variation across individuals , as in the null model . time series created in this manner are known as \u2018white noise\u2019 . as each instance of the signal is randomly chosen , the value of the signal at time\nthe temporal sequence of events ( records ) generated by three realizations of the record dynamics model . records accumulate at a constant rate in logarithmic time . insert : the fluctuation of the underlying white - noise record signal for a single realization . here , the x - axis shows linear time . open circles , the underlying record signal and its associated records ( solid line ) .\nwhen there was no individual variation in the exit rates , or rather , when the exits were organized by a homogeneous poisson process operating on a finite population , we found typical poisson statistics . specifically , the number of events did not accumulate at a constant rate in logarithmic time (\n) . thus , this model qualitatively reproduces the statistics produced by the callow colonies .\nresults of the null model based on : ( a , c ) a homogeneous poisson process , instantaneous exit rate for all ants = 0 . 0003 s \u22121 , ( b , d ) a heterogenous poisson process ( log - logistic distribution , see electronic supplementary material , figure s2 ) mean instantaneous exit rate = 0 . 0003 s \u22121 . for both exit probability distributions , the starting colony size was identical , n t = 1 = 100 ants . the number of time steps in both models was of the same order of magnitude as in the experimental data . for further details of model parametrization , see text . ( a , b ) open circles , the mean proportion of the original colony remaining , 1\u2212 ( n ( t ) / n t = 1 ) ; filled circles , the vmr for n ( t ) . ( c , d ) open squares , the mean waiting times as a function of time , t k \u2212 t k \u22121 \u221d t k \u22121 ; filled squares , the ratio of the waiting times , x , as a function of the time of the previous event .\nwe do not give further evidence of the log - poisson nature of the event rate statistics generated by the record dynamics model as it has been demonstrated elsewhere [ 25 , 47 \u2013 49 ] that a fluctuating record signal produces log - poisson statistics .\n] . in the no - brood colonies , the absence of hungry brood may have removed stimuli that trigger foraging and thus contributed to the observed reduction in the overall exit rate .\nit is clear from the null model that individual variation is not , by itself , sufficient to reproduce event rates that decelerate according to record dynamics . merely assigning individual nest - leaving rates ( derived from previous empirical observations of unimpeded nest leaving ) to the non - interacting \u2018ants\u2019 did not reproduce the log - poisson statistics (\n) . therefore , the scenario in which the decision to leave the nest is a purely probabilistic consequence of the individual exit rate is inaccurate .\nstatistics in the control colonies demonstrates that the log - poisson deceleration is not merely an artefact of the declining colony size . colonies composed entirely of a single age - cohort of very young and inexperienced callows differed qualitatively from the log - poisson statistics described in the control and , to a lesser extent , in the no - brood conditions . in the callow colonies , the\n) or stationary ( electronic supplementary material , figure s5 ) . instead of the \u2018normal\u2019 log - poisson temporal statistics found in unmanipulated colonies , the timing of nest exits in callow colonies was more like a homogeneous poisson process (\n) . so , when the society lacks variation in age and task experience among the component parts , it displays none of the interesting dynamics exhibited by systems in which events are regulated by record dynamics .\nthe importance of the structuring of social interactions is supported further by the result that no - brood colonies show statistics that are intermediate between log poisson and poisson . we hypothesized that the removal of the brood would change the spatial distribution of the interactions between the workers within the colony , so causing a loss of log - poisson temporal statistics . indeed , the loss of the log - poisson behaviour suggests that the particular pattern of ant\u2013ant interactions mediated by the presence of brood of various developmental stages sorted into an annular structure is important for the generation of log - poisson statistics . in summary , to explain the production of the log - poisson statistics , it is necessary but not sufficient to invoke only the natural variation in the ants ' nest - leaving tendencies or the nature of the interactions between the workers .\nso what then would be sufficient ? it is reasonable to suppose that decreasing the density of ants within the nest might cause a reduction in the rate at which ants encounter one another . then , if individual exit probabilities were downregulated ( i . e . inhibited ) as the encounter rate decreases , the exit rate would decline more rapidly than if there were no density effects . clearly , in order to construct an individual - level model that reproduces the collective log - poisson statistics , we will need a much more detailed understanding of how ant\u2013ant interactions within the nest influence subsequent decisions to leave it .\nour results demonstrate how analysing the behaviour of social insect colonies using the tools of record dynamics brings new insights in their organization and opens up the prospect of developing a new theory to help identify what makes an ant colony a cohesive society . substantial and irreversible changes in complex systems can originate from the combination of temporal stochasticity and strong interactions between the components . in the physical sciences there is strong evidence for the role of such record dynamics in a wide range of condensed - matter systems . the application of record dynamics to complex systems in biology promises to be fruitful because both stochasticity and agent\u2013agent interactions are ubiquitous at all levels of biological organization .\nt . o . r . and a . b . s . - f . acknowledge epsrc grant ep / e061796 / 1 . k . c . acknowledges epsrc grant ep / e061761 / 1 . we are grateful to everyone in the ant laboratory at bristol for helpful advice .\nmodulation of individual behaviour and collective decision - making during aggregation site selection by the ant messor barbarus .\nsendova - franks a . b . , franks n . r . 1995a .\ndivision of labour in a crisis : task allocation during colony emigration in the ant leptothorax unifasciatus ( latr . )\ndepick\u00e8re s . , ramirez - avila g . m . , fresneau d . , deneubourg j . l . 2008 .\nrobinson e . j . h . , richardson t . o . , sendova - franks a . b . , feinerman o . , franks n . r . 2009 .\nsendova - franks a . b . , franks n . r . 1995b .\nspatial relationships within nests of the ant leptothorax unifasciatus ( latr . ) and their implications for the division of labour\nrichardson e . j . h . , robinson e . j . h . , christensen k . , jensen h . j . , franks n . r . , sendova - franks a . b . 2010 .\nhall m . , christensen k . , di collobiano s . a . , jensen h . j . 2002 .\nfranks n . r . , sendova - franks a . b . 1992 .\nsendova - franks a . b . , scholes s . r . , franks n . r . , melhuish c . 2004 .\nsynchronization of the behavior within nests of the ant leptothorax acervorum ( fabricius ) . 1 . discovering the phenomenon and its relation to the level of starvation\nwe are grateful for the practical assistance and comments of the members of the university of bristol ant lab . njm was supported by an association for the study of animal behaviour research grant ( to nrf ) .\naleksiev as , longdon b , christmas mj , sendova - franks ab , franks nr ( 2007a ) individual choice of building material for nest construction by worker ants and the collective outcome for their colony . anim behav 74 : 559\u2013566\naleksiev as , sendova - franks ab , franks nr ( 2007b ) the selection of building material for wall construction by ants . anim behav 73 : 779\u2013788\naleksiev as , longdon b , christmas mj , sendova - franks ab , franks nr ( 2008 ) individual and collective choice : parallel prospecting and mining in ants . naturwissenschaften 95 : 301\u2013305\nblott sj , pye k ( 2001 ) gradistat : a grain size distribution and statistics package for the analysis of unconsolidated sediments . earth surf proc land 26 : 1237\u20131248\ncamazine s , deneubourg j - l , franks nr , sneyd j , theraulaz g , bonabeau e ( 2001 ) self - organization in biological systems . princeton university press , princeton\ncoe al ( 1996 ) unconformities within the portlandian stage of the wessex basin and their sequence - stratigraphical significance . in : hesselbo sp , parkinson dn ( eds ) sequence stratigraphy in british geology . geol soc spec publ 103 : 109\u2013143\ndashtgard se , gingras mk , pemberton sg ( 2008 ) grain - size controls on the occurrence of bioturbation . palaeogeogr palaeoclimatol palaeoecol 257 : 224\u2013243\ndawkins r ( 1999 ) the extended phenotype : the long reach of the gene , revised ed . oxford university press , oxford\nfolgarait pj ( 1998 ) ant biodiversity and its relationship to ecosystem functioning : a review . biodivers conserv 7 : 1221\u20131244\nfolk rl , ward wc ( 1957 ) brazos river bar : a study in the significance of grain size parameters . j sediment petrol 27 : 3\u201326\nfranks nr , deneubourg j - l ( 1997 ) self - organizing nest construction in ants : individual worker behaviour and the nest ' s dynamics . anim behav 54 : 779\u2013796\nfranks nr , wilby a , silverman b , tofts c ( 1992 ) self - organizing nest construction in ants : sophisticated building by blind bulldozing . anim behav 44 : 357\u2013375\nfranks nr , dornhaus a , fitzsimmons jp , stevens m ( 2003a ) speed versus accuracy in collective decision - making . proc r soc lond b 270 : 2457\u20132463\nfranks nr , mallon eb , bray he , hamilton mj , mischler tc ( 2003b ) strategies for choosing between alternatives with different attributes : exemplified by house - hunting ants . anim behav 65 : 215\u2013223\nfranks nr , dornhaus a , best cs , jones el ( 2006 ) decision - making by small and large house - hunting ant colonies : one size fits all . anim behav 72 : 611\u2013616\nheneberg p ( 2009 ) soil penetrability as a key factor affecting the nesting of burrowing birds . ecol res 24 : 453\u2013459\njones cg , lawton jh , shachak m ( 1994 ) organisms as ecosystem engineers . oikos 69 : 373\u2013386\njouquet p , dauber j , lagerl\u00f6f j , lavelle p , lepage m ( 2006 ) soil invertebrates as ecosystem engineers : intended and accidental effects on soil and feedback loops . appl soil ecol 32 : 153\u2013164\nkinlaw a ( 1999 ) a review of burrowing by semi - fossorial vertebrates in arid environments . j arid environ 41 : 127\u2013145\nlangridge ea , franks nr , sendova - franks ab ( 2004 ) improvement in collective performance with experience in ants . behav ecol sociobiol 56 : 523\u2013529\nminter nj , franks nr , robson - brown ka ( 2012 ) morphogenesis of an extended phenotype : four - dimensional ant nest architecture . j r soc interface 9 : 586\u2013595\nr core team ( 2012 ) r : a language and environment for statistical computing . r foundation for statistical computing , vienna , austria . isbn 3 - 900051 - 07 - 0 .\nrobinson ejh , franks nr , ellis s , okuda s , marshall jar ( 2011 ) a simple threshold rule is sufficient to explain sophisticated collective decision - making . plos one 6 : e19981\nsendova - franks ab , franks nr ( 1993 ) task allocation in ant colonies within variable environments ( a study of temporal polyethism : experimental ) . b math biol 55 : 75\u201396\nsosa b , brazeiro a ( 2012 ) local and landscape - scale effects of an ant nest construction in an open dry forest of uruguay . ecol entomol 37 : 252\u2013255\ntoffin e , kindekens j , deneubourg jl ( 2010 ) excavated substrate modulates growth instability during nest building in ants . proc r soc b 277 : 2617\u20132625\nwilson eo ( 1971 ) the insect societies . harvard university press , cambridge , ma\nyuan h - w , burt db , wang l - p , chang w - l , wang m - k , chiou c - r , ding t - s ( 2006 ) colony site choice of blue - tailed bee - eaters : influences of soil , vegetation and water quality . j nat hist 40 : 485\u2013493\nminter , n . j . , sendova - franks , a . b . & franks , n . r . behav ecol sociobiol ( 2013 ) 67 : 1745 . urltoken\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\naddress correspondence to s . c . pratt . e - mail : spratt @ urltoken .\nhow do ants actually implement the quorum rule ? that is , what proximate cues cause them to change their recruitment behavior ? when we say that this change relies on attainment of a quorum , this reflects both the experimental observation that the number of nest mates at a site determines subsequent recruitment behavior as well as the likelihood that nest - mate number is the functionally important feature for decision - making performance at the colony level . the ants themselves , however , are not likely to assess nest - mate numbers directly . although evidence exists for a limited number sense in many animals , including honey bees ( chittka and geiger , 1995 ; dehaene et al . , 1998 ) , insects and simpler organisms likely rely instead on simple cues correlated with either the absolute numbers or the density of conspecifics .\nalternatively , ants may respond to their rate of encounter with nest mates . during each visit to her candidate site , the scout wanders through it , approaching nest mates and touching them with her antennae . the rate of such encounters is likely to increase with the local density of ants ( gordon et al . , 1993 ) . one possibility is that an ant simply notes the time elapsed between her entry at the site and her first encounter . if this interval declines with increasing site population , it could serve as a simple cue of nest - mate density . similar time intervals play an important role in allocating labor in partitioned tasks , efficiently balancing the numbers of workers foraging for material with the numbers using this material at the nest ( jeanne , 1986 ; seeley , 1995 ) . a second possibility is that each ant integrates information from many encounters over the duration of her visit . use of multiple encounters could improve the precision of her estimate , as others have suggested for partitioned tasks ( ratnieks and anderson , 1999 ) . similar cues have already been implicated in labor allocation within harvester ant colonies , where an ant ' s probability of switching to a given task is positively related to her rate of encounter with nest mates already performing that task ( greene and gordon , 2003 ; gordon and mehdiabadi , 1999 ) .\nin this study , i examined the potential roles of encounter rate and indirect pheromonal signals in detection of a nest - mate quorum . i began by determining when , during an emigration , scouts pay attention to quorum attainment , and by estimating the time they devote to its measurement . i then explicitly tested the importance of each cue by manipulating its availability to scouts and determining how this affected their subsequent recruitment decisions .\napparatus used to control access of ants to a new nest site . the dish containing the old nest is mounted on a rack - and - pinion mechanism that allows it to be joined with or separated from the dish containing the new nest .\nthe time required by ants to decide whether a quorum is present may help to distinguish among potential mechanisms . detection of volatile pheromones is potentially very rapid , while measurement of lag to the first encounter may be more time consuming , and integration of a series of encounters should take longer still . to determine whether time devoted to quorum detection changed as ants switched from tandem runs to transports , i measured the duration of each visit to the new site by individually marked recruiters . emigrations were observed in a large tray with fluon - coated walls . an inhabited nest was placed against one wall of the tray and a single empty nest against the opposite wall , 60\u201365 cm away . digital video cameras recorded the ants ' activity at each nest throughout the emigration . visit durations and subsequent recruitment behavior were measured from the videotapes . only data from ants that led tandem runs were analyzed . i excluded the visit before each ant ' s first recruitment to avoid confounding time devoted to quorum detection with time needed to assess the nest . also excluded were visits that followed searches in the arena , to avoid confounding quorum assessment with prolonged stays in the nest that may follow these searches . six emigrations were observed : three by colony a6 , two by colony 6 , and one by colony 1 ."]}
{"id": 1048, "summary": [{"text": "sloggett 's vlei rat or ice rat ( otomys sloggetti ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is found in southern lesotho and south africa where its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical high-altitude grassland , swamps , and rocky areas .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "its name commemorates col. arthur sloggett who served in south africa and collected at deelfontein in 1902 .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "this is a common species and the international union for conservation of nature has rated it as being of \" least concern \" . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "sloggett ' s vlei rat", "paragraphs": ["minden pictures stock photos - sloggett & apos ; s vlei rat ( otomys sloggetti ) adult , sitting on rock , sani pass , drakensberg mountains , lesotho , septembe . . .\nminden pictures stock photos - sloggett & apos ; s vlei rat ( otomys sloggetti ) skull , adult , showing deeply grooved front incisors , drakensberg , kwazulu - n . . .\nthe sloggett ' s vlei rat is listed as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\nsloggett ' s vlei rat or ice rat ( otomys sloggetti or myotomys sloggetti ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae . it is found in southern lesotho and south africa . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical high - altitude grassland , swamps , and rocky areas .\nits name commemorates col . a . t . sloggett who collected at deelfontein in 1902 .\nhinze , a . , pillay , n . and grab , s . 2006 . the burrow system of the african ice rat otomys sloggetti robertsi . mammalian biology 71 : 356\u2013365 .\na young / baby of a sloggett is called a ' kitten , nestling , pinkie or pup ' . the females are called ' doe ' and males ' buck ' . a sloggett group is called a ' colony , horde , pack , plague or swarm ' .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\nwillan , k . 1990 . reproductive biology of the southern african ice rat . acta theriologica 35 : 39\u201351 .\nsloggett ' s vlei rat is found at high elevations ( > 2 , 000 m ) in the drakensberg mountains of the eastern cape and kwazulu - natal provinces of south africa as well as lesotho ( lynch 1994 , monadjem et al . 2015 ) , with isolated subpopulations from mountains in the karoo , such as in the sneeuberg mountain complex ( kok et al . 2012 ) , or in dry , semi - desert habitats around inselbergs and mountain ranges at > 1 , 500 m asl . in the drakensberg range , o . angoniensis occurs on the lower slopes in savannah habitats , o . auratus and o . laminatus at mid - elevation in grasslands and o . sloggetti at the highest elevations in alpine heath habitats ( monadjem et al . 2015 ) .\nschwaibold , u . and pillay , n . 2010 . habitat use in the ice rat otomys slogetti robertsi . south african journal of wildlife research 40 : 64\u201372 .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nhinze a . 2005 . social behaviour and activity patterns of the african ice rat otomys skiggetti robertsi . faculty of science , school of biology , university of the witwatersrand .\nhinze , a . , rymer , t . and pillay , n . 2013 . spatial dichotomy of sociality in the african ice rat . journal of zoology 290 : 208\u2013214 .\nmokotjomela , t . , schwaibold , u . and pillay , n . 2009 . does the ice rat otomys sloggetti robertsi contribute to habitat change in lesotho ? acta oecologica 35 : 437\u2013443 .\nmokotjomela , t . , schwaibold , u . and pillay , n . 2010 . population surveys of the ice rat otomys sloggetti robertsi in the lesotho drakensberg . african zoology 45 : 225\u2013232 .\ngrab , s . w . and deschamps , c . l . 2004 . geomorphological and geoecological controls and processes following gully development in alpine mires , lesotho . arctic , antarctic , and alpine research 36 : 49\u201358 .\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nit may be an important prey species for predators occurring at high - altitudes . their extensive burrow systems s contributes to soil turnover and aeration . however , when burrows collapse , the resulting gullies alter water flow , contributing to erosion ( grab and deschamps 2004 ) .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nalthough otomys sloggetti is considered to be defined by primitive dental characters , its position on the phylogeny of otomyinae remains unresolved ( taylor et al . 2004 ) .\nthis high - altitude endemic is listed as least concern because it has a relatively wide distribution within the assessment region , occurs in several protected areas , including the maloti - drakensberg transfrontier conservation area , and because it generally occurs in inaccessible habitats unlikely to be transformed . there are no known threats that could cause rapid population decline . climate change is not suspected to be an emerging threat . conversely , density has been estimated to have increased threefold in the lesotho drakensberg between 1994 and 2006 possibly due to warmer temperatures . thus , we list as least concern . however , continuing habitat degradation from overgrazing , as well as any other identified minor threats , must be monitored .\noccurs in montane grasslands on xeric or mesic soils , either dry or wet typically amidst piles of loose stones or boulders , both natural and man - made ( for example , stone walls ) . it does not occur in modified habitats , but will sometimes nest in crevices in rock foundations of roads ( willan 1990 ) . they are diurnal and feed on stems , leaves and floral parts of green plants . in the sani valley , o . sloggetti feeds on wetland grasses , sedges and herbaceous vegetation but avoid helichrysum spp . ( schwaibold and pillay 2010 ) .\nit lives in colonies consisting of at least 4 - 16 individuals and the breeding season occurs between october and march ( hinze 2005 ) . for example , in the sani valley , o . sloggettii lives in mixed - sex colonies of up to 17 individuals ( hinze et al . 2013 ) , which construct an intricate underground burrow system in organic and mineral soils ( hinze et al . 2006 ) . plants taken below ground are used for nesting and there is no evidence of food hoarding ( hinze et al . 2006 ) . suitable wetland sites in the sani valley are home to several colonies and competition for preferred food plants leads to solitary feeding and avoidance between individuals of the same and different colonies ( hinze et al . 2013 ) . rocky surfaces and boggy soil limits dispersal ( mokotjomela et al . 2010 ) .\nthere is anecdotal information of herdsman in lesotho hunting o . sloggetti . however , this threat remains to be quantified .\nit occurs in many protected areas across its range such as the maloti - drakensberg transfrontier conservation area ( monadjem et al . 2015 ) and mountain zebra national park ( kok et al . 2012 ) . although no specific interventions are necessary at present , wetland conservation and restoration is likely to benefit this species . recommendations for land managers and practitioners :\nland managers should maintain a vegetation buffer around wetlands to reduce impacts of land - use practices .\nland managers should practice holistic management of ranchlands , including de - stocking and rotational grazing .\nfurther long - term , systematic monitoring is needed to establish subpopulation trends and threat levels .\nreport sightings on virtual museum platforms ( for example , ispot and mammalmap ) , especially outside protected areas .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\n4 . grassland - > 4 . 7 . grassland - subtropical / tropical high altitude suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 4 . wetlands ( inland ) - bogs , marshes , swamps , fens , peatlands suitability : suitable 0 . root - > 6 . rocky areas ( eg . inland cliffs , mountain peaks ) suitability : suitable\n2 . land / water management - > 2 . 3 . habitat & natural process restoration\n1 . residential & commercial development - > 1 . 1 . housing & urban areas \u2666 timing : ongoing 2 . agriculture & aquaculture - > 2 . 1 . annual & perennial non - timber crops - > 2 . 1 . 2 . small - holder farming \u2666 timing : ongoing 5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 1 . hunting & trapping terrestrial animals - > 5 . 1 . 1 . intentional use ( species is the target ) \u2666 timing : ongoing\n1 . research - > 1 . 2 . population size , distribution & trends 1 . research - > 1 . 3 . life history & ecology\niucn . 2017 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2017 - 2 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 14 september 2017 ) .\nkok , a . d . , parker , d . m . and barker , n . p . 2012 . life on high : the diversity of small mammals at high altitude in south africa . biodiversity and conservation 21 : 2823\u20132843 .\nlynch , c . d . 1994 . the mammals of lesotho . navorsinge van die nasionale museum bloemfontein 10 ( 4 ) : 177 - 241 .\nmonadjem , a . , taylor , p . j . , denys , c . and cotterill , f . p . d . 2015 . rodents of sub - saharan africa - a biogeographic and taxonomic synthesis . de gruyter , berlin / munich / boston .\npacifici , m . , santini , l . , di marco , m . , baisero , d . , francucci , l . , grottolo marasini , g . , visconti , p . and rondinini , c . 2013 . generation length for mammals . nature conservation 5 : 87\u201394 .\ntaylor , p . j . , denys , c . and mukerjee , m . 2004 . phylogeny of the african murid tribe otomyini ( rodentia ) , based on morphological and allozyme evidence . zoologica scripta 33 : 389\u2013402 .\ntaylor , p . j . , nengovhela , a . , linden , j . and baxter , r . m . 2016 . past , present , and future distribution of afromontane rodents ( muridae : otomys ) reflect climate - change predicted biome changes . mammalia 80 : 359\u2013375 .\nthis species is known from central and eastern south africa and from across lesotho . it occurs above 2 , 000 m asl , but is usually found higher than 2 , 600 m asl . there are historical records from inselbergs in the karoo at 1 , 500 m asl .\nkatja schulz set\nfile : otomys sloggetti . png\nas an exemplar on\notomys\n.\nyan wong changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : otomys sloggetti . png\n.\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nnatalinkorvarotta\nto\notomys sloggetti thomas , 1902\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\npicture has been licensed under a creative commons attribution . original source : chown sl , sinclair bj , leinaas hp , gaston kj : hemispheric asymmetries in biodiversity\u2014a serious matter for ecology . plos biol 2 / 11 / 2004 : e406 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pbio . 0020406 author : brent j . sinclair\nright now the scientific names on some species do not show on the site - we are working to fix this problem which should be solved after the back - up this morning .\nupload tip : if your photo does not get uploaded properly , try to resize it to less than 3 mb .\nwould you like to see your friends photos in the igoterra gallery ? invite them and get 2 months free subcription extension for every new friend who joins . click here to get to the invitation page\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nterms | privacy | phone : 831 . 661 . 5551 | email : info @ urltoken | \u00a9 2015 minden pictures inc | all content on this website is protected by copyright\nit is a diurnal inhabitant of montane and alpine grassland on both dry or wet bog soils with or without rocky outcrops . the species does not occur in modified habitats .\namori , g . ( small nonvolant mammal red list authority ) & cox , n . ( global mammal assessment team )\nlisted as least concern because it has a relatively wide distribution including several protected areas , a presumed large population , and its population is not believed to be in decline at present .\nthere have been estimates of the population at over 100 individuals / ha in suitable rocky habitats ( willan 1990 ) .\nmusser , g . g . ; carleton , m . d . ( 2005 ) .\nsuperfamily muroidea\n. in wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . pp . 894\u20131531 . isbn 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 0 . oclc 62265494 .\ntaylor , p . j . & monadjem , a . 2008 . otomys sloggetti . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 1 . otomys sloggetti . downloaded on 18 july 2011 .\nsmithers , reay h . n . the mammals of the southern african subregion - university of pretoria ( 1983 )"]}
{"id": 1053, "summary": [{"text": "teenoso ( 7 april 1980 \u2013 october 4 , 1999 ) was an american-bred british-trained thoroughbred racehorse .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "after showing moderate form as a two-year-old he improved in the spring of 1983 to win the group three lingfield derby trial and then won the classic epsom derby , giving lester piggott a record ninth win in the race .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "teenoso was beaten in his two remaining races that year but showed his best form as a four-year-old , winning the ormonde stakes , the grand prix de saint-cloud and , on his final appearance , the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he proved to be a disappointment at stud . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "teenoso", "paragraphs": ["\u201cthe way he continually produced his champions like teenoso , pentire and marling was exemplary .\nsatisfy due diligence requirments on teenoso property company unlimited company in one single ' time - saving ' search . run full background checks for fitness and probity on the directors of teenoso property company unlimited company and anti - money laundering checks ( aml checks ) on teenoso property company unlimited company\nteenoso was sent into training with harry wragg at his abington place stables in newmarket , suffolk .\nin autumn 1999 , teenoso developed thrombosis and was euthanized on october 4 at pitts farm stud .\nwragg saddled jockey lester piggott ' s ninth winner of the epsom classic , teenoso , in 1983 .\nbrian comer is a company director of teenoso property company unlimited company since 2013 and a listed director of 26 other companies .\nthe latest documents filed with the companies registration office for teenoso property company unlimited company ( which can include the account details ) are listed below .\nlog - in now to run due diligence checks and compliance checks on teenoso property company unlimited company or click join - up to get started .\ngeoff wragg , perhaps best remembered for training teenoso to win the derby , passed away at the age of 87 on friday , in newmarket .\n\u201cteenoso might not have been my classiest derby winner , but he was certainly my easiest , \u201d wrote piggott in his beautifully published book lester\u2019s derbys .\nwragg trained almost 700 winners before his retirement in 2008 . he landed the king george vi & queen elizabeth stakes with teenoso in 1984 and pentire in 1996 .\nteenoso , the favorite ridden by the british jockey lester piggott , scored an impressive three - length victory on a rain - drenched course in the epsom derby today .\nhe\u2019s had a fair few go in the derby , lee , since winning it with teenoso ( i remember this one being excoriated by just about every pundit imaginable . i\u2019d just started punting and every word i read was naturally gospel . yet now , i look at teenoso and he wasn\u2019t a bad horse at all ! ) .\nlester piggott on teenoso wins the derby in 1983 . the horse was trained by geoff wragg , who has died at the age of 87 . photograph : tony duffy / getty images\nteenoso \u2013 owned by hong kong - based shipping and insurance broker eric moller \u2013 was backed into 9 - 2 favouritism for the 23 - runner race because of piggott\u2019s status as the \u2018housewives\u2019 favourite\u2019 .\nnewmarket - based wragg won the 1983 derby with teenoso in his first season after taking over the licence at abington place from his father harry , whom he had assisted for the previous 28 years .\nas a two - year - old , teenoso\u2019s record was modest . unplaced on his debut , and also in doncaster\u2019s ribero stakes , he then finished fourth on his final outing of an unpromising 1982 campaign .\nof those to have remained in training high - rise , quest for fame and slip anchor failed to enhance their reputation but 1983 epsom scorer teenoso boosted his record by returning to land the king george the following year .\nthe victory , aboard the under - rated teenoso in 1983 , came 30 years after the iconic sir gordon richards had finally won his first derby at the 28th attempt on pinza , denying the queen\u2019s aureole in coronation week .\npiggott , who won his first derby on never say in 1954 a year after the emotion of the richards victory , quietly ruled out several well - fancied mounts before teenoso impressed him sufficiently during one of those early morning gallops .\n\u201conce we straightened up , i knew there was no point in hanging around . teenoso would stay all day and would gallop all the way to the line , so i just let him go and set sail for home . \u201d\nin the official international classification for 1983 , tolomeo was given a rating of 87 , making him the fifth - best three - year - old colt in europe behind shareef dancer , caerleon , l ' emigrant and teenoso . he was rated on 87 again in the following season , making him the fourth best older male behind teenoso , sagace and morcon . the independent timeform organisation gave him a rating of 127 in both years . [ 2 ] [ 4 ]\nthe 2006 vodafone derby hero , sir percy , is also entered and he could bid to follow in the footsteps of royal palace ( 1968 ) and teenoso ( 1984 ) who both won at ascot the year after their derby success .\nteenoso revelled in softer ground and failed to replicate his epsom form again at three , but the following season proved an outstanding colt , winning the grand prix de saint - cloud and a vintage renewal of the king george vi & queen elizabeth diamond stakes .\nin between there were several group 1 successes , including in the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes with teenoso and pentire \u2013 who both ran in the famous mollers racing colours \u2013 as well as big - race victories around the world in a career that spanned 26 years .\nsadler ' s wells was given a rating of 90 by the international classification , making him the sixth best horse of the year in europe behind el gran senor ( 98 ) , teenoso ( 95 ) , sagace ( 93 ) , chief singer ( 92 ) and darshaan ( 91 ) .\nteenoso property company unlimited company was set up on tuesday the 29th of january 2013 . their current address is co . kildare , and the company status is normal . the company ' s current directors barry comer , luke comer and brian comer have been the director of 108 other irish companies between them .\nteenoso ( usa ) dkb / br . h , 1980 { 3 - c } dp = 4 - 5 - 9 - 8 - 0 ( 26 ) di = 1 . 08 cd = 0 . 19 - 13 starts , 6 wins , 1 places , 3 shows career earnings : $ 647 , 148\n\u201cat this point , teenoso was going so easily that i was able to take a look over my right shoulder to see if anything was likely to come from off the pace \u2013 always a difficult proposition in such heavy going \u2013 and was reassured by what i saw . they were pretty well all flat to the boards .\nteenoso was a dark - coated bay horse with a small white star and a white sock on his left hind leg , bred in kentucky by ralph\nbudgie\nmoller and his brother , eric , who owned the colt during his racing career . he was described as a bay when racing , but when standing at stud he was described as being\ndark bay or brown\n. teenoso was the best horse sired by youth , the winner of the prix du jockey club washington d . c . international in 1976 . his dam , furioso , who finished second in the 1974 epsom oaks , also produced the racemare topsy , who finished second in the 1000 guineas and won both the sun chariot stakes and the prix d ' astarte in 1979 . furioso and teenoso were two of many successful racehorses descended from the mollers ' broodmare horama . others included lacquer ( irish 1000 guineas , cambridgeshire handicap ) , favoletta ( irish 1000 guineas ) , sovereign ( coronation stakes ) and violetta ( cambridgeshire ) .\nwragg enjoyed classic success in his very first season as a trainer when teenoso won the derby under lester piggott in 1983 . however , the closest wragg would come to replicating teenoso ' s win would be some 23 years later when the unconsidered 66 / 1 chance dragon dancer came within a short head of causing one of the biggest upsets in the race ' s history in a four - way go to the line , narrowly losing out to sir percy . rather ironically , wragg had trained the temperamental dam of the winner and both he and his father also trained several of the extended family , the most notable member being teenoso . his 2001 contender , asian heights , well fancied after his last - to - first win in the predominate stakes at goodwood , was cruelly robbed of his chance of running in the classic after splitting a pastern with just over a week to go before the big race . he recovered to win at group 3 / listed level , but injuries continued to blight him and his career somewhat fizzled out .\nwragg won britain ' s most important classic with lester piggott - ridden teenoso in 1983 , shortly after taking over in charge of the newmarket stable previously run by his illustrous father harry , who himself had trained derby winner psidium ( 1961 ) as well as riding the winner three times on felstead ( 1928 ) , blenheim ( 1930 ) and watling street ( 1942 ) .\n1983 . breakfast television started on bbc1 , margaret thatcher won a second general election and seatbelts for drivers became compulsory . in the smaller world of racing , lester piggott landed his ninth and final derby on teenoso , a two - year - old colt called sadler\u2019s wells made a winning debut at leopardstown , and touching wood stood his first season at dalham hall stud for 7 , 000 guineas .\nteenoso began his stud career at the highclere stud but struggled to attract high - quality mares and was not considered a success as a stallion . the best of his progeny was probably young buster , who won seven races including the group three september stakes . other successful flat racers included carlton ( hansa - preis ) and starlet ( team trophy der volksbanken und raiffeisenbanken ) . teenoso was later moved to the shade oak stud in shropshire and then to the pitts farm stud at sherborne in dorset . towards the end of his stud career he was standing at a fee of \u00a31 , 000 and was mainly being used as a national hunt stallion . the best of his steeplechase performers were young spartacus ( mildmay of flete handicap chase , racing post chase ) and horus ( vodafone gold cup ) .\nbut it was with a colt , in that very first season in the job , that wragg quickly established himself . during as wet a spring as many could remember , he oversaw enormous improvement from the maiden teenoso , who had shown very little as a juvenile , to land first the lingfield derby trial and then the epsom derby , under lester piggott . hot touch was another smart early performer .\nduring his first season after taking over the licence from his father , harry , wragg provided lester piggott with his ninth derby success when saddling teenoso to win the 1983 renewal of the epsom showpiece . twenty - three years later wragg memorably came close to causing one of the biggest upsets in derby history when his 66 - 1 shot dragon dancer was beaten a short head into second place by sir percy .\nred glow was a pig ~ he ended up running ( and getting stuffed in ) selling hurdles in australia of all places . i second all the other stuff especially about teenoso who showed he was a proper derby winner by beating sadler\u2019s wells in the following year\u2019s king george . everyone thought he was a decent plodder who got lucky in a heavy ground derby but he showed them , with a little help from lester .\nas for teenoso , the derby form did not look rock solid initially \u2013 he was beaten in the irish derby on unsuitably fast ground before finishing third in the great voltigeur stakes at york . as a four - year - old , however , he won the valuable grand prix de saint - cloud in france before beating champions of all ages in an epic running of the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes . it was his last race .\nteenoso , who went off at odds of 9 - 2 in a field of 21 3 - year - olds , finished in 2 : 49 7 / 10 . the time was the slowest for the derby since 1891 , reflecting the soggy conditions . carlingford castle , a 14 - 1 shot , was second , and shearwalk and salmon leap , both owned by the breeder robert sangster , finished third and fourth , respectively , in a close finish .\npiggott was unperturbed when he heard afterwards that carlingford castle and shearwalk , back in third under walter swinburn , had both encountered difficulty negotiating tattenham corner \u2013 he pointed to the emphatic nature of the three - length winning margin . of his nine derby victories , only st paddy ( 1960 ) , empery ( 1976 ) and teenoso had won with so much in hand . not even icons like nijinsky , sir ivor and the minstrel had prevailed with such ease .\nwragg ' s father , harry , was an extremely successful jockey and trainer , and the pair would be renowned for being the first to trial electronic timing equipment on the gallops as well as weighing their horses . his riding career was littered with success , winning all five domestic classics - almost repeating the feat as a trainer with only the oaks eluding him ( trained the runner - up in 1974 , ironically with the future dam of teenoso , furioso ) . harry retired in 1982 , leaving geoff to train teenoso to classic glory at epsom the following june . harry ' s brothers were jockeys arthur jr and sam . geoff had two siblings : brother peter was a successful bloodstock until his death in february 2004 , and sister susan was married to top jockey manny mercer until his untimely and tragic death in september 1959 . geoff ' s retirement in 2008 brought to an end a long and hugely successful association with the wragg name in horse racing .\ngeoff wragg ( 9 january 1930 \u2013 15 september 2017 ) was a thoroughbred horse trainer who trained champion horses such as teenoso and pentire . he was the son of former jockey and trainer harry wragg , from whom he took over the licence at abington place , newmarket in 1983 upon his father ' s retirement . wragg retired in 2008 after 25 years of training and sold abington place to sheikh mohammed bin khalifa al maktoum the following spring . he relocated to yorkshire , the birthplace of his late father , harry wragg . he died in 2017 .\nwas not , of course , trained in ballydoyle , nor was he owned by the coolmore team . initially under the care of guy harwood , he was one of england\u2019s best three - year - old colts of 1983 , when he finished among the also - rans in teenoso\u2019s derby after having taken the feilden stakes at newmarket . he did even better from john gosden\u2019s barn in california , landing several graded stakes including three grade ones . arguably his best win came when he set a new track record ( of 2 : 24 . 8 ) in the hollywood turf cup , but his defeat of the previous year\u2019s kentucky derby winner ferdinand in the 1987 san luis rey stakes was equally good . he then proved a success at stud , coming up with several good horses at segenhoe stud in new south wales including the frank cleary - trained clan o\u2019sullivan , who was only caught by burst in the shadows of the post in the golden slipper in 1992 .\nas a four - year - old , tolomeo continued to produce good performances but was less consistent and timeform commented that he appeared to have become\nsomething of a character\n. on his first appearance of the year he finished fourth when carrying top weight in the prince of wales ' s stakes ( then a group two race ) and then finished seventh behind sadler ' s wells in the eclipse stakes . in july he was moved up in distance to one and a half miles for the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes at ascot . ridden by his regular work - rider rae guest , tolomeo produced one of his best efforts as he finished third behind teenoso and sadler ' s wells . in august he finished second in the benson and hedges gold cup at york , beaten two and a half lengths by cormorant wood . his form declined in the autumn and he finished unplaced in the phoenix champion stakes and the champion stakes . [ 4 ]\nafter finishing fourth in the craven stakes on his debut as a three - year - old , tolomeo contested the classic 2000 guineas over newmarket ' s rowley mile course on 30 april . ridden by the italian jockey gianfranco dettori he started at odds of 18 / 1 against fifteen opponents . he was restrained in last place for most of the way before making rapid progress in the last quarter mile to finish second to the irish - trained lomond . dettori was criticised for giving the colt too much ground to make up , but cumani defended his jockey , insisting that he was riding according to instructions . tolomeo next ran in the derby over one and a half miles on soft ground , finishing ninth of the twenty - one runners , more than twenty lengths behind the winner teenoso . following the derby , tolomeo returned to shorter distances and produced three good performances without winning . he finished second by a head to horage in the st james ' s palace stakes , third in a blanket finish for the eclipse stakes and second to the five - year - old noalcoholic in the sussex stakes . [ 2 ]\nthe one mile st . james ' s palace stakes at royal ascot was named as the colt ' s next target , but instead he was moved up in distance for the prix du jockey club , a race which o ' brien had won the previous year with caerleon . sadler ' s wells took the lead in the straight but was overtaken in the closing stages and beaten one and a half lengths by darshaan , with rainbow quest in third . in july , sadler ' s wells was the only three - year - old in a field of nine runners for the eclipse stakes at sandown park . the irish colt took the lead in the straight and held off the challenge of the mare time charter to win by a neck . the race was a rough and unsatisfactory one , but the winner was praised for his\nbattling\nand\ndetermined\nperformance against more experienced rivals . later that month , sadler ' s wells ran second to teenoso in a strong field for the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes at ascot , finishing ahead of tolomeo , time charter , sun princess and darshaan .\nurltoken no longer supports internet explorer 9 or earlier . please upgrade your browser .\nthere were at least two familiar elements in the result of the mile - and - a - half event , one of europe ' s most important thoroughbred races .\npiggott added to his derby record by winning for the ninth time , and this was the 17th time in the last 21 years that the favorite or the second choice had triumphed .\nslewpy , the american colt flown here especially for the derby , began well but soon tired and finished 18th . the veteran american jockey bill shoemaker finished 16th aboard lomond , the winner of the two thousand guineas .\nwe are continually improving the quality of our text archives . please send feedback , error reports , and suggestions to archive _ feedback @ nytimes . com .\naccessibility concerns ? email us at accessibility @ urltoken . we would love to hear from you .\nthe mtdna haplotype reported by bower et al . 2012 in samples from family 3c was not the haplotype expected for family 3 .\nand he nearly caused a derby shock 23 years later when his 66 - 1 shot dragon dancer was second to winner sir percy .\nwragg , who also trained the 1996 king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes winner pentire , was described as\nthe father figure of newmarket trainers\nby the town ' s former mayor john berry .\nberry , himself a trainer , told at the races :\ngeoff dying really is the end of an era .\nformer jockey michael hills , who partnered pentire to all but one of his eight career victories , said :\nhe was a fantastic trainer and a great man who was always an absolute pleasure to ride for .\nwragg also enjoyed classic success in ireland , with marling landing the 1992 irish 1 , 000 guineas at the curragh under walter swinburn .\nhow to get into horse racing , whether you want to work with horses at the stables or become a fully fledged jockey .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\n1st derby s . gr . 1 ( gb ) , grand prix de saint - cloud gr . 1 ( fr ) , king george vi & queen elizabeth diamond s . gr . 1 ( gb ) , ormonde s . gr . 3 ( gb ) , lingfield derby trial gr . 3 ( gb ) ,\n3rd irish derby gr . 1 ( ire ) , great voltigeur s . gr . 2 ( gb ) , john porter s . gr . 3 ( gb ) .\neuthanized oct 4 , 1999 at pitts farm stud in dorset , england . rip . ( close )\nunlimited companies are not required to file financial accounts . therefore this report is based on judgment searches for the company , and extensive background checks of each of its directors based on name , date of birth ( if available ) and town / county .\npurchase either the standard company report or a credit report to view details on the directors of this company .\ndiscover poor payment histories of any company by searching our judgment database , for court actions brought against a company for non - payment of a debt . plus get free judgment monitoring alerts on this company for the next 12 months .\nthis photograph is emblematic of epsom on derby day \u2013 crowds cascading down from tattenham corner as the incomparable lester piggott passes the winning post to win racing\u2019s blue riband race for a record ninth time .\nthe geoff wragg - trained horse only came to wider prominence when winning the april maiden stakes at newmarket under steve cauthen , the top american jockey who had made such a successful transition to british racing . the same partnership then franked the form in the lingfield derby trial on a course comparable to the undulations of epsom downs .\nwith piggott\u2019s then trainer sir henry cecil having no derby runner in 1983 , the build - up to the race was dominated by the annual speculation over the identity of the legendary jockey\u2019s epsom mount \u2013 and whether the race would go ahead after an unseasonably wet may prompted fears about the track being unraceable because of waterlogging .\nhe would use these gallops , always shrouded in secrecy to the chagrin of the racing press , to test the stamina of his possible derby contenders to the limit ahead of the mile - and - a - half epsom race , and often to the annoyance of trainers like vincent o\u2019brien , who wanted their thoroughbreds ridden with restraint .\nwith the 1983 general election days away , comedian eric morecambe captured the country\u2019s mood when proclaiming : \u201cin a recent opinion poll , lester piggott came out top as the person most people would like to see at no 10 . it\u2019s what is known as a gallop poll . \u201d\nthe jockey takes up the story . \u201cknowing that stamina was his forte , i had him out of the starting stalls quickly , and got him to settle in about third place , \u201d he said . \u201cgoing down to tattenham corner , we were still travelling easily in third , one horse off the rails , behind the outsiders .\nthe winning time \u2013 two minutes , 49 . 07 seconds \u2013 was testament to the heavy going and the slowest since common prevailed in 1891 . back in second was carlingford castle . he had been a first derby ride for a young mick kinane , who would go on to win the race on three occasions , most famously with sea the stars in 2009 .\nthe maestro\u2019s 36th and final derby ride came in 1994 when khamaseen was fifth behind erhaab . however , piggott\u2019s record of nine wins and four seconds will never be equalled .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\n/ / urltoken\nfoden receives a big hug from pep as laporte joins in first day of pre - season at city . . . but sane has been given an extra week off despite germany world cup snub\nmurray ' s back ! british star to make return to wimbledon . . as he agrees to be bbc pundit and commentator\nhamilton is a fabulous driver but a sore loser . . . he will regret ' interesting tactics ' jibe at ferrari after british gp\nengland ' s last world cup semi - final was 28 years ago at italia 90 . . . but how do gazza , lineker and shilton compare to today ' s bunch of stars ?\nitalia 90 v russia 18 : when england were last in the world cup semi - finals a beer cost \u00a31 . 23 , the nation was gripped by neighbours . . . but world in motion was not no 1 in the charts !\nwant to see england ' s world cup semi - final with croatia ? fly to moscow ( via rome and riga ) for just \u00a3476 . . . but be prepared to pay \u00a3560 a ticket and don ' t forget your fan id !\ntottenham dominate world cup semi - finals and have more players left in the tournament than the bundesliga . . . but how do the final four break down ?\na yoga session ( and a round of applause for the instructor ) before a trip to the shops . . . behind the scenes with england\nhe won the 1994 ascot gold cup with arcadian heights and guided the brilliant filly marling to successe in the 1991 cheveley park stakes before landing the irish 1 , 000 guineas , coronation and sussex stakes the following year .\nnewmarket trainer and former mayor of the town , john berry , hailed wragg as the ' father figure of newmarket trainers ' .\n' geoff dying really is the end of an era , ' berry told at the races .\n' harry trained two derby winners and was at the top of the training tree . geoff took over from him in 1983 and it was a seamless transition .\n' for the next 30 years , virtually , he was as successful as his father had been . he always had a top horse and you could pretty much set your clock by him having something for royal ascot every year .\n' he ' s been in very poor health and it was going to happen at some point , but it ' s a very sad day and it leaves a big hole in the community . '\nmichael hills , who partnered pentire to all but one of his eight career victories , said : ' i worked for geoff for six years and we had the most amazing time .\n' there was pentire winning all those races , arcadian heights winning the gold cup , nicolotte winning the queen anne , first island winning the prince of wales ' s and rebecca sharp in the coronation stakes . i must have ridden about 10 group one winners during that time .\n' he was a fantastic trainer and a great man who was always an absolute pleasure to ride for . '\n' i think it ' s a great marker for the club ' : wolves . . .\nitalia 90 v russia 18 : when england were last in the . . .\n' when he ' s at his best , you have a 95 % chance to win ' : . . .\n' he ' s a bit of a messi type ' : former arsenal manager . . .\ntransfer news live : all the latest from premier league and europe as cristiano ronaldo edges towards juventus , and more . . . .\nengland ' s last world cup semi - final was 28 years ago at italia ' 90 . . .\nmanchester city agree \u00a360m deal with leicester for mahrez . . . with winger set for medical in next 48 hours\nwhere is everybody ? tottenham stars return for pre - season . . . with nine players still away at the world cup\nbeat sweden , have a sauna . . . kane can handle the heat while england team - mates make a splash during recovery sessions\n' she knows we ain ' t going home because it ' s . . . ' england star lingard joined by his mum to celebrate world cup quarter - final victory\n' it took them 15 years but finally i allowed them to follow me . . . ' : fabregas takes cheeky dig at europa league ' s twitter account\n' the car is destroyed . . . i ' m very , very sorry guys ' : grosjean crashes into barriers in practice after failing to deactivate drs\nmbappe is much more talented than me , admits pogba : ' he has so much speed . . . we can ' t be compared '\nantonio conte takes charge of chelsea pre - season training with 32 days until premier league season begins . . .\n' this feels special ' : jack wilshere poses with shirt of his boyhood club west ham after signing three - year . . .\ncristiano ronaldo could be in for huge tax dividend if he moves to juventus as new law will allow him to pay . . .\n' if you cry like a girl when you lose , do ballet ' : lewis hamilton faces withering criticism from kimi . . .\n' when he ' s at his best , you have a 95 % chance to win ' : eden hazard says n ' golo kante is the leading . . .\nphil foden receives a big hug from pep guardiola as aymeric laporte joins in first day of pre - season . . .\nserena williams eases her way into quarter - finals of wimbledon with dominant straight - sets victory over . . .\nlewis hamilton is a fabulous driver but a sore loser . . . he will regret ' interesting tactics ' jibe at ferrari . . .\nengland ' s last world cup semi - final appearance came 28 years ago at italia ' 90 . . . but how do gary lineker , . . .\nbirthday boy ashley young believes england have a ' great chance ' of winning world cup as oldest player . . .\nitalia 90 v russia 18 : when england were last in the world cup semi - finals a beer cost \u00a31 . 23 , the nation was . . .\ncroatia dealt injury blow as sime vrsaljko is ruled out of semi - final against england with vedran corluka . . .\nwant to see england ' s world cup semi - final with croatia in the flesh ? fly to moscow ( via rome and riga ) for . . .\ntottenham dominate world cup semi - finals and have more players left in the tournament than the bundesliga . . . . . .\nengland stars skipping their way into world cup semi - finals as gareth southgate ' s boys continue preparations . . .\nif you think it ' s easy to score one - on - one with a goalkeeper , read this . . . raheem sterling will cash in for england at this world cup\ntransfer news recap : all the latest from premier league and europe as cristiano ronaldo edges towards juventus , and more . . .\nengland used to bumble along . were they kicking it ? passing it ? under gareth southgate , they\u2019ve finally got\u2026 identity\nengland ' s last world cup semi - final appearance came 28 years ago at italia ' 90 . . . but how do gary lineker , peter shilton and gazza compare to gareth southgate ' s current stars ?\nlewis hamilton is a fabulous driver but a sore loser . . . he will regret ' interesting tactics ' jibe at ferrari after british gp\nfarm heroes saga , the # 4 game on itunes . play it now !\nthink the damp holds made this much harder . interesting moves for vs with a horrible top out .\nclimbed in much better style by emma than me ! great climb . worth visiting the buttress for just this and bewsey crack .\nadvertising on ukclimbing | about ukclimbing | ukc on facebook | ukc on twitter | terms & conditions | privacy policy | cookies | contact us copyright \u00a9 ukclimbing limited . last updated june 21 2018 .\nhorses and chalk have geographical and nutritional connections . chalk is a soft , white , porous sedimentary carbonate rock , a form of limestone composed of the mineral calcite which is calcium carbonate . a downland is an area of open chalk hills . this term is especially used to describe the chalk countryside in southern england . areas of downland are often referred to as downs , deriving from a celtic word for \u201chills\u201d .\nthe downs close to epsom have always been one of the green lungs of the greater london area . 1618 , there even became something of a spa with the discovery of epsom salts . the popularity of epsom spring water lasted for a couple of decades . but even with a regular stream of weekend ramblers from the city , the downs basically remained a quiet place out in the middle of nowhere . then , the sole reason to became an attraction there was horse racing .\norganised racing was held on a regular basis and was so popular that it found its way into documentations . 1648 - 05 - 18 , a meeting of the royalists was held on banstead downs under the pretence of a horse race , and six hundred horse s were collected and marched to reigate . 1663 - 05 - 27 , \u201cthis day there was great thronging to banstead downs , upon a great horse - race and foot - race . i am sorry i could not go thither . \u201d was written on samuel pepys\u2019 diary . 1663 - 07 - 25 , \u201chaving intended this day to go to banstead downs to see a famous race , i sent will to get himself ready to go with me ( \u2026 ) and so by boat to white hall , where i hear that the race is put off , because the lords do sit in parliament to - day . \u201d was also written on samuel pepys\u2019 diary . within the proximity of 5 miles , those were the most classical venues of thoroughbred horse racing up to the modern time .\nderby ( uk / \u02c8d\u0251\u02d0b\u026a / dah - bee or us / \u02c8d\u025c\u02d0rb\u026a / dur - bee ) 1779 - 05 - 14 friday , the derby originated at a celebration following the first running of the oaks stakes for three - year - old fillies . the oak , named after lord derby \u2019s country house in woodmansterne , was run over a mile and a half ( 8st 4lb ) , at 50 guineas each . there were 12 runners and appropriately , it was won by lord derby \u2019s bridget , the 5 - 2 favourite . a new race for the three - year - old was planned , and it was decided that it should be named after either the host of the party , the 12th earl of derby , or one of his guests , sir charles bunbury . according to legend the decision was made by the toss of a coin , but it is probable that bunbury , the steward of the jockey club , deferred to his host . 1780 - 05 - 04 thursday , the inaugural running of the derby was won by diomed , a colt owned by sir charles bunbury , who collected prize money of \u00a31 , 065 15s . traditionally , the term \u201cderby\u201d is used strictly to refer to races restricted to three - year - olds . the most notable exceptions to this rule are the hong kong derby and singapore derby , restricted to four - year - old thoroughbred s .\nright after the legendary events \u2013 the first few \u201c epsom derby \u201d though only on a distance of a mile \u2013 met with instant success . 1784 , the course was extended to its current distance of a mile and a half , and tattenham corner was introduced . 1820s , crowds of up to 80 , 000 were reported by the newspapers . 1850s , attendance at the derby was around 500 , 000 , including the royal family and members of parliament . it is therefore hardly surprising that right from the beginning , derby races have been seen as an important historical record . epsom derby has been named as the blue riband and regarded as one of the british classics . they are the five long - standing group 1 horse races , st . leger ( 1776 ) , oaks ( 1779 ) , derby ( 1780 ) , 2 , 000 guineas ( 1809 ) , and 1 , 000 guineas ( 1814 ) .\nthe charisma of british epsom derby was quickly spread all over the world . macao , peking , shanghai , tientsin , hankow , amoy racecourses held their derby sooner or later with characteristics of china races . 1873 - 02 - 21 _ 3 , hong kong inaugurated a derby . for all china ponies , bond fide griffins at date of entry . 10st . 7lbs . 1 - 1 / 2 miles . nothing specially or properly mentioned but just as running one of the very ordinary races . then , the runnings of hong kong derby remained a routine until the wwii . until the end of the 20th century , hk derby varied upon the date , distance , entry , gender and weight . finally it settled down to be a race for 4 year olds only .\nthe site requires users to be logged in before able to vote for this post .\nalternatively , if you do not have an account yet you can create one here .\nthoroughbred s are noted for their tremendous speed and athleticism while racing long distance s . the word \u201c thoroughbred \u201d is often used to refer to any selectively bred horse , but the term actually refers to the english breed developed in the 18th and 19 centuries .\nall modern thoroughbred s can trace their pedigrees to three stallions originally imported from the middle east into england in the 17th century and 18th century . three foundation sires were byerley turk ( 1680 ) , darley arabian ( 1700 ) , and godolphin arabian ( 1729 ) . darley arabian 11 % and godolphin arabian 24 % were once being estimated in pedigree analysis for all thoroughbred s . besides those three of that period , there were other stallions imported from the east , traceable in the dame line . in terms of appearance , the thoroughbred resembles its arabian ancestors . their distinguishing traits are refined head ; long neck ; sloping shoulders ; deep body ; fine long legs ; strong muscular hindquarters .\nthe quadrupeds at the beginning of hong kong \u2019s racing formed a mixed mob , ranging from big english thoroughbred s down to australian waler s , arabs and small ponies from several sources . except for an occasional unpremeditated contribution , when a mare has arrived here in foal , hong kong has never bred its own horse s . it has bought where it could ; and over many years the local patron of the turf has backed his fancy among blue - blooded english thoroughbred s , horse s from overseas . in the past , their dominance was not so prominent as peking writer , mr collins , devoted a chapter to the china pony . to quote : \u201cif the mongol pony is a midget he is an amazingly sturdy midget . he runs distance s on the flat which average out to about the same as the english classics . . . but has to carry gentleman - jockey weights ranging from 145 lbs , to 160 lbs . , as against the 126 lbs . carried by full - sized english thoroughbred s in the derby . \u201d\nthoroughbred s from england and south africa were categorized in entries of races , though described as \u2018 horse s\u2019 differentiating with \u2018 ponies \u2018 , from the eras of racing marked by the army and civil officers , the dent s and jardines and later by the local and expatriate wealthy businessmen , thoroughbred s played a more and more important roles in china and not just in hong kong . books and notes by writer henry ching , austin coates , governor henry may and even overseas newspapers in singapore and australia reported as such . several famous thoroughbred s being raced in happy valley were tartar , goldfinder , kathleen , sir williams , etc .\naustralian thoroughbred dominated the early races in hong kong . 1788 , the first horse s , of mainly spanish blood , reached australia with the first fleet . 1799 , rockingham , the first english thoroughbred stallion , was shipped from south africa by a young naval officer named henry waterhouse . 1820 , the influence was mainly from england , and each fresh arrival played his or her part in the steady improvement of the australian stock . 1840s the australian horse had made its mark at the races as far afield as calcutta , madras , colombo , singapore and batavia . for nearly a hundred years in happy valley racecourse , australian waler s , was gradually and eventually superseded by australian thoroughbred s . australian thoroughbred s dominated the hongkong races after wwii , was little short of phenomenal .\njapanese thoroughbred , as steward and official col . dowbiggin added : \u201c thoroughbred ponies had been bred in japan for some years for racing there . the japanese brought in a rule that no pony could race there after winning ten races . it was discovered that some of these ponies were being shipped across to manchuria and after a short time there sold at ridiculously high prices to owner s in hong kong as \u2018griffins\u2019 . it was proved to the stewards that in one year over $ 300 , 000 had been paid out by hong kong for such animals , which in many cases broke down very soon here . \u201d\nsince 1971 - 1972 , only thoroughbred s have been allowed to race , and these are of a high standard . youngsters imported have included the progeny of such internationally renowned sires . no matter a horse \u2019s potential on breeding , however , nor what it may have achieved on other racecourses in the past , what counts in hongkong is its performance in hongkong . on that score two horse s have stood out since professional racing started . piccadilly lane ( irish ) gelding super win , which won 18 races between 1974 - 1977 . town crier ( english ) grey gelding silver lining ( raced in australia as vintage moon ) which , racing between 1978 - 1982 , became the first horse to win over a million hongkong dollars .\naccording to mr greenstreet kan\u300arecords after racing professionalization 1971 - 1997\u300b : 1970s , many trophy winners were horse s imported before \u201c thoroughbred era\u201d .\nmost horse breeds tend to live between 25 and 30 years . not surprisingly , the thoroughbred has a life expectancy in line with other horse s .\ngenerate a b2b marketing list with ease and grow your business . identify key decision makers and pre - qualified new prospects for your sales and business development teams .\nview cro company documents and company reports any irish company or business with ease .\nbackground check companies , sole traders or individuals and minimise your spend with more efficient anti - money laundering checks and reports .\nmore people choose vision - net over any other search service . . . ask us why ?\n2017 was a record year for company start - ups in ireland while insolvencies went through a levelling off period .\nwe are in acceleration mode and ireland has taken its place as europe ' s fastest growing economy . many aspects of that recovery are demonstrated in our 2017 annual review .\nyankee white . . . yankee white is an administrative nickname for a background check given in the united states of america for department of defense personnel and contractor . . . obtaining such clearance requires , in part , a single scope background investigation ( ssbi ) which is conducted under the manuals of the u . s . . . individuals having yankee white clearances undergo extensive background investigation . . .\n44 liquormart , inc . v . rhode island - background . . . in 1985 , a liquormart brought a suit against the liquor control commissioner , arguing , among other things , that the first regulation , which prevented the liquormart from advertising its prices , was unconstitutional . . . the rhode island supreme court , however , held that the regulation did not violate the first amendment , the commerce clause , the equal protection clause , or the sherman anti - trust act . . .\neddie chapman - background . . . well along into his criminal career he was arrested in scotland and charged with blowing up the safe of the headquarters of the edinburgh co - operative society . . . let out on bail , he fled to jersey in the channel islands where he attempted unsuccessfully to continue his crooked ways . . .\nyoung , gifted and black - personnel . . . electric piano billy preston - organ sammy turner - background vocals hubert laws - alto flute chuck rainey - bass j . r . . . bailey - background vocals carolyn franklin - background vocals erma franklin - background vocals the memphis horns - ensemble the sweet inspirations . . . clark - background vocals cornell dupree - guitar jimmy douglass - engineer tom dowd - arranger , producer chuck kirkpatrick - engineer eric gale - bass lewis hahn - engineer dan hersch - remastering . . .\nturbografx - 16 - technical specifications - display - color 512 colors onscreen maximum of 482 ( 241 background , 241 sprite ) palettes maximum of 32 ( 16 for background tiles , 16 for sprites ) colors per palette 16 per . . .\n. he was a great public hero , and anything i did that someone didn\u0092t approve of , they would always feel that president kennedy wouldn\u0092t have done that .\nthey were more than hostile . in the first place , i was a south georgian and i was looked upon as a fiscal conservative , and the atlanta newspapers quite erroneously , because they didn\u0092t know anything about me or my\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nthis article is about the racehorse . for the shipping term , see chartering ( shipping ) .\nwho won several major middle - distance races between 1982 and 1984 . after winning twice as a two - year - old in 1981 , she developed into a top - class racemare in the following year , finishing second in the\nand was retired from racing at the end of the year having won nine of her twenty races . she later became a very successful broodmare .\nbred in ireland and owned throughout her career by the barnett family . her sire saritamer was an american - bred , irish - trained sprinter who won the\n) , centroline ( jockey club cup ) and tale quale ( jockey club cup ) .\nshe was ridden in most of her races by william\nbilly\nnewnes .\ntwo furlongs from the finish . she stayed on strongly in the closing stages to finish second , two and a half lengths behind on the house and three lengths clear of dione in third .\non 5 june time charter was one of thirteen fillies to contest the 204th running of the oaks stakes ( known for sponsorship reasons as the gold seal oaks ) . despite her performance in the 1000 guineas , she was not among the favourites and started at odds of 12 / 1 , probably because , as the daughter of a sprinter , she was thought unlikely to be effective over one and a half miles . billy newnes ( who was still an apprentice jockey at the time ) restrained time charter at the back of the field before moving up on the outside in the straight . she took the lead inside the final furlong and won by a length from slightly dangerous , with last feather third ,\nfifth . her winning time of 2 : 34 . 21 was a record for the race and was faster than that recorded by\nin late july . as a group one winner she carried a seven pound weight penalty and finished second , beaten two lengths by dancing rocks .\nbut was sidelined by a respiratory infection , described as\na dirty nose\n. she eventually returned for the sun chariot stakes , a group two race over ten furlongs at newmarket in october , in which she was again asked to concede weight to her rivals .\nwinner buzzard ' s bay . newnes settled time charter towards the rear of the field before moving forward along the rails three and a half furlongs from the finish . the filly was initially unable to obtain a clear run and newnes had to force her through a gap between montekin and the tiring kalaglow , appearing to bump the latter . once in the clear , time charter quickly took the lead and accelerated away from the field to win impressively by seven lengths , the biggest margin in the history of the race . it had been intended to retire the filly at the end of the season and have her covered by"]}
{"id": 1077, "summary": [{"text": "cicurina baronia is a rare species of spider in the family dictynidae known by the common name robber baron cave meshweaver .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is endemic to texas in the united states , where it is known from only one cave in bexar county .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "this is one of nine invertebrates endemic to the karst caves of bexar county that were federally listed as endangered species in the year 2000 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this spider is known from robber baron cave .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the entrance to the cave is a protected area , but the land above the cave is urbanized .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "this cave is also the only home for the cokendolpher cave harvestman ( texella cokendolpheri ) , another rare arachnid .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the bexar county karst cave invertebrates are troglobites , species that spend their entire lives in subterranean environments .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the current status of the invertebrates is difficult to assess because their habitats are largely inaccessible and the animals themselves are small and cryptic .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the threats to all nine species are the same : habitat loss when the caves are filled in or quarried , and habitat degradation via pollution , alterations in water flow , and direct human interference . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "cicurina baronia", "paragraphs": ["robber baron cave spider ( cicurina baronia ) on wood . photo by dr . jean krejca .\ncokendolpher , j . c . 2004 . cicurina spiders from caves in bexar county , texas ( araneae : dictynidae ) . texas memorial museum , speleological monographs 6 : 13 - 58 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ngertsch , w . j . 1992 . distribution patterns and speciation in north american cave spiders with a list of the troglobites and revision of the cicurinas of the subgenus cicurella . texas mem . mus . , speleol . monogr . 3 : 75 - 122 .\nsubgenus cicurella . previously placed in the family agelenidae . this species has been referred to by two common names , the robber baron cave spider ( usfws , 2000 ) and the robber baron cave meshweaver ( breene et al . 2003 ) . the latter name has been accepted as the official common name ( breene et al . 2003 , usfws 2003 ) .\nknown from a single locality , robber baron cave in bexar county , texas . although the cave entrance is protected as a preserve by the texas cave management association ( tcma ) , this cave is relatively large , and the land that overlies the cave is heavily urbanized . the cave has also been historically subject to extensive commercial and recreational use ( veni 1988 ) . in addition , the current gate on the cave is blocking organic material from entering and may be severely limiting food input and impacting the cave fauna ( veni and reddell , pers . comm . 2001 in cockendolpher and reddell , 2004 ) . the last collection of this species was made in 1983 , although one was seen in 2001 ( usfws , 2006 ) .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nthere are nine bexar county , texas invertebrates that were listed as endangered on december 26 , 2000 . the recovery priority number for all bexar county karst invertebrates is 2c , which means that these species face a high degree of threat with a high potential for recovery and there may be conflict between species recovery and economic development .\nknown only from robber baron cave in the alamo heights karst region , bexar county , texas .\npopulation estimates are unavailable for any of the nine troglobites listed as endangered in bexar county ( usfws , 2000 ) due to lack of adequate techniques , their cryptic behavior , and inaccessibility of habitat ( usfws , 2008 ) . culver et al . ( 2000 ) states that while some troglobites are known from a few specimens , detailed studies suggest that\nas a rule\nmost troglobites\nare not numerically rare and thus are not susceptible to the problems of small populations .\nhowever , considering the lack of population estimates and limited study of these species , data are insufficient to indicate whether bexar county karst invertebrates are numerous enough to rule out small population concerns ( usfws , 2008 ) .\nbased on usfws ( 2008 ) , reduce threats to the species by securing an adequate quantity and quality of caves , including selecting caves or cave clusters that represent the range of the species and potential genetic diversity , then preserving these caves , including their drainage basins and surface communities upon which they rely . maintenance of these cave preserves involves keeping them free from contamination , excessive human visitation , and non - native fire ants by regularly tracking progress and implementing adaptive management to control these and any new threats when necessary . monitoring the population status and threats are also components of recovery . because many aspects of the population dynamics and habitat requirements of the species are poorly understood , recovery is also dependant on incorporating research findings into adaptive management actions .\n( < 100 square km ( less than about 40 square miles ) ) known only from robber baron cave in the alamo heights karst region , bexar county , texas .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nbreene , r . g . , d . a . dean , g . b . edwards , b . hebert , h . w . levi , g . manning , k . mcwest , and l . sorkin . 2003 . common names of arachnids 2003 . 5th edition . the american arachnological society committee on common names of arachnids . american tarantula society .\nculver , d . c . , l . l . master , m . c . christman , and h . h . hobbs iii . 2000 . obligate cave fauna of the 48 contiguous united states . conservation biology 14 ( 2 ) : 386 - 401 .\nelliott , w . r . 2000 . conservation of the north american cave and karst biota . pages 665 - 689 in wilkens , h . , d . c . culver , and w . f . humphreys ( editors ) . subterranean ecosystems . ecosystems of the world , 30 . elsevier , amsterdam . xiv + 791 pp . corrected version online . available : urltoken\nlongacre , c . 2000 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; final rule to list nine bexar county , texas invertebrate species as endangered . u . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . federal register 65 ( 248 ) .\nrappaport , c . j . 1998 . department of interior fish and wildlife service 50 cfr part 17 , rin 1018 - af33 , endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; proposal to list nine bexar county , texas invertebrate species as endangered . federal register , 63 ( 250 ) : 71855 - 71867 .\nreddell , j . r . and j . c . cokendolpher . 2004 . the cave spiders of bexar and comal counties , texas . texas memorial museum , speleological monographs 6 : 75 - 94 .\nshorthouse , d . p . , editor . 2007 . the nearctic spider database . world wide web electronic publication . http : / / canadianarachnology . webhop . net .\nstanford , r . , and a . shull . 1993 . department of interior fish and wildlife service 50 cfr part 17 ; 90 - day finding on a petition to list nine bexar county , tx , invertebrates . federal register , 58 ( 229 ) : 63328 - 63329 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 1994 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; animal candidate review for listing as endangered or threatened species . federal register 59 ( 219 ) : 58982 - 59028 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 2003 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; designation of critical habitat for seven bexar county , texas , invertebrate species ; final rule . federal register 68 ( 67 ) : 17156 - 17231 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 2008 . draft bexar county karst invertebrate recovery plan . 125 pp .\nveni , g . 1988 . the caves of bexar county , second edition . texas memorial museum speleological monographs , 2 , studies on the cave and endogean fauna of north america iv . texas memorial museum , austin , texas . 300 pp .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\ndesignation of critical habitat for nine bexar county invertebrates : proposed rule ; reopening of comment period .\ndesignation of critical habitat for nine bexar county , tx , invertebrates final rule . and a 12 - month finding on a petition to revise critical habitat designation by removing unit 13 from designation under the act - not warranted .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nworld spider catalog , version 11 . 0 , website ( version 11 . 0 )\nplatnick , norman i . 2011 . the world spider catalog , v . 11 . 0 . american museum of natural history . database built by robert j . raven from the files underlying the website at urltoken doi : 10 . 5531 / db . iz . 0001\nbreene , r . g . , d . allen dean , g . b . edwards , blain hebert , herbert w . levi , gail manning , et al .\nthe american arachnological society committee on common names of arachnids . available online at urltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\nyour browser does not have support for cookies enabled . some features of this application will not work .\nclick this link , buy your products on amazon , and amazon will contribute 6 % or more of your purchase to the tcma . it\u2019s easy and doesn\u2019t cost you anything extra . thanks for your support !\nover 40 species of highly adapted , aquatic , subterranean species are known to live in the edwards aquifer . these include amphipod crustaceans , gastropod snails , and interesting vertebrates like blind catfish ( longley , 1986 ) . seven aquatic species are listed as endangered in the edwards aquifer system , and one is listed as threatened . the main problems for all the species are reduced springflows caused by increased pumping , elimination of habitat , and degradation of water quality caused by urban expansion .\nthe world wildlife fund has produced a must - have , authoritative reference work for anyone interested in endangered species . it describes 540 endangered or threatened species , including their habitat , behavior , and recovery . excerpts from their guide to endangered species and other sources were used to prepare this section . information on the aquatic invertebrates was prepared using the us fish and wildlife ' s published final rule on listing the species .\nin addition to the aquatic species that depend on aquifer water itself , nine cave - dwelling invertebrates that live in the aquifer ' s karst formations were listed by the us fish & wildlife service as endangered in december 2000 . there are three beetles , one daddy long - legs , and five spiders . in may of 2008 the service released a draft recovery plan ( download it ) . for a general discussion on all these creatures see the section below on the cave - dwelling invertebrates .\na blind salamander stopping for a moment on a rock underwater . these are very difficult to photograph !\nthe texas blind salamander is a sightless , cave - dwelling salamander that reaches a mature length of about 13 centimeters ( 5 inches ) . it is a slender , frail - legged amphibian , white or pinkish in color with a fringe of blood - red , external gills . the head and snout are flattened . two small black eyespots mark the location of vestigial eyes .\nthis totally aquatic species feeds on insects and other small invertebrates that live in subterranean waters and are nourished by the droppings of bats in caves . little else of its natural history is known .\nlittle is known , but gravid females have been observed throughout the year . the larvae do not transform .\nthe texas blind salamander is endemic to the underground water system of the limestone caverns of the edwards plateau . it spends its life in complete darkness . it is sensitive to changes of water quality and thus susceptible to groundwater pollutants .\nbiologists know of only one population of the texas blind salamander , which occurs in the edwards aquifer around san marcos . the current population is apparently stable , although of limited numbers . it is possible that other populations may exist in unexplored underground caverns .\nsurvival of this salamander depends upon the stability and continued purity of the edwards aquifer springflows . as with the other endangered species in the edwards region , threats are from diminished springflows and pollution of groundwater and runoff caused by increasing demand for water and burgeoning development over recharge areas .\nthe fountain darter is a reddish brown darter with an average length of 2 . 5 centimeters ( 1 inch ) . it displays a series of dark , horizontal , stitch - like lines along its sides and three dark spots at the base of the tail . dark bars appear below , behind , and in front of the eyes . breeding males develop black , red , and clear stripes along the dorsal fin .\nthe fountain darter feeds primarily in daylight on aquatic insect larvae and small crustaceans . it is a selective feeder and prefers moving prey , remaining stationary until prey passes within striking distance . the fountain darter spawns year round , with peaks in early spring and august . after attaching eggs to mosses and algae , the female abandons the site , providing no care to eggs or fry .\nthe fountain darter prefers clear , quiet backwaters with a profuse bottom growth of aquatic plants and matted algae . it is found in the san marcos and comal rivers .\nthe historic range of the fountain darter included the sources , headwaters , and sections of the san marcos and comal rivers .\nthe fountain darter is found in spring lake at the headwaters of the san marcos river , in the main channel of the river to the confluence of the blanco river , and in the comal river . the comal river population of fountain darters was completely eliminated when its habitat was reduced to isolated pools by a major drought in the 1950 ' s , but the river was restocked with 457 darters taken from the san marcos river ( usfws , 1984 ) .\nschenck and whiteside ( 1976 ) estimated the population in the san marcos river between spring lake dam and the san marcos wastewater treatment plant outfall to be 102 , 966 individuals . until recently , no population estimates had been made for the comal river . linam , mayes , and saunders ( 1993 ) conducted a study to determine habitat utilization , the amount of habitat available , and an estimate of population size . fountain darters were found in greatest densities in filamentous algae , and the mean population estimate for the comal river upstream of torrey mill dam was 168 , 078 with 95 % confidence limits of 114 , 178 and 254 , 110 .\nactions that threaten the fountain darter include the destruction of aquatic vegetation in spring lake and the san marcos river , recreational use of the san marcos river , and long - term water depletion from the edwards aquifer . swimmers and divers disturb the algae mats used by the darter for spawning . as with the san marcos gambusia , recovery is considered a remote possibility without the cooperation of all state and local agencies that manage use of the aquifer . linam , mayes , and saunders ( 1993 ) concluded that despite the successful reintroduction effort after the 1950 ' s drought , other factors might preclude it being replicated if the springs should cease to flow again . back then , enduring pools of water sustained some segments of the aquatic community , providing a base for reestablishment . however , the assumption that enduring pools will once again provide a remnant habitat for aquatic plants may no longer be valid . since the introduction of giant rams - horn snails ( marisa cornuarietis ) around 1983 , plants in many areas of landa lake have been denuded of leaves or even grazed to the bottom ( horne , et al . , 1992 ) . these snails thrive in low flow conditions , and during a drought grazing could eliminate the fountain darter habitat . in a repeat of the 1950 ' s drought , the springs are also likely to be dry for a much longer period of time , and there may be changes in water quality that could limit another successful reintroduction .\nthe gambusia has not been seen since 1982 and is believed to be already extinct .\nmost aquatic biologists feel the san marcos gambusia is very likely already extinct . it ranged in length from 2 . 5 to 4 centimeters ( 1 to 1 . 6 inches ) , had lemon yellow median fins and a diffuse midlateral stripe along the length of its body . the dark body displayed a bluish sheen , and scales tended to be strongly cross - hatched .\nthis fish was a livebearer - eggs hatched inside the female ' s body and emerge alive . the female was capable of bearing up to 60 young in a single brood . it fed on insect larvae and other invertebrates in slow - moving waters shaded by overhanging trees or bridges .\nthe san marcos gambusia preferred quiet backwaters , adjacent to the main thrust of the river current . its primary habitat requirements appeared to be clean and clear water of a constant temperature . temperatures in the river vary by only a few degrees throughout the year , averaging about 23 degrees c ( 73 f ) . the bottom is muddy but generally unsilted . this species was restricted to a limited portion of the san marcos river springrun a few kilometers below the headsprings . it was always rare , and its continued existence has not been documented .\nthe gambusia ' s entire known range was restricted to a 1 - kilometer ( 0 . 6 miles ) section of the san marcos river near the city of san marcos . most specimens were found between the interstate highway 35 crossing and thompson ' s island . this gambusia was always extremely rare as determined by surveys conducted in 1978 and 1979 in the san marcos river . biologists netted more than 20 , 000 gambusia specimens but counted only 18 san marcos gambusia among them . san marcos gambusia were captured alive and an artificial culture established in austin and in dexter , new mexico , in 1979 and 1980 , respectively . both of these cultures were contaminated by gambusia affinis in the early 1980s and the last individual taken from the wild was captured in 1982 . despite considerable efforts to secure this species since then , none have been taken .\nthe species ' very restricted known distribution in the river and its absence from the headwaters at spring lake indicate very specific habitat requirements . it was apparently extremely sensitive to any alteration of its habitat . changes in water turbidity caused by runoff from land clearing and construction , an increase in water temperatures caused by lowered water flows , and pumping of groundwater from the edwards aquifer could have easily eliminated the species . even if additional specimens are found , recovery of the san marcos gambusia is considered a remote possibility without the cooperation of all state and local agencies that manage use of the aquifer .\nthe slender - bodied san marcos salamander is about 6 centimeters ( 2 . 4 inches ) long and displays a prominent gill fringe behind the head . it is light brown above with a row of pale flecks on either side of the midline and yellowish white below . the large eyes have a dark ring around the lens . limbs are short and slender with four toes on the forefeet and five on the hind feet . at first glance , it is similar to a lizard but lacks scales and claws . the specific name nana is from the greek nanos , meaning\ndwarf .\nthis voiceless salamander is also earless . it was listed as endangered on july 14 , 1980 .\nsalamanders lay jelly - covered eggs from which tiny fishlike larvae emerge and develop in the manner of tadpoles . the san marcos salamander breeds and lays eggs in standing pools amid thick mats of aquatic vegetation . eggs hatch in about 24 days . this species is carnivorous and feeds on amphipods , midge fly larvae , and aquatic snails . it remains stationary until prey pass closely and then abruptly snaps its head , taking the prey .\nthe san marcos salamander is found in shallow alkaline springs carved out of limestone with sand and gravel substrates . pools and streambeds are often punctuated with large limestone boulders . aquatic vegetation is profuse , and the pool surfaces are covered with moss ( amblystegium riparium ) and thick mats of coarse , blue - green algae .\nthe species appears to be endemic to the sources and upper portions of the san marcos river .\nthe limited range of the san marcos salamander comprises the san marcos springs , spring lake , and a few hundred feet of the san marcos river . the most recent estimates of population size indicate there are probably around 50 , 000 individuals . tupa and davis ( 1976 ) estimated there about 23 , 000 in algal mats , and nelson ( 1993 ) estimated about 25 , 000 in rocks in spring lake and about 5 , 200 below the lake .\nalthough the population appears relatively stable for the moment , the salamander is threatened by potential degradation or modification of its very limited habitat . increasing residential and agricultural development along with rising demand for water for human and agricultural uses may cause the spring sources become dry intermittently . the key to preserving the san marcos salamander is controlling the amount of water pumped out of the edwards aquifer .\na canoer glides past submerged streamers of texas wild rice in the san marcos river .\nat left , tubers co - exist with wild rice in sewell park , just below aquarena springs . at right , drooping stalks above the surface produce grain - like seeds .\ntexas wildrice is an aquatic grass with thin , flat , elongated leaves that are typically immersed and long - streaming in river currents . leaves often grow as long as 1 . 5 meters ( 57 inches ) . flower stalks , when present , extend above the surface of the water , sometimes to a height of 1 meter ( 40 inches ) , and produce drooping heads of profuse grain - like seeds . the plant flowers and sets seed at irregular intervals from april to november . seeding plants have become increasingly rare in the wild . it was listed as federally endangered on april 26 , 1978 and state endangered on april 29 , 1983 . it was the first texas plant to be placed on the endangered species list . the leaves are linear , elongate , green , to 45 in . long , 1 / 4 to 1 in . wide . flowers are arranged in a narrow panicle , 6 - 13 in . long , 1 / 2 to 4 in . wide , spreading male branches below , tighter female branches above ; pikelet with one flower without glumes ; male spikelets 1 / 4 - 1 / 2 in . long . 1 / 16 - 1 / 8 in . wide ; female spikelets 5 / 16 - 1 / 2 in . long 1 / 16 - 1 / 8 in . wide , tipped by rough bristles 3 / 8 - 1 3 / 8 in . long ; flowering spring and autumn .\ntexas wildrice forms large clones or masses of clones that firmly root in gravel shallows near the middle of the river . this plant is adapted to fast - flowing water of high quality and constant year - round temperatures as provided by adequate spring flows . silting , disturbance of the bottom , or stagnant water will kill off plants .\nthis wildrice was once abundant in the san marcos river , in contiguous irrigation ditches with constant flows , and in spring lake at the river ' s headwaters . in the 1930 ' s it was so abundant that a local irrigation company considered it a difficult task to keep plants from clogging its ditches .\ntexas wildrice is currently distributed along the upper four miles of the river in and near the city of san marcos . in august of 2011 , the texas parks and wildlife department proposed designating this stretch of the river a state scientific area , which is allowable under state law for the purposes of education , research , and preservation of plant and animal life .\nthe major reason for decline of the san marcos river habitat has been increased pumping and diversion of edwards aquifer groundwater . decreased spring outflow lowers the water level of the river and exposes the shallows where texas wildrice typically would grow . river dredging and damming , riverside construction , and bottomland cultivation have destroyed plants , altered stream flows and temperature , or increased siltation . in the past , intensive harvesting of the seed crop inhibited successful reproduction . because most of the remaining population is in the urban area of san marcos , botanists have suggested that transplanting wildrice to some other location is the species only hope of survival . however , the fish and wildlife service stresses that every effort must be made to preserve the species in its native habitat . efforts to grow texas wildrice in cultivation and to transplant it have met with limited success . in the 1970 ' s , botanists attempted to establish a new population in salado creek with cultivated plants , but recreational activities continually disturbed transplanted clones . from 1976 to 1982 , nursery grown plants were transplanted to various sites in central texas . no new populations resulted . the fish and wildlife service recovery plan recommends that a public education program be established , aimed at minimizing recreational disturbance of wildrice in the san marcos river . ultimately , long term protection will require a management program to balance the water needs of the human population with the requirements of a healthy san marcos river ecosystem .\nthe comal springs riffle beetle is a small aquatic , surface - dwelling species in the family elmidae . adult comal springs riffle beetles are about 1 / 8 inch long , with females slightly larger than males . the closest relative of h . comalensis appears to be h . glabra , a species that occurs farther to the west in the big bend region ( bosse , et al . , 1988 ) . some riffle beetle species can fly ( brown , 1987 ) , but the hind wings of h . comalensis are short and almost certainly non - functional , making the species incapable of this mode of dispersal ( bosse , et al . , 1988 ) .\nunlike the other two aquatic invertebrate organisms listed here , the comal springs riffle beetle is not a subterranean species . it occurs in the gravel substrate and shallow riffles in spring runs . larvae have been collected with adults in the gravel substrate of the spring headwaters and not on submerged wood as is typical of most\n. usual water depth in occupied habitat is 2 to 10 centimeters ( 1 to 4 in ) although the beetle may also occur in slightly deeper areas within the spring runs . populations have been reported to reach their greatest densities from february to april\nand a single specimen was collected from san marcos springs 32 km ( 20 mi ) to the northeast .\nit was first collected by bosse in 1976 and was described by bosse , et al . , in 1988 . nothing is known about whether this species may have historically ranged in other springs that are now dry almost all the time , such as san pedro springs and san antonio springs .\nthe comal springs riffle beetle is known from comal springs and san marcos springs .\nbecause conservation and recovery of the three listed aquatic invertebrate species are very similar , they are discussed together at the end of this page .\nthe comal springs dryopid beetle is the only known subterranean member of the beetle family dryopidae . adult comal springs dryopid beetles are about 1 / 8 inch long . they have vestigial ( non - functional ) eyes , are weakly pigmented , translucent , and thin - skinned .\nelmid and dryopid beetles live primarily in flowing , uncontaminated waters . collection records for the comal springs dryopid beetle are primarily from spring run 2 at comal springs , but they have also been collected from runs 3 and 4 at comal and from fern bank springs about 20 miles to the northeast in hays county . collections have been from april through august . most of the specimens have been taken from drift nets or from inside the spring orifices . although the larvae of the comal springs dryopid beetle have been collected in drift nets positioned over the spring openings , they are presumed to be associated with air - filled voids inside the spring orifices since all other known dryopid beetle larvae are terrestrial . unlike peck ' s cave amphipod , the comal springs dryopid beetle does not swim , and it may have a smaller range within the aquifer .\nthe comal springs dryopid beetle is a recently discovered species . it was first collected in 1987 and described as a new genus and species by barr & spangler , 1992 . nothing is known about whether this species may have historically ranged in other springs that are now dry almost all the time , such as san pedro springs and san antonio springs .\nthe comal springs dryopid beetle is known from comal springs and fern bank springs ( hays county ) . the exact depth and subterranean extent of the range of the comal springs dryopid beetle is not precisely known because of a lack of methodologies available for studying karst aquifer systems and the organisms that inhabit such systems . presumably an interconnected area , the subterranean portion of this habitat , provides for feeding , growth , survival , and reproduction of the comal springs dryopid beetle . however , no specimens have appeared in collections from 22 artesian and pumped wells flowing from the edwards aquifer , suggesting this species may be confined to small areas surrounding the spring openings and is not distributed throughout the aquifer ( barr , 1993 ) . barr ( 1993 ) also surveyed nine springs in bexar , comal , and hays counties considered most likely to provide habitat for endemic invertebrates and found stygoparnus comalensis only at comal and fern bank springs .\npeck ' s cave amphipod is a subterranean , aquatic crustacean in the family crangonyctidae . like all members of the exclusively subterranean genus stygobromus , this species is eyeless and unpigmented . the fish and wildlife service has used\ncave amphipod\nas a generic common name for members of this genus , and this name was simply transliterated as\npeck ' s cave amphipod\nwithout reference to a particular cave .\nover 300 specimens of peck ' s cave amphipod have been collected since its description . most specimens were netted from crevices in rock and gravel near the three largest orifices of comal springs on the west side of landa park in comal county\n. despite extensive collecting efforts , no specimens have been found in other areas of the edwards aquifer , indicating that its primary habitat is a zone of permanent darkness in the underground aquifer feeding the springs . above ground , individuals are easy prey for predators , but they usually take shelter in the rock and gravel crevices and may succeed in reentering the spring orifice . in 1993 barr got most specimens in drift nets at spring orifices and found them less often as she moved downstream , supporting the notion they may be easy prey and do not likely survive for long outside the aquifer .\nnothing is known about whether this species may have historically ranged in other springs that are now dry almost all the time , such as san pedro springs and san antonio springs . the first recorded specimen was collected by peck at comal springs in june 1964 . reddell collected a second specimen at the same place in may 1965 . in 1967 , holsinger named the species stygonectes pecki , in peck ' s honor , selecting the 1965 specimen as the type specimen . later he included all the nominal stygonectes species in the synonymy of the large genus stygobromus .\npeck ' s cave amphipod is known from comal springs and hueco springs , both in comal county . the exact depth and subterranean extent of the ranges of this species is not precisely known because of a lack of methodologies available for studying karst aquifer systems and the organisms that inhabit such systems . presumably an interconnected area , the subterranean portion of this habitat , provides for feeding , growth , survival , and reproduction of the peck ' s cave amphipod . however , no specimens have appeared in collections from 22 artesian and pumped wells flowing from the edwards aquifer ( barr , 1993 ) , suggesting this species may be confined to small areas surrounding the spring openings and is not distributed throughout the aquifer . barr also surveyed nine springs in bexar , comal , and hays counties considered most likely to provide habitat for endemic invertebrates and found stygobromus pecki only at comal and hueco springs .\nconservation and management of the peck ' s cave amphipod , comal springs riffle beetle , and comal springs dryopid beetle are likely to involve protection and conservation of the edwards aquifer and springflow at comal , hueco , san marcos , and fern bank springs . these species ' very limited habitat is likely to be lost through drying or decreased volume of springflow during minor or severe drought . it is likely the effect of natural droughts in south central texas will increase in severity because of the large increase in human groundwater withdrawals . many possible effects of reduced springflow exist . these include changes in the chemical composition of the water in the aquifer and at the springs , a decrease in current velocity and corresponding increase in siltation , and an increase in temperature and temperature fluctuations in the aquatic habitat ( mckinney & watkins , 1993 ) .\nanother threat to the habitat of these species is the potential for groundwater contamination . pollutants of concern include those associated with human sewage , leaking underground storage tanks , animal / feedlot waste , agricultural chemicals ( especially insecticides , herbicides , and fertilizers ) and urban runoff ( including pesticides , fertilizers , and detergents ) .\npipeline , highway , and railway transportation of hydrocarbons and other potentially harmful materials in the edwards aquifer recharge zone and its watershed , with the attendant possibility of accidents , present a particular risk to water quality in comal and san marcos springs . comal and san marcos springs are both located in urbanized areas . hueco springs is located alongside river road , which is heavily traveled for recreation on the guadalupe river , and may be susceptible to road runoff and spills related to traffic . fern bank springs is in a relatively remote , rural location and its principal vulnerability is probably to contaminants associated with leaking septic tanks , animal / feedlot wastes , and agricultural chemicals .\nalthough these species are fully aquatic and two of the three require flowing water for respiration , the absolute low water limits for survival are not known . they survived the drought of the middle 1950 ' s , which resulted in cessation of flow at comal springs from june 13 through november 3 , 1956 . hueco springs is documented to have gone dry in the past\nthese invertebrates were not extirpated by the only recorded temporary cessation of springflow . however , given that they are fully aquatic and that no water was present in the springs for a period of several months , they were probably negatively impacted . these species are not likely adapted to surviving long periods of drying ( up to several years in duration ) that may occur in the absence of a water management plan for the edwards aquifer that accommodates the needs of these invertebrates .\nstagnation of water may be a limiting condition , particularly for the comal springs dryopid beetle and peck ' s cave amphipod . stagnation of water and / or drying within the spring runs and the photic ( lighted ) zone of the spring orifices would probably be limiting for the comal springs riffle beetle because natural water flow is considered important to the respiration and therefore survival of this invertebrate species . elmid and dryopid beetles have a mass of tiny , hydrophobic ( unwettable ) hairs on their underside where they maintain a thin bubble of air through which gas exchange occurs ( chapman , 1982 ) . this method of respiration loses its effectiveness as the level of dissolved oxygen in the water decreases . a number of aquatic insects that use dissolved oxygen rely on flowing water to obtain oxygen .\nat present , competition is not known to be a significant threat to these species . however , two exotic snail species , thiara granifera and thiara tuberculata , are common in the spring runs and , as grazers , may compete for food . another exotic species , the giant ramshorn snail ( marisa cornuarietis ) , is present in two of the spring runs and may colonize the other runs at low flow levels . marisa can have a tremendous impact on vegetation , that in turn may affect the habitat for surface - dwelling grazers like the riffle beetle .\nin july of 2007 , the u . s . fish and wildlife service designated about 50 acres around four edwards springs as critical habitat for aquatic invertebrate species . although they were listed in 1997 , the u . s . fish & wildlife service did not designate any critical habitat , leading to a 2003 lawsuit by the center for biological diversity . under the bush administration , fish & wildlife service officials contended that designating critical habitat has little effect on protecting species . the center for biological diversity disagreed , and the wildlife service made the designation as part of a settlement . such a designation requires federal agencies to analyze activities they undertake , fund , or permit to determine if there may be any harm to the species ' habitat . if so , they must consult with the fish & wildlife service to determine how to eliminate or reduce the impacts to an acceptable level .\nthe initial designation of 50 acres as critical habitat was deemed insufficient by scientists because it included only surface water and not the underground orifices critical to the species\u2019 survival . so the center for biological diversity and its allies filed suit again , resulting in a new proposal that was announced in october 2012 .\nthe new proposal expands the critical habitat and includes new subsurface areas for the dryopid beetle and the peck\u2019s cave amphipod . in all , 169 acres of critical habitat are being proposed . the habitat areas overlap and consist of 39 acres of surface habitat and 139 acres of subsurface habitat for the comal springs dryopid beetle ; 38 surface acres and 138 subsurface acres for the peck\u2019s cave amphipod ; and 54 acres of protected surface habitat for the comal springs riffle beetle .\nin 1992 , several local groups , ( the alamo group of the sierra club , the balcones canyonlands conservation coalition , the helotes creek association , the texas cave management association , and texas speleological association ) petitioned the us fish and wildlife service to add the nine species of karst invertebrates to the list of threatened and endangered wildlife . the nine species of invertebrates are known only from caves in the northern and northwest parts of bexar county . in december 2000 the fish and wildlife service designated the nine species as endangered under the endangered species act .\ninvertebrates are animals without internal skeletons or backbones such as butterflies , beetles , grasshoppers and spiders . the nine bexar county species listed as endangered include three beetles , five spiders , and one harvestman , a relative of the common household daddy - longlegs . although small , ranging from less than 2 millimeters to 9 millimeters long , and generally overlooked because they spend their entire lives underground , these invertebrates are biologically and ecologically unique . they resemble creatures out of tim burton ' s animation , with eyes that are either very small or entirely absent , and bodies that are long and thin , with no coloration , appearing white but actually being transparent .\nfour of the species are currently only known from one cave and three others are only known from two to eight caves . it is likely these species also exist in other caves on private property which the fish & wildlife service were not allowed to inspect . although these species are known only from caves , they may also use karst passages that are too small for people or that have no known entrance at the surface . the number of caves known to contain these species is likely to increase in the future as more caves are discovered and inspected . the listing of these species was not based on a known decline in the number of individuals or the known locations , but rather on evidence that all these species are subject to threats to their continued existence throughout all or most of their range .\nthese species are currently being threatened by the rapid pace of development around san antonio and northern bexar county . development can degrade the cave environment through increased vandalism , contamination from sewer or septic tank leaks , storm water run - off , pesticides , or chemical spills . development can also destroy the cave outright through digging or filling . these species are also threatened by the invasion of non - native fire ants which can prey upon them as well as compete with them for their limited sources of food .\na number of the caves where these species are found are located on the texas parks and wildlife department ' s government canyon state natural area and the u . s . army ' s camp bullis , both of which have developed and implemented protective management plans .\nthe invertebrates are highly adapted to their underground home , an environment which has a very stable temperature ; very high , constant humidity ; and little food . the lack of food and stability of their environment leads to an ecosystem with very few species . this makes cave environments valuable areas for ecological research . it also means that a sudden change in the environment or loss of a species could quickly wipe out the entire ecosystem .\necologically , cave invertebrates can be described as more similar to large mammals like elephants than to their invertebrate cousins which live on the surface . like elephants , they have few offspring and live relatively long lives ( for invertebrates ) , a characteristic ecologists call\nk - selected\n. this also means their populations are more sensitive to losing even fairly small numbers of individuals , and that it takes a long time for their population sizes to recover from any catastrophe .\nthe surface environment of karst areas is also an integral part of the habitat needed by the animals inhabiting the underground areas . because plants cannot grow in the blackness of caves , the cave ecosystem is entirely dependent on input from the outside . food in a cave can come either through animals that cave biologists call\ntrogloxenes\n, which roost in the cave but forage for food on the outside , like bats , mice , or cave crickets , or through organic material like leaves being washed into the cave entrance or filtered in through the ground above the cave . mammal feces provide a medium for the growth of fungi and , subsequently , localized population blooms of several species of tiny , hopping insects . these insects reproduce rapidly on rich food sources and may become prey for some predatory cave invertebrates . the nine listed invertebrates are probably predaceous and eat the eggs , larvae , or adults of other cave invertebrates ."]}
{"id": 1090, "summary": [{"text": "the crab-eating raccoon ( procyon cancrivorus ) is a species of raccoon native to marshy and jungle areas of central and south america ( including trinidad and tobago ) .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is found from costa rica south through most areas of south america east of the andes down to northern argentina and uruguay .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "that it is called the crab-eating raccoon does not mean that only this species eats crabs , as the common raccoon also seeks and eats crabs where they are available .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the crab-eating raccoon eats crab , lobster , and other crustaceans , but is an omnivore and its diet also includes , for example , small amphibians , turtle eggs , and fruits .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it resembles its northern cousin , the common raccoon , in having a bushy ringed tail and \" bandit mask \" of fur around its eyes .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "unlike the common raccoon , the hair on the nape of the neck points towards the head , rather than backward .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the crab-eating raccoon also appears to be more adapted to an arboreal lifestyle than the common raccoon , with sharper , narrower claws .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it also is better adapted for a diet of hard-shelled food , with most of the cheek teeth being larger than those of the common raccoon , with broader , rounded cusps .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "although the crab-eating raccoon can appear smaller and more streamlined than the common raccoon due to its much shorter fur and more gracile build , the crab-eating raccoon is of similar dimensions to the northern species .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "head and body length is 41 to 80 cm ( 16 to 31 in ) , tail length is 20 to 56 cm ( 8 to 22 in ) and height at the shoulder is about 23 cm ( 9 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "weights can range from 2 to 12 kg ( 4 to 26 lb ) , though are mostly between 5 and 7 kg ( 11 and 15 lb ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "males are usually larger than the females . ", "topic": 9}], "title": "crab - eating raccoon", "paragraphs": ["a little known species , the crab - eating raccoon is thought to be a solitary species .\nthe tail of the crab - eating raccoon makes up about 50 % of its total length .\nthere is not much known about the home range size of crab - eating raccoons .\nraccoon pictures tres marias raccoon crab - eating raccoon common raccoon more information : professional raccoon trap wildlife control pests and animals pest control the most recognized animal in north america , the raccoon gets it name from the indian word \u201carakum\u201d meaning \u201che scratches with his hands . \u201d there are three species of the raccoon : the tres marias , the crab - eating , and the common raccoon .\nspecies : procyon cancrivorous ( crab - eating raccoon ) , with four subspecies ; procyon lotor ( common raccoon ) , with 22 subspecies ; and procyon pygmaeus ( cozumel raccoon or pygmy raccoon ) .\nthe crab - eating raccoon is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe crab - eating raccoon is solitary and nocturnal . it is almost always found near streams , lakes , and rivers .\nthe crab - eating raccoon is the 142nd species in my mammals of the world series . all media is educational fair use .\nthe neck fur of crab - eating raccoons slants forward towards the head . these animals appear thinner than\ncrab - eating raccoons are excellent climbers . crabs make up only a minor part of their diet .\ncrab - eating raccoon ( procyon cancrivorus ) . attempting to break into a tourist ' s haversac . manuel antonio np costa rica .\ncrab - eating raccoon ( procyon cancrivorus ) . attempting to scavenge food from a woman tourist ' s bag on a beach . costa rica .\ncrab - eating raccoon ( procyon cancrivorus ) . attempting to scavenge food from tourist ' s bag and clothing on a beach . costa rica .\nthe crab - eating raccoon is yellowish - red to brown to grayish - brown . it has paler undersides , a black mask , and tail rings .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - crab - eating raccoon ( procyon cancrivorus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - crab - eating raccoon ( procyon cancrivorus )\ntitle =\narkive species - crab - eating raccoon ( procyon cancrivorus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthis female crab - eating raccoon was on the beach in the manuel antonio national park digging for her lunch . her boyfriend joins her a little later on .\na mother raccoon with her 4 juveniles eating from a can of cat food in a residential backyard .\nnot much is known on the bmr of crab - eating raccoons . however , there is adequate information on the northern species ,\na raccoon caught scavenging from a dead raccoon during a cold winter in wisconsin .\nraccoon , ( procyon lotor ) , eating trash . elephant butte state park , new mexico , usa .\n, in having a bushy ringed tail and\nbandit mask\nof fur around its eyes . although the crab - eating raccoon can appear smaller and more streamlined than the common raccoon due to its much shorter fur and more\nthe crab eating raccoon is found in panama and southern costa rica to northern argentina . with a salt and pepper colored fur , this creature has a smaller body and slightly larger head .\nno official protection is given to crab - eating raccoon throughout most of its range ( de la rosa and nocke 2000 ) , however , its range does overlap with a number of protected areas .\nthe crab - eating raccoon ( p . cancrivorus ) inhabits south america as far south as northern argentina . it resembles the north american raccoon but has shorter , coarser fur . the other members of genus procyon are not well known . most are tropical and probably rare . they are the barbados raccoon\u2026\nare managed as a game species through both hunting and trapping . there is currently no management in central america for crab - eating raccoons . however , even though\nthe common raccoon is a small , nocturnal carnivore in the family procyonidae . this family has 2 subgenera , procyon and euprocyon . the common raccoon is in the subgenus , procyon , along with 7 other species of raccoon . there is only 1 species in euprocyon ( refer to the diagram below ) . the 6 species of raccoon in procyon are the : common raccoon ( p . lotor ) , barbados raccoon ( p . gloveralleni ) , guadeloupe raccoon ( p . minor ) , bahamas raccoon ( p . maynardi ) , tr\u00e9s mar\u00edas islands raccoon ( p . insularis ) and cozymel raccoon ( p . pygmaeus ) . the crab - eating raccoon ( euprocyon cancrivorus ) is the only living species in euprocyon .\nthis map shows both the native and introduced distribution of the common raccoon around the globe . areas in red are native to the raccoon while areas in blue represent the introduced distribution of the common raccoon .\noccupies areas around bodies of water , such as swamps , lakes , lagoons , and ocean beaches . where both species overlap , crab - eating raccoons mainly occupy lands surrounding inland rivers , whereas northern raccoons occupy swamps and beaches .\nmain characteristics crab - eating raccoons have a body length between 45 and 90 cms ( 18 - 35 inches ) , a tail length between 20 and 56 cms ( 8 - 22 inches ) and they weigh between 2 and 12 kgs ( 4 . 5 - 26 lbs ) . their fur is short and it is brownish / grey in colour . they have a bushy tail that has alternating pale and dark rings and they have short , rounded ears . their eyes are small and they have black eye patches which gives them the appearance of wearing a\nbandit ' s mask\n. habitat crab - eating raccoons can be found in the jungle and marshy areas of central and south america . they are solitary and are active at night . diet crab - eating raccoons feed on fish , shellfish , crabs and aquatic insects . breeding after a gestation period of 60 - 73 days , females give birth to 2 - 6 young in a leaf lined den . the youngsters are weaned by the time they are 4 months old and are independent at 8 months old . they reach sexual maturity at 1 year old . predators crab - eating raccoons are preyed upon by larger carnivores . subspecies subspecies of the crab - eating raccoon include : procyon cancrivorus aequatorialis procyon cancrivorus cancrivorus procyon cancrivorus panamensis procyon cancrivorus nigripes interesting facts crab - eating raccoons are also known as : mapache osito lavador procyon comes from the greek words meaning\nbefore the dog\n. similar animals ringtail red panda cacomistle common raccoon mountain coati white - nosed coati south american coati\nthe crab - eating raccoon is naturally rare in some areas of its range and it does not seem as adaptable to human activity as is the northern raccoon , although it is probably stable throughout south america where viable areas exist . in the paraguayan chaco , its density in secondary growth cattle land is estimated not to exceed 6 . 7 individuals / km\u00b2 ( glatston 1994 ) .\nthe forepaw of a raccoon is about 2 - 2 \u00bd inches long 6 . the hindpaw of a raccoon is about 3 - 3 \u00bd inches long 6 .\na virginia opossum feeding on a dead raccoon during winter in the north woods .\ncommon raccoon ( procyon lotor ) captive raccoons playing in water and fall colors .\nbaby raccoon ( procyon lotor ) looking out from tree den . captive animal .\na raccoon\u2019s sense of touch is arguably its most powerful sense . the raccoon has 5 unwebbed , digits with short , curved , non - retractable claws on each paw\n. thicker fur enables a raccoon to withstand the harsh winters associated with northern latitudes .\ncrab - eating raccoons are nocturnal , omnivorous / frugivorous animals . body weights range from 3 to 7 kg . body lengths are reported as being between 54 and 65 cm , with the tail comprising 25 to 38 cm of the total length . males tend to be larger than the females .\na species of raccoon procyon cancrivorus , found in the jungles of central and south america .\na raccoon walking away from scavenging on a ring - necked pheasant during winter in wisconsin .\nthere are 25 subspecies of the common raccoon , which are discernible by their geographical distribution , physical characteristics , behavior , and in some cases , genetics 1 . the subspecies of raccoon found throughout wyoming is the upper mississippi valley raccoon ( p . lotor - hirtus ) 1 .\nhere is the taxonomy of the raccoon , according to integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) .\na mother and baby raccoon feeding on a ring - necked pheasant during winter in the north woods .\nseasacape of titan triggerfish feeding on coral reef with raccoon butterflyfish fluttering above . red sea , egypt .\nthe raccoon ' s black mask enhances their night - vision which is critical for this nocturnal animal . notice the ear tags ? check out tracking raccoons to learn more about why this raccoon has an ear tag !\nraccoon dog / marderhund ( nyctereutes procyonoides ) , secretive behavior , hidden behind a tree , peeking carefully .\nraccoon dog / marderhund ( nyctereutes procyonoides ) , secretive behavior , hidden behind a tree , watching carefully .\n. it is not uncommon for a raccoon to wet its hands when presented with water . this behavior is thought to provide the raccoon with a heightened sense of touch because the padding on its forepaws become soft and pliable\naccording to the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) , the pygmy raccoon is critically endangered . the pygmy raccoon may have fewer than 250 mature individuals left in the wild , and the iucn estimates that the total population size , including juveniles , is only 323 to 955 . other raccoon populations are not currently endangered .\nsurprised looking wild common raccoon / waschbaer ( procyon lotor ) stands in front of some bushes in a backyard .\nbuild . however , the crab - eating raccoon is of similar dimensions to the northern species . head and body length is 41 to 80 cm ( 16 to 31 in ) , tail length is 20 to 56 cm ( 8 to 22 in ) and height at the shoulder is about 23 cm ( 9 in ) . weights can range from 2 to 12 kg ( 4 to 26 lb ) , though are mostly between 5 and 7 kg ( 11 and 15 lb ) .\nis omnivorous , but fruit has been observed to be the main part of its diet . crab - eating raccoons consume a variety of foods , including invertebrates , crustaceans , insects , nuts , vegetables , fish , frogs , and small turtles . olfaction , vision , and their sense of touch are used to identify and capture food . the diet may change with season and food availability .\ntoday the common raccoon is hunted for food and for sport . they have been known to carry the raccoon roundworm , which in transmitted to humans through ingestion and inhalation of eggs passed in their feces . they also can sometimes carry rabies . preyed upon by foxes , bobcats , coyotes and owls , the common raccoon is mainly killed by cars and disease .\nraccoon ( procyon lotor ) standing up investigating camera , portrait , stanley park , vancouver , british columbia , cananda , september .\none theory is that the black mask around a raccoon\u2019s eyes helps deflect glare and helps with night vision , according to pbs nature .\ncommon raccoon ( procyon lotor ) looks surprised , stands in front of some bushes , late in the night , wildlife , germany .\nas with all carnivores raccoons have carnassials which are a set of teeth designed for tearing apart flesh . although raccoons have them , they are poorly developed compared to other carnivores , including other procyonids like crab - eating raccoons and ringtails . raccoons have an omnivorous diet which is reflected in the shape of their rounded , cusped molars . like other omnivores , including bears and humans , raccoons have a bunodont molar dentition . another distinguishable skull feature of the raccoon is the shape of the auditory bullae . this bony structure is laterally compressed on the outside of the skull and inflated on the inner sides\nfor many nocturnal animals a strong sense of hearing is crucial . the raccoon\u2019s ability to hear faint sounds is useful for hunting and avoiding potential predators . compared to other procyonids , such as the coati and ringtail , the raccoon does not possess as strong of a sense of hearing\nthis species is nocturnal , active at ground level , and solitary . its diet consists of molluscs , fish , crabs , insects , and amphibians ( emmons and feer 1990 ) . very little is known about its ecology or behaviour , although limited information is available from captive studies ( eisenberg 1989 ) . it is often believed to be limited to coastline and riverbank habitats , but it has also been recorded in non - aquatic habitats at certain times of the year . it is a species rarely seen deep in the rain forest , but it is found in llanos and evergreen forest and in andean forests . in the zone of geographic overlap with the northern raccoon , the latter is found in mangrove swamps while the crab - eating raccoon is found along inland rivers ( emmons and feer 1990 ) .\nthe crab - eating raccoon is distributed from southern costa rica to northern argentina ( east border of the andes ) , on trinidad , and possibly on a number of other caribbean islands . within costa rica and immediately east of the border ( i . e . panama ) , it is sympatric with the northern raccoon p . lotor ( eisenberg and redford 1999 , de la rosa and nocke 2000 ) . reputed occurrence in northern colombia is not confirmed because it is easily confused with p . lotor ( gonz\u00e1lez - maya et al . 2011 ) but recent craniometric evidence suggest both species are present in the caribbean region ( mar\u00edn et al . 2012 ) ; neither external features nor recent records are provided . recent records have expanded altitudinal range up to 2 , 350 ( mar\u00edn et al . 2012 ) .\nthe physical characteristics of the raccoon varies by location . raccoons that live in densely forested habitats tend to have darker fur than raccoons in coastal and desert regions\nty - book ti - the distribution , size , and reproduction of the pedunculate barnacle , octolasmis m\u00fclleri ( coker , 1902 ) , on the blue crab , callinectes sapidus ( rathburn , 1896 ) / vl - n . s . no . 16 ( 1983 ) ur - urltoken pb - field museum of natural history , cy - chicago : py - 1983 n1 -\napril 28 , 1983 .\nau - jeffries , william b . au - voris , harold k . kw - barnacles kw - blue crab kw - octolasmis m\u00fclleri er -\ncrab - eating raccoons have good hearing capabilities , and are keen to strange noises . even though they are color blind , they have excellent nighttime vision . their tactile senses are what really set them apart from other carnivores . this tactile sense allows them to identify food items better than any other senses . there has been 13 different vocalizations recognized , 7 of which involved the mother and young . although not specifically reported for this species , it is likely that , as in other mammals , scent cues play some role in reproduction and identification of individuals .\nthe tres marias raccoon is found in the caribbean off the coast of mexico and is extremely rare and endangered . they are pale brown with a grey underbelly and a golden tail .\nas omnivores , raccoons eat vegetation and meat . the vegetation in their diet consists of cherries , apples , acorns , persimmons , berries , peaches , citrus fruits , plums , wild grapes , figs , watermelons , beech nuts , corn and walnuts . when it comes to meat , raccoons consume more invertebrates than vertebrates , according to the adw . some of the raccoon\u2019s favorite animal treats are frogs , fish , crayfish , insects , rodents and bird eggs . when food is scarce , raccoons aren\u2019t above scavenging human trash or eating roadkill .\n. the forepaws contain a high density of nerve endings that allows a raccoon to discern objects by touch alone . there are about 4 times as many nerve endings in the forepaws then there are in the hindpaws\n. the raccoon ' s dark mask is thought to be an evolutionary adaptation to its nocturnal lifestyle . the dark fur surrounding the eyes will absorb light from the night sky , which reduces glare while also enhancing night vision\na raccoon is often rabid , without showing any outward symptoms of the viral disease . with the public ' s fascination with this fascinating animal , rabies becomes even greater a threat than previously thought . not only can a raccoon carry ( and spread ) the rabies virus ; the female raccoon can actually pass the virus to her unborn kits through her uterus . most animals exhibit some sort of behavior that is out of the ordinary , making it easier to spot one that is rabid . although it often shows absolutely no sign of being sick , a rabid raccoon can still easily transmit rabies to others . they are cute , they are fascinating to watch . many people enjoy feeding them . all these things create a possible danger to humans in close proximity to the animals . our main line of defense against rabies is to have our pets vaccinated . the second line of defense is common sense .\nraccoons are considered one of the primary carriers of the rabies virus in the united states , though only one person has ever died from a raccoon to human transmission of the disease , according to the centers for disease control and prevention .\n@ book { bhl21080 , title = { the distribution , size , and reproduction of the pedunculate barnacle , octolasmis m\u00fclleri ( coker , 1902 ) , on the blue crab , callinectes sapidus ( rathburn , 1896 ) / } , volume = { n . s . no . 16 ( 1983 ) } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken note = urltoken - - -\napril 28 , 1983 .\n} , publisher = { chicago : field museum of natural history , } , author = { jeffries , william b . and voris , harold k . } , year = { 1983 } , pages = { 28 } , keywords = { barnacles | blue crab | octolasmis m\u00fclleri | } , }\nraccoons have darker colored fur on their dorsal region ( back ) and lighter colored fur on their ventral region ( stomach ) . many mammals have this dual coloration including some of the raccoon ' s closest relatives , like the ringtail and coati . the most notable characteristics of the raccoon are their dark mask and ringed tail . the tail usually has 5 - 7 bands , alternating in color from black to cream 1 . the mask and tail pattern for every raccoon is unique to only that individual . these subtle differences are thought to help raccoons identify one another 2 . when comparing the different sexes and age groups , there are no differences in fur coloration or thickness between females and males and adults and juveniles .\n. although its forepaws resemble long , thin fingers similar to a human\u2019s or ape ' s , the raccoon does not have opposable thumbs . the forepaws also contain a type of nerve ending that is different from human and primate nerve endings .\nmakes use of habitats ranging from the forest of ilanos , to the xeric chaco vegetation , and even the amazon rainforests . as long as there are water , food , and places to hide and den , this raccoon will adapt . however ,\nraccoons will typically live for 2 - 3 years in the wild . this is drastically less than raccoons living in captivity , which have been known to live up to 17 - 20 years 2 , 5 . raccoon population dynamics are broken down into 3 life stages : nestling , juvenile and adult . raccoons give birth to altricial young , meaning the young are completely dependent on the mother from birth to around 2 months of age , this is referred to as the nestling stage 2 . the juvenile stage begins when the raccoon is around 2 months old and can last up to 1 year 2 . during this time , a juvenile will socialize with its mothers and siblings and will start to travel outside of the den with its family 2 . the full extent of social learning that takes place between mothers and offspring is not fully understood at this time . this is a topic the university of wyoming raccoon project ( uwrp ) is interested in investigating . the adult stage starts at around 1 year of age or when a raccoon becomes sexually mature 2 . raccoons have many natural predators , including bobcats , pumas , coyotes , eagles , hawks , alligators , dogs and humans 2 , 5 . other factors that regulate raccoon populations include disease and parasites 2 .\n. living at a higher latitude requires a greater allocation of resources towards survival during the harsh winters , which is likely why the dispersal age is older for raccoons in these environments . the age of sexual maturity will also influence the dispersal age for a raccoon\n4 . prange , s . , gehrt , s . d . and wiggers , e . p . ( 2004 ) . influences of anthropogenic resources on raccoon ( procyon lotor ) movements and spatial distribution . journal of mammology . 85 , 483 - 490 .\nthe carnassials are comprised of the fourth premolar on the cranium ( p4 ) and the first molar on the mandible ( m1 ) . notice the characteristic bunodont dentition ( blue ) of omnivores . the auditory bullae ( yellow ) of the raccoon are highly inflated on the inner sides .\nthough raccoons are more than happy to make human areas their homes , they can be vicious when approached by humans . humans should be particuarlly cautious of approaching raccoons because they are common carriers of rabies , roundworms and leptospirosis , according to the human society . most experts do not recommend having a raccoon as a pet .\nraccoons are found in canada , most of the united states , mexico and central america . over the last few decades , the raccoon has expanded its distribution outside of its historical range . they are now found further west in the united states , specifically in the rocky mountain region . they have also expanded their home ranges further north , deeper into canadian territories\nthe strongest social bonds form between a mother and offspring and between siblings . although the raccoon was once thought to be a solitary mammal , recent research has shown that raccoons will form small groups in some habitats 1 , 2 , 4 , 5 . the density of raccoons in a habitat will largely influence the sociality of the individuals in a population . when resources are widely dispersed and clumped together , males will become territorial of their home range and defend it against intruders 2 . females will occupy areas where there are food resources and shelter , while males will move to areas that will give them access to females . in areas with clumped resources it is not uncommon to see groups of raccoons denning and feeding together 2 , 5 . in urban and suburban environments raccoon density is often higher . 5 the time of year also influences raccoon sociality . from the late spring into early fall , female raccoons become less social towards non - relatives . during the winter and into spring , raccoons will either den up with their siblings and mother or share communal dens with other raccoons 4 .\nthe raccoon ( procyon cancrivorus , f . cuvier , 1798 ) is the only procyonid that occurs in itapu\u00e3 state park . this conservation area has 5 , 566 . 5 ha and it is located in porto alegre metropolitan area . the purpose of this study was to do qualitative and quantitative analyses of the alimentary items consumed by the raccoons in the park , as well as investigate the seasonality influence upon the diet of these animals . every month in 2002 fecal samples on fixed transects were collected , adding up two hundred and three samples . forty - one alimentary items were found ( 53 % fruits and 47 % of animal origin items ) . the arecaceae botanic family was the most eaten food , denoting the syagrus romanzoffiana ( cham . ) glassman like the key resource of the raccoon diet , and the butia capitata ( mart . ) becc . like an important seasonal alimentary resource . other fruits like ficus sp . , vitex megapotamica ( spreng . ) mold . , psidium sp . , and eugenia uruguayensis cambess . were registered as additional items , sustaining the opportunist behavior of this species . orthoptera , blattaria , and coleoptera were the most eaten invertebrate animals in the four seasons . the high relative frequencies of birds , rodents , and other mammals on the raccoon\u2019s taxodiet during the winter and spring denote its needs for a more improved diet of proteins in this time , due probably to low temperatures and to the birth of the cubs . the difference in the diet composition was proved using the randomization test ( \u03b1 = 0 . 05 ) to all the seasons , except between the winter and the spring . this result indicates that the diet of procyon cancrivorus in pei reflects the seasonal changes .\nthe body size of the raccoon varies by location . raccoons living at northern latitudes have an average body weight anywhere from 20 - 30 lbs . and an average body length of 16 - 24 in . long 3 . the smallest raccoons live on the islands of the florida keys 3 . raccoons are sexually dimorphic in body size , specifically , females are smaller than males . fluctuations in body weight will occur from season to season . raccoons are highly active during the summer and fall when resources are the most abundant 4 . they typically reduce their travels during the winter and spring due to the harsh weather conditions and limited availability of resources , thus their overall caloric intake is reduced .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern because although naturally rare in some areas of its range and seemingly limited in its adaptability to human activity , it has a wide distribution range and it is probably stable throughout south america where viable areas exist .\nthreats to this species have included overhunting for pelts , use for target practice , the pet trade , and , in some areas , habitat destruction . coastal development projects and mangrove destruction contribute regionally to population declines .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nis found from costa rica through eastern and western paraguay , uruguay , and into northern argentina . its range overlaps with that of\nare very similar and closely related . both species can be found in a variety of habitats , including primary and secondary growth forest .\n( de fatima , et al . , 1999 ; de la rosa and nocke , 2000 ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 )\n, which helps to distinguish the two species . male northern raccoons weigh from 7 to 8 . 3 kg , with the females weighing from 5 . 1 to 7 . 1 kg .\ndue to the lack of underfur , an adaptation to the warmer climates it occupies . the black mask of\nfades behind the eyes , unlike the northern species , which has a mask that extends almost to the ears . pelage of\n( de fatima , et al . , 1999 ; de la rosa and nocke , 2000 ; eisenberg and redford , 1999 ; feldhamer , et al . , 2003 )\n. northern raccoons have a higher mass - specific brm than other procyonids , which explains why this species has a more widespread distribution . their metabolic rates do not vary seasonally . both males and females tend to lose or gain weight among seasons , gaining in the winter and losing in the summer .\nmales are polygynous , mating with several females in succession , but females reject other males once they are impregnated . both sexes are mature after a year . however , younger males usually do not breed because they can not compete with larger , older males .\nbreeds once per year between july and september . the estrous cycle has been estimated to last 80 to 140 days . the gestation period lasts approximately 60 to 73 days and can yield from 2 to 7 pups , although 3 or 4 pups per litter is more typical . females give birth to their young in dens located in rock crevices , hollow trees , or in the abandoned dens of other animals .\nyoung raccoons are born without teeth and with their eyes closed . after 3 weeks their eyes open and they begin to show the characteristic mask on their faces . the young are weaned anywhere between 7 weeks and 4 months , and are independent at about 8 months .\nundoubtedly falls within this range of variation . if a female loses a newborn litter , she may ovulate a second time during the season .\n( de la rosa and nocke , 2000 ; feldhamer , et al . , 2003 ; nowak , 1999 )\nfemales provide all the parental care for the young , and may exclude males from the immediate area while they have young . the mother reduces her activity and movements during the week of parturition and becomes intolerant of conspecifics . the young begin to forage with their mother before they are weaned . they are dependent upon the female for up to 8 months , but there is some variation . males are not actively involved in caring for the young .\nlive longer than 5 years in the wild , although some are estimated to survive for 13 to 16 years . in 1982 , a\nraccoons have well - developed senses and are very intelligent . they are nocturnal and color blind , but have excellent night vision . their tactile senses are what separate raccoons from other carnivores . they have a well - developed sense of touch , especially in the nose and forepaws ( hands ) , and they use their hands as tools . they use their hands to handle and manipulate food before placing it in their mouths . they are dexterous , and can manipulate small prey items . raccoons can be observed dipping their hands in the water and \u201cwashing\u201d their food before ingesting it . some intelligence studies have placed raccoons above cats but below primates in their ability to discriminate objects . it was also observed that raccoons can learn quickly and can retain knowledge for up to a year .\nmale raccoons are solitary , but will tolerate other males around a feeding area . during breeding season , young males usually disperse to other areas , whereas young females stay within their mother\u2019s home range . in general , raccoons are solitary , even where there are overlapping home ranges between the sexes . there is little interaction between individuals , but exceptions do occur during denning and at food aggregations .\nmale social behavior may be driven by the densities and spatial distribution of females . female distributions are limited by resources such as den sites , water , and food . however , little is known about variation in social structure among various species of raccoons . it is assumed that\n( de la rosa and nocke , 2000 ; feldhamer , et al . , 2003 )\ndetails on predation of these animals are lacking . however , it is likely that\nas predators , these raccoons have some impact on prey species . as prey , they may affect predator populations .\nis an important furbearer and game species . it generates revenue from the sale of fur .\n( de la rosa and nocke , 2000 ; feldhamer , et al . , 2003 ; de la rosa and nocke , 2000 ; feldhamer , et al . , 2003 )\nis a carrier of rabies , and can sometimes damage crops , but usually not to a serious extent .\nmany references generalize by just saying\nraccoons\n. by just saying\nraccoons\n, we assume that are including both\nnicole phillips ( author ) , university of alaska fairbanks , link e . olson ( editor , instructor ) , university of alaska fairbanks .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nin mammals , a condition in which a fertilized egg reaches the uterus but delays its implantation in the uterine lining , sometimes for several months .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\nreferring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody ( usually , but not always , a river or stream ) .\na wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water , often dominated by woody vegetation .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\nde fatima , m . , m . dos santos , s . hartz . 1999 . the food habits of\n( carnivora , procyonidae ) in the lami biological reserve , porto algre , southern brazil .\nto cite this page : phillips , n . 2005 .\nprocyon cancrivorus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nflpa - images of nature pages green house wetheringsett stowmarket suffolk ip14 5qa united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 861 113 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 860 222 pictures @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyou came across this error because the pageyou were trying to visit does not exist .\nwe ' ve recently redesigned the site so old links may not work . have a look at some of these changes .\nyou may want to update your bookmarks or try to find the updated information using the links below . if you are still unable to find the information you are looking for , please contact the webmaster using the information below .\nfaculties / academics - find links to all faculties , departments and other academic resources e . g . handbooks , prospectus\nmedia centre - find media relations information here eg . news releases , events and announcements information\nprogrammes - view the faculty booklets containing the programmes available at the st . augustine campus\nresearch & innovation - view the cutting - edge research being done at the st . augustine campus\ncopyright 2015 the university of the west indies st . augustine , trinidad and tobago\nour 7 faculties , professional schools offer more than 200 programs to some 15 , 000 graduate , undergraduate and continuing studies students .\nthe uwi , st . augustine ranks first in trinidad and tobago among accredited tertiary - level programmes .\nthis page was last edited on 26 december 2017 , at 19 : 06 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nmateus pellanda , c\u00edntia maria castro almeida , maria de f\u00e1tima m . dos santos , sandra m . hartz\ns\u00e3o leopoldo , rs . av . unisinos , 950 . bairro cristo rei , cep : 93 . 022 - 000 . atendimento unisinos + 55 ( 51 ) 3591 1122\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\n. unlike many other animals , raccoons have adapted well to human infrastructure and tend to thrive in urban environments .\n. fur thickness is also dependent on the environment . populations that live at northern latitudes have thicker fur than those at southern latitudes\n. this animal has a generalist diet , meaning it consumes a wide range of food . they will eat plants , seeds , corn , rodents , fish , crayfish , berries , eggs , etc . they are also known for enjoying sugary foods like : apples , cherries , grapes , dates , melons and even marshmallows\n1 . zeveloff , s . i . ( 2002 ) . raccoons : a natural history . washington : smithsonian institution press .\n2 . macclintock , d . , & thomas , j . s . ( 1981 ) . a natural history of raccoons . new york : scribner .\n3 . reid , f . a . ( 2006 ) . a field guide to mammals of north america . boston : houghton mifflin company .\n5 . gehrt , s . d . , riley , s . p . d . , & cypher , b . l . ( 2010 ) . urban carnivores : ecology , conflict , and conservation . baltimore : the johns hopkins university press .\n6 . mcdougall , len . ( 1997 ) . the complete tracker : tracks , signs and habits of north american wildlife . 1st edition .\nraccoons are very adaptable , so they live in a wide range of climates and habitats .\nraccoons are round , fuzzy creatures with bushy tails and a black mask of fur that covers their eye area . these animals may look like cute , cuddly bandits , but they can be quite fearsome when approached .\nraccoons are about as big as small dogs . they grow to about 23 to 37 inches ( 60 to 95 centimeters ) and weigh 4 to 23 lbs . ( 1 . 8 to 10 . 4 kilograms ) , according to national geographic .\nraccoons are found in north and central america , europe and japan . they are very adaptable , so they live in a wide range of climates and habitats . they typically make homes , called dens , in trees or caves , though they will also make homes in barns , abandoned vehicles and other man - made locations , according to new hampshire public television .\nraccoons are not very social creatures . they are nocturnal and sleep during the day . during the winter , they tend to sleep more , but they do not hibernate in the traditional sense . they simply sleep while their bodies live off stored fat . they lose around 50 percent of their body weight during the winter , according to the university of michigan ' s animal diversity web ( adw ) .\nthough these animals look like the outlaws of the outdoors , raccoons are very clean creatures . they are known to wash their food in streams and even dig latrines in areas they frequent regularly .\nbaby raccoons are called kits or cubs and are usually born in the early summer . females have one to seven offspring after a gestation period of 60 to 73 days . as a group , a mother and her baby raccoons are called a nursery .\nfor the first two months of their lives , babies live in their den and are weened at 7 to 16 weeks . at 12 weeks , they will start to roam away from their mothers for whole nights at a time , according to the washington department of fish and wildlife . they become completely independent at 8 to 12 months of age . raccoons live around 2 to 3 years in the wild .\nraccoons can run up to 15 mph ( 24 km / h ) and can fall 35 to 40 feet ( 11 to 12 meters ) without injury , according to the adw .\nraccoons have five toes on their front paws that act much like human hands .\npoachers tried to kill rhinos in south african reserve . instead , a pride of lions killed them .\nalina bradford is a contributing writer for live science . over the past 16 years , alina has covered everything from ebola to androids while writing health , science and tech articles for major publications . she has multiple health , safety and lifesaving certifications from oklahoma state university . alina ' s goal in life is to try as many experiences as possible . to date , she has been a volunteer firefighter , a dispatcher , substitute teacher , artist , janitor , children ' s book author , pizza maker , event coordinator and much more .\nwe ' ve sent an email to please follow the instructions to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nnorthern racoon , procyon lotor , looking through log , new brunswick , canada .\nlicense type : urltoken rights : urltoken copyright status : in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n( nutriment ; nourishment ; nutrition ; sustenance ; aliment ; alimentation ; victuals ; fare ; eats ; food ; solid food ) , ( tuck into ; dig in ; dive in ; tuck in ; fall to ; help o . s . )\nyoung are born in july and august and are born three to a litter .\nreid , f . & helgen , k . ( 2008 ) . procyon cancrivorus . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 26 january 2009 .\nburnie d and wilson de ( eds . ) , animal : the definitive visual guide to the world ' s wildlife . dk adult ( 2005 ) , isbn 0789477645\nthis entry is from wikipedia , the leading user - contributed encyclopedia . it may not have been reviewed by professional editors ( see full disclaimer )\nune fen\u00eatre ( pop - into ) d ' information ( contenu principal de sensagent ) est invoqu\u00e9e un double - clic sur n ' importe quel mot de votre page web . la fen\u00eatre fournit des explications et des traductions contextuelles , c ' est - \u00e0 - dire sans obliger votre visiteur \u00e0 quitter votre page web !\nles jeux de lettre fran\u00e7ais sont : \u25cb anagrammes \u25cb jokers , mots - crois\u00e9s \u25cb lettris \u25cb boggle .\nlettris est un jeu de lettres gravitationnelles proche de tetris . chaque lettre qui appara\u00eet descend ; il faut placer les lettres de telle mani\u00e8re que des mots se forment ( gauche , droit , haut et bas ) et que de la place soit lib\u00e9r\u00e9e .\nil s ' agit en 3 minutes de trouver le plus grand nombre de mots possibles de trois lettres et plus dans une grille de 16 lettres . il est aussi possible de jouer avec la grille de 25 cases . les lettres doivent \u00eatre adjacentes et les mots les plus longs sont les meilleurs . participer au concours et enregistrer votre nom dans la liste de meilleurs joueurs ! jouer\nla plupart des d\u00e9finitions du fran\u00e7ais sont propos\u00e9es par sensegates et comportent un approfondissement avec littr\u00e9 et plusieurs auteurs techniques sp\u00e9cialis\u00e9s . le dictionnaire des synonymes est surtout d\u00e9riv\u00e9 du dictionnaire int\u00e9gral ( tid ) . l ' encyclop\u00e9die fran\u00e7aise b\u00e9n\u00e9ficie de la licence wikipedia ( gnu ) .\nles jeux de lettres anagramme , mot - crois\u00e9 , joker , lettris et boggle sont propos\u00e9s par memodata . le service web alexandria est motoris\u00e9 par memodata pour faciliter les recherches sur ebay .\nchanger la langue cible pour obtenir des traductions . astuce : parcourir les champs s\u00e9mantiques du dictionnaire analogique en plusieurs langues pour mieux apprendre avec sensagent .\ncopyright \u00a9 2000 - 2016 sensagent : encyclop\u00e9die en ligne , thesaurus , dictionnaire de d\u00e9finitions et plus . tous droits r\u00e9serv\u00e9s .\nles cookies nous aident \u00e0 fournir les services . en poursuivant votre navigation sur ce site , vous acceptez l ' utilisation de ces cookies . en savoir plus"]}
{"id": 1099, "summary": [{"text": "chasmaporthetes , also known as hunting or running hyena , is an extinct genus of hyenas distributed in eurasia , north america , and africa during the pliocene-pleistocene epochs , living from 4.9 million to 780,000 years ago , existing for about 4.12 million years .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the genus probably arose from eurasian miocene hyenas such as thalassictis or lycyaena , with c. borissiaki being the oldest known representative .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the species c. ossifragus was the only hyena to cross the bering land bridge into the americas , and ranged over what is now arizona and mexico during blancan and early irvingtonian land mammal ages , between 5.0 and 1.5 million years ago .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "chasmaporthetes was one of the so-called \" dog-like \" hyenas ( of which the aardwolf is the only survivor ) , a hyaenid group which , in contrast to the now more common \" bone-crushing \" hyenas , evolved into slender-limbed , cursorial hunters like modern canids .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the genus has entered the popular culture lexicon as a result of cryptozoologic claims , having been proposed as the likely origin of the american shunka warakin and the cuitlamiztli . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "chasmaporthetes", "paragraphs": ["etiquetas : acinonyx pardinensis . , asia . , chasmaporthetes australis . , chasmaporthetes lunensis . , chasmaporthetes . , europe . , miocene , north america . , pachycrocuta brevirostris . , prehistoric animals\nlife reconstruction of a pair of chasmaporthetes gangsriensis . image credit : julie selan .\nchasmaporthetes gangsriensis is the smaller among plio - pleistocene eurasian species of the genus .\ncomparative measurements ( mm ) of african fossil chasmaporthetes and lycyaenops maxillary premolars . a\nchasmaporthetes was named by hay ( 1921 ) . its type is chasmaporthetes ossifragus . it was assigned to hyaenidae by hay ( 1921 ) , geraads ( 1997 ) and flynn ( 1998 ) .\nby the early pliocene , chasmaporthetes crossed the bering land bridge to america , where they evolved into chasmaporthetes ossifragus , becoming north america\u2019s only native hyena before being brought to extinction by the end of the ice age .\npartial left maxilla of chasmaporthetes gangsriensis . scale bar \u2013 20 mm . image credit : tseng zj et al .\nthe new fossils of chasmaporthetes , including partial lower jaws , maxillae , and toe bones , were collected from the pliocene deposits of the zanda basin in southwestern tibetan plateau in 2009 , and identified as a new species , chasmaporthetes gangsriensis .\ntooth enamel structure in the hyaenid chasmaporthetes lunensis lunensis from the late pliocene of italy , with implication on feeding behaviour .\nartist\u2019s depiction of chasmaporthetes\u2013the hunting hyena . it was a fast runner and an important carnivore on 4 continents during the pliocene .\nchasmaporthetes gangsriensis lived in what is now tibetan plateau during the middle pliocene , 4 . 9 - 4 . 1 million years ago .\n( pdf ) tooth enamel structure in the hyaenid chasmaporthetes lunensis lunensis from the late pliocene of italy , with implication on feeding behaviour .\nberta , a . 1981 . the plio - pleistocene hyaena chasmaporthetes ossifragus from florida . journal of vertebrate paleontology , 1 : 341 - 356 .\nthe limb bones of chasmaporthetes were long and slender like those of cheetahs , and its cheek teeth were slender and sharp - edged like those of a cat . it is likely that chasmaporthetes probably inhabited open ground and was a daytime hunter . in europe , the species c . lunensis competed with the\n\u201c chasmaporthetes gangsriensis is morphologically the most basal pliocene chasmaporthetes in china , and is consistent with the \u2018out of tibet\u2019 hypothesis for some pleistocene megafauna\u201d , said dr zhijie jack tseng of natural history museum of los angeles county and university of southern california , who is the lead author of a paper published in the journal of vertebrate paleontology .\nchasmaporthetes kani , new species from china : with remarks on phylogenetic relationships of genera within the hyaenidae ( mammalia , carnivora ) . american museum novitates ; no . 2632\ncursorial hyenas ( chasmaporthetes ) , also known as hunting or running hyenas , are an extinct genus of hyenas endemic to north america , africa , and asia during pliocene and pleistocene periods .\nchasmaporthetes kani , new species from china : with remarks on phylogenetic relationships of genera within the hyaenidae ( mammalia , carnivora ) . american museum novitates ; no . 2632 | henry galiano - urltoken\ndetails - chasmaporthetes kani , new species from china : with remarks on phylogenetic relationships of genera within the hyaenidae ( mammalia , carnivora ) . american museum novitates ; no . 2632 - biodiversity heritage library\nan illustration of the skull of chasmaporthetes lunensis from spain and a full restoration of the hyena ' s dog - like head . art by mauricio ant\u00f3n and modified by ant\u00f3n et al . , 2007 .\nthe oldest representatives of chasmaporthetes appeared in the late miocene of greece , chad , and china . however , the genus was already widespread at the time of their earliest record around 7 million years ago .\nberta , a . ( 1981 ) . the plio - pleistocene hyaena chasmaporthetes ossifragus from florida journal of vertebrate paleontology , 1 ( 3 ) , 341 - 356 doi : 10 . 1080 / 02724634 . 1981 . 10011905\nthis prehistoric animal is an animal very curious . due to the different characteristics was an animal uncommon , and is called chasmaporthetes , although not really a distinct species , it really is the family of a peculiar group of hyenas .\nchasmaporthetes has often been called the\nhunting hyena .\nby itself , this isn ' t a very helpful moniker . despite their reputation as scavengers , for example , spotted hyenas actually obtain much of their meat through hunting , with carrion making up as little as five percent of their diet in some populations . even so , the nickname is meant to highlight the long - legged and relatively graceful build of chasmaporthetes . this was a hyena well - adapted to running and chasing down prey .\n. . . however , a few morphological features that are preserved prompt some modification of qiu et al . ' s ( 2004 ) emended diagnosis of the genus chasmaporthetes : they indicated that the infraorbital foramen in species of chasmaporthetes is located dorsally over the p4 anterior root , or immediately dorsorostral of it ; in c . gangsriensis , the foramen is situated dorsal of the posterior p3 root , a more plesiomorphic feature in their framework ( ) . by comparison , the infraorbital foramen is situated between p3 and p4 in the complete c . lunensis skull from la puebla de valverde ( ant\u00f3nant\u00b4ant\u00f3n et al . , 2006 ) , being more posterior than c . gangsriensis ; in correspondence , the orbit is also further rostrally placed in chasmaporthetes gangsriensis , and the ventral - most rim of the orbit is just above the p4 paracone , not the p4 metastyle as in the la puebla de valverde specimen . the morphology shown in c . gangsriensis therefore expands the range of variation in relative p4 - infraorbital foramen position in chasmaporthetes . . . .\nchasmaporthetes is a genus that lived in europe , asia , africa and north america about 15 million years ago during the miocene . in short , a sort of prehistoric animal that i thought you would like to know if you love animals , prehistoric or not .\n. . . pliocene faunas of europe yield two species of hyaenids : the more common in the paleontological record pliocrocuta perrieri and the quite rare so - called hunting hyaena chasmaporthetes lunensis . chasmaporthetes apparently represented a wolf - like ecotype , although its dentition and jaws were still quite robust and well adapted to bone crushing ( galiano and frailey , 1977 ; ferretti 1999 ; anton et al . , 2006 ) . anton et al . ( 2006 ) suggested that c . lunensis was an active group hunting predator . . . .\ndiscussion . the associated dnm 3 specimens represent a partial left pes of a hyaenid that is both metrically and morphologically distinct from both crocuta and parahyaena . the metatarsal and phalanges conform to previously described morphology of chasmaporthetes elements , but are more gracile than the more robust north american taxon ( berta , 1981 ; tseng et al . , 2013 ) . at present , the drimolen makondo specimens have not been directly compared to postcranial elements associated with craniodental remains assigned to percrocuta ( adcrocuta ) australis ( l 13033 ; hendey , 1974 ; 1978 ) , reassigned to chasmaporthetes australis ( werdelin and solounias , 1990 ) , that include a third and fifth metatarsal and seven phalanges ( of undescribed position ; neither photographs nor measurements of these specimens have been published ) . at present , the known biogeography of chasmaporthetes in south africa during the terminal pliocene and early pleistocene would suggest these remains most likely represent chasmaporthetes nitidula ; it is the only currently recognised species in the genus documented in the cradle of humankind karstic deposits , and two craniodental specimens are known from the drimolen main quarry ( o\u2019regan and menter , 2009 ) . at a minimum , these specimens represent one of only two sets of chasmaporthetes postcrania in africa , the first attributed postcrania for the genus known from a cradle locality , and potentially the first c . nitidula postcrania in the record .\nwerdelin , l . , a . turner and n . solounias . 1994 . studies of fossil hyaenids : the genera hyaenictis gaudry and chasmaporthetes hay , with consideration of the hyaenidae of langabaanweg , south africa . zoological journal of the linnean society 111 : 197 - 217 .\nkurten , b . , & werdelin , l . ( 1988 ) . a review of the genus chasmaporthetes hay , 1921 ( carnivora , hyaenidae ) journal of vertebrate paleontology , 8 ( 1 ) , 46 - 66 doi : 10 . 1080 / 02724634 . 1988 . 10011683\n. . . the relative gracility and less massive dentition of chasmaporthetes lunensis suggest reduced scavenging habits ( turner , 1992b ) . according to ant\u00f3n et al . ( 2006 ) , it could be a social predator , as a single individual would be unable to subdue and kill medium - and large - sized prey because of its long muzzle and relatively gracile forelimbs . however , croitor and brugal ( 2010 ) qualify chasmaporthetes as a\nwolf - like\necotype , retaining strong bone - crushing capabilities , and consider this hyaenid a solitary predator . . . .\nalthough many researchers stressed that the cheek teeth of the several chasmaporthetes species were better suited to shearing than crushing , this did not mean that the hyenas were incapable of cracking bone . after all , modern spotted hyenas are formidable hunters as well as accomplished bone - crackers , and a complete skull of the european species c . lunensis found in spain exhibited patterns of tooth wear consistent with breaking open bones . much like the modern spotted hyena , chasmaporthetes was a hunter that could make full use of a carcass , as well as scavenge when the opportunity presented itself .\n. . . < 90 ? . this morphology is characteristic of the three extant bone - cracking hyenas and the extinct pachycrocuta , clearly distinguishing the studied specimens from chasmaporthetes , which displays less steeply folded bands and more closely packed with one another ( ferretti , 1999 ) . . . .\nyet chasmaporthetes was not unique to north america . the species hay described - c . ossifragus - turned up in deposits between 3 and 1 . 5 million years old at other sites in mexico , the american southwest , and florida , but other species of the same genus were also discovered in europe , africa and asia . rather than being entirely unique to north america , chasmaporthetes had initially evolved elsewhere and eventually spread over the bering land bridge into north america . it was a long - lived variety of hyena that was just part of a radiation of now - extinct forms .\nthe left upper jaw ( maxilla ) of a chasmaporthetes found in florida ( facing left ) . the preserved teeth , from the left , are the third incisor , canine , and premolars 2 - 4 . ( the second incisor and first premolar were missing . ) from berta , 1981 .\nhunter - schreger bands ( hsb ) and the outer enamel surface of the teeth of the hunting hyena chasmaporthetes lunensis lunenesis del campana , from olivola ( late pliocene , italy ) has been analysed . as in the bone crushing hyenas ( crocuta , hyaena , and pachycrocuta ) c . i . lunensis possesses complex hsb , with both horizontal and vertical components . however the less intense folding of the hsb and the smooth outer enamel surface suggest a more primitive structure than that in the bone crushing hyenas . this is consistent with the hypothesis that chasmaporthetes was not an extremely specialized bone eater .\ntseng , j . z . , li , q . , and wang , x . 2013 . a new cursorial hyena from tibet , and analysis of biostratigraphy , paleozoogeography , and dental morphology of chasmaporthetes ( mammalia , carnivora . j ournal of vertebrate paleontology , 33 : 1457 - 1471 .\ntseng zj et al . 2013 . a new cursorial hyena from tibet , and analysis of biostratigraphy , paleozoogeography , and dental morphology of chasmaporthetes ( mammalia , carnivora ) . journal of vertebrate paleontology 33 ( 6 ) : 1457 - 1471 ; doi : 10 . 1080 / 02724634 . 2013 . 775142\nty - book ti - chasmaporthetes kani , new species from china : with remarks on phylogenetic relationships of genera within the hyaenidae ( mammalia , carnivora ) . american museum novitates ; no . 2632 ur - urltoken py - 1977 au - frailey , david . au - galiano , henry . er -\nthough the north american chasmaporthetes specimens were differentiated from other species by their relatively robust limbs , deep lower jaws , and slightly curved tooth rows , their general anatomy was consistent with finds in the old world . these hyenas were hunters that ran down their prey . this might have put them in competition with speedy cats that evolved about 1 . 8 million years ago - namely north america ' s false cheetah miracinonyx - but some researchers stressed caution in drawing conclusions about diet on the basis on anatomy alone . in a 1994 paper about chasmaporthetes and hyaenictis , paleontologists lars werdelin , alan turner , and nikos solounias wrote :\nthe scientists turned out to be wrong . based upon the computerized models created for the study , tseng and colleagues concluded that the skull of\nchasmaporthetes was just as adapted for handling stress incurred during bone - cracking behavior as the modern crocuta [ spotted hyena ] .\nyet this does not necessarily mean that the extinct hyena hunted and fed in the exact same way that spotted hyenas do . chasmaporthetes still had comparatively slender teeth better suited to cutting through fresh than breaking through bone , and so the authors of the paper suggest that the stress - absorbing features of the skull might be adaptations to withstanding forces generated by struggling prey . the way the hyenas caught prey has to be taken into account , and future studies that model stresses created by prey may help scientists identify skull characteristics related to hunting rather than fracturing bone . chasmaporthetes certainly could have been a competent bone - cracker , but whether the anatomy of its skull can be attributed to this kind of behavior is another question .\nzhijie tseng , mauricio ant\u00f3n , and manuel salesa published the results of their study in paleobiology earlier this year . like many other bone - cracking carnivorans , the skull of chasmaporthetes exhibited a mosaic of features that gave it a powerful bite - a short snout , massive premolars , a large sagittal crest on the top of the skull for muscle attachment , deep lower jaws , and teeth modified at the microscopic level to resist fracturing . these traits are present to relatively lesser or greater degrees among carnivorous mammals adapted to crack bones , but the scientists proposed that the skull of chasmaporthetes would have had suffered greater stress while breaking through bone than the skull of a modern spotted hyena .\n. . . european hyaenictis have generally been included in the hyaenid ecomorphotype 4 ( cursorial meat - and bone - eating hyenas , including among others chasmaporthetes and lycyaena ) , instead of ecomorphotype 5 ( transitional bonecracking hyenas , like belbus werdelin and solounias , 1991 , and metahyaena viranta and werdelin , 2003 ) or 6 ( fullydeveloped bone - cracking hyenas such as adcrocuta ; werdelin 1996 ; werdelin and solounias 1996 ; turner et al . 2008 ) . however , some previous studies have favored some degree of durophagy in cursorial miocene hyaenids such as chasmaporthetes , in spite of noting their lesser bone - cracking abilities compared to fully developed bone - crackers ( kurt\u00e9n and werdelin 1988 ; werdelin et al . 1994 ; ferretti 1999 ; ant\u00f3n et al . 2006 ) . this was further confirmed by a finite elements analysis of the skull of chasmaporthetes ( tseng et al . 2011 ) , according to which this taxon would have been able to the resist the masticatory stresses generated by a bone - cracking diet ( although less efficiently than crocuta ) . . . .\n. . . european hyaenictis have generally been included in the hyaenid ecomorphotype 4 ( cursorial meat - and bone - eating hyenas , including among others chasmaporthetes and lycyaena ) , instead of ecomorphotype 5 ( transitional bonecracking hyenas , like belbus werdelin and solounias , 1991 , and metahyaena viranta and werdelin , 2003 ) or 6 ( fullydeveloped bone - cracking hyenas such as adcrocuta ; werdelin 1996 ; werdelin and solounias 1996 ; turner et al . 2008 ) . however , some previous studies have favored some degree of durophagy in cursorial miocene hyaenids such as chasmaporthetes , in spite of noting their lesser bone - cracking abilities compared to fully developed bone - crackers ( kurt\u00e9n and werdelin 1988 ; werdelin et al . 1994 ; ferretti 1999 ; ant\u00f3n et al . 2006 ) . this was further confirmed by a finite elements analysis of the skull of chasmaporthetes ( tseng et al . 2011 ) , according to which this taxon would have been able to the resist the masticatory stresses generated by a bone - cracking diet ( although less efficiently than crocuta ) . . . .\ntseng , z . , ant\u00f3n , m . , & salesa , m . ( 2011 ) . the evolution of the bone - cracking model in carnivorans : cranial functional morphology of the plio - pleistocene cursorial hyaenid chasmaporthetes lunensis ( mammalia : carnivora ) paleobiology , 37 ( 1 ) , 140 - 156 doi : 10 . 1666 / 09045 . 1\nit should be noted , however , that our suggestion of adaptations towards a cursorial and active hunting mode of life for chasmaporthetes does not mean that it did not scavenge , nor that it was necessarily in competition with extremely cursorial hunters such as acinonyx [ true cheetahs ] and miracinonyx . however , relative to other hyaenas [ , ] it has clearly evolved in that direction .\nwerdelin , l . , turner , a . , & solounias , n . ( 1994 ) . studies of fossil hyaenids : the genera hyaenictis gaudry and chasmaporthetes hay , with a reconsideration of the hyaenidae of langebaanweg , south africa zoological journal of the linnean society , 111 ( 3 ) , 197 - 217 doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1096 - 3642 . 1994 . tb01483 . x\nfor decades , most of what was hypothesized about the north american hyena was based on chasmaporthetes specimens found elsewhere . jaw fragments and teeth were all that had been recovered in the southwest and mexico . this changed in 1981 , when annalisa berta described parts of the skull and limbs of the hyena found in florida . no single skeleton was found , but by looking at the accumulated pieces berta determined that the florida hyenas had strongly - muscled , flexible upper arms and long , slightly curved tibiaewhich indicated that the hyenas had very powerful hindlimbs . the fact that premolars of chasmaporthetes resembled the meat - slicing teeth of the spotted hyena rather than the crushers of the brown and striped hyenas was taken as an indication that it was more of a predator than a scavenger , and a fleet - footed one at that .\n@ book { bhl167948 , title = { chasmaporthetes kani , new species from china : with remarks on phylogenetic relationships of genera within the hyaenidae ( mammalia , carnivora ) . american museum novitates ; no . 2632 } , url = urltoken note = urltoken publisher = { } , author = { frailey , david . and galiano , henry . } , year = { } , pages = { 0 } , }\nunfortunately , no one has yet found a complete skull from an american hyena . perhaps some lucky paleontologist will , but , for now , the skull from spain provides the best available information about the possible feeding habits of these\nhunting hyenas .\ni can only imagine a pack of chasmaporthetes chasing down a prehistoric pronghorn through the grasslands - a scene that still echoes in africa , but occurred during a distant part of north america ' s prehistory .\n. . . ( turner et al . 2008 ) . thus , ips62078 differs from chasmaporthetes ( see kurt\u00e9n and werdelin 1988 ; werdelin and solounias 1991 ; werdelin and turner 1996 ; ant\u00f3n et al . 2006 ; tseng et al . 2013 ) in the presence of p1 , the relatively broader cheek teeth , the less developed accessory cusps in the premolars , the mesial and distal accessory cusps of the premolars aligned with the main cusp ( instead of lingually tilted ) , the presence of metaconid ( even if vestigial ) , the tricuspid m1 talonid ( chasmaporthetes lacks the hypoconulid and sometimes the hypoconid ) , and the presence of m2 . compared to lycyaena , the dentition of ips62078 is larger , somewhat stouter ( i . e . , it displays relatively broader cheek teeth ) , and is further characterized by smaller and more indistinct premolar accessory cusps ( werdelin 1988 ; werdelin and solounias 1991 ) . . . .\n. . . the enigmatic chasmaporthetes clusters with hyaenidae but is more distinct than the other species in its mandible shape ( fig . 7 ) . this taxon was less capable of cracking bones than the extant crocuta , hyaena , and parahyaena , which cluster with pachycrocuta and pliocrocuta , confirming previous inferences on its paleobiology ( berta , 1981 ; kurt\u00e9nkurt\u00b4kurt\u00e9n and werdelin , 1988 ; ferretti , 1999ferretti , , 2007 ant\u00f3nant\u00b4ant\u00f3n et al . , 2006 ) . . . .\n. . . the enigmatic chasmaporthetes clusters with hyaenidae but is more distinct than the other species in its mandible shape ( fig . 7 ) . this taxon was less capable of cracking bones than the extant crocuta , hyaena , and parahyaena , which cluster with pachycrocuta and pliocrocuta , confirming previous inferences on its paleobiology ( berta , 1981 ; kurt\u00e9nkurt\u00b4kurt\u00e9n and werdelin , 1988 ; ferretti , 1999 ferretti , , 2007ant\u00f3nant\u00b4ant\u00f3n et al . , 2006 ) . . . .\nhyenas diverged from the stem feliform in the oligocene and transitioned through six ecomorph groups from civet - like insectivores / omnivores through generalised jackal - like meat and small bone eaters to the fully developed modern bone crushers . 4 this middle phase is well represented by the four hyaenid species that have been described from the south african fossil site of langebaanweg ( lbw ) e quarry 14 - 17 ( figure 1 ) : chasmaporthetes australis , hyaenictitherium namaquensis , hyaenictis hendeyi and ikelohyaena abronia . 4 , 18\nacinonyx pardinensis , and may have preyed on the small bourbon gazelle ( gazella borbonica ) and the chamois antelope ( procamptoceras brivatense ) . the north american c . ossifragus was similar in build to c . lunensis , but had slightly more robust jaws and teeth . it may have preyed on the giant marmot paenemarmota , and competed with the far more numerous borophagus diversidens . a study on the genus ' premolar intercuspid notches indicate that chasmaporthetes was likely hypercarnivorous rather than durophagus as its modern cousins ( excluding the aardwolf ) are .\n. . . the same value in tasso and serengeti , because of the occurrence in the tasso assemblage of the hunting hyaena chasmaporthetes lunensis ( del campana , 1914 ) . this peculiar hyaenid was , in fact , characterized by a dental specialization to bone consumption lesser developed than in the\nhyper - scavenger\npachycrocuta , or in the extant bone - crackers hyaena and crocuta ( ferretti , 1999 ferretti , , 2007 rook et al . , 2004 ) . the same reasoning can be addressed concerning the category\ncarcasse destroyers\noffig . . . .\nthe lbw hyaenids , unlike their modern bone - cracking counterparts , were poorly adapted to bone cracking . 1 - 18 , 40 , 41 ikelohyaena abronia , which has traditionally been regarded as the most durophagous of the lbw species , 4 , 22 , 38 possessed derived features in skull stress distribution and levels of strain energy similar to those of crocuta crocuta , but importantly lacked the bite force of the extant species . 42 this fossil species belonged to a clade of early or transitional bone - cracking hyenas that also included other early genera such as palinhyaena , belbus , hyaenid sp . e and leecyaena . 4 chasmaporthetes australis and h . hendeyi on the other hand , fell within a clade of hypercarnivorous hyenas that also included the extinct genus lycyaena . the extinct lycyaena - chasmaporthetes - hyaenictis clade , which emerged as habitats opened up during the terminal miocene , was unique in that its members exhibited post - cranial adaptations indicative of advanced cursoriality . 4 , 30 hyaenictitherium namaquensis was a late - occurring member of the ictitherines , a clade of canid - like hyenas that were prominent during the middle miocene and began dying out at the end of the miocene .\nbut paleontologists have been able to do more than propose hypotheses on the gross anatomy of the chasmaporthetes bones alone . the rediscovery of the skull from spain - which had been found in the 1970 ' s and studied by dolores soria for her doctoral thesis before fading from view until 2007 - finally provided scientists with an opportunity to see what kind of stresses and strains the hyena ' s skull was capable of withstanding . paleontologists have carried out these tests for a variety of bone - crunching mammals over the years , and so there was already plenty to compare the c . lunensis skull with .\n. . . the hyaenids proteles cristata ( j050607t02 , zjt comparative collection , prepared dry skull ) , ictitherium sp . ( hmv 0163 ) , chasmaporthetes lunensis [ 55 , 72 ] , ikelohyaena abronia [ 65 ] , parahyaena brunnea ( mvz 117842 , museum of vertebrate zoology , university of california , berkeley ) , and crocuta crocuta [ 55 ] were analyzed . the fossil and modern canids analyzed included mesocyon coryphaeus , microtomarctus conferta , epicyon haydeni , borophagus secundus , and canis lupus from tseng and wang [ 52 ] , and lycaon pictus from tseng and stynder [ 65 ] . . . .\nfossil species of the family hyaenidae represent a wide range of ecomorphological diversity not observed in living representatives of this carnivoran group . among them , the cursorial meat - and - bone specialists are of particular interest not only because they were the most cursorial of the hyaenids , but also because they were the only members of this family to spread into the new world . here we conduct a functional morphological analysis of the cranium of the cursorial meat - and - bone specialist chasmaporthetes lunensis by using finite element modeling to compare it with the living crocuta crocuta , a well - known bone - cracking carnivoran .\nfor this analysis we only considered specimens preserving sufficient morphology to be identified at least to order level and are not presenting data on indeterminate mammalian elements or fragments . we have also not undertaken an analysis of the 554 primate craniodental and postcranial specimens , as this collection has recently been partially analysed ( see nieuwoudt , 2014 ) . we have also not duplicated the primary description of the main quarry carnivores of o\u2019regan & menter ( 2009 ) , but we have re - evaluated the previously published dinofelis and chasmaporthetes specimens because of their bearing on biochronological interpretations and present data on carnivore specimens catalogued since publication of that study .\nchasmaporthetes , also known as hunting or running hyena , is an extinct genus of hyena endemic to north america , africa , and asia during the pliocene - pleistocene epochs , living from 4 . 9 mya\u2014780 , 000 years ago , existing for approximately 4 . 12 million years . the genus probably arose from eurasian miocene hyenas such as thalassictis or lycyaena , with c . borissiaki being the oldest known representative . the species c . ossifragus was the only hyena to cross the bering land bridge into the americas , and ranged over what is now arizona and mexico during blancan and early irvingtonian land mammal ages , between 5 to 1 . 5 million years ago .\nin 1921 oliver hays was the curator of a museum that eventually became the smithsonian . one day , he was examining fossils that had been collected from the val verde copper mine in anita , arizona 20 years earlier . barnum brown , a world renowned fossil collector at a time when fossil hunters were celebrities , had labeled 1 specimen as \u201ccat . \u201d this curious specimen consisted of just a lower jaw . after much pain - staking comparisons with other specimens , oliver hay concluded the jaw belonged to an extinct species of hyena that he named chasmaporthetes ossifragus . the paleontological community doubted hay had correctly identified the specimen . it was nearly 50 years before enough evidence had accumulated to verify hay\u2019s conclusion that hyenas once roamed north america .\ndescription . in addition to the four indeterminate hyaenid craniodental and postcranial specimens described by o\u2019regan & menter ( 2009 ) , three further elements can be attributed to the family . the dn 2864 scapula preserves a very large infraglenoid tubercle relative to the size of the preserved glenoid fossa and is derived from hyaenid smaller than extant parahyaena brunnea thunberg , 1820 . the dn 2973 right p4 preserves the complete protocone and lingual aspect of the anterior accessory cusp and paracone with little occlusal wear . there is some buccolingual swelling on the paracone that is shared with extant p . brunnea p4s and the sk 327 p . brunnea p4 from swartkrans member 1 ( although smaller than the latter ) , and there is no evidence for buccolingual compression or a ridge leading to the trigon basin as in crocuta crocuta . this specimen , along with the dn 2321 p4 fragment described by o\u2019regan & menter ( 2009 : 344 ) , support the occurrence of a hyaenid individual distinct from lycyaenops and chasmaporthetes in the main quarry deposits . in contrast , the dn 3281 right p2 preserves the anterior margin of the crown and half of the anterior root that lacks the cingulum distinctive for p . brunnea dentition . the specimen preserves strong labial ridging and a flattened lingual aspect , and is too buccolingually expanded to represent chasmaporthetes or lycyaenops . the closest extant morphological match is crocuta crocuta ; minimally suggesting an additional hyaenid distinct from l . silberbergi , c . nitidula , and the dn 2973 / 2321 individuals .\nchasmaporthetes ossifragus , known as the hunting hyena , lived in north america from about 4 . 9 million years bp to ~ 780 , 000 bp , making it an important large carnivore of the pliocene and early pleistocene . it had long strong legs and is thought to have been an active hunting animal that chased its prey down , possibly in packs . although it possessed a powerful bite and did eat some bone , it didn\u2019t eat as much bone as the modern extant spotted hyena ( crocuta crocuta ) . it lived alongside other large predators such as the bone eating dog ( borophagus diversidens ) , the giant cheetah ( acinonyx ) , the scimitar - toothed cat ( dinobastis ) , and the dirk - toothed cat ( megantereon ) . it likely preyed upon horses , llamas , camels , peccaries , deer , pronghorn , marmots , and other small mammals .\ndescription . dnm 3 - 4 is a fourth metatarsal preserving the proximal articular surface and a small portion of the diaphysis ( fig ure 6 . 1\u20135 ) . while the articular surface is robust , the proximal end is distinctly mediolaterally compressed relative to extant hyaenids ( e . g . , crocuta and hyaena ; table 5 ) but follow the proportions and morphology of the single previously described chasmaporthetes ossifragus third metatarsal ( uf 27372 ; berta , 1981 ; table 5 ) . the medial and lateral aspects preserve the paired ( dorsal , triangular ; plantar , rectangular ) articular facets for the third and fifth metatarsals , respectively . in slight contrast to the uf 27372 specimen , the lateral dorsal articular facet is more robust and extends further towards the plantar surface on dnm 3 - 4 . this extension nearly converges with the plantar facet to close off the shallow concavity that receives the base of the fifth metatarsal .\nmost of the initial identifications brown had made in his notes turned out to be correct . the mammals appeared to represent a time in the not - too - distant past when forms still living in north america today mixed with lineages that have since been extirpated . what stood out were two parts of\ncat\njaw that didn ' t correspond to any known feline . with the exception of a tiny part of a molar , the crowns of the teeth were entirely gone , but together the two pieces comprised most of the mandible of a carnivorous mammal . though this was not much to work with , hay was able to determine that the jaw had belonged to a hyena - a type of carnivore never before found in north america - and he named it chasmaporthetes ossifragus .\nthe name of this [ genus ] makes allusion to the grand canyon ,\nhay wrote ,\nwhose beginning this animal may have witnessed .\nfossil remains of chamaporthete s have been found at 4 sites in florida , 3 sites in arizona , 2 sites in north texas , 2 sites in mexico , and 1 site in new mexico . it is the only species of hyena known to have crossed the bering landbridge to north america where it was likely more widespread than its fossil record would indicate\u2013there just aren\u2019t many pliocene - aged fossil sites in the midwest and northeast . a similar species , chasmaporthetes lunensis , lived in europe , asia , and africa during the same time period , and it may actually be the same species . this means the hunting hyena was 1 of the most wide ranging and successful large carnivores ever . the reason for its extinction is unknown , but it disappeared at a time when forests were replacing grassland and desert habitats . archaic species of wolves ecologically replaced american hyenas , but it\u2019s not known whether they outcompeted them or simply took advantage of an extinction that occurred due to other causes .\na remarkably complete , well - preserved skull of the pliocene hunting hyaena chasmaporthetes lunensis from la puebla de valverde ( teruel ) is described . this exceptional find allows us to define more clearly the cranial morphology of this taxon , and to put its morphological features into evolutionary and functional perspective . compared with the sympatric hyaenid pliocrocuta perrieri , c . iunensis has a higher and wider rostrum , cheek teeth placed more anteriorly in relation to the orbits , a lower zygoma and a dorsally concave saggital crest , all pointing to a lesser development of the muscle temporalis and a greater emphasis on canine bite over premolar crushing bite . horizontal wear on the premolars , caudal extension of the frontal sinus and other features indicate that scavenging or at least complete utilization of carcasses was a behavioural trait of the hunting hyaena . overall , the available evidence suggests that c . iunensis was an active , group hunting predator of medium - sized ungulates , able to fully utilize car - casses but less dedicated to scavenging than the contemporary species p . perrieri .\nalthough africa ' s spotted hyena is the most iconic member of the group , there are three other species of living hyena : the striped hyena , the brown hyena , and the aardwolf . they are all that ' s left of a once - more widespread and diverse lineage that traces back about 20 million years to small , civet - like forms such as plioviverrops . now , based upon appearances alone , it might seem reasonable to lump all four modern hyenas into a single evolutionary subgroup tied together by common ancestry , but this wouldn ' t be right . the aardwolf , a strange and small hyena that primarily eats termites , is actually a relatively distant cousin of other modern hyenas and represents what some of the early members of the group may have been like . likewise , the extinct giant pachycrocuta was a closer relative of the spotted hyena than the striped and brown hyenas , and there was an entire array of extinct forms with no living representatives . chasmaporthetes was among these now - extinct hyena lineages , and it was significantly different from the hyenas we know today .\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > chasmaporthetes kani , new species from china : with remarks on phylogenetic relationships of genera within the hyaenidae ( mammalia , carnivora ) . american museum novitates ; no . 2632 < / title > < / titleinfo > < name > < namepart > frailey , david . < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > galiano , henry . < / namepart > < / name > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> book < / genre > < origininfo > < dateissued > 1977 < / dateissued > < / origininfo > < physicaldescription > < form authority =\nmarcform\n> print < / form > < / physicaldescription > < language > < languageterm authority =\niso639 - 2b\ntype =\ntext\n> english < / languageterm > < / language > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < / mods >\nthe carnivoran specimens provide a more constrained depositional age . remains of the genus chasmaporthetes have been recovered across african localities , with c . nitidula described from south african deposits ranging from sterkfontein jacovec cavern and members 2 and 4 ( < 2 . 46\u20132 . 01 ma ; herries et al . , 2013 ) to as late as swartkrans member 3 ( sometime between 1 . 3 and 0 . 6 ma ; herries , curnoe & adams , 2009 ) . however , lycyaenops silberbergi has been recovered from a far narrower range of terminal pliocene and early pleistocene deposits of laetoli ( as lycyaenops cf . l . silberbergi ; werdelin & dehghani , 2011 ) in east africa and sterkfontein in south africa ( \u223c3 . 8\u20132 . 02 ma ; turner , 1990 ; turner , 1997 ; werdelin & lewis , 2005 ; werdelin & peign\u00e9 , 2010 ; herries & shaw , 2011 ; herries & adams , 2013 ) . a single mandibular specimen ( sk 300 ) of lycyaenops silberbergi has been described from swartkrans member 1 ( ewer , 1955b ) , and although questions over provenience has been raised it is still considered derived from these deposits ( see discussion in turner , 1987b ) ; this effectively establishes an lad for the species within these deposits of 1 . 96 - 1 . 80 ma ( pickering et al . , 2011a ; herries & adams , 2013 ) .\nthe drimolen palaeocave system has been actively excavated since the 1990s and has produced a demographically - diverse record of paranthropus robustus , early homo , and a substantial record of early pleistocene bone tools ; all recovered from the main quarry , a single fossil bearing deposit within the system . early surveys identified an isolated solution - tube 55 m west of the main quarry filled with decalcified matrix and fossils ( the drimolen makondo ) . recent excavations into the makondo have started to address the geology , depositional history , and faunas of the deposits ; particularly whether the makondo represents a distant uneroded part of the main quarry infill , or deposits in - filled into a separate entrance within the same system . we present the first description of fossil macromammalian faunas from the makondo , excavated 2013 - 2014 . a total of 531 specimens were recovered , 268 ( 50 . 5 % ) of which are taxonomically identifiable . the resulting list is diverse given the sample size and includes primate and carnivore taxa frequently recovered at other terminal pliocene and earlier pleistocene localities , as well as more rarely encountered species and elements like the first postcranial remains of the hunting hyaenid ( chasmaporthetes ? nitidula ) from the cradle . while some of the makondo fauna overlaps with taxa recovered from the main quarry , there are key differences between the described samples that may reflect differences in the age of the deposits and / or taphonomic processes between these deposits at drimolen .\nlarge carnivores structure the character of scavenging opportunities in any environment . in pliocene and early pleistocene africa there were three large sabertooth cats sympatric with the ancestors of the modern felid community , and scavenging opportunities were presumably different from those in modern africa . an understanding of a possible scavenging niche for early hominids must articulate knowledge gained from actualistic research with detailed reconstructions of extinct carnivore paleoecology . contrasting skeletal and dental anatomy suggest that sabertooths and modern felids were ecologically distinct . evidence from functional morphology and fossil associations elucidates the distinctions . sabertooth incisor and carnassial morphology indicates extreme flesh specialisation and lack of bone - crushing ability . sabertooth cranial morphology and fossil associations suggest a specialisation upon very large prey . the post - cranial morphology of sabertooths indicates a dense woodland and forest habitat preference . this implies that two distinct large carnivore communities existed in the pliocene and early pleistocene : a mixed and open habitat community composed of the ancestors of the extant carnivore community plus chasmaporthetes , and a closed habitat community dominated by the sabertooths . scavenging opportunities in the closed habitat community would have been much better than in more open habitats . homo habilis with its inferred arboreal abilities could have passively scavenged very effectively in dense woodlands and forests . paleoenvironmental and paleontological data indicate that these closed habitats shrunk after 1\u00b77 million years ago and the sabertooths probably went extinct in sub - saharan africa . homo habilis perhaps increasingly utilised more open habitats and would have been forced to confront large predators to gain adequate scavenging returns . archaeological data of stone tool raw materials and site placement suggests that early hominids switched from an emphasis on dense woodland habitats to increased usage of more open habitats after 1\u00b76 million years ago . confrontational scavenging along with increased predation pressure may have contributed to the morphological changes associated with the shift to homo erectus .\nn2 - large carnivores structure the character of scavenging opportunities in any environment . in pliocene and early pleistocene africa there were three large sabertooth cats sympatric with the ancestors of the modern felid community , and scavenging opportunities were presumably different from those in modern africa . an understanding of a possible scavenging niche for early hominids must articulate knowledge gained from actualistic research with detailed reconstructions of extinct carnivore paleoecology . contrasting skeletal and dental anatomy suggest that sabertooths and modern felids were ecologically distinct . evidence from functional morphology and fossil associations elucidates the distinctions . sabertooth incisor and carnassial morphology indicates extreme flesh specialisation and lack of bone - crushing ability . sabertooth cranial morphology and fossil associations suggest a specialisation upon very large prey . the post - cranial morphology of sabertooths indicates a dense woodland and forest habitat preference . this implies that two distinct large carnivore communities existed in the pliocene and early pleistocene : a mixed and open habitat community composed of the ancestors of the extant carnivore community plus chasmaporthetes , and a closed habitat community dominated by the sabertooths . scavenging opportunities in the closed habitat community would have been much better than in more open habitats . homo habilis with its inferred arboreal abilities could have passively scavenged very effectively in dense woodlands and forests . paleoenvironmental and paleontological data indicate that these closed habitats shrunk after 1\u00b77 million years ago and the sabertooths probably went extinct in sub - saharan africa . homo habilis perhaps increasingly utilised more open habitats and would have been forced to confront large predators to gain adequate scavenging returns . archaeological data of stone tool raw materials and site placement suggests that early hominids switched from an emphasis on dense woodland habitats to increased usage of more open habitats after 1\u00b76 million years ago . confrontational scavenging along with increased predation pressure may have contributed to the morphological changes associated with the shift to homo erectus .\nab - large carnivores structure the character of scavenging opportunities in any environment . in pliocene and early pleistocene africa there were three large sabertooth cats sympatric with the ancestors of the modern felid community , and scavenging opportunities were presumably different from those in modern africa . an understanding of a possible scavenging niche for early hominids must articulate knowledge gained from actualistic research with detailed reconstructions of extinct carnivore paleoecology . contrasting skeletal and dental anatomy suggest that sabertooths and modern felids were ecologically distinct . evidence from functional morphology and fossil associations elucidates the distinctions . sabertooth incisor and carnassial morphology indicates extreme flesh specialisation and lack of bone - crushing ability . sabertooth cranial morphology and fossil associations suggest a specialisation upon very large prey . the post - cranial morphology of sabertooths indicates a dense woodland and forest habitat preference . this implies that two distinct large carnivore communities existed in the pliocene and early pleistocene : a mixed and open habitat community composed of the ancestors of the extant carnivore community plus chasmaporthetes , and a closed habitat community dominated by the sabertooths . scavenging opportunities in the closed habitat community would have been much better than in more open habitats . homo habilis with its inferred arboreal abilities could have passively scavenged very effectively in dense woodlands and forests . paleoenvironmental and paleontological data indicate that these closed habitats shrunk after 1\u00b77 million years ago and the sabertooths probably went extinct in sub - saharan africa . homo habilis perhaps increasingly utilised more open habitats and would have been forced to confront large predators to gain adequate scavenging returns . archaeological data of stone tool raw materials and site placement suggests that early hominids switched from an emphasis on dense woodland habitats to increased usage of more open habitats after 1\u00b76 million years ago . confrontational scavenging along with increased predation pressure may have contributed to the morphological changes associated with the shift to homo erectus .\nabstract =\nlarge carnivores structure the character of scavenging opportunities in any environment . in pliocene and early pleistocene africa there were three large sabertooth cats sympatric with the ancestors of the modern felid community , and scavenging opportunities were presumably different from those in modern africa . an understanding of a possible scavenging niche for early hominids must articulate knowledge gained from actualistic research with detailed reconstructions of extinct carnivore paleoecology . contrasting skeletal and dental anatomy suggest that sabertooths and modern felids were ecologically distinct . evidence from functional morphology and fossil associations elucidates the distinctions . sabertooth incisor and carnassial morphology indicates extreme flesh specialisation and lack of bone - crushing ability . sabertooth cranial morphology and fossil associations suggest a specialisation upon very large prey . the post - cranial morphology of sabertooths indicates a dense woodland and forest habitat preference . this implies that two distinct large carnivore communities existed in the pliocene and early pleistocene : a mixed and open habitat community composed of the ancestors of the extant carnivore community plus chasmaporthetes , and a closed habitat community dominated by the sabertooths . scavenging opportunities in the closed habitat community would have been much better than in more open habitats . homo habilis with its inferred arboreal abilities could have passively scavenged very effectively in dense woodlands and forests . paleoenvironmental and paleontological data indicate that these closed habitats shrunk after 1\u00b77 million years ago and the sabertooths probably went extinct in sub - saharan africa . homo habilis perhaps increasingly utilised more open habitats and would have been forced to confront large predators to gain adequate scavenging returns . archaeological data of stone tool raw materials and site placement suggests that early hominids switched from an emphasis on dense woodland habitats to increased usage of more open habitats after 1\u00b76 million years ago . confrontational scavenging along with increased predation pressure may have contributed to the morphological changes associated with the shift to homo erectus .\n,\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : o . p . hay . 1921 . descriptions of species of pleistocene vertebrata , types or specimens of most of which are preserved in the united states national museum . proceedings of the united states national museum 59 : 599 - 642\nparent taxon : hyaenidae according to r . a . stirton and w . g . christian 1940\nhas the earth ' s sixth mass extinction already arrived ?\nthis question - the title of a review published in last week ' s nature - immediately sparked a flurry of news reports about an impending ecological catastrophe on a scale not seen in 65 million years . we are not witnessing a die - off as severe as any of the\nbig five\nprehistoric cataclysms just yet , but the continued , gradual loss of threatened species is bringing us ever closer to the tipping point . we can either take action and stave off this large - scale disaster , or simply wait for it to happen .\nof course , extinction is the inevitable fate of every species . species do not only disappear during worldwide disasters . extinction greatly outpaces the origin of new species on a global scale during rare crises , but the character of life on earth is constantly shifting as some lineages dwindle as others speciate and continue to change .\nyou do not need to look very far back into the fossil record to appreciate the ongoing ebb and flow of life . when i traveled through utah and wyoming for the first time in the summer of 2009 , i saw the iconic elk , pronghorn , bison , and bears that symbolize the american wilderness . but these animals are only the inheritors of a landscape that has been inhabited by a changing cast of megamammals for millions of years . the great mammoths , ground sloths , deep - snouted bears , and sabercats of pleistocene north america represent a lost world that disappeared only yesterday in geological terms , but they , too , were preceded by what we might perceive as strange assemblages of creatures , including north america ' s only hyena .\nin 1901 , workmen at the val verde copper mines in anita , arizona were prospecting around an ancient limestone fissure when they discovered a cache of ancient mammal bones . the fragments were badly broken , but the bone material itself was well - preserved , and a number of specimens were soon collected by b . c . bicknell . the site also piqued the interest of globe - trotting fossil hunter barnum brown , who collected a few additional specimens in 1904 . pieces of prehistoric horses and camels were found among those of pronghorn , squirrels , groundhogs , and pocket gophers , as well as what appeared to be jaw fragments from a large cat ."]}
{"id": 1107, "summary": [{"text": "the capuchinbird or calfbird ( perissocephalus tricolor ) is a large passerine bird of the family cotingidae .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is monotypic within the genus perissocephalus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is found in humid forests ( up to 1,400 metres ( 4,600 ft ) but mostly below 600 m ) in north-eastern south america , almost entirely north of the amazon river and east of rio negro ( colombia , venezuela , brazil and the guianas ) . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "capuchinbird", "paragraphs": ["capuchinbird ( perissocephalus tricolor ) is a species of bird in the cotingidae family .\nstatus : the capuchinbird is categorized as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list .\neduard sol\u00e0 selected\ncapuchinbird\nto show in overview on\nperissocephalus tricolor ( statius muller , 1776 )\n.\nnotes : the bizarre call of the capuchinbird ( or calfbird ) ( perissocephalus tricolor ) in the forest of guyana . more info\nrestall ( 2006 ) et al . suggested that capuchinbird may\nrecall a small black vulture [ coragyps atratus ] with its bare head and uniform mantle\n.\nwthin its range capuchinbird is essentially unmistakable . the combination of its\ncowled\nhead , large size , and ochraceous brown coloration contribute to a strange but unique appearance .\nthe capuchinbird or calfbird ( perissocephalus tricolor ) is found in humid forests in north - eastern south america , almost entirely north of the amazon river and east of rio negro .\nthe capuchinbird ' s\nsong\nis so un - birdlike it is difficult to imagine the birds producing these sounds . this video captures one male singing \u2014 notice his stiff upright posture , his inflating and deflating body , and especially the odd tuft of feathers he is displaying near his tail . the origin of . . . read more \u00bb\ncommunication : the call of the capuchinbird is very similar to the lowing of a calf , giving them the common name of calfbird . inhaled air is stored in sacks on either side of the neck . when the bird is finished breathing in , it will lean back and \u201cmoo\u201d with feathers fluffed out around the bare head . the call is loud and carries for long distances .\ncapuchinbird is a large , odd looking bird with a short tail , bald blue gray head and a heavy bill . the plumage is mostly ochre brown , darker on the rump , and is reddish chestnut on the belly . the undertail coverts , which are orange rufous , are long and curled in the male , and are capable of being raised out like globular orangish\ntail lights\nduring lekking displays . the undertail coverts of females , however , are not lengthened . the wings and tail are blackish , with white underwing coverts .\nthe capuchinbird is a thick - set bird with a relatively heavy bill ; its plumage is overall rich brown , approaching orange on the belly and undertail coverts , and the remiges and short tail are black . the most distinctive feature is its bare , almost vulture - like head covered in dull blue skin . juveniles resemble adults , with the exception of some downy feathers on the head . they gather in leks where they\nsing\n. the\nsong\nis very odd and difficult to describe accurately , although some have compared it to the distant sound of a chainsaw or ( as indicated by its alternative name calfbird ) a cow mooing . they eat mainly fruits and insects .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' uncommon ' ( stotz et al . 1996 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 8 . 1 - 8 . 4 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 10 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . it is therefore suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na bird in a lek , repeated in slow motion , followed by a view of the habitat with calls of this species on the background .\nfirst a dorsal , then a frontal , and then a ventral view of a bird in a lek , all of them partly concealed by vegetation .\na close - up of a bird on a branch , preening , ejecting a corn grain and eating it again .\npieter de groot boersma , david ascanio , josep del hoyo , thore noernberg .\ncarlos gussoni , anselmo d affonseca , dubi shapiro , thore noernberg , tomasz doro\u0144 , richardgreenhalgh031 , elias neideck , mark andrews .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : perissocephalus tricolor . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\ncapuchbird seen a leck in the la escalara area , near las claritas , venezuela . january 2011\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 152 side a track 26 seq . b )\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 152 side a track 26 seq . a )\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 13 side b track 4 seq . a )\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 13 side b track 7 seq . a )\ndistance to mic . 60m . natural vocalisations of at least three birds from group of 6 + at ' lek ' , very near start of sentier la fumee .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nthe peace of the vast guyanan jungle is abruptly broken with the dawn chorus of male capuchinbirds , one of the most bizarre birds in south america . the singing male bows forward , then suddenly stretches to his full length , raising a monk - like cowl of feathers around his naked blue - gray head . the . . . read more \u00bb\nwebcams and videos are hosted by third parties . in exchange , you may periodically see 30 - second advertisements . birdnote does not endorse any of the products , services , or causes on third - party pages . all webcams have seasonal changes and may be down for hours , weeks , or months at a time . if this one is not active , please check our video or webcam gallery for more .\ncheck out this handsome fella . notice how his eyes methodically search his surroundings as he slowly moves his head . published on nov 26 , 2015 . read more \u00bb\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndescription : capuchinbirds , also known as calfbirds ( due to the sound of their call ) have an unmistakable and odd appearance . most of the head is featherless , making the head look too small for its body . the skin on the crown and face is a pale bluish gray . the body is mainly cinnamon brown , getting brighter on the lower underparts . wings are dusky with white underwing coverts . the tail is black .\nsize : a fairly large bird , males reach around 14 inches ( 35 . 5 cm ) in length and 12 . 7 ounces ( 360 gr ) in weight ; females grow to be about 13 . 5 inches ( 34 . 5 cm ) long and 11 . 3 ounces ( 319 gr ) in weight .\nbehavior : when not in leks , capuchinbirds are quite solitary . they can be seen in various levels of the forest , although they are most commonly found in the subcanopy and middle levels . when males lek , as many as eight may gather in understory trees \u2013 usually a dominant male and his subordinates . they display by emitting a loud call . somewhat \u201csynchronized\u201d moo - calls by two males in close proximity to each other are often heard .\ndiet : their diet consists mainly of fruit , but large insects are also consumed .\nreproduction : nest is a small open cup made out of twigs . it is usually built 10 - 20 feet ( 3 - 6 m ) above ground in an understory tree . clutch size is one egg that is incubated for about 26 - 27 days . the female incubates the eggs , feeds the chicks and tends the nest .\nhabitat / range : it is found in brazil , colombia , french guiana , guyana , suriname , and venezuela . its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests .\nplease enter your e - mail address . you will receive a new password via e - mail .\na ridiculous amount of coffee was consumed in the process of building this project . please consider adding some fuel if you ' d like to keep it going !\nadult : sexes similar , although the male is larger ( see measurements ) and has longer undertail coverts . large , bulky , with short tail , heavy bill , and bare crown . upperparts generally dill cinnamon . feathers on the back of the head dense and upright standing , forming a prominent cowl , and imparting a\nhunchbacked\nappearance . uppertail coverts blackish with dull cinnamon tips . remiges blackish , outer webs of the tertials with brownish fringes . rectrices black . underparts deeper cinnamon , especially from the breast to the vent . undertail coverts of male long and orange rufous ; undertail coverts short in female . underwing coverts creamy white .\njuvenile : similar to adult , but has sparse down on the bare areas of the head .\nlittle information . molt apparently is very protracted , and may extend over as many as 220 days ( snow 1976 ) . in guyana molt is initiated in march - july , but in other regions the timing of molt is less well defined ( kirwan and green 2011 ) .\nwing length : mean 217 . 3 mm ( range 210 - 232 mm ) ; mean wing length of live individuals , 225 . 0 mm ( n = 5 )\ntail length : mean 103 . 2 mm ( range 100 - 107 mm )\ntarsus length : mean 43 . 1 mm ( range 41 - 45 mm )\nculmen length : mean 35 . 7 mm ( range 32 - 38 mm )\nwing length : mean 203 . 1 mm ( range 197 - 210 mm ) ; mean wing length of live individuals , 221 . 5 mm ( n = 6 )\ntail length : mean 100 . 2 mm ( range 96 - 104 mm )\ntarsus length : mean 40 . 0 mm ( range 38 - 42 mm )\nmass : male , mean 360 . 0 g ( range 320 - 395 g , n = 5 ; snow 1982 )\ndel hoyo , j . elliott , a . & christie , d . ( editors ) . ( 2004 ) handbook of the birds of the world . volume 9 : cotingas to pipits and wagtails . lynx edicions . isbn 84 - 87334 - 69 - 5\neduard sol\u00e0 added the catalan common name\nocell caputx\u00ed\nto\nperissocephalus tricolor ( statius muller , 1776 )\n.\nkari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name\nh\u00e4rk\u00e4kotinga\nfrom\nperissocephalus tricolor ( statius muller , 1776 )\nas trusted .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis article is part of project aves , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bird , including made - up species .\nthis article is part of project passeriformes , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each passerine , including made - up species .\nthis article is part of project cotingidae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each cotinga , including made - up species .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nit is a thickset bird with a relatively heavy bill . the plumage is mainly a rich brown \u2013 turning orangy on the belly and undertail coverts \u2013 and the remiges ( flight feathers - typically only visible in flight ) and its short tail is black .\nits most distinctive feature is its bare , almost vulture - like head that is covered in dull blue skin .\nmales gather in leks ( competitive mating displays ) , where they\nsing\nto attract females .\ntheir song has been compared to the distant sound of a chainsaw or a cow mooing .\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nplease note : the articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers . please contact them directly with respect to any copyright or licensing questions . thank you .\nbeautyofbirds strives to maintain accurate and up - to - date information ; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please send us an e - mail . thank you !\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms ."]}
{"id": 1111, "summary": [{"text": "parasol ( 1800 \u2013 1826 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in total she won twenty of her thirty-five races , including two newmarket first october king 's plates , the jockey-club plate and a match race against derby winner cardinal beaufort .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "her only race away from newmarket was for her d\u00e9but , in the oaks stakes in 1803 .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she was bred and owned by augustus fitzroy , 3rd duke of grafton .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "as a broodmare she foaled the stallion partisan , 2000 guineas winner pindarrie and pastille , who won both the 2000 guineas and the oaks . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "parasol ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["nurse redheart \u2022 dr . horse \u2022 dr . fauna \u2022 doctor horse \u2022 nurse ponies\nhilaire - germain - edgar degas . lady with a parasol ( femme \u00e0 l\u2019ombrelle )\nas the ball falls , it will make the horse move towards the right .\nplace the horse sign \u2013 fire on the red plaque in the upper right .\nplace the horse sign \u2013 water on the blue plaque in the upper right .\nparasol was shot in the autumn of 1826 , having been covered that spring by sam .\nin season six , parasol appears at the beginning of the gift of the maud pie .\npick up the horse sign \u2013 water that appears in the niche above the steps .\nhilaire - germain - edgar degas . lady with a parasol ( femme \u00e0 l\u2019ombrelle ) | moma\nparasol appears in a picture with her name listed on page 175 of the wonderbolts academy handbook .\npick up the horse doll on the side of the wall after the bars have lifted .\nthe penguin steals a priceless folio of famous parasols from the gotham city library . he plans to wager the $ 10 , 000 earned from its ransom on a rigged horse race . aided by his partner - in - crime lola lasagne , he disguises the favored entry parasol as the unknown\nbumbershoot ,\nthen enters a painted glue factory horse as\nparasol\n. with everyone betting their money on the fake horse , it looks like the penguin will make a fortune when the real parasol wins the race . but he wasn ' t counting on a last - minute entry of bruce wayne ' s , the horse waynebow , ridden by none other than batgirl .\nyour goal is to unlock the door by moving the horse all the way to the right .\non 16 october , pope received 75 guineas forfeiture from mr . shakespeare ' s horse nuncio .\nthe horse moves towards the middle of the scene after the image of the arrow has been assembled .\nthe horse sign \u2013 fire will be added to your inventory after all the items have been found .\nand received 60 guineas forfeiture from lord darlington when his horse musician backed out of a match race .\nfife and drum ( 1906 ) .\nhorse pedigrees\n. natal agriculture journal . 9 : 1053 .\nthe initial idea for partypoker came from one of the company\u2019s founders , ruth parasol , an american born in san francisco .\nthis was a very lucrative business in the 1990s , giving parasol an excellent base of income to invest in her own business .\nthought that goodisson\nrode his horse with great skill and judgement\nand\ngave great satisfaction to all present .\npartisan ( gb ) b c 1811 ( walton - parasol , by pot8os ) . sire line highflyer . family 1 - e .\nas the 2000s began , online poker was starting to enter the conversation , and parasol knew she needed to be in that game .\nin his last start of the season , pope was unplaced in the tortoise stakes won by mr . shakespeare ' s horse tumbler .\nin 2000 , parasol offered shares in her company iglobalmedia to anurag dikshit , a software developer from india , in return for his development of a multiplayer poker platform . dikshit had a very successful business of his own , and he invited parasol to become a partner in his business as well .\nin september at doncaster orville won the two mile free handicap sweepstakes and a four mile match race against mr mellish ' s horse stockton .\nnow find the painting nearby that shows another woman holding a parasol and talking to a friend . this is called at the races . visiting the racetrack and watching the races were popular pastimes . can you find the horse in the background here ? it\u2019s a black shape , blurry and far away .\nbefore getting into the gaming business , parasol worked for her father\u2019s company , which had a series of 900 numbers used for psychics , weather , and porn .\n' s five - year - old horse pavilion at the houghton meeting . he ended his season by finishing unplaced in a subscription handicap on 31 october .\npope won 500 - guinea garden stakes at the houghton meeting on 30 october , beating the 6 - year - old horse cassio and the filly mirth .\nlater at the same meeting , pope finished third ( but not officially placed ) in \u00a350 subscription handicap plate , losing to the colt cambric and the horse salvator .\nparasol ( gb ) b . f , 1800 { 1 - e } dp = 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 ( 0 ) di = inf cd = inf\nwalton ' s only engagement in 1806 was a sweepstakes of 200 guineas each in april , but he paid a forfeit to parasol and the race never took place . [ 26 ]\norville ended his career at newmarket in autumn with two further wins beating canopus in a subscription race over the beacon course on 28 september and parasol in a similar event on 9 october .\na horse of another color\nis an episode of batman starring adam west , burt ward , and yvonne craig . the penguin steals a priceless folio of famous parasols from the gotham city library . he plans to wager the $ 10 , 000 earned from its ransom on a rigged horse race . aided by his . . . see full summary \u00bb\nparasol ran for six years winning the jockey club plate , four king ' s plates and placing third in the oaks stakes . in 1806 she beat the derby winner cardinal beaufort ( b c 1802\nthe two added two more founders to the initiative : parasol\u2019s husband russ deleon would become the coo , and vikrant bhargava would head up marketing . with that , the core of partygaming was formed .\nparasol , with orange eyes , appears next to starry eyes on page 67 of little , brown ' s my little pony friendship is magic official guidebook my little pony : the elements of harmony .\nvector parasol rain umbrella , sunshade set . red , yellow white black colored . blank classic opened round slanted mock up isolated . side view . illustration object for advertising , poster , banner design .\n) . her descendant empress ( ch f 1872 citadel ) founded a very successful family in south america that includes the famous embrujo ( ch c 1936 congreve ) . parasol was humanely destroyed in 1826 .\nparasol ( gb ) br . f , 1917 { 14 - a } dp = 0 - 0 - 0 - 16 - 0 ( 16 ) di = 0 . 00 cd = - 1 . 00\n. in a racing career which lasted from august 1801 until october 1807 the horse ran thirty - four times and won twenty races . in his early career he was based in yorkshire and won the\ncruiser and rarey . for an exhaustive discussion of rarey and cruiser , visit rarey , the horse ' s master and friend ,\nohio history , the journal of the ohio historical society , vol . 25\nmr . s . arthur sold cardinal beaufort after the 1806 racing season to mr . arthur shakespear . in april at newmarket , cardinal beaufort received an unspecified amount forfeiture from lord darlington ' s horse zodiac .\npelisse returned to newmarket in october where she finished fourth to canopus in the october oatlands stakes and then collected a 50 guinea forfeit when lord sackville ' s horse enchanter failed to appear for a scheduled match .\nparasol is named on a cloudsdale high\nschool spirit award\nplaque on my little pony : friends forever issue # 18 cover a . she also physically appears on my little pony : friendship is magic issue # 46 page 12 .\nparasol\u2019s bet on the poker industry could not have been better timed . poker was about to become very popular as a spectator sport with the introduction of the hole - card camera invented by steve lipscomb , founder of the world poker tour .\nthe rise of partypoker in the online gaming world was astronomic in size and impact ; the site that was started by ruth parasol , russ deleon , vikrant bhargava , and anurag dikshit would shape the online gambling landscape from many different perspectives .\nhaving died sometime between august 1808 and the beginning of the 1809 season in april . at newmarket on 17 april , general gower paid a forfeiture to lord sackville ' s horse bustard due to cardinal beaufort ' s death .\nand was relocated to ireland for use as a racehorse . lord lonsdale wrote to the marquess that\nhe [ had ] sent him the best bred horse in the world save one ,\nwith the exception being swordsman .\npope was retained by lord sligo after his racing career as a breeding stallion . pope stood under the name\nwaxy pope\nto distinguish him from another horse named pope ( sired by shuttle ) that was also standing in ireland .\nas there weren\u2019t that many online casinos in the market at that time , parasol was able to capture a significant number of real - money players to her casino brand . she opened a couple of other brands to help cross - promote to her growing database .\nin 1994 , parasol saw the potential in the internet ( many of her father\u2019s businesses were moving from telephone to online ) . in fact , one of her companies was responsible for the release of the massively in - demand tommy lee / pamela anderson sex tape .\nin season five , parasol appears at the end of the cutie map - part 2 , in apple bloom ' s dream in bloom & gloom , tanks for the memories , party pooped , amending fences , canterlot boutique , rarity investigates ! , and scare master .\nbeing in the porn business , it wasn\u2019t long before parasol made her way into the other vices ; she saw the rise of online gambling sites very early on and was able to leverage the massive databases of her and her father\u2019s companies when she launched the starluck online casino in 1997 .\ngladiator ' s sire was partisan , who was by walton , and from parasol , a well - bred mare and top race horse from the influential grafton stud . walton was a good stayer and led the sire ' s list in england twice . partisan was a fast horse on the turf , and a good sire who got a leading sire son in venison ( 1833 ) , and four classic winners - - mameluke ( 1824 , derby ) , patron ( 1826 , 2 , 000 guineas ) , cyprian ( 1833 , oaks ) and zeal ( 1818 , 1 , 000 guineas ) . in addition to venison , who sired three classic winners , partisan ' s son glaucus ( 1830 ) sired two classic winning fillies . another son , godolphin ( 1818 ) also got a classic filly in young mouse ( 1826 , 1 , 000 guineas ) .\na horse of great quality , power and endurance , many of his races were run over the beacon course , upwards of four miles . not surprisingly he was considered the best horse of his time , winning twenty - eight races over the span of seven years , including the jockey club purse three times , and the craven stakes . ( some sources say he ran more than forty times and won over thirty races ) . he was sold to richard , 1st earl grosvenor , for 1500 guineas at five years of age , after his first race in 1778 .\npair small original acrylic on canvas board signed\nnewlin\nautomobile , horse and buggy parasol woman . i do not know anything about this artist . these cute 1970 ' s acrylic paintings in the original wooden frames measure 3 - 1 / 2 inches wide and 4 - 1 / 2 inches tall . the frames measure 5 - 1 / 2 inches wide and 6 - 1 / 2 inches tall . the picture with the car has a slight wave in the canvas where the canvas has become detached from the canvas board . hardly noticeable but i want you to know what i see .\nhilaire - germain - edgar degas ( french , 1834\u20131917 ) . lady with a parasol ( femme \u00e0 l\u2019ombrelle ) . c . 1870\u201372 . oil on canvas . 29 5 / 8 \u00d7 33 7 / 16\u2033 ( 75 . 3 \u00d7 85 cm ) . the samuel courtauld trust , the courtauld gallery , london\norville failed to win in three starts in 1803 . at york in may he finished second to lennox in a two mile sweepstakes . at the same course in august he finished second to duxbury in a four mile race and second again when beaten by mr mellish ' s horse stockton four days later .\nparasol works in cloudsdale ' s weather factory in sonic rainboom , attending to all three sections of weather development . she also partakes in the best young flyer competition , albeit with her eye color switched to green . she initially wears the tag numbered\n6\n, which is swapped with rainbow dash ' s\n5\n.\norville began his five - year - old season by winning a two mile sweepstakes at york on 29 may . he returned to york in august when he finished last of the five runners behind haphazard in a four mile subscription race and second to r garfoth ' s horse by traveller in a similar event two days later .\nwhalebone was a mottled bay or brown colt that stood 15 . 2 hands high with\nshort legs , high - bred nostrils and very prominent eyes .\nhe was a\nplainish looking\nhorse with a\nturkish - pony look\nand thick neck and body that were not as well - proportioned as those of his full - brother whisker . whalebone was reportedly one of the smallest horses waxy ever produced . in the words of his groom , dryman ,\nhe was the lowest and longest , and most - double jointed horse , with the best legs\u2014eight and a half below the knee\u2014and worst feet i ever saw in my life .\nto move the horse a bit farther , you have to assemble the image of the arrow in the upper right panel . find and place the 4 picture squares to accomplish this task . when placing the squares in the panel , make sure you place your cursor ( not the square ) where you want to place the panel .\nnarrator : find the big painting of a woman on this wall . the woman carries a kind of umbrella , called a parasol , to shade herself from the bright sunlight . it\u2019s hard to see her \u2013 she is just a black silhouette . degas made this painting with black , grey , and white marks and captures the light and shadow moving across the scene .\nin season two , she appears in hearts and hooves day standing across from\nsilver script\nunderneath a parasol , blushing while apple bloom sings\nall the good ones are taken\nduring the perfect stallion . she also appears in hurricane fluttershy aiding ponyville ' s pegasi in the creation of the tornado required to lift the water into cloudsdale for the rainy season .\ntwo versions , both with different cutie marks and one with a different mane color , each appear in boast busters and magic duel . a gray - coated variant appears in winter wrap up and the super speedy cider squeezy 6000 . a pony with parasol ' s design and color scheme , but without wings or a cutie mark , appears in boast busters watching twilight move the ursa back to its cave .\nthe soldier ' s daughter ( 1836 , by doncaster st . leger winner the colonel ) , a mare bred at hampton court , produced four venison foals for the duke of richmond . the first , a filly , she killed . the next year , 1841 , she dropped red deer , the first three - year - old to win the chester cup ( 2 - 1 / 4 miles ) ; he was carrying one of the smallest , youngest , lightest jockeys ( 3 stone - 4 pounds , plus a ten pound penalty ) ever to ride such a tough race , who barely had the strength to keep red deer on course in the 25 horse field . the large , narrow , circular chester course at the time was described as\nthe equivalent to turning a horse loose in a circus ,\nand his win that year was later referred to as\nthe red deer chase\nwhen the high - strung horse plunged to the front and was never headed , winning by 12 lengths ( the great race mare alice hawthorn second ) and continuing to run well past the finish before kitchener could pull him up .\nwhisker did not run in 1817 and made his first appearance on 13 april 1818 at the craven meeting ( still listed as a five - year - old ) in the craven stakes , for which he ran unplaced in a 22 horse field . [ 11 ] at newmarket , whisker was third in the fifty pound subscription stakes , losing to the four - year - old colt skim and the horse fugitive . [ 31 ] a few days later , whisker beat lord cavendish ' s colt little dick in a 200 - guinea match race . [ 32 ] whisker received 200 guineas forfeiture from the horse cannonball on 11 may at newmarket . [ 33 ] the next day , whisker finished third in a handicap race , losing to the colt merrymaker and the filly leopoldine ( the full - sister to 1816 derby winner prince leopold ) . [ 34 ] at the same meeting , whisker beat mr . prince ' s colt manfred in a match race and a few hours later finished fifth ( unplaced ) in a 50 - guinea cup race won by the flyer . [ 35 ] in his last career start , whisker was beaten in a match race by the colt the student at the october newmarket meeting . [ 36 ] whisker was retired to stud at the end of the racing season .\n7 . parasol b f 1800 ( pot8os - prunella , by highflyer ) . sire line pot8os . family 1 - e . bred by the 3rd duke of grafton , she won thirty - one races , including the jockey club plate , four king ' s plates , and placed 3rd in the oaks stakes . she became the dam of one and two thousand guineas winner pastille ( b f 1819 rubens ) and two thousand guineas winner pindarrie ( b c 1817 phantom ) .\nas a three - year - old , gainsborough ran unplaced in a sprint race won by sicyon . but this was merely a tightener for the two thousand guineas , which he won easily by a length and a half , thereby enabling lady douglas to become the first woman to not only breed a classic winner , but to have that horse run in her own silks . joe childs , gainsborough ' s regular rider , was attached to the 4th hussars , and he donated his winnings to his regiment .\nat the craven meeting in april , whisker won the 100 - guinea port stakes , beating the colt equator . [ 24 ] at newmarket on 29 april , whisker beat lord darlington ' s colt paulus in a mile - long match race , winning 200 guineas . [ 25 ] in may at newmarket , whisker beat the colt sir joshua in a 300 - guinea match race . [ 26 ] whisker finished fourth in a 200 - guinea sweepstakes race , losing to the horse bourbon and the colts sir thomas and quinola . [ 27 ] on 14 october , whisker received 70 guineas from lord darlington after his horse paulus backed out of a match race . [ 28 ] whisker was sold to lord darlington at newmarket . a few weeks later running in lord darlington ' s name , whisker was beaten in a match race by his former rival equator at the houghton meeting . [ 29 ] a few days later , whisker won the handicap sweepstakes , beating the filly duenna and the colts fandango and equator . [ 30 ]\nladbroke reportedly\ntook a dislike to whalebone\nand sold him in 1814 for 510 guineas to lord egremont . whalebone was initially thought to be a poor stud prospect due to his small stature and lord egremont put him back into training . however , the seven - year - old horse had become\ndangerous to ride ,\nhaving\nacquired the habit of rearing to an alarming extent\nand would frequently\nknock his hooves together like a pair of castanettes .\nconsequently , he was permanently retired from racing and became a breeding stallion for lord egremont in 1815 .\nthe comus son destined to continue the godolphin arabian sire line was the golden yellow bay humphrey clinker , out of clinkerina , a daughter of the very modest sir peter son , clinker , and pewet , a good race mare who had won the 1789 doncaster st . leger . he was bred by william wentworth fitzwilliam , earl fitzwilliam , who also raced him , limiting the horse ' s challenges to yorkshire venues that nonetheless included some stiff competition . humphrey clinker was described as a horse\nof immense size and power , unquestionably the largest thoroughbred ever known .\nhe also\nmade a bit of noise ,\nor as the druid put it ,\nhe did prophesy of himself pretty loudly as he came up to the cords ,\nwhich may have affected his racing career . although fast , humphrey clinker was not a top race horse . at age three he won a produce sweepstakes at pontrefact , beating two , and was second to saladin in doncaster ' s foal stakes . his best year was 1826 , when he was four . he won york ' s constitution stakes , beating lottery and three others , and the knavesmire stakes , beating two . at doncaster he won a handicap sweepstakes , beating one , and a produce sweepstakes beating escape , saladin , and one other , but could only run third in a thrilling doncaster gold cup , to the great race mare fleur - de - lis and to mulatto ( also owned by fitzwilliam ) ; the latter would win the same race the next year . in 1827 he won malton ' s craven stakes , beating five , and then was third to fleur - de - lis and jerry in york ' s constitution stakes . he won six races total during his career .\nalarm ( 1842 ) was out of a defence mare , southdown , owned by captain george delm\u00e9 of cams hall , fareham , in hampshire , not far from stockbridge . alarm had\nwonderful hips\nand a bit of a temper . he was a good stayer and had speed , but his temperament got in the way of his racing , notably when he injured himself before the start of the epsom derby after instigating a fracus by kicking out at another horse at the start , an incident that sidelined him throughout most of his three - year - old season . he died at age 20 ,\nlittle more than a splendid ruin .\nbayardo was sired by bay ronald , a good handicap performer sired by hampton . slow to come to hand as a younger horse , bay ronald eventually rounded into a decent sort , and during his career , he won the hardwicke stakes at ascot and the 1 - 1 / 4 mile city and suburban handicap . at stud , he was never considered to be a top class stallion , yet he came up with some very good stock . his daughter rondeau was a stakes winner of nine races , including the hardwicke stakes and the dullingham plate , which she won twice . as a producer , she became the dam of internationally influential stallion teddy .\nthe racing commentator\nthe druid\ndescribed whisker ' s physique\nas near perfection as a horse could be\n[ 3 ] [ 4 ] and his only fault was that he was\na little calf - kneed\nbut was\nequally likely to get a racer , hunter , machiner or a hack .\n[ 5 ] whisker has been lauded as the\nhandsomest\nof waxy ' s offspring [ 6 ] and his appearance was described more favorably than his brother whalebone , who was short and had a\nturkish pony - look .\n[ 7 ] all of waxy ' s offspring reportedly inherited\nshort legs , high - bred nostrils and very prominent eyes\n[ 8 ] with whisker inheriting his sire ' s\nbeautiful quarters .\n[ 9 ]\nwhalebone was sold by the duke of grafton in october 1812 to mr . ladbroke for 700 guineas . whalebone ' s first start under ladbroke ' s ownership was on 26 october at the houghton meeting where he won a match race against mr . lake ' s two - year - old colt turner . whalebone won an additional match race against the lord sackville ' s horse pan at the same meeting . whalebone ran three times in 1813 , winning the 100 - guinea his majesty ' s plate on 8 june at guildford against three other horses and the lewes his majesty ' s plate on 5 august . on 7 august , in what was ultimately the last start of whalebone ' s racing career , he won the 60 - guinea ladies ' plate against lord somerset ' s colt offa ' s dyke .\nwhalebone was bred by the duke of grafton in 1807 at his euston hall stud farm near newmarket . he was sired by the 1793 epsom derby winner waxy out of the mare penelope ( foaled in 1798 ) , both owned by the duke . as a racehorse , penelope was a contemporary of the 1801 derby - winning filly eleanor , beating her several times , and was half - sister to 1809 derby winner pope and the mares pope joan ( both sired by waxy ) , parasol ( partisan ' s dam ) and prudence . penelope was a prolific and influential broodmare , producing eight full - siblings to whalebone that achieved success on the turf . she produced 13 foals between 1806 and 1823 , all with names beginning with the letter w . whalebone was her second foal and his full - siblings include web , woful , wilful , wire , whisker , wildfire and windfall . penelope died in 1824 .\nwhisker was bred by the duke of grafton and was foaled in 1812 at his euston hall stud farm near newmarket . whisker was sired by the 1793 epsom derby winner waxy out of the mare penelope ( foaled in 1798 ) , both owned by the duke . as a racehorse , penelope was a contemporary of the 1801 derby - winning filly eleanor , beating her several times , and was half - sister to 1809 derby winner pope and the mares pope joan ( both sired by waxy ) , parasol ( partisan ' s dam ) and prudence . [ 1 ] penelope was a prolific and influential broodmare , producing eight full - siblings to whisker that achieved success on the turf . she produced 13 foals between 1806 and 1823 , all with names beginning with the letter w . whisker was her seventh foal and his full - siblings include whalebone ( the 1810 derby winner ) , web , woful , wilful , wire , wildfire and windfall . penelope died in 1824 . [ 2 ]\ncontinues on from last week ' s penguin / lola lasagne adventure . this episode gives less screen time to lola ( great ! ) and more time to adam west playing bruce wayne ( instead of batman ) . when the 1966 batman series ended i am told that adam west was asked to play james bond in her majesty ' s secret service ( 1969 ) . . . but west turned down the role because he felt the role should be played by a british actor . but the general suave nature of bruce wayne , seen in this episode , makes the viewer think that west would have made a really wonderful james bond . too bad he turned down the offer . . . and he later admitted to regretting the decision . but away from all this , the later sections of a horse of a different color feature some outstanding location filming where batgirl looks better than ever ! all in all , a knockout part two that is much better than part one .\njoe miller ( 1849 ) , from witticism by sultan junior , was bred at stockbridge by isaac sadler . he was very much in the venison mold , and quite small :\nin the month of july he looked more like a foal than a yearling ,\nand\nwas never fifteen hands .\nhe had , said the druid ,\na very sweet head . . . and all his limbs were most beautifully turned , and exquisitely proportioned .\nlight and wiry like his sire , he was also an excellent stayer , but he was one of the venisons with a temper - - or as the druid put it ,\nfull of fire and courage\n- - and at the end of his three - year - old season he was gelded , possibly a mistake despite his erratic performances , because although he ran for three more seasons , he won only once , took a walk - over once , and placed third once in twenty - two starts . after he was cut , the druid said ,\nhe was never the same horse .\nin the stud bayuda produced a filly by hurry on that the aga khan purchased for 4 , 000 guineas and named hajibibi . that was all . there were no more foals from bayuda . the mare had a difficult delivery and suffered internal injuries that rendered her barren . after a few failed attempts to get her in foal , she was given by lady douglas to a mr . gerald deane to use as a pleasure horse . deane toyed with the idea of returning her to training , and lady douglas gave her permission for this venture . bayuda was galloped but never did return to the races . it was a sad end for this classic - winning filly . other bayardo offspring bayardo had several other high class runners , including : manilardo , a full brother to gay crusader which captured the coronation cup ; manton , out of the le sancy mare jane grey , placed third in the st . leger and ran well in some other races , including the st . george stakes at liverpool ; he was sent to poland in 1922 , and in the late 1920s was one of the top three leading sires there , including champion sire in 1930 . mapledurham , out of montem , by ladas , placed third to bayuda in the cheveley park stakes and third to her in the oaks ; allenby , out of derby - winning filly tagalie , placed second in the two thousand guineas ; and pompadour , out of popinjay by st . frusquin , placed third in the one thousand guineas .\n8 - bit \u2022 all aboard \u2022 angel wings \u2022 blossomforth \u2022 bow hothoof \u2022 bulk biceps \u2022 chancellor puddinghead \u2022 charity sweetmint \u2022 cheerilee \u2022 cheese sandwich \u2022 cherry jubilee \u2022 claude \u2022 clear skies \u2022 cloud chaser \u2022 clover the clever \u2022 coco pommel \u2022 commander hurricane \u2022 cookie crumbles \u2022 coriander cumin \u2022 davenport \u2022 double diamond \u2022 fawn doo \u2022 feather bangs \u2022 firelight \u2022 flash sentry \u2022 flax seed \u2022 fleur de lis \u2022 flitter \u2022 fluffy clouds \u2022 gaffer \u2022 gallant true \u2022 gizmo \u2022 golden gavel \u2022 the headless horse \u2022 hondo flanks \u2022 hoofbeard \u2022 hooffield and mccolt families \u2022 inkwell \u2022 inky rose \u2022 jack pot \u2022 jet set \u2022 joe \u2022 junebug \u2022 lightning dust \u2022 lily lace \u2022 marcie pan \u2022 mare do well \u2022 mayor mare \u2022 method mares \u2022 moon dancer \u2022 mr . breezy \u2022 mr . paleo \u2022 mr . stripes \u2022 mrs . paleo \u2022 ms . harshwhinny \u2022 ms . peachbottom \u2022 mudbriar \u2022 night glider \u2022 open skies \u2022 party favor \u2022 petunia paleo \u2022 plaid stripes \u2022 pony pickers \u2022 the pony tones \u2022 ponyacci \u2022 power ponies \u2022 private pansy \u2022 quibble pants \u2022 radiant hope \u2022 randolph \u2022 roma \u2022 royal guards \u2022 saffron masala \u2022 sassy saddles \u2022 sheriff silverstar \u2022 silver frames \u2022 silver shill \u2022 sky stinger \u2022 smart cookie \u2022 spa ponies \u2022 spearhead \u2022 starstreak \u2022 steamer \u2022 stellar eclipse \u2022 stellar flare \u2022 sugar belle \u2022 sunburst \u2022 sunshower \u2022 sunspot \u2022 swan song \u2022 teddie safari \u2022 tree hugger \u2022 trouble shoes \u2022 upper crust \u2022 vapor trail \u2022 wheat grass \u2022 windy whistles\non 2 april 1804 , the first day of the season , walton finished second to aniseed in the craven stakes at newmarket . third placed eleanor was the only other of the seven other horses that could be placed by the judge . [ 11 ] on 19 april , at the first spring meeting , he beat duxbury and slapband to win the king ' s plate over the round course ( about four miles ) . [ 12 ] at guildford in may he raced against enchantress and rumbo for the king ' s plate , run in three four - mile heats . walton , who was the favourite , won the first heat , but finished second to enchantress in the second . before the third heat ( which only walton and enchantress took part in ) enchantress was the 2 / 5 favourite , but walton took the victory to win the race . [ 13 ] on 18 july at salisbury he took part in the king ' s plate in four - mile heats . walton won both heats against his only rival little chance to win the race . [ 14 ] he won another king ' s plate in august , this time beating mr . frogley ' s colt in two four - mile heats at winchester . in the next race he walked over for a sweepstakes of 10 guineas each . [ 15 ] a month later he beat a john bull filly in both of the four - mile heats to win the king ' s plate at warwick . [ 16 ] on 11 september he beat three rivals to win the lichfield king ' s plate . [ 17 ] at newmarket ' s first october meeting he finished last of the three runners in the king ' s plate , behind winner parasol and sir harry dimsdale . [ 18 ]\nwaxy pope got numerous winners in ireland , including the dandy ( 1815 , out of a drone mare and so in - bred to waxy ) , winner of five royal plates at the curragh and bellewstown and of the lord lieutenant ' s plate at the curragh and champion of his year in 1819 ; prendergast ( 1816 ) , whose wins included three royal plates at the curragh ; starch ( 1819 ) , winner of at least eight royal plates at the curragh , and of the lord lieutenant ' s plate twice , and champion in 1822 ; skylark ( 1826 ) , a winner of forty races , including 23 king ' s plates and champion horse in ireland three times , 1829 - 1831 ; sligo ( 1821 ) , who won the madrid handicap and several king ' s plates at the curragh and was champion in ireland in 1824 , and was taken to england to win newmarket ' s audley end stakes and oatland stakes and other races ; sligo ' s brother , mounteagle ( 1827 ) , a winner of several king ' s plates and the lord lieutenant ' s plate at the curragh and champion in ireland in 1832 ; canteen ( 1821 ) , who almost won the doncaster st . leger for sligo , and later won the king ' s plate at newcastle ( later sire of the grand sir hercules race mare , cruiskeen ) ; butterfly , a winner of the gold cups at both oxford and warwick ; the cardinal ( 1827 ) , whose wins in england included the leamington stakes and worcester stakes ( 1 - 1 / 4 miles beating dr . faustus and hedgford ) at warwick , and the 2 - 1 / 2 mile chester cup ; trumpeter ( 1824 ) who took newmarket ' s clearwell stakes and cheltenham ' s 2 - 1 / 2 mile glocestershire stakes , and his sister , jenny vertpre ( 1827 ) , a winner of epsom ' s shirley stakes .\nbred by willoughby bertie ( 1740 - 1799 ) , 4th earl of abingdon , pot8os was the first foal of his dam , sportsmistress ( ch f 1765 sportsman ) , who also produced the derby winner sir thomas ( ch c 1785 pontac ) along with the winners jocundo ( b c 1777 marske ) , roscius ( ch c 1781 garrick ) and sulky ( ch c 1786 garrick ) .\npotatoes acquired the peculiar spelling of his name when his lad was asked to write it on a corn bin or stall door . the lad ' s version , potoooooooo , was said to amuse his lordship enough to adopt it , and so it appears in the general stud book . later writers shortened it to pot - 8 - o ' s and similar variants .\nhe stood at oxcroft farm near balsham , cambridgeshire , for a fee of 20 guineas along with justice ( br c 1774 herod ) . he was moved to upper hare park near newmarket in 1796 . a great success in the stud , he sired 165 winners of \u00a357 , 595 and 3 cups . his best son was waxy ( ch c 1773 ) who ensured the continuance of the eclipse sire line down to the present day .\nat 4 : 2nd in a 100 guineas each sweep , plus one hogshead of claret each , at newmarket , won by lord grosvenor ' s yellow jack ( ch c 1773 dux ) , beating thirteen others over the beacon course , 2nd in a 1025 guineas sweepstake at nottingham , won by mr swinfen ' s colt ( ch c chrysolite ) , 3rd in a 100 guineas each sweep at newmarket , won by lord grosvenor ' s grey robin ( gr c 1773 gimcrack ) , beating sixteen others , 5th in the great subscription purse at york , won by sir thomas gascoigne ' s cannibal ( ch c 1773 matchem ) .\nat 5 : won 1200 guineas at newmarket , second spring , beating grey robin and lord ossory ' s titan ( b c 1773 otho ) over the beacon course , won the 140 guineas at newmarket , won \u00a350 at swaffham , walked - over for 175 guineas at ipswich , 2nd jockey club plate , won by sir thomas gascoigne ' s magog ( gr c 1773 matchem ) , 2nd in the 140 guineas at newmarket , october , won by dictator , beating dorimant , 6th and last for the oxford cup , won by dorimant ( ch c 1772 otho ) .\nat 6 : won a 50 sovereigns purse at newmarket , beating the duke of grafton ' s caractacus ( b c herod ) , won the 140 guineas subscription at newmarket , second spring , beating sir j shelley ' s comet ( ch c 1774 matchem ) , won a 150 guineas sweep , beating the hon r vernon ' s pastorella ( b f 1774 otho ) and three others over the beacon course , won a 300 guineas each sweep at newmarket october , beating lord derby ' s laburnum ( br c 1774 herod ) , won the 140 guineas subcription at newmarket , october , beating the hon r vernon ' s freeholder ( b c 1772 chrysolite ) , walked - over for the clermont cup at newmarket , walked - over for the gold cup at newmarket , october .\nat 7 : won the 140 guineas subscription at newmarket , second spring , beating mr o ' kelly ' s king fergus ( ch c 1775 eclipse ) and lord ossory ' s dorimant ( ch c otho ) , won the jockey club plate , beating mr shafto ' s tandem ( b c 1773 syphon ) over the beacon course , won a 500 guineas sweep at newmarket , october , beating laburnum , won 150 guineas , beating woodpecker , walked - over for the clermont cup , walked - over for the gold cup at newmarket , october , walked - over for the 140 guineas at newmarket , october , 3rd in a 1400 guineas handicap sweep at newmarket , first spring , won by sir c davers ' s woodpecker ( ch c 1773 herod ) , beating mr douglas ' s bourdeaux ( gr c 1774 herod ) .\nat 8 : won a 200 guineas each handicap sweep at newmarket , first spring , beating woodpecker and lord derby ' s guildford ( ch c 1775 herod ) and two others , won a 400 guineas sweep at newmarket , second spring , beating sir c davers ' s buccaneer ( ch c 1776 herod ) , walked - over for the jockey club plate at newmarket , second spring , was paid 85 guineas not to start at newmarket , first october , for the 140 guineas subscription , won by lord clermont ' s hollandaise ( gr f 1775 matchem ) , who had previously won the st leger for sir thomas gascoigne , with lord derby ' s bridget ( ch f 1776 herod ) , who had won the oaks , and three others in the field , 2nd for the 140 guineas , newmarket , second october , won by woodpecker .\nat 9 : won the craven stakes at newmarket , beating hollandaise , the duke of cumberland ' s io ( b f 1778 pyrrhus ) , and mr o ' kelly ' s mercury ( ch c 1778 eclipse ) , won \u00a350 at newmarket , first spring , beating two others , won the jockey club plate , beating buccaneer and mercury , won a 50 sovereigns purse , beating hollandaise and lord ossory ' s alaric ( br c paymaster ) , over the beacon course , walked - over for the clermont cup and 200 guineas , and the next day walked - over for the 140 guineas subscription purse , 2nd in the 140 guineas subscription at newmarket , first october , won by sir john lade ' s crop ( gr c 1778 turf ) , beating the duke of grafton ' s puzzle ( b f 1778 matchem ) , ran once unplaced .\nat 10 : won 200 guineas each and the whip at newmarket , second spring , beating sir j lade ' s nottingham ( br c 1776 tantrum ) , lost a 300 guineas match to lord egremont ' s derby winner assassin ( b c 1779 sweetbriar ) at newmarket , first spring , 3rd and last in a 200 guineas sweep , won by mr parker ' s anvil ( b c 1777 herod ) followed by lord egremont ' s boxer ( gr c 1776 herod ) .\n1 . co - heiress ( ch f 1786 ) , 3rd dam of the half - brothers , blacklock ( b c 1814 whitelock ) and st leger winner theodore ( b c 1819 woful ) . blacklock was a champion sire in 1829 . his best known son was voltaire ( br c 1826 ) .\n2 . dabchick ( br f 1798 ) , 2nd dam of one thousand guineas winner catgut ( br f 1816 juniper or comus ) .\n3 . sister to edwin ( b f 1794 ) , taproot mare of family 3 - i , and 4th dam of the derby and st leger winner the flying dutchman ( br c 1846 bay middleton ) .\n4 . mandane ( ch f 1800 ) , a winner of two races , she was the taproot mare of family 11 - g , the dam of the st leger winner altisidora ( ch f 1810 dick andrews ) , the oaks winner manuella ( b f 1809 dick andrews ) , and the stallions brutandorf ( b c 1821 blacklock ) and lottery ( br c 1820 tramp ) .\n5 . nightshade ( b f 1785 ) , winner of oaks stakes and 3rd dam of the ascot gold winner sir huldibrand ( br c 1818 octavius ) .\n6 . outcast ( b f 1793 ) , winner of 4 races at five years of age .\n8 . pot8os mare ( f 1793 ) , dam of the oaks winner maid of orleans ( b f 1806 sorcerer ) and the woodcote stakes winner rivulet ( ch f 1813 rubens ) . pot8os mare was also the 3rd dam of the one thousand guineas and oaks winner galata ( br f 1829 sultan ) .\n9 . pot8os mare ( b f 1796 ) , 2nd dam of the two thousand guineas winner interpreter ( b c 1815 soothsayer ) and 2nd dam of the two thousand guineas winner nectar ( b c 1813 walton ) .\n10 . sister to timidity * ( ch f 1792 ) was quite an influential matron in america where she produced cole ' s bright phoebus ( c 1804 messenger * ) , one of few who beat sir archy ( b c 1805 diomed * ) , and millers damsel ( gr f 1802 messenger * ) , the dam of american eclipse ( ch c 1814 duroc ) .\nalderman ( gb ) * ( b c 1787 ) was a stallion in america , where his daughters contributed to the build up of several native families . alderman mare ( b f 1799 ) was the 2nd dam of boston ( ch c 1833 timoleon ) who was probably the greatest american racehorse of the 19th century and also the sire of lexington ( b c 1850 ) .\nasparagus ( gb ) ( ch c 1787 ) , sire of the one thousand guineas winner rhoda ( b f 1813 ) and the stallion teddy the grinder ( b c 1798 ) .\ncoriander ( gb ) ( b c 1786 ) , sire of coriander mare ( b f 1799 ) , the grandaughter of co - heiress [ see co - heiress , above ] . coriander mare was inbred to 2x3 to pot8os , and the dam of blacklock and theodore . coriander also sired hyacinthus ( ch c 1797 ) , sire of hyacinthus mare ( ch f 1804 ) , taproot of family 2 - f , and variety ( b f 1808 ) , taproot of family 20 - a .\ntyrant ( gb ) ( b c 1799 ) , winner of the derby stakes and a 300 guineas sweepstakes against julia ( br f 1799 whiskey ) .\nvespasian ( gb ) ( b c 1793 ) , sire of pomona ( ch f 1815 ) , the dam of champagne stakes winner bud ( b c 1827 partisan ) . pomona was also the 2nd dam of the one thousand guineas and park hill stakes winner sorella ( ch f 1841 the saddler ) and the union - rennen winner my hope ( ch f 1853 birdcatcher ) .\nworthy ( gb ) ( b c 1795 ) , winner of a king ' s plate and the oxford cup .\nchampion ( gb ) b c 1797 ( pot8os - huncamunca , by highflyer ) . sire line pot8os . family 3 - b .\nwaxy ( gb ) b c 1790 ( pot8os - maria , by herod ) . sire line pot8os . family 18 .\nfinished 3rd in the oaks stakes at epsom , won by sir t gascoigne ' s theophania ( b f 1800 delpini ) with 2nd going to mr harris ' s laura [ ex - fanny ] ( ch f 1800 pegasus ) , beating 4 others . won the town plate at newmarket july , beating lord clermont ' s rumbo ( b c 1800 whiskey ) and 2 others . collected a 40gs forfeit at newmarket first october from sir frank standish ' s brother to eagle and mr howorth ' s skyscraper filly . won a \u00a3140 subscription at the same meeting , with an added town plate , beating the prince of wales ' s nitre ( gr f 1800 precipitate ) and 4 others . won a \u00a350 plate at newmarket second october , beating sir c bunbury ' s orlando ( br c 1799 whiskey ) . collected 50gs from a 100gs match at newmarket houghton against lord stawell ' s elizabeth ( br f 1800 waxy ) .\nwon the 400gs oatlands handicap at newmarket craven , beating lord g cavendish ' s lignum vitae ( b c 1797 walnut ) and 4 others . collected a 100gs forfeit at newmarket first spring from mr wyndham ' s young eclipse ( br c 1799 young eclipse ) . won a 200gs match at newmarket second spring from lord sackville ' s enchanter ( ch c 1799 pot8os ) . collected 70gs forfeit at the same meeting from mr howorth ' s malta ( ch c 1798 buzzard ) . won \u00a3190 at newmarket first october , beating sir f standish ' s brother to stamford ( br c sir peter teazle ) , nitre ( gr f 1800 precipitate ) and lord grosvenor ' s baron bull ( b c 1800 john bull ) . won the king ' s plate at the same meeting , beating\neasily\nmr norton ' s sir harry dimsdale ( gr c 1800 sir peter teazle ) and sir h williamson ' s walton ( b c 1799 sir peter teazle ) . collected 40gs at the same place from lord foley ' s watery ( b c 1801 waxy ) . won a 200gs match at newmarket second october from colonel mellish ' s buss ( b c 1800 john bull ) . lost a 100gs match at newmarket houghton to mr c wilson ' s lennox ( ch c 1798 delpini ) .\nfinished 3rd in the oatlands at newmarket craven to hrh the duke of york ' s giles ( b c 1798 trumpator ) and mr watson ' s duxbury ( b c sir peter teazle ) , beating 4 others . walked over for the king ' s plate at newmarket first spring . won \u00a350 at the same meeting , beating lord foley ' s hippocampus ( b c 1801 coriander ) , mr wardell ' s houghton lass ( b f 1801 sir peter teazle ) , mr ladbroke ' s sir david ( br c 1801 trumpator ) and 2 others . won the jockey club plate at newmarket second spring , beating walton and the prince of wales ' s petruchio ( ro c 1801 stride )\nin a canter\nby 6 lengths . collected 50gs at newmarket october from col mellish ' s pipylin ( br c sir peter teazle ) . walked over for 200gs and the king ' s plate at the same meeting . won 125gs at newmarket second october , beating sir harry dimsdale by a neck\nafter a most severe and punishing race\n.\ncollected a 100gs forfeit at newmarket craven from lord foley ' s hippocampus . collected a 100gs forfeit from a 200gs sweep at newmarket first spring . won the king ' s plate at the same meeting , beating mr abbey ' s margery ( ch f john bull ) by 8 lengths , and 1 other . won \u00a350 at the same place , beating mr cave - browne ' s antipater ( b c 1801 pipator )\nin a canter\n. won \u00a350 at newmarket july , beating sir c bunbury ' s lydia ( br f 1802 whiskey )\nin a canter\n. finished 2nd for a purse of 50gs at newmarket first october to orville . collected 50gs forfeit at the same meeting from colonel mellish ' s czar peter ( br c 1801 sir peter teazle ) . won a 200gs match at newmarket second october from mr arthur ' s derby winner cardinal beaufort ( b c 1802 gohanna ) . ran twice more without success ."]}
{"id": 1112, "summary": [{"text": "tomarctus is a canid genus of the extinct subfamily borophaginae which inhabited most of north america during the late early miocene to the early barstovian age of the middle miocene ( 23 \u2014 16 million years ago ) .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "tomarctus existed for approximately 6.83 million years .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "this animal shared a period and ecology with a variety of other bear dogs like the giant mustelid genus of bone-crushing canidae , cynarctoides .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "as the bear dogs and giant mustelids became extinct , tomarctus further radiated to fill a line of dogs which filled the hyena-like fruit eating and bone-crushing niches . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "tomarctus", "paragraphs": ["another structural adaption of the tomarctus is its four - toed foot . this effectively narrowed the foot which meant the tomarctus could exert more force on the ground on a smaller surface . this would mean that the tomarctus would run faster . this is useful in catching smaller prey that are fast and more agile than the tomarctus .\ntomarctus meaning not found if you know the meaning of this word , share it .\ntomarctus translate not found if you know the translate of this word , share it .\ntomarctus sentence not found if you know the sentence of this word , share it .\ntomarctus antonyms not found if you know the antonyms of this word , share it .\ntomarctus synonyms not found if you know the synonyms of this word , share it .\nthe eurasian branch was called tomarctus and is the progenitor of wolves , dogs , and foxes .\nthe only evidence of the tomarctus is found in north america , mainly within the usa . the\nthe tomarctus probably became extinct because it evolved into better versions of itself , each being able to survive better in its given environment . the tomarctus is the ancestor of all canids ranging from the fruit eating hyena - like animals to the bone crushing canids much like the bear and the wolf . as the tomarctus radiated into different branches , the original species had to compete with the more suited species . this meant there would be an insufficient amount of food to support both species and the tomarctus eventually died out . another reason could have been the size of the tomarctus . the size of thse tomarctus did not allow for speed so as slow moving animals started to become extinct , the food chain was disrupted and the tomarctus became extinct .\nthis is useful when the tomarctus is being pursued and does not look on what it is stepping on .\non earth for around 6 . 83 millions of years , tomarctus inhabited most of the north american continent . tomarctus had long tails for balance , sharp claws to catch preys while hunting and an appearance resembling our dogs of today .\n) evolve from . it is also the starting place of the vulpes genus . there are two species of tomarctus and they are\nthe evolutionary pressure for this adaptation could perhaps have been the death of some tomarctus from infected cuts on the bottom of their feet . this caused the bottom of the tomarctus ' s feet to develop calluses which eventually turned into pads over the 7 million years of its existence .\nanother noticeable behavior of the tomarctus is that it is a carnivore . this is seen from the large canines and incisors in the tomarctus ' s mouth . this was a very good adaptation during this time as prey was abundant because of development grasslands across the great plains of north america .\nthe environmental pressure that could ' ve given rise to the size of the tomarctus could have been the need to survive in a time when everything when size dictated if you survived or not . the bigger the tomarctus the more chances it will have at surviving because of its greater strength and stamina .\none of the ways the tomarctus adapted physiologically is in its size . it was found to be massive in size , around the size of a bear . thus earning its name , tomarctus , which means\nalmost a bear\n. the size of the tomarctus served it in many ways . having such a big body would mean that it was stronger than smaller animals , thus making it able to hunt for larger prey which means more it can hunt less .\nosteoborus _ cyonoides , _ aelurodon _ taxoides , _ tomarctus _ temerarius , _ and _ cormocyon _ leptodus . jpg : ryan somma . derivative work : kevmin\ntomarctus had an incredibly strong bite force that exceeded what was required to kill a wild animal , the conclusion that streams is that tomarctus\u2019 diet was probably composed of a lot of scavenging . carcasses and bones must have been a primary source of alimentation for tomarctus as bone marrow by itself is one of the most nutritious food in the natural wild world . plus , when kept in the bone under the right conditions , it can last for years after the death of the animal . \u202d\nage of the middle minocene which is around 23 - 16 million years ago . the tomarctus is estimated to have existed for nearly 7 million years before going extinct .\nthis adaptation was probably the result of the need to catch prey . as the tomarctus preyed on small rodents , it needed to run faster in order to catch up to it . this meant that the five toes in its foot were making its foot heavier and by losing this toe , the tomarctus could catch up to its prey .\none of the behavioral adaptations that is found in the tomarctus is that unlike other canids , the tomarctus is a solitary hunter which means it only comes into contact with others of its kind only in the breeding season . this means that it can spend time fending for itself and does not have to waste time and energy defending its pack .\nthis adaptation could have arisen due to the need for more energy . the diet of the tomarctus was small rodents which would meant that sharing food would have been difficult of everyone was to be satisfied . being a solitary hunter meant that the tomarctus does not need to hunt for more than one animal and thus able to consume more energy ,\nthe period of that the tomarctus lived in was the miocene epoch of the neogene period . this was a period where the climate of the earth was slightly cooler and drier then before . this meant the grasslands that existed all over the world were expanding as forests receded , the area that the tomarctus lived in were mostly grassland with mountains forming in some parts of western north america .\ncynodictis gave rise to two branches , one leading to the modern african hunting dog ( 4 ) and one through tomarctus ( 5 ) to the wolves and domestic dogs . tomarctus ( of some 15 million years ago ) differed but little physically from the wolves and wild dogs , but doubtless had far to go in intelligence . in modern times many widely different dogs have been bred , but the intelligence and adaptability of the dog remain distinctive .\na possible pressure that caused this adaptation could have been the need for a better growth . as meat contains proteins needed to build strong muscles , the tomarctus needed to eat large amounts of it to be able to grow to its optimal size .\nlike another carnivore of the cenozoic era , cynodictis , tomarctus has long been the\ngo - to\nmammal for folks who want to identify the first true prehistoric dog . unfortunately , recent analysis has shown that tomarctus wasn ' t any more ancestral to modern dogs ( at least in a direct sense ) than any of the other hyena - like mammals of the eocene and miocene epochs . we do know that this early\ncanid ,\nwhich occupied a place on the evolutionary line that culminated in apex predators like borophagus and aelurodon , possessed powerful , bone - crushing jaws , and that it wasn ' t the only\nhyena dog\nof middle miocene north america , but other than that much about tomarctus remains a mystery .\none of the structural adaptations known about the tomarctus is common in most canids . these are pads on the bottom of their feet to protect them from sharp objects that they might step on . these include sharp rocks , oyster shells and sharp animal bones .\nwhat did dogs look like before gray wolves were domesticated into modern poodles , schnauzers and golden retrievers ? on the following slides , you ' ll find pictures and detailed profiles of a dozen prehistoric dogs of the cenozoic era , ranging from aelurodon to tomarctus .\nas the giant mustelids and bear dogs started to disappear , tomarctus further radiated to initiate a line of dogs which filled the hyena - like fruit eating and bone - crushing niches . we\u2019ve been able to find specimens in california and up to the montana / canada line . we also found fossils as low as panama . more information about the fossils discovered here .\ncynodictis was one of the first members in the mammalian predators , then much better known as\u202d \u2018\u202cbear dogs\u202d\u2019\u202c . \u202d \u202cthis was a medium - sized long mammal , with a long tail and a fairly brushy coat . over the millennia cynodictis have then given rise to two branches , one in eurasia and the other one in africa . the eurasian branch , called tomarctus , is the progenitor wolves , dogs , and foxes originated from .\nmiacis branched into a number of species by 30 to 40 million years ago , giving rise to a more recent ancestor of modern wolves . cynodicits , however , was much smaller than the wolf of today , with shortened legs and a flexible body . between 15 and 30 million years ago , cynodictis split into cynodesmus and tomarctus to give yield to wolf - like animals with longer legs , more compact feet , a shortened tail , and a smaller big toe ( mech 1972 ) .\nanother group of early canids was the borophagines , or\nbone - crushing dogs ,\nequipped with powerful jaws and teeth suitable for scavenging the carcasses of mammalian megafauna . the largest , most dangerous borophagines were the 100 - pound borophagus and the even bigger epicyon ; other genera included the earlier tomarctus and aelurodon , which were more reasonably sized . we can ' t say for sure , but there ' s some evidence that these bone - crushing dogs ( which were also restricted to north america ) hunted or scavenged in packs , like modern hyenas .\nfor a prehistoric dog , aelurodon ( greek for\ncat tooth\n) has been given a somewhat bizarre name . this\nbone - crushing\ncanid was an immediate descendant of tomarctus , and was one of a number of hyena - like proto - dogs that roamed north america during the miocene epoch . there ' s evidence that the larger species of aelurodon may have hunted ( or roamed ) the grassy plains in packs , either taking down diseased or aged prey or swarming around already - dead carcasses and cracking the bones with their powerful jaws and teeth .\nname : tomarctus \u202d ( \u202ccut bear\u202d ) \u202c . phonetic : toe - mark - tus . named by : edward drinker cope\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c1873 . synonyms : aelurodon francisi , \u202d \u202caelurodon simulans . classification : chordata , \u202d \u202cmammalia , \u202d \u202ccarnivora , \u202d \u202ccanidae , \u202d \u202cborophaginae . species : t . \u202d \u202cbrevirostris\u202d ( \u202ctype\u202d ) \u202c , \u202d \u202c t . \u202d \u202chippophaga . diet : carnivore . size : about\u202d \u202c1 . 2\u202d \u202cmeters long . known locations : across north america . time period : aquitanian through to langhian of the miocene , \u202d \u202cpossibly later into the miocene . fossil representation : multiple individuals .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : e . d . cope . 1873 . third notice of extinct vertebrata from the tertiary of the plains . paleontological bulletin 16 : 1 - 8\nfull reference : w . d . matthew and h . j . cook . 1909 . a pliocene fauna from western nebraska . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 26 ( 27 ) : 361 - 414\nsee also matthew 1924 , matthew and cook 1909 , olsen 1956 , skinner et al . 1977 and vanderhoof and gregory 1940\ntype specimen : amnh 13836 , a mandible . its type locality is trojan quarry , which is in a hemingfordian terrestrial horizon in the olcott formation of nebraska .\naverage measurements ( in mm ) : p4 17 . 2 x 8 . 4 , m1 12 . 7 x 15 . 3 , m2 7 . 95 x 11 . 93 , p4 11 . 2 x 6 . 2 , m1 19 . 8 x 8 . 1 , m2 10 . 5 x 6 . 8\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nfurther reading - \u202d \u202cphylogenetic systematics of the borophaginae , \u202d \u202cx . \u202d \u202cwang , \u202d \u202cr . \u202d \u202ch . \u202d \u202ctedford\u202d & \u202cb . \u202d \u202ce . \u202d \u202ctaylor\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c1999 . - \u202d \u202csmall mammal fossils from the barstow formation , \u202d \u202ccalifornia , \u202d \u202ce . \u202d \u202ch . \u202d \u202clindsay\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c1972 .\ncontent copyright www . prehistoric - wildlife . com . the information here is completely free for your own study and research purposes , but please dont copy the articles word for word and claim them as your own work . the world of prehistory is constantly changing with the advent of new discoveries , as such its best if you use this information as a jumping off point for your own research . privacy & cookies policy\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nis found within a range of as west as california , east as maryland , as north as montana and as far south as panama . the\nit was first discovered in nebraska and later found in california and as north as the canadian border .\nkathleen munthe ( 1989 ) . the skeleton of the borophaginae . retrieved 20th july 2010 from :\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ntrue to its nickname , amphicyon , the\nbear dog ,\nlooked like a small bear with the head of a dog , and it probably pursued a bear - like lifestyle as well , feeding opportunistically on meat , carrion , fish , fruit and plants . however , it was more ancestral to dogs than to bears ! see an in - depth profile of amphicyon\nborophagus was the last of a large , populous group of north american predatory mammals informally known as the\nhyena dogs .\nclosely related to the slightly bigger epicyon , this prehistoric dog ( or\ncanid ,\nas it should technically be called ) made its living much like a modern hyena , scavenging already - dead carcasses rather than hunting live prey . borophagus possessed an unusually big , muscular head with powerful jaws , and was probably the most accomplished bone - crusher of its canid line ; its extinction two million years ago remains a bit of a mystery . ( by the way , the prehistoric dog formerly known as osteoborus has now been assigned as a species of borophagus . )\nuntil recently , it was widely believed that the late eocene cynodictis (\nin - between dog ) was the first true\ncanid ,\nand thus lay at the root of 30 million years of dog evolution . today , though , its relationship to modern dogs is subject to debate . see an in - depth profile of cynodictis\none of the apex predators of pleistocene north america , the dire wolf competed for prey with the saber - toothed tiger - - as evidenced by the fact that thousands of specimens of these predators have been dredged up from the la brea tar pits in los angeles . see 10 facts about the dire wolf\nnot only was dusicyon the only prehistoric dog to live on the falkland islands ( off the coast of argentina ) , but it was the only mammal , period - - meaning it preyed not on cats , rats and pigs , but birds , insects , and possibly even shellfish that washed up along the shore . see an in - depth profile of dusicyon\nthe largest species of epicyon weighed in the neighborhood of 200 to 300 pounds - - as much as , or more than , a full - grown human - - and possessed unusually powerful jaws and teeth , which made their heads look more like those of a big cat than a dog or wolf . see an in - depth profile of epicyon\nto simplify matters just a bit , the late miocene eucyon was the last link in the chain of prehistoric dog evolution before the appearance of canis , the single genus that encompasses all modern dogs and wolves . the three - foot - long eucyon was itself descended from an earlier , smaller genus of dog ancestor , leptocyon , and it was distinguished by the size of its frontal sinuses , an adaptation linked to its diverse diet . it ' s believed that the first species of canis evolved from a species of eucyon in late miocene north america , about 5 or 6 million years ago , though eucyon itself persisted for another few million years .\ndogs were only domesticated about 10 , 000 years ago , but their evolutionary history goes back way further than that - - as witness one of the earliest canines yet discovered , hesperocyon , which lived in north america a whopping 40 million years ago , during the late eocene epoch . as you might expect in such a distant ancestor , hesperocyon didn ' t look much like any dog breed alive today , and was more reminiscent of a giant mongoose or weasel . however , this prehistoric dog did have the beginnings of specialized , dog - like , meat - shearing teeth , as well as noticeably dog - like ears . there ' s some speculation that hesperocyon ( and other late eocene dogs ) may have led a meerkat - like existence in underground burrows , but the evidence for this is somewhat lacking .\nfor all intents and purposes , ictitherium marks the time when the first hyena - like carnivores ventured down from the trees and skittered across the vast plains of africa and eurasia ( most of these early hunters lived in north america , but ictitherium was a major exception ) . to judge by its teeth , the coyote - sized ictitherium pursued an omnivorous diet ( possibly including insects as well as small mammals and lizards ) , and the discovery of multiple remains jumbled together is a tantalizing hint that this predator may have hunted in packs . ( by the way , ictitherium wasn ' t technically a prehistoric dog , but more of a distant cousin . )\namong the earliest ancestors of modern dogs , various species of leptocyon roamed the plains and woodlands of north america for a whopping 25 million years , making this small , foxlike animal one of the most successful mammalian genera of all time . unlike larger ,\nbone - crushing\ncanid cousins like epicyon and borophagus , leptocyon subsisted on small , skittering , live prey , probably including lizards , birds , insects and other small mammals ( and one can imagine that the larger , hyena - like prehistoric dogs of the miocene epoch themselves weren ' t averse to making an occasional snack out of leptocyon ! )\nrecord in your own voice , pronunciation for this word now and play it back to check how you pronounced .\nyou are not logged in . please login / register or post pronunciation as guest\n\u00a9 urltoken , all rights reserved . privacy policy . cookies policy . disclaimer . feedback\nplan a breeding program , master canine genetics , and use the right strategies .\na kennel is promotion , networking , bookkeeping , online marketing , and more .\nall your dogs ' health , nutrition , fitness , grooming and special care .\ndogs and canines were domesticated between 10 , 000 and 35 , 000 years ago through selective breeding , suggesting the earliest dogs presumably arose once we , humans , were still searching and gathering , way before the appearance of agriculture . history did not wait for our fancy ( and amazing ) articles to understand how to breed dogs .\nthe prehistoric development of the wolf , from which the dog sprang , is typified chiefly by increase in running speed . while we are having an attempt here at climbing the domestic dog\u2019s evolution tree , it is important to remind our readers that the origin of the domestic dog , the canis lupus familiaris , is not clear as per today , 2015 . mitochondrial dna and nuclear dna evidences are not confirming each other\u2019s conclusions :\nregardless of the exact timeline and dates , it seems like domestic dogs appeared simultaneously in various areas of the world and each from their own wolf - like ancestors that were genetically similar . this is why there are a few extinct animals that are highlighted here , in this article . these have been recognised as being part of the evolution of the domestic dog , in a way or another .\nbiology & conservation of wild canids \u2013 simplified phylogenetic relationships of canids at the generic level . species ranges are indicated by individual\nbars enclosed within grey rectangles , detailed relationships among species in a genus is not shown . relationships for the hesperocyoninae is modified from wang ( 1994 , fig . 65 ) , that for the borophaginae from wang et al . ( 1999 , fig . 141 ) , and\nthe dog\u2019s ancestor cynodictis ( 2 ) of some 20 or 30 million years ago was a slender , short - legged animal perhaps no larger than a mink . this animal began a line of evolution characterized by ever - increasing leg length and the development of an almost unique ability to run down prey mile after mile and seize it . this led to important \u201csocial\u201d developments , involving group hunting . competition , in turn , stimulated the growth of intelligence , along lines quite different , for instance , from that of the solitary cat .\naccording to this reprint from the national history magazine ( 1939 ) , the dogs has evolved from the now extinct miacis , to the the gray wolf or canis lupus .\nthe miacis was a relatively mammal with a weasel - like body , five toed legs , a very long thin tail and sharp pointy ears . miacis is known as one of the first ancestors of the coyote and the great grandmother of all carnivores including hyenas , canines , felines , bears , and racoons . it appeared around 60 - 55 million years ago , at the late paleocene era . miacis lived in the north american and european continents just like coyotes today . close to the miacis are the creodonts who show similar physical features and characteristics .\ndaphoenus also belonged to the family of bear dogs , scientifically named as the amphicyonidae family . these had the size of our coyotes today and shared important similarities with today\u2019s dogs and bears . daphoenus could only perform short accelerations and sprints due to their short legs , thus daphoenus were ambushing their preys and scavenging .\nafrican wild dog or african painted dog are the two other names used to designate the lycaon pictus . member of the biological family canidae , this sub - saharan canid differs from its cousin group , canis , with a body designed for a predominantly hyper - carnivorous diet with fewer toes and dentition . still with us today , the lycaon is now an endangered species .\nafrican wild dogs have disappeared from much of their former range . their population is currently estimated at approximately 6 , 600 adults in 39 subpopulations , of which only 1 , 400 are mature individuals . population size is continuing to decline as a result of ongoing habitat fragmentation , conflict with human activities , and infectious disease .\nfrom the greek \u201cvoracious eater\u201d , the borophagus genus is the last known of the line of bone - crunching dogs\u202d , also called hyena - like dogs . measuring around 80cm in length , they are smaller than their other bone - crushing ancestors but their jaws are way more developed so we think they relied on scavenging other predators\u2019 kills more than proactively hunting new preys . because their meal was already eaten by the predators who actually killed the dead animal , they had to content themselves with the leftovers , usually the bones .\nhistorians have not yet understood why the borophagus got extinct but the prehistoric dog formerly known as osteoborus has now been assigned as a species of borophagus . based on figure 141 of wang et al . ( 1999 ) , other species within this genus are :\nborophagus diversidens existed for 2 . 5 million years ( synonymous with felis hillianus , hyaenognathus matthewi , hyaenognathus pachyodon , hyaenognathus solus , porthocyon dubius )\nborophagus hilli existed for 0 . 5 million years ( synonymous with osteoborus crassapineatus , osteoborus progressus )\nthe grey wolf is the one , the one that is the direct ancestor of our dogs , all of them , from teacup chihuahuas to great danes , from alaskan malamutes to arabian salukis .\nall that happened because , around 33 , 000 years ago , men domesticated the tamest wolves by adopting their cubs into human tribes , fed them and bred them selectively . these wolves were raised amongst people , they were given tasks that would facilitate the tribe\u2019s life such as hunting , guarding , herding , etc .\nwhile transitioning and adapting to their entirely new environment , these wolves who are used by humans to be selectively bred start to genetically change which manipulates all their offsets . over several generations , the original wild grey wolf has changed and a new species appeared that is genetically different from the founding stock that was adopted by the humans : the canis familiaris .\nnot considered wild anymore , the new species has been selected over time to be docile , tamed , and work - driven . from that point on , humans have started to use the same methods of selective breeding to develop desirable characteristics to get the dogs better at what a given tribe and environment need .\nhuskies\u2019 ancestors were bred to endure ice - cold temperatures and long , draining , races in the snow . whereas the salukis , arabian greyhounds , were bred for speed so they could hunt quarry such as gazelles and hares . this is why , today , we have over 400 dog breeds that specialise at retrieving , pointing , hunting , pulling , swimming , pulling , searching , etc .\nhow the heck did we take a wolf and come up with bulldogs , yorkshires , collies , golden retrievers , whippets , goldendoodles , and otterhounds ? designed by parisian artist alice bouchardon , the \u201cevolution of dogs\u201d tries to make sense of the complicated darwinian ( and not - so - darwinian ) machinations that have led us to the kinds of dog breeds that can be toted in paris hilton\u2019s handbag . ( credits :\nonly today , the trend shifts from breeding dogs for a given purpose to breeding dogs for looks . it leads to a lot of severe medical conditions and it should be a matter of time before the authorities and international canine organisations become stricter about breeding standards .\nto read more about the origin and evolution of the domestic dog , you should check out the wikipedia page as it has the most up - to - date dna discoveries and updates .\none - off litter or professional dog breeder ? our bestselling ebook helps you start and manage your dog breeding adventure from day one .\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .\nbreeding business is a platform dedicated to ethical dog breeding around the world . our team provides quality posts , in - depth articles , interviews , product reviews , and more .\nwe participate in the amazon services llc associates program , an advertising and affiliate program providing a way for our company to earn fees by linking to urltoken and affiliated sites .\nproduct availability and prices for amazon products displayed on this page are updated every half an hour and are subject to change . price and availability information shown on amazon at the moment of purchase will apply .\nbreeding business , 2016 - 2017 \u00a9 all rights reserved . operated by lazhar limited , a company registered in england & wales ( company no . 09740325 )\nin many ways , the story of dog evolution follows the same plot line as the evolution of horses and elephants : a small , inoffensive , ancestral species gives rise , over the course of tens of millions of years , to the respectably sized descendants we know and love today . but there are two big differences in this case : first , dogs are carnivores , and the evolution of carnivores is a twisty , serpentine affair involving not only dogs , but prehistoric hyenas , bears , cats , and now - extinct mammals like creodonts and mesonychids . and second , of course , dog evolution took a sharp right turn about 15 , 000 years ago , when the first wolves were domesticated by early humans . ( see a gallery of prehistoric dog pictures )\nas far as paleontologists can tell , the very first carnivorous mammals evolved during the late cretaceous period , about 75 million years ago ( the half - pound cimolestes , which lived high up in trees , being the most likely candidate ) . however , it ' s more likely that every carnivorous animal alive today can trace its ancestry back to miacis , a slightly bigger , weasel - like creature that lived about 55 million years ago , or 10 million years after the dinosaurs went extinct . miacis was far from a fearsome killer , though : this tiny furball was also arboreal and feasted on insects and eggs as well as small animals .\nmodern dogs evolved from a line of carnivorous mammals called\ncanids ,\nafter the characteristic shape of their teeth . before ( and alongside ) the canids , though , there were such diverse families of predators as amphicyonids ( the\nbear dogs ,\ntypified by amphicyon , which seem to have been more closely related to bears than dogs ) , prehistoric hyenas ( ictitherium was the first of this group to live on the ground rather than in trees ) , and the\nmarsupial dogs\nof south america and australia . although vaguely dog - like in appearance and behavior , these predators weren ' t directly ancestral to modern canines .\neven more fearsome than bear dogs and marsupial dogs were mesonychids and creodonts . the most famous mesonychids were the one - ton andrewsarchus , the largest ground - dwelling carnivorous mammal that ever lived , and the smaller and more wolflike mesonyx ; oddly enough , mesonychids were ancestral not to modern dogs or cats , but to prehistoric whales . the creodonts , on the other hand , left no living descendants ; the most noteworthy members of this breed were hyaenodon and the strikingly named sarkastodon , the former of which looked ( and behaved ) like a wolf and the latter of which looked ( and behaved ) like a grizzly bear .\npaleontologists agree that the late eocene ( about 40 to 35 million years ago ) hesperocyon was directly ancestral to all later canids\u2014and thus to the genus canis , which branched off from a subfamily of canids about six million years ago . this\nwestern dog\nwas only about the size of a small fox , but its inner - ear structure was characteristic of later dogs , and there ' s some evidence that it may have lived in communities , either high up in trees or in underground burrows . hesperocyon is very well - represented in the fossil record ; in fact , this was one of the most common mammals of prehistoric north america .\nhere ' s where things get a bit confusing . shortly after the appearance of hesperocyon 40 million years ago , leptocyon arrived on the scene\u2014not a brother , but more like a second cousin once removed . leptocyon was the first true canine ( that is , it belonged to the caninae subfamily of the canidae family ) , but a small and unobtrusive one , not much bigger than hesperocyon itself . the immediate descendant of leptocyon , eucyon , had the good fortune to live at a time when both eurasia and south america were accessible from north america \u2014the first via the bering land bridge , and the second thanks to the uncovering of central america . in north america , about six million years ago , populations of eucyon evolved into the first members of the modern dog genus canis , which spread to these other continents .\nbut the tale doesn ' t end there . although canines ( including the first coyotes ) continued to live in north america during the pliocene epoch , the first plus - sized wolves evolved elsewhere , and\nre - invaded\nnorth america shortly before the ensuing pleistocene ( via that same bering land bridge ) . the most famous of these canines was the dire wolf , canis diris , which evolved from an\nold world\nwolf that colonized both north and south america ( by the way , the dire wolf competed directly for prey with smilodon , the\nsaber - toothed tiger .\n)\nthe end of the pleistocene epoch witnessed the rise of human civilization around the world . as far as we can tell , the first domestication of the gray wolf occurred somewhere in europe or asia anywhere from 30 , 000 to 15 , 000 years ago . after 40 million years of evolution , the modern dog had finally made its debut !\nrocky mountain geology ( 1965 ) 4 ( 1 ) : 21 - 25 .\nm . r . voorhies ; the carnivora of the trail creek fauna . rocky mountain geology ; 4 ( 1 ) : 21\u201325 . doi :\nthis content is pdf only . please click on the pdf icon to access .\nyou could not be signed in . please check your email address / username and password and try again .\nthis site uses cookies . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our privacy policy .\nhave you ever looked around and wondered how so many different animals can all be related ? in fact , scientists believe that all animals\u2014and all forms of life\u2014share a common ancestor . gray wolves are only one out of billions of different species that live or used to live on the earth .\nalthough there are many different types of animals , most of the ones that you will be familiar with belong to the smaller group of vertebrates : animals with a true backbone .\ngray wolves are part of the order carnivora , which is grouped largely based on their predatory diet habits . carnivora consists of over 260 species , including dogs , cats , bears , foxes , skunks , and raccoons . they all have long , pointed teeth and sharp claws used to attack their prey . they are also fairly intelligent animals with highly developed brains .\nwolves belong to the family canidae and are most closely related to domestic dogs , foxes , coyotes , dingoes , lycaons , and jackals . there are 14 total living subgroups of canidae , and they are often referred to as canids . a derived trait for canids is that they have 42 teeth , although bears also share this characteristic . there are , however , other distinguishing features between canids and bears . canids tend to have long tails , walk on their toes , and have four toes to each hind foot , while bears have short tails , walk on their soles , and have 5 toes to each hind foot .\nthe gray wolf looks very similar to other canids , so differentiating species isn\u2019t always straightforward . throughout its evolution , the wolf has been increasing in size , so wolves tend to have a larger body that most other canids . furthermore , after collecting skull measurements from the wolf , scientists have found that it has a broader snout and wider nose pad than its other close relatives .\nwe believe that the some of the early ancestors of the gray wolf were a group of generalized carnivores named the creodonts that first walked the northern hemisphere of the earth between 100 and 120 million years ago . about 55 million years ago , the creodonts gave rise to the carnassials , a group of wolf - like animals that had specialized jaws for eating meat . one member of this family , miacis , is thought to be the ancestor for all present - day wolves , dogs , weasels , bears , and raccoons .\nwhen did the wolf become a wolf ? somewhere between 4 . 5 and 9 million years ago during the miocene , the recent ancestors of wolves split off from the ancestors of foxes . by 1 . 8 million years ago , wolves in north america had split from coyotes , and looked very much like they still do today . just think of this : when you look at a wolf , you are in a way looking at an animal that is 2 million years old !\nhow do we know this ? of course , there were no people alive 120 million years ago to help us out . so we use the fossil record , which means that we look for evidence of the ancestors of wolves through bones or other remains that have been preserved by the earth over time .\nfor wolves , the evidence is pretty convincing , although it is incomplete . scientists have tracked changes in skull size and shape , limb length , the evolution of sharp teeth for tearing meat , and evidence of changes in wolf population and habitat distribution over very long periods of time . in fact , researchers\u2019 use of the fossil record has led them to believe that north american wolves crossed the land bridge to eurasia and established themselves there 130 to 300 million years ago to evolve into canis lupus before returning to north america ! the wolf species that never left north america became different from those who had left and then returned ( boitani & mech 2003 ) .\nthe sheer diversity of canids is amazing . some of them are more closely related than others , but all share an amazing evolutionary history that might even make you howl !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nphylogenetic systematics of the borophaginae ( carnivora , canidae ) . bulletin of the amnh ; no . 243\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nfull - text is provided in portable document format ( pdf ) . to view articles you must have the free adobe acrobat reader . click here to download the latest version . the . epub version displays best on an ipad , but may work on other devices that accept . epub format . download directly to your device\u2019s book reader ( e . g . , ibooks ) or drag into your e - books collection on your computer .\nbulletin of the american museum of natural history the bulletin , published continuously since 1881 , consists of longer monographic volumes in the field of natural sciences relating to zoology , paleontology , and geology . current numbers are published at irregular intervals . the bulletin was originally a place to publish short papers , while longer works appeared in the memoirs . however , in the 1920s , the memoirs ceased and the bulletin series began publishing longer papers . a new series , the novitates , published short papers describing new forms .\ndepartment of library services american museum of natural history central park west at 79th st . , new york , ny 10024 \u00a9 american museum of natural history , 2011"]}
{"id": 1113, "summary": [{"text": "the maize weevil ( sitophilus zeamais ) , known in the united states as the greater rice weevil , is a species of beetle in the family curculionidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it can be found in numerous tropical areas around the world , and in the united states , and is a major pest of maize .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "this species attacks both standing crops and stored cereal products , including wheat , rice , sorghum , oats , barley , rye , buckwheat , peas , and cottonseed .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the maize weevil also infests other types of stored , processed cereal products such as pasta , cassava , and various coarse , milled grains .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "it has even been known to attack fruit while in storage , such as apples . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "maize weevil", "paragraphs": ["english : maize weevil , greater grain weevil , northern corn weevil , greater rice weevil .\nfactors contributing to resistance of exotic maize populations to maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais .\nrearing the maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais , on an artificial maize - cassava diet .\nresistance of maize landraces to the maize weevil sitophilus zeamais motsch . ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) .\nefficacy of diatomaceous earth to control internal infestations of rice weevil and maize weevil ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) .\nmaize weevil ( sitophilus zeamais ) . the maize weevil is slightly larger than the rice weevil and has more distinct colored spots on the forewings . it is a stronger flier than the rice weevil . the habits and life cycle are similar to the rice weevil ( figure 3 ) .\nthe maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais . \u00a9 gary alpert , harvard university , urltoken\nthe maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais adult . \u00a9georg goergen ( source cabi cpc )\nagainst the maize weevil on three maize varieties in the laboratory . this formulation protected stored bambara groundnut against the infestation of\nancient origin and recent range expansion of the maize weevil sitophilus zeamais , and its genealogical relationship to the rice weevil s . oryzae .\npleiotropic impact of endosymbiont load and co - occurrence in the maize weevil sitophilus zeamais .\nj . a . ojo and a . a . omoloye , \u201crearing the maize weevil ,\nthe maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais adult . photo : usda , ars ( public domain )\nperiodic physical disturbance : an alternative method for controlling sitophilus zeamais ( maize weevil ) infestation .\ninsecticide resistance and size assortative mating in females of the maize weevil ( sitophilus zeamais ) .\nrice and maize weevils are widely distributed in tropical and sub - tropical areas and will be carried to temperate areas on imported commodities . the maize weevil will breed on maize in the field\nthe maize weevil is commonly associated with feeding on corn , rice and on other raw or processed cereals .\nuse of neempro \u00ae , a neem product to control maize weevil sitophilus zeamais ( motsch . ) ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) on three maize varieties in cameroon\nemergence holes of the rice weevil are smaller than those of the granary weevil , and tend to be smooth and round .\n\u201cthere is only a shell left after a maize weevil completes development , \u201d toews said . \u201closses up to 10 percent can occur as result of maize weevils . \u201d\na comparison of two methods of assessment of maize varietal resistance to the maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais motschulsky , and the influence of kernel hardness and size on susceptibility .\nmaize weevil image by usda - ars - gmprc image database - license : public domain . ( view image details )\nmaize weevil pupa image by usda - ars - gmprc image database - license : public domain . ( view image details )\ndemissie g , tefera t , tadesse a . efficacy of silicosec , filter cake and wood ash against the maize weevil ,\nnukenine en , goudoungou jw , adler c , reichmuth c . efficacy of diatomaceous earth and botanical powders against the maize weevil ,\nthe origin of the maize weevil is not known but now it is found in all warm and tropical parts of the world .\nbehavioural responses of the maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais , to host ( stored - grain ) and non - host plant volatiles .\nsiwale j , mbata k , mcrobert j , lungu d . comparative resistance of improved maize genotypes and landraces to maize weevil . afr crop sci j . 2009 ; 17 : 1\u201316 .\nuse of neempro\u00ae , a neem product to control maize weevil sitophilus zeamais ( motsch . ) ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) on three maize varieties in cameroon | agriculture & food security | full text\nthe maize weevil can develop on a range of cereal crops . it is a serious pest of stored maize , dried cassava roots , yam , common sorghum and wheat in the east african region .\ndetection of gamma radiation - induced dna damage in maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais motschulsky ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) assessed using the comet assay .\ndistribution of the related weevil species sitophilus oryzae and s . zeamais in brazil .\n1 / 8 - to 3 / 16 - inch long . the maize weevil is similar to the rice weevil , but larger accessed 26 september 2007 . very similar in appearance to the rice weevil with characteristics described above , except that the insects are longer , adults reaching a length of 3 - 3 . 5mm\nalso known as the greater rice weevil . maize weevils are frequently regarded as primary pests of grain since they are able to infest otherwise undamaged grain .\n\u201cthe maize weevil\u2019s entire life cycle is centered on one kernel of corn , \u201d said michael toews , the uga entomologist working to control the pest .\ndetection methods because the maize weevil larvae develop inside the grain it is difficult to detect the pest by visual inspection unless its numbers are very high .\nit is possible to confuse the maize weevil with other storage insect pests such as the larger grain borer \u2013 lgb ( prostephanus truncatus ) . the end of the body of the maize weevil is more rounded than that of the lgb , and its mouthparts are ' beak - like ' and antennae elbowed .\ngelosi a ; arcozzi l , 1983 . maize weevil ( sitophilus zea - mays motschulsky ) . informatore fitopatologico , 33 ( 12 ) : 27 - 30\nmaize weevil , sitophilus zeamais motschulsky , is a cosmopolitan pest of stored products ( longstaff 1981 ) , and prior to the introduction of the larger grain borer , prostephanus truncatus , it was reported as the most important pest on stored maize in africa . sitophilus zeamais is the dominant species on maize\nbiological pest control there have been various studies on biological control agents for the maize weevil . various parasitoids ( anisopteromalus calandrae , cephalonomia tarsalis , lariophagus distinguendus and theocolax elegans ) could be effective if introduced early in the storage period . the fungus beauveria bassiana can be used as a biological insecticide to control maize weevil in stored maize . the bacterium bacillus thuringiensis can be used on adults .\nthis weevil is a cosmopolitan pest of grain , preferring whole grain to flour or meal .\nszeoke k , 1989 . the occurrence of the maize weevil ( sitophilus zeamais motsch . ) in hungary . novenyvedelem , 25 ( 4 ) : 162 - 166\ndetection of gamma radiation - induced dna damage in maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais motschulsky ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) assessed using the come . . . - pubmed - ncbi\na small weevil that lives inside corn kernels is costing georgia growers millions of dollars each year . a university of georgia scientist has teamed up with farmers and county extension agents to put a stop to the maize weevil , the no . 1 insect pest of stored corn .\non the one hand and completely hindered or significantly reduced progeny emergence on the other hand , indicating its potential use in the management of maize weevil . earlier , the same neempro\nzhang lili , 1997 . the sensitivity of various development stages of maize weevil to phosphine . acta phytophylacica sinica , 24 ( 4 ) : 347 - 350 ; 6 ref .\nj . a . ojo and a . a . omoloye , \u201clife history of the tamarind weevil ,\narnason jt ; beyssac bcde ; philogfne bjr ; bergvinson dj ; serratos ja ; mihm ja , 1997 . mechanisms of resistance in maize grain to the maize weevil and the larger grain borer . insect resistant maize : recent advances and utilization . proceedings of an international symposium held at the international maize and wheat improvement center , 27 november - 3 december 1994 . , 91 - 95 ; [ 11 ref ] .\na female maize weevil chews a hole and then lays an egg inside the kernel . she seals the egg in the kernel so that it\u2019s hidden from view , making detection difficult . when the egg hatches , the young , hungry weevil starts eating away at the valuable commodity . an adult weevil emerges at the end of the life cycle and chews its way out of the kernel .\navoiding infestation is key for corn growers to maintain grain quality , especially when dealing with the threat of the maize weevil , the most dangerous pest a corn grower faces every year .\nli ruming ; kang ms ; moreno oj ; pollak lm , 1998 . genetic variability in exotic x adapted maize ( zea mays l . ) germplasm for resistance to maize weevil . plant genetic resources newsletter , no . 114 : 22 - 25 ; 15 ref .\nemergence holes of the granary weevil are fairly large and tend to be more ragged than smooth and round .\nresembles rice weevil , only bigger and the red - brown spots on wing covers are more clearly marked .\ncultural practices the severity of a maize weevil infestation can be reduced by good store hygiene : cleaning the store between harvests , removing and burning infested residues , fumigating the store to eliminate residual infestations and the selection of only uninfested material for storage . harvesting the maize as soon as possible after it has reached maturity will reduce the chances of attack by maize weevil and other storage pests . the use of resistant cultivars may also reduce the severity of an infestation .\nnukenine en , monglo b , awasom i , tchuenguem ffn , ngassoum mb . farmers\u2019 perception on some aspects of maize production , and infestation levels of stored maize by\navoiding infestation is key for corn growers to maintain grain quality , especially when dealing with the threat of the maize weevil , the most dangerous pest a corn grower faces every year . download image\ncabi . ( 2010 ) . sitophilus zeamais ( maize weevil ) datasheet . crop protection compendium , 2010 edition . cab international publishing . wallingford , uk . urltoken accessed on 28 jan 2010 .\nthe maize weevil is found in all warm and tropical parts of the world . it is a pest of stored maize , dried cassava , yam , common sorghum and wheat . both adults and larvae feed on internally on maize grains and an infestation can start in the field ( when the cob is still on the plant ) but most damage occurs in storage .\nv . choubey , r . bhandari , and n . kulkarni , \u201clife history and morphology of seed weevil ,\nmaize weevils , for a long time were referred to as a larger strain or race of the rice weevil , but are now recognized as a distinct species . the maize weevil is slightly larger , up to one - eighth inch ( four mm ) long , and darker than the rice weevil ; the degree of variation within each species makes them difficult to tell apart . the thorax of the maize weevil is densely and uniformly pitted with round punctures . an egg hatches in a few days into a soft , white , legless , fleshy grub which feeds on the interior of the grain kernel . after the larval stages are completed the grub changes to a white pupa and later emerges as an adult beetle .\ndavid e . legg , robert j . barney , philip w . tipping , j . g . rodriguez ; factors influencing the distribution of maize weevil ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) eggs on maize , environmental entomology , volume 16 , issue 3 , 1 june 1987 , pages 809\u2013813 , urltoken\nachiano ka ; giliomee jh ; pringle kl , 1999 . the use of ash from aloe marlothii berger for the control of maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais motschulsky ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) , in stored maize . african entomology , 7 ( 1 ) : 169 - 172 ; 13 ref .\nuga grains agronomist dewey lee said maize weevils have been a big problem for corn growers . lee suggests that growers look for maize weevils around the edges of the field first .\nthe maize weevil ( sitophilus zeamais ) can be separated from the granary weevil ( s . granarius ) by the presence of wings beneath the elytra ( absent in s . granarius ) and by having circular , rather than oval , punctures on the prothorax . the larvae of the two species are not easy to separate .\nadults are reddish brown beetles with a characteristic long weevil snout and have 4 yellow to red spots on the elytra .\nprotected the three maize varieties . these results corroborate earlier findings of demissie et al . [\nthe greater rice weevil is a pest of stored product . they are small brown black weevils with a long slender snout and four reddish brown spots on the wing covers ( two spots on each wing cover ) . the head and thorax are nearly as long as the wing covers . it is similar to the rice weevil ( sitophilus oryzae ) but slightly larger with more clearly marked red - brown spots on the wing covers . the greater rice weevil is a stronger flier than the rice weevil\nadults are identical in external appearance to the rice weevil ( sitophilus oryzae ) ; dissection required to distinguish between the species .\nand since maize weevils can grow from egg to egg laying adult in less than one month , they can be a formidable foe in and around the home . if you suspect you have maize weevil activity , there are several things you must do to knock out current activity and insure new populations won\u2019t quickly emerge .\nperez - mendoza j , 1999 . survey of insecticide resistance in mexican populations of maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais motschulsky ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . journal of stored products research , 35 ( 1 ) : 107 - 115 .\nweevil - damaged grain can be readily recognised by the presence of large holes which are the exit holes of the emerging adults .\nthe weevil infests the corn in the field and continues to develop after the corn is placed in the grain bin for storage .\nthe greater rice weevil is a serious pest of stored grain and seeds . they are a primary pest of grain as they can infest undamaged grain . they feed on grain , maize , rice , peas , cottonseed and other stored products . in america , they are a major pest of corn and known as maize weevils .\n) . genetic variability for resistance to s . zeamais in domestic us maize germplasm has been identified by\nndungu mw ; chhabra sc ; lwande w , 1999 . cleome hirta essential oil as livestock tick ( rhipicephalus appendiculatus ) and maize weevil ( sitophilus zeamais ) repellent . fitoterapia , 70 ( 5 ) : 514 - 516 ; 7 ref .\nthe mechanism of resistance in maize to s . zeamais was investigated in relation to secondary chemistry and other biochemical and physical characteristics of maize genotypes . phenolic acid content was correlated strongly with hardness of the grain (\n( coleoptera : bostrichidae ) in stored maize grains . plant protect sci . 2013 ; 49 : 34\u201343 .\nthe effect of different isolates and formulations of beauveria bassiana on s . zeamais in stored maize are reported by\noliveira ee ; guedes rnc ; t\u00f3tola mr ; marco j\u00fanior pde , 2007 . competition between insecticide - susceptible and - resistant populations of the maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais . chemosphere , 69 ( 1 ) : 17 - 24 . urltoken ; = 13b6470a7ee489fc35340c08d01cb34e\nmotschulsky ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) on maize . jul . k\u00fchn . archiv . 2010 ; 425 : 881\u20137 .\nplus , do you want to be feeding your family something that\u2019s laced with dead maize weevils ? probably not .\nmaize damaged by sitophilus zeamais . photo : frank peairs , colorado state university , urltoken ( cc - by )\nthe deoxyribonucleic acid ( dna ) comet assay , being a quick , simple , sensitive , reliable and fairly inexpensive method for measuring dna strand breaks , has been used to assess dna damage caused by gamma radiation in developmental stages of maize weevil sitophilus zeamais motschulsky .\nadult maize weevils are 3 \u2013 3 . 5 mm long , dark brown \u2013 black in colour and shiny and pitted with numerous punctures . the punctures on the thorax are in an irregular pattern while those on the elytra ( wing cases ) are in lines . the elytra also usually have four pale reddish - brown or orange - brown oval markings . the maize weevil has the characteristic rostrum ( snout or beak ) and elbowed antennae of the family curculionidae ( weevil family ) . the antennae have eight segments and are often carried in an extended position when the insect is walking . the larvae of maize weevils are white , fleshy and legless .\nmotschulsky ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) on three maize genotypes . j stored prod res . 2008 ; 44 : 227\u201331 .\nthe female lays an average of 10 eggs on a grain of maize and the hatched larvae bore into the grain .\nsitophilus zeamais is a key pest of stored maize causing serious economic damage . the predominant control of this pest is the use of synthetic residual pesticides , which have adverse effects on consumers and environment . the use of phytochemicals for controlling storage pests constitutes an attractive alternative to synthetic products , since plant may be more biodegradable and safer . the aim of this study was to evaluate the activity of neempro \u00ae against the maize weevil on three maize varieties in the laboratory and the effect of the insecticide on seed germination .\nminimum life cycle : 28 days eggs - laid in stored cereal grains and in cereals in the field by flying adults ( more prolific than granary weevil ) . larvae - feed in grain . adults - also feed ; normally cannot over winter in temperate areas unless grain heats . good flyer ; larger than rice weevil .\nfloyd eh ; newsom ld , 1959 . biological study of the rice weevil complex . annals of the entomological society of america , 52 : 687 - 695 .\nneempro \u00ae may be used as alternative to malagrain for the protection of stored maize against the infestation of s . zeamais .\n. in brazil , tests were carried out with maize cultivars to evaluate the attractiveness and oviposition preference of s . zeamais (\nukeh , d . a . , birkett , m . a . , bruce , t . j . a . , allan , e . j . , pickett , j . a . , and mordue luntz , a . j . 2010 . behavioural responses of the maize weevil ,\nprogeny were achieved at 12 g / kg . all tested concentrations completely suppressed the population increase of the weevil , had no damaged grains and recorded no weight loss .\narthur fh ; throne je ; maier de ; montross md , 1998 . feasibility of aeration for management of maize weevil populations in corn stored in the southern united states : model simulations based on recorded weather data . american entomologist , 44 ( 2 ) : 118 - 123 ; 17 ref .\nthe adult rice weevil is 2 . 5 - 3 . 5 mm long and has a slender , hard - shelled bodies that appear pitted or scarred with tiny holes .\nmaize weevil populations build up the longer the maize is kept in store so it is important to inspect the stock regularly . if the pest is found then some form of treatment will be required . synthetic pyrethroid insecticides such as permethrin and deltamethrin are not very effective against maize weevils which are more susceptible to organophosphorus insecticides such as fenitrothion and pirimiphos - methyl . fumigation with phosphine or methyl bromide is very effective in large - scale stores . also grain stocks may be fumigated with phosphine . pesticides are poisons so it is essential to follow all safety precautions on labels .\nmaier de ; adams wh ; throne je ; mason lj , 1996 . temperature management of the maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais motsch . ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) , in three locations in the united states . journal of stored products research , 32 ( 3 ) : 255 - 273 ; 27 ref .\nthe responses of s . zeamais to pheromone and synthetic maize volatiles as lures in crevice or flight traps have been studied in kenya (\npartridge ij , 1973 . the control of insects in stored maize . fiji agricultural journal , 35 ( 2 ) : 100 - 101\na . merville , a . vallier , s . venner et al . , \u201cdetermining the instar of a weevil larva ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) using a parsimonious method , \u201d\nhowe rw , 1952 . the biology of the rice weevil , calandra oryzae ( l . ) . annals of applied biology , 39 ( 1 ) : 68 - 180 .\nthere is generally no external evidence that the larvae have been eating and growing inside the seed until after about one month when the adult weevil chews through the seed coat and emerges .\na sterilizing dose of gamma radiation from cobalt - 60 was determined for adults of s . zeamais on rice , maize and wheat grains (\ninvestigations concerning the influence of four weevil densities , three oviposition / feeding periods , two maize genotypes ( susceptible and resistant ) , and three kernel densities on the aggregation of maize weevil ( mw ) , sitophilus zeamais motschulsky , eggs indicated that each had a significant impact on egg distribution . results showed that egg aggregation generally increased with increasing mw density and duration of oviposition / feeding period , but the specific response depended on kernel density and maize genotype . these findings serve to illustrate the influence of four environmental factors on the biology and ecology of the mw , as quantified by changes in egg distribution , and may aid in the identification of factors ( such as resistant varieties ) that can be manipulated to the detriment of the insect pest in a pest management program on stored grains .\nthe adult granary weevil is a somewhat cylindrical beetle about two - tenths of an inch ( two to three mm ) long . the head is prolonged with a distinct snout extending downward from the head for a distance of about one - fourth the length of the body . the weevil is polished red brown to black with ridged wing - covers and a well - marked thorax with oval pits . unlike the rice and maize weevils , the granery weevil cannot fly . the egg hatches in a few days into a soft , white , legless , fleshy grub which feeds on the interior of the grain kernel . the grub changes to a naked white pupa and later emerges as an adult beetle .\nli zhaohui ; zheng fangqiang ; ye baohua ; liu guilin , 1998 . bionomics of lariophagus distinguendus foerster ( hym . : pteromalidae ) and its control effect on maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais motschulsky ( col . : curculionidae ) . journal of shandong agricultural university , 29 ( 4 ) : 427 - 430 ; 5 ref .\nadult granary weevil live an average of about seven to eight weeks . each female lays 50 to 200 white eggs during this period . the female uses her strong mandibles to chew a small hole in the grain kernel , where she deposits a single egg in the hole and seals it with a gelatinous fluid . in warm weather , the granary weevil can develop from egg to adult in about five weeks . cold weather prolongs development . the granary weevil cannot fly and so is most likely to be found where grain is stored , and moves with infested grain .\ne . n . nukenine , b . monglo , l . awason , l . s . t . ngamo , f . f . n . tchuenguem , and m . b . ngassoum , \u201cfarmer ' s percppection on some aspects of maize production , and infestation levels of stored maize by\n] where 30 undamaged grains of each maize variety seed in each jar were randomly selected . the number of germinated seeds was recorded after 10 days .\nto make matters worse , maize weevils can complete a new generation in just 25 days . their maximum rate of increase is a factor of 25 , meaning if there are only 25 maize weevils in january , they can reproduce to 625 by february and 15 , 625 by march , he said .\nnatural carbon dioxide production in stored maize is affected by moisture content , the amount of broken corn and foreign materials and infestation by s . zeamais (\npantenius cu , 1988 . storage losses in traditional maize granaries in togo . insect science and its application , 9 ( 6 ) : 725 - 735\nthe granary weevil is among the most destructive of all stored grain insects . the larvae develop inside kernels of whole grain in storage . this makes an infestation difficult to remove in the milling process .\ncategory : lw minimum life cycle : 28 days . distribution : tropical and temperate areas on cereal grains . biology : eggs - laid in stored cereal grains and in cereals in the field by flying adults ( more prolific than granary weevil ) . larvae - feed in grain . adults - also feed ; normally cannot overwinter in temperate areas unless grain heats . good flyer ; larger than rice weevil .\n4 ) now that you\u2019ve treated all cabinets , pantries , rooms and baseboards where adults may be hiding , install some of our maize weevil pheromone traps where you have or suspect activity . these traps use strong pheromones and sex attractants to lure adults . once they crawl or fly into the holding tray , the thick catching oil will hold them for good .\nin stored maize , heavy infestations of these pests may cause weight losses of as much as 30 - 40 % , although losses are commonly 4 - 5 % . s . zeamais has been found to be amongst the most important pests of maize in a number of studies ; in south carolina , usa , (\no . e . bailez , a . m . viana - bailez , j . o . g . de lima , and d . d . o . moreira , \u201clife - history of the guava weevil ,\n) . mortality increased with powder content and time post - exposure . at the highest dosage of 6 g / kg , 100 , 95 and 89 % adult weevil mortality was achieved in clh103 , cms8501 and shaba , respectively , within 14 days of exposure . for the same time - point and in the same order , the lowest dosage of 0 . 75 g / kg caused 43 , 18 and 10 % weevil mortality . the lc\ndescribes use of carbon dioxide - controlled atmosphere in brazil for the control of s . zeamais on maize and wheat . carbon dioxide at concentrations of 50 % and 60 % killed all life stages of the weevil after 10 days of exposure . in another study with fumigation periods of 15 and 20 days , the concentrations of 40 % , 50 % and 60 % eliminated all stages of the insects (\nas the name implies , they like maize . however , maize weevils can be found eating just about anything in the home . more common food stuff they like include seeds of all types , dried beans , cotton , nuts , cereal , any wheat product , corn , flour , pasta , bread and other grain products found in any home .\npupation takes about 1 week at which time adults will emerge . maize weevils present more of a nuisance than other pantry pests because adults feed just as much as their larva preferring a wider range of things to eat . since they fly well and are small , maize weevils can move throughout the home easily finding all kinds of things to eat .\nmohammed - dawd e ; morallo - rejesus b , 2000 . heat treatment for the control of corn weevil , sitophilus zeamais motsch . in stored corn . shashpa , 7 ( 1 ) : 57 - 62 ; 13 ref .\n\u201cfarmers should harvest the edges of their field and separate that grain from the rest to try and prevent maize weevils from infesting the rest of the crop , \u201d he said .\nrevetti lm , 1972 . irradiation of grains . i . irradiation of maize ( zea mays l . ) . agronomia tropical , 22 ( 5 ) : 497 - 507 .\nnansen c ; phillips tw ; palmer mw , 2004 . analysis of the insect community in a maize storage facility . ecological research , 19 ( 2 ) : 197 - 207 .\nvariation was observed in the developmental biology and description of sitophilus zeamais cultured on the selected cereal grains . s . zeamais has seven life stages comprising egg ( ) , four larval instars ( ) , prepupa / pupa ( ) , and adult ( ) . no significant difference ( > 0 . 05 , f = 0 . 56 , and df = 3 ; > 0 . 05 , f = 0 . 17 , and df = 3 ) were observed in maize weevil oviposition and egg incubation period across the maize , rice , sorghum , and millet tested . the oviposition period ranged from 9 to 29 d , with the lowest and highest mean oviposition period of 20 . 3 and 22 . 2 d on millet and maize , respectively ( table 1 ) . the egg incubation period ranged between 3 and 7 d ; the lowest mean was recorded on rice with 5 . 1 d and the highest was observed on millet with 5 . 4 d . total average number of eggs laid was not significantly varied ( > 0 . 05 , f = 1 . 22 , and df = 3 ) among the cereal grains , with the highest and lowest mean fecundity being found on maize ( ) and millet ( ) , respectively . also , there was significant different ( < 0 . 05 , f = 3 . 99 , and df = 3 ) adult longevity found among the cereals used ; adult maize weevil significantly lived longest on maize and millet ( and d ) than on rice and sorghum ( and . 07 days ) , respectively ( table 1 ) .\n) . however , there were slight differences of all the parameters in shaba variety . moreover , no undamaged grain was found in untreated tests and that was for the three maize varieties .\n) . from the dosages of 1 . 5 g / kg in clh103 and 3 g / kg in cms8501 , the populations of the weevil were completely suppressed as in malagrain . no alive insects were recorded after 4 months of maize storage , while with the highest content of 6 g / kg , 15 alive weevils were registered in shaba variety . in addition , there were no significant differences between the main effects of the rate , neempro\nprogeny emergence in clh103 , cms8501 and shaba , respectively . higher concentration levels roughly achieved complete suppression of progeny emergence in the three maize varieties . no progeny emergence was observed in malagrain treatments .\nthrone je . life history of immature maize weevils ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) on corn stored at constant temperatures and relative humidities in the laboratory . environ entomol . 1994 ; 23 : 1459\u201371 .\nadult beetle is a pest of stored maize , but also infests other types of grain . larva bores tubular passages into the grain , typically making one main tunnel with smaller ones branching off .\nvalues of 0 . 04 and 0 . 13 g / kg , respectively . within 1 day of exposure , adult weevils exposed to malagrain were dead and that was on the three maize varieties .\nmaize weevils are a small insect , about 1 / 16 to 1 / 8 of an inch long . they are mostly brown to black in color and can have spots on their thorax and abdomen .\nthe larval feeding cause the most damage due to contamination with excrement and cocoons is immense . besides tobacco , the pest infests cocoa , nuts , dried fruits , coffee , corn maize , wheat and spice\nfound throughout the world , maize weevils are a pest which can be controlled like many other pantry pests . find the route of entry , discard infested food or belongings and treat with both residual insecticides and traps .\nthrone je , 1994 . life history of immature maize weevils ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) on corn stored at constant temperatures and relative humidities in the laboratory . environmental entomology , 23 ( 6 ) : 1459 - 1471\n) . three trap types ( probe , cone and sticky ) were used to monitor s . zeamais populations infesting shelled maize housed in galvanized steel storage bins . the results of this study were similar to those reported by\n) , and oils of coconut , sunflower , sesame and mustard , alone and in combination with eucalyptol , eugenol or camphor have been found to be toxic to s . zeamais in wheat and maize - treated grains (\n] reported similar findings where neemazal did not have negative effects on maize seed germination ( germination rates of 92 . 23 % at 3 g / kg to 97 . 77 % at 12 g / kg were recorded ) .\narbogast rt ; throne je , 1997 . insect infestation of farm - stored maize in south carolina : towards characterization of a habitat . journal of stored products research , 33 ( 3 ) : 187 - 198 ; 30 ref .\nayuk - takem ja ; chheda hr ; eckebil jp , 1982 . problems and potentials of maize research and production in cameroon ( zea mays l . ) . revue science et technique , 2 ( 4 ) : 5 - 16\nthere are many pantry pests which can infest homes and businesses . though meal moths , grain beetles and flour beetles are very common , maize weevils are just as likely to be the unwanted insect in such areas . maize weevils are small and easy to kill , but they can complete their life cycle quickly . adult females will start laying eggs almost immediately so once you have some activity in a structure , its sure to blossom into a problem which will need attention .\nhamel d , 2007 . storing maize in stores and protection from pests . ( cuvanje kukuruza u skladi ? tu i za ? tita od ? tetnika . ) glasilo biljne za ? tite , 7 ( 5 ) : 344 - 349 .\nhidalgo e ; moore d ; patourel gl , 1998 . the effect of different formulations of beauveria bassiana on sitophilus zeamais in stored maize . journal of stored products research , 34 ( 2 / 3 ) : 171 - 179 ; 21 ref .\nrichter j ; biliwa a ; henning - helbig s , 1998 . efficacy of dust formulated insecticides in traditional maize stores in west africa . journal of stored products research , 34 ( 2 / 3 ) : 181 - 187 ; 16 ref .\ndobie p , 1974 . the laboratory assessment of the inherent susceptibility of maize varieties to post - harvest infestation by sitophilus zeamais motsch . ( coleoptera , curculionidae ) . journal of stored products research , 10 ( 3 / 4 ) : 183 - 197\nmoreno - martinez e ; jim\u00e9nez s ; v\u00e1zquez me , 2000 . effect of sitophilus zeamais and aspergillus chevalieri on the oxygen level in maize stored hermetically . journal of stored products research , 36 ( 1 ) : 25 - 36 ; 33 ref .\nnow if you\u2019ve been seeing maize weevils foraging on kitchen counter tops or the floor , the xlure trap will be better suited for these \u201cout in the open\u201d placements . the xlure trap has a protective , hard plastic body to the trap and the catching gel , bait and pheromone is located safely inside out of sight . maize weevils will readily find their way inside and get caught but because of it\u2019s design , the xlure traps are best suited for trap placements that need to be done out in the open .\nbrown sl ; lee rd , 2002 . effect of planting date , variety and degree of ear maturation on the colonization of field corn by maize weevils ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . journal of entomological science , 37 ( 2 ) : 137 - 142 .\nweevils were shown to carry significant a . flavus contamination , as well as f . moniliforme and p . islandicum and others . dry maize is not for human consumption but for animal feed and export . because of problems with aflatoxin contamination and insect infestation , recent crops have met with reduced prices maize weevils carried a great collection of other fungi including a . niger , a . glaucus , a . candidus , penicillium islandicum , p . citrinum , paecilomyces , acremonium , epicoccum , f . semitectum , yeasts and many others .\nhelbig j , 1998 . ability of naturally occurring parasitoids to suppress the introduced pest prostephanus truncatus ( horn ) ( coleoptera , bostrichidae ) in traditional maize stores in togo . journal of stored products research , 34 ( 4 ) : 287 - 295 ; 26 ref .\nsone jin , 1999 . carbon dioxide production in stored maize as affected by moisture content , level of broken corn and foreign materials and infestation by sitophilus zeamais motschulsky . journal of asia - pacific entomology , 2 ( 2 ) : 133 - 141 ; 23 ref .\noduor gi ; smith sm ; chandi ea ; karanja lw ; agano jo ; moore d , 2000 . occurrence of beauveria bassiana on insect pests of stored maize in kenya . journal of stored products research , 36 ( 2 ) : 177 - 185 ; 25 ref .\nfigure 1 : relationship between head capsule width and larval development of s . zeamais on cereals ( 24\u201330\u00b0c ; 60 \u00b1 10 % rh ; 12 h photophase ) : ( a ) maize , ( b ) rice , ( c ) sorghum , and ( d ) millet .\n) . respiration by fungi including aspergillus spp . appears to have a greater influence on carbon dioxide production in stores than the presence of insects . under sealed storage conditions in maize , insects and fungi both deplete the oxygen supply , creating an unfavourable atmosphere for their own survival (\nthe rice weevil is a small snout beetle which varies in size , but it averages about three thirty - seconds inch in length . it varies from a dull red - brown to black , and is usually marked on the back with four light red to yellow spots . the rice weevil has fully developed wings beneath its wing covers and can fly readily . the thorax is densely pitted with somewhat irregularly shaped punctures , except for a smooth narrow strip extending down the middle of the back . the larval stage of this insect is a soft , white , legless , fleshy grub which feeds on the interior of the grain kernel . when mature , the grub changes to a naked white pupa and later emerges as an adult beetle .\nkossou , d . k . , and bosque - berez , n . a . 1998 . insect pests of maize in storage : biology and control , 3rd ed . iita research guide 32 . training programme . international institute of tropical agriculture ( iita ) , ibadan , nigeria .\nmaize weevils were reared on whole clean , undamaged and disinfested maize grains shaba , the composite mostly grown by adamawa farmers under ambient laboratory conditions . adult weevils were obtained from a colony kept since 2005 in the laboratory of entomology at the university of ngaoundere . maize grains were sterilised in cold chamber at \u221214 \u00b0c for 21 days to kill any incipient infestation . the sterilised grains were conditioned during 14 days prior to rearing or bioassay processes . twenty adults were released into ten glass jars ( 900 ml capacity ) containing 500 g of conditioned grains each . the adults were removed after 2 weeks and the grains were kept under ambient laboratory conditions [ temperature ( t ) = 21 . 9\u201324 . 4 \u00b0c and relative humidity ( rh ) = 75 . 3\u201378 % ] for the development of progenies . adults aged 7\u201314 days and mixed sexes were used for all bioassays .\nmaize weevils lay eggs with a glue like excretion which helps to attach them to surfaces where food is likely to be available . this helps to keep them in place so that just \u201cwiping\u201d a damp rag over the area is never enough ; vacuuming will no doubt help to remove more .\napply it with one of our pump sprayers which will allow you to get good coverage quickly . focus in on baseboards , moldings and floor joists if accessible . since rodenticide is one of their favorite foods , be sure to check any bait placements you have done in the last couple of years . attics are common areas where maize weevils thrive and then find their way inside living areas . if you have an attic with rodenticide , be sure to remove any suspected of feeding maize weevils and treat with defense to insure migrating adults won\u2019t be able to find their way inside .\nprior to filling the bins , it is essential that growers thoroughly clean out any old grain and clear vegetation around the outside of the bin where insects could be , he said . maize weevils are strong fliers and can easily move from spilled grain and residues into the newly harvested crop .\nfigure 2 : frequency distribution of the head capsule width of larval instar of s . zeamais on different cereal grains ( 24\u201330\u00b0c ; % rh ; 12 h photophase ) : ( ( a ) maize ; ( b ) rice ; ( c ) sorghum ; and ( d ) millet ) .\nestimated the toxicity of deltamethrin to a number of resistant and susceptible populations of s . zeamais in traditional maize stores in togo . in another study , a treatment with pirimiphos - methyl and deltamethrin was most effective in traditional granaries after pirimiphos - methyl , deltamethrin and permethrin were applied in various combinations (\nthe female weevil chews a hole in the grain and deposits a small oval white egg inside . the egg hatches into a white legless grub which feeds inside the grain . the larvae pupate inside the grain and emerge as adult beetles by biting a circular exit hole through the grain . a female can lay 300 - 400 eggs in her life time . adults live for five to eight months .\nif you are not sure if something has activity , store it in a plastic bag and check it every day to two . if there are any maize weevils in the food , they will try to get out within a week or two . if some are found , throw away the entire bag immediately .\nto control the pest , toews is evaluating grain protectants \u2014 insecticides that are applied at very low rates ( as low as 1 part per million ) to prevent maize weevils from eating stored corn . \u201cwe are looking at different chemistries to find solutions that are most appropriate for south georgia and alabama conditions , \u201d he said .\nadda , c . , borgemeister , c . , biliwa , a . , meikle , w . g . , markham , r . h . , and poehling , h . - m . 2002 . integrated pest management in post - harvest maize : a case study from the republic of togo ( west africa ) .\nmeikle wg ; markham rh ; holst n ; djomamou b ; schneider h ; vowotor ka , 1998 . distribution and sampling of prostephanus truncatus ( coleoptera : bostrichidae ) and sitophilus zeamais ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) in maize stores in benin . journal of economic entomology , 91 ( 6 ) : 1366 - 1374 ; 41 ref .\nmeans in the same column for the same maize variety , followed by the same letter do not differ significantly at p = 0 . 05 ( tukey\u2019s test ) ; number of replicates : 4 ; * * * p < 0 . 001 ; f value : a ratio of two variances\u2014the \u201cbetween group\u201d variance and the \u201cwithin - group\u201d variance\nmeans in the same column for the same maize variety , followed by the same letter do not differ significantly at p = 0 . 05 ( tukey\u2019s test ) ; number of replicates : 4 ; * * * p < 0 . 001 ; f value : a ratio of two variances\u2014the \u201cbetween group\u201d variance and the \u201cwithin - group\u201d variance\nboth s . oryzae and s . zeamais are able to develop on a wide range of cereals and also on processed cereal products such as pasta . however , food preferences of the two species are variable ; it is clear that s . zeamais is predominantly found associated with maize grain , whereas s . oryzae is associated with wheat .\nhodges rj ; hall dr ; mbugua jn ; likhayo pw , 1998 . the responses of prostephanus truncatus ( coleoptera : bostrichidae ) and sitophilus zeamais ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) to pheromone and synthetic maize volatiles as lures in crevice or flight traps . bulletin of entomological research , 88 ( 2 ) : 131 - 139 ; 29 ref .\nthe egg incubation period of five days observed among food hosts was similar to what was obtained in other related coleopterans , three to four days for s . rugicollis [ 21 ] and five days for s . oryzae when it was cultured on maize grains [ 22 ] , whereas it was three days for s . linearis cultured on tamarind [ 17 ] and four days for conotrachelus psidii [ 23 ] . there was variation in mean egg laid by mated female s . zeamais in relation to food hosts ( range between 54 and 67 eggs ) with more eggs laid on maize over a period of almost 22 days . s . zeamais could live for 117 to 126 days on cereals , with longest duration occurring on millet , maize , rice , and sorghum in that order . this variation could be a result of food hosts used and prevailing environmental conditions . the developmental biology of s . zeamais could be influenced by this moderate fecundity and oviposition , shorter larval period , and ability to breed easily on any cereal crop .\nmaize weevils start their life as a small caterpillar like larva which hatches on some type of food like a wheat grain , seed or nut . eggs will hatch within a couple of days of being laid and feed immediately . feeding will occur for 1 - 3 weeks and then larva will spin a cocoon in which they will pupate to an adult .\nrichter j ; biliwa a ; henning - helbig s , 1997 . losses and pest infestation in different maize storage systems with particular emphasis on prostephanus truncatus ( horn ) ( col . , bostrichidae ) in togo . anzeiger fu ^ umlaut ~ r scha ^ umlaut ~ dlingskunde , pflanzenschutz , umweltschutz , 70 ( 6 ) : 112 - 116 ; 21 ref .\nmaize weevils are small , fast and quick to hide when ever people are around disturbing where they have been feeding . many will go unnoticed and missed so it is best to treat every cabinet to be sure you get proper coverage . let the treatment dry for 1 hour and all dishes and food stuff can then go back away without hazard to people or pets .\ngood store hygiene plays an important role in limiting infestation by s . oryzae and s . zeamais . the removal of infested residues from last season ' s harvest is essential . the use of resistant maize varieties has also shown some potential in slowing the build - up of insect densities in stores . phenolic compounds have been associated with grain resistance to s . zeamais .\nokonkwo eu ; okoye wi , 1996 . the efficacy of four seed powders and the essential oils as protectants of cowpea and maize grains against infestation by callosobruchus maculatus ( fabricius ) ( coleoptera : bruchidae ) and sitophilus zeamais ( motschulsky ) ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) in nigeria . international journal of pest management , 42 ( 3 ) : 143 - 146 ; 13 ref .\nwere 0 . 75 , 1 . 5 , 3 and 6 g / kg after preliminary studies . these rates were obtained by adding 0 . 0375 , 0 . 075 , 0 . 15 and 0 . 3 g of the insecticide powder to 50 g of maize grains of each variety in a glass jar and shaken well by hands during 4 min to get uniform coating . twenty ( 7\u201314 days old ) adult weevils of mixed sexes were introduced into each jar . each treatment was repeated four times . treated and untreated controls were included . in the treated control , 0 . 025 g of malagrain was introduced in 50 g grains of each maize variety ( 0 . 5 g / kg , recommended dose ) . for untreated control , neither neempro\nthe study shows that neempro \u00ae is very effective against s . zeamais on the grains of three maize varieties ( clh103 , cms8501 and shaba ) . this insecticide , not only kills the adult weevils , but also affects their progeny production . additionally , it protects stored grains of the three varieties for 4 months without affecting the seed germination power . however , the product seems to have protected clh103 and cms8501 varieties more than shaba . therefore , neempro \u00ae can be used as post - harvest grain protectant against the infestation of the noxious s . zeamais . with this in mind , further research is needed in the future to investigate the effect of this botanical insecticide on other stored products pests and to determine the biochemical parameters of the three maize varieties .\nthe only way to control these pests is fumigation . since it is an internal pest , residual control will only kill exposed adults . to kill the internal stages ( larval and pupal ) , you must fumigate . heating grain to 60c can kill larvae , however , this may decrease germination and baking quality of flour . \u201cif you dry corn in the field , the corn will become infested with maize weevils , \u201d says extension agricultural engineer paul sumner . \u201conce a weevil feeds on an ear of corn it ' ll emit a pheromone which will attract other maize weevils to that area . they subsequently lay eggs in the mature kernels , and adult weevils emerge within 2 - 3 weeks . \u201d by delaying harvest in the field , growers allow a second infestation of weevils in the corn , says sumner . \u201cit ' s going to occur anyway in our part of the country . do you leave corn in the field and let it dry , or do you harvest it after it has field dried ? then , do you store it or sell it immediately ? \u201d if you plan on storing corn , then you ' ll have to place some insecticide on it to prevent a regular occurring infestation of weevils inside the storage bin , he says .\ns . oryzae and s . zeamais are very important pests of cereals . in maize or sorghum , attack may start in the mature crop when the moisture content of the grain has fallen to 18 - 20 % . subsequent infestations in store result from the transfer of infested grain into store or from the pest flying into storage facilities , probably attracted by the odour of the stored grain ."]}
{"id": 1128, "summary": [{"text": "trioceros melleri , with the common names meller 's chameleon and giant one-horned chameleon , is the largest species of chameleon from the african mainland ( i.e. the largest of the chameleons not native to madagascar ) . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "meller ' s chameleon", "paragraphs": ["meller ' s chameleon for sale - free shipping orders 25 . 00 or more\nblack spots developing on a meller ' s is symptomatic of the chameleon feeling threatened .\nthe tongue of a meller\u2019s chameleon can extend almost the entire length of the chameleon , sometimes being longer than 2 feet .\nwith proper planning , meller\u2019s chameleons can be kept in groups . pictured are some of the author\u2019s animals .\nfischer ' s chameleon ( kinyongia fischeri ) is a species of chameleon endemic to tanzania .\nkaren venaas and her husband jeremy work with several other chameleon species in addition to meller\u2019s , including veiled , panther , oustalet\u2019s and jackson\u2019s chameleons . they participate in many educational events to educate new and potential chameleon owners . follow the adventures of the chameleon farm at urltoken\nhow to keep a meller ' s chamaleon ( t . melleri ) | much ado about chameleons\nnearly half of all chameleons live in madagascar . the meller\u2019s chameleon is the largest chameleon not native to the island nation , and the largest chameleon living in mainland africa . meller\u2019s chameleons inhabit the east african savannas of malawi , mozambique and tanzania . these lizards are also found in bushland trees and throughout tropical grasslands .\ngenera & species : within the two subfamilies are nine genera and 171 species . a few examples \u2014 calumma parsonii ( parson\u2019s chameleon ) , furcifer oustaleti ( oustalet ' s chameleon ) , brookesia minima ( pygmy leaf chameleon ) , chameleo jacksonii ( jackson\u2019s chameleon )\nmueller , jennifer .\nfacts about meller ' s chameleons\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\nmeller\u2019s chameleon the meller\u2019s chameleon can be found naturally in east africa . they can be over 24 inches in length and can live up to 12 years . they require a daytime temperature around 80 * f and a 70 % humidity level . they are aggressive and are not a good choice if it is your first chameleon .\nmeller\u2019s chameleon \u2013 a large animal family of lizards . it lives mainly on the east african territories . meller\u2019s chameleon is famous for the largest size among the other members of his clan . length of body may exceed fifty centimeters . males are slightly larger for females . in the wild chameleon meller can be found in small colonies . these social animals usually hide in the branches of tall trees .\naccording to international union for conservation of nature ' s red list of threatened species , many species of chameleon are endangered . some species that are considered in danger of extinction are the tiger chameleon , elandsberg dwarf chameleon , namoroka leaf chameleon and the decary ' s leaf chameleon .\nthe carnivorous meller\u2019s chameleon is solitary by nature and a fairly slow - moving lizard , so it doesn\u2019t chase after its prey . rather , the chameleon hides itself in the foliage , waiting to ambush its prey . when an unsuspecting insect or small bird moves within the meller\u2019s chameleon ' s target range , it shoots out its tongue , which can be up to 20 inches long , captures the animal and eats it . other smaller lizards may also be targeted by meller\u2019s chameleons .\nmeller\u2019s chameleons often arrive to their final destination dehydrated and stressed , but with proper care they can thrive for years .\nthe meller ' s cham is just spectacular - - thanks guys ! arrived right on time and packed really well .\n) and i realized i ' d never really done a caresheet about them ! so here it is , my version of how to keep a meller ' s chameleon .\ni saw several beautiful adult meller\u2019s chameleons at a recent herp show , but experienced herpers talked me out of buying one . why ?\nthe meller ' s chameleon is the largest of the chameleons not native to madagascar . their stout bodies can grow to be up to two feet long and weigh more than a pound .\nwhen you buy a meller ' s chameleon from us , you receive our 100 % ironclad live arrival guarantee . please read the details of our guarantee before ordering . we also encourage you to read our popular\nif a female meller\u2019s chameleon has indicated she is receptive to the male\u2019s advances , they may mate several times over a period of days . females can store sperm from a mating for several months , enabling them to lay several clutches of eggs during the year from a single encounter . most clutches have between 50 and 90 eggs . the female buries the eggs in a hole in the ground , covers them and leaves . after four or five months the young meller\u2019s chameleons hatch from their eggs to fend for themselves . adult meller\u2019s chameleons neither guide nor protect the hatchlings .\navoiding veterinary care and medical treatment may cost the chameleon it ' s life , which will certainly cost the owner their original investment in purchasing the chameleon . here are some suggestions for safeguarding the health and longevity of a newly imported chameleon :\nthe largest chameleon is the parson\u2019s chameleon , according to encyclopedia britannica . it can grow up to 27 inches ( 69 . 5 centimeters ) long . the madagascan , also known as the oustalet ' s chameleon , is also very large and grows up to 23 inches ( 60 cm ) long .\nmeller ' s distinguish themselves from their universally bizarre - looking cousins with a single small horn protruding from the front of their snouts . this and their size earn them the common name\ngiant one - horned chameleon .\nmost chameleons have casques or crests on their heads , the size and shape of which varies by species . the meller\u2019s chameleon has a pair of \u201coccipital lobes , \u201d or ear flaps , that can flare up like an elephant\u2019s ears . they raise these flaps during courtship and threat displays .\nmeller ' s chameleons are also called\ngiant one - horned chameleons\nbecause of their large size and the small horn protruding from the front of their snouts .\ntell your members of congress to save america ' s vulnerable wildlife by supporting the recovering america ' s wildlife act .\neventually , a couple of the females began to lay eggs . they were infertile , but we believed that we might soon be among the lucky few to get viable meller\u2019s chameleon eggs , resulting in some captive - bred babies . then one morning the unthinkable happened . a seemingly healthy chameleon died suddenly , without warning . it was one that we had for a couple years , long past the 90 - day curse that is sometimes unfortunately associated with meller\u2019s chameleons .\nincredible chameleon facts for kids including chameleon diet , habitat , reproduction , and its behavior . chameleons belong to the family of chamaeleo\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nthe island of madagascar is home to around 50 percent of the world\u2019s chameleons . one hundred fifty species of chameleon inhabit the island , which has a diverse range of habitats , including desert and rainforest . most of the island\u2019s chameleons are forest floor dwellers , as opposed to arboreal . since the chameleon is incapable of flight , madagascar\u2019s native chameleons are physically isolated from the rest of the world\u2019s chameleon population . this means that they have evolved independently from other species .\nwhile adult meller\u2019s chameleons ( chamaeleo melleri ) are beautiful , they are more difficult to maintain than some of the other species of chameleons that are more hardy and easier to keep .\nmeller\u2019s chameleons should be kept in a quality screened cage like the reptibreeze aluminum - framed one pictured below . please do not keep your chameleon in a glass - sided cage , as they do not provide enough ventilation , which can lead to respiratory issues .\nother types of chameleon will usually not decline if not provided with proper humidity and fresh water continually for a few days ( not that this is ever recommended ) , but it doesn\u2019t take long for a meller\u2019s to go downhill if the owner doesn\u2019t stay on top of this all the time . this is probably the main reason why your herper friends tried to dissuade you from purchasing a meller\u2019s . i\u2019m glad you listened , as there are many other types of chameleon that don\u2019t have such specific and difficult to maintain requirements .\n10 . the american chameleon is not actually a chameleon . the american chameleon , or anole ( anolis carolinensis ) , is not a true chameleon , but a small lizard of the iguana family . it is found in the se united states and is noted for its colour changes . [ source ]\ndue to this amount of water , meller ' s require pretty heavy - duty drainage . so a little free - range in one corner of your bedroom isn ' t going to be enough ! you might be looking at gallons of water daily that you ' ll need to account for . so make sure that you invest in drainage when you are setting up a meller ' s cage .\nmueller , jennifer .\nfacts about meller ' s chameleons .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / mellers - chameleons - 4461 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nthe chameleon stops eating ( anorexia ) for more than 2 - 3 days .\nfischer\u2019s chameleon the fischer\u2019s chameleon can be found in kenya and tanzania . these moderately sized lizards can grow to be 15 inches long and live up to 3 years . a daytime temperature about 75 * f and a relative humidity around 75 to 85 % . with experienced care these chameleons can do well .\nmueller , jennifer . ( n . d . ) . facts about meller ' s chameleons . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / mellers - chameleons - 4461 . html\nquarantine the new chameleon until diagnostic tests are completed and any health problems are treated and cured . do not allow contact between the new chameleon and any other chameleons in your collection during quarantine , including mating . disinfect your hands , food bowls and any utensils that come in contact with the quarantined chameleon . do not recycle uneaten food from the quarantined chameleon ' s enclosure to another chameleon . do not house more than one chameleon in a cage during quarantine . ( for information on quarantine and infection control , review the article in cin issue no . 16 . )\noustalet\u2019s chameleon the oustalet\u2019s chameleons can be found naturally in madagascar . they are large reptiles that can grow up to 30 inches long and can live up to 12 years . provide a daytime temperature around 80 * f and a relative humidity of 70 % . these lizards can be good pets if you want a larger chameleon .\nthis very interesting creatures resembles a parson\u2019s chameleon and is believed to be the largest chameleon in madagascar . they require a humidity of 70 % and temperature of 75 * f . these aren\u2019t as common as pets but they can do fine in captivity .\nnamed after \u201ddr . meller\u201d who is mentioned by gray in the section about the \u201chabitat\u201d ( = locality ) of this species without further comment .\n( c ) 1999 , ardi abate , chameleon information network . copies of this article may be reprinted from this website by permission of the author and the chameleon information network .\n: because meller\u2019s newborns are big , relative to other chameleon species , they progress to eating large prey quickly . hatchlings begin with small insects , flies , bugs , and worms . as adults they consume locusts , cockroaches , spiders , small lizards , and hatchling birds : anything that moves and is the right size . this lizard is also known as \u201cthe bird eating chameleon\u201d . they are carnivorous .\noustalet\u2019s start at about 3 inches long but can reach 27 inches or larger .\ncrickets and dubia roaches are the most commonly available prey items that are appropriate for meller\u2019s chameleons , and most keepers will feed these . the insects should be gut loaded , meaning they should be fed healthy greens , fruits and grains prior to being offered to your chameleon , so those nutrients can be passed on to your pet .\nthe indian chameleon ( chamaeleo zeylanicus ) , despite its name , lives in sri lanka , parts of southern asia and india . it is typical of most lizards , in that it prefers to live in trees , rather than on the forest floor . europe\u2019s only chameleon is the mediterranean chameleon ( chamaeleo chamaeleon ) . he lives in greece , spain , malta and italy .\nthe dead chameleon pictured above was one of several dead animals observed at exporters ' holding facilities .\nas with all chameleons , meller ' s will change colors in response to stress and to communicate with other chameleons . their normal appearance is deep green with yellow stripes and random black spots . females are slightly smaller , but are otherwise indistinguishable from males .\nobservation is critical in the daily assessment of the health of wild - caught chameleons , but keep physical handling and traffic in the chameleon ' s visual range to a minimum . provide ample drinking water and ensure the chameleon is drinking . keep records of food and water consumption on a daily basis .\nexotic pet enthusiasts often attempt to keep meller ' s chameleons as pets . however , they are highly susceptible to even the slightest level of stress and are very difficult to care for in captivity . in the wild , they can live as long as 12 years .\nstress is always a concern . a wild - caught meller\u2019s chameleon is already dealing with the stress of capture and importation , and continued stress will impair its immune system and lead to illness and death . many things can cause stress , including improper temperatures and lighting , inadequate housing , being able to see people or other animals , and being handled or bothered too frequently .\nother chameleon species lay eggs that have an incubation period of four to 24 months , depending on species , according to the san diego zoo . the size of the chameleon predicts how many eggs she will lay . small chameleon species lay two to four eggs while larger chameleons lay 80 to 100 eggs at one time .\nthe adult size of the meller\u2019s chameleon is approximately 28 inches in length , and because of their extremely large size , they require a very large habitat or perhaps an entire room . their potz is 77 to 80 degrees fahrenheit , which should be easy for a herper to provide . the biggest problem with maintaining these chameleons is that they require an ambient humidity of 95 to 100 percent , which is almost impossible to maintain without humidifiers , misters and specialized enclosures to hold the humidity . meller\u2019s chameleons also require a constant source of fresh water from a drip system or mister and will quickly fail to thrive unless kept well hydrated on a daily basis .\n: meller\u2019s chameleon has adapted to a very specific environmental niche and cannot respond to change or move away quickly . human activity is encroaching upon its habitat , altering and degrading it . because of its large size and handsome appearance , although it is illegal to do so , the pet trade seeks out this species . however , it is extremely susceptible to stress and many do not survive being transported .\nthe smallest chameleon has a special distinction . it is also one of the smallest vertebrates ever discovered . the leaf chameleon grows to just 0 . 5 inches ( 16 millimeters ) and can sit comfortably on the head of a match .\nshe named\nnosey\n. this chameleon had been rescued from being euthanized in a pet store due to declining health by bianca and her friend mary ellen mcloughlin , a veterinarian . nosey ' s initial health problems were serious :\nwhen first getting a chameleon try not to handle it too much when it is young . as it gets older , be very patient and cautious when your chameleon starts getting used to you . chameleons are very trust - oriented , so if you grab them off their branch or make surprising sudden movements while handling your chameleon you may lose his or her trust .\nwater is very important to chameleon growth and health . they either slurp water up using their tongues or the inhale it .\nguarantee that someone very experienced with reptiles will attempt to select the specific lizard ( s ) you are requesting .\nchanging skin color is an important part of communication among chameleons . according to the san diego zoo , a chameleon ' s skin changes colors in response to its emotions , such as anger or fear , changes in light , temperature or humidity .\nmeller\u2019s are large chameleons that can eat a great deal , and it is important to provide them with a healthy and varied diet . in the wild , they consume a variety of insects , including grasshoppers , flies , moths and beetles . some have even been known to consume small lizards and birds . you can feed pet meller\u2019s crickets , dubia roaches , silkworms , and praying mantises , to name just a few options . these large chameleons will also enjoy larger prey items and flying insects , too\u2014favorites of mine include mantids , dragonflies and butterflies . of course , care must be taken to ensure any prey items are not toxic and have not been in contact with pesticides .\n2 . colour changing . most chameleons change from brown to green and back , but some can turn almost any colour . a change can occur in as little as 20 seconds . chameleons are born with special cells that have a colour or pigment in them . these cells lie in layers under the chameleon\u2019s outer skin . they are called chromatophores . the top layers of chromatophores have red or yellow pigment . the lower layers have blue or white pigment . when these pigment cells change , the chameleon\u2019s skin colour changes .\nadditionally , until the gender of your meller ' s is confirmed i would recommend having a laying bin available just in case , especially with fresh wc females who may be coming into the country gravid . i use a large plastic storage tote ( like in the photo above ) filled more than 12\ndeep with organic topsoil mixed with sand .\nwater is the most critical element to keeping meller\u2019s chameleons successfully , whether your chameleons are fresh imports or long - term captives . they should be provided with at least three 20 - minute misting sessions daily , but i provide an even longer one in the morning of about 45 minutes , as this seems to be when my chameleons drink the most .\nwild - caught imported chameleons usually carry a much lower price tag than captive - raised chameleons . however , if the imported chameleon you purchase requires several courses of treatment for medical problems , the veterinarian costs may well run two to three times the original price of the chameleon .\nthe buyer , unaware of what may have recently transpired in the life of the brilliantly colored chameleon pacing nervously in the pet store , buys what they may believe to be a healthy animal . as proof of health , sellers routinely assure buyers that a chameleon has been deparasitized and is eating . the new owner takes their chameleon home with high expectations that it will thrive and even reproduce . under the best of conditions , a veterinarian examines the chameleon and minor health problems are treated successfully . unfortunately , even these chameleons may fail to thrive due to maladaptation .\n1 . almost half of the world\u2019s chameleon species live on the island of madagascar , with 59 different species existing nowhere outside of the island . there are approximately 160 species of chameleon . they range from africa to southern europe , and across south asia to sri lanka . they have also been introduced into the united states in places such as hawaii , california and florida . [ source 1 , source 2 ]\nthanks for writing this olimpia , there isn ' t much info about meller ' s chameleons out there . do you free range your mellers , or do you keep them in an enclosure ? what size is your enclosure ( if you use one ) ? have you figured out the sex of your mellers ? i love your blog , thank you for sharing !\njackson\u2019s chameleon in the wild , jackson\u2019s chameleons can be found in east africa . they were also introduced to hawaii where wild specimens can now be found . they can grow to be around 13 inches long and can live up to 8 years . a daytime temperature of 75 to 80 * f and a humidity level around 65 % is required . these three horned chameleons are readily available as pets .\n\u200bkeeping your pet and it ' s environment clean and hygienic is important for it ' s overall health . there are some important cleaning supplies that you should always have on hand and some important factors to pay attention to when it comes to their overall grooming .\nmeller ' s need uvb and a basking bulb , like other chameleons . i use a reptisun 10 . 0 bulb as my uvb bulb and a 60w halogen spotlight as a heat light . this leaves my basking spot no higher than about 85f while the rest of the enclosure stays at room temperature ( 75f ) . and at night i let the temperature drop as it will , so they can cool off overnight . like all chameleon species , they thrive with a nighttime temperature drop of about 10 degrees or more .\nthey should not be considered lightly as a pet chameleon . they are very sensitive to stress , are usually wc , and need copious amounts of room , water , and food . so anyone who cannot meet these needs should consider a different or smaller species of chameleon to start off with first .\npurchase imported chameleons from reputable sellers who offer a guarantee if you are dissatisfied with the chameleon , it is diagnosed by a veterinarian with serious health problems , or dies . ask the seller how many days you have to make a determination before the guarantee expires . remember that it may take several days to receive the results of some diagnostic tests . understanding the seller ' s guarantee is especially important if you are purchasing a chameleon by mail order .\nwe have hard to find meller ' s chameleons for sale . these fascinating lizards are absolutely mesmerizing , and can live for over a decade with proper care . this is one of the largest chameleons in the world , reaching lengths of around two feet long . a wonderful species that is highly sought after in the reptile world , also known as the\nbird - eating chameleon .\ntruly a crowd - pleasing reptile that can reach monstrous sizes . when you buy a lizard from us , you automatically receive our 100 % live arrival guarantee .\nwhether your meller\u2019s chameleon is in a free - range setup or in a large enclosure , uvb light is a must . exposure to uvb from either direct sunlight or a proper uvb light allows the chameleon to properly metabolize calcium in its system to keep its bones strong . there are a variety of quality uvb lights of different strengths available in pet stores and other places that sell reptile supplies . commonly used bulbs include reptisun and reptiglo 5 . 0 bulbs , though in a large and / or heavily planted free - range setup it can be beneficial to use bulbs with a higher uvb output . twelve hours on and 12 hours off is the usual light cycle , though this can be adjusted to mimic seasonal daylight hours .\nbelow is the single clutch of panther chameleon ( f . pardalis ) eggs that i currently have incubating . this is a special clutch ( ba . . .\npage before ordering . sorry , we do not ship internationally ( u . s . only ) . our delivery schedule can be found below :\nmany t . melleri are wild - caught specimens , meaning they can be difficult to acclimate and which has led to the nickname \u201cthe 90 - day chameleon . \u201d\nas a hatchling , a veiled chameleon is approximately 4 inches . although an adult female can grow up to 18 inches , a male may only reach 2 feet .\nthese are all common questions when it comes to owning and caring for these friendly color changing reptiles . that\u2019s why we put together this comprehensive guide !\ni toured three exporter ' s facilities in madagascar in 1996 and 1997 . the conditions varied in each one , and my observations were as follows :\nthese are 5 - 12 months . you need to feed them on 6 - 10 crickets the size of the gap between their eyes . proper cricket sizes for a juvenile chameleon are at the low end \u00bd inch , 5 / 8 inch , then \u00be inch a day . if you feed your chameleon crickets that are much too large such as adult crickets , your chameleon may choke . since overfeeding can lead to the development of mbd , as the chameleon grows older you need to keep an eye on how much they eat . when offering large quantities of food , it\u2019s very hard to manage your supplementation . by feeding them consistently and with good quantities , you are likely to help them develop strong , dense bones that can support them well . you can only do this if you regulate the quantity of food .\nin 2008 i bought my first chameleon . nine years later , i still can\u2019t stop talking about them and helping people become confident , capable chameleon owners . i ' m olimpia martinotti - follow along to learn about the care , breeding , and rehabilitation of chameleons in captivity through a biologist with almost two decades of exotic animal experience .\ncarpet chameleon the carpet chameleon is found in madagascar . they are a smaller species and males grow to around 9 inches long . they have a short lifespan and only live for 2 to 3 years . daytime temperatures should be around 75 * f with 65 % humidity . they are active and hardy chameleons that do well as pets .\nif you want your pet to stay healthy and enjoy a long life , it\u2019s very important to provide them with appropriate lighting . this not only makes them a lot more comfortable , but is necessary for their survival , since they don\u2019t produce heat internally . lighting supplies that you need to have for your chameleon include :\nwe accept visa , mastercard , american express , discover , and paypal . we do not accept checks , money orders , or cashier ' s checks .\npeople who don\u2019t have the space to provide a free - range situation , or who have cats , dogs or housemates that would make free ranging impossible , may need to provide a cage for their chameleons . i always suggest they buy or build the largest cage they can . it will likely have to be custom built , as there really aren\u2019t any suitable ones on the market that i think would make proper enclosures for meller\u2019s chameleons as is .\ndespite this loss , our love of t . melleri did not die . i did more research , learned about the benefits of free - range setups , and set out to create such an environment . once it was ready , we brought home another pair of meller\u2019s chameleons , and a few months later , we got a couple more . we continued adding to our colony , and eventually we had a group of 14 beautiful t . melleri .\ni feed each of mine a different amount of food daily . but fewer items is usually better with most chameleons , as we don ' t want them to get overweight . since most meller ' s available are adults , the amount you feed them ( usually every other day or every two days ) will depend on what they need to maintain a healthy weight . typically a small handful of feeder items every other day or every two days .\nwhen basking , the side facing the sun will turn dark green to almost solid black . the shaded side will stay the individual ' s normal resting color .\nwhether you would like a female chameleon as part of a breeding project , as a pet , or both , how you take care of them will vary a litt . . .\nwhile it does not occur in every case , the next stage seems to determine whether or not the chameleon survives . food intake often ceases and the chameleon appears depressed or nervous , and may pace the perimeter of the cage . it is at this crossroad where the chameleon either seems to accept captivity and continues life , or begins a downward spiral to death . i believe this to be the essence of maladaptation . those chameleons that simply cannot tolerate their loss of freedom coupled with human interaction , or whose health has been irreparably damaged by the rigors of being transferred into captivity simply waste away . probably the single most critical factor in maladaptation is the level of prolonged stress the chameleon has endured from the point of capture .\nthere is little information on this species , and nothing is known of population trends . it is widespread , but because it is a large bodied chameleon , it is probably not locally abundant .\nfour - horned chameleon the four - horned chameleon can be found naturally in cameroon . they live for around 5 years and can grow to be 14 inches long . they require daytime temperatures around 75 * f and a relative humidity of at least 85 % . they are attractive chameleons that tend to do well in captivity if you can provide a suitable habitat with very high humidity .\nthere is visible weight loss , sunken eyes , swollen eye ( s ) , general weakness , inability to perch , or eyes are closed ( sleeping ) during daylight hours .\nveiled chameleon in the wild , veiled chameleons are found in yemen and saudi arabia . males can grow to be 24 inches long and they can live up to 5 years . they need daytime cage temperatures around 80 * f and a relative humidity of 70 % . veiled chameleons will eat some plant matter in addition to insects . they are popular pets and can make a good first chameleon .\na couple weeks later , it happened again , and the next three months became a nightmare . even with vet visits , tests , and various medications , our chameleons kept dying . eventually , we lost them all . after this tragedy , we didn\u2019t know if we should try again . we were scared , but our love of t . melleri won out . we eventually brought home another pair and , slowly , we added a few more . we now have five healthy , well - acclimated meller\u2019s chameleons .\nif you will only be away for a day , your pet will not be without regular misting and food since it may be on an every other day feeding schedule . however , if you will be gone for several days or if you are keeping a baby , you need someone to come and feed your pet . this person needs to be trustworthy and not afraid of insects ! when you are going out of town , the more automated your system the better . it\u2019s also very important to educate your secondary caretaker well about your specific chameleon ' s personality .\n5 . ballistic tongues that are 1 . 5 - 2 times the length of their body . chameleons feed by ballistically projecting their long tongue from their mouth to capture prey located some distance away . while the chameleon\u2019s tongue is typically thought to be 1 . 5 to 2 times the length of their body ( their length excluding the tail ) , it has been recently discovered that smaller chameleons have proportionately larger tongue apparatuses than their larger counterparts . tongue projection occurs at extremely high performance , reaching the prey in as little as 0 . 07 seconds , having been launched at accelerations exceeding 41 g . the chameleon tongue\u2019s tip is a bulbous ball of muscle , and as it hits its prey it rapidly forms a small suction cup . [ source 1 , source 2 ]\nthey are fairly common in the savanna of east africa , including malawi , northern mozambique , and tanzania . almost one - half of the world\u2019s chameleons live on the island of madagascar .\na number of other species ( k . matschiei , k . multituberculata , k . tavetana , k . uluguruensis , and k . vosseleri ) have been mistakenly called by this species ' name or classified as subspecies . in 2008 , it was shown that they actually are their own distinct , different species . the true fischer ' s chameleon is rare with a more restricted distribution than previously believed .\nstress coloration : excitement or mild stress begins to show with dark green spotting overlaying the chameleon ' s normal coloration , as above . dark green spots turn to black . as stress builds , the spotting expands to black mottling in all stripes . low - level stress , such as a mild parasitic infection , left unalleviated over long periods , will turn the chameleon brown , pink , gray , and white mottled . as stress becomes severe , the chameleon starts to turn charcoal gray , eventually turning pure white with yellow stripes . at this point , the animal is near death from extreme stress . never buy a melleri that is gray or white . a gravid melleri is cream , gray , and black colored , with a bloated torso , and should be considered\nat risk\n, not a good candidate for purchase .\nfemales are usually ready to mate when they are 1 year old . the first sign that a female chameleon is ready for breeding is her color . she will have begin to take on a dull orange hue .\nwhen these criteria are met , you can perch a male chameleon on your hand and move it towards the female . if the female is ready you will witness a complete change of demeanor . the male chameleon will then head - bob while moving towards the female . once copulation starts , breeding can go on for several hours . you might keep them together for up to two days until the female starts rejecting the male .\nyour pet ' s main method of communication is through color change . this can indicate good health , stress or even reproductive condition . understanding this can greatly assist you when caring for them .\nno matter what species , chameleons become mature at 1 to 2 years of age . the exception is the madagascan chameleon . it has been labeled as the vertebrate with the world ' s shortest life span , according to encyclopedia britannica . their eggs hatch in november , the young become adults in january , they lay eggs in february , and then the entire adult population perishes after a lifespan of just three months .\nalthough it\u2019s recommended to have live plants , if you cannot , fake plants will do the trick . live plants will not only provide better cover but will also provide good surfaces for drinking water . make sure to have enough foliage to provide a basking spot , but also have a lower portion of the cage that is shaded and much cooler . this will allow your chameleon to escape the heat and remain comfortable .\nwhile living in the wild , chameleons have a lot to worry about . this includes getting attacked , eaten , and not getting enough of their daily necessities . that ' s why it ' s your job to ensure that your pet doesn ' t have to deal with any of these issues in your home . when chameleons are in bad shape or look hurt it often means they are suffering from psychological stress .\nchameleons are different from many reptiles because some of the species , like the jackson\u2019s chameleon , have live births . these species can give birth to eight to 30 young at one time after a gestation of four to six months . while the young are born live instead of in an egg , they started as an egg . these mothers incubate the eggs , minus a shell , inside of her body instead of laying them in a nest .\nchameleons are very sensitive animals that need specialized care . without proper care , your pet chameleon can quickly become ill . the most important thing for your designated caretaker to know is what can make it ill and how to keep it comfortable .\nwith all but one inch of his tail amputated . this animal ' s tail had been run over by a passing car , according to a man who lived in the area where i found this chameleon . it appeared to have healed without incidence as the wound was quite old , and he was in otherwise robust condition . i also encountered two chameleons with wounds near the mouth , one of which was badly infected ; however both appeared to be in otherwise good condition .\nwe now had two free - range setups : one that was used as a quarantine area for new arrivals , and an expanded , room - sized living area for our existing chameleons . we even had a free - range nursery area for a couple small juveniles that we acquired . over the next couple years , we watched our gentle giants blossom . they were a friendly and inquisitive group . they welcomed visitors , as they knew we would offer them treats to show their long tongues in action . a couple of our meller\u2019s were even calm to the point that we could bring them to educational events where we introduced the public to chameleons .\nif your chameleon experiences a minor wound , keep it clean and treat it with a topical agent such as silvadene cream or my favorite , vetericyn hydrogel , which is an excellent all - purpose ointment for wounds . of course , severe injuries and infections should be looked at by a veterinarian to determine a course of treatment . parasites are the biggest concern , as a heavy parasite load can lead to decreased appetite , increased dehydration and , eventually , death . a fecal examination should be done to determine the specific parasites and the level of infestation . i prefer to wait until the chameleon is stabilized before treating parasites to avoid further stress caused by administering the medication and the effect the medication may have on an already stressed animal\u2019s system .\nweizel , d . & s . hoffmann 2004 . eigene erfahrungen bei der haltung und zucht von chamaeleo ( trioceros ) melleri ( gray , 1864 ) . chamaeleo 14 ( 1 ) : 26 - 29 . - get paper here\nthis can be any bulb that generates heat . since chameleons are cold blooded , they must absorb heat from their environment to regulate their body temperature . in order to digest their food well , they need a warm place to bask . basking bulbs will provide them with warmer temperatures but should not produce so much heat that your pet ' s health is interfered with . depending on your reptile ' s metabolic needs , it will utilize different temperatures throughout the day\nthere are many different ways to set up a free - range environment for meller\u2019s chameleons , whether you have an entire room available or just part of a room . i use wire shelving units that are available at home improvement stores . i remove any middle shelves , leaving just a top and bottom shelf . trees ( ficus , for instance ) and other sturdy plants for the chameleons to climb upon can be placed on the bottom shelf and lights can be either on the top shelf or suspended from the ceiling above the unit . the misting nozzles can be attached to the top shelf as well , with pans positioned below to catch the water .\ndifferent species all have different standard temperaments . this is further compounded by the fact that each individual reptile will have it ' s own personality as well ! fortunately , there are some basic guidelines to follow to help keep your pet comfortable .\nwhen it comes to keeping a chameleon as a pet , hydration is very important . it\u2019s actually the primary factor that causes deaths when chameleons are in captivity . as compared to other pets , hydrating chameleons is rather involving . for instance , most can not take water from stagnant points . this means putting a bowl of water inside the cage is not sufficient to keep your pet hydrated . chameleons , whether pets or wild , drink water that falls from branches or leaves . this is why getting your pet chameleon to drink water is a hard task . some of these pets may slow down their daily misting consumption and this can leave them dehydrated . this can be hard to understand especially if you are misting the enclosure 3 times a day . some common hydration requirements and supplies include :\nalthough you can feed them up to 12 crickets per day , avoid over - feeding your chameleon . some of these guys are very gluttonous and will keep eating until they are over weight and unhealthy . find out how many crickets your chameleon will eat in one sitting . use that number to either feed half that in the morning and half in the afternoon , or all in the morning . most babies between 2 - 4 months eat about 10 - 15 small crickets daily , though some can eat up to 30 . chameleons are very adaptable to their environment , so if you do not feed your pet enough when he or she is young , it will have a stunted growth . on the other hand , if you over - feed your chameleon it will mature too quickly and likely have health problems as it gets older .\ngiving this supplement depends on the pet\u2019s exposure to light . if you expose it regularly , then giving the supplement is not important . however , if kept indoors then vitamin d3 is necessary . however , this should only be done once per week .\nwhen it comes to indoor chameleons , this is one of the most important forms of lighting . although uvb cannot be seen it\u2019s important in the manufacture of vitamin d3 . this enables your pet to absorb calcium . lack of this can lead to severe deformation , metabolic bone disease and even death . the uvb bulbs available for purchase usually only last for 6 months before they need to be replaced . you only need to have one bulb for your pet\u2019s habitat . some of the most popular brands are :\nwhen frightened , chameleons will puff up and hiss loudly . they will often change colors into a dark shade of grey / black . handling them too much might also increase their chances of getting sick . in case you have to handle your pet , do not pick it up , but rather place your hand and allow it to climb on it ' s own . also , you should avoid holding its back , neck , tail or feet unless it\u2019s very important to restrain it from hurting itself further .\nthis is also another method of providing water especially when you have a dehydrated chameleon . just place a large plant at the top and direct the shower towards the wall so that only fine mist reaches the pet . while using this method , ensure that you carry on close supervision .\nmany people think chameleons change colour to blend in with their surroundings . scientists disagree . their studies show that light , temperature and mood cause chameleons to change colour . sometimes changing colour can make the chameleon more comfortabl . sometimes it helps the animal communicate with other chameleons . [ source ]\nnecas , petr 1999 . chameleons - nature ' s hidden jewels . edition chimaira , frankfurt ; 348 pp . ; isbn 3 - 930612 - 04 - 6 ( europe ) < br / > isbn 1 - 57524 - 137 - 4 ( usa , canada )\nalina bradford is a contributing writer for live science . over the past 16 years , alina has covered everything from ebola to androids while writing health , science and tech articles for major publications . she has multiple health , safety and lifesaving certifications from oklahoma state university . alina ' s goal in life is to try as many experiences as possible . to date , she has been a volunteer firefighter , a dispatcher , substitute teacher , artist , janitor , children ' s book author , pizza maker , event coordinator and much more .\nalthough animals can handle short term stressor , chronic situations can make them sick . if you are keeping a chameleon as a pet , too much stress will not only cause illness but will also make them less social and dampen their spirits . stress can also greatly decrease your chances of breeding them .\nthis all - inclusive chameleon kit is exactly what we use and contains a zoo med screen cage , reptisun 5 . 0 uvb bulb & lamp , basking bulb & lamp , plastic plant , vine , digital thermometer and hygrometer , hand - pump mister , and calcium supplement , everything you need !\nneedless to say , meller ' s eat very large prey items ! in the wild they wouldn ' t be above catching small birds , even ! so offering appropriately sized feeder insects is a job in and of itself . i breed a couple species of large roaches on top of the discoid roaches i breed for my other chameleons , in order to have nymphs of a decent size . i also offer hornworms and the manduca moths that they turn into , as these are favorite treats . grasshoppers , katydids , and anything else that is big is going to be a hit with this species . however , mine do still love crickets and superworms so they will still eat smaller items , they just need to eat more of them to compensate for their size .\nthis means it ' s important to provide your chameleon with a good temperature gradient to allow it to warm and cool itself when it needs to . while the basking spot should be at the top of the enclosure of up to 90 degrees , you should also have the coolest temperature at the bottom . this should come as low as 70 degrees . believe it or not , chameleons can withstand temperatures as low as 50 degrees at night ! while they can handle these low temperatures , they ' re the most comfortable in 60 - 70 degree weather while they sleep .\nany animal that can change colours and look in two directions at once is worth learning more about . armed with a tongue you have to see to believe , the chameleon may be one of the coolest reptiles on the planet . here are ten things you may not have known about our lizard friend .\nwhile keeping a chameleon as a pet , avoid handling it as much as possible . chameleons are not only shy animals , they also move very slowly . before reading the rest of this though , keep in mind there are cases of extremely friendly chameleons that do not mind getting touched or picked up .\n4 . chameleons vary greatly in size and body structure , with maximum total length varying from 15 millimetres ( 0 . 6 in ) in male brookesia micra ( one of the world\u2019s smallest reptiles ) to 68 . 5 centimetres ( 30 in ) in the male furcifer oustaleti .\nsuper sale : colorado river toads ( adults ) 199 . 99 \u2022 red sliders turtles 4 . 99 \u2022 bearded dragon\u0092s 49 . 99 \u2022 ball pythons ( babies ) 29 . 99 \u2022 savannah monitors ( c . b . babies ) 19 . 99 \u2022 customer reviews / testimonials\nlike most lizards , chameleons favor a warm habitat . for this reason , the geographical distribution of the chameleon is limited only to regions that enjoy a warm climate . however , this does not mean that all hot regions are natural homes to chameleons . australia , north and south america have no native chameleons ."]}
{"id": 1136, "summary": [{"text": "parcoblatta uhleriana , the uhler 's wood cockroach , is a species of parcoblatta native to the united states and canada .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is a forest species also found in disturbed and urban environments .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the male of the species flies freely , while the female does not fly . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "parcoblatta uhleriana", "paragraphs": ["parcoblatta uhleriana . oothecae and nymphs . one l1 and the other i guess is l2 .\nblattella germanica ( linn . ) \u2013 german cockroach parcoblatta uhleriana ( saussure ) \u2013 uhler\u2019s wood roach parcoblatta pensylvanica ( de geer ) \u2013 pennsylvania wood roach parcoblatta virginica ( brunner ) \u2013 virginia wood roach\nsorry to hear what happened to uhleriana nymphs . hope the remaining oothe hatch out soon .\nparcoblatta desertae ( rehn , j . a . g . & hebard 1909 )\nparcoblatta notha ( rehn , j . a . g . & hebard 1910 )\nshape of the 10th tergum suggests that this is p . uhleriana instead of b . orientalis .\nthis is one of the easiest species of parcoblatta to identify due to its unique tergminas .\none of my unknown parcoblatta oothe hatched recently so i ' ll take some pics soon .\nthe species was treated by one source in 1910 as a southern variety of parcoblatta uhleriana , termed p . uhleriana fulvescens , as the males of the two species look very similar . [ 3 ] [ 5 ] among their differences are that p . fulvescens has a pale face , longer pronotum with less distinct disc - like impressions , narrower tegmina , and different characteristics in its cerci and its anal styles ( two threadlike processes on the terminal segment of the abdomen ) . [ 3 ] [ 7 ] in addition , pre - 1917 arizona records of uhleriana and uhleriana fuvescens refer to parcoblatta notha . [ 5 ]\nnymph : indistinguishable from other parcoblatta in early instars . older nymphs similar in coloration to other sympatric parcoblatta , but the terminal tergites may appear pink , light brown , or orange ( depending on lighting and viewing angle ) .\nparcoblatta intricata ( blatchley 1903 ) , p . lithophila ( scudder 1862 ) , p . unicolor ( scudder 1862 )\nsaussure . 1862 . rev . mag . zool . 2 ( 14 ) : 169 > > ischnoptera uhleriana urn : lsid : blattodea . speciesfile . org : taxonname : 4886\nlawson , fred a . ( 1967 ) .\necological and collecting notes on eight species of parcoblatta ( orthoptera : blattidae ) and certain other cockroaches\n.\nadult male p . uhleriana and p . fulvescens have a pair of structures on the median segment ( and not the first abdominal segment ) . these structures do not meet in the midline to form a ridge . the wings are markedly broader than the pronotum in p . uhleriana , and only slightly broader in p . fulvescens . the small dark structures on median segment of this cockroach can be seen :\nprincis . 1969 . in beier [ ed . ] . blattariae : subordo epilamproidea . fam . : blattellidae . orthopterorum catalogus ( 13 ) : 719 > > note : the bsf ' s record for this scientific name originated from this reference . it was digitised by g . w . beccaloni in 2005 . > > parcoblatta uhleriana urn : lsid : blattodea . speciesfile . org : taxonname : 4885\nparcoblatta lata , the broad wood cockroach , is a species of wood cockroach ( family ectobiidae ) native to the united states . it is one of the largest species of wood cockroaches .\nparcoblatta fulvescens , the fulvous wood cockroach , is a species of cockroach endemic to the united states and possibly canada that measures around 13 mm ( 0 . 5 in ) long . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]\noh , no i was talking about the p . bolliana not uhleriana . yes , the female cannot climb smooth surfaces . she cannot even get a grip , like my shelfordella lateralis . i do not know where i caught her . i do not remember moving shelfordella lateralis into containers like that .\nnow that you mention it , i think your female might not even be in genus parcoblatta as the 10th tergum on your specimen looks different from my specimens . try letting it climb on glass . if it does climb smooth surfaces , it will definitely be in different genus .\nin an observational study of the species , it was observed to eat cambium , flower petals , and sap . a survey of insects caught by the pitcher plant saracenia flava included male specimens of four species of parcoblatta , including p . lata , leading to speculation that the winged adults may seek nectar as a source of energy for flying .\nthat possible sub - adult female that i thought might be a caudelli i am now thinking it is something else . the maybe caudelli sub - adults had a different pattern . this possible sub - adult has a pattern like the red runner roaches . it is also bigger than the adult maybe caudelli . it might be p . lata . i have read that they are big . it is growing slowly compared to the other parcoblatta .\nthe male parcoblatta fulvescens is relatively slender , has long tegmina ( outer forewings ) , and is slightly longer than the female . [ 3 ] it is a mostly uniform pale brownish - yellow , with sometimes darker pronotum ( the plate behind the head ) and legs , and usually dark brown cerci ( the pair of appendages on its rear - most segment ) . [ 3 ] its pronotum is subelliptical ( nearly elliptical ) , is widest just behind its middle , and has weakly defined disc - like impressions . [ 3 ]\nif you are generating a pdf of a journal article or book chapter , please feel free to enter the title and author information . the information you enter here will be stored in the downloaded file to assist you in managing your downloaded pdfs locally .\nthank you for your request . please wait for an email containing a link to download the pdf .\nsign up to receive the latest bhl news , content highlights , and promotions .\nbhl relies on donations to provide free pdf downloads and other services . help keep bhl free and open !\nthere was an issue with the request . please try again and if the problem persists , please send us feedback .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe pdf file you selected should load here if your web browser has a pdf reader plug - in installed ( for example , a recent version of adobe acrobat reader ) .\nif you would like more information about how to print , save , and work with pdfs , highwire press provides a helpful frequently asked questions about pdfs .\nalternatively , you can download the pdf file directly to your computer , from where it can be opened using a pdf reader . to download the pdf , click the download link above .\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nthis one came to the light last night . maybe related ( it also has some white spots on the face )\ncontributed by john r . maxwell on 12 august , 2013 - 4 : 12pm last updated 4 july , 2014 - 3 : 34pm\nblatta orientalis , female , possibly ; s . lateralis , female , possibly\nadult male : one pair of unfused modifications on the median segment . hindwings roughly equal to or slightly subequal to the tegmina . overall coloration saturated orange .\nadult female : tegmina brachypterous and with distinctive gap between . overall coloration typically black to dark brown ; sometimes dark red or with red markings .\nbeccaloni g . w . ( 2007 - ) cockroach species file online . version 5 . 0\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nfound in the eastern u . s . in a variety of woodland habitats and near man - made structures bordering woodlands .\na male uhler ' s wood cockroach in anne arundel co . , maryland ( 6 / 9 / 2016 ) . identification verified by alan jeon / bugguide . photo by timothy reichard . ( mbp list )\na uhler ' s wood cockroach in frederick co . , maryland ( 6 / 9 / 2015 ) . determined by alan jeon / bugguide . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\nan uhler ' s wood cockroach in prince george ' s co . , maryland ( 6 / 1 / 2017 ) . verified by alan jeon / bugguide . photo by robert aguilar , serc . ( mbp list )\na uhler ' s wood cockroach in worcester co . , maryland ( 5 / 8 / 2013 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )\na uhler ' s wood cockroach in frederick co . , maryland ( 6 / 9 / 2017 ) . determined by alan jeon / bugguide . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )\nuhler ' s wood cockroaches in calvert co . , maryland ( 2 / 10 / 2013 ) . photo by ashley bradford . ( mbp list )\na uhler ' s wood cockroach in howard co . , maryland ( 6 / 11 / 2017 ) . determined by v . belov and alan jeon via bugguide . photo by kurt schwarz . ( mbp list )\nuse of images featured on maryland biodiversity project is only permitted with express permission of the photographer .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ncockroach species file ( version 5 . 0 / 5 . 0 ) home search taxa key help wiki\ndisplay . you can modify these specifications at any time by clicking the\nchange items displayed\nbutton in the header .\nif you want your changes to be preserved for future sessions , you should login . to do this , click on the logo in the upper left corner .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 . except where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial - sharealike 4 . 0 international license .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nproject noah is a tool to explore and document wildlife and a platform to harness the power of citizen scientists everywhere .\nmedium sized , dark brown roach with short wings . adult female . they feed on decaying organic matter and do not thrive indoors .\nspotted on the ground at night while we were setting up camp for the weekend in june . illuminated by a flashlight .\nno problem , happy to help ! : ) btw , this individual is a mature female , not a nymph , as evidenced by the short tegmina that you can see right below her pronotum .\nmr . goldfish and hisserdude , thank you ! i think i must have missed the initial suggestion .\nthis checklist is taken from cantrall , i . j . 1943 . \u201cthe ecology of the orthoptera and dermaptera of the george reserve , michigan\u201d . univ . mich . mus . zool . misc . publ . 54 . it has been modified to reflect more recent taxonomic revisions .\nmelanoplus angustipennis ( dodge ) \u2013 narrow - winged locust melanoplus bivittatus ( say ) \u2013 two - striped locust melanoplus borealis borealis ( fieber ) \u2013 northern locust malanoplus confusus scudder \u2013 little locust melanoplus fasciatus ( f . walker ) \u2013 huckleberry locust malanoplus femurrubrum ( degeer ) \u2013 red - legged locust melanoplus islandicus blatchley \u2013 forest locust melanoplus keeleri luridus ( dodge ) \u2013 broad - necked locust melanoplus punctulatus griseus ( thomas ) melanoplus sanguinipes sanguinipes ( fabr . ) \u2013 lesser migratory locust paroxya hoosieri ( blatchley ) \u2013 hoosier locust phoetaliotes nebrascensis ( thomas ) \u2013 large - headed locust\narphia pseudonietana pseudonietana ( thomas ) \u2013 red - winged locust arphia sulphurea ( fabr . ) \u2013 spring yellow - winged locust camnula pellucida ( scudder ) \u2013 clear - winged locust chortophaga viridifasciata ( degeer ) \u2013 green - striped locust dissosteira carolina ( linn . ) \u2013 carolina locust encoptolophus sordidus sordidus ( burm . ) \u2013 dusky locust pardalophora apiculata ( harris ) \u2013 coral - winged locust pardalophora haldemanii ( scudder ) \u2013 haldeman\u2019s locust spharagemon bolli scudder \u2013 boll\u2019s locust spharagemon collare collare ( scudder ) \u2013 mottled sand locust\nallonemobius allardi ( alexander & thomas ) \u2013 allard\u2019s ground cricket allonemobius fasciatus ( de geer ) \u2013 striped ground cricket allonemobius griseus ( e . m . walker ) \u2013 gray ground cricket allonemobius tinnulus ( fulton ) \u2013 tinkling ground cricket anaxipha exigua ( say ) \u2013 say\u2019s bush cricket eunemobius carolinus ( scudder ) \u2013 carolina ground cricket gryllus pennsylvanicus burmeister \u2013 fall field cricket grylus veletis alexander & bigelow - spring field cricket neonemobius palustris palustris ( blatchley ) \u2013 marsh ground cricket oecanthus fultoni t . j . walker \u2013 snowy tree cricket oecanthus laricis t . j . walker \u2013 larch tree cricket oecanthus nigricornis f . walker \u2013 black - horned tree cricket oecanthus quadripunctatus beutenmuller \u2013 fourt - spotted tree cricket\nthe largest family of the order , with ~ 35 spp . ( incl . several adventive ) in 14 genera of 4 subfamilies in our area and ~ 2 , 300 spp . in ~ 220 genera of 7 subfamilies worldwide\nsmall to medium sized cockroaches represented in the united states by approximately 40 species belonging to 12 genera . the species depicted below should not be considered a comprehensive list of all species that occur in north america , and is based upon nomina neartica with additional species added as they are found . the name and date listed after each genus and species refers to the author that described the taxon and the year that the description was published . for those enclosed within parentheses , the species was initially described as belonging to another genus with subsequent workers moving the species to a different genus based on an improved understanding of phylogenetic relationships .\namerican insects : a handbook of the insects of america north of mexico ross h . arnett . 2000 . crc press .\narticle public\n- / / taxonx / / dtd taxonomic treatment publishing dtd v0 20100105 / / en\ntax - treatment - ns0 . dtd\nlaborat\u00f3rio de biodiversidade entomol\u00f3gica , instituto oswaldo cruz , funda\u00e7\u00e3o oswaldo cruz , avenida brasil 4 . 365 , pavilh\u00e3o mourisco , sala 201 , manguinhos , 21 . 045 - 900 , rio de janeiro , rj , brazil .\ncorresponding author : sandor buys ( sbuys @ urltoken ; sandor . buys @ urltoken )\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license 3 . 0 ( cc - by ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nnesting females were found at horizontal sites , without litter or low vegetation , on unpaved roads that crossed forested areas . the nests consisted of single celled bu rrows 3\u20135cm deep ( n = 15 ) , with a narrower entrance tunnel 5\u201310mm in height ( n = 5 ) . in cross section , the cells were circular with 12\u201315mm ( n = 8 ) in diameter , and the entrance tunnels were elliptical , the major axis with 9\u201312mm ( n = 16 ) and the minor axis with 6 . 5\u20138 . 5mm ( n = 16 ) . females usually appeared on the nesting site between 8 : 00\u201310 : 00 hrs and ceased activity from 16 : 00\u201318 : 00 hrs . they commonly remained rested on the ground at sites exposed to the sun before initiating activity , presumably to warm up .\nfemales selecting a nest site initially walked on the ground antennating the soil . they initially dug in several sites , and inspected crevices and other soil irregularities with their mandibles . occasionally they entered nests of conspecific females or , more rarely , the nests of other ground - nesting wasp species . usually , the females dug a number of short burrows before digging a nest . they did not close these abandoned tentative burrows .\nwhen digging a nest a female penepodium luteipenne cut the soil with her mandibles , accumulating lumps of earth in their mouthparts . she then stepped aside about 2\u20134 cm and tossed the earth a short distance with a flip of her head . a female would dig from opposite sides on the same axis . after digging for a few minutes on one side , she turned 180\u00b0 and continued the excavation on the opposite side . the excavated earth thus formed two semi - circular mounds around the nest entrance ( fig . 1 ) . females periodically interrupted their excavations and left to gather water , which they regurgitated on the excavation site , apparently to soften the earth .\nnesting behaviour of penepodium luteipenne 1 digging of the nest , the accumulated lose earth around the nest entrance is the earth excavated from the burrow 2 stinging of the prey 3 oviposition ( setae in the wasp\u2019s front leg ) 4 placement of the prey into the nest 5 female pushing a prey stuck in the nest entrance , using both the front and mid legs , and the opened mandibles .\nfemale penepodium luteipenne commonly reused pre - existing burrows . these almost always were old nests of conspecific females . the females usually found the old nests partially filled with earth , the remains of prey , and an empty cocoon . they spent some time excavating the burrows to recondition them . although it was not possible to securely define the frequency of reuse of pre - existing burrows during this study , i estimate at least 25 % of the observed nests were reused nests of conspecifics , and quite possibly more . reused nests were recognisable because remains of cockroaches and the characteristic cocoons of penepodium luteipenne ( see buys 2001 , 2009 for cocoon morphology ) were found in the mounds of excavated earth left around the entrance .\nbrood parasitism in open nests was observed twice . in the first case the female entered the nest of another female while she was absent and found prey items . she reacted quickly , moving her body and antennae , and performed the following behavioural sequence : ( 1 ) grasped one cockroach with her mandibles , ( 2 ) pulled the cockroach outside the burrow , ( 3 ) stung it , ( 4 ) ate the egg of the host wasp , ( 5 ) laid her egg on the prey , ( 6 ) reinserted the cockroach into the nest and ( 7 ) departed . the host female later closed the nest apparently without perceiving the violation of her nest .\nin the second case , the female followed the same behavioural sequence described above , but differed in that when she checked the base of the forelegs of the prey taken from the nest she did not find an egg of the host female , she laid her own egg on the prey and departed . later the host female arrived at the nest with one more prey item and oviposited on it . the parasitized nest was thus left with two prey items bearing eggs .\nbrood parasitism in closed nests was observed three times . the cleptoparasitic females found recently closed , provisioned nests of other females . they opened the nest plug and followed the same behavioural sequence described above for brood parasitism in open nests ( inclusive of eating the host egg ) , with the additional step that the cleptoparasitic female closed the nest herself .\nthe prey items from 64 nests were collected : 31 nests with one prey item , 23 nests with two prey items , seven nests with three prey items , and three nests with four prey items . a total of 109 epilamprine cockroaches ( blattodea : blaberidae ) was collected from the nests : 19 adults of poeciloderrhis catharina ( shelford , 1910 ) ; 10 adults of poeciloderrhis basistriga ( walker , 1868 ) ; five adults of poeciloderrhis sp . ; 69 nymphs probably of poeciloderrhis catharina ; and six nymphs probably of poeciloderrhis basistriga . morphometric features taken from live prey items are summarized table 1 .\nlength , width and biomass of prey species found in nests of penepodium luteipenne ( minimum , mean and maximum in millimetre ) .\nthe duration of the effects of the wasp\u2019s venom on its prey was relatively brief as cockroaches collected from nests just after closure were able to walk . although the prey items transported by females apparently are always under the effect of its venom , suggesting that they sting the prey during the hunt , a female commonly stung again its prey at the nest site before placing it into the burrow . when stinging its prey a female grasped the pronotum of the cockroach with her mandibles , and stung the roach in different points on the ventral surface of its body ( fig . 2 ) . small prey specimens were immediately paralysed after the sting but females frequently needed to repeatedly sting larger prey items to subdue them before ovipositing on their body and placing them in the nest .\nduring nest closure a female made 10\u201313 flights ( n = 15 ) to gather water . each load of water was used to wet 4\u20138 lumps of earth ( n = 15 ) . after the nest plug became level with the surface of the ground , the females usually added smaller lumps of earth , which they did not wet , and then placed over the nest entrance fallen leaves , chips , small stones , lumps of dried earth or other debris collected near to the nest . this made the nest entrance visually indistinguishable from the surrounding soil . on one occasion , a female regurgitated a few drops of water soon after concluding the nest closure , apparently to discard excess water . females never made temporary nest closures . some nests remained open through the night despite containing prey items .\nfemales of penepodium luteipenne drove away other insects , both those walking within about 20\u201330 cm of the nests , and flies hovering over the nest entrance , throughout the nesting cycle . females with open mandibles aggressively charged small objects ( such as a stylus ) placed near open nests . however , females did not defend nests after closing them . several times nests were excavated to collect the prey items immediately after closure and the nearby female did not react .\nthe prey species and number of prey items per nest in the tribe podiini is summarized in the table ii . as a rule , podiini use cockroaches to provision their nests , but crickets ( orthoptera : gryllidae ) were reported as prey of trigonopsis grylloctonus richards , 1937 ( richards 1937 : unidentified grylids ) and trigonopsis rufiventris ( fabricius , 1804 ) ( vardy 1978 : anaxipha sp . ) ( table 2 ) . females of the genera penepodium and dynatus , in general , use larger prey species than females of the genera podium and trigonopsis ( table 2 ) .\nsummary of prey species and number of prey items per nest in species of the tribe podiini .\npenepodium luteipenne is similar to some other podiini who do not construct temporary nest plugs [ penepodium haematogastrum ( spinola , 1851 ) : williams 1928 ; podium rufipes fabricius , 1805 : krombein 1970 ] . however , some other podiini have been observed constructing temporary nest closures when nest provisioning is not completed in one day [ trigonopsis cameronii ( kohl , 1902 ) : eberhard 1974 ; podium denticulatum f . smith , 1856 : ribeiro and gar\u00f3falo 2010 ] . penepodium luteipenne leave their nests open even on occasions when provisioning is not completed in one day .\ntemporary paralysis of prey , as described here for penepodium luteipenne , has been observed in several previously studied species of the genus [ penepodium fumipenne ( taschenberg , 1869 ) : genise 1981 ; penepodium gorianum ( lepeletier de saint fargeau , 1845 ) : garcia and adis 1993 ; penepodium latro ( kohl , 1902 ) : buys 2006 ; and amazonian penepodium luteipenne : williams 1928 ] . however , species of podium and trigonopsis seem to more permanently paralyze their prey ( podium fulvipes cresson , 1865 : genaro 1994 ; podium luctuosum smith , 1856 : krombein 1967 ; podium rufipes : krombein 1967 , 1970 ; and trigonopsis cameronii : eberhard 1974 ) .\noviposition on the first prey item stored in the nest has been observed among most of the podiini studied to date ( penepodium gorianum : garcia and adis 1993 ; podium denticulatum : ribeiro and gar\u00f3falo 2010 ; podium rufipes : krombein 1970 ; and trigonospis cameronii : eberhard 1974 ) . only penepodium luteipenne , in this study , and the amazonian penepodium luteipenne studied by williams ( 1928 ) , oviposit on the last hunted prey item .\nthe stereotypic oviposition posture observed in penepodium luteipenne is similar to that of penepodium haematogastrum , as illustrated by williams ( 1928 : fig . 188 ) , and of trigonospis cameronii , as illustrated by eberhard ( 1974 : fig . 4 ) . however , the prey items used by trigonopsis cameronii are much smaller than those used by penepodium luteipenne and penepodium haematogastrum , and it uses only its front legs to hold its prey ( see eberhard 1974 : fig . 4 ) .\npenepodium luteipenne , as well as other podiini ( amazonian penepodium luteipenne : williams 1928 , trigonopsis cameronii : eberhard 1974 ) , is distinct in ovipositing on its prey outside the nest . an exception was observed by ribeiro and gar\u00f3falo ( 2010 ) who found that podium denticulatum oviposited sometimes before and sometimes after placing its prey in the nest . the behaviour of ovipositing outside the nest may be due to the lack of space inside the nest such that the female cannot assume the characteristic oviposition posture necessary for her to oviposit on a forecoxa of her prey .\nplacement of the prey headfirst into the nest as observed in penepodium luteipenne , was also found in all previously studied species of podiini ( penepodium gorianum : garcia and adis 1993 ; podium denticulatum : camillo et al . 1996 ; podium fulvipes : genaro 1994 ; podium rufipes : krombein 1970 ; podium luctuosum : krombein 1967 ; and trigonopsis cameronii : eberhard 1974 ) . in penepodium luteipenne , the position of the prey inside the nest , coupled with the elliptical shape of the nest opening tunnel , which is narrower than the cell , apparently aids in preventing the cockroaches from escaping from the open nests after waking from paralysis .\nintraspecific parasitism has been recorded for relatively few species of sphecid wasps ( review in field 1992b , see also bohart and menke 1976 ) . however , as more detailed behavioural studies are performed on sphecid wasps , including observations with individually marked females , a number of distinct types of intraspecific parasitism have been found . intraspecific parasitism may be widespread among sphecids , but it currently remains veiled by the paucity of studies . this seems to be the case for the tribe podiini , in which distinct types of intraspecific parasitism were observed in penepodium luteipenne and trigonopsis cameroni , two species with detailed studies including individually marked females .\nsphecidae wasps of the world : a generic revision . university of california press , 665 pp .\nsphecidae ( hymenoptera : apoidea ) of rio de janeiro state ( southeast brazil ) : inventory of species and notes on biology and distribution .\nintraspecific parasitism as an alternative reproductive tactic in nest - building wasps and bees .\nbehavioral and life - history notes on three floridian solitary wasp ( hymenoptera : sphecidae ) .\ndie phylogenetischen beziehungen der sphecinae ( hymenoptera : apoidea : \u201csphecidae\u201d ) aufgrund morphologischer merkmale dos exosckellets .\nresults of the oxford university expedition to british guiana , 1929 . hymenoptera , sphecidae and bembecidae .\n( hymenoptera , sphecidae ) females in southwest arizona , with remarks on digger wasp territorial behaviour .\n> stream h\u0089\u0094v\u00eb\u008e\u009b @ \u0010\u00fc\u0002\u00fe\u0081c\nm\u00e8\u00bc \u00d7h\u0089\u0094\u00bb\u007f\u0000\u0001\u00e6\u00b3\u00f1\u00e2 \u00f0z7 _ \u009f\u00e1\u00f3 = \u00fe\u008ca\u00f8\u0017\u00eb\u0088\u009e\u009e\u00aa\u00ee\u00eajha\b\u00e9wu\u00f6e\u00fc\u009a\u00ef\u009e3r\u0018\u00aa\u00f3\u00fd9\u00fbf & 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the sides of the thorax and the front half of the wings are margined with yellow . adult males are fully winged , while females have conspicuous wing pads ( actually short wings like that of the female oriental cockroach ) , which are functionless . wings of the male are longer than its body , while wing pads of the female cover only one - third to two - thirds of the abdomen . the males fly swiftly but do not have the ability to sustain themselves in the air for long periods .\naccording to entomologist fred a . lawson , it is\noften seen on tree trunks and lower branches of oaks and elms after dark .\n. brought indoors on infested firewood , they wander about the house without congregating in any particular room . they can be especially troublesome during the mating season , which is during may and june . male wood cockroaches frequently travel in large numbers and fly considerable distances . they are attracted to lights at night and may gain entry indoors . large numbers may also be found in rain gutters of homes .\npennsylvania wood cockroaches feed primarily on decaying organic matter . both female and male pennsylvania wood cockroaches have been found under shingles and on the inside of garages . they rarely breed indoors . however , with the growing use of firewood , the popularity of cedar shake shingles , and the continual building of homes in wooded areas , problems with pennsylvania wood cockroaches will probably escalate .\nthe pennsylvania wood cockroach has three developmental stages : egg , nymph , and adult . eggs are laid in egg capsules , produced during the warm months and deposited behind the loose bark of dead trees , fallen logs , or stumps . egg capsules are yellowish brown and characteristically curved on both sides like a half moon . capsules are twice as long as wide , each containing up to 32 eggs . the egg stage lasts about 34 days at 80 \u00b0f , while the nymphal stage typically lasts 10 to 12 months but can last up to 2 years . the normal life span of the female adult is several months .\nthe distribution of the species includes southeastern canada , in the provinces of ontario and quebec , and the eastern and central united states , in alabama , the district of columbia , probably florida , georgia , illinois , indiana , iowa , kansas , louisiana , massachusetts , maine , maryland , michigan , minnesota , mississippi , missouri , nebraska , new jersey , new york , north carolina , ohio , oklahoma , pennsylvania , south dakota , tennessee , texas , and wisconsin .\npennsylvania wood cockroaches are most often carried into homes under the bark of firewood . it is best to not store firewood inside the house . move woodpiles away from the house to further reduce the likelihood of cockroaches wandering in .\nhouses located within woods will sometimes have wood cockroaches crawl under siding ; especially homes with cedar shake shingles . to cockroaches , the house may represent a fallen tree and a new location for nesting . a wide lawn will inhibit cockroaches crawling from the surrounding woods to the house . the use of window screening and caulking to prevent entry is a good structural tactic .\nthe species frequently invades summer cottages , and while it is considered a nuisance , it is rarely in in enough numbers to be considered a pest .\nas breeding populations rarely become established indoors , house interiors should not be treated . treat exteriors only when wood cockroaches enter homes from the surrounding environment .\nexterior treatments to foundations , around doors and windows , porches , patios and other areas where outside lights are located will help control both the adult males ( which will fly to the lights ) and the females ( which crawl to the house in search of harborage ) .\natkinson , thomas h . ; koehler , philip g . ; patterson , richard s . ( 1990 ) .\nannotated checklist of cockroaches of florida ( dictyoptera : blattaria : blattidae , polyphagidae , blattellidae , blaberidae )\n( pdf ) . florida entomologist 73 ( 2 ) : 317 .\nblatchley , willis stanley ( 1920 ) . orthoptera of northeastern america : with especial reference to the faunas of indiana and florida . the nature publishing company . pp . 86\u201387 .\nvickery , v . r . ; kevan , d . k . mce ( 1966 ) .\nrecords of the orthopteroid insects in ontario\n. proceedings of the entomological society of ontario 97 : 18 .\nvickery , vr ; scudder , gge ( 1987 ) .\nthe canadian orthopteroid insects summarized and updated , including a tabular check - list and ecological notes\n. proceedings of the entomological society of ontario 118 : 25\u201346 . issn 0071 - 0768 .\nboth genders of p . lata are relatively large and robust for the genus . the male dorsal coloration of the species is a glossy light brown or reddish brown , while the female is a darker brown . the male ' s tegmina ( outer forewings ) extend well beyond the abdomen , and are wider than its pronotum . the female ' s short tegmina end around the second dorsal segment , and are colored slightly lighter than the rest of the body . the female is wider than the male , and has a much larger , more rounded pronotum .\nthe ootheca typically measures around 4 mm \u00d7 9 mm ( 0 . 16 in \u00d7 0 . 35 in ) , with its seam slightly curved , having a row of about 30 evenly spaced knobs .\nthe distribution of the species is the eastern united states , including alabama , the district of columbia , delaware , florida , georgia , illinois , indiana , iowa , kansas , kentucky , louisiana , maryland , mississippi , missouri , north carolina , oklahoma , south carolina , tennessee , texas , and virginia .\np . lata commonly inhabit forests and grasslands . they are endemic to pine forests of the southeastern us , have been found in grassland and shrub communities in kansas , and have been found only in lowlying mesic hammocks in florida .\nthe species has been reported indoors , at lights , and under wooden signs on trees .\nit is a methanogenic ( methane - producing ) species , a trait more common in blaberidae and blattinae families of cockroaches than in the blatellidae family .\nthe species comprises more than half the biomass of the diet of the endangered red - cockaded woodpecker ( picoides borealis ) .\nthe female head and pronotum are usually a pale reddish - brown , its short tegmina are reddish brown with paler sides , its abdominal segments are a darker brown , and its legs and underside are a brownish yellow . [ 3 ]\nthe species ' ootheca ( egg case ) is bean - shaped , very dark brown , and measures about 8 . 5 mm ( 0 . 33 in ) long by 3 . 8 mm ( 0 . 15 in ) wide . [ 3 ] the edge with a seam is curved and has about 40 small crimps or folds . [ 3 ] it is similar to the ootheca of p . virginica , but is larger and has slightly narrower spacing of vertical divisions . [ 5 ]\ntwo differently colored forms of the species were regularly collected in kansas : a dark , olive gray to brown variety from riley county , kansas , and a light , golden brown to tan variety from the slopes of the flint hills pastures near manhattan , kansas . [ 6 ]\nfemale specimens of p . fulvescens can be confused with p . virginica and p . lata . [ 5 ] females of p . virginica are on average smaller and less robust , less often have wide coloration differences , normally have a supra - anal plate with straight lateral edges that converge in a more acute apex , have a less convex caudal ( rear ) edge of the sixth dorsal abdominal segment , and have fewer proximal spines of the cephalic femora . [ 5 ] females of p . lata are much larger and more robust , with a more transverse pronotum . [ 5 ]\nthe distribution of the species includes ontario , canada , [ 4 ] and the eastern united states , including alabama , arkansas , the district of columbia , florida , georgia , illinois , indiana , iowa , kansas , maryland , mississippi , missouri , new jersey , new york , north carolina , south carolina , virginia , and texas . [ 8 ] it is not clear if the species is native or adventive in canada . [ 4 ]\nthe species has been found in heavy , barrier - beach forest , in pine - barrens undergrowth ( both typical or heavy and grassy ) , on the borders of pine barrens , on swamp edges , in heavy deciduous forest , and in heavy oak woods . [ 9 ] in florida it has been found in mesic hammock , xeric hammock , scrub , and sand hill habitats . [ 9 ]\nindividuals may be found under dead leaves , pine needles ( particularly beneath shortleaf pine ) , logs , beneath loose bark , or wandering at night . [ 9 ]\nblatchley , willis stanley ( 1920 ) . orthoptera of northeastern america : with especial reference to the faunas of indiana and florida . the nature publishing company . pp . 83\u201384 .\nvickery , v . r . ; kevan , d . k . mce ( 1966 ) .\nrecords of the orthopteroid insects in ontario\n. proceedings of the entomological society of ontario . 97 : 18\u201319 .\nhebard , morgan ( 1917 ) .\nthe blattidae of north america north of the mexican boundary\n. memoirs of the american entomological society . american entomological society ( 2 ) : 97 , 114\u2013115 , 118 . ( the article comprises the whole issue . )\ngordh , gordon ; headrick , david ( 2011 ) . a dictionary of entomology ( 2nd ed . ) . cabi . p . 68 . isbn 978 - 1 - 84593 - 542 - 9 .\natkinson , thomas h . ; koehler , philip g . ; patterson , richard s . ( 1990 ) .\nroth , louis m . ; willis , edwin r . ( 1960 ) .\nbiotic associations of cockroaches\n. smithsonian miscellaneous collections . washington , d . c . : the smithsonian institution . 141 : 59\u201360 .\ndrawings from a 1917 article by morgan hebard . plate iv , labeled 13 - 16 , of p . fulvescens body parts and dorsal views of two female specimens with slightly different wing shapes . key to drawings on pages 278 .\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses .\ndet . g . vogg , j . skevington . widespread in dwellings , common .\ndet . i . carmichael , j . skevington ; nl specimens from thedford area .\ndet . i . carmichael , j . skevington . widespread in eastern north america ( north to southern ontario ) .\ndet . i . carmichael , j . skevington . widespread in eastern north america north to southern ontario ( strictly carolinian ) . nl specimen from thedford area .\ndet . r . cannings . new range extension ( previously known only as far north as walpole ) . rare in ontario , likely\ndet . i . carmichael , j . skevington . widespread in north america .\nwalker ( this appears to have changed . it is now apparently widespread and abundant , perhaps due to the prevalence\ndet . i . carmichael , j . skevington . specimen data : pinery park store area , 26 . vi . 1991 , in copula .\ndet . i . carmichael , j . skevington . widespread in eastern north america from south carolina north to southern ontario .\ndet . i . carmichael , j . skevington . widespread in eastern north america north to southern ontario where it is local .\ndet . i . carmichael , j . skevington . widespread in north america south to north carolina .\ndet . i . carmichael , j . skevington . widespread in eastern north america north to southern ontario .\ndet . donnelly . new for canada . two ppp specimens in cnc ( pair ) . two wp specimens in rbcm . two wp\nspecimens in ug . two ppp specimens in ic personal collection . two ppp specimens in js personal collection .\ndet . i . carmichael , j . skevington , widespread in eastern north america from south carolina north to james bay .\ndet . i . carmichael , j . skevington . widespread in northern north america .\ndet . i . carmichael , j . skevington . widespread in north and central america .\ndet . i . carmichael and j . skevington . distributed through ne north america , common in southern ontario .\ndet . j . skevington . rare in canada , known from extreme sw ont , s . manitoba and s . british columbia . walker listsontario records for lambton co . ( st . clair river ) , simcoe co . and kenora district . specimen data : pinery , eastboundary ( on edge of oak savanna along goosemarsh line ) , 17 . vi . 1995 , pair in copula , j . skevington ."]}
{"id": 1139, "summary": [{"text": "mitsukurina is a genus of mackerel shark in the family mitsukurinidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it contains one extant species , the goblin shark ( m. owstoni ) and more extinct species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the genus was described by american ichthyologist david starr jordan in 1898 . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "mitsukurina", "paragraphs": ["the goblin shark ( mitsukurina owstoni ) is a rare , poorly known species . . .\ndana campbell added text to\nbrief summary\non\nmitsukurina owstoni jordan , 1898\n.\ngoblin shark , mitsukurina owstoni , australian museum biology of the goblin shark ( mitsukurina owstoni ) - reefquest centre for shark research ellis , richard the book of sharks . alfred a . knopf , 1996\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30df\u30c4\u30af\u30ea\u30b6\u30e1\nto\nmitsukurina owstoni jordan , 1898\n.\nscapanorhynchus mitsukurii white , 1937 : 29 ( error for mitsukurina owstoni jordan , 1898 ) . japan .\ndana campbell selected\nbrief summary\nto show in overview on\nmitsukurina owstoni jordan , 1898\n.\nduffy , c . 1997 . futher records of the goblin shark , mitsukurina owstoni ( lamniformes : mitsukurinidae ) , from new zealand .\nthe goblin shark was first described in 1898 , by jordan , as mitsukurina . this genus has been synonymized with the fossil scapanorhynchus described by woodward , 1889 . the relationship between the two genus has been debated . currently , the mitsukurina family includes mitsukurina owstoni and the fossil species of scapanorhynchus and anomotodon . other synonymous names include odontaspis nautus branganza 1904 , scapanorhynchus jordani hussakof 1909 , and scapanorhynchus dofleini engelhardt 1912 .\ndana campbell marked the classification from\nspecies 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013\nas preferred for\nmitsukurina owstoni jordan , 1898\n.\npurdy , r . ( 2005 ) .\nis striatolamia a junior synonym of mitsukurina ?\n. journal of vertebrate paleontology 25 ( 3 ) : 102a .\nto cite this page : bizer , s . 2004 .\nmitsukurina owstoni\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nhead of a juvenile goblin shark , mitsukurina owstoni , with the jaws protruded showing the long slender teeth . source : dianne j . bray / museum victoria . license : cc by attribution\nmartin , r . 1999 .\nbiology of sharks and rays : biology of the goblin shark ( mitsukurina owstoni )\n( on - line ) . accessed march 16 , 2003 at urltoken .\nduffy , c . 1997 . futher records of the goblin shark , mitsukurina owstoni ( lamniformes : mitsukurinidae ) , from new zealand . new zealand journal of zoology , 24 : 167 - 171 .\nbean , b . a . 1905 . notes on an adult goblin shark ( mitsukurina owstoni ) of japan . proc . u . s . natl . mus . 28 ( 1409 ) : 815 - 818 .\nduffy , c . a . j . ( 1997 ) . further records of the goblin shark , mitsukurina owstoni ( lamniformes : mitsukurinidae ) , from new zealand . new zealand journal of zoology 24 : 167 - 171 .\nugoretz , j . k . and seigel , j . a . 1999 . first eastern pacific record of the goblin shark , mitsukurina owstoni ( lamniformes : mitsukurinidae ) . california fish and game . 85 ( 3 ) : 118\u2013120 .\nmitsukurina owstoni jordan 1898 , proc . calif . acad . sci . ( 3 ) 1 ( 6 ) : 200 , pls . 11 - 12 . type locality : misaki , sagami sea , near yokohama , japan , western north pacific .\njordan , david starr . 1898 . description of a species of fish ( mitsukurina owstoni ) from japan , the type of a distinct family of lamnoid sharks . proc . calif . acad . sci . 1 ( 6 ) : 199 - 204 .\nduffy , c . a . j . ; ebert , d . a . ; stenberg , c . ( 2004 ) .\nmitsukurina owstoni\n. iucn red list of threatened species . version 2012 . 2 . international union for conservation of nature .\ncaira , j . n . ; runkle , l . s . ( 1993 ) .\n2 new tapeworms from the goblin shark mitsukurina owstoni off australia\n. systematic parasitology 26 ( 2 ) : 81\u201390 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf00009215 .\nmitsukurina is named after keigo mitsukuri , a japanese zoologist who studied at university college london during the 1860 ' s . the species owstoni was named in honour of alan owston ( 1853 - 1915 ) , an english collector , primarily of wildlife in asia .\nscientific synonyms and common names mitsukurina owstoni jordan , 1898 synonyms : mitsukurina owstoni jordan , 1898 mitsukurina owstoni j ordan , 1898 , proc . calif . acad . sci . , ( ser . 3 ) 1 ( 6 ) : 199 - 201 , pl . 11 - 12 ( ' in deep water near yokohama ' ) . holotype : mut . odontaspis nasutus bragan\u00e7a , 1904 : res . invest . sci . amelia : 49 , fig . 1 . mitsukurina owstoni : osorio , 1909 : 40 - 48 , pl . 1 seabra , 1911 : 194 lozano rey , 1928 : 406 - 410 nobre , 1935 : 435 - 438 signeux , 1949 : 633 - 638 ( discussion of relation to fossil forms ) qu\u00e9ro & verron , 1975 : 99 , fig . 1 . gueguen et al . , 1977 : 182 du buit et al . , 1977 : 186 . scapanorhynchus owstoni : garman , 1913 : 28 - 29 ( anatomy , pl . 40 , 51 , 56 ) fowler , 1941 : 123 - 124 quero , 1972 : 168 - 170 , fig . odontaspis nasutus : nobre , 1935 : 432 - 435 , fig . 185 - 187 helling , 1940 : 10 . goncalves , 1941 : 4 qu\u00e9ro , 1970 : 281 gueguen & qu\u00e9ro , 1974 : 182 . mitsukurina nasutus : albuquerque , 1954 - 1956 : 82 - 83 , fig . 47 . mitsukurina , sp . : qu\u00e9ro et al . , 1976 : 180 , fig . 3 . common names : goblin shark [ en ] requin lutin [ fr ] tiburon duende [ es ]\nparsons , g . r . , ingram jr . , g . w . and havard , r . 2002 . first record of the goblin shark mitsukurina owstoni , jordan ( family mitsukurinidae ) in the gulf of mexico . southeastern naturalist 1 ( 2 ) : 189\u2013192 .\nuyeno , t . , k . nakamura & s . mikami . 1976 . on the body coloration and an abnormal specimen of the goblin shark , mitsukurina owstoni jordan . bull . kanagawa prefect . mus . ( nat . sci . ) 9 : 67 - 70 .\nizawa , k . ( 2012 ) .\nechthrogaleus mitsukurinae sp . nov . ( copepoda , siphonostomatoida , pandaridae ) infesting the goblin shark mitsukurina owstoni jordan , 1898 in japanese waters\n. crustaceana 85 ( 1 ) : 81\u201387 . doi : 10 . 1163 / 156854012x623674 .\nduffy , c . a . j . , ebert , d . a . & stenberg , c . 2004 . mitsukurina owstoni . in : iucn 2012 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2012 . 1 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 08 august 2012 .\nstevens , j . d . & j . r . paxton . 1985 . a new record of the goblin shark , mitsukurina owstoni ( family mitsukurinidae ) , from eastern australia . proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales 108 ( 1 ) : 37 - 45 .\ncitation :\ngoblin sharks , mitsukurina owstoni ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\njordan , d . s . ( 1898 ) .\ndescription of a species of fish ( mitsukurina owstoni ) from japan , the type of a distinct family of lamnoid sharks\n. proceedings of the california academy of sciences ( series 3 ) zoology 1 ( 6 ) : 199\u2013204 .\nbean , b . a . ( 1905 ) .\nnotes on an adult goblin shark ( mitsukurina owstoni ) of japan\n. proceedings of the united states national museum 28 ( 1409 ) : 815\u2013818 . doi : 10 . 5479 / si . 00963801 . 28 - 1409 . 815 .\nduffy , c . a . j . ( 1997 ) .\nfurther records of the goblin shark , mitsukurina owstoni ( lamniformes : mitsukurinidae ) , from new zealand\n. new zealand journal of zoology 24 ( 2 ) : 167\u2013171 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 03014223 . 1997 . 9518111 .\nyano , k . & miya , m . & aizawa , m . & noichi , t . 2007 . some aspects of the biology of the goblin shark , mitsukurina owstoni , collected from the tokyo submarine canyon and adjacent waters , japan . ichthyological research 54 ( 4 ) : 388 - 398 .\nrincon , g . ; vaske , t . ; gadig , o . b . ( 2012 ) .\nrecord of the goblin shark mitsukurina owstoni ( chondrichthyes : lamniformes : mitsukurinidae ) from the south - western atlantic\n. marine biodiversity records 5 : e44 . doi : 10 . 1017 / s1755267211000923 .\njordan , d . s . 1898 . description of a species of fish ( mitsukurina owstoni ) from japan , the type of a distinct family of lamnoid sharks . proc . calif . acad . scl , ( 3 ) zool . , 1 ( 6 ) : 199 - 204 , pl . 11 - 12 .\nmitsukurina owstoni is almost certainly ovoviviparous , where embryos feed on yolk sacs and other ova ( eggs ) produced by the mother and hatch within her body . as in other lamnoids ; no pregnant specimen has been collected , thus no data is available on gestation period , number of pups , pupping season , or nursery grounds .\nyano , k . ; miya , m . ; aizawa , m . ; noichi , t . ( 2007 ) .\nsome aspects of the biology of the goblin shark , mitsukurina owstoni , collected from the tokyo submarine canyon and adjacent waters , japan\n. ichthyological research 54 ( 4 ) : 388\u2013398 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s10228 - 007 - 0414 - 2 .\nmitsukurina owstoni jordan , 1898 , proc . calif . acad . sci . ser . 3 ( zool . ) , 1 : 200 , pls . 11 - 12 . holotype : zoological museum , university of tokyo , 107 cm immature male , near yokohama , japan , in deep water . holotype lost , according to eschmeyer ( 1998 , cat . fish . : cd - rom ) .\nnakaya , k . , tomita , t . , suda , k . , sato , k . , ogimoto , k . , chappell , a . , sato , t . , takano , k . m & y . yuki , 2016 . slingshot feeding of the goblin shark mitsukurina owstoni ( pisces : lamniformes : mitsukurinidae ) . scientific reports 6 , article number : 27786 online 212 june 2016 .\nparsons , g . r . ; ingram , g . w . ; havard , r . ( 2002 ) .\nfirst record of the goblin shark mitsukurina owstoni , jordan ( family mitsukurinidae ) in the gulf of mexico\n. southeastern naturalist 1 ( 2 ) : 189\u2013192 . doi : 10 . 1656 / 1528 - 7092 ( 2002 ) 001 [ 0189 : frotgs ] 2 . 0 . co ; 2 .\nresearch mitsukurina owstoni \u00bb barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms\nv . 1 ( 1897 - 99 ) - proceedings of the california academy of sciences . - biodiversity heritage library\nif you are generating a pdf of a journal article or book chapter , please feel free to enter the title and author information . the information you enter here will be stored in the downloaded file to assist you in managing your downloaded pdfs locally .\nthank you for your request . please wait for an email containing a link to download the pdf .\nsign up to receive the latest bhl news , content highlights , and promotions .\nbhl relies on donations to provide free pdf downloads and other services . help keep bhl free and open !\nthere was an issue with the request . please try again and if the problem persists , please send us feedback .\nafter keigo mitsukuri ; he worked in zoological names with y . iwasaki , 1896 ; imperial university\nmarine ; bathydemersal ; depth range 30 - 1300 m ( ref . 43278 ) , usually 270 - 960 m ( ref . 43278 ) . deep - water ; 48\u00b0n - 55\u00b0s , 180\u00b0w - 180\u00b0e\nwestern atlantic : guyana ( ref . 6871 ) , suriname ( ref . 13608 , 11228 ) and french guiana . eastern atlantic : france ( bay of biscay ) , madeira , portugal , and south africa . western indian ocean : off south africa . western pacific : japan , australia ( south australia , new south wales ) , new zealand ( ref . 26346 ) . eastern pacific : usa ( southern california ) ( ref . 43278 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? , range 264 - 322 cm max length : 617 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 83323 ) ; common length : 200 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5217 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 0 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 0 . flat , bladelike , elongated snout , tiny eyes without nictitating eyelids , soft , flabby body , slender , very long cusped teeth in long , protrusible jaws , long caudal fin without a ventral lobe ( ref . 247 ) . pinkish - white with bluish fins , becoming brownish grey after death ( ref . 5578 , 11228 ) .\nfound on outer continental shelves and upper slopes , but rarely in shallow water close inshore ( ref . 247 , 43278 ) . jaws are highly specialized for rapid projection from the head to snap up small animals ( ref . 247 ) . feeds on jacopever , pelagic octopus and crabs ( ref . 5578 ) . ovoviviparous , embryos feeding on yolk sac and other ova produced by the mother ( ref . 50449 ) . probably slow - moving and neutrally buoyant ( ref . 6871 ) . utilized dried salted ( ref . 247 )\nexhibit ovoviparity ( aplacental viviparity ) , with embryos feeding on other ova produced by the mother ( oophagy ) after the yolk sac is absorbed ( ref . 247 , 50449 ) . distinct pairing with embrace ( ref . 205 ) .\ncompagno , l . j . v . , 1984 . fao species catalogue . vol . 4 . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . part 1 - hexanchiformes to lamniformes . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 4 / 1 ) : 1 - 249 . rome , fao . ( ref . 247 )\n) : 3 . 8 - 13 . 7 , mean 8 . 3 ( based on 1037 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 1 \u00b10 . 62 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : very low , minimum population doubling time more than 14 years ( fec assumed to be < 10 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : very high vulnerability ( 90 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . , fricke , r . and van der laan , r . ( eds . ) . 2018 . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . updated 29 march 2018 . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species is assessed as least concern because although apparently rare , it is widespread in the atlantic , indian and pacific oceans and is only infrequently taken in deepwater fisheries . it has a sporadic distribution with most records from the northwest pacific ( japan , taiwan ) on the upper continental slope . may also be mesopelagic . it is likely to be found in more locations than previously known as deepwater surveys are undertaken in other regions or as deepwater fisheries expand globally . taken in deep bottom - set gillnet , bottom longline and trawl fisheries ; rarely surface drift nets . also entangled in deepwater fishing gear . recorded from depths of < 30 m ( occasional ) to > 1 , 000 m with reported landings of adults rare suggesting most of the adult population is unavailable to existing deepwater fisheries .\nmost goblin shark records come from japan . all japanese records have been made between tosa bay and boso peninsula ( including sagami bay , suruga bay , izu islands ) , despite similar fishing gear being used throughout the japanese archipelago ( yano 2003 ) . in april 2003 an exceptionally large number of goblin sharks ( reportedly 100 to 300 ) were captured off northwest taiwan , an area they had been previously unknown from . the species is likely to occur in more locations than presently known as surveys are undertaken in other regions or as deepwater fisheries expand globally .\nreported landings from tokyo canyon show no trend in abundance ( yano 2003 ) .\nthe goblin shark is a rare bycatch of deepwater fisheries with most captures around japan . in an unusual occurrence , an exceptionally large number ( > 100 ) were reportedly caught off the northwest coast of taiwan over two weeks in april 2003 by a number of fishers . taken in deep bottom - set gillnet , bottom longline and trawl fisheries ; rarely surface drift nets . also entangled in deepwater fishing gear . most reported captures are juveniles suggesting that the bulk of the adult population occurs outside the depth range of , or is otherwise unavailable to most deepwater fisheries . the jaws are sought after by collectors . the jaws of most of those goblin sharks landed in taiwan during april 2003 were reported exported to the usa . prices vary with the size and quality of the jaw , and range from us $ 1 , 500 - $ 4 , 000 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthe very strange - looking goblin shark has a distinctively shaped snout and an impressive array of long , pointed teeth . the fish , however , is found in deep water and poses no threat to people .\nthe goblin shark has a shovel - like snout , flabby body , and a tail with a weakly developed lower lobe .\none of the distinctive features of the goblin shark is its protrusible mouth . the mouth can retract to a position under the eye , or extend forward under the snout .\nthe species was named in honour of alan owston ( 1853 - 1915 ) , an\nenglish collector of asian wildlife , as well as a businessman and yachtsman\n( beolens & watkins , 2003 ) .\nthe goblin shark has been caught in scattered localities through the pacific , atlantic and indian oceans . in australia it is known from off new south wales , tasmania and possibly from off south australia .\nthe map below shows the australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in australian museums . click on the map for detailed information . source : atlas of living australia .\nthe species is found near the sea floor in marine waters to depths of about 1200 m .\nyano and colleagues examined the stomach contents of 121 goblin sharks from tokyo submarine canyon . prey items included bony fishes , squids and crustaceans .\nwhen feeding , the goblin shark extends its jaws forward faster than any other species of shark . see the scientific report on slingshot feeding by nakaya and colleagues .\nthe underside of the snout is heavily pored . these pores are the external openings of the ampullae of lorenzini , the electricity detecting organs . the goblin shark most likely hunts its prey by detecting electric fields .\nbeolens , b . & m . watkins . 2003 . whose bird ? men and women commemorated in the common names of birds . christopher helm . pp . 384 .\nlast , p . r . & j . d . stevens . 1994 . sharks and rays of australia . csiro . pp . 513 , pl . 1 - 84 .\nlast , p . r . & j . d . stevens . 2009 . sharks and rays of australia . edition 2 . csiro . pp . 644 , pl . 1 - 91 .\nwilga , c . d . 2005 . morphology and evolution of the jaw suspension in lamniform sharks . journal of morphology . 265 : 102\u2013119 . download .\nyano , k . , miya , m . , aizawa , m . & t . noichi . 2003 . abstracts . 2003 joint meeting of ichthyologists and herpetologists . american society of ichthyologists and herpetologists . pp . 533 .\nhi stranger . apologies for the delay in replying to your question . i was away from the australian museum last week doing fieldwork . the goblin shark definitely grows larger than 3 . 3 m in length . the reason i can say that with confidence is because i measured the fish in the images above . it was 3 . 84 m long . the maximum size of 3 . 9 m is taken from last and stevens ( see references on this page ) . good luck with your project .\nhi , i have a school project and i have a question to answer . according to your article the goblin shark ' s maximum size is 3 . 9 metres . . but according to another source its 3 . 3 . . who is correct ? source : urltoken\noriginally caught in japan , the range is wide , but not evenly distributed . the majority of known specimens come from bays of japan while the rest are mostly found off new zealand , southern africa , and in the eastern atlantic and indian oceans . two specimens have been taken off the mississippi and california coasts of the united states . though this probably encompasses the range of\n, sightings are so rare and widespread that the presence of goblin sharks could extend well beyond these areas .\nseem to live in the mid and deep - water zones of outer continental shelves and slopes .\nis a fearsome looking fish with a large , flattened snout protruding from the top of its head , and has movable jaws than can extend to catch prey . the exact purpose of the flat snout is unknown , but as it is not hard or sharp enough to pin or kill prey , it is probably used to detect the faint electric signals that other fish give off . goblin sharks have rubbery skin , rather than denticles ( the sharp , pointed scales found on most sharks ) . due to the blood vessels that are close to the skin , the shark has a pinkish - grey color in life , though in death it appears quite colorless because of its lack of pigment . teeth are slender and fang - like , similar to those of the\n. another feature that separates goblin sharks from most other sharks is the lack of a lower lobe on the tail fin , which is also absent in other benthic sharks . female specimens seem to be slightly larger than the males .\ndevelop directly from birth , and are probably ecologically similiar to free - swimming adults when they emerge from the mother . it is not known at what age they become sexually mature , but are immature to about 2 . 3 m .\nthere has been no direct study of goblin sharks in the wild , so there is no information on there mating habits .\ngoblin sharksare rarely seen , and even more rarely studied in detail . essentially all known data on goblin sharks are from accidental catches in trawling nets . thus , since there have been no opportunities to observe goblin sharks in their natural habit ( or even alive for that matter ) , data on reproduction and behavior are very scarce . there is no information on age at sexual maturity for either sex , number of offspring , or gestation period .\nare independent as soon as they are born . this is probably not different in the case of the goblin shark .\nin particular , sharks in general do not provide any degree of parental investment .\nno goblin sharks have been studied in the wild , so not much is known about their ages or lifespans . no individuals have ever been held in captivity .\nis rather sluggish and accomplishes most of its hunting by swimming lazily or waiting for vertically migrating animals to come within striking distance . the protruding jaws allow substantial bites , but otherwise ,\nis not a fast or active predator . since it seems to feed on migratory fish , it is probably active in the evening and / or morning when the migrations are going on , but there are no direct accounts of feeding times . based on the dentition and stomach contents of this shark , scientists know it is a predator . another theory has goblin sharks actively hunting for benthic prey using electroreceptors on its enlarged snout ( similar to\n) and using this snout to dig up any prey it detects underneath the sand .\nthere are no available data on home range , or territories of goblin sharks .\n, goblin sharks probably hunt using their senses of smell , sight , sound and the electrical sensing organs called ampullae of lorenzini . due to the depth at which they live , eyesight is probably less useful than other senses . the snout ( which is abnormally large in\n) houses the ampullae of lorenzini which are attuned to catching otherwise undetectable prey in dark waters or on the bottom .\nappears to feed mid - water or close to the bottom where it uses a combination of electrical sensors , smell and ( minimal ) eyesight to catch any vertically migrating animals that it comes across . it is also possible that they stay deep and scan the bottom for prey . stomach records are rare , and include parts of\nas it is often difficult to deduce ecosystem roles in easily studied environments , it comes as no surprise that nothing is known about goblin sharks ' role in the mid - water or benthic community besides its role as a predator .\n(\ncites : convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora\n, 2004 ;\nu . s . esa : natureserve explorer data for listed status in the united states\n, ;\n2002 iucn red list\n, 2002 )\nis unknown due to the rarity of sightings and specimens . however , though rarely seen , this shark is thought to be fairly common because of its wide range . nonetheless , because it lives in deep waters , is not a common sight for humans . most of the information is partial , and deduced from the morphology of the shark and from samples of the few existing specimens . other common names include : imp shark , elfin shark , and tenguzame ( japanese ) . differences in extension of jaws in death lead to confusion over how many species of\nthere actually are . as of now , there is only one recognized species . however , the extant goblin shark is considered to be very closely related to a similar cretaceous shark genus\nstephen bizer ( author ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , phil myers ( editor ) , museum of zoology , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nthe body of water between africa , europe , the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , and the western hemisphere . it is the second largest ocean in the world after the pacific ocean .\nliving in australia , new zealand , tasmania , new guinea and associated islands .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nbody of water between the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , australia , asia , and the western hemisphere . this is the world ' s largest ocean , covering about 28 % of the world ' s surface .\nliving in the northern part of the old world . in otherwords , europe and asia and northern africa .\nreferring to an animal that lives on or near the bottom of a body of water . also an aquatic biome consisting of the ocean bottom below the pelagic and coastal zones . bottom habitats in the very deepest oceans ( below 9000 m ) are sometimes referred to as the abyssal zone . see also oceanic vent .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nhaving a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nreproduction in which eggs develop within the maternal body without additional nourishment from the parent and hatch within the parent or immediately after laying .\nan aquatic biome consisting of the open ocean , far from land , does not include sea bottom ( benthic zone ) .\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\ninternational union for conservation of nature and natural resources . 2002 .\n2002 iucn red list\n( on - line ) . accessed 03 - 23 - 03 at urltoken .\ncites . 2004 .\ncites : convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora\n( on - line ) . accessed march 21 , 2003 at urltoken .\nu . s . esa .\nu . s . esa : natureserve explorer data for listed status in the united states\n( on - line ) . accessed 03 - 21 - 2003 at urltoken .\n. rome : united nations development programme , food and agriculture organization of the united states .\nrorem , s . 2002 .\nsea creatures 101 : shark series : the goblin shark : ugly and rare\n( on - line ) . accessed 03 - 16 - 03 at urltoken .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nvan der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nking , c . m . ; roberts , c . d . ; bell , b . d . ; fordyce , r . e . ; nicoll , r . s . ; worthy , t . h . ; paulin , c . d . ; hitchmough , r . a . ; keyes , i . w . ; baker , a . n . ; stewart , a . l . ; hiller , n . ; mcdowall , r . m . ; holdaway , r . n . ; mcphee , r . p . ; schwarzhans , w . w . ; tennyson , a . j . d . ; rust , s . ; macadie , i . ( 2009 ) . phylum chordata : lancelets , fishes , amphibians , reptiles , birds , mammals , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 1 . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . pp . 431 - 554 . [ details ]\ncompagno , l . j . v . ( 2001 ) . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . volume 2 . bullhead , mackerel and carpet sharks ( heterodontiformes , lamniformes and orectolobiformes ) . fao species catalogue for fishery purposes . no . 1 , vol . 2 . rome , fao . 269p . [ details ]\nmceachran , j . d . ( 2009 ) . fishes ( vertebrata : pisces ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1223\u20131316 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of odontaspis nasutus bragan\u00e7a , 1904 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of scapanorhynchus dofleini engelhardt , 1912 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of scapanorhynchus jordani hussakof , 1909 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of scapanorhynchus mitsukurii white , 1937 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of scapanorhynchus owstoni ( jordan , 1898 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhabitat apoorly known , bottom - dwelling shark that inhabits the outer continental shelves and upper slopes and is found off seamounts , but rarely occurs at the surface or in shallow water close inshore . most records are on or near the continental slopes between 270 and 960 m deep but down to at least 1 300 m , sometimes in shallower shelf waters at 95 to 137 m . seamount records suggest that the species is oceanic or semioceanic in addition to its known occurrences off continental slopes . [ details ]\nclassification from species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013 selected by dana campbell - see more .\nyeah ! i never seen the goblin shark myself though i discoverd . . .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\na taxonomic genus within the family mitsukurinidae \u2013 the goblin shark and extinct relatives .\nthis page was last edited on 15 may 2017 , at 16 : 55 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfao fisheries synopsis , no . 125 , vol . 4 , pt . 1\nsharks of the world : an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date , vol . 2 : bullhead , mackerel and carpet sharks ( heterodontiformes , lamniformes and orectolobiformes )\ncompagno , leonard j . v . / hamlett , william c . , ed .\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nodontaspis nasutus de braganza , 1904 : 49 , 104 , pl . 1 , figs . 1 - 1c . type locality , mare de sezimbra , portugal , 603 m . types unknown according to eschmeyer ( 1998 ) .\nscapanorhynchus jordani hussakof , 1909 : 257 , text - figs . , pl . 44 . syntypes ( 2 ) : american museum of natural history , amnh - 00004sw , jaws , model on display from 1 300 mm female ; 1 155 mm female , formerly in the zoological department at columbia university . type locality , japan .\nscapanorhynchus dofleini engelhardt , 1912 : 644 . holotype : zoologischen staatssammlung m\u00fcnchen , 2 100 mm female , mayegawa , sagami sea , japan . locality of holotype unknown according to eschmeyer ( 1998 : cd - rom ) .\nen - goblin shark , fr - requin lutin , sp - tibur\u00f3n duende .\nfieldmarks : this unmistakable shark has a flat blade - like elongated snout , tiny eyes without nictitating eyelids , soft flabby body , slender very long - cusped teeth in long highly protrusable jaws , two spineless dorsals and an anal fin , and a long caudal fin without a ventral lobe . colour : live and newly - captured individuals are pinkish white , but usually fade to brownish in alcohol .\nwestern atlantic : guiana , surinam , french guyana . eastern atlantic : france ( bay of biscay ) , madeira , portugal , senegal , gulf of guinea , south africa ( western cape ) . western indian ocean : south africa ( eastern cape , kwazulu - natal ) , mozambique ( mozambique seamount range ) . western pacific : japan , australia ( south australia , new south wales ) , new zealand . eastern pacific : usa ( southern california ) .\nmaximum total length at least 384 cm . size at birth unknown , smallest recorded specimen 107 cm ; mature males 264 , 320 and 384 cm , females reaching 373 cm , one mature at 335 cm . weight 210 kg at 384 cm .\ninterest to fisheries minimal , taken as untargeted bycatch of deepwater trawl fisheries and occasionally taken with deepwater longline s , deep - set gill nets , and possibly purse seines . utilized dried - salted for human consumption . conservation status : conservation status unknown .\njapan : elphin , elfin shark , japanese goblin shark , tenguzame , tengu ( goblin ) shark , mitsukurizame , mitsukuri ' s shark .\nthreat to humans : harmless to people . a spectacular aquarium exhibit , but seldom kept in captivity ; one lived for a week in an aquarium at tokai university , shimizu , japan .\nsharks of the world an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . volume 2 bullhead , mackerel and carpet sharks ( heterodontiformes , lamniformes and orectolobiformes ) . leonard j . v . compagno 2001 . fao species catalogue for fishery purposes . no . 1 , vol . 2 . rome , fao . 2001 . p . 269 .\nthis bottom - dwelling shark is pinkish grey and flabby - looking , with small , rounded fins and a caudal fin ( tail ) with a strong top lobe and no bottom lobe . it is most recognizable for its flat , elongated snout , and its large mouth full of long , narrow teeth . it averages between 10 and 13 feet long , but has been caught at over 18 feet . not a great deal is known about the goblin shark , but it is thought to mostly eat soft prey like shrimp , small fish , octopus , and squid , which it catches by quickly projecting its jaw forward and pulling prey into its mouth .\nthis shark is known as the goblin shark in the unites states , australia , new zealand , england , and south africa . it also referred too as elfin shark ( english ) , hiisihai ( finnish ) , japanese neushaai ( dutch ) , japanischer nasenhai ( german ) , kabouterhaai ( dutch and afrikaans ) , karsahai ( finnish ) , koboldhaai ( dutch ) , koboldhai ( german ) , lensuh\u00e1fur ( icelandic ) , mitsukurizame ( japanese ) , naesehaj ( danish ) , nasenhai ( german ) , n\u00e4shaj ( swedish ) , nesehai ( norwegian ) , neushaai ( dutch ) , requin lutin ( french ) , schoffelneushaai ( dutch ) , squalo folletto ( dutch ) , squalo goblin ( italian ) , teguzame ( japanese ) , teppichhai ( german ) , tibur\u00f3n duende ( spanish ) , trollhaj ( swedish ) , tubar\u00e3o - dem\u00f3nio ( portuguese ) , tubar\u00e3o - gnomo ( portuguese ) , zoozame ( japanese ) , and \u017eralok \u0161kriatok ( czech ) .\nthere is minimal commercial interest for the goblin shark . it is fished only as a bycatch of deepwater trawl , longlines and deep - set gill nets . it has been dried - salted for human consumption . although it is thought to be a great exhibit , it has rarely been kept in captivity . one specimen survived in an aquarium for a week at tokai university , shimizu , japan .\nthe goblin shark seldom comes in contact with humans ; however , because of its large size it could be potentially dangerous .\nthe iucn is a global union of states , governmental agencies , and non - governmental organizations in a partnership that assesses the conservation status of species .\nthe deep - water goblin shark is thought to be widely distributed . specimens have been seen in the atlantic off the coast of guyana , surinam , french guyana , france , madeira , senegal , portugal , gulf of guinea , and south africa . it has also been reported in the western pacific off japan , australia and new zealand . in the indian ocean it is found in south africa and mozambique . it was recently recorded in the united states near san clemente island off the coast of california as well as in the northern gulf of mexico south of pascagoula , mississippi . few specimens have ever been caught making it one of the rarest species of sharks .\nthe goblin shark is a bottom - dwelling shark that is rarely seen at the surface or in shallow coastal waters . this species is found along the outer continental shelves , upper slopes , and off seamounts . most specimens have been observed near continental slopes between 885 feet ( 270m ) and 3149 feet ( 960m ) deep . it has been found in waters up to 4265 feet ( 1 , 300m ) deep and in waters as shallow as 311 feet ( 95m ) to 449 feet ( 137m ) . records indicate that the goblin could also be an oceanic species .\nthe goblin shark can be easily identified by its elongated and flattened snout . it has a distinctly long head , tiny eyes and five short gill openings . the mouth is large and parabolic in shape . its body is soft and flabby .\nthis shark has a long caudal fin without a ventral lobe . the pectoral fins are short and broad and the two dorsal fins are small , rounded and equal in size . the anal fin is rounded and smaller than the dorsal fins , while the pelvic fins are larger than the dorsals . the goblin shark has a long protrusable jaw with long slender teeth . its body characteristics suggest that it is a slow moving shark with a density close to seawater .\nliving goblin sharks are a pinkish white color with bluish fins . specimens fade and become brownish when preserved in alcohol .\ndentition goblin sharks have 26 large , narrow , awl - like teeth on their upper jaw and 24 on their lower jaw . they have three rows of anterior teeth on each side of both jaws . the teeth in the anterior upper jaw are separated from the smaller upper lateral teeth by a gap .\ndenticles the goblin shark has small and rough dermal denticles . the denticles have crowns with narrow cusps and ridges . the cusps of the lateral denticles occur perpendicular to the skin .\nmature male goblins have been found to be 8 . 66 feet ( 264cm ) , 10 . 49 feet ( 320cm ) and 12 . 6 feet ( 384cm ) in total length . mature females have been measured to be 11 feet ( 335cm ) and 12 . 2 feet ( 372cm ) . size at birth is not known but the smallest specimen found was 3 . 51 feet ( 107cm ) . the maximum reported length of the goblin shark is 12 . 6 feet ( 384cm ) . this specimen weighed 463 pounds ( 210kg ) .\ngoblin sharks feed on a variety of prey including the blackbelly rosefish ( helicolenus dactylopterus ) and various crabs . photo courtesy noaa\nthe goblin shark uses a sense system known as ampullae of lorenzini , found in its snout , for electrodetection of prey . the jaws are modified for rapid projection to aid in the capture of prey . the jaw is thrust forward by a double set of ligaments at the mandibular joints . when the jaws are retracted the ligaments are stretched and they become relaxed when the jaw is projected forward . the jaws are usually held tightly while swimming and function like a catapult when the animal wants to feed . its slender narrow teeth suggest it mainly feeds on soft body prey including shrimps , pelagic octopus , fish , and squid . it is also thought to feed on crabs . the posterior teeth are specialized for crushing .\nreproduction the goblin shark is thought to be ovoviviparous ; however , a pregnant female has never been captured . records have shown that mature females visit the east coast of honshu during the springtime , which could be related to reproduction patterns .\nparasites a 419 pound ( 190kg ) male collected off ulladulla , new south wales , australia was found to have four different species of tapeworms . these internal parasites were recovered from the spiral intestine . these included two new species : litobothrium amsichensis and marsupiobothrium gobelinus .\nmales to 3 . 2 m , females to 3 . 35 m tl .\non outer continental or insular shelves and slopes , from 100 to 700 m .\n* nobre , a . 1935 . fauna marinha de portugal . 1 . vertebrados ( mamiferos , reptis e peixes ) , porto . : ixxxiv + 1 - 21 ( mamiferos ) ; 1 - 5 ( reptis ) ; 1 - 574 ( peixes ) , 77 pl . , 64 phot .\nalbuquerque , r . m . 1954 - 1956 . peixes de portugal e ilhas adjacentes . chavas para a sua determina\u00e7\u00e3o . port . acta biol . , ser . b , 5 : xvi + 1167 p . , 445 fig .\nbragan\u00e7a , c . 1904 . ichthyologia ii . esqualos obtidos nas costas de portugal durante as campanhas de 1896 - 1903 . results das investig . sci . feitas a bordo do yacht am\u00e9lia . lisboa , 107 p . , 2 pl .\ndu buit , m . h . ; gueguen , j . ; lamolet , j . ; quero , j . c . 1977 . observations sur les poissons rares en 1975 . annls biol . cons . perm . int . explor , mer , 32 , 1975 : 185 - 188 .\nfowler , h . w . 1941a . contributions to the biology of the philippine archipelago and adjacent regions . the fishes of the groups elasmobranchii , holocephali , isospondyli and ostariophysi obtained by the united states bureau of fisheries steamer ' albatross ' in 1907 to 1910 , chiefly in the philippine islands and adjacent seas . bull u . s . natn . mus . , 100 ( 13 ) : 1 - 879 , fig . 1 - 30 .\ngarman , s . 1913 . the plagiostomia ( sharks , skates , and rays ) . mem . mus . comp . zool . harv . , 36 : xiii + 528 p . , 77 pl .\ngueguen , j . ; lamolet , j . ; quero , j . c . 1976 . observations sur les poissons rares en 1974 . annls . biol . cons . perm . int . explor . mer . , 31 , 1974 : 181 - 182 .\ngueguen , j . ; quero , j . c . 1974 . observations francaises sur les poissons rares en 1972 . annls biol . cons . perm . explor . mer . , 29 , 1972 : 182 - 183 .\nhelling , h . 1943 . novo catalogo dos peixes de portugal em colec\u00e7ao no museu de zoologia da universidade de coimbra . mems estud . mus . zool . univ . coimbra ( 1 ) 149 : 110 p .\nlozano y rey , l . 1928 . fauna ib\u00e9rica . pesces ( generalidades , cicl\u00f3stomos y elasmobranquios ) . mus . nac . ciencias nat . , madrid , 1 : 1 - 692 , 197 fig . , 20 pl .\nos\u00f3rio , b . 1909 . contribui\u00e7\u00e3o para o conhecimento da fauna bathypel\u00e1gica visinha das costas de portugal . mems mus . bocage , 1 : 35 p . , 3 pl .\nqu\u00e9ro , j . - c . 1970b . observations fran\u00e7aises sur les poissons rares en 1968 et 1969 . annls biol . cons . perm . int . explor . mer . , 26 , 1969 : 280 - 282 .\nqu\u00e9ro , j . - c . 1972 . capture de deux scapanorhynchus owstoni par des chalutiers de la rochelle . ann . soc . sc . nat . charente - maritime , 5 ( 4 ) : 168 - 170 , 1 fig .\nqu\u00e9ro , j . - c . ; verron , r . 1975 . sur quelques poissons rares observes au port de la rochelle en 1974 . ann . soc . sci nat . charente - maritime , 6 ( 3 ) : 177 - 190 , 6 fig .\nseabra , a . f . de . 1912 . catalogue syst\u00e9matique des vert\u00e9br\u00e9s du portugal . v . poissons . bull . soc . port . sci . nat . , 1911 [ 1912 ] , 5 ( 3 ) : 129 - 224 .\nfound on outer continental shelves and upper slopes , but rarely in shallow water close inshore ( ref . 247 , 43278 ) . jaws are highly specialized for rapid projection from the head to snap up small animals ( ref . 247 ) . feeds on jacopever , pelagic octopus and crabs ( ref . 5578 ) . ovoviviparous , embryos feeding on yolk sac and other ova produced by the mother ( ref . 50449 ) . probably slow - moving and neutrally buoyant ( ref . 6871 ) . utilized dried salted ( ref . 247 )\nwestern atlantic : guyana ( ref . 6871 ) , suriname ( ref . 13608 , 11228 ) and french guiana . eastern atlantic : france ( bay of biscay ) , madeira , portugal , and south africa . western indian ocean : off south africa . western pacific : japan , australia ( south australia , new south wales ) , new zealand ( ref . 26346 ) . eastern pacific : usa ( southern california ) ( ref . 43278 ) .\ncompagno , l . 1984 . fao species catalogue : vol . 4 sharks of the world . rome : united nations development programme , food and agriculture organization of the united states .\nflat , bladelike , elongated snout , tiny eyes without nictitating eyelids , soft , flabby body , slender , very long cusped teeth in long , protrusible jaws , long caudal fin without a ventral lobe ( ref . 247 ) . pinkish - white with bluish fins , becoming brownish grey after death ( ref . 5578 , 11228 ) .\ndepth range based on 16 specimens in 1 taxon . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 8 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 95 - 1300 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 4 . 402 - 7 . 270 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 25 . 373 - 32 . 574 salinity ( pps ) : 34 . 483 - 34 . 926 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 3 . 893 - 5 . 185 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 1 . 586 - 2 . 271 silicate ( umol / l ) : 20 . 418 - 47 . 917 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 95 - 1300 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 4 . 402 - 7 . 270 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 25 . 373 - 32 . 574 salinity ( pps ) : 34 . 483 - 34 . 926 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 3 . 893 - 5 . 185 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 1 . 586 - 2 . 271 silicate ( umol / l ) : 20 . 418 - 47 . 917 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome ."]}
{"id": 1163, "summary": [{"text": "the hispaniolan greater funnel-eared bat ( natalus major ) is a species of funnel-eared bat found on the island of hispaniola .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "first described in 1902 , it has a complex taxonomic history , with some authors identifying multiple subspecies , now recognised as the separate species natalus primus and natalus jamaicensis , and others considering natalus major to be itself a subspecies of natalus stramineus .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it lives primarily in caves and feeds on insects . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "hispaniolan greater funnel - eared bat", "paragraphs": ["no children of hispaniolan greater funnel - eared bat ( natalus major ) found .\nthe jamaican greater funnel - eared bat only is found in st . clair cave in jamaica .\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - hispaniolan greater funnel - eared bat facts\n( online ) . accessed\nthe cuban greater funnel - eared bat ( natalus primus ) is a species of funnel - eared bat . it is endemic to a cave on isla de la juventud ( isle of pines ) in cuba . natalus primus is a member of the order chiroptera and the family natalidae .\nmexican funnel - eared bats feed on large quantities of insects , undoubtedly affecting insect populations .\nfacts summary : the hispaniolan greater funnel - eared bat ( natalus major ) is a species of concern belonging in the species group\nmammals\nand found in the following area ( s ) : dominican republic , haiti .\nmexican funnel - eared bats feed on large quantites of insects that may be crop pests or carry human disease .\nthe jamaican greater funnel - eared bat ( natalus jamaicensis ) is a species of funnel - eared bat found in jamaica . it was first described as natalus major jamaicensis , later as a subspecies of natalus stramineus , and now as its own species . it is of a similar appearance to many species of the genus natalus . it lives solely in st . clair cave in jamaica and feeds on insects .\nthe cuban greater funnel - eared bat has funnel - like ears and a tail as long as the head and body combined . they have black , stiff hairs above the upper lip , much like a moustache , and white hairs below the lower lip . they have tan and reddish - brown fur with a paler belly .\n. . . this may be particularly relevant for taxa with relatively low dispersal ability such as the natalids . for example , the relatively low dispersal potential and association with hot caves of the rare natalid , the hispaniolan greater funnel - eared bat ( natalus major ) , led tejedor et al . ( 2004 ) to suggest that this species has\na relatively high extinction potential\nin cuba ( tejedor et al . 2004 ) . hispaniolan greater funnel - eared bat is only known from a single permanent roost on the island , and many large roosts of this species in cuba have already disappeared due to disturbance by increasing numbers of visitors ( silva taboada 1979 ) . . . .\n. . . this may be particularly relevant for taxa with relatively low dispersal ability such as the natalids . for example , the relatively low dispersal potential and association with hot caves of the rare natalid , the hispaniolan greater funnel - eared bat ( natalus major ) , led tejedor et al . ( 2004 ) to suggest that this species has\na relatively high extinction potential\nin cuba ( tejedor et al . 2004 ) . hispaniolan greater funnel - eared bat is only known from a single permanent roost on the island , and many large roosts of this species in cuba have already disappeared due to disturbance by increasing numbers of visitors ( silva taboada 1979 ) . . . .\nmap of haiti indicating localities of living bat species ( squares ) and fossil bat species ( circles ) .\nin tjp stands out among this diverse bat fauna . this bat is solitary , insectivorous , and roosts primarily among the foliage in trees [\ngroups of mexican funnel - eared bats leave the roost approximately 30 minutes after sunset to feed on small , flying insects . they find these insects by using high frequency ultra sounds up to 170 khz .\nthe hispaniolan hutia has been seen during some font tours in the dominican republic , in the southwestern part of the country .\nmost of the hispaniolan nature listed here in the dominican republic , but some , notably amphibians , only known to be in haiti .\nis an insect - eating bat that hunts on the wing while fluttering like a moth .\nadult male mexican funnel - eared bats have a gland - like structure in the center of their foreheads known as the natalid organ . this gland is thought to be found only in the natalidae , but there is not much known about its function .\nis by far the largest bat in the dominican republic . it has a wingspan up to 3 feet . that of the second largest bat in the dominican republic is about half that - the\nfossils found at tjp , it is plausible that a colony of this bat was present within tjp .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon has been seen on a few occasions during font tours in the dominican republic , particularly during nocturnal tour outings for owls and other nightbirds .\nmexican funnel - eared bats are generally found in dry and semi - deciduous forest and secondary growth forests , and are occasionaly found in evergreen forest . they can be found at elevations up to 2 , 400 m , but are usually found around 300 m . they roost in moist caves .\nhispaniolan giant tarantula ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ ( p . 296 ) in the theraphosidae family phormictopus cancerides ( in the family theraphosidae ) on one occasion , during a font tour , as many about a hundred of these hispaniolan giant tarantulas were seen crossing a stretch of road in the southwestern dominican republic .\nour study compiled data from 36 localities , described the fossil bat community of trouing jean paul ( tjp ) , haiti , and provides a thorough review of the living and fossil bat biodiversity of one of the most environmentally imperiled countries in the neotropics . previous accounts of hispaniolan bats documented 18 species in both countries ( dominican republic and haiti ) . herein we add two recent records ,\nis a very small , delicate , long - winged bat , ranging in weight from 3 to 5 g . head and body length of mexican funnel - eared bats is 38 to 46 mm ; the tail length is from 47 to 52 mm ; the length of hind foot is 8 to 9 mm ; the length of the ear is 14 to 16 mm ; the length of forearm is 36 to 39 mm . the sexes are similar in size .\n] . the verbatim locality for the single hispaniolan specimen ( usnm 105704 ) is \u201cdominican republic\u201d and lacks specific details to accurately determine its provenance . the estimated minimum number of individuals of\n) , which has a caribbean distribution that includes the greater antilles and the bahamas . this aerial insectivore also has a wide continental distribution in north , central , and northern south america [\nfossil bat species identified in this study from trouing jean paul , parc national la visite , massif de la selle , haiti .\nrodr\u00edguez - dur\u00e1n a . bat assemblages in the west indies : the role of caves in : fleming th , racey pa , editors .\n. this bat community represents about 27 % and 83 % of the diversity of bats in the caribbean at the level of species and family , respectively . in all , 75 % of the extant bat species of hispaniola and all families except noctilionidae are represented in in the tjp assemblage . four abundant species (\nminor red bat ( t3 ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ lasiurus minor lasiurus minor roosts in trees . the species is an insect - eater taking its food both in the air and on vegetation . in the dominican republic , it has been said to have been found at only 6 localities . lasiurus minor has been considered conspecific with the lasiurus borealis , the eastern red bat . the length ( of the body & head ) of the eastern red bat is 4 . 4 inches . this photo of the eastern red bat , very similar to the minor red bat ( photo by alan brady ) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ aquatic & marine mammals as many as 13 species of whales and dolphins have been noted to occur in hispaniolan waters . the most well - known among them are the humpback whale and the bottlenose dolphin . the caribbean monk seal formerly occurred along the hispaniolan coast . that species , monachus tropicalis , is now extinct , having likely become so soon after 1952 .\nfor much of the last third of the 20th century , the diversity of funnel - eared bats ( family natalidae ) was underestimated . although as many as four genera and 11 species were recognized by the mid 20th century , by the 1980s the family was traditionally listed as comprising a single genus of four or five species . in the past decade , the taxonomy of natalidae has been updated by the discovery of . . . [ show full abstract ]\nis a beautiful bat that emerges from its roosting cave about two hours after dark and hunts for large insects on the wing . it also may feed on some fruits .\n. . . this could increase air flow and decrease temperatures and lead to specialized bat species abandoning the roost . results of research in the caribbean indicate that 80 % of caves with fossilized remains of hot - cave bat communities are currently well ventilated and may no longer support ( a cave cannot create a microclimate ) a hot - cave microclimate even if the appropriate bat species were present in the chamber ( tejedor et al . 2004 ) . guano extraction may also affect the microclimate by reducing the warming effect of guano decay . . . .\nthe fossil bat assemblage of trouing jean paul ( tjp ) accumulated during an 1100 - year interval in the late holocene ( ~ 1690\u2013570 cal bp ) . the bat fossils were deposited before the arrival of europeans and africans to hispaniola , which occurred in 1492 ad ( which equals 458 cal bp [ 41 ] ) , although the fossils postdate the colonization of hispaniola by amerindians ( 6\u20135 ka [ 42 , 43 ] ) by about 4 ky . the late holocene montane bat fauna around tjp was likely sampled by two species of owl , tyto alba and t . glaucops . while some studies suggest fossil biases in predator - derived sites due to feeding preference of the predator [ 44 , 45 ] , we are confident that the bat diversity sampled by these owls is representative of the bat fauna of tjp because all species have been previously documented in the diets of tytonid owls and are well within the range of prey body mass taken by the owls [ 28 ] . the foraging radius of t . alba is up to 5 . 6 km but usually less [ 46 ] ; that of the smaller t . glaucops is unknown but unlikely to be greater than in t . alba .\nphormictopus sp . ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ a species in the phormictopus genus that is now in the description process . this is the same genus as that of the hispaniolan giant tarantula ( above , in the list ) ( photo by burke korol )\nmap of the caribbean ( a ) . major island groups highlighted as : greater antilles = light gray , lesser antilles = dark gray , and the bahamas = black . the inset indicates the island of hispaniola as reference including the locality of trouing jean paul ( b ) .\n) make up 94 % of the bat fossils identified from tjp . crania and dentaries were the most prevalent diagnostic elements in the fossil sample , but we also identified femora , humeri , pelves , and radii .\nleach ' s single - leaf bat ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ ( another name is the greater antillean long - tongued bat ) monophyllus redmani monophyllus redmani occurs in the southern bahamas , cuba , hispaniola , jamaica , and puerto rico . it is a cave - dwelling species . this , and some other small bats with long snouts , are generalists , feeding on soft fruit , pollen , nectar , and insects , depending on what is available . able to forage over a wide variety of habitats , this species may be found on mountain slopes where food sources vary during various seasons of the year . the wingspan of monophyllus redmani is 11 to 12 inches . its length ( of its body & head ) is 3 . 1 inches .\nsixty percent of the bats at tjp ( 9 of 15 ) are caribbean endemics and include extant phytophagous and insectivorous species . nine of the 15 tjp bat species roost exclusively in caves , of which seven use primarily hot caves (\nbrown flower bat ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ( also called eastern buffy flower bat ) ( species on hispaniola & puerto rico ) erophylla bombifrons erophylla bombifrons can form colonies of thousands . this , and some other small bats with long snouts , are generalists , feeding on soft fruit , pollen , nectar , and insects , depending on what is available . able to forage over a wide variety of habitats , this species may be found on mountain slopes where food sources vary during various seasons of the year .\nthe upper parts of this species are pale orange - brown or yellowish , with their under parts being yellow . the funnel - shaped ears are broad and cream colored , with black edges . the ears are angled forward . the species possesses very small eyes . their faces are triangular , with pale pink skin and a mustache over the sides of their mouth .\nthis bat is uncommon to frequent ( genoways et al . 2005 ) . the size of st . clair\u2019s colony appears to be very small , the only numeric estimate is that of goodwin ( 1970 ) who reports only about 50 bats of this species in st . clair .\nhabitat loss through erosion is a major concern . the ongoing collapse of the cave roof is likely to upset the thermal balance in this hot cave and result in natalus primus extinction . cave - dwelling cuban bat species conservation should be a cooperative effort promoting research and habitat management .\nto develop a complete list of the documented extant and fossil bat species from haiti , we performed three independent literature searches during august 2016 . the first consisted of an internet search in web of science across all years using the key words \u201chaiti\u201d and \u201chispaniola\u201d within the title ( ti ) or as a topic ( ts ) , and refined by \u201cmammalia . \u201d a second internet search was performed in google scholar using the key words \u201chaiti or hispaniola\u201d and \u201cbat or chiroptera . \u201d sources including extant or fossil species inventories and biogeographic or species accounts within the geographic scope of the caribbean were considered relevant in our search , which resulted in eight articles fitting these criteria (\n. . . such inferences based on known records suggest that in general , climate - related bat extinctions could lag for several thousands of years after the onset of new climatic conditions and sea levels . evidence from fossils already indicates such an extirpation / extinction lag for several cuban bats ( tejedor et al . , 2004 ; jim\u00e9nez v\u00e1zquez et al . , 2005 ; orihuela , 2012 ; this paper ) , and others in the rest of the west indies ( steadman et al . , 1984 ; eshelman and morgan , 1985 ; pregill et al . , 1988 ; turvey , 2009 ) . thus , we sup port the hypothesis that in combination , climate - caused loss of hot cave environments followed by human disturbance could have been a major cause for many antillean bat extirpations and extinctions . . . .\n. . . such inferences based on known records suggest that in general , climate - related bat extinctions could lag for several thousands of years after the onset of new climatic conditions and sea levels . evidence from fossils already indicates such an extirpation / extinction lag for several cuban bats ( tejedor et al . , 2004 ; jim\u00e9nez v\u00e1zquez et al . , 2005 ; orihuela , 2012 ; this paper ) , and others in the rest of the west indies ( steadman et al . , 1984 ; eshelman and morgan , 1985 ; pregill et al . , 1988 ; turvey , 2009 ) . thus , we sup port the hypothesis that in combination , climate - caused loss of hot cave environments followed by human disturbance could have been a major cause for many antillean bat extirpations and extinctions . . . .\na new species in the genus natalus is described on the basis of 71 specimens found in museum collections . the body pelage of the new bat is unique among natalids in having hair bases much darker than hair tips . this new species is also characterized by short tibiae , legs and feet notably hairy , a long braincase , and a shallow rostrum . this species is known from 16 localities in mexico , from . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthis species\u2019 only known roost site , st . clair cave , receives no form of official protection ( d\u00e1valos and eriksson 2003 ) , and is thus open to unregulated human visitation . in addition , the cave has resident populations of feral domestic cats that feed on bats and rats of the cave ( mcfarlane 1997 ) . besides , this is a\nhot cave\n, with poor ventilation and nearly constant high temperatures ( 26\u201340 c ) and humidity ( 90 % ; tejedor et al . 2005 ) , therefore , slight changes on external conditions might have major impacts on the bat populations .\n. . . human ecological impact may include other factors , but there is little direct evidence indicating the extent of pre - colum bian impact on many vertebrate insular species ( macphee and marx , 1997 ; steadman and jones , 2006 ; turvey , 2007turvey , , 2009 ) . nevertheless , human disturbance during a crit ical ' bottleneck - period ' could have accelerated or increased the chances of extirpation of weak populations ( steadman et al . , 1984 ; steadman and ol son , 1985 ; raup , 1991 ; tejedor et al . , 2004 tejedor et al . , , 2005b ) . such inferences based on known records suggest that in general , climate - related bat extinctions could lag for several thousands of years after the onset of new climatic conditions and sea levels . . . .\n. . . human ecological impact may include other factors , but there is little direct evidence indicating the extent of pre - co lum bian impact on many vertebrate insular species ( mac phee and marx , 1997 ; steadman and jones , 2006 ; turvey , 2007 turvey , , 2009 ) . nevertheless , human disturbance during a crit ical ' bottleneck - period ' could have accelerated or increased the chances of extirpation of weak populations ( steadman et al . , 1984 ; steadman and ol son , raup , 1991 ; tejedor et al . , 2004 tejedor et al . , , 2005b ) . such inferences based on known records suggest that in general , climate - related bat extinctions could lag for several thousands of years after the onset of new climatic conditions and sea levels . . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as critically endangered because its area of occupancy is probably less than 10 km\u00b2 , all individuals are in a single location ( an\nhot cave\n) , and there is continuing decline in the quality of the condition of this singular habitat . roost site receives no form of official protection ( d\u00e1valos and eriksson 2003 ) and it is open to unregulated human visitation . also , the cave has resident populations of feral domestic cats that feed on bats ( mcfarlane 1997 ) .\nthis species is known from a single cave in jamaica ( simmons 2005 ) , fossil remains came from another cave ( tejedor et al . 2005 ) .\napparently , this species requires large caves with high humidity to roost ( genoways et al . , 2005 ) . this species is known from a single cave ( tejedor et al . , 2005 ) . this species is moderately to highly gregarious with cave colonies estimated at fewer than 100 individuals ( tejedor et al . 2005 ) . it occurs in the same cave with natalus micropus ( hoyt and baker , 1980 ) , and other species . it occurs in a very dry and arid area with xerophytic vegetation . its biology is poorly known ( genoways et al . , 2005 ) . it is insectivorous ( nowak , 1999 ) . it probably forages in rather cluttered vegetation and over relatively small home ranges ( tejedor et al . 2005 ) .\nprotected areas are needed for this species ( particularly st clair cave ) , as well as regulated access to the cave to prevent excessive visitations .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\niucn 2003 \u2013 not evaluated ; not considered in iucn / ssc action plan ( 2001 ) .\nformerly included in stramineus , but see morgan ( 1989 b ) and morgan and czaplewski ( 2003 ) , although also see timm and genoways ( 2003 ) . does not include jamaicensis or primus ( a . tejedor , pers . comm . ) . see arroyo - cabrales et al . ( 1997 ) , who reviewed genetic variation and possible relationships of populations of major , jamaicensis , and stramineus ( although note that all were treated as stramineus ) . reviewed by goodwin ( 1959 b ) and hoyt and baker ( 1980 ) , but note that they included jamaicensis and primus in major .\nformerly included in n . stramineus , see timm and genoways ( 2003 ) . does not include jamaicensis or primus ( a . tejedor pers . comm . ) . see arroyo - cabrales et al . ( 1997 ) , who reviewed genetic variation and possible relationships of populations of n . major , n . jamaicensis , and n . stramineus ( although note that they were all treated as n . stramineus ) .\ntejedor , a . , arroyo - cabrales , j . & de grammont , p . c .\njustification : listed as near threatened because , although the species is still reasonably widely distributed , it is dependent upon a highly fragile and threatened habitat ( caves with very specific requirements ) . given the current threats to these caves , and the fact that they seem to be increasing in recent years , it could qualify as vulnerable under criterion a3c , due to a suspected population decline in the future - it is suspected that within the next three generations ( approximately 17 years ) , the population decline will be 20 - 25 % .\nthis species is known from hispaniola , including both dominican republic , and haiti ( simmons 2005 , tejedor 2011 ) .\nnatalus major is known from 30 localities of which at least 10 have been roost sites , nine of them caves and one a large hollow tree ( timm and genoways 2003 ) . the caves where n . major has been found range from small to very large , are always humid , and often contain hot chambers and bodies of water . the species roosts in loose groups of less than 10 to more than 50 individuals , occupying areas of low ceilings or cave walls ; roosting colonies may reach a few hundred individuals ( tejedor 2011 ) . it may be locally common in specific areas ( hoyt and baker 1980 ) .\nthis species is found throughout dry areas . natalus major has been found almost exclusively in caves , the exception being one report of nine individuals ( 2 females and 7 males ) found roosting inside a large hollow tree in semiarid lowlands in the northern dominican republic ( timm and genoways 2003 ) . its delicate wing membrane is subject to rapid dehydration ; thus , this species probably require caves with relative humidity for day time roosts . there is no reproductive information available ( hoyt and baker 1980 ) . it is insectivorous ( nowak 1999 ) . it probably forages in rather cluttered vegetation and over relatively small home ranges ( tejedor et al . 2004 ) .\nsome of the caves where the species is known to roost are subject to modification for touristic activities , as well as for mining exploitation in dominican republic ( inchaustegui , pers . comm . ) . other known threats come from access to caves for guano extraction , or mining of caves for material construction ( rodriguez - duran and turvey , pers . comm . ) . this kind of disturbance can affect the suitability of caves for bats .\nconsidering that this species is restricted to hispaniola , adequate population assessments should be undertaken to evaluate its potential conservation needs ( tejedor 2011 ) , as well as further awareness on the protection of caves .\nthis species was formerly included in n . stramineus , but is clearly distinct from that species ; see morgan ( 1989 ) , morgan and czaplewski ( 2003 ) and simmons ( 2005 ) .\njustification : this species is listed as vulnerable because it is only known from a single cave ( and therefore , one location ) , with an area of occupancy ( aoo ) under 20 km 2 , and with a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat that might result in the taxon becoming critically endangered or extinct in a very short time .\nrediscovered in 1992 , this species was previously thought to be extinct . a recent subpopulation of this species is known from one cave on the western tip of cuba ( tejedor et al . 2004 , mancina 2012 ) , but fossils occur at several sites on cuba and the isla de pinos ( silva taboada 1979 ) .\nthis species is known from a single cave , probably including a few thousand individuals ( tejedor et al . 2005 ) . fossil remains suggest a former wider distribution throughout cuba and isla de pinos ( silva - taboada 1979 ) , the bahamas and cayman islands ( tejedor 2011 ) .\nthis species roosts in caves . it is known from a single cave ( tejedor et al . 2005 ) . this species is moderately to highly gregarious with cave colonies estimated at fewer than 100 individuals ( tejedor et al . 2005 ) . copulation in n . primus has been observed to take place in april , and pregnant females of this species have been captured in may ( tejedor et al . 2004 ) . it has been found to feed mostly on moths , crickets and beetles , and less frequently on other insect orders : hymenoptera ( formicidae ) , neuroptera , diptera , homoptera and hemiptera ( tejedor et al . 2004 ) .\nhabitat loss and human intrusion in the cave are the main threats ( tejedor et al . 2004 , mancina 2012 ) . in addition the ongoing collapse of the roof of the cave can upset the thermal balance in this hot cave . climatic changes could also interrupt the thermal cave balance and result in extinction of this species ( l . d\u00e1valos pers . comm . )\nprotecting the cave is the most important priority , this must include limitation of access by non - authorized personnel ( tejedor et al . 2004 , mancina 2012 ) .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nthe tasmanian devil is endemic to australia . although this species is called tiger ( named for its stripes ) and wolf ( due to its canid - like appearance ) , it is not a member of the cat or wolf family . it is a member of the marsupial family . other members of this family include kangaroos and koala bears .\nthe last known tasmanian tiger died in a zoo in hobart , tasmania in 1936 , but there have been hundreds of unconfirmed sightings , and a reserve has been set up in southwestern tasmania in the hopes that possible surviving individuals can have adequate habitat .\nlist of all endangered animals . list of all endangered plants . list of all endangered species ( animals & plants ) . by species group ( mammal , birds , etc ) . . . united states endangered species list . browse by country , island , us state . . . search for an endangered species profile .\nare you inspired by endangered animals ? check out our games and coloring pages ! more to come soon .\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nbiokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . loss of even one hot cave can be catastrophic for individual populations . for example , natalus primus , known only from subfossils until 1992 , persists as a single extant population dependent on one roost near the shore in southwestern cuba ( tejedor et al . 2004 ) . flooding of low - lying caves by rising seas is therefore a third mechanism of climatedriven extinction , after habitat change and reduced island area ( morgan 2001 ) . . . .\n. . . una de ellas fue reconocida y categorizada por la uicn como una de las m\u00e1s amenazadas , coloc\u00e1ndola en la categor\u00eda de especie en peligro cr\u00edtico de extinci\u00f3n ( mancina 2012 ) . para este murci\u00e9lago se conoce una sola poblaci\u00f3n existente en una \u00fanica cueva en cuba ( tejedor et al . 2004 ) , ubicada dentro del parque nacional guanahacabibes en el extremo m\u00e1s occidental del pa\u00eds . este murci\u00e9lago es conocido con el nombre com\u00fan de murci\u00e9lago grande de orejas de embudo ( natalus primus anthony , 1919 ) y son pocos los trabajos que han abordado aspectos relacionados con su historia natural . . . .\n. . . en estas dos visitas se han capturado 14 individuos de n . primus , empleando redes entomol\u00f3gicas y redes de niebla , colocadas muy cercanas a las paredes de la cueva a una altura inferior a 1 m . a los individuos capturados se les tomaron diferentes variables morfol\u00f3gicas , tales como la longitud del antebrazo y la masa corporal , las cuales fueron coincidentes con las descritas previamente para la especie ( tejedor et al . 2004 ) . los animales fueron capturados en las zonas m\u00e1s internas de la cueva , en las proximidades de la galer\u00eda de calor . . . .\n. . . en mayo de 1992 tres hembras se encontraron gestantes de un s\u00f3lo embri\u00f3n . el an\u00e1lisis estomacal de algunos individuos revel\u00f3 que los \u00f3rdenes de insectos m\u00e1s frecuentes en la dieta fueron lepidoptera , orthoptera y coleoptera ( tejedor et al . , 2004 ) . en el a\u00f1o 1993 un censo visual de la poblaci\u00f3n de cueva la barca estim\u00f3 la poblaci\u00f3n en unos pocos miles de individuos ( tejedor et al . , 2004 ) . . . .\n. . . el an\u00e1lisis estomacal de algunos individuos revel\u00f3 que los \u00f3rdenes de insectos m\u00e1s frecuentes en la dieta fueron lepidoptera , orthoptera y coleoptera ( tejedor et al . , 2004 ) . en el a\u00f1o 1993 un censo visual de la poblaci\u00f3n de cueva la barca estim\u00f3 la poblaci\u00f3n en unos pocos miles de individuos ( tejedor et al . , 2004 ) . posteriores visitas confirman la existencia de esta poblaci\u00f3n aunque no se han vuelto a hacer una estimaci\u00f3n del n\u00famero de individuos . . . .\n. . . nota : 9 , 1 cavernas e cavidades naturais desempenham um papel fundamental para a prote\u00e7\u00e3o de popula\u00e7\u00f5es de morcegos ( e . g . trajano 1985 trajano , 1995 altringham 1996 ; arita & vargas 1995 ; arita 1996 ; bredt et al . 1999 ; tejedor et al . 2004 ) . at\u00e9 recentemente a legisla\u00e7\u00e3o brasileira referente \u00e0 prote\u00e7\u00e3o de cavernas baseava - se no decreto n\u00b0 99556 , de 1 o de outubro de 1990 , que determinava em seu par\u00e1grafo primeiro a necessidade de preserva\u00e7\u00e3o e conserva\u00e7\u00e3o das cavidades naturais como parte do patrim\u00f4nio nacional , e uso somente dentro de condi\u00e7\u00f5es que assegurassem sua integridade f\u00edsica e a manuten\u00e7\u00e3o do respectivo equil\u00edbrio ecol\u00f3gico . . . .\ndurante d\u00e9cadas , la taxonom\u00eda del g\u00e9nero natalus en las antillas mayores ha sido controvertida . a pesar de que tres taxa han sido descritos para natalus ( sensu stricto ) en las antillas mayores , la controversia se ha concentrado en la validez de natalus major ( supuestamente distribuida en cuba , la espa\u00f1ola y jamaica ) como especie distinta de natalus stramineus . la forma cubana de natalus , . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe type locality of natalus stramineus ( chiroptera : natalidae ) : implications for the taxonomy and b . . .\nthe name natalus stramineus has been historically applied to populations of the genus natalus from virtually the entire neotropics . the geographic origin of the holotype of n . stramineus , however , has never been known with certainty , confounding discussions concerning the species limits , nomenclature , and biogeography of this genus . the type locality of n . stramineus was assumed to be brazil . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe bats within the genus natalus have had a complex taxonomic history due to its morphological conservatism . the taxonomy of natalidae has been recently updated by the discovery and rediscovery of live species and fossils , and on the basis of new morphological and molecular evidence .\nthese bats have a diet consisting largely of moths , crickets , and beetles . in 1992 , the first living population was discovered in a cave in cueva la barca . caribbean hurricanes early in the evolutionary history of natalids may account for specialized cave roosting .\nnatalus primus is considered vulnerable and only inhabits one cave in cueva la barca on isla de la juventud island and province . the population is abundant in that single cave , but this species is likely to go extinct due to its limited dispersal range , human disturbance and loss of habitat . it is estimated that there are only 100 mature individuals .\nthis species is known to have become extirpated throughout most of cuba suggesting a population decline that may have continued until the present . the survival of cuban bats is threatened by forest destruction and cave modification .\nnatalus was first reported as existing in jamaica in 1951 by koopman and williams based on a partial mandible collected by h . e . anthony during 1919\u20131920 . they referred to the species as n . major . the species was first described scientifically in 1959 by george gilbert goodwin as natulus major jamaicensis . the type was the skin and skull of a male collected from st . clair cave , st . catherine parish , jamaica by c . b . lewis on march 5 , 1954 .\ngoodwin described n . major jamaicanis as being distinguishable from the\ntypical\nn . major by its\nhigher , shorter , and more globular braincase , more slender , longer , and flatter rostrum , the sides of which are concave instead of inflated and convex as in major , and by the noticeably narrower inter - orbital space\n.\nthe iucn has categorized the species as critically endangered because\nits extent of occurrence is less than 100 km\u00b2 , all individuals are in a single location , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat\n.\n, are confined to the neotropics . they are distributed from sonora and nuevo leon , mexico , through central america to eastern brazil . they can be found on the yucatan peninsula . their distribution is patchy from honduras to panama . the species has also been seen in the lesser antilles , hispaniola , and jamaica .\nthe tail is long and completely enclosed in the interfemoral membrane . the tail is longer than the head and body length . this characteristic is unique to\n. the membrane is pale brown in color , with the edge fringed with short hair . the legs , tail , and arm bones are pink , contrasting with the brown membrane . the thumb is short and is almost enveloped in the antebrachial membrane , and the third phalanx of the third finger remains cartilaginous even in the adult . the wings are long and narrow .\nthe dental formula is 2 / 3 1 / 1 3 / 3 3 / 3 = 38 .\nis reported to breed during the dry season . in mexico and central america , pregnant females have been found from january through july , and gestation is thought to last 8 to 10 months . females are thought to be monoestrus , and to have slow development of the fetus . a single offspring is produced annually , weighing almost half of the adult mass , or about 2 . 1 g .\nduring the breeding season , the sexes apparently segregate , so that males and females roost separately .\nbreeding season the exact time of breeding has not been reported , but young are born at the end of the dry season .\ninformation on parental care of this species is not available . however , in other similar bats , females care for the young in the maternity roost , providing them with milk and grooming . mothers are able to locate their own young among the many little bats present . since males roost separately from females during rearing of the offspring , it is certain that males do not play a role in parental care .\ninformation on the longevity of this species is not available . however , in general , microchiroptera are long - lived animals . some species of similar small size are known to live as many as 20 years .\nthis species generally roosts in deep , moist caves . these bats are typically found in groups of up to 300 bats in one colony . while roosting in the caves , the individuals are spaced out widely in the dark caverns . most flight occurs at understory level , with great speed and agility in dipping , twisting , and dodging the vegetation . these bats are most active within 2 hours after sunset . as the evening progresses , the bats may use nighttime refugia which differ from their normal daily roosting location . northern populations will sometimes migrate , causing colony size to vary considerably .\nthese bats find their prey through echolocation . the means of communication used with conspecifics has not been detailed in the literature , however , it is likely that\nis like other small microchiroptera with regard to communication . most bats use vocal signals when communicating with one another . some tactile communication occurs in the roost , especially between mothers and their offspring . scent cues are probably used , as evidenced by the ability of a mother to distinguish her offspring from amid the hundreds of young bats in a maternity roost .\nno information on predation on this species was found . because these animals fly and don ' t land in places easily accessible to many predators , it is likely that they are not a significant food source for predator populations . some owls might take these bats in flight . other predators would have to either find them in their roost , or catch them going into or coming out of the roost .\ntom siwarski ( author ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point , chris yahnke ( editor , instructor ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nused loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies . more specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits ( a continuous , modular society ) - as in clonal organisms .\nthe process by which an animal locates itself with respect to other animals and objects by emitting sound waves and sensing the pattern of the reflected sound waves .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\nto cite this page : siwarski , t . 2004 .\nnatalus stramineus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nin the book , there are some superb photographs of the nature of the dominican republic . in the following list , pages in that book with photos of particular species are noted with a\nnot included in the following list , there are a number of photographs of plants . also , there ' s an interesting essay regarding the many mushrooms that occur on the island .\nis the only surviving native rodent on hispaniola . at least two larger - bodied species of\n) also lived on hispaniola until humans came into the caribbean region , and may have survived until european arrival in the 1500s , but both of those species are now extinct .\nwas described in 1836 by the famous french naturalist georges cuvier , the first scientist to demonstrate that extinction was a real process .\nwas very good to eat . already , by the early 19th century , it had become very rare - making it an early species to be recognized as being in danger of extinction .\nby the early 20th century , the species was thought to be possibly extinct , until its rediscovery in the samana bay region of the dominican republic in 1923 , by dr . w . l . abbott , a collector for the smithsonian institution .\nit takes 2 years to reach sexual maturity , and birth is given to only one or two young at a time .\nthe species does have a wide diet that includes leaves , shoots , bark , and roots . it lives in either tree cavities or in limstone crevices .\nis one of the most unusual and ancient mammals on earth . the species is thought to resemble ancient mammals that existed toward the end of the age of dinosaurs , over 65 million years ago .\nis one of the only two remaining endemic terrestrial mammal species on hispaniola . the other is the\nthe species was described to science in 1833 . still , even today , knowledge of its ecology and biology is fairly limited due to the animal ' s secretive nocturnal habits .\nis due to the research done by dr . jose ottenwalder in the 1970s and 1980s .\nis that it is one of the few mammals that can secrete a toxic saliva in a manner similar to snakes . the ability to do so is from a mandibular gland along a grooved lower incisor ."]}
{"id": 1165, "summary": [{"text": "gogoselachus ( \" shark from the gogo formation \" ) is an extinct genus of cartilaginous fish known from the late devonian of australia .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it is one of the earliest well-preserved devonian chondrichthyans ( 20 million years older than cladoselache ) , as much more of the fish than just teeth and scales were preserved .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "this rare preservation reveals some unique discoveries about the evolution of the cartilage that was inside later cartilaginous fish such as sharks , rays , and chimaeras . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "gogoselachus", "paragraphs": ["what gogoselachus might have looked like , as restored from the scant fossil remains .\ngogoselachus lynnbeazleyae : the first recorded shark from the late devonian gogo formation of western australia .\nthe fossil , named gogoselachus lynnbeazleyae , is the first shark to be found in this area .\nright scapulocoracoid wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013007 of gogoselachus lynbeazleyae , . . . | download scientific diagram\nsciency thoughts : gogoselachus lynnbeazleyae : the first recorded shark from the late devonian gogo formation of western australia .\nteeth of gogoselachus are distinctive with many small cusps . the image far right is a ct - scanned tooth showing internal structure .\ngogoselachus was clearly a fast - swimming predator that hunted other fishes using its jagged teeth to snare prey . gogoselachus lived on an ancient reef that teemed with many kinds of large predatory placoderm fishes , so had to hold its own in this piscine rat race .\ngogoselachus lynnbeazleyae discovered by professor john long at the gogo fossil site , australia . testing shows that the three - dimensional remnant s\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nhowever , when the authors recently examined the microstructure of the cartilage of gogoselachus using micro ct scanning , they discovered the matrix holding the cartilage together in the jaw contained bone cells .\nstructure of gogoselachus lynbeazleyae endoskeleton . ( a\u2013c ) gogoselachus calcified cartilage ( a ) sem showing tessellate layout ( b , c ) horizontal section through tissue ( d ) transverse ct scan of right meckel ' s cartilage . scale bar is 0 . 1 mm in ( c ) . abbreviations : cp , cell processes ; l , lacunae . long et al . ( 2015 ) .\npublishing their findings in the journal plos one , scientists said the fossil of gogoselachus lynbeazleyae dates to the late devonian period , around 380 million years ago , and shows the evolutionary transition from bones to cartilage .\nconcluding , the authors said the shark is an\nexceptionally preserved\nfossil that\nsuggests gogoselachus represents a transitional step toward the tessellated prismatic calcified cartilage which is today recognised as the main diagnostic character of the chondrichthyes\n.\nbut this idea has just been challenged due to the discovery , announced today in the journal plos one , of a 380 - million - year - old fossil shark from western australia named gogoselachus lynbeazleyae that shows remnant bone cells present in its cartilaginous skeleton .\nthe specimen described by long et al . comprises a set of disarticulated but clearly associated remains comprising both left and right meckel ' s cartilages , nasal cartilage , ceratohyal , hyomandibula , basibranchial cartilage , both scapulocoracoids , and associated teeth and scales . this is described as gogoselachus lynbeazleyae , where \u2018 gogoselachus \u2019 means gogo - shark and \u2018 lynbeazleyae \u2019 honours lyn beazley of the university of western australia for her \u2018contribution to scientific progress in western australia\u2019 . the specimen is thought to be the first known acid - prepared mineralized devonian shark remains .\ngogoselachus lynbeazleyae is an exceptionally preserved acid - prepared fossil chondrichthyan from the late gogo formation devonian of australia . its lower jaws have an expanded cotylus and small mandibular knob , and the slender scapulocoracoid has just 2 facets for radial articulations . the teeth have well - developed labial cusplets and their structure is intermediate between the ctenacanthiform and symmoriiform condition . the distinctive calcified cartilage forming the endoskeleton has multiple layers of nonprismatic subpolygonal tesserae separated by a cellular matrix . this suggests gogoselachus represents a transitional step toward the tessellated prismatic calcified cartilage which is today recognized as the main diagnostic character of the chondrichthyes .\ngogoselachus cartilage showing the separate units called tesserae making the up the lower jaw ( left ) , and a thin section showing bone cells ( red line ) inside the matrix which binds the tesserae together ( right ) . image on the left is 0 . 5mm across , image on right is about 0 . 1mm across .\ngogoselachus lynbeazelyae gen . et sp . nov . long , burrow , ginter , maisey , trinajstic , coates , young , senden urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : ef04ad3e - 865d - 4fa5 - a6ff - f4ed6359fd26 ; urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 2ed167f8 - 9506 - 4d43 - b08e - 237291937b11\npreparation of gogoselachus lynbeazleyae from the gogo formation , western australia . ( a ) meckel ' s cartilage as exposed on collection , before acetic acid etching . ( b ) specimen during early acid preparation . ( c ) meckel ' s cartilages after full preparation , shown articulated in dorsal view . long et al . ( 2015 ) .\n( a\u2013c ) gogoselachus calcified cartilage ( a ) sem wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013031 showing tessellate layout ( b , c ) horizontal section through tissue wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013032 ( d ) transverse ct scan of right meckel ' s cartilage . scale bar = 0 . 1 mm in ( c ) . abbreviations : cp , cell processes ; l , lacunae .\nfig 4 . right scapulocoracoid wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013007 of gogoselachus lynbeazleyae , gogo formation , western australia . ( a ) lateral ( b ) posterior and ( c ) medial views , with close up of articulatory area for pectoral fin in e , f . d , articulation area for pectoral fin articulation on left scapulocoracoid for comparison . abbreviations as for fig 3 .\nthe picture above shows the specimen ( b ) during early acid bath preparation , whilst ( c ) shows the meckelian cartilage once it has been removed from the surrounding rock . the species has been named gogoselachus lynbeazleyae . the genus nomenclature comes from the name of the geological formation and the greek \u201cselachos\u201d which means shark . the trivial name honours neuroscientist professor lyn beazley ( university of western australia ) , in acknowledgement of her role as an ambassador for science .\nhere we present new data from the first well - preserved chondrichthyan fossil from the early late devonian ( ca . 380\u2013384 mya ) gogo formation l\u00e4gerstatte of western australia . the specimen is the first devonian shark body fossil to be acid - prepared , revealing the endoskeletal elements as three - dimensional undistorted units : meckel\u2019s cartilages , nasal , ceratohyal , basibranchial and possible epibranchial cartilages , plus left and right scapulocoracoids , as well as teeth and scales . this unique specimen is assigned to gogoselachus lynnbeazleyae n . gen . n . sp .\ngogoselachus lynbeazleyae is represented by a set of associated elements which were probably held together by ligaments and muscular tissue when the concretion formed around them . they include both left and right meckel ' s cartilages , nasal cartilage , ceratohyal , hyomandibula , basibranchial cartilage , both scapulocoracoids , as well as associated teeth and scales . fig 1 shows the specimen as it was found in the field ( fig 1a ) , after a week in acetic acid ( fig 1b ) , and after the lower jaws had been freed and reassembled into life position ( fig 1c ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : plos one publisher : san francisco , ca : public library of science . isbn / issn : 1932 - 6203 oclc : 969745500\npublic library of science . ; national institutes of health ( u . s . ) . pubmed central .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\n# national institutes of health ( u . s . ) . pubmed central .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\nlong ja , burrow cj , ginter m , maisey jg , trinajstic km , et al . ( 2015 )\ncorrection : first shark from the late devonian ( frasnian ) gogo formation , western australia sheds new light on the development of tessellated calcified cartilage . plos one 10 ( 6 ) : e0131502 .\nthe meckel\u2019s cartilages show a jaw articulation surface dominated by an expansive cotylus , and a small mandibular knob , an unusual condition for chondrichthyans . the scapulocoracoid of the new specimen shows evidence of two pectoral fin basal articulation facets , differing from the standard condition for early gnathostomes which have either one or three articulations . the tooth structure is intermediate between the \u2018primitive\u2019 ctenacanthiform and symmoriiform condition , and more derived forms with a euselachian - type base . of special interest is the highly distinctive type of calcified cartilage forming the endoskeleton , comprising multiple layers of nonprismatic subpolygonal tesserae separated by a cellular matrix , interpreted as a transitional step toward the tessellated prismatic calcified cartilage that is recognized as the main diagnostic character of the chondrichthyans .\ncitation : long ja , burrow cj , ginter m , maisey jg , trinajstic km , coates mi , et al . ( 2015 ) first shark from the late devonian ( frasnian ) gogo formation , western australia sheds new light on the development of tessellated calcified cartilage . plos one 10 ( 5 ) : e0126066 . urltoken\nacademic editor : andrew a . farke , raymond m . alf museum of paleontology , united states\ncopyright : \u00a9 2015 long et al . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited\nfunding : this work was supported by grants from the australian research council dp 0772138 awarded to gcy and jal for travel and scanning of specimens at the anu ; and dp1092870 awarded to kmt for travel to collaborate . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nthe fossils occur inside limestone concretions which formed around whole fish or parts of carcasses that fell into the deep inter - reef basins between the reef fronts . rapid calcitic concretion formation prevented compaction or distortion from tectonic or gravity - induced sedimentary loading , thus retaining the original shape of the bones and delicate perichondrally calcified cartilages [ 34 ] . geochemical studies indicate that carcasses fell through a euxinic layer within the basin , enabling rare rapid preservation of soft tissue in anoxic benthic conditions [ 43 ] .\n( a ) meckel ' s cartilage as exposed on collection , before acetic acid etching . ( b ) specimen during early acid preparation . ( c ) meckel ' s cartilages wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013001 ( left ) , wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013002 ( right ) after full preparation , shown articulated in dorsal view .\nthe field work was done in australia with permission of the land owners and leaseholders . there are no regulations pertaining to collecting of fossils in this region of australia apart from land owner permission as stated under the lands administration act , as relevant to pastoral leaseholders : see urltoken .\nthe specimen is registered in the collections of the western australian museum as wam 09 . 6 . 145 , repository at 69 kew st , welshpool , western australia .\nthe specimen was acid prepared at museum victoria , melbourne by jal using 10 % acetic acid , with cartilage elements strengthened by mowital b30 in ethanol . the specimen and residues were washed in water to neutralize the acidity , then picked under a binocular microscope to retrieve isolated scales and teeth .\nscanning electron micrographs of teeth , scales and cartilage structure were taken using a jeol - 6400 at the centre for microscopy , university of queensland ( scales ) , and using other sems at university of warsaw , poland ( teeth images ) , and the los angeles county museum of natural history , california ( cartilage ) . thin section images were taken using an olympus bx - 50 microscope with dp12 imaging system .\ndigital transverse sections of the cartilages were studied through composite serial reconstruction from 10\u03bc slices by the ultrafine ct scanner in the dept of applied mathematics , anu , and studied using drishti 2 . 4 software developed by that department ( and now publically available as freeware ) .\nthe electronic edition of this article conforms to the requirements of the amended international code of zoological nomenclature , and hence the new names contained herein are available under that code from the electronic edition of this article . this published work and the nomenclatural acts it contains have been registered in zoobank , the online registration system for the iczn . the zoobank lsids ( life science identifiers ) can be resolved and the associated information viewed through any standard web browser by appending the lsid to the prefix\nurltoken\n. the lsid for this publication is : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 3563562e - 41e0 - 4579 - 8645 - 9c13f7880019 . the electronic edition of this work was published in a journal with an issn , and has been archived and is available from the following digital repositories : pubmed central , lockss .\nqm , queensland museum , po box 3300 , south brisbane bc , queensland 4101 .\nwam , western australian museum fossil collection ; 49 kew st , welshpool , wa , 6106 .\ngeneric name for the gogo formation and greek \u2018 selachos \u2019 , shark . species name acknowledging professor lyn beazley , of the university of western australia , for her contribution to scientific progress in western australia .\n? deihim mansureae\ndubious specimen aeu 236\nginter et al . ( 2002 ; plate 4 , figures j\u2013k ) [ 45 ] .\nshark\nlong & trinajstic ( 2010 ; p . 263 , figure 2 ) [ 34 ]\ncirca 60 km se of fitzroy crossing , north western australia , near the stromatoporoid camp locality , collected by jal , july 7th , 2005 .\na chondrichthyan with cladodont type teeth characterised by the following combination of features : a crown with a prominent median cusp rounded in cross - section , two smaller lateral cusps , and , in asymmetrical forms , a single intermediate lateral cusplet situated between the median cusp and the mesial lateral cusp ; a row of slender accessory labial cusplets at the crown - base interface ; a euselachian type base with a deep aboral depression and a vague orolingual hump . meckel\u2019s cartilage with wide , transverse articular cotylus and small mandibular knob ; ceratohyal with a deep anterior - facing pit towards the posterior of the outer surface ; elongate basibranchial with straight edges ; scapulocoracoid with two diazonal nerve foramina and two pectoral fin basal articulation facets .\nthe meckel\u2019s cartilages ( figs 1a\u20131c ; 2a , 2b and 2g ) are c . 5 cm long , deep posteriorly , with a well - developed continuous dental sulcus for the tooth rows ( sul ) , bordered laterally by a raised straight rim . the outer face of the cartilage has a ventral ridge ( fig 1a , vr ) defining a depressed lateral surface for the insertion of the adductor mandibulae musculature . the lower jaw articulatory surface has a broad transverse cotylus ( fig 2g , cot ) flanked medially by a small mandibular knob ( m . kb ) . both the cotylus and the mandibular process are on the same transverse plane . posterior to the cotylus is a thin vertical lamina ( fig 2a and 2c , re . fl ) , the sustentaculum sensu gegenbaur [ 46 ] a structure that has been recently referred to as the retroarticular flange [ 22 ] . the anterior region of the meckel\u2019s cartilage has a well - defined oval symphysial attachment area ( fig 2b , sym ) with a separate subrectangular muscle attachment area posteroventral to the symphysis ( ma ) .\n( a\u2013c ) left meckel\u2019s cartilage wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013001 , medial , lateral and dorsal views . ( d , e ) ceratohyal wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013005 , lateral and dorsal views . ( f ) nasal cartilage wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013006 , anterior vie w ? . ( g ) ? epibranchial cartilage wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013004 . ( h ) basibranchial cartilage wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013003 . abbreviations : cot , cotylus ; fl . ch , flange on ceratohyal ; fo . ch , fossa on ceratohyal ; ma , muscle attachment area ; m . kb , mandibular knob ; re . fl , retroarticular flange ; sul , sulcus ; sym , symphyseal pit ; vr , ventral ridge .\nthe ceratohyal ( fig 2c and 2d ) conforms to the generalized chondrichthyan shape [ 44 , 46 ] , having an expanded posterior blade and narrow , slightly rotated anterior region . it is about three - quarters the length of the meckel\u2019s cartilage , and has a large fossa ( fo . ch ) facing anteriorly at its posterior extremity , rimmed by an elevated flange ( fl . ch ) . the anterior end of the ceratohyal is slightly expanded , with two separate , slightly rugose areas on the medial surface . it bears no distinctive grooves or foramina .\na delicate , triangular double - lamina of twisted cartilage resembles a nasal cartilage ( fig 2f ) . it correlates closely to the size and shape of other primitive chondrichthyan nasal cartilages or parts of the nasal capsule [ 14 ] . a shorter , tubular cartilage preserved above the meckel\u2019s cartilages is one of the gill arches ( fig 2e ) , most likely epibranchial 1 by comparison with ozarcus [ 21 ] . a single elongate and transversely concave cartilage plate probably represents the mineralized surface of a basibranchial cartilage ( fig 2h ) . it has a straight posterior margin with dorsally projecting corners ; the anterior end of the unit is m - shaped . midway along , its convex surface is rough with numerous small pores .\nthe scapulocoracoid ( figs 3 and 4 ) is 8 . 0 cm high , with an elongate , flat , dorsally tapering scapular region and a deeply concave coracoid region ventral to a thickened posterior ridge at the lateral inflection . the scapular blade has a weak posterolateral process ( pla ) . muscle attachment scars are interpreted as follows : the supinator muscle anteriorly on the lateral surface of the scapula ( sup ) ; the mediolateral pectoral retractor muscles near the anterolateral inflection ( flr ) ; the coracobranchialis muscles ( cobr ) above the inflection ridge ; the coracohyoideus muscles ( cohy ) ventrally ; and the pectoral depressor muscle sheet ( pdm ) on the posterolateral surface of the coracoid ( fig 3a and 3b ) . a ridge ( ri ) along the posterior angle of the ventrolateral inflection shows remnants of areas with raised borders enclosing surfaces presumed to be articulation facets for the pectoral fin basal cartilages . the small central facet is completely preserved on the left side ( fig 3b and 3d , pf . ar2 ) , but the lateral and medial surfaces of the ridge have broken off . the medial area shows remnants of a rim shared with the central area , but the lateral area is missing .\nthe left scapulocoracoid is slightly damaged in the area of the fin articulation but clearly shows two facets for fin radial articulations ( fig 3d and 3e ) . this interpretation is supported by features preserved in the right scapulocoracoid which has a broad triangular facet for the mesial pectoral fin radial attachment ( fig 4b and 4e , pf . ar1 ) clearly visible , as well as a slightly smaller lateral pectoral fin radial facet ( pf . ar2 ) . restorations combining data from both sides show that there was only two fin radial articulations ( fig 3e , fig 4f ) .\n( a ) posterior ( b ) medial and ( c ) lateral views . d , close up of posterior face showing articulation area for pectoral fin , e . , interpretation of same area . f , close up of central lateral surface showing diazonal foramen ( df ) . abbreviations : af , articulation facets ; artc , articular crest ; br , break in bone ; cobr , coracobrachialis muscle attachment area ; cohy , coracohyoideus muscle attachment area ; cp , coracoid plate ; df , diazonal foramina ; muscle attachment areas ; flr , mediolateral pectoral retractor muscle attachment area ; pdm , pectoral depressor muscle attachment area ; pla , posterolateral process ; pf . ar1 , 2 , pectoral fin articulation areas 1 and 2 ; pla , posterolateral angle ; pva , posteroventral angle ; ri , ridge ; sup , supinator attachment area .\n( a ) lateral ( b ) posterior and ( c ) medial views , with close up of articulatory area for pectoral fin in e , f . d , articulation area for pectoral fin articulation on left scapulocoracoid for comparison . abbreviations as for fig 3 .\nthe dentition is represented by some 82 individual cladodont - type teeth which show limited morphological variation ; more than half are relatively large ( width at the base\u2013crown junction 1 . 5\u20132 mm ; figs 5a\u20135e ; 6a\u20136f and 6j\u20136t ) with the others smaller ( all about 1 mm wide ; fig 6g\u20136i ) . two types of crowns , symmetrical and asymmetrical , were observed among the larger teeth . symmetrical crowns ( fig 6d\u20136f and 6n\u20136t ) have a prominent median cusp , standing upright ( in labial view ) or with a slight distal inclination , and only two divergent lateral cusps whose height usually exceeds one - third of the height of the median cusp . no intermediate cusplets are present . in asymmetrical crowns ( figs 5a\u20135d ; 6a\u20136c , 6j\u20136m ) the median cusp is considerably inclined distally ( up to 20 degrees ) , the distal lateral cusp is inclined distally at 45 degrees and the mesial lateral cusp is only slightly inclined mesially . between the median and mesial cusps there is a small intermediate cusplet . the asymmetrical teeth are wider ( mesio - distally ) than the symmetrical ones . the median cusp is up to 2 . 5 mm in height in symmetrical teeth ; in asymmetrical teeth it is relatively shorter and thicker . in all types of teeth it is rounded in cross section , gently curved lingually , but non - sigmoidal . the labial face is ornamented with two to three coarse cristae almost reaching the tip ; the cristae may bifurcate at the basal part . the lingual face is almost smooth , only one or two indistinct cristae extend along the lateral margins . in asymmetrical specimens they are visible near the mesial margin ( fig 6c and 6j ) . the lingual and labial faces are separated with a lateral carina . the shape and ornamentation of the lateral cusps is similar to that of the median cusp .\nlarge tooth wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013009 in ( a ) lingual , ( b ) labial , ( c ) oral ( d ) aboral views , in natural light . ( e ) sem of tooth wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013010 , naturally broken near the median surface . ( f , g ) ct - scans of tooth wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013011 , showing layout of vascular canals , in basal and lingual - lateral views . abbreviations : l - lcl , labio - lingual canals ; ctcl , central canal ; blcl , basolabial canals ; ccl , coronal canals .\n( a\u2013c ) wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013012 in oral , labial , and lingual views . ( d\u2013f ) wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013013 in labial , basal , and oblique lateral views . ( g\u2013h ) small tooth , wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013014 , in lingual , and oral views . ( i ) tooth of intermediate size , wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013015 , in labial view . ( j\u2013m ) wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013016 in lingual , labial , oral and distal views . ( n\u2013p ) wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013017 in oral , labial , and lingual views . ( q\u2013t ) wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013018 in labial , lingual , oral , and lateral views .\nat the crown\u2013base interface , on the labial side of all the teeth , is a row of several accessory cusplets . they display various sizes and directions , but generally are slender , sharp and directed orally . in the asymmetrical specimens the largest may exceed the size of the intermediate cusplet . the labial accessory cusplets are vulnerable to abrasion and in most cases they are broken , leaving only the basal parts preserved .\ntooth bases of larger teeth are deep , elongated mesio - distally , from elliptical to broadly hexagonal , to trapezoidal in outline , with a lingual extension . a deep depression in the central / labial area of the aboral side is framed by the well developed , labially convex basolabial rim . no clear interlocking devices ( buttons or basolabial projections ) are present , save for a slight orolingual hump , observed in certain , especially small , specimens . the aboral depression and the basolabial rim might have helped in strengthening the connection between the teeth in a tooth file . the base surface , save for the immediate vicinity of the crown on the oral side and the aboral - lingual area , is perforated by numerous canal openings . the largest foramina occur on the orolingual rim and in the aboral depression .\nthe ct - scans and broken surfaces reveal a network of basal nutritive canals ( fig 5e\u20135g ) . in the lingual extension of the base there are mainly labio - lingual canals which , in most cases , extend from the orolingual rim to the lingual wall of the aboral depression . these major canals are interconnected by narrower tubes . in the area of the depression ( i . e . below the crown ; called here central canals ) , the directions change to mainly mesio - distal and vertical . and finally , the canals in the basolabial rim are mainly vertical . from the network of central canals , single vascular canals ( coronal canals ) extend into the basal parts of the median and lateral cusps .\nthe smaller teeth ( fig 6g\u20136i ) differ from the larger ones not only by the overall size , but also in proportions between the base and crown\u2014in the smaller teeth , in most cases , the base is relatively broader ( see especially fig 6i ) . in contrast to the excellent preservation of many of the larger teeth , most of the recovered smaller teeth have broken cusps . as the teeth were not found in situ , but dispersed around the jaw cartilages , we can only speculate in reconstructing the dentition . it is most probable that the narrow , symmetrical teeth were on the anterior part of the jaw , and the broader , asymmetrical forms were in the lateral tooth families . the smaller teeth are probably juvenile ones , replaced by larger forms , but preserved on the outer side of jaw , as is common among the ctenacanthiforms [ 47 \u2013 49 ] . the occurrence of both symmetrical and asymmetrical forms among the smaller teeth , as well as their broken ( possibly some worn ) cusps , support this view .\ntooth bases resemble the \u201ceuselachian - type\u201d ( sensu ginter 2005 ) [ 50 ] in having a spongiose structure and numerous labio - lingual canals . the absence of buttons and basolabial projections is a potential synapomorphy with chondrichthyans possessing\neuselachian - type\nteeth , although the presence of an orolingual hump and basolabial depression suggests that the bases of successive teeth overlapped in similar fashion to those of cladodont chondrichthyans in which buttons and projections are present [ 47 , 49 \u2013 52 ] . the presence of one or two medially situated larger canals in bases of symmetrical teeth ( fig 6p and 6r ) , instead of evenly distributed canals of virtually the same size , possibly represents a stage between the layout in ctenacanthiforms and symmoriiforms , which have median basal canal openings ( lingual and aboral ) which are usually much larger than any other foramina , and\neuselachian - type\nteeth with evenly distributed canals .\n( a ) presumed flank scale wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013019 , anterocrown view . ( b , c ) presumed flank scale wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013020 , anterocrown and posterior views . ( d ) presumed flank scale wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013021 , posterobasal view . ( e , f ) presumed flank scale wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013022 , posterobasal view and magnification of undersurface of crown denticulation . ( g , h ) very small scale wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013023 , broken , showing crown view of one half and basal view of the other half . ( i ) abraded umbellate scale wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013024 , crown view . ( j , k ) pultschuppe or squamae proniae scale wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013025 , crown and posterior views . ( l ) stellate tessera wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013026 , crown view . ( m ) probable branchial denticle plate wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013027 , lateral view . ( n ) vertical transverse section through presumed flank scale wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013028 . ( o ) oblique vertical section through umbellate scale wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013029 . ( p , q ) horizontal section through the crown of ? head tessera wam 09 . 6 . 145\u2013030 , whole section and magnification to show spiralfasern structure . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm in all figures except ( p ) , where scale bar = 1 mm .\nthin sections show that the scales grew by appositional addition of odontodes laterally and posteriorly ( fig 7n and 7o ) ; shorter , more upright odontodes are added anteriorly . the thin bone bases show several inner growth zones having separate bases , with bases underlying the whole scale formed only in the later growth periods ( fig 7n and 7o ) . each odontode has a relatively wide pulp canal , surrounded and partly infilled by \u2018spiralfasern\u2019 , and interconnected by radial and circular canals . the \u2018spiralfasern\u2019 structure ( sensu gross ) [ 54 ] , rather than being fibrous , appears to be formed by spiralling rings of atubular dentine which developed centrifugally to partly fill the wide pulp canals . fine branching dentine tubules permeate the outer solid areas of the odontodes . innermost ( oldest ) odontodes have separate ? acellular bone bases , but the youngest growth zones have bases which underlie new and old growth zones . sharpey\u2019s fibres extended through the full - width zones , but not the individual odontode bases . horizontal section of a pultschuppe scale shows centrifugal growth zones ( fig 7p and 7q ) .\nthe endoskeletal elements are formed of mineralized tessellated cartilage ( fig 8 ) that varies in thickness , corresponding to the number of layers of tesserae . the meckel\u2019s cartilages , scapulocoracoids and the median ventral section of the basibranchial unit have two layers , whereas the gill - arch cartilages and the articulatory block on the scapulocoracoid are finer , with mostly one but rarely two layers . thin sections of loose cartilage fragments ( fig 8b and 8c ) show a structure similar to typical shark tessellated calcified cartilage , with subpolygonal tesserae showing rings and waves of liesegang [ 55 ] . however , rather than having fibrous connections between the tesserae as found in modern sharks [ 56 ] , the tesserae are mostly surrounded by a matrix incorporating elongate lacunae , some with fine processes extending from them ( fig 8c ) . ct scans ( fig 9h ) show the varying thickness of the cartilage in different areas of the endoskeletal elements ( fig 8d ) .\nthe morphology of the teeth is unique among the devonian chondrichthyes , showing a mix of features found in several shark groups . the crown is somewhat similar , mostly in the proportions of the cusps , to that of ctenacanthus concinnus [ 64 ] and cladodoides wildungensis [ 65 , 66 ] , but the median cusps of the latter two are labially flattened whereas in gogoselache lynbeazleyae they are biconvex . the asymmetry in devonian ctenacanthids , albeit common , is never advanced to a point of occurrence of an intermediate cusplet only on one side . moreover , the tooth base in ctenacanthids is provided with a distinct orolingual button and a straight , shelf - like basolabial projection , which are missing in g . lynbeazleyae teeth .\n( a\u2013c ) arduodens flammeus hairapetian & ginter , 2009 , from chahriseh , aeu 610 , in lingual , aboral , and lateral views . ( d\u2013g ) deihim mansureae ginter , hairapetian and klug , 2002 . ( d , e ) holotype , igpuw / ps / 5 / 1 , from hutk , in oral and lateral views . ( f , g ) putative anterior tooth , aeu 239 , from hodjedk , in labial and oral views . scale bar = 0 . 5 mm .\nbased on isolated teeth from the famennian of iran , ginter et al . [ 45 ] proposed a strong heterodonty within the dentition of d . mansureae . most of the specimens attributed to that species are various forms of crushing teeth . only two specimens can be considered as clutching teeth , and these were tentatively included in d . mansureae because of the structure of the base and the presence of labial accessory cusplets . it was suggested [ 45 ] that the teeth were from the anterior tooth families and the whole dentition functioned in a way similar to modern heterodontus , with a few minute anterior clutching teeth and a large lateral and posterolateral crushing apparatus ( [ 68 ] fig24c ) . however , the reconstructed whole dentitions of g . lynbeazleyae and d . mansureae were completely different , with a total absence of crushing teeth associated with wam 09 . 6 . 145 . therefore , we consider g . lynbeazleyae and d . mansureae to belong to separate , albeit probably related , genera .\na single tooth from the upper devonian of the canning basin , western australia , emerikodus ektrapelus [ 69 ] bears some similarity to the new form . the preservation of the tooth is not very good , but the form of the main parts of the crown and base are quite similar to those of g . lynbeazleyae . however emerikodus displays one very unusual feature : the row of accessory cusplets is apparently situated on the lingual , and not labial , side of the crown .\nthe presumed normal body scales of gogoselache lynbeazleyae appear intermediate between the \u2018cladodont\u2019 type sensu gross [ 53 ] and the ctenacanthid type sensu reif [ 70 ] . the \u2018cladodont\u2019 scale category was based on isolated scales from the middle devonian ohio bonebeds [ 54 , 71 ] and the upper devonian of iowa , rhineland and harz [ 54 ] . the scales are characterized by having a base formed of lamellar bone layers penetrated by sharpey ' s fibres , and a crown plate comprising circular or semicircular zones of odontodes ; growth was by addition to the margin of the scale crown and a new ( cellular or acellular ) bone layer under the whole base .\nseveral occurrences of ctenacanthid and cladodont type scales have been reported from eastern and western australian middle to late devonian microvertebrate assemblages [ 72 \u2013 74 ] . other rich assemblages from the ? upper givetian aztec siltstone at mt crean , antarctica include ctenacanthid - type scales similar to those of gogoselache , that are most likely from antarctilamna prisca [ 75 ] . the acanthodian and chondrichthyan microremains in the mt crean assemblage [ 76 ] show a marked similarity to early frasnian faunas from iran [ 77 ] .\ncomparing gogoselache scales with those of older taxa , the flank scales with their concave bases and polyodontode crowns resemble those of leonodus mader from the lochkovian of northern spain [ 78 ] . doliodus problematicus from the early emsian of new brunswick , canada [ 15 ] , and antarctilamna prisca young from the givetian of antarctica [ 75 ] . unlike gogoselache , all of these taxa have diplodont teeth , indicating that the scale form is probably ancestral to both shark lineages determined by tooth morphology .\nthe structure of the calcified cartilage in the endoskeleton of gogoselache is of interest as an apparent transitional form between gcc and pcc . ct scans and thin sections show a calcified tissue forming the outer shell of endoskeletal elements , more derived than the simple calcified cartilage comprising separate globules found in osteostracan agnathans [ 55 ] , acanthodians [ 79 ] and some stem chondrichthyans ( fig 9a and 9b ) . placoderms differ from other gnathostomes in having perichondral bone plus globular ( gcc ) and / or uncalcified cartilage forming their endoskeleton ( fig 9c and 9d ) in instances where such elements are preserved at all [ 53 , 73 , 80 ] .\nwe would like to thank field team members of the 2005 gogo expedition , l . hatcher , m . nossal , b . choo and m . karkeek ; and r . f . miller ( nbmg ) for image of doliodus calcified cartilage . we thank giar - ann hung for assistance with the sem photography at la county museum of natural history . dr adam summers , university of washington , provided helpful discussion on the cartilage histology . this work is a contribution to igcp 596 .\nconceived and designed the experiments : jal cjb jgm mic mg kmt gcy tjs . performed the experiments : jal mic tjs gcy jgm . analyzed the data : jal kmt cjb tjs gcy jgm mic mg . wrote the paper : jal cjb mg jgm mic . collection and preparation of the specimen : jal .\nschaeffer b ( 1975 ) comments on the origin and basic radiation of the gnathostome fishes with particular reference to the feeding mechanism . in : lehman j - p , editor . probl\u00e8mes actuels de pal\u00e9ontologie : evolution des vert\u00e9br\u00e9s . paris : colloques internationaux du centre national de la recherche scientifique . pp . 101\u2013109 .\njanvier p ( 1996 ) early vertebrates . oxford : oxford university press . 393 p .\nbrazeau m ( 2009 ) the braincase and jaws of a devonian \u2018acanthodian\u2019 and modern gnathostome origins . nature 457 : 305\u2013308 . pmid : 19148098\nand shark - like conditions in the last common ancestor of modern gnathostomes . nature 486 : 247\u2013250 . pmid : 22699617\nzhu m , yu xb , ahlberg pe , choo b , lu j , et al . 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mann chang . munich : dr friedrich pfeil . pp . 145\u2013158 .\nhairapetian v , ginter m ( 2009 ) famennian chondrichthyan remains from the chahriseh section , central iran . acta geologica polonica 59 : 173\u2013200 .\ncappetta h ( 1987 ) mesozoic and cenozoic elasmobranchii . in : schultze h - p , editor . handbook of paleoichthyology 3b . stuttgart , new york : gustav - fisher . 193 p .\ntrinajstic k , george ad ( 2009 ) microvertebrate biostratigraphy of upper devonian ( frasnian ) carbonate rocks in the canning and carnarvon basins of western australia . palaeontology 52 : 641\u2013659 .\nreif w ( 1978 ) types of morphogenesis of the dermal skeleton in fossil sharks . pal\u00e4ontologische zeitschrift 52 : 110\u2013128 .\nwells jw ( 1944 ) fish remains from the middle devonian bone beds of the cincinnati arch region . palaeontographica americana 3 : 99\u2013160 .\nturner s ( 1982 ) middle palaeozoic elasmobranch remains from australia . journal of vertebrate paleontology 2 : 117\u2013131 .\nturner s , burrow cj , basden am ( 2000 ) devonian vertebrates of queensland . in : blieck a , turner s , editors . palaeozoic vertebrate biochronology and global marine / non marine correlation final report igcp 328 , 1991\u20131996 : courier forschungsinstitut senckenberg . pp . 487\u2013522 .\nturner s ( 1993 ) palaeozoic microvertebrate biostratigraphy of eastern gondwana . in long ja , editor . paleozoic vertebrate biostratigreaphy and biogeography . london : belhaven press . pp . 174\u2013207 .\nyoung gc ( 1982 ) devonian sharks from southeastern australia and antarctica . palaeontology 25 : 817\u2013843 .\nburrow cj , long ja , trinajstic k ( 2009 ) disarticulated acanthodian and chondrichthyan remains from the upper middle devonian aztec siltstone , southern victoria land , antarctica . antarctic science 21 : 71\u201388 .\nhairapetian v , valiukevicius j , burrow c ( 2006 ) early frasnian acanthodians from central iran . acta palaeontologica polonica 51 : 499\u2013520 .\nmart\u00ednez - p\u00e9rez c , dupret v , manzanares e , botella h ( 2010 ) new data on the lower devonian chondrichthyan fauna from celtiberia ( spain ) . journal of vertebrate paleontology 30 : 1622\u20131627 .\n, based on material from western queensland , australia . acta geologica polonica 58 : 151\u2013159 .\nmaisey jg ( 2013 ) the diversity of tessellated calcification in modern and extinct chondrichthyans . revue de pal\u00e9obiologie 32 : 355\u2013371 .\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\nrepublish our articles for free , online or in print , under creative commons license .\nsharks are one of the oldest and least changed of all the living back - boned jawed creatures . but because their skeletons are made of cartilage much of their early fossil record is poor .\ncartilage is a rubbery tissue that forms the framework for bones to ossify ( harden ) upon . it\u2019s why babies have rubbery legs when they begin to walk , as the bones haven\u2019t fully ossified around the cartilage cores . our ears and noses have cartilage frameworks too , which lack bone , but still support the soft structures we hear and smell with ."]}
{"id": 1188, "summary": [{"text": "the kelp gull ( larus dominicanus ) , also known as the dominican gull , is a gull which breeds on coasts and islands through much of the southern hemisphere .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the nominate l. d. dominicanus is the subspecies found around south america , parts of australia ( where it overlaps with the pacific gull ) , and new zealand ( where it is known as the southern black-backed gull or by its m\u0101ori name karoro ) .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "l. d. vetula ( known as the cape gull ) is a subspecies occurring around southern africa .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the specific name comes from the dominican order of friars , who wear black and white habits . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "kelp gull", "paragraphs": ["kelp gull : molting juvenile default description kelp gull : molting juvenile kelp gull : winter adult default description kelp gull : winter adult kelp gull : adult default description kelp gull : adult kelp gull : 2nd summer default description kelp gull : 2nd summer related birds lesser black - backed gull great black - backed gull general kelp gull : large and stocky gull with white head , underparts , and tail . more\na kelp gull stands near a newborn seal in namibia ' s dorob national park .\nthe kelp gull habitually drops molluscs from the air onto rocks to smash them open .\nwhereas the nominate kelp gull usually has a pale eye . young cape gulls have almost identical plumage to similarly aged kelp gulls . more\nthe kelp gull is native to south america , australia , parts of africa and the caribbean . the range of this bird species is about 10 million square kilometers . the population of the kelp gull is about 3 . 5 million individual birds . the rating of the kelp gull at this time is least concern . the prior rating for the kelp gull was lower risk , which was downgraded to least concern in 2004 due to the range and population of the kelp gull . there are no known threats facing the range or the population of the kelp gull at this time .\nthe kelp gull resembles larus pacificus \u2013 pacific gull , but the latter has white tail with black subterminal band , and its bill is larger .\naspects of the topic kelp gull are discussed in the following places at britannica . assorted references * description ( in gull ( bird ) ) the kelp gull ( l . dominicanus ) is a very wide - ranging black - backed species of the southern hemisphere , including antarctica . the laughing gull ( l . more\nthe kelp gull forages on land or in water , rarely in the air . it feeds mainly on fish and crustaceans , but will scavenge when an opportunity arises . like the pacific gull , the kelp gull habitually drops molluscs from midair onto rocks to smash them .\nthe kelp gull prefers the sheltered parts of coasts such as bays , inlets and estuaries ; also beaches and reefs on off - shore islands . it is likely that the kelp gull is in serious competition with the endemic pacific gull because of their similar habitat , food and habits .\nthe kelp gull is the second largest gull in the region , being smaller and less bulky than the pacific gull , larus pacificus , and with a less massive bill . its tail is all white , with no black band . immature kelp gulls can also be confused with the vagrant black - tailed gull , larus crassirostris , from japan .\nthibaut chansac and stanislas wroza endured a testing day on a paris landfill , eventually clinching an elusive ' black - backed gull ' as france ' s second kelp gull .\nkelp gulls occasionally become entangled in fishing lines , are occasionally illegally shot , and have been poisoned . in new zealand , the kelp gull was regularly eated by the maori .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus dominicanus ) adult , february 28 2009 , maitencillo , chile . picture : jos\u00e9 canas .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus vetula ) adult , may 17 2015 , maputo , mozambique . picture : ross hughes .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus veltula ) adult , june 30 2007 , south africa . picture : j . avise .\nthe latest sighting details and map for kelp gull are only available to our birdguides ultimate or our birdguides pro subscribers .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus dominicanus ) adult , january 13 2012 , elqui prov . chile . picture : blass bass .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus dominicanus ) adult , february 21 2015 , muriwai , new zealand . picture : christina port .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus vetula ) 2nd cycle , april 26 2015 , maputo , mozambique . picture : gary allport .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus vetula ) adult , june 2012 , cape town , south africa . picture : chris gibbins .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus vetula ) adult , july 25 2007 , kommetjie , south africa . picture : graham ekins .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus dominicanus ) adult , september 09 2009 , bahia inglesa , chile . picture : jason quinn .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus dominicanus ) adult , november 26 2011 , isla magdalena , chile . picture : antonio vaccarini .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus dominicanus ) adult , november 08 2006 , karoro , new zealand . picture : brian gratwicke .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus veltula ) adult , january 06 2012 , neko harbour , antarctic peninsula . picture : michael shepard .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus dominicanus ) adult , march 16 2014 , petorca prov . , chile . picture : gonzalo vergara .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus vetula ) adult , september 25 2010 , hout bay , south africa . picture : dick daniels .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus vetula ) adult , february 24 2015 , walbis bay , namibia . picture : rafael g . s\u00e1nchez .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus dominicanus ) adult , april 18 2008 , la perouse , sidney , australia . picture : mr troy .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus dominicanus ) adult , june 02 2009 , la perouse , sidney , australia . picture : mr troy .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus vetula ) adult , july 17 2012 , cape cross seal reserve , namibia . picture : tom heijnen .\nan adult kelp gull or cape gull ( larus dominicanus vetula ) found and photographed today , 25 january , at the fish factory of anza near agadir by arie ouwerkerk and jacob jan de vries .\nthe yelping ' yo - yo - yo - yo ' call of the kelp gull is used in many films with coastal or marine scenes .\nthe races \u201c judithae \u201d and \u201c melisandae \u201d were described in 2002 , and evaluated as kelp gull\u2019s subspecies on the basis of morphological characters .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus dominicanus ) adult , january 09 2014 , robert island , south shetland islands , antarctica . picture : david cook .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - kelp gull ( larus dominicanus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - kelp gull ( larus dominicanus )\ntitle =\narkive species - kelp gull ( larus dominicanus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe kelp gull occurs in coastal bays , beaches , inlets and estuaries and on off - shore islands . they are often seen scavenging at refuse tips\nquintana rd , travaini a ( 2000 ) characteristics of nest sites of skuas and kelp gull in the antarctic peninsula . j field ornithol 71 : 236\u2013249\nnormally , the kelp gull is expected at khniffiss lagoon and along the southern moroccan atlantic coast , but they do occur north of khniffiss as well .\nthis subspecies differs markedly from other kelp gull subspecies , especially in skull structure ( a notably flatter crown ) , and some texts ( examples will foolow ) treat this form as a distinct species , known as cape gull . however there is no molecular evidence to support this and we follow urban et al . in treating it as a subspecies of kelp gull larus dominicanus .\n* the kelp gull is the only gull of the southern ocean . * kelp gulls are aggressive predators taking every opportunity to rob other birds ' nests of both eggs and small chicks . description & characteristics : the kelp or dominican gull lives on the antarctic peninsula and at most sub - antarctic islands , where it is resident year - round , generally in small numbers . they are also broadly distributed throughout southern africa , australasia and south america . more\nthe kelp gull is a large black - backed gull with a white tail and a large yellow bill with a red spot on the lower tip . it is the second largest gull in australia . the wing has a wide trailing edge and a small white ' window ' in the wingtip . newly - fledged kelp gulls are brown with paler mottling on the hind neck and breast and have a black bill . immature kelp gulls have mottled brown wings and back with a whitish body and an all - yellow bill . the kelp gull is gregarious , and tends to roost , feed and breed in flocks .\nthe kelp gull is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\nkelp gull , larus dominicanus vetula , in flight . kelp gull in flight at houtbay harbor . the nominate race of the kelp gull ( larus dominicanus ) occurs along the coasts of south america , new zealand , australia and many islands in the southern ocean . the subspecies found along the southern african coastline , l . d . vetula , is currently thought to be sufficiently different from the nominate race that it ought to be regarded as a full species . more\nin some areas the kelp gull is considered a \u2018nuisance\u2019 species , often concentrated close to cities and thought to pose a potential health threat to humans , leading to calls for its populations to be controlled . however , no kelp gull colonies are currently under any kind of management ( 7 ) . it is also thought that increasing kelp gull populations could have a negative effect on other coastal wildlife , for example through increased harassment of other sea birds ( 7 ) ( 8 ) . more\nblackish upperparts and thick bill in kelp gull give it a great black - backed gull impression . kelp gull is quick in attaining a dark saddle , where great black - backed gull keep anchor - patterned scapulars for a prolonged period . also , kelp gull remain to show very limited white in the primaries ( either the tips and the mirror , see picture below ) , while great black - backed gull quickly develop a mirror on p10 ( in 2nd gen p10 ) and normally develop large white tips , even obvious on outermost primaries in many immature birds . a very small mirror on p10 and absence of a p9 mirror in adult kelp gull give it a completely different , dark , wingtip impression when compared to adult great black - backed ( which has a merged mirror and white tip on p10 and always a very large mirror on p9 as well in adult plumage ) .\nkelp gull ( larus dominicanus vetula ) adult , november 07 2012 , kenton - on - sea , eastern cape , south africa . picture : wikipedia - snowmanradio .\ncrawford rjm , cooper j , shelton pa ( 1982 ) distribution , population size , breeding and conservation of the kelp gull in southern africa . ostrich 53 : 164\u2013177\nthe african subspecies l . d . vetula is sometimes split as the cape gull , l . vetula . it has a more angular head and a smaller shorter bill . the adult has a dark eye , whereas the nominate kelp gull usually has a pale eye . young cape gulls have almost identical plumage to similarly aged kelp gulls .\nsubspecies and range : the kelp gull can be considered a monotypic species , awaiting more information about the subspecies . however , the 5 currently recognized races can be mentioned .\ngood t ( 2002 ) breeding success in the western gull \u00d7 glaucous - winged gull complex : the influence of habitat and nest - site characteristics . condor 104 : 353\u2013365\nkelp gull dominicanus 2nd cycle , december 10 2012 , australia ( mick ) . upperparts tone equals great black - backed gull , but this taxon has much more black in the wingtip ( marinus in this plumage would show large mirrors already ) . note yellowish legs .\nthe kelp gull occurs on coasts and islands through much of the southern hemisphere from new zealand and most sub - antarctic islands , the antarctic peninsula , south america , and africa .\nkelp gull dominicanus 2nd cycle , september 24 2011 , lima , peru ( john turner ) . upperparts tone equals great black - backed gull , but this taxon has much more black in the tail , plain brown coverts , bright yellow on bill and lacking pale primary tips .\nintroduction : the kelp gull is present through much of the southern hemisphere . according to the authors , 4 or 5 subspecies are recognized , but kelp gull\u2019s taxonomy is still in a state of uncertainty . as this species has extremely wide range , more subspecies might be added in the future . however , you will find on this page numerous pictures from several locations in the southern hemisphere .\nin many cases , once a gull pecks out the eyeballs , other kelp gulls join in and begin to eat the seal\u2019s exposed areas , such as its underbelly and genitals , the scientists observed .\nthe kelp gull breeds on islands , both oceanic and offshore , on headlands , cliffs above the sea , beaches , pastures and lava fields according to the range , and even in urban areas .\nkelp gull dominicanus adult , june 30 2007 , south africa . picture : j . avise . upperparts tone equals great black - backed gull , but this taxon has much more black in the wingtip , with just a tiny mirror on the outer primary . often yellowish legs and dark iris .\nkelp gull in flight , andean mountains above ushuaia in the background , larus dominicanus , beagle channel purchase a print of this imagehow to request , purchase or license this imageadd to light table sea birds ( likely western and / or heermanns gulls ) on drift kelp , open ocean , larus occidentalis , larus heermanni , san diego , california purchase a print of this imagehow to request , purchase or license this imageadd to light table kelp gull in flight , andean mountains above ushuaia in the background . more\na bird calling while standing on a beach . an immature pacific gull can also be heard .\nthe kelp gull is resident in many parts of australia , in others it is dispersive although this varies from colony to colony . in some colonies , parts of the population are apparantly resident or sedentary .\nthe kelp gull first become established in australia in the 1940s . their numbers increased rapidly and they are now found in many parts of the south - east and south - west coasts of mainland australia .\nin the study , kelp gulls were successful in plucking out eyeballs in roughly 50 percent of observed attacks .\nkelp gull is the dominant large gull species of south america . it is common throughout the southern part of the continent and extending north along the coasts to ecuador in the west and brazil in the east , though it is also known as a vagrant and occasional breeder north to the united states as well . large , with very dark black upperparts and pale yellow - green legs , this gull is easily distinguished from other gulls in its range . kelp gulls feed on a variety of land and marine animals and also attend refuse dumps .\nresearchers speculate that the kelp gull population increased decades ago with the development of fish processing in the area . waste from processing plants may have attracted gulls into the area , which then learned to get more food from whales .\nburger j , gochfeld m ( 1981 ) nest site selection by kelp gulls in southern africa . condor 83 : 243\u2013251\nmanagement and research actions suggested to address these problems include monitoring of kelp gull colonies , particularly close to urban areas , as well as an evaluation of the effects of the gulls on other coastal species , and more careful treatment and disposal of refuse , sewage and fish offal , to discourage scavenging and to help control gull numbers ( 7 ) . given the kelp gull\u2019s abundance and large range , and its presence in many protected coastal areas , the threats to the species are not thought likely to pose any conservation problems in the near future ( 7 ) .\nkelp gull prey on and scavenge molluscs , fish , crustaceans , other seabirds , and even their own chicks and eggs . they are opportunistic , and their diet varies with season and among localities depending on the availability of food .\nphysical description & related species : kelp gull have a white head , neck , underbody , rump and tail . the saddle and upperwing is slate - black with a white leading edge . the wingspan is 106 - 142 cm . the yellow bill has a rounded red subterminal spot at the gonys . distribution & abundance - distribution : kelp gull are broadly distributed in the subantarctic to subtropical regions , where sea surface temperatures range from 0\u00b0 to 23\u00b0 c . more\n54\u201365 cm ; 810\u20131335 g ; wingspan 128\u2013142 cm . four - year gull . intermediate in size and build between\nkelp gulls are eating the eyeballs from newborn cape fur seals\u2014a behavior never before seen in nature , a new study says .\nin some areas the kelp gull is considered a \u2018nuisance\u2019 species , often concentrated close to cities and thought to pose a potential health threat to humans , leading to calls for its populations to be controlled . however , no kelp gull colonies are currently under any kind of management ( 7 ) . it is also thought that increasing kelp gull populations could have a negative effect on other coastal wildlife , for example through increased harassment of other sea birds ( 7 ) ( 8 ) . in particular , this gull has recently developed the habit of gouging skin and blubber from the backs of southern right whales , opening up lesions and causing the whales to take evasive action ( 2 ) ( 8 ) . it is feared that increasing harassment may compromise calf development and even cause the whales to leave the affected areas ( 8 ) .\nthe latest sighting details and map for cape gull are only available to our birdguides ultimate or our birdguides pro subscribers .\ncape gull ( larus dominicanus vetula ) , anza , morocco , 25 january 2016 . ( jacob jan de vries )\nknown widely as \u2018kelp gull\u2019 in other countries , the same species is also common in similar latitudes around the southern hemisphere , including southern australia , south america , southern africa , and most subantarctic and peri - antarctic islands , and the antarctic peninsula .\nthe kelp gull breeds in colonies , occasionally as isolated pairs . they are monogamous , but the pair - bonds last about one year , from one season to the next breeding period . they usually strengthen the bond by courtship feeding during the winter . the colonies are noisy . alarm calls are given as soon as predators are approaching . the gulls may perform communal mobbing and attack in active defence . the kelp gull is territorial and defends an area around the nest , because cannibalism occurs towards the chicks of the neighbour nests .\nthe kelp gull is a large bird with slate - black wings , a white head and body , and an all - white tail . the underwing is white , tipped black , and the dark upperwing bears a white bar , with white markings on the wing tips . the beak is yellow , with a conspicuous red spot on the lower mandible , and the yellow eye is surrounded by an orange - red ring ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the pale eyes , together with greenish - yellow rather than yellow legs , and a larger , more robust body , help distinguish the kelp gull from the similar - looking lesser black - backed gull ( larus fuscus ) ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . the male and female kelp gull are similar in appearance ( 3 ) , while non - breeding adults have brown mottling on the head and neck ( 2 ) . juveniles are dark brown and mottled , with a blackish tail , dark beak , brownish legs and brown eyes ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . adult plumage is usually attained by the fourth year ( 2 ) . the kelp gull\u2019s call is a loud ki - ok , and the alarm call is a short , repeated pok ( 5 ) .\nthe kelp gull nests in loose colonies or scattered single pairs on off - shore islands where breeding birds maintain large territories against other gulls . the nests of kelp gulls can be a well - made bowl of plants stems , grasses and seaweeds or a loose pile of material on the ground , near rocks or in a tussock . both the adults build the nest , incubate the eggs , brood and feed the young .\ncalls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the kelp gull utters strident \u201ckee - och\u201d , and we can also hear melancholy \u201cyo - yo - yo - yo - yo\u201d and repeated \u201ckwee - ah , kwee - ah , kwee - ah\u201d . it is noisy during the breeding season and while feeding , but also during aggressive interactions . calls and songs are fairly similar to those of other gull species .\na new study suggests that increased attacks by kelp gulls on southern right whale calves could be contributing to an observed increase in mortality among the latter .\n\u201cit\u2019s a cruel way to go , \u201d says gallagher . but from the gull\u2019s point of view , it\u2019s a \u201cbeautifully strategic attack . \u201d\nsouthern black - backed gull . adult . boulder bank , nelson , january 2008 . image \u00a9 rebecca bowater fpsnz by rebecca bowater fpsnz urltoken\ngarc\u00eda borboroglu p , yorio p ( 2004a ) habitat requirements and selection by kelp - gulls in central and northern patagonia , argentina . auk 121 : 243\u2013252\nprotection / threats / status : the kelp gull has large range and it is common and conspicuous in most part of its distribution . the overall population is increasing with agriculture and fishery expansion . it is often considered a pest in urban areas , and might have negative effect on the coastal wildlife , through harassment and predation towards other bird species and small animals . the falkland\u2019s population is about 30 , 000 breeding pairs . the global population is estimated to number 3 , 300 , 000 / 4 , 300 , 000 individuals . the kelp gull is not currently threatened , and evaluated as least concern .\nthe kelp gull is the second largest of australia ' s gulls ( 550 - 580 mm ) . adults have a white head , neck , underbody , rump and tail . the upperparts and wing are black with a white leading edge . the yellow bill has a red spot on the lower tip .\nkelp gulls are opportunistic omnivores and will scavenge as well as prey on molluscs , fish , crustaceans , other seabirds , and even their own chicks and eggs .\nfordham ra ( 1964 ) breeding biology of the southern black - backed gull . i . pre - egg and egg stage . notornis 11 : 3\u201334\njehl jr jr , mahoney sa ( 1987 ) the roles of thermal environments and predation in habitat choice in the california gull . condor 89 : 850\u2013862\nrecent populations of kelp gulls have increased in some locations perhaps due to human subsidies : trawler fish discards , scraps from fish processing plants , and coastal rubbish piles .\nthough , so perhaps it\u2019s wisest to stick with kelp gull for the time being\u2026 according to urltoken \u201ckelp gulls breed in namibia and south africa ; there are large colonies between cape cross and the islands in algoa bay , with occasional nests recorded as far north as cape fria and as far east as the great fish river . along the west coast , nonbreeding birds occur north to luanda , angola , and along the east coast as far as the limpopo river mouth in mozambique . more\nwhile many larid species have benefited from the presence of people , two tern and one gull species have become endangered . least and roseate terns are threatened by destruction and disturbance of their nest sites on sand bars and beaches while the sharp decline of the ivory gull could be related to pollution and global warming .\nbird was a kelp gull , knowing well the possibility of a hybrid such as\nchandaleur\ngulls . below is my own description of this bird ( written at 7 pm , 8 nov 2008 ) , independent of any discussions with ron after the initial sighting and independent of examining any reference books / sources . overall impression : this was a large , dark - backed gull in adult plumage . it was significantly larger than the laughing and franklin ' s gulls in the area . more\nthe vetula subspecies of kelp gull breed on 81 known localities on the coast of southern africa from ilha dos tigres in southern angola , along the namibian and atlantic coasts of south africa , round the cape as far east as the riet river , near port alfred on the indian ocean coast in the eastern cape province of south africa ( ref : roberts birds of southern africa ) . this gull is also colonising inland locations up to 10km from the coast on the skeleton coast in namibia .\nmiskelly , c . m . 2013 . southern black - backed gull . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\nnative to coastlines of the southern hemisphere , this big gull was a shock to birders when it began showing up in north america in the late 1980s . from 1989 into the 1990s , several adults were present on the chandeleur islands , in the gulf of mexico off the coast of louisiana . a few pairs even nested there , and other kelp gulls interbred with herring gulls on the islands , producing hybrids . during the 1990s , a few kelp gulls wandered elsewhere in north america , including texas , maryland , and indiana , and there have been scattered records since then . \u201cpure\u201d kelp gulls may not occur on the chandeleur islands any more , but some apparent hybrids are still wandering in the gulf of mexico .\nthe kelp gull breeds on coasts and islands through much of the southern hemisphere . it is found on a number of subantarctic islands , on the antarctic peninsula , on the southern coast of australia and all of new zealand , on the southern cost of africa and madagascar , and on the coast of south america as far north as ecuador and southern brazil 1 .\nhabitat : the kelp gull usually occurs along the coasts , especially in south africa . but throughout the range , it also frequents large inland lakes in the andes of argentina . it also feeds and roosts around lakes , including smaller mountain lakes in new zealand . it also frequents reservoirs , estuaries and rivers . it can be seen in farmland and lawns too .\nkelp gull : widespread along coasts and on islands throughout the southern hemisphere , occurring in southern africa , madagascar , australia , new zealand , south america and the falkland islands , as well as on antarctica and many sub - antarctic islands . found in a variety of habitats including harbors , bays , inlets , estuaries , beaches and rocky shores . accidental in maryland .\nthe yelping ' yo - yo - yo - yo ' call of the kelp gull is used in many films with coastal or marine scenes . facts and figures research species : no minimum size : 49 cm maximum size : 62 cm average size : 57 cm average weight : 940 g breeding season : september to december . clutch size : two to three . more\nty - jour ti - taxonomy of the kelp gull larus dominicanus lichtenstein inferred from biometrics and wing plumage pattern , including two previously undescribed subspecies t2 - bulletin of the british ornithologists ' club . vl - 122 ur - urltoken pb - british ornithologists ' club , cy - london : py - 2002 sp - 50 ep - 71 sn - 0007 - 1595 er -\nkelp gull dominicanus adult , january 06 2012 , antarctic peninsula ( michael shepard ) . birds on the southern hemisphere are in complete moult in our winter months . here moult in inner primaries p1 new , p2 groiwng , p5 - p10 old . dark as marinus , but much more black in wingtip with just a small mirror on p10 and full broad band on p5 .\nfordham , r . a . 1968 . dispersion and dispersal of the dominican gull in wellington , new zealand . proceedings of the new zealand ecological society 15 : 40 - 50 .\nin the subantarctic , kelp gulls lay three eggs in november to december . incubation and fledging periods are 23\u201330 days and 45\u201361 days , respectively . parents sometimes continue to feed their chicks after fledging .\nl . d . vetula is found on the coasts of south africa and namibia . this race has greyer legs and feet , and dark brown eyes . it is known as cape gull .\nthe kelp gull is widespread along coasts and on islands throughout the southern hemisphere , occurring in southern africa , madagascar , australia , new zealand , south america and the falkland islands , as well as on antarctica and many subantarctic islands ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) . although largely sedentary , some southern populations migrate north outside of the breeding season ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nrowntree , v . j . ( 1998 ) increased harassment of right whales ( eubalaena australis ) by kelp gulls ( larus dominicanus ) at pen\u00ednsula vald\u00e9s , argentina . marine mammals science , 14 : 99 - 115 .\nthe kelp gull breeds between september and january , in colonies numbering from one to several hundred pairs ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . the species is monogamous , with pair bonds usually maintained from one breeding season to the next , and strengthened by courtship feeding during winter months . both adults help to incubate the eggs and raise the chicks ( 4 ) . the nest , built on bare rock , sand or mud , often in a well - vegetated site , is a large and bulky structure , constructed from dried vegetation or seaweed ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) . around 3 eggs are laid ( 2 ) ( 4 ) , which hatch after 24 to 30 days , the young kelp gulls fledging approximately 7 weeks later ( 2 ) . kelp gulls begin to breed from around three to four years old , and may live for 20 years ( 4 ) .\nthere is one common issue in peninsular valdes that i feel is important to highlight . in puerto madryn there was a fish processing factory that for many years had uncovered waste sites and this led to a massive boom in the kelp gull population . the numbers got that big that eventually more and more birds started to copy an originally small number of kelp gulls who fed on the whales by landing on a whale as it was at the surface and pecking through the skin and into the blubber . after this behaviour was first noticed there were campaigns for the fish factory to dispose of the waste more responsibly and now they move it a few kilometres further inland .\na melancholy\nyo - yo - yo - yo - yo\nwhich is unlike the call of any other tasmanian gull and will sound familiar as part of the soundscape of films and movies set on coastlines .\na common , widespread species with a large global population , the kelp gull is not currently considered globally threatened ( 2 ) ( 6 ) , and may even have increased with the expansion of agriculture and fisheries ( 2 ) . potential threats to the species include oil spills , diseases such as avian cholera and avian botulism , mortality from interactions with trawler warp cables , persecution by humans , and disturbance at breeding sites ( 6 ) ( 7 ) .\nbehaviour in the wild : the kelp gull is an opportunistic feeder like numerous laridae . it feeds on a variety of aquatic preys such as fish , molluscs , worms , echinoderms , arthropods , but also reptiles , amphibians , birds , small mammals and occasionally berries . it is also a scavenger and can be seen at rubbish and sewage , and carrion and fish offal . but this gull may sometimes take sickly lamb and young poultry . it is able to attack and kill adult birds as large as geese . it often follows the fishing boats and forages around the slaughterhouses and seafood factories . it is known for stealing food from other seabirds , laridae and also spheniscidae .\nlarids are found near fresh and salt water throughout north america but are most common near large bodies of water . even marsh nesters such as the franklin ' s gull and black tern spend the winter in coastal areas .\nduring the past 15 years , scientists have logged around 500 instances of kelp gulls ( larus dominicanus ) attacking and attempting to eat the eyeballs of newborn cape fur seals ( arctocephalus pusillus pusillus ) in namibia \u2019s coastal dorob national park ( map ) .\nkelp gulls are broadly distributed in the subantarctic to subtropical regions , where sea surface temperatures range from 0\u00b0 to 23\u00b0 c . they can mostly be seen off the new zealand coasts and islands , and along the south and south - east australian coasts .\ngreat black - backed gull ( marinus ) 2nd cycle , february 02 2012 , ijmuiden , the netherlands ( mars muusse ) . no blackish saddle . 2nd gen primaries with rounded pale tips . limited black in tail . chequered coverts .\nkelp gulls have a white head , neck , underbody , rump and tail . the saddle and upperwing is slate - black with a white leading edge . the wingspan is 106\u2013142 cm . the yellow bill has a rounded red subterminal spot at the gonys .\nthe displays are accompanied by calls . the most frequent is the \u201clong - call\u201d , often given from the ground or sometimes while flying . the gull raises the head and gradually lowers it while uttering a series of long notes . this display is usually followed by \u201chead - tosses\u201d during which the gull throws the head up over its back while giving a plaintive note . once the pair is formed , both mates call and display every day , and courtship feeding is frequently observed .\nburger , j . , gochfeld , m . , garcia , e . f . j . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . kelp gull ( larus dominicanus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ngulls , terns , and the black skimmer are all migratory with the larger gulls migrating short distances to open water and the sabine ' s gull , terns , and black skimmer undertaking incredible journeys to the seas and rivers of the southern hemisphere .\nyorio , p . , bertellotti , m . , gandini , p . and frere , e . ( 1998 ) kelp gulls larus dominicanus breeding on the argentine coast : population status and relationship with coastal management and conservation . marine ornithology , 26 : 11 - 18 .\nthe kelp gull has become established in australia since the 1940s , with the first breeding recorded on moon island near lake macquarie in new south wales in 1958 . their numbers have increased rapidly since the 1960s and they are now common in many parts of the south - east and south - west coasts , and especially in tasmania . it is widespread in new zealand , and is found on most sub - antarctic islands , as well as on islands south of the antarctic convergence and the antarctic peninsula , south america , and africa .\nthe southern black - backed gull ( or \u2018black - back\u2019 ) is one of the most abundant and familiar large birds in new zealand , although many people do not realise that the mottled brown juveniles ( mistakenly called \u201cmollyhawks\u201d ) are the same species as the immaculate adults . found on or over all non - forested habitats from coastal waters to high - country farms , this is the only large gull found in new zealand . they are particularly abundant at landfills , around ports and at fish - processing plants .\nkelp gulls nest on beaches , among rocks , grassy headlands , ledges , glacial moraines and offshore islets . the shapes and materials of the nests vary due to location . they construct bowls or conical mounds or shallow scrapes in sand with grass , seaweed , sticks , shells and debris .\nmainly inhabiting coastal regions , the kelp gull can be found in a variety of habitats including harbours , bays , inlets , estuaries , beaches and rocky shores , and usually forages within about ten kilometres of the shore ( 6 ) . it may also venture inland , visiting lakes , lagoons , rivers , streams and reservoirs , as well as pastures , cultivated land , grassland and scrubland . breeding usually takes place on headlands , sea cliffs , beaches , offshore islands , pastures , or even on roofs in urban areas ( 2 ) ( 6 ) .\n@ article { bhlpart81344 , title = { taxonomy of the kelp gull larus dominicanus lichtenstein inferred from biometrics and wing plumage pattern , including two previously undescribed subspecies } , journal = { bulletin of the british ornithologists ' club . } , volume = { 122 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { london : british ornithologists ' club , 1893 - } , author = { } , year = { 2002 } , pages = { 50 - - 71 } , }\n\u201conce one gull figures out a fast food meal like cape fur seal eyeballs , other gulls observe and quickly learn the new feeding behavior , \u201d jewell says . ( also see\ncute killers ? gray seals maul , suffocate seals and porpoises , studies say .\n)\nl . d . dominicus ( here described ) is found on the coasts of s south america and islands such as the falklands and south georgia . but it is also present in new zealand and australia . it is known as southern black - backed gull in new zealand .\nkelp gulls are predominantly white birds with a brownish / black wing slate , bright yellow beak with a red spot near the tip and their eyes are dark brown with an orange eye ring . they can grow to 65cm in height , 1kg in weight and have a wing span of 128 - 142cm .\nreproduction of this species : the breeding season varies , depending on the range , but usually occurs between september and january . they breed in december in the falklands and at any time on offshore islands . the kelp gull breeds in colonies , from dozens ( at range\u2019s edges ) to several hundreds of pairs . the nest is built on rocks or sand , in well vegetated areas . it is often placed under the protection of rock , bush or tree , or any vertical structure . this is a bulky nest made with dried plants and seaweeds . it is lined with softer vegetation .\nsimilar species : adults unmistakeable apart from possible vagrant pacific gull from australia ( which has a more massive bill , and a black subterminal tip to tail ) . juveniles may be confused with the more robust brown skua , which has broader wings with a pale flash at the base of the primaries .\nthe diet of the kelp gull ( larus dominicanus ) , its foraging behaviour and the consumption rates on the antarctic limpet ( nacella concinna ) were studied during austral spring and summer 1992 / 1993 and 1993 / 1994 at potter peninsula , king george island , antarctica . prey information was obtained by collecting 237 pellets , foraging behaviour was observed by focal and instantaneous scan samplings , and consumption rate was estimated by means of weekly sampling of limpets found in 5 nests and their respective middens . limpets were the most important prey followed by scavenged prey ( penguin and seal carcasses ) , amphipods , snails , fish and euphausiids . foraging gulls spent 51 % of the time searching for limpets , 10 % moving between foraging areas , 9 % in catching effort and 15 % handling prey . the number of gulls observed searching for limpets was inversely correlated with the tidal height . in the diet limpets provide 102 . 3 , 159 . 4 and 188 . 1 kj gull \u22121 day \u22121 during incubation , hatching and brooding respectively ; these values range between 15 and 27 % , with a maximum of 40 % , of the basic daily energy requirements of kelp gulls . total consumption rate estimations for the whole population of gulls at potter peninsula reached between 3400 and 4800 limpets day \u22121 , which represents approximately 10\u201314 % of the total annual limpet mortality .\nthe familiar large gull throughout new zealand . adults have white head and underparts with black back , yellow bill with red spot near tip of lower mandible , and pale green legs . juveniles are dark mottled brown with black bill and legs ; their plumage lightens with age until they moult into adult plumage at 3 years old .\na large black - and - white gull with a white head and underparts , black back , yellow bill with a red spot near the tip , and pale green legs . juveniles are dark mottled brown with black bill and legs ; their plumage lightens with age until they moult into adult plumage at 3 - years - old .\ngreat black - backed gull ( marinus ) adult , 2009 - 2011 , acer port , israel . ( amir ben dov ) . note very large white tips on p10 ( no sub - terminal black ) and on p9 ( black band broken ) and no black on p5 . very powerful , huge massive bill and beady eye .\nthe kelp gull is resident in the falklands , with some dispersion around the islands . the birds of antarctica ( race \u201caustrinus\u201d ) remain in their range all year round . they can be seen in open water away from the pack ice . in australia , the non - breeding birds disperse to queensland , and along the s coast . the new zealand birds remain in their breeding areas and perform only some n movements . in africa ( race \u201cvetula\u201d ) , the non - breeding gulls move as far as mozambique on e coast , and mauritania and s morocco on w coats . although being largely sedentary , some of the southern populations migrate n outside the breeding season . the flight is powerful , fast and agile , with slow , steady wingbeats .\nkelp gulls nest on beaches , among rocks , grassy headlands , ledges and offshore islands . the nest is a bowl of grasses and plants stems or a shallow scrape in sand lined with seaweed , shells and debris . the female usually lays 2 or 3 eggs . both parents feed the young birds . chicks peck at red spot on the parent ' s beak to stimulate the regurgitation reflex .\nthe adult is a typical gull with black upperparts and white tail . on the black upperwing , the trailing edge is white and the wing tip shows white patches . head , neck , nape , tail and underparts are white . the bill is yellow with red gonydal angle . the eyes are yellow , surrounded by red or orange eyering . legs and webbed feet are greenish - yellow ( mostly greyer in africa ) .\nadult gulls and terns are for the most part pale - colored birds plumaged in gray , white , and black with dark plumages predominating in the black tern and noddy species . other colors are limited to orange and yellow ( in the bills and feet ) and pink hues in the plumage of the ross ' s gull and roseate tern . immature gulls of most species cycle through years of a seemingly bewildering number of gray , brown , and black streaked plumages .\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > taxonomy of the kelp gull larus dominicanus lichtenstein inferred from biometrics and wing plumage pattern , including two previously undescribed subspecies < / title > < / titleinfo > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < note type =\ncontent\n> 122 < / note > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > bulletin of the british ornithologists & # 39 ; club . < / title > < / titleinfo > < origininfo > < place > < placeterm type =\ntext\n> london : < / placeterm > < / place > < publisher > british ornithologists & # 39 ; club , < / publisher > < / origininfo > < part > < detail type =\nvolume\n> < number > 122 < / number > < / detail > < extent unit =\npages\n> < start > 50 < / start > < end > 71 < / end > < / extent > < date > 2002 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < accesscondition type =\nuseandreproduction\n> in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . < / accesscondition > < / mods >\nhowever the problem hasn\u2019t gone away and is specific to the area . it is especially bad because the seagulls target the calves more as they have to spend more time at the surface , so it was quite common to see calves with a lot of scarring along their backs . this leaves the animals prone to infection which can cause death , but it also disturbs the animals when they are taking milk which can mean they don\u2019t get enough and don\u2019t grow as big before it is time to set off to the feeding grounds in antarctica before the summer arrives . scientists have been studying this behaviour for a few years now and it is a complex problem that is not simple to solve and unfortunately man made . not all of the kelp gulls display this behaviour , i witnessed many gulls fly close to whales and simply fly off , but i also witnessed gulls that would arrive to attack the whale , quite often after a while had given up its location by breaching or tail slapping .\nseagulls have developed a hunting strategy never before seen in the animal world\u2014eating the eyeballs of live seal pups , a new study says .\nsince blinded seals can ' t find help from other seals and easily succumb to more attacks , the birds have discovered removing eyeballs is an especially efficient way to get a meal .\nthe behavior seems to be entirely new to science\u2014if a little tough to stomach , says study lead author austin gallagher , a postdoctoral researcher at carleton university in ottawa , canada . ( also see\ngulls be gone : 10 ways to get rid of pesky birds .\n)\n\u201cit is not a pleasant behavior to observe , as the seals completely freak out and make a lot of noise , \u201d says gallagher , whose study was published august 14 in the african journal of marine science .\nfor one , the babies can\u2019t swim and have to rely on their mother\u2019s milk , says michelle jewell , a behavioral ecologist at the royal netherlands institute for sea research who wasn ' t involved in the new research .\nto supply that milk , the mother seals must occasionally go hunt fish , leaving the pups alone at the colony for several days . the unprotected pups might then fall prey to land predators such as lions and hyenas\u2014and now , seagulls .\n\u201ca blind seal cannot forage , cannot find mom , and will get attacked by other gulls , \u201d says gallagher . ( also see\nbaby harp seals being drowned , crushed amid melting ice .\n)\na snail will make a nice snack for a seagull , if it can figure out how to crack the shell open .\ngallagher believes it ' s likely a result of an increase in cape fur seal populations\u2014essentially , the birds are taking advantage of a newly abundant food source .\nin the winter months , between 20 , 000 and 80 , 000 of the pinnipeds flock to namibia\u2019s coasts to mate and raise young . this dramatic population increase from just around a hundred seals in 1998 is due to the species ' natural boom - and - bust cycles , the study says .\nnot to mention\nthe eyes are soft targets , and a good source of both fluid and protein , \u201d adds craig harms , a veterinary medicine expert at north carolina state university who wasn ' t involved in the new research .\nas a responder for the u . s . marine mammal health and stranding response program , harms has seen firsthand the damage gulls can do .\n\u201cgulls particularly like to peck at and eat the jaw fats of beached harbor porpoises , dead or alive , \u201d says harms .\nand while the seal eye - gobbling behavior is new , harms points to other research that shows seagulls peck at southern right whale calves ' back blubber when they surface to breathe .\n\u201cit ' s not surprising ,\nhe says ,\nthat they would find a similar source of fresh food that is not good at defending itself .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nturbott , e . g . 1990 . checklist of the birds of new zealand . ornithological society of new zealand , wellington .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern ."]}
{"id": 1206, "summary": [{"text": "the eastern long-eared bat , ( nyctophilus bifax ) , is a species of vesper bat .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it is found in australia , indonesia , and papua new guinea .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "in australia , the range extends into subtropical regions .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this species is insectivorous and roosts in trees . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "eastern long - eared bat", "paragraphs": ["the eastern long - eared bat was previously considered to be a subspecies of the greater long - eared bat nyctophilus timoriensis , but has since been described as a separate species ( parnaby 2009 ) .\nthe eastern long - eared bat is thought to roost solitarily under the loose bark , and in the crevices and hollows of trees .\nincrease the understanding of critical aspects of the biology and ecology of the eastern long - eared bat that will assist in the long - term management of the species .\neastern long - eared bat ( queensland department of environment and heritage protection ( qld dehp ) , 2013h ) [ state action plan ] .\ncorben ' s long - eared bat - profile ( office of environment & heritage , 2012d ) [ internet ] .\nparnaby , h . ( 1995 ) . greater long - eared bat nyctophilus timoriensis . chatswood , nsw : reed books .\nschulz , m . and lumsden , l . 2010 . ( draft ) national recovery plan for the south - eastern long - eared bat nyctophilus corbeni . victorian department of sustainability and environment .\nkoehler , s . ( 2006 ) . new record of a greater long - eared bat in victoria . australasian bat society newsletter . 26 : 43 - 44 .\nthe eastern long - eared bat is found in the murray - darling basin of southern central queensland , inland new south wales , north - western victoria and far - eastern south australia . it is rarely recorded throughout most of its distribution , except for some parts of north - eastern new south wales where it is more common .\nthe draft recovery plan for the eastern long - eared bat ( schultz and lumsden 2010 ) aims to secure the long - term protection of the species by reducing the impact of threatening processes , and improving the information available to guide recovery .\nschulz , m . & l . lumsden ( 2010 ) . ( draft ) national recovery plan for the south - eastern long - eared bat nyctophilus corbeni . victorian department of sustainability and environment .\nleave dead and dying trees standing : like most eastern bats , the northern long - eared bat roosts in trees during summer . where possible and not a safety hazard , leave dead or dying trees on your property . northern long - eared bats and many other animals use these trees .\nparnaby , h . ( 1995 ) eastern long - eared bat nyctophilus bifax . pp . 500 - 1 in strahan , r . ( ed . ) the mammals of australia . reed books , sydney .\nturbill , c . & m . ellis ( 2006 ) . distribution and abundance of the south eastern form of the greater long - eared bat nyctophilus timoriensis . australian mammalogy . 28 : 1 - 7 .\nthe eastern long - eared bat is a small - medium sized bat with large ribbed ears that join across the top of the head and a prominent noseleaf or expanded flange of skin around the nostrils . it can be distinguished from the similar gould\u2019s long - eared bat by its tan to rich fawn colour and less prominent twin lobes or \u201cbumps\u201d behind the noseleaf . the ears are also generally shorter than gould ' s long - eared bat . there are also distinct differences in the morphology of the penis between this species and other similar species .\nlumsden , l . , j . nelson & m . lindeman ( 2008 ) . ecological research on the eastern long - eared bat nyctophilus timoriensis ( south - eastern form ) . a report to the mallee catchment management authority . heidelberg , victoria : arthur rylah institute for environmental research , department of sustainability and environment .\nlaw , b . , l . gonsalves , m . chidel & t . brassil ( 2016 ) . subtle use of a disturbance mosaic by the south - eastern long - eared bat ( nyctophilus corbeni ) : an extinction - prone , narrow - space bat . wildlife research . 43 ( 2 ) : 153 - 168 .\nthe eastern long - eared bat hunts be perching 5 - 10 m above the ground and wait for their prey to come in range . if they don\u2019t catch their food ( usually moths ) within 3 - 5 minutes they will move to another perch in the nearby vicinity .\nthe eastern long - eared bat hunts for insects in the air , from foliage and the ground . it eats beetles , bugs , moths , grasshoppers and crickets . these bats are thought to play an important role in controlling the abundance of foliage - feeding insects in remnant vegetation and rural areas .\nturbill , c . , l . lumsden & g . ford ( 2008 ) . south - eastern long - eared bat nyctophilus sp . . in : van dyck , s . and r . strahan , ( eds . ) , eds . the mammals of australia . sydney , new holland .\nlumsden , l . f . ( 1994 ) . the distribution , habitat and conservation status of the greater long - eared bat nyctophilus timoriensis in victoria . victorian naturalist . 111 : 4 - 9 .\nappearance : the northern long - eared bat is a medium - sized bat with a body length of 3 to 3 . 7 inches but a wingspan of 9 to 10 inches . their fur color can be medium to dark brown on the back and tawny to pale - brown on the underside . as its name suggests , this bat is distinguished by its long ears , particularly as compared to other bats in its genus , myotis .\ndominelli , s . ( 2000 ) . distribution , roost requirements and foraging behaviour of the greater long - eared bat ( nyctophilus timoriensis ) and the little pied bat ( chalinolobus picatus ) in the bookmark biosphere reserve . unpublished report . unpublished report to the bookmark biosphere trust , south australia .\nspread the word : understanding the important ecological role that bats play is a key to conserving the northern long - eared and other bats . helping people learn more about the northern long bat and other endangered species can lead to more effective recovery efforts . visit urltoken for more information about white - nose syndrome .\nlisting : the northern long - eared bat is listed as a threatened species under the federal endangered species act . listing a species affords it the protections of the act and also increases the priority of the species for funds , grants , and recovery opportunities .\nellis , m . , l . lumsden , m . schulz , t . reardon , g . richards & g . hoye ( 1999 ) . eastern long - eared bat . pp . 42 - 43 . in : duncan , a . , g . b . baker , and n . montgomery . ( eds . ) . the action plan for australian bats . canberra : environment australia .\nsupport sustainability : support efforts in your community , county and state to ensure that sustainability is a development goal . only through sustainable living will we provide rare and declining species , like the northern long - eared bat , the habitat and resources they need to survive along with us .\npennay , m . ( 2002 ) . greater long - eared bat nyctophilus timoriensis . appendix 2 , brigalow belt south stage two , vertebrate fauna survey , analysis and modelling . unpublished report . page ( s ) 30 - 31 . sydney , planning nsw , resource and conservation division .\nparnaby , h 2009 . a taxonomic review of australian greater long - eared bats previously known as nyctophilus timoriensis ( chiroptera : vespertilionidae ) and some associated taxa , australian zoologist . 35 , 39 - 81 .\nwhite - nose syndrome : no other threat is as severe and immediate as the disease , white - nose syndrome . if this disease had not emerged , it is unlikely the northern long - eared bat would be experiencing such a dramatic population decline . since symptoms were first observed in new york in 2006 , white - nose syndrome has spread rapidly from the northeast to the midwest and southeast ; an area that includes the core of the northern long - eared bat\u2019s range where it was most common before this disease . numbers of northern long - eared bats ( from hibernacula counts ) have declined by up to 99 percent in the northeast . although there is uncertainty about the rate that white - nose syndrome will spread throughout the species\u2019 range , it is expected to spread throughout the united states in the foreseeable future .\nsummer habitat : during the summer , northern long - eared bats roost singly or in colonies underneath bark , in cavities or in crevices of both live trees and snags ( dead trees ) . males and non - reproductive females may also roost in cooler places , like caves and mines . northern long - eared bats seem to be flexible in selecting roosts , choosing roost trees based on suitability to retain bark or provide cavities or crevices . this bat has also been found rarely roosting in structures , like barns and sheds .\nparnaby , h ( 2009 ) . a taxonomic review of australian greater long - eared bats previously known as nyctophilus timoriensis ( chiroptera : vespertilionidae ) and some associated taxa . australian zoologist . 35 : 39 - 81 .\nwind farm operation : wind turbines kill bats , and , depending on the species , in very large numbers . mortality has been documented for northern long - eared bats , although a small number have been found to date . however , there are many wind projects within a large portion of the bat\u2019s range and many more are planned .\ninstall a bat box : dead and dying trees are usually not left standing , so trees suitable for roosting may be in short supply and bat boxes may provide additional roost sites . bat boxes are especially needed from april to august when females look for safe and quiet places to give birth and raise their pups .\nrange : the northern long - eared bat\u2019s range includes much of the eastern and north central united states , and all canadian provinces from the atlantic ocean west to the southern yukon territory and eastern british columbia . the species\u2019 range includes the following 37 states and the district of columbia : alabama , arkansas , connecticut , delaware , georgia , illinois , indiana , iowa , kansas , kentucky , louisiana , maine , maryland , massachusetts , michigan , minnesota , mississippi , missouri , montana , nebraska , new hampshire , new jersey , new york , north carolina , north dakota , ohio , oklahoma , pennsylvania , rhode island , south carolina , south dakota , tennessee , vermont , virginia , west virginia , wisconsin , and wyoming .\nthe northern long - eared bat is federally listed as a threatened species under the endangered species act . endangered species are animals and plants that are in danger of becoming extinct . threatened species are animals and plants that are likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future . identifying , protecting , and restoring endangered and threatened species is the primary objective of the u . s . fish and wildlife service\u2019s endangered species program .\n[ \u2026 ] slate grey to brown fur on the back and ash grey on the belly . this species has longer ears than n . bifax bifax ; they are usually 24 to 30 mm long . this bat is known for its habit of changing roost sites [ \u2026 ]\nfeeding habits : like most bats , northern long - eared bats emerge at dusk to feed . they primarily fly through the understory of forested areas feeding on moths , flies , leafhoppers , caddisflies , and beetles , which they catch while in flight using echolocation or by gleaning motionless insects from vegetation .\nlumsden , l . f . & a . f . bennett ( 2006 ) . flexibility and specificity in the roosting ecology of the lesser long - eared bat nyctophilus geoffroyi : a common and widespread australian species . pp . 290 - 307 . in : akbar , z . , g . f . mccracken , and t . h . kunz . ( eds . ) . functional and evolutionary ecology of bats . new york : oxford university press .\nloss or degradation of summer habitat : loss or degradation of summer habitat : highway construction , commercial development , surface mining , and wind facility construction permanently remove habitat and are activities prevalent in many areas of this bat\u2019s range . forest management benefits northern long - eared bats by keeping areas forested rather than converted to other uses . but , depending on type and timing , forest management activities can cause mortality and temporarily remove or degrade roosting and foraging habitat .\ndepartment of the environment and heritage ( deh ) ( 2006pt ) . nyctophilus timoriensis ( south - eastern form ) in species profile and threats ( sprat ) database . unpublished species profile . canberra , act : deh . available from : urltoken .\nwinter habitat : northern long - eared bats spend winter hibernating in caves and mines , called hibernacula . they use areas in various sized caves or mines with constant temperatures , high humidity , and no air currents . within hibernacula , surveyors find them hibernating most often in small crevices or cracks , often with only the nose and ears visible .\naddressing wind turbine mortality : the service and others are working to minimize bat mortality from wind turbines on several fronts . we fund and conduct research to determine why bats are susceptible to turbines , how to operate turbines to minimize mortality and where important bird and bat migration routes are located . the service , state natural resource agencies , and wind energy industry are developing a midwest wind energy habitat conservation plan that will provide wind farms a mechanism to continue operating legally while minimizing and mitigating listed bat mortality .\nthis species is brown to tan in colour and has long ears from 19 to 27 mm . its diagnostic feature is the low , rounded and hairless ridge on the muzzle behind the noseleaf .\nthe subspecies nyctophilus bifax daedalus , which occurs from gulf of carpentaria , eastern queensland to western australia may soon be elevated to species status ( h . parnaby pers . comm . ) . records of this species from new guinea , although included here , are unlikely to represent this species ( parnaby and churchill 2008 ) .\nthis bat has long ears and a shallow muzzle ridge groove . the fur is dark grey - brown with slightly lighter tips . it weighs between 11 - 20 g , with females ( 14 - 21 g ) usually heavier than males ( 11 - 15 g ) . it has a head to body length of 50 - 75 mm , and a tail length of 35 - 50 mm .\nfound from cape york through eastern queensland to the far north - east corner of nsw . in nsw they appear to be confined to the coastal plain and nearby coastal ranges , extending south to the clarence river area , with a few records further south around coffs harbour . the species can be locally common within its restricted range .\nbat roosts - north east nsw . natural resource management advisory series : note 7 ( nsw department of environment , climate change and water ( nsw deccw ) , 2004b ) [ information sheet ] .\nbat calls of new south wales - region based guide to the echolocation calls of microchiropteran bats ( nsw department of environment , climate change and water ( nsw deccw ) , 2004a ) [ database ] .\nafter fertilization , pregnant females migrate to summer areas where they roost in small colonies and give birth to a single pup . maternity colonies of females and young generally have 30 to 60 bats at the beginning of the summer , although larger maternity colonies have also been seen . numbers of individuals in roosts , typically decreases from pregnancy to post - lactation . most bats within a maternity colony give birth around the same time , which may occur from late may or early june to late july , depending where the colony is located within the species\u2019 range . young bats start flying by 18 to 21 days after birth . maximum lifespan for the northern long - eared bat is estimated to be up to to 18 . 5 years .\nother sources of mortality : although no significant population declines have been observed due to the sources of mortality listed below , they may now be important factors affecting this bat\u2019s viability until we find ways to address white - nose syndrome .\nlaw , b . & j . anderson ( 1999 ) . a survey for the southern myotis myotis macropus ( vespertilionidae ) and other bat species in river red gum eucalyptus camaldulensis forests of the murray river , new south wales . australian zoologist . 31 : 166 - 174 .\nthis species has been found to range up to 7 . 06 km from its roost when foraging at night . most roosts are used for just a single day before the bat moves to a new roost site , and it can move large distances ( up to 5 . 88 km ) between consecutive roost sites .\nthis microbat species has a scattered distribution mostly within the murray - darling basin , but with some records outside of this area . it is more common in box , ironbark and cypress pine woodland on the western slopes and plains . its stronghold seems to be the pilliga scrub . it roosts in tree hollows , crevices and under loose bark . it is a slow flying agile bat that hunts for non - flying prey , especially caterpillars and beetles ( oeh 2012 ) .\nimpacts to hibernacula : gates or other structures intended to exclude people from caves and mines not only restrict bat flight and movement , but also change airflow and internal cave and mine microclimates . a change of even a few degrees can make a cave unsuitable for hibernating bats . also , cave - dwelling bats are vulnerable to human disturbance while hibernating . arousal during hibernation causes bats to use up their already reduced energy stores , which may lead to individuals not surviving the winter .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nlamoreux , j . ( global mammal assessment team ) , racey , p . a . , medell\u00edn , r . & hutson , a . m . ( chiroptera red list authority )\njustification : this species is listed as least concern . although it is known only from a few localities in new guinea , the species is widespread in australia , does not appear to have any major threats , and there is no reason to believe the species is in decline .\nthis species has been recorded from northern australia and the island of new guinea ( papua province , indonesia and papua new guinea ) . in australia it is present in north western australia , north northern territory , coastal queensland , and north - east new south wales . on new guinea , it has only been recorded from a few widely scattered localities . it ranges from sea level to 500 m asl in queensland ( l . hall pers . comm . ) , but probably occurs 0 - 400 m asl elsewhere .\nin queensland it is common and widespread , and in the west of the range it is common but localised ( n . mckenzie pers . comm . ) . in new guinea , it is known only from a few specimens .\nthis species forages for insects in rainforest and sclerophyll woodland , and it is often associated with waterbodies in these habitats ( bonaccorso 1998 ; parnaby and churchill 2008 ) . in the kimberley and pilbara , it is found in rainforest and riparian zones ( n . mckenzie pers . comm . ) . animals roost communally in hollow tress , dense foliage , or in houses . females often give birth to twins ( parnaby and churchill 2008 ) .\nin general there appear to be no major threats to this species . however , they require a range of available roosting sites for survival ( parnaby and churchill 2008 ) . the status of populations on new guinea needs further investigation ( bonaccorso 1998 ) . riparian zones are being degraded throughout australia , which may pose local threats ( n . mckenzie pers . comm . ) .\nit is present in many protected areas in northern australia and has been recorded from the kau wildlife area in papua new guinea . further studies are needed into the distribution , status , and threats to this species on new guinea . additional taxonomic research is also needed .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe areas shown in pink and / purple are the sub - regions where the species or community is known or predicted to occur . they may not occur thoughout the sub - region but may be restricted to certain areas . ( click here to see geographic restrictions ) . the information presented in this map is only indicative and may contain errors and omissions .\nlowland subtropical rainforest and wet and swamp eucalypt forest , extending into adjacent moist eucalypt forest .\nroosts in tree hollows , the hanging foliage of palms , in dense clumps of foliage of rainforest trees , under bark and in shallow depressions on trunks and branches , among epiphytes , in the roots of strangler figs , among dead fronds of tree ferns and less often in buildings .\nclick on a region below to view detailed distribution , habitat and vegetation information .\nclearing , fragmentation and isolation of lowland subtropical rainforest , wet and swamp eucalypt forest and coastal scrub , particularly forest and scrub close to the coast , for agricultural , residential and other development .\nloss of hollow - bearing trees and stands of palms and rainforest trees used for roosting and maternity sites .\na targeted strategy for managing this species has been developed under the saving our species program ; click here for details . for more information on the saving our species program click here\nassist with removal of weeds , particularly with bitou bush control in coastal areas .\nprotect known and potential habitat , particularly low elevation rainforest and coastal scrub from clearing , fragmentation and isolation .\nchurchill , s . ( 1998 ) australian bats . new holland , sydney .\nchurchill , s . ( 2008 ) australian bats . second edition . new holland , sydney .\nnsw national parks and wildlife service ( 2002 ) threatened species of the upper north coast of nsw : fauna . ( nsw npws , coffs harbour )\nclose the former department of environment and heritage protection is merging to form the new department of environment and science . this site will be updated while the new department of environment and science website is being established .\nconservation status : this species is listed as vulnerable in queensland ( nature conservation act 1992 ) and nationally ( environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ) . it is ranked as a medium priority under the department of environment and heritage protection back on track species prioritisation framework .\nin queensland its preferred habitat is eucalypt woodland , although it has also been recorded from rainforest with hoop pines in the bunya mountains , and in semi evergreen vine thickets on the banks of the dawson river . it is most abundant in vegetation with a distinct canopy and a dense cluttered shrub layer .\nin queensland , pregnant and lactating females have been trapped in november . these females are believed to roost in groups in larger tree hollows .\ncurtis , l , dennis , a , mcdonald , kr , kyne , pm and debus , sjs . 2012 . queensland\u2019s threatened animals . csiro publishing , collingwood , victoria .\ndepartment of the environment and energy ( doee ) 2017 . nyctophilus corbeni in species profile and threats database , doee , canberra .\nduncan , a , baker , gb and montgomery , n ( eds . ) 1999 the action plan for australian bats . environment australia , canberra .\nchurchhill , s 2009 australian bats ( second edition ) . allen and unwin , sydney .\nfor information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .\nrecovery plan required , included on the commenced list ( 1 / 11 / 2009 ) .\nsurvey guidelines for australia ' s threatened bats . epbc act survey guidelines 6 . 1\n( department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( dewha ) , 2010 ) [ admin guideline ] .\ntrees with hollows . north east nsw . natural resource management advisory series : note 1 ( nsw department of environment , climate change and water ( nsw deccw ) , 2004g ) [ information sheet ] .\nenhancing biodiversity hotspots along western queensland stock routes ( queensland department of environment and resource management ( qld derm ) , 2009a ) [ management plan ] .\nthe distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .\nthreats to the species include habitat loss and fragmentation , fire and reduction of hollow availability .\nfor the most current information relating to the species and to assist with regulatory considerations , refer to its conservation advice . recent research has also been undertaken ( law et al . 2016 ) .\ndewha ( 2007 ) . loss of terrestrial climatic habitat caused by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases . available from : urltoken .\nduncan , a . , g . b . baker & n . montgomery ( 1999 ) . the action plan for australian bats . canberra : environment australia . available from : urltoken .\nlumsden , l . & a . bennett ( 2000 ) . bats in rural landscapes : a significant but largely unknown faunal component . t . barlow & r . thorburn , eds . bushcare grassy landscapes conference . page ( s ) 42 - 50 . canberra : environment australia , biodiversity group .\nmcfarland , d . , m . venz & t . reis ( 1999 ) . priority species summaries . an attachment to the report : terrestrial vertebrate fauna of the brigalow belt south bioregion : assessment and analysis for conservation planning . brisbane : biodiversity planning , environmental protection agency .\nvan dyck , s . & r . strahan ( 2008 ) . the mammals of australia , third edition . page ( s ) 880 . sydney : reed new holland .\nvenz , m . , m . mathieson & m . schulz ( 2002 ) . fauna of the lower dawson river floodplain - an assessment of fauna downstream of the proposed nathan dam . in : forest ecosystem research and assessment . forest ecosystem research and assessment , indooroopilly : queensland parks and wildlife service .\naustralian biological resources study , ed . ( 2013 ) . australian faunal directory . australian biological resources study . available from : urltoken .\ncommonwealth of australia ( 2001h ) . inclusion of species in the list of threatened species under section 178 of the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( 29 / 03 / 2001 ) . f2005b02658 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 04 - apr - 2001 .\ncommonwealth of australia ( 2011e ) . amendment to the list of threatened species under section 178 of the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( 119 ) ( 01 / 08 / 2011 ) . f2011l01660 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 17 - aug - 2011 .\nanonymous ( 2009 ) . australian faunal directory . australian biological resources study . available from : urltoken .\nepbc act email updates can be received via the communities for communities newsletter and the epbc act newsletter .\ncitation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . nyctophilus corbeni in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 06 : 49 : 45 + 1000 .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nbhatti , j . s . 1978 ,\na revision of karny ' s species of anaphothrips of the oriental region ( thysanoptera : thripidae )\n, senckenbergiana biologica , vol . 12 , pp . 1 - 27\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 2bfe1f0f - 0730 - 4472 - a625 - 64e3d128fa75\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3a276fcf - 77d3 - 4e83 - 8772 - 3f393ba5b49e\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 6c1e9fe6 - aaa9 - 43ec - 851d - 65adbe0e4da6\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : efe63af5 - 89a6 - 4d09 - 90b8 - 205a9407cab8\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 330649\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe midwest region includes illinois , indiana , iowa , michigan , minnesota , missouri , ohio and wisconsin . find a location near you\nreproduction : breeding begins in late summer or early fall when males begin to swarm near hibernacula . after copulation , females store sperm during hibernation until spring . in spring , they emerge from their hibernacula , ovulate and the stored sperm fertilizes an egg . this strategy is called delayed fertilization .\ndisease management : actions have been taken to try to reduce or slow the spread of white - nose syndrome through human transmission of the fungus into caves ( e . g . cave and mine closures and advisories ; national decontamination protocols ) . a national plan was prepared by the service and other state and federal agencies that details actions needed to investigate and manage white - nose syndrome . many state and federal agencies , universities and non - governmental organizations are researching this disease to try to control its spread and address its affect . see urltoken for more .\nhibernacula protection : many federal and state natural resource agencies and conservation organizations have protected caves and mines that are important hibernacula for cave - dwelling bats .\ndo not disturb hibernating bats : to protect bats and their habitats , comply with all cave and mine closures , advisories , and regulations . in areas without a cave and mine closure policy , follow approved decontamination protocols ( see urltoken ) - under no circumstances should clothing , footwear , or equipment that was used in a white - nose syndrome affected state or region be used in unaffected states or regions .\njoin and volunteer : join a conservation group ; many have local chapters . volunteer at a local nature center , zoo , or national wildlife refuge . many state natural resource agencies benefit greatly from citizen involvement in monitoring wildlife . check your state agency websites and get involved in citizen science efforts in your area .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service home page | department of the interior | urltoken | about the u . s . fish and wildlife service | accessibility | privacy | notices | disclaimer | foia\nthey like to live in wetter areas that include rainforest , monsoon forest , riparian forest , swamps and mangroves . they roost under peeling bark , hollows and in depressions on tree trunks in colonies of no more than 10 individuals .\ntwin young are born in october . a mother bats is able to carry the twins until their collective weight nearly equals her own .\nhawks , owls , pythons and feral cats . loss of trees , land clearing and wildfires\nsources : churchill , s . ( 2008 ) australian bats ( 2nd edition ) . allen and unwin , sydney . hall , l . ( 2009 ) bats , a wild australia guide . steve parish publishing , queensland . atlas of living australia\n\u00a9 2018 burnett mary regional group . all rights reserved . website disclaimer site developed by peekdesigns"]}
{"id": 1228, "summary": [{"text": "heterodon simus , commonly known as the southern hog-nosed snake , is a harmless snake species endemic to the southeastern united states .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "no subspecies are currently recognized . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "southern hognose snake", "paragraphs": ["the shaded region represents the range of the southern hognose snake in north carolina .\nsouthern hognose snakes are not as common as the eastern hognose snake . southerns are considered a species of concern in south carolina .\nbut these snakes are also known by many other common names such as texas hognose snake , prairie hognose snake , bluffer , blow snake , spoonbill snake , spreadhead snake , texas rooter , and faux viper .\nlike its larger cousin , the eastern hognose snake , southern hognose snakes also feign death to discourage potential predators . the southern has a more sharply upturned snout than the eastern .\nthe southern hognose snake is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe eastern hognose snake is found in the eastern half of the united states from central new england to florida . it is also found in southern canada . the eastern hognose snake is found in southern new hampshire .\ntheir range extends from southern canada to northern mexico through the central united states . in canada , it ' s found in southern alberta , southern saskatchewan , and southern manitoba .\ndescription : the southern hognose snake has an upturned snout , like its larger cousin the eastern hognose snake . southern hognose snakes are very stocky and have patterns of large , dark brown blotches on a tan or light gray background . their bellies are whitish and usually mottled with gray or brown . the southern hognose has a dark stripe running between its eye and the corner of its mouth . southern hognose snakes can be distinguished from eastern hognose snakes by the coloration under the tail , which is similar to that of their belly .\nfaking death is a tactic the eastern hognose snake uses when confronted by a predator .\nwestern hognose snake ( h . n . nasicus - baird & girard , 1852 )\ngloyd ' s hognose snake ( h . n . gloydi - edgren , 1952 )\nkennerly ' s hognose snake ( h . n . kennerlyi - kennicott , 1860 )\nin north america , the eastern hognose snakes share the genus heterodon with two other species , the southern hognose heterodon simus and the western hognose heterodon nasicus . the western hognose h . nasicus has three sub - species , the plains hognose h . n . nasicus , the dusty hognose h . n . gloydi and the mexican hognose h . n . kennerlyi .\nsouthern hognose snakes are carnivores , primarily consuming frogs , toads , lizards , small rodents and insects .\nto deter predators , the southern hognose snake uses a variety of defensive behaviours including puffing up its head , flattening its neck , hissing continuously and pretending to strike . the snake also employs an alternative strategy , rolling onto its back and playing dead . the southern hognose snake\u2019s defensive display is less elaborate than that of other hognose snakes ( 4 ) ( 6 ) ( 11 ) .\nthis species occurs widely in the united states , extending into southern canada . its range extends from southern new england through southern ontario to minnesota and south dakota , and south to southern texas , the gulf coast , and southern florida ( conant and collins 1991 , ernst and ernst 2003 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - southern hognose snake ( heterodon simus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - southern hognose snake ( heterodon simus )\ntitle =\narkive species - southern hognose snake ( heterodon simus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\njenson , j . 2004 . southern hognose snake heterodon simus . pp . 42 - 43 in r mirarchi , m bailey , t haggerty , t best , eds .\nendemic to north america , the southern hognose snake is only found in the southeast of the united states . it is distributed from eastern north carolina to southern florida , and as far west as south - eastern mississippi . however , a recent population survey failed to locate the southern hognose snake in mississippi or alabama , and it is possible that it has been eliminated from these states ( 1 ) ( 4 ) .\nreproduction : southern hognose snakes lay 6\u201314 eggs during the summer , and the babies look like miniature versions of the adults .\nthe fire ant ( solenopsis invicta ) , an invasive species introduced to the usa , predates on reptile eggs and hatchlings ( 13 ) . the specific impact these ants have on the southern hognose snake is unknown , but areas with heavy fire ant infestations have recorded a disappearance of the southern hognose snake ( 1 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .\ncomments : harmless ( non - venomous ) . see comments under eastern hognose snake ( heterodon platirhinos ) .\nbeane , j . , s . graham , t . thorp , l . pusser . 2014 . natural history of the southern hognose snake ( heterodon simus ) in north carolina , usa .\nthe southern hognose snake ( h . simus ) has a more upturned snout , and the underside of its tail and belly are the same uniform , pale , color ( tennant , 2003 ) .\nthe southern southern hognose snake ( heterodon simus ) is the smallest member of the genus heterodon ( 4 ) . all members of the genus have a characteristic upturned snout ( 5 ) . this species has a tan coloured body with square blocks of brown running down its back , and orange scales between the brown patches . small , round , dark brown blotches run along its sides and it has a cream or light grey belly with no markings ( 4 ) ( 6 ) . the southern hognose snake is rough to the touch , as it has keeled , or ridged scales ( 7 ) . the female southern hognose snake is larger than the male ( 4 ) .\nheterodon which means different tooth , is in reference to the characteristically enlarged dentition to the rear of the hognose snake\u2019s mouth .\nroadkill has been the main source of mortality for southern hog - nosed snakes and is opportunistically used as the main way to record snake populations .\nthe eastern hognose snake ' s favorite prey is toads , but it also preys on frogs , salamanders , small mammals , birds , and invertebrates . the eastern hognose snake uses its nose to root around for toads in their burrows . when a toad is disturbed by a hognose snake , it will often puff itself up like a balloon . the eastern hognose will uses his long rear fangs to pop the toad so it can swallow it .\ncolor patterns in young southern hog - nosed snakes are the same as color patterns seen in the adult snakes . southern hog - nosed snakes display indeterminate growth patterns .\nlack of proper fire management has resulted in the loss of dry sand hills , which are an important habitat for the southern hognose snake . road networks have also fragmented habitats , and although the southern hognose snake can withstand this disturbance , road mortality is a significant threat , especially for hatchlings ( 1 ) ( 4 ) ( 7 ) . further concerns include pesticide application and the habitual persecution of snakes by humans ( 1 ) .\nthe western hognose snake feeds on any animal that it can overpower and kill . their diet includes predominantly amphibians such as frogs , toads , and reptiles like small lizards and other small snake species .\nstrategic environmental research and development program . species profile : southern hognose snake ( heterodon sinus ) on military installations in southeastern united states . 98 - 4 . chapel hill , north carolina : the nature conservancy . 1998 .\nglobal range : ( > 2 , 500 , 000 square km ( greater than 1 , 000 , 000 square miles ) ) the range extends from southern new england through southern ontario to minnesota and south dakota , and south to southern texas , the gulf coast , and southern florida ( conant and collins 1991 , ernst and ernst 2003 ) .\nallen , r . 1994 . a profile of the western hognose snake ( heterodon nasicus ) . rephiberary 199 : 9 - 10 .\nmccallum , m . l . 1995 . heterodon nasicus ( western hognose snake ) . herpetological review 26 ( 1 ) : 46 .\njohns , n . 2000 .\nwestern hognose snake\n( on - line ) . accessed march 22 , 2002 at urltoken .\nsouthern hog - nosed snakes prey on regional frogs , toads , lizards . the presence of southern hog - nosed snakes in the ecosystem affects the population of those prey . southern hog - nosed snakes are prey to various snakes , carnivorous mammals , and birds .\nspreading adder , hog - nosed snake , adder , bastard rattlesnake , black adder , black blowing viper , black hog - nosed snake , black viper snake , blauser , blower , blowing adder , blowing snake , blow ( ing ) viper , blow snake , buckwheat - nose snake , calico snake , checkered adder , checquered adder , chunk head , common hog - nosed snake , common spreading adder , deaf adder , eastern hognose snake , flat - head , flat - head ( ed ) adder , hay - nose snake , hissing adder , hissing snake , hog - nosed adder , hog - nosed rattler , hog - nose snake , hog - nosed viper , hissing viper , ( mountain ) moccasin , north american adder , north american hog - nosed snake , pilot , poison viper , puff ( ing ) adder , red snake , rock adder , rossel bastard , sand adder , sand viper , spotted ( spreading ) adder , spread nelly , spread - head moccasin , spread - head snake , spread - head viper , flat - head adder ( spreading ) viper .\nlittle is known about the southern hognose snake\u2019s breeding biology , and most of the available information has been obtained through studying captive animals . the breeding season is thought to be from may to june , and the female southern hognose snake will lay a clutch of 6 to 14 eggs from late spring to early summer . the eggs take 65 to 70 days to hatch and the hatchlings emerge between mid - september and early october ( 4 ) ( 7 ) .\nthis hog - nosed snake has an immense range . it may be found along the atlantic seacoast from central new england to the southern tip of florida and then westward to central texas and central minnesota . it also occurs in southern ontario , canada .\na lack of information on the abundance and distribution of the southern hognose snake makes it difficult to determine the threats to this species . however , the most important factors are thought to be habitat loss and invasive species ( 4 ) .\niverson , j . b . 1995 . heterodon nasicus ( western hognose snake ) . reproduction . herpetological review 26 ( 4 ) : 206 .\nthe eastern hognose snake is found in woodlands with sandy soil , fields , farmland , and coastal areas . it is active during the day .\n2000 .\nwestern hognose snake\n( on - line ) . arizona - sonora desert museum . accessed november 27 , 2004 at urltoken .\nleclere , j .\niowa herpetology ( western hognose snake )\n( on - line ) . accessed march 21 , 2002 at urltoken .\nbraddell , d . l . 1984 . a western record for the plains hognose snake in manitoba . blue jay 42 ( 4 ) : 196 .\nhammack , s . h . 1991 . heterodon nasicus kennerlyi ( mexican hognose snake ) . oophagy . herpetological review 22 ( 4 ) : 132 .\nlowe , d . 1997 . keeping and breeding the western hognose snake ( heterodon nasicus ) . herptile 22 ( 2 ) : 89 - 92 .\n(\nspecies profile : southern hognose snake ( heterodon sinus ) on military installations in southeastern united states\n, 1998 ; beane , et al . , 2014 ; edgren , 1955 ; hammerson , 2007 ; tuberville , et al . , 2000 )\nallen , s . 1997 .\nwestern hognose snake\n( on - line ) . colorado herpetologial society . accessed november 27 , 2004 at urltoken .\nlittle is known about the longevity of southern hog - nosed snakes . eastern hog - nosed snakes (\na wide spread snake , the eastern hognose snake is found throughout the eastern united states from eastern - central minnesota to extreme south new hampshire south to south florida , west to east texas and west kansas . ( behler and king )\nmattison , c . 1992 . reproduction in the dusty hognose snake , heterodon nasicus gloydi . litteratura serpentium english edition 12 ( 5 ) : 98 - 101 .\nmcalister , w . h . 1963 . evidence of mild toxicity in the saliva of the hognose snake ( heterodon ) . herpetologica 19 : 132 - 137 .\nthe western hognose snake is a are relatively small but stout - bodied snake species with females being considerably larger than males . adult specimens typically reach about 2 feet ( 60 cm ) in length , with a maximum length of about 3 feet and\ntuberville , t . , j . bodie , j . jensen , l . laclaire , j . gibbons . 2000 . apparent decline of the southern hog - nosed snake , heterodon simus .\ncontrary to popular belief , the southern hognose snake does not produce toxic venom and it is not considered to be a dangerous species , although it does have a painful bite ( 12 ) . it feeds mainly on toads , which it digs out of loose soil using its upturned snout . it then grasps the prey using its enlarged rear fangs ( 4 ) ( 6 ) ( 11 ) . although toads form the majority of the southern hognose snake\u2019s diet , it also feeds on other small vertebrates such as lizards , mice and frogs ( 7 ) .\nlighting - although hognose snakes are naturally diurnal , no special lighting setup is necessary .\npendlebury , g . b . 1976b . the western hognose snake , heterodon nasicus nasicus , in alberta . canadian field naturalist 90 ( 4 ) : 416 - 422 .\nsouthern hognose snakes ( heterodon simus ) ; commonly known as puff adder , hissing adder , spreading adder , blow viper and the hissing sand snake , belongs to the colubridae family . they average in size between 14 to 21 inches long , with the record being 24 inches long .\nsouthern hog - nosed snakes are most commonly found in very xeric , upland sand hills . other habitats may include forests , woodlands , river floodplains , and other dry soil areas . southern hog - nosed snakes inhabit longleaf pine (\nlazcano , d . , jr . 1988 . life history notes . heterodon nasicus kennerlyi ( mexican hognose snake ) . coloration . herpetological review 19 ( 2 ) : 36 .\nconservation status : southern hognose snakes have apparently declined in recent years and are of conservation concern throughout their range . they have not been found in alabama or mississippi since the 1970 ' s and are restricted to scattered locations in the states where they still occur . although introduced fire ants have been implicated in the decline of southern hognose snakes , they have certainly also suffered from loss of longleaf pine forest , urban sprawl , and conversion of upland habitats to agriculture . unfortunately , the secretive habits of this species have hampered study of their ecology and population dynamics . southern hognose snakes are protected throughout the state of georgia .\nrichardson , a . d . ( 2004 ) hognose snakes . capstone press , minnesota .\ntravis , c . a . , d . chiszar , and h . m . smith . heterodon nasicus ( western hognose snake ) . herpetological review 27 ( 4 ) : 212 .\nthe southern hognose snake is a secretive species and is rarely spotted in the wild , spending much of its time in underground in burrows , 20 to 30 centimetres below the surface . it is thought to be diurnal , emerging from its burrow in early morning or late afternoon ( 4 ) ( 11 ) .\nsouthern trappers nuisance wildlife removal bonita springs , florida ph : 239 . 992 . 8966 cell : 239 . 405 . 2401\nthe western hognose is currently classified as least concern by the iucn . unlike their close relative the\ncensky , e . j . and c . j . mccoy . 1985 . geographic distribution . heterodon nasicus nasicus ( plains hognose snake ) . herpetological review 16 ( 2 ) : 60 .\nfuller , s . r . 1981 . a case of envenomation by a western hognose snake , heterodon n . nasicus . northern ohio association of herpetological notes 9 ( 1 ) : 11 .\neven though the western hognose snake as suffered some local declines it is still widespread today . like other species , they are affected by the conversion of the original prairie habitat to agricultural land .\nhave tails that are nearly all black . the tails of southern hog - nosed snakes are always a similar color to the rest of the ventral side . the hatchling snakes resemble the same coloration and blotch patterns of adult southern hog - nosed snakes .\nsouthern hognose snakes are heavily thick bodied . their snouts are just sharply turned upwards and pointed . their color patterns consist of a light yellowish brown , some are tinted with an orange - red color , with dark blotches on their backs and smaller blotches on their sides . their bellies and tail are the same light pale gray color . their is a dark line that extends from its upper jaw thru the eye . southern hognose snakes have round pupils .\ncomparison with other species : the eastern hognose snake ( heterodon platirhinos ) has a light belly and underside of the tail , and a less upturned snout , and the pigmy rattlesnake ( sistrurus miliarius ) has a blunt nose \u2013 it is easy to distinguish between the harmless hognose snakes and pigmy rattlesnake .\nthe southern hognose snake can be found in dry , open areas , such as coastal sand dunes , river floodplains , and mixed oak - pine woodlands . it prefers sandy or loamy , well - drained soil , which it can easily burrow in ( 1 ) ( 7 ) ( 8 ) ( 9 ) ( 10 ) .\nmost common on sandy soils , the eastern hognose inhabits open woodlands , pasturelands , meadows and plains .\nwhen most hognose snakes get excited or threatened they flatten their necks like a cobra . there ' s a myth that puff adders ( which spread their necks like hognose snakes ) mix poison with their breath and can kill a person up to a distance of 25 feet . if the threat persists , they turn over on their back and fake death . the western hognose snake usually does not perform this procedure .\nhabits : southern hognose snakes are active strictly by day and are often seen on warm mornings in the spring and fall . they are highly fossorial ( living underground ) and are most often encountered crossing roads that pass through sandy habitats . when confronted , hognose snakes often put on an elaborate threat display : they hiss ; spread the skin around their head and neck ( like a cobra ) , and feign striking . eventually , they will even play dead , rolling on their back and opening their mouth . despite this fairly convincing show , southern hognose snakes virtually never bite .\nthe southern hognose snake lays eggs . breeding takes place between april and august . males often follow the female around for several days prior to courtship and copulation . they lay between 6 - 14 whitish , thin shelled , leathery eggs , which hatch in 55 - 60 days . hatchlings are 6 - 7 inches ( 15 - 17 cm ) .\nmontgomery , c . and s . p . mackessy . 1999 . heterodon nasicus nasicus ( plains hognose snake ) . lack of paralysis following vertebral disjunction . herpetological review 30 ( 4 ) : 227 - 228 .\nwill feed with a motivation not unlike that of the hungriest rat snake ! it is quite comical to witness a juvenile eastern hognose in active pursuit of a live lizard . there is nothing graceful about it ! the\nmany discoveries involve specimens encountered out in the open . much of the time it is simply a matter of just focusing on the nearly invisible snake while you are visually scanning the ground during snake hunting . finding a\nfew people within its range are unfamiliar with the eastern hognose snake heterodon platyrhinos . having a whimsical face with large ominous eyes and a permanent smile , this snake leaves many who are so fortunate to find one with a feeling of bliss . it has a short , stocky structure and is quite animated , diverting our attention away from the fact that the eastern hognose is a powerful predator , often swallowing other animals while still alive !\nthe plains hognose snake ( h . nasicus ) , have a sandy ground color more of less uniformly , patterned with brown dorsolateral spots and their ventral scales are heavily pigmented with black spots ( tennant , 2003 ) .\nyoung , r . a . 1992 . effects of duvernoy ' s gland secretions from the eastern hognose snake , heterodon platyrhinos , on smooth muscle and neuromuscular junction . toxicon 30 ( 7 ) : 775 - 779 .\nit feeds mainly on spadefoot , southern , and oak toads . however , occasionally it may eat other frogs , lizards , and small rodents .\nmoore , j . e . 1953 . the hog - nosed snake in alberta . herpetologica 9 : 173 .\nwater - clean water must be available at all times in a bowl that is heavy enough that the snake will not constantly tip it over . with hognose snakes , particularly the western species , it is important to keep the cage dry . humidity is thought to possibly cause respiratory infections in hognose snakes , an illness that is often fatal .\nsouthern hog - nosed snakes are oviparous and do not care for their eggs or hatchlings . once the eggs are deposited in shallow burrows , the parental investment stops . southern hog - nosed snakes have not been seen to return to the young or invest in the young once the eggs are laid .\n, extends from southern canada to northern mexico . its range is bordered to the west by colorado and wyoming , and in the east by illinois .\ngoldberg , s . r . 2004a . reproduction in the western hognose snake , heterodon nasicus ( serpentes : colubridae ) from the southwestern part of its range . texas journal of science 56 ( 3 ) : 267 - 273 .\nleavesley , l . k . 1987 . natural history and thermal relations of the western hognose snake ( heterodon nasicus ) in southwestern manitoba . m . s . thesis . university of manitoba , winnipeg , manitoba . 160 pp .\nvirtually nothing will persuade them to move until the threat is gone , the snake ' s body will be limp and lifeless if picked up . after a few minutes if it perceives no threat , the snake quickly slithers away .\nsmith , w . and c . wershler . 1989 . pilot project on the study of the western hognose snake in alberta . paper for alberta forestry , lands and wildlife by sweetgrass consultants ltd . , calgary , ab . 17pp .\none cannot help but to have a feeling of enlightenment while in the presence of an eastern hognose snake and though many adore them , there are those that fear them and find them to be the epitome of all that is evil .\nlike other hognose snake species , they get their common name from their\nhog - like\nappearance due to a modified and strongly upturned rostral scale present in their snout . this particular adaptation also makes them snakes very good burrowers .\nsouthern hognose snakes are found in northern florida as far south as lake okeechobee . their preferred habitats include areas such as sand - hills , scrub , high pine and turkey oak hard - woods , hard - wood hammocks , meadows , dry river floodplains and cultivated fields .\n(\nspecies profile : southern hognose snake ( heterodon sinus ) on military installations in southeastern united states\n, 1998 ; beane , et al . , 2010 ; beane , et al . , 2014 ; behler and king , 1979 ; conant and collins , 1998 ; edgren , 1955 ; gibbons and dorcas , 2005 ; jensen , 2008 ; jenson , 2004 ; oliver , 1955 )\nwebb , r . g . and c . m . eckerman . 1998 . neotype and type locality of the western hognose snake , heterodon nasicus ( serpentes : colubridae ) . texas journal of science 50 ( 2 ) : 99 - 106 .\neastern hognose snakes first mate when they are around two years old . they mate in the spring . the female lays 15 - 25 eggs in a depression in sandy soil or under a rock or log . the eggs incubate in 1 - 2 months . in the winter , eastern hognose snakes will dig a burrow to hibernate in or use an abandoned fox , skunk , or woodchuck den . predators of the eastern hognose snake include owls , hawks , skunks , opossums , and other snakes ,\nenge , k . , k . wood . 2002 . a pedestrian road survey of an upland snake community in florida .\npainter , c . w . , b . r . tomberlin , and j . p . brastad . 1996 . serpentes : heterodon nasicus kennerlyi ( mexican hognose snake ) : maximum size . herpetological review 27 ( 4 ) : 203 - 204 .\nsuggests that the age of sexual maturity for southern hog - nosed snakes ranges from 2 - 3 years and that generation length is estimated from 5 - 10 years . it ' s likely that growth is indeterminate , as it the case for most reptiles . however , no literature has confirmed this for southern hog - nosed snakes .\n- found in all of texas excluding the panhandle , trans - pecos texas and the extreme southern rio grande valley , eastern oklahoma , southeastern missouri and southeastern kansas .\nwhen threatened , they usually behave similarly to eastern hognose snakes , but may be more reluctant to put on such a show .\nwright , j . 1998 . status of the plains hognose snake ( heterodon nasicus nasicus ) in alberta . alberta environmental protection , fisheries & wildlife management divison , and alberta conservation association , wildlife status report no . 15 , edmonton , ab . 26pp .\nsouthern hog - nosed snakes have diets consisting of toads , lizards , frogs , and small vertebrates . toads are the most common prey and include eastern spadefoot toads ( scaphiopus holbrookii ) and southern toads ( anaxyrus terrestris or anaxyrus terrestris ) . members of the genus ( lithobates ) , barking tree frogs ( hyla gratiosa ) , and ornate chorus frogs ( pseudacris ornata ) are frogs that southern hog - nosed snakes consume . lizards eaten by these snakes include six - lined racerunners ( cnemidophorus sexlineatus ) and ground skinks ( scincella lateralis ) . although extremely uncommon , rough stinkbugs ( brochymena arborea ) have been found in the stomach of few captured southern hog - nosed snakes .\nrange : uncommon to rare , but occasionally found throughout northern florida south to lake okeechobee . outside of florida , it is found from southern mississippi east to north carolina .\n, have a maximum longevity of 9 . 1 years . the assumed generation time of the southern hog - nosed snakes is 5 years . annual mortality rates are unknown .\nwilkie , b . 1996 . force feeding snakes . my experience with rat snakes and western hognose snakes . rephiberary 221 : 10 .\nweinstein , s . a . and keyler , d . e . ( 2009 ) local envenoming by the western hognose snake ( heterodon nasicus ) : a case report and review of medically signi\ufb01cant heterodon bites . toxicon , 54 ( 3 ) : 354 - 360 .\ntuberville , t . d . , j . r . bodie , j . b . jensen , l . laclaire , and j . w . gibbons . 2000 . apparent decline of the southern hog - nosed snake , heterodon simus . journal of the elisa mitchell scientific society 116 : 19 - 40 .\nat birth , the western hognose hatchlings are fully developed and around 5 to 9 inches ( 13\u201323 cm ) in total length . they reach sexual maturity at approximately 2 years of age , although the size is more important and not so much the snake ' s age .\nsexton , o . j . 1979 . remarks on defensive behavior of hognose snakes , heterodon . herpetological review 10 : 86 - 87 .\nsome of the western hognose predators include fox , coyotes , hawks , crows , raccoons , larger snakes and both domestic cats and dogs .\ncomments : adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100 , 000 . this snake is fairly common in many parts of its range .\nhas a life expectancy of around fourteen years in the wild . for the most part this is average in comparison to other snake species .\nhognose snakes feed almost exclusively on toads , although they will occasionally consume other prey . they seem to be immune to poisons produced by toads , and are equipped with enlarged teeth ( called rear fangs ) in the back of their mouths that are used to puncture inflated toads so that they may be more easily swallowed . female southern hognose snakes lay 6 - 14 eggs in sandy soil or logs in the early summer . the eggs hatch in september - october .\ntuberville , t . d . , bodie , j . r . , jensen , j . b . , laclaire , l . and gibbons , j . w . ( 2000 ) apparent decline of the southern hog - nosed snake , heterodon simus . journal of the elisha mitchell scientific society , 116 : 19 - 40 .\nthe species name platyrhinos directs to the snake ' s upturned snout . this enlarged , upturned rostral scale aids this fossorial snake not only as a tool to root out their preferred diet of amphibians from a daytime retreat beneath the earth\u2019s surface , but also as a tool for burrowing into loose substrate .\nis a relatively short , stocky snake with mildly keeled scales and may reach lengths in the neighborhood of 48 inches with most individuals being considerably smaller .\ndid you know ? in colder climates some snakes\nhibernate\nin the winter , this is called brumation , find more snake facts for kids .\nroth , j . j . , b . j . johnson , and h . m . smith . 1989 . the western hognose snake , heterodon nasicus , west of the continental divide in colorado , and its implications . bulletin of the chicago herpetological society 24 ( 9 ) : 161 - 163 .\nhave declined by a considerable amount in certain regions , and as a result western hognose snakes are listed as threatened or even endangered in some of the states in which they reside . these states include iowa and illinois . numerous human developments have pushed western hognose snakes from their sandy habitat into more wooded areas , where it is ill - equipped for survival . in these states there are programs to help save these snakes ' habitats . in the southern states , such as texas and new mexico , western hognose snakes are quite common . in these areas there is no shortage of the sandy areas which are optimal for these snakes , so they are able to thrive .\nblake , p . 1993 . success with odour manipulation and western hognose snakes , heterodon nasicus nasicus . herptological review 18 ( 2 ) : 60 - 61 .\nrolling hills zoo , 2001 - 2002 .\nrolling hills refuge\n( on - line ) . western hognose . accessed march 21 , 2002 at urltoken .\nruzicka , i . 2000 . curious facts from keeping the western hog - nosed snake heterodon nasicus . akvarium terarium 43 ( 3 ) : 61 - 62 .\nvarious people have questioned whether or not this snake is actually venomous . however , an article published by michael a . morris describes the effects that the bite of\nthe presence of the upturned snout in the southern hog - nosed snakes allows the species to dig up their prey . their large posterior maxillary teeth puncture the prey ; this is specifically important for the southern hog - nosed snakes due to the prey ( many toads and frogs ) inflating themselves when attacked . the act of puncturing the prey deflates the toads or frogs and makes the animal easier for the snakes to swallow .\n) brought to the snakes habitat around the 1980s ( bean et al . 2014 ) . the introduction of these ants to southern hog - nosed snakes ' ecosystem has greatly affected their young survival and overall population .\nthis care sheet is by no means intended as a comprehensive guide to hognose snakes . for further information , read as much as you can about these beautiful reptiles .\nsome communication occurs with other species . this communication involves visual signals , noises , and sometimes tactile cues . when western hognose snakes encounter a potential predator , they will at first hiss , and flatten their heads and necks to make themselves appear larger . if this fails to ward off the predator , the snake may strike - - although it does not bite , apparently , this movement is threatening . if this fails , the snake will feign death in hopes that the predator will lose interest .\nan ideal pet snake , because it is extremely docile and rarely bites . once handled by humans enough , the snakes are calm and there is little or no danger of them biting . this snake has an extremely mild venom , and so does not pose a health risk to humans even if a human manages to get bitten .\nare strict amphibian feeders . although in the wild , eastern hognose snakes are often encountered while swallowing the toads with which they frequently feed upon , captive keepers have learned that the diet of this snake is actually quite diverse . even the juveniles are opportunists , taking insects as well as lizards and possibly other reptiles in addition to amphibians .\nhunziker , r . 1990 . the best defense : an introduction to hognose snakes . tropical fish hobbyist 39 ( 4 ) : 106 - 108 , 110 - 115 .\nhas two main anti - predator adaptations , both of whihc are behavioral . the first line of defense for this snake is to make itself appear larger by making its head and neck flatter . this flattening is accompanied by extremely loud hissing and blowing , whihc apparently makes the individual seem enraged and dangerous . if this defense fails to ward off a predator , the snake will shift into phase two of its defense . this begins with the snake spasming uncontrollably , and then rolling over on its back , lying motionless . western hognose snakes will feign death in order to make a predator lose interest . when an indivudual perceives an absence of danger , it will resume its activities .\nsnakes as well as northern black racers and southern alligator lizards seem to be mite magnets ! be diligent in your cleanliness and make daily inspections so that if a problem begins it can be kept within the boundaries of control .\nkugelberg , a . 1991 . western hognosed snake , heterodon n . nasicus . newsletter of the australian society of herpetologists incorporated 34 ( 7 ) : 147 - 149 .\n(\nspecies profile : southern hognose snake ( heterodon sinus ) on military installations in southeastern united states\n, 1998 ; beane , et al . , 2010 ; beane , et al . , 2014 ; behler and king , 1979 ; blair , et al . , 1957 ; conant and collins , 1998 ; gibbons and dorcas , 2005 ; gibbons and semlitsch , 1991 ; holman , 2000 ; jensen , 2008 ; jenson , 2004 ; palmer and braswell , 1995 ; richardson , 2003 ; tuberville , et al . , 2000 ; wright and wright , 1957 )\nthe presence of an upturned snout that is spade - like and keeled , in combination with keeled dorsal scales , a dark - patterned belly , a divided anal scale , and the absence of tail rattles and facial pit , distinguishes the western hog - nosed snake from all other snakes native to montana . the color pattern is described as similar to both the gophersnake and the prairie rattlesnake , but neither of these , nor any other snake in montana , has an upturned nose like the western hog - nosed snake .\nkroll , j . c . 1977 . self - wounding while death feigning by western hognose snakes ( heterodon nasicus ) . copeia 1977 ( 2 ) : 372 - 373 .\nthis snake is endemic to the southeast of the united states . it occurs on the coastal plain from eastern north carolina to southern florida ( lake okeechobee ) , west to southeastern mississippi ( conant and collins 1991 , palmer and braswell 1995 , tennant 1997 , ernst and ernst 2003 ) . it is now very rare ( or possibly extirpated ) in the western part of the range in mississippi and alabama .\nbrant , r . 1993 . a failed attempt to breed the western hog - nose snake , heterodon nasicus nasicus . herptological review 18 ( 2 ) : 62 - 64 .\nsouthern hog - nosed snakes are not venomous and will rarely ever bite , even when provoked . the main purpose for their sharp posterior fangs are to ensure capture of prey and to deflate any toads that may inflate themselves when consumed .\ncooper , w . , s . secor . 2007 . strong response to anuran chemical cues by an extreme dietary specialist , the eastern hog - nosed snake ( heterodon platirhinos ) .\nburghardt , g . m . and h . w . greene . 1988 . predator simulation and duration of death feigning in neonate hognose snakes . animal behaviour 36 : 1842 - 1843 .\nalthough they are considered a non - venomous snake , these snakes do possesses a potentially irritating saliva that in the extremely rare case of a bite may cause local itching and slight swelling .\nsmith , h . m . and f . n . white . 1955 . adrenal enlargement and its significance in the hognose snakes . ( heterodon ) . herpetologica 11 : 137 - 144 .\nenge , k . m . , and k . n . wood . 2002 . a pedestrian road survey of an upland snake community in florida . southeastern naturalist 1 : 365 - 380 .\nhad on him . he experienced swelling and tenderness of the bitten are for two days , and came to the conclusion that the snake does have venom with hemotoxic effects ( morris 1985 ) .\nthere is also the importance of cleanliness . eastern hognose snakes should always have a fresh , shallow water container readily available to them and should never be handled in the event that you are ill .\nburbrink , f . t . , phillips , c . a . and heske , e . j . ( 1998 ) a riparian zone in southern illinois as a potential dispersal corridor for reptiles and amphibians . biological conservation , 86 : 107 - 115 .\nsouthern hog - nosed snakes are not venomous , yet some humans believe them to be and will kill them on contact . they rarely ever bite humans . if they do , it is not a common behavior . there are no known negative economic effects of\nwill feign death when this bluffing behavior fails to ward off an enemy . in this case , the snake turns belly up . this behavior is apparently induced by parasympathetic arousal or adrenal medullary function .\n[ vtnwi ] vtn wyoming incorporated . no date . second year ' s analysis of terrestrial wildlife on proposed mine access and railroad routes in southern montana and northern wyoming , march 1979 - february 1980 . vtn wyoming incorporated . sheridan , wy . 62 p .\nplatt , d . r . 1969 . natural history of the hognose snakes heterodon platyrhinos and heterodon nasicus . museum of natural history . university of kansas publications 18 ( 4 ) : 253 - 420 .\nas soon as young western hognose snakes hatch they are fully developed , but just smaller in size at about 14 to 18 centimeters . within hours the young are fully capable of actively searching out prey .\neastern hognose snakes are occasionally available in the exotic pet trade , but due to their specific dietary requirements , they are not as readily available as other species . generally , they refuse feeder rodents unless they are scented with amphibians . in canada , eastern hognose snakes are considered to be a species - at - risk ( cosewic designation : threatened ) , and consequently capture or harassment of these animals , including their captive trade , is illegal .\nfull spectrum light is always beneficial , if not for the physical health benefits , then for the psychological benefits to the snake . full spectrum lighting also improves the appearance of the captive environment by enhancing overall natural colors .\nkroll , j . c . 1973 . comparative physiological ecology of eastern and western hognose snakes ( heterodon platyrhinos and h . nasicus ) . ph . d . thesis , texas a & m ; university 261p . 1973 .\nplummer , m . v . and n . e . mills . 2000 . spatial ecology and survivorship of resident and translocated hognose snakes ( heterodon platirhinos ) . journal of herpetology 34 ( 4 ) : 565 - 575 .\neastern hog - nosed snakes are native only to the nearctic . they are found throughout the united states east of the rocky mountains and into southern canada . they are absent from some areas in the great lakes region , such as the areas south of lakes ontario and erie and eastern wisconsin .\nkolbe , j . j . 1999 . size and demographic structure of an isolated population of western hognose snakes , heterodon nasicus , in northwestern illinois . bulletin of the chicago herpetological society 34 ( 6 ) : 149 - 152 .\nthe western hognose mating season occurs between june and august but they have been observed in copulating as early as the months of february and march . females release a chemical which is picked up by males actively searching for receptive females .\nhiding - hognose snakes need a hiding spot to feel secure , which also replicates their natural behavior in the wild . a hiding spot can be fashioned from almost anything - plastic or rock caves purchased commercially , or small boxes with a hole cut out for access . the hiding place should be just large enough to allow the snake to fit in - remember , snakes are never claustrophobic , in fact they like being wedged into small snug places . ideally , your cage would have two hide spots , one on the heated portion and one on the unheated side . this way , the snake does not have to choose between their natural inclination to hide and the need to thermoregulate .\nsouthern hog - nosed snakes are fossorial . the burrow depth ranges from 0 . 20 - 0 . 46 m below the surface of the ground . if the snakes do not burrow down into the ground as is most common , they still resort to shelter under piles of brush or in bushes .\nthe western hognose does have somewhat of resemblance to a rattlesnake , particularly a juvenile rattlesnake , and often is mistaken for one . so they are very often killed by people out of fear , thinking they are venomous and dangerous snakes .\nthe geographic range is southern canada throughout central u . s . a . and to eastern mexico . their food in the wild is mainly toads , small rodents , nestling birds , lizards , and amphibians . their habitat is usually prairies , abandoned farmland , sparsely wooded flood plains , or sandy soil .\npotential predators of southern hog - nosed snakes include common kingsnakes ( lampropeltis getula ) , eastern indigo snakes ( drymarchon couperi ) , red - tailed hawks ( buteo jamaicensis ) , and other various carnivorous mammals and birds . eggs and hatchlings specifically have seen predation by red imported fire ants ( solenopsis invicta ) .\ntuberville et al . ( 2000 ) showed that southern hog - nosed snakes have declined over the past few decades . the main reason for this decline is loss of natural habitat . habitats for the snakes have been disrupted by logging , agriculture , housing , pine plantations , and fire exclusion . longleaf pine (\nis certainly bound to be the highlight of any snake hunters\u2019 day . in his brilliant piece of work \u201cthis broken archipelago , \u201d author skip lazell jr . , states \u201chognose snakes on cape cod are scarce enough to make finding one an exciting event , but common enough so it is likely a good hunter will get one with patience . \u201d ( james d . lazell , jr . 1976 ) this statement couldn\u2019t be any closer to the truth ! the difficulty in finding the\na word should be mentioned on the subject of venom . the hognose snakes are classified as opisthoglyphs , which is to say that they are rear fanged and are grouped together with the harmless lyre snakes trimorphodon and night snakes hypsiglena as well as other presumably harmless rear fanged species . the hognose possess a duvernoys gland which is located in the upper jaw . the duvernoys gland is an adaptation which in many species of rear fanged snakes produce powerful proteins which aid in the digestion process .\n) have an extremely keen and specific sense of smell and ability to pick up chemical signals from prey by flicking their tongue . it is believed that the chemosensory qualities in southern hog - nosed snakes are most closely related to those of the eastern hog - nosed snakes due to their genetic similarities in body structure and similarities of prey choice . the tongue is flicked and picks up vomodors , or chemical signals , from nearby prey . those signals enter the mouth via the tongue and are received by the vomeronasal organ . in eastern hog - nosed snakes , the speed and number of tongue flicks increases greatly when southern toads (\n) , for which southern hog - nosed snakes are often misjudged . keeled scales of the snakes are lined in rows of either 23 or 25 along the body . the keeled scales give the snakes a rough textured body . the anal plate is divided , and the ventral scales are the same width as their body .\nnests of southern hog - nosed snakes have been reported 10 - 15cm below the surface . females are responsible for this preparation of the nests as seen in captive environments . in captivity , females were observed making u - shaped burrows and took about 3 . 5 hours to complete the nests ( edgren , 1955 ) .\nif you have additional questions about hognose snakes try to attend one of the lihs monthly meetings . you can e - mail us at info @ urltoken or write or call the lihs at the address / phone number at the top of this sheet .\nto be highly susceptible to respiratory infections . oddly , in my experience i have found these infections to manifest themselves quite unobtrusively . it is often too late when you discover the snake is actually sick . rarely have i seen nasal discharge from an eastern\nanti - predator behaviors displayed by southern hog - nosed snakes include body puffing and death feigning . in the former behavior snakes will flatten their heads creating a hood and puff up their body to try and scare away predators . their latter anti - predator behavior is seen when the snakes roll on their dorsal side and play dead .\nwhen they aren ' t active these snakes spend most of their time in existing or self - made burrows . western hognose snakes are primarily diurnal . they brumate every year from september to march , only becoming active at the beginning of the mating season .\nbreeding most commonly occurs once a year but has been reported less commonly twice a year . copulation in southern hog - nosed snakes most commonly occurs from mid may to early june , but mating has been observed less frequently in the fall between september and october . in late - season mating instances , it\u2019s unknown if there is delayed fertilization .\n) ecosystems have been altered by the restriction of prescribed fire and have contributed to their decline . southern hog - nosed snakes rely heavily on the ecosystem of longleaf pines and their decline has been directly correlated to the decline of those forests . another area of decline for the snakes is through the attack of the invasive red imported fire ant (\nalthough it ' s typically a docile snake if threatened or even perceiving a threat it will spread its jaws and flatten its neck giving it a hooded appearance in a cobra like fashion . if harassed it will hiss and make mock strikes with a closed mouth .\nthe western hognose also adapted to live in human modified areas including extensive agriculture and semi agricultural areas not intensively cultivated and in the margins of irrigation ditches . they are found at elevations ranging from near sea level to around 8 , 000 feet ( 2400 m ) .\nit is a highly adaptable snake and can be found in a variety of habitat in coniferous and deciduous forest , including forest which abuts salt marsh and fresh water swamps . eastern hognose snakes are frequently found in the rocky outcrops of higher elevations , they can be found from sea level to 2 , 500 ( behler and king ) and along open stretches of sandy soil and beach . the author lives on cape cod in massachusetts where the species is relatively common in the pine barrens which make up much of the natural landscape there .\ndaghfous , g . , m . smargiassi , p . libourel , r . wattiez , v . bels . 2012 . the function of oscillatory tongue - flicks in snakes : insights from kinematics of tongue - flicking in the banded water snake ( nerodia fasciata ) .\nthe body color of southern hog - nosed snakes is consistently light brown , grey , and tan with dark brown spots ( also referred to as blotches ) alternating along the dorsal side of the body , larger spots along the top and smaller spots along the sides . the spots do not take up the whole width of the their bodies , but give a patterned mosaic look . the ventral side of southern hog - nosed snakes is solid grey to tan color , and is not distinctly different from the lighter colors on the dorsal side . oftentimes an orange , yellow , or red line will continue down the dorsal side , setting them apart from all other members of the genus . eastern hog - nosed snakes\nas a defense mechanism , the eastern hognose snake will sometimes put on an elaborate display when disturbed . in an effort so dramatic it will flatten its head and upper third of its body , and appearing to be larger than life , it will hiss and aggressively strike outward ( most often with mouth closed ) , poking at intruders with a rigid , upturned snout . if it has not scared you away with this formidable display , it quickly takes on a more submissive persona and in a graceful , almost artistic display , it will often feign death ."]}
{"id": 1237, "summary": [{"text": "elusa oenolopha is a species of moth of the noctuidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from australia , including queensland and new south wales .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the forewings are brown with a small lopsided white dumbbell near the centre of each forewing .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are a uniform pale brown . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "elusa oenolopha", "paragraphs": ["elusa oenolopha turner , 1902 = elusa leucoplaga warren , 1913 = elusa rufaria warren , 1913 .\nelusa purpurea warren , 1913 ; 105 , pl . 13 l ; tl : solomon islands\nhabrotrocha elusa isolate h . elus . uk cytochrome oxidase subunit i gene , partial cds ; mitochondrial\nelusa inventa berio , 1977 ; 238 , f . 28 ; tl : lungtan , nanking - kiangsu\nelusa puncticeps ; [ poole ] ; [ mob12 ] : 98 , pl . 2 , f . 134\nelusa ustula ; [ poole ] ; [ mob12 ] : 99 , pl . 2 , f . 129\nelusa simplex ; [ poole ] ; [ mob12 ] : 98 , pl . 2 , f . 123 , 126\nelusa diloba ; [ poole ] ; [ mob12 ] : 99 , pl . 2 , f . 135 - 136\nelusa mediorufa ; [ poole ] ; [ mob12 ] : 100 , pl . 2 , f . 130 - 131\nelusa ignea warren , 1913 ; 104 , pl . 13 k ; tl : british new guinea , upper aroa river\nelusa cyathicornis ; [ poole ] ; [ mob12 ] : 99 , pl . 2 , f . 19 , 127 - 128\nelusa confusa warren , 1913 ; 105 , pl . 13 l ; tl : new guinea , aroa river ; milne bay ; humboldt bay\nelusa duplicata warren , 1913 ; 104 , pl . 13 k ; tl : dutch new guinea , snow mts . , upper setekwa river\nelusa flammans warren , 1913 ; 104 , pl . 13 k ; tl : dutch new guinea , snow mts . , upper setekwa river\nelusa temburong holloway , 1989 ; [ mob12 ] : 100 , pl . 2 , f . 133 ; tl : brunei , 300m , ulu temburong\nelusa penanorum holloway , 1989 ; [ mob12 ] : 97 , pl . 2 , f . 132 ; tl : sarawak , gunong mulu nat . park\nelusa mediorufa hampson , 1909 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 4 ( 22 ) : 375 ; tl : borneo , sarawak\nelusa ceneusalis ; [ poole ] ; [ mob12 ] : 96 , pl . 2 , f . 22 , 124 - 125 , 137 ; [ aucl ]\nelusa orion roepke , 1956 ; 25 , pl . 2 , f . 6 ; tl : new guinea , maccluer gulf , bintuni bay , r . tisa\nelusa simplex warren , 1913 ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 11 : 105 , pl . 13 l ; tl : borneo , sarawak , poeh mts .\nthe forewings of this species are brown with a small lopsided white or grey dumbell near the centre of each forewing . the hindwings are a uniform pale brown . the wingspan is about 3 cms .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 409d5760 - 35f0 - 4b27 - 9436 - cd27586579fc\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c3ff8de3 - 07ee - 4190 - bcb3 - e517527a7398\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 8c3417b7 - 5ce4 - 4a51 - 8844 - 3fcae54f62e7\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 509113\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nsundaland , philippines , sulawesi , queensland , bismarck is . . see [ maps ]\nseria cyathicornis walker , 1862 ; j . proc . linn . soc . ( zool . ) 6 : 194 ; tl : borneo , sarawak\nindia ( mehalaya , bengal , nilgiri , . . . ) , andaman islands . see [ maps ]\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nheterocera . collected in korinchi , west sumatra , by messrs . h . c . robinson and c . boden kloss\nlist of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . supplement\ncatalogue of the heterocerous lepidopterous insects collected at sarawak , in borneo , by mr . a . r . wallace , with descriptions of new species\nwalker , 1863 catalogue of the heterocerous lepidopterous insects collected at sarawak , in borneo , by mr . a . r . wallace , with descriptions of new species j . proc . linn . soc . ( zool . ) 7 : 49 - 84 , 160 - 198\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nformat summary genbank genbank ( full ) fasta asn . 1 xml insdseq xml tinyseq xml feature table accession list gi list gff3\ndb = nuccore | term = % 22elusa % 22 | query = 1 | qty = 5 | blobid = ncid _ 1 _ 267763520 _ 130 . 14 . 22 . 215 _ 9001 _ 1531162430 _ 2053524944 _ 0meta0 _ s _ megastore _ f _ 1 | ismultiple = false | min _ list = 5 | max _ list = 20 | def _ tree = 20 | def _ list = | def _ view = | url = / taxonomy / backend / subset . cgi ? | trace _ url = / stat ?\nfinds sub - sequences or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching regions . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .\nfinds sub - sequence or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching region . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nsearch their arrest records , driving records , contact information , photos and more . . .\ncopyright 2018 peekyou . com . a patent pending people search process . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 1238, "summary": [{"text": "parambassis pulcinella , the humphead glassfish or humphead perchlet , is a species of asiatic glassfish native to fast-flowing streams in the ataran basin ( itself a part of the salween basin ) in southeast myanmar and west thailand .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it reaches a length of 10 cm ( 3.9 in ) and is sometimes seen in the aquarium trade . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "parambassis pulcinella", "paragraphs": ["named for pulcinella ( = punchinello ) , a humpback character of ' commedia dell ' arte ' ; noun in apposition .\ntwo humphead glassfish ( parambassis pulcinella ) in my aquarium . these come from burma and the species was only discovered and formally identified is 2003 . still pretty rare in the aquarium trade particularly here in australia . getting fish out of the country often depends on the political situation there .\nkottelat , m . , 2003 . parambassis pulcinella , a new species of glassperch ( teleostei : ambassidae ) from the ataran river basin ( myanmar ) , with comments on the family - group names ambassidae , chandidae and bogodidae . ichthyol . explor . freshwat . 14 ( 1 ) : 9 - 18 . ( ref . 49523 )\napart from these distinctive humps , parambassis pulcinella conform , in most regards , to the usual glassfish shape . they are not as transparent as some other glassfish species , but have a rather beautiful golden sheen that immediately catches the eye . basic coloration is otherwise silvery - white , except for smoky - grey markings on face and fins .\nbreeding nothing is known about the breeding behaviour of this species . the other parambassis species are egg scatterers that exhibit no brood care and the humphead probably breeds in the same way .\ncraig here . parambassis pulcinella . what a name . it kinda rolls off the tongue , doesn\u2019t it ? well\u2026 as cool as the name sounds , the humphead glassfish is even cooler looking ! if you have ever wanted a fish that has a bit of size and a lot of character for your freshwater community aquarium , this just might be the fish for you !\na relative newcomer to the aquarium scene , the humphead glassfish was not scientifically described until 2003 . parambassis pulcinella hails from myanmar , in south east asia . with changing political climates , many fish have just recently become known to science from this region . myanmar is a country that has nearly half of its land covered in dense forests . within these forests are countless streams . it is in these fast flowing streams that the humphead glassfish can be found .\na new species that was only described to science in 2003 , little is known about the natural behaviour of p . pulcinella . it has started to be imported quite regularly over the last couple of years , although it is still quite expensive . unfortunately this species has suffered the same fate as some of it\u2019s close relatives , and artificiallly dyed specimens have been making their way onto the market . these should be avoided at all costs , as the processes involved are cruel and unecessary , and usually shorten the life of the fish considerably . the characteristic hump on the head of the fish is formed from an extension of the spine , and is scaleless .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nit inhabits large freshwater streams , typified by fast flowing , well - oxygenated , clear water . the substrate in many of these biotopes is composed of smooth , water - worn rocks and boulders of varying sizes .\nthis is quite an active species and needs a tank of at least 36\u2033 x 12\u2033 x 12\u2033 ( 90x30x30cm ) \u2013 80 litres .\ndecor is not critical . plants , rocks , driftwood etc . can all be used to your own taste . this is a freshwater species and does not require the addition of salt to it\u2019s tank .\nit will accept dried pellets or flakes , but these should be supplemented with regular feedings of live and frozen foods such as bloodworm and brineshrimp .\na peaceful species but it might intimidate small fish with it\u2019s active nature and adult size . good tankmates include rainbowfish , barbs and loaches . it can be maintained in groups although they may occasionally squabble amongst themaselves . this will rarely involve anything more than a bit of chasing , however .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is currently known from the ataran river drainage in myanmar and thailand . it is subject to harvesting for the ornamental fish trade , as well as impacts from sedimentation , however the scale of impact of these threats on the species is uncertain and it is considered data deficient at present . this species should be reassessed when further data become available , and it is possible that it may qualify for a threatened category .\nthe species is restricted to the ataran river and its tributaries in southeastern myanmar and western thailand ( kottelat 2003 ) .\nit inhabits large freshwater hill streams , typified by fast flowing , well - oxygenated , clear water .\nthe species is popular in the aquarium trade , all taken from wild sources .\noverfishing for the ornamental fish trade is a potential threat to this species , but there is no information on the species population trend . sedimentation and flow changes will also impact the species .\nresearch is needed into this species ' current distribution and population trends , as well as its ecology and threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nbetta fish care infographic , a handy cheat sheet that will benefit any keepers of siamese fighting fish .\nfish tank care . guide to fish care with a simple look at aquarium filtration , how to clean a fish tank , and a fish tank maintenance schedule .\npiranhas , one of the most efficient predators with razor sharp teeth and a ferocious nature . piranha fish species , description , information , habitat , and more !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\nwe have two large iridescent sharks we are looking to find another home for . our tank is too small and they are very large . do you have a big tank ? do you know they can grow 3 - 4 feet ? where are you located ?\nlooking for medaka rice fish . what ever species you may have for sale .\ni ' m looking to but a balloon kissing gourami . any idea where i can get one ?\nmy humphead glassfish died yesterday after having him for 4 years . i live in ohio . does anyone know of a fish store that sells or overnight ships these fish ? jan eley\nis an exciting addition to the aquarium hobby . if you are looking for something unusual , but with a bit of size and lots of character , a school of these beauties could be just the ticket . this glassfish can reach up to almost 4 inches ( 10 cm ) . like the name implies this glassfish has a large hump on its head and a semi - transparent body .\nthis glassfish is a relative newcomer to the aquarium hobby . the humphead glassfish wasn\u2019t scientifically described until 2003 . they are freshwater asiatic glassfish in the chandidae family ( previously ambassidae ) . it differs a bit from other glassfish species because its body is not quite as transparent , but it does have the divided dorsal fin and the lateral line that extends to the tail fin . it is also known as the humphead perchlet and humphead glass perchlet ,\nit is unusual for a fish of this size to remain hidden from the science community for so long but somehow this beauty did . there are many \u201cnew\u201d species coming from their homeland of myanmar , and this may be due in part to the past political climate of that country . only recently has science had relatively free access to the waters of myanmar ( formerly burma ) .\nthe humphead glassfish , like other glassfish species , are surprisingly hardy and adaptable . but unlike some glassfish that need a brackish water environment , humpheads are strictly freshwater fish . these fish are fairly easy to care for and make a most intriguing curiosity for a freshwater community tank . they are generally peaceful with other tank mates , but are a boisterous and energetic at feeding time , and they will eat smaller fish . they have a surprising large mouth and will readily snack on a guppy or danio sized companion . they can be kept singly , but if kept in a school males will get scrappy with each other for dominance , so there must be at least 8 or more fish .\nuntil they become established humphead perchlets can be a little fussy about foods . live and frozen meaty foods offered initially can help them adjust . they like a well planted aquarium . it should be at least 20 gallons for one , more if you want to keep a school . make sure the water has a fairly strong movement to reflect their fast native waters , and is well oxygenated . like with other glassfish , artificiallly dyed specimens of this amazing fish do show up in the market . dyed specimens should be avoided as this process is cruel to the fish and usually it will shorten their life span .\nwas described by kottelat in 2003 . the humphead glassfish or humphead perchlet are found in asia , from the ataran river basin in myanmar ( formerly burma ) . they may also occur in other headwaters of the same basin in thailand as some collected specimens are believed to have come from the salween river on the myanmar - thai border . the humphead glassfish is not listed on the iucn red list . other common names they are known by are humphead perchlet and humphead glass perchlet .\nthese fish are found in groups , inhabiting the clear waters of shallow , fast - flowing streams . they are able to hold firm in currents that are flowing around rocks and feed on smaller live animals as they pass by . although their diet is not yet confirmed , it is assumed they are opportunistic eaters , feeding on small fish , shrimps , and aquatic insect larvae .\nthe silvery humphead glassfish is a deep - bodied , laterally compressed species . its remarkable characteristic is a spectacular nuchal hump , similar to that found in many of the large south american cichlids . however it ' s not quite the same as a cichlids hump , rather it looks more like a thin , bulbous continuation of the dorsal fin . the actual hump is formed from an extension of its spine and is scaleless . both males and females will have a hump , but the male ' s will be larger .\nthe humphead is similar in appearance to other glassfish species . but it differs a bit because its body is not as transparent and the backbone and swim bladder are not visible . like other species however , it does have the divided dorsal fin and a lateral line that extends to the tail fin . it also has the ctenoid scales , they are tough with a toothlike margin .\nthe body is a silvery white color with a sheen that gives it a golden cast . the scales on the upper body can reflect flecks of blues and greens . there are grayish areas on the face and fins and the dorsal and anal fins have a grayish or black edging along with some small speckling .\n3 . 9 inches ( 10 . 01 cm ) - it grows grows larger in the aquarium , reaching only 3 . 1 inches ( 8 cm ) in the wild .\n- little is known about their true lifespan as of yet , but other glassfish species can live 3 to 8 years .\nthe humphead glassfish is an easy fish to care for and is a good choice for an intermediate fish keeper . as with any wild caught fish the first 30 days can be a challenging as they acclimate , but these fish are very adaptable and normally great eaters . until they become established humphead perchlets can be a little fussy about foods . live and frozen meaty foods offered initially can help them adjust .\nthe humphead glassfish are carnivores . they are predatory fish that in the wild presumably feeds on small fish , shrimps , and aquatic insect larvae . in captivity they initially may not readily accepting prepared aquarium foods unless it simulates live prey . but this is easily accomplished by streaming frozen foods , like brine shrimp and bloodworms , in the filter stream to simulate movement . once they have settled in , they will eat most fresh , frozen , or dried aquarium foods . they will do best if fed live or frozen food such as earthworms , river shrimp , bloodworms , blackworms , and brine shrimp . flakes and pellets may also be offered occasionally .\nthese fish enjoy pristine waters , so a strong filter and weekly water changes are needed . these fish do not do well in high nitrates and prefer it to below 20 mg / l . their tank should be cleaned weekly and have about a 30 % water change done .\nthe humphead glassfish will swim in most parts of the aquarium . they will need at least a 20 gallon aquarium , more if you want to keep a school . it needs to have good water movement and plenty of aeration . these fish enjoy highly oxygenated water so make sure to have sources that will produce the needed oxygen . an undergravel filter operated with powerheads does a great job of keeping the entire tank oxygenated and provides good water movement . humphead will do best in a well planted tanks . plants with twisted roots work best and provide areas to hide . any type of gravel you prefer will work .\nthe humphead glassfish is a good community fish , but any fish small enough to fit in the humphead ' s mouth should be monitored . fish such as small tetras , guppies , neons , and danios can quickly become snacks . other species should not be bothered , but they will sometimes quarrel among themselves . males will tend to be aggressive towards each other fighting for the dominant position . it is recommended that you keep a group of 8 or 10 to reduce tensions , or alternatively keep 3 or 4 in a species tank with only one being male .\nmay be aggressive - small sized shrimps like cherry shrimp and amano shrimp may be eaten .\nmales have a prominent hump on their foreheads . females may also have a hump but it will be noticeably smaller than the males .\nthe humphead glassfish has not yet been bred in captivity . the breeding behavior of this species is not yet known . presumably they spawn similar to other\nwith humphead glassfish ; disease is not usually a problem in a well maintained aquarium . that being said there is no guarantee that you won ' t have to deal with health problems or disease . anything you add to your tank can bring disease to your tank . not only other fish but plants , substrate , and decorations can harbor bacteria . take great care and make sure to properly clean or quarantine anything that you add to an established tank so not to upset the balance . humphead glassfish are very resilient once established in a tank .\na good thing about the humphead glassfish is that due to their resilience , an outbreak of disease can often be limited to just one or a few fishes if you deal with it at an early stage . when keeping more sensitive types of fish , it is common for all fishes to be infected even before the first warning signs can be noticed . the best way to proactively prevent disease is to give your humphead glassfish the proper environment and give them a well balanced diet . the closer to their natural habitat the less stress the fish will have , making them healthier and happy . a stressed fish will is more likely to acquire disease .\nhumphead glassfish are fairly hardy fish , but are subject to the same diseases as other tropical fish . because they are relatively new to the industry , little is known about specific common diseases and issues . there have been humphead ' s on the market that have dye injected into they . this can cause health and lifespan issues . one of the most common freshwater fish ailments is ich . it is recommended to read up on the common tank diseases . knowing the signs and catching and treating them early makes a huge difference . for information about freshwater fish diseases and illnesses , see aquarium fish diseases and treatments .\nthe humphead glassfish or humphead perchlet are commonly available at present , but will usually command a high price . availability may vary , depending on the political climate in myanmar and their relationship with the rest of the world .\ndr . r\u00fcdiger riehl and hans a . baensch , aquarium atlas vol . 1 , publisher hans a . baensch , 1991\nmy humphead glassfish died yesterday after having him for 4 years . i live in ohio . does anyone know of a fish store that sells or overnight ships these fish ?\nfish gallery here in houston got them in yesterday , for $ 45 each .\ni purchased one humphead and fell in love , so i purchased two more . they are pricey , 20 us dollars even going up to 30 . 00 us dollars . . . they are worth it . the larger of my 3 tends to bully around my congo tetras ( they are the same size as the humphead ) . the humphead likes to headbut the congos . my larger glass humphead loves dried shrimp as well as blood worms . these fish are very hardy and a lot of fun to watch . .\nfantastic goods from you , man . i have understand your stuff priuvoes to and you ' re just too magnificent . i really like what you ' ve acquired here , certainly like what you are saying and the way in which you say it . you make it enjoyable and you still care for to keep it sensible . i cant wait to read far more from you . this is actually a wonderful web site .\ni love this fish . i fell in love with it the second i saw it in my local store . it acclimatized quickly and fits perfectly with my community .\ncopyright \u00a9 [ animal - world ] 1998 - 2015 . all rights reserved .\ngreek , para = near + greek , ambassis , anabasis = climbing up ( ref . 45335 )\nasia : myanmar ; probably also in the headwaters of the same basin in thailand .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 8 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 49523 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 8 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 15 - 16 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 16 - 17 ; vertebrae : 25 . conspicuous hump in front of first dorsal - fin origin , made by a very long , thin anterosuperior expansion of the supraoccipital spine . predorsal area without scales . both caudal fin lobe with a submarginal blackish stripe . dorsal and anal fins with grey or black distal margins ; first dorsal and anal fins with proximal row of spots . dorsal - fin origin with a blackish , triangular blotch . a black stripe between the head and the predorsal blotch ( ref . 49523 ) .\nprobably occurring in large streams with clear water , near rapids or large riffles ( ref . 49523 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01549 ( 0 . 00642 - 0 . 03734 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 80 - 3 . 22 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 11 of 100 ) .\neasily distinguished from other glassfish , the humphead has qualities but also attitude . choose tankmates with care , warns dr neale monks .\ndescribed as recently as 2003 , the humphead glassfish has quickly become one of the more familiar members of the family ambassidae . it is generally much like any other glassfish , but is always distinguished by that large nuchal hump !\nunlike the humps on cichlids , the shape on these glassfish is thin \u2014 resembling more of a fin than anything else . both sexes have these humps , though those on mature males are larger .\nwhen maurice kottelat described these fish just six years ago , he based his work on specimens collected from the ataran river basin in myanmar , formerly burma . it is assumed that humphead glassfish occur in a number of other streams and rivers in this area , though this isn\u2019t certain .\nat least some specimens that turn up in the ornamental fish trade appear to come from the salween river on the myanmar - thai border .\nin all cases , these fish are found in clear , shallow , fast - flowing streams . they appear to occupy a similar niche to our native trout species , maintaining position in currents that flow around rocks and riffles , snapping up small animals that drift by . little is known about their diet in the wild but , by analogy with other freshwater glassfish , it can be assumed that they are opportunistic predators feeding on such as shrimps , aquatic insect larvae and small fish .\nmaintenance despite their delicate appearance , glassfish are surprisingly adaptable , and the humphead is no exception . the salween , for example , is mostly a slightly soft and acidic body of water , much like other south - east asian rivers , but humphead glassfish also seem to do perfectly well in the hard , alkaline water of southern england .\nunlike some glassfish in the trade , these are strictly freshwater fish and shouldn\u2019t be kept in a brackish water aquarium .\nwhat matters more is water quality , particularly oxygen concentration . fish from fastwater habitats invariably do badly in nitrate - rich , oxygen - poor water . keep nitrates low by performing regular water changes , preferably keeping the nitrate concentration below 20 mg / l .\nto ensure the water is well oxygenated , ensure the tank is not overstocked , and install a filter that keeps the water moving vigorously . ideally the filter should provide a turnover rate around eight times the volume of the tank per hour . so for a 200 l / 44 gal aquarium , the filter needs to be rated at 1 , 600 lph .\nwater temperature doesn\u2019t appear to be critical for these fish and they do perfectly well at the usual 25c / 77f favoured by most fishkeepers . on the other hand , higher temperatures will reduce the amount of oxygen in the water , so that condition would be something to avoid wherever possible .\nfussy eaters like all glassfish , humpheads are fussy feeders . at least during the initial stages , live and frozen foods will need to be used while settling these wild - caught fish into captive life . earthworms and river shrimps are particularly favoured , though midge and mosquito larvae are also readily enjoyed . small fish will also consume daphnia and brineshrimp .\nonce settled in , they generally take frozen foods such as bloodworms without any complaint . at least some well - adjusted specimens take flake , but at the very least this food should be supplemented with additions such as chopped squid and prawn .\nall glassfish are opportunistic predators and the humphead has a deceptively large mouth . smaller fish such as guppies , danios and neons will quite likely be viewed as tasty food ! that same sad fate may befall small shrimps such as cherry and amano .\nsocial behaviour humphead glassfish may be schooling fish in the wild , but under aquarium conditions they tend to be aggressive towards one another .\nthis behaviour can be prevalent among smaller glassfish species too and most likely reflects bullying between males as they jockey for dominance within the group .\nwhatever the explanation , humpheads should be kept either in groups of at least eight specimens or smaller groups with just a single male .\nsexing these glassfish isn\u2019t too difficult either , since the males have those larger humps . males also tend to be a bit bigger , but that isn\u2019t apparent until all the fish are fully grown .\ncuriously , maximum size of this fish under aquarium conditions appears to be a bit larger than the maximum size reported in scientific literature \u2014 10cm / 4\u201d as opposed to 8cm / 3 . 1\u201d .\ntank mates these fish work quite well in community tanks , with a few reservations . as already mentioned , they are predatory fish , eating any fish or shrimp they can swallow whole , so tank mates should be sufficiently large to minimise the risk . they are also a bit thuggish \u2014 yet another trait they share with other glassfish !\nwhile this doesn\u2019t mean they are nippy or territorial , it does mean they throw their weight around at feeding time . tank mates should be sufficiently robust to prevent this being an issue . barbs and characins would be fine , but mixing humpheads with discus or african butterflyfish would be a bad idea . otherwise they would make excellent companions for the likes of clown loaches , loricariid catfish , spiny eels , silver dollars and other robust community fish .\nalthough looking bizarre , humphead glassfish are beautiful and , while pricey , surprisingly hardy and adaptable fish with much to recommend them .\npfk featured these fish in interesting imports , shortly after they first became available in the hobby .\nthis item first appeared in the june 2009 issue of practical fishkeeping magazine . it may not be reproduced without written permission .\n\u00a9 1955 - 2016 bauer consumer media limited are authorised and regulated by the financial conduct authority ( firm reference no . 710067 ) media house , peterborough business park , peterborough , pe2 6ea .\nthe humphead glassfish is a schooling fish that benefits from being kept with members of it\u2019s own kind . it has a spine from the dorsal ( supraoccipital ) area of it\u2019s skull that is extended . this extension is what gives this fish it\u2019s bizarre shape and name . the ph should range from neutral to slightly alkaline . it is not a particularly picky eater . the small group that is kept here will ravenously feed on pelleted foods and thawed frozen foods . it seems that the only things that the humphead glassfish are particular about is the need for excellent filtration , higher levels of dissolved oxygen in the water , and room to swim ! other than these requirements , you will find that these curious fish are very sturdy and make wonderful additions to your tank . they will not eat plants , so keeping them in a larger planted aquarium is acceptable provided that your co2 levels do not rise to a dangerous level . even though these fish are relatively peaceful and can be kept with smaller community fish , beware keeping them with fish like neon or cardinal tetras . if a tiny tetra will fit in their mouths\u2026 it will surely be lunch !\nso , if you want something different , something rare , something new\u2026 take a look at the odd humphead glassfish . when available , these fish are certainly well worth the price . you will have something that many people have never even seen before , as well as a fish that is one of the most interesting and coolest additions to the aquarium trade in years .\ni have been an avid hobbiest for years . until today , i have never seen this fish . we picked the only one up at a local hobby store and find the information above to be very active regarding neons . very wild looking fish indeed\u2026 . i had a hard time beleiveing he was a community quality fish\u2026 . time will tell .\nhello bob , congratulations on your new acquisition . you will no doubt find the fish to be a wonderful addition . if you do have neons , just make sure to keep the glassfish well fed . that may discourage the fish from wanting to hunt or forage for small prey . enjoy the fish ! they are certainly an amazing fish to keep !\ni was so in awe when i saw some of these at a local fish store . i had to look these up as soon as i got home . i never seen these at any store , or online till today . i\u2019m definitely going to go back and check these out some more , probably add some to my exodons . surprises me that these were \u201cscientifically\u201d named in 2003 .\ni just purchased a humphead . he is a little nervous when you go up to the tank . i am sure he will get over that a bit . i have two discus , two smaill red rainbow , 4 neon precox rainbows , 1 turquiose rainbow and a tiny little sucker fish albino . do you think he will do alright ? they had him or her at the fish store with large discus and no other humpheads , will he / she be alright without others of it\u2019s kind ?\nonce the fish becomes comfortable with its surroundings , it should settle in fine . there may be a period of adjustment where the other fish chase or intimidate the glass fish , but as long as the size is similar the heirarchy should work itself out . good luck !\ndo u think the humphead glassfish will do well with african peacock cichlids ? i have 3 yellow labs , benga , sulfur head , ob peacock , 3 synodontis petricola , 1 goby irsacae in 55 gal 4\u2032 tank with aqua clear 110 filter . i tried selecting mild tempered inhabitants . please give me your opinion . i really love this fish but am afraid to try it so far . i think the cichlids may stress him out ? i only want a single humphead , as 8 is too many to add to keep the peace and less than 8 , i read , is a bad idea .\nsafety in numbers\u2026you may have a chance with a group of the fish , but cichlids are probably too territorial and aggressive to chance it with a single fish . even a group may falter against africans as they can be relentless , especially when breeding .\nmarinebioblog is the post name of that fish place - that pet place ' s aquatics and aquarium experts . contact them through the links here or leave your comments below .\neileen daub : hi sam , fishing with goldfish is illegal due to the risk of . . .\nchris mcclelland : hello , i have had success raising green sunfish in an aquari . . .\nsam earlyfall : is it only cruel to put them on a hook and then fish with th . . .\neileen daub : hi sara , i wouldn ' t expect cilantro / coriander to be safe sub . . .\neileen daub : hello name , red tail sharks don ' t lay egg sacs . if you can g . . .\nthat fish blog is designed to help promote knowledge of the pet hobby . if you wish to reference or cite specific information from a blog post , we ask that you provide a link back to the original . the content on that fish blog is copyright protected and may not be duplicated without written permission . if you have any questions on this policy , feel free to send us an email at blogs @ thatpetplace . com . \u00a9 copyright 2013 , all rights reserved .\ndiscus , angel fish , and german blue rams . welcome to the beast tank\nfish store tour - the wet spot tropical fish in portland oregon . huge store ! hundreds of tanks .\nthis article is a stub . we can not complete the encyclopaedia without your help . you can contribute to the aquarium wiki by expanding this article . dont be shy ! .\ndifficult to visually sex , males will have a slightly larger and thicker hump than females .\na distinctive fish that is silver / grey in colour with some black markings and with a bold hump on the forehead , this is thin , almost transparent , expansion of the spine .\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 03 : 15 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service ."]}
{"id": 1241, "summary": [{"text": "stegastes redemptus , commonly known as the clarion major , clarion damselfish or clarion gregory , is a damselfish of the family pomacentridae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is native to the tropical eastern pacific ocean , its range extending from the revillagigedo islands to the coast of baja california .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is found on rocky reefs at depths ranging from 1 to 15 m ( 3 ft 3 in to 49 ft 3 in ) . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "stegastes redemptus", "paragraphs": ["the following term was not found in genome : stegastes redemptus [ orgn ] .\njennifer hammock chose to hide data on\nstegastes redemptus ( heller and snodgrass , 1903 )\n.\nminden pictures stock photos - clarion damselfish ( stegastes redemptus , iucn vulnerable , socorro island , revillagigedo archipelago biosphere reserve / . . .\noccurrence of holacanthus clarionensis ( pomacanthidae ) , stegastes leucorus , and stegastes acapulcoensis ( pomacentridae ) at magdalena bay , b . c . s . , mexico\noccurrence of holacanthus clarionensis ( pomacanthidae ) , stegastes leucorus , and stegastes acapulcoensis ( pomacentridae ) at magdalena bay , b . c . s . , mexico | marine biodiversity records | full text\npreviously reported northern endpoints for holocanthus clarionensis , stegastes acapulcoensis , and s . leucorus and records of this study\nallen g , robertson r , zapata f . stegastes leucorus , the iucn red list of threatened species . ( version 2014 . 3 . ) . 2010a . available at\n( of pomacentrus redemptus heller & snodgrass , 1903 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\npomacanthids and pomacentrids are mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions , and inhabit shallow rocky and coral reefs . due to their colorful patterns and unusual body shapes , they have been widely targeted by aquarium fish trade ; these species are of great commercial interest . here we document the occurrence of one pomacanthid ( holacanthus clarionensis ) , and two pomacentrids ( stegastes acapulcoensis , and s . leucorus ) north of their reported distribution range during the 2014 warm water period in the eastern tropical eastern pacific . sightings took place at magdalena - almejas bay complex , located in the western margin of the baja california peninsula . using a series of abiotic data for the tropical eastern pacific , we created a maximum entropy model for each species and identified that high probability of occurrence at magdalena - almejas bay complex was only denoted for s . leucorus . here we report the occurrence of h . clarionensis , s . acapulcoensis and s . leucorus 70 km , 300 km , and 300 km north of the northernmost reported limits .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : the majority of this species population is known from one location ( revillagigedo islands ) . given its association with shallow reefs , it is estimated to have an area of occupancy of less than 2 , 000 km\u00b2 . regional experts support the plausible threat of the increased duration and frequency of enso events that can cause severe and rapid declines for restricted - range , shallow - water species in this region of the eastern tropical pacific . this species is listed as vulnerable under criterion d2 .\nthis species is endemic to the eastern pacific , and is found primarily in the revillagigedo islands , with occasional observations near the tip of baja california .\nthis species is considered to be abundant in revillagigedo islands and is rare along the continental coast . more than 95 % of the population is estimated to occur in revillagigedo islands .\nthis species inhabits rocky inshore reefs ( allen 1991 ) to depths of 20 m .\ngiven its shallow - water , reef - associated habitat , and the estimation that 95 % of its population is found in one location ( revillagigedo islands ) , this species is estimated to have an area of occupancy of less than 2 , 000 km 2 . in the eastern tropical pacific , severe localized fish species declines have occurred after strong enso events that result in shallow waters that are too warm and nutrient poor for extended periods of time ( grove 1985 , edgar et al . 2009 ) . the frequency and duration of enso events in this region of the eastern tropical pacific ( e . g . the up - welling zone off the coast of peru , ecuador , colombia , panama and the offshore islands ) appears to be increasing ( glynn and ault 2000 , soto 2001 , chen et al . 2004 ) . given this species ' restricted distribution and shallow water habitat , oceanographic environmental changes , such as those associated with future enso events , may have detrimental effects on the survival of this species .\nthere are no conservation measures known for this species . however , it is present in the revillagigedo islands marine protected area ( wpda , 2006 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on image to enlarge .\ndorsal rays xii , 15 ( rarely 14 ) ; anal rays ii , 13 ; pectoral rays 20 ( rarely 19 or 21 ) ; lateral - line scales 20 ( rarely 19 or 21 ) ; gill rakers on lower limb of first arch 13 - 14 ( rarely 12 or 15 ) ; greatest body depth 1 . 9 - 2 . 0 in standard length .\nhead and front of body light brown , middle part of body gradually darker brown and posterior part whitish ; most of body scales with blackish margins ; soft dorsal and anal fins mostly whitish with pale yellow on outer portion , caudal fin pale yellow ; juveniles overall bright yellow with dusky back , a prominent dark spot at base of anterior soft dorsal rays and smaller dark spot on upper edge of tail stalk .\nprimarily from the revillagigedo islands , with the odd straggler reaching the tip of baja california .\ncastro - aguirre , j . l . and balart , e . f . , 2002 . , la ictiofauna de las islas revillagigedos y sus relaciones zoogeograficas , con comentarios acerca de su origen y evolucion . en : lozano - vilano , m . l . ( ed . ) . libro jubilar en honor al dr . salvador contreras balderas . , universidad autonoma de nuevo le\u00f3n : 153 - 170 .\nfindley , l . t . , hendrickx , m . e . , brusca , r . c . , van der heiden , a . m . , hastings , p . a . , torre , j . , 2003 . , diversidad de la macrofauna marina del golfo de california , mexico . , cd - rom versi\u00f3n 1 . 0 . projecto de la macrofauna del golfo . derechos reservados de los autores y conservaci\u00f3n internacional .\nfischer , w . , krup , f . , schneider , w . , sommer , c . , carpenter , k . e . and niem , v . h . , 1995 . , guia fao para la identificacion de especies de para los fines de la pesca . pacifico centro - oriental . volumen iii . vertebrados - parte 2 . , fao3 : 1201 - 1813 .\nheller , e . and snodgrass , r . e . , 1903 . , papers from the hopkins stanford galapagos expedition , 1898 - 1899 . xv . new fishes . , proc . wash . acad . sci . , 5 : 189 - 229 .\nlove , m . s . , mecklenburg , c . w . , mecklenburg , t . a . , thorsteinson , l . k . , 2005 . , es of the west coast and alaska : a checklist of north pacific and artic ocena species from baja california to the alaska - yukon border . , u . s . department of the interior , u . s . geological survey , biological resources division , 288pp .\nricker , k . e . , 1959 . , fishes collected from the revillagigedo islands during the 1954 - 1958 cruises of the\nmarijean .\n. , univ . brit . columbia inst . fish . , mus . contrib . , 4 : 10pp .\nsnodgrass , r . e . and heller , e . , 1905 . , papers from the hopkins stanford galapagos expedition , 1898 - 1899 . xvii . shorefishes of the revillagigedo , clipperton , cocos and galapagos island . , proc . wash . acad . sci . , 6 : 333 - 427 .\nthomson , d . a . , findley , l . t . and kerstitch , a . n . , 2000 . , reef fishes of the sea of cortez . , university of texas press ( revised ed . ) : 353 .\nvictor , b . c . and wellington , g . m . , 2000 . , endemism and the pelagic larval duration of reef fishes in the eastern pacific ocean . , marine ecology progress series , 205 : 241 - 248 .\nwalker , b . w . and baldwin , w . j . , 1964 . , provisional check list of fishes of the revillagigedo islands . , 18 pp .\nwellington , g . m . and victor , b . c . , 1989 . , planktonic larval duration of one hundred species of pacific and atlantic damselfishes ( pomacentridae ) . , marine biology , 101 : 557 - 567 .\ni thank ashley macdonald and john pickering , university of georgia , for technical support in building this page .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nterms | privacy | phone : 831 . 661 . 5551 | email : info @ urltoken | \u00a9 2015 minden pictures inc | all content on this website is protected by copyright\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ngreek , stegastos , - e , - on = covered ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; non - migratory ; depth range 1 - 15 m ( ref . 9334 ) . tropical ; 23\u00b0n - 19\u00b0n\neastern central pacific : revillagigedo islands and cabo san lucas , baja california , mexico .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 12 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9334 )\nadults inhabit rocky inshore reefs ( ref . 9334 ) . omnivorous ( ref . 9334 ) . oviparous , distinct pairing during breeding ( ref . 205 ) . eggs are demersal and adhere to the substrate ( ref . 205 ) . males guard and aerate the eggs ( ref . 205 ) .\noviparous , distinct pairing during breeding ( ref . 205 ) . eggs are demersal and adhere to the substrate ( ref . 205 ) . males guard and aerate the eggs ( ref . 205 ) .\nallen , g . r . , 1991 . damselfishes of the world . mergus publishers , melle , germany . 271 p . ( ref . 7247 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01995 ( 0 . 00939 - 0 . 04240 ) , b = 2 . 99 ( 2 . 82 - 3 . 16 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 28 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nbody oval , compressed ; 1 pair of nostrils ; margin of preopercle serrated ; margin of bone under eye serrated , without notch it and the bone before it ; mouth small , protrusible ; teeth in single row , long and close - set ; lower gill rakers 13 - 14 ( rarely 12 or 15 ) ; a single continuous dorsal fin , xii , 15 ( rarely 14 ) ; anal rays ii , 13 ; pectoral rays 20 ( rarely 19 or 21 ) ; no projecting short spines at upper and lower base of tail fin ; caudal fin bluntly forked ; scales are moderately large and rough ; body scaled , head largely scaled ( snout scaled to nostrils ) , as are the basal parts of the median fins ; lateral - line scales 20 ( rarely 19 or 21 ) ; lateral line incomplete , ends under end of dorsal fin base .\nhead and front of body light brown , middle part of body gradually darker brown and posterior part whitish ; most of body scales with blackish margins ; soft dorsal and anal fins mostly whitish with pale yellow on outer portion , caudal fin pale yellow ; juveniles bright yellow with dusky back , a prominent dark spot at base of anterior soft dorsal rays and smaller dark spot on upper edge of tail base .\nbody oval , compressed ; 1 pair of nostrils ; margin of preopercle serrated ; margin of bone under eye serrated , without notch it and the bone before it ; mouth small , protrusible ; teeth in single row , long and close - set ; gill rakers 14 - 18 ; a single continuous dorsal fin , xii , 15 ( rarely 16 ) ; anal rays ii , 13 ( rarely 12 or 14 ) ; pectoral rays 20 ( rarely 19 or 21 ) ; no projecting short spines at upper and lower base of tail fin ; caudal fin bluntly forked ; scales are moderately large and rough ; body scaled , head largely scaled ( snout scaled to nostrils ) , as are the basal parts of the median fins ; lateral - line scales 20 ( rarely 19 ) ; lateral line incomplete , ends under end of dorsal fin base .\ndark brown , grading to lighter brown on head , with scattered noticeably paler scales on body ; most of body scales with blackish margins ; fins mainly dark brownish , except pectorals slightly yellowish ; juveniles bright blue with darker scale margins , a pair of neon - blue stripes on upper part of head and nape , black ocellated spot at base of spiny & soft dorsal junction , and small blue - edged black spot on upper surface of caudal peduncle .\nnorthern baja california and the entire gulf of california south to acapulco on the mexican mainland , and rarely in the revillagigedos .\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of eupomacentrus bleeker , 1877 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of segastes ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\npomacanthids ( angelfishes ) and pomacentrids ( damselfishes ) are mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions , and inhabit rocky and coral reefs between 1 and 30 m deep ; a few species range to depths of 80 m or more ( thomson et al . ,\n) report a total of 89 angelfish , and 387 damselfish species distributed around the world\u2019s oceans . along the mexican coast , in the eastern tropical pacific , registered species of this family include four angelfishes :\ndue to their colorful patterns and unusual body shapes , angelfish and damselfish have been widely targeted by aquarium fish trade , thus many species are of great commercial interest . in fact , damselfishes hold the world\u2019s first place in such trade , while angelfishes are rated as fifth ( wabnitz et al .\n) . in addition , these three species are not listed in any appendix of the convention of international trade of endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ) . nevertheless , at a national level the only species with a degree of vulnerability is\nin this paper we document the occurrence of h clarionensis , s . acapulcoensis , and s . leucorus north of their reported range of distribution . given the ecological and economic importance of such species , this information should be taken into account for future decisions making in conservation and management subjects .\nmagdalena and almejas bays are located in the southwestern coast of the baja california peninsula ( fig .\n) . the magdalena - almejas bay complex is one of mexico\u2019s largest lagoon systems , recognized as a region for conservation priority due to its large fishing production , the representation of multiple habitats , significant fish and bird diversity , and for being an important breeding zone for gray whales and sea turtles ( galv\u00e1n - maga\u00f1a et al .\n) . this particular region has been widely reported to be an important transition zone ( an ecotone ) between temperate and tropical environments , and represents one of the southernmost regions still under the influence of the california current , where the outermost part of the bay is constantly influenced by upwelling events ( \u00e1lvarez - borrego et al . ,\nbetween 2010 and 2014 a total of 295 underwater ecological surveys were conducted as part of a major monitoring program of no - take marine reserves and fishing grounds in the area . fish assemblages in five monitoring sites were surveyed using belt transects ( 30 \u00d7 2 m ) , where richness and abundances were estimated by reefcheck california certified scuba divers . sampling effort for each year and monitoring site is presented in table\nwe used the maximum entropy software maxent ver . 3 . 3 . 3 k ( phillips\n) to develop an ecological niche model of the species on the basis of occurrence records and on yearly average , annual range , maximum and minimum surface values of a series of oceanographic factors ( 9 \u00d7 9 km pixel resolution ) . temperature ( \u00b0c ) , chlorophyll a concentration ( mg / m\n) , and google earth , respectively . the modeling area was defined considering the known geographic range of the species , from 39 . 5\u00b0n to \u221210 . 5\u00b0s of latitude , and from \u2212130 . 5\u00b0w to \u221277\u00b0w of longitude for\n; and from 27\u00b0n to 17\u00b0n of latitude , and from \u2212116 . 5\u00b0w to \u2212105\u00b0w of longitude for\n. for modeling , in maxent we used a maximum iteration value of 1000 and the logistic output to evaluate probability of occurrence of the species in each pixel in a scale of 0 to 1 representing the suitability of each pixel , being 0 unsuitable and 1 very suitable . by consensus , values of 0 . 5 and higher represent presence of the species at that pixel ( peterson\n) . model accuracy was determined with the area under the curve ( auc ) of the threshold independent receiver operating characteristic analysis ( roc ) . occurrence data were randomly partitioned into 75 % for training and 25 % for testing ( franklin ,\nbased on the revised literature and consulted online collections we identified known locations where these species are distributed ( fig .\nsummed 88 occurrence records , of which 68 % belong to the revillagigedo islands ( mexican pacific ) , 25 % to the gulf of california and less than 5 % to islands above the 25\u00b0n ( south - californian pacific ) .\nhad 68 occurrence records , 75 % to revillagigedo islands , 19 . 11 % in the gulf of california and 5 . 8 in insular environments north of 25\u00b0n .\nhad the highest number of records ( 358 ) , with 9 % in the galapagos islands , 66 % in the central american pacific , 19 % in the mexican pacific , and 5 % in the gulf of california .\ndistribution of h . clarionensis , s . acapulcoensis and s . leucorus according to information of the gif , obis , fishbase , and vernet databases\nis off the coasts of baja california sur , south of almejas bay ( 24 . 25\u00b0 n ) , while both\nhave been recorded as far north as los cabos ( 23\u00b0 n ; fig .\n) , with extreme coordinates at 24 . 55777\u00b0 n , 112 . 10414\u00b0 w at magdalena bay . no specimens of any of these species were reported during the monitorings from 2010 to 2013 ( 201 transects ) , and were only recorded in 2014 ( fig .\nwas the most abundant , with mean densities of 0 . 125 \u00b1 0 . 125 ind / census , whilst\nniche models had a good performance according to the auc , whose values in all three models were > 0 . 9 ; considering that a random prediction has an auc = 0 . 5 . the species potential distribution maps ( fig .\nat revillagigedo islands , where important populations are known to exist , and also where the majority of specimens with commercial purpose are extracted .\nalso presented high probabilities at revillagigedo islands . at magdalena bay , the place of new records , the presence probability values for the three species were below 0 . 5 , denoting there are not ideal conditions for species occurrence / or establishing .\npotential distribution at baja california\u2019s coast of h . clarionensis ( a ) , s . acapulcoensis ( b ) and s . leucorus ( c ) according to the maxent model . 1 ) probability of occurrence ; 2 ) presence - absence based on probability of occurrence values of 0 . 5 or higher . asterisk indicates new records\nat bahia magdalena . presence of these species in the northern limit of the tropical eastern pacific province and previous records in pacific islands might indicate a tendency in which tropical fish species are extending their ranges towards temperate environments . this tendency , also reported for species in the gulf of california ( gonz\u00e1lez - cu\u00e9llar\n) , might be explained by the warm water intrusions into northern regions reported for 2014 ( peterson et al .\n) . nevertheless , the potential niche is determined by a series of biotic ( e . g . , food availability , predator abundance , competition ) and abiotic ( e . g . , temperature , depth , salinity ) factors , which allow a species to maintain a stable population ( peterson et al . ,\n) . even though coast bathymetry and coast type requirements were met , other factors such as temperature , food availability and competition with native species may not allow these species to increment their abundances , and establish viable populations .\nin conclusion , the results of this paper extend the currently known distribution northern endpoints for h . clarionensis , s . acapulcoensis , and s . leucorus . low densities along with the absence of juveniles suggest that their reproductive populations have not established in magdalena - almejas bay complex . nevertheless , currently rising temperatures and the confirmation of positive temperature anomalies during the possible 2015 el ni\u00f1o event might promote their establishment .\nwe thank roger romero , ernesto romero , norberto estala , raul romero , daniel valdez , ulises gomez , alberto de la toba , christian alducin , and alfonso romero for their support and participation in the monitoring of this work . members of the fishing cooperative \u201cmagdalena\u201d provided invaluable help in the field .\nthis study was funded by david and lucile packard foundation and walton family foundation .\nauthors do not wish to share data used in this project , as it represents a subset of databases of private - owned ( by fishers ) no - take marine reserves . nevertheless , data may be available upon contact of the main author , ahv .\nahv and fjfrm performed field surveys , smmm performed the maxent models , and jcvd managed the database and performed other analysis . all authors contributed equally to writing the paper . all authors read and approved the final manuscript .\nthis article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license (\n) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided you give appropriate credit to the original author ( s ) and the source , provide a link to the creative commons license , and indicate if changes were made . the creative commons public domain dedication waiver (\n) applies to the data made available in this article , unless otherwise stated .\nallen g , robertson r . fishes of the tropical eastern pacific . university of hawaii press . honolulu , hawaii , usa . 1994 . p . 335 .\nallen g , robertson r , rivera r , edgar g , merlen g , zapata f , barraza e .\n, the iucn red list of threatened species . ( version 2014 . 3 . ) . 2010b . available at\nallen gr . damselfishes . in : paxton j , eschmeyer w , editors . the world encyclopedia of fishes . 2nd ed . san diego : academic ; 1998 . p . 205\u20138 .\n\u00e1lvarez - borrego s , galindo - bect la , chee - barrag\u00e1n a . caracter\u00edsticas hidroqu\u00edmicas de bah\u00eda magdalena , bcs . cienc mar . 1975 ; 2 : 94\u2013110 .\ndiario oficial de la federaci\u00f3n . norma oficial mexicana . m\u00e9xico : nom - 059 - ecol - 2010 ; 2010 . p . 78 .\neschmeyer wn , fong jd . species by family / subfamily , catalog of fishes , california academy of sciences . ( version 03 / 2015 ) . 2015 . available at :\nfern\u00e1ndez - rivera melo fj , reyes - bonilla h , campos - d\u00e1vila l , balart ef . extension of range of lutjanus inermis ( peters , 1896 ) ( perciformes : lutjanidae ) to the central region of the gulf of california , mexico . j appl ichthyol . 2015 .\nfranklin j . mapping species distributions : spatial inference and prediction . cambridge : cambridge university press ; 2009 . p . 320 .\nfroese r , pauly d , editors . fishbase . 2014 ( version 11 / 2014 ) . available at :\ngalv\u00e1n - maga\u00f1a f , guti\u00e9rrez - s\u00e1nchez f , abitia - c\u00e1rdenas la , rodr\u00edguez - romero j . the distribution and affinities of the shore fishes of the baja california sur lagoons . in : manuwar m , lawrence sg , manuwar if , malley df , editors . aquatic ecosystems of mexico : status and scope , ecovision world monograph series . backhuys publishers ; 2000 . p . 383\u201398\ngardner sc , ch\u00e1vez\u2010rosales s . changes in the relative abundance and distribution of gray whales (\n) in magdalena bay , mexico during an el ni\u00f1o event . mar mamm sci . 2000 ; 16 : 728\u201338 .\nglobal biodiversity information facility . 2015 . ( version 2 / 2015 ) . available at :\ngonz\u00e1lez - cu\u00e9llar ot , reyes - bonilla h , fourri\u00e9re m , rojo m , hern\u00e1ndez - velasco a , s\u00e1nchez - alc\u00e1ntara i , pfister t . range extensions of four species of parrotfishes ( scaridae ) in the northern gulf of california , mexico . cybium . 2013 ; 37 : 223\u20136 .\nhumann p , de loach n . reef fish identification : baja to panama . jacksonville : new world publications ; 2004 .\nmart\u00ednez - torres m , reyes - bonilla h , fern\u00e1ndez - rivera melo fj , s\u00e1nchez - alc\u00e1ntara i , gonz\u00e1lez - cuellar ot , morales - portillo cd . range extension of the blue and yellow damselfish\n( pomacentridae ) to the northern gulf of california , mexico . mar biodiversity rec . 2014 ; 7 : e43 . doi :\nnelson js . fishes of the world . 4th ed . hoboken : wiley ; 2006 . p . 601 .\nocean biogeographic information system . 2015 . 2015 ( version 02 / 2015 ) . available at :\npeterson at , sober\u00f3n j , pearson rg , anderson r , mart\u00ednez - meyer e , nakamura m , ara\u00fajo m . ecological niches and geographic distributions . princeton : princeton university press ; 2011 .\npeterson w , robert m , bond n . the warm blob - conditions in the northeastern pacific ocean . pices press23 . 1 ; 2015 . p . 36\u20138 . winter 2015 .\nphillips sj , anderson rp , schapire re . maximum entropy modeling of species geographic distribution . ecol model . 2006 ; 190 : 231\u201359 .\npi\u00f1a - espallargas r , reyes - bonilla h , ortu\u00f1o - manzanares g , garc\u00e1a - n\u00e1\u00f1ez ne , mendoza - vargas l , gonz\u00e1lez - ania lv . especies marinas de ornato del golfo de california . in : sustentabilidad y pesca responsable en m\u00e9xico : evaluaci\u00f3n y manejo . mexico : inp - sagarpa ; 2001 . p . 878\u2013914 .\n, the iucn red list of threatened species . ( version 2014 . 3 . ) . 2010 . available at\nrobertson rr , allen gr . shorefishes of the tropical eastern pacific online information system . 2008 ( version 1 . 0 . 4 . 53 ) . availble at :\nthomson da , findley lt , kerstitch an . reef fishes of the sea of cortez . university of texas press , austin , tx . 2000 .\nwabnitz c , taylor m , green e , razak t . from ocean to aquarium . 2003 . unep - wcmc .\nzaitsev o , s\u00e1nchez - montante o , saldivar - reyes m . seasonal variations of the thermohaline structure in the magdalena - almejas bay lagoon system and adjacent sea . cienc mar . 2010 ; 36 ( 4 ) : 413\u201332 .\nzarate - ovando b , palacios e , reyes - bonilla h , amador e , saad g . waterbirds of the lagoon complex magdalena bay - almejas , baja california sur , mexico . waterbirds . 2006 ; 29 : 350\u201364 .\nby using this website , you agree to our terms and conditions , privacy statement and cookies policy . manage the cookies we use in the preference centre .\n. near threatened , least concern and those listed as data deficient have been excluded though they may end up on this list in the future .\nthese are just the marine species known to be in trouble and are likely to be just the tip of the iceberg , so to speak , based on how little we currently know about life in the ocean . click a species ' scientific name for the iucn red list species page and its version link for a page describing the associated staus - specific codes .\nstart or join a discussion below about this page or send us an email to report any errors or submit suggestions for this page . we greatly appreciate all feedback !\ncitation :\n. marinebio conservation society . web . accessed . < > .\nhelp us protect and restore marine life by supporting our various online community - centered marine conservation projects that are effectively sharing the wonders of the ocean with millions each year around the world , raising a balanced awareness of the increasingly troubling and often very complex marine conservation issues that affect marine life and ourselves directly , providing support to marine conservation groups on the frontlines that are making real differences today , and the scientists , teachers and students involved in the marine life sciences .\nwith your support , most marine life and their ocean habitats can be protected , if not restored to their former natural levels of biodiversity . we sincerely thank our thousands of members , donors and sponsors , who have decided to get involved and support the marinebio conservation society .\ndeep music digitally imported urltoken proton radio * radio paradise radiotunes somafm wers 88 . 9 fm\n~ sharing the wonders of the ocean to inspire conservation , education , research , and a sea ethic ~ marinebio . org , inc . is a u . s . 501 ( c ) 3 charitable , nonprofit organization . contact : info @ urltoken all marinebio conservation society memberships and donations are tax deductible in the united states . > < ( ( ( ( \u00b0 > \u00a9 1998 - 2017 marinebio copyright & terms of use . privacy policy . > - < \u00b0\u00b0 > - <\nfor all at last returns to the sea \u2014 to oceanus , the ocean river , like the everflowing stream of time , the beginning and the end .\n- rachel carson\nwe are an interdisciplinary and collegial group of ecologists , mathematicians , economists , geographers and conservation scientists who share a motivation to do research that has impact in the real world . with a grounding in natural history and primary data collection , quantitative methods and an appreciation for the interactions between humans and the environment , our work employs decision science to inform policies for sustaining life on earth .\nleah gerber arizona state university p . o . box 874601 tempe , az 85287 - 4601 united states\nvulnerable ( vu ) species are considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild .\nas of september 2016 , the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) lists 1245 vulnerable fish species . [ 1 ] 8 . 1 % of all evaluated fish species are listed as vulnerable . the iucn also lists eight fish subspecies as vulnerable .\nof the subpopulations of fishes evaluated by the iucn , 18 species subpopulations have been assessed as vulnerable .\nfor a species to be assessed as vulnerable to extinction the best available evidence must meet quantitative criteria set by the iucn designed to reflect\na high risk of extinction in the wild\n. endangered and critically endangered species also meet the quantitative criteria of vulnerable species , and are listed separately . see : list of endangered fishes , list of critically endangered fishes . vulnerable , endangered and critically endangered species are collectively referred to as threatened species by the iucn .\nadditionally 3191 fish species ( 21 % of those evaluated ) are listed as data deficient , meaning there is insufficient information for a full assessment of conservation status . as these species typically have small distributions and / or populations , they are intrinsically likely to be threatened , according to the iucn . [ 2 ] while the category of data deficient indicates that no assessment of extinction risk has been made for the taxa , the iucn notes that it may be appropriate to give them\nthe same degree of attention as threatened taxa , at least until their status can be assessed .\n[ 3 ]\nthis is a complete list of vulnerable fish species and subspecies evaluated by the iucn . species and subspecies which have vulnerable subpopulations ( or stocks ) are indicated .\nchondrichthyes includes sharks , rays , skates , and sawfish . there are 121 species and eight subpopulations of cartilaginous fish assessed as vulnerable .\nthere are 74 species and one subpopulation in the order rajiformes assessed as vulnerable .\nthere are 1114 species , eight subspecies , and four subpopulations of ray - finned fish assessed as vulnerable .\ncypriniformes includes carps , minnows , loaches and relatives . there are 298 species and one subspecies in the order cypriniformes assessed as vulnerable .\nthere are 405 species , one subspecies , and one subpopulation in the order perciformes assessed as vulnerable .\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses ."]}
{"id": 1250, "summary": [{"text": "the forest cobra ( naja melanoleuca ) , also commonly called the black cobra and the black and white-lipped cobra , is a species of venomous snake in the family elapidae .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "the species is native to africa , mostly the central and western parts of the continent .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is the largest true cobra species with a total length ( including tail ) of up to 3.1 meters ( 10 feet ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "although it prefers lowland forest and moist savanna habitats , this cobra is highly adaptable and can be found in drier climates within its geographical range .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is a very capable swimmer and is often considered to be semi-aquatic .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the forest cobra is a generalist in its feeding habits , having a highly varied diet : anything from large insects to small mammals and other reptiles .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "this species is alert , nervous and is considered to be a very dangerous snake .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "when cornered or molested , it will assume the typical cobra warning posture by raising its fore body off the ground , spreading a narrow hood , and hissing loudly .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "bites to humans are less common than from other african cobras due to various factors , though a bite from this species is a life-threatening emergency . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "forest cobra", "paragraphs": ["it also inhabits mangroves in western africa . the banded form of forest cobra in\nit ' s a trap !\ntaking advantage of a forest cobra .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\n) . the species is also known by other common names like african banded cobra , banded cobra , brown cobra or arabian cobra .\nexploring the venom of the forest cobra snake : toxicovenomics and antivenom profiling of naja melanoleuca .\nthe egyptian cobra ( naja haje ) is a species of cobra found in africa . it is one of the largest cobra species native to africa , second to the forest cobra ( naja melanoleuca ) .\nmillburn , naomi .\nhabitat of a forest cobra\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\nthe forest cobra once held the record for longevity in captivity with a specimen that lived 28 years . like most other cobra species ,\nthe colour of this species is variable , with three main colour morphs . those from the forest or forest fringe , from\na snake of forest or woodland , it is the only one of africa ' s cobras that will live in high forest .\nmillburn , naomi .\nhabitat of a forest cobra .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / habitat - forest - cobra - 5429 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nforest cobra snake ( black and white cobra , naja melanoleuca ) eating chicks at the meserani snake park at duka bovi in tanzania , africa .\nmillburn , naomi . ( n . d . ) . habitat of a forest cobra . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / habitat - forest - cobra - 5429 . html\nthe forest cobras are snakes that are well adapted to many environments and the habitat of the forest cobra is strongly dependent on what part of its african range the snake originates from . forest cobras originating in the southern african regions are typically found in\nmaximum longevity : 29 . 1 years ( captivity ) observations : these animals are also known as forest cobra .\nexploring the venom of the forest cobra snake : toxicovenomics and antivenom profiling of naja melanoleuca . - pubmed - ncbi\nnaja melanoleuca ( forest cobra ) venom . the amino acid sequence of phospholipase a , fraction de - iii .\nrain forest facts : the forest cobra is the second largest species of cobra on earth . the rainforests of western africa are home to this large predator . reaching lengths of over 7 feet , this cobra can deliver a very powerful bite to any would - be predator . not afraid to stand their ground , the forest cobra is often regarded as an aggressive species in captivity .\nsome species like the forest cobra are habitat specialists and occupy specific niches while others like the indian cobra are habitat generalists and occur across a range habitat types .\nin the event of an actual or probable bite from a forest cobra , execute the following first aid measures without delay .\nnaja melanoleuca ( forest cobra , black and white lipped cobra ) , kwazulu - natal , south africa . [ photo f . grundlingh \u00a9 , from sarca virtual museum ]\nnaja melanoleuca ( forest cobra , black and white lipped cobra ) , kwazulu - natal , south africa . [ photo a . coetzer \u00a9 , from sarca virtual museum ]\nnaja melanoleuca ( forest cobra ) venom . the amino acid sequence of phospholipase a , fraction de - iii . - pubmed - ncbi\noccurs in wild forest and in cultivated areas . ( tropical rainforest animals , 2000 )\nthe north american coral snake habitat is highly variable , ranging from forest to desert .\nwear down and drop out in pieces , making the back pair shift forward and two new molars emerge in the back of the african forest elephant ' s mouth . african forest\nanother time i found one on penang hill in malaysia while running down a forest trail .\nthe seven species of asiatic spitting cobras are the mandalay spitting cobra ( n . mandalayensis ) , palawan spitting cobra ( n . miolepis ) , philippine spitting cobra ( n . philippinensis ) , samar cobra ( n . samarensis , also known as the peter\u2019s cobra ) , indochinese spitting cobra ( n . siamensis , also known as the black and white or thai spitting cobra , javan spitting cobra ( n . sputatrix ) , and the equitoral spitting cobra ( n . sumatrana ) .\nfor digging for roots in the ground and to strip the bark off trees . the african forest\nopheodrys vernalis were hatched as part of breeding program in conjunction with lake county forest preserve district .\nthe forest cobra can be identified the following features ; highly polished body scales , its good climbing ability , a preference for thick vegetation in close proximity to water and its narrow hood . this snake grows to an average length of 2 meters but can grow up to 2 . 7 meters in length ( the forest cobra is the largest cobra in africa ) .\nthe forest cobra kicks off the list of deadliest snakes . members of this species , which grow to eight feet in length , are native to central africa .\nseven species of african spitting cobras exist today . they are ashe\u2019s spitting cobra ( n . ashei ) , the mali cobra ( n . katiensis ) , mozambique spitting cobra ( n . mossambica ) , zebra spitting cobra ( n . nigricincta ) , black - necked spitting cobra ( n . nigricollis ) , nubian spitting cobra ( n . nubiae ) , and the red spitting cobra ( n . pallida ) .\npopulation has fortunately begun to recover . in 1980 , there were an estimated 380 , 000 african forest\nthe population of forest cobras in uganda are almost always found close to water . the brown colour phase occurs in coastal and high altitude forest , woodland and thicket , and grassland areas ( i . e .\nthe forest cobra is fast , very active , and an agile climber . it is active both day and night and can be aggressive if not able to retreat .\n. the subgenus is united by their restriction to central and west african forest and / or forest - edge type habitat . they are also more aquatic and feed more on aquatic species . the species of the subgenus\nlargely due its forest - dwelling habits . the symptomology is thought to be very similar to that of the\nthis species is found from desert to savanna to thick forest . it can be found in urban areas .\ngives birth to a single calf ( twins have been known but are extremely rare ) . the african forest\nnear streams in dense or open forest , bamboo thickets , adjacent agricultural areas , and dense mangrove swamps .\nthe forest cobra has a length of 79\u2013118 in ( 2\u20133 m ) . with its large , thick body , it is africa ' s largest cobra . its color is variable by region but usually is dark with crossbars or blotches .\ncobra de capelo translated from portuguese means \u201csnake with hood\u201d a term which loosely places a variety of snakes into the cobra bracket .\nobservation - forest cobra - southern africa . description : this was the second cobra found within an hour on this day ( only captured the tail in a photo so not good enough for an observation ) . also saw 5 other forest cobras in the same area over a period of two days in late september . the snakes appear to be acti\nas its common name indicates , the forest cobra lives primarily in forest or woodlands , and it is the only cobra species found in such areas in africa . due to its ecological niche , humans do not often encounter forest cobras , and the species is one of the least frequent causes of snakebites in africa ( it possesses a primarily neurotoxic venom ) . it is primarily a diurnal species , and it exhibits some arboreal tendencies due to its natural habitat .\nis the only african cobra that lives in high altitude forest , residing in a wide range of altitudes from sea level to 2800 m . forest cobras are highly adaptable snakes , and its habitat varies depending on which part of its african range it is living in . in southern africa ,\nthe forest cobra is one of the least frequent causes of snake bite among the african cobras , largely due its forest - dwelling habits and its shy , retiring demeanor . although one of the largest of the african naja cobras , the venom is considered less toxic than the others . if the snake becomes cornered or is agitated , it can quickly attack the aggressor , and if a large amount of venom is injected , a rapidly fatal outcome is possible . the forest cobra does not normally spit or spray its venom . the forest cobra is also felt by many her - petologists to be one of the most intelligent of the african elapids .\nblack - lipped cobra are also known as forest cobras and are most frequently found among the thick vegetation in lowland forest or coastal savannah thickets . they are noted for their climbing ability , often seen resting on the branches of shrubs or trees , having been spotted 30m up in the branches .\nthis snake seems to be highly adaptable and will readily move into drier areas if it can . in western kenya , the forest cobra has been found in wide stretched grassland areas .\nthe bite of the forest cobra with envenomation can be rapidly fatal ( possibly as early as 30 to 120 minutes ) . please read the attached medical management protocol and respond appropriately .\nlives in savanna and grassland ( but usually along streams ) and well vegetated areas , especially riverine forest , up to latitude 14 n . the species ' preferred habitat are lowland forest and moist savanna where it favours coastal thickets .\nking cobra beer or other king cobra drinks have nothing to do with king cobras , except in name . there is no king cobra venom in the beer or other drinks , it is just a catchy name .\nrenal symptoms have not yet been reported in forest cobra envenomation , but may complicate the situation , and if severe ( i . e . , acute renal failure ) may necessitate peritoneal dialysis .\nforest cobra bites intimidate many due to their venomous natures . when forest cobras encounter human beings , they often react by retreating immediately to clandestine hiding spots . if they are frustrated and feel out of options , however , they will bite . the sturdy snakes ' venom can be extremely dangerous and even life - threatening . if you ever experience a bite from a forest cobra , seek medical assistance immediately . without urgent attention , death is a possibility , so take the matter seriously and do not hesitate to get help .\nthe king cobra is an example of a snake with\ncobra\nin its name , but it is not a member of the naja genus . the king cobra ( ophiophagus hannah ) is the only member of its genus .\nthe forest cobra is africa\u2019s largest cobra species , with an average length of 1 . 4 to 2 . 2 m and a maximum recorded length of 2 . 7 m . males and females grow to similar sizes , there is no sexual dimorphism in the species . forest cobras are thick - bodied , cylindrical snakes with a tapering tail . their head is fairly large with black and white markings on the side which look like black and white bars on the jaws . like all cobra species ,\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - king cobra catching and feeding on indian cobra\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - king cobra catching and feeding on indian cobra\ntitle =\narkive video - king cobra catching and feeding on indian cobra\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nnephrotoxicity : acute renal failure has not yet been reported in cases of forest cobra bites in humans . oliguria or anuria with possible changes in urinary composition will herald the development of renal shutdown . dialysis is advised .\nthe king cobra is found in dense , high jungle , often near water .\nzoo officials were confident the missing cobra would be found in the building and not outside , since the egyptian cobra is known to be uncomfortable in open areas .\nthis species generally inhabits forest and woodland , but it can also be found in open savanna and grassland in some parts of its range .\ncobras are large snakes ; many species reach more than 6 feet long ( 2 meters ) . according to cape snake conservation , the forest cobra is the largest true cobra , reaching 10 feet ( 3 m ) , and ashe\u2019s spitting cobra is 9 feet ( 2 . 7 m ) , making it the world\u2019s largest spitting cobra . the smallest species is the mozambique spitting cobra , which is about 4 feet long ( 1 . 2 m ) . king cobras , the longest of all venomous snakes , can reach 18 feet ( 5 . 5 m ) .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the african forest elephant article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nit is not advisable to utilize subcutaneous or intradermal testing for sensitivity to equine products in that such testing may be unreliable , and may unnecessarily delay antivenom therapy which must be used if any signs of forest cobra envenomation are present .\nif it doesn\u2019t belong to the genus naja , then it\u2019s not a true cobra .\nit should come as no surprise though , that a cobra\u2019s biggest enemy is man .\nmany of the species can reach lengths of 2 m ( 6 . 0 ft . ) ; the largest of which , the forest cobra ( n . melanoleuca ) , has been recorded at a whopping 3 . 1 m ( 10 ft . ) . at 2 . 7 m ( 8 . 9 ft ) , ashe\u2019s spitting cobra ( n . ashei ) is the largest spitting cobra in the world .\nforest cobras are a polygynandrous species , as both the male and the female may pair with multiple mates . male - male combat has been observed in\nacts as a secondary and tertiary consumer , and are prey to other tertiary consumers and apex predators . forest cobras help control rodent and amphibian populations .\nthe forest cobra is a quick and agile terrestrial snake that is also inclined to climb in trees of 10 meters and higher . within some of its geographic range , it swims quite often and has been known to feed on fish , so it can be regarded as semi - aquatic . forest cobras are diurnal in uninhabited areas and nocturnal in urban zones around human activity . when inactive ,\ncardiotoxicity : direct toxic effects on the myocardium or conducting system have not yet been reported in forest cobra envenomation . however , effects on the nervous or vascular systems may manifest as cardiac complications . monitoring of cardiac function and rhythm is advised .\nking cobra eating a red - tailed racer ( g . oxycephalum ) snake \u2013 thailand .\nthe king cobra mates and the eggs are laid approximately 60 days later . the female king cobra builds a nest , while the male doesn\u2019t play any role in protecting the young .\nthe king cobra is not considered to be a true cobra species , such as the other cobras in the naja genus ; instead , it belongs to its own genus , ophiophagus .\nsome authorities believe it is one of the most dangerous african snakes to be kept as many captive forest cobras are described to be particularly aggressive when handled .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\nthe king cobra habitat includes dense highland forests , open woods and pasturelands near bodies of water .\nking cobra skull showing large teeth and thick , rather short fangs for injecting venom during envenomation .\none of the most interesting snakes in the world , the king cobra ( ophiophagus hannah ) .\nmake sure that at least 10 vials of south african institute for medical research ( s . a . i . m . r ) polyvalent antivenom are present with the patient . this antivenom contains the appropriate fractions necessary to neutralize the components of forest cobra venom .\nas a whole . scales protect the body of the snake , aid it in locomotion , allow moisture to be retained within , and alter the surface characteristics such as roughness to aid in camouflage . the dorsal scales of the forest cobra are smooth , glossy and strongly oblique .\nis one of the most frequently used in the\nsnake charming\nshows it ' s wide hood and impressive build make the egyptian cobra species a good choice for the charmers . unlike other cobra species , the egyptian cobra doesn ' t display the noticeable dorsal marking or \u201ceyespots\u201d of other famous cobras including the\nmating behavior of the african forest cobra includes male ritual combat . two males will literally\ndance\nwith each other to determine who wins the right to mate with the female cobra . death or serious injury rarely occurs from such ritual behavior . once a male has established his dominance , the loser will generally move on with out any further incident . juvenile cobras , however , must beware of large adults . the cobra is cannibalistic and will readily make a meal out of smaller snakes .\nthe forest cobra ( n . melanoleuca ) is considered the largest true cobra species , and specimens have been documented at up to 10 feet in length . it occurs mainly in western and central africa , where it can be found from senegal in the west to angola , western kenya , uganda and rwanda in the east . it can also be found in some parts of south africa .\nthe mongoose is the best - known enemy of the cobra . according to urltoken , mongooses have thick fur to protect against cobra fangs and often defeat cobras in fights using their speed and agility . they can bite the cobra\u2019s back before the snake can defend itself . cobras are also threatened from other snakes and humans .\nother enemies include birds of prey and other snakes . it\u2019s a snake eat snake world for a cobra .\nhematological symptoms may present as a disseminated intravascular coagulopathy , and are treated as are other dics . this has not been reported in forest cobra envenomations . however , spontaneous hemorrhage , prolonged clot lysis with failure of clot retraction secondary to a platelet defect , delayed rise in fibrin degradation products , and complement ( c3 ) depletion have been seen following bites from the spitting cobra ( naja nigricollis ) .\nthe egyptian cobra was represented in egyptian mythology by the cobra - headed goddess meretseger . a stylised egyptian cobra \u2014 in the form of the uraeus representing the goddess wadjet \u2014 was the symbol of sovereignty for the pharaohs who incorporated it into their diadem . this iconography was continued through the ptolemaic kingdom ( 305 bc\u201330 bc ) .\nforest cobras ( naja melanoleuca ) are members of family elapidae . they are big cobras . called\nblack and white cobras\ndue to their body patterning , forest cobras are often combinations of black and white , with dark upper bodies and pale white or off - white undersides . their shiny top portions , however , are frequently brownish - yellow rather than black .\n. adults do show some preference towards frogs . juveniles feed mainly on anuran tadpoles , but will also consume small lizards . forest cobras in west africa have also been observed to prey upon\n) which can attain lengths of 2 . 7 metres ( 8 . 9 feet ) to the burrowing cobra (\nthis cobra has a varied diet , including reptiles and amphibians ( even toads ) , birds , and eggs .\nking cobra eating a red - tailed racer ( oxycephalum gonyosoma ) snake \u2013 thailand . copyright 2009 vern lovic .\nmany people are trying to find a king cobra in thailand , india , indonesia , malaysia , and elsewhere .\ncobras can be found across most of africa and in many parts of asia . they inhabit a range of habitat types including desert , forest , fynbos , grassland , thicket and cultivated areas .\nare pretty straight instead of curved to help them move through the thick jungle with greater ease . this , along with their pinkish tinge , has made the ivory of the african forest elephant ' s\nhas many potential predators , and they are the most vulnerable when they are juveniles . the most deadly enemy to forest cobras is the mongoose . there are several species of mongoose within the range of\naccording to the university of michigan , human victims may stop breathing just 30 minutes after being bitten by a cobra .\nin hinduism shiva is depicted meditating with a cobra around his neck and vishnu rests on the cosmic cobra ananta while dreaming the universe into being ; in buddhism the image of a five - headed cobra or naga is often seen sheltering the buddha as he attained enlightenment and in tibet , cobras symbolise the rainbow as a connecting link between heaven and earth .\nthe egyptian cobra can also be found in captivity at zoos both in and outside of the snake\u2019s natural range . the\nlike most cobra species it has an average life span of 20 years ( one specimen lived for 28 years ) .\nwhen threatened , a forest cobra expands its hood and lifts the front of its body far off of the ground to appear larger . they are able to strike very quickly , with great distance . if the snake feels further threatened after these defensive postures , it will make an effort to bite . for these reasons ,\nthe indian cobra eats rats and mice that carry disease and eat human food . also , cobra venom is a potential source of medicines , including anti - cancer drugs and pain - killers . ( discovery , 2000 ; burton , 1991 )\nexcluding the associated subspecies there are currently 28 species of snake belonging to the genus naja . this may came as a surprise to many of you but the king cobra is taxonomically speaking no more of a cobra than is a black mamba .\nthe red spitting cobra is a medium - sized cobra that may reach a length of up to 4 feet . originally , it was thought to be a subspecies of the mozambique spitting cobra , but is now considered its own species . it is favored by venomous snake keepers due to its coloration , which is typically a salmon to red color with black banding .\nat about 8 feet in length , the egyptian cobra ( n . haje ) is the second - largest cobra species on the african continent , after the forest cobra ( discussed next ) . egyptian cobras range across most of northern africa , in the northern saraha , through the savannahs of west africa to the southern sahara , south to the congo basin and east to kenya and tanzania . specimens may also be found in southern areas of the arabian peninsula . the species thrives in savannah and arid semi - desert regions of africa where some water and vegetation is available .\npredominantly a forest - dwelling species , the king cobra occurs in rainforest , bamboo thickets and mangrove swamps , as well as other habitats with dense undergrowth and heavy rainfall ( 3 ) ( 7 ) . it is known to occur from sea level to mountainous regions , at elevations of over 2 , 000 metres ( 3 ) .\nthe king cobra is also harvested for its meat , skin and bile which are used in traditional medicine ( 7 ) .\ni hope that you have enjoyed this guide to cobra snake facts . if you have ever seen a cobra or have a favourite from the list below i\u2019d love to hear from you ! if you have a favourite don\u2019t forget to tell us why \ud83d\ude42\nmore than 34 stories of venomous snakebite and very near misses from southeast asia\u2019s most deadly snakes \u2013 king cobra , malayan pit viper , monocled cobra , banded krait , malayan krait , and more ! digital book with over 100 pages by vern lovic .\nmeaning that it only eats plants and other vegetation . they predominantly eat leaves and fruit from trees , herbs and low - lying shrubs . however , the front pair of molars in the mouth of the african forest\nthis cobra is terrestrial but is a good climber . it is generally active at night but sometimes during the day as well .\nthe king cobra bite is the most powerful bite in kilograms per square inch of bite pressure \u2013 of any venomous snake in the world . this was tested by luke yeomans in the united kingdom before he passed away \u2013 of king cobra bite and envenomation .\nmorphologically , the king cobra has a larger head and more narrow hood compared to other cobra species . a key to identifying them is the presence of a pair of large scales , known as occipitals , located at the back of the top of the head . these are behind the usual \u201cnine - plate\u201d arrangement typical of colubrids and elapids , and are unique to the king cobra .\nfor living environment , forest cobras are found in a multitude of habitat types . they can adjust swiftly to diverse surroundings , and as such inhabit damp savannas , thickets , rainforests , lowland forests , rivers , wetlands , plantations , streams , grasslands and coastal locales . forest cobras can reside at heights of more than 9 , 000 feet . they are rapid , nimble snakes and are swift whether they ' re within trees or on the ground .\nbut it was nonetheless a major milestone as cobsy is the oldest known black - lipped cobra living at a zoo in the world .\nthe black - necked spitting cobra generally prefers open savanna but can be found in all types of terrestrial habitat , including urban areas .\nthere is some disagreement about what exactly a cobra is , and the number of cobra species ranges from 28 to about 270 depending on how a cobra is defined . genetically , \u201ctrue\u201d cobras are members of the genus naja , but according to viernum , often \u201cthe name cobra references several species of snakes , most of which are in the venomous snake family elapidae . elpididae includes other snakes like coral snakes , kraits and mambas . \u201d many of these snakes either possess hoods or the ability to raise the upper part of their body .\nanother interesting bit of information is that the king cobra is said to be able to see as far as 100 meters during daylight .\nthis cobra species has a highly dangerous neurotoxic venom , it is however responsible for very few bites and there is an antivenom available .\ndespite its armoury , the king cobra\u2019s instinctive response to humans is to flee . but they seem to find other animals less intimidating . one old report from burma described a cobra biting a full - grown elephant on the trunk ; the pachyderm died several hours later .\nif you happen to have a fear of snakes , take time to say thanks to the king cobra\u2014it\u2019ll eat those snakes for dinner .\nforest cobras are frequently found near water , mainly rivers or streams , particularly in otherwise dry habitats such as savannas and grasslands . the snake can also live around human developments , and is encountered in the trees of fruit plantations .\nthe highly venomous egyptian cobra is extremely dangerous , their venom contains primarily neurotoxins as well as cytotoxins . in a single bite , these cobra snakes can inject anywhere from 175 to 300 mg , with a subcutaneous ld50 value in mice of 1 . 15 mg / kg .\nthe king cobra is one of the only snake species to construct a nest , which is made of dead vegetation and soil . bamboo thickets\nking cobra juvenile , hatchling snake found in krabi , thailand . this snake is less than one month old , hatched from an egg .\nthanks to robert abrams for permission to post this photo of a king cobra which washed over a waterfall while he was swimming . amazing thailand .\nthe king cobra is the world\u2019s largest venomous snake \u2013 and a ruthless snake - hunter . but it is also a devoted parent . . .\nregarded as one of the most dangerous species in all of africa , the cape cobra ( n . nivea ) is a golden brown / black to yellow - colored cobra species that primarily inhabits southern africa , particularly the countries of south africa , namibia , lesothos , and part of botswana . it has one of the smallest geographic distributions of all the african cobra species . it is a medium - sized cobra measuring approximately 4 to 5 feet in length . the cape cobra is considered the most dangerous of the africian species because it ventures into human - inhabited areas to escape the heat or seek prey items . this increases the species\u2019 interactions with humans . other than humans , its main predators include the honey badger , meerkat , and the mongoose , all of which are thought to have evolved a resistance or decreased sensitivity to the cape cobra\u2019s predominately neurotoxic and cardiotoxic venom .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - king cobra ( ophiophagus hannah )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - king cobra ( ophiophagus hannah )\ntitle =\narkive species - king cobra ( ophiophagus hannah )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe egyptian cobra is one of the largest cobras of the african continent . the head is large and depressed and slightly distinct from the neck . the neck of this species has long cervical ribs capable of expanding to form a hood , like all other cobras . the snout of the egyptian cobra is moderately broad and rounded . the eyes are quite big with round pupils . the body of the egyptian cobra is cylindrical and stout with a long tail . the length of the egyptian cobra is largely dependent on subspecies , geographical locale , and population . the average length of this species is between\nadult indian cobras measure about 4 to 7 feet in length and feed primarily on rodents . individuals are often encountered in villages because of the associated abundant prey items , although the cobra\u2019s natural habitat includes open fields , forest edges , agricultural land and wetlands . the indian cobra is the species typically used by snake charmers in india . in hindu mythology , it is considered a powerful god , and it remains greatly respected and feared in hindu culture . rudyard kipling featured a pair of indian cobras in his famous short story rikki - tikki - tavi .\ncolors vary widely from species to species . there are red , yellow , black , mottled , banded and many other colors and patterns of cobra .\nthe egyptian cobra has grown in popularity among herpetoculturists in the west and is now frequently bred in captivity and readily available in the exotic pet trade .\nwhile the king cobra\u2019s venom is not as toxic as that of some highly venomous species , the sheer volume produced in a single bite is enough to kill 20 to 30 adult humans or a fully - grown asian elephant ( 3 ) ( 8 ) . nevertheless , as this species is generally non - aggressive and occupies deep forest , bites to humans and the resulting fatalities are rare ( 2 ) .\nsources : 1 . african forest elephant classification ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 10 nov 2008 ] 2 . african forest elephant conservation ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 10 nov 2008 ] 3 . african forest elephant habitat ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 10 nov 2008 ] 4 . african forest elephant information ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 10 nov 2008 ] 5 . african forest elephant threats ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 10 nov 2008 ] 6 . david burnie , dorling kindersley ( 2008 ) illustrated encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 10 nov 2008 ] 7 . david burnie , kingfisher ( 2011 ) the kingfisher animal encyclopedia [ accessed at : 01 jan 2011 ] 8 . david w . macdonald , oxford university press ( 2010 ) the encyclopedia of mammals [ accessed at : 01 jan 2010 ] 9 . dorling kindersley ( 2006 ) dorling kindersley encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 10 nov 2008 ] 10 . richard mackay , university of california press ( 2009 ) the atlas of endangered species [ accessed at : 01 jan 2009 ] 11 . tom jackson , lorenz books ( 2007 ) the world encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 10 nov 2008 ]\ntryon , bw . ( 15 november 1979 ) .\nreproduction in captive forest cobras , naja melanoleuca ( serpentes : elapidae )\n. journal of herpetology ( society for the study of amphibians and reptiles ) 13 ( 4 ) : 499 . jstor 1563487 .\nin thai language , it sounds like ngoo how chang ( literally \u201csnake cobra elephant\u201d , or ngoo chong ahng . there are many names for this snake .\nforest cobras hail from africa - - specifically the central portion of the continent and then further south . their geographic grounds are made up of nations such as uganda , south africa , angola , mozambique , congo , the central african republic and cameroon , among others .\njust then , a deep growl emanated from the bushes . i looked up and towering above me was a king cobra , its golden hood afire in the evening light , its eyes pinned on me . i let go of its tail , but instead of attacking me , the cobra streaked off through the undergrowth .\nwhat makes a king cobra scary is its size \u2013 males can reach over five metres long \u2013 and its venom . it has huge toxin glands in its \u2018cheeks\u2019 and can inject up to 7ml at a time ( though , drop for drop , its venom is less toxic than that of a common cobra ) .\nthe king cobra is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and is listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nmackay , n . , j . ferguson , g . mcnicol . 1969 . effects of three cobra venoms on blood coagulation , platelet aggregation , and fibrinolysis .\nrecently tom charlton and i found a 3 - meter king cobra in krabi and got some great shots and video of it . facebook photo of it here .\ninformed the public that their reptile house was closed after a venomous adolescent female banded egyptian cobra was discovered missing from its off - exhibit enclosure on march 25 .\ni raced after the fleeing serpent , and grabbed its tail a second time . the cobra swung around and charged at me open - mouthed . using a stick to keep the snake at bay , i managed to pull my sleeping bag out of my rucksack and prop it open . the cobra saw the dark hole as an escape route and slid inside . this was my very first encounter with a wild king cobra and i can still feel that adrenalin rush 30 years later .\ndue to the legend that states that cleopatra committed suicide by being bitten by an egyptian cobra . she probably chose this snake for its quick - acting venom .\nfinding a king cobra comes down to just two things . persistence , and luck . that\u2019s it really . you can try to go out during daytime hours , or limited daytime hours . you can go out early evenings only . you can target patches of bamboo . you can go out during mating season . you can go out in areas where they are known to have been previously . you can rub captive king cobra feces all over your pants and walk around the forest . to my knowledge , it is only people who are persistent and who get lucky , that will find king cobras .\nhabitat tropical and subtropical rainforest and formerly forested regions , but restricted to more open savanna forest near the coast in southern africa . usually found in the vicinity of water in dryer regions . persists in and around inhabited areas , particularly many central african towns and formerly forested regions .\nhas a very small distribution only being found in the following areas north east kwazulu - natal , southern mozambique and on the east zimbabwe border . its preferred habitat is lowland forest or costal savanna thickets . it is common to find these snakes both in trees and small shrubs .\nbut what about the black mamba ( dendroaspis polylepis ) then ? look closely \u2013 it also has the ability to spread a small hood . is it a cobra ?\nthe monocled cobra ( naja kaouthia ) is one of the most readily recognized cobra species because of the unique , o - shaped pattern on its dorsal hood . its range extends from southeast to southern asia , including india , china , vietnam , cambodia , malaysia , bangladesh , thailand ( where they are responsible for the greatest number of human fatalities resulting from snake envonmation ) , nepal , laos and myanmar . monocled cobras can inhabit a wide range of habitats , including grassland , forest , scrubland , and in or around human - inhabited areas . often , they are found in agricultural zones such as rice paddies .\nby this definition snakes like the king cobra ( ophiophagus hannah ) , the rinkhals ( hemachatus haemachatus ) and the cape coral snake ( aspidelaps lubricus ) are all cobras .\nin thai language , it sounds like ngoo chang ang ( \u0e07\u0e39\u0e08\u0e07\u0e2d\u0e32\u0e07 ) ( literally \u201csnake elephant cobra\u201d , or ngoo chong ahng . there are many names for this snake .\nyoung , b . a . ( 1991 ) morphological basis of \u201cgrowling\u201d in the king cobra , ophiophagus hannah . the journal of experimental zoology , 260 : 275 - 287 .\nand although these iconic snakes are quite familiar to us , there is still very little known about them . many so - called cobra snake facts are nothing more than hearsay .\none of the best short king cobra films i\u2019ve been able to shoot is here with my friend , tom charlton as he catches his first king after a decade of trying .\nsenegal eastward through ivory coast , ghana , nigeria , cameroon , central african republic , gabon , congo , and democratic republic of congo to uganda , kenya , western ethiopia , southern somalia , and tanzania , south to angola and zululand , in forest and savanna regions . also on zanzibar island .\n, this cobra is highly adaptable and can be found in drier climates within its geographical range . it is a very capable swimmer and is often considered to be semi - aquatic .\nblack - lipped cobras are the largest true cobra species native to africa . cobsy measures about 2 . 4m in length , close to the maximum recorded length of 2 . 7m .\nthe table below shows the 28 species of cobra currently recognised worldwide but excludes any subspecies . ten of the 28 are spitting cobras as can been seen in the \u2018common name\u2019 column .\nthe king cobra ( ophiophagus hannah ) is the longest venomous snake species , with adults ranging from about 8 to 18 feet in length . they may live up to 25 years .\nthe ancient egyptians worshiped the egyptian cobra or asp and it represented the\nfiery eye of re\n, so it was used as a symbol on the crown of the pharaohs .\nthe forest cobra can be found in forests and and shrublands throughout most of sub - saharan africa . countries in which it occurs include : sierra leone , liberia , ghana , togo , benin , nigeria , cameroon , gabon , kenya , uganda , rwanda , burundi , cote d\u2019ivoire , mali , senegal , guinea , the republic of congo , angola , and the central african republic . it is found in only small portions of south africa , but does occur in southern mozambique and eastern zimbabwe .\nsnakes have appeared strongly in the lore of many cultures as symbols of strength , creativity , cosmic energy and of creation itself . but no snake features more prominently than the iconic cobra .\nbroadley , d . g . ( 1995 ) the snouted cobra , naja annulifera , a valid species in southern africa . journal of the herpetological association of africa , 44 , 26\u201332 .\nthe egyptian cobra gained notoriety in the u . s . in 2011 , when mia , a resident of the bronx zoo , escaped . she was eventually discovered in the reptile house .\nking cobra venom is highly toxic and the snake can deliver a considerable amount in a single bite , upwards of 200 to 500 mg of venom . the venom affects the central nervous system , which causes blurred vision , vertigo , drowsiness , and paralysis . it then causes the collapse of the cardiovascular system and eventually respiratory failure . immediate medical treatment is essential to enhance survival from a king cobra snakebite . it is said that death can come to a person bitten by a king cobra within 30 minutes , depending on the amount of venom delivered during the envenomation .\nthe king cobra is listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) which controls trade through the use of permits and maximum export quotas ( 3 ) .\nbut there are times when even an alert cobra gets surprised by an unsuspecting person or other large animal . when this happens the first thing you\u2019ll often see is the cobra snake spread a hood ; an impressive display of sign language which , if you read between the lines , clearly states \u201ci\u2019m frightened but don\u2019t test me , i will defend myself if you get too close ! \u201d\nking cobras use their venom to subdue their prey \u2013 other snakes . rising up over its intended victim , the king cobra clamps its jaws around the snake\u2019s body and holds it in a suffocating grip until it stops struggling . the cobra\u2019s venom attacks its victim\u2019s nervous system , making its muscles limp . in about 10 minutes , the victim suffocates ; swallowing takes another 10 or 15 minutes .\nthais are a bit crazy about cobras \u2013 it is the most easily recognized snake , and though i have met few people that can identify other snakes , most know what a cobra looks like .\nrecently tom charlton wrote the first comprehensive book on the history of king cobras , called \u201cking cobra : natural history and captive management . \u201d you can contact tom directly at the email address below .\nfarmers near mangalore witnessed a four - metre - long king cobra subdue and swallow a two - metre - long python , which it went on to digest in a ditch for the following week .\nvery toxic , but monocled cobras ( naja kaouthia ) and kraits ( genus bungarus ) are more potent on the ld50 scale . the power of the king cobra is in the volume of venom it can inject in one bite \u2013 maximum around 7 ml ! kings can ( and have ) supposedly killed elephants with a good bite . more information on venom constituents and treatment for king cobra snakebite here .\nthe forests of agumbe in karnataka are the wettest and thickest in south india , and excellent snake habitat . i was walking along a forest path when i saw a black snake tail disappear into some bushes . \u201crat snake ! \u201d i thought , and dived for it , bruising knees and elbows as my fingers wrapped around its smooth skin .\ncan be quick to strike in response to sudden movements . the tongue is also used to search for and pick up scent molecules in the air . the molecules are then brought into the mouth and analyzed inside the jacobson\u2019s organ , which is located at the base of the nasal cavity . through this process , forest cobras can detect the scent of nearby prey or pheromones secreted by the opposite sex . while snakes lack an external ear , they are able to detect vibrations ranging from 50 to 1000 hz . when the snake is on the ground , sound waves travel via spinal nerves to the jaw muscle , where it is then transferred to the quadrate bone . the stapes ( or columella ) then transmits the vibrations to the inner ear . when threatened , the forest cobra will perform a defensive display typical of its genus . it will extend its hood and rear up its body .\nthey don\u2019t . not like spitting cobras spit venom . however , if your face is close to one , and the king cobra strikes , you may feel venom hit your face as it leaks out .\nforest cobras tend to weigh between 5 and 8 pounds , they measure 6 to 8 feet . the arboreal meat - eating reptiles have broad , flesh - based diets ; some of their typical prey include fellow fish , rodents , birds , frogs and other reptiles . in captivity , they generally eat rats . these venomous snakes employ neurotoxins to paralyze their targeted meals . when forest cobras live in captive settings like zoos , they can live for as long as 18 years . they lead independent , rather than companionable , lifestyles . they are highly aquatic . in times of breeding , the females of the species produce between 15 and 26 eggs . they are oviparous , and their eggs hatch externally .\nthe indian cobra feeds on rodents , lizards and frogs . it bites quickly , and then waits while its venom damages the nervous system of the prey , paralyzing and often killing it . like all snakes ,\nthe king cobra has a large range , extending from india , east to bangladesh , myanmar , cambodia , southern china , laos , thailand , vietnam , malaysia , indonesia and the philippines ( 5 ) .\nto learn more about this fascinating genus of snakes , i have put together this article to dispel some myths and set the cobra snake facts straight . i hope you learn something new , i certainly did .\nin egypt the cobra goddess wadjet , the celestial serpent , was seen as the giver of food and immortality and at an even deeper level may have represented mother earth ; the symbol , known as uraeus , is a stylised upright version of the egyptian cobra naja haje ( see table at the end of this post ) which was also indicated in the suicidal death of cleopatra and represents royalty , deity and divine authority .\nin contrast to the normal hissing sound produced by most snake species in response to threats , the king cobra makes a distinctive growl , which emanates from the throat and deepens as the snake grows ( 6 ) .\nthe longest of all living venomous snakes , the magnificent king cobra ( ophiophagus hannah ) has been the inspiration for a variety of myths and legends within its native range ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . this species is not a true cobra of the genus naja , and instead belongs to a unique genus ophiophagus , whose scientific name derives from the greek for \u201csnake - eating\u201d , in reference to its dietary habits ( 5 ) .\nthe most well - known snake enemy is the mongoose \u2013 its lightning speed ( watch the video to see this ) allows it to quickly bite the back of a cobra\u2019s neck and head before it can defend itself .\nthe king cobra ' s average size is 10 - 12 feet , but can reach 18 feet . the full grown king cobra is yellow , green , brown , or black . there are usually yellowish or white cross - bars or chevrons on its body . the belly may be uniform in color or ornamented with bars . the throat is light yellow or cream - colored . the juveniles are jet - black , with yellow or white cross - bars on the body and tail and four similar cross - bars on the head . the king cobra is regarded as a fierce and aggressive snake , and its length and size give it an awesome appearance ."]}
{"id": 1253, "summary": [{"text": "the wire-tailed swallow ( hirundo smithii ) is a small passerine bird in the swallow family .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it has two subspecies : h. s. smithii , which occurs throughout africa , and h. s. filifera , which is found in southern and southeastern asia .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is mainly resident , but populations in pakistan and northern india migrate further south in winter .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the genus name hirundo is the latin word for swallow .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the species name smithii commemorates christen smith , a norwegian botanist and geologist . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "wire - tailed swallow", "paragraphs": ["the preferred habitats for wire - tailed swallow are : woodlands and grasslands . the wire - tailed swallow is also at home in wetland areas .\nwire - tailed swallow at its nest , south africa . [ photo neil gray \u00a9 ]\nwire - tailed swallow pair in courtship display , tanzania . [ photo martin goodey \u00a9 ]\nwire - tailed swallow ( hirundo smithii fam . hirundinidae ) kruger park birds & birding .\nthe wire - tailed swallow is neither endemic or near endemic to the kruger national park .\nin terms of distribution of the wire - tailed swallow in the kruger national park you may not see it in all areas . wire - tailed swallow : see above distribution map .\nmuseum specimens indicate historical distributions . the map below shows locations from which museum specimens of wire - tailed swallow were collected . you can see more information on the individual museum specimens of wire - tailed swallow here .\nwire - tailed swallow : this soundscape contains sharp discontinuous calls by swallow and loud bg calls by red - wattled lapwing and coppersmith barbet .\nwire - tailed swallows measure 5 . 6 inches or 14 cm in length .\nwire - tailed swallow ( hirundo smithii ) is a small passerine bird in the swallow family . kruger national park , mpumalanga province , south africa .\nunlike many other swallow species , which nest in colonies - the wire - tailed swallows are solitary and territorial nesters .\nthe wire - tailed swallows ( hirundo smithii ) are swallows found in africa and asia .\nthe wire - tailed swallow ( latin name hirundo smithii ) is described in roberts birds of southern africa , 7th edition . this bird has a unique roberts number of 522 and you will find a full description of this bird on page 751 also a picture of the wire - tailed swallow on page 816 . the wire - tailed swallow belongs to the family of birds classified as hirundinidae .\nwire - tailed swallows mostly feed on insects ( particularly flies ) , often caught in flight .\norn . white - tailed swallow [ hirundo megaensis , syn . : h . magaensis ]\nthe wire - tailed swallow is monogamous unless its mate dies . in the event of a partner dying hirundo smithii will seek out a new mate\nthe wire - tailed swallow is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\nthe wire - tailed swallow ( hirundo smithii ) is a small passerine bird in the swallow family . swallows are somewhat similar in habits and appearance to other aerial insectivores , such as the related martins and the unrelated swifts ( order apodiformes\nthe wire - tailed swallow is a small passerine bird in the swallow family . swallows are somewhat similar in habits and appearance to other aerial insectivores . the populations in northern india migrate further south in winter . this bird is found in open country near water and human habitation . wire - tailed swallows are fast flyers and they generally feed on insects , especially flies , while airborne . more\npicture of the wire - tailed swallow on page 816 . the wire - tailed swallow belongs to the family of birds classified as hirundinidae . the map of the kruger you see on this page shows the areas ( coloured orange ) where this bird has been identified . the basic information was provided by the avian demographic unit based at uct and i created the maps from that information . . . more\nthe wire - tailed swallow ( hirundo smithii ) is a small passerine bird in the swallow family . swallows are somewhat similar in habits and appearance to other aerial insectivores , such as the related martins and the unrelated swifts ( order apodiformes ) . wire - tailed swallow breeds in africa south of the sahara and in tropical southern asia from the indian subcontinent east to southeast asia . it is mainly resident , but populations in pakistan and northern india migrate further south in winter .\nthe wire - tailed swallow ( hirundo smithii ) is a small passerine bird in the swallow family . swallows are somewhat similar in habits and appearance to other aerial insectivores , such as the related martins and the unrelated swifts ( order apodiformes ) . wire - tailed swallow breeds in africa south of the sahara and in tropical southern asia from the indian subcontinent east to southeast asia . it is mainly resident , but populations in pakistan and northern india migrate further south in winter . more\nwire - tailed swallow breeds in africa south of the sahara and in tropical southern asia from the indian subcontinent east to southeast asia . it is mainly resident , but populations in pakistan and northern india migrate further south in winter .\nan adult male perched on an electric wire , preening and stretching wings and tail .\none of the first indicators to take note of when trying to identify a bird is it relative size . for example how big is the bird compared to a well known familiar bird . the wire - tailed swallow is a small bird about the size of a house sparrow . do not take this relative indicator as anything other than a rough easy to remember indicator . it is not a accurate visualization . the height of the wire - tailed swallow is about 14 cms and its weight is about 13 gms\n* wire - tailed swallow ( hirundo smithii ) pair mating on a wire . mahad , raigad district , konkan division , maharashtra , india ( ssp filifera ) ryan brookes 3 september 2008 28 weeks ago 3 * an adult looking at a raptor chobe national park , botswana ( ssp smithii ) laurent demongin 30 september 2004 1 year ago 2 . more\norn . red - rumped swallow [ cecropis daurica , syn . : hirundo daurica ]\nstreak - throated swallow : nesting under the balcony overhang , on a busy road .\nany of these swallow species would be a welcome guest in a birder ' s backyard , but those yards need to be swallow - friendly before the birds feel at home .\npicture of the wire - tailed swallow has been licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike . original source : originally posted to flickr as wire - tailed swallow adult ( hirundo smithii ) author : lip kee yappermission ( reusing this file ) this image , which was originally posted to flickr . com , was uploaded to commons using flickr upload bot on 05 : 08 , 20 november 2008 ( utc ) by jerryfriedman ( talk ) . on that date it was licensed under the license below . this file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - share alike 2 . 0 generic license . you are free : to share \u2013 to copy , distribute and transmit the work\nin uttarakhand , it is common to see swallow nests ( barn swallows there ) in shops and porches and inside of homes - usually on the wall above an incandescent light bulb . the people believe that the swallows bring them luck . they also leave a window open at all times to allow free movement of the birds into their shops and homes . its the first time i am seeing nests of wire - tailed swallows in peoples homes in the plains - this nest was at the joint of wall and ceiling in the porch . the house - owners are also happy that the birds are nesting in their home . wire - tailed swallow nests have usually been seen under bridges , near water etc . - ss\ndistribution of wire - tailed swallow in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( \u00a9 animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 .\nputting up wires or a wire antenna high across the yard or roof to provide additional perches with good visibility for birds and birders alike .\nstreak - throated swallow : a large group nesting under the balcony overhang , on a busy road - 2 .\nturner , a . ( 2018 ) . wire - tailed swallow ( hirundo smithii ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nswallow is the common name for various small , swift - flying passerine birds in the family hirundinidae , characterized by long , pointed , narrow wings , a short bill , a typically notched or forked tail , and the ability to aerial feed , capturing insects on the wing . some birds in the family have the common name of martin . while the name\nmartin\ntends to be used for the squarer - tailed species , and the name\nswallow\nfor the more fork - tailed species , there is no scientific distinction between these two groups . a few other species in hirundinidae , comprising the genus psalidoprocne , have the common name of saw - wing . in europe , the name swallow is used colloquially as a synonym for the barn swallow .\nstreak throated swallows ( petrochelidon fluvicola ) are one of the four species of swallow birds found in madhya pradesh , indentified as 11 cm compact birds with chestnut crowns and brown streaks down the throat to breast and dirty off - white under parts . the juveniles look similar to wire tailed swallow juv . and can be only differentiated from their striped and non striped throats respectively . the birds are commonly seen in the open country , near water bodies , canals , rivers or lakes where they can easily find their food of insects and clay for building nests . swallows are found in big flocks and have an appealing nesting behavior , commonly called as swallow congregations .\ni specially like this spot on lake pichola where i took pictures of asian openbill stork , river tern , pied kingfisher and wire tailed swallows . the birds are used to the vehicles passing by , so they don ' t fly away when you stop your car near them . its a pleasurable place to be in the mornings .\ndistribution of wire - tailed swallow in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( \u00a9 animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 . movements and migrations little known , but it is thought be resident throughout its southern african range . more\nthe wire - tailed swallow is situated in the corner of a beautiful garden . the room consists of twin beds , a small patio and full bathroom . the room has a tv with 22 dstv channels , a fan , heater & electric blankets . tea / coffee - making facilities are available and coffee , tea , milk and sugar provided . guests can make use of a communal fridge & microwave at the lapa / braai areas . a maximum of two guests can be accommodated in this unit .\nstreak throated swallow - nesting site on the underside of a river bridge , waded by over hundred swallows . the picture was taken on the road towards kanha , madhya pradesh .\nspecies of swallow and martin that are threatened with extinction are generally endangered due to habitat loss . this is presumed to be the reason behind the decline of the critically endangered white - eyed river martin , a species that is only known from a few specimens collected in thailand . the species presumably breeds in riverbanks , a much diminished habitat in se asia . two insular species , the bahama swallow and golden swallow , have declined due to forest loss and also competition with introduced species such as starlings and sparrows , which compete with these swallows for nesting sites .\neven in the most swallow - friendly backyard , it can be difficult to attract these specialized birds on a regular basis . if you want to attract swallows but are having difficulty , consider :\ntarburton , m . k . 1993 . a comparison of the breeding biology of the welcome swallow in australia and recently colonized new zealand . emu 93 ( 1 ) : 34 - 43 .\nsnapp , b . 1976 . colonial breeding in the barn swallow ( hirundo rustica ) and its adaptive significance . the condor 78 ( 4 ) : 471 - 480 . retrieved november 18 , 2008 .\nthe streak throated swallow , is found across india . it can be identified with its chestnut color head , broad tail with a small fork and heavily streaked throat , neck and breast . the under parts are off white .\nsome species , like the mangrove swallow , are territorial , whereas others are not and simply defend their nesting site . in general , the males select a nest site , and then attract a female using song and flight , and ( dependent on the species ) guard their territory . the size of the territory varies depending on the species of swallow ; in colonial - nesting species , it tends to be small , but it may be much larger for solitary nesters .\nhirundinids are small to medium - sized passerines . the smallest , such as the white - thighed swallow , weigh about 10 g and the largest new world martins over 60 g . they are all specialist aerial insectivores , . . .\nthe swallows have a worldwide cosmopolitan distribution , occurring on every continent except antarctica . one species , the pacific swallow , occurs as a breeding bird on a number of oceanic islands in the pacific ocean , and a number of migratory species are common vagrants to other isolated islands and even to some sub - antarctic islands . many species have enormous worldwide ranges , particularly the barn swallow , which breeds over most of the northern hemisphere and winters over most of the southern hemisphere .\nbijlsma , r . , and b . van den brink . 2003 . a barn swallow hirundo rustica roost under attack : timing and risks in the presence of african hobbies falco cuvieri . ardea 93 ( 1 ) : 37 - 48 . retrieved november 18 , 2008 .\nin addition to insect prey , a number of species will occasionally consume fruits and other plant matter . species in africa have been recorded eating the seeds of acacia trees , and these are even fed to the young of the greater striped swallow ( underhill and hofmeyr 2007 ; turner 2004 ) .\nwhere several species of swallow feed together , they will be separated into different niches based on height off the ground , some species feeding closer to the ground whereas other feeding at higher levels . similar separation occurs where feeding overlaps with swifts . niche separation may also occur with the size of prey chosen .\nhirundines have a long association with humans , some species having nested on artificial sites for hundreds or , in some cases , even thousands of years . there are danish subfossil finds 5000 years old from neolithic flint mines , and the roman poet virgil wrote of a swallow , presumably the barn . . .\nthe majority of hirundines are not very social in the breeding season , when they nest solitarily or in loose groups , and forage alone or in pairs or small flocks . some , such as the mangrove swallow , are highly territorial , feeding mainly in their own large territory , but many species defend . . .\nas with feeding habits , knowledge of the breeding biology of many species of hirundine is scanty . on the other hand , a few members of the family , especially the barn and cliff swallows , the tree swallow and the purple martin , have become model species for scientific study over the last few . . .\nmany cave , bank , and cliff dwelling species of swallow nest in large colonies . birds living in large colonies typically have to contend with both ectoparasites and conspecific nest parasitism ( brown and brown 1986 ; brown 1984 ) . old males benefit most from coloniality , since they are able to maintain their own nests and benefit from frequent extra - pair copulations .\nsexes alike . glistening steel - blue above ; chestnut cap ; unmarked , pure white underbody distinctive ; two long , wire - like projections ( tail - wires ) from outer tail feathers diagnostic . solitary or small parties ; almost always seen around water , either perched on overhead wires or hawking insects in graceful , acrobatic flight , swooping and banking ; often flies very low , drinking from the surface ; roosts in reed beds and other vegetation , often with warblers and wagtails .\nthe breeding of temperate species is seasonal , whereas that of subtropical or tropical species can either be continuous throughout the year or seasonal . seasonal species in the subtropics or tropics are usually timed to coincide with the peaks in insect activity , which is usually the wet season , but some species like the white - throated blue swallow nest in the dry season to avoid flooding in their riverbank nesting habitat ( turner 2004 ) .\nthe eggs of swallows tend to be white , although those of some mud - nesters are speckled . the average clutch size is around four to five eggs in temperate areas and two to three eggs in the tropics . incubation stints last for 5 to 15 minutes and are followed by bursts of feeding activity . from laying , swallow eggs take between 10 to 21 days to hatch , with 14 to 18 days being more typical .\nnesting sites : many types of swallows , swifts , and martins are cavity - nesting birds , and they will readily nest in birdhouses or specialized gourds . leaving dead trees with old woodpecker holes intact will provide additional nesting sites . some swallow species , such as barn swallows , will build their cup - shaped nests in sheltered areas under eaves on porches and decks or along roof lines . a muddy puddle \u2013 perhaps under a gutter downspout or in a sheltered location in the yard \u2013 will provide good nesting material to encourage the birds to raise their families in the neighborhood .\nthe incubation duties are shared between females and males in some species ; in others the eggs are incubated solely by the females . among the species where the male helps with incubation , the contribution varies among species , with some species like the cliff swallow sharing the duties equally and the female doing most of the work in others . among the barn swallows , the male of the american subspecies helps ( to a small extent ) whereas the european subspecies does not . even in species where the male does not incubate the eggs , the male may sit on them when the female is away to reduce heat loss .\nthe family uses a wide range of habitats . they are dependent on flying insects , and as these are common over waterways and lakes , they will frequently feed over these , but they can be found in any open habitat including grasslands , open woodland , savanna , marshes , mangroves and scrubland , from sea level to high alpine areas ( turner 2004 ) . many species inhabit human - altered landscapes including agricultural land and even urban areas . land use changes have also caused some species to expand their range , most impressively the welcome swallow which began to colonize new zealand in the 1920s , started breeding there in the 1950s , and is now a common land bird there ( tarburton 1993 ) .\nbecause of the readiness with which some species nest in and around human settlements and buildings , people have had a long experience with swallows and many myths and legends have arisen as a consequence ( turner 2004 ) . the migratory habits of the european species have led to an association with spring , as recorded in the proverb\none swallow does not make a summer .\nthey have also been incorporated into religious stories , in part because of their arrival in europe around the time of easter , and apocryphal stories place them at the crucifixion of jesus , either trying to distract those sent to arrest jesus in the garden or to comfort jesus on the cross . they are also mentioned in the koran attacking christians who were attacking mecca . older legends have it that athene turned into one in order to flee danger .\nwith the open country for birds being quickly replaced with houses and buildings everywhere these birds have retorted to our kitchen gardens , where they feed on small insects and nest around houses . swallow nesting is considered \u2018pests\u2019 due to its gregarious behavior and limiting access of humans to their own garages or kitchen gardens . swallows can be very protective for the young ones and refuse to vacate even after repeated attempts . once the nest is built , the bird also tends to return at the same site every time for breeding and nesting . the solution lies in preserving their habitat of lakes , rivers and ponds around the agricultural land . if possible allow them a small corner around the house , warehouse etc . swallows can easily gain attention and help in clearing insects and small crop pests , in lieu of the space it needs to raise the young !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be common in africa , common in pakistan and locally common in india ( grimmett , inskipp and inskipp , keith et al . 1992 ) . trend justification : the population is estimated to be increasing following recorded range expansions ( del hoyo et al . 2004 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nleach , 1818 \u2013 sub - saharan africa from senegal , s mali and c ivory coast e to c & se sudan , south sudan , ethiopia and somalia , and s ( outside c rainforest zone ) to n namibia , n botswana and ne south africa .\nstephens , 1826 \u2013 breeding visitor to s uzbekistan , s tajikistan , afghanistan , n pakistan and nw india ; resident in se pakistan , most of india , sw nepal , myanmar , n thailand , laos , cambodia and c vietnam .\n14\u201321 cm ; 9\u201317 g . distinctive . has forehead and crown rufous - chestnut , upperparts glossy blue ; wings and tail black with blue gloss , white patches on inner webs . . .\ngrassland , savanna , open woodland , clearings , cultivation , also human habitations , including towns . . .\ndiet includes flies ( diptera ) , beetles ( coleoptera ) , bugs ( hemiptera ) , butterflies and moths ( lepidoptera ) , mayflies ( ephemeroptera ) , . . .\ngenerally two peaks , at start of rains , e . g . jan\u2013may and jul\u2013dec in senegal , all year ( peaks jan\u2013mar and jul\u2013aug ) . . .\nin africa , resident near nest - site in some areas , e . g . in gambia , central african republic and w . . .\nnot globally threatened . varies from uncommon to locally abundant . uncommon in w africa , common and more widespread in e , common to locally very common in s ; common to . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nit is present in lucknow throughout the year and is therefore resident . not a breeding visitor as shown in the map . lucknow is the capital of uttar pradesh state and falls in the gangetic plains of india\nthey had adapted to human created structures . they roost on powerlines ranging from dozen to several hundreds sometimes in mixed flocks with other swallows . they also roost and build nests inside covered irrigation canals and aqueducts .\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nhas often been considered to include any or all of petrochelidon , cecropis and ptyonoprogne .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nan adult bird perched in a tree yawning , rubbing the bill and flying off .\njosep del hoyo , ram gopal soni , alok tewari , greg baker , doug and denise norris , chandrahas kolhatkar , yo\u00ebl jimenez , ghislain gosse , eldert groenewoud , drshaileshdarjimd , keith and lynn youngs , jean hupperetz , trheijnen .\nshantilal varu , josep del hoyo , \u00e9ric roualet , holger teichmann , lars petersson , alok tewari , jeel bharat patel , paul van giersbergen , vishalchouk , ssshams , guy poisson , siddhartha , tom dudones , mayur patel , vaibhav mishra , eduardo de juana , ragoo rao , shivam tiwari , vasanthan . p . j , sharad , raymond marsh , james reed , paul cools , lmarce , joggels , nick athanas , juan jos\u00e9 baz\u00e1n hiraldo , nik borrow , fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric pelsy , martin fr\u00e4mke , jayant atrey , luis g . restrepo , james kashangaki , ken havard , trheijnen , arthur grosset , neenad abhang , stefan helming , john a thompson , akshay jadhav , rrthakar , markus lilje , ram gopal soni , robert erasmus , marco valentini , kishoreraghav , david beadle , morten venas , bruno schmetz , lutz duerselen , laurent demongin , mauriravasini , ryan brookes , chrisjohnson , jugal tiwari , stanislav harvan\u010d\u00edk , gilgit2 , paleasi , anup sharma , jordi sargatal , dave jackson .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 294 , 662 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : hirundo smithii . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\noccurs across much of asia and sub - saharan africa , absent from the lowland forest of west africa and the drc . in southern africa it is locally common in the extreme north of namibia , northern botswana , zimbabwe , central and southern mozambique , swaziland and eastern limpopo province , mpumalanga and kwazulu - natal .\nlittle known , but it is thought be resident throughout its southern african range .\nhawks aerial insects often in flocks with swallows , such as grey - rumped ( pseudhirundo griseopyga ) and lesser striped ( hirundo abyssinica ) swallows . the following food items have been recorded in its diet :\nmonogamous , solitary nester , with the pair bond lasting for the whole breeding season and probably for life .\nthe nest ( see image below ) is built by both sexes in about a week , consisting of a flat open cup built of mud pellets and lined with stems , grass and feathers . it is typically placed in an artificial site , such as near the roof of a veranda , on a wooden cross beam , inside a water tower , under a bridge or even on a boat . the same site is used repeatedly over multiple seasons ; before laying the eggs the original structure is repaired\negg - laying season is year - round , peaking from august - december and february - april .\nit lays 2 - 4 eggs , which are incubated solely by the female for 14 - 19 days . in one study the eggs where incubated for 43 - 66 % of the day .\nthe chicks are brooded by the female for the first few days of their lives after which the male sometimes helps out . they are fed regularly by both sexes , leaving the nest after 15 - 24 days . the fledglings still roost in the nest for at least 3 - 4 weeks , possibly until the next clutch is laid .\nnot threatened , in fact its range has benefited from the introduction of man - made nest sites .\nhockey par , dean wrj and ryan pg 2005 . roberts - birds of southern africa , viith ed . the trustees of the john voelcker bird book fund , cape town .\nharrison , j . a . , allan , d . g . , underhill , l . g . , herremans , m . , tree . a . j . , parker , v . & brown , c . j . ( eds ) . 1997 . the atlas of southern african birds . vol . 2 : passerines . birdlife south africa , johannesburg .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbot . monkey apple [ nz ] [ syzygium smithii , syn . : acmena smithii ] [ lilly - pilly ]\nunter folgender adresse kannst du auf diese \u00fcbersetzung verlinken : urltoken tipps : doppelklick neben begriff = r\u00fcck - \u00fcbersetzung \u2014 neue w\u00f6rterbuch - abfrage : einfach jetzt tippen ! suchzeit : 0 . 092 sek .\n) , m\u00f6glichst mit einem guten beleg im kommentarfeld . wichtig : bitte hilf auch bei der\nlimited input mode - mehr als 1000 ungepr\u00fcfte \u00fcbersetzungen ! du kannst trotzdem eine neue \u00fcbersetzung vorschlagen , wenn du dich einloggst und andere vorschl\u00e4ge im contribute - bereich \u00fcberpr\u00fcfst . pro review kannst du dort einen neuen w\u00f6rterbuch - eintrag eingeben ( bis zu einem limit von 500 unverifizierten eintr\u00e4gen pro benutzer ) .\ndieses deutsch - englisch - w\u00f6rterbuch basiert auf der idee der freien weitergabe von wissen . mehr informationen ! enth\u00e4lt \u00fcbersetzungen von der tu chemnitz sowie aus mr honey ' s business dictionary ( englisch / deutsch ) . vielen dank daf\u00fcr ! links auf dieses w\u00f6rterbuch oder einzelne \u00fcbersetzungen sind herzlich willkommen ! fragen und antworten\ntheir common name is derived from their very long , fine outer tail feathers which trail behind like two wires ; and their scientific name honors professor chetien smith , a norwegian botanist , who was a member of the expedition that discovered this species .\nthe african race is widespread south of the sahara , except for their range extending further along the nile , and they are not found in the western equatorial lowland forests .\nin southern asia , they are found from tadzhikistan , afghanistan and northern pakistan through india to burma as well as northwestern and northeastern thailand , laos and central vietnam .\nthey are mostly resident ( non - migratory ) , except for some populations in pakistan and northern india that migrate south for the winter .\nthey are usually seen in pairs close to bodies of water and human habitation ; or these fast fliers may fly low over water as they pursue their prey .\nafrican form found in sub - saharan africa ; specifically in western africa from senegal east to southern mali south to the central ivory coast east to central and southern sudan , ethiopia and somalia , and south ( avoiding the central rainforest zone ) to northern namibia , northern botswana and northeastern south africa .\nasian form found in southern uzbekistan south through tajikistan , afghanistan , pakistan , india east to southwestern nepal , burma / myanmar , northern thailand , laos , cambodia and central vietnam .\nthe plumage is mostly bright blue above , except for the reddish - brown crown ( top of the head ) and white spots on the tail . there is a blue bar extending from the beak through the eyes down to the neck and back . the plumage below is white , except for the darker flight feathers .\nas suggested by their name , they have very long , outer tail feathers which trail behind like wires .\nthey construct neat half - bowl nests placed on vertical surfaces near water , such as below the ledges of cliffs or man - made structures , such as buildings and bridges .\nthe average clutch consists of 3 - 4 eggs in africa , and in asia , up to 5 have been reported .\nafrikaans : draadstertswael . . . chinese : ? ? ? . . . czech : vla\u0161tovka dlouhoocas\u00e1 . . . danish : tr\u00e5dhalesvale . . . dutch : roodkruinzwaluw . . . estonian : niitsaba - p\u00e4\u00e4suke . . . finnish : jouhip\u00e4\u00e4sky . . . french : hirondelle \u00e0 longs brins . . . german : rotkappenschwalbe . . . icelandic : \u00fer\u00e1\u00f0svala . . . italian : rondine codafili / codasottile di smith . . . japanese : hariotsubame . . . kwangali : sisampamema . . . lithuanian : si ? lauodeg ? kreg\u017ed ? . . . norwegian : tr\u00e5dhalesvale . . . polish : jask\u00f3lka rdzawoglowa , jask\u00f3 ? ka rdzawog ? owa . . . portuguese : andorinha de cauda longa . . . russian : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? , ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . slovak : lastovicka hnedohlav\u00e1 . . . slovenian : nitorepa lastovka . . . shona : nyenganyenga . . . spanish : golondrina cola de cerdas , golondrina colilarga . . . swedish : tr\u00e5dstj\u00e4rtsvala . . . swahili : mbayuwayu mkia - sindano . . . tamil : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . thai : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . turkish : tel kuyruklu k ? rlang ? \u00e7 , tel - kuyruklu k ? rlang ? \u00e7 . . . tsonga : mbawulwana . . . zulu : inkonjane\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe images on this page are the sole property of the photographers ( unless marked as public domain ) .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please send us an e - mail . thank you !\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nopen areas , cultivation , habitation , mostly in vicinity of canals , lakes , rivers .\ncommon breeding ( summer ) visitor to n india , to about 1 , 800m in the himalaya ; breeds in many other parts of india ; widespread over the area , excepting arid zones .\nthe southern african bird atlas project ( sabap1 ) in namibia gathered a huge amount of distribution data between 1970 and 1993 .\nver time , these will give valuable information on population distribution , habitat requirements , trends and so on .\nif you have a lot of records and it would be very time - consuming to enter them manually you can also send us a spreadsheet with the details , and associated photos . use the contact us form to get in touch .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\nplease log in and write a comment . if you don ' t have an account , register now ( it is free ! ) register\nmodel - or property release no model - or property release available . see the urltoken faq and terms of use for more info . | faq | terms of use |\nlightbox . faq . contact . license agreement . terms of use . about . hosted by urltoken . urltoken urltoken free stock photos totally free stock photos stock photos high quality free stock photos totally free stock photos totally free stock photos totally free stock images free stock images christmas competition 2015 editors ' pick alternative to urltoken rgbstock blog and news\nswallows , swifts , and martins are beautiful , graceful birds that are highly desirable backyard visitors , but they are not typical backyard birds . because of that , attracting swallows can be a challenge even for experienced backyard birders with many feeders and a variety of backyard guests . understanding these birds ' unique needs is the key to learning how to attract swallows and enjoy the benefits of having these beauties in your yard .\nswallows are attractive backyard birds for several reasons . their graceful , aerobatic , energetic flight can be a joy to watch as they swoop about , and their glossy plumage glitters in the sunlight . they are relatively quiet species , and while their song is typically musical and chirping , they are less vocal than species such as thrushes or mockingbirds \u2013 perfect for backyard birders who prefer a quiet landscape . the most desirable characteristic of swallows , swifts , and martins , however , is their voracious appetites . these insectivorous birds can consume hundreds of insects every day - from moths to mosquitoes - and inviting a family of them into the backyard can provide exceptional ( and free ! ) pest control .\nthe key to attracting any specific type of bird is to meet that bird ' s unique requirements for the basic needs of survival : food , water , shelter , and nesting sites .\nfor swallows , those requirements can be a bit different than other typical passerines and more familiar backyard birds .\nfood : swifts , swallows , and martins almost never visit bird feeders , no matter what food is offered . so what do swallows eat ? these are insectivorous birds and preserving healthy insect populations is essential for them to have an adequate food source . avoiding insecticides and pesticides is the first step , and areas of open grass should be large enough to allow the birds to skim low over them while feeding . leaving grass slightly longer will encourage more insects for the birds to feed on . some birders have had limited success offering mealworms for swifts and swallows to eat , but it takes a great deal of time and effort to get the birds accustomed to that unusual food source . that effort may be better spent fostering natural insect sources the birds are more familiar with .\nwater : these birds typically stay near natural water sources , and a nearby lake , large pond or broad stream is essential for them to drink . as they fly over the water , they skim the surface to dip their bills in for a drink instead of perching to sip . moving water is more apt to attract swallows , swifts , and martins to backyards with noise and sparkles , and a bird bath fountain , bubbler or mister can be effective in attracting their attention . they may visit larger bird baths , and will often fly through sprinklers or misters for a quick , cool dip .\nshelter : while many backyard birds need extensive trees , bushes , and thickets to feel safe and secure , these aerial birds are quite distinct in that they prefer more open areas . they are agile fliers and will soar and dive around yards that have smooth curves and open space . providing perching spots on wires , clotheslines or antennas will encourage them to stay nearby .\nremoving large trees to provide more open space and more grassy areas for the birds to fly over while feeding .\nadjusting lawn watering schedules as much as local ordinances may allow providing a fly - thru water source for the birds .\nadding a nesting shelf under porch eaves to provide a safe , stable place for these birds to build their nests .\npatience is essential for attracting swallows , and over time , if you meet all these birds ' unique needs , you will be rewarded with their elegant and graceful company .\nthe reference for the information following is\nroberts birds of southern africa\n, 7th edition * edited by par hockey , wrj dean and pg ryan , published by\nthe trustees of the john voelcker bird book fund .\n- this is an old template for this website . please visit the home page for more : birds in sa\n{ { t ( ' get _ image _ for ' , { price : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . priceperimage ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . add _ to _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . update _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . view _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . add _ notes ' ) } } { { : : t ( ' errors . messages . enter _ required _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . project _ codes ' ) } } { { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . select _ project _ code ' ) } } { { projectcode } } { { : : t ( ' errors . messages . enter _ required _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . download _ will _ be _ saved _ to _ dropbox ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . calculate _ price _ cta ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . save _ to _ cart _ cta ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . view _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' site _ specific . getty . request _ preview ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . usage _ rights _ restrictions ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ restrictions _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ agreement _ title ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ agreement _ check _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . download _ button ' ) } }\nmix and match royalty - free images , videos , and editorial with packs that never expire . *\n{ { t ( ' save _ amount ' , { amount _ saved : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . fivepackpricing . amountyousave ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' save _ amount ' , { amount _ saved : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . tenpackpricing . amountyousave ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' compared _ with _ single _ price ' , { price : formatprice ( selectedsize . price ) } ) } }\nyou are welcome to use content from the getty images site on a complimentary basis for test or sample ( composite or comp ) use only , for up to 30 days following download . however , unless a license is purchased , content cannot be used in any final materials or any publicly available materials . no other rights or warranties are granted for comp use .\nthe ibm strategic repository for digital assets such as images and videos is located at urltoken . this repository is populated with tens of thousands of assets and should be your first stop for asset selection .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we\u0092ll send you a link to reset your password .\nsorry , this image isn ' t available for this licence . please refer to the license restrictions for more information .\non the alamy prints site ( powered by art . com ) choose your frame , the size and finish of your photo .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nthe family contains around 83 species in 19 genera . in this article , unless specified , the term swallows will be used in a collective sense for all members of the family , including species commonly known as martins or saw - wings .\nthe swallows have a cosmopolitan distribution across the world and breed on all the continents except antarctica . they also occur on a number of oceanic islands . a number of species are long - distance migrants .\nwith their agility in flight , ability to produce many different calls or songs , and some species nesting in and around human settlements and buildings , swallows have long fascinated people . they even have been incorporated into religious stories , partly due to their arrival in europe around the time of easter and because of apocryphal stories placing them at jesus ' s crucifixion . ecologically , they provide a valued role in controlling the numbers of insect species . a few species of swallows are threatened with extinction by human activities , although other species have benefited from human changes to the environment .\nas passerine birds , or perching birds , swallows have feet that are specialized for holding onto a branch , with three toes directed forward without any webbing or joining , and one toe directed backward . swallows belong to the suborder passeri ( oscines ) with such birds as warblers , finches , wrens , starlings , cowbirds , lyrebirds , blackbirds , jays , and larks .\nit is believed the hirundinidae family originated in africa as hole - nesters ; africa still has the greatest diversity of species ( 1989 ) .\nthe bill of the sand martin is typical for the family , being short and wide .\nthe swallows and martins ( and saw - wings ) have an evolutionary conservative body shape that is similar across the family but is unlike that of other passerines ( turner 2004 ) . swallows have adapted to hunting insects on the wing by developing a slender streamlined body , and long pointed wings , which allow great maneuverability and endurance , as well as frequent periods of gliding . their body shape allows for very efficient flight , which costs 50 - 75 percent less for swallows than equivalent passerines of the same size . swallows usually forage at around 30 to 40 kilometers per hour although they are capable of reaching speeds of between 50 to 65 kilometers per hour when traveling .\nlike the unrelated swifts and nightjars , which hunt in a similar way , swallows have short bills , but strong jaws and a wide gape . their body length ranges from about 10 to 24 centimeters ( 3 . 9\u20139 . 4 inches ) and their weight from about 10 to 60 grams ( 0 . 4\u20132 . 1 ounces ) . the wings are long , pointed , and have nine primary feathers . the tail has 12 feathers and may be deeply forked , somewhat indented , or square - ended . a long tail increases maneuverability , and may also function as a sexual adornment , since the tail is frequently longer in males . female barn swallows will select mates on the basis of tail length ."]}
{"id": 1263, "summary": [{"text": "the sharptooth houndshark , or spotted gully shark ( triakis megalopterus ) , is a species of houndshark , belonging to the family triakidae , found in shallow inshore waters from southern angola to south africa .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "favoring sandy areas near rocky reefs and gullies , it is an active-swimming species that usually stays close to the bottom .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this robust shark reaches 1.7 m ( 5.6 ft ) in length and has characteristically large , rounded fins ; the pectoral fins in particular are broad and sickle-shaped in adults .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it also has a short , blunt snout and long furrows around its mouth .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this species is gray or bronze in color above , with variable amounts of black spotting .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "mainly active at night , the sharptooth houndshark feeds mostly on crustaceans , bony fishes , and cephalopods .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "it has been observed gathering in groups in shallow water during summertime , possibly for reproductive purposes .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "this species is aplacental viviparous , meaning that the unborn young are sustained mainly by yolk .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "females give birth to 6 \u2013 12 pups between late may and august , on a two - or three-year cycle .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the sharptooth houndshark is often hooked by recreational anglers , and some are also captured on commercial bottom longlines .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "because of its small range , its low growth and reproductive rates , it is very vulnerable to overfishing .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has therefore listed this species as near threatened . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "sharptooth houndshark", "paragraphs": ["you selected sharptooth houndshark ( english ) . this is a common name for :\nthe sharptooth houndshark , or spotted gully shark ( triakis megalopterus ) , is a species of houndshark , belonging to the family triakidae , found in shallow inshore waters from southern angola to south africa .\npredators predators of the brown shyshark include larger sharks and fishes . the sharptooth houndshark triakis megalopterus is a documented predator of this shark . mollusks may feed on the egg cases .\nis the common houndshark mustelus mustelus and the whitespotted houndshark mustelus palumbes . both of these sharks are more slender and lack the back spots of the spotted gully shark .\nthe flapnose houndshark , scylliogaleus quecketti , is a houndshark of the family triakidae , and the only member of the genus scylliogaleus . it is found in the waters off subtropical south africa , in the western indian ocean between latitudes 27\u00b0 s and 33\u00b0 s .\nthe sharptooth houndshark is hardy and keeps well in captivity . observations by the writer of healthy individuals in a large circular tank at the port elizabeth oceanarium , south africa , shows them to be very active , mostly bottom swimmers , that are usually seen patrolling in irregular patterns close to the bottom in open , flat areas , often with a centimetre or less between the shark ' s underside and the\naerial stock video footage showing the beauty of cape town and its surrounding area , including lion ' s head , table mountain , cape point , hout bay , simon ' s town , and seal island . footage includes great white sharks from above at seal island , an aggregation of spotted gully sharks / sharptooth houndshark ( triakis megalopterus ) in the surf near cape point in table mountain national park , and a brown fur seal surfing in the waves .\n) is an uncommon species , the flapnose houndshark is of low fecundity and has a very restricted distribution in inshore waters of the western indian ocean ( south africa : kwazulu - natal and eastern cape ) which are subjected to heavy fishing pressure and potential habitat degradation .\nthis species has an extremely restricted range in the western indian ocean , off the east coast of south africa ( northeastern part of the eastern cape to northern kwazulu - natal ) . the flapnose houndshark is found close inshore at the surfline and in the intertidal ( compagno in prep . b ) .\na blunt - nosed houndshark with large , fused nasal flaps , and small , blunt , pebble - like teeth ; 2nd dorsal fin as large as 1st ( ref . 5578 ) . grey above , cream below ; newborn with white rear edges on dorsal , anal and caudal fins ( ref . 5578 ) .\nnocturnal and largely solitary , the banded houndshark preys on benthic invertebrates and bony fishes . it is aplacental viviparous , with the developing embryos sustained by yolk . after mating during summer , females bear as many as 42 pups following a gestation period of 9\u201312 months . the banded houndshark poses no danger to humans and adapts well to captivity . it is caught as bycatch off japan , taiwan , and likely elsewhere in its range ; it may be eaten but is not as well - regarded as related species . because fishing does not appear to have diminished this shark ' s population , the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed it under least concern .\nthe banded houndshark ( triakis scyllium ) is a species of houndshark , in the family triakidae , common in the northwestern pacific ocean from the southern russian far east to taiwan . found on or near the bottom , it favors shallow coastal habitats with sandy or vegetated bottoms , and also enters brackish water . this shark reaches 1 . 5 m ( 4 . 9 ft ) in length . it has a short , rounded snout and mostly narrow fins ; the pectoral fins are broad and triangular , and the trailing margin of the first dorsal fin is almost vertical . it is gray above and lighter below ; younger sharks have darker saddles and dots , which fade with age .\nthe blackspotted smooth - hound ( mustelus punctulatus ) is a houndshark of the family triakidae . it is found on the continental shelves of the subtropical eastern atlantic from the mediterranean to the western sahara , between latitudes 45\u00b0 n and 20\u00b0 n , from the surface to a depth of 250 m . it can reach of a length of 1 . 5 m .\nthe starry smooth - hound ( mustelus asterias ) is a houndshark of the family triakidae . it is found on the continental shelves of the northeast atlantic , between latitudes 61\u00b0 n and 16\u00b0 n , from the surface to a depth of 200 m ( 660 ft ) . it can grow up to a length of 1 . 4 m ( 4 ft 7 in ) .\nharmless to humans , [ 16 ] the banded houndshark is commonly displayed in public aquariums in china and japan , [ 1 ] and has reproduced in captivity . [ 8 ] individuals have survived in captivity for over five years . [ 5 ] this species is often caught incidentally off japan in gillnets and set nets ; the meat is sometimes sold , but is considered to be of poorer quality than that of other houndsharks in the region . it is caught in lesser numbers off taiwan , and is probably also fished off korea and northern china . the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed the banded houndshark under least concern , as it remains abundant throughout its range . off japan , it can be found in rocky areas that provide refuge from fishing pressure . [ 1 ]\n: field marks : a very stout houndshark with a short , broadly rounded snout , lobate anterior nasal flaps that do not reach the mouth and are far separated from each other , long upper labial furrows that reach the lower symphysis of the mouth , semimolariform teeth with straight erect cusps and cusplets little - developed or absent , broad large fins with the pectorals broadly falcate and the first dorsal fin with a vertical posterior margin , and often black spots .\nthe first scientific description of the banded houndshark was authored by german biologists johannes peter m\u00fcller and friedrich gustav jakob henle , based on a dried specimen from japan , in their 1838\u201341 systematische beschreibung der plagiostomen . they gave it the specific epithet scyllium , derived from the ancient greek skylion (\ndogfish\n) , and placed it in the genus triakis . [ 3 ] within the genus , it is placed in the subgenus triakis along with the leopard shark ( t . ( triakis ) semifasciata ) . [ 2 ]\nnative to the northwestern pacific ocean , the banded houndshark occurs from the southern russian far east to taiwan , including japan , korea , and eastern china ; records from the philippines are questionable . [ 1 ] this common , benthic shark is found over continental and insular shelves , mostly close to shore but also to a depth of 150 m ( 490 ft ) . [ 4 ] it frequents sandy flats and beds of seaweed and eelgrass ; additionally it is tolerant of brackish water and enters estuaries and bays . [ 1 ]\nthe banded houndshark is nocturnal and generally solitary , though several individuals may rest together , sometimes piled atop one another inside a cave . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] it feeds mainly on crustaceans ( including shrimps , crabs , hermit crabs , and mantis shrimps ) , cephalopods ( including octopus ) , and spoon worms ; polychaete worms , tunicates , peanut worms , and small , bottom - living bony fishes ( including flatfishes , conger eels , herring , jacks , drums , and grunts ) are occasionally consumed . shrimp and spoon worms are important prey for sharks up to 70 cm ( 28 in ) long ; cephalopods predominate in the diets of larger sharks . [ 6 ]\nthe banded houndshark is a moderately slender - bodied species growing up to 1 . 5 m ( 4 . 9 ft ) long . the snout is short , broad , and rounded ; the widely separated nostrils are each preceded by a lobe of skin that does not reach the mouth . the horizontally oval eyes are placed high on the head ; they are equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) and have prominent ridges underneath . the mouth forms a short , wide arch and bears long furrows at the corners that extend onto both jaws . each tooth has an upright to oblique knife - like central cusp flanked by strong cusplets . there are five pairs of gill slits . [ 2 ]\nthe flapnose houndshark occurs in inshore waters that are subjected to heavy commercial and sports hook - and - line fisheries . small numbers have been taken in directed inshore fisheries for small sharks and the species has been sporadically utilised for its flesh recently in southern kwazulu - natal . no fisheries statistics are available on catches . it may also be a possible bycatch of inshore fisheries , but details are lacking . the species is caught by sports surf anglers and possibly recreational boat anglers . increased fishing pressure in its limited environment suggests that the population may be vulnerable and could decline . loss of habitat as a result of development and pollution along the coast of kwazulu - natal ( where there is extensive coastal development ) and the eastern cape during the last few decades may also be a threat .\nmating occurs during the summer , and involves the male swimming parallel to the female and gripping her pectoral fin with his teeth ; thus secured , he then twists the aft portion of his body to insert a single clasper into her cloaca for copulation . the banded houndshark is aplacental viviparous , in which the developing embryos are sustained to birth by yolk . females bear litters of 9\u201326 pups after a gestation period of 9\u201312 months , though litters as large as 42 pups have been recorded . [ 5 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] the newborns measure 18\u201320 cm ( 7 . 1\u20137 . 9 in ) long . males mature sexually at 5\u20136 years old , when they are 93\u2013106 cm ( 37\u201342 in ) long , and live up to 15 years . females mature sexually at 6\u20137 years old , when they are 106\u2013107 cm ( 42\u201342 in ) long , and live up to 18 years . [ 1 ] known parasites of this species include the tapeworms callitetrarhynchus gracilis , [ 9 ] onchobothrium triacis , and phyllobothrium serratum , [ 10 ] the leech stibarobdella macrothela , [ 11 ] and the copepods achtheinus impenderus , [ 12 ] caligus punctatus , [ 13 ] kroyeria triakos , [ 14 ] and pseudopandarus scyllii . [ 15 ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\n) is an uncommon inshore species with limited distribution in waters off south africa , namibia and southern angola . the species is exploited by unregulated shark fisheries .\nfound in the eastern south atlantic and western indian ocean in temperate coastal waters of southern angola , namibia and south africa ( northern , western and eastern cape coasts , rarely north - east to kwazulu - natal ) .\nthis species is uncommon to locally common in the intertidal and surfline to less than 50 m ( compagno in prep . b ) .\nan inshore , bottom - dwelling shark of temperate coastal waters with a limited geographic and bathymetric range , found often in shallow water up to the surfline . it prefers sandy shores and rocks and crevices in shallow bays . during summertime this shark congregates in schools , particularly in false bay and off the cape peninsula , western cape , south africa , which may include pregnant females . development is ovoviviparous , without a yolk - sac placenta and the number of young is 6 - 10 per litter . this shark eats crabs , bony fishes and small sharks ( one had eaten a scyliorhinus capensis ) ( compagno in prep . b ) .\nthere is a fairly large directed commercial shark demersal longline fishery centred in gansbaai and false bay in south africa , which takes the spotted gully shark as a minor bycatch along with the target species , soupfin or vaalhai ( galeorhinus galeus ) , and other more abundant bycatch species such as common smoothhound ( mustelus mustelus ) and bronze whaler ( carcharhinus brachyurus ) . there are no separate statistics available for commercial catches of spotted gully sharks . the meat of such sharks is dried into shark\nbiltong\nor jerky , which sells for a relatively high price locally , or is shipped fresh or frozen overseas ( italy or taiwan ( poc ) ) . also caught recreational anglers in south africa and namibia , but not eaten much locally although perfectly edible .\nthe species occurs in at least one marine reserve , but it is not specifically protected . there is a proposal currently under consideration at sea fisheries research institute , the main fisheries research and body in south africa , to decommercialise the spotted gully shark and protect it from expanding commercial export fisheries for small sharks , although it still could be caught by sports anglers .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 1 - 50 m ( ref . 5578 ) . subtropical ; 30\u00b0s - 36\u00b0s\nmaturity : l m ? , range 140 - 150 cm max length : 142 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 244 ) ; 174 . 0 cm tl ( female ) ; max . published weight : 20 . 0 kg ( ref . 5485 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 0 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 0 . blunt snout and a large mouth with small pointed teeth ; caudal peduncle short and heavy ( ref . 5578 ) . grey with numerous black spots which may be sparse or absent in some specimens ; new born pups with fewer black spots compared to adults ( ref . 5485 ) ; white below ( ref . 5578 ) .\noccurs off sandy beaches , rocky shores and in shallow bays ( ref . 5578 ) . feeds on crabs , lobsters , bony fish and small sharks ( ref . 5578 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . forms schools in summer ( ref . 244 ) . hardy and keeps well in captivity ( ref . 244 ) . commonly caught by rock and surf sports anglers but not eaten much ( ref . 244 ) . meat is dried into shark ' biltong ' or jerky which commands a relatively high price ( ref . 244 ) . attains 160 cm , tl ( ref . 36731 ) .\novoviviparous , embryos feed solely on yolk ( ref . 50449 ) , with 6 to 12 young in a litter ( ref . 244 ) . 30 - 32 cm at birth ( ref . 244 ) .\ncompagno , l . j . v . , 1984 . fao species catalogue . vol . 4 . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . part 2 - carcharhiniformes . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 4 / 2 ) : 251 - 655 . rome : fao . ( ref . 244 )\n) : 15 . 8 - 22 . 4 , mean 19 . 3 ( based on 26 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5312 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00269 ( 0 . 00133 - 0 . 00544 ) , b = 3 . 15 ( 2 . 97 - 3 . 33 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : very low , minimum population doubling time more than 14 years ( fec = 6 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high to very high vulnerability ( 74 of 100 ) .\ncounts 162 to 166 . body with a few to numerous small black spots , few or absent in young , often numerous in adults although plain adults have been recorded .\nwater up to the surfline . it prefers sandy shores and rocks and crevices in\nbays . during summertime this shark congregates in schools , particularly in false bay , western cape , south africa , which may have many pregnant females .\nbetween 140 and 150 cm , with adults reported at 140 to 174 cm ; size at birth about 30 to 32 cm .\nvery commonly caught by rock and surf sports anglers , but not eaten much although perfectly edible . there is a fairly large commercial shark fishery in gans bay in south africa that probably takes this\nalong with others ; the meat of such sharks is dried into shark ' biltong ' or jerky , which sells for a relatively high price .\nfollows compagno ( 1973c , 1979 ) , heemstra ( 1973 ) , and bass , d ' aubrey and kistnasamy ( 1975b ) . bass , d ' aubrey and kistnasamy ( 1975b ) recognized\nand gradually become spotted with black ( some adults may retain a plain coloration ) .\nsmith , j . l . b . , 1952 . a new hound shark from south africa , and new records . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( ser . 12 ) , 5 : 223 - 6\ncompagno , l . j . v . , 1970 . systematics of the genus hemitriakis ( selachii : carcharhinidae ) , and related genera . proc . calif . acad . sci . , 33 ( 4 ) : 63 - 98\ncompagno , l . j . v . , 1973c . interrelationships of living elasmobranchs . in interrelationships of fishes , edited by p . h . greenwood , r . s . miles and c . patterson . j . linn . soc . ( zool . ) , 53 suppl . 1 : 37 p .\ncompagno , l . j . v . , 1979 . carcharhinoid sharks : morphology , systematics and phylogeny . unpublished ph . d . thesis , stanford university , 932 p . available from university microfilms international , ann arbor , michigan\nheemstra , p . c . , 1973 . a revision of the shark genus mustelus ( squaliformes carcharhinidae ) . university of miami , ph . d . thesis , 187 p . ( unpubl . )\nbass , a . j . , j . d . d ' aubrey and n . kistnasamy , 1975b . sharks of the east coast of southern africa . 4 . the families odontaspididae , scapanorhyn chidae , isuridae , cetorhinidae , alopiidae , orectolobidae and rhiniodontidae . invest . rep . oceanoar . res . inst . , durban , ( 39 ) : 102 p .\nvan der elst , r . , 1981 . a guide to the common sea fishes of southern africa . capetown , c . struik , 367 p .\nl . j . v . compagno and m . smale ( unpub . data )\nshot with dji phantom 2 / zenmuse h3 - 3d gimbal / gopro hero 3 + black .\nobservation - multimammate mouse - southern africa . description : only caught at night in both grasslands and thicket ( added as a separate record ) .\nonly caught at night in both grasslands and thicket ( added as a separate record ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32795a44 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32795c13 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 327968a9 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 331240f6 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nyear from eschmeyer ( coff ver . nov . 1999 : ref . 33021 ) .\nfroese r . & pauly d . ( eds ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase ( version feb 2018 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 7b95748c - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .\ndyer island cruises offers a variety of opportunities for budding nature enthusiasts and students to volunteer and get involved with our work .\nwhen you go on a tour with dyer island cruises , you are making an active contribution to wildlife research and conservation .\nget in touch via our online contact form and one of our team will be in touch to confirm your booking .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfao fisheries synopsis , no . 125 , vol . 4 , pt . 2\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\n: urltoken contains images of sharks , skates , rays , and a few chimaera ' s from around the world . elasmodiver began as a simple web based\nto help divers find the best places to encounter the different species of sharks and rays that live in shallow water but it has slowly evolved into a much larger project containing information on all aspects of shark diving and shark photography .\nthere are now more than 10 , 000 shark pictures and sections on shark evolution , biology , and conservation . there is a large library of reviewed shark books , a constantly updated shark taxonomy page , a monster list of shark links , and deeper in the site there are numerous articles and stories about shark encounters . elasmodiver is now so difficult to check for updates , that new information and pictures are listed on an elasmodiver updates page that can be accessed here :\nthe taxonomy of sharks and rays is a subject that remains in hot debate . although the majority of elasmobranch families have been nailed down there will always be individual species that don ' t quite fit the characteristics of their sibling species . consequently species are occasionally reclassified or simply listed as awaiting review . one of the most confusing of families is the potamotrygonidae - the fresh water stingrays of south america . not only do these ray species adopt extremely varied patterns that are sometimes visually indistinguishable from other species , they also produce hybrids in certain parts of their ranges leaving us wondering what exactly a true species is anyway .\namong shark taxonomists conservative estimates of the number of known shark species is now approaching 500 . combined with the 700 or more species of rays and skates there are well over a thousand valid species of elasmobranches . in the past many more species were described only to be discounted later as being synonymous with elasmobranches already described from other geographic areas . in recent years this problem has lessened because taxonomic data has become easier to share over the internet . however , taxonomists are as vain as the rest of us and in their efforts to be the first to describe ( and name ) a new species there is often a counterproductive lack of collaboration .\nsome abyssal species have been described from only one or two specimens captured during deep water trawls . this implies that in all likelihood there are many shark and ray species lurking on the abyssal plain that have not yet been seen or captured . the best example being the relatively recent discovery of the megamouth shark . if this large and slow moving shark could remain hidden until the 1980 ' s , who knows how many other elasmobranches have gone unnoticed .\nfollowing is a list ( in need of an update ) of all the described species of elasmobranchs . included at the bottom are the holocephali ( the chimaeras or ghost sharks ) that share many characteristics with modern sharks and rays but are thought to be descended from a different group of cartilaginous fishes that thrived during the late devonian period .\noccasionally new species of sharks and rays are described by science . in some cases they have been well known for a while e . g . the western wobbegong but no one has gotten around to describing them . more exciting is when a deep water trawl or a lucky diving expedition uncovers a species that the scientific community was completely unaware of . this page on elasmodiver highlights the discovery of these species . many thanks to helmut nickel who somehow manages to find out whenever a new species is described and diligently informs the rest of the lay community of shark fanatics through shark - l . without his input i wouldn ' t have a clue .\nif you have information about a species i have overlooked please email me the information and i will add it to the list .\nincludes a key to identifying the genus of the dasyatidae ( whiptail stingrays ) .\nincludes a key to identifying the genus of the potamotrygonidae ( river stingrays ) .\nphylum chordata - animals that at some point in their life cycle have the following : pharyngeal slits ( a series of openings connecting the inside of the throat to the outside of the neck . in fish these become gill slits ) , dorsal nerve cord ( a bundle of nerve fibres running down the back , connecting the brain with the organs and extremities , a notochord ( a cartilaginous rod supporting the nerve cord ) , post anal tail ( an extension of the ' back ' past the anal opening ) .\nsubphylum vertebrata - animals with a vertibral column or backbone and neural crest cells which are released as the nerve cord is forming , these cells move through the body to form major nerves , neural ganglia , and many head and facial features . other features that separate vertebrates from other chordates include : a relatively well - developed brain , paired complex eyes , a muscularized mouth and pharynx , and a well - developed circulatory system with a heart .\nclass chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes lacking true bone . chondrichthyes can be split into two distinct subclasses elasmobranchii and bradyodonti .\nsubclass elasmobranchii - sharks , skates and rays ( and some fossil relatives ) . elasmobranchs have an upper jaw that is not fused to the braincase and separate slitted gill openings .\nsubclass holocephali - includes forms with an upper jaw fused to the braincase and a flap of skin , the operculum , covering the gill slits . the holocephalii includes the chimaeras and ratfishes , which are relatively rare , often deep - water , mollusc - eating forms .\nnarcine brevilabiata - ( offshore species found on continental tropical waters , known from a depth of 49 m ) .\nnarcine prodorsalis - ( continental waters both inshore and offshore . known from a depth of 49m ) .\nnarcine vermiculatus - vermiculate electric ray ( benthic on soft bottoms in protected coastal areas ) .\ntemera hardwickii - pari karas ( malay / indonesian . found inshore and offshore )\nj . p . c . b . da silva & m . r . de carvalho , 2011\ntarsistes philippii jordan , 1919 no common name . known from one dried head from chile\nrhynchobatus immaculatus peter r . last1 , hsuan - ching ho2 , 3 , * & rou - rong chen3 2013\ncallorhinchus milii ( elephantfish ) occurs on continental shelves of cool temperate areas of australia and new zealand to depths of at least 200 m . migrates into large estuaries and inshore bays in spring to breed .\nchimaera monstrosa ( rabbit fish ) atlantic . upper continental slopes , 40 to 100m .\nhydrolagus affinis ( smalleyed rabbitfish , atlantic chimaera ) eastern atlantic , mediterranean . continental slopes to deep - sea plains .\nhydrolagus lemures ( blackfin ghostshark ) common and wide - ranging chimaera of the australian outer continental shelf and upper slopes .\nhydrolagus mirabilis ( large - eyed rabbitfish ) moderately common on continental slopes . feeds on small fishes and invertebrates . oviparous\nharriotta haeckeli ( smallspine spookfish ) north atlantic , taken in 1800 - 2600 m ; specimens collected by russian vessels from submarine seamounts of the indian ocean in 1400 - 1730 m ; off st . helens ( tasmania ) in 1480 - 1700 m .\np . o . box 8719 station central , victoria , bc . , v8w 3s3 , canada\nspecies is usually found over sandy or rocky bottoms . measuring up to 73 cm ( 29 in ) long , the brown shyshark is stoutly built , with a broad , flattened head and rounded snout . unlike other shysharks , the brown shyshark has a plain brown color , though some individuals have faint\nsaddle\nmarkings or light or dark spots . when threatened , this shark curls into a circle with its tail over its eyes , which is the origin of the name\nshyshark\n. it feeds on\nto a depth of 35 m ( 110 ft ) . however , it has been reported from as deep as 133 m ( 440 ft ) .\nthe range of this species overlaps with the puffadder shyshark in the southeastern cape region . there , the brown shyshark tends to favor shallow inshore habitats , while the puffadder shyshark inhabits deeper offshore waters .\na small species reaching a maximum known length of 73 cm ( 29 in ) , the dark shyshark has a stocky body and a short , broad head . the snout is blunt and dorsally flattened . the eyes are large and oval - shaped , with a rudimentary\nare very large , and are flanked by greatly expanded , triangular flaps of skin that reach the mouth . these nasal flaps cover a pair of deep grooves that connect the nasal excurrent ( outflow ) openings and the mouth . there are furrows at the corners of the mouth on both jaws . the teeth have a central cusp and a pair of smaller cusplets on the sides . the five pairs of\nare moderately large , and the dorsal , pelvic , and anal fins are of similar sizes . the\nis short and broad , with a notch near the tip of the upper lobe and an indistinct lower lobe . the skin is thick and covered by well -\nthe coloration is a plain brown above and while below , though some individuals have a series of faint darker saddle - like markings or black or white spots .\nspecies ; one tag - recapture study found that recaptured sharks had moved no more than 8 km ( 5 . 0 mi ) from their original tagging location .\n. like its relatives in the genus , it exhibits a curious response of curling into a ring with its tail covering its eyes when threatened , hence the name\nshyshark\n.\nat a length of 68\u201369 cm ( 27\u201327 in ) , and females at a length of 60\u201361 cm ( 24\u201324 in ) .\n^ compagno , l . j . v . and m . krose ( 2000 ) . haploblepharus fuscus . in : iucn 2000 . iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on august 31 , 2009 .\ncompagno , l . j . v . , m . dando and s . fowler ( 2005 ) . sharks of the world . princeton university press . p . 235 . isbn 9780691120720 .\ncompagno , l . j . v . ( 1984 ) . sharks of the world : an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . rome : food and agricultural organization . p . 334 . isbn 9251013845 .\nhuman , b . a . , e . p . owen , l . j . v . compagno and e . h . harley ( may 2006 ) . [ expression error : missing operand for >\ntesting morphologically based phylogenetic theories within the cartilaginous fishes with molecular data , with special reference to the catshark family ( chondrichthyes ; scyliorhinidae ) and the interrelationships within them\n] . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 39 ( 2 ) : 384\u2013391 .\nfowler , s . l . , r . d . cavanagh , m . camhi , g . h . burgess , g . m . cailliet , s . v . fordham , c . a . simpfendorfer , and j . a . musick ( 2005 ) . sharks , rays and chimaeras : the status of the chondrichthyan fishes . international union for conservation of nature and natural resources . pp . 265\u2013266 . isbn 2831707005 .\nkohler , n . e . and p . a . turner ( 2001 ) . [ expression error : missing operand for >\nshark tagging : a review of conventional methods and studies\n] . environmental biology of fishes 60 : 191\u2013223 .\nsmith , c . and c . griffiths ( 1997 ) . [ expression error : missing operand for >\nshark and skate egg - cases cast up on two south african beaches and their rates of hatching success or causes of death\n] . south african journal of zoology 32 : 112\u2013117 .\n^\nhaploblepharus fuscus\n. fishbase . ed . ranier froese and daniel pauly . august 2009 version . n . p . : fishbase , 2009 .\nune fen\u00eatre ( pop - into ) d ' information ( contenu principal de sensagent ) est invoqu\u00e9e un double - clic sur n ' importe quel mot de votre page web . la fen\u00eatre fournit des explications et des traductions contextuelles , c ' est - \u00e0 - dire sans obliger votre visiteur \u00e0 quitter votre page web !\nles jeux de lettre fran\u00e7ais sont : \u25cb anagrammes \u25cb jokers , mots - crois\u00e9s \u25cb lettris \u25cb boggle .\nlettris est un jeu de lettres gravitationnelles proche de tetris . chaque lettre qui appara\u00eet descend ; il faut placer les lettres de telle mani\u00e8re que des mots se forment ( gauche , droit , haut et bas ) et que de la place soit lib\u00e9r\u00e9e .\nil s ' agit en 3 minutes de trouver le plus grand nombre de mots possibles de trois lettres et plus dans une grille de 16 lettres . il est aussi possible de jouer avec la grille de 25 cases . les lettres doivent \u00eatre adjacentes et les mots les plus longs sont les meilleurs . participer au concours et enregistrer votre nom dans la liste de meilleurs joueurs ! jouer\nla plupart des d\u00e9finitions du fran\u00e7ais sont propos\u00e9es par sensegates et comportent un approfondissement avec littr\u00e9 et plusieurs auteurs techniques sp\u00e9cialis\u00e9s . le dictionnaire des synonymes est surtout d\u00e9riv\u00e9 du dictionnaire int\u00e9gral ( tid ) . l ' encyclop\u00e9die fran\u00e7aise b\u00e9n\u00e9ficie de la licence wikipedia ( gnu ) .\nles jeux de lettres anagramme , mot - crois\u00e9 , joker , lettris et boggle sont propos\u00e9s par memodata . le service web alexandria est motoris\u00e9 par memodata pour faciliter les recherches sur ebay .\nchanger la langue cible pour obtenir des traductions . astuce : parcourir les champs s\u00e9mantiques du dictionnaire analogique en plusieurs langues pour mieux apprendre avec sensagent .\ncopyright \u00a9 2000 - 2016 sensagent : encyclop\u00e9die en ligne , thesaurus , dictionnaire de d\u00e9finitions et plus . tous droits r\u00e9serv\u00e9s .\nles cookies nous aident \u00e0 fournir les services . en poursuivant votre navigation sur ce site , vous acceptez l ' utilisation de ces cookies . en savoir plus\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nthe first updated and comprehensive checklist of chondrichthyes from the southeast pacific off peru , based on the revision of scientific literature , is presented . the group of chondrichthyes in the peruvian coast is composed of 115 species that include 66 species of sharks , 43 species of batoids , and six species of chi - maeras . we present nine new records and one recent discovery obtained from secondary sources . for some species , we also compiled the extensions in the geographic distributions .\ninstituto de investigaciones marinas , ( iim - csic ) . 36208 . vigo , spain\nreports ( velez - zuazo et al . \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue01b ) . in this light , a better\n\ue017\ue016\ue016\ue01bb , \ue017\ue016\ue016\ue01bc ) , didier et al . ( \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue017 ) , naylor et al . ( \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue017 ) ,\n( \ue017\ue016\ue016\ue01c ) , hooker ( \ue017\ue016\ue016\ue013 ) , nakaya et al . ( \ue017\ue016\ue016\ue013 ) , angulo et\net al . ( \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue01b ) . we used compagno et al . ( \ue017\ue016\ue016\ue01bc ) and the\nchimaeras reported ( didier et al . \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue017 ; naylor et al . \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue017 ;\nkawauchi et al . \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue019 ; weigmann et al . \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue019 ; kemper et al .\nthan chile ( \ue013\ue01a species : sharks = \ue01b\ue018 spp . , batoids = \ue018\ue013 spp . ,\nmarinos del per\u00fa . lima : instituto del mar del per\u00fa . \ue019\ue013\ue01a pp .\npeces marinos del per\u00fa . lima : instituto del mar del per\u00fa . \ue018\ue01c\ue019 pp .\n. , d . a . didier and g . h . burgess . \ue017\ue016\ue016\ue01bb . classi\ue01fcation\nof chondrichthyan \ue01fsh ; pp . \ue019\u2013\ue01c\ue01c , in : s . l . fowler ( ed . ) .\ncompagno , l . , m . dando and s . fowler , s . \ue017\ue016\ue016\ue01bc . sharks of the\nmobulidae . journal of fish biology \ue012\ue016 ( \ue01b ) : \ue01c\ue016\ue015\ue01b\u2013\ue01c\ue01c\ue01c\ue013 . doi :\nand classi\ue01fcation of extant holocephalans ; pp . \ue013\ue015\u2013\ue01c\ue017\ue017 , in : j . c .\ncarrier , j . a . musick , and m . r . heithaus ( eds . ) . biology of sharks\nel per\u00fa . revista peruana de biolog\u00eda \ue01c\ue01a ( \ue01c ) : \ue018\ue018\u2013\ue019\ue01c . doi :\ntiburones , rayas y quimeras en el pac\u00ed\ue01fco sudeste . chile . \ue019\ue019 pp .\n. r . , h . ho and r . chen . \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue018 . a new species of wedge\ue01fsh ,\nnakaya , k . , m . yabe , h . imamura , m . c . romero and m . yoshida .\n\ue017\ue016\ue016\ue013 . deep - sea \ue01fshes of peru . tokyo : japan deep sea tra\na revised generic diagnosis . zootaxa \ue018\ue012\ue019\ue015 ( \ue018 ) : \ue018\ue01b\ue013\u2013\ue018\ue012\ue015 . doi :\n. , k . furumitsu and a . yamaguchi . \ue017\ue016\ue01c\ue018 . a new species\n. . . since then , a couple of publications reported the presence of sawfishes inspecifying them . the other publication is a revised list of chondrichthyans in peru ( cornejo et al . 2015 ) , which included p . pristis and p . pectinata . given that the inclusion of this species in produce ( 2014 ) andcornejo et al . ( 2015 ) are the result of literature reviews and are not based on field surveys , the documentation here of 2 new specimens provide the first empirical records of p . pristis in peru since 1999 . . . .\n. . . the other publication is a revised list of chondrichthyans in peru ( cornejo et al . 2015 ) , which included p . pristis and p . pectinata . given that the inclusion of this species in produce ( 2014 ) and cornejo et al . ( 2015 ) are the result of literature reviews and are not based on field surveys , the documentation here of 2 new specimens provide the first empirical records of p . pristis in peru since 1999 . these records demonstrate that p . pristis is not extirpated from peru , and they highlight the need to identify and protect critical habitats that could contribute to sawfish conservation . . . .\nthis project aims to do the crucial baseline research of the whale shark in peruvian waters in order to determine basic information such as seasonality , abundance , and population structure .\nour goal with this work was to identify putative origins for the populations of invasive green iguana ( iguana iguana ) on puerto rico . moreover , we set out to describe how populations were interacti\u2026\n[ more ]\nfield studies of vertebrates , with major interest in symbioses ( in a broad sense ) and other association types , feeding and defensive behaviors , urban fauna . presently focused on fishes , birds , and\u2026\n[ more ]\nperuvian waters exhibit high conservation value for sharks . this contrasts with a lag in initiatives for their management and a lack of studies about their biology , ecology and fishery . we investigated the dynamics of peruvian shark fishery and its legal framework identifying information gaps for recommending actions to improve management . further , we investigated the importance of the . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe smooth hammerhead shark , sphyrna zygaena ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , is the third shark specie most captured in peru , its situation is vulnerable and is included in cites . however , their fishery lacks management and its biology is poorly understood . this study aims to know the trophic ecology and identify their nursery areas in northern peru , through the analysis of stomach contents , fishing areas , . . . [ show full abstract ]\nfish dna barcoding around large marine infrastructure for improved biodiversity assessment and monit . . .\naccurate species - level identification is pivotal for environmental assessments and monitoring . the peru lng terminal is composed of large marine infrastructure located on the central coast of peru . since construction , taxonomically challenging species such as drum fishes ( sciaenidae ) have been attracted to the new hard - bottom habitat . we conducted a dna barcoding study to investigate fish . . . [ show full abstract ]\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 1 - 50 m ( ref . 5578 ) . subtropical , preferred ? ; 30\u00b0s - 36\u00b0s\nsmith , elder , london , vol . 4 , 77 pp . , not numbered , pls 1\u201331\n( smith , 1839 ) : in : database of modern sharks , rays and chimaeras , www . shark - references . com , world wide web electronic publication , version 07 / 2018\ndiagnostic features : teeth with strong erect cusps on at least . the middle two - thirds of the dental band but often not well developed on more distal teeth , cusplets low or absent on almost all teeth , semimolariform but not bladelike . first dorsal fin with abruptly vertical posterior margin ; pectoral fins broadly falcate in adults . total vertebral counts 162 to 166 . body with a few to numerous small black spots , few or absent in young , often numerous in adults although plain adults have been recorded\n) ; 174 cm tl ( female ) ; max . published weight : 20 . 0 kg\nhost - parasite list / parasite - host list ( version : 01 . 04 . 2015 ) 544 pp , 5 , 37 mb new !\noccurs from the surf line to close offshore ( ref . 5578 ) . feeds mainly on crustaceans ( including lobsters ) , also squid ( ref . 244 ) . viviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . caught by rock and surf anglers ( ref . 5578 ) .\n89 . 0 cm tl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 244 ) ) ; 102 cm tl ( female )\nthis is a little - known and uncommon inshore demersal shark with an extremely restricted range . less than 30 specimens recorded , including unpublished material . a live - bearing species ( with presence or absence of placenta uncertain ) with litter size of 2 - 4 ( usually two or three ) young and a gestation period of 9 - 10 months . it is unknown whether there is a year break in the reproductive cycle , but the low litter size suggests a year - long cycle and a yearly fecundity of similar numbers , 2 - 4 young per year ( this needs further investigation ) . the species feeds predominantly on crustaceans , also squid ( compagno in prep . b ) .\ndepth range based on 1 specimen in 1 taxon . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 15 - 15 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nviviparous , placental ( ref . 50449 ) . with 2 to 4 young in a litter ( ref . 244 , 5578 ) . size at birth about 34 cm ( ref . 244 ) . gestation period is 9 to 10 months ( ref . 244 ) . distinct pairing with embrace ( ref . 205 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there is 1 barcode sequence available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is the sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2011 ) .\nscylliogaleus quecketti\nin fishbase . february 2011 version .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nobservation - spotted gully shark 3 - southern africa . description : caught and released during rasspl nationals 2015\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nthese elongated torpedo - shaped sharks rarely grow longer than 24 inches from rounded snout to stout caudal ( tail ) fin . they prefer resting on the rocky seafloor off of coastal south africa , scavenging invertebrates and small fishes . like most catsharks , they have oval cat - like eyes , and they are named shyshark because when threatened , they curl into circles and cover their faces with their tails . considered harmless to humans because of their size , they are sometimes caught for food or shown in public aquariums .\nenglish language common names for this species include brown shyshark and brown shy shark . other common names are brauner katzenhai ( german ) , bruin skaamoog ( afrikaans ) , bruine schaamhaai ( dutch ) , roussette brune ( french ) , and alit\u00e1n marr\u00f3n ( spanish ) . this species is referred to as a shyshark because they have been observed coiling themselves and covering their eyes with their tails when caught . this may be a defense mechanism , deterring predators from swallowing the shark .\nwhile this species is not targeted by a directed fisherie , the brown shyshark is utilized in subsistence fisheries . it is also considered a gamefish and is caught by sport fishers with rod and reel . in addition , this shyshark adapts well to captivity and may be observed at public aquarium facilities .\ndue to is small size and feeding habits , this small shark is considered harmless to humans .\nalthough the brown shyshark is a locally common species that is not targeted by commercial fisheries or utilized for its meat , there is some concern for its future as it likely appears in the bycatch of other fisheries . it may also be threatened by the degradation of its inshore habitat . due to this species limited geographic distribution , any increase in bycatch mortality or habitat degradation could impact the entire population .\nthe iucn is a global union of states , governmental agencies , and non - governmental organizations in a partnership that assesses the conservation status of species .\nthe brown shyshark range is restricted in range to the southeast atlantic ocean from just west of cape agulhas to southern natal in south africa . this shark shares its range with the closely related h . edwardsii in the southeastern cape region , however there is at least partial microhabitat separation between these two species . h . fuscus resides primarily in inshore waters in contrast to h . edwardsii which occurs in deeper waters offshore .\nthis shark is typically found in shallow rocky intertidal zones to a depth of 110 feet ( 35 m ) although it as been reported as deep as 436 feet ( 133 meters ) . it reportedly rests on the bottom substrate during the day . when threatened , this shark will curl its body into a circle with its tail over the eyes hence the name\nshyshark\n.\nthe largest of all catsharks , the stout - bodied brown shyshark has a broad head with large nasal flaps on the short snout and elongated cat - like eyes typical of the catsharks . the two dorsal fins are of equal size with the first dorsal fin located over the ends of the pelvic fins . the second dorsal fin originates over or slightly behind the anal fin midbase . the pectoral fins are moderately large . the anal fin is similar in size to the dorsal fins ; the origin of the anal fin is located well behind the pelvic bases and the insertion separated from the lower caudal origin by a broad space subequal to the anal fin base . the caudal ( tail ) fin is short and broad .\ncoloration coloration of the brown shyshark is yellow - brown dorsally , transitioning to yellowish in color on the ventral surface . small light spots along with indistinct brown saddles may be visible in some specimens of this species .\na ) brown shyshark dentition . b ) brown shyshark denticle . illustrations courtesy fao\nthe teeth of the brown shyshark consist of a central cusp with a pair of smaller cusplets on the sides . the holotype of this species has 84 rows of teeth in the upper jaw and 83 rows of teeth in the lower jaw .\ndenticles the brown shyshark possesses thick skin covered with well - calcified dermal denticles . there are no crests of denticles on the caudal fins and no suprorbital crests on the cranium .\nsize , age , and growth the maximum reported length of this species is 27 inches ( 69 . 0 cm ) total length ( tl ) for males and 29 inches ( 73 cm ) tl for females . the average size of the brown shyshark is between 20 inches ( 50 cm ) and 24 inches ( 60 cm ) . sexual maturity is attained at lengths of 26 inches ( 65 cm ) for males and 24 - 28 inches ( 60 - 70 cm ) for females .\nfood habits prey items of the brown shyshark include marine invertebrates including lobsters , crabs , cuttlefish , and worms as well as small bony fishes .\nreproduction this small shark is oviparous , laying two egg cases at a atime . each egg case has long tendrils at the corners for attachment to the substrate . during development inside the egg , each embryo feeds solely on the yolk . in captivity , whelks have been observed piercing the egg cases and extracting the yolk .\nthe brown shyshark was originally described as haploblepharus fuscus by the south african ichthyologyist james leonard brierley smith in 1950 . there are no known synonyms for this species . the genus name haploblepharus is derived from the greek\nhaploos\nmeaning single and\nblepharos\nmeaning eyelash . the species name fuscus is latin for dusky or dark in reference to its brown coloration . scyliorhinidae is the largest shark family with at least 15 genera and over 110 species . they are known as catsharks due to their elongated cat - like eyes , although a few species are referred to as dogfish ."]}
{"id": 1272, "summary": [{"text": "the grasshopper sparrow ( ammodramus savannarum ) is a small american sparrow .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the genus ammodramus contains nine species that inhabit grasslands and prairies .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the florida grasshopper sparrow ( ammodramus savannarum floridanus ) is endangered . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "grasshopper sparrow", "paragraphs": ["le conte ' s sparrow le conte ' s sparrow has gray cheek surrounded by orange .\nthe grasshopper sparrow has historically been called the yellow - winged sparrow because of the yellow feathers found at the bend in the wings .\nmay be dominant over grasshopper sparrows where they co - occur . grasshopper sparrow nests are sometimes parasitized by brown - headed cowbirds (\nwhile named for its insect - like song , the grasshopper sparrow does in fact eat grasshoppers .\ngrasshopper sparrow parents prepare grasshoppers to feed to the nestlings by shaking off each pair of legs in turn .\nthe grasshopper sparrow is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\ngrasshopper sparrow distribution , habitat associations , and use as an indicator species for grassland birds in southwestern minnesota .\ngrasshopper sparrow nests are difficult to locate , because the female often runs some distance before flushing from the nest .\nancestral polymorphisms in genetic markers obscure detection of evolutionarily distinct populations in the endangered florida grasshopper sparrow ( ammodramus savannarum floridanus ) .\na small , inconspicuous grassland bird with an insect - like song , the grasshopper sparrow is easily overlooked . indeed , forbush (\n) . habitat may influence exposure to nest parasitism , with grasshopper sparrow nests closer to forest edge being more vulnerable . shiny cowbirds (\nancestral polymorphisms in genetic markers obscure detection of evolutionarily distinct populations in the endangered florida grasshopper sparrow ( . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nwhitmore , rc . 1981 . structural characteristics of grasshopper sparrow habitat . j . wildl . manage . 45 : 811 - 814 .\nthe oldest recorded grasshopper sparrow was at least 9 years , 1 month old when it was recaught and rereleased during banding operations in maryland .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - grasshopper sparrow ( ammodramus savannarum )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - grasshopper sparrow ( ammodramus savannarum )\ntitle =\narkive species - grasshopper sparrow ( ammodramus savannarum )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe grasshopper sparrow from the northern parts of the range is migratory , whereas the other populations are resident , with some local movements related to rains and grass heights .\ngrasshopper sparrows are not typically a flocking species . they run or walk along the ground when foraging . a secretive bird , the grasshopper sparrow will fly a short distance when flushed , and then drop back into the grass out of sight . they usually stay out of sight unless they are singing , when they will perch on a weed stalk , shrub , or fence wire and belt out their buzzy song . the grasshopper sparrow ' s song sounds like the buzz of a grasshopper .\noutside of the breeding season , the grasshopper sparrow is found in similar habitats , in addition to thickets , weedy lawns , vegetated landfills and fence rows ( 4 ) .\nthe grasshopper sparrow\u2019s nest is a cup of grasses and weed stems , and is lined with finer materials . it is placed on the ground , well hidden in vegetation .\nbreeding interval grasshopper sparrows breed either once or twice yearly , varying with region .\n) have colonized the florida range of grasshopper sparrows recently and may parasitize nests .\ntwelve subspecies of grasshopper sparrow are recognized . four breed in north america , four are resident in mexico , central america , colombia , and ecuador , and four are resident in the caribbean .\nthe migratory grasshopper sparrow arrives in washington in may and leaves in august . their secretive behavior makes it difficult to document their migration , but it is believed that the fall migration is prolonged .\nthe grasshopper sparrow has a dark back patterned with some rufous , a pale , grayish supercilium , a gray nape with fine streaking , an unmarked , buffy breast , and a white eye ring .\ndelany , m . , h . stevenson & r . mccracken . 1985 . distribution , abundance and habitat of the florida grasshopper sparrow . j . wildl . manage . 49 : 626 - 631 .\n) were each encountered only once , all in dense vegetation not used by grasshopper sparrows .\nin canada , the breeding range of the eastern grasshopper sparrow includes extreme southern qu\u00e9bec and southern ontario , with the vast majority of birds occurring in ontario . in the united states , it breeds in all states east of the midwestern states to the east coast and south to georgia and texas . the eastern grasshopper sparrow winters in the southeastern united states , but also in the caribbean and central america . ( updated 2017 / 08 / 10 )\na migratory species , the grasshopper sparrow breeds from southern british columbia and southern alberta to southern maine , southern california , south - central texas , and central georgia , and east to north carolina , maryland and new hampshire .\nvickery , p . d . ( 1996 ) grasshopper sparrow ( ammodramus savannarum ) . in poole , a ( ed . ) : the birds of north america online . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca . available at : urltoken\nprotection / threats / status : as a ground - nester species , the grasshopper sparrow is threatened by several predators such as snakes , skunks , racoons , weasels , ground squirrels , foxes , cats and pigs . the adults are preyed upon by hawks and the loggerhead shrike . this species is usually common in suitable habitat , but many populations are decreasing due to habitat loss for agriculture expansion and urbanization . however , the grasshopper sparrow is currently evaluated as least concern .\ninteresting facts : grasshopper sparrows have hybridized with savannah sparrows ; a hybrid female was documented in 1968 .\na flat - headed , short - tailed little sparrow of the fields , the grasshopper sparrow may go unnoticed even when it is singing , because its song is much like the buzz of a grasshopper . the birder who learns this sound may spot the bird perched on a weed stalk or the lowest wire of a fence . when not singing , the bird stays out of sight ; if disturbed it flies away low for a few yards before diving headfirst back into the grass .\nthe grasshopper sparrow is a small , stocky , flat - headed sparrow with a deep bill and a short tail . the brown upperparts are streaked with chestnut - rust and black , and the black crown in narrowly streaked with buff and divided by a pale buffy - white stripe . the breast is cream - buff above and whitish below , and the back of the neck is greyish , with fine reddish - brown streaks . the edge of the wing is yellow . the juvenile grasshopper sparrow is similar to the adult , but has a band of streaks across the breast ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\ndistribution , habitat and behavior of grasshopper sparrows , ammodramus savannarum ( passeriformes : emberizidae ) in northeastern nicaragua .\nvickery , peter d . 1996 . grasshopper sparrow ( ammodramus savannarum ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nthreats to the grasshopper sparrow population in new york include loss of nests due to mowing of fields during the nesting season , the use of pesticides by farmers , and the loss of grassland habitat resulting from development or plant succession . management practices for preserving and restoring grasshopper sparrow habitat include prescribed burning , mowing and grazing of grasslands and agricultural areas . management practices at airports have been successful where mowing is postponed until the end of the breeding season . further research is needed on the winter ecology , distribution , and habitat use of migratory populations .\narbib , r . 1988 . grasshopper sparrow . ammodramus savannarum . pages 448 - 449 in andrle , r . f . and j . r . carroll , eds . the atlas of breeding birds in new york state . cornell univ . press , ithaca , ny .\nvickery , p . d . 1996 . grasshopper sparrow ( ammodramus savannarum ) . in the birds of north america , no . 239 ( a . poole and f . gill , eds . ) . the birds of north america , inc . , philadelphia , pa .\nshortly after arriving at the breeding grounds , the male grasshopper sparrow establishes a territory , by singing from a prominent perch and using flight displays ( 3 ) . the females arrive around three to five days after the males , and breeding pairs soon form ( 6 ) .\nsubspecies and range : the grasshopper sparrow has twelve recognized subspecies throughout the wide range . four are breeding in north america , four are resident in mexico and four are resident in the caribbean . the races differ mainly in size and bill size , and slightly in coloration .\nsmith , c . r . 2008 . grasshopper sparrow . ammodramus savannarum . pages 556 - 557 in mcgowan , k . j . and k . corwin , eds . the second atlas of breeding birds in new york state . cornell univ . press , ithaca , ny .\nforages on the ground , locating prey by sight on bare ground . paralyzes grasshopper by pinching its thorax . back to top\na furtive bird of open grasslands , the grasshopper sparrow takes its name not only from its diet , but also from its insect - like song . it is found during the breeding season across much of the eastern united states and great plains , nesting and feeding mostly on the ground .\nthe female grasshopper sparrow builds the nest , which is a cup of grass stems and blades , well concealed on the ground . the female incubates the clutch of 3 to 6 eggs for 11 to 13 days . the chicks are well feathered by 9 days , when they leave the nest , and are fed by both the male and female for a further 4 to 19 days , before becoming fully independent . the grasshopper sparrow may produce a second brood in the same breeding season , but this clutch tends to be smaller , with usually only two eggs ( 6 ) .\nhistory in connecticut : the grasshopper sparrow was an abundant nester in connecticut in the mid - 1800s , but populations declined around 1900 . although the species remained locally abundant until the 1930s , populations have declined steadily since , and the bird is now only found in a few locations statewide .\nhistorically , the grasshopper sparrow was restricted to natural grasslands created by fires or flooding . however , the boom in agriculture in the late 1800s and early 1900s allowed this species to expand its range and increase in number . by the 1950s and 1960s , there was a great decrease in the amount of land devoted to farming or pasture , which , coupled with expanding development , contributed to a decline in this species ( 4 ) . in fact , grasshopper sparrow populations decreased consistently between 1966 and 2000 , at a rate of around four percent of the population per year ( 6 ) .\n) are most similar in habitat preferences to grasshopper sparrows . other species with similar , but not completely overlapping , habitat preferences are\ndistribution , habitat and behavior of grasshopper sparrows , ammodramus savannarum ( passeriformes : emberizidae ) in northeastern nicaragua . - pubmed - ncbi\na grassland bird , the grasshopper sparrow appears to prefer areas with significant grass cover and a few scattered shrubs for perching . they don ' t use habitats with dense shrub cover or sites that have been over - grazed . during migration and winter , they will use many types of open fields .\n) were found infrequently , always in small flocks ( 4 - 5 individuals ) and only on pine trees , not descending to the ground . the more common rusty sparrow (\nthe grasshopper sparrow breeds across southern canada , the usa , mexico and central america . there is a small endangered population in the andes of colombia , and probably in ecuador too . the northern populations migrate to south usa , mexico , central america and the caribbean . this species is usually absent from the desert southwest .\nalthough the grasshopper sparrow appears to have a wide distribution across much of temperate north america , it is often locally distributed and even uncommon to rare throughout parts of its range . many north american populations have experienced long - term declines since the early part of this century , owing mostly to loss and conversion of prairies and agricultural grasslands .\nthe grasshopper sparrow is an inconspicuous grassland sparrow with a short tail and a proportionally large , flat head . it has a plain face , with a white eye - ring and a white stripe through the middle of its crown . its back is intricately patterned with gray and chestnut , a color combination that is unique among washington ' s sparrows . it has an entirely clear , buff - colored breast , with no streaks or spot . juveniles are streaked overall until they reach adult plumage at the end of their first summer .\nin florida , and endangered in connecticut . prescribed burning , grazing , and mowing have been used to improve habitats for grasshopper sparrows in some areas .\nthe grasshopper sparrow is protected in canada by the migratory birds convention act , which prevents the hunting or trade of this species , its eggs or its nests ( 6 ) ( 8 ) . it is also afforded some protection in a number of reserves , including the lakes wildlife management area and the kissimmee prairie state preserve in florida ( 9 ) .\nthe main causes of eastern grasshopper sparrow declines are : 1 ) habitat loss caused by the conversion of forage crops and pastures to intensive crop production , ( 2 ) habitat fragmentation , which can result in high predation rates and 3 ) more frequent and earlier hay mowing activities during the breeding season causing nest failure . ( updated 2017 / 08 / 10 )\nbehaviour in the wild : the grasshopper sparrow feeds mainly on insects and seeds according to the season . during summer , mostly insects are taken , including grasshoppers , beetles , caterpillars , ants , larval butterflies and moths , and some spiders , snails and earthworms . during winter , it feeds mainly on seeds from weeds and grasses , and also waste grain .\nthe grasshopper sparrow forages mainly on the ground , where it walks with the body hunched forwards , the head lowered and the wings tightly folded , and occasionally jerks the tail and flicks the head ( 3 ) . it feeds almost entirely on grasshoppers , which it immobilises by pinching the thorax and gives to the chicks after shaking the legs off ( 2 ) .\nin the breeding season this sparrow generally occupies intermediate grassland habitat , preferring drier , sparser sites in lush tallgrass prairies and eastern grasslands , and thicker , brushier sites in shortgrass prairie and southwestern grasslands . in the east , it is often found in the same habitats as the savannah sparrow ( passerculus sandwichensis ) but generally selects more open sites with greater amounts of bare ground , probably because it forages exclusively on the ground .\ncalls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the grasshopper sparrow\u2019s call is a weak \u201ctillic\u201d or a soft , insect - like \u201ctk\u201d or \u201ctik\u201d . the song is a high - pitched , thin , insect - like buzz of 1 - 2 seconds which starts with one or more \u201cts , zzzziiir\u201d notes audible at close range , giving a buzzy trill \u201cpit - sip tzzzzzzzzzzz\u201d .\nthe habitat preferences of the grasshopper sparrow vary greatly across its very large range . it typically breeds in grassland , upland meadows , pastures , hayfields , and old field habitats , favouring open areas of over 100 acres in size . such habitats usually have short - to medium - height grasses , interspersed with patches of bare ground and a few shrubs ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nintroduction : the name of the grasshopper sparrow comes from its diet including of course grasshoppers , but also from its buzzy , insect - like song . this species frequents open grasslands where the vegetation depends on the range . the nest is placed on the ground , well - hidden among the leaf litter and the short grasses . this species is migratory in the northern parts of the range .\nwhitmore , r . c . 1979 . short - term change in vegetation structure and its effects on grasshopper sparrows in west virginia . auk 96 : 621 - 625 .\ndechant , j . a . , sondreal , m . l , johnson , d . h . , igl , l . d . , goldade , c . m . , nenneman , m . p . and euliss . b . r . ( 2003 ) effects of management practices on grassland birds : grasshopper sparrow . northern prairie wildlife research center , jamestown , nd . available at : urltoken\nhabitat : the grasshopper sparrow usually frequents open grasslands where it forages on the bare ground . in the western parts of the range , it is mainly found in arid grasslands with shrub cover and more vegetation . in tall grass areas and wet grasslands of the eastern parts , it often frequents sparsely vegetated areas . it can be found up to 1500 metres of elevation in mountains , on limestone outcroppings .\nthe grasshopper sparrow forages on or near the ground and in low vegetation . the grasshoppers are taken around the thorax and immobilized . the chicks are fed on insects , after removing the hard , indigestible parts . the bird runs or walks on the ground , and occasionally hops . it spends much time foraging , but during the breeding season , the male sings and displays aggressively to defend the territory .\nthe grasshopper sparrow is seasonally monogamous , although some cases of polygyny have been recently reported . the male sings and performs a fluttering flight display in order to attract a female . the pair - bond is maintained throughout the breeding season by contact calls given by both sexes . this species may have helpers , often juveniles from earlier broods . the helpers take part in some nesting duties and feed the chicks .\ngrasshopper sparrows have an estimated average lifespan of 2 . 9 years . one individual lived 6 . 5 years in the wild . annual survival of adults was estimated at 60 % .\na conservation priority for this species is the continued acquisition and restoration of prairie habitats , along with the maintenance of suitable areas of habitat over 100 acres in size . increasing the connectivity between these habitats would also greatly benefit the grasshopper sparrow . management of its habitat should aim to limit shrub cover and promote the growth of grasses , potentially by using frequent fire regimes at one to three year intervals ( 6 ) ( 7 ) .\nthe grasshopper sparrow adult has cryptic plumage on the upperparts with blackish , chestnut , grey and buff pattern . wings and tail are brown with buff and pale brown edges . the outer rectrices are paler . we can see two pale buff wingbars on the upperwing . rump and uppertail - coverts are mottled rufous . on the underparts , throat , breast and flanks are buff but the throat is paler . the belly is mostly whitish .\nwhat you can do : protection of open , grassland areas is essential to maintaining breeding populations of grasshopper sparrows . maintaining fields and remaining at a distance from nests can also help this species .\n( vickery 1996 ) . the secretive habits of this bird make its observation difficult except during the breeding season , when their territorial singing allows proper detection and identification . the distribution and abundance of grasshopper sparrows\nmost predation is probably on eggs , nestlings , and fledglings . grasshopper sparrow adults will perform broken - wing distraction displays near nests or fledglings to draw predators away . they also use alarm calls to signal the presence of a threat . they hide the location of nests by never flying directly to them . instead they land a short distance away and run through the grass to the nest entrance . similarly , when leaving , they run from the nest and then take flight at a distance from the nest . grasshopper sparrows nests are widely dispersed and well - hidden , so predators mostly happen upon them by chance . eggs and nestlings may be taken by snakes , including blue racers (\nsong sparrow pairs search for nest sites together . nest sites are usually hidden in grasses or weeds , sometimes placed on the ground and occasionally as high as 15 feet ; often near water . not afraid of human habitation , song sparrows may nest close to houses , in flower beds .\ngrasshopper sparrows prefer open grasslands with bare ground for foraging . in western , arid grasslands and prairies , grasshopper sparrows tend to be found in areas with shrub cover and more vegetation . in eastern , tallgrass prairies and moist grasslands , they tend to be found in areas of sparse vegetation . they are found in grasslands characterized by a wide variety of plants , including pine savannas , palmetto - sawgrass prairies , lowbush blueberry copses , and bunchgrass prairies . in the appalachian mountains these sparrows were once found up to 1550 m elevation on limestone outcroppings and\nbalds .\ngrasshopper sparrows seem to prefer areas with broad expanses of suitable habitat , not fragmented areas . savannah sparrows (\nidentification : adult grasshopper sparrows are small , chunky and gray - brown above , with buffy sides and breast and a short , bristly tail . the head appears flat and the crown is dark , with a pale central stripe . the bird has a white eye - ring ; a yellow - orange spot can often be seen between the eye and beak . yellow is visible at the bend of the wings . the species is the only grassland sparrow that lacks wingbars and has no streaks or markings on its breast or sides . the sexes are similar . juvenile sparrows have brown streaking on the breast and sides . their song consists of 1 or 2 high chip notes followed by a brief grasshopper - like buzz ; the call is a variety of squeaky and buzzy notes .\nthe eastern grasshopper sparrow is monogamous and generally exhibits breeding site fidelity . males arrive on the breeding grounds in early may , and pair formation occurs immediately after females arrive , which is shortly after the males . clutch size ranges from 4 to 5 eggs . two broods can be produced per year . nestlings are reared and fed in the nest by both adults for approximately 8 to 9 days . post - fledging care lasts between 4 and 19 days . age at first breeding is estimated at 1 year . ( updated 2017 / 08 / 10 )\nnorthern populations of grasshopper sparrows are completely migratory , but southern populations are only partially migratory or are resident or make only small , regional movements seasonally . fidelity to breeding sites seems to vary regionally , from 0 to 70 % in different areas .\n) would compete with grasshopper sparrows for singing perches and respond aggressively to playbacks of their songs ( pers . obs . ) . this type of relationship was not observed between the nicaragua birds and any other species in the savanna . chipping sparrows (\narcese , peter , mark k . sogge , amy b . marr and michael a . patten . 2002 . song sparrow ( melospiza melodia ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\ngrasshopper sparrows are diurnal , spending much of their time foraging , except during breeding season when males spend large amounts of time singing and displaying to defend breeding territories . males mainly use songs and aggressive displays to defend their breeding territory . they are tolerant of their female mate and any helpers at the nest . outside of the breeding season , grasshopper sparrows are not territorial and are not found in flocks . they use cryptic foraging behaviors and short , direct flights and are solitary when not breeding .\nreproduction of this species : the breeding season varies depending on the range . two or more broods can be raised , but further south , up to four broods are reported . the grasshopper sparrow nests in grasslands . the male establishes the territory , and once the pair is formed , the female builds the nest , a cup - shaped structure placed on the ground , well - hidden among the vegetation . there is a roof or dome of overhanging grasses and a side entrance . the nest is made with grasses and the interior is lined with softer materials . a new nest is built for each new brood .\nrange : the breeding range extends from southeastern british columbia , eastern washington and northern california east to new england and south to florida and central america . grasshopper sparrows winter from south carolina to florida , west to southern arizona and extending south to mexico and central america .\ngrasshopper sparrows breed across much of the eastern two - thirds of the u . s . , as well as in parts of the western u . s . they winter in the southern u . s . and in mexico . the population has declined in recent decades .\ni found grasshopper sparrows only at eleven of the approximately 600 points surveyed . these eleven sites did not include intensively cultivated pine plantations or where brush / pine cover was extensive . i found grasshopper sparrows in large populations , singly , or in groups of a few individuals . isolated individuals were located in the more humid land depressions , while a group of four first year birds ( dispersers ? ) were mist - netted simultaneously at the edge of a brush area at no less than 35 kilometers from any known breeding population . all sites where i found breeding populations (\nplantations may pose a moderate threat to grasshopper sparrows if fire protection measures are effective . in northeastern nicaragua most of the pine savanna is formally under the control of traditional miskito rule . as long as their fire practices continue , the bird ' s persistence may be ensured in this part of their range .\nreason for decline : grasshopper sparrows have steadily declined as dry , grassy uplands and farms have reverted to forests or have been replaced by developments . as with other ground - nesting birds , high populations of predators like raccoons , skunks and feral or free - roaming housecats have also contributed to this species ' decline .\ngrasshopper sparrows eat insects and seeds , with proportions varying seasonally . in the summer , they eat primarily insects , with about 69 % of their diet being invertebrates and 39 % seeds . in fall they eat mainly seeds , making up 71 % of the diet , with 29 % made up of invertebrates . common seeds eaten are sedges (\nreproduction : the grasshopper sparrow breeds in late may and early june and usually raises 2 or 3 broods per year . the nest is a cup of stems and grass blades lined with fine grasses , rootlets and hair , and built on the ground in a small hollow at the base of a plant tuft . the rim of the nest is usually level with or slightly above the ground . the 4 to 5 elliptical , smooth , glossy white eggs have reddish - brown speckles and blotches that are concentrated at the larger end and sparse elsewhere . the female incubates the eggs for 11 to 12 days and tends the nestlings after they hatch . the male defends the nest from predators . after 9 days , the young leave the nest but are unable to fly . until their flight feathers grow out , the young run through the grass to avoid disturbance .\n. they will also eat other insects and spiders , as they are encountered . grasshopper sparrows forage on the ground using vision to detect prey , so they require open areas and bare ground for good visibility . they capture grasshoppers by pinching them around the thorax , immobilizing them . they will remove hard , less digestible parts , such as legs , before feeding them to offspring .\ngrasshopper sparrows also use a variety of visual displays in communication . males use a wing - flutter display when singing on a perch . they use this wing - flutter display in antagonistic interactions with other males as well . they will chase other males and maintain a posture with the head below the back to indicate aggression . females rapidly quiver their wings towards the male as a signal of appeasement or readiness to copulate .\ni surveyed the area using a motorized vehicle and on foot . once within the defined pine savanna , stops were made every 500 - 1 000 meters along the roads independent of the particular vegetation characteristics at the point . i entered the land at both sides of the road on foot for approximately 500 meters to scan and listen for grasshopper sparrows . playbacks of the short ( territorial ) and long ( mated status ) songs of\ngrasshopper sparrows run or walk on the ground while foraging , although they may also hop occasionally . their flight characteristics vary seasonally . outside of the breeding season , flight is usually short and direct , with birds usually flying into some kind of cover . in the breeding season , flights are short and fluttery , with some zig - zagging behavior before flying into cover . males use a fluttering flight when going between song perches or singing .\nfrom march 10 to april 28 of 1996 , i surveyed all accessible potential areas for grasshopper sparrows in northeastern nicaragua . this time of year was chosen to coincide with the bird ' s breeding season as recorded by howell in 1966 . i covered the area south of r\u00edo coco to just south of r\u00edo prinzapolka . areas to the north east of puerto cabezas offer good access during the dry season , because of the many roads built to manage the extensive\n) described this species as \u201ca queer , somber - colored , big - headed , short - tailed , unobtrusive little bird [ that ] did not come by its name because of its fondness for grasshoppers , though it is never averse to making a meal of them , but because of its grasshopper - like attempt at song\u2014if song it can be called . \u201d not all ornithologists have shared this opinion , however ; with more discerning eyes and warmer hearts , phillips et al . (\ngrasshopper sparrows are seasonally monogamous , although some polygyny has been described . pairs are formed on the breeding grounds . extra pair copulations are not reported , but more study is needed . males use songs and a fluttering flight display to attract females . males and females use contact calls throughout the breeding season to maintain the pair bond . non - parental helpers at the nest are common , in one study 17 % of nests had non - parental helpers , who made between 9 and 50 % of visits to the nest with food .\ngrasshopper sparrows are small sparrows , from 10 . 8 to 11 . 5 cm and from 14 . 5 to 20 g . they have robust bills , flesh colored legs , and streaked black and chestnut brown feathers on their back . their breast and belly are unstreaked and creamy buff or white . they have a dark crown with a light colored crown stripe and yellowish plumage on the face surrounding the eyes which is disrupted by a dark line extending backwards from the eye . they have a relatively short tail and are considered stockier and bigger - headed than other , sympatric\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\n, has not been recorded since 1962 despite searches in the late 1990s , and is likely to be extinct ( g . angehr\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ngovernor cuomo announced the largest expansion of the artificial reef program in history , increasing fisheries habitat and drawing in divers wanting to observe marine life . watch dec ' s artificial reef building video on youtube and learn more about our volunteer observation program .\ngiant hogweed is a very large , non - native , invasive plant and the sap can cause painful burns and permanent scarring . don ' t touch it ! check our identification page to see if it is growing near you . learn what do if you come in contact with it .\nstill common in some areas but has declined significantly in others . florida race is seriously endangered , with very limited range .\ngrassland , hayfields , prairies . breeds in rather dry fields and prairies , especially those with fairly tall grass and weeds and a few scattered shrubs . also nests in overgrown pastures and hayfields , and sometimes in fields of other crops . in florida , nests in prairie with scattered palmettos . during migration and winter , found in many types of open fields .\nforages while hopping or running on the ground , picking up items from the soil or from plant stems . almost always forages alone .\n4 - 5 , sometimes 3 - 6 . creamy white , spotted with reddish brown and gray . incubation is by female only , about 11 - 12 days . young : both parents feed the nestlings . young leave the nest about 9 days after hatching , before they are able to fly well .\nboth parents feed the nestlings . young leave the nest about 9 days after hatching , before they are able to fly well .\nmostly insects and seeds . in summer feeds mostly on insects , including many grasshoppers , also beetles , caterpillars , ants , true bugs , and many others . also eats spiders , snails , centipedes , and earthworms . seeds are also important in diet , probably more so in winter , including those of weeds and grasses as well as waste grain .\nmay nest in small colonies ; numbers in a given area often change markedly from year to year . male sings from a low perch to defend territory ; sometimes sings at night . in courtship , sometimes sings in flight . nest site is on the ground , very well hidden at base of weed , shrub , or clump of grass . often placed in slight depression , so that rim of nest is even with level of ground . nest ( probably built by female ) is an open cup of dry grass , lined with fine grass , rootlets , sometimes animal hair . usually has partly domed back and sides of grass woven into overhanging vegetation , leaving opening at front .\napparently migrates mostly at night . peak of migration in many areas during late april and october .\na high - pitched , insect - like kip - kip - kip , zeeee , usually uttered from the top of a weed stalk .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\nthe only hope to prevent extinction may be to remove some of the last birds from the wild for captive breeding . this summer scientists scrambled to collect enough sparrows before the breeding season\u2019s end .\nthese birds are barely hanging on in the wild , but there\u2019s still hope .\nwith the help of audubon minnesota and some controlled fires , a local school recently restored an overgrown field into original prairie habitat .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\nduring the winter , it is found from western oregon , central california , west and southeast arizona , central oklahoma , southern louisiana , southern mississippi , and southwest georgia , south to southern baja california , mexico and el salvador ( 3 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nincubate to keep eggs warm so that development is possible . territory an area occupied and defended by an animal , a pair of animals or a group . thorax part of the body located between the head and the abdomen in animals . in insects , the three segments between the head and the abdomen , each of which has a pair of legs .\nbyers , c . , olsson , u . and curson , j . ( 1995 ) buntings and sparrows : a guide to the buntings and north american sparrows . christopher helm publishers , london .\nflpa - images of nature pages green house wetheringsett stowmarket suffolk ip14 5qa united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 861 113 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 860 222 pictures @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is found in wisconsin ' s northwoods and has been profiled with the support of a wisconsin - based family who care deeply about the area . to learn more visit our eco - region pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nthis uncommon grassland bird sings ( not very musically ) from a wheat field .\nif you find the information on birdweb useful , please consider supporting seattle audubon . donate\nmembers of this diverse group make up more than half of the bird species worldwide . most are small . however their brains are relatively large and their learning abilities are greater than those of most other birds . passerine birds are divided into two suborders , the suboscines and the oscines . oscines are capable of more complex song , and are considered the true songbirds . in washington , the tyrant flycatchers are the only suboscines ; the remaining 27 families are oscines .\nthe emberizidae family is made up of the new world sparrows , longspurs , and some of the buntings . most forage and nest on the ground . most emberizids are seedeaters and have short , thick bills adapted for this diet , although they all eat insects and other arthropods at times , and feed them to their young . they are typically monogamous . females generally build the nests and incubate the eggs and young , but both parents feed the young . clutches are small , generally three to five eggs . many of these birds are small , brown , and streaked , and stay close to cover , making identification challenging .\nseeds and insects are part of their diet year round , but the ratio of animal and vegetable matter fluctuates throughout the year . the winter diet is made up primarily of weed and grass seed , as well as waste grain . in summer , insects , especially grasshoppers , make up a larger part of the diet .\nmales sing from perches to defend their territories and advertise for a mate . females arrive on the breeding grounds a few days after the males . pair bonds are usually monogamous , but polygyny is not unheard of . the nest is well hidden on the ground , usually placed in a slight depression so the rim of the nest is level with the ground . the female builds the open cup of dry grass and lines it with finer grass , rootlets , and hair . it is usually partly domed , with grass woven into overhanging vegetation creating a back and sides to the nest , leaving a side entrance . the female incubates the 4 - 5 eggs for 11 - 13 days . both parents help feed the young , who leave the nest after 8 - 9 days . when they leave the nest , the young are not yet able to fly well , and the parents continue to provide care for 4 - 19 more days .\n, seattle audubon ' s on - line breeding bird atlas of island , king , kitsap , and kittitas counties .\ncup of grass stems and blades , very well concealed on the ground . usually has a dome made of overhanging grasses , with a side entrance .\nlutmerding , j . a . and a . s . love . longevity records of north american birds . version 2015 . 2 . patuxent wildlife research center , bird banding laboratory 2015 .\nnorth american bird conservation initiative . 2014 . the state of the birds 2014 report . us department of interior , washington , dc , usa .\nsauer , j . r . , j . e . hines , j . e . fallon , k . l . pardieck , jr . ziolkowski , d . j . and w . a . link . the north american breeding bird survey , results and analysis 1966 - 2013 ( version 1 . 30 . 15 ) . usgs patuxtent wildlife research center 2014b . available from urltoken\nsibley , d . a . ( 2014 ) . the sibley guide to birds , second edition . alfred a . knopf , new york , usa .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhabitat : grasslands , pastures and old fields . weight : 0 . 62 ounces . length : 4 . 5 - 5 . 25 inches . wingspan : 8 - 8 . 5 inches . life expectancy : banding records indicate up to 9 years of age .\nfood : insects , especially grasshoppers ; also spiders , snails , earthworms , waste grain and seeds of grasses and sedges . status : state endangered .\nboth males and females sing ; males often sing at night . the birds are most often seen during migration and the breeding season .\nprotective legislation : federal - migratory bird treaty act of 1918 . state - connecticut general statutes sec . 26 - 311 .\nthe production of this endangered and threatened species fact sheet series is made possible by donations to the endangered species - wildlife income tax checkoff fund . ( rev . 12 / 99 )\nstate of connecticut disclaimer , privacy policy , and web site accessibility policy . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 state of connecticut .\nspecies . the intensity of plumage coloration varies geographically . males and females are alike and juveniles have streaked breasts .\n) , although baird ' s and savannah sparrows have streaked breasts . the best way to distinguish among\nbreeding season breeding season varies regionally , from may into august in northern populations , from april to june and october to november in jamaica , from march through june and then july to september in florida , and from april to june in panama and haiti .\nfemales incubate the eggs and brood nestlings . helpers at the nest may also brood nestlings . young are altricial at hatching , developing their juvenile plumage at 10 to 12 days . both parents and non - parental helpers at the nest will feed young . males help to protect young by defending territories and keeping alert for predators . young leave the nest at 6 to 9 days old and are cared for by parents for an unknown period after that . based on inter - clutch intervals , this post - fledging care is from 4 to 19 days long . young gather in small flocks at 3 to 4 weeks after hatching . some may remain with parents as helpers at the nest .\nnesting territories are defended during the breeding season . territory boundaries are determined by the placement of song perches . territory sizes are reported to be from 0 . 19 to 1 . 8 hectares .\n, found in the pacific states , with declines up to 69 % since the 1960 ' s .\npopulations have been lost from much of their former new england range . the florida subspecies ,\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nhaving markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nto cite this page : dewey , t . 2009 .\nammodramus savannarum\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 1280, "summary": [{"text": "theretra latreillii ( pale brown hawk moth ) is a moth of the family sphingidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in most of asia , including borneo , china , hong kong , the philippines , taiwan and also in the tropical regions of australia . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "theretra latreillii", "paragraphs": ["theretra latreillii ( macleay , [ 1826 ] ) = sphinx latreillii macleay , [ 1826 ] .\nresembling a small theretra rhesus but forewings conspicuously less elongate and hindwings more rounded apically . very similar to theretra latreillii latreillii but forebasitarsus with outer row of spines single and dorsal lines of abdomen more or less plainly marked . forewing upperside similar to theretra latreillii latreillii but postmedian and submarginal oblique lines clearly visible .\ntheretra javanica rothschild , 1894 ; novit . zool . 1 ( 1 ) : 76 ; tl : java\n[ replaced in the maluku islands by t . latreillii prattorum ; and in new guinea , australia , the bismarck archipelago and the solomon islands by the nominotypical subspecies . ]\ntheretra obliterata rothschild , 1894 ; novit . zool . 1 ( 1 ) : 74 ; tl : sierra leone\nsynonymized with chaerocampa latreillii by miskin , 1891 , proc . roy . soc . qd 8 : 17 . reinstated as a species by semper , g . , 1896 , in semper , c . , reise archipel philipp . 2 : 398 . resynonymized with theretra latreillei [ sic ] as a subspecies by rothschild & jordan , 1903 , novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 773 , who nevertheless stated ( p . 772 ) that the two subspecies of latreillii intergrade completely .\nsynonymized with theretra alecto by rothschild & jordan , 1903 , novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 777 .\ntheretra orpheus pelius rothschild & jordan , 1903 ; novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 787 ; tl : cameroons\ntheretra manilae ; [ hmw ] ; eitschberger , 2000 , neue entomologische nachrichten , 48 : pl . 14 , f . 3a - b\ntheretra hausmanni eitschberger , 2000 ; neue entomologische nachrichten , 48 : 101 , pl . 14 , f . 1a - b , 2a - b\ntheretra orpheus scotinus rothschild & jordan , 1915 ; novit . zool . 22 ( 2 ) : 294 , pl . 20 , f . 6 ; tl : ilesha , south nigeria\ntheretra nessus ; moore , 1882 , lepid . ceylon 2 ( 1 ) : 22 , pl . 86 , f . 1 ; rothschild & jordan , 1903 , 765 ; [ hmw ]\ntheretra natashae paukstadtorum eitschberger , 2000 ; atalanta 31 ( 3 / 4 ) : 497 , pl . xxii , f . 1 ; tl : lombok , w . slope of mt . rinjani ( 3726m ) , baun bussuk\ntheretra mercedes eitschberger , 2002 ; neue ent . nachr . 53 : 55 , pl . 2 , f . 1 - 3 , pl . 3 , f . 1 - 3 ; tl : indonesia , sumabwa , nusa tenggara barat , tembora mts . , 925m\nkirby believed that freyer , 1845 , neu beitr\u00e4ge schmett . 5 : 34 ( cited as 1843 ) , had described a homonymous sphinx cretica , for which kirby proposed theretra freyeri as the new substitute name . however , freyer clearly referred back to a description by treitschke , 1834 , in ochsenheimer , die schmett . europa 10 ( 1 ) : 138 , which itself was a german translation of the original description of sphinx cretica by boisduval 1827 , m\u00e9m . soc . linn . paris 6 : 118 , and which was referenced as such by treitschke on p . 135 . thus there was no homonym in need of replacement and theretra freyeri is an unnecessary replacement name .\nchaerocampa [ sic ] lucasii walker , 1856 , list specimens lepid . insects colln br . mus . 8 : 141 . type locality : north india ; [ bangladesh , ] silhet [ sylhet ] .\nwingspan : 64 - - 86mm . head and body drab , antenna , front of head and sides of thorax paler ; abdomen with no black side patches and no stripes . forewing drab with six discal lines , the first nearly always dilated near apex of cell ; a black basal patch at inner margin more or less vestigial ; a black speck at end of cell . hindwing smoky - black , paler towards anal angle . underside buff or vinaceous - buff . cavity at end of first segment of palpus partly concealed by irregular scaling . external row of spines of first protarsal segment double , at least at base .\nthe moth starts feeding before dark and frequently comes to light ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nin metro - manila , the philippines , this synanthropic species has been reported as being active at daybreak and during rainy weather , when it has been observed to drink from water puddles next to roads ( dvo & rcaron ; \u00e1k , 2014 ) .\nchina : iii ( guangxi ) ; iv - vii ( hong kong ) ; v ( guangdong ) ; vii ( guangdong ) ; viii ( hainan ; guangxi ) ; ix - x ( hong kong ) . taiwan : v - x ( hualien hsien ) ; vii ( tainan ) ; viii ( nantou hsien ) ; ix ( kaohsiung ) .\nkendrick ( 2002 ) states that this species is multivoltine in hong kong , occurring from april until late july , and from mid september until mid october .\novum : bright grass - green , slightly oval ( 1 . 3 x 1 . 5mm ) , shiny and smooth ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nlarva : full - fed 60mm , width 11 mm . ; horn 5 mm . according to bell & scott ( 1937 ) , in the first instar head yellow , body greenish - yellow ; horn very long , straight , shiny black in colour . in the second instar , head yellowish - green , body shiny green . there is a small dull purplish dorso - lateral eye - spot on segment 5 , and a whitish dorso - lateral stripe from 5 to base of horn . latter black with red base . in the third instar , green dotted with yellow ; dorso - lateral stripe yellow . by the fourth instar , dorsum with white dots ; the eye - spot with pupil black in front , red behind , the red portion containing a yellow inverted comma - shaped marking , the whole edged narrowly with blue and then black . the dorso - lateral stripe edged above with purple on segments 11 and 12 . horn pale greenish - brown dorsally , still paler ventrally , with small black tubercles .\nin the fifth and final instar , head with dorsal line slightly depressed on vertex ; clypeus one - half length of head , apex acute , basal angles rounded ; apex of false clypeus forming a wide gothic arch over apex of true clypeus , reaching to two - thirds length of head ; labrum nearly half as long as clypeus , tapering frontad , longitudinally ridged ; ligula as long as labrum ; cutting - edge of mandible obscurely toothed . surface of head dull , under a lens seen to be transversely wrinkled . body as in others of the genus , dull and smooth , segments 5 and 6 not much swollen . horn of medium length , stout at base , tapering gently till near the tip , where it suddenly narrows to a point . basal half of horn straight and rising vertically , distal half bent sharply downwards ; surface dull and covered with small tubercles .\nin the green form , head green , labrum , ligula and basal segment of antenna green , other segments of antenna soiled white ; mandible green with tip narrowly brown ; eyes brown . body grass - green with encircling rows of coalescing dots around each secondary ring on segments 5 to 12 , whitish above the dorso - lateral stripe , yellow below it . there is a narrow black dorsal stripe on 2 to 5 ; a dorso - lateral eye - spot on 5 coloured as in the fourth instar , but when nearly full - fed the yellow comma - shaped mark disappearing . there is a yellow suffusion between the eye - spot over the dorsum ; a narrow white dorso - lateral stripe from 6 to base of horn . horn green ; legs red . spiracles elongate - oval , fuscous , the ends shortly yellow , the whole edged narrowly with black and then yellow .\nin the dark - coloured form the head is dark brown dotted with paler brown ; labrum and ligula brown ; basal segment of antenna whitish , other segments reddish ; mandible yellow , tip shortly brown . body dark chocolate - brown , the transverse dots paler brown with black dots between them ; the ocellus as in the green form ; the dorso - lateral stripe formed of pink dots on segments 4 and 5 , missing on 6 to 10 , pink on 11 and 12 . horn dusky black , the tip shortly yellowish ; legs yellow with a black patch on each segment and a black line down the outer side ; venter of 2 to 4 pale brown edged broadly with dark brown .\npupa : 50mm , width 11mm , tongue - case projecting 2 mm . in front of head . of a pinkish bone - colour , wing - case paler , head and thorax suffused with greenish and speckled profusely with brown except on a broad dorsal stripe , which is only lightly speckled . there is a broad dark brown dorsal stripe from segment 4 to 12 ; abdomen with a broad brown spiracular and a narrow brown ventral stripe , the sides and venter speckled with brown , the segment of a circle behind spiracle of 2 black , other spiracles bone - colour , the central slit with a dark reddish - brown rim ; cremaster brown .\nthe tongue - case not very prominent , semicircular in side - view . antenna slightly longer than proleg , which reaches to about one - third the distance to tip of wing - case , mid - leg to two - thirds ; a narrow coxal piece is present . surface dull , head , thorax and wing - case slightly shiny ; head and thorax very shallowly , irregularly corrugate . abdomen finely transversely wrinkled ; front bevel of segment 9 transversely lined . spiracle of 2 a narrow slit lying between the hind margin of 2 and the straight , slightly raised front margin of 3 ; from the raised front margin of 3 a small area shaped like a segment of a circle projects posteriad , its surface depressed posteriad ; remaining spiracles elongate - oval , the central slit lying in a narrower , raised oval . cremaster triangular , flattened , tip , broadly truncate , ending in two short , widely separated teeth ; segment 14 shallowly axially hollowed under base of cremaster .\nlarval hostplants . saurauia tristyla ( actinidiaceae ) , melia azedarach ( meliaceae ) , ampelopsis brevipedunculata and ampelopsis cantoniensis ( vitaceae ) in hong kong ( tennent , 1992 ) , as well as impatiens ( david l . mohn , pers . comm . 2002 ) . also impatiens , lagerstroemia , vitis and begonia in india ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nin metro - manila , the philippines , larvae have been found on various species of cayratia ( dvo & rcaron ; \u00e1k , 2014 ) .\nchina : zhejiang ( ningbo ) ; yunnan ( gaoligong shan ) ; fujian ( fuzhou ; longqi shan ) ; guangdong ( dinghushan ; ? ? wa - sha - tai ; guangzhou ) ; hong kong ( kowloon ) ; guangxi ( bamian , jiajiu shan ; liuzhou ) ; hainan ( chengmai ; weining ) .\ntaiwan : hualien hsien ( taroko national park ) ; tainan ; kaohsiung ; nantou hsien ( puli ) ; taipei ( jingmei ) ; taipei hsien ; ? ? koannania .\nfrom southeast pakistan ( rafi et al . , 2014 ) , the western ghats ( india ) and sri lanka north to nepal and northeastern india , east to southern china and taiwan , and southeast though indochina as far east as the philippines , sulawesi and the eastern lesser sunda islands .\nthis page contains information about pale brown hawk moths that we found in the brisbane area , queensland , australia .\nthe pale brown hawk moth caterpillars have two colour form , brown and green . the brown form has the dark brown and white waves patterns on the body .\nthe green form caterpillar is the same body shape , green in colour and less patterns on the body .\nall of them have the curved horn on its tail and the eyespots on the first abdominal segment .\nwith their eyes pattern on the first segment , they look like a small snake with large eyes . and their ' eyes ' blink ! ! when the caterpillar is feeding , its head extended , the eyes pattern is half folded and it look like the closed eyes . when disturbed , the caterpillar hide its head back into its body and this make the eyes pattern fully open . just look like a snake being waken up .\nwe found that when the caterpillar are young , which they are too small to mimic a snake , they have another standard posture when disturbed . we can not tell what it look like . most likely is something that their predators want to avoid , such as a paw .\nthe caterpillars start to turn into a pupa when they grow up to 90 - 100mm . they find a place on soil where covered with plants litter . they use their silk to hold those plants litter to form a small room and turn into a pupa inside . they take two days to turn from caterpillar into pupa .\nabout two weeks later , a moth comes out from the pupa . when it first comes out , their wings are very small . the moth has to find a vertical position to rest on quickly for their wings are expending . this take half a day for their wings to extend , dry and harden . we observed three pupa and all of them emerged at about 10 - 11 : 00pm .\nfrom the close up picture , we can see the coils of the moths proboscis and imagine how long it is . this is the long tongue which the moth used to sip nectar from flowers while it is hovering .\nthe moth is pale brown in colour , with two dark brown lines of dots on each forewings . the thorax and the abdomen are the same pale brown colour . on its head there are the big brown eyes .\nwe found that their caterpillar also like to eat grape leaf . we have a small grape plant in our backyard . in later summer 2003 , we found five to six pale brown hawk moth caterpillars on the plant . two days later , all the grape leaves were gone .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nswedmark , b . 1964 ,\nthe interstitial fauna of marine sand\n, biological reviews , vol . 39 , pp . 1 - 42\nwalker , f . 1856 ,\nsphingidae\n, list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum , vol . 8 , pp . 1 - 271\nclark , b . p . 1924 ,\nnew sphingidae\n, proceedings of the new england zoological club , boston , vol . 9 , pp . 11 - 21\nmell , r . 1922 , pp . xxii + 331 pp . , atlas 35 pls , 10 figs , 1 map , r . friedlander & son , berlin\nmoore , f . in horsfield , t . & moore , f . 1858 , vol . 1 , pp . v 278 iv 11 pp . 18 pls , wm . h . allen and co . , london\ncornelius , p . f . s . 1992 ,\nthe azores hydroid fauna and its origin , with discussion of rafting and medusa suppression\n, arquip\u00e9lago . life & earth sciences , vol . 10 , pp . 75 - 99\nmoore , f . 1877 ,\nthe lepidopterous fauna of the andaman and nicobar islands\n, proceedings of the zoological society of london , vol . 1877 , no . 3 , pp . 580 - 632 pls 58 - 60\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 177e8575 - e19c - 4a36 - ba14 - 12ad51f84ad5\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 4b0ebb72 - 7047 - 4ed5 - 85ad - 4c25fdbf0413\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 2b133032 - 8105 - 4c2e - 9c75 - d355f1a87ba8\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 371252\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\nwe\u2019d value your feedback on the tool . our survey takes only five minutes to complete .\nflorina tutt , 1903 ; ent . rec . j . var . 15 : 76 ; ts : choerocampa japonica boisduval\nbalkans , sw . asia , se . asia , oriental tropics - sulawesi , japan , hong kong . see [ maps ]\ntheretro alecto intermissa gehlen , 1941 ; ent . z . 55 : 185 - 186\niran , turkey , greece , sw . asia - oriental tropics - sundaland , lesser sundas , hong kong . see [ maps ]\ncechenena sumatrensis joicey & kaye , 1917 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 20 ( 118 ) : 307 ; tl : sumatra , langkat\nsouth africa , e . africa , w . africa , rhodesia . see [ maps ]\njapan , s . korea , indo - australian tropics - new south wales , hong kong . see [ maps ]\nchaerocampa [ sic ] pallida miskin , 1891 ; proc . r . soc . qd 8 ( 1 ) : 18 ; tl : brisbane\nchaerocampa [ sic ] insularis swinhoe , 1892 ; cat . het . mus . oxford ( 1 ) : 18 ; tl : ceram , k\u00e9\nchaerocampa [ sic ] amara swinhoe , 1892 ; cat . het . mus . oxford ( 1 ) : 21 , pl . 1 , f . 9 ; tl : mysol , aru\nchaerocampa [ sic ] tenebrosa moore , 1877 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1877 ( 3 ) : 595\nchoerocampa prunosa butler , [ 1876 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1875 ( 4 ) : 622\njapan , indo - australian tropics - new caledonia , hong kong , hawaii ( introduced ) . see [ maps ]\n586x900 ( ~ 63kb ) male female oppadake , okinawa , ryukyu , japan , 8 - 90 , photo \u00a9 s . shuichi haupt\nindo - australian tropics - solomons , hong kong , japan . see [ maps ]\npanacra natalensis rothschild , 1894 ; novit . zool . 1 ( 1 ) : 79 , pl . 5 , f . 13 ; tl : natal\nchoerocampa pallicosta walker , 1856 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 8 : 145\nchaerocampa [ sic ] potentia druce , 1894 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 13 : 169 ; tl : mexico\nchaerocampa [ sic ] bisecta moore , 1857 ; in horsfield & moore , cat . lep . ins . mus . east india coy 1 : 278 , pl . 11 , f . 5 , 5a\npanacra mira swinhoe , 1892 ; cat . het . mus . oxford ( 1 ) : 13 [ ? ] , pl . 1 , f . 6 ; tl : cape york\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nhistoire naturelle des insectes . species g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e9res h\u00e9t\u00e9roc\u00e9res . tome premier . sphingides , s\u00e9siides , castnides\nzutr\u00e4ge zur sammlung exotischer schmettlinge , vol . 3 [ 1824 - ] 1825 [ - 1831 ]\nsystema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum clases , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , symonymis , locis . tomis i . 10th edition\nin king , narrative of a survey of the intertropical and western coasts of australia . 2 vols . in king ,\nbeitr\u00e4ge zur fauna sinica ( ii ) . biologie und systematik der s\u00fcdchinesischen sphingiden . zugleich ein versuch einer biologie tropischer lepidopteren \u00fcberhaupt\na catalogue of the lepidopterous insects in the museum of the hon . east - india company in horsfield & moore ,\ndes ritters carl von linn\u00e9 k\u00f6niglich schwedischen leib - arztes u . u . vollst\u00e4ndiges natursystem nach der zw\u00f6lften lateinischen ausgabe und nach anleitung des holl\u00e4n - dischen houttuynischen werks mit einer ausf\u00fcrlichen erkl\u00e4rung ausgefertigt\ndie macrolepidopteren des amurgebiets . i . theil . rhopalocera , sphinges , bombyces , noctuae in romanoff ,\nwallengren , 1858 nya fj\u00e4rilsl\u00e4gten - nova genera lepidopterorum \u00f6fvers . vet . akad . f\u00f6rh . 15 : 75 - 84 , 135 - 142 , 209 - 215\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nformat summary genbank genbank ( full ) fasta asn . 1 xml insdseq xml tinyseq xml feature table accession list gi list gff3\ndb = nuccore | term = % 22theretra % 20latreillii % 22 | query = 1 | qty = 3 | blobid = ncid _ 1 _ 145107044 _ 130 . 14 . 18 . 34 _ 9001 _ 1531165133 _ 929635444 _ 0meta0 _ s _ megastore _ f _ 1 | ismultiple = false | min _ list = 5 | max _ list = 20 | def _ tree = 20 | def _ list = | def _ view = | url = / taxonomy / backend / subset . cgi ? | trace _ url = / stat ?\nfinds sub - sequence or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching region . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .\nbarcode of life data systems ( bolds ) stats public records : 0 specimens . . .\nusually a shrub , to 7 m . leaves : petiole short or 0 ; . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nholotype \u2642 tanzania : kikese hills , 8 . xii . 2006 [ smcr ] .\nlarge brown caterpillar approx 5cm long , with pink and white eye spots . defensive stance : front half of its body reared up . if i got a little too close with the macro lens it retracted its head a little and the ' eye spots ' closed .\nholotype \u2642 east timor : north of the island , near to the island of joco , tutuala , 8 - 16 . ii . 2004 ( a . crampette ) ( bold bc - hax2741 ) [ coll . haxaire ] .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nthe hawkmoth fauna of pakistan ( lepidoptera : sphingidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nrafi ma 1 , sultan a 2 , kitching ij 3 , pittaway ar 4 , markhasiov m 5 , khan mr 6 , naz f 7 .\nnational insect museum , institute of plant and environmental protection , national agricultural research centre , park road , islamabad 45500 , pakistan . ; email : a _ rafiam @ yahoo . com .\nnational insect museum , institute of plant and environmental protection , national agricultural research centre , park road , islamabad 45500 , pakistan . ; email : amirsultan _ 2000 @ yahoo . com .\ndepartment of life sciences , natural history museum , cromwell road , london sw7 5bd , uk . ; email : i . kitching @ nhm . ac . uk .\ncabi , nosworthy way , mongewell , wallingford , oxon , ox10 8de , uk . ; email : t . pittaway @ cabi . org .\ndepartment of entomology , faculty of agriculture , university of poonch , rawalakot , azad jammu and kashmir , pakistan ; email : unknown .\nnational insect museum , institute of plant and environmental protection , national agricultural research centre , park road , islamabad 45500 , pakistan . ; email : unknown ."]}
{"id": 1288, "summary": [{"text": "gracilidris pombero is a species of ant in the genus gracilidris .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "described by wild and cuezzo in 2006 , the species is endemic to the south american countries of argentina , brazil and paraguay . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "gracilidris pombero", "paragraphs": ["the above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see gracilidris pombero for further details\ngracilidris pombero occurs in open areas , and is typically collected in places with some degree of human disturbance .\nthe only extant member of the genus ; see the gracilidris identification section for characters that separate this ant from other genera .\nabstract : the dolichoderine ant genus gracilidris and its sole species , g . pombero , are recorded for the first time for colombia from populations from the foothills of the colombian amazon basin . comments and hypotheses about the biogeography of the genus are discussed .\nresumen : el g\u00e9nero dolicoderino de hormigas gracilidris y su \u00fanica especie , g . pombero , son registrados por primera vez para colombia , de poblaciones provenientes del piedemonte de la cuenca amaz\u00f3nica colombiana . algunos comentarios e hip\u00f3tesis sobre la biogeograf\u00eda del g\u00e9nero son discutidos .\nin guarani mythology , pombero is a mythical humanoid creature that is nocturnal , and this is a reference to the ants nocturnal behaviour .\nin guarani mythology , pombero is a mythical humanoid creature that is nocturnal , and this is a reference to the ants nocturnal behaviour . [ 1 ]\nthe records of gracilidris for rio grande do sul represent the southernmost register of the genus in the neotropics and the first for the pampa biome .\npombero is a mythical nocturnal figure in guaran\u00ed folklore . the name is applied here as a noun in apposition in reference to the nocturnal activity pattern of this species .\netymology pombero is a mythical nocturnal figure in guarani folklore . the name is applied here as a noun in apposition in reference to the nocturnal activity pattern of this species .\nnatural history : the colombian specimens of gracilidris pombero came from the western foothills of the colombian amazon basin . all specimens of g . pombero were collected in mixed environments highly disturbed by man , as a result of logging and the introduction of livestock grazing . puerto arango sites are open grassland areas ( traditional grazing system ) where the vegetation is predominantly brachiaria humidicola ( rendle ) schweick ( poaceae alt . gramineae ) ; san juan del barro sites are for silvopastoral systems consisting primarily of pasture with scattered shrubs .\nmaterial examined : gracilidris pombero . 9 workers ( w ) . colombia : caquet\u00e1 : florencia . municipio puerto arango . 1\u00b030\u201929 . 4\u201dn 75\u00b032\u201957 . 3\u201dw . vi . 2008 . sanabria , c . leg ( 8w ) ; san juan del barro . 1\u00b025\u201943 . 3\u201dn 75\u00b029\u201930 . 3\u201dw . vi . 2008 . sanabria , c . leg . ( 1w ) .\nwild and cuezzo ( 2006 ) - body proportions and color vary geographically among populations of g . pombero . in particular , specimens from paraguay and argentina are darker and have relatively shorter appendages than brazilian specimens .\nguerrero , r . j . ; sanabria , c . 2011 . the first record of the genus gracilidris ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) from colombia . revista colombiana de entomolog\u00eda 37 : 159 - 161 . pdf\nguerrero , r . j . & sanabria , c . ( 2011 ) . the first record of the genus gracilidris ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) from colombia . rev . colomb . entomol . , 37 : 159 - 161 .\nthe collection records of gracilidris pombero indicate that it inhabits low scrub forests of the type found in cerrado and chaco habitats . the specimens from maranh\u00e3o were collected at a sardine bait in cerrado scrub forest near the edge of a soybean field . the specimen from bahia , brazil was collected in a small primary forest fragment in a cocoa plantation . the mato grosso , brazil collection was from grazed cerrado , and the paraguayan type series came from a lightly grazed copernicia alba palm forest in the humid chaco .\nfeitosa , r . m . , dr\u00f6se , w . , podgaiski , l . r . & mendon\u00e7a , m . s . jr . 2015 . first record of the dolichoderine ant genus gracilidris wild & cuezzo ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) from southern brazil . sociobiology 62 , 296 - 299 ( doi : 10 . 13102 / sociobiology . v62i2 . 296 - 299 ) .\ngracilidris ants are probably nocturnal , which may partly explain their rarity in collections . at the type locality , single foraging workers were collected at dusk and after dark on two separate nights , and visual searches and baits during the day at the same location did not yield any workers . in the field , workers appear elongate , their gaster held horizontally , and their movements are smooth and deliberate .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na new species of fish , pseudoliparis swirei , published in zootaxa ( 4358 : 161 - 177 ) by gerringer , m . e et al . was voted among top 10 new species described in 2017 .\na new species of madagascan crickets described by mustafa \u00fcnal and george beccaloni in zootaxa was featured in a national geographic story . well done mustafa and george !\na new species of wolf spider , lycosa aragogi , is named after aragog\u2014the famous fictional spider from \u201charry potter\u201d book series by j . k . rowling . the new species is similar to the animatronic puppet version of the character used in the film \u201charry potter and the chamber of secrets\u201d , which is actually based on a wolf spider . the naming of the new species is dedicated to the 20th anniversary of harry potter book series .\nmariah o . pfleger , r . dean grubbs , charles f . cotton , toby s . daly - engel\nidentification of nipaecoccus ( hemiptera : coccomorpha : pseudococcidae ) species in the united states , with descriptions of nipaecoccus bromelicola sp . n . and the male of n . floridensis beardsley\nthe following information is derived from barry bolton ' s new general catalogue , a catalogue of the world ' s ants .\nwild & cuezzo , 2006 : 62 , figs . 1 - 11 ( w . ) paraguay .\nunless otherwise noted the text for the remainder of this section is reported from the publication that includes the original description .\nothers ( n = 14 ) : hl 0 . 80\u20130 . 93 , hw 0 . 62\u20130 . 71 , sl 0 . 89\u20131 . 08 , fl 0 . 72\u20130 . 99 , lht 0 . 89 - 1 . 14 , pw 0 . 47 - 0 . 57 , wl 1 . 16 - 1 . 46 , oi 4 . 0 - 6 . 9 , si 138 - 154 , ci 76 - 81 .\nhead in full frontal view longer than broad ( ci 76\u201381 ) and quadrate - oval in shape . lateral margins evenly convex and the head no wider posterior to than anterior to the eyes . compound eyes large ( oi 4 . 0\u20136 . 9 ) , consisting of 130\u2013150 ommatidia , situated near the longitudinal midpoint of the head in full frontal view . anterior clypeal margin usually bearing a single straight , short , forward - projecting median seta , a longer pair of setae just lateral of the midline that are about half the length of the masticatory margin of the mandibles , and an irregular number ( 2\u20136 ) of small setae lateral to these . mandibular dentition variable but usually as follows : strong apical tooth , a smaller subapical tooth , a small third tooth , a strong fourth tooth , and the remaining 3 teeth small , spaced more or less evenly along the masticatory margin and separated from each other by 1 - 3 denticles . basal angle of the mandible indistinct and bearing 2 - 4 denticles .\ndorsal surfaces of ant head , mesosoma , and metasoma devoid of erect setae , except abdominal segment 6 which bears a pair of setae oriented posteriorad . entire surface of body including legs , antennal scapes , and the proximal half of the mandibles covered in a dense , fine pubescence . pubescence also contains fine appressed hairs twice as long as the adjacent hairs , and evenly spaced about as far apart as their length over the body and appendages . these can be difficult to see without the correct lighting , and are most visible on the gaster . ventral surfaces of the mesosoma , coxae , and metasoma with a few erect setae . integument shagreened , ant appearing dull to lightly shining but never opaque .\ncolor varying from body and appendages dark brown ( paraguay , bahia , maranh\u00e3o ) , to head and gaster light brown with the mesosoma and petiole testaceous ( sao paulo , mato grosso ) . trochanters , tarsi and ventrum of petiole lighter than body , light brown to almost white .\nholotype . worker . paraguay , pte . hayes : 5k se pozo colorado . 140m . 23\u00ba33 . 129\u2019 s 58\u00ba45 . 853\u2019 w , 5 . xii . 2002 , a . l . wild acc . no . # 1766 ( ibnp ) .\nparatypes . series of 20 workers , same data as holotype , acc . nos . # 1734 , 1736 , 1766 ( alwc , the natural history museum , california academy of sciences , ifml , los angeles county museum of natural history , museum of comparative zoology , musee d ' histoire naturelle gen\u00e8ve , museu de zoologia da universidade de sao paulo , university of california , davis , national museum of natural history ) .\nmeurer , e . , l . d . battirola , j . h . c . delabie , and m . i . marques . 2015 . influence of the vegetation mosaic on ant ( formicidae : hymenoptera ) distributions in the northern brazilian pantanal . sociobiology . 62 : 382 - 388 . doi : 10 . 13102 / sociobiology . v62i3 . 359\nwild , a . l . and f . cuezzo . 2006 . rediscovery of a fossil dolichoderine ant lineage ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) and a description of a new genus from south america . zootaxa 1142 : 57 - 68 . pdf\nthis page was last modified on 17 october 2017 , at 13 : 42 .\nyou must log in to access this functionality . you may create an account , or log in anonymously , here .\nwild & cuezzo , 2006 pdf : 62 , figs . 1 - 11 ( w . )\nwild , a . l . & cuezzo , f . , 2006 , rediscovery of a fossil dolichoderine ant lineage ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) and a description of a new genus from south america . , zootaxa 1142 , pp . 57 - 68 : 62 - 66 , ( download )\nwild , a . l . , 2007 , a catalogue of the ants of paraguay ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . , zootaxa 1622 , pp . 1 - 55 : 24 , ( download )\n2 times found in humid chaco , 0 times found in cerrado , 0 times found in pantanal .\nantweb content is licensed under a creative commons attribution license . we encourage use of antweb images . in print , each image must include attribution to its photographer and\nfrom urltoken\nin the figure caption . for websites , images must be clearly identified as coming from urltoken , with a backward link to the respective source page . see how to cite antweb .\nantweb is funded from private donations and from grants from the national science foundation , deb - 0344731 , ef - 0431330 and deb - 0842395 . c : 0\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nrediscovery of a fossil dolichoderine ant lineage ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) and a description of a new genus from south america .\nadditional material examined argentina : santiago del estero : copo national parq . ( 5 w , ifml ) . brazil : bahia : ilheus , cepec , specimen not directly examined , ( photographic internet record , # 4830 : http : / / research . amnh . org / entomology / social _ insects / tempcepecline . html , available in 2002 and apparently offline as of august 2005 ) . maranhao : balsas , gerais de balsas 08 \u00b0 34 \u2019 s 46 \u00b0 42 . 6 \u2019 w xi . 1999 - iii . 2000 , brandao et al ( 2 w , mzsp ) . mato grosso : mpio . varzea grande , souza lima , 25 . i . 1985 , j . c . trager ( 3 w , mzsp ) . sao paulo : agudos , xii . 1957 , c . gilbert ( 2 w , mzsp ) .\n1 biologist . grupo de investigaci\u00f3n en insectos neotropicales . instituto de investigaciones tropicales - intropic . universidad del magdalena . carrera 32 n\u00b0 22 - 08 , santa marta , magdalena , colombia . current address : programa de doctorado en zoolog\u00eda . instituto de zoolog\u00eda y ecolog\u00eda tropical . universidad central de venezuela . caracas , venezuela . robertojoseguerreroflorez @ urltoken . corresponding author .\n2 biologist . grupo biolog\u00eda , ecolog\u00eda y manejo de hormigas . facultad de ciencias . departamento de biolog\u00eda . universidad del valle . campus universitario mel\u00e9ndez , santiago de cali , valle del cauca , colombia .\nkey words : ants . biodiversity . caquet\u00e1 . colombian amazon . grazing systems .\npalabras clave : hormigas . biodiversidad . caquet\u00e1 . amazonas colombiano . pasturas ganaderas .\nvouchers were deposited in the following collections and institutions ( abbreviations in parentheses ) : california academy of sciences , san francisco , california , u . s . a . ( casc ) ; instituto de ciencias naturales , universidad nacional de colombia , bogot\u00e1 d . c . , colombia ( icn ) ; museo de entomolog\u00eda de la universidad del valle , santiago de cali , valle del cauca , colombia ( meuv ) .\nbolton , b . ; alpert , g . ; ward , p . s . ; naskrecki , p . 2006 . bolton\u00b4s catalogue of ants of the world : 1758 - 2005 . harvard university press , cambridge , ma , usa . cd - rom . [\ncuezzo , f . 2000 revisi\u00f3n del g\u00e9nero forelius ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) . sociobiology 35 : 197 - 277 . [\ndubovikoff , d . a . ; longino , j . t . 2004 . a new species of the genus bothriomyrmex emery , 1869 ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) from costa rica . zootaxa 776 : 1 - 10 . [\nfern\u00e1ndez , f . ; sendoya , s . 2004 . list of neotropical ants ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . biota colombiana 5 : 3 - 109 . [\nfern\u00e1ndez , f . ; guerrero , r . 2008 . technomyrmex ( formicidae : dolichoderinae ) in the new world : synopsis and description of a new species . revista colombiana de entomolog\u00eda 34 : 110 - 115 . [\ngen . n . and ravavy gen . n . ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . zootaxa 2118 : 37 - 52 . [\n( formicidae : dolichoderinae ) from the dry forest of colombia . zootaxa 1958 : 51 - 60 . [\nhooghiemstra , h ; van der hammen , t . 2001 . desarrollo del bosque h\u00famedo neotropical en el ne\u00f3geno y en el cuaternario : la hip\u00f3tesis de los refugios . in : llorente - bousquets , j . & j . morrone ( eds . ) , introducci\u00f3n a la biogeograf\u00eda en latinoam\u00e9rica . unam , m\u00e9xico , pp 129 - 136 . [\nhoorn c . 2006 . the birth of the mighty amazon . scientific american 294 : 40 - 47 . [\nspecies group : evidence for two broadly sympatric species . contributions in science ( natural history museum of los angeles county ) 412 : 1 - 16 . [\ntrees : taxonomy , colony structure , and behavior . p . 271 - 288 . in : huxley , c . ; cutler , d . ( eds . ) . ant - plant interactions . oxford university press , oxford , uk . 601p . [\nlongino , j . t . 1991b . taxonomy of the cecropia - inhabiting azteca ants . journal of natural history 25 : 1571 - 1602 . [\n( polygonaceae ) . journal of hymenoptera research 5 : 131 - 156 . [\nshattuck , s . o . 1992 . generic revision of the ant subfamily dolichoderinae . sociobiology 21 : 1 - 181 . [\nward , p . s . ; brady , s . g . 2009 . rediscovery of the ant genus amyrmex kusnezov ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) and its transfer from dolichoderinae to leptanilloidinae . zootaxa 2063 : 46 - 54 [\nward , p . s . ; brady , s . g . ; fisher , b . l . ; schultz , t . r . 2010 . phylogeny and biogeography of dolichoderine ants : effects of data partitioning and relict taxa on historical inference . systematic biology 59 : 342 - 362 . [\nwild , a . l . ; cuezzo , f . 2006 . rediscovery of a fossil dolichoderine ant lineage ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) and a description of a new genus from south america . zootaxa 1142 : 57 - 68 . [\n( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . university of california publications in entomology 126 : 1 - 151 . [\nwilson , e . o . 1985 . ants of the dominican amber . 3 . the subfamily dolichoderinae . psyche 92 : 17 - 37 . [\ntransversal 24 no . 54 31 of 405 , edificio volterra , bogot\u00e1 , colombia . apartado a\u00e9reo 11366 , bogot\u00e1 , colombia . tel . : ( 57 - 1 ) 3472320 . fax : ( 57 - 1 ) 2126209 . publicaciones @ urltoken\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nrodrigo m . feitosa , william drose , luciana regina podgaiski , milton mendon\u00e7a jr .\ncosta - milanez , c . b . , louren\u00e7o - silva , g . , castro , p . t . a . , majer , j . d . & ribeiro , s . p . ( 2014 ) . are ant assemblages of brazilian veredas characterised by location or habitat type ? braz . j . biol . , 74 : 89 - 99 . doi : 10 . 1590 / 1519 - 6984 . 17612\ninstituto brasileiro de geografia e estat\u00edstica [ ibge ] . 2004 . mapa de biomas e de vegeta\u00e7\u00e3o . retrieved from : urltoken ( accessed date : 23 january , 2015 ) .\noverbeck , g . e . , m\u00fcller , s . c . , fidelis , a . , pfadenhauer , j . , pillar , v . d . , blanco , c . c . boldrini , i . i . , both , r . & forneck , e . d . ( 2007 ) . brazil\u2019s neglected biome : the south brazilian campos . perspect . plant ecol . evol . syst . , 9 : 101 - 116 .\npillar , v . p . , m\u00fcller , s . c . , castilhos , z . m . s . & jaques , a . v . a . ( 2009 ) . campos sulinos - conserva\u00e7\u00e3o e uso sustent\u00e1vel da biodiversidade . bras\u00edlia : minist\u00e9rio do meio ambiente , 403 p .\nprado , d . e . & gibbs , p . e . ( 1993 ) . patterns of species distributions in the dry seasonal forests of south america . ann . mo . bot . gard . , 80 : 902 - 927 .\nward , p . s . , brady , s . g . , fisher , b . l . & schultz , t . r . ( 2010 ) . phylogeny and biogeography of dolichoderine ants : effects of data partitioning and relict taxa on historical inference . syst . biol . , 59 : 342 - 362 .\nwild , a . l . & cuezzo , f . ( 2006 ) . rediscovery of a fossil dolichoderine ant lineage ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) and a description of a new genus from south america . zootaxa , 1142 : 57 - 68 .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nwild , a . l . and f . cuezzo . 2006 . rediscovery of a fossil dolichoderine ant lineage ( hymenoptera : formicidae : dolichoderinae ) and a description of a new genus from south america . zootaxa 1142 : 57 - 68 . issn : 1175 - 5334 pdf\nthis page was last edited on 20 march 2018 , at 22 : 03 .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nanimals are multicellular , eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom animalia ( also called metazoa ) . all animals are motile , meaning they can move spontaneously and independently , at some point in their lives . their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop , although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their lives . all animals are heterotrophs : they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance .\nmost known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the cambrian explosion , about 542 million years ago . animals are divided into various sub - groups , some of which are : vertebrates ( birds , mammals , amphibians , reptiles , fish ) ; molluscs ( clams , oysters , octopuses , squid , snails ) ; arthropods ( millipedes , centipedes , insects , spiders , scorpions , crabs , lobsters , shrimp ) ; annelids ( earthworms , leeches ) ; sponges ; and jellyfish .\na noun ( from latin n\u014dmen , literally meaning\nname\n) is a word that functions as the name of some specific thing or set of things , such as living creatures , objects , places , actions , qualities , states of existence , or ideas . linguistically , a noun is a member of a large , open part of speech whose members can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause , the object of a verb , or the object of a preposition .\nlexical categories ( parts of speech ) are defined in terms of the ways in which their members combine with other kinds of expressions . the syntactic rules for nouns differ from language to language . in english , nouns are those words which can occur with articles and attributive adjectives and can function as the head of a noun phrase .\nword classes ( parts of speech ) were described by sanskrit grammarians from at least the 5th century bc . in y\u0101ska ' s nirukta , the noun ( n\u0101ma ) is one of the four main categories of words defined .\nthe ancient greek equivalent was \u00f3noma ( \u1f44\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1 ) , referred to by plato in the cratylus dialog , and later listed as one of the eight parts of speech in the art of grammar , attributed to dionysius thrax ( 2nd century bc ) . the term used in latin grammar was n\u014dmen . all of these terms for\nnoun\nwere also words meaning\nname\n. the english word noun is derived from the latin term , through the anglo - norman noun ."]}
{"id": 1291, "summary": [{"text": "the mountain treeshrew ( tupaia montana ) is a treeshrew species within the tupaiidae .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it is endemic to borneo and inhabits montane forests in sarawak and sabah .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the first specimen was described by oldfield thomas and was part of a zoological collection from northern borneo obtained by the british museum of natural history . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "mountain treeshrew", "paragraphs": ["the mountain treeshrew , tupaia montana , belongs to scandentia , a group of mammals endemic to southeast asia . it is very abundant in mountain forest in north and central borneo ( map ) .\nmountain treeshrew ( tupaia montana ) is an bornean endemic . filmed by teet sirotkin at mt . kinabalu during avifaunas trip march 2016 .\nyan wong changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : nicobar treeshrew ( tupaia nicobarica nicobarica ) . jpg\n.\nmunshi - south j , bernard h , emmons l . behavioral monogamy and fruit availability in the large treeshrew (\nmadras treeshrew ( anathana ellioti ) in the satpura national park , pachmarhi ( david v . raju , 2016 ) .\nthe madras treeshrew ( anathana ellioti ) , also known as the indian treeshrew , is a species of treeshrew in the monotypic genus anathana found in the hill forests of central and southern india . the genus name is derived from the tamil name of moongil anathaan ( literally\nbamboo squirrel\n) and the species name is after sir walter elliot of the indian civil services in madras .\nthe carnivorous pitcher plant genus nepenthes grows in nutrient - deficient substrates and produce jug - shaped leaf organs ( pitchers ) that trap arthropods as a source of n and p . a number of bornean nepenthes demonstrate novel nutrient acquisition strategies . notably , three giant montane species are engaged in a mutualistic association with the mountain treeshrew , tupaia montana , in which the treeshrew defecates into the pitchers while visiting them to feed on nectar secretions on the pitchers ' lids .\nmunshi - south j . extra - pair paternity and the evolution of testis size in a behaviorally monogamous tropical mammal , the large treeshrew (\ntreeshrews have good vision , which is binocular in the case of the more arboreal species . most are diurnal , although the pen - tailed treeshrew is nocturnal .\ntreeshrews have good vision , which is binocular in the case of the more arboreal species . most are diurnal , although the pen - tailed treeshrew is nocturnal .\nthis mountain treeshrew was too hungry to just leave after being released , as our hands smelled like banana and other baits we use , the animal started licking and biting them . it was after this desperate behaviour that we decided to fed the animal as a compensation for the time spent on the trap . this is a rare behaviour as usually most animals quickly run away when we release them .\ntreeshrews are omnivorous , feeding on insects , small vertebrates , fruit , and seeds . most are diurnal , although the pen - tailed treeshrew ( ptilocercus lowii ) is nocturnal .\nmain characteristics mountain tree shrews have a slender build and a long tail . they have well developed senses of hearing , smell and vision . habitat mountain tree shrews are found in indonesia and malaysia . diet mountain tree shrews are omnivores and they feed on a variety of insects , small vertebrates , fruit and seeds . breeding after a gestation period of approximately 50 days , a litter of 3 - 4 young are born . at birth the young are blind and hairless , but they are able to leave the nest when they are a month old . tree shrews reach sexual maturity at around 4 months old and they generally breed throughout the year with no defined breeding season . subspecies subspecies of the mountain tree shrew include : tupaia montana baluensis tupaia montana montana interesting facts tree shrews have the highest brain to body mass ratio of any animal , even higher than humans . tupaia comes from the malay word\ntupai\nwhich means squirrel . similar animals golden - bellied tree shrew horsfield ' s tree shrew common tree shrew northern tree shrew mindanao tree shrew nicobar tree shrew palawan tree shrew slender tree shrew\nthe pen - tailed treeshrew in malaysia is able to consume large amounts of naturally fermented nectar ( with up to 3 . 8 % alcohol content ) the entire year without it having any effects on behaviour .\nin 2008 , researchers found that the pen - tailed treeshrew in malaysia was able to consume large amounts of naturally fermented nectar of up to 3 . 8 % alcohol content the entire year without having any effects on behavior .\nthe pen - tailed treeshrew in malaysia is able to consume large amounts of naturally fermented nectar ( with up to 3 . 8 % alcohol content ) the entire year without it having any effects on behaviour . [ 8 ]\nsirdesai , v . , m . ali , and m . s . r . shad . 2013 . crested hawk - eagle nisaetus cirrhatus feeding on madras treeshrew anathana ellioti . indian birds 8 ( 1 ) : 13 .\ncollins , p . m . and tsang , w . n . ( 1987 ) . growth and reproductive development in the male treeshrew ( tupaia belangeri ) from birth to sexual maturity . biology of reproduction 37 ( 2 ) : 261\u2013267 .\nthe fossil record of treeshrews is poor . the oldest putative treeshrew , eodendrogale parva , is from the middle eocene of henan , china , but the identity of this animal is uncertain . other fossils have come from the miocene of thailand , pakistan , india , and yunnan , china , as well as the pliocene of india . most belong to the family tupaiidae , but some still - undescribed fossils from yunnan are thought to be closer to the pen - tailed treeshrew . named fossil species include prodendrogale yunnanica , prodendrogale engesseri , and tupaia storchi from yunnan , tupaia miocenica from thailand , and palaeotupaia sivalicus from india .\nthe fossil record of treeshrews is poor . the oldest putative treeshrew , eodendrogale parva , is from the middle eocene of henan , china , but the identity of this animal is uncertain . other fossils have come from the miocene of thailand , pakistan , india , and yunnan , china , as well as the pliocene of india . most belong to the family tupaiidae , but some still - undescribed fossils from yunnan are thought to be closer to the pen - tailed treeshrew . named fossil species include prodendrogale yunnanica , prodendrogale engesseri , and tupaia storchi from yunnan , tupaia miocenica from thailand , and palaeotupaia sivalicus from india . [ 15 ]\nthe fossil record of treeshrews is poor . the oldest putative treeshrew , eodendrogale parva , is from the middle eocene of henan , china , but the identity of this animal is uncertain . other fossils have come from the miocene of thailand , pakistan , india , and yunnan , china , as well as the pliocene of india . most belong to the family tupaiidae , but some still - undescribed fossils from yunnan are thought to be closer to the pen - tailed treeshrew ( ptilocercus ) . named fossil species include prodendrogale yunnanica , prodendrogale engesseri , and tupaia storchi from yunnan , tupaia miocenica from thailand , and palaeotupaia sivalicus from india ( ni and qiu 2012 ) .\nthis species of treeshrew is not particularly arboreal and spends much of its time on the ground or clambering about on rocky terrain in the search of insects and seeds . [ 13 ] it is easily separated from the squirrels in the field by the shape and color of the tail and the upward curve in which it is held when walking about .\nthe treeshrews ( or tree shrews or banxrings ) are small euarchont mammals native to the tropical forests of southeast asia . they make up the families tupaiidae , the treeshrews , and ptilocercidae , the pen - tailed treeshrew , and the entire order scandentia . the 20 species are placed in five genera . treeshrews have a higher brain to body mass ratio than any other mammals , including humans , but high ratios are not uncommon for animals weighing less than a kilogram .\nthe channel between palawan and borneo is about 145 m deep . during the middle pleistocene , sea levels were 160 m lower than today , and the islands were connected . during the last ice age ( late pleistocene ) , sea level was approximately 120 m below current levels , and palawan was separated from ice age borneo by a narrow channel . palawan has always remained separated from the rest of the philippines . palawan is long and narrow , consisting of a steep mountain range whose highest point is 2 , 085 m ( mt . mantalingajan ) . more than 45 percent of palawan consists of mountains with slopes greater than 30 percent ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\nthe treeshrews ( or tree shrews or banxrings [ 2 ] ) are small euarchontoglire mammals native to the tropical forests of southeast asia . they make up the families tupaiidae , the treeshrews , and ptilocercidae , the pen - tailed treeshrew , and the entire order scandentia . the 20 species are placed in five genera . treeshrews have a higher brain to body mass ratio than any other mammal , including humans , [ 3 ] but high ratios are not uncommon for animals weighing less than a kilogram .\nrecently , it has been shown that several bornean nepenthes species demonstrate specialized nutrient acquisition strategies , which differ markedly from the \u2018typical\u2019 , arthropod - trapping strategy [ 5 ] , [ 6 ] . clarke et al . [ 7 ] and chin et al . [ 8 ] established that three giant montane pitcher plant species from borneo , nepenthes lowii hook . f . , n . rajah hook . f . and n . macrophylla ( marabini ) jebb & cheek , are engaged in an extraordinary mutualistic association with mountain treeshrews ( tupaia montana thomas ( scandentia ) ) , in which the treeshrews defecate into the nepenthes ' pitchers while visiting them to feed on carbohydrate rich secretions produced by glands on the pitchers ' lids .\nthe degree of development and / or modification of each pitcher component varies substantially among ( and even within ) nepenthes species 2 , 6 , 7 and recent research has demonstrated that unique modifications to pitcher structure possessed by several species play important roles in specialized nutrient acquisition strategies . 8 \u2013 12 one such species , nepenthes lowii , demonstrates a remarkable nitrogen sequestration strategy , in which mountain tree shrews ( tupaia montana ) defecate into its pitchers while feeding on exudates secreted by glands on the inner surface of the pitcher lid . feces accounts for 57\u2013100 % of foliar nitrogen in this species 13 and n . lowii \u201ctoilet pitchers\u201d are ineffective arthropod traps . the large orifices and reflexed , concave lids of n . lowii pitchers induce t . montana to sit astride the pitcher whilst feeding , facilitating fecal deposition .\nthree species of nepenthes pitcher plants from borneo engage in a mutualistic interaction with mountain tree shrews , the basis of which is the exchange of nutritional resources . the plants produce modified \u201ctoilet pitchers\u201d that produce copious amounts of exudates , the latter serving as a food source for tree shrews . the exudates are only accessible to the tree shrews when they position their hindquarters over the pitcher orifice . tree shrews mark valuable resources with feces and regularly defecate into the pitchers when they visit them to feed . feces represent a valuable source of nitrogen for these nepenthes species , but there are many facets of the mutualism that are yet to be investigated . these include , but are not limited to , seasonal variation in exudate production rates by the plants , behavioral ecology of visiting tree shrews and the mechanism by which the plants signal to tree shrews that their pitchers represent a food source . further research into this extraordinary animal - plant interaction is required to gain a better understanding of the benefits to the participating species .\nseveral of palawan ' s endemic mammals are considered threatened . three endemic mammal species are considered endangered , including the calamian deer , a sunda tree squirrel ( sundasciurus juvencus ) ( recommended for delisting ; heaney et al . 1998 ) , and the palawan rat ( palawanomys furvus ) , which was collected only four times in 1962 . a subspecies of mouse deer , the balabac chevrotain ( tragulus napu nigricans ) , which is confined to balabac island , is also considered endangered . five endemic mammal species are considered vulnerable , including acerodon leucotis , the palawan treeshrew ( tupaia palawanensis ) , the palawan stink badger ( mydaus marchei ) , the palawan binturong ( arctictis binturong whitei ) , and a sunda tree squirrel ( sundasciurus rabori ) ( iucn 2000 ) .\nthe madras treeshrew is found on the indian subcontinent south of the ganges river . three subspecies have been described \u2014 a . e . ellioti of the eastern ghats , biligirirangan [ 8 ] and the shevaroy hills and other hills of southern india , a . e . pallida from central india primarily in madhya pradesh and raipur , and a . e . wroughtoni from the satpura range and the dangs near bombay . they have been reported within the western ghats ranges of wayanad ( periya ) [ 9 ] and mahabaleshwar . the northernmost record is from garhwa district of bihar . [ 10 ] little is known about the status of these populations as the distribution is patchy , but s . m . mohnot considered them as\ncommon\nin 1975 . [ 11 ]\nthis treeshrew is 16 . 0 to 18 . 5 cm long with a tail of 16 . 5 to 19 . 5 cm . the nominate race ( type locality : eastern ghats , madras . british museum 50 . 1 . 21 . 5 ) has the tail coloured like the back , the ground colour above being reddish - brown while the feet and hind legs are buff or ochraceous . the other two races have the tail coloured differently from the back . the race a . e . pallida ( type locality : manbhum , bengal , collected by robert cecil beavan british museum 66 . 12 . 28 . 2 ) has the colour of body above reddish - brown and the feet and hind legs grizzled buffy . race a . e . wroughtoni ( type locality : mandvi , surat , collected by r . c . wroughton british museum 96 . 11 . 7 . 1 ) has the colour of body above dull grizzled brownish and the feet and hind legs grizzled greyish . [ 4 ] some later workers lump all the three races . [ 5 ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern as it is common in montane regions of borneo , which remain mostly undisturbed , and although it may be undergoing localized declines , these are not likely to be sufficient to merit listing in a threatened category .\nthis is a bornean species , with a disjunct range across several isolated montane outcrops of sarawak and western sabah ( malaysia ) ; probably also found in northern kalimantan ( indonesia ) . although it has been trapped as low as 300 m ( medway 1977 ) , such records are very rare , and the species is most common above 600 m .\nthis species is very common in north - western borneo ( han et al . 2000 ) .\nthis species is found only in submontane and montane forest , but can tolerate disturbed forest . it is omnivorous , its diet consists predominantly in arthropods , sometimes substituted with fruit ( l . emmons 2000 ) .\na general threat for species living in montane borneo is loss of habitat due to deforestation for agriculture , such as the conversion of upland forests to vegetable farms ( k . h . han pers . comm . ) .\nthe species occurs in gunung niut nature reserve ( simons 1987 ) , gunung penrissen nature reserve ( medway 1977 ) - although it has not been found there recently in a survey by k . h . han ( pers . comm . ) - danau sentarum national park in western kalimantan ( jeanes and meijaard 2000 ) , crocker range national park and kinabalu park ( k . h . han pers . comm . ) . it has also been recorded from kayan mentarang national park ( i . maryanto pers . comm . ) . it is listed on cites appendix ii .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nborneo , sarawak , mt . dulit , 5 , 000 ft . ( 1 , 524 m ) .\nmountains of sarawak and w sabah ( malaysia ) ; probably n kalimantan ( indonesia ) .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nexperts across the globe have assessed over 79 , 800 species on the iucn red list - but more needs to be done . our goal is to assess 160 , 000 species by 2020 to guide vital conservation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ncites is an international agreement between governments , aimed to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival .\ndiurnal , and very social , they feed on vegetable and animal material mainly on the ground . two pitcher plants , nepenthes lowii and n . rajah , have a mutualistic relation with tupaia montana : the plant offers the animal sugar on its pitchers and this tupaia uses the pitcher as lavatories , thus providing the plant with nutrients ( video 1 , video 2 ) .\nsorenson , m . w . , & conaway , c . h . ( 1968 ) . the social and reproductive behavior of tupaia montana in captivity . journal of mammalogy , 49 ( 3 ) , 502 - 512 .\nclarke , c . m . , bauer , u . , ch\u2019ien , c . l . , tuen , a . a . , rembold , k . , & moran , j . a . ( 2009 ) . tree shrew lavatories : a novel nitrogen sequestration strategy in a tropical pitcher plant . biology letters , 5 ( 5 ) , 632 - 635 .\nwells , k . , lakim , m . b . , schulz , s . , & ayasse , m . ( 2011 ) . pitchers of nepenthes rajah collect faecal droppings from both diurnal and nocturnal small mammals and emit fruity odour . journal of tropical ecology , 27 ( 04 ) , 347 - 353 .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .\nalthough called treeshrews , scandents are not true shrews and not all species are necessarily arboreal .\ntreeshrews serve important roles in the ecosystem , consuming fruit , seeds , insects and other invertebrates ( spiders , centipedes , millipedes , earthworms , etc ) , and in some cases even small vertebrates ( small mammals and lizards ) , and serving as food for snakes , birds of prey , and various wild cats , such as leopard cats and clouded leopards . they also may play a useful role in seed dispersal for plants with soft , juicy fruits . for humans , the diurnal behavior of most species allows them to add to the joy of observing them in nature .\ntree shrews are slender animals . they have soft , grayish to reddish - brown fur . they have large orbits , and a well - developed and complete postorbital bar behind the orbit ( myers 2000 ) . treeshrews have good vision , which is binocular in the case of the more arboreal species . they have excellent hearing ( myers 2000 ) . treeshrews have poorly developed canine teeth , with the upper canines molar - like and the upper incisors canine - like ( myers 2000 ) . their overall dental formula is ( myers 2000 ; martin 1984 ) :\nin some species , these animals are solitary , while in others , the animals live in pairs or in small family groups ( myers 2000 ) . they mark their territories using various scent glands , or urine , depending on the particular species . treeshrews are typically monogamous ( gi 2012 ) .\nfemale treeshrews give birth to up to three young after a gestation period of 45 to 50 days , in nests lined with dry leaves inside tree hollows . the young are born blind and hairless , but are able to leave the nest after about a month . during this period , the mother provides relatively little maternal care , visiting her young only for a few minutes every other day to suckle them . treeshrews reach sexual maturity after around four months , and breed for much of the year , with no clear breeding season in most species ( martin 1984 ) .\ntupaia tana has been known to spend little time in parental care prior to weaning ( less than five minutes every other day to nurse the young ) and yet after weaning spending a lot of time with the young ( miller 2007 ) .\nthe name tupaia is derived from tupai the malay word for squirrel ( nowak 1999 ) and was provided by sir stamford raffles ( craig 1849 ) . among other things , they eat the fruit of rafflesia , a genus of parasitic flowering plants found in southeastern asia and named after sir raffles , the leader of an 1818 expedition into the indonesia rain forest where they were found .\ntreeshrews have a higher brain to body mass ratio than any mammals , including humans ( gi 2012 ) .\ntreeshrews make up the families tupaiidae , the treeshrews , and ptilocercidae , the pen - tailed treeshrews , and the entire order scandentia . there are 20 species in 5 genera .\nthe classification of treeshrews has been , and remains , controversial . some argue that they are primitive primates , and properly belong in the primates order . however , treeshrews and primates do not appear to share any derived characteristics ( gi 2012 ) . genetic analysis do place them in proximity to the primates and they have been used as an alternative to primates in experimental studies of myopia , psychosocial stress , and hepatitis ( cao et al . 2003 ) .\n\u2191 k . m . helgen ,\norder scandentia ,\npages 104 - 109 in d . e . wilson , and d . m . reeder , eds . mammal species of the world , 3rd ed . ( baltimore : johns hopkins university press , 2005 ) . isbn 9780801882210 .\ncao , j . , e . - b . yang , j . - j . su , y . li , and p . chow . 2003 . the tree shrews : adjuncts and alternatives to primates as models for biomedical research . j med primatol 32 : 123\u2013130 . retrieved july 24 , 2012 .\ncraig , j . 1849 . a new universal etymological technological , and pronouncing dictionary of the english language . london : routledge , warnes , and routledge .\ngenome institute ( gi ) . 2012 . tupaia belangeri . the genome institute at washington university . retrieved july 24 , 2012 .\nhelgen , k . m . 2005 . pages 104 - 109 in d . e . wilson , and d . m . reeder , eds . , mammal species of the world , 3rd ed . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . isbn 9780801882210 .\njanecka , j . e . , w . miller , t . h . pringle , f . wiens , a . zitzmann , k . m . helgen , m . s . springer , and w . j . murphy . 2007 . [ 1 ] molecular and genomic data identify the closest living relatives of primates ] . science 318 : 792\u20134 . pmid 17975064 .\nmartin , r . d . 1984 . tree shrews . pages 408 - 413 in d . macdonald , the encyclopedia of mammals . new york , ny : facts on file . isbn 0871968711 .\nmiller , e . 2007 . tupaia tana . animal diversity web . retrieved july 24 , 2012 .\nmorris , m . 2003 . tree shrews : order scandentia . angelfire . retrieved july 24 , 2012 .\nmyers , p . 2000 . scandentia . animal diversity web . retrieved july 19 , 2012 .\nni , x . , and z . qiu . 2012 . tupaiine tree shrews ( scandentia , mammalia ) from the yuanmou lufengpithecus locality of yunnan , china . swiss journal of palaeontology 131 ( 1 ) : 51 - 60 . retrieved july 24 , 2012 .\nnowak , r . m . 1999 . walker ' s mammals of the world . johns hopkins university . isbn 0801857899 .\npettigrew , j . d . , b . g . jamieson , s . k . robson , l . s . hall , k . i . mcanally , and h . m . cooper . 1989 . phylogenetic relations between microbats , megabats and primates ( mammalia : chiroptera and primates ) . philosophical transactions of the royal society of london , series b , biological sciences 325 ( 1229 ) : 489\u2013559 . retrieved july 24 , 2012 .\nnew world encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the wikipedia article in accordance with new world encyclopedia standards . this article abides by terms of the creative commons cc - by - sa 3 . 0 license ( cc - by - sa ) , which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution . credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the new world encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the wikimedia foundation . to cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats . the history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here :\nnote : some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed .\nthis page was last modified on 29 december 2014 , at 17 : 28 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution / share - alike license ; additional terms may apply . see terms of use for details .\nthe wwf is run at a local level by the following offices . . .\ndipterocarp forests carpet the borneo lowlands forming a green expanse composed of a high number of plant species . as many as 240 different tree species can grow within 1 hectare .\nproboscis monkey ( nasalis larvatus ) . these monkeys are living highly specialized lives in the mangrove forest . endangered species . south - east asia .\nlarge dipterocarpaceae tree , a popular timber species . segama forest reserve , sabah ( borneo ) , malaysia\nfight the destructive harvesting and unregulated trade of one of the most attractive inhabitants of our tropical oceans .\nthis is a place where gorillas , hippos and elephants can be found walking , playing and resting along pristine sandy beaches . . .\nwhen you work with wwf to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature , you give your child , and all children around the world , a chance to get to discover our earth as we know it today .\nyour support will help us build a future where humans live in harmony with nature . $ 5 $ 15 $ 25 $ 50\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ncorrespondence to : charles clarke ; email : ym . ude . hsanom . ics @ ekralc . selrahc\nchin et al . 14 found that two other montane species from borneo , nepenthes rajah and nepenthes macrophylla , also trap tree shrew feces . detailed analysis of trap geometry revealed that these two species and n . lowii share a unique arrangement of trap characteristics that was not detected by earlier studies on the genus . this involves the production of pitchers with very large orifices , large , concave lids that are reflexed approximately 90\u00b0 away from the orifice and lid glands that produce copious exudates . 14 the distance from the front of the pitcher orifice to the inner surface of the lid precisely matches the head + body length of t . montana , resulting in the tree shrews ' food source being positioned behind the pitcher orifice and ensuring that the animals ' hindquarters are positioned over the orifice while they feed on the lid gland exudates .\nthus , n . lowii , n . macrophylla and n . rajah are all engaged in a mutualism with t . montana , the basis of which is the exchange of nutritional resources that are scarce in these species ' habitats . the interaction with t . montana is facilitated by trap geometry , but all three nepenthes species produce pitchers that differ substantially in structure , apart from the shared characteristics outlined above . 14 through a series of modifications to trap structure and geometry\u2014none of which appears to have compromised their ability to trap arthropod prey\u2014 n . rajah and n . macrophylla benefit from a highly specialised nitrogen sequestration strategy that is not available to congeners other than n . lowii .\nalthough clarke et al . 13 demonstrated that n . lowii derives nutritional benefit from t . montana feces , there are many facets of the association that have yet to be investigated and the discoveries of chin et al . 14 give rise to a number avenues for further research , several of which are discussed below .\nkota kinabalu , sabah , malaysia : natural history publications ( borneo ) ; 1997 .\nbonn hf , federle w . insect aquaplaning : nepenthes pitcher plants capture prey with the peristome , a fully wettable water - lubricated anisotropic surface .\nbauer u , bohn hf , federle w . harmless nectar source or deadly trap : nepenthes pitchers are activated by rain , condensation and nectar .\nkota kinabalu , sabah , malaysia : natural history publications ( borneo ) ; 2001 .\n2nd edn . kota kinabalu , sabah , malaysia : natural history publications ( borneo ) ; 2009 .\nclarke cm , kitching rl . swimming ants and pitcher plants : a unique ant - plant interaction from borneo .\nmoran ja , merbach ma , livingston nj , clarke cm , booth we . termite prey specialization in the pitcher plant\nmoran ja , clarke cm , hawkins bj . from carnivore to detritivore ? isotopic evidence for leaf litter utilization by the tropical pitcher plant\nmerbach ma , merbach dj , maschwitz u , booth we , fiala b , zizka g . mass march of termites into the deadly trap .\nmerbach ma , zizka g , fiala b , merbach d , booth we , maschwitz u . why a carnivorous plant cooperates with an ant\u2014selective defense against pitcher - destroying weevils in the myrmecophytic pitcher plant\nclarke cm , bauer u , lee cc , tuen aa , rembold k , moran ja . tree shrew lavatories : a novel nitrogen sequestration strategy in tropical pitcher plants .\nchin l , moran ja , clarke c . trap geometry in three giant montane pitcher plant species from borneo is a function of tree shrew body size .\njacobs gh , neitz j . spectral mechanisms and color vision in the tree shrew (\ncollins nm . the distribution of soil macrofauna on the west ridge of gunung ( mount ) mulu , sarawak .\nkato m , hotta m , tamin r , itino t . inter - and intra - specific variation in prey assemblages and inhabitant communities in nepenthes pitchers in sumatra .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nthough called ' treeshrews ' , and despite having previously been classified in insectivora , they are not true shrews , and not all species live in trees . among other things , treeshrews eat rafflesia fruit .\namong orders of mammals , treeshrews are closely related to primates , and have been used as an alternative to primates in experimental studies of myopia , psychosocial stress , and hepatitis . [ 4 ]\ntreeshrews are slender animals with long tails and soft , greyish to reddish - brown fur . the terrestrial species tend to be larger than the arboreal forms , and to have larger claws , which they use for digging up insect prey . they are\n, feeding on insects , small vertebrates , fruit , and seeds . they have poorly developed canine teeth and unspecialised molars , with an overall\nfemale treeshrews have a gestation period of 45 to 50 days and give birth to up to three young in nests lined with dry leaves inside tree hollows . the young are born blind and hairless , but are able to leave the nest after about a month . during this period , the mother provides relatively little maternal care , visiting her young only for a few minutes every other day to suckle them . treeshrews reach sexual maturity after around four months , and breed for much of the year , with no clear breeding season in most species . [ 5 ]\nthese animals live in small family groups , which defend their territory from intruders . they mark their territories using various scent glands or urine , depending on the particular species .\nthe name tupaia is derived from tupai , the malay word for squirrel , [ 6 ] and was provided by sir stamford raffles . [ 7 ]\nhowever , the alternative placement of treeshrews as sister to both glires and primatomorpha cannot be ruled out . [ 14 ]\n( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . pp . 104\u2013109 .\ncao , j ; yang , e . b . ; su , j - j ; li , y ; chow , p ( 2003 ) .\nmartin , robert d . ( 1984 ) . macdonald , d . , ed .\njanecka , jan e . ; miller , webb ; pringle , thomas h . ; wiens , frank ; zitzmann , annette ; helgen , kristofer m . ; springer , mark s . ; murphy , william j . ( 2 november 2007 ) .\npettigrew jd , jamieson bg , robson sk , hall ls , mcanally ki , cooper hm ( 1989 ) .\nfoley , nicole m . ; springer , mark s . ; teeling , emma c . ( 19 july 2016 ) .\nkumar , vikas ; hallstr\u00f6m , bj\u00f6rn m . ; janke , axel ( 1 april 2013 ) .\nmeredith , robert w . ; jane\u010dka , jan e . ; gatesy , john ; ryder , oliver a . ; fisher , colleen a . ; teeling , emma c . ; goodbla , alisha ; eizirik , eduardo ; sim\u00e3o , taiz l . l . ( 28 october 2011 ) .\nzhou , xuming ; sun , fengming ; xu , shixia ; yang , guang ; li , ming ( 1 march 2015 ) .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\npalawan represents a bridge between the sunda shelf and philippine bioregions and contains faunal elements from both , as well as it own unique elements . this ecoregion , though more intact than any other region in the philippines , is under great pressure from logging interests .\ndescription location and general description this ecoregion includes the island palawan plus balabac , ursula island , and the calamian group . palawan itself is the sixth largest of the philippine islands . the climate of the ecoregion is tropical wet ( national geographic society 1999 ) . in northwest palawan , a dry season lasts from november to may while the wet season lasts from june to october ; the rest of the island experiences a short , one - to three - month dry season . the east coast becomes progressively drier than the west coast from north to south ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\nvegetation types on palawan are diverse and include beach forest , tropical lowland evergreen dipterocarp rain forest , lowland semi - deciduous forest , montane forest , and ultramafic and limestone forest . beach forest merges with other forest types away from the coast and includes calophyllum inophyllum , canarium asperum var . asperum , pometia pinnata , palaquium dubardii , and ficus spp . ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\nthe lowland evergreen dipterocarp rain forest , which naturally occupies 31 percent of the island , is dominated by agalai spp . , dipterocarpus gracilis , d . grandiflorus , ficus spp . , tristania spp . , exocarpus latifolius , and swintonia foxworthyi . sygium spp . , dracontomelon dao , and pongamia pinnata are emergent . lianas and cycads are common . in southern palawan , a casuarina sp . dominates in the lowland forests ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\nthe eastern half of the island is in a rain shadow and contains moist semi - deciduous forests . soils are thin on the steeper slopes and support medium - sized trees ( up to 15 m tall ) , which shed their leaves during the march - may dry season . the rainy season is june - july . common tree species include pterocymbium tinctorium , pterospermum diversifolium , hymenodictyon spp . , and garuga floribunda ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\nmontane forests , found between 800 and 1 , 500 m , are dominated by tristania spp . , casuarina spp . , swietenia foxworthyi , and litsea spp . in the lower elevations . upper montane forest trees include agathis philippinensis , dacrydium pectinatum , podocarpus polystachyus , gnetum latifolium , cycas wadei , cinnamomum rupestre , nepenthes philippinensis , and angiopteris spp . ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\nlimestone forests are found on the islets surrounding palawan and over large areas in the southern portions of the island . represented are euphorbia trigona , aglaia argentea , and antidesma , drypetes , gomphandra , sterculia , pleomele , and begonia spp . ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\nvictoria peak , in south - central palawan , contains the largest region of ultramafic forest on the island . although many of the ultramafic tree species are shared with semi - deciduous forest , several species , including scaevola micrantha , brackenridgea palustris var . foxworthi , exocarpus latifolius , and phyllanthus lamprophyllus are believed to be heavy metal indicators ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\nbiodiversity features relative to the size of palawan , the ecoregion contains a rich fauna , including several groups that are not found in the rest of the philippines ( carnivores , pangolins , porcupines , and some insectivores ) ( heaney 1986 ) .\nthere are many endemic mammals in palawan , but nearly all the genera ( 96 percent ) are also found in borneo . of twenty - five indigenous nonvolant mammal species , eleven ( 44 percent ) are endemic to palawan , and the remainder are shared with borneo . therefore , the greater palawan region is rightly considered part of the sunda shelf bioregion rather than that of the philippines . the large number of endemic species but few endemic genera of palawan are consistent with a separation of borneo and palawan of approximately 160 , 000 ( since the middle pleistocene ) ( heaney 1986 ) . there are fifteen endemic or near - endemic mammals in greater palawan ( table 1 ) .\nfamily species pteropodidae acerodon leucotis * cervidae axis calamianensis * sciuridae sundasciurus steerii * sciuridae sundasciurus moellendorfi * sciuridae sundasciurus rabori * sciuridae hylopetes nigripes * muridae chiropodomys calamianensis * muridae maxomys panglima * muridae palawanomys furvus * hystricidae hystrix pumila * sorcidae crocidura palawanensis * muridae haeromys sp . a * sciuridae sundasciurus hoogstraali * sciuridae sundasciurus juvencus * tupaiidae tupaia palawanensis *\nthe calamian deer ( axis calamianensis ) is found only in the calamian islands , where it survives in low densities on busuanga , calauit , and culion islands . the only protected area for this species was established to protect free - ranging african ungulates on calauit island ( wemmer 1998 ) .\nas with mammals , philippine birds in general show a strong bornean affinity , and it is clear that the main pathway of asian immigration to the philippines was through palawan ; of 395 philippine breeding species , 137 ( 35 percent ) also breed in borneo . palawan birds exhibit strong differentiation at the subspecific level when compared with its nearest philippine neighbor , mindoro . this is in contrast to the other partial land bridge between borneo and the philippines , the sulu islands , which have not differentiated significantly from mindanao . borneo and palawan share twenty - three bird species that are not found in the rest of the philippines . the asian genera polyplectron , malacocincla , malacopteron , dinopium , aegithina , criniger , seicercus , and gracula are found only in palawan within the philippines ( dickinson et al . 1991 ) . the island forms an important bird migration route between borneo and the rest of the philippines for southern migrants ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\nthis ecoregion corresponds exactly with the palawan eba ( stattersfield et al . 1998 ) . the eba contains twenty restricted - range birds , seventeen of which are found nowhere else on earth and five of which ( palawan peacock - pheasant [ polyplectron emphanum ] , grey imperial - pigeon [ ducula pickeringii ] , blue - headed racquet - tail [ prioniturus platenae ] , falcated wren - babbler [ ptilocichla falcata ] , and palawan flycatcher [ ficedula platenae ] ) are considered vulnerable ( collar 1999 ) . all these vulnerable birds are dependent on lowland and hill forest ( collar et al . 1999 ; stattersfield et al . 1998 ) . there are twenty endemic or near - endemic bird species in the palawan ecoregion ( kennedy et al . 2000 ; table 2 ) .\nthe critically endangered philippine crocodile ( crocodylus mindorensis ) was historically found on the islands of luzon , mindoro , masbate , samar , jolo , negros , busuanga , and mindanao . busuanga contains one of the only remaining populations ( others are found on mindoro , negros , and mindanao ) . whereas the decline of the species was initially driven by overexploitation , habitat loss and human persecution are now the principal threats to the philippine crocodile . surveys in 1980 - 1982 revealed a total wild population of approximately 500 - 1 , 000 individuals , but current wild populations may be approximately 100 nonhatchlings . captive breeding efforts are being led by the crocodile farming institute , an entity of the philippine government ( ross 1998 ) .\na total of 1 , 522 ( davis et al . 1995 ) to 1 , 672 ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) vascular plants have been identified on palawan , and it is estimated that more than 2 , 000 species are present on the island . as detailed earlier , palawan has an extremely diverse range of vegetation types for the philippines . a small number of dipterocarps , an important timber tree group , are present on the island , as well as a variety of medicinal plants used by ethnic tribes and plants used in ceremony and as ornamentals ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\ncurrent status almost all of the philippines was once completely forested ( dickinson et al . 1991 ) . as of 1988 , palawan contained 7 , 410 km2 ( 54 percent ) of total forest remaining ( ssc 1988 ) . at the time this was the highest percentage of any of the philippines ' large islands .\nlater aerial surveys ( development alternatives 1992 ) indicated that significant reductions in closed - canopy forest cover had occurred since 1988 as a result of recent logging . as seen from the air , the lowlands and hillsides consist of slash - and - burn agriculture up to the edges of natural forest in the highlands . closed - canopy forest caps only the highest areas on the island .\npalawan ' s forests are of low commercial value because of the small number of dipterocarps , and until the last twenty years palawan ' s forests were ignored in favor of the more valuable forests of luzon and mindanao . government logging regulations setting guidelines for minimum diameter , minimum rotation length , and replanting have been largely ignored ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) .\nbecause of a generally high population density in other parts of the philippines , large numbers of shifting cultivators ( kaingineros ) are attracted to palawan to eke out a living on the hillsides of the island , and their cumulative impact is enormous ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) .\nall of palawan was declared a fauna and flora watershed reserve , and this includes a variety of protected areas , including national parks , wilderness areas , experimental forests , forest research reserves , game refuges , wildlife sanctuaries , museum reservations and research sites , tourist zones , and marine reserves .\nrecent reports in the international press indicate ( and have been confirmed , l . heaney , pers . comm . , 2000 ) that the situation in palawan has stabilized , that large - scale logging has been halted , and that a balance is being achieved between economic development and conservation ; future monitoring will determine whether this is remains true .\ntypes and severity of threats habitat destruction is the main threat to biodiversity in the philippines , and palawan , though currently in better condition , is no different . logging and shifting cultivation ( kaingin ) are cited as the primary forces of habitat conversion . logging takes many forms , from industrial scale to smaller - scale operations that use water buffalo to haul logs out of the forest . mangroves are used locally for firewood , dyes , and tannins ( davis et al . 1995 ) , and they are sometimes removed to make way for fishponds ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) .\nhunting and the wild pet trade are also significant threats in palawan . leopard cats have been hunted for their pelts and are sold when kittens as pets ( heaney and regalado 1998 ) . the palawan binturong is hunted for meat and as pets , and the pangolin is hunted for its hide ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) . the palawan peacock - pheasant ( dickinson et al . 1991 ; collar et al . 1999 ) , blue - headed racquet - tail ( collar et al . 1999 ) , philippine cockatoos ( cacatua haematuropygia ) , and blue - naped parrots ( tanygnathus lucionensis ) ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) apparently are suffering greatly from the pet trade . the final destination for these birds often is the united states ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) .\nornamental plant collecting , especially for the orchids ( phalaenopsis amabilis and paphiopedilum argus ) , pitcher plants ( nepenthes spp . ) , palms ( veitchia merrillii ) , and aroids ( amorphophallus spp . and alocasia spp . ) threatens some plant populations ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\na valuable resin , known as manila copal , is collected from agathis dammara trees . this collection weakens the trees , and slackening production and disease combined with overexploitation are threatening the species ( davis et al . 1995 ; quinnell and balmford 1988 ) ."]}
{"id": 1300, "summary": [{"text": "the jamaican ibis , jamaican flightless ibis or clubbed-wing ibis ( xenicibis xympithecus ) is an extinct bird species of the ibis subfamily uniquely characterized by its club-like wings .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is the only species in the genus xenicibis , and one of only two flightless ibis genera , the other being the genus apteribis endemic to hawaii . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "jamaican ibis", "paragraphs": ["the jamaican flightless ibis ( xenicibis xympithecus ) , a bird that became extinct approximately 10 , 000 years ago , possessed clublike wings .\ndescription : this is a 5 star jamaican restaurant recently opened in leicester . we serve freshly prepared , exceptional quality jamaican dishes that are second to none .\ndrawing of the wing bones of an american white ibis ( left ) and jamaican ibis ( right ) . bones are scaled such that the humeri are the same size to enable easier comparison of morphological changes .\nnicholas r . longrich , and storrs l . olson ( 2010 ) . the bizarre wing of the jamaican flightless ibis xenicibis xympithecus : a unique vertebrate adaptation\ndescription : the ultimate jamaican experience in lagos ! we specialize in a variety of jamaican foods including the very popular patties , jerk chicken , oxtail and curry goat , to name a few . jamski serves 100 % authentic jamaican food , 100 % of the time .\nibis young stay in the nest for a relatively long time ,\nhe said .\nthe wing of xenicibis ( top ) compared with that of a typical ibis eudocimus ( middle ) and the extinct , flightless ibis apteribis ( bottom ) . from longrich and olson , 2010 .\nxenicibis xympithecus is an extinct flightless ibis from jamaica that had an incredibly rare adaptation \u2014 it used its wings as clubs .\na member of the ibis family , it was probably about the size of a chicken , but with an infinitely more robust armoury .\nxenicibis is a large , extinct , flightless ibis . it was discovered by storrs olson storrs olson storrs olson from the smithsonian institution , who found some partial remains in a jamaican cave in 1977 . when olson eventually saw the bird\u2019s wing bones , he was baffled . they were so \u201cutterly strange\u201d that he thought the animal must have been suffering from some inexplicable disease .\nunlike most flightless birds whose wings turned to vestigial and useless stumps , the jamaican flightless ibis retained extremely long wing bones , but they adapted into use for attack . the wing had a long , curved , banana like structure , with a narrow base and heavy tip . it also had a special joint , which allowed it to be smashed downwards at high speed like a club .\ni was at jamski for their grand opening last week and i must say its not your typical jamaican restaurant , the variety will keep me coming back to sample the plethora of accessible and affordable caribbean dishes\u2014from the oxtail to the curry goat , to the lustrous yet subtle side dishes i could literally taste their homegrown spices . i wasn ' t surprised to realize all the cooks were jamaican . i definitely got more than my money ' s worth\nthe jamaican ibis was endemic to jamaica . bones have been excavated from several caves , including the long mile cave , the swansea cave , the jackson ' s bay cave and the red hills fissure . bones from cuba claimed to be of this genus were later identified as those of a limpkin . jamaica and cuba have always been separated by the sea , so it is improbable that a flightless species could reach the other islands .\n. . . a roughened area on the carpometacarpal extensor process of phorusrhacos led andrews ( 1901 ) to suggest the presence of a spur or knob used in intraspecific combat . the club - like , thick - walled carpometacarpi of the jamaican ibis xenicibis were interpreted by longrich & olson ( 2011 ) as weapons used in combat . such a role is supported by the presence of healed carpometacarpal and humeral injuries in two specimens . . . .\nthe initial description of xenicibis was followed two years later by the discovery of a humerus ( upper arm bone ) found in jamacia\u2019s swansea cave . the unusual , robust nature of this bone led olson and steadman to believe that xenicibis was flightless that had evolved on jamacia . along with another fossil flightless ibis \u2013 apteribis glenos \u2013 described by olson and colleague a . wetmore in 1976 , xenicibis was one of the first flightless ibis to be recognized by science .\nwhile doubtless used for defense , as the ibis evolved its flightlessness on an island filled with predators , it ' s thought the club wing was used against other members of the same species , as evidenced by the high number of fractured bones found in the skeletal remains .\nchichester art i did not do any wildlife today , but jean and i had an interesting day of art in chichester . first , we went to see the john minton centenary exhibition at the pallant gallery . minton was a rather sad and tortured artist who committed suicide aged 39 . his art was not great , but he was a fine illustrator and did a large number of books and other things . his paintings included a huge mural called ' jamaican village ' .\n. . . birds , however , have been largely ignored until now . hitherto , only about ten fossil bird species were known from the pleistocene of jamaica ( morgan , 1993 ; mcfarlane et al . , 2002 ) , one of which is xenicibis xympithecus , a now - extinct , flightless ibis ( olson and steadman , 1977 ; longrich and olson , 2011 ) . . . .\na very well written and presented article , tying in aspects of larmarckism whilst relating the importance of this new work on the genus xenicibis . the lack of native predators , ( excepting the presence of one or two birds of prey ) , leads me to suspect that the wings evolved for intraspecific combats , perhaps over nesting sites . after all , a number of extant ibis are extremely territorial .\nthe skeleton of the sacred ibis of the ancient egyptians , as found in mummified form in egyptian tombs , from a paper cuvier had published in 1804 . cuvier identified this bird to be comparable to modern species . however since it was distinctly different from the living bird commonly identified as the same species , it had been used ( by other naturalists ) as evidence for the gradual\ntransformation or evolution of animals over long periods of time ( from rudwick 1997 ) .\nxenicibis might have used its wings to clobber enemies in defence . unlike its living cousins , this ibis couldn\u2019t fly . many island birds lose the ability to fly because they aren\u2019t threatened by any land predators . as a result , their wings become small and stunted , as in the kiwi or the flightless cormorant of the galapagos . but prehistoric jamaica had no shortage of predators , including a boa , an extinct monkey , and several birds of prey . defence would have been important .\nthe bedrooms are medium in size but are larger than the majority of the rooms in ibis properties in benelux . they are in very good condition and have recently benefitted from a make over where the colour scheme is a more attractive cream and beige , with wooden flooring and lcd televisions , along with a media hub in all rooms . the bathrooms are also in good condition and although with shower only , the showers are large with glass doors and are generally quite modern and attractive .\nfortunately , there are a few indications that xenicibis truly was a fightin\u2019 ibis . other than the fact that some modern birds fight with their wings , longrich and olson cite two broken arm bones which show signs of healing . one , a humerus , began to heal after being split in two , and the other , a carpometacarpus , has a large callus of bone which probably grew in response to a fracture . these findings are consistent with the idea that these birds were using their wings to strike each other .\nwhat remains unknown is what individual xenicibis were fighting and why . the most plausible answer is \u201cother xenicibis . \u201d since there is no indication that the anatomy of the weapon differed between males and females , longrich and olson propose that xenicibis fought each other over territory , particularly for good nesting spots . the wing clubs could have also been used to fight off predators , too , and this brings up an important point . we can generate ideas about the function of the bird\u2019s wings by looking at their anatomy and come up with multiple possible uses , but identifying those uses does not tell us why those particular traits evolved in the first place . the clubs of xenicibis may have evolved as a result of ibis - on - ibis combat and could also be used to fight predators once they had already evolved , or perhaps the clubs are some sort of exaptation \u2013 a structure used for one function which became co - opted for something else . given the state of the evidence , it is likely that xenicibis used its clubs in combat with each other , but we should not be so careless as to say that the clubs evolved for that function .\nwhile no living ibis shows adaptation of the wing for combat , ibises are highly territorial during nesting and feeding [ 6 , 18 ] , and disputes frequently escalate to fights . of particular note is the fact that plegadis has been seen to grasp its opponent with the bill and then strike with the wings [ 19 ] . in many species , intraspecific combat involves access to mates , but ibises are monogamous [ 5 ] , and there is no evidence that the club is dimorphic . it is therefore likely that intraspecific combat would have focused on securing territory , rather than mates .\nit took nearly a century to recognize the strange character of this bird . sometime between 1910 and 1920 the zoologist harold elmer anthony collected a few bird bones from long mile cave in trelawny parish , jamaica . they sat , virtually unnoticed , in the american museum of natural history collections for decades , but in 1977 the ornithologists storrs olson and d . w . steadman used anthony\u2019s fossils to describe the bird as a previously unknown fossil ibis . they named it xenicibis xympithecus . about the size of a chicken , this bird only recently became extinct ( around 2 , 200 years ago according to a table included in the new book holocene extinctions . )\ndixon\u2019s restorations are so delightful because they take creatures native to our own sliver of time and transform them into alien shapes . probable or not , they are wonderful because they are both recognizable and alien . the same can be said of actual creatures which existed just yesterday in geological terms . we live in the wake of the earth\u2019s last great extinction . ( in fact , we are arguably still in the midst of it . ) the giant sloths , saber - toothed cats , glyptodonts , mammoths , giant hyenas , and other impressive pleistocene beasts only became extinct within the past 15 , 000 years or so . nor were all the strange creatures charismatic , mammalian megafauna . one odd ibis , first described over thirty years ago , was unlike any other bird to have ever evolved .\nthe main object of interest is the bird\u2019s bizarre hand . the carpometacarpus \u2013 part of the bird\u2019s \u201chand\u201d you tear the meat off of while having chicken wings \u2013 is wider in diameter than the bird\u2019s thigh bone ( femur ) and has extraordinarily - thickened walls . behind this bone , the radius \u2013 a lower arm bone in line with the carpometacarpus \u2013 was unusually thick compared to the relatively slender companion bone , the ulna . additionally , there was a modified groove \u2013 properly called the carpal trochlea \u2013 on the end of the carpometacarpus closest to the rest of the body which allowed the wrist to be quickly swung forward in a way different from other avians . this was not the arm of flying bird , but it also differed from the wings of many ground - dwelling birds . rather than becoming reduced or vestigial , the wings of xenicibis actually became heavier and more robust . ( see the comparison of ibis wing skeletons below . )\nwarblington shore birds peter milinets - raby was out this morning for a couple of hours visiting the shore at warblington ( 6am to 8 : 11am - tide coming in ) . main observations . warblington cemetery extension : 2 green woodpecker . ibis field : 2 chiffchaff , 1 jay , 1 swallow . hedgerow behind conigar point : 1 chiffchaff , 1 sedge warbler , 1 stock dove . conigar point : 1 grey plover , 2 common tern , 2 little egret , 1 whimbrel , 1 snipe flushed by kestrel , 9 dunlin , 7 ringed plover , 1 greenshank . off pook lane : 7 grey plover , 8 dunlin , 14 greenshank ( 5 with colour rings rg / / - + yy / / - & g / / r + yn / / - & g / / r + ll / / - & b / / r + lo / / - & gr / / - + yy / / - ) , 3 common tern . great spotted woodpecker flew over heading across the water to hayling , 7 swallow , 2 yellow wagtail - yellow adult over , then a dull , light brown juvenile landed on the shore for a couple of minutes before flying on - autumn has truly arrived now ! 1 sandwich tern , 9 black - tailed godwit .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\na few million years ago , jamaica was home to one of the strangest boxers in the animal kingdom \u2013 a flightless bird called xenicibis xympithecus that could batter its enemies with club - shaped wings .\nsince then , olson has found more remains including an almost complete skeleton . now , he and his partner nicholas longrich from yale university , have a very different view of the wing . they think it was a club . weapons like clubs and bats have large weighted ends to deliver heavy impacts , and long handles to increase the speed of the swing . that\u2019s exactly what you see in xenicibis \u2019s wing .\nits hand bone ( the metacarpal ) was massive , curved and inflated \u2013 perfect for inflicting strong blows . it sat at the end of a long \u2018handle\u2019 , made up of the wrist and the forearm \u2013 perfect for creating a fast swing . the metacarpal is also hollow , just like many baseball bats are , allowing it to produce a stronger blow without adding too much weight . and its joints allowed it to swing its wing out very quickly , and extend it as far as possible , giving it speed and reach .\nthe bones are telling , but did xenicibis really punch with its wing ? it\u2019s hard to be sure , especially because there are few modern birds with similar bones to compare against . however , longrich and olson have found some compelling evidence that the bird struck heavy blows with its wings at least two specimens of xenicibis had arm bones that had broken and healed . the first had broken its upper arm ( humerus ) in two and the bones hadn\u2019t knitted together properly . the second had fractured its hand , and a massive callus had grown over the front edge . these birds struck something with enough force to injure themselves .\nalternatively , the bird could have boxed with its rivals . longrich and olson note that a couple of flightless birds have similar ( but far less extreme ) forearms , including the steamer duck and the extinct rodriguez island solitaire . and both of these species occasionally use ( or used ) their wings in to beat other individuals in fights .\nin fact , many birds use their wings as weapons ( including some ibises ) . some even have special adaptations for combat . waterfowl in particular , such as geese , ducks and swans , have a wide variety of spurs , spikes and bony knobs on their wrists . they use these weapons in battle and conflicts can be very violent ( although there\u2019s some debate about whether swans can actually break a person\u2019s arm ) . xenicibis just expanded on a theme that\u2019s common in the bird world and took it to an evolutionary extreme .\nbirds have repeatedly evolved flightlessness to exploit insular environments where mammalian predators and competitors are absent , and flightlessness is typically associated with reduction of the forelimbs and pectoral girdle [ 1 , 2 ] . flightlessness has evolved dozens of times in island habitats , and in many taxa , including waterfowl , megapodes , rails , pigeons , parrots [ 2 ] and ibises [ 3 , 4 ] .\nlater , a partial skeleton prepared from a block of cave breccia ( usnm 460349 ) included the radius , ulna and a carpometacarpus so utterly strange in morphology that it appeared to represent some inexplicable pathology . however , subsequent discoveries of additional material from numerous additional individuals , including almost all of the skeleton ( figure 1 ) , show that the bizarre morphology of the wing represents an adaptation unprecedented among the vertebrates , which we here describe and attempt to interpret .\nskeletal reconstruction of xenicibis xympithecus based on usnm 460349 and fossils from the red hills fissure cave deposits , saint andrews parish , jamaica .\nthe highly modified manus is unlike that of any other bird , flightless or volant ( figure 2 a \u2013 d ) . the major metacarpal is massive , inflated , strongly bowed and expanded distally . its diameter is up to 12 . 8 mm dorsoventrally and 9 . 9 mm anteroposteriorly , exceeding the diameter of the femur . the bone is hollow , but the anterior wall is broad and thickened ( figure 2 e ) , being up to 3 mm thick in this area , whereas the cortex of the femur is under 2 mm thick .\nwing skeleton of x . xympithecus compared with eudocimus albus and apteribis glenos . ( a ) left carpometacarpus ( usnm 543067 ) in cranial view , ( b ) dorsal view , ( c ) ventral view and ( d ) caudal view . ( e ) major metacarpal ( usnm 543074 ) sectioned at midlength ( note the greatly thickened anterior wall ) . ( f ) radiograph of carpometacarpus of eudocimus compared with ( g ) xenicibis ( usnm 543067 ) . ( h ) composite left wing of xenicibis ( usnm 543067 - 543073 ) compared with ( i ) eudocimus ( usnm 266467 ) and ( j ) apteribis .\nthe alular metacarpal has a reduced extensor process . the shaft of the minor metacarpal has a thick cortex and a subtriangular section , unlike the strap - like form seen in other birds , and is unusual in being shifted dorsally to lie directly behind the major metacarpal .\nthe carpal trochlea has a reduced ventral ridge and the articulation for the radiale is symmetrical , pulley - shaped and extended anteriorly . this joint allowed the wrist to swing forward in the plane of the antebrachium , without the complex pronation and supination that occurs in the wing of volant birds [ 10 ] , while the anterior extension of the carpal trochlea permitted hyperextension of the manus .\nthe proximal phalanx of the major digit is a stubby and block - like element ( figure 2 h ) . it has a subtriangular section and weakly developed articular surfaces .\nthe radius ( figure 2 h ) is expanded distally to give it a club shape , and it is unlike typical birds in that its diameter exceeds that of the ulna . unusually , the ulna is slender and nearly straight ( figure 2 h ) . its proximal articular surface is on the proximal end of the bone such that the elbow can be fully extended , placing the ulna ' s long axis in line with the humerus . distally , the shaft is dorsoventrally flattened and the articulation for the ulnare is reduced .\nthe humerus ( figure 2 h ) is typical of flightless birds [ 9 ] except that the shaft is elongate and bowed dorsally . the shaft is slender proximally but expanded distally . the distal end is twisted by approximately 30\u00b0 such that the articular facets are directed ventrally .\nunlike other flightless birds , particularly apteribis , the pectoral girdle is relatively well developed . the coracoids ( figure 3 e ) and furcula ( figure 3 f ) are large and robust . the sternal carina ( figure 3 g ) , while reduced compared with volant ibises , is large when compared with that of apteribis or other flightless birds .\nselected skeletal elements of x . xympithecus from the red hills fissure cave deposits , representing multiple individuals . skull elements : ( a ) rostrum ( usnm 543075 ) and mandible ( usnm 543076 ) in lateral view and ( b ) dorsal view ; ( c ) cranial cap ( usnm 543077 ) in left lateral view and ( d ) dorsal view . pectoral girdle : ( e ) coracoid ( usnm 543078 ) , ( f ) clavicle ( usnm 543079 ) and ( g ) two fragments of sternal carina ( usnm 543081 and 54080 ) . hindlimb : ( h ) tibiotarsus ( usnm 543084 ) , ( i ) femur ( usnm 543083 ) and ( j ) tarsometatarsus ( usnm 543085 ) . pelvis ( usnm 543082 ) : ( k ) dorsal view and ( l ) lateral view .\nother skeletal elements show modification , albeit less extreme . as in other ibises , the beak is long and decurved ( figure 3 a , b ) , but the tip is knob - like , as in apteribis , rather than spatulate . the parietals and frontals ( figure 3 d ) are thickened by a honeycomb of cancellous bone . the vertebrae and notarium are robust , but otherwise unremarkable . the hindlimb ( figure 3 h \u2013 j ) resembles that of apteribis in being massive , with a shortened tibia and tarsometatarsus . the anterior portion of the ilium is dorsally expanded to form a tall crest and the synsacrum is robust ( figure 3 k , l ) , again resembling apteribis .\nadaptation for a terrestrial , flightless lifestyle is correlated with hypertrophy of the hindlimbs and pelvis , and reduction of the forelimbs and pectoral girdle [ 1 , 2 ] . in this context , the long forelimbs and well - developed pectoral girdle of xenicibis suggest that the wings were not functionless vestiges . the twisted humerus , short antebrachium and massive , bowed metacarpus make it extremely unlikely that its wing could have functioned in flight ; but the extreme modification of the forelimb argues that the wings had been adapted to function in some capacity .\nattempts to identify avian analogues are complicated by the unique morphology of xenicibis . the distally expanded radius does find parallels among steamer ducks ( tachyeres spp . ; n . r . longrich 2010 , personal observation ) and the extinct rodriguez island solitaire ( pezophaps solitaria , columbidae [ 11 ] ) . in those species , the wings are ( or were ) used to deliver hammering blows to conspecifics [ 11 , 12 ] , suggesting that the wing of xenicibis may have functioned as a weapon . perhaps a better analogue is to be found among some of the mantis shrimps ( stomatopoda : gonodactyloidea ) ; these have a club - like , distally inflated dactyl that is used to strike prey and conspecifics [ 13 ] , again hinting that xenicibis may have used the club - shaped hands to deliver blows .\nwe therefore propose that the wing of xenicibis functioned as a club or flail . several features of the limb would have facilitated this function . kinetic energy is the product of mass and velocity squared ; accordingly , weapons such as clubs and flails have a long handle to increase the angular velocity of the club , and are heavily weighted to increase the mass accelerated by the swing , and the centre of mass is near the end of the club , where the angular velocity is highest . precisely this design is seen in the hand of xenicibis , where the end of the wing is massive , and the proximal metacarpus and long forelimb could act as a handle . the comparatively weak wrist joint does not preclude such a function , because during impact a club acts as a free body [ 14 ] ; the hollow metacarpal also allows the hand to achieve greater strength for a given amount of material , much like an aluminium baseball bat [ 14 ] .\nseveral morphological adaptations would have further increased the wing ' s effectiveness as a weapon . reduction of the extensor process and elongation of the manus would decrease the mechanical advantage of the wing extensors , producing a more rapid wing extension . the retention of long wing bones allows the forelimb to be swung rapidly , while the ability to hyperextend at the elbow and wrist increase the wing ' s effective length , and therefore its angular velocity when swung .\nthis hypothesis can be tested by looking for direct evidence of agonistic behaviour in the form of traumatic injuries sustained from delivering or receiving blows . fractures are common in pugnacious birds such as the steamer ducks and solitaire [ 11 , 12 ] , and are therefore predicted to occur in xenicibis . two bones of xenicibis show evidence of healed fractures . the first is a humerus that was broken in two ( figure 4 a ) ; a fracture callus indicates healing although the bones failed to knit . the second specimen ( usnm 460349 ) is a carpometacarpus ( figure 4 b ) with a massive callus overgrowing the anterior surface of the major metacarpal and extending inside the bone as well ; the hand apparently suffered an impact that fractured the anterior wall of the metacarpal .\nfossils of xenicibis showing evidence of trauma . ( a ) fractured left humerus ( usnm 543086 and 543087 ) showing fracture callus ( fc ) : ( i ) photograph ; ( ii ) radiograph . ( b ) carpometacarpus of xenicibis ( usnm 460349 ) with rugose fracture callus on anterior , dorsal and ventral surfaces of the major metacarpal : ( i ) photograph ; ( ii ) radiograph showing development of callus inside the medullary cavity .\nwe thank ross macphee for the opportunity to study the red hills fossils . discussions with helen f . james and richard l . zusi and guidance from b . rosemary grant were helpful in developing this project . n . r . l . received support from an nsf graduate research fellowship , an alberta ingenuity graduate studentship and the yale institute for biospheric studies . finally , we thank the reviewers for their helpful reviews of this paper . fossil specimens are deposited in the department of paleobiology , national museum of natural history ( usnm ) , smithsonian institution , washington , dc .\ndescriptions of thirty - two new species of birds from the hawaiian islands . part i . non - passeriformes\nthank you for your interest in spreading the word on proceedings of the royal society of london b : biological sciences .\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the proceedings of the royal society of london b : biological sciences web site .\nthis is the only known example of a vertebrate adapting a limb into club .\nkinja is in read - only mode . we are working to restore service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyou ' re currently viewing our forum as a guest . this means you are limited to certain areas of the board and there are some features you can ' t use . if you join our community , you ' ll be able to access member - only sections , and use many member - only features such as customizing your profile and voting in polls . registration is simple , fast , and completely free .\nornithologists speculate that the wings were used as weapons , in the manner of a club or flail , similar to the adaptations found in some mantis shrimps ( stomatopoda : gonodactyloidea ) that possess a club - like distally inflated dactyl used to strike prey and other shrimps . however , among birds , this adaption appears to be unique . adaptations of the wing to fight in birds is an example of contingency in which various bird species find different solutions to the same problem based in chance .\nsubscribe now to get 6 months for $ 5 - plus a free portable phone charger .\nwhat comes next for evolution ? this seems like a simple question . every day we are learning more about the history of life on earth , and we would expect that , over 150 years since charles darwin published on the origin of species , the life of the past could be used to extrapolate the trajectory of evolution\u2019s arrow . regarding our own species , especially , there is a pervasive desire to know what our distant descendants might be like .\nbut this question is flawed . even though there are evolutionary constraints \u2013 not everything we can imagine is possible \u2013 life is not following a tightly - restricted road of progress towards a pre - determined goal . natural selection , the primary engine of evolutionary change , generates both diversity and disparity \u2013 charles darwin\u2019s \u201cendless forms most beautiful and most wonderful\u201d \u2013 as organisms are constantly subjected to changing conditions . there is no way to create an evolutionary law or take everything into account so that we can predict what will exist one thousand , one million , one billion years in the future . that is part of the wonder of evolutionary science . we can\u2019t know how the vast array of lineages we see around us today are going to change in years to come , but we still feel compelled to ask what the future holds .\nthis isn\u2019t to say that we can\u2019t have a little fun with speculation . in 1981 the scottish geologist dougal dixon published one of the lasting cult favorites of paleontologists \u2013 after man : a zoology of the future . imagining the world 50 million years after our extinction \u2013 which , one takes it , is probably not all that far off in geological terms \u2013 dixon takes the reader on a tour of the world\u2019s ecosystems . there is an odd familiarity to all of it , seeing the prospective descendants of modern creatures twisted into new and bizarre forms . in the seas , fully aquatic descendants of penguins ( the vortex and the porpin ) have replaced the long - extinct whales , the long - legged rabbucks stride across the grasslands , and my personal favorite , a terrestrial bat dixon calls the night stalker , \u201croams screeching and screaming\u201d in search of prey under the cover of darkness .\n( dixon also wrote two similar books : the new dinosaurs [ 1988 ] , chronicling the evolutionary history of still - living non - avian dinosaurs , and man after man [ 1991 ] , a grotesque gallery of future humans modified through bioengineering . after man was arguably his most successful outing , however ; it was turned into a documentary and cartoon in japan . )\nthe complete skeleton of xenicibis , based upon multiple individuals , as reconstructed by nicholas longrich . from longrich and olson , 2010 .\nthere must be a reason why xenicibis had such strange wings . the trouble is that no other bird had wings quite like it . spurs , spikes , and other wing weapons are seen among birds like steamer ducks \u2013 which use them in combat with members of their own species \u2013 but nothing as extreme as the banana wings of xenicibis . ( the closest thing , storrs and longrich suggest , might be the formidable claws of mantis shrimp , though this analogy breaks down in terms of anatomy and function \u2013 imagine xenicibis using its wings to trap and consume prey ! ) being that many birds do have a modified carpometacarpus used for combat , however , it is a reasonable hypothesis that the odd wings of xenicibis were used as some kind of club or flail . the bird could have swung its arms so that the wide , thick parts of the carpometacarpus near the tip of the wing struck its opponent .\nthe actual manner in which xenicibis fought is not discussed in the paper \u2013 i assume that will be the focus of further research \u2013 but longrich and olson propose that the unique weaponry of this bird underscores a grander theme of evolutionary change . of all the birds which have spurs , spikes , and clubs on their wings , none was quite like xenicibis . despite similar evolutionary pressures \u2013 fighting one another for territory , mates , or some other resource \u2013 multiple species of birds from various lineages have been adapted to have very different weaponry , with xenicibis having the oddest of all . even when selective pressures are the same , evolutionary quirks and contingencies can generate quite different outcomes .\nas strange as it may sound , prehistoric creatures like xenicibis make dixon\u2019s speculative beasts seem almost conservative in their anatomy . many of the creatures featured in after man are products of convergent evolution , testaments to the power of natural selection to funnel organisms down similar channels from disparate starting points . convergence is a real and significant part of life\u2019s pattern , but chance and contingency can open up unique evolutionary possibilities that cannot be predicted or foreseen . the more we learn about the fossil record , the stranger life becomes , and though i am a little saddened by the fact that i will never know what life is going to be like 50 million years from now , i am left in awe by the fantastic creatures which inhabited this planet in ages past .\nuse of and / or registration on any portion of this site constitutes acceptance of our user agreement ( updated 5 / 25 / 18 ) and privacy policy and cookie statement ( updated 5 / 25 / 18 ) . your california privacy rights . the material on this site may not be reproduced , distributed , transmitted , cached or otherwise used , except with the prior written permission of cond\u00e9 nast . ad choices .\nan extinct flightless bird from jamaica fought rivals and predators using wings evolved into clubs , scientists suggest .\nthe boney bludgeons carried by xenicibis xympithecus are unlike anything else known in the bird world - or in mammals , reptiles or amphibians .\nwriting in the royal society journal proceedings b , the scientists report finding bones that had apparently been broken by another bird ' s club .\nfossils show that the metacarpus - one of the\nhand\nbones - was elongated and much bigger than in related species , with very thick walls .\nthis allowed the wings to function\nin combat as a jointed club or flail\n, the researchers write .\nwe don ' t really know how they would have used these clubs , but we do know that modern ibises grab each other by the beak and pound away with their wings ,\nsaid nicholas longrich , from yale university in the us .\nand we analysed two bones that had been broken during fighting , including a humerus ( upper arm bone ) that had been snapped in half - it had started to re - heal , although the two ends hadn ' t knitted together ,\nhe told bbc news .\ndr longrich ' s colleague in this research , storrs olson from the smithsonian institution , was one of the scientists who first identified xenicibis xympithecus back in the 1970s .\na number of other birds are known to fight by whacking each other with their wings - including swans , who will also protect their young this way .\nsome , including screamers , lapwings and and spur - winged goose , have evolved spurs to increase the damage they can wreak .\nthe extinct solitaire from the indian ocean island of rodrigues - a cousin of the dodo - had bony growths colloquially known as\nmusketballs\non their wings , which appear to have served the same purpose .\nbut among vertebrates - there ' s no animal of any sort that has anything like a limb modified as a club ,\nnoted dr longrich .\njulian hume , an avian palaeontologist with london ' s natural history museum who was not involved in the research , noted that unlike most flightless birds , xenicibis retained long wings , possibly making its flailing more powerful .\nso if they retained that feature , that suggests they needed it for defence against predators - and there were quite a few on jamaica .\nhowever , ibises also tend to be intensely territorial , so the flailing clubs may also - or alternatively - have found employment in disputes between individuals , probably with both sexes involved .\nthe foreign secretary quits , telling theresa may\nneedless self - doubt\nis leading to\nsemi - brexit\n.\nby continuing to use this site , you consent to the terms of our cookie policy , which can be found in our privacy policy .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . and todus todus . of these , x . xympithecus was previously known from the late pleistocene of jamaica and from the rhrc ' s sediment ( longrich and olson , 2011 ) , but t . todus , and corvus ? sp . . . .\n. . . then , what function did dakotaraptor co - opt them for ? aside from brooding , examination of certain extant flightless birds suggests that they could have played a role in hunting strategy , mating display , aggressive territorial behavior , and / or shielding the young ( sensu cooper & harrison , 1994 ; hopp & orsen , 2004 ; longrich & olson , 2011 ) . implementing feathers in aggressive territorial behavior , as has been observed for extant avian taxa ( cooper & harrison , 1994 ; longrich & olson , 2011 ) , is a behavior that could easily have augmented the pack - hunting strategies already proposed for deinonychus , utahraptor , and other dromaeosaurs ( kirkland , burge , & gaston , 1993 ; maxwell & ostrom , 1995 ) . . . .\n. . . aside from brooding , examination of certain extant flightless birds suggests that they could have played a role in hunting strategy , mating display , aggressive territorial behavior , and / or shielding the young ( sensu cooper & harrison , 1994 ; hopp & orsen , 2004 ; longrich & olson , 2011 ) . implementing feathers in aggressive territorial behavior , as has been observed for extant avian taxa ( cooper & harrison , 1994 ; longrich & olson , 2011 ) , is a behavior that could easily have augmented the pack - hunting strategies already proposed for deinonychus , utahraptor , and other dromaeosaurs ( kirkland , burge , & gaston , 1993 ; maxwell & ostrom , 1995 ) . dakotaraptor ' s remiges would have lengthened the outstretched arms , providing long and robust outstretched wings that would have been useful when implemented in such strategies . . . .\n. . . scale bar = 10 mm . olson & steadman , 1977 ( threskiornithidae ) is unique in having a thick - walled elongate , inflated metacarpus ( longrich & olson , 2011 ) . within columbidae ( pigeons and doves ) , the extinct flightless natunaornis gigoura and the extant goura ground pigeons both have a small bony outgrowth on the processus extensorius of the carpometacarpus ( goodwin , 1983 ; worthy , 2001 ) ( fig . 8b ) , which closely resembles that of a female solitaire . . . .\n. . . within columbidae ( pigeons and doves ) , the extinct flightless natunaornis gigoura and the extant goura ground pigeons both have a small bony outgrowth on the processus extensorius of the carpometacarpus ( goodwin , 1983 ; worthy , 2001 ) ( fig . 8b ) , which closely resembles that of a female solitaire . in our examination of carpal spurs and knobs , we note that the literature does not accurately reflect the number of taxa that exhibit some form of carpal growth , but without exception all of these structures are or were used as weapons ( jefferies , 1881 ; sclater , 1886 ; rand , 1954 ; goodwin , 1983 ; livezey & humphrey , 1985 ; worthy , 2001 ; longrich & olson , 2011 ) . our study confirms that the solitaire ' s carpal knob was also a weapon . . . .\nf\u00f3siles del holoceno tard\u00edo provenientes de un dep\u00f3sito subterr\u00e1neo en la pen\u00ednsula de portland ridge al sur de jamaica extienden el rango de buteogallus aequinoctialis hasta la cuenca del caribe , a m\u00e1s de 1700 km al oeste - noroeste de la distribuci\u00f3n actual m\u00e1s occidental de esta especie . los f\u00f3siles se localizaron cerca de las \u00e1reas m\u00e1s extensas de manglares , el cual es el h\u00e1bitat requerido . . . [ show full abstract ]\nin the present paper we briefly reviewed and commented the terminology for bird topography , especially wing and tail . we named here newly required japanese terms , such as alula coverts and carpal covert , and also illustra - ted some of them . terms for bird topography are given , which including new japanese ones indicated by asterisk ( * ) in table 1 .\na new genus and species of unusual tern ( aves : laridae : anoinae ) from the middle miocene calvert for . . .\nfeducciavis loftini , new genus and species , is described from a single partial associated skeleton from the middle miocene calvert formation of virginia . this bird was evidently most closely related to the noddy terns ( anoinae , anous , procelsterna ) . compared with those genera , the tibiotarsus was much shorter and the ulna much longer in relation to the size of the humerus . the absolute size of . . . [ show full abstract ]\nhistory , morphology , and fossil record of the extinct puerto rican parakeet psittacara maugei souanc . . .\nthe extinct puerto rican parakeet ( psittacara maugei ) has been known with certainty only from mona island and is usually regarded as a poorly defined subspecies of p . chloroptera of hispaniola . examination of skin specimens and comparison of skeletons with fossil and archeological material from puerto rico , show that psitticara maugei is a fully distinct species from p . chloroptera , differing . . . [ show full abstract ]\nenter your email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nthis charming hotel enjoys a convenient location in a quiet part of amsterdam city centre , just a few steps from rembrandtplein , a major square in the centre of this city . amsterdam central station and the waterlooplein metro are just around the corner , providing easy access to amsterdam schiphol airport , the world trade centre amsterdam and rai . guests will find themselves near some of the most important tourist attractions in the area including anne frank house , madame tussaud & apos ; s , dam square , and the van gogh museum , all easily reach by metro . the rooms boast functional furniture and have been decorated in soothing tones to create a relaxing atmosphere in which to completely unwind . this pet - friendly establishment includes parking as well as wi - fi internet connection .\nlocated in the centre of amsterdam , close to the waterlooplein and a short walk from central station .\n20 kms to the nearest airport ( schiphol airport ) 2 minute walk to the nearest metro station ( waterloo plein ) 3 km to the nearest station ( amsterdam central railway stat ) 2 minute walk to the nearest bus stop 8 km to the nearest fair site ( rai exhibition and congress ce ) .\nthis website uses cookies . for more information click here . if you agree , keep browsing . ok\nmake use of convenient amenities , which include complimentary wireless internet access and tour / ticket assistance .\nour modern and cozy rooms are the perfect place to relax , with comfortable beds and well - appointed bathrooms - everything you need to enjoy a pleasant stay . there are 77 rooms .\npublic transport by taxi or train can take you from schiphol airport to your hotel in 30 minutes . the hotel is then a mere 3 minutes walk from amsterdam central station .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nthis review is the subjective opinion of a tripadvisor member and not of tripadvisor llc .\nthis response is the subjective opinion of the management representative and not of tripadvisor llc .\nown or manage this property ? claim your listing for free to respond to reviews , update your profile and much more .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\nexcellent food , would definitely recommend ! ! ! visited restaurant on carnival . good hearty caribbean food available and for a good price .\nrates of extinction vary widely . for example , during the last 100 , 000 years of the pleistocene epoch ( about 2 . 6 million to 11 , 700 years ago ) , some 40 percent of the existing genera of large mammals in africa and more than 70 percent in north america , south america , and australia went extinct . ecologists estimate that the present - day extinction rate is 1 , 000 to 10 , 000 times the background extinction rate ( between one and five species per year ) because of deforestation , habitat loss , overhunting , pollution , climate change , and other human activities\u2014the sum total of which will likely result in the loss of between 30 and 50 percent of extant species by the middle of the 21st century .\naccording to the best estimates of the world\u2019s environmental experts , human activities have driven species to extinction at rates perhaps 1 , 000 times the natural , or background , rate , and future rates of extinction will likely be higher . to\u2026\nalthough extinction is an ongoing feature of earth\u2019s flora and fauna ( the vast majority of species ever to have lived are extinct ) , the fossil record reveals five unusually large extinctions , each involving the demise of vast numbers of species . these conspicuous declines in diversity are referred to as mass extinctions ; they are distinguished from the majority of extinctions , which occur continually and are referred to as background extinction . ranked in descending order of severity , they are :\nthe impact of a near - earth object 66 million years ago in what is today the caribbean region , as depicted in an artist ' s conception . many scientists believe that the collision of a large asteroid or comet nucleus with earth triggered the mass extinction of the dinosaurs and many other species near the end of the cretaceous period .\nand many species of plants . although many scientists contend that this event was caused by one or more large\n( 407 million to about 359 million years ago ) , which included 15\u201320 percent of marine families and 70\u201380 percent of all animal species . roughly 86 percent of marine brachiopod species perished , along with many corals , conodonts , and trilobites .\nin essence , mass extinctions are unusual because of the large numbers of taxa that die out , the concentrated time frame , the widespread geographic area affected , and the many different kinds of animals and plants eliminated . in addition , the mechanisms of mass extinction are different from those of background extinctions .\nthe trilobite modocia typicalis lived during the middle cambrian period . as a group , trilobites were among the longest - lasting organisms , first evolving at the beginning of the cambrian period ( about 541 million years ago ) and dying out some 289 million years later during the permian extinction , which occurred near the end of the permian period ( roughly 252 million years ago ) .\nmany species have become extinct because of hunting and overharvesting , the conversion of wetlands and forests to croplands and urban areas , pollution , the introduction of invasive species , and other forms of human - caused destruction of their natural environments . indeed , current rates of human - induced extinctions are estimated to be about 1 , 000 times greater than past natural ( background ) rates of extinction , leading some scientists to call modern times the sixth mass extinction . this high extinction rate is largely due to the exponential growth in human numbers : from about 1 billion in 1850 , the world\u2019s population reached 2 billion in 1930 and more than 6 billion in 2000 , and it is expected to reach about 10 billion by 2050 . as a result of increasing human populations , habitat loss is the greatest factor in current levels of extinction . for example , less than one - sixth of the land area of europe has remained unmodified by human activity , and more than half of all wildlife habitat has been eliminated in more than four - fifths of countries in the paleotropics ( the old world tropics that span africa , asia , and indonesia ) ."]}
{"id": 1305, "summary": [{"text": "steinernema scapterisci , the mole cricket nematode , is a species of nematode in the order rhabditida .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "it is a parasite of insects in the order orthoptera , the grasshoppers , crickets and their allies .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it has been introduced into florida in the united states in an effort to provide a biological pest control of mole crickets . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "steinernema scapterisci", "paragraphs": ["steinernema scapterisci is a close relative of the insect - parasitic nematode steinernema carpocapsae .\n11 . a formulation as claimed in claim 10 in which the two or more species of steinernema are selected from the group comprising : steinernema feltiae ; stinernema scapterisci ; steinernema riobravis ; steinernema carpocapsae ; and steinernema krussei .\n16 . a formulation as claimed in claims 14 or 15 in which the at least one species of steinernema is selected from the group comprising : steinernema feltiae ; stinernema scapterisci ; steinernema riobravis ; steinernema carpocapsae ; and steinernema krussei .\ninfection of sound - trapped mole crickets , scapteriscus spp . , by steinernema scapterisci\n12 . a formulation as claimed in claim 10 in which the two species of steinernema are selected from the group comprising steinernema feltiae , steinernema krussei , and steinernema carpocapsae .\n. vertical dispersal of steinernema scapterisci . journal of nematology , 22 : 574 - 578 .\n17 . a formulation as claimed in claim 16 in which the at least one species of steinernema is selected from the group comprising : steinernema feltiae ; steinernema krussei and steinernema carpocapsae .\n. bacterial symbionts of steinernema scapterisci . journal of invertebrate pathology , 62 : 68 - 72 .\n. addendum to the morphology of steinernema scapterisci . journal of nematology , 24 : 478 - 481 .\n. pathogenicity of steinernema scapterisci to selected invertebrates . journal of nematology , 23 : 7 - 11 .\n. life cycle of steinernema scapterisci nguyen & smart , 1990 . journal of nematology , 24 : 160 - 169 .\n. mode of entry and sites of development of steinernema scapterisci . journal of nematology , 23 : 267 - 268 .\n. steinernema scapterisci n . sp . ( steinernematidae : nematoda ) . journal of nematology , 22 : 187 - 199 .\nnguyen kb , smart gc jr . 1990b . vertical dispersal of steinernema scapterisci . journal of nematology 22 : 574 - 578 .\nanguillera mm , smart gc jr . 1992 . bacterial symbionts of steinernema scapterisci . journal of invertebrate pathology 62 : 68 - 72 .\nnguyen kb , smart gc jr . 1992b . addendum to the morphology of steinernema scapterisci . journal of nematology 24 : 478 - 481 .\nnguyen kb , smart gc jr . 1991a . pathogenicity of steinernema scapterisci to selected invertebrates . journal of nematology 23 : 7 - 11 .\n. preliminary studies on survival of steinernema scapterisci in soil . soil and crop science society of florida , proceedings , 49 : 230 - 233 .\nsince 1985 steinernema scapterisci has been detected in mole crickets collected from several other sites in alachua county , undoubtedly spread from our original release sites by infected mole crickets . by november 1998 , about 10 to 30 percent of mole crickets collected in alachua county , florida were infected with steinernema scapterisci .\nfigure 1 . mole cricket nematodes , steinernema scapterisci nguyen & smart , emerging from a mole cricket . photograph by k . nguyen , university of florida .\nfigure 8 . mole cricket nematodes , steinernema scapterisci nguyen & smart , emerging from a cockroach nymph . photograph by k . nguyen , university of florida .\nnguyen kb , smart gc jr . 1992a . life cycle of steinernema scapterisci nguyen and smart , 1990 . journal of nematology 24 : 160 - 169 .\nnguyen kb , smart gc jr . 1991b . mode of entry and sites of development of steinernema scapterisci . journal of nematology 23 : 267 - 268 .\nnguyen kb , smart gc . pathogenicity of steinernema scapterisci to selected invertebrates . j nematol . 1991 ; 23 ( 1 ) : 7\u201311 . pmid : 19283088\nnguyen kb , smart gc jr . 1990 . steinernema scapterisci n . sp . ( steinernematidae : nematoda ) . journal of nematology 22 : 187 - 199 .\n. development , reproduction , and pathogenicity of steinernema scapterisci in monoxenic culture with different species of bacteria . journal of invertebrate pathology , 62 : 289 - 294 .\naguillera mm , hodge nc , stall re , smart gc . bacterial symbionts of steinernema scapterisci . j invertebr pathol . 1993 ; 62 ( 1 ) : 68\u201372 .\nthis project was initiated in june 1999 to re - establish commercial production of steinernema scapterisci for mole cricket control in florida . in about one year , we have :\nnematicides were used on golf courses against plant - parasitic nematodes and doubtless would kill steinernema scapterisci . however , such chemicals no longer are labeled for that purpose by u . s . environmental protection agency . studies in the early 2000s showed that steinernema scapterisci is remarkably resistant to chemical insecticides . the effect of chemical herbicides on this nematode is unknown .\nnguyen kb , smart gc . steinernema scapterisci n . sp . ( rhabditida , steinernematidae ) . j nematol . 1990 ; 22 ( 2 ) : 187\u201399 . pmid : 19287709\nfigure 3 . spicules ( top ) and gubernaculum ( bottom ) of the mole cricket nematode , steinernema scapterisci nguyen & smart . photographs by k . nguyen , university of florida .\nnguyen kb , smart gc jr . 1990a . preliminary studies on survival of steinernema scapterisci in soil . soil and crop science society of florida , proceedings 49 : 230 - 233 .\nnguyen kb , smart gc . life - cycle of steinernema - scapterisci nguyen and smart , 1990 . j nematol . 1992 ; 24 ( 1 ) : 160\u20139 . pmid : 19283218\n. inoculative release of steinernema scapterisci ( rhabditida : steinernematidae ) to suppress pest mole crickets ( orthoptera : gryllotalpidae ) of golf courses . environmental entomology , 23 : 1331 - 1337 .\nfigure 6 . infective juvenile of the mole cricket nematode , steinernema scapterisci nguyen & smart , with the head showing labial raising disc . photograph by k . nguyen , university of florida .\nanguillera mm , smart gc jr . 1992 . development , reproduction , and pathogenicity of steinernema scapterisci in monoxenic culture with different species of bacteria . journal of invertebrate pathology 62 : 289 - 294 .\naguillera mm , smart gc . development , reproduction , and pathogenicity of steinernema scapterisci in monoxenic culture with different species of bacteria . j invertebr pathol . 1993 ; 62 ( 3 ) : 289\u201394 .\ncitation : lu d , sepulveda c , dillman ar ( 2017 ) infective juveniles of the entomopathogenic nematode steinernema scapterisci are preferentially activated by cricket tissue . plos one 12 ( 1 ) : e0169410 . urltoken\nnguyen , k . b . , smart , g . c . , jr . 1990 . steinernema scapterisci n . sp . ( rhabditida : steinernematidae ) . journal of nematology 22 : 187 - 199 .\nsteinernema scapterisci was successfully introduced by inoculative applications ( parkman et al . 1993 , 1994 ) in florida . since 1993 , this nematode has been commercialized in florida to control mole crickets in golf courses and pastures .\nbiological control , entomopathogenic nematode , mole cricket parasite , morphology , new species , neoaplectana , scapteriscus , steinernema scapterisci n . sp . , taxonomy , light microscopy ( lm ) , scanning electron microscopy ( sem )\n. biological control of mole crickets in the genus scapteriscus with the nematode steinernema scapterisci nguyen & smart , 1990 . rencontres caraibes en lutte biologique , guadeloupe , 5 - 7 november 1990 . ed . inra , paris 1991 .\n30 . use of a formulation according to claim 1 to treat one or more of the tawny mole cricket and the southern mole cricket , and wherein the cohort of infective juvenile nematodes consists of steinernema scapterisci and two species of heterorhabditis .\nparkman jp , frank jh , nguyen kb , smart gc jr . 1994 . inoculative release of steinernema scapterisci ( rhabditida : steinernematidae ) to suppress pest mole crickets ( orthoptera : gryllotalpidae ) of golf courses . environmental entomology 23 : 1331 - 1337 .\nparkman jp , frank jh , nguyen kb , smart gc jr . 1993 . dispersal of steinernema scapterisci ( rhabditida : steinernematidae ) after inoculative applications for mole cricket ( orthoptera : gryllotalpidae ) control in pastures . biological control 3 : 226 - 232 .\n24 . a method as claimed in claim 22 in which the target insect is one or more of the tawny mole cricket and the southern mole cricket , and wherein the cohort of infective juvenile nematodes consists of steinernema scapterisci and two species of heterorhabditis .\nsteinernema biddulphi n . sp . can be distinguished from other steinernema species by means of a combination of morphological and morphometric characteristics of males and ijs . based on these data , steinernema biddulphi n . sp . belongs to the \u201c bicornutum \u201d clade within the steinernematidae family . molecular data show that within this clade , steinernema biddulphi n . sp . is sister to the pair of s . pakistanense and s . bifurcatum and this group is related to the pair of s . yirgalemense and s . abbasi .\nfigure 5 . a , b - face views of first generation females ; c - female tail ; d , e , f - double flapped epiptygma ; of the mole cricket nematode , steinernema scapterisci nguyen & smart . photograph by k . nguyen , university of florida\nparkman jp , frank jh , nguyen kb , smart gc . inoculative release of steinernema - scapterisci ( rhabditida , steinernematidae ) to suppress pest mole crickets ( orthoptera , gryllotalpidae ) on golf - courses . environmental entomology . 1994 ; 23 ( 5 ) : 1331\u20137 .\na multigene approach for assessing evolutionary relationships of xenorhabdus spp . ( gamma - proteobacteria ) , the bacterial symbionts of entomopathogenic steinernema nematodes\nin 1985 , a nematode parasite of mole crickets was brought from uruguay to florida . that nematode , which was described as a new species , steinernema scapterisci ( nguyen and smart 1990 ) , appears to be a major factor in limiting populations of mole crickets in south america .\ncomparative morphometrics ( in \u03bcm ) of infective juveniles of steinernema biddulphi n . sp . ; mean \u00b1 sd with ranges given in brackets .\nsome commercial companies may sell steinernema nematodes other than s . scapterisci as biopesticides for use against mole crickets . if the label does not tell you the species of nematode , then ask the supplier to give the name in writing . it is true than other steinernema species will kill mole crickets , at least to some extent , but do not expect them to give any residual activity because they are not known to reproduce in mole crickets .\ncomparative morphometrics ( in \u03bcm ) of first generation males of steinernema biddulphi n . sp . ; mean \u00b1 sd with ranges given in brackets .\nphylogenetic relationships of the species from \u201c bicornutum \u201d group and other related species of steinernema based on analysis of its rdna regions . steinernema nepalense and s . scapterisci was used as outgroup taxon . the percentage of replicate trees in which the associated taxa clustered together in the bootstrap test ( 10 , 000 replicates ) are shown next to the branches . branch lengths indicate evolutionary distances and are expressed in the units of number of base differences per site .\nsmart gc jr , nguyen kb , parkman jp , frank jh . 1990 . biological control of mole crickets in the genus scapteriscus with the nematode steinernema scapterisci nguyen and smart , , 1990 . rencontres caraibes en lutte biologique , guadeloupe , 5 - 7 november 1990 . ed . inra , paris 1991 .\nscapterisci ( rhabditida : steinernematidae ) after inoculative applications for mole cricket ( orthoptera : gryllotalpidae ) control in pastures . biological control , 3 : 226 - 232 .\nmeeting held with a company in georgia to rear s . scapterisci in vivo ( 11 / 17 / 99 ) , confidentiality agreement completed and business plan submitted .\nmeeting held with uf , otl ( 1 / 20 / 00 ) , agreed to assist in locating a company to produce s . scapterisci using in vitro methods .\nphylogenetic relationships of the species from \u201c bicornutum \u201d group and other related species of steinernema based on analysis of d2 - d3 expansion segments of the 28s rdna . steinernema nepalense and s . scapterisci was used as outgroup taxon . the percentage of replicate trees in which the associated taxa clustered together in the bootstrap test ( 10 , 000 replicates ) are shown next to the branches . branch lengths indicate evolutionary distances and are expressed in the units of number of base differences per site .\nforeign company and uf , otl drafted an exclusive license agreement for production of s . scapterisci for sale in the u . s . ( 6 / 19 / 00 ) .\nsteinernema scapterisci was more pathogenic to insects tested in the order orthoptera than to those in the orders lepidoptera or hymenoptera ; it was not pathogenic to earthworms . the nematode also infected and killed the mole crickets scapteriscus acletus and s . vicinus when released four successive times at 10 - day intervals in containers of soil infested with the nematode .\n9 . a formulation as claimed in any preceding claim in which the first and second genus are selected from the group consisting of : steinernema ; and heterorhapditis .\nfurthermore , the first generation females of steinernema biddulphi n . sp . differ from the females of s . pakistanense and s . bifurcatum by having a postanal swelling .\n10 . a formulation as claimed in claim 9 in which the first genus ( majority species ) is steinernema and the second genus ( minority species ) is heterorhapditis .\n14 . a formulation as claimed in claim 9 in which the first genus ( majority species ) is heterorhapditis and the second genus ( minority species ) is steinernema .\nthe whole genome shotgun project for s . scapterisci has been deposited at ddbj / embl / genbank under the accession [ azbw00000000 ] . the version described in this paper is version azbw01000000 .\nnguyen kb , maruniak j , adams bj . diagnostic and phylogenetic utility of the rdna internal transcribed spacer sequences of steinernema . j nematol . 2001 ; 33 : 73\u201382 .\nmorphometric characters ( in \u03bcm ) of steinernema biddulphi n . sp . based on the holotype and 20 paratypes of each generations with mean \u00b1 sd and ranges given in brackets .\nparasitism is a major ecological niche for a variety of nematodes . multiple nematode lineages have specialized as pathogens , including deadly parasites of insects that are used in biological control . we have sequenced and analyzed the draft genomes and transcriptomes of the entomopathogenic nematode steinernema carpocapsae and four congeners ( s . scapterisci , s . monticolum , s . feltiae , and s . glaseri ) .\nmeeting held with richard gaskalla , fdacs / dpi ( 1 / 13 / 00 ) , determined that they would be receptive to rearing s . scapterisci if provided with the necessary funding and direction .\nreport with background information on mole cricket infestations , damage and efficacy of control by s . scapterisci prepared for fdacs ( 2 / 25 / 00 ) , report sent with justification for a federal appropriation .\nhox cluster architecture in steinernema . comparisons of the hox clusters of c . elegans , s . carpocapsae , and s . scapterisci . each cluster is mapped at the same scale , with the colored boxes representing different putative genes between the lin - 39 and ceh - 13 orthologs . genes marked in blue are specific to steinernema , not having orthologs in c . elegans . gray genes have a c . elegans ortholog , though they are not syntenic in the nematodes compared . genes marked in brown are unique , not having obvious orthologs in the other nematodes in this comparison\n32 . use of a formulation according to claim 1 to treat a root weevil , and wherein the cohort of infective juvenile nematodes consists of heterorhabditis megidis , and two species of steinernema .\nfigure 7 . diagram of the life cycle of steinernema scapterisci . g1 = first - generation adults , g2 = second - generation adults , j1 = first - stage juvenile , j2 = second - stage juvenile that may be the preinfective or non - preinfective stage , j3 = third stage noninfective juvenile , pi = preinfective stage , ij = third - stage infective juvenile , j4 = fourth - stage juvenile .\n26 . a method as claimed in claim 22 in which the target insect is a root weevil , and wherein the cohort of infective juvenile nematodes consists of heterorhabditis megidis , and two species of steinernema .\nmeeting held with uf , office of technology licensing ( 10 / 20 / 99 , 2 month delay ) , agreed that up front costs would be minimal for a license to sell s . scapterisci for mole cricket control .\n29 . use of a formulation according to claim 1 to treat one or more of sciarid larvae and fungus gnats , wherein the cohort of infective juvenile nematodes consists of steinernema felitae and two species of heterorhabditis .\nthe phylogenetic trees of the its and 28s genes were obtained by the minimum evolution method ( rzhetsky and nei , 1992 ) in mega 6 . 0 ( tamura et al . , 2013 ) . steinernema nepalense and steinernema scapterisci were used as outgroup . the minimum evolution tree was searched using the close - neighbor - interchange ( cni ) algorithm ( nei and kumar , 2000 ) . the neighbor - joining algorithm ( saitou and nei , 1987 ) was used to generate the initial tree . the evolutionary distances were computed using the p - distance method ( nei and kumar , 2000 ) and are expressed as the number of base differences per site .\nsleinemema scapterisci nguyen et smart , 1990 is recorded for the first time in argentina . this entomopathogenic nematode was found parasitizing the mole cricket scapteriscus borelli giglio - tos at the locality of colon ( province of buenos aires ) , argentina .\nnadler sa , bolotin e , stock sp . phylogenetic relationships of steinernema travassos , ( nematoda : cephalobina : steinernematidae ) based on nuclear , mitochondrial and morphological data . syst parasitol . 2006 ; 63 : 161\u201381 .\n23 . a method as claimed in claim 22 in which the target insect is one or more of sciarid larvae and fungus gnats , and wherein the cohort of infective juvenile nematodes consists of steinernema felitae and two species of heterorhabditis .\n34 . use of a formulation according to claim 1 to treat one or more of root weevils , wood borers , and scarabs , and wherein the cohort of infective juvenile nematodes consists of heterorhabditis bacteriophora and two species of steinernema .\nmeeting held with uf , otl , and a foreign company to discuss an agreement to produce in vitro and market s . scapterisci in the u . s . ( 4 / 13 / 00 ) , the company requested a 60 - day non - compete agreement .\n28 . a method as claimed in claim 22 in which the target insect is one or more of root weevils , wood borers , and scarabs , and wherein the cohort of infective juvenile nematodes consists of heterorhabditis bacteriophora and two species of steinernema .\nlee mm , stock sp . a multigene approach for assessing evolutionary relationships of xenorhabdus spp . ( gamma - proteobacteria ) , the bacterial symbionts of entomopathogenic steinernema nematodes . j invertebr pathol . 2010 ; 104 ( 2 ) : 67\u201374 . pmid : 20102721\nmeeting held with fdacs , dpi and the mole cricket task force to determine the status of state funds requested to produce s . scapterisci and initiate a mole cricket control program ( 7 / 21 / 00 ) , appropriation is in a trust fund and project is unable to proceed .\nfigure 2 . males of the mole cricket nematode , steinernema scapterisci nguyen & smart n . sp . a ) spicules of the first - generation male showing angular head , ribs , and gubernaculum with anterior end bent upward . b ) variation in the tail shape of the first - generation males . c ) tail of the second - generation male showing elongate spicule head . d ) variation in tail shape of second - generation males . e ) entire body of the first - generation male . drawing by k . nguyen , university of florida .\n31 . use of a formulation according to claim 1 to treat one or more of root weevils , the tawny mole cricket , and the southern mole cricket , and wherein the cohort of infective juvenile nematodes consists of steinernema riobravis , and two species of heterorhabditis .\n25 . a method as claimed in claim 22 in which the target insect is one or more of root weevils , the tawny mole cricket , and the southern mole cricket , and wherein the cohort of infective juvenile nematodes consists of steinernema riobravis , and two species of heterorhabditis .\n33 . use of a formulation according to claim 1 to treat one or more of armyworms , cutworms , webworms , root weevils , wood borers , artichokes , and plume moths , and wherein the cohort of infective juvenile nematodes consists of steinernema carpocapsae and two species of heterorhabditis .\nnadler sa , bolotin e , stock sp . phylogenetic relationships of steinernema travassos , 1927 ( nematoda : cephalobina : steinernematidae ) based on nuclear , mitochondrial and morphological data . systematic parasitology . 2006 ; 63 ( 3 ) : 161\u201381 . epub 2006 / 03 / 17 . pmid : 16541298\nmeeting held with fdacs , dpi to plan production and prepare a budget , $ 281 , 000 year 1 ( 2 / 17 / 00 ) , planned a realistic structure and budget for solid culture of s . scapterisci , and delivered it to dr . martha roberts ( fdacs ) in the commissioner ' s office .\n27 . a method as claimed in claim 22 in which the target insect is one or more of armyworms , cutworms , webworms , root weevils , wood borers , artichokes , and plume moths , and wherein the cohort of infective juvenile nematodes consists of steinernema carpocapsae and two species of heterorhabditis .\na . house crickets were anesthetized at 4\u00b0c and were then put individually into the wells of a cryo storage box . each well was lined with a small piece of paper towel loaded with approximately 100 ijs of s . scapterisci suspended in 100 \u03bcl of tap water . b . about 3\u20134 infected crickets were transferred to white traps [ 31 ] .\nwe have identified a set of expanded gene families that are likely to be involved in parasitism . we have also identified a set of non - coding motifs associated with groups of orthologous genes in steinernema and caenorhabditis involved in neurogenesis and embryonic development that are likely part of conserved protein\u2013dna relationships shared between these two genera .\ncomparing activation rates of ijs exposed to different insect homogenates , mole cricket homogenate induced significantly higher activation than house cricket homogenate at 10 % ( p < 0 . 0001 ) , and 50 % ( p = 0 . 009 ) concentrations . both cricket homogenates induced significantly higher activation in s . scapterisci ijs than waxworm homogenate ( p < 0 . 0001 ) .\nsteinernema biddulphi sp . n . was reared on last instar of g . mellonella as described by kaya and stock ( 1997 ) . the first and second generation adults were obtained from the dissection of 3 - and 5 - d - old infected g . mellonella larvae , respectively . infective juveniles were collected approximately 1 wk after emergence from the cadavers .\ndillman ar , macchietto m , porter cf , rogers a , williams b , antoshechkin i , lee mm , goodwin z , lu x , lewis ee , goodrich - blair h , stock sp , adams bj , sternberg pw , mortazavi a . comparative genomics of steinernema reveals deeply conserved gene regulatory networks . genome biol , 2015 ; 16 ( ) : 200\nprotein gels showing the quantity and diversity of proteins secreted by activated ( 12h ) and non - activated ( na ) ijs . equal percentage of total volumes of concentrated proteins from non - activated and activated s . scapterisci ijs was loaded onto each gel . ijs were activated with 50 % cricket homogenate . a . a protein gel stained with colloidal coomassie blue . b . a protein gel with silver staining .\nthe effects of environmental factors ( such as temperature , moisture , aeration , and soil type [ esp . texture and chemistry ] ) and biotic factors ( species of epn , targeted insect , age of insect , soil fauna ) have been documented by numerous researchers ( gaugler and kaya , 1990 ; kaya and gaugler , 1993 ; shapiro - ilan et al . , 2012 ; grewal et al . , 2005a ; georgis et al . , 2006 ) . temperature range for survival and infectivity will depend on the species of epn and its native habitat and center of origin ( kaya , 1990 ) . for example , steinernema feltiae can be infective from 2 - 30\u00b0c , whereas some heterorhabditids can infect host insects from 7 to 35\u00b0c and steinernema carpocapsae is nearly inactive at 10\u00b0c ( kaya , 1990 ; georgis et al . , 2006 ; lacey et al . , 2006a ) .\nthe life cycle of s . biddulphi n . sp . is similar to other steinernema species . in an experimental infection of g . mellonella with a dose of 50 ijs per insect at a temperature of 22\u00b0c , the majority of insects were dead after 48 h , and fourth stage juveniles were present in the hosts . two amphimictic generations occur inside the host , and the first and second generation stages could be observed after 2 and 8 d of initial infection , respectively . infective juveniles appeared 10 d postinoculation .\ns . scapterisci ijs were exposed to three different host homogenates ; scapteriscus borellii , acheta domesticus , and galleria mellonella . the homogenates were made in different concentrations ( 10 % , 25 % , 50 % and crude ) . we were unable to test crude waxworm homogenate for technical reasons ; the crude homogenate was too thick to be separated from nematodes after exposure but we were able to test 10 % , 25 % , and 50 % waxworm homogenate . each of these activation experiments was collected and observed after 18 hours of exposure to the homogenate . ij activation was then quantified as described above .\nsteinernema biddulphi n . sp . lm of infective juvenile ( ij ) , male and female . a , c . first generation female . a . tail with postanal swelling . c . vulval region . b , d . second generation female . b . tail with postanal swelling . d . vulval region . e . first generation male , tail with spicules and gubernaculum . f . second generation male , tail with spicules and gubernaculum . g , h . ij . g . anterior portion showing rounded head and excretory pore ( arrow ) . h . tail with anus and hyaline region .\nsteinernema biddulphi n . sp . a . first generation male , tail with spicules and gubernaculum , lateral . b . first generation female , vulval region . c . first generation female , tail . d . second generation female , vulval region . e . second generation female , conical tail . f , g . infective juvenile . f . anterior region showing excretory pore and nerve ring . g . tail showing anus and hyaline region . ( scale bar in micrometers : a = 58 ; b = 143 ; c = 68 ; d = 71 , e = 61 ; f = 91 ; g = 75 ) .\nin recent years , several surveys have been conducted in south africa resulting in the recovery of eight new steinernematid species , namely steinernema khoisanae ( nguyen et al . , 2006 ) , s . citrae ( stokwe et al . , 2011 ) , s . sacchari ( nthenga et al . , 2014 ) , s . tophus ( cimen et al . , 2014 ) , s . innovationi ( cimen et al . , 2015 ) , s . jeffreyense ( malan et al . , 2015 ) , s . beitlechemi ( cimen et al . , 2016 ) , and s . fabii ( abate et al . , 2016 ) .\nbased on the blast search and phylogenetic analysis of the concatenated sequences , sequences of the 16s rdna and reca and gyrb genes ( data not shown ) , the symbiotic bacterium of s . biddulphi n . sp . ( bacterial strain sgi - 246 ) seems to be most closely related to xenorhabdus indica ( blast similarities 98 % for 16s rdna , and 97 % for reca and gyrb genes ) . this bacterium was found in association with other nematodes from the \u201c bicornutum \u201d group , namely steinernema abbasi ( somvanshi et al . , 2006 ) , s . yirgalamense ( ferreira et al . , 2016 ) , and s . bifurcatum ( shahina et al . , 2014 ) .\nsteinernema biddulphi n . sp . scanning electron microscopy of infective juvenile ( ij ) , male and female . a\u2013c . ij . a . head region with horn - like structures . b . lateral field in mid - body ( ridges numbered 1 to 6 ) . c . lateral field in tail region . d . first generation female , tail , and four projections on tip of the tail ( arrow ) . e , f . second generation female . e . tail with postanal swelling . f . vulva . g . first generation male , tail with paired genital papillae ( numbered ) and single papilla ( s ) , lateral . h , i . second generation male . h . tail with paired genital papillae , single papilla ( s ) and mucron ( arrow ) . i . tail with a part of paired genital papilae ( numbered ) , mucron ( arrow ) , and phasmid opening ( p ) , ventro - lateral .\ns . scapterisci activation was categorized based on 3 morphological features ( fig 2 ) \u2014 ( 1 ) the mouth being open or closed , ( 2 ) the state of the anterior gut , or the opening of the gut immediately posterior to the pharyngeal bulb , and ( 3 ) expansion of pharyngeal bulb and how pronounced it appeared . if an individual nematode had all three characteristics ( an open mouth , an open and expanded anterior gut , and an expanded and visible pharyngeal bulb ) they were considered fully activated ( fig 2c ) . if the nematode had a visible pharyngeal bulb , though had not proceeded to a further stage of activation as indicated by the gut and mouth opening , it was considered partially activated ( fig 2d ) . if the nematode had no visible pharyngeal bulb , it was considered non - activated ( fig 2b ) . non - activated nematodes were generally still ensheathed , though presence of the l2 cuticle sheath was not used to determine nematode activation . dead nematodes were not counted . any nematodes that had developed beyond l3 into l4 or even adulthood were counted as fully activated .\nproteins were denatured by sds sample buffer ( final 1x buffer : 50 mm trishcl ph6 . 8 , 2 % sds , 2 . 5 % ficoll , 0 . 01 % bromophenol blue , and 0 . 1 m dtt ) and heating for 10 min in boiling water before being loaded to the 4\u201315 % mini - protean\u00ae tgx\u2122 precast gels ( biorad , 456\u20131084 ) . protein molecular weights were marked by the precision plus protein dual color standards ( biorad , # 1610374 ) . the electrophoresis was run at 100 volts for 60\u201390 min and the gels were stained by colloidal coomassie blue [ 35 ] or by the pierce silver staining kit ( pierce , # 24600 ) . equal percentages of the total volumes of collected proteins from non - activated and activated s . scapterisci ijs were loaded onto each gel . 10 % of protein volumes of activated ( total 210 \u03bcl x 1 . 08 \u03bcg / \u03bcl ) and non - activated ( total 200 \u03bcl x 0 . 008 \u03bcg / \u03bcl ) ijs were loaded onto the gel for colloidal coomassie blue staining ; for the silver staining , the volumes were 1 % of the total collected proteins .\nconserved non - coding networks in steinernema and caenorhabditis . a a hierarchically clustered heat map of 30 derived regulatory motifs and the go terms that the target genes of these motifs are enriched in . only motif - go term associations that are shared between s . carpocapsae and c . elegans are shown . p - values depicted are from c . elegans associations . colored arrows point to single go term or groups of go terms that belong to the four developmental categories shown . b a network of conserved s . carpocapsae and c . elegans motif - target gene associations related to neurogenesis go terms . only nodes for motifs and downstream genes with degrees \u22655 are shown in the network . c a network of conserved s . carpocapsae and c . elegans motif - target gene associations related to muscle go terms . only nodes for motifs and downstream genes with degrees \u22655 are shown in the network . d zag - 1 gene model in s . carpocapsae and c . elegans showing conserved motifs , and well as conserved regulatory modules ( clusters of conserved motifs ) . sequence conservation tracks are displayed below each gene model . associations between zag - 1 and motifs are highlighted in red in the neurogenesis network . go gene ontology\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nmale , second generation : a second generation male is similar morphologically to that of the first generation except that it is about two - thirds as long and one - half as wide and the spicules have an elongate head .\nfemale , first generation : anteriorly , the female is similar to the male but much larger . lateral fields and phasmids not observed . six labial papillae and four cephalic papillae present . stoma with prominent cheilorhabdions unusually thickened , appearing as a circular or hexagonal ring in face view . esophagus typical of family . esophago - intestinal valve large . excretory pore located anteriorly to mid - metacorpus .\nexcretory duct unusually prominent forming an elliptically - shaped structure seemingly with a hole at the center . gonads didelphic , amphidelphic , reflexed . vulva appears as a transverse slit with a prominent double - flapped epiptygma . tail length shorter than anal body width , with a mucron at end .\nfemales , second generation : second generation female similar morphologically to that of the first generation with the following exceptions : about one - half as long and two - thirds as wide , valve in basal bulb of esophagus more prominent , elliptically - shaped structure less prominent , tail , which tapers to a point bearing a mucron , longer than body width at anus .\ninfective juveniles ( third stage ) : the infective stage , when newly formed , is always enclosed in the cuticle of the second - stage juvenile as a sheath . however , the sheath is lost rather easily , even in storage , and thus may not always be present . body thin , head with a labial raising disc ; lip region not offset , oral aperture not observed ; six labial , four cephalic papillae and an elevated oral disc prominent . esophagus degenerate and thus not seen clearly , but its basal bulb is elongate and has a valve . lateral field with six incisures . tail tapers gradually dorsally but abruptly ventrally .\nthree years after the nematode was released , a few mole crickets collected in a farm 10 miles from the nearest release site were found infected with the nematode . by the fifth year , 25 to 65 percent of the mole crickets collected at this farm were infected ( smart et al . 1990 ) .\nin 1990 and 1991 , the nematode was released in pastures in six different counties and on nearly 30 golf courses in florida . it has become established and has reduced populations of mole crickets in all of the pastures .\nmcsorley r . ( july 1997 ) . soil - inhabiting nematodes . uf / ifas featured creatures . eeny - 12 . ( august 1999 ) .\nnguyen kb . ( may 1999 ) . mole cricket control by entomopathogenic nematodes . uf / ifas . ( no longer available online )\nnguyen kb . ( february 1999 ) . taxonomy of entomopathogenic nematodes . uf / ifas . ( no longer available online )\nnguyen kb . ( february 1998 ) . symbiotic bacteria of entomopathogenic nematodes . uf / ifas . ( no longer available online )\nsmart gc jr , nguyen kb . 1995 . biological control of orthoptera pest insects . united state patent , patent number 5 , 466 , 448 , date of patent : november , 14 1995 .\npublication date : june 1999 . latest revision : june 2014 . reviewed : april 2017 .\nby switching countries your current shopping cart will be cleared . are you sure ?\nyour account has been locked . enter your user name and click submit . an email will be sent to you with instructions .\ndon ' t see what you are looking for ? our technical support team may be able to help .\nbiosafety classification is based on u . s . public health service guidelines , it is the responsibility of the customer to ensure that their facilities comply with biosafety regulations for their own country .\nthis material is cited in a us or other patent and may not be used to infringe the claims . depending on the wishes of the depositor , atcc may be required to inform the patent depositor of the party to which the material was furnished .\ncustomers located in the state of hawaii will need to contact the hawaii department of agriculture to determine if an import permit is required . a copy of the permit or documentation that a permit is not required must be sent to atcc in advance of shipment .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncopyright : \u00a9 2017 lu et al . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\ndata availability : all relevant data are within the paper and its supporting information files .\nfunding : this work was supported by the national institutes of health , national institute of allergy and infectious diseases . k22 career transition award ai119155 to ard . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\ngalleria mellonella waxworms used for activation experiments were purchased from crittergrub ( urltoken ) . once received , waxworms were immediately sorted to remove dead ones , and the healthy waxworms were frozen at - 80\u00b0c until used . acheta domesticus house crickets ( american cricket ranch , lakeside , ca ) were immediately sorted to remove dead ones , and the healthy crickets were frozen at - 80\u00b0c until used . scapteriscus borellii mole crickets used for activation experiments were collected from the rio hondo golf course ( downey , ca ) as previously described [ 33 ] . adult mole crickets were fed a diet of wheat germ ( 15 g agar , 166 g wheat germ , 900\u20131000 ml h 2 o ) and water ad libitum until used . healthy adult mole crickets were frozen at - 80\u00b0c prior to use in activation experiments .\nto recover nematodes from the small - scale activation assays , tap water was added to soak the sponge pieces in the petri dish for 5 min and the nematode suspension was transferred to a 15 ml tube . the process was repeated two more times and all nematodes were combined in one 15 ml tube . the nematodes were pelleted by centrifugation at 700 rcf for 1 min and washed 3 times with tap water . the supernatant was removed leaving ~ 1 . 5 ml of nematode suspension . aliquots of the nematode suspension were visualized with a compound microscope at the 10 x 40 magnification and scored for activation . higher magnification was occasionally used when the morphology was unclear . 3\u20134 aliquots were quantified per treatment meaning that 150\u2013600 nematodes were used for each replicate .\nthe mouth , pharynx , and anterior gut are marked in these images by red arrows and labeled m , p , and g respectively . a . schematic drawing illustrating the morphological features of an activated ij on the left and a non - activated ij on the right . in the non - activated ij the pharynx and anterior gut can be difficult to visualize . b . two pictures showing the opaque morphology of non - activated ijs . the mouth is closed , the anterior gut is closed , and the pharyngeal bulb is not visible . c . two pictures showing the visible morphology of activated ijs . these fully activated ijs have visibly open mouths and stoma . they have expanded pharyngeal bulbs and the anterior gut is open . d . this picture shows a nematode scored as partially active because the pharyngeal bulb is only partially expanded .\nijs were exposed to insect homogenate for different amounts of time : 6 , 12 , 18 , 24 , and 30 hours . though a 3 - hour exposure was initially tested , it was too difficult to reliably distinguish morphological characteristics . for the time course we used 50 % acheta domesticus homogenate , made as described above .\nstatistical analysis was performed using graphpad prism 6 . 04 . standard statistical tests were used for all experiments , as described in the figure legends . one - way anovas were conducted to compare experimental effects among different exposure times to 50 % house cricket homogenate and the effects of the percentage of host homogenate on activation and partial activation . unpaired t tests were used to compare the experimental effects between two treatments within an experiment ( e . g . differences between two time points of the time course activation or differences between two homogenate concentrations within an experiment ) .\ncomparing activation rates for each type of host homogenate we found that for house cricket homogenate , 25 % , 50 % , and crude homogenate all produced significantly higher activation than 10 % homogenate ( p < 0 . 0001 ) ( fig 5a and s2 file ) . 50 % and crude house cricket homogenate both induced significantly higher activation than 25 % homogenate ( p < 0 . 0001 ) , and crude homogenate induced significantly higher activation than 50 % homogenate ( p = 0 . 04 ) . using mole cricket homogenate , there was no significant difference in activation between 10 % and 25 % homogenate , but 50 % and crude homogenate both induced significantly higher activation than 10 % or 25 % homogenate ( p\u22640 . 03 ) ( fig 5b and s2 file ) . there was no significant difference between 50 % and crude homogenate . using waxworm homogenate , 25 % and 50 % homogenate both induced significantly more activation than 10 % homogenate ( p\u22640 . 002 ) ( fig 5c ) , but there was no significant difference between 25 % and 50 % waxworm homogenate .\nto study ij activation we first identified quantifiable morphologic changes that could be used to differentiate between activated and non - activated ijs ( fig 2 ) . we found that by examining the state of the mouth , pharyngeal bulb , and anterior gut , we could reliably distinguish between non - activated , partially activated , and fully activated ijs ( fig 2 ) . some early - activated ijs developed to l4 and young adult stages when incubated for more than 18 hours in cricket homogenate and in this study we categorized those as fully activated ijs . in future studies it may be informative to distinguish between activated ijs and nematodes that have developed beyond the activated l3 stage .\ns2 file . activation data using different insect homogenates and different concentrations of homogenate .\nwe thank john rodriguez and the rio hondo golf course grounds crew for access to the grounds for collecting mole crickets ; sudarshan aryal and dennis chang for collecting and maintaining mole crickets and for providing feedback on the manuscript ; tiffany baiocchi , edwin lewis , and byron adams for insightful comments on the manuscript .\nkaya hk , gaugler r . entomopathogenic nematodes . annu rev entomol . 1993 ; 38 : 181\u2013206 .\nlewis ee , clarke dj . nematode parasites and entomopathogens . in : vega fe , kaya hk , editors . insect pathology . 2nd ed : elsevier ; 2012 . p . 395\u2013424 .\ndillman ar , guillermin ml , lee jh , kim b , sternberg pw , hallem ea . olfaction shapes host - parasite interactions in parasitic nematodes . proc natl acad sci usa . 2012 ; 109 ( 35 ) : e2324\u201333 . epub 2012 / 08 / 02 . pubmed central pmcid : pmc3435218 . pmid : 22851767\nhallem ea , dillman ar , hong av , zhang y , yano jm , demarco sf , et al . a sensory code for host seeking in parasitic nematodes . current biology . 2011 ; 21 : 377\u201383 . pmid : 21353558\ncastelletto ml , gang ss , okubo rp , tselikova aa , nolan tj , platzer eg , et al . diverse host - seeking behaviors of skin - penetrating nematodes . plos pathogens . 2014 ; 10 ( 8 ) : e1004305 . pubmed central pmcid : pmc4133384 . pmid : 25121736\ngang ss , hallem ea . mechanisms of host seeking by parasitic nematodes . molecular and biochemical parasitology . 2016 ; 208 ( 1 ) : 23\u201332 . pubmed central pmcid : pmcpmc4993646 . pmid : 27211240\nmorran lt , penley mj , byrd vs , meyer aj , o ' sullivan ts , bashey f , et al . nematode - bacteria mutualism : selection within the mutualism supersedes selection outside of the mutualism . evolution ; international journal of organic evolution . 2016 ; 70 ( 3 ) : 687\u201395 . pubmed central pmcid : pmcpmc4801668 . pmid : 26867502\nmurfin ke , dillman ar , foster jm , bulgheresi s , slatko be , sternberg pw , et al . nematode - bacterium symbioses - cooperation and conflict revealed in the\nomics\nage . biol bull - us . 2012 ; 223 ( 1 ) : 85\u2013102 .\ndillman ar , chaston jm , adams bj , ciche ta , goodrich - blair h , stock sp , et al . an entomopathogenic nematode by any other name . plos pathogens . 2012 ; 8 ( 3 ) : e1002527 . pmid : 22396642\nconditions . j invertebr pathol . 2000 ; 75 : 55\u20138 . pmid : 10631058\nsicard m , le brun n , pages s , godelle b , boemare n , moulia c . effect of native\nhosts : contrasting types of interaction . parasitology research . 2003 ; 91 ( 6 ) : 520\u20134 . pmid : 14557877\nsicard m , ramone h , le brun n , pages s , moulia c . specialization of the entomopathogenic nematode\nbonifassi e , saux mfl , boemare n , lanois a , laumond c , smart g . gnotobiological study of infective juveniles and symbionts of\n: a model to clarify the concept of the natural occurrence of monoxenic associations in entomopathogenic nematodes . j invertebr pathol . 1999 ; 74 ( 2 ) : 164\u201372 . pmid : 10486229\nemelianoff v , sicard m , le brun n , moulia c , ferdy jb . effect of bacterial symbionts\nnguyen kb . a new nematode parasite of mole crickets : its taxonomy , biology and potential for biological control . gainesville , florida : university of florida ; 1988 .\nmole crickets . in : hajek ae , editor . use of microbes for control and eradication of invasive arthropods . progress in biological control . 6 . the netherlands : springer ; 2009 . p . 115\u201331 .\nfrank jh , walker tj . permanent control of pest mole crickets ( orthoptera : gryllotalpidae :\nnguyen kb , hunt dj , mracek z . steinernematidae : species and descriptions . in : nguyen kb , hunt dj , editors . entomopathogenic nematodes : systematics , phylogeny and bacterial symbionts . boston : brill ; 2007 . p . 121\u2013609 .\npoinar go jr . nematodes for biological control of insects . boca raton : crc press ; 1979 .\nadams bj , peat sm , dillman ar . phylogeny and evolution . in : nguyen kb , hunt dj , editors . entomopathogenic nematodes : systematics , phylogeny , and bacterial symbionts . nematology monographs and perspectives . 5 . leiden - boston : brill ; 2007 . p . 693\u2013733 .\nprice pw . evolutionary biology of parasites . princeton , nj : princeton university press ; 1980 .\nthompson jn . the coevolutionary process . chicago , il : university of chicago press ; 2009 .\nkaya hk , stock sp . techniques in insect nematology . in : lacey l , editor . manual of techniques in insect pathology . san diego , ca : academic press limited ; 1997 .\nmcmullen jg , stock sp . in vivo and in vitro rearing of entomopathogenic nematodes ( steinernematidae and heterorhabditidae ) . jove - j vis exp . 2014 ; ( 91 ) : e52096 .\nwhite gf . a method for obtaining infective nematode larvae from cultures . science . 1927 ; 66 ( 1709 ) : 302\u20133 .\ndillman ar , cronin cj , tang j , gray da , sternberg pw . a modified mole cricket lure and description of\n( orthoptera : gryllotalpidae ) range expansion and calling song in california . environmental entomology . 2014 ; 43 ( 1 ) : 146\u201356 . pmid : 24472207\nbedding ra . low cost in vitro mass production of neoaplectana and heterorhabditis species ( nematoda ) for field control of insect pests . nematologica . 1981 ; 27 : 109\u201314 .\nneuhoff v , arold n , taube d , ehrhardt w . improved staining of proteins in polyacrylamide gels including isoelectric - focusing gels with clear background at nanogram sensitivity using coomassie brilliant blue g - 250 and r - 250 . electrophoresis . 1988 ; 9 ( 6 ) : 255\u201362 . pmid : 2466658\nlee jh , dillman ar , hallem ea . temperature - dependent changes in the host - seeking behaviors of parasitic nematodes . bmc biology . 2016 ; 14 .\ncassada rc , russell rl . the dauerlarva , a post - embryonic developmental variant of the nematode\nbalasubramanian n , hao yj , toubarro d , nascimento g , simoes n . purification , biochemical and molecular analysis of a chymotrypsin protease with prophenoloxidase suppression activity from the entomopathogenic nematode\ntoubarro d , avila mm , montiel r , simoes n . a pathogenic nematode targets recognition proteins to avoid insect defenses . plos one . 2013 ; 8 ( 9 ) : e75691 . pubmed central pmcid : pmc3787073 . pmid : 24098715\nlewis ee , grewal ps , gauger r . hierarchical order of host cues in parasite foraging strategies . parasitology . 1995 ; 110 : 207\u201313 .\nlewis ee , ricci m , gaugler r . host recognition behavior predicts host suitability in the entomopathogenic nematode\ndillman ar , sternberg pw . entomopathogenic nematodes . current biology : cb . 2012 ; 22 ( 11 ) : r430\u20131 . epub 2012 / 06 / 09 . pmid : 22677279\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nthe full text of this article is available as a pdf ( 1 . 7m ) .\nthe full text of this article is available as a pdf ( 381k ) .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nijs in the wells of a plastic cryo storage box with 100 slots designed for 1 . 5 ml microtubes ( e . g . , vwr cat # 40000\u2013322 ) , with the lid removed . a sheet of transparent plastic was cut to fit the top of the box and cover all the wells to prevent crickets from escaping ; small holes were punched in the plastic for aeration . single layers of paper towels ( ~ 4 cm x 4 cm ) were pushed into the wells of the microtube storage box using a pen to make infection chambers . about 100 ijs of\n) . the box was covered by the plastic sheet described above , which was pushed against the wells using a slightly smaller freezer box ( e . g . , vwr cat # 82007\u2013162 ) . the boxes were securely bound together by rubber bands or tape . the infection boxes were incubated for 2 days in the dark at 25\u00b0c . dead crickets , presumably infected , were transferred to white traps [\n] in which a piece of 5 . 5 cm filter paper was raised by the lid of a 3 . 5 cm petri dish in a 10 cm petri dish with a thin layer of tap water ( about 2 mm deep ) (\n) \u2014 ( 1 ) the mouth being open or closed , ( 2 ) the state of the anterior gut , or the opening of the gut immediately posterior to the pharyngeal bulb , and ( 3 ) expansion of pharyngeal bulb and how pronounced it appeared . if an individual nematode had all three characteristics ( an open mouth , an open and expanded anterior gut , and an expanded and visible pharyngeal bulb ) they were considered fully activated ("]}
{"id": 1314, "summary": [{"text": "polyptychoceras is an extinct genus of ammonites from the late cretaceous of asia , europe , and north and south america .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it was first named by hisakatsu yabe in 1927 . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "polyptychoceras", "paragraphs": ["file : polyptychoceras ( subptychoceras ) yubarense . jpg \u2014 wikipedia republished / / wiki 2\npolyptychoceras ( subptychoceras ) yubarense - private collection stage : late cretaceous from 100 . 5\u201366 ma ( million years ago ) ; upper yezo group locality : obirashibe river , obira , rumoi , hokkaido , japan size : 23x18x8 cm\npolyptychoceras vancouverense upper cretaceous , santonian , trent river formation trent river , vancouver island , canada this species is referred to as he paperclip ammonite due to is resemblance . the ammonite was found in three sections and has been glued back together and then prepared . a rare heteromorph from a more unusual location . the ammonite measures 4 . 9cm ' s in length\ninterestingly , all heteromorphs known from the santonian are endemic to bp and nwp provinces . nostoceratids include nipponites bacchus , hyphantoceras orientale and h . ( ? ) heteromorphum ( found in sakhalin and japan ) , and h . reussianum and h . yabei ( found in sakhalin and the koryak upland ) , while the family diplomoceratidae is represented by mostly sakhalin endemics . only two species were found in northeasterly regions , viz . polyptychoceras ( po . ) pseudogaultinum and po . ( s . ) vancouverense , while others are known from sakhalin ( neocrioceras spinigerum , diplomoceras notabile , pseudoxybeloceras ( ps . ) obstrictum , ps . ( ps . ) quadrinodosum , ps . ( ps . ) sakhalinum and ps . ( subptychoceras ) yubarense ) and only two were found in japan ( polyptychoceras ( po . ) pseudogaultinum and po . ( subptychoceras ) yubarense ) .\n. . . 10 . 10e ) , and an upper lamellar layer ( schindewolf 1958 ; closs 1960 ; farinacci et al . 1976 ; hewitt et al . 1993 ) . the basal layer occurs on the convex side of the aptychus and forms the co - marginal lirae that are visible on the inner ( dorsal ) side of the aptychus and are interpreted as growth lines ( kruta et al . 2009 ; f ig . 10 . 10f ) . the aptychi of cretaceous ancyloceratina ( e . g . , baculites , hoploscaphites , and polyptychoceras ) differ from those of jurassic ammonitina in having one or two layers without a sponge - like structure ( kruta et al . 2009 ; f ig . 10 . 10d ) . . . .\nedited and published by : the japan academy produced and listed by : komiyama printing co . , ltd . ( vol . 83 no . 7 - vol . 85 no . 4 , vol . 86 no . 5 - ) letterpress co . , ltd . ( vol . 85 no . 5 - vol . 86 no . 4 ) sanbi printing co . , ltd . ( vol . 82 no . 7 - vol . 83no . 6 ) tokyo press , co . , ltd . ( vol . 80 no . 1 - vol . 82no . 6 ) the japan academy ( vol . 79b no . 1 - vol . 79bno . 10 )\nthis heteromorph ammonite is quite common in cretaceous shales on the trent and puntledge rivers . they are known to collectors as the paper - clip ammonites or sometime they are referred to as candy canes .\nin this sample , fossilized remnants of the shell are still visible over most of the ammonite . these ammonites have 3 parallel shafts , but usually only two are found - - one bend in the paper clip .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nthis article needs expanding . you can help improve this article by adding additional content .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nbiodivlibrary july is # nationalblueberrymonth ! the w . a . cox nursery co . of mississippi ' s 1920s catalog proclaimed # blueberries to\u2026 urltoken\nbiodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p\u2026 urltoken\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\ncorrigendum to \u201cmolecular phylogeny and ontogeny of a new ciliate genus , paracladotricha salina n . g . . .\nwe ( shao et al . ) established a new genus and described the morphology , cell division , and phylogeny of a chinese population of a hypotrichous ciliate in this electronic - only journal . since this work does not contain a zoobank registration , it is not published in the sense of nomenclature ( iczn , articles 8 . 5 , 9 . 11 ) , that is , it is not a work in which a name or nomenclatural act can be made . . . [ show full abstract ]\nmegafossil biostratigraphy of the upper cretaceous futakawa formation of the sotoizumi group in the . . .\nzoological nomenclature and electronic publication - a reply to dubois et al . ( 2013 )\na group of 19 authors ( dubois et al . 2013 ) recently raised concerns about the latest amendment to the international code of zoological nomenclature ( iczn 2012a , b , c ) , that allows new names and other nomenclatural acts to gain legislative acceptance ( become\navailable\n) from publications issued and distributed electronically . two editorials by publishers have already responded to some of the . . . [ show full abstract ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ndiplomoceras cylindraceum ( j . l . m . defrance , 1816 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\noxybeloceras crassum ( r . p . whitfield , 1877 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\noxybeloceras mortoni ( f . b . meek & hayden , 1876 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\npseudoxybeloceras ( parasolenoceras ) interruptum ( f . schl\u00fcter , 1872 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\npseudoxybeloceras ( parasolenoceras ) splendens ( m . collignon , 1969 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\nspiroxybeloceras meekanum ( r . p . whitfield , 1877 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndinosaur toy forum diorama contest 2018 , sponsored by urzeitshop : enter now ! help us with the great photobucket purge .\ndoes anyone have any saurolophus in their collection ? i just got a mini saurolophus from a cheap set from walmart . it is just yellow . it is pretty nice .\nthis volume accompanies an emu school intended to bring contemporary research on mineral reaction kinetics to the attention of young researchers and to put it into the context of recent developments in related disciplines . a selection of topics , methods and concepts , which the contributors deem currently most relevant and instructive , is presented .\nthis site uses cookies . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our privacy policy .\n) . boreal \u2013 boreal palaeogeographic realm ; tethyan \u2013 tethyan palaeogeographic realm . a \u2013 arctic province ; bp \u2013 boreal pacific province ; nwp \u2013 north west pacific province ; nep \u2013 north east pacific province ; swp \u2013 south west pacific province ; sep \u2013 south east pacific province ; wna \u2013western interior of north america ; eu \u2013 european province ; ai \u2013 african - indian province ; mc \u2013 mediterranean / caucasian province .\nas noted above , it is possible to subdivide the pacific into various provinces on the basis of mid - and late cretaceous ammonite faunas . in general , this subdivision can be recognised only at the species level ; however , there are some intervals where it is even demonstrable at the generic level .\nin addition to sonneratia , the family hoplitidae is represented by gastroplitines , that is , gastroplites ( paragastroplites ) cf . flexicostatus , neogastroplites sp . and n . kamchatkensis , which are confined to the arctic province . however , n . kamchatkensis is morphologically similar to n . americanus , which is widely distributed in the western interior and could be its geographical sibling species .\nsome taxa were identified exclusively from northeast russia ( bp province ) , having no records ( yet ) in sakhalin or sikhote alin , namely proplacenticeras sutherlandbrowni ( widely distributed also in nep ; see mclearn , 1972 ) , the widespread mortoniceras and stoliczkaia ( lamnayella ) cf . japonica , endemic to the pacific . interestingly , that last - mentioned form is also known from japan , but not from sakhalin .\nan assemblage of albian heteromorph ammonites , recorded from the russian pacific coast , is comprised exclusively of turrilitids , namely mariella sp . , m . aff . circumtaeniata , turrilites sp . , pseudhelicoceras sp . and p . carlottense . there is no doubt that these are cosmopolitan genera , but in most cases , identification at species level is fraught with difficulties because of poor preservation . for now , it cannot be stated whether these forms comprised endemics or more cosmopolitan forms , in addition to p . carlottense , which is known from the arctic , bp and nep provinces .\nthe late cenomanian oae2 ( yazykova , 2004 ) probably was the main trigger to the extirpation of cenomanian faunas . the cenomanian / turonian boundary mass extinctions reflected in the diversity of every biotic group , both at the generic and specific level . some ammonite families and subfamilies disappeared , for example , turrilitidae , acanthoceratinae and lyelliceratidae . amongst species known from the russian pacific , not a single cenomanian taxon survived this crisis .\nthe global scaphites facies can be clearly traced in northeast russia and sakhalin , from where only endemic representatives are known : scaphites planus , yezoites puerculus , y . subplanus , y . pseudoaequalis and y . teshioensis . species of yezoites predominate , while at the same time scaphites is the dominant genus in eu or mc ( see , amongst others , atabekian & akopian , 1970 ; kaplan et al . , 1987 ; wiese et al . , 1996 ) .\nin comparison to the cenomanian when the family desmoceratidae was represented by a few widely distributed taxa , in the turonian this group included only endemics , that is , puzosia ( m . ) takahashii , jimboiceras planulatiforme , pachydesmoceras pachydiscoide , tragodesmoceroidas subcostatus and damesites damesi intermedius , while in northeast russia only kitchinites ishikawai and j . planulatiforme are known . the sole member of the pseudotissotiidae , hourcquia pacifica , is endemic to nwp .\nheteromorphs are comparatively diverse in the turonian . of note is that of four nostoceratids identified , namely nostoceras ( eubostrychoceras ) japonicum , nipponites mirabilis , n . sachalinensis and hyphantoceras aff . reussianum , only the first two are known from northeast russia , but all of them occur in sakhalin , including the only one which is truly cosmopolitan , h . reussianum . two endemic forms represent the family diplomoceratidae , one of them occurring in sakhalin , scalarites mihoensis , the other in northeast russia , s . scalaris . in total , the degree of endemicity rose during the turonian and continued this trend in the coniacian .\nthe family phylloceratidae is still represented by the pacific species h . ( n . ) ramosum as well as the gaudryceratids gaudryceras denseplicatum and g . tenuiliratum , joined now , however , by anagaudryceras politissimum , an immigrant from southern india , which much later , during the maastrichtian , was widely distributed in ai , swp , sep and nep , but in nwp it is confined either to the coniacian ( sakhalin ) or to the late campanian - early maastrichtian ( japan ) . this could also be connected with some temperature maximum , recorded for the coniacian and campanian ( yu . d . zakharov et al . , 2002 ) .\ntetragonitids are represented by tetragonites glabrus , which probably appeared already in the cenomanian of alaska ( bp ) , and later extended into the nwp , nep and ai provinces . a similar way of distribution can be determined for t . epigonus , which first appeared in the turonian of japan ( nwp ) and later extended to the eu , ai and swp provinces .\nthe appearance of binneyites in sakhalin is interesting . this genus was held to be endemic to the northern western interior of north america ( wna province ) . since only a single specimen is known from the northwest pacific , probably , this is an example of post - mortem drift distribution ( compare kennedy & cobban , 1976 ) .\nof the family desmoceratidae only kitchinites ishikawai survives , but new ( sub ) species appeared as well , such as k . japonica , jimboiceras mihoense , damesites damesi intermedius and d . sugata . all of them are pacific endemics , with the exception of d . sugata , which is also known from the ai and south eu provinces . hourcquia pacifica , the endemic pseudotissotiid , survived into the coniacian .\nthe coniacian of sakhalin and japan sees the first member of the family pachydiscidae , an endemic to nwp , menuites ( anapachydiscus ) sutneri . this constitutes one of the earliest appearances of menuites ( anapachydiscus ) ; an even earlier one was noted from post - turonian strata in durban , south africa ( kennedy et al . , 1973 ) .\nin the russian pacific , the santonian was characterised by a continued increase of taxonomic diversity , in spite of an abrupt temperature drop across the coniacian / santonian boundary ( yu . d . zakharov et al . , 2002 ) , which is reflected in the disappearance of many coniacian forms . however , as noted before , ammonites did not really depend of climate changes and usually rapidly recovered following such environmental crises .\nsome long - lived species still occur , such as the phylloceratid , hypophylloceras ( neophylloceras ) ramosum , and the gaudryceratids gaudryceras tenuiliratum and g . denseplicatum . however , these two families also are represented by new species in northeast russia , that is , phyllopachyceras forbesianum ( phylloceratidae ) , and , in sakhalin , phyllopachyceras ezoense ( phylloceratidae ) , anagaudryceras yokoyamai and zelandites kawanoi ( gau - dryceratidae ) .\nthe family tetragonitidae is represented by the endemic saghalinites saghalinensis , tetragonites glabrus , t . epigonus and t . popetensis , and one immigrant species , pseudophyllites indra , which appeared only in northeast russia . in far east russia , collignoniceratids are represented by the subfamily texanitinae , also with a high degree of provincialism . texanites ( plesiotexanites ) kawasakii and protexanites ( p . ) bontanti shimizui are known only from sakhalin , the latter being an immigrant from eu province , while p . ( p . ) fukazawai and p . ( p . ) shoshonensis have been recorded exclusively from northeast russia ( bp province ) .\ndesmoceratids are still represented by species and subspecies which appeared earlier , that is , kitchinites ishikawai , k . japonica , damesites sugata and d . damesi intermedius . two others , d . d . damesi and hauericeras angustum , are new and both are endemic . hauericeras angustum probably originated from h . gardeni , after migrating in from ai to japan .\nthere is a markedly wide distribution of pachydiscids , comprising eupachydiscus haradai , menuites ( m . ) menu , m . ( m . ) naibutiensis and m . ( m . ) japonicus . it appears that m . ( m . ) menu first appeared in the koryak upland , later in sakhalin and japan , and gave rise to two endemic species , m . ( m . ) naibutiensis and m . ( m . ) japonicus , which in turn disappeared from the pacific and migrated elsewhere , more specifically south africa and southern india ( ai province ) , where they appeared during the maastrichtian ( forbes , 1846 ; kennedy & henderson , 1992a , 1992b ; kennedy & klinger , 2006 ) .\nthe family kossmaticeratidae shows the highest degree of provincialism , with three species of yokoyamaoceras known from northeast russia only , namely y . venustum , y . jimboi and y . kotoi . in sakhalin only two of these , y . jimboi and y . ishikawai , have been recorded .\none the most interesting events in the santonian is the appearance of the mortoniceratine ( brancoceratid ) mortoniceras ? kawasakii , recorded by kawada ( 1929 ) . elsewhere in the world , representatives of mortoniceras sensu stricto are completely unknown from post - albian / lower cenomanian strata . probably , kawada\u2019s specimen is best reassigned to the subgenus mortoniceras ( submortoniceras ) , which is known from the campanian of california and oregon ( anderson , 1958 ) , and could thus represent the precursor of species of mortoniceras ( submortoniceras ) in california .\nthe family tetragonitidae appears to have evolved furthest , with seven species known from campanian deposits in far east russia . two of these are cosmopolitan ( pseudophyllites indra and tetragonites epigonus ) , another two ( t . glabrus and t . popetensis ) are characterised by wider distribution than the remaining three , t . crassus , saghalinites teshioensis and s . saghalinensis , which are endemic to the north pacific . representatives of saghalinites have not yet been found in northeast russia .\nduring the campanian , kossmaticeratids demonstrated absolute endemicity and provincialism . three species are known from northeasterly regions , namely yoko - yamaoceras jimboi , y . venustum and y . kotoi , while only one ( y . ishikawai ) was found in sakhalin .\nrepresentatives of the collignoniceratidae are known only from the koryak upland , being the endemics protexanites fukazawai and p . aff . shoshonensis . these record the last appearance of this family and of the subfamily texanitinae , both here as elsewhere in the world ( wright et al . , 1996 ) .\nrepresentatives of the family tetragonitidae , tetragonites popetensis , pseudophyllites indra and saghalinites sp . , are characterised by a relatively wide distribution . also interesting is the appearance of the kossmaticeratid brahmaites ( subbrahmaites ) sachalinensis , which clearly is an endemic subgenus and species , but this event is correlative with the fad of brahmaites ( b . ) brahma forbes in southern india , southwest france , madagascar ( collignon , 1938 ) and tunisia ( goolaerts et al . , 2004 ) , and also with the occurrence of b . ( b . ) kossmati in western australia ( henderson & mcnamara , 1985 ) .\nin comparison to the campanian , heteromorph ammonites are not so diverse , with only two families and four species in all : nostoceras ( didymoceras ) cf . californicum anderson , neancyloceras pseudoarmatum , diplomoceras notabile and glyptoxoceras sp . many seamounts have now been charted , inclusive of data on their fossil records , for example , zelandites japonicus , saghalinites sp . and indeterminate belemnitids , the latter from the magellan rise , ioan guyot ( yu . d . zakharov et al . , 2007 ) .\nwe thank c . klug ( z\u00fcrich ) , c . monnet ( lille ) , and d . korn ( berlin ) for their constructive critique and comments .\nanderson fm ( 1958 ) upper cretaceous of the pacific coast . gsa mem 71\nbando y , sato t , matsumoto t ( 1987 ) palaeobiogeography of the mesozoic ammonoidea , with special reference to asia and the pacific . in : taira a , tashiro m ( eds ) historical biogeography and plate tectonic evolution of japan and eastern asia . terra publications , tokyo\netheridge , 1904 ( ammonoidea ) used as a measuring tape . sedim geol 147 : 193\u2013217\nbirkelund t ( 1993 ) ammonites from the maastrichtian white chalk in denmark . bull geol soc denmark 40 : 33\u201381\ncecca f ( 2002 ) palaeobiogeography of marine invertebrates\u2014concepts and methods . taylor & francis , london\ncobban wa ( 1972 ) new and little known ammonites from the upper cretaceous ( cenomanian and turonian ) of the western interior of the united states . us geol surv prof pap 699 : 1\u201324\ncobban wa ( 1993 ) diversity and distribution of late cretaceous ammonites , western interior , united states . in : caldwell wge , kauffman eg ( eds ) evolution of the western interior basin . geol ass canada sp pap , 39 : 435\u2013451\ncobban wa , walaszczyk i , obradovich jd , mckinney kc ( 2006 ) a usgs zonal table for the upper cretaceous middle cenomanian - maastrichtian of the western interior of the united states based on ammonites , inoceramids and radiometric ages . us geol surv open file rep 2006 - 1250 : 1\u201347\ncooper mr , owen hg ( 2011 ) evolutionary relationships among schloenbachiidae ( cretaceous ammonoidea : hoplitoidea ) , with a revised classification of the family . n jahrb geol pal\u00e4ont abh 262 : 289\u2013307\ncourville p , lang j , thierry j ( 1998 ) ammonite faunal exchanges between south tethyan platforms and south atlantic during the uppermost cenomanian\u2013lowermost / middle turonian in the benue through ( nigeria ) . geobios 31 : 187\u2013214\ncrame ja , pirrie d , riding jb , thomson mra ( 1991 ) campanian - maastrichtian ( cretaceous ) stratigraphy of the james ross island area , antarctica . j geol soc london 148 : 1125\u201340\nde baets k , bert d , hofmann r , monnet c , yacobucci mm , klug c ( 2015 ) ammonoid intraspecific variability . in : klug c , korn d , de baets k , kruta i , mapes r ( eds ) ammonoid paleobiology : from anatomy to paleoecology\nelder wp ( 1991 ) molluscan paleoecology and sedimentation patterns of the cenomanian\u2013turonian extinction interval in the southern colorado plateau region . in : nations jd , eaton jg ( eds ) stratigraphy , depositional environments , and sedimentary tectonics of the western margin , cretaceous western interior seaway . gsa spec pap 260 : 113\u201337\nengeser t , keupp h ( 2002 ) phylogeny of the aptychi - possessing neoammonoidea ( aptychophora nov . , cephalopoda ) . lethaia 34 : 79\u201396\nfreund r , raab m ( 1969 ) lower turonian ammonites from israel . sp pap palaeont 4 : 1\u201383\ngoolaerts s ( 2010 ) late cretaceous ammonites from tunisia : chronology and causes of their extinction and extrapolation to other areas [ thesis ] . type , katholieke universiteit leuven , leuven\ngoolaerts s , kennedy wj , dupuis c , steurbaut e ( 2004 ) terminal maastrichtian ammonites from the cretaceous - paleogene global stratotype section and point , el kef , tunisia . cret res 25 : 313\u2013328\nhaggart jw , ward pd , orr w ( 2005 ) turonian ( upper cretaceous ) lithostratigraphy and biochronology , southern gulf islands , british columbia , and northern san juan islands , washington state . canad j earth sci 42 : 2001\u20132020\nhancock jm , kennedy wj , cobban wa ( 1993 ) a correlation of the upper albian to basal coniacian sequences of northwest europe , texas and the united states western interior . in : caldwell wge , kauffman eg ( eds ) evolution of the western interior basin . geol assoc canada spec pap 39 : 453\u2013476\nifrim c , stinnesbeck w ( 2007 ) early turonian ammonites from vallecillo , north - eastern mexico : taxonomy , biostratigraphy and palaeobiogeographic significance . cret res 28 : 642\u2013664\nifrim c , stinnesbeck w ( 2008 ) cenomanian\u2013turonian high - resolution biostratigraphy of north - eastern mexico and its correlation with the gssp and europe . cret res 29 : 943\u2013956\nifrim c , stinnesbeck w , lopez - oliva jg ( 2004 ) maastrichtian cephalopods from the m\u00e9ndez formation at cerralvo , northeastern mexico . palaeontology 47 : 1575\u20131627\nifrim c , stinnesbeck w , ventura jf ( 2013 ) an endemic cephalopod assemblage from the lower campanian ( late cretaceous ) parras shale , western coahuila , mexico . j paleontol 87 : 881\u2013901\njagt jwm ( 2002 ) late cretaceous ammonite faunas of the maastrichtian type area . in : summesberger h , histon k , daurer a ( eds ) cephalopods\u2014present and past . abh geol bundesanst , wien 57 : 509\u2013522\njagt - yazykova e ( 2011 ) palaeobiogeograpical and palaeobiological aspects of mid - and late cretacous ammonite evolution and bio - events in russia . scripta geologica 143 : 15\u2013121\njagt - yazykova e ( 2012 ) ammonite faunal dynamics across bio - events during the mid - and late cretaceous along the russian platform . acta paleont pol 57 : 737\u2013748\njeletzky ja ( 1971 ) marine cretaceous biotic provinces and paleogeography of western and arctic canada . pap geol surv of canada 70 - 22 , p . 92\nkauffman eg ( 1977 ) geological and biological overview : western interior cretaceous basin . in : kauffman eg ( ed ) cretaceous facies , faunas , and palaeoenvironments across the western interior seaway . the mountain geologist 14 . the rocky mountain association of geologists , denver\nkawabe f ( 2003 ) relationship between mid - cretaceous ( upper albian - cenomanian ) ammonoid facies and lithofacies in the yezo forearc basin , hokkaido , japan . cret res 24 : 751\u2013763\nkennedy wj ( 1989 ) thoughts on the evolution and extinction of cretaceous ammonites . proc geol assoc 100 : 251\u201379\nkennedy wj ( 1993 ) ammonite faunas of the european maastrichtian ; diversity and extinction . in : house mr ( ed ) the ammonoidea : environment , ecology , and evolutionary change . syst assoc spec vol 47 : 285\u2013326\nkennedy wj , cobban wa ( 1976 ) aspects of ammonite biology , biogeography , and biostratigraphy . sp pap palaeont 17 : 1\u201394\nkennedy wj , cobban wa ( 1991 ) stratigraphy and interregional correlations of the cenomanian\u2013turonian transition in the western interior of the united states near pueblo , colorado ; a potential boundary stratotype for the base of the turonian stage . newslett stratigr 24 : 1\u201333\nkennedy wj , kaplan u ( 2000 ) ammonitenfaunen des hohen oberconiac und santon in westfalen . geol pal\u00e4ont westfalen 57 : 1\u2013126\nkennedy wj , bilotte m , melchior p ( 1995 ) ammonite faunas , biostratigraphy and sequence stratigraphy of the coniacian - santonian of the corbi\u00e8res ( ne pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es ) . bull centre rech explor - prod elf - aquitaine 19 : 377\u2013499\nkennedy wj , walaszczyk i , cobban wa ( 2005a ) the global boundary stratotype section and point for the base of the turonian stage of the cretaceous : pueblo , colorado , u . s . a . episodes 28 : 93\u2013104\nkennedy wj , cobban wa , hancock jm , gale as ( 2005b ) upper albian to lower cenomanian ammonites from the main street limestone , grayson marl and del rio clay in northeastern texas . cret res 26 : 349\u2013428\nkennedy wj , crame ja , bengtson p , thomson mra ( 2007 ) coniacian ammonites from james ross island , antarctica . cret res 28 : 509\u2013531\nzone cephalopod fauna from the elk butte member of the pierre shale , se south dakota and ne nebraska . cret res 19 : 745\u2013775\nklinger hc , kennedy wj ( 2001 ) stratigraphic and geographic distribution , phylogenetic trends and general comments on the ammonite family baculitidae gill , 1871 ( with and annotated list of species referred to the family ) . ann south african mus 107 : 1\u2013290\nlandman n , garb mp , rovelli r dse , edwards le ( 2012 ) short - term survival of ammonites in new jersey after the end - cretaceous bolide impact . acta paleont pol 57 : 703\u2013715\nlandman nh , johnson ro , edwards le ( 2004a ) cephalopods from the cretaceous / tertiary boundary interval on the atlantic coastal plain , with a description of the highest ammonite zones in north america . part 1 . maryland and north carolina . am mus nov 3454 : 1\u201364\nlandman nh , johnson ro , edwards le ( 2004b ) cephalopods from the cretaceous / tertiary boundary interval on the atlantic coastal plain , with a description of the highest ammonite zones in north america . part 2 . northeastern monmouth county , new jersey . bull am mus nat hist 287 : 1\u2013107\nlandman nh , johnson ro , garb mp , edwards le , kyte ft ( 2004c ) cephalopods from the cretaceous / tertiary boundary interval on the atlantic coastal plain , with a description of the highest ammonite zones in north america . part 3 . manasquin river basin , monmouth county , new jersey . bull am mus nat hist 303 : 1\u2013122\nlandman nh , johnson ro , garb mp , edwards le , kyte ft ( 2010 ) cephalopods from the cretaceous / tertiary boundary , new jersey , usa . in : tanabe k , shigeta y , sasaki t , hirano h ( eds ) cephalopods\u2014present and past . tokai university press , tokyo\nmacellari ce ( 1987 ) progressive endemism in the late cretaceous ammonite family kossmaticeratidae and the breakup of gondwanaland . in : mckenzie gd ( ed ) gondwana six : stratigraphy , sedimentology , and paleontology . geophysical monograph series 41 . agu , washington , d . c .\nmachalski m ( 2002 ) danian ammonites : a discussion . bull geol soc denmark 49 : 49\u201352\nmachalski m ( 2005 ) late maastrichtian and earliest danian scaphitid ammonites from central europe : taxonomy , evolution , and extinction . acta geol pol 50 : 653\u2013696\nmachalski m , heinberg c ( 2005 ) evidence for ammonite survival into the danian ( paleogene ) from the cerithium limestone at stevns klint , denmark . bull geol soc denmark 52 : 97\u2013111\nmachalski m , jagt jmw , alekseev as , jagt - yazykova e ( 2012 ) terminal maastrichtian ammonites from turkmenistan , central asia . acta paleont pol 57 : 729\u201335\nmatsumoto t ( 1973 ) late cretaceous ammonoidea . in : hallam a ( ed ) atlas of palaeobiogeography . elsevier , amsterdam\nmatsumoto t ( 1977 ) some heteromorph ammonites from the cretaceous of hokkaido . fac . sci . kyushu univ . 23 : 303\u2013366 ( ser d , geol )\nmonnet c ( 2009 ) the cenomanian\u2013turonian boundary mass exctinction ( late cretaceous ) : new insights from ammonoid biodiversity patterns of europe , tunisia and the western interior ( north america ) . palaeogeogr palaeoclim palaeoecol 282 : 88\u2013104\nmonnet c , bucher h ( 2007 ) european ammonoid diversity questions the spreading of anoxia as primary cause for the cenomanian / turonian ( late cretaceous ) mass extinction . swiss j geosc 100 : 137\u2013144\nmonnet c , bucher h , escarguel g , guex j ( 2003 ) cenomanian ( early late cretaceous ) ammonoid faunas of western europe . part ii : diversity patterns and the end - cenomanian anoxic event . ecl geol helv 96 : 381\u2013398\nmonnet c , klug c , de baets k ( 2015 ) evolutionary patterns of ammonoids : phenotypic trends , convergence , and parallel evolution . this volume\nmyers ce , mackenzie rai , lieberman bs ( 2013 ) greenhouse biogeography : the relationship of geographic range to invasion and extinction in the cretaceous western interior seaway . paleobiol 39 : 135\u2013148\nnagm e , wilmsen m , aly mf , hewaidy a - g ( 2010 ) upper cenomanian - turonian ( upper cretaceous ) ammonoids from the western wadi araba , eastern desert , egypt . cret res 31 : 473\u2013499\nolivero eb ( 2007 ) taphonomy of ammonites from the santonian - lower campanian santa marta formation , antarctica : sedimentological controls on vertically embedded ammonites . palaios 22 : 586 - 597 . doi : 10 . 2110 / palo . 2005 . p05 - 118r .\nolivero eb ( 2012 ) sedimentary cycles , ammonite diversity and palaeoenvironmental changes in the upper cretaceous marambio group , antarctica . cret res 34 : 348\u2013366\nolivero eb , medina fa ( 2000 ) patterns of late cretaceous ammonite biogeography in southern high latitudes : the family kossmaticeratidae in antarctica . cret res 21 : 269\u2013279\npage kn ( 1996 ) mesozoic ammonoids in space and time . in : landman n , tanabe k , davis ra ( eds ) ammonoid paleobiology . topics in geobiology 13 , plenum , new york\nremin z ( 2010 ) upper coniacian , santonian , and lowermost campanian ammonites of the lipnik - kije section , central poland\u2013\u2013taxonomy , stratigraphy , and palaeogeographic significance . cret res 31 : 154\u2013180\nreyment ra ( 1956 ) on the stratigraphy and palaeontology of nigeria and the cameroons , british west africa . geologiska f\u00f6reningens 1 stockholm f\u00f6rhandlingar 78 : 17\u201396\nsalazar c , stinnesbeck w , quinzio - sinn la ( 2010 ) ammonites from the maastrichtian ( upper cretaceous ) quiriquina formation in central chile . n jahrb geol pal\u00e4ont abh 257 : 181\u2013236\nseeling j , bengtson p ( 2002 ) palaeobiogeography of the upper cenomanian\u2013lower turonian macroinvertebrates of the sergipe basin , northeastern brazil . schriftenr erdwiss komm \u00f6st akad wiss 15 : 151\u2013168\nskelton pw ( 2003 ) the mobile palaeogeographical framework . in : skelton pw ( ed ) the cretaceous world . the open university & cambridge university press , cambridge\nstinnesbeck w , ifrim c , salazar c ( 2012 ) the last cretaceous ammonites in latin america . acta geol pol 57 : 717\u2013728\nstinnesbeck w , ifrim c , schmidt h , rindfleisch a , buchy m - c , frey e , gonz\u00e1lez gonz\u00e1lez ah , vega - vera fj , porras - muzquiz h , cavin l , keller g , smith kt ( 2005 ) a new lithographic limestone deposit in the upper cretaceous austin group at el rosario , county of muzquiz , coahuila , northeastern mexico . rev mex cie geol 22 : 401\u2013418\nthomel g ( 1972 ) les acanthoceratidae c\u00e9nomaniens des chaines subalpines m\u00e9ridionales . m\u00e9m soc g\u00e9ol france , nouv s\u00e9r 116 : 1\u2013204\ntoshimizu s , hirano h , matsumoto t , takahashi k ( 2003 ) database and species diversity of japanese ammonoids . j asian earth sci 21 : 887\u2013893\nwalaszczyk i , marcinowski r , praszkier t , dembicz k , bienkowska m ( 2004 ) biogeographical and stratigraphical significance of the latest turonian and early coniacian inoceramid / ammonite succession of the manasoa section on the onilahy river , south - west madagascar . cret res 25 : 543\u2013576\nward pd ( 1990 ) a review of maastrichtian ammonite ranges . in : sharpton vl , ward pd ( eds ) global catastrophes in earth history ; an interdisciplinary conference on impacts , volcanism , and mass mortality . gsa spec pap 247 : 519\u2013530\nward pd ( 2009 ) comparing morphological variation in upper cretaceous ammonite species co - occurring in a large and small biogeographic realm . gsa ann meeting abs prog 41 : 210\nward pd , kennedy wj ( 1993 ) maastrichtian ammonites from the biscay region . j paleont 67 ( suppl . 5 ) : 1\u201358\nward pd , mitchell rn , haggart jw ( 2008 ) co - occurring campanian / maastrichtian index fossils in the western interior and north pacific biotic provinces require fundamental changes in zonal biostratigraphy for both provinces . in : joint meeting of the gsa , soil science society of america , american society of agronomy , crop science society of america , gulf coast association of geological societies with the gulf coast section of sepm ( eds ) 40 , houston , texas\nward pd , mitchell rn , salder p ( 2010 ) late cretaceous ammonite evolution in the western interior as compared to other biogeographic provinces . gsa ann meeting\u2014abs prog 42 : 394\nwestermann geg ( 2000a ) biochore classification and nomenclature in paleobiogeography : an attempt to order . palaeogeogr palaeoclim palaeoecol 158 : 1\u201313\nwestermann geg ( 2000b ) marine faunal realms of the mesozoic : review and revision under the new guidelines for biogeographic classification and nomenclature . palaeogeogr palaeoclim palaeoecol 163 : 49\u201368\nwiedmann j ( 1988 ) ammonoid extinction and the \u201ccretaceous\u2013tertiary boundary event\u201d . in : wiedmann j , kullmann j ( eds ) cephalopods\u2014present and past . schweizerbart , stuttgart\nwiese f , voigt s ( 2002 ) late turonian ( cretaceous ) climate cooling in europe : faunal response and possible causes . geobios 35 : 65\u201377\nwright cw ( 1996 ) cretaceous ammonoidea . in : kaesler rl ( ed ) treatise on invertebrate paleontology . 2nd ed . part l , mollusca 4 , rev . university of kansas & gsa , boulder , lawrence . xx + 362\nwright cw , kennedy j ( 1984\u20131996 ) the ammonoidea of the lower chalk . monogr paleont soc , london , pp . 1\u2013126 ( 1984 ) ; 127\u2013218 ( 7 ) ; 219\u2013294 ( 91 ) ; 295\u2013319 ( 95 ) ; 32\u2013403 ( 96 )\nzaborski pmp ( 1982 ) campanian and maastrichtian sphenodiscid ammonites from southern nigeria . bull brit mus nat hist ( geol ) 36 : 303\u2013332\nzinsmeister wj , feldmann rm , woodburne mo , elliot dh ( 1989 ) latest cretaceous / earliest tertiary transition on seymour island , antarctica . j paleont 63 : 731\u2013738\nifrim c . , lehmann j . , ward p . ( 2015 ) paleobiogeography of late cretaceous ammonoids . in : klug c . , korn d . , de baets k . , kruta i . , mapes r . ( eds ) ammonoid paleobiology : from macroevolution to paleogeography . topics in geobiology , vol 44 . springer , dordrecht\njavascript is disabled in your browser settings . this website won ' t work as expected !\npavlovia is an evolute genus . the ribs are strong and well spaced . they are simple on the periumbilical region and on the flank . they generally bifurcate , and sometimes trifurcate , just before running over the venter .\nthe shell is made of a succession of straight parallel shafts . a given shaft can grow just enough to encompass the previous one or , like in the photographed specimen , it can get much longer than the previous one . the simple ribs are quite smooth on the early stage and get stronger when approaching t\nsphenodiscus is highly involute with an extremely compressed whorl section . the surface of the shell is smooth and the venter is very sharp . the suture pattern is complex with many lobes and saddles .\nprolyelliceras is highly evolute . it has strong , simple and well spaced ribs which run straight over the venter . on the venter , the ribs bear tubercles on ventral and lateral - ventral positions . the ornamentation is completed by a lateral row of tubercles .\naustraliceras is an heteromorph genus with whorls very close to each others and simple ribbing . on the juvenile whorls , smooth ribs alternate with ribs bearing conical tubercles . the tubercles get smaller with the growth of the shell until they disappear on the body chamber .\ncompressed whorl section with a round venter . simple ribs on the periumbilical region , which fork at the start of the flank and then run straight across the venter . the shell is terminated with a simple peristome .\npeltoceras marysae is an evolute species . the microconch only shows the first two stages of the macroconch : the inner whorls show fine , dense simple ribs , which then become a bit stronger and sometimes fork . the ammonite is terminated by two lappets .\npeltoceras marysae is an evolute species and its ornamentation changes a lot along its growth . the inner whorls show fine , dense simple ribs , which then become a bit stronger and sometimes fork . then appears a bituberculated stage with very strong tubercles . the ornamentation becomes softer on the b\nkosmoceras inner whorls are involute and the outer whorls becomes moderately evolute . the fine ribbing on the inner whorls persists on the body chamber and become wavy when approaching the aperture , announcing the lappets . the ventral tubercles , separated by a smooth depression also persists on the\nkosmoceras inner whorls are involute and the outer whorls becomes moderately evolute . the fine ribbing on the inner whorls tends to disappear on the body chamber . the ventral tubercles , separated by a smooth depression , disappear on the body chamber which presents a smooth venter . the periumbilical\ndactylioceras is highly evolute and has strong slightly inclined forward ribs . the ribs run over the venter and sometimes fork on its outer edge . dactylioceras commune can be distinguished by its almost perfectly round whorl section . the fine ribbing in the inner whorls becomes sparser on the outer\nthe juvenile whorls form a tightly coiled helical spire covered with a fine ribbing . the body chamber then rolls away from the juvenile whorls before turning back towards them in a ' u ' turn . the ribbing gets stronger on the body chamber . the aperture of the body chamber is right underneath the spire\nquite thick involute genus with strong ribbing on the inner whorls and a smooth keel . the ribbing tends to disappear on the body chamber which represents about 90 % of the last whorl .\nplanispiral heteromorphic genus . strong simple ribs distinctly spaced . aegocrioceras capricornu can be distinguished by its tight coiling and the thickness of the whorl .\nplanispiral heteromorphic genus . strong simple ribs distinctly spaced . aegocrioceras capricornu can be distinguished by its loose coiling and the very slow growth of the width of the whorl .\nthe early whorls , planispirally coiled and highly evolute , are followed by a more or less straight section . the senile stage is materialized by a section of shell that turns back on itself in a hook like shape . ornamentation based on straight , radial and simple ribs , with sporadic constrictions . at\nsmall involute species . the last whorl shows two elbows ( a round one followed by a pinched one ) and narrow flanks . the thin ribs start above a flat periumbilical zone and they generally divide into two ribs at mid - flank . the umbilicus has a rectangular shape with rounded angles . the rostrum is prece\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nthis file is copyrighted and has been released under a license which is incompatible with facebook ' s licensing terms . it is not permitted to upload this file at facebook .\nthis file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - share alike 4 . 0 international license .\nattribution \u2013 you must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author or licensor ( but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work ) .\nshare alike \u2013 if you alter , transform , or build upon this work , you may distribute the resulting work only under the same or similar license to this one .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 / / en\n[ 1 ] text - fig . 12e - f ifrim et al . ( 2004 ) [ 2 ] text - fig . 13d - e ifrim et al . ( 2004 )\nupper maastrichtian , ifrim et al . ( 2004 ) : ifrim et al . ( 2004 )\nkennedy , w . j . . ( 1986 ) : the ammonite fauna of the calcaire \u00e0 baculites ( upper maastrichtian ) of the cotentin peninsula ( manche , france ) . palaeontology vol . 29 ( 1 ) p . 25 - 83\nifrim , c . . ; stinnesbeck , w . . and l\u00f3pez - oliva , j . g . . ( 2004 ) : maastrichtian cephalopods from cerralvo , north - eastern mexico . palaeontology vol . 47 ( 6 ) p . 1575\u00961627\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n. . . - the aptychi of this species are elongated in shape ; at the juvenile stage , they are slightly wider than at the adult stage ( fig . 4 ) . the outer bivalve calcitic plates increase their thickness towards the lateral margin ( see terminology in kruta et al . 2009 ; fig . 1 ) , reaching their maximum thick - ness at some distance from the edge and then decreasing ( fig . 5a , b ) . the surface of the calcitic layer is either smooth , or , in some cases , carries sub - tle longitudinal grooves , growth lines or small shal - low pits in the initial part ( fig . 4c ) . . . .\n. . . although aptychi praestriaptyhus and granulapty - chus with a thin calcitic plate were described by trauth ( 1927trauth ( - 1936trauth ( , 1938 , their microstructure rarely became an object of study . the microstructure of aptychi has been studied mainly regarding rela - tively thick form types : laevaptychus and lamellap - tychus ( von zittel 1903 ; schindewolf 1958 ; farinacci et al . 1976 ; hewitt et al . 1993 ; kruta et al . 2009 ) , due to this fact , the typical features of these morpho - types ( e . g . three - layered structure and tubular layer ) were approximated to other types of upper jurassic aptychi . . . .\n. . . this lamellar structure makes it possible to understand the mode of aptychi growth : each new lamella was deposited along the lateral margin of the aptychus and slightly overlapped the previous one ; therefore , aptychi grew not only hori - zontally but also vertically , gradually thickening . similarly , with the thickening in a vertical direction , the laevaptychi of aspidoceratid macroconchs grew ( kruta et al . 2009 ) . therefore , despite significant differences in the microstructure and the number of calcitic layers , the growth pattern of aptychi in both sexual dimorphic counterparts of aspidoceratinae was quite similar . . . .\n. . . the outer chitinous lamella is sculptured by dense , concentric growth lines and has an indentation at the midline joint in the posterior margin . the outer calcified element of the lower jaw , i . e . , aptychus , is made of calcite ( schindewolf 1958 ; landman et al . 2007 ; kruta et al . 2009 ) . it is distinctly partitioned into paired plates along the harmonic midline joint termed\nsymphysenrand\nby trauth ( 1927 ) , whose english equivalent , symphysis , was introduced by arkell ( 1957 ) . . . .\n. . . during activity their hyponomic sinus forms a ventral peristome angle ( v p ) of only 5\u2013158 allowing their hyponome to bend beneath the shell during forward - jetting , i . e . , clear adaptations to their scavenging and carnivorous , nekto - benthic habits . mesozoic ammonoids vary from brevidomic to longidomic and consistently lack a hyponomic sinus indicating basically different propulsion systems ranging from moderate forwards and backwards swimming potential , including the possibility of medusa - like slow propulsion by modified arms and twin - nozzle hyponomes ( westermann , 2013 ) , to vertically migrating or drifting megaplankton , planktivorous habits ( westermann , 1996 ; kruta et al . , 2009 ) . . . .\n. . . because recent material is unavailable for comparison , we selected an example of the best preserved aptychus ( amnh 54277 ) from the lower campanian of alabama . in amnh 54277 , the calcitic increments are identifiable and the main lamellar layer ( r1 ) and the outer layer ( r2 ) are well defined in this specimen ( see [ 27 ] for a discussion of aptychus microstructure ) . we assigned a high preservation index ( 5 = excellent preservation ) if the two layers ( r1 and r2 ) could be identified and / or if calcitic increments could be observed ( for very small pieces of aptychus , the outer layer was not always present ) . . . .\n. . . aptychus - type lower jaws are characterized by the presence of a pair of calcareous plates ( aptychus in sensu stricto ) that cover the wide area of the underlying outer chitinous lamella with a distinct median depression . the paired calcareous plates are made of calcite ( schindewolf 1958 ; landman et al . 2007 ; kruta et al . 2009 ) . in cross - section along the maximum growth axis , each of the paired plates is built up of obliquely arranged microincrements that were probably secreted from outside by the overlying epithelial issue , as in the case of the anterior calcareous tips of modern nautilids ( tanabe & fukuda 1987b ; seilacher 1993 ) . . . .\n. . . the calcite appears as two plates , forming the aptychus ( see landman et al . , 2007b , for a description of the aptychus in baculites ) . the aptychus is only 100 to 200 mm thick in scaphites ( kruta et al . , 2009 ) . the ventral surface of the aptychus is covered with comarginal lirae . . . .\nmicrostructure and mineralogy of the outer calcareous layer in the lower jaws of cretaceous tetragon . . .\ntanabe , k . , landman , n . h . & kruta , i . 2011 : microstructure and mineralogy of the outer calcareous layer in the lower jaws of cretaceous tetragonitoidea and desmoceratoidea ( ammonoidea ) . lethaia , vol . 45 , pp . 191\u2013199 . based on the differences in their relative size , overall shape , structure and the degree of development of an outer calcified covering , lower jaws of the ammonoidea have been . . . [ show full abstract ]\nwe report on well - preserved upper and lower jaws found inside the body chambers of two specimens of didymoceras nebrascense ( meek and hayden , 1856 ) from the upper cretaceous pierre shale of the usa . the finds are described and compared to existing material , and their possible functions are discussed .\ndocumentation of repaired injuries and abnormalities on the jaws ofmodern nautilus sheds light on the ecology and behavior of these animals . it also helps elucidate the function of ammonite aptychi , which are traditionally interpreted as opercula . we examined 219 pairs of jaws belonging to nautilus belauensis , n . mucmmphulus , n . pompilius , and allonautilus scrobiculatus . abnormalities occur in . . . [ show full abstract ]\nammonites are prominent in macroevolutionary studies because of their abundance and diversity in the fossil record , but their paleobiology and position in the marine food web are not well understood due to the lack of preserved soft tissue . we present three - dimensional reconstructions of the buccal apparatus in the mesozoic ammonite baculites with the use of synchrotron x - ray microtomography . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nextinct species : late cretaceous , coniacian - maastrichtian ( 89 . 3 - 70 . 6 ma )"]}
{"id": 1318, "summary": [{"text": "the hairy-legged vampire bat ( diphylla ecaudata ) is one of three extant species of vampire bats .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it mainly feeds on the blood of birds , but can also feed both on domestic birds and humans .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "this vampire bat lives mainly in tropical and subtropical forestlands of south america , central america , and southern mexico .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it is the sole member of the genus diphylla . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "hairy - legged vampire bat", "paragraphs": ["hairy - legged vampire bats are the rarest of the three vampire bat species ( mccarthy 1987 ) .\nthe flying mammals are well known to feed on blood , however , the hairy - legged vampire bat and white - winged vampire bat subspecies predominantly feast on birds .\nschutt , jr . , w . , j . altenbach . 1997 . a sixth digit in diphylla ecaudata , the hairy legged vampire bat .\nhairy - legged vampire bats are nocturnal . they roost either alone or in small groups of 12 or less . in one study ,\ntexas parks & wildlife , 1994 .\nhairy legged vampire\n( on - line ) . accessed march 21 , 2001 at urltoken .\nreddell , j . r . 1968 . the hairy - legged vampire , diphylla ecaudata , in texas . journal of mammalogy 49 : 769 .\nvampire bats ( desmodus rotundus ) are bats that feed on blood . this particular habit in certain animals is known as \u2018hematophagy\u2019 . there are only three bat species that actually feed on blood : the common vampire bat ( desmodus rotundus ) , the hairy - legged vampire bat ( diphylla ecaudata ) and the white - winged vampire bat ( diaemus youngi ) .\n, commonly referred to as hairy - legged vampire bats , range from reddish brown to sooty brown in color . they have a narrow , hairy interfemoral membrane and a pug - nosed snout . hairy - legged vampire bats are distinguished by their typically smaller body and ears than other vampire bats . they also have a total of 26 teeth , more than other vampire bat species . hairy - legged vampire bats have highly modified upper incisors . these incisors are larger than the canines and occlude against each other so that they are continuously sharpened to a very fine edge . the outer incisors are much reduced ( carattini 2001 ; texas parks and wildlife 1994 ) .\nvampire bats only come out to feed when it is fully dark . like fruit - eating bats and unlike insectivorous and fish - eating bats , they only emit low - energy sound pulses . the common vampire bat feeds mostly on the blood of mammals , whereas the hairy - legged vampire bat , and the white - winged vampire bat feed on the blood of birds .\nnone of these theories about the origins of vampire bats has been proved . evidence from proteins suggests that vampire bats have been around for 6 to 8 million years . these are the dates when the hairy - legged vampire bats separated from the white - winged vampire bats and the common vampire bats .\nvampire bats are among the most fascination of mammals , although we know relatively little about the details of their lives . common vampire bats , as their name implies , are the most widespread of vampires . they adapt well to captivity and often are exhibited in zoos . these bats may be among the best studied in the world . hairy - legged vampire bats and white - winged vampire bats are less common and are less often caught by biologists . while common vampire bats may feed on the blood of mammals or birds , the white - winged vampire bat and the hairy - legged vampire bat are thought to prefer bird blood .\nscientists in brazil have discovered that hairy - legged vampire bats have resorted to feeding on humans , sparking fears that the rabies and hantavirus - carrying creatures could cause an increase in disease in humans .\n\u2026or desmodus , youngi ) and the hairy - legged vampire bat ( diphylla ecaudata ) are the only sanguivorous ( blood - eating ) bats . the common vampire bat thrives in agricultural areas and feeds on livestock such as cattle , pigs , and chickens . the other two vampires are primarily restricted to intact forests , where they feed on birds , reptiles , \u2026\nvampire bat colonies appear to be naturally decimated by rabies virus infections and discrete colonies may fall to population densities incapable of maintaining transmission . the so - called \u2018migration\u2019 of vampire bat - associated rabies described from south america ( for detailed discussion of the epidemiology of vampire bat rabies , see\n) , and wildlife rabies control programs are still nonexistent ( other than vampire bat control ) .\n) . cyclic changes in vampire bat populations could drive cyclic and periodic epidemics of cattle rabies caused by vampire bat transmitted rabies . in regions of central and south america , areas affected by vampire rabies experience outbreaks every 2 to 3 years (\nbecause hairy - legged vampire bats almost always feed by taking the blood of birds , they rarely attack humans . if they were to bite a human , the wounds would not be serious . however , it is possible for them to transmit rabies and other diseases through those wounds . because hairy - legged vampire bats may occasionally take blood from livestock and trasmit diseases , they are potentially economically important to cattlemen and sportsmen of texas as a reservoir of bovine paralytic rabies ( texas parks & wildlife 1994 ; carattini 2001 ; britannica 1999 - 2000 ) .\nlet ' s follow the process as a common vampire bat sets out for a night ' s foraging .\nwhile in the wild , this species of vampire bat may live about 9 years . in captivity they may survive much longer (\nvampire bats\n2001 ) .\nperhaps as a result of being so misunderstood , vampire bats and many other bat species are at risk of extinction .\ndoes not eat for more than 2 nights in a row then it will die from starvation . it has been estimated that about 1 / 3 of hairy - legged vampire bats does not eat each night , they must then rely on shared food from roost mates ( schutt & altenbach 1997 ; tomlinson ; texas parks & wildlife 1994 ) .\ncarattini , l . 2001 .\nthe vampire bat\n( on - line ) . accessed march 21 , 2001 at urltoken .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the vampire bat article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nvampire bats tend to live in almost completely dark places , such as caves , old wells , hollow trees and buildings . colonies can range from a single individual to thousands . vampire bats often roost with other species of bat .\nstudies of common vampire bats in costa rica indicate that it is risky to depend upon blood as the only source of food . each adult common vampire bat has a 7 % chance of not feeding on any night . this means that about once every 25 nights the bat will miss its meal and go hungry . common vampire bats cannot survive two nights without meal , so fasting is dangerous . for young bats , the risk of not finding food is higher , 33 % . so , twice a week each young common vampire bat will probably miss a meal .\n) . such areas have been associated with high incidences of vampire bat rabies transmission to both humans and herbivores and have identified the circulation of specific virus lineages within localized geographical locations . it is hypothesized that topological features such as dense jungle may restrict vampire bat movement and that this results in the generation of viral sublineages circulating within distinct regions (\nfurther surveys are needed in the amazon region to confirm the species presence or absence . as for other vampire species , education programs about vampire and rabies control programs are required . the species should be excluded from vampire control programs .\nthere are no major threats throughout its range . there are vampire control programs .\nonce the common vampire bat locates a host , usually a sleeping mammal , they land and approach it on the ground . a recent study found that common vampire bats can , in addition to walking , run at speeds of up to 1 . 2 metres per second . vampire bats locate a suitable place to bite their victims using their infrared sensors .\nshedding the plasma makes taking off from the ground easier . but the bat still has added almost 60 % of its body weight in blood . to take off from the ground the bat must generate lots of lift . common vampire bats have very long thumbs . as the bat prepares to take off it crouches close to the ground and then , by contracting its chest muscles , flings itself skyward . the thumbs provide extra leverage for takeoff . usually within two hours of setting out , the common vampire bat returns to its roost and settles down to spend the rest of the night digesting its blood meal .\nthe tank is the bat ' s stomach , and its lining rapidly absorbs the blood plasma . in turn , the circulatory system shunts the plasma to the kidneys . from there it passes to the bladder and out of the bat . within 2 minutes of beginning to feed , a common vampire bat begins to urinate . the urine is very dilute - - no wonder , it is the plasma from that blood meal . the plasma is heavy but contains no nutritive value , so the bat benefits from leaving it behind .\ntropics . only one specimen of a vampire bat has ever been found in the united states , in texas in 1967 , and it probably had wandered some 700 km north from its breeding population . .\ncommon vampire bats usually roost in hollows , so they may be found in caves , hollow trees and buildings . the bat leaves its roost just after dusk , setting out to find a meal . the relatively long and narrow wings - - providing a high aspect ration on high wing loading - - make it possible for the common vampire bat to fly rapidly and consume relatively little energy in doing so .\nvampire bats are not an endangered species and have a conservation status of being \u2018least concern\u2019 .\n) . alongside this , both deforestation and the introduction of prey species such as livestock into new areas provide a food source that will help increase populations of vampire bats . the white - winged vampire bat is found from mexico to southern argentina and is also present on the islands of trinidad and isla margarita . in trinidad , white - winged vampire bats have been found cohabiting roosts in caves with\nis one of three species of vampire bats , all of which are found only in the new world tropics . only one specimen of a vampire bat has ever been found in the united states , in texas in 1967 , and it probably had wandered some 700 km north from its breeding population . .\nvampire bats can live up to 9 years in the wild and up to 19 in captivity .\nit sounds like the stuff of horror fiction , but scientists have raised health fears after a species of disease - carrying vampire bat , previously thought to mostly diet on birds , has been discovered feeding on human blood .\nthe feeding pattern of the vampire bat adds a layer of complexity to its anatomy . because they often do not find host organisms for many hours and may have to fly a long distance to do so , vampire bats usually feed in enormous quantities . this influx of proteins can however make the bat too heavy to fly . vampire bats have so much stealth that they can drink for 30 minutes without awakening the animal . if vampire bats do not get blood for two days , they will eventually die , but that is less likely to happen . female bats are generous and will give their blood to other bats who lack food .\nunlike fruit - eating bats , the vampire bats have a short , conical muzzle without a nose leaf . instead they have naked pads with u - shaped grooves at the tip . the common vampire bat also has specialised infrared sensors on its nose , by which it perceives temperature . a nucleus has been found in the brain of vampire bats that has a similar position and has similar histology to the infrared nucleus of infrared sensitive snakes .\nradio - tracking studies suggest that a foraging common vampire bat returns to a general area where it has found prey before . having reached its foraging area , the bat must find and select a victim . the fine details of its search and selection behaviour remain unknown . however , the inferior coliculus , part of the bat ' s brain thatt processes sound , is specialized for detecting the regular breathing sounds of a sleeping animal such as a cow . the bat lands on the ground near its intended victim and approaches on foot . among bats , common vampires are the most agile on the ground , hopping about like ballet dancers .\n2001 .\nvampire bats\n( on - line ) . accessed march 21 , 2001 at urltoken .\n, native to the tropics of central and south america . there are three recognised sub - species of vampire\nthe human population across central america and vast regions of south america remains at risk of rabv transmission from bats , in particular , hematophagous or vampire bats . there are only three species of hematophagous bat that consume blood exclusively as their diet : the\nvampire bats have burnt amber coloured fur on their backside while soft and velvety light brown fur that covers their belly . vampire bats have a wingspan of about 8 inches and a body about the size of an adults thumb .\napparently , the bats urinary system accommodates this by releasing dilute urine consisting of a lot of water and fewer solutes . however , when the bat is resting , a new problem is faced . the large amounts of protein create excess urea and must be disposed of . the urinary system of the vampire bat then uses various hormones to make concentrated urine which consists of more urea and less water .\ngroom each other and help other bats in need . by learning to recognize other bats in a colony through voice and smell , bats can communicate with each other when necessary . a bat can beg for food and another bat who has built a strong bond with that bat will regurgitate blood for it to eat , demonstrating reciprocal social behavior . these bats are shy , quick to take flight , and seem to rapidly vacate roosts once they have been disturbed by humans (\nvampire bats\n2001 ; texas parks & wildlife 1994 ) .\nexisting data on colonies of bats in the united states : summary and analysis of the u . s . geological survey ' s bat population database\n) is compatible with a traveling wavefront of rabies propagating among neighboring vampire bat metapopulations , whereby populations are decimated in the trough behind the traveling wavefront and require time to recover above some critical population density to support rabies virus transmission . control of population densities below the\nthen crawls up to it ' s generally sleeping victim , before biting it and feeding on the flowing blood . vampire\nis present across much of latin america . it has been postulated that the introduction of domesticated livestock to the americas has increased vampire bat densities considerably over the past 300 years through an increase in available prey species such as cattle , horses , goat , and sheep (\nvampire bats are members of the new world leaf - nosed bats , the phyllostomidae . all three species of living vampire bats occur in south and central america . fossils of three other species reveal that several thousand years ago vampire bats were more widespread . they are known from cuba and from as far north as west virginia and the northern califfornia , places where they no longer occur . with the exception of captive amimals , vampire bats have never been found outside of the new world .\ndo not suck the blood of their victims , but inside lap it up using their grooved tongue as it flows out of the wound . chemicals in the vampire bat ' s saliva both stop the blood from clotting and numb the area of skin around the bite to prevent the\nthere is a heat ( infrared ) sensor on the nose - leaf of common vampire bats , permitting them to locate an area where the blood flows close to the skin . if there is fur on the skin , the common vampire bat uses its canine and cheek teeth like a barber ' s shears to clip away the hairs . the bat ' s razor - sharp upper incisor teeth are then used to make a quick cut , leaving the 5 - mm wound described above . the upper incisors lack enamel , making it easier to keep them razor sharp .\na vampire bat finds its prey with echolocation ( use of ultra - high frequency sounds for navigation ) , smell , and sound . they fly about one metre above the ground . then they use special heat sensors in their noses to find veins that are close to the skin .\nsources : 1 . david burnie , dorling kindersley ( 2008 ) illustrated encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 2 . david burnie , kingfisher ( 2011 ) the kingfisher animal encyclopedia [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 3 . david w . macdonald , oxford university press ( 2010 ) the encyclopedia of mammals [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 4 . dorling kindersley ( 2006 ) dorling kindersley encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 5 . richard mackay , university of california press ( 2009 ) the atlas of endangered species [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 6 . tom jackson , lorenz books ( 2007 ) the world encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 7 . vampire bat behaviour ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 8 . vampire bat feeding ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 9 . vampire bat lifecycles ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 10 . vampire bat senses ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 11 . vampire bats ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ]\nthe feeding process usually takes about a half an hour . an adult may consume about 5 teaspoons of blood , which is about half of its body weight . after the bat feeds , it urinates continuously until it is light enough to fly again . the longest this bat can go without eating is 2 nights . if\ncommon vampire bats will almost always have only one offspring per breeding season . each colony will typically contain only one reproducing male , with around twenty females and their offspring . vampire bats need blood at least once every few days to survive . if they cannot get blood , they will approach another vampire bat whilst roosting , asking for a blood \u2018transfusion\u2019 . the blood is exchanged mouth - to - mouth in a motion that looks very much like kissing . their babies use tiny thumbs in the middle of the wing to cling on the mothers furry belly .\nparticipate in altruistic feeding , whereby a bat that has fed will regurgitate blood for one that has not . this could provide a further opportunity for transmission of virus .\ntomlinson , d .\nnatural history of the vampire\n( on - line ) . accessed march 20 , 2001 at urltoken .\nvampire bats have small ears and a short tail membrane . their front teeth are specialised for cutting and their back teeth are much smaller than in other bats . their digestive systems are also specialised for their liquid diet . the saliva of vampire bats contains the substance , \u2018draculin\u2019 , which prevents the victims blood from clotting . vampire bats therefore , lap blood rather than suck it as most people imagine .\nvampire bats are amazingly well - equipped to live on a diet of blood and only blood - something no other mammal in the world does . its teeth are so razor - sharp that the bird or mammal it feeds on usually does not even feel the tiny bite it inflicts . the bat ' s saliva contains a chemical that keeps the blood flowing , and its tongue is grooved - the bat uses it almost like a straw . as soon as the bat feeds , it urinates . its body retains the nourishing part of the blood but gets rid of the water , so that it does not have to fly away carrying an extra load of weight .\nencyclopaedia britannica , 1999 - 2000 .\nvampire bat\n( on - line ) . accessed march 21 , 2001 at wysiwyg : / / 42 / http : / / www . britannica . com / b . . . 1 + 1 + 74754 , 00 . html ? query = diaemus % 20youn .\nvampire bats are amazingly well - equipped to live on a diet of blood and only blood - something no other mammal in the world does . its teeth are so razor - sharp that the bird or mammal it feeds on usually does not even feel the tiny bite it inflicts . the bat ' s saliva contains a chemical that keeps the blood flowing , and its tongue is grooved - the bat uses it almost like a straw . as soon as the bat feeds , it urinates . its body retains the nourishing part of the blood but gets rid of the water , so that it does not have to fly away carrying an extra load of weight .\nwhen a common vampire bats rerturn to the roost , they often meet face - to - face and groom one another . a bat that fails to feed uses this face - to - face contact to beg blood from a roostmate . the successful bat may then regurgitate some blood to the unsuccessful one . the cost of the doner is relatively small , particularly since before the month is out it will need a donation itself . the benefit to the receiver is high , for it is survival .\nother blood - feeding animals such as ticks , insects and leeches do not face the same problem as vampire bats because they can go for weeks , months or even years without a meal . vampire bats , however , are warm - blooded , and the cost of staying warm means that fasting is soon fatal . the costs of keeping warm account for the absence of vampire bats from cooler parts of north , central and south america .\n5 . white - winged vampires will also take their meals in the trees instead of the barnyard . while a bird roosts on a branch , the bat sneaks up on it from below , crawling along the underside of the branch and staying out of sight . once it\u2019s directly underneath its prey , the bat bites the bird\u2019s big rear - pointing toe and drinks its fill .\nvampire bats are the only known mammals that exist entirely on a diet of blood . their preferred prey are lareg birds , horses , cows and pigs .\ngenetic analyses have revealed that colonies of common vampire bats are mixtures of relatives and nonrelatives . this means that the social support provided by the colony transcends the business of helping relatives . cooperation may be one of the central keys to the success of common vampire bats . we would expect that common vampire bats that are not part of the colony would not get blood from the members of the group . giving blood appears to depend upon the prospect of a donation in return .\nthe bat then begins to use its tongue in the wound as well as its saliva . the action of he tongue keeps blood flowing , while grooves on the underside of the tongue draw blood toward the bat ' s mouth . meanwhile , the saliva has at least three active ingredientts that promote bleeding . one is an anticoagulant that counters the clotting defences . a second keeps red blood cells from sticking together and a third inhibits the constriction of veins near the wound . it may take the bat about 20 minutes to fill its tank ; then it is time to take off and return to its roost .\neach vampire bat , whatever the species , needs about two tablespoonful of blood every day . this represents about 60 % of the bat ' s body weight , or 20 g of blood . the bats extract this blood through a wound they make with their front ( incisor ) teeth . the wounds are approximately 5 mm deep and 5 mm in diameter and do not cut arteries or veins . if you made a wound this size on your body , it would produce about one drop of blood or less than a gram . it appears that vampire bats are\none stop shoppers ,\nfeeding on one victim each night . getting 20 g of blood from a wound that normally produces just one drop is a specialized business .\n7 . unlike its cousins , the common vampire bat eats solely on the ground , and it has evolved to be as nimble there as it is in flight . while most other bats are awkward crawlers , the common vampire can move with a quick run - like gait or hop along the ground , supporting its weight on its hind legs and using its wings and elongated thumbs to steer and push off of the ground . this comes in handy for chasing after prey on the move and for jumping out of the way if it needs to .\n4 . white - winged vampires have a few tricks for feeding on domestic chickens without startling the birds . sometimes , they\u2019ll approach a hen and mimic a chick by nuzzling up to her brood patch . this featherless section of skin on the hen\u2019s underside is densely packed with blood vessels and is used to transfer heat to her eggs or chicks during nesting . the vessels make an easy target for the bat , and if the hen thinks it ' s her baby cuddling up to her , she\u2019ll sit on the bat to give it access to drink . other times , the bats will climb up on a hen\u2019s back , mimicking the touch and weight of a mounting rooster and sending the hen into the crouching stance they take before mating . the bat can then shimmy up to the hen\u2019s neck for a bite and she\u2019ll stay in that position until the bat hops off .\nbiologists have argued for years about whether vampire bats should be housed in their own family ( the desmodontidae ) or included among the new world leaf - nosed bats ( the phyllostomidae ) . people on both sides of this argument agree that the new world leaf - nosed bats are the vampire bats ' closest relatives . vampire bats are highly specialized for feeding on blood . this situation raises several questions : how did blood - feeding arise in bats ? why is it restricted to the new world tropics ? when did it appear ?\nthree theories account for the origin of vampire bats . the first proposes that vampire bats originated from fruit - eating bats . this theory suggests that large , strong upper incisor teeth would make fruit bats well suited to switching to blood . this theory does not explain why blood - feeding did not also appear among the old world fruit bats , the pteropodidae .\npeople are often surprised to learn that vampire bats are not found in central europe . it seems common to suppose that human myths about vampires and stories about dracula somehow involve vampire bats . the truth is that vampire bats got their names from human myths about vampires . in many human cultures , vampires are people who return from the dead to feed on the blood of living people . after the bats were discovered by european explorers , they were given the name vampire , denoting blood - feeding . the blood - feeding were well known to many human inhabitants of south and central america well before their discovery by europeans . bram stoker , intrigued by the publicity surrounding bats that fed on blood , included bats in his book dracula .\nis so fast that they must feed every two days to ensure their survival ( blood is very nutritious containing high amounts of water ) . the nearly 20 teeth in the bat ' s mouth are mostly redundant due to their liquid\nto hunt for food . despite being incredibly strong fliers , the design of their arms and legs means that they can also move about on the ground with surprising speed and agility . vampire\nfears about vampire bats are fueled by a lot of misconceptions . a common one is that the bats bite the throats of their human victims . this is very far from the truth !\n) of a vampire bat rabies virus isolate . as previously reported , a decrease in feeding was observed following the onset of clinical disease in those that succumbed leading to dehydration and reduced salivation . infected bats were swabbed prior to and following the onset of clinical disease . no viral material was detected in swabs from clinical animals ; however , virus isolation in tissue culture was successful from three bats that survived infection after 6 (\nellison , l . e . , t . j . o ' shea , m . a . bogan , a . l . everette , and d . m . schneider . 2003 . existing data on colonies of bats in the united states : summary and analysis of the u . s . geological survey ' s bat population database . monitoring trends in bat populations of the united states and territories : problems and prospects . u . s . geological survey 127 - 237 .\nbats are firmly rooted in western vampire lore , but only three species , out of some 1100 in the order chiroptera , actually have a taste for blood . the vampire bats are the only mammals in the world that live on blood alone , and the unique challenges of that diet make them some of the most specialized , fascinating and downright weird animals that nature has to offer .\nwhen you remember how much blood is available in different sized mammals and birds , it is obvious that one stop shopping for vampire bats will only work with large prey . the availability of large prey and the difficulty of obtaining large amounts of blood probably explains why vampire bats are no bigger than 40 g . fossil species that probably weighed about 60 g may have had more large mammals and birds to tap .\n, it is the bite itself that can cause problems becoming infected or diseased . farmers have not only attempted to poison entire colonies but are also known to destroy their daytime lairs using dynamite , often eliminating thousands of vampire\n) , but it is a solitary bat and does not form groups like desmodus . there are no lingual grooves under the tongue as in desmodus and diaemus , but it does have a groove along the roof of the mouth which may serve as a\nblood gutter\n.\ndescription . a relatively large , sooty - brown bat with no tail ; a narrow , hairy interfemoral membrane ; short , rounded ears ; and a short , pug - nosed snout . the dentition is highly modified with the middle upper incisors larger than the canines ; the outer incisors very small and set so close to the canines that they are easily overlooked ; the crowns of the outer lower incisors seven - lobed , fan - shaped , and more than twice as wide as the inner lower incisors ; premolars and molars very small and probably non - functional . dental formula : i 2 / 2 , c 1 / 1 , pm 1 / 2 , m 2 / 2 x 2 = 26 . external measurements average : total length , 85 mm ; foot , 13 mm ; forearm , 53 mm . weight , 30 - 40 g .\n) . cattle may also be infected from dogs or foxes , in areas where such rabies is endemic . in north america , predominant sources of infection are from wild carnivore species , such as from skunks in the midwest and raccoons in the east . in addition , cattle may infrequently become infected with insectivorous bat rabies virus variants . among 47 rabies - positive bovine samples provided to the centers for disease control and prevention from various state health departments within the us , 8 % ( 4 / 47 ) were bat - associated variants ( j . s . smith , personal communication ) .\nproduces an anticoagulant in their saliva that is about 20 times more powerful than any other anticoagulant known . the saliva has been used as a blood - thinning drug to treat heart attacks and strokes in humans (\nvampire bats\n2001 ) .\n) include an alpha form that is more fibrin dependent than t - pa . its half - life is also longer than that of t - pa . experimental studies have shown that the recombinant alpha - 1 form and the bat plasminogen activator may be superior to t - pa in sustaining recanalization and may cause less fibrinogenolysis .\n) include an alpha form that is more fibrin - dependent than t - pa . its half - life is also longer than that of t - pa . experimental studies have shown that the recombinant alpha - 1 form and the bat plasminogen activator may be superior to t - pa in sustaining recanalization and may cause less fibrinogenolysis .\nin mammals and birds , which are thought to be the usual prey of vampire bats , blood amounts to 6 - 10 % of the animal ' s weight . this means that a 100 - kilogram person ( 220 pounds ) would have no more than 10 kilograms of blood , or a 1 , 000 - kilogram moose would have 100 kilograms of blood . a 450 - gram ( 1 - pound ) rat would have no more than 45 g of blood , and the vampire bats themselves have only 4 g of blood .\n9 . vampires are known to share meals with each other . mother bats regurgitate previously - drunk blood for their offspring until the babies are old enough to hunt on their own . other related bats and even unrelated ones have also been observed puking blood up for one another in a reciprocal arrangement . if a bat can\u2019t find a meal one night , one of its roost - mates may share some of its meal . in the future , the bat who was fed is highly likely to return the favor . if it cheats , or takes a blood donation without ever giving back , it may find that it gets the cold shoulder the next time it needs help .\nbut inside land on the ground close by and crawl up to it , where they are able to detect veins close to the skin ' s surface with precision , thanks to their heat - sensing nose . using it ' s set of sharp front teeth , the vampire\nefforts to eradicate who colonies at a time however , have led to population declines in certain areas . scientists have also discovered though that the anti - coagulant found in the bat ' s saliva , proves to more effective at preventing blood clotting than any medicine , meaning that this could have significant positive implications for patients with strokes or heart attacks .\nvampire bats very rarely bite people because they apparently dislike human blood . the three species of bats are quite different from each other and are therefore placed within different genera ( no other species are currently classified in any of the three genera concerned ) . but they are related .\nis primarily an inhabitant of tropical and subtropical forestlands . they can be found in both mesic , forested and arid , open areas . during the daytime these bats roost in caves , mine tunnels , hollow trees , or abandoned buildings (\nvampire bats\n2001 ; texas parks & wildlife 1994 ) .\nthe food of diphylla is the blood of warm - blooded vertebrates , mainly birds , including domestic chickens . ernest walker reported that diphylla attacks the legs and cloacal region of chickens . one bat was\nobserved alighting on the tail of a chicken , hanging by its hind legs and biting the exposed skin in the cloacal region , and then lapping up the blood while in an upright position .\ncommon vampire bats live together in structured societies that provide a network of social support . like other bats , common vampires are long - lived . banding studies suggest that some survive almost 20 years in the wild . banding studies also reveal that individuals remain in their roosting groups for at least three years and probably for their entire lives . colonies of common vampire bats usually include one adult male with several females and their young . the bats may not all roost together at any one time , for they move between several roosts within the home range of the colony . females that roost together often forage in the same general area , and several bats may line up , feeding in succession at a wound .\nthe third theory proposes that the ancestors of vampire bats began to feed on insects and insect larvae they found in wounds on large animals . this theory notes that insectivorous bats often feed where there are many insects and some of them adjust their hunting style according to the situation . throughout the tropics , flies known as screwworms lay their eggs in wounds and their larvae develop into large masses . this theory identifies strong , sharp upper incisor teeth as the key to why blood - feeding only appeared in new world bats . many new world leaf - nosed bats have large , strong upper incisors . these teeth are lacking from those old world bats with flexible foraging behaviour , namely the slit - faced bats and the false vampire bats .\nfeeding for common vampires is often risky , given that their preferred victim , the domestic cow , is several thousand times larger than they are . they usually bite cows on the area of the leg just above and behind the hoof , since the skin is relatively thin and the blood vessels run close to the surface . one step backwards , and a bat could be squashed if it hadn\u2019t figured out how to run or make impressive three - foot leaps into the air .\n) . this study corroborated earlier observations that are of general interest . first , the detection of early clinical signs was not possible merely through observation , and it was not until animals were separated and forced to move around that disease signs were evident . this suggests that bats that have become separated from a roost with clear clinical disease may be in a late stage of infection , although it remains unknown how clinical disease progression correlates with virus excretion . this may have significant consequences for contact and transmission rates within bat species . second , as reported previously (\nvampire bats do not kill their prey . they only take about a teaspoon or two of blood at a feeding . since bats rarely carry rabies , there is little chance their victims will die from that disease . however , it has been said that some do carry the disease and it is not the blood - sucking that kills the victim , but the transfer of the rabies . i guess it depends upon species and whether that species has contracted the disease .\nfound in all types of forest , mainly at low elevations . roosts in caves and mines , rarely in hollow trees . individuals are well spaced in the roost , and group size is usually small , although a group of more than 500 was found in a cave in puebla , mexico , where numbers were much reduced in january , perhaps indicating seasonal movements or migration . avian blood may predominate in the diet of wild individuals , although cattle are occasionally exploited . unlike other vampires , this attractive bat is gentle and easy to handle . reproduction occurs year around ( reid 2009 ) . also occurs in open areas ( aguiar pers . comm . ) .\nthe second theory suggests that the ancestors of vampire bats acquired a taste for blood by feeding on ticks and other blood - feeding ectoparasites of large mammals . today in africa , birds known as ox - peckers make their living by feeding on ticks . it appears to be a viable life - style . but as the ox - peckers show , both ticks and blood - feeding ectoparasites and large mammals occur in africa . again we are left with the question , why did blood - feeding bats not appear in the old world tropics ?\n8 . to meet their energy needs , vampire bats need to drink about an ounce of blood at every meal , meaning they consume half their body weight during each 20 to 30 minute feeding session . their bodies have adapted to lighten that load , and their stomach lining rapidly absorbs much of the blood\u2019s water content and sends it to the kidneys so it can be excreted . the bats can process their meal so quickly that they may begin disposing of it before they\u2019re even finished with it , and start urinating just a few minutes into the feeding .\nblood - feeding is a risky business , particularly for a warm - blooded animal . among bats , the vampires are exceptional because they spend so much time caring for their young . young common vampires nurse for up to nine months , three months longer than flying foxes , which are many times their size , and at least six months longer than most other bats . female common vampire bats show no seasonal pattern of reproduction . but even though they may have young at any time of the year , the long period of nursing means that each female produces just one young a year .\n3 . when the bats feed , they use their teeth to shear away hair or feathers from a small spot and then cut into their victim\u2019s flesh with their sharp incisors . ( according to zoologists at chicago\u2019s field museum , even the teeth on old , preserved bat skulls in museum collections are sharp enough to cut someone handling them carelessly . ) rather than actively suck the blood from the wound like their namesakes , the bats let the physics of capillary action do the work . they lap at the blood and specialized grooves on their lips , tongues , and / or roof or their mouths suction it up . a protein in the bats\u2019 saliva called a plasminogen activator prevents the blood from clotting and keeps it flowing freely while they drink .\n10 . vampire bats have a few different tools for finding their food . they have well - developed senses of smell and , despite bats\u2019 reputation , keen eyesight . they\u2019ve also got heat - seeking faces \u2014their wrinkly , leaf shaped noses are loaded with nerves that are , in turn , loaded with proteins that are sensitive to the infrared radiation given off by warm - blooded animals . they also have finely - tuned hearing and specialized neurons that react only to the sound of breathing . they can even distinguish the breathing sounds made by different individuals , and may be able to remember the unique sonic components of an individual animal\u2019s breathing , allowing them to return to the same reliable source of blood night after night .\n2 . other bats with less grisly diets got a bad rap from european explorers in the americas . the europeans had heard stories about blood - drinking bats and encountered native people and livestock that had been bitten in the night and , without any real knowledge of the animals\u2019 diets , began labeling different bats as vampires willy nilly , usually applying the term to bigger and / or uglier ones . bats that lived on insects or even fruit were assumed to be vampires thanks to their appearance , and the association stuck when they were scientifically described and saddled with names like vampyrum spectrum and pteropus vampyrus . meanwhile , when a naturalist finally got his hands on an actual vampire , d . rotundus , no one one believed his assertions that it drank blood , and he made no mention of it in his description .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\ndistribution in texas . from southern texas southward to eastern peru and brazil . known from texas on the basis of one female taken may 24 , 1967 from an abandoned railroad tunnel 19 km west of comstock , val verde county .\nthis species seems to be reproductively active throughout the year . pregnant females have been reported from mexico and central america in march , july , august , october , and november . the number of embryos per female is normally one , but one female captured july 8 in chiapas , mexico , contained two nearly full - term ( crown - rump length 34 mm ) embryos . the reproductive condition of the female captured in texas was not recorded .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern as it is widespread , relatively tolerant to a range of habitats , and is unlikely to be declining rapidly enough to qualify under a more threatened category .\nthis species ranges from southern tamaulipas ( mexico ) to colombia , venezuela , ecuador , peru , bolivia , and brazil ( except the central amazon basin ) ; a single vagrant individual has also been reported from southern texas , usa ( simmons 2005 ) . its altitudinal range goes from lowlands to 1 , 900 m ( reid 2009 ) .\nthis species is uncommon and local , but widespread ( emmons and feer 1997 ) . they roost either alone or in small groups of 12 or less , rarely numbering over 40 to 50 individuals ( uieda 1987 ) . in one study , d . ecaudata was observed to be more solitary and did not gather into groups when in the presence of other bats in a cave . they have a structured society in which they build strong social bonds with other bats in the colony . very rare in belize ( miller pers . comm . ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > ."]}
{"id": 1344, "summary": [{"text": "the gopher tortoise ( gopherus polyphemus ) is a species of the gopherus genus native to the southeastern united states .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the gopher tortoise is seen as a keystone species because it digs burrows that provide shelter for at least 360 other animal species .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "they are threatened by predation and habitat destruction .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the gopher tortoise is a representative of the genus gopherus , which contains the only tortoises native to north america .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this species of gopher tortoise is the state reptile of georgia and the state tortoise of florida . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "gopher tortoise", "paragraphs": ["gopher tortoise council . 2000 . about the gopher tortoise . retrieved august 8 , 2011 , from urltoken\na landowner ' s guide : managing habitat for gopher tortoises contains information and resources for managing gopher tortoise habitat .\n. the ecology and management of the gopher tortoise in the southeastern united states .\nthe gopher tortoise is a keystone species and indicator of longleaf pine ecosystem health .\nmore than 80 percent of gopher tortoise habitat is in private or corporate ownership .\nthe gopher tortoise makes its home in the longleaf pine forests of the southeast .\nclick here to see a closer shot of the mother gopher tortoise covering her eggs and photos of baby gopher tortoises .\ngopher tortoise entering its burrow in fort pierce , fl . from : wikimedia commons .\nthe gopher tortoise is considered a \u201ckeystone\u201d species in the areas where it makes its home .\na gopher tortoise makes its way into a burrow . \u00a9 fwc fish and wildlife research institute\ndiemer j e . the ecology and management of the gopher tortoise in the united states .\na guide to living with gopher tortoises contains information on the importance of gopher tortoise in florida and what to do if you encounter one .\nare you curious about the appearance of this creature ? here are some gopher tortoise photos that you may find useful . check out these gopher tortoise images to know how this particular species look like .\nthe gopher tortoise has been regulated in florida since 1972 and has been fully protected since 1988 . despite the afforded protection , many gopher tortoise populations in florida continue to decline . the species\u2019 threatened status and the gopher tortoise management plan were approved in november 2007 . the objectives of the management plan are to :\ndiemer , j . 1986 . the ecology and management of the gopher tortoise in the southeastern united states .\nthe gopher tortoise : at home in florida ' s forests includes information on how private forest owners can participate in gopher tortoise conservation . florida forests ( spring / summer 2008 ) published by the florida forestry association .\nthe gopher tortoise , gopherus polphemus . note the large scales on the forefeet that protect the tortoise while burrowing . photo courtesy of k . hill , smithsonian marine station\ntry doing a search for gopher tortoise on any search engine . you ' ll find lots of interesting sites .\nthe gopher tortoise is declining throughout its range . some researchers have projected that unless something is done to reverse this decline , this species may soon be found only in protected areas . why is the gopher tortoise in trouble ?\nthe following coloring sheets were created for the gopher tortoise council and are provided by fwc for download and duplication .\nthe gopher tortoise , by zander srodes . this children ' s activity book , reprinted by fwc in february 2009 , is an educational activity book that introduces the life history and ecological significance of the gopher tortoise to young audiences .\nlearn more about gopher tortoises and tortoise habitat so you can teach others . good information sources include the library , zoo , and the gopher tortoise council , and the florida fish and wildlife conservation commission ( website address below ) . .\nour overarching goal is to restore robust and viable gopher tortoise populations to suitable habitat at the nonami and avalon plantations .\nthe gopher tortoise is the only land tortoise native to the southeast , living in longleaf pine savannahs of louisiana , mississippi , alabama , florida , georgia and south carolina . the gopher tortoise dwells in pine forests with deep , well drained soils and an open understory that provides food and nesting sites .\nthe gopher tortoise is considered a keystone species , and an indicator of longleaf pine ecosystem health . gopher tortoise requires deep , well drained soils and an open understory that provides open sunny sites for nesting . its burrows provide vital habitat and shelter for many endangered species . in addition , gopher tortoise serves as vector for seed dispersal , helping to maintain biological diversity . the effects of habitat destruction , degradation , and human predation have greatly reduced the gopher tortoise population to the point where gopher tortoise is listed as a threatened species under the endangered species act throughout the western part of its range .\nthe venerable , distinctive gopher tortoise continues to hold on , even as habitat constantly decreases . ( photo by bob kornegay )\nadult burrow of the gopher tortoise . gopher tortoises inhabit sandy , dry areas such as occur in this upland sand pine forest . photo courtesy of k . hill , smithsonian marine station .\n(\ngopher tortoise management plan\n, 2012 ; burke , et al . , 1996 ; ernst and lovich , 2009 )\nthe gopher tortoise is one of the most widely studied tortoises in the world . as such its dietary preferences are well known .\nthe original gopher tortoise management plan ( 2007 ) was approved in september 2007 . it is provided here for reference purposes only .\nthis issue will be discussed at the upcoming gopher tortoise council annual meeting oct . 16 - 18 in albany , mcguire said .\nhoa rules permitting , you can landscape for gopher tortoises . grow native plants that provide food for gopher tortoises . they like a variety of plants such as prickly pear , gopher apple , wild grape , blackberry , blueberry , and broadleaf grasses . this guide to gopher tortoise - friendly plants has more information .\nupper respiratory tract disease ( urtd ) has been observed in a number of tortoise species ( 15 , 16 , 19 ) , including the desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii ) and the gopher tortoise . clinical signs of urtd have been observed in a number of imported captive tortoise species ( 19 ) and in tortoises submitted to the veterinary medical teaching hospital ( vmth ) , university of florida ( uf ) , including the red - footed tortoise ( geochelone carbonaria ) , leopard tortoise ( geochelone pardalis ) , indian star tortoise ( geochelone elegans ) , and radiated tortoise ( geochelone radiata ) . numerous wild and captive gopher tortoises have been submitted to vmth with clinical signs consistent with urtd .\ngrant opportunities are posted to the gopher tortoise council ' s website frequently . please check back for future opportunities as they are available .\ngopher tortoises are ancient : their ancestors are a species of land tortoise that originated in western north america some 60 million years ago . they are members of the class reptilia , order testudines , and family testudinidae . of five north american tortoise species ( genusgopherus ) , the gopher tortoise is the only one that occurs east of the mississippi river .\n, it was determined that the level of gopher tortoise population in a specific area was directly related to the amount of available edge habitat .\nif you see a gopher tortoise on the road , pick it up and move it out of the road in the direction the tortoise was moving . do not take it with you or move it somewhere else .\ngopher tortoise density and movements are affected by availability of forbs and grasses . home range is inversely related to the amount of herbaceous grass cover . as the principal sandhill grazer , the gopher tortoise feeds primarily on grasses , succulent plants and legumes . legumes appear to be particularly important in the diet of juveniles . the gopher tortoise serves as a seed dispersal agent for native grasses and returns leached nutrients to the surface during burrow construction .\nin florida , the gopher tortoise is listed as threatened . both the tortoise and its burrow are protected under state law . gopher tortoises must be relocated before any land clearing or development takes place , and property owners must obtain permits from the fwc before capturing and relocating tortoises . applications for permits are available on the fwc gopher tortoise online permitting site . online applications are preferred to facilitate a faster review process . before applying for a permit , please review the gopher tortoise permitting guidelines or visit the individual permit webpages by following the links on the left side of your computer screen .\nfor answers to specific gopher tortoise questions , refer to our frequently asked questions . to view relocation permits , find an authorized gopher tortoise agent , or find a recipient site , access our online locator map . if you require additional assistance , please contact the fwc regional conservation biologist nearest you .\nfew area outdoorsmen do not know the gopher tortoise . for untold decades our paths have intermittently crossed that of this only terrestrial tortoise east of the mississippi river . not many years ago , these chance meetings were not uncommon . today , however , gopher sightings are becoming fewer and farther between .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - gopher tortoise ( gopherus polyphemus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - gopher tortoise ( gopherus polyphemus )\ntitle =\narkive species - gopher tortoise ( gopherus polyphemus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthis species should never be mixed with any other species of turtle or tortoise .\ninterested in conserving gopher tortoise habitat ? usda\u2019s natural resource conservation service ( nrcs ) offers technical and financial assistance . for more information , check out the nrcs gopher tortoise webpage or contact your local usda service center or county extension office . fwc\u2019s landowner assistance program may also provide cost - share opportunities .\nthe pine ecosystem conservation handbook for the gopher tortoise in florida is part of an initiative of the american forest foundation ' s center for conservation solutions that brings together conservation partners and family forest owners to conserve and create forest habitat for the gopher tortoise and other declining wildlife of the southern pine forest .\ngopher tortoises help maintain diverse natural communities . most people enjoy seeing tortoises , and they may be considered a tourist attraction . they were sometimes collected for the pet trade , though in florida it is now illegal to possess or sell a gopher tortoise without a proper license . in the past , in northern florida , rural communities captured gopher tortoises and used them as a source of food ( gopher tortoise management plan 2012 ; innes 2009 ) .\nnrcs offers technical and financial assistance to help agricultural producers voluntarily conserve gopher tortoise habitat on private lands . this assistance helps producers plan and implement a variety of conservation activities , or practices , that benefit the tortoise and support forestry operations .\nhabitat destruction is a significant threat to gopher tortoises . threats to the gopher tortoise also include habitat fragmentation and degradation , predation , inadequacy of regulatory mechanisms , and incompatible use of herbicides in forest management and some silvicultural activities .\ngopher tortoises lay eggs usually only once a year and have five to eight eggs in a nest . gopher tortoise eggs hatch between 60 to 90 days at 88 degrees fahrenheit . young gopher tortoises grow fast when fed a good diet . gopher tortoises become sub - adult in about six years and adult at 8 years for males and 17 to 20 years for females .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1987 . final rule : threatened status for the gopher tortoise . 50 cfr , 52 ( 129 ) .\nan amazing trait of the gopher tortoise is that it shares its burrow with more than 350 other species , including burrowing owls , florida mice , indigo snakes , opossums , rabbits , gopher frog , eastern diamondback rattlesnakes and gopher crickets . for this reason it is called a keystone species , so named because the upper stone in an arch , the keystone , supports the other stones to hold them in place . animals which utilize the gopher tortoise burrows are known as commensal species . since many commensal species depend on the burrows for survival , decreases in gopher tortoise populations result in a decline of other species .\nis credited with naming this tortoise after the cave - dwelling cyclops of homer\u2019s odyssey .\n2013 .\ngopher tortoise : gopherus polyphemus\n( on - line ) . florida fish and wildlife conservation commission . accessed november 29 , 2013 at urltoken .\nit is unlawful to touch , harm , harass or collect a wild gopher tortoise . if you come upon one in the wild do not pick it up .\nconserving the gopher tortoise also benefits eglin afb operations : increasing population numbers decreases the species\u2019 need for federal regulations that could ultimately restrict base activities and land use .\ndiemer , j . 1986 . the ecology and management of the gopher tortoise in the southeastern united states . herpetologica 42 ( 1 ) : 125 - 133 .\nthe gopher tortoise is protected as a state - designated threatened species by florida\u2019s endangered and threatened species rule . gopher tortoises must be relocated before any land clearing or development takes place , and property owners must obtain permits from fwc before they can move them . the u . s . fish & wildlife service lists the gopher tortoise as a candidate species for protection under the federal endangered species act .\nthe gopher tortoise is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and is listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nyou may qualify to serve as a gopher tortoise recipient site for tortoises that have to be relocated . there is financial incentive for receiving tortoises . more information here .\nworking lands for wildlife will assist landowners voluntarily create , restore or enhance gopher tortoise habitat , increasing habitat connectivity , and support potential down - listing of the species .\necology and habitat protection needs of gopher tortoise ( gopherus polyphemus ) populations found on lands slated for large - scale development in florida . technical report no . 4 .\nif you find a dead tortoise , report it here . do not take any remains .\nthe gopher tortoise ( gopherus polyphemus ) , unlike many other varieties of tortoises , is an avid digger . these sizable reptiles are known as\ngopher\ntortoises thanks to their burrowing habits . gopher tortoises are found in the united states ' southeastern region , including mississippi , florida , alabama , south carolina , louisiana and georgia .\ngopher tortoises are cold sensitive ( auffenberg and franz 1982 ; diemer 1986 ) .\noutcome of transmission study to determine pathogenicity of m . agassizii in gopher tortoises a\ndiemer , j . e . 1986 . the ecology and management of the gopher tortoise in the southeastern united states . herpetologica . 42 ( 1 ) : 125 - 133 .\nthe gopher tortoise prefers dry landscapes such as sandy ridges and sand dunes , as well as the forests of longleaf pine ( pinus palustris ) ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\ngopher tortoise eggs are fertilized internally and a single clutch is laid by a female each season . on average , a clutch has six eggs , though clutch size ranges from five to nine eggs . incubation period ranges from 80 to 100 days , and depends on the latitude ( and temperature trends ) at which a nest is located . nests located further south tend to have shorter incubation periods ( gopher tortoise management plan , 2012 ) . gopher tortoises exhibit temperature dependent sex determination and have an unusually low pivotal temperature of about 29 degrees c ( burke et al . 1996 ) . nest and hatchling predation is very high . those juvenile gopher tortoises that survive reach sexual maturity slowly , with female gopher tortoises reaching sexual maturity between 9 and 21 years . male gopher tortoises may reach sexual maturity slightly earlier than females ( gopher tortoise management plan , 2012 ) .\nhas been working closely with usfws and nrcs on this new cost - share opportunity for private landowners to receive funds specifically for managing gopher tortoise habitat . of the $ 33 million from whip , to share the cost of conservation practices with landowners , approximately $ 6 million is reserved for improving gopher tortoise habitat throughout its range . the goal of this new funding initiative is to help reverse the decline of seven critical species including the gopher tortoise . this is an amazing opportunity for private landowners in florida to help conserve this threatened reptile .\nhabitat restored for the gopher tortoise benefits many other species , including red cockaded woodpecker , black pine snake , bobwhite quail , white - tailed deer , turkey and dusky gopher frog . in total , 28 threatened and endangered species are dependent on longleaf pine forests .\nif the tortoise population was at the point of needing to be listed under the endangered species act , significant regulatory requirements could drain energy , resources and enthusiasm from efforts to facilitate the species\u2019 recovery . the gopher tortoise initiative unites landowners , timber growers and businesses across the state to proactively enhance gopher tortoise populations and habitats . the result is a powerful convergence : everyone\u2019s working together to prevent the listing . what\u2019s good for the gopher tortoise is good for landowners , businesses , and an entire ecosystem . if successful , they will also be conserving iconic habitats on a historic scale , demonstrating how tortoises , landowners , and industry can coexist .\npractice good habitat management for gopher tortoises . regular prescribed burning and tree thinning can help provide the open habitat that gopher tortoises need . check out fwc\u2019s landowners guide here .\nt , favored by gopher tortoises , helped identify counties the program will benefit most .\nsalmonella from gopher tortoises ( gopherus polyphemus ) in south georgia . - pubmed - ncbi\npathology of upper respiratory tract disease of gopher tortoises in florida . - pubmed - ncbi\nflorida fish and wildlife conservation commission . gopher tortoise management plan . 2 . tallahassee , fl : florida fish and wildlife conservation commission . 2012 . accessed december 01 , 2013 at urltoken .\nthe gopher tortoise is protected throughout its range either by state or federal law . in alabama , mississippi , and louisiana ; it is a federally threatened species . getting a permit to keep a gopher tortoise as a pet is very difficult . however , in the state of florida , one can get a permit to keep individuals through the florida fish and wildlife conservation commission .\nbuhlmann , k . a . , b . m . moule , a . grosse * * , t . d . tuberville , and s . h . bennett . 2009 . summary report for the gopher tortoise reintroduction project at the aiken gopher tortoise heritage preserve 2009 . report submitted to sc department of natural resources , 9 december 2009 . 7pp . ( technical report )\ngopher tortoises , for the most part , are herbivorous animals . some typical elements of the gopher tortoise diet are berries , fruit , spurge , pines , herbs , beech , peas , daisies , asters and grass . low plants are a particular favorite for gopher tortoises , especially those that appear under strong sun . one of their preferred grasses is wire grass .\n\u201cthe gopher tortoise habitat won\u2019t recreate itself , \u201d said lee . \u201cmanagement efforts will be necessary , such as prescribed burning , removal of woody undergrowth , longleaf pine tree planting , and restoration of native grasses , and there are costs involved with that . \u201d the gopher tortoise initiative includes the establishment of a fund that will be used to help cover the costs of habitat restoration .\ngopher tortoises live in well - drained sandy areas with a sparse tree canopy and abundant low growing vegetation . they are commonly found in habitats such as sandhill , pine flatwoods , scrub , scrubby flatwoods , dry prairies , xeric hammock , pine - mixed hardwoods , and coastal dunes which have historically been maintained by periodic wild fires . when fire is suppressed in gopher tortoise habitat , small trees , shrubs , and brambles begin to grow making it difficult for the gopher tortoise to move around and eventually shade out the low growing plants that gopher tortoises eat .\ngopher tortoises are found in habitats often desired for development . due to their protected status , land developers are required to obtain permits before developing land where gopher tortoises are present . sometimes , gopher tortoises may be relocated . at other times , however , the land is protected from development . a delay in development , or lack of development in protected habitats , may thus have a small negative economic impact on humans ( gopher tortoise management plan 2012 ) .\nburke , r . , m . ewert , j . mclemore , d . jackson . 1996 . temperature - dependent sex determination and hatching success in the gopher tortoise ( gopherus polyphemus ) .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1990 . agency draft : gopher tortoise recovery plan . 37 pages . usfws , endangered species program , southeastern regional office , atlanta , georgia .\nreports that gopher tortoises eat a mixed diet of grasses , leaves , and wild fruits .\ndiemer , j . 1989 . gopherus polyphemus , gopher tortoise . pp . 14 - 16 . in : the conservation biology of tortoises . iucn species survival commission . occasional paper no . 5 .\nscientists from the nature conservancy , dnr and other partners have concluded that if we can protect 100 , 000 acres or more of critical gopher tortoise habitat , the species will not need regulatory protection .\nthe collaborative initiative is off to a strong start , with 47 viable gopher tortoise populations now permanently protected - up from 36 when gtci launched . as of march 2018 , private sources have pledged more than $ 15 million which has allowed gtci to leverage more than $ 65 million in federal and state funding . a private foundation has also launched a donation match program to support the gopher tortoise .\nif you have a funding opportunity available for gopher tortoise education or research and would like for us to include the information on our website , please send the announcement to deborah . burr @ urltoken .\nthe gopher tortoise is listed in florida as a species of special concern ( ssc ) . auffenberg and franz ( 1982 ) have estimated that historical population densities of this species had been reduced 70 % by the year 2000 , and could be extirpated from all but protected land areas by 2025 . merritt island wildlife refuge at kennedy space center ( ksc ) in florida is the largest protected area of gopher tortoise habitat along the atlantic coast . overall tortoise density at ksc is estimated at approximately 18 , 000 animals , with tortoise density highest in areas where herbaceous cover dominates . tortoise density decreases in areas where cover of shrubs , oak trees and pines dominates ( breininger et al . 1988 , 1991 , 1994 ) .\nan average tortoise of this type is approximately 10 inch ( 25 cm ) in length . a male tortoise usually grows about 12 inches in length . it can grow to a maximum of 16 inches in length .\nthe gopher tortoise is found in the southeastern part of the united states . its range includes southwestern south carolina , south almost to the tip of the florida peninsula ; west through southern georgia , alabama , and mississippi , to louisiana and the edge of southeastern texas and arkansas . 3 overall gopher tortoise populations have diminished severely but they still can be locally quite common , especially on certain florida islands .\ngopher tracks , by susan jane ryan . this 62 - page book is most appropriate for fourth - graders and up . the book introduces gopher tortoise ecology , the role of fire in upland habitats , and the importance of environmental stewardship through the adventures of two girls , tamika and diana .\nwelcome teachers , students , and parents ! here you will find gopher tortoise related information and activities for all ages . this page lists all of the brochures and other forms that are available for download .\ntortoises were a reliable source of food during the depression , when there was little else to eat . of course , these so called \u201choover chickens\u201d were much more plentiful 70 years ago . currently , tortoise harvesting is illegal in every state where tortoises are found . unfortunately not all states enforce tortoise protection laws . even after the harvest of tortoises was prohibited in florida , illegal hunting depleted or destroyed tortoise colonies to supply the demand for gopher meat . gopher tortoises do not reproduce at a rate that can withstand harvest .\nto your smartphone and become a citizen scientist ! this app allows anyone in gopher tortoise range to record the location where they spot gopher tortoises and report that information back to the state wildlife agency . this is important data that can help experts better understand where tortoises roam and where protection is needed .\nthis creature looks like any other tortoise . but it has stronger and stouter limbs with fat , wide claws that aid it in digging . it has small scales that protect its forelimbs . the protective shell that is found on all turtles and tortoises is also present in gopher tortoise . the shell is an extension of its skeleton and gives it complete protection . when the tortoise senses a threat , it can pull its head and limbs into the shell . very few creatures other than human beings can hurt the tortoise at this time .\nfor gopher tortoise endangered species is the most appropriate term . the existence of this creature is threatened . the fish and wildlife conservation commission of florida has included this tortoise in the list of species of special concern . it is protected federally as an endangered species in all regions where it is found , except florida .\nwhen stressed , gopher tortoises expel the contents of their bladders as a last ditch defense measure .\nencounters with gopher tortoises : protection and natural history provides curriculum and activities to educators in florida .\njackson d r , milstrey e g . the fauna of gopher tortoise burrows . in : diemer j e , jackson d r , landers j l , layne j n , wood d a , editors .\ngopher tortoises are found in all counties in florida and utilize many habitat types , from beach dunes to scrub and pine flatwoods . though it is generally agreed that typical gopher tortoise habitats are sandy and well - drained , breininger et al . ( 1991 ) observed that in brevard county , florida , gopher tortoises often inhabit poorly - drained scrub and slash pine areas . the breininger et al . ( 1991 ) study reported higher overall tortoise densities in poorly - drained areas than in well - drained , sandy areas .\nthe nature conservancy is working with the georgia department of natural resources ( dnr ) and other vital conservation partners to protect a minimum of 65 viable gopher tortoise populations by 2020 . to meet this goal , the gopher tortoise conservation initiative ( gtci ) aims to raise $ 150 million from state , federal and private sources to protect 100 , 000 + acres of key habitat , and raise additional funds to manage those lands .\nas its name implies , the gopher tortoise digs burrows of up to 40 feet in length that allow escape from heat and danger . these burrows are a unique climate resiliency feature of southeastern landscapes , harboring many other wildlife species . the gopher tortoise is considered a keystone species of longleaf pine forests , one of the most biologically diverse ecosystems in the world , because its presence supports the stability of many other wildlife populations .\ngopher tortoises are terrestrial tortoises and can be found in habitats with dry , sandy soils , a thin tree canopy , and plenty of low growing vegetation . some common gopher tortoise habitats include scrub , coastal dunes , sandhill , pine and scrubby flatwoods , prairie , pine - mixed hardwoods , and xeric hammock . periodic burning is an essential component of gopher tortoise habitat , as it inhibits the growth of tall , dense vegetation that prevents the growth of low growing plants that make up the tortoises\u2019 diet . within these habitats ,\ngopher tortoise lives in places like florida , alabama , south carolina , east louisiana , mississippi and south georgia . however , it is most commonly found in all the 67 counties of the us state of florida .\n(\nanage entry for gopherus polyphemus\n, 2012 ;\ngopher tortoise management plan\n, 2012 ; conant and collins , 1998 ; ernst and lovich , 2009 ; mushinsky , et al . , 1994 )\nleave burrows alone ! if you have any proposed development activities within 25 feet of a burrow , contact your local extension office or the fwc gopher tortoise conservation biologist in your area for guidance on what to do .\ndiemer , j . 1987 . the status of the gopher tortoise in florida . pp . 72 - 83 . in : proceedings of the third southeastern nongame and endangered wildlife symposium . georgia department of natural resources .\ni found this gopher tortoise 3 years ago during a trip to the everglades ! it remains one of my favorite reptile finds ! ( not my arms pictured ; my professor was holding it while i photographed ) .\nthe longleaf alliance also offers an educational poster that depicts many of the plants and animals that could be encountered on a stroll through the longleaf pine forest , one habitat in which the gopher tortoise can be found .\ngopher tortoises play an important role in ecosystem ecology for two reasons . first , by consuming grasses , herbs , and the fruits of trees , the gopher tortoise aids in seed dispersal . second , its burrows provide important habitat for more than 80 different species of invertebrates and vertebrates , some of which are rare .\nmillburn , naomi .\nthe foods that gopher tortoises eat\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\ngopher tortoises depend on deep , well - drained soils and an open understory . in turn , their burrows provide vital shelter for many at - risk species . gopher tortoises also help disperse plant seeds .\nfirst year post - release movement and survivorship of head - started gopher tortoises . to appear in :\nteaching about gopher tortoises : protection and natural history provides facilitator ' s curriculum for training environmental educators .\nmore than 80 percent of gopher tortoise habitat is in private or corporate hands , and we really need your help identifying the status of gopher tortoises on your land to better assess populations and trends . fire helps maintain good habitat conditions for tortoises . if your land is primarily in silviculture ( pine tree farming ) , you can help gopher tortoises by prescribed burning and tree thinning to achieve the open habitat that tortoises need .\nthe gopher tortoise lives in dry , sandy uplands , such as oak - sandhills , scrub , pine flatwoods and coastal dunes of the southeastern united states . it is the only tortoise in the eastern part of the country . human activities eliminated gopher tortoises from a significant portion of their historic range , but they still occur in alabama , south carolina , louisiana , mississippi and georgia , with the majority of the remaining population in florida .\nthe gopher tortoise is a fairly large tortoise , which reaches 24 cm ( 9 . 4 inches ) in size . there are occasional specimens of greater than 30 cm ( 12 inches ) and the record is 38 cm ( 15 inches ) . this tortoise has a low oval carapace with a flat top . this appearance occasionally results in amateurs thinking it to be an aquatic turtle and returning it to the nearest body of water , often resulting in drowning .\n\u201cthis is a lot bigger than eglin air force base , \u201d he said in an e & e article . \u201cthe work we are doing here will impact other department of defense installations and other gopher tortoise conservation areas . \u201d\nthe u . s . fish and wildlife service listed the gopher tortoise as a threatened species in louisiana , mississippi and western alabama during 1987 . in 1990 the service has distributed a draft recovery plan for the western population for public comment . the gopher tortoise is protected on all federal wildlife refuges , national parks and seashores , national forests and military reservations . the gopher tortoise is listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ) . appendix ii listing implies that commercial trade is allowed providing a permit from the country of export is obtained . this method provides for monitoring of international trade of all designated species .\ngopher tortoises can sometimes be killed by natural predators without major impact on the colony as a whole . however , these predators and domestic pets can kill an inordinate number of gopher tortoises when homeowners bring unrestrained dogs and cats into an area , or feed raccoons to the point at which ground nesters like gopher tortoises and bob white quail have their egg clutches eliminated . illegal take of gopher tortoises by poachers can also devastate a colony , as the gopher tortoise has a low rate of reproduction . small clutch size , low egg and hatchling survival , and late reproductive maturity mean it can take many years for a colony to replace those individuals lost .\nfloridians can obtain \u201cburrow or structure protection\u201d permits that allow for the \u201con - site relocation of tortoises\u201d for residents who can prove that burrows \u201ccompromise existing structures\u201d ( such as one underneath a propane tank ) or put the tortoise in danger ( such as one in a driveway or parking lot ) , according to the official gopher - tortoise - permit guidelines .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1990 . gopher tortoise ( gopherus polyphemus ) recovery plan . prepared by wendell a . neal , u . s . fish and wildlife service , jackson , mi . 28 pp .\nif you suspect that someone has unlawfully destroyed or harmed a gopher tortoise or its burrow , report it to fwc\u2019s toll - free wildlife alert hotline at 1 - 888 - 404 - 3922 or text tip @ myfwc . com .\nhabitat destruction , degradation and human predation have greatly reduced gopher tortoise populations . more than 90 million acres of the u . s . southeast was once covered by longleaf pine savanna . about 3 . 4 million acres remain today .\nmore than 80 percent of gopher tortoise habitat is privately owned . landowners are helping the gopher tortoise by enhancing and restoring longleaf pine forests . with the help of nrcs , landowners are improving forest stands through prescribed burning and other sustainable forestry practices as well as planting new longleaf pine trees . fires historically burned through the pine savannahs of the south , which suppressed woody species and enabled longleaf pine forests to have an open understory . prescribed burning mimics that process .\nwhite , k . n . 2017 . patterns in siring success and multiple paternity in the gopher tortoise ( gopherus polyphemus ) . m . s . thesis , university of georgia , athens , ga . 59 pp . researchgate profile\neglin\u2019s wildlife chief justin johnson considers this an opportunity to encourage other southeastern military installations to conserve gopher tortoises .\nbefore you build contains information about what landowners should know about gopher tortoises before breaking ground on construction activities .\ngopher tortoises are primarily herbivorous , although they will eat bones from dead animals , presumably to get calcium . their primary food sources are low - growing grasses and herbs . examples of their favorite foods are gopher apple and saw palmetto berries . they will eat the pads , fruits , and flowers of prickly pear cactus . one of the gopher tortoise ' s important roles in the ecosystem is to spread the seeds of many plants in its droppings .\nthe primary threat to the gopher tortoise is habitat loss . habitat alteration , such as urbanization , generally occurs in the same high , dry habitats that the tortoise prefers . lack of appropriate land management ( especially controlled burning ) has also contributed to population declines in areas where natural habitat remains . other threats include road mortality from vehicles and illegal human predation .\ndisruption of the natural fire regime due to development in much of the gopher tortoise\u2019s habitat is also problematic . fire is important because it thins out the canopy and dense woody brush and allows for herbaceous vegetation that provides food for the gopher tortoise . prescribed burning ( or mowing and thinning in areas where burning is too risky ) can substitute for the natural fire regime , but many natural areas around development are left untouched and the vegetation gets too dense . on top of reducing habitat for gopher tortoises , this build up of dense vegetation also increases risk of dangerous crown fires .\ngopher tortoises are often called wildlife landlords because their burrows are essential to the lives and well - being of many other wildlife species . these animals that take advantage of the tortoise ' s burrow , but neither help nor harm the tortoise , are called commensals . commensals benefit from the protection of the burrow , but the burrow may also provide a smorgasbord for any predator that ventures into it . over 300 species of invertebrates and 60 species of vertebrates have been documented using tortoise burrows .\nthe revised gopher tortoise management plan was approved on september 5 , 2012 . the revised plan takes the place of the original plan approved in 2007 ( see below ) . thank you to all stakeholders and members of the public for input and participation throughout this process . the gopher tortoise ( gopherus polyphemus ) has been regulated in florida since 1972 and has been fully protected since 1988 . despite the afforded protection , gopher tortoise populations throughout the state have declined . as a response to the continuing decline of the species , a new management plan was drafted and approved in september 2007 as a precursor to reclassifying the gopher tortoise from a\nspecies of special concern\nto a\nthreatened species .\nthe threatened status was approved and went into effect on november 8 , 2007 . following the first 5 years of implementation , fwc worked with stakeholders to revise and improve the original management plan . the revised plan was approved in september 2012 .\nthe gopher tortoise , currently endangered because of habitat loss , digs burrows that provide homes to more than 300 other types of animals . a new study examines the ease with which wildlife can move from one habitat to another . credit :\nthere are multiple benefits to protecting these tortoises in georgia ,\nsays deron davis , executive director of the nature conservancy in georgia .\nfrom a conservation perspective , protecting the gopher tortoise ' s habitat will have wide ranging benefits to animals within its ecosystem that depend on it , including indigo snakes , striped newts , eastern diamond - backed rattlesnakes , florida pine snakes and gopher frogs . the people of georgia will benefit from a quality of life perspective because some of the protected gopher tortoise habitats will be open to the public for recreation . from an economic perspective , landowners with gopher tortoises on their property will avoid the costly regulations and policies of the endangered species list .\nprimarily herbivorous creatures , gopher tortoises eat grasses , mushrooms , saw palmetto berries , and prickly pear cactus pads , fruits and flowers , as well as blackberries , blueberries , gopher apples and other low - growing fruits .\nspecific antibody to m . agassizii in gopher tortoises experimentally infected with different doses of m . agassizii ( , low dose ; \u25a8 , medium dose ; \u25a0 , high dose ) and control gopher tortoises ( \u25a1 ) .\nthe gopher tortoise is an obligate burrower with many adaptations for digging . the limbs are very stout and strong , with wide flat claws . the front legs are protected with small scales . the shell of the tortoise ( and all turtles ) is an outgrowth of the skeleton and is their major means of protection . when the tortoise pulls his head completely into the shell and covers the openings with his limbs , there are very few predators , other than humans , that can harm him .\nthe gopher tortoise is a moderate - sized , terrestrial turtle that averages 9 - 11 inches ( 23 - 28 centimeters ) long . this species of tortoise has a brown , gray , or tan upper shell ( carapace ) , a yellow lower shell ( plastron ) , and brown to dark gray skin ( florida natural areas inventory 2001 ) . gopher tortoises have stumpy , elephant - like hind feet and flattened , shovel - like forelimbs that are used for digging burrows .\nthis species hibernates in nature , after careful research and provision of a cool dry location this can be reproduced for your tortoise .\ninvertebrates are also commonly found in the burrows , including some 32 species of spiders , ticks , and insects . it is this creation of the burrow refuge that has acknowledged the gopher tortoise by ecologists as the keystone species for its habitat .\nas you can see , there are plenty of ways you can get involved to help save gopher tortoises . if you have any questions or want to talk tortoise , feel free to shoot me an email at lkolluri @ ufl . edu .\nworking lands for wildlife will complement the existing longleaf pine initiative by providing targeted funding to help enhance , restore and protect gopher tortoise habitat , and increase landowner confidence that the conservation practices they implement will not harm the species or its habitat .\nclick here for resources regarding voluntary best management practices for the solar industry to minimize and possibly avoid impacts to at - risk species and habitats , like the gopher tortoise and sandhills . it is important to note that some states , such as florida , have regulatory requirements for impacts to gopher tortoises and other wildlife on sites proposed for solar farm development .\nwith those criteria in mind , and as good environmental stewards , we can all help wild gopher tortoises by preserving their upland habitat and , in general , by simply leaving them alone . it is unlawful to possess a gopher tortoise or any other native georgia wildlife species without a special permit . like all wild animals , they are not \u201cpets . \u201d\nmillburn , naomi .\nthe foods that gopher tortoises eat .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / foods - gopher - tortoises - eat - 4122 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nrestock gopher tortoises to protected , managed , suitable habitats where they no longer occur or where densities are low .\nthe gopher tortoise is listed internationally as a cites ii species and is federally listed in the united states under the endangered species act . because of this protected status , it is illegal to collect a gopher tortoise from the wild . contact your state\u2019s wildlife agency for information on the permitting procedure as it varies state to state . such wild collection permits are very rarely granted . check with your state wildlife agency before you consider adopting an animal of this species as federal law protects it .\n\u201cour goal is to protect gopher tortoise habitat now , while lands are still available that can be managed to sustain healthy populations , \u201d said lee . he explained that the investment we make today in protecting their habitat will eliminate the need for costly impact studies and mitigation that could be required in the future if the gopher tortoise is listed as an endangered species . \u201cwe have a rare opportunity in that we have time to fix this , \u201d he said . \u201cit\u2019s good conservation . \u201d\ngopher tortoises are currently protected by federal law under the endangered species act ( esa ) in the alabama counties west of the mobile and tombigbee rivers and in mississippi and louisiana . the eastern portion of the gopher tortoise\u2019s range includes alabama ( east of the tombigbee and mobile rivers ) , florida , georgia , and southern south carolina . in these areas , the gopher tortoise is now a candidate species for possible listing later under the esa . in the western range states , west of the tombigbee river in alabama , mississippi , and louisiana , it will continue to be listed as threatened under the esa .\nbreininger , d . r . , p . a . schmalzer , and c . r . hinkle . 1994 . gopher tortoise ( gopherus polyphemus ) densities in coastal scrub and slash pine flatwoods . journal of herpetology 28 : 60 - 65 .\nquinn * , d . , t . d . tuberville , and k . a . buhlmann . 2016 . gopher tortoise egg and hatching data from predator - excluded nests at three sites in georgia . herpetological review 47 : 13 - 16 .\nthe gopher tortoise is one of fwc ' s featured critters and was developed with the idea of increasing awareness among floridians . the featured creature includes a collection of information and photos on that particular species in a format designed as a newspaper page .\nmillburn , naomi . ( n . d . ) . the foods that gopher tortoises eat . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / foods - gopher - tortoises - eat - 4122 . html\nthe jones ecological research center has the state\u2019s largest gopher tortoise population and has been the site of several previous studies , according to smith , and the property is managed with frequent prescribed fire to maintain high - quality habitat for tortoises and other wildlife .\ntortoise densities tend to be higher in fire - adapted communities ( auffenberg and franz 1982 ; diemer 1986 ) . in the absence of fire , canopy trees grow large and shade out the herbaceous vegetation that gopher tortoises rely on as their primary food source .\ndescription : the gopher tortoise is the only tortoise in the southeast and can easily be distinguished from the box turtle ( our only other fully terrestrial turtle ) by its large size , rigid , unhinged plastron ( bottom of shell ) and its stumpy , unwebbed feet . adult gopher tortoises are large 9 - 15 in ( 24 - 38 cm ) and are tan or brown above with a yellowish plastron . the juveniles can be yellowish and brightly patterned . males have a concave plastron and longer tail than females .\nbuilds underground burrows . these burrows average 4 . 5 meters in length and 2 meters deep . these burrows , which maintain a steady temperature and humidity throughout the year , provide gopher tortoise with protection from fires , extreme temperatures , drought , and predators .\nand the guidelines for development in tortoise habitat . we also worked with agencies and private land managers like foresters and farmers , on wildlife best management practices manuals that describe how operations on forests and agricultural lands can protect gopher tortoises , their nests and burrows .\ntuberville , t . d . , and m . e . dorcas . 2001 . winter survey of a gopher tortoise population in south carolina . chelonian conservation and biology 4 : 182 - 186 . ( impact factor : 0 . 808 ) ( pdf )\nthe first and most important component of gopher tortoise conservation is to conserve and manage remaining upland habitat , including the wetlands that are a part of the complete ecosystem . we also advocate restoration of upland habitat that has been degraded by intensive silviculture , mining , destruction of native ground cover , and fire exclusion . much research has been conducted with the goal of evaluating the proper management guidelines for upland ecosystems , particularly longleaf pine habitats , including gopher tortoises and other upland species . thinning of pines , prescribed burning , removal of exotic plants and animals , and replanting of native groundcover are all components of appropriate management of gopher tortoise habitat .\ngopher tortoises are so named because of their ability to dig large , deep burrows . these burrows are widely used by other species throughout the ecosystem , making gopher tortoises a keystone species with a pivotal role to play in their native community .\nthe gopher tortoise is a moderate - sized , terrestrial turtle , averaging 23\u201328 cm ( 9\u201311 in ) in length . the species is identified by its stumpy , elephantine hind feet and flattened , shovel - like forelimbs adapted for digging . the shell is oblong and generally tan , brown , or gray in coloration . gopher tortoises can live 40 to 60 years in the wild .\ngopher tortoises that live in captive settings - - think zoos - - eat a lot of fresh fruits and vegetables . some examples of produce items that captive gopher tortoises consume are bananas , watermelon , apples , alfalfa , cantaloupe , sliced up carrots , broccoli , zucchini , green beans , endives , sweet potatoes , white potatoes and escarole . they also regularly eat tortoise chow ."]}
{"id": 1350, "summary": [{"text": "the brazilian merganser ( mergus octosetaceus ) is a duck in the typical merganser genus .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is one of the six most threatened waterfowl in the world with possibly fewer than 250 birds in the wild and currently 4 kept in captivity at 2 different brazilian locations .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the origin of its name is from its long , sharp-edged beak that has a great number of teeth-looking edges . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "brazilian merganser", "paragraphs": ["a female brazilian merganser shelters her ducklings in the s\u00e3o francisco river , brazil .\nhughes , b . ( 2003 ) brazilian merganser workshop . twsg news , 14 : 10 - .\nthis entry was posted in americas , archive , south america , waterbirds and tagged brazilian merganser . bookmark the permalink .\nlins , l . ( 2003 ) brazilian merganser study at serra da canastra . twsg news , 14 : 11 - .\nsleek ducks with long thin serrated bills designed to catch fish , the brazilian merganser is one of the most threatened wildfowl species in the world .\nin addition to the auckland island merganser , there was a separate merganser species on the chatham islands ( mergus milleneri ) . merganser fossils from mainland new zealand cannot yet be assigned to either of the named species .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - brazilian merganser ( mergus octosetaceus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - brazilian merganser ( mergus octosetaceus )\ntitle =\narkive species - brazilian merganser ( mergus octosetaceus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nsylvan heights bird park and the international wild waterfowl association have been involved in efforts to prevent the extinction of the critically endangered brazilian merganser by providing funding , training , and advising to the brazilian organizations working with this species .\nall anthropogenic activities that influence the quality and integrity of the rivers and their banks are a potential threat to the brazilian merganser . here we highlight these factors based on lamas ( 2006 ) .\nthe projects on marking - monitoring using radio - transmitters recently started by instituto terra brasilis in serra da canastra , and by funatura in chapada dos veadeiros , will bring important data for the brazilian merganser conservation .\nbrazilian merganser occurs mainly in watercourses with riffles , pools and waterfalls . changes in the hydrological regime , mainly due to the development of hydroelectric power plants , turn former long stretches of rivers into reservoirs , which has an extreme effect on some merganser populations . in the serra da canastra region , for example , the furnas and mascarenhas de moraes dams flooded several kilometres of flowing water , wiping out habitats that certainly held several territories . there are several new such infrastructure projects under way in different areas of the distribution of the brazilian merganser . to date , the only record of a brazilian merganser in standing waters ( de paula et al . 2008 ) seems to represent no more than an occasional occurrence . the operations of mining companies also interfere in with water including at springs and headwaters , potentially bringing negative impacts to brazilian mergansers habitats .\nmike lubbock was invited to a workshop in belahorizonte , brazil , in 2000 to help address the dire situation of the brazilian merganser . the workshop was organized by wolf bartman , of the dortmund zoo in germany . a recovery plan was produced by experts from all three brazilian merganser range nations ( argentina , brazil , and paraguay ) , plus europe and the united states . they collated background information on the status and distribution , life history , and threats faced by the brazilian merganser and drew up a basic proposal for conservation action . mike has returned to brazil several times since 2000 as an adviser to conservationists and aviculture facilities working to save this species .\nvoice : \u201cquacking like a duck\u201d is the only recorded description of the call of the auckland island merganser .\nthe elusive brazilian merganser not only ranks among the most endangered of all waterfowl , but rarest of all birds as well . possibly fewer than 250 birds remain , and some conservationists fear that even this estimate may be optimistic .\n( fabaceae : caesalpinioideae ) and the influence of quaternary climate changes in the brazilian cerrado . ann bot 100 : 1219\u20131228\nsome of these recommendation have undoubted and immeasurable importance and urgency . their application must be evaluated in each of the brazilian merganser\u00b4s areas of occurrence , considering the specific aspects of threat , politics , strategies , opportunities , and so on .\nall the important actions for conservation of the brazilian merganser , based on our current knowledge , are described in the action plan for the conservation of the brazilian merganser . this publication must be consulted by anyone who intends to work with this species ( there are versions in portuguese and english \u2013 hughes et al . 2006a ; hughes et al . 2006b ) . this action plan is the third number of the threatened species series created by the brazilian environmental agency ( ibama ) for contributing to the protection and conservation of the brazilian threatened fauna . series of priority recommendations are listed under five themes : fiscalization and legislation ; species and habitat protection ; monitoring and research ; public awareness and capacity building ; and international collaboration and communication .\nwilliams , m . 2012 . a merganser at auckland islands , new zealand . wildfowl 62 : 3 - 36 .\nthe brazilian merganser feeds mainly on fish , which it captures by diving in river rapids and backwater , but supplements this diet with molluscs and insects and their larvae ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . these birds usually feed in pairs ( 2 ) .\nsilveira , l . f . and bartmann , w . d . ( 2001 ) natural history and conservation of brazilian merganser mergus octosetaceus at serra da canastra national park , minas gerais , brazil . bird conservation international , 11 : 287 - 300 .\nkear , j . & scarlett , r . 1970 . the auckland island merganser . wildfowl 21 : 78 - 86 .\nde paula , gabriel arvelino cerqueira , marconi campos and ribon , r\u00f4mulo 2008 . occurrence of the brazilian merganser ( mergus octosetaceus ) in the southern border of the espinha\u00e7o range , minas gerais , brazil . waterbirds , vol . 31 , issue . 2 , p . 289 .\nthe river habitat required by the brazilian merganser has suffered from staggering deforestation and permanent flooding from dams . the dwindling population of these fish - eating ducks is perhaps most numerous in brazil ' s serra de canastra national park , 500 miles northwest of san paulo . adding to the birds ' plight , a series of forest fires devastated the national park and another area where the merganser was thought to have a stronghold .\nmergansers ( subfamily : merginae ) are specialist fish - eating waterfowl . five of the six extant species have broad distributions in cool temperate and arctic regions of the northern hemisphere , where they primarily or exclusively inhabit lakes and rivers . the sixth , the now very rare brazilian merganser ( mergus octosetaceus ) once occurred more widely on brazilian and argentine rivers . a coastal and marine habitat has been ascribed to the new zealand mergansers , which contrasts with the habitat of other mergansers notwithstanding the red - breasted merganser\u2019s ( m . serrator ) seasonal use of sheltered coastal bays , coves and estuaries .\nthe species is legally protected in all three range states . it occurs in three brazilian national parks , two state parks and one private protected area ( braz\nthe conservation of the species necessarily depends on measures involving the recuperation and conservation of riparian forests , watercourses , and their springs and banks . thus , besides the benefits for the conservation of brazilian merganser itself , those measures would be geared towards the rescue of fundamental values of land use and environmental conservation .\nthe species inhabits clean rivers and streams , with rapids and still waters , bordered by forests or native vegetation , and with an abundance of fish . it is a shy bird and it is quite difficult to see in the wild . it prefers sparsely populated areas and avoids human presence , although at some localities it is bolder and occurs closer to villages and small towns . the brazilian merganser seems to tolerate some environmental degradation if there are well preserved stretches in its territory so the birds can seek shelter . territory size of the brazilian merganser varies between 5 - 12 km of rivers and streams in the serra da canastra region .\nwilliams , m . j . 2015 . auckland island merganser . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\nwe do not have evidence of the depth of the impact of tourism activities on brazilian merganser populations . in the serra da canastra national park the type of tourism developed thus far do not seem to interfere significantly with the brazilian merganser\u2019s behavior , given that a pair has been breeding successfully over the years close to one of the most often visited areas in the park ( silveira and bartmann 2001 , bartmann 1988 , and personal observations ) . nevertheless , there has been a significant increase in tourism , both in the park and in its vicinity . the ever - growing number of tourists who come looking for rivers and waterfalls could potentially interfere with the birds\u2019 behaviour ; this should be monitored closely .\nwe helped write the action plan for conserving brazilian mergansers . drawing on our long experience of waterbird monitoring , we helped terra brasilis establish a capture and marking programme using leg rings and radio transmitters . it was the first time brazilian mergansers had ever been caught for science and the ongoing programme is helping us to understand how the birds use the densely forested rivers .\nbruno , s . f . and bartmann , w . ( 2003 ) brazilian mergansers in serra da canastra national park , minas gerais state , brazil . twsg news , 14 : 53 - 54 .\nauckland island merganser . image from hombron , j . b . & jacquinot , h . voyage au p\u00f4le sud . zoologie . vol . 3 , . paris , france . image \u00a9 no known copyright restrictions\nwilliams , m . ; holdaway , r . n . ; rogers , k . m . 2012 . feeding environments of new zealand\u2019s extinct merganser revealed by stable isotope analyses . wildfowl 62 : 190 - 203 .\nthe brazilian merganser exists in extremely low numbers at a few , highly disjunct localities in south - central brazil . in 2002 , the species was also found on the arroyo uruz\u00fa in misiones , argentina , the first record in the country for 10 years , despite extensive surveys . the bird was last recorded in paraguay in 1984 , where very little habitat remains , although local reports indicate that a few individuals may still survive there ( 4 ) .\ncarboneras , c . , kirwan , g . m . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . brazilian merganser ( mergus octosetaceus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\na total of 27 specimens are known to have been obtained from the auckland islands . merganser bones found in natural deposits and maori middens at sites on north , south , and stewart islands are possibly referable to the same species .\nit is also vital to promote an awareness - raising campaign on the importance of this species among people who live in the areas where it occurs . most inhabitants of these areas do not know the brazilian merganser . revealing the importance of the species to the community , and demonstrating that its presence in the region is a valuable feature and something to be proud of , could get people involved and committed in the search for , and application of , beneficial actions for its conservation .\nthe brazilian merganser is a very rare and threatened species that nowadays inhabits only a few protected areas and their surroundings in the brazilian territory . in order to estimate the remaining genetic diversity and population structure in this species , two mitochondrial genes were sequenced in 39 individuals belonging to two populations and in one individual collected in argentina in 1950 . we found a highly significant divergence between two major remaining populations of mergus octosetaceus , which suggests a historical population structure in this species . furthermore , two deeply divergent lineages were found in a single location , which could due to current or historical secondary contact . based on the available genetic data , we point out future directions which would contribute to design strategies for conservation and management of this threatened species .\nwhen estimating the global population , don\u2019t count on any individuals in argentina . i know of only one potential sighting in argentina since the 2002 record : on the arroyo pepir\u00ed guaz\u00fa , miro ( 2010 ) saw three waterbirds that might have been brazilian mergansers .\nthe scarcity of information on the brazilian merganser\u2019s biology and behavior makes it difficult to make decisions affecting the conservation and management of this species . studies on reproduction , feeding behavior , territories , intra - and interspecific interactions , and environmental factors affecting the species must be encouraged . research involving the marking of individuals , preferably with the use of radio transmitters , for confirmation of the home range , and daily and seasonal movements , is essential to accurate estimates of the size and dynamics of the populations .\nhunting does not seem to be a current threat to the brazilian merganser . we heard stories , which we could not substantiate , that the species used to be hunted in the past . some local inhabitants claimed that it is not advantageous to hunt the bird as it is difficult to approach and at the same time small and with very little meat . yet , one has to take into account that the whole subject of \u201chunting\u201d is mostly avoided by all and only rarely we find someone willing to provide positive information .\nspp . , each pair using on average 9 km of river . range size was thought to be related to the availability of suitable nesting and feeding sites . scnp and its environs contain very little mature gallery forest with trees large enough to provide nest sites ( most having been selectively logged in the past ) . there is also competition for nest sites with other birds and mammals . all suitable habitat surrounding the scnp is now occupied by adult birds , leaving none for young birds . further research is needed to determine the fate and dispersion routes of juveniles . future conservation priorities for brazilian merganser in and around scnp include the installation of nest boxes to test whether the availability of good quality nest sites limits breeding success . a captive breeding programme could be established using eggs from these nest boxes . this would help to ensure the survival of this species and to provide birds for future reintroduction programmes should they be deemed necessary . further surveys , with subsequent establishment of reserves at key sites , are required throughout the brazilian merganser ' s range .\nsimilar species : there were no species that the auckland island merganser could have been confused with at its last retreat around the coasts of the auckland islands . around mainland new zealand and the chatham islands , the yellow - footed stictocarbo shags ( spotted shag and pitt island shag ) were ( and are ) common around coastlines , and were of similar body shape and colouration to the auckland island merganser . however , the two shags were slightly larger and had different head colouration and crest formation , and many structural differences if seen at sufficiently close range .\nin september 2007 , an information centre was opened in s\u00e3o roque de minas , a town in the region of serra da canastra , coordinated by the instituto terra brasilis . the purpose of this centre is to exchange and disseminate socio - environmental information and consolidate the brazilian merganser as the symbol for the ecosystem conservation in that region . the centre has been very successful ; more than 3 , 000 people have taken part in its activities , which include presentations , workshops , contests , movies and games . some local schools have included a visit to the centre in their regular activities .\nauckland island merganser pairs were probably strongly territorial , maintaining their territory and relationship year - round . the eastern inlets of auckland island and the bays within carnley harbour each have a small feeding stream and it is unlikely that more than one pair could have occupied any inlet and bay .\nbrazilian merganser is a slender , dark , medium - sized bird , with a typically long crest on the rear of the head . back and wings are grayish brown . head and neck darker with metallic dark green reflections , better seen under sunlight . the breast is pale gray with narrow darker stripes ; the color of the underparts becomes paler towards the abdomen . the wing white mirror is visible during flight and it is also commonly observed when the birds are resting or swimming . the head crest is longer in the males than females . the bill is thin , narrow and serrated .\nfor this particular issue , the brazilian journal of ornithology will publish articles and reviews on ornithology in general , with emphasis on neotropical birds . it is indexed in databases zoological records , biological abstract , scopus , and isi . the current ( june 2017 ) impact factor is 0 . 414 ) . the journal o\nmergus is the genus of the typical mergansers , fish - eating ducks in the seaduck subfamily ( merginae ) . the hooded merganser , often termed mergus cucullatus , is not of this genus but closely related . the other\naberrant\nmerganser , the smew ( mergellus albellus ) , is phylogenetically closer to goldeneyes ( bucephala ) . although they are seaducks , most of the mergansers prefer riverine habitats , with only the red - breasted merganser being common at sea . these large fish - eaters typically have black - and - white , brown and / or green hues in their plumage , and most have shomewhat shaggy crests . all have serrated edges to their long and thin bills that help them grip their prey . along with the smew and hooded merganser , they are therefore often known as\nsawbills\n. the goldeneyes , on the other hand , feed mainly on mollusks , and therefore have a more typical duck - bill . they are also classified as\ndivers\nbecause they go completely under - water in looking for food . in other traits , however , the genera mergus , lophodytes , mergellus , and bucephala are very similar ; uniquely among all anseriformes , they do not have notches at the hind margin of their sternum , but holes surrounded by bone .\nas mentioned above , less than 250 of these birds are left . they came from a central and southern brazilian region , and eventually fell into nearby regions of both argentina and paraguay . however , the populations confirmed to remain are all to be seen in brazil as none have been reported in argentina for quite some time \u2013 reports are scarce in 2015 .\nour project\u00b4s intention was to find the dove merganser ( mergus octosetaceus ) and purple \u2013winged ground dove ( claravus godefrida ) which used to inhabit the higly endangered upper parana atlantic forest in paraguay . however , the loss of more than 90 % of forest cover due to the expansion of cattle ranching and agriculture had severely impacted these species . both species are categorized as cr ( critically endangered ) by the uicn\u00b4s redlist mainly because of habitat loss and pollution of rivers . currently the only stable population of the merganser is in the serra da canastra national park in brazil and in recent years there have been new records in argentina . in paraguay the species was last seen in 1983 .\nthe brazilian merganser is one of the ten most threatened waterfowl in the world , with possibly fewer than 250 birds thought to remain ( 3 ) . this dark , slender duck has a shiny dark - green hood with a long crest , which is usually shorter and worn - looking in females ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . upperparts are dark grey while the breast is light grey , getting paler towards the whitish belly , and a white wing patch ( speculum ) is particularly noticeable in flight ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . the bill is long and dark ( 4 ) , shorter in the female ( 2 ) , and the legs are pink to orange - red ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .\none such project is taking place at zooparque itatiba in brazil . conservation teams have been continuing their efforts to locate and track breeding brazilian mergansers through some of the most remote river habitat . when a healthy nest is discovered , the teams remove a few of the eggs and transport them back to zooparque itatiba , leaving the rest to hatch with the parents in the wild . in 2015 , the teams were able to collect a total of eight eggs from two different nest sites , and successfully raised all eight ducklings back at the zoo . should the habitat for wild brazilian mergansers continue to degrade , the birds housed at zooparque itatiba will ensure that this species does not disappear altogether . ideally , their offspring may also help bolster wild populations in the future .\nwe thank the specialist work group for the conservation of brazilian merganser for valuable discussions and opinions on this manuscript . we also thank all the staff from instituto terra brasilis and funatura ( vivian s . braz and gislaine disconzi ) for collecting the samples at serra da canastra and chapada dos veadeiros , respectively ; dario a . lijtmaerand and pablo tubaro for providing the samples from argentina , bradley c . livezey for sending copies of his papers , and geoff m . hilton and paulo de tarso z . antas for useful suggestions that greatly improved this manuscript . the present study received grants from fapemig , cnpq , petrobras ambiental and funda\u00e7\u00e3o o botic\u00e1rio de conserva\u00e7\u00e3o da natureza , and followed all ethical guidelines and legal requirements of brazil for sampling and studying an endangered species .\nis considered to be one of the rarest and most threatened species in the neotropical region , yet little is known about its distribution and life - history . we studied the population of brazilian merganser in and around serra da canastra national park ( scnp ) in minas gerais , brazil , during 1996 , with additional observations from 1997 to 2000 . in this paper we report the sighting of previously undiscovered pairs and present some new behavioural data , including a description of calls performed by males and females , feeding behaviour , home ranges , parental care and population density . we also describe a previously unreported plumage of the young . a total of 39 individuals were recorded , comprising 12 adults ( six pairs ) and 27 young . brood size ranged from two to four ( mean 2 . 7 ) , being smaller than in other\na large merganser with a dark brown head and neck , dark grey upper body , dull greyish - brown breast and abdomen , dark brown eyes , a long slender serrated yellowish - orange bill with black on the upper mandible , and orange legs and feet . the upper wings were slate grey , and the lower wing coverts were darker and banded white ; males were larger with an elongated crest .\nbrazilian mergansers nest in holes of trees , and holes in rocks and in river banks . nest site for brazilian merganser , in rock cavity . the entrance to the nest cavity is located from 2 to 25 m above the water . only the female incubates , and she leaves the nest twice per day to feed . the male spends most time resting or feeding nearby , constantly vigilant , but sometimes flies off , departing the area for several hours . the female lays up to eight eggs , which are incubated for about 34 days . when leaving the nest , the female covers the eggs with her down feathers . the ducklings leave the nest in the following day after hatching . the ducklings are encouraged to abandon the nest by the mother\u012bs call . the family stays together all the time ; the parents constantly keep the young between them . the parents provide the ducklings with fishes and invertebrates . they feed their young directly into their beaks , or they place caught fish in the water after shaking it in order the ducklings can catch it . after 10 days of life , young were observed fishing on their own , reducing the need for food provided by their parents . the young are able to perform short flies when they are around 2 months old . they generally stay with their parents about six months or even longer . many young die in these first months of life .\nanother potential , but very poorly studied , effect is the presence of exotic species of fish in the region . the peacock bass ( cichla sp . ) , along with other allochthonous species , commonly are introduced into the reservoirs and water courses . the peacock bass is also very common in fish - and - pay ponds . such predatory species have caused profound changes in the environments where they have been introduced , with the disadvantage that there are no effective processes to eradicate the species once it has settled in a host community ( fabio vieira 2002 , pers . comm . ) . though the peacock bass prefers to inhabit mostly still - water environments , it is possible to find it in river stretches . being an essentially fish - eating species , it may alter the dynamics of the native water communities as it becomes established . small native fish make up the brazilian merganser\u2019s basic source of food and any factor interfering with the supply may have serious consequences for its populations .\nmergansers were extirpated following polynesian settlement of new zealand and chatham islands . the auckland island population would have been severely diminished by predation by pigs and cats following their release onto auckland island in the 1820s , and possibly also by being a food for early sealers at the island . the earnest collecting of specimens for museums , especially in the 1890s , led to the last specimen being seen , and collected , in january 1902 , a mere 60 years after the merganser\u2019s initial discovery .\ntheir main distribution location seems to be within serra da canastra , where just under a fifth of the remaining population all remain . the last recorded ducks within argentina , for example , were in 2002 when they were found within the misiones . other than this , the animals are very much rare to be seen across the world as they have been ravaged by various different reasons . their habitats are diversely spread out as well , meaning that close interaction between groups of the merganser are no longer possible , which has contributed to their current state .\na duck of slender proportion and a dark color , it\u2019s got a particularly long crest which tends to be a little bit shorter when you are talking about a female merganser . the upper body of these creatures tends to be dark grey , whilst the breast is a light grey color in contrast . one of the most striking things about these creatures , however , is the fact that they are mostly silent \u2013 when they do make noise , it almost sounds like a dogs bark rather than the traditional quack you would expect to hear from a duck .\nbrazilian mergansers feed basically on small fish they capture during dives , although aquatic macroinvertebrates also contribute to their diet . very often , before diving , they search for their prey swimming with just their heads submerged . dives can last 15 to 20 seconds , and even 30 seconds in deeper pools . we have observed them catching insects flying around their heads . in the serra da canastra region , the most common fish species which serve as their food are lambaris and barrigudinho . stomach content analysis of individuals from misiones , argentina , showed they ate lambaris , ciclids , catfish , virolito , larvae of dobson flies and , probably , molluscs .\nwe would like to invite participants of this ornithological congress of the americas to submit manuscripts to be considered for publication on a special volume of the brazilian journal of ornithology . we welcome review and case study manuscripts derived from the research exposed at the meeting . particularly , we would like to invite organizers of each symposium , as well as symposium\u00b4s participants , to submit a review manuscript on the topic of the symposium , which could have particular emphasis on the individual talks involved in the symposium . also , we would like to publish one study case per symposium . in addition to the manuscripts derived from symposia , we encourage other authors presenting their studies to submit manuscripts as a general submi\nthere are some recent research on the conservation status of the species in its distribution area originally known . these studies show that the species is still under heavy anthropic pressures , including the region of the national park of serra da canastra where diamond exploration sector has been doing strong pressures to mine even in protected areas . ex situ conservation initiatives have been conducted by the brazilian government , researchers and breeders , and today there are , the only two individuals of the species that are officially raised in captivity from eggs collected in the wild . therefore i believe it is still incipient to change the status of the species to a threat condition \u201clower\u201d than the current one . especially because the conservation status of the species serves as an argument for compensation discussions as part of environmental projects\nthe sexes of the auckland island merganser were similar to each other , but males were larger and had an obvious and elongated crest . the head and neck were dark brown , the entire upper body dark grey , and the breast and abdomen dull greyish - brown . the upper wings were slate grey , and the lower wing coverts were darker and banded white . the middle secondary flight feathers were white on the outer web and black on the inner web and tips , with the primary flight feathers and inner secondaries tending blackish . the eyes were dark brown , and the upper bill black but with its cutting edge and the lower mandible yellowish - orange ; the legs and feet were orange . immature birds were darker versions of the adults . ducklings were dark brown - black above with yellowish - white underparts . their bill , legs and feet were dark olive - brown .\nbrazilian mergansers nest in holes of trees , and holes in rocks and in river banks ( lamas and santos 2004 , partridge 1956 , andrade et al . in press ) . the entrance to the nest cavity is located from 2 to 25 m above the water . only the female incubates , and she leaves the nest twice per day to feed ( bruno et al . , in press ) . the male spends most time resting or feeding nearby , constantly vigilant , but sometimes flies off , departing the area for several hours . the female lays up to eight eggs , which are incubated for about 34 days ( bruno et al . , in press ) . the eggs are oval in shape and pale beige , almost white , in coloration . the following mean measures data were taken from one nest with seven eggs : 61 . 7 mm ( length ) , 42 . 5 mm ( width ) and 59 . 86 g ( weight ) ( lamas and santos 2004 ) . when leaving the nest , the female covers the eggs with her down feathers .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\n49 - 56 cm . dark , slender duck with long crest . dark hood with petroleum - green sheen . pale grey breast finely vermiculated dark , paler towards whitish belly . dark grey upperparts . white wing speculum . long , dark saw - bill . pinky - lilac legs . long , bushy hindcrest usually worn and shorter in females .\nbenstead , p . , bird , j . , butchart , s . , calvert , r . , capper , d . , clay , r . , mazar barnett , j . , pilgrim , j . , sharpe , c j , symes , a . , taylor , j . , khwaja , n . & ashpole , j\nrecent records from brazil indicate that this species ' s status may be marginally better than previously thought . nevertheless , the remaining known population is still extremely small and fragmented , and the perturbation , damming and pollution of rivers are likely to be causing continuing declines . for these reasons , it is listed as critically endangered . further information on the population size ( in particular whether it exceeds 250 mature individuals ) and on the subpopulation structure may result in its downlisting to endangered in the future .\n. 2013 ) , where recent surveys yielded a rough estimate of 70 - 100 territories , roughly equivalent to 140 - 200 mature individuals ( l . v . lins unpubl . data ) ; if confirmed this would represent a significant increase to the size of the largest known subpopulation . tributaries of the rio s\u00e3o francisco in west bahia were thought to hold a significant population\n( pineschi and yamashita 1999 ) , but a 2003 survey there failed to locate any birds . it has recently been found in patroc\u00ednio municipality , minas gerais ( i . lamas\n2012 ) ; a record from itacolomi state parque in the same state is though thought to refer to an accidental or escaped bird ( arvelino de paula 2008 , l . v . lins\n2012 ) . in goi\u00e1s , there are records from emas and chapada dos veadeiros national parks ; the latter being surveyed in 2003 - 2004 with birds found just outside the park in the rio das pedras , and the total in the area thought to number fewer than 50 individuals ( disconzi 2012 ) . in 1995 , a small population was discovered on the rio tibagi , paran\u00e1\n2003 ) , and six expeditions in 2007 and 2008 surveying a c . 55 km stretch of the rio novo located three breeding pairs ( barbosa and almeida 2010 ) , and four pairs along 115 km of river in 2010 - 2011 ( iecos brasil 2013 per l . v . lins\n( pacheco and fonseca 1999 ) , s\u00e3o paulo , and santa catarina . in misiones ,\n, 12 individuals were found on the arroyo uruz\u00fa in 2002 , the first records in the country for 10 years despite extensive surveys ( benstead 1994 , hearn 1994 , j . c . chebez\n, it was last recorded in 1984 and there is little ( if any ) habitat left . however , local reports indicate that a few individuals may still survive\nthe population was estimated at 250 individuals in 1992 , and was thought likely to have declined since given ongoing threats , however there are recent suggestions that the population may exceed this figure ( l . v . lins\n2012 ) . recent estimates from the three main areas currently known to hold the species are of 70 - 100 territories ( 140 - 200 mature individuals ) in the serra da canastra area ( l . v . lins\n2012 , 2013 ) , fewer than 50 individuals at chapada dos veadeiros ( disconzi 2012 ) and eight at jalap\u00e3o ( iecos brasil 2013 per l . v . lins\n2015 ) , but these figures require confirmation and the population is currently precautionarily maintained within the band 50 - 249 mature individuals .\nthis species ' s population is suspected to have declined rapidly over the last 20 years ( three generations ) , in line with habitat loss and degradation within its range , owing to the expansion of hydroelectric power schemes , soy bean cultivation and mining operations . it appears to have been extirpated from paraguay .\nit inhabits shallow , fast - flowing rivers , requiring rapids and clear waters . it occurs especially in the upper tributaries of watersheds but ranges into small rivers with patches of gallery forest surrounded by\ncerrado\n( tropical savanna ) or within atlantic forest . it is non - migratory and does not abandon the stretch of river where it establishes its territory\n, but timing may vary geographically . incubation may last c . 33 days ( bruno\n. previously , the species was thought to rely on gallery forest which , although protected by law in brazil , has been cleared illegally throughout much of the species ' s range . however , evidence suggests it will occur on unforested , undisturbed stretches of river through cerrado . all recent records of the species in the serra da canastra region refer to unprotected sites north of the national park . these are sites under increasing pressure from mining , development of hydropower infrastructure and agriculture ( l . v . lins\n1999 ) , and it is thought that diamond mining will resume at serra da canastra in the near future ( l . v . lins\n2003 ) . dam - building has already caused severe declines across much of its range , and is increasing in scale ( l . v . lins\n2003 ) , although there are no recent published records from emas national park . a species action plan has been published which outlines in detail its current status , ecology , threats and proposed conservation actions\n( ibama 2006 ) . it is considered nationally critically endangered in brazil ( silveira & straube 2008 , mma 2014 ) . in argentina , sections of the arroyo uruz\u00fa are protected within the urugua\u00ed provincial park ( p . benstead verbally 2004 ) . regular monitoring of the population in serra da canastra national park , brazil is conducted and in 2008 a team from the wwt and terra brasilis colour - ringed 14 individuals and fitted five of them with radio transmitters in order to increase knowledge of the species ' s movements and ecology ( braz\n2006 ) . nest boxes have recently been installed within the protected area ( l . v . lins\n2011 ) . a captive breeding programme was initiated in 2011 at the po\u00e7os de caldas breeding center in minas gerais . two young have been successfully reared so far ( l . v . lins\n. the pato aqui \u00e1gua acol\u00e1 project has been engaging with students in the serra da canastra region to improve understanding of environmental problems related to the cerrado biome ( instituto terra brasilis 2014a ) . the project has also set up the conscious decision campaign to engage with those responsible for environmental licensing , construction and tourism activities that could have an impact on water quality within the species ' s range ( instituto terra brasilis 2015 ) .\n2012 ) . continue to monitor the serra da canastra population . implement survey work in the jalap\u00e3o region to find new individuals ( instituto terra brasilis 2014b ) . develop and implement a fieldwork strategy using satellite images . protect the watershed and riverine habitats of populations , especially in bahia . improve local awareness and promote riverbank protection . conduct surveys in paraguay to confirm local reports . advocate for the expansion of the chapada dos veadeiros national park in brazil to include the population in the rio das pedras ( bianchi\n2005 ) . continue to develop captive breeding programmes . in 2014 a workshop was held in tocantins to discuss the conservation of the species in the jalap\u00e3o region , measures discussed included a proposed normative instruction to outline activities that are not permitted in areas where the species is found ( instituto terra brasilis 2014b ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\npairs occupy permanent territories of 8 to 14 km stretches of river ( 4 ) , depending on the availability of suitable nesting and feeding sites ( 6 ) . nests are built in tree cavities and rock crevices ( 4 ) . the breeding season is thought to last from june to august , but may vary geographically ( 4 ) , and broods of between two and four chicks are usually raised ( 6 ) .\ninhabits shallow , fast - flowing streams and rivers with rapids and clear waters , surrounded by dense tropical forest ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nclassified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list 2006 ( 1 ) .\ninformation authenticated ( 02 / 05 / 07 ) by dr baz hughes , head of species conservation , wildfowl and wetlands trust , slimbridge , uk . urltoken\nspeculum a bright and lustrous patch of colour found on the wings of ducks and some other birds .\ndel hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and sargatal , j . ( 1992 ) handbook of the birds of the world \u2013 ostrich to ducks . vol . 1 . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : mergus octosetaceus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\nisolated populations in se brazil in bahia , tocantins , goi\u00e1s , minas gerais and paran\u00e1 ( species is believed extinct in mato grosso do sul , rio de janeiro , s\u00e3o paulo and santa catarina ) , and ne argentina ( misiones ) . may still survive in e paraguay ( alto paran\u00e1 ) .\n49\u201356 cm ; 600\u2013700 g . head , neck and upperparts dark brown with greenish iridescence and long crest ; upperwing blackish , secondaries and greater wing - coverts white . . .\nusually silent , vocalizations being mainly heard during breeding season or when threatened , but . . .\nrapid , torrential streams and fast - flowing rivers usually fringed by dense tropical forest , . . .\nmostly fish ( of 6\u201319 cm length , characids , cichlids , pimelodids and hemiodontids ) , complemented with molluscs and insects and their . . .\nfew data available until recently . season apparently starts jun / jul ( dry season ) , with first ducklings hatching in early jul and young . . .\nmostly sedentary , with only small - scale movements recorded , with genetic structure in . . .\ncritically endangered . small , little - known population , estimated at just 50\u2013249 mature individuals by birdlife international , widely scattered over range ( of 32 , 600 km2 . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\njosep del hoyo , mark andrews , l\u00facio , fran trabalon , carlos gussoni .\ns\u00e1vio freire bruno , petemorris , bruno salaroli , dubi shapiro , claudia brasileiro , douglas bete , edson endrigo , fran trabalon , mark andrews .\nin addition to collecting and raising these birds , zooparque itatiba staff have been building a large new aviary and pool to house the adolescent birds . at the october 2015 iwwa conference , a grant from the iwwa was allocated towards the completion of this project .\nall content and images \u00a9 sylvan heights bird park unless otherwise credited . please click here for photo requests .\nsylvan heights bird park is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization .\nthis contributes to their rather comical image among some brazilians . however , their plight as a species is no laughing matter \u2013 it\u2019s estimated that less than 250 of these birds are left in the world . they are in danger to such a scale that very little is even known about their traditional breeding techniques and style .\nthe most common threat to these ducks is down to humans , believe it or not . as industry and agriculture has expanded , their habitats have become smaller and been degraded . water has also become more toxic , and this has been a serious contributor to their massive demise .\nsoil erosion and deforestation play a part too , however . dam - building has been another key killer for these creatures , as they have been eradicating small rivers and turning them into massive lakes which aren\u2019t suitable for the ducks . pesticides are one of the main killers as well , contributing to their measly number remaining .\nwwt uses cookies on this website we use cookies on this site to improve your user experience . by continuing to use our site , you are agreeing to use our cookies . for further information about our cookies and how we use your personal information visit our privacy and cookies policy . [ x ]\nwwt has been supporting the terra brasilis institute , a local conservation organisation which is passionate about conserving the cerrado habitat in and around the serra da canastra national park , and the mergansers that live there . cerrado is an extensive savannah criss - crossed by gallery forests , which are evergreen corridors that have formed along the rivers and wetlands .\nwwt limited is a charity ( 1030884 england and wales , sco39410 scotland ) and a company limited by guarantee ( 2882729 england ) . vat number 618368028 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 296 , 321 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nrecent records from brazil , and particularly a recent northerly range extension , indicate that this species ' s status is better than previously thought . nevertheless , the remaining population is still extremely small and severely fragmented , and the perturbation , damming and pollution of rivers continue to cause declines . for these reasons , it is listed as critically endangered . perturbation and pollution of rivers results largely from deforestation , agricultural expansion and , in the serra da canastra area , diamond - mining . previously , the species was thought to rely on gallery forest which , although protected by law in brazil , has been cleared illegally throughout much of the species ' s range . however , evidence suggests it will occur on unforested , undisturbed stretches of river through cerrado . mining has ceased in the immediate area of its known range but there is no additional habitat for dispersing birds . expanding agriculture and the construction of hydroelectric dams are considered the principal threats to the species . dam - building has already caused severe declines across much of its range . tourist activities result in river perturbation and have been recorded within known territories and inside national parks ."]}
{"id": 1352, "summary": [{"text": "the narrow-barred spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson ) is a mackerel of the scombridae family found in a wide-ranging area centering in southeast asia , but as far west as the east coast of africa and from the middle east and along the northern coastal areas of the indian ocean , and as far east as the south west pacific ocean . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "narrow - barred spanish mackerel", "paragraphs": ["mackerel , macko , narrow - bar , narrow - barred spanish mackerel , snook , spaniard .\nbarred mackerel , commerson\u2019s mackerel , cybium , king mackerel , kingfish , macko , narrow - bar , narrow - barred king mackerel .\ncommon names : narrow - barred spanish mackerel , spanish mackerel , striped mackerel , tenggiri batang , tohok , dengkeh .\nthazard ray\u00e9 indo - pacifique , carite estriado indo - pac\u00edfico , narrow barred spanish mackerel , . . . more\nsri lanka : barred spanish mackerel , konam ( tamil ) , striped seer .\nthe narrow - barred spanish mackerel is classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nen - narrow - barred spanish mackerel , fr - thazard ray\u00e9 indo - pacifique , sp - carite estriado indo - pac\u00edfico .\ninformation on the narrow - barred spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe torres strait spanish mackerel fishery operates predominantly in the eastern torres strait targeting the narrow - barred spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson ) . in 1999 , the fishery was expanded to include the mackerel species school mackerel ( scomberomorus queenslandicus ) , grey mackerel ( scomberomorus semifasciatus ) , spotted mackerel ( scomberomorus munroi ) and shark mackerel ( grammatorcynus bicarinatus ) .\npopulation dynamics parameters of narrow - barred spanish mackerel , scomberomorus commerson ( lac\u00e8p\u00e9de , 1800 ) , from commercial catch in the northern persia . . .\ncontribution to the feeding habits and reproductive biology of narrow - barred spanish mackerel , scomberomorus commerson ( lac\u00e8p\u00e9de , 1801 ) ( teleostei : scombrid . . .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - narrow - barred spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - narrow - barred spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson )\ntitle =\narkive species - narrow - barred spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nnarrow - barred mackerel , known internationally as tanguigue , inhabit coastal waters from perth , western australia , around the top end to bermagui in nsw . spanish mackerel have also been caught in victorian and tasmanian waters .\nmcpherson , g . r . 1993 . reproductive biology of the narrow - barred spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson lac\u00e8p\u00e9de , 1801 ) in queensland waters . asian fisheries science 6 : 169 - 182 .\nbakhoum , s . a . 2007 . diet overlap of immigrant narrow\u2013barred spanish mackerel scomberomorus commerson and the largehead hairtail ribbonfish trichiurus lepturus in the egyptian mediterranean coast . animal biodiversity and conservation 30 ( 2 ) : 147 - 160 .\nstates that the notice applies in conjunction with other notices in place for the spanish mackerel fishery .\nfauvelot , c . and borsa , p . 2011 . patterns of genetic isolation in a widely distributed pelagic fish , the narrow - barred spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson ) . biological journal of the linnean society 104 : 886 - 902 .\nfisheries management notice 74 prohibits the taking , processing and carrying of spanish mackerel in the torres strait spanish mackerel fishery . it does not impose any restrictions on where or when a fisher can operate .\nmcpherson , g . r . 1992 . age and growth of the narrow - barred spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson lacepede , 1800 ) in northeastern queensland waters . austral . j . mar . freshw . res . 43 : 1269 - 1282 .\nspanish mackerel are carnivores that predominantly feed on a variety of baitfish and to a lesser extent squid .\nkaymaram , f . , ghasemi , s . , vahabneshad , a . , and darvishi , m . 2013 . growth , mortality and exploitation rate of narrow - barred spanish mackerel , scomberomorus commerson in the persian gulf and oman sea , iran , hormozgan\u2019s waters .\nmeriem , s . b . , al - marzouiqi , a . and al - mamry , j . 2006 . fisheries exploitation pattern of narrow - barred spanish mackerel , scomberomorus commerson , in oman and potential management options . journal of applied ichthyology 22 : 1 - 7 .\nmotlagh , s . a . t . and m . g . shojaei . 2009 . population dynamics of narrow - barred spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson ) in the persian gulf , bushehr province , iran . indian j . fish . 56 ( 1 ) : 7 - 11 .\nsulaiman , z . h . and ovenden , j . r . 2010 . population genetic evidence for the east - west division of the narrow - barred spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson , perciformes : teleostei ) along wallace ' s line . biodiversity conservation 19 : 563 - 574 .\nthe narrow - barred spanish mackerel is another pelagic belonging to the \u201crazor gang\u201d . they sport an impressive set of razor - sharp teeth , capable of removing trolled live / dead baits without registering so much as a twitch to the line ( not an over - statement ) . the spanish mackerel is an extremely fast and powerful fish and puts up an impressive fight when hooked much like a wahoo .\nbakhoum , s . a . 2007 . diet overlap of immigrant narrow - barred spanish mackerel scomberomorus commerson ( lac . , 1802 ) and the largehead hairtail ribbonfish trichiurus lepturus ( l . , 1758 ) in the egyptian mediterranean coast . animal biodiversity & conservation 30 ( 2 ) : 147 - 160 .\nmackie m , lewis p . 2001 . assessment of gonad staging systems and other methods used in the study of the reproductive biology of narrow - barred spanish mackerel , scomberomorus commerson , in western australia . w . austral . dept . fish . , fish . res . rep . 136 : 31 .\ngrandcourt , e . m . , al abdessalaam , t . z . , francis , f . and al shamsi , a . t . 2005 . priliminary assessment of biology and fishery for the narrow - barred spanish mackerel , scomberomorus commerson in the southern persian gulf . fisheries research 76 : 277 - 290 .\nhoolihan jp , anady p , van herwerden l . 2006 . mitochondrial analyses of narrow - barred spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson ) suggest a single genetic stock in the ropme sea area ) arabian gulf , gulf of oman , and arabian sea ) . ices j . mar . sci . 63 : 1066 - 1074 .\nspaniards are also known as \u201cnarrow - barred mackerel\u201d or \u201cbar - ees\u201d for short . the average sized fish encountered by rock fishermen is usually around 5 - 20kgs and any landbased capture over the 30kg mark is considered as a fish of a lifetime .\nabedi , e . , zolgharnein , h . , salari , m . a . and qasemi , a . 2012 . genetic differentiation of narrow - barred spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson ) stocks using microsatellite markers in persian gulf . american - eurasian journal of agriculture and environmental science 12 ( 10 ) : 1305 - 1310 .\ngrandcourt , e . m . ; al - abdessalaam , t . z . ; francis , f . & al - shamsi , a . t . 2005 . preliminary assessment of the biology and fishery for the narrow - barred spanish mackerel , scomberomorus commerson ( lac\u00e8p\u00e9de , 1800 ) . fisheries research 76 : 277 - 290 .\nmackie , m . c . , lewis , p . d . ; gaughan , d . j . & newman , s . j . 2005 . variability in spawning frequency and reproductive development of the narrow - barred spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson ) along the west coast of australia . fishery bulletin 103 : 344 - 354 .\nthe upper body varies from bright blue to dark grey in colour that fades to a silvery - blue over the sides . more than 40 narrow grey - blue wavy , vertical bars are present on each side of the fish . the large dip in the lateral line below the second dorsal fin is a clear diagnostic feature of the narrow - barred mackerel .\ngrandcourt , e . m . 2013 . a review of the fisheries , biology , status and management of the narrow - barred spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson ) in the gulf cooperation council countries ( bahrain , kuwait , oman , qatar , saudi arabia and the united arab emirates ) . third working party on neritic tunas : 17 .\nbibless lures are trolled at high trolling speeds for spanish mackerel . but i have found different methods works better at different situations and environments .\nsimilar in appearance to wahoo . narrow - barred mackerel have less dorsal fin spines ( 15 - 18 compared with 23 - 27 ) , the second dorsal fin is located closer to the centre of the body and they have a more prominent fork in their tail .\nsport fishing fiji video - from matava resort , kadavu island - wahoo , sailfish and spanish mackerel with capt . adrian watts aboard the bite me\nthis notice sets out prohibitions relating to the taking , processing and carrying of spanish mackerel ( gear and size restrictions and take and carry limit ) .\ndetails who is exempt from the spanish mackerel prohibition based on licence type or their engagement in traditional fishing ( which does not require a licence ) .\nisland\u2019s great astrolabe barrier reef is producing large numbers of mid sized fish with frequent fish to 70lbs and the occasional rod snapping monster getting the best of astonished anglers . even the narrow barred mackerel are getting into the action with many good sized fish caught on poppers right in close to the reef .\ncatch estimates for narrow - barred spanish mackerel are highly uncertain . the catches of spanish mackerel increased from around 50 , 000 t the mid - 1970s to 100 , 000 t by the mid - 1990s . the current average annual catch is around 112 , 200 t ( for the period 2002 to 2006 ) , with most of the catch obtained taken from the west indian ocean area . in recent years , the countries attributed with the highest catches of spanish mackerel are indonesia , madagascar , pakistan , iran and saudi arabia . the overall catch in the eastern indian ocean is relatively stable , whereas in the western indian ocean it peaked in 1988 and has levelled off since then ( iotc 2006 ) .\nengage in three distinct spawning periods between january and september . spanish mackerel spawn off the reef slopes and edges , and they form spawning aggregations in specific areas .\nadult ( read huge ) spanish mackerel usually hunts alone or in very small group . smaller spaniards can be found in schools . they are seldom found far offshore making them easily accessible to game fishers and commercial netters alike . spanish mackerel are often caught trolled with live or deadbaits and also on lures and metal jigs .\nscomberomorini , commonly called the spanish mackerels or seerfishes , is a tribe of ray - finned bony fishes in the mackerel family , scombridae \u2013 a family it shares with the mackerel , tuna and bonito tribes , plus the butterfly kingfish .\nshojaei , m . g . , taghavi motlagh , s . a . , seyfabadi , j . , abtahi , b . and dehghani , r . 2007 . age , growth and mortality rate of the narrow - barred spanish mackerel ( scomberomerus commerson lacep\u00e8de , 1800 ) in coastal waters of iran from length frequency data . turkish journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences 7 : 115 - 121 .\nmultiple hook - ups are common when a troll goes near a schooling spanish mackerel . if a big fish is landed , that is usually the only fish in that area . big spanish mackerel are capable of making sizzling runs after getting hooked . if a sport fish usually puts up a fight by swimming away from the angler , be ready for the highly unpredictable directions a spanish mackerel might make . they often swim towards the boat at high speed making the angler think they have lost the fish .\nthe spanish mackerel\u2019s incredible speed often results in them rocketing meters out of the water when attacking from below . snelling is often deployed when using two hooks on a live or dead bait .\nspanish mackerel live throughout the indo - west pacific region , particularly in tropical and sub - tropical waters . in western australia , they\u2019re found from cape leeuwin northwards to the northern territory border .\nthe wahoo fishing just keeps getting better in part 2 , but there ' s more . some big giant trevally and spanish mackerel join sailfish to make for two great days of matava resort fishing .\nlatin , scomber = mackerel + greek , moros = silly , stupid ( ref . 45335 )\nspecifies the minimum size limits for each of the mackerel species covered by this fisheries management notice .\nmost commercial fishing for spanish mackerel is done north of geraldton , especially along the kimberley and pilbara coasts . recreational fishers also target it , mainly between perth and dampier , for its good fighting and eating qualities .\ntobin , a . and mapleston , a . 2004 . exploitation dynamics and biological characteristics of the queensland and east coast spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson ) fishery . crc reef research center tech report 51 : 56 .\nscientific synonyms and common names scomberomorus commerson ( lacep\u00e8de , 1802 ) synonyms : scomber commerson lacep\u00e8de , 1800 , hist . nat . poissons , 2 : 599 , pl . 20 ( fig . 1 ) . scomberomorus ( cybium ) commerson : fraser - brunner , 1950 : 161 , fig . 34 . scomberomorus commerson : zarov et al . , 1961 : 48 , fig . 22 . scomberomorus commersoni : george & athanassiou , 1965 : 1 , fig . 1 . common name : narrow - barred spanish mackerel [ en ]\nmackerel \u2013 plenty of small ones inshore , some very nice fish hitting ballyhoo rigs outside the reef .\n5 stars . spanish mackerel are a popular commercial and recreational target due to their high yield and popularity on the table . they are high in fats and oils such as omega 3 making them a healthy and tasty choice .\nthe content of the proposed notice includes all existing arrangements ( specified in fisheries management notice no 74 ) and the addition of a gear restriction on a class of licence operating in a specific area of the spanish mackerel fishery .\nigfa anglers digest fishing show\nweek of 8 / 27 and 9 / 1 ( two part episode ) we venture far off the beaten path to fish the great astrolabe reef from matava resort on kadavu island , fiji . we set a new fijian record for wahoo plus sailfish , giant trevally , and barred spanish mackerel with igfa capt . adrian watts .\nigfa anglers digest fishing show\nsmall mackerel up to five years old tend to school and appear to be more mobile than larger fish .\nspanish mackerel are a great target for rock fishermen as they commonly hunt for prey extremely close to the shore . large rocky headlands that are surrounded with deep water and inshore reef systems usually hold excellent numbers of mackerel . manmade structures which hold large aggregations of baitfish such as large jetties and breakwalls will also produce good numbers of fish .\nbegg , ga , chen , cc - m , o\u2019neill , mf , rose , db . 2006 . stock assessment of the torres strait spanish mackerel fishery . crc reef research centre technical report no 66 . townsville , australia .\ndudley , r . g . ; aghanashinikar , a . p . & brothers , e . b . 1992 . management of the indo - pacific spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson ) in oman . fisheries research 15 : 17 - 43 .\ngas ballooning is a unique method of fishing used by land based anglers to target a wide variety of pelagic fish such as spanish mackerel , cobia , longtail tuna , yellowfin tuna and the indo - pacific sailfish . this techn . . .\nthe largest mackerel , commonly 2 - 15kg and 55 - 125cm , but can grow to 50kg and at least 200cm .\nbuckworth , r . c . and clarke , r . 2001 . fishery assessment report for the northern territory spanish mackerel fishery \u2013 1999 : summary of assessment information . in : department of primary industry and fisheries ( eds ) , fishery report 52 . darwin , australia .\nwelch , d . j . , hoyle , s . d . , mcpherson , g . r . and gribble , n . a . 2002 . preliminary assessment of the queensland east coast spanish mackerel fishery . information series qi02110 . queensland government department of primary industries .\n. 2002 ) that indicated the stock was around 40\u201350 % of the unfished biomass . the commercial catch per unit effort ( cpue ) of spanish mackerel has historically exhibited a stable trend , despite inter annual variability in total catch . assessments have also been carried out in northern australia ( buckworth\nroa - ureta , r . h . 2014 . stock assessment of the spanish mackerel scomberomorus commerson in saudi waters of the arabian gulf with generalized depletion models under data - limited conditions . fisheries research : doi : 10 . 1016 / j . fishres . 2014 . 08 . 014 .\nspanish mackerel are fished by trolling ( towing lures or bait behind the boat ) , generally from dories / dinghies ( aluminium or fibreglass boats under 6 meters ) operating either to a primary vessel or by themselves . the majority of the catch is taken by a small number of commercial operators .\nspanish mackerel are a fantastic fish that should be chilled immediately for best results . they are regarded as one of the best eating fish in the north so if you\u2019re going to take one for a feed look after it properly . immediate bleeding and placing in a salty ice slurry will enhance the flesh .\ndepending on temperature regime , the spawning season may be more or less extended . in australian waters , each female spawns several times over the season , about two to six days apart , depending on the locality . spanish mackerel spawn off the reef slopes and edges , and they form spawning aggregations in specific areas .\nmcpherson , g . r . 1981 . preliminary report : investigations of spanish mackerel , scomberomorus commerson , in queensland waters . in : grant , c . j & walters , d . g ( eds . ) , northern pelagic fish seminar , australian government printing series , canberra . pp . 51 - 58 .\nmackie , m . , lewis , p . d . , gaughan , d . j . and buckworth , r . c . 2003 . stock assessment of spanish mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson ) in western australia . final report . fisheries research and development corporation project 1999 / 151 . fisheries department of western australia .\nthese toothy predators occupy the tropical and sub - tropical waters along the northern half of australia . on the east coast consistent numbers of fish can be found north of south west rocks . some of the best spinfishing locations for targeting mackerel in northern nsw are hat head and the iluka breakwall . further north in queensland locations such as the urangan pier in hervey bay , the catwalk at 1770 and bustard head are also well known hot spots for targeting spanish mackerel .\nspanish mackerel mature at approximately 80cm and grow to about 240cm and 60kg in weight . in australian waters spawning occurs in the open ocean along reef edges when water temperatures are highest . studies indicate that there are three separate genetic stocks in australia ; papua new guinea to east coast , torres straight , and papua new guinea to wa .\nspanish mackerel are widely distributed across the indo - west pacific region and range as far as the east coast of africa and east as far as the fiji islands . in australia they follow the warmer tropical to sub - tropical waters between the continental shelf and the mainland . they range between augusta in western australia northwards to the east coast of victoria .\ndepending on temperature regime , the spawning season may be more or less extended . in australian waters , each female spawns several times over the season , about 2 to 6 days apart ( ref . 30196 ) , depending on the locality . spanish mackerel spawn off the reef slopes and edges , and they form spawning aggregations in specific areas ( ref . 6390 ) .\ncollette , b . b . & russo , j . l . 1984 . morphology , systematics , & biology of the spanish mackerels ( scomberomorus , scombridae ) . fishery bulletin 82 : 545 - 689 .\nwhen i\u2019m spinning for mackerel from long tropical jetties like the mandorah wharf in darwin harbour or the urangan pier in queensland i always use smaller metals such as surecatch bishops . the 50gm and 60gm bishop are the perfect profile size for mimicking baitfish such as hardy heads and herring which commonly congregate under large jetties . i usually let the lures sink next to the pylons and then jig them up using an erratic retrieve . the technique works well on smaller sized spaniards between 6 - 12kg and other mackerel species such as school , shark and broad bar mackerel .\nthe great astrolabe reef wraps around nearly 75 miles of the coastline of kadavu island , fiji where we find matava resort and capt . adrian watt ' s\nbite me\nsport fishing charters . waters are chock full of wahoo , sailfish , spanish mackerel and giant trevally plus the reef diving is perhaps the best in the world with incredibly healthy corals and plenty of tropical fish and reef species .\nabdulqader , e . a . a . 2001 . the gcc spanish mackerel fisheries monitoring program . in : goddard , s . , al - oufi , h . , mcilwain j . , and claereboudt ( eds ) , proc . 1st international conference on fisheries , aquaculture and environment in the nw indian ocean , pp . 49 - 55 . sultan qaboos university , muscat , sultanate of oman .\nwire leaders above 20 - 30 lbs are usually needed to combat the razor - sharp scissor - like teeth of the spanish mackerel . nylon coated wires are also popular when trolling . if nylon leaders are used , you can only hope for the best that the fish has bitten at the lure or hook shank . another thing is there can be a lot of hits & misses with the spanish mackerels as they tend to attack bait at high speed . often , a bait is sliced clean in half but the fish misses the hooks . they also often hit the leaders rather than the lure or jig sometimes getting themselves foul hooked .\ngovender , a . 1994 . growth of king mackerel ( scomberomorus commerson ) off the coast of natal , south africa - from length and age data . fisheries research 20 : 63 - 79 .\ncollette , b . b . and russo , j . l . 1985 . morphology , systematics , and biology of the spanish mackerels ( scomberomorus , scombridae ) . fishery bulletin , u . s 82 : 545 - 692 .\nhigh - speed spinning from the rock was discovered on the australian coast in the late 60\u2019s . throughout this era throwing metal lures with long rods and cranking them through the water with a high - speed overhead reel became extremely popular amongst land based anglers . although the majority of chrome plated lures on the market today are a lot more refined , high - speed spinning from the stones is still a productive method for catching spanish mackerel .\nhigh - speed spinning for spanish mackerel is definitely one of the most exciting brands of sport fishing . with one glimpse of a spaniard it\u2019s obvious that evolution has perfectly crafted this fish for destroying lures at warped speeds . the classic strike from one of these tropical speedsters usually starts with a serious bone jarring jolt , followed by a series of aggressive head shakes before the fish powers off towards the open ocean leaving your reel screaming like a banshee .\nresearch suggests the mackerel in wa\u2019s northern waters don\u2019t move more than 100 kilometres along the coast . in southern waters , they are thought to migrate over hundreds of kilometres , following the warmer waters of the leeuwin current .\nswimming lures such as deep divers and bibless minnows also work well on mackerel when they are retrieved at medium to high speeds . i have found that these lures can often out fish metals when the water is discoloured and murky . swimming lures are designed with in - built action and constantly vibrate through the water . predatory fish like mackerel can use their lateral line and other senses to hunt down swimming lures without relying on their eyesight .\nin western australia good numbers of fish usually show up north of kalbarri . the rugged cliffs of steep point and quobba are famous for producing epic runs of mackerel and are both considered as world class land based gamefish destinations .\nit is often said that \u201cthe early bird catches the worm\u201d , this saying certainly applies to mackerel fisherman . the best time to spin for spaniards is definitely during first light and over the years i\u2019ve caught 80 percent of my fish between 6 - 9am . mackerel are also known as \u201cwolves of the sea\u201d and always feed with more intensity during low light periods . spaniards also have excellent eyesight and will utilise the low light conditions to ambush and seek prey .\ni have found that the best moon phase for mackerel is around the new moon . the dark skies make it extremely difficult for the fish to hunt throughout the night which makes them feed a lot more aggressively during daylight hours .\nfor a number of years a gentleman\u2019s agreement has existed in the bramble cay area of the spanish mackerel fishery where fishers have worked the area in the early morning and late afternoon and have rested the fishery during the day . in 2003 industry members of the working group requested this arrangement be formalised during the months of august to december when the spawning aggregations are occurring in this area . it was also requested that the bramble cay area be designated a troll only area . this was on the basis that the area fished is very small and gear conflict could become a major issue should other permitted methods be used to target mackerel in this area . of particular concern is the potential conflict that may arise should png cross endorsed vessels choose to take up their rights to fish within the australian jurisdiction and adopt incompatible fishing methods .\njenkins , g . p . ; milward , n . f . & hartwick , r . f . 1985 . occurrence of larvae of spanish mackerels , genus scomberomorus ( teleostei ; scombridae ) , in shelf waters of the great barrier reef . austustralian journal of marine and freshwater research 36 : 635 - 640 .\nto secure your catch from the stones a good quality two - piece aluminium rock gaff is highly recommend and should cover you on most ledges . if you\u2019re targeting mackerel on the wild west coast a classic three pronged rope gaff is perfect for extracting fish from these remote cliffs .\npicking the most suitable tides for chasing spaniards can vary heavily on the location you are fishing from . for example rock platforms which are adjacent to large rivers such as iluka , fish well on the outgoing tide as the mackerel seem to come in and hunt the baitfish that are being flushed out of the river . while on shallow sandy bottomed ledges like the catwalk at 1770 the bigger mackerel seem to come closer to the shore on the high tide . in areas with massive 7m tidal variations like darwin harbour the spaniards are a lot more prolific during neap tides as the water gets extremely silty during the massive spring tides .\nin my opinion i don\u2019t think the colour of the sticker really matters when it comes to chrome lures as i have caught plenty of mackerel on every single colour available . when the lure is flying through the water at breakneck speeds the fish will only see a silver flash in the water and will simply attack on instinct .\nmost people think we are nuts to even contemplate fishing such light tackle in waters that are filled with marlin , big sailfish , wahoo , mackerel and dogtooth tuna but i have to say , as far as fishing goes , its the most fun you can have without a tub of haagen daz ice cream and a lady i know called mandy .\nthe rapala x - rap srx - 14 in the \u201cglass ghost\u201d colour and the 5 inch lively lures mack bait in the \u201cblue mack\u201d colour are two of my favourite swimming lures for targeting spaniards . another popular swimming lure which is commonly used for mackerel at steep point in wa is the nilsmaster invincible deep runner 15cm in the yellow belly colour .\nmackerel prefer water temperatures between 22 - 26 degrees and will often migrate down the coastline following the warm currents at the start of each summer and head back up the coast during the autumn months . along the top end of australia in areas like darwin where water temps rarely drop past 24 degrees good numbers of fish can be found almost all year round .\nsurface lures such as poppers and plugs are great for attracting mackerel and can lead to some spectacular aerial strikes . large spaniards will often charge from the depths and launch at surface lures with tremendous force . on many occasions the fish will often smash the lure and miss the hooks . this can be a little frustrating at times but it\u2019s still an awesome sight to see .\nwhen it comes to spinning for spaniards i\u2019ve certainly gone right on with it . over the past decade i\u2019ve spent a wasted youth chasing big bar - ees from the stones . jamming a hook into one of these line burning fish is an experience that i will never get sick of and in my opinion landing a monster mackerel on a lure is what high - speed spinning is all about .\nigfa angler\u2019s digest brings you light - tackle fishing from fiji with igfa certified captain adrian watts and first mate joe tucco . we target wahoo and sailfish and tie into a spanish mackerel for good measure . the area we work is up tight to the great astrolabe reef where finding sailfish just a couple of hundred yards from the reef is just as common as tying into huge wahoo that run in packs . we ' ll finish up the episode with some underwater footage filmed on a few dives on the great astrolabe reef \u2013 this reef has perhaps the healthiest coral any of us has ever seen . if you ' re looking for an unspoiled place to dive , snorkel or a world - class fishery just minutes from your accomodation , you have to do yourself a favor and check out matava resort and the bite me sportfisher on kadavu island in fiji .\nwhen i\u2019m targeting mackerel i always use a wire trace . i use a short 30cm length of 69lb single strand wire with a swivel at one end and a small solid brass ring on the other . the single strand wire can easily be attached to the terminals via a haywire twist . the solid brass ring is attached to the split ring of your lure while the swivel end is tied to a 2m length of 60lb mono shock leader .\nmetal lures are excellent for land based anglers as they are relatively cheap , durable and cast well against strong winds . my favourite metal for spinning up xos oceanic bar - ees is the 85gm surecatch knight . these lures are made from chrome plated brass and are perfect for imitating popular baitfish such as slimy mackerel , yellowtail scads , mullet and fusiliers . to increase my hook - up rate i retrofit my trebles to a 4 / 0 mustad 7794ds treble hook . these triple strength hooks have a much larger gape than the original trebles that these lures come with .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncollette , b . , chang , s . - k . , di natale , a . , fox , w . , juan jorda , m . , miyabe , n . & nelson , r .\nthis species is found in the indo - west pacific from the red sea and south africa to southeast asia , north to china and japan and south to southeast australia , and to fiji . it is an immigrant to the eastern mediterranean sea by way of the suez canal where it can be found westward to at least tunisia ( ben souissi\n. 2006 ) . in the southeast atlantic , it is has been reported from st . helena as a vagrant .\nthis species is taken throughout its range by commercial , artisanal , and recreational fisheries . worldwide reported landings show a gradual increase from 7 , 186 tonnes in 1950 to 23 , 5985 tonnes in 2006 ( fao 2009 ) .\nthe species comprises at least two stocks in the indo - pacific separated by the wallace line ( suleman and ovender 2010 ) .\n. 2000 , motlagh and shojaei 2009 ) , but none at a regional level . in the persian gulf , catch increased from 3 , 939 t in 1997 to 8 , 149 t in 2003 mostly from gillnets but also handlines , and this species is considered to be heavily overexploited ( motlagh and shojaei 2009 , shojaei\n. 2005 ) . in south africa , a recent report indicates that there is no indication of overfishing ( govender 1994 ) .\n. 2006 ) . based on assessments in 2000 and 2002 , it was acknowledged that there was a significant degree of uncertainty in fisheries models because the fisheries for this species in queensland were projected to collapse ( tobin and malupusan 2004 ) .\n. 1999 ) . urgent measures are needed to regulate the trawlers and drift gill nets .\nthere is no information on stock assessments or specific fisheries for this species . in taiwan , this species is a bycatch species in gillnet and trawling . in the western central pacific , this species is recorded as bycatch in a number of different fisheries . fao reported landings are increasing , but effort is not known .\nin the mediterranean region , this species represents 2 . 08 % total catch of egyptian mediterranean coast and its main food is the anchovy ,\n( bakhoum 2007 ) . this species is reported to the fao in catches from libya where it is targeted .\n. 2005 ) . in north queensland , australia the oldest male was 10 years ( 127 cm , 19 . 0 kg ) , and the oldest female 14 years ( 155 cm , 35 kg ) . this species may live up to 15 years ( iotc 2006 ) , 16 years ( grandcourt\n. 2003 ) . generation length is conservatively estimated to be at least 8\u20139 years , but possibly may be longer .\nthe all - tackle angling record is of a 44 . 91 kg fish caught off scottburgh , natal , south africa ( igfa 2009 ) .\nthis is a highly commercial species caught primarily with gillnets , but also caught with purse seines , bamboo stake traps , mid - water trawls , rod and reel and by trolling ( collette 2001 ) . this species is also taken as bycatch in long - line , purse - seine and gill net gear targeting larger scombrids .\na lipid - soluble toxin , similar to ciguatoxin has been found in the flesh of specimens caught on the east coast of queensland , australia .\ncollette , b . , chang , s . - k . , di natale , a . , fox , w . , juan jorda , m . , miyabe , n . & nelson , r . 2011 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmarine ; pelagic - neritic ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 10 - 70 m ( ref . 12260 ) . tropical ; 39\u00b0n - 41\u00b0s , 7\u00b0w - 180\u00b0e ( ref . 54880 )\nindo - west pacific : red sea and south africa to southeast asia , north to china and japan and south to southeast australia , and to fiji ( ref . 6390 ) . immigrant to the eastern mediterranean sea by way of the suez canal . southeast atlantic : st . helena .\nmaturity : l m 85 . 0 , range 55 - 82 cm max length : 240 cm fl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5765 ) ; common length : 120 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5450 ) ; max . published weight : 70 . 0 kg ( ref . 5765 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 15 - 18 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 15 - 20 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 16 - 21 ; vertebrae : 42 - 46 . interpelvic process small and bifid . swim bladder absent . lateral line abruptly bent downward below end of second dorsal fin . intestine with 2 folds and 3 limbs . vertical bars on trunk sometimes break up into spots ventrally which number 40 - 50 in adults , and less than 20 in juveniles . juveniles with large oval dark spots on body ; middle third of first dorsal fin white , rest of fin black ( ref . 11228 ) .\ncollette , b . b . and c . e . nauen , 1983 . fao species catalogue . vol . 2 . scombrids of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of tunas , mackerels , bonitos and related species known to date . rome : fao . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 2 ) : 137 p . ( ref . 168 )\n) : 22 . 8 - 29 , mean 28 ( based on 1324 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00676 ( 0 . 00592 - 0 . 00772 ) , b = 3 . 00 ( 2 . 96 - 3 . 04 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 5 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 12 - 0 . 21 ; tm = 2 - 3 ; tmax = 14 ; fec = 590 , 000 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 54 , 2 sd range = 0 . 27 - 1 . 09 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 62 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 35 , based on : 23 k , 6 tgen , 6 fec records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 52 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nles m\u00e9tacestodes de trypanorhynques de t\u00e9l\u00e9ost\u00e9ens des r\u00e9cifs coralliens de l\u2019est de l\u2019australie et de nouvelle - cal\u00e9donie ont \u00e9t\u00e9 examin\u00e9s . \u00e0 partir de plus de 12000 poissons examin\u00e9s , 33 esp\u00e8ces nomm\u00e9es de trypanorhynques ont \u00e9t\u00e9 collect\u00e9es ainsi que trois esp\u00e8ces de tentacularioidea qui sont d\u00e9crites mais non nomm\u00e9es . des listes h\u00f4tes - parasites et parasites - h\u00f4tes sont fournies , et incluent plus de 100 nouvelles mentions d\u2019h\u00f4tes . les taxa appartenant aux lacistorhynchoidea et tentacularioidea pr\u00e9dominaient et les otobothrioidea et gymnorhynchoidea \u00e9taient moins nombreux . cinq esp\u00e8ces , callitetrarhynchus gracilis , floriceps minacanthus , pseudotobothrium dipsacum , pseudolacistorhynchus heroniensis et ps . shipleyi \u00e9taient particuli\u00e8rement fr\u00e9quentes et montraient une faible sp\u00e9cificit\u00e9 d\u2019h\u00f4te . des donn\u00e9es limit\u00e9es sugg\u00e8rent une plus grande diversit\u00e9 de trypanorhynques larvaires dans les familles de poissons piscivores de grande taille . plusieurs familles de poissons \u00e9tudi\u00e9es intensivement ( blenniidae , chaetodontidae , gobiidae , kyphosidae et scaridae ) n\u2019avaient pas de larves de trypanorhynques . la similitude globale entre les faunes de la grande barri\u00e8re de corail et de la nouvelle - cal\u00e9donie \u00e9tait de 45 % . des informations sur les stades adultes chez des \u00e9lasmobranches ont \u00e9t\u00e9 incluses quand disponibles .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( urltoken ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original work is properly cited .\nthe identification of significant threats to the coral reefs of the world [ 9 , 17 ] has been partly responsible for focussing attention on the full diversity of reefs rather than simply on the diversity of fish and corals , the most obvious examples of reef diversity . the contributions of other groups of invertebrates to diversity on reefs have been largely overlooked in the past [ 7 , 32 ] . part of this \u201chidden\u201d invertebrate diversity includes the endoparasites of vertebrates .\nin recent years , teleost fish occurring on coral reefs have been recognised as harbouring a particularly diverse array of parasites [ 20 ] . studies to date have focussed either on specific parasite groups such as the monogenea ( e . g . [ 33 ] ) or digenea ( e . g . [ 13 ] ) , or more recently have examined the diversity of all helminth parasites found in or on specific families of fish such as the lethrinidae or serranidae [ 21 \u2013 23 ] .\nin this study , we examined the larval trypanorhynch cestode parasites of teleosts , and where applicable the corresponding adults in elasmobranchs , from the great barrier reef ( gbr ) and compared them with those from similar reef environments in new caledonia ( nc ) . new caledonia is separated from the gbr by about 1200 km of deep oceanic waters .\nteleosts and elasmobranchs were collected opportunistically between 1986 and 2010 . the two main collecting sites were heron island in the southern great barrier reef and lizard island in the northern barrier reef . small numbers of parasites were collected on reefs between these two sites ( mossman , townsville ) and in these instances , the nearest geographical feature on the coast was recorded rather than the specific reef near which the collection was made (\nrecords of adults from elasmobranchs are included only for species in which larval stages have been identified in teleosts ; these are based on both published data and specimens held in museum collections . additional species of trypanorhynch cestodes from elasmobranchs have been found and their larval stages may be found in the future , but for the present study , these records have not been added .\n) , authorities of cestodes are included and host species are listed in alphabetical order without authorities . in instances where both generic and specific names of cestodes have changed , synonyms have been included . in the host - parasite list (\n) , fish hosts are arranged in orders , families and genera , but within each group , the order is alphabetical . authorities of fish are indicated and the parasites are arranged in alphabetical order without authorities .\nparasite - host list . species of trypanorhynch cestodes collected from teleosts and elasmobranchs on the great barrier reef , australia and from new caledonia . authorities of cestodes are included and host species are listed in alphabetical order without authorities .\nspecies of trypanorhynch cestodes collected from teleosts on the great barrier reef , australia and from new caledonia . authorities of fish are included and cestodes are listed in alphabetical order without authorities . gbr : great barrier reef ; nc : new caledonia .\nauthorities of hosts or parasites which are indicated in the lists are not repeated in the text . the systematic arrangement of trypanorhynch taxa follows palm ( 2004 ) [ 27 ] . all host names were verified in fishbase [ 15 ] .\n) . plerocercoids of tentaculariids were found either in the body cavity or in the gastrointestinal lumen ; the latter were not contained within a \u201ccyst\u201d . occasionally , plerocerci were found in the musculature and in the gill arches (\n) , although there was no systematic search of such sites for plerocerci . merocerci of\nmetacestodes of trypanorhynch cestodes from teleost fishes . 2 . viable plerocerci of callitetrarhynchus gracilis in the body cavity of scomberomorus commerson . 3 . melanised trypanorhynch plerocerci in the body cavity of epinephelus sp . 4 . melanised and contracted cysts of trypanorhynch metacestodes in the body cavity of cephalopholis miniata ; no viable plerocerci were recovered from these cysts . 5 . plerocerci of pseudogilquinia spp . ( arrows ) around the oesophagus of lethrinus nebulosus . 6 . merocerci of molicola horridus in the liver of diodon hystrix . 7 . plerocerci of grillotiella exile in the gill arches of scomberomorus commerson ( histological section ) .\nspecies of larval trypanorhynch cestodes found in both teleost ( as larvae ) and elasmobranch ( as adult ) hosts at sites along the gbr and off nc are shown in tables 1 and 2 .\nfrom the gbr , the specimens examined were obtained from the dissection of more than 9000 fish , although not all were specifically examined for trypanorhynch cestodes . likewise , from nc , approximately 3800 fish were examined but the body cavity was not examined in every fish , as explained by justine et al . [ 21 \u2013 23 ] . consequently , prevalence data were available for some species only and abundance data were not available ; for most species only presence - absence data were available ( with one exception from lizard island ) .\nno trypanorhynch metacestodes were found in the families blenniidae ( n = 215 ) , chaetodontidae ( n = 1638 ) , gobiidae ( n = 183 ) , kyphosidae ( n = 30 ) and scaridae ( n = 147 ) from the gbr . likewise , no metacestodes were found in the families atherinidae ( n = 13 ) , apogonidae ( n = 19 ) , echeneidae ( n = 10 ) and haemulidae ( n = 10 ) in nc . in addition , although the families serranidae , lethrinidae and lutjanidae were frequently infected with trypanorhynch metacestodes , this pattern was not uniform across all species within these families and in nc , no trypanorhynch metacestodes were found in epinephelus areolatus ( n = 12 ) , e . merra ( n = 18 ) , lethrinus atkinsoni ( n = 12 ) , l . nebulosus ( n = 14 ) , lutjanus fulviflamma ( n = 10 ) and lu . kasmira ( n = 14 ) .\nmembers of the tentacularioidea differ from other trypanorhynch metacestodes as they are present as plerocercoids ( = post - larvae ) rather than plerocerci [ 14 ] and may be found in intestinal contents as well as in the viscera . in new caledonia , tentacularioids were frequently found in smaller schooling fishes , often being the only trypanorhynchs encountered in these fishes .\n) as well as three species of tentaculariid cestodes to which no current name could be applied . lacistorhynchoid and tentacularioid trypanorhynchs dominated the fauna in terms of numbers of species recovered (\nsummary of the fully identified taxa of larval trypanorhynch cestodes found in teleost fishes from the great barrier reef and from new caledonia .\nprevalence data were obtained from 182 fish from various families collected during a single collecting trip to lizard island . the prevalence of trypanorhynch larvae was : 4 / 6 ( 77 % ) in scombrids , 5 / 7 ( 71 % ) in lethrinids , 2 / 13 ( 15 % ) in lutjanids , 8 / 9 ( 89 % ) in serranids and 1 / 109 ( 0 . 9 % ) in apogonids . other fish families were represented by smaller numbers and were excluded .\ntentacularioid metacestodes incompletely identified . 8 . nybelinia sp . a from herklotsichthys quadrimaculatus ( r\u00fcppell , 1937 ) . scolex , basal and metabasal armature , hook profiles . scale - bars : scolex and tentacle , 0 . 1 mm ; hooks , 0 . 01 mm . 9 . nybelinia sp . b from parupeneus multifasciatus ( quoy & gaimard , 1825 ) . scolex , basal and metabasal armature , hook profiles . scale - bars : scolex and tentacle , 0 . 1 mm ; hooks , 0 . 01 mm . 10 . heteronybelinia sp . c from sufflamen fraenatus ( latreille , 1804 ) . scolex , bothrial metabasal armature and antibothrial metabasal armature . scale - bars : scolex 0 . 1 mm ; hooks 0 . 01 mm . 11 . nybelinia basimegacantha carvajal , campbell & cornford , 1976 , specimen from neoniphon sammara ( forssk\u00e5l , 1775 ) . scolex , basal and metabasal armature . scale - bars : scolex 0 . 1 mm ; tentacle 0 . 01 mm .\nmaterial examined : plerocercoids from herklotsichthys quadrimaculatus ( r\u00fcppell , 1937 ) , new caledonia , mnhn jnc2669c1 , 2671a1 .\nscolex length 1200 , pars bothrialis 580 , pars vaginalis 520 ; bulbs ovoid , bulb length 250 ; velum 160 ; metabasal hooks : length 15 , base 10 .\nthis species is similar to n . queenslandensis , but all measurements including those of the hooks are substantially smaller . in addition , the shape of the hooks differs ( fig . 8 ) . the hook shape aligns the species with n . lingualis ( cuvier , 1817 ) , n . bisulcata ( linton , 1889 ) , n . anthicosum heinz & dailey , 1974 and n . hemipristis palm & beveridge , 2002 , but n . lingualis and n . bisulcata differ in having much larger scoleces ( 2025\u20132700 and 2500 , respectively ) and bulbs ( 365\u2013425 and 450\u2013505 , respectively ) while the latter two species have much larger hooks ( 25\u201340 ) . consequently , these plerocercoids most closely resemble n . lingualis but cannot be assigned to this species with certainty .\nmaterial examined : plerocercoid from parupeneus multifasciatus ( quoy & gaimard , 1825 ) , new caledonia , mnhn jnc2172 c4 .\nscolex length 1750 , pars bothrialis 1100 , pars vaginalis 1000 , bulbs elongate , 560 long , velum 200 , metabasal hooks : length 20 , base 14 .\nthis specimen most closely resembles n . strongyla dollfus , 1960 in scolex length , bulb length and hook size and shape , but differs in the length of the velum ( 690\u2013830 in n . strongyla compared with 200 in the present material ) .\nmaterial examined : plerocercoid from sufflamen fraenatus ( latreille , 1804 ) , new caledonia , mnhn jnc3034 .\nscolex length 1440 , pars bothrialis 770 , pars vaginalis 680 , bulbs elongate , bulb length 375 , velum 125 , metabasal hooks on antibothrial surface : length 17\u201319 , base 8 ; on bothrial surface : length 25 , base 18 ; basal armature heteromorphous .\nthis specimen clearly belongs to heteronybelinia as the hooks differ markedly in shape on the bothrial versus the antibothrial surfaces of the tentacle . hook sizes are closest to h . eureia ( dollfus , 1960 ) , but the specimen differs from this species in the number of hooks per half spiral and by the fact that in this specimen the bulbs are entirely posterior to the pars bothrialis while in h . eureia , they do not extend beyond the pars bothrialis . therefore , this specimen cannot be accommodated within any known species of heteronybelinia ."]}
{"id": 1355, "summary": [{"text": "serjeant ( 1781 \u2013 after 1787 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in a career that lasted from spring 1784 to autumn 1787 he ran sixteen times and won eight races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in 1784 he won the fifth epsom derby , the first running of the race under its current name and distance .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he stayed in training for a further three seasons , winning several important races at newmarket , but disappeared from official records after his retirement from racing and does not appear to have been found a place at stud . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "serjeant ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["serjeant at arms m . . .\nthe youtube account associated with this video has been terminated due to multiple third - party notifications of copyright infringement .\ngrand parade was the first black horse for 106 years to win the epsom derby .\nin the summer of 1948 my love became the third french - trained horse to win the epsom derby and the fifth horse to win both the derby and the grand prix de paris .\npearl diver became the first french - trained horse to win the epsom derby since durbar in 1914 .\nterimon , second to nashwan at 500 / 1 , is the longest - priced horse placed in any classic .\nthe original winner running rein was disqualified as he was actually an ineligible four - year - old horse named maccabeus .\nsinndar is the first horse to capture the derby , irish derby and prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe in the same season .\napril the fifth was a very popular winner and the first epsom - trained horse to win the derby since amato in 1838 .\nassassin was distantly inbred 4 x 4 to bartletts childers , meaning that this horse appears twice in the fourth generation of his pedigree .\nnijinsky became the 15th horse to gain the triple crown after winning the derby and 2000 guineas with success in the st leger at doncaster .\nsunday featured a power - packed and majestic line - up of 3 - year - old thoroughbred colts , geldings , and fillies on the racetrack climaxing with the blue - riband race at the kingfisher ultra derby , bangalore 2016 . serjeant at arms kept his date with destiny in one of the most anticipated events of the indian horse racing calendar of the season . an enthralled crowd at the grand stands cheered their favourite three - year old colt with an all - win record - serjeant at arms . subscribe to oneindia news channel for latest updates on movies and related videos . you tube : urltoken follow us on twitter : urltoken like us on facebook : urltoken join our circle in google plus : urltoken\ndr devious is the first horse to win the derby after contesting the kentucky derby , in which he had finished seventh to lil e tee .\nblack , robert ( 1893 ) . horse - racing in england : a synoptical review . london : richard bently and son . p . 248 .\nphil drake ran five times and won three races , becoming the fifth and last horse to win both the epsom derby and the grand prix de paris .\nsanta claus won the irish 2 , 000 guineas , the epsom derby and the irish derby . his performances earned him the title of british horse of the year .\npont l\u2019eveque was a very late foal , born at the end of the breeding season on 25 may , making him probably the youngest horse to win the derby .\nthe classic winning offspring of eclipse include the derby winners saltram ( br c 1780 ) , young eclipse ( b c 1778 ) and serjeant ( b c 1781 ) , and the oaks winner annette ( b f 1784 ) . his son volunteer ( ch c 1780 ) sired the derby winner spread eagle ( b c 1792 ) .\nat the second spring meeting , assassin was third in a 200 - guinea sweepstakes race to dennis o ' kelly ' s horse soldier and mr . davis ' horse plutus . [ 8 ] assassin forfeited a match race with the horse cornwall ( later called boringdon ) at the same meeting a few days later , [ 9 ] and at the july meeting in newmarket his owner paid 150 guineas to the owner of young eclipse ( the 1781 derby winner ) for backing out of a match race . [ 10 ]\nmahmoud was a light - coloured grey horse of distinctly arab appearance , standing just under 15 . 3 hands high , and bred in france by his owner the aga khan .\nserjeant at arms ( ind ) b . c , 2013 { 9 - c } dp = 6 - 1 - 8 - 1 - 0 ( 16 ) di = 2 . 20 cd = 0 . 75 - 15 starts , 12 wins , 3 places , 0 shows career earnings : rs . 43 , 535 , 431 + $ 4 , 830\nshahrastani holds off the strong late challenge of dancing brave in a memorable finish . bold arrangement becomes the first horse to contest both the kentucky derby and derby , finishing second at churchill downs to ferdinand and 14th at epsom .\nin their book\na century of champions\n, john randall and tony morris rated windsor lad the nineteenth best horse of the 20th century and the sixth best derby winner , behind sea bird , hyperion , mill reef , nijinsky and shergar .\nprofessor to the veterinary college of london , monsieur charles vial de st bel , performed an autopsy on eclipse . his measurements determined that the horse stood 16 . 2 hands . while without artistic pretensions , his detailed drawings reveal significantly different markings from those generally seen in other portraits .\nbred by his royal highness william augustus , duke of cumberland , he was foaled at the duke ' s cranbourne lodge stud during the total eclipse of the sun for which he was named . john lawrence described him as a mature horse :\nwhen i first saw him he appeared in high health , of a robust constitution . his shoulder was very thick , but extensive and well placed ; his hind - quarters appeared higher than his fore - hand ; and it was said that no horse in his gallop ever threw his haunches with greater effect , his agility and his stride being on a par . he stood over a great deal of ground , and in that respect was the opposite of flying childers - a short - backed , compact horse , whose reach lay in his lower limbs .\nhe is thought to have stood around 15 . 2 hands .\nsnow knight won the the epsom derby , then the following year earned an eclipse award as the american champion male turf horse . at stud he sired awaasif , the dam of snow bride , winner of the 1989 epsom oaks and the dam of lammtarra , winner of the 1995 epsom derby .\nlammtarra becomes the first horse to win the derby on his seasonal return since grand parade in 1919 and sets a record time of 2m 32 . 31s , beating mahmoud\u2019s 2m 33 . 8s which was hand - timed in 1936 . the race is switched permanently from wednesday to saturday . vodafone takes over the sponsorship and remains the backer up to 2008 .\nkris kin is the first supplementary entry to win the derby . the sir michael stoute - trained colt had initially been entered in the classic as a yearling but was scratched at the start of his three - year - old campaign . connections paid \u00a390 , 000 to add the horse to the line - up at the five - day stage following his victory in chester\u2019s dee stakes .\ncamelot becomes the 37th horse to follow up victory in the first british classic , the 2000 guineas over a mile at newmarket , with success in the investec derby as he records a convincing five - length win at epsom downs . jockey and trainer , joseph and aidan o\u2019brien , become the first father / son combination to win the premier classic . camelot narrowly fails in his bid to win the triple crown , finishing second behind encke in the st leger at doncaster three and a half months later .\na multi - horse finish rivals that of 1913 as the closest ever . in a four - way photo , sir percy beats dragon dancer , dylan thomas and hala bek a shorthead , a head and a short - head . seven winners have had the prefix sir : sir peter teazle ( 1787 ) , sir thomas ( 1788 ) , sir harry ( 1798 ) , sir bevys ( 1879 ) , sir visto ( 1895 ) , sir ivor ( 1968 ) , and most recently sir percy .\ngalileo\u2019s half - brother sea the stars shows he is one of the greats as he powers to glory under veteran jockey mick kinane . the john oxx - trained colt becomes the first horse for 20 years to follow up victory in the 2000 guineas with success in the epsom classic and goes on to complete an unbeaten campaign with four further group one wins , annexing the coral - eclipse , juddmonte international , irish champion stakes and prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe . investec takes over sponsorship of the derby and backs all the races at the two - day meeting at epsom .\njoe andrews [ ex - dennis o ! ] b c 1778 ( eclipse - amaranda , by omnium ) . sire line eclipse . family 4 - b . owned by sir w vavasour , he won the 1783 stand plate at york . he was described as a\nnarrow horse , with a long , lean head and neck , but showed great breeding\n. later a stallion in the west of england his sole contribution to the stud book was his son dick andrews . he is said to have\ndied , in obscurity many years before his son , dick , made his blood famous with the chestnut altisidora , manuella , and tramp\n.\neclipse ch c 1764 ( shakespeare or marske - spiletta , by regulus ) . sire line eclipse . family 12 .\nafter the duke ' s death , in october of 1765 , his stable was dispersed at auction by mr richard tattersall . eclipse was purchased by william wildman for 75 guineas . in 1769 dennis o ' kelly purchased a half - interest in him for 650 guineas and later bought the remainder for 1 , 100 guineas .\nsir theodore cook wrote of him :\nhis excellence was not only owing to the races he won , but even more clearly to the astonishing ease with which he won them , and to the fact that in addition to his undoubted speed and stride , he possessed sound wind , an ability to carry heavy weight , and an endurance over long distances which could never be thoroughly tested , for its limit was never reached .\nin 1771 he retired to stud at clay hill , near epsom , surrey , where he stayed until 1788 , when he was moved , in a carriage pulled by a pair , to o ' kelly ' s cannons park stud in stanmore , middlesex . his fee was 50 guineas the first year , and later varied between 25 and 30 guineas .\na great great grandson of the darley arabian , he was an overwhelming success in the stud , becoming the progenitor of the eclipse sire line and thus the tail - male ancestor of nearly every living thoroughbred . the line continued mainly through two sons , pot8os and king fergus .\nthe excellent racehorse and sire pot8os ( ch c 1773 ) numbered among his get the derby winner and champion sire waxy ( b c 1795 ) , the derby and st leger winner champion ( b c 1797 ) , the derby winner tyrant ( b c 1799 ) and the oaks winner nightshade ( b f 1785 ) .\nthe champion sire king fergus ( ch c 1775 ) , himself a winner of eight races , got three st leger winners , beningbrough ( b c 1791 ) , hambletonian ( b c 1792 ) and young traveller ( ch c 1788 ) .\nother sons of eclipse exerted varying degrees of influence . among them were don quixote ( ch c 1784 ) , dungannon ( b c 1780 ) , joe andrews ( b c 1778 ) , jupiter ( ch c 1774 ) , meteor ( ch c 1783 ) , orlando ( b c 1778 ) , and satellite ( ch c 1774 ) .\noddly enough eclipse was never a champion sire himself , although he was second eleven times between 1778 and 1788 . he died of colic at cannons in 1789 .\nthis portrait by francis sartorius displays a smaller face marking , and the off - hind sock ends half - way up the cannon bone . in contrast , st bel ' s sketch shows a white nose and an off - hind stocking extending above the hock .\nin 1769 he won a \u00a350 plate at epsom , beating mr fortescue ' s gower ( b c 1764 gower stallion ) , mr castle ' s chance ( b c 1763 gower ' s sweepstakes ) , mr jenning ' s trial ( ch c 1764 blank ) and mr quick ' s plume ( br c 1763 feather ) . won a \u00a350 plate at ascot , beating mr fettyplace ' s cream de barbade ( b c 1764 snap ) , winning both heats\nvery easily\n. won the 100gs king ' s plate at winchester , beating mr turner ' s slouch ( b c othello ) , the duke of grafton ' s chigger ( gr c 1763 slouch ) , mr gott ' s juba ( b c 1764 regulus ) , mr o ' kelly ' s caliban ( br c brilliant ) and mr bailey ' s clanvil ( b c bajazet ) with the latter two being distanced in the first heat . walked over for a \u00a350 plate at the same meeting . won the city plate at salisbury , beating mr fettyplace ' s sulphur ( gr c 1762 spectator ) . walked over for the king ' s plate at the same meeting . walked over for the king ' s plate at canterbury . won the king ' s plate at lewes , beating mr strode ' s kingston ( b c 1763 sampson ) . won the king ' s plate at lichfield , beating mr freeth ' s tardy ( b c matchless ) .\nin 1770 he defeated mr wentworth ' s bucephalus ( ch c 1764 regulus ) over the beacon course at newmarket . won the king ' s purse at the same meeting , beating\nout of sight\nmr strode ' s pensioner ( b c blank ) , mr fenwick ' s diana ( b f 1763 regulus ) and chigger , with diana and chigger withdrawn in the 2nd heat . pensioner was distanced . walked over for the king ' s plate at guildford . walked over for the king ' s plate at nottingham . walked over for the king ' s plate at york . won the \u00a3319 10s great subscription at the same meeting , beating mr wentworth ' s tortoise ( b c snap ) and sir c bunbury ' s bellario ( b c brilliant ) , both said to be\nracers of the highest class\n. walked over for the king ' s plate at lincoln . won 150gs at newmarket , beating sir charles bunbury ' s corsican ( b c swiss ) . walked over for the king ' s plate at the same place . walked over for the king ' s plate at nottingham . this was his final race .\ndick andrews b c 1797 ( joe andrews - mare , by highflyer ) . sire line eclipse . family 9 . bred by mr lord he was half brother to lavinia ( ch f 1802 pipator ) , ancestress of a fair part of family 9 . the druid noted that when\njemmy rooke had charge of joe andrews and dick andrews . . . on wychwood forest ( oxon ) , when he was sold up ; and it was quite a curiosity to see the latter , with his giraffe - like neck , eat from the top of the rack . in ugliness of ears , and head altogether , he was unrivalled ; and so light was he in the body , as to require very little training .\nhis notable offspring include : two thousand guineas winner cwrw ( br c 1809 ) , oaks winner manuella ( b f 1809 ) , st leger winner altisidora ( ch f 1810 ) , doncaster cup winner tramp ( b c 1810 ) , ascot gold cup winner sir richard ( b c 1813 ) , nancy ( b f 1813 ) dam of champagne stakes winner and stallion muley moloch ( br c 1830 muley ) as well as ancestress of the\nflying filly\nmumtaz mahal ( gr f 1921 the tetrarch ) , dick andrews mare ( b f 1810 ) dam of st leger winner st patrick ( ch c 1817 walton ) , and dick andrews mare ( br f 1810 ) dam of doncaster cup winner mercutio ( b c 1819 mowbray ) . dick andrews died in 1816 .\nmercury ch c 1778 ( eclipse - mare , by tartar ) . sire line eclipse . family 9 - b . bred by dennis o ' kelly , mercury was the sire of over forty winners , including lord egremont ' s two oaks winners , hippolyta ( ch f 1787 ) and platina ( ch f 1792 ) . his best sons were gohanna and precipitate ( ch c 1787 ) . another son , hermes ( ch c 1790 ) , sired the matriarch gibside fairy ( b f 1811 ) . mercury ' s daughter fractious ( b f 1792 ) was the dam of the derby winner hannibal ( b c 1801 ) and the taproot mare of family 3 - m , amazon ( b f 1799 ) . mercury stood at lord egremont ' s petworth stud in sussex , and died in april of 1793 .\ndungannon ( gb ) b c 1780 ( eclipse - aspasia , by herod ) . sire line eclipse . family 33 .\njupiter ( gb ) ch c 1774 ( eclipse - mare by tartar ) . sire line eclipse . family 9 - b .\nking fergus ( gb ) ch c 1775 ( eclipse - creeping polly [ tuting ' s ] , by othello [ portmore ' s ] ) . sire line king fergus . family 6 - x .\npot8os ( gb ) ch c 1773 ( eclipse - sportsmistress , by warren ' s sportsman ) . sire line pot8os . family 38 .\nsaltram ( gb ) br c 1780 ( eclipse - virago , by snap ) . sire line eclipse . family 7 .\nsatellite ( gb ) ch c 1774 ( eclipse - titania , by shakespeare ) . sire line eclipse . family 4 - a .\nvolunteer ( gb ) ch c 1780 ( eclipse - mare by tartar ) . sire line eclipse . family 9 - b .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmr & mrs k . n . dhunjibhoy and mr & mrs z . k . dhunjibhoy rep by . five stars shipping co pvt ltd & mr vispi r . patel\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsky sports news takes you through all of the day ' s racing news , plus alex hammond ' s tip of the day .\nfollow the latest from the written press with the best gossip and speculation from the papers .\nsky has launched a pub finder for eager fans wanting to find a venue to watch sky sports .\nget a sports star to visit your old secondary school as part of our free schools initiative .\nopen an account with betfair and bet at least \u20ac5 at min odds of 1 / 5 on the sportsbook . win or lose betfair match your first bet up to \u20ac50 . free bet stakes not returned\nkeith hamer previews the evening cards at windsor , ripon and roscommon and has a tip for every race .\ndavid ord makes a rebecca bastiman - trained sprinter his best bet at pontefract on tuesday after he caught the eye last time .\nashley iveson fancies shenanigans to land the feature race at pontefract - and he has a tip for every race in the uk and ireland .\nowner : mr & mrs k . n . dhunjibhoy and mr & mrs z . k . dhunjibhoy rep by . five stars shipping co pvt ltd & mr vispi r . patel breeder : nanoli winnings : 15 starts : 12 - 3 - 0 , rs . 43 , 535 , 431 + $ 4 , 830 2018 : 2nd allowance race ( tampa bay - feb 23 ) 2017 : won super mile cup ( g1 , ind , 1600m ) won derby bangalore ( g1 , ind , 2400m ) won ruia gold cup ( g1 , ind , 2000m ) 2cd indian derby ( g1 , ind , 2400m ) 2016 : won colts championship stakes ( gr . 1 , ind , 1600m ) won bangalore juvenile million ( gr . 3 , ind , 1400m ) won indian 2000 guineas ( g1 , ind , 1600m ) won mysore 2000 guineas ( g3 , ind , 1600m ) 2cd mysore derby ( g1 , ind , 2000m ) exported to usa in 2017 in training with h . graham motion ( close )\ntvg announcer wins big kentucky derby bet . insane reaction shown on - air .\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nassassin ( 1779 \u2013 c . 1794 ) was a thoroughbred racehorse that won the 1782 epsom derby . his breeder , lord egremont , won the derby for the first time with assassin . assassin raced until he was a five - year - old and was retired to egremont ' s stud in petworth . he was not a successful sire .\nassassin was foaled in 1779 at lord egremont ' s estate petworth house . assassin ' s sire , sweetbriar , was an undefeated racehorse that earned 5 , 400 guineas during his racing career for his owner lord grosvenor . sweetbriar stood at oxcrofts farm near balsham . [ 1 ] assassin ' s dam , angelica , was foaled in 1761 and was breed by mr . shafto , the owner of her sire snap . assassin was angelica ' s eighth foal and she produced eleven foals between 1768 and 1782 , including assassin ' s full - sister med\u00eba . angelica was euthanised in 1787 . [ 2 ]\nassassin was trained by f . neale at newmarket . [ 3 ] assassin raced until he was five - years - old , winning eight races , and was retired to lord egremont ' s stud at petworth .\nassassin ' s derby win was the first for lord egremont , who would go on to win the event four more times .\nin october at newmarket , assassin beat the duke of grafton ' s colt puzzle in a match race at 6 to 4 odds against assassin . assassin did not win again as a two - year - old . [ 4 ] assassin was second to plutus in a subscription race at the same meeting , [ 4 ] and was second to the filly ceres in a match race . [ 5 ] assassin forfeited a match race to plutus at the houghton meeting . [ 4 ]\nat the craven meeting , assassin received a 70 - guinea\ncompromise\nafter the colts brother to rebel and recruit backed out of a 200 - guinea sweepstakes race . [ 4 ] at the first spring meeting , assassin beat berwick to win a sweepstakes race .\non 9 may at epsom , assassin won the derby , beating lord grosvenor ' s colt sweet robin and charles bunbury ' s colt fortunio . [ 6 ] lord egremont won the derby for the first time with assassin , and won the race four more times with hannibal in 1804 , with cardinal beaufort in 1805 , with election in 1807 and with lap - dog in 1826 . [ 7 ]\nat the july meeting at newmarket , assassin beat mr . vernon ' s gelding by eclipse . at the october meetings in newmarket , assassin won a match race against the colt achilles and forfeited a match race against dennis o ' kelly ' s colt confederate . [ 6 ]\nat the craven meeting , assassin received a forfeiture from the colt ascot . at the newmarket spring meeting , assassin received another forfeiture from the duke of cumberland ' s colt epaminondas , and a few days later beat the colt and later influential sire pot - 8 - os in a match race . at the second spring meeting in newmarket , assassin beat the colt columbus in a 500 - guinea race and beat heron in a 50 - guinea race a few days later . [ 6 ]\nby 1789 , assassin was still standing at petworth for a fee of two guineas per mare alongside the more expensive stallions mercury ( 10 guineas ) and trentham ( 3 guineas ) . [ 11 ] for the 1793 breeding season , he was relocated to langley park near colnbrook and stood for a fee of 3 guineas per mare and a five shilling groom ' s fee . [ 12 ] his fee at langley park was reduced to two guineas for the 1794 season [ 13 ] and he did not appear in the register for 1795 .\nassassin was not a successful sire . his most notable offspring were the fillies cow [ 6 ] and rag ( foaled in 1786 out of chanticleer ' s dam ) . [ 14 ]\nweatherby , edward and james ( 1892 ) .\nangelica\n. the general stud - book 1\u20132 : 23 .\npick , william and r johnson ( 1822 ) .\nassassin\n. the turf register , and sportsman & breeder ' s stud - book 3 : 280 .\npick , william and r johnson ( 1822 ) .\nceres\n. the turf register , and sportsman & breeder ' s stud - book 3 : 461 .\npick , william and r johnson ( 1822 ) .\nassassin\n. the turf register , and sportsman & breeder ' s stud - book 3 : 281 .\nrice , james ( 1879 ) . history of the british turf , volume 2 . london : s . low , marston , searle , and rivington . p . 372 .\nweatherby , edward and james ( 1789 ) .\nadvertisements of stallions\n. racing calendar 17 : 378 .\nweatherby , edward and james ( 1792 ) .\nalphabetical list of stallions to cover in 1793\n. racing calendar 20 : 362 .\nweatherby , edward and james ( 1793 ) .\nadvertisements of stallions to cover in 1794\n. racing calendar 21 : 353 .\nweatherby , edward and james ( 1858 ) .\nrag\n. the general stud book 1 : 376 .\nthis article was sourced from creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . world heritage encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers , open access publishing , and in compliance with the fair access to science and technology research act ( fastr ) , wikimedia foundation , inc . , public library of science , the encyclopedia of life , open book publishers ( obp ) , pubmed , u . s . national library of medicine , national center for biotechnology information , u . s . national library of medicine , national institutes of health ( nih ) , u . s . department of health & human services , and urltoken , which sources content from all federal , state , local , tribal , and territorial government publication portals ( . gov , . mil , . edu ) . funding for urltoken and content contributors is made possible from the u . s . congress , e - government act of 2002 .\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\n. . . g building which served as the railway station of teignmouth . the fine bay\nstood patiently enduring the attacks of hosts of winged foes , too we . . . . . . t a week old . \u201d \u201cno one saw it happen , \u201d said fred ; \u201che went out riding , his\ncame home without him , and he was lying by the side of the road . \u201d \u201cdi . . . . . . in our gig , and i suppose fred and i had better go back with him . \u201d \u201cis the\nsteady ? \u201d asked his aunt , anxiously . \u201cdumple ? to be sure ! never does w . . . . . . see what i mean . the host of boys in the way ; the wooden bricks and black\nspotted with white wafers that you break your shins over , the marble . . . . . . erness which may be best illustrated by the prov - erb referring to a blind\n. every one , inclined to that same impetuosity , and want of soberness , . . . . . . in an ecstasy . \u201ci have prevailed : you find me in the hour of victory . the\nfor ever ! announced for 121 yo n g e monday night , before a selec . . .\nback at the gate of an ancient country house ( which , from some of its . . . . . . i must summon one of the contadini from the farmhouse yonder , to take your\nto the stable . \u201d 8 the marble faun v ol 2 accordingly , the young coun . . . . . . l sunshine ; and the creaking cider - mill , set in motion by a circumgyratory\n, is all a - gush with the luscious juice . to speak frankly , the cider - m . . . . . . xpected , and shatters our design in fragments . the travellers set forth on\n, and purposed to per - form much of their aimless journeyings unde . . . . . . rney . from village to village , ragged boys and girls kept almost under the\n\u2019 feet ; hoary grandsires and gran - dames caught glimpses of their app . . . . . . admission , from a tradition - ary dread , perhaps , of letting in a robber or\n. but it remained shut ; neither was the sound repeated ; and kenyon . . . . . . self as a notary , and of - fered to make the last will and testament of the\nman . this solemn duty , however , was interrupted by a sur - geon . . .\n, a practice that has since established itself so successfully that b . . . . . . views of bakounine , we clearly cannot , or at all events will not , tolerate\nof rulers on the ground that it is \u201cpropaganda by deed\u201d or so . . . . . . opaganda by deed\u201d or sociological ex - periment . a play inciting to such an\ncannot claim the privileges of heresy or immorality , because . . . . . . ic light ; and it unquestionably vindicates and ennobles a conspirator who\nthe head of the ro - man state not because he abused his positi . . . . . . this vindication and ennoblement might act as an incite - ment to an actual\nas well as to plutarchian republicanism ; for it is one thing . . . . . . r to make a hero of brutus or ravaillac , or a heroine of charlotte corday .\nis the extreme form of censorship ; and it seems hard to justi . . . . . . young slattern , with some good looks ] i say that a man that would steal a\nwould do anything . lottie [ a sentimental girl , neat and clean ] well , . . . . . . it in that way . i do think killing a man is worse any day than stealing a\n. hannah [ elderly and wise ] i dont say it\u2019s right to kill a man . in a . . . . . . indeed ! babsy [ incensed ] oh , well ! if people are going to take the part of\n\u201d is deduced from him . so keen an ama - teur was he , that on one occ . . . . . . as he , that on one occasion , when his own life was attempted by a favorite\n, he was so much pleased with the talent shown , that notwithstandin . . . . . . emainder to the female line , and settled a pension on him for three lives .\nis a branch of the art which demands a sepa - rate notice ; and . . . . . . d hardly say , that i allude espe - cially to those five splendid works , \u2014the\nof william i , of orange , of henry iv . , of france , of the duk . . . . . . useum , ) 17 of gustavus adolphus , and of wallenstein . the king of sweden\u2019s\n, by the by , is doubted by many writ - ers , harte amongst other . . . . . . rd this greatly disputed ; and it seems now generally agreed , that one good\n- shoe is worth about 2 1 / 4 spital sermons . as leibnitz , though not mur . . . . . . on for some time from his neighbors , by drawing woollen stockings over his\n\u2019s legs , and in that way muffling the clatter which he must else have . . . . . . mighty revolution , snorting , whinnying , throwing up their heels , like wild\nin the boundless pampas , and running races of defiance with snipes , . . . . . . out of a forest at noon - day , laying his hand upon the bridle of the king\u2019s\n, checking him for a mo - ment to say , \u201coh , king , thou art betrayed , \u201d a . . .\n. . . the shade of richelieu was mazarin . now mazarin was alone and defenceless , as he well knew . \u201cforeigner ! \u201d he ejaculated , \u201citalian ! that is their mean y . . . . . . . \u201cforeigner ! \u201d he ejaculated , \u201citalian ! that is their mean yet mighty byword of reproach\u2014the watchword with which they\n, hanged , and made . . . . . . nt . this was the same emery who became eventually super - intendent of finance . 7 dumas he was sent for by the ministers and he came before them pale . . . . . . t suppose my dress would have been a very safe one . give me my felt hat , bernouin . \u201d the valet instantly brought to his master a regimental hat with a . . . . . . price of the populace . d\u2019artagnan , meantime , pursued his way with the indifference of a man upon whom such acts of folly made no impression . when he a . . . . . . ter which he in - quired if lieutenant comminges were not the command - ing officer at the outpost . the soldier replied by pointing out to him an office . . . . . . rning to the cardinal . he instantly retired , from a feeling of respectful delicacy ; it was , however , evident that the 14 twenty years after cardinal . . . . . . as a sin to love a priest , just as if one were a priest because one happens to be a cardinal . \u201d \u201cwho ordered monsieur de beaufort to be arrested ? \u201d \u201can . . . . . . ments back again . this letter had been conveyed by d\u2019artagnan and had ar - rived in time . the other was that which laporte had placed in the hands of t . . .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\ncharlie appleby was wreathed in smiles as he became the first trainer to provide godolphin with an investec derby victory in their blue colours after masar stormed to victory .\nwings of eagles caused a huge 40 - 1 upset to propel jockey padraig beggy into the limelight .\ndermot weld won his first investec derby at epsom as harzand held off us army ranger to win the premier classic .\ngolden horn ' s winning time of 2min 32 . 32 is the third - fastest recorded in 236 runnings of the investec derby . workforce set the record of 2min 31 . 33 in 2010 , while the second - fastest was lammtarra ( 2min 32 . 31 ) in 1995 .\naustralia provides aidan o\u2019brien an unprecedented third consecutive investec derby success and his fifth in total .\nruler of the world gives trainer aidan o\u2019brien back - to - back victories in the premier classic and his fourth investec derby success in all as well as providing a second win for jockey ryan moore . runner - up libertarian , from elaine burke\u2019s yorkshire stables , achieves the best finishing position ever for a female trainer .\npour moi , trained by andre fabre and partnered by 19 - year - old mickael barzalona , becomes the 10th french - trained winner and the first since empery in 1976 . carlton house , owned by the queen , starts the 5 / 2 favourite and finishes a close third .\nryan moore lands a first investec derby victory on workforce a day after clinching an initial british classic success aboard snow fairy in the investec oaks . he was the 32nd jockey to win both epsom downs classics in the same year . workforce , the first derby winner to have been beaten in the dante stakes , breaks the epsom downs\u2019 track record set by lammtarra in 1995 with a time of 2m 31 . 33s and gives trainer sir michael stoute his fifth success , making him the most successful current trainer .\nnew approach , beaten a nose in the first british colts\u2019 classic , the 2000 guineas at newmarket , wins on his first and only attempt at 12 furlongs .\ntrainer michael bell enjoys his first derby success when motivator scores in the colours of the royal ascot racing club , which is the first syndicate , with 230 members , to own a derby winner .\nkieren fallon becomes the first jockey in 23 years to win the derby two years in succession as north light follows up the victory of kris kin 12 months earlier .\naidan o\u2019brien records back - to - back wins with sons of sadler\u2019s wells , courtesy of michael tabor\u2019s and sue magnier\u2019s high chaparral .\noath was injured in his next race ( king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes ) and never ran again .\nthe 1000 guineas winner cape verdi is the most recent filly to run , finishing ninth as the 11 / 4 favourite . a supplementary stage is introduced , allowing connections to enter for the derby at the five - day stage at a cost of \u00a375 , 000 .\nbenny the dip was retired to stud at the end of his three - year - old season . he died after sustaining an injury in a paddock accident in 2003 .\nalex greaves is the first woman to ride in the race , finishing last to shaamit on 500 / 1 outsider portuguese lil . shaamit\u2019s handler william haggas is the only current trainer with a 100 per cent record in the derby .\nat the age of 58 , lester piggott has his last derby mount on fifthplaced 33 / 1 shot khamaseen .\nin a career that lasted just over three months in the spring and summer of 1993 commander in chief won five of his six races , most notably the derby at epsom and the irish derby at the curragh . he was the first derby winner since morston in 1973 not to have raced as a two - year - old .\nin a period of seven weeks generous won the derby by five lengths , the irish derby by three lengths and the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes by a record seven lengths .\nquest for fame was later trained in the united states where he won the san luis obispo handicap and the hollywood invitational turf handicap in 1992 . he was the first epsom derby winner to win a major race as a five - year - old since st . gatien in 1886 .\nkahyasi won the first five races of his seven - race career , including the epsom derby and the irish derby as a three - year - old .\njockey steve cauthen was british champion jockey three times , and won english classic races ten times , including the 2 , 000 guineas , the epsom derby twice , and the st . leger stakes three times .\nsteve cauthen became the first u . s . jockey in the last 65 years to win the epsom derby when he rode slip anchor to an easy victory .\nthe first commercial derby sponsorship is from ever ready . the first prize , won by secreto , is \u00a3227 , 680 ( compared with \u00a3165 , 080 the previous year ) .\nteenoso is lester piggott\u2019s ninth and last winner , three more than his nearest pursuers in the most successful riders\u2019 table , jem robinson and steve donoghue , achieved . geoff wragg , son of derby winning jockey and trainer harry wragg , trains teenoso .\nshergar sets a record winning distance of 10 lengths under 19 - year - old derby debutant walter swinburn .\nnikoli , eighth behind henbit at 4 / 1 , becomes a record eighth consecutive losing favourite .\nthe first of willie carson ' s four derby victories came aboard in the 200th running of the classic in 1979 with troy , considered one of the top three horses he ever rode . the seven length victory was at the time a post - war record and has since only been bettered by shergar ' s ten length success in 1982 and equalled by slip anchor in the mid - 1980 ' s .\nshirley heights is the last epsom derby winner to be both the son of a previous winner ( mill reef , 1971 ) , and the sire of a subsequent winner ( slip anchor , 1985 ) .\nthe minstrel prevails in a thrilling finish from hot grove , handing a fifth success to trainer vincent o\u2019brien and an eighth to jockey lester piggott . he is the second of two derby winners bred in canada following on from nijinsky ( 1970 ) .\nempery , trained by maurice zilber in france , becomes lester piggott\u2019s seventh derby winner .\nnobiliary , second to grundy , is the most recent of five fillies to be placed .\nmorston won the 1973 epsom derby on his second racecourse appearance . he was then injured , and retired undefeated .\nperhaps robert ' s most famous victory was beating brigadier gerard in the inaugural running of the benson and hedges gold cup .\nmill reef was ranked as number four in a list of the top 100 european racehorses of the 20th century , compiled by racing post .\nblakeney was one of the few winners of the race to campaign successfully at four . he later had a successful stud career .\nsir ivor won major races in four countries : the national stakes in ireland , the grand criterium in france , the 2000 guineas and the epsom derby in england and the washington , d . c . international in the united states . he was retired to stud at the end of the 1968 season and became a successful stallion .\nafter being rated the best english - trained two - year - old of 1966 , royal palace won the first two legs of the triple crown , the 2000 guineas and the epsom derby in 1967 . he returned for an unbeaten four - year - old season in 1968 when he won four races which are now group one events .\narthur edward\nscobie\nbreasley was champion jockey in 1957 and continuously from 1961 - 63 .\nsea - bird , widely considered the greatest derby winner , beats meadow court and i say in a canter . this is the year epsom downs racecourse installed a watering system .\nrelko ' s derby win was overshadowed for some time because of the revelation by the daily express that he had failed a drugs test . the incident took place in the context of a series of investigations into the\ndoping\nof horses in british races . it was not until october that the jockey club confirmed relko as the winner , stating that the substances detected could not be positively identified and therefore could not be proved to have affected the result . at the end of june , relko was scheduled to run in the irish derby and made 11 / 8 favourite , but was withdrawn from the race minutes before the start , after appearing to be lame , leading to further suspicions of foul play .\nlarkspur , who kept his feet while seven rivals fell on the descent to tattenham corner , provides the first of six derby winners for perhaps the greatest trainer ever , vincent o\u2019brien , who also sent out sir ivor ( 1968 ) , nijinsky ( 1970 ) , roberto ( 1972 ) , the minstrel ( 1977 ) and golden fleece ( 1982 ) to victory .\nin a racing career that lasted from 1960 to 1961 psidium ran eleven times and won twice . he is best known for his win , as a 66 / 1 outsider in the 1961 epsom derby . he later became a successful stallion .\nst paddy is the latest of five derby winners to have the prefix st .\nparthia stood as a stallion in england until he was exported to japan in 1968 . the most notable of his european offspring was the filly sleeping partner who won the epsom oaks in 1969 .\nin a brief career of five races , hard ridden also won the irish 2000 guineas at the curragh in 1958 .\ncrepello only had five starts but was undefeated in his last three , all of which are now group one races .\nin their book\na century of champions\n, john randall and tony morris rated lavandin a \u201cpoor\u201d derby winner .\nafter winning only once from his first nine races , he demonstrated much improved form in the summer of 1954 , becoming the first american colt to win the race in seventy - three years .\npinza was the best british colt of his generation in 1953 , and went on to win the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes . he was then retired to stud , where he had little success .\ntulyar also won the st . leger stakes , the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes , the ormonde stakes and the eclipse stakes setting a record for a single season ' s earnings in england .\narctic prince won two races including the derby and was retired after breaking down at ascot in july of the same year .\ngalcador never raced after his win at epsom and was retired to stud where he made no impact as a sire of winners .\nnimbus was sired by nearco , one of the most important sires of the 20th century .\nairborne was the most recent of four greys to have won the epsom classic .\ndante started favourite at odds of 100 / 30 for the derby stakes , which was run at newmarket despite the recent end of the war .\nrun as the\nnew derby\n, a wartime substitute for the epsom derby run at newmarket .\nrun as the \u201cnew derby\u201d , a substitute race for the epsom derby run on the july course at newmarket .\nwatling street ' s winning time equaled the wartime derby record , but was received with little enthusiasm by the spectators who had been anticipating a royal victory .\nthe bay colt owen tudor was sired by hyperion out of the french - bred mare mary tudor ii .\nwhile blue peter was clearly the best three - year - old in britain in 1939 , the onset of world war ii ended his chance to win the triple crown as the st . leger stakes was cancelled .\nmaking just the second start of his career and ridden by jockey charlie elliott , bois roussel scored an upset victory at odds of 20 / 1 .\nmid - day sun was the first winner of the derby to be owned by a woman .\nthe leading british two - year - old of 1934 , bahram went on to take the triple crown in 1935 by winning the 2000 guineas stakes , epsom derby and st . leger stakes .\nhyperion was the most successful british - bred sire of the 20th century and six times champion sire of great britain between 1940 and 1954 .\nin their book\na century of champions\n, john randall and tony morris rated cameronian as an\naverage\nderby winner .\nafter the derby , blenheim was being prepared or a run in the eclipse stakes when he sustained a tendon injury . he did not recover sufficiently to resume racing and was retired to stud .\ntrigo was not considered a serious contender for the derby and he started at odds of 33 / 1 in a field of twenty - six runners .\non unusually hard ground at epsom , felstead started a 33 / 1 outsider in front of a huge and enthusiastic crowd which included the king and queen .\npartly because of the death of his owner , call boy never ran again after his win at epsom .\ncoronach ' s regular jockey was joe childs , whose preferred style of holding up horses for a late run was at odds with coronach\u2019s front running style . after the derby he was reported to have said that \u201cthe bastard ran away with me ! \u201d\nalthough manna had not been favourite , the win was reported to be enthusiastically received , largely because of the popularity of jockey donoghue , who was winning the race for the sixth time .\nsansovino was one of sixteen classic winners bred by his owner lord derby , who named the colt after the sixteenth - century italian architect jacopo sansovino .\nthe win gave donoghue a\nhat - trick\nof derby wins , following humorist in 1921 and captain cuttle in 1922 .\nthe name\ncaptain cuttle\nwas taken from a character in dombey and son by charles dickens , captain edward cuttle .\nless than three weeks after the derby , humorist died in his stable from a lung haemorrhage caused by a tubercular condition .\nin their book\na century of champions\n, john randall and tony morris rated spion kop a \u201cpoor\u201d derby winner . more specifically , they rated him equal with aboyeur as one of the two worst colts to have won the race in the 20th century .\nwartime restrictions caused the race to take place at newmarket on 31 july , two months later than the customary date . the race carried prize money of only \u00a32 , 050 and attracted only a handful of spectators on a dull and rainy day .\nas a three - year - old in 1916 fifinella won the derby and the oaks , both of which were run at newmarket . she was the sixth and most recent filly to win the derby ."]}
{"id": 1357, "summary": [{"text": "the abert 's towhee ( melozone aberti ) is a bird of the family emberizidae , native to a small range in southwestern north america , generally the lower colorado river and gila river watersheds , nearly endemic to arizona , but also present in small parts of california , nevada , utah , new mexico , and sonora in mexico .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the name of this bird commemorates the american ornithologist james william abert ( 1820 \u2013 1897 ) . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "abert ' s towhee", "paragraphs": ["a pair of abert ' s towhee ' s that like me a lot .\nflight : abert\u2019s towhee performs rapid wing beats , alternated with wings pulled to sides .\nabert ' s towhee , adult , ca , february . ; photographer kevin t . karlson\nabert ' s towhee was named by spencer baird in 1852 for lt . james william abert , who obtained the first specimen .\na very large sparrow , abert ' s towhee inhabits riparian corridors in the sonoran desert of arizona . plain and rather secretive , abert ' s towhee stays in its breeding range year - round .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto abert\u2019s towhee\u2019s call is a sharp \u201cpeek\u201d . song is a rapid series of \u201cpeek\u201d notes .\nthe abert ' s towhee has a fairly small range of 170 , 000 square kilometers . it occurs in\nrange : abert\u2019s towhee is resident in its range all year round . it breeds in arizona and northern mexico .\nprotection / threats / status : abert\u2019s towhee is threatened by fragmentation of riparian habitat and populations declined of as much as 50 % , due to habitat loss . abert\u2019s towhee is a host of brown - headed cowbird , which parasitizes its nest . eggs and chicks are often preyed upon by snakes . the american ornithologist james william abert found the first bird , named abert\u2019s towhee in his honour .\nhabitat : the abert ' s towhee is found in mesquite bosques and cottonwood - willow associations with an understory of dense shrubs .\nthe abert ' s towhee was named by spencer baird in 1852 for lt . james william abert , who obtained the first specimen . the abert ' s towhee forages for insects and seeds by scratching on the ground . it is known , however , to sometimes probe low on tree trunks for insects .\nabert ' s towhee , or pipilo aberti , is a large , stocky , shy sparrow . the abert ' s towhee has one of the smallest total distributions of any u . s . birds species , making it much sought after by birders who travel to the southwest desert to observe it .\nabert ' s towhee in pima county : at one time , many of the riparian habitats of pima county were home to the abert ' s towhee . the destruction of these habitats has caused a decline in the populations of the towhee . protection and restoration of the remaining riparian habitats are important for the towhee , as well as many other species of animals .\nhabitat : abert\u2019s towhee lives in desert woodlands , streamside thickets , at low altitude . it is also found in suburban yards and orchards .\nabert ' s towhee inhabits dense brush and woodlands along sonoran desert rivers and streams in arizona and surrounding states . spencer baird described this species in 1852 (\nthe abert ' s towhee has one of the smallest total distributions of any u . s . birds species , making it much sought after by birders who travel to the southwest desert to observe it .\nthe oldest abert ' s towhee on record was at least 8 years and 7 months old , when it was recaptured and rereleased during a banding operation in arizona .\nabert ' s towhee : found primarily in the colorado and gila river valleys in arizona and parts of california , nevada , utah , and new mexico . generally prefers desert\n( s . f . baird , 1852 ) \u2013 sw usa in s arizona and sw new mexico .\ngeneral description : abert ' s towhees ( melozone aberti ) are large , sexually monomorphic sparrows . abert ' s are light brown overall with a black mask and reddish - orange under the tail ( rusty red under - tail coverts ) .\nreproduction : abert\u2019s towhee\u2019s nest is built in a shrub at about 2 , 5 metres high , but often close to the ground . nest is an open cup made with bits of bark , leaves and vines . it is lined with grasses and hair .\nthe abert ' s towhee is a large sparrow with gray - brown upper parts and pinkish - brown underparts . the face is dark brown with a light bill . unlike many birds , the plumage between the sexes is identical .\nrange : the abert ' s towhee occurs in brushy riparian habitat within the lower sonora zone . it occurs in southeastern california , southern nevada , southwestern utah , central arizona , southwestern new mexico , and northern sonora . in arizona , the towhee can be found in suitable habitat along rivers , streams , and washes .\nstatus : the abert ' s towhee has experienced a population decline over the last 150 years , most likely due to habitat loss . many riparian areas , preferred habitat for the towhee , have been cleared or altered by human use . lowered water tables have dried streams and reduced the dense vegetation . salt cedar , an invasive exotic species , provides less than optimal habitat and now covers much of the towhees ' range . the abert ' s towhee is experiencing much of the same habitat loss as the endangered southwestern willow flycatcher and would benefit from habitat protection for the endangered species . 1\ntweit , robert c . ; finch , deborah m . 1994 . abert ' s towhee : pipilo aberti . in : poole , a . , ed . the birds of north america online . ithaca , ny : cornell lab of ornithology . online : urltoken\nhabitat loss has evidently led to widespread reduction in abert ' s towhee populations in most of its historical range , however since 1966 populations of abert towhee appear to be stable , according to the north american breeding bird survey . partners in flight estimates a global breeding population of 800 , 000 birds , with 98 % occurring in the u . s . , and 2 % in mexico . they rate an 11 out of 20 on the continental concern score and are not on the 2014 state of the birds watch list , although they are a u . s . - canada stewardship species . back to top\ntweit , robert c . and d . m . finch . 1994 . abert ' s towhee ( melozone aberti ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nwhere to find : abert ' s are not common , but check for them at red rock canyon nca , corn creek on the desert national wildlife range , and the henderson bird viewing preserve .\nunlike the song of spotted towhee ( pipilo maculatus ) , the song of this towhee is rarely heard . the species ' most characteristic vocalization is the squeal duet given simultaneously by both sexes upon reunion\u2014a call used most often during the long breeding season to promote and maintain a close pair bond . this close and prolonged pair bond allows abert ' s towhee to initiate nesting rapidly in response to changes in weather or food supply , to minimize the nesting period , and to renest quickly after nest failure in an environment where rates of predation and parasitism are high .\nthe preferred streamside habitat of abert ' s towhee\u00bfthe brushy understory of cottonwood ( populus fremonti ) - willow ( salix goodingii ) gallery forests and mesquite ( prosopis spp . ) bosques\u00bfhas been cleared and otherwise altered by people , starting with native americans , primarily for agricultural fields and cattle grazing . although this towhee has adapted to some urban and shrubland habitats created by people , including irrigation ditches , these do not equal the extent of habitat lost .\nthe preferred streamside habitat of abert ' s towhee\u2014the brushy understory of cottonwood ( populus fremonti ) - willow ( salix goodingii ) gallery forests and mesquite ( prosopis spp . ) bosques\u2014has been cleared and otherwise altered by people , starting with native americans , primarily for agricultural fields and cattle grazing . although this towhee has adapted to some urban and shrubland habitats created by people , including irrigation ditches , these do not equal the extent of habitat lost .\nunlike the song of the rufous - sided towhee ( pipilo erythrophthalmus ) , the song of this towhee is rarely heard . the species ' most characteristic vocalization is the squeal duet given simultaneously by both sexes upon reunion\u00bfa call used most often during the long breeding season to promote and maintain a close pair bond . this close and prolonged pair bond allows abert ' s towhee to initiate nesting rapidly in response to changes in weather or food supply , to minimize the nesting period , and to renest quickly after nest failure in an environment where rates of predation and parasitism are high .\nmitochondrial dna analysis indicates that of the three brown towhees of the american southwest , california and abert ' s are the most closely related , even though california and canyon towhees were once considered a single species .\nthese are among the very first birds of early morning to begin calling to each other - often with the very first hint of dawn light in the east . abert ' s towhee visit bird feeders with seed and also eat fallen fruit such as dates and olives . when feeding they use their feet to kick away loose leaves and debris exposing hidden beetles , grubs and seeds . a similar bird found mostly in the foothills in more open habitat is the canyon towhee .\nreproduction : abert ' s towhees are monogamous and usually mate for life . the mated pair has a year - round territory which serves as its foraging ground and nesting area . abert ' s towhees have two broods per year , usually during the spring and late summer . the female lays two to five eggs which are pale blue with dark brown markings . a new brood is started about nine weeks after the first nest is started .\nabert ' s towhee has heavy legs typical of a ground forager , and it spends almost all of the nonbreeding season scratching for insects and seeds or perching in low shrubs or tree branches . its flights , which account for less than 5 % of its daylight hours , are short and low , usually to perch sites , including wall tops in suburban habitats .\nalong streams in the desert southwest , a sharp pinging note in the thickets announces the presence of abert ' s towhee . if an observer tries to approach , a pair of these towhees may stay just ahead and out of sight , calling in an odd squealing duet when pressed too closely . when undisturbed , they feed on the ground under dense bushes , scratching among the leaf - litter . many southwestern\nspecialty birds\nhave extensive ranges in the tropics , but this towhee barely gets across the border into northwestern mexico .\n1 . tweit , r . c . , and d . m . finch . 1996 . abert ' s towhee ( pipilo alberti ) . the birds of north america , no . 111 ( a . poole and f . gill , eds . ) . the academy of natural sciences , philadelphia , pa , and the american ornithologists ' union , washington , d . c .\ndescription : abert\u2019s towhee has black face . upperparts are cinnamon - brown . underparts are paler grey - brown , with rusty - brown vent . tail is long and dark , with cinnamon undertail coverts . bill is conical and pale grey . eyes are black . legs and feet are pinkish brown . both sexes are similar . juvenile is similar to adult , slightly streaked on chest .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\n) and named it for lt . james william abert , u . s . army ( 1820\u20131897 ) , who obtained the specimen as a result of a survey of new mexico at the end of the mexican war . abert , a west point graduate , served in the topographical engineers and retired from the army after the civil war with the rank of lt . colonel (\nthis sparrow is found primarily in the colorado and gila river valleys in arizona and parts of california , nevada , utah , and new mexico . it generally prefers desert riparian and desert wash habitats . the preferred habitat includes dense vegetation , including thickets of willow , cottonwood , mesquite , and saltcedar . but , abert ' s towhee is also found in cities or suburbs in exotic plantings .\nrising , j . ( 2018 ) . abert ' s towhee ( melozone aberti ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nafter an extended period of dry weather , rain during the breeding season can produce a peak in nesting activity within two weeks . the extended breeding season and tight pair bond enable some abert ' s towhees to produce two broods a year in an inhospitable environment , although as many as six nest attempts may be required . a female can lay the first egg of a new clutch one week after the loss of a nest . cowbird parasitism reduces towhee reproductive success , but few young cowbirds are raised because some towhees abandon nests with cowbird eggs and because cowbird nestlings are generally much smaller then their towhee nestmates .\n( van rossem , 1946 ) \u2013 sw usa from sw utah s through colorado valley in se nevada to se california , and e along gila r in s arizona , also extreme nw mexico ( extreme n baja california and nw sonora ) .\ndesert streams , brush , mesquite . typically found in dense brush near water in arid lowlands , as in streamside thickets , edges of ponds or irrigation ditches , understory of cottonwood - willow groves , even riverside marshes . in some areas ( such as around phoenix ) , comes into yards in well - watered suburbs . overlaps in habitat with canyon towhee in some places , but abert ' s stays closer to water in dense cover , avoiding dry open hillsides .\nthis article was written and prepared by u . s . government employees on official time , and is therefore in the public domain .\nvegetation in desert habitats of arizona and parts of adjacent nevada , california , utah , new mexico , and mexico . the global breeding population of this bird species is estimated to be around 800 , 000 individuals . at the current time , it is not believed that the population trends of this species will soon approach the minimum level which would indicate a potential decline . as a result of these population trends , abert ' s towhee at this time has a conservation rating of least concern .\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nbehaviour : abert\u2019s towhee feeds on the ground , scratching soil with feet to catch invertebrates and seeds lying under the leaf litter , and then well exposed and easy to find . it also may probes bark on low trunks . it forages in thick understory . it is a secretive bird , staying in its breeding range all year round . it prefers to stay well - hidden under bushes , and disappear into bush when intruder approaches . pairs usually remain bonded for life . they are monogamous and solitary nesters . they have the same territory all year round , to forage and to nest .\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nmembers of this family are for the most part common birds with plenty of available habitat . passerellidae species that have declined and are endangered in many parts of their range are those that require grasslands , such as the grasshopper and henslow ' s sparrows , and one species , the bachman ' s sparrow , which requires open pine forests with a grassy understory .\nin mammalian and avian model species , neuropeptide y ( npy ) simultaneously promotes feeding behavior and suppresses the secretion of reproductive hormones , thereby modulating the resource allocation trade - off between investing in essential somatic processes or in the reproductive system . investigations into this dual role of npy in birds have focused on domesticated species and , to our knowledge , no study has examined this role in songbirds . we determined whether npy treatment acutely regulates feeding behavior and activity of the reproductive system in a male songbird , the abert ' s towhee , melozone aberti . intracerebroventricular ( icv ) administration of npy promoted behaviors associated with feeding ( decreased latency to initiate pecking in the food bowl , increased number of feeding bouts following treatment , and increased number of pecks into the food bowl during each feeding bout ) , and it stimulated hopping and drinking behavior . by contrast , we found no effect of npy treatment on plasma testosterone secretion 60 min after treatment . these results suggest that in male abert ' s towhees npy stimulates feeding behavior , but provide no evidence that this peptide concurrently influences testosterone secretion .\nlutmerding , j . a . and a . s . love . longevity records of north american birds . version 2015 . 2 . patuxent wildlife research center , bird banding laboratory 2015 .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\nrecent analysis of mitochondrial genes suggests that the predominantly brown towhees\u2014california , abert ' s , canyon , and white - throated\u2014are more closely related to the melozone ground - sparrows than they are to the predominantly black or green towhees . as a result , \u201cbrown towhees\u201d are now placed in the genus melozone . see the 51st supplement to the aou checklist of north american birds for details . future revisions of this account will reflect these changes .\nrecent analysis of mitochondrial genes suggests that the predominantly brown towhees\u00bfcalifornia , abert ' s , canyon , and white - throated\u00bfare more closely related to the melozone ground - sparrows than they are to the predominantly black or green towhees . as a result ,\nbrown towhees\nare now placed in the genus melozone . see the 51st supplement to the aou checklist of north american birds for details . future revisions of this account will reflect these changes .\nbecause this nonmigratory towhee spends most of its life on a permanent territory concealed by dense shrubs , it is thought to be secretive and is most often detected by its call notes . in interactions with other birds , however , it is bold and aggressive and where it finds suitable habitat in suburban environments it is often oblivious of humans .\nthis bird lays two to five blue white eggs with dark brown speckles . they are laid in a nest made of forbs , bark pieces , leaves , and vines lined with dead grass and mammal hair . the nest is usually built in a tree or bush , often 25 to 30 feet above the ground . the female towhee incubates eggs for about 14 days .\nmolecular analysis indicates that present species and m . crissalis are sister - taxa . geographical variation clinal ; species perhaps better treated as monotypic . proposed race vorhiesi ( described from c . 15 km s of tucson , in arizona ) treated as synonym of dumeticolus . two subspecies recognized .\nthe worthen ' s sparrow is an enigmatic species historically recorded in the southwestern united states . rare , little known , and difficult to find in its known mexican range , this species may be more adapted to grassland habitats that have disappeared or been drastically altered since european settlement . one of the most commonly seen sparrows in the united states , the house sparrow , is not a member of this family and , as an imported species , is actually more closely related to african weaver finches and european sparrows than north american sparrows .\nthe introduction article is just the first of 11 articles in each species account that provide life history information for the species . the remaining articles provide detailed information regarding distribution , migration , habitat , diet , sounds , behavior , breeding , current population status and conservation . each species account also includes a multimedia section that displays the latest photos , audio selections and videos from macaulay library\u2019s extensive galleries . written and continually updated by acknowledged experts on each species , birds of north america accounts include a comprehensive bibliography of published research on the species .\ncottonwood and willow woodlands , with dense shrubs , along desert streams and rivers . back to top\na large open cup of leaves , bark , and weed stems , located in trees or shrubs .\nscratches on the ground ; sometimes probes bark on low trunks like a nuthatch . back to top\nnorth american bird conservation initiative . 2014 . the state of the birds 2014 report . us department of interior , washington , dc , usa .\nsauer , j . r . , j . e . hines , j . e . fallon , k . l . pardieck , jr . ziolkowski , d . j . and w . a . link . the north american breeding bird survey , results and analysis 1966 - 2013 ( version 1 . 30 . 15 ) . usgs patuxtent wildlife research center 2014b . available from urltoken\nsibley , d . a . ( 2014 ) . the sibley guide to birds , second edition . alfred a . knopf , new york , usa .\nstill very common in parts of its limited range . could be vulnerable to loss of streamside habitat .\nforages mostly on the ground , often scratching with both feet . also forages on bark at base of trees , and in low bushes . members of a pair often forage together .\n1 - 4 , usually 3 . pale blue or whitish with markings of dark brown and black . incubation is apparently by female only , about 14 days . young : both parents feed the nestlings . young leave nest about 12 - 13 days after hatching , before they are full - grown , but unable to fly for another week ; tended by parents for a month or more . often 2 broods per year .\nboth parents feed the nestlings . young leave nest about 12 - 13 days after hatching , before they are full - grown , but unable to fly for another week ; tended by parents for a month or more . often 2 broods per year .\nmostly insects and seeds . insects make up majority of diet , especially in summer ; major items include beetles , ants , caterpillars , grasshoppers , and cicadas . also eats many seeds , including those of saltbush , weeds , and grasses .\nmembers of pair remain together all year on permanent territories ; courtship and pair formation may occur at any season , but nesting is mainly march through july . both members of pair evidently defend nesting territory . nest site is in dense shrub or tree such as mesquite , willow , baccharis , or elderberry , often well hidden within clump of mistletoe ; usually 5 - 8 ' above the ground , but can be higher . nest ( built by female ) is a bulky open cup , loosely made of weeds , bark strips , grass , leaves , vines , lined with dry grass and sometimes hair .\ncall is a single bell - like note . song resembles a rapid series of call notes .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\nbna account authors : tweit , r . c . , and d . m . finch\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nshort flights , alternates rapid wing beats with wings pulled to sides . may be difficult to spot because it prefers to stay well - hidden under bushes .\nand desert wash habitats . preferred habitat includes dense vegetation , including thickets of willow , cottonwood , mesquite , and saltcedar ; also found in cities or suburbs in exotic plantings .\nsong is a series of squeaky\nchip\nnotes on the same pitch .\nthey are threatened by cowbird nest parasitism and habitat loss , although some have successfully colonized suburban environments in the phoenix , arizona area . they may also be seen on the campus of arizona state university .\nthey are an inconspicuous bird because they forage in thick undergrowth and rarely fly any great distance .\na group of towhees are collectively known as a\ntangle\nand a\nteapot\nof towhees .\nmost of the small birds such as the finches , wood - warblers , and sparrows are members of the one hundred and forty - two families found in the largest taxonomic order of birds ; the passeriformes ( pronounced pas - ser - i - for - meez ) .\nthe new world sparrows and related birds are placed in the passerellidae ( pronounced pass - ur - el - ih - dee ) , a group of one hundred and thirty species in twenty - six genera only found in the new world .\neighty - two species of new world sparrows and towhees in twenty - six genera are found in north america .\nmembers of this family are known for their terrestrial behavior , cheery songs , and in the case of sparrows , challenges to their identification due to similarities in appearance of several species . dark - eyed juncos and various other species are also well known visitors to feeders during the winter months .\nmembers of the passerellidae are small , plump birds with short , finch - like bills adapted to cracking open seeds . their wings are generally short and their tails and legs average in length .\nin general , bright colors are not a hallmark of this family although some species do show patches of bright orange and red - brown . brown , white , and gray plumages with streaked and spotted patterns are commonplace for the primarily dull colored sparrows . however there are exceptions , such as the boldly patterned plumages of black , white , and tan plumages displayed by the juncos , and the vibrant black and burnt orange of the towhees .\nat least one species of passerellidae can be found in most every habitat in north america . most species are birds of weedy fields , scrub , second growth , and non - forest habitats such as desert , grassland , and marsh . the few species adapted to woodlands frequent the thick undergrowth at forest openings and edges .\nlike other short distance migrants , most members of this family migrate later in fall , earlier in spring , and often show up at feeders during the winter . some species , such as the fox sparrow , practice\nleap frog\nmigration with more northerly populations migrating further south in the winter .\noutside of the breeding season , sparrows and other members of this family flock together for protection from predators . all are generally terrestrial birds that forage on the ground for seeds and arthropods .\n\u00a9 2002 - 2013 urltoken all rights reserved . mitch waite group . no part of this web site may be reproduced without written permission from mitch waite group . privacy policy\nrelating to or living or located on the bank of a natural watercourse ( as a river ) or sometimes of a lake or a tidewater .\nsmall feathers that cover the areas where the retrices ( tail feathers ) attach to the rump .\nthe front part of the head consisting of the bill , eyes , cheeks and chin .\nbirds do not have two separate cavities for excrement and reproduction like humans do . in birds , there is one single entrance / exit that suits both functions called the vent , cloaca or anus .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\na subscription is needed to access the remaining account articles and multimedia content . rates start at $ 5 usd for 30 days of complete access .\nthis species occupies suitable riparian habitat below 1 , 300 m within the shaded area . this species is essentially sedentary year - round .\namerican ornithologists ' union . 1983 . check - list of north american birds , 6th ed . washington , d . c : am . ornithol . union . close\nmearns , b . c . and r . f . mearns . 1992a . audubon to x\u00e1ntus : the lives of those commemorated in north american bird names . new york : academic press . close\n) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( a . f . poole and f . b . gill , editors ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 299 , 585 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\na guide to the birds of mexico and northern central america by steve n . g . howell , sophie webb - oxford university press - isbn : 0198540124\nfemale lays 2 to 5 pale blue eggs . incubation lasts about 14 days , by female . chicks hatch altricial , and fledge at about 12 to 13 days of age . this species produces 2 broods per year , the second starting nine weeks after the first .\nyou may send email to rmrspubrequest @ urltoken to request a hard copy of this publication .\n( please specify exactly which publication you are requesting and your mailing address . )\nwe recommend that you also print this page and attach it to the printout of the article , to retain the full citation information .\ngrayish - brown upperparts . buffy underparts . black facial area surrounds pale conical bill . dark eye . rusty undertail coverts . long tail . juvenile ( spring to fall ) lightly spotted below . sexes similar . 8 to 9 inches in length .\ndesert thickets ( especially mesquite and cottonwood - willow ) , farms , orchards , and urban areas .\n3 - 4 pale blue - green eggs with markings concentrated at the large end . the eggs have a ? day incubation period . fledging occurs in 12 - 13 days . the nest is a large open cup made from leaves , bark , and weed stems , and is built close to the ground in a bush or tree . nesting pairs generally stay bonded for life .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nnote : all distances , elevations , and other facts are approximate . ; last updated 130918\nthis wary bird was partially obscured from view by some vegetation . nonetheless the conical bill , black facial mask , and long tail are clearly visible . observed at gilbert riparian preserve , gilbert , arizona , usa . 14 feb . 2009 . rich ditch has managed a much clearer photo .\ndistinguishing characteristics : mostly plain brown to gray in color . small black mask on face around bill . sturdy sparrow - beak . long tail . a bit of tawny color on underside of rump . large , but slightly smaller than a robin .\nthese large sparrows prefer habitats with thick vegetation with partial shade . for example in gallery forests along riparian streams and mesquite bosques . irrigated yards and orchards in the greater phoenix , arizona area are suitable habitat . despite the thousands of stray / loose house cats in the cities of the sonoran desert these birds are able to survive and nest on the ground . one way they do this is to almost always work in pairs as they search for food on the ground . one of the pair will always be more intent on watching for danger and the two stay in constant contact via short , sharp calls . on spotting even the remotest danger they give a sharper call that warns the other and they both fly up and into cover away from danger .\n20\u201323 cm ; 38\u00b79\u201355\u00b76 g . large , long - tailed sparrow with relatively uniform appearance . nominate race has lower forehead , lores and chin black , rest . . .\nsong a rather sharp series of notes , \u201cpeep peep chee - chee - chee\u201d , \u201c sleep cleep . . .\ndiet on lower colorado r principally insects : in winter 73 % of diet was insects , and in summer 96 % . beetles ( coleoptera ) especially taken , . . .\nseason mar\u2013sept ; usually double - brooded . pair - bond maintained retained throughout year . nest built by female , taking c . 1 week , a . . .\nnot globally threatened . classified as \u201crare\u201d in the usa ( yellow watchlist priority species for conservation ) . much of this species\u2019 preferred streamside . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nformerly included in a broader emberizidae . recent phylogeny # r has recovered evidence of eight major clades within this newly recognized grouping : ( i ) melospiza and allies ; ( ii and iii ) melozone , atlapetes , pipilo and allies , which form two sister - clades ; ( iv ) zonotrichia , junco and allies ; and ( v\u2013viii ) all other species , which form a polytomy at base of tree , but can be split into ( a ) arremon , ( b ) spizella , amphispiza , chondestes and calamospiza , ( c ) peucaea , arremonops , ammodramus and rhynchospiza , and finally ( d ) two genera that have often been placed in thraupidae , oreothraupis and chlorospingus .\nincludes pyrgisoma , which is an objective junior synomym of melozone , the two having same type species ; thus previous use of both genera in hbw and elsewhere was erroneous . one subgroup ( m . fusca , m . albicollis , m . crissalis and m . aberti ) previously placed in pipilo , but subsequently moved to join m . kieneri in kieneria ( or erroneously pyrgisoma ) # r . recent comprehensive molecular phylogeny # r indicates that such generic separation is not required , an action already taken by some authors # r ; present genus is potentially paraphyletic with respect to aimophila , so further data required for clarification # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nregulation of feeding behavior and plasma testosterone in response to central neuropeptide y administration in a songbird . - pubmed - ncbi\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nj exp zool a ecol genet physiol . 2015 aug ; 323 ( 7 ) : 478 - 86 . doi : 10 . 1002 / jez . 1943 . epub 2015 jun 7 .\nregulation of feeding behavior and plasma testosterone in response to central neuropeptide y administration in a songbird .\nit has a distinct black face , pale gray bill , gray - brown upperparts , paler gray - brown underparts , and a rust - brown vent . the tail is long and darker than upperparts with rust - brown undertail coverts .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic ."]}
{"id": 1358, "summary": [{"text": "elusive kate ( 10 february 2009 \u2013 april 2015 ) was an american-bred , british-trained thoroughbred racehorse .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "she was one of the leading two-year-old fillies in europe in 2011 when her wins included the prix du calvados and the prix marcel boussac .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in 2012 she won the prix rothschild and was placed in the falmouth stakes , prix jacques le marois , sun chariot stakes and queen elizabeth ii stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in 2013 she won the falmouth stakes and a second prix rothschild . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "elusive kate", "paragraphs": ["multiple group 1 winner elusive kate died recently while giving birth to her first foal .\nher return this year had been delayed and elusive kate missed out on a classic challenge .\nelusive kate ' s foal , a colt by dansili , was placed on a nurse mare .\ntrainer john gosden paid tribute to elusive kate after the high - class mare died while giving birth to her first foal .\nelusive kate was trained by john gosden throughout her career . she was purchased privately by teruya yoshida during her juvenile season .\nelusive kate ' s 2015 colt by dansili was placed on a nurse mare . ( photo via british champions series twitter feed )\nelusive kate survived a stewards ' inquiry to win the falmouth stakes at newmarket ' s july meeting from odds - on favourite sky lantern .\nit is a matter of generations . sky lantern is the star three - year - old and elusive kate is the best older filly .\nelusive quality set a world record for the mile in the 1998 poker stakes .\nconnections of duntle are keen to avoid another showdown with elusive kate after finding john gosden ' s filly too good at deauville on sunday . elusive kate produced a stunning display to claim the prix rothschild for the second successive year , with the david wachman - trained duntle finishing best of the rest in second .\na talented filly whom announced herself on the top stage at this racecourse last season , elusive kate is back and with an exciting season ahead of her .\nelusive kate probably should have won this race last year . she stumbled coming out of the gate and lost a shoe , but still ran very well .\n. starting as the 10 / 11 favourite , he beat cityscape by three lengths , with elusive kate a further three and a quarter lengths behind in third place .\nthere have been no problems with elusive kate since her last run , she likes the course and likes the ground . there is not much more to say .\nthis entry was posted in bloodstock and tagged bloodstock , elusive kate , horse racing , john gosden , teruya yoshida , thoroughbred by paulick report staff . bookmark the permalink .\npatrick barbe , racing manager to her owner teruya yoshida , revealed : \u201cit will be up to john gosden but the qipco sussex stakes is an option for elusive kate .\na four year old daughter of elusive quality , elusive kate has regularly saved her best for the duo of courses that newmarket provides but , despite some standout performances owing to the circumstances around the efforts , she was yet to reign supreme at either of the courses .\nelusive kate , left , drifted across the track but the objection of sky lantern ' s jockey was thrown out by the stewards . photograph : steven cargill / racingfotos . com\nconnections of sky lantern were unsuccessful in their appeal against the result of the etihad airways falmouth stakes , with elusive kate confirmed as the winner , the british horseracing authority confirmed .\n. elusive quality initially topped the 2002 freshman sire list by progeny earnings , but got bumped when it was determined elusive city raced on a banned substance and the purse money was redistributed .\nelusive quality has had an outstanding year with his multiple g1 - winning three - year - old daughter elusive kate , and the outstanding , undefeated juvenile filly certify , a g1 winner in 2012 as well . he will remain at a fee of $ 50 , 000 .\nin - form duo john gosden and william buick landed their fifth group one win in a golden season as elusive kate made all the running to win the prix rothschild at deauville .\nwhen it comes to in - demand selfies , there\u2019s none more elusive than the royal selfie .\nelusive kate aims to confirm her superiority over old rival sky lantern as the pair engage in a highly - anticipated rematch in the kingdom of bahrain sun chariot stakes at newmarket on saturday .\njohn gosden , often the spearhead for many a us challenge from britain , has notable end of season considerations for his filly , elusive kate , with a return to france en route .\nwilliam buick rides a blinder on board elusive kate and holds off favourite , sky lantern to the line in the 2013 etihad airways falmouth stakes at newmarket on day two of the july meeting .\nresults have been mixed for the duo since , with elusive kate going on to clinch her fourth group one verdict in the prix rothschild , before finishing well beaten in the prix jacques le marois .\nelusive kate had also carried sky lantern across much of the width of the course as the two horses fought to the line but reversals in the stewards ' room are rare under british rules and the stewards decided that it could not be said with any certainty that elusive kate had improved her position . buick received a three - day ban for careless riding , but the original result was allowed to stand .\npatrick barbe , bloodstock agent for elusive kate ' s owner teruya yoshida , is keeping his fingers crossed the four - year - old can win the argument with her younger opponent once more this weekend .\nsent off as a long odds on shot , sky lantern was heavily favoured to enhance her reputation with a third consecutive group 1 success , but william buick and elusive kate had other ideas about this renewal .\nhe told his website urltoken\nelusive kate is just one of six classy fillies that we have to beat , but everything we have seen at home suggests that sky lantern is at the top of her game .\n\u201ckate has played it beautifully , \u201d said kate reardon , the editor of tatler magazine . \u201cshe appears to be modest and conservative and un - showoffy and everything that we would love her to be . \u201d\nsecond in this race last year on her seasonal reappearance , elusive kate had thrusted her name into many a notebook when bravely going down by a neck in this contest that year . a victory next time out in a french group 1 readily rewarded her followers , yet despite being heavily favoured as the main rival to animal kingdom in last month ' s queen anne stakes , the supprot for elusive kate was seemingly lacking in this contest .\nbeaming kate gazes lovingly at sleeping prince louis as she and william attend his christening in their . . .\nwilliam buick would like elusive kate to take on sky lantern again as he believes the john gosden - trained filly did not get the credit she deserved after coming out on top in a tight finish to the falmouth stakes .\nelusive quality also shuttled to australia and brazil for the international darley operation . he was a leading sire in brazil , siring champions sai de baixo and ana luisa . in australia , he sired two - time champion sepoy , now a darley stallion . his other leading international runners included european champion elusive kate , a group 1 winner in england and france , english group 1 winner certify , french group 1 winner elusive city , and mexican champion el capitan .\ndespite hughes ' strong case , elusive kate was eventually confirmed the winner . a result which will baffle the connections of sky lantern , but one that is just a temporary blip for sky lantern ' s progression within this division .\ndrawing from nature and everyday life , kate\u2019s work is both bold and quirky , an interpretation undoubtedly all her own . her world is best described as witty , unconventional , and rhythmic , chasing the elusive balance of playfulness and precision .\na life - size image of prince william and kate middleton made its way near trafalgar square in london on wednesday .\nit was a second group one victory in france for elusive kate , who won the prix marcel boussac at last season\u2019s arc meeting at longchamp . having won on two previous runs at deauville , she is also unbeaten in four races across the channel .\nkate miller - heidke and her technicolour dream gigs make her a niche artist with a big fanbase . picture : andrew tauber\nhere come the godparents ! kate and william are joined by childhood friends - including guy pelly - and the . . .\nalthough just a narrow winner over just the judge in the group one qipco 1000 guineas at newmarket in may , sky lantern was far more devastating when bursting clear to win the coronation stakes at royal ascot in june , and on her most recent outing she was narrowly beaten in somewhat controversial fashion by four - year - old elusive kate in the group one falmouth stakes at newmarket earlier this month , elusive kate having franked the form in some style when winning yesterday\u2019s group one prix rothschild at deauville in a comfortable fashion .\nwhereas diana courted the media , kate says nothing . nothing to feed the growing frenzy of engagement speculation . the one certainty about kate middleton is her image - artless , maybe , but coupled with the sneaking suspicion that she knows it very well indeed .\nelusive kate completed back - to - back victories in the prix rothschild with a fluent success at deauville . winner of a controversial race for the falmouth stakes at newmarket ' s july meeting , the john gosden - trained filly was far too good for her rivals in france .\nthe prix rothschild is the obvious next race ,\nsaid gosden , referring to a race elusive kate won last season .\nthere are also races like the matron , the prix jacques le marois and we might even want to go for the breeders cup mile .\naustralian champion and leading thoroughbred sire lonhro will stand his third season at darley america\u2019s stud farm next year and has already proven to be very popular with breeders . in fact , he was north america ' s leading sire of weanlings by sales average for 2013 . perennial leading stallion elusive quality continues to sire high - class runners year after year including elusive kate , who added a third g1 victory to her record in 2013 .\nelusive quality ' s progeny continued to show up at the highest levels , however . his second crop included eclipse champion 3 - year - old colt\n' i hope he stays like this ' : kate and the archbishop of canterbury share a joke about sleeping louis as she . . .\nit ' s a hat trick for mcqueen ! kate repeats the look she chose for george and charlotte ' s christenings in . . .\nthe prix rothschild [ which elusive kate won last season ] is the obvious one to go for , and then after that there ' s races like the matron stakes and the prix jacques le marois , and you might want to go for a breeders ' cup mile later on .\nfour - year - old elusive kate was the joint top - rated two - year - old filly in europe in 2011 after a three - length win in the group one prix marcel boussac and doubled her group one tally last season when taking the prix rothschild at deauville , france , in july . the daughter of elusive quality was last seen out in the group one queen elizabeth ii stakes sponsored by qipco at ascot in october , finishing third .\n50 words for snow , to be released on 21st november , will be kate bush ' s first album of original material for six years .\nthe man of the hour , construction worker sam wayne , snagged his second royal selfie thursday during prince william and princess kate\u2019s visit to cornwall .\ni have to concur with brian . sky lantern looked like she ' d get there if kate hadn ' t continued to push her out .\nelusive kate ( usa ) b . m , 2009 { 16 - a } dp = 7 - 6 - 17 - 2 - 0 ( 32 ) di = 2 . 05 cd = 0 . 56 - 17 starts , 7 wins , 2 places , 2 shows career earnings : \u00a3885 , 120\nrichard hannon ' s filly was produced with what looked like a winning run by richard hughes , but after a heated tussle and much barging , the john gosden - trained elusive kate and william buick held on by a neck , surviving a stewards ' inquiry and a subsequent appeal from the hannon camp .\nas the riders entered the final stages , sky lantern loomed large on the outside of the gosden trained filly , yet buick continued to gradually slip his mount some reign . inch by inch he slowly provided elusive kate with her head , asking her to increase the pace and ensuring that sky lantern would not have things all her own way , but just when the duo of talented fillies entered into the final furlong it was elusive kate whom would drift violently across the track , taking sky lantern with her , and ensuring that her victory would still be disputed inside the stewards room for what seemed like an eternity .\n. when sky lantern moved up to challenge elusive kate in the final quarter mile , the older filly hung to the left , carrying sky lantern across the width of the straight , before prevailing by a neck . the result was allowed to stand after a stewards ' enquiry , although the winner ' s jockey\nkate miller - heidke has enjoyed chart success and critical acclaim but her next big challenge is the muriel\u2019s wedding stage play and a best of album .\n, elusive kate , gordon lord byron and soft falling rain . hughes restrained the colt at the back of the field before moving forward with three furlongs left to run . he took the lead approaching the final furlong and won by three and a quarter lengths from top notch tonto , with kingsbarns in third place .\nanimal kingdom faces a dozen rivals of which aidan o ' brien ' s declaration of war ( by war front ) stands out . formerly trained in france by jean - claude rouget , the american - bred has won 3 of 5 for ballydoyle . the consistent pair of elusive kate ( by elusive quality ) , from john gosden ' s yard , and aljamaaheer ( by dubawi ) , an inmate of roger varian ' s stables , are other live each - way prospects .\nthat person is now believed by several newspapers to be the elusive banksy , who has never confirmed his identity and of whom no picture is definitely known to exist .\nelusive kate returned to the scene of some of her greatest efforts for a wire - to - wire success in the group 1 falmouth stakes on friday at newmarket , but it wasn ' t without controversy as the filly drifted all the way across the track - resulting in a lengthy stewards inquiry before the result was confirmed .\nthere are exciting older fillies and mares , including sajjhaa , a dual group one winner in dubai for godolphin earlier this year , the wildenstein family\u2019s beauty parlour from the stable of sir henry cecil who sent out the great frankel to win the qipco sussex stakes in the last two years , and the john gosden - trained elusive kate .\nthere are exciting older fillies and mares , including sajjhaa , a dual group one winner in dubai for godolphin earlier this year , the wildenstein family\u2019s beauty parlour from the stable of sir henry cecil who sent out the great frankel to win the qipco sussex stakes in the last two years , and the john gosden - trained elusive kate .\na tactical affair was expected in this contest and william buick , who himself was entering the newmarket july festival after an outstanding performance in the saddle at a a minor kempton polytrack meeting on wednesday night , opted to utilise elusive kate ' s versatility through the early stages , asking his mount to take things up at the head of affairs .\nfour - time grade 1 winner quality road inherited elusive quality\u2019s brilliance , establishing multiple track records during his own career . now a young stallion at lane ' s end in kentucky , he is represented by kentucky oaks winner abel tasman in his second crop . elusive quality ' s other standouts include eclipse award champion female sprinter maryfield and champion steeplechase horse demonstrative .\nmaybe they were replaced by doubles . could be that the real wills and kate are on some tropical island somewhere and they left these lookalikes to deal with the royals . kate was probably most thankful to be done with her grandma - in - law who struts around like she ' s the queen of england . who needs that ?\nhowever , in a season where no other rival has been able to establish herself as europe ' s top filly at a mile , elusive kate is now in poll position . having flopped when hot favourite for the falmouth , golden lilac produced a much improved run but she is struggling to live up to the massive expectations held for her this year .\nshe has done it all her life . when she won the marcel boussac as a two year old she ended up on the far rail - which is a long way at longchamp ,\nsaid winning jockey , william buick .\nas far as the race is concerned there is no question elusive kate was the best horse in the race\nand the drama - filled where ? from the rabbits closes one disc while the elusive elysian fields finally makes it onto a record courtesy of the live performance with the tasmanian symphony orchestra .\nhow quickly the tides changed . then again i can see that even then , charles horse faced genes were just bubbling under the surface . kate looks plainer than usual .\nkate middleton with prince william this month at witton country park in northwest england . she has formally spoken to the press only once , on the day they announced their engagement .\n\u201ckate\u2019s struggle to hold down a job since graduating has reportedly earned the displeasure of the queen , \u201d declared the guide , hana umezawa , as earnestly as if she were explaining the spanish armada . \u201cthe closest kate has come to having a regular job was when she worked at jigsaw as a part - time assistant accessories buyer from 2006 to 2007 . \u201d\nyet , even with those facts to hand , kate remains elusive . some portrayals cast her as a ' sensible ' middle - class graduate who embodies meritocratic britain ; others as the socially aspiring millionaires ' daughter who wouldn ' t be seen dead beyond the king ' s road . some describe a wholesome english rose ; others claim she set her cap at william before university .\ndespite his minor suspension , the falmouth was won thanks to a well - judged , frontrunning ride by buick . hughes was alive to the danger of giving elusive kate , herself a previous group one winner , an easy lead and sat close behind her from the start , but he still proved unable to summon enough of a finish from sky lantern to get her to the post in front .\nelusive quality entered stud in 1999 , and his first crop placed him a close third on the 2002 freshman sire list behind distorted humor and awesome again . all three would go on to be classic sires .\nso it just leaves us to conclude that we ' d like to acknowledge our colleagues jia lin , nick , julian , kate , adele , bill , fiona and mita . thank you .\nkate asson , who teaches personal finance courses , describes financial independence as \u201cbeing fully self - reliant . the income you use to meet your expenses is driven by you and you alone . \u201d\nafter an eight week break , sky lantern returned to racing on 28 september , when she was again matched against elusive kate in the sun chariot stakes over one mile at newmarket . she started the 7 / 4 favourite in a field also included just the judge , duntle and la collina , the winner of the matron stakes . hughes held the filly up at the back of the field before taking the lead in the last furlong and winning comfortably by a length from integral , with duntle third and elusive kate in fourth . on her final appearance of the season , sky lantern was sent to hong kong to contest the hong kong mile at sha tin racecourse . she started the 5 / 1 third favourite but never looked likely to win and was eased down in the closing stages , finishing last of the fourteen runners .\nclassic sire and former world record - holder elusive quality has been pensioned from stallion duty . the 24 - year - old stallion will live out his retirement at darley\u2019s american base at jonabell farm in lexington , ky .\nhow her mother , carole , has ancestors who were miners , and how carole left behind her working - class roots when she and kate\u2019s father , michael , founded a successful internet business that sells party accessories . how their newfound wealth allowed them to move into a grand country house and to send kate to marlborough college , an elite boarding school , where she excelled at sports but not , unfortunately , at misbehaving .\ntheir courtship at the university of st . andrews , where both were students , has been told in endless articles , books and television specials . but only a few insiders know if the episode that is supposed to have ignited the royal passion \u2014 when kate appeared at a fashion show in a see - through dress and william uttered the prosaic but fateful words , \u201cwow ! kate\u2019s hot ! \u201d \u2014 really happened that way .\na live broadcast of the stewards inquiry was provided by british television , a welcome addition to the broadcast , which showed an eloquent richard hughes confidently put his case across for the demotion of elusive kate in favour of his mount sky lantern whilst buick , seemingly confident that the result would not be overturned , seemed to lack in providing the stewards with the information required and having to be prompted to detail how he attempted to keep his mount straight .\nthis man claimed not only to have met the elusive artist but was able to give a name - robin gunningham - and it doesn ' t require much imagination to work out how such a name could result in the nickname banksy .\nthe distant rumble of attention and speculation is about to become a thunderous stampede . the spectator cover trailed an essay by patrick jephson , former secretary to princess diana , arguing that kate ' s youth and glamour will provide a much - needed boost to ' brand windsor ' . the latest issue of tatler magazine boasts on its cover : ' twenty - five things you didn ' t know about kate middleton . ' most people would struggle to tell you 25 things they did know about kate middleton . according to tatler her middle name is elizabeth , she likes to blow - dry her hair , she drinks jack daniel ' s and she enjoyed netball at school .\nwatchful\u2019s dam canny miss , by marscay , is a half - sister to the group one - winning duo of canny lad and canny lass , the former another champion two - year - old who became a stalwart of the woodlands stud stallion ranks and broodmare sire of redoute\u2019s choice . elusive quality , of course , needs no introduction in europe despite having spent his entire northern hemisphere stud career in kentucky . his most accomplished european son is raven\u2019s pass , who is already off the mark as a stakes - producing sire with his first - crop runners this season , while group winners elusive kate , certify and questioning have done a great job in enhancing his reputation on this side of the atlantic in recent seasons .\nwhen is a bush like a bus ? when you wait for years for the elusive creature to give another tantalising taste of her unique sound . then , just when you ' d given up all hope , she arrives with two albums in six months .\nhaving shuttled to australia from 2003 - 08 and to brazil in 2009 - 10 , elusive quality is now represented by 126 black - type winners and 50 grade / group winners worldwide . his progeny have collectively earned more than $ 115 . 6 million .\n\u201ckate\u2019s big wedding secret revealed , \u201d it promised on the cover of last week\u2019s issue . inside it disclosed , citing unnamed sources , that miss middleton would not hire a professional makeup artist for her wedding but would apply her own .\nseveral of his sons have been in particularly good form in recent years . for example mr greeley was responsible for the gr . 1 winners finsceal beo , saoirse abu , aruna , western aristocrat and crusade , while elusive quality\u2019s team included the 2008 breeders\u2019 cup classic winner raven\u2019s pass , the highly talented american colt quality road and the champion two - year - old fillies elusive kate and certify . proud citizen , another american - based son of gone west , was represented by the champion three - year - old filly proud spell from his first crop and sired the kentucky oaks winner believe you can in 2012 . speightstown , another young son , made a very eye - catching start , with six gr . 1 winners , including lord shanakill and haynesfield .\naccording to a report from at the races , the 6 - year - old mare by elusive quality had notched four group 1 wins from ages two through four during her stellar career \u2013 prix marcel boussac , prix rothschild ( twice ) and the falmouth stakes .\nthe wind is in kate ' s sails for the time being , however . she is acclaimed for her poise , elegance and grace under paparazzi fire she apparently enjoys good relations with the queen , prince charles and the duchess of cornwall .\nhere , ms . umezawa related , william\u2019s friends were believed \u201cto treat kate unkindly by making derogatory references to her middle - class background , \u201d including muttering the flight - attendant phrase \u201cdoors to manual\u201d when they saw her . it was also here , she said , that william came to celebrate after he and kate ( briefly ) broke up in 2007 , leaping onto a table , yelling \u201ci\u2019m free , \u201d and amassing an $ 18 , 000 bar bill in less than a week .\nthe 24 - year - old son of gone west was the second stallion to stand in america for sheikh mohammed , who campaigned him . though elusive quality didn ' t win a grade 1 , he delivered several high - level performances that included breaking a track record at\nthe cherubic six - month - old baby boy couldn\u2019t appreciate his privileged position as he is handed back and forth between his parents kate miller - heidke and keir nuttall as they compose the songs which will feature in the sydney theatre company production next year .\nlondon \u2014 the theme of the walking tour was the forthcoming royal wedding , but the object of the group\u2019s obsession was kate middleton , the royal bride . in mayfair , the guide paused at the next important landmark : the jigsaw store on dover street .\nnot that kate ' s ascent can be portrayed as the stuff of eliza doolittle . her parents , michael and carole middleton - former airline stewards - live in a detached , five - bedroom house in the berkshire village of bucklebury and run a company providing accessories for children ' s parties . at 14 , ' pale and under - confident ' according to one profile , kate was sent as a boarder to the \u00a320 , 000 - a - year marlborough college , where she put up a poster of william in her dormitory .\nasked in their engagement interview whether she in fact did display a poster of william in her dorm room , kate grinned and said , \u201che wishes . \u201d ( she added : \u201ci had the levi\u2019s guy on my wall \u2014 not a picture of william . sorry . \u201d )\nthe number of runners in a race is a poor guide to the excitement it will generate , and the four - strong field for the group one falmouth stakes here certainly delivered value for money . the result was still in doubt a quarter of an hour after elusive kate had passed the post a neck in front of sky lantern , the odds - on favourite , thanks to an extended stewards ' inquiry , broadcast live on channel 4 , in which richard hughes , the rider of sky lantern , argued that william buick ' s whip had twice struck his mount on the head .\ndiscretion has proved kate ' s most potent weapon . jephson says : ' we know very little about her and probably never will , providing they do their job right . historically a degree of mystery about royalty has been an advantage ; we project on to then what we want . '\nsky lantern is an irish - bred , british - trained thoroughbred racehorse . she was one of the leading european two - year - old fillies of 2012 when she won the moyglare stud stakes in ireland . in may 2013 she won the 200th running of the 1000 guineas . she followed up with a win in the coronation stakes , and recovered from a controversial defeat by elusive kate in the falmouth stakes to record a fourth group one win in the sun chariot stakes . she remained in training as a four - year - old but failed to reproduce her best form , finishing unplaced in three races .\nthe headline shed light on her significance : ' the next people ' s princess . ' kate is the girlfriend of prince william and , according to a growing chorus , a racing certainty to be his wife . which means that , barring accidents , she will be one day be queen .\nlargely influenced by her background in textile design , artist kate roebuck finds inspiration in form , pattern , color , and texture . exploring these classical themes , she seeks to create open - ended visual dialogue and to shed light on the ever - evolving relationship of the creator and the created .\nher year began with the sydney festival run of the rabbits , the opera she composed based on the picture book by john marsden and shaun tan , was wondrously punctuated in the middle with the arrival of ernie and ends with the release of the best of kate miller - heidke : act one .\nthe fugue has never finished out of the first four and a lack of luck contributed to the talented filly only winning one group one this year , the markel insurance nassau stakes at goodwood . she could easily have triumphed on her latest start in the breeders\u2019 cup filly & mare turf on november 2 but found her run blocked and also did not have the rub of the green in other races . nevertheless , she did enough to gain the cartier three - year - old filly award for owner / breeders lord & lady lloyd - webber ahead of another john gosden - trained filly elusive kate , was , shirocco star and beauty parlour .\nbut for those who may not have encountered the comedic kate , this collection will prove revelatory . miller - heidke is one funny lady , as you can hear on live favourites including australian idol , southern cross tattoo and i\u2019m growing a beard downstairs for christmas , which features , of course , the beards .\nthough john gosden watched his string exercise this morning on a sun - warmed warren hill under a pristine sky , he readily identified a grey cloud ready to thwart his hopes of a first group one victory of the year . on friday his charge elusive kate will try to better last year ' s close runner - up spot in the falmouth stakes , the season ' s first clash of the generations for the best female milers , but despite the four - year - old ' s creditable warm - up fourth in the queen anne stakes at royal ascot , she is first choice of neither the bookmakers , the punters nor \u2013 seemingly \u2013 her trainer .\nnot surprised in the least . kate ' s always been a good filly , but on her best she can really bring it . sky lantern is still very impressive and i don ' t think this is a hit to her reputation at all . both are really great to watch at their best . : )\nsince they\u2019ve reconciled \u2014 \u201ckate , by her aloof behavior , gained the upper hand , \u201d ms . umezawa explained \u2014 they have lived together in anglesey , wales , where william works as a search - and - rescue pilot for the royal air force . they reportedly do their own shopping and possibly even their own cleaning .\nif diana , princess of wales , was an aristocrat with a common touch , kate middleton is a commoner who has triumphed among aristocrats . but just as it did with diana , a public voracious for new juicy details will have to make do with recycled scraps from a banquet that has long since been served and cleared away .\nthere is some debate over how early miss middleton became aware of prince william as a potential husband . in his book \u201cwilliam and kate : a royal love story , \u201d christopher andersen describes her as having spent her teen years fantasizing about william , poring over news articles about him , even putting images of him up on her wall .\nthe best of kate miller - heidke : act one is out now . she performs at the melbourne exhibition and convention centre on january28 , qpac , brisbane , march 10 , sydney opera house , march 24 and 25 , perth concert hall , march 31 , canberra theatre , april 7 and federation concert hall , hobart , april 11 .\nbred in kentucky by john and marie costelloe ' s silver springs farm , elusive quality broke his maiden at first asking as a 3 - year - old , and three races later finished second in the 1996 king ' s bishop stakes ( g2 ) . at 4 he broke the track record at gulfstream , where he covered seven furlongs in 1 : 20 . in just his second start on the turf , he broke the world record for a mile on grass by taking the 1998 poker handicap ( g3t ) at belmont in 1 : 31 . 63 . he won seven other races , including the 1998 jaipur handicap ( g3t ) . elusive quality retired from racing with 9 - 3 - 2 record from 20 starts and earnings of $ 413 , 284 .\nthe newmanns make an ideal mother and - daughter working duo . their talents as editors and facilitators complement one another . kate is a cambridge honours - english graduate with an ma cantab from king\u2019s college . she was an editor for the institute of irish studies , in queen\u2019s university , belfast , and is very experienced in the complexities of book production .\nthe spectator is a venerable magazine with a venerable readership . in any given week subscribers might reasonably expect a dissection of middle east politics , a conservative polemic about europe or a nostalgic lament for thatcher . what few people will have been prepared for was last week ' s front cover showing a fresh - faced 24 - year - old named kate middleton .\nof course , such success is rarely an accident of birth and sepoy was bred to be a champion . from one of the best families in the australian studbook , his dam , the danehill mare watchful , is a full - sister to the g1 queensland derby winner camarena , who has herself bred a group one winner by elusive quality , sepoy\u2019s very close relative , the top - class juvenile camarilla .\nelusive quality has had two great careers , but it ' s the right time for him just to relax and take it easy here at jonabell ,\nsaid dan pride , chief operating officer for godolphin in america .\nbut given the success of his current sons at stud , along with the production from his daughters , his will certainly be a legacy that will last for quite some time .\nwhat do you say about a young woman who went to college , fell in love and became engaged ? with kate and prince william \u2019s wedding a little more than a week away , the chances of the public \u2014 that is , us \u2014 learning anything new about miss middleton before she turns into a princess ( or a duchess , depending on which title she takes ) are zero .\nprince harry has declared he hates them . and while the queen has been in a few , it\u2019s reported that although she\u2019s a fan of social media , she misses having direct eye contact with those who come out to see her . princess kate made her snapchat debut this summer , but she\u2019s yet to share selfies with prince george and princess charlotte ( though we\u2019re patiently waiting ! ) .\nin order for me to feel whole about the complexities of the life i live ,\nwambach tells espn\u2019s kate fagan in an espn w feature story ,\nwhether it be the fitness , the pressure , the nutrition , the daily sacrifice , all of that , it will be a lot easier for me to understand if i go off into retirement with a world cup title .\nthe young stallion entered stud at gainsborough , which was then owned by sheikh mohammed ' s eldest brother , sheikh maktoum . upon sheikh maktoum ' s death in 2006 , elusive quality was relocated to jonabell . he entered stud with a $ 10 , 000 fee in 1999 , but it didn ' t remain at that level very long . his very first crop produced 11 black - type winners , including french group 1 winner and champion\nelusive quality , a son of gone west , was multiple grade 2 - placed on dirt and set a track record at gulfstream going seven furlongs in 1 : 20 . 17 . he carried his brilliance to turf later in his career , with a pair of grade 3 wins in 1998 , including a six - length score in the poker stakes at belmont park , scorching the mile in what was then a world - record 1 : 31 . 63 .\nfrom his second crop emerged smarty jones , who won his first eight starts , including the 2004 kentucky derby and preakness stakes , before finishing second in the belmont stakes to end his triple crown bid . the eclipse award champion powered elusive quality atop the north american general sire list for the season . he ranked in the top five on that list again in 2008 , when his son raven ' s pass , a group 1 winner in england , captured the breeders ' cup classic .\nwhen william opted for the university of st andrews , it was alleged in an earlier spectator that kate ' s ambitious mother persuaded her to abandon her first choice of university and ' target ' william by enrolling on the same course . she wore black underwear on the catwalk at a student fashion show - out of character for one who never otherwise hints at the dangerous . she became flatmates with william and two other students in 2002 and started a relationship with him the next year .\nwilliam is said to relish the normality of life with kate , who reportedly quipped : ' he ' s lucky to be going out with me . ' former fellow students describe her as kind - hearted and demure and impossible to dislike . such timidity might be seen as an asset by royals . but robert jobson , author of william ' s princess , counters : ' anyone who walks down the catwalk in front of a prince in knickers and a bra has to have some spark . '\nbut while william is embarking on military service , kate has taken 18 months since graduation to get a job as an assistant accessories buyer at the high street chain jigsaw - whose owners , john and belle robinson , are old friends of the middletons . phil hall , former editor of the news of the world , warns : ' i don ' t think the british people will accept a clothes horse in public life . there ' s a danger that people will think there ' s no substance there . '\nduring her student years in queen\u2019s university , joan was a member of philip hobsbaum\u2019s belfast group , which included seamus heaney , james simmons and stewart parker . the influence of hobsbaum was acknowledged by kate when she described him as \u2018one who had the ability to appreciate and delight in the work of others\u2019 . the same could be said of the newmanns themselves and their philosophy . summer palace press takes its name from joan\u2019s and kate\u2019s home in kilcar near killybegs in south west donegal . the location itself is part of the underlying stimulus for many pieces written during the workshops that have taken place there . the house overlooks donegal bay and the stretch of atlantic down to sligo , where , on a summer\u2019s evening , queen maeve\u2019s cairn on knocknarea is visible in the distance . to be part of a workshop with the newmanns at the summer palace is always a memorable and magical experience . writers from ballycastle , derry , sligo and donegal have attended workshops facilitated by prominent guest poets including michael longley , eil\u00e9an n\u00ed chuillean\u00e1in , paula meehan , macdara woods , theo dorgan , frank ormsby , leland bardwell and kerry hardie . the atmosphere on these occasions is always positive and encouraging ; the work dealt with in a reflective , incisive and insightful manner , sometimes interrupted by peals of laughter . the room , filled to capacity , somehow has space for the late arrival . time takes on a new malleability on these afternoons , imaginative energy explodes and trajectories change : \u2018 make something strong that will survive , \u2019 paula meehan urged . these workshops helped new writers with that elusive task , \u2018finding your voice\u2019 .\nlike a father choosing between two much - loved sons , snowden\u2019s decision couldn ' t have been an easy one to make but it underlines the extraordinary success of sepoy throughout a 14 - run career which garnered ten victories , four of which came at group one level . champion two - year - old status is not easily earned and the elusive quality colt was out early in his juvenile season , building a cv which would lead to the title and a 124 + rating from timeform , the highest earned by a two - year - old for an entire decade .\nkate kohler has lived her life in montana . born and raised in great falls , she moved to bozeman and decided to stay . her first solo album , elusive victory , is a reflection of her love of music and her respect for love , life and death . currently she resides with several furry family members and makes use of her time teaching others the joy of music and writing more of her own . she has played the piano and sung for as long as she can remember , which makes sense , since her entire family is musically inclined . her training encompasses composition and piano . her teachers include laurel yost , eric funk , daniel moore , her mother marjorie kohler , and her father , the late john kohler . they taught her many life lessons as well as the joy of sharing and creating music . her performance experience includes jazz , classical , musical theater , improvisational musical theater and pop / rock / funk . she has performed with many talented musicians including : mark dixon , johnnie corrie , brad edwards , angela funk , eric funk , craig hall , rob kohler , lee kohler , marjorie kohler , geno kreis , cheri ladd , ivy merriot , john mest , alex safford , nancy weiss , and m . j . williams . her compositions include many works including : 5 solo piano works , 7 kidsongs - ensemble pieces for student piano and solo instrument , 5 preludes for piano , prelude for ansa for 2 pianos , and song for strings and brass choir , 2 violin , viola , cello , and brass choir . cd ' s she has performed on are blues and things - kohlers and friends ( vocals ) , this world - this world ( background vocals ) , and christmas album - marjorie kohler ( piano and flute ) . elusive victory is her first solo album .\nwhereas diana was 12 years younger than charles , catherine elizabeth middleton was born five months before william . whereas diana was from aristocratic stock , kate is a ' commoner ' . the author christopher wilson has traced her family tree back 200 years to ancestors who survived coalmining , malnutrition and a cholera epidemic in north - east england . he says : ' to have soot running through her veins is better than blue blood : it gives her the strongest claim to be the\npeople ' s princess\n. the old aristocracy surrounds the queen , but if william replaces them with meritocracy it will be the best thing that could happen to the royal family . '\nto date , thirty - eight books have been published by summer palace press , bringing the work of thirty - two poets / writers to national and international readership . for the majority , it was their first individual collection ; six of the thirty - two poets have released a second collection in the past two years . the driving force for the work of the press , kate explained on the evening is \u2018the love of poetry and faith in the poets\u2019 . this faith has been justified ; three of the summer palace poets have been included among the twenty - four in the watchful heart : a new generation of irish poets ( salmon poetry ) edited by joan mcbreen .\nin the tradition of old - school horror , the novel begins as a girl , along with her mother and mentally ill father , move into an old , creaking estate with an elusive earl and many hidden passageways . what ' s particularly masterful about the way clare writes is the impending sense of dread he weaves into every paragraph . there are a few glimpses of true supernatural elements but , for the large part , the fantastical element is simply there because you inhabit thirteen - year - old delphine ' s mind and she believes it to be . moreover , rather than doubting the narrator as unreliable , i got so caught up in the world she described that i immediately believed her to be correct which , of course , she was .\nin the late 1990s few of them had the expectation of having a collection published . the work and expertise of joan and kate changed that through their workshops and readings . having discovered and nurtured new talent , they continued with their endeavours . \u2018 there were a great number of people who were worthy of publishing , who had no hope of ever doing so with the publishing situation as it was in 1999 . rather than moan about the ageism and sexism of the poetry scene , we decided to pool our joint expertise , \u2019 explains joan . they founded summer palace press in 1999 so that voices from the peripheries of this island could be heard . \u2018different climates and different bloods have different needs\u2019 , wrote ezra pound . the summer palace poets demonstrate variety and freshness ; a self - forgetfulness and a stubborn hope for the future despite our contradictory times . \u2018the only whole lives are the broken lives\u2019 , a line from stewart parker\u2019s \u2018the broken lives\u2019 , sums it up . \u2018we publish all kinds of poetry , if it meets a high enough standard , \u2019 says kate . \u2018the manuscripts submitted are carefully read and commented on and undergo a close editing process , involving the author , down to the third proof . the end product is a beautiful book , sewn and bound ( not just glued ) , and we use the work of a living artist for the cover image . \u2019 the books are printed by nicholson & bass ltd , belfast . like most small publishers , the press depends on grants from different bodies for its future . funding for storage is never calculated into grants given and the price of postage is exceedingly high , especially to america and australia . yet , despite the obstacles , summer palace press is confidently evolving . \u2018we are on amazon , and are in the process of completing a new website , \u2019 says joan . what gives them the greatest satisfaction ? \u2018we are proud of each of the thirty - eight books that we have published . \u2019"]}
{"id": 1371, "summary": [{"text": "synemon jcaria , the reddish-orange sun-moth , is a moth in the castniidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in australia , including victoria .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 35 mm for males and 38 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults have brown forewings , each with two white spots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are scarlet with brown markings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "adults are on wing from late january to mid march .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on lomandra effusa .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they differ from the larvae of most other synemon species in that they feed internally at the rhizomes of the food plant at ground level , rather than on the roots underground . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "synemon jcaria", "paragraphs": ["katja schulz selected\nsynemon jcaria\nto show in overview on\nsynemon jcaria\n.\nmaggie whitson marked\nsynemon jcaria sunning itself\nas hidden on the\nsynemon jcaria\npage . reasons to hide : duplicate\nkatja schulz marked the classification from\nwikipedia\nas preferred for\nsynemon jcaria\n.\nsynemon jcaria is also found in south australia and victoria . more information found on the south australian sun - moths website\nkatja schulz marked the classification from\nbolds resource for species - level taxa\nas preferred for\nsynemon jcaria\n.\nsynemon jcaria a beautiful sunmoth which flies this time of the year . synemon sunmoths are a day flying moth and can be seen between 10am and 3pm depending upon the temperature and if the sun is shining . when the clouds come over , they seem to disappear .\nsynemon doubleday , 1846 ; in stokes , discoveries australia 1 : 515 , pl . 3 ; ts : hesperia sophia white\ndrawing by rudolf felder , zoologischer theil , reise der osterreichischen fregatte novara , band 2 , abtheilung 2 ( 1874 ) , plate lxxix , fig . 6 , image courtesy of biodiversity heritage library , digitized by smithsonian libraries .\nspecies in that they feed inside the culm of the foodplant at ground level , rather than on the roots underground . they feed on plants such as\nthe adult moths have brown forewings , each with two large pale spots . the hindwings are scarlet with brown markings .\nthe species is considered to be vulnerable due to habitat destruction and the fact that the females are poor flyers .\nband 2 , abtheilung 2 ( 5 ) ( 1875 ) , p . 9\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 054bb23c - 7014 - 4b93 - ad82 - fcdc81c95beb\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7320b9ac - 6334 - 455d - b943 - 58fbb380866c\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 9711e6d2 - 7fe2 - 4c0a - 97be - f9b5518690c6\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : adf56cd2 - f094 - 45a6 - a345 - bfffb86050e2\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 295208\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nis about 35 mm for males and 38 mm for females . adults have brown forewings , each with two white spots . the hindwings are scarlet with brown markings .\nspecies in that they feed internally at the rhizomes of the food plant at ground level , rather than on the roots underground .\nclassification from bolds resource for species - level taxa selected by katja schulz - see more .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\nthey sit with their wings open to absorb the sunshine to give them energy .\nthis one is a bit battle worn . the males choose a prominent place where the females would like to come and sun themselves . they then fight other males that enter their territory by spiraling up and crashing into each other . one then concedes defeat and flies away .\nthe source code for museums victoria collections is available on github under the mit license .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhesperia sophia white , 1841 ; in grey , jls exp . discovery in australia 1837 - 39 , 2 : 474 , f . 7 ; tl : king george sound\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nandrew a . e . williams , matthew r . williams , edward d . edwards and rebecca a . m . coppen"]}
{"id": 1372, "summary": [{"text": "the rose-ringed parakeet ( psittacula krameri ) , also known as the ring-necked parakeet , is a gregarious tropical afro-asian parakeet species that has an extremely large range .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the rose-ringed parakeet is sexually dimorphic .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the adult male sports a red or black neck ring and the hen and immature birds of both sexes either show no neck rings , or display shadow-like pale to dark grey neck rings .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "both sexes have a distinctive green colour .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "rose-ringed parakeets measure on average 40 cm ( 16 in ) in length , including the tail feathers , a large portion of their total length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "their average single-wing length is about 15 \u2013 17.5 cm ( 5.9 \u2013 6.9 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "in the wild , this is a noisy species with an unmistakable squawking call .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is herbivorous and not migratory .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "one of the few parrot species that have successfully adapted to living in disturbed habitats , it has withstood the onslaught of urbanisation and deforestation .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "as a popular pet species , escaped birds have colonised a number of cities around the world , including northern and western europe , where they have been able to tolerate ambient temperatures far lower than those in their native range .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "since the population appears to be increasing , the species was evaluated as being of least concern by the iucn in 2012 , but its popularity as a pet and unpopularity with farmers have both reduced its numbers in some parts of its native range .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the genus name psittacula is a diminutive of latin psittacus , \" parrot \" , and the specific krameri commemorates the austrian naturalist wilhelm heinrich kramer . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "rose - ringed parakeet", "paragraphs": ["also known as : rose - ringed parakeet , green parakeet , long - tailed parakeet , senegal long - tailed parakeet , northern rose - ringed parakeet ( p . k . borealis )\nthe rose ringed parakeet with the scientific name of psittacula krameri is also known as the ring necked parakeet .\nthe indian rose - ringed parakeet measures approx . 42 centimeter or 16 . 5 inches\n1 . the rose ringed parakeet perform direct and fast flight than the other parakeets .\ngene in the echo parakeet isolates but no support for the results from the rose - ringed parakeet bfdv data .\n( indian rose - ringed parakeet ) is distributed in peninsular india and sri lanka . the subspecies\nthe rose - ringed parakeet is also known as the ringnecked parakeet . its scientific name commemorates the austrian naturalist wilhelm heinrich kramer .\nthe abyssinian rose - ringed parakeet measures approx . 40 centimeter or 15 . 7 inches in length .\ninches ) long including the tail feathers . its average single wing length is about 15\u201317 . 5 cm ( 6 - 7 inches ) . the tail accounts for a large portion of the length . the indian rose - ringed parakeet , african rose - ringed parakeet , abyssinian rose - ringed parakeet and neumann ' s rose - ringed parakeet measure 42 cm , 40 cm , 40 cm and 43 cm long , respectively .\n( abyssinian rose - ringed parakeet ) is distributed in sudan , ethiopia , eritrea and djibouti . the subspecies\n( african rose - ringed parakeet ) is distributed in mauritania , senegal , guinea , sudan and uganda .\n2 . the life span of the rose ringed parakeets are about 20 years . some of these rose ringed birds have lived up to 40 years and more .\nthe indian ringneck parakeet has been referred to as the\nnoble parakeet\n! the species , psittacula krameri , is also called the rose - ringed parakeet and contains four subspecies .\n\u201cwe\u2019re on the lookout for rose - ringed parakeet , which is about a 15 inch beautiful lime green parakeet , \u201dsays madi elsea with the group .\n7 . since , the rose ringed parakeet is one of the famous pet parrot , they are very affectionate in nature .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet is considered one of the best talking parakeets and can learn a vocabulary of up to 250 words .\nabyssinian rose - ringed parakeet ( p . krameri parvirostris ) : northwest somalia , west across northern ethiopia to sennar district , sudan .\nthis rose ringed parakeets are most commonly found in asia , especially found in the india subcontinent .\nspecies : scientific : psittacula krameri krameri aka palaeornis docilis . . . english : rose - ringed parakeet , african ring - necked parakeet . . . dutch : rose halsbandparkiet , afrikaanse halsbandparkiet . . . german : afrikanischer halsbandsittich . . . french : perruche \u00e0 bande rose\noriginally from india , the rose - ringed parakeet has been in britain for decades , although it is unclear how it was first introduced .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet has exquisite plumage with a graceful long tail that serves as an elegant balancing aid in trees and among crops .\nkirwan gm , 2000 . rose - ringed parakeet ( psittacula krameri ) recored in the west indies . el pitirre , 13 : 42 .\nthe nature of this rose ringed bird is monogamous . the flight taken by this rose ringed parakeet is direct and strong in nature . they spend their time for climbing the tree canopies . they use their bills for climbing and other supports .\nthe neumann ' s rose - ringed parakee t measures approx . 43 centimeter or 16 . 9 inches\ndescription : rose - ringed parakeet has yellow - green plumage , long , graduated tail and broad , rounded and hooked pinkish - red bill .\nflight : rose - ringed parakeet performs fast and direct flight , with rapid wing beats . in flight , the dark flight feathers are conspicuous .\nin the closed areas , the breeding season for these rose ringed parrots begins in december and in the outer areas , the breeding season for these rose ringed parrots begins in february . the female rose ringed parakeets lay 3 to 5 eggs at a time . the eggs of the parrots are white in colour .\n) . the coefficient of variation histograms indicated that for the echo parakeet isolates there is not sufficient evidence to reject the strict clock , but there is for the rose - ringed parakeet isolates .\n( boreal rose - ringed parakeet ) is distributed in afghanistan , pakistan , north india , nepal , bangladesh , myanmar and south china . the subspecies\n. isolates from rose - ringed parakeets are indicated by the suffix \u201c ( r ) \u201d . as in\nthe african rose - ringed parakeet measures about 40 centimeter or 15 . 7 inches in length . the tail accounts for a large portion of the length .\nprotection / threats / status : rose - ringed parakeet is relatively common , and now , it may be found in the large urban parks in the world .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet is bold and adaptable enough to profit from human activities . it flourishes in cities and has escaped from captivity to colonize new areas .\nbutler cj , 2003 . population biology of the introduced rose - ringed parakeet psittacula krameri in the uk . oxford , uk : university of oxford , unpaginated .\nsince , the rose ringed parakeet is famous as a pet , these species are commonly seen in the human dominated areas . these rose ringed parakeets are found in most of the zoos . in those zoos , they are trained to do some tricksas well to entertain the public .\nas we talked , small squadrons of rose - ringed parakeets began swooping and alighting in the treetops above our head .\nneumann ' s rose - ringed parakeet ( p . krameri borealis ) : east pakistan , northern india and nepal to central burma ; introduced populations worldwide in localities .\nintroduced and established populations are found worldwide . in some regions they are considered as pests or invasive species . there are four recognized subspecies of rose - ringed parakeet .\nthe iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) has categorized and evaluated these rose - ringed parakeet species and has listed them as of\nleast concern\n.\nin the wild , rose - ringed parakeets usually feed on buds , fruits , vegetables , nuts , berries and seeds .\nsorry about late reply . they are rose - ringed parakeets . escaped from aviaries initially but now breeding in the wild .\nthose noisy green dandies are psittacula krameri manillensis , a parakeet that is native to southern india and sri lanka . its common name in english is the rose - ringed parakeet ; in japanese , it\u2019s called wakake honsei inko .\naviculturists the popularity of the breed began to increase greatly . now widely available in the pet trade , rose - ringed parakeets continue to gain popularity . hand - fed rose - ringed parakeets are regarded as excellent pets if provided with daily attention , though even parent - raised rose - ringed parakeets make good pets when provided with regular handling and attention . they are generally family birds and are less likely to bond to only one person . with adequate attention , handling , and love , a rose - ringed parakeet can quickly become a beloved companion .\nhand - fed , well socialized rose - ringed parakeets make excellent pets , provided they are given daily attention and good care .\nthe cages should be in a place out of direct sunlight and free of drafts . a pet or captive rose - ringed parakeet should be kept in a bird - safe environment .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet prefers lightly wooded country in the lowland plains of tropical asia and africa , but it occurs up to 6 , 600\u2032 in the himalayas and the ethiopian highlands . in rural india , the parakeet lives in areas of lush vegetation , breeding in deciduous forests . in much of its african range , however , the species is found in savannah woodland and arid , thorny scrub . the rose - ringed parakeet lives near human habitation , since farmland , parks and gardens provide it with easy pickings . a huge parakeet population lives in the cities of northern india and pakistan . a plains living typical parakeet habitat is open woodland in ethiopia . the rose - ringed parakeet is sometimes called the ring - necked parakeet . the naturalized rose - ringed parakeet in miami , florida , is one of only a few birds that nest in winter . the male and female pair up in late december . the rose - ringed parakeet is not a popular cagebird due to its raucous calls and tendency to bite , but captive birds have been bred with striking yellow , blue , white , gray and even black - and - white plumages .\nnebot jc , 1999 . first report of the rose - ringed parakeet ( psittacula krameri ) in venezuela and preliminary observations on its behavior . ornitologia neotropical , 10 : 115 - 117 .\nlever c , 2005 . rose - ringed parakeet ( ring - necked parakeet ) psittacula krameri . in : naturalized birds of the world [ ed . by lever c ] . london , uk : t and ad poyser , 124 - 130 .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet ( psittacula krameri ) belongs to the family of parakeets , psittaculidae . these parakeet species are naturally distributed in india , sri lanka , pakistan , nepal , bangladesh , myanmar , south china , northcentral africa and afghanistan .\n( echo parakeet or mauritius parakeet ) . the term ' krameri ' commemorates the austrian naturalist wilhelm heinrich kramer .\nthe rose ringed parakeet is commonly found in the cultivated areas , parks and gardens , trees in the countryside , dry and open forests as well as evergreen forests . we may find this species in semi desert areas and open jungles and low lands . this rose ringed parakeet is commonly seen in large urban parks . they used to travel in flocks . they communicate by twittering , squawking or shrieking .\nin north - west india , indian rose - ringed parakeets form pairs during september to december . during this cold season , they select and defend\nhi maggie , sorry about the late reply . yes \u2013 green long tailed birds can only be ther rose ringed parakeets . thanks for feedback .\nlamba bs , 1996 . nidification of some common indian birds : 10 . the rose - ringed parakeet , psittacula krameri scopoli . proceedings of the zoological society of london , 19 : 77 - 85 .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet , also called the ringnecked parakeet , is a tropical bird that is also a popular pet . these birds are permanent residents , and have adapted to surviving in disturbed habitats that have succumbed to deforestation and urban growth . the rose - ringed parakeet\u2019s diet consists largely of buds , fruits , vegetables , nuts , berries and seeds . food is found by foraging , and wild populations will find this food in farmlands and orchards , causing a wide variety of damage to the agriculture crops . this bird , unlike most southern asia birds , will also breed during the winter . the conservation rating for the rose - ringed parakeet is least concern .\ngene that we observed to be particularly polymorphic in the echo parakeet isolates ( codons 88 , 148 , 167 , 176 , and 234 ) appeared to be much less variable in the rose - ringed parakeet isolates . only codons 148 and 167 showed nonsynonymous polymorphism .\nhowever , in some parts of south asia - from where the rose - ringed parakeets originated , populations of these birds are decreasing due to trapping for the pet trade . despite some people ' s attempts to revive their population by freeing these birds from local markets , the rose - ringed parakeet ' s population has dropped drastically in many areas of the indian subcontinent .\nnumerous striking color mutations of rose - ringed parakeets have occurred in captivity , including white ( albinos ) , blue , grey and lutino ( yellow ) .\nphylogenetic relationships between bfdv isolates from the echo parakeet and rose - ringed parakeet inferred from bayesian analysis using beast ( the tree was automatically rooted using a relaxed clock model ) . nodes with a posterior probability of \u22650 . 9 are indicated with an asterisk and with a double dagger for\nkhan ha ; beg ma ; khan aa , 2004 . breeding habits of the rose - ringed parakeet psittacula krameri in the cultivations of central punjab . pakistan journal of zoology , 36 ( 2 ) : 133 - 138 .\nsheehey a ; mansfield b , 2009 . wild rose - ringed parakeets psittacula krameri . nature alley . weldon , california , usa : nature alley , unpaginated . urltoken\ncorrection : this story has been updated to reflect the fact that rose - ringed parakeets are native to the entire region from the himalayan foothills to sub - saharan africa .\nmabb kt , 1997 . nesting behavior of amazona parrots and rose - ringed parakeets in the san gabriel valley , california . western birds , 28 : 209 - 217 .\n\u201cthere were a lot of other birds that escaped , but it seemed like the rose - ringed parakeets were the only ones that successfully started breeding , \u201d sheehey says .\nthese gregarious tropical parakeets are popular in the pet industry , and their numbers are decreasing in some areas due to trapping for the pet trade . the rose - ringed parakeet ' s population has dropped dramatically in many areas of the indian subcontinent .\nbrooks je ; hussain i ; ahmad e , 1988 . a partial research bibliography of the rose - ringed parakeet ( psittacula krameri ) . islamabad , pakistan : national agricultural research centre , 16 pp . [ technical report no . 15 . ]\nthis rose ringed parakeet is one of the non migrating species among the parrot . they are successfully adapted to live in the disturbed habitats and human habitats . this species is one of the noisy species and it often makes an unmistakable squawking call .\nthese birds where first bred by the people of india at least 3 , 000 years ago , and colour mutations of rose - ringed parakeets were also bred . the royals prized them as pets and for their ability to speak . it was a popular status symbol in indian culture to have a rose - ringed parakeet . they were the first parrots brought to europe and the greeks were the first europeans to breed them .\n. . . on the basis of sequence homology of cytb gene , the pakistani wild rose - ringed parakeet can be classified as sub - species of p . k . manillensis but the deviation in cytb gene sequence of pakistani wild rose - ringed parakeets is pointing towards independent evolution of this species as an ecocline in pakistan . the geographical heterogeneity exerts evolutionary pressure to a specie to adopt the status of an ecocline to that extent which evolves it into sub - species ( groombridge et al . , 2004 ) . for example mandible size in the african rose - ringed parakeets ( p . . . .\nbehaviour : rose - ringed parakeet is a foolhardy and opportunistic bird . it has been introduced as cage - bird , but this species is able to adapt very well . it lives in more or less large groups in most of the big cities .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet is considered one of the best talking parakeets and can learn a vocabulary of up to 250 words . now these birds come in many mutations , including the common green , blue , grey and lutino among many other colors .\nrange : rose - ringed parakeet ranges from central africa to uganda , southern asia , india and sri lanka . it has been introduced in middle and far east , north america , england , the netherlands , belgium and germany . it is very cosmopolitan .\nto not correspond to the pbfd outbreak . this group includes rose - ringed parakeets sampled at the same time as the pbfd outbreak in the echo parakeet population . the second group ( highlighted by the gray box ) , comprising just three isolates , have the 14h34l\n) . in contrast , there is little difference between the estimated evolutionary rates from the rose - ringed parakeet isolates and their randomized results , suggesting that there is no temporal structure . taken together , these results suggest that the high evolutionary rate estimated from the bfdv\nthere are about 30 , 000 of the bright green rose - ringed parakeets in london , with more in surrey and kent , and their numbers could reach 50 , 000 by 2010 .\nmany rose ringed parakeets are in decline and several birds have become extinct . the major reason for the threats is habitat loss , hunting , degradation , wild bird trading and so on .\neditor ' s note : thanks to our eagle - eyed readers for spotting that in the above photo , the bird fourth from the left on the top wire is not a rose - ringed parakeet . a consultation with bird expert kenn kaufman confirms the suspicion that it is either a red - breasted parakeet or a hybrid involving that species .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet has established feral populations in india and a number of european cities . there are stable populations in florida and california , united states . small populations are also found in tehran , iran ( mostly concentrated in the northern parts of city ) .\nrose - ringed parakeets are generally hardy and require less interaction than most other parakeets of their size . however , they require at least half an hour of interaction a day to remain friendly .\nnone are listed as threatened . among the endangered psittacines are several species of interest to aviculturists : the paradise parakeet ( psephotus pulcherri mus ) , scarlet - chested parakeet ( neophema splendida ) , and turquoise parakeet ( n pulchella ) .\nnative to the indian subcontinent and sub - saharan africa , the rose - ringed parakeet is enjoying a population explosion in many london suburbs , turning a once - exotic bird into a notorious pest that awakens children , monopolizes garden bird feeders and might even threaten british crops .\nthey require a relatively tall cage because of their long tails . a rose - ringed parakeet who will be spending most of his / her day inside the cage needs a larger cage that can also accommodate lots of toys and perches . an appropriate cage would have . . .\ncage because of their long tails . a rose - ringed parakeet who will be spending most of his / her day inside the cage should be kept in a cage about 60 cm ( 24\n) wide x 45 cm ( 18\n) deep x 90 cm ( 36\n) high , though the larger the better , and the bar spacing should be between 1 . 25 cm ( 1 / 2 inch ) and 1 . 875 cm ( 3 / 4 inch ) . rose - ringed parakeets are avid chewers and climbers and should therefore be provided with chewing toys in their cages . the cages should be in a place out of direct sunlight and free of drafts . a pet or captive rose - ringed parakeet should be kept in a\nif your parakeet has become too noisy or disobedient or aggressive , our parakeet training course will teach you how to train it and stop it from screaming and biting .\nreproduction : the rose - ringed parakeet\u2019s nest is a hole in tree . but when they live in towns , they can nest in any available high cavity , such as a crevice in a wall , under a roof , an old magpie nest\u2026 the nest is lined with rotten wood .\nshows the rate estimated from the strict clock for the echo parakeet isolates and the relaxed clock ( uncorrelated lognormal ) for the rose - ringed isolates . the inferred rates do not differ substantially between the two genes or between the two host populations , although the 95 % hpd intervals for the\nthe rose - ringed parakeet lives in places where there\u2019s an abundance of nuts , seeds and fruity supplemented by other crops , such as wheat , maize , coffee , dates , figs and guavas . these foods ripen at different times , sustaining the parakeet throughout the year if food is scarce due to a failed crop , for example , the parakeet leaves its home range to eat whatever plant matter it finds . large flocks of the rose - ringed parakeet gather to feast on heavily laden fruit trees or spilled grain . the birds themselves have learned how to tear open sacks of grain or rice in farmyards and railway depots . get stuck in the hooked bill can rip tough - skinned fruit ( far right ) and open hard - shelled nuts .\nconsidering the proximity of the two parrot populations in mauritius and the recent common ancestry of the host species ( 22 ) , we expected to find good evidence for viral transmission . indeed , the phylogenetic analyses indicated the presence of bfdv allele sharing between the two populations . although the literature ( 28 ) and field reports indicate behavioral and ecological separation between the parrot populations in mauritius , the environmental stability of bfdv ( 62 ) means that the virus still can be indirectly transmitted . the most recent common ancestor for all echo parakeet isolates dates to around 1959 ( or 1949 when the rose - ringed isolates are included in the analysis ) , which approximately coincides with a period when the rose - ringed parakeet started expanding into native forest , coming into direct competition with the echo parakeet for nest sites ( 6 ) . interestingly , the oldest rose - ringed parakeet isolate was taken from a bird housed in aviaries that were central to the initial recovery of the echo parakeets . thus , the apparent transmission of bfdv actually may in some cases be attributable to human intervention . although the evidence for viral transmission between the two parrot populations appears to be clear , the evidence for the rose - ringed parakeets being the source of the pbfd outbreak is more equivocal . we only identified three rose - ringed parakeet isolates that possessed the 14h34l rep allele , and all of them were collected at least one season after the outbreak . one possibility is that the mutations responsible for the outbreak originated in the echo parakeet population with subsequent transmission to the rose - ringed population . indeed , one of the three rose - ringed isolates was collected from an individual that most likely became infected after indirect contact with the endemic population ( it was found in an echo parakeet nest in the 2006 / 07 season ) . nevertheless , given the considerable size and distribution of the invasive population , it undoubtedly remains the likeliest source of the pbfd outbreak in the echo parakeets . it may be that our sampling of this population prior to 2005 / 06 was not sufficient to identify the 14h34l mutations .\nalleles were present in the majority of echo parakeet isolates . from early 2005 a new\nfree online seminars on training your parakeet : join our training experts on one of our free online seminars and learn how to train and take care of your parakeet correctly .\nperez - riviera r , 2001 . comments on kirwan ' s first record of the rose - ringed parakeets ( psittacula krameri ) in the west - indies . el pitirre , 14 ( 1 ) : 9 .\nhi helen , it is almost certainly a lovebird . they were originally aviary escapees like the rose - ringed parakeet and are breeding in the wild . i went for a bird walk in delta park with geoff lockwood a couple of years ago and we saw a love - bird and a parakeet that had teamed up as a pair . geoff said that some species are even interbreeding . liz\n4 . parrots are usually bright colored birds . these rose ringed parakeets are yellow , blue , olive , cinnamon , lutino , white , blue - white , yellow - green , and white - yellow in colour .\nparau , l . , strubbe , d . , mori , e . , menchetti , m . , ancillotto , l . , van kleunen , a . et al . ( 2016 ) rose - ringed parakeet populations and numbers in europe : a complete overview . open journal of ornithology , 9 , 1\u201313\nthe rose - ringed parakeet , which includes the indian ringneck and the african ringneck subspecies , is the most widely scattered member of the race of parrots and is spread throughout asia and parts of africa . they are found in india , china , ceylon , africa , tibet , nepal and many adjacent islands .\nrose - ringed parakeet : most widespread parrot in the old world , found across africa , india , and southern asia . populations of escaped birds are established in florida , southern california , and parts of the caribbean . found in nearly all types of lowland habitat from forests to farms , marshes and grasslands .\nindian ring - necked parakeet personality , food & care | pet birds by lafeber co .\nthe echo parakeet is a conservation success story and has been upgraded to the endangered classification .\n1 . indian - ring necked ( aka irn ) parakeet with the scientific name p .\n\u2022 true parakeets are split into 4 genera . psittacula includes the rose - ringed parakeet and 1 other species ; bolborhynchus and brotogeris have 5 and 7 species , respectively ; the monk parakeet is sole member of myiopsitta . parakeets belong to the family psittacidae , with about 350 species , includ - | ing parrots , lovebirds and macaws . almost a third of | the species in psittacidae are currently endangered .\nalien species are one of the major causes contributing to biodiversity loss . in europe , over 340 alien bird species have been recorded in the wild , of which 74 are established . among 12 established alien parrot species in europe , the rose - ringed parakeet ( rrp ) psittacula krameri is the most abundant and widespread .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet or indian ringneck is classified as a smaller parrot known as the parakeet . they are green with undertones of blue , the male has a black ring around his neck . they grow to 40 cm ( 16 inches ) . its average single wing length is about 15\u201317 . 5 cm ( 6 - 7 inches ) . rose - ringed parakeet is sexually dimorphic which means differences in the physiology of the male and female of the species . both the male and female can mimicry , the abilility to mimic human speech . they are part of the true parrots family of which about 330 species of birds belonging to the psittacidae family . they originate from the southern indian subcontinent . but have spread far and wide .\ncaptive rose - ringed parakeets should be fed a nutritionally balanced diet of pellets and seeds , and the appreciated fruit , vegetable or nut treat should also be offered often . they should always have access to fresh water in their cages .\nshwartz a ; strubbe d ; butler cj ; matthysen e ; kark s , 2009 . the effect of enemy - release and climate conditions on invasive birds : a regional test using the rose - ringed parakeet ( psittacula krameri ) as a case study . diversity and distributions , 15 ( 2 ) : 310 - 318 . urltoken\nnew records of invasive parakeet hybrids in spain . a great opportunity to apply the rapid response mechanism\ni want ringneck parakeet ( blue ) . where will i get & what is its cost ?\nthe main food for the wild rose ringed parrot is seeds , fruits , nectar , pollen , vegetables , buds , arthropods and other animal prey . most of the parrots are seed predators and they are not seed dispersers . this rose ringed parakeet is one of the famous pet parrots in the world . so , the main food for the pet parrots is fruits and vegetables . variety of nutritious grains such as quinoa , oats , wheat , barley , pasta , cooked brown rice , cooked beans , lentils and peas are one of the excellent diets for this pet parrot .\nthere are four subspecies in rose ringed parrot . these four species are very similar in their size and not having much difference . among this four , two species are found in africa and two species are found in asia . that is ,\ndiet : the rose - ringed parakeet feeds on seeds , berries , flowers and nectar . after the breeding season , in some places , they arrive in groups and feed on grain , rice and maize in cultivated areas , but they also devastate orchards and coffee plantations . in california , they consume pecan nuts , buds and varied fruits .\nhardy jw , 1964 . ringed parakeets nesting in los angeles , california . the condor , 66 : 445 - 447 .\ncaptive rose - ringed parakeets should be fed a nutritionally balanced diet of pellets * and unfortified / organic seeds , and fresh fruits , vegetables and greenfood should be made available . they love nuts - but those should only be given as treats .\ni live in paulshof in the north of johannesburg . yesterday i spotted a green bird that looked like a parrot flying around my complex . i live close by to the rietfontein nature reserve but i doubt that it came from there . it did not have a long tail like the above rose - ringed parakeet . what else could it be ?\nthe rapid growth of the parakeet population may pose a threat to other birds , authorities have said .\ngene from echo parakeet isolates is well supported . there is marginal support for the rate estimated from the\nfar from being threatened , as is the case with many parrot species , the rose - ringed parakeet is itself a major pest for farmers as well as other wildlife in india , pakistan and elsewhere . the parakeet has a habit of taking just a few bites from each fruit before discarding it and plucking another one , so the species can seriously damage fruit crops . in europe , it often out - competes native birds for both food and nest sites . |\nthe department for environment food and rural affairs ( defra ) has commissioned a study into the parakeet threat .\n\u201cthis type of parakeet roosts together , presumably because there is safety in numbers , \u201d ikeda told me .\nkirkpatrick w ; marting g , 2005 . indian ringneck parakeet . pestnote , 3 : 1 - 2 .\njust fill in your details and take the first step to having a lovable , friendly parakeet . . .\nthe indian ringneck parakeet is a sub - species of the rose - ringed parakeet ( psittacula krameri ) and the many sub - species are scattered throughout africa and asia . the indian ringneck is an asiatic parrot and originally from ceylon though it ' s now found in many parts of asia , notably india and pakistan . they can also be found in western and southern areas of sudan and are quite popular in the middle east where they are bred and found in the wild .\nthe three members of this family found in the united states occur as small populations that escaped from captivity , and rely on non - native fruiting trees for survival . the rose - ringed parakeet has become established in hawaii and cities in california , the rosy - faced lovebird occurs in some towns and cities in arizona , and the budgerigar has nearly disappeared from southern florida .\nbedecked with emerald green feathers and a rose - red beak , the ring - neck parakeet brings a touch of tropical glamour to suburban gardens in london and the south east . there have also been sightings in the north west and in scotland .\nspecies is one of few parrot species that have successfully adapted to living in ' disturbed habitats ' , and in that way withstood the onslaught of urbanisation and deforestation . in the wild , this is a noisy species with an unmistakable squawking call . rose - ringed parakeets are\nspotted a parakeet in denton , a suburb of manchester . later someone spotted one in a garden in derbyshire .\nhi i have plum - headed parakeet for sale please contact me at sumeet _ kpoor8 @ yahoo . com .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto the rose - ringed parakeet\u2019s typical call is a loud shrill , \u201ckii - a\u201d or \u201ckii - ak\u201d while flying , or when perched on a tree . other loud calls may be heard , such as \u201ckyik - kyik - kyik\u201d . in captivity , it is a very good imitator for home noises , and it is able to produce some words .\nit\u2019s unusual to see the rose - ringed parakeet alone or in a pair , except in the breeding season . for most of the year , the bird lives in flocks , which may be thousands - strong in parts of india . the parakeet squabbles frequently with its companions , but fights are rare , as they reserve their aggression for driving away predators , such as hawks . the parakeets all join in to mob their enemy , flapping their wings , pecking and screaming until it retreats . the agile parakeet uses its bill like a third foot when climbing . it stretches its neck out and takes a hold on a suitable branch with its bill , before following with its feet . the parakeet uses a similar method when walking on a narrow perch . a sitting pretty a long tail and opposing toes help the parakeet perch on thin branches .\nlooking like a giant rose - ringed parakeet , the alexandrine i parakeet ( psittacula eupatria ) is the largest member of its genus . both parakeets have the streamlined body shape shared by all parakeets , but the larger species is 23\u2033 long , weighs up to ii oz . and is equipped with a truly massive bill . it differs from its smaller relative in having a purple - red patch on the shoulders and a thicker , almost moustachelike collar it\u2019s possible to see the two species side by side in sri lanka and parts of southern india , but the alexandrine parakeet is relatively uncommon and less tolerant of human activities .\nthe parrots have very strong bills . so , they use this bill to climb trees . on an average , they live up to 25 to 30 years . parrots come under the category of zygodactylous . the zygodactylous bird has four toes . the first and fourth toes are directed towards back ward and the second and third toes are pointed towards forward . we may differentiate male and female parakeets by using sexual dimorphism . the male rose ringed parakeets have black ring neck and pink band in the nape . this unique ring is absent in the female rose ringed parakeets .\nthe rose - ringed parakeets ( psittacula krameri ) - also known as ring - necked parakeets - are endemic to northern and west africa in guinea , senegal and southern mauretania east to western uganda and southern sudan ; as well as southern asia ( depending on the sub - species ) .\nit is also one of the popular pet parrots . the quick classification of the ring necked parakeet is as below ,\nby the 1980s , there were feral parakeet populations established in tokyo , osaka and nagoya , as well as in niigata and kyushu . there are also feral rose - ringed parakeets in london , amsterdam and a number of other cities where the birds where introduced as pets . cold doesn\u2019t seem to be a problem ; their wild counterparts are found at elevations of up to 2 , 000 meters in the himalayas .\nnew records of invasive parakeet hybrids in spain . a great opportunity to apply the rapid response mechanism : european journal of ecology\nduring the breeding season , the groups disperse . some courtship displays show the female rolling the eyes while twittering , and drawing semi - circles with the head while she moves the wings . at the same time , the male struts . they touch their beaks , and the male performs courtship feeding to the female while it raises one leg . at this moment , both birds utter soft sounds . the rose - ringed parakeet is monogamous .\ngene analyses from rose - ringed isolates are very wide , suggesting that there may not be very much temporal structure . given the phylogenetic evidence for allele - sharing between the two host populations , we also estimated the rate based on the combined data where there was sufficient evidence to reject the strict molecular clock for the\nhabitat : rose - ringed parakeet is common in cultivated areas , urban parks and gardens , open countryside with trees , palm - trees thickets , dry and open forest . it also may be found in semi - desert areas and second grow open jungles , mainly in lowlands . it frequents semi - desert savannahs with short grass , open bushy areas , wooded valleys and evergreen forests . this species is now common in the large urban parks .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet is another of these new inhabitants . these beautiful green birds , with fabulous turquoise tail feathers get their names from the red neck - ring which the male has ( seen on the top bird on the above ) . they are noisy gregarious birds who announce their presence with loud squawks . we have heard them often here at liz at lancaster both flying over and sitting on the bare branches of the neighbour\u2019s tree .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - alexandrine parakeet feeding\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - alexandrine parakeet feeding\ntitle =\narkive video - alexandrine parakeet feeding\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nreunion ring - necked parakeet psittacula eques extinct c . 1800 lived on the reunion island of the mascarene islands in the western indian ocean\nthe rose - ringed parakeet is a small bird , measuring 35 to 45 cm in length and weighing 100 to 150 grams . the overall plumage is yellowish green . these birds are sexually dimorphic . the adult male has a rose and black neck ring and the female has a very pale gray ring . the upper mandible is curved , strong , red in color with black or pale yellow tip . the lower mandible is grayish . there is a black patch on the chin . the irises are yellowish - white . the feet are gray . numerous color mutations have occurred while breeding in captivity . their call is a squawking sound .\ncollar , n . , kirwan , g . m . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . rose - ringed parakeet ( psittacula krameri ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nevolutionary rate of the capsid and rep bfdv genes ( mean and 95 % hpd ) estimated from the true dates of sample isolation ( labeled as the \u201ct\u201d data point ) and from the shuffled dates of isolation . analyses using the shuffled dates were performed using a gtr + \u03b3 + i model of evolution and a relaxed ( uncorrelated lognormal ) molecular clock . ( a ) results from the echo parakeet data set indicate no overlap between the estimates from the true dates and from the shuffled dates , indicating good temporal signal . ( b ) results from the rose - ringed parakeet isolates indicate no clear temporal signal .\nso far british scientists have not documented either problem , said hannah peck , a graduate student with project parakeet , but they remain watchful .\non average , this parakeet can live between 25 and 30 years . instances of ringnecks living past the age of fifty have been authenticated .\nbritish officials are watching trends closely since the parakeets have proved major agricultural pests elsewhere , ravaging crops in places like india . so far , they have shown little predilection for leaving europe \u2019s cities and suburbs for agricultural areas . ( far smaller flocks of rose - ringed parakeets have also arrived in other european cities like brussels and amsterdam . )\nthe indian ring - necked parakeet , also called the rose - winged parakeet , has been kept as a pet for centuries and remains a favorite companion bird today . a devoted owner will do best with this temperamental bird that requires a great deal of attention to remain tame . however , the indian ring - necked will charm and delight the person who takes the time to appreciate its other qualities \u2014 a playful exuberance and a remarkable talking ability .\nparakeets of their size . this makes them ideal for a bird owner who cannot spend as much time with his / her bird as other species need . rose - ringed parakeets can cope with as little as half an hour of interaction a day . however , they can become untame if not provided with daily interaction , especially during their early months .\njust for interest sake , i spotted a pair of stunning light green long tailed birds ( probably the rose - ringed parakeets ) at willson / kings park in berario , northcliff last weekend . they were a very light green ? they flew about in the area where the fairlands spruit runs through berario \u2013 fairlands . beautiful sighting \u2013 made my day !\nprevention , early warning and rapid response are the most effective measures in preventing the impacts of invasive species . the rose - ringed parakeet psittacula krameri , is an invasive species widely spread across europe , including spain . the alexandrine parakeet psittacula eupatria is also an invasive species established in europe , but not in spain , although a species distribution model classified parts of spain as \u2018highly suitable\u2019 and an invasion risk assessment predicted a \u2018high risk of invasion\u2019 in europe . the first hybrids from these two species were recently detected in spain . based on these data , we suggest to capture the hybrids to prevent further invasion and possible interaction with other invasive parakeets in spain .\nthere is also concern that the wily parakeet will outcompete more restrained british birds like the nuthatch , since both species nest in holes in old trees .\nis also known as the ring necked parakeet and is one of the gregarious tropical asian parrot species which has been seen in an extremely large range .\nplum - headed parakeets are closely related to blossom - headed parakeets and slaty - headed parakeets and are capable of breeding . to avoid producing hybrid birds that damage the limited captive gene pool of each distinct species , these birds should not be housed together . hybrids between male rose - ringed parakeets ( indian ringneck ) and female plum - headed parakeets have also been reported .\nparrots and parakeets have long been favorites with exotic - bird fanciers . there are probably a few escapees somewhere of every species of parrot imported into the united states . rose - ringed , canary - winged , and monk parakeets , budgerigars , and several of the large amazona parrots ( especially the yellow - headed parrot ) each now exist in small , stable , feral populations .\npithon j , 1998 . the status and ecology of the ring - necked parakeet psittacula krameri in great britain . york , uk : university of york .\na ( data not shown ) . the estimated nucleotide diversity ( \u03c0 ) of bfdv in each echo parakeet breeding season from 2004 / 05 is shown in\nas its name suggests , the indian ring - necked parakeet originates from india , where it is still found wild in great quantities , even in urban areas .\n( in italics ) genes are indicated . to ease visualization , we include only 15 isolates from the echo parakeet population representing all of the major genotypes identified in\na greenhouse young birds lack collars , so they look more like the female than the male ( above ) . pairs of rose - ringed parakeets stay together for life , but the male and female renew their pair bond every year during the courtship display , the male approaches his mate while fanning his tail and repeatedly dilating , then contracting the pupils of his eyes . the male feeds the female beak to beak ; she rolls her eyes and rubs bills with her partner : the rose - ringed parakeet usually nests in an unlined tree hole about 10 - 33\u2032 above the ground . it often makes use of an old woodpecker hole , which the parakeet may first enlarge with its bill . in urban areas , breeding pairs sometimes nest in holes in walls and buildings , even in noisy areas , such as near a busy street market . the female incubates the eggs for more than three weeks , while she is fed and guarded by her mate . the naked chicks hatch and their eyes open ten days later : both parents feed the young for 7 - 8 weeks , regurgitating partly digested food into their bills .\nindividually , any of the rose - ringed parakeets could be the star of a dreamworks film , electric green with bright pink beaks and the voluble personalities that have long made the tropical species a popular household pet . but for people who frequent the park or live nearby , the visceral experience is more like \u201c the birds \u201d \u2014 albeit with more color and a much noisier soundtrack than the hitchcock film .\na estimates obtained by combining the data from the two host populations are also shown . for each data set , we only included results from the significant clock model , i . e . , the strict clock was rejected for the rose - ringed and combined datasets ( in favor of the relaxed uncorrelated lognormal clock [ uln ] , which had a higher marginal likelihood than the relaxed uncorrelated exponential clock ) .\nwe screened for bfdv using a pcr assay targeting a 717 - bp region of orf1 ( rep gene ) ( 65 ) . the reaction volume comprised 1 \u03bcl of dna extracted from parrot blood , 2 . 5 \u03bcl of nh 4 buffer ( 10\u00d7 ) , 0 . 75 \u03bcl of mgcl 2 ( 50 mm ) , 0 . 5 \u03bcl of each primer at 25 pmol / \u03bcl ( primers 2 and 4 [ 65 ] ) , and 0 . 2 \u03bcl of taq polymerase ( 5 u / \u03bcl ) made up to 25 \u03bcl with dna - grade water . reactions were run as follows : 92\u00b0c for 3 min , followed by 30 cycles of 92\u00b0c for 30 s , 57\u00b0c for 30 s and 72\u00b0c for 45 s , with a final 10 min at 72\u00b0c . we included the extraction blank and a negative control in all of the pcrs to check for contamination . of the 163 echo parakeet samples that tested positive , 74 were sequenced at orf1 by macrogen ( korea ) using bigdye terminator reactions . of the 46 rose - ringed parakeet samples that tested positive , 31 were sequenced at orf1 . we targeted a 765 - bp region comprising most of orf2 ( capsid gene ) ( 23 ) in samples that tested positive for the presence of bfdv . the reaction volumes and cycling conditions were identical to the orf1 pcr except for the annealing temperature , which was reduced to 54\u00b0c . we sequenced 47 echo parakeet and 31 rose - ringed parakeet bfdv isolates at orf2 .\n\u00e2 \u00e2 the indian ringneck parakeets have been held in admiration and esteem since ancient times . they are a large parakeet , sought after for the superiority in their form and beauty , their ability to speak , their intelligence and trainability , and because they are easy to breed . this parakeet , the indian ringneck parakeet , has been a long time favorite for bird lovers ! there are many color combinations that can be produced , which is a fun challenge and fascination for many breeders ! check out the\nthe indian ringneck parakeets have been held in admiration and esteem since ancient times . they are a large parakeet , sought after for the superiority in their form and beauty , their ability to speak , their intelligence and trainability , and because they are easy to breed . the indian ringneck parakeet has been a long time favorite for bird lovers !\nslaty - headed parakeet psittacula himalayana length 16\n- tail is half the length weight 100 grams range : afghanistan , northern india , nepal and assam exhibits altitudinal migration .\nhi is there no ringneck parakeet bird park where they can get their fruit and veggies and seeds free ? ? where they have freedom to fly away from human abuse\u2026\u2026 .\nblood samples were taken during each breeding season ( september to may ) from echo parakeets and feral rose - ringed parakeets between 1993 and 1998 and between 2003 and 2009 ( there was no sampling between 1999 and 2002 due to no obvious presence of disease ) . the field teams involved in sampling the birds followed strict anticontamination protocols , including soaking all field equipment in virkon for 48 h between visits to different host nest sites . since 2004 this sampling was carried out regardless of apparent disease status and represented between 22 and 41 % of the known population of echo parakeets each season . in total , 592 echo parakeets and 125 feral rose - ringed parakeets were sampled . dna was extracted from 50 to 100 \u03bcl of whole blood using a standard phenol - chloroform extraction protocol ( 54 ) . an extraction blank was included to check that there was no contamination .\nthe following habitats are found across the ring - necked parakeet distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .\nrodriquez ring - necked parakeet psittacula exsul also known as the newton ' s parrot extinct c . 1875 lived on the rodriquez island of the mascarene islands in the western indian ocean"]}
{"id": 1388, "summary": [{"text": "ebaziya ( foaled 18 march 1989 ) is a retired irish-bred thoroughbred racehorse and mare who won three listed races .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "as a broodmare , she has bred four individual group 1 winners . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "ebaziya", "paragraphs": ["enzeli was sired by kahyasi out of the dam ebaziya enzeli was foaled on 01 of january in 1995 .\nebaziya joined the true broodmare greats when daughter , estimate , won thursday\u2019s gp1 gold for her majesty the queen . in doing so , estimate became , not only the second gold cup winner produced by her dam , but the fourth individual gp1 winner ! ebaziya ( darshaan ) is the first since feemoss ( levmoss , le moss ) to have produced two individual gold cup winners .\nestimate\u2019s dam ebaziya had ironically been an 80th birthday present to the queen , a keen racehorse breeder , from the aga khan who remains synonymous with the ill - fated shergar\u2019s success in the 1981 epsom derby .\nother mares to have bred more than one gold cup winner include astronomie , trimestral and barbelle . what makes ebaziya\u2019s feat of breeding four individual g1 winners remarkable is that they are by four different sires from three different sire lines .\nezallis dam ezilla and estimates dam ebaziya are full sisters by the great broodmare sire darshaan , and so are lettre spirituelles dam epistole and simenons dam epistoliere ( both by alzao ) . simenon will now be aimed at the melbourne cup .\nthe first presentation of the evening was the irish field \u201cblue hen\u201d award , won by william mcneile from the united kingdom , who was presented with a cheque for \u20ac250 and trophy for his article on ebaziya which will be published in the irish field in the coming weeks .\nthe aga khan bred filly estimate ( by monsun ex ebaziya ) wins the ascot gold cup for the queen and sir michael stoute . second is the tough simenon ( marju ex epistoliere ) , trained by willie mullins , johnny murtagh up and third is joerg vasiceks top trip .\nebaziya ( ire ) b . f , 1989 { 13 - c } dp = 3 - 2 - 7 - 2 - 12 ( 26 ) di = 0 . 49 cd = - 0 . 69 - 9 starts , 4 wins , 2 places , 2 shows career earnings : $ 72 , 604\ngiven her race record , estimate naturally owns the potential to become a pivotal mare for the royal studs . however , she is also supported by an extremely strong family that descends from albanilla , also the ancestress of darshaan ; bred by the aga khan\u2019s studs , estimate is out of ebaziya and therefore a half - sister to g1 winners ebadiyla , enzeli and edabiya .\ntaghrooda\u2019s dam ezima is the product of an oft - tried and highly successful cross , as she\u2019s by sadler\u2019s wells out of a mare by darshaan . ezima did her bit for the nick\u2019s statistics winning three irish listed races at up to 14f . ezima is very closely related to an even better product of the sadler\u2019s wells / darshaan cross , in the irish oaks - gr . 1 and grand prix de paris - gr . 1 heroine ebadiyla , who is out of ebaziya , a sister to ezima\u2019s dam ezilla .\nebaziya is dam of two other very good performers in enzeli and estimate , who both recorded success in england\u2019s premier stamina contest , the 20f ascot gold cup - gr . 1 . ezilla was bred by park place international , but she has a strong aga khan / marcel boussac background , as not only was her sire darshaan , bred by his highness from a boussac family , but ezilla\u2019s dam ezana , was also bred by the aga khan out of evisa , a half - sister to darshaan\u2019s third dam marilla . this is a branch of boussac\u2019s most famous family , that of frizette , also eventually ancestress of mr . prospector and seattle slew .\nthis website uses cookies cookies are small text files held on your computer . they allow us to give you the best browsing experience possible and mean we can understand how you use our site . some cookies have already been set . you can delete and block cookies but parts of our site won ' t work without them . by using our website you accept our use of cookies . no , i want to find out more yes , i agree\nn . 18 urltoken dariyan ex masaola , bred by mr and mrs renk .\nhe is a nice strong foal , he is well developed and we\u2019re very happy with him .\ngeorges rimaud\nowner : his highness the aga khan ' s studs s c breeder : h . h . aga khan winnings : 9 starts : 4 - 2 - 2 , $ 72 , 604 1st ballysax s . , oyster s . , trigo s . 2nd killavullan s . ( gr . 3 ) 3rd blandford s . ( gr . 2 ) only mare in history to produce 4 individual group 1 winners ; dahlia produced a mix of 4 group 1 and grade 1 winners . ( close )\nto use this website , cookies must be enabled in your browser . to enable cookies , follow the instructions for your browser below . facebook app : open links in external browser\nthere is a specific issue with the facebook in - app browser intermittently making requests to websites without cookies that had previously been set . this appears to be a defect in the browser which should be addressed soon . the simplest approach to avoid this problem is to continue to use the facebook app but not use the in - app browser . this can be done through the following steps :\nbefore the cookie settings change will take effect , safari must restart . to restart safari press and hold the home button ( for around five seconds ) until the iphone / ipad display goes blank and the home screen appears .\na note about relevant advertising : we collect information about the content ( including ads ) you use across this site and use it to make both advertising and content more relevant to you on our network and other sites . this is also known as online behavioural advertising . you can find out more about our policy and your choices , including how to opt - out here .\nno nay never is a member of the third crop of leading freshman sire , scat daddy , who is also sire of u . s . graded scorers lady of shamrock ( gr . i ) , handsome mike , daddy nose best , finale , shared property , scatman and dice flavor , as well as daddy long legs , a group / graded winner in england and dubai . no nay never is out of the elusive quality mare , cat\u2019s eye witness , a half - sister to graded stakes winning sprinter / miler cat\u2019s career . the second dam , comical cat , was by the stayer , exceller , but was herself very speedy ( showing the vagaries of genetics when it comes to distance ) . she\u2019s from a john c . mabee family , and half - sister to half a year , who took the st . james\u2019s palace stakes ( gr . ii ) at royal ascot , and to the dam of event of the year .\nrated truenicks a + before his win , no nay never is one of four stakes winners from only 21 starters by scat daddy from gone west line mares , the others including scatman , and el bromista , a chilean juvenile who clocked 1 : 33 and change while taking a grade one event over a mile last weekend . scat daddy is out of a mare by mr . prospector , and no nay never is one of seven stakes winners from 67 starters by scat daddy out of mares by sons or grandsons of mr . prospector . we can note that scat daddy is a northern dancer / mr . prospector cross , and his dam is a reverse of that cross , as is no nay never\u2019s broodmare sire , elusive quality .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ngiant ' s causeway ( usa ) - dahlias krissy ( usa ) by kris s .\n1845 - 1853 called the emperor ' s plate . in 1917 - 18 run at newmarket as the newmarket gold cup . between 1941 - 1944 the race was run at newmarket at a 2 1 / 4 mile distance . in 2005 the ascot races were held at yorkshire . in 1920 buchan finished first , but was disqualified ; in 1971 the purse was taken away from the winner , rock roi , and awarded to random shot , the second place runner .\nracing and breeding information supplied by france galop , the us jockey club and weatherbys group limited .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nopen an account with betfair and bet at least \u20ac5 at min odds of 1 / 5 on the sportsbook . win or lose betfair match your first bet up to \u20ac50 . free bet stakes not returned\nyou must confirm your email address by clicking on the link we\u2019ve sent to your email address .\nyou are only one short step away from reading 5 free field + articles .\nyes , i agree to receiving communications by email from the the irish field in relation to my membership , including editorial content and new marketing products and services from the the irish field .\nby registering an account you agree to our privacy policy and terms of service .\nthe queen welcomes her ascot gold cup winner estimate ( photo : carolinenorris . ie )\nget full unlimited access to our content and archive . subscribe to the irish field\nunlimited access to the irish field via your computer , mobile device , tablet or newspaper delivered to your door .\nswordlestown little naas county kildare ireland tel . + 00 353 ( 0 ) 45 895610 fax . + 00 353 ( 0 ) 45 895612\nroyal ascot is still in full swing but the most thrilling race of the meeting for us has been run yesterday . update : irish kind wins at maisons - laffitte and is khatelas second winner of the week !\nboth our new mares ezalli and lettre spirituelle have a pedigree update after yesterdays thrilling victory of estimate in the ascot gold cup and simenons courageous second place . this was the first win for her majesty in this historic race and her first group 1 winner since 1977 when dunfermline won the st leger . she now has owned an amazing total of 22 royal ascot winners since her first one which was choir boy in 1953 and most of them were homebred as well .\nbut our warmest congratulations go to diana and joerg vasicek who own the beautiful and hugely successful kenilworth house stud near clonmel . what an achievement to own and breed one of the best current young staying horses in top trip ( dubai destination ex topka by kahyasi ) .\njune is shaping into a lucky months for us and our homebreds continue to run well . busted tycoon notched up a hat - trick when winning very easily again in uttoxeter on wednesday . congratulations to trainer tony martin , rider denis o regan and owner john breslin . bluebell ( owned by coolmore and trained by aidan o brien ) who won her maiden at limerick last week will be seen in stakes company next .\nupdate : khatela follows up with her second winner of the week in the shape of irish kind by cape cross , who wins a conditions race at maisons - laffitte this afternoon . congratulations to trainer m delcher sanchez , owners sunday horses club and rider stephane pasquier . this is our fourth win in the space twelve days !\nbluebell in action at limerick last week and at goffs in february 2012 . time flies . . . .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\nwith promising 3 - year - old light music among those waiting in the wings for the queen this season , 2016 has the potential to become one of the most interesting in the history of the royal studs .\nthere has already been cause for celebration at the stud this year through the arrival of a dubawi foal out of estimate . the colt is the first foal out of his dam , who provided one of the iconic moments of 2013 when carrying the queen\u2019s colours to victory in the ascot gold cup .\na particularly tough and talented stayer , the daughter of monsun was also trained by sir michael stoute to win the doncaster cup , sagaro stakes and queen\u2019s vase .\n\u201cher majesty has inspected estimate\u2019s foal , \u201d says her racing advisor john warren , \u201cand was absolutely thrilled as he is a strong , healthy , correct and attractive individual . \u201d\nin an industry that relies increasingly on sadler\u2019s wells and danehill blood , the fact she is a daughter of monsun also makes her an interesting mate for a variety of stallions . similar comments apply to her background , which contains no northern dancer \u2013 a rarity in today\u2019s era .\nwhile estimate ( pictured with her foal ) is set to return to dubawi this season , another high - profile resident , top australian sprinter sweet idea , is booked to galileo .\nsweet idea joined the stud late last year in a purchase facilitated by the sale of queen\u2019s homebred peacock , a royal winner of the fairway stakes in may , to hong kong .\ntrained by gai waterhouse , sweet idea was a major flagbearer for arrowfield stud\u2019s snitzel \u2013 currently one of the most popular stallions in australia - as an eight - time winner who banked just over a $ 2 . 4 million in prize - money . she enjoyed her finest moment when the wide - margin winner of last season\u2019s g1 galaxy at rosehill but was also a multiple g2 winner who ran placed in the g1 golden slipper stakes , g1 coolmore classic , g1 memsie stakes and g1 myer classic .\n\u201cthe queen sent carlton house to race in australia several years ago and currently has bold sniper in training there , so i\u2019ve been a regular visitor down there in recent seasons , \u201d says warren . \u201cso sweet idea was a horse who came to our attention . she ticks all the boxes \u2013 she\u2019s a mare of g1 calibre who was a top 2 - year - old but also trained on to win at group level at three and four .\n\u201cshe also nicks brilliantly with galileo as a daughter of snitzel , a grandson of danehill . \u201d\nsweet idea\u2019s pedigree also lends itself to another of europe\u2019s super sires , as warren explains : \u201cshe\u2019s out of a mare by timber country and he is from the same fall aspen family as dubai millennium [ sire of dubawi ] . so sending her to dubawi in the future gives us some quite interesting inbreeding . \u201d\nsweet idea is out of the g3 - placed flidais , also the dam of listed winner rush as well as a snitzel yearling colt who realised a $ 1 . 1 million to dean hawthorne at last month\u2019s magic millions gold coast yearling sale . her granddam is g1 winner electronic .\nthanks to the recent additions of estimate and sweet idea to the broodmare band , it can be argued that the royal studs has rarely been in ruder health . but the stud is also home to memory , the g2 cherry hinton stakes and g3 albany stakes winner , whose first foal , recorder , looked potentially top class for william haggas when winning last year\u2019s g3 acomb stakes at york .\nunfortunately , the son of galileo was ruled out of the remainder of last season by injury and continues to remain on the sidelines for now . however , haggas\u2019 yard does house a potentially exciting 3 - year - old for the queen in the filly light music . by elusive quality out of listed winner medley , she broke her maiden by 14 lengths at leicester and later followed up in the listed radley stakes at newbury , in which she showed a brave attitude to repel another of the queen\u2019s homebreds , make fast , by a neck .\nthe general consensus following that race was that light music didn\u2019t appreciate the prevailing soft ground at newbury . with that in mind , it wouldn\u2019t be a surprise to see her acquit herself well in good company once she returns to a sound surface this season .\nsince the vault first published , it has been my goal to research and write about the development of the thoroughbred and the sport in australia and new zealand . while the story of phar lap is universal and the exploits of the incomparable black caviar and so you think turned world attention to thoroughbreds from \u201cdown under , \u201d these contemporary champions are only the most recent in a star - studded history . in fact , australia and new zealand have produced absolutely brilliant individuals that could hold their own in the company of great thoroughbreds anywhere and the history of how these stars came to be is rich and fascinating . as well , uncovering some of this history has only reinforced my sense of how intermingled the families of thoroughbreds are worldwide and how these connections have brought us the individuals who light up the turf from great britain to the usa to india to japan today .\nthis , then , is the first of a series on thoroughbreds from australia and new zealand and begins , quite properly , with a thumbnail history of the origins of the sport .\n( note : being canadian and having few contacts in either australia or new zealand , it has been very difficult trying to discern what books to buy that would give me a good history of the australian and new zealand thoroughbred , including significant people as well as thoroughbred champions . any suggestions from vault readers would be deeply appreciated ! )\nthe horse wasn\u2019t indigenous to australia , but with the arrival of british colonists it quickly became an essential component of settling the \u201cnew\u201d land ( i . e . \u201cnew\u201d to the settlers , that is ) .\nas is the case worldwide , the australian and new zealand ( aus + nz ) thoroughbred owes its origins to great britain , where the breed originated . however , aus + nz have a history of close collaboration in the development of their thoroughbred horse , much like that of england and ireland . although often lumped together for this reason , aus + nz are , of course , different cultures with different histories , even though australians have embraced new zealand - bred champions as their own . to this day , prestigious trainers like bart cummings ( so you think , kingston rule , saintly and countless other great individuals ) visit the new zealand bloodstock sales looking for future stars \u2014 and they are seldom disappointed .\nthere are , of course , differences in the breed and the sport itself in aus + nz that make comparison with other countries difficult , if not impossible . in the southern hemisphere ( sh ) , a thoroughbred\u2019s birthdate is august 1 , not january 1 as it is in the northern hemisphere ( nh ) . in other words , in any given year , a nh thoroughbred is more than half a year older than a sh thoroughbred . the best way to compare individuals has always been to race them against each other , but sh horses have historically done poorly when shifted to nh climes , and vice versa . there have been a few exceptions , of course , but they are too few and far between to aid in any serious comparison . even black caviar seemed at a distinct disadvantage at royal ascot ; the same might be said of so you think , a great champion in his native australia who adjusted rather poorly to his new digs at ballydoyle .\nanother unique feature of aus + nz racing is that geldings are invited to run in classic races . and a good thing , too , since a number of aus + nz\u2019s greatest thoroughbreds have been geldings , among them the mighty phar lap , who was bred and born in new zealand and became one of australia\u2019s best - loved thoroughbreds during the depression era .\nso you think , a two - time winner of the cox plate , was equine royalty in australia before he was shifted from trainer bart cummings to ballydoyle in ireland . despite his victories in great britain , can we say that we really saw the true so you think ?\nchampion skyline ( 1955 ) typified the \u201clook\u201d of the aus + nz thoroughbred which focuses on \u201csolid and sensible . \u201d however , with the recent appetite for speed , we are inclined to wonder if that \u201clook\u201d with its emphasis on stamina is undergoing a qualitative shift .\nthis painting of hector is an indication of the significance of his arrival to aus in 1830 . the travel companions were also known as old hector and old northumberland respectively , making the tracing of their influence even more complex .\nby 1840 the australian racing committee was formed , re - named the australian jockey club ( ajc ) in 1842 . in keeping with their mission to nurture the development of a unique aus thoroughbred , one known for strength and stamina , the ajc inaugurated and organized a program of classic races , the chief among them the vjc derby ( aus oldest derby ) , the ajc derby and the melbourne , sydney , brisbane and caulfield cups . all of the races accepted into the classic program were at distances of 1 . 5 miles or better . other states and jurisdictions in australia developed their own racing clubs in the 19th century , including victoria , which inaugurated its own victoria jockey club in 1864 , as well as queensland , southern and western australia and the island of tasmania . by 1883 , 192 racing clubs were registered with the ajc .\nanother important early influence was fisherman ( 1853 ) , a british stallion imported by hurtle fisher in 1860 to stand at his stud in victoria , maribyrnong .\nfisherman ( 1853 ) was one of the foundation sires of the aus + nz thoroughbred . he is depicted here by the great equine artist , john frederick herring , sr .\nif ever a horse was the incarnation of stamina and strength , it had to be fisherman who , during his racing career , won 70 races , including 21 wins from 35 starts in a single racing season . winner of 26 queen\u2019s plate trophies and two ascot gold cups , fisherman on the occasion of his win of the first gold cup , was rewarded by being saddled up the very next day to run in the 3 + m queen\u2019s plate \u2014 which he won stylishly , ears pricked . fisherman was one of the best british stayers of the nineteenth century and it was little wonder he exercised such a potent influence on the aus + nz thoroughbred : in a short 5 seasons before his death , the champion sired 10 stakes winners and his progeny boasted a total of 25 stakes wins .\nnew zealand began to import its earliest thoroughbreds from new south wales ( aus ) in the 1840\u2019s - 1850\u2019s , having been infected by the \u201cracing bug\u201d through the commerce and exchange with its larger australasian neighbour . what new zealand brought to the table was a lush , fertile environment for raising horses , in contrast to the markedly small territory that australia could offer , given its vast reaches of dry , arable land . by 1890 , nz racing had been organized under a central authority when all of its racing clubs were affiliated with the nz racing conference . what began as the influence of one neighbour upon another continues between aus + nz to this day , a recent example being m . j . moran and piper farm\u2019s ( nz ) superstar , so you think , who quickly earned the love and respect of australian racegoers . so you think is just one of many champions to travel from nz to aus , where they earned the love and loyalty of a racing public who would never forget them .\nstill another sire of great importance to the flourishing of the breed in new zealand was traducer ( 1857 ) , a son of the libel ( 1842 ) who was imported in 1862 . despite his reputedly savage temperament , traducer got 9 winners of the nz derby and another 8 winners of the canterbury cup , a weight - for - age race run over a 2 . 5 m course .\nblink bonny : the peerless daughter of melbourne , won both the epsom derby and oaks in 1857 .\nthe amazing musket , who had won at distances up to 3m , would give the nz thoroughbred a world - class status .\nas great as were musket\u2019s gifts on the turf , in the breeding shed he lent his superb genes to sons trenton ( 1881 ) and martini - henry ( 1880 ) . from the latter would descend the 1946 epsom derby winner , nimbus ( 1943 ) , and the superb grey sovereign ( 1948 ) , twice leading sire in france . the brilliant trenton excelled at stud , producing 404 winners over 9 seasons ; a daughter , rosaline ( 1901 ) , became the grandam of the great british sire , gainsborough ( 1915 ) .\nbut musket\u2019s most superb gift of all came in 1885 , when carbine was foaled .\nwallace was the best of carbine\u2019s sons born in australia and an important sire there . painting by martin stainforth\nat welbeck abbey , carbine continued his career as a sire of champions , the arguably most famous among these being the english derby and grand prix de paris winner , spearmint ( 1902 ) . although of delicate constitution himself , spearmint became a sire of classic winners . he also turned out to be a brilliant bm sire . among other spearmint progeny : the great sire chicle ( 1913 ) who sired america\u2019s mother goose ( 1922 ) and was the bm sire of shut out ( 1939 ) ; the 1920 epsom derby winner spion kop ( 1917 ) ; johren ( 1915 ) , winner of the belmont stakes in 1918 and an american hoty ; the 1922 st leger stakes winner royal lancer ( 1919 ) ; as well as spike island ( 1919 ) , winner of the 1922 irish derby ; the exceptional filly fausta ( 1911 ) , winner of the 1914 italian derby and oaks ; and spelthorne ( 1922 ) , winner of the 1925 irish st leger stakes .\ncarbine\u2019s best british son was spearmint . although a fragile runner with poor legs , spearmint\u2019s progeny were noted for their classic lines and it was he more than any other carbine progeny who assured his sire\u2019s place in the development of the thoroughbred .\nspearmint\u2019s daughter , plucky liege , exerted an enormous influence on the breed through her sons bull dog and sir gallahad iii .\nnext time : the series continues with a look at some of the greatest aus + nz champion thoroughbreds in the first part of the twentieth century .\nnote : the vault is a non - profit website . we make every effort to honour copyright for the photographs used in our articles . it is not our policy to use the property of any photographer without his / her permission , although the task of sourcing photographs is hugely compromised by the social media , where many photographs prove impossible to trace . please do not hesitate to contact the vault regarding any copyright concerns . thank you .\nroyal ascot is about to open and in 2014 will host a veritable who\u2019s - who of the british and european turf . an exciting twist for american racing fans is provided by the entry of rosalind , trained by kenny mcpeek , in either the ribblesdale stakes on june 19 or the coronation stakes on friday , june 20 . in addition , verrazano , now in training with aidan o\u2019brien , will be starting in either the queen anne ( june 17 ) or the prince of wales ( june 18 ) stakes .\nrosalind is set to make her uk debut in either the ribblesdale or the coronation stakes . both of these races are designed for fillies .\nimpossible as it is to focus on every horse entered at royal ascot , there are several who have become familiar names to racing fans worldwide . keeping our readership and their needs in mind , we have focused on a few of the star - studded cast who will assemble at royal ascot next week . at the time of this writing , the fields were still not quite set and since several of the entries described below remain co - entered in two different races , readers are encouraged to go to the racing post site for royal ascot to check the racing cards early next week : urltoken\narc winner , treve , is set to kick off in the prince of wales stakes on wednesday , june 18 in what will be her first start on british soil . last seen in neck - to - neck combat with the outstanding cirrus des aigles in april at longchamps in the prix ganay ( below ) , which treve lost by a whisker in her first - ever defeat , trainer cricket head - maarek\u2019s champion seems ready to add another jewel to her crown next week .\nas satisfying as it will be for head - maarek to see her great mare return to the winner\u2019s circle at ascot , the prince of wales is thought to be a prep race for treve who\u2019s real objective is likely to be the 1 million purse in the king george vi and queen elizabeth ii stakes at ascot in july , where it is very possible that she will meet up with derby winner , australia . from there , if all goes well , treve will defend her title in the 2015 prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe . if anyone can get her through this arduous campaign it is head - maarek , a trainer of no small merit who hails from the family of freddie head , trainer of the brilliant goldikova . here is treve in - training prior to the prix ganay , with commentary from the distinguished jockey , frankie dettori , who has ridden some of the greatest thoroughbreds of the last twenty years .\nthe prince of wales is shaping up to be a solid race including aidan o\u2019brien\u2019s 2013 epsom derby winner , ruler of the world , john gosden\u2019s globetrotting mare , the fugue , the william haggas - trained mukhadram , second in last year\u2019s dubai world cup , and dank , trained by sir michael stoute , last seen by north america in her record - setting run in the breeders cup filly and mare turf in november 2013 ( below ) . ( note : ruler of the world is co - entered in the hardwicke stakes , saturday , june 21st . check on monday , june 16 to see where he is going . )\nof particular interest to american racing fans will be the entry of verrazano , last year\u2019s winner of the wood memorial , who is now being trained by aidan o\u2019brien . o\u2019brien reports that he is pleased with verrazano\u2019s progress to date . the 4 year - old made his first start for o\u2019brien at newberry in may , where he finished a very respectable third to champion olympic glory in the jlt lockinge stakes ( below ) . ( note : verrazano is co - entered in the queen anne stakes which will run on tuesday , june 17 . verrazano fans should check at on the weekend or monday , june 16 when the entries should be finalized for june 17 . )\nolympic glory ( shown in video above in connection with verrazano ) is another champion who has won very consistently over 13 career starts for trainer , richard hannon . a son of choisir , the first australian - trained horse to win at royal ascot ( 2003 ) who became almost as famous for his weird headgear , olympic glory carries \u201cthe danehill gene\u201d that never seems to disappoint . accordingly , the colt has won seven times in france and england , and was seen last year at royal ascot winning the queen elizabeth ii stakes ( below ) . despite coming in 4th at longchamps to the mighty cirrus des aigles , expect olympic glory to be well in the mix on opening day .\nchoisir , the sire of olympic glory , shown here winning the golden jubilee stakes at royal ascot in 2003 . choisir was as famous for his headgear as he was for his immense talent .\nperhaps the most heartwarming moment of last year\u2019s royal ascot was the delight of hm the queen as she greeted her filly , estimate , in the winner\u2019s enclosure after the gold cup .\nit\u2019s a fair guess that aidan o\u2019brien\u2019s leading light will push estimate to the limit if he can get the distance . successful at navan in may , the son of montjeu has only lost twice in 8 starts . out of the gone wes t mare , dance parade , leading light was the brilliant winner of the st . leger last year as a 3 year - old , and at royal ascot 2013 showed true grit in winning the queen\u2019s vase .\na sentimental favourite is the hardy simenon , whose problem won\u2019t be the distance . rather , it will be his age . at seven , with 38 starts under his belt , simenon may be getting past his best but he\u2019s one of the most honest horses in the race . too , there is richard baldwin\u2019s whiplash willie , who ran a very decent third at sandown last time out to the favourite , brown panther .\nanother serious contender for the gold cup will be ted dascombe\u2019s brown panther , a son of shirocco and grandson of monsun . as of this writing , brown panther has won his last two races decisively and with 20 starts and 9 wins under his belt , appears to be peaking at just the right moment . the dascombe - trained 6 year - old is currently listed as the favourite going in to royal ascot week , given that his last win came at the gold cup distance over a soggy track at sandown . although it has taken him some time to get there , brown panther deserves the attention he\u2019s getting .\nbred by his owner , michael owen , a british and international soccer ( football in the uk ) star who now does football commentary for the british media , brown panther represents the zenith of his owner\u2019s career in horse racing . and he\u2019s come along very nicely under ted dascombe\u2019s patient tutelage , since his male family have a tendency to come into their own rather slowly by today\u2019s standards and dascombe understands this .\nas footage of his most recent win at sandown was not available , here is brown panther ( turquoise shirt ) winning the artemis goodwood cup at glorious goodwood a year ago , where he beat the likes of colour vision soundly . by all accounts , he\u2019s an even better distance runner this year .\namerica\u2019s rosalind will have her work cut out for her , making her first start on grass at royal ascot in either the ribblesdale ( june 19 ) or the coronation stakes ( june 20 ) . either way , she will be in heady company , including a contingent from ballydoyle that includes wonderfully , john gosden\u2019s criteria , roger varian\u2019s excellent sea the stars filly , anipa , godolphin\u2019s ihtimal , john oxx\u2019s talented filly my titania ( another by sea the stars ) , andre fabre\u2019s miss france , together with lightly - raced fillies like wonderstruck , dermot weld\u2019s edelmira or william haggas\u2019 cape cross filly , token of love .\nstill , rosalind will have a huge fan following from america , where she is a favourite and they will be rooting for her all the way . the daughter of broken vow whose bm sire is theatrical has several excellent grass runners in her pedigree , including britain\u2019s last triple crown winner , nijinsky ii , as well as sassafras and nureyev , who was born and raced in france where he got champion 3 year - old honours . her owners , landaluce educe stables and trainer , kenny mcpeek have little reason to doubt either her quality or her determination . having only finished out of the money twice in 8 starts , rosalind is shown here in a gutsy win over room service in april at keeneland :\nhowever , a little - publicized truth ( according to ballydoyle ) is that the \u201cwar fronts can be quite lazy\u201d and war command pulled that card in his most recent outing in may at newmarket , where he finished a dismal 9th in the 2000 guineas , failing to pick up the pace when it counted most . if he does this again at royal ascot , he\u2019ll likely be pummelled by either the brilliant night of thunder or kingman .\nnight of thunder , a 3 year - old son of dubawi , is trained by the eminent richard hannon . having won 3 of his 4 lifetime starts , the colt has never been out of the money . more importantly , night of thunder is this year\u2019s winner of the quipco 2000 guineas , taking it despite hanging out very far as he and jockey keiron fallon came to the finish . but he beat war command , the subsequent derby winner , australia , as well as a very good colt in kingman despite what could have been a disastrous error :\nkingman and night of thunder have been challenging each other throughout the season . while juddmonte\u2019s kingman lost to his rival in the quipco 2000 guineas , he went on to subsequently take the irish 2000 guineas in devastating fashion . the son of invincible spirit has only ever lost once in his 5 lifetime starts . accordingly , prince khalid abdullah and trainer john gosden\u2019s champion has been accorded the status of favourite to take the st . james palace next week :\nthe war fronts make up a small army , with newcomers war envoy and the great war running in the prestigious coventry stakes for 2 year - olds on june 17 ; guerre and due diligence running on the same day in the king\u2019s stand ; giovanni boldini joining war command in the st . james palace stakes ; and a filly , peace and war is running for sheikh suhaim al thani / qrl / m al kubaisi in the queen mary stakes ( june 18 ) .\nelusive quality is represented in the st . james palace stakes ( june 17 ) by michaelmas who runs for ballydoyle ; great white eagle in the jersey stakes for ballydoyle ( june 18 ) ; elusive guest for john guest racing runs in the jersey stakes ( june 18 ) ; and the fabulous mare certify is due to run in the duke of cambridge stakes ( june 18 ) for godolphin .\nbig brown is represented by the very good colt , darwin , who runs in the king\u2019s stand ( june 17 ) for ballydoyle .\nbluegrass cat is represented by biting bullets who runs for mrs . joanna hughes in another 2 year - old race , the windsor castle stakes ( june 17 ) .\nquality road has a 2 year - old colt , hootenanny , running in the windsor castle stakes in the colours of tabor , magnier and smith ( june 17 ) .\nstreet cry has street force running in the jersey stakes ( june 18 ) for saeed ma\u00f1ana .\ndynaformer is represented by somewhat who runs in the colours of sheikh majid bin mohammed al maktoum in the king edward vii stakes ( june 20 ) .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nfederico tesio , who many would regard as the greatest thoroughbred breeder of all time , once famously stated that ' the thoroughbred exists because its selection has depended , not on experts , technicians , or zoologists , but on a piece of wood : the winning post of the epsom derby . if you base your criteria on anything else , you will get something else , not the thoroughbred . '\nif one follows the logic of this statement , then surely the ultimate classic mating should be between a winner of the english derby and the female equivalent , the english oaks . the existence of such a horse has been a possibility since the early 1780s , but in more than 230 runnings , prior to 2014 , a horse by the first home in the english derby and out of a mare who was first home in the english oaks had never won a derby at epsom ( although we can note that lammtarra , the 1995 derby hero was by nijinsky ii out of snow bride , who was second home in the 1989 oaks , but who was subsequently awarded the race when the first home aliysa , was disqualified after testing positive for a banned substance ) .\na 525 , 000 guineas yearling , the history making horse australia didn\u2019t look overly expensive at the time , on the basis of his derby winner / oaks winner pedigree . he\u2019s had the reputation of being a coming star for some time , and even potentially the best to come out of ballydoyle in the aidan o\u2019brien era . he\u2019s not only by a derby winner out of an oaks winner , but his parents are actually two of the most distinguished winners of those races .\na son of galileo , the sadler\u2019s wells stallion who most would acknowledge as the world\u2019s leading sire , and an english derby winner who has sired two previous english derby winners , australia is out of the globe - trotting ouija board . heroine of the english oaks in 2004 , ouija board was the european horse of the year in 2004 and 2006 , and champion us turf mare in both of those years . she captured seven gr . 1 events , including the english and irish oaks , two renewals of the breeders\u2019 cup filly and mare turf and the cathay pacific hong kong vase . prior to australia , she produced the mrc easter cup - gr . 3 ( our ) voodoo prince to kingmambo who has been in fine form since being sold to race in australia .\nouija board is by the green desert son and former shuttler cape cross . her dam , selection board ( by welsh pageant ) , is a sister to another horse with form in several different countries in the shape of gelded teleprompter , whose credits included the arlington million - gr . 1 and queen elizabeth ii stakes - gr . 2 . selection board is also half - sister to rosia bay , dam of ibn bey ( a group winner in five different countries , include the irish st leger - gr . 1 , gran premio d\u2019italia - gr . 1 , europa preis - gr . 1 and grosser preis der berliner bank - gr . 1 and roseate tern , winner of the yorkshire oaks - gr . 1 , runner - up in the english oaks and third in the st leger - gr . 1 .\nthere are a number of other major winners under the third dam , ouija ( by lunchtime\u2019s sire , silly season ) , including gr . 1 winner red bloom , and group winners chatoyant , moiquen and mabadi . ouija board\u2019s fourth dam gradisca ( goya ) , is also dam of the french oaks heroine tahiti , and third dam of the great australian runner kingston town . we should also note that australia is bred by the stanley estate and stud co , stanley being the family name of the earls of derby , the 12th of whom gave the epsom classic its name .\nthe earls of derby have a long history on the turf , but the family has not been represented as the breeder of a winner of the eponymous classic at epsom since hyperion scored in 1933 ( although watling street took a wartime derby in 1942 ) , both being bred by the 17th earl , the grandfather of the current earl , the 19th holder of the title .\nthe day before australia\u2019s triumph , another aidan o\u2019brien - trained galileo offspring marvellous had started favorite for the oaks . she could do no better than sixth as the lightly raced taghrooda took her record to three wins in three starts with an impressive 3 . 75 length triumph .\nsea the stars , who is by cape cross the broodmare sire of australia , made a relatively quiet start with his first two year - olds in 2013 , although the \u201cvibes\u201d remained plenty positive . in this case the rumours proved well founded and sea the stars is now represented by six stakes winners , taghrooda , being joined as a group scorer by vazira , my titania and afternoon sunlight .\nthe classic victories by half - brothers made another piece of history . as one might imagine , it\u2019s rather rare for a mare in a major racing jurisdiction to throw derby - winning brother or half - brothers . it\u2019s probably even more rare for both siblings to go on to sire classic winners themselves , and given that , it must be unusual indeed for the pair to get classic winners in the same season . as far as the english derby and oaks are concerned , it appears that prior to this weekend , one has to go back to 1866 , when lord lyon , by \u201cthe emperor of stallions\u201d stockwell , took the derby on his way to the becoming the third winner of the english triple crown , and tormentor , by stockwell\u2019s half - brother king tom , captured the oaks , to find the offspring of siblings completing the derby / oaks double in the same year .\ngiven that sea the stars is a half - brother to galileo , it is no surprise that he\u2019s been tried quite frequently with mares by galileo\u2019s sire sadler\u2019s wells . in fact there are 19 foals of racing age on the cross , seven have started with taghrooda , being the only black type performer to date .\nobservant readers will have noted by now the remarkable similarity in the pedigrees of taghrooda and australia , one by sea the stars , a cape cross half - brother to galileo , out of a sadler\u2019s wells mare , and the other by galileo , a sadler\u2019s wells half - brother to sea the stars , out of a daughter of cape cross .\nfrench classics in recent years , there have been a number of french stallions who , either on the basis of pedigree or racetrack performance , didn\u2019t exactly shape as top commercial prospects when they retired to stud , but have proved to be smart or better stallions . now , to examples such as linamix , chichicastenango , muhtathir and kendargent , we might soon be adding the name of le havre , who is represented by the french 1000 guineas - gr . 1 and oaks - gr . 1 winner avenir certain with his first crop of three year - olds .\nthere was nothing too much to knock about le havre\u2019s race record . he won four of six starts , and on his last two outings finished second in the french 2000 guineas and the scored a decisive victory in the french derby . le havre\u2019s pedigree is less imposing . his sire noverre , a rahy three - quarter brother to the brilliant juvenile arazi , was a good two year - old and miler , winning the sussex stakes - gr . 1 and champagne stakes - gr . 2 , but made a generally disappointing start , and was exported from ireland to india , where he died young .\nle havre\u2019s dam marie rheinberg is by the relatively rarely seen surako , a gr . 3 winner who also finished second in the german derby - gr . 1 and who is by one great german sire konigsstuhl and out of a half - sister to another in surumu . on a brighter tack , we can note that marie rheinberg is half - sister to polar falcon , the sire of pivotal .\navenir certain\u2019s dam , puggy ( by mark of esteem ) , was group placed in england and scandinavia . she is out of jakarta , a machiavellian mare who is half - sister to blue monday ( by mark of esteem\u2019s sire darshaan ) , a talented middle distance runner who won four gr . 3 events in england and france , and was also three time gr . 1 placed at around a 10f . blue monday\u2019s brother lundy\u2019s lane never won a black type event , but was third in the italian derby - gr . 1 . third dam lunda is half - sister to several smart runners , including warrsan , who took two renewals of the coronation cup - gr . 1 ; italian derby - gr . 1 winner luso ; needle gun , a multiple group winner who was second in the italian derby - gr . 1 ; and cloud castle , who won the nell gwyn stakes - gr . 3 and who was second in the prix vermeille - gr . 1 ."]}
{"id": 1393, "summary": [{"text": "rahy 's attorney ( foaled in 2004 in ontario ) is a canadian thoroughbred champion racehorse .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "a turf specialist , he is a grade 1 winner and has won the bunty lawless stakes on three occasions .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "trained by ian black , as at may 26 , 2011 rahy 's attorney has earned more than $ 2 million .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in 2011 , the seven-year-old gelding is still racing and won the march 26 pan american stakes at gulfstream park in hallandale beach , florida .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he officially retired after a leg injury .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he will recover in ottawa . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "rahy ' s attorney", "paragraphs": ["however , a race two weeks ago marked rahy ' s attorney ' s last run .\nrahy ' s attorney was the little horse that could . and he did .\nwilson pulled up rahy\u2019s attorney on the backstretch , and the horse was vanned off .\nrahy\u2019s attorney is also owned in part by read peters , and jean and jim maclellan .\nrahy\u2019s attorney ( right ) was injured during his second - place finish in saturday\u2019s grade 1 sword dancer at saratoga .\nrahy ' s attorney and emma - jayne wilson take the pan american at gulfstream . order this photo\nbut more than that , maclellan said that rahy ' s attorney has brought his family closer together .\nan ontario homebred of ellie boje farm , rahy\u2019s attorney has now earned $ 1 , 957 , 090 from his 37 starts . trained by ian black , he is out of the rahy mare rahy\u2019s hope .\nrahy\u2019s attorney was back in his stall at woodbine on sunday and seemed to be none the worse for his experience .\njoe\u2019s mother , jean maclellan ; brother , jim maclellan ; and friends mitch peters and jim reid joined them in the ownership of rahy\u2019s attorney .\netobicoke , ontario \u2013 rahy\u2019s attorney , a very game second in last saturday\u2019s grade 1 sword dancer at saratoga , was injured during the running and has been retired .\nloiselle called all of rahy ' s attorney ' s wins at the toronto track , including his most impressive win , the $ 1 million woodbine mile in 2008 .\nrahy\u2019s attorney began his career in anonymity here in the fall of 2006 , finishing third for $ 32 , 000 in his second career start .\nsubmitted photo - jockey emma - jayne wilson rides rahy ' s attorney to a win in the pan american handicap at gulfstream park earlier this year .\nthe next morning , after being examined by a veterinarian , rahy\u2019s attorney was cleared to be shipped to woodbine . black didn\u2019t discover the filling in gelding\u2019s left pastern until the morning of aug . 15 .\nrahy\u2019s attorney was the first woodbine horse to have a facebook page and lots of fans . he loved being at the racetrack so much that even when he was retired he spent time as keeneland\u2019s racetrack pony .\nrahy\u2019s attorney will go home with an overall record of 14 wins , 10 seconds , and 4 thirds from 41 starts for earnings of more than $ 2 . 2 million .\nunder regular rider emma - jayne wlson , rahy\u2019s attorney led through every step of the 1 1 / 2 - mile turf race before being overtaken by winchester in the final yards .\nbut the ontario - sired rahy\u2019s attorney showed dramatic improvement the following season when winning five races , including the restricted vice regent and bunty lawless , both over one mile of turf .\nwhen there was some heavy construction at woodbine , rahy ' s attorney never made a fuss about it . but he ' d watch the curious undertakings for hours , if he could .\nat 6 : 1st with approval s [ r ] , bunty lawless s [ r ] ; 2nd king edward s [ g2 ] , appleton s [ g3 ] , tropical turf h [ g3 ] , phta president ' s cup s .\nrahy\u2019s attorney went on to win the grade 2 king edward , the grade 2 nijinsky , and the bunty lawless here in 2009 and finished second in the sovereign award balloting for his division .\nit ' s the stall of rahy ' s attorney , and he has come home . the grooms on the shedrow are welcoming him back . he ' s the main attraction , the cock of the walk , the star of the barn . and he had been missed .\n. prince will i am , who defeated rahy\u2019s attorney by a half length in the feb . 19 mac diarmida ( gr . iit ) , settled for third this time in a tight finish .\nand what a fairy tale it was : when the maclellans bred their mare rahy ' s hope to locally - bred - and - owned stallion , crown attorney , they had no allusions of grandeur .\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nas a racehorse , rahy ' s attorney was an easy - going , curious sort .\nhe was never a run - off horse ,\nbowen said .\nhe was never hard to gallop .\nbut now now he ' s back , and he ' s happy and where he wants to be . when rahy ' s attorney left his stall last fall , it sat empty for weeks .\nit just didn ' t seem right to put somebody else in it , at first ,\nbowen said .\nbut hours after the race , rahy ' s attorney was cooling out as normal and everything seemed fine . yet , upon returning to his stall at woodbine racetrack , trainer ian black noticed swelling in the left front leg .\nas for rahy ' s attorney , once he recuperates , the plan is for him to return to the track to become a pony horse for his trainer , because , says maclellan ,\nhe loves the life .\nthe son of crown attorney is best known for his victory in the 2008 woodbine mile .\nat 7 : 1st pan american s [ g3 ] 2nd sword dancer inv . s ( g1 , 12ft ) , mac diarmida s [ g2 ]\nthe year 2008 will be remembered as rahy\u2019s attorney\u2019s finest as he won the grade 1 woodbine mile and the grade 3 connaught cup and wound up his campaign with a ninth - place finish , beaten just 3 3 / 4 lengths , in the grade 1 mile championship at japan\u2019s kyoto racecourse . he was canada\u2019s champion turf male that season and runner - up in the horse of the year balloting .\nthe day before a race , when others might get a little fired up , rahy ' s attorney would stand at trackside for an hour , watching . he ' d see loose horses barge past him . he wouldn ' t turn a hair .\nblack said rahy\u2019s attorney , who won two of his six starts this year , including the march 26 pan american ( gr . iiit ) at gulfstream park , would recover at ellie boje near ottowa , canada , after which he may become a track pony .\nrahy ' s attorney even has his own facebook page with more than 250 members . when news spread that he was injured , and his retirement announced , fans flooded the page with get - well wishes and heartfelt messages of appreciation for the horse as an athlete .\nhe was also known as the underdog that just would not quit .\nnothing bugs this horse , except for losing ,\nsaid jeff ( skippy ) bowen , the assistant trainer to his father - in - law ian black . if a horse ever managed to pass him late in the stretch , rahy ' s attorney would barrel along , and pass the horse after the wire .\ni ' m sure he thought he had won ,\nblack once said . rahy ' s attorney refused to allow horses to pass him .\n\u201capart from the woodbine mile , the sword dancer was one of the bravest , best races ( rahy ' s attorney ) had ever run , \u201d black said . \u201cit looked as though they were getting to him and going to pass him , but he just said , \u2018no . \u2019 that\u2019s the type of horse he is . \u201d\nblack and bowen always thought rahy ' s attorney would make a good stable pony . he had the right mentality . they do not know what he will do when he catches sight of the racetrack . for the next couple of weeks , he will be walked and ridden around woodbine ' s backstretch , but he won ' t see the oval .\nrahy\u2019s atttorney was bred by the husband and wife team of joe and ellen macclellan at their elle - boje farm in spencerville , ontario , about 50 miles south of ottawa .\nhe ' s a popular eight - year - old gelding , who has returned to woodbine just in time to celebrate the fourth anniversary of his upset win in the $ 1 - million woodbine mile . the 2012 race goes on sunday . a long shot , rahy ' s attorney showed his heels to a couple of the continent ' s best milers , kip deville and ventura , in the 2008 running of the race .\nlast year , rahy\u2019s attorney added more laurels , with wins here in the restricted with approval and bunty lawless and second - places finishes in gulfsteam\u2019s grade 3 appleton , the king edward , the ptha presidents cup in philadelphia , and the grade 3 tropical turf handicap at calder . again , he was the runner - up in the sovereign award turf male vote .\nsky sports news takes you through all of the day ' s racing news , plus alex hammond ' s tip of the day .\n\u201cthe vet decided to ultrasound it and there was a lesion in his digital tendon , \u201d said black . \u201cwith a young horse , if you give them time off , they\u2019ll probably come back . but as good as rahy\u2019s attorney has been to everybody , and the fact he\u2019s almost 8 , no one wanted to bring him back and have something worse happen to him . \u201d\nnobody knows how rahy ' s attorney will adapt to his new life . he ' s in the early stages of learning it . he will have to be broken to western tack , and he will have to learn that he can lead a horse to the track , but he can ' t go with him to work .\nyou have to take the racehorse out of him ,\nbowen saw .\nwhen i think of highcroft , the first thing that comes to mind is how much heart he had ( and of course my tattoo ) . when i think of rahy\u2019s attorney , the first thing to come to mind is the wonderful friendship that developed with his owners joe and ellen maclellan ( and family ) that continues long after his retirement .\n. those two opened up five lengths on the rest of the field while beckham bend was pressed by the winner through fractions of : 24 . 41 , : 48 . 12 , 1 : 12 . 12 , and 1 : 37 . 17 . around the final turn , rahy\u2019s attorney took the lead and then held off musketier down the stretch .\nthere was still more in store , however , as rahy\u2019s attorney found a new niche as a long - distance runner this season and won the grade 3 pan american over 1 1 / 2 miles at gulfstream and the 1 3 / 8 - mile prep for the singspiel here at woodbine before almost pulling off another grade 1 win in the sword dancer .\nlast august , rahy ' s attorney was forced into retirement after suffering an injury in the 1 1 / 2 mile sword dancer invitational at saratoga race course in saratoga springs , n . y . , giving up the lead in the final strides . best wishes flooded his facebook page . after all , he was the people ' s horse , the result of a small breeder ' s dream to have a horse just good enough to race at woodbine . he ' s the product of a $ 3 , 000 mating , but he won $ 2 . 2 - million in his career .\n\u201cfor now , he\u2019ll stay here until i see that he\u2019s okay , \u201d black said . \u201cthen he\u2019ll go to kinghaven and eventually to the maclellans\u2019s farm . \u201d\nhe ' s taken them to florida , kentucky and japan , and he ' s ranked in the top 10 all - time of horses produced in canada .\nhe ' d have this education already , except that while he was turned out last fall , he suffered a paddock accident and a hairline fracture of a hind leg . he had just nicely recovered from his other injury , a small tear on a tendon , but this one required three months of stall rest . rahy ' s attorney handled it , but he was bored .\nit\u2019s hard to pick just one horse , so i\u2019m going to give you two .\nwas bred in ontario by joe and ellen maclellan ' s ellie boje farms and was campaigned by that operation in partnership with joe ' s mother jean maclellan , mitch peters , and dean read .\nhe became the people ' s horse . he showed a lot of courage , grit and determination and he always ran his heart out ,\nsaid woodbine racetrack ' s announcer , dan loiselle .\nrahy ' s attorney ended his career with earnings of $ 2 , 120 , 208 , and was named the canadian male turf champion in 2008 . he also counts the 2008 connaught cup ( can - iii ) , and 2009 nijinsky ( can - iit ) and king edward handicap ( can - - iit ) among his victories . he set the 1 1 / 8 - mile woodbine course record in the king edward , running the distance in 1 : 44 . 73 .\ninglorious , winner of the la lorgnette , woodbine oaks , and the queen\u2019s plate in her three starts at the woodbine meeting , shipped out for saratoga on tuesday morning for her engagement in saturday\u2019s grade 1 alabama .\nwoodbine\u2019s annual thoroughbred handicapping challenge will be held on the weekend of aug . 27 - 28 in the trackside tent .\n\u201che\u2019s been a good horse at middle distances throughout his career , including a grade i win at woodbine ( woodbine mile in 2008 ) , \u201d black said . \u201che\u2019s seven years old and we thought we\u2019d try him in the longer races this season .\nwelcome to the globe and mail\u2019s comment community . this is a space where subscribers can engage with each other and globe staff .\nracing achievements and top 100 rankings include north american ( u . s . , canada and puerto rico ) thoroughbred races only .\n\u201cwhat i\u2019ll always associate him with is his complete and utter consistency and honesty , \u201d said black . \u201che\u2019s such a pleasure . \u201d\n\u201ci\u2019ve watched this horse run many times at woodbine and was very confident in him today , \u201d wilson said . \u201cone thing ian black told me that was really profound to me was he said \u2018rahy runs the entire stretch at woodbine . \u2019 that\u2019s a three - eighths - mile stretch . i knew the horses were going to have to do some running to get by us and they didn\u2019t . \u201d\n\u201cbut he\u2019s done so much for everybody involved . it was hard enough to see him vanned off in one piece . you\u2019d hate to see something really serious happen . \u201d\nrahys attorney ( can ) b . g , 2004 { 4 - r } dp = 4 - 0 - 11 - 1 - 0 ( 16 ) di = 1 . 46 cd = 0 . 44 - 41 starts , 14 wins , 10 places , 4 shows career earnings : $ 2 , 120 , 208\nthe black stable plans to see stakes action here this weekend with fifty proof slated for sunday\u2019s grade 2 , $ 250 , 000 sky classic over 1 1 / 4 miles of turf .\nit ' s a big loss to a little stable , but we ' ll keep trying , keep being interested . i can ' t imagine doing anything else ,\nsaid maclellan .\nwhat they got was a horse that ' s amassed more than $ 2 million in career earnings , holds the woodbine track record on turf and was voted champion turf horse in canada in 2008 .\nworried , jockey emma - jayne wilson jumped off and called for a horse ambulance as the maclellans , sitting in the grandstand , had their jubilation quickly tampered by worry for their horse ' s health .\nequibase company is the official supplier of racing information and statistics to america ' s best racing , breeders ' cup , daily racing form , ntra , the jockey club , tra , tvg and xpressbet .\nas for fondest memories of the horses away from the racetrack , for highcroft it\u2019s simple : he taught me that with hard work and dedication ( and a little luck ) that horses are truly amazing animals and can overcome almost anything .\nwelcome to the globe and mail\u2019s comment community . this is a space where subscribers can engage with each other and globe staff . non - subscribers can read and sort comments but will not be able to engage with them in any way . click here to subscribe .\nall entry fees will be returned as prize money , and the top three finishers , provided that they are current members of the national handicapping tour , will qualify for berths in next year\u2019s $ 2 million daily racing form / national thoroughbred racing association handicapping championship in las vegas .\npeople would always ask me , ' he ' s seven years old , when are you going to retire him ? ' i wanted a good indication . i always thought , ' he ' ll tell us , '\nrecalls maclellan .\nto be told in saratoga after finishing second in a grade 1 race is the perfect end to the walt disney story .\nother locals expected for the sky classic include windward islands , hailstone , and musketier ; the respective first - , third - , and fifth - place finishers in the nijinsky over 1 1 / 4 miles of turf here last time out ; kara\u2019s orientation , coming off a sharp win here in a first - level allowance race at 1 1 / 8 miles of turf ; and laureate conductor , who was claimed for $ 62 , 500 here june 12 and finished eighth when debuting for his new interests in the grade 3 dominion day over 1 1 / 4 miles of polytrack here july 1 .\nhighcroft ( devil boy ) was probably the first horse i ever had real emotions for . he was trained by al quanbeck and when he was a two year old , ran through three fences and into an iron gate , and to date had one of the worst leg injuries that i had to care for . when he finally made it back into training , we were in new orleans and they have schooling races there . mickey walls rode him and he won by six lengths . in his next start at the dueling grounds , with robbie albarado up , he won again . after that start , i got a tattoo of a baby devil so i would always remember him . his next start was at woodbine racetrack so it brought me home . his start was on halloween and he ran second to barb minshall\u2019s arachnaphobia .\nthe 7 - year - old gelding downed musketier and favored prince will i am .\nthe final time for 1 1 / 2 miles on the firm turf course was 2 : 25 . 85 .\n\u201che\u2019ll spend the spring at keeneland . i don\u2019t know whether we\u2019ll run him in that race at the end of the meet ( sycamore stakes ) , but there will be plenty of opportunities for him up north during the season ( woodbine ) . \u201d\nsent off as the third choice in a field of seven , the winner paid $ 12 . 60 , $ 4 . 80 , and $ 3 . the exacta ( 5 - 2 ) returned $ 39 . 20 . the trifecta ( 5 - 2 - 7 ) with even - money favorite prince will i am in third was worth $ 39 . 40 for $ 1 .\n, best known for his upset win in the 2008 woodbine mile ( can - it ) , has been retired from racing with a career record of 14 - 10 - 4 from 41 starts .\nthe gelding , who was pulled up and vanned off following a runner up effort in the aug . 13 sword dancer ( gr . it ) at saratoga , sustained a minor leg injury , but is expected to make a full recovery , according to trainer ian black .\n\u201cturning down the backside , ( jockey ) emma - jayne ( wilson ) said he took a funny step , so she pulled him up and called for the horse ambulance , \u201d said black . \u201che seemed to cool out fine , and the longer he walked , the better he seemed to get . \u201d\n\u201che would make a lovely pony , \u201d said black . \u201che loves to go out on the racetrack and stand and watch . even when he was training , he\u2019d stand there forever if you\u2019d let him before he galloped . so there is a possibility we could do something like that with him , because he does love the racetrack life . \u201d\nthe subject who is truly loyal to the chief magistrate will neither advise nor submit to arbitrary measures .\nthe shedrow in barn 15 is quiet on a sunny morning at woodbine racetrack , except for the gaggle of people surrounding one stall .\nhe is not returning to race . he ' ll be starting a new career as a pony for the stable , and his job will be to escort nervous two - year - olds to the track , and anyone else that needs a calming influence .\nhe likes the action of a racetrack . owners ellen and joe maclellan always knew he wouldn ' t be content to live his life out on a farm .\nfinally , young excaper earned his spot in the stall , having finished second in the breeders ' cup turf juvenile last fall . but on wednesday , excaper had to move out .\nhe was only renting it ,\nbowen said .\nit feels great to have him back ,\nbowen added .\nthe barn now feels complete .\nif you would like to write a letter to the editor , please forward it to letters @ urltoken . readers can also interact with the globe on facebook and twitter .\nwe aim to create a safe and valuable space for discussion and debate . that means :\ndue to technical reasons , we have temporarily removed commenting from our articles . we hope to have this fixed soon . thank you for your patience . if you are looking to give feedback on our new site , please send it along to feedback @ urltoken . if you want to write a letter to the editor , please forward to letters @ urltoken .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\n\u201cemma thought something was not right , \u201d said ian black , who has trained the 7 - year - old gelding throughout his career . \u201cbut he cooled out okay . \u201d\n\u201cwhen we got him out monday morning , he had a little filling in his left pastern , \u201d black said . \u201cwe decided to ultrasound it and found a lesion on his superficial digital tendon .\n\u201cif it was somebody a little younger , you could probably give him six months off and bring him back .\n\u201che\u2019ll get another life , either as a pony or a riding horse , \u201d black said .\ntrainer christophe clement has expressed an interest in returning to woodbine with grassy , who finished second behind musketier in the grade 3 singspiel here june 26 and was scratched from the sword dancer .\nsmart bid , who is based at fair hill in maryland with graham motion , also is a possibility .\nowned by the donver stable of donna and verne dubinsky and trained by josie carroll , inglorious will have her regular rider , luis contreras , in the irons , for the 1 1 / 4 - mile alabama . the dubinskys and carroll won the 2009 alabama with careless jewel , who was ridden by robert landry .\nadvance registration will be available daily , through aug . 26 , from 11 a . m . to 11 p . m . at the second - floor player services desk here at woodbine and through sue clark at ( 416 ) 675 - 3993 , ext . 2513 , or at sck @ urltoken until 4 p . m . aug . 26 .\nentries also will be taken at the contest venue from 10 a . m . to 1 p . m . aug . 27 .\ncontestants must ante up $ 330 , comprised of a $ 250 entry fee plus an $ 80 bankroll to cover 10 $ 2 win - place bets on each day of the contest , including three mandatory races . woodbine , saratoga , and monmouth will be the contest tracks , with fort erie added sunday . entries are limited to two per person .\nin his five - year career , the seven - year - old racehorse - bred and part - owned by joe and ellen maclellan of spencerville - captured the imagination of thousands of horse racing fans around the globe for his brilliance on the track and as living proof that great racehorses can come at any price tag .\nsteps after running a brave second place in the grade 1 sword dancer invitational at historic saratoga racecourse in saratoga springs , new york , against some of the best turf horses in north america , he took a bad step .\nwe know this is a sport of highs and lows , but they aren ' t supposed to be nano - seconds apart ,\nsaid joe maclellan of the moments after the race .\nit was pretty scary .\nan ultrasound showed a tear in his tendon , an injury that requires six months to heal .\nwe just wanted to make the cut . we wanted a horse that would be competitive enough to race at woodbine ,\nadmits maclellan .\nthere was real emotion from people we ' ve never even met before . i can ' t believe our little horse from spencerville had such a big impact on people ,\nsaid maclellan , clearly touched by all of the support .\nafter he was born , the maclellans sold part interest of the horse to his mother , jean , of westport , and his brother , jim , who lives in calgary ( the partnership also includes dean reade and mitch peters of calgary ) . races became a meeting place for the maclellans , who on some days would have dozens of family and friends in attendance .\nand for the maclellan family , they ' re going to keep breeding and racing horses . they currently have two racing at woodbine , a three - year - old at home , a weaning foal and two babies due next spring .\nchoose among a variety of subscription packages and stay up to date with convenient home delivery and our on the go digital e - edition .\n\u00a9 2018 brockville recorder . all rights reserved . a member of sun media community newspapers part of postmedia network .\n* current year statistics include all north american races and dubai world cup day . career statistics include results from all countries .\n* current year includes north american and dubai world cup day statistics ; all previous years include results from all countries .\nproprietary to and \u00a9 2018 equibase company llc . all rights reserved . the terms of use for this web site prohibit the use of any robot , spider , scraper or any other automated means to access the contents of this site . the terms of use also expressly prohibit the republication or dissemination of the contents of this screen without the prior written consent of equibase company llc .\nthey had decidedly different racing careers , but a similar impact on the man who watched them give their all .\nhi . my name is jeff \u201cskippy\u201d bowen . i work at woodbine racetrack as assistant trainer to ian black .\n) , who won the woodbine mile and was trained by ian black , my father - in - law . he was the first horse who really put us on the map and was the first stable star . he was a very honest horse and he could compete with the best in the world , including a trip to japan . he finished his career winning 10 stakes and $ 2 . 3 million , which is the most of any ontario - sired horse , ever .\n( c ) ontario horse racing 2015 . all rights reserved . may not be reproduced without permission .\nfor all the industry news and updates you need , join our mailing list .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nfollow the latest from the written press with the best gossip and speculation from the papers .\nsky has launched a pub finder for eager fans wanting to find a venue to watch sky sports .\nget a sports star to visit your old secondary school as part of our free schools initiative .\nretired after suffering a tendon injury on 8 / 13 / 11 ( as of 2014 he is an outrider mount at keeneland race course ) . ( close )"]}
{"id": 1398, "summary": [{"text": "doyen ( foaled 22 april 2000 ) is a retired thoroughbred racehorse , who was bred in ireland but trained in france , dubai and the united kingdom during a racing career which lasted from 2002 to 2005 .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he is best known for winning the 2004 king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "doyen ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["fighter and doyen of black horse racing broadcasting james maphiri celebrates his 70 th birthday today .\ndoyen vs . sporting i : doyen\u2019s pyrrhic victory at the cas ( 3 ) antoine wrote : la sentence est toujours t\u00e9l\u00e9chargeable \u00e0 l ' ad . . . [ more ]\ndoyen vs . sporting i : doyen\u2019s pyrrhic victory at the cas ( 3 ) elsa wrote : merci pour le commentaire de la sentence . mais cel . . . [ more ]\ngodolphin ' s king george winner doyen was confirmed as the top - rated european horse of 2004 and also picked up the middle distance and older male awards .\nracing and sports pride ourselves in being the information leaders for australian horse racing . the most visited horse racing website in the southern hemisphere ,\n, who is based at meath . it is sired by the stallion doyen out of the dam kenzie .\nhorse racing stats \u2013 runner and rider profiles for epsom oaks \u2013 . . .\nwith all its trials and tribulations , horse racing is still his first love .\nhorse ownership is a very expensive hobby unless you have money to throw away\u2026 .\nouija board has been named horse of the year at a top awards ceremony in london .\ndoyen had an outstanding 4 year old season finishing it as timeform\u2019s horse of the year with a rating of 132 and was assessed as having put up two of the best performances in europe over 11 / 2 miles .\nif your looking for free horse racing tips , news or general thoroughbred information , racing and sports can provide it , free , both for australian thoroughbred horse racing and the international stage .\ndick hern called nashwan\nthe best horse i ' ve ever trained\n. [ 3 ]\n\u201cthere\u2019s plenty of money to be made in horse racing\u201d . that gave me a good chuckle .\n\u201cthe great horse may have died but his influence is far from gone from our lives . \u201d\nlammerskraal stud received an outstanding breeder award as breeders of abashiri . the print media award went to doyen charles faull chiefly for his thoroughpedia project .\nformer kzn champion trainer duncan howells\u2019 four entries include last year\u2019s fifth - placed saratoga dancer as well as ten gun salute , who is a dark horse as he has reportedly been a different horse since gelding .\nmaphiri believes even share ownership syndicates established to attract black participants to the world of horse breeding and horse racing are a \u201ccover up\u201d meant to shield the industry from total scrutiny in terms of its transformation credentials .\nas godolphin racing manager simon crisford pointed out : ' sulamani ' s already a triple group 1 winner . doyen ' s never won a group 1 yet . there ' s no doubt that doyen was a bit rusty before the coronation cup and that he came on a lot for that run .\ndoyen was widely believed to have the class to win this race , a belief strengthened by his convincing win in the hardwicke stakes at ascot last month .\nthe year 2000 ushered forward a horse that had been named for the moment . godolphin ' s founder and driving force , h . h . sheikh mohammed , was convinced that dubai millennium would be a horse like no other .\nfor a horse trained in britain or ireland which had previously been held by mill reef . the record was broken by\nat the ceremony which was attended by sports minister richard caborn , bhb chairman martin broughton paid tribute to the horse .\nin our previous blogs on doyen\u2019s tpo deals we decided to focus only on specific deals , twente and sporting lisbon , or a specific country ( spain ) . however , nearly six months after the whole footballleaks project started , we can now provide a more comprehensive analysis of the tpo deals signed by doyen . though , it is still possible that other , yet unknown , deals would be revealed , i believe that few of doyen\u2019s tpo agreements are still hidden . thanks to footballleaks , we now know how doyen operates , we have a precise idea of its turnover , its return on investments and the pool of clubs with which it signed a tpo agreement . moreover , we have a good understanding of the contractual structure used by doyen in those deals . this blog will offer a brief synthesis and analysis of this data .\ndoyen gave an indication of his potential when he finished second to dalakhani in last year ' s prix niel before a respectable fourth to the same colt in the arc .\never since doyen ran away with the hardwicke stakes at royal ascot the godolphin horse has been near the top of the market for the great race . since the defection of the derby winner north light , the four - year - old has seldom been available at much better than even money .\nbreeders ' cup classic hero ghostzapper was named the best horse to have raced in the world during the last flat season .\nthere was a time when gingering a horse , in which a piece of ginger was inserted into a horses rectum to make it run faster use to be the method of choice of the unsavory elements of horse racing , as advances in drug technoligy have evolved the sophistication in performance enhancing substances has advanced also . the answer lies in more efficient drug detecting apparatus and methods to detect horse racing cheats , rather than ban horse racing that some clowns have suggested , which would result in huge unemployment .\nin 1975 , grundy was voted british horse of the year by the racegoers ' club , receiving 38 of the 40 votes .\ndoyen\u2019s tpo system also guarantees that in case a player is successful , a club will be forced to transfer him if a \u2018reasonable transfer offer\u2019 is made . the \u2018reasonable transfer offer\u2019 is defined as a minimum amount . if an offer matches or exceeds this amount , doyen can force the club into choosing either to sell the player or to buy back doyen\u2019s share for a price equivalent to doyen\u2019s share of the transfer proceeds if the player would have been transferred . this is a mechanism that ensures that clubs will not be able to keep an outstanding player and pay the minimum fee due at the end of his contract ( or the put option fee ) , rather than sell the player for a more substantial amount . as the clubs having recourse to doyen are , as it is argued in its own submissions to the french and belgian courts , unable to afford recruiting these players in the first place , they are more than unlikely to be able to buy back the share of the economic rights owned by doyen when their price has tripled or quadrupled . the alternative is simple : sell or go bankrupt . until now few clubs have chosen the latter option . the mechanism of the \u2018reasonable transfer offer\u2019 is in itself aimed at influencing the transfer policy of the clubs signing a tpo deal with doyen . they have their hands doubly tied : if the player fails to materialize as a star they will have to repay at least doyen\u2019s investment plus healthy interests ; if he does become a star they will lose him as soon as the right transfer offer comes . and doyen\u2019s tpo contracts ensure that the right transfer offer will come .\nreference point was voted 1987 british horse of the year by the racecourse association , attracting twelve of the twenty votes . [ 16 ]\n\u201clet\u2019s say you buy a horse with r100 000 . in addition to insurance costs , you have to feed it and pay the trainer\u2019s dues . three or four months down the line , the horse has failed to win a single race and the costs are building up .\nfinally , in 2015 doyen entered into a surprising deal with an unknown belgian club : seraing united ( or rfc seraing ) . the relatively small deal ( \u20ac300 . 000 ) concerns three of seraing\u2019s players . it is definitely an unusual investment for doyen with very little potential to extract substantial profit . one hypothesis is that this contract is used as a legal trojan horse to support doyen\u2019s legal challenge against fifa\u2019s tpo ban in front of belgian courts . indeed , doyen has hired ( for \u20ac200 . 000 in 2015 as indicated in the \u2018map of deals\u2019 ) star lawyer jean - louis dupont , who was jean - marc bosman\u2019s lawyer in the eponym case , to entertain complaints in front of the european commission and simultaneously the belgian courts against fifa\u2019s tpo ban . in that regard , it has successfully used the sanctions imposed by the urbsfa ( the belgium football federation ) and fifa against seraing to justify the jurisdiction of the belgian courts over the case ( see our blog on the latest ruling in this case ) . doyen\u2019s tpo investment in seraing has probably more to do with a smart legal stratagem than a long - term investment .\nwhat happened to . . . trempolino ? | sporting life - horse racing news | live racing results , racecards , live betting shows\n- gained his third victory over the course and distance of next weekend ' s big race . this horse just does not like getting beat .\nthen in 1997 roberts\u2019 agent told him at the races one saturday that south african trainer david ferraris had phoned and offered him a july ride on a horse called north by northwest . after the races roberts gathered this horse had won the gr 1 daily news and was the ruling july favourite .\nresults , king george vi and queen elizabeth diamond stakes : 1 . doyen ( frankie dettori ) 2 . hard buck ( gary stevens ) 3 . sulamani ( kerrin mcevoy ) 4 . gamut ( kieren fallon\nin 2013 khumalo became the first black jockey to win the durban july handicap , south africa\u2019s top horse race , on his steed heavy metal at the age of 28 . maphiri warns against taking khumalo\u2019s achievement as a testament to the strides that black participation has made in horse racing in south africa .\nyou must have disposable income to own a race horse and there are plenty blacks , indians and whites who simply can\u2019t afford it . there is nothing stopping an individual of any colour from buying a horse and putting it into training . as for there\u2019s money to be made \u2013 laughable . it\u2019s a hobby and be prepared to lose money on a horse , whether punting or owning . don\u2019t blame transformation on the lack of black owners , again laughable\nalmost all of our top horses are unbeaten and very often you will not find out how good a horse is until something gets to it .\nis a very striking individual . he is a dark bay horse with size and scope with lovely clean limbs and he is a correct straight mover .\nas the doyen of turf scribes , max presnell , recently lamented , australian racing has slid\nbeyond the crossroads into decline\n. the outcome of today ' s hearing will determine if the case is terminal .\ndoyen , the king george vi and queen elizabeth diamond stakes winner , earned a lowly mark of 127 , around 7lb behind the likes of sinndar and montjeu and almost a stone adrift of greats like dancing brave .\namerican contender hard buck couldn\u2019t match doyen\u2019s turn of foot , but he held off his rivals for the runner - up spot under gary stevens , who is perhaps better known in this country for his part in seabiscuit .\nthe sober assessment was underlined by the inclusion of only three british - trained horses - doyen , rakti and ouija board - in the top 20 of a new world league table which will be published regularly in future .\n\u00a320 , 000 ; doyen \u00a310 , 000 ; lomitas \u00a310 , 000 ; exceed and excel \u00a37 , 500 ; mark of esteem \u00a37 , 000 ; reset \u00a37 , 000 ; sulamani \u00a37 , 000 ; tobougg \u00a35 , 000 .\nsmart call\u2019s consolation was to be named equus champion older female and champion middle distance horse , while abashiri received a special achievement award for landing the sa triple crown .\ni didn ' t have to give him a smack - he was doing it all on his own . what a great horse he is . now we can really say he is one of the finest . in all the times i have won this race , i have never had a horse travel like he did today .\nnot all racing is\na rich person ' s hobby\n; there are plenty of horses , often on country tracks , owned and trained by people of low income . they might have one horse and it might just place now and then on a country track but they have a lot of fun enjoying their horse and dreaming .\ndoyen ' s reputation is based largely on the very fast time he put up in the hardwicke and the visual impression that race created , but dazzling times on fast ground are not the best indicators of a horse ' s ability . ' he reminds me of the good old days of swain and daylamia , ' said an excited frankie dettori ( is there any other sort of frankie ? ) after jumping off him at the royal meeting . perhaps he reminds punters of these previous king george winners too , but doyen is not yet the equal of either , and if there ' s any guide less reliable than the stopwatch , it ' s nostalgia .\nputting the win into perspective , doyen sounded a warning he will be the major force in group one races he contests for the remainder of the season . he is a top - grade performer , able to quicken off any variation of pace .\ngolden doyen came with a strong late run to notch a course and distance win in one of this race\u2019s qualifying heats . has been upped 3lb for that effort but the small rise in the weights shouldn\u2019t be an issue for this improving individual .\nplease keep me up to date with special offers and news from horse & hound and other brands operated by ti media limited via email . you can unsubscribe at any time .\nlast year\u2019s runner up marinaresco was the first horse to be drawn and his part - owner marsh shirtliff drew nine , a lot better than his draw of 17 last year .\nthe philippi trainer will run last year\u2019s horse chestnut winner captain america in the kuda matchem stakes at durbanville on october 9 . the six - year - old is the highest rated horse in the 1 400m grade 3 and was third in last season\u2019s j & b met after finishing fourth in the l\u2019ormarins queen\u2019s plate and beating futura in the green point .\nit was a relief when nightfall won , because i didn ' t really want the extra pressure of doyen being the one who brought up the 2 , 000 - it was pressure enough that he was hot favourite for the king george .\nlegal eagle received the horse of the year award , as well as champion older male and champion miler awards , due to his three gr 1 victories . these included two weight for age mile wins , in the l\u2019ormarin\u2019s queen\u2019s plate and the hf oppenheimer horse chestnut stakes , as well as a win in the gr 1 r4 million premier\u2019s champions challenge over 2000m .\nsouth african grooms association ( saga ) has developed a programme to transform the horse racing industry in south africa . any one who want to support , advice please e - mail :\nthey are still able to sell that banned horse offspring . . . ban its breeding range , every offspring sired or ( dam ) ed by that horse from ever racing . now there is a real penalty . make that whole racing genetic line useless ; worthless . ( any science on the doping of parents and whether it affects the genetic performance of the offspring ? )\ncoral fever won the jubilee off a merit rating of 89 and beat a horse who was 0 . 5kg under sufferance , so it was not difficult to punch holes in that form .\njustin snaith , not to be out - done , has entered nine horses including the smart filly bela - bela , byerley turk runner - up copper force and dark horse , black arthur .\ndisplayed on the site is the latest racing tips and horse racing news that feature prominently on the main home racing page . immediately upon arriving at the main racing page , users are greeted with our free daily racing preview of what we consider the best wagering prospect for the day . more written analysis discussing both australian and international horse racing can be found in the race previews area .\ndalakhani came with a great run to cut down his rivals in the straight , taking the lead from mubtaker in the final furlong to beat that horse by three - quarters of a length , with a below form high chaparral five lengths back in third and doyen fourth , with vinnie roe and black sam bellamy next . dalakhani was the third arc winner for his owner after akyida in 1982 and sinndar in 2000 and the first for his trainer and jockey christophe soumillon .\nthere\u2019s plenty of money to be made in horse racing . however , barriers such as high entry costs to the sport are making it difficult for ordinary black south africans to benefit , opines maphiri .\nconcern that doyen ' s name would look a little out of place on the king george roll of honour proved unfounded as the four - year - old put a stamp of total authority on the latest renewal to win by a convincing three lengths , albeit recording a moderate time .\n[ 1 ] this document is susceptible to being easily forged , as it is a simple excel sheet . therefore , i crosschecked the data included on the excel sheet with doyen\u2019s erpas published on footballleaks , which confirmed the likely veracity of the information provided in the map of deals .\nmost horses in work at any given time are geldings , so for the vast preponderance of owners , that would be a non - penalty . banning a horse from racing if it tests positive punishes those least likely to be complicit in doping , which is the owners . if you have ever had a horse in work , you would know that the trainer has more or less total control over what happens to the horse in the stable . it is a pretty basic principle of our justice system that you don ' t punish people who are not guilty of wrongdoing and who are unaware of it occurring .\nnot for the first time , leopardstown ' s irish champion stakes emerged as the race that could well serve up the highlight of the season as plans for doyen , a dazzling winner of saturday ' s king george vi and queen elizabeth diamond stakes at ascot , started to take shape .\ndettori said of doyen :\nhe was the one that was travelling the best and when i pulled him out , off he went . he was absolutely devastating . it was unbelievable . with the crowd screaming , i looked at the big screen to see how far ahead i was .\nreference point was given a timeform rating of 139 , the eleventh highest awarded to any horse up to that time , and higher than those of nijinsky , alleged and troy . [ 16 ] in their book a century of champions , john randall and tony morris rated reference point the thirty - sixth best british horse of the 20th century and the second best derby winner of the 1980s behind shergar . [ 5 ]\n\u201cthe sky is now the limit , \u201d said sheikh mohammed . \u201cwe will take him all over europe and america , which means the arc and the breeders\u2019 cup turf . he is a very special horse . \u201d\nsheikh mohammed ' s darley operation has announced its fees for the 2006 season , and will start newcomers dubawi at \u00a325 , 000 and doyen at \u00a310 , 000 at dalham hall stud near newmarket , england . shamardal , another newcomer , will stand for 40 , 000 euros at kildangan in ireland .\nhe recalled the big day , \u201cthe worst part was when i was in the parade ring . i saw this tiny little horse walking in . then i got on him and i couldn\u2019t believe how small he was . i thought to myself , oh no , how embarrassing , journeying all this way to ride this horse . i asked the groom if he liked him and he replied , \u2018no i like north by northwest , he is a very nice horse . \u2019 so my mood was down . but , then he went down to the start like an absolute bomb . i pulled him up at the 2400m mark and garth was alongside and i remember telling him how good the horse had felt . david had only given me one bit of advice , which was not to bring him through horses , so to try and bring him to the outside . \u201d\ngood read , thanks for the coverage on doyen . i ' m just wondering if they ( or other compnies ) are still active in player investment at all since the tpo ban ? e . g . are they attempting to make similar deals but restructuring contracts so that they comply with fifa rules ?\ntrainer justin snaith : he\u2019s beautifully weighted and is a 2200m plus horse . he missed the cape summer because of injury and off 53kg he is a huge runner . all my horses are well in at the weights .\npopularly known as \u201cjimmy bo - horse\u2019\u2019 in racing circles \u2013 a nickname he says he was given by radio dj\u2019s at metro fm \u2013 maphiri shares his own personal story and the encounter with parkinson\u2019s , with mbuyisi mgibisa .\nthis has been doyen\u2019s best season to date , and he has shown continual improvement , leading connections to indicate that he may well stay in training next season ( providing the breeding contingent of the godolphin operation can be kept at bay ) . he is likely to be aimed at the irish champion stakes next .\nthe sean tarry - trained avontuur thoroughbred farm stud - bred greys inn gelding legal eagle won the most anticipated equus award , horse of the year , at the glittering annual ceremony held at the emperor\u2019s palace on tuesday night .\ndoyen ( ire ) b . h , 2000 { 1 - s } dp = 8 - 2 - 22 - 11 - 1 ( 44 ) di = 0 . 91 cd = 0 . 11 - 14 starts , 5 wins , 2 places , 0 shows career earnings : $ 1 , 291 , 257\ndoyen , who did not enjoy the best of runs when second to warrsan in the coronation cup at epsom , has a favourite ' s chance in the hardwicke stakes . he is said to have come out of that race particularly well and can confirm epsom placings with high accolade , who was a close fourth .\nascot really did prove a happy hunting ground for godolphin this weekend \u2013 the newmarket - based operation pulled off an impressive victory in the midsummer showpiece , the king george vi and queen elizabeth diamond stakes on saturday , as doyen came dashing home under frankie dettori to beat the rest of the field by three lengths .\ntrainer justin snaith : have aimed him specifically for the july . he\u2019s the horse to beat . he\u2019s a huge runner off 54 . 5kg . horses run for grant van niekerk and he can ride him confidently . of the older horses he\u2019s the right horse . there are lots of big races in the winter season but really this is the race we all want to win and you have to sneak into the race off the best weight that you can .\nin 2014 and 2015 , doyen decided also to heavily invest in the south american market . it made a number of deals ( 11 ) involving mostly brazilian players ( from santos fc , sao paulo , atletico paranense and flamengo ) and also two columbians ( from deportivo estudiantil ) . those deals are for the most part still on - going . they are also probably riskier for doyen than the european deals because of the limited guarantees that south american clubs can provide . the leandro damiao case is there to remind us that those deals are in any case risky for the clubs . damiao was a great prospect when he was transferred for \u20ac15 million to santos in december 2013 . based on the map of deals doyen loaned \u20ac12 million to santos in return for 80 % of the economic rights attached to him . yet , after three years , damiao\u2019s contract was rescinded in december 2015 and he moved on a free transfer to betis seville , leaving santos with an \u20ac18 million debt to pay to doyen ( which was recently upheld by the brazilian justice ) . this is a good reminder that tpo , on whichever continent , is everything but risk - free for clubs . the sweet feeling of short - term cash might very well turn into the ( very ) sour taste of long - term debt .\nin 1987 , now riding full - time in britain , roberts bumped into prolific south african owner laurie jaffee at royal ascot . jaffee believed he would win the july that year with bush telegraph and offered roberts the ride as the horse\u2019s regular rider garth puller was going to battle to make the weight . however , roberts could never have considered abandoning the great horse mtoto . bush telegraph duly won the july , while roberts steered mtoto to two successive coral eclipse victories .\nsport homepage | football | cricket | rugby union | rugby league | tennis | golf | motorsport | boxing | athletics | snooker | horse racing | cycling | disability sport | olympics 2012 | sport relief | other sport . . .\nanother kzn gr 1 hopeful for the festival of speed might well be the filly great aim , who is trained out of the small yard of ivan moore , who has proved before he can get the best out of a good horse .\nadditionally , we also supply the best free tips for both metropolitan and country horse racing australia . the racing and sports news department places strong focus on the free content it provides and looks to provide the best and most informative thoroughbred information .\ngodolphin have clearly decided it is time to take the gloves off as they continue to enjoy one of the most successful seasons in their 10 - year existence . doyen , whose king george victory was his first group one success , is their new flagship middle - distance star - and they are ready to take on all - comers .\nplayer said he was also waiting on a decision from trainer aidan o ' brien on powerscourt , who finished third in saturday ' s irish champion stakes ( 2000m ) at leopardstown in which godolphin ' s favourite doyen was unplaced - although it is likely o ' brien is now looking towards the arc in paris next month rather than melbourne .\nin the observer ' s list of the\n10 greatest horse races of all time ,\nthe match between grundy and bustino in the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes at ascot racecourse on july 26 , 1975 was ranked number two .\nbass - robinson has two gr 1 - winning fillies among her four entries , nightingale and silver mountain , and the former makes more appeal over this trip . her expensively bought three - year - old horizon could also develop into a july horse .\nin this week\u2019s horse & hound magazine , out on thursday 15 june 2017 , don\u2019t miss our eventing report from bramham horse trials , plus read our features on how equine therapy is helping injured servicemen and also what to look forward to at the hickstead derby meeting . in this week\u2019s issue we talk to champion flat jockey jim crowley and olympic cyclist - turned - jockey victoria pendleton answers our q & a , plus check out our reports from dressage at wellington , showjumping from royal cornwall and much more .\nfootballleaks is now operating since nearly half a year and has already provided an incredible wealth of legal documents both on tpo ( and in particular doyen\u2019s contractual arrangements ) and on the operation of the transfer system in football ( mainly transfer agreements , player contracts and agents contracts ) . this constant stream of information is extremely valuable for academic research to get a better grip on the functioning of the transfer market . it is also extremely relevant for the shaping of public debates and political decisions on the regulation of this market . as pointed out on the footballleaks website , it has triggered a series of press investigations in major european news outlets . in this blog , i want to come to a closure on our reporting on doyen\u2019s tpo deals . in the past months , we have already dealt with the specific cases of fc twente and sporting lisbon , reviewed doyen\u2019s tpo deals with spanish clubs , as well as discussed the compatibility of the tpo ban with eu law . in the sporting lisbon case , doyen has since earned an important legal victory in front of the cas ( the ensuing award was just published by footballleaks ) . this victory should not be overstated , however , it was not unexpected due to the liberal understanding of the freedom of contract under swiss law . as such it does not support the necessity of tpo as an investment practice and does not threaten the legality ( especially under eu law ) of fifa\u2019s ban .\nit is not long odds that frankie dettori will start the day with a double courtesy of where with all ( 2 . 30 ) and doyen ( 3 . 05 ) . the two - year - olds in the chesham stakes are largely unknown quantities , but where with all looked a decent prospect when overcoming inexperience to win on his debut at haydock .\ntrainer joey ramsden : i was very happy with his last run . he ran a good race without hammering him . he\u2019s in good order . anton ( marcus ) thought about riding him but eventually stuck to the other horse ( edict of nantes ) .\nmr maphiri , why have you not bought horses ? you have been in a position to do so for many years . and with all your knowledge of the racing game and all the affluent people you have come into contact with why have you not formed black syndications ? as for lots of money to be made from horse racing i will add my own chuckle , i am a normal punter who loses his fair share of money punting , i would never ever consider owning a horse , i lose enough .\nthe general consensus of those who follow racing is that the small trainers get maximum penalties but the big trainers get off scott free because the industry can ' t get along without them . you might even say that all trainers are equal , but some are more equal than others . ( sound familiar ? ? ) . imo there is a way to stop it , but it ' s a bit radical . when these illegal substances are found - ban the horse for life . yes , the horse - not the trainer . that way the owners will lose large amounts of money and the trainer will have to answer to them , probably in court . on top of this fine the trainer and the ownership of the horse , and send the proceeds to animal welfare .\nsimon crisford , racing manager to godolphin , said :\nit was a magnificent win , and one that gives us every hope for the big races for the remainder of the season . he has come out of the race very well . doyen had done everything right leading up to the king george , and there was great confidence surrounding him going into the race .\ndoyen\u2019s business model is smart and has to be acknowledged as a cynical embrace of the intrinsic logic of fifa\u2019s transfer system . it plays on each club\u2019s natural drive for grandeur and the propensity of the clubs\u2019 management to throw caution to the wind to get there at least once . doyen\u2019s head , nelio lucas , is no criminal . there is no indication that he engages in match fixing or money laundering . he is a dead - set investor hunting for the grail : secure financial returns on investments . and he ( with many others [ 4 ] ) has found a way to play the transfer system to his advantage and to game irrational clubs and managers . this does not imply that this business model should go on , however .\nstatue of liberty [ ridden by kinane ] was beaten by a comparative outsider in the sussex stakes at goodwood . if that horse had won a group one , coolmore could have launched him as a commercial stallion , but without that status it ' s much harder .\n\u201cin the olden days , horse racing was the only game in town . today , there\u2019s a huge difference with the advent of tv and computers . people don\u2019t go to the races anymore . gone are the days when race courses used to be full to capacity . \u201d\ndeemed by many as unlucky to have missed out on a single equus award last year , legal eagle received south african racing\u2019s top accolade when voted equus horse of the year at a plush function hosted by the racing association at emperors palace in johannesburg on tuesday , august 16 .\nthere ' s very little to redeem it , aside from the public tax income perhaps . but i suppose it should be placed in context . most animals are exploited in some way . if i had to choose between six years as a racing horse or two weeks in the coles meat department , i know which life i ' d prefer . you can also draw parallels between horse racing and competitive sport . the main difference is that when we run our footballers into the ground and their knees give out , we don ' t sell them to the glue factory .\nthe bookies are predicting this year ' s race will come down to a duel between the crack french three - year - old dalakhani and the ultra - tough irish four - year - old high chaparral . the epsom derby victor , kris kin , with kieren fallon on board , leads the english challenge , with frankie dettori ' s french mount , doyen , as the joker in the pack .\nthe champion two - year - old male looked clear cut and duly went to another horse by captain al , the vaughan marshall - trained klawervlei stud - bred colt always in charge , who won the hotly contested gr 1 tsogo sun gold medallion over 1200m at scottsville by three lengths .\nif horse racing were banned it would result in a lot of unemployment , not a good idea , if you worked in the racing industry you would find there is less corruption there , than most other industries , it seems you made this post out of mistaken emotion rather than proper observation .\n( 3 f fast company \u2013 mean lae by johannesburg ) who was subsequently bought for \u00a31 , 300 , 000 by the china horse club at the goffs london sale , minding overcame severe trouble in running in the oaks ( gr 1 , 1m4f ) at epsom to secure a second classic victory .\ntimeform called dalakhani \u201cgenuine and consistent\u201d and said he was \u201ceffective on going ranging from heavy to good to firm\u201d . they said he \u201chad a telling turn of foot for a horse who stayed a mile and a half\u201d and was \u201cquite attractive , but rather finely made\u201d . he stands 16 . 1 hands .\n. this four - year - old colt not only won the english and irish derby in 2002 before finishing an excellent third in the arc after a badly interrupted preparation , he later stamped himself an outstanding middle - distance horse with a memorable american victory in the breeders ' cup turf at arlington park .\nhorse racing is not bigger than ever . it is smaller . horse racing has been totally eclipsed by sports betting as the preferred gambling medium of most punters , and as a general interest sport ( which it very much was , a couple of generations ago ) it is nowhere . the tv and media coverage that it gets is bought and paid for by the industry itself , which should give you an idea of the sport ' s popularity . can you imagine the afl or cricket australia actually paying newspapers and tv stations big money every year to cover their sports ? of course not . but racing does .\nracing victoria ltd ' s mark player said yesterday that elegant fashion was due to arrive in melbourne after a flight from hong kong on october 5 , with the german stablemates paolini and simonas . player said hayes had arranged for a horse from lindsay park to go into quarantine , with elegant fashion as a working companion .\nthe bay horse was rated 132 by timeform and he entered stud at the age of 4 in 1985 at coolmore as one of the most desirable stallion prospects in years owing to his fabulous pedigree - northern dancer was massive sensation at that time - and race record of winning 6 of his 11 starts in good company .\nsaeed bin suroor was champion trainer in the united kingdom for the fourth time in 2004 , a year in which godolphin captured 11 group one races . refuse to bend and sulamani netted a brace apiece , while papineau ' s victory in the gold cup at royal ascot was one of six successes for godolphin at the five - day extravaganza . doyen subsequently ran away with the king george vi & queen elizabeth stakes and received multiple awards for his achievements .\nit may be that doyen , far from being the best middle - distance racehorse in europe , isn ' t even the best in his own stable , as a not quite match - fit sulamani , who beat everything in the king george last year except the then - brilliant alamshar , put up a mathematically similar performance against high accolade and persian majesty when just failing to concede weight to bandari in the princess of wales ' s stakes at newmarket .\nsouth australian breeders have access to a superb racehorse and proven sire following the aga khan\u2019s decision to shuttle dalakhani ( ire ) to cornerstone stud in 2013 . it\u2019s an historic move by one of the world\u2019s major breeders , and those looking to breed a classic winner or cups horse will find this stallion ticks all the boxes .\nwarrsan\u2019s jockey darryl holland was adamant that the slow pace had hijacked the six - year - old\u2019s chances . \u201cit was a non - event for me , \u201d he said , after coming ninth . \u201cthey went no pace and my horse wants a proper end - to - end gallop . it was all very disappointing . \u201d\n\u201cto own a horse one has to apply for colours and the accompanying costs are just but one of the many barriers that black owners face when trying to enter the industry , \u201d he says . the thoroughbred breeders association has set up shared ownership syndicates to make it easier and less costly for new entrants to the game .\ntrainer dean kannemeyer : i\u2019m very happy with his 1900 performance . that\u2019s what made me think of supplementing him for the july . he is well weighted and is a tough , sound and consistent horse . i won this race two years ago with power king off a similar weight so i don\u2019t think that he\u2019s without a chance .\nthe result also provided trainer dermot weld and jockey pat smullen with their first win in the \u00a31 , 325 , 000 race , but the horse had to overcome a scare , when injuring a foot on the morning of the race , before getting the better of us army ranger ( galileo ) by a length and a half .\n\u201che has got to be the outstanding horse of his generation over all distances and all goings , \u201d the aga khan said after the three year - old\u2019s win in the arc . \u201ci have always said it is difficult to make comparisons between champions but dalakhani , such a beautiful mover , has a concentration of unusual talent . \u201d\nsadler ' s wells has certainly flown the flag for northern dancer ' s amazing influence and genetics . our equus 2011 award horse - of - the - year is igugu ( aus ) - and her sire who is also proving himself a force to be reckoned with is galileo who in turn is by sadler ' s wells .\nlegal eagle raced five times during the season and won three grade 1 races in imperious fashion \u2013 the l\u2019ormarins queen\u2019s plate , the hf oppenheimer horse chestnut stakes and the premier\u2019s champions challenge . his other two starts yielded seconds to smart call in the j & b met in january and an allowance plate in his first run of the season .\nphoenix reach had no success in europe as a four - year - old in 2004 , when his preparation was disrupted by a viral infection early in the year . his first appearance was delaye until june when he finished sixth to rakti in the prince of wales ' s stakes . after finishing sixth in the grand prix de saint - cloud he started a 33 / 1 outsider for the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes and finished tenth of the eleven runners behind doyen .\nhis nearest market rival al sahem received a rousing cheer when he drew pole position , but it is questionable whether this is a good draw these days . there have been a few slow run julys recently , so being handy has become preferable and a horse drawn in pole might have to be used up to a certain extent to hold position .\non sunday 5 october at longchamp . nonetheless , as the days roll by until europe ' s most prestigious autumn race , there also appears to be growing confidence behind the chief opposition to the powerful grey colt who will be attempting to give french champion jockey elect christophe soumillon his first victory in the great 2400m horse race at longchamp in paris .\nhorse racing is bigger than ever , only now it ' s watched and gambled on in pubs , clubs and the tab , or watched at home on foxtel and online . a few people still go to the races but not many . cheating and animal cruelty will always exist in the racing industry and while ever we tolerarte it it will continue .\nturfdonna won the 157th henkel - preis der diana \u2013 german oaks over 11 furlongs at dusseldorf , giving sunnyhill stud stallion doyen ( by sadler ' s wells ) a winner at the highest level . the andreas wohler - trained three - year - old was bred by gestut auenquelle , she is a half - sister to the stakes - placed turfflamme ( by lomitas ) and her dam turfaue ( by big shuffle ) is a full - sister to the group 1 premio lydia tesio heroine turfrose .\nthanks for your kind words . doyen is still active in football ( as an agent , image rights holder , or based on old tpo contracts from before the ban ) , but is apparently not engaging into new tpo deals ( besides seraing probably for the purpose of the legal challenge against fifa ' s ban ) . it is also possible that they moved into traditional investment into clubs ( or try to buy a club ) , but this is way more risky than tpo investment . . .\nas a sport - mad country , south africa\u2019s local gambling industry , including casinos and physical betting , is worth r20bn . according to a report by pwc , in 2011 horse racing accounted for 78 % of the total gross sports betting revenue in south africa , generating r1 . 7bn of the r2 . 2bn the entire sports betting industry earned that year .\njezki , meanwhile , may have lost some of the gloss he had over two miles before the injury he sustained in 2015 but he is still formidable . he outstayed hurricane fly to win the ladbrokes world hurdle at punchestown over today\u2019s trip two years ago . any horse capable of that deserves respect and he would be on the each - way short - list .\nthe site offers readers ' free horse racing tips , form and news items from australia and international race meetings . these free services can be accessed through our main racing page . form for nine different countries is available by clicking through to racing information where users have full race fields along with form and punting tools such as neural algorithms and customised worksheets at their disposal .\nfallon ' s instinctive genius makes him equally effective dictating the pace from the front or switching a horse off for a late run . spencer ' s artistry evokes comparisons with walter swinburn in his prime . not as tough on his mounts as fallon , which could be an advantage with some of aidan o ' brien ' s highly strung american - bred colts . advantage fallon , just\ncouldn ' t agree more . i learned over 50 years ago how crooked the horse racing industry was ( along with the trots and greyhounds ) . everything that has happened since has only confirmed those early learnings . crooked at all levels , with tacit approval from administration and government . there ' s simply too much money to be made - but only if you ' re in the know .\ntwenty minutes before preferment and awesome rock ( aus ) ( fastnet rock { aus } ) passed the post together in the australian cup , peeping ( aus ) ( redoute\u2019s choice { aus } ) had won the day\u2019s sydney feature , the g1 coolmore classic at rosehill . by comparison , her sire is a youngster : redoute\u2019s choice was aged only 15 when she was born . however , time passes , and redoute\u2019s choice ( now aged 19 ) has packed so much into his life that he can almost be viewed as the doyen of australia\u2019s sire ranks .\nin 2014 and 2015 , this iberian bias progressively faded . doyen entered in new deals only with granada ( luis martins ) , fc porto ( brahimi ) and cadiz fc ( multiplayers ) . as fifa announced its decision to ban tpo in september 2014 , this might have cooled off the interest of the most prominent spanish and portuguese clubs . it is also possible that since the eurozone crisis came to a slow end and the european central bank flooded the financial markets with cheap money , football clubs progressively recovered access to more traditional ( and less risky ) sources of credit .\nbred by sheikh mohammed , whose maroon - and - white colours he carried when trained by andre fabre , doyen was immediately transferred to godolphin at the end of last year . the irish champion stakes has been nominated by trainer dermot weld as the starting point this autumn for his irish derby winner grey swallow , so the long - awaited comparison of the generations could be completed in dublin on sept 11 , although there was encouragement for the three - year - olds when their sole representative , tycoon , came in sixth after meeting with interference in the straight in the king george ."]}
{"id": 1401, "summary": [{"text": "the fine-rayed pearly mussel or round combshell , epioblasma personata , is an extinct species of freshwater mussel in the family unionidae .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it was endemic to the drainages of the tennessee river and ohio river in the united states .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "little is known about the habitat of this species beyond its preference for medium-sized rivers .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it appears to have been particularly sensitive to water quality degradation , and its populations diminished quickly after industrialization .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "no live individuals have been seen since the 1924 . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "fine - rayed pearly mussel", "paragraphs": ["the fine - rayed pigtoe pearly mussel or fine - rayed pigtoe ( fusconaia cuneolus ) is a species of bivalve in the unionidae family .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1984 .\nfine - rayed pigtoe pearly mussel recovery plan .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service , atlanta .\nthe fine - rayed pearly mussel or round combshell , epioblasma personata , is an extinct species of freshwater mussel , an aquatic bivalve mollusk in the family unionidae , the river mussels . this species was endemic to the united states , its natural habitat rivers . it became extinct due to habitat loss ; not collected for more than a century , by 1983 it . . .\nfine - rayed pigtoe pearlymussel .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nfine - rayed pigtoe pearlymussel .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nmedium - sized shell , yellow - green to light brown with numerous fine green rays .\nthe fine - rayed pigtoe occupies shallow riffles and shoals of freshwater streams and rivers . it buries itself in the stream bottom in gravel or compacted sand but is rarely found in pools . it displays a higher tolerance for muddy bottoms than most other freshwater mussels .\nin the late twentieth century , this mussel was found at nearly 30 sites in the clinch river and its smaller tributaries between cedar bluff , virginia , and kelly branch , tennessee . since 1970 , the fine - rayed pigtoe has been collected from the elk and paint rock rivers , which are tributaries of the tennessee river above muscle shols , alabama . the mussel ' s former range and habitat suggests that additional populations may be located on other tributary streams of the tennessee river in tennessee and alabama .\na list of synonyms for this species can be found on the mussel project web site ( graf and cummings 2011 ) .\nendemic to the southern appalachian mountains , the fine - rayed pigtoe pearly mussel was first described in 1840 from the holston river , where it occurred in the river ' s north fork in washington county , virginia , downstream to grainger county , tennessee . it was subsequently documented in big moccasin creek in scott county , virginia ; the powell river from lee county , virginia , downstream to union county , tennessee ; clinch creek , emory river , and popular creek from clinchport , virginia , downstream to roane county , tennessee ; and in the clinch river from tazewell county , virginia , downstream to the norris reservoir in claiborne county , tennessee .\ncontact jay cordeiro ( jay _ cordeiro @ natureserve . org ) for a complete list of freshwater mussel taxa sorted by flow regime .\nthe fine - rayed pigtoe pearlymussel , fusconaia cuneolus , is of medium size , up to 2 . 5 in ( 6 . 4 cm ) in length . this cumberlandian species is distinguished by the many fine green rays that radiate over the yellowish green to light brown background of its ovoid shell . the hinged end of the shell is rounded , while the front margin is straight . the shell surface has a smooth , satiny appearance and is indistinctly patterned with growth lines . the inner shell surface is white .\ndennis , s . d . 1981 .\nmussel fauna of the powell river , tennessee and virginia .\nsterkiana 71 : 1 - 7 .\nconstruction of dams and multi - purpose reservoirs across the former range of the fine - rayed pigtoe have altered the free - flowing character of these rivers . such impoundments produce siltation , fluctuating water temperatures , changes in water acidity , and lowered oxygen content . impoundments also fragment the range of the species into isolated populations , which are then unable to interbreed .\nfrench , john r . p . , iii . november , 1990 .\nthe exotic zebra mussel : a new threat to endangered freshwater mussels .\nendangered species technical bulletin 15 ( 11 ) .\nin the early twentieth century it was discovered in the tennessee river and its smaller tributaries at and below knoxville . it is believed that the mussel has been extirpated from former locations in the little and sequatchie rivers .\nstrayer , d . 1983 . the effects of surface geology and stream size on freshwater mussel ( bivalvia , unionidae ) distribution in southeastern michigan , u . s . a . freshwater biology 13 : 253 - 264 .\ncampbell et al . ( 2005 ) found this species to be closely related to fusconaia cor , but held it up as distinct . a list of synonyms for this species can be found on the mussel project web site ( graf and cummings 2011 ) .\nthis species is sensitive to changes in water quality and has declined due to impoundments , siltation , and pollution . the remnant population in the powell river may be threatened by oil and gas drilling and coal mining ( neves 1991 ) . the clinch river population was reduced by toxic discharges and spills prior to 1972 . the invasion of the asian clam , and the possible invasion of the zebra mussel , also threaten remaining populations . reasons for decline listed in the recovery plan include : impoundment , siltation , and pollution ( usfws 1984 ) .\nbased on the separation distances outlined herein , for freshwater mussels in standing water ( or backwater areas of flowing water such as oxbows and sloughs ) , all standing water bodies with either ( 1 ) greater than 2 km linear distance of unsuitable habitat between ( i . e . lotic connections ) , or ( 2 ) more than 10 km of apparently unoccupied though suitable habitat ( including lentic shoreline , linear distance across water bodies , and lentic water bodies with proper lotic connections ) , are considered separate element occurrences . only the largest standing water bodies ( with 20 km linear shoreline or greater ) may have greater than one element occurrence within each . multiple collection or observation locations in one lake , for example , would only constitute multiple occurrences in the largest lakes , and only then if there was some likelihood that unsurveyed areas between collections did not contain the element . for freshwater mussels in flowing water conditions , occurrences are separated by a distance of more than 2 stream km of unsuitable habitat , or a distance of more than 10 stream km of apparently unoccupied though suitable habitat . standing water between occurrences is considered suitable habitat when calculating separation distance for flowing water mussel species unless dispersal barriers ( see separation barriers ) are in place . several mussel species in north america occur in both standing and flowing water ( see specs notes ) . calculation of separation distance and determination of separation barriers for these taxa should take into account the environment in which the element was collected . juvenile mussels do not follow this pattern and juveniles are typically missed by most standard sampling methods ( hastie and cosgrove , 2002 ; neves and widlak , 1987 ) , therefore juvenile movement is not considered when calculating separation distance .\nhistorically , this species was widespread in tributaries of the tennessee river system in tennessee ( above the mussel shoals area ) , virginia , and alabama including the tennessee , flint , paint rock , elk , nolichucky , clinch , emory , powell , holston , north fork holston rivers ; big moccasin creek ( virginia ) , poplar creek ( tennessee ) , bear creek ( alabama ) , limestone creek ( alabama ) , hurricane creek ( alabama ) , and little river ( tennessee ) ( usfws 1984 ) . it currently persists in portions of the clinch and powell rivers , the north fork of the holston , and in the paint rock river . the largest population resides in the clinch river , but it is reproductively isolated from the powell river population ( neves 1991 ) . it has been extirpated from tennessee river proper with a population extant in paint rock river in alabama ( mirarchi et al . 2004 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , p . m . mikkelsen , r . j . neves , c . f . e . roper , g . rosenberg , b . roth , a . scheltema , f . g . thompson , m . vecchione , and j . d . williams . 1998 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks . 2nd edition . american fisheries society special publication 26 , bethesda , maryland : 526 pp .\nthis species was historically placed in the genera dysnomia and plagiola ( johnson , 1978 ) .\nthis species is globally extinct . it was recorded historically from the clinch river in the headwaters of the tennessee river system , the white river ( wabash tributary ) , and in the lowe wabash river at posey co . , indiana , as well as the ohio river in cincinnati .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nthis species is globally extinct . it is recorded historically from the clinch river in the headwaters of the tennessee river system , the white river ( wabash tributary ) , and in the lower wabash river at posey co . , indiana , as well as the ohio river in cincinnati ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . in tennessee , it is known historically from the clinch river and from the cumberland river near priestly shoals , davidson co . ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . in alabama , it was historically distributed throughout the tennessee river but has not been reported since the river was impounded ( mirarchi , 2004 ) . in kentucky , it formerly occurred in the green and ohio rivers ( cicerello and schuster , 2003 ) . in illinois , it was formerly distributed in the wabash river ( cummings and mayer , 1997 ) . in ohio , it foremerly occurred in the ohio river in cincinatti ( watters , 1995 ) .\nall alabama museum records were collected at muscle shoals but it probably ranged across northern alabama with the most recent material from 1924 ( williams et al . , 2008 ) . in ohio , it historically occurred from the ohio river at cincinnati and scioto river at columbus ( watters et al . , 2009 ) .\nthis species has not been collected since before the 20th century ( iucn , 1996 ) .\nthis species has not been collected since before the 20th century ( iucn , 1996 ) . it historically occurred inthe ohio , tennessee , cumberland , and wabah rivers ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . in teh cumberland river it ranged upstream to near the mouth of the stones river ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . it occurred in most of the tennessee river drainage , from headwaters in eastern tennessee to the mouth of the tennessee river but a paucity of museum material suggests it was rare ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . all alabama museum records were collected at muscle shoals but it probably ranged across northern alabama with the most recent material from 1924 ( williams et al . , 2008 ) .\n( zero ( no occurrences believed extant ) ) this species is globally extinct . it is recorded historically from the clinch river in the headwaters of the tennessee river system , the white river ( wabash tributary ) , and in the lower wabash river at posey co . , indiana , as well as the ohio river in cincinnati ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . in tennessee , it is known historically from the clinch river and from the cumberland river near priestly shoals , davidson co . ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . in alabama , it was historically distributed throughout the tennessee river but has not been reported since the river was impounded ( mirarchi , 2004 ) . in kentucky , it formerly occurred in the green and ohio rivers ( cicerello and schuster , 2003 ) . in illinois , it was formerly distributed in the wabash river ( cummings and mayer , 1997 ) . in ohio , it foremerly occurred in the ohio river in cincinatti ( watters , 1995 ) .\nlittle is known about the former habitat of this species except that it was riverine .\noccurrences are based on some evidence of historical or current presence of single or multiple specimens , including live specimens or recently dead shells ( i . e . , soft tissue still attached and / or nacre still glossy and iridescent without signs of external weathering or staining ) , at a given location with potentially recurring existence . weathered shells constitute a historic occurrence . evidence is derived from reliable published observation or collection data ; unpublished , though documented ( i . e . government or agency reports , web sites , etc . ) observation or collection data ; or museum specimen information .\nseparation barriers within standing water bodies are based solely on separation distance ( see separation distance - suitable , below ) . separation barriers between standing water bodies and within flowing water systems include lack of lotic connections , natural barriers such as upland habitat , absence of appropriate species specific fish hosts , water depth greater than 10 meters ( cvancara , 1972 ; moyle and bacon , 1969 ) or anthropogenic barriers to water flow such as dams or other impoundments and high waterfalls .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nburch , j . b . 1975a . freshwater unionacean clams ( mollusca : pelecypoda ) of north america . malacological publications : hamburg , michigan . 204 pp .\nhoward , a . d . 1915 . some exceptional cases of breeding among the unionidae . the nautilus 29 : 4 - 11 .\njohnson , r . i . 1978 . systematics and zoogeography of plagiola ( = dysnomia = epioblasma ) , an almost extinct genus of freshwater mussels ( bivalvia : unionidae ) from middle north america . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology , 148 ( 6 ) : 239 - 320 .\nlefevre , g . and w . t . curtis . 1912 . studies on the reproduction and artificial propogation of fresh - water mussels . bulletin of the bureau of fisheries 30 : 102 - 201 .\nmirarchi , r . e . , et al . 2004a . alabama wildlife . volume one : a checklist of vertebrates and selected invertebrates : aquatic mollusks , fishes , amphibians , reptiles , birds , and mammals . university of alabama press : tuscaloosa , alabama . 209 pp .\nmoyle , p . and j . bacon . 1969 . distribution and abundance of molluscs in a fresh water environment . journal of the minnesota academy of science 35 ( 2 / 3 ) : 82 - 85 .\nstrayer , d . l . 1999a . use of flow refuges by unionid mussels in rivers . journal of the north american benthological society 18 ( 4 ) : 468 - 476 .\nstrayer , d . l . and j . ralley . 1993 . microhabitat use by an assemblage of stream - dwelling unionaceans ( bivalvia ) including two rare species of alasmidonta . journal of the north american benthological society 12 ( 3 ) : 247 - 258 .\nvan der schalie , h . 1938a . the naiad fauna of the huron river in southeastern michigan . miscellaneous publication of the museum of zoology , university of michigan 40 : 7 - 78 .\nwatters , g . t . 1992a . unionids , fishes , and the species - area curve . journal of biogeography 19 : 481 - 490 .\nwilliams , j . d . , a . e . bogan , and j . t garner . 2008 . freshwater mussels of alabama & the mobile basin in georgia , mississippi , & tennessee . university of alabama press , tuscaloosa , alabama . 908 pages .\nwilliams , j . d . , m . l . warren , jr . , k . s . cummings , j . l . harris , and r . j . neves . 1993b . conservation status of freshwater mussels of the united states and canada . fisheries 18 ( 9 ) : 6 - 22 .\ncicerello , r . r . and g . a . schuster . 2003 . a guide to the freshwater mussels of kentucky . kentucky state nature preserves commission scientific and technical series 7 : 1 - 62 .\ncummings , k . s . and c . a . mayer . 1997 . distributional checklist and status of illinois freshwater mussels ( mollusca : unionacea ) . pages 129 - 145 in : k . s . cummings , a . c . buchanan , c . a . mayer , and t . j . naimo ( eds . ) conservation and management of freshwater mussels ii : initiatives for the future . proceedings of a umrcc symposium , october 1995 , st . louis , missouri . upper mississippi river conservation committee , rock island , illinois .\nparmalee , p . w . and a . e . bogan . 1998 . the freshwater mussels of tennessee . university of tennessee press : knoxville , tennessee . 328 pp .\nwatters , g . t . 1995a . a field guide to the freshwater mussels of ohio . revised 3rd edition . ohio department of natural resources , division of wildlife , columbus , ohio . 122 pp .\nwatters , g . t . , m . a . hoggarth , and d . h . stansbery . 2009b . the freshwater mussels of ohio . ohio state university press : columbus , ohio . 421 pp .\nwilliams , j . d . , a . e . bogan , and j . t . garner . 2008 . freshwater mussels of alabama & the mobile basin in georgia , mississippi & tennessee . university of alabama press : tuscaloosa , alabama . 908 pp .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nbogan , a . e . , dyer , e . , soulsby , a . - m . , whitton , f . , mcguinness , s . , de silva , r . , milligan , h . t . , kasthala , g . , herdson , r . , thorley , j . , mcmillan , k . & collins , a .\nhas been assessed as extinct . it was recorded historically from the clinch river in the headwaters of the tennessee river system , the white river ( wabash tributary ) , and in the low wabash river at posey co . , indiana , as well as the ohio river in cincinnati . this species is known from shells only , no live individuals have been observed .\nthis species is globally extinct . it is recorded historically from the clinch river in the headwaters of the tennessee river system , the white river ( wabash tributary ) , and in the lower wabash river at posey co . , indiana , as well as the ohio river in cincinnati ( parmalee and bogan 1998 ) . in tennessee , it is known historically from the clinch river and from the cumberland river near priestly shoals , davidson co . ( parmalee and bogan 1998 ) . in alabama , it was historically distributed throughout the tennessee river , but has not been reported since the river was impounded ( mirarchi 2004 , williams\n. 2008 ) . in kentucky , it formerly occurred in the green and ohio rivers ( cicerello and schuster 2003 ) . in indiana , it was formerly distributed in the wabash river ( cummings and mayer 1997 ) . in ohio , it formerly occurred in the ohio river in cincinatti ( watters 1995 ) .\nthis species has not been collected since the early 20th century ( iucn 1996 ) . it historically occurred in the ohio , tennessee , cumberland , and wabah rivers ( parmalee and bogan 1998 ) . in the cumberland river , it ranged upstream to near the mouth of the stones river ( parmalee and bogan 1998 ) . it occurred in most of the tennessee river drainage , from headwaters in eastern tennessee to the mouth of the tennessee river , but a paucity of museum material suggests it was rare ( parmalee and bogan 1998 ) . all alabama museum records were collected at muscle shoals , but it probably ranged across northern alabama with the most recent material from 1924 ( williams et al . 2008 ) .\nthis species presumably occurred in shoal habitat , primarily in large rivers ( parmalee and bogan 1998 ) .\nthis species presumably became extinct due to habitat loss and degradation ( a . bogan pers . comm . 2010 ) .\nwilliams et al . ( in press ) lists this species as extinct according to the afs assessment .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nendangered b2ab ( i , ii , iii , iv ) ver 3 . 1\nrichman , n . , dyer , e . , soulsby , a . - m . , whitton , f . , kasthala , g . , mcguinness , s . , de silva , r . , milligan , ht , herdson , r . , thorley , j . , mcmillan , k . , collins , a . , offord , s . & duncan , c .\njustification : fusconaia cuneolus has been assessed as endangered under criterion b2ab ( i , ii , iii , iv ) . the species currently only occurs in four remaining fragmented locations , with an estimated area of occupancy of no more than 500 km 2 . because of its sensitivity to changes in water quality , the species has and continues to decline , in terms of reductions in area of occupancy , extent of occurrence , quality of habitat and number of sub - populations , due to river impoundments , siltation , and pollution . it is likely that this species will qualify for critically endangered a2ac once sufficient population information is established .\nthis species occurs in shoal habitats of creeks and rivers . historical distribution data suggest that it occurred in smaller streams than many other species of the genus . it prefers stable gravel substrates in moderate current ( williams\n. 2008 ) , and was recorded as inhabiting clear , high gradient streams in firm cobble and gravel substrates ( neves and moyer 1988 ) .\nbruenderman and neves ( 1993 ) detailed the life history of the species in the clinch river , southwestern virginia . it is a short - term brooder , apparently spawning in early may , with females gravid from mid - may through early august . developing embryos are bound in conglutinates and change color from pink to orange to light peach as they mature . however , mature glochidia are discharged in a loose , gelatinous matrix instead of well - defined conglutinates . fecundity was assessed in one gravid female , which contained approximately 113 , 000 embryos . glochidia were recovered from stream drift as early as late may and as late as mid - august . ortmann ( 1921 ) reported a similar gravid period for the species , from mid - may through mid - july ( williams\n( tennessee shiner , cyprinidae ; bruenderman and neves 1993 ) . additional species found to serve as glochidial hosts in laboratory trials are\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nif you believe that any material in vtechworks should be removed , please see our policy and procedure for requesting that material be amended or removed . all takedown requests will be promptly acknowledged and investigated .\nthis species is a short - term breeder , reproducing in the spring ( tachytictic ) . for more about the reproduction and diet of freshwater mussels , see the upland combshell ( epioblasma metastriata ) entry .\nalthough this species was thought to have disappeared from its original collection site in the holston river , four freshly dead specimens were collected along the river in 1982 at cloud ford , tennessee . industrial and chemical pollution from upstream at saltville , virginia , has severely degraded the water quality there . live specimens have yet to be found but may indeed exist . recent surveys in other upper tennessee river tributaries , such as the nolichucky , french broad , flint , and buffalo rivers , failed to locate specimens .\nfrom 1975 to 1981 , surveys of the powell river located populations at buchanan ford and mc - dowell shoal in tennessee , and at fletcher ford in virginia . water quality in this river has also deteriorated significantly due to strip mining , coal - washing runoff , and discharge of municipal wastes .\nincreased stream turbidity , caused by soil erosion and industrial runoff , reduces light penetration , which affects the growth of aquatic vegetation and decreases the population of fish hosts . suspended solids can be fatal to mussels . dead and dying mussels are often found with silt clogging their gills . mussels are very susceptible to agricultural and industrial pollutants , particularly heavy metals , which become concentrated in their tissues .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service regional office , division of endangered species 1875 century blvd . , suite 200 atlanta , georgia 30345 urltoken\nu . s . fish and wildlife service regional office , division of endangered species 300 westgate center dr . hadley , massachusetts 01035 - 9589 telephone : ( 413 ) 253 - 8200 fax : ( 413 ) 253 - 8308 urltoken\nbogan , a . e . , and p . w . parmalee . 1983 . tennessee ' s rare wildlife : the mollusks . tennessee wildlife resources agency , tennessee department of conservation , and tennessee natural heritage program , university of tennessee press , knoxville .\ncarter , l . j . 1977 .\nchemical plants leave unexpected legacy in two virginia rivers .\nscience 198 : 1015 - 1020 .\nimlay , m . j . 1982 .\nuse of shells of freshwater mussels in monitoring heavy metals and environmental stresses : a review .\nmalacology review 15 : 1 - 14 .\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 1402, "summary": [{"text": "aiptasia diaphana , the yellow aiptasia or glasrose , is a species of sea anemone native to shallow waters in the temperate eastern atlantic ocean and the mediterranean sea .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it has been introduced into the red sea . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "aiptasia diaphana", "paragraphs": ["sexual plasticity and self - fertilization in the sea anemone aiptasia diaphana . - pubmed - ncbi\ndevelopment of self - fertilized gametes of the anemone aiptasia diaphana ( scale bars = 10 \u00b5m ) .\ntrioecy , a unique breeding strategy in the sea anemone aiptasia diaphana and its association with sex steroids .\nred sea aiptasia - x - guaranteed , reef - safe elimination of aiptasia .\ntrioecy , a unique breeding strategy in the sea anemone aiptasia diaphana and its association with sex steroids . - pubmed - ncbi\nberghia the natural solution berghia nudibranchs are the natural solution for aiptasia anemones . they eat solely aiptasia .\nfield populations of aiptasia diaphana forming a dense \u201ccarpet\u201d on anchor rigs of an abandoned net pen fish farm 1 . 8 km offshore .\nfrequency of oocytes atresia among hermaphrodites and females in a . diaphana age - groups .\nberghia devouring an aiptasia these berghia nudibranchs have overpowered an aiptasia anemone as they consume it from the bottom up .\n7 . the method of claim 1 , wherein said at least one stinging capsule is from a nematostella vectensis , rhopilema nomadica and aiptasia diaphana .\n16 . the method of claim 9 , wherein said at least one stinging capsule is from a nematostella vectensis , rhopilema nomadica and aiptasia diaphana .\n22 . the method of claim 17 , wherein said at least one stinging capsule is from a nematostella vectensis , rhopilema nomadica and aiptasia diaphana .\nfor information on sea anemone predators , and the chemical and physical methods of aiptasia removal and control , see : aiptasia pests - getting rid of glass anemones .\nthey can be preyed upon by peppermint shrimp , most butterflyfsh and aiptasia eating nudibranchs .\nbig & small berghia eating aiptasia berghia nudibranchs will sometimes gang up on an aiptasia anemone to eat it . pictured are 1 / 8\nto 1 / 2\nberghia .\n1 / 4\nberghia eating an aiptasia this 1 / 4\nberghia nudibranch is eating a good sized aiptasia anemone . berghia can consume an entire anemone in an hour .\nthere are 17 species in the aiptasia genus . the species that are well known are the\nthe will thrive in bright light , but even under poor lighting aiptasia anemones will survive .\nall species of the aiptasia genus are easy to care for . aiptasia anemones , though very small , have proven quite hardy and durable . they have the ability to reproduce rapidly in saltwater aquariums where there are plenty of nutrients and good lighting . aiptasia can reach plague proportions in captivity . some aquarists use aiptasia in their refugiums to take out nutrients from the water .\n( of adamsia diaphana ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\neat only one thing : the dreaded aiptasia anemone . because they will only eat aiptasia , they are guaranteed 100 % reef safe ! you can learn more about the berghia nudibranch from our\ngenus is a member of the aiptasiidae family and currently contains 12 species . general common names all the various aiptasia anemones are known by are aiptasia , glassrose anemone , rock anemone , devil ' s plague , aiptasia anemone , pest anemone , and sometimes by this misspelling , aptasia .\nberghia eating berghia nudibranchs frequently form a\ndog pile\naround larger aiptasia when they eat .\ncitation : schlesinger a , kramarsky - winter e , rosenfeld h , armoza - zvoloni r , loya y ( 2010 ) sexual plasticity and self - fertilization in the sea anemone aiptasia diaphana . plos one 5 ( 7 ) : e11874 . urltoken\naiptaisa means beautiful , and they can be . . . but they can be also reek havoc on reef tanks ! meet the aiptasia sea anemone species and discover the pros and cons of aiptasia in captivity\nany - they will thrive in bright light , but even under poor lighting aiptasia anemones will survive .\nyour source for hungry aiptasia anemone eating berghia nudibranchs , saltwater fish , and live corals for sale .\n( of actinia diaphana rapp , 1829 ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of aiptasiomorpha diaphana ( rapp , 1829 ) ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cribrina diaphana ( rapp , 1829 ) ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nan unusual mechanism of sex differentiation was observed to occur in the populations of asexually produced sea anemone a . diaphana , giving rise to males , females , and hermaphrodites . the ontogenetic patterns were associated with sex steroid profiles , revealing an original sexual system in a . diaphana pedal lacerates , the first to be reported in the phylum cnidaria .\nthere are various ways to reduce and control aiptasia populations . sea anemone predators provides a natural , biological method of controlling and possibly eliminating aiptasia anemones . one of the best known methods is using nudibranchs to eat glass anemones . of all the sea anemone predators , the nudibranch berghia verrucicornis is a great choice because it only feeds on aiptasia .\ntwo berghia nudibranchs berghia nudibranchs are captivating creatures . these two berghia can consume a large aiptasia anemone in an hour .\nusing aiptasia in refugiums to take out nutrients can be effective , yet it can also be risky if any parts of an aiptasia migrates to the main tank . in a refugium , use screening to prevent free floating aiptasia from migrating to your main tank . be sure to have all of your pumps covered . most good quality pumps have guards on them .\nusing aiptasia in refugiums to take out nutrients can be effective , yet it can also be risky if any parts of an aiptasia migrates to the main tank through the filtration . in a refugium use screening to prevent free floating aiptasia from migrating to your main tank . be sure to have all of your pumps covered . most good quality pumps have guards on them .\nthis berghia nudibranch appears to be looking at the camera , but it is actually trolling for an aiptasia anemone to eat .\nto reduce and control pesky aiptasia in your saltwater aquarium , biological approaches such as fish that eat aiptasia or crabs , shrimps , nudibranchs to eat glass anemones , and more can be used . also various manufactured chemicals and household products can be used .\nregular and time consuming manual removal is often required so that an aquarium is not overrun by dense populations of aiptasia . there are various ways to reduce and control aiptasia populations . sea anemone predators provides a natural , biological method of controlling and possibly eliminating aiptasia anemones . other methods include chemical removal and the more risky method of physical removal . there are important considerations when using either of these two methods .\nregular and time consuming manual removal is often required so that an aquarium is not overrun by dense populations of aiptasia . other methods of aiptasia control include chemical removal and the more risky method of physical removal . there are important considerations when using either of these two methods .\ni would like to purchase a quantity of aiptasia for my berghia nudibranch . if you have some available , please respond . bobtc100 @ urltoken\nthey generally eat zooplankton , but will always accept other food particles . predators include peppermint shrimp , most butterflyfsh , and aiptasia eating nudibranchs .\ncommon names aiptasia anemones are known by in general include glassrose anemone , glass anemone , pale anemone , rock anemone , trumpet anemone , brown glass anemone , small rock anemone , yellow anemone , tube anemone , aiptasia anemone , devil ' s plague , pest anemone , and aptasia .\npropagating aiptasia anemones is fairly easy , just feed it and it will multiply . anemones in general can multiply by sexual and asexual means . aiptasia will multiply asexually by fission , which is where a tiny bit of tissue detached from the foot quickly develops into a new and complete anemone .\nthe eye of the berghia you can actually see the tiny black eyes of this berghia nudibranch . berghia nudibranch only has eyes for aiptasia anemones .\non the other hand , being easy to grow in the laboratory , makes aiptasia specimens ideal in the scientific world . the aiptasia species are a model system for research and study of their unique adaptations . they are being researched extensively both for medical uses and to learn about their ocean environment .\ngrowth rate and sexual size dimorphism of a . diaphana age - groups . a ) growth ( weight increase ) of a . diaphana lacerates . the points represent the biomass ( mg dry weight = mg dw ) mean \u00b1 se of six to eight replicates . each replicate is an average dw of three individuals sampled from the same growing chamber . b ) sexual size dimorphism as indicated by pedal disk diameter presented as mean \u00b1 se . numbers inside the bars are the sample sizes .\n( of aiptasia saxicola andr\u00e8s , 1881 ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ncorals and other anemones are the invertebrates most affected by aiptasia pests . unless you are keeping small rock anemones in a refugium to help control nutrients , they need to be removed as soon as possible . once aiptasia gets a foothold , manual removal to keep populations in check , may very well become an ongoing activity .\na . diaphana age homogeneous populations . a ) pedal lacerates attached to a mesh fabric after the removal of adult sea anemones . b ) homogeneous population at the age of 4 wk developed from pedal lacerates . c ) sea anemones aged 4\u201312 wk .\naiptasia grow like weeds , take over the reef tank , and are very hard to control ! a variety of approaches include chemical controls to using sea anemone predators .\nit is unknown how long they live , but they do reproduce quickly . a mature aiptasia anemones can produce dozens of juveniles in a single day if well fed .\nthe aiptasia has a pedal disc or ' foot ' with which it attaches to the substrate . if tank conditions are not ideal aiptasia use their\nfoot\nto move along the substrate . they will contract the circular muscles of the foot and push forward , or they may crawl on their side , moving about 4 cm per hour . aiptasia will often opt to simply disconnect and float around , or swim by moving in a spiral motion , until they find a new spot to adhere too .\npropagating aiptasia anemones is fairly easy , just cut a piece off and it will grow . anemones in general can multiply by sexual and asexual means . aiptasia will multiply asexually by fission , which is where a tiny bit of tissue detached from the foot quickly develops into a new and complete anemone . aiptasia anemones will tolerate their own\nclones\n, and these anemones are very prolific . this is why it is very difficult to physically remove these anemones from a rock . any remaining tissues quickly multiply into to new specimens .\ndon ' t let the pretty white center fool you , this trumpet anemone is just another species of aiptasia ! one of the most dreaded\nhitchhikers\nnext to the mantis shrimp , the trumpet anemone can reach plague proportions in a short time . some natural ways to eliminate them are peppermint shrimp , aiptasia eating nudibranchs and various butterflyfish , especially the copperbanded butterflyfish .\naiptasia , often called\nweedy\nanemones , are found in tropical and temperate waters around the globe . they live in a relatively wide range of salinities , temperatures , and other water quality conditions .\nade - 1 , a new inotropic na ( + ) channel toxin from aiptasia diaphana , is similar to , yet distinct from , known anemone na ( + ) channel toxins .\nnesher n . , shapira e . , sher d . , moran y . , tsveyer l . , turchetti - maia a . l . , horowitz m . , hochner b . , zlotkin e . biochem . j . 451 : 81 - 90 ( 2013 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]\ndistribution of sexes in a . diaphana age - groups during reproductive development . five reproductive states were characterized histologically : nonreproductive ( white bars ) , undifferentiated ( gray bars ) , hermaphrodite ( tan bars ) , male ( blue bars ) , and female ( red bars ) . n = number of specimens examined .\nto most saltwater aquarists aiptasia are considered a nuisance . they pose great difficulties to a reef environment as they harm other tank mates and quickly overgrow the environment . their rapid reproduction makes them extremely difficult to control .\nsaltwater aquarists don ' t usually buy glass anemones , but aiptasia is available alive from supply companies for research and scientific study . aquarists generally acquire them as hitchhikers , arriving with live rock or attached to the base of corals .\nthe typical reef environment is best for these anemones . like most anemone species , they need live rock or some other solid material they can attach to . aiptasia are hardy aquarium anemones that can survive even in dark conditions and will flourish in poor water - quality environments rich in organic nutrients . water changes of 10 % bi - monthly or 20 % a month are typical for most anemones , but with aiptasia , the more nutrients you have the happier it will be .\n( of aiptasia saxicola andr\u00e8s , 1881 ) den hartog , j . c . & van der land , j . ( 2000 - 2007 ) . as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nthe small rock anemone has a pedal disc or ' foot ' with which it attaches to the substrate . if tank conditions are not ideal they will use their \u201cfoot\u201d to move along the substrate . aiptasia anemones do this by contracting the circular muscles of the foot and pushing forward , or they may crawl on their side , moving about 4 cm per hour . often aiptasia will simply opt to disconnect and float around , or swim by moving in a spiral motion , until they find a new spot to adhere too .\nanemones are called\nrock anemones\nbecause they are found along rocky shorelines , and often dubbed\nglass anemones\ndue to their bodies being somewhat translucent . this pretty rock anemone is also known as the glass rose anemone , trumpet anemone , and yellow aiptasia .\naiptasia is an anemone that saltwater hobbyists don ' t purchase , rather they are accidentally introduced into a saltwater system as a hitchhiker on live rock or attached to the base of corals . unless planning to cultivate this anemone , you would not knowingly purchase live rock or corals with aiptasia on it . however , they can be difficult to see . they are small and will quickly retract when disturbed , hiding inside small crevices and holes in the rock . they can hide for weeks or even months until conditions are suitable before coming out .\naiptasia anemones will tolerate their own \u201cclones\u201d , and these anemones are very prolific . this is why it is very difficult to physically remove these anemones from a rock . any remaining tissues quickly multiply into to new specimens . sexual reproduction has not been described for the species .\nsmall rock anemones are durable and problems are pretty minimal unless your lighting , water movement , and feeding is inadequate . then your anemone will detach to look for \u201cbetter conditions . \u201d with better conditions , they can quickly multiply . having a quickly expanding population of aiptasia then becomes the problem .\ntheir body form is the polyp . it is composed of a pedal disc or ' foot ' with which the aiptasia attaches to the substrate . it has a smooth , elongated body column with an oral disc on top . this disk has a mouth with many long stinging tentacles surrounding it .\na two - stage pathway for sex differentiation in a . diaphana lacerates . stage 1 : sexually undifferentiated individuals differentiate equally to either males or hermaphrodites . stage 2 : primary males progress with spermatogenesis and spermiation , whereas hermaphrodites undergo sex allocation in which one gender becomes the dominant gender in the polyp and the other gender represses and often disappears . hermaphrodites that undergo sex allocation may finally become males , females , or mature as hermaphrodites ( i . e . , trioecy ) .\nthe glass anemone is a carnivore . in the wild aiptasia derive nutrition from their symbiotic alge , zooxanthellae , as well as from the water around them . they use their tentacles to capture organic matter that floats by , then insert the food into their mouths for ingestion . they generally eat zooplankton , but will always accept other foot particles .\ndo water changes of 10 % monthly or 20 % every other month . they will flourish in poor water - quality environments that are rich in organic nutrients . for most anemones , typical water changes are 10 % twice a month or 20 % a monthly , but with aiptasia , the more nutrients there are , the happier it will be .\ngenets ( n = 4 ) of a . diaphana were cultured in the indoor system described above ( figure 4 ) , set up to emulate ambient seasonal conditions ( i . e . , light and temperature amplitude ) of the natural reproductive season . spawning was temporally controlled by shifting the photoperiod and water temperature ( as described above ) to match the ambient shifts that occur during the natural gametogenic period during peak reproduction the mesenteries , visible via the transparent body column , were milky white in appearance in males and an orange color in females .\nlevels of vertebrate - like sex steroids , including progesterone ( a ) , testosterone ( b ) , and estradiol ( c ) , associated with sex differentiation and maturation processes ( d ) in a . diaphana age - groups . steroid levels are expressed as mean \u00b1 se of six to eight replicates . each replicate represents three individuals sampled from the same chamber . differences in steroid levels between the weeks were tested using one - way anova , and a tukey hsd test was used for post hoc comparisons . lowercase letters ( a\u2013e ) indicate significant ( p < 0 . 05 ) difference between means .\nsmall rock anemones are easy to care for and they are quite hardy and durable . they have the ability to reproduce rapidly in saltwater aquariums where there are plenty of nutrients and good lighting . some aquarists use aiptasia in their refugiums to take out nutrients from the water . keeping them in a screened off area of the refugium , they will feed on excess nutrients , thus improving water quality .\nany substrate is fine as these anemones will inhabit all levels of the tank . they need the same type of lighting found in a typical reef , and moderate lighting is suggested . they will thrive in bright light , but even under poor lighting aiptasia anemones will survive . they prefer a low - to - moderate water movement , but any type of movement is fine , just not stagnant water .\nthis is yet another anemone that is considered an undesirable addition to a reef tank ! the small rock anemone , also called the rose glass anemone is slightly different from the standard aiptasia in that it has more color , being brown to a pinkish brown instead of clear or gray . whatever color it is , it needs to go ! when you see one , do your best to get rid of it before it reproduces !\nthe small rock anemone is a carnivore , but these anemones are also equipped with nutritional alternatives for their well - being . in the wild aiptasia derive nutrition from their symbiotic algae , zooxanthellae , as well as from the water around them . they use their tentacles to capture organic matter that floats by , then insert the food into their mouths for ingestion . they generally eat zooplankton , but will always accept other foot particles .\nthe name aiptasia means\nbeautiful\n. although these little anemones are unpopular with reef hobbyists because of their ability to take over the aquarium , they really can be quite nice looking . they are smaller anemones that only get to be about 1\n( 3 cm ) in diameter and 3 - 4\n( 7 . 5 - 10 cm ) tall depending on the species . most specimens are actually much smaller then that too .\naiptasia anemones are found in shallow waters along protected coasts and along intertidal rocky or mangrove lined shorelines . they will also form dense colonies in areas of shallow water , sometimes so dense they look like solid sheets . they are found alone attached to rubble , mangrove roots , dead corals , and other hard substrates . they occur in deep water too , where there is good tidal action . all species are commonly found with live rock .\naiptasia anemones don ' t have a very good reputation with saltwater hobbyists . they have strong stings and don\u2019t \u201cplay nice\u201d with other corals and fish . they use venomous cells , nematocyst found in their tentacles , to sting corals and fish . they can reach plague proportions in the aquarium or a reef tank , wreak havoc on the other inhabitants . they are very hard to get rid of and have been known to take over a reef aquarium by quickly reproducing while stinging and killing other tank invertebrates .\nthe weedy aiptasia is an anemone that saltwater hobbyists don ' t purchase , rather they are accidentally introduced into a saltwater system as a hitchhiker on live rock or attached to the base of corals . they are able to out compete other species in the reef tank . when disturbed they eject dangerous white stinging threads , or acontia . by using venomous cells or nematocyst found in their tentacles , they sting and push other inhabitants away from their\nturf\n. they have strong stings that can harm , and even kill other corals and fish .\nsizes of aiptasia pallida anemones used in this study , quantified as means of three measurements of the body column of each anemone . bold dashes represent medians , open circles represent anemones without gonads , and asterisks represent anemones with gonads . body column diameter was larger in symbiotic anemones than in aposymbiotic anemones for both males and females ( mann\u2013whitney u tests , p < 0 . 001 ) . sample size : n = 9 aposymbiotic females , n = 18 aposymbiotic males , n = 27 symbiotic females , and n = 15 symbiotic males . abbreviations : apofem = aposymbiotic female , apomale = aposymbiotic male , symfem = symbiotic female , symmale = symbiotic male\ndaly , m . ; fautin , d . ( 2018 ) . world list of actiniaria .\nvan der land , j . ; den hartog , j . h . ( 2001 ) . actiniaria , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 106 - 109 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nfishelson , l . , 1971 . ecology and distribution of the benthic fauna in the shallow waters of the red sea . marine biology , 10 / 2 : 113 - 133 . [ details ]\nfautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ndepartment of zoology , george s . wise faculty of life sciences , tel aviv university , tel aviv , israel\ndepartment of zoology , george s . wise faculty of life sciences , tel aviv university , tel aviv , israel , israel oceanographic and limnological research , national center for mariculture , eilat , israel\neditor : ryan l . earley , university of alabama , united states of america\ncopyright : \u00a9 2010 schlesinger et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : this work was funded by ramot ( horowitz foundation ) tel aviv university . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nforming a dense \u201ccarpet\u201d on anchor rigs of an abandoned net pen fish farm 1 . 8 km offshore .\na ) a dissected anemone illustrating the morphology of the gonads along the mesenteries ( m ) of the polyp . b ) histological section of a female gonad showing well developed oocytes with visible germinal vesicles and nucleoli . c ) histological section of a male gonad showing well developed spermaries . d ) histological section of a hermaphrodite gonad showing well developed oocytes ( o ) alongside interspersed spermaries ( s ) at various stages of development . bar corresponds to 200 \u00b5m in b and to 100 \u00b5m c and in d .\nin laboratory culture , the rate of asexual reproduction was affected by controlled seasonal variations . under june\u2013august ( summer ) temperature\u2013photoperiod conditions genets propagated ca . one order of magnitude more ramets ( time = 77 d , n = 255\u00b127 ) than under december \u2013 march ( winter ) conditions ( t = 78 d , n = 23\u00b112 ) . the rate of asexual reproduction differed significantly between the summer and winter treatments ( 2 way anova and tukey ' s hsd test , df = 1 fseason 83 . 61 ; p < 0 . 05 ) . accordingly , each founder genet that produced 255 ramets ( individuals resulting from asexual reproduction ) during summer and in turn produces at least 20 additional ramets during winter can , theoretically , produce over 5 , 000 ramets ( 20 winter x 255 summer ) over a one - year period .\nmicroscopic analysis of ramets ( n = 304 ) sampled from six different laboratory - reared genet lines ( g 1 \u2013 g 6 ) , each founded by one individual of a known sex , revealed that the male phenotype was preserved throughout the experiment in one genet ( g 5 ) ( table 1 , figure 2 ) . the other five genets gave rise to both female and male phenotypes , with a skewed female / male ratio in favor of the founder sex ( table 1 ) . in addition , ramets derived from one female genet ( g 2 ) , included not only males and females but also seven hermaphroditic individuals ( table 1 ) .\ngametes spawned by g 2 ( n = 3 spawn dates and g 3 ( n = 2 spawn dates ) genet lines self - fertilized . similarly , gametes spawned by g 1 cross - fertilized with gametes of g 5 ( n = 4 spawn dates ) . zygotes derived from \u201cselfing\u201d and out - crossing developed into swimming planula larvae . the embryos underwent \u201cchaotic\u201d cleavage . on d - 4 post - spawning , nematocysts had developed in all planulae ( figure 3 ) .\n( a ) released non fertilized oocyte ( sem ) . ( b ) late cleavage stage showing asynchronous \u201cchaotic\u201d cleavage ( sem ) . ( c ) blastula from animal pole perspective , note small micromeres . ( c ' ) blastula from the vegetal pole perspective , showing large yolky macromeres at the vegetal pole ( sem ) . ( d ) prawn chip stage . ( e ) gastrula . the blastopore is marked by an arrow . ( sem ) . ( f ) swimming planula , nematocysts marked by arrowhead ( light micrograph ) .\nthe culture cell ( 4 ) is placed within a sedimentation chamber ( 6 ) which in turn is encompassed by a water jacket ( 8 ) . a light source ( 18 ) is positioned above the culture cell . a pump ( 20 ) is fixed to a wall in the sedimentation chamber ( 6 ) and connected to the culture cell inlet port ( 15 ) . sediment is drained from the chamber via a waste outlet ( 22 ) connected to the bottom of the chamber . culture temperature is controlled by the water jacket ( 8 ) , using a water chiller ( 24 ) and a thermostat regulated heater ( 26 ) . the legs ( 10 ) of the culture tank stand on the tank ' s bottom ( 12 ) , and water outlets ( 14 ) are interspersed around the top of the cell in the water jacket tank ( 16 ) . scale bar = 20 cm .\nto ascertain the rate of pedal laceration ( asexual reproduction ) of this anemone under laboratory conditions , we simultaneously tested the effect of summer ( june \u2013 august ) and winter ( december \u2013 february ) photoperiod and temperature amplitude as recorded in the eastern mediterranean ( 32\u00b024\u20329n , 34\u00b050\u20325e ) . data were obtained from the wise observatory astronomical calendar and medatlas / 2002 database , medar group 2002 ) . culture temperature was controlled by a water jacket ( figure 4 ) , using a 4 m 3 h \u22121 water circulation pump , a thermostat regulated water chiller and thermostat regulated heaters [ 43 ] \u2013 [ 44 ] .\nphoto - period was controlled as described above , by weekly calibration of light : dark period , following wise observatory astronomical calendar data . temperature amplitudes in the culture systems were calibrated weekly using the water - jacket temperature control system i . e . , regulated heaters and chillers , to follow the seasonal temperature amplitude ( medatlas / 2002 , medar group 2002 database figure s2 ) . six ramets from three genet lines ( two ramets from each genet ) were removed and settled on new substrata , each in a separate , sterilized culture tank . thus , each genet was simultaneously exposed to two different temperature and photoperiod regimes ( three culture tanks under summer conditions and three under winter conditions ) . feeding regime , light quality and intensity , current character and water exchange were uniform in all culture tanks . the number of ramets in each culture tank was counted after 77\u201378 days following settlement of each founder . data were analyzed using student ' s t test for significance .\neastern mediterranean ( 32\u00b024\u20329n , 34\u00b050\u20325e ) temperature amplitude based data obtained from medatlas / 2002 database , medar group 2002 .\nwe would like to thank dr . eran brockovich and varda wexler for their help with the figures .\nconceived and designed the experiments : as ekw . performed the experiments : as raz . analyzed the data : as ekw hr raz yl . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : hr yl . wrote the paper : as ekw hr raz yl .\nputnam nh , srivastava m , hellsten u , dirks b , chapman j , et al . ( 2007 ) sea anemone genome reveals ancestral eumetazoan gene repertoire and genomic organization . science 317 ( 5834 ) : 86\u201394 .\nfautin dg ( 1990 ) cnidaria , in reproductive biology of invertebrates , . in : adiyodi kg , adiyodi rg , editors . oxford and i . b . h : new delhi . pp . 31\u201355 .\nfrank u , mokadi o ( 2002 ) coral biodiversity and evolution : recent molecular contributions . can . j zool 80 : 1723\u20131734 .\nweismann a ( 1889 ) the significance of sexual reproduction in the theory of natural selection , in essays upon heredity and kindred biological problems , . in : poulton eb , schonland s , shipley ae , editors . oxford : clarendon press . pp . 251\u2013332 .\nburt a ( 2000 ) perspective : sex , recombination , and the efficacy of selection - was weismann right ? evolution 54 ( 2 ) : 337\u2013351 .\ncolegrave n ( 2002 ) sex releases the speed limit on evolution . nature 420 : 664\u2013666 .\nkramarsky - winter e , fine m , loya y ( 1997 ) coral polyp expulsion . nature 387 : 137 .\nharrison pl , babcock rc , bull gd , oliver jk , wallace cc , willis bl ( 1984 ) mass spawning in tropical reef corals . science 223 : 1186\u20131189 .\nharrison pl , wallace cc ( 1990 ) reproduction , dispersal and recruitment of scleractinian corals . coral reefs 25 : 133\u2013207 .\nvollmer sv , palumbi sr ( 2002 ) diversity hybridization and the evolution of reef coral . science 296 : 2023\u20132025 .\nstephenson ta ( 1928 ) the british sea anemones . london : the ray society . vol . i .\nfautin dg ( 2002 ) reproduction of cnidaria . canad j of zool 80 ( 10 ) : 1735\u20131754 .\nbuss lw ( 1983 ) evolution , development , and the units of selection . pnas 80 ( 5 ) : 1387\u20131391 .\ntang c , toomajian c , sherman - broyles s , plagnol v , guo y - l , et al . ( 2007 ) the evolution of selfing in\nshick jm ( 1991 ) a functional biology of sea anemones . new york : chapman & hall .\nhall vr , hughes tp ( 1996 ) reproductive strategies of modular organisms : comparative studies of reef - building corals . ecology 77 ( 3 ) : 950\u2013963 .\n( hydrozoa , leptomedusae ) : the influence of temperature . j exp zool 287 ( 3 ) : 233\u2013242 .\nat eilat red sea . a long term study . biol bull 173 : 335\u2013344 .\ni . gonads and planulae . mar ecol prog ser 1 ( 2 ) : 133\u2013144 .\nloya y , lubinevsky h , kramarsky - winter e ( 2004 ) nutrient enrichment caused by in situ fish farms at eilat , red sea is detrimental to coral reproduction . mar poll bull 49 ( 4 ) : 344\u2013353 .\nsoong k , lang jc ( 1992 ) reproductive integration in reef corals . biol bull 183 ( 3 ) : 418 .\nloya y , sakai k ( 2008 ) bidirectional sex change in mushroom stony corals . proc r soc b 275 : 2335\u20132343 .\ncarlon db ( 1999 ) the evolution of mating systems in tropical reef corals . tree 14 ( 12 ) : 491\u2013495 .\nfautin dg ( 1997 ) cnidarian reproduction : assumptions and their implication . in sixth international congress of coelenterate biology . leiden : natuurhistorisch museum .\n) ( coelenterata , actiniaria ) . j ma bio ass uk 73 ( 4 ) : 971\u2013973 .\nheyward aj , babcock rc ( 1986 ) self - and cross - fertilization in scleractinian corals . marine biology 90 : 191\u2013195 .\nbrazeau da , gleason df , morgan me ( 1998 ) self - fertilization in brooding hermaphroditic caribbean corals : evidence from molecular markers . jembe 231 ( 2 ) : 225 .\nhamrick jl , godt mt ( 1990 ) allozyme diversity in plant species , in plant population genetics : breeding and genetic resources , . in : brown ahd , et al . , editor . sunderland ma : sinauer . pp . 43\u201363 .\nkalisz s , vogler dw , hanley km ( 2004 ) context - dependent autonomous self - fertilization yields reproductive assurance and mixed mating . nature 430 : 884\u2013887 .\nghiselin mt ( 1969 ) the evolution of hermaphroditism among animals . the quar rev of biol 44 ( 2 ) : 189\u2013208 .\nhyman lh ( 1940 ) protozoa through ctenophora , in the invertebrates . new york and london : mcgraw - hill .\nschlesinger a , kramarsky - winter e , loya y ( 2008 ) method and apparatus for propagating benthic marine invertebrates , . in : wipo , editor . ramot at tel aviv university .\n( mollusca , opisthobranchia ) : life history aspects . marine biology 156 ( 4 ) : 753 .\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\nmini reef aquarium guide . reef aquarium setup for large reef tanks , nano reef tanks , pico reef or micro reef aquariums with reef tank lighting , filtration , choosing coral reef animals , and problem solving !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nurticina means nettle , a stinging plant . like all sea anemones they do have a sting , but the urticina cold water sea anemones have much more . . . being very beautiful they are known as flowers of the sea !\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\ni ' d love to give your clam a new house . i have 110g reef tank set up 25 hrs . he ' d love it !\nis fast at disappearing if disturbed . but this quick maneuver is just one of its fast tricks . it is quite small , at only about 1 . 2\n( 3 cm ) tall , but is also very fast at reproducing . the\nanemones are found in shallow waters along protected coasts and along intertidal rocky shorelines . they are found alone attached to rubble , live rock , dead corals , and other hard substrates . they will also form dense colonies in areas of shallow water , sometimes so dense they look like solid sheets . they occur in deep water too , where there is good tidal action .\nthe small rock anemones are solitary and found at depths of 6 1 / 2 to 9 feet ( 2 - 3 m ) . they live on vertical walls in small quiet harbors and in large pools .\nthe small rock anemone is quite small , only getting up to about 1 . 2\n( 3 cm ) tall . it is unknown how long\nanemones can live , but they do reproduce quickly . mature specimens can produce dozens of juveniles in a single day if they have plenty of nutrients .\nthe number of small rock anemones can reach plague proportions in captivity . in some aquariums they will reproduce faster than in others , but the exact reason is unknown . they do seem to reproduce faster in environments high in nutrients and detritus . this anemone , as well as any species of\n, is generally regarded as a pest . they can be difficult to control and / or eliminate once they get a foothold .\nalthough anemones are not as dependent on calcium as stony corals , magnesium and calcium is still needed to keep the ph and alkalinity stable and within the correct parameters . additions of trace elements are suggested . phosphates should be kept around 0 . 03 or less .\n380 . 0 - 450 . 0 ppm - helps to balance alkalinity . aim for 420 ppm , or 385 ppm if you are using seachem calcium .\n7 . 0 - 11 . 0 dkh - ( 2 . 5 to 3 . 9 meq / l ) aim for 10 dkh ( 3 . 5 meq / l ) for reef tanks .\n1 , 250 . 0 - 1 , 350 . 0 ppm - test magnesium levels and adjust before checking calcium .\nthe small rock anemone is quite small , so it can readily be kept in a nano tank of just 1 - gallon or more , however , the tank should be completely cycled . the typical reef environment is best for these anemones . like most anemone species , they need live rock or some other solid material they can attach to .\nthe small rock anemones are aggressive , and ideally , they are best kept in their own tank . they have strong stings that can harm , and even kill other corals and fish . saltwater hobbyists don ' t purchase these anemones , rather they are acquired accidentally as\nhitch - hikers\non live rock or with other corals . they are very hard to get rid of and have been known to take over a reef aquarium .\nthey can reproduce quickly and will tolerate their own kind , but they are able to out compete other species in the reef tank . when disturbed they eject dangerous white stinging threads , or acontia . also , by using the venomous cells , the nematocyst found in their tentacles , they sting and push other inhabitants away from their \u201cturf . \u201d they don ' t host clownfish .\nhave determined that individuals are dioecious , meaning that individuals are of separate sexes .\nalf jacob nilsen and svein a . fossa , reef secrets : starting right , selecting fishes & invertebrates , advanced biotope techniques , t . f . h publications inc . , 2003\ncopyright \u00a9 [ animal - world ] 1998 - 2015 . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nschlesinger a 1 , kramarsky - winter e , rosenfeld h , armoza - zvoloni r , loya y .\ndepartment of zoology , george s . wise faculty of life sciences , tel aviv university , tel aviv , israel .\npmid : 20686700 pmcid : pmc2912375 doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0011874\narmoza - zvuloni r 1 , kramarsky - winter e 2 , loya y 2 , schlesinger a 3 , rosenfeld h 2 .\nnational center for mariculture , israel oceanographic and limnological research , eilat , israel department of zoology , tel aviv university , ramat aviv , tel aviv , israel the h . steinitz marine biology laboratory , the interuniversity institute for marine sciences of eilat , eilat , israel rachelarmoza @ gmail . com .\ndepartment of zoology , tel aviv university , ramat aviv , tel aviv , israel .\nthe h . steinitz marine biology laboratory , the interuniversity institute for marine sciences of eilat , eilat , israel .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the \u2018correct annotation\u2019 for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\ncardioactive peptide that acts on voltage - gated sodium channels ( hnav1 . 5 / scn5a ) and voltage - gated potassium channels ( kv ) ( pubmed :\n) . the activity on sodium channels consists of inhibition on sodium current inactivation with no significant effect on current activation . this effect may be caused by direct interaction of the toxin with sodium channel site - 3 ( pubmed :\n) . the activity on potassium channels consists of a significant increase of the amplitude of the transient component of the potassium current , shifting the current threshold to more negative membrane potentials . these effects are concentration - dependent and reversible and may be due to a direct interaction between the toxin and the voltage - sensing domain of the channel ( pubmed :\n) . physiologically , this toxin increases the amplitude of cardiomyocyte contraction and slows the late phase of the twitch relaxation velocity with no induction of spontaneous twitching . it increases action potential duration of cardiomyocytes with no effect on its threshold and on the cell resting potential . on insects , it shows neurotoxic activity to the blowfly larvae s . falculaty , causing an immediate spasm that progressed to body contraction and paralysis .\n< p > manually curated information for which there is published experimental evidence . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000269\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n, function , paralytic dose , subcellular location , mass spectrometry , 3d - structure modeling .\nthe sea anemone toxin ade - 1 modifies both sodium and potassium currents of rat cardiomyocytes .\nnesher n . , zlotkin e . , hochner b . biochem . j . 461 : 51 - 59 ( 2014 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]\nhas no hemolytic activity on human erythrocytes . has no effect on the shape , color and configuration of cardiomyocytes ( pubmed :\n< p > the < a href =\nurltoken\n> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =\nurltoken\n> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > manually curated information that is based on statements in scientific articles for which there is no experimental support . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000303\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > manually validated information which has been imported from another database . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000312\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the \u2018taxonomic identifier\u2019 or \u2018taxid\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the location and the topology of the mature protein in the cell . < p > < a href = ' / help / subcellular _ location _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the disease ( s ) and phenotype ( s ) associated with a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / pathology _ and _ biotech _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ' pathology and biotech ' < / a > section describes the lethal dose ( ld ) , paralytic dose ( pd ) , effect dose ( ed ) or lethal concentration ( lc ) of a protein toxin . < p > < a href = ' / help / toxic _ dose ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nis 16 . 91 + - 5 . 78 \u00b5g / kg into blowfly larvae ( s . falculata ) .\n< p > this section describes post - translational modifications ( ptms ) and / or processing events . < p > < a href = ' / help / ptm _ processing _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018ptm / processing\u2019 section denotes the presence of an n - terminal signal peptide . < p > < a href = ' / help / signal ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ptm / processing < / a > section describes a propeptide , which is a part of a protein that is cleaved during maturation or activation . once cleaved , a propeptide generally has no independent biological function . < p > < a href = ' / help / propep ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018ptm / processing\u2019 section describes the extent of a polypeptide chain in the mature protein following processing . < p > < a href = ' / help / chain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the ptm / processing\n: / help / ptm _ processing _ section section describes the positions of cysteine residues participating in disulfide bonds . < p > < a href = ' / help / disulfid ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > manually curated information which has been propagated from a related experimentally characterized protein . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000250\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the tertiary and secondary structure of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / structure _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018family and domains\u2019 section provides information about the sequence similarity with other proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ similarities ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is in its mature form or if it represents the precursor . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ processing ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018sequence\u2019 section reports information derived from mass spectrometry experiments done on the entire protein or on biologically active derived peptide ( s ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / mass _ spectrometry ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >"]}
{"id": 1404, "summary": [{"text": "toormore ( foaled 19 march 2011 ) is an irish-bred british-trained thoroughbred racehorse .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he was one of the leading two-year-olds in europe in 2013 when he was undefeated in three races including the vintage stakes and vincent o'brien national stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in 2014 he won the craven stakes and finished third in the queen elizabeth ii stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "after failing to win for over a year he returned in 2015 to win the lennox stakes and the international topkapi trophy .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in 2016 he recorded another major win in the bet365 mile . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "toormore", "paragraphs": ["feb 2017 : darley announced toormore was removed from service due to insufficient demand .\ntoormore proving too strong on his racecourse debut at leicester . image copyright of urltoken\nsatisfy due diligence requirments on toormore engineering limited in one single ' time - saving ' search . run full background checks for fitness and probity on the directors of toormore engineering limited and anti - money laundering checks ( aml checks ) on toormore engineering limited\nthe second horse came travelling up to us very well but toormore showed his courage .\nwe ' ll send you updates with the latest deals , reviews and articles for toormore each week .\nmichael leonard is a company director of toormore engineering limited since 2000 and a listed director of 1 other companies .\n\u00a9 2015 leon whelton , toormore , goleen , county cork . all rights reserved . website by tosnu web solutions\nrichard hannon said :\ntoormore is in good form . he switches on when he comes to the racecourse .\ntoormore\u2019s owners , middleham park racing , will have taken some comfort from shifting power\u2019s victory , which owed much to a determined ride from ryan moore after the colt was first off the bridle , because he is toormore\u2019s work partner .\ntoormore engineering limited was set up on thursday the 21st of september 2000 . their current address is toormore , burncourt , cahir , co . tipperary , and the company status is normal . the company ' s current directors karen leonard and michael leonard have been the director of 0 other irish companies between them . toormore engineering limited has 2 shareholders .\n\u201che\u2019s not flash and doesn\u2019t show a lot at home , \u201d hannon said of his national stakes winner , toormore .\nif toormore runs the same race as he did in the queen anne stakes , he will go close .\ntoormore returns to seven furlongs in the group one prix de la foret at longchamp , france on sunday , october 4 .\ntoormore leads godolphin ' s three - pronged attack on the fred cowley mbe memorial summer mile stakes at ascot on saturday .\nthe latest documents filed with the companies registration office for toormore engineering limited ( which can include the account details ) are listed below .\nlog - in now to run due diligence checks and compliance checks on toormore engineering limited or click join - up to get started .\ntop - class miler toormore will carry the godolphin colours for the remainder of his racing career after being sold by middleham park racing .\nrichard hannon believes toormore will have a\nhuge chance\nof claiming group one gold in the al shaqab lockinge stakes at newbury .\nrichard hannon and toormore can take the season ' s first classic , the 2000 guineas . ( photo by alan crowhurst / getty images )\nthe trials season will continue to roll on to the craven stakes at newmarket next thursday , which is set to feature the return of toormore .\nthey teased us that they would run toormore in the racing post trophy and they announced no nay never\u2019s year was over when he won the morny .\nto view the latest credit rating or credit limit on toormore engineering limited simply click ' log - in ' or ' join - up ' below .\nworkmanlike - in - winning rather than impressive , toormore can improve for his run in the craven stakes . ( photo by alan crowhurst / getty images )\nconnections of toormore are excited and confident that their star juvenile colt from last year can continue his success at the top - level in the qipco 2000 guineas .\nconnections of toormore report the four - year - old to be in rude health ahead of his first start of the season in the lockinge stake at newbury .\ntoormore went on to score by a neck in 1m 43 . 06s on good to soft going , with a length and a half back to breton rock .\nrichard hannon said :\ntoormore has come right back to his best this season , winning the lennox stakes at goodwood and another group two in turkey last time .\nformer champion two - year - olds belardo and toormore spearhead a strong godolphin challenge in the g2 bet365 mile at sandown park , uk , on friday , april 22 .\ntoormore moved up to take the lead with a quarter - mile remaining but was joined on his outside by dutch connection , who cruised up strongly to dispute the running .\ntoormore\u2019s last race was in the middle of september and both no nay never and the highly regarded kingman ( unbeaten winner of the solario stakes ) did not run after august .\nmiddleham park racing manager tim palin said :\ndarley have been interested in toormore for a little while now and we have decided the time is right to let him go .\nso it leaves a lot of questions , but with toormore , no nay never and kingston hill all unbeaten in three races there is a lot to look forward to . \u201d\nlike toormore and kingman , roger varian\u2019s kingston hill ( 10 / 1 , bet365 ) also boasts unbeaten credentials , but unlike that pair he hasn\u2019t had a run this season yet .\ntoormore will now head to newbury for the g1 lockinge stakes over a mile on may 14 , a race in which he was beaten a neck by night of thunder in 2015 .\ntoormore provided middleham park racing with their first group 1 winner as the unbeaten colt made all to give richard hannon and richard hughes their first success in the goffs vincent o\u2019brien national stakes .\n\u201cwe haven\u2019t had enough mares booked to toormore to justify standing him so we have informed breeders that we have taken him off the roster , \u201d confirmed darley\u2019s director of stallions sam bullard .\ntoormore was champion two - year - old in 2013 and catapulted middleham park into a different stratosphere , so we will always be grateful to him , richard hannon and richard hughes .\ntim palin , middleham park racing manager , who own toormore , told the racing post : \u201cthey ( owners ) are absolutely thrilled to own the champion two - year - old in europe .\nryan moore rides toormore to a win at the novae bloodstock insurance craven stakes at newmarket racecourse on april 17 , 2014 in newmarket , england . ( photo by alan crowhurst / getty images )\na member of his sire ' s fifth crop , which numbered 43 and were conceived the year after dick turpin ' s promising 2 - year - old season , toormore only had a neck to spare when scoring on his debut at leicester at the end of may . on his second start , toormore took the veuve clicquot vintage stakes ( eng - ii ) by a similar margin over\nqueen elizabeth ii stakes winner olympic glory was victorious in the same race for hannon in 2012 and connections are hoping that toormore is as successful when he runs in newmarket\u2019s british classic on may 3 .\ntoormore warmed up for his principal early - season target , the g1 lockinge stakes , with a battling victory in the g2 bet365 mile at sandown park , uk , on friday , april 22 .\nawarded a rating of 122 , toormore was unbeaten in three races including the group 1 national stakes at the curragh which he won by two and three quarter lengths from the previous group 1 winner surdirman .\ntoormore has today been unveiled as richard hannon\u2019s first ever champion two - year - old in his last ever season as a trainer , as the european two - year - old classification for 2013 is published .\ntoormore warmed up for his principal early - season target , the g1 al shaqab lockinge stakes , with a battling victory in the g2 bet365 mile at sandown park , uk , on friday , april 22 .\nwilliam buick added :\ntoormore is such a lovely horse and a real joy to ride . they went very quick but this horse has won like that before and he has also won from the front .\noutstrip ties in the form of the national stakes winner toormore , who had just outpointed him in the vintage stakes at goodwood . toormore was having just his second race when stepped up to contest the group 2 race and his subsequent comprehensive victory over sudirman at the curragh in ireland\u2019s top juvenile race , suggests that the hannon stable , so stacked with talent , thought a lot of this son of arakan from an early stage .\ntoormore is one of five possible starters for owner godolphin . the maktoum family\u2019s operation could also be represented by 2014 group one dewhurst stakes victor belardo , likely pacemaker barchan ( both roger varian ) and dutch connection ( charlie hills ) , runner - up to toormore at sandown last month , plus home of the brave ( hugo palmer ) , a comfortable winner on his seasonal reappearance in the listed richard iii stakes at leicester on april 23 .\ntrained by richard hannon , initially for the middleham park racing syndicate , toormore was unbeaten in his three starts as a juvenile , culminating in his victory in the g1 goffs vincent o\u2019brien national s . at the curragh . returning at three to win the g3 craven s . , toormore was later sold privately to godolphin , for whom he won the g2 qatar lennox s . , g2 international topkapi trophy in turkey and last year\u2019s g2 bet365 mile .\ntoormore , who is ridden by james doyle for a fourth consecutive time , lines up against 12 rivals including dual group two scorer limato and poule d ' essai des poulains victor make believe plus course and distance winner taniyar .\npremier sale graduate toormore headed a group double for goffs uk at sandown today with victory in the group 2 bet 365 mile , with fellow graduate my dream boat winning the group 3 gordon richards stakes earlier on the card .\ntoormore is one of four runners for godolphin , with the charlie hills - trained dutch connection and roger varian ' s pair of barchan and belardo , seventh and fourth respectively at sandown , also sporting the royal blue colours .\non toormore\u2019s third and final run last term , he came over to ireland and won the group 1 national stakes , comfortably beating the david wachman - trained sudirman , who had won the group 1 phoenix stakes on his previous run . that is high - class juvenile form , and it will be fascinating to see how toormore fares on his debut as a three - year - old on thursday . timeform rated him the best juvenile in europe last season .\ntoormore has claims to being the best miler , he ' s already a group one winner and was champion two - year - old , he was only beaten narrowly last year and he must have a huge chance .\ntwo of the first three horses home from last season\u2019s al shaqab lockinge stakes could line up again with runner - up godolphin\u2019s toormore ( richard hannon ) and third - placed arod ( peter chapple - hyam ) both going forward .\ntoormore , the winner of the group one national stakes at the curragh , was named as champion european two - year - old of 2013 in the official ratings and rankings , which were announced by the british horseracing authority on thursday .\nrealistically toormore needs to win the craven , but sky lantern got beaten in the nell gwyn before going on to win the 1 , 000 guineas [ last year ] , so it wouldn\u2019t be the end of the world . \u201d\nthe son of arakan opened his account year with victory in the bet365 mile at sandown when he had the reopposing dutch connection a neck back in second and that pair clash again , although toormore does not have to concede 3lb this time .\ntoormore finished fourth in the mile group one queen anne stakes at royal ascot in june and was beaten a neck by stable companion night of thunder in the group one al shaqab lockinge stakes , also over a mile , at newbury in may .\ntoormore began the season perfectly with a group two victory at sandown on april 22 . arod made his first appearance of 2016 at ascot on april 27 , when he was third to gm hopkins ( john gosden ) in the listed paradise stakes .\ntoormore is burdened with a 3lb penalty for his neck verdict over dutch connection in the group two bet365 mile at sandown in april , but he is a talented performer as he showed when fourth to tepin in the queen anne stakes at royal ascot .\nthis should put him spot on for newbury now and we will stick to a mile . he can do seven furlongs no problem and william buick said that toormore has probably got the highest cruising speed of a lot of horses that he has ridden .\nrichard hannon said :\ni am delighted with toormore . i thought that he might need the run - i took him to manton a week ago and he worked very well - and he had a 3lb penalty , so he has done it very well .\nrated a + + by truenicks , toormore follows trumpet major as the second group winner sired by arakan out of a danzig line mare . in this regard , it ' s interesting to note that danetime , whose dam was by lear fan ( whose broodmare sire is lt . stevens , a brother to thong ) , did very well when crossed over mares carrying thong ' s descendents such as sadler ' s wells , fairy king , nureyev , and thatch . of course , toormore , a son of nureyev , reverses that pattern .\n1993 french film producer , sophie toscan du plantier buys a holiday home in the isolated townland of drinane near toormore outside schull and she uses it as a quiet retreat from her busy life in paris where she is married to french film mogul , daniel toscan du plantier .\n\u201ctoormore improved markedly with every race and there is no reason to think that he has peaked . the champions of the last six years went on to win seven classics and 26 group 1s . we are shaping up for a really exciting three - year - old season .\ntoormore ( richard hannon / william buick ) , who was champion two - year - old in 2013 , gained two g2 victories last year , in the seven - furlong qatar lennox stakes at goodwood in july and the international topkapi trophy over a mile at veliefendi , turkey , in september .\n, who himself was an impressive winner of the at the races champage stakes ( eng - ii ) on sept . 14 . just a day after outstrip had franked the form , toormore scored the first daylight victory of his life , leading throughout to defeat keeneland phoenix stakes ( ire - i ) winner\ntoormore ( ire ) b . g , 2011 { 14 - b } dp = 2 - 1 - 13 - 0 - 0 ( 16 ) di = 1 . 46 cd = 0 . 31 - 23 starts , 7 wins , 2 places , 3 shows career earnings : \u00a31 , 053 , 322\na group 1 winner and champion two - year - old , toormore was purchased by peter & ross doyle bloodstock from redpender stud at the 2012 premier yearling sale at doncaster for \u00a336 , 000 . he was raced by middleham park racing and james pak before being sold to godolphin last year . view his pedigree .\nkingman set the standard for three - year - old excellence this season with his 4\u00bd - length victory in saturday\u2019s greenham and on thursday it is the turn of toormore , one of the horses he leapfrogged at the top the qipco 2 , 000 guineas market , to show what he is made of in the novae bloodstock insurance craven stakes .\ntoormore ( ire ) , the champion 2 - year - old colt of 2013 and six - time group winner , will not be standing for darley this season following insufficient demand for his services . the 6 - year - old son of arakan was retired from racing at the end of last year to take up duties at dalham hall stud as part of the darley club .\nbred by jimmy murphy of redpender stud under the banner of bec bloodstock , toormore is a son of danetime out ( ire ) ( danetime { ire } ) and is a half - brother to the dual group 2 winner estidhkaar ( ire ) ( dark angel { ire } ) , who was also retired to stud for the 2017 season and stands in ireland at tara stud .\nby 2 1 / 2 lengths for the goffs vincent o ' brien national stakes ( ire - i ) . after the race , a stable representative stated that toormore may not run again before next year ' s two thousand guineas ( eng - i ) , and given the way he came home over seven furlongs here , the mile of that classic seems unlikely to be a problem .\nhe\u2019ll put his unbeaten record on the line against another unbeaten colt in richard hannon\u2019s toormore ( 7 / 1 , ladbrokes ) who made his debut as a sprinter at leicester , where he won by a neck from ertijaal , and built markedly on that run to land the group two vintage stakes at glorious goodwood on his next start , landing the spoils by the same winning margin from outstrip .\nthe first three horses in the classification \u2013 toormore , kingston hill and no nay never \u2013 each ran three times , each of them is unbeaten and each won a group 1 on their final start . war command , given the same 119 rating as no nay never , also won a group 1 on his final start having earlier pulled six lengths clear to win the coventry stakes , as well as winning the group 2 futurity .\nhowever , while toormore \u2019s ( 7 / 1 , ladbrokes ) win in the craven was workmanlike and left plenty of onlookers unimpressed , he did do the job professionally and despite the proximity of 50 / 1 shot the great gatsby giving the race a fairly weak profile when added to the no - show of godolphin\u2019s be ready who finished plumb - last in the race , the earlier form of richard hannon\u2019s runner makes excellent reading , and he is sure to improve for that initial outing .\ntrained by richard hannon and raced by godolphin , toormore was having his first start this season and claimed a brave win in the group 2 , coming back after being headed in the straight , despite carrying a three pound penalty , to win a swiftly run contest . the five - year - old son of arakan has now won seven of his 17 starts and will contest the group 1 lockinge stakes at newbury with the queen anne stakes at royal ascot and sussex stakes also on the radar .\nkingston hill was rated just 2lb lower than toormore last year and , like richard hannon\u2019s horse , he too was unbeaten in three runs as a juvenile . trained by the astute roger varian , the mastercraftsman colt did not make his racecourse debut until september last year , but he won his maiden and a group 3 contest before going on to run out an impressive winner of the group 1 racing post trophy at doncaster . and he achieved all of that in the space of just over a month .\nby coincidence , toormore ' s dam , danetime out , is by danetime , who like arakan had rather humble beginnings as a sire . a son of danehill , danetime never won a black - type event , although he was good enough to place third in both the darley july cup ( eng - i ) and haydock park sprint cup ( eng - i ) . despite initially attracting mares of modest quality , danetime would go on to prove himself a very good sire in two hemispheres , getting 32 stakes winners , 20 of them at the group / graded level , including the group i - winning myboycharlie , bushranger , and megatic .\ntoormore ' s second dam , matila , by the bold ruler grandson persian bold , produced six winners from seven starters , but only one , the dubai duty free ( uae - iii ) second easaar , earned black - type . the third dam , peace girl , was a daughter of dominion , who some might remember carrying dogwood stable ' s colors with distinction in the 1970s before returning for a very successful stud career in england . peace girl captured the nishapour curragh stakes ( ire - iii ) at 2 , an effort that was good enough to earn her a rating as co - champion 2 - year - old filly in ireland . although she never produced a stakes winner , peace girl does also feature as the second dam of david wilson homes jockey club cup ( eng - iii ) scorer hawridge prince and stakes winner hero ' s journey . the family goes back to even better juvenile in star of india , the champion english 2 - year - old filly of 1955 . she is ancestress of numerous outstanding runners , including one thousand guineas ( eng - i ) heroine mrs . mcardy ; champions admire cozzene and ruby tiger ; and group i winners gitano hernando , sweet secret , and seazun .\n\u00a359 . 70 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a345 , 839 . 74 - 559 . 76 winning units\n\u00a329 . 50 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a34 , 170 . 62 - 104 . 32 winning units\ndistances : hd , 1\u00bel , 1\u00bdl time : 1m 12 . 03s ( slow by 2 . 23s ) total sp : 114 %\ndistances : 2\u00bdl , nk , \u00bel time : 57 . 41s ( slow by 0 . 21s ) total sp : 111 %\ndistances : hd , \u00bel , 3l time : 1m 38 . 66s ( slow by 1 . 46s ) unplaced fav : whatsthemessage 5 / 2f total sp : 111 %\ndistances : 1\u00bel , nse , nk time : 2m 53 . 43s ( slow by 7 . 43s ) unplaced fav : luv u whatever 5 / 2f total sp : 111 %\ndistances : 4l , \u00bel , nk time : 1m 29 . 63s ( slow by 2 . 33s ) total sp : 116 %\ndistances : hd , 1\u00bcl , 2\u00bel time : 1m 31 . 16s ( slow by 3 . 86s ) unplaced fav : different journey 5 / 2f total sp : 117 %\nwas keen early but made some good late progress and looks one for nurseries .\n\u00a3144 . 30 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a363 , 971 . 93 - 323 . 42 winning units\n\u00a324 . 00 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a34 , 618 . 12 - 141 . 81 winning units\ndistances : 4\u00bdl , 1\u00bdl , shd time : 1m 13 . 63s ( slow by 3 . 13s ) total sp : 115 %\ndistances : 1\u00bdl , 1\u00bcl , shd time : 1m 39 . 73s ( slow by 2 . 03s ) unplaced fav : shamaheart 7 / 2f total sp : 117 %\ndistances : nk , 18l , 8l time : 2m 34 . 18s ( slow by 2 . 68s ) total sp : 108 %\ndistances : nk , 4l , nk time : 2m 2 . 05s ( slow by 1 . 75s ) unplaced fav : lamloom 9 / 4j total sp : 109 %\ndistances : 7l , 9l , nk time : 1m 38 . 94s ( slow by 1 . 24s ) total sp : 114 %\ndistances : 1l , nk , 2l time : 1m 29 . 86s total sp : 113 %\ndistances : hd , 2\u00bcl , 1\u00bcl time : 1m 31 . 21s unplaced fav : alfirak 6 / 4f total sp : 119 %\ndistances : \u00bel , 1\u00bcl , nk time : 2m 11 . 38s ( slow by 3 . 38s ) unplaced fav : check your pockets 9 / 4f total sp : 112 %\npick six : not won . 24 , 281 . 38 carried forward to roscommon tuesday . tote aggregates : 2017 ; 296 , 281 . 2018 ; 128 , 518\n\u00a320 . 90 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a388 , 688 . 16 - 3 , 097 . 60 winning units\n\u00a311 . 10 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a36 , 385 . 65 - 424 . 16 winning units\ndistances : nk , nk , 1l time : 1m 13 . 14s ( slow by 2 . 94s ) total sp : 123 %\ndistances : \u00bel , 2l , hd time : 1m 13 . 86s ( slow by 3 . 66s ) total sp : 121 %\ndistances : nk , 1\u00bcl , 1l time : 2m 12 . 59s ( slow by 8 . 09s ) total sp : 111 %\ndistances : shd , hd , 2l time : 1m 45 . 90s ( slow by 5 . 30s ) unplaced fav : brigand 11 / 10f total sp : 111 %\ndistances : 2l , nse , 2l time : 1m 48 . 09s ( slow by 7 . 49s ) total sp : 122 %\ndistances : 4\u00bdl , nk , 1l time : 2m 32 . 25s ( slow by 8 . 75s ) total sp : 113 %\n\u00a3134 . 50 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a370 , 403 . 42 - 382 . 07 winning units\n\u00a331 . 10 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a37 , 689 . 58 - 182 . 62 winning units\ndistances : 1\u00bel , 1l , nk time : 1m 15 . 80s ( slow by 3 . 60s ) total sp : 125 %\ndistances : nk , 1\u00bel , hd time : 1m 31 . 96s ( slow by 5 . 86s ) unplaced fav : cupid ' s arrow 4 / 1j , be bold 4 / 1j total sp : 122 %\ndistances : \u00bdl , 13l , nse time : 2m 40 . 17s ( slow by 5 . 17s ) total sp : 119 %\n\u00a3294 . 80 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a364 , 468 . 45 - 159 . 62 winning units\n\u00a354 . 30 to a \u00a31 stake . pool : \u00a35 , 729 . 64 - 77 . 96 winning units\ndistances : 6l , shd , 4\u00bdl time : 5m 49 . 80s ( slow by 14 . 80s ) unplaced fav : master sunrise 6 / 4f total sp : 115 %\nnewton geronimo was withdrawn . price at time of withdrawal 13 / 8f . rule 4 applies to all bets - deduction 35p in the pound\ndistances : 1\u00bdl , hd , 2\u00bdl time : 3m 42 . 80s ( slow by 2 . 80s ) unplaced fav : tommy hallinan 9 / 4j total sp : 117 %\ndistances : 6l , 11l , hd time : 5m 44 . 60s ( slow by 22 . 60s ) total sp : 116 %\ndistances : nk , 2l , 1\u00bel time : 3m 44 . 70s ( slow by 4 . 70s ) unplaced fav : excellent team 100 / 30f total sp : 113 %\ndistances : 1\u00bel , \u00bdl , nk time : 2m 2 . 21s ( slow by 0 . 21s ) total sp : 120 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 2 . 90 place 1 . 70 , 2 . 00 , 4 . 40 df 7 . 80 sf 12 . 90\ndistances : \u00bel , \u00bdl , nse time : 2m 31 . 62s ( slow by 2 . 62s ) unplaced fav : north hunter 12 / 5f total sp : 121 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 25 . 60 place 5 . 70 , 2 . 90 , 2 . 80 df 110 . 70 sf 295 . 60\ndistances : hd , \u00bel , \u00bdl time : 1m 27 . 55s ( slow by 4 . 25s ) total sp : 120 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 5 . 50 place 1 . 80 , 2 . 40 , 1 . 60 df 28 . 80 sf 58 . 00\ndistances : nse , 1\u00bdl , snk time : 1m 52 . 14s ( slow by 3 . 64s ) unplaced fav : flowrider evensf total sp : 121 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 1 . 50 ( coupled with flowrider ) place 1 . 80 , 1 . 90 sf 8 . 00\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 2 . 30 place 4 . 10 , 5 . 10 , 4 . 10 df 64 . 60 sf 146 . 60\ndistances : hd , 1l , snk time : 1m 25 . 85s ( slow by 2 . 55s ) total sp : 121 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 5 . 50 place 2 . 00 , 3 . 80 , 3 . 00 df 31 . 40 sf 55 . 20\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 5 . 70 place 1 . 90 , 2 . 20 , 1 . 90 df 26 . 60 sf 50 . 50\ndistances : snk , 1\u00bcl , 1\u00bel time : 2m 3 . 57s ( slow by 1 . 57s ) unplaced fav : ducale di maremma 14 / 5f total sp : 121 %\npari - mutuel ( all including 1 euro stake ) : win 11 . 80 place 3 . 70 , 3 . 10 , 6 . 60 df 37 . 80 sf 87 . 60\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nironically for a trainer who was initially famed for his success with two - year - olds , the colt , rated 122 , was the first juvenile champion for richard \u00adhannon - in his last season .\nthe charlie hills trained chriselliam , rated 117 , was the top juvenile filly following wins in the fillies\u2019 mile and breeders\u2019 cup juvenile fillies .\nhowever rather than describe the class of 2013 as either a vintage crop or a poor lot matthew tester , the handicapper , described it as the year of \u201cunfinished business\u201d because so few of the top horses turned out after the end of august .\n\u201cit is a very exciting bunch but , for me , it was a bit like matrix 2 \u2013 it never got to a climax .\nwe did not see many of these guys later on in the season . you only find out how good they are when the top horses take each other on and a lot were not asked the big question .\n\u201cthere is no evidence to suggest that campaigning horses to be champion two - year - old is detrimental to their three - year - old career .\nthe last six champions have gone on to win seven classics and 26 group ones . there is no reason to protect them .\n\u201ci was particularly disappointed not to see australia , who aidan o\u2019brien was calling the greatest ever , again after he won the group three golden fleece in early september .\ntester also wondered how chriselliam managed to get beaten on three of her first four starts before landing group ones either side of the atlantic .\n\u201cthe key , though , \u201d he said , \u201cis what happens when she gets her backside in gear . i liken her to finsceal beo , the champion filly of 2006 , who also got stuffed in a tralee nursery and curragh sales race before winning the boussac and rockfel .\nthe following season she won the guineas , irish guineas and was just touched off in the french guineas . \u201d\nlast year tester named just the judge , then a 20 - 1 shot for the guineas , as his dark horse and this year he believes the aidan o\u2019brien trained indian maharaja , a well - bred facile winner of both starts at two , as a group winner in waiting for 2014 .\nas was pretty much already known black caviar and treve shared top billing of 130 in the longines world best racehorses of 2013 , also announced on thursday .\nhannon also had the only two british trained horses in the top 10 , olympic glory and toronado .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsky sports news takes you through all of the day ' s racing news , plus alex hammond ' s tip of the day .\nfollow the latest from the written press with the best gossip and speculation from the papers .\nsky has launched a pub finder for eager fans wanting to find a venue to watch sky sports .\nget a sports star to visit your old secondary school as part of our free schools initiative .\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\nvoleuse de coeurs produced a stunning performance to leave her rivals toiling in the gain irish st . leger at the curragh\nopen an account with betfair and bet at least \u20ac5 at min odds of 1 / 5 on the sportsbook . win or lose betfair match your first bet up to \u20ac50 . free bet stakes not returned\nup to \u00a3100 in bet credits for new customers at bet365 . min deposit \u00a35 and 1x settled bet requirement to release bet credits . min odds , bet and payment method exclusions apply . returns exclude bet credits stake . time limits and t & cs ; apply . terms & conditions apply\nregister with william hill using the promo code c30 and place your first bet of \u00a310 / \u20ac10 or more and get three \u00a310 / \u20ac10 free bets . new online customers only , min \u00a310 / \u20ac10 stake , win only , min odds 1 / 2 , free bets paid as 3 x \u00a310 / \u20ac10 , 30 day expiry , free bet / payment method / player / country restrictions apply . terms & conditions apply\nsign up with promo code f50 , place a bet on any horse race and ladbrokes will give you a free bet up to \u00a350 . new customers only . certain deposit methods excluded . min \u00a35 excluding tote or pools = match max \u00a350 free bet . min odds 1 / 2 + . free bet valid for 4 days , stake not returned . single line bets only . free bet cannot be used on certain markets . 18 + . terms and conditions apply\nsign up to paddy power and get a \u00a320 risk free first bet : new customers only , limited to one per person . if you\u2019ve previously had a paddy power account , you will not qualify for the offer . place your first bet on any sportsbook market and if it loses we will refund your stake in cash . max refund for this offer is \u00a3 / \u20ac20 . only deposits made using cards or paypal will qualify for this promotion . t & cs ; apply . terms & conditions apply\nsign up to coral today , deposit and place a bet of \u00a310 or more and get \u00a330 in free bets ! uk + ire . new customers only . min first bet \u00a310 . must be placed within 14 days of account reg . \u00a330 credited as 3 x \u00a310 free bets . not valid with cashout . free bet valid for 4 days . 18 +\nsign up to betway , deposit and place a qualifying bet and get a free bet up to \u00a330 . 1 . new customers only . 2 . min deposit : \u00a3 / \u20ac10 . 3 . 1 x wagering at odds of 1 . 75 + to unlock free bet . 4 . credit card , debit card & paypal deposits only 5 . additional terms apply terms and conditions apply\nregister with betbright , deposit \u00a320 and play with \u00a370 ( \u00a325 sports plus \u00a325 casino ) . min deposit \u00a320 . max sports bonus \u00a325 . max casino bonus \u00a325 . 5 x wagering to release sports bonus . min odds 1 . 8 . \u00a325 casino bonus added within 24 hours of first sports bet settling . 40x wagering to release casino bonus . terms and conditions apply\nsign up to betfred and place a \u00a310 sports bet to receive up to \u00a330 in free bets , plus 30 free spins . new customers from uk & northern ireland . stake \u00a310 or more at odds of evens ( 2 . 0 ) or greater on your first bet . \u00a330 free bet credited in 48 hours of your first bet being settled . 7 day expiry . e - wallet restrictions apply . max 30 free spins on selected games . full t & cs ; apply . terms and conditions apply\nsign up to boylesports today and get up to \u00a325 in free bets . cash stakes only . min \u00a310 stake required for initial \u00a35 free bet . min odds 1 / 2 . max \u00a325 in free bets . subsequent free bets equal 50 % average of each 3 qualifying bets . 13 bets required to receive full \u00a325 free bet . qualifying bet be placed within 30 days of opening account . free bet expires after 7 days . payment method restrictions apply . terms and conditions apply\njoin betfair and get a \u00a3 / \u20ac50 matched free bet . new customers only , receive a free bet up to the value of your first qualifying bet . minimum stake \u00a3 / \u20ac5 , minimum odds 1 / 5 ( 1 . 2 ) . if your first bet is an accumulator , at least one selection must meet the min odds requirement . qualifying bet must be placed in first 30 days of account opening . offer is only available to customers who deposit using debit / credit or paypal . max free bet \u00a3 / \u20ac50 \u2013 valid for 7 days . t & c ; \u2019s apply . terms and conditions apply\nsign up now and get all the latest news , tips and top offers from at the races direct to your inbox every week .\nyes , send me email communications from at the races and occasional offers from carefully selected bookmakers and partners . by clicking ' sign up now ' i agree to at the races terms and conditions and privacy policy .\nwe use cookies to give you the best experience of our website and to keep it free for users , to find out more please read our privacy policy .\nour frequently asked questions page answers the most common customer queries relating to attheraces . com .\nif the faqs page doesn ' t answer your query , please fill in your details below and we ' ll endeavour to respond as soon as possible .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nthere are no pins in your viewport . try moving the map or changing your filters .\nprices are based on 1 - 21 day travel . these are the best fares found by travellers who searched tripadvisor and a select group of our fare search partners in the past 72 hours . ticket prices and seat availability change rapidly and cannot be guaranteed .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\nnot a subscriber ? click here to sign up for the daily pdf or alerts .\nyour tdn download has begun . if the download does not complete , click here .\na member of his sire ' s fifth crop , the 2 - year - old colt is now 3 - for - 3 .\na look back through the records of major races will soon demonstrate that almost any stallion can sire one good horse . thus , it wasn ' t particularly notable when arakan\u2014who retired to stud in ireland for \u20ac5 , 000\u2014came up with\n, dick turpin was good enough to win nine of 20 starts , six in group races , including the prix jean prat ( fr - i ) and gran premio vittorio di capua ( ity - i ) .\n, a four - time group winner in england . there is an oft used saying that\ntwo swallows does not a summer make ,\nbut arakan now has a third swallow , albeit an autumnal one , in the shape of\n, red ransom , and danzig being among those who come to mind . arakan , however , was cast from a totally different mold . with 24 starts over four seasons , arakan ' s record gives a very clear idea of what he was as a racehorse . the picture that emerges from his endeavors shows arakan to have been a tough , progressive performer who was good enough to win group races but was some way short of the best .\nplaced twice at 2 , he won a one - mile maiden first time out at 3 , then added a seven - furlong handicap at york before taking second in the jersey stakes ( eng - iii ) at royal ascot over the same trip . although arakan did not add to the win column over the remainder of the year , he did confirm that he belonged in group company with a second in the lennox stakes ( eng - ii ) and a third in the victor chandler challenge stakes ( eng - ii ) . the following year , arakan gained his first black - type victories , taking the ngk spark plugs abernant stakes and the bango criterion stakes ( eng - iii ) . despite having good form at six furlongs and a mile , arakan seemed to be one of those seven - furlong specialists , and as a 5 - year - old he made his final six starts over that trip . successful in the vcbet city of york stakes in august , arakan showed himself to be as good as\u2014if not better than\u2014ever on his final two outings , taking the merbury catering consultants supreme stakes ( eng - iii ) and finishing third to group i winner le vie dei colori in the vcbet challenge stakes ( eng - ii ) .\nwhile arakan ' s race record is not out of the top drawer , there is more to be said for his pedigree , at least , when one really digs into it . he is a son of nureyev , and his dam is half sister to group / graded winners donkey engine and petit poucet ( also third in the group i french two thousand guineas ) , who are both by nureyev ' s three - quarter brother fairy king . the family goes quiet for a couple of generations , but arakan ' s fourth dam , georgica , is a half sister to kentucky derby ( gr . i ) victor cannonade . they are out of queen sucree , a half sister to halo and daughter of cosmah . arakan ' s third dam , rythmique , is by the minstrel , and so is 4x4 to almahmoud , who appears as granddam of the minstrel ' s sire , northern dancer , and as dam of cosmah . rhythmique is also similarly - bred to the french two thousand guineas captor l ' emigrant , who was by the minstrel out of cosmah ' s granddaughter suprina .\nat 2 : 1st national s . ( ire - g1 ) 1400m , vintage s . ( gb - g2 ) 1400m\nat 3 : 1st craven s . ( gb - g3 ) 1600m ; 2nd lennox s . ( gb - g2 ) 1400m ; 3rd queen elizabeth ii s . ( gb - g1 ) 1600m , international topkapi trophy ( tur - g2 ) 1600m\neuthanized in march 2018 after suffering a serious leg injury in training in dubai . ( close )\ngenerate a b2b marketing list with ease and grow your business . identify key decision makers and pre - qualified new prospects for your sales and business development teams .\nview cro company documents and company reports any irish company or business with ease .\nvision - net credit scores save your business the time and cost of chasing slow payers . evaluate risk at client application stage or run continuous credit checks on your full customer base .\nbackground check companies , sole traders or individuals and minimise your spend with more efficient anti - money laundering checks and reports .\nmore people choose vision - net over any other search service . . . ask us why ?\n2017 was a record year for company start - ups in ireland while insolvencies went through a levelling off period .\nwe are in acceleration mode and ireland has taken its place as europe ' s fastest growing economy . many aspects of that recovery are demonstrated in our 2017 annual review .\nfrom start to finish we have been very happy with leon\u2019s service . he is responsive and pays great attention to detail .\n. button - 5b43a5436ee30 { margin - bottom : 0px ; margin - top : 0px ; min - width : 0px ! important ; } . button - 5b43a5436ee30 { background - color : # aac238 ; } . mk - button . button - 5b43a5436ee30 . flat - dimension : hover { background - color : # 999999 ! important ; }\nwe found leon to be efficient , responsible and competent and have no hesitation in recommending him .\n. button - 5b43a5437081c { margin - bottom : 0px ; margin - top : 0px ; min - width : 0px ! important ; } . button - 5b43a5437081c { background - color : # aac238 ; } . mk - button . button - 5b43a5437081c . flat - dimension : hover { background - color : # 999999 ! important ; }\ni take every project from design stage to construction and completion , and i take my clients through the whole process with me .\ni have to say that leon\u2019s technical expertise has been invaluable and i find the suggestions that he comes up with to be very creative indeed .\n. button - 5b43a5437210e { margin - bottom : 0px ; margin - top : 0px ; min - width : 0px ! important ; } . button - 5b43a5437210e { background - color : # aac238 ; } . mk - button . button - 5b43a5437210e . flat - dimension : hover { background - color : # 999999 ! important ; }\ni only source the most skilled and reliable tradesmen from west cork , reducing our carbon footprint while also boosting local employment .\nwe found him to be very professional to deal with . he immediately understood our desire to be sympathetic to the local environment .\n. button - 5b43a54373a10 { margin - bottom : 0px ; margin - top : 0px ; min - width : 0px ! important ; } . button - 5b43a54373a10 { background - color : # aac238 ; } . mk - button . button - 5b43a54373a10 . flat - dimension : hover { background - color : # 999999 ! important ; }\nleon is also very efficient and contactable which is important in ensuring that a job is done quickly .\n. button - 5b43a543754d2 { margin - bottom : 0px ; margin - top : 0px ; min - width : 0px ! important ; } . button - 5b43a543754d2 { background - color : # aac238 ; } . mk - button . button - 5b43a543754d2 . flat - dimension : hover { background - color : # 999999 ! important ; }\nleon has always resolved issues and liaised with other professionals when required . i can highly recommend him as a consultant .\n. button - 5b43a54376fbc { margin - bottom : 0px ; margin - top : 0px ; min - width : 0px ! important ; } . button - 5b43a54376fbc { background - color : # aac238 ; } . mk - button . button - 5b43a54376fbc . flat - dimension : hover { background - color : # 999999 ! important ; }\nleon project managed the job as we live in dublin and we were building in west cork . we had every confidence in him and we could sleep easy at night knowing that he was on top of things .\n. button - 5b43a54378870 { margin - bottom : 0px ; margin - top : 0px ; min - width : 0px ! important ; } . button - 5b43a54378870 { background - color : # aac238 ; } . mk - button . button - 5b43a54378870 . flat - dimension : hover { background - color : # 999999 ! important ; }\nleon was the person for the job as he transcends all divides when it comes to design and planning .\n. button - 5b43a5437a0b7 { margin - bottom : 0px ; margin - top : 0px ; min - width : 0px ! important ; } . button - 5b43a5437a0b7 { background - color : # aac238 ; } . mk - button . button - 5b43a5437a0b7 . flat - dimension : hover { background - color : # 999999 ! important ; }\nwe\u2019re sorry , some parts of the airbnb website don\u2019t work properly without javascript enabled .\nwe use cookies to personalise content , target and report on ads , to provide social media features and to analyse our traffic .\njules thomas and ian bailey pictured leaving the four courts earlier this month . photograph : collins .\n1991 : english journalist , ian bailey moves to ireland and settles in west cork where he meets welsh artist , jules thomas and sets up home with her and her three daughters at the prairie , liscaha , schull .\n1995 marie farrell moves to schull with her husband , chris farrell and their five children from glanmire near cork city following their return to ireland from london and they open a craft shop and ice cream parlour in the west cork village .\n1996 , december 23rd : the badly beaten body of sophie toscan du plantier ( 39 ) is found in her night clothes near the laneway leading to her holiday home by her neighbour , shirley foster . garda\u00ed , under supt jp twomey of bantry garda station , begin a murder inquiry .\n1997 , january 11th : marie farrell rings bandon garda station from a public phone box in cork city , using the alias fiona , to tell them that she saw a man by kealfadda bridge around 3am on the night that ms toscan du plantier was murdered .\n1997 , january 20th : chief supt noel smith of west cork garda division issues an appeal on crimeline asking fiona to contact them in confidence at bandon garda station regarding her information about seeing a man at kealfadda bridge on december 23rd , 1996 .\n1997 , january 21st : marie farrell again rings bandon garda station regarding her sighting of the man at kealfadda bridge . she again uses the alias fiona for this call which was made from a public phone box in leap in west cork .\n1997 , january 24th : marie farrell makes a third phone call , again using the name fiona to tell garda\u00ed that she will not be calling into bandon garda station to meet the investigation team as they requested . garda\u00ed trace the call to the farrell home at crew bay in schull .\n1997 , february 4th : schoolboy , malachi reid gives a statement to garda\u00ed that when giving him a lift home , ian bailey told him that he killed ms toscan du plantier , saying that he \u201cwent up there with a rock and bashed her fucking brains out\u201d .\n1997 , february 10th : ian bailey is arrested at his home at for the murder of sophie toscan du plantier . he is taken to bandon garda station where he is photographed by freelance photographer , mike browne going into the garda station . he is later released without charge . his partner , jules thomas is also arrested at the prairie and taken to bandon garda station . she too is later released without charge . she later says that det supt dermot dwyer meets her in the station and tells her that \u201cthe forensics will sort it out\u201d .\n1997 , april 17th : state pathologist , dr john harbison tells an inquest into ms toscan du plantier\u2019s death that she died from multiple injuries including laceration of the brain and a fracture of the skull , caused by a blunt instrument .\n1997 , september 29th : state solicitor for west cork , malachy boohig sends a 2 , 000 page file on the murder to the dpp . he receives a letter back on 8th october from law officer , robert sheehan with a series of questions for garda\u00ed and no charges are brought .\n1997 , december 18th : fine gael spokesman on justice jim higgins claims in the d\u00e1il that a series of requests by ms toscan du plantier\u2019s family for information on the murder file has been ignored but this is denied by minister for justice john o\u2019donoghue . mr o\u2019donoghue confirms the department of justice had received \u201ca request for mutual assistance in a criminal matter\u201d from the french authorities in april at a time when the rainbow coalition government was in power . he said the french were seeking \u201cvery sensitive material relating to the garda investigation\u201d and \u201cclearly it would be important not to prejudice the garda investigation or any subsequent prosecution by the premature disclosure of information to third parties\u201d ."]}
{"id": 1420, "summary": [{"text": "stigmatogobius sadanundio is a species of goby native to south asia from india to indonesia including sri lanka and the andaman islands .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it can be found in mostly fresh waters ( occasionally in brackish waters ) of estuaries and the tidal zones of rivers .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it can also be found in the aquarium trade . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "stigmatogobius sadanundio", "paragraphs": ["grey knight - goby ( stigmatogobius sadanundio ) from fishbase : technical fact sheet .\nlexicon : stigmatogobius : means \u201cgoby with spots\u201d . sadanundio : from the local bengal name for the species .\nhans - martin braun added the english common name\nknight goby\nto\nstigmatogobius sadanundio ( hamilton , 1822 )\n.\nstigmatogobius sadanundio are best kept in brackish water ; an sg of 1 . 003 - 1 . 005 should suffice . despite being classed as a peaceful species , it has been known for them to eat small fishes .\ngrey knight - goby ( stigmatogobius sadanundio ) ng , peter k . l . & n . sivasothi , 1999 . a guide to the mangroves of singapore ii ( animal diversity ) . singapore science centre . 168 pp .\nstocking a butis butis , stigmatogobius sadanundio and of course the gobioides broussonetti ! figuring that as long as i can carve the tank up into a few clear territories , add some disguised pvc pipes to the sand and add lots of cover , they should co - exist peacefully .\nuntil recently the genus stigmatogobius contained 18 species , but most have now been reclassified , leaving just 7 species currently assigned to it . s . sadanundio is by far the most common of these in the hobby . it makes an attractive addition to the brackish or hardwater community with medium - sized tankmates .\ngrey knight - goby stigmatogobius sadanundio family gobiidae updated oct 2016 where seen ? this large greyish goby with spots is sometimes seen in our mangrove streams . features : about 6cm long . pearly grey with 3 - 4 rows of small round black spots on the sides . spots and streaks also on the fins and tail . what does it eat ? according to fishbase , it feeds on small fishes and invertebrates , including mosquito larvae .\nlarson , h . k . , 2005 . a revision of the gobiid genus stigmatogobius ( teleostei : gobiidae ) , with descriptions of two new species . ichthyol . explor . freshwat . 16 ( 4 ) : 347 - 370 . ( ref . 56945 )\nthe knight goby ( stigmatogobius sadanundio ) is another of the classic gobies , having been in the hobby for many years . it is a striking fish with beautiful finnage , if not particularly colorful . unlike the previous gobies , it can survive in fresh water quite well and is often found in pure freshwater habitats in the wild , although it will survive in brackish waters . further , it has a voracious appetite and will eat any food offered to it . unfortunately , despite the fun of the names , they cannot be kept with dragon gobies due to the differing water needs and the dietary problems .\ngreek , stigma = mark , signal + latin , gobius = gudgeon ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; brackish ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 7 . 0 - 8 . 0 ; dh range : 9 - 19 ; amphidromous ( ref . 51243 ) . tropical ; 20\u00b0c - 26\u00b0c ( ref . 1672 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 9 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12693 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 7 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 7 - 8 ; anal spines : 1 ; anal soft rays : 7 - 8 ; vertebrae : 26 - 27 . body pearly grey with three or four roughly aligned rows of round black spots along the sides ; bases of soft dorsal and anal fins with elongate spots and streaks ( aligned with fin rays ) ; elongate blackish spot on first dorsal fin between third to fifth dorsal fin spines ; presence of interobital and post - orbital pores , preopercular pores . second dorsal rays i , 7 - 8 . anal rays i , 7 - 8 . pectoral rays 18 - 21 . longitudinal scales 25 - 29 . transverse scales backward 8 - 10 . predorsal scales 7 - 10 , reaching behind eyes ( ref . 56945 ) .\noccurs in estuaries and tidal zone of rivers . prefers fresh water , rarely found in brackish water . feeds on small fishes and invertebrates , including mosquito larvae ( ref . 12693 ) .\na cave - brooder . produces up to 1000 eggs ( ref . 1672 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5078 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00871 ( 0 . 00392 - 0 . 01936 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 25 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 8 \u00b10 . 61 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 24 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nthis page will give a completely detailed profile of the selected fish , from a to z . the profiled fish will be chosen randomly by badman , and will come from the complete genre of tropical fish . new profiles are added on a regular basis . if you would like to submit a profile for the site please contact me . don ' t forget to let us know you experiences with this fish by filling out the\nseen more and more at the local shops the knight goby can be an attractive addition to your aquarium .\nstriking in its own way the night goby is always pleasing to the eye . the base color is a pale gray . the body is speckled with a series of small black dots covering most of the body . the pectoral , anal and tail fin are fringed with a line of white . the dorsal fin has a large black splash in the back\nterritorial by nature , the aquarium should have plenty of places to to hide such as caves , driftwood and plants . they will defend their space and if you are keeping more than one extra care will have to be given as the are aggressive toward their on species . the aquarium itself does not have to be extra large a twenty gallon long would be great , aside from the above the substrate should be a sand material rather than gravel . being sensitive to poor water quality you must have good filtration and a strong maintenance schedule . . lighting is best subdued as they are timid in bright situations . considered a brackish fish according to fishbase they actually prefer freshwater , be sure to ask your supplier the conditions they have been kept in .\nwhile not an active predator , the knight goby will eat smaller fish in the aquarium , being shy you would not want to keep them with overly aggressive species like the larger cichlids .\nno wide scale successes , sporadic reports of breeding are reported with little luck of raising the fry . it is thought that rotifers would be the first food of choice .\ni have never kept this species but one reader has had the following experiences . they are awesome fish i ' ve had 6 for about 2 years . they like any kind of worms black , blood , tubiflex . and about the brackish water you should check with the shop you got him from and see if he was bread in brackish or fresh but a little salt wont hurt any way . they also like a high ph about 7 . 2 to 7 . 8 any ways they are awesome little fish but if they are not fed lots they may go after the other tankmates fins .\nplease remember that the following comments are personal experiences and may or may not apply to your setup . use them as guide to help better understand your fish , like us all individuals will behave differently under different circumstances .\ni have had 3 knight gobies for around 2 years now . while most sites say they prefer freshwater , i keep mine in a medium salinity brackish setup , around 1 . 010 - 1 . 012 ppm . they live happily with 4 scats , a mono , mollies , and a black fin shark cat . they are big eaters for their size and will readily devour large chunks of scallop . i believe i have 2 males and one female , as 2 of them are slightly larger and display much more beautiful colours , which range from white to blues to gold . a very beautiful fish when happy !\nso i would like to add some info to this thread , if you get a knight goby make sure you have it in water of 1 to 2 tablespoons of salt per gallon , knight gobies are brackish fish and need salt in there life at some point . if you are for some odd reason forced to keep them in fresh water , and only fresh water , ( it is ok to go back and forth between the two ) make sure at some point in there life they end up in salt with a minimum 1 . 005 salt , maximum being 1 . 20 right before marine , but ideally they should be kept between 1 . 005 - 1 . 160 , i have 2 that i keep with a figure eight puffer , they are all very friendly with each other . ii keep my salinity at 1 . 140 and they are very healthy and happy , almost fat because they like to eat so much\nthese are amazing little fish ! they are such a character ! my knight goby just loves blood worms and i do 25 % water changes weekly and put 2 tablespoons of salt in per gallon and he is very active and healthy . i strongly recommend that salt is added to a knight gobies ' tank . before i put salt in , he was not active and was not looking very healthy . even though they are classified as fresh and brackish water fish , a brackish environment is much better for the overall health and happiness of this fish . these are truly amazing creatures !\nwe had 8 knight gobies in our community tank for a few months . they have a striking blue patch on their dorsal fins , which appears black on younger members . if you feed them well , they grow quickly . these fish have a great personality , and the way they move is fascinating ( everyone should have a goby ! ) . we sold ours to our lfs because out of the blue they ate 5 otocinclus and 3 hillstream loaches in one day . we wanted a small fish community tank , and so switched to bumblebee gobies , which work great !\nprivacy policy | contact badman ' s tropical fish copyright \u00a9 all rights reserved . reproduction of any portion of this website ' s content is forbidden without written permission .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwidely distributed . it has been recorded in pakistan , india , bangladesh , sri lanka , thailand , cambodia , malaysia , singapore , indonesia and fiji .\nit inhabits estuarine zones , although it is more often found in freshwater than brackish .\n30\u2033 x 12\u2033 x 12\u2033 ( 75cm x 12cm x 12cm ) \u2013 70 litres .\na soft , sandy substrate is ideal for this species . also provide lots of caves , nooks and crannies where it can lurk and form territories . although commonly found in freshwater in nature , this goby appears to do better with the addition of salt to around 1 / 4 marine strength ( 1 . 005sg ) in the aquarium . saying that though , this species has also been kept with great success in hard , alkaline freshwater . it will be more active and visible during daylight hours if you provide dim lighting .\nan unfussy goby that will accept most dried , frozen and live foods . it also enjoys some vegetable matter in its diet and will often browse on green algae if it is present in the aquarium .\ndon\u2019t try to keep it with much smaller species as it will eat anything it can fit in its mouth . it may also nip the fins of slow - moving or long - finned species . ideal tankmates are other hardwater or brackish species that inhabit different levels of the aquarium , such as archer fish , chromides , rainbowfish , monos , chanda sp . etc . do not combine it with other territorial species that inhabit the bottom of the aquarium such as many cichlids or there may be some aggression . it can be kept in groups but is also territorial towards conspecifics , so ensure that you provide plenty of hiding places if you do want to keep a few .\nmales tend to have a higher dorsal fin when mature . females are usually smaller , rounder in the body , and often have a more yellowish body than males .\nhas been achieved in the hobby but is not very well - documented . apparently it is a cave spawner and following a prolonged courtship display the female deposits up to 1000 eggs on the roof of the selected cave . as with many other gobies the male then cares for the brood until the eggs hatch , at which point parental care ceases . it may well be that the addition of some fresh water could trigger spawning , as with some other estuarine gobies .\nhere ' s a look at my brackish tank . figure 8 puffer , gobies , live bearers . .\nlarson , helen k and kelvin k . p . lim . 2005 . a guide to gobies of singapore . singapore science centre . 164pp .\nthe knight goby is a peaceful , hardy fish , and is good for communities . this fish is fairly active , and spends most of its time swimming in the middle level of the tank . it does best in brackish water . it eats frozen foods , such as brine shrimp and bloodworms . it also takes frozen daphnia , but doesn ' t seem to enjoy it as much as the shrimp . another nice feature of this fish is that its eyes are often a nice , bright shade of blue .\ni have one of these little dudes and he ' s an awesome character ! he ' ll readily take frozen dillies out of my fingers and seems to have a ferocious appetite ! he also loves blood worms . he is by far the favourite fish in my tank and i ' m anxiously awaiting another consignment to arrive in a few weeks at my lfs so that i can get some more . very unusual looking . darts about the tank when spooked , can be very sloth - like and sit on the bottom of the tank and watch the world go by , and is also very good at hiding !\ni love these little guys . they are active without being hyper . i was afraid they might bite my angelfish ' s fins , but i had nothing to worry about . a great fish to spice up your tank a little bit .\nthe first one i had was very healthy and happy for about 2 years , before it stopped eating altogether and wasted away in his cave ( very sad ) . the second one i kept was beautiful but had trouble finding enough food , because of the competition from the neon tetras in the tank . i think that is why he started murdering and devouring his tankmates . he had to go . these are subtly beautiful fish .\ni have had a knight goby for a year now in my 60 l tank . it is a very peaceful fish , and it is good for the beginners . it eats flakes and bloodworms , and other food . the 3 last days i think that he ate 2 of my neons because he is quite big , 9 cm . although it is a beautiful fish ! recommended to beginners !\ngot some experience to share for this page ? no registration necessary to contribute ! your privacy is respected : your e - mail is published only if you wish so . all submissions are reviewed before addition . write based on your personal experiences , with no abbreviations , no chat lingo , and using proper punctuation and capitalization . ready ? then send your comments !\ncopyright \u00a9 1997 - 2011 marcos a . avila . all rights reserved . reproduction of any portion of this website ' s content is strictly forbidden without written permission .\noccurs in estuaries and tidal zone of rivers . prefers fresh water , rarely found in brackish water . feeds on small fishes and invertebrates , including mosquito larvae ( ref . 12693 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\npeaceful fish that should be kept together fish fishes that live in the middle water layers . every animal has his own territory . the aquarium should be set up with plants that can live in brackish water and some stones that can be used for hiding places . the substrate should be sandy . to give the fishes more resistance against diseases it is wise to add 1 - 2 teaspoons sea - salt at 10 liters of water . you should give them live food and algae . breeding is rather easy . when the water values are all right and the temperature is higher , up to 1000 eggs are laid and fertilized in caves . after the eggs are hatched the parents care for the fry . source : urltoken\nthe minimum size of the tanks shown are intended , depending on the species considered , for a single individual , a couple or the smaller group of individuals for schooling fish . depending on fish temper , territoriality , or vivacity , breeding with other animals of the same species or different species may require larger tanks .\nmain picture usually shows adults . depending on the age and sex , there may be significant variations in the color of the specimens .\nprefers live but will take most flake , frozen , dried or sinking pellets .\ntemperature : 72\u00b0f to 81\u00b0f ( 20 - 26\u00b0c ) ph range : 7 . 0 \u2013 8 . 0 ; dh range : 9 - 19\na 1 % addition of salt is recommendedas these fish are found in brackish water . this can be accomplished by adding 7 . 5 tsp of sea salt / 10 gallons ( 10g / 10 l ) on a hydrometer the reading should be between 1 . 005 to 1 . 010 specific gravity .\nfrom the day we opened the first store in maidenhead , we\u2019ve firmly believed that one key to our success is employing fish keepers .\nbangladesh , cambodia , india , indonesia , malaysia , pakistan , singapore , sri lanka , and thailand .\nmature females yellower & fuller bodied . mature males with extended rays on first dorsal fin + longer anal & second dorsal fins .\nmangrove wood ornament ( 11 . 5 x 10 . 5 x 21 . 5 cm )\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\npeaceful fish that should be kept together fish fishes that live in the middle water layers . every animal has his own territory . the aquarium should be set up with plants that can live in brackish water and some stones that can be used for hiding places . the substrate should be sandy . to give the fishes more resistance against diseases it is wise to add 1 - 2 teaspoons sea - salt at 10 liters of water .\nbreeding is rather easy . when the water values are all right and the temperature is higher , up to 1000 eggs are laid and fertilized in caves . after the eggs are hatched the parents care for the fry .\nhello to all . i love this site and admire the work you all do . i am hopelessly addicted . i discovered this vast wealth of knowledge about a year ago and my path went from freshwater to brackish and now marine .\ni have it bad ! the dragon fish tempted me into brackish and the mollies into marine .\nit ' s all been quite an adventure ! i have a violet goby in a 45 gallon long tank ( 48 x 13 x19 inches ) that i am slowly bringing up to marine . i also have a 21 gallon ( 19 x13 x19 inches ) saltwater tank with live sand , live rock and some chaeto . the inhabitants are two small mollies , a blue - legged hermit crab , and a flametail blenny , that i think may be enchelyurus flavipes rather than atrosalarias sp . i would like to move all this to the 45 once the salinity is matched and the gobioides broussennetii has fully adjusted to the addition of more live rock / sand .\n< be careful with this ; the gobioides will want a burrow . is there any way to hide a pvc tube or similar behind the live rock so he can have a safe lair that won ' t scratch his skin . >\nthe smaller tank i think is beautiful but i dislike it ' s size / shape . i think it will make a beautiful shrimp tank though . can this goby and this blenny cohabitate successfully and in a tank this size ?\n< gobioides isn ' t a demanding fish , but it can reach some 60 cm / 2ft in length , though more like 45 cm / 18 inches is typical . in any case , a 21 - gallon tank is much too small , and even 45 gallons is undersized . i ' d be aiming for 75 gallons upwards . >\nif so , after rehoming the mollies , could i add any additional livestock ? i would like a few more dwarf hermit crabs and a few marine nerites .\n< mollies are fine with miniature shrimps and snails . they can also work well with hermit crabs , but anything bigger than that can be risky ; boxer shrimps for example will simply view them as food , and mollies lack the instincts to avoid marine environment predators such as anemones , so approach these with care . likewise very small gobies ( e . g . , gobiodon spp . )\nand the like are fine , but damsels can hammer mollies . it ' s telling that were you see mollies in the marine environment , the mollies are usually in very shallow , often over - warm or slightly polluted environments like lagoons where typical marine fish don ' t go , except perhaps as schools of small , minnow - sized juveniles . on the other hand , i have seen mollies kept with seahorses and pipefish , the rationale being mollies turn algae into live food ( fry ) that these stealthy predators can consume . >\nmaybe a small fish or two later down the road if you don ' t advise against it . my equipment / filtration in addition to the lr / ls would be an appropriate heater , a gutted skilter 400 for the chaeto and some rubble , a small powerhead ( mag 400 ) , an aqua c remora skimmer ( 1200 powerhead ) , and a marineland hot 250 . would this provide enough circulation ? filtration ? i\nas a ball park , i think 10 + times the volume of the tank turnover per hour is about right for basic marine systems , but there ' s a lot more to it than that , e . g . , placement of powerheads to ensure adequate movement past those invertebrates that need more / less water movement . >\ni thought about putting one on each short end before i got the skilter working again . the sand will be about 1\ndeep . there is base rock in the 45 now , about 10 lbs , and about 10 lbs live rock in the 21 gallon . i figure i ' ll need to add 20 pounds or so of live rock , but i want to keep the sand as open as possible . i ' ve made a cave with a pipe and base rock on one end of the 45 that the goby is already using and that will be its island , then the blenny and his shell home will be on the other end . the\nlfs keeps their tanks at sg 1 . 021 , so i can add the live rock to the 45 when i get it there . ( sg 1 . 015 right now ) should i move the goby ?\ni don ' t plan on disturbing its island but i will be adding more sand along with the rock . i still plan on making the 45 into marine whether or not my blenny and goby can get along together .\n< they should do ; gobioides are big enough to avoid problems with most non - aggressive fish , and should be fine with salarias - type things , but do be aware that most blennies are territorial fish . >\ni do have other tanks . of course they are all occupied ( i did say i am an addict ) , but i ' m sure you all can help me decide the best course of action .\nand thank you for recommending such great books on marine aquariums ( bob fenner ' s and michael paletta ' s ) , and brackish water fishes ( neale monk ' s and frank shafer ' s ) , too . i am constantly reading and re - reading trying to learn , understand and hopefully do well . there is just so many interesting things to learn about it makes it hard to focus ! hard to believe one little betta fish started all this . thanks so much for your insight ,\nthank you for the quick reply . i ' m honored to be answered by you , neale .\ni have a windowsill tank inspired by your article . i apologize for not making myself clear . i should have included more information also . the violet goby is already in the 45 gallon long . when i asked if i should move him , i meant when i added additional rock and sand .\n< as a matter of course , i always try to remove all fish when adding rocks and substrate , and definitely always with\nbottom dwellers\n. i buried a pufferfish one time when i added some sand and didn ' t empty the tank first , and after noticing he ' d vanished , discovered he was under an inch of sand !\nnone the worse for wear , but the risk was clearly real . bottom dwellers are at particular risk because they tend to stay still when alarmed , whereas midwater fish are moving about and generally keep out of your hands and / or any decorative materials being dumped in the tank . >\nfrom what i ' ve read i considered this tank at 4 ' to be the bare minimum .\nthe goby is young , about 6\n, and is actually my second gobioides broussonnetii . my first one , dozer , lives in a 55 gallon brackish tank ( also 4 ' long ) with a few mollies and a few knight gobies ( population control ) . dozer is about 10\nand fat and sassy ( well , for a violet goby anyway ) . silica sand substrate , fake tree roots , rocks arranged into caves , java ferns and java moss , and malaysian trumpet snails to keep the sand stirred . i ' ve had dozer about a year and he has double his length and girth . i didn ' t put the second violet goby in that tank because i ' m sure he would have starved , been harassed by the bigger goby , and the tank is definitely not big enough .\n< certainly this species is territorial , but i have heard of two specimens being kept in 55 - gallon tanks , albeit with two pvc tubes so each has its own home . but like most gobies , the males are especially territorial . >\ni have been planning on upgrading , but i couldn ' t decide if 48\nx 18\nwould be big enough for one violet goby ' s entire life . of course my dream tank would be 72\nx 24\n, but i don ' t see that as feasible within the year .\nbut 48\nx 18\nwould be and possibly 48\nx 24\nif i could find a used one reasonable .\n< a very nice size aquarium , but not commonly seen . water depth doesn ' t matter to gobioides spp . though , which may mean a long , shallow tank fits into your budget . >\ni just wanted to get my little flametail blenny out of the 21 gallon first and thought he and the smaller violet goby might work in the 45 gallon . i had read here and your book that gobioides broussonnetii could live in full marine , but could not find anything anywhere about compatible tankmates in a marine aquarium .\n< not much kept in marine ( heck , it ' d be nice if they were always kept in brackish ) but in general terms is much like any large goby . because it ' s non - piscivorous , you can choose any tankmates that leave it alone . violet gobies are almost blind though , so nippy or even semi - aggressive tankmates might cause problems . that said , any non - territorial , basically peaceful reef fish should be fine , like hawkfish , though an interesting approach might be to choose other species that favour open sandy areas rather than rocks , such as goatfish . that way you could minimise the rocky part of the tank while expanding the open sandy area . do bear in mind violet gobies come from mudflats , and aren ' t really associated with rocky reefs . >\ni was also concerned about the roughness of the live rock , which is why i made the island with the pipe and base rock as a test to see if it would end up damaging . so far so good on that , although the goby is using the space between the pipe and rock instead of the pipe itself , and i ' m still not sure he won ' t damage himself .\nthank you so much for your time . i know this will sound silly to you and probably anyone in this hobby for years , but the idea of a thin glass box sitting on a little metal frame with 55 gallons of water in it was a little scary to me .\n< and yet stories of burst aquaria are relatively rare , and in my personal experience , the two times it ' s happened have both been my fault for doing something stupid . >\nnot to mention being responsible for everything in it . it was something i had to work up the confidence to achieve . it started with a betta in a 3 gallon tank a year and a half ago . i got my 6 gallon windowsill tank ( ghost shrimp and nerite snails ) and then went to a 20 gallon long with the first violet goby , guppies and ghost shrimp .\n< ah now , do think about setting up alternative to a reef aquarium - - could simplify things . look at mangrove roots ( or substitutes , such as bogwood ) and think about siliconing oyster shells to them to create a reef - like habitat for shrimps and gobies . the roots themselves could be siliconed to the back pane of glass , leaving the bottom inch or two uncluttered . you can then add a layer of sand deep enough for the violet goby , while creating a complex , shady environment at the back of the tank that would ably suit gobies , blennies and other small fish . this is a major type of reef not modeled in aquaria , but when you see them in the wild ( as i did a month or two back in belize and mexico ) you quickly see that oyster / mangrove reefs are teeming with juvenile marine fish , even baby butterflyfish ! >\nit took me a year to get confident enough for a 4 ' tank and brave enough to try a saltwater aquarium . in that year i have learned a quarantine tank is a absolute necessity among other things . i do hope someone will let me know if i am on the right track equipment / filtration wise for the 45 as a marine tank . thanks for sharing your knowledge and experience with all of us .\noh wow , what a great idea , neale ! i ' ve read other faqs where you mentioned oyster shells / mangrove roots but never thought of it as a reef , and thought oyster shells would be too sharp for the violet goby . siliconing them to the roots and then siliconing those to the back glass leaving the bottom for the goby sounds great and something i could do , after more research . i enjoy doing research and if i can keep my creative / artistic side in check , so as not to go overboard , this will be a wonderful project and very satisfying to accomplish . no doubt you will hear from me along the way .\n< do google image search the terms\noyster\nand\nmangrove\nand you ' ll find lots of inspiration ! good luck , neale . >\nhave done a little research but am really just looking for a definitive answer and understand you are the people to go to .\nwant to ask the question before i get the tank as opposed to making a mess of it after it ' s stocked and too late .\ni ' m looking to start a brackish tank , low end brackish . i ' d love to stock a\n, the more brackish type i believe ) . this leads to my first question , i know a violet goby prefers a sg of 1 . 010 as optimal and the bumblebee gobies are happiest at 1 . 005 to freshwater .\n< both will be perfectly happy at sg 1 . 010 , or indeed anything between about sg 1 . 005 and 1 . 010 . contrary to popular misconception , bumblebee gobies ( bbgs ) aren ' t specifically freshwater fish or brackish water fish . the imported species at least ( and identifying it is virtually impossible )\nappears do well in both . above all else diet is the reason bbgs die . they can actually be pretty adaptable in terms of water chemistry . >\nwill the violet goby be happy to drop down to 1 . 005 sg with no adverse health effects or is it going to be best if these two don ' t go in together ?\n< they ' re an odd mix , and your problem isn ' t salinity but feeding . the bbgs will be a total pain in the backside when it comes to feeding because they ' re so slowly and picky . you ' d be hard pressed getting them to eat enough with the violet goby slurping everything it sees ! i ' d go with a more active , midwater goby to be honest . perhaps something like knight gobies or clay gobies ( dormitator lebretonis ) or even crazy fish ( butis butis ) , all of which are fairly available in the hobby . with a bit more effort , you could alternatively track down species such as eleotris fusca or a brackish - water blenny like omobranchus zebra . >\nso far been looking at guppies and mollies . i know these can be easily acclimated to brackish but am concerned that they will eat all the food before the two gobies get a look in .\n< certainly strong competitors with regard to the bbgs . violet gobies aren ' t so difficult to feed because they ' re big and easily tamed . throw in some live brine shrimp and watch them scarf them down ! they also eat bloodworms and algae wafers , which the livebearers won ' t eat too quickly . >\nso is there any other sort of oddball fish that will co - exist happily with these two .\nsmall livebearers can be excellent . rather than mollies , why not endler ' s or else something out of the ordinary - - micropoecilia picta or micropoecilia parae . both of these are colourful and fun to watch , and while not easy to obtain , they are both traded as well as available through livebearer associations . >\nsomething outside the norm a bit . seeming as live food will be going in frequently , feeding won ' t be a concern and picky eaters are welcome . i ' ve been looking at the freshwater soles , but would be concerned on the larger species predatory nature and also the aquarium floor would be getting kind of crowded by that point wouldn ' t it ?\n< freshwater soles are very difficult to feed , and i ' d recommend keeping them alone or else with small , day - active tankmates only ( the afore mentioned livebearers would be ideal ) . soles feed at night mostly be smell , so you can ply them with wet - frozen bloodworms and brine shrimp easily enough , but if there ' s anything competing at nighttime , they ' ll starve .\nbest keep on their own , in groups if you want , in a smallish tank specially set up for them . >\nhave just received the book and had a quick thumb through . to be frank i ' m absolutely amazed at the number of fish that can live in brackish conditions . the common opinions seems to be that you ' re limited to a tiny number of species , this is clearly not the case .\nvery taken with the number of gobies on offer . going to try to recreate a mangrove looking tank using various driftwoods to represent roots , a few large rocks and a soft sand substrate .\n< i agree . while these can be aggressive towards one another ( knight goby pairs less so ) they generally ignore dissimilar fish . >\ngot my eye on a nice sized tank that i think will accommodate all fish happily .\nwould love to try my hand at mudskippers , but feel that due to the territorial nature of the other fish in the tank it might not work well .\n< in any event , mudskippers don ' t really mix well with\nproper\nfish anyway . >\nmay be a better life if a dedicated species tank was set up for them .\nsomething for the future certainly . unless one of the apocryptes spp . would be happy in with the other fish ?\n< does depend on the tankmates . they don ' t handle aggression or nervous tankmates well , but smallish , harmless tankmates such as small livebearers and smaller gobies could work . >\ni ' m under the impression that they spook quite easy and aren ' t happy around the more boisterous tank mates .\n< indeed . in the wild they live in inch - deep water , where they feed on algae and whatnot . needless to say , with so little swimming room and things like wading birds hunting for them , they have to react to sudden shadows and noises very quickly . >\ni think i may be on your side of the atlantic ! live in the uk . i know the email address is a bit of a false lead . had it since before aol made its push over seas and started offering\nurltoken\n.\n< generally very good . aquarium shops like wildwoods have built up a good sideline doing this sort of thing , with few reports of problems . >\nprefer to be able to see the fish myself before purchase and have always been apprehensive about placing an order . is this unfounded or can there be complications ?\n< if you think about it , the fish in an aquarium shop were air - freighted there . so there ' s little risk to shipping fish if it ' s done right . >\ntank mates for violet gobies 10 / 22 / 05 < hi , pufferpunk here > i have a violet goby and i would like to know what are their tankmates ? i keep him in brackish water and i have a 20 gallon tank . i am getting a 55 - 100 gallon around christmas . i have no other fish in there with him . he is about 4 - 5 inches long . i have been told a dinosaur eel would be good but i am not sure . please tell me some tankmates . thanks in advance for the help . < the\ndinosaur eel\nor polypterus , is not a bw fish . in the tank you have now , you could keep the goby with other gobies , like knights or bumblebees . when you get a larger tank , you could add more gobies or even a few figure 8 puffers . the problem with your goby is competition for food . once you add other fish with them , there is a large chance they will be out - competed for food & starve . they are filter feeders & practically blind . are you using marine salt to make his tank brackish ? see : urltoken for more ideas . ~ pp >\nthis article is a stub . we can not complete the encyclopaedia without your help . you can contribute to the aquarium wiki by expanding this article . dont be shy ! .\nthe males of this species have larger fins while the females are smaller and coloured light yellow .\na generally peaceful fish provided tank mates are not small enough to be considered food . best kept with larger robust yet peaceful fish which prefer brackish or hard alkaline water such as archerfish or chromides .\nthey will eat all insects , small fish , shrimp , mussels , snails , etc . should also accept dry foods .\nset up , although it can do well in hard , alkaline freshwater also .\nknight gobys are generally peaceful but can have unpredictable temperaments . best kept as the only bottom dwelling fish .\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 02 : 58 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\nalongi dm ( 2002 ) present state and future of the world\u2019s mangrove forests . environ conserv 29 ( 3 ) : 331\u2013349 . doi :\nalongi dm ( 2008 ) mangrove forests : resilience , protection from tsunamis , and responses to global climate change . estuar coast shelf sci 76 : 1\u201313 . doi :\nalongi dm ( 2009 ) paradigm shifts in mangrove biology . in : perillo g , wolanski e , cahoon d , brinson m ( eds ) coastal wetlands : an integrated ecosystem approach , pp . 615\u2013640\nbaker r , sheaves m ( 2005 ) redefining the piscivore assemblage of shallow estuarine nursery habitats . mar ecol prog ser 291 : 197\u2013213\nbarletta m , barletta - bergan a , saint - paul u , hubold g ( 2003 ) seasonal changes in density , biomass , and diversity of estuarine fishes in tidal mangrove creeks of the lower caet\u00e9 estuary ( northern brazilian coast , east amazon ) . mar ecol prog ser 256 : 217\u2013228\nbeck mw , heck kl jr , able kw et al ( 2001 ) the identification , conservation , and management of estuarine and marine nurseries for fish and invertebrates . bioscience 51 ( 8 ) : 833\u2013641\nblaber sjm , milton da ( 1990 ) species composition , community structure and zoogeography of fishes of mangrove estuaries in the solomon islands . mar biol 105 : 259\u2013267\nbozeman el jr , dean jm ( 1980 ) the abundance of estuarine larval and juvenile fish in a south carolina intertidal creek . estuaries 3 : 89\u201397\nl . in a north brazilian mangrove . j fish biol 70 ( 2 ) : 406\u2013427 . doi :\ncarpenter ke , niem vh ( 2001 ) fao species identification guide for fishery purposes , the living marine resources of the western central pacific . fao , rome\ncastellanos - galindo ga , krumme u ( 2014 ) long - term stability of tidal - related patterns in mangrove creek fish assemblages in north brazil . estuar coast shelf sci 149 : 264\u2013272 . urltoken\ncastellanos - galindo ga , krumme u ( 2013 ) tidal , diel and seasonal effects on intertidal mangrove fish in a high - rainfall area of the tropical eastern pacific . mar ecol prog ser 494 : 249\u2013265 . doi :\nchong vc , sasekumar a , leh muc , d\u2019cruz r ( 1990 ) the fish and prawn communities of a malaysian coastal mangrove system , with comparisons to adjacent mud flats and inshore waters . estuar coast shelf sci 31 : 703\u2013722\ncolwell rk ( 2009 ) estimates : statistical estimation of species richness and shared species from samples . version 8 . 2 . user\u2019s guide and application . available at\nr core team ( 2013 ) r : a language and environment for statistical computing . r foundation for statistical computing , vienna , austria . isbn 3 - 900051 - 07 - 0 , url\ndavis tlo ( 1988 ) temporal changes in the fish fauna entering a tidal swamp system in tropical australia . environ biol fish 21 : 161\u2013172\ndebruyn amh , meeuwig jj ( 2001 ) detecting lunar cycles in marine ecology : periodic regression versus categorical anova . mar ecol prog ser 214 : 307\u2013310\ndiaz rj , rosenberg r ( 2008 ) spreading dead zones and consequences for marine ecosystems . science 321 : 926\u2013929\nelliott m , whitfield ak , potter ic , blaber sjm , cyrus dp , nordlie fg , harrison td ( 2007 ) the guild approach to categorizing estuarine fish assemblages : a global review . fish fish 8 : 241\u2013268\nfaunce ch , serafy je ( 2006 ) mangroves as fish habitat : 50 years of field studies . mar ecol prog ser 318 : 1\u201318\nfish team of the trang project ( 2002 ) illustrated fish fauna of a mangrove estuary at sikao , southwestern thailand . rajamangala institute of technology and the university of tokyo , bangkok , p 60\nfroese r , pauly d ( 2013 ) fishbase . world wide web electronic publication .\ngiarrizzo t , krumme u ( 2007 ) spatial differences and seasonal cyclicity in the intertidal fish fauna from four mangrove creeks in a salinity zone of the curu\u00e7\u00e1 estuary , north brazil . bull mar sci 80 : 739\u2013754\n( tetraodontidae ) from north brazilian mangrove creeks . mar ecol prog ser 419 : 157\u2013170 . doi :\ngillanders bw ( 2009 ) tools for studying biological marine ecosystem interactions - natural and artificial tags . in : nagelkerken i ( ed ) ecological connectivity among tropical coastal ecosystems . springer science + business media b . v . , pp . 457\u2013492\nhajisamae s , ibrahim s ( 2008 ) seasonal and spatial variations of fish trophic guilds in a shallow , semi - enclosed tropical estuarine bay . environ biol fish 82 : 251\u2013264 . doi :\nhajisamae s , yeesin p , chaimongkol s ( 2006 ) habitat utilization by fishes in a shallow , semi - enclosed estuarine bay in southern gulf of thailand . estuar coast shelf sci 68 : 647\u2013655 . doi :\nhothorn t , bretz f , westfall p ( 2008 ) simultaneous inference in general parametric models . biom j 50 ( 3 ) : 346\u2013363\nhuxham m , kimani e , augley j ( 2004 ) mangrove fish : a comparison of community structure between forested and clear habitats . estuar coast shelf sci 60 : 637\u2013647 . doi :\nikejima k , tongnunui p , medej t , taniuchi t ( 2003 ) juvenile and small fishes in a mangrove estuary in trang province , thailand : seasonal and habitat differences . estuar coast shelf sci 56 : 447\u2013457 . doi :\njacoby ca , greenwood jg ( 1988 ) spatial , temporal and behavioural patterns in emergence of zooplankton in the lagoon of heron reef , great barrier reef , australia . mar biol 97 : 309\u2013328\njelbart j , ross p , connolly r ( 2007 ) fish assemblages in seagrass beds are influenced by the proximity of mangrove forests . mar biol 150 : 993\u20131002 . doi :\nkhoo kh ( 1991 ) the mangrove fisheries in matang , perak and merbok , kedah . proceedings of the regional symposium on living resources in coastal areas , manila , philippines , pp . 521\u2013524\nkimirei ia , nagelkerken i , mgaya yd , huijbers cm ( 2013 ) the mangrove nursery paradigm revisited : otolith stable isotopes support nursery - to - reef movements by indo - pacific fishes . plos one 8 ( 6 ) : e66320 . doi :\nkimura s , satapoomin u , matsuura k ( 2009 ) fishes of andaman sea , west coast of southern thailand . national museum of nature and science , tokyo , p 346\nkneib rt , wagner sl ( 1994 ) nekton use of vegetated marsh habitats at different stages of tidal inundation . mar ecol prog ser 106 : 227\u2013238"]}
{"id": 1438, "summary": [{"text": "lycaena dospassosi , the maritime copper , is a butterfly of the lycaenidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in eastern north america .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 25 \u2013 31 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from july to mid-august .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on potentilla egedii . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "lycaena dospassosi", "paragraphs": ["no one has contributed data records for lycaena dospassosi yet . learn how to contribute .\nspecies lycaena dospassosi - salt marsh copper - hodges # 4261 . 1 - bugguide . net\nlycaena ( epidemia ) dospassosi ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 197\nlycaena dorcas var . dospassosi mcdunnough , 1940 ; can . ent . 72 ( 7 ) : 130 ; tl : bathurst , n . b .\nyan wong marked\nimage of lycaena cupreus\nas hidden on the\nlycaena cupreus\npage .\nlycaena ( lycaena ) cupreus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 190\nlycaena ( lycaena ) phlaeas hypophlaeas ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 188\nlycaena ( lycaena ) phlaeas arethusa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 190\nlycaena ( lycaena ) phlaeas arctodon ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 190\nlycaena ( lycaena ) phlaeas feildeni ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 190\nlycaena ( lycaena ) phlaeas alpestris ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 190\nlycaena ( lycaena ) cupreus cupreus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 190\nlycaena ( lycaena ) cupreus snowi ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 190\nlycaena ( lycaena ) cupreus lapidicola ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 190\nsubgenus lycaena ( lycaena ) ; sibatani , 1974 , aust . ent . soc . 1974 ( 13 ) : 109\nhome \u00bb guide \u00bb arthropods ( arthropoda ) \u00bb hexapods ( hexapoda ) \u00bb insects ( insecta ) \u00bb butterflies and moths ( lepidoptera ) \u00bb butterflies and skippers ( papilionoidea ) \u00bb blues , coppers , hairstreaks , harvesters ( lycaenidae ) \u00bb coppers ( lycaeninae ) \u00bb lycaena \u00bb salt marsh copper - hodges # 4261 . 1 ( lycaena dospassosi )\nlycaena boldenarum white , 1862 ; proc . ent . soc . london 1861 : 26\nlycaena bathinia snellen , 1899 ; tijdschr . ent . 42 : 212 ; tl : java\nlycaena ( lycaenini ) ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 188\nlycaena ( lycaena ) phlaeas ; sibatani , 1974 , aust . ent . soc . 1974 ( 13 ) : 109 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 188\n= lycaena phlaeas hypophlaeas ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 189\n= lycaena cupreus cupreus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 190\n= lycaena cupreus snowi ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 190\nlycaena pavana ; [ ebw ] ; [ bow ] : pl . 178 , f . 17\n= lycaena editha editha ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 192\n= lycaena editha vurali ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 192\n= lycaena xanthoides xanthoides ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 193\n= lycaena heteronea gravenotata ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 195\n= lycaena epixanthe phaedrus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 195\n= lycaena dorcas castro ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 197\n= lycaena dorcas florus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 196\n= lycaena nivalis nivalis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 197\n= lycaena mariposa mariposa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 198\nlycaena phlaeas phlaeas ; [ bmat ] : 29 , pl . 10 , f . 1 - 11\nlycaena standfussi ; [ bow ] : pl . 206 , f . 8 ; [ nhm card ]\nlycaena tseng ; [ nhm card ] ; [ bow ] : pl . 206 , f . 10\nlycaena ( tharsalea ) arota ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 191\nlycaena ( chalceria ) dione ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 191\nlycaena ( chalceria ) editha ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 192\nlycaena ( chalceria ) xanthoides ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 192\nlycaena ( chalceria ) gorgon ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 193\nlycaena ( chalceria ) rubidus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 193\nlycaena ( chalceria ) heteronea ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 194\nlycaena ( epidemia ) hyllus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 195\nlycaena ( epidemia ) epixanthe ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 195\nlycaena ( epidemia ) helloides ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 197\nlycaena ( epidemia ) nivalis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 197\nlycaena ( epidemia ) mariposa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 198\nlycaena ( hermelycaena ) hermes ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 191\nlycaena ( tharsalea ) arota arota ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 191\nlycaena ( tharsalea ) arota virginiensis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 191\nlycaena ( tharsalea ) arota nubila ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 191\nlycaena ( tharsalea ) arota schellbachi ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 191\nlycaena ( chalceria ) editha editha ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 192\nlycaena ( chalceria ) editha vurali ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 192\nlycaena ( chalceria ) editha obscuramaculata ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 192\nlycaena ( chalceria ) editha pseudonexa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 192\nlycaena ( chalceria ) xanthoides xanthoides ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 192\nlycaena ( chalceria ) xanthoides obsolescens ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 193\nlycaena ( chalceria ) xanthoides nigromaculata ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 192\nlycaena ( chalceria ) gorgon gorgon ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 193\nlycaena ( chalceria ) gorgon jacquelinaeae ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 193\nlycaena ( chalceria ) gorgon dorothea ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 193\nlycaena ( chalceria ) gorgon micropunctata ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 193\nlycaena ( chalceria ) rubidus rubidus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 193\nlycaena ( chalceria ) rubidus sirius ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 194\nlycaena ( chalceria ) rubidus duofacies ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 193\nlycaena ( chalceria ) rubidus perkinsorum ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 193\nlycaena ( chalceria ) rubidus longi ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 194\nlycaena ( chalceria ) rubidus monachensis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 193\nlycaena ( chalceria ) rubidus ferrisi ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 194\nlycaena ( chalceria ) rubidus incana ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 193\nlycaena heteronea boisduval , 1852 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . ( 2 ) 10 : 298\nlycaena ( chalceria ) heteronea heteronea ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 194\nlycaena ( chalceria ) heteronea clara ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 194\nlycaena ( chalceria ) heteronea gravenotata ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 195\nlycaena ( chalceria ) heteronea klotsi ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 194\nlycaena ( chalceria ) heteronea submaculata ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 194\nlycaena ( chalceria ) heteronea northi ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 194\nlycaena ( chalceria ) heteronea rava ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 194\nlycaena ( chalceria ) heteronea rutila ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 194\nlycaena ( epidemia ) epixanthe epixanthe ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 195\nlycaena ( epidemia ) epixanthe phaedrus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 195\nlycaena ( epidemia ) epixanthe michiganensis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 196\nlycaena ( epidemia ) dorcas dorcas ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 196\nlycaena ( epidemia ) dorcas castro ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 197\nlycaena ( epidemia ) dorcas florus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 196\nlycaena ( epidemia ) dorcas claytoni ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 196\nlycaena ( epidemia ) dorcas megaloceras ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 196\nlycaena ( epidemia ) dorcas arcticus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 196\nlycaena ( epidemia ) dorcas michuron ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 196\nlycaena ( epidemia ) nivalis nivalis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 197\nlycaena ( epidemia ) nivalis bichroma ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 197\nlycaena ( epidemia ) nivalis warnermontana ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 197\nlycaena ( epidemia ) nivalis praetexta ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 197\nlycaena ( epidemia ) mariposa mariposa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 198\nlycaena ( epidemia ) mariposa charlottensis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 198\nlycaena ( epidemia ) mariposa penroseae ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 198\nlycaena editha nevadensis austin , 1984 ; j . res . lepid . 23 ( 1 ) : 83 , 85 ( preocc . lycaena nevadensis oberth\u00fcr , 1896 ) ; tl : nevada , elko co . , jarbidge mtns\ndistribution of arctic - alpine lycaena phlaeas l . ( lycaenidae ) in north america with designation of a new subspecies\nlycaena dorcas ; [ bow ] : pl . 19 , f . 42 ( text only ) ; [ opler ]\nversuch einer monographie der europ\u00e4ischen schmetteringsarten : thecla , polyomattus [ sic ] , lycaena , nemeobius . als beitrag zur schmetterlingskunde\nlycaena pang ; [ ebw ] ; [ nhm card ] ; [ bow ] : pl . 206 , f . 9\nlycaena dorcas kirby , 1837 ; in richardson , fauna boreal amer . : 299 , pl . 4 , f . 1\nlycaena heteronea klotsi field , 1936 ; ent . news 47 ( 5 ) : 123 ; tl : broadwater co . , montana\nlycaena delicatula mabille , 1877 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . ( 5 ) 7 : lxxi ; tl : madagascar\nlycaena melanotoxa marott , 1882 ; giorn . sci . palermo 14 : 54 , pl . 3 , f . 14 - 15\nlycaena embla ; scudder , 1876 , bull . buffalo soc . nat . sci . 3 : 124 ; [ nhm card ]\nlycaena eunomia ; scudder , 1876 , bull . buffalo soc . nat . sci . 3 : 124 ; [ nhm card ]\nlycaena phlaeas f . polaris courvoisier , 1911 ; ent . zs . 24 ( 49 ) : 262 ; tl : lappland ; norway\n= lycaena xanthoides xanthoides ; [ nl4a ] , # 1064a ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 193\nchrysophanus virgaureae caucasica jachontov , 1908 ; revue russe ent . 8 : 291 ( ? preocc . lycaena coridon caucasica lederer , 1870 )\nlycaena irmae bailey , 1932 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 35 : 697 ; tl : gyantse , tibet , 13000ft\nlycaena virgaureae balcanicola graves , 1928 ; entomologist 61 ( 780 ) : 106 - 107 ; tl : s . bulgaria , kostenetz , 3000ft\nserpentatoides ( strand , 1924 ) ( lycaena ) ; dt . ent . z . iris 38 : 146 ; tl : sw . australia\nlycaena nigrescens dubois , 1867 ; arch . cosm . : 259 , pl . 12 , f . 1 - 2 ; tl : luchon\n= lycaena phlaeas pseudophlaeas ; stempffer , 1967 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent ) suppl . 10 : 264\nlycaena mariposa penroseae field , 1938 ; pan - pacific ent . 14 ( 3 ) : 142 ; tl : lake eleanor , yellowstone national park\nlycaena kasyapa ; [ bir ] , 301 ; [ ebw ] ; [ bow ] : pl . 178 , f . 16 ; [ nhm card ]\nlycaena salustius ; [ bow ] : pl . 178 , f . 18 ; [ ebw ] ; [ nhm card ] ; [ baur ] , 363\nlycaena feredayi ; [ bow ] : pl . 178 , f . 15 ; [ ebw ] ; [ nhm card ] ; [ baur ] , 363\nlycaena alciphron acutipennis chou & zhang , 1994 ; in chou , monographia rhopalocerum sinensium 1 - 2 : 771 , 664 , f . 73 ; tl : xinjiang\nlycaena editha pseudonexa emmel & pratt , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 52 ) : 675 , f . 45 - 58\nlycaena dorcas claytoni brower , 1940 ; bull . brooklyn ent . soc . 35 ( 4 ) : 138 ; tl : springfield , maine [ penobscot co . ]\nlycaena solskyi erschoff , 1874 ; in fedschenko , travels in turkestan . 2 ( 5 ) : 8 , pl . 1 , f . 7 ; tl : maracanda [ uzbekistan ]\nlycaena ( tharsalea ) rubidus perkinsorum johnson & balogh , 1977 ; bull . allyn mus . 43 : 25 , f . 21 - 22 ; tl : wasco co . , oregon\nlycaena epixanthe michiganensis rawson , 1948 ; j . n . y . ent . soc . 56 ( 1 ) : 59 ; tl : proud lake , oakland co . , michigan\ngenerally treated since its description in 1977 as a sibling species of lycaena rubidus . the exception is scott ( 1986 ) who lumped as a subpecies of l . rubidus with no explanation .\nlycaena ouang nujiangensis huang , 2001 ; neue ent . nachr . 51 : 75 , pl . 3 , f . 20 , pl . 4 , f . 25 ; tl : gamagou\nlycaena ( tharsalea ) arota schellbachi tilden , 1955 ; bull . southern calif . acad . sci . 54 ( 2 ) : 72 ; tl : north rim , grand canyon , arizona\nlycaena dispar ; [ ebw ] ; [ bow ] : pl . 9 , f . 36 , 38 ; [ mrs ] , 663 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ otakar kudrna ]\nlycaena aeolus wyatt , 1961 ; j . lep . soc . 15 ( 1 ) : 17 ; tl : bala - quran , anjuman valley , hindu kush mts . , 14300ft , afghanistan\nlycaena nivalis praetexta austin , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 44 ) : 541 , f . 13 - 16 ; tl : nevada , elko co .\nlycaena ( tharsalea ) rubidus monachensis johnson & balogh , 1977 ; bull . allyn mus . 43 : 38 , f . 29 - 30 ; tl : monache meadows , tulare co . , california\nlycaena ( tharsalea ) ferrisi johnson & balogh , 1977 ; bull . allyn mus . 43 : 40 , f . 31 - 32 ; tl : apache ditch camp , apache co . , arizona\nlycaena phlaeas arctodon ferris , 1974 ; bull . allyn mus . 18 : 4 , f . 17 - 18 ; tl : e side beartooth pass , custer nf , carbon co . , mont .\nlycaena ( dione ) dione tr . f . gibboni gunder , 1927 ; can . ent . 59 ( 12 ) : 284 , pl . a , f . 13 ; tl : miniota , manitoba\nlycaena xanthoides obsolescens emmel & pratt , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 52 ) : 672 , f . 37 - 40 ; tl : california , inyo co .\nlycaena xanthoides nigromaculata emmel & pratt , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 52 ) : 674 , f . 41 - 44 ; tl : california , colusa co .\nlycaena gorgon jacquelinaeae emmel & pratt , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 52 ) : 666 , f . 17 - 20 ; tl : california , modoc co .\nlycaena gorgon dorothea emmel & pratt , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 52 ) : 668 , f . 21 - 24 ; tl : oregon , josephine co .\nlycaena gorgon micropunctata emmel & pratt , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 52 ) : 668 , f . 25 - 28 ; tl : california , mono co .\nlycaena dorcas michuron scott , 2006 ; papilio ( n . s . ) 12 : 42 , pl . 4 ; tl : fenton road , n of hwy 59 , livingstone co . , mich .\nlycaena phlaeas alpestris emmel & pratt , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 52 ) : 662 ; tl : california , mono co . , n slope of mt . dana\nlycaena ( heodes ) snowi tr . f . mcdunnoughi gunder , 1927 ; can . ent . 59 ( 12 ) : 284 , pl . a , f . 12 ; tl : laggan , alta .\nlycaena ouang ; [ ebw ] , ( name ) ; [ nhm card ] ; huang , 2001 , neue ent . nachr . 51 : 75 ( note ) , pl . 3 , f . 24\nlycaena heteronea rava austin , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 44 ) : 540 , f . 5 - 8 ; tl : nevada , elko co . , ruby mntns\nlycaena nivalis browni dos passos , 1938 ; can . ent . 70 ( 3 ) : 45 , pl . 2 , f . 1 - 4 ; tl : snowslide canyon , 8mi from montpelier , id\nlycaena ( heodes ) virgaureae denizae eckweiler & rose , 1993 ; nachr . ent . ver . apollo nf 13 ( 3a ) : 356 ; tl : turkey , isparta , egridir , aksu , dedeg\u00f6l dag\nlycaena ( tharsalea ) rubidus longi johnson & balogh , 1977 ; bull . allyn mus . 43 : 28 , f . 23 - 24 ; tl : ca\u00f1on region n of harrison , sioux co . , nebraska\nlycaena ( tharsalea ) rubidus duofacies johnson & balogh , 1977 ; bull . allyn mus . 43 : 21 , f . 19 - 20 ; tl : bogus basin , nr . boise , boise co . , idaho\nlycaena heteronea submaculata emmel & pratt , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 52 ) : 670 , f . 29 - 32 ; tl : california , plumas co . , warner valley\nlycaena rubida incana austin , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 44 ) : 539 , f . 1 - 4 ; tl : nevada , esmeralda co . ; white mntns , trail canyon\nlycaena heteronea northi emmel & pratt , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 52 ) : 671 , f . 33 - 36 ; tl : california , humboldt co . , north trinity mtn\nlycaena orus ; stempffer , 1967 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent ) suppl . 10 : 264 ; [ ebw ] ; [ nhm card ] ; [ bafr ] , 525 ; [ afrl ]\nlycaena ( phoenicurusia ) euphratica eckweiler , 1989 ; nachr . ent . ver . apollo nf 10 ( 2 ) : 83 ; tl : turkey , bing\u00f6l , 14 - 24km s . gen\u00e7 , 1200 - 1400m , 30km s bing\u00f6l\nlycaena nivalis bichroma emmel & pratt , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 52 ) : 664 , f . 9 - 12 ; tl : california , siskiyou co . , summit of mt . eddy\nlycaena nivalis warnermontana emmel & pratt , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 52 ) : 665 , f . 13 - 16 ; tl : california , modoc co . , dismal swamp , warner mntns\nlycaena helle ; [ baru , # 342 ] ; [ ebw ] ; [ bow ] : pl . 9 , f . 37 ; [ bru2 ] : 123 , pl . 57 , f . 1 - 6 ; [ otakar kudrna ]\njohnson , k . and g . balogh . 1977 . studies in the lycaeninae . ii . 2 . taxonomy and evolution of the nearctic lycaena rubidus complex , with description of a new species . bulletin of the allyn museum 43 : 1 - 62 .\nlycaena heteronea rutila austin , 1998 ; syst . w . n . am . butts . ( 44 ) : 541 , f . 9 - 12 ( ? preocc . werneburg , 1864 ) ; tl : nevada , lincoln co . , wilson creek range\nlycaena phlaeas shima ; stempffer , 1967 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent ) suppl . 10 : 264 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ bafr ] , 525 ; [ bk ] , 213 ( note ) ; [ afrl ]\ndiagnosis : larger ( wingspan : 25 to 31 mm ) than the dorcas copper , males are a duller purple above with much larger black spots on the wings above and below . on the underside the forewing is pale yellow buff and the hindwing is a little browner . the submarginal band of lunules on the hindwing below is yellow . females are similar to males except that the wings above are brown with a partial yellow band beyond the post medial row of black spots .\nrange : this species is known only from salt marshes in the bay of chaleur , quebec / new brunswick , and the gasp\u00e9 peninsula , quebec .\nis smaller , has tiny black dots on the wings except for a single central spot , the wings above are shining purple , and the wings below are yellow orange ( forewing ) and orange brown ( hindwing ) , with a reddish - orange band of lunules near the margin of the hindwing below .\nabundance : the maritime copper is localized to a few salt marshes but it can occur in fair numbers at these sites .\nflight season : adults are on the wing from late july until mid - august .\n, we treat the maritime copperas a valid species , based largely on the field research in quebec by louis handfield and in new brunswick by reginald webster . a colony of maritime copper at st - sim\u00e9on - de - bonaventure , quebec , is only six kilometres from a colony of dorcas copper at bonaventure and there is no evidence of intermediates at either site . the marsh at bonaventure is less salty because of the influence of the bonaventure river ; other gasp\u00e9 locations for dorcas copper are also less salty than the marshes where the maritime copper occurs . maritime coppers observed at several locations in quebec were closely associated with\n\u00a9 2002 . this material is reproduced with permission from the butterflies of canada by ross a . layberry , peter w . hall , and j . donald lafontaine . university of toronto press ; 1998 . specimen photos courtesy of john t . fowler .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nopler , p . a . , and a . d . warren . 2002 . butterflies of north america . 2 . scientific names list for butterfly species of north america , north of mexico . c . p . gillette museum of arthropod diversity , department of bioagricultural sciences and pest management , colorado state university , fort collins , colorado . 79 pp .\napparently between 5 and 20 populations with some metapopulations . some degree of potential threat but not critically imperiled and probably not actually threatened now . this species is well - known and receives some degree of protection .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nlimted to a few salt marshes in a small area of coastal new brunswick and quebec mainly on the bay of chaleur . very similar range to that of maritime ringlet , a better studied species ( webster , 1999 ) and they co - occur at some sites . also known from nova scotia and prince edward island ( pers . comm with john klymko , aug 2015 ) .\nthomas apparently made a rather thorough search of possible habitats in 1979 and found 9 colonies . more recent maps indicate a comparable number .\nlook for this in suitable habitats , especially those listed by thomas , to monitor status .\nshould be several in close proximity to allow for recolonization if local extirpations occur .\n( < 100 - 250 square km ( less than about 40 - 100 square miles ) ) limted to a few salt marshes in a small area of coastal new brunswick and quebec mainly on the bay of chaleur . very similar range to that of maritime ringlet , a better studied species ( webster , 1999 ) and they co - occur at some sites . also known from nova scotia and prince edward island ( pers . comm with john klymko , aug 2015 ) .\nlarval foodplant is potentilla egedii . adult nectar plant is sea lavendar limonium nashii .\nadults occur from late july to mid august . presumably hibernates in the egg .\na salt marsh containing the larval foodplant ( potentilla egedii ) and sufficient sea lavender for nectaring where a population occurs . minimally a salt marsh where an adult or larva has been collected or photographed .\nat least the inland edges of the habitat will be obvious , however it may be unclear how far into the marshes the occurrence extends , but one or both plants may be found mostly near the edges . occurrence boundaries can be approximated by the distribution of the two essential plants . generally the suitable habitat distance should be appropriate within a salt marsh if either essential plant is present .\nthis is an extremely restricted species that does not leave its habitat . it is unclear how extensive habitats are so the suitable habitat distance is merely a guess . the unsuitable habitat distance is the standard minimum used for animals . it seems likely there is something of a metapopulation near bathurst , but otherwise it is possible all colonies are quite isolated based on the map in layberry et al . ( 1998 ) .\nthis is a very localized species so do not infer occurrence more than this distance without more information . if both plants do not extend that far use a smaller distance .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nlayberry , r . a . , p . w . hall , and j . d . lafontaine . 1998 . the butterflies of canada . university of toronto press : toronto , canada . 280 pp . + color plates .\npelham , j . p . 2008 . a catalogue of the butterflies of the united states and canada with a complete bibliography of the descriptive and systematic literature . the journal of research on the lepidoptera . volume 40 . 658 pp .\nwebster , r . p . [\n1998\n] 1999 . the life history of the maritime ringlet , coenonympha tullia nipisquit ( satyridae ) . journal of the lepidopterists ' society 52 ( 4 ) : 345 - 355 .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\nthis is a family of small , dainty colourful butterflies . we often see blues , and a little patience will help in identifying them . the coppers are less frequently encountered , although in suitable habitat they can be quite abundant .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nsujeevan ratnasingham , paul d . n . hebert , barcode of life data systems ( bold )\n, with the exception of four species found in new zealand , two in south africa , one in new guinea and one in java . it is commonly divided into several subgenera , such as\na holarctic genus , with the exception of four species occurring in new zealand and two in south africa ( orus group ) . generic names have been proposed for most of the species groups and also for individual species that do not fit into the species groups , but these are all viewed as synonyms by most modern researchers .\nspecies groups as identified here for the palearctic species are those of bozano & weidenhoffer ( 2001 ) , while the nearctic groups are based on various now synonymized genera described by scudder and others . the group is in need of a phylogenetic analysis .\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nrestricted endemic but no known threat . seems more likely to be a g2 than a g1 , but possibly only one occurrence ( metapopulation ) and almost certainly less than 20 . probably several metapopulations and a few isolated colonies .\nknown only from white mountains of apache county , arizona . most locations near mcnary , maverick , and greer , apache county ( johnson and balogh , 1977 ) .\npossible there is only one metapopulation , very probable there are less than 20 .\ngrasses . fire suppression results in the invasion of meadow habitats and other openings by dense conifer forests . eventual warm season intense fires could be overly intense and eliminate some populations or permanently alter previously suitable habitats .\nneeds to be looked for at additional sites to determine actual number of metapopulations and actual distribution .\n( < 100 - 250 square km ( less than about 40 - 100 square miles ) ) known only from white mountains of apache county , arizona . most locations near mcnary , maverick , and greer , apache county ( johnson and balogh , 1977 ) .\na small butterfly , reddish with dark spots above , beneath whitish gray with similar spots , orange flush over much of fw but not showing while at rest . in other words a rather typical looking copper .\ndiffers superficially from l . rubidus by more orange colr above and much larger spots . in practice locality would distinguish these two .\npresumably like other coppers does move between habitat patches and widely within patches . likely to move along stream corridors especially .\nin meadows and ciengas near foodplant which is rumex hymeospalus ( johnson and balogh , 1977 ) . scott and pyle both mention streamside situations for the closely related l . rubidus .\nlarval foodplant is rumex hymenosepalus ( johnson and balogh , 1977 ) . might use other rumex species if available .\naestivates then hibernates as an egg . larva in spring . pupal stage probably about 10 days , adults apparently about mid june to late august ( johnson and balogh , 1977 ) .\nneed some information on population size and structure if any active management or protection activities are contemplated .\na location where the species occurs , or has recently occurred , where there is potential for continued occurrence or regular recurrence . minimally a location with the larval foodplants and any other essential habitat features where the species has been verified to occur on the basis of specimens or positively identifiable photographs . high quality occurrences will usually support metapopulations .\nno information but since adults are low fliers in open habitats , it is likely dense forests are barriers .\nfor most species suitable habitats are not often large so the four kilometer figure would seldom apply . apply the 4 km distance in extensive wetland complexes , considering all colonies as part of a single metapopulation occurrence . the four kilometer limit should probably apply in a few other situations where a large geologic feature or community complex contains multiple habitat patches , especially if the foodplant occurs at least occasionally between the main colony sites . it is also very likely ( observed occasionally for l . epixanthe in new jersey and nearly certain for l . dorcas ) that adults move along sunny stream banks , especially if the foodplant occurs in limited amounts along them . thus in most cases the 4 km distance is probably appropriate when wetlands or riparian habitats are connected by streams in fairly open landscapes .\ninferred extent is very rarely applicable since most colonies are tiny and the sites obviously fully occupied and only the patch where the observation was made is assumed occupied . however when habitat complexes are truly large , e . g . some northern peatlands with metapopulations of l . epixanthe and l . dorcas , it would be unreasonable not to assume very nearby patches are occupied and in such cases usually either all or none of them are . still apparently more so than most butterflies coppers do sometimes fail to occupy or persist in seemingly suitable proximate habitats , and colonies can be very localized . if the actual foodplant patch itself extends continuously for more than . 5 kilometer presence may be inferred throughout it . in most cases foodplants are patchier than that .\nopler , p . a . , and a . b . wright . 1999 . a field guide to western butterflies . second edition . peterson field guides . houghton mifflin company , boston , massachusetts . 540 pp .\npyle , r . m . , 1981 . the audubon society field guide to north america butterflies . chanitcleer press , alfred a . knopf , ny . 916 pp , 759 color figures .\nscott , j . a . 1986 . the butterflies of north america : a natural history and field guide . stanford university press , stanford ca . 583 pp .\nresident in patchy distribution of western north america ( scott 1986 ) . habitats are alpine zone , esp glacial cirques ; open areas in canadian / to alpine zones of ca ; transition to hudsonian zone sagebrush ; and meadows elswhere . hosts plants are usually herbaceous with most known hosts largely restricted to one genus ,\n( polygonaceae ) . eggs are laid on or near the host plant singly . individuals overwinter as larvae . there is one flight each year with the approximate flight time late jun - aug15 ( scott 1986 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\n= ; eliot , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 6 ) : 441 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ nl4a ] , 137 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 188\n= ; eliot , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 6 ) : 441 ; sibatani , 1974 , aust . ent . soc . 1974 ( 13 ) : 109 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ nl4a ] , 137 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 188\n= ; eliot , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 6 ) : 441 ; sibatani , 1974 , aust . ent . soc . 1974 ( 13 ) : 109 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ nl4a ] , 138 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 188\n= hyrcanana ; sibatani , 1974 , aust . ent . soc . 1974 ( 13 ) : 109 ; nekrutenko , 1983 , vestn . zool . 1983 ( 3 ) : 8\nmargelycaena kemal , 2006 ; priamus suppl . 2 : 81 ; ts : polyommatus phoenicurus var . margelanica staudinger\nrumicia tutt , 1906 ; ent . rec . j . var . 18 ( 5 ) : 131 ; ts : papilio phlaeas linnaeus\neu , naf , am , temperate asia , japan , abyssinia . see [ maps ]\n500x439 ( ~ 26kb ) upperside finland , tampere , rusko , 6820 : 339 , 11 . 8 . 1996 , photo \u00a9 tero piirainen\n500x581 ( ~ 50kb ) underside finland , kangasala , savo , 6815 : 338 , 18 . 8 . 1996 , photo \u00a9 tero piirainen\n512x768 ( ~ 54kb ) upperside germany , baden - wuerttemberg , oetisheim , 8\u00b0 49 ' e , 48\u00b0 58 ' n , altitude 300m , 26 . 07 . 1998 ( sucking on origanum vulgare ) , photo \u00a9 karl hofs\u00e4\u00df\n512x768 ( ~ 47kb ) underside germany , baden - wuerttemberg , oetisheim , 8\u00b0 49 ' e , 48\u00b0 58 ' n , altitude 300m , 26 . 07 . 1998 ( sucking on origanum vulgare ) , photo \u00a9 karl hofs\u00e4\u00df\n800x708 ( ~ 111kb ) upperside ukraine , ivano frankovsk , near kalush , stankova , 24 . 10 . 2001 , photo \u00a9\n444x518 ( ~ 27kb ) a floweer clump , chihaya - akasaka - mura , minami - kawachi - gun , osaka prefecture , japan . 3th august 2002 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\nlarva on rumex , r . longifolius , r . crispus , r . acetosa [ sprk ]\n448x396 ( ~ 28kb ) uk , w . suffolk , icklingham , king ' s forest , grid tl 7945 7330 , 23 . 5 . 2004 , photo \u00a9 jonathan p . tyler\nlarva on rumex thyrsoideus , r . papilio , r . vesicarius , r . tingitanus , r . acetosa , r . acetosella , polygonum sp . [ bmat ]\naltai , s . siberia , amur , n . ussuri , massachusetts , new york , new jersey\n431x324 ( ~ 21kb ) female chelsea , michigan , usa , may 2004 , photo \u00a9 christopher a . rickards\nlarva on oxyria digyna ballmer & pratt , 1989 , j . lep . soc . 43 ( 1 ) : 59\nmatsumuranus ( bryk , 1946 ) ( heodes ) ; ark . zool . 38 a ( 3 ) : 55 ; tl : korea\nchrysophanus phlaeas pseudophlaeas lucas , 1866 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . ( 4 ) 5 : 499 ; tl : abyssinia\ncoccineus ( ford , 1924 ) ( heodes ) ; trans . ent . soc . : 726\n533x400 ( ~ 65kb ) upperside male a bank of the shirkent river in its lower flow several km upstream of the kishlak shirkent , the southern principal slope of the ghissar mountain range , the pamiro - alai mts . , tursun - zade province , tadjikistan . 7th may 1989 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\npolyommatus phlaeas var . comedarum grum - grshimailo , 1890 ; in romanoff , m\u00e9m . l\u00e9p . 4 : 366\nchrysophanus abbottii holland , 1896 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 18 ( 1062 ) : 240 , pl . 7 , f . 1\nphlaeas phlaeoides ( staudinger , 1901 ) ( chrysophanus ) ; cat . lep . palaearct . faunengeb . 1 : 74\nchrysophanus arethusa dod , 1907 ; can . ent . 39 ( 5 ) : 169\nkuriliphlaeas ( bryk , 1942 ) ( heodes ) ; dt . ent . z . iris 56 : 19 ; tl : kurile is .\nphlaeas flavens ( ford , 1924 ) ( heodes ) ; trans . ent . soc . : 642 [ ? ]\nphlaeas coccineus ( ford , 1924 ) ( heodes ) ; trans . ent . soc . : 726\nphlaeas japonica ( ford , 1924 ) ( heodes ) ; trans . ent . soc . : 729\nheodes phlaeas indicus evans , 1925 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 30 ( 3 ) : 616\nphlaeas lusitanicus ( bryk , 1940 ) ( heodes ) ; arkiv zool . 32 a ( 22 ) : 20\nphlaeas shima gabriel , 1954 ; exped . s . w . arabia 1937 - 38 , 1 : 388\nchrysophanus phloeas [ sic ] feildeni mclachlan , 1878 ; j . linn . soc . zool . lond . 14 : 111 ; tl : lat 81\u00b041 ' n ; grinnell land [ se . ellesmere is . ]\nchrysophanus cupreus edwards , 1870 ; trans . amer . ent . soc . 3 ( 1 ) : 20 ; tl :\noregon\nheodes cupreus ab . \u2640 maculinita gunder , 1926 ; ent . news 37 ( 1 ) : 8 , pl . 1 , f . 11 ; tl : mammoth , mono co . , california\nceu , neu , russia , siberia , amurland , dzhungarsky alatau . see [ maps ]\npapilio amphidamas esper , 1781 ; die schmett . th . i , bd . 2 ( 3 ) : 82 , pl . 63 , f . 5\n650x654 ( ~ 39kb ) female finland : ks : kuusamo liikasenvaara , 736 : 61 , 9 . 7 . 1998 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n500x626 ( ~ 29kb ) male finland : ks : kuusamo liikasenvaara , 736 : 61 , 9 . 7 . 1998 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\nlarva on polygonum viviparum , ( in finland ) [ sprk ] rumex aquaticus , r . acetosa , polygonum amphibium , p . bistorta [ baru ]\nchrysophanus amphidamas phintonis fruhstorfer , 1910 ; ent . zs . 24 ( 26 ) : 144 ; tl : sibirien , irkutsk\n600x835 ( ~ 115kb ) upperside underside russia : s . tuva , korumnug - taiga mts . ( 1200m ) , 8 - 25 . 6 . 2002 , vashchenko a . & b . leg . photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\nchrysophanus evansii de nic\u00e9ville , 1902 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 14 ( 2 ) : 249 , pl . ff , f . 11 ; tl : drosh , chitral , western himalayas\nhyrcanana evansi ; nekrutenko , 1983 , vestn . zool . 1983 ( 3 ) : 15\nhyrcanana evansi ( = evansi ) ; sibatani , 1974 , aust . ent . soc . 1974 ( 13 ) : 109 ( name )\npolyommatus standfussi grum - grshimailo , 1891 ; horae soc . ent . ross . 25 ( 3 - 4 ) : 450\n1300x984 ( ~ 256kb ) upperside female china , qinghai prov , 20 km s tianjun ( 3900m ) , photo \u00a9 a . timchenko leg .\n900x749 ( ~ 122kb ) underside male china , qinghai prov , 20 km s tianjun ( 3900m ) , photo \u00a9 a . timchenko leg .\nchrysophanus subbrunnea south , 1913 ; j . bomb . nat . hist . soc . 22 ( 3 ) : 607\nstandfussi sinensis ( nordstr\u00f6m , 1935 ) ( chrysophanus ) ; ark . zool . 27 a ( 7 ) : 3\nw . himalayas , kashmir , nw . india , chitral - mussoorie . see [ maps ]\nchrysophanus kasyapa moore , 1865 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1865 ( 2 ) : 506 , pl . 31 , f . 10\nchrysophanus zariaspa moore , 1874 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1874 ( 1 ) : 271\nchrysophanus pang oberth\u00fcr , 1886 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . ( 6 ) 6 : xii\nchrysophanus tseng oberth\u00fcr , 1886 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . ( 6 ) 6 : 13\nchrysophanus ouang oberth\u00fcr , 1891 ; \u00e9tud . d ' ent . 15 : 17 , pl . 2 , f . 19 ; tl : tsekou , nw . yunnan\nchrysophanus li oberth\u00fcr , 1886 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . ( 6 ) 6 : xxii\nhelleia li ; [ mrs ] , 662 ; sibatani , 1974 , aust . ent . soc . 1974 ( 13 ) : 109\nchrysophanus li lilacina oberth\u00fcr , 1914 ; \u00e9tud . l\u00e9pid . comp . 9 ( 2 ) : 55 , pl . 255 , f . 2153\nchrysophanus svenhedini nordstr\u00f6m , 1935 ; ark . zool . 27 a ( 7 ) : 30\nw . himalayas , kashmir - kumaon , nw . india . see [ maps ]\npolyommatus pavana kollar , [ 1844 ] ; in h\u00fcgel , kaschmir und das reich der siek 4 : 416 , pl . 5 , f . 5 - 6\n470x364 ( ~ 80kb ) upperside male czech republic , blansko , 4 . 7 . 2004 , photo \u00a9 michal koup\u00fd\n470x434 ( ~ 85kb ) underside czech republic , blansko , 4 . vii . 2004 , photo \u00a9 michal koup\u00fd\n470x319 ( ~ 89kb ) upperside female czech republic , blansko , 17 . 7 . 2004 , photo \u00a9 michal koup\u00fd\nlarva on rumex hydrolapathum , r . aquaticus [ sprk ] , r . confertus , ( etc . ) [ baru ] rumex acetosa [ bru2 ] , 126\neurope , caucasus , transcaucasia , n . tien - shan , w . tien - shan , dzhungarsky alatau , ghissar\n533x400 ( ~ 47kb ) upperside female the black sea coast at the settlement yuzhnyaya ozereevka near novorossiysk , novorossiysk district , krasnodarskii krai province , russia . 2nd june 1990 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\n457x400 ( ~ 41kb ) underside female the irtysh river left bank floodland within the omsk city , west siberia , russia . 27th august 1996 ( on inula salicina l . ) , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\npolyommatus dispar var . dahurica graeser , 1888 ; berl . ent . zs . 32 ( 1 ) : 75\n533x400 ( ~ 36kb ) underside female a road crossing a woody ( larix gmelinii ( rupr . ) rupr . ) brook valley between the villages budyumkan and uryupino 5 - 7 km of the former , gazimurskozavodskoi district , e chita province , e transbaikalia , siberia , russia . 25th july 1997 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\naltai , sayan , transbaikalia , mongolia , n . china . see [ maps ]\npolyommatus dispar var . violaceus staudinger , 1892 ; dt . ent . z . iris 5 ( 2 ) : 315 ; tl : kentei [ malakhanskiy mountain range , kudara - somon ]\nthersamonolycaena violacea ; [ bru2 ] : 126 , pl . 58 , f . 4 - 6\n533x400 ( ~ 42kb ) upperside male a rocky southern slope of a piedmont hill of the mountain gydyrgun on the northern bank of lake zun - torei , onon district , se chita province ( dahuria ) , transbaikalia , siberia , russia . 13th july 1996 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\npolyommatus splendens alph\u00e9raky , 1882 ; horae soc . ent . ross . 16 ( 3 - 4 ) : 376 , pl . 14 , f . 12 ( staudinger i . l . )\nthersamonolycaena splendens ; [ bru2 ] : 126 , pl . 58 , f . 1 - 3\nseu , ceu , asia minor , iran , w . sibera , altai , e . kazakhstan , zabaikalye , mongolia , n . sikhote - alin . see [ maps ]\n533x400 ( ~ 57kb ) upperside male a valley meadow at the shadrikha rivulet at the village mel ' nichikha , novosibirsk district and province , west siberia , russia . 17th may 1993 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\n664x585 ( ~ 87kb ) upperside male russia , moscow area , 11 . 06 . 2007 , photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\n745x604 ( ~ 87kb ) male russia , moscow area , 11 . 06 . 2007 , photo \u00a9 d . smirnov\nlarva on rumex [ r & h ; ] , rumex acetosa , ( etc . ) [ baru ] rumex confertus , ( c . russia ) [ bru2 ] , 127\n? chrysophanus alciphron deinareton fruhstorfer , 1917 ; ent . rundschau 34 ( 4 ) : 18 ; tl : grans sasso , monti sibillini\nchrysophanus alciphron isokrates fruhstorfer , 1909 ; int . ent . zs . 3 ( 21 ) : 120 ; tl : iselle , simplon\nchrysophanus alciphron fruginus fruhstorfer , 1917 ; ent . rundschau 34 ( 4 ) : 17 ; tl : armenia\nchrysophanus gordius var . granadensis ribbe , 1905 ; soc . ent . 20 ( 18 ) : 138\nchrysophanus alciphron var . heracleana blachier , 1908 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 77 ( 2 ) : 217 ; tl : atlas mounains ( morocco )\nchrysophanus alciphron romanorum fruhstorfer , 1909 ; int . ent . zs . 3 ( 21 ) : 120 ; tl : nr . rome\nchrysophanus alciphron gaudeolus fruhstorfer , 1909 ; int . ent . zs . 3 ( 21 ) : 120\npolyommatus gordius naryna oberth\u00fcr , 1910 ; \u00e8tud . l\u00e9pid . comp . 4 : 115 , 675 , pl . 49 , f . 407 ; tl : fort naryne , turkestan\nchrysophanus alciphron chairemon fruhstorfer , 1917 ; ent . rundschau 34 ( 4 ) : 16 ; tl : herzegovina ; bulgaria , orsowa\nw . pmairs ( shugnansky , ishkashimsky mts . ) , afghanistan . see [ maps ]\nthersamonolycaena aeolus ; [ bru2 ] : 127 , pl . 57 , f . 40 - 42\nthersamonolycaena aeolides churkin , 1999 ; atalanta 29 : 125 , pl . ivb , f . 1 ; tl : ghissar , fanskie mts .\nthersamonolycaena aeolides ; [ bru2 ] : 127 , pl . 57 , f . 43 - 45\nthersamonia ( verity , 1919 ) ; ent . rec . j . var . 31 : 28 ; tl : papilio thersamon , esper\nit , seeu , asia minor , w . asia , iraq , iran , n . altai , ? mongolia , nw . china . see [ maps ]\npolyommatus persica bienert , [ 1870 ] ; lepid . erg . reise persiens : 28 ; tl : persia\nthersamonia thersamon jiadengyuensis huang & murayama , 1992 ; ty\u00f4 to ga 43 ( 1 ) : 9 , f . 27 - 28 ; tl : jiadengyu , altai , 1400m\nthersamonia thersamon sajanica huang & murayama , 1992 ; ty\u00f4 to ga 43 ( 1 ) : 11 ; tl : turan , sajan mts . , 2000m , sw . irkutsk\nthersamonia phoebus ; [ ebw ] ; [ bow ] : pl . 11 , f . 3 ( text only ) ; [ bmat ] , 29 , pl . 10 , f . 16 - 21\narmenia ( highland ) , ne . turkey , w . iran . see [ maps ]"]}
{"id": 1464, "summary": [{"text": "smoken up is an australian champion standardbred race horse bred in new zealand .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "he was the first pacer outside north america to record a mile in under 1:50 .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was known as trigger . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "smoken up", "paragraphs": ["hrv will celebrate smoken up\u2019s farewell with a special smoken up race night at the september 6 meeting .\nit\u2019ll be up to him ,\njustice said when asked how long smoken up would continue racing .\nbitobliss and trainer / driver scott stewart take out the smoken up sprint at melton .\nsmoken up - won ' t be a starter in the 2012 new zealand cup .\nharness race horse smoken up has beaten blacks a fake in the miracle mile at menangle .\nrestrepo ( $ 1 . 60 favourite ) initially held the early battle for the lead before handing up to smoken up .\nsmoken up ' s his post - race swab was found to contain unacceptable levels of dmso .\nchampion pacer smoken up defied his age to set a mile track record in ballarat last night .\ncontroversial . . . harness horse of the year smoken up wins the len smith mile race .\nlance justice and smoken up will team up on friday night in the shire of melton sprint , both resuming from lengthy layoffs .\nsmoken up on his way to a 1 : 53 . 4 win in the shire of melton sprint\nbitobliss waltzed to victory in the james & son smoken up sprint last night at tabcorp park melton .\nsmoken up was contesting his fourth final , having earlier run third in 2008 and again last year .\nformer cambridge pacer smoken up leads a powerful australian assault on the cup today . photo / gary wild\nthe miracle mile was smoken up ' s biggest triumph after finishing second in the race last year .\nthat night victorian warhorse smoken up hit the line first in what felt like a truly great racing moment .\nthe smoken up team could possibly take their case further but they are getting into legal miracle territory now .\nsmoken up was the headline act of sunday ' s grand opening of tabcorp park and he didn\u2019t disappoint .\nsmoken up\u2019s early speed from a wide barrier was responsible for a 26 . 3 - second opening 400m .\nlance justice and smoken up arriving in - new zealand this morning ( tuesday november 2 , 2010 ) .\nresult : lost ! never looked likely after trailing smoken up . great to see the old boy win .\nthe superstar son of sundon is up against gun mare make mine cullen , ultra - consistent grand circuit pacer smoken up and buzz gelding villagem .\nthe night will feature a special smoken up video package on the big screen , souvenir racebook , rug presentation , smoken up poster and mini - flag giveaways and more . full details will be announced in coming weeks .\nsmoken up had been favourite since betting opened early in the week and was sent out the $ 2 favourite .\nsmoken up is first past the post in the interdominion grand final from themightyquinn at alexandra park . photo / nzpa\nsmoken up steamed in over his final 800m in 55 . 3s and his final 400m in 27 . 9s .\nsmoken up will start from barrier six , while blatant lie will start off the back row in barrier nine .\nlooks like a big quaddie on the cards so going wwwwiiiiidddddddeeeeee here & relying on smoken up to get home .\n\u201csmoken up is a victorian harness racing icon and renaming the legends in his honour will acknowledge that into the future .\nof course , those who backed smoken up for a win got paid out and those who backed themightyquinn did not .\nsmoken up will this weekend make a last - ditch attempt to snatch 2007 / 08 barastoc grand circuit champion honours .\nthis 7yo doesn ' t win out of turn too often but i was really impressed with its run against smoken up last start . first up for a few\na winner of 73 races from 150 starts , smoken up\u2019s achievements have thrust harness racing into mainstream and social media channels .\nevergreen 11 - year - old karloo mick came along the inside and briefly looked as if he would head smoken up .\nbut smoken up responded and beat his rival by a metre with im themightyquinn another 1 - 1 / 2 metres third .\nthree true racing heroes with earnings over $ 11 million completed the trifecta : smoken up , themightyquinn and blacks a fake .\nsmoken up heads to the spelling paddock a winner of 22 of his 45 starts for $ 539 , 000 in stakes .\nsmoken up claims his third sa cup from four attempts with ease as a $ 1 . 05 favourite . photo by arclight photography\ni\u2019m pretty keen to get out there ,\njustice said .\nhe\u2019ll ( smoken up ) look after me .\nbut most important of all in justice ' s view is smoken up ' s return to his favourite track : menangle park .\nhe then waited until well into the straight to make his winning surge leading up and running past smoken up who kicked back but was held on the line by a neck .\nin number eight was recorded at bendigo 13 days later when smoken up worked from a second line draw in finding the lead role .\n\u201csmoken up\u2019s eight , themightyquinn\u2019s six and blacks a fake\u2019s 10 . they\u2019ve had years of hard grand circuit racing , \u201d he said .\nsmoken up , the nz - bred son of tinted cloud , was a deserving winner for ebullient victorian trainer - driver lance justice .\nit was len smith mile night and smoken up ' s winning time of 1 . 48 . 5 gave justice his career highlight .\nmonkey king finishes brilliantly to beat bettor ' s strike and smoken up in the new zealand trotting cup at addington . photo / simon baker\nstanding a term at stud while sidelined , caribbean blaster joins past greats gammalite , shakamaker , sokyola and smoken up as multiple vhoty winners .\nthe quote about smoken up being in career best form isn ' t exaggerated either . he has won seven of his last eight starts . six of those eight starts have come in this campaign so it ' s a very fit smoken up that will go to war next tuesday .\nsmoken up has his own facebook page , with fans kept abreast of the horse\u2019s life at home as well as his on - track performances .\nvictorian warhorse smoken up won his second miracle mile at menangle on saturday night to give trainer driver lance justice his fourth win in the race .\nso , with not a lot of leeway to move on that particular point , the jca disqualified smoken up and themightyquinn was promoted to first .\nsmoken up had won the miracle mile and south australian cup but it was controversy that followed his interdominion success in new zealand , and that had justice fired up at menangle on april 30 .\ni was so close to picking smoken up to win but caribbean blaster may have taken the next step . both are a level up on the rest of these & the quinella looks like easy money\n\u201cto illustrate the changing nature of engaging with the public , smoken up has generated an enormous following on social media which has enhanced his appeal . \u201d\nthere were four across the track coming to the first turn with lonestar legend , kiwi ingenuity , smoken up and melpark major all keen to lead .\nhile smoken up looks to be well on his way to wrapping up one spot it must be noted that the ' four - time ' derby winner in divisive should already be assured of one spot .\nkarlsruhe ( barrier four ) and tanabi bromac ( six ) , runner - up and fourth respectively behind smoken up last weekend , are the other victorians engaged in the race to be run at 10pm .\nsmoken up is a 13 - time group 1 winner who still holds the record for the fastest mile rate in australasia \u2013 1 : 48 . 5 .\njustice hasn\u2019t driven in a race since a horrific fall in december last year , while smoken up was spelled after his len smith mile triumph in april .\nafter kicking off his 2011 / 12 term with three straight successes , smoken up suffered agonising defeats in the queensland pacing championship and new zealand trotting cup .\nas the countdown to smoken up\u2019s farewell race at tabcorp park melton continues , harness racing victoria has announced it will rename a race in the champion pacer\u2019s honour .\nhe gelding encounted his toughest test to date when smoken up faced the starter for the running of the 4 & 5yo championship at moonee valley on june 1 .\nhis trainer lance justice swears he never uses the drug and a subsequent judicial control authority panel believed him but the dmso was in smoken up ' s system .\nthe win in the olympus feeds smoken up sprint further swelled bling it on\u2019s seven - figure career stakes and come much to the joy of driver luke mccarthy .\naustralasian icon and grand circuit champion smoken up has added further to his overflowing trophy cabinet by being named victorian horse of the year for a second successive season .\nfor the second year running smoken up was named nsw horse of the year based on scintillating performances in the len smith and miracle miles at tabcorp park menangle .\nat nine years old , justice said smoken up would be out to make the most of all his opportunities this time in as it may be his final campaign .\nvictorian speedster smoken up had so often been the bridesmaid but finally had his moment to shine with a record - breaking win in saturday night ' s miracle mile .\njustice is working out his plan with smoken up for the coming months , which will centre on defending his miracle mile at menangle at the end of the november .\nresult : lost ! went rough before the turn after sitting behind smoken up but no excuses . it ' s not good enough to beat this class now it seems\n\u201cthe smoken up sprint will commemorate the wonderful career of the lance justice trained pacer , whose achievements on the racetrack have captivated audiences throughout australasia , \u201d mr anderson said .\nthey ran the first quarter in 26 . 2 seconds and only backed off to 29 . 4 when smoken up finally found the front with melpark major on his outside .\nrom gate four smoken up led throughout in accounting for captain kalahari by 2 . 2 metres while lenny bromac was a further 2 . 9 metres away in grabbing third .\nsmoken up , who maintains his speed longer and smoother racing right - handed at auckland , according to justice , was always travelling like a winner after finding the markers .\njustice said smoken up\u2019s successful return , combined with the lure of grand circuit glory in blacks a fake\u2019s absence from the trans tasman prompted connections to make the trip north .\non the plane with smoken up will be the horse he narrowly beat in last week\u2019s bold david free - for - all , the andy gath - trained blatant lie .\nresult : miles off . jodi quinlan throws in a head scratcher and chilli palmer wins well . with the help of a stablemate but was too good for smoken up .\nloved its last start 2nd to smoken up when not suited over the sprint trip but finished off extremely well . draws to take the sit behind smoken up who just maybe suspect over the longer journey these days but geez it ' s flying at the minute , especially when leading . happy to be on mah sish with the soft run .\nresult : lost ! i was getting bloody excited when it got to 3 back the pegs but then five star anvil handed up to smoken up & that was the end of wartime . it ' ll win one soon at odds\nsugars nursed the favourite until straightening and then allowed smoken up or \u2018trigger\u2019 as known around the stable to hit top gear and power home in 27 . 7 second last quarter .\nsmoken bones cookshack for ken hueston\u2019s barbecue place , 2009 was \u201cfilled with new directions and angles of thought . \u201d he hooked up with natural pastures cheese co . in courtenay to smoke their boerenkaas and has expanded into commercial catering . biggest news of all : smoken bones is opening a second location .\nthe legends , previously named the legends mile , will become the smoken up sprint ( to be run on november 7 ) to honour the lance justice - trained superstar pacer\u2019s career .\nvictoria ' s new zealand trotting cup hopeful smoken up touched down in christchurch this morning ( tuesday november 2 ) along with his faithful harness racing companion and stablemate earl of mot .\nbut he\u2019ll encounter stiff opposition from the other finalists , including smoken up , who was the other victorian to top $ 1 million in stakes during the 2009 / 10 racing year .\n\u201che ( smoken up ) is the definition of a champion , he\u2019s never beaten , he never gives in and he\u2019s definitely earned his place among the greats of australian harness racing .\nresult : 2nd . again started way too short for me at $ 1 . 70 . wowee , i could get smoken up beaten vs c0 class at the minute . no bet\nbarring accidents , he looks a moral to win here . i think it leads early & potentially hands up to smoken up . with the master on board , i expect the run to come & it be far too good for these .\nsmoken up has now had 104 career starts for 56 wins and 34 placings for a staggering and rapidly increasing stakemoney record of excess of $ 2 . 89 million . closing in on the $ 3 million figure , smoken up heads towards the 2012 interdominion in western australia while justice is on the road to a speedy recovery to be able to be at the reins .\njustice highlighted smoken up\u2019s first - up record and acknowledged the front - row draw was ideal for the champion nine - year - old , who has earned over $ 3 . 1 million in stakes during his 61 - win career to date .\nan 11 - year - old , smoken up ( $ 4 . 90 ) was always in charge once melton trainer - driver lance justice found the lead in a hectic early charge .\nstill sailing on cloud nine following smoken up ' s career defining miracle mile victory at menangle last month , candid harness racing trainer lance justice is seeing the world though rose coloured glasses .\nblacks a fake holds sway on 12 points entering the event , but smoken up is lurking ominously on 10 points and victory on saturday night would carry him to a three - point win .\nbitobliss proved that form to be very strong after it destroyed a strong field here a fortnight ago . back to the front line draw , smoken up will be up front where it likes to be and i just can\u2019t see it being rolled from there .\nince arriving from the ' land of the long white cloud ' with two wins and six placings from his 10 engagements , smoken up has hit the victorian scene with a string of exciting displays .\nin white hot form at the minute & if it ' s ever going to be the top notchers tonight is the night with smoken up , melpark major & bitofbliss very early in there preparations . smoken up will ensure a very fast pace especially if melpark major finds the front early . that ' ll suit have a bender perfectly and also bitofbliss but at the odds have a bender looks big value\ndespite sitting three - wide without cover from the 900m , the paul rowse - trained gelding loomed alongside smoken up upon straightening and it wasn\u2019t until 30 metres from that his tough run took its toll .\nsmoken up made it three sa cup scalps from four attempts putting him one win behind legendary pacer gamalite who was the sa cup king between 1982 and 1985 . with his best racing still in front of him , smoken up heads towards another tough season on the grand circuit but will no doubt , justice will have the 2013 sa cup on his radar for the following season to equal the sa cup record .\nsmoken up is my best bet of the night . it ' s going to have a huge advantage on the blaster here , who is also first up , being on the speed first . again throw in the blaster & motu crusader for a knockout if you want .\nhe finished 1 - 1 / 2 metres from smoken up with ti vogliobene ( $ 18 ) making the most of a cushy trip on the favourite\u2019s back to claim third placing a further four metres away .\nsmoken up is only half of justice ' s len smith mile team with sokyola sprint third placegetter our malabar , who won the inter dominion consolation at menangle on march 7 , to start from the pole .\nsmoken up sat outside blacks a fake at the head of the field in australia ' s premier harness racing sprint at menangle park and showed plenty of determination in the straight to win by half a head .\nyet again , the hitcher had great pace to lead the fleet around . this time phantom tried to squeeze through smoken for second place at the\n( 8 ) and rejuvenated 2008 victoria cup winner melpark major ( 6 ) will each be forced into making early arrangements in the 2555 - metre feature and all will be at the mercy of justice on smoken up .\nthe field did not quite break that mark but smoken up ' s winning time of 1 : 50 . 30 still set a miracle mile record and also bettered the australasian mile record of 1 : 50 . 50 .\nnarrow defeat in the much - hyped ballarat cup battle against highview tommy and sushi sushi would follow but three inter dominion heat wins and a third len smith mile success ensured this would be smoken up\u2019s greatest ever season .\nthe consistent form of victoria\u2019s smoken up nz has enabled it to take a handy lead on the progressive points for the barastoc pacers grand circuit series . blacks a fake went into sunday\u2019s group 1 event with just two points , but with ample opportunities in coming weeks to build up further points .\nafter coming along way in a short period of time , smoken up will commence his charge towards the ' big time ' when the former kiwi heads to geelong on tuesday night ( july 17 ) for his next assignment .\nof mot a little who took some\nbark off\nin transit but hardy traveller smoken up\ntravelled over well\n, according to trainer lance justice and is ready to run the race of his life next tuesday .\ngetyawingsout was smashed from start to finish last start after leading . shouldn ' t cop the same pressure here tonight & i expect it to spear to the early lead & win . smoken up just looks far too good for tonights opposition . as much as i like chilli palmer , it ' s unproven against open class . smoken up , 5 starts at the track for 4 wins & a 2nd against much , much better than these . .\nsmoken up , who didn\u2019t race until four , began his race career with cambridge trainers , john and david butcher . he was sold to clients of the justice stable after winning twice and running six placings in eight nz starts .\nsmoken up might have won the biggest races of the 2010 - 11 season but one night in april will always stand out , admitted trainer - driver lance justice after his star was named harness horse of the year this week .\nresult : 3rd . was held up 3 pegs but did get out with plenty of time to catch up but just plodded home . collect $ 75\nnot many in better form . ran a super quick last half vs smoken up on friday after being held up and had excuses the start previous . back in class tonight in a race that has plenty of speed which will suit . loves bendigo using the camber turns to it ' s advantage . looks the winner\nhas been tearing up the trials & looks ready to win first up . i would ' ve doubled the bet if it hadve drawn the front row .\nsmoken up is rated by his trainer - driver lance justice as his next star performer following the retirement of the former glamour horse sokyola and the four - year - old has drawn the second row for his upcoming assignment over 2100 metres .\nour blackbird , now trained by ross olivieri , has won at 15 of his 64 starts . he faces a stern test from the outside of the front line , even though he has been performing soundly against quality opposition in victoria . four starts ago , in the 1720m sokyola sprint at melton , he finished fourth behind five star anvil , smoken up and chilli palmer and three starts before that he was third behind chilli palmer and smoken up in the group 3 geelong cup .\nsmiling shard , the best of the nz - trained runners , was game finishing only 2 1 / 2 lengths from the strong front - running winner smoken up , who held other seasoned aussie grand circuit stars , themightquinn and blacks a fake .\nsmoken up won the horse of the year award in front of champion three - year - old sushi sushi , which was unbeaten in 13 starts for the season . his consolation was the three year old colt / gelding of the year award .\nin 2009 smoken up and justice took the challenge to the kiwis and fought doggedly for their third placing . this year justice is determined to do better and be the first aussie to win the christchurch casino nz trotting cup since lightning blue in 1987 .\ncaribbean blaster has opened $ 2 . 10 favourite in saturday night ' s race at tabcorp park . warhorse smoken up is a $ 4 . 60 second favourite while bitobliss is on the third line at $ 5 . 50 with tab fixed odds .\nresult : lost ! got stuck behind tiring horses after the 3 handed up ( no cot ! ! ! ) & it ended up 4 back the pegs . .\nphoto : smoken up and lance justice are holding themightyquinn ( gary hall jun ) with 100m to run in the skycity \u2013 inter pacing grand final . blacks a fake , smiling shard ( nearest markers ) and mr feelgood ( yellow colours ) are next .\nthe bad news for victorian harness racing fans is that smoken up will also miss that state ' s two biggest races , the $ 375 , 000 sew - eurodrive victoria cup on december 20 and the $ 400 , 000 hunter cup on february 7 .\ni think the one maybe risky first up especially if it leads . if it hands up to rogers passion it ' ll be hard seeing it miss 2nd but on a positive if it does hand up to rogers passion . rogers is a cert .\neven congupna trainer scott stewart , who prepares bitobliss , was in awe of his star pacer\u2019s blistering finishing burst , when he came from last at the 400 mto mow down a field of talented rivals , including the great smoken up , in the home stretch .\nthis weekend and gath says his stable star is more than up to the challenge .\nresult : lost ! crossed early & ended up 3 pegs . no hope from there\nresult : 4th ! ended up 3back after the fav couldn ' t lad . .\nsorry ! ! missed up the quaddie legs . adjusted below @ 6 . 30pm :\ndespite boasting several key runners across friday night\u2019s huge program at tabcorp park , justice will only pilot smoken up , leaving others to steer earl of mot and just a cracker in the trotters\u2019 cup and magnificent art in the group 1 vicbred 2yo c & g final .\ntrained and driven by james rattray , beautide recorded the fastest mile rate ( 1 : 50 . 2 ) after winning the event last year , bettering the mark set by smoken up ( 1 : 50 . 3 ) in 2010 . interestingly , smoken up is the last horse to win the miracle mile consecutively ( 2010 / 11 ) , and also set an australasian record mile rate of 1 : 48 . 5 in winning the len smith mile at menangle in april 2011 . with a slick field engaged on saturday night , that record looks in danger , especially if conditions are perfect and they go crazy up front .\nhrv ceo john anderson said renaming a race such as the legends in smoken up\u2019s honour made sense due to the horse\u2019s phenomenal record at sprint trips \u2013 having won four len smith miles and two miracle miles , as well as a bevy of other short - course features .\nof mot isn ' t in new zealand purely as a travel companion for smoken up either . the new zealand - owned trotter is looking to bring his strong australian form to the cup carnival in both the seelite windows & doors nz trotting ffa and the hellers dominion .\nthrow in safari , smoken up and possibly melpark major from victoria , changeover , gotta go cullen , monkey king and - fingers crossed - auckland reactor from new zealand , plus us raiders bono bests and mr feelgood , and divisive has some stiff opposition in coming months .\n* after running second the other night in melton , smoken up has been sent back to the spelling paddock . andrew bensley reports , via twitter , that trainer lance justice stated there are no suitable races upcoming so any chance of another new zealand cup tilt has been dashed .\nresult : lost ! crossed early and ended up in the death seat . dear oh dear\nresult : lost ! never looked comfortable and ended up galloping down the straight . sin bin\nresult : lost ! pulled up . . . . . good way to lose $ 100\nresult : blingiton never looked in doubt & hezarealgem just wasn ' t up to them .\nthe bettor ' s delight 5 - year - old out of the purdon trained mare scuse me , broke now - retired australian star smoken up ' s track record at menangle by more than 0 . 8 seconds to make her the fastest recorded standardbred over a mile in australasia .\nsmoken up missed his shot at barastoc grand circuit victory in 2009 / 10 , but friday night ' s ( april 23 ) $ 100 , 000 tabcorp len smith mile is his best chance to snare a harness racing group 1 title this season according to trainer - driver lance justice .\nlocal star ohoka nevada ( mark billinger ) ran a solid second , following smoken up from start to finish after drawing the prime alley in gate one and got within 3m on the line while rising star heza trick ( daryl douglas ) flashed home late to finish third a further 3m away .\njustice is excited about returning to steer his stable champion , who is arguably to harness racing what black caviar is to the gallops . in fact smoken up has recently even acquired a black caviar - style compression suit , which he sported on a recent photo shoot for his personal facebook page .\njustice , hemmed up in traffic early from his back row draw , moved up parked at the 1800m before wresting the lead from four - time inter champ blacks a fake at the 1400m .\nthe gelding was a narrow runner - up in both races during the 2007 / 08 season .\n' ' it was the best night because of everything that led up to it . ' '\nresult : lost ! they did finish top 3 but chilli palmer was simply amazing first up .\nresult : lost ! handed up the lead & that was race over . not happy jan !\nmeeting result : that well & truly makes up for last night . won $ 1422 . 60\nresult : lost ! ended up 4 pegs & was no chance from there . ran on ok\nthe crowd somewhat waiting for the sugars salute as he put his name on the honour roll alongside his father ross sugars back in 1981 aboard murdock miss seemed as if he was restricted by the power still in his hands as smoken up crossed the line ready to travel another lap at that speed .\nresult : lost ! stiff . . mach doro leading folded up like a pack of cards and leaders back and rochnroll were badly held up . hit the line strong but was never a chance after that\n19 units outlay for 26 . 24 unit return . should ' ve put up the suggested bets !\nresult : 4th . led early & handed up to the 3rd fav but we didn ' t need it to hand up as well . end 3 pegs and was too far back to have an impact\nshort n sweet tonight . i ' ll be concentrating on a big miracle mile write up for followers\nresult : 4th by a whisker . ended up 4 back the pegs & was never winning from there\nwith no provision for a countback , should smoken up run second on saturday night he and blacks a fake would be declared joint winners . the only time in the 31 - year history of the championship that two horses finished on the same points was in 2003 when double identity and young rufus both collected 17 points .\nwhilst i don ' t think he can win , he certainly looks an attractive place bet at big odds . first up at melton a fortnight ago he copped a check early on and settled at the tail of the field . rounding the home turn on the back of abettorpunt , he rushed up to the leaders and looked a chance , only to have his run end short of the line . 2nd up from gate 2 , he will be the first to the pegs and will more than likely take a sit on smoken up . that ' ll give him every opportunity via the sprint lane , hopefully enough to snag a placing\nresult : winner ! a nice end to a frustrating day . up to $ 10 offered up on fixed odds early but i missed that . still very very happy with the $ 8 i got . can ' t believe it paid that much . finished up $ 4 fixed s - tab . collect $ 200\nsafari still turned in a splendid staying effort . re - handicapped to 10 metres , gath as expected wasted little time after the field had been dispatched in taking his horse forward to sit outside the leader smoken up nz . justice , probably expecting such an aggressive move , in the following two laps every now and then allowed his horse on the inside to surge , seemingly then preventing gath from dictating tactics up front with safari .\nwaiting for them will be the glenn douglas - trained bold cruiser , who travelled up on tuesday afternoon .\nmeeting result : another poor result today . got some ground to make up this week ! lost $ 128\nresult : winner ! sneaky alright . snuck up right along the pegs to blouse them . $ 185 collect\nsmoken up attracted a crowd of 5000 people , the largest since the 2007 interdominion and although they had to wait an extra hour for the most anticipated race on the local racing calendar the $ 100 , 000 sky channel sa pacing cup due to power problems plagued globe derby park , there was no fan disappointed when leaving the course .\nthe start is critical for his chances but my early memories of him have him flying the gate early , ideally crossing bitobliss . even if he can ' t cross he ' s likely to settle on the back of smoken up which isn ' t the worst place to be . at $ 11 on bet365 , that seems crazy value\nthis 6yo gelding would be out of place lining up in the miracle mile field tonight . had to work extremely hard 3 wide the trip vs beautide in the newcastle mile 2 starts back & had the audacity to kick on & finish 2nd . last start he had a good smothered 3 pegs but had to peel 3 wide to get into clear running and wasn ' t disgraced running 3rd to smoken up in very quick time . he ' s going\nnot real keen on this meeting with plenty of sa visitors arriving at mildura . hard to match up the form\nresult : 3rd . ntd ! cant take a trick . astronaut hands up the lead & ruins everything . .\nforget last start at mt gambier . go back 2 starts where in challenged for the lead early eventually ending up with a 1x2 sit . wobbled a bit when rounding the final turn but once balanced up , finished really well to finish 2nd . draws to lead today and if he runs up to its run 2 back , it wins .\none of the most improved pacers in the country over the past 2 years . i remember losing my cash on him in a c1 event just over a year ago at melton but tritton has certainly found the key and i ' d love to see it win . has amazing early speed and looks likely to cross smoken up early . looked to be one level below group 1 class when leading in his previous 4 races before taking a sit last start and what improvement he showed . he handed up to smoken up and was only beaten 1 . 2 metres in a slick 1 . 49 . 9 second mile rate . he certainly had his chance to win last week and whilst it ' s hard to see him winning here tonight , with the perfect sit likely to be his , is a strong place chance .\nhuge day of harness racing with great fields to boot . nothing but value tips below . we ' ll need some luck but based on the odds , i ' ll only need one to get up to end up even :\nwhile smoken up nz was playing its cat - and - mouse game with safari , anthony butt was having a dream run on the back of the leader with report for duty nz , with gavin lang on its back with advance attack nz . following safari in the one - out line was manwarra goforgold , then reba rajah , with divisive then running ninth .\naustralia ' s premier sprint race will be run without australasia ' s fastest pacer following today ' s shock news that lance justice has aborted plans to contest the miracle mile with smoken up . the melton trainer - driver confirmed that the six - year - old was still suffering from an injury that had hindered his entire campaign and even if he was offered one of the remaining two invites for $ 500 , 000 grand circuit feature he wouldn ' t be taking it up .\nresult : winner ! a horse that ' s going places that ' s for sure . up $ 51 . 50\nresult ; lost . not a bad run , just not up to these . run 6th not far off them .\nresult : 4th . up to $ 35 around got the perfect sit on mind the wire ' s back and then nathan jack decides to hand up to cramp . . . runs a good 4th . frustrating , very frustrating for the punter\nbut that was forgotten when the best horse in australasia lined up with lance justice and the defending champion taking centre stage .\n\u201che pulled up well after friday night\u2019s race and has done well since , so there\u2019s no reason not to go . \u201d\nresult : winner ! handed up the lead which gave us some nervous moments but got the job done . collect $ 194\nresult : winner ! opened up at close to $ 2 but was smashed in late . won easily . collect $ 130\nput up a huge effort to win the nz cup last start after missing away from the stand start . he was sent\nresult : 4th . no it wasn ' t . was an ok run & im tipping will run better 2nd up .\nit ' s always a risk backing horses first up but this fella has had 4 good trials in the lead up to this race and has run well in all of them . this is an extremely weak race and he has won against much better . from the draw should either lead or be sitting with cover up on the lead . looks a good ew chance .\nlawn derby awards for pacers . aged horse and gelding of the year : smoken up ; aged mare of theyear : make mine cullen ; three year old colt / gelding of theyear : sushi sushi ; three year old filly of the year : bellas delight ; two year old colt / gelding of the year : three over three ; two year old filly of the year : sensational gabby .\nmonths it followed smoken up everywhere over the unsuitable 2240 metres and stuck to it ' s guns well only being beaten 5 metres . tonight he draws perfectly to follow favourite five star anvil over the sprint trip , the distance he races best . if the favourite holds the lead , garnet river will be sitting right behind it awaiting the sprint lane . at the big odds , worth a go\nwe had her x - rayed on saturday and it showed up to be a broken sesamoid bone ,\npurdon said .\nresult : 4th . never got a proper crack at them after the 1 broke and dentona ended up 4 pegs . good run\nresult : lost ! favourite gallops in front of it , ends up stuck out 3 wide the last lap & dropped out .\nwent super against some smart types first up from an unsuitable draw . gets gate 1 here . leads and wins for mine .\nhas the superior speed from the front line and shouldn ' t be handing up today . looks perfectly suited on this track .\nshould lead now with the early scratching from this race . put up a great effort at melton when leading from a wide draw\nresult : 2nd ! ! finally a collect . . $ 8 offered up on bet365 thanks very much . . collect $ 255\nran some quick times in a recent terang trial suggesting it ' ll be ready for this first up . if it was a\nmeeting result : horrific night of punting . time to pick myself up & get it back tomorrow . lost $ 367 . 50\nresult : winner ! opened up at $ 3 and smashed into $ 1 . 80 fixed & won easily . collect $ 100\nresult : winner ! opened up $ 2 . 5 & smacked into $ 1 . 9 . won easily . collect $ 95\nresult : lost ! never put into the race & my ticket was screwed up a long way out after the leaders walked .\nthe presense of dmso on its own is very surprising . everyone in this industry knows that it is tested for and to present a horse with dmso in its system in 2011 would seem like professional suicide by lance . it just doesnt make sense unless the trace amounts found were present in something else that lance gave to smoken up . i am aware that dmso is present in trace amounts for instance in itpp to mention just one possability . that would seem far more likely than the random contamination explanation being offered up at present\n3rd up here and is a sneaky chance . 1st up run was just average after only getting out late from 5 back the fence beaten 24 metres in r2 - 4 class . followed that up with a good 3rd to freemason who is running very well atm , in c4 / 5 class beaten 8 metres after again being buried 4 pegs . has enough gate speed to hold the 1 ' s back here but that is likely to hand up . if the 1 does hand up , that will probably put pay to sunrise ' s winning chances but i think shes a big place chance at odds from the draw and small field suits .\nthis is a huge step up in class from last week where they did run the last half slowly to allow it to sneak up the sprint lane to win but i can ' t ignore the $ 16 . 80 available the place . potential collect $ 168\nhas been trialling very well for this first up tilt & should be suited by some early speed and the fact it ' ll position in front of the favourite . it ' ll hold all the aces & if it runs up to it ' s trial form\nhas been unlucky since resuming . 1st up was attacked and ran a 27 second 3rd quarter only to get run down late in a 56 second last half . not bad first up . @ nd up got polaxed & still managed to run 3rd , albeit beaten a fair way . leads here tonight & with it ' s dangers drawn wide over the short trip , looks a good thing .\nlooks like getting the gun run behind modern mary & there looks to be a fair bit of pressure in this race . if there is she will be the one smoken the pipe awaiting the sprint lane . i just hope her sprint is good enough to get the money .\ntook a while to wind up last start but once it did hit the line very strong . gets the same draw here today and the 1 shouldn ' t be handing up the lead today so behind the leader scenario should pan out and the extra distance suits .\nresult : lost ! never put into the race after getting held up in the middle of running . . just one of those horses\nlooks very well suited in c1 class today . put up a great effort against eliseos falcon last start & this looks much weaker .\nlooks the leader today & should get every opportunity to bring up it ' s first win in victoria today , as long as it settles . led from a wide gate over the longer trip a month ago & just got too fired up . hopefully he settles today\nresult : lost ! got stuck in the death and put up a big effort , not beaten far . will win one soon .\nwa form has held up very well in recent years . his run in the chariots of fire in march where he finished on the\nresult : lost ! got smashed in front & wouldn ' t hand up in a very quick first 3 quarters . weakened right out\nresult : 2nd ! just not good enough to pick up the well backed fav . thought she had it with 200 to go .\nresult : lost ! had me worried when it was refusing to score up but in the end got a flyer to lead . just got too fired up in front and went too quick and was left a sitting shot . never really wanted to be on in the run\njekyll and hyde horse who wins this race easily if he runs up to his win a few starts back when leading and winning in 1 : 53 seconds . he can mix up his form so expect anything but i ' m happy to have a small go against these\nresult : lost ! started $ 41 . led early , handed up & i thought had a massive chance on the turn but hung like ron jeremy and wouldn ' t take the sprint lane run . . just sums up my luck at the minute . another loss !\nit is a great way to bring up my 50th group one and i still think there are more big wins in him .\nup to yesterday nathan jack , under suspension , was in fifth place in the victorian drivers\u2019 championship with a career - best 165 winners .\njust eats up mile racing and showed that it can ' t just lead from leading last week after blowing them away from the 1 x 1 . will lead here tonight with rogers joy likely to hand up . i can ' t see anything running him down from there .\nresult : lost ! broke after the start & ended up 5 back the pegs . never likely from there but did well to finish 5th\nresult : 4th . thought it was a massive chance on the turn but wasn ' t up to these . only just missed the place\nresult : 2nd . ended up 3 pegs & got out too late . with a better draw next start it wins . collect $ 51\nresult : lost ! disappointing run . got fired up after douglas drove it out hard early & pulled for the remainder of the race .\nhe has had little luck against victoria ' s best in it ' s past 2 starts but has still finished just out of the prizemoney . you only have to go back 3 starts at this track and distance to see the talent he has where he gave smoken up an almighty fright when he just peaked on his run late finishing 2nd . he steps back a grade in class here and is a great each way bet .\ntinted cloud 1 : 51 . 2 , sire of almighty smoken up 1 : 48 . 5 $ 3 , 603 , 415 , jaccka clive 1 : 53 . 8 $ 483 , 263 , richard henry 1 : 49 . 6 $ 453 , 305 , nemisis 1 : 48 . 2 , one of only a handful of sires represented by three 1 : 50 a / nz performers . by sire of sires in the pocket .\nheadline act of the locals will be last week\u2019s gold coast cup winner be good johnny ( barrier 10 ) , while runner - up good lookin girl ( five ) will also back up with atomic ark ( eight ) and be diligent ( rodm \u2013 11 ) the new blood .\njustice paid tribute to decorated jasper after the race but never doubted his stable star would rack up win number 30 at his 58 th start .\ni liked it ' s run last start when it was held up 4 back the rail & never really got racing room . should ' ve\nleds again tonight & i don ' t think it ' ll hold up . if that happens is a very sneaky chance of knocking them off\nresult : lost ! the 1 doesn ' t hand up as expected & the 2 left to sit parked . that was all she wrote .\nfired up for this race with a win over the pacers in a trial during the week , a very good indicator on how well he ' s travelling . draws to follow stent every here , most likely to end up 3 pegs , but with late luck , is right in this .\n5 : smoken up : i love this old fella for the fact that he gives his all every time he races . probably holds the key to the race . if he can ' t lead early and settles in the death , it ' s going to take on every brave driver to try and wrestle that position away from him . wasn ' t disgraced in the miracle mile last week but showed that he finds the best of the best a little"]}
{"id": 1466, "summary": [{"text": "paropsisterna bimaculata is a beetle commonly called a leaf beetle in the subfamily chrysomelinae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "this insect is common in tasmania and can be a pest in the forestry industry .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "paropsisterna bimaculata will develop a red color just before their winter hibernation .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "when they emerge the red slowly disappears into a pale green colouring with faint gold tessellation .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this takes about a month with the males generally slightly advanced .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "recently this beetle has been noticed in victoria . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "paropsisterna bimaculata", "paragraphs": ["paropsisterna bimaculata is endemic to tasmania . please correct me if wrong id : )\nbird pellet showing large quanities of paropsisterna bimaculata . some birds regurgitate the indigestible parts of their diet . this pellet demonstrates how important the leaf beetles are in the food web .\n, ' influences of climate , landscape and vegetation proximity on the spatial distribution of the tasmanian eucalyptus leaf beetle , paropsisterna bimaculata in tasmanian eucalyptus plantations ' , honours thesis , university of tasmania .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n. there are two distinct black marks on the pronotum and often two additional pale ones .\nthey develop the red color just before their winter hibernation . when they emerge the red slowly disappears into a pale green colouring with faint gold tessellation . this takes about a month with the males generally slightly advanced (\nfemale laying eggs - the colour of the eggs will change to a more grey - brown as the shell hardens .\nmass strandings can be seen on beaches . some theories are that the beetles fly out to the moon shine reflected on the water , and then become stranded , monoculture ( tree farm style ) plantings generate large numbers of particular species .\nde little , d . w . 1979 . taxonomic and ecological studies of the eucalyptus - defoliating paropsids ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae ) , with particular reference to\n( olivier ) . ph . d . thesis , university of tasmania : hobart .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 4360850c - 03e7 - 4172 - ac6b - e3d11e129ce7\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 8f2049c2 - 31e2 - 4fb7 - b080 - 4f5590e82e52\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c5b823cc - 6fda - 42a2 - 9bcc - db27de6191ad\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 436243\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nyour browser doesn ' t support javascript or you have disabled javascript . please enable javascript , then refresh this page . javascript is required on this site .\neuropean union funding : for a one - year period ( 2017 - 12 - 16 to 2018 - 12 - 15 ) , eppo has been awarded an eu grant for the further development of the eppo code system ( agreement nb : sante / 2017 / gs / eppo / s12 . 768842 ) . the eu commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information from this project subsequently included in the eppo global database .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nproject noah is a tool to explore and document wildlife and a platform to harness the power of citizen scientists everywhere .\nthis little one had alot more black on the pronotum , than previous ones of this species , i have found , pale green .\n\u00a9 university of tasmania , australia . abn 30 764 374 782 . cricos provider code 00586b\nopen access repository is powered by eprints 3 which is developed by the school of electronics and computer science at the university of southampton . more information and software credits ."]}
{"id": 1471, "summary": [{"text": "macrosiphum euphorbiae , the potato aphid , is a sap-sucking pest insect in the family aphididae .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it infests potatoes and a number of other commercially important crops . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "macrosiphum euphorbiae", "paragraphs": ["macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) ( coutin r . / opie ) adults and nymphs\nmacrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) ( coutin r . / opie ) damage on potato\na novel virus from macrosiphum euphorbiae with similarities to members of the family flaviviridae .\na proteomic analysis of the aphid macrosiphum euphorbiae under heat and radiation stress . - pubmed - ncbi\npotato aphid macrosiphum euphorbiae performance is determined by aphid genotype and not mycorrhizal fungi or water availability .\na novel virus from macrosiphum euphorbiae with similarities to members of the family flaviviridae . - pubmed - ncbi\nthis project aims to improve the control of potatio aphid ( macrosiphum euphorbiae ) in the spring on strawberry .\ntomato yellow top virus : its distribution , characteristics and transmission by the aphid macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thom . )\npotato aphid macrosiphum euphorbiae performance is determined by aphid genotype and not mycorrhizal fungi or water availability . - pubmed - ncbi\npotato aphid , macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) , in tomatoes : plant canopy distribution and binomial sampling on processing tomatoes in california .\nmacrosiphum euphorbiae is only known to use rosa species a primary host ( specifically , for sexual reproduction ) in north - eastern usa . in addition ( there and elsewhere ) macrosiphum euphorbiae reproduces parthenogenetically on rosa species , including cultivated roses . for an aphid species list see our rose aphids page .\npotato aphid , macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) , in tomatoes : plant canopy distribution and binomial sampling on processing tomatoes in california . - pubmed - ncbi\nminer , a . and e . wason 2013 .\nmacrosiphum euphorbiae\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\n( macrosiphum euphorbiae thomas ) : the role of anatomy , epidermal hairs , and foliage composition . j . am . hort . soc . 102 ( 2 ) : 166 - 171 .\nto cite this page : miner , a . and e . wason 2013 .\nmacrosiphum euphorbiae\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nthis aphid fits all the requirements of macrosiphum euphorbiae : antennal tubercules high smooth and divergent , femora rather pale with the apices not dark , siph pale with the tips darker and the cauda rather pointed and not constricted . ( e . g . see our macrosiphum page ) it is recorded on gossypium herbaceum by blackman .\nreinink , k and f . l . dieleman . 1989 . resistance in lettuce to the leaf aphids macrosiphum euphorbiae and uroleucon sonchi . ann . appl . biol . 115 ( 3 ) : 489 - 498 .\nbarlow c . a . 1962 . development , survival , and fecundity of the potato aphid macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) , at constant temperatures . the canadian entomologist 94 ( 6 ) : 667 - 672 ( in russian ) .\nwalker , g . p . 1982 . the dispersion and abundance of the potato aphid ( macrosiphum euphorbiae [ thomas ] ) on tomato ( lycopersicon esculentum mill . ) . ph . d . dissertation , ohio state university , wooster .\nof those aphid species , baker ( 2015 ) lists 18 as occurring in britain : aphis craccivora , aphis fabae , aphis gossypii , aphis nasturtii , aphis sambuci , aphis solanella , aulacorthum solani , brachycaudus helichrysi , brevicoryne brassicae , hayhurstia atriplicis , macrosiphum euphorbiae , macrosiphum stellariae , myzus ascalonicus , myzus persicae , pemphigus fuscicornis , rhopalosiphoninus latysiphon , rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae ssp . tulipaellus and smynthurodes betae .\nclass insecta , order homoptera , suborder aphidinea , superfamily aphidoidea , family aphididae , subfamily aphidinae , tribe macrosiphini , subtribe macrosiphina , genus macrosiphum .\nwalker , g . p . , l . r . nault , and d . e . simonet . 1984 . natural mortality factors acting on potato aphid ( macrosiphum euphorbiae ) populations in processing - tomato fields in ohio . environ . entomol . 13 ( 3 ) : 724 - 732 .\nwalker , g . p . 1982 . the dispersion and abundance of the potato aphid ( macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) ) on tomato ( lycopersicon esculentum mill . ) . ph . d . dissertation , ohio state university , wooster . ix + 123 pp . ( link to full text )\nmacrosiphum euphorbiae used in these experiments came from a laboratory colony established from potato fields near quebec city . the aphids were maintained on potato seedlings , solanum tuberosum c . v . norland , at 21 \u00b1 1 \u00b0c , 60 % \u00b1 10 % rh under a 16l : 8d photoperiodic regime .\nblackman , r . l . and v . f . eastop . 1984 . macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) . pp . 296 . aphids on the world ' s crops : an identification and information guide . john wiley & sons : chichester , new york , brisbane , toronto , singapore . 466 pages .\nthe effectiveness of the potato aphid , macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) , to transmit potato virus y ( pvy ) to potato has generally been overestimated because tobacco has been used as the indicator host . our results demonstrate that , although apterous m . euphorbiae can acquire pvy from potato and tobacco plants and transmit it to tobacco plants , it does not readily transmit it to potato plants . alatae only transmitted the virus to 4 . 5 % of potato plants . this relative inability to transmit the virus to potato seems independent of potato cultivar . results suggest that the role of the potato aphid in the spread of pvy in potatoes may be negligible .\nmaelzer , d . a . 1977 . the biology and main causes of changes in numbers of the rose aphid , macrosiphum rosae ( l . ) on cultivated roses in south australia . austral . j . zool . 25 : 269 - 284 .\nbarlow , c . a . 1962 . the influence of temperature on the growth of experimental populations of myzus persicae ( sulzer ) and macrosiphium euphorbiae ( thomas ) ( aphididae ) . can . j . zool . 40 : 146 - 156 .\nla efectividad del \u00e1fido , macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) , para transmitir el virus y de la papa ( pvy ) a la misma , ha sido generalmente sobreestimada debido a que se ha utilizado tabaco como el huesped indicador . nuestros resultados demuestran que a pesar de que las formas \u00e1pteras de m . euphorbiae pueden adquirir el pvy de las plantas de papa y tabaco , no lo transmiten f\u00e1cilmente a las plantas de papa . los individuos alados solo transmiten el virus al 4 , 5 % de las plantas de papa . esta inhabilidad para transmitir el virus a la papa parece ser independiente del cultivar de dicho cultivo . los resultados sugieren que el rol del \u00e1fido de la papa en la diseminaci\u00f3n del virus y en el cultivo , puede ser insignificante .\nmacgillivray , m . e . and g . b . anderson . 1964 . the effect of photoperiod and temperature on the production of gamic and agamic forms in macrosiphium euphorbiae ( thomas ) . can . j . zool . 42 : 491 - 510 .\nmean time ( x \u00b1 sem ) taken by m . euphorbiae gynoparae to reach different odour sources in wind tunnel assays ( n = number of responding males ) . columns with different letters are significantly different ( tukey\u2019s hsd , p < 0 . 05 ) .\nmean time ( x \u00b1 sem ) taken by m . euphorbiae males to reach different odour sources in wind tunnel assays ( n = number of responding males ) . columns with different letters are significantly different ( tukey\u2019s hsd , p < 0 . 05 ) .\nzimmermann , e . c . 1948 . macrosiphum solanifoli ( ashmead ) . pp . 113 . in insects of hawaii . a manual of the insects of the hawaiian islands , including enumeration of the species and notes on their origin , distribution , hosts , parasites , etc . volume 5 . homoptera : sternorhyncha . 464 pages .\nproportion ( x \u00b1 sem ) of m . euphorbiae gynoparae ( n = 48 in each treatment ) that oriented towards ( dotted bars ) or reached ( striped bars ) the different odour sources in wind tunnel assays . columns with different letters , either for orienting to or reaching the source , are significantly different ( tukey\u2019s hsd , p < 0 . 05 ) .\nproportion ( x \u00b1 sem ) of m . euphorbiae males ( n = 48 in each treatment ) that oriented towards ( dotted bars ) or reached ( striped bars ) the different odour sources in wind tunnel assays . columns with different letters , either for orienting to or reaching the source , are significantly different ( tukey\u2019s hsd , p < 0 . 05 ) .\nthe potato aphid attacks over 200 plants including vegetable and ornamental crops as well as weeds . cultivated food hosts include apple , bean , broccoli , burdock ( gobo ) , cabbage , celery , chinese broccoli , chinese cabbage , corn , eggplant , ground cherry , lettuce , mustard cabbage , papaya , pea , pepper , potato , strawberry , sunflower , sweetpotato , tomato , turnip , white mustard cabbage and zucchini . ornamental hosts are aster , easter lily , gladiolus , iris and rose . weed hosts , such as lamb ' s quarters , pig weed , ragweed , and shepherd ' s - purse serve as important reservoir hosts for the species .\nof north american origin , this aphid has a world wide distribution except for the indian subcontinent . it was first reported in hawaii in 1910 , and is now present on hawaii , kauai , maui and oahu .\naphids feed by sucking sap from their hosts . when aphid populations are large , feeding can cause plants to become deformed and the leaves curled and shriveled ( metcalf , 1962 ) . extensive damage can occur when aphid populations are large throughout the crop . this rarely happens in hawaii because of natural enemies and the use of insecticides .\non lettuce , aphids are a problem for three reasons : they vector virus diseases , they can cause reduced or abnormal growth ( reinink and dieleman , 1989 ) .\non strawberries the presence of honeydew , cast skins or sooty mold makes them unmarketable since the fruit can ' t be washed because this would increase the incidence of disease and decrease shelf life ( trumble et . al . , 1983 ) .\non broccoli , this pest is usually present on the youngest and oldest leaves that have higher concentrations of nitrogen containing compounds .\naphids vector plant viruses , and this activity potentially can result in greater losses than direct feeding damage . the potato aphid vectors over 40 non - persistent viruses and 5 persistent viruses . it is able to vector both p ( prsv - p ) and w ( prsv - w ) strains of papaya ringspot virus . prsv - p manifests on papaya . prsv - w does not infect papaya , but does infect cucurbits and watermelon . prsv - w is also called watermelon mosaic virus 1 ( wmv - 1 ) . this aphid also transmits watermelon mosaic virus 2 ( wmv - 2 ) .\nreproduction in hawaii does not involve mating and egg laying . females give birth to live female nymphs . as a consequence of this type of reproduction , populations are composed solely of females and there are no males present .\nin temperate regions , these aphids overwinter during the egg stage . these eggs are pale green when first laid and turn shiny black in a few hours . in hawaii , eggs are not produced by aphid females .\nimmatures are elongated and paler than adults with a light covering of white - gray wax and a dark stripe running down their back .\nwhen full grown , the potato aphid is nearly 1 / 8 inch long . eyes are distinctly red and they have long slender cornicles extending from the abdomen . there are two color types , the pink form and the green form . although the majority of the progeny from a green form parent is green and likewise for the pink form , both color forms are able to parent either color form , ( shull , 1925 ) . adults are usually without wings . winged adults are developed in response to high population densities , decline of the host plant , and changes in environmental conditions . winged individuals may be of either color form .\neach unmated female may give birth to 50 or more active nymphs within 2 weeks . a generation develops on potato every 2 or 3 weeks .\naphids cluster in shaded areas on the leaves , stems , and blossoms of plants . the wingless aphids tend to fall to the ground when the plant is disturbed . winged individuals disperse readily between crops .\nwhen population densities are high , winged individuals are produced . these individuals emigrate to new hosts . the production of winged versus wingless individuals is dependent on the day length , parent type ,\ngeneration\nand temperature ( macgillivary and anderson , 1964 ) . winged , or alate , aphids are more common when the photoperiod is between 11 - 13 hours a day , the parent aphids are unwinged and the first\ngeneration\nof aphids under like environmental conditions , and the temperature ranges from 50\u00fb - 70 _ f ( macgillivary and anderson , 1964 ) .\nbarlow ( 1962 ) reported that potato aphid populations have the capacity to increase in temperatures between 41\u00fb and 77\u00fb f . the optimum temperature for population increase for the potato aphid is 68\u00fb f ( barlow , 1962 ) .\nthere are several factors that naturally control aphid populations . many aphids are naturally controlled by predators , parasites and pathogens ( hagen and van den bosch , 1968 ) . high temperatures increase mortality ( walker , 1982 ) . heavy rainfall washes aphids off plants ( hughes , 1963 ; maelzer , 1977 ) , however , this mortality factor is small because aphids usually gather on the protected under surface of leaves where they are less likely to be washed off ( walker et . al . , 1984 ) .\nresearch on the characteristics of resistant tomato plants to the pink form of the potato aphid show that plants with long and dense hairs are less desirable under field conditions ( quiros et . al , 1977 ) . the same study showed that susceptible tomato plants had higher sucrose , lower quinic acid , and higher alanine and tyrosine contents and a trend toward higher total free amino - acid concentration , they also were a unique source of 0 - phosphoethanol amine ( quiros et . al , 1977 ) .\nbutterhead lettuce varieties are usually moderately to highly resistant to the potato aphid ( reinink and dieleman , 1989 ) . they feel this resistance may be passed on through selective breeding to the modern crisphead variety marbello which is a cross of crisphead and butterhead lettuces .\ninsecticidal soaps offer some control against aphids . applications should be applied at regular intervals for maximum efficacy ( koehler et . al . , 1983 ) . users should carefully consider the use of soaps . excessive use can cause a drop in yield of the crop .\na chemical management program for strawberries was tested by trumble et al . ( 1983 ) . they found that a regular sampling plan of counting the number of aphids per plant may be used to determine when the potential damage levels reach a threshold . if aphid numbers per plant are low ( less than 10 ) , no chemicals are necessary and monitoring should continue ; if they are above the threshold level ( 30 aphids per plant on 30 % of plants in field ) , chemicals should be applied . upon determining their thresholds , they found treatments could be based either on a regular sequential sampling plan or a check for presence / absence .\nhiga , s . y . and r . namba . 1971 . vectors of the papaya mosaic virus in hawaii . proc . hawaiian entomol . soc . 21 ( 1 ) : 93 - 96 .\nhughes , r . d . 1963 . population dynamics of the cabbage aphid , brevicoryne brassicae . j . anim . ecol . 32 : 393 - 424 .\nkoehler , c . s . , l . w . barclay and t . m . kretchun . 1983 . pests in the home garden . california agriculture . 37 ( 9 / 10 ) : 11 - 12 .\nmetcalf , c . l . , and w . p . flint . 1962 . destructive and useful insects their habits and control , fourth edition . revised by : r . l . metcalf . mcgraw - hill book company , inc . new york , san francisco , toronto , london . pp . 646 - 647 .\npurcifull , d . , e . hiebert and j . edwardson . 1984a . watermelon mosaic virus 2 . cmi / aab descriptions of plant viruses no . 293 ( no . 63 revised ) .\npurcifull , d . , j . edwardson , e . hiebert , d . gonsalves . 1984b . papaya ringspot virus . cmi / aab descriptions of plant viruses , no . 292 ( no . 84 revised ) .\nshull , a . f . 1925 . the life cycle of macrosiphium solanifolii with special reference to the genetics of color . american naturalist . 59 ( 663 ) : 289 - 310 .\ntrumble , j . t . , e . r . oatman , and v . voth . 1983 . thresholds and sampling for aphids in strawberries . california agric . 37 ( 11 / 12 ) : 20 - 21 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe species is spread in europe , anterior and middle asia , north america . within the territory of the former soviet union , it occurs widely where its hosts - plants grow . the northern border of its area goes along the northern border of main potato - growing zone . in closed ground , the pest is observed in more northern regions . its high harming activity is marked in some of southern regions of russia , in moldova , the south and southwest of ukraine .\npotato aphid damages potato , tomato , aubergine , cucumber , lettuce , cabbage , pepper , melons and gourds , and others cultures . it feeds on potato in august - september , on aubergine in july , on tomato july - september . different plant species have characteristic symptoms of damage ; injured leaves of cucumber have yellow net ; tomato leaves have round yellow spots at places of aphid feeding . damaged leaves dry up . fecal masses pollute the leaves . control measures include eradication of weeds , insecticide treatments . duly forecast of pest appearance and number is rather important .\nadashkevich b . , stary p . , popov n . 1972 . aphididae ( hymenoptera ) - parasites of aphids on vegetables , melons and gourds , potato . in : zhuchenko a . a . , ed . protection of vegetables ( proc . of moldova institute of water agriculture and vegetables growing ) . kishinev : moldovenyaske . 28 - 35 p . ( in russian ) .\nbobryshev f . i . , chmulev v . m . , udovitskii a . s . , zakharov a . i . 1972 . dynamics of aphid migration to potato . in : lisunov v . i . , ed . plant protection against pests and diseases ( proc . stavropol ' skhi ) . stavropol ' : stavropol ' skhi . 102 - 105 p . ( in russian ) .\nbozhko m . p . 1976 . aphids of food plants . khar ' kov : vishcha shkola . 134 p . ( in russian ) .\nchechuev n . 1973 . aphids on potato in kazakhstan . kartofel ' i ovoshchi 6 : 41 ( in russian ) /\ndamroze i . p . 1970 . the species composition of aphids on potato in latvian ssr . in : materials vii conference on plant protection . part i . elgava : 75 - 77 ( in russian ) .\nd ' yakonov k . p . , romanova s . a . , ledneva v . a . 1994 . new interest to potato aphid . zashchita rastenii 5 : 40 - 42 ( in russian ) .\nivanovskaya o . i . 1973 . ecological - faunistic complexes in west siberia . in : cherepanov a . i . , ed . results of investigations the living nature of siberia . novosibirsk : nauka : 97 - 104 ( in russian ) .\nivanovskaya o . i . 1976 . fauna of aphids on the territory of west siberia . in : zolotorenko g . s . , ed . fauna of helminthes and arthropods of siberia . novosibirsk : nauka . p . 175 - 189 ( in russian ) .\nkhandybarenko t . t . 1981 . basis of agrobiological measures on seed potato protection against aphids - virus - carrying agents . phd thesis . kiev : ukrainian plant protection institute , 41 p . ( in russian ) .\nlytaeva g . k , nemchin f . i . 1972 . dynamics of winged aphids on potato in moldova . in : zhuchenko a . a . , ed . protection of vegetables ( proc . of moldova institute of water agriculture and vegetables growing ) . kishinev : moldovenyaske . 96 - 98 p . ( in russian ) .\nnevskii v . p . 1929 . aphids of middle asia . proceedings of uzbekistan experimental plant protection station 16 . tashkent . 58 - 73 p . ( in russian ) .\nshaposhnikov g . kh . 1964 . suborder aphidinea . aphids . in : bei - bienko g . ya . , ed . keys to insects of the european part of the ussr . v . 1 . moscow & leningrad : nauka . 612 p . ( in russian ) .\nshaposhnikov g . kh . 1972 . order homoptera - homopterous . in : kryzhanovskii o . l . , ed . insects and mites - pests of agricultural crops . v . 1 . leningrad : nauka . 183 p . ( in russian ) .\nvasil . ev v . p . , ed . 1973 . pests of agricultural crops and forest plantations . 1 . kiev : urozhai , 303 p . ( in russian ) .\nzalene g . 1965 . aphids on potato in lithuanian ssr . in : materials of 5th conference on plant protection . vilnius : newspaper - magazine publishing house , 96 - 98 p . ( in russian ) .\nzhukova m . i . 2000 . aphids on potato in byelorussia and control measures . in : sorochinskii l . v . , ed . akhova raslin 4 . minsk : an byelorussia . 16 - 18 p . ( in russian ) .\n\u00a9 2003 - 2009 project \u00abinteractive agricultural ecological atlas of russia and neighboring countries . economic plants and their diseases , pests and weeds\u00bb\n( see pictures below ) , and often rather shiny . their eyes are reddish , and the antennae are darker towards their tips . their\n( see first picture below ) has pale greenish to yellow - brown thoracic lobes , with only the antennae and siphunculi noticeably darker than in the apterae . the second picture below shows a small colony of\nmicrographs of clarified mounts by permission of roger blackman , copyright awp all rights reserved .\nis a vector of about one hundred plant viruses . the species originates from the north - eastern usa where it produces sexual forms and\nspread infestations to other plants . it is an especial problem in unheated greenhouses .\nwe have made provisional identifications from high resolution photos of living specimens , along with host plant identity . in the great majority of cases , identifications have been confirmed by microscopic examination of preserved specimens . we have used the keys and species accounts of blackman & eastop ( 1994 ) and blackman & eastop ( 2006 ) supplemented with blackman ( 1974 ) , stroyan ( 1977 ) , stroyan ( 1984 ) , blackman & eastop ( 1984 ) , heie ( 1980 - 1995 ) , dixon & thieme ( 2007 ) and blackman ( 2010 ) . we fully acknowledge these authors as the source for the ( summarized ) taxonomic information we have presented . any errors in identification or information are ours alone , and we would be very grateful for any corrections . for assistance on the terms used for aphid morphology we suggest the figure provided by blackman & eastop ( 2006 ) .\njust sorting out pics , and have happened upon these little lovelies from november , which i ' ve been unable to which i ' ve been unable to put a name . they were on cotton growing in the mediterranean biome at the eden project .\nthe adult appears to have been killed by an entomophthora fungus giving it the bright orange / red colour .\nexcept where otherwise specified , all text and images on this page are copyright influentialpoints under a creative commons attribution 3 . 0 unported license on condition that a link is provided to urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ngrayish green to pink ; antennae longer than body and brown on the apical half ; cornicles cylindrical and very long ; cauda finger - shaped . ( from hypp zoology )\nprimary ( winter ) host is rose ; secondary ( summer ) hosts include potato and tomato .\nthe potato aphid attacks over 200 plants including vegetable and ornamental crops as well as weeds . cultivated food hosts include apple , bean , broccoli , burdock ( gobo ) , cabbage , celery , chinese broccoli , chinese cabbage , corn , eggplant , ground cherry , lettuce , mustard cabbage , papaya , pea , pepper , potato , strawberry , sunflower , sweetpotato , tomato , turnip , white mustard cabbage and zucchini . ornamental hosts are aster , easter lily , gladiolus , iris and rose . weed hosts , such as lamb ' s quarters , pig weed , ragweed , and shepherd ' s - purse serve as important reservoir hosts for the species . - univ . hawaii\ngarden insects of north america : the ultimate guide to backyard bugs ( princeton field guides ) whitney cranshaw . 2004 . princeton university press .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\n, the potato aphid , is native to north america . it is widespread across the united states and canada , and the species has spread from the nearctic region to the palearctic , ethiopian , and neotropical regions . its range has increased to an almost worldwide distribution , and\nis a significant crop pest . populations can be found throughout europe , asia , africa , south america , and australia .\n( finlayson , et al . , 2009 ; le guigo , et al . , 2012 ; raboudi , et al . , 2011 ; stary , et al . , 1993 ; valenzuela , et al . , 2009 )\ncolonizes over 200 species of host plants throughout temperate and tropical regions . its host plants , such as\nand many other crop species can be found mainly in agricultural fields , but also in grasslands and suburban areas such as greenhouses , gardens , and parks .\n( le guigo , et al . , 2012 ; petrovic - obradovic , 2010 ; van emden and harrington , 2007 )\nis considered to be a medium - sized aphid . the species has winged and wingless forms . apterous ( wingless ) forms typically are 1 . 7 to 3 . 6 mm long , and alate ( winged ) forms are 1 . 7 to 3 . 4 mm long .\nis spindle or pear - shaped . it has a soft body ; long , dark antennae ; and a pair of cornicles at the end of its abdomen . its color can vary among shades of green , pink , or magenta , while its eyes are reddish . nymphs resemble smaller adults and often are covered in a grayish - white wax . apterous adults usually appear shinier than nymphs .\n( boquel , et al . , 2011 ; kaplan and thaler , 2012 ; petrovic - obradovic , 2010 ; stoetzel , 1994 ; van emden and harrington , 2007 )\ngrows through four nymphal instars , each lasting from 1 . 5 to 3 days , though development time varies with temperature . total development time from birth to reproductive maturity ranges from about 6 to 12 days . development times in sexually reproductive and parthenogenetic populations are similar .\n( alyokhin , et al . , 2011 ; boquel , et al . , 2011 ; de conti , et al . , 2011 ; macgillivray and anderson , 1964 )\n( where the aphid life cycle includes both parthenogenesis and sexual reproduction ) occur only in north america . anholocyclic populations ( in which female aphids reproduce only by parthenogenesis ) occur throughout the rest of its global range . egg - laying females ( oviparae ) produce a pheromone to attract male mates . the pheromone is produced by a gland on the hind tibia , and the female lifts her legs to release it .\n( alyokhin , et al . , 2011 ; boquel , et al . , 2011 ; goldansaz and mcneil , 2006 )\n( in which individuals undergo both parthenogenesis and sexual reproduction ) are present in north america . in these holocyclic populations , eggs that have overwintered on primary hosts ( usually\nproduces several wingless , parthenogenetic generations while colonizing its primary host . later , winged females are produced ; the winged offspring colonize secondary host plants in june and july .\n. parthenogenesis continues on the secondary host until the fall , at which time males and sexually reproductive females are produced . males and sexually reproductive females return to the primary host plant species , mate , and lay eggs that overwinter . anholocyclic populations ( in which individuals reproduce only by parthenogenesis ) account for the\npopulations that are distributed throughout the rest of the world . the life cycle in anholocyclic\npopulations is similar , except for the absence of the sexually reproductive stage . apterous ( wingless ) females of\nlikely overwinter on primary host plants in warmer regions and later produce alate ( winged ) females that in turn colonize secondary hosts later in the season . one female can give birth to anywhere from a few to 50 offspring in a single day .\n( de conti , et al . , 2011 ; lamb , et al . , 2009 ; raboudi , et al . , 2011 )\nbreeding season sexually reproducing populations breed between the end of summer and early fall .\n, eggs are laid on a primary host plant to overwinter , which provides a food source for the offspring when they hatch in the spring . adults also provision the eggs . live birth by parthenogenesis is a significant energy investment by the female parent . because these clones join the colony at birth , interaction with the parent may occur ; however , adults provide no parental care .\nlives in large colonies . these colonies can grow to large sizes quickly due to live birth by parthenogenesis ( which eliminates the need and time to find a mate ) and the relatively quick maturation time of the offspring . colonies can be established when alate ( winged ) aphids fly from primary to secondary host plants . however , because aphids are notoriously weak fliers , they often move on air currents and thus have little control over the direction of flight . flight and any resulting colonization is largely random . small - scale dispersal can occur when apterous ( wingless ) aphids walk from one plant to another .\n( boquel , et al . , 2011 ; narayandas and alyokhin , 2006 ; pompon , et al . , 2010a )\nhas not been reported , but its range is limited significantly by its poor flight ability . colonization by alate ( winged ) forms is determined mainly by air currents . small - scale dispersal range is determined by the distance that\nthe main sensory organ in aphids is their antennae . the antennae are used for tactile and chemical detection . to determine whether a plant is a suitable host ,\nuses its antennae to feel along the leaves and detect host - specific odors and other chemical cues .\nalso uses its stylet mouthparts to probe into plants beneath the epidermis . color cues can play a role in host plant selection , and\ncan detect uv light . in other insects , uv light likely plays a role in flight patterns ; however , the detection of uv light by\nlikely serves a different purpose , as aphids are weak fliers and instead rely on air currents . changes in uv light have been shown to alter orientation and colonization in\n. aphids that are captured or harassed produce an alarm pheromone that alerts other aphids of danger . the alarm pheromone typically elicits evasive behaviors in aphids , such as dropping off the host plant or walking away . in\n, alarm pheromones also cause an increase in the parthenogenetic production of winged individuals , while sexually reproductive females produce a pheromone that attracts male mates .\n( goldansaz and mcneil , 2006 ; kaplan and thaler , 2012 ; legarrea , et al . , 2012 ; pompon , et al . , 2010a )\nfeeds on plant phloem . it uses its stylet mouthparts to pierce the plant tissue and access the phloem . this aphid species is highly polyphagous and has been documented as feeding on over 200 species in 20 different plant families , many of them crop species . its most notable host plants include plants in the\nindividuals ( usually dehydrated alate females ) also have been observed consuming xylem sap for rehydration .\n( atamian , et al . , 2013 ; le guigo , et al . , 2012 ; legarrea , et al . , 2012 ; pompon , et al . , 2010b )\nare avid predators of aphids . many lady beetle species have been documented preying on\nreleases an alarm pheromone , as do most aphid species . the alarm pheromone alerts others in the colony of a predation threat and typically elicits evasive behavior such as dropping off the host plant or walking away . additionally , the european red ant ,\n. the ants protect the aphids from predators and parasitoids in exchange for honeydew produced by the aphids .\n( alvarez , et al . , 2013 ; alyokhin , et al . , 2011 ; finlayson , et al . , 2009 ; kaplan and thaler , 2012 ; van emden and harrington , 2007 )\nis a significant crop pest with an almost worldwide distribution . it colonizes over 200 host plant species . its primary host often is cited to be\n. these bacteria live within the bodies of aphids and synthesize amino acids that the aphids cannot get from their nutrient - poor phloem diet . the european red ant ,\nin a mutualistic relationship . the ants eat the honeydew produced by the aphids ; in return , the ants protect , clean , and transport the aphids .\n. many species of wasp parasitoids lay eggs inside aphids , which causes aphid death when the wasp offspring hatch . these wasp species can be used to control aphid populations .\n( alyokhin , et al . , 2011 ; atamian , et al . , 2013 ; boquel , et al . , 2011 ; finlayson , et al . , 2009 ; francis , et al . , 2010 ; le guigo , et al . , 2012 ; legarrea , et al . , 2012 ; lins , et al . , 2013 ; petrovic - obradovic , 2010 ; thi , et al . , 2013 )\n, the potato aphid , is described as one of the most harmful aphid species in the world . it feeds on many plant species and causes significant crop damage in\n. the aphid also is a vector of many plant diseases , including 40 non - persistent viruses and several persistent viruses ( e . g . , yellow net virus , pea leaf roll virus , and potato leaf roll virus ) . to prevent as much crop damage as possible , substantial research has been and continues to be conducted to find the most effective insecticides , biological control methods , and resistant plants .\n( legarrea , et al . , 2012 ; raboudi , et al . , 2011 ; van emden and harrington , 2007 )\nangela miner ( author ) , animal diversity web staff , elizabeth wason ( author , editor ) , animal diversity web staff , leila siciliano martina ( editor ) , animal diversity web staff .\nliving in australia , new zealand , tasmania , new guinea and associated islands .\nliving in sub - saharan africa ( south of 30 degrees north ) and madagascar .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nliving in the northern part of the old world . in otherwords , europe and asia and northern africa .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nused loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies . more specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits ( a continuous , modular society ) - as in clonal organisms .\nhaving a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .\nreferring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range , usually through human action .\na large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows . in insects ,\nincomplete metamorphosis\nis when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form , and\ncomplete metamorphosis\nis when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms . butterflies have complete metamorphosis , grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\n( illiger ) , in potato ecosystems of idaho and its predatory potential on the colorado potato beetle and aphids .\nalyokhin , a . , f . drummond , g . sewell , r . storch . 2011 . differential effects of weather and natural enemies on coexisting aphid populations .\natamian , h . , r . chaudhary , v . dal cin , e . bao , t . girke , i . kaloshian . 2013 . in planta expression or delivery of potato aphid\nboquel , s . , p . giodanengo , a . ameline . 2011 . probing behavior of apterous and alate morphs of two potato\u2014colonizing aphids .\nde conti , b . , v . bueno , m . sampaio , j . lenteren . 2011 . development and survival of\nfrancis , f . , f . guillonneau , p . leprince , e . de pauw , e . haubruge , l . jia , f . goggin . 2010 . tritrophic interactions among\nlamb , r . , p . mackay , s . migui . 2009 . measuring the performance of aphids : fecundity versus biomass .\nle guigo , p . , a . rolier , j . le corff . 2012 . plant neighborhood influences colonization of\n) of potential importance on citrus in the united states with illustrated keys to species .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nhummel na 1 , zalom fg , miyao gm , underwood nc , villalobos a .\ndepartment of entomology , university of california , davis , davis , ca 95616 , usa . nahummel @ urltoken\ninsect biochem mol biol . 2009 jan ; 39 ( 1 ) : 20 - 30 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . ibmb . 2008 . 09 . 014 . epub 2008 nov 1 .\nd\u00e9partement de biologie , pavillon vachon , universit\u00e9 laval , qu\u00e9bec , qu\u00e9bec , canada .\nadult : large - sized ( 2 . 4 - 3 . 6 mm long ) ; greyish - green to pink ; spindle - shaped with antennae longer than body and brown on the apical half ;\ncylindrical and very long ; cauda finger - shaped with 8 - 11 setae .\naphid feeding slow down the growth of seedlings and lead to a decrease in yield .\nhowever , the most dangerous activity of this aphid is the transmission of phytopathogenic viruses , especially the potato virus y ( pyv ) and the beet yellows virus ( byv ) .\nwinged individuals , apterous individuals and nymphs on the underside of a leaf of potato .\ndistribution . this aphid is globally distributed , located in all but the coldest terrestrial habitats .\nhost associations . it has a broad host range , having been recorded from at least 90 families .\neconomic importance . it is particularly important on solaneous plant species , especially potato , but also attacks many rosaceous plant species . it has been implicated in the transmission of nearly 70 plant viruses .\nsee also . taxonomy at aphid species file . aphids on the world ' s plants . literature references .\nblackman , r . l . and v . f . eastop . 1994 . aphids on the world\u2019s trees . cab international with the natural history museum , london . viii + 987 pages , 135 figures , 16 plates .\nblackman , r . l . and v . f . eastop . 2000 . aphids on the world\u2019s crops , second edition . john wiley & sons with the natural history museum , london . x + 466 pages , 58 figures , 51 plates .\nblackman , r . l . and v . f . eastop . 2006 . aphids on the world\u2019s herbaceous plants and shrubs . volume 2 the aphids . john wiley & sons with the natural history museum , london . viii + pages 1025 - 1439 .\nchan , c . k . , a . r . forbes , and d . a . raworth . 1991 . aphid - transmitted viruses and their vectors of the world . agriculture canada technical bulletin 1991 - 3e . 1 - 216 pp .\nholman , j . 2009 . host plant catalog of aphids , palaearctic region . springer science and business media b . v . 1216 pp .\nvoegtlin , d . , w . villalobos , m . v . sanchez , g . saborio , and c . rivera . a guide to the winged aphids of costa rica . 2003 . international journal of tropical biology and conservation 51 ( suppl . 2 ) : xi + 228 pp .\nyou are using an outdated browser . please upgrade your browser or activate google chrome frame to improve your experience .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\nyou could not be signed in . please check your email address / username and password and try again .\nmost users should sign in with their email address . if you originally registered with a username please use that to sign in .\nto purchase short term access , please sign in to your oxford academic account above .\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\n: potato aphids infest a wide range of host plants . some important cultivated hosts include potato , tomato , eggplant , sunflower , peppers , peas , beans , apple , turnip , corn , sweet potato , asparagus , clover , and roses . weeds such as ragweed , lambsquarter , jimsonweed , pigweed , shepherdspurse , and wild lettuce are also common food plants .\n: potato aphid infestations are sporadic in occurrence and rarely severe enough to kill plants . damage is caused by both nymphs and adults sucking sap from foliage , especially from the terminal growth . new growth may become stunted and curled . the transmission of tomato and potato diseases , such as mosaics , leaf roll , and spindle tuber , causes more injury to the plants than sucking the sap .\n: this soft - bodied , pear - shaped insect varies in color from solid pink to green and pink mottled to light green . it is a rather large aphid , almost 1 / 8 inch long , and has a pair of long , slender\ntailpipe - like\nappendages known as cornicles . immature aphids are smaller than adults but similar in color and shape . all stages have piercing - sucking mouthparts and feed by sucking sap from plant tissues .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe green peach aphid and the potato aphid are commonly found on lettuce ; of the two , green peach aphid is the most important . green peach aphids are dark green to yellow and have no waxy covering . the tubercles at the base of the antennae grow toward each other . infestations start on the lower leaves and as aphid numbers grow they move up and over the entire plant .\npotato aphids can be found in both pink and green forms . this aphid is larger than the green peach aphid , and the adult has longer cornicles and cauda . potato aphid colonies are composed of both adults and offspring closely clustered together , usually on the youngest leaves . the potato aphid may occur alone , or in colonies with green peach aphid .\nlarge numbers of aphids can stunt seedlings or transplants and can contaminate heads bound for market . green peach aphids can vector several viruses that affect lettuce including alfalfa mosaic , beet western yellows , beet yellow stunt , and turnip mosaic .\nthe same general predators that attack other aphids also prey on green peach aphids . epidemics of a disease caused by the fungus entomophthora aphidis may kill portions of the green peach aphid population when their numbers are high and relative humidity is high . parasites , including lysiphlebus testaceipes , aphidius matricariae , and aphelinus semiflavus , attack this pest . natural enemies rarely provide adequate control of large numbers of aphids in spring or fall crops .\nuse biological control and sprays of azadirachtin , insecticidal soaps , or selected entomopathogenic fungi in an organically certified crop .\ncheck all areas of the field twice a week , but especially along the edges , which are usually the first area to become infested . since green peach aphid infestations are clumped , you will need to sample 25 plants per quadrant of a 40 - to 80 - acre field .\nif high numbers develop on seedlings , apply insecticide as soon as plants appear stressed . on more mature plants , before heading , do not apply insecticide unless numbers exceed 20 aphids per plant . if a significant percentage of plants are infested just prior to heading , apply insecticide to keep aphids from spreading into the center of the head where they are difficult to control . continue monitoring to see whether another treatment is needed . some populations of green peach aphid may be resistant to certain insecticides in your area ; check with your farm advisor for more information .\nthe following are ranked with the pesticides having the greatest ipm value listed first & \u2014the most effective and least harmful to natural enemies , honey bees , and the environment are at the top of the table . when choosing a pesticide , consider information relating to air and water quality , resistance management , and the pesticide ' s properties and application timing . not all registered pesticides are listed . always read the label of the product being used .\ncomments : soil application . placement is critical ; see label for information . do not apply more than 0 . 38 lb a . i . of admire pro / acre per year .\ncomments : foliar application . allow 7 days between applications with a maximum of 5 applications per season .\nrestricted entry interval ( rei ) is the number of hours ( unless otherwise noted ) from treatment until the treated area can be safely entered without protective clothing . preharvest interval ( phi ) is the number of days from treatment to harvest . in some cases the rei exceeds the phi . the longer of two intervals is the minimum time that must elapse before harvest .\nrotate chemicals with a different mode - of - action group number , and do not use products with the same mode - of - action group number more than twice per season to help prevent the development of resistance . for example , the organophosphates have a group number of 1b ; chemicals with a 1b group number should be alternated with chemicals that have a group number other than 1b . mode - of - action group numbers are assigned by"]}
{"id": 1478, "summary": [{"text": "nasturtium ( 1899 \u2013 1916 ) was an american thoroughbred racehorse that was the top two-year-old colt of 1901 .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was a contender for the 1902 epsom derby , but did not run in the race due to illness . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "nasturtium ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["the future of nasturtium . ; w . c . whitney ' s $ 50 , 000 horse , now at westbury , will be trained if it is possible .\nwith the headline : the future of nasturtium . ; w . c . whitney ' s $ 50 , 000 horse , now at westbury , will be trained if it is possible .\nthe future of nasturtium . ; w . c . whitney ' s $ 50 , 000 horse , now at westbury , will be trained if it is possible . - the new york times\ninserted into a hanging basket at planting time , even as a few seeds , nasturtium quickly makes an impact and later it keeps going when other flowers have worn out .\n\u00e9pinard was commandeered by the germans during their occupation of france in world war ii and reportedly was last seen being worked as a cart horse .\nnasturtium ( ger ) c , 1955 { 1 - w } dp = 0 - 0 - 0 - 14 - 6 ( 20 ) di = 0 . 00 cd = - 1 . 30\nan interesting problem to turfmen just now concerns the future of nasturtium , the fifty - thousand - dollar race horse , who was sent to england with the special purpose of winning the epsom derby for william c . whitney , and who was returned to the united states last week on the steamer minnehaha , after a sickness in england that caused mr . whitney ' s trainer to decide that it would be impossible to race the horse successfully in that country . view full article in timesmachine \u00bb\nangelina , the dam of ordei ( who is the sire of nasturtium ' s dam ) ip a full tisler to st . simon , england ' s crack sire , and whoso stock hjve been freely imported to the colonies by breeders to use as sires . nasturtium has a treble strain of the stockwoll blood in him \u2014 two through his dam and one through his sire , \u2014 besides which watcrcress ' s dam is a hermit mare . nasturtium made his first appearance in a maiden , two - year - old , and beat 14 others ovpr five furlongs in lmin 1 4 - ssec . another of mr whitney ' s colts in goldsmith is highly spoken of by american judges , but when huggins saw the colts he immediately selected nasturtium . huggins had not , at the time of the colts ' arrival , returned to england , but his head man wa ; an charge of a\nsow nasturtium seeds now , plant out seedlings if you have raised them , or buy some in pots . nasturtiums are very familiar flowers , often associated with cottage gardens . they tumble out from banks and rickety fences , and a great seaside flower too .\na handsome chestnut horse of great presence , \u00e9pinard had an excellent shoulder and strong hindquarters but also had bad feet that were prone to thrush infections . his optimum distance was at a mile or a little more .\nan irish country themed shop in kilkenny and horse and jockey selling art , clothes , accessories , equestrian gifts and homeware . opening hours : mon - sat : 10 : 00 - 18 : 00 sundays : high summer season\nthe third brett crawford - trained horse , sail south , is at his best when dropped out as he is capable of a blistering finish . he comes off a reasonable fourth place pipe - opening run in the drill hall .\nalthough familiar , the nasturtium is native to south america . it is not hardy , and is killed by the first frost of autumn , but before then it will give masses of brilliant orange , yellow or red flowers . the flowers , and the peppery - tasting leaves , can be used in summer salads .\nthe big bay proved himself a top horse as a three - year - old . he finished a narrow second in the grade 1 cape guineas with the rest of the field well beaten and followed that with an unlucky fourth in a vintage sun met field .\nroy had enough\u2019s best form has been over course and distance and he is capable of running on strongly from off the pace . he has a better draw than he has been having and is a dark horse , although this is much tougher opposition than he has beaten here .\na half sister to stakes winners hawthorne and thornhill ( both by hastings ) , epine blanche was produced from unraced white thorn , a daughter of 1901 american champion 2 - year - old male nasturtium . the next dam in epinard ' s tail - female line , thorn blossom , was sired by martenhurst from the imported galopin mare eye sweet , an unraced daughter of the winning springfield mare whin blossom .\nplease complete your profile . the forums and the rest of urltoken has single sign - in , so your log in information for one will automatically work for the other . disclaimer : the opinions expressed here are the views of the individual and do not necessarily reflect the views and opinions of the chronicle of the horse .\nbelow is a chart of the consensus american historical champions . apart from big red himself in 1919 and 1920 , all horses marked in orange are descendants of man o ' war . if you ' d like to check on any horse ' s pedigree , click here : urltoken . clicking this link will open the site in a new tab or window .\nif you are new to the forums , you must login or register a free account before you can post . the forums and the rest of urltoken has single registration , so your log in information for one will automatically work for the other . disclaimer : the opinions expressed here are the views of the individual and do not necessarily reflect the views and opinions of the chronicle of the horse .\nmasda ( ch f 1915 ) , bred by august belmont , nursery stud , lexington , kentucky , full sister to man o ' war ( ch c 1917 ) , 3rd dam of the king ranch ' s triple crown winner assault ( ch c 1943 bold venture ) , champion colt and horse of the year in 1946 and inducted into the racing hall of fame in 1964 . family 4 - c .\n\u201cinitially i only had a bit of a niggle in my shoulder but , when it didn\u2019t go away , an mri scan revealed ligament and tendon damage that required an operation to repair . when the horse reared and fell , trapping my foot between her and the metalwork , i grabbed whatever i could to pull myself clear and that is when i did the damage . with the adrenalin pumping i didn\u2019t realise anything was wrong .\nnow named alyssum , for the flower of course , the name also remembers one of the greatest of all hartford racehorses . alyssum ( the horse , ) excelled against the best of his generation at distances ranging from five furlongs ( the human equivalent of a 100 metres sprint at the olympics ) to ten furlongs ( the equivalent of the mile to humans ) , which exemplified not only his versatility , but also his abiding class .\naccording to turf historian richard ulbrich , \u00e9 pinard ' s feet were so painful on the day of his match race with sir gallahad iii that he had to be literally dragged to the race course . abram s . hewitt , who actually witnessed the race , stated that the horse ' s connections were smacking him across the buttocks with a plank to get him to move to the starting line . nonetheless , \u00e9 pinard lost the race by only a neck .\nyour forum sign - up is not complete , you must add an alias / screen name before you can post to the forums . your name and email is not exposed to forum users , only the screen name is accessible or viewable . the forums and the rest of urltoken has single sign - in , so your log in information for one will automatically work for the other . disclaimer : the opinions expressed here are the views of the individual and do not necessarily reflect the views and opinions of the chronicle of the horse .\nfriday night ' s food - and - wine pairing menu included butter - poached prawns with a pineapple - sage cr\u00e8me which worked so well with the la bri chardonnay 2011 . the starter comprised kzn quail and croft chicken - liver parfait and included fennel as well as a viola espuma , with tiny little colourful viola flowers that picked up on the slight spiciness and liquorice undertones of the syrah 2009 . other combinations included hearty lentil soup with nasturtium flowers and crispy capers . belgium , dark , bitter - chocolate fondant with fresh jasmine flowers , homemade berry jam and vanilla - bean ice cream smear , completed the meal . this was the combination irene was most concerned about . it turned out to be the dish she enjoyed the most because of its unusual pairing and complexity .\ni don ' t think there are any ata - approved traks left in tx all the ata - approved trak stallions in tx have been retired , died , gelded , or sold out of the state . if onassis were still breeding he would definitely be your guy . but i think prince of prussia ( full brother to platinum von rappenhof ) stands in arkansas and there are 2 stallions in louisiana , hilife and monte . hilife is an attractive horse and competed as a hunter but imho his jumping form was not great . don ' t know about monte .\noriginally selected by mick ' s late father , bryan , shortly before his premature death in 1977 , a one third share in the r900 purchase heliotrope was the sum of mick ' s inheritance , though he did get the racing\ndisease\nfrom his dad and grandfather , pat snr . yet it was this modest horse that ignited the fire which burns so brightly in the subsequent history of summerhill stud , the multiple champion racehorse breeding establishment on the continent , and of course , in the distinguished story of hartford , which was the subject of an exchange for the goss family property in hillcrest , just outside durban , in 1990 .\nbred and owned by august belmont ii he was a a half brother to the ebor handicap and queen ' s vase winner golden measure ( ch c 1902 florizel ) and to the belmont stakes winner friar rock ( ch c 1913 rock sand ) . his dam fairy gold won the woodcote stakes at epsom defeating desmond ( bl c 1896 st . simon ) . standing 15 hands 3 inches he was described as a\nvery stylish , bloodlike colt ,\nand was thought to resemble hermit ( ch c 1864 newminster ) by several observers in england . although not an overly large horse , his trainer andrew d joyner suggested that he was\nplenty big enough\n.\nhe was the only consequential runner sired by derby winner sainfoin , who is more noted for being the dam ' s sire of both phalaris and hurry on . rock sand ' s dam , roquebrune , was a half - sister to dual - classic winner seabreeze , and daughter of the one thousand guineas winner st . marguerite and the undefeated st . simon . roquebrune ran three times in three seasons : she won ascot ' s new stakes as a juvenile , and doncaster ' s zetland stakes at age three . an exceptionally high - strung filly , she was called a\ntrainer ' s nightmare .\nrock sand was likewise known as a temperamental horse , although it did not interfere with his racing .\ncaptain america is the defending champion and should go close . he is a big horse but has run well fresh before . from draw four he might have a bit of a problem getting into his favourite box seat . snowdance , who is drawn three , is likely to lead and three - year - old undercover agent , drawn two , is thus in the ideal position to slot in behind her as he also likes to be handy . captain america thus might have to run one wide outside of his younger stablemate . however , he has relaxed well as he has gotten older so it should not be too much of a problem . both he and undercover agent can turn it on in the straight and will be big players .\nin our continuing effort to provide an avenue for individuals to voice their opinions and experiences , we have recently reviewed and updated our forum policies . generally , we have allowed users to share their positive or negative experiences with or opinions of companies , products , trainers , etc . within the industry , and that is not changing . when it came to overt criminal allegations , however , those discussions have in the past needed to stem from a report by a reputable news source or action by law enforcement or the legal system . we are now expanding our policies to allow posters to share their own first - hand experiences involving overt criminal allegations , such as animal abuse or neglect , theft , etc . , but only if they publicly provide their full first and last name along with the post . we still will not allow anonymous postings alleging criminal activity . so , a user may now make a specific claim against a named individual or company , but it must be a first - hand account , and they have to identify themselves . users have always been legally responsible for their posts , and nothing has changed there , but we want to loosen the reins a bit and further allow the free flow of discussion and information relevant to the horse community . we are not providing a free - for - all of anonymous rumor - mongering . as enduring advocates for the welfare of the horse , we want to provide a forum for those willing to sign their name and shine a light on issues of concern to them in the industry . the full revised rules are posted at the top of each forum for reference .\nch c 1923 ( fair play - quelle chance , by ethelbert ) . sire line matchem . family 3 - c . bred by august belmont ii he won the jockey club gold cup and aqueduct handicap and was champion racehorse and horse of the year in 1927 . he covered at calumet farm in lexington , kentucky and got , among others , the hopeful stakes winner psychic bid ( ch c 1932 ) , the kentucky jockey club stakes winner grand slam ( ch c 1933 ) and the futurity stakes winner some chance ( ch c 1939 ) all later stallions . chance play also got the champion filly now what ( ch f 1937 ) herself the dam of the twice champion filly next move ( br f 1947 bull lea ) . he led the sires list in 1935 and 1944 . chance play died in 1950 .\n\u00e9pinard played a significant if indirect role in arthur hancock ' s decision to form a syndicate to buy sir gallahad iii as a stallion prospect . as turf historian william robertson put it , hancock reasoned that if \u00e9pinard was a good enough stud prospect to attract wealthy american horsemen willing to buy him , a horse that had beaten him ( albeit with the help of an 11 - pound weight concession and a flare - up of \u00e9pinard ' s chronic foot soreness ) was a still better one . hancock was right , as sir gallahad iii became a four - time american champion sire and 12 - time american champion broodmare sire while standing at hancock ' s claiborne farm . further , because of sir gallahad iii ' s early successes in the united states , his full brother bull dog was also imported and also became an american champion sire and broodmare sire .\nst . florian , tl . e sire of ard patrick , belongs to bruce lowe ' s xo . 20 family , and no horse of that family has ever sired a classic winner until mr gubbins ' s irisbbrecl colt captured this year ' s blue ribbon , and on that account the ' \u2022special commit bioner\nof the london . sportsman did n ' \u00bbt greatly fa \\ our the colt ' t , derby chance when writing of thi - > year ' a derby colta some few months back . this year ' s dorby will be numbered amongst the most sen\u00abatioi . al on record , on account of the onoimous amount of wage - r - ing which took place over the event . the amount < > i money for whu - ii sceptre was suppoitcd vould , if tho usbta new - , i ^ correct , i - end her out the hottest fnvumite that ! ia - < ever started in the race . she started at evens in a field of 17 , and was - supported in one night to win half a million of money . ard patrick has been a good performer both during his two - year - old career oncl thii season . ard patrick made his first appearance as a two - year - old in the imperial - produce stakes at kempton park , winch lie won in good style . he also won the clearwell stakes at newmarket , but he was beaten a head in th\u00a9 dewhur - i , plate by game chick . this season ard patrick . was third to sceptre and pistol in the two thousand guineas , and subsequently won the newmarket stakes , but was disqualified for bumping , the race going to the carbine colt fowling pier - e . ard patrick has been one of the ruling favourites during the winter and the spring of this year , and has been consistently supported for tho race he has just won . some few years ago , when the \u00a310 , 000 stakes given by proprietary clubs sprang . into existence , many writers said that the english derby stood an excellent chance of being knocked into oblivion by theee colossal stakes ; but the famous iace has during the patt two or three years taken a fresh lea = e of life , and now sportsmen and bre - eders are patronising it with renewed interest .\npapers past | the americans in england . ( otago witness , 1902 - 02 - 26 )\nhelp us improve papers past : do our short survey and let us know how we ' re doing .\nthis article displays in one automatically - generated column . view the full page to see article in its original form .\nlast year ' s derby winner , volodyovski . the americans have captured two english derbys up to date \u2014 one with iroquois and one with volodyovski , \u2014 and the decision of this year ' s blue ribbon , which i 3 down for june 4 , will be looked forward to with considerable interest by sportsmen all the world over .\nthis article text was automatically generated and may include errors . view the full page to see article in its original form .\nthe americans in england . , otago witness , issue 2502 , 26 february 1902\npapers past now contains more than just newspapers . use these links to navigate to other kinds of materials .\nthese links will always show you how deep you are in the collection . click them to get a broader view of the items you ' re currently viewing .\nenter names , places , or other keywords that you ' re curious about here . we ' ll look for them in the fulltext of millions of articles .\nbrowsed to an interesting page ? click here to search within the item you ' re currently viewing , or start a new search .\nuse these buttons to limit your searches to particular dates , titles , and more .\nswitch between images of the original document and text transcriptions and outlines you can cut and paste .\nif you ' d rather just browse through documents , click here to find titles and issues from particular dates and geographic regions .\nthe\nhelp\nlink will show you different tips for each page on the site , so click here often as you explore the site .\ncolor : ch ( usa ) 1901 : won flatbush stakes , 2nd . great american stakes . purchased for $ 50 , 000 on june 22 , 1901 generally ranked as the u . s . champion two - year - old male of 1901 , but was probably not the equal of his stablemate , the champion filly endurance by right - he defeated her in the flatbush stakes but had been declared to win by their owner . article on colt ` s return from england and illness : urltoken sent to elmendorf in 1903 per ny times . 2 / 1903 ( close )\n* current year statistics include all north american races and dubai world cup day . career statistics include results from all countries .\n* current year includes north american and dubai world cup day statistics ; all previous years include results from all countries .\nequibase company is the official supplier of racing information and statistics to america ' s best racing , breeders ' cup , daily racing form , ntra , the jockey club , tra , tvg and xpressbet .\nproprietary to and \u00a9 2018 equibase company llc . all rights reserved . the terms of use for this web site prohibit the use of any robot , spider , scraper or any other automated means to access the contents of this site . the terms of use also expressly prohibit the republication or dissemination of the contents of this screen without the prior written consent of equibase company llc .\nmichael hall antiques . p . o . box 50031 , nashville tn 37205 . email : michael @ michaelhallantiques . com . ( tel . ) 615 - 390 - 1836 . \u00a9 michael hall antiques 2017\nwe don ' t know when or if this item will be back in stock .\ninstantly receive a \u00a310 urltoken gift card if you\u2019re approved for the amazon platinum mastercard with instant spend . representative 21 . 9 % apr ( variable ) .\ncredit offered by newday ltd , over 18s only , subject to status . terms apply .\nplease make sure that you ' ve entered a valid question . you can edit your question or post anyway .\nthere was a problem completing your request . please try your search again later .\nunless expressly indicated in the product description , urltoken is not the manufacturer of the products sold on our website . while we work to ensure that product information on our website is correct , manufacturers may alter their product information . actual product packaging and materials may contain more and / or different information than shown on our website . if you have any specific product queries , please contact the manufacturer . this notice does not affect your legal rights . for medicinal products , content on our website is not intended to be used to diagnose , treat , cure , or prevent any disease or health condition or to substitute advice given by medical practitioners , pharmacists or other licensed health care professionals . you should contact your health care provider immediately if you suspect that you have a medical problem . you should always read the labels , warnings and instructions provided with the product before using or consuming it and not solely rely on the information presented on our website .\nchannel island flower essences originated over 12 years ago in the beautiful , energetic and dynamic channel islands focusing on flowers , grasses and tree essences . created by susie morvan .\nchannel island flower essences are produced using the finest organic french brandy and bronte natural spring water to provide you with most natural and purest flower essence .\nflower essences are the vibrational energy imprint of flowers infused in water using the sun method as advocated by dr edward bach in the beginning the last century . flower essences are described to work on the subtle body , the aura or magnetic energy field that surrounds a human being .\nchannel island flower essences are manufactured under strict guidelines and codes of practice of the bafep ( british association of flower essence producers ) and the bfvea ( the british flower and vibrational essence association ) with the purest of ingredients of organic french brandy and bronte spring water . the personal space enhancing mist is manufactured using the finest organic vodka and bronte spring water . they are produced to the highest standards of quality control in a specialist factory facility with brc grade a standing and organic accreditation in line with the foods standards agency .\nvisit the delivery destinations help page to see where this item can be delivered .\ndisclaimer : while we work to ensure that product information on our website is correct , on occasion manufacturers may alter their ingredient lists . actual product packaging and materials may contain more and / or different information than that shown on our website . all information about the products on our website is provided for information purposes only . we recommend that you do not solely rely on the information presented on our website . please always read the labels , warnings , and directions provided with the product before using or consuming a product . in the event of any safety concerns or for any other information about a product please carefully read any instructions provided on the label or packaging and contact the manufacturer . content on this site is not intended to substitute for advice given by medical practitioner , pharmacist , or other licensed health - care professional . contact your health - care provider immediately if you suspect that you have a medical problem . information and statements about products are not intended to be used to diagnose , treat , cure , or prevent any disease or health condition . urltoken accepts no liability for inaccuracies or misstatements about products by manufacturers or other third parties . this does not affect your statutory rights .\nprime members enjoy fast & free shipping , unlimited streaming of movies and tv shows with prime video and many more exclusive benefits .\nafter viewing product detail pages , look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages you are interested in .\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .\nwe courier to your door within 2 - 4 days all over south - africa for only r 99 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nimposing - princess dan ( mr dan ) dp = 0 - 2 - 2 - 0 - 0 ( 4 ) di = 3 . 00 cd = 0 . 50\n* all statistics are generated from blacktypepedigree data , which include black - type races since 2002 .\nto get access to this function please ! login to your premium account . .\nsince the selection of champions before 1936 was somewhat haphazard , turf journalists and historians eventually got together to select the historical champions . this means that man o\u2019 war , whose stud career spanned the years 1921 through 1943 , finally had the chance to include his most productive period at stud . now , not only do we honor the sole \u201cofficial\u201d champion war admiral in 1937 , we also recognize the selected champions american flag , florence nightingale , maid at arms , scapa flow , crusader , edith cavell , and bateau . all were champion offspring of man o\u2019 war before the more modern championship balloting process began .\nchampions , there are more lists available . first is the list of american classic winners , second is a list of the thoroughbred racing hall of fame inductees with man o ' war blood , and the third is the top racehorses of the 20th century according to various polls .\nplease note : you cannot have more than one type of tack or more than one background equipped . for example , trying to equip a second saddle will just replace the currently equipped saddle with the new saddle .\n100 show placings points : 10 prize : $ 2000 objective : earn 1st 2nd or 3rd place in 100 shows .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncookies facilitate the provision of our services . by using our services you agree that we may use cookies .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsix generations for : ellangowan spy valley ( wpb g2137 - 11 . 11 . 04 - gelding ) by ellangowan challanger from ellangowan macaraina\nhe is one of the hottest chefs in london , the up - and - coming star of a hugely competitive culinary scene that demands rare levels of talent , innovation and determination . robin gill has just been named the uk ' s chef of the year by the good food guide , an award that puts him right up there with the very biggest names in the business . but in his native ireland , he remains very much under the radar .\nrobin and his wife sarah run three of the most talked about restaurants in london . this august , they added paradise garage in bethnal green to a burgeoning chain that began with the dairy in clapham and continued with the much - lauded manor . and it all began in a run - down irish pub in one of the less glamorous corners of south west london , where a sudden flash of inspiration interrupted a post - work , early - hours pint .\nrobin ( 35 ) and sarah ( 34 ) first met when they were in their early 20s and he was doing a short stint working in a restaurant in dun laoghaire , where they both grew up .\nit was a really fun place to work , and i knew a lot of people there ,\nrobin says .\ni got invited to the staff christmas party and sarah was working there , so we met , and we ' ve been together ever since .\nrobin ' s early career saw him go straight from school to working in restaurants in dublin and then progressing through the\nstage\nsystem , where young chefs with lots of promise intern in the top kitchens . it ' s a tough , often unforgiving system . soon after they met , sarah went over to italy to join robin while he was on a stage at the two - michelin star ristorante don alfonso on the amalfi coast . then it was back to london in 2004 , for two years at le manoir aux quat ' saisons where he worked under raymond blanc .\nit is an amazing way to learn the business and to develop your skills , you are working under the best ,\nsays robin .\nbut there is a big element of having to prove yourself . it ' s long hours , hard work , a fair bit of pressure .\nsarah had also joined the front of house team at le manoir . and then the french - born super - chef asked them both to head up his latest venture , a five - star dining and hospitality private members club at the emirates stadium , home to premier league football team arsenal .\nit was called the diamond club and it was the first time anybody had tried to do fine dining at a football club ,\nsays sarah .\nrobin was the head chef for two years . at first i was only supposed to go in and train the staff , but i ended up working there myself for seven years .\nit was a big break for robin , working for the high - rollers who paid \u00a380 , 000 just to join and an annual membership fee of \u00a330 , 000 to dine on match days . but he didn ' t find it the most rewarding experience of his career .\ni wanted to be out of there after the first week ,\nhe says .\nbut i had made a commitment , so i ended up there for two years , mostly out of loyalty to raymond .\nthe couple , who married in florence in 2011 , both knew that what they really wanted was to set up their own restaurant . that is easier said than done in london , where sky - high rents , operating costs and tough competition make it a huge challenge .\nyou are not gordon ramsay , you are not jason atherton . when you are a nobody , the only venue you are going to be offered is the last piece of crap on the market ,\nexplains robin . following a short but very lucrative stint as the personal chef to a middle eastern head of state , by 2012 robin had gotten some savings together alongside offers of backing from some of the well - heeled clientele who had sampled his cooking at arsenal .\nbut they didn ' t have a venue . and that ' s where what was possibly the worst irish pub in london came in .\nwe were living in clapham , and this used to be a pretty shabby old irish pub . a real late - night den , an absolute dive ,\nsays robin .\nit only opened a couple of nights a week but stayed open until 6am so i could come for a couple of drinks after finishing up in town . we had been looking for a place to start for nearly three years and getting nowhere . i was really starting to wonder if we could find a place at all . then i was in here one night and the guy who owned it was telling me that he was thinking of selling up the lease and moving on .\nit was a bit of a light - bulb moment for robin and sarah . they scraped together the cash to get the lease and then started calling in favours from friends .\nwe didn ' t have an interior decorator . we couldn ' t afford one ,\nsays sarah .\na friend of ours , an irish guy , did all of the artwork . we tore down walls , got friends in to help strip wallpaper and sand floors , we were still waiting for paint to dry about an hour before we opened that first night .\nthat was in early 2013 , and soon they started getting hugely positive reviews in time out , in the guardian and pretty much from everybody in the know .\nit was very stressful , because we just started getting reviewed , and we hadn ' t had the time or the money to do a proper opening , we didn ' t even know how these reviewers were hearing about us ,\nsays sarah .\nand it ' s london , so a good or bad review from a big magazine or paper , well , it can make or break you .\nthe gills , however , were very much made . since then , the dairy and the manor - which opened in clapham in november 2014 - have become destination dining spots , with people flying in to london just to sample robin ' s fantastic cooking .\nit has been a meteoric rise for the couple . when we meet , it ' s clear they make a dynamic team . robin has his skills and creativity in the kitchen while sarah , who studied marketing before getting into the restaurant trade , brings a lot to the table in terms of hard work , organisation and vision . both of them are very focused on the business of the restaurant trade in london .\ntheir son , ziggy , is almost a year old and has virtually grown up in the restaurant . sarah can be seen in the dairy on busy saturdays , handing out menus to the lunchtime crowd with one hand while holding ziggy on her hip with the other .\nit ' s been a bit mad . and we are trying to cut back on the hours , it ' s very important with our son being so young . so we ' ll take a break after christmas , and head off for a month ,\nsays sarah .\nwe work together most days and it can be a bit high - pressure , running three restaurants . you could end up just working flat - out , every hour god sends . that would not be the life we want . we ' re both conscious of getting that balance right , of being able to step back and take a break when we can .\nrobin is already looking at offers for a newspaper column , his first cook - book , possible tv work . but when he talks about the fisherman in cornwall who texts him at 4am to say what kind and quantity of fish he will be sending up that morning , or the guy who grows his veg , it ' s clear to see that his main focus is still on the food .\nand london is taking notice . apart from the stellar reviews , crowds of customers and awards , robin is now hosting a semi - legendary late - night dining club for his fellow chefs from the city ' s best eateries , a once - a - month bacchanalian bash known as the bloodshot supper club .\nthe restaurant crowd only sit down for their starters at 1am and it goes on all night . it ' s almost as if this irish chef is preserving one small bit of the spirit of the worst irish bar in london .\njason o ' neill , head chef at the g hotel , shares this tempting recipe .\ngo that little bit further and have fun with fish ! jason o ' neill , head chef at the g hotel , shares some tempting recipes .\ng hotel ' s head chef : how to make grilled black sole , potato , charred broccoli , cauliflower , . . .\nfsai issues urgent recall of frozen vegetables from major irish supermarkets over . . .\n' it\u2019s her choice but there are myths about it ' - language expert on maura derrane ' s . . .\n' the whole world of make - believe for kids seems to be gone ' - clare garrihy on how . . .\nif you dream of giving it all up and running away to the ballymaloe . . .\nwhen my children were small and i was faced with the terrifying prospect of entertaining 20 of their tiny friends on their . . .\nthe sun is high in a cloudless sky as i retreat down the broad servants - entrance steps to a cool fitzwilliam square . . .\nreview : fowl play - ' filipino - style pork belly skewers are sweet , sticky and . . .\n' is it over yet ?\napparently not , there ' s another . . .\nrecipe : roast turbot , fondant potato , girolles , prawns , asparagus , prawn bisque , . . .\ngo that little bit further and have fun with fish ! jason . . .\nthe votes are in ! here are ireland ' s top 10 . . .\nnew york is the greatest three - day town on earth . when . . .\nis the tiger back in d4 ? acclaimed architects return with black terrace for \u20ac2 . 4m\nfrom super - connies and concordes to jumbo jets and dc - . . .\nafter two years of construction and restoration , belfast ' s titanic hotel has officially . . .\nwatch : ' i call him my little buddha ' - couple who run dublin tattoo parlour . . .\nwatch : did you know there ' s a ' little venice ' ? it ' s on the greek island of mykonos . . .\nwith the tennis season upon us , here ' s a twist of the . . .\nwatch : take a look inside these luxurious millionaire ' s row apartments in . . .\nthe big green egg - a hand - made ceramic egg which is made in the same factory as a . . .\nbefore the frost kills it , the plant provides lots of large rounded seeds - - which are not killed by frost , having a layer of corky insulation - - and these will usually sprout the following year and continue the show at no expense .\nnasturtiums can be planted on earthen banks or at the top of low retaining walls or raised beds , where they can fall down and trail along the ground . the effect of a rippling flow of foliage and flowers is very pretty , especially over gravel . the plant is strongly associated with summer because it is certain that none of the foliage will be there in winter .\nnasturtiums are ideal for planting against rough fences as , if they can get a grip , they will scramble upwards rather than trail down . the plant can be used as a temporary filler and colour - provider to improve messy areas .\nbecause of the trailing habit of growth , nasturtiums can be used successfully in containers , especially hanging baskets and window boxes , and in pots where they can trail over the edge .\nsow seeds anywhere that a few plants would be of value . the ground should be good but not very rich , as the plant tends to make a lot of leaves in very fertile soil . the position should be sunny to get as much balanced growth and flowering as possible .\nthe seeds can be sown in small pots of compost , three or four to a pot . when they are about five centimetres tall , they can be planted out into the ground where they are going to grow , or in containers . alternatively , the seeds can be sown directly into the soil where they are to grow .\nthe large seeds are robust and almost always succeed , and this makes them very suitable for children to try . watch for snails until the plants grow large . sometimes cabbage white butterflies lay eggs on the leaves and the caterpillars can strip the leaves . pick off the egg batches if noticed .\n' peter was adamant , there was to be no coving and no range ,\nmarita varley explains with a big smile , as she points out the coving on the ceiling in her kitchen and the waterford stanley range , against which she is warming her bum .\nif you are in the market for a georgina - era mansion , then here are four impressive properties currently available to buy .\nmassive holiday home on the wild atlantic way which has its own private beach is up for . . .\n' i will derail gravy train in the legal industry ' - shane ross vows to clampdown on . . .\nyears ago when i was selling my first house in a bid to . . .\nmoynalty in co meath is a relatively modern village ( by irish standards at least ) , having been laid out to a linear plan . . .\nbalally is one of the four park and ride stops on the luas green line ; you can park your car there for \u20ac5 a day and read a . . .\nfans of the chronicles of narnia , the seven - novel cs lewis saga , might be forgiven for opening the bedroom wardrobes in . . .\njim fitzpatrick , the artist best known for bringing us our celtic myths in vivid colour , bought his victorian house by the . . .\nit has been many decades now since douglas lost its identity as a quiet , conscientious village near cork and became . . .\nmassive holiday home on the wild atlantic way which has its own private beach is up . . .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ndark bay / brown colt , 1900 - 1914 by sainfoin - roquebrune by st . simon darley arabian sire line : stockwell branch family 4 - n .\nalthough he was a top juvenile racehorse and english triple crown winner , rock sand is not generally considered among history ' s elite runners . his losses , by three lengths to ard patrick and the great race mare sceptre in the eclipse stakes , to sceptre by four lengths in the jockey club stakes , and to zinfandel and sceptre in the coronation cup , being conceded weight in the first two , has always cast a cloud on his racing quality . he left an excellent racing son in tracery , whose grandson , congreve would become one of the most influential stallions ever in south america , and through tracery his sire line also continued in england to papyrus , and in australasia through pantheon and archery . in the u . s . , his good staying son friar rock got the fast , long - running handicapper pilate , sire of the game , weight - carrying and speedy eight thirty . but it was through his daughters that rock sand has the most significant impact on the breed .\nthe chestnut trap rock was another foal of 1908 ; he was out of topiary , the mare that had been imported with rock sand . he won the hudson and manhassett stakes and three other races , and was second in the great american stakes . very similar in appearance to his more famous brother , tracery , with the exception of his coat color , he was a successful sire of winners of over $ 385 , 000 , and was several times in the top twenty of leading broodmare sires in the 1920s .\ntracery ( 1909 ) was rock sand ' s best runner and best sire son . he was out of topiary , and similar in appearance to his year - older brother , trap rock , but brown in color . he was an elegant animal , and game on the turf , but was plagued by spavins early in his career . because of the racing blackout , belmont sent him to england to race . he was placed in the hands of leopold de rothschild ' s trainer , john watson , at newmarket , but went unraced at age two due to spavins and / or other problems . his very first race as a three - year - old was the epsom derby , for which he was not prepared , and he ran third to tagalie and jaeger , beaten by four lengths .\nin 1909 several american mares bred to rock sand were shipped to france , and dropped their foals there . one of these was the st . florian daughter , queen ' s bower . in 1909 at haras de villiers , she dropped qu ' elle est belle . she won over 120 , 000 francs , her triumphs including the prix la rochette and the prix de diane ( french oaks ) . sent to the u . s . , qu ' elle est belle dropped quelle chance ( 1917 , by ethelbert ) , the dam of the great fair play sons chance play ( 1923 , jockey club gold cup , saratoga cup ) and chance shot ( 1924 , belmont stakes , saratoga special , withers stakes ) . both colts became good sires , with chance play leading sire twice in the u . s . , and chance shot sire of champion filly fairy chant , among other good stakes winners .\nvulcain ( 1910 ) was born in france from lady of the vale . she was by rayon d ' or and out of lady violet , a mare belmont purchased as a yearling who had been a terrific weight - carrier and excellent juvenile runner and later the dam of four stakes winners . lady of the vale was one of the in - foal mares that crossed the atlantic to haras de villers . vulcain was not an impressive juvenile , but at age three was one of the best of his generation in france , winning the prix miss gladiator ( 2100 meters ) , the prix noailles ( 2200 meters ) , and the prix reiset ( 3000 meters ) , and running third in the prix juigne and prix daru . belmont later brought him to the u . s . , where as a stallion he got 21 stakes winners , mostly high - class handicappers .\nmahubah ( 1910 ) was and is rock sand ' s most celebrated daughter , although she was not the only one to contribute to his excellence as a broodmare sire . out of the merry hampton daughter , imported merry token , and bred at nursery stud , she ran three times as a juvenile and twice at age three , winning a maiden race . her importance derives from her famous son , man o ' war , the great chestnut racehorse and stallion , and to a lesser extent his brother , jockey club gold cup winner and useful sire , my play , and their sister masdah , a winner of six races and dam of three stakes winners .\ndanger rock ( 1912 ) out of delusion , by meddler , was bred by belmont and raced in england during the war . an elegant animal , he was cursed with rock sand ' s temperament . he won the 1 - 1 / 2 mile hastings plate and the newmarket stakes . during the running of the zetland plate , his off fore pastern was damaged , ending his career . belmont sent him to the u . s . , where he was placed in the middleburg , virginia , stud of raymond belmont . danger rock was not a particularly useful sire , but he did get the gelded stakes winner doctor wilson ( 1925 ) , bred by john madden , who collected $ 49 , 236 in earnings ."]}
{"id": 1481, "summary": [{"text": "macrodactylus subspinosus is a north american beetle of the family scarabaeidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is one of at least two beetles in this family known as the \" rose chafer \" , the other being the european cetonia aurata .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "m. subspinosus occurs from eastern canada to colorado and is considered a pest of many crops and flowers .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is given its common name of rose chafer because it eats the leaves of roses , although it also feeds on many other plants . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "macrodactylus subspinosus", "paragraphs": ["development of an attractant for the scarab pest macrodactylus subspinosus ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) .\nthe rose chafer ( macrodactylus subspinosus ) is a common pest in vineyards in the northeastern united states .\ndevelopment of an attractant for the scarab pest macrodactylus subspinosus ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe rose chafer ( macrodactylus subspinosus ) is commonly found in many areas of minnesota , particularly areas with sandy soil .\nrose chafer ( macrodactylus subspinosus fabricius ) adults emerge at bloom and immediately attack grape blossoms and skeletonize leaves , eating all the tissue around large veins . they can cause extensive damage to foliage and completely destroy blossom buds and / or developing berries , resulting in reduced grape yields . damage can be severe in vineyards with sandy soils , the preferred habitat for these beetles .\nin identifying the rose chafer ( macrodactylus subspinosus syn . cetonia aurata ) , one will note that it is a tan , long - legged , slender beetle from 5 / 16 to 15 / 32 inches long ( 8 - 12 mm ) . as you can see , this beetle is smaller than the japanese beetle and does differ in appearance . they are , however , alike in the appetite and the damage they do .\nin the past few years , populations of the rose chafer beetle , macrodactylus subspinosus , have been abundant in some regions of southwest michigan . these beetles can be found in grape growing regions across michigan and beyond ; however , outbreaks in the lawton , mich . , region in recent years have been causing some high levels of damage to clusters during the bloom period . with this recent history , it is a good time to review the biology and lifecycle of this pest and review the available options for control .\nwe analyzed the flight of the rose chafer macrodactylus subspinosus ( f . ) ( melolonthinae : scarabaeidae ) and the japanese beetle popillia japonica newman ( rutelinae : scarabaeidae ) in a wind tunnel with controlled humidity , temperature , light , and airflow . the data indicate that an optimum combination of light and temperature dramatically improves their response to lures . both species took off upwind , oriented to , and contacted the odor source well ( 40\u201360 % ) when light intensity was > 50 % of a clear day , temperature was 26\u201327\u00b0c , and relative humidity was 65\u201375 % .\nadvisories are not working correctly for plymouth . the next closest stations are rocky mount , williamston and buckland . begin sprays \u2026\nfrom cotton \u2013 july 2 , 2018 , 03 : 12 pm please consider attending a scouting school this summer . we will post as they become \u2026\nearworm populations ( known as bollworm in cotton ) were relatively low in our system from 2011 to 2016 . arguably , at \u2026\nthis week i have noticed damage on many pin oaks ( quercus falcata ) by oak spider mites ( oligonychus bicolor ) . oak \u2026\nrecent news stories about giant hogweed have raised awareness of this nasty invader . yes , we have giant hogweed in \u2026\nwhen cotton blooms , it\u2019s time to switch sampling and thresholds for plant bugs . this previous article covered management of \u2026\nwe received a confirmed report of basil downy mildew in north carolina . growers are advised to actively scout for \u2026\ncorn is susceptible to damage at three stages ( roughly ) : v1 to v6 , v14 to vt and r1 to r4 . \u2026\nnc state extension is the largest outreach program at nc state university . based in the college of agriculture and life sciences , we reach millions of north carolina citizens each year through local centers in the state ' s 100 counties and with the eastern band of cherokee indians .\nwe have several topic based e - mail newsletters that are sent out periodically when we have new information to share . want to see which lists are available ?\nintegrated pest management ( ipm ) is a sustainable approach to managing pests that combines multiple approaches including prevention , avoidance , pest monitoring and suppression in a manner that minimizes public health , economic , and environmental risk . ipm serves as a framework to provide an effective , comprehensive , low - risk approach to protect people and resources from pests .\nultimately , the goal with an ipm program is to help stakeholders deal with pests\u2014insects , plant diseases , weeds , and more\u2014with methods that reduce risks to public health and the environmental while saving money .\nthe north carolina extension ipm program serves as a focal point for team building , communication and stakeholder participation in integrated pest management ( ipm ) within the state . program goals include promoting effective and economical management of pests , reducing risks to human health from pests and pest management practices , and minimizing environmental effects through the adoption of ipm on a variety of crops and settings in north carolina . these goals are achieved by the timely delivery of ipm technology and research information to stakeholders in all regions of the state .\nleadership of the extension ipm program in north carolina is provided by an ipm coordinator ( designated by the director of the north carolina cooperative extension service ) , an established advisory board , and working groups . dr . danesha seth carley , the current ipm coordinator , accepted the nc ipm coordinator position in 2013 .\nthe extension ipm coordinator involves faculty and staff from north carolina state university and north carolina a & t state university in ipm activities across the state , communicates program successes , and maintains stakeholder input via the advisory board and the ipm portal , as well as multiple training sessions and meetings .\nthe advisory board provides advice to the extension ipm coordinator regarding the direction of the ipm program in the state . it is composed of a wide variety of ipm stakeholders , including north carolina state university and north carolina a & t state university faculty , non - governmental agencies , environmentalists , north carolina department of agriculture & consumer services personnel , farmers and agricultural consultants .\nthe north carolina extension ipm program focuses on delivering ipm content to our stakeholders and community members through a variety of activities . the primary activities include information delivery , pest monitoring and data managment , evaluation and needs assessment tools development , and programs to magnify statewide ipm impacts .\nthe extension ipm program is a cooperative effort of the usda nifa , north carolina cooperative extension service , north carolina state university , and north carolina a & t state university . it also works in partnership with the southern ipm center , located at north carolina state university in raleigh , and acts to promote ipm in north carolina and the southern united states .\nfunding for the north carolina extension ipm program is provided by competitive grants from the u . s . department of agriculture\u2019s national institute of food and agriculture ( nifa ) .\nnc state university and n . c . a & t state university work in tandem , along with federal , state and local governments , to form a strategic partnership called n . c . cooperative extension , which staffs local offices in all 100 counties and with the eastern band of cherokee indians .\nnc state university and n . c . a & t state university are collectively committed to positive action to secure equal opportunity and prohibit discrimination and harassment regardless of race , color , national origin , religion , political beliefs , family and marital status , sex , age , veteran status , sexual identity , sexual orientation , genetic information , or disability .\nadult rose chafers feed primarily on flower blossoms , especially roses and peonies , causing large , irregular holes .\nrose chafers also feed on the foliage of many trees , shrubs and other plants , such as rose , grape , apple , cherry and birch .\nthey damage leaves by eating the leaf tissue between the large veins , a type of injury known as skeletonizing .\nit has short antennae that have a series of flat plate - or page - like segments .\nadult beetles are seen coming out of the ground in late may and early june .\nthey feed on plants for three or four weeks , generally until late june .\ntwo to three weeks later , the eggs hatch into small , white grub\u2011like larvae which feed on the roots of grasses and weeds .\nplants located on sandy sites are have more chances of being attacked as rose chafers prefer sandy soil to lay eggs .\nadult beetles damage leaves and the larvae feed on the roots of grasses and non - crop plants .\nrose chafers contain a toxin and can be deadly to birds ( including chickens and small animals ) when they eat these beetles .\nprotecting plants from rose chafers can be challenging , especially when large numbers are present .\ncheck for rose chafers in your garden starting in late may , especially if you have a history of rose chafer infestations .\nwhen small numbers are present , pick rose chafers from plants and drop into pails of soapy water to kill them .\nyou can also use a physical barrier , like a cheesecloth or floating row cover .\nplace the barriers around the plants just as rose chafers become active and take them down after the rose chafers are done feeding ( after june ) .\nif large numbers of rose chafers are present , you can treat plants with a garden pesticide . you may need to treat plants more than once when rose chafers are numerous .\nyou can find the common name for a pesticide by looking under active ingredients . look closely as this is usually in small print .\nexamples of common names of active ingredients include : bifenthrin , esfenvalerate , cyfluthrin , imidacloprid , permethrin and carbaryl .\ncaution : mention of a pesticide or use of a pesticide label is for educational purposes only . always follow the pesticide label directions attached to the pesticide container you are using . remember , the label is the law .\nbe sure that the fruit / vegetable you wish to treat is listed on the label of the pesticide you intend to use . also be sure to observe the number of days between pesticide application and when you can harvest your crop .\nthese diagnostic tools will guide you step - by - step through diagnosing a plant problem or identifying a weed or insect .\nuniversity of minnesota extension discovers science - based solutions , delivers practical education , and engages minnesotans to build a better future .\nregents of the university of minnesota . all rights reserved . the university of minnesota is an equal opportunity educator and employer .\n( fabricius ) and is found from eastern canada south to colorado . the second species is the western rose chafer ,\nhorn and it occurs in arizona , new mexico , texas and south into central mexico . both species are very similar in size , body shape , and habits . control measures for one species should also apply to the other .\n( fabricius ) , is a tan , long - legged slender beetle from 8 - 12 mm long . the rose chafers damage plants by feeding on the flowers , newly set fruit and foliage . on roses it skeletonizes the leaves in the same way as other scarab beetles like the japanese beetle , chinese rose beetle , and the serica garden beetle . it feeds on on the foliage of many different plants and it is greatly attracted by flowers . on june 27 , 1997 i observed numerous beetles on milkweed flowers in an area near galesville , wi . i also swept this beetle from the blooms and foliage of several plants in the area . the rose chafer is native to the northeast from eastern canada south to colorado . i have seen samples from fenton , mi and galesville , wi .\nadult beetles emerge from the soil in late may through early june and and they live for about one month . mating occurs soon after emergence and the females lays her 24 - 36 eggs continuoulsy for about two weeks in the soil in grassy sandy areas . upon hatching the larvae burrow in the soil and feed on the roots of grasses and weeds . the overwinter as a larvae and continues development in the spring . the full grown larva or grub is white and measures up to 18 mm in length . pupation occurs in the spring . the rose chafer has only one generation per year .\nscouting or monitoring for the presence of rose chafers is very important for adequate control . rose chafers are most prevalent in areas with sandy soil . adults readily attracted to many types of flowers and feed on the foliage many plants . the larvae or white grubs feed on the roots of grasses and many cultivated and wild plants . from late may through july , the foliage should be inspected for skeletonized leaves and the presence of adult beetles on the leaves and flowers .\nrose chafers can be handpicked and destroyed if the infestations are light . rose chafers can be very numerous especially in areas with sandy soils . in these cases insecticides may not give satisfactory control as rose chafers can move in from surrounding untreated areas or the insecticides do not seem to prevent feeding activity for very long . however , after about 2 - 3 weeks of heavy damage the beetle numbers appear to subside . insecticides used in the control of rose chafers include carbaryl ( sevin ) , acephate ( orthene ) , diazinon , and chlorpyrifos ( dursban ) , tempo , talstar , mavrik , rotenone , etc .\nit was interesting to read that birds sometimes die from eating adult rose chafers . the beetles apparently have a chemical that affects the heart of small , warm - blooded animals .\nhorn occurs primarily in arizona and new mexico south into mexico . it resembles the rose chafer and its damage is similar . it is 10mm long and the body is rather slender , long - legged , and yellowish brown in color . its pubescence is longer and denser than that of the rose chafer . i have collected numerous beetles in southern arizona and central mexico feeding on many kinds of plants .\nessig , e . o . 1926 . insects of western north america . the macmillan company , ny , p . 445 .\njohnson , warren t . and howard h . lyon . 1988 . insects that feed on trees and shrubs , 2nd edition , cornell university press , ithaca , ny . , pp . 236 - 37 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nthese systems aim to suppress pest populations below a predetermined economic injury level ( eil ) .\nipm extends the concept of integrated control to all classes of pests including plant pathogens , insects , and weeds .\nit also allows for safer pest control and is expanded to include all control tactics such as pesticides , host - plant resistance , and cultural manipulations .\nthe ohio grape ipm program will provide information and resources for managing diseases , insects , and weeds . it is a comprehensive program designed to encourage collaboration among ohio agricultural research and development center ( oardc ) scientists with different specializations to better address the pest management needs of the grape industry .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nvery similar to and hard to distinguish from m . angustatus , with which it used to be considered synonymous\nsuspect ( art evans , pers . comm . to = v = 5 . iv . 2011 )\nadults emerge in early summer and feed on flowers , some leaves . they live for up to 6 weeks . mating occurs on food sources . eggs are laid deep ( 13 - 15 cm ! ) in soil and hatch in one to three weeks . larvae feed on roots and overwinter deep in soil . pupation in early spring in the soil , just under the surface .\nthe beetles of northeastern north america , vol . 1 and 2 . downie , n . m . , and r . h . arnett . 1996 . the sandhill crane press , gainesville , fl .\nscarab beetles ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) of south carolina phillip j . harpootlian . 2001 . clemson university public service .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nthe information below is based on images submitted and identified by contributors . range and date information may be incomplete , overinclusive , or just plain wrong .\nhover over black occurrence boxes to see number of images submitted . log in to make states , months and boxes clickable .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nresearch support , u . s . gov ' t , non - p . h . s .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nn common north american beetle : larvae feed on roots and adults on leaves and flowers of e . g . rose bushes or apple trees or grape vines\nwhether you ' re a student , an educator , or a lifelong learner , urltoken can put you on the path to systematic vocabulary improvement .\ndon ' t have an account yet ? sign up . it ' s free and takes five seconds .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n- common north american beetle : larvae feed on roots and adults on leaves and flowers of e . g . rose bushes or apple trees or grape vines\nall content on this website , including dictionary , thesaurus , literature , geography , and other reference data is for informational purposes only . this information should not be considered complete , up to date , and is not intended to be used in place of a visit , consultation , or advice of a legal , medical , or any other professional .\ndetailing the physical features , habits , territorial reach and other identifying qualities of the rose chafer .\nrose chafers love to congregate on their namesake and chip away at a rose bush ' s health , eating its blooms and leaves . .\nantennae : beetles have a pair of antennae on the head used as sensors .\nhead : the head is home to the insect ' s eyes , antennae , and mandibles ( jaws ) .\nthorax : holds the three pairs of legs as well as vital internal organs .\nelytron : one of two wing cases on a beetle that protects its wings ( plural : elytra ) .\nlegs : beetles have three pairs of legs located at the thorax , numbering six legs in all .\nan insect ' s reach is not limited by lines drawn on a map and therefore species may appear in areas , regions and / or states beyond those listed below as they are driven by environmental factors ( such as climate change ) , available food supplies and mating patterns . grayed - out selections below indicate that the subject in question has not been reported in that particular territory . u . s . states and canadian provinces / territories are clickable to their respective bug listings .\nthe map below showcases ( in red ) the states and territories of north america where the rose chafer may be found ( but is not limited to ) . this sort of data can be useful in seeing concentrations of a particular species over the continent as well as revealing possible migratory patterns over a species ' given lifespan . some species are naturally confined by environment , weather , mating habits , food resources and the like while others see widespread expansion across most , or all , of north america .\nit is important to identify the type of grub in your lawn before treating . it is usually necessary to consult an expect for grub identification . adults are pictured to help with beetle identification . keep in mind , however , that adults do not always stay in the same area as the larvae .\nearly indications of grub infestation are irregular patches of dry grass , flocking birds , or areas of turf being torn up by raccoons , possums and skunks looking for a tasty treat .\nif grubs have been eating the root system , patches of turf will come up easily from the soil surface , like pulling up a corner of carpeting , and the soil will be full of grubs .\nit is important to identify the type of grub in your lawn . above , left to right : japanese beetle , european chafer and june beetle larvae .\njapanese beetle larvae are typical white grubs that are c - shaped when disturbed . first instar larvae are about 1 / 16 inch long while the mature third instars are about 1 - 1 / 4 inch long .\nadult japanese beetles are 7 / 16 - inch long metallic green beetles with copper - brown wing covers . a row of white tufts ( spots ) of hair project from under the wing covers on each side of the body .\neffective biocontrol of japanese beetles includes winsome fly istocheta ( = hyperecteina ) aldrichi . adult beetles with eggs on the pronotum , like the one pictured , should not be destroyed .\neuropean chafer larvae are typical c - shaped white grubs , reaching a maximum size of 1 / 4 inch wide and 1 inch long .\neuropean chafer adults are 1 / 2 inch long . males and females are a uniform tan or light brown color .\ngrubs are whitish with brown heads and range from 1 / 2 to 1 inch in length . these are the largest grubs found in turf .\nall species of phyllophaga are called may or june beetles . adults are about 1 inch long and a chestnut brown color and fly to lights in the early summer .\noriental beetle grubs cause considerable damage to turf grasses and nursery plants . they eat and destroy the roots of the grass and are found in nursery stock , strawberry beds and some outside potted plants .\noriental beetle adults are about 7 / 16 inch . they vary in color from light brown to black , often with darker mottling on the wing covers .\nrose chafer larvae have a brown head and conspicuous legs . fully grown , a rose chafer larva is about 3 / 4 - inch long . the larvae feed on the roots of grasses and non - crop plants . they do not cause damage to home lawns or landscape plants .\nrose chafers are scarab beetles approximately 3 / 8 inch long , slender , and light tan in color . they contain a toxin that can be deadly to birds , including chickens , and small animals .\nrose chafers are generally found in areas with sandy soil . adults feed on rose flowers and foliage , skeletonizing leaves .\nasiatic garden beetle larvae has a brown head capsule and six legs . it has three instars .\nasiatic garden beetles are less than one - half inch long . they are cinnamon in color and have an iridescent sheen in the sunlight . they are attracted to porch lights on summer nights and feed at night , chewing irregular holes in many different plants . during the day , they rest in the soil .\n( japanese beetle larvae ) jim baker , north carolina state university , bugwood . org ;\nclemson university - usda cooperative extension slide series , bugwood . org ; ( rose chafer adults on leaf ) university of wisconsin entomology ; ( asiatic garden beetle larvae ) msu ipm resources ; ( asiatic garden beetle adult )\nit is the policy of the state of maine to minimize reliance on pesticides . the maine department of agriculture and the maine ipm council encourage everyone to practice integrated pest management and to use pesticides only as a last resort . the mention of pesticides in the fact sheets linked to these pages does not imply an endorsement of any product . be sure that any product used is currently registered and follow all label directions .\nadult rose chafers feed primarily on flower blossoms , especially roses and peonies , causing large , irregular holes . they damage fruits , particularly grape , raspberry , and strawberry . they also feed on the foliage of many trees , shrubs and other plants , such as rose , grape , apple , cherry , and birch , typically damaging leaves by eating the leaf tissue between the large veins , a type of injury known as skeletonizing .\nthey contain a toxin that can be deadly to birds , including chickens , and small animals . the larvae feed on the roots of grasses and non - crop plants ; they do not cause damage to home lawns or landscape plants .\nrose chafer larvae have a brown head and conspicuous legs . fully grown , a rose chafer larvae is about 3 / 4 - inch long .\nrose chafers are scarab beetles approximately 3 / 8 inch long , slender , and light tan in color .\nclemson university - usda cooperative extension slide series , bugwood . org ; ( rose chafer adults on leaf ) university of wisconsin entomology\nh . e . hummel and t . a . miller ( eds . ) . techniques in pheromone research . springer - verlag , new york .\n, jr . 1984 . wind tunnels in pheromone research , pp . 75 - 110 ,\nsmith and lawrence to stereoisomers of 8 - methyl - 2 - decyl propanoate under laboratory conditions .\n( l . ) ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) to female volatiles in a flight tunnel .\n1994 . sex pheromone responses of the oriental beetle ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) .\n1990 . effect of light exposure and carbohydrate content of snap bean leaves on chinese rose beetle ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) feeding .\n( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) : response to synthetic sex attractant plus phenethy proprionate : eugenol .\n1994 . the influence of climatic factors on the flight activity of the japanese beetle ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) : implications for use of a microbial control agent .\n: a superior attractant , phenylethyl propionate + eugenol + geraniol , 3 : 7 : 3 .\n1978 . sustained - flight tunnel for measuring insect responses to wind - borne sex pheromones .\n1995 . bioassay approaches to assessing behavioral responses of plum curculio adults ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) to host fruit odor .\n( coleoptera : chrysomelidae ) to corn silks and analysis of the host - finding response .\n1977 . identification of the female japanese beetle sex pheromone : inhibition of male response by an enantiomer .\n1999 . turfgrass insects of the united states and canada . comstock pub . associates , ithaca , new york .\n1990 . tansley review no . 27 . the control of carbon partitioning in plants .\n1989 . systat : the system for statistics . systat , evanston , illinois .\n( f . ) , containing alpha - ionone . united states department of agriculture , patent 5 , 202 , 124 ; april 13 .\nheath , j . j . , williams , r . n . & phelan , p . l . j chem ecol ( 2001 ) 27 : 419 . urltoken\nmichigan state university extension helps people improve their lives by bringing the vast knowledge resources of msu directly to individuals , communities and businesses .\nrose chafers can quickly damage vines . to better manage this pest , know the biology and lifecycle , and available options for control .\nthe rose chafer is a light - tan beetle with a darker - brown head and long , spiny legs . it is about 0 . 5 inches long . the adult beetles have only one generation per season with emergence from the soil starting in late may and june , and with the beetles living for up to a month . while grapes are a preferred host , there are also many other plants it will feed on including roses , strawberries , peaches , cherries , apples , raspberries , blackberries , clovers , hollyhocks , corn , beans , beet , peppers , cabbage , peonies and many more plants , trees and shrubs .\nthis vineyard pest is distributed throughout the eastern united states with greatest abundance in areas with sandy soils and grass . this is because the female beetle , once mated , selects grassy and sandy areas for laying her eggs . those eggs hatch into larvae that feed on grass roots through the summer , moving down away from the frost line during the winter . in spring they feed again , pupate , and then emerge in late may and june . emergence of adult beetles typically coincides with bloom of grapevines . the beetle\u2019s ability to skeletonize leaves until only the midribs are left , and consume the young tender clusters , makes it an economically - significant pest of grape production\nas mentioned above , rose chafer beetles are attracted to sandy and grassy areas during their egglaying period . it may not be feasible , but if areas that are obvious sources of the beetle can be changed into a non - grass cover crop or can be fallow for the period of late may until early june , this might force the beetles to seek egglaying sites elsewhere . small numbers of beetles can also be hand - removed and placed into soapy water if you have a small enough vineyard that this manual control is possible .\nfor chemical control , there are a number of options to consider . assail , sevin and danitol are all ranked as providing excellent control of this pest . these have some different properties with the neonicotinoid insecticide assail providing protection due to it knocking down the beetles and also because it is a systemic insecticide that is taken into the vine making it resistant to wash - off and providing good residual activity .\nin a 2003 msu research trial in leelanau county , we found that assail provided longer control than sevin . the carbamate insecticide sevin and the pyrethroid insecticide danitol both have contact activity against rose chafers , providing knockdown of the beetles on contact and with sevin also having some activity as a stomach poison after being eaten by the beetles .\nadditional broad spectrum insecticides such as the pyrethroids baythroid and mustang max are expected to also have good activity , as is the organophosphate imidan . under the high spring temperatures we have been having recently , the residual control of pyrethroids is expected to be shorter than under cool conditions . however , we also expect there to be a shorter period of rose chafer activity during hot conditions , allowing for a shorter period needed for vine protection against this pest .\nthe timing of rose chafer activity also can overlap with early season grape berry moth activity and early potato leafhopper infestation . the insecticides mentioned above will also provide some control of these other insect pests at the same time .\nthis article was published by michigan state university extension . for more information , visit urltoken . to have a digest of information delivered straight to your email inbox , visit urltoken / newsletters . to contact an expert in your area , visit urltoken , or call 888 - msue4mi ( 888 - 678 - 3464 ) .\njune 7 , 2018 | john wise | precipitation can impact the performance of insecticides on fruit crops , but some compounds resist wash - off .\nmay 8 , 2018 | heidi lindberg | the new respirator requirements for the updated worker protection standard requires growers complete a respirator fit test annually .\nmay 8 , 2018 | heidi lindberg | as of january 2018 , three requirements were added to the worker protection standard .\nmay 1 , 2018 | rufus isaacs | with fruit crop bloom season kicking in , it\u2019s a good time to review these recommendations .\napril 30 , 2018 | john wise | there are many options available for mite control in fruit crops in this 2018 update .\nphysical removal and destruction of this insect pest can manage the population when only a few beetles are present ; however , when greater than two beetles per vine are seen during vineyard monitoring , a chemical spray is recommended . intensive baited trapping of the beetles over multiple years has shown to reduce populations to below threshold levels . an insecticide application in addition to trapping may be needed when populations are high . chemical applications should continue through the first or second post - bloom spray when pressure is severe . refer to a grape pest management guide ( see recommended links ) for insecticide specifics and efficacies . cultivation between rows to destroy the larvae may reduce the population but will not provide sufficient control of the pest . rose chafers contain a toxin that can be deadly to birds ( including chickens ) and small animals if the beetle is ingested .\nthe rose chafer is a light tan beetle with a dark brown head , about 12 mm ( \u00bd inch ) long and has one generation a year . larvae ( c - shaped grubs ) overwinter underground in the soil . they move closer to the surface and begin to feed on grass roots until they pupate in the spring . adults emerge during late may or june in most areas , around grape bloom , and congregate on plants to mate and feed . the females lay eggs just below the ground surface . they prefer grassy areas of sandy , well - drained soil . the adults live for three to four weeks after emergence . the eggs hatch into small , white grub - like larvae , which feed on roots of grass , weeds , grains , and other plants throughout the summer . they move down in the soil as the temperatures decline , where they will overwinter until the next growing season .\neviticulture and the grape community of practice are funded by the nifa - usda specialty crops research initiative ( scri ) and extension .\nthis work is supported by the usda national institute of food and agriculture , new technologies for ag extension project .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nrose chafers are commonly found in many areas , particularly those with sandy soil . they are pests on many different types of flowers , fruits , trees and shrubs but they are especially damaging to young , developing rosebuds , grapes and cherries .\nan adult rose chafer is a moderate - sized beetle , 1 / 3 to 3 / 4 - inch ( 8 to 19 mm ) long , with wing covers having small yellowish hairs . it ' s slender and can be pale green to tan in color with reddish - brown or orangish spiny legs , and the body is black on the underside . larvae are small white grubs with a brown head that are found in the soil .\nrose chafer larvae overwinter in the soil and pupate in the spring . adults emerge in late may to early june . because the rose chafer prefers sandy soil to lay eggs , plants located on sandy sites are most likely to be attacked . adult beetles feed on plants for three or four weeks , generally until late june . females lay eggs in groups of 6 to 25 in the soil among the weeds and grasses until early july , and then die shortly afterwards . eggs hatch in about two weeks , and larvae feed on the roots until fall , then burrow deeper into the soil to spend the winter in the soil below the frost line . they pupate the following spring and then emerge as adults . there is one generation a year .\nrose chafer feed on the foliage of many trees , shrubs , also blackberry , grape , raspberry , strawberry , and tree fruit such as apple , and cherry . also garden vegetables , and ornamentals : birch , dahlia , hollyhock , iris , peony , poppy and rose .\nadult rose chafers chew on flowers , especially roses and peonies , causing large , irregular holes by eating the leaf tissue between the large veins , a type of injury known as skeletonizing . they also chew on leaves , and fruits , but are usually damaging only when exceptionally numerous . damage is more severe in areas with sandy soil . larvae feed on roots of grass and weeds doing little noticeable damage .\nprevention : gardeners should regularly monitor their gardens starting in late may , especially if you have a history of rose chafer infestations . cover smaller plants with floating row covers until july control : 1 . cultivation destroys eggs and pupae in the soil . it is especially effective against pupae if cultivating is continued into early june 2 . if large numbers of chafers are around , drench the soil with insect parasitic nematodes to kill the larvae . 2 . when small numbers are present , hand pick to remove rose chafers . put them into pails of soapy water to kill them . because rose chafers are good fliers , more can fly into your garden and you will need to check your plants routinely for any additional rose chafers .\nif you love fruit tress like apples , peaches , pears and plums , but don ' t have the room , plant a dwarf variety . most grow from 3 feet to 8 feet . they product tons of fruit and are easier to harvest because they are low to the ground .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nand the life cycle is similar . rose chafer was first reported as a grape pest as early as 1810 , later extending its host range to include a wide assortment of host plants . grape remains among the most severely injured crops . larvae overwinter in soil , resuming development in the spring . adults emerge in late may or early june , near the time of grape bloom . these are tan , long - legged beetles about 12 mm long . mating and egg laying occur continuously for about two weeks with each female depositing 24 to 36 eggs . the average life span of the adult is about three weeks , when they feed on blossoms , newly set fruit and leaves . in about two weeks , eggs hatch and larvae begin feeding on grass roots . this pest is more common in areas with light sandy soils . there is one generation per year .\ncontrol is seldom needed for this pest , but vigilance should be maintained early in the season in case of high numbers . in severe cases , blossom buds are often completely destroyed , resulting in little or no grape production . population levels vary from year to year . petal - fall sprays for grape berry moth will also control rose chafers .\nthis is taken primarily from an extension bulletin by d . g . pfeiffer & p . b . schultz , entitled\nmajor insect and mite pests of grape in virginia\n( va . coop . ext . serv . 444 - 567 ( 1986 ) )\nrose chafer adults attack grapes at bloom as they emerge from the soil . not only do they destroy the fruit at blossom , in addition , they frequently skeletonize the leaves , leaving only the large veins intact ( see figure 22 . 21 ) .\nfemales deposit eggs below the soil surface and soon after hatch into tiny , white , grubs . the larvae feed on the roots of grasses and weeds throughout the summer becoming fully developed by fall .\nscouting for rose chafer within the vineyard should begin when newly emerged adults may be found feeding primarily on newly formed blossom buds .\ncultivating between rows may be effective in destroying a good number of chafers since the pupal stage is extremely vulnerable to disturbance .\nassail ( acetamiprid ) , sevin ( carbaryl ) , imidan ( phosmet ) , and danitol ( fenpropathrin ) are all ranked as providing excellent control of this pest .\ntreatment with an insecticide should be when the first newly emerged beetles are detected in adequate numbers .\nclick on the following topics for more information on managing vineyard insect and mite pests .\nno part of this content or the data or information included therein may be reproduced , republished or redistributed without the prior written consent of apex publishers . use of this site is governed by our copyright policy , terms of use agreement and privacy policy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nthrips ( several species including the flower thrips , western flower thrips ) ( univ . of california site )\nroot weevils ( otiorhynchus spp . , polydrusus spp . ) ( univ . of california site )\nkovach , j . , w . wilcox , a . agnello an m . pritts . 1993 . strawberry ipm scouting procedures . cornell univ . n . y . state ipm program . publ . no . 203b . 33p .\na . refer to refer to handout on\ninsects and mites associated with small fruits in the u . s .\nanon . 1972 . strawberry insects : how to control them . usda farm . bull . 2184 . 17 p .\nbutcher , m . r . , d . r . penman & r . r . scott . 1987a . a binomial sequential decision plan for control of two - spotted spider mite on strawberries in canterbury . n . z . j . exp . agric . 15 : 371 - 374 .\nbutcher , m . r . , d . r . penman & r . r . scott . 1987b . population dynamics of two - spotted spider mites in multiple year strawberry crops in canterbury . n . z . j . zool . 14 : 509 - 517 .\nbutcher , m . r . , d . r . penman & r . r . scott . 1987c . the relationship between two - spotted spider mite and strawberry yield in canterbury . n . z . j . exp . agric . 15 : 367 - 370 .\nchagnon , m . , j . gingras & d . deoliveira . 1991 . honey bee ( hymenoptera : apidae ) foraging behavior and raspberry pollination . j . econ . entomol . 84 : 457 - 460 .\ncooley , d . r . & s . g . schloemann . 1990 . development and implementation of a strawberry ipm program . 1990 reg . ext . fruit school . middleway wv . oct . 30 - nov . 1 .\ndavidson , r . h . & w . f . lyon . 1979 . insect pests of farm , garden , and orchard . wiley , n . y . 596 p .\nenglish - loeb , g . , m . pritts , j . kovach , r . rieckenberg and m . j . kelly . 1999 . compensatory ability of strawberries to bud and flower removal : implications for managing the strawberry bud weevil . j . econ . entomol . 92 : 915 - 921 .\nhansen , r . w . & e . a . osgood . 1983 . insects visiting flowers of wild red raspberry in spruce - fir forested areas of eastern maine . entomol . news 94 : 147 - 151 .\njohnson , d . t . & r . l mayes . 1986 . biology and control of the rednecked cane borer . arkansas farm res . 35 ( 3 ) : 6 .\nmailloux , g . & n . j . bostanian . 1988 . economic injury level model for tarnished plant bug , lygus lineolaris ( palisot de beauvois ) ( hemiptera : mirideae ) , in strawberry fields . environ . entomol . 17 : 581 - 586 .\nmcgregor , s . e . 1976 . insect pollination of cultivated crop plants . usda - ars agric . handbk . 496 . 411 p . miller , j . c . , p . e . hanson & r . v . dowell . 1987 . the potential of gypsy moth as a pest of fruit and nut crops . calif . agric . nov . - dec . 87 : 10 - 12 .\npennsylvania . 1991 . small fruit and pest management guide 1991 - 1992 . penn . state coll . agric .\nprice , j . f . & j . b . kring . 1991 . response of twospotted spider mite , tetranychus urticae koch , and fruit yield to new miticides and their use patterns in strawberries . j . agric . entomol . 8 : 83 - 91 .\nraine , j . 1962 . life history and behaviour of the raspberry crown borer bembecia marginata ( harr . ) ( lepidoptera : aegeriidae ) . can . entomol . 94 : 1212 - 1222 .\nschaefers , g . a . 1964 . control of the strawberry leaf roller , ancylis comptana fragariae ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) . j . econ . entomol . 57 : 983 - 986 .\nschaefers , g . a . 1981 . pest management systems for strawberry insects . p . 377 - 393 . in : d . pimentel ( ed . ) . crc handbook of pest management in agriculutre . vol . iii . crc press , boca raton fl . 656 p .\nschloemann , s . g . & d . r . cooley . 1988 . the initiation of a new ipm program in strawberries in massachusetts . p . 67 - 81 . in : proc . new engladnd small fruit school . jan . 5 , 1988 .\nstuart , l . c . , b . a . butt & f . takeda . 1986 . leaf curl of eastern thornless blackberry caused by blackberry psyllid , trioza tripunctata fitch . proc . 62nd cumberland - shenandoah fruit workers conf . , harpers ferry wv . nov . 20 - 21 .\nwaite , g . k . 1988 . integrated control of tetranychus urticae in strawberries in south - east queensland . exp . appl . acarol . 5 : 23 - 32 .\nwilliams , r . n . 1977 . sap beetles on raspberries and strawberries . pest management tips . fruit insect pests no . 2 . 2 p .\nwilliams , r . n . , m . j . weiss , k . v . miller & j . j . werner . 1984 . a summary of experiments for control of sap beetles which attack fruit crops . oardc res . circ . 283 : 66 - 68 .\nzajac , m . a . & m . c . wilson . 1984 . the effects of nymphal feeding by the meadow spittlebug , philaenus spumarius ( l . ) on strawberry yield and quality . crop protect . 3 : 167 - 175 .\nby : stan v . griep , american rose society consulting master rosarian \u2013 rocky mountain district\nthe rose chafer and the japanese beetle are both true villains of the rose bed . both appear to have the same habits and life cycles , going from eggs laid in the ground by the mature female beetles , hatching out to larvae / grubs in the ground and maturing to beetles that attack plants and blooms without mercy . read on for more rose chafer facts and control info .\nthe adult rose chafer\u2019s main diet is flower blossoms , especially those of peonies and roses . the damage they do to the blooms can be devastating . rose chafer damage can be recognized by the large irregularly shaped holes all over the flowers , ruining the beauty of the blooms completely .\nthese bad guy beetles also include some fruits in their diet , seeming to prefer the raspberry , grape and strawberry . they will also feed upon the foliage of many trees and shrubs , such as apple trees , cherry trees and birch trees . this rose chafer damage is created by eating the leaf tissue between the large veins and results in what is known as \u201cskeletonizing\u201d of the leaves .\ntreating rose chafers is important , not only for the health of your rose and other susceptible ornamentals , but for wildlife too . the rose chafer contains a toxin within its body chemistry that can be deadly to birds , including chickens . the same toxin can be deadly to other small animals when they eat these beetles .\nas a part of keeping an eye on things in our gardens and rose beds , we need to keep an eye out for the rose chafers starting around late may ( early spring ) , especially if there is a history of having rose chafer problems in the area or in our own gardens and rose beds . many gardeners feel there is little difference between the rose chafer and the japanese beetle , as attempting to protect our plants and rose bushes from them is a daunting task , especially when there are large numbers of them !"]}
{"id": 1491, "summary": [{"text": "eupolypods ii is a clade of ferns in the order polypodiales , under the class polypodiopsida .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this group generally corresponds with the order blechnales described by j. l. reveal in 1993 .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "however , the blechnales families were found to be embedded within the larger definition of the order polypodiales describe by smith et al. , 2006 , so according to their system , the group is treated as an informal clade .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this clade includes some important ferns , including the sensitive fern , onoclea sensibilis , which grows as a virtual weed throughout much of its temperate north american range , and ferns of the genus thelypteris , a genus that has shown remarkable speciation .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it also includes one of the more common horticultural ferns , the ostrich fern , matteuccia struthiopteris . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "eupolypods ii", "paragraphs": ["the following diagram shows a likely phylogenic relationship between the families of eupolypods ii , based on lehtonen , 2011 , and rothfels & al . , 2012 .\nplastid phylogenomics resolve deep relationships among eupolypod ii ferns with rapid radiation and rate heterogeneity .\nchallenges inherent in resolving the eupolypod ii phylogeny . eupolypods ii phylogram modified from schuettpelz and pryer ( 2007 ) , in ( a ) unrooted and ( b ) rooted form . ( i ) outgroup taxa are on long branches . ( ii ) backbone internodes are very short , suggesting an \u201cancient rapid radiation . \u201d ( iii ) the ingroup is marked by significant heterogeneity in rates of evolution , with the members of aspleniaceae on much longer branches than other eupolypod ii taxa .\nwherever possible , we included generic and familial types , to facilitate future taxonomic revisions . based on data from schuettpelz and pryer ( 2007 ) and liu et al . ( 2007 ) , our broad outgroup sample included 10 representatives from the sister group to the eupolypods ii ( eupolypods i , see fig . 2 ) . to better evaluate the effect of uncertainty in outgroup placement on the ingroup topology and to better understand the divergence between eupolypods i and ii , we also included two representatives from each of the two potentially successive sister groups to the eupolypods ( notholaena and cryptogramma from pteridaceae ; dennstaedtia and pteridium from dennstaedtiaceae ; see fig . 2 and schuettpelz and pryer 2007 ) . our total sample has 81 terminal taxa ( appendix 1 ) .\nplastid phylogenomics resolve deep relationships among eupolypod ii ferns with rapid radiation and rate heterogeneity . - pubmed - ncbi\neupolypods were separated into two clades , corresponding with eupolypods i and ii [ 23 ] . diplaziopsidaceae was resolved as sister to eupolypods ii . christenhusz et al . [ 8 ] included diplaziopsis , homalosorus and hemidictyum within the diplaziopsidaceae , but here hemidictyum was supported as sister to aspleniaceae as in schuettpelz & pryer [ 18 ] and in kuo et al . [ 20 ] . hemidictyum is therefore considered here as a member of aspleniaceae and only diplaziopsis and homalosorus are within diplaziopsidaceae , as in a recent analysis of the matk gene [ 20 ] . family - level relationships mostly remained poorly supported or unresolved within both of the two large eupolypod clades .\neupolypods i is a clade of ferns in the order polypodiales , class polypodiopsida . [ 2 ] in the classification of christenhusz & chase ( 2014 ) this is equivalent to the family polypodiaceae . [ 1 ] it probably diverged from eupolypods ii ( = aspleniaceae of christenhusz & chase 2014 [ 1 ] ) during the mid - cretaceous . the divergence is supported by both molecular data and an often overlooked morphological characteristic which lies in the vasculature of the petiole . most species that make up the eupolypods i clade have three vascular bundles . the only exceptions are the grammitid ferns which have one , and the genus hypodematium which has two . this differs from eupolypods ii which mostly have two vascular bundles ( except the well - nested blechnoid ferns which generally have at least three ) . [ 3 ]\nthe following phylogram for the eupolypods i is based on lehtonen , 2011 [ 4 ] and christenhusz et al . , 2011 . [ 5 ]\nthe eupolypods ii , together with its sister group , eupolypods i , comprise the large eupolypod clade , which encompasses two - thirds of living fern species ( fig . 2 ; pryer et al . 2004 ; schneider et al . 2004b ; smith et al . 2006 ) . the ancestors of eupolypods i and ii diverged from each other in the early cretaceous ( pryer et al . 2004 ; schneider et al . 2004b ; schuettpelz and pryer 2009 ) . the eupolypod ii clade started to diversify shortly thereafter ( its crown group is approximately 100 million years old ; schuettpelz and pryer 2009 ) and has subsequently grown into a lineage - rich clade comprising nearly 30 % of extant fern diversity . eupolypods ii includes some of the most familiar groups of ferns ( the lady ferns , ostrich fern , sensitive fern , marsh ferns , and spleenworts ) , as well as some of the most species - rich genera : thelypteris s . lat . ( \u223c950 species ) ; asplenium ( \u223c700 species ) ; diplazium ( \u223c350 species ) ; athyrium ( \u223c220 species ) ; and blechnum s . lat . ( \u223c150 species ) .\nnot surprisingly , given the clade ' s size and age , eupolypod ii taxa are morphologically disparate and seemingly incohesive . however , early workers did tend to recognize the close affinities among many of the taxa in this clade , although frequently with members of eupolypods i interdigitated among them ( holttum 1947 ; sledge 1973 ; mickel 1974 ; tryon and tryon 1982 ) . the cohesiveness of the eupolypods ii started to become apparent with the earliest applications of molecular phylogenetic techniques to ferns ( wolf et al . 1994 ; hasebe et al . 1995 ; sano et al . 2000a ) and has been strongly supported in recent broad studies ( schneider et al . 2004b ; schuettpelz and pryer 2007 ; kuo et al . 2011 ) . none of these studies , however , found support for the backbone relationships within eupolypods ii , and only kuo et al . ( 2011 ) attempted to sample its major lineages . it remains one of the few areas of the fern tree - of - life where the backbone relationships remain elusive ( smith et al . 2006 ; schuettpelz and pryer 2007 ) .\nrelative plastid substitution rates among clades / branches of the eupolypod ii ferns , based on the \u201c83 - gene matrix , \u201d resulting from the random local clock analyses in beast v1 . 8 . 1 . numbers above the branches indicate relative , median rates with no measured units , scaled by dividing all rates by that of the crown node of eupolypods ii . colors of branches represents to relative rate . light red indicates a relative rate of 0 , whereas a trend of blue color marks a relative rate approaching 3 . 0 .\neupolypods ii is a clade of ferns in the order polypodiales , under the class polypodiopsida . this group generally corresponds with the order blechnales described by j . l . reveal in 1993 . however , the blechnales families were found to be embedded within the larger definition of the order polypodiales describe by smith et al . , 2006 , so according to their system , the group is treated as an informal clade .\nhypotheses on the backbone relationship of eupolypod ii ferns with special reference to the positions of rhachidosoraceae and athyriaceae . ( a ) topology resolving rhachidosoraceae as sister to the thelypteridaceae - blechnaceae clade in ; ( b ) topology resolving rhachidosoraceae as sister to the aspleniaceae - diplaziopsidaceae clade in ) ; ( c ) topology showing athyriaceae as nonmonophyletic in , ) and ; and ( d ) topology showing unresolved relationships within eupolypod ii ferns in based on 25 low - copy nuclear genes .\nshaw j , lickey eb , beck jt , farmer sb , liu w , et al . ( 2005 ) the tortoise and the hare ii : relative utility of 21 noncoding chloroplast dna sequences for phylogenetic analysis . amer j bot 92 : 142\u2013166 .\ncomparison of variability in nonoverlapping 1 , 000 - bp sliding windows for eupolypod ii ferns . genes with interests are indicated , that is , genes with pi > 0 . 1 are marked in black and genes with pi < 0 . 1 are marked in red .\nthe ml phylogram of 40 species based on 83 - gene matrix and codon partitioned strategy and bayesian divergence time estimation based on 83 - gene matrix with unpartitioned strategy . ( a ) maximum likelihood bootstrap values ( bss ) are 100 % and bayesian posterior probabilities ( pps ) are 1 . 0 , unless otherwise indicated . numbers above the branches indicate bss and pps based on whole plastome matrix , and bss ( unpartitioned , parititionfinder , gene partitioned ) and pps based on 88 - gene matrix , while numbers below the branches as bss ( unpartitioned , codon partitioned , parititionfinder , gene partitioned ) and pps based on 83 - gene matrix ; ( b ) chronogram with secondary calibration nodes indicated by numbers ; ( c ) bar chart indicating stem clade ages and hpd intervals of each family of eupolypods ii . blue bars indicate 95 % highest posterior density ( hpd ) intervals of the age estimates ; grey bars indicate the time - scale of eupolypod ii radiation .\ncarl j . rothfels , anders larsson , li - yaung kuo , petra korall , wen - liang chiou , kathleen m . pryer ( 2012 ) .\novercoming deep roots , fast rates , and short internodes to resolve the ancient rapid radiation of eupolypod ii ferns\n. systematic biology 61 ( 1 ) : 70 .\nin pteridaceae , all subfamilies accepted by christenhusz et al . [ 8 ] were found to be monophyletic , although the monophyly of cheilanthoidea had poor support . by contrast , numerous pteridoid genera , including adiantum , were not monophyletic . the need for a generic redefinition within pteridoids has already been well recognized by earlier studies [ 8 ] , [ 18 ] , [ 23 ] \u2013 [ 27 ] . the relationship between pteridoids and dennstaedtioids was still ambiguous to date [ 23 ] , and the present study also did not provide conclusive results . pteridaceae was positioned as a sister group to eupolypods by parsimony , whereas ml supported dennstaedtiaceae as sister to eupolypods . both hypotheses received less than 50 % support . the genus dennstaedtia was paraphyletic as in previous studies [ 18 ] , [ 28 ] , due to the inclusion of the monophyletic microlepia .\ncarl j . rothfels , anders larsson , li - yaung kuo , petra korall , wen - liang chiou , kathleen m . pryer ; overcoming deep roots , fast rates , and short internodes to resolve the ancient rapid radiation of eupolypod ii ferns , systematic biology , volume 61 , issue 3 , 1 may 2012 , pages 490 , urltoken\nthe trees obtained here were generally consistent with the prevailing view of the molecular phylogeny of ferns [ 1 ] , [ 18 ] \u2013 [ 20 ] . the taxonomic sampling employed here was almost seven - times broader than in the previous best - sampled fern phylogenetic analysis , hence providing a broader picture of fern phylogenetics , and enabling the investigation of the monophyly of currently accepted genera and families . however , despite the broad sampling , numerous fern groups remained poorly sampled and some phylogenetic relationships could not be completely resolved . for example , the families belonging to the eupolypods ii group are well supported as monophyletic entities , but the relationships between them remained poorly established . the relationships among some of the early diverging polypods ( saccolomataceae , cystodiaceae ) were not unambiguously resolved and questions about a pteridoid - dennstaedtioid relationship still remained unanswered . similarly to previous studies [ 1 ] , [ 20 ] , [ 27 ] \u2013 [ 30 ] , the phylogenetic position of horsetails ( equisetaceae ) remained controversial .\narthropteris and psammiosorus were mixed , but together formed a well - supported sister lineage to all other tectariaceae . the proposed subfamilies of polypodiaceae [ 8 ] were monophyletic in the ml analysis , except that synammia was resolved as sister to drynarioideae rather than being a member of polypodioideae . the parsimony analysis did not support monophyletic polypodiaceae , resulting in a largely unresolved topology within the eupolypods i . the current generic classification failed to delimit natural groups within drynarioideae , microsoroideae and polypodioideae . the subfamily loxogrammoideae was resolved as sister group to the remaining polypodiaceae in the ml analysis .\nas stated above , earlier studies ( e . g . , schuettpelz and pryer 2007 ) indicate that the eupolypod ii phylogeny is likely to include several key challenges for phylogenetic inference , specifically a series of long branches among very short backbone internodes ( an ancient rapid radiation ) , lineage - specific rate heterogeneity , and a distantly related outgroup . given these concerns , we sought to explicitly evaluate our topology and support values against these potential artifacts , with particular emphasis on the support values along the backbone of the tree .\nthe eupolypod ii clade is cosmopolitan in distribution , with the subgroups primarily temperate to tropical , and the larger subclades each well represented in both areas . however , many of the phylogenetically enigmatic taxa in this clade are limited to the himalayas or southeast asia , and critical members of several genera are rare and / or infrequently collected . this pattern of rarity and endemism , in conjunction with the richness and geographical breadth of the clade as a whole , is undoubtedly a contributing factor to the incomplete sampling of these ferns in previous phylogenetic studies .\nthis trend of shared morphological syndromes across very deep splits in the tree by some members of the \u201cwoodsiaceae\u201d is in contrast to the interdigitation , among those same taxa , of a series of distinct morphologically unique groups , including the aspleniaceae , blechnaceae , onocleaceae , and thelypteridaceae . the coarse picture of eupolypod ii morphological evolution , then , is marked by two seemingly opposing patterns . on the one hand are the autapomorphy - rich clades , whose individual phylogenetic coherence is strong , but whose deep relationships were obscure based on morphological data . and , on the other , the morphologically consistent yet phylogenetically incoherent members of the \u201cwoodsiaceae\u201d .\ndna was extracted from silica - dried or herbarium material , using either ( i ) a modified carlson - yoon protocol ( < 0 . 01 g dried plant material , silica beads , 750 \u03bc l carlson buffer , and 20 \u03bc l mercaptoethanol added to a 2 - ml tube and ground for 45 s using a mini - beadbeater ( biospec products ) , followed by incubation at 65 \u043e c for 45 min ; yoon et al . 1991 ) or ( ii ) the protocol of pryer et al . ( 2004 ) or ( iii ) the protocol of kuo et al . ( 2011 ) . for material extracted under the carlson - yoon protocol , the extracted dna was purified by illustra gfx pcr dna and gel band purification kit ( ge healthcare ) .\nto evaluate any effects that uncertainty in root - branch placement might have on apparent levels of support within the ingroup , we compared ingroup backbone mlbs values from the analysis of our complete data ( full outgroup ) with those from each of six different variations in outgroup composition : ( i ) ingroup only ; ( ii ) ingroup + dryopteris ; ( iii ) ingroup + dryopteris and didymochlaena ; ( iv ) ingroup + dryopteris and notholaena ; ( v ) ingroup + dryopteris and notholaena and pteridium ; and ( vi ) ingroup + our full eupolypod i sample ( fig . 5 ) . this outgroup sampling regime was selected to successively bisect the longest outgroup branches , with a particular emphasis on breaking the proximate root branch ( the branch connecting the ingroup to the first outgroup node ) .\nour approach to resolving the eupolypod ii phylogeny couples a considerably expanded taxon sample with moderate character sampling . our objectives include identifying well - supported major ( approximately \u201cfamily - level\u201d ) clades and determining the backbone relationships among these clades . given the anticipated phylogenetic challenges and potential for artifacts in our data , we explicitly evaluate our phylogenetic hypothesis against these analytical pitfalls , placing strong emphasis on the use of the reduced consensus technique ( wilkinson 1996 ) to isolate the effects of signal weakness from those of signal conflict ( e . g . , wiens 2003 ; cobbett et al . 2007 ) . our study aims for a comprehensive and well - supported phylogeny of this important group of ferns , and for novel inferences about the behavior of our choice of methods , gleaned from their performance on this data set .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\nin the past two decades , molecular systematic studies have revolutionized our understanding of the evolutionary history of ferns . the availability of large molecular data sets together with efficient computer algorithms , now enables us to reconstruct evolutionary histories with previously unseen completeness . here , the most comprehensive fern phylogeny to date , representing over one - fifth of the extant global fern diversity , is inferred based on four plastid genes . parsimony and maximum - likelihood analyses provided a mostly congruent results and in general supported the prevailing view on the higher - level fern systematics . at a deep phylogenetic level , the position of horsetails depended on the optimality criteria chosen , with horsetails positioned as the sister group either of marattiopsida - polypodiopsida clade or of the polypodiopsida . the analyses demonstrate the power of using a \u2018supermatrix\u2019 approach to resolve large - scale phylogenies and reveal questionable taxonomies . these results provide a valuable background for future research on fern systematics , ecology , biogeography and other evolutionary studies .\ncitation : lehtonen s ( 2011 ) towards resolving the complete fern tree of life . plos one 6 ( 10 ) : e24851 . urltoken\ncopyright : \u00a9 2011 samuli lehtonen . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : this study received funding from the kone foundation and the academy of finland grants to sl . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nthe combined four - gene ( atpa , atpb , rbcl , rps4 ) data set included a total of 5 , 166 sequences ( dataset s1 ) , hence the matrix of all 2 , 957 taxa by four genes had 6662 missing gene sequence entries ( c . 56 % missing data ) . most taxa ( 91 % ) were represented by the rbcl gene , but the least sampled gene ( atpa ) was available for only approximately 18 % of the taxa . less than 10 % of the sampled taxa were represented by all four genes , and 54 % were represented only by a single gene . in most of the fern families at least some taxa were sampled for all markers , with two small families ( diplaziopsidaceae and rhachidosoraceae ) represented by the rbcl gene only and four other families ( psilotaceae , schizeaceae , cystodiaceae and lomariopsidaceae ) lacking one of the studied genes . the parsimony analysis of these data retained 124 equally parsimonious trees of 74 , 910 steps ( dataset s2 ) . the final ml optimization likelihood score was \u2212391724 . 512141 ( figure 1 , dataset s3 ) .\nparsimony and ml trees were largely consistent with each other and with the prevailing view of the fern familial relationships [ 1 ] , [ 18 ] \u2013 [ 20 ] . the parsimony analysis positioned horsetails ( equisetopsida ) as a sister group to the marattiopsida - polypodiopsida clade , whereas ml placed them as sister to polypodiopsida . these controversial groupings received low support values . within the tree fern clade , ml and parsimony largely disagreed at the family level . metaxyaceae was positioned as a sister to other tree ferns in the parsimony analysis , whereas in the ml tree the family was placed as sister to dicksoniaceae . the clade composed of thyrsopteridaceae and associated families in the ml tree also included cibotiaceae and dicksoniaceae in the parsimony analysis . similarly , the two methods disagreed in the exact phylogenetic position of dennstaedtiaceae and many small families , including saccolomataceae , cystodiaceae , hypodematiaceae , cystopteridaceae and woodsiaceae . however , most of the incongruent groupings received less than 50 % bootstrap support in both analyses , consistently with the observation that their relationships were also uncertain in previous studies [ 18 ] , [ 23 ] .\na recently published linear fern classification [ 8 ] was largely supported at the family level . at the generic level , however , improved sampling revealed several patterns that were inconsistent with previously published results and current fern taxonomy . some of the most relevant results are shortly described here , otherwise readers are directed to trees available as supplementary information ( dataset s2 , s3 ) and at treebase ( urltoken ) . in ophioglossaceae , the results contradicted those published by hauk et al . [ 21 ] notably regarding the position of cheiroglossa , which is here nested within ophioglossum . in addition , o . lusitanicum l . was here grouped together with helmintostachys zeylanica ( l . ) hook . in the present study , the genus odontosoria ( lindsaeaceae ) was polyphyletic , and sphenomeris was grouped with the tapeinidium - osmolindsaea - nesolindsaea clade , thus contradicting the results of a recent study on lindsaeaceae phylogenetics [ 22 ] .\naspleniaceae was divided into three well - supported lineages , corresponding to hemidictyum and two broadly - defined genera : hymenasplenium and asplenium [ 8 ] , [ 18 ] . several well - supported clades were also present within thelypteridaceae , although not exactly matching the current generic classification . similarly , previous studies have suggested that the current classification of blechnaceae is unnatural [ 8 ] . in this study , the family was divided into three well - supported clades that did not correspond to the currently accepted generic limits ( woodwardia ; salpichlaena - stenochlaena - blechnum p . p . ; blechnum p . p . - brainea - sadleria - pteridoblechnum ) . within athyriaceae , diplazium was strongly supported as monophyletic , but cornopteris was nested within athyrium with a high level of support .\nthe two subfamilies of dryopteridaceae [ 8 ] were monophyletic ( with the exception of dryopteris inaequalis ( schlecht . ) kuntze , which was placed in elaphoglossoideae ) in the ml analysis , albeit with a very poor support . in the parsimony analysis , on the other hand , the subfamily elaphoglossoideae was divided into two groups with unresolved relationships with dryopteridoideae . the subfamily elaphoglossoideae included pleocnemia winitii holttum , the only member of its genus included in this study . previous studies have considered pleocnemia as a member of tectariaceae [ 8 ] , [ 23 ] , [ 30 ] . at a generic level , polystichum included cyrtomium and cyrtogonellum , arachnioides included leptorumohra and lithostegia , and acrorumohra was nested in dryopteris ( excluding d . inaequalis ) .\nthe observed uncertainty might , to some extent , reflect the large number of missing entries in the supermatrix . more than half of the taxa were represented by a single gene , rbcl being clearly the best - sampled marker . those markers not as thoroughly sampled were , however , sampled rather evenly across the different fern lineages , so that very few families completely lacked data of one or more genes . furthermore , smith et al . [ 16 ] were able to resolve several difficult problems in the phylogeny of green plants by sampling the rbcl gene only , and it has been shown that supermatrix approach can handle even 90 % missing data without loss of accuracy if the data available contain enough informative characters [ 11 ] , [ 17 ] , [ 32 ] \u2013 [ 35 ] .\nthe advances in fern systematics over the past decades have provided a rather good taxonomic understanding at the family level , and the recently proposed fern classification [ 8 ] was largely supported by the current study . generic delimitation , however , has remained ambiguous in a number of fern families [ 8 ] , [ 23 ] . the analyses presented here shed new light on several unresolved issues , and can be used as a starting point to a more robust classification at this taxonomic level . a good example was that of blechnaceae , a family composed of three well supported clades that ( apart from woodwardia ) do not correspond well with the currently accepted generic classification .\nuntil recently , most of the molecular systematic studies of ferns were based on classical fern taxonomy . the most convenient way of overcoming the impact of outdated taxonomies , as well as detecting contaminated or misidentified sequences [ 11 ] , [ 40 ] , [ 41 ] , is through the use of supermatrix analysis of all available data . the results presented here corroborated most recent findings in molecular fern systematics , but also provided a much wider view for future studies in fern evolution , taxonomy , and beyond . instead of relying on the classical fern taxonomy , pteridologists can now select proper outgroups and delimit their ingroups in an appropriate way from an evolutionarily perspective . as yet , only about one - fifth of the extant fern diversity is currently covered by genbank , but the road is open for a fully sampled fern tree of life , and ultimately , for a natural fern classification .\nsequence data was retrieved from genbank release 176 ( feb . 23 , 2010 ) using phylota browser ( urltoken ) . phylota assembles blast clustering for all sequences in the genbank release file [ 42 ] . clusters corresponding to four protein coding plastid genes , rbcl , rps4 , atpa , and atpb , were downloaded for root node \u201cmoniliformopses\u201d . this data set was further supplemented by downloading rbcl data of japanese ferns [ 43 ] and adding several fern sequences produced with standard methods and primers [ 3 ] , [ 19 ] , [ 44 ] \u2013 [ 49 ] in our laboratory and submitted to genbank , but not yet available on the queried release ( genbank accession numbers hq157300\u2013hq157307 , hq157324\u2013hq157330 , hq157332\u2013hq157334 , hq245099\u2013hq245103 , hq680978 ) . when multiple sequences were available for one taxon , the most complete one was retained and the other sequences excluded . a few sequences in the preliminary test analyses were positioned into highly questionable taxonomic groups , and these apparently misidentified or contaminated sequences were also excluded from the final analyses . the finally accepted fern sequences ( 2 , 656 taxa ) were further supplemented with 301 outgroup taxa representing lycophytes ( 205 taxa ) , angiosperms ( 61 taxa ) and gymnosperms ( 35 taxa ) .\nmultiple sequence alignments were produced for each data set with muscle [ 50 ] using default settings followed by one round of refinement . due to variable sequence completeness all the alignments had high amounts of missing data at the 5\u2032 and 3\u2032 ends . these ambiguous regions were eliminated from the final data sets after visual inspection , as well as ambiguously aligned segment within the rps4 gene . however , possible errors in the sequences ( such as stop - codons ) were not investigated . indels inserted during the sequence alignment were treated as missing data in the corresponding phylogenetic analyses . because all the markers included were plastid genes they were expected to share a common evolutionary history and were analyzed simultaneously . aligned sequence matrices were concatenated with sequencematrix software [ 51 ] . in total , the data set consisted of 2 , 957 taxa ( rbcl 2 , 681 ; rps4 1 , 134 ; atpb 825 ; atpa 526 taxa ) and 4 , 406 aligned base pairs of molecular data ( rbcl 1 , 332 ; rps4 379 ; atpb 1 , 188 ; atpa 1 , 507 bp ) . the aligned data matrices and resulting trees are available at treebase ( urltoken , [ 52 ] ) .\nphylogenetic analyses were performed for the concatenated supermatrix under equally weighted parsimony criteria using tnt [ 53 ] and maximum likelihood criteria using raxml [ 54 ] . in the parsimony analyses 500 \u2018new technology\u2019 [ 55 ] , [ 56 ] search replications were used as a starting point for each hit . these replications saved no more than 10 trees per replication , and were run until the best score was hit 10 times , using tbr - swapping , random and constraint sectorial searches , five ratchet iterations , and five rounds of tree fusing ( xmult = repl 500 hits 10 css rss ratchet 5 fuse 5 hold 10 ) . the memory was set to hold 80 , 000 trees . branch support was evaluated by running 500 bootstrap replicates . tbr - swapping , sectorial search , and five rounds of tree fusing were employed in each replicate ( resample = boot replications 500 savetrees [ xmult = rss css fuse 5 ] ) . maximum likelihood ( ml ) analyses were performed using the parallel pthreads - version of the computer program raxml 7 . 2 . 8 [ 54 ] , [ 57 ] running in 2\u00d72 . 26 ghz quad - core intel xeon macintosh with 8 gb of ram . the search was initiated with 500 rapid bootstrap replications followed by a thorough ml search on the original alignment ( - t 16 - f a - x 12345 - p 12345 - # 500 - m gtrgamma ) . free model parameters were estimated by raxml under the gtr + \u03b3 model . this is the most commonly used model for real data sets , and provides good performance for large data sets [ 58 ] .\ncongruence among the data sets was examined by running parsimony bootstrap analyses for each gene separately [ 59 ] . visual inspection of the family - level nodes did not reveal well - supported ( > 70 % support ) conflict at this phylogenetic level , with the exception of nested position of lonchitidaceae within lindsaeaceae in the atpa analysis ( data not shown ) . at lower phylogenetic levels the highly variable taxon sampling made the assessment of phylogenetic conflict highly problematic , and simultaneous analysis of all data sets was considered appropriate based on family - level congruence .\nconcatenated supermatrix in nexus - format ( file can be opened after unzipping for example with mesquite [ 60 ] ) .\nthe strict consensus tree of parsimony analysis with bootstrap support values in nexus - format ( file can be opened for example with figtree [ 61 ] ) .\nthe ml tree with bootstrap support values in nexus - format ( file can be opened for example with figtree [ 61 ] ) .\ni thank all the researchers who have produced and shared dna sequences via genbank . the willi hennig society is acknowledged for making tnt publicly available . two anonymous reviewers are acknowledged for their constructive comments on earlier draft version of this manuscript .\nconceived and designed the experiments : sl . performed the experiments : sl . analyzed the data : sl . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : sl . wrote the paper : sl .\npryer km , schneider h , smith ar , cranfill r , wolf pg , et al . 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[ available at\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\ninstitute of ecology and evolutionary biology , national taiwan university , no . 1 , section 4 , roosevelt road , taipei 10617 , taiwan\nbroad phylogeny of ferns . approximate number of species per clade is given in parentheses . modified from smith et al . ( 2006 ) .\nfive plastid loci were selected for analysis : atpa , atpb , matk , rbcl , and the trng - trnr intergenic spacer ( henceforth \u201c trng - r \u201d ) . all loci , except for matk , were amplified according to either the \u201cstandard\u201d or \u201cdifficult\u201d reaction protocols ( below ) depending on the source of the material ( standard for most extractions ; difficult for those from herbarium specimens greater than 10 years old ) , using the primers listed in table 1 . the standard amplification reaction used standard taq polymerase with the following cycle : a 3 min initial denaturation at 95 \u043e c , followed by 35 cycles of 30 s denaturation at 95 \u043e c , 1 min annealing at 54 \u043e c , and 2 min elongation at 72 \u043e c , followed by a final elongation of 10 min at 72 \u043e c . the difficult amplification reaction , using phusion high fidelity dna polymerase ( finnzymes ) , was 1 min initial denaturation at 98 \u043e c , followed by 35 cycles of 10 s denaturation at 98 \u043e c , 30 s annealing at 58 \u043e c , and 1 min elongation at 72 \u043e c , followed by a final elongation of 8 min at 72 \u043e c . amplification of all matk sequences followed the protocol of kuo et al . ( 2011 ) .\nnotes : f = forward ; r = reverse ; a = used in amplifications ; s = used in sequencing reactions . while most primers were applied across the phylogeny , superscripts following primer names indicate lineage specificity : a aspleniaceae ; b athyriids ; c blechnaceae ; d cystopteris / gymnocarpium ; e depariids ; f diplaziids ; g diplaziopsis / homalosorus ; h rhachidosorus ; i onocleaceae ; j pteridaceae ; k thelypteridaceae ; l woodsia and allies .\npcr products from carlson - yoon extractions were purified using multiscreen plates in a vacuum manifold ( millipore ) and sequenced by macrogen inc . ( south korea ) . for material extracted under the protocol of pryer et al . ( 2004 ) , each pcr product was cleaned using 0 . 5 \u03bc l of exonuclease i and 1 \u03bc l of shrimp alkaline phosphatase ( usb , cleveland , oh ) ; reaction tubes were incubated at 37 \u043e c for 15 min and then heated to 80 \u043e c for 15 min to inactivate the enzymes , prior to sequencing on a applied biosystems 3730 xl at the duke igsp sequencing facility ( duke university ) . material extracted under the protocol of kuo et al . ( 2011 ) was sequenced at genomics ( taipei , taiwan ) . we completed our sampling with an additional 100 previously published sequences from genbank ( appendix 1 ) .\nsequences were manually aligned in mesquite 2 . 72 ( maddison and maddison 2009 ) . indels ( limited to matk , trng - r , and the ends of the atpa alignment ) were assessed by eye , and ambiguously aligned areas were excluded prior to phylogenetic analysis . any gaps associated with unambiguous indel regions were treated as missing data . in one rapidly evolving region of the trng - r alignment , we were unable to confidently align the pteridaceae sequences to those of the other taxa . in order to retain this otherwise unambiguous region , we excised those portions of the pteridaceae sequences , replacing them with question marks .\nnotes : missing data include both uncertain bases ( e . g . , ? , r , y ) and gaps ( - ) . support values are listed as mlbs or bayesian pps .\nto obtain a point estimate of the phylogeny , we performed 10 tree bisection - and - reconnection heuristic searches of the concatenated ( unpartitioned ) data , each from a different random - addition - sequence starting tree , under ml using a gtr + i + g model as implemented in paup * 4 . 0b10 for unix ( swofford 2002 ) . the values for the exchangeability parameters , base frequencies , gamma shape parameter , and proportion of invariant sites were fixed at their ml values as optimized under a garli 0 . 951 ( zwickl 2006 ) tree search , using default genetic algorithm and termination settings .\nour approach to phylogeny evaluation involved permutations of both the models and the implementation of those models ( i . e . , programs ) . the models were deliberately selected according to their varying degrees of susceptibility for each of the risk factors in question , in an attempt to isolate potential model - based biases . the choice to additionally vary the programs used was in part due to constraints of implementation\u2014no single program offered all the models we wished to compare . this approach has the added benefit of demonstrating a further level of robustness : if our phylogenetic results are insensitive to both the differing models and the myriad of incompletely quantified differences among programs , we can be all the more confident in our conclusions . additionally , varying both the models and their implementation more closely matches the options available to empirical phylogeneticists seeking to resolve ancient rapid radiations . this approach suffers a clear liability , however , in that the effects of model differences and implementation differences are conflated . in the event of differing results , we may not be able to isolate the effects of one from the other ; therefore , the added value to empirical phylogeneticists comes at the cost of reduced utility of our results to program developers and theorists .\nthe specific evaluations performed are described more thoroughly in the results section . computation - intensive analyses were run on either the duke shared cluster resource ( urltoken ) or the uppsala multidisciplinary center for advanced computational science ( uppmax ) . when appropriate , multiple tree files were summarized onto a target phylogram with sumtrees 2 . 0 . 2 ( sukumaran and holder 2010 ) for subsequent inspection or manipulation in figtree 1 . 3 . 1 ( rambaut 2006 ) .\ntree - wide mean ml bootstrap support ( mlbs ) values ( summed bootstrap values on the ml tree divided by the number of internodes in that tree ) for the individual loci ranged from 74 % ( atpb ) to 84 % ( matk ) . the concatenated data have a mean mlbs of 92 % and strongly support ( i . e . , have \u2265 70 % mlbs and \u2265 0 . 95 posterior probability [ pp ] ) 90 % of the partitions ( table 2 ) . across data sets , ml and bayesian inference consistently inferred strong support for a comparable number of bipartitions ( table 2 ) , a result that offers further empirical corroboration for the approximate equivalence of 70 % mlbs and 0 . 95 pp ( hillis and bull 1993 ; alfaro et al . 2003 ) .\nthere are two well - supported conflicts among the individual - locus ml trees . the first involves a tip relationship ( matk unites deparia pterorachis with d . unifurcata , with 72 % mlbs , whereas rbcl places d . pterorachis as sister to the rest of the genus , with 75 % support ) that is peripheral to the focus of this study . the second is deeper in the tree : matk has 80 % mlbs for a clade uniting thelypteridaceae with the athyrioids , blechnaceae , and onocleaceae , to the exclusion of woodsia and allies , whereas both atpa and atpb place woodsia and its allies within that clade ( 92 % in atpa ; 71 % in atpb ) . given that we confirmed this conflict to not be attributable to laboratory or identification errors , and because the loci involved are linked and the taxa are long - diverged , we do not ascribe this conflict to differences in evolutionary history and proceeded to concatenate all the data for subsequent analyses .\neach of our ten ml best - tree searches of the concatenated data in paup * ( from different random - addition - sequence starting trees ) inferred the same tree ( fig . 3a ) , suggesting that tree space is unimodal for our data set . most partitions in this topology point estimate were strongly supported by both ml bootstrapping and bayesian pps ( table 2 ) ; the different ml programs ( paup * , garli , and raxml ) inferred very similar mlbs levels ( data not shown ) .\nphylogeny evaluation : rate heterogeneity and the bayesian star - tree paradox artifact . a ) unrooted ml phylogram of the concatenated data , with the backbone internodes highlighted and labeled . b ) accounting for the impact of rate heterogeneity on backbone support values . the four values listed for each backbone internode are : mlbs on full data , mlbs with aspleniaceae ( asplenium and hymenasplenium ) pruned from trees , mlbs with aspleniaceae removed from analysis , and posterior support from beast . c ) controlling for the bayesian star - tree paradox artifact using the polytomy prior in phycas . the four pps listed for each internode are from : mrbayes 3 . 1 . 1 ( susceptible to the star - tree artifact ) , phycas with c = 1 , phycas with c = e , and phycas with c = 10 . d ) controlling for the bayesian star - tree paradox artifact using the yang branch - length prior . the four pps listed for each internode are from : mrbayes 3 . 1 . 1 ( susceptible to the star - tree artifact ) , mrbayes 3 . 1 . 2 with branch - length prior mu1 / mu0 = 0 . 01 , mrbayes 3 . 1 . 2 with branch - length prior mu1 / mu0 = 0 . 001 , and mrbayes 3 . 1 . 2 with branch - length prior mu1 / mu0 = 0 . 0001 .\nfor certain branches , we observed very high bayesian pps from the mrbayes analysis , but much lower levels of support from the ml bootstrapping ( fig . 4a ) ; these support discrepancies are disproportionately represented among short branches ( fig . 4b ) . this pattern is consistent with artificially high bayesian support due to the star - tree paradox artifact\u2014most implementations of bayesian phylogenetic inference do not consider polytomies among the option set for the mcmc sampler and thus can return high pps for branches that are unsupported by the data ( lewis et al . 2005 ; yang and rannala 2005 ; yang 2008 ; see early hints in cummings et al . 2003 ) .\ndiscrepancies between ml and bayesian support values . a ) ml phylogram of the concatenated data , internal branches only ( all tip branches have been deleted ) . branches are colored according to the magnitude of the difference between their pp ( from mrbayes 3 . 1 . 1 ) and their percent mlbs ( from 5000 pseudoreplicates in paup * ) . b ) internal branches rotated to be vertical and sorted by length . colors follow figure 4a .\nto ensure that this \u201cstar - tree paradox\u201d artifact was not influencing our assessment of support , we compared the results from our original mrbayes 3 . 1 . 1 analysis ( ronquist and huelsenbeck 2003 ; mrbayes 3 . 1 . 1 is potentially vulnerable to the star - tree paradox artifact ) with those of a non - bayesian analysis ( ml bootstrapping in paup * from our initial assessment of support ) , as well as with two implementations of bayesian inference that use different approaches to reduce their vulnerability to the star - tree paradox artifact ."]}
{"id": 1495, "summary": [{"text": "scorpaena scrofa , common name the red scorpionfish , bigscale scorpionfish , or large-scaled scorpion fish is a venomous marine species of fish in the family scorpaenidae , the \" scorpionfish \" . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "scorpaena scrofa", "paragraphs": ["katja schulz set\nfile : scorpaena scrofa . jpg\nas an exemplar on\nscorpaena scrofa linnaeus , 1758\n.\nsebastapistes scrofa - linnaeus , 1758 ; scorpaena lutea - risso , 1810 ; scorpaena natalensis - regan , 1906 ; scorpaenopsis natalensis - regan , 1906 .\nlatin , scorpaena = a kind of fish , 1706 ( ref . 45335 )\nthe peak in cpue during the summer coincides with spawning period of s . scrofa .\ncitation : mancuso m ( 2015 ) scorpaena scrofa : a promising aquaculture candidate for sicilian aquaculture . j aquac res development 6 : 375 . doi : 10 . 4172 / 2155 - 9546 . 1000375\nthe red scorpionfish ( scorpaena scrofa - linnaeus , 1758 ) belongs to the class of the actinopterygii , the ray - finned fishes , to the order of the scorpaeniformes and to the family of scorpaenidae .\nbradai mn , bouain a ( 1991 ) reproduction de scorpaena porcus et de scorpena scrofa ( l . , 1758 ) ( pisces , corpaenidae ) du golfe de gabes . oebalia xvii , 167 - 180 .\nmaricchiolo g , casella g , mancuso m , genovese l ( 2014 ) the first episode of spontaneous spawning in captive red scorpionfish , scorpaena scrofa ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . aquaculture research 1 - 4 .\njakov dulcic , jurica jug - dujakovic , vlasta bartulovic , branko glamuzina , edhem haskovic et al . ( 2007 ) embryonic and larval development of large scaled scorpionfish scorpaena scrofa ( scorpaenidae ) . cybium 31 : 465 - 470 .\nactivity staining of the crude alkaline protease extract from the viscera of r . clavata ( 1 ) , z . ophiocephalus ( 2 ) , and s . scrofa ( 3 ) .\nin the present paper , we describe the extraction and characterization of alkaline proteases from z . ophiocephalus , r . clavata , and s . scrofa which are suitable in the chitin production process .\n( of scorpaena lutea risso , 1810 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of scorpaena natalensis regan , 1906 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nin the present study , alkaline proteases were extracted from the viscera of z . ophiocephalus , r . clavata and s . scrofa and characterized , and their efficiencies in deproteinization of shrimp waste to produce chitin were investigated .\nthe enzyme preparations from z . ophiocephalus and s . scrofa retained about 24 % and 45 % of their initial activity after 60 minutes of incubation at 50\u00b0c , respectively . however , the proteolytic enzymes from r . clavata were completely inactivated in the same conditions .\nreeve , a . 2007 . scorpaena porcus black scorpionfish . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken\nwith s . scrofa crude enzyme extract , two activity peaks were observed at ph 6 . 0 and 10 . 0 . the enzyme preparation was highly active between ph 8 . 0 and 11 . 0 , with an optimum at ph 10 . 0 . the relative activities at ph 9 . 0 , 11 . 0 , and 12 . 0 were about 94 % , 69 % , and 39 % , respectively , of that at ph 10 . 0 . the optimum ph for s . scrofa proteases was similar to those reported by esposito et al . [ 31 ] for proteases extracted from the viscera of colossoma macropomum and el hadj - ali et al . [ 4 ] for proteases extracted from striped seabream ( lithognathus mormyrus ) .\nscorpaena porcus can grow to a length of 37 cm but is more commonly between 15 - 20 cm . it is browny or orangy in colour with lighter patches and numerous skin appendages , which make for good camouflage . the caudal fin has three dark , vertical bars , and there is a light spot between the eigth and ninth dorsal spine . behind the gill cover ( operculum ) there are usually two spines .\ncrude alkaline proteases from z . ophiocephalus , r . clavata , and s . scrofa showed optimum activity at ph 8 . 0 - 9 . 0 , 50\u00b0c ; ph 8 . 0 , 55\u00b0c , and ph 10 . 0 , 55\u00b0c , respectively . the crude enzyme extract showed a high activity and stability in high alkaline ph . these proteolytic enzymes remained fully active in the presence of non - ionic surfactants . they also revealed high resistance when incubated with 1 % sodium perborate .\ngoby ( z . ophiocephalus ) , thornback ray ( r . clavata ) , and scorpionfish ( s . scrofa ) were purchased from the fish market of sfax city , tunisia . the samples were packed in polyethylene bags , placed in ice with a sample / ice ratio of approximately 1 : 3 ( w / w ) and transported to the research laboratory within 30 minutes . after the fish were washed with water , their viscera were separated , rinsed with cold distilled water , and then stored in sealed plastic bags at \u221220\u00b0c until they were used for enzyme extraction .\nto investigate the effect of temperature , the activity was tested using casein as a substrate at the temperature range from 30 to 80\u00b0c in 100 mm tris - hcl buffer , ph 8 . 0 for z . ophiocephalus and r . clavata proteases , and ph 10 . 0 for s . scrofa crude alkaline proteases . thermal stability was - examined by incubating crude enzyme extracts for 60 - minutes at different temperatures from 30 to 70\u00b0c . aliquots were withdrawn at desired time intervals to test the remaining activity at standard conditions . the nonheated crude enzyme extracts were considered as control ( 100 % ) .\nlinnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 266 [ details ]\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nvan der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nwheeler , a . ( 1992 ) . a list of the common and scientific names of fishes of the british isles . j . fish biol . 41 ( suppl . a ) : 1 - 37 ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 266 [ details ]\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of scorpaenopsis natalensis ( regan , 1906 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of sebastapistes scorfa ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nnatural history museum , london ( nhm ) : collections management database system . [ details ]\neastern atlantic ( rare in british islands ) . senegal , madeira , canary islands , cape verde . through out the mediterranean sea , absent from the black sea .\nmarine ; brackish ; demersal ; non - migratory ; depth range 20 - 500 m ( ref . 4510 ) , usually ? - 150 m ( ref . 27000 ) . subtropical ; 60\u00b0n - 35\u00b0s , 26\u00b0w - 36\u00b0e\neastern atlantic : british isles ( rare ) to senegal including madeira , the canary islands , and cape verde . also throughout the mediterranean except black sea . south african species thought to be the same as population in the northeast atlantic ( ref . 4313 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 50 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4510 ) ; common length : 30 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2683 ) ; max . published weight : 3 . 0 kg ( ref . 40637 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 12 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 9 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 5 . dark spot often on spinous dorsal ( ref . 4313 ) .\nsolitary and sedentary over rocky , sandy or muddy bottoms . feeds on fishes , crustaceans and mollusks ( ref . 4570 ) .\nhureau , j . - c . and n . i . litvinenko , 1986 . scorpaenidae . p . 1211 - 1229 . in p . j . p . whitehead , m . - l . bauchot , j . - c . hureau , j . nielsen and e . tortonese ( eds . ) fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . unesco , paris . vol 3 . ( ref . 4570 )\n) : 11 . 1 - 18 , mean 14 . 4 ( based on 189 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01288 ( 0 . 01075 - 0 . 01544 ) , b = 3 . 00 ( 2 . 96 - 3 . 04 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 3 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( k = 0 . 08 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high to very high vulnerability ( 68 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species has a wide distribution . it is occasionally consumed but it is not removed at any threatening level , and is not believed to have any other major threats affecting it . it is listed as least concern with a need for monitoring and more data concerning the disparity of possible ranges , population trend and consumption level .\nalbania ; algeria ; angola ; bosnia and herzegovina ; cape verde ; croatia ; cyprus ; egypt ; france ( corsica , france ( mainland ) ) ; gambia ; gibraltar ; greece ; guernsey ; ireland ; israel ; italy ; jersey ; kenya ; lebanon ; libya ; malta ; mauritania ; monaco ; montenegro ; morocco ; mozambique ; portugal ( madeira , portugal ( mainland ) , selvagens ) ; senegal ; slovenia ; somalia ; south africa ; spain ( baleares , canary is . , spain ( mainland ) , spanish north african territories ) ; syrian arab republic ; tanzania , united republic of ; tunisia ; turkey ; united kingdom ; western sahara\nthis is a demersal , non - migratory , solitary and sedentary species that lives over rocky , sandy or muddy substrata . in the mediterranean sea , it is often associated with posidonia oceanica meadows ( moranta et al . 2006 , deudero et al . 2007 ) . it feeds on fishes , crustaceans and molluscs ( hureau and litvinenko 1986 ) .\nthis species is not sought after for food or trade in west africa . however , it is occasionally consumed . in the mediterranean , this is a commercial species .\nin the eastern central atlantic it is caught primarily as incidental catch but this is not believed to be a major threat . in the mediterranean , this is a commercial species and its main catching method are trawls , gill nets , trammel nets and long - lines .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthe name of the genus is that the old romans were giving to this fish , with reference to the poisonous spines , which reminded the bites of the scorpions .\nthe name of the species refers to the sow , the female pig , to which it resembles , in the world of fish , due to its protruding shape .\nthe red scorpionfish is present in all the mediterranean , but the black sea . the , passed gibraltar strait , it has colonized all the atlantic coast of the old world , from scandinavia to south africa , including the azores , the canaries , madeira and cape verde islands . finally , like many species , it has gone northwards along africa in the indian ocean up to mozambique .\nit can be found at 20 - 500 m of depth , but rarely exceeds the 150 m . its choice location is where the rocks mix with the sandy or muddy bottoms , but we find it also in the brackish waters . the juveniles often camouflage between the rocks of the backwash , and once more than 20 cm , the progressively go down , looking for a calm place for their sedentary life .\nit is the biggest mediterranean scorpionfish , with a record of 50 cm and almost 3 kg .\nthe body is oval with an impressing head , not only due to its enormous mouth , but for the spines and the dermic appendices which protrude in the most unlikely places breaking the outline with a clear mimetic effect .\nunlike other scorpionfishes , here the appendices grow up also under the mandible , slightly longer than the jaw .\nboth are armed by villiform teeth , that is , much thin and close one to the other forming bands : 4 - 5 series over and 3 - 4 under , not to talk about the teeth pushing out on the vomer and on the palatines .\nthe dorsal fin is unique , but well evident . in the first part we see 12 poisoned spiny rays , in the second , 9 - 10 soft ones . the poison glands , one per ray , are protected by a sheath which breaks at the impact , in the upper part of each spine . the quantity of poison is very small compared to analogous tropical species , but the bite s very painful .\nin some cases there may be hypotension with fainting or dizziness . the poison is thermolabile and therefore a first remedy may consist in soaking the affected part into the warm water .\nthe mouth is enormous with villiform teeth . the mimetic scheme foresees even big yellow spots \u00a9 giuseppe mazza\nas the name suggests , the whole colour is the red , with irregular and differing spots from individual to individual , which may be also brown and change hues depending on the environment . all is in function of the camouflaging , with the chromatophores playing an important role , and are not rare , especially in the corraligenous places , the individuals with big pale spots : pink , orange and even yellow .\noften , but this is not a rule , we can see a dark spot in the upper part , at the centre , of the dorsal fin .\nthe red scorpionfish , as it can be easily guessed from its obese shape , is an insatiable predator .\nit reproduces with floating eggs , united in mucous small masses . the larval forms are therefore pelagic . the vulnerability index of this species is of 68 over 100 .\n\u2192 to appreciate the biodiversity within the osteichthyes , the bony fish , and find other species , please click here .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncheck - list of the fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and of the mediterranean ( clofnam ) , vol . 1\noctopus vs . scorpion fish vs . puffer fish - epic fish fights ep . # 1 hd\nfun with squid ! feeding frenzy with scorpion fish , trigger fish , file fish .\nirudi hauek donostiako aquariumeko laborategian hartutakoak dira . im\u00e1genes tomadas en el laboratorio del aquarium de san sebasti\u00e1n . this images where taken in the laboratory of the aquarium donostia - san sebasti\u00e1n .\nmake the best use of scientific research and information from our 700 + peer reviewed , open access journals that operates with the help of 50 , 000 + editorial board members and esteemed reviewers and 1000 + scientific associations in medical , clinical , pharmaceutical , engineering , technology and management fields .\ninstitute for coastal marine environment ( iamc ) , national research council ( cnr ) , section of messina , spianata s . raineri 86 , 98122 messina , italy\ncopyright : \u00a9 2015 mancuso m . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nthe management of red scorpionfish broodstock , is to be considered as a starting point to obtain spontaneous spawning in captivity and for future propagation technologies .\nin my opinion , further experiments must be carried out , focused on : finding a suitable starting live food for red scorpion fish larvae , a suitable tanks environment to obtain a useful production of this important species .\n\u00a9 2008 - 2018 omics international - open access publisher . best viewed in mozilla firefox | google chrome | above ie 7 . 0 version\nmediterranean sea : 11000 - 737 ( 1 spc . ) , march 2003 , iskenderun bay , trawl , c . dalyan .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthese are solitary fish , territorial , and live on the bed . they remain totally immobile until they are threatened , and then they raise a small \u201cveil\u201d and stop after a few metres .\nits reproduction is oviparous . it lays its eggs in spring and summer between the months of may and august .\nit is a benthonic species of mainly rocky beds , although it is also found on sandy beds . it usually lives at depths of 20 to 200 m .\nit lives in the mediterranean sea and the eastern atlantic ( from great britain to senegal ) .\nwhen they are captured they raise their needles and seem to inflate with their mouth open , showing all their poisonous needles .\n. it is an infrequent visitor to the coastal waters off the south coast and is unlikely to be seen very often .\nis a benthic species found from the littoral zone down to a depth of around 800 m . usually seen motionless and solitary amongst rocks and algae on the seabed .\nbrown or orangy brown in colour and growing up to 37 cm in length .\noccurs in water between 20 - 110 m , is a brighter orange colour and has less well developed spines behind the operculum .\nspines of the dorsal , pelvic and anal fins of black scorpionfish have venom glands at their bases . the venomous spines cause an intense pain and throbbing to people stung by it . treatment is to immerse the affected area in water heated to tolerance level and to disinfect the afflicted area .\nthis species is also known as the small - scaled scorpionfish ( d . herdson , pers . comm . )\nfishbase , 2000 . fishbase . a global information system on fishes . [ on - line ] http : / / www . fishbase . org , 2001 - 05 - 03\nhowson , c . m . & picton , b . e . , 1997 . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . belfast : ulster museum . [ ulster museum publication , no . 276 . ]\njncc ( joint nature conservation committee ) , 1999 . marine environment resource mapping and information database ( mermaid ) : marine nature conservation review survey database . [ on - line ] urltoken\nmarlin ( marine life information network ) , 2005 . searchable benthic data ( seabed ) map [ on - line ] . data access sub - programme , marine life information network for britian and ireland http : / / www . marlin . ac . uk ,\nwheeler , a . , 1969 . the fishes of the british isles and north - west europe . london : macmillan .\nwhitehead , p . j . p . , bauchot , m . - l . , hureau , j . - c . , nielson , j . & tortonese , e . 1986 . fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . vol . i , ii & iii . paris : united nations educational , scientific and cultural organisation ( unesco ) .\nmarine life information network ( marlin ) , the marine biological association of the uk ( see contact us ) \u00a9 2018 the marine biological association of the uk , all rights reserved .\nthe information ( text only ) provided by the marine life information network ( marlin ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available here . based on a work at urltoken\nscorpion fish inhabit the mediterranean sea and have never been spotted in the black sea . can also be found in the atlantic ocean and around the british isles and some have spotted it near the canaries and senegal all the way to cape verde ! prefers rocky environments although has been seen in sandy or muddy bottoms at 20 \u2013 500m depth . a dedicated hunter they hide in burrows during the day while coming out to hunt at night !\nits a dedicated hunter . eating mostly other smaller fish aswell as crustaceans and molluscs .\nthis is a non migratory species . there is no known information on spawning or mating for this fish .\n( chance of encounter red > 0 . 9 yellow > 0 . 2 )\nso much the respect for this fish that cyprus has placed it on a stamp . we are only aware of cyprus and san marino placing this fish on a stamp .\nurltoken is your one stop diver friendly information hub on dives sites , equipment and scuba related articles of all kinds ranging from surface time activities to medical information . all articles represent the personal opinions of their respective authors .\nwrite css or less and hit save . ctrl + space for auto - complete .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\npeer - review under responsibility of scientific committee of the 58th international meat industry conference ( meatcon2015 ) .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nage analysis revealed 15 age classes but 3 + and 4 + were predominant in the catch .\nhabitat : a demersal species living over stones or sand away from immediate coastline in waters from 20 metres down to 70 metres ; juveniles also in seagrass meadows .\nbehaviour : predators , waiting patiently for the catch . very inactive during the hours of daylight , preferring to use their perfect camouflage to lay in wait for prey . during the hours of darkness they become more the stalker hunter .\ndid you know ? very well known to anglers and divers alike , they have venomous spines on their gill covers and their dorsal fin . the venom is active after death , so take heed ( for treatment see l esser weaver ) . out of all the venomous fish families within the mediterranean this is undoubtedly the most common to encounter due to the habitat range . because of this it is regarded by many as the worst . this species is the largest in this family .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nthis week , after the amazing success of the last post , i will change the direction of the article and i will focus on the fishes with bad spines , it is , fishes with venomous spines , but focusing on the mediterranean species .\ndespite seas and oceans of the planet are inhabited by a high number of potentially dangerous animals for humans , understanding its danger for bites , electric discharges or for its consumption ; the truth is that in only few cases these animals attack deliberately ; so , accidents are that : accidents produced by ignorance or carelessness . we have to have into consideration that we are not a prey of this fishes , so : which is the sense that this animals attack us deliberately ?\nthese fishes with bad spines are catalogued as actively venomous animals , it is , they have a venomous apparatus with glands that produce poison and a mechanism that permits the introduction inside another animal , like spines or teeth . this poison are used to defend themselves or / and to capture their preys .\nthese are some tips to prevent possible injuries when you go to the beach or when you are diving . they are useful to avoid venomous fishes and other marine animals :\nuse full - body neoprene in waters with potentially dangerous fauna , like australia .\ndon\u2019t put your hands inside cavities , cracks or holes if you don\u2019t see the interior .\ndanger . in whiprays , the needle is placed far from the the base of the tail , what allows for a wide outreach , but only it is a defensive weapon . the needle is hard and with hooks in the edge . it is in its interior where are venomous glands , which acts on heart muscles . in addition to the wound , the symptoms are : nausea , diarrhoea , vomit , sweating , circulatory disruptions and anxiety .\ncan measure 210 cm , has a rhomboidal shape and in the central part of the back and in the tail it has bony tubercles . they live in coastal waters , where feed on crustaceans , cephalopods and small fishes . on the other hand ,\n, that also inhabits in coastal waters , doesn\u2019t have bony tubercles in the back , but in the tail .\ndescription . with a robust body , scorpaenidae fishes have big pectoral fins and a wild and big head . its colouration is brown reddish and irregular .\ndanger . most of the species live on the rocks or behind corals , so the risk is on step on them . the poison produce a reduction of pressure and lung edema and an increase of pressure on lung arteries , and cramps . the hard spines placed in front of the dorsal fin , the three first of the anal fin and the two first of the ventral fins present poison .\nis the biggest species in the mediterranean ( till 50 cm ) and live in rocky and sandy seafloors . it can be easily identified by long dorsal spines with separated membrane . on the other hand , the\nhas a short tentacle above each eye , has not appendixes in the chin , its size is about 20 cm and with a black spot in the dorsal fin . finally , the\ndescription . these fishes has a long and laterally flatten body . the mouth is wide and orientated upwards .\ndanger . all the species live in sandy seafloors , where bury theirselves . the venomous spines are the 5 - 7 first of the dorsal fin and the spine in the gill operculum . the poison produce an intense pain in the affected zone and cause sweating , nausea and secondary infections .\ncan be identified by : a brown yellowish to gray body with dark spots and the first dorsal fin has six spiny spines . such can be the gravity of the bite that can be lethal . the\nhas a grey greenish to brown yellowish body ; with short , dark and yellow lines and with 5 - 7 spiny spines in the first dorsal fin .\ndescription . they are typical species of coral reef and in lagoons in indian and pacific oceans , but one species can be found in the eastern mediterranean , where lives in rocky seafloors with algae . its body is oval and very laterally flatten , with a small head and mouth .\ndanger . rabbitfishes are shy , so it is difficult to be hurt by their spiny spines , which are all over the body : 13 in the dorsal fin , 7 in the anal fin and 2 more in the ventral fin . poison causes a hard pain , but it doesn\u2019t persist so much .\nmediterranean species . the marbled spinefoot ( siganus rivulatus ) has an olive light body with irregular brown spots . it can be confused with salema porgies ( sarpa salpa ) . it is an invasive species .\nremember : you don\u2019t have to be afraid of sea and nature . with common sense and respect towards nature you won\u2019t suffer any harm .\nballesteros e & llobet , t ( 2015 ) . fauna i flora de la mar mediterr\u00e0nia . ed . brau\nbergbauer , myers & kirschner ( 2009 ) . gu\u00eda de animales marinos peligrosos . ed . omega\nmartin , p ( 1999 ) . claves para la clasificaci\u00f3n de la fauna marina . ed . omega\nriedl ( 1986 ) . fauna y flora del mar mediterr\u00e1neo . ed . omega\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : our cookie policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ncfm script by eagbayani , 01 . 11 . 99 , php script by rolavides , 07 / 05 / 08 , last modified by dsantos , 09 / 02 / 14\nlaboratoire de g\u00e9nie enzymatique et de microbiologie , ecole nationale d\u2019ing\u00e9nieurs de sfax , p . o . box 1173 , 3038 sfax , tunisia\ncopyright \u00a9 2011 rim nasri et al . this is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original work is properly cited .\nm . b . rao , a . m . tanksale , m . s . ghatge , and v . v . deshpande , \u201cmolecular and biotechnological aspects of microbial proteases , \u201d\nr . gupta , q . beg , and p . lorenz , \u201cbacterial alkaline proteases : molecular approaches and industrial applications , \u201d\n, r . h . doi and m . mcgloughlin , eds . , pp . 311\u2013337 , butterworth - heinemann , london , uk , 1992 .\nn . el hadj - ali , r . agrebi , b . ghorbel - frikha , a . sellami - kamoun , s . kanoun , and m . nasri , \u201cbiochemical and molecular characterization of a detergent stable alkaline serine - protease from a newly isolated\nk . jellouli , a . bougatef , d . daassi , r . balti , a . barkia , and m . nasri , \u201cnew alkaline trypsin from the intestine of grey triggerfish (\nf . shahidi and j . y . v . a . kamil , \u201cenzymes from fish and aquatic invertebrates and their application in the food industry , \u201d\na . bougatef , n . nedjar - arroume , l . manni et al . , \u201cpurification and identification of novel antioxidant peptides from enzymatic hydrolysates of sardinelle (\nr . balti , n . hmidet , k . jellouli , n . nedjar - arroume , d . guillochon , and m . nasri , \u201ccathepsin d from the hepatopancreas of the cuttlefish (\n, n . f . haard and b . k . simpson , eds . , pp . 531\u2013540 , mercel dekker , new york , ny , usa , 2000 .\nh . ben khaled , o . ghorbel - bellaaj , n . hmidet et al . , \u201ca novel aspartic protease from the viscera of sardinelle (\nh . kishimura , k . hayashi , y . miyashita , and y . nonami , \u201ccharacteristics of trypsins from the viscera of true sardine (\nh . ben khaled , r . nasri , a . bougatef , s . ghorbel , and m . nasri , \u201clow molecular weight serine protease from the viscera of sardinelle (\ni . y . kim , s . j . seo , h . s . moon et al . , \u201cchitosan and its derivatives for tissue engineering applications , \u201d\nl . li and y . l . hsieh , \u201cchitosan bicomponent nanofibers and nanoporous fibers , \u201d\n, g . a . e . roberts , ed . , pp . 85\u201391 , palgrave macmillan , london , uk , 1992 .\ng . chaussard and a . domard , \u201cnew aspects of the extraction of chitin from squid pens , \u201d\nk . t . oh , y . j . kima , v . n . nguyen , w . j . jung , and r . d . park , \u201cdemineralization of crab shell waste by\nt . k . sini , s . santhosh , and p . t . mathew , \u201cstudy on the production of chitin and chitosan from shrimp shell by using\ng . h . jo , w . j . jung , j . h . kuk , k . t . oh , y . j . kim , and r . d . park , \u201cscreening of protease - producing\no . ghorbel - bellaaj , n . hmidet , n . jellouli et al . , \u201cshrimp waste fermentation with\nl . manni , o . ghorbel - bellaaj , k . jellouli , i . younes , and m . nasri , \u201cextraction and characterization of chitin , chitosan , and protein hydrolysates prepared from shrimp waste by treatment with crude protease from\nr . o . bustos and m . g . healy , \u201cmicrobial deproteinisation of waste prawn shell , \u201d in\nf . l . garcia - carreno , l . e . dimes , and n . f . haard , \u201csubstrate - gel electrophoresis for composition and molecular weight of proteinases or proteinaceous proteinase inhibitors , \u201d\na . a . kembhavi , a . kulkarni , and a . pant , \u201csalt - tolerant and thermostable alkaline protease from\nt . s . esposito , i . p . g . amaral , d . s . buarque , g . b . oliveira , l . b . carvalho , and r . s . bezerra , \u201cfish processing waste as a source of alkaline proteases for laundry detergent , \u201d\nu . c . banerjee , r . k . sani , w . azmi , and r . soni , \u201cthermostable alkaline protease from\nq . k . beg and r . gupta , \u201cpurification and characterization of an oxidation - stable , thiol - dependent serine alkaline protease from\nr . gupta , k . gupta , r . k . saxena , and s . khan , \u201cbleach - stable , alkaline protease from\nc . g . kumar and h . takagi , \u201cmicrobial alkaline proteases : from a bioindustrial viewpoint , \u201d\na . haddar , a . bougatef , r . agrebi , a . sellami - kamoun , and m . nasri , \u201ca novel surfactant - stable alkaline serine - protease from a newly isolated\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nlaboratoire de g\u00e9nie enzymatique et de microbiologie , ecole nationale d ' ing\u00e9nieurs de sfax , p . o . box 1173 , 3038 sfax , tunisia\nthis is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original work is properly cited .\nproteases constitute the most important group of industrial enzymes used in the world today , accounting for approximately 50 % of the total industrial enzyme market [ 1 ] . they have diverse applications in a wide variety of industries such as detergent , food , pharmaceutical , leather , peptide synthesis , and for the recovery of silver from used x - ray films [ 2 , 3 ] . proteases are mainly derived from animal , plant , and microbial sources .\nthe most important digestive proteolytic enzymes from fish and aquatic invertebrates viscera are the aspartic protease pepsin secreted from gastric mucosa , and the serine proteases , trypsin , and chymotrypsin secreted from the pancreas , pyloric caeca , and intestine [ 10 ] . acidic proteases from fish stomachs display high activity between ph 2 . 0 and 4 . 0 , while alkaline digestive proteases , such as trypsin , are most active between ph 8 . 0 and 10 . 0 . the distribution of proteinases varies , depending on species and organs . digestive enzymes of several species of fish have been isolated from the internal organs including gastric , intestinal , and hepatopancreas [ 5 , 9 , 11 \u2013 13 ] .\nchitin , a homopolymer of n - acetyl - d - glucosamine residues linked by \u03b2 - 1 , 4 bonds , is the most abundant renewable natural resource after cellulose [ 14 ] . chitin and its derivatives are biomolecules of a great potential , possessing versatile biological activities , demonstrating excellent biocompatibility and complete biodegradability . therefore , they have found extensive applications in pharmacy , medicine , agriculture , food and textile industries , cosmetics , and wastewater treatment [ 15 \u2013 17 ] .\nthe main sources of raw material for the production of chitin are cuticles of various crustaceans , principally crabs and shrimps . chitin in biomass is closely associated with proteins , inorganic compounds ( such as calcium carbonate ) , lipids , and pigments . they all have to be quantitatively removed to achieve the high purity of chitins necessary for biological applications [ 18 ] .\nconventionally , to extract chitin from crustacean shells , chemicals processing for demineralization and deproteinization have been applied . raw materials were first treated with dilute hydrochloric acid at room temperature to remove metal salts , particularly calcium carbonate , and then with strong bases to remove proteins [ 18 ] . however , the use of these chemicals may cause a partial deacetylation of the chitin and hydrolysis of the polymer , resulting in final inconsistent physiological properties [ 19 ] . an alternative approach to these harsh chemical treatments is the use of proteolytic microorganisms [ 20 \u2013 23 ] or proteolytic enzymes [ 24 ] . bustos and healy [ 25 ] demonstrated that chitin obtained by the deproteinization of shrimp shell waste with various proteolytic microorganism had higher molecular weights compared to chemically prepared shellfish chitin .\nviscera ( 20 g ) were separated and rinsed with distilled water , and then homogenized for 5 minutes with 20 ml of extraction buffer ( 10 mm tris - hcl , ph 8 . 0 ) with the use of tissue homogenizer . the resulting preparations were centrifuged at 8500 \u00d7g for 30 minutes at 4\u00b0c . the pellets were discarded and the supernatants were collected and then frozen at \u221220\u00b0c and used as crude protease extracts . all enzymatic assays were conducted within a week after extraction .\nsodium dodecyl sulphate - polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis ( sds - page ) was carried out as described by laemmli [ 26 ] , using 5 % ( w / v ) stacking and 15 % ( w / v ) separating gels . samples were prepared by mixing the crude enzyme extracts at 1 : 5 ( v / v ) ratio with distilled water containing 10 mm tris - hcl ph 8 . 0 , 2 . 5 % sds , 10 % glycerol , 5 % \u03b2 - mercaptoethanol , and 0 . 002 % bromophenol blue . the samples were heated at 100\u00b0c for 5 minutes before loading in the gel . after electrophoresis , the gel was stained with 0 . 25 % coomassie brilliant blue r - 250 in 45 % ethanol - 10 % acetic acid and destained with 5 % ethanol - 7 . 5 % acetic acid .\nthe optimum ph of the crude protease extracts was studied over a ph range of 5 . 0\u201313 . 0 , using casein as a substrate at 50\u00b0c . for the measurement of ph stability , the crude enzyme extracts were incubated for 1 hour at 4\u00b0c in different buffers and then the residual proteolytic activities were determined under standard assay conditions . the following buffer systems were used : 100 mm sodium acetate buffer for ph 5 . 0 - 6 . 0 , tris - hcl buffer for ph 7 . 0 - 8 . 0 , glycine - naoh buffer for ph 9 . 0\u201311 . 0 , na 2 hpo 4 - naoh buffer for ph 12 . 0 , and kcl buffer for ph 13 . 0 .\nthe influence of various metals ions , at a concentration of 5 mm , on enzyme activity was investigated by adding the monovalent ( na + or k + ) or divalent ( mg 2 + , hg 2 + , ca 2 + , zn 2 + , cu 2 + , co 2 + , ba 2 + , or mn 2 + ) metal ions to the reaction mixture . the activity of the crude enzyme extracts without any metallic ion was considered as 100 % . the effect of nacl concentrations on the activity of the alkaline crude protease extracts was studied , using casein as a substrate , by increasing nacl concentrations in the reaction mixture .\nthe effects of some surfactants ( triton x - 100 , tween 80 , and sds ) and oxidizing agents ( sodium perborate ) on alkaline crude proteases stability were studied by preincubating enzymes for 1 hour at 30\u00b0c . the residual activities were measured at optimum conditions for each crude enzyme . the activity of the crude enzyme extract without any additive was taken as 100 % .\nthe swp was prepared in our laboratory . briefly , shrimp waste , collected from the marine food processing industry , was washed thoroughly with tap water and then cooked 20 minutes at 90\u00b0c . the solid material obtained was dried , minced to obtain a fine powder , and then stored in glass bottles at room temperature . the chemical composition ( proteins , chitin , lipids , and ash ) was determined .\nthe moisture and ash content were determined according to the aoac standard methods 930 . 15 and 942 . 05 , respectively , [ 29 ] . total nitrogen content of shrimp protein hydrolysates was determined by using the kjeldahl method . crude protein was estimated by multiplying total nitrogen content by the factor of 6 . 25 .\nshrimp shell wastes ( 15 g ) were mixed with 100 mm tris - hcl buffer ph 8 . 0 at a ratio of 1 : 3 ( w / v ) , minced and then cooked for 20 minutes at 90\u00b0c to inactivate endogenous enzymes . the cooked sample was then homogenized in a moulinex blender for about 2 minutes . the ph of the mixture was adjusted to 8 . 0 , and then the shrimp waste proteins were digested with proteolytic enzymes at 45\u00b0c using en enzyme / substrate ratio of 10 / 1 ( unit of enzyme / mg of protein ) . after 3 - hour incubation at 45\u00b0c , the reaction was stopped by heating the solution at 90\u00b0c during 20 minutes to inactivate enzymes . the shrimp waste protein hydrolysates were then centrifuged at 5000 \u00d7g for 20 minutes to separate insoluble and soluble fractions . the solid phase was washed , pressed manually through four layers of gauze , and then dried for 1 hour at 60\u00b0c . the protein content was analyzed to measure the protein removal . the press cake was packed in a plastic bag and stored at \u221220\u00b0c until further processing .\ndeproteinization percentage ( % dp ) was calculated by the following equation as described by rao et al . [ 30 ] :\nwhere p o and p r are protein concentrations ( % ) before and after hydrolysis ; while o and r represent the mass ( grams ) of original sample and hydrolyzed residue in dry weight basis , respectively .\nall experiments were carried out in triplicate , and average values with standard deviation errors are reported . mean separation and significance were analyzed using the spss software package ( spss , chicago , ill ) . correlation and regression analysis were carried out using excel program .\nin order to estimate the number of proteases in the alkaline crude enzyme extracts , samples were separated by sds - page , and then proteolytic activities were revealed by casein zymography activity staining . casein zymography is a very sensitive and rapid assay method that detects nanogram of proteins , in contrast with sds - page which detects micrograms .\n, all crude enzyme extracts showed several clear bands of protease activity with different molecular weights , indicating the presence of several different proteases . it seems that goby crude enzyme extract contained more proteolytic enzymes than the other ones as illustrated in\nby the presence of at least five clear bands of proteolytic activity . this result suggests that at least five major proteinases were present in goby viscera . when comparing the different profiles , it can be observed the presence of at least one protease common with all crude proteases .\nthe activity of proteolytic enzymes was determined at different ph values from 5 . 0 to 13 . 0 . the ph activity profiles of the crude alkaline proteases are shown in\ndisplayed maximum activity at ph 8 . 0 - 9 . 0 . the relative activities at ph 7 . 0 and 10 . 0 were 55 . 6 % and 81 . 3 % , respectively , of that at ph 9 . 0 . however , protease activity decreased significantly above ph 10 . 0 . at ph 11 . 0 , the activity was approximately 5 - fold lower than that at ph 9 . 0 .\neffect of ph on activity ( a ) and stability ( b ) of alkaline crude protease extracts . the protease activity was assayed in the ph range 5 . 0\u201313 . 0 using buffers of different ph values at 50\u00b0c . the maximum activity of each crude enzyme extract was considered as 100 % . the ph stability was determined by incubating the crude enzymes in different buffers for 1 hour at 4\u00b0c and the residual activities were measured at the optimum conditions of each enzyme preparation . the activity of the enzyme before incubation was taken as 100 % . buffer solutions used for ph activity and stability are presented in section 2 . values are means of three independent experiments .\nthe optimum ph for the crude protease of r . clavata was ph 8 . 0 . the relative activity at ph 9 . 0 was about 94 % . however , an appreciable decrease in activity was observed above ph 9 . 0 .\n. interestingly , the three crude enzyme extracts are highly stable over a wide broad ph range , maintaining about 100 % of their original activity between ph 5 . 0 and 10 . 0 after 1 hour of incubation at 4\u00b0c . the enzymes retained more than 83 % of their activities at ph 12 . 0 . our results showed that goby proteases present a high ph stability compared to the others crude enzyme extracts .\noptima temperatures for activity of crude alkaline proteases were determined in order to assess their suitability for biotechnological applications . the relative activities at various temperatures using casein as a substrate are reported in\n. the crude proteases were active at temperatures from 30 to 70\u00b0c . the optimum temperature for\nproteases was 55\u00b0c , however , alkaline proteases from goby and thornback ray displayed maximum activity at 50\u00b0c .\neffect of temperature on activity of alkaline crude protease extracts . the temperature profile was determined by assaying protease activity at temperatures between 30 and 80\u00b0c . the optimum activity was taken as 100 % . values are means of three independent experiments .\nthe relative activities of goby proteases at 40 and 60\u00b0c were 54 % and 70 % , respectively . however , an appreciable decrease in enzyme activity was observed above 65\u00b0c , due to thermal denaturation . thornback ray proteases were more active at 60\u00b0c than the other crude proteases , retaining 90 % of their activity after 1 - hour incubation . however , the relative activities of z . ophiocephalus and r . clavata crude proteases were 70 % and 45 % , respectively .\n. enzyme preparations from goby and scorpionfish are highly active at temperatures below 40\u00b0c , while that of thornback ray were stable at 30\u00b0c . goby crude enzyme remains fully active even after 60 minutes of incubation at 40\u00b0c , indicating that this crude enzyme might be used under mild heating conditions . however , at higher temperatures proteases were inactivated .\neffect of temperature on thermal stability of the crude alkaline proteases from goby ( a ) , thornback ray ( b ) and scorpionfish ( c ) . the temperature stability was determined by incubating the crude extract at temperatures from 30 to 70\u00b0c for 1 hour . the residual enzyme activity was measured under the standard conditions assay at different times . the original activity before preincubation was taken as 100 % . values are means of three independent experiments .\nthe addition of cacl 2 and mgso 4 increased the activity of crude protease extracts of goby and scorpionfish . ca 2 + increased the activity of crude proteases from goby and scorpionfish to 110 % and 129 % , respectively . these results indicated that ca 2 + was very effective in improving the activity of the crude proteases . the enhancement of protease activity in the presence of calcium may be explained by the strength of interactions inside protein molecules and the better stabilization of enzymes against thermal stabilization . however , the activity of r . clavata crude enzyme was not affected by cacl 2 .\nthe ions ba 2 + affect partially the protease activity with a relative activity between 87 % and 96 % . however , fe 2 + and hg 2 + affect greatly the activity of all crude enzymes . the presence of 5 mm nacl and kcl did not affect protease activity .\nall the commercial detergents contain hydrolytic enzymes such as proteases . in addition to activity and stability at high ph range and various temperatures [ 33 ] , enzymes incorporated into detergent formulations must be compatible and stable with all commonly used detergent components such as surfactants , perfumes , oxidizing agents , and other additives which might be present in the formulation [ 34 ] . furthermore , detergent enzymes should be stable during storage and active during washing in the detergent solution for a long period of time [ 35 ] .\nthe suitability of crude alkaline proteases as detergent additive was investigated by testing their stability in the presence of some surfactants and oxidizing agents . as shown in"]}
{"id": 1500, "summary": [{"text": "larks are passerine birds of the family alaudidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "all species occur in the old world , and in northern and eastern australia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "only one , the horned lark , is also found in north america .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "habitats vary widely , but many species live in dry regions . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "lark", "paragraphs": ["treat erlanger ' s lark as a subspecies of blanford ' s lark ( stervander et al . 2016 )\nenglish : hoopoe lark , bifasciated lark ; french : sirli du d\u00e9sert ; german : w\u00fcstenl\u00e4uferlerche ; spanish : alondra ibis .\nthe heteromirafra larks : rudd\u2019s lark h . ruddi , sidamo ( liben ) lark \u00ad\u00ad h . sidamoensis ( includes archer\u2019s lark h . archeri , with which it is now lumped ) .\nthe lark in the morning sunshine symbolizes the human drive for happiness . to mystic theologians the lark\u2019s song symbolizes pure and happy prayer rising before god\u2019s throne .\nthekla lark comprises several possible species , e . g . east african populations (\n\u2018hey , maybe i ' m getting the hang of this interview lark . \u2019\nthough you go to bed with the nightingale , you rise with the lark .\nrather a lark i might have thought it but for the false military title .\n) . up to 90 percent of lark nests may be lost to predators .\nat clinically critical times , our lark coach will connect members with your clinical staff .\n\u2018designing the baddies and weapons for the next big game - what a lark . \u2019\n\u2018in rarefied locations in the city , foreigners ride the rickshaw for a lark . \u2019\n\u2018let ' s have it in live action - none of this animation lark . \u2019\n\u2018and the rest of the lads lark about and laugh at a misshapen nude . \u2019\nand now their voices seemed to them as clear as the notes of a lark .\nlark tattoos usually embody colourful elements to play up the cheerful associations of the bird .\na chance encounter in a local pet store changed lark huska ' s life forever .\naccept recommendation by redman et al . to use shorter name of blanford ' s lark for\nis a proposed split from blanford ' s lark ( stervander et al 2016 ) . includes\n\u2018out of sight a bird called , an early arrival , perhaps a horned lark . \u2019\n\u2018we strode towards the small plane , with the cameraman encouraging us to lark around . \u2019\nreceive our e - mail newsletter for the latest news from lark and chef john sundstrom .\nmoreover , what was so real for her was only too plainly a lark for him .\nenglish : black - crowned finch - lark , pallid finch - lark ; french : moinelette \u00e0 frout - blanc ; german : wei\u00dfstirnlerche ; spanish : aloudra gotti\u00f3n de corouna negra .\nlark sparrows expanded their range eastward with forest clearing , but are diminishing there with reforestation .\nthe male lark sparrow\u2019s courtship display includes tail fanning to reveal his white outer tail feathers .\nthe horned lark\u2019s nest is depression in the ground lined with grass and other fine materials .\nlark huska , 15 , and her mother alexandra macqueen . ( paul borkwood / cbc )\nthe lark is a very popular animal , appearing in literature , song , mythology , and even religion . though we write of the lark very often , the only true north american lark is the horned lark , which is named for its black stripes beneath its eyes . the meadowlark also inhabits north america , though technically , the meadowlark is more closely related to the starling . this doesn\u2019t stop us from relating the meadowlark to the true lark , however .\nno one who works on a morning newspaper ever takes advantage of the lark ' s example .\nand korea . in southern france and north africa east of libya , sympatric with thekla lark .\ndickcissel dickcissels do not have\nhorns\nor the black facial marking of the horned lark .\ndesigned with harvard and stanford health experts , our lark coaches are trained to deliver clinically validated curriculum .\nlark is a chronic care platform , not single - disease , and device - centric .\n\u2018otherwise , it ' s decent for a lark when rented for a one - night spin . \u2019\nthe magpie - lark is a common bird with many different names . it is also called a peewee , peewit , mudlark or little magpie . its name magpie - lark is also confusing because it is neither a magpie nor a lark . it is more closely related to monarchs , fantails and drongos .\nlark is super sweet and cuddly . good with dogs and other cats / kittens . ( * )\nlarks are symbolic of merriment as the lark sang hymns at the gates of heaven ; the lark was the bird that announced the coming of the day . because of the bird ' s boundless energy , it is said the lark is also the symbol of hope , happiness , and of good fortune ; creativity\n\u2018i was up with the lark , too excited at the prospect of seeing my team to sleep . \u2019\n\u2018\u2018we ' ve seduced people into giving us $ 300 million for a lark , \u2019 he says . \u2019\n\u2018it all seems so simple from this perspective . i could get used to this evil genius lark . \u2019\n\u2018i didn ' t lark about or anything but failed to treat my duties with the seriousness required . \u2019\nthe name magpie - lark is quite misleading , as the species has no link with either the magpies or the larks . however , the magpie - lark is sometimes confused with the australian magpie , gymnorhina tibicen . while both species are black and white , the magpie - lark is noticeably smaller than the australian magpie .\ning us feel welcome . made us feel part of the lark family . big thank you to you all\nthe lark has received a rating of 5 . 0 out of 5 in 34 traveler reviews on tripadvisor .\ndesert lark comprises at least 4 divergent mtdna lineages that require study and revision ( alstr\u00f6m et al . 2013 )\nlark helps you identify individuals in your population who have each the chronic condition using eligibility files or claims data .\nused in names of birds of other families that are similar to the lark , e . g . meadowlark .\na new edition of the lark cookbook has been released ! now with a softcover and an additional chapter devoted to recipes for the home pantry , the cookbook is available for purchase at the lark store or your favorite bookseller .\nenglish : short - toed lark ; french : alouette calandrelle ; german : kurzzehenlerche ; spanish : terrera grande .\nenglish : shore lark ; french : alouette hausse - col ; german : ohrenlerche ; spanish : alauda cornuda .\nthe shape of a lark\u2019s bill is adapted to its diet and feeding technique . for example , hoopoe larks (\nbeason , r . 1995 . horned lark ( eremophila alpestris ) . a poole , f gill , eds .\nto cape clapper lark and range to\nsw namibia , w , sc , s . africa\nwith split of\n\u2018it ' s basically a working - class mindset , he said : \u2018this showbiz lark can ' t last . \u2019\u2019\nenglish : clotbey lark ; french : alouette de clotbey ; german : knackerlerche ; spanish : alondra de pico grueso .\nriley , steve .\ncrested lark using ' anvil ' .\nbritish birds 82 ( 1989 ) : 30\u201331 .\nusing chemicals and pesticides in your garden because if a magpie - lark eats a poisoned insect it could get sick .\nit was three years ago that a routine trip to the pet store would change lark huska ' s life forever .\nas a child , cosette becomes known in her neighborhood as\nthe lark ,\nbut not for the reasons you might think ( like freedom and beauty ) . in cosette ' s case ,\nthe lark\nrefers to the fact that , like a lark , she always gets up earlier in the morning than everyone else . as the book says :\n\u2018in the national championships that year , she participated for a lark and won the silver in the rifle prone event . \u2019\nenglish : long - billed lark ; french : alouette \u00e0 long bec ; german : langschnabellerche ; spanish : alondra picuda .\nfamily ( order passeriformes ) . larks occur throughout the continental old world ; only the horned , or shore , lark (\nlark designs are also symbolic of femininity . through the bird ' s distinct crescent on its chest , mankind has been linked with the lark with the phases of the moon - one of the ultimate natural symbols of womanhood . the lark ' s well - defined family structure and seeming devotion to its relatives had made it a totem of family and love as well .\nthere\u2019s no risk in offering it to everyone : we only charge when your members enroll in lark and achieve great health outcomes .\n\u2018i ' d had my lactate levels tested earlier in the year in connecticut , going along with friends for a lark . \u2019\nview image of a magpie - lark ( grallina cyanoleuca ) lifts its wings ( credit : david tipling / naturepl . com )\nthe lark that shuns on lofty boughs to build , her humble nest lies silent in the field . what does this mean ?\nis split from crested lark ( guillaumet et al . 2006 , 2008 ; alstr\u00f6m et al . 2013 ) . correct species name is\nunlimited , 24 / 7 , real - time help . a dedicated lark coach will respond within 2 seconds when members need support most\n\u2018while i was out in the desert i watched a crested lark hovering about 100 feet off the ground singing its heart out . \u2019\nryan , peter g . , ian hood , paulette bloomer , joris komen , and timothy m . crowe .\nbarlow ' s lark : a new species in the karoo lark certhilauda albescens complex of southwest africa .\nibis 140 ( 1998 ) : 605\u2013619 .\nis that a lark i hear ? a nightingale ? surprise ! it ' s a bat : krulwich wonders . . . : npr\n\u2018the new parents i know got about four hours ' sleep a night for a while and they are still up with the lark . \u2019\n\u2018at the now locked gates he meets twins isabelle and theo , who promptly invite him home to meet their parents for a lark . \u2019\nchipping sparrow the chipping sparrow has a rusty crown but different face pattern , also lacks the white outer tail feathers of the lark sparrow .\ncornell laboratory of ornithology , 2001 .\nhorned lark\n( on - line ) . accessed 01 / 08 / 04 at urltoken .\nplace some clean , fresh water in the garden for the magpie - lark to drink and use for making mud to build its nest .\ndespite the fact that only one member of the lark family is native to north america , larks have a prominent place in tribal culture .\nthe lark is a symbol of the humility of the priesthood , because this bird flies high and sings only when in flight towards heaven .\n\u2018many , in times past , closely observed the movements of the bog lark , a bird you don ' t see that much nowadays . \u2019\nwhat made you want to look up lark ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nslab sandwiches is located just around the corner from lark , at 1201 10th ave . slab is open 10 - 3 , monday - friday .\nvariety of habitats , mainly open areas with sparse vegetation , also cultivated land and other man - made semideserts such as railways , airfields , and wastelands . where it co - occurs with the thekla lark , the crested lark occupies the plains , the thekla inhabits rocky and bushy slopes .\nthe horned lark\u2019s typical call , most often heard in fall and winter , is a high , piercing one - or two - note chip .\nthe situation is critical for the raso lark ( alauda razae ) and rudd ' s lark . the former species is endemic to the uninhabited islet of raso ( cape verde islands ) , and its population is very small ( 92 birds counted in 1998 ) . accidentally introduced predators are therefore a serious threat to eggs and nestlings . a rapid population decline of rudd ' s lark could be prevented by protecting its breeding range in south africa .\n\u2018when the children were small i ' d be up with the lark ; a cooked breakfast was on the table by 7 . 30 am . \u2019\n\u2018pet owners who get up with the lark to walk their dogs in a country park are fuming after penalty notices were slapped on their cars . \u2019\n\u2018he soon became a cornucopia of trivia , and one day decided to have a shot at creating his own puzzle , just for a lark . \u2019\nclose your curtains or put something in front of your windows to prevent the magpie - lark from seeing its own reflection and trying to attack it .\n\u2018their story plays like some merry old folk tale , about a few lads off on a summertime lark that turned into a life - transforming adventure . \u2019\n\u2018the consensus was that there had to be something in this astrology lark , and what did i know , i ' m only an astronomy graduate . \u2019\n\u2018just as she was getting the hang of this monarchy lark , along comes another embarrassing chain of events to sink its teeth into the royal posterior . \u2019\nnova scotia museum of natural history website , 1998 .\nhorned lark\n( on - line ) . accessed 01 / 08 / 04 at urltoken .\nmany larks satisfy their thirst and maintain body weight by drinking dew when water is not available . various species , including the black , desert , gray ' s , and stark ' s lark , as well as the black - crowned and black - eared sparrow - lark , drink brackish or even salty water .\nmy boyfriend , dog , and i had a wonderful time staying in the lark . we loved the quiet neighborhood , its proximity to so many great sights , and the relaxing nature of the apartment itself . watching the sun set over the bay from the deck every night was our favorite part . the lark \u2026\n\u2018apparently some of the stages will be near by ( in portmore ) , who knows , maybe i ' ll go and watch them for a lark . \u2019\nthe lark sparrow\u2019s nest is a cup of grasses and twigs and is lined with finer materials . it is placed on the ground or in a low shrub .\nregardless of where life ' s journey takes you , the presence of the lark is a sign that only the best will be bestowed on you and yours .\nof the horned lark ( eremophila alpestris ) and temminck ' s lark ( e . bilopha ) possess a contrasting colored pattern of breast and head , and they have tiny elongated feathers above their eyes that form conspicuous horns . however , the breeding plumage of the male black lark ( melanocorypha yeltoniensis ) is entirely black . the males of the seven known sparrow - larks ( eremopterix ) have black underparts and a species - specific black - and - white pattern on their head . only the male black - eared sparrow - lark ( e . australis ) is totally black - headed ; females of all these species are colored as larks in general .\nwith imitations of other bird songs and calls . because of this behavior , the mongolian lark ( melanocorypha mongolica ) is called\nhundred melodies\nin china and is a favored cage bird in east asia . the latakoo or melodious lark ( mirafra cheniana ) is known to imitate 57 different bird species\u2014even ducks , guineafowl , and bee - eaters\u2014and single males can be distinguished by the set of birds they imitate . some species , such as the crested lark , may even imitate human whistling .\ndrive your strategic objectives forward by successfully transitioning towards value - based care . use lark to provide scalable , 24 / 7 health monitoring for all chronic condition patients .\nonly pay for members who use lark . our pempm costs save clients 80 % and allow our partners to offer a new level of service to every valued member .\n\u2018but from now on i ' m up with the lark and out muck - spreading or doing whatever ' s needed to keep the farm ticking over properly . \u2019\n\u2018this beauty lark is bloody hard work and i am profoundly grateful that most of the time i throw on slightly soiled clothes and schlep into the printroom makeupless . \u2019\nto call their mate or establish territory from \u2013 tree . post , wire , etc . other birds the live in grasslands like the horned lark or bobolink have a\nthe magpie - lark is distinctively marked in black and white . the thin whitish bill and pale iris separate it from other similarly coloured species . the adult male magpie - lark has a white eyebrow and black face , while the female has an all - white face with no white eyebrow . young birds have a black forehead , a white eyebrow and a white throat . the magpie - lark is often referred to as a peewee or pee wee , after the sound of its distinctive calls .\ndo you have more specific information about the location of lark\u2019s pet sitting ? why didn ' t you say so ? you can improve yelp by sharing it here .\nthe gauls regarded the lark as a sacred bird and throughout the long history of french folklore it has remained a bird of good omen , sometimes even used in charms . ' whoever carries about his or her person real lark\u2019s legs or models of them cannot be harrassed ; this charm will overcome the forces of man and nature alike\u2019 .\nlosing weight is easier when you have a trusted pal to provide encouragement and valuable pointers . lark is a fantastic virtual companion that chats with you like a friend , offering a clear look at your activity levels , meal choices , and even sleep patterns . there\u2019s no calorie - counting here\u2014just use plain language to tell lark what you ate and how much you exercised , and it\u2019ll let you know if you\u2019re on the right track to weight - loss success . smart , supportive , and nonjudgmental\u2014we need more friends like lark .\n\u2018hordes of participants are expected to turn up for this fun event , from business teams to school teams , and sporting enthusiasts to those just taking part for a lark . \u2019\n\u2018i sometimes think i ' m not cut out for this whole technology lark , and today my faith in that belief has swung wildly from one extreme to the other . \u2019\nlarks are characteristic birds of the open landscapes like grasslands , steppes , stony plains , and heaths . most larks prefer areas with sparse vegetation . some species , including the wood lark and flapped lark ( mirafra rufocinnamomea ) , depend on a mixture of vegetation types within the same habitat , such as grasses for nest - building and scattered bushes and small\nwant to feature your creature ? upload a photo of your pet at the lark ! you can also share by using the hashtag # bringfido on facebook , twitter or instagram .\nryan , peter g . , and paulette bloomer .\nthe long - billed lark complex : a species mosaic in southwestern africa .\nauk 116 ( 1999 ) : 194\u2013208 .\na lark tattoo is a great way to show off your sweet , cheerful disposition and lets the world know that , despite the difficulties , you see the sunnier side of life .\nphotographer alkan emin shoots photos of 15 - year - old toronto model lark huska , who he discovered in a local pet store three years ago . ( paul borkwood / cbc )\n\u2018the researchers believe that an increase in agricultural land , forest plantations and roads has fragmented the arid steppe habitat , preventing the dupont ' s lark from sharing songs over greater distances . \u2019\nlarks appear in mythology as a symbol of cheerfulness . the appearance of a lark also represents daybreak in many stories . for example , there is a passage in shakespeare ' s romeo and juliet in which juliet tries to convince romeo that the lark singing outside is a nightingale because she doesn ' t want him to leave . larks are also often shown as messengers . in\nmany current solutions for chronic conditions are tied up to proprietary devices or other expensive networks , with individual devices for different conditions . instead , use lark and turn up the engagement and savings .\n\u2018the trouble with this sobriety lark , which i embarked upon at the start of the year , is that i find my critical facilities have been restored after some 30 years ' suspension . \u2019\neremophila alpestris occasionally acts as a host for parasitic cowbirds . eremophila alpestris young suffer from cowbird parasitism because the parents neglect them to take care of the cowbird young . cowbirds lay eggs in the nests of eremophila alpestris , and when they hatch , the horned lark parents care for them , which takes away from the care of their own eggs . as a result , the cowbird chicks thrive and the eremophila alpestris chicks suffer . cowbird chicks are much larger than horned lark chicks which enables them to devour all the food the parents bring before the lark chicks get the chance .\nduets can be so precisely coordinated that partners sound like a single bird ,\nsays behavioural ecologist pawe\u0142 r\u0119k of the australian national university in canberra , who studies magpie - lark displays .\nthe magpie - lark is mostly ground - dwelling , and is usually seen slowly searching on the ground for a variety of insects and their larvae , as well as earthworms and freshwater invertebrates .\n7 . 1\u20137 . 5 in ( 18\u201319 cm ) ; male 0 . 9\u20131 . 9 oz ( 27\u201355 g ) ; female 0 . 6\u20131 . 7 oz ( 17\u201347 g ) . extensively streaked brown plumage , crown feathers can be raised to a short crest ; bill stronger than bill of wood lark ; sexes alike . most common lark species within its western palearctic part of distribution .\nshe was known locally as l ' alouette , the lark . the village people , with instinctive symbolism , had thought it a suitable name for the apprehensive , trembling little creature , scarcely more than a bird , who was always first up in that house and out of doors before dawn . but this was a lark that never sang . ( 1 . 4 . 3 . 15 )\n17\u201318 cm ; c . 32\u201347 g . medium sized , densely streaked , relatively long - legged lark with long neck , long slender bill with distal half decurved , rather short wings . . .\nin mainly insectivorous larks , the male is larger and has a longer bill than the female . this is most conspicuous in the greater hoopoe , the long - billed lark , and their relatives , which use their slender and decurved bills for digging in the ground in search of insect larvae . sexual dimorphism in bill and body size also occurs in the bar - tailed lark ( ammomanes cincturus ) and gray ' s lark ( a . grayi ) , which feed mainly on seeds . such differences in size enable both sexes of the same species to exploit different food resources within the same habitat .\n\u2018i appear to be fairly gainfully self employed in the website design lark , at least for a bit , and while that ' s great it doesn ' t exactly make for good weblog fodder . \u2019\nkeep leaf litter and mulch around your garden as magpie - larks will collect some of it to build their nests , and it will also attract insects and lizards for the magpie - lark to eat .\nimmerse yourself in the diverse nature of the outer banks at the lark , a stylish , affordable vacation condo at milepost 7 . 5 . during your vacation you ' ll live like the locals do , surrounded by serene live oaks , white egrets , spanish moss and breathtaking sunsets on the sound . the lark feels secluded while only one mile from the beach near all the outer banks ' favorite attractions .\nlark sparrows breed across much of the western two - thirds of the u . s . they winter across parts of the southwestern u . s . and mexico . the population has declined in recent decades .\ntheir mate . when a magpie - lark finds a mate , they usually pair for life , defend their territory together and stay in the same area together throughout the year if there is enough food around .\nmythology , larks are the messengers of itokaga , god of the south wind . the meadowlark is a symbol of beauty , fertility , marriage , and fidelity . some artists used the lark to symbolize jesus . these birds also have a crescent moon shape on it ' s breast . quite lucky for neo - pagans . it ' s lunar symbol makes the lark a symbol of inner discoveries and the concept of self .\n\u2018call me dim but i would have thought that there wasn ' t too much to learning how to master this silence lark ; it ' s not like studying wittgenstein , even for people who wear trainers . \u2019\nthe name lark is also given , chiefly because of habitat , to several birds belonging to other families . see meadowlark ; songlark . for fieldlark , or titlark , see pipit . for mudlark , see grallinidae .\n) exhibit deep genetic divergences among themselves and from mediterranean populations ( guillaumet et al . 2008 ) . correct english name to thekla ' s lark which refers to the daughter of the german ornithologist brehm ( hbw alive )\n\u2018and then , when i got there , still without seeing the meadow lark , there was a verdant patch of wild valerian basking in the sun and another corner with another patch of sunlight a little further on . \u2019\n\u2018never fear , we ' ll all be living until 112 shortly , and it ' s very likely that half those grey heads we observe are really teenagers who borrowed their grannie ' s wig for a lark . \u2019\n\u2018anyone passing through who wants to leave some remarks in the comments , please feel free . only if it ' s to tell me what a cack - handed job i ' m making of this liveblogging lark . \u2019\nratcliffe , norman , luis r . monteiro , and cornelis j . hazevoet .\nstatus of raso lark alauda razae with notes on threats and foraging behaviour .\nbird conservation international 9 ( 1999 ) : 43\u201346 .\n, they are seen as messengers of the god of the south wind god , itokaga , who brings life , light , and warmth to the world . in christianity , the lark has come to represent jesus christ .\nit looks like we don ' t have a specific address for lark\u2019s pet sitting , which makes giving directions tricky . this business might not have an official storefront , or it might move to multiple locations throughout the day .\nsmaller than males . bill very long , slender , and slightly decurved . plumage sand - colored above , underside white , throat and breast with dark spots , similar in both sexes . wings long and broad with conspicuous black - and - white pattern , comparable to that of african subspecies of hoopoe ( upupa epops ) . this lark was first described as a hoopoe , and its original scientific name means\nhoopoe with legs of a lark .\nin all larks , both sexes feed the chicks and eat or remove their feces . after eight to 13 days , before they are able to fly , lark chicks leave the nest , still supplied with food by their parents . if the female starts a second brood , the male cares for the young alone . steyn observed cooperative breeding in the spike - heeled lark ( chersomanes albofasciata ) ; three adults fed two chicks in one nest in the karoo .\n7 . 1\u20137 . 9 in ( 18\u201320 cm ) ; male 1 . 4\u20131 . 8 oz ( 39\u201351 g ) ; female 1 . 1\u20131 . 6 oz ( 30\u201347 g ) ; one of the largest lark species , females\nwhen magpie - lark couples duet , one of them produces a short\npee - wee\n- type call , which is then swiftly followed by a\nwit\nreply . this performance can go on for several seconds .\nto build its nest , the magpie - lark gathers plant fibres and uses mud like mortar to plaster everything together . it then lines the nest with soft grass , tufts of fur , feathers or any other cosy material it can get its beak on . nests are commonly on firm horizontal branches . it lays 3 - 5 eggs . depending on conditions , breeding is usually from august to february , and the magpie - lark lays 3 - 5 eggs .\nlarks have a crescent shape across their breasts . the crescent shape often signifies lunar qualities , and the moon is often linked with the concept of self . therefore the lark reflects the inward journey that\u2019s often associated with self - discovery . this goes hand in hand with their singing , something that , for humans , is often considered a private activity and a deep reflection of inner self . lark encourages us to explore our inner selves and sing out loud .\n\u2018anyone who engages in this utterly ridiculous weblog lark will have experienced those moments where you suddenly get an urge to put your latest words and thoughts online , despite the fact that you ' ve had a few too many drinks . \u2019\nthe lark was a great place to stay for our first vacation to the obx . great value for the space and location . it ' s a 2nd floor apartment in a quiet , family - friendly neighborhood . would definitely recommend !\nlark flight , feeding , threat and display calls are quite simple , however , their territorial song is very elaborate . in addition to communicating through song , larks will raise the crest of feathers in their head during agonistic and courtship displays .\nthis name seems more like a boy name to me too , maybe because of the other meaning of the word\nlark\n, or because it seems surname - y . or because it ' s a bit like mark . . .\nthe avifauna of the succulent karoo includes about 226 species , one of which , barlow\u2019s lark ( certhilauda barlowi ) , is endemic . other species in the region include the black harrier ( circus maurus , vulnerable status ) , which has the most restricted range of the world\u2019s 13 harrier species , karoo bustard ( eupodotis vigorsii ) , ludwig\u2019s bustard ( neotis ludwigii ) , karoo chat ( cercomela schlegelii ) , dune lark ( c . erythrochlamys ) , and dusky sunbird ( nectarinia fusca ) .\nlark has been watching our cat for over a year and she has been amazing . we travel quite frequently and we have always had an easy time coordinating with her . her rates are very fair and she spends a good amount of time at the house each day . lark is always happy to send my wife the photos she needs when she is away from the cat ! it is so great to be able to leave our cat and our home in such kind and capable hands .\nlarks primarily live in the old world . fifty - seven percent of lark species are found in africa , 19 percent in africa and eurasia , 16 percent in asia , 6 percent in eurasia and 1 percent in the new world . horned larks (\nbeason , robert c . 1995 . horned lark ( eremophila alpestris ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\n\u2018the dvd comes in a huge box that ' s about twice the size of any dvd set you could name ( overcompensating perhaps ? ) and it ' s got quite a few extras that might even entice prudes to buy it for a lark . \u2019\nthe lark is pet friendly ! they accept up to three pets of any size for a fee of $ 65 per stay . they provide a large dog bed , and bowls . there are pet clean up bags outside the building , and walking trails close by .\nlarks inhabit extreme regions such as deserts , semideserts , and arctic tundras , and areas varying in altitude from about sea level to high mountains . the horned lark , for example , breeds at 14 , 750 ft ( 4 , 500 m ) in the rocky mountains , and the skylark and tibetan lark ( melanocorypha maxima ) breed at 14 , 450 ft ( 4 , 400 m ) and 15 , 100 ft ( 4 , 600 m ) in the himalayas , respectively . generally , such extreme habitats are left after the breeding season .\nthe magpie - lark ' s mud nest seems to link it closely with the mud - nest builders of the family corcoracidae , the white - winged chough , and the apostlebird . but it actually belongs in the family dicruridae ( monarchs , fantails , and drongos ) .\nlisten out for the magpie - lark calling ' peewee , peewee ' or ' doodit doodit ' . peewee mates sing complicated duets - one sings ' peewee ' and its partner responds ' wit ! ' - and they both raise their wings above their heads as they call .\nis that a lark i hear ? a nightingale ? surprise ! it ' s a bat : krulwich wonders . . . there are animals famous for their songs . whales sing . birds sing . we humans have aretha , elvis , ray charles , pavarotti . but bats \u2014 who knew ?\noften used the image of the lark to symbolize a dawning of new opportunities in their literary pieces . ever since the earliest days of old world europe , these birds were seen as messengers that bring hope and prosperity , and this idea has crossed over into many aspects of the new world .\nthey are one of the few birds that can simultaneously sing and fly , as such , they are amongst the most beloved of the avian species . a lark is a sign of fortune and family , as such , many artists will incorporate elements that draw heavy reference to both these teams .\n5 . 1\u20135 . 5 in ( 13\u201314 cm ) ; male 0 . 7\u20131 . 0 oz ( 21\u201328 g ) ; female 0 . 6\u20130 . 9 oz ( 17\u201326 g ) . small lark with dull , cryptic plumage , no streaks on chest . bill short and finchlike . sexes alike .\nmagpie - lark males and females are similar from a distance but easy to tell apart closer up . female have a white throat and males have black throats and black eye - stripes . juveniles of both sex have the white throat of the female and the black eye - stripe of the male .\nits habit of rising swiftly heavenwards and as rapidly falling to earth might make the lark a symbol of the evolution and involution of manifestation . passing successively from earth to heaven and from heaven to earth , it links together the two poles of existence and acts as an intermediary . thus the lark stands for the marriage of heaven and earth since it flies high up into the sky and nests at ground level among scraps of dried grass . its flight into the bright dawn light suggests youthful enthusiasm , ardour and happiness in being alive . by contrast with the nightingale , its song is a song of joy .\nthe lark is in an excellent location for people who want to enjoy the beach and everything else the obx has to offer . great walking path to the wright brothers memorial too . i recommend it for people who just need a place to chill in the evenings after long beach days : ) thanks l\u2026\ndiet : the horned lark eats primarily seeds of grasses and forbs as well as insects , although it is also known to consume spiders and snails . these larks forage by gleaning food as they walk along the ground in their shuffling gate . in winter , these birds feed in freshly manured fields in agricultural areas .\nthe lark sparrow\u2019s most distinctive feature is its face pattern , with a reddish crown and cheek patch , gray supercilium , black line in front of and behind the eye , and a black malar stripe . it has grayish - white underparts with a black central breast spot . in flight , white outer tail feathers are visible .\nwe loved the lark ! it ' s in a nice , quiet , convienient neighborhood . beach access , mini golf , parks , restaurants and shops are all just a short drive away . we loved the screened in back balcony . the beds were comfy and everything was clean . the sound machines in the bedrooms were \u2026\nlark has never been a popular name in the united states . the only real - life namesake is actress lark voorhies , who is most well known for her work in the television show saved by the bell . however , i ' ve seen it used as a middle name . middle names are not recorded in social security baby name lists , so i have no way of knowing how often it ' s used . but i can see it appealing to the many people who like rose as a middle name . since it has yet to really be claimed by either gender , i still think you could get away with using it on a boy .\nchef john sundstrom\u2019s menu features locally - produced and organic cheese , charcuterie , vegetables , grains , fish , and meats , all prepared in season . we work with local artisans , farmers , and foragers to serve the best of each season . watch the season of mist video to see what to expect at lark right now .\nunlike any other program , we\u2019re able to offer every member unlimited 1 - on - 1 support from their personal lark coach , thanks to cutting edge a . i . and health monitoring technology . we deliver evidence - based care in an award - winning experience that evolves with data & interactions , making it infinitely more intelligent & effective .\nworking late into the night , eve had gotten bored and ( she had to admit ) a little stir crazy . she pulled up the bank\u2019s source code . on a lark , she entered the reset command . then she executed it , just to see what would happen , because boredom is the bad - influence - friend of stupidity .\nguillaumet , alban ; pons , jean - marc ; godelle , bernard ; crochet , pierre - andre ( 2006 ) .\nhistory of the crested lark in the mediterranean region as revealed by mtdna sequences and morphology\n. molecular phylogenetics and evolution 39 ( 3 ) : 645\u201356 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . ympev . 2006 . 01 . 002 .\nthe horned lark has sandy brown upperparts , a white belly , a yellow throat and black bib , and a black patch below each eye . it also has two small black tufts , or \u201chorns\u201d that are not always visible . different subspecies vary somewhat in the coloration of the throat and upperparts . in flight , horned larks show mostly black tails with narrow white edgings .\nat the same time in the northern hemisphere , the bering land bridge , the continental shelf between siberia and alaska , was exposed . the horned lark spread from asia into north america along this land bridge . its recent breeding range in north america reaches from northern alaska to the gulf of mexico , and a separated population established itself on the andean slopes of bogot\u00e1 , colombia .\nmost larks swallow whole seeds , which are crushed in their stomach using grit . indigestible remains are ejected as small pellets . larks in the genera calandrella , eremopterix , and melanocorypha de - husk seeds in a finchlike manner , fixing the grain between the tongue and palatine and breaking it up . crested larks , wood larks , and skylarks remove husks from seeds by beating them against the ground . they use the same technique for removing the legs and wings of large insects . like the song thrush ( turdus philomelos ) , greater hoopoe larks crack the shells of snails using stones like an anvil . the same behavior was observed once in the crested lark in morocco , but never in central europe . the greater hoopoe lark also frequently drops snails onto stones until their shells break .\nmonogamous . only lark species building nests frequently on top of low shrubs , up to 24 in ( 60 cm ) above ground . also building cup - shaped nests on ground . two to four eggs incubated by female for about 14 days . both parents feed young , which leave nest after 12\u201313 days , before being able to fly . young remain for at least one month with parents .\nthe female horned lark selects a nest site on bare ground , apparently with no help from her mate . she either chooses a natural depression in which to build the nest or excavates the site herself , a process that can take a couple of days . to dig a cavity , she uses her bill to loosen soil and flip it aside , sometimes also kicking dirt out with her feet .\nwhen i turned the models on , a female magpie - lark came along together with a group of other birds , mainly noisy miners and australian magpies , and they all together attacked my birds ,\nsays r\u0119k .\na fight ensued and my models tumbled down , two wings came off and were stolen by magpies . i didn ' t know whether to laugh or to cry .\n6 . 7 in ( 17 cm ) ; male 1 . 3\u20131 . 8 oz ( 37\u201352 g ) ; female 1 . 3\u20131 . 7 oz ( 37\u201348 g ) ; not as large as skylark , more robust , with stronger bill and longer crest . uniformly dull - colored plumage , upper - parts and breast heavily streaked , sexes alike . very similar to thekla lark , its sibling species .\nthe colonization of australia by the australasian bushlark ( mirafra javanica ) and of north america by the horned lark happened in the pleistocene at the latest . during pleistocene glacial periods , sea level was much lower than today . sumatra , kalimantan , and java ( sunda shelf ) were therefore part of asiatic mainland , and new guinea was connected to north australia via the torres land bridge , forming the dispersal route of the australasian bushlark .\nsong is performed during aerial song - displays while males circle about their territories . some species rise almost vertically from ground or perch and ascend up to 330 ft ( 100 m ) or more before gliding or dropping with closed wings back to the ground . continual hovering and singing is characteristic for the skylark . several lark species frequently utter their songs from the ground and elevated perches such as stones , tops of bushes , or trees .\nde juana , e . & su\u00e1rez , f . ( 2018 ) . dupont ' s lark ( chersophilus duponti ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nlarks are of african origin , and that their first radiation took place on this continent . madagascar was colonized once by the african ancestor of the madagascar lark ( mirafra hova ) . today , several mirafra larks occur in asia . however , it is not possible to say how many species colonized asia independently , since it is unknown whether the group of asiatic mirafra species is monophyletic , i . e . , evolved from one common ancestor .\nthe crested lark reached central europe from southwestern and eastern europe later than the skylark and was widespread in the sixteenth century , but receded during the little ice age in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries . however , it spread into central europe again from the middle of the nineteenth century onward , helped by global warming and man - made habitats such as roads and railway stations . crested larks even reached scandinavia in 1900 , but became extinct in the 1990s , possibly because of climatic change .\nall lark nestlings have a characteristic brightly colored gape , with one black spot inside the tip of the upper and lower mandible . there are two black spots on the base of the tongue in ammomanes , some certhilauda , and mirafra ; and an additional third spot on the tip of the tongue in alauda , calandrella , some certhilauda , eremophila , galerida , and lullula . after hatching , larks are covered with scanty down on their foreheads , napes , backs , shoulders , wings , and thighs .\n5 . 9 in ( 15 cm ) ; male 0 . 7\u20131 . 2 oz ( 21\u201335 g ) ; female 1 . 1\u20131 . 2 oz ( 30\u201335 g ) ; smaller and more slender than skylark and crested lark . plumage buff brown , upperparts and chest streaked , distinguished from other larks by broad , white supercilium which continues to nape . black - and - white pattern of alula ( first digit of wing ) feathers very conspicuous . crown feathers can be raised to a small crest .\nto attract a female and mark his reproductive territory , the male horned lark will engage in a\nsong flight\n( cornell laboratory of ornithology , 2001 ) . he flies quickly up to eight hundred feet above the ground , and circles for several minutes . while circling , he sings . after hovering , he dives straight toward the ground with his wings closed . just before reaching the ground , he opens his wings , catches air and lands softly in his territory . these birds are monogamous .\nthe horned lark\u2019s nest is a basket woven of fine grass or other plant materials and lined with finer material . two to four days after preparing the site , she begins weaving her nest from grass , small roots , shredded cornstalks , and other plant material , then lines it with down , fur , feathers , fine rootlets , even lint and string . the nest cavity diameter is about 3\u20134 inches ; the inside nest diameter is about 2 . 5 inches and its depth about 1 . 5 inches .\nearly european settlers named the magpie - lark after two groups of northern hemisphere birds that they were familiar with ; the magpies and the larks . however , they aren ' t actually like either of them . they are most closely related to a group of birds from the east coast of australia called the monarchs . magpie - larks are mostly seen foraging in pairs , however , outside of the breeding season , flocks of as many as a hundred or more birds may form in search of food sources .\nlark has been providing pet sitting and dog walking services for us for many years ( i have two dogs and two cats ) . when i go out of town and she is staying in our home i know everything will be taken care of and when i return the house is the same as i left it and the animals are very happy . it is wonderful to leave with no guilt because i know lark loves them as much as i do . when she walks my dogs they come home tired and happy . i trust that she loves my four legged kids as much as i do and she shows it in the time and attention she gives them . and a final testiment to the love she has for my animals is that she was with me when we had to put our lab down two years ago . she loved him as much as i did and he needed her there at the end . you can ' t ask for better love and support of your four legged kids than that !\n6 . 7 in ( 17 cm ) ; male 1 . 8\u20131 . 9 oz ( 52\u201355 g ) ; female 1 . 6 oz ( 45 g ) . strong lark with large head . short but massive bill most conspicuous . blunt , toothlike projection on middle of lower mandible fits into notch on upper mandible . upperparts uniformly pink / gray - brown , chest to vent with large black spots , sides of head blackish , throat and eye - ring white ; plumage of females of less contrasting color and not so heavily streaked .\nas far as one knows , courtship behavior is displayed on the ground . the male hops and steps around the female in upright posture spreading and cocking its tail - feathers . the undertail - coverts are presented to the female ( they are entirely black in the black and the black - crowned sparrow - lark ) . the wings are drooped and also spread to some degree quivering slightly . the crown feathers are raised even in species without elongated crest feathers . during display , the male utters song fragments . occasionally , the male presents food items to its mate immediately before copulation ( courtshipfeeding ) .\n4 . 5\u20134 . 9 in ( 11 . 5\u201312 . 5 cm ) ; male 0 . 5\u20130 . 6 oz ( 14\u201316 g ) ; female 0 . 4 oz ( 12 g ) ; one of the smallest lark species . sparrow - larks , like finches or sparrows , have a proportionally large head and a strong conical bill . sexes are dimorphic with respect to plumage color . female mainly pale brown and streaked , male with white forehead , cheeks , sides of neck , and collar of nape . crown , stripe through eye to base of bill , and lower border of cheek black . underparts entirely black , upperparts grayish brown ."]}
{"id": 1501, "summary": [{"text": "fraus pteromela is a moth of the hepialidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in most of the southern half of australia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 25 mm for males and 35 mm for females . ", "topic": 9}], "title": "fraus pteromela", "paragraphs": ["fraus pteromela is a moth of the hepialidae family . it is found in most of the southern half of australia .\nhectomanes pteromela lower , 1892 ; trans . r . soc . s . austr . 15 : 5 ; tl : s . australia\nfraus pteromela ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus sp . photo courtesy of david fischer fraus simulans . victoria . march 31 , 2017 photo courtesy of nick temby\u00a9\nfraus quadrangula nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 130\nfraus serrata nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 137\nfraus minima nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 123 ; tl : australia\nfraus megacornis nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 125 ; tl : australia\nfraus basicornis nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 127 ; tl : australia\nfraus tedi nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 129 ; tl : australia\nfraus marginispina nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 132 ; tl : australia\nfraus latistria nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 138 ; tl : tasmania\nfraus linogyna nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 139 ; tl : australia\nfraus distispina nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 141 ; tl : australia\nfraus mediaspina nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 142 ; tl : australia\nfraus biloba nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 143 ; tl : australia\nfraus basidispina nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 145 ; tl : australia\nfraus furcata nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 148 ; tl : australia\nfraus pilosa nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 150 ; tl : australia\nfraus griseomaculata nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 161 ; tl : australia\nfraus orientalis nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ; monogr . austral . lepid . 1 : 133 ; tl : new south wales\nfraus bilineata ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus serrata ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus ( hepialidae ) ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus minima ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus megacornis ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus basicornis ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus tedi ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus quadrangula ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus marginispina ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus orientalis ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus latistria ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus linogyna ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus distispina ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus mediaspina ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus biloba ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus basidispina ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus nanus ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus furcata ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus pilosa ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus fusca ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus crocea ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus simulans ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus polyspila ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus griseomaculata ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nfraus pelagia ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nadults fly mostly in the autumn and a few species occur in large numbers . larvae of fraus simulans construct vertical silk - lined tunnels in the soil and feed on surface grasses from within silk lined webbing ( grehan , 1989 )\nthe source code for museums victoria collections is available on github under the mit license .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nis monophyletic with respect to ( 1 ) elongate elliptical scales with a short , finely serrated apical margin and ( 2 ) patch of hair - scales at the base of the female hindwing ( nielsen & kristensen , 1989 ) .\nnielsen , , e . s . and kristensen , n . p . 1989 .\ns . e . big desert at 15 . 5 km . w . s . w . of rainbow , victoria , australia , 22 april 2008\nparatype . australia : coolgardie , june 5 , 1965 . image courtesy of thomas j . witt\u00a9\ndet . e . s . nielsen , 1983 . new zealand arthropod collection . image : jane hyland ( cmnh )\n= ; [ aucl ] ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\n= ; [ aucl ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list )\nepiolus nanus herrich - sch\u00e4ffer , [ 1853 ] ; samml . aussereurop . schmett . ( i ) 1 ( 3 ) : pl . 10 , f . 46\nhectomanes crocea lucas , 1891 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . ( 2 ) 6 ( 2 ) : 283 ; tl : australia\n= ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 835 ( list ) ; [ aucl ]\nhectomanes polyspila meyrick , 1890 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . ( 2 ) 4 ( 4 ) : 1127 ; tl : victoria\nhectomanes pelagia turner , 1927 ; pap . proc . r . soc . tasm . 1926 : 164 ; tl : tasmania\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nwalker , 1865 list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 31 : 1 - 322 ( [ 1865 ] ) , 32 : 323 - 706 ( 1865 ) , 33 : 707 - 1120 ( 1865 ) , 34 : 1121 - 1534 ( [ 1866 ] ) , 35 : 1535 - 2040 ( 1866 )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nebooks best sellers human anatomy : v . 3 : regional and applied 8123911572 pdf by b . d . chaurasia"]}
{"id": 1510, "summary": [{"text": "the secretarybird or secretary bird ( sagittarius serpentarius ) is a very large , mostly terrestrial bird of prey .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "endemic to africa , it is usually found in the open grasslands and savannah of the sub-saharan region .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "although a member of the order accipitriformes , which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as kites , hawks , vultures , and harriers , it is given its own family , sagittariidae .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it appears on the coats of arms of sudan and south africa . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "secretarybird", "paragraphs": ["fuertes\u2019 secretarybird by louis agassiz fuertes is licensed under public domain mark 1 . 0 .\nglobal raptor information network . species account : secretarybird sagittarius serpentarius ( july , 2010 ) urltoken\nsecretarybird by ian white is licensed under cc by - nc - sa 2 . 0 .\nmuseum specimens indicate historical distributions . the map below shows locations from which museum specimens of secretarybird were collected . you can see more information on the individual museum specimens of secretarybird here .\nsecretarybird is a proud supporter of msf . if you use our workbench please make a donation .\nsecretarybird with a tasty treat by jean & nathalie is licensed under cc by 2 . 0 .\nsabap comparison map for the secretarybird , extracted 19 april 2013 . colour coding of qdgcs as per\nsecretarybird can reach 4 to 5 feet in height and 5 to 9 \u00bd pounds of weight .\nresearchers used to believe that name\nsecretarybird\noriginates from 19th century when male secretaries wore quills in their wigs ( similar in appearance with crest of secretarybird ) . more likely , name\nsecretarybird\noriginates from arabic word\nsaqu ettair\nwhich means\nhunter - bird\n.\nsouthern african bird atlas project ( sabap ) comparison map for the secretarybird , extracted 19 april 2013 .\nthe secretarybird has always been admired by the african people due to its striking appearance and great ally against pests such as snakes and rodents . the secretarybird is also known as the devil horse by many african cultures .\nthe secretarybird is the national emblem of sudan and is also on the south african coat of arms , representing vigilance and military might . the secretarybird also appears on many postage stamps in over 30 countries in africa .\na third fossil bird from 10 million year - old nebraska rocks has been called the\nfalse secretarybird\nsince its similarity to the modern secretarybird is believed to be due to convergence rather than a close genetic relationship .\nthe secretarybird is a nomadic species and will often travel far and wide in search of food and other resources .\nwant the hassle and frustration of managing your poems , secretarybird is for you . and best of all it is\nthe secretarybird was supposedly named because it resembles an old - fashioned secretary carrying quill - pens tucked behind her ears .\nhabitat : secretarybird lives in open grass plains and steppes , also in savannahs with scarce bushes and open spaces between trees .\nmonster hunter on twitter :\n# nationalbirdday fun fact : seregios was inspired by the secretarybird and its stomping attack . urltoken urltoken\na large bird of prey , the secretarybird feeds mainly on large insects and small mammals , which it often stamps on before swallowing whole .\nthe secretarybird is endemic to sub - saharan africa . it ranges from senegal and somalia all the way to the tip of south africa .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - secretarybird ( sagittarius serpentarius )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - secretarybird ( sagittarius serpentarius )\ntitle =\narkive species - secretarybird ( sagittarius serpentarius )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nbaker n , brouwer j , baker l , sinclair a , harebottle d , et al . . ( 2010 ) the status of the secretarybird\ndiet : secretarybird feeds mainly on insects ( grasshoppers ) , lizards , small birds and eggs , young hares , rodents , small amphibians and snakes .\nalthough it can fly , the secretarybird prefers to move around on foot and can cover 30 km a day , earning it the title \u2018africa\u2019s marching eagle\u2019 .\nthe secretarybird is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nthe secretary bird or secretarybird is a bird of prey found widely across africa , belonging to the same order as hawks , vultures , kites and harriers .\nunlike many other birds of prey , the secretarybird often catches it prey with its bill . but like many owl species , secretarybirds swallow most of their prey whole .\nprotection / threats / status : secretarybird is officially protected because it kills poisonous snakes , but decline of this species continues , and they don\u2019t breed successfully in captivity .\nthe secretarybird is the odd man out amongst the raptors . it ' s a grey and black terrestrial eagle , 1 . 3m tall , with a distinctive red face .\nkemp , a . c . 1995 . aspects of the breeding and behaviour of the secretarybird sagittarius serpentarius near pretoria , south africa . ostrich , 66 : 61 - 68 .\nsecretarybird has wingspan of 7 feet . these birds rarely fly even though they are proficient in the air . they fly with the help of warm air currents to preserve energy .\nthe secretarybird is a charismatic and familiar species , and uses a variety of habitats across its range in sub - saharan africa . it occurs in all nine provinces in south africa .\nthe secretarybird is easy to identify ; it has long legs , grey - black plumage , crest feathers and orange facial skin . in flight its long elongated central tail feathers are characteristic .\nthe common name secretarybird is said to derive from the bird\u2019s crest of long feathers which look like the long quill pens that the olden day secretaries had tucked behind their ears or in their wigs .\ncitation : hofmeyr sd , symes ct , underhill lg ( 2014 ) secretarybird sagittarius serpentarius population trends and ecology : insights from south african citizen science data . plos one 9 ( 5 ) : e96772 . urltoken\nit is regularly told in south africa that the common name of the secretarybird is due to the dark quill like feathers , resembling a quill pen behind the ear ( apparently common practice for an 18th century secretary ) .\nthe secretarybird has a widespread distribution throughout much of sub - saharan africa , from senegal and the gambia in the west across to ethiopia in the east , and extending southwards through the eastern african countries into south africa . a fairly nomadic species , the secretarybird will often travel widely in search of food , or in response to rainfall , fires and other changes in environmental conditions ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 7 ) .\nsecretarybird is large bird of prey that lives in the sub - saharan africa . secretarybird usually inhabits savannas and open grasslands which enable fast identification of the potential prey . other than that , secretarybirds can be found in semi - deserts , forests and farmlands . secretarybirds are threatened by habitat loss due to increased agriculture and urban development . luckily , number of secretarybirds in the wild is large and they are not on the list of endangered species .\ndean wrj , simmons re ( 2005 ) secretarybird . in : hockey par , dean wrj , ryan pg , editors . roberts birds of southern africa . trustees of the john voelcker bird book fund : cape town . pp . 542\u2013543 .\nbehaviour : secretarybird is largely terrestrial , but it is a very good flier . they hunt for preys in grass , walking or running very fast . secretarybird feeds on snakes , and has a method to catch them . it stamps the snake with its long legs and its short but hard rear talon . it is quite equipped to tackle them . it may kill them by grabbing the victim , and beating it to death on the ground . prey may also be tossed into the air several times to stunt it . secretarybird is not immune to the snake poison , and it has to be sure that its prey is dead before to eat . secretarybirds often hunt in small groups or in pair , and keep contact by hooting .\nthe secretarybird breeds year - round , but with a distinct peak during the spring and summer months further south . two to three broods are often reared in productive years after good rainfall ( 7 ) . the secretarybird makes a nest out of sticks , creating a large platform on a flat - topped acacia tree or other thorny bush , and lining it with dry grass and other materials . it may also nest in non - thorny or exotic tree species if preferred nesting sites are not available .\na more recent theory on the naming of the secretarybird , is that it is a corruption of the arabic saqu ettair meaning\nhunter - bird\n, which passed , incorrectly , into french as secr\u00e9taire & was subsequently translated into english as secretary .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto secretarybird is a silent bird . but when it is displaying , it utters a hoarse croaking sound , very deep and rapid . it may also make a kind of mewing noise during the night , on the roost - site .\nkemp ac ( 1994 ) family sagittariidae ( secretarybird ) . in : del hoyo j , elliott a , sargatal j , editors . handbook of the birds of the world . vol 2 . new world vultures to guineafowl . lynx edicions : barcelona . pp . 206\u2013215 .\nbelow are links to dedicated pages for each secretarybird which has been fitted with a tracking device . basic information about each bird as well as a map indicating the movement of the bird can be found on each page . the pages will be updated on a regular basis .\nalthough usually found in grassland and open savanna scattered with small thorny trees , the secretarybird also inhabits farmland , particularly where cereals are grown , as well as semi - desert habitats and grassy , open clearings in forests and woodlands ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .\nwe develop a method for inferring changes in abundance from atlas reporting rates , with a measure of statistical significance attached . while the count data provided by the car project are not useful for a species such as the secretarybird , because of its low general abundance and nomadic / wide - ranging behaviour [ 3 ] , the habitat use data provide information about the species ' ecology . together , these analyses provide important insights into the conservation status of the secretarybird in south africa in 2013 , which would not have been possible without the existence of these citizen science data .\nalthough its population is distributed over a vast area covering more than 15 million square kilometres , the secretarybird is generally in decline , and is thought to have completely disappeared from west africa in the last 30 years ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 8 ) . this species is increasingly threatened by the expansion of human populations , and the associated spread of cultivation and urbanisation ( 2 ) ( 8 ) . on a smaller scale , some populations of the secretarybird are at risk from hunting and persecution , with several individuals found poisoned or injured in south africa in recent years ( 5 ) .\nthe secretarybird is easily distinguished from other raptors and cranes by its grey plumage , the orange facial skin with raptor - like beak and the characteristic stealthy stride it takes as it moves through the grass in search of prey . the shape of the body is very similar to that of an eagle but walks on the legs of a stork or crane . the sexes are alike with the males having a slightly longer crest and tail than the female . a full grown secretarybird can reach a mass of 4kg ( max 4 . 5 ) and a reach an astonishing 1 . 4 meters tall with a wingspan of 191 - 220cm . in flight one would think that this bird could be confused with the similar coloured grey crowned crane , but it can easily be distinguished due to its barred tail feathers . with a tail of around 75cm long the secretarybird is the record holder for the longest tail in africa .\nbill is short , strong , hocked and pale grey . secretarybird has a patch of bare facial skin , which extends behind and above eyes , orange - red in colour . eyes are dark - brown , with very long black eyelashes . both sexes are similar , with male slightly larger than female .\nflight : secretarybird is a very good flier . it uses thermal currents to ascend and it soars for long distances . when it is threatened , the bird runs with spread wings , but it will take off and fly strongly if necessary . it may rise on thermals up to nearly 4000 metres elevation .\nthe secretarybird is a very distinctive bird , which is the sole member of the genus sagittarius . it is only found in africa , in the grass plains & steppes south of the sahara . it is the only bird of prey predominantly terrestial habits , they may walk up to 20 miles in a day .\nas a grassland specialist , it avoids dense bush and rocky habitats . the secretarybird walks purposefully across the veld at up to 3km / h looking for prey . its long legs are exceptionally strong and it uses them to stamp on small animals or hold them down while it tears at them with its beak .\ninsects form the bulk of its diet but it will take rodents and other small mammals , snakes and birds such as the laughing dove and sabota lark . shangaan traditional healers value the secretarybird for muthi . a concoction using its ground bones is reputed to bring respect and power , and the ability to overcome ones fears .\nboshoff af , allan dg ( 1997 ) secretarybird sagittarius serpentarius in : harrison ja , allan dg , underhill lg , herremans m , tree aj , et al . . . , editors . the atlas of southern african birds . vol . 1 : non - passerines . birdlife south africa : johannesburg . pp . 152\u2013153 .\nsecretarybird lets you focus on writing your poems , taking on the burden of managing your work ; allowing you to keep track of your poems and how they have been : revised , critiqued , read , entered for competitions and submitted for publication . with a few clicks you can sort , filter , classify and catalogue poems , review versions , track critiques and build collections . on startup you can have secretarybird pick up where you left off with your latest draft , making use of a standard or customised template , sequencing each version automatically . and you can have early warning of upcoming competitions . the application is benign , working alongside your existing dtp and text writing software .\nas you may imagine , a bird with such long legs is built to do a lot of walking . and the secretarybird does not disappoint . scientists estimate that secretarybirds walk anywhere from 12 to 18 miles ( 20 - 30 km ) a day ! that would be like walking the length of an american football field 300 times or more .\nbaker n , brouwer j , baker l , sinclair a , harebottle d , et al . . ( 2010 ) the status of the secretarybird sagittarius serpentarius with special reference to tanzania and declines across the continent . a preliminary report to the uk cites scientific authority ( fauna ) , joint nature conservation committee . iringa : tanzania bird atlas project .\ndistribution of secretarybird in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( \u00a9 animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 .\nsabap comparison map for the secretarybird , extracted 19 april 2013 . colour coding of qdgcs as per figure 1 . additional data presented here are the reporting rates and z values used to colour - code qdgcs . the upper number in each square is the sabap1 reporting rate , the middle number is the sabap2 reporting rate , and the lower number is z .\nit is quite surprising that we know very little about the biology of this species . we know , for example , very little about the secretarybird ' s population size and trends in south africa and other factors such as territory size . juvenile dispersal and general movements are also poorly understood . this information is needed if we are to conserve this threatened species .\nreproduction : secretarybird usually mates for life , and they remain very close , even they hunt in different areas . both adults build a platform of sticks and grasses on the top of a low tree or a bush . their nest may reach 8 feet in diameter . they return each year to the same nest , adding some materials , more sticks and grasses .\nroberts vii estimates there are approximately 250 secretarybirds in kruger , with each bird covering a daily foraging territory of about 20 square kilometres . they are known to fly far and wide , presumably for better feeding - a secretarybird ringed in the sabi sabi private reserve next to kruger was found four months later in namibia , over 1 500km away . see veld stalker .\na large and distinctive bird of prey , the secretarybird ( sagittarius serpentarius ) is said to take its unusual name from the strange and distinguishing arrangement of feathers on the back of its neck . this long , raised crest of black , spatula - shaped feathers ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) is said to give the secretarybird the appearance of an old - fashioned secretary who would carry quill - pens tucked behind the ears . more recently , the case has been put forward that the name may actually be derived from the arabic saqr - et - tair . saqr means \u2018hunter\u2019 or \u2018hawk\u2019 and tair means \u2018flight\u2019 or \u2018bird\u2019 , and the translation to french may have resulted in the common name that is used today ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .\nthe secretarybird occurs within some protected areas ( 8 ) , and in some places it has benefited from bush clearance and deforestation of woodlands to make way for agriculture ( 5 ) ( 8 ) . the secretarybird is protected under the african convention on the conservation of nature and natural resources , in the hope that the species will be protected by participating states from hunting , killing , capture or collection ( 9 ) . it is also listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , meaning that international trade in the species should be carefully monitored ( 3 ) . these actions will hopefully act to safeguard populations of this unusual and charismatic bird of prey , although much will depend on the rate at which vital habitat across its range is lost to human development .\nthe secretarybird ( sagittarius serpentarius ) was uplisted from near - threatened to vulnerable . in south africa there is considerable concern about the conservation status of the species . a preliminary analysis of sabap1 and sabap2 data shows a considerable reduction in the areas this species previously occupied . this is probably mostly due to habitat loss and habitat degredation , but other threats such as power lines collisions are aslso taking their toll .\nthe secretarybird also has long , bare legs , which resemble those of a crane but are much more powerful , and end in small , stubby pink toes . juvenile secretarybirds are very similar to the adult , but are grey - eyed , with more brown in the plumage , a shorter tail and a yellow face , until the first moult ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\nsometimes described as africa\u2019s \u2018marching eagle\u2019 , the secretarybird prefers to move around on foot , easily covering between 20 and 30 kilometres a day when hunting for food ( 2 ) . it spends much of its time stalking across the open ground , periodically stopping and stamping the floor to strike prey , which it will usually crush underfoot or repeatedly kick , before swallowing whole ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . the secretarybird\u2019s diet primarily consists of large insects and small mammals , mainly rodents . however , it will feed opportunistically on any animal it comes across on its wandering travels , including hares , mongooses , squirrels , snakes , lizards , amphibians , freshwater crabs , and birds up to the size of guineafowl , as well as their eggs . secretarybirds have also been known to take domestic chickens when foraging in areas close to human habitation ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .\nthe methods developed here represent an important new approach to the analysis of bird atlas data and habitat use data . these methods are applicable to other species covered by sabap and car , and could easily be adapted for use with similar datasets collected in other parts of the world and for other species . they are , however , exploratory and innovative , and necessarily come with caveats regarding their interpretation . that said , our sabap - related findings have received confirmation through an analysis of reporting rate changes for bird families throughout south africa [ 32 ] . this study modelled bird families in relation to the proportion of qdgcs in their range in which reporting rates had increased between sabap1 and sabap2 . sagittariidae ( a single - species family that includes only the secretarybird ) was fourth lowest in a list of 51 families . this implies that the secretarybird is faring particularly badly in comparison with the majority of other south african bird species .\nunique not only for its name , the secretarybird stands out because of its distinct profile , quite unlike that of any other bird . the feathers on the body are generally grey across the back and paler towards the rump and breast , while the belly , thighs and flight feathers are all black . the underwings are white . the eyes are brown and are surrounded by bare facial skin that is a deep orange - red , and the bill is blue - grey .\nbirdlife south africa has initiated research on the secretarybird in order to understand aspects of its biology which will assist with its conservation . this research includes tracking the movements of secretarybirds using satellite tracking devices . with these devices the movement of individual birds can be determined in great detail . these devices provide accurate locations to within 10m every 15 minutes from sunrise to sunset . not only will it be possible to determine long distance movement patterns , but also habitat use and territory size .\nfollowing a courtship that is performed in flight and includes pendulum displays and calling ( 5 ) , the female secretarybird will lay a clutch of one to three eggs , which are incubated for around 42 to 46 days . the nestling period typically lasts between 65 to 106 days , with a post fledging - dependence period of 62 to 105 days . after this time the juvenile secretarybirds will leave the parental territory and range over long distances , displaying characteristic nomadic behaviour as immature birds ( 7 ) .\nenvision a large majestic bird of prey , sporting a hooked bill like an eagle and an impressive crest and tail of long , black feathers \u2013 but one that also walks along the ground on legs like a stork\u2019s and could easily be mistaken for a crane while in flight . put those pieces together , and you\u2019ve got yourself a secretarybird ! found only in the open grasslands and savannas of sub - saharan africa , the secretarybird looks quite unlike any other bird . it hunts on foot for small mammals , lizards , snakes , tortoises , insects , and young birds , and is most notorious for its ability to kill extremely venomous snakes by stomping them to death ! its name is probably derived from the arabic \u201csaqr - et - tair , \u201d meaning hunter bird . we often see these birds strolling through the grass , and we\u2019ve even spotted a few of their nests on top of the acacia trees . anything that eats venomous snakes is awesome in our opinion , and these birds are definitely awesome !\nkemp , a . c . , kirwan , g . m . , christie , d . a . & marks , j . s . ( 2018 ) . secretarybird ( sagittarius serpentarius ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nbird atlas data for south africa suggest that the secretarybird population declined across most of the country , and particularly severely in the kruger national park , between the early 1990s and the late 2000s\u2013early 2010s . although these findings are of concern , this time period is relatively short , and in some less accessible areas coverage for sabap2 had not yet reached desirable levels . a longer data series and broader coverage are required before we would be able to state with confidence that the species population had declined significantly in south africa .\nkemp , a . c . , kirwan , g . m . , christie , d . a . & marks , j . s . ( 2016 ) . secretarybird ( sagittarius serpentarius ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 23 august 2016 ) .\nunlike the snail kite , which has a very specialized diet , t he secretarybird will eat just about anything it can catch . it preys on small - to medium - sized mammals such as mice , hedgehogs and hares . it eats other birds and their eggs , too ! it will catch amphibians and various invertebrates , including insects , scorpions , millipedes , and crabs . secretarynirds also eat snakes , including several poisonous species , such as puff adders and cobras , and other reptiles , such as lizards and small tortoises .\nthe tallest raptor in the world , the secretarybird is unmistakeable . it has long , stork - like legs that are feathered from the thigh to the tarsus . it has a robust body covered in gray , white and black feathers , a feathered black crest and a red - orange and yellow patch of skin around its eye and in front of its strong curved beak . though it looks more like a stork than a raptor when it flies , it is distinguishable from any other bird by the two long tail feathers that extend beyond its feet in flight .\nthe secretarybird is monogamous , living in closely knitted pairs that never stray too far from one another . the mating display includes a ground display where male and female chase each other with wings held up and back ( much like the way they chase prey ) or an aerial display of soaring high with an undulating flight pattern coupled with guttural croaking . mating happens on the ground or on an acacia tree . large flat nests made of sticks are built on top of flat acacia trees ( height : 5 - 7m ) and nests will be visited for almost half a year before the eggs are laid .\nlike many other wildlife , secretarybird populations are declining throughout much of their range and the species has disappeared entirely in some places . though these birds can spend time in and hunt in some human - created open spaces , habitat loss is still a huge problem for this species . areas that are over - grazed leave little cover for prey animals , so they can be quite empty of wildlife . other areas are being cleared for human settlements and agricultural fields \u2013 all places where a secretarbird won ' t find what it needs to survive . these changes in habitat are taking their toll on this lovely bird .\nthe secretarybird is a long - legged raptor , endemic to africa . it kills its prey ( snakes , lizards ) by stomping . the upper two images of nest - - building in the serengeti are courtesy of michael markussen ( left , 2 - 07 ) and fain zimmerman ( right , 2 - 08 ) . the 2nd , 3rd and right 4th row photos were taken in the serengeti ( 2 - 04 ) . the others were taken in ngorongoro crater ( 9 - 08 ) . click the photo above to see more including a displaying pair , nest - building , incubating , preening and hunting .\ndescription : secretarybird is a very large bird of prey . its plumage is mostly grey , with black primaries , thighs , and a beautiful black crest of about twenty long feathers . tail is grey , barred by two broad black stripes , conspicuous when the bird is flying . tail presents two central feathers , longer than the others . the top of its very long legs is feathered with black . the lower leg is bare and pinkish - grey , covered with scales to protect them while it is walking or when it attacks some snake . toes are short , but very strong , with a powerful talon at the rear .\nstanding up to 4ft tall , it has very long legs , with black feathered thighs . it has a grey body , black feathers & white wing linings , its tail has two black central streamers . its most distinctive feature are the 20 black crest feathers , resembling quill pens stuck behind its ( invisible ) ears . this combination of features made it resemble a 19 th century clerk or secretary , in those days they were male & often wore tailcoats & knickerbocker trousers & placed their quill pens behind their ears . the head of the secretarybird ( with its yellowish bare patch ) and shape of the beak are very similar to those of the caracara . ( they also have a very long eyelashes , which many modern secretaries would appreciate ) .\nduring breeding season , secretarybirds perform flight displays . several males perform acrobatic flights , climbing high into the sky , and suddenly dropping down . they soar in wide circles high above the ground , with conspicuous long legs and tail projected behind , and uttering strange groaning . they also execute undulating swoops , downward dives , and both clasp each other talons , like eagles . secretarybird prefers to walk into its range , searching for food . it strides majestically across areas . it can fly very well , but rarely does so , because it hunts on the ground . it is able to walk up to 20 miles in a day . after young fledging , pair continues to roost in the nest at night , and they defend from this nest their territory , about 50 km2 around the nest site .\nlong - term public participation ( \u201ccitizen science\u201d ) projects make it possible for observations made by many different people to be pooled and analysed as a whole [ 6 ] \u2013 [ 10 ] . they provide the best opportunity for assessing population trends in species such as the secretarybird . the first and second southern african bird atlas projects ( sabap1 , 1987\u20131992 , and sabap2 , 2007\u2013present ) offer two snapshots of avian distribution in south africa approximately 15 years apart [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] . the coordinated avifaunal roadcounts ( car ) project ( described below ) , was established in the western cape in 1993 , by 1998 had expanded to cover much of south africa [ 13 ] , and in 2014 was ongoing . we examine the information provided by these datasets for useful insight into the status and ecology of secretarybirds .\nsecretarybirds feed on snakes , lizards , grasshoppers , mice , birds eggs & the occasional small mammal . it was once thought that snakes were the primary diet ( the latin name translates as\narcher of snakes\n) , but recent studies indicate that snakes make up only around 2 % of the diet . when feeding on snakes , they ensure are dead prior to eating , as they are not immune to the snakes poison . the secretarybird kills its prey by stamping on it , accurately aiming the rear talon at the skull . occasionally , aided by their height , they will pick the prey up & kill it by dropping it . it is often attracted to bush & grass fires , where it will feed on small animals that failed to avoid the fire . unlike other raptors , they have short stout toes that are unable to grasp .\n) . the main exceptions were eastern karoo ( winter ) , north - eastern eastern cape ( winter ) and steenkampsberg ( both seasons ) . the eastern karoo result may seem surprising , because the sign tests indicate that a preference for natural habitats was expressed on a highly significant majority of routes . however , the proportion of available habitats that were transformed was extremely low ( less than 2 % ; unpublished data ) , so a similarly low proportion of birds needed to be seen on transformed land for the jacobs index to indicate that they were expressing a preference for that habitat . the karoo biomes are semi - desert , and in general the land is too dry for cultivation or pastures . where crops or pastures are grown , the land is usually irrigated , which may cause the biomass of potential secretarybird prey species ( rodents , reptiles , small birds , insects ) to increase . if this is the case , it would make sense for secretarybirds to prefer transformed habitats where they are available in the karoo . in fact secretarybirds are thinly distributed in the karoo , preferring grassland and savanna habitats\nhabitat selection in relation to habitat availability was analysed by comparing the proportions of natural and transformed land available to the proportions of birds seen in each type of land in each precinct . the proportions of natural and transformed land available were calculated using all three nlc maps . all classes of land other than natural vegetation classes and waterbodies were combined to form a single \u201ctransformed\u201d land class , and the remaining categories were combined to form a \u201cnatural\u201d class ( man - made and natural waterbodies , including wetlands , are not distinguished in the maps ) . a caveat to this analysis is the distinction between transformed , modified , and natural land [ 3 ] . land classified as \u201ctransformed\u201d is that on which the vegetation structure has been completely altered , e . g . pastures and cultivated fields . the \u201cnatural\u201d habitats mapped in the national land - cover maps are in fact mostly modified habitats , i . e . habitats in which the overall structure and main components of the natural vegetation remain , but in which important changes have been made , e . g . the naturally occurring community of herbivores has been replaced by livestock . in 1989 it was estimated that only 7 % of south africa ' s land surface remained fully natural and undisturbed [ 27 ] . thus in these analyses when we refer to natural habitats , we are in fact mostly referring to modified habitats . however , the extent to which they had been modified and to which they differed functionally from natural habitats , from the perspective of a secretarybird , would be variable .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\na very large and distinctive terrestrial raptor , which stands c . 1 . 2 m tall ( ferguson - lees and christie 2001 ) . it is grey , whitish and black in all plumages , with small bill and head , bare face , relatively long neck , exceptionally long , bare legs , and long graduated tail with greatly elongated central rectrices . it has a distinctive crest of black - tipped spatulate feathers ( ferguson - lees and christie 2001 ) .\nthis species is classified as vulnerable because recent evidence from across its range suggests that its population is experiencing a rapid decline , probably owing to habitat degradation , disturbance , hunting and capture for trade .\n. it is variably described as common to rare ( only 10 pairs or less in waza - logone west , cameroon [ j . brouwer\nalthough the species occurs across a vast range , surveyed densities suggest that the total population size does not exceed a five - figure number .\n2014 ) . on the basis of this evidence the species is suspected to be undergoing a rapid decline overall .\n2014 ) . it ranges from sea - level to 3 , 000 m . juveniles can move a long way after leaving their nest site , but will return to their natal area ( retief and smit - robinson 2014 ) . a variety of prey is consumed , primarily insects and rodents , but also other mammals , lizards , snakes , eggs , young birds and amphibians . breeding occurs throughout the year and the species typically nests in a flat - topped\n. disturbance by humans , probably most often herders , is likely to negatively affect breeding . the species is captured and traded in apparently small numbers ; however , it is unknown how many die in captivity and transit . direct hunting and nest - raiding for other uses and indiscriminate poisoning at waterholes are also potential threats . these human - induced threats may compound the effects of severe droughts in some areas ( baker\ncites appendix ii . it occurs in a number of national parks and other protected areas across its large range .\ninitiate a coordinated continent - wide monitoring programme to obtain an up - to - date population estimate and track the species ' s trends . in areas where the species is declining , raise awareness of threats amongst local people , particularly livestock herders . monitor and tackle the capture and trade of the species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nis found throughout africa south of the sahara , except the extreme deserts of the namib coast and the forested region around the equator in western africa . secretary birds do not occur in the southern areas of guinea , cote d ' ivoire , ghana and nigeria , and are entirely absent from the sub - saharan countries of sierra leone and liberia .\nsecretary birds prefer open savannahs and grasslands , although they also live in semi - deserts and lightly wooded or scrub areas . in grasslands , secretary birds choose areas where the grass is one meter or less in height so their view is not obstructed . they are common near agricultural areas that offer hunting opportunities . secretary birds are never found in true deserts with extreme aridity , or heavily wooded areas . these birds are found from sea - level to around 3 , 000 m .\n( ferguson - lees and christie , 2001 ; hosking , et al . , 1988 ; steyn , 1983 )\nsecretary birds stand around 0 . 9 to 1 . 2 meters tall and weigh between 2 . 3 to 4 . 27 kg . females tend to be slightly smaller than males . wingspans of females range from 1 . 2 to 1 . 32 m , while those of males range between 1 . 26 to 1 . 35 m .\nthese large raptors have very distinctive morphology . the plumage is generally gray in color , perhaps with some white feathers . they have black flight feathers on the wings and a crest of black - tipped feathers on the back of the head . the bare face is orange to red in color . they have a relatively small head , a gray - white beak , a long neck , and an eagle - like body . unlike an eagle , however , the bare , pinkish legs are very long and end in stubby toes with blunt claws . the tibial portions of the legs are covered in black plumage that give the bird the appearance that it is wearing shorts . the long tail has especially long central rectrices that are often tipped with black .\n( ferguson - lees and christie , 2001 ; hosking , et al . , 1988 ; mackworth - praed and grant , 1980 ; steyn , 1983 )\nare similar in appearance to adults with a few exceptions . first , the bare skin on the face is yellow rather than orange or red . second , juveniles show black coloration on the tips of the wing shoulder feathers , as well as brown to black barring on the underwing coverts . lastly , juveniles also tend to have shorter central tail feathers and crests than adults .\nwith any other bird of prey , mainly due to their very long legs . from a distance secretary birds are mistaken for\nsecretary birds are monogamous and are thought to pair for life . in courtship , they give a croaking call while displaying in the air and on the ground . aerial displays consist of high soaring and diving performed by a single individual ( usually the male ) , or by the pair when the male will dive toward the female and she will half - turn to present her claws . this courtship behavior is very similar to that of other birds of prey . on the ground , their displays are very crane - like with the two birds dancing around with their wings outstretched . sometimes small groups of secretary birds will all join in this ground display behavior . after courtship displays , mating will usually take place on the ground , although some pairs mate in trees .\nmay breed throughout the year , although there are peaks in breeding from august to march . both the male and female will construct a large nest on a flat - topped tree ( usually an acacia tree or some other thorny tree ) . the nest is usually a saucer - shaped platform made of sticks and lined with a thick layer of grass , wool , dung , and other such materials . a pair of secretary birds will usually reuse the same nest for many years , adding to the structure each year to create a nest that can range from 1 . 5 to 2 . 5 meters in diameter . a frequently reused nest will be abandoned if the structure becomes too large and heavy to be supported by the tree and seems likely to collapse .\nthe female lays a clutch of 1 to 3 eggs , with each egg laid two to three days apart . the eggs are chalky - white with reddish - brown streaks and are pyriform in shape . eggs are variable in size and can range from 68 to 92 mm in length and 52 to 61 mm in width . incubation of the eggs begins as soon as the first egg is laid . incubation duties are shared by both the male and female , although more frequently by the female . the male brings food to the nest for the female during this time . in 42 to 46 days , the semi - altricial young hatch . young generally hatch 2 to 3 days apart , but no siblicide has been observed . however , in a clutch of three eggs , the smallest chick usually dies of starvation because it cannot compete with its larger nest mates .\nhatchlings are covered in off - white down and have large heads that seem too heavy for their bodies . at two weeks of age , they attain a thick coat of gray down , and in three weeks the crest begins to appear . development is slow in secretary birds and it takes six weeks before the hatchlings can stand on their own . at this stage , they learn to feed themselves from prey brought to the nest . by seven weeks , nestlings are fully feathered . around 60 days , the young begin flexing their wings , often flapping and lifting small distances into the air before dropping back to the nest . in 64 to 106 days , the offspring will fledge . the offspring remain around the nest tree for an additional 62 to 105 days , during which time they are dependent upon the parents for food and training in foraging techniques .\nbreeding interval secretary birds can raise two broods within ten months under desirable conditions .\nboth male and female secretary birds invest heavily in the young . both sexes share incubation duties . after the eggs hatch , parental care is constant . both the male and female feed the young via regurgitation , although the female mostly regurgitates food that the male has brought back to the nest for her . after about a month , parental care drops significantly , with the parents only returning to the nest to feed the chicks . after six weeks , the parents stop feeding via regurgitation and bring larger prey items that they give the chicks to eat directly . when the chicks fledge and leave the nest , the parents will teach the chicks how to hunt for prey . once the offspring know how to provide for themselves and are independent , they generally head off on their own , leaving the parents\u2019 territory . however , in some circumstances the parents will still tolerate having the juveniles in their territory and even allow the now - independent offspring to join in their hunts and share the nest tree as a roost . it is important to note that juveniles are not dependent on the parents during this time . they are just temporarily sharing a territory . two months is the average amount of time that independent juveniles are allowed to remain in the parents\u2019 territory before being chased away so that the parents can breed again .\nis sometimes solitary , but is more often found in pairs or family groups consisting of up to five individuals . larger aggregations of secretary birds may form near an abundant food source or a watering hole , but these groups do not remain together long . secretary birds become active about two hours after the sun has risen , when the grass is no longer wet with morning dew . these birds spend the day walking around and feeding until late afternoon , at which point they return to their roosts . secretary birds prefer to walk rather than fly , and average about 20 to 30 km a day on foot . when hurried or confronted with a threat they run before taking flight . when they do fly , they fly well and often at great heights .\na pair of secretary birds defends an area that can range from 20 to 500 square kilometers depending on the density of secretary birds and food resources in the area . any conspecifics caught intruding in a pair ' s territory will be chased out forcefully .\nis generally sedentary and will remain in its own territory , but they are sometimes nomadic . in most cases , these nomadic tendencies are caused by a search for food .\nsecretary birds are generally silent . when they do call , they typically give a deep , trisyllabic croaking wail that can be heard for quite some distance . this call , along with a drawn - out growling sound , is used in conjunction with aerial and ground displays during the courtship process . a softer version of the main call is used when feeding young . an occasional whistle is given from time to time . the young have their own calls to solicit food from their parents , which start off as a quiet squealing , then becoming a loud ' chok - a - chok - a - chok - a - chok ' .\nis an opportunistic predator with a broad prey base . the majority of the diet is made up of arthropods ( including grasshoppers , beetles , spiders , scorpions , wasps , etc . ) and small mammals ( including mice , rats , hedgehogs , hares , mongooses , etc . ) . other recorded prey of secretary birds includes small and young birds , eggs , amphibians , freshwater crabs , lizards , small tortoises , chameleons and snakes . although this species is famed for killing and eating snakes , these reptiles are not eaten as often as is generally believed . however , the snakes taken as prey are often adders , cobras , and other venomous species .\nsecretary birds hunt exclusively on the ground , either alone or in pairs ( usually with their mate ) . the birds will set out across a grassy area at a steady pace searching for movement . if a particularly thick tuft of grass is encountered , the bird will stamp on it to flush out any potential prey . once prey is spotted , the bird quickens its pace to take the prey by surprise . if a chase commences , the bird will flap its wings and run after the prey until catching up to it . with small prey , the bird will merely bend down and capture it in its bill . larger prey , especially snakes , are stamped to death with the bird ' s blunt feet . a secretary bird will strike a snake just behind its head to snap its neck or stun it . secretary birds are said to pick up a stunned snake , fly high into the air and drop the snake to its death , but this behavior has not been well documented . once the prey is stunned or killed , the bird will swallow it whole through its large gape . if the prey proves too large , then the bird will tear it apart much like an eagle , using its feet to hold the prey down ."]}
{"id": 1532, "summary": [{"text": "the hartmann 's mountain zebra ( equus zebra hartmannae ) is a subspecies of the mountain zebra found in far south-western angola and western namibia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "hartmann 's mountain zebras prefer to live in small groups of 7-12 individuals .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "they are agile climbers and are able to live in arid conditions and steep mountainous country .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it has been argued that hartmann 's mountain zebras should be considered a separate species from the cape mountain zebra , but this is not supported by genetic evidence ( see mountain zebra #taxonomy ) .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "consequently , it is no longer considered a subspecies in mammal species of the world . 2005 . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "hartmann ' s mountain zebra", "paragraphs": ["no critical habitat rules have been published for the hartmann ' s mountain zebra .\nthe cape mountain zebra ( equus zebra zebra ) is the smallest living zebra , and differs from hartmann\u2019s mountain zebra ( equus zebra hartmannae ) by its smaller size ( 5 ) ( 8 ) , slightly thicker black stripes ( 6 ) , and minor striping variations on the rump ( 5 ) ( 8 ) .\nhartmann\u2019s mountain zebras range from south west africa into extreme southwest angola . they are found in six distinct populations .\nthe hartmann\u2019s zebra is a good climber on steep , rugged terrain and has evolved very hard and pointed hooves .\ncape mountain zebras are endemic to south africa ( 2 ) , while hartmann\u2019s mountain zebras have a fragmented distribution across namibia , angola and south africa ( 9 ) .\nthe hartmann ' s mountain zebra is a fairly large - sized donkey - like member of the horse family , with a narrow body and narrow , fast - growing hooves . the mountain zebras are the only zebras with a dewlap - a pendulous fold of skin under the throat , which is commonly associated with bovines . there is a grid pattern on the rump which includes a series of short transverse stripes running perpendicular to the dorsal stripe , not found on any other equine . the legs are striped to the hooves , and the belly is white . the stripes are black . the widest stripes are seen on upper hind legs . there are two subspecies of the mountain zebra ( equus zebra ) : the hartmann ' s mountain zebra and the cape mountain zebra ( equus zebra zebra ) . the cape mountain zebra is the smallest of the wild equines ; the hartmann ' s zebra is considerably larger , with a maximum weight of about 340 kgs and a shoulder height of 150 cm . it tends to have narrower , more closely spaced stripes than the cape mountain zebra .\nthe hartman ' s mountain zebra as a species is classified as endangered , with both e . z . hartmannae and e . z . zebra falling under this same classification .\nthere is a strong line of thought by some conservationists that the cape mountain zebra and the hartman ' s mountain zebra should be separate species due to the habitat differentiation but genetics proves that the two are very closely linked .\nhartmann\u2019s zebra do not have a breeding season as they can breed throughout the year . they can mate from the age of 2 - 6 years old .\n20 or more years . the oldest documented mountain zebra in captivity was 29 years old .\nhartmann\u2019s zebra are found in namibia , angola & south africa . they prefer habitats that have mountainous slopes and plateaus with sources of water and suitable grazing areas .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - mountain zebra ( equus zebra )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - mountain zebra ( equus zebra )\ntitle =\narkive species - mountain zebra ( equus zebra )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . subspecies : the cape mountain zebra ( equus zebra zebra ) is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix i of cites ( 3 ) ; hartmann\u2019s mountain zebra ( equus zebra hartmannae ) is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nzebras are herbivores , feeding from different grasses , leaves , twigs and even bark . during times of dry weather , hartmann\u2019s zebra can go without water for around 2 days .\ntwo allopatric subspecies of mountain zebra have traditionally been recognized , the nominate race e . z . zebra ( cape mountain zebra ) and e . z . hartmannae ( hartmann ' s mountain zebra ) . groves and ryder ( 2000 ) proposed that the two be treated as distinct species , and groves and bell ( 2004 ) presented morphological evidence for separating the two subspecies as distinct species based on the diagnosability criterion of the phylogenetic species concept . recent genetic analyses indicate that the two populations have a high incidence of mitochondrial haplotype sharing ; the hypothesis that cape and hartmann ' s mountain zebra mitochondrial lineages were reciprocally monophyletic was not supported . however , the presence of private alleles at nuclear loci rendered the two subspecies genetically distinct evolutionary significant units ( moodley and hartley 2005 ) . we continue to recognize mountain zebra as a single species comprising two subspecies following penzhorn ( in press ) .\nas intoned by the vernacular name , the hartman ' s mountain zebra is adapted to rugged , broken mountain escarpments , where herds rely on areas with permanent water sources and sufficient variety and quantities of grass fodder to sustain breeding populations .\nboth subspecies of mountain zebra are predominately diurnal , and are most active in the early morning and late afternoon to sunset ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the herbivorous diet primarily consists of grass but also includes leaves and bark , and individuals of all ages also visit mineral licks , particularly during the summer ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . cape mountain zebra must drink every day , whereas hartmann\u2019s mountain zebra can go two or more days without drinking during the wet season ( 2 ) .\nthe non - profit organisation etusis foundation has been established in namibia for the conservation of hartmann\u2019s mountain zebra . the foundation conducts research on the subspecies , and focuses on educating farmers and raising public and government awareness about the plight this subspecies faces ( 9 ) .\ndid you know ? that there are two subspecies of mountain zebras in southern africa ? the cape mountain zebra ( equus zebra zebra ) is the smallest of the extant zebras and the most restricted geographically . it became almost extinct but was saved in situ by the establishment of national parks and wildlife reserves . there are no cape mountain zebras kept in zoos .\nhartmann\u2019s mountain zebras are commonly found at play . types of play include chasing , racing , play - fighting , and challenge games . challenge games usually consist of nose - to - nose contact followed by mutual grooming .\nhartmann\u2019s mountain zebras live in direct conflict with livestock farmers , with available grazing ground becoming particularly scarce in many parts of namibia where very little rainfall has occurred for several years . as a result , more and more hartmann ' s mountain zebras are being culled , both legally and illegally . furthermore , due to the region\u2019s poor economy and scarce resources , poaching for food has increased rapidly over the last few years , since the zebra offers a relatively large amount of meat . the situation in angola has been exacerbated by war , in which many soldiers and civilians have been in dire need of meat ( 9 ) .\n. 2002 ) . in south africa , an estimated 280 animals occur on private properties and in the goegap provincial nature reserve . in the northern cape ; the numbers of hartmann\u2019s mountain zebra in south africa\u2019s eastern cape and western cape comprise nearly one - quarter of the population of the subspecies in south africa , and their removal and replacement with the cape subspecies is a priority ( novellie\njustification : listed as vulnerable as the total population is currently estimated at ca . 9 , 000 mature individuals , and could be subject to a decline exceeding 10 % over the course of the coming 27 years , largely driven by annual harvesting of the hartmann ' s mountain zebra population . at present , there is limited information available on the population trend of hartmann ' s mountain zebras , but there is some evidence to suggest that they may well be declining . with the availability of further information on trends from parks and private lands , the species may need reassessment .\nmountain zebra are mainly crepuscular \u2013 active in the early morning and late afternoon to sunset . grazing and resting occupy most of the daylight hours . mountain zebras usually drink once or twice per day . during cold weather , they shelter in wooded areas or caves , and go to east - facing slopes to warm up in the morning sunshine . hartmann\u2019s mountain zebras live on the edge of the namib desert , and as a result they have to range widely to find surface water .\nthis evocative icon of africa is an immediately recognisable member of the horse family , characterised by its striking pattern of black and white stripes , which continue through into its short , erect mane ( 2 ) . the mountain zebra is discernable from other zebra species by the thin and relatively close - together vertical black lines on its neck and torso , which are narrower and more numerous than those of burchell\u2019s zebra ( equus burchelli ) , and by the wide , horizontal bands on its haunches , which are broader than both those of grevy\u2019s zebra ( equus grevui ) and burchell\u2019s zebra ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . unlike burchell\u2019s zebra , the mountain zebra also lacks \u2018shadow stripes\u2019 , and the stripes do not meet under the belly , which is instead white with a central black stripe ( 2 ) . the most diagnostic features of this species , however , are the \u2018grid iron\u2019 pattern of narrow stripes across the rump and the square flap of skin , or dewlap , which exists on this zebra\u2019s throat ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . aptly named , the mountain zebra is a good climber on steep , rugged terrain and has evolved exceptionally hard and pointed hooves compared to other equines ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 7 ) .\nadult mountain zebras have a head and body length of 82 to 102 inches .\nmountain zebra prefer to live in small groups of 7 - 12 individuals . they are agile climbers , able to live in arid conditions in steep mountainous country .\nfound on mountainous slopes and plateaus . cape mountain zebras occur up to 2 , 000 metres above sea level , but move to lower elevations in the winter . hartmann\u2019s mountain zebras occupy a more arid region on the edge of the namib desert , where surface water is patchy and herds must wander between the mountains and sand flats in order to find patches of grass ( 2 ) .\n. 2002 ) . over 90 % of the current total population of 1 , 389 cape mountain zebras are derived from animals relocated from the mountain zebra national park . the management of the cape mountain zebra metapopulation requires the mixing of at least some animals from the three relict populations ( mznp , gamkaberg , and kamanassie ) , all of which are genetically depauperate , although this has been hampered by the relatively slow growth of the kamanassie population . chadwick and watson ( 2007 ) have proposed facilitating the growth of this population by changing the fire management regime in the habitat preferred by zebra ; acquiring adjacent land ; and the translocation of mountain zebra onto adjacent land .\nhartmann\u2019s mountain zebra occur in four key protected areas in namibia : skeleton coast park , etosha national park , namib - naukluft park , and ai - ais - hunsberg park complex . namib - naukluft park is particularly important with a population of around 2 , 300 animals ( 1998 estimate ) . around 25 % of the national population in namibia occurs on conservancies in communal lands with the remainder on commercial livestock and game farms ( novellie\nthe main predators of zebra include lions , leopards , cheetah , hyena and wild dogs .\nalthough several attempts have been made over many centuries , zebra have never been successfully domesticated .\na mountain zebra has narrow stripes on the neck and torso , which graduate to wider stripes on the rear . the legs are striped all the way down to the hooves . it has a gridiron pattern on the rump , and its white underside has a dark stripe that runs the length of the belly . unlike other zebras , the mountain zebra has a dewlap , or fold of skin , hanging from the throat . the mane is short and erect , with no forelock . the mountain zebra is a good climber and has very hard and pointed hooves compared to other zebras and horses .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\nthere is no significant difference between the sexes , except that the stallions are heavier at and average of 298 kg , compared to the 276 kg of mares . adult stallions over seven years of age , can weigh as much as 343 kg . adult stallions are 1 . 5 m at the shoulders , with a tail length of 500 mm and ears 280 mm long . in order to cope with the attrition of rocky terrain , the hooves of this species grows extremely fast . the difference between this specie and the cape mountain zebra is mainly only in size , the latter being slightly smaller . there is a trend for the the light stripes of the hartmann ' s zebra to be wider than that of the cape mountain species .\nzebras are very popular with the general public , i . e . they are good ambassador species for conservation in their african range states . as the hartmann ' s mountain zebra is rated endangered by iucn , also the maintenance of a reserve population in human care makes sense , in particular as the range is relatively limited and about 98 % of all individuals live in one single country , which makes the population depending of essentially one single government and susceptible to the impact of droughts and changes in agricultural practice .\ndue to the demand in land for agriculture and grazing land for livestock animals , more and more of the zebra\u2019s habitat is being cleared and they often have to compete for grazing areas with animals such as cattle . this has led to many zebra being hunted , both legally and illegally , so that more land can be used more by farmers .\nmountain zebras act in response to the alarm signals of black wildebeest . however , they rarely respond to alarm signals of smaller antelope .\nat high temperatures , the striped pattern of the zebra may serve as camouflage , an adaptation to the resultant\nwaviness\nof the air . at a distance of a few hundred yards , the stripes make a zebra appear indistinct .\nthis polygynous species breeds throughout the year , although regional birth peaks exist ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . females produce a single foal every one to three years , after a gestation of approximately one year ( 5 ) . while most cape mountain zebra young leave their maternal herds of their own choice between 13 and 37 months of age , or about three months after the birth of a sibling , hartmann\u2019s mountain zebra mares try to expel their 14 to 16 month old foals from the herd before the birth of a sibling . young males may wander alone for a while before joining a bachelor group , while females are either taken into another breeding herd or are joined by a bachelor male to form a new breeding herd ( 2 ) . if young females leave their maternal herd before adulthood they join bachelor herds until they are taken into a herd ( 2 ) .\nnovellie , p . a . , lindeque , m . , lindeque , p . , lloyd , p . and koen , j . ( 2002 ) status and action plan for the mountain zebra ( equus zebra ) . in : moehlman , p . ( ed ) equids : zebras , asses , and horses : status , survey and conservation action plan . iucn , gland , switzerland .\nthe primary threats to the mountain zebra include competition with domestic livestock , hunting and persecution , habitat loss due to conversion to agriculture ( 2 ) , and the risk of the two subspecies breed with each other leading to a loss of genetic diversity ( 2 ) ( 10 ) .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nin order to stay safe , zebra will give alarm calls if they spot a threat nearby and will run up to 40mph to safety . the stripe patterns of zebra can help to break up their outline which helps to confuse predators , as it makes it harder to pick out individuals when they are running as a group .\nmountain zebra form small herds of one adult stallion and 1 to 5 mares with young . breeding herds remain stable over many years and mares usually remain in a herd for life . gestation lasts one year , with one foal born at a time . foals weigh about 55 pounds at birth , and are up and walking within hours . foals are weaned at 10 months .\nsome populations are protected in national parks . there is a european endangered species programme ( eep ) for this zebra as well as co - operative management of zoo populations world - wide .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nmountain zebra inhabit rugged , broken mountainous and escarpment areas up to around 2 , 000 m with a rich diversity of grass species and perennial water sources ( penzhorn in press ) . they are predominantly grazers , only browsing if forced to do so . the typical social structure is one of small harems comprising an adult stallion and one to three ( maximum five ) mares and their dependent foals ; non - breeding groups consist primarily of bachelors , but sometimes include young fillies ( penzhorn in press ) .\nthese animals will live in herds of around 6 - 8 individuals and led by a dominant male ( stallion ) and a dominant female ( mare ) . within its first hour of life , a zebra foal will stand up , take their first steps and feed from their mother . zebra foals will suckle from their mother until about 10 months of age ; they will be pushed away by their mothers at around 14 - 16 months , just before the arrival of the next foal .\nq : are the zebras black with white stripes , or white with black stripes ? a : if you look closely at the zebra , you will see that the belly does not have stripes , but is white . so zebras are white with black ( or brown ) stripes !\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ntaxonomy ( the study of classification ) is a constantly - evolving field . every year , changes to the\nstandard\nlist of ungulates ( covering approximately 250 species ) are proposed as new physical and genetic evidence becomes available : renaming subspecies as distinct species , separating ( or uniting ) genera , or naming species new to science . most taxonomic changes are rather restricted in scale ( usually reorganizing a species or genus ) . rarely , however , entire orders are reviewed and revised : the entire scope of hoofed mammals receives such a treatment in ungulate taxonomy ( groves and grubb , 2011 ) .\nungulate taxonomy turns the classification of hoofed mammals on its head . whereas traditional species lists rely on the biological species concept ( which differentiates species on the basis of\nreproductive isolation\n, the lack of interbreeding in nature ) , groves and grubb have applied the phylogenetic species concept ( which separates species on the basis of\nfixed heritable differences\n: measureable characters that are consistently different between taxa ) . this change in approach has had major implication on the number of species : groves and grubb recognize over 450 distinct ungulates . simultaneously , however , the recognition of subspecies has sharply declined : under the phylogenetic species concept , populations that can be differentiated are listed as separate species ; those which cannot be are grouped as a single taxon .\nthe new approach to ungulate classification is presented below alongside the traditional species list ( note that species fact sheets are accessible from the ungulates of the world page ) . such a radical departure from tradition often encounters great resistance , but the application of the phylogenetic species concept to ungulate taxa is not brand - new : it is generally well - accepted for taxa like babirusas , chevrotains , and musk deer .\ngroves , c . , and p . grubb . 2011 . ungulate taxonomy . the john hopkins university press , baltimore .\niucn ( international union for conservation of nature and natural resources ) . 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2010 . 1 . available online at the iucn redlist website .\nwilson , d . e . , and d . m . reeder [ editors ] . 2005 . mammal species of the world ( 3rd edition ) . johns hopkins university press , 2 , 142 pp . available online at the mammal species of the world website .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthere is a trade in the skins of this species . it is only hunted for food at subsistence level .\nthis errata version of the 2008 assessment was created to correct the distribution map for this species .\n( errata version published in 2018 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2008 : e . t7960a129037335 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nfor air transport , container requirement 73 of the iata live animals regulations should be followed .\nroad transport ( according to the south african standard sans 10331 ) : transport family groups in mass crates . transport individual stallions in separate , individual compartments in a mass crate . if fighting occurs , separate dominant and aggressive stallions and mares and transport them under tranquillization in individual compartments in mass crates . since fighting usually begins when different family groups are captured and transported together , this should be avoided at all costs . if a few selected animals are transported over a short distance , transportation under chemical immobilization should be considered .\nthis gregarious species lives in breeding herds , consisting of one adult male , one to five adult females and their young ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . all members occupy a position within a social hierarchy ( 2 ) , headed by the dominant adult stallion , which is responsible for defending the herd ( 4 ) . breeding herds inhabit overlapping home ranges , with no evidence of territoriality , and sometimes herds will even join to form larger temporary populations of up to around 30 individuals ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . surplus males live in bachelor groups , from which individuals periodically attempt to establish a new breeding herd with young females or take over an existing herd by displacing the dominant stallion ( 2 ) . nevertheless , breeding herds often remain stable over many years ( up to 20 recorded ) , with mares usually remaining in a herd for life . new stallions may need to go through courtship of up to three years before the mares in a herd will accept their new stud ( 2 ) ( 7 ) .\nauthenticated ( 02 / 09 / 08 ) by dr . rebecca smith , research biologist . urltoken\ndiurnal active during the day . endemic a species or taxonomic group that is only found in one particular country or geographic area . genetic diversity the variety of genes within a particular species , population or breed causing differences in morphology , physiology and behaviour . gestation the state of being pregnant ; the period from conception to birth . gregarious tending to form a group with others of the same species by habitually living or moving in flocks or herds rather than alone . herbivorous diet comprises only vegetable matter . polygyny in animals , a pattern of mating in which a male has more than one female partner . re - introduction an attempt to establish a native species back into an area where it previously occurred . subspecies a population usually restricted to a geographical area that differs from other populations of the same species , but not to the extent of being classified as a separate species .\nstuart , c . and stuart , t . ( 1997 ) field guide to the larger mammals of africa . struik publishers , cape town .\nestes , r . d . ( 1992 ) the behavior guide to african mammals : including hoofed mammals , carnivores , primates . university of california press , california .\ngetty images 101 bayham street london nw1 0ag united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 800 376 7981 sales @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nbetween the giraffe house and the amur leopards . you may also see them in the valley field from the cafe graze viewpoint .\nsize head and body : 210 - 260cm . tail length : 40 - 55cm . males tend to be bigger than females .\non 8th aug my 8yr old daughter took part in a junior keeper experience as a birthday present and was smiling from beginning to end . they made her feel very welcome , answered all of her questions and made her feel very special . the experiences were amazing , the animals she encountered and\u2026 read full review\nmarwell wildlife is a registered charity , number 275433 . hosted by redstation . \u00a9 2017 marwell wildlife . site designed by semantic . photographic contributors .\nno two zebras are alike \u2013 each has a distinct stripe pattern , just like with human fingerprints .\nduring the 1950s , numbers of these zebras were estimated at 50 , 000 to 75 , 000 individuals . in 1992 they were estimated at only about 8 , 000 .\na single foal is born after a gestation of 11 . 5 months ( 350 days ) .\nif you ' d like to stay informed of new products , events and special offers then please join our mailing lists .\nour website uses cookies . by continuing to use the site you are agreeing to the use of cookies . click here to find out why .\n\u00a9 copyright paignton zoo 2018 . all rights reserved . website by website vision .\nsouth west environmental parks ltd , is an educational , scientific and conservation charity dedicated to protecting our global wildlife heritage .\npaignton zoo environmental park , totnes road , paignton , devon tq4 7eu ( registered office ) . company no . 792877 registered charity no . 300923\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nlike all equids , this is a grazer which spends the best part of a day feeding . the grazing pattern tends to follow the contours of the terrain , along which the grazing progression tends to be in a zig - zag forward pattern .\nthis is not a seasonal breeder since foals can be born the year round , although there tends to be a peak during the rainy season . mares foal for the first time at the age of three years . foals weigh about 25 kg at birth . gestation period is about 12 months . foals have a high survival rate , probably since adults in the herd actively defend them against predators . stallions become sexually active at about three years of age .\nwithin a population there are two distinct social groups , namely breeding herds and bachelor groups . breeding groups consist of a single stallion with a number of mares , the latter with a distinct social hierarchy .\nthis equid is found in the western semi - arid regions of namibia , from where it also ranges into angola . it has a discontinues distribution from the kunene province southwards and somewhat eastwards , as illustrated on the distribution map . presently the population is estimated at 13 000 ."]}
{"id": 1533, "summary": [{"text": "the black-and-yellow grosbeak ( mycerobas icterioides ) is a species of finch native to the northern parts of the indian subcontinent , primarily the lower and middle himalayas .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is in the family fringillidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the species ranges across afghanistan , india , nepal , and pakistan where its natural habitat is temperate forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "black - and - yellow grosbeak", "paragraphs": ["black - and - yellow grosbeak | see in full size . tahirabbasonli\u2026 | flickr\nblack - and - yellow grosbeak ( mycerobas icterioides ) is a species of bird in the fringillidae family .\nthe black - and - yellow grosbeak ( mycerobas icterioides ) occur in afghanistan , india , nepal , and pakistan , where they inhabit temperate forests .\ninterestingly , the extinct bonin grosbeak ( aka chaunoproctus ) is sister to the remaining rosefinches .\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\n22 cm ; 67 g . large grosbeak with large head , massive bill and medium - length , notched tail . male has entire head down to upper nape , upper side of neck and lower throat black . . .\nthe wagtails , and particularly the yellow - colored wagtails , are more troublesome . mitochondrial dna analysis ( alstr\u00f6m and mild , 2003 ; \u00f6deen and bj\u00f6klund , 2003 ; outlaw and voelker , 2006b , pavlova et al . , 2003 ) suggests that there are two species of citrine wagtail ( citreola and werae ) and three species of yellow wagtail ( flava , taivana , and tschutschensis ) . the aou has adopted the split of the eastern yellow wagtail ( tschutschensis ) , but takes no official position on the 3 - way split . christidis and boles ( 2008 ) accept the 3 - way split with green - headed yellow wagtail , motacilla taivana , being the third species .\nclement , p . ( 2018 ) . black - and - yellow grosbeak ( mycerobas icterioides ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n14 cm ; 17\u201322 g . relatively small bullfinch with short , curved bill and slightly notched tail . male has forehead to lores , cheek and chin black , forecrown to nape and . . .\nin the end , i have gone with the recent analysis by harris et al . ( 2018 ) . this treats the citrine and eastern yellow wagtails as sister species , with the western yellow wagtail sister to both , and the whole lot sister to the gray wagtail . drovetski et al . ( 2018 ) has a bit different arrangment .\n) and mossy forests and forest edges on hillsides and valleys ; . . .\nthe sao tome grosbeak has usually been included in neospiza . stervander ( 2010 ) found that the principe seedeater is it ' s closest relative and both species together form subgenus neospiza . in fact , stervander found that the sao tome subspecies of the seedeater ( thomensis ) appeared more closely related to the sao tome grosbeak than to the seedeater . the two birds are quite distinct , and it seems unreasonable to put them in one species . perhaps the genetic results are a sign of introgression .\nthere have also been questions concerning whether the white wagtail is a single species . some authorities have separated lugens as black - backed wagtail and yarrelli as pied wagtail . however , it is hard to make a genetic case for either of these ( see alstr\u00f6m and mild , 2003 ; pavlova et al . , 2005 ; voelker , 2002 ) , with yarrelli ending up near alba and alba and lugens intertwinned .\nse siberia , ne china , korea , sakhalin and kuril is . and japan\npyrrhulini consists of 3 clades . the first consists of the pyrrhula bullfinches and pine grosbeak ( pinicola ) . the second and third are sister , and are the arid - zone finches indentified by arnaiz - villena et al . ( 2008 ) . the second clade includes bucanetes and rhodopechys . the third consists of the mountain - finches and rosy - finches ( leucosticte ) , together with several monotypic genera : procarduelis ( dark - breasted rosefinch ) , agraphospiza ( blanford ' s rosefinch ) , callacanthis ( spectacled finch ) , and pyrrhoplectes ( golden - naped finch ) . both procarduelis and agraphospiza are usually included in carpodacus .\nne afghanistan and n pakistan e in himalayas to n india ( uttarakhand ) and w nepal .\nthese splits are not followed by alstr\u00f6m and mild ( 2003 ) or by \u00f6deen and bj\u00f6rklund ( 2003 ) , both of which also consider nuclear dna . the nuclear dna yields a different tree for the wagtails , where macronyx , taivana and tschutschensis form a clade that can be regarded as a species : eastern yellow wagtail , motacilla tschutschensis . this species is sister to the gray wagtail , motacilla cinerea . the citrine wagtails end up as sisters , and can also be regarded as a single species . \u00f6deen and bj\u00f6rklund ( 2003 ) argue that the mitochondrial tree reflects the effects of past hybridization .\nmostly hard - shelled seeds , buds , berries and shoots of trees and larger herbaceous shrubs , including buds and catkins of birch , willow ( . . .\nfairly vocal and conspicuous . calls include ringing\npee yuu\n, also longer and louder , . . .\nthe results in both lerner et al . ( 2011 ) and zuccon et al . ( 2012 ) support the drepanidini as sister to carpodacini ( not just the common rosefinch , as might be inferred from the press coverage ) . interestingly , the extinct bonin grosbeak is a relatively basal member of the carpodacini . perhaps it too is a relic of the spread of the ancestral carpodacini / drepanidini into the pacific .\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\neurope ( except british isles , sardinia ) to c asia , w , n turkey , c and e caucasus and nw iran .\ntietze et al . ( 2013 ) also found a surprisingly small genetic distance between the caucasian and spotted great - rosefinches ( rubicilla and severtzovi ) and recommended lumping them . although i have followed that advice , further study is in order . rasmussen and anderton ( 2005 ) recommended splitting them based on differences in plumage , habitat , and voice .\nthe basal division in the nine - primaried oscines is between the motacillidae and the \u201cfinches\u201d , sibley and monroe ' s broadly - defined fringillidae . wagtails and pipits are cosmopolitan . they are typically open country insectivores .\nnot globally threatened . restricted range species : present in luzon eba and mindanao and the eastern visayas eba . scarce , uncommon or locally common .\nseveral carduelis siskins have moved to spinus ( including lesser antillean siskin ) . in another taxonomic note , the pine siskin , spinus pinus , and black - capped siskin , spinus atriceps , are quite close . some have suggested they are conspecific . although they don ' t comment on it , the genetic tree in arnaiz - villena et al . ( 2008 ) suggests another possibility . the subspecies perplexus may actually belong to s . atriceps , as had been suggested by banks in 1982 ( see a 2008 aou proposal ) .\nthe new world pipits have been rearranged based on van ells and norambuena ( 2018 ) . further , their analysis resulted in two splits and one lump .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nthis changes clade sizes and i have also reordered the hawaiian honeycreepers as a result .\npreliminary genetics suggest that megaplaga and leucoptera are sisters and that bifasciata should be split to avoid paraphyly ( parchman et al . 2007 ) . see also elmberg 1993 re song differences\nthe overall organization of the motacillidae is based on a combination of alstr\u00f6m et al . ( 2015a ) , drovetski et al . ( 2018 ) , harris et al . ( 2018 ) , outlaw and voelker ( 2006b ) , van ells and norambuena ( 2018 ) , and voelker and edwards ( 1998 ) . when there are disagreements , the more recent papers have been given heavier weight .\ntietze et al . ( 2013 ) found substantial genetic distance between the sinai rosefinch in the strict sense c . synoicus synoicus , and the pale rosefinch group ( subspecies beicki , salimalii , and presumably stoliczkae ) . these have been suspected of being different species , and i have now split them .\nsibley and monroe ' s ( 1990 ) fringillidae included all of the remaining birds , over 1000 of them . most authors use a finely - grained family structure for these species that roughly corresponds to sibley and monroe ' s tribes . the tif taxonomy divides sibley and monroe ' s fringillidae into 11 .\n( weir and schluter 2004 , smith et al . 2005 ; nacc 2017 - c - 5 )\n15\u201316\u00b75 cm ; one male 19 g . medium - sized , blunt - billed dark bullfinch with pale cheek and slightly notched tail . male nominate race has forehead , lores , chin and . . .\nmost of the remaining carduelini are from the americas . there are two classification schemes in current use . the aou ' s nacc puts them all together in genus spinus . the aou ' s sacc separates them into three genera : the north american goldfinches , astragalinus ; the northern siskins spinus ; and the middle and south american siskins , sporagra . astragalinus splits off first , and the final division is between spinus and sporagra .\npartial altitudinal migrant . descends to lower levels and moves slightly s of breeding range in non . . .\nogilvie - grant , 1895 \u2013 cordillera mts and zambales mts , in n luzon ( n philippines ) .\nthe fourth carduelini clade is more cosmopolitan . the basal piece includes the palearctic linnets ( linaria , formerly carduelis ) , which are sister to the holarctic redpolls ( now acanthis rather than carduelis ) and crossbills ( loxia ) . there is some uncertainty about the linnets . the mitochondrial dna consistently puts them near the siskins and american goldfinches rather than near the redpolls and crossbills . the nuclear dna does the opposite . since they seem more akin to the redpolls and crossbills , and since the combined analysis puts them there , i have followed suit .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nsa : n colombia to trinidad and the guianas , south to n argentina , se brazil , e paraguay .\naustralasian pipit , corydalla novaeseelandiae , has been split into australian pipit , corydalla australis , and new zealand pipit , corydalla novaeseelandiae . this split was recommended by schodde and mason ( 1999 ) , but rejected by christidis and boles ( 2008 ) \u201cin the absence of molecular evidence\u201d . tavares and baker ( 2008 ) provided limited molecular evidence in the form of a barcode divergence of 4 . 1 % , which is a good indication that they are separate species .\nioc world bird list ( v7 . 1 ) , gill , f and d donsker ( eds ) . 2017 .\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nthe third carduelini clade is exclusively afrotropical . the oriole finch ( linurgus ) is sister to the rest . these closely related birds are variously called canaries , seedeaters , serins , and siskins and are all placed in the genus crithagra . the species - level phylogeny still needs some work , as might be guessed from the question marks , polytomies , and blue ink .\nbased on beckman and witt ( 2015 ) , the hooded siskin , sporagra magellanica , has been split into lowland hooded siskin , sporagra magellanica , and andean hooded siskin , sporagra capitalis . we lack complete information on the subspecies , but i ' ve tentatively allocated boliviana , alleni , icterica , longirostris , and magellanica to the lowland group , s . magellanica , and capitalis , paula , peruana , urubambensis , santaecrucis , hoyi , and tucumana to the andean group , s . capitalis . the genetic distances between the capitalis group and atrata , crassirostris , siemiradzkii is razor - thin , calling their species status into question . even uropygialis appears to be closely related to the capitalis group . further study is needed to sort out these taxa .\ncomprehensive molecular phylogeny # r for the genus , based on both nuclear and mitochondrial loci , recovered three main groups : ( 1 ) se asian ( p . nipalensis , p . waterstradti and p . leucogenis ) ; ( 2 ) himalayan ( p . aurantiaca , p . erythrocephala , p . erythaca ) ; and ( 3 ) eurasian ( p . murina , p . pyrrhula ) .\nthe other piece of this final clade includes the true carduelis and serinus finches of the palearctic . it starts with the mountain serin of indonesia and the philippines . the mountain serin is sometimes considered part of serinus , but i ' ve had it in its own genus , chrysocorythus , for a while . zuccon et al . ( 2012 ) found chrysocorythus sister to the true carduelis finches , now reduced to the european goldfinch and the corsican and citril finches . these two genera together are sister to the rest of the clade .\ni follow the recent aou decisions ( 56th supplement ) to split the apapane , akepa , greater akialoa , and nukupuu . thus :\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nthe placement of spinus may be a little soft . e . g . , in nguembock et al . ( 2009a ) , it appeared in different places in the combined tree ( their figure 4 ) and some of the individual gene trees . this is the subject of some discussion in nguembock et al . the arrangement here is based on zuccon et al . ( 2012 ) and beckman and witt ( 2015 ) .\nseason may to early sept ; two broods . displaying male with body horizontal and wings spread , quivering or fluttering rapidly , perches . . .\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\ndifferent sources treat the rufous sparrow ( passer motitensis ) complex differently . here it is treated as 5 species : iagoensis , motitensis ( including benguellensis and subsolanus ) , rufocinctus ( including cordofanicus and shellyi ) , insularis , and hemileucus . see kirwan ( 2008 ) for arguments that the small pale hemileucus should be split from insularis . as in the ioc list , the name great sparrow is used for the narrowly defined passer motitensis .\nthe second clade includes synoicus group , the former kozlowia ( c . roborowskii ) , the rubicilla clade ( streaked and great rosefinches ) , the former uragus ( c . sibiricus ) , pyrrhospiza ( c . puniceus ) , and pinicola subhimachala ( aka propyrrhula subhimachala ) . it ends with a group including the carpodacus type species pallas ' s rosefinch , carpodacus roseus ( see banks and browning 1995 ) , through c . dubius .\ni recognize several subgenera . besides crithagra , there are dendrospiza , neospiza , pseudochloroptila , and ochrospiza . all are marked on the species tree .\nmearns , 1909 \u2013 mt malindang , mt kitanglad , mt hilong - hilong , mt apo and mt mayo , in mindanao ( s philippines ) .\nbased on davies and peacock ( 2014 ) , the kimberley pipit , anthus pseudosimilis , is considered conspecific with african pipit , anthus cinnamomeus , and the long - tailed pipit , anthus longicaudatus , is considered conspecific with buffy pipit , anthus vaalensis . in both cases , the original collections seem to involve several taxa .\nthe motacillidae include two species that were long thought of as belonging to sylviidae , the sao tome shorttail ( amaurocichla ) , and the madanga ( madanga ) .\nn pakistan ( chitral and gilgit ) e to n kashmir , in nw himalayas ; in winter also nw india ( himachal pradesh , recorded in uttarakhand ) .\nthe italian sparrow , passer italiae , is recognized as a separate species based on hermansen et al . ( 2011 ) and elvgin et al . ( 2011 ) . although t\u00f6pfer ( 2006 ) had argued that it was a subspecies of the spanish sparrow , based on apparent ongoing hybridization , hermansen et al . ( 2011 ) find that this is not the case . rather , their genetic data found that the sympatric populations in italy ' s gargano peninsula showed no evidence of gene flow . however , they did find a hybrid zone with the house sparrow in the alps . the hybrid zone appears narrow and relatively stable , and does not suggest substantial ongoing gene flow ( and they did not find evidence of any ) . the twin papers produced by a group at oslo , hermansen et al . ( 2011 ) and elgvin et al . ( 2011 ) , explore the evidence that the italian sparrow is the result of past hybridization between the house and spanish sparrows .\nthe order here is based on a combination of the dna study of lerner et al . ( 2011 ) and the osteological study of james ( 2004 ) . fleischer et al . ( 2001 ) , pratt ( 2001 ) , arnaiz - villena et al . ( 2007b ) , and reding et al . ( 2009 ) have also been consulted . it fits nicely with morphology ( look at bill shapes in each clade ) and subfossil taxa can be easily accomodated using james ( 2004 ) . this is pretty similar to the previous version , but tweaked based on lerner et al . ( 2011 ) , which greatly decreases the conjecture needed , and increases my confidence in it .\nnot globally threatened . restricted range species : present in western himalayas eba . common to very common ; scarce and local in n pakistan . rare visitor in himachal pradesh .\ndickinson et al . ( 2003 ) consider plocepasser , histurgops , pseudonigrita , and philetairus to be passeridae . however , groth ( 1998 ) found them to be in the ploceidae .\nthe genera palmeria , himatione , and vestiaria have been merged into drepanis . the genetic distance between them seems to be small ( lerner et al . , 2011 ) and there is evidence of hybridization between vestiaria and himatione ( knowlton et al . , 2014 ) . olson ( 2012b ) also argues that this is a reasonable treatment . although i think the genera i use for the hawaiian honeycreepers are oversplit , i consider the aou genera even more oversplit . i haven ' t gone further on the lumping because data on the extinct species is too limited .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\none interesting thing in alstr\u00f6m et al . ( 2015a ) is that their multigene analysis yields a different placement of the longclaws compared with outlaw and voelker ( 2006b ) . the limited taxon sampling leaves some residual uncertainty , but it has caused me to separate some of anthus in corydalla ( vigors , 1825 , type richardi ) and cinaedium ( sundevall , 1850 , type lineiventre ) .\nthe various studies of the finches have made it clear that the genera carduelis and serinus both required substantial surgery . the alternative for carduelis would be to put almost all of the carduelini into one genus ! for serinus , the alternative is less drastic , mainly because carduelis has priority . neither of these outcomes is particuarly desirable , so both serinus and carduelis have been divided into several pieces each .\nas constituted here , carduelini contains 4 major clades . as mentioned above , the first clade includes only a single genus : haemorhous \u2014 the american purple finches . the second includes the chloris greenfinches ( sometimes included in carduelis ) , the desert finch ( rhodospiza ) , and the the golden - winged grosbeaks ( rhynchostruthus ) . kirwan and grieve ( 2007 ) argue that rhynchostruthus includes three species .\ninterestingly enough , the pale rockfinch ( carpospiza ) also appears to be only distantly related to the other passeridae . this was hinted at some time ago , and it had been suggested by h . mendelssohn ( fide hbw - 14 ) that it did not even belong in passeridae . to my knowledge , it has not been included in any published phylogeny . however , samples from the 16s and cox - 1 genes are available , and were used in an unpublished tree by raty . its position was not fully resolved , but it may be as distant from the other passeridae as the ibon is .\na dna analysis by sangster et al . ( 2016a ) has confirmed that sillem ' s mountain - finch is a carpodacus rosefinch , and as expected , is sister to tibetan rosefinch , carpodacus roborowskii .\nthese three genera were formerly considered part of carduelis . the aou currently treats them all as spinus , and rejected a proposal to make these last two generic splits , also proposed by nguembock et al .\nzuccon et al . ( 2012 ) found that eophona was embedded within coccothraustes . a reasonable solution to this problem is to restore the two american species to hesperiphona and leave the asian species in a reduced eophona .\nforms three well - defined subfamilies # r , including euphoniinae , previously placed in thraupidae . also includes drepanidini , sometimes treated as a separate family ( as in hbw ) , but here considered merely a tribe of carduelinae . extensive phylogenetic data available , and comparatively few species remain wholly unscreened ; nonetheless , study of internal relationships has been confounded by recurring plumage patterns and use of similar feeding niches by taxa that prove to be far from closely related .\nwhile the estrilid clade is primarily old world and southern , its passerid sister clade is cosmopolitan . more precisely , the nine - primaried oscinces are cosmopolitan , while their sister group , the passeridae , are restricted to the old world .\ntwo proposed races from mindanao , coriaria ( described from mt kitanglad ) and apo ( from mt apo ) , both synonymized with steerei . species name sometimes spelt \u201c leucogenys \u201d , but this is an unjustified emendation . two subspecies recognized .\nthe sao tome shorttail ( or bocage ' s longbill ) was thought to be related to the macrosphenus longbills . when the old sylviidae were broken up , that put it in the crombec family , macrosphenidae . however , johansson et al . ( 2008b ) results suggested by it was related to the wagtails and pipits , and possibly sister to the wagtails . alstr\u00f6m et al . ( 2015a ) found it was not only related to the wagtails , but is actually part of motacilla .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\nthe tribes within the carduelinae are now based on lerner et al . ( 2011 ) and zuccon et al . ( 2012 ) . except for the basal position of the coccothraustini , there had previously been a lack of consensus on the relationships between the cardueline tribes . see yuri and mindell ( 2002 ) , arnaiz - villena et al . ( 2007a ) , nguembock et al . ( 2009a ) , and t\u00f6pfer et al . ( 2011 ) . that has changed with the publication of lerner et al . ( 2011 ) and zuccon et al . ( 2012 ) . although the taxon sampling is different , the two papers are completely consistent at the generic level except for the placement of the pyrrhulini . zuccon et al . put the pyrhullini sister to the carduelini while lerner et al . place it sister to the carpodacini / drepanidini clade . note that \u201ceuropean serin\u201d on lerner et al . ' s tree is a typo as noted in the supplementary material . it actually refers to the white - bellied canary .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nnot long ago , the chlorophonias and euphonias were considered tanagers . many guidebooks still list them as such , but it is not so . the aou recognized them as finches in the 44th checklist supplement ( 2003 ) , placing them in the subfamily euphoniinae . accordingly , they are placed in fringillidae as a subfamily ( groth , 1998 ; klicka et al . , 2000 ; yuri and mindell , 2002 ; zuccon et al . , 2012 ) . the hawaiian honeycreepers were once considered a separate family ( drepanididae ) . they are now thought to form a clade buried inside carduelinae ( yuri and mindell , 2002 ; arnaiz - villena et al . , 2007b ; lerner et al . , 2011 ; zuccon et al . , 2012 ) . they are treated here as a tribe within carduelinae .\nthe bullfinches are arranged based on t\u00f6pfer et al . ( 2011 ) . kirwan and gregory ( 2005 ) established the monotypic genus eremopsaltria for the mongolian finch , separating it from bucanetes . however , they acted under the misapprehension that the mongolian finch is more likely closer to the common rosefinch than to the trumpeter finch . arnaiz - villena et al . ( 2008 ) found a rather different result , with the two bucanetes as sister taxa , and the rosefinch placed rather distantly from them . zuccon et al . ( 2012 ) confirm this .\nthe combination of a large number of genes and attention to the problem of discerning the true species tree in spite of incongruent gene trees has led me to use the overall structure from lerner et al . ( 2011 ) . they use a large superset of the genes used by zuccon et al . , but only sample half as many taxa . the tif tree of genera is 100 % consistent with lerner et al . , and except for the placement of pyrrhulini , is also consistent with zuccon et al . it ' s nice to see so much consensus .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nit ' s also not really clear how many red crossbills there are . i continue to follow the aou and bou taxonomy for the crossbills , but benkman et al . ( 2009 ) make a case for considering the \u201ctype 9\u201d crossbills of idaho to be a separate species , south hills crossbill , loxia sinesciuris . see also parchman et al . ( 2006 ) . however , it is doubtful there ' s any real genetic differentiation ( piertney et al . , 2001 ) . i also wonder whether it would be better to lump the parrot and scottish crossbills into red crossbill .\nthe fringillidae start with a basal palearctic group , fringillinae . fringillinae is comprised of three species , one of which has spread across the northern palearctic . the remaining fringillidae fall into two sister clades , euphoniinae and carduelinae . the common ancestor of the euphoniinae / carduelinae clade was likely an old world species . something must connect it with the neotropical euphoniinae , but that something is missing without a trace . being geographically contiguous and more similar in appearance , the position of the carduelinae is easy to understand . euphoniinae is a mystery that unscores the importance of extinction in creating the bird distribution we currently see .\ni have kept the genus akialoa merged with hemignathus as akialoa appears to be paraphyletic ( see the trees in james , 2004 ) . however , portions of hemignathus have been split off as chlorodrepanis and viridonia . this has allowed restoration of the name hemignathus wilsoni for the akiapolaau ( hemignathus munroi ) . when chlorodrepanis virens is subsumed in hemignathus , the name wilsoni belongs to a subspecies of virens . the situation with the kauai amakihi , chlorodrepanis stejnegeri is similar . in hemignathus , the name stejnegeri belongs to a subspecies of the greater akialoa , hemignathus ellisianus stejnegeri , and the kauai amakihi uses the substitute name h . kauaiensis .\nprice et al . ( 2014 ) included one species of gymnoris in their analysis while qu et al . ( 2006 ) examined the snowfinches . the genus tree is based on a combination of fjelds\u00e5 et al . ( 2010 ) , price et al . ( 2014 ) , qu et al . ( 2006 ) and raty .\nthis brings us to the carduelini . it has become apparent that the north american carpodacus finches are not that closely related to the true carpodacus finches . previously , the tif list used the genus burrica , also used as a subgenus by aou ( 2nd - 5th aou checklists ) . however , the oldest available name seems to be haemorhous ( swainson 1837 , type purpurea \u2014compare burrica ridgway , 1887 , type mexicana ) and i have now adopted that . haemorhous appears to be sister to the rest of the carduelini , and rather distantly related . perhaps it would even make sense to treat it as a separate tribe ( as done previously in the tif list ) .\nthe nine - primaried oscines are called that because they appear to have nine primary feathers . actually , they have ten primaries , but the tenth primary is reduced and usually hidden under the ninth primary covert ( hall , 2004 ) . this sometimes occurs in birds outside the nine - primaried oscine group , but is most characteristic of this group .\nthe split of the blue chaffinch , fringilla teydea , from common chaffinch , fringilla coelebs , was based on on su\u00e1rez et al . ( 2009 ) . the further split of gran canaria blue chaffinch , fringilla polatzeki , from blue chaffinch , fringilla teydea , is based on su\u00e1rez et al . ( 2009 ) and the analysis by sangster et al . ( 2016b ) .\none has to be careful with the genus name for the south american siskins . both sporagra ( reichenbach 1850 , type magellanica ) and pyrrhomitris ( bonaparte 1850 , type cucullata ) come into consideration . the publication date of sporagra seems to be june 1 , 1850 . the publication date for pyrrhomitris is not as clear . bonaparte ' s \u201cconspectus generum avium\u201d was published in sections beginning in mid - 1850 . the first part was already available in mid - june , and likely published a bit earlier , perhaps earlier than reichenbach . however , pyrrhomitris was not included in the section i , nor was it even included in the first part of section ii ( published by oct 15 , 1850 ) . it appeared in the second part of section ii ( dated nov 10 , 1850 and certainly published before feb 3 , 1851 ) . if i understand the iczn correctly , the parts should be treated as separate publications , in which case it appeared either in the later part of 1850 or early 1851 . that would give priority to reichenbach ' s sporagra . in this case there is further evidence of which was published first . bonaparte refers to sporagra on page 516 , the page before he establishes pyrrhomitris .\nalthough pratt ( 2009 ) has established the genus manucerthia for the hawaiian creeper , loxops mana , i have not adopted it . lerner et al . ( 2011 ) make clear that the hawaiian creeper is sister to the other loxops . moreover , they shared a common ancestor about 2 million years ago and do not seem so different as to justify introducing an extra genus into a tribe that already has too many genera .\ni moved sillem ' s mountain - finch ( rediscovered in june 2012 ) from leucosticte ( pyrrhulini ) to carpodacus based on a photo of what is believed to be the female . when roselaar ( 1992 ) named sillem ' s rosefinch , he put it in leucosticte . at the time , the female plumage was unknown . the other leucosticte have female plumages that are only slightly different from the male , usually just duller . as roselaar pointed out , if it has a distinctive female plumage , it would more likely related to kozlowia ( now part of carpodacus ) than to leucosticte . more recently , muzika ( 2014 ) has made the same point . yann muzika ' s photo of the probable female sillem ' s shows a bird that is quite different from the adult male . see kazmierczak and muzika ( 2012 ) for an account of this rediscovery and muzika ( 2014 ) for further observations .\nthe arrangement of the rosefinches is based on tietze et al . ( 2013 ) . their analysis has much in common with zuccon et al . ( 2012 ) , but is more comprehensive . now that we had a decent understanding of how the rosefinches relate , it makes sense to put the whole group in the genus carpodacus . there is a basal clade consisting of the common rosefinch ( previously moved to erythrina ) and the scarlet finch ( aka haematospiza ) .\nas mentioned above , how the tribes with the carduelinae relate has been somewhat contentious . there is considerable agreement that the holarctic coccothraustini are basal . the results of nguembock et al . ( 2009a ) suggested that carpodacus and pyrrhula were fairly closely related to each other , as did t\u00f6pfer et al . ( 2011 ) . neither had much to say about their relation to the hawaiian honeycreepers ( drepanidini ) . zuccon et al . ( 2012 ) were unable to clearly resolve the position of the honeycreepers ( see fig . 2 ) , but lerner et al . ( 2011 ) place them sister to the rosefinches ( carpodacini ) . the two together are then sister to the bullfinches and many arid - zone finches ( pyrrhulini ) . lerner et al . place the whole lot of them are sister to carduelini , which includes the american red finches ( previously separated as a tribe ) . as mentioned before , zuccon et al . disagree , placing pyrrhulini sister to carduelini .\nit ' s not entirely clear whether subgenus pseudochloroptila belongs in subgenus ochrospiza , so they are kept separate . both the yemen serin , crithagra menachensis , and ankober serin , crithagra ankoberensis , remain somewhat mysterious . these have be considered conspecific by some , or in separate genera by others . i have little confidence in their placement here ( hence the blue color on the tree ) , but it seems at least as reasonable as any other . this clade is expected to get a revision when more information becomes available .\nthe arrangement of the finches is based on several sources . i originally relied on groth ( 1998 ) , klicka et al . 2007 , and arnaiz - villena et al . ( 1998 , 1999 , 2001 , 2007a , b , 2008 ) . their studies have included a substantial number of finch species . however , some monotypic genera had been left out ( e . g . , callacanthis , chaunoproctus , kozlowia , neospiza ) . these have all been included in the analysis by zuccon et al . ( 2012 ) .\nthe redpolls themselves are an interesting case . it ' s not clear how many redpoll species there are . there is evidence that at least two are good biological species ( e . g . , knox , 1988 ) . in fact , knox et al . ( 2001 ) support separation of lesser redpoll , acanthis cabaret . however , genetic studies have failed to find any differences between lesser and common redpolls ( ottvall et al . , 2002 ) . worse , marthinsen et al . ( 2008 ) found little genetic difference between any of the redpolls ! there may be only one redpoll species . indeed , mason and taylor ' s detailed study using snp ' s ( 2015 ) found little genetic differentiation among the redpolls . at this point the balance of the evidence is that there is only one species involved . as a result , i ' ve lumped them all as a single species , holarctic redpoll , acanthis flammea . i thought about referring to them as just \u201credpolls\u201d , but added the adjective holarctic to emphasize that all races have been grouped together .\narnaiz - villena et al . ( 2008 ) found that the dark - breasted rosefinch , formerly carpodacus nipalensis belongs in the same clade close to leucosticte . rather than folding it in leucosticte , i restored the genus name procarduelis ( blyth 1843 ) . i had previously noted that blanford ' s rosefinch is thought to be close to nipalensis . indeed , zuccon et al . found it in the other portion of this clade . it is sufficently distant from its sister group ( callacanthis and pyrrhoplectes ) to deserve a separate genus . zuccon et al . ( 2012 ) established the name agraphospiza for it .\nthe most astonishing change in the passeridae is due to fjelds\u00e5 et al . ( 2010 ) . they found that the cinnamon ibon , long thought to be an abberant white - eye , is actually a sparrow . this is a canopy bird from the cloud - forest of mindanao , in the philippines . it ' s a long way from anything we think of as sparrows . it ' s also a long way physically . the nearest native populations of any sparrows are on the asian mainland . nonetheless , it is a sparrow . indeed , fjelds\u00e5 et al . report than its skull is similar to a sparrow , and that it has many other features in common with the other passeridae .\nmore surprisingly , alstr\u00f6m et al . ( 2015a ) also found that the madanga is actually a pipit , not a white - eye ( sylviioidea : zosteropidae ) . in fact , it falls in the genus anthus . its closest relative seems to be the alpine pipit , anthus gutturalis . laurent raty has pointed out a complication . in 1831 , lesson used the name anthus ruficollis . the madanga wasn ' t named until 1923 by rothschild and hartert , so lesson ' s ruficollis has priority if both species are placed in anthus . the fact that lesson ' s ruficollis is a junior synonym of anthus cervinus ( orginally motacilla cervina pallas 1811 ) does not eliminate the conflict . until either a new name is proposed or lesson ' s name anthus ruficollis is suppressed , the madanga won ' t have a proper scientic name . for the present , i will refer to it as anthus \u201cruficollis\u201d .\nsong is a rich , rather clear\nprr - trweeet - a - troweeet\n,\ntri - a - tr - a i - i - t tra - tr - u - wa - ey\n, or . . .\nlargely sedentary in n pakistan . elsewhere an altitudinal migrant , descending to lower levels in . . .\nnot globally threatened . common to locally common . rare in w nepal , where possibly breeds , but may be only a scarce non - breeding visitor .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : mycerobas icterioides . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 763 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nmale at bhandak thaatch ( 8500 ft . ) in kullu - manali distt . of himachal pradesh , india\nmale at bhandak thaatch ( 8500 ft . ) in kullu - manali distt . of himachal pradesh , india .\nmale at guna pani ( 9000 ft . ) in kullu - manali distt . of himachal pradesh , india .\nfemale at bhandak thaatch ( 8500 ft . ) in kullu - manali distt . of himachal pradesh , india .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nthe passeridae are seed - eating birds , primarily distributed in the southern portion of the palearctic , but ranging into the afrotropics . several passerids are closely associated with humans , especially the ubiquitous house sparrow , which has spread worldwide .\nthe order of species in passer does not seem to be quite correct , but allende et al . ( 2001 ) do not consider enough species for reorganization of passer to be helpful at this time . moreover , their results were quite soft . qu et al . ( 2006 ) was helpful concerning the snowfinch genera .\nfinally , the asian subspecies zarudny ' s sparrow , passer zarudnyi , has been split from desert sparrow , passer simplex , which now contains only the african subspecies ( kirwan et al . , 2009 ) .\npuna pipit , anthus brevirostris , has been split from short - billed pipit , anthus furcatus .\nsouth georgia pipit , anthus antarcticus , has been lumped into correndera pipit , anthus correndera due to very small dna differences between them .\nzuccon et al . ( 2012 ) found evidence that the antillean euphonia is more closely related to the chlorophonias than to most euphonias . the two other blue - headed species are usually considered closely related to musica ( sometimes treated as one species under the name blue - hooded euphonia ) , so all three have been placed in the genus cyanophonia ( bonaparte 1851 , type musica ) .\ni follow aou in listing three north american rosy - finches . some have even suggested further splitting the gray - crowned rosy - finch . they have also been all been lumped into one species in the past . drovetski et al . ( 2009 ) find little genetic difference between the three , suggesting that they may be lumped again .\nthe rest of carpodacus splits into two clades . the first ranges from blyth ' s rosefinch to taiwan rosefinch . the taiwan rosefinch , carpodacus formosanus , has been split from vinaceous rosefinch , carpodacus vinaceus , based on wu et al . ( 2011 ) .\nthe now - reduced serinus comes next , followed by the tibetan serin . it ' s in chionomitris rather than serinus .\nioc _ names _ file _ plus - 8 . 2g : 8 . 2\nprzevalski ' s finch , previously called pink - tailed rosefinch , is a relict member of an ancient separate lineage that is as old as , or older than other families of finches ; it belongs in its own monotypic family urocynchramidae , with a name change ( groth 2000 , p\u00e4ckert et al . 2016 )\nclassification of fringillidae revised for v3 . 3 ; see especially zuccon et al . 2012\nsplit gran canaria blue finch from [ tenerife ] blue chaffinch ( sangster et al . 2015 )\n( zuccon et al . 2012 , cf kirwan & gregory 2005 , bli , hbw )\n( tietze et al . 2013 , cf rasmussen & anderton 2005 , ioc 3 . 5 ) . restore english name to great rosefinch\nhas priority for species name . change english name to pink - rumped rosefinch ( hbw , clements , h & m 3 )\n( wu et al . 2011 , tietze et al . 2013 ; cf collar 2004 )\nhawaiian honeycreepers resequenced following pratt 2005 , lerner et al . 2011 ; see also nacc 2015 . needs review of oversplit genera .\nisland populations of the akepa are recognized as separate species ( nacc 2015 - b - 4c ) ; add island name ( hawaii ) to akepa .\nbased on lerner et al . ( 2011 ) phylogeny ; see also pratt 2005 .\n, is preoccupied by a subspecies of greater akialoa . that conflict no longer exists with placement of kauai amakihi in\n( arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , zuccon et al . 2012 )\n( tschusi , 1901 ) as a synonym . permanently invalid . dickinson & christidis , 2014 .\n( arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , zuccon et al . 2012 , nacc )\nrecognized by bou ( ottvall et al . 2002 , marthinsen et al . 2008 )\npending future analyses ( knox 2001 , ottvall et al . 2002 , marthinsen et al . 2008 , mason & taylor 2015 , bou , h & m4 , nacc 2017 - b - 7 )\ntaczanowski , 1879 as a synonym . permanently invalid . dickinson & christidis , 2014 .\n( zuccon et al . 2012 , also arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , ryan et al . 2004 )\nfrom thraupidae to a new monotypic family rhodinocichlidae , which follows calcariidae ( barker et al . 2013 , 2015 ; nacc 2017 - b - 6 ) . eng [ 8 . 1 ] = lower case ' tanager '\nsong a loud\ntew\nfollowed by a rapidly repeated metallic trisyllabic\ntyatlinka - tlinka\n; also has . . .\nseason late may to early aug ; probably two broods . pairs form from break - up of winter flocks , by early may . nest built by female , a cup of . . .\nclement , p . ( 2018 ) . orange bullfinch ( pyrrhula aurantiaca ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\npresent also , race uncertain ( perhaps nominate ) , on panay , in wc philippines .\nclement , p . ( 2018 ) . white - cheeked bullfinch ( pyrrhula leucogenis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) ."]}
{"id": 1536, "summary": [{"text": "skip away ( april 4 , 1993 \u2013 may 14 , 2010 ) , a gray thoroughbred race horse , was named america 's champion 3 year old male in 1996 and twice ( 1997 , 1998 ) named america 's champion handicap horse .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "he was also u.s. horse of the year in 1998 .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "he won 10 grade 1 races for $ 9,616,360 in prize money . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "skip away", "paragraphs": ["both skip away and skip trial ( his sire ) both won the gulfstream park handicap and massachusetts handicap . skip away and skip trial both will have started a remarkable 38 times during their racing careers .\nskip away runs away early from the classic field to win in a sparkling time of 1 : 59 . 16\nthus , the record shows skip away won only 36 percent of his races .\nthoroughbred stallion skip trial , the sire of 1998 horse of the year skip away , died this week at the age of 30 .\nskip away wins the 1996 blue grass stakes . ( anne eberhardt / blood - horse )\nskip away in retirement at hopewell farm in kentucky . ( anne eberhardt / blood - horse )\nblood - horse magazine ranked skip away 32nd among the top 100 thoroughbreds of the 20th century .\nvalid and jockey nik juarez win the grade 3 skip away stakes by 1 3 / 4 lengths saturday .\nso who in his pedigree is\nthe great skip away\nmost like ? the answer maybe revealed by comparing some of the unusual racing achievements of his ancestors with several of the remarkable racing feats of skip away .\nsonny hines picked out skip away for his wife at the 1995 obs february sale partly because of his gray coloring ; carolyn had poor vision , and skip away ' s color made it easier for her to see him .\nhorse racing : he succumbs to complications of pneumonia at 69 . skip away was horse of year in 1998 .\nthere were those who leaned toward formal gold . before an injury ended his career last year formal gold defeated skip away three times , lost to him twice and finished a close second in a race in which skip away was a distant third .\nthe hineses said they turned down a $ 20 - million offer for skip away early in 1998 . skip away ' s career as a stallion began this month at hopewell farm near midway , ky . , where his stud fee is $ 50 , 000 .\none reason hine liked skip away was that he had trained his sire , skip trial , a durable horse who won major races for him in the 1980s and earned $ 1 . 8 million .\nskip away sired 522 foals , including 25 stakes winners from 293 winners , that produced $ 22 , 377 , 318 in earnings .\nthe story of skip away begins with carolyn hine , wife of late hall of fame trainer sonny hine , wishing for a white thoroughbred .\nskip away is in good shape after his hollywood park victory according to sonny hine , who trains the colt for his wife , carolyn .\nbut hine hastens to add ,\nif you were to take the best horse in north america you ' d take skip away .\nhe was the greatest horse i ever had ,\nhine said when skip away was retired to stud at the end in 1998 .\nthe 1997 supplemental payment also covered skip away in the 1998 breeders ' cup , but the race was at churchill downs , a track he never liked . in a race reminiscent of his 12th - place finish in the 1996 kentucky derby , skip away ran sixth in the classic .\nboth nashua and skip away won the jockey club gold cup twice , once as a three year old and once as a four year old .\nthis entry was posted in racing and tagged fort larned , horse racing , skip away , thoroughbred by paulick report staff . bookmark the permalink .\nfort larned drew away to win the grade 3 skip away stakes at gulfstream park by two and a half lengths over alma d ' oro , setting a new track record in the process . self control finished third .\nskip away , 1998 horse of the year , was represented by his first winner when his daughter heart ofa champion won june 7 at belmont park .\nskip away is a unique horse of remarkable quality and durability . he is sure to become another splendid progenitor in the legacy of great american stallions .\nskip away is the sire of the earners of slightly over $ 510 , 000 to december 31 , 2002 , with seven stakes horses and twelve winners . skip away progeny continue to show solid racetrack performance in 2003 . as longer races are written , i expect that skip away ' s progeny will be even more effective in competition . they will can be expected to get better as they get older . indeed the best is yet to come .\nskip away trainer sonny hine concedes :\nif you were to take the horse far superior in his category you ' d take favorite trick .\na big , strong gray horse standing 16 . 2 hands , skip away had a bone chip in one knee , but this never seemed to bother him\nskip away won 18 races , along with 10 seconds and six thirds , in 38 starts . he earned $ 9 , 616 , 360 , which left him $ 393 , 455 short of cigar ' s earnings record . skip away missed a chance to pass cigar when he finished a disappointing sixth in his last race , the breeders ' cup classic at churchill downs in 1998 . but at least skip away had once beaten cigar , the two - time horse of the year , in the jockey club gold gold cup at belmont park in 1996 . sonny hine said that that was the skip away race he most cherished .\nfort larned , ridden by julien leparoux , wins the skip away in track - record time of 1 : 53 . 92 for 1 3 / 16 miles .\nimagine for yourself and your broodmare band , the many unique benefits that breeding to skip away will offer to your procreation program . certainly , skip away\u2019s soundness and versatility , so absent in our racehorses of today , are now more than ever extremely important to the development of the american thoroughbred of the twenty - first century .\nken mcpeek closely observed skip away with an admiring eye while training at gulfstream park during the mid and late 1990s , gaining a deep respect for trainer sonny hine\u2019s big gray champion . so when a colt he had purchased at auction reminded him of skip away , he viewed the resemblance to the 1998 horse of [ \u2026 ]\nskip away is a horse with very solid proven sire lines throughout his pedigree . consider that their is no northern dancer , mr . prospector , turn - to or buckpasser bloodline in the pedigree of skip away . that provides a wonderful opportunity to outcross your northern dancer , mr . prospector , turn - to or buckpasser line mare .\n\u201cmy memories are my treasures , \u201d said carolyn during a phone interview from her florida home . \u201ceverything about skip away was a blessing . i lived my dream . \u201d\npatchen beauty , a white mare and granddaughter of white beauty , foaled a white skip away filly feb . 8 at warren rosenthal ' s patchen wilkes farm near lexington .\nhopewell farm is suing to recover $ 79 , 500 in breeding fees and taxes from irish american bloodhorse agency , which bred two mares to 1998 horse of the year skip away .\nrick trontz , owner of hopewell farm near midway , ky . , said skip away had been diagnosed with a heart murmur , but the condition proved more serious than initially believed .\nskip away , brilliant winner of saturday ' s breeders ' cup classic in california , has arrived in florida for a rest before being aimed at the gulfstream park handicap in february .\nbred in florida by anna marie barnhart , skip away raced for carolyn hine and was trained by her husband hubert\nsonny\nhine . after a promising 2 - year - old season in which he finished second in the year - end cowdin and remsen stakes ( both g2 ) , skip away seemed a likely contender for the following year ' s classics .\nhere is skip away at his home at hopewell farm in kentucky , may 2009 . his successful racing career made him the 3rd highest earner on the racetrack , after curlin & cigar .\na case was made for gentlemen . his racing resume showed four wins in six starts , including a half - length victory over skip away in their only meeting , the pimlico special .\nporter on pedigrees , by alan porter < br / > the cross that produced swaps stakes surprise winner skipshot appears to be based on an affinity of skip away for halo - line mares .\nsummer wind farm ' s ingot way , whose son skip away was horse of the year in 1998 , was euthanized the morning of march 27 after giving birth to an awesome again colt .\nnow , let\u2019s begin with how the impact of breeding to mr . prospector line mares to skip away . breeding the female descendants of mr . prospector gives inbreeding to the sound nashua since both skip away and mr . prospector both have nashua on the distaff side of their pedigrees . champion nashua won 22 of 30 races over 3 years racing in top company and was retired sound .\nin 1997 , skip away won the breeders ' cup classic but was beaten out by the 2 - year - old favorite trick for horse - of - the - year honors . in 1998 , skip away was beaten in the breeders ' cup , but won the title by a landslide as voters recognized his seven - race winning streak through the first nine months of the year .\nskip away was a three - time eclipse award winner , including horse of the year in 1998 , champion 3 - year - old male in 1996 and champion older horse in 1997 - 98 .\nno man can predict with accuracy whether the visible or the latent characteristics will comprise the make - up of the foal at time of conception . that remains nature\u2019s secret . be that as it may , skip away is truly a remarkable individual whose visible attributes offer unrivaled quality of virtually every important factor of the racehorse . a true physical titan , the mighty skip away is already know for his incredible stamina . skip away\u2019s workouts demonstrate his effortless blinding speed . he can boast of about 100 black type bullet workouts during his career , one of which was 108 : 3 for six furlongs .\nskip away didn ' t duck any challenges , but churchill downs was the one track that stymied him . before his swan - song defeat in the breeders ' cup , he had finished 12th in the 1996 kentucky derby . after finishing second in the ensuing triple crown races , the preakness and the belmont , skip away finished the year with four wins in five starts and was voted divisional champion .\nskip away produced our beautiful mare and passed on incredible soundness , athleticism and jumping skills . he lives on through his foals - a racing superstar !\n- anne burke ( greenacres , wa )\nthe couple hope that the grey can eventually lower the all - time earnings record held by cigar . accordingly , skip away will in 1998 contest only those races exceeding half a million dollars in value .\nbefore skip away , hine had already won more than 1 , 000 races , including the florida derby with technology in 1992 . in 1981 , he trained guilty conscience , who was voted best sprinter .\n\u201cskip trial was a farm stalwart and favorite , \u201d said bridlewood general manager george g . isaacs .\non oct . 17 , i was graciously invited to attend a benefit for old friends , the thoroughbred retirement facility near georgetown , ky . honoring hall of fame members skip away , noor , and precisionist .\nskip away , the 1998 horse of the year and currently third on the all - time leading earners list in north america , dies of heart attack at rick trontz ' hopewell farm near midway , ky .\nlexington , ky . ( ap ) \u2014 skip away , the third - richest north american racehorse in history , died from a heart attack friday at the central kentucky farm where he stood as a stallion .\nas of november 18 , 2014 , skip away has sired 301 winners ( 57 . 7 % ) and 21 stakes ( 4 . 0 % ) winners from 522 foals of racing age per jockey club records\nthe money rolled in , but that seemed incidental . when skip away came to california , earning $ 2 . 28 million for winning the 1997 breeders ' cup classic at hollywood park , the hines traveled on a no - frills airline and celebrated after the race with cheese and crackers in their hotel room . they had to risk a $ 480 , 000 supplementary fee simply to get skip away into the race .\nhine accepted , but his partner in the deal , not wanting to risk an investment on a horse with potential problems , dropped out . then , skip away ' s problem ankle healed on its own .\nskip away , 1998 horse of the year , will stand the 2004 for $ 15 , 000 , down $ 5 , 000 from his past fee , at rick trontz ' hopewell farm near midway , ky .\ngulfstream park ' s broward handicap was renamed the skip away handicap in 2001 . as of 2016 , the race is a grade iii event for 4 - year - olds and up at 9 furlongs on dirt .\nfavorite cigar street edges clear of take charge indy to win gulfstream park ' s skip away stakes ( gr . iii ) by two lengths . he covers the 1 3 / 16 miles in 1 : 56 . 84 .\nduring a career of fierce competition from coast to coast skip away ran against a much larger racing population of horses than nashua , damascus , never bend and man o\u2019 war , his immortal super star ancestors . big , powerful , fast , versatile , and sound , skip away , the 1998 horse of the year , and eclipse award winner in 1996 , 1997 and 1998 is truly one of the most remarkable thoroughbreds to race in the twentieth century .\nchampion steeplechaser slip away and skipshot , who won the swaps stakes , are considered two of his most noteworthy offspring .\nneither the $ 480 , 000 the hineses paid as a supplementary payment to enable skip away to run in the breeders ' cup classic nor the triple crown potential of favorite trick should be entered into the horse of the year equation .\ndubai world cup , dubai golden shaheen , dubai turf , al quoz sprint , happy valley vase , san luis rey , bourbonette oaks , fear the cowboy , skip away , sunland park derby , jack cincinnati casino spiral , and more .\ngottcha gold often likes to set the pace , but the centaur farms florida homebred stalked his way straight to the winner ' s circle march 15 in the $ 150 , 000 skip away handicap ( gr . iii ) at gulfstream park .\ntrainer claude\nshug\nmcgaughey and jockey kent desormeaux , along with equine stars skip away < / a > and flawlessly were announced tuesday as inductees for the class of 2004 for the national museum of racing ' s hall of fame .\nthanks to the marvelous work of his trainer sonny hine , skip away did his racing without the use of extreme medication which is so much a part of today\u2019s racing environment . he wore queen\u2019s plates ( flat horseshoes ) in front and just shoes with toe grabs on his rear feet . his racetrack vet bills were rarely much over $ 100 per month . as sonny\u2019s vets said ,\nif we had to rely on skip away for income , they would quit practicing .\nalthough skip away and favorite trick were considered the most likely to succeed in the horse of the year ballot box race , the names of a few excused absentees were bandied about while the dust was settling from the breeders ' cup races .\nfort larned drew away to win the grade 3 skip away stakes at gulfstream park by two and a half lengths over alma d\u2019oro , setting a new track record in the process . self control finished third . fort larned is a 4 - year - old colt by e dubai trained by i . r . wilkes and ridden by julien leparoux . time [ \u2026 ]\nthis week is a race story headlined , \u201cskipper shipper , \u201d written by steve hettinger recapping skip away ' s victory in the 1996 ohio derby ( g2 ) . the story ran in the june 29 , 1996 issue of the blood - horse .\nfront - running eurosilver recorded his first graded stakes win in 18 months when he held off 21 - 1 outsider twilight road by a half - length in the $ 100 , 000 skip away handicap ( gr . iii ) at gulfstream park saturday .\nas he was a full brother to three - time champion skip away , whom many consider as one of the greatest racehorses of all time , big things were expected from skipingo when he was purchased as a yearling for $ 300 , 000 in 1998 .\nskip away , who ' ll make his first start this year in gulfstream park ' s grade i donn handicap , may be the best horse in north america today as he proved to be when he made his last start on breeders ' cup day .\nskip away raced in the name of carolyn hine , the trainer ' s wife . the hines had no children , and their beloved\nskippy\nbecame an object of affection as they traveled the country , knocking off rivals from new york to california .\nwhen have we last seen a colt like skip away , who could run for 4 consecutive years , maintain first class stakes form , and never leave the racetrack . skip away race all over the country , shrugged off injury while continuing to compete and win top quality races , while running uninterrupted against elite competition in virtually every race of his career ? the answer is maybe never . indeed , in today\u2019s racing world , its seems almost impossible for a horse to compete at the top level of competition and stay sound .\nskip away , as a 5 - year - old campaigned by carolyn hine and her husband , trainer sonny hine , collected 193 votes , almost 83 % of the 233 cast . finishing a distant second , with 34 votes , was awesome again , winner of the breeders ' cup classic and undefeated in six starts , but a horse who ducked many of the big races . skip away won five grade i races , including a trip west for the hollywood gold cup ; awesome again won only two grade i ' s .\nthe winners were honored tuesday night at a dinner in bal harbour , fla . , not far from where the hineses bought skip away as an unraced 2 - year - old for $ 30 , 000 in 1995 . they received a rebate of $ 7 , 500 the next day when x - rays showed that the florida - bred son of skip trial and ingot way had a chipped ankle .\nken and sarah ramsey ' s slip away swept to the lead approaching the springdale course ' s final turn and powered away to a remarkable 25 3 / 4 - length victory in the colonial cup steeplechase at camden , s . c . , on nov . 13 .\nhallandale beach , fla . \u2013 valid bounced back from a disastrous trip in the gulfstream park handicap to prove a popular and relatively easy 1 3 / 4 - length winner over team colors in saturday\u2019s grade 3 , $ 150 , 000 skip away stakes at gulfstream park .\npaul pompa jr . ' s zakocity , who finished third in the gulfstream park handicap ( gr . ii ) behind eddington and pies prospect march 5 , will tote high weight of 117 pounds saturday in the skip away handicap ( gr . iii ) at gulfstream park .\nthe rest is left to the breeders , many who have northern dancer and mr . prospector mixes in their broodmare bands . as a stallion skip away , will provides the ingredients needed , to breed a sound , classy , versatile , fast american thoroughbred of the future .\nthe next year , 1997 , skip away won the jockey club gold cup again and finished the season with a six - length win in the breeders ' cup at hollywood , but favorite trick beat him out for horse of the year and the hines were bitterly disappointed .\nbest known as the sire of hall of fame champion and horse of the year skip away ( $ 9 , 616 , 360 ) , skip trial sired 22 crops in a long and distinguished career . skip trial sired 28 stakes winners , 26 stakes - placed runners , and earners of $ 34 , 566 , 723 to date , and his average earnings per starter of $ 85 , 774 ranks him among the top 2 % of sires . he has had 11 starters in 2012 , with one winner and earnings of $ 28 , 329 . pensioned from breeding in 2010 , skip trial has five registered foals of 2009 , and one registered two - year - old of 2012 .\nsonny knew his horse . skip away romped by six lengths in the 1997 classic at hollywood park , setting a record of 1 : 59 : 16 under another new rider , mike smith . the reward for their faith in him was a cool $ 2 . 3 million .\nduring the last 30 years , the horse of the year has won more than 72 percent of his or her races . only two have won less than 50 percent . if skip away is crowned horse of the year he will have the worst winning percentage in this time frame .\ni think skip away kept sonny going ,\ncarolyn hine said following skippy\u2019s induction into the hall of fame .\nhe gave him some more years , more life . skippy wasn\u2019t a horse to us , he was a member of our family . he was a blessing .\nfort larned made his first two starts of the year at tampa bay downs , finishing fourth against mid - level starter handicap competition before returning to win the challenger stakes earlier this month , two performances which set up fort larned for the best race of his career in the grade 3 skip away .\nbut skip away ' s last two races - - against a soft field in the jockey club gold cup at belmont and versus a no - better - than - average field in the breeders ' cup classic - - allowed him to be selected 1997 north america ' s champion older male horse .\nother division winners were skip away , best older male ; answer lively , 2 - year - old male ; banshee breeze , 3 - year - old filly ; buck ' s boy , male on grass ; fiji , female on grass ; reraise , sprinter , and flat top , steeplechaser .\ntime healed skip away ' s ankle , and he finished his four - year career with 18 wins in 38 starts , his purses of $ 9 , 616 , 360 second only to cigar ' s $ 9 , 999 , 815 . because skip away wasn ' t eligible , carolyn hine supplemented him into the 1997 breeders ' cup at hollywood park for $ 480 , 000 . he won by six lengths , earning $ 2 . 1 million . but favorite trick went undefeated in eight starts , becoming the first 2 - year - old to win horse of the year since secretariat in 1972 .\nand carolyn never had any problem spotting skip away . he finished in the top three in all but four of his 38 races , winning 18 times with 10 second - place finishes and six third - place showings for earnings of $ 9 , 616 , 360 while providing memories to last a lifetime .\nskip away ' s stud fee had declined as a stallion in recent years , but trontz said he did have some success \u2014 although none of his progeny matched his own success on the racetrack . hopewell ' s website says he produced 48 stakes winners accounting for more than $ 17 million in earnings .\nsonny hine bought skip away for $ 30 , 000 at an auction in ocala , fla . , but after the sale learned that the colt might need surgery for an ankle chip . the seller , hilmer schmidt , offered hine a $ 7 , 500 discount to cover the cost of the surgery .\nskip away is inbred 5x5 to mahmoud . he is a half brother to ingot ' s dance away ( by gate dancer ) , dam of grade iii winner dance away capote ( by capote ) and stakes winner platinum couple ( by tale of the cat ) . his dam , ingot way , is a stakes - winning full sister to grade iii winner ingot ' s ruler and is out of ingot , a winning daughter of iron ruler . the next dam in the tail - female line , glorious night , is a winner by 1953 kentucky derby winner dark star out of the count fleet mare queen fleet\nthe last time bowman ' s band raced 8 1 / 2 furlongs he lost the hal ' s hope handicap ( gr . iii ) to puzzlement by a neck . perhaps he ' ll have the advantage this time around as he competes in saturday ' s skip away handicap ( gr . iii ) .\ncolorful sonny hine , the trainer who bought skip away , a problematic , unraced colt , for $ 22 , 500 and retired him four years later with a horse - of - the - year title and near - record earnings of $ 9 . 6 million , died friday at a hospital in miami .\nit turned out to be quite a deal all the way around ,\nhine said as skip away ' s spectacular career wound down .\ni got the horse for only $ 22 , 500 , i got rid of a partner and now my wife can go shopping any time she wants .\nhowever , his 3 - year - old debut failed miserably to meet those expectations as skip away was eased in distress in a 1 1 / 16 - mile allowance at gulfstream in early january . one month and 180 degrees later , he posted a 12 - length drubbing in a race with similar conditions .\nthe hines , who met on a blind date , were married for 37 years . in 1995 , skip away was a birthday gift for carolyn hine , who wanted a gray horse so that she ' d be able to easily see him when he ran . she suffered from impaired vision in her right eye .\nskip away ( usa ) gr . h , 1993 { 14 - f } dp = 5 - 6 - 8 - 1 - 0 ( 20 ) di = 3 . 00 cd = 0 . 75 - 38 starts , 18 wins , 10 places , 6 shows career earnings : $ 9 , 616 , 360\nif you remember the very sad story , that skip ' s fury died in a slaughterhouse in 2002 . she was by skip trial . . somebody tried to rescue her but she was already checked by a vet and ther was no way back for her . i wonder if the owner had any idea about it . . .\nskip away , a son of skip trial ( winner of the 1985 ohio derby ) , added grade 1 wins in the haskell invitational handicap , the woodbine million stakes , and the jockey club gold cup to earn his first of four year - end championships which included horse of the year in 1998 . upon retirement he had 10 grade 1 victories in total , including his six - length romp in the 1997 breeders ' cup classic and would be enshrined in the racing hall of fame in 2004 .\nskip away raced for carolyn hine and was trained by hubert\nsonny\nhine . he won 18 of 38 races and earned $ 9 , 616 , 360 - - third best on the all - time north american money list behind curlin and cigar\u2014and was inducted into racing\u2019s hall of fame in his first year of eligibility in 2004 .\nhallandale beach , fla . - fort larned , who has shown steady improvement since getting to florida this winter , became a track record holder as well as a graded stakes winner for the first time after registering an impressive 2 1 / 2 - length victory over alma d\u2019oro in saturday\u2019s $ 100 , 000 skip away at gulfstream park .\none of skip away ' s career highlights was defeating cigar in the first of two victories in the jockey club gold cup . he also won the grade 1 blue grass stakes , woodbine million and buick haskell invitational as a 3 - year - old , as well as the breeders ' cup classic and hollywood gold cup later in his career .\nit ' s politics ,\nsonny hine said at the time , but a year later , with skip away well on his way to the title that had eluded him , he seemed to toss off his grudge when he said :\nit ' s like today ' s fish . you wrap it in yesterday ' s newspaper .\nken and sarah ramsey ' s homebred slip away is named 2010 champion steeplechaser based on his 25 - plus length score in the colonial cup hurdle stakes ( nsa - i ) .\nthe public is invited to the national museum of racing ' s annual hall of fame ceremony , monday , aug . 9 at the fasig - tipton sales pavilion . members of the hall of fame class of 2004 include trainer claude\nshug\nmcgaughey , jockeys kent desormeaux and jimmy winkfield , and thoroughbred champions bowl of flowers , flawlessly , and skip away .\nas good as he was at ages 3 and 4 , skip away saved the best for last . in his final year of racing , at age 5 , skippy won seven of nine starts and earned $ 2 . 7 million . the campaign included seven consecutive wins\u2014five of them in grade i stakes\u2014at six different tracks . he carried 130 pounds or more in two of those wins . his attempt to score back - to - back wins in the breeders\u2019 cup classic failed when the horse finished sixth at churchill downs , reinforcing a belief that he never had an affinity for the surface at the louisville , ky . , oval . honored with a second eclipse as champion older male , skip away was also voted horse of the year .\naccording to eclipse award election rules , the winner must get a plurality of votes from two of the three blocs , and skip away dominated all three . he received 121 of the 142 turf writers ' votes , 46 of 55 from the daily racing form and 26 of 36 from track racing secretaries . one ballot apparently didn ' t list a choice for horse of the year .\nhi stealingkat skip away ' s always been a tough sales horse . . . but that ' s probably not a surprise . for starters . . . i suggest he was overpriced ( especially at the outset of his career as a stallion ) . . . which seemed to generate some negative comment . . . while at the same time raising the bar on expectations ( based on an advertised stud fee of $ 50k ) . although an elite super - star race horse ( champion and horse of the year ) . . . $ 9 . 6 mil earner skip away lacks a\nfancy\npedigree . . . and his sire ( skip trial ) was never the kind of horse that generated\nbuzz .\nthe proof may be in the pudding ( and possibly shed some light on the discussion ) when you consider that skip away himself was hammered - down for $ 30k as a two - year - old in training . although arguably a good two - year - old himself . . . sa was not a brilliant - fast early stakes - winner ; the kind that might have generated the enthusiasm ( and possible\ntalk\n) that often seems to stoke the market . as might have been expected skip away rarely gets the\nearly\nkind that often seem to capture the imagination . . . and draw attention to their sire ( s ) . his lack of two - year - old pizzazz seems to exclude him ( probably to a very large degree ) as a pinhookers ' sire . . . which arguably affects his sales numbers . all things considered . . . i suggest that he is turning out to be a genuine and consistent sire of some very nice race horses , including a relatively high - percentage of stakes - horses . it would not surprise me to see sa sire some top handicap horses . . . and continue to sire many allowance . . . stakes and graded horses . . . and be stamped as that kind of sire . i suggest that skip away is proving to be a very solid sire . . . and making believers out of many former naysayers . respectfully\nsonny , who was diagnosed with cancer in 1996 , died in 2000 at age 69 . skip away , inducted into the hall of fame in 2004 , succumbed to an apparent heart attack 10 years after his trainer passed . he is buried at the old friends farm in georgetown , ky . carolyn carries on , still very much in love with sonny and the horse of their dreams .\nthat said , his first few crops have been wonderful in terms of soundness and consistency . one of my favorite horses to follow is a skip away mare by name of muir beach . . . of her last 6 runs , all have been listed stakes and she has won most of them . she runs dirt or turf , from 6f to 8 . 5f and usually wins with style .\ni bought skip trial for $ 25 , 000 ,\nhine said .\nhe had chips in a couple of ankles and his knees , but it didn ' t bother him .\nskip away was arguably at his best at 5 , when he was honored as horse of the year in 1998 . although he failed to repeat in the classic , again struggling with a churchill downs surface that can be a difficult adjustment for some horses , his final season was highlighted by a seven - race winning streak \u2013 all with bailey at the reins - that included five grade 1 victories .\nchampion nashua is the sire of skip away\u2019s very successful broodmare sire diplomat way . arlington - washington futurity winner diplomat way whose race record includes 46 starts with 14 wins , 10 seconds and 7 thirds , winning or placing in 19 stakes , is the sire of 34 stakes winners . more significant is the fact that diplomat way is broodmare sire of 50 mares who have produced 65 stakes winners from his 245 daughters for an outstanding 20 % stakes producing mares . diplomat way boasts an impressive total broodmare sire earnings of $ 46 , 241 , 361 . the noted runners from these mares encompass 6 champions including skip away and prominent stakes winners , farma way ( $ 2 , 867 , 175 - g1 ) , exclusive partner , general practitioner , explosive bid , frosty the snowman , la soufriere , etc .\ntale of the cat has sired grade one winner my trusty cat out of a mare by private account , from the damascus line , and private account can be brought in through private terms ( sire of afternoon deelites ) , corporate report , personal flag , secret hello and unaccounted for ( who is potentially particularly interesting ) . there are also two tale of the cat line stakes winners out of mares by time for a change ( sire of fly so free and time bandit ) . other damascus strains to consider are gilded time , crusader sword , eastern echo , ogygian , skip away and skip trial .\n< a href =\nurltoken\ntarget =\n_ blank\n> skip away < / a > , a four - time eclipse award winner and the second leading north american earner of all - time , was elected into racing ' s hall of fame in his first year of eligibility . his trainer , the late hubert\nsonny\nhine , was inducted into the hall of fame last august .\n, fort larned notched his first graded win in the skip away , which was contested over a track that was rated fast . the bay colt came into the race off of a 1 1 / 4 - length victory in the march 3 challenger stakes at tampa bay downs . in his 2012 debut in february , he had finished fourth in a 1 1 / 16 - mile handicap event at tampa bay .\ntrainers shug mcgaughey and nick zito and 1998 horse of the year skip away are among the candidates for election to the national museum of racing ' s hall of fame in their first year of eligibility , museum president john t . von stade announced monday , april 4 . more than 140 members of the racing media will vote on the hall of fame , and the one winner in each category will be announced via teleconference on may 25 .\nskip away\u2019s 4 - year - old campaign eventually brought a jockey change from shane sellers to jerry bailey ; the new team prospered by rattling off eight consecutive victories . the big decision that year involved whether to pay $ 480 , 000 to supplement the florida - bred to the breeders\u2019 cup classic . the hines never had much before their beloved \u201cskippy\u201d arrived and he was treated with the affection of a child they never had , adding to the complexity of the situation .\nthe couple settled on skip away , purchasing him for $ 30 , 000 , only to be told by their veterinarian to return him because x - rays revealed bone chips in one ankle . although the hines did so , they were so disappointed that sonny pulled over at the side of the road . there was something about that horse . they returned to speak to the seller , who provided a $ 7 , 500 discount to cover an ankle operation that proved unnecessary .\nunder the steady hand of hine , a former f . b . i . agent who had been invaluable to the government because he spoke mandarin chinese fluently , skip away seemed to get better with every race . his first stakes win came as a 3 - year - old , when he routed eventual preakness winner louis quatorze by six lengths in the blue grass stakes and set a stakes record on a wet - fast track at keeneland race course in lexington , ky .\nthe son of skip trial , out of the diplomat way mare ingot way , was 17 years old . as a sire , he is represented by 20 stakes winners . he stood at hopewell farm since his retirement following his 1998 campaign .\nstuart janney ' s homebred hunting has not raced since a third - place finish behind evening attire in the dec . 8 queens county handicap ( gr . iii ) , but the 5 - year - old son of coronado ' s quest could return to winning form in the $ 150 , 000 skip away handicap ( gr . iii ) at gulfstream park . he ' ll tackle gottcha gold , dr . pleasure , better than bonds , and others in the march 15 event .\nchampions never bend and nashua are sons of nasrullah who appear in skip away\u2019s pedigree in the form of his descendants . you can inbreed to nasrullah with bold ruler line horses like seattle slew mares or secretariat mares using a different inbreeding pattern than that which is conventionally used . this is another approach to breeding soundness and not giving up speed which is so much a desirable part of the american thoroughbred . new york maiden special weights and allowance winner , heart of a champion is inbred .\nfoaled at indian hill farm in florida , skip away was bred by anna marie barnhart . he was owned by carolyn hine , whose husband hubert\nsonny\nhine purchased the colt for her as a birthday gift for us $ 30 , 000 at the 1995 ocala breeders sales february 2 - year - olds in training sale . after learning that the colt had a chip in his knee , ms . barnhart agreed to refund us $ 7 , 500 of the colt ' s purchase price to cover the cost of knee surgery , which never took place . skip away was trained by sonny hine , and the hines turned down a us $ 5 million offer for their beloved colt following his impressive win in the 1996 toyota blue grass stakes . following his retirement from racing , \u201cskippy\u201d entered stud at hopewell farm in kentucky in 1999 . he died of a heart attack at hopewell in 2010 and was buried at the old friends thoroughbred retirement farm near georgetown , kentucky .\n\u201ci could not possibly be more thrilled than to be more than 100 miles away from washington swamp spending my evening with all of you and with a much , much larger crowd , and much better people , \u201d trump told the crowd then .\na tough , consistent competitor , skip away failed to win a classic race but did everything else that could be expected of a top american racehorse . for three consecutive seasons , he danced all the major dances on the east coast , earning the nickname \u201cthe iron horse , \u201d and he made a successful raid on california at age 5 . except at churchill downs , a track he clearly loathed , he could always be counted on to give his best . his record at stud was unimpressive .\nchampion never bend , who boasts a races record is 23 starts with 13 wins , 4 seconds and 4 thirds is the sire of mill reef and courtly dee . he is also the sire of iron ruler , the very successful broodmare sire of skip away\u2019s second dam . jerome stakes winner iron ruler , whose race record includes 35 starts with 9 wins , 13 seconds and 9 thirds , winning or placing in 22 stakes races , is the sire of 30 stakes winners including preakness - g1 winner aloma\u2019s ruler . iron ruler is the broodmare sire of 50 stakes winners including the prominent stakes winners stalwart , box office gold , muskoka wyck , avie\u2019s copy , etc . the first winner by skip away is heart ofa champion who is inbred 5s x 4d to never bend and is also inbred to nasrullah 5s x 6s x 6d x 5d x 7d . thus the fantastic speed of heart of a champion can easily be attributed to the never bend inbreed . keep in mind that the speed ball is four generations free of inbreeding .\nthe race was supposed to do two things \u2013 offer a fitting new york swan song to locally based cigar and provide clarity on a somewhat muddled three - year - old division . the latter was accomplished in spades , the former just slightly less so . perhaps he was too far back . perhaps at the age of six cigar had lost a step . perhaps , as he had received the baton from a gray rival , it was time to pass it on to one . whatever the reason , cigar\u2019s furious late rally fell just a head shy of skip away , half his age and on the improve . cigar would go on to a third place finish in the breeders\u2019 cup classic pushing his earnings to $ 9 , 999 , 815 , a record at the time , and take home his second straight champion older horse and horse of the year trophies . skip away was named that year\u2019s champion three - year - old , twice champion older horse , 1998\u2019s horse of the year , and retired with earnings of $ 9 , 616 , 360 . both were inducted in to the hall of fame .\nalthough there were those who referred to him as\nsonny whine ,\nbecause of his penchant for complaining when his luck went bad , hine was a congenial , roly - poly horseman who followed his father into racing . on the night sonny hine graduated from high school in 1948 , he hitchhiked to the charles town track in west virginia to start a training career that peaked with the fortuitous arrival of skip away , voted best 3 - year - old colt in 1996 , best older male in 1997 and ' 98 , and horse of the year in ' 98 .\nskip away and his ancestors , represent the much needed racing soundness , now so absent in the american thoroughbred . we need to face the fact that the racing soundness of the american thoroughbred has become a crisis situation . let us not blame the trainers and the racing surfaces for causing so many break downs , but rather the way in which horses are being bred in the united states . far to many horses are retired to stud with very short racing careers . their unsoundness is passed on and then inbred which virtually guarantees more weaknesses for the racehorses to be born in the future .\nthe death of skip trial was announced by bridlewood farm in ocala , florida , where he had stood for his entire stud career , since 1988 . he had been pensioned from stud in 2010 and was euthanized on may 1 owing to the infirmities of old age and will be buried in the farm cemetery\nthe kennedy center honors is not the first major televised event that potus has decided not to attend . in february , he announced he would skip the white house correspondents\u2019 dinner , which was held on april 29 . the event ultimately went on without him , hosted by the daily show \u2018s hasan minhaj .\nfifteen days after his belmont attempt , the hines shipped skip away to cleveland for the $ 300 , 000 ohio derby ( g2 ) at 1 1 / 8 miles on the dirt june 26 . facing nine other sophomores , the odds - on favorite with jockey jose santos had little trouble dismissing the coolmore - connected victory speech by 3 1 / 2 lengths . another 9 1 / 4 lengths back was clash by night in third . the nine - furlong time was 1 : 47 4 / 5 , just off the 1 : 47 2 / 5 track record set by smarten when he took the 1979 ohio derby .\nin his next two starts , skippy showed the derby effort was an anomaly by running second in both the preakness stakes ( gr . i ) and belmont stakes ( gr . i ) . in one of his best performances of the season , skip away won a stretch duel with cigar to take the jockey club gold cup ( gr . i ) . with a seasonal tally of 6 - 2 - 2 in 12 starts and additional wins in the woodbine million and buick haskell invitational handicap ( both gr . i ) , the tough little colt was honored with an eclipse award as champion 3 - year - old male of 1996 .\nhe was bred in florida by anna marie barnhart , who inherited the mare ingot way following the death of her husband in 1984 .\nskippy ,\nas he was affectionately called by his owner and trainer , was raised in florida at hilmer schmidt\u2019s indian hill farm . consigned by indian hill to a 2 - year - olds in training sale in ocala , skip away was purchased by the hines for $ 30 , 000 . following the purchase , however , the new owners detected a bone chip in skippy\u2019s knee and the breeder agreed to discount the purchase price by $ 7 , 500 , the cost of surgery to correct the problem . the surgery was never performed on the horse .\nskippy\u2019s 4 - year - old season began slowly , as he failed to win in his first four efforts . but he rounded into form sufficiently enough to complete the year with a 4 - 5 - 2 record in 11 starts and earnings of $ 4 . 1 million . included in his triumphs that year were impressive wins in the jockey club gold cup and breeders\u2019 cup classic ( both gr . i ) , the latter in which he romped by six lengths . honored as champion older male horse , skip away was denied an eclipse award as horse of the year , an honor that went to 2 - year - old champion favorite trick . carolyn hine was also honored with an eclipse as outstanding owner .\njerry bailey , who rode skip away in all of his races last year , missed on a fourth consecutive eclipse award for jockey when gary stevens was named on 164 of the 234 ballots that were cast . for stevens , who was voted into the racing hall of fame in 1997 , this was an eclipse that was long overdue . he led the country in purses with $ 19 . 3 million , despite missing almost two months because of surgery on both knees , and rode silverbulletday and escena , who also won titles . silverbulletday , champion 2 - year - old filly , was the easiest winner , getting all the votes in her division except one that went to stablemate excellent meeting . escena outpolled the undefeated sharp cat , 135 - 94 , in the voting for best older female .\nledecky lapped three swimmers in her timed - final heat of the 1 , 500 , unheard - of in an international competition . she finished 40 meters ahead of her nearest challenger , lauren boyle of new zealand , who finished in 15 : 55 . 69 . describing the race as \u201cprobably one of my most painful races , \u201d ledecky said , \u201ci didn\u2019t want to come away from the meet with a little bit of , like , oh , that was just o . k . so i just dug in deep . \u201d"]}
{"id": 1547, "summary": [{"text": "epiphthora melanombra is a moth of the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by meyrick in 1888 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in new zealand .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 10 \u2013 11 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are whitish densely irrorated with black , appearing grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a suffused blackish spot in the disc before the middle , another on the anal angle , and a third less apparent towards the apex .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae mine blotches in the leaves of olearia avicenniaefolia . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "epiphthora melanombra", "paragraphs": ["epiphthora acrocola turner , 1927 ; pap . proc . r . soc . tasm . 1926 : 136\nepiphthora hyperaenicta turner , 1927 ; pap . proc . r . soc . tasm . 1926 : 137\nepiphthora delochorda lower , 1918 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 42 : 237 ; tl : pinnaroo , south ausralia\nepiphthora poliopasta turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 110 ; tl : queensland , maroochydore near caloundra\nepiphthora acropasta turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 110 ; tl : queensland , stradbroke i .\nepiphthora leptoconia turner , 1919 ; proc . r . soc . qd 31 ( 10 ) : 110 ; tl : new south wales , mt kosciusko\nepiphthora microtima meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 267 ; tl : brisbane , queensland\nepiphthora cryolopha meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 265 ; tl : cooktown , queensland\nepiphthora thyellias meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 262 ; tl : melbourne , victoria\nepiphthora niphaula meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 263 ; tl : launceston , tasmania\nepiphthora autoleuca meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 264 ; tl : gisborne , victoria\nepiphthora megalornis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 261 ; tl : perth , west australia\nepiphthora belonodes meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 261 ; tl : geraldton , west australia\nepiphthora coniombra meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 267 ; tl : bathurst , new south wales\nepiphthora drosias meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 262 ; tl : port lincoln , south ausralia\nepiphthora isonira meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 264 ; tl : blackheath , new south wales\nepiphthora achnias meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 266 ; tl : picton , new south wales\nepiphthora phantasta meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 255 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nepiphthora lemurella meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 262 ; tl : blackheath , new south wales\nepiphthora psychrodes meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 263 ; tl : sydney , new south wales\nepiphthora harpastis meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 267 ; tl : perth and albany , west australia\nepiphthora leucomichla meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 265 ; tl : sydney , new south wales ; deloraine , tasmania\nepiphthora spectrella meyrick , 1904 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 29 ( 2 ) : 266 ; tl : lilydale , victoria ; deloraine , tasmania ; adelaide , south australia\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n[ read before the philosophical institute of canterbury , 6 th october , 1887 . ]\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue well - developed . antenn\u00e6 \u2158 , in male serrate , simple , basal joint elongate , with strong pecten . labial palpi moderate , arched , ascending , second joint with appressed scales , slightly rough beneath , dilated towards apex , terminal joint short , half as long as second , slightly thickened with scales , pointed , not acute . maxillary palpi obsolete . posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with long hairs above and beneath . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from \u2154 of cell , 4\u20137 approximated from narrow end of cell , 7 to costa , 8 absent ( coincident with 7 ) , 11 from about middle of cell . hindwings \u00be , elongate - oblong , narrow , hindmargin rectangularly emarginate beneath very strongly produced apex , cilia 4 ; veins 2\u20134 moderately remote , transverse vein absent , 5 and 6 absent , 7 to apex , 8 short , consisting almost wholly of a furcation towards base , of which the lower fork runs into 7 .\nmale , female . \u201410\u201311 mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , abdomen and legs whitish , densely irrorated with black , appearing grey . forewings elongate , pointed , apex subcaudate ; whitish densely irrorated with black , appearing grey ; a suffused blackish spot in disc before middle , another on anal angle , and a third less apparent towards apex : cilia grey , round apex whitish irrorated with black . hindwings and cilia grey .\nchristchurch ; bred commonly by mr . r . w . fereday , in december , from larv\u00e6 mining blotches in the leaves of olearia avicenni\u0153folia ( an evergreen shrub belonging to the composit\u0153 ) in november . i am indebted to his kindness for specimens .\nhead loosely haired ; no ocelli ; tongue well - developed . antenn\u00e6 \u215a , in male filiform , simple , basal joint moderately elongate , without pecten . labial palpi long , recurved , second joint thickened with appressed scales , terminal joint as long as second , slender , acute . maxillary palpi short , drooping . abdomen tolerably flattened , in male strongly margined . posterior\ntibi\u00e6 clothed with long hairs above . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from \u2158 of cell , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to costa , 11 from middle of cell . hindwings as broad as forewings , trapezoidalovate , apex and hindmargin rounded , cilia \u2154 ; veins 3 and 4 from a point , 6 and 7 tolerably parallel .\nmale , female . \u201416\u201318 mm . head yellow - ochreous , crown mixed with dark fuscous . palpi yellow - ochreous , terminal joint and a subapical band of second dark fuscous . antenn\u00e6 dark fuscous , in female annulated with whitish - ochreous . thorax in male dark fuscous , in female yellow - ochreous , with shoulders and a dorsal streak dark fuscous . abdomen grey . legs dark fuscous , ringed with whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate , rather narrow , costa gently arched , apex obtuse , hindmargin very obliquely rounded ; rather dark fuscous , strewn with yellow - ochreous scales , in female suffused with yellow - ochreous towards inner margin ; a longitudinal yellow - ochreous streak in disc from \u00bc to \u00be , in female extended to base ; a cloudy dark fuscous dot on this streak at \u2153 , a second beyond middle , and a third on fold obliquely beyond first ; a yellow - ochreous transverse line , in male ill - defined , from \u2158 of costa to anal angle , sharply angulated in middle , indented beneath costa ; an irregular yellow - ochreous hindmarginal line : cilia pale yellow - ochreous , with a rather dark fuscous basal line , in male also with a fuscous median line . hindwings and cilia grey .\nwhangarei and nelson , in december and january ; two specimens , amongst forest . the differences indicated between these two specimens may be either sexual or merely individual .\nantenn\u00e6 in male with long fine ciliations ( 3 ) , basal joint with pecten . palpi long , second joint exceeding base of antenn\u00e6 , smoothly scaled , terminal joint shorter than second , slender . thorax smooth . forewings with vein 2 from very near angle of cell , 7 to hindmargin . hindwings almost as broad as forewings , elongate - ovate , cilia \u2157 ; neuration normal .\nat present represented by about twenty australian and one european species ; the following species seems truly referable here , and is presumably a straggler .\nmale . \u201422\u201325 mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , and abdomen pale whitish - ochreous , sometimes brownish - tinged . legs fuscous , posterior pair whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate ,\ncosta moderately arched , slightly sinuate in middle , apex round - pointed , hindmargin very obliquely rounded ; whitish - ochreous , sometimes with scattered fuscous scales , especially on costal half anteriorly ; sometimes a dark fuscous suffusion towards base of costa ; two fuscous dots , somewhat obliquely placed , faintly indicated in disc before middle ; a conspicuous round dark fuscous dot in disk beyond middle ; sometimes a posterior transverse line indicated with dark fuscous scales , angulated in middle , indented above middle : cilia whitish - ochreous . hindwings whitish - ochreous , greyish - tinged , more or less suffused with light fuscous - grey , except towards base ; cilia pale whitish - ochreous .\narthur ' s pass ( 4 , 700 feet ) , and mount arthur ( 4 , 000 feet ) , in january ; three specimens . probably nearer the tasmanian p . cataxera than any other described species .\ndiffers from s . peroneanella only as follows : usually larger ; thorax with the two dorsal black marks united in front to form an irregular bar ; forewings with the black postmedian discal mark connected with the mark beneath middle of disc by a bar , and not touching costal spot above it ( in s . peroneanella it is connected with spot above it , and not with mark beneath middle of disc ) ; hindwings more whitish , the grey colour forming a discal spot and subterminal band ( in s . peroneanella the grey is generally diffused posteriorly ) .\nin my description of s . peroneanella this is included as a geographical ( south island ) form of that species ; as i now prefer to separate it as a distinct species , the said description should be corrected accordingly . the synonymy is correct as quoted .\ns . peroneanella occurs at auckland , hamilton , napier , and wellington ; s . mystis at nelson , christchurch , and dunedin ; both in december and january . i have seen a fair number of specimens , and the two forms appear constant .\nmale , female . \u201421\u201326 mm . head whitish , lower margin of face and maxillary palpi dark fuscous . palpi white , second joint with lower half and a subapical ring fuscous , terminal joint with a blackish median band . antenn\u00e6 dark fuscous . thorax whitish , with a few fuscous scales . abdomen grey - whitish . legs dark fuscous , posterior pair whitish . forewings elongate , costa slightly arched , apex obtuse , hindmargin nearly straight , rather oblique ; white , irregularly irrorated with light greyish - fuscous ; a small fuscous spot at base of costa , and a dot near base in middle ; a slender dark fuscous streak from \u00bc of costa to disc\nbefore middle , its extremity furcate ; a small fuscous spot beneath costa near beyond this ; a fuscous - grey suffused patch towards middle third of inner margin , and a similar roundish patch above anal angle ; an angulated dark fuscous mark in disc beyond middle ; a short oblique irregular cloudy fuscous streak from apex ; a hindmarginal row of cloudy fuscous dots : cilia whitish , irrorated with light greyish - fuscous . hindwings grey - whitish , faintly ochreous - tinged ; a faint darker discal dot ; a slight greyish suffusion towards apex ; cilia grey - whitish .\nwellington ; three specimens received from messrs . a . purdie and g . v . hudson .\nwellington ; several specimens taken by mr . g . v . hudson , to whose kindness i am indebted for a type .\nmale . \u201419\u201323 mm . head , palpi , and thorax light ochreous - yellow ; terminal joint of palpi white , anterior edge blackish . antenn\u00e6 dark fuscous , annulated with white . abdomen whitish - ochreous . legs rather dark fuscous , posterior tibi\u00e6 whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate , posteriorly dilated , costa moderately arched , apex acute , produced , hindmargin concave , very oblique ; light ochreous - yellow ; a light fuscous dot in disc at \u2153 , a second somewhat larger beyond middle , and a third obliquely beyond first on fold ; a narrow suffused light fuscous hindmarginal fascia , darkest posteriorly , becoming obsolete towards apex : cilia pale ochreous - yellow , beneath anal angle\nlight fuscous . hindwings ochreous - whitish , towards apex tinged with pale fuscous ; cilia ochreous - whitish , round apex fuscous - tinged .\nmale , female . \u201412\u201314 mm . head , palpi , and thorax dark fuscous mixed with pale whitish - ochreous , face whitish - ochreous . antenn\u00e6 dark fuscous , obscurely spotted with ochreous - whitish . abdomen dark fuscous , segmental margins sharply whitish . legs dark fuscous , ringed with whitish . forewings elongate , costa slightly arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin sinuate , oblique ; rather dark fuscous , with greenish reflections , irregularly irrorated with ochreous - whitish , and with some scattered yellowish scales ; a small round dark fuscous spot in disc before middle , and a second on fold obliquely beyond it , sometimes confluent , both sometimes margined posteriorly with whitish ; a whitish dot on costa before middle ; a subtriangular dark fuscous spot , mixed with yellowish and margined with blackish , in disc beyond middle , connected with costa by a dark fuscous suffusion ; an irregular whitish line from \u00be of costa to anal angle , slightly bent above middle , preceded on inner margin by a small blackish spot : cilia grey - whitish , beneath anal angle grey , with a grey post - median line , basal third ochreous - yellowish margined by a black line and tending to be spotted with blackish . hindwings dark fuscous , lighter on basal half , with an indistinct darker discal spot ; cilia fuscous - grey , with a blackish basal line .\nfemale . \u201417 mm . head and thorax whitish - ochreous . palpi whitish - ochreous , externally with a few dark fuscous scales . antenn\u00e6 whitish - ochreous , spotted with fuscous . abdomen grey - whitish . legs whitish - ochreous , anterior pair suffused with dark fuscous . forewings elongate , not dilated , costa gently arched , apex pointed , hindmargin very obliquely rounded ; whitish - ochreous ; a brownish - ochreous streak , its lower margin irregularly mixed with blackish - fuscous , along fold from a base to anal angle ; a dark fuscous dot in disc before middle , a second at \u2154 , and a third on submedian streak obliquely before first ; an irregular line of dark fuscous scales from \u00be of costa to anal angle , sharply angulated in middle , indented above middle : cilia whitish - ochreous . hindwings and cilia ochreous - grey - whitish .\nwellington ; a specimen received from mr . g . v . hudson , who has taken others . probably nearest to \u0153 . griseata .\nmount arthur ( 4 , 500 feet ) , in january ; abundant on the flowers of aciphylla , within a limited locality .\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue well - developed . antenn\u00e6 \u2158 , in male biciliated with fascicles ( 2\u20133 ) , basal joint moderate , without pecten . labial palpi moderately long , recurved , second joint exceeding base of antenn\u00e6 , thickened with appressed scales , terminal joint somewhat shorter than second , acute . maxillary palpi rudimentary . posterior tibi\u00e6 roughly haired above and beneath on basal half . forewings with vein 1 long - furcate , 2 from about \u00be , 3\u20135 approximated at base , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to about apex . hindwings broader than forewings , oblong - ovate , cilia \u2155\u2013\u00bd ; veins 3 and 4 from a point , 6 and 7 tolerably parallel , 1b pectinated .\nthe position of this genus ( referred here by zeller ) must be regarded at present as doubtful ; it appears to be a synthetic or undeveloped type , certainly having affinities with this family , but perhaps rather to be considered as an early unspecialised form of the gelechiad\u0153 . besides the two following , there is only one peruvian species known .\nhel . illita , feld . ( atychia illita , feld . , p1 . oxl , 32 . )\nvar . a . thorax and forewings almost wholly suffused with bright ferruginous , all markings absent .\nnelson and dunedin , in january ; flies actively in the sunshine over the tops of high leptospermum bushes ; seems local , but common where it occurs .\n( tachyptilia atychioides , butl . , proc . zool . soc . lond . , 1877 , 405 , pl . xliii . , 14 . )\nfemale ) , rarely with very obscure cloudy fuscous - whitish longitudinal streaks on basal half above and below median vein ; cilia light fuscous or whitish , rarely clear white , with dark fuscous basal line .\nwhangarei , hamilton , wellington , and christchurch ; common in december and january , frequenting . leptospermum , principally on coast sandhills .\nthe three additional mountain species here given are superficially very similar , but are easily separated by comparison of the markings of hindwings , and the metallic markings of forewings . i have an underscribed tasmanian species , which also approaches them nearly .\nmount arthur ( 3 , 900 feet ) , arthur ' s pass ( 3 , 000 feet ) , and castle hill ( 3 , 000 feet ) , in january ; common amongst rank herbage .\nlake wakatipu ( 2 , 200 feet ) , in december ; one specimen .\narthur ' s pass ( 3 , 000 to 3 , 500 feet ) , in january ; rather common .\nwhangarei , in december ; seven specimens , amongst forest ; a very handsome species .\nmale , female . \u201410\u201311 mm . head and thorax deep greyish - bronze , thorax with a small posterior white spot . palpi white , second joint with four black bands , terminal joint black in front . antenn\u00e6 and abdomen dark fuscous . legs dark fuscous , ringed with whitish . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin sinuate , oblique ; rather deep greyish - bronze , posterior half mixed with light bronzy - ochreous ; an ochreous - white oblique streak from costa at \u2153 , broadest in middle , apex acute , reaching half across wing ; a slender white slightly curved fascia from middle of costa to inner margin beyond middle , sometimes indistinct in disc , forming a small spot on inner margin ; a silvery - blue - metallic slightly curved\nslender fascia from \u2154 , of costa to \u00be , of inner margin , becoming white at extremities ; three short silvery - blue - metallic streaks from costa between this and apex , forming white dots on costa , last margining a round black apical spot ; a subtriangular black anal patch , containing four round violet - golden - metallic spots : cilia grey , with a blackish line near base , interrupted by a triangular white indentation above middle . hindwings dark grey ; cilia grey .\nmount arthur ( 4 , 000 feet ) , in january ; two specimens .\nmale , female . \u20148\u201311 mm . head and thorax dark bronzy - grey . palpi white , with four black bands , apex black in front . antenn\u00e6 and abdomen dark fuscous . legs dark fuscous , ringed with whitish . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin sinuate , oblique ; rather dark bronzy - fuscous or bronzy - grey , more or less densely irrorated with ochreous - whitish ; in pale specimens a small dark spot in disc towards base , and a fine angulated dark transverse line about \u2154 , beyond which is a whitish dot on inner margin ; about eight short wedge - shaped ochreous - whitish strigul\u00e6 from costa between \u2153 , and apex , first four often very obscure , fifth giving rise to a slender angulated pale golden - metallic fascia , which forms a very small whitish spot on inner margin , last three more distinct ,\nbecoming pale golden - metallic at apex ; a pale golden - metallic dot on hindmargin above middle ; a small round dark fuscous apical spot : cilia with basal half bronzy - grey limited by a strong black line triangularly indented above middle , terminal half white , tips grey , with a black apical hook . hindwings rather dark fuscous - grey ; cilia fuscous - grey .\nchristchurch , in february and march ; common on grassy volcanic hills . allied to g . acrothecta , but broader - winged , and differing in numerous details .\nmale , female . \u201415\u201320 mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , abdomen , and legs whitish - ochreous ; second joint of palpi with indications of fuscous bands ; anterior legs infuscated . fore - wings elongate , narrow , costa gently arched , apex in male round - pointed , in female very acute , hindmargin extremely obliquely rounded ; whitish - ochreous ; a few dark fuscous scales tending to form lines on veins : cilia whitish - ochreous . hind - wings pale whitish - grey , ochreous - tinged ; cilia whitish - ochreous .\nmount arthur ( 4 , 600 feet ) , in january ; six specimens .\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue short . antenn\u00e6 \u00be , in male filiform , shortly ciliated ( \u00bd ) , basal joint moderate , simple . labial palpi moderate , curved , porrected or subascending , loosely rough - scaled beneath throughout , terminal joint shorter than second , pointed . maxillary palpi obsolete . abdomen elongate . posterior tibi\u00e6 with appressed scales . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from near angle , 7 and 8 separate , 7 to hindmargin , 11 from before middle , secondary cell well - defined , hindwings \u00be , lanceolate , cilia 1 \u00bd ; veins 3 and 4 from a point , 6 and 7 rather approximated towards base .\nmale , female . \u201411\u201315 mm . head , thorax , and abdomen pale whitish - ochreous . palpi whitish . antenn\u00e6 grey . legs fuscous , posterior pair suffused with ochreous - whitish . forewings elongate - lanceolate , apex in female acuminate ; ochreous - whitish ; a moderate straight bronzy subcostal stripe from base to apex ; a cloudy ochreous streak along submedian fold , more or less obsolete posteriorly : cilia ochreous - whitish . hindwings in male grey , in female grey - whitish ; cilia ochreous - whitish .\nmale , female . \u201410\u201312 mm . head and thorax dark bronzy - fuscous . palpi dark fuscous , towards base whitish . antenn\u00e6 and abdomen dark fuscous . legs dark grey , apex of joints obscurely whitish . forewings lanceolate ; rather dark greyish - bronze : cilia light grey , costal cilia white . hindwings grey ; cilia light grey , on costa grey - whitish .\narthur ' s pass ( 3 , 000 to 4 , 000 feet ) , in january ; five specimens .\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue short . antenn\u00e6 almost 1 , in male serrulate , shortly ciliated ( \u2154 ) , basal joint moderate , simple . labial palpi moderate , filiform , curved , rather drooping , terminal joint as long as second , acute . maxillary palpi absolete . abdomen elongate . posterior tibi\u00e6 with appressed scales . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 almost from angle , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to hindmargin , 11 from before middle . hindwings \u2154 , lanceolate , cilia 1 \u00bd , ; veins 3 and 4 in male separate at origin , in female from a point , 6 and 7 tolerably parallel .\nin one specimen examined vein 5 of the hindwings was absent , but this would appear to be an accidental deformity .\nmale , female . \u201411\u201314 mm . head and thorax dark bronzy - fuscous , collar paler . palpi bronzy - fuscous , lighter towards base . antenn\u00e6 , abdomen , and legs dark fuscous . forewings elongate - lanceolate ; deep bronze , more or less irrorated with light bronzy - ochreous : cilia bronzy . hindwings and cilia dark fuscous .\nmakatoku ( hawke ' s bay ) , in march ; common , frequenting rushes ( juncus ) on the skirts of the forest .\nhead smooth ; ocelli present ; tongue well - developed . antenn\u00e6 1 , in male pubescent - ciliated ( \u00bd ) , joints closely set , basal joint elongate , without pecten . labial palpi very long , smooth , recurved , second joint somewhat thickened , terminal joint longer than second , slender , acute . maxillary palpi very short , appressed to tongue . posterior tibi\u00e6 somewhat rough - haired above on basal half . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from near angle , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to costa , 11 from middle . hindwings 1 , elongate - oblong , apex and hindmargin rounded , cilia almost 1 ; veins 3 and 4 from a point , 6 and 7 parallel .\ncomps . bifaciella , walk . ( gelechia bifaciella , walk . , 657 . )\nwhangarei , auckland , and wellington , in december and january ; common amongst forest .\nthe four additional species here recorded are exceedingly interesting , and the two species of pal\u00e6omicra extremely handsome . all are most difficult to see on the wing , in fact almost invisible ; much more difficult than the european species of micropteryx .\nin the two following species the tongue is well - developed , and vein 6 of the forewings is separate ; in all other respects the structure is identical with that of m . paracosma . the antenn\u00e6 in all the species are clothed with loose hair - scales , arranged in whorls at the joints ; the spurs of the middle tib\u00e6 are well - developed .\nmale , female . \u201411\u201312 mm . head white . palpi dark fuscous , apex broadly white . antenn\u00e6 whitish - ochreous , annulated with fuscous . thorax white . patagia dark fuscous . abdomen dark fuscous . legs dark fuscous , apex of joints ochreous - whitish . forewings lanceolate ; white , more or less partially suffused with pale whitish - yellowish ; a dark fuscous blotch occupying costal half of wing from base to \u00be , its posterior edge inwardly oblique ; a dark fuscous streak along inner margin from base , gradually narrowed , terminating in an outwardly oblique triangular dark fuscous spot , the apex of which touches lower posterior angle of\ncostal blotch ; apical third of wing pale brownish - ochreous , mixed with dark fuscous and a few white scales : cilia brownish - ochreous , with small white apical and median spots , above apex and towards anal angle dark fuscous . hindwings dark purple - fuscous ; cilia rather dark fuscous .\nnelson ( 1 , 500 to 3 , 500 feet ) , in january , amongst forest ; four specimens .\nin p . doroxena veins 7 and 8 of both wings are separate ; the point is probably not of much importance in this group , as it only implies a small shifting of one of the variable transverse bars , and the generic definition should be widened to include this case . the genus remains distinct from micropteryxa by the presence of the additional branch of vein 11 of forewings .\nmale , female . - 7\u20138 mm . head ferruginous or pale ochreous . palpi whitish - ochreous . antenn\u00e6 pale ochreous , with three more or less perceptible blackish bands . thorax whitish - yellowish . abdomen dark grey . anterior and middle legs whitish - ochreous , apex of joints black ; posterior legs dark grey , apex of joints whitish - ochreous . forewings oblong , costa abruptly bent near base , thence gently arched , apex acute , hind - margin straight , very oblique ; neuration quite as in p . chalco - phanes ; dark fuscous - purple , with bronzy reflections ; extreme base whitish - yellowish ; a moderately broad straight whitish - yellowish fascia before middle , generally narrowest above ; a\nwhitish - yellowish dot or small spot on costa about \u00be , variable in size , sometimes absent : cilia dark grey , with a rather large pale whitish - yellowish apical spot . hindwings dark purple - grey ; cilia dark grey .\nauckland ( waitakere ranges ) , in december ; common in a very restricted locality amongst sedge in the kauri forest .\nauckland ( waitakere ranges ) , in december ; one specimen amongst the kauri forest . this species is very interesting from the strong tendency of the markings to approach those of glyphipteryx .\nthis genus differs from the others of the family by the stalking of veins 6 and 7 of the forewings ; it is hitherto recorded only from australia , where there are several species .\nfemale . \u201412 mm . head white , crown ochreous - tinged . palpi white , beneath with some black scales . antenn\u00e6 white , with a black scale - streak at base . thorax ochreous - white , with a lateral brownish - ochreous stripe . abdomen grey . anterior legs blackish ; middle and posterior legs ochreous - white . forewings elongate - lanceolate ; greyish - ochreous , suffused with\nrather dark fuscous towards inner margin ; markings white , faintly ochreous - tinged ; a very fine longitudinal median line from base to \u2154 , seven wedge - shaped strigul\u00e6 from costa , first two very oblique , reaching half across wing , first connected with base by a slender costal streak , five latter shorter and less oblique ; a subtriangular spot on inner margin at \u2153 , and a sub - oval one at \u2154 , a small black apical spot : cilia light greyish - ochreous , with a blackish - grey median line on upper half , some white scales at base towards middle of hindmargin , and two diverging blackish hooks at apex . hindwings and cilia light grey ; costal cilia whitish .\nwhangarei , in december ; one specimen . superficially this species has considerable resemblance with the australian como - dica tetracercella , especially in the possession of the double apical hook in the cilia .\nmale , female . \u2013only differs from e . charadroa in having the face and forehead wholly blackish .\nwhangarei and auckland , in december ; two specimens . i think this is truly distinct from e . charadrota ; i have taken a considerable number of the latter species at auckland , tara - naki , wellington , and christchurch , from december to february , without finding any which vary in the direction of e . melanotricha .\nhead densely rough - haired ( rarely face smooth ) . antenn\u00e6 with joints closely set , transverse . maxillary palpi generally well - developed . forewings with vein 11 from or before middle of cell . hindwings with veins 3 and 4 separate .\nrepresented in new zealand by a few casual species , several of which are introduced .\nhead densely rough - haired ; ocelli present ; tongue obsolete . antenn\u00e6 \u215a , in male simple , joints closely set , basal joint moderate , with pecten . labial palpi moderate , slender , some what arched , porrected , second joint with appressed scales , slightly rough beneath , with a few long bristles , terminal joint rather shorter than second , tolerably pointed . maxillary palpi long , curved , drooping , filiform . posterior tib\u00e6 clothed with long fine hairs . forewings with vein 1 simple , 2 from angle , 4 absent , 7 to costa , 11 from \u2153 . hindwings \u2154\u2013\u00be , narrow - lanceolate , cilia 2\u20133 ; veins 5 and 6 sometimes stalked , 7 more or less approximated to 6 at base .\nfemale . \u201413\u201314 mm . head and antenn\u00e6 whitish - ochreous . palpi blackish . thorax whitish - ochreous , anterior margin narrowly black . abdomen light grey . legs black , ringed with whitish - ochreous , posterior pair whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate - lanceolate ; whitish - ochreous ; a small elongate black spot on costa towards base , continued as a costal line to base ; a smaller narrow black spot on costa before middle , beneath which are some irregular fuscous - reddish scales ; a black dot on costa at \u2154 , beneath which is a small fuscous - reddish spot ; apical fourth of wing suffused with reddish - fuscous ; some black scales at apex : cilia ochreous - grey - whitish , with a cloudy blackish median line , becoming obsolete on lower half of hindmargin . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 stalked ; light grey ; cilia ochreous - grey - whitish .\nwhangarei , palmerston , and christchurch , from december to march ; eight specimens .\nmale , female . - 10\u201314 mm . head ochreous - whitish . palpi blackish , apex white . antenn\u00e6 fuscous . thorax whitish - ochreous , anterior margin blackish . abdomen whitish - ochreous . legs dark fuscous ringed with ochreous - whitish , posterior tib\u00e6 whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate - lanceolete ; light brownish -\nochreous , irregularly suffused with ochreous - whitish ; two small black spots on costa towards base ; a blackish longitudinal mark in disc near base ; a straight rather oblique thick blackish bar from costa at \u2156 , reaching more than half across wing , followed by an ochreous - whitish bar ; space between these blackish markings suffused with fuscous ; posterior half of costa blackish - fuscous spotted with ochreous - whitish ; a small black spot in disc at \u2154 , more or less distinctly bisected by a projection from an ochreous - whitish . spot beneath it : cilia pale whitish - ochreons with a median row of blackish points . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 separate ; whitish - grey ; cilia pale whitish - ochreons .\nauckland and christchurch , in december ; two specimens . nearly allied to e . pharotoma , but distinctly less narrow - winged ; the best distinctive markings appear to be the well - defined thick black bar from costa , and the obsolescence of marking in the cilia .\nmale . \u20149 mm . head ochreous - whitish . palpi blackish , apex white . antenn\u00e6 grey . thorax greyish - ochreous , anterior margin dark fuscous . abdomen grey . legs blackish , ringed with white , posterior pair grey . forewings elongate - lanceolate , narrow ; fuscous ; a slender ferruginous streak along submedian fold , suffusedly margined beneath with whitish - ochreous , and above by three cloudy blackish dots ; two small black spots on costa towards base ; a black wedge - shaped spot from costa before middle , reaching half across wing , followed by an ochreous - white similar spot ; posterior half of costa narrowly black , with five small clear ochreous - white spots a short longitudinal ferruginous streak in disc beyond middle ; an irregular , small , white spot in disc at \u00be , partially margined above with black ; apex and hindmargin suffusedly irrorated with blackish : cilia ochreous - greyish , somewhat mixed with blackish , with a whitish basal dot above middle . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 separate ; dark grey ; cilia grey .\nwellington , in january ; one specimen . closely allied to the two preceding , but immediately separable by the dark - grey hindwings .\nhead shortly rough - haired ; ocelli present ; tongue short . antenn\u00e6 \u00be , in male rather thick , filiform , simple , joints closely set , basal joint moderate , without pecten . labial palpi moderate , rather ascending , second joint with rather rough projecting scales , beneath with a few long bristles , terminal joint somewhat shorter than second , tolerably pointed . maxillary palpi moderate , tolerably filiform , drooping . posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with long dense hairs , forewings with vein 1\nsimple , 2 from near angle , 7 to costa , 11 from \u2153 , hindwings 1 , oblong - ovate , cilia 1 ; vein 4 absent , 6 and 7 tolerably parallel .\nmale , female . \u20148\u201313 mm . head white . palpi blackish , terminal joint and apex of second white . antenn\u00e6 white , terminal third black except two subapical rings . thorax white , anterior margin blackish . abdomen grey - whitish . legs blackish , ringed with whitish , posterior tibi\u00e6 whitish . fore - wings elongate , costa gently arched , apex round pointed , hind - margin extremely obliquely rounded ; ochreous - white ; dorsal half suffusedly streaked with whitish - ochreous ; a thick , gradually - dilated , blackish streak along costa from base to \u00be , apex pointed , lower margin with a slight projection before middle ; sometimes an irregular blackish line below middle from near base parallel to inner and hind - margins to apex , and a similar almost marginal line along inner margin to anal angle , thence as a hindmarginal streak to apex , where it is confluent with the first ; sometimes a defined narrow blackish streak along inner margin , and a moderate blackish hindmarginal fascia attenuated at extremities : cilia whitish - ochreous , base within a black line ochreous - white , sometimes wholly suffused with grey . hindwings grey or whitish - grey , rarely rather dark grey ; cilia whitish - grey .\ntaranaki , makatoku , wellington , nelson , otira gorge , christchurch , dunedin , and lake wakatipu ; in august , september , december , january , and march ; common , frequenting forest . the species varies considerably in the presence or absence of black dorsal and hindmarginal streaks , but the varieties run into one another .\nhead densely rough - haired ; ocelli absent ; tongue short . antenn\u00e6 \u215a , in male pubescent - ciliated , with joints closely set , basal joint moderate , with small pecten . labial palpi moderate , porrected , with tolerably appressed scales , second joint with several long bristles above and beneath at apex , terminal joint shorter than second , tolerably pointed . maxillary palpi long , tolerably filiform , folded . posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with hairs . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from about angle , 3 and 4 stalked , sometimes 6 and 7 or 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to costa , 11 from near middle ; a naked ( usually transparent ) depression in disc beneath . hindwings 1 , elongate - ovate , cilia \u00be ; sometimes 5 and 6 stalked ( not in new zealand species ) .\na small cosmopolitan genus , of which some species are domestic and widely introduced .\n( tinea ethelella , newm . , trans . ent . soc . lond . , iii . ( n . s . ) , 288 ; t . rectella , walk . , 482 ; blabophanes namuella , feld . , pl . oxl . , 44 . )\nmale , female . \u201416\u201320 mm . head pale whitish - ochreous . palpi dark fuscous , apex ochreous - whitish . antenn\u00e6 fuscous . thorax dark fuscous , with a broad pale whitish - ochreous dorsal stripe . abdomen whitish - grey . legs dark fuscous , apex of joints whitish - yellowish , posterior pair pale ochreous - yellowish . fore - wings elongate , costa moderately arched , apex obtuse , hindmargin very obliquely rounded ; veins 6 and 7 stalked ; dark fuscous ; some obscure whitish - ochreous dots towards costa ; a moderate clear whitish - ochreous streak along inner margin from base to anal angle , upper edge rather irregular ; a well - defined transparent ochreous - whitish discal spot : cilia pale whitish - ochreous , obscurely spotted with dark fuscous , on costa more ochreous - yellowish . hindwings rather light grey ; cilia whitish - grey , becoming pale whitish - ochreous towards anal angle .\nauckland , palmerston , nelson ( to 4 , 000 feet ) , christchurch , and dunedin ; from october to may , generally common , often at light . occurs also commonly in south - east australia and tasmania .\nmale . \u201411 mm . much smaller than b . ethelella ; head ferruginous - tinged ; forewings with veins 6 and 7 separate , towards costa obscurely strigulated with whitish - ochreous , discal spot larger relatively , cilia pale whitish - ochreous , on costa barred with dark grey : hindwings whitish - grey , more whitish towards anal angle , cilia whitish : otherwise similar .\ntaranaki , napier , wellington , nelson ( to 4 , 000 feet ) , and christchurch ; rather common , more or less all the year round . introduced from europe by civilization ; now occurring also in north america and australia .\nmale . \u201410\u201311 mm . head light fuscous . palpi dark fuscous , internally whitish . antenn\u00e6 , thorax , abdomen , and legs dark fuscous . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin extremely obliquely rounded ; veins 6 and 7 stalked ; rather dark fuscous , somewhat irrorated with paler ; an obscure , cloudy , very irregular - edged whitish - ochreous streak near inner margin from base nearly to anal angle ; discal spot only indicated on lower surface , not transparent : cilia rather dark fuscous . hindwings rather dark fuscous ; cilia fuscous .\nchristchurch ; bred from bird - nests by mr . r . w . fereday , to whom i am indebted for types .\nhead densely rough - haired ; ocelli absent ; tongue short . antenn\u00e6 \u215a , in male with joints closely set , pubescent - ciliated or simple , basal joint moderate , with or without small pecten . labial palpi moderate , porrected , second joint shortly rough - scaled , with a few long bristles above and beneath , terminal joint shorter than second , tolerably pointed . maxillary palpi moderate or long , tolerably filiform , more or less folded . posterior tibi\u00e6 clothed with loose hairs . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from near angle , 7 to costa , 11 from before middle . hindwings 1 , elongate - ovate , cilia \u2154\u20131 ; sometimes 5 and 6 stalked .\nalso a cosmopolitan genus , of which several species are domestic , and now widely distributed .\n( tinea tapetiella ( tapetzella ) , l . ; t . palcestrica , butl . , proc . zool . soc . lond . , 1887 , 404 . )\nmale , female . \u201413\u201321 mm . head white . thorax dark fuscous . forewings elongate , round - pointed ; ochreous - white ; basal \u2156 blackish - fuscous ; a grey spot in disc at \u2154 , and some irregularly scattered small grey spots posteriorly , especially towards anal angle ; a black dot on inner margin at \u2154 , and two before apex : cilia ochreous - white , round apex dark grey . hind - wings with veins 5 and 6 separate ; grey ; cilia ochreous - grey - whitish .\nwellington and nelson , in january ; several specimens ; the larva feeds principally in furs and skins . introduced from europe ; occurs also in australia and north america .\nmale . \u201416\u201317 mm . head whitish - ochreous , brownish - tinged . palpi rather long , whitish - ochreous , with a fine blackish lateral line . antenn\u00e6 whitish - ochreous , with a black scale - streak at base , ciliations \u00be , thorax ochreous - brown mixed with\nwhitish - ochreous . abdomen grey . legs fuscous , anterior tarsi dark fuscous with a longitudinal whitish - ochreous line , posterior pair whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate - lanceolate ; fuscous sprinkled with whitish - ochreous , and obscurely streaked with ferruginous ; a darker longitudinal streak , partially suffused with ferruginous , below middle from base to apex , becoming dark fuscous at \u2154 , and apex , margined above by a suffused whitish - ochreous streak , and beneath by a whitish - ochreous dorsal space streaked with ferruginous ; a dark fuscous dot above the whitish - ochreous streak at \u2154 ; a fine dark fuscous hindmarginal line : cilia ochreous - whitish , mixed with light ochreous , towards anal angle suffused with ochreous . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 separate ; dark grey , purple - shining , towards base lighter and thinly scaled ; cilia grey , towards anal angle grey - whitish .\nnelson , in january ; two specimens in a forest ravine . the appearance of this species is quite unlike any other of the genus , and recalls some of the new zealand species of gelechia .\nmale . \u201413 mm . head whitish - fuscous . palpi fuscous , base and apex ochreous - whitish . antenn\u00e6 , thorax , and abdomen fuscous ; antennal ciliations 3 . legs dark fuscous , apex of joints ochreous - whitish . forewings elongate , moderate , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin straight , very oblique ; rather dark fuscous ; a tolerably well - defined ochreous - whitish streak along fold from base to anal angle , upper margin with a slight projection before and a stronger one beyond middle , between which is a small dark fuscous spot : cilia rather dark fuscous , purple - shining , tips beneath apex and a small spot beneath anal angle ochreous - whitish . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 separate ; rather dark fuscous , purple - shining , lighter and thinly scaled towards base ; cilia fuscous .\npalmerston ( north island ) , in march ; one specimen amongst forest . nearly allied to the two following , but distinctly broader - winged than either , and distinguished by the absence of discal spots , clearer pale streak , and different cilia .\nmale , female . \u201412\u201316 mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , and abdomen dark fuscous mixed with ochreous - whitish ; antennal ciliations 2 ; thorax sometimes suffused with whitish . legs dark fuscous , apex of joints ochreous - whitish . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin straight , very oblique ; rather dark fuscous , more or less irrorated with whitish - ochreous and black ; sometimes a cloudy blackish dot on fold at \u00bc ; a cloudy blackish dot in middle of disc , a second obliquely before it on fold , and a third in disc at\n\u00be , all variable in size and ill - defined ; a very indistinct suffused short whitish - ochreous streak along fold , not reaching base ; sometimes in female dorsal and hindmarginal areas broadly suffused with whitish : cilia fuscous , mixed with whitish - ochreous and dark fuscous . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 separate ; dark fuscous , purple - shining , lighter towards base , in female lighter ; cilia fuscous .\nwellington and invercargill , in january and february ; not uncommon amongst forest . i should expect the larva to feed in rotten wood .\nmale . \u201410\u201313 mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , and abdomen fuscous ; antennal ciliations 1 \u00bd . legs dark fuscous , apex of joints ochreous - whitish . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin straight , very oblique ; fuscous , with a few scattered grey - whitish and black scales ; a cloudy black streak from submedian fold before middle to beneath middle of costa ; a cloudy black dot in disc at \u00be , connected with costa at \u00be by a cloudy whitish streak : cilia fuscous , terminal half ochreous - whitish except at apex and anal angle . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 separate ; rather dark fuscous , purple - shining , lighter towards base ; cilia whitish - fuscous .\nchristchurch and lake wakatipu , in december and january ; five specimens . narrower - winged than either of the two preceding , and recognisable by the oblique antemedian bar in disc , and whitish terminal half of cilia .\nmale , female . \u201411\u201316 mm . head light fuscous . forewings elongate , round - pointed ; pale greyish - ochreous , irregularly suffusedly spotted with fuscous ; a dark fuscous dot in disc at \u2153 , a second obliquely beyond it on fold , and a third , larger and more conspicuous , in disc at \u2154 : cilia whitish - ochreous , basal half obscurely barred with fuscous . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 separate ; pale grey , yellowish - shining ; cilia whitish - grey .\nwhangarei , palmerston , wellington , nelson , and dunedin , from october to march ; common , probably everywhere . introduced from europe ; common in australia and north america . the larva feeds on dry refuse .\n( scardia terranea , butl . , cist . ent . ii . , 510 . )\nmale , female . \u201417\u201327 mm . head brownish - ochreous . palpi ochreous , irrorated with dark fuscous , second joint with numerous bristles beneath throughout . antenn\u00e6 fuscous , in male quite simple . thorax and abdomen greyish - ochreous , more or less suffused with fuscous . legs dark fuscous , apex\nof joints pale greyish - ochreous . forewings elongate , costa moderately arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin extremely obliquely rounded ; light greyish - ochreous , irregularly reticulated with fuscous ; markings rather dark fuscous ; an irregular narrow fascia from \u2155 of costa to \u2156 of inner margin ; a similar somewhat broader fascia from \u2156 of costa to \u2157 of inner margin ; an irregular oblique streak from costa beyond middle , not reaching anal angle ; a short irregular streak from costa at \u215a , sometimes connected beneath with previous streak ; two small spots on costa before this , and one before apex ; a hindmarginal row of cloudy fuscous spots : cilia whitish - ochreous , barred with fuscous . hindwings with veins 5 and 6 stalked ; grey , yellowish - shining ; cilia light grey , tips grey - whitish .\nwellington , christchurch , castle hill ( 2 , 500 feet ) , dunedin , and lake wakatipu , from december to february ; common . the larva feeds in moss on rocks ; pupa in a very dense rough cocoon amongst the moss . this species is in some respects an extreme form of the genus , but it does not seem necessary to separate it .\nonly differs from tinea by the maxillary palpi , which are very short , simple ; these are stated by heinemann and others to be absent , but i find them quite distinct . the tongue appears to be absent .\nmale , female . \u201411\u201313 mm . head light yellow - ochreous . forewings elongate , round - pointed ; whitish - ochreous , uni - colorous . hindwings whitish .\nchristchurch and lake wakatipu , from december to february ; probably common in houses . the larva feeds especially in the lining of chairs and sofas .\nhead with loosely - appressed hairs ; no tongue . maxillary palpi absent . forewings with vein 11 from before middle of cell . hindwings with veins 3 and 4 separate .\nfounded by heinemann on the single european genus lypusa , which differs from the two following by the absence of labial palpi , but is otherwise nearly related . i conjecture that in both the following genera the female is probably apterous .\nhead with loosely - appressed hairs , side - tufts rather rough ; ocelli present ; no tongue . antenn\u00e6 \u00be , in male with joints rather closely set , whorled with scales , simple , basal joint stout , simple . labial palpi moderate , porrected , loosely - scaled , second joint somewhat rough , with long bristles at apex above and\nbeneath , terminal joint shorter than second , tolerably pointed . maxillary palpi obsolete . posterior tibi\u00e6 with tolerably - appressed scales . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from before angle , 7 to costa , 11 from before middle , secondary cell defined . hindwings rather narrower than forewings , elongate - ovate , cilia 1 ; veins 6 and 7 parallel .\nmale . \u201410 mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , and abdomen fuscous . legs dark fuscous , apex of joints ochreous - whitish , posterior tibi\u00e6 ochreous - whitish . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex rounded , hindmargin very obliquely rounded ; fuscous , irrorated with blackish ; some scattered white scales , tending to form irregular transverse strigu\u00e6 ; the absence of these appears to form darker median and subterminal fasi\u00e6 ; a distinct white double spot on inner margin before middle , and a very small one before anal angle ; a hindmarginal row of cloudy white dots : cilia fuscous , mixed with grey - whitish , with a cloudy dark fuscous line near base . hindwings fuscous - grey ; cilia whitish - grey , with a fuscous basal line .\nwellington , in january ; seven specimens on fences . the larva doubtless feeds on lichens , and is probably a case - bearer ; i saw some small empty subcylindric cases , which i conjectured to belong to this species .\nhead with loosely - appressed hairs ; no ocelli ; no tongue . antenn\u00e6 \u00be , in male with joints elongate , strongly biciliated with fascicles ( 2 \u00bd - 4 ) , basal joint stout , loosely scaled , with small pecten . labial palpi moderate or short , drooping , second joint loosely rough - scaled , with two or three apical bristles , terminal joint tolerably pointed . maxillary palpi obsolete . posterior tibi\u00e6 with tolerably - appressed scales . forewings with vein 1 furcate , 2 from near angle , 6 sometimes absent ( microphanes ) , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to hindmargin , 11 from before middle , secondary cell tolerably defined . hindwings somewhat narrower than forewings , elongate - ovate : cilia \u2154 - 1 \u00bd ; veins 6 and 7 parallel , 6 sometimes absent ( microphanes ) .\nit is not impossible that the absence of vein 6 in both wings of the single specimen of m . microphanes may prove to be an individual abnormality ; but even if constant , it certainly does not call here for generic separation . the species frequent shady forest .\nmale . \u201413\u201314 mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , thorax , and abdomen dark fuscous ; palpi short ; antennal ciliations 3 . legs dark fuscous , ringed with whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate , moderate , costa gently arched , apex rounded , hindmargin\nrounded , rather strongly oblique ; dark fuscous , obscurely irrorated with small greyish - ochreous spots ; several on posterior half of costa more distinct ; a small whitish - ochreous subquad - rate spot on inner margin at \u2154 , and another at \u2154 : cilia dark fuscous . hindwings and cilia dark fuscous ; cilia \u2154 .\nmount arthur ( 4 , 000 feet ) , in january ; locally common .\nmale . \u201412\u201313 mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , and thorax pale greyish - ochreous ; palpi short ; antennal ciliations 4 . abdomen grey . legs dark fuscous , ringed with whitish - ochreous , posterior tibi\u00e6 suffused with whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate , slightly dilated posteriorly , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin very oblique , slightly rounded ; pale greyish - ochreous , sometimes brownish - tinged ; numerous small scattered irregular dark fuscous strigul\u00e6 ; a very obscure ochreous - whitish streak along inner margin from \u2153 to near anal angle , interrupted by a small dark fuscous spot in middle ; a straight narrow dark fuscous fascia from middle of costa to inner margin before anal angle , more or less distinctly interrupted in disc ; three very small dark fuscous spots on posterior half of costa : cilia pale greyish - ochreous , fuscous - tinged . hindwings fuscous - grey ; cilia \u2158 , light fuscous - grey .\nmale . \u20149 mm . head , palpi , and antenn\u00e6 light fuscous ; palpi moderate ; antennal ciliations 2 \u00bd , thorax fuscous . abdomen grey . legs grey - whitish . forewings elongate , costa slightly arched , apex rounded , hindmargin extremely obliquely rounded ; rather dark fuscous , irrorated with very obscure grey - whitish spots ; costa with four more distinct small white spots on posterior , half : cilia whitish - fuscous , basal half except towards anal angle fuscous obscurely spotted with whitish . hindwings light grey ; cilia 1 \u00bd , grey - whitish .\nthis family , closely allied to the tinei\u00e6 , appears to be usually recognisable by the peculiar palpi of the male , of which the terminal joint is very long , stout , recurved , and appressed to the crown and thorax . i will not attempt to give complete family characters , since lord walsingham , who has recently published a paper on the group from considerable material , has unfortunately given no full generic characters nor definition of the group , but only short diagnoses of the genera . in consequence of this i am unable to say whether the following genus is really referable to the family , as i have only seen the one sex , or"]}
{"id": 1558, "summary": [{"text": "moses ( 1819 \u2013 after 1830 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in a career that lasted from april 1822 to may 1823 he ran five times and won four races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in 1822 , when three years old , he won all three of his races and became the second of six colts owned by members of the british royal family to win the epsom derby .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "his subsequent career was restricted by injuries and he was retired after sustaining his only defeat .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he had limited success as a sire of winners and was exported to germany in 1830 . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "moses ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["all the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for almighty moses . almighty moses is a gelding born in 2011 august 31 by god ' s own out of centoria\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for moses ( nzl ) . moses ( nzl ) is a gelding born in 2013 november 15 by zacinto out of bering island\nthe horse will not appreciate the cast and will goose step once it is applied . every effort should be made to keep the animal quiet and calm while moving into the trailer . the horse can throw a cast quite easily if not secured properly or allowed to panic . move the trailer to the horse rather than the horse to the trailer . use chest and butt bars to immobilize the horse once trailered . distraction can be provided with treats or feed . discuss transportation of the horse with the veterinarian .\ngrand parade was the first black horse for 106 years to win the epsom derby .\n10021 baseline rd e ( 685 . 57 mi ) moses lake , washington 98837\nin the summer of 1948 my love became the third french - trained horse to win the epsom derby and the fifth horse to win both the derby and the grand prix de paris .\nmighty moses candy ride ( arg ) / trusten , by mt . livermore - 2013\nmoses austin\u2019s tomb . the tomb of moses austin and his wife maria brown austin is located at the presbyterian church in potosi , missouri . [ courtesy of library of congress ]\npearl diver became the first french - trained horse to win the epsom derby since durbar in 1914 .\ntiata burns is a certified horse association master instructor in western english and jumping . she h . . .\nterimon , second to nashwan at 500 / 1 , is the longest - priced horse placed in any classic .\nthe battle for moses austin here is a link to the texas state cemetery\u2019s account of the battle between the officials of potosi , missouri , and the state of texas over the remains of moses austin .\nclover a motherly horse who silently questions some of napoleon ' s decisions and tries to help boxer after his collapse .\nthe original winner running rein was disqualified as he was actually an ineligible four - year - old horse named maccabeus .\nsinndar is the first horse to capture the derby , irish derby and prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe in the same season .\napril the fifth was a very popular winner and the first epsom - trained horse to win the derby since amato in 1838 .\n\u201cno country yet known furnishes greater indications of an inexhaustible quantity of lead mineral , and so easily obtained . \u201d\u2014moses austin\nmoses a tame raven and sometimes - pet of jones who tells the animals stories about a paradise called sugarcandy mountain .\nthe current race record for almighty moses is 0 wins from 25 starts with prizemoney of $ 27 , 135 . 00 .\n\u201cto remain in a country where i had enjoyed wealth in a state of poverty i could not submit to . \u201d\u2014moses austin\n\u201ctell dear stephen that it is his dieing fathers last request to prosecute the enterprise he had commenced . . . \u201d\u2014moses austin\nmoses : i lived through the outbreak . thank god i did not get infected . but i had some terrible moments .\non 7 may the prince received a forfeit when mr wilson withdrew his horse seedling from a three - mile match against the derby winner .\nnijinsky became the 15th horse to gain the triple crown after winning the derby and 2000 guineas with success in the st leger at doncaster .\nboxer a dedicated but dimwitted horse who aids in the building of the windmill but is sold to a glue - boiler after collapsing from exhaustion .\ndr devious is the first horse to win the derby after contesting the kentucky derby , in which he had finished seventh to lil e tee .\nthe current race record for moses ( nzl ) is 0 wins from 6 starts with prizemoney of $ 2 , 100 . 00 .\n\u201cnotwithstanding the unpleasent situation i was in , i could not but be charmed with the country i had pass . d . \u201d\u2014moses austin\nmoses austin land survey . moses austin received land next to mine \u00e1 breton from the spanish government in 1800 . the town and austin\u2019s land can be seen in this survey by u . s . surveyor general antoine soulard . [ courtesy of the missouri state archives ]\nmoses : dr . dada , dr . brisbane , dr . borbor . everyone that i look up to , they all died .\nsubtitle : although many people lost their lives to ebola , dr . moses and his team saved 236 lives in only two months .\nmollie a vain horse who prefers ribbons and sugar over ideas and rebellion . she is eventually lured off the farm with promises of a comfortable life .\nstadtholder ( gb ) ch c 1742 ( roundhead - young nanny , by hartley ' s blind horse ) . sire line darley arabian . family 41 .\nphil drake ran five times and won three races , becoming the fifth and last horse to win both the epsom derby and the grand prix de paris .\nmoses austin & co . on march 28 , 1812 , moses austin advertised in the missouri gazette that his partnership with john rice jones was ending and all of their merchandise was for sale . [ st . louis missouri gazette , march 28 , 1812 , page 3 , column 2 ]\n_ _ _ _ . moses austin : his life . san antonio : trinity university press , 1987 . [ ref f508 . 1 au772g ]\na new book , anthony flint ' s wrestling with moses , documents in fascinating detail this struggle , which has even been turned into a new children ' s book entitled genius of common sense . interestingly , jacobs ' s own book about urban planning , the death and life of great american cities ( 1961 ) , only makes passing reference to moses , even if moses did think those few remarks libellous . so why the prizefight ?\nsanta claus won the irish 2 , 000 guineas , the epsom derby and the irish derby . his performances earned him the title of british horse of the year .\npont l\u2019eveque was a very late foal , born at the end of the breeding season on 25 may , making him probably the youngest horse to win the derby .\ngardner , james alexander . lead king : moses austin . st . louis : sunrise publishing co . , 1980 . [ ref f508 . 1 au772 ]\nsubtitle : dr . moses didn ' t only lose patients to ebola . his mentors , colleagues and good friends also lost their lives to this disease .\nsir thomas had four engagements at newmarket in the spring of 1790 . on 19 april he was defeated in a 500 guinea match race against mr wentworth ' s horse gustavus .\nmahmoud was a light - coloured grey horse of distinctly arab appearance , standing just under 15 . 3 hands high , and bred in france by his owner the aga khan .\njacobs checked moses ' s mad worship of the car and his despotic excesses . but in a world of faux cobblestones , pedestrian zones and hanging baskets , aren ' t we a little nostalgic for moses ' s obsessive audacity - for an era when planners could transcend the nimbies to execute grand gestures in the public interest ?\nazuz : a horse and its rider recently survived a 300 - foot fall from a trail in california . neither was seriously injured , but they both became trapped in a deep raven . after airlifting the rider to the hospital , rescuers did the same favor for the animal . look at this , it ' s a flying horse . it was blindfolded and sedated and then flown to a highway in a harness . from there , the horse , which reportedly only had some cuts and scratches was loaded to a trail and eventually returned home .\ndurham hall . moses austin named his new home after his birthplace in durham , connecticut . [ the state historical society of missouri , photograph collection ( 027100 ) ]\nchedworths moses ( gb ) b . h , 1746 { } dp = 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 ( 0 ) di = inf cd = inf\nmorris , tony ; randall , john ( 1990 ) . horse racing : records , facts , champions ( third edition ) . guinness publishing . isbn 0 - 85112 - 902 - 1 .\nwrestling with moses is published by random house . genius of common sense , by glenna lang and marjory wunsch , is released in the uk by david r godine in october .\nmoses ( gb ) b . h , 1819 { 5 - b } dp = 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 ( 0 ) di = inf cd = inf\nhaxalls moses ( usa ) b . h , 1816 { 12 - b } dp = 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 ( 0 ) di = inf cd = inf\nsweepstakes ( gb ) [ bolton ] ch c 1722 ( bloody shouldered arabian - snell ' s mare , by gase ' s horse - mare , by lister turk ) . sire line bloody shouldered arabian .\ngardner , james a . , papers , c . 1910 , 1930s\u20131980s ( sunp2917 ) this collection contains research notes and an unpublished version of historian james a . gardner\u2019s biography of moses austin .\npark , guy brasfield ( 1872 - 1946 ) , papers , 1932 - 1937 ( c0008 ) folder 2086 contains a number of historical summaries of missourians important to texas , including moses austin .\nmoses and stephen f . austin papers , 1676 , 1765 - 1889 this website provides a description of the austin papers at the briscoe center for american history , university of texas at austin .\nin the power broker , his 1974 biography of moses , anthony caro makes him seem as fascinating a character as the devil himself , while one might also glean from flint ' s book that moses was a second stalin who would have liked to relocate all those he had the power to evict to a gulag in queens . in slashing through the most rundown areas , moses most often displaced the poor ; critics described slum clearance as\nnegro removal\n, and dismissed the modernist towers surrounded by parks that re - housed those who were relocated as\nghettos - within - ghettos\n.\nshahrastani holds off the strong late challenge of dancing brave in a memorable finish . bold arrangement becomes the first horse to contest both the kentucky derby and derby , finishing second at churchill downs to ferdinand and 14th at epsom .\nmoses austin was an american merchant and lead miner who brought national attention to america\u2019s mineral wealth . he built communities on the frontiers of virginia and missouri , and laid plans for the colonization of texas .\ngracy , david b . , ii . \u201cmoses austin . \u201d our heritage . v . 22 , no . 1 ( october 1980 ) , pp . 5\u201311 . [ ref 929 . 3 t312sag ]\nalthough cameronian was found to be running a temperature after the race he soon recovered . his connections were unable to explain his poor effort , with darling explicitly ruling out the possibility of the horse having been\ngot at\n.\nwashington county ( mo . ) . probate records , 1813 - 1886 ( r0632 ) volume 1 in this set contains information on several court cases related to settling the estate of moses austin after his death .\ngold medalist tendai zimuto strides home while silver medalist moses tarakinyu ( 1903 ) overtakes lesotho\u2019s mapasela mahloko as they dash for the finish line in the 5 , 000m race . in the background is the cheering crowd\nthe race of the day was the 5 , 000m men final as it provided some spectacular competition that saw the zimbabwean duo of tendai zimuto and moses tarakinyu coming first and second respectively . zimuto clocked 15min , 19 : 61sec , while his fellow countryman moses tarakinyu who was third until the last 100metres as he made a sprint of his life , crossed the line in 15min , 21 : 69seconds to claim silver .\nmoses austin never fully recovered from his bout with pneumonia . he overworked himself trying to settle his financial affairs and became so ill that he could not even dismount his horse by himself during a trip to emily\u2019s house . austin was bedridden for several days , and on his deathbed , passed the responsibility of colonizing texas to his son , stephen f . austin , who is remembered today as \u201cthe father of texas . \u201d on june 10 , 1821 , moses austin died . he was still $ 15 , 000 in debt . maria lived in poverty in herculaneum until her death three years later . emily had their bodies moved to potosi in 1831 .\nmoses and his brother bought the land around their mine in order to expand the business , built a town for their workers called austinville , and spent a lot on transportation improvements . this expansion caused debt , which worsened when the virginia capitol roofing project failed . in 1794 they tried to sell the mine but could not find a buyer . around this time , moses read an account of the vast mining potential of spain\u2019s\n\u201c . . . we have reason to flatter ourselves that not only the interest of this state but the united states in general . . . is interested in the success of our undertaking . \u201d\u2014moses and stephen austin\n_ _ _ _ . \u201cmoses austin and the development of the missouri lead industry . \u201d gateway heritage . v . 1 , no . 4 ( spring 1981 ) , pp . 42\u201348 . [ ref f550 m69gh ]\nin september , the duchess ran without success at the st leger meeting . she was the only horse to oppose blacklock in the doncaster stakes and the doncaster club stakes but was beaten by the younger horse in both races . in the four mile doncaster cup she started favourite but finished fourth of the six runners behind rasping . [ 21 ] for the third consecutive year she ended her season at richmond where she finished third to doctor syntax and juggler in the gold cup . [ 22 ]\nin their book\na century of champions\n, john randall and tony morris rated windsor lad the nineteenth best horse of the 20th century and the sixth best derby winner , behind sea bird , hyperion , mill reef , nijinsky and shergar .\nthe state of texas recognizes moses austin as an important historical figure . when a texan undertaker was sent to relocate austin\u2019s body to the texas state cemetery in 1938 , the local government of potosi stopped him . after a legal battle over austin\u2019s remains , the state of texas decided instead to honor austin with a statue in san antonio the next year . moses austin\u2019s grave site in potosi remains near the spot where his majestic durham hall once stood .\nas a merchant , moses austin learned how to judge the value of trade items and began the lifelong practice of buying and selling on credit , since cash was often hard to come by at this time . in 1783 moses started a shop near stephen\u2019s business in philadelphia . there he fell in love with mary brown ( whom he called maria ) and married her on september 28 , 1785 , after opening a branch of his business in richmond , virginia .\nas austin\u2019s finances collapsed and his social standing declined , he made plans to leave missouri . on may 12 , 1820 , austin sold his lead - shot facility in herculaneum for $ 2 , 000 and used the money for a trip to the spanish territory of texas . after making preparations for several months in arkansas with stephen f . , moses borrowed a horse and departed in october for texas with richmond , one of stephen f . \u2019s slaves . they arrived in late december .\nwere abandoned on the day before the race , despite the fact that he had been performing well in exercise . some reports claim the colt\nwent amiss\n, while others state that batson was unwilling to risk his horse on the prevailing hard ground .\nin 1789 moses and stephen became partners in a mine on the virginia frontier . initially , they were greatly successful . they convinced the u . s . congress to raise a tax on lead imported from foreign countries , which encouraged people to buy american lead . they also were paid to put a lead roof on the virginia state capitol building . more good news came in 1793 when stephen f . austin , moses\u2019s son and brother stephen\u2019s namesake , was born .\nsir thomas ' s final appearance came on 10 may when he ran in a 50 guinea sweepstakes\nfrom the end of the rowley mile to the end of the beacon corse\n. he finished fourth of the five runners behind mr dawson ' s horse coriander .\naustin attempted to remedy his financial problems by leasing a large number of slaves to work in the mines , but this proved too costly and only caused more debt . moses tried placing stephen f . in charge of the mine , but it did not help . as a final attempt to change their fortunes , moses and his son stephen f . helped start a new bank , called the bank of st . louis . their finances were utterly ruined when the bank failed during the\nmoses austin was born in durham , connecticut , on october 4 , 1761 . he was the youngest of nine children born to elias austin and eunice phelps austin . as a child , moses attended durham\u2019s small community schoolhouse . although his formal education was limited , he developed a love of books . both of his parents died by the time he was fifteen . afterward , austin moved to middletown , connecticut , where his brother stephen gave him a loan to start a merchant shop .\nuntil 1913 , there was no requirement for british racehorses to have official names , [ 3 ] and the horse who later became known as the duchess competed in 1811 as mr . w . wilson ' s b . f . by cardinal york , dam by beningbrough .\nproperty for sale in september 1820 , moses austin sold the mine \u00e1 breton tract , including his large estate , in order to pay off his debts . [ st . louis missouri gazette , september 20 , 1820 , page 3 , column 6 ]\nthe following is a selected list of books , articles , and manuscripts about moses austin in the research centers of the state historical society of missouri . the society\u2019s call numbers follow the citations in brackets . all links will open in a new tab .\ngarraty , john a . , and mark c . carnes , eds . \u201cmoses austin . \u201d american national biography , v . 1 . new york : oxford university press , 1999 . pp . 766\u201367 . [ ref 920 am37 v . 1 ]\nphillips , charles , and alan axelrod , eds . \u201cmoses austin . \u201d encyclopedia of the american west , v . 1 . new york : simon & schuster macmillan , 1996 . p . 117 . [ ref 978 p541 1996 v . 1 ]\nwhen jacobs joined this community action as a mere foot soldier , she hadn ' t yet become a public figure , but moses ' s power and influence were already in retreat . in 1960 he resigned as parks commissioner , construction coordinator and chairman of slum clearance to become chief executive of the 1964 world ' s fair . for obvious dramatic reasons , flint is keen for moses to appear as\nthe man behind the curtain\n, the wizard that jacobs rendered impotent in her later campaigns . in truth , her real bogey - figures were two earlier planning theorists , ebenezer howard and le corbusier . they were the two men who had , she felt , many years earlier set the flawed agenda for city planning that paternalists such as moses were now imposing all over america .\nshortly after austin returned to virginia in march 1797 , the price of lead dropped by about half because the congress lowered its tax on foreign lead . moses dropped out of his partnership with stephen , who went bankrupt , and the two had a major falling out over money . after moses received permission from the spanish , he left for missouri in june 1798 with a small group of men , women , children , and slaves . after a trip fraught with illness and death , they reached mine \u00e1 breton in october .\nsnow knight won the the epsom derby , then the following year earned an eclipse award as the american champion male turf horse . at stud he sired awaasif , the dam of snow bride , winner of the 1989 epsom oaks and the dam of lammtarra , winner of the 1995 epsom derby .\nin the past , a horse with a broken leg was a dead horse . even though fracture repair surgery has long been possible and is internally very similar to the techniques used in humans and domestic animals , the successful healing of fractures in horses is heavily dependant upon the stabilization done in the field and the ability to immobilize the limb after surgery . great strides have made in the post - surgical immobilization of fractures meaning more and more horses are able to survive leg fractures , but the owner must take certain crucial steps before surgery is attempted to ensure that repair is a possibility .\nsir thomas reappeared as a four - year - old in the jockey stakes over the four - mile beacon course at newmarket on 28 april . eleven of the thirteen entries were withdrawn and sir thomas won at odds of 1 / 10 from his only remaining opponent , lord derby ' s horse director .\nseymour ( gb ) b c 1807 ( delpini - bay javelin , by javelin ) . sire line highflyer . family 3 - a . bred by the duke of hamilton he sired the second dam of the derby winner amato ( br c 1835 velocipede ) . although the derby winner moses ( b c 1819 ) is generally assumed to have been sired by seymour , the second covering stallion , moses was advertised in the racing calendar as\ngot by whalebone , his dam by gohanna , out of grey skim\n[ weatherby ' s 1824 : 502 ] .\non the way back , austin discovered that a fellow traveler , jacob kirkham , was trading in illegal livestock . kirkham then stranded moses and richmond in the wilderness without horses or supplies . that night , austin survived an attack by a wild panther , but both he and richmond caught\nthe horse must be calmed before any assessment or treatment of the injury can or should be attempted . a thrashing animal is not only very dangerous to handlers ; it may cause more damage to the fracture which may make healing more difficult . the veterinarian will administer tranquilizers and pain medications to facilitate examination and splinting .\nbreeder : william haxall state bred : va officially registered as\nmoses ( haxwell ' s )\n. his sire\nsir harry\nwas bred by mr . cookson , g . b . and he was sent to virginia , u . s . a . in 1804 . ( close )\ngeorge washington carver was born in kansas territory near diamond grove , missouri , during the bloody struggle between free - soilers and slaveholders . his father , a slave on a nearby farm , was killed shortly before carver was born . carver himself became the kidnap victim of night riders while still a baby . with his mother and brother , james , he was held for ransom . before they were rescued , his mother died . moses carver , a german farmer , ransomed ( traded ) the infant carver for a $ 300 race - horse . thus he was orphaned and left in the custody of a white guardian from early childhood .\naustin , moses . a memorandum of m . austin\u2019s journey from the lead mines in county of wythe in the state of virginia to the lead mines in the province of louisiana west of the mississippi , 1796 - 1797 . n . p . , 1900 . [ ref f516 . 1 au77 1900 ]\nmighty moses ( usa ) ch . c , 2013 { 8 - c } dp = 3 - 2 - 6 - 1 - 0 ( 12 ) di = 2 . 00 cd = 0 . 58 - 11 starts , 2 wins , 4 places , 1 shows career earnings : $ 146 , 150\nlammtarra becomes the first horse to win the derby on his seasonal return since grand parade in 1919 and sets a record time of 2m 32 . 31s , beating mahmoud\u2019s 2m 33 . 8s which was hand - timed in 1936 . the race is switched permanently from wednesday to saturday . vodafone takes over the sponsorship and remains the backer up to 2008 .\nbuehler , h . a . , \u201cthe wythe lead mines , \u201d 1917 ( c2092 ) this manuscript submitted to the missouri historical review gives biographical information about the men , such as moses austin and his brother stephen , who owned or operated the wythe lead mines in wythe county , virginia , between 1750 and 1812 .\nbreckenridge , clarence edward ( 1877 - 1963 ) , papers , 1897 - 1960 ( c1037 ) folder 10 in this collection contains a speech delivered on march 21 , 1949 , before the u . s . house of representatives by a . s . j . carnahan , entitled \u201cmoses austin and the lure of lead . \u201d\nit was only when moses tried to bring light and air into the city that he was charged with elitism . like jacobs , he wanted to democratise space - it was just his techniques that were different . he compared himself to baron haussmann , whose\ndictatorial talents enabled him to accomplish a vast amount in a very short time , but also made him many enemies , for he was in the habit of riding roughshod over all opposition\n. like haussmann , moses thought the end always justified the means , that the old should make way for the new , that the medieval warren should make way for glorious parks , apartment buildings and boulevards .\nseverely disrupted business on the western frontier as well . in 1812 the mine produced about half of its 1808 total . when maria , brown , and emily ran out of money on a trip to philadelphia in 1811 , they had to live off the charity of others for two years because moses could not afford to bring them home .\nour signature program , united neigh , addresses the high school graduation rate of at - risk youth in the lynchburg area . participants follow a program that instills self - confidence , a strong sense of personal responsibility , recognition of the value of teamwork , civic responsibility , and real - life workplace skills . this is accomplished through a bond of trust with a horse whose background is , too often , just as painful as their own . tutors are available each session to work with the youth on their schoolwork . a rule of the program is that horse work always comes second to school work . to date we have a 100 % high school graduation rate among its participants , and most impressive a 100 % rate of the participants continuing their education .\nkris kin is the first supplementary entry to win the derby . the sir michael stoute - trained colt had initially been entered in the classic as a yearling but was scratched at the start of his three - year - old campaign . connections paid \u00a390 , 000 to add the horse to the line - up at the five - day stage following his victory in chester\u2019s dee stakes .\nmissouri , ste . genevieve . archives , 1756 - 1930 ( c3636 ) folder 113 contains images of legal paperwork referring to james bryan\u2019s ( moses austin\u2019s son - in - law ) administration of austin\u2019s estate after his death . folder 304 contains legal papers and handwritten letters from austin regarding lawsuits with matthew mullins , robert greer , and bartholemew butcher and michel butcher .\njacobs , a journalist for the now - defunct\narchitectural forum\n, was the most vocal critic of the planning philosophy to which moses adhered in his prolific 34 - year career , and she successfully fought such schemes as his lower manhattan expressway , that would have put a 10 - lane straight line across greenwich village , soho , little italy , chinatown and the lower east side . but their paths crossed only once , in 1958 , at a board of estimates hearing to decide the fate of washington square park . moses wanted to extend fifth avenue through the square , ostensibly to ease congestion in greenwich village ' s dense maze of streets , but also to reward developers building on 10 blocks he ' d razed to the south .\nthe contemporary turf observer , the druid , noted ,\nthis horse [ camel ] was as good as an annuity of 800 pounds [ sterling ] to mr . theobald [ his second owner ] for several seasons after the performances of touchstone had brought him so prominently into notice . . .\nwhile in the possession of egremont , he spent the 1830 season at the grosvenor eaton stud , which was when he got touchstone on banter . after that , he was sold to william theobald , and stood thereafter at theobald ' s stockwell stud near clapham . next to touchstone , camel ' s best son was launcelot , a full brother to touchstone , who won the champagne stakes at age 2 and at age three placed second for the epsom derby and then went on to win the st . leger , narrowly beating the better horse , maroon .\nour programs are growing , as there is a great need for both horse rescue and therapeutic riding opportunities . it is because of you that we are successful ! please take the time to look through our website to see all the things we are doing ! if you want to support us and become a part of the brook hill family , click here to find out how you can help us continue to help both horses and people !\nstamford ( gb ) br c 1794 ( sir peter teazle - horatia , by eclipse ) . sire line highflyer . family 30 . bred by sir frank standish he won the doncaster cup in in 1797 and 1798 and the royal plate at york in in 1799 . described as a compact horse with much quality he sired viscount ( gr c 1809 ) , young wryneck ( ch f 1809 ) and mother goose ( ch f 1805 ) .\nin may 1886 the sporting times carried out a poll of one hundred racing experts asking them to name the ten best horses of the 19th century . in july of that year the results of the poll were published as a ranking list . although his racing career had ended more than fifty years earlier , plenipotentiary was ranked eighteenth , having been placed in the top ten by fifteen of the voters . he was the second highest - placed horse of the 1830s behind\ncamelot becomes the 37th horse to follow up victory in the first british classic , the 2000 guineas over a mile at newmarket , with success in the investec derby as he records a convincing five - length win at epsom downs . jockey and trainer , joseph and aidan o\u2019brien , become the first father / son combination to win the premier classic . camelot narrowly fails in his bid to win the triple crown , finishing second behind encke in the st leger at doncaster three and a half months later .\na multi - horse finish rivals that of 1913 as the closest ever . in a four - way photo , sir percy beats dragon dancer , dylan thomas and hala bek a shorthead , a head and a short - head . seven winners have had the prefix sir : sir peter teazle ( 1787 ) , sir thomas ( 1788 ) , sir harry ( 1798 ) , sir bevys ( 1879 ) , sir visto ( 1895 ) , sir ivor ( 1968 ) , and most recently sir percy .\nsterling ( gb ) b c 1868 ( oxford - whisper , by flatcatcher ) . sire line sterling . family 12 - a . considered to be a game , determined horse he won the liverpool cup . he retired to the yardley stud where he was among the top twenty champion sires four times . he sired the derby winner harvester ( br c 1881 ) , and three two thousand guineas winners : enterprise ( ch c 1884 ) , enthusiast ( ch c 1886 ) and paradox ( b c 1882 ) .\njacobs ' s children often played in the historic park and joined the battle to preserve it : they proved effective at collecting signatures , and were sometimes outfitted with sandwich boards that proclaimed ,\nsave the square !\n( which had a double meaning in the hip village ) . not used to defeat , moses stormed out of the hearing shouting furiously :\nthere is nobody against this - nobody , nobody , nobody but a bunch of , a bunch of mothers .\nsir thomas ( 1785 \u2013 after 1790 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse . in a career that lasted from october 1787 to may 1790 he ran thirteen or fourteen times and won nine or ten races . in 1788 he became the first horse owned by a member of the british royal family to win the epsom derby , having been bought as a two - year - old by the prince of wales who later became king george iv . following his win in the derby , sir thomas raced in the prince ' s ownership with some success until 1790 .\ngalileo\u2019s half - brother sea the stars shows he is one of the greats as he powers to glory under veteran jockey mick kinane . the john oxx - trained colt becomes the first horse for 20 years to follow up victory in the 2000 guineas with success in the epsom classic and goes on to complete an unbeaten campaign with four further group one wins , annexing the coral - eclipse , juddmonte international , irish champion stakes and prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe . investec takes over sponsorship of the derby and backs all the races at the two - day meeting at epsom .\naustin\u2019s inability to pay his enormous debts led to a wave of lawsuits from his creditors . he became so desperate for money that he was willing to sell mine \u00e1 breton for less than one - third of its market value , but still could not find a buyer . on march 11 , 1820 , moses austin was arrested and put in jail for failing to pay his debts . ten days later , mine \u00e1 breton was seized by the government ; eventually it was sold to settle a portion of austin\u2019s debt .\nmy perfect home : moses is an adorable yearling and is enjoying life at the ispca national animal centre . he loves attention and is looks forward to his daily handling . the ispca equine staff have been doing lots of ground work with him and he is turning into a lovely confident young boy . he is a quick learner and in the right experienced home he will be a real gem . he will require a 1 - 2 acre paddock with secure fencing and access to a stable or field shelter . my story : moses was rescued from ballinasloe horse fair in 2016 by ispca inspectors . he was malnourished and full of worms but once he was treated for parasites , he soon put on condition with a good nutritious diet and he started to improve right away . he was very badly handled , fearful of people and very head shy . the kind volunteers and staff at the national animal centre showed him the kindness he deserved and handled him every day and he slowly became to trust humans again . he spends his days with his other yearling buddies in the field and yard getting up to mischief . he is a different boy now and trots over to greet new visitors . we are delighted he made a full recovery and has firmly put his past behind him . contact us : we match each equine with a suitable new home where they will be loved and cared for , for the rest of their lives . all equines are vaccinated , micro - chipped and have a passport . stallions and colts are gelded before rehoming . for more information please call 0433325035 or fill out our rehoming form at the following link urltoken\nmoses austin was an important businessman and community builder on america\u2019s frontier . he helped found austinville in virginia , and washington county and the cities of potosi and herculaneum in missouri . he improved transportation , trade links , and mining methods in these areas , and brought national attention to their mineral wealth . he also started the process of the colonization of texas . many americans moved to texas after austin received permission to colonize , and the territory ended up declaring its independence from mexico in 1836 . nine years later , texas became the twenty - eighth state of the united states .\nstate historical society of missouri , typescript collection ( c0995 ) item # 2 in this collection contains a speech delivered before the annual meeting of the texas agricultural workers\u2019 association , which gives a brief history of the austin family . item # 147 references major events in the life of the austin family . item # 393 contains a short summary of austin\u2019s life from a speech made at the dedication of the austin - pitcairn roadside park near festus , missouri . item # 447 contains the henry r . schoolcraft papers , which includes schoolcraft\u2019s correspondence with moses and stephen f . austin .\nsnail ( gb ) [ wharton ' s or old ] c 17120c ( whynot - mare , by wilkinson ' s arabian ) . sire line fenwick barb . family 43 . he was first called old smales but his name was corrected in an old match book and the name snail is used in other pedigrees . he ran in 1718 for the duke of wharton without apparent success and he may have raced earlier for mr blacket . he sired young kitty burdett ( b f 1720 ) , milkmaid ( b f 1720 ) and the 4th dam of pharoah * ( b c 1753 chedworth ' s moses ) .\nswordsman ( ire ) b c 1796 ( prizefighter - zara , by eclipse ) . sire line king herod . family 2 - b . owned by mr whaley he was said to have comparable shape , bone , sinew and strength to any horse in ireland . standing 15 hands 3 inches his beauty was matched by his turf performance . he won seven king ' s plates , a sweepstakes and a match . he covered at the curragh for a fee of six guineas for blood mares . he sired medora ( b f 1813 ) the dam of the st leger winner rockingham ( b c 1830 humphrey clinker ) and the chester cup winner the cardinal ( br c 1827 waxy pope ) .\nspark ( gb ) [ old ] c 1700c ( honeycomb punch - wilkes ' old mare , by hautboy ) . sire line taffolet barb . family 11 . the general stud book notes that his dam , hautboy mare , may be grey wilkes [ gsb 1 : 383 ] , making him a half - brother to old country wench ( gr f 1712c snake ) and her sisters . this is confirmed by heber , who says :\nspark , son of the famous honeycomb punch , and out of the robinson hautboy mare , bred by mr wilks , and was the dam of the dam of regulus\n[ heber 1754 : 238 ] . he may have been the same horse as frampton ' s spark . the earl of bristol recorded in his diary that his famous horse wenn beat mr frampton ' s sparke on may 8 , 1708 [ royal studs : 207 ] . along with several useful daughters , he got offspring from sister to hanniball for cuthbert routh from 1723 to 1729 . spark mare was the 2nd dam of sampson ( b c 1745 blaze ) . another spark mare was the 2nd dam of * spark ( c 1733c aleppo ) , who was sent to america where he was a useful stallion at the stud of benjamin tasker in maryland . and yet another spark mare was the dam of the smiling ball colt , who sired bald partner ( ch c 1743 ) .\nin 2007 , a triumvirate of revisionist exhibitions tried to remind us that moses , for all his many power - crazed faults , was once a popular figure . he was pugnacious and intransigent , but he was a bully , at least at first , for the people , using his power to bulldoze through the golf courses and country estates of the wealthy so that anyone would have easy access to the parks and beaches he created . flint tallies his impressive achievements :\n13 bridges , two tunnels , 637 miles of highways , 658 playgrounds , ten giant public swimming pools , 17 state parks , and dozens of new or renovated city parks\n.\nspark ( gb ) [ tasker ' s ] c 1733c ( aleppo - sister to look - about - you , by bartlet ' s childers ) . sire line darley arabian . family 28 . bred by charles , 2nd lord tankerville , in northumberland , and later owned by charles fleetwood , of middlesex . the latter presented him to frederick , prince of wales , who in turn presented him to charles , 5th lord baltimore . imported in 1747 by benjamin tasker , he was the first english horse to reside in maryland . he stood at tasker ' s belair stud until his death in 1756 . he sired the full siblings hopper ' s pacolet ( gr c 1750c ) and gantt ' s mille ( f 1752c ) .\non december 8 , 1796 , moses austin and one of his workers set out on a two - thousand - mile round - trip journey through pristine wilderness to what is now southeast missouri . as they approached the mississippi river , they got lost in a huge snowstorm , ran out of food , and ended up sixty miles off course . in missouri , austin met john rice jones , an american who became his business partner and translator to the territory\u2019s french population , and commandant fran\u00e7ois vall\u00e9 of ste . genevieve , another future business partner , who led austin to a place with exceptionally rich lead deposits called mine \u00e1 breton . austin soon made a formal request for this land to the spanish government .\nlap - dog ' s brother , spaniel ( 1828 ) , resembled his sire , whalebone , in that he was a small , long horse . he was a weedy youngster , and was sold to lord lowther for 150 guineas as a yearling and placed in training with joe rogers . he debuted at newmarket in a sweepstakes over the two year old course ( almost 3 / 4 of a mile ) for juveniles , and ran second to zany in a field of seven . he failed to place in newmarket ' s july stakes , and in a \u00a350 juvenile race in october , both also over the tyc , and then ran third the nursery stakes ( carrying 7 st . - 12 lb to the 8 stone plus carried by the other four runners ) over the ditch mile in october .\nan early close friend of carver was henry a . wallace ; the pair knew each other for forty - seven years . wallace said that carver often took him on botanical ( relating to plants ) expeditions , and it was he who first introduced wallace to the mysteries of plant fertilizers . carver was a shy and modest bachelor , an unmarried man . an attack of whooping cough ( a contagious disease that attacks the respiratory system ) as a child had permanently caused him to have a high - pitched tenor voice . he considered it a high duty to attend classes and was seldom absent . in 1908 he returned to the west to visit his ninety - six - year - old guardian , moses carver , and to visit the grave of his brother , james , in missouri .\nbrook hill is unique as it combines horse rescue and rehabilitation with a therapeutic riding program . as a fully accredited member of the global federation of animal sanctuaries , we have rescued and rehabilitated over 450 horses since our inception in 2001 . more than half of those rescued and rehabilitated horses are thoroughbreds , and we are one of only a few organizations in the us to be fully accredited by the thoroughbred aftercare alliance , providing the best possible care for our retired thoroughbred athletes . along the way , brook hill discovered the magic of the combination of horses and people ; how they inspire and enrich the human spirit , healing both the body and the mind . as a member center of the professional association of therapeutic horsemanship international ( path ) , brook hill farm provides equine assisted activities for youth and adults . through hard work and love the participants care for and heal their rescue horses , and very often find healing themselves .\nane jacobs is often portrayed as an almost mythic figure , locked with robert moses in an epic battle for the future of new york . she was the mother and determined journalist with owlish glasses and grey thatch of hair who cruised around greenwich village on a bicycle , her handbag stowed in a wicker basket on the handlebars . he was new york ' s seemingly unstoppable construction tsar , the man the press nicknamed\nbig bob the builder\n, a master of backroom politics who was chauffeur - driven around the five boroughs in a black stretch limousine with pigskin seats . he wanted to tear down her house , neighbourhood , and much of the rest of new york so that he could cover it with superblocks and expressways . she took him on - david v goliath - and won . but was the dynamic as straightforward as that ?\non a recent visit to hudson street i found that a third of the stores and restaurants on jacobs ' s block are empty . jacobs died in 2006 , but her cast of shopkeepers were swept away by gentrification , of which , ironically , she represented the first wave , many years ago . the white horse tavern , where dylan thomas used to prop up the bar , has expanded down the street and is clogged with tourists , but chelsea cricket , which apparently offered designer clothing for toddlers in the storefront of jacobs ' s old home , closed earlier this year , as did the popular italian restaurant next door and two other eateries on the block - their windows whitewashed on the inside as the recession creates its own urban blight . a man with a moustache , whom jacobs would no doubt have thought a\ncharacter\n, was sitting on one of these empty stoops shouting at passers - by ,\nare you unhappy ?\nflexible ( 1822 ) was bred at petworth and sold as a yearling to a mr . bartley , who soon therafter sold him to john mytton , who owned longwaist . flexible was out of themis , a sorcerer daughter , and true to his breeding , was a good distance horse . at age three he won a match at epsom , beating velasquez , followed by a win of the original stakes at bath . he placed second to mephistopheles in the st . leger stakes at cheltenham , and at the same meeting won \u00a375 in a race against six other mostly older horses , but could only run third in the cheltenham cup , won by longwaist , who was still owned by fulwar craven . he went on to win the stourbridge cup , the town plate ( in two - mile heats ) at warwick , and shrewsbury ' s st . leger stakes ; he also ran second for warwick ' s st . leger stakes , beaten by doctor faustus .\njacobs is not only a hero of grassroots activists , but has set the agenda for urban planning for half a century . her utopian vision of greenwich village life has been exported unquestioningly to the rest of the world , where an urban stage set provides a background for disneyland - like islands of social fantasy that hardly relate to the rest of the city ( think of covent garden , which was also saved from an expressway ) ; suburbs have also been retrofitted so that they resemble little villages . in new york , many of the historic districts she helped save from the lower manhattan expressway , such as soho ' s cast - iron district , have become open - air museums or malls for tourists that are just as soulless as the cultural centres and high - rises she so abhorred . in these entertainment zones , any semblance of street ballet is swamped by the marching of out - of town consumers , most of whom got there via the bridges and tunnels moses built ."]}
{"id": 1567, "summary": [{"text": "bathyprion danae , the fangtooth smooth-head , is a species of slickhead found in deep waters of the atlantic and pacific oceans .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it is in the monotypic genus bathyprion . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "bathyprion danae", "paragraphs": ["you can download standardized annotation of the bathyprion danae mitogenomic sequence via the links below .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nhaukisilokuore\nto\nbathyprion danae marshall , 1966\n.\nscientific synonyms and common names bathyprion danae marshall , 1966 synonyms : bathyprion danae marshall , 1966c , dana rep . , ( 68 ) : 4 - 9 , fig . 1 - 3 ( 33\u00b026 ' s . , 157\u00b002 ' e . ) . holotype : zmuc no . p . 1785 . bathyprion danae : markle , 1976 : 133 - 134 , fig . 39b . common names : fangtooth smooth - head [ en ]\nfangtooth slickhead , bathyprion danae - mcz 57613 . source : museum of comparative zoology , harvard university . license : cc by attribution - noncommercial - sharealike\nmarshall , n . b . 1966 . bathyprion danae a new genus and species of alepocephaliform fishes . dana reports ( 68 ) : 1 - 10 .\n* fangtooth smooth - head , bathyprion danae marshall , 1966 . * genus bathytroctes * bathytroctes breviceps sazonov , 1999 . * bathytroctes elegans sazonov & ivanov , 1979 . more\nmarshall , n . b . 1966c . bathyprion danae . a new genus and species of alepocephaliform fishes . dana rep . , ( 68 ) : 1 - 10 , fig . 1 - 3 .\ncitation :\nfangtooth slickheads , bathyprion danae ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\nbailly , n . ( 2014 ) . bathyprion danae . in : froese , r . and d . pauly . editors . ( 2014 ) fishbase . in : costello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvantidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2014 ) european register of marine species , accessed through pesi at\nmarkle , d . f . 1976 . preliminary studies on the systematics of deep - sea alepocephaloidea ( pisces : salmoniformes ) . a dissertation presented to the faculty of the school of marine science . the college of william and mary in virginia . 225 pp . , 41 fig . ( not published ) .\ngreek , bathys = deep + greek , prion , - onos = saw ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; bathypelagic ; depth range 100 - 3200 m ( ref . 4460 ) . deep - water ; 56\u00b0n - 28\u00b0s\neastern atlantic : namibia ( 21\u00b043 ' s to 27\u00b014 ' s ) . elsewhere , north atlantic ( 55\u00b043 ' n to 42\u00b056 ' n ) and western pacific .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 38 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4460 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 24 - 27 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 24 - 27 . pelvic fins with a splint bone .\nmarkle , d . f . and j . - c . qu\u00e9ro , 1984 . alepocephalidae ( including bathylaconidae , bathyprionidae ) . p . 228 - 253 . in p . j . p . whitehead , m . - l . bauchot , j . - c . hureau , j . nielsen and e . tortonese ( eds . ) fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . unesco , paris . vol . 1 . ( ref . 4736 )\n) : 3 . 5 - 11 . 4 , mean 7 . 6 ( based on 173 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00339 ( 0 . 00151 - 0 . 00760 ) , b = 3 . 19 ( 2 . 99 - 3 . 39 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 5 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 51 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nis widely distributed in the atlantic , western pacific , caribbean and off the east coast of the united states . in the eastern central atlantic this species has been found in madeira and off of namibia . this is a rare species with only a handful of museum collections and there are no records of this species in its range . this species inhabits depths from 600 m to 5 , 000 m and may be found in depths greater than 8 , 000 m . there are no major threats known and this species is not utilized at the present time . it is listed as least concern .\n2003 ) . in the eastern central atlantic , this species is known from madeira and the canaries to off western ireland , as well as off of namibia . this species was caught in a bottom trawl haul from the depth of 8 , 800 m in japan ( parin and shcherbachev 1973 ) .\nanguilla ; antigua and barbuda ; australia ; bahamas ; barbados ; bonaire , sint eustatius and saba ; china ; cura\u00e7ao ; dominica ; dominican republic ; france ( france ( mainland ) ) ; grenada ; guadeloupe ; haiti ; ireland ; japan ; martinique ; montserrat ; morocco ; namibia ; new caledonia ; new zealand ; norfolk island ; papua new guinea ; portugal ( azores , madeira , portugal ( mainland ) ) ; puerto rico ; saint barth\u00e9lemy ; saint kitts and nevis ; saint lucia ; saint martin ( french part ) ; saint vincent and the grenadines ; sint maarten ( dutch part ) ; spain ( canary is . , spain ( mainland ) ) ; taiwan , province of china ( taiwan , province of china ( main island ) ) ; trinidad and tobago ; turks and caicos islands ; united kingdom ; united states ; venezuela , bolivarian republic of ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s . ; western sahara\nis a rare species with only a handful of specimens present in museum collections .\nalepocephalidae are characterized by species that inhabit depths of about 600 m to 5 , 000 m with most species occurring below 1 , 000 m ( hartel in press ) . however ,\nwas recorded from 8 , 800 m ( parin and shcherbachev 1973 ) . these species feed on a variety of food items including ctenophores , crustaceans , echinoderms , polychaetes , decapods , tunicates and fishes ( hartel in press ) . it attains a maximum size of up to 39cm ( standard length ) .\nthere are no major threats known for this species . in the eastern central atlantic region trawl fisheries do not trawl deeper than 200 m ( koranteng 2001 , nunoo pers . comm . 2012 ) .\nthere are no species - specific conservation measures in place for this species . its distribution may overlap with marine reserves in parts of its range ( world database on protected areas 2010 ) , however , it is not known if protection encompasses the depth range of the species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nis widely distributed in the atlantic and western and eastern pacific oceans . in the northeastern atlantic ,\nis known only from the azores and madeira . this is a rare species and little information is available about its population status , habitats or ecology . there are no major threats known and this species is not utilized at the present time . however , given that records from the assessment region are isolated and scattered ,\n. 2014 ) and there are isolated records at about 55\u00b0 n ( markle and quero 1986 ) . it is known from about 1 , 100 to 3 , 100 m ( markle and quero 1984 ) .\nfrance ( france ( mainland ) ) ; ireland ; portugal ( azores , madeira , portugal ( mainland ) , selvagens ) ; spain ( canary is . , spain ( mainland ) )\nthere are no species - specific conservation measures in place for this species . its distribution may overlap with marine reserves in parts of its range , however , it is not known if protection encompasses the depth range of the species .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c809289f - 0017 - 4d82 - ad7e - 05d2e3e524bb\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : cceb9f3f - 5d75 - 4154 - ac61 - 5b89a1397a85\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : cdb2a5a0 - 2e38 - 495b - 9712 - e73acbef3fe1\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : fd9140c1 - 0da3 - 40cf - 86e6 - 724ce8570041\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 548527\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\nmoore , jon a . , karsten e . hartel , james e . craddock , and john k . galbraith\nthis home page section for this species is currently being developed and will be completed asap ! if you would like to help out or know of a great video , photo or site about this species , let us know and we ' ll notify you as soon as it is finished . our current project plan is to have all marine species home pages finished before christmas this year . if you ' d like to find out more about our ongoing projects here at marinebio , check out our marinebio projects page .\nstart or join a discussion about this species below or send us an email to report any errors or submit suggestions for this page . we greatly appreciate all feedback !\nhelp us protect and restore marine life by supporting our various online community - centered marine conservation projects that are effectively sharing the wonders of the ocean with millions each year around the world , raising a balanced awareness of the increasingly troubling and often very complex marine conservation issues that affect marine life and ourselves directly , providing support to marine conservation groups on the frontlines that are making real differences today , and the scientists , teachers and students involved in the marine life sciences .\nwith your support , most marine life and their ocean habitats can be protected , if not restored to their former natural levels of biodiversity . we sincerely thank our thousands of members , donors and sponsors , who have decided to get involved and support the marinebio conservation society .\ndeep music digitally imported urltoken proton radio * radio paradise radiotunes somafm wers 88 . 9 fm\n~ sharing the wonders of the ocean to inspire conservation , education , research , and a sea ethic ~ marinebio . org , inc . is a u . s . 501 ( c ) 3 charitable , nonprofit organization . contact : info @ urltoken all marinebio conservation society memberships and donations are tax deductible in the united states . > < ( ( ( ( \u00b0 > \u00a9 1998 - 2017 marinebio copyright & terms of use . privacy policy . > - < \u00b0\u00b0 > - <\nfor all at last returns to the sea \u2014 to oceanus , the ocean river , like the everflowing stream of time , the beginning and the end .\n- rachel carson\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\n( for details about our automatic annotation engine , refer to mitoannotator ) . the image on the right side is a visual representation of the mitogenome created by circos . the innermost circle represents gc % per every 5bp of the mitogenome ; the darker lines are , the higher their gc % are .\ncopyright \u00a9 atmosphere and ocean research institute , the university of tokyo , japan .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nvan der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nmoore , j . a . , m . vecchione , b . b . collette , and r . gibbons . ( 2002 ) the fauna of bear seamount ( new england seamount chain ) , and the presence of\nnatural invader\nspecies . paper cm 2002 / m : 25 , ices annual science conference and ices centenary , 1 - 5 october 2002 , copenhagen [ details ]\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n) : 3 . 5 - 11 . 4 , mean 7 . 6 ( based on 173 cells ) . phylogenetic diversity index ( ref .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00339 ( 0 . 00151 - 0 . 00760 ) , b = 3 . 19 ( 2 . 99 - 3 . 39 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref .\n) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nmarine ; bathypelagic ; depth range 100 - 3200 m ( ref . 4460 ) . deep - water , preferred ? ; 56\u00b0n - 28\u00b0s\n% pdf - 1 . 3 % \u00e5\u00fe\u00eb\u00d7 2 0 obj < < / type / font / subtype / type1 / basefont / courier / encoding / winansiencoding > > endobj 3 0 obj < < / type / xobject / subtype / image / width 3498 / height 5480 / bitspercomponent 1 / colorspace / devicegray / filter [ / ccittfaxdecode ] / decodeparms [ < < / columns 3498 / rows 5480 / k - 1 > > ] / length 65477 > > stream \u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00f9\u0001\u00a5 \u00e7\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff\u00e8 \u000e\u0095\u0005apt\u0015ir\u00ae\u00a9r\u00ae\u00a9v\u0095 - { y\u009a\u0099j\u008d ! \u00a2\u0018i \u001ae $ \u001ax\u0015l\u00fcvj\b\b\u0083\u0012 r\u00ee\u0092\u0089\u0002\u00fee\u00f0\u0018d\u001a\u009c\u0082\u008d\u0089\u00e5\u009c ` : \u0011hcn\u0083\u00b4\u00e2\u00f0v\u009fa\u00f6\u00bb\u00f4\u00abk\u00ec\u0096\u00e3a\u0003\u00eei\u00fa\u00ec ar\u00e0xc\u00f1\u00ec\u00863\b\u00ec \u00f5\u0082\u0011\u0011\u0011 ! \u009c\u00fa\u009f\u00aau\u00e8\u0086\u00a9\u00f4\u001a\u00fc\u0083qp\u00b0\u00fd\u00f2ku\u00e8q\u0094\u0087k \u00b4 = \u00a5\u00b5d \u00e1\u0097\u0016\u00bfu \u00e8u\u001b\u00ae\u00b0\u008a\u0098 > \u00bbx @ \u00f4\u0095\u00b4\u00a1\u0013 # \u00fc > \u0087j\u00a9v\u00bb\u00ea\u00bd\u00a5j\u0097\u00fdw\u00d7\u00ed } r 6l\u008dv\u0096c , m\u00af\u00fa\u000f\u00f2\u00ae\b\u001bk\u00ea\u00e1\u0003\u007f\u00fa\u0007j\u00b5\u00f3 ~ \u00ab ` \u0083\u00a5\u00f5a6\u00be\u00b6\b ? 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\u00a4\u00fb\u008f\u00a8\u00f5a\u00df\u00fb\u00bd\u00f3\u00a5\u00ff\u00f7\u00d7p\u00ee\u00fb\u00f4\u00ef\u00fb\u00fe\u00b7\u000e\u00ef\u00f3z\u00beyu ? \u00f97\u00e0\u00e1 & \u000e\u00ef\u00f8\u00f5z ~ \u00bd\u0084\u0018o\u00ff\u00fa\u0087\u00d7\u00fe\u00d7o\u00ff ~ ? \u00ff\u00fak\u00ff\u00f5\u00ff\u00ff\u00b5\u00ff\u00ff\u00af\u00ff\u00a1\u00ff\u00ff\u00ff & l ; \u0084y - \br\u0004\u00fb\u00e5\u00b9\u00af\u009d\u0082\u00ff\u00bf\u00eb\u00e5l9x\u0011\u0005\u00eebj\u0019 @ \u0081 \u00ff\u00e9\u00e9\u00ff\u00fey @ \u00e0l\u00ab\u0004 ! fh & v ; \u00aa < \u0083\u0004c \u00a8c \u0084\u001a\u00fc\u00ef / \u00ff\u00d7\u00f2\u00e8\u009d\u0011\u00a1 b\u0082\n\u0019\u00ebe [ ! \u0084a\u00e4\u00e0\u0084\u0080\u00a7n\u000f\u0084\u001a\u00ebh0\u0087\u00f5\u00ff\u00ff\u00fc\u00b7\u00e8\u0097\u00ee\u00e9\u0002 @ \u0083\u0084\u0018t\u00f0a\u0006k \u0098 \u00f0\u009aa < & \u0088\u00f2\u0011 _ d _ h \u00bf\u00d7 ] \u007f\u00fc\u0095\u0016b\u00ec\u0083\u0010\u00ea\u00e2\u009a\u0084\nvan der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374\nmoore , j . a . , m . vecchione , b . b . collette , and r . gibbons . ( 2002 ) the fauna of bear seamount ( new england seamount chain ) , and the presence of\nnatural invader\nspecies . paper cm 2002 / m : 25 , ices annual science conference and ices centenary , 1 - 5 october 2002 , copenhagen\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 license\npesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nchinese academy of fishery sciences ( 2003 ) chinese aquatic germplasm resources database . : urltoken\neschmeyer , william n . , ed . , 1998 : catalog of fishes . special publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3 . 2905 .\nfao - fies ( 2017 ) aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . : retrievef from urltoken ( accessed 08 / 06 / 2017 ) .\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication .\nmarkle , d . f . and j . - c . qu\u00e9ro ( 1984 ) alepocephalidae ( including bathylaconidae , bathyprionidae ) . : p . 228 - 253 . in p . j . p . whitehead , m . - l . bauchot , j . - c . hureau , j . nielsen and e . tortonese ( eds . ) fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . unesco , paris . vol . 1 .\nmoore , jon a . , karsten e . hartel , james e . craddock , and john k . galbraith , 2003 : an annotated list of deepwater fishes from off the new england region , with new area records . northeastern naturalist , vol . 10 , no . 2 . 159 - 248 .\nwu , h . l . , k . - t . shao and c . f . lai ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) latin - chinese dictionary of fishes names . : the sueichan press , taiwan . 1028 p .\nvan der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , < b > < i > in < / i > < / b > : costello , m . j . < i > et al . < / i > ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . < i > european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , < / i > 50 : pp . 357 - 374\ncfm script by eagbayani , 12 . 10 . 04 , php script by rolavides , 05 / 02 / 08 , last modified by cgarilao , 13 / 05 / 08\nbody slender and elongate , with a large head . eyes much smaller than snout . snout pointed . upper and lower jaws with fang - like teeth . rear margin of jaw extends well beyond posterior margin of orbit . dorsal fin directly over of anal fin . pectoral and pelvic fins small . scales tiny .\nwhitehead , p . j . p . , m . - l . bauchot , j . - c . hureau , j . g . nielsen and e . tortonese . 1986 . fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . vol . i -\na uniformly blackish deepwater shark with a short , blunt snout , fleshy lips , large triangular serrated teeth in the lower jaw , and no fin spines . the black shark can carve out chunks flesh like the related cookiecutter sharks .\na bluish - black slickhead covered in many large , nodular photophores on the head and body , with a slightly paler head , a broadly rounded snout , a very large eye , and short jaws that do not extend beyond the middle of the eye .\na longnosed brownish - grey dogfish with a long - based first dorsal fin and no subcaudal keel .\na pale tan to pale bluish grey , or dark brown spiny eel with two or more complete rows of palatine and dentary teeth , and 9 - 12 unconnected short , sharp dorsal - fin spines .\nfabulous footage of a species of melanocetus filmed in the monterey bay , california .\na primitive eel - like deepwater shark with a single low dorsal fin positioned far back on the body , six ' frilled ' gill slits , a large mouth with groups of small sharp inward pointing teeth and no lower lobe on the long caudal fin . frill sharks are dark brown to greyish in colour , often with a paler underside . video of a frill shark swimming video of a frill shark swimming just above the bottom in 950 metres off south carolina ( usa ) . video of a female frill shark caught off awashima port in shizuoka , southwest of tokyo . the shark was transferred to the awashima marine park , but only lived for a few hours .\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013"]}
{"id": 1574, "summary": [{"text": "the redfin pickerel ( esox americanus americanus ) is a subspecies of freshwater fish belonging to the pike family ( esocidae ) of the order esociformes .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "not to be confused with its close relatives , the grass pickerel and the chain pickerel , this fish is unique in the fact that it has brightly colored red fins .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "like all pikes , the redfin pickerel is an ambush predator , lying amongst thick vegetation in wait for smaller , more agile prey to enter within its range of attack . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "redfin pickerel", "paragraphs": ["all fishing buy , redfin pickerel fish , habitats , characteristics , fishing pickerel methods .\ngrass and redfin pickerel are typically top predators in their habitats . the protozoan parasites of these pickerel include\nredfin pickerel , compared to grass pickerel , have a shorter , broader snout . also , their pelvic and pectoral fins are red . redfin pickerel total lengths average between 150 - 200mm . also , redfin pickerel grow faster than grass pickerel ( sternberg , 1987 ) . redfin pickerel have a complete lateral line with 94 - 117 scales , and 3 - 5 , usually 4 , submandibular pores .\ncontinue to collect distribution data on redfin pickerel to monitor their status in new hampshire .\nin the wild , the maximum life span of grass pickerel is 7 years . in north carolina , the expected lifespan of redfin pickerel is 5 - 7 years . according to sternberg ( 1987 ) , grass and redfin pickerel can reach a maximum age of 8 years old in the wild . female redfin pickerel live longer than males . grass and redfin pickerel are not kept in captivity .\ninvestigate the impacts of urbanization and habitat fragmentation on redfin pickerel populations in southeastern new hampshire .\nthere is no parental care after spawning with grass and redfin pickerel young . after spawning , the adult pickerel abandon the eggs .\ncrossman , e . 1962 . the redfin pickerel , esox a . americanus in north carolina .\nredfin pickerel - esox americanus , is a species of freshwater fish in the pike family esocidae . it is also known as : grass pickerel , mud pickerel , little pickerel , banded pickerel , redfinned pike and barred pickerel . the redfin pickerel is an atlantic coast form , its range extending from new york south to eastern drainages in georgia and all the way down to the gulf of mexico .\nthat exists in the urinary tract of pickerel . trematode parasites of these pickerel are\nchain pickerel the redfin pickerel , however , has a shorter snout and a black bar below the eye that angles slightly towards the rear .\ndo not stock redfin pickerel together with any fish less than 1 / 3 of the pickerel ' s body length . redfin pickerel will not do well with very active or aggressive fish ; such a combination often results in the pickerel becoming ragged as well as barely eating for lack of opportunities .\nthe redfin pickerel also known as grass pickerel , little pickerel , and barred pickerel is a very popular for they active fighting sport fish even it is a very small size . redfin pickerel hit well in the winter months , and even through the ice . pickerel will savagely attack schools of baitfish , or individuals , whatever is the easiest prey at the time . the best locations for redfin pickerel in the winter is along points , with drop - offs near deeper water , and areas that contain some underwater cover and vegetation nearby .\nrecreational fishing is common throughout the lower river . this redfin pickerel is one of many fishes caught by this fisherman .\n) . grass pickerel and redfin pickerel are distributed from the st . lawrence river drainage in southern canada and the finger lakes southward to lake okeechobee , florida . grass pickerel mainly exist west of the appalachian mountain chain , along the mississippi river regions . redfin pickerel exist mainly east along the atlantic slope . grass pickerel replace redfin pickerel in the drainages of the gulf of mexico , the mississippi river , and in ontario . grass pickerel were introduced to idaho , colorado , utah , washington , western pennsylvania , maryland , western new york , and potentially even wisconsin ( cosewic , 2005 ) .\nthe reddish tinted fins will usually , but not always distinguish the redfin pickerel from its larger cousin , the chain pickerel . also note the backward slanting black bar beneath the eye . in the chain pickerel this bar would be vertical .\ngrass pickerel are known in nature to hybridize with redfin pickerel , chain pickerel , and northern pike ( serns and mcknight 1977 , schwartz 1962 , schwartz 1981 ) . artificial hybrids between muskellunge and grass pickerel lived at least 18 months ( tenant and billy 1963 , crossman and buss 1965 ) .\nhabitat . grass and redfin pickerel inhabit quiet or small lakes and swamps , bays and backwaters , and sluggish pools of streams . both prefer heavy vegetation in clear waters , but the grass pickerel favors waters with neutral to basic acidity , and the redfin inhabits comparatively acidic waters .\nlife history : redfin pickerel are the smallest member of the pike family , attaining a maximum length of about 12 inches . redfin pickerel spawn in early spring by laying strings of eggs over vegetation or submerged branches in shallow water . its prey consists of invertebrates and small fish . redfin pickerel appear to be well adapted to living in headwater stream habitat and have been captured in surprisingly small streams with very low flow .\ngrass pickerel have a higher egg count than redfin pickerel . according to crossman ( 1962 ) , of 10 3 - 4 - year - old redfin pickerel females sampled , the average primary egg count was 269 . 4 with a range of 186 - 542 , and the total egg count was estimated at 3716 . 2 with a range of 722 - 4364 ( crossman , 1962 ) . a single redfin pickerel was compared to a grass pickerel of similar size and the egg count varied significantly . the redfin had 186 primary , or mature eggs , with a total egg count of 3 , 672 while the grass pickerel had 803 and 15 , 732 respectively ( crossman , 1962 ) .\ngrass and redfin pickerel reach sexual maturity as early as age one when the males are at least 188mm in total length and females are 109mm total length . the pickerel are usually able to spawn by age 2 .\nlike all pike , the redfin pickerel is an ambush predator . this lifestyle dictates much of its tank and feeding requirements . as an ambush predator , under normal circumstances , it will not chase food around a tank . pickerel prefer to lay very still amidst some cover and wait for food to pass by it . redfin pickerel will barely breath to achieve full effect .\nlife history / behavior . reaching sexual maturity when they are roughly 2 years old and at least 5 inches long , grass and redfin pickerel spawn in the late fall , the early winter , or the spring ; grass pickerel require water temperatures between 36\u00b0 and 54\u00b0f , and redfin favor waters approaching 50\u00b0f . spawning takes place in heavily vegetated , shallow areas , and the backs of the fish appear at the surface as they scatter eggs in small batches over the vegetation . grass pickerel may produce twice as many eggs as do redfin pickerel . they do not build nests . the grass pickerel ' s eggs hatch in 11 to 15 days , the redfin pickerel ' s in 12 to 1 4 days , without the protection of the parents .\ncrossman , e . j . 1962 . the redfin pickerel esox a . americanus in north carolina . copeia 1962 ( 1 ) : 114 - 123 .\nthe redfin pickerel is the eastern half of the esox americanus subspecies twins . the other is northwest pennsylvania\u2019s grass pickerel ( esox americanus vermiculatus ) . the redfin\u2019s native range is along the atlantic coast from massachusetts to florida . in the gulf coast and southeast states , it mixes and interbreeds with the grass pickerel . the redfin is a common small pickerel in the delaware river watershed in pennsylvania . it is found rarely in the susquehanna river watershed . in pennsylvania , there is no natural overlap in the geographic distribution of these subspecies .\nof a pound in weight ; the redfin pickerel generally grows faster and slightly longer than the grass pickerel . the alltackle world record for the grass pickerel is a 1 - pound indiana fish ; for the redfin pickerel , the record is a 1 - pound , 15 - ounce new york fish . they can live up to 8 years , although they usually live 5 years or less . females live longer and grow larger than males .\nyounger grass and redfin pickerel diets vary from the diet of adult pickerel . until they are about 50 mm in size , juveniles primarily rely on small crustaceans , like cladocerans or amphipods , and aquatic insects for food .\none of the most distinctive characteristics identifying young redfin pickerel is a silvery - green stripe spanning the region from the tip of the snout to the base of the caudal fin . also , their fins are not fully red , only the tips of their fins contain any red pigmentation . juvenile redfin pickerel are typically between 10 - 20mm in length at the time of hatching and grow rapidly . scales do not appear on young redfin pickerel until they are at least 50mm .\ndescription : redfin pickerel look similar to the chain pickerel , except smaller , with a more blunt snout and an olive to yellowish green coloration compared to the deeper green color of the chain pickerel . its most distinctive features are its reddish colored fins and a backwards slanting black vertical bar beneath the eye .\npiscivorous , but will eat other live foods such as grubs and insects . it is extremely difficult to achieve a diet of artificial food with redfin pickerel or pikes altogether .\nthe redfin pickerel is the smallest member of the pike family . they have dark , vertical barring on sides . the opercle is fully scaled and there is a forward slashing\nscar\nthrough the eye . the snout is shorter than in other pikes . the redfin variety of\nthe grass pickerel ( esox americanus vermiculatus ) is a subspecies of the redfin pickerel and a small member of the pike family ( esocidae ) . in addition to the distinguishing family features ( large mouth ; many teeth ; forked tail ; and posterior dorsal and anal fins ) , the grass pickerel has the following characteristics :\nthese pickerel are scrappy fighters , but their small size limits their popularity as sport fish . they can be caught on minnows , streamers , small spinners , spoons and plugs . redfin pickerel are a lot of fun to catch on light spinning tackle .\nthe grass pickerel subspecies could be mistaken for the redfin , if their ranges were not so distinct . the grass pickerel is distributed throughout the mississippi river watershed . the redfin is an east coast fish . where their ranges cross along the gulf coast , from louisiana to florida , the two small pickerel interbreed . in pennsylvania , grass pickerel are found in northwestern pennsylvania , in both the lake erie and allegheny river watersheds , especially where the land has been glaciated . the grass pickerel\u2019s subspecies name \u201c vermiculatus \u201d means \u201cwormlike , \u201d describing the wavy markings on the fish\u2019s sides .\n) if they are found in the same geographic area . grass and redfin pickerel have a lateral line system , which is a sensory canal system made up of pores and sensory organs . this is useful in detecting water pressure / movement changes . grass and redfin pickerel use ram style ambush when capturing prey . this means that the pickerel move towards their prey by propelling themselves forward , at first slowly , then curving their bodies to help propel themselves at the fastest acceleration they can reach .\nyou may feed your pickerel 0 - 2x / day depending on selected diet . pickerel typically need a brief\nwarm - up\nperiod before they begin to feed .\nconservation / management : although redfin pickerel are relatively common in southern new england , populations in new hampshire are limited to the southeastern corner of new hampshire where aquatic habitats are rapidly becoming degraded due to increasing development pressure .\nspecies of the family esocidae are usually the top predators in their environments . grass and redfin pickerel are cannibalistic at times and can be predators to themselves . though they are rarely caught for sport fishing purposes , humans (\nbreeding season february - march and for grass pickerel , possibly again in august - november .\nlocally almost all species of north american esocids are present . northern pike , chain pickerel , grass pickerel , redfin pickerel , and even muskellunge are found in lake champlain . the northern pike and the chain pickerel are very abundant where the other pickerel are common . the muskellunge is present but not nearly as common as the other species . pikes are considered game fish by many , but the pickerel because of its smaller size is not widely sought after . as a fisherman of many years on the lakes and ponds of northern vermont i would definitely attest to the belief that the pikes are an exciting and vicious predator in the aquatic world of lakes , rivers , and ponds .\nhabitat : the redfin pickerel prefers shallow weedy backwaters in stands of aquatic vegetation or thick overhanging grasses and shrubs . it is often found in smaller watersheds than the chain pickerel . in new hampshire it is frequently found in streams flowing through abandoned beaver ponds in very small watersheds that may dry up in some years .\nredfin pickerel inhabit the weedy shallows of slow - moving streams , as well as lakes and ponds . although they are usually found over a soft , mud bottom , redfin pickerel prefer the water itself to be clear . they can live in naturally acidic water , like that which flows from the tannicstained bogs in pennsylvania\u2019s northeast region . they can tolerate swampy waters with low oxygen content and brackish waters , where fresh water and ocean salt water mix .\nredfin pickerel spawn in spring , when the water temperature reaches about 50 degrees . the sticky eggs are randomly broadcast in the shallows over underwater vegetation and other organic debris . the eggs , which hatch in about two weeks , receive no parental care . unlike larger pikes , the redfin does not include fish as a primary part of its diet . instead , it feeds on small crustaceans , crayfish , aquatic insects and other invertebrates . the small size of redfin pickerel , as well as their restricted shallow - water habitat , may be why so few fish are on their menu .\npickerel occur naturally only in eastern n america . the group consists of 2 species : esox niger , chain pickerel ; e . americanus , divisible into 2 forms , redfin pickerel , which grows to 35 cm , and the slightly smaller grass pickerel . in canada , 1 or more species occur in limited portions of the country from southern ns to ontario , inhabiting smaller , warm waters ( eg , ponds , small streams , bays of lakes ) . only the chain pickerel , growing to about 50 cm long and 1 . 4 kg , is of any consequence as a sport fish .\ncrossman , e . j . 1980 . esox americanus ( gmelin ) , redfin pickerel and grass pickerel . pp . 131 in d . s . lee et al . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . n . c . state mus . nat . hist . , raleigh , i - r + 854 pp .\nredfin pickerel lives in lowland streams , bays and ponds with thick vegetation , and it is known in eight atlantic slope watersheds plus champlain . this small pickerel is not known to have overlapping range with its close relative , grass pickerel . it is likely to be non native to the few higher elevation waters of the adirondacks where it has been caught . the distributional range and abundance has grown in the lower hudson watershed .\n\u2022 pike is the mainly referred name while pickerel is used to refer certain species of esox .\nchain pickerel spawn in early spring , when water temperatures are in the high 40s to low 50s . the spawning period lasts about one week . chain pickerel are also reported to spawn in the fall , but the survival rate of eggs and young is suspected to be low . the sticky eggs , 6 , 000 to 8 , 000 typically deposited by each female , are scattered over underwater weeds . chain pickerel have been known to hybridize in the wild with redfin pickerel , because their spawning site choices and breeding times overlap .\ngrass and redfin pickerel are not notable gamefish due to their small size , but are sometimes caught on accident by game fisherman . if pickerel are caught and not thrown back , they can be eaten as food . according to sternberg ( 1987 ) , their meat is described as white , flaky , and sweet - tasting but bony .\n) , move between 40m - 75m per hour in the spring , 15m - 40m in the summer , and 26m - 55m in the fall . there has been no documentation of a home range for grass and redfin pickerel , but it is likely that they travel in a similar seasonal pattern . grass and redfin pickerel are mostly sedentary when not in spawning season , when they will migrate to other areas , and only travel in response to water level changes or to feed .\naccording to crossman ( 1962 ) , the growth of newly hatched grass or redfin pickerel is relatively rapid . the fry hatch with no scales , an unsegmented spinal chord , and a notochord that spans to the tip of the rounded caudal fin . once the fry reach approximately 30mm their vertebrae begin to segment and the urostyle begins to develop . by 20mm , their lateral lines have developed . the pickerels ' scales appear when they are approximately 50mm and form behind the head and pelvic area . once the pickerel have reached 65mm they become fully scaled and their caudal fin becomes completely formed and forked , and the urostyle is completely developed and spine completely segmented . grass pickerel grow faster than redfin pickerel , which grow 25 - 35mm a year . like most fish , pickerel exhibit indeterminate growth .\na management plan for the grass pickerel was published in 2012 . it provides a summary of current knowledge , identifies threats to the species and its habitat and recommends measures to maintain and improve grass pickerel populations .\ngrass and redfin pickerel spawn in the late winter to early spring months , with grass pickerels occasionally spawning a second time in the late summer to early winter months . spawning occurs in heavily vegetated floodplains , swamps , and tributary streams that are sometimes so shallow ( less than 30 . 5cm ) , that the male and female pickerel are out of the water .\ngrass and redfin pickerel are piscivorous , meaning they eat other fish . the diet of grass pickerel 50 - 100mm consists mainly of small crustaceans and aquatic insects , such as members of the orders trichoptera ( caddisflies ) and odonata ( dragonflies and damselflies ) . their diet also includes crayfish and some fish , like sunfish ( family centrarchidae ) and fish of the genus\nredfin pickerel are listed as a species of\nleast concern\non the iucn red list and have no special status on the federal endangered species list , through cites list , or on the state of michigan list . according to cosewic ( 2005 ) , grass pickerel were designated a species of special concern in canada in 2005 . major threats here include of loss of habitat from dredging and the deepening , or channelization , of wetland areas that the grass pickerel inhabit .\nthe grass pickerel is often mistaken for the young of northern pike and , less often , the muskellunge .\na management plan for the grass pickerel was published in june 2011 . it provides a summary of current knowledge , identifies threats to the species and its habitat and recommends measures to maintain and improve grass pickerel populations .\nchain pickerel has a wide range of food preference such as small fishes , frogs , crabs , mice , crayfish , and many other aquatic animals . chain pickerel is larger than american pickerel with an average bodyweight of about three pounds and a length of about 54 centimetres . there is a characteristic chain - like colouration pattern on the greenish sides . overall , the pickerel species seem to be small versions of the pike fishes .\nming , a . 1968 . life history of the grass pickerel , esox americanus vermiculatus , in oklahoma .\nthe torpedo - shaped redfin pickerel has numerous sharp teeth in a relatively pointed snout making it perfectly designed for its ambush\u2013type feeding behavior . due to its small size , sport fishing for the species is limited primarily to coastal areas where the ideal habitat for growth exists .\npike are long , slender , \u201cduck - billed\u201d predator fish , popular with anglers for the great size some species attain and for their sporting fight . four species of the pike family live in the northern hemisphere . the grass pickerel and redfin pickerel ( the two are closely related subspecies ) , the chain pickerel , the northern pike and the muskellunge are native to north america and to pennsylvania . the northern pike is one of the few fish whose natural range includes both north america and eurasia .\nfemale grass and redfin pickerel are polyandrous , meaning that they have more than one male mate . a group of one female pickerel and 1 - 3 male pickerel swim along , scattering fertilized eggs . the eggs and milt , or semen , are ejected from the respective fishes and mixed together by lashing their caudal fins . the fertilized eggs are spread over areas that are dense with aquatic vegetation and are usually closer to the shore than other members of the family esocidae , like the northern pike (\nthe pikes , pickerels , and muskellunge make up the small family esocidae in the order salmoniformes . the family consists of only five species , e . niger , e . americanus , and e . masquinongy , which are confined to north america , e . reicherti , which resides in siberia , and e . lucius which is found across the northern hemisphere ( smith 1985 ) . the esocids of north america are commonly called ; northern pike e . lucius , muskellunge ( or muskie ) e . masquinongy , chain pickerel e . niger , the redfin pickerel e . americanus americanus , and a subspecies of the redfin , the grass pickerel e . americanus verminiculus .\njust - hatched chain pickerel fry attach themselves to plant stems during the absorption of the yolk sac . young chain pickerel eat aquatic insects and crustaceans , and are eaten by larger fish . as they grow , chain pickerel increasingly consume fish , which become the mainstay of their diet . at one year old , chain pickerel are about seven inches long . after four years , they are about 15 inches . their natural lifespan is eight to 10 years .\ngrass and redfin pickerel reach sexual maturity between ages 1 - 3 years old . they are some of the first fish to spawn , with the process occurring in the late winter to early spring ( february - april ) when water temperatures are drawing near 4 - 10 \u00b0c . grass pickerel occasionally spawn more than once a year with the second spawning season in the late summer - early winter ( august - november ) . on occasion , grass pickerel have been known to migrate to streams from lakes to spawn .\ne . j . crossman . 2006 . pickerel . the canadian encyclopedia urltoken ( accessed july 9 , 2018 ) .\ngrass and redfin pickerel are diurnal , meaning they are most active and do most of their activities like feeding and spawning in the daytime . grass and redfin pickerel are relatively solitary fish , and interact little with other species beyond acts of predation . though pickerel are solitary , their larvae gather in nursery areas in weedy swamps . when not in spawning season , they are sedentary and do not travel very far daily , but they do migrate to other areas in order to spawn . they will travel out of their area to feed , or in response to water level changes , but this is not as frequent . this is how they become isolated or trapped in pools of water that are not part of the stream or channel . grass pickerel usually orient themselves with their head toward the shore or edge of the water .\nthe grass pickerel and the redfin pickerel are two nearly identical subspecies of esox americanus , differing only slightly in range . because they occur only in small populations and are of small size , they have little importance as sportfish , although they are significant predators in many waters of more prominent small sportfish . the white , sweet flesh of these members of the esocidae family is bony , but it has an excellent flavor .\ncrossman , e . j . . 2006 . pickerel . the canadian encyclopedia urltoken ( accessed july 9 , 2018 ) .\npickerel , common name for 3 closely related carnivorous , soft - rayed freshwater fishes in the pike family ( esocidae ) .\ncrossman , e . . r . the canadian encyclopedia . ( 2006 ) . pickerel . retrieved july 9 , 2018 from urltoken\ncrossman , e . . r . the canadian encyclopedia . ( 2006 ) . pickerel . retrieved july 9 , 2018 from urltoken\nweinman , m . , t . lauer . 2007 . diet of grass pickerel ( esox americanus vermiculatus ) in indiana streams .\nfood and feeding habits . grass and redfin pickerel are largely piscivorous , feeding mainly on other fish , such as minnows , although they occasionally eat aquatic insects , small crayfish , and frogs . they will remain virtually motionless among the vegetation for hours at a time , waiting to dart out and seize a potential meal .\nthe river has also lost its population of brook trout , fallfish and other species that depend upon flowing water . these fish cannot survive the low - flow problems of the river . the fish community is now dominated by three fish species that can tolerate warm , ponded conditions : redfin pickerel , american eel and pumpkinseed .\nchain pickerel are the most abundant and widely distributed member of pennsylvania\u2019s pike family . they are also the most often caught , biting the angler\u2019s bait or lure readily . the chain pickerel\u2019s original range was atlantic and gulf coast tributaries , but the fish has been introduced elsewhere . in pennsylvania , chain pickerel are restricted to the delaware , susquehanna and potomac river watersheds . they are most common in the glaciated pocono northeast .\ne . j . crossman , r . the canadian encyclopedia . ( 2006 ) . pickerel . retrieved july 9 , 2018 , from urltoken\ncrossman , e . j . .\npickerel .\nin the canadian encyclopedia . historica canada , 1985\u2014 . article published february 8 , 2006\ne . j . crossman .\npickerel\nin the canadian encyclopedia . historica canada , 1985\u2013 . article published february 7 , 2006 . urltoken\n. adult grass pickerel 100 - 199mm consume mostly sunfish and minnows ( family cyprinidae ) . larger pickerel 200 - 340mm consume a diet mainly of fish , most of which are sunfish . being daytime eaters , they hide in submerged aquatic vegetation to wait out the prey that they visually locate .\ndistribution : redfin pickerel are native to the atlantic coastal plain and reach the northern extent of their range in new hampshire . there are a few isolated populations in maine , where the species is listed as state endangered . in new hampshire , the species is restricted to lower elevation rivers and streams along the coastal plain in the lower merrimack and southern coastal drainages .\nthis entry was posted in fish and wildlife , guest author and tagged army corps of engineers , augusta shoals , downstream flows , environmental concerns , fish and wildlife , fish habitat , redfin pickerel , savannah national wildlife refuge , savannah river , savannah river basin , shoals spider lily , thurmond dam , us fish and wildlife service , usfws . bookmark the permalink .\ncrossman , e . j . .\npickerel\n. the canadian encyclopedia . toronto : historica canada , 2006 . web . 8 feb 2006 .\ncrossman , e . j . .\npickerel\n. the canadian encyclopedia . toronto : historica canada , 2006 . web . 8 feb 2006 .\n. the maximum age is about 8 years , but the usual life span is 7years . there is little difference in growth between males and females , although females live longer . redfin pickerels rarely exceed 12 inches long .\n1 . age and growth on average , it takes about five years for chain pickerel to reach 2 pounds , and they rarely attain a weight of more than 4 pounds . their growth rate is usually faster in lakes than in streams . chain pickerel have a maximum life span of about 9 years .\ne . j . crossman\npickerel\nthe canadian encyclopedia . eds . . toronto : historica canada , 2006 . web . 9 jul . 2018 .\namong the most aggressive of all game fish , chain pickerel will eagerly attack any kind of lure , particularly those with plenty of action or flash . although pickerel don ' t have the following of the larger game fish species , their explosive strikes and powerful runs make them an exciting challenge on light tackle .\nin the southeastern ozarks , this game fish ' s presence alternates with that of the chain pickerel , with one or the other predominating at any one locality .\ndistribution . in north america , grass pickerel range from the great lakes basin north to southern ontario in canada and to michigan , wisconsin , and nebraska ; they also occur in the mississippi river and gulf slope drainages west of the pascagoula river in mississippi to the brazos river in texas . redfin pickerel are found in atlantic slope drainages , from the st . lawrence river drainage in quebec to southern georgia ; they also occur in gulf slope drainages from the pascagoula river in mississippi to florida . populations for both species are generally small on a local level .\ngrass pickerel rarely grow over 12 inches long , so an adult grass pickerel could be mistaken for an immature northern pike or muskellunge , except for the scaling that covers its cheeks and gill covers . grass pickerel are usually not as distinctly marked as redfins , and they do not have a red tinge to their fins . the sides and back are greenish to grayish , and the flanks have lighter , dusky streaks that curve and tend to be vertical . the streaks may look like bars or just shadowy , wandering lines . grass pickerel have a black bar beneath the eyes , which trails slightly backward . the fins are amber or dusky with no markings .\nhybridizes in nature with e . niger ( chain pickerel ; crossman 1980 ) . most similar to e . niger , from which it can be readily separated from as an adult on the basis of color pattern : irregular vertical bars compared to the reticulate or honey combed pattern markings on the flank of the chain pickerel ( ross 2001 ) .\nwillis , d . , j . jolley , d . willis . 2008 . characteristics of a grass pickerel ( esox americanus vermiculatus ) population in pony lake , nebraska .\nredfin pickerels have 15 to 36 dark , wavy , vertical bars and reddish - orange lower fins . otherwise the coloration is similar to that of chain pickerels . there is a dark , backward - slanting bar below the eye . the snout is shorter and broader than that of a chain pickerel . normally there are 11 to 13 branchiosstegal rays on the underside of the lower jaw . the cheek and gill covers are completely scaled .\n5 . habitat and range chain pickerel prefer water temperatures in the upper 70s , warmer than those favored by pike and muskies . the fish flourish in clear , weedy lakes , ponds and reservoirs and in slow - moving reaches of warm - water streams . they spend most of their time in shallow water ( less than 10 feet deep ) . pickerel move deeper in very hot weather or , if shallow cover such as lily pads or a dock is present , to shady spots where the water is cooler . when water temperatures decline in the fall , pickerel will move to the outside edges of weed beds . chain pickerel are found through much of the midwest as well as in the northeast and south .\nthe chain pickerel weighs from sixteen to thirty two ounces and are about seventeen inches long [ 5 ] . some distinguishing markings are the green and bronze coloring and a dark bar underneath each eye [ 6 ] . chain pickerel lay their eggs early so that their young may feed upon the young of other fish which lay their eggs later [ 7 ] .\n* * 6 . fishing tips * * a light spinning outfit spooled with 6 - pound - test mono is ideal . spinners and spoons rank among the most popular lures , but these toothy predators will strike almost any kind of lure , including crankbaits , jigs and topwater plugs . weed - resistant lures such as spinnerbaits and weedless spoons are necessary when working lily pads or other heavy vegetation . flyfishermen catch plenty of pickerel on large streamers and hair bugs . to prevent bite - offs , use a short wire leader . chain pickerel are slimier than most fish , so use a towel to hold the fish when removing the hook . clean a pickerel as if it were a small pike ; pickerel have\ny\nbones .\ndescription : ( anatomy of a fish ) the redfin pickerel is a narrowly elongated fish with a duck - like snout that is short and wide . the body is brown to dark olive in color with numerous wavy horizontal bars with a white belly . the fins are often bright orange - red to red , especially in spawning adults . a black bar slants backward toward the gill flap or operculum from the eye , and can sometimes be vertical .\nthe lateral line system is present in every fish species . it is a sensory canal system that detects the changes in water pressure and water movement through open pores and sensory organs , which is useful in detecting prey . lateral lines are made up of pores that can span from the head to the caudal fin . redfin pickerel have a complete lateral line , meaning it reaches from the head to the caudal fin , with 94 - 117 scales and grass pickerel have a lateral line with fewer than 110 scales . both pickerel have 3 - 5 submandibular pores which , along with the lateral line , are connected to the cephalic lateralis canal system ( sensory canals on the head ) . these pores are open , located under the jaw , and aid the lateral line in the detection of water pressure and movement changes .\nbreeding interval spawn once in the late winter and early spring months for a period of 2 - 4 weeks . grass pickerel occasionally spawn again in the late summer to early winter months .\nbecker ( 1983 ) indicated that , in wisconsin , grass pickerel are eaten by catfishes ( ictaluridae ) , sunfishes ( centrarchidae ) , yellow perch ( perca flavescens ) , and grass pickerel . extensive accounts of diets of common piscivorous birds - - osprey ( pandion haliaetus ) , common loon ( gavia immer ) , double crested cormorant ( phalacrocorax auritus ) , common merganser ( mergus merganser ) , belted kingfisher ( ceryle alcyon ) , and great blue heron ( ardea herodias ) - - in the birds of north america series ( poole and gill , eds . , 1992 - 2002 ) were checked . none of the literature surveyed indicated that the grass pickerel was eaten by any of these fish - eating birds that are common in the same habitats . an assumption prevails that grass pickerel may be detrimental to northern pike , and kleinert and mraz ( 1966 ) suggested that management efforts should be made that would prevent the spread of the pickerel .\nas this species is associated with heavily vegetated areas and deeper pools , it is sensitive to raparian damage from livestock or to any erosional problems resulting in increased sedimentation , bank failure , and loss of vegetation ( ross 2001 ) . populations negatively affected where streams are channelized and denuded of vegetation and where swamps have been drained ( boschung and mayden 2004 ) . e . americanus eaten by catfishes , sunfishes , yellow perch , and redfin pickerel themselves ( becker 1983 ) .\ncannibalism occurred infrequently , and there appears to be no evidence that this fish gorges on fishes . in ontario , rarely were there more than two fishes in the stomach of a grass pickerel .\n(\ncosewic assessment and status report on the grass pickerel esox americanus vermiculatus in canada\n, 2005 ; pitcher , 1986 ; ross , 2013 ; wallus , et al . , 1990 )\nchain pickerel can grow to more than 30 inches long , but one of 25 inches and four or five pounds is considered a trophy in pennsylvania . the state record is an eight - pounder . two - pound pickerel are common where the fish have enough to eat . the chain pickerel hides easily in its weedy habitat , with its dark , greenish - yellow back , fading to lighter yellow - green along the sides . over the sides is a pattern of dark chainlike markings that gives the fish its name . the belly is white . a dark mark , like a clown\u2019s painted tear , appears below each eye . the fins are unmarked and pale . as is typical of pickerel , both the cheek and the opercle , or gill cover , are fully scaled . chain pickerel have a long snout . the distance from the tip of the nose to the front of the eye is greater than the distance from the back of the eye to the end of the gill cover .\naccording to page and burr 1991 , the redfin pickerel has a fully scaled cheek and opercle . there is a black suborbital bar slanted toward the posterior . the dorsal surface is dark olive - brown and the ventral side ranges from white to amber colored . there are typically 15 - 36 dark bars on the lateral side of the adults . there are between 11 - 13 branchiostegal rays ; about 4 submandibular pores ; and 92 - 118 lateral scales ( page and burr 1991 ) .\nmale and female grass and redfin pickerel are patterned alike , but females tend to be larger than males in specimens over 200mm . ming ( 1968 ) examining grass pickerel in oklahoma , found females weighed more and grew to longer lengths than males did over the 4 years this study was conducted . specifically , females averaged 127g , 197g , 248g , and 306g in the 1st , 2nd , 3rd , and 4th years of the study respectively , whereas males were averaged 123g , 195g , and 235g ( no 4th year ) in the same time period . the total lengths of male and female grass pickerel follow the same trend ; 3 - year - old females had average lengths of 140mm , 203mm , and 245mm through years 1 - 3 respectively . males were smaller than females through the same time period , with average lengths of 132mm , 194mm , 235mm ( ming , 1968 ) .\n3 . habits and spawning behavior although chain pickerel are primarily fish eaters , they will take just about any kind of food . besides fish , other common food items include frogs , crayfish and mice . chain pickerel prefer to stake out spots on the edges of weed beds and waylay prey as it passes . in early spring , when the water temperature rises into the mid - 40s , chain pickerel move into shallow , weedy bays to spawn . they drape gelatinous strings of eggs up to 3 feet long over aquatic vegetation , sticks and logs . the parents then abandon the eggs and make no attempt to protect the fry .\ngrass pickerel scatter their adhesive eggs over underwater plants , when water temperatures in the spring rise to the low 50s , generally april . they may also spawn in the fall , but the survival of the fry is probably very low , and they may occasionally hybridize with northern pike . with its small size , the grass pickerel eats few fish , but feasts instead on invertebrates , aquatic insects , crayfish and other crustaceans .\nhaving slow to moderate currents and abundant aquatic vegetation or undercut banks , in swamps and isolated overflow pools of rivers . the young occur in schools , but adults are solitary , aggressive predators . an individual will lie motionless along the edge of aquatic vegetation or an undercut bank for long periods . when unsuspecting prey appears , the fish darts out , grasps the prey , and swallows it head first . large insect larvae , crayfishes , and fishes are staples of the adult diet . redfin pickerel live to 6 years ;\njones creek individuals were parasitized by 11 organisms , mostly trematodes , in virtually all internal organs . only three protozoans appeared dense enough to affect the health of grass pickerel ( crossman 1962a , see also ming 1968 ) .\ncommittee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada . cosewic assessment and status report on the grass pickerel esox americanus vermiculatus in canada . none . ottawa : committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada . 2005 .\nalthough northern pike and muskellunge reach large sizes and are esteemed as game fishes , the grass pickerel seldom reaches a size to be of interest to fishers . their sleek , muscular , torpedo - shaped \u201cengineering\u201d is worthy of admiration .\nhoyle , j . , h . gill , a . weatherley . 1986 . histochemical characterization of myotomal muscle in the grass pickerel , esox americanus vermiculatus ( leseuer ) , and the muskellunge , e . masquinongy ( mitchell ) .\nthe most effective method of using a minnow trap for redfin is to place the trap in a location where a fur trapper would place a trap for beaver or otter . that is , locate a narrow passageway in the stream through which any fish traveling upstream or downstream would need to pass , an opening between two rocks for example , where the water is a foot deep or less and fast moving . if all other paths are blocked or difficult to pass through , then a minnow trap carefully place in this opening will be extremely effective . i often raise the trap slightly by placing some small flat rocks underneath the trap . this will bring the trap closer to the surface where redfin often travel . the trap may need to be left for several days . i have found that often all the pickerel in an area will relocate at once , often after a rainfall , filling traps placed in this method .\n(\ncosewic assessment and status report on the grass pickerel esox americanus vermiculatus in canada\n, 2005 ; crossman , 1962 ; ming , 1968 ; parnell , et al . , 1994 ; sternberg , 1987 ; trautman , 1986 )\n(\ncosewic assessment and status report on the grass pickerel esox americanus vermiculatus in canada\n, 2005 ; crossman , 1962 ; ming , 1968 ; parnell , et al . , 1994 ; wallus , et al . , 1990 )\nthe cheeks and gill covers on the redfin pickerel are fully scaled , while the top of the head has few if any scales . a darkened vertical bar beneath the eye slants slightly backward . in cross section , the body is oval or cigar - shaped . the back is dark green to brown . color patterns on the sides are variable , from a green - and - white reticulate pattern resembling that of a brick wall to green , forward - slanting vertical bars . along the lower sides , fingerlike green projections extend downward and forward onto a cream or yellow venter .\nchain pickerel live in and around weedbeds and sunken stumps and logs in natural lakes , swampy ponds and manmade impoundments . they can also be found in the sluggish parts of clear streams and in the naturally acidic , tannin - stained waters that drain boggy wetlands , as in northeastern pennsylvania . chain pickerel are commonly shallow - water dwellers , but they can live in deep lakes . they don\u2019t travel far from their selected home areas , and they tolerate a wide temperature range .\ngrass pickerel live in the marshy areas of lakes and ponds , as well as in slow - flowing sections or backwaters of clear streams . they are usually found in and around dense , rooted aquatic vegetation over a soft , silt bottom .\npike , pickerel , and muskellunges collectively make seven species under one genus , esox , which is a genus of freshwater fish . esox is the only extant genus of the family : esocidae . being members of the same genus , both pike and pickerel share many features in common , yet there are some exhibited differences between them . this article intends to summarize the interesting features of both pike ( 3 species ) and pickerels ( 2 species ) and to discuss the difference between them .\ngrass and redfin pickerel reside in aquatic areas where there are large spans of aquatic vegetation . they are mainly found in relatively shallow ( less than 2 meters ) and warm ( 24 - 27 degrees celsius ) swamps , lakes , backwaters , and slow - moving pool habitats within stream channels that are clear . usually , they reside in bodies of water that have muddy bottoms , but they can also exist in rocky substrates . they are mainly a freshwater species , but have been reported to be found in the brackish waters of new york and new jersey and occasionally in brackish water around the chesapeake bay .\nkleinert , s . j . and mraz . 1966 . life history of the grass pickerel ( esox americanus vermiculatus ) in southeastern wisconsin . pp . 1 - 40 . tech . bull . , no . 37 , wisconsin conservation department , madison .\nredfin pickerel can at times reach weights in excess of 1 pound throughout the vast majority of its range in the south they are restricted to sizes of 4 to 15 inches ( 38 cm ) . elongate body . they colored dark olive to brown above , with lighter sides , with dark greenish - yellow to brown wavy bars ; dark bar under eye slopes down and back ; fins reddish , without dark spots . head long ; snout short , with straight profile ; 4 sensory pores on each side of lower jaw ; 11\u201313 ( usually 12 ) branchiostegal rays . cheek and opercle fully scaled . lateral line complete , with 97\u2013118 scales .\nif you accidentally capture a grass pickerel in quebec , it is very important to advise the centre de donn\u00e9es sur le patrimoine naturel du qu\u00e9bec of your catch , and to release the fish back into the water in a manner that maximizes its chances of survival .\npickerel , common name for 3 closely related carnivorous , soft - rayed freshwater fishes in the pike family ( esocidae ) . in parts of canada , the name is applied , erroneously , to the wwalleye . the name is derived from an english diminutive of pike .\nchain pickerel are solitary predators , feasting on fish , which they stalk through the underwater weedbeds , as well as crayfish , large aquatic insects , frogs and other small animal life that gets into the water . they feed during the day , especially at dawn and dusk , and are active through the winter , under the ice , so they can be caught by ice anglers . in ponds where they overpopulate and outstrip their food source , chain pickerel may become stunted \u201cpencil pike , \u201d or \u201chammer handles , \u201d small in size and thin .\ninteractions with other species of fishes were limited to predation and food . in jones creek , there were 22 other species of fishes , but the grass pickerel preyed on only nine . the central mudminnow , umbra limi , and the golden shiner , notemigonus crysoleucas were dominant prey items . golden shiners were preyed upon in relation to their relative abundance rather than selection ( crossman 1962a ) , but crossman ( 1962b ) suggested that the grass pickerel selected for the central mudminnow . ming ( 1968 ) noted that , in oklahoma , of 76 species of fishes captured , only 44 of them could be said to be\nclosely associated\nwith the grass pickerel . those species were in the following families : lepisosteidae , amiidae , clupeidae , cyprinidae , catostomidae , ictaluridae , anguillidae , centrarchidae , percidae , sciaenidae and atherinidae .\nfecundity : moderately large number of small demersal , adhesive eggs ( crossman 1980 ) . mature eggs average 1 . 9mm in diameter and are golden yellow ; range from 843 to 4584 mature eggs for grass pickerel of 160 - 325 mm tl ( kleinert and mraz 1966 ) ."]}
{"id": 1585, "summary": [{"text": "udea adversa is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by philpott in 1917 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in new zealand .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 20 \u2013 21 mm for males and females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are ferruginous , but brighter along the costa .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is an irregular transverse outwardly-oblique white discal dot at the middle and a dark , obscurely indicated second line .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are yellow with the discal dot and terminal band fuscous . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "udea adversa", "paragraphs": ["udea adversa is a moth in the crambidae family . it was described by philpott in 1917 . it is found in new zealand . [ 1 ]\nhave a fact about udea cyanalis ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for udea cyanalis ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nudea is a genus of moths of the family crambidae . they are mostly native to eurasia and the new world . there are over 200 species . about 41 are native to hawaii .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n[ read before the otago institute , 5th september , 1916 , received by editors , 30th december , 1916 , issued separately , 16th july , 1917 . ]\n\u2642 . 33\u201334 mm . head and thorax dark grey . palpi grey , stout , and rather short . antennae in \u2642 moderately serrate , fasciculate - ciliated to apex . abdomen pale fuscous - grey . forewings rather short , costa almost straight , apex rounded , termen evenly rounded , oblique ; grey , rather bluish - tinted ; an irregular double interrupted black line at \u2153 ; orbicular moderate , rounded , open above and beneath , ringed with ochreous - white margined with black ; claviform irregularly rounded , touching first line , black ; reniform broad , ringed with ochreous - white , black - margined ; an obscure dentate median dark line passing between orbicular and reniform ; second line indicated by a chain of black lunules ; subterminal line parallel to termen , ochreous - white , anteriorly black - margined , serrate ; a series of black dots on termen : cilia fuscous with paler basal line . hindwings dark shining fuscous ; a black line round termen : cilia pale fuscous with a darker median line .\nnearest to a . moderata ( walk . ) , but the stigmata , especially the prominent reniform , are quite different .\ntaken at waiouru in march by mr . h . w . simmonds . i am indebted to dr . j . a . thomson , of the dominion museum , for the opportunity of describing this form , two good examples having been forwarded by him for that purpose . type ( \u2642 ) in coll . dominion museum .\n\u2642 . 34 mm . head , palpi , and thorax grey slightly tinged with brown ; terminal joint of palpi rather elongate . antennae in \u2642 very shortly ciliated . abdomen ochreous - brown . forewings , costa almost straight , apex rectangularly rounded , termen bowed , slightly oblique ; olive - grey ; veins marked with white interrupted by black dots ; lines almost obsolete , faintly indicated by white scales ; orbicular well defined , ovate , filled with white , finely margined with black ; reniform rather narrow , bluntly projecting at lower anterior corner , white - ringed , finely margined with black ; termen serrately margined with white : cilia brown . hindwings fuscous - grey - brown : cilia grey with darker median line .\nthe form of the stigmata differentiates this species from its allies . it has a peculiarly neat and smooth appearance .\ntitahi bay ( wellington ) , december . the type ( coll . m . o . pascoe ) is the only example at present known .\n\u2642 . 17\u201320 mm . head , palpi , thorax , and abdomen dark reddish - brown sprinkled sparsely with grey and black . antennae black , annulated with\nwhitish , in \u2642 ciliate - fasciculate , ciliations 4 . forewings triangular , costa slightly sinuate , apex obtuse , termen angulated at middle , subsinuate beneath ; dark dull - reddish - brown ; numerous obscure bluish - green and black transverse lines ; upper half or second line frequently more prominently greenish and followed by a rather broad reddish band , a thin waved bluish - green subterminal line usually present : cilia fuscous - grey , suffusedly barred and mixed with darker . hindwings in \u2642 slightly but broadly projecting on middle of termen ; dark greyish - fuscous ; veins dotted with whitish scales , dorsal fasciae hardly indicated : cilia as in forewings .\nnear c . rivalis philp . , but much darker in appearance , the details of wing - shape also show considerable differences .\nmount cleughearn , hunter mountains , in january . the male was found commonly in a restricted spot at about 3 , 250 ft . no females were obtained .\n\u2642\u2640 . 22\u201325 mm . head , palpi , thorax , and abdomen grey sprinkled with black . palpi in \u2640 3\u00bd , in \u2642 slightly less . antennae in \u2642 evenly ciliated , \u00be . forewings rather narrow , costa hardly arched , termen bowed , strongly oblique ; fuscous - grey , irrorated with black , sometimes with faint pink suffusion ; numerous waved white lines , more prominent on apical half of wing ; margin of the slightly darker basal portion of wing sharply and triangularly indented opposite discal spot ; a black line along termen : cilia whitish - grey with fuscous median line . hindwings , termen unevenly rounded , in \u2642 deeply sinuate above middle ; greyish - white with numerous incomplete waved bluish lines : cilia grey , obscurely barred with fuscous .\nnearest to c . sphragitis ( meyr . ) , but showing no greenish coloration .\nqueenstown and ben lomond discovered by mr . m . o . pascoe , who secured several examples of each sex in november and december . types : \u2642 in coll . m . o . pascoe , \u2640 in coll . a . philpott .\n\u2642 . 30 mm . head , palpi , and antennae purplish - grey . thorax fuscous - brown mixed with grey . abdomen fuscous - grey with some reddish scales laterally . forewings moderate , triangular , costa moderately arched , apex subacute , termen sinuate , oblique ; whitish - grey with faint purplish tinge ; markings dark purplish - fuscous , basal line thick , evenly curved , projecting angularly at middle ; anterior margin of median band inwardly oblique beneath costa at \u2153 , thence broadly excurved to dorsum at \u00bc ; posterior margin from \u2154 costa to \u00be dorsum , with strong broad apically - indented projection at middle ; traces of a thin waved white subterminal line ; an oblique suffused purplish - fuscous fascia from apex : cilia grey , obscurely barred with fuscous , tips whitish . hindwings elongate , termen angularly projecting at middle , purplish - grey ; basal half darker , being marked off by a median fascia parallel to termen : cilia as in forewings . undersides . forewings ochreous - reddish with the upper markings faintly reproduced , hindwings ochreous - reddish , terminal half suffused with whitish .\nnearest to h . triphragma ( meyr . ) , from which it differs chiefly in the shape of the posterior margin of the median band .\ndiscovered by mr . j . h . lewis at broken river , canterbury . seven or eight examples were taken , but i have not been able to ascertain the dates of capture .\nin form of wing and markings this species approaches x . cedrinodes meyr . from the greenish forms of the genus it is at once distinguished by its much larger size .\nmount cleughearn , hunter mountains , at about 3 , 250 ft . common in january at flowers of dracophyllum longifolium . the female appears to be rare ; out of nineteen specimens taken only one belonged to that sex .\n\u2642\u2640 . 34 mm . head , thorax , and abdomen whitish - ochreous finely sprinkled with fuscous . antennae in \u2642 , with rather short pectinations . forewings triangular , costa strongly arched , sinuate at middle , apex moderately sharp , termen subsinuate , oblique ; ochreous - grey - whitish ; termen broadly margined with greyish - fuscous ; costal edge very narrowly fuscous ; a thin curved brown line near base ; first line ( anterior edge of median band ) irregularly subdentate , curved , brown , from \u2153 costa to \u2153 dorsum ; second line ( posterior edge of median band ) irregular , slight triple projection at middle , excurved beneath , from \u2154 costa to \u00be dorsum , brown ; an obscure waved pale subterminal line : cilia greyish - ochreous . hindwings ochreous - grey - whitish ; a median fascia and a broad terminal band greyish - fuscous : cilia greyish - ochreous .\none of each sex taken at clarence river and coverham ( marlborough ) in february and march by dr . j . a . thomson and mr . h . hamilton . types ( \u2642 and \u2640 ) in coll . dominion museum .\n\u2642 . 35\u201338 mm . head , palpi , and thorax ochreous - brown . antennae , stalk whitish , annulated with black , pectinations 2 mm . abdomen black , densely strewn with yellowish - white scales , anal tuft ochreous . forewings moderate , costa hardly arched , almost straight , termen bowed , oblique ; light ochreous - brown , often densely strewn with white scales ; markings white ; first line bent outwardly beneath costa , thence inwardly oblique to dorsum , posteriorly dark - margined , often obsolete on upper portion ; a suffused median shade sometimes present ; second line broad , inwardly\noblique , twice sinuate , anteriorly dark - margined ; a thin dark line parallel to second line , sometimes obsolete ; subterminal broad , waved , parallel to termen : cilia yellowish - white , barred with fuscous , and with a fuscous basal line . hindwings rather narrow ; brownish - fuscous , densely sprinkled with grey - whitish on basal \u2154 ; two parallel curved white fasciae beyond middle , second sometimes obsolete . cilia as in forewings . undersides ochreous - brown ; second and subterminal lines of forewings and post - median lines of hindwings usually indicated ; a dark discal spot on both wings .\n\u2640 . 16 mm . semiapterous . forewings oblong , apex subacute , termen hardly rounded , oblique . hindwings oblong , slightly narrower than forewings , termen and dorsum slightly concave . legs and antennae normally developed . palpi small and not densely haired . legs fuscous , tarsal joints annulated with white . the rest of the insect is white minutely speckled with dark fuscous , and with a slight ochreous tint on head and anterior portion of thorax .\nin this species the antennal pectinations reach their highest development , and it is significant that this is comcident with the semiapterous condition of the female . it is probable that n villosa is an offshoot from n . orphnaea ( meyr . ) , that species being attached to rocky and shingly ground , while the former has become adapted to areas covered with more ample vegetation .\ncommon from december to february in well - grassed situations at from 3 , 000 ft . to 4 , 000 ft . the male was first met with on the hump ( waiau ) in 1910 , and was subsequently found on the hunter mountains . the female was not discovered till december , 1915 , when three specimens were taken by mr . c . c . fenwick on the hump . so far , the two localities mentioned are the only ones in which the species has been observed , but in all probability it also occurs on the intervening princess range .\n\u2642\u2640 . 24\u201326 mm . head , palpi , and thorax dark ochreous - brown , in \u2640 lighter . abdomen ochreous - grey - brown . forewings elongate , costa slightly arched at base , thence almost straight , apex rectangular , termen bowed , not oblique ; brownish - ochreous , finely sprinkled with black and , in \u2640 , with grey ; a rather broad central ochreous - white streak from base to \u2156 , margined with blackish beneath and round apex , a suffused and interrupted whitish transverse fascia at \u2154 , second line prominent , white , shortly oblique towards termen , thence straight to before tornus , margined anteriorly with a series of black dashes : cilia fuscous - grey , tips and a series of obscure basal dots white . hindwings fuscous - grey , in \u2640 slightly ochreous - tinged : cilia grey - whitish with a fuscous median line .\nnot far removed from o machaeristis meyr . , but differing in the presence of the well - defined second line , the basal streak is also much shorter .\ndiscovered by mr . m . o . pascoe on cecil peak , wakatipu , at an altitude of about 6 , 000 ft . the examples ( two of each sex ) were secured early in january and on the 25th february . types in coll . m . o . pascoe .\n\u2642 . 29\u201332 mm . head and palpi ochreous - brown . thorax brown with broad suffused ochreous - whitish central stripe . abdomen greyish - ochreous . forewings moderate , somewhat oblong , costa rather strongly and evenly\narched , apex subacute , termen subsinuate , oblique ; greyish - ochreous - brown ; a narrow whitish - ochreous stripe beneath costa from base to apex ; extreme costal edge brown , dilated on apical half ; a rather broad straight white central stripe , narrowly margined above and beneath with brown ; an obscure whitish - ochreous streak along dorsum : cilia grey - whitish , darker round tornus . hindwings dark brownish - fuscous : cilia whitish - ochreous with fuscous basal line .\nnearest to c . oppositus philp . , but the forewings are not dilated posteriorly and there are several minor distinctions in the character of the pale stripes .\nlongwood range . five males amongst rough herbage on the open tops at about 2 , 700 ft . in december .\n\u2642 . 20 mm . head and thorax ochreous - brown . palpi elongate , whitish beneath . antennae in \u2642 moderately bipectinate ; brown . abdomen greyish - ochreous . forewings elongate - triangular , costa gently arched , apex obtuse , termen almost straight , slightly oblique ; pale ochreous - brown , darker basally ; first line whitish , slightly sinuate and inwardly oblique , broadly margined posteriorly with blackish - brown ; reniform 8 - shaped , upper half filled with blackish - brown , lower half brown - ringed , pale ; some dark suffusion beneath costa between first and second lines ; second line thin , indistinct , pale , clearly margined anteriorly with blackish - brown , broadly indented below costa and irregularly dentate on lower half : cilia ochreous with interrupted blackish - brown basal line . hindwings and cilia ochreous - grey ; lunule and subterminal line fuscous .\nextremely similar to s . acompa meyr . , but somewhat broader - winged . the antennal structure of the male at once distinguishes it .\nmount cleughearn , hunter mountains , in an open spot in the forest at about 2 , 750 ft . three specimens in december and january .\ndistinguished from m . notata ( butl . ) , its nearest ally , by the outwardly - oblique discal spot of forewings .\ndiscovered by mr . g . w . howes at queenstown in the last week of february , 1912 . mr . c . e . clarke has since secured the species in the same locality about the middle of february .\n\u2642 25\u201328 mm . ; \u2640 22 mm . head and palpi ochreous - grey mixed with brown , palpi 3 . antennal ciliations of \u2642 1\u00bd . thorax purplish - brown sprinkled with brown . abdomen ochreous - grey . forewings elongate - triangular in \u2642 , suboblong in \u2640 , costa almost straight , without fold , apex\nobtuse , termen subsinuate , hardly oblique ; dull grey - brown with purplish gloss and numerous obscure strigulations of reddish or fuscous ; margin of basal patch usually indicated by a more pronounced irregular strigula ; median fascia from \u2153 costa , irregular , outwardly oblique , inner margin only marked : cilia grey mixed with brown . hindwings fuscous - grey , obscurely mottled with darker cilia grey with darker basal line .\nin point of size comparable only with e elephantina ( meyr . ) , but that species appears to be widely dissimilar in colour and markings . in some specimens of e . tenebrosa the markings are almost entirely obsolete .\nben lomond , in february . discovered by mr . c . e . clarke , who has kindly placed at my service for description a series of six males and one female . types ( \u2642 and \u2640 ) in coll c . e . clarke .\n\u2642 . 14 mm . head , palpi , and thorax white . antennae whitish , darker towards apex . abdomen fuscous - grey . forewings narrow , slightly dilated basally ; leaden - fuscous , beneath fold shining white ; median portion of fold margined with black , an obscure ochreous subcostal stripe from \u00bc to \u00be ; some ochreous scales round tornus : cilia fuscous . hindwings and cilia fuscous .\nan obscure form , nearest s . caminora meyr . , but the head in that species is yellowish .\nrare . a single specimen taken at invercargill in november , 1906 . mr . c . e . clarke has recently secured a second example at broad bay , dunedin , also in november . this latter specimen , being in excellent condition , has been made the type .\n\u2642 . 11 mm . head dark shining brown , with prismatic reflections palpi loosely scaled , fuscous - brown , mixed with shining grey - whitish internally except at apex . antennae dark fuscous . thorax dark brass - coloured . abdomen dark fuscous , anal tuft grey . forewings lanceolate ; shining brass - coloured , a snow - white stripe on costa from before middle to apex , attenuated anteriorly : cilia white on costa , grey on termen . hindwings and cilia fuscous - grey .\nnearest g . cionophora ( meyr . ) in wing - shape ; in ground - colour resembling g . codonias meyr . and g . transversella walk . , but somewhat paler than either of these species .\nthe hump ( waiau ) , and mount burns , hunter mountains . from december to february at elevations of from 3 , 000 ft . to 3 , 500 ft .\n\u2642 . 15 mm . head white , sprinkled with fuscous . antennae white , basal joints greenish . palpi whitish , second joint outwardly brownish - fuscous except at apex , terminal joint outwardly narrowly brownish - fuscous at base and apex . thorax greyish - green , with a pair of black posterior median dots . abdomen grey - whitish . legs , anterior pair fuscous annulated with whitish , posterior pair grey , tarsi annulated with fuscous .\nforewings , costa subsinuate , apex broadly rounded , termen oblique beneath , dorsal half irregularly suffused with pink ; costal half irrorated with fuscous and black ; a rather prominent black dot on costa at \u00bd and a number of blackish strigulae on apical third ; a distinct black discal dot ; cilia brownish - pink ; a broad black bar on tornus preceded by a narrow fuscous bar and followed by two small black patches . hindwings elongate - ovate , with a ridge of long hairs on basal portion of vein 1 c directed towards lower median ; shining greyish - white : cilia white , round apex brownish - pink ; an obscure dark basal line .\nnear o . prasinodes meyr . , but that species is not described as having any pink suffusion in forewings , and there are other differences .\nrowallan ( waiau ) , in coastal forest . a single specimen taken by mr . c . c . fenwick in december . type in coll . c . c . fenwick .\n\u2642 . 15 mm . head fuscous , the loose hair - scales tipped with greyish . palpi comparatively elongate , second joint rough beneath , terminal joint rather pointed ; fuscous tipped with greyish . antennal . ciliations \u00bd . thorax and abdomen purplish - fuscous . forewings , costa subsinuate , apex round - pointed , termen bowed , oblique ; dull purplish - fuscous ; markings creamy white ; a large triangular patch on dorsum reaching from \u00bc to \u00bd , its apex about middle of disc ; an obscure dot on costa above this , sometimes obsolete , an inwardly - oblique short fascia on costa beyond middle ; a similar but smaller one before apex and an outwardly - oblique one between these two ; a small triangular patch before tornus ; three or four minute dots in apical half of wing : cilia purplish - fuscous with a white bar beneath apex and at tornus , and a broad white patch at middle . hindwings and cilia light fuscous .\nthe hump , at about 3 , 000 ft . i have met with it rarely in december and february ; mr . c . c . fenwick has also a specimen taken in december at the same locality .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nthis article was sourced from creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . world heritage encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers , open access publishing , and in compliance with the fair access to science and technology research act ( fastr ) , wikimedia foundation , inc . , public library of science , the encyclopedia of life , open book publishers ( obp ) , pubmed , u . s . national library of medicine , national center for biotechnology information , u . s . national library of medicine , national institutes of health ( nih ) , u . s . department of health & human services , and urltoken , which sources content from all federal , state , local , tribal , and territorial government publication portals ( . gov , . mil , . edu ) . funding for urltoken and content contributors is made possible from the u . s . congress , e - government act of 2002 .\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nwalker , f . 1863 ,\ncrambites & tortricites\n, list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum , vol . 27 , pp . 1 - 286\nmeyrick , e . 1888 ,\non the pyralidina of the hawaiian islands\n, transactions of the entomological society of london , vol . 1888 , pp . 209 - 246\nmeyrick , e . 1884 ,\non the classification of australian pyralidina\n, transactions of the entomological society of london , vol . 1884 , pp . 277 - 350\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0000eb92 - 046e - 4663 - b9f3 - 6cd1e0f9918a\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 03cd495f - 98c6 - 46c6 - 8bd8 - b267f39a495c\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 286414b8 - e384 - 439a - a70c - d76ce4414540\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b9ad7a5b - 4135 - 4926 - a84e - 498d3bad5fc1\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 53e76ed9 - dab5 - 43eb - b70e - 05c5e4e96eb4\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 242500\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\ncopyright \u00a9 2014 - 2017 babylon software ltd . all rights reserved to babylon translation software\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation ."]}
{"id": 1589, "summary": [{"text": "physalaemus moreirae is a species of frog in the family leptodactylidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is endemic to the serra do mar in the s\u00e3o paulo state , brazil . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "physalaemus moreirae", "paragraphs": ["the tadpole of physalaemus moreirae ( anura : leiuperidae ) doi : 10 . 1655 / herpetologica - d - 11 - 00004 . 1\ncaramaschi , u . and caramaschi , e . p . 1991 . reassessment of the type - locality and synonymy of physalaemus moreirae ( miranda - ribeiro , 1937 ) ( anura : leptodactylidae ) . journal of herpetology : 107 - 108 .\nprovete , d . b . , garey , m . v . , dias , n . y . n . & rossa - feres , d . c . ( 2011 ) the tadpole of physalaemus moreirae ( anura : leiuperidae ) . herpetologica , 67 , 258\u2013270 . urltoken\nredescription of physalaemus barrioi ( anura : leiuperidae ) doi : 10 . 1643 / ch - 10 - 142\nproject 725 : provete , d . b . , m . v . garey , n . y . n . dias , and d . de c . rossa - feres . 2011 . the tadpole of physalaemus moreirae ( anura : leiuperidae ) . herpetologica . 67 ( 3 ) : 258 - 270 .\nthe genus physalaemus fitzinger , 1826 currently comprises 47 described species distributed from central america ( guianas ) to uruguay ( frost 2016 ) . the genus has been recently organized in two main clades based on molecular data , physalaemus signifer clade and physalaemus cuvieri clade ( louren\u00e7o et al . 2015 ) . the p . signifer clade , with 15 species , is composed by the p . deimaticus and p . signifier groups , plus p . nattereri ( steindachner , 1863 ) and p . maculiventris ( lutz , 1925 ) ( nascimento et al . 2005 ; louren\u00e7o et al . 2015 ) .\npombal , j . p . & madureira , c . a . ( 1997 ) a new species of physalaemus ( anura , leptodactylidae ) from the atlantic rain forest of northeastern brazil . alytes , 15 , 105\u2013112 .\ncardoso , a . j . & haddad , c . f . b . ( 1985 ) nova esp\u00e9cie de physalaemus do grupo signiferus ( amphibia , anura , leptodactylidae ) . revista brasileira de biologia , 45 , 33\u201337 .\nsilvano , d . , garcia , p . c . a . & kwet , a . ( 2004 ) physalaemus nanus . the iucn red list of threatened species 2004 . available from : urltoken ( acessed 13 january 2017 )\nhaddad , c . f . b . & pombal , j . p . ( 1998 ) redescription of physalaemus spiniger ( anura : leptodactylidae ) and description of two new reproductive modes . journal of herpetology , 32 , 557\u2013565 . urltoken\nhaddad , c . f . b . & sazima , i . ( 2004 ) a new species of physalaemus ( amphibia ; leptodactylidae ) from the atlantic forest in southeastern brazil . zootaxa , 479 ( 1 ) , 1\u201312 . urltoken\nperes , j . & simon , j . e . ( 2012 ) physalaemus maximus feio , pombal jr . and caramaschi , 1999 ( anura : leiuperidae ) : distribution extension and advertisement call . check list , 8 , 507\u2013509 . urltoken\nheyer , w . r . & wolf , a . j . ( 1989 ) physalaemus crombiei ( amphibia : leptodactylidae ) , a new frog species from esp\u00edrito santo , brazil with comments on the p . signifer group . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 102 , 500\u2013506 .\nweber , l . n . & carvalho - e - silva , s . p . ( 2001 ) descri\u00e7\u00e3o da larva de physalaemus signifer ( giradr , 1853 ) ( amphibia , anura , leptodactylidae ) e informa\u00e7\u00f5es sobre a reprodu\u00e7\u00e3o e a distribui\u00e7\u00e3o geogr\u00e1fica . boletim do museu nacional , 462 , 1\u20136 .\npimenta , b . v . , cruz , c . a . g . & silvano , d . l . ( 2005 ) a new species of the genus physalaemus fitzinger , 1826 ( anura , leptodactylidae ) from the atlantic rain forest of southern bahia , brazil . amphibia - reptilia , 26 , 201\u2013210 . urltoken\nit lives in primary forests in leaf - litter or on stones near water . it is often associated with small temporary pools ( even boot prints ) on the forest floor . unlike most other species of physalaemus , it breeds in temporary streams , where the eggs are deposited in foam nests in wide pools in the streams .\nlouren\u00e7o , l . b . , targueta , c . p . , baldo , d . , nascimento , j . , garcia , p . c . , andrade , g . v . , haddad , c . f . b . & recco - pimentel , s . m . ( 2015 ) phylogeny of frogs from the genus physalaemus ( anura , leptodactylidae ) inferred from mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequences . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 92 , 204\u2013216 . urltoken\n@ article { bhlpart46601 , title = { new species of frogs from borac\u00e9ia , s\u00e3o paulo , brazil } , journal = { proceedings of the biological society of washington . } , volume = { 98 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { washington , biological society of washington } , author = { heyer , w ronald } , year = { 1985 } , pages = { 657 - - 671 } , }\nty - jour ti - new species of frogs from borac\u00e9ia , s\u00e3o paulo , brazil t2 - proceedings of the biological society of washington . vl - 98 ur - urltoken pb - biological society of washington cy - washington , py - 1985 sp - 657 ep - 671 sn - 0006 - 324x au - heyer , w ronald er -\nis a small frog ( svl 25 - 7 mm in males , 24 . 8 - 28 . 2 mm in females ) that belongs to the\nthe tadpole was described in detail by provete et al . ( 2011 , including internal oral features and chondrocranial morphology . the body is ovoid in dorsal view and depressed in lateral view . snout rounded . the dorsal fin originates on the body , and is slightly higher than the ventral fin , with maximum height at the middle third . oral disc antero - ventral , laterally emarginated , with a single row of marginal papillae , alternated ventrally . submarginal papillae are present ventrally and are usually taller than marginal papillae . the ltrf is 2 ( 2 ) / 3 ( 1 ) .\nlives in swamps with flowing water inside primary and secondary forests along a narrow extent of the serra do mar range in the state of s\u00e3o paulo , southeastern brazil , up to 1 , 200 m asl .\ncan be found calling at night during the rainy season , between august and march ( provete et al . 2011 ) in swamps or small rivulets inside primary and secondary forests ( heyer et al . 1990 ) , where it builds a foam nest . tadpoles are benthic and are found in temporary swamps with muddy bottoms ( provete et al . 2011 ) , between october and december . males apparently occur in low frequency and usually call hidden below dead leaves on the forest floor . more information is needed about the natural history of this species and its habitat requirements .\nthe range of this species is within protected areas , such as esta\u00e7\u00e3o biol\u00f3gica de borac\u00e9ia , parque natural municipal nascentes de paranapiacaba , and parque das neblinas . main threats to\nby caramaschi and caramaschi ( 1991 ) , who also clarified the type - locality of the species to be sororocaba , santos , brazil .\n( miranda - ribeiro , 1937 ) ( anura : leptodactylidae ) . ' '\ngiarretta , a . a . , martins , l . b . and santos , m . p . d . ( 2009 ) . ' ' further notes on the taxonomy of four species of\n( anura , leiuperidae ) from the atlantic forest of southeastern brazil . ' '\nheyer , w . r . ( 1985 ) . ' ' new species of frogs from borac\u00e9ia , s\u00e3o paulo , brazil . ' '\nheyer , w . r . , rand , a . s . , cruz , c . a . g . , peixoto , o . l . , and nelson , c . e . ( 1990 ) . ' ' frogs of borac\u00e9ia . ' '\nmiranda - ribeiro , a . de ( 1937 ) . ' ' alguns batrachios novos das colle\u00e7c\u00f5es do museo nacional . ' '\nnascimento , l . b . , caramaschi , u . , and cruz , c . a . g . ( 2005 ) . ' ' taxonomic review of the species groups of the genus\nprovete , d . b . , garey , m . v . , dias , n . y . n . and rossa - feres , d . c . ( 2011 ) . ' ' the tadpole of\ndiogo borges provete ( dbprovete at gmail . com ) , departent of ecology , universidade federal de goi\u00e1s\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as data deficient in view of the absence of recent information on its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements .\nthis species is known only from the serra do mar , in the state of s\u00e3o paulo in south - eastern brazil , up to 1 , 200m asl . its distribution is likely to be at least a little wider than is currently known .\nthere is very little recent information , there have been few recent attempts to study or locate it , and there are no recent records .\nthere is no direct information on threats to this species , though it is likely to be impacted by clear - cutting , human settlement and tourism . the lack of records in recent years is reminiscent of the decline of other high - altitude , stream - breeding frogs in the wet tropics , and chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\neach tol leaf page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a leaf at the tip of the tree of life . the major distinction between a leaf and a branch of the tree of life is that a leaf cannot generally be further subdivided into subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\nthis website was prepared by the morphobank project , in part , under an award from the national oceanic and atmospheric administration , u . s . department of commerce .\nthe statements , findings , conclusions , and recommendations are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the national oceanic and atmospheric administration or the department of commerce .\nweb hosting provided by stony brook university and department of information technology , and by the american museum of natural history .\nusing this photo this photo and associated text may not be used except with express written permission from mauro teixeira jr . to obtain permission for personal , academic , commercial , or other uses , or to inquire about high resolution images , prints , fees , or licensing , or if you have other questions , contact mauro teixeira jr tropidurus _ no _ spam @ urltoken . ( remove\n_ no _ spam\nfrom this email address before sending an email . )\n0000 0000 1109 1765 copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 uc regents . all rights reserved .\naltig , r . & mcdiarmid , r . w . ( 1999 ) body plan : development and morphology . in : mcdiarmid , r . w . & altig , r . ( eds . ) , tadpoles : the biology of anuran larvae . the university of chicago press , chicago , illinois , pp . 24\u201351 .\ncrivellari , l . b . , leivas , p . t . , leite , j . c . m . , gon\u00e7alves , d . d . s . , mello , c . m . , rossa - feres , d . d . c . & conte , c . e . ( 2014 ) amphibians of grasslands in the state of paran\u00e1 , southern brazil ( campos sulinos ) . herpetology notes , 7 , 639 - \u2013654 .\nfrost , d . r . ( 2016 ) amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . american museum of natural history , new york , usa . electronic database . available from : urltoken ( accessed 2 mar . 2016 )\ngosner , k . l . ( 1960 ) a simplified table for staging anuran embryos and larvae with notes on identification . herpetologica , 16 , 183\u2013190 .\nsantana , d . j . , magalhaes , f . m . , s\u00e3o - pedro , v . a . , m\u00e2ngia , s . , amado , t . f . & garda , a . a . ( 2016 ) calls and tadpoles of the species of pseudis ( anura , hylidae , pseudae ) . herpetological journal , 26 , 139\u2013148 . urltoken\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ntwo major clades were recognized : the p . signifer clade and the p . cuvieri clade .\nhighly divergent lineages point to the need for a taxonomic revision of p . cuvieri .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nwhat is on the horizon for ecophylogenetics ? doi : 10 . 4322 / natcon . 2013 . 001\nclade - specific consequences of climate change to amphibians in atlantic forest protected areas doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1600 - 0587 . 2013 . 00396 . x\nlarvae ofproceratophrys melanopogon ( amphibia : anura ) , with emphasis on internal oral morphology and comparisons withp . cururuandp . moratoi doi : 10 . 1655 / herpetologica - d - 12 - 00075\nphylogenetic signal and variation of visceral pigmentation in eight anuran families doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1463 - 6409 . 2012 . 00559 . x\nanuranfauna from northwestern region of the state of sao paulo : species list and taxonomic key for adults | anurofauna do noroeste paulista : lista de esp\u00e9cies e chave de identifica\u00e7\u00e3o para adultos doi : 10 . 1590 / s1676 - 06032011000200036\nanurofauna do noroeste paulista : lista de esp\u00e9cies e chave de identifica\u00e7\u00e3o para adultos doi : 10 . 1590 / s1676 - 06032011000200036\ndescription of the tadpole ofhylodes magalhaesi ( bokermann , 1964 ) ( anura : hylodidae ) doi : 10 . 1670 / 11 - 039\nis rich and rare the common share ? describing biodiversity patterns to inform conservation practices for south american anurans doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0056073\nanuranfauna in antropogeneic areas and remnants of semideciduous forest in western paran\u00e1 , brazil . herpetology notes ,\nrossa - feres , d . c . 2018 . looking for a place : how aretadpoles distributed within tropical ponds and streams ? . herpetology notes , 11 : 379 - 386 .\n, caramaschi , u . , napoli , m . f . , nomura , f . , bispo , a . a . , brasileiro , c . a . , thom\u00e9 , t . c . , sawaya , r . j . , contem c . e . , cruz , c . a . g . , nascimento , l . b . , gasparini , j . l . , almeida , a . p . & haddad , c . f . b . 2017 . anf\u00edbios da mata atl\u00e2ntica : lista de esp\u00e9cies , biologia e conserva\u00e7\u00e3o .\nmonteiro - filho , e . m . a . & conte , c . ein : revis\u00f5es em zoologia : mata atl\u00e2ntica , pp . 237 - 314 , editaora da ufpr , curitiba .\nsp . ) in an urban green area in brazil . international journal of primatology , 38 : 1058 - 1071\n& branco , l . h . z . 2017 . floristic diversity , richness and distribution of trentepohliales ( chlorophyta ) in neotropical ecosystems . brazilian journal of botany , 40 : 883 - 896\n& rossa - feres , d . c . tadpole species richness within lentic and lotic microhabitats : an interactive influence of environmental and spatial factors . herpetological journal ,\njordani , m . x . , ouchi - de - melo , l . s . , queiroz , c . s . , rossa - feres , d . c . &\ntadpole community structure in lentic and lotic habitats : richness and diversity in the atlantic rainforest lowland . herpetological journal ,\n& branco , c . c . z . 2017 . canopy cover as the key factor for occurrence and species richness of subtropical stream green algae ( chlorophyta ) . acta botanica , 137 : 24 - 29\n& provete , d . b . 2016 . species composition , conservation status , and sources of threat of anurans in mosaics of highland grasslands of southern and southeastern brazil . oecologia australis , 20 ( 2 ) : 94 - 108\n& rossa - feres , d . c . 2016 . effects of grazing management and cattle on aquatic habitat use by the anuran\nin agro - savannah landscapes . plos one 11 ( 9 ) : e0163094 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0163094\nrossa - feres , d . c . ; venesky , m . ; nomura , f . ; eterovick , p . c . ; candioti , m . f . v . ; menin , m . ; junc\u00e1 , f . a . ; schiesari , l . c . ; haddad , c . f . b . ;\n; anjos , l . a . & wassersug , r . 2015 . taking tadpole biology into the 21st century : a consensus paper from the first tadpole international workshop . herpetologia brasileira , 4 : 48 - 59\n& menin , m . tadpole richness in riparian areas is determined by niche and neutral process . hydrobiologia , 745 : 123 - 135 .\n; martins , i . a . & rossa - feres , d . c . broad - scale spatial patterns of canopy cover and pond morphology affect the structure of a neotropical amphibian metacommunity . hydrobiologia , 734 : 69 - 79\nprovete , d . b . ; martins , i . a . ; haddad , c . f . b . ; rossa - feres , d . c . anurans from the serra da bocaina national park and surrounding buffer area , southeastern brazil . check list , 10 ( 2 ) : 308 - 316 .\n; sturaro , m . j . ; silva , v . x . herpetofauna da rppn fazenda lagoa . pp . 95 - 118 . in : fazenda lagoa , educa\u00e7\u00e3o , pesquisa e conserva\u00e7\u00e3o da natureza . laurindo , r . s . ; vieira , m . c . w . ; novaes , r . l . m . ( eds . ) . editora logo .\n; gomes , f . b . r . ; martins , i . & rossa - feres , d . c . 2013 . larvae of\n& hartmann , m . t . 2012 . anuros da reserva natural salto morato , guaraque\u00e7aba , paran\u00e1 , brasil .\n: bornschen et al . 2015 . rectification of the position of the type locality of brachycephalus tridactylus ( anura : brachycephalidae ) , a recently described species from southern brazil . zootaxa , 4007 ( 1 ) : 149 - 150 .\n; silva , f . r . . & jordani , m . x . 2012 . knowledge gaps and bibliographical revision about descriptions of free - swimming anuran larvae from brazil .\n; toledo , l . f . ; nascimento , j . ; louren\u00e7o , l . b . ; rossa - feres , d . c . & c\u00e9lio f . b . haddad . 2012 . redescription of\n; costa , t . r . n . ; louren\u00e7o - de - moraes , r . ; hartmann , m . t . & c\u00e9lio f . b . haddad . 2012 . alternative reproductive modes of atlantic forest frogs .\n; dias , n . y . n . & rossa - feres , d . c . 2011 . the tadpole of\n; silva , f . r . & rossa - feres , d . c . 2011 . anurofauna do noroeste paulista : lista de esp\u00e9cies e chave de identifica\u00e7\u00e3o para adultos .\nheyer , 1983 ( anura : cycloramphidae ) in the brazilian atlantic forest : description of the advertisement call , tadpole , and karyotype .\n& silva , v . x . 2010 . spatial and temporal distribution of anurans in a agricultural landscape in the atlantic semi - deciduous forest of southeastern brazil .\n; lingnau , r . ; silva , m . x . ; armstrong , c . & hartmann , m . t . 2009 . amphibia , anura , limnomedusa macroglossa , dendropsophus anceps , d . berthalutzae , d . seniculus , s . littoralis : new state records , distribution extension and filling gaps .\n; monteiro - filho , e . l . a . & hartmann , m . t . 2008 . sinaliza\u00e7\u00e3o visual e biologia reprodutiva de\n( anura : hylidae ) em \u00e1rea de mata atl\u00e2ntica no estado do paran\u00e1 , brasil .\n& vitule , j . r . s . 2007 . chthonerpeton viviparum parker & wettstein , 1929 ( amphibia , gymnophiona , typhlonectidae ) in paran\u00e1 state , brazil and the first record of predation of this species by hoplias malabaricus ( bloch , 1794 ) ( actinopterygii , erythrinidae ) .\n1 . forest - > 1 . 6 . forest - subtropical / tropical moist lowland suitability : suitable 1 . forest - > 1 . 9 . forest - subtropical / tropical moist montane suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 2 . wetlands ( inland ) - seasonal / intermittent / irregular rivers / streams / creeks suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 8 . wetlands ( inland ) - seasonal / intermittent freshwater marshes / pools ( under 8ha ) suitability : suitable\n1 . land / water protection - > 1 . 1 . site / area protection 2 . land / water management - > 2 . 1 . site / area management 2 . land / water management - > 2 . 3 . habitat & natural process restoration\n1 . residential & commercial development - > 1 . 1 . housing & urban areas\n1 . residential & commercial development - > 1 . 3 . tourism & recreation areas\n5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 3 . logging & wood harvesting - > 5 . 3 . 5 . motivation unknown / unrecorded\n8 . invasive and other problematic species , genes & diseases - > 8 . 1 . invasive non - native / alien species / diseases - > 8 . 1 . 2 . named species\n1 . research - > 1 . 2 . population size , distribution & trends 1 . research - > 1 . 3 . life history & ecology 1 . research - > 1 . 5 . threats 1 . research - > 1 . 6 . actions 3 . monitoring - > 3 . 1 . population trends\ncochran , d . m . 1955 . frogs of southeastern brazil . united states national museum bulletin : 1 - 423 .\nheyer , w . r . 1985 . new species of frogs from borac\u00e9ia , s\u00e3o paulo , brazil . proceedings of the biological society of washington : 657 - 671 .\nheyer , w . r . , rand , a . s . , cruz , c . a . g . , peixoto , o . l . and nelson , c . e . 1990 . frogs of borac\u00e9ia . arquivos de zoologia : 231 - 410 .\niucn . 2004 . 2004 iucn red list of threatened species . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 23 november 2004 ) ."]}
{"id": 1590, "summary": [{"text": "the northern common cuscus ( phalanger orientalis ) , also known as the grey cuscus , is a species of marsupial in the family phalangeridae native to northern new guinea and adjacent smaller islands , but is now also found in the bismarck archipelago , south-east and central moluccas , the solomons and timor , where it is believed to have been introduced in prehistoric times .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it was formerly considered conspecific with the allopatric p. intercastellanus and p. mimicus . ", "topic": 21}], "title": "northern common cuscus", "paragraphs": ["hemes and a pet northern common cuscus ( phalanger orientalis breviceps ) in bougainville .\nof the cuscus as natives hunt the cuscus for both the meat of the cuscus and the thick fur of the cuscus .\n( southern common cuscus ) were thought to belong to the same species ( flannery , 1995 ) .\nthe cuscus is thought to breed throughout the year rather than having a strict breeding season . the mother cuscus gives birth to between 2 and 4 baby cuscus after a\nfrom just 15cm to more than 60cm in length , although the average sized cuscus tends to be around 45cm ( 18inches ) . the cuscus has small ears and large eyes which aid the cuscus through its\ninhabits northern australia , the aru islands , and the louisade archipelago ( strahan , 1995 ) .\ntail which is naked ( has no fur ) at the end . this allows the cuscus to be able to grip onto the tree branches more easily when the cuscus is moving from tree to tree and resting during the day . the cuscus also has long , sharp claws which help the cuscus when it is moving around in the trees . the cuscus has thick , woolly fur which can be a variety of\nin which the cuscus exists . more and more of the secluded forests where the cuscus dwells are being cut down , with the trees being sold to logging companies .\nthe cuscus is an arboreal mammal and spends its life almost exclusively in the trees . the cuscus rests in the trees during the day , sleeping in the dense foliage and awakens at night to start moving through the trees in search of food . the cuscus is an omnivorous\nof just a couple of weeks . as with all marsupials , the female cuscus has a pouch on her tummy which the newborn cuscus babies crawl into and stay until they are bigger , less\ndue to the way that the cuscus moves through the trees and uses its tail to grip onto branches . it was later discovered that the cuscus was actually most closely related to the possum .\ncommon brushtail possums have a naked patch on the underside of their bushy tail which helps them to grip on to branches .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the cuscus article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nand able to start feeding themselves . typically only one of the cuscus babies will survive and emerge from the pouch after 6 or 7 months .\nthe common brushtail possum is very vocal , producing a range of sounds including clicks , grunts , hisses , alarm chatters , coughs and screeching .\nthat are extremely difficult to spot in the wild . it is said to be one of the most rewarding sights , if you spot a cuscus in its natural\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - common brushtail possum ( trichosurus vulpecula )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - common brushtail possum ( trichosurus vulpecula )\ntitle =\narkive species - common brushtail possum ( trichosurus vulpecula )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ncommon brushtail possums are only around 1 . 5 cm long when they are born , continuing development in the mothers pouch for another 4 - 5 months .\ndespite facing no major threats , the common brushtail possum has declined drastically in some areas , particularly in arid and semiarid areas of australia ( 1 ) ( 4 ) , and is now considered endangered in the northern territory ( 3 ) ( 8 ) . the main causes of these declines are believed to be predation by dingoes , cats and foxes , as well as habitat fragmentation , the loss of suitable denning sites , and changed fire regimes in some areas ( 1 ) ( 6 ) ( 8 ) ( 9 ) .\ncuscus mounted on a historic wooden base , in a crouched standing on a y - shaped tree branch . the tail is held down and is wrapped around the branch . body is slightly arched upward and the head and tail are held down .\nis thought to have originated on new guinea and then to have been distributed primarily by prehistoric humans to the range it currently occupies ( nowak , 1999 ) . that range now includes the south west pacific islands of buru , seram , the solomon and molucca islands , northern new guinea , and the bismark archipelago ( nowak , 1999 ) . until recently ,\nthe common brushtail possum is widespread throughout australia , and is also found on tasmania and a number of other offshore islands , including barrow island and kangaroo island . the species has also been introduced to new zealand , where it is now widespread ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe fur of the common brushtail possum is thick and woolly ( 2 ) ( 5 ) , and quite variable in colour , ranging from silvery - grey , to brown , black , red or cream , lighter on the underparts , and with a brown to black tail ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) . the ears are large and pointed , and there are dark patches on the muzzle ( 3 ) . a number of subspecies are recognised , based on variations in colour and body size , with individuals in tasmania generally being the largest , with dense , often black coats , and particularly bushy tails ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the male common brushtail possum is generally larger than the female , and the male\u2019s coat usually blends to reddish across the shoulders . the female common brushtail possum has a well - developed , forward - opening pouch ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .\nthe common brushtail possum is not currently considered threatened as it still has a wide distribution , large population , is present in many protected areas , and is able to adapt well to human settlements ( 1 ) ( 2 ) . conservation measures recommended for the more vulnerable populations include fox control , provision of nest boxes , and population monitoring ( 1 ) ( 6 ) ( 8 ) ( 9 ) . in tasmania , a management programme is in place for the species , which aims to maintain viable populations of the common brushtail possum across its range , while managing the species as an ecologically sustainable resource , and trying to reduce economic losses and damage to natural ecosystems ( 10 ) .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\nin some areas the common brushtail possum is considered a pest species , causing damage to pine plantations and to regenerating eucalypt forest , as well as to flowers , fruit trees and buildings . it may also carry diseases such as bovine tuberculosis . the species has long been harvested for its valuable fur , although commercial hunting is now restricted to tasmania ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . there are also removal permits in place on kangaroo island , where the common brushtail possum is considered a pest species and a threat to other vulnerable wildlife ( 1 ) . the species was introduced to new zealand in the mid - 1800s for its fur , where it has thrived despite attempts to control its numbers , and is thought to have potentially damaging effects on native vegetation ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe digits are of different lengths and are tipped by long , curved claws . their paws are syndactylous , with the first and second digits opposable to the rest . the soles of their feet are naked and striated . the female pouch has four mammae ( nowak , 1999 ) . the facial features include large eyes , long canines and a snout longer than that of spilocuscus maculatus ( spotted cuscus ) . the teeth are simple , low crowned and used for grinding ( flannery , 1995 ) .\n, this manuscript employs common species names , although the scientific name for each species discussed is also provided at first mention . for humans , the scientific name is further specified when it is important to distinguish from other hominid species . ) vegetation burning also enhanced hunting opportunities by drawing game and other faunal resources to new plant growth . a human contribution to the shaping of early fire regimes has been demonstrated for africa and , after human arrival , in borneo , australia , and the americas (\nthe spread of human populations and the species they favored altered the distributions of existing species , sometimes in synergy with holocene climatic changes . numerous regional studies demonstrate the link between neolithic agriculture and the creation of more open landscapes , facilitated through various means from fire to the cutting and coppicing of trees ( 73 , 74 ) . for example , the early neolithic corresponded with shifts away from deciduous tree cover in various regions of central and northern europe ( e . g . , ref . 74 ) . the spread of farmers into central africa caused an encroachment on rainforest by some expanded savannah species ( 75 ) . early rice cultivation in the coastal wetlands of eastern china was linked to clearance of alder - dominated wetland scrub ( 76 ) .\npopulation justification in a well - studied area at tirotonga on isabel , three nests were about 2 km apart ( g . dutson pers . obs . 1998 , m . hafe verbally 1998 ) , which would extrapolate to an approximate total population of c . 3 , 000 pairs , but it appears to be unusually common in this area ( g . dutson pers . obs . 1998 ) . elsewhere , there have been records only of singles or single pairs . it is plausible that the subpopulations on the three islands each number less than 1 , 000 mature individuals .\nthis species occupies a wide range of habitats , including rainforest , woodland , dry eucalypt forest , pine plantations , semiarid areas and even urban gardens and parks ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . although generally found in forest habitats , it may also inhabit treeless areas ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . the common brushtail possum shelters by day in a den , which may be located in a tree hollow , log , dense undergrowth , cave , animal burrow , or even in the roof - space of a house ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 )\nbrushtail possums are the most abundant , widely distributed and frequently encountered of all australian marsupials ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . as its name suggests , the common brushtail possum has a rather bushy tail , which is prehensile at the tip and has a naked patch on the underside , helping it to grip branches ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the foreclaws are sharp and the hind foot bears an opposable , clawless first toe which gives a good grasp ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the second and third toes are fused , with a long , split claw , used in grooming ( 3 ) .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nthis species is distributed from the islands of timor ( indonesia and timor leste ) , wetar and leti ( both to indonesia ) through the kai islands and a number of the moluccan islands of indonesia ( including : ambon , buru , and seram ) ; it is present on the islands of misool , waigeo , batanta , and salawati ( all indonesia ) , and ranges over much of the northern part of the island of new guinea ( indonesia and papua new guinea ) , including a number of offshore islands . it ranges as far east as the bismarck archipelago , papua new guinea , where it is present on many islands including the islands of new britain and new ireland . it also occurs on many of the solomon islands . many of the insular island populations are the result of prehistorical introductions , possibly including : timor , seram , buru , sanana , the kai islands , the bismarck archipelago , and the solomon island chain .\nextinctions and extirpations were a common consequence of island colonization in prehistory . thousands of bird populations in the pacific went extinct after polynesian colonization ( 92 ) . one recent study of nonpasserine birds on 41 pacific islands shows that two - thirds went extinct between initial prehistoric colonization and european contact ( 93 ) . bird species extinctions impact important ecosystem processes like decomposition , pollination , and seed dispersal , leading to trophic cascades ( 94 ) . human impacts have been primarily responsible for the extinction of four genera of giant sloths in the caribbean , as well as nine taxa of snakes , lizards , bats , birds , and rodents on antigua between 2350 and 550 b . c . e . ( 82 , 95 ) . floral extinctions have not been as well - studied , but a range of island plant species went extinct on islands in prehistoric times . pollen and wood charcoal analyses demonstrate at least 18 plant extinctions on rapanui ( easter island ) , for example , and show dense palm forest disappearing within 200 y of human settlement ( 96 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , occurrence in a number of protected areas , tolerance to degraded areas , lack of major threats , and because it is unlikely to be declining .\nit occurs primarily in disturbed habitats such as secondary forest , plantations , and gardens . the species is also present in primary tropical forest . the female usually gives birth to two young .\nthere are no major threats to this species . it is threatened in some parts of its range by hunting for food by local people and by collection for the pet trade .\nit occurs in a number of protected areas . further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species . this species is listed on appendix ii of cites .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nis resitricted to tropical rainforests and thick scrub in the south west pacific ( nowak , 1999 ) . they have also been spotted in gardens , probably due to the high abundance of edible plants ( flannery , 1995 ) .\n, like others in the family phalangeridae , is heavy and powerfully built ( nowak , 1999 ) . the average mass is about 2 . 1 kg . this is slightly lower in females ( grizmek , 1990 ) .\nthe tail is prehensile naked at the end . it is covered with horny papillae . the tail length varies from 28 to 42 cm ( grizmek , 1990 ) . the male tail is completely white but female tails are white only on the tips .\nin adult males , the thick , wooly fur ranges in color from white to medium or dark grey ( nowak , 1999 ) . in adult females , the color ranges from reddish - brown to brownish - grey . the stomach area is commonly white . the male has a distinct yellowish chest gland . usually a dark stripe runs from the head to the lower back . the young of this species are reddish - brown . ( flannery , 1995 ; nowak , 1999 )\nlasts around 13 days . normally the females births twins , but the number of young ranges from one to three ( grizmek , 1990 ) . usually , one of the twins dies before weaning ( nowak , 1999 ) . the weight at birth is less than 1 gram ( grizmek , 1990 ) .\nnormally , the reproductive cycle occurs only once a year . mating and reproductive seasons are from june through october , though march and november births have been observed ( tyndale - brisco , 1987 ) .\nis nocturnal , spending the day in a tree hollow . while foraging for food at night , it travels through the forest in a slow deliberate climb ( nowak , 1999 ) .\ngrips with three feet at a time and the tail wraps around the branch ready to hold weight . ground travel - - though rare - - is characterized by a slow , bounding gait . if necessary ,\nmoves quickly through the canopy and even jump across gaps ( flannery , 1995 ) .\nis more tolerant of humans , and it is commonly kept as a pet ( flannery , 1995 ) .\nclimbs slowly through the rainforests and locates mainly leaves , tree seeds , fruit , buds and flowers on which they feed ( girzmek , 1990 ) . it has been spotted eating the green fruit of the red cedar (\n) was found in the stomach of one animal . while in captivity it primarily eats leaves and fruit ( flannery , 1995 ) .\nhad not been closely studied due to its secluded lifestyle . the following are a few specific predators that have been documented : white - bellied sea - eagle (\n) ( flannery , 1995 ) , and possibly dasyurids ( grizmek , 1990 ) . the assumption is that these and other species like them prey upon\nis hunted for food by native tribes , though this is rare ( flannery , 1995 ) .\nlaura merlo ( author ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , ondrej podlaha ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in australia , new zealand , tasmania , new guinea and associated islands .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nreferring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range , usually through human action .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nislands that are not part of continental shelf areas , they are not , and have never been , connected to a continental land mass , most typically these are volcanic islands .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\n. chatswood , nsw : reed books as a part of reed books australia .\nheinsohn , t . september 2000 . predition by the white - breasted sea eagle , haliaeetus leucogaster , on phalangerid possums in new ireland , papua new guinea .\nnowak , r . 1997 .\nwalker ' s mammals of the world online 5 . 1\n( on - line ) . accessed 7 october 2001 at urltoken .\nto cite this page : merlo , l . 2002 .\nphalanger orientalis\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nimage processing : ms . amira abdul - hafiz publication date : 16 nov 2010\nthis specimen , a female , was collected from the north slopes of mt . dayman , maneau range , papua new guinea . it was made available to the university of texas high - resolution x - ray ct facility for scanning by dr . ted macrini of st mary ' s university . funding for scanning was provided by dr . nancy simmons of the american museum of natural history . funding for image processing was provided by the jackson school of geosciences .\nthe specimen was scanned by matthew colbert on 14 april 2007 along the coronal axis for a total of 720 slices . each 1024x1024 pixel slice is 0 . 121 mm thick , with an interslice spacing of 0 . 121 mm and a field of reconstruction of 55 mm .\nto cite this page : dr . ted macrini , 2010 ,\nphalanger orientalis\n( on - line ) , digital morphology . accessed july 9 , 2018 at urltoken\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\nto fully enjoy the a - z animals website , please enable javascript in your web browser .\nplease enter a nickname which you can use to identify your comment , but which others can not use to identify you . please do not use your online usernames / handles which you use for social networking .\nsources : 1 . david burnie , dorling kindersley ( 2008 ) illustrated encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 18 sep 2009 ] 2 . david burnie , kingfisher ( 2011 ) the kingfisher animal encyclopedia [ accessed at : 01 jan 2011 ] 3 . david w . macdonald , oxford university press ( 2010 ) the encyclopedia of mammals [ accessed at : 01 jan 2010 ] 4 . dorling kindersley ( 2006 ) dorling kindersley encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 18 sep 2009 ] 5 . richard mackay , university of california press ( 2009 ) the atlas of endangered species [ accessed at : 18 sep 2009 ] 6 . tom jackson , lorenz books ( 2007 ) the world encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 18 sep 2009 ]\nare you safe ? is an online safety campaign by a - z - animals . com . if something has upset you , the are you safe ? campaign can help you to speak to someone who can help you .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we\u0092ll send you a link to reset your password .\nif you want to use this image commercially and we ' ve indicated * that alamy doesn ' t have a release , you might need additional permission from the model , artist , owner , estate , trademark or brand . more information .\nsorry , this image isn ' t available for this licence . please refer to the license restrictions for more information .\non the alamy prints site ( powered by art . com ) choose your frame , the size and finish of your photo .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nthis enigmatic species is classified as vulnerable on the basis of a small subpopulations on three island which are declining through habitat degradation . however , its total population size and habitat requirements are poorly known .\ntrend justification forest loss and degradation are suspected to be causing this species to decline at a moderate rate .\n. there are also possible reports from buka . it is presumed to be a species of low population density as it is rarely seen and no more than one bird has been heard calling from any location . all records are from old - growth forest .\n. all records are from old - growth lowland and hill forest , usually in primary forest but also in adjacent secondary forest and forest edge to at least 2 , 000 m ( gardner 1987 , webb 1992 , g . dutson pers . obs . 1998 , dutson 2011 )\nsurvey to determine population densities in primary and logged forest , hunted and unhunted areas and at various altitudes . monitor population trends around tirotonga . research diet and breeding success at tirotonga . lobby for tighter controls of commercial logging , especially on choiseul . discuss possibilities of large - scale community - based conservation areas on all three islands . promote this species as a figurehead species for community - based conservation and ecotourism initiatives .\n38 cm . massive forest owl . golden eyes framed by prominent creamy eyebrows , otherwise warm brown . streaked dark underparts and barred dark upperparts .\nis much smaller ( 25 - 30 cm ) with plainer facial mask , dark eyes and faintly patterned underparts .\nsimilar to clear human cry , increasing in volume and tone , given as series at 10 second intervals .\nrarely seen unless a local guide knows of regular roost or nest - sites .\ntext account compilers derh\u00e9 , m . , dutson , g . , mahood , s . , o ' brien , a . , stattersfield , a . & north , a .\ncontributors dutson , g . , hafe , m . & webb , h .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : nesasio solomonensis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nedited by richard g . klein , stanford university , stanford , ca , and approved march 18 , 2016 ( received for review december 22 , 2015 )\nthe reshaping of global biodiversity is one of the most significant impacts humans have had on earth\u2019s ecosystems . as our planet experiences its sixth \u201cmass extinction event\u201d (\n) . these transformations are linked largely to the industrial economies , burgeoning populations , and dense transport networks of contemporary human societies . accordingly , the human - mediated alteration of species distributions has been characterized as a modern phenomenon with limited , and largely insignificant , historical antecedents . this conventional understanding fails to account for several decades of archaeological , paleoecological , and genetic research that reveal a long and widespread history of human transformation of global biodiversity (\nfossil evidence demonstrates that h . sapiens was present \u223c195 , 000 y ago ( 195 ka ) in east africa ( 19 ) and that , by 12 ka , our species had dispersed to the far corners of eurasia , australia , and the americas ( 20 ) . mounting evidence indicates that these late pleistocene dispersals , and the increase in global human populations with which they are associated , were linked in complex ways with a variety of species extinctions , extirpations , translocations , and new modes of niche modification . evaluating pleistocene anthropogenic impacts remains challenging , but novel methods and approaches are providing solutions to long - standing problems posed by limited preservation and chronological resolution .\nto fire regime change and transformations to plant community composition . for example , pollen and microcharcoal records indicate that the early colonists of new guinea deliberately burned and disturbed tropical rainforests to promote the growth of useful plants , especially gap colonizers like yams (\nevidence of human overexploitation has been suggested for some late pleistocene faunal sequences . diverse archaeological assemblages , from africa , europe , and south asia , for example , document the late pleistocene appearance of small , quick , and difficult - to - catch game , such as fish , birds , rabbits , rodents and monkeys , that may signal anthropogenic impacts to resource availability ( 28 , 29 ) . other studies document decreases in the size of certain species , such as limpets and tortoises , that may also reflect resource overexploitation ( e . g . , refs . 8 and 30 ) . some of these changes may result from the expansion of bone , stone , shell , fiber , and other tool repertoires in the late pleistocene , enabling new forms of intensive exploitation ( e . g . , refs . 31 and 32 ) .\n) . of particular importance are new global analyses drawing on higher resolution data and computational modeling approaches . these studies indicate an important role for humans and an inverse relationship between severity of extinction and duration of hominin\u2013megafauna coevolution , with uniformly high extinction rates in areas where\nproportions of megafauna known to be extinct in each region of the globe relative to the length of coevolution and contact with humans ( genus homo ) ( adapted from figure 1c in ref . 39 and figure 1 in ref . 40 ) . the numbers next to each pie chart indicate the total number of megafauna genera originally present within each region .\ncascade effects of changes to species , showing long - term transformation of landscapes . (\nthe beginning of the holocene ( < 11 . 7 ka ) witnessed fundamental shifts in climatic and geological regimes globally , as well as in human societies . the early to middle holocene in many regions worldwide saw the beginning of agricultural economies , placing new evolutionary pressures on plants , animals , and microbes , and resulting in major demographic expansions for humans ( 55 ) . this neolithic period opened the way for a radical transformation in the human capacity for niche construction , increasingly demonstrated through the accumulation of zooarchaeological and archaeobotanical data , as well as the application of biomolecular techniques .\nglobal spread of selected food crops ( red ) and domesticated and commensal animals ( blue ) through time . ( a ) wheat ( triticum spp . ) . ( b ) sorghum ( sorghum bicolor ) . ( c ) rice ( oryza sativa , oryza glaberrima ) . ( d ) cattle ( bos taurus , bos indicus ) . ( e ) dog ( canis familiaris ) . ( f ) rat ( rattus rattus , rattus tanezumi , rattus norvegicus , rattus exulans ) . the major spread of rats to global islands beginning by 3 ka is not apparent at the scale shown . ( note that maps use different temporal scales , appropriate to individual species and their temporality of spread ; hatching indicates natural distribution . )\nneolithic dispersals also featured pathogens . ancient dna , stable isotope , and other studies are clarifying the spread of pathogens favored by shifts in diet , lifestyle , mobility , and human\u2013animal relationships with the onset of agriculture . ancient dna from yersinia pestis and mycobacterium tuberculosis has been identified from neolithic human skeletons ( e . g . , refs . 69 and 70 ) and linked to large - scale population movements ( 69 , 71 ) . plant and animal pathogens also spread in the neolithic . the northwest european elm decline ( 3700\u20133600 b . c . e . ) may have been caused in part by the spread of a pathogen , such as the fungal disease ophiostoma , carried by the elm bark beetle ( scolytus scolytus ) , which saw habitat expansion with clearance for agriculture ( 72 ) .\nnew chronometric data are revealing the rapidity with which prehistoric extinctions sometimes unfolded ( 80 ) . new zealand saw numerous vertebrate extinctions after polynesian arrival ( e . g . , refs . 80 and 92 ) , including the elimination of various species of moa ( dinornis ) within two centuries of human colonization ( 97 ) . recent studies of sea lion and penguin adna show that several new zealand species once thought to have survived early human impacts were extirpated soon after human arrival and replaced within a few centuries by nonindigenous lineages from the subantarctic region ( 98 ) .\nextinction and extirpation rates underestimate human impacts because not all species under pressure went extinct . although hawaiian geese ( branta sandvicensis ) , unlike other species , survived the prehistoric colonization of hawaii by humans , adna research points to a drastic reduction in their genetic diversity after human arrival ( 99 ) . zooarchaeological data from the caribbean point to the overharvesting and decline of a variety of island marine species beginning \u223c2 , 000 y ago , with biomass , mean trophic level , and average size all radically altered ( 86 ) . research on california\u2019s channel islands points to similar impacts on a broad range of marine animals as a result of overexploitation by prehistoric hunter - gatherers ( 81 , 82 ) , patterns increasingly recognized on islands around the world .\nby the middle to late holocene , agriculture and the production of food surpluses paved the way for the emergence of larger human populations , increasingly dense , urbanized settlements , and more complex and intensive networks of trade , travel , and dispersal in many parts of the world . cultural niche construction became intense and elaborate , with dramatic implications for species diversity and distributions .\nmultidisciplinary datasets reveal that agricultural intensification , in response to factors like growing populations and emerging markets , was a major driver of ecological change across the old world from the bronze age onwards ( 100 ) . in the near east , bronze age datasets reveal pervasive turnover from deciduous to evergreen oak and replacement of indigenous forest with cultivated orchard crops like olive ( olea europea ) , grape ( vitis vinifera ) , and fig ( ficus carica ) ( e . g . , refs . 101 and 102 ) . cereal crops and vegetation indicative of grazing and other anthropogenic disturbance ( e . g . , rumex , plantago , and artemisia ) increased . archaeological study of wood charcoal points to a decline in tree taxa richness from the middle bronze age to the late iron age ( 103 ) . by 1000 b . c . e . , one archaeologically tested model suggests that 80\u201385 % of areas suited to agriculture in much of the near east were cultivated ( 104 ) .\nsimilar trends can be seen for all early urban societies that have been studied . increased deforestation , linked to agricultural intensification and urbanization in the iron age , is evident in diverse sedimentary and paleoecological records in china ( e . g . , refs . 105 and 106 ) . european and near eastern landscapes in the roman period also saw significant transformation , with expansion of cultivation into previously marginal areas , growth of the cash crop industry , and a new emphasis on high yield agro - pastoralism ( 100 ) . sedimentary sequences across the eastern mediterranean record the highest holocene rates of soil erosion and sedimentation during the classical era ( 102 ) . population growth and political expansion in lowland mayan civilization have been linked to forest removal and erosion ( 107 , 108 ) .\ndeforestation and the expansion of species favoring anthropogenic disturbance were not continual processes , and many sequences reveal temporary reversals in these long - term trends . for example , the arrival of plague in europe at several points from the late neolithic onwards , as now confirmed by recovery of yersinia pestis adna from human skeletons ( 69 , 109 ) , seems to have been linked to episodes of forest regrowth due to abandonment of agricultural fields ( 104 , 110 ) . by the iron age and sometimes earlier , however , changing species compositions were often irreversible . recent multidisciplinary research in \u201cancient\u201d forests in france demonstrated a strong correlation between roman sites and present - day forest plant diversity , with areas altered by roman agriculture and settlement favoring nitrogen - demanding and ruderal species ( e . g . , refs . 50 and 51 ) ( fig . 2 c ) . grassland diversity in present - day estonia maps closely to late iron age human population density ( 111 ) .\na review of global archaeological , paleoecological , and historical datasets , distilled here into key trends and examples , suggests a number of general patterns concerning the long - term human shaping of biodiversity . first , human niche construction activities have had a major impact on the abundance , composition , distribution , and genetic diversity\u2014as well as extinction rates and translocation pathways\u2014of species globally . late pleistocene human impacts are the most difficult to assess , but , placed in the context of longer - term trends , they seem highly likely , especially given that even conservative estimates of anthropogenic contribution to megafaunal extinctions , extirpations , and depletions imply significant ecosystem impacts ( 38 , 47 ) .\nsecond , there is a strong link between present - day patterns of biodiversity and historical processes ( fig . 2 ) . the combined effects of human activity over the millennia include the creation of extensively altered , highly cosmopolitan species assemblages on all landmasses . \u201cpristine\u201d landscapes simply do not exist and , in most cases , have not existed for millennia . most landscapes are palimpsests shaped by repeated episodes of human activity over multiple millennia ( 5 , 36 , 100 ) .\nthird , there is widespread evidence for increasing rates of human - mediated species translocation , extinction , and ecosystem and biodiversity reshaping through time . this acceleration is not constant but is characterized by pulses and pauses that reflect cultural , ecological , and climatic transformations at local , regional , and global scales . these changes have increasingly concentrated biomass into particular sets of human - favored plants and animals ( 134 ) .\nfourth , archaeological and paleoecological data are critical to identifying and understanding the deep history and pervasiveness of such human impacts ( 6 , 36 , 135 ) . ecologists and other researchers are often insufficiently aware of archaeological and other historical datasets . the continued default position among many researchers is that a landscape or seascape that does not have obvious , contemporary human alterations has experienced little human manipulation ( 136 ) . in fact , as exemplified by the revelation of dense prehistoric human settlements in parts of the amazon , the more appropriate default expectation is one of anthropogenic transformation , regardless of how pristine a modern landscape may superficially seem .\nfinally , negative consequences of human activity , such as extinction , reduced biodiversity , and habitat destruction , tend to receive more attention from researchers than examples of resilience and sustainability ( 100 ) , probably because these transformations are more dramatic and visible in the archaeological record ( 137 ) . the anthropogenic reshaping of species distributions , however , has been central to the creation of landscapes capable of supporting increasingly dense human populations through time . domesticated ecosystems enhance human food supplies , reduce exposure to predators and natural dangers , and promote commerce ( 138 ) . the creation of novel ecosystems ( 139 ) has enabled the provision of ecological goods and services , not just in the modern era but throughout the holocene and in the late pleistocene as well ( 5 , 100 , 140 ) .\nanother important consideration is the role of human niche construction as a major evolutionary force on the planet . processes of human niche creation have reshaped , and continue to influence , the evolutionary trajectories of a broad array of species . except for studies of domestication and antibiotic / pesticide resistance , however , investigation into processes of gene - culture coevolution has otherwise minimally explored the role of human culture in driving evolution in nonhuman species . however , human activities have exerted novel selection pressures that have had important evolutionary consequences not just for humans but also for the rest of the natural world ( 143 ) .\nwe thank ardern hulme - beaman and heidi eager for information regarding rattus distributions . we thank the fyssen foundation ( paris ) for supporting the symposium from which this paper emerged and thank the other participants for their stimulating contributions . this paper reflects the output of european research council funding to n . l . b . ( grant 206148 - sealinks ) , d . q . f . ( grant 323842 - compag ) , g . l . ( grant 337574 - undead ) , and m . d . p . ( grant 295719 - palaeodeserts ) .\nauthor contributions : n . l . b . , m . a . z . , d . q . f . , a . c . , g . l . , j . m . e . , t . d . , and m . d . p . wrote the paper .\nerlandson jm , braje tj , eds ( 2013 ) when humans dominated the earth : archaeological perspectives on the anthropocene . anthropocene 4 ( december ) : 1\u2013122\nregional ecological variability and impact of the maritime fur trade on nearshore ecosystems in southern haida gwaii ( british columbia , canada ) : evidence from stable isotope analysis of rockfish ( sebastes spp . ) bone collagen\nheinsohn te ( 2010 ) marsupials as introduced species : long - term anthropogenic expansion of the marsupial frontier and its implications for zoogeographic interpretation . altered ecologies : fire , climate and human influence on terrestrial landscapes , terra australis 32 , eds haberle s , stevenson j , prebble m ( anu e press , canberra , act , australia ) , pp . 133\u2013176\npollen evidence for plant introductions in a polynesian tropical island ecosystem , kingdom of tonga . altered ecologies : fire , climate and human influence on terrestrial landscapes , terra australis 32 , eds haberle s , stevenson j , prebble m ( anu e press , canberra , act , australia ) , pp 253\u2013271\nno fruit on that beautiful shore : what plants were introduced to the subtropical polynesian islands prior to european contact . islands of inquiry : colonisation , seafaring and the archaeology of maritime landscapes , terra australis 29 , eds clark gr , leach f , o\u2019connor s ( anu e press , canberra , act , australia ) , pp 227\u2013251\ncoconut ( cocos nucifera l . ) dna studies support the hypothesis of an ancient austronesian migration from southeast asia to america\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the pnas web site .\nresearchers used field data from 2012 to 2015 to study mortality and allele frequency changes in the sea star pisaster ochraceus during a mass mortality event in northcentral california , and found that surviving adult and juvenile sea stars experienced 81 % mortality and allele shifts , according to the authors .\na survey of more than 4 , 600 american adults conducted in 1995 - 1996 and in 2011 - 2014 suggests that among individuals of low socioeconomic status , negative affect increased significantly between the two survey waves , whereas life satisfaction and psychological well - being decreased .\na study of cognitive ability in norwegian males born from 1962 to 1991 suggests that environmental factors rather than changing genetic composition of families likely account for most of the change in norwegian population iq .\nthe mathematical tools behind recent gerrymandering cases have brought a modicum of precision into the political arena\u2014but this rigor hasn\u2019t always been enough to spur policy changes .\nclassified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nnowak , r . m . ( 1991 ) walker\u2019s mammals of the world . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore and london .\ncronin , l . ( 2008 ) cronin\u2019s key guide australian mammals . allen & unwin , sydney .\nmacdonald , d . w . ( 2006 ) the encyclopedia of mammals . oxford university press , oxford .\nburton , m . and burton , r . ( 2002 ) international wildlife encyclopedia . third edition . marshall cavendish , new york .\nclout , m . n . and efford , m . g . ( 1984 ) sex differences in the dispersal and settlement of brushtail possums ( trichosurus vulpecula ) . journal of animal ecology , 53 : 737 - 749 .\nmaxwell , s . , burbidge , a . a . and morris , k . d . ( 1996 ) the 1996 action plan for australian marsupials and monotremes . wildlife australia , canberra .\ntasmanian parks and wildlife service , 1996 . management program for the brushtail possum trichosurus vulpecula ( kerr ) in tasmania - review of background information ( may , 2009 ) urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is found in barrow island . visit our barrow island topic page to find out more .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa"]}
{"id": 1596, "summary": [{"text": "the big-head seahorse ( hippocampus grandiceps ) is a seahorse of average size that inhabits the gulf of carpentaria in northern australia .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it reaches a maximum size of about 10 centimeters . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "big - head seahorse", "paragraphs": ["the big - head seahorse , hippocampus grandiceps , is a seahorse of average size that inhabits the gulf of carpentaria in northern australia . more\nfrom the latin for large and head , in reference to its head which is proportionally larger than most other hippocampus species .\na bighead seahorse , hippocampus grandiceps . source : rudie kuiter / aquatic photographics . license : all rights reserved\n\u201cthere were these three very normal puppies , and there was this one puppy with this ginormous melon head , \u201d dowling said . \u201cso everyone was like , \u2018oh , it\u2019s the big head puppy . \u2019 i think she keeps meaning to change his name , but everyone has gotten so used to calling him bighead . \u201d\n\u201cit\u2019s not unusual for litters to have different fathers , and to see a big diversity in those litters , \u201d dowling said .\nas for whether bighead will grow into his larger - than - usual head , the jury is still out .\n\u201cit\u2019s become such a big thing about what bighead is , \u201d dowling said . \u201cthere\u2019s an internal contest with a gift card on the line . \u201d\nfrom the greek , ippos = horse and kampe = curvature . the specific name grandiceps is from the latin grandis meaning large or great , and - ceps from the latin caput meaning head , in reference to the large head of this species .\nendemic to tropical northern australia on the eastern side of the gulf of carpentaria , queensland . the bighead seahorse lives on soft bottom habitats is depths of 10 - 12 m .\nbighead now has two big brothers \u2014 a weimaraner named otto and a great dane named dozer . despite their size difference , they both adore bighead \u2014 especially dozer .\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 18 . pectoral fin rays usually 18 ; trunk rings 11 ; tail rings 32 - 33 ; head long , 94 - 103 % of trunk length ; head angled down to near trunk ( ref . 42735 ) .\nkuiter , r . h . 2001 . revision of the australian seahorse of the genus hippocampus ( syngnathiformes : syngnathidae ) with descriptions of nine new species . rec . aust . mus . 53 : 293 - 340 .\nwhile bighead\u2019s brothers and sisters looked like normal , puppy - sized border collie mixes , bighead had short , stubby feet and a gigantic head \u2014 hence the name bighead .\nthe angled head , body patterns and shallow depth range of h . grandiceps suggest that it may inhabit more weedy areas than those populated by most other species with prominent spines .\n\u201che\u2019ll probably always be a short , stocky , stubby little dude , \u201d dowling said . \u201cit would be interesting to see if he grows into that ginormous melon head of his . but i\u2019m kind of inclined to say \u2018no . \u2019\u201d\ngreek , ippos = horse + greek , kampe = curvature ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; demersal ; amphidromous ; depth range ? - 10 m ( ref . 58018 ) . tropical\nwestern central pacific : gulf of carpentaria , australia . international trade is monitored through a licensing system ( cites ii , since 5 . 15 . 04 ) and a minimum size of 10 cm applies .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 10 . 5 cm ot ( female )\ncollected from shallow water ( ref . 42735 ) . maximum length is based on a straight - line length measurement from upper surface ( ignoring spines ) of first trunk ring , to tip of tail ( ref . 42735 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 205 ) . the male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail ( ref . 205 ) .\nkuiter , r . h . , 2001 . revision of the australian seahorses of the genus hippocampus ( syngnathiformes : syngnathidae ) with descriptions of nine new species . rec . aus . mus . 53 : 293 - 340 . ( ref . 42735 )\n) : 27 . 2 - 29 . 3 , mean 28 . 7 ( based on 996 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00427 ( 0 . 00164 - 0 . 01111 ) , b = 3 . 00 ( 2 . 78 - 3 . 22 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 11 of 100 ) .\ncollected from shallow water ( ref . 42735 ) . maximum length is based on a straight - line length measurement from upper surface ( ignoring spines ) of first trunk ring , to tip of tail ( ref . 42735 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 205 ) . the male carries the eggs in a brood pouch which is found under the tail ( ref . 205 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndianne j . bray & vanessa j . thompson , hippocampus grandiceps in fishes of australia , accessed 10 jul 2018 , urltoken\ncolour in life unknown . in preservative - pale brownish - grey with pale saddle - like areas on trunk and tail . snout with distinct dusky barring along entire length .\nlike other seahorses , this species presumably feeds by sucking small crustaceans and other planktonic organisms into its mouth .\nreproduction : sexes separate , reproduction a form of viviparity or ovoviviparity , whereby the males give birth to tiny independent young . the female uses an ovipositor to transfer her eggs into an elaborate enclosed pouch under the abdomen of the male . the male not only fertilizes the eggs inside the pouch and provides physical protection for the developing embryos , he also osmoregulates and aerates the embryos and may provide some nourishment until the offfspring are born . eggs : not described . larvae : not described .\nof no interest to fisheries . although taken as bycatch in the northern prawn fishery , there is no known trade in this species for the aquarium or traditional medicine industries .\ninternational : listed under appendix ii of the convention on the international trade in endangered species of wild flora and fauna ( cites ) . urltoken . australian legislation : marine listed under the federal environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( epbc act 1999 ) . urltoken\nh . grandiceps is most similar to h . multispinus , differing in its smaller size , in having shorter spines and males lacking elongate spines over the superior trunk ridge anterior to the dorsal fin .\nhippocampus grandiceps kuiter 2001 , rec . aust . mus . 53 : 335 , fig 50 , west booby island , gulf of carpentaria , queensland .\nhoese , d . f . , d . j . bray , j . r . paxton & g . r . allen . 2006 . fishes . in beesley , p . l . & a . wells . ( eds . ) zoological catalogue of australia . volume 35 . abrs & csiro publishing : australia part 1 , 2178 pp .\nkuiter , r . h . 2000 . seahorses , pipefishes and their relatives . tmc publishing , chorleywood , uk , 240 pp .\npogonoski , j . j . , d . a . pollard & j . r . paxton . 2002 . conservation overview and action plan for australian threatened and potentially threatened marine and estuarine fishes , canberra , environment australia , 375 pp .\n\u201ci think she keeps meaning to change his name , but everyone has gotten so used to calling him bighead . \u201d\nenglish bulldog . st . bernard . corgi . mastiff . chihuahua . lots of people have tried to guess which breeds went into the making of a puppy named bighead \u2014 but most haven\u2019t gotten it right .\nthis past june , bighead and his four littermates arrived at the humane society silicon valley in california when they were only 6 weeks old .\n\u201cthe four of them were found as strays , and a good samaritan brought them in , \u201d finnegan dowling , content marketing manager for humane society silicon valley , told the dodo .\nlauren gallagher , who works in the finance department of humane society silicon valley , took the four puppies into foster care at her home \u2014 but she took a particular liking to bighead , who had a very unusual look about him .\nthe reason bighead looks different from his littermates remains a mystery , but dowling suspects that the litter may have had more than one dad .\nbighead\u2019s unusual looks prompted workers at humane society silicon valley to get his doggy dna tested . while they waited for the results , everyone tried their best to guess .\n\u201che is 25 percent shar - pei , 25 percent boxer , 12 . 5 american staffordshire terrier mix , 12 . 5 percent border collie , 12 . 5 percent lhasa apso and the rest are mixed - breed groups , \u201d dowling said . she also made an official announcement on the organization\u2019s facebook page today .\n\u201c [ dozer ] is really gentle , \u201d dowling said . \u201che just gets down on his belly and plays with him . \u201d\nwhen it came time for bighead and his littermates to find forever homes , gallagher decided that bighead wasn\u2019t going anywhere .\n\u201ci would say that she [ gallagher ] has fostered dozens , if not hundreds , of puppies for us , and has never kept one , \u201d dowling said . \u201cbut she kept bighead . \u201d\n\u201cbighead\u2019s enormously happy in his home , \u201d dowling added .\nhe kind of won the dog lotto by getting adopted by lauren . \u201d\ngallagher also brings bighead to the office every day , so dowling and everyone else gets to see him on a regular basis .\n\u201che\u2019s ridiculously spoiled because he gets carried all over the place , \u201d dowling said . \u201cpeople are just constantly picking him up and carrying him around and taking him to different meetings . he\u2019s a very sweet , social little guy . he\u2019s definitely the office darling . \u201d\nto see more pictures of bighead and his adopted brothers , you can follow his instagram page . if you\u2019re interested in getting a dog from humane society silicon valley , check out their adoption listings .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 1616, "summary": [{"text": "anatrachyntis vanharteni is a moth in the family cosmopterigidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by koster in 2010 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in the united arab emirates . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "anatrachyntis vanharteni", "paragraphs": ["anatrachyntis philocarpa ; sinev , 1998 , ent . obozr . 78 ( 1 ) : ( 138 - 149 )\nanatrachyntis incertulella ; zimmerman , 1978 , ins . hawaii 9 ( 2 ) : 1044 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ afromoths ]\nanatrachyntis ptilodelta ; sinev , 1998 , ent . obozr . 78 ( 1 ) : ( 138 - 149 ) ; [ afromoths ]\nanatrachyntis japonica ; [ nhm card ] ; sinev & park , 1994 , korean j . appl . ent . 33 ( 3 ) : 199\nanatrachyntis rileyi ; zimmerman , 1978 , ins . hawaii 9 ( 2 ) : 1044 ; [ me5 ] , 130 , 21 ; [ afromoths ] ; [ fe ]\nanatrachyntis ( cosmopteriginae ) ; zimmerman , 1978 , ins . hawaii 9 ( 2 ) : 1040 ; [ me5 ] , 129 , 20 ; [ richard brown ] ; [ afromoths ] ; [ fe ]\nanatrachyntis badia ; zimmerman , 1978 , ins . hawaii 9 ( 2 ) : 1042 ; [ me5 ] , 130 , 21 ; koster & sammut , 2006 , nota lepid . 29 ( 1 / 2 ) : 55 ; [ fe ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlegrand h . 1966 . l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res des \u00eeles seychelles et d ' aldabra . - m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle ( a ) 37 ( 1965 ) : 1\u2013210 , pls . 1\u201316 .\nfamily . it was described by koster in 2010 . it is found in the\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 8 / 6 / 2014 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nthis page was last edited on 24 february 2018 , at 04 : 45 .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\n= pyroderces ; hodges , 1978 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 1 : 46 ; [ nacl ] , 18 ; [ aucl ] ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\nstagmatophora acris meyrick , 1911 ; trans . linn . soc . lond . ( 2 ) 14 : 283 ; tl : mah\u00e9\nflorida , louisiana , california , . . . , canary is . , spain , france , great briain , holland . see [ maps ]\nsathrobrota badia hodges , 1962 ; ent . amer . ( n . s . ) 42 : 75 ; tl : south florida\nlarva on ( seed pods ) cassia occidentalis , ( cones ) pinus hodges , 1978 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 1 : 47\npyroderces bicincta ghesqui\u00e8re , 1940 ; ann . mus . congo belge , zool ( 3 ) 2 ( 7 ) : 71 ; tl : eala\nbiorrhizae sinev , 1986 ; trudy vses . ent . obsch . 67 : 67\npyroderces carpophila ghesqui\u00e8re , 1940 ; ann . mus . congo belge , zool ( 3 ) 2 ( 7 ) : 72 ; tl : eala\npyroderces cecidicida ghesqui\u00e8re , 1940 ; ann . mus . congo belge , zool ( 3 ) 2 ( 7 ) : 72 ; tl : likete - sur - lomela\njava , . . . , e . africa , somalia , uganda , mozambique , zaire . see [ maps ]\nstagmatophora floretella legrand , 1958 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 63 : 144\nstagmatophora gerberanella legrand , 1965 ; m\u00e9m . mus . hist . nat . paris ( a ) 37 : 60\npyroderces gymnocentra meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 4 - 5 ) : 148 ; tl : eala\nstagmatophora hieroglypta meyrick , 1911 ; trans . linn . soc . lond . ( 2 ) 14 : 282 ; tl : mah\u00e9\npyroderces holotherma meyrick , 1936 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 1 ) : 29 ; tl : eala\n= ; [ nhm card ] ; zimmerman , 1978 , ins . hawaii 9 ( 2 ) : 1044 ; [ aucl ]\nlarva on pandanus zimmerman , 1978 , ins . hawaii 9 ( 2 ) : 1044\npyroderces megacentra meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 59 ; tl : fiji , dreketi r .\npyroderces orphnographa meyrick , 1936 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 1 ) : 29 ; tl : eala\npyroderces palmicola ghesqui\u00e8re , 1940 ; ann . mus . congo belge , zool ( 3 ) 2 ( 7 ) : 73 ; tl : equateur , flandria\npyroderces philocarpa meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 15 ) : 451 ; tl : mesopotamia , baghdad\npyroderces philogeorga meyrick , 1933 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 13 - 14 ) : 428\npyroderces ptilodelta meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 18 ) : 570 ; tl : china , shanghai\narkansas - florida , texas , arizona , antilles , . . . , galapagos is . , . . . , uganda , . . . , queensland , canary is . . see [ maps ]\n= ; [ nhm card ] ; [ nacl ] , # 1512 ; [ aucl ] ; landry , 2001 , revue suisse zool . 108 ( 3 ) : 528 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ] ; zimmerman , 1978 , ins . hawaii 9 ( 2 ) : 1044 ; [ me5 ] , 130 , 21 ; [ afromoths ] ; [ fe ]\nlarva on panicum torridum , rochea , samanea saman , sapindus oahuensis zimmerman , 1978 , ins . hawaii 9 ( 2 ) : 1047\nparasites agathis hawaiicola , apanteles , idechthis , perisierola emigrata , pristomerus hawaiiensis , trathala flavo - orbitalis zimmerman , 1978 , ins . hawaii 9 ( 2 ) : 1047\npyroderces risbeci ghesqui\u00e8re , 1940 ; rev . zool . bot . afr . 33 : 277 ; tl : senegal , bambey\npyroderces similis bradley , 1953 ; proc . hawaii . ent . soc . 15 ( 1 ) : 112 ; tl : fiji , viti levu , lami , suva\nsweu , cyprus , morocco , egypt , . . . , malawi , . . . . see [ maps ]\nlarva on ( cotton bolls , and . . . ) elaeis guineensis , eriodendron anfractuosum [ me5 ] , 132\nstagmatophora tentoria meyrick , 1911 ; trans . linn . soc . lond . ( 2 ) 14 : 283 ; tl : mah\u00e9\nstagmatophora tripola meyrick , 1909 ; ann . transv . mus . 2 ( 1 ) : 19 , pl . 6 , f . 6 ; tl : pretoria\npyroderces veris ghesqui\u00e8re , 1940 ; ann . mus . congo belge , zool ( 3 ) 2 ( 7 ) : 75 ; tl : eala\n[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nthe moths of america north of mexico including greenland . fascicle 6 . 2 . gelechioidea , cosmopterigidae\nin gardiner , no . xii . tortricina and tineina . results of the percy sladen trust expedition to the indian ocean in 1905\nzimmerman , 1978 insects of hawaii . microlepidoptera . ( 1 ) : monotrysia , tineoidea , tortricoidea , gracillarioidea , yponomeutoidea , and alucitoidea , ( 2 ) : gelechioidea ins . hawaii 9 ( 1 ) : 1 - 396 , ( 1 ) : 397 - 882 , ( 2 ) : 883 - 1430 , ( 2 ) : 1431 - 1903\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nholotype \u2642 , rmnh ; 23 paratypes \u2642 , \u2640 , genitalia slide gielis 5810 , 5811 , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide adamski 5669 , rmnh ; paratypes 28\u2642 , 28\u2640 , rmnh .\nholotype \u2640 , genitalia slide diakonoff 10536\u2640 , lnk ; paratypes 2\u2640 , genitalia slides diakonoff 10535\u2640 , 10537\u2640 , lnk , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide m . bippus re - 1866\u2642 ( rmnh . ins910262\u2642 ) , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide van der wolf 9852 , rmnh ; paratype \u2640 , genitalia slide van der wolf 9853 , uaeic .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide koster 6332\u2642 , rmnh ; paratypes 3\u2640 , genitalia slide koster 6335\u2640 , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide koster 7086\u2642 , rmnh ; paratypes 3\u2642 , genitalia slide van der wolf 9870\u2642 , rmnh .\nholotype \u2640 , genitalia slide koster 5970\u2642 , tlmf ; paratypes 12\u2642 ; 10\u2640 , genitalia slides koster 5971 , 5975 , 5976 , rmnh , tlmf , rmca , minga , coll . aarvik , oslo .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide koster 7695\u2642 , rmnh ; paratypes 4\u2642 , 2\u2640 , genitalia slides koster 7602\u2642 , 7654\u2642 , 7498\u2642 , 7500\u2640 , 7977\u2642 , rmnh , tmsa , zmhb .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide koster 7443\u2642 , rmca ; paratypes 25\u2642 , 8\u2640 , genitalia slides koster 7995\u2642 , 5731 , 7462 , 7496\u2640 , 7724 7725\u2640 , 7701\u2642 , 7702\u2642 , 7726\u2642 , 7727\u2642 , 7703\u2642 , 7982\u2642 , 7987\u2642 , 7974\u2642 , rmca , rmnh , bmnh , zmhb , nhmo .\nholotype \u2640 , genitalia slide koster 7457\u2640 , nhmo ; paratypes 2\u2640 . rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide koster 7723\u2642 , nhmo ; paratypes 4\u2642 , 2\u2640 , genitalia slides koster 7721\u2642 , 8204\u2642 , 7490\u2640 , nhmo , bmnh , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide koster 7486\u2642 , rmnh ; paratypes 23\u2642 , 3\u2640 , genitalia slides koster 8017\u2642 , 7262\u2640 , 7263 , 7692\u2642 , 8022\u2642 , tmsa , samc , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide koster 6175\u2642 , leg . rmnh ; paratypes 10\u2642 , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide koster 4837\u2642 , rmnh ; paratypes 15\u2642 , 25\u2640 , rmnh , zmuc , zin , zfmk .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide asselbergs 5706 , rmnh ; paratype\u2640 , genitalia slide asselbergs 5711 , coll . asselbergs .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 68 ) , rmnh .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 85 ) , rmnh .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 82 ) , rmnh ; paralectotypes 2\u2640 , rmnh .\nholotype \u2640 , rmnh , lost ( see munroe et al . 1958 : 69 ) .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 86 ) , rmnh ; paralectotypes 2\u2642 , rmnh .\nlectotype \u2640 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 85 ) , rmnh .\nsyntypes 1\u2642 , 1\u2640 , rmnh , not found ( munroe et al . 1958 : 77 ) .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 72 ) , rmnh .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 86 ) , rmnh ; paralectotype 1\u2640 , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide schouten 101 , rmnh ; paratypes 6\u2642 , 32\u2640 , rmnh , bmnh , tmsa , rbins , mhng , mnhn , rmca , lnk , coll . schouten .\nholotype \u2640 , genitalia slide bm 12086 , bmnh ; paratypes 2\u2642 , 3\u2640 , genitalia slide schouten 153 , 389\u2013392 , rmnh , mhng , coll . schouten .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide bm 17482 , bmnh ; paratypes 12\u2642 , 2\u2640 , genitalia slides bm 12104 , 17480 , 17481 , 17487 , schouten 449 , bmnh , rmnh , nmk .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 85 ) , rmnh ; paralectotypes 1\u2642 , 3\u2640 , rmnh .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 71 ) , rmnh .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 84 ) , rmnh .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 83 ) , rmnh .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 72 ) , rmnh ; 3 paralectotypes \u2642 , \u2640 , rmnh .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 76 ) , rmnh ; paralectotypes 1\u2642 , 2\u2640 , rmnh .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 87 ) , rmnh .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 87 ) , genitalia slide diakonoff 1743\u2642 , rmnh .\nlectotype \u2640 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 69 ) , rmnh ; paralectotype 1\u2640 , rmnh .\nlectotype \u2640 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 71 ) , rmnh ; paralectotype \u2642 , rmnh , lost ( see munroe et al . 1958 : 71 ) .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 82 ) , rmnh ; 4 paralectotypes \u2642 , \u2640 , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide lvovsky 3652 , rmnh ; paratypes 3\u2642 , 4\u2640 , rmnh , zin .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide kaila 4519 , rmnh ; paratype \u2640 , genitalia slide kaila 4884 , uaeic .\nholotype \u2642 , sdei ; 32 paratypes \u2642 , \u2640 , sdei , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , zmuc ; paratypes 21\u2642 , 3\u2640 , zmuc , bmnh , zsm , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , abdomen missing ( see fletcher 1967 : 94 ) , rmnh .\nholotype \u2640 , genitalia slide g 13827\u2640 , zsm ; paratypes1\u2642 and 2\u2640 , genitalia slide g 13828 , zsm , rmnh .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by yuan & robinson ( 1993 : 15 ) , rmnh ; paralectotype 1 ex . ( gender not stated ) , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide lehmann 25 / 012011\u2642 , rmnh ; paratypes 2\u2642 , 1\u2640 , rmnh .\nholotpe \u2642 , genitalia slide e . van nieukerken 3861\u2642 , rmnh ; paratype\u2640 , genitalia slide e . van nieukerken 3940\u2640 , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , sanc ; allotype \u2640 , sanc ; paratypes 51\u2642 , 4\u2640 , genitalia slides sanc , tmsa , deus , bmnh , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , tmsa ; paratypes 6\u2642 , genitalia slide v\u00e1ri 6810\u2642 , tmsa , bmnh , rmnh .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by bourgogne ( 1964a : 897 ) , rmnh ; paralectotype 1\u2642 , rmnh .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by bourgogne ( 1959 : 1235 ) , genitalia slide bourgogne 1776\u2642 , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , mnhn ; paratypes 21\u2642 , rmnh , nhmw , mnhn , zmhb , bmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide c . gielis 4461\u2642 , nhmo ; paratype 1\u2640 , genitalia slide c . gielis 5629\u2640 , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide c . gielis 4473\u2642 , nhmo ; paratypes 5\u2640 , genitalia slides c . gielis 5623\u2640 , 5732\u2640 , nhmo , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide asselbergs 5692\u2642 , rmnh ; paratype 1\u2640 , genitalia slide asselbergs 5716\u2640 , coll . asselbergs .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide asselbergs 5663 , rmnh ; paratype 1\u2640 , genitalia slide asselbergs 5664 , coll . asselbergs .\nholotype \u2642 , rmnh , lost ( see munroe et al . 1958 : 85 ) .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 73 ) , rmnh .\nlectotype \u2642 , designated by munroe et al . ( 1958 : 85 ) , rmnh ; paralectotypes 3\u2642 , 1\u2640 , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide asselbergs 5724 , rmnh ; paratypes 5\u2642 and 6\u2640 , rmnh , uaeic , coll . asselbergs .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide asselbergs 5657 , rmnh ; paratype \u2640 , genitalia slide asselbergs 5696 , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide asselbergs 5681\u2642 , rmnh ; paratypes 1\u2642 , 1\u2640 , genitalia slide asselbergs 5700\u2640 , rmnh , coll . asselbergs .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide asselbergs 5652 , rmnh ; paratypes 2\u2642 and 1\u2640 , genitalia slide asselbergs 5658 , rmnh , coll . asselbergs .\nholotype \u2642 , mnhn ; allotype \u2640 , mnhn ; paratypes 9\u2642 , 17\u2640 , mnhn , bmnh , rmnh , cmp .\nholotype \u2642 , mnhn ; allotype \u2640 , mnhn ; paratypes 19\u2642 , 3\u2640 , mnhn , bmnh , rmnh , coll . basquin , darge , turlin .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide koster 6318\u2642 , rmnh ; paratypes 12\u2642 , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide gaedike 5468\u2642 , rmnh ; paratypes 17\u2642 , rmnh , zmuc , zmhb , dei , zsm .\nholotype \u2640 , genitalia slide gaedike 5474 , rmnh ; paratypes 58\u2642 , rmnh , zmuc , dei , zmhb .\nholotype \u2642 , rmnh ; paratypes 6\u2642 , 7\u2640 , rmnh , coll . bippus .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide diakonoff 4503\u2642 , nhmw ; allotype \u2640 , genitalia slide diakonoff 4500\u2640 , nhmw ; paratypes 4\u2642 , 2\u2640 , genitalia slides diakonoff 4504 , 4505 , 4506 , 4507 , 4509 , 4543 , nhmw , rmnh , zsm ( see diakonoff 1963a : 476 ) .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide diakonoff 7316\u2642 , rmnh ; allotype \u2640 , genitalia slide diakonoff 7317\u2640 , rmnh ; paratypes 26 ( gender not stated ) , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide diakonoff 2213\u2642 , mnhn ; allotype \u2640 , genitalia slide diakonoff 2214\u2640 , mnhn ; paratypes 4\u2642 , 2\u2640 , mnhn , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide diakonoff 10315\u2642 , lnk ; allotype \u2640 , genitalia slide diakonoff 10316\u2640 , lnk ; paratypes 26\u2642 , 14\u2640 , lnk , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide diakonoff 10498\u2642 , lnk ; allotype \u2640 , genitalia slide diakonoff 10507\u2640 , lnk ; paratypes 1\u2642 , 2\u2640 , lnk , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide diakonoff 10640\u2642 , rmnh ; allotype \u2640 , genitalia slide diakonoff 10641\u2640 , rmnh ; paratypes 14\u2642 , 6\u2640 , genitalia slides diakonoff 4584 , 4677 , 10716 , pzdw , rmnh , tmsa .\nholotype \u2640 , genitalia slide diakonoff 10475\u2640 , mnhn ; paratypes 9\u2640 , genitalia slide diakonoff 10476\u2640 , mnhn , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide diakonoff 10504\u2642 , lnk ; allotype \u2640 , genitalia slide diakonoff 10518\u2640 , lnk ; paratypes 2\u2642 , 3\u2640 , genitalia slide diakonoff 10522\u2640 , lnk , rmnh .\nholotype \u2642 , genitalia slide diakonoff 10509\u2642 , nhmb ; allotype \u2640 , genitalia slide diakonoff 10510\u2640 , nhmb ; paratypes 3\u2642 , 1\u2640 , genitalia slide diakonoff 10503 , nhmb , lnk , rmnh ."]}
{"id": 1625, "summary": [{"text": "conorbiinae was a subfamily of small to quite large sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family conidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this subfamily has also been written by several authors as \" conorbinae \" .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "( and was a long time considered a subfamily of the turridae . bouchet , kantor et al. elevated in 2011 the subfamily conorbiinae to the rank of family conorbidae . this was based on anatomical characters ( radular tooth and shell characters ) and a dataset of molecular sequences of three gene fragments", "topic": 17}], "title": "conorbiinae", "paragraphs": ["vera - pel\u00e1ez . 2004 . genotina genotae new species and new genus and genota nigeriensis new species of the subfamily conorbiinae ( gastropoda , turridae ) . systematic , biogeography , stratigraphy and phylogeny of conorbis , genotina and genota genera . pliocenica , 4 : 95 - 106\nvera - pel\u00e1ez . 2004 . genotina genotae new species and new genus and genota nigeriensis new species of the subfamily conorbiinae ( gastropoda , turridae ) . systematic , biogeography , stratigraphy and phylogeny of conorbis , genotina and genota genera . pliocenica , 4 : 95 - 106 [ details ]\n( of genota nigeriensis vera - pel\u00e1ez , 2004 ) vera - pel\u00e1ez . 2004 . genotina genotae new species and new genus and genota nigeriensis new species of the subfamily conorbiinae ( gastropoda , turridae ) . systematic , biogeography , stratigraphy and phylogeny of conorbis , genotina and genota genera . pliocenica , 4 : 95 - 106 [ details ]\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\nappendix 2 : list of all the family and subfamily names available for the conoidea .\na new genus - level classification of the conoidea is presented , based on the molecular phylogeny of puillandre et al . in the accompanying paper . fifteen lineages are recognized and ranked as families to facilitate continuity in the treatment of the names conidae ( for \u2018cones\u2019 ) and terebridae in their traditional usage . the hitherto polyphyletic \u2018turridae\u2019 is now resolved as 13 monophyletic families , in which the 358 currently recognized genera and subgenera are placed , or tentatively allocated : conorbidae ( 2 ( sub ) genera ) , borsoniidae ( 34 ) , clathurellidae ( 21 ) , mitromorphidae ( 8 ) , mangeliidae ( 60 ) , raphitomidae ( 71 ) , cochlespiridae ( 9 ) , drilliidae ( 34 ) , pseudomelatomidae ( = crassispiridae ) ( 59 ) , clavatulidae ( 14 ) , horaiclavidae new family ( 28 ) , turridae s . s . ( 16 ) and strictispiridae ( 2 ) . a diagnosis with description of the shell and radulae is provided for each of these families .\ncomparison of the last two conoidean classifications with the new classification proposed in this article . a . taylor et al . ( 1993 ) and bouchet & rocroi ( 2005 ) . 1 elevated to familial rank by bouchet & rocroi ( 2005 ) . 2 absent in taylor et al . ( 1993 ) . b . proposed classification . c . tucker & tenorio ( 2009 ) . \u2020 fossil taxa .\ngenus - group names have been allocated to the newly defined families based on the following critera : our aim was to provide an exhaustive list of conoidean genus - group names based on recent type species or reasonably recognized as recent in the literature . genera present exclusively in the fossil record are not included . in very few cases , obviously erroneous attribution of recent species to entirely fossil genera also excluded these genera from our listing . junior homonyms and nomina nuda are also not included because they are unavailable for nomenclatural purposes . when the status of a nominal genus is uncertain , we adopted a \u2018valid until synonymized\u2019 approach ; that is , a name is regarded valid ( irrespective of our opinion ) if it has not been synonymized in literature . the names of synonyms are placed after corresponding valid names ( the synonyms applied to the valid subgenus name are positioned after the subgenus name ) . all the genus and subgenus names are also listed in alphabetic order in appendix 1 .\n( 1 ) 224 genera were assigned to a family based on shell characters , and phenetic resemblance to those genera with radula and / or molecular characters available ; those are marked 1 .\n( 2 ) 103 genera were classified on the basis of radula morphology ( both our own and published data ) , and congruence between radula and molecular characters for those genera that were sequenced ; these are marked 2 .\n( 3 ) 98 genera were classified in a family on the basis of the molecular data ; these are marked 3 .\n( 4 ) 63 genera and subgenera do not fall easily into the morphological groups resulting from the preceding steps , but they have tentatively been assigned to a family as a working hypothesis ; these genera are preceded by a question mark .\n( 5 ) 173 subgenera and / or synonyms are also listed ; subgenera are in parentheses , synonyms in square brackets .\nto illustrate the range of radular types in the molecularly defined clades , the radulae were extracted as far as possible from the specimens used for the molecular analyses or from conspecific specimens ( after rehydration when soft parts had been dried ) , cleaned with diluted bleach , rinsed in distilled water , mounted on stubs , air dried , coated with gold - palladium , and investigated with a jeol jsm 840a scanning electron microscope . some of the previously photographed radulae ( examined by yuik and / or j . d . taylor ) were additionally illustrated .\nfor radular descriptions we mostly followed the terminology accepted and discussed by kantor & taylor ( 2000 ) . in radular formulae , the parentheses indicate partial or complete fusion of lateral and rachidian teeth ( for more details , see kantor , 2006 ) .\nalthough the names conoidea and toxoglossa are used interchangeably in the taxonomic literature , we have avoided the name toxoglossa because ( i ) it is not typified and cannot be used for a family\u2013group name , and ( ii ) many of the included taxa do not have a toxoglossate radula . within the conoidea , ranking of the clades was determined by a conservative approach , thus retaining the names terebridae and conidae s . s . ( the latter including the cone snails profundiconus , californiconus , conasprella , conus and taranteconus ) in their accustomed usage at family rank . an alternative would have been to recognize only two families , conidae sensu taylor et al . ( 1993 ) and turridae ( including the turridae , terebridae , drilliidae and pseudomelatomidae ) , with the resulting inconvenience that conidae s . s . and terebridae , although monophyletic , would lose their traditional usage and the vast associated literature dealing with these names that largely ignores the taylor et al . ( 1993 ) and bouchet & rocroi ( 2005 ) classifications .\nfourteen clades of rank equivalent to conidae s . s . and terebridae are recognizable from the molecular phylogenetic tree ( puillandre et al . , 2011 ) . forty - three family\u2013group names within conoidea are nomenclaturally available ( appendix 2 ) , of which five are based on a genus with a fossiltype species ( andoniinae vera - pelaez , 2002 ; cryptoconinae cossmann , 1896 ; hemiconidae tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; johnwyattidae serna , 1979 ; siphopsinae le renard , 1995 ) . these five cannot be applied to a molecular clade and will not be used in our classification . names were applied to clades based on the position of their type genus in the tree . if more than one family\u2013group name was applicable , the valid name was determined by priority . if the type genus of a nominal family name was not sequenced , application of the name was determined by reference to the morphologically most similar genus used in the analysis .\nbecause the molecular taxon sampling is still too patchy for such levels , we have abstained from extending the classification below family level ( i . e . subfamilies , tribes ) , even when some molecular clades obviously match previously recognized \u2018subfamilies\u2019 ( e . g . californiconinae , oenopotinae , zemaciinae , zonulispirinae ) . they are all included in a family ( appendix 2 ) , without precluding their usefulness and potential taxonomic validity .\neach family ( except the conidae and terebridae , already extensively covered and illustrated in other recent works , e . g . r\u00f6ckel , korn & kohn , 1995 ; terryn , 2007 ; tucker & tenorio , 2009 ) is illustrated by one or several shells , radulae and protoconchs , covering the morphological variability of the group . as far as possible , specimens used for the molecular analyses were used for illustration . however , since a substantial part of the morphological variability was not covered by our dataset , shells and radulae of other specimens are also illustrated .\ndiagnosis : shell medium - sized to large or very large , normally 20\u201350 mm , up to 170 mm high , conical or biconical , with narrow aperture and short siphonal canal . shell with considerable internal remodelling due to inner wall resorption . spiral sculpture usually developed , axial sculpture absent or in form of shoulder tuberculation . anal sinus on subsutural ramp , shallow to moderately deep . operculum present , small , with terminal nucleus . radula of marginal hypodermic teeth , generally harpoon - shaped , barbed at tip , often with complex inner structure of folds and serration , base small and swollen , tooth canal opening ( sub ) terminally , rarely laterally . subradular membrane vestigial . teeth can be attached to the membrane by long or very long flexible ligament . tooth wall forms several overlapping layers .\nremarks : in conidae and the other families that are included in this major clade ( family conidae sensu taylor et al . , 1993 ) , the radula consists only of marginal teeth that are usually enrolled with completely overlapping edges ( hypodermic ) . teeth at their formation in the radular sac are already enrolled and they are attached to the radular membrane only by their bases , sometimes through a long flexible ligament . in the \u2018turrids\u2019 with enrolled teeth , these are attached to the membrane along most of its length ( kantor & taylor , 2000 ) . a molecular phylogeny of the conidae is currently in preparation ( c . meyer , personal communication ) .\ndiagnosis ( from tucker & tenorio , 2009 ) : \u201cradular tooth : anterior fold is usually present ; basal spur is directed toward the apex of the tooth or parallel with the tooth base ; the waist , base and c - fold are absent ; terminating cusps , serratins and accessory process are also absent . shell characters : the interior of the shell is extensively remodelled including the columellar region ; nodules are absent but cords may be present . shells can be squatly conical to elongated or biconical . \u201d\nradulae . borsoniidae . a . genota mitriformis ( wood , 1828 ) * * , mnhn im200742293 ( shell : fig . 2 m ) . b . borsonia sp . * * , mnhn im200717932 ( shell : fig . 2 d ) . c . bathytoma neocaledonica puillandre et al . , 2010 * * , mnhn im200717857 ( shell : fig . 2 e ) . d . borsoniidae gen . 1 * * , mnhn im200717911 ( shell : fig . 2 b ) . symbol : * * , sequenced specimen .\ndiagnosis : shell small to large ( 5\u201380 mm ) , fusiform to biconic , sometimes with strong to obsolete columellar pleats . sculpture usually well developed , axial ribs sometimes obsolete to absent . siphonal canal short to moderately long . anal sinus on subsutural ramp , deep . protoconch when multispiral with up to five whorls , initially smooth and then with arcuate axial riblets , when paucispiral up to two smooth whorls . operculum with terminal nucleus , fully developed to missing . radula of hypodermic marginal teeth that usually have a weakly developed solid basal part , often attached to the ligament ( marked by an arrow on fig . 3 c ) . tooth canal opening ( sub ) terminally or , sometimes , laterally . at their tip teeth can have weak to rather strong barb ( s ) ( genota , fig . 3 a ) . overlapping of the tooth edges is weak ( fig . 3 c ) . in zemacies , the radula is completely absent .\nremarks : this is a rather heterogeneous group . obviously , it is not fully resolved as it is based on molecular data and comprises rather conchologically different clades . this could be explained by the fact that many taxa of this group are among most ancient of conoideans , known since the palaeocene ( zemacies , borsonia , tomopleura ) or eocene ( bathytoma , genota , microdrillia ) . the loss of apomorphies by mutation could be more important for old taxa ( puillandre et al . , 2011 ) .\nthe names borsoniinae bellardi , 1875 , and pseudotominae bellardi , 1875 , were established simultaneously . as first revisers , under art . 24 of the iczn code , we here give precedence to the former over the latter .\nshells . a\u2013f . clathurellidae . a . nannodiella ravella ( hedley , 1922 ) * , mnhn im200742350 , philippines , panglao 2004 , st . t9 , 09\u00b033 . 5\u2032n , 123\u00b049 . 5\u2032e , 97\u2013120 m , sl 5 . 8 mm ( radula : fig . 5 a ) . b . comarmondia gracilis ( montagu , 1803 ) , mnhn , le brusc , cap sici\u00e9 , provence , france , 40\u2013100 m , sl 23 mm . c . etrema cf . tenera ( hedley , 1899 ) * * , mnhn im200717869 , philippines , panglao 2004 , st . s21 , 09\u00b041 . 7\u2032n , 123\u00b050 . 9\u2032e , 4\u201312 m , sl unknown ( broken ) . d . glyphostoma rostrata sysoev & bouchet , 2001 , mnhn , new caledonia , bathus 4 , st . dw896 , 20\u00b016\u2032s , 163\u00b052\u2032e , 315\u2013350 m , sl 21 . 5 mm . e . lienardia nigrotincta ( montrouzier , 1872 ) * , mnhn , touho , new caledonia , 20\u00b045 . 2\u2032s , 165\u00b016 . 3\u2032e , intertidal , sl 6 . 9 mm ( radula : fig . 5 b ) . f . strombinoturris crockeri hertlein & strong , 1951 , lacm 747\u201337 , off isabel island , mexico , 18\u201333 m , sl 47 . 5 mm . g\u2013i : mitromorphidae . g . lovellona atramentosa ( reeve , 1849 ) * , mnhn , philippines , panglao 2004 , st . m2 , 09\u00b032 . 8\u2032n , 123\u00b045 . 9\u2032e , 0\u20132 m , sl 9 . 0 mm ( radula : fig . 6 a ) . h . mitromorpha metula ( hinds , 1843 ) * , mnhn im200742339 , philippines , panglao 2004 , st . b8 , 09\u00b037 . 1\u2032n , 123\u00b046 . 1\u2032e , 3 m , sl 3 . 1 mm ( radula : fig . 6 b ) . i . anarithma sp . * , mnhn , philippines , panglao 2004 , st . s5 , 09\u00b037 . 1\u2032n , 123\u00b046 . 1\u2032e , 2\u20134 m , sl 6 . 9 mm ( radula : fig . 6 c ) . abbreviation and symbols : sl , shell length ; * , sequenced species ; * * , sequenced specimen . photo credits : b . buge ( c ) , m . g . harasewych and d . tippett ( f ) , p . maestrati ( d , e ) .\nradulae . clathurellidae . a . nannodiella ravella ( hedley , 1922 ) * , mnhn im200742350 ( shell : fig . 4 a ) . b . lienardia nigrotincta ( montrouzier , 1872 ) * , mnhn ( shell : fig . 4 e ) . c . lienardia jousseaumei ( hervier , 1896 ) , mnhn , philippines , panglao 2004 , st . b7 , 9\u00b035 . 9\u2032n , 123\u00b051 . 8\u2032e , 4\u201330 m . symbol : * , sequenced species .\nradulae . mitromorphidae . a . lovellona atramentosa ( reeve , 1849 ) * , mnhn ( shell : fig . 4 g ) . b . mitromorpha metula ( hinds , 1843 ) , mnhn im200742339 ( shell : fig . 4 h ) . c . anarithma sp . * , mnhn ( shell : fig . 4 i ) . symbol : * , sequenced species .\ndiagnosis : shell small - to medium - sized , 3\u201330 mm , usually 5\u201310 mm high , biconic , of mitriform shape . sculpture rather smooth , with dominant spiral elements . aperture narrow , with or without 1\u20133 columellar pleats , sometimes with denticles within . siphonal canal short or indistinct . anal sinus from indistinct to rather shallow indentation on weakly pronounced subsutural ramp . protoconch multispiral or paucispiral , up to 4 . 5 smooth whorls . no operculum . radula of hypodermic , marginal , relatively short , awl - shaped teeth with large swollen solid basal part ( fig . 6 ) . distinct ligaments present , short . tooth canal opening subterminally or laterally . at their tip , teeth can have a weak barb ( fig . 6 c ) .\nremarks : mitrolumninae was established as a substitute name for diptychomitrinae . mitromorphidae and mitrolumninae were published the same year but mitromorphidae ( 19 may 1904 ) has priority over mitrolumninae ( 31 august 1904 ) .\nradulae . mangeliidae . a . benthomangelia trophonoidea ( schepman , 1913 ) , mnhn im200717835 ( shell : fig . 7 c ) . b . toxicochlespira pagoda sysoev & kantor , 1990 * * , mnhn im200717925 ( shell : fig . 7 o ) . c . mangeliinae gen . 2 . mnhn im200910331 , philippines , panglao 2004 , st . s26 , 9\u00b041 . 50\u2032n , 123\u00b051 . 00\u2032e , 21 m , sl unknown ( broken ) . d . eucithara cf . coronata ( hinds , 1843 ) * * , mnhn im200717900 ( shell : fig . 7 f ) . e . anticlinura sp . * * , mnhn im200742513 ( shell : fig . 7 e ) . f . mangeliidae gen . sp . , mnhn , philippines , panglao 2004 , st . t26 , 9\u00b043 . 3\u2032n , 123\u00b048 . 8\u2032e , 123\u2013135 m . g . mangelia powisiana ( dautzenberg , 1887 ) . plymouth , england , after taylor et al . ( 1993 ) . symbol : * * , sequenced specimen .\nradulae . raphitomidae . a . buccinaria pendula bouchet & sysoev , 1997 , mnhn , new caledonia , bathus 4 , st . cp948 , 20\u00b033\u2032s , 164\u00b057\u2032e , 533\u2013610 m . b . daphnella pulvisculus chino , 2006 , mnhn , new caledonia , bathus 4 , st . dw927 , 18\u00b056\u2032s , 163\u00b022\u2032e , 444\u2013452 m . c . gymnobela yoshidai kuroda & habe in habe , 1962 , mnhn , norfolk ridge , norfolk 2 , st . dw2058 , 24\u00b040\u2032s , 168\u00b040\u2032e , 591\u20131032 m . d . kermia irretita ( hedley , 1899 ) , mnhn , new caledonia , lifou 2000 , st . 1419 , 20\u00b055 . 6\u2032s , 167\u00b004 . 5\u2032e , 0\u20135 m . e . daphnella cladara sysoev & bouchet , 2001 , mnhn , norfolk ridge , lithist , st . cp09 , 24\u00b053\u2032s , 168\u00b022\u2032e , 518\u2013540 m . f . daphnella mitrellaformis ( nomura , 1940 ) , mnhn , new caledonia , lifou 2000 , st . dw1649 , 20\u00b054\u2032s , 167\u00b001\u2032e , 150\u2013200 m . g . miowateria sp . , mnhn , fidji , musorstom 10 , st . cp1354 , 17\u00b043\u2032s , 178\u00b055\u2032e , 959\u2013963 m . h . spergo fusiformis ( kuroda & habe in habe , 1962 ) , mnhn , tongatapu , tonga , bordau 2 , st . cp1566 , 21\u00b002\u2032s , 175\u00b018\u2032w , 530\u2013531 m .\nremarks : this is the largest and most variable taxon in the conoidea , as concerns the number of species , with the largest vertical range ( intertidal to hadal depths ) .\nradulae . cochlespiridae . a . cochlespira radiata ( dall , 1889 ) , mnhn , se brazil , after kantor & taylor , 2000 . b\u2013c . sibogasyrinx sp . * * , mnhn im200717701 ( shell : fig . 11 b ) . symbol : * * , sequenced specimen .\ndiagnosis : shell of moderate size , about 20\u201330 mm , up to 100 mm high , high - pagodiform to fusiform , with a tall spire and usually a long siphonal canal . axial sculpture poorly developed or absent , subsutural ramp usually smooth . anal sinus deep , on subsutural ramp . protoconch paucispiral , smooth . operculum with terminal nucleus . radula 1\u20130 - r - 0\u20131 . rachidian broad , subrectangular or arched , with a single rather large cusp ( fig . 12 ) , rarely absent ( some aforia ) . marginal teeth duplex , with well developed accessory limb .\nremarks : this is a clade with poor congruence between molecular and shell characters . the contents of most genera need revision and the family limits remain uncertain .\nsibogasyrinx was proposed as a subgenus of leucosyrinx for two species characterized by a low position of the peripheral angle . during our examination of radulae of species provisionally attributed to leucosyrinx , two distinct radulae types were found , differing in the presence of the rachidian , without apparent congruence with shell morphology . in sibogasyrinx pyramidalis , the type species of sibogasyrinx , as well as in the sequenced specimen ( fig . 11 b ) , the radula is characterized by the presence of a well - developed rachidian . although the sequenced specimen is conchologically closer to typical leucosyrinx , the molecular sequence suggests affinities to cochlespira .\nradulae . drilliidae . a\u2013b . splendrillia sp . * * , mnhn im200717847 ( shell : fig . 11 l ) . c . clavus exasperatus ( reeve , 1843 ) , mnhn , new caledonia , lifou 2000 , st . 1420 , 20\u00b047 . 7\u2032s , 167\u00b009 . 35\u2032e , 4\u20135 m . d . imaclava pilsbryi ( bartsch , 1950 ) , after kantor & taylor , 2000 . e . cruziturricula arcuata ( reeve , 1843 ) * * , nhmuk moea 20100541 , gulf of panama , jtd - 00\u201334 , 08\u00b026 . 24\u2032n , 79\u00b009 . 14\u2032w , 66\u201368 m ( shell : fig . 11 i ) . symbol : * * , sequenced specimen .\ndiagnosis : shell small - to medium - sized , usually 15\u201325 mm , up to 50 mm high , with a rather high spire and usually truncated base . spiral sculpture often obsolete . anal sinus on subsutural ramp , deep , ( sub ) symmetrical , sometimes tubular . protoconch usually paucispiral ( up to two whorls ) , smooth or abapically carinate . operculum with terminal nucleus . radular formula 1 - 1 - r - 1 - 1 , rarely 1 - 1 - 0 - 1 - 1 , central tooth small , from narrow unicuspid ( fig . 13 b ) to subrectangular with additional cusps ( fig . 13 c ) , rarely reduced to completely absent . lateral teeth broad , pectinate , and arched , marginal teeth from simple flat and sharply pointed ( fig . 13 a ) to duplex with slightly thickened edges and to loosely enrolled with the small barb near the tip ( imaclava , fig . 13 d ) .\nradulae . pseudomelatomidae . a . tiariturris spectabilis berry , 1958 * * , nhmuk moea 20100540 , gulf of panama , jtd - 00 - 34 , 08\u00b026 . 24\u2032n , 79 09 . 14\u2032w , 66\u201368 m ( shell : fig . 14 q ) . b . comitas onokeana vivens dell , 1956 , mnhn , new caledonia , montrouzier , st . 1269 , after kantor & taylor ( 2000 ) . c , d . comitas sp . * * , mnhn im200717918 ( shell : fig . 14 a ) . e , f . crassiclava turricula ( sowerby , 1834 ) , off nacascola , west side of bahia culebra , costa rica , after kantor et al . ( 1997 ) . symbol : * * , sequenced specimen .\nradulae . pseudomelatomidae . a . leucosyrinx sp . * * , mnhn im200717846 ( shell : fig . 14 g ) . b . zonulispira sp . * * , nhmuk moea 20100536 , gulf of panama , jtd - 00 - 18 , 08\u00b019 . 50\u2032n , 78\u00b047 . 71\u2032w , 25\u201332 m ( shell : fig . 14 v ) . c . carinodrillia dichroa pilsbry & lowe , 1932 * * , nhmuk moea 20100530 , gulf of panama , jtd - 00 - 18 , 08\u00b019 . 50\u2032n , 78\u00b047 . 71\u2032w , 25\u201332 m ( shell : fig . 1 j ) . d . ptychobela suturalis ( gray , 1838 ) * * , det . j . a . todd , yk , nhmuk moea 20100560 , off southern hong kong , sta . 71 . e . cheungbeia robusta ( hinds , 1839 ) * , nhmuk moea 20100557 , coll . b . morton , off southern hong kong , sta . 70 ( shell : fig . 14 k ) . f . inquisitor sp . * * , mnhn im200717851 ( shell : fig . 14 e ) . symbols : * , sequenced species ; * * , sequenced specimen .\ndiagnosis : shell small to rather large , 15\u2013100 mm high , claviform to fusiform . spiral and axial sculpture generally well developed , often strong . subsutural fold often present . anal sinus on subsutural ramp , usually moderately deep to very deep , often constrained by callus rendering anal sinus subtubular . protoconch usually paucispiral , sometimes multispiral , with up to three whorls , smooth or sometimes axially or spirally sculptured on later whorls . operculum with terminal nucleus .\n1 - ( 1 - r - 1 ) - 1 \u2013 comitas type ( includes also knefastia and antiplanes ) . the central formation is rather variable in degree of development of the rachidian tooth and fusion of three teeth . in some comitas ( fig . 15 c , d ) , the central formation looks like single well - defined tooth [ as in comitas murrawolga ( garrard , 1961 ) ] , while in comitas onokeana vivens dell , 1956 , knefastia and antiplanes , the rachidian is totally reduced and the formation appears as two poorly developed paired plates ( reduced laterals ) ( fig . 15 b ) . marginal teeth in comitas and knefastia flat , broadly oval , with thickened edges and teeth tips and without pronounced accessory limb . in antiplanes marginal teeth narrowly elongate , with well - developed accessory limb .\n1 - 1 - 0 - 1 - 1 \u2013 crassiclava type . differs from the comitas type by the better defined laterals ( fig . 15 e , f ) that are low , arcuate and sharply curved towards the midline of the ribbon .\n1 - 0 - r - 0 - 1 \u2013 pseudomelatoma type ( also includes hormospira and tiariturris , fig . 15 a ) . rachidian with strong cusp and subrectangular base ( contrary to the other types with a central formation formed by fused lateral and rachidian ) . despite neither ontogeny nor folding of the radula have been examined , we tentatively treat this structure as a true rachidian . marginal teeth simple , solid and strongly curved , attached to the membrane by rather a narrow base and free along most of their length .\n1 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 1 \u2013 most genera of the family . marginal teeth elongated , narrow , flat , with thickened edge ( e . g . funa , carinodrillia , fig . 16 c ) , or trough - shaped in transverse section , sometimes with small barb near the tip ( cheungbeia , fig . 16 e ) , which may become semi - enrolled ( e . g . pyrgospira , pilsbryspira , zonulispira , fig . 16 b ) , to nearly hollow , where limbs overlap at significant length of the teeth ( ptychobela , fig . 16 d ) .\nremarks : anatomically , pseudomelatomidae is the most variable family of conoidea . most genera were formerly included in the subfamily crassispirinae , but the nomenclaturally valid name for this clade is pseudomelatomidae . its constituents includes several taxa that were previously recognized as separate ( sub ) families : zonulispirinae , characterized by semi - enrolled marginal radular teeth ( a character found in several branches of the clade ) , and pseudomelatominae , defined on the basis of the very characteristic solid marginal teeth and strongly developed rachidian .\nthe genus leucosyrinx has long been a convenient genus for placement of turreted - fusiform species , mostly from deep water of the atlantic and indo - pacific . currently , it is a mixture of species of probably different taxonomic position , and the membership of the genus needs revision . the type species from the northern atlantic , leucosyrinx verrilli ( dall , 1881 ) , has a radula consisting of only duplex , rather robust marginal teeth ( powell , 1966 : text fig . b12 ) , a radula type also found by us in indo - pacific species ( fig . 16 a ) . a second type of radula is found in sibogasyrinx , originally described as a subgenus of leucosyrinx , and which clusters in the molecular tree with the cochlespiridae ( see under that family ) . in our study , true leucosyrinx appears to be sister to the pseudomelatomidae , but this relationship has poor support . as a working hypothesis , we tentatively include leucosyrinx in the pseudomelatomidae . clavatulidae gray , 1853\nradulae . clavatulidae . a , b . turricula nelliae ( e . a . smith , 1877 ) * * , nhmuk moea 20100551 , danang , vietnam . c . pusionella compacta strebel , 1914 * * , mnhn im200717830 ( shell : fig . 17 b ) . d . toxiclionella tumida ( sowerby , 1870 ) , south africa , after kantor & taylor ( 2000 ) . e . clavatula xanteni nolf & verstraeten , 2006 * * , mnhn im200717829 ( shell : fig . 17 c ) . f . gemmuloborsonia colorata ( sysoev & bouchet , 2001 ) * * , mnhn im200717849 ( shell : fig . 17 a ) . symbol : * * , sequenced specimen . arrow , see text .\nremarks : the genus gemmuloborsonia represents a sister group to the ( clavatulidae + horaiclavidae ) clade , but this node is not well supported . because it resembles much more the clavatulidae than the horaiclavidae in terms of shell and radular characters ( fig . 18 f ) , gemmuloborsonia is provisionally included in the former family . if further studies support that hypothesis , then the diagnosis of the clavatulidae should be amended to account for the presence of weak columellar pleats and multispiral turridae - type protoconch present in gemmuloborsonia . horaiclavidae new family\nradulae . horaiclavidae . a . paradrillia sp . * * , mnhn im200742475 ( shell : fig . 17 n ) . b . inkinga sp . , mnhn ( shell : fig . 17 j ) . c . ceritoturris pupiformis ( e . a . smith , 1884 ) * * , mnhn im200717888 ( shell : fig . 17 i ) . d . horaiclavus splendidus ( a . adams , 1867 ) * * , mnhn im200717840 ( shell : fig . 17 h ) . symbol : * * , sequenced specimen . arrows , see text .\nremarks : this family shares many characters with pseudomelatomidae , conchologically differing by a small stout shell with short siphonal canal and usually poorly developed spiral sculpture .\nradulae also are rather similar to many representatives of pseudomelatomidae and no clear cut distinctions were found . genera currently included in horaiclavidae have been usually included in the crassispiridae ( = pseudomelatomidae ) , and the clear molecular - based division between the two clades seems to be not so clearly reflected in shell - based distinction . therefore , the generic composition of the family is somewhat provisional and needs confirmation by further molecular data and / or a detailed analysis of conchological and radular characters .\nshells . turridae . a . xenuroturris legitima iredale , 1929 * * , mnhn im200717684 , vanuatu , santo 2006 , st . dr087 , 15\u00b038 . 5\u2032s , 167\u00b015 . 1\u2032e , 13 m , sl 57 . 0 mm ( radula : fig . 21 c ) . b . iotyrris cingulifera ( lamarck , 1822 ) * * , mnhn im200717685 , vanuatu , santo 2006 , st . fs84 , 15\u00b033 . 6\u2032s , 167\u00b016 . 6\u2032e , 8\u20139 m , sl 15 . 5 mm ( radula : fig . 21 d ) . c . decollidrillia nigra habe & ito , 1965 , zmmu uncatalogued , southern kurile islands , sl 12 . 8 mm . d . lophiotoma acuta ( perry , 1811 ) * * , mnhn im200717860 , philippines , panglao 2004 , st . r44 , 09\u00b033 . 3\u2032n , 123\u00b043 . 9\u2032e , 2 m , sl 44 . 0 mm . e . turridrupa acutigemmata ( e . a . smith , 1877 ) , new caledonia , 46 m , sl 26 . 5 mm . f . turris babylonia ( linnaeus , 1758 ) * * , mnhn im200717754 , philippines , panglao 2004 , st . r42 , 09\u00b037 . 1\u2032n , 123\u00b052 . 6\u2032e , 8\u201322 m , sl 79 . 4 mm . g . gemmula rarimaculata ( kuroda & oyama , 1971 ) * * , mnhn im200717838 , coral sea , ebisco , st . dw2533 , 22\u00b018\u2032s , 159\u00b028\u2032e , 360\u2013370 m , sl 13 . 7 mm . h . ptychosyrinx chilensis berry , 1968 , usnm 870005 , s of coquimbo , chile , 31 . 1\u00b0 s , 71 . 8\u00b0 w , 179\u2013187 m , sl 21 . 1 mm . i . lucerapex cf . casearia ( hedley & petterd , 1906 ) * * , mnhn im200742448 , philippines , panglao 2005 , st . cp2363 , 09\u00b006 . 0\u2032n , 123\u00b025 . 0\u2032e , 437\u2013439 m , sl 21 . 0 mm ( radula : fig . 21 e ) . j . cryptogemma corneus ( okutani , 1966 ) , zin 58809 / 1 , off shikotan i . , kurile islands , 1450\u20131530 m , 12 . 3 mm . abbreviation and symbol : sl , shell length ; * * , sequenced specimen .\nradulae . turridae . a . turridrupa cf . armillata ( reeve , 1845 ) , mnhn im200740773 , coral sea , ebisco , st . dw2607 , 19\u00b033\u2032s , 158\u00b040\u2032e , 400\u2013413 m . b . gemmula kieneri ( doumet , 1840 ) , mnhn , vanuatu , musorstom 8 , st . cp1123 , 15\u00b007\u2032s , 166\u00b055\u2032e , 262\u2013352 m . c . xenuroturris legitima iredale , 1929 , mnhn im200717684 ( shell : fig . 20 a ) . d . iotyrris cingulifera ( lamarck , 1822 ) * * , mnhn im200717685 ( shell : fig . 20 b ) . e . lucerapex cf . casearia ( hedley & petterd , 1906 ) * * , mnhn im200742448 ( shell : fig . 20 i ) . f . turris crispa ( lamarck , 1816 ) , mnhn , ile ouen - baie du prony , st . 80 , 22\u00b031s , 166\u00b028e , 33 m , ss 39 mm . symbols : * * , sequenced specimen .\nremarks : this group is well defined by its usually narrowly fusiform shell with obsolete axial sculpture and peripheral anal sinus . however , the genus lucerapex , although fully conforming conchologically , occupies a position on the tree ( sister group to turridae + terebridae ) that excludes it from the turridae . it is nevertheless tentatively included here in turridae .\nradulae . a , b . strictispiridae . strictispira paxillus ( reeve , 1845 ) , british virgina islands , ansp . a . teeth detached from the membrane and showing the large median flange . b . two teeth , showing the large median flange attached to the membrane . photo submit : j . d . taylor ( a . b ) . c . conorbidae . benthofascis lozoueti sysoev & bouchet , 2001 , mnhn im200742331 ( shell : fig . 2 o ) .\ndiagnosis : shell medium - sized , to 20 mm , claviform . spiral and axial sculpture well developed , shoulder with a marked subsutural fold . anal sinus deep , laterally directed . parietal callus well developed . protoconch paucispiral in all species examined , smooth . operculum leaf - shaped , with terminal nucleus . radula consisting of a pair of solid awl - shaped marginal teeth that have a prominent flange , located above the base of the tooth and firmly attached to the radular membrane .\nremarks : we did not obtain any material of strictispiridae for molecular analysis and the position of the family group remains unclear . the shell resembles that of pseudomelatomidae and the shape of the radular marginal teeth is also somewhat similar to pseudomelatoma , hormospira and tiariturris , but it differs in the absence of the rachidian . among the examined species of strictispira , s . paxillus is characterised by rather unusual characters , such as the absence of the venom gland together with very large and powerful odontophore ( kantor & taylor , 1994 ) . until molecular data are available , we conservatively treat this family as valid , following taylor et al . ( 1993 ) .\ndiagnosis : shell medium - sized to large , 8\u2013270 mm , usually 30\u2013100 mm high , auger - shaped , with high to very high multiwhorled spire and flattened shell profile , aperture relatively small . siphonal canal short , anal sinus not pronounced . protoconch with up to 5 smooth whorls when multispiral . radular formula 1\u20130 - 0 - 0 - 1 but radular apparatus absent in many species . marginal teeth range from solid and curved to hypodermic , with or without small barb at the tip . hypodermic teeth without solid bases . in some species ( e . g . impages hectica ) the walls of the teeth are penetrated by numerous holes .\nthe authors thank b . a . marshall , m . g . harasewych , r . n . kilburn , m . j . tenorio , j . k . tucker and d . tippett for constructive comments and help in completing the lists of genera and subgenera . a . e . fedosov , j . d . taylor , j . mclean , m . g . harasewych and d . l . tippett supplied shell and radula pictures . j . a . todd provided specimens for dissection and photography . barbara buge curated and photographed the voucher specimens in mnhn .\nturridae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of southern africa and mozambique . part 1 . subfamily turrinae\nturridae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of southern africa and mozambique . part 2 . subfamily clavatulinae\nturridae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of southern africa and mozambique . part 3 . subfamily borsoniinae\nturridae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of southern africa and mozambique . part 4 . subfamily drilliinae , crassispirinae and strictispirinae\nturridae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of southern africa and mozambique . part 5 . subfamily taraninae\nturridae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of southern africa and mozambique . part 6 . subfamily mangeliinae , section 1\nturridae ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of southern africa and mozambique . part 6 . subfamily mangeliinae , section 2\nturridae [ s . l . ] ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of southern africa and mozambique . part 7 . subfamily crassispirinae , section 2\nturridae ( s . l . ) of southern africa and mozambique ( mollusca : gastropoda : conoidea ) part 8 . conidae : subfamily mangeliinae , section 3\nthe new zealand recent and fossil mollusca of the family turridae . with general notes on turrid nomenclature and systematics\nthe molluscan families speightiidae and turridae . an evaluation of the valid taxa , both recent and fossil , with lists of characteristic species\n( see bouchet and rocroi , 2005 for details ) . the status of names including only fossil genera is not discussed\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\nmolluscabase ( 2018 ) . conorbidae de gregorio , 1880 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 153962 on 2018 - 07 - 09\nbouchet , p . ; kantor , y . i . ; sysoev , a . ; puillandre , n . ( 2011 ) . a new operational classification of the conoidea ( gastropoda ) . journal of molluscan studies . 77 ( 3 ) : 273 - 308 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nbouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . [ details ]\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\n( of conorbis adamii bozzetti , 1994 ) bozzetti , l . 1994 . nuova specie dalle filippine . world shells 9 : 60 - 62 , 4 figs . [ english title also given as\na new species from philippines\n; serial also referred to as : mondo di conchiglie . ] [ details ]\nknudsen , j . ( 1952 ) marine prosobranchs of tropical west africa collected by the atlantide expedition , 1945\u201346 . videnskabelige meddelelser fra dansk naturhistorisk forening i kjobenhavn , 114 , 129\u2013185 , 3 pls . page ( s ) : 176 , pl . 1 fig . 12 [ details ]\n( of genota marchandi pin , 1996 ) pin , m . ( 1996 ) . il genere genota h . & a . adams 1853 ( conacea : turridae ) delle coste occidentali africane , con descrizione di genota marchandi n . sp . la conchiglia . 28 ( 279 ) , 53 - 56 . [ details ]\nryall p . , horro j . & rol\u00e1n e . 2013 . a revision of the genus genota h . & a . adams , 1853 ( gastropoda : conoidea : borsonidae ) from west africa . iberus , 31 ( 2 ) : 1 - 17 . [ details ]\ngofas , s . ; afonso , j . p . ; brand\u00e0o , m . ( ed . ) . ( s . a . ) . conchas e moluscos de angola = coquillages et mollusques d ' angola . [ shells and molluscs of angola ] . universidade agostinho / elf aquitaine angola : angola . 140 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of genota marchandi pin , 1996 ) ryall p . , horro j . & rol\u00e1n e . 2013 . a revision of the genus genota h . & a . adams , 1853 ( gastropoda : conoidea : borsonidae ) from west africa . iberus , 31 ( 2 ) : 1 - 17 . [ details ]\n( of genota marchadi [ sic ] ) ardovini , r . ; cossignani , t . ( 2004 ) . west african seashells ( including azores , madeira and canary is . ) = conchiglie dell ' africa occidentale ( incluse azzorre , madeira e canarie ) . english - italian edition . l ' informatore piceno : ancona , italy . isbn 88 - 86070 - 11 - x . 319 pp . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 37 , fig . 222 [ details ]\n( of genota nigeriensis vera - pel\u00e1ez , 2004 ) ryall p . , horro j . & rol\u00e1n e . 2013 . a revision of the genus genota h . & a . adams , 1853 ( gastropoda : conoidea : borsonidae ) from west africa . iberus , 31 ( 2 ) : 1 - 17 . [ details ]\nbouchet , p . ; fontaine , b . ( 2009 ) . list of new marine species described between 2002 - 2006 . census of marine life . [ details ]\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nbouchet , p . ; fontaine , b . ( 2009 ) . list of new marine species described between 2002 - 2006 . census of marine life .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\ntraditionally , all cone shells have been included in the linnean genus conus . tucker & tenorio ( 2009 ) have recently proposed an alternative shell - and radula - based classification that recognizes 4 families and 80 genera of cones . in worms , we currently still recognize a single family conidae ( following puillandre et al . 2011 ) , but tucker & tenorio ' s 80 genera classification is presented as\nalternative representation\n. [ p . bouchet , 14 aug . 2011 ]\nconidae ( also see coninae ) is a taxonomic grouping of predatory sea snails , marine gastropod molluscs in the superfamily conoidea . some classifications of the cone snails , including the 2014 classification , group only cone snails in the family conidae . other classifications have previously grouped the cone snails in a subfamily of this family , the coninae .\nuntil 1993 , with the taxonomic changes proposed by taylor , et al . ,\ntaxonomic changes as of 2009 and 2011 , based upon molecular phylogeny ( see below ) , have elevated the subfamilies which were previously in the family turridae to the status of families in their own right , leaving the family conidae once again containing the species which were traditionally placed in that family .\nthe family conidae currently ( march 2015 ) contains over 800 recognized species , while linnaeus knew only 30 valid species .\nconinae fleming , 1822 \u2014 synonyms : conulinae rafinesque , 1815 ( inv . ) ; textiliinae da motta , 1995 ( n . a . )\nclathurellinae h . adams & a . adams , 1858 \u2014 synonyms : defranciinae gray , 1853 ( inv . ) ; borsoniinae a . bellardi , 1875 ; pseudotominae a . bellardi , 1888 ; diptychomitrinae l . bellardi , 1888 ; mitrolumnidae sacco , 1904 ; mitromorphinae casey , 1904 ; lorinae thiele , 1925 sensu opinion 666\nraphitominae a . bellardi , 1875 \u2014 synonyms : daphnellinae casey , 1904 ; taraninae casey , 1904 ; thatcheriidae powell , 1942 ; pleurotomellinae f . nordsieck , 1968 ; andoniinae vera - pelaez , 2002\nin 2009 john k . tucker and manuel j . tenorio proposed a classification system for the cone shells and their allies ( which resorb their inner walls during growth ) was based upon a\n( which are a distinct large and diverse group ) from the cone snails , and creates a number of new families .\nin 2011 bouchet et al . proposed a new classification in which several subfamilies have been raised to the rank of family :\nbased on mitochondrial dna and nuclear dna testing , and builds on the prior work by j . k . tucker & m . j . tenorio ( 2009 ) , but does not include fossil taxa .\nrecognized extant genera within the cone snails as per j . k . tucker & m . j . tenorio ( 2009 ) , and bouchet et al . ( 2011 ) , include : .\nand the genera recognized by tucker & tenorio 2009 are considered to be\nalternate representations\n.\n. using 329 species , the authors carried out molecular phylogenetic analyses . the results suggested that the authors should place all cone snails in a single family , conidae , containing four genera :\nfollowing taylor et al . in 1993 , and prior to 2011 a large number of diverse genera were included within the family conidae , however as a result of molecular phylogeny studies in 2011 many of these genera which were in the family conidae ( commonly known as turrids ) have been moved back to the turridae or placed in new families within the superfamily conoidea . the following list of genera is maintained for historical reasons :\nthere are around 30 records of humans killed by a cone snail . human victims suffer little pain , because the venom contains an analgesic component . some species can kill a human in under 5 minutes , from where the name\ncigarette snail\nas one only has time to smoke a cigarette before dying . the molluscs can attack if provoked and can sting through a wetsuit with their harpoon , which resembles a transparent needle .\nnormally cone snails ( and many species in the superfamily conoidea ) use the venom to immobilize prey . it consists of a mixture of peptides , called conopeptides . their venom is made up of 10 to 30 amino acids , but occasionally as many as 60 . the venom of each cone snail species may contain as many as 200 pharmacologically active components . it is estimated that more than 50 , 000 conopeptides can be found because every species of cone snail is thought to produce its own specific venom .\ncone snail venom , in more recent years , has come to interest biotechnologists and pharmacists because of its potential medicinal properties . production of synthetic conopeptides has started , using solid - phase peptide synthesis .\nw - conopeptide , from the species conus magus is the basis of the analgesic drug prialt , an approved treatment for pain said to be 1000 times as powerful as morphine and used as a last resort in specific application . conopeptides are also being looked at as anti - epileptic agents and to help stop nerve - cell death after a stroke or head injury . conopeptides also have potential in helping against spasms due to spinal cord injuries , and may be helpful in diagnosing and treating small cell carcinomas in the lung .\nfleming j . ( june 1822 ) . the philosophy of zoology , a general view of the structure , functions and classification of animals 2 . constable & co . , edinburgh , 618 pp . , conidae is on the page 490 .\npiper r . ( 2007 ) . extraordinary animals : an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals , greenwood press .\ntaylor j . d . , kantor y . i . & sysoev a . v . ( 1993 ) .\nforegut anatomy , feeding mechanisms , relationships and classification of conoidea ( toxoglossa ) ( gastropoda )\n. bull . nat . hist . mus . ( zool . ) 59 : 125\u2013169 .\nbouchet p . , rocroi j . - p . , fr\u00fdda j . , hausdorf b . , ponder w . , vald\u00e9s \u00e1 . & war\u00e9n a . ( 2005 ) .\nclassification and nomenclator of gastropod families\n. malacologia : international journal of malacology ( hackenheim , germany : conchbooks ) 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1\u2013397 . isbn 3925919724 . issn 0076 - 2997 .\ntucker j . k . & tenorio m . j . ( 2009 ) systematic classification of recent and fossil conoidean gastropods . hackenheim : conchbooks . 296 pp . , at p . 133\np . k . bandyopadhyay , b . j . stevenson , j . p . ownby , m . t . cady , m . watkins , & b . olivera ( 2008 ) , the mitochondrial genome of conus textile , coxi - conii intergenic sequences and conoidean evolution . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 46 : 215 - 223 .\ns . t . williams & t . f . duda , jr . ( 2008 ) , did tectonic activity stimulate oligo - miocene speciation in the indo - west pacific ? evolution 62 : 1618 - 1634 .\nr . l . cunha , r . castilho , l . ruber , & r . zardoya ( 2005 ) , patterns of cladogenesis in the venomous marine gastropod genus conus from the cape verde islands systematic biology 54 ( 4 ) : 634 - 650 .\nt . f . duda , jr . & a . j . kohn ( 2005 ) , species - level phylogeography and evolutionary history of the hyperdiverse marine gastropod genus conus , molecular phylogenetics and evolution 34 : 257 - 272 .\nt . f . duda , jr . & e . rolan ( 2005 ) , explosive radiation of cape verde conus , a marine species flock , molecular ecology 14 : 267 - 272 .\nb . vallejo , jr . ( 2005 ) , inferring the mode of speciation in the indo - west pacific conus ( gastropoda : conidae ) , journal of biogeography 32 : 1429 - 1439 .\nn . puillandre , s . samadi , m . boesselier , a . sysoev , y . kantor , c . cruaud , a . couloux , & p . bouchett ( 2008 ) , starting to unravel the toxoglossan knot : molecular phylogeny of the\nturrid\n( neogastropoda : conoidea ) , molecular phylogenetics and evolution 47 : 1122 - 1134 .\nbouchet p . , kantor yu . i . , sysoev a . & puillandre n . ( 2011 ) .\na new operational classification of the conoidea\n. journal of molluscan studies 77 : 273 - 308 . doi : 10 . 1093 / mollus / eyr017 .\ntucker , j . k . & stahlschmidt , p . ( 2010 ) a second species of pseudoconorbis ( gastropoda : conoidea ) from india . miscellanea malacologica 4 ( 3 ) : 31 - 34 .\nwatkins , m . , corneli , p . s . , hillyard , d . , & olivera , b . m . ( 2010 ) molecular phylogeny of conus chiangi ( azuma , 1972 ) ( gastropods : conidae ) . the nautilus 124 ( 3 ) : 129 - 136 .\ntucker , j . k . , tenorio , m . j . & stahlschmidt , p . ( 2011 ) the genus benthofascis ( gastropoda : conoidea ) : a revision with descriptions of new species . zootaxa 2796 : 1 - 14 .\ntucker , j . k . & tenorio , m . j . ( 2011 ) new species of gradiconus and kohniconus from the western atlantic ( gastropoda : conoidea : conidae , conilithidae ) . miscellanea malacologica 5 ( 1 ) : 1 - 16 .\npetuch , e . j . & sargent , d . m . ( 2011 ) new species of conidae and conilithidae ( gastropoda ) from the tropical americas and philippines . with notes on some poorly - known floridian species . visaya 3 ( 3 ) : 116 - 137 .\npetuch & drolshage ( 2011 ) compendium of florida fossil shells , volume 1 mdm publications , wellington , florida , 432 pp .\nurltoken classification : traditionally , all cone shells have been included in the linnean genus conus . tucker & tenorio ( 2009 ) have recently proposed an alternative shell - and radula - based classification that recognizes 4 families and 80 genera of cones . in worms , we currently still recognize a single family conidae ( following puillandre et al . 2011 ) , but tucker & tenorio ' s 80 genera classification is presented as\nalternative representation\n. [ p . bouchet , 14 aug . 2011 ]\nn . puillandre , e . strong , p . bouchet , m . boisselier , v . couloux , & s . samadi ( 2009 ) ,\nidentifying gastropod spawn from dna barcodes : possible but not yet practicable\n, molecular ecology resources 9 : 1311 - 1321 .\ntucker j . k . & tenorio m . j . ( 2009 ) , systematic classification of recent and fossil conoidean gastropods , conchbooks , hankenheim , germany , 295 pp .\nbiggs , j . s . , watkins , m . showers corneli , p . and olivera , b . m . ( 2010 ) . defining a clade by morphological , molecular , and toxinological criteria : distinctive forms related to conus praecellens a . adams , 1854 ( gastropoda : conidae ) . nautilus 124 : 1 - 19 ( naming new species and moving species from kurodaconus to turriconus ) .\nnature 429 , 798 - 799 ( 24 june 2004 ) doi : 10 . 1038 / 429798a\nbecker s . & terlau h . ( 2008 ) .\ntoxins from cone snails : properties , applications and biotechnological production .\napplied microbiology and biotechnology 79 ( 1 ) : 1 - 9 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s00253 - 008 - 1385 - 6 .\nkaas , quentin ; yu rilei ; jin ai - hua ; dutertre s\u00e9bastien ; craik david j ( jan 2012 ) .\nconoserver : updated content , knowledge , and discovery tools in the conopeptide database\n. nucleic acids res . ( england ) 40 ( database issue ) : d325\u201330 . doi : 10 . 1093 / nar / gkr886 . pmc 3245185 . pmid 22058133 .\nkohn a . a . ( 1992 ) . chronological taxonomy of conus , 1758 - 1840\n. smithsonian institution press , washington and london .\nmonteiro a . ( ed . ) ( 2007 ) . the cone collector 1 : 1 - 28 .\ntaylor , j . d . , kantor yu . i . & sysoev a . v . ( 1993 ) .\nforegut anatomy , feeding mechanisms , relationships and classification of conoidea ( toxoglossa ) ( gastropoda )\n. bull . nat . hist . mus . ( zool . ) 59 : 125 - 169 .\nberschauer d . ( 2010 ) . technology and the fall of the mono - generic family the cone collector 15 : pp . 51\u201354\npuillandre n . , meyer c . p . , bouchet p . , and olivera b . m . ( 2011 ) , genetic divergence and geographical variation in the deep - water conus orbignyi complex ( mollusca : conoidea ) , zoologica scripta 40 ( 4 ) 350 - 363 .\npuillandre n . , duda t . f . , meyer c . , olivera b . m . & bouchet p . ( 2015 ) . one , four or 100 genera ? a new classification of the cone snails . journal of molluscan studies . 81 : 1 - 23\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nerror . page cannot be displayed . please contact your service provider for more details . ( 17 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nconidae is a taxonomic family of minute to quite large sea snails , marine gastropod molluscs in the superfamily conoidea .\ncurrent taxonomic changes as of 2009 and 2011 , based upon molecular phylogeny ( see below ) , have elevated the subfamilies which were previously in the family turridae to the status of families in their own right , leaving the family conidae once again containing the species which were traditionally placed in that family .\nthe family conidae currently still contains well over 600 recognized species , which traditionally have all been placed in the genus conus .\nclathurellinae h . adams & a . adams , 1858 \u2014 synonyms : defranciinae gray , 1853 ( inv . ) ; borsoniinae a . bellardi , 1875 ; pseudotominae a . bellardi , 1888 ; diptychomitrinae l . bellardi , 1888 ; mitrolumnidae sacco , 1904 ; mitromorphinae casey , 1904 ; lorinae thiele , 1925 sensu opinion 666\nrecognized extant genera within the cone snails as per j . k . tucker & m . j . tenorio ( 2009 ) , and bouchet et al . ( 2011 ) , include :\nnote : an asterisk * indicates genera that are considered to be within the family conilithidae by tucker & tenorio 2009 ."]}
{"id": 1631, "summary": [{"text": "hemipsilichthys papillatus is a species of loricariid catfish endemic to brazil , where it is restricted to the rio preto , a tributary of the para\u00edba do sul , in the southeastern states of minas gerais , rio de janeiro and s\u00e3o paulo .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this species grows to a length of 9.2 centimetres ( 3.6 in ) sl . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "hemipsilichthys papillatus", "paragraphs": ["type : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 589083 . jpg [ 2834575 ] approved = yes submission by : baena , eduardo on 2010 - 05 - 11 photographed by : baena , eduardo hemipsilichthys papillatus mzusp 53085 holotype standard length : 90 mm dorsal full body copyright\u00a9eduardo baena , mzusp . all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 589085 . jpg [ 1394738 ] approved = yes submission by : baena , eduardo on 2010 - 05 - 11 photographed by : baena , eduardo hemipsilichthys papillatus mzusp 53085 holotype standard length : 90 mm lateral full body copyright\u00a9eduardo baena , mzusp . all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 589087 . jpg [ 2186579 ] approved = yes submission by : baena , eduardo on 2010 - 05 - 11 photographed by : baena , eduardo hemipsilichthys papillatus mzusp 53085 holotype standard length : 90 mm ventral full body copyright\u00a9eduardo baena , mzusp . all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 589084 . jpg [ 1963807 ] approved = yes submission by : baena , eduardo on 2010 - 05 - 11 photographed by : baena , eduardo hemipsilichthys papillatus mzusp 53085 holotype standard length : 90 mm lateral close - up copyright\u00a9eduardo baena , mzusp . all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 589086 . jpg [ 1765936 ] approved = yes submission by : baena , eduardo on 2010 - 05 - 11 photographed by : baena , eduardo hemipsilichthys papillatus mzusp 53085 holotype standard length : 90 mm ventral close - up copyright\u00a9eduardo baena , mzusp . all rights reserved .\ntype : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 589082 . jpg [ 2352753 ] approved = yes submission by : baena , eduardo on 2010 - 05 - 11 photographed by : baena , eduardo hemipsilichthys papillatus mzusp 53085 holotype standard length : 90 mm dorsal close - up copyright\u00a9eduardo baena , mzusp . all rights reserved .\npereira , e . h . l . , j . c . oliveira and o . t . oyakawa , 2000 . hemipsilichthys papillatus , a new species of loricariid catfish ( teleostei : siluriformes ) from minas gerais , brazil . ichthyol . explor . freshwat . 11 ( 4 ) : 377 - 383 . ( ref . 45132 )\numa nova esp\u00e9cie de loricar\u00eddeo pertencente a subfam\u00edlia neoplecostominae \u00e9 descrita com base em esp\u00e9cimes obtidos das cabeceiras do rio igua\u00e7u , estado do paran\u00e1 , sul do brasil . pareiorhaphis parmula \u00e9 a primeira esp\u00e9cie do g\u00eanero descrita para a bacia do rio paran\u00e1 expandindo a distribui\u00e7\u00e3o do g\u00eanero . se diferencia das demais esp\u00e9cies do g\u00eanero pela presen\u00e7a de uma \u00fanica e pequena placa na regi\u00e3o ventral posterior a abertura branquial e pelo formato de clava do raio indiviso da nadadeira peitoral , estreito na base e alargando - se em dire\u00e7\u00e3o \u00e0 extremidade do raio em machos adultos . todas as esp\u00e9cies previamente inclu\u00eddas em hemipsilichthys com exce\u00e7\u00e3o de h . gobio , h . papillatus e h . nimius s\u00e3o transferidas para o g\u00eanero pareiorhaphis , que \u00e9 retirado da sinon\u00edmia de hemipsilichthys .\nfor this reason , the new species is described in pareiorhaphis and h . calmoni , h . garbei ihering , 1911 , h . steindachneri , h . regani giltay , 1936 , h . bahianus ( gosline , 1947 ) , h . cerosus miranda ribeiro , 1951 , h . vestigipinnis reis & pereira , 1992 , h . splendens bizerril , 1995 , h . mutuca oliveira & oyakawa , 1999 , h . stephanus oliveira & oyakawa , 1999 , h . nudulus reis & pereira , 1999 , h . azygolechis pereira & reis , 2002 , h . eurycephalus pereira & reis , 2002 , h . hystrix pereira & reis , 2002 , h . hypselurus pereira & reis , 2002 , and h . stomias pereira & reis , 2002 are herein transferred to pareiorhaphis , while hemipsilichthys gobio , h . papillatus , and h . nimius remain as the only valid species in hemipsilichthys .\nh . papillatus is a demersal ( living at or near the bottom of the water body ) species that inhabits small , shallow streams , with clear water and moderate to strong current , and bottoms of rocks , loose stones and gravel . forest and grass is usually present on the margins .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this restricted species is not under any major threat and so has been assessed as least concern . its natural small distribution suggests this species should however , be monitored .\nthis is a severely restricted species found in the rio preto , a tributary of the para\u00edba do sul , southeastern brazil . only known from the type locality and a location next to the type .\nthe para\u00edba do sul basin is today one of the most industrialized areas of brazil but this species would not be impacted in its tributary . the area in which the rio preto flows in relatively unspoilt .\nthere are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngreek , hemi = half + greek , psilos = hairless + greek , ichtys = fish ( ref . 45335 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 9 . 2 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 45132 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 1 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 7 ; anal spines : 1 ; anal soft rays : 5 . dorsal series of plates reduced , with no plates in the dorsal series between the dorsal - fin origin and the end of the adipose fin ; both teeth cusps approximately equal in size ( ref . 42856 ) .\nfound in a small , shallow stream , with clear water and moderate to strong current . bottom formed by rocks , loose stones and gravel . forest and grass usually present on the margins ( ref . 45132 ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 6250 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public ' - / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en '\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nneotrop . ichthyol . vol . 3 no . 2 porto alegre apr . / june 2005\nmuseu de ci\u00eancias e tecnologia , pucrs , p . o . box 1429 , 90619 - 900 porto alegre , rs , brazil . e - mail : edson . pereira @ urltoken\nrecent joint collections by mcp and mhnci have resulted in additional material of pareiorhaphis from the upper reaches of the rio igua\u00e7u basin , in the state of paran\u00e1 , southern brazil . the comparison of the recently collected material with other species allowed the recognition of a new species that clearly contrast with all other species of the genus . this species represents the first record of a pareiorhaphis in the rio paran\u00e1 basin and this discovery is an indication that additional new species are likely to be found in other headwater tributaries of the rio paran\u00e1 . in this paper i provide a formal description of that species diagnosing it from the remaining pareiorhaphis species and discuss the reasons for including the new species in the genus pareiorhaphis .\nstandard length is expressed in mm . all other measurements are expressed as percents of standard length , except subunits of the head which are expressed as percents of head length . in the list of type material museum acronym and catalog number come first , followed by the number of specimens in that lot , the number of specimens measured for the morphometric comparisons in parentheses , the range of standard length , locality , date of collection , and collectors . abbreviations used are sl ( standard length ) and hl ( head length ) .\nholotype . mcp 35826 , male , 93 . 3 mm sl ; brazil : paran\u00e1 : lapa : rio igua\u00e7u basin : rio dos patos , tributary to rio da v\u00e1rzea , on road pr - 427 from lapa to campo do tenente , 25\u00ba50 ' 36 . 8\ns 049\u00ba43 ' 39 . 2\nw , 29 oct 2004 , e . h . l . pereira , l . f . duboc , v . abilh\u00f4a , and r . torres . paratypes . brazil : paran\u00e1 : mcp 35827 , 59 + 2 c & s ( 29 ) 45 . 7 - 94 . 5 mm sl and mhnci 10883 , 3 ( 1 ) 59 . 6 - 73 . 6 mm sl ; all collected with the holotype . mcp 35556 , 10 ( 7 ) 39 . 6 - 86 . 5 mm sl ; rio dos patos , tributary to rio da v\u00e1rzea , lapa , 25\u00ba50 ' 38\ns 049\u00ba43 ' 39\nw , 3 jul 2004 , v . abilh\u00f4a & l . f . duboc .\ndiagnosis . pareiorhaphis parmula can be distinguished from all other pareiorhaphis species by having one small plate on each side of the pectoral girdle , just posterior to the gill opening ( vs . abdomen totally naked in all other species ) . the clubshaped pectoral - fin spine , broadening from base to apex on adult males , also distinguishes p . parmula from other pareiorhaphis species with the exception of p . vestigipinnis . from p . vestigipinnis , the new species can be distinguished by having an adipose fin .\npareiorhaphisparmula can be further distinguished from p . vestigipinnis , p . stephane , p . nudula , and p . regani by the longer caudal peduncle ( 34 . 4 - 37 . 9 vs . 27 . 9 - 34 . 0 % sl ) ; from p . eurycephalus , p . hypselurus , p . stomias , and p . splendens by the smaller cleithral width ( 27 . 9 - 31 . 0 vs . 32 . 1 - 40 . 0 % sl ) ; from p . cerosa , p . bahiana , p . azygolechis , and p . mutuca by the smaller caudal peduncle depth ( 8 . 2 - 9 . 2 vs . 9 . 4 - 11 . 7 % sl ) ; from p . garbei , p . calmoni , and p . hystrix by the number of dentary teeth ( 32 - 48 vs . 60 - 89 , 49 - 84 and 42 - 57 , respectively ) ; from p . steindachneri by having the longest hypertrophied odontodes on cheeks of mature males shorter than interor - bital width ( vs . longer than interorbital width ) .\ndescription . counts and proportional measurements presented in table 1 . standard length of measured specimens 43 . 5 to 94 . 5 mm . see fig . 1 for general body aspect . dorsal surface of body covered by plates except for naked area around dorsal fin . body moderately depressed . progressively narrowing from cleithrum to end of caudal peduncle . dorsal profile of body slightly convex , rising from snout tip to origin of dorsal fin and then descending to end of caudal peduncle .\ntrunk and caudal peduncle mostly ovoid in cross - section , slightly flattened ventrally and more compressed caudally . greatest body depth at dorsal - fin origin . least body depth at shallowest part of caudal peduncle . ventral surface of head , region from pelvic - fin insertion to anal - fin origin , and region around anal fin completely naked . abdomen almost totally naked , except for one ( rarely two ) small platelet on each side just posterior to gill opening . plates difficult to see in specimens smaller than 50 mm sl .\ncolor in alcohol . ground color of dorsal surface of body and head dark grey , sometimes light grey , whitish ventrally . dorsum covered by dark blotches . usually these blotches form - ing four irregular diffuse saddles located at origin of dorsal fin , behind dorsal - fin base , on adipose fin , and between adipose and caudal fins . flanks covered by dark gray blotches , irregularly arranged and sized . sometimes posterior half of flanks with roundish spots or indefinite mid - lateral stripe . mature males with fleshy lobes on margin of head light gray . spines of dorsal , pectoral , pelvic , and anal fins plain grayish or with two or three wide dark stripes . branched rays uniformly grayish or with small , dark - brown blotches along entire length , sometimes forming two or three narrow bands . spines and branched rays of pectoral and pelvic fins of mature males with four or five wide dark dots , sometimes formingdarker irregular lines . caudal fin with two or three narrow bands , more visible when fin widely open . fin membranes hyaline . ventral surface between anal - fin origin and posterior portion of lower lip pale yellow or whitish . ventral margin of head , upper lip , and ventral portion of caudal peduncle grayish .\ndistribution . pareiorhaphis parmula is known from the rio dos patos , headwaters of the rio igua\u00e7u in paran\u00e1 state , brazil ( fig . 2 ) .\necological notes . the type locality where all specimens of pareirhaphis parmula were collected , is a small creek flowing through a landscape of mixed open field and forest . the stretch sampled is narrow ( about 2 - 4 m wide ) and shallow ( about 0 . 4 - 1 . 0 m deep ) . the stream bottom was formed of small to medium - sized rocks , loose stones and gravel . the water was clear and moderate to fast flowing . grass or other vegetation is usually present on the margins . the fishes are usually found among the bottom rocks and stones .\netymology . the name parmula is latin , diminutive from parma , meaning small , light shield , in allusion to the small plate located ventrally just behind the gill opening . a noun in apposition .\nthe most distinctive feature of p . parmula is the presence of one small plate on each side of the pectoral girdle , just posterior to the gill opening . the condition present in p . parmula differs from that in all other species of pareiorhaphis which have that region completely naked . among the neoplecostominae other genera with plates on the abdomen are neoplecostomus and isbrueckerichthys . the new species can be distinguished from neoplecostomus by lacking a series of papillae on lower lip after of the dentaries and from isbrueckerichthys by having a predorsal spinelet , always absent in the later . pareiorhaphis parmula represents the first pareiorhaphis species in the paran\u00e1 river basin and an increase in the geographic distribution range of the genus pareiorhaphis .\ni thank roberto e . reis ( mcp ) and paulo h . franco lucinda ( unt ) for comments and suggestions on the manuscript . special thanks to luiz f . duboc , vinicius abilhoa and rodrigo torres for their enthusiastic dedication to field work . jos\u00e9 f . pezzi da silva prepared all figures . this research is partially financed by capes with a doctoral fellowship . fieldwork supported by all catfish species inventory ( nsf deb - 0315963 ) .\narmbruster j . w . 2004 . phylogenetic relationships of the suckermouth armoured catfishes ( loricariidae ) with emphasis on the hypostominae and the ancistrinae . zoological journal of the linnean society 141 : 1 - 80 .\ngosline , w . a . 1947 . contributions to the classification of the loricariid catfishes . arquivos do museu nacional , 41 : 79 - 134 .\n, eigenmann & eigenmann e generos alliados . revista da sociedade brasileira de sciencias 2 : 101 - 107 .\nmontoya - burgos , j . i . 2001 . phylogenetic relationships of the hypostominae ( siluriformes : loricariidae ) with investigations on the phylogeny and evolution of the catfishes . unpublished d . ph . d . thesis , university of gen\u00e8ve .\nmontoya - burgos , j . i . , s . muller , c . weber & j . pawlowski , 1998 . phylogenetic relationships of the loricariidae ( siluriformes ) based on mitochondrial rrna gene sequences . pp . 363 - 374 . in : l . r .\nfrom southern rio de janeiro coastal rivers , southeastern brazil ( teleostei : siluriformes ) . zootaxa , 285 : 1 - 10 .\ncatfishes ( siluriformes : loricariidae ) . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , 148 : 1 - 120 .\n, nouvelle esp\u00e8ce de poisson - chat cuirass\u00e9 du paraguay ( pisces , siluriformes , loricariidae ) . revue suisse de zoologie , 92 ( 4 ) : 955 - 968 .\nuniversidade estadual de maring\u00e1 n\u00facleo de pesquisas em limnologia , ictiologia e aquicultura / cole\u00e7\u00e3o ictiologia av . colombo , 5790 87020 - 900 maring\u00e1 , pr , brasil tel . : ( 55 44 ) 3011 4632 neoichth @ urltoken"]}
{"id": 1644, "summary": [{"text": "septalites is a genus of cornulitid tubeworms .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "their shells lack vesicular wall structure and have a smooth lumen filled with numerous transverse septa .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "they are externally covered with transverse ridges .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "their fossils are known only from the silurian of gotland . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "septalites", "paragraphs": ["septalites is a genus of cornulitid tubeworms . their shells lack vesicular wall structure and have a smooth lumen filled with numerous transverse septa .\nspecial offer 7 - 9 day lights , 4 cases for the price of 3 ( \u00a342 . 17 for 20 )\njavascript seems to be disabled in your browser . you must have javascript enabled in your browser to utilize the functionality of this website .\nour price is lower than the manufacturer ' s\nminimum advertised price .\nas a result , we cannot show you the price in catalog or the product page . you have no obligation to purchase the product once you know the price . you can simply remove the item from your cart .\nour answering services work from 9 . 30 am to 5 . 50 pm monday * to saturday .\n\u00a9 2018 st pauls . all rights reserved . st pauls is an activity of the priests and brothers of the society of st paul who proclaim the gospel through the media of social communication .\nthe church buying group can provide you with a large range of furniture and church supplies backed by our excellent service and unrivalled value - for - money deals .\nwe started out buying on behalf of churches but we now offer the same great savings to anyone from village halls to schools , to local authorities , to private companies and even to individuals wanting to take advantage of our ability to buy in large quantities from manufacturers and pass the savings onto our customers .\nstay up to date with news and promotions by signing up for our newsletter .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site requires javascript enabled to work correctly . you may be able to browse our goods without it but are likely to have issues purchesing anything . click here for instructions on enabling it .\nthis site requires cookies for account access and purchasing . it looks like cookies are disabled in your browser . to find out more about our cookie usage policy click here then to find out about changing your browser cookie settings click here ( this link opens in a window ) .\nthis site requires cookies for account access and purchasing . you can review our use of cookies in our cookie policy , or accept and close this bar now .\nmonday to friday : 9am to 4 . 45pm plus some tuesday evenings during term - time"]}
{"id": 1662, "summary": [{"text": "the yellow-bellied bulbul ( alophoixus phaeocephalus ) is a species of songbird in the bulbul family , pycnonotidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is found on the malay peninsula , sumatra and borneo .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "yellow - bellied bulbul", "paragraphs": ["select an image : 1 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 2 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 3 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > sonogram 4 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 5 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult and juvenile 6 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult and juvenile 7 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > juvenile 8 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > sonogram 9 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 10 . yellow - bellied bulbul 11 . yellow - bellied bulbul 12 . yellow - bellied bulbul 13 . yellow - bellied bulbul 14 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 15 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 16 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 17 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 18 . yellow - bellied bulbul 19 . yellow - bellied bulbul 20 . yellow - bellied bulbul 21 . yellow - bellied bulbul 22 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 23 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > preening 24 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 25 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 26 . yellow - bellied bulbul 27 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 28 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 29 . yellow - bellied bulbul 30 . yellow - bellied bulbul 31 . yellow - bellied bulbul 32 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult feeding 33 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 34 . yellow - bellied bulbul 35 . yellow - bellied bulbul 36 . yellow - bellied bulbul 37 . yellow - bellied bulbul 38 . yellow - bellied bulbul 39 . yellow - bellied bulbul 40 . yellow - bellied bulbul\nyellow - bellied bulbul ( alophoixus phaeocephalus ) is a species of bird in the pycnonotidae family .\nother synonyms german : schwefelb\u00fclb\u00fcl english : yellow - bellied bulbul , yellow - bellied bulbul ( nominate ) spanish : bulbul barbudo de cabeza gris french : bulbul \u00e0 calotte grise , bulbul \u00e0 calotte grise ( nominal ) , bulbul \u00e0 calotte grise ( nominale ) , bulbul \u00e0 calotte grise ( race nominale ) italian : bulbul barbuto testagrigia latin : alophoixus phaeocephalus phaeocephalus , criniger phaeocephalus phaeocephalus , ixos ( trichixos , less . ) phaeocephalus\nstreak - eared bulbul pycnonotus blanfordi is split into two monotypic species , ayeyarwady bulbul pycnonotus blanfordi , and streak - eared bulbul pycnonotus conradi ( garg et al . 2016 ) . note that the english name \u201cstreak - eared bulbul\u201d now is applied to a different scientific name ( conradi , not blanfordi ) .\nolive bulbul contains three subspecies : viridescens , and two subspecies that previously were classified under gray - eyed bulbul ( iole propinqua ) , lekhakuni and cinnamomeoventris .\nfrom\nblack - crested bulbul\nto\nblack - capped bulbul , with split of multiple species . ( rasmussen & anderton 2005 , fishpool & tobias 2005 )\nthe prigogine ' s greenbul has olive - green upperparts ; yellow throat ; gray lores .\ntuesday , 19th april 2011 , congkak recreation forest , selangor another bird that i was waiting for , now months passed , is this yellow - bellied bulbul . got the bird alright . a few position too - but , the bird just refused to show to me the belly ! what can i do ?\nolive bulbul iole virescens is split into two species , following manawatthana et al . ( 2017 ) : a monotypic cachar bulbul iole cacharensis ; and olive bulbul iole viridescens . revise the range of cachar bulbul from \u201cnortheastern india ( assam ) ; population in eastern bangladesh possibly also this subspecies ( or is nominate virescens ? ) \u201d to \u201cnortheastern india ( assam ) and eastern bangladesh\u201d .\nthe mauritius bulbul has mainly gray plumage ; black crown , eye - line ; orange bill ; pink legs .\nfishpool , l . & tobias , j . ( 2018 ) . yellow - bellied bulbul ( alophoixus phaeocephalus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ncriniger is a genus of songbirds in the bulbul family , pycnonotidae . the species of criniger are found in western and central africa .\nthe rare blue - wattled bulbul may be a hybrid ( williams 2002 ) , but more evidence needed ( dickinson and dekker 2002 ) .\nthe little greenbul has mainly green upperparts with brown wings , upper - tail ; pale grayish - green underparts ; brown bill ; light yellow - brown feet .\nthe red - billed bristlebill has brown - olive upperparts ; rufous tail ; yellow underparts ; grayish - blue orbital skin . male has red eyes ; female brown eyes .\n20\u201320\u00b75 cm ; 23\u201340 g . large , brightly coloured , relatively retiring bulbul , eyes contrasting sharply with pale face , elongated chin and throat often puffed . . .\na deeper forest bulbul , often alone ; here seen feeding and singing . the subspecies a . p . diardi has a clear / noticeable yellow tip to the tail . although described as having no crest , davison ( 1999 ) describes is as \u201cabsence of a crest is diagnostic\u201d , this is not that precise . they have the ability to raise crest feathers , and often do so . - amar\npieplow , n . d . , and c . d . francis . 2011 . song differences among subspecies of yellow - eyed juncos ( junco phaeonotus ) . wilson journal of ornithology 123 : 464 - 471 .\nthis bulbul is found in broad - leaved forests , cultivation and gardens mainly in hilly areas , but himalayan populations are known to sometimes descend into the adjoining plains in winter . the western ghats birds may make movements related to rain .\nmil\u00e1 , b . , p . aleixandre , s . alvarez - nordstr\u00f6m , and j . mccormack . 2016 . more than meets the eye : lineage diversity and evolutionary history of dark - eyed and yellow - eyed juncos . pages 179 - 198 in e . d . ketterson and j . w . atwell ( editors ) , snowbird . university of chicago press , chicago .\nin accord with aos - nacc ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , yellow - breasted chat ( icteria virens ) is removed from parulidae ( new world warblers ) and is placed in a new monotypic family , icteriidae ( yellow - breasted chat ) , following barker et al . ( 2013 , 2015 ) . aos - nacc also revised the linear sequence of families in the nine - primaried oscines ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , but we defer completely following the new sequence until our next release ( august 2018 ) . in the interim , position icteriidae to follow emberizidae ( old world buntings ) , calyptophilidae ( chat - tanagers ) , phaenicophilidae ( hispaniolan tanagers ) , nesospingidae ( puerto rican tanager ) , spindalidae ( spindalises ) , zeledoniidae ( wrenthrush ) , and teretistridae ( cuban warblers ) .\nthe taxonomy is complex with this and several other currently recognized species earlier treated as subspecies of hypsipetes madagascariensis . within asia , h . ganeesa has often been listed as a subspecies of h . leucocephalus , but is increasingly treated as a separate species restricted to the western ghats ( south of somewhere near bombay ) and sri lanka , the square - tailed black bulbul . the subspecies from sri lanka humii is then placed under this species .\nin accord with aos - nacc ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , the monotypic group yellow - eyed junco ( baird\u2019s ) junco phaeonotus bairdi is elevated to species rank as baird\u2019s junco junco bairdi . this split is based on \u201cmorphology ( miller 1941 ) , vocalizations ( howell and webb 1995 , pieplow and francis 2011 ) , and genetics ( mccormack et al . 2012 , friis et al . 2016 , mil\u00e1 et al . 2016 ) \u201d ( chesser et al . 2017 ) .\nthe black bulbul is 24\u201325 cm in length , with a long tail . the body plumage ranges from slate grey to shimmering black , depending on the race . the beak , legs , and feet are all red and the head has a black fluffy crest . sexes are similar in plumage , but young birds lack the crest , have whitish underparts with a grey breast band , and have a brown tint to the upperparts . they have a black streak behind the eye and on the ear coverts .\nin accord with aos - nacc ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , the genus mitrospingus is removed from thraupidae ( tanagers and allies ) and is placed in a new family , mitrospingidae ( mitrospingid tanagers ) , following barker et al . ( 2013 , 2015 ) . aos - nacc also revised the linear sequence of families in the nine - primaried oscines ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , but we defer completely following the new sequence until our next release ( august 2018 ) . in the interim , position icteriidae to follow emberizidae ( old world buntings ) , calyptophilidae ( chat - tanagers ) , phaenicophilidae ( hispaniolan tanagers ) , nesospingidae ( puerto rican tanager ) , spindalidae ( spindalises ) , zeledoniidae ( wrenthrush ) , teretistridae ( cuban warblers ) , and icteriidae ( yellow - breasted chat ) .\nbulbuls are short - necked and slender . the tails are long and the wings short and rounded . in almost all species the bill is slightly elongated and slightly hooked at the end . they vary in length from 13 cm to 29 cm . overall the sexes are alike , although the females tend to be slightly smaller . the soft plumage of some species is colourful with yellow , red or orange vents , cheeks , throat or supercilia , but most are drab , with uniform olive brown to black plumage . species with dull coloured eyes often sport contrasting eyerings . some have very distinct crests . bulbuls are highly vocal , with the calls of most species being described as nasal or gravelly . bulbuls eat a wide range of different foods , ranging from fruit to seeds , nectar , small insects and other arthropods and even small vertebrates . the bulbuls are generally monogamous .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nioc _ names _ file _ plus - 8 . 2g : 8 . 2\nis a recently described species ( woxvold et al . 2009 ) . it is sister to\nis in prevailing usage . based on\nturdo\u00efde de gourdin\nof homblon & jacquinot , 1844 referenced in gray , 1847 . see mayr & greenway , 1960 ( peters checklist , ix )\nnigeria to s sudan , w kenya . s drcongo , nw zambia and n angola\nnow considered to be a plumage variant of icterine greenbul ( collinson et al . 2017 )\nrwenzori mts , itombwe and mt . kabobo ( e drcongo ) , w uganda , w rwanda and n burundi\nmontane tiny greenbul is split from { lowland ] tiny greenbul [ fuchs et al . 2011a ]\nbased on genetic studies . but genetic divergence may support species status . manawatthana et al . 2017\nas a junior synonym . fishpool & tobias , 2005 . the population from sabah is vocally and genetically distinct and likely represents an unnamed taxon . the subspecies epithet\n( type speciemen from e kalimantan ) has been erroneously applied to this population . eaton et al 2016 , rheindt in . litt . ( see manawatthana et al . 2017 ) .\nkuroda , 1922 as a synonym . permanently invalid . dickinson & christidis , 2014 .\ndalupiri , calayan and fuga is . ( n of luzon in n philippines )\nis a member of the afrotropical clade of bulbuls ( pycnonotidae ( johansson et al . 2008 , zuccon & ericson 2010 )\ncheke & hume 2008 , bli . conspecific with the extinct reunion form whose scientific name has priority .\nmanchurian bush warbler is restricted to borealis ; ssp canturians is treated here as a subspecies of h . diphone . an alternative treatment would be to lump borealis with diphone until relationships of the members of this complex are sorted out genetically ( alstr\u00f6m et al . 2011b ) . see rasmussen & anderton 2005 , bli re original split of cettia canturians , including borealis from c . diphone .\niczn opinion 2215 . bulletin of zoological nomenclature 65 : 327 - 328 , 2008 .\ncorrect gender agreement ; original specific epithet albicapillus is invariable . ( n david , h & m corrigenda 2 . 1 )\ngenetically embedded in monticola ; move before m . rupestris ( zuccon & ericson 2010a )\nfrith and frith 1998 , christidis and boles 2008 , slikas unpub . , t . pratt comm .\nfrith and frith 1998 , christidis and boles 2008 , slikas unpub . , t . pratt comm .\nrestore inland plover to peltohyas ; relative of wrybill and red - kneed dotterel ; resequence following lapwings , their sister group ( baker et al . 2007 ; fjeldsa comm )\nfuchs et al 2008 ; correct error in v2 . 5 ; correct gender agreement\ncorrect gender agreement ; \u201cwe are speaking here of hydrornis blyth 1843 in jasb 12 ( 2 ) : 960 , indeed masculine . in turdus guajanus by statius m\u00fcller , guajanus is adjectival ( much [ too ] long to explain ) ; thus hydrornis guayanus is ok . \u201d ( n . david 7 / 9 / 2010 )\nchlorophoneus viridis , c . dohertyi , c . quadricolor form a separate clade with telophorus , rhodophoneus , all merged into telophorus ( fuchs et al 2004 , fjeldsa comm )\nmalcorus belongs with hypergerus and eminia in cisticolidae ( johansson et al . 2008 , tif , fjeldsa comm )\n\u201c lopesi \u201d is an unjustified emmendation . fide alan peterson , peter ryan ( hbw 11 )\npnoepyga wren - babblers are not babblers and elevated to their own family ( gelang et al . 2009 )\ncorrect spreadsheet re 2 . 0 change of genus ( p . kovalik 7 / 2010 )\nnew family includes melocichla , sphenoeacus , achaetops , macrosphenus , sylvietta , cryptillas , and possibly graueria and hemitesia ( johansson et al . 2007 , 2008 , tif ) . move up in sequence as old branch of sylvioid passerines .\nmove dohm\u2019s thrush - babbler to sylviidae as sister to pseudoalcippe [ abyssinica ] ( voelker et al . 2009 )\nbush blackcap is a member of the sylviidae closer to pseudoalcippe than to sylvia ( johansson et al . 2008 , tif )\nseparate fulvetta species from alcippe fulvettas and move to sylviidae ( pasquet et al . 2006 , collar & robson 2007 , gelang et al . 2009 )\nmove yuhina species to zosteropidae from timaliidae ( cibois et al 2003 , moyle et al 2009 ) ; recognition of subclades under review .\nrichmond ( 1917 ) , fide alan peterson . ichthyophaga is an unjustified emendation of original spelling .\nrecording modified with audacity 2 . 2 . 0 : - normalized ( - 0 . 50 db ) - high pass filter ( 2000 hz / rolloff 48 db ) - low pass filter ( 5500 hz / rolloff 48 db ) - fade in / fade out\n[ id . ? does not match other recordings : nk ] ref . : borneo2 : 0 : 35 - 1 : 08\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\naccording to some recent authors # r , deep mtdna divergences and clear plumage differences suggest that nominate race and connectens may represent two separate species , with sulphuratus and diardi together constituting a third species ; delimitation of races in borneo is complex , variation appearing clinal , and perhaps only extremes merit recognition ; further study required , including investigation of vocal differences and identification of exact areas of overlap of taxa in borneo ( where species probably present throughout ) . three putative races ( caniceps , rufocaudatus , cantori ) merged with nominate ; medius ( long petah , in e borneo ) indistinguishable from sulphuratus . four subspecies recognized .\n( hartlaub , 1844 ) \u2013 extreme s myanmar ( extreme s tenasserim ) , s thailand , peninsular malaysia , sumatra ( including bintang , lingga , bangka , belitung , siberut and sipura ) and n natuna is .\n( bonaparte , 1850 ) \u2013 c borneo ( e sarawak and w sabah s to se kalimantan ) .\n( finsch , 1867 ) \u2013 w borneo ( s from r baram ) .\ncalls with subdued harsh , slightly buzzy \u201cwhi\u2019ee whi\u2019ee whi\u2019ee\u201d , or ( . . .\nbroadleaf evergreen forest , well - developed secondary growth ( having relatively closed canopy , and . . .\na generalist , eating both fruit and insects . at kerau , in peninsular malaysia , parties visiting fig (\nbreeds apr\u2013aug . rate of retrapping in lowland forest in peninsular malaysia suggests that pair probably territorial . clutch 2 eggs . . . .\nnot globally threatened . generally fairly common to common throughout much of range . extinct in singapore for at least five decades , following deforestation . in mature . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\noften merged into african criniger , but molecular study # r indicates that african and asian members of this family are only distantly related . phylogeographical study # r reveals apparent presence of a ring species complex in indomalayan region , and this is supported by analytical study # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nan adult singing / calling while perched on a tree ( approx . 3 - 4m in height ) .\ndavid cooper , jmittermeier , holger teichmann , marco valentini , ken havard , manakincarmelo , chairunas adha putra , paul van giersbergen , markus lilje , pedroyayadrums .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as generally fairly common to common throughout its range ( del hoyo et al . 2005 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nalophoixus phaeocephalus phaeocephalus : malay pen . , sumatra , bangka , belitung and north natuna is .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 289 , 645 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : alophoixus phaeocephalus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nestablished by coenraad jacob temminck in 1820 , the name criniger is latin for\nlong - haired\n( from crinis , meaning\nhair\nand gerere , meaning\nto carry\n) . [ 1 ]\ncatalogue of the birds in the british museum : passeriformes , or perching birds . cichlomorph\u0153 : pt . iii - iv , containing the . . . family timeliid\u0153 ( babbling - thrushes ) by r . b . sharpe\nhuntley , jerry w . ; harvey , johanna a . ; pavia , marco ; boano , giovanni ; voelker , gary ( 2017 ) .\nthe systematics and biogeography of the bearded greenbuls ( aves :\n) reveals the impact of plio - pleistocene forest fragmentation on afro - tropical avian diversity\n.\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . , a non - profit organization .\nblack bulbuls feed mainly on seeds and insects , and they are often seen in small groups , either roosting or flying about in search of food . they are particularly fond of berries . they are known to feed on a wide range of berries including celtis , rosa , melia and ehretia in the himalayas . the feed on the nectar of salmalia , erythrina , rhododendron and other species . they make aerial sallies for insects . they can be quite noisy , making various loud cheeping , mewing and grating calls . the himalayan form has been reported to make a call resembling a goat kid , throwing back its neck when calling .\nit builds its nest in a tree or bush ; the nest is a cup placed in a fork and made from grasses , dry leaves , mosses , lichens and cobwebs . the lining is made up of ferns , rootlets and other soft material . both sexes participate in nest construction . two or three eggs form the usual clutch . in southern india , nesting activity begins from february and rises to a peak in may . the eggs hatch after an incubation period of 12 to 13 days and the chicks fledge after about 11 or 12 days . nest predators include birds of prey ( black - winged kite ) , snakes ( ptyas mucosus ) . adults of h . ganeesa have been known to be preyed on by the crested goshawk .\nthis article uses material from the wikipedia released under the creative commons attribution - share - alike licence 3 . 0 . please see license details for photos in photo by - lines .\nplease note that this non - official list is not complete nor necessarily accurate . this list is a summary of checklists from other websites , blogs , publications , photo / videos published on various websites or our own findings . we appreciate your contributions with photo proof .\nimportant note ; our range maps are generated automatically based on very limited data we have about the protected sites , the data is not necessarily accurate . please help us to improve our range maps by sharing your findings / knowledge .\n\u00a9 thai national parks , 2018 | t . a . t . license : 12 / 02497 , license issued for gibbonwoot ( managing company )\nthe updates and corrections are grouped into four sections . within each section , items are listed in the order in which they are encountered in the ebird / clements checklistv2017 spreadsheet , although we also continue to reference by page number the relevant entry in the last published edition of the clements checklist ( 6th , 2007 ) .\ngray - breasted partrige arborophila orientalis is split into four monotypic species , following mees ( 1996 ) : malaysian partridge arborophila campbelli ; roll\u2019s partridge arborophila rolli ; sumatran partridge arborophila sumatrana ; and gray - breasted partridge arborophila orientalis .\nmees , g . f . 1996 . geographical variation in birds of java . publications of the nuttall ornithological club number 26 . cambridge , massachusetts .\nin accord with aos - nacc ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , northern harrier circus cyaneus is split into two monotypic species : hen harrier circus cyaneus , of the old world , and northern harrier circus hudsonius , of north america . this split is based on \u201cdifferences in morphology , plumage , and breeding habitat ( grant 1983 , thorpe 1988 , dobson and clarke 2011 , etherington and mobley 2016 ) commensurate with differences between other recognized species of circus \u201d ( chesser et al . 2017 ) .\nchesser , r . t . , k . j . burns , c . cicero , j . l . dunn , a . w . kratter , i . j . lovette , p . c . rasmussen , j . v . remsen , jr . , j . d . rising , d . f . stotz , and k . winker . 2017 . fifty - eighth supplement to the american ornithological society\u2019s check - list of north american birds . auk 134 : 751 - 773 .\ndobson , a . d . m . , and m . l . clarke . 2011 . inconsistency in the taxonomy of hen and northern harriers : causes and consequences . british birds 104 : 192\u2013201 .\netherington , g . j . , and j . a . mobley . 2016 . molecular phylogeny , morphology and life - history comparisons within circus cyaneus reveal the presence of two distinct evolutionary lineages . avian research 7 : 17 .\nthorpe , j . p . 1988 . juvenile hen harriers showing \u2018marsh hawk\u201d characters . british birds 81 : 377\u2013382 .\nthe validity of tanna ground - dove alopecoenas ferrugineus formerly was questioned ( peters 1937 ) , but this species now is widely accepted ( stresemann 1950 , greenway 1958 , dutson 2011 ) . insert this species , with range \u201cformerly tanna island ( vanuatu ) . extinct ; not reported since 1774\u201d , immediately following thick - billed ground - dove alopecoenas salamonis .\ndutson , g . 2011 . birds of melanesia . the bismarcks , solomons , vanuatu and new caledonia . christopher helm , london .\ngreenway , j . c . , jr . 1958 . extinct and vanishing birds of the world . special publication number 13 . american committee for international wild life protection , new york , new york .\npeters , j . l . 1937 . check - list of birds of the world . volume iii . harvard university press , cambridge , massachusetts .\nstresemann , e . 1950 . birds collected during capt . james cook\u2019s last expedition ( 1776 - 1780 ) . auk 67 : 66 - 88 .\nthe status of norfolk ground - dove alopecoenas norfolkensis formerly was confused ( peters 1937 ) , but this species now is widely accepted as valid ( goodwin 1970 , gill et al . 2010 , forshaw 2015 ) . insert this species , with range \u201cformerly norfolk island ( australia ) . extinct since ca 1800\u201d , immediately following white - throated ground - dove alopecoenas xanthonurus .\nforshaw , j . m . 2015 . pigeons and doves in australia . csiro publishing , clayton south , victoria , australia .\ngill , b . j . , b . d . bell , c . k . chambers , d . g . medway , r . l . palma , r . p . scofield , a . j . d . tennyson , and t . h . worthy ( checklist committee , ornithological society of new zealand ) . 2010 . checklist of the birds of new zealand . te papa press and the ornithological society of new zealand , wellington , new zealand .\ngoodwin , d . 1970 . pigeons and doves of the world . second edition . british museum ( natural history ) , london and cornell university press , ithaca , new york .\nglossy swiftlet collocalia esculenta is split into multiple species , and the sequence of species of collocalia swiftlets is revised . following rheindt et al . ( 2017 ) :\nsubspecies collocalia esculenta natalis is elevated to species rank as a monotypic christmas island swiftlet collocalia natalis .\nsubspecies affinis , elachyptera , cyanoptila , vanderbilti , and oberholseri are removed from glossy swiftlet and are recognized as plume - toed swiftlet collocalia affinis .\nsubspecies marginata and septentrionalis are removed from glossy swiftlet and are recognized as gray - rumped swiftlet collocalia marginata .\nsubspecies isonota and bagobo are removed from glossy swiftlet , and are recognized as ridgetop swiftlet collocalia isonota .\nwe recognize tenggara swiftlet collocalia sumbawae , which includes subspecies sumbawae and a newly described subspecies , sumbae . revise the range description of nominate sumbawae from \u201cw lesser sundas ( sumbawa , sumba , flores and besar ) \u201d to \u201cwestern lesser sundas ( sumbawa ; population on flores and besar possibly also this subspecies ) \u201d . following sumbawae , insert newly described sumbae schodde , rheindt , and christidis 2017 , with range \u201cwestern lesser sundas ( sumba ) \u201d .\nsubspecies neglecta and perneglecta are removed from glossy swiftlet , and are recognized as drab swiftlet collocalia neglecta . revise the range description of nominate neglecta from \u201ce lesser sundas ( roti , dao , semau , timor and jaco ) \u201d to \u201clesser sundas ( sawu , roti , semau , and timor ) \u201d . revise the range description of subspecies perneglecta from \u201calor , sawu , wetar , kisar , romang , damar and tanimbar is . \u201d to \u201clesser sundas ( alor , wetar , and kisar ) ; populations on romang , damar and tanimbar possibly introgressant with glossy swiftlet\u201d .\nsubspecies uropygialis and albidior are removed from glossy swiftlet , and are recognized as satin swiftlet collocalia uropygialis .\nbeehler , b . m . , and t . k . pratt . 2016 . birds of new guinea : distribution , taxonomy , and systematics . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .\ndickinson , e . c . , and j . v . remsen , jr . ( editors ) . 2013 . the howard & moore complete checklist of the birds of the world . fourth edition . volume 1 . aves press , eastbourne , united kingdom .\npeters , j . l . 1940 . check - list of birds of the world . volume iv . harvard university press , cambridge , massachusetts .\nrheindt , f . e . , l . christidis , j . a . norman , j . a . eaton , k . r . sadanandan , and r . schodde . 2017 . speciation in indo - pacific swiftlets ( aves : apodidae ) : integrating molecular and phenotypic data for a new provisional taxonomy of the collocalia esculenta complex . zootaxa 4250 : 401 - 433 .\nin accord with aos - nacc ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , magnificent hummingbird eugenes fulgens is split into two species : rivoli\u2019s hummingbird eugenes fulgens , and talamanca hummingbird eugenes spectabilis . this action is based on an assessment of the degree of plumage differences between them . a phylogenetic survey by zamudio - beltr\u00e1n and hern\u00e1ndez - ba\u00f1os ( 2015 ) also revealed a genetic divergence between rivoli\u2019s and talamanca hummingbirds .\nzamudio - beltr\u00e1n , l . e . , and b . e . hern\u00e1ndez - ba\u00f1os . 2015 . a multilocus analysis provides evidence for more than one species within eugenes fulgens ( aves : trochilidae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 90 : 80 - 84 .\nin accord with aos - nacc ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , emerald toucanet aulacorhynchus prasinus is split into two species : northern emerald - toucanet aulacorhynchus prasinus , which includes subspecies wagleri , prasinus , warneri , virescens , volcanius , maxillaris , caeruleogularis , and cognatus ; and southern emerald - toucanet aulacorhynchus albivitta , which includes subspecies lautus , griseigularis , albivitta , phaeolaemus , dimidiatus , and cyanolaemus . this split is based on \u201cdifferences in phenotype and genetic results consistent with those differences ( puebla - olivares et al . 2008 , bonaccorso et al . 2011 , winker 2016 ) \u201d ( chesser et al . 2017 ) .\nwithin northern emerald - toucanet , change the english name of the monotypic group aulacorhynchus prasinus wagleri from emerald toucanet ( wagler\u2019s ) to northern emerald - toucanet ( wagler\u2019s ) . change the english name of the polytypic group aulacorhynchus prasinus [ prasinus group ] from emerald toucanet ( emerald ) to northern emerald - toucanet ( emerald ) . subspecies stenorhabdus , with range \u201csubtropical s mexico to w guatemala and n el salvador\u201d , and subspecies chiapensis , with range \u201cmts . of extreme s mexico ( mt . ovando , chiapas ) \u201d , both are considered to be junior synonyms of virescens ( peters 1948 , monroe 1968 ) , and are deleted . revise the range description of virescens from \u201cse mexico ( chiapas ) to honduras and nicaragua\u201d to \u201csoutheastern mexico , guatemala , belize , western el salvador , honduras , and northern nicaragua\u201d . change the english name of the polytypic group aulacorhynchus prasinus caeruleogularis / maxillaris from emerald toucanet ( blue - throated ) to northern emerald - toucanet ( blue - throated ) . change the english name of the monotypic group aulacorhynchus prasinus cognatus from emerald toucanet ( violet - throated ) to northern emerald - toucanet ( violet - throated ) .\nwithin southern emerald - toucanet , change the names of the monotypic group emerald toucanet ( santa marta ) aulacorhynchus prasinus lautus to southern emerald - toucanet ( santa marta ) aulacorhynchus albivitta lautus . change the names of the monotypic group emerald toucanet ( gray - throated ) aulacorhynchus prasinus griseigularis to southern emerald - toucanet ( gray - throated ) aulacorhynchus albivitta griseigularis . change the names of the polytypic group emerald toucanet ( andean ) aulacorhynchus prasinus albivitta / phaeolaemus to southern emerald - toucanet ( andean ) aulacorhynchus albivitta albivitta / phaeolaemus . change the names of the polytypic group emerald toucanet ( black - throated ) aulacorhynchus prasinus [ atrogularis group ] to southern emerald - toucanet ( black - throated ) aulacorhynchus albivitta [ atrogularis group ] .\nbonaccorso , e . , j . m . guayasamin , a . t . peterson , and a . g . navarro - sig\u00fcenza . 2011 . molecular phylogeny and systematics of neotropical toucanets in the genus aulacorhynchus ( aves , ramphastidae ) . zoologica scripta 40 : 336 - 349 .\nmonroe , b . l . , jr . 1968 . a distributional survey of the birds of honduras . ornithological monographs number 7 . american ornithologists\u2019 union .\npeters , j . l . 1948 . check - list of birds of the world . volume vi . harvard university press , cambridge , massachusetts .\npuebla - olivares , f . , e . bonaccorso , a . espinosa de los monteros , k . e . omland , j . e . llorente - bousquets , a . t . peterson , and a . g . navarro - sig\u00fcenza . 2008 . speciation in the emerald toucanet ( aulacorhynchus prasinus ) complex . auk 125 : 39 - 50 .\nwinker , k . 2016 . an examination of species limits in the aulacorhynchus \u201c prasinus \u201d toucanet complex ( aves : ramphastidae ) . peerj 4 : e2381 .\neach of the two monotypic groups of horned parakeet is recognized as a separate species , following juniper and parr ( 1998 ) and boon et al . ( 2014 ) : horned parakeet ( horned ) eunymphicus cornutus cornutus becomes horned parakeet eunymphicus cornutus , and horned parakeet ( ouvea ) eunymphicus cornutus uvaeensis becomes ouvea parakeet eunymphicus uvaeensis .\nboon , w . - m . , o . robinet , n . rawlence , v . bretagnolle , j . a . norman , l . christidis , and g . k . chambers . 2008 . morphological , behavioural , and genetic differentiation within the horned parakeet ( eunymphicus cornutus ) and its affinities to cyanoramphus and prosopeia . emu 108 : 251 - 260 .\njuniper , t . , and m . parr . 1998 . parrots : a guide to parrots of the world . yale university press , new haven , connecticut .\nwe add a new species , the recently described tatama tapaculo scytalopus alvarezlopezi ( stiles et al . 2017 ) , with range \u201cpacific slope of colombian andes ( western antioquia south to southwestern valle del cauca ) \u201d . position tatama tapaculo to immediately follow ecuadorian tapaculo scytalopus robbinsi . tatama tapaculo is the species that long has been known to birders as \u201calto pisones tapaculo\u201d ; alto de pisones is a site at the edge of tamat\u00e1 national park . please note that the validity of this new species has not yet been reviewed by aos - sacc .\nstiles , f . g . , o . laverde - r . , and c . d . cadena . 2017 . a new species of tapaculo ( rhinocryptidae : scytalopus ) from the western andes of colombia . auk 134 : 377 - 392 .\nthe monotypic group cardinal myzomela ( samoan ) myzomela cardinalis nigriventris is elevated to species rank as samoan myzomela myzomela nigriventris , following pratt and mittermeier ( 2016 ) .\npratt , h . d . , and j . c . mittermeier . 2016 . notes on the natural history , taxonomy , and conservation of the endemic avifaua of the samoan archipelago . wilson journal of ornithology 128 : 217 - 241 .\nin accord with aos - nacc ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , northern shrike lanius excubitor is split into two species : great gray shrike lanius excubitor , with subspecies excubitor , homeyeri , and leucopterus ; and northern shrike lanius borealis , with subspecies sibiricus , bianchii , mollis , funereus , and borealis . this split is based on \u201cdifferences in plumage and mtdna ( johnsen et al . 2010 , olsson et al . 2010 , peer et al . 2011 ) \u201d ( chesser et al . 2017 ) ; in particular , northern shrike is more closely related to other species than it is to great gray shrike ( olsson et al . 2010 ) .\njohnsen , a . , e . rindal , p . g . p . ericson , d . zuccon , k . c . r . kerr , m . y . stoeckle , and j . t . lifjeld . 2010 . dna barcoding of scandinavian birds reveals divergent lineages in trans - atlantic species . journal of ornithology 151 : 565\u2013578 .\nolsson , u . , p . alstr\u00f6m , l . svensson , m . aliabadian , and p . sundberg . 2010 . the lanius excubitor ( aves , passeriformes ) conundrum\u2014taxonomic dilemma when molecular and non - molecular data tell different stories . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 55 : 347\u2013357 .\npeer , b . d . , c . e . mcintosh , m . j . kuehn , s . i . rothstein , and r . c . fleischer . 2011 . complex biogeographic history of lanius shrikes and its implications for the evolution of defenses against avian brood parasitism . condor 113 : 385\u2013394 .\nthe extinct genus turnagra , which we previously treated as a single , monotypic species , piopio turnagra capensis , is split into two species , following oliver ( 1955 ) , holdaway et al . ( 2001 ) , and gill et al . ( 2010 ) : a monotypic north island piopio turnagra tanagra , with range \u201cformerly new zealand ( north island ) . extinct ; last confirmed report in 1902\u201d ; and a polytypic south island piopio turnagra capensis , with subspecies minor and capensis .\nadd a previously overlooked subspecies , turnagra capensis minor , with range \u201cformerly new zealand ( stephens island ) . extinct ; last reported 1897\u201d ( gill et al . 2010 ) .\nwith the split of turnagra into two species , and the addition of subspecies minor , revise the range description of nominate capensis from \u201cformerly new zealand . extinct ; last reported 1963\u201d to \u201cformerly new zealand ( south island ) . extinct ; last confirmed report in 1905\u201d .\nholdaway , r . n . , t . h . worthy , and a . j . d . tennyson . 2001 . a working list of breeding bird species of the new zealand region at first human contact . new zealand journal of zoology 28 :\noliver , w . r . b . 1955 . new zealand birds . a . h . & a . w . reed , wellington , new zealand .\nsilktail lamprolia victoriae is split into monotypic species , following andersen et al . ( 2015b , 2017 ) : taveuni silktail lamprolia victoriae , and natewa silktail lamprolia klinesmithi .\nandersen , m . j . , p . a . hosner , c . e filardi , and r . g . moyle . 2015b . phylogeny of the monarch flycatchers reveals extensive paraphyly and novel relationships within a major australo - pacific radiation . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 67 : 336\u2013347 .\nandersen , m . j . , j . d . manthey , a . naikatini , and r . g . moyle . 2017 . conservation genomics of the silktail ( aves : lamprolia victoriae ) suggests the need for increased protection of native forest on the natewa peninsula , fiji . conservation genetics in press : doi : 10 . 1007 / s10592 - 017 - 0979 - x .\nsuperb bird - of - paradise is split into three species , following irestedt et al . ( 2017 ) . confusingly , the name superba also is transferred from one population to another ( irestedt et al . 2017 ) . the resulting species are vogelkop superb bird - of - paradise lophorina niedda , with subspecies niedda and the newly described subspecies inopinata ; greater superb bird - of - paradise lophorina superba , with subspecies superba , addenda , and latipennis ; and a monotypic lesser superb bird - of - paradise lophorina minor .\nunder vogelkop superb bird - of - paradise ( lophorina niedda ) , add a newly described subspecies , lophorina niedda inopinata irestedt et al . 2017 , with range \u201cmountains of the bird\u2019s head peninsula , west papua , new guinea\u201d . insert this subspecies immediately following the entry for the species vogelkop superb bird - of - paradise lophorina niedda . note that the range attributed to this subspecies corresponds to the range formerly attributed to subspecies superba , a name that now is applied to a population in the western highlands of new guinea , and which represents a different species , greater superb bird - of - paradise .\nrevise the range description of subspecies niedda from \u201cw new guinea ( mt . wondiwoi in wandammen peninsula ) \u201d to \u201cmountains of the wandammen peninsula , bird\u2019s neck , west papua , new guinea\u201d .\nregarding greater superb bird - of - paradise ( lophorina superba ) , irestedt et al . ( 2017 ) conclude that the name superba , previously applied to the population in the mountains of the bird\u2019s head peninsula , instead should refer to the population of the central highlands of new guinea . also , subspecies feminina , with range \u201cw new guinea ( weyland mts . to hindenberg mts . ) \u201d , is considered to be a junior synonym of superba ( irestedt et al . 2017 ) . revise the range description of superba from \u201cw new guinea ( arfak and tamrau mountains ) \u201d to \u201cmontane western new guinea , from the kobowre mountains ( west papua , indonesia ) to the sepik - strickland river divide ( western papua new guinea ) \u201d .\nfollowing irestedt et al . ( 2017 ) , resurrect subspecies addenda iredale 1948 , previously considered to be a synomym of feminina ( mayr 1962 ) , with range \u201ceastern ranges of new guinea , from the yuat - strickland river divide and the base of the southeastern peninsula , papua new guinea\u201d . insert subspecies addenda immediately following subspecies superba .\nrevise the range description of subspecies latipennis from \u201ce new guinea ( central and e highlands to mts . of huon pen . ) \u201d to \u201ceastern new guinea ( mountains of the huon peninsula , and presumably also the herzog and adelbert ranges ) \u201d .\nlesser superb bird - of - paradise ( lophorina minor ) is monotypic . subspecies sphinx , known from a single specimen , with range \u201cmountains of extreme se new guinea\u201d , is considered to be a junior synonym of minor ( irestedt et al . 2017 ) , and is deleted . revise the range description of minor from \u201cmountains of se papua new guinea\u201d to \u201csoutheastern papua new guinea ( mountains of the papuan peninsula , west at least to the wharton range ) \u201d .\nirestedt , m . , h . batalha - filho , c . s . roselaar , p . g . p . ericson , l . christidis , and r . schodde . 2017 . phylogeny , biogeography and taxonomic consequences in a bird - of - paradise species complex , lophorina - ptiloris ( aves : paradisaeidae ) . zoological journal of the linnean society in press .\nmayr , e . 1962 . family paradisaeidae , birds of paradise . pages 181 - 204 in e . mayr and j . c . greenway , jr . ( editors ) , check - list of the birds of the world . volume xv . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts .\neach of the two groups in magnifcent riflebird is recognized as a separate species , following beehler and swaby ( 1991 ) , beehler and pratt ( 2016 ) , and irestedt et al . ( 2017 ) : a polytypic magnificent riflebird ptiloris magnificus , including subspecies magnificus and alberti ; and a monotypic growling riflebird ptiloris intercedens .\nbeehler , b . m . , and r . j . swaby . 1991 . phylogeny and biogeography of the ptiloris riflebirds ( aves : paradisaeidae ) . condor 93 : 738 - 745 .\ngarg , k . m . , r . tizard , n . s . r . ng , e . cros , a . dejtaradol , b . chattopadhyay , n . pwint , m . p\u00e4ckert , and f . e . rheindt . 2016 . genome - wide data help identify an avian species - level lineage that is morphologically and vocally cryptic . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 102 : 97 - 103 .\ndickinson , e . c . , and l . christidis . 2014 . the howard & moore complete checklist of the birds of the world . fourth edition . volume 2 . aves press , eastbourne , united kingdom .\nmanawatthana , s . , p . laosinchai , n . onparn , w . y . brockleman , and p . d . round . 2017 . phylogeography of bulbuls in the genus iole ( aves : pycnonotidae ) . biological journal of the linnean society 120 : 931 - 944 .\nrand , a . l . , and h . g . deignan . 1960 . family pycnonotidae . pages 221 - 300 in e . mayr and j . c . greenway , jr . ( editors ) , check - list of birds of the world . volume ix . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts .\ngray - brown white - eye zosterops cinereus is split into two species , following hayes et al . ( 2016 ) : pohnpei white - eye zosterops ponapensis , and kosrae white - eye zosterops cinereus .\nhayes , f . e . , h . d . pratt , and c . j . cianchini . 2016 . the avifauna of kosrae , micronesia : history , status , and taxonomy . pacific science 70 : 91\u2013127 .\nblack - chinned laughingthrush trochalopteron cachinnans does not belong in the genus trochalopteron , but instead is placed in the newly described genus montecincla ( robin et al . 2017 ) . position montecincla immediately following red - tailed laughingthrush trochalopteron milnei . each of the two monotypic groups of black - chinned laughingthrush is elevated to species rank ( praveen and nameer 2012 , robin et al . 2017 ) : black - chinned laughingthrush ( banasura ) trochalopteron cachinnans jerdoni becomes banasura laughingthrush montecincla jerdoni ; and black - chinned laughingthrush ( nilgiri ) trochalopteron cachinnans cachinnans\npraveen , j . , and p . o . nameer . 2012 . strophocincla laughingthrushes of south india : a case for allopatric speciation and impact on their conservation . journal of the bombay natural history society 109 : 46 - 52 .\nrobin , v . v . , c . k . vishnudas , p . gupta , f . e . rheindt , d . h . hooper , u . ramakrishnan , and s . reddy . 2017 . two new genera of songbirds represent endemic radiations from the shola sky islands of the western ghats , india . bmc evolutionary biology 17 : 31 .\nkerala laughingthrush trochalopteron fairbanki does not belong in the genus trochalopteron , but instead is placed in the newly described genus montecincla ( robin et al . 2017 ) . position montecincla immediately following red - tailed laughingthrush trochalopteron milnei . each of the two monotypic groups of kerala laughingthrush is elevated to species rank ( praveen and nameer 2012 , robin et al . 2017 ) : kerala laughingthrush ( palani ) trochalopteron fairbanki fairbanki becomes palani laughingthrush montecincla fairbanki ; and kerala laughingthrush ( travancore ) trochalopteron fairbanki meridionale becomes ashambu laughingthrush montecincla meridionale .\nthe monotypic group blue - throated flycatcher ( chinese ) cyornis rubeculoides glaucicomans is elevated to species rank as chinese blue flycatcher cyornis glaucicomans ( zhang et al . 2015 ) . revise the range description from \u201cs china ( sichuan , guizhou , w hubei and shaanxi ) \u201d to \u201cbreeds southern china ( southern shaanxi and western hubei to sichuan and guizhou ) ; winters southwestern thailand and the thai - malay peninsula\u201d .\nzhang , z . , x . wang , y . huang , u . olsson , j . martinez , p . alstr\u00f6m , and f . lei . 2015 . unexpected divergence and lack of divergence revealed in continental asian cyornis flycatchers ( aves : muscicapidae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 94 : 232 - 241 .\nwhite - tailed rubythroat calliope pectoralis is split into two species , based on liu et al . ( 2016 ) : a polytypic himalayan rubythroat calliope pectoralis , including subspecies pectoralis , confusa , and ballioni ; and a monotypic chinese rubythroat calliope tschebaiewi .\nliu , y . , g . chen , q . huang , c . jia , g . carey , p . leader , y . li , f . zou , x . yang , u . olsson , and p . alstr\u00f6m . 2016 . species delimitation of the white - tailed rubythroat calliope pectoralis complex ( aves , muscicapidae ) using an integrative taxonomic approach . journal of avian biology 47 : 899 - 910 .\nin accord with aos - sacc ( proposal 676 ) , sharp - beaked ground - finch geospiza difficilis is split into three monotypic species , based on lamicchaney et al . ( 2015 ) . aos - sacc has not yet determined english names for these species ; provisionally we use the following nomenclature : vampire ground - finch geospiza septentrionalis ; genovesa ground - finch geospiza acutirostris ; and sharp - beaked ground - finch geospiza difficilis .\nlamichhaney , s . , j . berglund , m . s\u00e4llman alm\u00e9n , k . maqbool , m . grabherr , a . martinez - barrio , m . promerov\u00e1 , c . - j . rubin , c . wang , c . , n . zamani , b . r . grant , p . r . , grant , m . t . webster , and l . andersson . 2015 . evolution of darwin\u2019s finches and their beaks revealed by genome sequencing . nature 518 : 371\u2013375 .\nin accord with aos - sacc ( proposal 676 ) , large cactus - finch geospiza conirostris is split into two species , based on lamicchaney et al . ( 2015 ) . aos - sacc has not yet determined english names for these species ; provisionally we use the following nomenclature : espa\u00f1ola cactus - finch geospiza conirostris , which is monotypic ; and genovesa cactus - finch geospiza propinqua , which includes subspecies propinqua and darwini .\nfriis , g . , p . aleixandre , r . rodriguez - estrella , a . g . navarro - sig\u00fcenza , and b . mil\u00e1 . 2016 . rapid postglacial diversification and long - term stasis within the songbird genus junco : phylogeographic and phylogenomic evidence . molecular ecology 25 : 6175\u20136195 ."]}
{"id": 1665, "summary": [{"text": "diduga annutata is a moth of the arctiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found on sumbawa and borneo .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "adults have pale brown wings with dark brown fasciae . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "diduga annutata", "paragraphs": ["diduga amoenusa bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )\ndiduga nota bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )\ndiduga spinosusa bucsek , 2012 ; malaysia inst . zool . : ( 1 - 170 )\nhave a fact about diduga trichophora ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for diduga trichophora ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a fact about diduga rufidiscalis ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for diduga rufidiscalis ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\ndiduga annulata hampson , 1900 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . , 2 : 539 .\ndiduga annulata ; [ nhm card ] ; [ mob7 ] : 448 , pl . 8 , f . 445\ndiduga excisa hampson , 1918 ; novit . zool . 25 : 107 ; tl : philippines , luzon , los ba\u00f1os\ndiduga metaleuca hampson , 1918 ; novit . zool . 25 : 108 ; tl : philippines , luzon , los ba\u00f1os\ndiduga pectinifer ; [ nhm card ] ; [ mob7 ] : 448 , pl . 8 , f . 7c , 454\ndiduga trichophora ; [ nhm card ] ; [ mob7 ] : 449 , pl . 8 , f . 7d , 450\ndiduga haematomiformis van eecke , 1920 ; zool . meded . 5 ( 13 ) : 126 ; tl : preanger , w . java\ndiduga albicosta is a moth of the family erebidae . it is found in india ( nilgiris ) , sri lanka and on bali .\ndiduga annulata hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 539 , f . 394 ; tl : sambawa\ndiduga ciliata holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 449 , pl . 8 , f . 447 ; tl : pulo laut , borneo\ndiduga trichophora hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 541 , f . 397 ; tl : bali\ndiduga pectinifer hampson , 1900 ; cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 540 , f . 396 ; tl : pulo laut\ndiduga rufidisca hampson , 1898 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 11 ( 3 ) : 439 ; tl : assam , khasis\ndiduga barlowi holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 449 , pl . 8 , f . 448 ; tl : brunei , 300m , ulu temburong\ndiduga plumosa hampson , 1911 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 8 ( 46 ) : 406 ; tl : sumbawa , tambora\nselect a genera blavia walker - blavia caliginosia walker chrysoscota hampson - chrysoscota brunnea swinhoe - chrysoscota cotriangulata sp . n . stictane hampson gen . rev . - stictane serrata sp . n . - stictane parvipectinata sp . n . - stictane ciliata sp . n . - stictane filiformis sp . n . - stictane pectinata sp . n . - stictane muara sp . n . narosodes moore - narosodes punctana walker - narosodes hampsoni draudt tampea snellen - tampea reversa walker - tampea accepta butler comb . n . - tampea nodosa sp . n . - tampea sp . 2053 neoduma hampson - neoduma ectozona hampson tospitis walker - tospitis nulliferana walker darantasia walker - darantasia cuneiplena walker - darantasia seria sp . n . heliosia hampson - heliosia monosticta hampson stictosia hampson - stictosia flexilisana walker - stictosia flava van eecke comb . n . - stictosia crocea sp . n . - stictosia decubitana walker stat . rev . eurosia hampson - eurosia melanopera hampson diduga moore - diduga annulata hampson - diduga pectinifer hampson - diduga trichophora hampson - diduga dorsolobata sp . n . - diduga ciliata sp . n . - diduga barlowi sp . n . hemonia walker - hemonia orbiferana walker - hemonia rotundata snellen\ndiduga dorsolobata holloway , 2001 ; [ mob7 ] : 449 , pl . 8 , f . 446 ; tl : sabah , poring , 1800ft , e of mt kinabalu\ndiduga albicosta hampson , 1891 ; ill . typical spec . lep . het . colln br . mus . 8 : 53 , pl . 140 , f . 17 ; tl : nilgiri plateau\ndiduga plumosa ; hampson , 1914 , cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 810 , pl . 41 , f . 36 ; [ nhm card ]\ndiduga costata ; [ nhm card ] ; [ mob7 ] , 448 ( note ) ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 34\ndiduga albida hampson , 1914 ; cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . ( suppl . ) 1 : 810 , 2 pl . 42 , f . 1 ; tl : dutch new guinea , mimika r .\ndiduga fumipennis ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 542 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 34\ndiduga rufidisca ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 542 , pl . 33 , f . 17 ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 34\ndiduga albicosta ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 540 , f . 395 ; [ nhm card ] ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 33\ndiduga flavicostata is a moth of the family erebidae . it is found on java , as well as in australia ( the northern territory ) , india , sri lanka , burma , malaysia , china ( jiangxi , taiwan , fujian , guangxi , hainan , sichuan , yunnan ) and japan .\ndiduga flavicostata ; hampson , 1900 , cat . lep . phalaenae br . mus . 2 : 541 , f . 398 ; [ nhm card ] ; [ aucl ] ; [ mob7 ] , 448 ( note ) ; singh , singh & joshi , 2014 , rec . zool . survey india . occ . pap 367 : 34\nthis is one of the paler brown species with dark brown fasciae , the postmedial irregularly but strongly sinuous , and strong stigmata , the reniform a small circle . the male antennae are bipectinate .\nthe genitalia resemble those of the holotype except the aedeagus is shorter . in the abdomen , the apodemes of the eighth tergite are well separate rather than fused in a \u2018y\u2019 and there are conspicuous hair pencils on the intersegmental membrane that were not noted in the holotype . further material is needed to assess the conspecificity of the bornean population with that from sumbawa .\npaidia fumipennis hampson , 1891 ; ill . typical spec . lep . het . colln br . mus . 8 : 52 , pl . 140 , f . 7 ; tl : nilgiri plateau , 7000ft\nbali , java , sumatra , borneo , s . burma . see [ maps ]\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nstudien over indo - australische lepidoptera . iv . bijdrage tot de kennis der heterocera - fauna der ost - indische kolonien\nillustrations of typical specimens of lepidoptera heterocera in the collection of the british museum . part 8 . the lepidoptera of heterocera of the nilgiri district\nillustrations of typical specimens of lepidoptera heterocera in the collection of the british museum . part 9 . the macrolepidoptera heterocera of ceylon\nthe moths of india . supplementary paper to the volumes in\nthe fauna of british india\n. part i - ii\nsnellen , 1879 lepidoptera van celebes verzameld door mr . m . c . piepers , met aanteekeningen en beschrijving der nieuwe soorten tijdschr . ent . 22 : 61 - 126 , pl . 6 - 10\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nsumbawa is an indonesian island , in the middle of the lesser sunda islands chain , with lombok to the west , flores to the east , and sumba further to the southeast .\nalas strait separates lombok and sumbawa , two islands of indonesia in west nusa tenggara province .\nalor ( pulau alor ) is the largest island in the alor archipelago located at the eastern lesser sunda islands that runs through southeastern indonesia , which from the west include such islands as bali , lombok , sumbawa , komodo , and flores .\nthe amboina box turtle ( cuora amboinensis ) , or southeast asian box turtle is a species of asian box turtle .\namphidromus perversus is a species of air - breathing land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family camaenidae .\nthe asian paradise flycatcher ( terpsiphone paradisi ) is a medium - sized passerine bird native to asia that is widely distributed .\nthe water monitor ( varanus salvator ) is a large lizard native to south and southeast asia .\natalaya is a genus of eighteen species of trees and shrubs known to science , of the plant family sapindaceae .\nthe australasian zone is an ecological region that is coincident , but not synonymous ( by some definitions ) , with the geographic region of australasia .\nthe kingdom of bali refer to a series of hindu - buddhist kingdoms that once ruled some parts of the volcanic island of bali , in lesser sunda islands , indonesia .\nthe bali sea ( laut bali ) is the body of water north of the island of bali and south of kangean island in indonesia .\nthe bali\u2013sasak languages are a group of closely related languages spoken in the western lesser sunda islands ( bali and west nusa tenggara ) .\nthe barred dove , ( geopelia maugei ) is a small dove which is native and endemic to the lesser sunda islands in indonesia .\nthe batu hijau mine is an open pit copper - gold mine operated by newmont mining corporation ' s subsidiary company pt newmont nusa tenggara ( pt newmont ) .\nbibasis sena , commonly known as the orange - tailed awl , is a butterfly belonging to the family hesperiidae .\nbima ( indonesia : kota bima ) is a city on the eastern coast of the island of sumbawa in central indonesia ' s province west nusa tenggara .\nbima bay ( indonesian : teluk bima ) is a major waterway on the north side of the island of sumbawa , and is adjacent to bima city and bima regency ( formerly sultanate of bima ) .\nthe bima language , or bimanese , is the language of the eastern half of sumbawa island , indonesia , which it shares with the sumbawa language .\nbima regency is a regency ( kabupaten ) of the indonesian province of west nusa tenggara .\nthe bima sultanate was a muslim state in the eastern part of sumbawa in indonesia , at the site of the present - day regency of bima .\nboiga cynodon , commonly known as the dog - toothed cat snake , is a nocturnal species of rear - fanged colubrid snake endemic to asia .\nthe borders of the oceans are the limits of the earth ' s oceanic waters .\nthe burmese python ( python bivittatus ) is one of the five largest species of snakes in the world ( about the third - largest as measured either by length or weight ) .\na caldera is a cauldron - like volcanic feature usually formed by the collapse of land , following a volcanic eruption .\nthe common pierrot ( castalius rosimon ) marrku savela ' s website on lepidoptera evans , w . h . ( 1932 ) the identification of indian butterflies , ser no h11 . 1 , pp 214 is a small butterfly found in south asia that belongs to the lycaenids , or blues family .\ncempi bay ( indonesian : teluk cempi ) or cempi gulf is a bay which borders the southern part of dompu regency of sumbawa island facing the indian ocean .\ncentral lombok regency is a regency ( kabupaten ) of the indonesian province of west nusa tenggara .\nthe central\u2013eastern malayo - polynesian ( cemp ) languages form a putative branch of the nuclear malayo - polynesian languages consisting of over 700 languages .\nthe red lacewing ( cethosia biblis ) is a species of heliconiine butterfly belonging to the nymphalidae family .\nchristianity in indonesia is the country ' s second - largest religion , after islam .\nclaoxylon is a flowering plant genus in the spurge family , euphorbiaceae , comprising dioecious subshrubs to small trees .\ncocos malays are a community that form the predominant group of the cocos ( keeling ) islands , which is now part of australia .\na crater lake is a lake that forms in a volcanic crater or caldera , such as a maar ; less commonly and with lower association to the term a lake may form in an impact crater caused by a meteorite , or in an artificial explosion caused by humans .\ncultural properties of indonesia are those items defined by indonesian law as of\nimportant value for history , science , and culture\n, and include both man - made artefacts and natural objects .\nthe cylindrophiidae are a monotypic family of nonvenomous snakes containing the genus cylindrophis found in asia .\ndalem baturenggong , also called waturenggong or enggong , was a king ( dalem ) of bali who is believed to have reigned in the mid 16th century .\ndalem di made was a king of bali who may have reigned in the period 1623\u20131642 .\ndalem seganing was a king of bali who reigned in the first half of the 17th century , his exact dating being still uncertain .\ndammerman ' s wart frog , limnonectes dammermani , is a species of frog in the dicroglossidae family endemic to the lesser sunda islands of indonesia , where it can be found on flores , sumbawa , and lombok .\nbanded blue pierrot discolampa ethionmarrku savela ' s website on lepidoptera is a contrastingly marked butterfly found in south asia that belongs to the blues or lycaenidae family .\ndompu ( indonesia : kota dompu ) is a town and the administrative capital of the dompu regency , located in the eastern part of the island of sumbawa , in central indonesia ' s province of west nusa tenggara .\ndompu regency is a regency ( kabupaten ) of the indonesian province of west nusa tenggara .\nthe dutch east indies ( or netherlands east indies ; nederlands - indi\u00eb ; hindia belanda ) was a dutch colony that became modern indonesia following world war ii .\ndysoxylum is a flowering plant genus of trees and shrubs , constituting part of the mahogany family ( meliaceae ) .\neast lombok regency is a regency ( kabupaten ) of the indonesian province of west nusa tenggara .\nthe extreme weather events of 535\u2013536 were the most severe and protracted short - term episodes of cooling in the northern hemisphere in the last 2 , 000 years .\nflores is one of the lesser sunda islands , an island arc with an estimated area of 14 , 300 km\u00b2 extending east from the java island of indonesia .\nthe flores green pigeon ( treron floris ) is a species of bird in the columbidae family .\nthe flores hawk - eagle ( nisaetus floris , formerly spizaetus floris ) , is a long raptor in the family accipitridae .\ngelgel is a village ( desa ) that is situated in the regency ( kabupaten ) of klungkung , on the island of bali , indonesia .\nindonesia is an archipelagic island country in southeast asia , lying between the indian ocean and the pacific ocean .\nvenezuela is a country in south america , and part of caribbean south america , bordering the caribbean sea and the north atlantic ocean , \u2116 between colombia and guyana .\nthe gili islands ( tiga gili , kepulauan gili ) are an archipelago of three small islands \u2014 gili trawangan , gili meno and gili air \u2014 just off the northwest coast of lombok , indonesia .\ngoniobranchus kuniei is a species of very colorful sea slug , a dorid nudibranch , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family chromodorididae .\nthe great jay ( graphium eurypylus ) , also known as the pale green triangle , is a species of tropical butterfly belonging to the papilionidae family .\nhasora taminatus , tol web page on marrku savela ' s website on lepidoptera .\nthe history of bali covers a period from the paleolithic to the present , and is characterized by migrations of people and cultures from other parts of asia .\nhms tiptoe ( pennant number p332 ) was a british submarine of the third group of the t class .\nhorsfield ' s fruit bat ( cynopterus horsfieldii ) is a species of megabat native to south east asia .\nhylarana florensis , commonly known as the floresian frog or flores frog , is a species of true frog in the genus hylarana .\nhypselodoris bullockii is a species of colorful sea slug or dorid nudibranch , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family chromodorididae .\nthe following is an alphabetical list of topics related to the republic of indonesia .\nwas the third of six vessels in the of light cruisers , and like other vessels of her class , she was intended for use as the flagship of a destroyer flotilla .\nwas the third and final vessel in the of medium - sized minelayers of the imperial japanese navy , which was in service during world war ii .\nthe javan spitting cobra ( naja sputatrix ) also called the southern indonesian cobra , or indonesian cobra , is a stocky and highly venomous species of spitting cobra native to indonesia .\nkomodo is one of the 17 , 508 islands that compose the republic of indonesia .\nkrakatoa , east of java is a 1969 american disaster film starring maximilian schell and brian keith .\nlabuhan lombok is a port town in eastern lombok , indonesia , 74 kilometres east of the city of mataram .\nthere is a wide variety of languages spoken throughout asia , comprising a number of families and some unrelated isolates .\nlast man standing and latterly last woman standing ( known in the united states as last one standing and also known by the discovery channel title of six versus the world ) is a bbc reality tv show that was first aired on 26 june 2007 .\nlava is the molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruption and the resulting rock after solidification and cooling .\nthe lesser sunda islands or nusa tenggara (\nsoutheastern islands\n) are a group of islands in maritime southeast asia , north of australia .\nthe following is a list of globally significant earthquakes during the 21st century , listing earthquakes of magnitude 7 and above , or which caused fatalities .\nbeaches in indonesia are extensive , characterized by coral reefs , deposits from volcanoes , rich marine biodiversity , strong ocean currents , and associated with diverse cultural traditions .\nthis is a list of reigning constituent monarchs , including traditional rulers and governing constitutional monarchs .\nthis page gives a list of domestic animals , also including a list of animals which are or may be undergoing the process of domestication and animals that have an extensive relationship with humans beyond simple predation .\nthis is a list of the horse breeds usually considered to be native to indonesia .\nthis list of indonesian islands by area includes all indonesian islands in descending order by area .\nthis list of islands by area includes all islands in the world greater than 2 , 500 km2 and several other islands over 500 km2 , sorted in descending order by area .\nthis is a list of islands in the world ordered by their highest point .\naccording to a 2002 survey by national institute of aeronautics and space ( lapan ) , the indonesian archipelago has 18 , 307 islands .\nnatural disasters in indonesia can usefully be divided into major disasters , medium level disasters , and lesser disasters which although causing less damage are very common across indonesia .\nthe list of shipwrecks in 2014 includes all ships sunk , foundered , grounded , or otherwise lost during 2014 .\nthe list of shipwrecks in february 1942 includes all ships sunk , foundered , grounded , or otherwise lost during february 1942 .\nthis is a list of ultra prominent peaks ( with topographic prominence greater than 1 , 500 metres ) in the malay archipelago .\nthe geography of indonesia is dominated by volcanoes that are formed due to subduction zones between the eurasian plate and the indo - australian plate .\nlombok institute of flight technology , also known as lift , is an indonesian higher learning institution specializing in theoretical and practical aeronautical science education .\nlombok international airport ( bandar udara internasional lombok ) is a new airport on the island of lombok in indonesia .\nlycodon capucinus , also known as the common wolf snake , is a species of colubrid snake , which is commonly found in the indo - australian archipelago .\nmakassan trepangers from the southwest corner of sulawesi visited the coast of northern australia\nfrom at least the eighteenth century\nto collect and process trepang ( also known as sea cucumber ) , a marine invertebrate prized for its culinary and medicinal values in chinese markets .\nthe manggarai are an ethnic group found in western flores in the east nusa tenggara province , indonesia .\nmataram ( indonesian : kota mataram ) is the capital of the indonesian province of west nusa tenggara .\nm\u00fcllenbach is an ortsgemeinde \u2013 a municipality belonging to a verbandsgemeinde , a kind of collective municipality \u2013 in the cochem - zell district in rhineland - palatinate , germany .\nnot to be confused with pulau medang , senayang , lingga islands medang island ( indonesian : pulau medang ) is an island off the north coast of sumbawa , west of moyo island , in the flores sea .\nthe milky stork ( mycteria cinerea ) is a large wading bird in the stork family ciconiidae .\nmount rinjani or gunung rinjani is an active volcano in indonesia on the island of lombok .\nmount tambora ( or tamboro ) is an active stratovolcano which is a peninsula of the island of sumbawa in indonesia .\nmoyo ( older spelling mojo ) is an island in indonesia ' s west nusa tenggara province .\nnewmont mining corporation , based in greenwood village , colorado , usa , is one of the world ' s largest producers of gold , with active mines in nevada , indonesia , australia , new zealand , ghana and peru .\nnorth lombok regency ( kabupaten lombok utara ) is a ' ' kabupaten ' ' of the indonesian province of west nusa tenggara .\nthe nuclear malayo - polynesian languages are a branch of the austronesian family , proposed by wouk & ross ( 2002 ) , that are thought to have dispersed from a possible homeland in sulawesi .\nthe common rose ( pachliopta aristolochiae ) is a swallowtail butterfly belonging to the pachliopta genus , the roses , or red - bodied swallowtails .\nthe palapa oath ( sumpah palapa ) was an oath taken by gajah mada , a 14th - century prime minister of the javanese majapahit empire described in the pararaton ( book of kings ) .\nthe papuan languages are those languages of the western pacific island of new guinea , and neighbouring islands , that are neither austronesian nor australian .\npersebi stands for persatuan sepakbola bima ( en : football association of bima ) .\npersisum stand for persatuan sepakbola indonesia sumbawa ( en : football association of indonesia sumbawa ) .\npetrus albertus van der parra ( 29 september 1714 \u2013 28 december 1775 ) was governor - general of the dutch east indies from 1761 to 1775 .\nporphyry copper deposits are copper orebodies that are formed from hydrothermal fluids that originate from a voluminous magma chamber several kilometers below the deposit itself .\npt newmont nusa tenggara is a subsidiary company of newmont mining corporation that operates their batu hijau mine in indonesia on the island of sumbawa .\nraba ( indonesia : kota raba ) is a city in the bima regency , on the eastern part of the island of sumbawa , in central indonesia ' s province west nusa tenggara .\nramphotyphlops braminus is a blind snake species found mostly in africa and asia , but has been introduced in many other parts of the world .\nrattan ( from the malay rotan ) is the name for the roughly 600 species of palms in the tribe calameae ( greek ' k\u00e1lamos ' .\nthe reticulated python ( python reticulatus ) is a species of python found in southeast asia .\nthe rufous - bellied hawk - eagle ( lophotriorchis kienerii ) is a bird of prey in the family accipitridae that is found in the forested regions of tropical asia .\nthe sabalana islands ( kepulauan sabalana ) are an atoll in the flores sea in indonesia , lying just north of the lesser sunda islands , closer to sumbawa than sulawesi .\nsail indonesia is a series of sailing and other events for yachts conducted each year in indonesia .\nsaleh bay ( indonesian : teluk saleh ) is the largest bay in the island of sumbawa , indonesia , roughly on the north central part .\nsangeang api ( gunung api or gunung sangeang ) is an active complex volcano on the island of sangeang in indonesia .\nsanggar bay ( indonesian : teluk sanggar ) is a major bay on the island of sumbawa , southwest of the sanggar peninsula and mount tambora .\nthe sape strait ( indonesian : selat sape ) or sapie strait is a strait connecting the flores sea to the sumba strait .\nthe sasak language is spoken by the sasak ethnic group , which make up the majority of the population of lombok , indonesia .\nthe sasak people live mainly on the island of lombok , indonesia , numbering around 3 . 6 million ( 85 % of lombok ' s population ) . they are related to the balinese in language and race , although the sasak are predominantly muslim while the balinese are hindu .\nsavu ( also known as sawu , sabu , sawoe , havu , hawu , hawoe ) is the largest of a group of three islands , situated midway between sumba and rote , west of timor , in indonesia ' s eastern province , east nusa tenggara .\nthe savu sea ( or the sawu sea ) is a small sea within indonesia named for the island of savu ( sawu ) on its southern boundary .\nthe scaly thrush ( zoothera dauma ) is a member of the thrush family turdidae .\nshirakiopsis is a genus of flowering plants in the family euphorbiaceae first described as a genus in 1999 .\nsongket is a fabric that belongs to the brocade family of textiles of indonesia , malaysia and brunei .\nthe state of east indonesia ( negara indonesia timur , old spelling : negara indonesia timoer ) was a post - world war ii federal state ( negara bagian ) formed in eastern netherlands east indies by the netherlands in 1948 .\na stratovolcano , also known as a composite volcano , is a conical volcano built up by many layers ( strata ) of hardened lava , tephra , pumice , and volcanic ash .\nsultan muhammad salahudin airport , also known as bima airport , is an airport located at in the southern outskirt of bima , on the island of sumbawa , west nusa tenggara , indonesia .\nsumba ( pulau sumba ) is an island in eastern indonesia , is one of the lesser sunda islands , and is in the province of east nusa tenggara .\nthe sumba pony and sumbawa pony are named after the islands on which they are bred - - sumba and sumbawa island respectively .\nthe sumba\u2013flores languages , approximately synonymous with bima\u2013sumba , are a proposed group of austronesian languages ( geographically central\u2013eastern malayo - polynesian languages ) spoken on and around the islands of sumbawa ( eastern ) , sumba , and western\u2013central flores in the lesser sundas .\nsumbawa besar is a town with 56 , 337 inhabitants at the 2010 census on the indonesian island of sumbawa .\nsumbawa ( sumbawarese ) is the language of the western half of sumbawa island , indonesia , which it shares with bima .\nsumbawa or samawa people are an ethnic group of people who live in the western and central region of sumbawa island , which comprises west sumbawa regency and sumbawa regency .\nsumbawa regency ( kabupaten sumbawa ) is a regency ( kabupaten ) of the indonesian province of west nusa tenggara .\nthe sunda arc is a volcanic arc that produced the islands of sumatra and java , the sunda strait and the lesser sunda islands .\nthe sunda megathrust is a fault that extends approximately 5 , 500 km ( 3300 mi ) from myanmar ( burma ) in the north , running along the southwestern side of sumatra , to the south of java and bali before terminating near australia .\nsundacarpus is a genus of conifers containing a single species sundacarpus amarus , belonging to the family podocarpaceae .\nthe sunset lorikeet ( trichoglossus forsteni ) , also known as the scarlet - breasted lorikeet or forsten ' s lorikeet , is a species of parrot that is endemic to the indonesian islands of bali , lombok , sumbawa , tanahjampea ( between sulawesi and flores ) , and kalaotoa ( between sulawesi and flores ) .\na supervolcano is any volcano capable of producing a volcanic eruption with an ejecta mass greater than 1015 kg .\ntaliwang ( indonesia : kota taliwang ) is a town in the west sumbawa regency , on the western cost of the island of sumbawa , in central indonesia ' s province west nusa tenggara .\ntambora is a lost village and culture on sumbawa island buried by ash and pyroclastic flows from the massive 1815 eruption of mount tambora .\ntambora is the poorly attested non - austronesian ( papuan ) language of the tambora culture of central sumbawa , in what is now indonesia , which was wiped out by the 1815 eruption of mount tambora .\ntelephone numbers in indonesia have different systems for land lines and mobile phones : land lines use area codes , while mobile phones do not .\nthe tengah islands are a group of islands in the flores sea in indonesia , lying just north of the lesser sunda islands , scattered off the north coast of mount tambora in sumbawa .\nthis is a timeline of indonesian history , comprising important legal and territorial changes and political events in indonesia and its predecessor states .\ntourism in indonesia is an important component of the indonesian economy as well as a significant source of its foreign exchange revenues .\npt transnusa aviation mandiri , operating as transnusa air services , usually shortened to transnusa , is an indonesian domestic airline serving the east of indonesia , mainly nusa tenggara and southern sulawesi .\ntravira air ( iata : tr ) is an airline based in jakarta , indonesia .\ntrigonopterus aeneomicans is a species of flightless weevil in the genus trigonopterus from indonesia .\ntrigonopterus allotopus is a species of flightless weevil in the genus trigonopterus from indonesia .\ntrigonopterus cupreus is a species of flightless weevil in the genus trigonopterus from indonesia .\ntrigonopterus dacrycarpi is a species of flightless weevil in the genus trigonopterus from indonesia .\ntrigonopterus parasumbawensis is a species of flightless weevil in the genus trigonopterus from indonesia .\ntrigonopterus pauxillus is a species of flightless weevil in the genus trigonopterus from indonesia .\ntrimeresurus is a genus of venomous pit vipers found in asia from the indian subcontinent throughout southeast asia , china and the pacific islands .\nthe white - lipped pit viper ( trimeresurus albolabris ) is a venomous pit viper species endemic to southeast asia .\ntrimeresurus albolabris insularis is a venomous pit viper subspecies found in indonesia and east timor .\nthe haliphron birdwing ( troides haliphron ) is a birdwing butterfly confined to sulawesi and the lesser sunda islands .\nthe common birdwing ( troides helena ) is a butterfly belonging to the family papilionidae .\nuss paul jones ( dd - 230 / ag\u2013120 ) was a ' ' clemson ' ' - class destroyer in the united states navy during world war ii .\nvolcanology of canada includes lava flows , lava plateaus , lava domes , cinder cones , stratovolcanoes , shield volcanoes , submarine volcanoes , calderas , diatremes , and maars , along with examples of more less common volcanic forms such as tuyas and subglacial mounds .\nwallacea is a biogeographical designation for a group of mainly indonesian islands separated by deep water straits from the asian and australian continental shelves .\nthe wallacean drongo or greater wallacean drongo ( dicrurus densus ) is a species of bird in the dicruridae family .\nwaworada bay or waworada gulf ( indonesian : teluk waworada ) is a slender bay facing the indian ocean on sumbawa island , in the bima regency of the indonesian province of west nusa tenggara .\nwest lombok regency ( kabupaten lombok barat ) is a regency ( kabupaten of the indonesian province of west nusa tenggara . it is located on the island of lombok and the capital is gerung .\nwest nusa tenggara ( nusa tenggara barat \u2013 ntb ) is a province of indonesia .\nwest nusa tenggara state museum ( indonesian museum negeri nusa tenggara barat ) is a state museum located in mataram , lombok island , indonesia .\nwest sumbawa regency ( kabupaten sumbawa barat ) is a regency ( kabupaten ) of the indonesian province of west nusa tenggara .\nthe white - faced heron ( egretta novaehollandiae ) also known as the white - fronted heron , and incorrectly as the grey heron , or blue crane , is a common bird throughout most of australasia , including new guinea , the islands of torres strait , indonesia , new zealand , the islands of the subantarctic , and all but the driest areas of australia .\nwoha is the capital of the bima regency , on the eastern part of the island of sumbawa , in central indonesia ' s province west nusa tenggara .\nthe year 1816 is known as the year without a summer ( also the poverty year , the summer that never was , year there was no summer , and eighteen hundred and froze to death ) , because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0 . 4\u20130 . 7 \u00b0c ( 0 . 7\u20131 . 3 \u00b0f ) .\nthe yellow - crested cockatoo ( cacatua sulphurea ) also known as the lesser sulphur - crested cockatoo , is a medium - sized ( approximately 34 cm long ) cockatoo with white plumage , bluish - white bare orbital skin , grey feet , a black bill , and a retractile yellow or orange crest .\nthe zebra dove ( geopelia striata ) also known as barred ground dove , is a bird of the dove family columbidae , native to southeast asia .\nthe meridian 117\u00b0 east of greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the north pole across the arctic ocean , asia , the indian ocean , australasia , the southern ocean , and antarctica to the south pole .\nthe meridian 118\u00b0 east of greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the north pole across the arctic ocean , asia , the indian ocean , australasia , the southern ocean , and antarctica to the south pole .\nthe meridian 119\u00b0 east of greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the north pole across the arctic ocean , asia , the indian ocean , australasia , the southern ocean , and antarctica to the south pole .\nthe 1815 eruption of mount tambora , on the island of sumbawa in indonesia , was one of the most powerful in recorded history and is classified as a vei - 7 event .\nthe year 1815 in science and technology involved some significant events , listed below .\nthe 1917 bali earthquake occurred at 06 : 50 local time on 21 january ( 23 : 11 on 20 january utc ) .\nthe 1977 sumba earthquake ( also called the sumbawa earthquake ) occurred approximately south of bima , sumbawa , and beneath the indian ocean , at .\nthe 1994 java earthquake occurred on june 3 at off the coast of indonesia .\nthe 19th century ( 1 january 1801 \u2013 31 december 1900 ) was the century marked by the collapse of the spanish , first and second french , chinese , holy roman and mughal empires .\nthe 8th parallel south is a circle of latitude that is 8 degrees south of the earth ' s equatorial plane .\nthe 9th parallel south is a circle of latitude that is 9 degrees south of the earth ' s equatorial plane .\nunionpedia is a concept map or semantic network organized like an encyclopedia \u2013 dictionary . it gives a brief definition of each concept and its relationships .\nall the information was extracted from wikipedia , and it ' s available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license .\ngoogle play , android and the google play logo are trademarks of google inc .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndidugua argentilinea , the silvered prominent , is a species of prominent moth in the family notodontidae .\ndharuggi - rajgan is a village situated in the union council mulhal mughlan chakwal district of the punjab province , pakistan .\ndhuggar is a village in nakodar in jalandhar district of punjab state , india . it is located 19 km from nakodar , 56 km from kapurthala , 43 km from district headquarter jalandhar and 169 km from state capital chandigarh .\ndidugu is a village in guntur district of the indian state of andhra pradesh . it is located in amaravati mandal of guntur revenue division .\nthe deryni novels are a series of historical fantasy novels by the american author katherine kurtz .\ngithub is home to over 28 million developers working together to host and review code , manage projects , and build software together .\nyou signed in with another tab or window . reload to refresh your session .\nyou signed out in another tab or window . reload to refresh your session ."]}
{"id": 1673, "summary": [{"text": "pupina complanata is a species of land snail with an operculum , a terrestrial gastropod mollusk in the family pupinidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this species is found in the marshall islands and micronesia . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "pupina complanata", "paragraphs": ["how can i put and write and define pupina complanata in a sentence and how is the word pupina complanata used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528pupina complanata\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528pupina complanata\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528pupina complanata\u9020\u53e5 , pupina complanata meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\n\n' pupina complanata\n' is a species of land snail with an terrestrial gastropod mollusk in the family pupinidae .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nevi , an amazon company , was founded in 2005 under the name true knowledge . the team started out with a mission to make it possible to access the world ' s knowledge simply by asking for information using natural language .\nwe\u2019re part of the amazon alexa team based in amazon ' s innovative cambridge development centre , alongside other amazon teams including prime air , core machine learning , amazon devices and amazon web services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\n- note : several protected species are illustrated here only for identification purposes . they are not for sale . - the photos in our gallery are in most cases just a sample from our stock , except when only one specimen is offered . we try to match the original color but it can vary if your screen is not correctly adjusted ( gamma correction ) .\nmaggie whitson set\nlocality :\nas an exemplar on\npupinidae\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations ."]}
{"id": 1676, "summary": [{"text": "sanfilippodytes bertae , or bert 's predaceous diving beetle , is listed as an endangered species of beetle currently residing in southern alberta , canada , and is protected under the federal species at risk act .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it has no current subspecies .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the species belongs to the taxonomy of arthropods , kingdom animalia , class insecta , order coleoptera , superfamily dytiscoidea and family dytiscidae . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "sanfilippodytes bertae", "paragraphs": ["recovery strategy for the bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle ( sanfilippodytes bertae ) in canada .\nfigure 4 . global geographic locations of sanfilippodytes bertae ( map courtesy of ottomm education ) .\nfigure 5 . geographic locations of sanfilippodytes bertae captures in southern alberta , canada ( map courtesy of ottomm education ) .\n\u00e9galement disponible en fran\u00e7ais sous le titre \u00e9valuation et rapport de situation du cosepac sur l\u2019hydropore de bertha ( sanfilippodytes bertae ) au canada .\nrecovery strategy for the bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle ( sanfilippodytes bertae ) in canada . : en3 - 4 / 251 - 2017e - pdf - government of canada publications - urltoken\nrecovery strategy for the bert ' s predaceous diving beetle ( sanfilippodytes bertae ) in canada\n( 2017 - 02 - 17 ) ( pdf format , 592 . 63 kb )\nissued also in french under title : programme de r\u00e9tablissement de l\u2019hydropore de bertha ( sanfilippodytes bertae ) au canada . cover title . includes bibliographical references ( p . 18 - 19 ) .\ncosewic . 2009 . cosewic assessment and status report on the bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle sanfilippodytes bertae in canada . committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada . ottawa . vii + 27 pp .\nrecovery strategy for the bert ' s predaceous diving beetle ( sanfilippodytes bertae ) in canada [ proposed ]\n( 2016 - 02 - 26 ) ( pdf format , 588 . 79 kb )\nfigure 3 . sanfilippodytes , s . pacificus \u2013group and s . vilis \u2013group ( in part ) . male aedeagus\ncosewic . 2009 . cosewic assessment and status report on the berts predaceous diving beetle sanfilippodytes bertae in canada . committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada . ottawa . vii + 27 pp . online . available : urltoken\nfigure 1 . sanfilippodytes bertae specimen showing dorsal features collected near fort macleod , ab from j . b . wallis entomology collection at the university of manitoba , winnipeg , manitoba , canada . ( photo courtesy of r . e . roughley , university of manitoba . )\nfigure 2 . sanfilippodytes bertae specimen showing dorsal features collected near fort macleod , ab from j . b . wallis entomology collection at the university of manitoba , winnipeg , manitoba , canada . ( photo courtesy of r . e . roughley , university of manitoba . )\nsanfilippodytes bertae is currently not globally or regionally listed . the new locality for bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle is immediately south of head\u2013smashed\u2013in buffalo jump , a unesco world heritage site . almost certainly this locality shares the groundwater system with the unesco site but there is no specific protection .\nfigure 3 . sanfilippodytes , s . pacificus \u2013group and s . vilis \u2013group ( in part ) . male aedeagus . sets of three consecutive letters indicate dorsal , ventral and lateral views . for s . bertae , g = dorsal , h = ventral and i = lateral .\nproduction note : cosewic acknowledges the late dr . robert e . roughley and also jennie a . knopp for writing the status report on bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle , sanfilippodytes bertae , prepared under contract with environment canada . this report was overseen and edited by paul catling , co\u2013chair , cosewic arthropods specialist subcommittee .\nall beetles undergo complete and radical metamorphosis with four discrete and distinctive stages \u2013 egg , larval , pupal and adult stages . based on what is known about the biology of other species of predaceous diving beetles ( larson et al . 2000 ) , the egg , larval and adult stages are aquatic and are found in the hydrosphere . the pupal stage occurs in a nearby terrestrial , and dry , part of the habitat . there have been no life history studies published concerning s . bertae ( roughley and larson 2000 ) or any other species within the genus sanfilippodytes ( franciscolo 1979 , larson 2000 ) .\nin addition to the search effort described under \u201cpopulation sizes and trends \u2013 search effort\u201d as part of this report , there has been extensive survey of museum collections and field work in the prairie provinces in connection with the national research council of canada monograph on the diving beetles of canada ( larson et al . 2000 ) of which the report writer is a co\u2013author . specifically this work involved in all collections with substantial holdings of canadian material including 42 collections ( listed by larson et al . 2000 , p . xiii ) . many species equally small and equally inconspicuous as s . bertae are included in this monograph , and they are widespread with extensive distributions and often less specific habitat requirements . field work by entomologists studying springs has been extensive involving the visitation of many hundreds of sites in the prairie region alone , and although not all of the habitat of s . bertae has been surveyed , enough has been surveyed to allow some reliable conclusions to be drawn . consequently information on the distribution , status and habitat of s . bertae in canada presented here is considered reliable .\nfigure 14 . south bank of the oldman river immediately east of the highway 2 bridge ( in background ) , west of fort macleod ( facing west ) . note massive snow plow scoop wedged into the bank . the spring and seep habitat required by s . bertae is so small that such anthropogenic disturbances could completely destroy the habitat . ( photo courtesy of jennie knopp . )\nfigure 15 . south bank of the oldman river , immediately east of the highway 811 bridge ( in background ) , east side of the town of fort macleod ( facing southwest ) . note manmade mesh bank armouring , likely to protect the bank from natural erosion forces . the spring and seep habitat required by s . bertae is so small that such anthropogenic disturbances could completely destroy the habitat . ( photo courtesy of jennie knopp . )\nthere is no evidence of the length of time required for the larvae to develop , pupate and emerge as adults , other than the observation of timing of collection of adults . there is also no evidence to suggest that the life cycle of s . bertae is anything but annual and likely involves spring breeding and oviposition with larval development during the summer , followed by a brief terrestrial pupation . the overwintering stage is the adult . bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetles require springs and seepage areas with the appropriate fine\u2013grained substrate of sand and other fine particulates ; and undisturbed areas with mosses over fine particulate soil ( necessary for pupation ) .\ndispersal overland or by means of flight is highly unlikely because finding the appropriate habitat by this means is problematic because it is so small and fragmented . dispersal presumably does occur but unlike most insects which use their wings for dispersal , this species probably seldom flies . during routine dissection of male genitalia , presence of flight wings was noted for all specimens examined . despite this observation , no flight records exist for any member of this genus , including s . bertae ( based on decades of research on this group by the report writers ) . it is probable that local , regional dispersal occurs via movement within the hydrosphere to appropriate surface openings .\nthe adult appearance is typical of the genus except elytral markings . adult specimens are less than 3 mm in length , rather broadly oval in shape ( length : width = 1 . 84 to 1 . 94 ) . the head and pronotum are dark brown and the elytra are yellowish brown without yellowish spots or markings ( figures 1 and 2 ) . larvae of this species are not known ; however , larvae belonging to the genus sanfilippodytes are characterized in larson et al . ( 2000 , p . 857\u2013 as instar ii and iii larvae ) . as with all dytiscids there would be 3 instars of larvae with the first stage ( instar i ) being smaller in size and qualitatively distinct from later instar larvae .\nin addition to searches of museum collections ( see under \u201cdistribution\u201d ) , recent field work has also been carried out . efforts to find s . bertae were conducted in the areas surrounding the collection of the original type specimens near the highway 2 crossing of the oldman river in southern alberta . this field work was intended to : a ) determine population sizes ; b ) confirm extreme rarity ; c ) gather information on threats ; and d ) acquire biological information relevant to assessment . extensive spring , summer and fall sampling efforts over a period of 18 days ( approx . 180 hours ) resulted in only two specimens being recovered from a new location near head\u2013smashed\u2013in buffalo jump .\nearlier\u2013collected specimens ( 1984 ) were obtained along the steep , high river banks of the oldman river near the highway 2 crossing ( figure 5 ) . this corresponds to latitude ~ 49\u00b043\u203232\u2033 n 113\u00b023\u203251\u2033 w . the river and its banks lie under the jurisdiction of the provincial and federal governments . land north of the crossing is privately owned . the land immediately southwest of the crossing is the oldman river recreation area open for camping and picnics and it is under provincial legislation . the land southeast of the crossing appeared to be private lands and a privately owned campground . maps show the area to be river valley wilderness park , under provincial jurisdiction . currently there is no protection in this area of previous historical records for s . bertae .\nthe historical distribution of s . bertae ( figure 5 ) includes two and possibly three localities . these are : 1 ) the northwest bank of the oldman river immediately upstream of the highway 2 crossing west of fort macleod , alberta ; 2 ) fort macleod ; and 3 ) the newly discovered locality near head\u2013smashed\u2013in buffalo jump . localities # 1 and 2 may represent the same locality and therefore the same population ; however , this remains unclear . the only record since 1984 and the only extant population is location a . substantial search effort in 2007 failed to reveal additional localities ( see under population sizes and trends \u2013 search effort ) , nor was the fort macleod locality ( or localities ) rediscovered and they are thought to be destroyed .\nin addition to the anthropogenic forces affecting the habitats of bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle , the required habitat is inherently sensitive due to its rare and fragile state . the oldman river watershed lies within the parkland natural ecozone which stretches across the bottom of alberta , saskatchewan and manitoba . it is the most heavily altered ecosystem within alberta and only 3 % of the natural environment is believed to remain within this parkland ecozone which runs along the bottom of alberta , saskatchewan and manitoba ( environment canada 1996 ) . schindler and donahue ( 2006 ) warn of the coming drought that alberta will face in the next few decades as a result of human pressures on the system , natural environmental fluctuations and climate change , but there remains some debate on how serious this is likely to be . they also report that summer flows in the rivers of alberta have declined in the last 100 years , with the watersheds in central and southern alberta demonstrating the most dramatic declines . fluctuating water levels could influence the availability of habitat sites for s . bertae .\na small green , thin\u2013meshed dip net ( similar to the ones used in home fish aquariums ) was gently rubbed along the moss and algae or vegetation found along the springs / seeps or wetted areas in a sweeping motion with several passes to ensure the entire microhabitat was sampled . the contents of the net were then placed into the top of three circular metal sieves of decreasing mesh size ( 50 , 100 and 250 \u00b5m ) and left in the sun . this forces aquatic organisms to move out of the heat at the top of the sieves into the very bottom layer where they are then separated from the detritus , vegetation and debris . insects small enough to fit through the last sieve size ( including specimens of s . bertae ) were suctioned by mouth into an aspirator . the other layers of the sieve were searched visually for any invertebrates , which were removed by aspiration into a small vial . all insect and invertebrate specimens collected were immediately preserved in 95 % ethanol and shipped to the university of manitoba for expert identification by dr . r . e . roughley . the specimens are now housed in the j . b . wallis museum at the university of manitoba .\ncosewic status reports are working documents used in assigning the status of wildlife species suspected of being at risk . this report may be cited as follows :\ncosewic secretariat c / o canadian wildlife service environment canada ottawa , on k1a 0h3 tel . : 819\u2013953\u20133215 fax : 819\u2013994\u20133684 e\u2013mail website\ncover illustration / photo : bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle - - photo provided by author .\n\u00a9 her majesty the queen in right of canada , 2010 . catalogue cw69\u201314 / 584\u20132010e\u2013 pdf isbn 978\u20131\u2013100\u201314979\u20130\nreason for designation despite extensive searches , this canadian endemic species is known from only two locations in southern alberta , one of which has been destroyed . it is limited to springs and seepage areas along steep cliff edges or river bends . its habitat is declining due to trampling by livestock and lowering of the water table due to withdrawals for irrigation .\nthe historical distribution of bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle includes 2 and possibly 3 localities : 1 ) the northwest bank of the oldman river immediately upstream of the highway 2 crossing west of fort macleod , alberta ; 2 ) fort macleod itself ; and 3 ) the newly discovered locality near head\u2013smashed\u2013in buffalo jump . localities # 1 and 2 may represent the same locality and therefore the same population ; however , this remains unclear . the only record since 1984 and the only extant population is location 3 .\nthe life history characteristics of bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle remain a mystery . all predaceous water beetle larvae and adults are predaceous , principally eating invertebrates , probably enchytraeid worms and aquatic larvae of flies ( diptera ) . there is no evidence to suggest that the life cycle is anything but annual and likely involves vernal breeding and oviposition with larval development during the summer , followed by a brief terrestrial pupation . the over\u2013wintering stage is the adult . dispersal is probably minimal ( despite presence of fully formed flight wings ) .\nextensive spring , summer and fall sampling efforts over a period of 18 days ( approx . 180 hours ) in 2008 resulted in only two specimens being recovered from a new location near head\u2013smashed\u2013in buffalo jump . examination of specimens in 42 collections and extensive field work prior to this had revealed only 2 localities .\nonly 42 specimens of this species were known previously ( collected in 1984 ) from potentially two locales near fort macleod . these specimens provided the material for the original description of the species . during the course of field research , no further specimens were collected at the type locality , near fort macleod , alberta despite repeated intensive search efforts in and around the fort macleod area to locate this habitat . however , two additional specimens were collected at another locale near head\u2013smashed\u2013in buffalo jump ( the oasis ) . the population size of bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle is unknown , but as with most species , a minimum population of several hundred individuals would likely be required to sustain a viable population . the data at hand is insufficient to speculate about fluctuation of these populations .\nbert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle is currently not globally or regionally listed . a new locality for bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle is immediately south of head\u2013smashed\u2013in buffalo jump , a unesco world heritage site . almost certainly this locality shares the groundwater system with the unesco site .\nthe committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada ( cosewic ) was created in 1977 as a result of a recommendation at the federal\u2013provincial wildlife conference held in 1976 . it arose from the need for a single , official , scientifically sound , national listing of wildlife species at risk . in 1978 , cosewic designated its first species and produced its first list of canadian species at risk . species designated at meetings of the full committee are added to the list . on june 5 , 2003 , the species at risk act ( sara ) was proclaimed . sara establishes cosewic as an advisory body ensuring that species will continue to be assessed under a rigorous and independent scientific process .\nthe committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada ( cosewic ) assesses the national status of wild species , subspecies , varieties , or other designatable units that are considered to be at risk in canada . designations are made on native species for the following taxonomic groups : mammals , birds , reptiles , amphibians , fishes , arthropods , molluscs , vascular plants , mosses , and lichens .\ncosewic comprises members from each provincial and territorial government wildlife agency , four federal entities ( canadian wildlife service , parks canada agency , department of fisheries and oceans , and the federal biodiversity information partnership , chaired by the canadian museum of nature ) , three non\u2013government science members and the co\u2013chairs of the species specialist subcommittees and the aboriginal traditional knowledge subcommittee . the committee meets to consider status reports on candidate species .\na species , subspecies , variety , or geographically or genetically distinct population of animal , plant or other organism , other than a bacterium or virus , that is wild by nature and is either native to canada or has extended its range into canada without human intervention and has been present in canada for at least 50 years .\na wildlife species no longer existing in the wild in canada , but occurring elsewhere .\na wildlife species that may become a threatened or an endangered species because of a combination of biological characteristics and identified threats .\na wildlife species that has been evaluated and found to be not at risk of extinction given the current circumstances .\na category that applies when the available information is insufficient ( a ) to resolve a species\u2019 eligibility for assessment or ( b ) to permit an assessment of the species\u2019 risk of extinction .\n* formerly described as \u201cvulnerable\u201d from 1990 to 1999 , or \u201crare\u201d prior to 1990 . * * formerly described as \u201cnot in any category\u201d , or \u201cno designation required . \u201d * * * formerly described as \u201cindeterminate\u201d from 1994 to 1999 or \u201c isibd \u201d ( insufficient scientific information on which to base a designation ) prior to 1994 . definition of the ( dd ) category revised in 2006 .\nthe canadian wildlife service , environment canada , provides full administrative and financial support to the cosewic secretariat .\nholotype . male , in cnc . ft . macleod , alberta . 31 iii 1984 , lot 1 , b . f . and j . l . carr .\nparatypes . 28 specimens from same locality and collector ( 16 . iii . 1980 , 31 . iii . 1984 , 5 . v . 1984 ) and 12 specimens labelled alta , old man r . , ft . macleod , may 5 , 1984 , carr and larson , deposited in various museums ( rom , cmn , univ . man . ) .\nlength = 2 . 3 to 2 . 8 mm ; width = 1 . 2 to 1 . 5 mm ; length : width = 1 . 84 to 1 . 94 . body form oval , depressed , widest anterior to middle and relatively evenly rounded laterally .\ncolour yellowish brown , with lighter elytra contrasting with brownish red head and pronotum . head dorsally reddish yellow except anterior margin paler , yellow ; head ventrally with gula yellowish and genae darker , yellowish red to brown . antenna yellow to yellowish red ; palpi yellow . pronotum with medial area on disc dark brown to piceous with very broadly lighter , reddish to yellowish margins ; elytron yellow to yellowish red , some specimens gradually darkening medially to very light brown ; epipleuron yellow to yellowish red . ventral surface largely brown , except pronotum laterally , metasternum medially , posterior margin of metacoxal plates and abdominal sterna laterally , yellowish . legs yellowish .\nhead with very small , moderately sparse and evenly spaced punctures . pronotum with disc with small punctures medially ( much larger than those on head ) , punctures somewhat larger and more dense toward margins , posterior margin with many punctures in subconfluent row , punctures dense on posterolateral angle . elytron with punctures small , fine and not particularly dense , punctation dual with micropunctures obscured by microsculpture ; epipleuron impunctate or with a few , scattered shallow punctures . metasternum laterally with small , dense , subconfluent punctures , metacoxal plate with punctures very small and sparse on disc , punctures separated by 4 to 5 times their diameter , anterolaterally with punctures obscured by shallow , oblique impressions . abdominal sterna laterally with fine , quite sparse punctures ; sternum 6 with punctures very small and fine and quite sparse . microreticulation evident over entire dorsal and ventral surface .\npronotal bead narrower , not as wide as a median antennomere . pronotum with posterolateral angle obtuse ; basal margin sinuate on each side of basomedial lobe . elytron with lateral margin gently curving upward in lateral aspect , epipleuron visible almost to shoulder . prosternum without a medial convexity anterior to base of process ; process with declivity poorly developed , file obsolete , prominence low and inconspicuous , blade relatively narrow and elongate , much longer than wide , with lateral margins broadly inflated and broadly excavated medially , medial convexity absent or low and rounded and visible only in apical \u00bc ; apex broadly rounded . metacoxal lines widely separated anterior to metacoxal processes , metacoxal lines almost parallel and diverging only slightly proximally . metatrochanter relatively large , length of metafemur : length of metatrochanter less than 1 . 80 .\nsternum 6 not dimorphic apically , with apex evenly rounded . males and females very similar ; males with protarsomeres 1 to 3 slightly expanded and with larger scales on ventral surface . aedeagus ( figure 3 ) , in ventral aspect , abruptly widened distally to form apical blade , with a small , shallow , u\u2013shaped notch , in lateral aspect , the form is thick with the apical blade poorly differentiated , in dorsal aspect , with low but distinct dorsal flanges and wide , broad apical lobes ( roughley and larson 1991 ) .\nthere are no subspecies of bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle nor is there noticeable variation among the available specimens and the entire taxon is confined to a very small geographic location . there is thus a single designatable unit .\nthe historical distribution of bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle is one or two point source sampling locations along the north banks of the oldman river at the crossing of hwy 2 , east of fort macleod in southern alberta . the species is only known from this locale and now the recently discovered locale at the oasis ( figure 5 ) . the global range is thus confined to a small portion of canada .\nalthough it is possible that the distribution is more widespread throughout the northwestern great plains and rocky mountain foothills , the species is very rare and evidently geographically restricted , and substantial increases in area of occupancy at least are not anticipated . the extent of occurrence is 2\nis limited to springs and seepage areas and the mainstem or tributaries of the oldman river in southern alberta . with respect to locality # 1 , a key element is that the springs and seepage areas flowed out of the near\u2013vertical river banks at about the level of the high water ( vernal flood ) mark . field surveys of springs and seeps in the region surrounding the first sampling locale recovered one specimen from the output point source of a spring which was the headwater of a tributary to the oldman river , near head\u2013smashed\u2013in buffalo jump ( locality 3 , the \u201coasis\u201d ) . the oasis , is not associated with a major river course but does represent spring and seep habitat in the area . the habitat at this spring was characterized by a faint trickle of water exiting a crevice approximately half\u2013way down a rocky cliff (\n. the crevice where the spring exited the rock contained wet mosses and algae . the spring drained into a narrow lush channel which contained a ground of saturated soil and grasses , a small near\u2013stagnant channel and trees . this area was aptly nicknamed \u201cthe oasis\u201d by the researchers (\n) . no other habitat like it was found in the area . the path of the outflow of the oasis could not be followed to its termination , but it would appear from aerial photos that it does not connect as tributary to the oldman river . currently small remnants of the above\u2013described spring and seep habitat exist in southern alberta . further field studies are required to determine the full habitat requirements of\nfigure 6 . current location of captures near head\u2013smashed\u2013in buffalo jump , alberta ( facing west ) . detail of the spring habitat contained within the oasis area , observed in front of dr . r . e . roughley . note lush moss vegetation along outlet of spring . the oasis area contained a lot of waste refuse likely blown into the crevice from the high winds observed in the area . ( photo courtesy of jennie kno pp . )\nfigure 7 . the \u201coasis\u201d , an area that drops below the normal landscape of smooth hills , high winds and low vegetation by approximately 5\u20138 m ( facing east , hwy 785 is to the north ) . a spring , which exited a crevice in the rock near the beginning of the dip into the oasis , contained wet mosses and algae . the spring drained into a narrow lush channel which contained a ground of saturated soil and grasses , a small near\u2013stagnant channel and trees . ( photo courtesy of jennie knopp . )\nfigure 8 . the \u201coasis\u201d view from bottom of the cliff area , facing the location of the spring ( facing west ) . the spring drains into this narrow lush channel which contained a ground of saturated soil and grasses , a small near\u2013stagnant channel , trees and shrubs . ( photo courtesy of jennie knopp . )\nthe only historical habitats for this species near fort macleod appear to have been eliminated , perhaps due to a recent bridge upgrade at the hwy 2 crossing of the oldman river . currently bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle occurs only within the most highly altered landscape in alberta . in this area cattle have congregated , in moist areas of springs , probably much more so than native ungulates ever did ( e . g . lockwood and debrey 1990 ) . the result is extensive fouling and trampling of spring habitat , and this has continued up to the present and the number of undisturbed springs has continuously declined ( roughly and larson 1991 , p . 137 ) .\nsite . although this area is not currently under major development , there is no specific protection of the habitat .\nthe life history characteristics of bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle remain unknown . presently there are 24 described species assigned to this exclusively nearctic genus ( nilsson 2001 ) . some aspects of the life history of this species can be assembled as a testable hypothesis that provides a basis for present and future observations . the species assigned to this genus live in a limited variety of habitats\u2013from caves and winter\u2013early spring rain pools to springs and seeps .\nin terms of life history pattern , and based on collecting effort , this species appears to fall into one of five quite different categories of life history of temperate species outlined by nilsson et al . ( 1986 ) . based on the dates of collection , this is likely a species with one generation per year that breeds in the spring , uses a good portion of the summer for larval development and overwinters in the adult stage .\nall predaceous water beetle larvae and adult forms are predaceous , principally eating invertebrates , probably enchytraeid worms and aquatic larvae of flies ( diptera ) ( larson et al . 2000 ) .\nadults of this genus are collected from the interstitial spaces among sand , small stones , moss , and bits of other plant debris at springs and seeps within the larger habitat of short\u2013grass prairie or arid grassland . the clean water provided from groundwater sources appears to be a requirement of this species ( larson et al . 2000 ) .\nthe extent to which bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle could adapt to changing conditions is unclear but the habitat specificity suggests little adaptability .\nseveral people of the peigan first nations reserve were questioned as to the presence of the beetle ; however , no one had seen such an organism . they did refer us to spring or seep sites in the area said to be located on the hills behind the town of spring point , at the intersection of spring point r and hwy 785 . despite extensive searching , these spring locations could not be located and are presumed to exist only for a short period early in the season .\nany wet areas , including stream and pond edges were sampled even if springs and seeps were not present . sampling of these habitats occurred for two reasons : 1 ) there was very little water , including springs and seeps , in the entire area searched so any wet habitats found were sampled , and 2 ) the life history of the species is unknown therefore all aquatic habitats were searched for its presence .\nonly 42 specimens of this species were known previously ( collected in 1984 ) and only 2 additional specimens were collected recently . population size is unknown , but as with most similar species , a minimum population of several hundred individuals would likely be required to sustain a viable population .\nthe data at hand is insufficient to speculate about fluctuation . there appears to have been a decline from 3 or 2 to 1 population since the populations at fort macleod could not be relocated .\nbecause the species is apparently endemic to canada , rescue from outside cannot be anticipated .\nbert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle has only been found in springs that have not or are little impacted by cattle ( roughley and larson 1991 ) . these species are rare compared to relatives of higher elevation that occupy pristine alpine springs .\nappears to require a very specific habitat within springs and seepages in an undisturbed area with mosses over fine particulate soil ( necessary for pupation ) and the appropriate fine\u2013grained substrate of sand and other fine particulates . major threats to the habitat of this species are limited water availability (\n, roughley and larson 1991 ) due to aggregation of livestock at these fragile habitats . trampling from livestock hooves ( and ranch vehicles ) damages the outlets of springs and seepages often creating muddy conditions or simply destroying the habitat of\nbert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle populations are believed to be reproductively isolated . this is thought to be true because of the size of the beetle and the distances it would have to travel in an extremely windy climate to locate rare pockets of microhabitats which could only potentially result in finding another population . a new locality for bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle immediately south of head\u2013smashed\u2013in buffalo jump represents only approximately 2 . 0 m\u00b2 of suitable habitat . the connectivity of groundwater tables and the potential to locate other populations through this means is unknown .\nother serious threats to these fragile point sources of habitat are lowering water levels and less water availability in the oldman river basin . this situation is aggravated by groundwater withdrawals ; ranching practices ; feedlots ; high water withdrawals and demands for agricultural irrigation ; increasing water demands resulting from a booming economy and subsequent rapid growth . impoundments which would drown the habitat as well as municipal and industrial development including oil and gas , also represent threats to the sensitive spring habitat . \u201cthere are almost 10 , 000 oil and gas wells in the oldman river basin , almost 600 confined livestock feeding operations [ feedlots ] , about 50 recreational site developments and 85 wastewater treatment facilities\u201d ( oldman river basin water quality initiative 2008 ) .\nfigure 9 . map of mean annual natural river discharge for major rivers in alberta , canada . ( courtesy of alberta environment 2008 . )\nfigure 10 . current location of captures in the oasis near head\u2013smashed\u2013in buffalo jump , alberta ( top of the oasis cliff , facing west ) . this particular spring runs out of the grassy land above the depression which leads into the oasis . notice the cattle trampling and farm vehicle tracks throughout the spring outflow habitat .\nfigure 11 . cattle droppings within the oasis habitat . these droppings could result in contamination of the water quality in the surrounding aquatic habitat . ( photo courtesy of jennie knopp . )\nimpoundments along the oldman river would drown the spring or seep habitat or result in lowered water levels along the course of the river . impoundments are present in great numbers along the oldman river to divert water for crop irrigation (\n) , for the oil and gas industry as well as for human recreation creating a manmade lake for sailing and windsurfing at the oldman river resevoir . crop irrigation and feedlot demands are the second largest use of water in alberta . in 1989\nbeing for irrigation . in 1989 , 93 % of the water used for irrigation in alberta came from the bow and the oldman river systems ( alberta environment 2008 ) . commercial and urban development is inevitable in a growing economy that results from an increase in human population in the province ( schindler and donahue 2006 ) .\nfigure 12 . irrigation channel north of head\u2013smashed\u2013in buffalo jump ( near twp 102 , facing south ) , used to divert water from nearby watercourses for use in agricultural irrigation . ( photo courtesy of jennie knopp . )\nfigure 13 . irrigation equipment north of head\u2013smashed\u2013in buffalo jump ( near twp 104 , facing south ) . ( photo courtesy of jennie knopp . )\n) and the effects of climate change pose serious concerns of lowering groundwater tables and in turn the existence of the springs and see pages required by bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle .\n[ observed , estimated , inferred , or suspected ] percent [ reduction or increase ] in total number of mature individuals over the last [ 10 or 5 years , or 3 or 2 generations ] .\n[ projected or suspected ] percent [ reduction or increase ] in total number of mature individuals over the next [ 10 or 5 years , or 3 or 2 generations ] .\n[ observed , estimated , inferred , or suspected ] percent [ reduction or increase ] in total number of mature individuals over any [ 10 or 5 years , or 3 or 2 generations ] period , over a time period including both the past and the future .\ntrend in [ area and / or quality ] of habitat both general habitat type and specific occupied habitat have declined .\nthe most serious threats to the single known site and to these fragile point sources of habitat in general are lowering water levels in the oldman river basin and aggregation of livestock . other potential threats along the oldman river basin ( along with the associated coulees , springs and seeps ) include : groundwater withdrawals ; ranching practices ; feedlots ; high water withdrawals and demands for agricultural irrigation ; increasing water demands resulting from a booming economy and subsequent rapid growth ; impoundments which would drown the habitat ; municipal and industrial development including oil and gas ; increasing demands for water for use in industry and domestic use ; human recreation , reproductive isolation ; drought ; and ; climate change .\nreasons for designation : despite extensive searches , this canadian endemic species is known from only two locations in southern alberta , one of which has been destroyed . it is limited to springs and seepage areas along steep cliff edges or river bends . its habitat is declining due to trampling by livestock and lowering of the water table due to withdrawals for irrigation .\ncriterion a ( decline in total number of mature individuals ) : not applicable . no population information .\ncriterion b ( small distribution range and decline or fluctuation ) : meets endangered b1ab ( iii ) + 2ab ( iii ) . eo and iao are below thresholds , the species is known from a single location , and there is a continuing decline in the quality of the species\u2019 habitat .\ncriterion c ( small and declining number of mature individuals ) : not applicable . no population information .\ncriterion d ( very small population or restricted distribution ) : meets threatened d2 as it is known from a single location , and is prone to stochastic events with continuing threat of trampling and water withdrawal .\nthis species is named in honour of mrs . bertha ( bert ) f . carr of calgary who helped collect the type series . bert , along with her husband , john , has been a tremendous source of specimens , information and inspiration for this project .\nbergsten , j . a . t\u00f6yr\u00e4 , and a . n . nilsson . 2001 . intraspecific variation and intersexual correlation in secondary sexual characteristics of three diving beetles ( coleoptera : dytiscidae ) . biological journal of the linnean society . 73 ( 2 ) : pp . 221\u2013232 .\ndanks , h . v . and d . d . williams . 1991 . arthropods of springs , with particular reference to canada : synthesis and needs for research . memoirs of the entomological society of canada .\nenvironment canada . 1996 . state of canada ' s environment . government of canada , ottawa .\nlarson , d . j . , y . alarie , and r . e . roughley . 2000 . predaceous diving beetles ( coleoptera : dytiscidae ) of the nearctic region , with emphasis on the fauna of canada and alaska . nrc research press , ottawa .\nlockwood and debrey , 1990 j . a . lockwood and l . d . debrey , a solution for the sudden and unexplained extinction of the rocky mountain grasshopper ( orthoptera : acrididae ) , environ . entomol . 19 ( 1990 ) , pp . 1194\u20131205 .\nnilsson , a . n . 2001 . dytiscidae . world catalogue of insects , 3 , 1\u2013395 .\nnilsson , a . n . and h . s\u00f6derberg . 1986 . abundance and species richness patterns of diving beetles ( coleoptera , dytiscidae ) from exposed and protected sites in 98 northern swedish lakes . hydrobiologia . 321 ( 1 ) : pp . 83\u201388 .\noldman river basin water quality initiative . 2008 . oldman river basin water quality initiative .\nroughley , r . e . and d . j . larson . 1991 . aquatic coleoptera of springs in canada . memoirs of the entomological society of canada . 155 : 125\u2013140 .\nschindler , d . w . and w . f . donahue . 2006 . an impending water crisis in canada\u2019s western prairie provinces . proceedings of the national academy of science . 103 ( 19 ) : pp . 710\u20137216 .\nthe late dr . robert e . roughley was a professor of entomology at the university of manitoba . he studied the taxonomy and ecology of water beetles in canada , australia and costa rica for more than 25 years . he obtained his ph . d . from the university of alberta with a world revision of the genus dytiscus ( coleoptera , dytiscidae ) in 1982 . in addition , he conducted research on conservation and management of tallgrass and mixed grass prairie using invertebrate groups . he was also the curator of the j . b . wallis museum of entomology , department of entomology , university of manitoba , winnipeg , manitoba r3t 2n2 .\njennie a . knopp has a b . sc . in zoology with a minor in entomology from the university of guelph in ontario . jennie has been a professional aquatic biologist for the past 5 years . she has worked on aquatic organisms , including aquatic insects , in nunavut , northwest territories , ontario and alberta . jennie is currently completing her m . sc . degree on integrating scientific and traditional knowledge in northern aquatic ecosystems , at trent university in ontario .\nrob and jennie have worked together previously when they taught the 2006 boreal and arctic entomology course , along with dr . peter kevan , in churchill manitoba . the course was offered through the university of the arctic .\nthe only known record of the species was collected in 1984 and all specimens are presently housed at the j . b . wallis museum at the university of manitoba . specimens will be more widely distributed to other collections and museums in the future . robert e . roughley was the curator of the museum . the research of the senior report writer has included the examination of 42 collections ( listed by larson et al . 2000 , p . xiii ) .\nthe minister of the environment and climate change is the competent minister under sara for the bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle and has prepared this recovery strategy , as per section 37 of sara . to the extent possible , it has been prepared in cooperation with the province of alberta , as per section 39 ( 1 ) of sara .\nrecovery planning environment and climate change canada 15th floor , place vincent massey 351 st . joseph boulevard gatineau , qc k1a 0h3 send e - mail\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\narchived information is provided for reference , research or recordkeeping purposes . it is not subject to the government of canada web standards and has not been altered or updated since it was archived . please contact the authoring department to request a format other than those available .\nview en3 - 4 - 251 - 2017 - eng . pdf ( pdf , 579 kb ) . this document has been archived on the web .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nnote : the language you choose must correspond to the language of the term you have entered . for example , if you enter a french term , choose an option under \u201cfrench . \u201d\naccess a collection of canadian resources on all aspects of english and french , including quizzes .\na collection of writing tools that cover the many facets of english and french grammar , style and usage .\nthe historical distribution of bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle includes 2 and possibly 3 localities : 1 ) the northwest bank of the oldman river immediately upstream of the highway 2 crossing west of fort macleod , alberta ; 2 ) fort macleod itself ; and 3 ) the newly discovered locality near head\u2013smashed\u2013in buffalo jump . localities 1 and 2 may represent the same locality and therefore the same population ; however , this remains unclear . the only record since 1984 and the only extant population is location 3 . ( updated 2017 / 05 / 30 )\nthe life history characteristics of bert\u2019s predaceous diving beetle remain a mystery . all predaceous water beetle larvae and adults are predaceous , principally eating invertebrates , probably enchytraeid worms and aquatic larvae of flies ( diptera ) . there is no evidence to suggest that the life cycle is anything but annual and likely involves vernal breeding and oviposition with larval development during the summer , followed by a brief terrestrial pupation . the over\u2013wintering stage is the adult . dispersal is probably minimal ( despite presence of fully formed flight wings ) . ( updated 2017 / 05 / 30 )\nthe bert ' s predaceous diving beetle is protected under the federal species at risk act ( sara ) . more information about sara , including how it protects individual species , is available in the species at risk act : a guide .\nto know if this species is protected by provincial or territorial laws , consult the provinces ' and territories ' websites .\nplease note : not all cosewic reports are currently available on the sara public registry . most of the reports not yet available are status reports for species assessed by cosewic prior to may 2002 . other cosewic reports not yet available may include those species assessed as extinct , data deficient or not at risk . in the meantime , they are available on request from the cosewic secretariat .\ndespite extensive searches , this canadian endemic species is known from only two locations in southern alberta , one of which has been destroyed . it is limited to springs and seepage areas along steep cliff edges or river bends . its habitat is declining due to trampling by livestock and lowering of the water table due to withdrawals for irrigation .\nhis excellency the governor general in council , on the recommendation of the minister of the environment , hereby acknowledges receipt , on the making of this order , of assessments conducted under subsection 23 ( 1 ) of the species at risk act by the committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada with respect to the species set out in the annexed schedule .\nthe purpose of the order amending schedule 1 to the species at risk act is to add 18 species to schedule 1 , the list of wildlife species at risk ( the list ) , and to reclassify 7 listed species , pursuant to subsection 27 ( 1 ) of sara . this amendment is made on the recommendation of the minister of the environment based on scientific assessments by the committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada ( cosewic ) and on consultations with governments , aboriginal peoples , stakeholders and the canadian public .\nas part of its strategy for protecting wildlife species at risk , the government of canada proclaimed the species at risk act ( sara ) on june 5 , 2003 . attached to the act is schedule 1 , the list of the species that receive protection under sara , also called the list of wildlife species at risk . please submit your comments by february 4 , 2011 for species undergoing normal consultations and by february 4 , 2012 for species undergoing extended consultations .\nenvironment and climate change canada\u2019s three - year recovery document posting plan identifies the species for which recovery documents will be posted each fiscal year starting in 2014 - 2015 . posting this three year plan on the species at risk public registry is intended to provide transparency to partners , stakeholders , and the public about environment and climate change canada\u2019s plan to develop and post these proposed recovery strategies and management plans . however , both the number of documents and the particular species that are posted in a given year may change slightly due to a variety of circumstances . last update april 18 , 2018\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 1678, "summary": [{"text": "barbodes is a genus of small to medium-sized cyprinid fish native to tropical asia .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the majority of the species are from southeast asia .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "many species are threatened and some from the philippines ( lake lanao ) are already extinct .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "several members of this genus were formerly included in puntius . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "barbodes", "paragraphs": ["diet and feeding ecology of two sizes of barbodes gonionotus ( = puntius gonionotus ) and oreochromis sp . in ricefields in bangladesh\nbarbodes : from the latin barbus , meaning \u2018barbel\u2019 , and ancient greek \u03b5\u1f36\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 ( - oides ) , meaning \u2018form , likeness\u2019 .\ntypical sympatric species include rasbora sarawakensis , barbodes banksi , b . sealei , hemirhamphodon pogonognathus , betta taeniata , and nemacheilus saravacensis .\ndiet and feeding ecology of two sizes of barbodes gonionotus ( = puntius gonionotus ) and oreochromis sp . in ricefields in bangladesh .\ntaxonomic notes : barbodes carnaticus was described by jerdon ( 1849 ) from bhavani river , nilgiris . the placement of this species in the genus barbodes must be examined . it is closer to puntius and needs a new generic name ( m . arunachalam pers . comm . ) .\ndiet and feeding ecology of two sizes of barbodes gonionotus ( = puntius gonionotus ) and oreochromis sp . in ricefields in bangladesh - aquatic commons\nbarbodes carnaticus is very wide and with no perceived population declines in spite of some specific threats identified . the species is therefore assessed as least concern .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . barbodes carnaticus ( jerdon , 1849 ) . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 9 , 2018 ] .\na species of barbodes with 28\u201332 lateral line scales ; 10\u201312 predorsal scales ; two pairs of barbels ; dorsal fin inserted slightly nearer to tip of snout than base of caudal fin , its last undivided ray osseous , strong and smooth ; ; rostral barbel black ; four or five fine and faint longitudinal stripes above lateral line .\nin addition , the following characters are useful in identification of barbodes spp . : last simple dorsal - fin ray serrated posteriorly ; rostral barbels present ( except in b . aurotaeniatus ) ; maxillary barbels present ; lips smooth and thin , postlabial groove interrupted medially ; lateral line complete or not , with 22\u201332 scales on lateral line row on body ; \u00bd4 / 1 / 4\u00bd scale rows between dorsal - fin origin and ventral midline in front of pelvic - fin base ; 12 circumpeduncular scale rows ; 12\u201315 gill rakers on first gill arch .\nbarbodes carnaticus is endemic to the western ghats ( dahanukar et al . 2004 ) . known from rivers in the states of kerala , tamil nadu and karnataka including cauvery , krishna ( jayaram 1999 ) , moyar ( rajan 1963 , arunachalam et al . 2000 ) , kabini , bhavani , bharathapuzha , chalakudy , periyar , pambar , muvattupuzha , manimala , pamba , achenkovil , karamana , neyyar ( shaji and easa 2003 , chhapgar and mankadan 2000 , kurup et al . 2004 ) , chaliyar ( r . raghavan and a . ali pers . obs . ) . ooty lake ( jayaram 1999 ) . besides it has also been reported from the water bodies inside the mudumalai wildlife sanctuary ( manimekalan 1998 ) , from the drainages in the dharmapuri district of tamil nadu ( rema devi and raghunathan 1999 ) and from kolli hills of eastern ghats ( arunachalam and johnson 1998 ) . the record from tambraparini ( johnsingh and vickram 1987 ) is erroneous ( johnson and arunachalam pers . comm . ) . the report from southern kerala is also doubtful ( m . arunachalam pers . comm . ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013\nlatin , barbus = barbel + greek , oides = similar to ( ref . 45335 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 31 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2929 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 4 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 8 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 5 . fresh specimen color dark green dorsally , whitish on sides , and overcast with brassy or golden , especially on belly ; top of head and snout blackish with pearly epidermal spots also on suborbital and opercle ; fins pale or with roseate flush . 11 scales from nape to dorsal ; 2 . 5 scale rows between ventrals and lateral line . wide short snout without prominent protuberances .\nherre , a . w . c . t . , 1924 . distribution of the true freshwater fishes in the philippines . i . the philippine cyprinidae . philipp . j . sci . 24 ( 3 ) : 249 - 307 . ( ref . 2929 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00933 ( 0 . 00431 - 0 . 02019 ) , b = 3 . 02 ( 2 . 85 - 3 . 19 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 8 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 36 of 100 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 13 . 2 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2929 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 3 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 8 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 5 . preserved color dusky above , pale yellowish on sides and belly ; colorless fins ; scales with concentric striae . eyes with gelatinous eyelid ; blunt snout round - tipped , 3 . 5 - 4x in head . 11 - 13 scales between nape and dorsal ; 3 scale rows between ventrals and lateral line .\ncaught among pond weeds of the shallow bays of the lake . considered a food fish in the region .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 9 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 24 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 14 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2929 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 4 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 8 . preserved color faded yellowish brown , darker dorsally . 9 scales between nape and dorsal ; 2 . 5 - 3 . 5 scales between ventral origin and lateral line . snout with distinct hump ; dorsal base with highly scaly sheath .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01514 ( 0 . 00672 - 0 . 03410 ) , b = 3 . 03 ( 2 . 83 - 3 . 23 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 25 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2015 . catalog of fishes . updated 7 january 2015 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 7 january 2015 ) .\nand needs a new generic name ( m . arunachalam pers . comm . ) .\nrema devi , k . r . , gopalakrishnan , a . , arunachalam , m . , shrikant , j . , johnson , j . a . , rahul , k . & molur , s .\nthere is no information on the population of this endemic barb . reports from southern kerala ( thomas\nto be a rare species . there are also reports of past decline in the catches of\n( talwar and jhingran 1991 ) . a recent study from chalakudy river ( manojkumar and kurup 2010 ) indicated that the growth coefficient\nprefers large pools in rivers and streams ( daniels 2002 ) , where the adults have a tendency to hide under bedrock , boulders and within caves although m . arunachalam ( pers . comm . ) indicates the species to be a ' sporty ' fish . they feed on the fruits and seeds that fall from the canopy above . the adults migrate upstream for spawning and breeds in the flood waters along rivers during the monsoons . the fry can be found in these waters during september to december ( daniels 2002 ) . the young of\nare seen in groups along the banks of rivers and reservoirs , while the mature carps are rarely seen along the banks ( biju 2005 ) . longevity of the species which was estimated as 4 - 5 years ( manojkumar and kurup 2010 ) is doubtful ( m . arunachalam , r . kumar pers . comm . ) .\nis a much preferred food fish and are caught from wherever they occur . they form minor fisheries in several reservoirs located in the cauvery drainage .\nis threatened by a wide range of factors including decline in habitat quality due to destructive fishing practices such as poisoning and dynamiting , altered river flow due to construction of dams , competition with exotic and transplanted carps and pollution from point sources .\nat key habitats need to be determined to devise appropriate conservation plans . milt cryopreservation and captive breeding protocol have been developed at nbfgr ( v . s . basheer pers . comm . ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthis species can also be found in the sungai rayu river in kuching district , sarawak .\nspecimen from the batang kayan drainage in sarawak state , malaysia ( borneo ) .\nkuchingensis : named for kuching division , sarawak state , malaysia ( borneo ) , from where the type series was collected .\ndescribed from \u201918 miles east of kuching , sarawak state , borneo , east malaysia\u2019 and apparently endemic to western borneo with a range extending into the indonesian province of west kalimantan ( kalimantan barat ) where it\u2019s known from the kapuas river system , including the lake system of danau sentarum .\npredominantly found in shallow forest streams containing clear water , sometimes in the pools that form at the base of waterfalls .\nsubstrates may comprise smooth , water - worn rocks and boulders of varying sizes , sand or gravel , often with submerged woody structures , leaf litter , and aquatic plants from genera such as cryptocoryne or barclaya .\nit\u2019s also been recorded from ancient peat swamps and associated black water streams with tannin - stained water , negligible mineral content and ph as low as 3 . 0 or 4 . 0 .\nnot difficult to keep in a well - maintained set - up , though we recommend aquascaping the tank to resemble a flowing stream or river with a substrate of variably - sized , water - worn rocks , sand , fine gravel and perhaps some small boulders .\nthis can be further furnished with driftwood roots or branches , and while the majority of aquatic plants will fail to thrive in such surroundings hardy types such as microsorum , bolbitis or anubias spp . can be grown attached to the d\u00e9cor .\nsince it naturally occurs in relatively pristine habitats it\u2019s intolerant to accumulation of organic pollutants and requires more - or - less spotless water in order to thrive .\nthough torrent - like conditions are unnecessary it also does best if there is a high proportion of dissolved oxygen and moderate water movement , plus weekly water changes of 30 - 50 % tank volume should be considered routine .\nwild fish are probably foragers feeding on diatoms , algae , organic detritus , small insects , worms , crustaceans , and other zooplankton .\nin the aquarium it\u2019s easily - fed but the best condition and colours offer regular meals of small live and frozen foods such as bloodworm , daphnia , and artemia , alongside good quality dried flakes and granules , at least some of which should include additional plant or algal content .\nthis species makes an ideal addition to a peaceful community of riverine fishes including other similarly - sized , peaceful cyprinids plus botiid , nemacheilid , or robust balitorid loaches .\nif geography isn\u2019t an issue it can actually be combined with most peaceful fish of a size too large to be considered food and that have a bold enough disposition to not be intimidated by its size and active nature .\nas usual , thorough research is the best way to avoid problems when selecting compatible fish communities .\nmaintaining it in decent numbers will not only make the fish less skittish but result in a more effective , natural looking display .\nin addition , any aggressive behaviour will normally be contained as the fish concentrate on maintaining their hierarchical position within the group .\nadult males develop a more intense colour pattern than females and exhibit noticeable tubercules on the head when in spawning condition .\nadult females tend to grow a little larger , are heavier - bodied , and less colourful .\nthis species is rarely - exported for the aquarium hobby but is available on occasion .\nthe name b . kuchingensis is frequently misapplied , however , with subadult forms of b . everetti and some populations of the geographically - variable b . lateristriga regularly traded as such .\nthe latter was described from java and may represent a complex containing several as yet unnamed species .\nthough closely - affiliated with and superficially very similar to b . lateristriga , b . kuchingensis sensu stricto can be told apart by presence of a prominent row of dark spots along the lateral line , plus a short , horizontally - orientated streak extending from the upper part of the operculum as seen in the images here .\nin b . lateristriga the lateral markings usually form a solid stripe and there is no streak extending from the operculum .\nthis species was formerly included in the genus puntius which was for a number of years viewed as a polyphyletic catch - all containing over 100 species of small to mid - sized cyprinid until pethiyagoda et al . ( 2012 ) published a partial review covering south asian members .\nthe majority of sub - himalayan puntius species were reclassified and new genera dawkinsia , dravidia ( subsequently amended to haludaria ) , and pethia erected to accommodate some of them , with the remainder either retained in puntius or moved to the existing systomus assemblage , though the definition of the latter was altered meaning some southeast asian species formerly placed there could no longer be considered members .\nherre , a . w . c . t . , 1940 - bulletin of the raffles museum no . 16 : 5 - 26 new species of fishes from the malay peninsula and borneo .\nkottelat , m . , 2013 - the raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 27 : 1 - 663 the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibiography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries .\nkottelat , m . and e . widjanarti , 2005 - raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 13 : 139 - 173 the fishes of danau sentarum national park and the kapuas lakes area , kalimantan barat , indonesia .\npethiyagoda , r . , 2013 - zootaxa 3646 ( 2 ) : 199 haludaria , a replacement generic name for dravidia ( teleostei : cyprinidae ) .\npethiyagoda , r . , m . meegaskumbura , and k . maduwage , 2012 - ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 23 ( 1 ) : 69 - 95 a synopsis of the south asian fishes referred to puntius ( pisces : cyprinidae ) .\nroberts , t . r . , 1989 - memoirs of the california academy of sciences 14 : i - xii + 1 - 210 the freshwater fishes of western borneo ( kalimantan barat , indonesia ) .\ntweedie , m . w . f . , 1961 - bulletin of the raffles museum no . 26 : 178 - 182 notes on malayan fresh - water fishes . 9 . regional differentiation in the colour pattern of puntius lateristriga .\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nfreshwater ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 6 . 0 - 6 . 5 ; dh range : ? - 12 . tropical ; 24\u00b0c - 26\u00b0c ( ref . 2060 )\nasia : myanmar ( ref . 4832 ) and from mekong of thailand through indonesia ( ref . 12693 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 20 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 30857 ) ; common length : 10 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12693 )\noccurs from sea level to at least 2000 m above sea level and is commonly found below waterfalls in isolated mountain streams and on small islands inhabited by few other freshwater fishes ( ref . 2091 ) . inhabits medium to large rivers , stagnant water bodies including sluggish flowing canals and brooks of the middle mekong ( ref . 12975 ) . found in middle to bottom depths in fairly shallow waters where it feeds on zooplankton , insect larvae and some vascular plants . probably does not migrate ( ref . 12693 ) .\nroberts , t . r . , 1989 . the freshwater fishes of western borneo ( kalimantan barat , indonesia ) . mem . calif . acad . sci . 14 : 210 p . ( ref . 2091 )\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00891 ( 0 . 00530 - 0 . 01498 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 2 . 92 - 3 . 20 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 7 \u00b10 . 29 se ; based on food items .\nasia : mekong , chao phraya and small coastal drainages of the gulf of thailand .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 6 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 30857 )\ndistinguished from the other species of the genus in having a single pair of barbels ( maxillary ) , a complete lateral line and ( in most specimens ) four small , vertically elongated black spots on the sides ( above beginning of lateral line , below dorsal - fin origin , below posterior end of dorsal - fin base and on caudal peduncle ) and one on the back below dorsal - fin origin . the spots are more distinct in preserved specimens than in fresh ones ( ref . 27732 ) .\ninhabits small flowing streams , canals , ditches and occasionally impoundments ( ref . 12693 ) . found in medium to large rivers , stagnant water bodies including sluggish flowing canals and brooks of the middle mekong ( ref . 12975 ) . occurs in running waters of the lower mekong ( ref . 36667 ) . feeds mainly on zooplankton and insect larvae . breeds during the rainy season . half - grown young are caught in march ( ref . 12693 ) .\nrainboth , w . j . , 1996 . fishes of the cambodian mekong . fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes . fao , rome , 265 p . ( ref . 12693 )\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 42 se ; based on food items .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 14 of 100 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 10 . 5 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2929 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 3 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 8 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 5 . color dark blackish brown dorsally , paler on sides , yellowish brown on belly ; fins dusky . low dorsal profile with hump behind nape . 9 scales between nape and dorsal . resembles c . katolo but with shorter pectorals and ventrals , fewer scales between dorsal and head , and different coloration .\ninhabits pools in clear water streams in the forest and the foothills , usually over sandy to rocky substrate ( ref . 56749 ) .\nkottelat , m . and a . j . whitten , 1996 . freshwater fishes of western indonesia and sulawesi : additions and corrections . periplus editions , hong kong . 8 p . ( ref . 13275 )\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 30 of 100 ) .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) , 2009 . catalog of fishes . updated database version of 2 july 2009 . catalog databases of cas cited in fishbase ( website ) . ( ref . 81932 )\nasia : endemic to lake lanao ( lumbatan and dansalan ) , lanao province , mindanao island , philippines .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 12 . 4 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 10885 )\nherre , a . w . c . t . , 1953 . check list of philippine fishes . res . rep . u . s . fish wild . serv . ( 20 ) : 1 - 977 . ( ref . 280 )\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 16 of 100 ) .\nfreshwater ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 6 . 0 - 6 . 5 ; dh range : ? - 10 . tropical ; 24\u00b0c - 30\u00b0c ( ref . 1672 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 15 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 7020 )\noccurs in forest streams of the foothills zones , usually in clear , slow to fast flowing waters , preferring quieter areas along the shores ; commonly found in shallow waters ( less than 5 - 15 cm ) such as puddles in the forest ( ref . 56749 ) . feeds on worms , crustaceans insects and plant matter ( ref . 7020 ) .\nkottelat , m . , a . j . whitten , s . n . kartikasari and s . wirjoatmodjo , 1993 . freshwater fishes of western indonesia and sulawesi . periplus editions , hong kong . 221 p . ( ref . 7050 )\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 0 \u00b10 . 34 se ; based on food items .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 25 of 100 ) .\njustification : harrison and stiassny ( 1999 ) consider this species to be possibly extinct . the matter has been referred to the relevant specialist group for a decision .\noccurs in lake lanao . the species was described from the type and only specimen collected by herre at lumbatan , a town on the south shore of the lake ( e . capuli pers . comm . 1996 ) .\nexploitation : fish is the main diet for people in the area and the human population has increased . traditional fishing methods have been superseded by the use of poison ( tigaw , labo , towa ) and dynamite , which kill almost everything ( including the fry ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\njustification : this is a widespread species with no known major threats . it is therefore assessed as least concern .\nthe species has a very wide distribution in southeast asia . it is recorded in numerous river drainages from the malay peninsula ( peninsular thailand river systems ; presence in the maeklong is uncertain ( c . vidthayanon pers . comm . 2011 ) ) to indonesia ( java , sumatra ( batavia , buitenzorg , tjampea , sadingwetan , tjipanas ; roberts 1989 ) and kalimantan ( kapuas river ) ) and sarawak .\nthis species is locally common . the status of the population in java is unknown .\nthis species is found in forested submontane to hill streams and waterfalls with clear water , sandy gravel or rocky boulder bottoms ( roberts 1989 ) .\nthis species is popular in the aquarium trade , and is locally consumed in households .\nfroese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2011 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . < a href = ' urltoken ' target = ' _ blank ' > www . fishbase . org , version ( 10 / 2011 ) . < / a >\n< a target = ' _ blank ' href = ' urltoken ' > iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . exported on 12 january 2012 < / a >\nfroese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2013 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . ; urltoken version ( 12 / 2013 ) .\na general description , with any kind of information about the taxon . its main goal is summarize the most relevant or attractive characteristics of this taxon to the general public .\nred list category & criteria : least concern ver 3 . 1 year assessed : 2010 conservation actions : currently there is no specific action plan directed towards ambassis dussumieri . research on the population status , ecology and threats to the species is essential .\ns . s . mishra , laishram kosygin , p . t . rajan and k . c . gopi , zoological survey of india in venkataraman , k . , chattopadhyay , a . and subramanian , k . a . ( editors ) . 2013 . endemic animals of india ( vertebrates ) : 1\u2013235 + 26 plates . ( published by the director , zoological survey of india , kolkata )\npotamodromous . migrating within streams , migratory in rivers , e . g . saliminus , moxostoma , labeo . migrations should be cyclical and predictable and cover more than 100 km .\nriede , k . 2004 global register of migratory species - from global to regional scales . final report of the r & d - projekt 808 05 081 . federal agency for nature conservation , bonn , germany . 329 p .\ndescribes the periodic movement of organisms from one locality to another ( e . g . , for breeding ) . usually includes locality , timing , and hypothesized purpose .\n60 . 0 cm ( male / unsexed ; ) ; max . published weight : 12 . 0 kg\ntalwar , p . k . and a . g . jhingran 1991 inland fishes of india and adjacent countries . vol 1 . a . a . balkema , rotterdam . 541 p .\ndescribes average size , max , range ; type of size ( perimeter , length , volume , weight . . . ) .\nfound in large pools and riffles of rapid rivers and streams . adults are observed to hide under bedrocks , boulders and undercuttings . feeds on allochthonous fallen leaves and seeds . does not breed in ponds but spawns in flooded rivers during monsoon months . spawns in july - august and fry are available in september to december .\nsummary of general nature of feeding interactions . for example , basic mode of nutrient uptake ( autotrophy , heterotrophy , coprophagy , saprophagy ) , position in food network ( top predator , primary producer , consumer ) , diet categorization ( detritovore , omnivore , carnivore , herbivore ) . specific taxa are treated under associations ( specifying predators or prey ) and associatedtaxa .\ngeneral description of the sites where the species is found ( ecosystem , forest , environment or microhabitat ) . includes realm ( e . g terrestrial etc ) and climatic information ( e . g boreal ) ; also includes requirements and tolerances ; horizontal and vertical ( altitudinal ) distribution . also includes information referring to territorial extension of the individual or group in terms of its activities ( feeding , mating , etc . ) , associated mostly to vertebrates .\nenumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .\ndescribes the likelihood of the species becoming extinct in the present day or in the near future . population size is treated under population biology , and trends in population sizes are treated under trends . however , this is the preferred element if an object includes all of these things and details about conservation listings .\n2006 iucn red list of threatened species . www . iucnredlist . org . downloaded july 2006 .\ntalwar , p . k . and a . g . jhingran 1991 inland fishes of india and adjacent countries . vol 1 . a . a . balkema , rotterdam . 541 p . robins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea and w . b . scott 1991 world fishes important to north americans . exclusive of species from the continental waters of the united states and canada . am . fish . soc . spec . publ . ( 21 ) : 243 p .\nknown or potential benefits of the species for humans , at a direct economic level , as instruments of education , prospecting , eco - tourism , etc . it includes published material or suggestions from the author or others . in any event , the source must be explicitly quoted . can include ecosystem services . however , benefits to ecosystems not specific to humans are best treated under risk statement ( what happens when the organism is removed )\na checklist of the fishes of kerala state is presented , along with their scientific and common name . . .\ndistribution , threats and conservation status of the wayanad mahseer , < i > neolissochilus wynaadensis < / i . . .\nthe wayanad mahseer neolissochilus wynaadensis ( day , 1873 ) is an endemic cyprinid fish that occurs . . .\ncepf western ghats special series : fishes of river bharathapuzha , kerala , india : diversity , distributi . . .\nwe present here a comprehensive account of the diversity , distribution , threats , and suggest conser . . .\nrecords of the endemic and threatened catfish , < i > hemibagrus punctuates < / i > from the southern western . . .\nthe nilgiri mystus , hemibagrus punctatus , a rare bagrid catfish endemic to the western ghats , has b . . .\nfreshwater fish fauna of the ashambu hills landscape , southern western ghats , india , with notes on som . . .\na systematic , updated checklist of freshwater fish species of the west - flowing drainages of the ash . . .\ncepf western ghats special series : checklist of the fishes of the achankovil forests , kerala , india wi . . .\nwe report the results of an ichthyofaunal inventory carried out in the achankovil reserve forest in . . .\nreply to \u201cneed for further research on the freshwater fish fauna of the ashambu hills landscape : a resp . . .\nthe freshwater fish fauna of new amarambalam reserve forest ( narf ) in the southern western ghats ( k . . .\ndiversity , distribution and assemblage structure of fishes in streams of southern western ghats , india . . .\ndiversity , distribution and assemblage structure of fishes were studied in 10 selected streams of s . . .\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\nnaga , the iclarm quarterly , 21 ( 3 ) , pp . 13 - 19 .\npdf ( the document ' s language is english . ) - requires a pdf viewer such as gsview , xpdf or adobe acrobat reader\naquatic commons is hosted and maintained by the unesco / ioc project office for iode , oostende , belgium .\naquatic commons is powered by eprints 3 which is developed by the school of electronics and computer science at the university of southampton . more information and software credits .\ndifferentiated from p . binotatus in having a dark wedge - shaped marking ( vs . a round spot ) on the sides of the body immediately below the dorsal fin . however , since there seems to be a considerable amount of variation in the markings between populations , if may also mean that banksi and binotatus represent 2 extreme color forms of a single species .\nfound in a variety of small streams in lowland and foothills , usually with clear water ( ref . 56749 ) .\nng , h . h . and h . h . tan , 1999 . the fishes of the endau drainage , peninsular malaysia with descriptions of two new species of catfishes ( teleostei : akysidae , bagridae ) . zool . stud . 38 ( 3 ) : 350 - 366 . ( ref . 36133 )\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00832 ( 0 . 00450 - 0 . 01537 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 85 - 3 . 17 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) ."]}
{"id": 1688, "summary": [{"text": "santa claus ( 1961 \u2013 1970 ) was a british-bred , irish-trained thoroughbred racehorse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he is most notable for his achievements as a three-year-old in 1964 when he won the irish 2,000 guineas , the epsom derby and the irish derby .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "his performances earned him the title of british horse of the year . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "santa claus ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["new year : santa claus and horse in harness . old russian postcard ( 1 )\nnew year : santa claus and horse in harness . old russian postcard ( 2 )\nnew year : santa claus and horse in harness . old russian postcard ( 3 )\nnew year : santa claus and horse in harness . old russian greeting card ( 1 )\nnew year : santa claus and horse in harness . old russian greeting card ( 2 )\n) , wampum ( by warfare ) and santa paula ii ( by santa claus ) .\nrare vintage christmas ceramic santa claus w / gifts and white horse , 4 . 5\ntall\nso far , there are no tournament results from santa claus xx are stored .\non this page , you can download santa claus pattern horse - drawn vehicles png file or . eps ( ai ) file for free . this vector resource about horse drawn vehicles , santa claus , pattern is easy for modification and ideal for printing .\nthe route of the toronto santa claus parade . santa is expected to arrive at st . lawrence market at 12 : 30 .\nthis photograph from november 17 , 1987 shows a local oakville man named bill hughes , who had portrayed santa claus each year for 39 years in the oakville santa claus parade .\nthe future of santa claus quarter horses is looking bright , especially with these young prospects .\nsanta claus quarter horses is uniquely positioned on 100 + acres in the rolling hills of southern indiana .\nthe 2015 toronto santa claus parade takes place today , sunday , november 15th . it will be the 111th santa claus parade in toronto , since the yearly tradition began back on december 2 , 1905 .\nthe santa claus parade is a nostalgic childhood event for many of us who grew up in toronto . here is a photographic look back at the ways in which the santa claus parade has changed over the years in toronto .\nsanta claus won the irish 2 , 000 guineas , the epsom derby and the irish derby . his performances earned him the title of british horse of the year .\nsanta claus ran the race exactly to form . he was well back in the pack on the uphill run to the first of the two sharp left\u2010hand turns . on the long curve to tattenham corner , santa claus got pushed .\nthere are many different origins of the santa claus that we know today , like st . nicholas and father christmas . most people don\u2019t know though that one of the major inspirations for santa claus is actually the viking god of war called odin .\nlindley was often the first choice when trainers wanted a substitute jockey for their stable stars , like santa claus and caro .\nadvertising for\nsanta ' s store\nat the eaton centre in 1981 . the next year would be the last that eaton ' s backed toronto ' s santa claus parade .\nsanta claus ( uk ) 1961 ( chamossaire - aunt clara ) , winner of the 1964 epsom derby , ridden by scobie breasley . | pinterest | epsom derby , race horses and horse\nthe uk father christmas and the american santa claus became more and more alike over the years and are now one and the same .\nwith the headline : santa claus , 15\u20108 , captures english derby ; receives $ 201 , 787 , a world record \u2014indiana second .\nwhere santa flies through the sky on a sleigh with eight reindeer , odin rides sleipnir , a fearsome horse with \u2026eight legs .\nthis image of santa became very popular , with more artists drawing santa in his red and white costume from 1900 to 1930 .\nsanta claus is owned by mrs . doreen rogers of ireland and 79\u2010year\u2010o1d john ismay , an englishman who lives in the south of france . mrs . rogers ' son , mickey , trained the horse .\nglad you liked the story : ) . after looking up the odin background story i\u2019ll never look at santa claus the same again lol .\nthere are , of course , controversial aspects of the american santa claus fiction . some christians believe he takes the focus of christmas away from jesus christ , placing it on a fictional character with little redemptive value . others insist that it is unhealthy for parents to lie to their children to enforce their belief in santa claus . and others say that santa claus is a symbol of the commercialization and consumerism that has seized the christmas holiday in the west . still for others , santa claus and the modern celebration of christmas is seen as an intrusion upon their own national traditions .\nthese two were the surprises of the race . santa claus had been backed down to 15\u20108 , while indiana started at 30\u20101 and dilettante ii at 100\u20101 .\nthis horse never got a lot of recognition ,\njack robbins said .\nwe had another horse , cassaleria , who got more notice , even though he wasn ' t the horse this one was .\nwhen eaton ' s ran toronto ' s santa claus parade , the department store itself was santa ' s ultimate destination . he would climb a ladder to greet his adoring public , and no doubt work to boost sales for the store .\nsanta was first used in coke adverts in the 1920s , with santa looking like the drawings of thomas nast . in 1931 , the classic ' coke santa ' was drawn by artist haddon sundblom . he took the idea of nast ' s santa but made him even more larger than life and jolly , replaced the pipe with a glass of coke and created the famous coke holding santa !\nhis value has soared to a sum estimated to \u2010 be about $ 1 , 400 , 000 . santa claus will probably be sold to a syndicate for stud purposes .\nbut britain ' s champion jockey , scobie breasley , straightened him out nicely and santa claus started gaining when they moved out of tattenham corner , running downhill for the finish .\nthis is when santa really started to develop his big tummy and the style of red and white outfit he wears today . nast designed santa ' s look on some historical information about santa and the poem ' a visit from st . nicholas ' .\nin the mid - 20th century a series of coca - cola advertisements featuring a rotund and jovial santa claus was drawn by artist haddon sundblom and further popularized nast ' s depiction .\ngrand parade was the first black horse for 106 years to win the epsom derby .\nhis success in the derbys on either side of the irish sea saw santa claus make racing history becoming the first horse in fifty - seven years to win both derbys in the same year . it was not that santa claus was without historic links in any event \u2013 his jockeys\u2019 silks bore the distinctive white star emblem of mr . john ismay , scion of the family which owned the white star shipping line , owners of the ill - fated titanic .\nmick rogers trains a second string to santa claus in fino , a court harwell colt from the ex - cellent winner - producing mare angelicus ( dam of hot brandy and others ) .\nepsom , england , june 3\u2014santa claus gave the irish their expected present of the english derby today , and he gave britain ' s bookmakers one of their worst financial beatings in years .\nit was a great day for the irish . not only santa claus , but diletttante ii and anselmo , who also started at 100\u20101 and finished fourth , were also trained in ireland .\nthese days kids all around the world force themselves to stay up as late as possible on christmas eve , hoping to catch a glimpse of jolly old santa claus daintily placing trinkets in stockings .\nthe best horses of his career were santa claus and caro , though he rode those two champions only once each - when they became his only mounts to finish in the frame in the arc . caro was the best older horse in europe when fourth to mill reef in 1971 .\nbeginning in 1863 , nast began a series of annual drawings in harper ' s weekly that were inspired by the descriptions found in washington irving ' s work . these drawings established a rotund santa with flowing beard , fur garments , and a clay pipe . nast drew his santa until 1886 , and his work had a major influence in creating the modern american santa claus .\nor , the horse that first got me hooked on racing , nearly 50 years ago .\nin 1905 , timothy eaton ' s department store began the tradition of the santa claus parade . initially , the parade featured santa claus on a horse - drawn cart . the parade has grown in size and splendour to include upside - down clowns , colourful marching bands , mascots , characters in elaborate costumes , ornately decorated floats , and - of course - santa claus himself . over the years , santa has travelled from the north pole by train , coach , ice floe , airplane and sleigh pulled by nine reindeer . in 1982 , a local volunteer group assumed responsibility for the parade . one of canada ' s longest - running traditions , the parade remains focussed on bringing joy to children and continues to enchant and entertain people of all ages .\nironically , lindley rode santa claus later that season when the irish champion was beaten three - quarters of a length into second place by prince royal in the prix de l ' arc de triomphe .\nin north america , the popular name santa claus was taken from the dutch sinterklaas , which originated with a contracted form of sint nicolaas ( saint nicholas ) . the\nmall santa\nthat we are all familiar with - - sporting a red suit with white cuffs and collar , and black leather belt , became the popular image in the united states in the late 19th century and early 20th century because of the\nmerry old santa claus\nimages created by political cartoonist thomas nast .\nin the summer of 1948 my love became the third french - trained horse to win the epsom derby and the fifth horse to win both the derby and the grand prix de paris .\nlastly , here are some other images that show how toronto has prepared for the yuletide season in years gone past . you ' ll note that santa claus is adept at appearing all across the city .\nover the next few nights many pairs of little eyes \u2013 and big eyes too \u2013 will be looking towards the northern skies anticipating the visit of the great man known as santa claus who they know will bring surprise and joy to homes throughout the land on christmas morning . more than forty years ago the name of santa claus brought celebration to county kildare too when a horse of that name led the field past the winning post at the 1964 irish derby piloted by willie burke of naas . earlier that summer the equine santa claus had also won the english derby , this time with australian jockey arthur \u2018scobie\u2019 breasley in the saddle . his trainer on both occasions was the gifted mick rogers of the curragh .\nat christmas , when the betting books opened , santa claus was 9\u20101 and the irish , especially , aware of the word from the training stables that he was something special , jumped on the odds joyfully .\nthe horses of santa claus quarter horses are a big piece to the laswell family puzzle . they are what bring the family together on a daily basis as they care for , work with and show their horses .\nbeadsman was generally regarded as the best horse in a mediocre year for three - year - olds .\npearl diver became the first french - trained horse to win the epsom derby since durbar in 1914 .\na two year old meets santa at shoppers world on the danforth , on december 16 , 1992 .\nsanta claus , a rangy bay by chamossaire out of aunt clara , defeated 16 other 3\u2010year\u2010old colts to earn $ 201 , 787 , a world record for first\u2010place money . the gross purse was $ 236 , 376 .\nplenty of things to decide on such as horse colour , what the background will be etc . . . . and i ' ll probably change santa ' s traditional outfit so he can handle the heat .\nst . nicholas ' day is on the 6th december , but in the netherlands , the major celebrations are held on the 5th december , st . nicholas ' eve . the name santa claus comes from the name sinterklaas .\nsanta greets his public from atop the entrance to eaton ' s department store in this photograph from 1925 .\ngreat to see you around here < 3 . yeah i can ' t believe this story about santa claus and odin isn ' t more well known , i would have loved to have heard this story as a kid for example .\nthis plaque tells a brief history of toronto ' s santa claus parade . it can be found out in front of toronto ' s 1899 city hall , and is located on the northwest corner of queen street west & james street .\nthere were two questions before the race . santa claus had never run the derby distance . could he last ? he had never raced anywhere except over the curragh in dublin . could he handle epsom ' s turning , undulating track ?\nterimon , second to nashwan at 500 / 1 , is the longest - priced horse placed in any classic .\nin the old stories , like santa claus , odin is an old guy with a long white beard . but if you\u2019re naughty instead of bringing you a lump of coal he was more likely to deliver a can of whoop - ass .\nthis picture from december 15 , 1989 shows a local three year old meeting santa at the scarborough town centre .\nthe original winner running rein was disqualified as he was actually an ineligible four - year - old horse named maccabeus .\neither fell or were brought down ; one horse was killed and four jockeys were detained in hospital as a result .\nthe four - year - olds ragusa , relko and le mesnil will probably dominate the all - aged events , for\u2014with the solitary exception of the irish - trained santa claus\u2014the european three - year - old crop is unlikely to prove of vintage quality .\npourparler ( ' 1 , 000 ' ) , santa claus ( derby ) and mesopotamia ( oaks ) will be backed up by ragusa \u2014outstanding prospect for the european cham - pion of 1964 . this will surely be another great year for the irish .\nthe derby was only the fourth race of santa claus ' s meteoric career . he was bred in england and sold as a foal for $ 2 , 350 . mrs . rogers and ' ismay bought him as an untested yearling for $ 4 , 000 .\nwhen santa claus won the irish 2 , 000 guineas , the bookmakers dropped the odds to 5\u20102 and shortened them again at the track . it was estimated that britain ' s three leading would have to pay out more than $ 2 , 800 , 000 .\nsinndar is the first horse to capture the derby , irish derby and prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe in the same season .\napril the fifth was a very popular winner and the first epsom - trained horse to win the derby since amato in 1838 .\ntwo american\u2010owned outsiders finished second and third today . a length behind santa claus was indiana , owned by charles w . engelhard of far hills , n . j . , and another length back was dilettante ii , carrying the colors of larry m . gelb of new york .\nin the early usa his name was ' kris kringle ' ( from the christkind ) . later , dutch settlers in the usa took the old stories of st . nicholas with them and kris kringle and st nicholas became ' sinterklaas ' or as we now say ' santa claus ' !\nliam kenny from his regular feature in the leinster leader - nothing new under the sun - for 20 december 2007 - examines the victory of santa claus at the curragh in 1964 and reviews james durney ' s book on naas social housing - in the shadow of kings . our thanks to liam\nnijinsky became the 15th horse to gain the triple crown after winning the derby and 2000 guineas with success in the st leger at doncaster .\noh jingle bells , jingle bells jingle all the way , oh what fun it is to ride on a one - horse open sleigh , hey jingle bells , jingle bells jingle all the way , oh what fun it is to ride on a one - horse open sleigh .\nlindley gained his most famous win on aggressor in the king george in 1960 , beating petite etoile and lester piggott by half a length . the nearest he came to winning the derby was in 1964 , when his mount indiana was cut down by santa claus ' s late burst and beaten a length .\ndr devious is the first horse to win the derby after contesting the kentucky derby , in which he had finished seventh to lil e tee .\nsanta claus ( ire ) br . h , 1961 { 3 - o } dp = 1 - 4 - 7 - 2 - 12 ( 26 ) di = 0 . 49 cd = - 0 . 77 - 7 starts , 4 wins , 1 places , 0 shows career earnings : $ 387 , 124\nas the song goes ,\noh what fun it is to ride , on a ' four ' horse open sleigh\nor something like that .\nthis photograph from december 11 , 1982 , shows santa posing with a local dog for a snapshot . this was part of a dog show held at exhibition place . money collected from those who wanted to get pictures of their dogs with santa went to a fund to help provide seeing eye dogs .\noriginally , the parade was sponsored by eaton ' s department stores , and was a successful marketing strategy for the retail chain . one can imagine early versions of santa claus hurling eaton ' s catalogues out into the hordes , giving young attendees several weeks to pester their parents about what they hoped to get on christmas morning .\nphil drake ran five times and won three races , becoming the fifth and last horse to win both the epsom derby and the grand prix de paris .\nin racing parlance , a stuck horse is an entry that a trainer wants to scratch but can ' t because the stewards won ' t let him .\nsome people say that santa lives at the north pole . in finland , they say that he lives in the north part of their country called lapland .\nthe santa ynez valley star december issue covers all the upcoming holiday events such as julefest in solvang , winter fest in buellton , los o . . .\nbut it was through one of his british born sons , son - in - law that dark ronald was to dominate the bloodlines of the sport horse world . son - in - law was described as a plodding middle distance horse , but he became known as a sire of slow maturing horses of great stamina .\nthat first parade was a simple affair , with only one single float participating in the parade . the parade now has over 25 floats , 24 bands and about 1 , 700 people . the parade route stretches for nearly six kilometres . toronto ' s santa claus parade is one of the largest and oldest annual parades in north america .\nwe do not have many reasons for optimism . a laconic observer close to the process recently remarked that governments , experts and institutions of every kind have turned the sustainable development goals ( sdgs ) into \u201ca letter to santa claus\u201d , a document in which absolutely everything can be included . whatever your hobby horse in the sphere of poverty or sustainable development , if you look hard enough you will surely find it among the 17 goals and 169 targets included in the document proposed by the open working group .\nbut the plane in new york had prior commitments . tex sutton , the lexington ( ky . ) shipper who flies top horses all over the country , had leased out nostalgia star ' s plane to a freight company that needs extra aircraft at christmas time . it might be said that nostalgia ' s star has been bumped by santa claus .\ni don ' t want a lot for christmas there is just one thing i need , and i don ' t care about the presents underneath the christmas tree i don ' t need to hang my stocking there upon the fireplace santa claus won ' t make me happy . . . . . . . . . with a toy on christmas day\npont l\u2019eveque was a very late foal , born at the end of the breeding season on 25 may , making him probably the youngest horse to win the derby .\nforget the sleigh ! on december 17 , 1984 , santa was cruising the streets of toronto on a harley , as temperatures reached a record high of 14 degrees .\nfavourite for the derby was the irish colt santa claus , recent easy winner of the irish 2000 guineas , ridden by the australian scobie breasley , and trained by mick rogers at the curragh . oncidium started 9 - 2 second favourite . he acted mulishly throughout the first part of the race , hanging his head to the right , away from the rails , but still managing to dispute the lead coming around tattenham corner . once into the straight , however , he was swiftly passed by the guineas winner baldric , then by indiana . he faded rapidly , still swishing his head from side to side and finished halfway down the field behind santa claus , who came fast down the outside to beat indiana a length .\ni decided with this last horse to arch his neck and put the head down a bit , just to give some variation , i had a bit of fun with that horse at the back with his head up and ears back , i ' m not that happy with the closest horses head so i might change that a bit .\ncoke has continued to use santa in their adverts since the 1930s . in 1995 they also introduced the ' coca - cola christmas truck ' in the ' holidays are coming ' tv adverts . the red truck , covered with lights and with the classic ' coke santa ' on its sides is now a famous part of recent christmas history .\non november 18 , 1985 , santa and his aides travelled the recently opened scarborough lrt out to the scarborough town centre , but not before greeting riders along the way .\nmahmoud was a light - coloured grey horse of distinctly arab appearance , standing just under 15 . 3 hands high , and bred in france by his owner the aga khan .\nour barns and arena are within walking distance of our home . because we live on the farm , all of the horses and the facility are checked on daily . the horses give our family the opportunity to spend time together on a daily basis . evenings are spent at the barn and most weekends are spent at horse shows , with our extended \u201chorse show family . \u201d\n. in a career that lasted from 1947 to 1948 he ran eight times and won three races . in the summer of 1948 he became the third french - trained horse to win the\npersistence with ponies pays for garber : horse racing : tarzana man owns thoroughbreds for nearly a decade before hitting jackpot with quintana , who ran sixth in last year ' s kentucky derby .\nhappy to hear that you liked the santa and odin story : ) . that\u2019s cool about wednesday originating from odin / wodan , makes a boring day of the week way more interesting !\nnostalgia ' s star will go to stud at the curragh stock farm in santa ynez . his breeding fee will be $ 2 , 500 , with a guarantee of a live foal .\n' i ' m fully satisfied that your filly was at the top of her form , and that no fluke attached to the result\u2014she could not have finished a yard closer , ' remarked mesopotamia ' s trainer , brud fether - stonhaugh , when discussing the race afterwards with major victor mccalmont . if santa claus justifies this opinion , yet another page will be added to the unending chapter of turf romance .\nbreasley took him to the outside of the track a half\u2010mile out , when baldric ii , owned by mrs . howell jackson of middleburg , va . , and oncidium , the english favorite , were still fighting it out with dilettante ii and indiana . then breasley urged santa claus forward and , as the crowd of perhaps 250 , 000 roared , the irish colt raced past the contenders and won going away .\nbut beneath all the symbolism and tradition that has been attached to the modern american santa claus , he , like so many other\nfather christmas\ncharacters before him can hearken back to a simple christian bishop who loved god and loved people . bishop nicholas displayed his love through the giving of gifts , just as our heavenly father gave the gift of his son to us that first christmas morning 2000 years ago .\nat epsom , indiana started a 33 / 1 outsider for the derby , in afield of 17 runners , with the irish colt santa claus being made 15 / 8 favourite . a crowd estimated at over 200 , 000 , including the queen and other members of the british royal family , was in attendance to view the most valuable race ever run in britain . ridden by jimmy lindley , indiana was settled in the middle of the field before moving up into contention at tattenham corner and taking the lead two furlongs from the finish . in the closing stages , indiana was overtaken by santa claus , who challenged on the wide outside and finished second , beaten by a length . shortly after his run at epsom , indiana was sent to france to contest the grand prix de paris at longchamp racecourse where he finished second to white label .\n\u2026the racetrack during the 1913 epsom derby and moved in front of king george v\u2019s horse , which struck her while galloping at full force . she never regained consciousness and died four days later . \u2026\nin january 1863 , the magazine harper ' s weekly published the first illustration of st nicholas / st nick by thomas nast . in this he was wearing a ' stars and stripes ' outfit ! over the next 20 years thomas nast continued to draw santa every christmas and his works were very popular indeed ( he must have been very good friends with santa to get such good access ! ) .\non a one - horse open sleigh over fields we go laughing all the way , bells on bob - tails ring making spirits bright what fun it is to ride and sing a sleighing song tonight .\n\u201che then won many long - distance races against the best in the land , crowning his distinguished career with a triumph in the gold cup at ascot . it fell to precipitation to maintain and continue the great matchem\u2019s influence on the breed , and this big and well - balanced son of the unbeaten hurry on did not disappoint his many admirers . his son chamossaire was leading sire in 1964 , the year santa claus won the derby . \u201d\na muscular brown horse with a strong shoulder and hip , chieftain was durable with a good turn of speed . he preferred to run on or near the front and could stretch his speed up to 9 furlongs .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for babe in boots . babe in boots is a mare born in 2013 september 17 by magic albert out of chelsea rose\nour indoor arena is available for barrel / pole horses on tuesday and thursday nights , 6 : 00 pm to 9 : 00 pm cst . the cost is $ 10 per horse . please contact us for more information .\nwith that in mind , course - specialist is delighted to publish the account of regular visitor graham oliver , whose love affair with the flat was fostered by a real character of a horse from the swinging sixties : oncidium .\nshahrastani holds off the strong late challenge of dancing brave in a memorable finish . bold arrangement becomes the first horse to contest both the kentucky derby and derby , finishing second at churchill downs to ferdinand and 14th at epsom .\ngeorge todd was very patient with oncidium , sending him out on long solo walks , ridden by his head lad , john cherry . blinkers were tried on the training gallops , but the horse still didn\u2019t want to know . todd was not a trainer who liked to keep his owner\u2019s informed much about how their horses were doing . throughout his time with george todd , lord howard de walden used to refer to oncidium as \u201cmy horse behind the iron curtain\u201d .\nedward stanley , the 12th earl of derby , the group conceived the idea of a race on the downs for three - year - old fillies , which was subsequently called \u201cthe oaks\u201d after the name of derby\u2019s nearby estate . derby\u2019s horse bridget won the first running of the oaks in 1779 . at a celebration after the race , bunbury and derby suggested a similar race for both colts and fillies , to begin the following year . reputedly , a coin toss followed , and derby won the honour of naming the race after himself . bunbury\u2019s horse diomed won the first running of the derby on may 4 , 1780 . many other horse races have since been named after the derby ( most notably the\nit would be true to say that oncidium was the spark that lit the flame , that burns as fiercely now as it did in my youth back in 1965 . there is just no other sport that compares to thoroughbred horse racing .\nan eleven month old boy was brought down to casa loma from markham to meet santa in this photograph from december 4 , 1987 . casa loma was filled with hundreds of presents that were then disseminated to disadvantaged children all over toronto .\nthe story of our modern santa claus begins with this same nicholas , who was born during the third century in patara , a village in what is now demre , turkey . his wealthy parents raised him as a christian . but they died in an epidemic while nicholas was still young , and he was left with their fortune . obeying jesus ' words to\nsell what you own and give the money to the poor ,\nnicholas used his inheritance to assist the suffering , the sick , and the poor .\nindiana was exported to stand as a stallion in japan . he sired the japanese horse of the year take hope , who won the japanese derby in 1973 and the spring tenno sho in 1974 . he died in japan on 14 june 1983 .\nin their book\na century of champions\n, john randall and tony morris rated windsor lad the nineteenth best horse of the 20th century and the sixth best derby winner , behind sea bird , hyperion , mill reef , nijinsky and shergar .\njay robbins , jack ' s son , trained nostalgia ' s star . it was young robbins who suggested to his father that they buy the horse when he was running as a 2 - year - old at del mar and pomona in 1984 .\nthe rich purse was only a relatively small part of what the race was worth to mrs . rogers and ismay . they had turned down an offer of $ 280 , 000 after santa had won the irish 2 , 000 guineas earlier this year .\nto sum up oncidium\u2019s racing career , i think it is true to say that he should have been the champion racehorse of 1964 . when he decided to put his best foot forward , he demonstrated that he was a markedly better racehorse than the st leger winner and derby runner up indiana . santa claus wouldn\u2019t have caught him in the derby if oncidium had replicated his running in the derby trials . that form would have given him a chance to have won the 1964 arc , which admittedly he didn\u2019t contest , preferring the jockey club cup .\nthe other morning at hollywood park , jack robbins , the veterinarian who treated john henry , 2 - time horse of the year , reached into his wallet and pulled out a paper with the race - by - race record of nostalgia ' s star .\nthis horse would have done even better if he had been back east all the time ,\nrobbins said .\nthey don ' t have hard tracks back there like they do in california , and he liked running over their deep tracks .\nthe reputation of santa claus , which caused him to be promoted 6 - 1 ante - post favourite for th\u2022e derby when william hill issued his first list , in mid - winter , depends solely on one race\u2014the national stakes , run over seven furlongs at the curragh on september 19 . ( he had earlier run unplaced in the anglesey stakes over the same course , seven weeks previously . ) in the national stakes , he ran clear away from the brilliant filly , mesopotamia , and ten others , to win by eight lengths in very fast time .\nnothing in nostalgia ' s star ' s career has come easy , and his owners - - jack and maggie robbins , fred duckett and mary jane hinds - - are not upset that their horse ' s return to california has been delayed . in fact , they may even capitalize on it and run him in the $ 75 , 000 display handicap at aqueduct on dec . 31 . the stake is 2 1 / 4 miles , the perfect distance for a horse who will have the rest of his life to rest .\ndid you know that rudolph and santa ' s other reindeers might well be all girls ! ? only female reindeer keep their antlers throughout winter . by christmas time most males have discarded their antlers and are saving their energy ready to grow a new pair in the spring .\nanother hyperion son , khaled has through his sons , sired the jumpers , black market and encore ( winner of the grand prix at fontainebleau and a uset team member ) . khaled\u2019s most important son was the derby winner swaps , whose pedigree boasts two branches of the bay ronald line , through khalad and also through his dam , iron reward , a daughter of beau pere . swaps\u2019 son , kudu sired the canadian equestrian team horse , stoic . tudor success , dam of anne kursinski\u2019s olympic horse , eros , is by the swaps son marbrino .\ndespite the training efforts of all at manton oncidium continued his bad behaviour in the st leger , running a staying on lifeless fifth , ten lengths behind indiana . that was the last time eph smith rode the horse that he described in his memoirs as \u201ca pig of a horse\u201d . smith had ridden blue peter to win the guineas and derby in 1939 . only mr hitler , and possibly the french colt pharis , stopped him winning the triple crown , when war was declared a few days before the st leger , and all racing was temporarily abandoned .\nbut , by 1982 , the parade had grown too large for eaton ' s to sponsor , and the store ended its association with the parade . the toronto santa claus parade was nearly doomed , but a businessman named george cohon stepped in and saved the festive municipal tradition . cohon was active with the organization of the parade right up until recently , but he retired in 2014 . today , the parade finds corporate sponsorship through a variety of businesses , including tim horton ' s , mcdonald ' s , lowe ' s , sears canada and canadian tire . they all have floats in the parade .\nsnow knight won the the epsom derby , then the following year earned an eclipse award as the american champion male turf horse . at stud he sired awaasif , the dam of snow bride , winner of the 1989 epsom oaks and the dam of lammtarra , winner of the 1995 epsom derby .\nwhat makes good riders great ? their sense of timing . riding and training horses requires a lot of feel , and to do it well also relies on applying the right aid at the right time . for example , a lateral leg aid must be applied when the horse can properly respond to it\u2013 when that hind leg is just leaving the ground and moving upward . if you close your leg when the horse\u2019s hind leg is going down and weight - bearing , he won\u2019t be able to react in the way you want . this can frustrate both of you ! how can you develop\u2026\nalthough most of what i have written has come from memory i am indebted to \u201cthe masters of manton\u201d by paul mathieu , which , if you are a lover of horse racing history , is a must read . also \u201criding to win\u201d by eph smith , a book i purchased back in 1968 .\n) , second dam of 1983 norwegian champion 3 - year - old male what nonsense and third dam of 1997 puerto rican horse of the year lightning al , 2004 peruvian champion 2 - year - old filly la foquita , new zealand group ii winner sculptor and australian group iii winner slightly sweet .\nnostalgia ' s star is a stuck horse , but his situation has nothing to do with a scratch . if someone wanted to write a song about the end of nostalgia ' s star ' s long career , the title might be ,\ni won ' t be home for christmas .\nif your horse wears shoes , it\u2019s inevitable that , at some point , your horse will pull one off . usually , such occurrences happen at the worst time , like the day before a show or the day after your farrier goes on vacation . though my career of managing horses , i\u2019ve been lucky to have a few with excellent feet who rarely ever lost a shoe . and then there were those others i\u2019d rather forget : the ones with crappy feet who routinely ripped their shoes off and made the farrier cringe each time i called . fortunately , i\u2019ve got some decent - footed horses in my\u2026\nsaint leger , one of the english triple crown races and , with the derby , the two thousand guineas , the one thousand guineas , and the oaks , one of the classic horse races . the race was established by colonel barry saint leger in 1776 and was named for him in 1778 . an event\u2026\nanother influential horse on many performance pedigrees is the french stallion , djebel . djebel was the champion two year old in france , leading money winner at three and five , and was three times leading french thoroughbred stallion . djebel\u2019s dam loika is by gay crusader by bayardo out of coeur a coeur by teddy . \u00ad\u00ad\u00ad\u00ad\u00ad\nmost of the time , nostalgia ' s star was not good enough to beat the best horses , but he cashed so many checks for runner - up finishes that his purse total evolved more than it grew . as robbins puts it ,\nthe horse nickel - dimed his way to $ 2 million .\n) and third dam of 1997 santa monica handicap ( usa - i ) winner toga toga toga , 2007 vrc oaks ( aus - i ) winner arapaho miss , canadian grade ii winner minakshi and new zealand group ii winner real success . in addition , chieftain is a half brother to stakes producers celia ( by\non the evening that sinterklaas arrives in the netherlands , children leave a shoe out by the fireplace or sometimes a windowsill and sing sinterklaas songs . they hope that sinterklaas will come during the night with some presents . they also believe that if they leave some hay and carrots in their shoes for sinterklaas ' s horse , they will be left some sweets or small presents . they ' re told that , during the night , sinterklaas rides on the roofs on his horse and that a ' zwarte piet ' will then climb down the chimney ( or through a window ) and put the presents and / or candy in their shoes .\nthe rolling hills provide a natural and perfect setup for our horses . once the mares have foaled , they are turned out in the lush , green pastures on the east side of the farm . the yearlings and 2 - year - olds have a barn on the north side of the farm designated for them , with smaller turn - out pastures close for them to enjoy . once the horses are started under saddle , they are moved to the \u201cshow barn\u201d . the majority of the turn - out pastures offer three - sided sheds for the horses to run in for shelter , should the weather ever become an issue . santa claus quarter horses also has a 230\u2019 x 100\u2019 enclosed arena .\njay kept bugging me ,\njack robbins said .\nwe could have bought him ( from owner - breeder john mabee ) for $ 75 , 000 in the beginning . but we waited until after the horse won that sprint stake at los alamitos , and then the price went up to $ 95 , 000 .\nbut i\u2019m guessing not too many kids back in odin\u2019s day waited up for him and the fearsome eight - legged sleipnir , lest they surprise the legendary warriors and make them angry . still \u2026it would be tempting just to take one peek , after all it\u2019s not every day that you get a chance to see a horse with eight legs : d .\nwidely celebrated in europe , st . nicholas ' feast day on december 6th kept alive the stories of his generosity and kindness . in germany and poland , boys dressed as bishops begged alms for the poor . in the netherlands and belgium , st . nicholas arrived on a steamship from spain to ride a white horse on his gift - giving rounds .\nlammtarra becomes the first horse to win the derby on his seasonal return since grand parade in 1919 and sets a record time of 2m 32 . 31s , beating mahmoud\u2019s 2m 33 . 8s which was hand - timed in 1936 . the race is switched permanently from wednesday to saturday . vodafone takes over the sponsorship and remains the backer up to 2008 .\ndick hern used him with success on galivanter , highest hopes , sun prince and sallust , and would have given him the leg - up on brigadier gerard in the prince of wales ' s stakes at royal ascot in 1972 had joe mercer not recovered from a plane crash two days before . he sometimes rode britain ' s horse of the century at home .\nkris kin is the first supplementary entry to win the derby . the sir michael stoute - trained colt had initially been entered in the classic as a yearling but was scratched at the start of his three - year - old campaign . connections paid \u00a390 , 000 to add the horse to the line - up at the five - day stage following his victory in chester\u2019s dee stakes .\nover the years , a number of outstanding locally based stallions have made their presence felt in the vodacom durban july . from early times when the likes of pearl diver , morganatic , and greatorex all sired at least two individual july winners , a number of leading south african sires have made their presence felt in what is still regarded today by many as the country\u2019s greatest horse race .\nof the 7 stakes nostalgia ' s star has won , the only major victory was the charles h . strub at santa anita in 1986 . he had to beat proud truth , who had won the breeders ' cup classic at aqueduct the previous year . the race was run in the mud , which nostalgia ' s star loves , and which proud truth couldn ' t handle .\nmany countries , especially ones in europe , celebrate st . nicholas ' day on 6th december . in holland and some other european countries , children leave clogs or shoes out on the 5th december ( st . nicholas eve ) to be filled with presents . they also believe that if they leave some hay and carrots in their shoes for sinterklaas ' s horse , they will be left some sweets .\noaks , one of the english classic horse races ( along with the derby , saint leger , two thousand guineas , and one thousand guineas ) , an event for three - year - old fillies , established in 1779 , and run over a 1 . 5 - mile ( about 2 , 400 - metre ) course at epsom downs , surrey , also the site of the derby . the oaks was\u2026\ndecember 6th is still the main day for gift giving in much of europe . in the netherlands , candies are thrown in the door , along with chocolate initial letters , small gifts , and riddles . dutch children leave carrots and hay in their shoes for st . nick ' s horse , hoping it will be exchanged for gifts . simple gift - giving on st . nicholas day helps to preserve a christmas day focus on the christ child .\nlike other elite horse races , the derby has grown into a multiday festival , featuring musical acts and events in addition to the race itself . the oaks is also run during the derby festival , held on the friday before the saturday running of the derby . derby day is more formal than most contemporary sporting events : epsom downs maintains a dress code for male spectators in certain sections of the stands , and women often attend the event wearing extravagant hats .\nwhat robbins meant was that although nostalgia ' s star was worth the $ 95 , 000 that he and his partners paid for him in 1984 , a horse that wins only 9 of 57 starts can drive a win bettor daffy . bets across the board on nostalgia ' s star would have cushioned the grief , since he ran second 15 times and third 13 times . with the 9 wins , he finished in the money almost 65 % of the time .\nby the hurdler , hampton , bay ronald raced for four years , and more than paid his way . a winner of the lowther stakes , the limekiln stakes , the city and suburban handicap , and at the age of five , the epsom cup . described as a useful handicap horse , he was a sensation at stud , founding a line that still flourishes . his most influential sons were bayardo , dark ronald ( sire of son in law ) and macdonald ii .\nin 1987 , nostalgia ' s star earned $ 756 , 030 while winning only 2 of 13 starts . one of the victories , though , in the hawthorne gold cup , was worth $ 277 , 000 and he collected $ 165 , 000 just for finishing second - - behind the redoubtable java gold - - in the marlboro cup . at santa anita in 1986 , nostalgia ' s star earned $ 210 , 000 for running fourth in the breeders ' cup classic .\ncamelot becomes the 37th horse to follow up victory in the first british classic , the 2000 guineas over a mile at newmarket , with success in the investec derby as he records a convincing five - length win at epsom downs . jockey and trainer , joseph and aidan o\u2019brien , become the first father / son combination to win the premier classic . camelot narrowly fails in his bid to win the triple crown , finishing second behind encke in the st leger at doncaster three and a half months later ."]}
{"id": 1703, "summary": [{"text": "the black-necked agama ( acanthocercus atricollis ) is a species of tree agama that is native to east , central and southern africa .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "its largest continuous range is in southeastern africa , and it occurs at high densities in the kruger national park . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "acanthocercus atricollis", "paragraphs": ["agama atricollis smith 1849 : 14 agama atricollis \u2014 boulenger 1885 : 358 agama atricollis \u2014 schmidt 1919 : 477 agama atricollis \u2014 mertens 1955 : 55 agama atricollis \u2014 auerbach 1987 : 95 agama atricollis \u2014 lanza 1983 : 208 stellio atricollis \u2014 lanza 1990 acanthocercus atricollis \u2014 joger 1991 stellio atricollis \u2014 broadley & howell 1991 : 11 stellio atricollis \u2014 broadley 1991 : 522 laudakia atricollis \u2014 manthey & schuster 1999 : 76 laudakia atricollis kuwuensis \u2014 manthey & schuster 1999 : 76 acanthocercus atricollis \u2014 barts & wilms 2003 agama atricollis \u2014 cooper 2005 acanthocercus atricollis \u2014 spawls et al . 2018 : 222 acanthocercus atricollis atricollis ( smith 1849 ) stellio capensis dum\u00e9ril in dum\u00e9ril et al . 1851 : 106 stellio nigricollis bocage 1866 : 43 ( fide loveridge 1943 ) agama cyanocephala falk 1925 agama atricollis atricollis \u2014 klausewitz 1957 : 161 agama atricollis atricollis \u2014 wermuth 1967 : 9 acanthocercus atricollis atricollis \u2014 bates et al . 2014 : 308 acanthocercus cyanocephalus \u2014 conradie et al . 2016 acanthocercus atricollis gregorii ( klausewitz 1957 ) agama gregorii g\u00fcnther 1894 : 86 agama atricollis gregorii \u2014 klausewitz 1957 : 165 agama atricollis gregorii \u2014 wermuth 1967 : 9 acanthocercus atricollis gregorii \u2014 manthey 2012 acanthocercus atricollis kiwuensis ( klausewitz 1957 ) agama atricollis kiwuensis \u2014 klausewitz 1957 : 167 agama atricollis kiwuensis \u2014 wermuth 1967 : 9 acanthocercus atricollis loveridgei ( klausewitz 1957 ) agama atricollis loveridgei \u2014 klausewitz 1957 : 163 agama atricollis loveridgei \u2014 wermuth 1967 : 9 acanthocercus atricollis minutus ( klausewitz 1957 ) agama atricollis loveridgei \u2014 klausewitz 1957 : 170 agama atricollis loveridgei \u2014 wermuth 1967 : 9 acanthocercus atricollis ugandaensis ( klausewitz 1957 ) agama atricollis ugandaensis \u2014 klausewitz 1957 : 169 agama atricollis ugandaensis \u2014 wermuth 1967 : 9\npicking a tree : habitat use by the tree agama , acanthocercus atricollis atricollis , in south africa .\nebscohost | 13052112 | picking a tree : habitat use by the tree agama , acanthocercus atricollis atricollis , in south africa .\npietersen , errol and darren pietersen 2001 . acanthocercus atricollis southern tree agama . african herp news ( 33 ) : 14\npietersen , errol and darren pietersen . 2001 . acanthocercus atricollis southern tree agama . african herp news ( 33 ) : 14 .\nthere are possibly up to six subspecies , but all are poorly defined ( branch 1998 , spawls et al . 2002 ) : a . atricollis atricollis ( smith , 1849 ) a . atricollis gregorii ( g\u00fcnther , 1894 ) a . atricollis kiwuensis ( klausewitz , 1957 ) a . atricollis loveridgei ( klausewitz , 1957 ) a . atricollis minutus ( klausewitz , 1957 ) a . atricollis ugandaensis ( klausewitz , 1957 ) .\nsouthern tree agama ( acanthocercus atricollis ) live in a wide range of habitats , from forest to savannah , even living in built up areas . this speci\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nreaney , l . t . and whiting , m . j . 2003 . picking a tree : habitat use by the tree agama , acanthocercus atricollis atricollis , in south africa . african zoology 38 ( 2 ) : 273 - 278 .\ntree agamas ( acanthocercus atricollis ) usually have large blue heads and their diet consists of flying insects like grasshoppers , beetles and other goggas that inhabit the bark of trees .\nklausewitz , w . 1957 . eidonomische untersuchungen \u00fcber die rassenkreise agama cyanogaster und agama atricollis . 2 . die unterarten von agama atricollis . senckenbergiana biologica 38 : 157 - 174\njustification : acanthocercus atricollis is listed as least concern in view of its large distribution across eastern and southern africa , its tolerance of anthropogenic environments , and the absence of any major widespread threat .\nwhiting , m . j . , chetty , k . , twine , w . and carazo , p . 2009 . impact of human disturbance and beliefs on the tree agama acanthocercus atricollis atricollis in a south african communal settlement . oryx 43 ( 4 ) : 586 - 590 .\nacanthocercus atricollis is listed as least concern in view of its large distribution across eastern and southern africa , its tolerance of anthropogenic environments , and the absence of any major widespread threat . true of all horn and e african forms\nwagner , p . , greenbaum , e . and bauer , a . 2012 . a new species of the acanthocercus atricollis complex ( squamata : agamidae ) from zambia . salamandra 48 ( 1 ) : 21 - 30 .\nwagner , p . , e . greenbaum & a . bauer 2012 . a new species of the acanthocercus atricollis complex ( squamata : agamidae ) from zambia . salamandra 48 ( 1 ) : 21 - 30 - get paper here\nreaney , l . t . , and m . j . whiting . 2002 . life on a limb : ecology of the tree agama ( acanthocercus a . atricollis ) in southern africa . journal of zoology 257 : 439 - 448\nreaney , l . t . and whiting , m . j . 2002 . life on a limb : ecology of the tree agama ( acanthocercus a . atricollis ) in southern africa . journal of zoology 257 : 439 - 448 .\nsouthern tree agama acanthocercus atricollis atricollis ( siswati : intfulo ) key features : spiny body scales , box - shaped head and large size comments : occurs throughout the country in the highveld , middleveld , lowveld and lubombo regions . in the highveld , the species is restricted to the lower regions in the larger , warmer valleys . habitats : woodland valley bushveld\nreaney , l . t . , and m . j . whiting . 2002 . life on a limb : ecology of the tree agama ( acanthocercus a . atricollis ) in southern africa . journal of zoology , london 257 : 439 - 448 .\nthey range across most of central africa down into south africa including ethiopia , kenya , congo , angola and namibia . you can find 12 different species of agama in south africa and inhabiting the north of the country , acanthocercus atricollis being one of these .\natricollis : s africa , incl . \u201cportugese est africa , n rhodesia , portugese west africa\u201d ( after wermuth 1967 ) .\nthe atricollis has been known to take veg try them on some kale or rocket you may find they will eat it .\n) and earth / tiger worms and you create a live eco system that will clean up any mess that you atricollis leave behind . throwing in some leftover vegetables ( make sure it\u2019s safe for your atricollis ) will keep these fed and spray in the corner of the viv to give them a damp spot . this will give you a live culture in your substrate that you shouldn\u2019t have to clean . this also gives your atricollis some chances of hunting and foraging for food .\nblue - headed tree agama ( acanthocercus atricollis ) this beautiful agama literally ran between my feet when i was returning from the morning hippopotamus shoot in the luangwa river . she patiently waited to be photographed and then ran - up to the crown of the tree as fast as a bullet . this was the first and last time i saw a blue agama . . .\nthe southern tree agama ( acanthocercus atricollis ) is an agamid native to parts of africa , and is found from ethiopia to natal , congo , angola and namibia . these arboreal lizards tend to stay in environments which allow them to cling onto vertical surfaces - such as open plains with scattered trees , though they are also commonly found in urban areas , clinging onto the sides of buildings .\nklausewitz , w . 1957 . eidonomische untersuchungen \u00fcber den rassenkreis agama cyanogaster und a . atricollis ( teil 2 ) . senckenb . biol . , 38 : 157 - 174 .\nthe atricollis can be fed a wide variety of invertebrates . in the wild they feed mainly on termites , ants and winged insects like grasshoppers . atricollis are one of the few lizards that can handle the acidity of ants . unlike some of the other agamid species though they don\u2019t live entirely on ants being more of an ambush species feasting on whatever insects they see .\na humidity of 65 % is best when shedding occurs . the atricollis sheds roughly every few months at this time make sure you spray well , spraying the entire lizard to aid shedding .\nwhen choosing a setup for the atricollis it has to be remembered that they are a semi arboreal lizard . this means that you will require a setup with both floor space and height , a space of 36x18x24 ( inches ) is required for one specimen , with something along the lines of 48x24x36 being used for a larger colony .\n. you can also , as a treat , feed them wax worms , mealworms and butter worms ( chilecomadia moorei ) . morio worms can also be fed as atricollis chew their food more than most species so the size of a morio isn\u2019t a problem . they also like beetles and the beetles from mealworms are a favourite of theirs .\nlectotype : bmnh ( designated by klausewitz 1957 ) ( atricollis ) holotype : smf 10138 ; paratypes : zmb 16906 ( fide tillack , pers . comm . 22 jan 2014 ) [ loveridgei ] lectotype : zsm 51 / 1932 [ gregorii ] holotype : zmb 17693 [ kiwuensis ] holotype : zmb 11904 [ ugandaensis ] holotype : zmb 29089 [ minuta ]\ni\u2019ve found that my atricollis like a humidity of around 65 % dropping to a slightly drier area in the hot end . this humidity can go into the 70s and i advise spraying 2 - 3 times a day to achieve this . a good trick to raise humidity in your setup is to have a heat mat under a water bowl this evaporated the water creating a humid environment .\nyou will find your atricollis have a spot they like in the viv , the male normally taking the best spot . they tend to pick a high warm area where they can look over the other occupants . they require the heat of the day to be able to move about so you will find them basking early on and normally more active in the day . this is when you will find them showing their full colouring .\ntend to be bigger than the females , with a large head and a broad yellow / green vertebral stripe , their main colouration being a grey / brown . they display a blue head during breeding season , when feeding and at the hottest parts of the day . male atricollis have large teeth at the jaw apex this helps them to chew bigger prey . you can search for many pictures of them online showing complete body colouring they rarely reach this in captivity but do still have some fantastic colours . their colours change very quickly due to their scaling . a full size adult male will be around the 15 inches head to tail , the tail making up more than half of the total length . nose to vent in an adult male being 5 - 6 inches .\ngregorii : coastal kenya . type locality : mkonumbi ( coast of kenya ) .\nminuta : ethiopia , kenya . type locality : dscheffedenza , shoa , abessinien .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nangel , fernand 1925 . r\u00e9sultats scientifiques . vertebrata . reptiles et batraciens . [ mabuia ( mabuiopsis ) jeanneli , lygosoma graueri quinquedigitata , ablepharus massaiensis ] . in : voyage de ch . alluaud et r . jeannel en afrique orientale ( 1911 - 1912 ) . - paris , 2 : 1 - 63 .\nauerbach , r . d . 1987 . the amphibians and reptiles of botswana . mokwepa consultants , botswana , 295 pp .\nbarnes , keith 2016 . animals of kruger national park . princeton university press , ca . 180 pp . - get paper here\nbarts , m . 2003 . die agamen des s\u00fcdlichen afrikas . draco 4 ( 14 ) : 70 - 79 - get paper here\nbates , m . f . ; branch , w . r . , bauer , a . m . ; burger , m . , marais , j . ; alexander , g . j . & de villliers , m . s . ( eds . ) 2014 . atlas and red list of the reptiles of south africa , lesotho , and swaziland . suricata 1 . south african national biodiversity institute , pretoria , 512 pp .\nbocage , j . v . du b . 1866 . lista dos reptis das possess\u00f5es portuguezas d ' africa occidental que existem no museu lisboa . jorn . sci . math . phys . nat . lisboa 1 : 37 - 56\nboulenger , g . a . 1885 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( nat . hist . ) i . geckonidae , eublepharidae , uroplatidae , pygopodidae , agamidae . london : 450 pp . - get paper here\nbroadley , d . g . & howell , k . m . 1991 . a check list of the reptiles of tanzania , with synoptic keys . syntarsus 1 : 1\u201470\nbroadley , d . g . 1991 . the herpetofauna of northern mwinilunga distr . , northw . zambia . arnoldia zimbabwe 9 ( 37 ) : 519 - 538\nbroadley , donald g . and f . p . d . cotterill . 2004 . the reptiles of southeast katanga , an overlooked ' hot spot ' . [ congo ] . african journal of herpetology 53 ( 1 ) : 35 - 61 . - get paper here\ncooper jr . , w . e . 2005 . duration of movement as a lizard foraging movement variable . herpetologica 61 ( 4 ) : 363 - 372 - get paper here\nde witte , g . f . 1953 . reptiles . exploration du parc national de l ' upemba . mission g . f . de witte en collaboration avec w . adam , a . janssens , l . van meel et r . verheyen ( 1946\u20131949 ) . institut des parcs nationaux du congo belge . brussels , vol . 6 , 322 pp . - get paper here\ndenzer , wolfgang ; g\u00fcnther , rainer ; manthey , ulrich 1997 . annotated type catalogue of the agamid lizards ( reptilia : squamata : agamidae ) in the museum f\u00fcr naturkunde der humbolt - universit\u00e4t zu berlin ( former zoological museum berlin ) . mitt . zool . mus . berlin 73 ( 2 ) : 309 - 332\ndum\u00e9ril , a . m . c . & a . h . a . dum\u00e9ril 1851 . catalogue m\u00e9thodique de la collection des reptiles du mus\u00e9um d ' histoire naturelle de paris . gide et baudry / roret , paris , 224 pp .\ngrubermann , m . 2013 . einige fotografische beobachtungen an agamen in kenia , tansania , malawi , s\u00fcdafrika und namibia . iguana 26 ( 1 ) : 23 - 33\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1894 . report on the collection of reptiles and fishes made by dr . j . w . gregory during his expedition to mount kenia [ sic ] . proc . zool . soc . london 1894 : 84 - 91 - get paper here\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1895 . notice of reptiles and batrachians collected in the eastern half of tropical africa . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 15 : 523 - 529 . - get paper here\nhaagner , g . v . ; branch , w . r . & haagner , a . j . f . 2000 . notes on a collection of reptiles from zambia and adjacent areas of the democratic republic of the congo . annals of the eastern cape museum 1 : 1 \u2013 25\nherrmann , h . - w . ; w . r . branch 2013 . fifty years of herpetological research in the namib desert and namibia with an updated and annotated species checklist . journal of arid environments 93 : 94\u2013115 - get paper here\njoger , u . 1991 . a molecular phylogeny of agamid lizards . copeia 1991 ( 3 ) : 616 - 622 - get paper here\nlanza , b . 1990 . amphibians and reptiles of the somali democratic republic : check list and biogeography . biogeographia , 14 : 407 - 465 [ 1988 ]\nlanza , b . 1983 . a list of the somali amphibians and reptiles . monitore zoologico italiano , new ser . , suppl . 18 ( 8 ) : 193 - 247\nlargen , m . j . ; spawls , s . 2006 . lizards of ethiopia ( reptilia sauria ) : an annotated checklist , bibliography , gazetteer and identification . tropical zoology 19 ( 1 ) : 21 - 109 - get paper here\nlargen , m . j . ; spawls , s . 2010 . amphibians and reptiles of ethiopia and eritrea . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 694 pp .\nloveridge , a . 1923 . notes on east african lizards collected 1920 - 1923 with the description of two new races of agama lionotus blgr . proc . zool . soc . london 1923 : 935 - 969 - get paper here\nloveridge , a . 1936 . african reptiles and amphibians in the field museum of natural history . zool . ser . field mus . nat . hist . , chicago , 22 ( 1 ) : 1 - 122 - get paper here\nloveridge , a . 1920 . notes on east african lizards collected 1915 - 1919 , with description of a new genus and species of skink and new subspecies of gecko . proc . zool . soc . london 1920 : 131 - 167 - get paper here\nmanthey , u . & schuster , n . 1999 . agamen , 2 . aufl . natur und tier verlag ( m\u00fcnster ) , 120 pp . - get paper here\nmeek , seth eugene ; cory , charles b . 1910 . batrachians and reptiles from british east africa . publication of the field museum of natural history 7 ( 11 ) : 403 - 414 - get paper here\nmertens , r . 1955 . die amphibien und reptilien s\u00fcdwestafrikas . aus den ergebnissen einer im jahre 1952 ausgef\u00fchrten reise . abh . senckenb . naturf . ges . ( frankfurt ) 490 : 1 - 172 - get paper here\nmonard , albert 1937 . contribution \u00e0 l ' herp\u00e9tologie d ' angola . arq . mus . bocage , lisbon 8 : 19 - 153 .\nschleicher , alfred 2015 . reptilien namibias . namibia scientific society , 276 pp .\nschmidt , karl patterson 1919 . contributions to the herpetology of the belgian congo based on the collection of the american congo expedition , 1909 - 1915 . part i : turtles , crocodiles , lizards , and chamaeleons . bull . amer . mus . nat . hist . 39 ( 2 ) : 385 - 624 - get paper here\nsmith , a . 1849 . illustrations of the zoology of south africa . 3 ( reptiles ) . smith , elder , and co . , london [ facsimile published by winchester press , johannesburg , 1977 ] - get paper here\nspawls , s . & rotich , d . 1997 . an annotated checklist of the lizards of kenya . j . east african nat . hist . 86 : 61 - 83 - get paper here\nspawls , s . ; howell , k . ; drewes , r . c . & ashe , j . 2002 . a field guide to the reptiles of east africa . academic press , 543 pp . [ reviews in hr 34 : 396 and afr . j . herp . 51 ; 147 ] - get paper here\nspawls , steve ; kim howell , harald hinkel , michele menegon 2018 . field guide to east african reptiles . bloomsbury , 624 pp . - get paper here\nwitte , g . f . de 1933 . reptiles r\u00e9colt\u00e9s au conge belge par le dr . h . schouteden et par m . g . - f . witte . ann . mus . conge belge zool . ser . 1 tome iii : 53 - 100 .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nr\u00f6del , m . - o . , de silva , r . , milligan , h . t . , wearn , o . r . , wren , s . , zamin , t . , sears , j . , wilson , p . , lewis , s . , lintott , p . & powney , g .\nthis species is found from eritrea , south through east africa to coastal kwazulu - natal , eastern botswana and northern namibia ( branch 1998 ) . the western limit of the distribution is the western democratic republic of the congo ( spawls et al . 2002 ) . this species occurs from sea level to 2 , 400 m above sea level , although in east africa it is most common from 1 , 300 to 2 , 000 m above sea level .\npatterson ( 1987 ) reported that this species appears to be common in kruger national park . a resident pair was found on almost every tree , even in anthropogenically disturbed areas .\nit is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its full range .\nthere are no known species - specific conservation measures in place for this species . in places its distribution coincides with protected areas , probably providing small safeguards . no further conservation measures are required .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\na curated database of candidate human ageing - related genes and genes associated with longevity and / or ageing in model organisms .\na curated database of genes associated with dietary restriction in model organisms either from genetic manipulation experiments or gene expression profiling .\nprojects focused on gene expression profiling of ageing and of dietary manipulations of ageing , such as caloric restriction .\nsoftware for ageing research , including the ageing research computational tools ( arct ) perl toolkit .\na curated database of ageing and life history information in animals , including extensive longevity records .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\na high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .\nanalyses using the anage database to study the evolution of longevity and ageing in vertebrate lineages .\na portal of ageing changes covering different biological levels , integrating molecular , physiological and pathological age - related data .\nthe whosage database contains people and biotech companies that are contributing to increase our understanding of ageing and life - extension .\ncomments , suggestions , ideas , and bug reports are welcome . please contact us .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nplease note \u200b the information on the bamboozoo site is as much as 10 years old and in the hobby much has been learned . though , i believe there is merit in keeping the site open . there are many controversial issues presented in these pages . please view bamboozoo as a starting point in your research . \u200b \u200b these beings are as complicated as we are and deserve more than a basic 5 paragraph care sheet to maintain their health and well being . my passions have evolved . this is is the site i am growing today . we heal the world \u200b\nthey live in a wide range of habitats , from forest to savannah , even living in built up areas . this species can often be found scaling the sides of trees . in studies they were found to inhabit mainly acacia karroo and occasionally found in protea caffra and dead trees .\nnormally a male displaying his colours won\u2019t be far away from several females . these lizards tend to live in colonies with one dominant male and a group of females and other subordinate males .\nthey tend to be an olive colour with black marbling , the patterning on their backs being very distinctive . they also display , mainly when gravid , two series of orange to yellow dorsal spots .\nlots of branches are required for the species providing a large canopy for climbing . plenty of hiding spots should be added to the setup making sure you have adequate space for them all to hide in both the warm and cool ends of the setup . using planting ( fake or real ) try to create lots of hidden areas that they can escape the light of the day in . in my own setup i have walls covered in cork bark or viv rock backing can be used to create a rock face they can climb .\na full spectrum bulb is needed for the uv of these lizards . i recommend using an arcadia d3 12 % . they have both a longer life and a far superior output compared to the competitors . this needs to go along the length of the setup trying to keep at a 12inch distance . the d\u00e9cor mentioned above allows plenty of hiding places to give varying levels of uv to suit your lizard\u2019s needs .\nset a spot light on a dimmer stat on a basking spot to one end of the tank achieving a temperature near to the 100f mark leaving a thermal gradient down to the high 70 to the low 80s . alternatively on a large setup try using an mvb ( mercury vapour bulb ) for far superior lighting and heat .\nset lighting on for a period of 12 - 14 hours , depending on the time of year .\n: uncaught exception ' enlight _ controller _ exception ' with message ' controller\njust - arrived\nnot found ' in / var / www / clients / client1 / web2 / web / engine / library / enlight / controller / dispatcher / default . php : 488 stack trace : # 0 / var / www / clients / client1 / web2 / web / engine / library / enlight / controller / front . php ( 223 ) : enlight _ controller _ dispatcher _ default - > dispatch ( object ( enlight _ controller _ request _ requesthttp ) , object ( enlight _ controller _ response _ responsehttp ) ) # 1 / var / www / clients / client1 / web2 / web / engine / shopware / kernel . php ( 191 ) : enlight _ controller _ front - > dispatch ( ) # 2 / var / www / clients / client1 / web2 / web / vendor / symfony / http - kernel / httpcache / httpcache . php ( 484 ) : shopware \\ kernel - > handle ( object ( symfony \\ component \\ httpfoundation \\ request ) , 1 , true ) # 3 / var / www / clients / client1 / web2 / web / engine / shopware / components / httpcache / appcache . php ( 268 ) : symfony \\ component \\ httpkernel \\ httpcache \\ httpcache - > forward ( object ( symfony \\ component \\ httpfoundation \\ request ) , true , null ) # 4 / var / www / clients / client1 / web2 / web / vendor / symfony / http - kernel / httpcache / httpcach in\n/ var / www / clients / client1 / web2 / web / engine / library / enlight / controller / dispatcher / default . php\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na tumblr devoted entirely to reptiles , in the wild or in captivity as pets . the purpose of this blog is to inform people about reptiles - their habits in the wild as well as some snippets as to their care in captivity , and the unsuitability and ethics of keeping some species in captivity .\nadults growing to between 20 - 30cm ( nearly 1ft ) . this species have very large heads , with the males turning a bright and rich blue colour , as shown here , during the mating season .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nnew registration notice : we constantly receive a surge of spam registrations . on purging these , we may have deleted your newly registered profile by accident . if this happened please accept our apologies and re - register . also note that registration now requires admin approval . if your registration is not confirmed within 24 hours , please sms your username and email to + 27 ( 0 ) 82 686 5464\nagamas , geckos , lizards , monitors and skinks indigenous to south africa . view gallery\nnot sure but is this the bloukop or blue headed lizard ? ? ? oh i found him at the home office where i work this afternoon .\nblue headed lizard is it ' s common name im pretty sure\nbloukop koggelmander ( blue head agama )\nis what i found online about it .\nthe yellow down his back is really nice . i forgot to google it . silly me i am constantly gooling stuff .\nif you can bring him some meal worms on a regular basis and put this in an escape proof bowl at the base of the tree he would appreciate that . he will also enjoy the meal worm beetles which most people do not use as food in any case . if he is the strongest and prettiest in the area he will attract females . by supplementing his feeding you will be helping him get a girl this season .\nit is easier to ask for forgiveness than permission . those who are afraid to ask are ashamed of learning .\nand they do get rather used to having people around . . . in primary school i the workers were busy digging holes , when they dug into a nest , i rescued the ones i could , threw out my lunch and put them in my lunchbox as they were in the sand . i took them home that day and reburied them in a nice spot in the garden , about two weeks later they hatched , i could only see 4 , and they stayed in the same garden for the next 3 years we lived there . . . was pretty cool\nnegative thoughts , creates a negative mind . a negative mind , creates a negative person . a negative person , creates a negative mood , which spoils the power of positivity . . . making room , for negative thoughts . - the circle of negativity by mv\nwell they are called the tree agama . yes they are also referred to as the blue headed lizard . but the reason for them not being called the blue headed tree agama is because the females do not have blue heads .\nok i just googled it now . and apparently you do get a blue headed tree agama . but the\nbloukop koggelmander\nyou find down in the lowveld and the hoedspruit area all have blue heads ( the males ) and it stops at the shoulders . these are your normal tree agamas and the females then do not have blue heads .\nhas anyone had any success keeping these ? anyone breeding them in the country ? ? most agamas are really awesome lizards , its like the proudly south african version of the bearded dragon .\nbloukop is a very vague name for these guys as said . even a few species found in the karoo are referred to as bloukops . a genereal name for agamas in south africa . the exact one you have pictured is a southern tree agama (\ni remember keeping these as a young kid but not for long lol . always had bite marks on my hands from catching these guys . . . real good memories . . . my folks shoulda seen it coming from then haha ! !\nbloukop mannetjie ! ! ! haven ' t seen one of these in a good few years ! i kept a couple as a kid in pmb back in the day they make awesome pets . much more interesting in my opinion than a beardie . . . these guys will eat just about anything creepy crawly and settle down very well . does anyone keep these in joeys and does anyone know if permits would be required ?\ni know not with what weapons world war iii will be fought , but world war iv will be fought with sticks and stones . - albert einstein fred smith\nexcept for kzn , permits are required for any reptile species which occurs within the borders of south africa .\negg - laying and nest - building behaviours vary widely among reptiles . these behaviours range from the \u201ccasual\u201d dropping of the eggs in a relatively suitable site to the preparation of an elaborate nest , and in a few groups parental care may also occur . most turtles dig an egg chamber exclusively with their hind limbs , and attention is given to the selection of the nest site , the excavation of the egg chamber , and its closure . thereafter , the female departs , and the eggs and hatchlings must survive on their own . most lizards and snakes also depart after the eggs are lain ; the egg chamber can be little more than a hollow as the lizard or snake crawls through leaf litter or\n) digs a deep burrow with a combination of its fore - and hind limbs ; this chamber is often so deep that the female is totally hidden from view . at the end of this burrow , she lays her eggs and fills the entire burrow with loosened soil . often a group of females will return to the same nesting site within the same nesting colony year after year .\na green sea turtle ( chelonia mydas ) laying eggs on a beach and hatchlings scrambling toward the sea .\n) lives on sandy soil and uses its head and the forepart of its body to scoop soil from its burrows and egg chambers . many\ndeposit their eggs in cracks or crevices in rock faces , in tree bark , or in plant tissues beneath the bark of trees . the eggs of some geckos are adhesive and may be attached to vertical surfaces ; in other geckos several females will share a good nesting site beneath a slab of rock or behind the loose bark on the side of a tree . such locations may contain dozens of eggs at different stages of development .\ntypically creates a nest mound of soil and vegetation , using her mouth , limbs , body , and tail in its construction . after she digs a hole in the mound and lays her eggs , her attention remains focused on her eggs , and she stays nearby to watch over them . as the eggs begin to hatch , the hatchlings begin to chirp and squeak , bringing their mother to the nest . she uncovers the eggs and may even use her tongue to help some of the hatchlings out of their eggshells . she then carries her young to the water in her mouth and will stay with them for several months until they are large enough to survive on their own .\n, is widespread and has evolved independently dozens of times in the squamates ( that is , the lizards and snakes ) . no living crocodiles , turtles , or\nare live - bearers . however , in the squamates , live - bearing ranges from retention of unshelled eggs in the oviducts to the development of\nbetween the mother and her fetuses . the evolutionary steps from egg laying to placental development are demonstrated by\nthat hatch within days of deposition . in other taxa the eggs are not shelled but remain in the oviducts throughout development . the\nnourishes each embryo , although gas exchange does occur across the amniotic membranes and the oviductal walls . placental development ranges from simple wall contact and gas exchange between the mother and a developing embryo to the full interdigitation of maternal and fetal tissue for\n] ) . there are several types of placentae that have evolved in squamates that use various components of the amniotic membranes .\nof eggs and litters of neonates vary widely in reptiles and are species - dependent . among egg layers a clutch may range from a single egg to more than 100 . among live - bearing reptiles , a litter may range from 1 to about 50 neonates . adult body size is just one aspect associated with number of offspring ; genetic constitution and nutrition are also major factors .\nthe smallest of the living reptiles typically have the fewest offspring , often laying only one or two eggs or producing only one or two neonates . many geckos and some skinks have genetically fixed clutch sizes of two eggs , and one egg is usually produced by each ovary during a given reproductive cycle . conversely , turtles and crocodiles produce some of the largest clutches among living reptiles ; sea turtles often produce more than 100 eggs each time , whereas the larger crocodiles average 40\u201350 eggs per clutch . some of the larger snakes also produce clutches or litters of 40\u201350 eggs or embryos , but most squamates , even large - bodied species , produce less than 20 eggs or embryos during each reproductive cycle .\nnutrition clearly affects the number of offspring produced , with malnourished females laying fewer eggs or giving birth to fewer offspring . a female lizard suffering through a drought year or coping with loss of her tail may resorb maturing egg follicles in the ovary or forego egg development altogether during that year .\n) commonly breed every third year because the female eats little during the summer of her pregnancy . she requires the following summer to rebuild her\nand pregnancy is temperature - dependent . because reptiles are ectothermic , the embryos of live - bearing females and the eggs of oviparous females deposited in the soil or other locations are subject to fluctuating temperatures . in general , cool temperatures slow development and warm temperatures speed development , but extreme heat and cold are lethal to developing embryos . on average , temperate - zone reptiles have incubations or pregnancies of 8\u201312 weeks . tropical species tend to have similar incubation periods ; however , incubations of some species may last nearly one year or longer ( as in the fijian iguana [\nterm for all factors ( such as temperature , moisture , and others ) that affect the ratio of males to females produced in a given clutch of eggs or a litter of neonates .\ntemperature - dependent sex determination ( tsd ) , discovered in the early 1970s , is the most researched of these factors . the sex of the offspring in species with tsd is influenced by the\nduring one critical period of incubation , instead of by hereditary factors . in most turtles females are produced at high temperatures and males at low temperatures . at a narrow range of intermediate temperatures , roughly equal numbers of males and females are produced . the reverse occurs in many crocodiles , and females result from cooler temperatures . some squamates also display tsd , but the sex of most species appears to be primarily determined by\nmust break through the eggshell . for this purpose turtles , crocodiles , and tuatara bear a horny pointed caruncle on their snout . the hatchling uses the caruncle to slice open the amniotic membranes and then the eggshell . squamates have an\n, a special premaxillary tooth that extends forward and out of the mouth , to cut through membranes and shell . generally , the hatchling rests briefly once out of the shell . if the nest is buried under soil or other material , a hatchling must dig upward to emerge on the surface . sometimes this occurs in concert with other hatchlings in the nest ; a coordinated behaviour is necessary for sea turtles and other species whose eggs are buried deep . in a few species of turtles , such as the north american\n) , the hatchlings leave the eggshell , but they remain in the nest through the winter and emerge in the spring . individual painted turtle hatchlings can tolerate short periods of extreme cold that freezes much of the water in their bodies .\nlive - bearing reptiles give birth in the same manner as mammals . if the amniotic membranes do not rupture during birth , the neonate must struggle to break free from the encapsulating membranes .\n, are noted for their extreme longevity . many turtles have long lives , but few species have individuals that live more than a century . records of longevity are derived from captive animals that led protected and catered life . many north american turtle species require 12 to 18 years to reach sexual maturity . once they reach adulthood ,\n, or asymptotic , growth as they mature . most reptiles are characterized by a period of rapid juvenile growth that slows upon reaching full adulthood . growth then ceases altogether a few years after maturity .\n, growth . typically , rapid growth occurs in juveniles and slows as the individual approaches maturity and shifts its energy resources to reproduction . during most of the adult years , growth is either extremely slow or nonexistent . however , when food resources are high , active growth can occur . thus , the size of an individual of a species characterized by attenuated growth is only limited by its food supply .\n, the most common form of defense in the animal kingdom , is also the most common form of defense in reptiles . at the first recognition of danger , most\nplunge into water and sink out of sight . even so , should danger arise so suddenly and so close at hand that flight may be hazardous , other behaviours are adopted .\ncrocodiles , turtles , some lizards , and some snakes hiss loudly when confronted by an enemy .\nrapidly vibrate the tip of the tail , which consists of loose , dry , horny rings . even snakes without rattles , such as the\n) of the united states , often rapidly vibrate the ends of their tails . often , the tail will come into contact with dry leaves , and the resulting sound will seem deceptively like the rattle of a\nchange in body form is relatively common in snakes . it usually involves spreading the neck , as in the cobras ( family elapidae ) , or the whole body , as in the harmless hognose snakes ( heterodon ) and dekay\u2019s snake ( storeria dekayi ) of the united states . some snakes inflate the forward parts of their bodies ; inflation is one of the defensive behaviours of the large south american bird snake pseustes poecilonotus and the african boomslang ( dispholidus typus ) .\nsnakes may also assume threat postures as they change their body form . a cobra raises the forepart of its body and spreads its hood when threatened . the typical defensive posture of vipers is the body coiled and the neck held in an s - curve , the head poised to strike .\nflatten their bodies , puff out their throats , and turn broadside to the enemy . the helmeted iguanids (\nof africa increase their apparent size in this way when approached by snakes . the australian bearded lizard (\n) suddenly raises a wide membrane , or frill , which extends backward from the throat . many lizards and snakes open their mouths when threatened but do not strike . a common african lizard , the black - necked\n) , faces an enemy with head held high and mouth open to show the brilliant orange interior .\nmullerian mimicry in coral snakes and similar form : ( left ) the venomous eastern coral snake micrurus fulvius ; ( right ) the harmless king snake lampropeltis polyzone ; and ( bottom ) the moderately venomous rear - fanged false coral snake ( oxyrhopus ) .\nthat involves both form and colour is common in reptiles . for example , many arboreal snakes and lizards are green ; some of the green - coloured snakes , such as the\nof dangerous species by harmless ones is a passive defense ; however , its validity as an actual mechanism of defense is sometimes challenged . nonetheless , evidence of mimicry appears among different groups of snakes . for example , the venomous american coral snakes (\n) have various ringed patterns of red , yellow , white , and black . these patterns are matched often by non - or mildly venomous snake species occurring in the same area .\nif a threatening posture does not succeed in driving off an enemy , many reptiles may become more aggressive . some snakes ( such as dekay\u2019s snake [ s . dekayi ] ) strike , but with their mouths closed . others ( such as the hognose snakes [ heterodon ] ) strike with their mouth open but do not bite , but snakes of many species will strike and bite viciously . among the nonvenomous snakes of north america , few are as quick to bite as the water snakes of genus nerodia ; however , they are nonvenomous .\n) bite in self - defense . vipers and pit vipers usually strike from a horizontally coiled posture . from this position , the head can be rapidly shot forward , stab the enemy , and be pulled back in readiness for the next strike . from the typical raised posture , a cobra sweeps its head forward and downward to bite . to strike again , it raises its head and neck once more ; such aggressive , defensive movements of cobras are slower than those of pit vipers .\n) is a purely defensive act directed against large animals . instead of a straight canal ending in a long opening near the tip of each fang as in most cobras , the specialized fang of the spitting cobra has a canal that turns sharply forward to a small round opening on the front surface . at the moment of ejection , the mouth is opened slightly , and a fine stream of venom is forced out of the\nby the contraction of the muscle enveloping the poison gland . a spitting cobra usually raises its head and the forepart of its body in the characteristic cobra defensive posture prior to spitting , but venom can be ejected from any position . the effect on skin is negligible ; the eyes , however , may be severely damaged , and blindness can result unless the venom is washed out quickly .\na few lizards , representing different families , have thick tails covered by large , hard , spiny scales . such a tail swung vigorously from side to side is an effective defense against snakes , especially when the head and body of the lizard are in a burrow or wedged between rocks .\nthe tails of some lizard species are useful in defense in another way . when captured , some lizards voluntarily shed , or\n, their tails , which wriggle violently , temporarily confusing the predator and allowing the lizard to escape . each vertebra of the tails of tail - shedding lizards has a fracture plane that can voluntarily split by the appropriate twitch of the tail muscles . simultaneous stimulation of the\nin the severed portion keeps it twitching for a few seconds after separation . usually the tail is broken in only one place , but a few lizards , particularly the so - called glass snakes (\n) , break their tails into several pieces . the stump heals quickly , and a new tail grows ; often , however , the\nsnakes , turtles , and crocodiles may have their tails bitten off by predators . however , they cannot break them voluntarily or regenerate them . in confrontations with enemies , some snakes use their tails as diversions by raising them and moving them slowly . species with this habit commonly have thick , blunt , brightly coloured tails . for example , the small african burrowing python ( calabaria reinhardtii ) waves its tail in the air as it moves slowly away from a threat .\nmany snakes , both harmless and venomous , attempt to hide their heads under coils of their bodies . for most species with this habit , the body may be coiled loosely . however , it may also be tightly coiled so that it forms a compact ball with the head in the centre . balling , as the latter habit is called , is a characteristic response of\n) , a species with heavy scales on its head and hard spiny scales covering its body and tail , rolls on its back and grasps its tail in its mouth to present an imposing ring of hard spines to a predator .\nsome reptiles use musk - secreting glands when other defensive measures fail . the water snakes ( nerodia ) , the garter snakes ( thamnophis ) , and the alligator lizards ( gerrhonotus ) emit a foul - smelling substance from their cloacal glands . an assortment of turtles , such as the mud turtle and the musk turtle ( kinosternidae ) , have glands on the bridge of their shells that excrete a vile - smelling fluid that likely makes them distasteful to many predators .\nreptile s , of which there are few endemic families , have mainly old world affinities . those most likely to be seen include lizards of the agamid family , skinks ( a family of lizards characterized by smooth overlapping scales ) , crocodiles , and tortoises . endemic reptiles include girdle - tailed\u2026\nalthough amphibian gastrulation is considerably modified in comparison with that in animals with oligolecithal eggs ( e . g . , amphioxus and starfishes ) , an archenteron forms by a process of invagination . such is not the case , however , in the higher vertebrates that possess eggs with\u2026\nthe living reptiles belong to four orders : the squamata ( lizards , snakes , and amphisbaenians ) , the sphenodontida ( tuataras ) , the testudines ( turtles ) , and the crocodylia ( or crocodilia ; crocodiles and alligators ) . the reptile ear has many different forms , especially within the suborder sauria ( lizards ) , and variations occur in\u2026\nunlike lungfishes and amphibians , reptiles depend entirely on their lungs for respiration . gills and skin do not provide additional sources of oxygen . only the crocodiles , however , truly approach birds and mammals in their almost complete \u201cdouble\u201d circulation . because of the development of a neck\u2026\nreptile s are the first vertebrates that , in an evolutionary sense , have evolved an egg that is truly independent of water . indeed , many snakes and lizards have even gone beyond this stage and have attained complete viviparity . it is difficult to generalize about reproductive behaviour\u2026\nwe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles . you can make it easier for us to review and , hopefully , publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind .\nencyclop\u00e6dia britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience .\nyou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered .\nat the bottom of the article , feel free to list any sources that support your changes , so that we can fully understand their context . ( internet urls are the best . )\nyour contribution may be further edited by our staff , and its publication is subject to our final approval . unfortunately , our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions .\nour editors will review what you ' ve submitted , and if it meets our criteria , we ' ll add it to the article .\nplease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors , and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed .\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026"]}
{"id": 1706, "summary": [{"text": "the false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) , also known as malayan gharial , sunda gharial and tomistoma , is a freshwater crocodilian native to peninsular malaysia , borneo , sumatra and java .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it is listed as vulnerable on the iucn red list , as the global population is estimated at fewer than 2,500 mature individuals .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the specific name schlegelii honors the german herpetologist hermann schlegel . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "false gharial", "paragraphs": ["the false gharial , also known as the malayan gharial or false gavial , that arrived at amsterdam zoo artis last year , has passed away . according to artis , the dominant mating behavior of the male gharial was what killed her .\nbreeding season false gharial breeding occurs during the wet seasons : november - february and april - june .\nthe false gharial is classified as \u201cendangered\u201d by the iucn and is listed on appendix i of cites .\nclockwise from top left : the false gharial , tomistoma schlegelii ; american crocodile , crocodylus acutus ; indian gharial , gavialis gangeticus ; and american alligator , alligator mississippiensis .\nevidence for placing the false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) into the family gavialidae : inferences from nuclear gene sequences .\nguess i didn ' t think that one through though the teeth you showed me were from a ganges gharial , the teeth of a false gharial are only slightly better .\ncrocodile specialist group , 2000 .\ntomistoma schlegelii ( false gharial , malayan gharial , sunda gharial , tomistoma , tomistoma )\n( on - line ) . iucn redlist of threatened species . accessed september 29 , 2012 at urltoken .\nr . b . steubing , e . lading , and j . jong , \u201cthe status of the false gharial (\ncompared to the true gharial , the false gharial is smaller and has a shorter snout . there are small populations mostly in indonesia . surveys suggest the largest group lives in borneo .\n( bezuijen , et al . , 1997 ; mathew , et al . , 2011 ;\nfalse gharial\n, 2012 )\n( mathew , et al . , 2011 ; pfaff , 2004 ;\nfalse gharial\n, 2012 ; staniewicz , 2011 )\nevidence for placing the false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) into the family gavialidae : inferences from nuclear gene sequences . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe false gharial is placed in the order crocodylia ( 25 species ) and family crocodylidae ( 16 species ) . recent evidence of its relationship to the indian gharial may lead to a reclassification in the family gavialidae .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii )\ntitle =\narkive species - false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nsaint louis zoo . 2012 .\nfalse gharial\n( on - line ) . saint louis zoo . accessed september 29 , 2012 at urltoken .\nthe difference between false gharial and indian gharial jaws was brought home to me when i first tried to urge a false gharial out of my way while servicing its exhibit . with indian gharials , there was a chance that the jaw might be damaged if an animal struck the \u201ccroc pole\u201d ( a thick pole used to nudge crocs and keep them at a safe distance ) ; the first time a male false gharial hit my pole it splintered and flew out of my hands . he and his mate charged and , now unarmed , i fled out the exhibit service door .\nsince this animal was once called \u201cfalse\u201d gharial , then there must also be a true gharial , right ? yes ! compared to most other crocodilians ( crocodiles and alligators ) , both true and malayan gharials have long , slender snouts . so how do you tell if a gharial is true or false ? for one thing , they don ' t look exactly alike - - the malayan gharial doesn ' t grow as big as a true gharial , and its snout is somewhat shorter . for another thing , they don ' t live in the same areas - - malayan gharials live inindonesiaandmalaysia , while true gharials are found in northernindiaand surrounding countries . so now you know how to tell if a gharial is true or \u201cfalse\u201d ( malayan ) !\nthe slender snout is well adapted for catching fish but the false gharial exhibits a more generalised diet ; also eating insects , crustaceans and small mammals ( 2 ) .\nthe false gharial inhabits heavily - vegetated peat swamps and slow - moving \u201cblack water\u201d rivers . there is evidence that it occasionally enters the tidal portions of certain rivers .\ngharial\noriginates from the hindi word\nghara\nwhich is a clay pot with a long neck , much like the snout shape of an adult male gharial .\nstuebing , r . , m . bezuijen , m . auliya , h . voris . 2006 . the current and historical distribution of tomistoma schlegelli ( the false gharial ) .\ni was especially struck by the false gharials\u2019 jaws . i had previously worked with a related species , the indian gharial ( gavialis gangeticus ) . the indian gharial feeds primarily upon fish that are captured with uniquely - long and slender jaws . the false gharial\u2019s jaws are also elongated , but they are in no way slender ! up close , the massive bones and muscles that anchor these powerful weapons are readily apparent . it was easy to imagine that , as i had read in field reports , wild false gharials regularly dined on proboscis monkeys and other sizable mammals .\ntomistoma , the scientific name for the malayan gharial , means\nsharp mouth\nin greek .\nthe gharial ( gavialis gangeticus ) is one of two surviving members of the family gavialidae , a long - established group of crocodile - like reptiles with long , narrow jaws . the gharial ( sometimes called the \u2018indian gharial\u2019 or \u2018gavial\u2019 ) is the second - longest of all living crocodilians .\n( bezuijen , et al . , 2010 ; britton , 2012a ; mathew , et al . , 2011 ; pfaff , 2004 ;\nfalse gharial\n, 2012 ; staniewicz , 2011 )\n( bezuijen , et al . , 1997 ; britton , 2012a ; mathew , et al . , 2011 ; pfaff , 2004 ;\nfalse gharial\n, 2012 ; staniewicz , 2011 )\n( britton , 2012a ; mathew , et al . , 2011 ; pfaff , 2004 ;\nfalse gharial\n, 2012 ; staniewicz , 2011 ; stuebing , et al . , 2004 )\nthe false gharial is listed on the iucn endangered species list . they are native to peninsular malaysia , borneo , sumatra and sarawak , but the current population estimate is below 2 , 500 .\ngharials have elongated , narrow snouts that are similar only to its relative , the false gharial , ( tomistoma schlegelii ) . the snout shape varies with the age of the gharial . the snout becomes progressively thinner the older the gharial gets . the bulbous growth on the tip of the males snout is called a \u2018ghara\u2019 ( after the indian word meaning \u2018pot\u2019 ) , only present in mature individuals .\nthe only predator of larger false gharials appears to be the salt water crocodile , crocodylus porosus .\na secretive nature keeps the false gharial shrouded in mystery . the few field studies that have been carried out ( please see below ) indicate that it has been exterminated from much of its range .\nm . r . bezuijen , g . j . w . webb , p . hartoyo , r . w . s . samedi , and s . c . manolis , \u201cthe false gharial (\nfalse gharials are opportunistic carnivores . they have been reported to grab monkeys ( crab - eating macaques (\ndigimorph - 3d images of gharial skull . slow to load but worth the effort . must install quicktime viewer\nfossil and morphological data on tomistoma schlegelii ( false gharial ) show closest resemblance to crocodylidae . but recent molecular data show closer resemblance to g . gangeticus , causing some authors to place it in the gavialidae ( brochu , 2003 ) .\nthe research highlighted the difficulties involved in studying rare crocodiles in remote areas . staniewicz spent around nine months over 2009 - 12 attempting to assess the size of the false gharial population on mesangat lake , and to learn more about how they live .\nadult false gharials are usually safe from predators due to their large size . eggs and hatchlings preyed upon by wild pigs (\nartis has two false gharials : a 51 - year - old female and a male whose age is unknown . gharials can live to be a hundred . the false gharials at artis amsterdam royal zoo are part of the european breeding programme ( eep ) for this species . artis is investing in research . the zoo has been trying to produce young crocodiles for years and decided to keep only one species of crocodile to create more space for the animals . that species is the threatened false gharial .\nr . b . stuebing , m . r . bezuijen , m . auliya , and h . k . voris , \u201cthe current and historic distribution of tomistoma schlegelii ( the false gharial ) ( m\u00fcller , 1838 ) ( crocodylia , reptilia ) , \u201d\nthis research is about captive breeding of false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) at zoo negara , malaysia . the false gharial is a large fresh water crocodile . once widespread species currently can be found only in peninsular malaysia , west borneo , java and sumatra . with habitat destruction being the main contributor to their disappearance , it is believed that there are fewer than 2500 individuals left in the wild . the species is listed on appendix 1 ( endangered ) of the convention of international trade of endangered species ( cites ) .\nfalse gharials are freshwater crocodiles that are found throughout indonesia ( including kalimantan , eastern sumatra , western java , and western borneo ) , parts of malaysia ( including peninsular malaysia and sarawak ) , and brunei . there have been unconfirmed reports of false gharials in vietnam and sulawesi , indonesia . they are assumed to be extirpated in southern thailand , where they have not been seen since the 1970s . false gharial populations are isolated and occur in low densities throughout their range . the largest known populations are in sumatra and kalimantan , with smaller established populations in malaysia . the highest density population of false gharials is in tanjung puting national park in kalimantan .\nboth malayan and true gharials are also sometimes called gavials . it ' s believed that this term began as a misspelling of gharial .\nbezuijen , m . , p . hartoyo , m . elliott , b . baker . 1997 . second report on the ecology of the false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) in sumatera . project tomistoma : i - 38 . accessed february 28 , 2013 at urltoken .\nalthough some ambitious field studies have been undertaken ( please see \u201cfurther reading\u201d , below ) , we know surprisingly little of the false gharial\u2019s life in the wild . unlike most large crocodilians , it is quite secretive , and dwells in habitats that are difficult to survey .\na very early gharial - like fossil is known from morocco ' s 60 million years - old rocks ( hua & jouve 2004 ) .\nmathew , a . , m . ganesan , r . majid , c . beastall . 2011 .\nbreeding of false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) at zoo negara , malaysia\n( on - line pdf ) . zoo negara . accessed september 25 , 2012 at urltoken .\nthe false gharial is a crocodilian with a long , thin snout , with razor - sharp needle - like teeth . it is with this implement that the male gharial grasps the female to\nshow its dominance\n, the zoo explained . from an autopsy , it seems that the mating behavior was a bit too rough for the female . she had wounds all over her body . eventually , she died of suffocation .\n( bezuijen , et al . , 2010 ; crocodile specialist group , 2000 ; mathew , et al . , 2011 ; pfaff , 2004 ;\nfalse gharial\n, 2012 ; staniewicz , 2011 ; stuebing , et al . , 2004 ; stuebing , et al . , 2006 )\ndespite being a feature in many zoos across south east asia and europe during the 20th century , the false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) is one of the least understood of the crocodilians . research over the last 20 years has revealed a few details , but it is still largely an enigma .\nsometimes referred to as\ngavial\nwhich is probably a misspelling of gharial . the family and genus names have not been changed to reflect this error .\nalthough the gharial can do this with some speed when required , when in water , the gharial is the most nimble and quickest of all the crocodiles in the world . their tail seems overdeveloped and is laterally flattened , more so than other crocodiles , this enables it to achieve the excellent water locomotive abilities .\nstaniewicz was able to document the stomach contents of juvenile false gharials she captured . this showed their diets include insects , frogs , spiders and fish .\n( bezuijen , et al . , 2010 ; britton , 2012a ; crocodile specialist group , 2000 ; mathew , et al . , 2011 ; pfaff , 2004 ;\nfalse gharial\n, 2012 ; staniewicz , 2011 ; stuebing , et al . , 2004 ; stuebing , et al . , 2006 )\ngharials are most adapted to the calmer areas in the deep fast moving rivers . the physical attributes of the gharial do not make it very suited for moving about on land . in fact the only reasons the gharial leaves the water is to either bask in the sun or to nest on the sandbanks of the rivers .\nprobably the most controversial living crocodilian is the false gharial , tomistoma , a slender - snouted form from malaysia , sumatra , and borneo . in phylogenetic analyses based on morphological characters , it is usually recovered within crocodylidae , which would mean that its similarities to gharials represent convergent evolution . however , molecular data suggests that tomistoma and the\ntrue\nindian gharial , gavialis gangeticus , are each others ' closest relatives . if that is the case , then the similarities between the\ntrue\nand\nfalse\ngharials are homologies inherited from a common ancestor , and it is the similarities between tomistoma and crocodiles that are convergent .\nthe false gharial is an unusual freshwater crocodilian ( a group that includes alligators , crocodiles , caimans and the gharial ) about which very little is known . like the gharial ( gavialis gangeticus ) from which it gets its common name , this species has a slender snout ( 2 ) . juveniles are dark / chocolate brown with black banding on the tail and body , a creamy white belly and dark blotches on the jaws ; much of this colouration is retained into adulthood ( 2 ) . controversy over the taxonomy of this species remains , as morphological features ( other than the snout shape ) suggest it belongs in the family crocodylidae where it is currently placed , but recent biochemical and immunological evidence suggests a closer relationship with the gharial , indicating it should also be placed in the family gavialidae ( 3 ) .\nactually , this one may not be as close as we think . . . . . . . the largest living crocodile skull ever found belonged to a false gharial . while not as robust a snout as a niloticus or saltie , it is still much more lethal than that of a true gharial . based on the size of the skull , maximum length is in the 6meter range . a true\nmonster\nmore than capable of taking down a large lemon shark . - paleorod - o\ntomistoma schlegelii is also known by english common name as freshwater malayan gharial or false gharial or tomistoma or sunda gharial whereas its local name in sarawak is \u201cbuaya jejulong . \u201d this species is listed under international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) red list as vulnerable species [ 1 ] and listed under appendix of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild flora and fauna ( cites ) . in peninsular malaysia , it is protected under wildlife conservation act 2010 . it is also listed as a protected animal in the sarawak wild life protection ordinance ( 1998 ) ; hence , any hunting , killing , or selling of wild tomistoma in the state is prohibited .\nwillis , r . e . , l . r . mcaliley , e . d . neeley , and l . d . densmore iii . 2007 . evidence for placing the false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) into the family gavialidae : inferences from nuclear gene sequences . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 43 ( 3 ) : 787 - 794 .\nonce found throughout much of southeast asia , the false gharial is now extinct in thailand , vietnam and sulawesi . today it survives only on the malay peninsula , borneo , sumatra and kalimantan . in the early 2000\u2019s , a remnant population was discovered in western java . additional surveys are needed ( please check here urltoken for survey updates ) .\nhistorically found in south east asia throughout the malay peninsula and also on sumatra and borneo ( 3 ) . today the false gharial appears to be extinct in thailand and is seen only at low densities ( although populations are widespread ) in malaysia and indonesia ( 3 ) . there are unconfirmed reports of sightings in vietnam and sulawesi ( 3 ) .\nthe life span of the gharial is not exactly known , however , it is thought to be around the same span as other reptiles being 50 \u2013 60 years in the wild .\npfaff , c . 2004 .\nnorth american regional false gavial studbook\n( on - line pdf ) . san diego zoo . accessed september 25 , 2012 at urltoken .\nfalse gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) * family : crocodylidae , * subfamily : tomistominae , * genus : tomistoma , * species : t . schlegelii , * phylum : chordata , * class : reptilia , * order : crocodilia * type : reptile , * diet : carnivore , * average lifespan in the wild : 40 to 60 years , * size : 12 . 25 to 15 . 5 ft ( 3 . 6 to 4 . 5 m ) , * weight : 2 , 200 lbs ( 977 kg ) , * protection status : endangered . * * did you know ? the gharial ' s scientific name , gavialis gangeticus is based on a misspelling of the hindi word ghariyal . * * * tomistoma schlegelii ) , also known as the malayan gharial , false gavial , or tomistoma is a freshwater crocodile of the crocodylidae family with a very thin and elongated snout . more info : urltoken\nharshman j , huddleston cj , bollback jp , parsons tj , braun mj ( 2003 ) true and false gharials : a nuclear gene phylogeny of crocodylia . syst biol 52 : 386\u2013402\nthe false gharial is extinct in several countries and is threatened elsewhere by dam building , gold mining , incidental capture in fishing nets , and the over - harvesting of fish . fewer than 2 , 500 adults are believed to remain , but accurate surveys are lacking . fortunately , several populations are located within reserves that also shelter orangutans and other creatures better known to the public .\nharshman , j . , c . huddleston , j . bollback , t . parsons , m . braun . 2003 . true and false gharials : a nuclear gene phylogeny of crocodylia .\ni\u2019ve helped to grab , tie and transport adult false gharials on four occasions , and each experience confirmed my belief that these heavily - armored creatures are among the world\u2019s most physically impressive reptiles . i\u2019ve \u201cwrestled\u201d with other large crocs in the course of my work ( please see marsh crocodile photo ) , but none battled as hard or seemed as \u201cindestructible\u201d as did false gharials .\nfalse gharial eggs have a soft inner membrane and harder , calcified shell . crocodilian sex is determined by temperature rather than genetics . incubation lasts approximately 90 days and young resemble small adults upon hatching . hatchlings are equipped with an \u201cegg tooth\u201d , a pointed structure on the end of the snout that allows the hatchling to slice through the egg shell ; this recedes a few weeks after hatching .\nbased on morphological analyses , extant members of the order crocodylia are divided into three families , alligatoridae , crocodylidae , and gavialidae . gavialidae includes one species , the gharial , gavialis gangeticus . in this study we have examined crocodilian relationships in phylogenetic analyses of seven mitochondrial genomes that have been sequenced in their entirety . the analyses did not support the morphologically acknowledged separate position of the gharial in the crocodilian tree . instead the gharial joined the false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) on a common branch that was shown to constitute a sister group to traditional crocodylidae ( less tomistoma ) . thus , the analyses suggest the recognition of only two crocodylia families , alligatoridae and crocodylidae , with the latter encompassing traditional crocodylidae plus gavialis / tomistoma . a molecular dating of the divergence between alligatoridae and crocodylidae suggests that this basal split among recent crocodilians took place \u2248140 million years before present , at the jurassic / cretaceous boundary . the results suggest that at least five crocodilian lineages survived the mass extinction at the kt boundary .\nfalse gharials are long - lived animals with an estimated lifespan in the wild of 60 to 80 years , similar to that of other crocodilians . reports show that captive specimens have a shorter lifespan .\nfalse gharials are not considered to be a threat to humans . there has been only one documented case of an attack on a human , and one documented attack on a cow in eastern kalimantan .\nthe false gharial , which may exceed 16 feet in length , is the least - studied of the large crocodilians , and among the rarest . it has been bred in captivity only 3 times in the last 60 years ( once at the bronx zoo , prior to my tenure ) and few us zoos exhibit them today ; 28 reside in european zoos , while south america is home to 1 specimen .\nit would be very hard for either of these animals to severely damage the other , at parity . lemon shark ' s have gracile teeth and are not known for being able to predate on large prey , especially a crocodilian with placoderms , while the gharial ' s slender jaws and teeth are poorly designed to attack a stocky prey like the lemon shark . parity = stalemate , maximum weight = moderate advantage to gharial .\nthe gharial enclosure was remodeled as well . deeper water , extra pools , a water fall and banks where the reptiles could lay eggs . all of this was to ensure a suitable environment for the reproduction to commence .\nthe long , slender jaws of young false gharials indicate that they are fish specialists . the jaws thicken with age , allowing adults to take monkeys , small deer , birds , snakes , turtles and other creatures .\nthe gharial\u2019s iucn red list status was changed from endangered to critically endangered in 2007 , after surveys suggested the population had halved in five years at india\u2019s national chambal sanctuary , where most of the species are thought to live . .\nslender - snouted crocodile ( mecistops cataphractus ) , photographed in captivity by thesupermat . i originally thought that this photo actually showed a false gharial ( tomistome schlegelii ) but a clearer dorsal view of the same animal reveals the scute pattern of mecistops ; it is definitely not a tomistoma ( see below ) . image licensed under creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 unported , 2 . 5 generic , 2 . 0 generic and 1 . 0 generic license .\ngharial decline follows the decline of other riverine taxa now endangered or nearly extinct including the ganges river dolphin ( platanista gangetica ) and the mugger crocodile ( crocodylus palustris ) as well as many waterfowl and fish species . ( choudhury et al 2007 )\nthe scute pattern present on the anterior part of the dorsal shield , and in the cervical shield , shows that the crocodile shown above is indeed a slender - snouted crocodile ( mecistops cataphractus ) , not a false gharial ( tomistoma schlegelii ) . photo by thesupermat , licensed under creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 unported , 2 . 5 generic , 2 . 0 generic and 1 . 0 generic license . diagrams of scute patterns from ross & mayer ( 1983 ) .\n\u201cproject crocodile was held up as a poster child for crocodile conservation , but with the benefit of hindsight there were some fundamental failings , \u201d says colin stevenson , a leading gharial expert , and the author of one of the international zoo yearbook papers .\nfalse gharials drew me into an even more dangerous incident some years later . seven cuban crocodiles ( crocodylus rhombifer ) broke through a wall and invaded an exhibit housing a pair of false gharials . i and two co - workers waded in and tried to separate the enraged combatants while also protecting one another from attack . in the ensuing two hour battle , we escaped injury and were able to separate the animals . many bore bite wounds , but crocs have amazing immune systems , and all healed without further complications .\nthe role of false gharials in their ecosystem is not completely understood due to a lack of study in the wild . they are large predators , preying on a variety of animals and keeping their populations in check . their distribution overlaps with that of siamese crocodiles (\nthe concentration of giant crocs in the miocene of south america is especially remarkable . the alligator mourasuchus , caiman purussaurus , and gharial gryposuchus all lived alongside one another . they must have specialized in different environments or types of prey to have coexisted successfully at such large sizes .\nartis is committed to promoting the conservation of false gharials , not just within the zoo but also elsewhere . to that end , it is supporting a project in the danau sentarum national park in indonesia that was set up to preserve these wonderful creatures . the most serious threats to the false gharials ' survival are loss of habitat due to deforestation and agriculture , hunting and the removal of eggs from their nests . the peat bogs in the danau sentarum national park are an important breeding ground and are essential to the survival of this species .\nthe leg muscular system of the gharial is not suited to enable the animal to raise the body off the ground ( on land ) in order to achieve the high - walk gait , being able only to push its body forward across the ground in a movement called \u2018body sliding\u2019 .\ni find it difficult to express just how fortunate i\u2019ve been in having had the chance to work with 12 crocodilian species in the wild and captivity . breeding dwarf caimans , wrestling orinoco crocodiles into boats , getting up close and personal to gomek ( a giant , now famous salt water croc ) , rearing indian gharials\u2026these and many other experiences remain etched in my memory . one species in particular cemented my interest in the group , and remains as much a mystery today as it was when i first saw it some 40 years ago \u2013 the massive false gharial , tomistoma schlegelii .\nthe idea that cataphractus might not be especially close to crocodylus is not actually novel . john e . gray gave this species its own genus \u2013 mecistops \u2013 back in 1844 . more recently , aoki ( 1976 , 1992 ) argued that mecistops should be treated as a distinct genus , and as a close relative of gharials and false gharials . indeed , the common name african gharial has sometimes been used for this species . that last idea hasn ' t been supported by other work ( both molecular and morphological ) ; anyway , the name mecistops is now back in business for the slender - snouted crocodile .\nin the 1970s the gharial came to the brink of extinction and even now remains on the severely endangered species list . the conservation efforts of the environmentalists in cooperation with several governments has led to some reduction in the threat of extinction . some hope lies with the conservation and management programs in place as of 2004 .\ndespite the practical difficulties she encountered , staniewicz believes her confirmation of the existence of a relatively healthy population of false gharials at the site provides a useful lesson . \u201cpeople tend to assume that pristine , undisturbed habitats are more worthy of conserving than places that has already been harmed or modified , \u201d she says .\na successful insemination does not necessarily mean that fertilisation will actually take place . whether the female has been fertilised will probably become evident this summer . little is known about the gestation period of false gharials . once the eggs have been laid , the incubation period is approximately 90 days , depending on the temperature .\n) , from which false gharials get their common name . false gharials have a streamlined body and muscular tail , eyes and nostrils on top of the head , and a palatal valve that prevents water from entering the throat while underwater . they are known to grow to 4 - 5 m in length and may grow even larger . there are records of captive adults weighing from 93 - 201 kg . both adults and juveniles have dark , sometimes chocolate brown coloration , with black banding on the tail and body and dark patches on the jaws . the belly is cream - colored or white . males are longer and heavier than females .\nfalse gharials are opportunistic carnivores . they have been reported to grab monkeys from river banks , submerging and drowning their prey or beating it against the bank . other prey items include wild pigs , mouse deer , dogs , otters , fish , birds , turtles , snakes , monitor lizards , and aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates .\nin some ways the most visually striking of all the crocodilians , the gharial ( gavialis gangeticus ) has long , narrow jaws lined with rows of razor - sharp teeth . males use the bulbous growths on the tips of their snouts to generate buzzing snorting sounds to attract females and warn off rivals . they can reach 6m in length .\nin 1975 the indian government launched the crocodile project to protect the gharial , along with the mugger and saltwater crocodiles . the scheme focused on creating sanctuaries , captive breeding , research and \u201chead - starting\u201d - protecting young crocodiles captured from the wild either as eggs or as hatchlings until they are strong enough to defend themselves against predators upon release .\nthe following year over 100 juvenile and young adults were found dead in mysterious circumstances . evidence from radio - tagging studies that revealed new details of gharial behaviours , such as parental care , also helped researchers pinpoint the cause of the mass deaths to a stretch of the chambal river that includes a bridge known to be used locally as a tipping place .\nsadly , i learned that they too have weaknesses . in time , zoos began experimenting with sedatives as a means of rendering crocodile relocations less dangerous for both keeper and kept . unfortunately , little was known about the effects of medications designed primarily for mammals , and we lost two adult false gharials to complications arising from the use of ketamine .\nthe gharials numerous needle - like teeth are perfect for holding on to struggling , slippery fish . although primarily fish eaters , some individuals have been known to scavenge dead animals . the gharial is not thought to be a man - eater . despite its immense size , its jaws make it physically incapable of devouring any large mammal , including a human being .\nin many cases , human jewellery has been found in the bellies of dead gharials ( this is most likely from scavenging human corpses which are floated down river in the ganges , or scavenging cremated remains that have been dumped into the ganges ) . the gharial also swallows jewellery , stones , sticks and the like to act as \u2018gastroliths\u2019 ( hard objects that aid in digestion and buoyancy management ) .\nthe extant crocodylians comprise 23 species divided among three families , alligatoridae , crocodylidae , and gavialidae . currently , based on morphological data sets , tomistoma schlegelii ( false gharial ) is placed within the family crocodylidae . molecular data sets consistently support a sister - taxon relationship of t . schlegelii with gavialis gangeticus ( indian gharial ) , which is the sole species in gavialidae . to elucidate the placement of t . schlegelii within the extant crocodylians , we have sequenced 352bp of the dentin matrix protein 1 ( dmp1 ) nuclear gene in 30 individuals and 424bp of the nuclear gene c - mos in 74 individuals . molecular analysis of the dmp1 data set indicates that it is highly conserved within the crocodylia . of special note is a seven base - pair indel ( gtgcttt ) shared by t . schlegelii and g . gangeticus , that is absent in the genus crocodylus , osteolaemus , and mecistops . to date , c - mos is the largest molecular data set analyzed for any crocodylian study including multiple samples from all representatives of the eight extant genera . analysis of these molecular data sets , both as individual gene sequences and concatenated sequences , support the hypothesis that t . schlegelii should be placed within the family gavialidae .\ncommunication among false gharials has not been observed in the wild . from observed mating behaviors , it can be assumed that they communicate visually , tactilely and through olfaction . although most crocodilians use a variety of calls to communicate with their own species and to other animals , these have not been recorded for false gharials and , in fact , their mating has been observed to be silent , rather than accompanied by calls . all crocodilians possess integumentary sense organs located in the skin and covering much of the animal\u2019s body including the body , tail , cloaca and inner surfaces of the legs , as well as on the head and jaws . these are likely used to detect changes in pressure caused by touch or the movement of prey in water ; this sense is likely used for hunting in murky water .\nfalse gharials were once hunted for their skins , but their skins are not currently considered commercially valuable . in the mesangat area , their eggs are collected for use in traditional medicine . there is a good deal of research being done to learn more about the roles these animals play in their environments , as well as to determine whether they should be placed in the family crocodylidae or the family gavialidae .\nthere is debate over this species\u2019 taxonomic classification . false gharials are currently listed included in the family crocodylidae based on fossil evidence and morphological similarities to extant crocodiles . other data , including biochemical , immunological and molecular characters suggest a closer relationship to the family gavialidae . studies of nuclear genes suggest the grouping of tomistomine and gavialine crocodilians into one taxon , which would comprise a sister group to the crocodylidae . other crocodilian researchers suggest considering tomistominae and gavialinae as sister taxa .\nmuch is unknown about the reproduction of false gharials . the male at artis was showing mating behaviour \u2013 blowing bubbles in the direction of the female \u2013 which prompted the zoo to examine whether he had produced healthy sperm . male gharials have a penis that they insert into the female ' s cloaca during mating . reptiles , like birds , have a cloaca , which is an orifice in the body that serves as the opening for the digestive , urinary and reproductive tracts .\nthe maximum recorded length and weight is 340 cm and 183 kg . urltoken adult males weigh 150 to 250 kg ( 330 to 550 lb ) , while females are about 3 . 2 m ( 10 ft ) long and weigh an average of 90 kg ( 200 lb ) urltoken weight favours the gharial , but assuming this encounter occurs in the water , maybe the shark can exploit a swimming advantage . the gharials jaws too , seem like it would struggle to kill a decent sized shark .\nhabitat destruction caused by the construction of dams , channelling and deforestation amongst others has been the main cause of the decline of this species and continues to be its main threat to this day . intensive hunting in some areas , especially sumatra , in the mid 20th century also contributed greatly to the decline in population numbers . further threats come from fishing practices , with false gharials either becoming caught in nets , poisoned by toxins used to kill fish , or else loosing their food source to local fishermen .\nhabitat destruction caused by the construction of dams , channelling and deforestation amongst others has been the main cause of the decline of this species and continues to be its main threat to this day ( 3 ) . intensive hunting in some areas , especially sumatra , in the mid 20th century also contributed greatly to the decline in population numbers ( 3 ) . further threats come from fishing practices , with false gharials either becoming caught in nets , poisoned by toxins used to kill fish , or else loosing their food source to local fishermen ( 2 ) .\nfalse gharials spend most of their time submerged in shallow wallows or mud - holes , with only their eyes and nostrils visible . crocodilians are capable of staying underwater for long periods of time . they usually submerge for 10 - 15 minutes , but can stay submerged for as long as 2 hours to avoid a perceived threat . this is accomplished by slowing down their metabolism and reducing oxygen consumption . basking behavior is likely used to aid in thermoregulation , though it is not often observed . it has been suggested that these animals may occasionally occupy burrows .\nfalse gharials are found in a variety of habitats throughout their range , including lowland freshwater swamp forests , flooded forests , peat swamps , lakes , and blackwater streams and rivers . they are also found on the fringes of rainforests near slow - moving rivers . their preferred habitats are peat swamp areas with low elevation and acidic , slow - moving muddy water ; they are also found in secondary forest habitat , characterized by more defined river channels and banks , higher ph and elevation , and a lack of peat mounds . this species needs terrestrial areas for basking and nesting .\nduring my years with the bronx zoo , i was lucky enough to have 4 adult false gharials under my care , including the only proven breeders in the western hemisphere . they were huge beasts , the largest of which topped 600 pounds in weight . each had been in the collection for 20 - 30 years when i began working with them . i clearly recall seeing these same animals when visiting the zoo as a teenager , but their increased size did not fully register until i dug out some old food cards . upon arrival at the zoo , they were feeding upon goldfish\u2026they now downed whole chickens without effort , and were capable of taking much larger meals !\nvery little is known about the natural mating behaviors of false gharials ; most details are from captive breeding programs , with a few acocunts from the wild . courtship behavior and nesting appear to take place during the rainy season in both cases . males approach females in the water , swimming around them . in some cases , this is accompanied by both animals hitting each other with their tails , in others copulation proceeds immediately . the male mounts the female , wrapping his tail around and under hers . copulation occurrs once a day for several days to a week , and is accompanied by a strong odor . one captive breeding program in malaysia had success housing a group of 3 males and 1 female . the female chose the largest male and appeared to stay near him during the courting period . when 2 females were kept in the same enclosure with the males , no mating occurred and it is theorized that females living in close proximity may suppress breeding in one another .\nfalse gharials are mound - nesting crocodilians that lay very large eggs ( records up to 9 . 5 cm long and 6 . 2 cm wide ) , with a total mass approximately double that of any other species ( eggs may weigh up to 155 gm each ) . mounds are usually constructed on land at the shady base of a tree near water , using sand and vegetation including peat , twigs , tree seeds , and dried leaves . females have been observed beginning nest building a month or more after copulation and laying a clutch of 20 - 60 eggs 1 - 2 weeks after beginning to nest . after eggs are laid , more vegetation is added to the top of the nest by the female . mounds typically measure 45 - 60 cm high and 90 - 110 cm in diameter . eggs are laid just above ground level and the temperature within the nest fluctuates depending on the environment and rainfall ( records in captivity of 26\u00b0c - 32\u00b0c ) . eggs hatch after 90 - 100 days . captive breeding initiatives have shown that abundant vegetation improves the chances of breeding because it provides more cover and nesting material for the female . both sexes reach sexual maturity at around 20 years of age ( females measuring 2 . 5 - 3 m in length ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthe evolutionary relationship of tomistoma with other crocodilians was debated for many years , and the species was usually aligned with the true crocodiles ( crocodylidae ) based on morphological evidence ( norell 1989 , tarsitano et al . 1989 , brochu 1997 ) . molecular studies since the 1980s suggest a closer relationship to gavialis ( densmore 1983 , densmore and dessauer 1984 , gatesy and amato 1992 , harshman et al . 2003 , mcaliley et al . 2006 ) . a recent molecular study found that tomistoma shares gene sequences with gavialis which are absent from crocodylus , mecistops ( see shirley 2010 ) and osteolaemus , suggesting tomistoma should be placed within the family gavialidae ( willis et al . 2007 ) .\nreasons for change a downgrade in iucn red list status from endangered to vulnerable is warranted because surveys indicate the species persists over a wide global range . it has clearly declined in many areas and ongoing habitat loss suggests these declines are continuing .\nbrunei darussalam : few crocodile surveys conducted to date ( e . g . das and charles 2000 , cox 2006 ) and possibly none targeting inland swamp forests , where t . schlegelii are most likely to occur . a crocodile photographed by an expatriate resident in 2005 at tutong river was confirmed by rbs ( from examination of the photograph ) to be a t . schlegelii ( stuebing et al . 2006 ) . there is no reason to suggest this was a released individual and it is the first confirmed national record .\njava \u2013 status unclear . koningsberger ( 1913 : 376 ) noted ( in translation ) \u2018whether , apart from c . porosus , t . schlegelii also occurs in java , is a question that cannot be answered with certainty . . \u2019 . meer mohr ( 1921 ) noted ( in translation ) \u2018according to strauch , t . schlegelii occurs in java\u2026the only specimen from java is in the museum in stuttgart [ germany ] . . . the origin of this specimen is uncertain . . . further work is required to clarify the status of t . schlegelii in java . . \u2019 . more recently , unconfirmed local reports of t . schlegelii have been obtained from one site , ujung kulon national park ( auliya 2002 ) . the most detailed account of crocodiles for this park is by hoogerwerf ( 1970 ) , who does not mention the species . given the small size of the park and modified nature of surrounding lands , any populations are presumably small .\nkalimantan \u2013 confirmed records are from tanjung puting national park ( central kalimantan province ; e . g . galdikas and yeager 1984 , galdikas 1985 , simpson 2004 , auliya et al . 2006 ) , the mahakam and belayan river systems and mesangat lake ( east kalimantan province ; endert 1927 , meijard and sozer 1996 , ross et al . 1998 , staniewicz 2011 ) and upper kapuas river area , danau sentarum and gunung palung national parks ( west kalimantan province ; bezuijen et al . 2004 and references therein ; simpson and mediyansyah 2009 ) ; no con\ufb01rmed wild records from south kalimantan province . the species is likely to persist in many other locations in kalimantan , and the limited number of confirmed localities probably reflects low sampling effort .\nsumatra \u2013 all known records are from eastern sumatra , east of the barisan mountain ranges ( bezuijen et al . 1998 ) . scattered populations persist from north sumatra to south sumatra provinces , with an isolated population in way kambas national park ( lampung province ) . the range of t . schlegelii in sumatra has declined by at least 30 % since the 1950s due to hunting and habitat loss ( bezuijen et al . 1998 ) .\nthailand : status unclear . reported to have occurred ( e . g . smith 1916 , taylor 1970 ) but records vague and inconclusive . no reports since at least the 1970s ; previous authors have postulated the species may be extirpated ( humphrey and bain 1990 , ratanakorn 1994 ) or that historical records may have referred to localities in northern peninsular malaysia ( stuebing et al . 2006 ) .\nviet nam : status unclear . a wild crocodile captured in 1967 was reported to be this species ( mucelli 2005 ) . given the severe threats facing two confirmed crocodile species in viet nam , crocodylus siamensis and c . porosus , it seems likely that even if t . schlegelii was historically present , it has been extirpated .\ntomistoma schlegelii is a cryptic species and swamp forest habitats are difficult to access : many surveys may have under - recorded or not detected its presence . compared with spotlight densities for some other crocodilians , which may reach densities of tens or hundreds of individuals per kilometre , all recorded densities of t . schlegelii are low . repeat spotlight counts at two sites in sumatra indicate that densities declined over a seven - year period , which coincided with intensive logging and burning in these sites ( bezuijen et al . 2002 ) .\nfew other methods to estimate abundance have been applied to t . schlegelii . a mark - recapture study was conducted from 2010 - 2011 at mesangat lake ( east kalimantan province , indonesia ) but few individuals have been recaptured ( staniewicz 2011 ) . nest census methods have not been applied to t . schlegelii because nests are located in swamp forest and are highly cryptic .\ntomistoma schlegelii is a freshwater , mound - nesting species . it is among the largest of the extant crocodilians , with males attaining lengths up to 5 + m ( bezuijen et al . 1998 , 2004 ; authors pers . obs . ) . it is restricted primarily to lowland swamps , lakes and rivers . most records are from peat swamp and freshwater swamp forest ( stuebing et al . 2006 ) , which historically encompassed most of the lowlands of borneo , eastern sumatra , and peninsular malaysia .\nm\u00fcller ( 1838 ) stated the diet of t . schlegelii comprised fish , monitor lizards ( varanus ) , waterbirds and mammals . predation of monkeys by t . schlegelii has been observed ( galdikas and yeager 1984 , galdikas 1985 , yeager 1991 ) . stomach contents of juvenile wild t . schleglii included shrimp ( bezuijen et al . 1998 ) and other invertebrates ( staniewicz and behler 2010 ) .\nother scientific studies of t . schlegelii have included assessment of its taxonomic status ( see taxonomic notes ) , anatomy and skin qualities ( e . g . boulenger 1896 , king and brazaitis 1971 , brazaitis 1973 , fuchs 2006 ) , potential impacts of climate change ( bickford et al . 2010 ) , conservation effectiveness of protected area networks ( r\u00f6dder et al . 2010 ) , and captive breeding and management ( see conservation measures ) .\nsmall - scale opportunistic collection of wild individuals and eggs occurs in some regions , for sale to crocodile farms and / or consumption . previously hunted in some regions for skins and / or meat .\ntomistoma schlegelii is listed under appendix i of cites . captive individuals are held in zoos and private facilities ( mainly crocodile farms ) around the world , and probably number a few thousand individuals in total . the largest captive population is at utairatch crocodile farm in thailand ( over 700 individuals ) . successful breeding has occurred at jong ' s crocodile farm ( sarawak ) , utairatch and pattaya crocodile farms ( thailand ) , and irregularly at zoos in malaysia , europe and north america ( ttf 2006 , r . sommerlad in litt . ) . the provenance of most captive individuals is unclear ; many wild - caught t . schlegelii held in captivity may have limited value for conservation purposes unless their original provenance can be determined .\nin 2003 , the iucn crocodile specialist group ( csg ) formed the tomistoma task force ( ttf ) , a group of csg members who coordinate the csg\u2019s efforts for t . schlegelii conservation . ttf activities comprise fundraising for \ufb01eld research , international awareness - raising , and hosting of a ttf website . fund - raising events have been held in north america and europe , largely due to the voluntary efforts of bs , r . sommerlad and other csg members . two t . schlegelii student projects have been co - funded and are the first detailed autecological studies of the species . ttf reports have been prepared on global conservation priorities ( bezuijen et al . 2003 ) and husbandry standards for captive breeding of t . schlegelii ( shwedick and sommerlad 2000 , shwedick 2006 ) . in 2008 , a ttf workshop was held and a re - assessment of global conservation priorities was undertaken ."]}
{"id": 1711, "summary": [{"text": "tranquil star ( foaled in 1937 ) was one of the hardiest and best performed australian-bred thoroughbred race-mares .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "she is the only mare to have won the double of the caulfield stakes , now known as the yalumba stakes , and the cox plate , which is the most prestigious weight-for-age ( wfa ) race in australia .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "tranquil star had 111 starts and won over distances ranging from 5 furlongs ( 1,000 metres ) to 14 furlongs ( 2,800 metres ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "she was later inducted into the australian racing hall of fame . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "tranquil star", "paragraphs": ["\u201cthe tranquil star was the tranquil place we were looking for . strongly recommended ! \u201d\nthanks for tranquil star . that would have taken a while . 111 starts .\nracing at mentone tranquil star ' s final bow ( 1946 , march 25 ) .\nlock in a great price for the tranquil star - rated 10 by recent guests .\nnote : tranquil star ( 1942 ) is the only mare to complete the double .\namounis , grand flaneur , northerly , octagonal , super impose , the barb & tranquil star .\nwhere we found bay ronald four generations back on tranquil star\u2019s sire\u2019s side , we see dark ronald on her dam\u2019s side and bay ronald is the fifth generation previous to tranquil star on the dam\u2019s side .\n29 . justin cinque \u2013 tranquil star ( b . 1937 ) 111 / 23 / 20 / 12 ( 21 % ) tranquil star only had a winning strike rate of one in five but she\u2019s this high in my list because of her great longevity and versatility . tranquil star started racing in 1939 when world war ii began .\nwe\u2019d love your help . let us know what\u2019s wrong with this preview of a tranquil star by primo levi .\n11 ) - champion mare tranquil star won two cox plates \u2013 1942 and 1944 after having run third in 1941 .\ntranquil star ' s form was unpredictable : in 18 of her races she was beaten favourite . yet the public loved her .\nall rooms at the guest house are fitted with a seating area . the units at the tranquil star include air conditioning and a wardrobe .\nthe star lineup ends at 4 p . m . with a rollicking tucson trivia game show hosted by the star\u2019s david fitzsimmons .\nmelbourne , sunday . \u2014tranquil star , winner of the c . m . lloyd stakes , will fulfil her engagement in the sydney . . .\ntranquil star produced nine foals . her daughter tranquil dawn was the fifth dam of the 2002 golden slipper winner , calaway gal . her colt tranquil sun by helios won seven races in melbourne . another colt by helios , tranquil glow , won 11 races , nine of them steeplechases . in her last effort in 1956 , she foaled night ride by landau , a five - race winner .\nmon 25 mar 1946 - the argus ( melbourne , vic . : 1848 - 1957 ) page 11 - racing at mentone tranquil star ' s final bow\ntranquil star , winner of the cox plate previously in 1942 , had injured her jaw so badly in the final race of the 1944 season that it had to be wired . still , it didn ' t stop her five months later in the cox plate . an iron horse in more ways than one , tranquil star had 111 starts compared with makybe diva ' s 36 . unlike the diva , though , tranquil star wasn ' t as good at two miles .\nthe standard deluxe guestroom is one out of three rooms on the property that can be booked individually . to view or book these rooms , go to airbnb and type the tranquil star luxury grand deluxe room ( \u00a355 per night ) . repeat this for the tranquil star luxury supreme deluxe room ( \u00a365 per night )\nthe argus ( melbourne , vic . : 1848 - 1957 ) , mon 25 mar 1946 , page 11 - racing at mentone tranquil star ' s final bow\nmy personal opinion is the tranquil star bed and breakfast should be awarded a 5 star rating with merits . my stay was the best i have ever had even when i have stayed in 5 star hotels , they don ' t match the personal service ron & christine provided which i have to say was outstan\u2026\ntranquil star was sired by gay lothario from great britain and lone star . even though her dam was a non - winner , her sire was legendary , having given rise to winners who brought in a combined total of \u00a3 266 , 000 in earnings .\ntranquil star\u2019s sire was gay lothario . he grandsire was gay crusader , a very capable racer that won a world war i version of the british triple crown that was unfortunately limited to 10 races . the fourth generation previous to tranquil star reveals the british horse bay ronald that had and has had considerable influence in thoroughbred lines , even to this day .\ntranquil star won her third mackinnon stakes in her final season as an eight - year - old . one of the horse she beat was 2007 hall of fame inductee flight .\n\u2013 11 / 3 / 44 flemington vrc c . m . lloyd stakes 12 furlongs , 8st 2lb ( williamson ) 2nd tranquil star ( 9st ) , 2min 36\u00bdsec , head\nmakybe diva was a seven - year - old mare , albeit to european time . tranquil star was the only other mare of the same vintage to take the time - honoured event .\na tranquil star , the first new american collection of primo levi previously untranslated fiction to appear since 1990 , affirms his position as one of the twentieth century ' s most enduring writers .\nthe others are tranquil star ( 1942 - 1944 ) , flight ( 1945 - 1946 ) dane ripper ( 1997 ) , makybe diva ( 2005 ) and pinker pinker ( 2011 ) .\ncaulfield cup ( same year ) ( 2015 winner mongolian khan ) : 4\u2014northerly ( 2002 ) ; tobin bronze ( 1967 ) ; rising fast ( 1954 ) ; tranquil star ( 1942 ) .\ntranquil star is the only mare to complete this double , while rising fast in 1954 also won the melbourne cup , turnbull stakes , mackinnon stakes and queen elizabeth stakes in an unparalleled spring campaign .\nunder the ownership of mr . t . g jones and arthur cobden and trained by ron cameron , tranquil star went on to win a total of \u00a3 26 , 690 during her illustrious career .\nfor seven seasons tranquil star was the darling of the victorian racing public , starting in 111 races between 1939 and 1946 . despite her sometimes erratic performances , her courage and longevity won the affection of racegoers .\nget a sports star to visit your old secondary school as part of our free schools initiative .\nthe 1986 running was billed as a battle between the kiwi stars bonecrusher and our waverley star .\ntranquil star certainly defies expectation when compared to current thoroughbreds . her inconsistency adds somewhat to her charm and when she raced , she was quite popular . these days , the melbourne racing club runs the group 3 tranquil star stakes in her honour and she will best be remembered as a horse that was not afraid to work , was not afraid of top - flight - competition , and successfully passed her abilities to future generations .\nhigh caste , though defeated by tranquil star last saturday , is still highly tancied for the futur [ ? ] y and for some of the other big races of the autumn carnival in melbourne . . . .\nlegendary jockey scobie breasley rode a record five cup winners including champion mare tranquil star in 1942 , skipton 1943 , counsel ( 1944 ) and st fairy ( 1945 ) . his last winner was peshawar in 1952 .\ncaulfield stakes ( 2015 winner criterion ) , cox plate & mackinnon : 5\u2014so you think ( 2010 ) ; rising fast ( 1954 ) ; amana ( 1943 ) ; tranquil star ( 1942 ) ; ajax ( 1938 ) .\n\u2013 5 / 2 / 44 moonee valley williamstownrc c . f . orr stakes 1 mile , 8st ( williamson ) , 2nd cacique ( 8st ) , 3rd tranquil star ( 8st 8lb ) , 1min 37\u00bcsec , \u00bd length\nreturning to racing in the spring of 1944 , tranquil star won her second cox plate and mackinnon stakes . in her final season as an eight - year - old she won her third mackinnon stakes and the william reid stakes .\nthe tranquil star is a unique luxury boutique guest house nestled in a quiet cul - de - sac among modern and the irregular styled houses of the early mandinka settlers . it ' s considered to be an oasis of calm .\nin the season of 1944 - 1945 , tranquil star won the w . s cox plate at the age of seven , becoming the second horse to achieve this prestigious feat at that age and the only mare to do so .\nhe dominated melbourne racing during the war years and four of his five caulfield cup victories came in successive years , 1942 ( tranquil star ) , 1943 ( skipton ) , 1944 ( counsel ) and 1945 ( st fairy ) .\nthe chris waller - trained mare joined hall of famers sunline , tranquil star and flight as mares to have won the weight - for - age event more than once when she backed up last year\u2019s win with another dominant display .\n\u00a9 northern star ltd 2018 . unauthorised reproduction is prohibited under the laws of australia and by international treaty .\ndakota johnson dons striped wrap dress in la . . . after calling co - star chris hemsworth ' spectacular '\nall rights reserved . copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 star media group berhad ( co no 10894 - d ) .\nthe pictures show members of hitler\u2019s wehrmacht enjoying picnics in a sunny meadow and sipping tea and eating biscuits at a tranquil garden party .\nthe current race record for i am a star is 7 wins with prizemoney of $ 1 , 188 , 200 .\nthe latest edition of the michelin guide has awarded two new scottish restuarants with the highest accolade of a coveted star .\n7 individuals for 10 wins\u2014pinker pinker ( 2011 ) ; makybe diva ( 2005 ) ; sunline ( 2000 , 1999 ) ; dane ripper ( 1997 ) ; surround ( 1976 ) ; flight ( 1945 , 1946 ) ; tranquil star ( 1944 , 1942 ) .\n' a tranquil star ' - - the last of seventeen short stories which gives its name to this selection of previously unpublished pieces in translation - - is as good a place as any to start a consideration of this collection . it begins with a discussion of the inadequacy of superlatives ( immense , colossal , extraordinary ) to give indications of comparative size , especially when it comes to stars . al - ludra is the now not - so - tranquil star when it comes to its convulsive , cataclysmic end ; how to describe an\nhorses trainer shane nichols cannot wait to get his group i - winning filly i am a star back to the races .\n\u00a9 copyright 2018 arizona daily star , 4850 s . park ave . tucson , az | terms of use | privacy policy\n2nd - 3 16 / 04 / 1941 . 3l x 4l randwick , sydney , nsw , aus ajc cumberland plate 14f . 2816m . 8 . 4 . 52 . 5kg 3 . 13 . 75 . 8 / 13f tranquil star 8 . 2 5 / 2 1st\nhe dominated melbourne racing during the war years and four of his five caulfield cup victories came in successive years , 1942 ( tranquil star ) , 1943 ( skipton ) , 1944 ( counsel ) and 1945 ( st fairy ) . his fifth was on peshawar in 1952 .\ntranquil fury :\nladdie . . . don ' t you think you should . . . rephrase that ?\n( laddie happily obliges . )\nrequire , by luskin star . unplaced . dam of 6 named foals , 5 to race , 2 winners , inc : -\neriska , in argyll , and the three chimneys in skye , have each been given a star in the 2015 michelin guide .\n2nd - 7 5 / 04 / 1941 . 4l x 1l run at randwick , sydney , nsw , aus ajc chipping norton plate 10f . 2011m . 9 . 0 . 57kg 2 . 08 . 0 . 9 / 4 . tranquil star 8 . 4 20 / 1 1st\n2nd - 7 4 / 03 / 1941 . 5l x 3 . 5l flemington , melbourne , vic , aus vrc st . leger 14f . 2816m . 8 . 10 . 55 . 5kg 2 . 59 . 25 . 10 / 9f tranquil star 8 . 7 3 / 1 1st\nthis episode was lovingly revisited via time travel in the star trek : deep space nine episode\ntrials and tribble - ations\n.\n2nd - 4 15 / 02 / 1941 . hd x 2 . 5l run at flemington , melbourne , vic , aus vatc st . george stakes 9f . 1810m . 9 . 0 . 57kg 1 . 56 . 25 . 1 / 2f tranquil star 8 . 0 7 / 1 1st\n4th - 7 5 / 04 / 1941 . 4l x 1l run at randwick , sydney , nsw , aus ajc chipping norton plate 10f . 2011m . 8 . 6 . 53 . 5kg 2 . 08 . 0 . 20 / 1 . tranquil star 8 . 4 20 / 1 1st\n1st - 14 2 / 11 / 1940 . 1 . 25l x 3l flemington , melbourne , vic , aus vrc victoria derby ( g1 ) 12f . 2414m . 8 . 10 . 55 . 5kg 2 . 32 . 0 . 11 / 8f tranquil star 8 . 5 14 / 1 2nd\ntranquil star is a great place to stay . based in a busy location which is great for local shops and transport links , the venue is located in a quiet road , free from traffic . the interior is very tastefully decorated to a high and modern standard , the rooms and ensuites airy and c\u2026\nthis property is 12 minutes walk from the beach . 4 . 3 miles from tanji bird reserve , the tranquil star is set in tanji and features a garden and free wifi . all rooms boast a flat - screen tv with satellite channels and a private bathroom . each room is equipped with a balcony .\nthere are seventeen short essays in this collection of primo levi ' s writings . ' a tranquil star ' is a brief read in just one hundred and sixty pages . although the writing flows in a pleasing style , the subject matter of most of these previously unpublished stories varies from quirky to decidedly weird .\ni originally meant to stay for just over a week in the tranquil star , but because i had such a fabulous experience i extended by 2 further nights . i couldn ' t have asked for anymore . i was given the very vest treatment from start to finish , from the collection from the airport to\u2026\nat six years , tranquil star had to contend with second position in 3 successive losses to amana . she came second in caulfield stakes , albeit by a narrow margin , and came second to amana on two more occasions in v . r . c melbourne stakes and l . k . s mackinnon stakes .\n\u25a0the only mares to win are tranquil star ( 1942 , 1944 ) , flight ( 1945 - 1946 ) , dane ripper ( 1997 ) , sunline ( 1999 - 2000 ) , makybe diva ( 2005 ) and pinker pinker ( 2011 ) . two , more joyous and southern speed , run this year .\nrace reviews hey doc\u2019s class was enough to claim the group iii aurie\u2019s star handicap ( 1200m ) off a light preparation at flemington on saturday .\nsotheby ' s inc . ( via public ) / three ground - breaking works by titans of modern art to star in summer season : miro\n1st - 6 15 / 10 / 1941 . 2l x 1 . 25l run at flemington , melbourne , vic , aus vatc caulfield stakes ( g1 ) abt 9f . abt 1800m . 9 . 0 . 57kg 1 . 52 . 5 . 4 / 1 . tranquil star 8 . 9 4 / 1 2nd\nthe only mares to win are tranquil star ( 1942 , 1944 ) , flight ( 1945 - 1946 ) , dane ripper ( 1997 ) , sunline ( 1999 - 2000 ) and makybe diva in 2005 . em in 1946 , the cox plate was run in two divisions when the winners were flight and leonard .\nthe 1942 - 1943 racing season was a vital time in tranquil star\u2019s career and it found her at her very best . it is safe to say that this was her peak season because she famously won the caulfield stakes and the cox stakes double ; a feat which had never been achieved by any other mare in history .\n\u201cdo you know tucson ? do you know books ? come to the star tent , prove your stuff and join the fun ! \u201d he says .\nshe outstayed the war \u2013 tranquil star won the 1946 william reid over 1200m . as a three - year old she won the vrc st leger over 2800m . in between she won three majors including two cox plates and a caulfield cup . she also won three mackinnons , a caulfield stakes , a chipping norton and a memsie .\n1st - 9 25 / 10 / 1941 . 1 . 5l x 0 . 75l moonee valley , melbourne , vic , aus mvrc w . s . cox plate ( g1 ) 9 . 5f . 1911m . 9 . 4 . 59kg 1 . 58 . 25 1 / 3f tranquil star 8 . 9 6 / 1 2nd\ntranquil star also had wins in mooney valley quality handicap , caulfield cup where she carried 8 stone 12 lbs in a competitive field , which included past winners of melbourne cup including skipton , colonus and dark felt . she also won the w . s cox plate and the vrs lks mackinnon stakes and the c . m lloyd stakes .\nthirteen other fine dining establishments across scotland retained a coveted one star and edinburgh remains the foodie capital , with five one - starred restaurants in city alone .\njust a little less than 80 years ago , however , distance versatility and racing longevity were not so rare , as we hope to demonstrate with our examination of 2008 australian racing hall of fame inductee tranquil star . she represents half of the class of 2008 , since only her and another mare , wenona girl , qualified for entrance that year .\nhorses group i winner i am a star has come through her robert sangster stakes effort in good order but will not go on to the goodwood at morphettville .\ndickinson will be playing the star version of \u201cnot my job\u201d \u2014 a blatant ripoff of the \u201cwait , wait\u201d game \u2014 at 2 : 30 p . m .\nrising star el segundo has the odds stacked against him as he prepares to battle a jinxed saddlecloth in saturday ' s $ 2 . 5 million caulfield cup .\ncaulfield guineas ( press statement ) : 4\u2014red anchor ( 1984 ) ; surround ( 1976 ) ; rajah sahib ( 1968 ) ; star affair ( 1965 ) .\na favourite of celebrities and royalty , the loss of inverlochy castle hotel\u2019s prestigious food star , in the 2015 michelin guide , will come as a huge blow .\ntranquil star also won the v . r . c edward manifold stakes , the v . a . t . c st georges stakes , and the v . r . c st leger stakes . she took second spot in the victoria derby , which she lost to lucrative and she came second in the v . r . c oaks the same season .\n3rd - 7 5 / 04 / 1941 . 4l x 1 . 0l run at randwick , sydney , nsw , aus ajc chipping norton plate 10f . 2011m . 9 . 0 . 57kg 2 . 08 . 0 . 4 / 6f tranquil star 8 . 4 20 / 1 1st high caste 9 . 0 9 / 4 2nd \u00a3a 50 . 00\nrace reviews sydney is almost certain be the next stop for i am a star after her dominant win in friday night\u2019s sunline stakes ( 1600m ) at moonee valley .\nliam payne and cheryl split : carefree 1d star returns to stage for first time since break - up . . . as he poses happily with his backing dancers in france\nthe star is offering singular lineup of journalist - authors who rely on deep reporting , muscular writing and down - to - earth humor to find truth and tell stories .\ni didn ' t actually read all the stories - - though i thought they were good , i got tired of the sort of bite - sized format . bear meat , which i read in a magazine at some point , is wonderful . even better was a tranquil star , a meditation on the failures of language - - a neat way to end a story collection .\na tranquil star is a collection of previously unpublished short stories by primo levi . i wonder if levi could be called italy ' s kurt vonnegut , jr . ? there are science fiction stories , stories with no characters and stories full of surprises and quirks . my favorites are\nthe death of marinese ,\nthe sorcerers\nand\nthe girl in the book .\na tranquil star is a collection of primo levi ' s fiction , and more than a few of the stories struck me more as academic exercises than fully developed works . levi had a wonderful imagination , though , and thought up plenty of novel ideas . the title story is the best one , an amazing one , really , that in a few pages tells us about the inadequacy of human language to describe the universe as we know it now ; what it would be like to be living on a planet whose star has just gone nova ; the celestial obs\nconason , as most of the star authors , will be making presentations at other locations at the festival . conason\u2019s three other presentations include discussions on \u201cclickbait\u201d and freedom of the press .\nworld champion super star looking for 13 wins in a row including 9 at group 1 . keeps getting better and better and on what we saw last year she loves the valley .\n\u201ctranquil star brusubi is truly a peaceful bay to relax after an eventful day . the hospitality of the owners is of a rare excellence and sincerity , it was such a pleasure to me to spend time with both of them . the staff were always there for me to ensure that my holiday was exceptional . meals were different every evening and so delicious ! tranquil star is right next to a busy highway but effortlessly holds its tranquillity . it took only 15 - 20 mins to walk to the beach , the nearest towns and places of interest are 10 + mins drive by a taxi . i also used the opportunity to buy some natural beauty products that are available to purchase at the boutique . it was an extraordinary experience tailored just for me . i loved it and i will come again < 3\u201d\nsunday ' s ceremonial procession from montgeron to paris was characteristically tranquil prior to the 10 - lap criterium circling the champs d ' elysee , though there was a storyline focusing on a team sky rider other than froome .\n\ub207 tranquil star brusubi is truly a peaceful bay to relax after an eventful day . the hospitality of the owners is of a rare excellence and sincerity , it was such a pleasure to me to spend time with both of them . the staff were always there for me to ensure that my holiday was exceptional . meals were different every evening and so delicious ! tranquil star is right next to a busy highway but effortlessly holds its tranquillity . it took only 15 - 20 mins to walk to the beach , the nearest towns and places of interest are 10 + mins drive by a taxi . i also used the opportunity to buy some natural beauty products that are available to purchase at the boutique . it was an extraordinary experience tailored just for me . i loved it and i will come again < 3\nat six - years - old , tranquil star could manage only one win , and suffered a severe injury at her 78th start when she fell and suffered a fractured jaw . only her iron constitution and the patient attention of her trainer enabled her to survive . trainer ron cameron fed the mare with glucose at short intervals , night and day , until the broken jaw mended and she could eat again .\ngroup 1 racing the context has changed but i am a star will need to emulate the superstar sunline if she is to win saturday\u2019s group i doncaster mile ( 1600m ) at randwick .\nchris hemsworth kicks off filming for the star - studded men in black spin - off as he cuts a sharp figure in london . . . 21 years after the first film hit screens\ntranquil star made 111 starts ( 4 . 44 times as many as black caviar , 3 . 08 as many as makybe diva ) and won at distances ranging from 1 , 000 to 2 , 800 metres . she began racing in 1939 as a two - year - old and did not retire until 1946 , when she competed as an eight - year - old , averaging nearly 16 starts per season .\nthis tranquil star wasn\u2019t supposed to be so tranquil . maybe it was too big : in the far - off original act in which everything was created , it had received an inheritance too demanding . or maybe it contained in its heart an imbalance or an infection , as happens to some of us . it\u2019s customary among the stars to quietly burn the hydrogen they are made of , generously giving energy to the void , until they are reduced to a dignified thinness and end their career as modest white dwarfs . the star in question , however , when some billions of years had passed since its birth , and its companions began to rarefy , was not satisfied with its destiny and became restless\u2014to such a point that its restlessness became visible even to those of us who are \u201cvery\u201d distant and circumscribed by a \u201cvery\u201d brief life .\n( 2014 winner adelaide ) : 9\u2014so you think ( 2010 , 2009 ) ; fields of omagh ( 2006 , 2003 ) ; northerly ( 2002 , 2001 ) ; sunline ( 2000 , 1999 ) ; kingston town ( 1983 , 1982 , 1981 ) ; tobin bronze ( 1967 , 1966 ) ; hydrogen ( 1953 , 1952 ) ; flight ( 1946 , 1945 ) ; tranquil star ( 1944 , 1942 ) .\nhowever , bonecrusher and our waverley star staged a two - horse war from the 600m but 10 rivals were having a crack at makybe diva at that point . not for long , though .\n' i regret making it public ' : guy pearce is remorseful for asserting his former co - star kevin spacey was ' handsy ' with him on the set of l . a . confidential\ntranquil star ' s wikipedia entry cites douglas barrie ' s figure of \u00a326 , 690 in prize - money . pring has a figure of $ 52 , 380 ( or \u00a326190 ) . i have calculated her stake earnings at \u00a329 , 940 ( $ 59 , 880 ) which is considerably more . neither barrie nor pring provided a year by year breakdown of stakewinnings and i cannot find any obvious reason for such a discrepancy .\neig\u2019s next book , a muhammad ali bio that required 500 interviews and four years of work , will be published oct . 3 . eig speaks at the star tent at 4 p . m .\nthe following season , tranquil star had 2 wins , 4 seconds and she finished third on 4 occasions . she lost to lucrative in the caulfield stakes and to beau vite in the 1941 - 1942 mooney valley w . s cox plate . moreover , she came second in the underwood stakes and cf orr stakes . her wins were in the v . r . c c . m lloyd stakes and moonee valley alister clark stakes .\nsponsors : the ua and the arizona daily star are named sponsors and tucson medical center is the presenting sponsor . net proceeds will promote literacy in southern arizona through the tucson festival of books , a nonprofit organization .\nthe 32 - year - old team sky star captured the general classification honours sunday in paris , capping off a three - week effort that saw the rangy brit guided to victory courtesy of a stacked team sky .\namong the cox plate heroes of last century were heroic ( seven times champion australian sire ) , phar lap , chatham , ajax , beau vite , tranquil star , flight , hydrogen , rising fast , noholme ( a good sire in america ) , tulloch , tobin bronze ( sired good winners america ) , kingston town , octagonal , strawberry road ( successful sire in america ) , bonecrusher , rubiton , better loosen up , saintly , might and power and sunline .\ncaulfield stakes ( criterion ) : 15\u2014ocean park ( 2012 ) ; so you think ( 2010 ) ; northerly ( 2001 ) ; might and power ( 1998 ) ; almaarad ( 1989 ) ; bonecrusher ( 1986 ) ; kingston town ( 1981 & 1982 ) ; family of man ( 1977 ) ; gunsynd ( 1972 ) ; rising fast ( 1954 ) ; amana ( 1943 ) ; tranquil star ( 1942 ) ; ajax ( 1938 ) ; young idea ( 1936 ) .\nlighter and softer : star trek has its share of dark , tension - filled , anvil - dropping plots . this is not one of them . interestingly , this has made it one of the more popular episodes .\n' she didn ' t get those from me ' : kylie jenner says daughter stormi has dad travis scott ' s lips . . . as star reveals her breasts are ' three times the size ' post - baby\nthe star is among the venues that will fill the university of arizona mall saturday and next sunday , march 11 - 12 , for presentations , panel discussions , workshops , book signings and other book - centric activities .\nneptune ' s kingdom , ch . c . 1966 , star kingdom ( ire ) - - llanwryst , by pan ( fr ) . race summary : 55 starts . 9 - 10 - 9 $ 29 , 785\nperiodic table was in my to read list but couldn ' t find it in the library . that ' s when i came across this book . i like the short stories :\nmagic paint\n,\nknall\n,\nthe fugitive\n,\none night\n,\nbureau of vital statistics\nand\na tranquil star\n. favorite will be\nthe fugitive\nand i ' m sure i will be on the look out for\nthe periodic table\n' ' it was a knock ' em down , drag ' em out type of affair , ' ' trainer lee freedman commented later . ' ' it was the most thrilling since bonecrusher and our waverley star . ' '\na tranquil star i remember being blown away by this story when i read it in the new yorker . it ' s what led me to get this book and it holds up . boy is this a good short story . i feel like it might make a good monologue the book overall all of the stories in this book are great . some of them are exceptional . i am really happy i read this book and i think anyone who enjoys short stories will enjoy it as well .\nphar lap ( 1930 - 31 ) , chatham ( 1932 - 34 ) , young idea ( 1936 - 37 ) , beau vite ( 1940 - 41 ) , tranquil star ( 1942 - 44 ) , flight ( 1945 - 46 ) , hydrogen ( 1952 - 53 ) , tobin bronze ( 1966 - 67 ) , sunline ( 1999 - 00 ) , northerly ( 2001 - 02 ) , fields of omagh ( 2003 - 06 ) and so you think ( 2009 - 10 ) .\nlance o ' sullivan on our waverley star ( 3 - 1 ) decided to make a move at the 800 metres and he was tracked every step of the way by gary stewart on bonecrusher ( 10 - 9 on ) .\nfollowing multiple wins at last year\u2019s starproperty awards , which included the coveted all - star award : top ranked developer of the year , ioi properties group bhd has further solidified its status as one of the heavyweights of the industry .\na tranquil star is a collection of primo levi ' s fiction , and more than a few of the stories struck me more as academic exercises than fully developed works . levi had a wonderful imagination , though , and thought up plenty of novel ideas . the title story is the best one , an amazing one , really , that in a few pages tells us about the inadequacy of human language to describe the universe as we know it now ; what it would be like to be living on a planet whose star has just gone nova ; the celestial observations of arabs during a time when european science had gone to sleep ; and the complicated personal life of the astronomer who has just now discovered this nova on one of his photographic plates .\na tranquil star est un recueil de 17 br\u00e8ves nouvelles de primo levi . elles ont \u00e9t\u00e9 \u00e9crites \u00e0 diverses \u00e9poques ( la premi\u00e8re remonte \u00e0 1949 ) , l ' ensemble est in\u00e9gal , mais certaines nouvelles sont int\u00e9ressantes , comme gladiators , o\u00f9 des gladiateurs affrontent des automobilistes dans une ar\u00e8ne . one night est une histoire troublante , un train qui s ' immobilise sur des rails \u00e0 cause de feuilles mortes . je crois que ma pr\u00e9f\u00e9r\u00e9e est the magic paint , qui parle d ' une sorte de peinture pour attirer la chance\nif , as saul bellow wrote of levi ' s autobiography the periodic table ,\nthere is nothing superfluous here , everything this book contains is essential\n, one can ' t say the same for a tranquil star . some of these stories , interesting as their core ideas are , ranging from historical fiction to autobiography to science fiction , seem irresponsibly written and unfinished . i can ' t help but wonder what would have happened if levi had developed these stories to their full potential . for me , however , there i\n\u201cthe pursuit of truth and the passion to share it widely\u201d is the overarching theme of the arizona daily star pavilion at the tucson festival of books , says john m . humenik , a festival co - founder and member of its board of directors .\nmackinnon stakes : 20\u2014so you think ( 2010 ) ; better loosen up ( 1990 ) ; rising prince ( 1985 ) ; dulcify ( 1979 ) ; tobin bronze ( 1966 ) ; sir dane ( 1964 ) ; aquanita ( 1962 ) ; tulloch ( 1960 ) ; rising fast ( 1954 ) ; hydrogen ( 1953 ) ; flight ( 1946 ) ; tranquil star ( 1944 , 1942 ) ; amana ( 1943 ) ; beau vite ( 1941 , 1940 ) ; ajax ( 1938 ) ; rogilla ( 1933 ) ; phar lap ( 1931 , 1930 ) .\nafter one of our days , the surface of the star had reached the orbit of its most distant planets , invading their sky and , together with the remains of its tranquillity , spreading in all directions\u2014a billowing wave of energy bearing the modulated news of the catastrophe .\ndancefloor doll , by voodoo rhythm . 3 wins - 1 at 2 - from 1200m to 1600m , a $ 106 , 100 , mvrc crown lager s . , l , vatc jackson group h . , cci insurances h . , 3d vrc wakeful s . , gr . 2 , vatc tranquil star s . , l , mvrc jefferson ford h . , 4th vrc oaks , gr . 1 . half - sister to full and by , makepeace ( dam of mon mekki , make a scene ) . dam of 12 named foals , 8 to race , 3 winners , inc : -\nsun sally , by horbury . 7 wins from 1200m to 2000m , a $ 77 , 870 , vrc wakeful s . , gr . 2 , av kewney s . , gr . 2 , ajc flight s . , gr . 2 , reginald allen h . , l , 2d ajc oaks , gr . 1 , vrc oaks , gr . 1 , queensland oaks , gr . 1 , vatc tranquil star s . , gr . 3 . half - sister to fire band , susie who ( dam of roman senator ) . dam of 8 named foals , all raced , 3 winners .\nthe author of the syndicated \u201cask amy\u201d advice column , which runs in the star , and of the memoir , \u201cthe mighty queens of freeville , \u201d will be at the festival introducing her latest book , \u201cstrangers tend to tell me things\u201d at 2 : 30 p . m .\nslated to turn 33 in may as the\nspring classics\nseason kicks off on belgian cobbles , froome is by no means too old to win a fifth general classification title , though the 2017 installment did reveal some dents in the nairobi - born star ' s armour .\n25 ) - on the subject of bonecrusher he ran third to our poetic prince in 1988 but in 1986 he had been victorious by a neck over fellow new zealander our waverley star . just to show the strength of the new zealand breeding industry back then , it\u2019s a fact that eight of the first nine across the line in 1988 were bred in new zealand . in order of finish they were bonecrusher , our waverley star , the filbert , dandy andy , drought , dinky flyer , tristram and ma chiquita . australian bred stallion drawn got in the road and ran sixth .\nchampions are scattered all through the list of past winners , and there are many horses that have won both the yalumba stakes and the cox plate , which is the most prestigious weight - for - age race in australia . the list of yalumba and cox plate winners includes northerly ( 2001 ) , might and power ( 1998 ) , almaarad ( 1989 ) , bonecrusher ( 1986 ) , kingston town ( 1981 & 1982 ) , family of man ( 1977 ) , gunsynd ( 1972 ) , rising fast ( 1954 ) , amana ( 1943 ) , tranquil star ( 1942 ) , ajax ( 1938 ) and young idea ( 1936 ) .\n\u201csenior dogs are wonderful , \u201d says coffey . \u201cthey\u2019re calm , mellow , sweet and lovable , and \u2014 major bonus ! \u2014 they\u2019re usually already house - trained . dogs in this \u2018golden age\u2019 \u2014 over the age of about 6 or 7 \u2014 often make ideal pets for people with busy lives or for people who simply want snuggly , tranquil companionship .\na tranquil star est un recueil de 17 br\u00e8ves nouvelles de primo levi . elles ont \u00e9t\u00e9 \u00e9crites \u00e0 diverses \u00e9poques ( la premi\u00e8re remonte \u00e0 1949 ) , l ' ensemble est in\u00e9gal , mais certaines nouvelles sont int\u00e9ressantes , comme gladiators , o\u00f9 des gladiateurs affrontent des automobilistes dans une ar\u00e8ne . one night est une histoire troublante , un train qui s ' immobilise sur des rails \u00e0 cause de feuilles mortes . je crois que ma pr\u00e9f\u00e9r\u00e9e est the magic paint , qui parle d ' une sorte de peinture pour attirer la chance . the sorcerers d\u00e9montre comment l ' homme moderne ne sait pas fabriquer ce dont il a besoin dans la vie de tous les jours .\nanamato ( damsire whiskey road * ) : 4 wins & $ 966 , 892 , inc . sajc australian oaks ( g1 ) , vrc a . v . kewney s . ( g2 ) , mvrc moonee valley oaks ( g2 ) , sajc sires ' produce s . ( g3 ) ; 2d vrc danehill s . ( g3 ) , mrc tranquil star s . ( g3 ) , ajc fernhill h . ( lr ) , 3d vrc oaks ( g1 ) , hollywood park american oaks invitational s . ( g1 ) , vrc wakeful s . ( g2 ) , bloodhorse breeders s . ( g3 ) , mrc kevin hayes s . ( lr ) .\n8th - 13 17 / 08 / 1940 . nk x 0 . 75l moonee valley , melbourne , vic , aus mvrc kiata hcp 6f . 1207m . 9 . 3 . 58 . 5kg 1 . 13 . 0 . 7 / 1 . aurie ' s star 9 . 11 5 / 1 1st\n4th - 11 25 / 09 / 1937 . \u00bd nk x 0 . 75l moonee valley , melbourne , vic , aus mvrc quality hcp 6f . 1207m . 8 . 9 . 55kg 1 . 11 . 5 ( ecr ) 25 / 1 . aurie ' s star 8 . 7 5 / 2f 1st\nout of her 111 starts , tranquil star won 23 . she ran second 20 times and third 12 times . considering the level of the races she did win , it is hard to conceive of what could have caused her to run unplaced in over half of her races . her most serious injury was a broken jaw that threatened her as a six - year - old . if it must be granted that she was versatile and durable , it must also be acknowledged that she was unpredictable at times . she jumped as favourite in 18 of her races , only to be beaten . nine of her wins were principal races at the time that now would be considered group 1 .\nupon a time , somewhere in the universe very far from here , lived a peaceful star , which moved peacefully in the immensity of the sky , surrounded by a crowd of peaceful planets about which we have not a thing to report . this star was very big and very hot , and its weight was enormous : and here a reporter\u2019s difficulties begin . we have written \u201cvery far , \u201d \u201cbig , \u201d \u201chot , \u201d \u201cenormous\u201d : australia is very far , an elephant is big and a house is bigger , this morning i had a hot bath , everest is enormous . it\u2019s clear that something in our lexicon isn\u2019t working .\nreturning in the spring as a four - year old , dulcify became a star of world racing . he was responsible for one of the all - time great performances in australian racing history \u2013 a cox plate victory by seven lengths and the most aesthetically - pleasing win ( black caviar and frankel aside ) you\u2019ll ever see .\nbred at st alban ' s stud near geelong , tranquil star had an uneventful two - year - old season , with two moderate wins from 11 starts . as a three - year - old she showed her real quality with wins in the edward manifold stakes , st george stakes and vrc st leger . in her only visit to sydney , she took out the chipping norton stakes and the cumberland plate . her four - year - old season was ordinary , with just two wins and a number of placings from 21 starts . she came back to form with a vengeance as a five - year - old with six wins , including the caulfield stakes , caulfield cup , cox plate and mackinnon stakes .\nperceptive will be aware of the harnessed aggression , the immense forcefulness , magnetic intensity , and often strangely hypnotic personality under the tranquil , but watchful composure of scorpio . in conventional social gatherings they are pleasant to be with , thoughtful in conversation , dignified , and reserved , yet affable and courteous ; they sometimes possess penetrating eyes which make their shyer companions feel naked and defenseless before them .\nthirty years after 29 - year - old myron c . cramer enlisted in the army as a cavalry private in the washington national guard , he reached the pinnacle of his career on december 1 , 1941 , as he exchanged his colonel ' s eagles for the two - star rank of major general as judge advocate general of the army .\nsuperstar kingston town won the cox plate a record three times ( successive years ) and others who won it twice last century were phar lap , chatham , young idea , beau vite , tranquil star , flight , hydrogen and tobin bronze . sunline won it twice , but in separate centuries , scoring in 1999 and 2000 . she finished second in 2001 behind northerly ( protest unsuccessful ) and fourth when he joined the elite band of dual cox plate winners in 2002 . since then the cox plate winners have included fields of omagh ( by cox plate winner rubiton , successful 2003 and 2006 ) , makybe diva ( gb ) ( 2005 ) , so you think ( 2009 and 2010 ) , ocean park ( 2012 ) and adelaide ( 2014 ) .\nof this restlessness arab and chinese astronomers were aware . the europeans , no : the europeans of that time , which was a time of struggle , were so convinced that the heaven of the stars was immutable , was in fact the paradigm and kingdom of immutability , that they considered it pointless and blasphemous to notice changes . there could be none\u2014by definition there were none . but a diligent arab observer , equipped only with good eyes , patience , humility , and the love of knowing the works of his god , had realized that this star , to which he was very attached , was not immutable . he had watched the star for thirty years , and had noticed that it oscillated between the fourth and the sixth of the six magnitudes that had been described many centuries earlier by a greek , who was as diligent as he , and who , like him , thought that observing the stars was a route that would take one far . the arab felt a little as if it were his star : he wanted to place his mark on it , and in his notes he called it al - ludra , which in his dialect means \u201cthe capricious one . \u201d al - ludra oscillated , but not regularly : not like a pendulum ; rather , like someone who is at a loss between two choices . it completed its cycle sometimes in one year , sometimes in two , sometimes in five , and it didn\u2019t always stop in its dimming at the sixth magnitude , which is the last visible to the naked eye : at times it disappeared completely . the patient arab counted seven cycles before he died : his life had been long , but the life of a man is always pitifully brief compared with that of a star , even if the star behaves in such a way as to arouse suspicions about its eternity .\nmiss finland ( damsire woodman * ) : 2005 / 06 champion 2yo filly of australia , 11 wins & $ 4 , 632 , 775 , inc . stc golden slipper s . ( g1 ) , vrc oaks ( g1 ) , australian guineas ( g1 ) , mrc 1000 guineas ( g1 ) , stc storm queen s . ( g1 ) , mrc memsie s . ( g2 ) , angus armanasco s . ( g2 ) , h . d . f . mcneil s . ( g3 ) , tranquil star s . ( g3 ) , vrc talindert s . ( lr ) ; 2d ajc champagne s . ( g1 ) , mrc blue diamond s . ( g1 ) , underwood s . ( g1 ) , caulfield s . ( g1 ) , vrc edward manifold s . ( g2 ) , 3d mrc futurity s . ( g1 ) .\nthe winner of the 1993 pulitzer prize for national reporting , an associate editor at the washington post , and author of several books including \u201cbarack obama : the story , \u201d \u201cwhen pride still mattered : a life of vince lombardi , \u201d and \u201conce in a great city : a detroit story , \u201d maraniss will be in the star tent at 1 p . m . sunday , march 12 .\ntoday around the various websites there ' s plenty happening . on urltoken there ' s the first of two big montages of photos from the ipswich greyhounds yesterday and hong kong last sunday . on urltoken inter dominion 2013 nominations closed yesterday , so there is all the news on that . on urltoken there is a big free night next saturday night at tabcorp park at melton where a cavalcade of star pacers are appearing .\nempires choice ( nz ) ( damsire star way ) : 3 wins & $ 848 , 575 , inc . qtc queensland derby ( g1 ) , btc rough habit plate ( g3 ) ; 2d stc pago pago s . ( g2 ) , ajc skyline s . ( g3 ) , frank packer plate ( g3 ) , stc golden rose s . ( g3 ) , ajc carbine club s . ( lr ) .\nthe star tent will be situated near the new monument to the uss arizona on the ua mall that outlines the actual size of the ship that was destroyed dec . 7 , 1941 , when the japanese bombed pearl harbor and launched the u . s . into world war ii . the monument has 1 , 177 bronze medallions , each engraved with the name , birthdate and home state of a sailor or marine who died on the ship .\ndelano ( white face ) leading around the home turn in the autumn stakes at mentone . he j maintained his advantage to give j . johnson his first winning ride . anticipation . studies in ex - pression \u00a1n richmond ' s football practice match on saturday . tranquil star made her last public ap - pearance before a large crowd at olympic park yesterday . a . breasley was in the saddle , and trainer r . cameron in attendance . \u00ed u . x ^ chips fly in the handicap woodchop at the sports carnival at olympic park yesterday in aid or the children ' s hospital rebuilding appeal . w . basse , a . maxwell , and g . hyatt are the competitors . left : last golf competition leo waller played in was in changi pow camp . he is shown hitting off for kingswood on saturday in the , pennant match at kew . exciting finish of e grade 100 yards at olympic park on saturday . m . ryan ( geelong guild ) won from a . davidson ( williamstown ) .\nastrodame ( flying spur ) . 4 wins from 1200m to 1600m , a $ 515 , 925 , mvrc wh stocks s . , gr . 2 , vrc maltby h . , rsl p . , mrc clamms seafood classic h . , 2d mrc angus armanasco s . , gr . 2 , vrc frances tressady s . , gr . 3 , mrc autumn s . , l , bint marscay 2yo h . , 3d vrc av kewney s . , gr . 2 , rose of kingston s . , gr . 2 , matron s . , gr . 3 , mrc tranquil star s . , gr . 3 , boronia s . , l , vrc western health cup h . , mrc classic caulfield ladies ' day vase h . , archie yuille 2yo h . , 4th vrc edward manifold s . , gr . 2 , mvrc woodstock mile oaks , gr . 2 , wh stocks s . , gr . 2 , vrc let ' s elope s . , gr . 3 , waltzing lily h . , l .\nour room was of a high standard and we enjoyed a delicious meal in the restaurant . but what stood out was the high level of service provided by the owners . we were attending a family funeral and , overhearing our conversation about problems with a flower order , they put us in touch with a local florist who quickly sorted out the problem for us . all in all , their attention to detail and to meeting their guests ' needs made what could have been a stressful stay into a calm and tranquil experience . we will definitely be staying there again .\nover the course of almost two years , from january 1940 to september 1941 , mir\u00f3 worked on the constellations with a seamless devotion and unrelenting concentration that distracted him from the hostile political climate of war - torn france and later spain . femme et oiseaux is one of the first ten compositions the artist executed during his exile in france following the outbreak of the spanish civil war . mir\u00f3 was living in the village of varengeville on the coast of normandy , where he could work in tranquil seclusion whilst also being inspired by the dramatic cliffs and constantly changing sky and seascape .\nmuch interest , because the variable stars are so many , and also because , starting in 1750 , it was reduced to a speck , barely visible with the best telescopes of the time . but in 1950 ( and the message has only now reached us ) the illness that must have been gnawing at it from within reached a crisis , and here , for the second time , our story , too , enters a crisis : now it is no longer the adjectives that fail but the facts themselves . we still don\u2019t know much about the convulsive death - resurrection of stars : we know that , fairly often , something flares up in the atomic mechanism of a star\u2019s nucleus and then the star explodes , on a scale not of millions or billions of years but of hours and minutes . we know that these events are among the most cataclysmic that the sky holds ; but we understand only\u2014and approximately\u2014the how , not the why . we\u2019ll be satisfied with the how ."]}
{"id": 1736, "summary": [{"text": "the pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis or hexaprotodon liberiensis ) is a small hippopotamid which is native to the forests and swamps of west africa , primarily in liberia , with small populations in sierra leone , guinea , and ivory coast .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the pygmy hippo is reclusive and nocturnal .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is one of only two extant species in the family hippopotamidae , the other being its much larger relative , the common hippopotamus ( hippopotamus amphibius ) .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the pygmy hippopotamus displays many terrestrial adaptations , but like the hippo , it is semiaquatic and relies on water to keep its skin moist and its body temperature cool .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "behaviors such as mating and giving birth may occur in water or on land .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the pygmy hippo is herbivorous , feeding on ferns , broad-leaved plants , grasses , and fruits it finds in the forests .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "a rare nocturnal forest creature , the pygmy hippopotamus is a difficult animal to study in the wild .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "pygmy hippos were unknown outside west africa until the 19th century .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "introduced to zoos in the early 20th century , they breed well in captivity and the vast majority of research is derived from zoo specimens .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the survival of the species in captivity is more assured than in the wild ; the world conservation union estimates that fewer than 3,000 pygmy hippos remain in the wild .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "pygmy hippos are primarily threatened by loss of habitat , as forests are logged and converted to farm land , and are also vulnerable to poaching , hunting for bushmeat , natural predators , and war .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "pygmy hippos are among the species illegally hunted for food in liberia . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "pygmy hippopotamus", "paragraphs": ["pygmy hippopotamus | pygmy hippopotamus classification and evolution the pygmy hippopotamus . . . | hip hippos | pinterest | hippopotamus and animal\nsubject pygmy hippopotamus . pygmy hippopotamus > research . pygmy hippopotamus > conservation . rare mammals > africa , west .\ncommon hippopotamus , river hippopotamus , or nile hippopotamus ; in afrikaan : seekoei ( sea cow ) .\nthe pygmy hippopotamus is one of only two extant hippopotamus species in the world . here are a few facts about the lesser known pygmy hippopotamus , the cousin of a much larger common hippopotamus .\nimage caption : pygmy hippo / pygmy hippopotamus . credit : tomasz sienicki / wikipedia ( cc by 2 . 5 )\nleidy , 1991 . pygmy hippopotamus . pp . 1350 - 1351 in r nowak , ed .\nmillburn , naomi .\nfacts on the pygmy hippopotamus\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\nmillburn , naomi .\nfacts on the pygmy hippopotamus .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / pygmy - hippopotamus - 2204 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nmillburn , naomi . ( n . d . ) . facts on the pygmy hippopotamus . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / pygmy - hippopotamus - 2204 . html\nwhen it was decided to separate the dwarfed cypriote hippopotamus from the genus hippopotamus , the word phanourios was chosen as the new genus after the saint whose name is frequently connected with cypriote hippopotamus fossils .\nthe cerebral cortex of the pygmy hippopotamus , hexaprotodon liberiensis ( cetartiodactyla , hippopotamidae ) : mri , cytoarchitecture , and neuronal morphology .\nalthough they superficially look like the well - known common hippopotamus ( hippopotamus amphibius ) , pygmy hippos ( choeropsis liberiensis ) differ in ecology , behavior , and most conspicuously , body size . the common hippopotamus can reach upwards of 3 , 000 kg , whereas the diminutive pygmy hippopotamus rarely tops 300 kg . the hippos are so distinct that the species are two different genera . while common hippos congregate in large social groups , the pygmy hippopotamus is rare , solitary and nocturnal ; traits that make direct observation nearly impossible and survey methods more complex .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the pygmy hippopotamus article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nthe bone he believed to be a human long bone , which he pictures , is in fact a humerus of the cypriote pygmy hippopotamus .\nfor further information about this species , see 10103 _ hippopotamus _ amphibius . pdf .\nhippopotamus es are also found in the upper and lower stretches of the zambezi . \u2026\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis )\ntitle =\narkive species - pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe cerebral cortex of the pygmy hippopotamus , hexaprotodon liberiensis ( cetartiodactyla , hippopotamidae ) : mri , cytoarchitecture , and neuronal morp . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe pygmy hippopotamus shares the barrel - shaped body form of the closely related common hippopotamus ( hippopotamus amphibius ) , but is considerably smaller . other physical differences between the two hippopotamus species include the placing of the eyes , which are more towards the side of the head in the pygmy hippopotamus , feet that are not as webbed as in the common hippopotamus ( 2 ) , and the pygmy ' s sloping smooth , greenish - black back ( 7 ) . the sexes are similar in appearance ; as males do not have a scrotum , males and females are very difficult to tell apart ( 7 ) . the name hippopotamus derives from the greek for ' river horse ' ( 2 ) . genetic studies have revealed that hippopotami share a common ancestor with whales ( 2 ) , while recent fossil evidence alludes to a close relationship between whales and all ungulates ( 7 ) .\nthere were many species of smaller hippos that once inhabited the mediterranean , but these are now extinct . among these species are the sicilian hippopotamus , the maltese hippopotamus , the cretan dwarf hippopotamus , and the cyprus dwarf hippopotamus . these species are considered to be dwarf hippos , because they were larger than pygmy hippos but smaller than hippopotamuses . it is thought that their small size occurred due to living on islands , a frequent occurrence among island dwelling animals .\nthe pygmy hippopotamus is found in western africa , mainly in liberia but also in sierra leone , guinea , and the ivory coast ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe pygmy hippopotamus is a herbivorous species . its diet consists of various vegetation including succulents , tender shoots , leaves , roots , grasses , aquatic plants and fallen fruit .\nthe hippopotamus can be found in all kinds of ancient african folklore with its name in greek actually meaning\nwater horse\n. despite this fascination with the hippopotamus , hunting of them for their meat and\nthe pygmy hippopotamus , or pygmy hippo , choeropsis liberiensis , is an endangered mammal of high conservation concern endemic to the threatened upper guinea forest hotspot of west africa . zsl is working in the field and in our zoos to protect the remaining populations .\ni arrived that rainy night on tiwai island armed with 20 remote - sensing camera traps to capture pygmy hippos in digital pictures . i was also exploring methods to safely capture a pygmy hippopotamus and attach a radio tracking device . since locally pygmy hippos are known to be delicious and they routinely destroy farmer\u2019s crops ( see video below ) , i also created questionnaires to learn about local knowledge of pygmy hippos and conservation perceptions .\nmueller , jennifer .\nhow are endangered hippopotamus being protected in africa ?\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\nthe hippopotamus has an enormous grey barrel - shaped body that can measure up to five meters in length and weigh more than four tonnes , and which is held up by short and stocky legs . one of the hippopotamus ' s most\nat first glance , the pygmy hippopotamus looks like a mini version of its larger relative , the hippopotamus ( also known as the river or common hippopotamus ) . but it differs in behavior and physical characteristics . the pygmy hippo has adaptations for spending time in the water but is much less aquatic than the hippo . its nose and ears close underwater just like a hippo ' s do , but its head is rounder and narrower , its neck is proportionally longer , and its eyes are not on the top of its head .\nfor example , the african pygmy hippopotamus and the south american capybara are both semiaquatic residents of swampy tropical forest habitats . although they belong to entirely separate orders , they have converged upon comparable sizes . furthermore , they have done so from opposite ends of their normal size ranges\u2014the african pygmy hippo\u2026\nof the two species of hippopotamus , only one , the pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis ) is classified as endangered . a pygmy hippo looks much like the better - known common hippo , but smaller , with eyes on the side of a more rounded head . although little is known about this nocturnal species , a 1993 international union for conservation of nature study , the most recent of its kind , estimated between 2 , 000 and 3 , 000 individuals live in the west african countries of liberia , sierra leone , guinea and the ivory coast . conservation biologists consider a nigerian pygmy hippopotamus subspecies to be extinct .\na common or river hippo weighs about 10 times as much as a pygmy hippo .\nand consumes a wide range a plants and plant material throughout the forest . the pygmy\nmueller , jennifer .\nhow are endangered hippopotamus being protected in africa ?\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / endangered - hippopotamus - being - protected - africa - 7405 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nwhich can weigh up to 3kg each . due to the way that the skin of the hippopotamus is made up , the\nthe pygmy hippo is classified in the genus choeropsis that means , \u201cresembling a hog\u201d . it is thought that the malagasy pygmy hippopotamus , which is now among the three extinct species that inhabited madagascar , was a sister species to the pygmy hippo , deriving from the same ancestor . samuel g . morton once classified the pygmy hippo as hippopotamus minor , but studies showed that it was unique enough to hold its own genus , choeropsis . coryndon suggested that the pygmy hippo was a close relative of prehistoric hippos that were native to asia , called hexaprotodon . after coryndon made this assumption in 1977 , it was majorly accepted until 2005 , when boisserie claimed that it was too distinct from hexaprotodon , and so the pygmy hippo was re - classified into its genus choeropsis .\nthe pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis ) is a herbivorous creature that exists predominantly in western africa ' s liberia , although to a much lesser degree in nearby nations such as nigeria , ivory coast , guinea and sierra leone . the moderate - sized animals are considered to be significantly more timid than their larger counterparts , the common hippopotamus .\nmueller , jennifer . ( n . d . ) . how are endangered hippopotamus being protected in africa ? animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / endangered - hippopotamus - being - protected - africa - 7405 . html\nbecause the pygmy hippo is smaller than the common hippopotamus , its bones are thinner , which give it a better level of gracefulness . the pygmy hippo\u2019s spine differs from that of the hippopotamus , curving forward at a sloping angel , and it is thought that this aids its movement through dense vegetation . the pygmy hippo spends less time in the water than its larger relative , and so its nostrils and eye sockets are less adapted to keeping water out . the toes are also adapted for moving through forest vegetation , bearing toes that are more spread out and with less webbing than the toes of the common hippopotamus . despite these adaptations that aid on land , the pygmy hippo is the most aquatic of all even - toed ungulates .\nthe rare pygmy hippopotamus ( hexaprotodon liberiensis , also known as choeropsis liberiensis ) , the other living species of the family hippopotamidae , is about the size of a domestic pig . the pygmy hippo is less aquatic than its larger relative , although , when pursued , it hides in water . less gregarious , it\u2026\n. when startled , pygmy hippos flee a short distance into vegetation , where they hide .\noil pollution in estuaries by the sea further threaten pygmy hippo populations . ( oliver 1993 )\n. despite its appearance , the hippopotamus is actually thought to be most closely related to whales as the two are thought to have had a common ancestor that existed roughly 54 million years ago . also known as the common hippopotamus , it is one of two hippo\nthe pygmy hippopotamus , choeropsis liberiensis is a shy inhabitant of the upper guinea forest ecosystem of liberia , sierra leone , guinea and c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire . with only about 2000 - 3000 individuals remaining , the pygmy hippo is classified as endangered on the 2010 iucn red list , as well as being an evolutionarily distinct species .\na hippopotamus . photograph by william & marcia levy . the national audubon society collection / photo researchers , inc . reproduced by permission .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the hippopotamus article in your website content , school work and other projects .\ncomments : first described as hippopotamus minor morton , 1844 ( proc . acad . nat . sci . phila . , 2 : 14 )\nthe biggest threat to the pygmy hippopotamus ' continued survival is loss of habitat due to logging and deforestation to clear the way for agricultural development and human settlements . because of this , the species ' largest populations are found on protected nature preserves . a large population lives in the sapo national park in liberia , the country ' s only national preserve . the park ' s 509 square miles are the most effectively protected pygmy hippopotamus habitat according to the iucn . pygmy hippo populations also live in tai national park in the ivory coast and the gola forest reserve in sierra leone .\ntire mogul harvey firestone , who owned a rubber plantation in liberia , gave president calvin coolidge a pygmy hippo named billy . billy is an ancestor of almost all pygmy hippos living in american zoos .\nhippopotamus madagascariensis retains low orbits and a relatively short muzzle . stuenes ( 1989 ) used these features to propose a more terrestrial way of life for this species than in hippopotamus amphibius . similarly , stuenes ( 1989 ) indicated a cranio - mandibular morphology closer to that of choeropsis liberiensis , the extant pigmy hippo from western africa . she further noted that hippopotamus madagascariensis exhibited teeth generally more worn than in hippopotamus lemerlei . these characters both suggest a diet differing from that of the other madagascan dwarf hippopotamid . the ecology of hippopotamus madagascariensis may have been close to that of mediterranean extinct dwarf hippopotamids , but further investigation of this question is required , notably on postcranial anatomy , stable isotope enamel / bone contents , and dental wear .\n, they have a number of adaptations that aid them when in the dense forest . although the pygmy\npygmy hippos are classified as endangered by the iucn and are on appendix ii of cites . threats to\nthe hippopotamus spends up to 18 hours a day in the water to keep cool but when darkness falls , they venture out onto land and follow well - trodden paths to their feeding grounds , before returning to the water in the morning . the hippopotamus is one of the largest and most feared\nwe soon began our first pit trap attempts to capture a pygmy hippopotamus . if the pit traps were successful in catching a pygmy hippopotamus , we would bring a wildlife veterinarian to sierra leone to help us anesthetize a hippo . when the hippo was asleep , we would place a radio collar to track the hippo\u2019s movements through the forest . we were interested in learning more about hippo habitat to identify what pygmy hippos need to survive . using local hunter knowledge and maybe a little bit of \u201cjuju\u201d , we dug several holes and covered them with rattan mats and debris . then it was time to wait .\nthe pygmy hippopotamus , hexaprotodon liberiensis , is a solitary and nocturnal species belonging to the hippopotamidae family . these semi - aquatic creatures are herbivores in nature , and are believed to be more timid and calm than their larger cousins . the pygmy hippopotamus is native to west africa , predominantly to liberia , however , some of them are also found in guinea , sierra leone , and ivory coast . interestingly , this creature was not known until the middle of the 19th century . in 1844 , dr . samuel morton of the academy of natural sciences , philadelphia described it scientifically for the first time , on the basis of the skulls that he had found when he was living in monrovia , the capital of liberia . he found that this species of hippopotamus was much smaller than the common hippopotamus , and so he named it as hippopotamus minor . however , in 1849 , with more research conducted on the species and its distinctive characteristics recognized , it was renamed as choeropsis liberiensis . more researches were carried out on the pygmy hippo , and in 1977 , it was found that it bore some striking similarities with the extinct species of the hexaprotodon , some fossils of which have been discovered . owing to this , it is now renamed as hexaprotodon liberiensis . we , at buzzle , have collected some facts about the pygmy hippopotamus .\nand even rest in burrows in the vegetation on river banks . unlike its larger cousin though , the pygmy\ngives birth to a single calf either in a den in the dense vegetation or in the water . pygmy\nforests within the pygmy hippo\u2019s historical range have been steadily logged , farmed and settled . human development activities have caused the retreat of pygmy hippo into diminishing parcels of forest , which are becoming increasingly fragmented and insular .\nspecific ecosystem roles of pygmy hippos are unknown but their herbivorous diet probably has an effect on plant populations .\nlang , e . 1990 . pygmy hippoptamuses . pp . 58 - 64 in b grzimek , ed .\nzsl london zoo ' s two pygmy hippos , thug and nicky , have a plush pad to enjoy .\ndeforestation is the main threat facing the pygmy hippopotamus ( 2 ) . hunting is also known to occur , but the extent of this has not been determined ( 2 ) . the subspecies c . l . heslopi in nigeria may already be extinct ( 2 ) .\npygmy hippos use scent marking with their feces to alert other hippos to their presence . like other mammals , they may use scent cues to advertise reproductive status as well . pygmy hippos are typically silent , but do make snorts , grunts , hisses , and squeaks occasionally . otherwise , little is known about how pygmy hippos communicate .\nedinburgh zoo currently has two pygmy hippos : an adult male , called otto and an adult female called gloria .\npygmy hippos often spend time resting and feeding on land . their behavior in the wild is still largely unknown .\nas of 2004 , 290 captive - born pygmy hippos in 135 zoos . ( hlavacek et al . 2005 )\nsolitary pygmy hippos in captivity may experience undue stress when pairs of females or male / female pairs housed together .\nin 2007 zsl\u2019s edge of existence programme recognised pygmy hippos as a priority for conservation . since then , zsl has been working in liberia and sierra leone , trying to work towards protecting what remains of the wild pygmy hippo population .\n, but also from hunting . the hippopotamus has been hunted by people for both its meat and its teeth which are made of ivory . since the ban on trading\nthe pygmy hippopotamus , or pygmy hippo , was discovered only recently - in the mid 1800s . a shy and solitary animal , it lives in swamps and forests . it is smaller than the common hippo but not an exact copy . for its size the pygmy hippo has longer legs , a smaller head and narrower mouth . hiding in dense forests it eats leaves , herbs , fallen fruits and grasses . to reach higher branches it stands on its hind legs and leans on the tree with its front legs .\nlang , e . m . , k . hentschel , and w . bulow . 1990 . pygmy hippopotamuses ( genus\npygmy hippo distribution . adapted from urltoken according to iucn fact sheet . click here or on map for detailed inset .\nit was thought that both the pygmy hippopotamus and its larger relative , the common hippopotamus , were most closely related to hogs or pigs in the suidae family , or peccaries . due to research done in the past ten years , it is now commonly thought that hippos are more closely related to dolphins or whales . it is thought that hippos originated from africa , and although they moved through europe and asia , no native specimens have been found in the americas .\nnow that we knew the traps could successfully and safely capture a pygmy hippopotamus , my major professor , dr . john carroll and a wildlife veterinarian , dr . michele miller , flew to sierra leone to help me capture and radio - collar a pygmy hippopotamus . my advisor , dr . sonia hernandez , would coordinate everything from the united . i added 2 more field assistants ( alusine and lahai ) who could read and write to help . unfortunately we did not successfully capture a hippo during this time , although we had several near - captures ( the pygmy hippos fell halfway in but were able to escape ) . we hope to travel for another attempt later this year if we can raise the funds .\n. the pygmy hippo is less aquatic than its larger relative , although , when pursued , it hides in water . less\nof the hippopotamus , particularly of the young or sick individuals . it is because of this that females are thought to congregate in herds as larger numbers are more intimidating to hungry\nthe international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has included the pygmy hippopotamus in their list of endangered species . according to the iucn estimates , there are less than 3 , 000 pygmy hippos surviving in the wild today . loss of habitat , due to the shrinking of forests , is one of the major causes of concern with respect to the endangerment of these animals . moreover , they are hunted on a largely for bush meat , which is considered to be of a very superior quality . pygmy hippopotamus is also likely to fall prey to animals such as crocodiles , pythons , and leopards , which further dwindles their population . however , fortunately enough , their population has been increasing in captivity since the past few years .\n, the hippopotamus only eats around 40kg of food a night as it uses very little energy whilst floating in the water for most of the day . in areas that are close to\nto find food , they are seen as pests by farmers who not only fear for their livelihood , but also for their lives themselves . the hippopotamus is known to be an aggressive\nthe island sweepstakes why did pygmy elephants , dwarf deer , and large mice once populate the mediterranean ? by paul y . sondaar\nincluding four webbed toes on each foot that help with swimming and walking on slippery banks , and the eyes , ears and nostrils of the hippopotamus are situated on the top of its head . this means that when the hippopotamus ' s body is immersed in the water , they are still able to see , hear and breath whilst keeping cool in the hot sun .\n\u27a6 the average age of maturity of a pygmy hippopotamus lies between three to five years . \u27a6 not much is known about their breeding behavior in the wild . however , a considerable number of studies have been conducted on the ones in captivity . \u27a6 in captivity , pygmy hippos mate as monogamous pairs , one to four times during an estrous period . also , they mate during any time of the year . \u27a6 the gestation period ranges anywhere between 190 to 210 days , and generally , a single calf is born . there have been some rare instances of twins as well . \u27a6 the pygmy hippopotamus can mate and give birth , both in water and on land , unlike their greater cousins , who mate only in water . \u27a6 the young pygmy hippos usually wean by the age of six to eight months , only after which they accompany their mother for foraging into the forest .\nthe pygmy hippopotamus resembles its large relative closely , with short legs and a stout body , however , this species is about half as small as its cousin is . the pygmy hippo reaches an average body length of 5 . 8 feet , a height of 2 . 6 feet at the shoulders , and an average weight between four hundred and six hundred pounds . its skin can be green - black in color , or brown , with a light creamy colored underbelly . like the large hippopotamus , the pygmy hippo secretes a pinkish colored substance , known as \u201cblood - sweat\u201d , although it is neither sweat nor blood . it is thought that this secretion holds a mixture of sun screening and antiseptic properties . this aids the hippos in keeping their dry skin moist .\nthug and nicky will be joining up with the other animals in into africa . just like the giraffes , okapi , and warthogs , pygmy hippos hail from africa . in fact , pygmy hippos are very rare animals and can only be found in west africa .\nand forages in the forest at night for a wide variety of plant matter and fallen fruits . like their larger cousin , the pygmy\npygmy hippos are distributed across west africa , more specifically , in sierra leone , guinea , c\u00f4te d ' ivoire , and liberia .\nsome zoologists replace the genus hexaprotodon with choeropsis . more pig - like than its larger relative , the pygmy hippo ' s scientific status has been quite varied - when it was first described , many dismissed it as a stunted freak , a dwarf subspecies or a juvenile specimen of the common hippopotamus . after its initial description , when no more news of the pygmy hippo reached the west , many scientists wrote it off - whatever it was - as extinct . however , its true status - as a distinct and existent species - was proven by schomburgk in 1911 , when he captured five live specimens and brought them back to europe . the name hippopotamus is from hippos ( greek ) a horse , and potamos ( greek ) a river - although\nriver - pig\nwould be much more appropriate ! while this ungulate is large in comparison to most others , it gets its name ' pygmy ' from the fact that it is much smaller than the river hippopotamus . .\nin captivity , the populations of pygmy hippos are increasing , causing the survival of the species in in zoos to be higher than the chances of wild pygmy hippos surviving . the number of births in zoos doubled between the years of 1970 and 1991 , but only nineteen percent of births in captivity since 1919 have been males . the zoo basel , located in switzerland , oversees the breeding of pygmy hippos around the world , holding the international studbook of breeding males . there are some wild populations that can be found in protected areas , and the species was listed as a \u201cfocal species\u201d by the evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered ( edge ) project in 2007 . the pygmy hippopotamus appears on the iucn red list with a conservation status of \u201cendangered\u201d .\npart i . discovery , history and capture . what is a pygmy hippopotamus ? the small details that define them / gabriella l . flacke ; hippos in popular culture and folklore / gabriella l . flacke ; looking for enigmas in the fores : a chronicle of travelers , trappers , and researchers / phillip t . robinson ; the use and abuse of hippos in nature : no peace treaty in sight / phillip t . robinson ; heslop ' s pygmy hippopotamus : the nigerian extinction / phillip t . robinson ; hans schomburgk : hunter , trapper , bush bicyclist / phillip t . robinson ; frans van den brink : the master hippo catcher / phillip t . robinson\nat the san diego zoo , our pygmy hippos are fed a super high - fiber pellet , a bit of hay , and greens .\ntwo hippo species are found in africa . the large hippo , found in east africa , occurs south of the sahara . the other , much smaller ( 440 to 605 pounds ) species of hippo is the pygmy hippopotamus . limited to very restricted ranges in west africa , it is a shy , solitary forest dweller and is now rare .\nbilly , a pygmy hippo , the common ancestor of most pygmy hippos in u . s . zoos , was presented to the u . s . president calvin coolidge by an american businessman in 1927 . it was then donated to the national zoo , washington , d . c .\nthat are becoming more and more isolated . although hippopotamus populations are considered stable in a number of countries in the south and the east of the continent , they are declining in many others and are particularly\nthe pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis or hexaprotodon liberiensis ) , also known as the pygmy hippo , is native to western areas of africa . its range includes liberia , with smaller populations occurring in ivory coast , sierra leone , and guinea . it prefers a habitat in swamps and forests , where a body of water is available to keep its skin moisturized . it is a semi - aquatic creature , and can perform tasks such as breeding or giving birth in the water or on land .\nhas a long barrel - shaped body that is covered in slate - grey skin , which lightens towards the underside . the head of the pygmy\nand along with its narrower mouth , makes it easier for them to run through the forest at speed . due to the fact that the pygmy\nsuch as pythons , that are able easily ambush the unprotected young calf whilst its mother is out foraging . the biggest threat to the remaining pygmy\nat taronga zoo we currently have two pygmy hippos , a male named fergus and a female named kambiri ( dob : 26 june 2010 ) .\nwant to know the key differences between pygmy hippos and their large cousins ? here are some ways to sort between your common hippos and pygmys .\nit is estimated that there could be less that 2000 pygmy hippos left in the wild , with a nigerian subspecies already believed to be extinct . in the wild , pygmy hippos come under threat from hunting and habitat loss . many populations of hippos have become fragmented due to logging , mining , farming and other human activity . as pygmy hippos are forced to engage with local communities , they come under more and more danger from extinction .\npart iii . biology and natural history . the flora and fauna of pygmy hippo country : meet the neighbors / gabriella l . flacke ; pygmy hippo feeding behavior and nutrition / knut m . hentschel ; the pygmy hippo hunters : our guides in the forest / phillip t . robinson ; common ground for hippos in west africa : their overlapping occurrence in nature / phillip t . robinson ; sly , shy or focused ? the origins of elusiveness / phillip t . robinson ; husbandry , health , and pathology of pygmy hippos : optimizing well - being in captivity / gabriella l . flacke .\nzsl has pioneered in situ conservation of pygmy hippos in liberia since 2008 , in collaboration with fauna and flora international ( ffi ) and liberia\u2019s forestry development authority ( fda ) . because the pygmy hippo is so poorly known , we have carried out surveys of where they exist and threats to their populations , using methods such as camera trapping . in 2008 zsl and our partners obtained the first photos of pygmy hippos in the country . in november 2010 , zsl held the first \u2018international pygmy hippo conservation strategy planning workshop\u2019 in liberia and produced a regional conservation strategy under the umbrella of the iucn ssc hippo specialist group . the strategy articulated the vision , goal , objectives and actions required for in situ conservation of pygmy hippos . also in 2010 zsl began working with a team from njala university in sierra leone to research and protect a population of pygmy hippos around loma mountain in northern sierra leone .\nbirth weight : common hippo 25 - 55 kg ( 55 - 121 lb ) ; pygmy hippos 5 . 73 kg ( 12 . 7 lb )\n\u27a6 the pygmy hippopotamus is found mainly in the forests and swamps of west africa . \u27a6 though the creature is adapted to terrestrial life in many ways , its semi - aquatic characteristics requires it to dwell in the vicinity of water bodies , to help moisten its skin and maintain proper level of its body temperature . owing to this , it makes its burrow close to a freshwater body . \u27a6 it is interesting to note that the range of habitat of the pygmy hippo , in spite of being so closely related to the common hippo , does not overlap with it . the common hippo is usually found in grasslands , whereas the pygmy hippo is an inhabitant of the forests .\nthe pygmy hippo ' s feet are less webbed and its toes more free than those of the hippo , and its legs are longer than its huge cousin ' s . the pygmy hippo ' s teeth are also different : it only has one pair of incisors , while the hippo has two or three .\nhippos display tusk - like canines sharpened by wear against their upper teeth . to the front of a pygmy hippo jaw are a single pair of incisors .\norigin of name and closest relatives : the name hippopotamus comes from the greek word meaning \u2018river horse\u2019 , although hippos are not related to horses . hippos are actually related to cetaceans i . e . whales , dolphins and porpoises\npygmy hippos are different than common hippos in more ways than just their much smaller physiques . the birthing practices are also very different between the two creatures . while common hippos welcome their young to the world in the winter , pygmy hippos do so on land . the youngsters are capable of swimming immediately after birth .\nso far the response to our project has been excellent . residents are proud that their island is an important habitat for this rare animal , as demonstrated during the ambassador\u2019s visit , and they believe this project will help advertise tourism and research on tiwai island . when people view pygmy hippos and other wildlife as more than protein or pests , they are more willing to help in conservation efforts . our hope is that one day the pygmy hippo can be seen as the diamond of sierra leone . as kenewa once said \u201cwe shall never again eat pygmy hippo meat . we have tasted pygmy hippo benefits , and they are sweeter . \u201d\nthe pygmy hippopotamus usually lives in swamp and river settings that are in the midst of thick and damp tropical lowland forests . these nocturnal hippos often like to stay in burrows closely surrounding rivers . since they are semi - aquatic , it ' s important for them to never be far from water . h20 is vital for these hippos as it both cools their bodies and hydrates their skin .\nforages under the cover of night eating grasses , ferns , leaves , shrubs and fruits that have fallen onto the forest floor from the branches above . the pygmy\nthe pygmy hippo population is currently decreasing , being assessed as an endangered species by the iucn red list ( retrieved 23 . 02 . 16 from urltoken ) .\nin the field , zsl carries out vital research into pygmy hippo ecology , distribution and behaviour . we also work with local communities and government wildlife authorities to protect them . alongside this , zsl london zoo and whipsnade zoo are part of a captive breeding program and in 2010 produced the iucn ssc regional pygmy hippo conservation strategy .\nbaby pygmy hippos weigh between 9 . 9\u201313 . 7 pounds at birth , and are able to swim almost immediately after birth . instead of following the mother out of the water , the baby pygmy hippo will remain hidden in the water for safety as she forages for food . the baby will nurse up to three times a day and is weaned at six to eight months of age . the average age at which the pygmy hippo reaches sexual maturity is between three and five years of age .\na 1993 population estimate suggested that only 2000 - 3000 pygmy hippo individuals still existed , and their numbers are likely to have declined since then . they are classified as endangered on the 2010 iucn red list of threatened species . a distinct pygmy hippo subspecies ( c . liberiensis heslopi ) that once existed in nigeria has most probably gone extinct . these declines result from habitat loss and hunting . the fragmentation and destruction of the pygmy hippo ' s forest habitat due to logging , mining , agrobusiness expansion and farming activities have brought pygmy hippos into closer contact with humans and as a result they are at much greater risk of being hunted and disturbed by human activities .\nunlike the common hippopotamus , the pygmy hippo was not known outside of its range until the 19th century . in liberia , it was known as the water cow . early reports of this species described it as a wild hog . the first captured individual , from sierra leone , was taken to europe by a british colonial service member , but it did not live long after its arrival . it was not until 1911 that the pygmy hippo was successfully introduced into europe . some of these european individuals were shipped to germany and to the bronx zoo in new york after that .\nunlike many animals , pygmy hippos breed easily in captivity , and international captive breeding programs for the species have been successful . as of 2004 , the most recent count , 303 pygmy hippos lived in captivity , 209 of which were captive - born . this represented more than twice the number of captive - born pygmy hippos since 1970 . many of these were born from parents who also had been bred in captivity . captive breeding faces challenges because much of pygmy hippo behavior in the wild is unknown , causing some to die in captivity . for example , although wild individuals live in solitude , coming together only to mate , many captives are kept in pairs , causing hostility .\ninhabits areas of dense , lowland tropical forest and swampland , where it spends the majority of its time foraging for food and resting on land . despite the fact that pygmy\nresearchers can help generate more direct funds by providing employment for local residents , introducing capital directly into the local economy . in countries with few educational opportunities , any sharing of knowledge between researcher and resident is beneficial . field assistants often bring the scientific knowledge they learn during their employment to their families and friends . my field assistants became ambassadors for the pygmy hippopotamus , and helped to disseminate new findings to the communities .\nzsl ' s edge of existence programme identified pygmy hippos as a priority for conservation in 2007 , and since then , zsl have worked to conserve them in liberia\u2019s sapo national park and loma mountains in sierra leone . we carry out research to understand pygmy hippo ecology , distribution and behaviour and work with local communities and government wildlife authorities to protect them . zsl london zoo and whipsnade zoo also carry out captive breeding of these animals . zsl led the production of the iucn ssc regional pygmy hippo conservation strategy in 2010 .\nas a result of habitat loss , the pygmy hippopotamus population is dropping and the species is considered to be endangered by the iucn red list of threatened species as of 2008 . some of the causes for the habitat loss and ruination are pollution in their water environments , poaching , logging and human development within the forests that serve as their homes . hunting is also associated with the drop in population . according to bristol zoo , there may be fewer than 2 , 000 free - roaming pygmy hippopotamuses remaining . however , captive reproduction efforts are in full swing , including one in the united kingdom .\nwhen my peace corps tenure ended in 2007 , i returned to the university of georgia to obtain a doctorate in forest resources . at the end of my first year of classes , i received an email about an endangered , elusive creature - the pygmy hippopotamus . i was intrigued . there was a possibility for funding field research to study pygmy hippos on a river island in sierra leone . i searched the scientific literature , and did not find much information . with the help of my advisors , i wrote a proposal to conservation international , who agreed to fund me for my first field season .\ndedication foreword - david . p . mallon , manchester metropolitan university preface - phillip . t . robinson authors ' introduction - the authors i . discovery , history and capture 1 . what is a pygmy hippopotamus - gabriella l . flacke 2 . hippos in popular culture and folklore - gabriella l . flacke 3 . looking for enigmas in the forest - phillip t . robinson 4 . the use and abuse of hippos in nature - phillip t . robinson 5 . heslop ' s pygmy hippopotamus - phillip t . robinson 6 . hans schomburgk - hunter , trapper , bush bicyclist - phillip t . robinson 7 . frans van den brink - master hippo catcher - phillip t . robinson ii . working in pygmy hippo country phillip t . robinson 8 . arriving in west africa 9 . just getting there is most of the journey 10 . wrestling the town chief in pygmy hippo country 11 . journeys without destinations 12 . going bush in sierra leone 13 . traveling hammocks and piggyback rides 14 . a six to six walk 15 . small planes 16 . navigating pygmy hippo country co - authors and contributors 17 . pygmy hippo research on tiwai island - april l . conway 18 . living the dream - gabriella l . flacke 19 . pygmy hippo research in the ivory coast - knut m . hentschel 20 . the hippo hotel of ivory coast - waldemar b\u00fclow iii . biology and natural history 21 . the flora and fauna of pygmy hippo country - gabriella l . flacke 22 . the feeding behavior of pygmy hippos in the wild - knut m . hentschel 23 . the pygmy hippo hunters - phillip t . robinson 24 . common ground for hippos in west africa - phillip t . robinson 25 . sly , shy or focused ? the origins of elusiveness - phillip t . robinson 26 . husbandry , health and pathology of pygmy hippos - gabriella l . flacke iv . conservation during wartime 27 . staying alive during the war - phillip t . robinson 28 the disruptions and setbacks of civil war - phillip t . robinson and henk dop 29 . the shortcut from master sergeant to president - phillip t . robinson v . conservation and the future 30 . a very sad story of greed - knut m . hentschel 31 . conservation genetics and fragmented populations - gabriela l . flacke and phillip t . robinson 32 . distribution and population estimates - gabriella l . flacke 33 . conservation planning and priorities - gabriella l . flacke afterword - the authors image credits index\nformerly included in the genus hexaprotodon but a review of the taxonomy and phylogeny of the hippopotamids has restricted the definition of hexaprotodon to extinct indian and southeast asian hippos and revalidated choeropsis for the extant pygmy hippo ( boisserie 2005 ) . two subspecies are recognized . the nominate subspecies c . l . liberiensis occurs in c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire , guinea , liberia and sierra leone . the subspecies c . l . heslopi ( heslop\u2019s pygmy hippopotamus ) is known only from the niger delta , nigeria . it was considered a distinct subspecies by corbet ( 1969 ) and coryndon ( 1977 ) , based on variations in cranial anatomy .\nthat lasts for around eight months , the female hippopotamus gives birth to a single calf generally during the rainy season . although like many other activities ( including mating ) the hippopotamus often gives birth in the water , it is not actually that uncommon for their young to be born on land . the female protects her calf fiercely and it rides on her back to keep it safe . hippopotamus calves are fully weaned by the time they are 18 months old but tend to remain with their mother until they are fully grown , often not leaving her until they are 7 or 8 years old . although young males will become more independent and find their own patch of bank to patrol , females will join a herd of other females and young but despite this seemingly sociable\npygmy hippos ( hexaprotodon liberiensis ) are native to west africa , with the largest population in liberia . they live in dense forests near rivers and streams . they are good swimmers and have muscular valves that close their ears and nostrils when submerged . as the name suggests , the pygmy hippo is far smaller than the common hippopotamus ( hippopotamus amphibiou s ) , and are either solitary or live in small family units . they have large and extremely sharp teeth , which they use for protection . hippopotami have extremely high rates of water loss ( three to five times the rate in man ) which is due to their unique skin structure ; this explains why they must spend the day in water . pygmy hippos are herbivores . they uproot swamp plants which they bite with their lips and crush hard fruit with their teeth and strip leaves from shrubs and trees . they also eat leaves and grasses . after a gestation period of around 6 months , the female hippo will give birth to a single calf . for the first few weeks , the calf is hidden in bushes as it cannot walk very far . pygmy hippo calves do not instinctively know how to swim \u2013 their mother teaches them how to do this . mothers defend their calf aggressively and they stay together for at least two years . pygmy hippos are facing very serious threats in the wild . populations are declining rapidly due to habitat destruction caused by logging , farming and human settlement . pressures from wars in the hippos\u2019 native range are another dire threat . sadly , pygmy hippos are also increasingly being threatened by bushmeat hunters .\nthere is much more to learn about the pygmy hippo ' s herbivorous diet . researchers believe that they most likely feed on leaves , roots , ferns , and fruits near rivers and streams . pygmy hippos search for food on the forest floor or in swamps but can stand on their hind legs to reach food higher up in trees if they need to .\ntthe pygmy hippopotamus ( choeropsis liberiensis ) is a unique and endangered species endemic to the upper guinea forests of west africa . sierra leone , one of four countries home to these animals , recently ended a decade - long war that left the country devastated . the iucn / scc pigs , peccaries , and hippos specialist group has set forth several objectives , including identification of populations at risk , establishment of distributions and abundance estimates , and dissemination of information ( eltringham 1993 ) . the recent pygmy hippo conservation strategy workshop in monrovia , liberia , pulled together stakeholders from across the range states to accumulate current knowledge of the status of pygmy hippos , and identified current threats , mainly habitat degradation and poaching . in sierra leone , the forests are rapidly shrinking and bush meat is a common source of protein .\nlittle is known about the behavior of pygmy hippos in the wild , but they are usually found by themselves or in pairs . with their cavernous mouth and formidable teeth and tusks , the hippos need only \u201cyawn\u201d at potential enemies to send them packing . other ways to stay safe include rearing , lunging , scooping water with the mouth , and head shaking . unlike their larger relative , pygmy hippos are shy and would prefer to flee rather than stay and fight . leopards seem to be the only natural predator able to successfully attack pygmy hippos .\nfollows well - trodden and marked paths between its feeding and resting grounds and can dart through these tunnels at a remarkable pace if it feels in danger . although pygmy hippopotamuses roam individual\nis hunted for both its teeth and its meat , which despite not being closely related , is said to taste like pork . people however , have also had devastating affects on pygmy\nof grasses are the main source of food for the hippopotamus that are found growing on plains relatively close to water . when they come onto land at night , hippo ' s may travel up to 5km during the night to get to their feeding grounds which they do by following paths that are marked with dung . oddly enough , the hippopotamus doesn ' t even use its large canines for eating at all but instead has strong lips that are used to clip the grasses and cheek teeth which then grind them up . despite its large"]}
{"id": 1738, "summary": [{"text": "trimeresurus kanburiensis is a species of pit viper found in only a few areas of thailand .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "highly venomous , it is an arboreal but heavily built species with a brown or tawny coloration .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "no subspecies are currently recognized . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "trimeresurus kanburiensis", "paragraphs": ["trimeresurus kanburiensis smith 1943 : 519 trimeresurus kanburiensis \u2014 welch 1994 : 115 trimeresurus kanburiensis \u2014 cox et al . 1998 : 22 trimeresurus kanburiensis \u2014 mcdiarmid , campbell & tour\u00e9 1999 : 337 trimeresurus kanburiensis \u2014 gumprecht et al . 2004 cryptelytrops kanburiensis \u2014 malhotra & thorpe 2004 trimeresurus ( trimeresurus ) kanburiensis \u2014 david et al . 2011 trimeresurus kanburiensis \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 742 cryptelytrops kanburiensis \u2014 chan - ard et al . 2015 : 286\nvenomous ! trimeresurus venustus has been considered as a synonym of t . kanburiensis and therefore many literature references to t . kanburiensis are likely to refer in fact to t . venustus . t . kanburiensis also has been confused with t . purpureomaculatus .\nthe description of the rare thai species trimeresurus kanburiensis smith , 1943 is expanded on the basis of recently collected specimens . we provide a detailed comparison with trimeresurus venustus , a species described from south thailand and regarded by several authors as a synonym of trimeresurus kanburiensis . the existence of 14 characters differentiating the populations referred to trimeresurus kanburiensis from those regarded as trimeresurus venustus definitely supports the validity of this latter species .\ntrimeresurus venustus vogel 1991 trimeresurus venustus \u2014 welch 1994 : 117 trimeresurus venustus \u2014 manthey & grossmann 1997 : 411 trimeresurus venustus \u2014 gumprecht et al . 2004 trimeresurus venustus \u2014 david et al . 2004 cryptelytrops venustus \u2014 malhotra & thorpe 2004 trimeresurus ( trimeresurus ) venustus \u2014 david et al . 2011 trimeresurus venustus \u2014 livigni 2013 : 396 trimeresurus venustus \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 743 cryptelytrops venustus \u2014 chan - ard et al . 2015 : 287\ngumprecht , a . 2002 . eine ungew\u00f6hnliche zeichnung bei trimeresurus kanburiensis smith 1943 . sauria 24 ( 1 ) : 45 - 46 - get paper here\ngumprecht a . ( 2002a ) , \u00abeine ungew\u00f6hnlich zeichnung bei trimeresurus kanburiensis smith , 1943\u00bb , sauria , 24 ( 1 ) , 45 \u2013 46 .\nvenomous ! synonymy : regarded as a synonym of trimeresurus kanburiensis smith , 1943 by mcdiarmid et al . ( 1999 ) . older literature references to t . kanburiensis are likely to refer in fact to this taxon . similar species : closely related to c . macrops .\nbulian j . ( 2001 ) , \u00abhinweise zur lebensweise und haltung der bambusotter trimeresurus kanburiensis \u00bb , reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) , 31 ( october / november ) , 62 \u2013 66 .\nrediscovery and redefinition of malcolm smith\u2019s trimeresurus kanburiensis in thailand , with a report of envenoming . transactions of the royal society of tropical medicine and hygiene , 86 : 95 - 99 .\ngumprecht a . ( 2002b ) , \u00abbriefe an die redaktion . nochmal : trimeresurus kanburiensis \u00bb , reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) , 7 ( 5 ) ( no . 37 ) , 4 \u2013 5 .\n. it is hence important to note that literature before 1992 may have mentioned c . purpureomaculatus when referring to c . kanburiensis .\ndavid et al . ( 2011 ) considered some of the genera of malhotra & thorpe to be subgenera of the genus trimeresurus , creating new combinations such as\ntrimeresurus ( parias ) flavomaculatus\n,\ntrimeresurus ( popeia ) popeiorum\n,\ntrimeresurus ( viridovipera ) stejnegeri\n, etc . [ 14 ]\ntrimeresurus ( craspedocephalus ) borneensis \u2013 david et al . , 2011 [ 3 ]\ngumprecht a . ( 2001 ) , \u00abdie bambusottern der gattung trimeresurus lac\u00e9p\u00e8de . teil iv : checkliste der trimeresurus - arten thailands\u00bb , sauria , 23 ( 2 ) , 25 \u2013 32 .\ngumprecht a . ( 1998a ) , \u00abdie bambusottern der gattung trimeresurus lac\u00e9p\u00e8de . teil ii . die grossaugenbambusotter trimeresurus macrops kramer , 1977\u00bb , sauria , 20 ( 3 ) , 25 \u2013 36 .\ndavid , p . , g . vogel , m . sumontha , o . s . g . pauwels & l . chanhome 2004 . expanded description of the poorly known pitviper trimeresurus kanburiensis smith , 1943 , with confirmation of the validity of trimeresurus venustus vogel , 1991 . russ . j . herpetol . 11 ( 2 ) : 81 - 9 - get paper here\nwhether this species of trimeresurus lays eggs or bears live young is as yet unknown . [ 6 ]\ndavid , p . , g . vogel , m . sumontha , o . s . g . pauwels & l . chanhome ( 2004 ) expanded description of the poorly known pitviper trimeresurus kanburiensis smith , 1943 , with confirmation of the validity of trimeresurus venustus vogel , 1991 ( reptilia : serpentes : crotalidae ) . russian journal of herpetology , 11 ( 2 ) : 81 - 90 .\nvogel g 1991 . eine neue trimeresurus - art aus thailand , trimeresurus venustus sp . nov . ( reptilia : serpentes : crotalidae ) . sauria 13 ( 1 ) : 23 - 28 - get paper here\nvogel g . ( 1991 ) , \u00abeine neue trimeresurus - art aus thailand , trimeresurus venustus sp . nov . ( reptilia : serpentes : crotalidae ) \u00bb , sauria , 13 ( 1 ) , 23 \u2013 28 .\nwarrell , d . a . , s . looareesuwan , a . f . stimson & r . a . hutton ( 1992 ) rediscovery and redefinition of malcolm smith ' s trimeresurus kanburiensis in thailand , with a report of envenoming . transactions of the royal society of tropical medicine and hygiene 86 : 95 - 99\ngumprecht a . and bulian j . ( 2003 ) , \u00abdie bambusottern der gattung trimeresurus lac\u00e9p\u00e8de . teil viii : nachtr\u00e4ge und anmerkungen zur checkliste der trimeresurus - arten thailands\u00bb , sauria , 25 ( 4 ) , 15 \u2013 17 .\ntrimeresurus venom varies in toxicity between species , but all are primarily hemotoxic and considered to be medically significant to humans .\nwarrell d . a . , looareesuwan s . , stimson a . f . , and hutton r . a . ( 1992 ) , \u00abrediscovery and redefinition of malcolm smith\u2019s trimeresurus kanburiensis in thailand , with a report of envenoming\u00bb , trans . r . soc . trop . med . hyg . , 86 , 95 \u2013 99 .\ngumprecht a . ( 2003 ) , \u00abdie bambusottern der gattung trimeresurus lac\u00e9p\u00e8de . teil vii : anmerkungen zur biologie , haltung und nachzucht von trimeresurus sumatranus ( raffles , 1822 ) \u00bb , sauria , 25 ( 1 ) , 37 \u2013 44 .\n, but some authors ( e . g . , warrell et al . , 1992 ; mcdiarmid et al . , 1999 ) considered it conspecific with t . kanburiensis , a species described from the kanchanaburi area of western\n. the new species resembles trimeresurus kanburiensis and t . venustus ( assigned to cryptelytrops by malhotra & thorpe 2004 - see above ) in pattern , but has a short , spinose hemipenis more reminiscent of species such as t . stejnegeri , assigned to viridovipera by malhotra & thorpe ( 2004 ) . orlov et al . retain the species in the genus trimeresurus due to stated difficulties in assigning the new species to one or other of the genera described or revalidated by malhotra & thorpe ( 2004 ) .\nthe diet of trimeresurus species includes a variety of animals , including lizards , amphibians , birds , rodents , and other small mammals .\nmalhotra a , thorpe rs , 2004 . a phylogeny of four mitochondrial gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for asian pitvipers ( trimeresurus and ovophis ) .\nmost species in the genus trimeresurus are relatively small , primarily arboreal species , with thin bodies and prehensile tails . however , trimeresurus flavoviridis ( the okinawa habu ) can reach a total length ( including tail ) of 242 cm ( 7 ft 9 in ) , and is one of the longest pit vipers in east asia . most trimeresurus species are typically green in color , but some species also have yellow , black , orange , red , or gold markings .\nlike most viper species , many of the species in the genus trimeresurus are ovoviviparous , bearing live young . however , some species such as t . flavoviridis , t . kaulbacki , and t . macrolepis are oviparous , lay eggs . also , the reproductive biology of some trimeresurus species is as yet unknown .\nboulenger ga . 1890 . the fauna of british india , including ceylon and burma . reptilia and batrachia . secretary of state for india in council . ( taylor and francis , printers . ) london . xviii + 541 pp . ( trimeresurus , p . 425 & trimeresurus gramineus , pp . 429 - 430 . )\ntrimeresurus borneensis is a venomous pit viper species endemic to the island of borneo . [ 1 ] no subspecies are currently recognized . [ 3 ] [ 5 ]\nlike most viper species , many of the species in the genus trimeresurus are ovoviviparous , bearing live young . however , some species such as t . flavoviridis , t . gramineus , t . kaulbacki , and t . macrolepis are oviparous , lay eggs . also , the reproductive biology of some trimeresurus species is as yet unknown .\nmalhotra & thorpe ( 2004a ) and david et al . ( 2004 ) analysed the affinities of the pitviper trimeresurus venustus vogel 1991 . the species was described from southern\n) a review of morphological variation in trimeresurus popeiorum ( serpentes : viperidae : crotalinae ) , with the description of two new species . zootaxa 727 : 1 - 63 .\nstejneger , l . 1927 . the green pit viper , trimeresurus gramineus , in china . proceedings of the united states national museum 72 ( 19 ) : 1 - 10 .\nspecies in the genus trimeresurus are found in southeast asia from india including regions of north chotanagpur ofjharkhand to southern china and japan , and the malay archipelago to timor . [ 1 ]\nmalhotra and thorpe . 2004b . a phylogeny of four mitochondrial gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for asian pitvipers ( trimeresurus and ovophis ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 32 ( 2004 ) 83\u2013100\nc . purpureomaculatus venom was found to be relatively highly lethal compared to other asian pit - vipers in the ( historical ) trimeresurus genus ( tan , armugam & tan , 1989 ) .\nmalhotra , a . & r . s . thorpe ( 2004a ) reassessment of the validity and diagnosis of the pitviper trimeresurus venustus vogel , 1991 . herpetological journal 14 : 21 - 33 .\nmalhotra , a . & r . s . thorpe 2004 . reassessment of the validity and diagnosis of the pitviper trimeresurus venustus vogel , 1991 . the herpetological journal 14 ( 1 ) : 21 - 33\ngumprecht a . and ryabov s . ( 2002 ) , \u00abdie gattung trimeresurus lac\u00e9p\u00e8de , 1804 \u2014 zum kenntnisstand der forschung\u00bb , draco , 12 ( 4 ) ( no . 12 ) , 31 \u2013 44 .\nthe genus trimeresurus ( sensu lato ) has been the subject of considerable taxonomic work since 2000 , resulting in the recognition of additional genera within this complex . most authors now recognise the genus protobothrops for the species cornutus , flavoviridis , jerdonii , kaulbacki , mucrosquamatus , tokarensis , xiangchengensis , [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] since these have been shown not to be closely related to other trimeresurus in recent phylogenetic analyses .\nmalhotra , a . & r . s . thorpe ( 2004 ) a phylogeny of four mitochondrial gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for asian pitvipers ( trimeresurus and ovophis ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 32 : 83\u2013100\nregenass u . and kramer e . ( 1981 ) , \u00abzur systematik der gr\u00fcnen grubenottern der gattung trimeresurus ( serpentes , crotalidae ) \u00bb , rev . suisse zool . , 88 ( 1 ) , 163 \u2013 205 .\nmalhotra a , thorpe rs ( 2004 ) .\na phylogeny of four mitochondrial gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for asian pitvipers ( trimeresurus and ovophis )\n. molecular phylogenetics and evolution 32 : 83 - 100 .\npope ch , pope sh . 1933 . a study of the green pit - vipers of southeastern asia and malaysia , commonly identified as trimeresurus gramineus ( shaw ) , with description of a new species from peninsular india .\nmalhotra , a . & r . s . thorpe ( 2004b ) a phylogeny of four mitochondrial gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for asian pitvipers ( trimeresurus and ovophis ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 32 : 83\u2013100 .\nhoge a . r . and de lemos romano s . a . ( 1974 ) , \u00abnotes on trimeresurus brongersmai hoge 1969 ( serpentes , viperidae , crotalinae ) \u00bb , mem . inst . butantan , 38 , 147 \u2013 158 .\nmalhotra , a . , thorpe , r . s . , 2004 . a phylogeny of four mitochondrial gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for asian pitvipers ( trimeresurus and ovophis ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 32 , 83 - 100 .\nin addition , malhotra and thorpe ( 2004 ) [ 10 ] proposed a radical shake up of the entire genus , splitting trimeresurus into seven genera . their proposed arrangement ( including species described since 2004 ) is shown in the table below :\nmalhotra a . and thorpe r . s . ( 2000 ) , \u00aba phylogeny of the trimeresurus group of pit vipers : new evidence from a mitochondrial gene tree\u00bb , mol . phylogen . evol . , 16 ( 2 ) , 199 \u2013 211 .\ndas , indraneil . 2002 . a photographic guide to snakes and other reptiles of india . ralph curtis books . sanibel island , florida . 144 pp . isbn 0 - 88359 - 056 - 5 . ( trimeresurus gramineus , p . 65 . )\ndas , indraneil . 2006 . a photographic guide to snakes and other reptiles of borneo . ralph curtis books . sanibel island , florida . 144 pp . isbn 0 - 88359 - 061 - 1 . ( trimeresurus borneensis , p . 57 . )\nin recent years , research on the genus trimeresurus has revealed a number of instances of paraphyly and cryptic species . as of 2007 , the species included in trimeresurus sensu lato ( brattstrom 1964 ) had been separated into 11 different genera , although fewer genera are now generally recognized as a result of new phylogenetic data ( e . g . , malhotra and thorpe 2004 a , b , 2005 , guo et al . 2007 and references therein ; guo et al . 2009 ; hoser 2012 and references therein ) .\nmalhotra , a . and r . s . thorpe . 2004a . maximizing information in systematic revisions : a combined molecular and morphological analysis of a cryptic green pitviper complex ( trimeresurus stejnegeri ) . biological journal of the linnean society 82 : 219 - 235 .\nmalhotra , anita & thorpe , roger s . 2004 . a phylogeny of four mitochondrial gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for asian pitvipers ( trimeresurus and ovophis ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 32 : 83 \u2013100 [ erratum p . 680 ] - get paper here\nlac\u00e9p\u00e8de , b . g . 1804 . m\u00e9moire sur plusieurs animaux de la nouvelle - hollande dont la description n ' a pas encore \u00e9t\u00e9 publi\u00e9e . annales du mus\u00e9um d ' histoire naturelle , paris 4 : 184 - 211 . ( trimeresurus , p . 209 . )\nreviews of the following genera or of parts of these genera are currently made : amphiesma , dendrelaphis , tropidolaemus , ahaetulla , lycodon , trimeresurus , pareas , pseudorabdion , xenochrophis and oligodon investigations on the philippines , china , sumatra and india brought interesting new regional results , too .\nsumontha m , kunya k , pauwels osg , nitikul a , punnadee s ( 2011 ) .\ntrimeresurus ( popeia ) phuketensis , a new pitviper ( squamata : viperidae ) from phuket island , southwestern thailand\n. russian journal of herpetology 18 ( 3 ) : 11 - 17 .\nmalhotra , a . and r . s . thorpe . 2005 . erratum to \u201ca phylogeny of four mitochondrial gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for asian pitvipers ( trimeresurus and ovophis ) \u201d [ mol . phylogenet . evol . 32 ( 2004 ) 83\u2013100 ] . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 34 : 680\u2013681 .\nherrmann , h . - w . , t . ziegler , a . malhotra , r . s . thorpe & c . l . parkinson ( 2004 ) redescription and systematics of trimeresurus cornutus ( serpentes : viperidae ) based on morphology and molecular data . herpetologica 60 ( 2 ) : 211 - 221\ntrimeresurus is a genus of venomous pit vipers found in asia from the indian subcontinent throughout southeast asia , china and the pacific islands . currently at least 35 species are recognized . [ 2 ] common names include asian palm pit vipers , [ 3 ] asian lanceheads and asian lance - headed vipers . [ 4 ]\nlac\u00e9p\u00e8de bg ( 1804 ) .\nm\u00e9moire sur plusieurs animaux de la nouvelle - hollande dont la description n ' a pas encore \u00e9t\u00e9 publi\u00e9e\n. annales du mus\u00e9um d ' histoire naturelle , paris 4 : 184 - 211 . ( trimeresurus , new genus , p . 209 ) . ( in french ) .\ndavid p , vogel g , dubois a , 2011 . on the need to follow rigorously the rules of the code for the subsequent designation of a nucleospecies ( type species ) for a nominal genus which lacked one : the case of the nominal genus trimeresurus lace\u0301pe\u0300de , 1804 ( reptilia : squamata : viperidae ) .\nevolution of south - east asian pitvipers , genus trimeresurus from molecular studies . in : thorpe , r . s . , w\u20acuster , w . , malhotra , a . ( eds . ) , v enomous snakes , ecology , evolution and snakebite . symposium of the zoological society of london , 70 : 115\u2013118 .\npope c . h . and pope s . h . ( 1933 ) , \u00aba study of the green pit - vipers of southeastern asia and malaysia , commonly identified as trimeresurus gramineus ( shaw ) , with description of a new species from peninsular india\u00bb , am . mus . novitates , 620 , 1 \u2013 12 .\norlov , n . l . , s . a . ryabov , b . n . thanh & h cuc , t . 2004 . a new species of trimeresurus ( ophidia : viperidae : crotalinae ) from karst region in central vietnam . russ . j . herpetol . 11 ( 2 ) : 139 - 149 - get paper here\ndavid , patrick ; gernot vogel & alain dubois 2011 . on the need to follow rigorously the rules of the code for the subsequent designation of a nucleospecies ( type species ) for a nominal genus which lacked one : the case of the nominal genus trimeresurus lace\u0301pe\u0300de , 1804 ( reptilia : squamata : viperidae ) . zootaxa 2992 : 1\u201351 - get paper here\nsumontha , m . , kunya , k . , s . g . pauwels , o . , nitikul , a . , and punnadee , s . ( 2011 ) .\ntrimeresurus ( popeia ) phuketensis , a new pitviper ( squamata : viperidae ) from phuket island , southwestern thailand\n. russian journal of herpetology . 18 ; 3 : 11 - 17 .\ndavid , patrick ; vogel , gernot ; dubois , alain . 2011 . on the need to follow rigorously the rules of the code for the subsequent designation of a nucleospecies ( type species ) for a nominal genus which lacked one : the case of the nominal genus trimeresurus lac\u00e9p\u00e8de , 1804 ( reptilia : squamata : viperidae ) . zootaxa 2992 : 1 - 51 .\ndavid , patrick ; vogel , gernot ; dubois , alain ( 2011 ) .\non the need to follow rigorously the rules of the code for the subsequent designation of a nucleospecies ( type species ) for a nominal genus which lacked one : the case of the nominal genus trimeresurus lac\u00e9p\u00e8de , 1804 ( reptilia : squamata : viperidae )\n. zootaxa 2992 : 1 - 51 .\nmalhotra a . and thorpe r . s . ( 1996 ) , \u00abnew perspectives on the evolution of south - east asian pit vipers ( genus trimeresurus ) from molecular studies\u00bb , in : venomous snakes . ecology , evolution and snakebite , r . s . thorpe , w . w\u00fcster , and a . malhotra ( eds . ) , symp . zool . soc . london , 70 [ \u00ab1997\u00bb ] , 115 \u2013 128 .\nthe thrombin - like enzyme in the venom was isolated and characterized , and termed purpurase . anti - purpurase raised from the venom was found to cross - react with venoms of other pit - vipers in the former trimeresurus genus ( now seven genera ) , but not with that of other crotalids . hence , this lends support to the notion that the seven genera are more closely related to each other than to other genera of pit - vipers ( tan , 2010 ) .\ntype locality : limestone hills near kanburi , south - western siam [ = kanchanaburi , thailand ] .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nchan - ard , t . , parr , j . w . k . & nabhitabhata , j . 2015 . a field guide to the reptiles of thailand . oxford university press , ny , 352 pp . [ see book reviews by pauwels & grismer 2015 and hikida 2015 for corrections ] - get paper here\ncox , merel j . ; van dijk , peter paul ; jarujin nabhitabhata & thirakhupt , kumthorn 1998 . a photographic guide to snakes and other reptiles of peninsular malaysia , singapore and thailand . ralph curtis publishing , 144 pp .\ndas , i . 2012 . a naturalist ' s guide to the snakes of south - east asia : malaysia , singapore , thailand , myanmar , borneo , sumatra , java and bali . oxford j , ohn beaufoy publishing - get paper here\ngrismer , l . lee ; tri , ngo van ; grismer , jesse l . 2008 . a new species of insular pitviper of the genus cryptelytrops ( squamata : viperidae ) from southern vietnam . zootaxa 1715 : 57 - 68 - get paper here\ngumprecht , a . ; tillack , f . ; orlov , n . l . ; captain , a . & ryabow , s . 2004 . asian pitvipers . geitje books , berlin , 368 pp .\nmcdiarmid , r . w . ; campbell , j . a . & tour\u00e9 , t . a . 1999 . snake species of the world . vol . 1 . herpetologists\u2019 league , 511 pp .\nsmith , m . a . 1943 . the fauna of british india , ceylon and burma , including the whole of the indo - chinese sub - region . reptilia and amphibia . 3 ( serpentes ) . taylor and francis , london . 583 pp .\ntaylor , e . h . 1965 . the serpents of thailand and adjacent waters . univ . kansas sci . bull . 45 ( 9 ) : 609 - 1096 - get paper here\nwallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .\nwelch , k . r . g . 1994 . snakes of the world . a checklist . i . venomous snakes . kcm books , somerset , england .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nchan - ard , t . , grismer , l . & stuart , b .\njustification : this species is listed as endangered because it has a restricted distribution of little more than 3 , 000 km\u00b2 , it is present in fewer than five locations , and there is a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals due to illegal harvest for pet trade . although the species is present in a protected area and is legally protected , better enforcement of the law is needed to avoid or limit population declines .\nthis species is known with certainty only from kanchanaburi ( = kanburi ) province in western thailand , on the border with myanmar , where it is known only from sai yak and thong pha phum districts ( t . chan - ard pers . comm . september 2011 ) . it also likely occurs in adjacent kayin state , myanmar , but it has not yet been documented there ( leviton\n. 2008 ) . it occurs at elevations of up to 600 m . its known extent of occurrence is around 3 , 000 km\u00b2\nthere is no information on its population size . the species is known only from a few specimens ( smith 1943 , taylor 1965 , david\nsmith ( 1943 ) obtained the holotype in limestone hills ( = limestone karst ) . this species occurs in bamboo forests up to 600 m of elevation .\nthis species occurs in a protected area . field surveys are needed to determine its natural history and extent of its geographic range ( including its presence in adjacent myanmar ) . the species is legally protected from export from thailand for the pet trade . all international trade is illegal , therefore compliance of the law should be enforced .\nchan - ard , t . , grismer , l . & stuart , b . 2012 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthe number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .\nover the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .\nthe number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .\noverall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .\nthe reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .\ncurrently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .\nthe reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .\nthe reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\ngeneral shape small in length , slender , cylindrical bodied snake with a prehensile tail . can grow to a maximum of at least 0 . 69 metres ( few recorded specimens ) . head is large , triangular shaped and distinct from narrow neck . snout is relatively short when compared with other species of this genus . eyes are medium in size with vertically elliptical pupils . dorsal scales are strongly keeled . dorsal scale count 19 - 19 - 15 .\nhabitat elevations up to about 1000 metres in hilly ( limestone ) terrain in primary forest , particularly in the bamboo vegetation around kanburi , sw thailand .\ndescription : first aid for bites by viperid snakes likely to cause significant local injury at the bite site ( see listing in comments section ) .\ntreatment summary bites by this species cause moderate , possibly major local & systemic effects , including coagulopathy / bleeding & shock . urgently assess & admit all cases . antivenom therapy is probably the key treatment , especially for coagulopathy .\ngeneral approach to management all cases should be treated as urgent & potentially lethal . rapid assessment & commencement of treatment including appropriate antivenom ( if indicated & available ) is mandatory . admit all cases .\nantivenom therapy antivenom is the key treatment for systemic envenoming . multiple doses may be required .\n( cc by - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - noncommerical - sharealike\n( cc by - nc - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - share alike\n( gpl3 . 0 ) , or in the public domain ( pd ) , as shown in the caption to the image displayed on www . toxinology . com .\ncopyright 2001 - 2018 toxinology , wch . all rights reserved . best viewed in 800x600 resolution or higher .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\npatrick david , gernot vogel , montri sumontha , olivier s . g . pauwels , lawan chanhome\nanonymous ( 1986 ) , snakes \u2014 the serpents fauna of thailand , thai red cross society , bangkok .\nbulian j . ( 1999 ) , \u00ab\u00fcber die schlangenfauna eines gartens in s\u00fcdthailand\u00bb , elaphe , 7 ( 4 ) , 61 \u2013 67 .\nbulian j . ( 2003 ) , \u00ab . . . und action ! auf der suche nach reptilien in s\u00fcdthailand\u00bb , draco , 4 ( 15 ) , 39 \u2013 43 .\nburger w . l . ( 1971 ) , genera of pitvipers ( serpentes : crotalidae ) . ph . d . dissertation , univ . of kansas , lawrence ( ks , usa ) .\nchan - ard t . ( 2002 ) , \u00abkheo phetchakhat [ green killers ] \u00bb , adv . thailand geogr . ( bangkok ) , 7 ( 51 ) , 114 \u2013 132 .\nchan - ard t . , grossmann w . , gumprecht a . , and schulz k . - d . ( 1999 ) , amphibians and reptiles of peninsular malaysia and thailand . an illustrated checklist [ amphibien und reptilien der halbinsel malaysia und thailands . eine illustrierte checkliste ] , bushmaster publ . , w\u00fcrselen ( germany ) .\nchanhome l . , cox m . j . , wilde h . , jintakoon p . , chaiyabutr n . , and sitprija v . ( 1998 ) , \u00abvenomous snakebite in thailand . i . medically important snakes\u00bb , military med . , 163 ( 5 ) , 310 \u2013 317 .\ncoborn j . ( 1991 ) , the atlas of snakes of the world , t . f . h . publ . co . , neptune ( nj , usa ) .\ncox m . j . ( 1991 ) , the snakes of thailand and their husbandry , krieger publishing co . , malabar ( fl , usa ) .\ncox m . j . , van dijk p . p . , nabhitabhata j . , and thirakhupt k . ( 1998 ) , a photographic guide to snakes and other reptiles of peninsular malaysia , singapore and thailand , new holland publishers , london \u2013 cape town \u2013 sydney \u2013 singapore .\ndavid p . and ineich i . ( 1999 ) , \u00ables serpents venimeux du monde : syst\u00e9matique et r\u00e9partition\u00bb , dumerilia , 3 , 3 \u2013 499 .\ndavid p . and pauwels o . s . g . ( 2000 ) , \u00abbook review . chan - ard t . , grossmann w . , gumprecht a . , and schulz k . - d . ( 1999 ) , amphibians and reptiles of peninsular malaysia and thailand . an illustrated checklist [ amphibien und reptilien der halbinsel malaysia und thailands . eine illustrierte checkliste ] . bushmaster publications , w\u00fcrselen , germany\u00bb , russ . j . herpetol . , 7 ( 1 ) , 87 \u2013 90 .\ndowling h . g . ( 1951 ) , \u00aba proposed standard system of counting ventrals in snakes\u00bb , br . j . herpetol . , 1 ( 5 ) , 97 \u2013 99 .\ndowling h . g . , minton s . a . , jr . , and russell f . e . ( 1966 ) , poisonous snakes of the world . a manual for use by u . s . amphibious forces , government printing office , washington ( dc , usa ) .\nfrank n . and ramus e . ( 1995 ) , a complete guide to scientific and common names of reptiles and amphibians of the world , n . g . publishing inc . , potsville ( pa , usa ) .\ngolay p . , smith h . m . , broadley d . g . , dixon j . r . , mccarthy c . j . , rage j . - c . , sch\u00e4tti b . , and toriba m . ( 1993 ) , endoglyphs and other major venomous snakes of the world . a checklist , azemiops s . a . herpetol . data center , a\u00efre \u2013 gen\u00e8ve .\ngreen h . w . and campbell j . a . ( 1992 ) , \u00abthe future of pitvipers\u00bb , in : biology of the pitvipers , j . a . campbell and e . d . brodie , jr . ( eds . ) , selva , tyler ( tx , usa ) , pp . 421 \u2013 427 .\ngumprecht a . ( 1998b ) , \u00abtrutnau , ludwig : schlangen im terrarium / ludwig trutnau ; stuttgart : ulmer ( datz - terrarienb\u00fccher ) , bd . 2 giftschlangen ; 4 . , neu bearb . und erw . aufl ; 1998\u00bb , sauria , 20 ( 4 ) , 46 .\nharding k . a . and welch k . r . g . ( 1980 ) , venomous snakes of the world . a checklist , pergamon press , oxford .\nhoge a . r . and romano hoge s . a . r . w . l . ( 1981 ) , \u00abpoisonous snakes of the world . part i . check - list of the pit vipers viperoidea , crotalinae\u00bb , mem . inst . butantan , 42 / 43 [ 1978 / 1979 ] , 179 \u2013 310 .\nhow r . a . , schmitt l . h . , and suyanto a . ( 1996 ) , \u00abgeographical variation in the morphology of four snake species from the lesser sunda islands , eastern indonesia\u00bb , biol . j . linn . soc . , 59 , 439 \u2013 456 .\ninger r . f . and marx m . ( 1965 ) , \u00abthe systematics and evolution of the oriental colubrid snakes of the genus calamaria \u00bb , fieldiana zool . , 49 , 1 \u2013 304 .\niskandar d . t . and colijn e . ( 2001 ) , a checklist of southeast asian and new guinean reptiles . part i . serpentes , biodiversity conservation project ( indonesian institute of sciences \u2013 japan international cooperation agency \u2013 the ministry of forestry ) , the gibbon foundation and institut of technology , bandung .\njintakune p . and chanhome l . ( 1995 ) , ngoo phit nai prathet thai [ the venomous snakes of thailand ] , queen saovabha memorial institute , thai red cross society , bangkok [ in thai ] .\nklemmer k . ( 1963 ) , \u00abliste der rezenten giftschlangen . elapidae , hydrophiidae , viperidae und crotalidae\u00bb , in : die giftschlangen der erde , behringwerk - mitteilungen , sonderband , marburg \u2013 lahn , pp . 253 \u2013 464 .\nkundert f . ( 1974 ) , fascination , verlag f . kundert , spreitenbach .\nkundert f . ( 1984 ) , das neue schlangenbuch in farbe , albert m\u00fcller verlag , z\u00fcrich .\nleviton a . e . ( 1968 ) , \u00abthe venomous terrestrial snakes of east asia , india , malaya , and indonesia\u00bb , in : venomous animals and their venoms , w . b\u00fccherl , e . e . buckley , and v . deulofeu ( eds . ) , acad . press , new york \u2013 london , pp . 529 \u2013 576 .\nlim f . l . k . and lee m . t . - m . ( 1989 ) , fascinating snakes of southeast asia . an introduction , tropical press sdn . bhd . , kuala lumpur .\nmanthey u . and grossmann w . ( 1997 ) , amphibien and reptilien s\u00fcdostasiens , natur und tier - verlag , m\u00fcnster .\nmcdiarmid r . w . , campbell j . a . , and tour\u00e9 t\u2019s . a . ( 1999 ) , snake species of the world . a taxonomic and geographical reference . vol . 1 , the herpetologists\u2019 league , washington ( dc , usa ) .\nmehrtens j . m . ( 1987 ) , living snakes of the world in color , sterling publ . co . , new york .\nnootpand w . ( 1971 ) , poisonous snakes of thailand , thai zoological center , bangkok .\nnutphand w . ( 2001 ) , patterns of the snakes in thailand , amarin printing and publishing public co . , ltd . , bangkok [ in thai ] .\norlov n . , ananjeva n . , barabanov a . , ryabov s . , and khalikov r . ( 2002 ) , \u00abdiversity of vipers ( azemiopinae , crotalinae ) in east , southeast , and south asia : annotated checklist and natural history data ( reptilia : squamata : serpentes : viperidae\u00bb , in : collectanea herpetologica . essays in honour of fritz j\u00fcrgen obst , u . fritz ( ed . ) , faun . abh . mus . tierkd . dresden , 23 , 177 \u2013 218 .\nreitinger f . f . and lee j . k . s . ( 1978 ) , common snakes of south east asia and hong kong , heinemann , hong kong \u2013 singapore \u2013 kuala lumpur .\nsiegel s . ( 1956 ) , nonparametric statistics for the behavioral sciences , mcgraw - hill kogakusha , new york \u2013 toronto \u2013 london \u2013 tokyo .\nsmith m . a . ( 1928 ) , \u00abtwo vipers new to siam\u00bb , j . nat . hist . soc . siam , 7 ( 3 ) , 194 .\nsmith m . a . ( 1930 ) , \u00abthe reptilia and amphibia of the malay peninsula from the isthmus of kra to singapore , including the adjacent islands ( a supplement to dr . g . a . boulenger\u2019s reptilia and batrachia , 1912 ) \u00bb , bull raffles mus . , 3 , i \u2013 xv , 1 \u2013 149 .\nsmith m . a . ( 1943 ) , the fauna of british india , ceylon and burma , including the whole of the indo - chinese subregion . reptilia and amphibia . vol . iii . serpentes , taylor and francis , london .\nsokolov v . e . ( ed . ) ( 1988 ) , dictionary of animal names in five languages . amphibians and reptiles , russkii yazyk , moscow .\nsuvatti c . ( 1950 ) , fauna of thailand , dept . of fisheries , bangkok .\ntaylor e . h . ( 1965 ) , \u00abthe serpents of thailand and adjacent waters\u00bb , univ . kansas sci . bull . , 45 ( 9 ) , 609 \u2013 1096 .\nthirakhupt k . ( 2000 ) , \u00abamphibians and reptiles\u00bb , in : review of biodiversity research in thailand , biodiversity research and training program , bangkok , pp . 149 \u2013 171 .\nthumwipat b . and nutphand w . ( 1982 ) , treatment of patients bitten by venomous snakes and venomous snakes of thailand , thai zoological center , bangkok [ in thai ] .\ntrutnau l . ( 1981 ) , schlangen im terrarium . band 2 . giftschlangen , eugen ulmer , stuttgart .\ntrutnau l . ( 1998 ) , schlangen im terrarium . band 2 . giftschlangen . 4 . neu bearb . und erw . aufl . , eugen ulmer ( datz - terrarienb\u00fccher ) , stuttgart .\nviravan c . , looareesuwan s . , kosakarn w . , wuthiekanun v . , mccarthy c . j . , stimson a . f . , bunnag d . , harinasuta t . , and warrell d . a . ( 1992 ) , \u00aba national hospital - based survey of snakes responsible for bites in thailand\u00bb , trans . r . soc . trop . med . hyg . , 86 , 100 \u2013 106 .\nwarrell d . a . ( 1995 ) , \u00abclinical toxicology of snakebite in asia\u00bb , in : handbook of clinical toxicology of animal venoms and poisons , j . meier and j . white ( eds . ) , crc press , boca raton \u2013 new york \u2013 london \u2013 tokyo , pp . 493 \u2013 594 .\nwelch k . r . g . ( 1988 ) , snakes of the orient . a checklist , robert f . krieger publ . co . , malabar ( fl , usa ) .\nwelch k . r . g . ( 1994 ) , snakes of the world . a checklist . 1 . venomous snakes , r and a research and infomation ltd . and kcm books , taunton ( sommerset , uk ) .\nw\u00fcster w . , golay p . , and warrell d . a . ( 1997 ) , \u00absynopsis of recent developments in venomous snake systematics\u00bb , toxicon , 35 ( 3 ) , 319 \u2013 340 .\nholotype : zmb 48045 ; paratypes : zmb , bmnh ; zsm 127 / 1990 ( given as zsm 127 . 1990 in the original description ) , male , \u201cthung song , provinz nakhon si thammarat , s\u00fcd - thailand\u201d , collected by j . krimmer , no date ; zsm 128 / 1990 ( given as zsm 128 . 1990 in the original description ) , adult , same locality , collected by g . vogel , 09 . 1989 .\nlivigni , f . ( ed . ) 2013 . a life for reptiles and amphibians , volume 1 . chimaira , frankfurt , 495 pp . - get paper here\nmanthey , u . & grossmann , w . 1997 . amphibien & reptilien s\u00fcdostasiens . natur und tier verlag ( m\u00fcnster ) , 512 pp . - get paper here\nrostral scale as deep as broad or broader than deep ; upper head - scales small , smooth , imbricate ; supraocular scale narrow , rarely broken up ; internasals in contact or separated by one or two scales ; 8 to 13 scales on a line between the supraoculars ; usually one or two , rarely three , series of scales between the suboculars and the labials ; 9 to 12 upper labials , second usually forming the anterior border of the loreal pit , third largest ; temporal scales smooth .\ndorsal scales more or less distinctly keeled , in 21 ( rarely 19 or 23 ) rows . ventrals 145 - 175 ; anal scale entire ; subcaudals in two rows 53 - 76 .\nupper parts usually bright green , rarely yellowish , greyish , or purplish brown , with or without black , brown , or reddish spots ; usually a light , white , yellow , or red streak along the outer row of scales ; end of tail frequently yellow or red ; lower parts green , yellow , or whitish .\nthe range of this species has been restricted to southern india . it is also rarely seen near harishchandragad and some other mountain ranges of western ghats aka sahyadris in maharashtra .\nt . gramineus is ovoviviparous . adult females gives birth to 6 to 11 young ones , which measure up to 4 . 5inches in length .\nmcdiarmid rw , campbell ja , tour\u00e9 t . 1999 . snake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , volume 1 . herpetologists ' league . 511 pp . isbn 1 - 893777 - 00 - 6 ( series ) . isbn 1 - 893777 - 01 - 4 ( volume ) .\nkhaire , n . 2006 . a guide to the snakes of maharashtra , goa and karnataka . indian herpetological society . pune , india . ( photographic guide with 61 species . )\nthe fauna of british india , ceylon and burma , including the whole of the indo - chinese sub - region . reptilia and amphibia , vol . iii .\n. secretary of state for india . ( taylor & francis , printers ) . london . xii + 583 pp . , 166 figures . (\nmehrtens jm . 1987 . living snakes of the world in color . new york : sterling publishers . 480 pp . isbn 0 - 8069 - 6460 - x .\nu . s . navy . 1991 . poisonous snakes of the world . us govt . new york : dover publications inc . 203 pp . isbn 0 - 486 - 26629 - x .\nparker hw , grandison agc . 1977 . snakes - - a natural history . second edition . british museum ( natural history ) and cornell university press . 108 pp . 16 plates . lcccn 76 - 54625 . isbn 0 - 8014 - 1095 - 9 ( cloth ) , isbn 0 - 8014 - 9164 - 9 ( paper ) .\ngumprecht a , tillack f , orlov nl , captain a , ryabov s . 2004 . asian pitvipers . geitjebooks berlin . 1st edition . 368 pp . isbn 3 - 937975 - 00 - 4 .\ncantor , t . e . 1839 . spicilegium serpentium indicorum [ parts 1 and 2 ] . proc . zool . soc . london 7 : 31 - 34 , 49 - 55 .\ngumprecht , a . ; tillack , f . ; orlov , n . l . ; captain , a . & ryabow , s . 2004 . asian pit vipers . geitje books . berlin . 368 pp .\nrussell , p . 1796 . an account of indian serpents , collected on the coast of coromandel ; containing descriptions and drawings of each species , together with experiments and remarks on their several poisons . george nicol . london . viii + 91 pp . + plates i . - xlvi .\ngeneral zoology , or systematic natural history : vol . iii . , part ii\n. g . kearsley . ( thomas davison , printer ) . london . iv + pp .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 8 / 29 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nindia ( assam ) , nicobar islands , myanmar , thailand , cambodia , laos , vietnam , southern china ( fukien , hainan , kwangsi , kwangtung ) , hong kong , west malaysia , indonesia ( sumatra , borneo , sulawesi , java , madoera , lombok , sumbawa , komodo , flores , sumba , roti , timor , kisar , wetar ) .\nvietnam : bach ma and tonkin . occurs in rainforests at low elevations . also in central vietnam . [ 5 ]\nphilippine islands : agutayan , batan , camiguin , catanduanes , dinagat , jolo , leyte , luzon , mindanao , mindoro , negros and polillo .\npeninsular thailand , west malaysia , singapore and indonesia ( sumatra and the nearby islands of bangka , simalur , nias , batu and the mentawai islands .\nindia ( assam ) through northern myanmar to tibet , china ( hupeh , szechwan and yunnan ) and vietnam .\nindia ( assam ) and bangladesh to myanmar , china ( fukien , kwangshi , kwantung and szechwan ) and taiwan .\nsumontha , kunya , s . g . pauwels , nitikul & punnadee , 2011 [ 7 ]\nnorthern india , myanmar , thailand , west malaysia , vietnam and indonesia ( sumatra , the mentawai islands of siberut , sipora and north pagai , and on the island of borneo ) .\nsouthern thailand , west and east malaysia ( sabah and sarawak ) and indonesia ( borneo , sumatra , the mentawai islands of siberut and north pagai , simalur and java .\nindia ( assam and the andaman islands ) , bangladesh , myanmar , thailand , west malaysia , singapore and indonesia ( sumatra ) .\nindia ( assam ) , and nepal through myanmar and thailand to china ( kwangsi , kwangtung , hainan , fukien , chekiang , yunnan ) and taiwan .\nsouthern thailand , west and east malaysia ( sabah and sarawak on borneo ) and indonesia ( bangka , billiton , borneo , sumatra and the nearby islands of simalur , nias , and possibly the mentawai islands [ sipora ] ) .\nt . andersonii theobald , 1868 . commonly called anderson ' s pit viper , found in the andaman islands of india .\nt . barati regenass & kramer , 1981 . commonly called barat ' s bamboo viper , found in indonesia .\nt . fucatus vogel , david & pauwels , 2004 . commonly called the siamese peninsula pit viper and found in southern thailand , myanmar , malaysia .\nt . insularis kramer , 1977 . commonly called the white - lipped island pit viper and found in indonesia .\nt . malcolmi loveridge , 1938 . commonly called malcolm ' s pit viper and found on borneo ( indonesia ) .\nt . nebularis vogel , david & pauwels , 2004 . commonly called the cameron highlands pit viper and found in west malaysia ( cameron highlands ) .\nt . sabahi regenass & kramer , 1981 . commonly called sabah ' s bamboo viper and found on borneo , indonesia .\nt . truongsonensis , ryabov , thanh & cuc , 2004 . found in central vietnam .\nt . venustus vogel , 1991 . commonly called the beautiful pit viper and found in southern thailand .\n. commonly called wirot ' s pit viper and found in thailand and west malaysia .\nthis new arrangement has been followed by many , [ 11 ] [ 12 ] but not all [ 8 ] [ 13 ] subsequent authors .\nmcdiarmid rw , campbell ja , tour\u00e9 t ( 1999 ) . snake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , volume 1 . washington , district of columbia : herpetologists ' league . 511 pp . isbn 1 - 893777 - 00 - 6 ( series ) . isbn 1 - 893777 - 01 - 4 ( volume ) .\nmehrtens jm ( 1987 ) . living snakes of the world in color . new york : sterling publishers . 480 pp . isbn 0 - 8069 - 6460 - x .\nunited states navy ( 1991 ) . poisonous snakes of the world . new york : u . s . government / dover publications inc . 203 pp . isbn 0 - 486 - 26629 - x .\ngumprecht a , tillack f , orlov nl , captain a , ryabov s ( 2004 ) . asian pitvipers . first edition . berlin : geitjebooks . 368 pp . isbn 3 - 937975 - 00 - 4 .\nyang , j . - h . ; orlov , n . i . ; wang , y . - y . ( 2011 ) .\na new species of pitviper of the genus protobothrops from china ( squamata : viperidae ) .\nzootaxa 2936 : 59 - 68 .\nkraus f , mink dg , brown wm ( 1996 ) .\ncrotaline intergeneric relationships based on mitochondrial dna sequence data\n. copeia 1996 : 763 - 773 .\ncastoe ta , parkinson cl ( 2006 ) .\nbayesian mixed models and the phylogeny of pitvipers ( viperidae : serpentes )\n. mol . phylogenet . evol . 39 : 91 - 110 .\ngrismer ll , grismer jl , mcguire ja ( 2006 ) .\na new species of pitviper of the genus popeia ( squamata : viperidae ) from pulau tioman , pahang , west malaysia\n. zootaxa 1305 : 1 - 19 .\nvogel g ( 2006 ) . venomous snakes of asia / giftschlangen asiens . frankfurt am main : terralog , edition chimaira .\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses .\nthailand is home to a large variety of vipers . the majority are pit vipers that are easily recognized by the presence of a heat - sensing pit on each cheek . at this point , the siamese russell\u2019s viper , daboia siamensis , is the only viper in thailand that lacks the heat - sensing pits . at the same time it is also arguably the most dangerous of all the vipers . being terrestial , very well camouflaged , equiped with a highly potent , nasty venom , and living mostly in farm lands , it is like a living landmine .\nthe vipers are one of our favorite groups of snakes . there is just something about their usualy stout bodies , triangular heads and most of all the look in their eyes .\nin the coming years the viper species list will likely increase quite a bit . we have seen various vipers that will likely be described as new species in the near future .\ncm ) , with a maximum total length of 7 . 9 feet / 242\n. it is slenderly built and gracefully proportioned with a large head . the tail , however , is not\nthe color pattern consists of a light olive of brown ground color , overlaid with elongated dark green or brownish blotches . the blotches have yellow edges , sometimes contain yellow spots , and frequently fuse to produce wavy stripes . the belly is whitish with dark coloring along the edges .\ngiven is\namakarima island ( one of the loo - choo group )\n( = keramashima , ryukyu islands ) .\nand cultivated fields . found on rock walls and in old tombs and caves .\n. bold and irritable , it can strike quickly and has a long reach .\nmating takes place in early spring and up to 18 eggs are laid in mid - summer . the hatchlings , which emerge after an incubation period of 5\u20136 weeks , are 10 inches ( 25\n, was introduced in 1910 . although the effects of this introduction have not been studied , in other such cases the negative effects on species of native\nis 2 per 1 , 000 people , which is very high . the venom of this species is of high toxicity containing cytotoxin and haemorrhagin components ,\nif a bite victim receives medical care promptly , bites are not life - threatening . however , 6 - 8 % do suffer permanent disability .\n( \u30cf\u30d6\u9152 ) . ( sake in japanese can refer to any alcoholic beverage . ) in this case , the sake is a\n( \u6ce1\u76db ) , alleged to have medicinal properties . the production includes the snakes in the fermentation process and it is sold in bottles that may or may not contain the body of a snake .\ngumprecht a , tillack f , orlov nl , captain a , ryabov s . 2004 . asian pitvipers . geitjebooks . berlin . 1st edition . 368 pp . isbn 3 - 937975 - 00 - 4 .\nbrown jh . 1973 . toxicology and pharmacology of venoms from poisonous snakes . springfield , illinois : charles c . thomas . 184 pp . lcccn 73 - 229 . isbn 0 - 398 - 02808 - 7 .\nhays wst , conant s . 2007 . biology and impacts of pacific island invasive species . 1 . a worldwide review of effects of the small indian mongoose , herpestes javanicus ( carnivora : herpestidae ) . pacific science 61 ( 1 ) : 3 - 16 .\nurltoken \u6c96\u7e04\u770c\u306b\u304a\u3051\u308b\u5e73\u621023 \u5e74\u306e\u6bd2\u86c7\u54ac\u75c7 \u6c96\u7e04\u770c\u885b\u751f\u74b0\u5883\u7814\u7a76\u6240 . according to this report , 8901 snakebites from this snake are reported during 1964 - 2011 in okinawa prefecture ( amami excluded ) . among those , fatalities are 53 . so , fatality rate is around 0 . 6 % ."]}
{"id": 1742, "summary": [{"text": "amolops gerbillus is a species of frog found in asia .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is native to northern and northeastern india , tibet ( china ) , and myanmar , and possibly to bhutan and nepal .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its common names include yembung sucker frog and gerbil stream frog .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is a semi-aquatic frog occurring in hill streams . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "amolops gerbillus", "paragraphs": ["amolops ( amolops ) gerbillus \u2014 dubois , 1992 , bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon , 61 : 321 .\namolops gerbillus \u2014 fei , ye , and huang , 1990 , key to chinese amph . : 165 .\ndana campbell added the english common name\ngerbil frog\nto\namolops gerbillus ( annandale , 1912 )\n.\ndana campbell added the english common name\nyembung sucker frog\nto\namolops gerbillus ( annandale , 1912 )\n.\ndana campbell added the english common name\ngerbil stream frog\nto\namolops gerbillus ( annandale , 1912 )\n.\ndana campbell added the english common name\nsmall - eared torrent frog\nto\namolops gerbillus ( annandale , 1912 )\n.\ndana campbell added the english common name\ngerbil ' s stream frog\nto\namolops gerbillus ( annandale , 1912 )\n.\nthe reported occurrence in myanmar of this species has now been attributed to amolops bellulus .\nrana gerbillus \u2014 zhao and adler , 1993 , herpetol . china : 142 .\nrana ( hylorana ) gerbillus \u2014 boulenger , 1920 , rec . indian mus . , 20 : 127 - 130 .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . amolops gerbillus ( annandale , 1912 ) . [ online ] bhutan biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . amolops gerbillus ( annandale , 1912 ) . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 9 , 2018 ] .\nrana gerbillus annandale , 1912 , rec . indian mus . , 8 : 10 . holotype : zsic 16925 , according to dinesh , radhakrishnan , gururaja , and bhatta , 2009 , rec . zool . surv . india , occas . pap . , 302 : 69 . type locality :\nyembung , abor foot - hills at an altitude of 1 , 100 . ft .\n, arunachal pradesh , india ( in region claimed by china ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2016 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 ( 31 march 2016 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species is known from northeast india ( meghalaya , arunchal pradesh , assam , nagaland and west bengal ) . records in fei ( 1999 ) from xizang province near the border with india require confirmation . it is found at elevations of between 100 and 1 , 700m asl .\na semi - aquatic species found in hill streams . calling takes place on the stream banks and eggs are deposited on stones at the stream edge .\nit is threatened by changes in water management ( dam construction ) and unspecified agricultural pollution .\nthis species has been recorded from dihang - dibang biosphere reserve and mouling national park ( arunachal pradesh , india ) . recent field studies including this species have been undertaken by roy ( 1999 ) , brodoli and borah ( 1998 - 2002 ) and chanda ( 1994 ) . it is protected by national legislation in india .\nsushil dutta , mohammed firoz ahmed , saibal sengupta , debjani roy , sabitry bordoloi . 2004 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\nyembung sucker frog ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 97 ) .\ngerbil stream frog ( das and dutta , 1998 , hamadryad , 23 : 64 ; dinesh , radhakrishnan , gururaja , and bhatta , 2009 , rec . zool . surv . india , occas . pap . , 302 : 68 ) .\nsmall - eared torrent frog ( fei , 1999 , atlas amph . china : 232 ) .\ngerbil frog ( chanda , 2002 , handb . indian amph . : 108 ) .\ngerbil ' s stream frog ( mathew and sen , 2010 , pict . guide amph . ne india : 72 ) .\nsouthern slope of himalayas in xizang ( china ) , northern and northeastern india ( sikkim , assam , meghalaya , nagaland , mizoram , manipur , west bengal , and arunachal pradesh ) and adjacent myanmar ; possibly in bhutan and nepal .\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\nfor access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nnew version of the portal has been deployed , some features are still under development and may not work temporarily .\nthis paper presents the state - of - the - knowledge on herpetofauna ( reptiles and amphibians ) of bhut . . .\nwe present the results of a rapid herpetofaunal inventory conducted in royal manas national park . . .\nthis report gives a summary of the status of amphibian study in bhutan and a checklist of amphib . . .\n< a target = ' _ blank ' href = ' urltoken ' > iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . exported on 12 january 2012 < / a >\ncalling takes place on the stream banks and eggs are deposited on stones at the stream edge . eggs are laid on moist rocks . the tadpoles are also found clinging on rocks of the stream can move vertically or horizontally on wet rocks with the help of adhesive sucker .\ndescribes reproductive physiology and behavior , including mating and life history variables . includes cues , strategies , restraints , rates .\ndescribes average size , max , range ; type of size ( perimeter , length , volume , weight . . . ) .\ndepressed head and rounded snout . canthus rostralis is very distinct ; tympanum is distinct and round . fingers are slender , free and with a large disc at tip ; toes are with large disc , and toes are almost completely webbed . skin is feebly granulated . dorsally greenish , marbled with black . on the fore and hind limbs there are irregular pattern of alternate and pale cross bands . . tympanum is dark brown is colour . ventrally the skin is pale yellow or white\ndescribes the general appearance of the taxon ; e . g body plan , shape and color of external features , typical postures . may be referred to as or include habit , defined as the characteristic mode of growth or occurrence associated to its environment , particularly for plants . comprising its size , shape , texture and orientation . example : tree , shrubs , herbs . may also be referred to include anatomy .\nthis species is found round the year , in and around hilly stream and waterfalls with rocky base . the species of frog can stick vertically on rocks and can easily move up the rock of the stream .\nrelations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment . variables of interest to ecologists include the composition , distribution , amount ( biomass ) , number , and changing states of organisms within and among ecosystems .\nit occupies terrestrial and freshwater habitat . they are seen in numbers in the crevices of the rocks of the streams which are kept wet by sprinkling water of the stream .\ngeneral description of the sites where the species is found ( ecosystem , forest , environment or microhabitat ) . includes realm ( e . g terrestrial etc ) and climatic information ( e . g boreal ) ; also includes requirements and tolerances ; horizontal and vertical ( altitudinal ) distribution . also includes information referring to territorial extension of the individual or group in terms of its activities ( feeding , mating , etc . ) , associated mostly to vertebrates .\nenumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .\ndr . chandra barooah & lani sarma ( 2016 ) assam science technology and environment council .\nincludes abundance information ( population size , density ) and demographics ( e . g . age stratification ) .\ndescribes the likelihood of the species becoming extinct in the present day or in the near future . population size is treated under population biology , and trends in population sizes are treated under trends . however , this is the preferred element if an object includes all of these things and details about conservation listings .\nit is threatened by changes in water management ( dam construction ) , mining and unspecified agricultural pollution .\nfrost , darrel r . 2016 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 03 - 04 - 2017 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa .\ndiversity and distribution of herpetofauna and evaluation of their conservation status in the barail . . .\na herpetofaunal inventory of barail wildlife sanctuary and adjacent regions , assam , north - eastern indi . . .\nan inventory of amphibian and reptiles from the barail wildlife sanctuary and its surroundi . . .\nthis document is no longer available on zsi website so hosting it here . ,\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfrost , darrel r . 2004 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 3 . 0 ( 22 august , 2004 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa\namphibian species of the world : an online reference v5 . 3 , database ( version 5 . 3 )\nfrost , darrel r . 2009 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 3 ( 12 february , 2009 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\na variety of organizations and individuals have contributed photographs to calphotos . please follow the usage guidelines provided with each image . use and copyright information , as well as other details about the photo such as the date and the location , are available by clicking on the"]}
{"id": 1746, "summary": [{"text": "nectophrynoides laevis , the smooth forest toad , is a species of toad in the family bufonidae .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is endemic to tanzania .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , subtropical or tropical low-altitude grassland and swamps .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "a single specimen was collected in 2002 and it was first described in 2004 . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "nectophrynoides laevis", "paragraphs": ["have a fact about nectophrynoides laevis ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for nectophrynoides laevis ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\ncitation : - nectophrynoides laevis . malaysia biodiversity information system ( mybis ) . urltoken downloaded on 10 july 2018 .\niucn ssc amphibian specialist group 2014 . nectophrynoides laevis . the iucn red list of threatened species 2014 : e . t54840a16949825 . urltoken\nthis species is named for the latin ' laevis ' meaning smooth and referring to the skin surface .\nextensive long term research in this area has identified more than 135 endemic species of plants , two endemic species of birds ( uluguru bush shrike and loveridges sunbird ) , six endemic species of amphibians ( hyperolius tornieri , nectophrynoides laevis , nectophrynoides cryptus , nectophrynoides pseudotornieri , scolecomorphus uluguruensis , probreviceps uluguruensis ) , two endemic species of reptiles ( typhlops uluguruensis , xyeledontophis uluguruensis ) and one endemic small mammal ( myosorex geata ) .\nwake m . h . ( 1980 ) , \u00abthe reproductive biology of nectophrynoides malcolmi ( amphibia : bufonidae ) , with comments on the evolution of reproductive modes in the genus nectophrynoides \u00bb , copeia , 1980 , 193 \u2013 209 .\nthis toad from the nectophrynoides genus is one of 15 amphibian species in tanzania that have been described for the first time . | frogs and toads | pinterest \u2026\nnectophrynoides laevis menegon , salvidio , and loader , 2004 , tropical zool . , 17 : 107 . holotype : bmnh 2000 . 233 , by original designation . type locality :\nuluguru south forest reserve , uluguru mountains , morogoro region , eastern tanzania ( 7\u00b0 01\u2032 - 7\u00b0 12\u2032 s , 37\u00b0 36\u2032\u201437\u00b0 45\u2032 e )\n.\ncannatella d . c . and de s\u00e1 r . o . ( 1993 ) , \u00ab xenopus laevis as a model organism\u00bb , syst . biol . , 42 , 476 \u2013 507 .\nweisz p . b . ( 1945 ) , \u00abthe normal stages in the development of the south african clawed toad , xenopus laevis \u00bb , anat . rec . , 93 , 161 \u2013 169 .\nspecies description : menegon m , salvidio s , loader sp 2004 five new species of nectophrynoides noble 1926 ( amphibia anura bufonidae ) from the eastern arc mountains , tanzania . trop . zool . 17 : 97 - 121\nlamotte m . and xavier f . ( 1972a ) , \u00ables amphibiens anoures \u00e0 d\u00e9veloppement direct d\u2019afrique . observations sur la biologie de nectophrynoides tornieri ( roux ) \u00bb , bull . soc . zool . france , 97 , 413 \u2013 428 .\ngurdon j . b . and hopwood n . ( 2000 ) , \u00abthe introduction of xenopus laevis into developmental biology : of empire , pregnancy testing and ribosomal genes\u00bb , int . j . devel . biol . , 44 , 43 \u2013 50 .\nlandstr\u00f6m u . , l\u00f8vtrup - rein u . , and l\u00f8vtrup s . ( 1975 ) , \u00abcontrol of cell division and cell differentiation by deoxynucleotides in the early embryo of xenopus laevis \u00bb , cell differ . , 4 , 313 \u2013 325 .\nthe species authority is : menegon , m . , salvidio , s . , and loader , s . p . ( 2004 ) . \u201cfive new species of nectophrynoides noble 1926 ( amphibia anura bufonidae ) from the eastern arc mountains , tanzania . \u201d\nlamotte m . and xavier f . ( 1972b ) , \u00abrecherches sur le d\u00e9veloppement embryonnaire de nectophrynoides occidentalis angel , amphibien anoure vivipare . 1 . les principaux traits morphologiques et biom\u00e9triques du d\u00e9veloppement\u00bb , ann . embryol . morphogen . , 5 , 315 \u2013 340 .\ndettlaff t . a . and rudneva t . b . ( 1975 ) , \u00abthe clawed frog xenopus laevis daudin\u00bb , in : t . a . dettlaff ( ed . ) , objects of developmental biology , nauka , moscow , pp . 392 \u2013 441 [ in russian ] .\nthis medium - sized nectophrynoides is known only from the uluguru north forest reserve within the uluguru mountains of eastern tanzania and is considered endangered . its large hands and feet , expanded toe tips , fingers webbed at the base , indistinct parotid glands , and lack of a tympanum make it distinguishable from other species of the genus .\ndel pino e . m . , steinbeisser h . , hoffmann a . , dreyer c . , campos m . , and trendelenburg m . f . ( 1986 ) , \u00aboogenesis in the egg - brooding frog gastrotheca riobambae produces large oocytes with fewer nucleoli and low rna content in comparison to xenopus laevis \u00bb , differentiation , 32 , 24 \u2013 33 .\na medium - sized nectophrynoides with short slender limbs . the dorsum is light , with dark sides . many individuals have a dark mid dorsal stripe . the tympanum is clearly visible . parotid glands are raised with dark edges and are longer than they are wide . toe and finger tips are not expanded and may be rounded or slightly pointed . fingers are webbed only slightly at the base . toes are partially webbed ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .\nresembling a small n . viviparus in body shape but lacking tympanum , massive parotoids and glands on limbs . it is easily distinguished from n . poyntoni , n . vestergaardi , n . minutus and n . tornieri by the absence of a tympanum . differing from n . wendyae , n . frontierei and n . cryptus in having expanded tips of fingers ( the latter two species occasionally have a weakly discernible tympanum , outlined under the skin ) . n . laevis can be distinguished from n . pseudotornieri by its shorter hindlimbs ( sul / hindlimb = 1 . 20 versus 1 . 12 in n . pseudotornieri holotype ) , the absence of hand webbing , and clearly raised parotoid glands , which are longer than the horizontal diameter of the eye . n . asperginis differs from n . laevis in having rounded finger tips , absence of parotoids , and by being smaller with dark dorsolateral bands ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .\na medium - sized nectophrynoides with a broad head , protruding eyes and large hands and feet relative to other members of the genus . the dorsum is light brown with irregular darker brown markings . this species lacks a tympanum . the parotid glands are present , but small and indistinct . they are located in the scapular region and are shorter than the length of the eye . the toe tips are expanded and the tips of some of the digits are truncate . fingers are webbed at the base . toes are partially webbed ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .\nwhile vitamin a deficiency is relatively well recognized in amphibians , hypervitaminosis a is also described in the literature . although many studies describing hypervitaminosis a are in amphibians deliberately given excess vitamin a for experimental purposes , this condition can arise in captive amphibians supplemented with too much vitamin a . for example , hypervitaminosis seems to frequently occur in x . laevis that are fed mammalian liver tissue or whole rodent pups , both of which have relatively high vitamin a levels compared to typical invertebrate feeder species [ densmore and green , 2007 ] . the effects of excess dietary vitamin a may affect the skin ( causing ulceration or excess shedding ) and liver ( causing fibrosis or hepatocellular degeneration ) , as well as weight loss [ pessier , 2013 ] .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 27 january 2014 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 january 2014 ) .\njustification : listed as data deficient since it has only recently been discovered , and there is still very little information on its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements .\nthis species is known only from uluguru south forest reserve , in the uluguru mountains in eastern tanzania . the altitude of this locality is not known , but it is likely to be greater than 2 , 000 m asl .\nthere is no information on its population status as it is known only from a single specimen collected in april 2002 .\nthere is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species . it could be a species of montane forest , or montane grassland , or possibly high - altitude swamps . the details of its breeding biology are unknown , but it is assumed to be ovoviviparous , like other member of its genus , with internal fertilisation before giving birth to tiny toadlets .\nthe threats that this species might face are unknown , although much of uluguru south forest reserve is very remote and faces few threats .\nuluguru south forest reserve is the only protected area that this species is known from so far , but this area is not generally managed for biodiversity conservation . targeted searches are required to determine the distribution of this species . further research is also needed into the population status , ecology , threats , and use and trade of this species . it is listed on cites appendix i .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nthis website will serve as a gateway for information regarding african amphibian species , where participants will write and edit species pages , upload images , and maintain bibliographic resources . the goal of this website is to develop an authoritative , community - driven resource for information on african amphibians . we expect this to be a key resource for both the public and experts in the field , including those who may not have access to original descriptions , taxonomic changes , and updates of species distributions from scientific journals . in addition to serving as a stand - alone resource , this scratchpad will feed content directly into the encyclopedia of life ( eol ) and amphibiaweb .\nhave something to contribute ? you can become a member by creating a new account ( click log in ) or emailing dr . breda zimkus ( bzimkus @ urltoken ) .\nspecial thanks to eol for supporting breda zimkus with a rubenstein fellowship in 2010 / 2011 . content is continually being added by members , so please visit often !\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nlisted as data deficient since it has only recently been discovered , and there is still very little information on its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements .\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\nsmooth forest toad ( channing and howell , 2006 , amph . e . afr . : 110 ) .\nknown only from the type locality ( uluguru south forest reserve , 2000 m elevation , uluguru mountains , morogoro region , eastern tanzania ) .\nchanning and howell , 2006 , amph . e . afr . : 110 , provided an account . harper , measey , patrick , menegon , and vonesh , 2010 , field guide amph . e . arc mts . tanzania and kenya : 136\u2013137 , provided a brief account .\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\nfor access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ncites is an international agreement between governments , aimed to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\namphibian species of the world : an online reference v5 . 3 , database ( version 5 . 3 )\nfrost , darrel r . 2009 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 3 ( 12 february , 2009 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nin : iucn 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2010 . 1 . < www . iucnredlist . org >\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfeedback : - if you see any errors or have any questions or suggestions on what is shown on this page , please provide us with feedback .\nget updates and an exclusive news when you sign up to our free newsletter .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 , ministry of natural resources and environment ( nre ) . all rights reserved . disclaimer - the malaysian government , and ministry of natural resources and environment ( nre ) shall not be liable for any loss or damage caused by the usage of any information obtained from this website . by entering this site , you acknowledge and agree that no portion of this site , including but not limited to names , logos , trademarks , patents , sound , graphics , charts , text , audio , video , information or images are either mybis property or the property permitted by third - party and shall not be used without prior written approval from the owner ( s ) .\nbest viewed using latest mozila firefox , google chrome and internet explorer 10 with resolution 1024 x 768px or above . version 2 . 0 / 2016\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nthis species is known only from uluguru south forest reserve , in the uluguru mountains in eastern tanzania ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nthe male holotype , the only known specimen , measured 24 . 8 mm in snout - vent length ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .\nthis species lacks a tympanum . the dorsum is light gray with irregular dark markings and is smooth with small warts . parotid glands are twice as long as their width . a very small amount of webbing is present on the toes . fingers lack webbing . finger tips are expanded and slightly truncate . a thin dark line runs along the center of the ventral surface . a pale vertebral stripe was present on the single individual collected ; however this is a trait that varies among individuals in other species ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .\nthere is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species . it could be a species of montane forest , or montane grassland , or possibly high - altitude swamps . the altitude of the type locality is also not known , but it is likely to be greater than 2 , 000 m ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nthere is no information on its population status as it is known only from a single specimen collected in april 2002 ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nthe details of its breeding biology are unknown , but it is assumed to be ovoviviparous , like other member of its genus , with internal fertilisation before giving birth to tiny toadlets ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nthe iucn red list ( 2010 ) categorizes this species as data deficient since it has only recently been discovered , and there is still very little information on its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nthe threats that this species might face are unknown , although much of uluguru south forest reserve is very remote and faces few threats ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nuluguru south forest reserve is the only protected area that this species is known from so far , but this area is not generally managed for biodiversity conservation ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nnamed for the latin ' pseudo ' meaning false or seeming , indicating the species overall similarity to n . tornieri .\nthis species is known only from the uluguru north forest reserve on the eastern slopes of the northern part of the uluguru mountains , eastern tanzania . it appears to have a very restricted distribution ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nthe body appears dark brown dorsally . the dorsum is finely marbled with different shades of brown . the sides are slightly darker than the dorsum with more contrasted and extensive marbling . hands and feet are lighter in colour . the belly is creamy with sparse condensation of melanophores mainly on throat and limbs . in the living specimen the dorsum and head were light brown . iris was gold ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .\nthe holotype , a male , measured 25 . 0 mm , and the single paratype , a female , measured 29 mm from snout to urostyle ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .\nresembling n . tornieri in body shape but substantially larger . easily distinguished from n . tornieri , n . poyntoni , n . vestergaardi , n . minutus and n . viviparus by the absence of tympanum . differing from n . wendyae , n . cryptus and n . frontierei in having expanded tip of fingers ( the two latter species sometimes also have a weakly discernible tympanum under the skin ) . n . laevi s has shorter hindlimbs ( sul / hindlimb = 1 . 20 versus 1 . 12 in n . pseudotornieri holotype ) , lacks hand webbing and has clearly raised parotoid glands , longer than the horizontal diameter of the eye . n . asperginis has rounded finger tips , is smaller with dark dorsolateral bands , and has a more developed webbing ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .\nthis species is known only from tall , submontane rainforest between 1080 and 1345 m ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nthere is no information on the population status of this species as it is known from only two specimens , collected in 1996 and 2000 ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nhides under logs during the day and perch on vegetation approximately 1 m off the ground at night ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .\nreproduction is assumed to be similar to that of other species in the genus with internal fertilization and live birth ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .\nthe iucn red list ( 2010 ) categorizes this species as endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 km 2 , all individuals are in fewer than five locations , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat on the uluguru mountains , tanzania ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nthe submontane forest on the eastern slopes of the uluguru mountains has been extensively cleared , mainly due to agricultural encroachment , wood extraction , and expanding human settlements ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nit occurs in the uluguru north forest reserve , but this area is not generally managed for biodiversity conservation and is in need of improved management . further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nthe uluguru mountains are one of the blocks within the eastern arc range , and consistently rank in the top three of the blocks in terms of overall species values ; many species are endemic just to this area .\nforest habitat on the uluguru mountain range has been reduced from over 300 km 2 to around 220 km 2 over the past 50 years , and is now largely confined to a number of forest reserves \u2013 the two largest being uluguru north forest reserve ( 83 . 57 km 2 ) and uluguru south ( 172 . 93 km 2 ) \u2013 both of which contain significant biodiversity .\nthe uluguru mountains are also of critical importance for the provision of water to the ruvu river , especially during the dry season . water flows from the ruvu have been declining over the past 50 years and hence better protection for the remaining forests in the watershed of this river might help reverse this situation and thereby improve the situation for millions of people in dar es salaam .\nforty four eastern arc endemic vertebrates are also found in the uluguru mountains . some species are confined to only one or other of these reserves . many of these species are regarded as threatened with extinction .\nthe two dense forest endemic birds of the ulugurus have been studied to a significant degree in recent years . a census of the uluguru bush shrike in year 2000 indicated there were at least 1 , 200 pairs of this bird , mainly in uluguru north forest reserve , with some in the degraded public land forest outside the reserve . a further survey in 2006 showed that the bird also occurs on the eastern flanks of the uluguru south forest reserve , and hence the bunduki gap is a real conservation issue for the long term survival of this forest dwelling bird .\nloveridge\u2019s sunbird is another endemic bird of the uluguru mountains , where it is known from uluguru north , uluguru south and bunduki forest reserves . a census in year 2000 indicated a population range between 21 , 000 and 166 , 000 individuals ( with a median estimate of 37 , 000 individuals ) . as the species is found in all three of the higher altitude reserves on the ulugurus , then maintaining forest connection between them is important .\nin 1955 the uluguru north and south reserves were joined by natural forest across the bunduki gap . over the past 50 years this forest has been cleared back to the reserve boundaries , creating a deforested gap of farmland .\na new nature reserve has been proposed that includes the uluguru north , uluguru south , bunduki frs and a strip of land in the bunduki corridor ( 106 . 5 ha ) that joins the three reserves . the total area of the proposed nature reserve is 24 , 115 . 09 ha . this nature reserve , if formally gazetted , would allow the forest vegetation of the bunduki gap to regenerate and re - establish the connection between the forests of the three reserves in the area .\ndoggart , n . , j . lovett , b . mhoro , j . kiure and n . burgess ( 2005 ) . biodiversity surveys in the forest reserves of the uluguru mountains , tanzania . wcst and tfcg , dar es salaam , tanzania . 200 pages . see\nrodgers , w . a . & burgess , n . d . ( 2006 ) . the conservation of the uluguru mountains : learning lessons from the past . miombo 29 : 6 - 9 .\nbatulaine , g . ( 2007 ) . assessment of baseline ecological and socio - economic factors for forest restoration planning in the bunduki gap , uluguru mountain forests of tanzania . unpublished m . sc . thesis , sokoine university of agriculture .\nthis website and the report was funded and co - produced by the wildlife conservation society .\nthis species is named for wendy clarke , wife of the describer , barry clarke ( channing and howell , 2006 ) .\nhas rounded toes . in addition , the two species can be easily differentiated by their advertisement calls . from\n, a species that also has rounded tips on its digits , the parotid gland shape , hind and forelimb ratios , and the dorsal pattern may all be used to discern these two species . from\n, the focal species can be differentiated by the latter lacking large glands on the limbs and being smaller in size .\nit is unclear if the coloration described by the species authority is in life or in preservative . the dorsal surface of the holotype specimen is primarily various shades of brown . scattered , darker blotches are common . a black stripe is present from the tip of the snout to the end of the parotid glands . a light brown mid - dorsal stripe with a black outline is present . beige coloration occurs on the sides of the head , the upper arms , and the dorsal surface in an upside - down \u201cv\u201d shaped marking , outlined in black . the dorsal glands have concentrations of melanophores on pale pink areas in the pattern of interrupted stripes . the ventral surface is gray with a few melanophores ( menegon et al . 2004 ) .\nthe dorsal pattern varies between specimens . the coloration may be mostly shades of brown , or many darker / black blotches may be present on the dorsal surface of the head , body and legs . dark , possibly interrupted , stripes may also run from the snout to the scapular parotoids or along the vertebral line ( menegon et al . 2004 ) .\n) in the iringa region of southern tanzania at elevations of 1 , 200 m . the forest is located on the south - eastern slopes of the udzungwa mountains , which is part of the eastern arc mountain chain . the habitat of\nis submontane rain forest . the emergent layer reaches 50 m in this area , and the canopy is 30 to 40 m high . this species , as well as\n, was common along the mkalazi stream when it was described ( menegon et al . 2004 , menegon and salvidio 2005 ) .\nis active during the evening on leaves 60 \u2013 160 cm above the ground . during the day they could be found in hiding places under fallen trees and large pieces of wood ( menegon et al . 2004 ) .\nis inferred to be an ovoviviparous or lecithotrophic species due to their small clutches of large , yolky eggs ( liedtke et al . 2014 ; menegon et al . 2004 ) . menegon et al . ( 2004 ) reported clutch sizes of 8 and 10 large , yolky eggs in dissected specimens .\n. males call near streams and vegetation in the late afternoon or after sunset . the monophasic call consists of high - pitched notes in a series of pulse trains . each pulse lasts for 60 ms , and has a dominant frequency of 2 . 9 khz and a second harmonic is emphasized at 8 . 7 khz . the inter - pulse duration is 80 ms . a single pulse train has a duration of 1 s ( 6 - 8 pulses ) , and the interval between pulse trains is 2 . 5 - 3 . 5 s . the high frequency of the call may help distinguish the call from the noise of low frequency water turbulence .\n, which is similar in size and shape , but can differentiated based on toe - tip shape and advertisement call ( menegon et al . 2004 ) .\nis a hyper - endemic and very rare frog species from the uzungwa scarp forest reserve ( barratt et al . 2014 ) . it is listed as \u201ccritically endangered\u201d on the iucn red list and is threatened by habitat loss . the\npopulation is said to be declining , but this species may already be extinct ( iucn 2015 ) .\n\u201d was named in honor of professor john poynton ( menegon et al . 2004 )\nbarratt , c . , tonelli , e . , menegon , m . , doggart , n . , bowkett , a . , harris , w . e . , howell , k . , ngalason , w . , loader , s . ( 2014 ) . ' ' fragmented habitats and species : the challenges of amphibian conservation in tanzania today . ' '\n. the iucn red list of threatened species 2015 : e . t54842a13323022 . urltoken downloaded on 15 june 2016 .\nliedtke , h . c . , m\u00fcller , h . , hafner , j . , nagel , p . , and loader , s . ( 2014 ) . ' ' interspecific patterns for egg and clutch sizes of african\nmenegon , m . , salvidio , s . , and loader , s . p . ( 2004 ) . ' ' five new species of\nnoble 1926 ( amphibia anura bufonidae ) from the eastern arc mountains , tanzania . ' '\nmelissa headley ( mheadley at rams . colostate . edu ) , colorado state university\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nthe species is named in honour of martin vestergaard , a danish zoologist , who first recognised the population as being an undescribed species .\nthis endangered toad is known only from the west usambara mountains in north - eastern tanzania . it can be distinguished by the presence of the a tympanum and continuous elongate parotid gland , as well as toe tips that are rounded rather than truncate .\nthe iucn red list ( 2010 ) categorizes this species as endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 km2 , its distribution is severely fragmented , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat in the west usambara mountains , tanzania ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nit occurs in the university of dar es salaam ' s forest reserve at mazumbai , but additional protection of the habitat in the west usambara mountains is needed ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nin some parts of the west usambaras its habitat is probably being lost , especially due to agricultural encroachment , commercial logging , wood extraction , and expanding human settlements ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nit is assumed that populations are decreasing ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nit is probably terrestrial as some animals were found inside a rotten log ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nin preservative the body appears always bicoloured , with sides darker than dorsum . the pale brown colour appearance is the result of a mixture of a very pale surface together with very small condensations of melanophores . a light maxillary patch is usually present and may be conspicuous . outer edge of parotoid glands is darkened . a clearly raised glandular ridge on outer margin of eyelids is discernible . there is almost always a fine dark mid dorsal vertebral line from snout to urostyle present ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .\nholotype , a female , measured 24 mm from snout to urostyle . females are larger in size ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .\nthis species is known only from the west usambara mountains in north - eastern tanzania . there are records from the shume - magamba forest reserve , the mazumbai forest reserve , and the ambangulu estate ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nall records have been from montane and submontane forest between 1230 and 2000 m , including in the ecotone between forest and ericaceous vegetation . the type series was collected in montane forest dominated by ocotea usambarensis and podocarpus sp . ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nthere is little information available on its population status . however , the fact that 23 specimens have been found widely over the west usambara mountains , despite limited survey effort , suggests that it is not uncommon in suitable habitat within its small range ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nreproduction is assumed to be similar to that of other species in the genus with internal fertilization and live birth . one female was found containing 18 embryos ( menegon et al . , 2004 )\nthe iucn red list ( 2010 ) categorizes this species as endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 km2 , all individuals are in fewer than five locations , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat on the uluguru mountains , tanzania ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .\nprotozoa are of little consequence in laboratory rats in recent decades ( national research council , 1991 ; kohn and barthold , 1984 ) .\nare nonpathogenic and produce no disease ; however , microscopists must be able to distinguish pathogenic from nonpathogenic species . the presence of nonpathogenic species indicates that the person has been exposed to fecal contamination .\ndo not always produce symptoms or they may remain after symptoms have resolved . asymptomatic individuals may serve as reservoirs for the infection . detection of a potentially pathogenic protozoan does not necessarily prove that the organism is causing the illness . patients may have diarrhea caused by other organisms , such as\n, a urogenital flagellate , is also considered pathogenic , and may cause mild to severe vaginitis and other urogenital problems .\nalthough many people worldwide are infected with e . histolytica , only a small percentage develop clinical symptoms . morbidity and mortality caused by e . histolytica vary , depending on geographic area , organism species ( e . histolytica vs e . dispar ) and the immune status of the patient .\n( brumpt 1925 ) , which is noninvasive and does not cause disease . during the past several years , extensive work has been published related to the pathogenesis of\nspp . the true role of this organism in terms of colonization or disease and the relevance of organism numbers require additional clarification . in studies of patients with irritable bowel syndrome , there are patients in whom the presence of\nthere is evidence to indicate there are several subtypes / strains / species , and there may be a relationship between subtype and pathogenicity , only some of which will be responsible for increased intestinal permeability and symptoms .\n, group a and group b , associated with different degrees of virulence . group a appears to be more pathogenic and is associated with symptomatic infection . isoenzyme and molecular studies also support the differences between these two groups .\nhowever , it appears there may be both pathogenic and nonpathogenic variants . evidence for two genetically distinct forms has been obtained using polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ) - restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of ribosomal genes .\nis site - specific and usually cannot survive outside the urogenital system . after introduction , proliferation begins , with resulting inflammation and large numbers of trophozoites in the tissues and the secretions . nutrient acquisition and cytoadherence , immune system evasion and regulation of virulence genes are virulence factors associated with pathogenesis .\nit appears that interference with trichomonads ' mucin receptors and proteinases may form a strategy to prevent colonization with this pathogenic flagellate .\nsome infections with b . coli produce no symptoms , while others cause symptoms with severe dysentery similar to that seen in patients with amebiasis . symptoms usually include diarrhea or dysentery , tenesmus , nausea , vomiting , anorexia and headache . insomnia , muscular weakness and weight loss have also been reported . diarrhea may persist for weeks to months prior to the onset of dysentery . there may be tremendous fluid loss , with a type of diarrhea similar to that seen in cholera or in some coccidial or microsporidial infections .\nmay penetrate the mucosa with cellular infiltration in the area of the developing ulcer , which may extend to the muscular layer . the ulcers may vary in shape , and the ulcer bed may be full of pus and necrotic debris . although the number of cases is small , extraintestinal disease has been reported ( peritonitis , urinary tract , inflammatory vaginitis ) .\nacute malaria is a medical emergency demanding immediate diagnosis and treatment ; quinine or artemisinin derivatives , usually in combination with other antimalarial drugs , are effective .\nafrican trypanosomiasis ( sleeping sickness ) is treated with toxic arsenical drugs ; the west african form responds to eflornithine .\nsouth american trypanosomiasis ( chagas\u2019 disease ) is a chronic condition that is difficult to treat .\nleishmaniasis takes various forms ; the most dangerous is visceral leishmaniasis ( kala azar ) . antimonial compounds , antifungal drugs or miltefosine are used for treatment .\namoebiasis , giardiasis and trichomoniasis occur worldwide ; they usually respond to 5 - nitroimidazole drugs such as metronidazole .\n, meaning animal , is a phylum comprising some of the morphologically simplest organisms of the animal kingdom . most species are unicellular , eukaryotic and microscopic in size ; most are free - living and motile , but some have commensalistic , mutualistic or parasitic relationships . approximately 10 , 000 of the described living species are parasitic .\ninfect most vertebrate and invertebrate species and have developed the capacity to adapt to living in most host organs .\n, unlike almost all helminths , can replicate ( sexually , asexually or both ways ) within the host ' s body\u2014a phenomenon that largely explains their survival , as well as the overwhelming infections that develop from single exposures .\n. those of medical importance include organisms that infect blood and tissue and those capable of causing disease of the intestinal and urogenital tracts . the blood and tissue\n, cryptosporidiosis , and trichomoniasis . this latter disease is confined to the urogenital system and is caused by\n. the species of ciliate involved was not reported , and although a cutaneous route of infection was suspected , this could not be confirmed .\nhave been mentioned to occur in amphibians , but lesions are not as well - documented as they are in fish .\n, however , appear to be missing some of the organelles you would expect to find in a typical eukaryote .\nis an example of a eukaryotic protist that lacks mitochondria , peroxisomes , and has a very underdeveloped endomembrane system .\ngenerates the atp energy it needs through an anaerobic metabolic pathway , located in the cytoplasm of the cell that relies on the use of enzymes that contain iron\u2013sulfur ( fe\u2013s ) cofactors . these\nare involved in redox reactions and electron transport pathways that lead to atp synthesis . biosynthesis of the fe\u2013s cofactor in turn , requires the activity of a highly conserved class of proteins known as\nis a medically relevant parasitic protozoan that is responsible for diarrheal diseases that affect hundreds of thousands of people and animals worldwide . ingestion of food or water contaminated by\ncysts leads to the infection of host organisms . once inside a host , the cyst opens up to release one or two\ncycle . the trophozoites populate the intestine of the host , causing a variety of unpleasant symptoms and producing more cysts that are released to continue the cycle of infection and disease .\nisc proteins are highly conserved from bacteria to humans . what are the implications of this statement ?\ndrugs used to treat giardia infections work by entering the cytoplasm of the trophozoite and disrupting atp production . why would such a drug be safe for use in humans and animals ?\n( microsporidea now possibly grouped with fungi ) . relationships range from commensal to parasitic . many\npoynton and whitaker , 2001 ; green et al . , 2003 ; pessier , 2002\ncan be transmitted through water and from aquatic vegetation or feeder fish to amphibians .\nentamoeba cysts are swallowed and directly colonize the colon . trophozoites can spread to the kidney and liver . oodinium and trichodina are external parasites that affect the skin and gills of aquatic amphibians . ingestion of infected fly larvae is the likely source of plistophora myotropica in wild toads . trypanosoma infects the blood of wild amphibians and has an indirect life - cycle and is unlikely pathogenic .\nsigns of amebiasis include dehydration , anorexia , and emaciation . feces are loose and bloody ; vomiting may also occur . ascites may be noted with hepatic and renal involvement .\ncauses the skin and gills to become grayish in color . debilitation occurs in chronic cases . reddened gills and\nand other ciliates . animals affected by trypanosomiasis may be asymptomatic or may die acutely .\nentamoeba causes lesions of the colonic mucosa , suppurative nephritis , and hepatic abscesses . cysts may be found in the liver and kidney . splenomegaly is seen in amphibians that die acutely from trypanosomiasis . necropsy findings associated with plistophora include muscle atrophy and pale streaks in myofibers .\ncan be identified by fecal examination ( though difficult and often unrewarding ) , pcr , or colonic wash . skin scrapings and gill biopsies will demonstrate external\nmg / kg po sid for 3\u20135 days ) . aquatic species may be treated with 50\nmg / kg po sid ) . trypanosomiasis may respond to a quinine sulfate bath ( 30\nmin ) or acriflavin baths ( constant 0 . 025 % bath for 5 days ) . copper sulfate has also been used , but this compound can be toxic in some amphibian species and is not recommended (\n) . all treatments may not lead to total resolution , but instead a decrease in parasitic burden .\naffected animals should be separated from community groups ; they should be handled last , and equipment should not be shared . tanks should be cleaned and sanitized , and water should be changed more frequently . attention to the environment and prevention of reinfection are important considerations . vectors should be excluded from animal facilities (\nincoming animals should be quarantined and evaluated for presence of disease and / or pathogenic organisms . food items and aquarium plants should be treated before introduction ( short salt bath followed by thorough rinsing and 1 - to 2 - h acriflavin bath ) . whenever possible , purchase colony - reared animals and food items from reliable sources .\nsubclinical infections of hemoparasites can confound hematologic and physiologic data . overt protozoal disease can decrease research populations and render data questionable . cryptosporidiosis infection of animal could cause health concerns for humans as well .\nare a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide , either in developing or in western countries . some of those able to infect humans by the oral route have long been known to cause disease , but others are only now being increasingly recognized as pathogenic in immunocompromised hosts , especially in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome ( aids ) . they are very diverse in epidemiology , symptomatology , treatment , and preventive measures .\nin immunocompetent hosts most infections are asymptomatic , but overt local or systemic symptoms may be present , which may be severe in some cases . however , protozoal infections are particularly troublesome , sometimes life - threatening , in immunocompromised patients .\n, but sometimes more intense manifestations do occur , including abdominal cramps , flatulence , anorexia , vomiting , malabsorption , weight loss , and fever . in aids patients , insuperable chronic watery diarrhea with malabsorption and , eventually , wasting syndrome may be due to some of these parasites .\nblood , pus , and mucus in stools are the result of invasion of the intestinal wall and common only in intestinal infection by entamoeba histolytica , which is also able to cause systemic infection , especially liver abscesses , manifested by fever , weight loss , abdominal pain , and hepatomegaly .\nspp . and , while intestinal infection is thought to be asymptomatic , parasites in muscle may cause swelling and pain . microsporidia have only recently been recognized as human pathogens in aids and very few cases have been reported in non - aids patients .\nto chemotherapy correlates roughly with metabolism and , accordingly , with species . several drugs are active against different\n. for some of them , e . g . , diloxanide furoate , the exact mechanism of action is still uncertain . others , e . g . , metronidazole , are broad - spectrum antibiotics , interfering with the dna of susceptible infectious agents .\n. most of these drugs are contraindicated in pregnancy and treatment of pregnant women often must be delayed until after delivery .\nmetronidazole is effective against most flagellates and amoebae and is an alternative choice in the treatment of balantidium coli . other nitroimidazoles ( tinidazole and ornidazole ) have similar activity and less untoward side - effects , including headache , metallic taste , nausea , vomiting , and diarrhea .\nemetine and dehydroemetine have considerable side - effects , gastrointestinal and systemic , and are reserved only for extraintestinal amoebiasis . they are not active against e . histolytica in the bowel and diloxanide furoate , tetracycline , paramomycin , or iodoquinol must be added in order to treat simultaneous intestinal infection .\niodoquinol is also effective against dientamoeba fragilis ( sensitive also to paramomycin and tetracycline ) and is used as an alternative drug against balantidium coli . infections due to giardia intestinalis may be treated with quinacrine , metronidazole , or furazolidine . tetracycline is the drug of choice against b . coli and d . fragilis . iodoquinol must be used with great caution , as it may cause myelitis and optic atrophy . this is the reason why it is no longer available in most developed countries .\ntreatment of protozoal diseases in aids patients is far from satisfactory . there is no effective specific therapy for microsporidia or cryptosporidium spp . , perhaps the most common agent of infection of the bowel in aids . isospora belli and sarcocystis spp . respond poorly , if at all , to antifolates , which include co - trimoxazole , sulfadiazine , and pyrimethamine .\n, foodborne and waterborne infections , although surely underestimated , seem rare . good sanitary conditions and personal hygiene are keystones in preventing these infections . protozoal cysts and oocysts differ in sensitivity to adverse conditions ( heat , desiccation , freezing , chlorination ) and some are amazingly resistant .\nin countries with poor sanitary conditions , water should be boiled and uncooked vegetables and unpeeled fruits avoided , as they may have been washed with contaminated water . flies and other arthropods may also be vehicles for fecal contamination of food . but even when a visitor takes every possible precaution to avoid these infections , a local food handler , even in the best hotel , may be a cyst passer not aware of the elementary rules of personal hygiene .\nfor some species there are several possible animal reservoirs , which lessens the effectiveness of preventive measures . even for these species with humans as the only hosts , patients in some institutions , especially those who are mentally handicapped , are a difficult group to control . the occurrence of sexual transmission of some\nby oral\u2013anal and oral\u2013genital sex is also considered important and is difficult to control .\nand helminths have complex life cycles and have adapted to exist within the hostile environment of one and sometimes several hosts . the distribution of these infectious agents parallels the poor socioeconomic conditions in the developing world . however , with widespread travel , infections due to these agents are being seen more frequently in non - endemic settings . in addition , with the increasing number of immunosuppressed patients ( infected with human immunodeficiency virus [ hiv ] , or after transplant or chemotherapy ) worldwide , disease manifestations can be more frequent , severe , and aggressive . central to the clinician\u2019s approach to the patient with a central nervous system ( cns ) infection with a protozoan or helminthic organism is a thorough travel history , and an increased index of suspicion . once such an infection is suspected , appropriate workup can be initiated .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nalcala a . c . ( 1962 ) , \u00abbreeding behavior and early development of frogs of negros , philippine islands\u00bb , copeia , 1962 , 679 \u2013 726 .\nalcala a . c . and brown w . c . ( 1982 ) , \u00abreproductive biology of some species of philautus ( rhacophoridae ) and other philippine anurans\u00bb , philippine j . biol . , 11 , 203 \u2013 226 .\naltig r . and crother b . i . ( 2006 ) , \u00abthe evolution of three deviations from the biphasic anuran life cycle : alternatives to selection\u00bb , herpetol . rev . , 37 , 321 \u2013 325 .\namphibiaweb ( 2012 ) , information on amphibian biology and conservation , berkeley , california : electronic database accessible at http : / / amphibiaweb . org . accessed : january 10 , 2012 .\nanstis m . , roberts j . d . , and altig r . ( 2007 ) , \u00abdirect development in two myobatrachid frogs , arenophryne rotunda tyler and myobatrachus gouldii gray , from western australia\u00bb , rec . western australian mus . , 23 , 259 \u2013 271 ."]}
{"id": 1752, "summary": [{"text": "the chilean woodstar ( eulidia yarrellii ) is a small bird in the hummingbird family , trochilidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is restricted to northernmost chile with reports from southern peru .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "its natural habitats are dry shrubland and rural gardens .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss and is classed as a critically endangered species .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is usually classified in its own genus eulidia but is sometimes placed with the purple-collared woodstar in the genus myrtis .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "in 2013 it was classed as endangered but recently , it was classed as critically endangered by the iucn red list . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "chilean woodstar", "paragraphs": ["chilean woodstar ( eulidia yarrellii ) is a species of bird in the trochilidae family .\nthis entry was posted in americas , archive , south america and tagged chilean woodstar . bookmark the permalink .\nhabitat loss , the chilean woodstar lives primarily in the desert climate where it is also threatened by the use of insecticides . more\nthe chilean woodstar is classified as endangered ( en ) , considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - chilean woodstar ( eulidia yarrellii )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - chilean woodstar ( eulidia yarrellii )\ntitle =\narkive species - chilean woodstar ( eulidia yarrellii )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe chilean woodstar is a small hummingbird . it has iridescent olive - green plumage and white underparts . males are distinguished by their violet - red throat patch and both sexes possess short , black bills . . . more\nthe chilean woodstar is a small hummingbird . it has iridescent olive - green plumage and white underparts ( 2 ) . males are distinguished by their violet - red throat patch and both sexes possess short , black bills ( 2 ) .\nbased on available information , our preliminary proposal for the 2014 red list is to pend the decision on chilean woodstar eulidia yarrellii and keep this discussion open until early 2015 , while leaving the current red list category unchanged in the 2014 update .\nthe highly restricted range of the chilean woodstar represents a threat to its survival ; the species is confined to just two valleys in northern chile which are already heavily cultivated ( 2 ) . viable habitat for this species of hummingbird is therefore scarce .\nlisting three foreign bird species - andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) , the chilean woodstar ( eulidia yarrellii ) , and the st . lucia forest thrush ( cichlherminia lherminieri sanctaeluciae ) - from latin america and the caribbean as endangered throughout their range ; final rule\nfollowing further review , there has been a change to our preliminary proposal for the 2014 red list status of this species , and the recommended classification to be put forward to iucn is to treat chilean woodstar as critically endangered under criterion a2ac + 3c + 4ac .\nthe chilean woodstar , endemic to chile and peru , is a small hummingbird in the trochilidae family ( bli 2008 ) . no larger than the size of a moth ( johnson 1967 , p . 121 ) , the chilean woodstar is approximately 3 inches ( in ) ( 8 centimeters ( cm ) ) in length and has a short black bill ( bli 2008 ; del hoyo et al . 1999 , p . 674 ) . males have iridescent olive - green upperparts , white underparts , and a bright violet - red throat ( del hoyo et al . 1999 , p . 674 ; fjelds and krabbe 1990 , p . 296 ) . more\nestades , c . f . , aguirre , j . , escobar , m . a . h . , tomasevic , j . a . , vukasovic , m . a . and tala , c . ( 2007 ) conservation status of the chilean woodstar eulidia yarrellii . bird conservation international 17 ( 2 ) : 163 - 175 .\na color photo of the chilean woodstar birdyarrellii - of the yarrellii species - and lists its size , weight , and number in existence at the time of the advertisement . azapa and lluta river valleys in chile , peru are stated as the animal ' s habitat range . luiz claudio marigo is the photographer . price : $ 10 . more\nbenoit - c . , i . l . , editor . 1989 . red book on chilean terrestrial flora ( part one ) . corporaci\u00f3n nacional forestal ( conaf ) , santiago , chile .\ndescription : the chilean woodstar is a small hummingbird about the size of a moth . this beautiful bird is no larger than three inches long , with iridescent , olive - green upperparts . males also have while underparts , accented by a bright violet - red throat . habitat : this hummingbird has varied habitat needs , from riparian thickets to arid scrub , agricultural lands , and gardens . more\nthe tiny , beautiful chilean woodstar is a hummingbird endemic to chile and peru . while it has always had a limited population distribution , it was once locally abundant . the 1970s marked a steep decline for the species due to both habitat loss and potential poisoning by dimethoate , a potent insecticide used to control mediterranean fruit flies . pesticides are still being used in the habitat of this hummingbird and continue to affect its reproduction . more\nrest of day searching for chilean woodstar in azapa valley . in the evening return to tacna day 3 . mejia lagoons . drive to mejia lagoons and birding here . red - fronted coot is only found here in all peru , also good wetlands with many migrants . day 4 . mollendo pelagic . drive to arequipa . we will look out for raimondi\u0101\u201cs yellow - finch and grayish miner en route day 5 . chiguata and salinas . more\nschuchmann , k . l . , kirwan , g . m . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . chilean woodstar ( eulidia yarrellii ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nchilean woodstar , peruvian sheartail , oasis hummingbird , tamarugo and cinereous conebills , vermillion flycatcher , peruvian meadowlark and the strange slender - billed finch . after our arrival we will visit the rocky coast where we expect to see a great array of its endemic seabirds including peruvian pelican , peruvian booby , guanay and red - legged cormorants , the stunning inca tern and band - tailed and gray gulls . along the desert coast we will look for flocks of willet , whimbrel , ruddy turnstone , surfbird , franklin ' s gull and elegant terns . more\nchilean woodstar eulidia yarrellii is only known to breed regularly in the azapa and vitor valleys , arica department , extreme north chile ( estades 2007 ) . it is currently listed as endangered under criterion b1ab ( i , ii , iii , v ) because it has a very small range ( estimated extent of occurrence [ eoo ] = 2 , 200 km 2 ) with all viable populations apparently confined to remnant habitat patches in two desert river valleys ( collar et al . 1992 ) . as these valleys are heavily cultivated , the extent , area and quality of suitable habitat ( and therefore the population ) are likely to be declining .\ncites appendix ii . all exports of hummingbirds from peru and chile are controlled . a ten - year species recovery plan was approved in 2004 and included plans for a public awareness campaign , a study of competition between the woodstar and peruvian sheartail , a permanent population monitoring programme , restoration of natural vegetation in the azupa and lluta valleys , incorporation of its conservation into the agenda of the local good agricultural practices committee , and a study of the feasibility of an\nestades ( in litt . 2007 ) estimated the population to number 650 individuals in azapa , and 550 in chaca . this totals 1 , 200 individuals , roughly equivalent to 800 mature individuals . previously , estades et al . ( 2007 ) had calculated a chilean population of 1 , 539 individuals in september 2003 . recent information , however , suggests that the population of this species has since declined to around 500 individuals ( d . lebbin in litt . 2012 ) . this estimate is assumed to equate to a population of c . 335 mature individuals , rounded here to c . 350 mature individuals . trend justification : evidence from surveys and anecdotal observations indicates that this species is undergoing an extremely rapid decline . population estimates have shown that the azapa and chaca populations have reduced by 15 . 6 % annually ( 81 . 6 % ) in 10 years ( c . f . estades in litt . 2013 ) .\nlike most websites we use cookies . if you\u2019re happy with that , just carry on as normal ( close this bar ) - otherwise click here to find out more .\nfor a while , it looked like they might actually be in recovery . but this year\u2019s census of the american subspecies , the rufa red knot , found that numbers have plummeted to an all - time low . the likely cause ? food shortages in delaware bay , a crucial feeding stopover site on their migration .\nclimate change and invasive species don\u2019t just impact birds \u2013 the latest update to the iucn red list of threatened species shows that they are a growing threat to australia\u2019s unique reptiles . however , the update also revealed good news for four south american amphibians assumed to be extinct .\nwe present the highlights of the latest issue of bird conservation international , our quarterly peer - reviewed journal promoting worldwide research and action for the conservation of birds and their habitats .\nwe\u2019ve selected crafts from across the world that will delight children and benefit birds . from ten - minute fruit kebabs to a summer spent birdhouse building , we\u2019ve got projects for every age and timespan : all you need to do is pick your skill level .\nhelp us to protect america ' s migratory birds on their epic journey across continents .\naround one in five of all the world\u2019s bird species migrate . and while every migration is an epic and often perilous feat of endurance , here\u2019s a selection of species that we feel go the extra mile .\nulcinj salina is a traditional salt pan whose shallow waters feed and support more than 250 bird species . however , recent proposals to build a large - scale tourism resort threaten to obliterate it .\njane alexander is an acclaimed actress , author and an impassioned birder who is also a member of birdlife\u2019s global advisory group . here , she talks to us about how acting got her into birding , and how the new generation gives her hope .\na new mode of farming is taking off in south america . the pampas is one the world\u2019s most important grassland biomes : but intensive farming is wearing it down . now , a scheme for sustainable , bird - friendly meat is getting prestigious recognition .\none in eight bird species is in danger of extinction \u2013 but what are the main factors driving their decline ? they might not be what you think . read about the five biggest threats to bird biodiversity , and what\u2019s being done to combat them .\nover the last 40 years , europe\u2019s skylarks have suffered a 50 % decline due to the intensification of agriculture . in sweden , this figure jumps to a staggering 75 % .\nwe interview katharine lowrie : part of a record - breaking couple who sailed the atlantic to begin an ultra - marathon through south america , all to raise money and awareness for wildlife and wild places .\nit\u2019s a first for burkina faso . . . a love story between environmental organization naturama ( birdlife - burkina faso ) and the private cement factory cimburkina . their common aim is to strengthen nature conservation and improve community livelihoods at the cement plant ' s operating sites .\nfollowing a tireless campaign by birdlife australia , which gained support from around the world , the australian government has decided to reject an application for phosphate mining on christmas island , a crucial wildlife haven in the indian ocean .\nwhile armed conflict in colombia may be over , an influx of illegal miners and loggers means our newest partner\u2019s collaborative approach to conservation has never been more important .\nwe are a global partnership of independent organisations working together as one for nature and people . read more about birdlife .\nwe create action through insight . through our expertise on birds we act for nature and people . through sharing local challenges we find lasting global solutions . read more about our programmes .\nwhen you get involved with birdlife you are helping us to go beyond today to impact the future . read about how you can support us .\nfrom the amazon to the zambezi , from the tundra to the tierra del fuego the birdlife partnership is active in more than 120 countries worldwide . read more about our regional work .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\n8 cm . small hummingbird with short black bill . iridescent olive - green upperparts . male has violet - red throat . rest of underparts white . strongly forked tail . short , green central rectrices . longer outer rectrices blackish . female white tinged buff below , tail unforked , and rectrices tipped white .\nestades , c . , fjelds\u00e5 , j . , gonzalez - gomez , p . l . , howell , s . , jaramillo , a . & lebbin , d .\nbenstead , p . , capper , d . , sharpe , c j , symes , a . , taylor , j . & ashpole , j\nthis species is classified as critically endangered based on evidence that it is undergoing an extremely rapid population decline . urgent research and targeted conservation actions are now required to understand , halt and reverse this decline .\n, and there is a historical record as far south as northern antofagasta province , but there are no recent records for peru ( estades 2007 ) . it was described as very common in the first half of the 20th century , with over 100 seen feeding together . in the late 1980s , the species was noted as common in gardens in arica and regular in the lluta valley ; however , it has since disappeared from these areas , and it is now rare in the azapa valley , where it was once regular and common ( estades 2007 , a . jaramillo\n, while in 2007 the total population was estimated at around 1 , 200 individuals ( 55 % in azapa and 45 % in chaca ) ( c .\n2007 ) . recent information , however , suggests that the population of this species has since declined to around 500 individuals ( d . lebbin\n. 2012 ) . population estimates have shown that the azapa and chaca populations have reduced by 15 . 6 % annually ( 81 . 6 % ) in 10 years ( c . f . estades\n. 2013 ) . monthly searches for the species in all tacna valleys ( southern peru ) during 2008 - 2009 did not yield any records of this species ( n . hidalgo\n. 2013 ) . it has been speculated that the species could be lost from the azapa valley within a decade , and that the species could face extinction within two decades ( a . jaramillo\nit inhabits small remnant patches of native scrub in desert river valleys up to 750 m , but birds are occasionally reported above 2 , 000 m and once as high as 3 , 000 m ( j . fjelds\u00e5\n. despite the large numbers formerly seen feeding in flowering trees , it is usually a solitary feeder . active nests have been found in april , may , late august and september and there appear to be two annual peaks in breeding activity ( estades 2007 , estades\n. 2007 ) . it is likely that males display at leks . courtship territories are placed above dense thickets which are now scarce in azapa and v\u00edtor ( clark\nremaining native habitat in the narrow and heavily cultivated valleys inhabited by the species is confined to small patches , and the indigenous plants favoured by the species may be severely threatened . dense thickets , possibly used as courtship territories , are now scarce due to the spread of agricultural activities in azapa and v\u00edtor ( clark\n. 2013 ) . although it has adapted to use introduced plants the presence of certain native species may still be a limiting factor ( estades 2007 ) . the ' cha\u00f1ar ' tree\nmay be an important food resource but is often destroyed by farmers who consider it invasive and believe it attracts mice ( estades 2007 ) . pesticides began to be heavily used in the azapa valley in the 1960s in order to control the mediterranean fruit fly and other crop pests , but the peruvian sheartail\nhas not suffered similar declines , suggesting that this may not be the primary cause of its decline ( estades 2007 ) . competition with peruvian sheartail has been suggested as a potential threat , although this has not been proven ( estades\n. 2013 ) . the various threats of habitat destruction , pesticide use and competition with other hummingbirds are likely to be synergistic in their impacts on the species ( p . l . gonzalez - gomez\nthrough their monopolisation of the new resource ( p . l . gonzalez - gomez\nresearch genetic structure of populations . begin a habitat restoration program in the lluta , chaca and azapa valleys , ensuring that species whose flowers are visited regularly by\n. 2014 ) . conduct an education campaign to emphasize the importance of native plants , and encourage the planting of appropriate trees and bushes . continue population monitoring , as detailed in species recovery plan . limit the amount of pesticides used in azapa and chaca valleys . as the vast majority of the species ' s range is now privately owned , it has been recommended that some of this land be purchased to create pesticide - free , native plant reserves , with perhaps one in each valley inhabited by the species ( a . jaramillo\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22688244a112392683 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : eulidia yarrellii . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nlittle is known about the natural ecology of this small hummingbird . it is a solitary feeder and has been observed in gardens feeding on flowers of lantana spp . and hibiscus spp . ( 2 ) . nests containing eggs and chicks have been recorded in late august ( 2 ) .\nthis bird is currently restricted to the extreme northern reaches of chile . it is thought to be confined to just two valleys that contain suitable habitat ( 2 ) .\nfound in scrub in desert river valleys up to 750 metres above sea level ( 2 ) .\nclassified as endangered ( en \u2013 b1 + 2abce ) on the iucn red list 2002 ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nfurther research into the natural ecology of this species is urgently required in order to understand the nature of resources needed to sustain the population . exports of hummingbirds from peru and chile are controlled ( 2 ) and this species is listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ( 3 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nbirdlife international ( 2003 ) birdlife\u0092s online world bird database : the site for bird conservation . version 2 . 0 . cambridge , uk . birdlife international . available at : urltoken\nbbc natural history unit c / o bbc motion gallery getty images 101 bayham street london nw1 0ag united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 3227 2579 bbc . motiongallerysales @ urltoken urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nrelationships unclear ; usually placed in monotypic genus , as here , but external morphology and behaviour support treatment within myrtis . possible hybridization with thaumastura cora indicated # r . monotypic .\nn chile in lluta , azapa and vitor valleys ( arica ) ; historical record as far s as n antofagasta . few sight records in s peru ( tacna and possibly moquegua ) # r .\n7\u00b75\u20138 cm ; 2\u00b73\u20132\u00b76 g . male has short black bill ; upperparts iridescent olive green ; throat shining violet - red , underparts white ; central tail . . .\ncultivated desert river valleys and gardens from 200 m to 750 m , commonest below 400 m , with a . . .\nlittle known . nesting records are available from may , aug and sept , while an immature was collected in nov , and juveniles and partially . . .\npresumably sedentary for the most part , occasionally straggling s into n antofagasta , chile , but . . .\ncritically endangered . cites ii . a little - known , restricted - range species : present in peru - chile pacific slope eba . until 2000 ranked as vulnerable , and only uplisted to . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nmolecular studies # r # r indicate that genera myrtis , eulidia , rhodopis , thaumastura and chaetocercus form a monophyletic group that includes also calypte , archilochus and selasphorus .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 297 , 431 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe atacama desert is a narrow strip of desert along the northwest coast of chile . it extends nearly 1600 km and reaches a maximum width of 180 km . in many areas rainfall has never been recorded . consequently , an extremely arid , almost barren , landscape predominates . despite the aridity of this desert , some cacti ( eulychnia ) , perennials ( nolana ) and mesquite ( prosopis ) occur in basins where occasional water accumulation occurs . relatively few animal species have adapted to this arid environment and therefore , faunal diversity and density is extremely low . even bacteria are scarce , and in many portions of the desert insects and fungi are absent . the intrinsic value of the atacama desert ' s plant and animal communities lies in the unique nature of their composition , the high levels of endemism and some species ' remarkable adaptations for survival in some of the planet ' s most demanding conditions .\ndescription location and general description the atacama desert ecoregion occupies a continuous strip for nearly 1 , 600 km along the narrow coast of the northern third of chile from near arica ( 18\u00b024 ' s ) southward to near la serena ( 29\u00b055 ' s ) ( dillon and a . e . hoffmann - j 1997 ) . this desert is a sparsely populated virtually rainless plateau , running east from the pacific ocean to the andes mountains . the average width is less than 100 km . the xeric conditions extend up to1 , 500 masl on the drier slopes ( b\u00f6rgel 1973 ) . the faulted coastal mountains ( mostly 500 - 1000 m high ) are composed of cretaceous sediments ( limestone and sandstone ) over more ancient masses of crystalline rocks ( lustig 1970 ) .\nthe atacama desert is considered to be one of the driest coastal deserts in the world . vegetation must contend with an annual rainfall of 0 . 6 mm in arica and 2 . 1 mm in iquique . the atacama becomes slightly less arid as it moves southward . the average monthly temperatures in iquique range from 14 . 5 oc in september to 21 oc in march ( dillon and a . e . hoffmann - j 1997 ) .\ntopography and substrate combine to influence the patterns of moisture availability and areas of suitable habitat . where isolated mountains or steep coastal slopes intercept the clouds , a fog zone develops with a stratus layer concentrated against the hillsides . the moisture allows the development of fog - zone plant communities termed\nlomas\n( small hills ) near the coast and in lower portions of numerous gorges (\nquebradas\n) between sea level and 1 , 100 m . these plant formations also have been called the fertile belt , fog oases or meadows on the desert . plant communities of the lomas consist of mixtures of annual and short - lived perennial and woody scrub vegetation .\nthe northern coastal zone has almost no vegetation . among some of the few plant species found in this zone are cacti growing over 500 m - eulychnia iquiquensis and copiapoa sp . near iquique , there is large community of tillandsia landbeckii growing at 990 - 1 , 100 m ( dillon and a . e . hoffmann - j 1997 ) . the valleys along streams support plant communities that are composed of trees prosopis chilensis , p . tamarugo , salix humboldtiana , schinus aareira , acacia macrantha and caesalpinia tinctoria and other shrubby and herbaceous plants ( roig 1999 ) . on slopes moistened by drizzle during the winter , sparse strands of tillandsia spp . may exist in association with a few lichens .\nnear the town of antofagastsa , the region is practically devoid of vegetation except for eulychnia iquiquensis and copiapoa sp . only some brush plants occur along the coastal plateaus , dependent for survival on the moisture of persistent fog , they include heliotropium pycnophyllum , ephedra breana and lycium deserti ( dillon and a . e . hoffmann - j 1997 ) . in places away from the area of fog formation , the desert is almost lifeless . in these areas , even decomposition does not occur . dead vegetation may be thousands of years old ( roig 1999 ) .\nthe southern atacama desert has a fog - zone vegetation with approximately 230 species of vascular plants . euphorbia lactiflua and eulychnia iquiquensis are dominant species in the central area of this zone . other shrubby species in the zone include echinopsis coquimbana , oxalis gigantea , lycium stenophyllum , proustia cuneifolia , croton chilensis , balbisia penduncularis and tillandsia geissei . bromeliads are also present along the coastal flats in this southern part , and include deuterocohni chrysantha and puya boliviensis ( dillon and a . e . hoffmann - j 1997 ) .\nthe southernmost area in the ecoregion is near cha\u00f1aral . this area has communities of shrubs such as skytnathus acutus , encelia canescens , frankenia chilensis , and nolana rostrata . annuals and perennials include perityle emoryi , oenothera coquimbensis , ademia latistipula , atragalus coquimbensis , cruckshanksia verticillata , fagonia chilensis and tetragonia angustifolia ( dillon and a . e . hoffmann - j 1997 ) .\nbiodiversity features the intrinsic value of the atacama desert ' s plant and animal communities lies in the unique nature of their composition , the high levels of endemism and some species ' remarkable adaptations for survival in some of the planet ' s most demanding conditions . the highly endemic flora is of particular importance . there are some traditional uses of species by the local inhabitants ( aronson 1990 ; bittmann 1988 ) , e . g . food from oxalis spp . , medicinals from salvia tubiflora and ephedra spp .\nthere are approximately 550 species of vascular plants representing 225 genera and 80 families in the lomas formations . the most diverse families are the asteraceae , nolanaceae , cataceae , boraginaceae , and apiaceae . endemism can be very high ( over 60 % ) ( rundel et al . 1991 ) . most of the plant species mentioned earlier are endemic to the atacama desert . three cacti are endemic to the northern part of the atacama desert ; they are eulychnia iquiquensis , neoporteria sensu and copiapoa sp . endemic shurbs of the ecoregion include berberis litoralis , anisomeria littoralis , atriplex taltalensis , adesmia viscidissima , croton chilensis , balbisia peduncularis , nicotiana solanifolia , teucrium nudicaule , monttea chilensis , stevia hyssopifolia , senecio almeidae , gutierrezia taltalensis and haploppus desrticula . endemic plants near tocopilla are malesherbia tocopillana , mathewsia collina and nolana tocopillensis ( dillon and a . e . hoffmann - j 1997 ) .\nunderstandably , very few animals have adapted to successfully inhabit this extremely dry habitat . the few scorpions and insects are the prey of lizards ( tropidurus spp . ) and of a small passerine of the genus geositta . an occasional bird of prey or vulture can be found scavenging on the carrion of domestic animals . mammals are equally few with a mouse ( phyllotis darwini ) and a fox ( pseudalopex griseus ) encountered periodically . the growth of a few scattered shrubs and herbaceous plants such as lichens enables certain specialized insects and poisonous spiders to colonize these deserts .\ncurrent status the region has been moderately affected by roads and mining operations . the northern area of the ecoregion has been especially affected by overgrazing of domestic livestock , collection of firewood , and commercial gathering of rare plants , including cacti and bulbs .\nsome nearby areas have archaeological importance . the beauty and rarity of the lomas formations provide opportunities for tourism combined with scientific studies . if the impact on the delicate communities is controlled through supervision , lomas formations can be enjoyed by the public and preserved . environmental education on the importance , rarity and the unusual characteristics of these natural resources is desperately needed . for example , quebrada el le\u00f3n needs some recuperation from overuse and could become a lasting and informative oasis as a nature reserve for residents of caldera and copiap\u00f3 ( dillon and a . e . hoffmann - j 1997 ) .\nthree protected areas exist within the extreme desert region . pan de az\u00facar national park ( established in 1986 , iucn category ii ) covers 438 km\u00b2 . it has been recommended ( anderson et al . 1990 ) that this park be expanded northward to include quebrada esmeralda ( 25\u00b050 ' s ) and quebrada de las lozas ( 25\u00b041 ' s ) , which would protect areas very rich in cacti . la chimba national reserve ( iucn category iv ) of 30 km\u00b2 was recently established and lies approximately 15 km north of antofagasta . pampa del tamarugal national reserve ( iucn category iv ) , 1 , 023 km\u00b2 in size , is one of the key areas for the conservation of the threatened tamarugo conebill ( conirostrum tamarugense ) .\ntypes and severity of threats a few port towns exist in this desert . iquique , caldera , and antofagasta are located on precarious sea - eroded terraces at the base of coastal cliffs . these towns are the outlet for the numerous mining centers in the interior tectonic basins . the wealth of the region lies in its mineral resources ( copper , sodium chloride , sodium nitrate , iodine salts ) , not in its spare biotic resources ( roig 1999 ) .\nmost threats to this ecoregion are closely associated with the few human population centers . specifically , these include increased urbanization , pollution , road construction , livestock grazing \u2013 ( numerous goats ) , fuelwood gathering , commercial plant collecting , and erosion .\nsince many sites have become accessible by road only recently ( i . e . , within the past 12 years ) , atacama ' s specialized ecosystems remained well preserved until recent times . road construction in association with mining operations is increasing human occupation in the region . with the rise in copper prices during the 1980s , reactivation of mining activities utilizing large quantities of sulphuric acid has had an essentially undocumented impact on terrestrial and marine life ( anderson et al . 1990 ) .\njustification of ecoregion delineation the atacama desert is distinguished as being one of the driest places in the americas \u2013 and said to resemble a lunar landscape . inititial delineation\u2019s followed di castri ( 1968 ) , however for the linework we followed simmonetti and montenegro ( 1994 ) to draw the northern and southern boundaries . eastern delineations follow the unesco ( 1980 ) boundary for the neighoring puna ecoregion in the high andes , and the western delineation is the pacific ocean .\nreferences anderson , e . f . , m . bonilla - f . , a . e . hoffmann - j . , and n . p . taylor . 1990 . succulent plant conservation studies and training in chile . world wildlife fund - u . s . , washington , d . c .\naronson , j . 1990 . desert plants of use and charm from northern chile . desert plants 10 ( 2 ) : 79 - 86 .\nbittmann , b . 1988 . recursos y supervivencia en el desierto de atacama . in masuda , s . , editors , recursos naturales andinos . tokyo : university of tokyo .\nb\u00f6rgel , r . 1973 . the coastal desert of chile . pages 111 - 114 in d . h . k . amiran , and a . w . wilson , editors . coastal deserts : their natural and human environments . tucson : university of arizona press .\ndi castri , f . 1968 . esquisse ecologique du chili . biologique de l ' amerique australe 4 . cnrs , paris , france .\ndillon , m . o . , and a . e . hoffmann - j . 1997 . lomas formations of the atacama desert northern chile . in s . d . davis , v . h . heywood , o . herrera - macbryde , j . villa - lobos , and a . c . hamilton , editors . centres of plant diversity : a guide and strategy for their conservation . wwf , iucn , oxford , u . k .\ndorst j . 1967 . south america and central america : a natural history . hamish hamilton , london .\nlustig , l . k . 1970 . appraisal of research on geomorphology and surface hydrology of desert environments . in w . g . mcginnies , b . j . goldman , and p . paylore , editors . deserts of the world : an appraisal of research into their physical and biological environments . university of arizona press , tucson .\nroig , v . 1999 . atacama desert . page 54 in m . e . mares , editor , encyclopedia of deserts . university of oklahoma press , norman .\nrundel , p . w . 1981 . the matorral zone of central chile . pages 175 - 201 in f . di castri , d . w . goodall , and r . l . specht , editors . ecosystems of the world vol . 11 . elsevier , amsterdam .\nsimmonetti , j . a . and g . montenegro . 1994 . conservation and use of biodiversity of the arid and semiarid zones of chile . presented at the international workshop\nconservaci\u00f3n y uso sostenible de la biodiversidad en zonas \u00e1ridas y semi\u00e1ridas de am\u00e9rica latina\n, march 1994 , guadalajara , mexico . unpublished document .\nworld wildlife fund 1250 24th street , n . w . washington , dc 20037\nthis discussion was first published as part of the 2013 red list update , but remains open for comment to enable reassessment in 2014 .\nfurther information is requested on the population trends , size and distribution of this species . comments on the proposed uplisting are welcome .\ncollar , n . j . , gonzaga , l . p . , krabbe , n . , madro\u00f1o nieto , a . , naranjo , l . g . , parker , t . a . and wege , d . c . ( 1992 ) threatened birds of the americas : the icbp / iucn red data book . international council for bird preservation : cambridge , u . k .\nwe have conducted monthly additional searches for the species in all tacna valleys ( south peru ) during 2008 - 2009 , this species was not recorded in any census . regards .\nthere is now a period for further comments until the final deadline of 31 march , after which recommended categorisations will be put forward to iucn .\nthe final red list categories will be published on the birdlife and iucn websites in mid - 2014 , following further checking of information relevant to the assessments by both birdlife and iucn .\nthe final categorisation will be published later in 2014 , following further checking of information relevant to the assessment by birdlife and iucn .\nwith stark cliff walls over 1 , 600 meters high , the chicamocha canyon is the deepest in colombia . unfortunately for biologists , its difficult terrain houses a number of endemic species . it was in order to confirm the presence of one of these species \u2013 nic\u00e9foro\u2019s wren thryophilus nicefori \u2013 that four biologists from calidris ( birdlife in colombia ) [ \u2026 ]\nmost businesses want to minimise their impact on the natural world \u2013 but it can be hard to know where to start . luckily , the process has just got a whole lot easier with the release of a new roadmap for companies operating in some of the most biologically significant places on the planet . the report , [ \u2026 ]\n\u201ca summit for the flyways\u201d united 100 different organisations from 70 different countries to address one problem : how to protect migratory birds on their incredible journey . and with millions of migratory birds passing through the middle east , it was the perfect opportunity to tackle regional issues , too . birdlife took advantage of the fact that conservation [ \u2026 ]\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it ."]}
{"id": 1780, "summary": [{"text": "jasus paulensis , also commonly known as the st paul rock lobster , is a species of spiny lobster found in the waters around saint paul island in the southern indian ocean and around tristan da cunha in the southern atlantic ocean .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "at one time the rock lobsters on tristan da cunha were believed to be a separate species known as the tristan rock lobster ( jasus tristani ) , but the use of mitochondrial dna sequencing has shown them to be identical .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "some authorities , for example the iucn , retain them as separate species .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the tristan rock lobster features on the coat of arms and the flag of tristan da cunha . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "jasus paulensis", "paragraphs": ["afrikaans kreef [ from synonym ] for jasus ( jasus ) lalandii ( h . milne edwards , 1837 )\nafrikaans kaapse kreef [ from synonym ] for jasus ( jasus ) lalandii ( h . milne edwards , 1837 )\nenglish cape crawfish [ from synonym ] for jasus ( jasus ) lalandii ( h . milne edwards , 1837 )\nenglish cape crayfish [ from synonym ] for jasus ( jasus ) lalandii ( h . milne edwards , 1837 )\njasus paulensis ( heller , 1862 ) : beurois ( 1971 ) [ statut pour les \u00eeles subantarctiques ] beurois , j . 1971 . r\u00e9gime alimentaire de la langouste jasus paulensis ( heller , 1862 ) des iles saint - paul et amsterdam ( ocean indien ) r\u00e9sultats pr\u00e9liminaires . t\u00e9thys , 3 : 943 - 948 .\ndistribution of jasus spiny lobsters in the mid - latitude southern . . . | download scientific diagram\ngrua , p . , 1963 . maturit\u00e9 , cycle sexuel , soies ovig\u00e8res des langoustes australes femelles jasus paulensis heller , 1863 . etude statistique . comit\u00e9 national fran\u00e7ais recherches antarctiques , 4 : i - viii , 1 - 35 , figs 1 , 2 , graphs 1 - 14\nenglish australian crayfish [ from synonym ] for jasus ( sagmariasus ) verreauxi ( h . milne edwards , 1851 )\nvillacorta - rath c , et al . outlier snps enable food traceability of the southern rock lobster , jasus edwardsii .\nto assess the probe efficiency in non - target species ( i . e . those not used for the initial probe design ) , we assessed the recovery of loci across the modern jasus samples including j . edwardsii , j . frontalis , j . lalandii , j . paulensis and j . tristani .\ngrua , p . , 1960 . les langoustes australes ( jasus lalandii ) . biologie - milieu - exploitation commerciale . terres australes antarctiques fran\u00e7aises , 10 : 15 - 40 , figs\nmorgan emj , green bs , murphy np , strugnell jm . investigation of genetic structure between deep and shallow populations of the southern rock lobster , jasus edwardsii in tasmania , australia .\nfor the target - capture experiment , we collected 87 samples of modern and museum specimens of jasus comprising six species j . edwardsii , j . caveorum , j . frontalis , j . lalandii , j . paulensis and j . tristani . specimens of s . verreauxi ( n = 16 ) were included to evaluate the custom probe set and the efficiency between ddrad and target - capture methods for the validated loci in both methods ( supplementary table s11 ) .\nporobi\u0107 j , canales - aguirre cb , ernst b , galleguillos r , hern\u00e1ndez ce . biogeography and historical demography of the juan fern\u00e1ndez rock lobster , jasus frontalis ( milne edwards , 1837 )\nthe genus jasus encompasses six lobster species ( j . caveorum , j . edwardsii , j . frontalis , j . lalandii , j . paulensis and j . tristani ) that are distributed throughout the southern hemisphere 37 . j . edwardsii is the most widespread species within the genus , whilst the other species maintain limited geographical distributions , with some species known from only a single seamount ( e . g . j . caveorum ) . these species all support valuable fisheries , and have been exploited for more than one hundred years 38 .\npca across and within species based on snp genotypes , where no deamination filter was applied . for each dataset , the sample passed filters and snp pruning was adjusted to allow 0 . 10 maximum missing data per site and maf < 0 . 05 : ( a ) pca across six jasus species , 146 snps and 53 samples passed filters ; ( b ) pca of j . lalandii , 154 snps and 19 samples passed filter ; ( c ) pca of j . edwardsii , 748 variants and 12 samples passed filters ; ( d ) pca of j . paulensis , 124 variants and 14 samples passed filters .\ndeamination and transition / transversion ratio were calculated over filtered variants using vcftools 0 . 1 . 14 60 . snp pruning , diversity indices ( f st , heterozygosity and maf ) and pca were estimated for all jasus species using plink 1 . 9 61 .\nbooth , j . d . & ovenden , j . r . distribution of jasus spp . ( decapoda : palinuridae ) phyllosomas in southern waters : implications for larval recruitment . mar . ecol . prog . ser . 200 , 241\u2013255 ( 2000 ) .\nsample quality of modern and museum jasus specimens . ( a ) box - plot of mean gc content and year since sample collection . ( b ) linear regression between a 260 / a 280 ratio and gc content ; blue dots represent museum samples and red dots represent modern samples .\nmuseum samples ( n = 47 ) were donated by the national institute of water and atmospheric research ( niwa ) and te papa museum ( new zealand ) . the samples were collected in 1967 ( j . lalandii and j . paulensis ) , 1991 ( j . edwardsii and j . lalandii ) and 1995 ( j . caveorum ) . samples were preserved in ethanol / isopropanol ( mostly evaporated ) . in some cases preservation methods were not indicated .\nholthuis , l . b . and e . sivertsen . 1967 . the crustacea decapoda , mysidacea and cirripedia of the tristan da cunha archipelago with a revision of the\nfrontalis\nsubgroup of the genus jasus . results norwegian scientific expedition to tristan da cunha , 52 : 1 - 55 , text figs 1 - 9 , pls 1 - 5\na total of 40 lobsters samples were collected between 2010 and 2015 . the french southern and antarctic lands ( terres australes et antarctiques fran\u00e7aises - taaf ) provided j . paulensis pleopod tissue collected in 2014 . j . lalandii and j . tristani pereiopod samples , collected during in 2015 in south africa and tristan da cunha islands , respectively , were donated by the south african department of agriculture , fisheries and forestry . j . frontalis were sampled in juan fernandez archipelago in 2010 43 , these samples were donated by the universidad de concepcion ( chile ) .\nthe efficiency of the target capture experiment non - target jasus species was assessed using only modern samples ( n = 40 ) . the overall target coverage was given by the mean depth of targets for each species using bedtools 2 . 26 62 . mean coverage ( sample coverage depth ) , heterozygous read rate and gc content of samples were estimated from sample alignments using bbmap ( urltoken ) .\nfigure 1 . distribution of jasus spiny lobsters in the mid - latitude southern hemisphere based on booth ( 2006 ) . sampling locations for the present study were as follows : ( 1 ) st paul and amsterdam islands ; ( 2 ) seamount 150 ( located on the southwest indian ridge ) ; ( 3 ) gough and inaccessible islands ( tristan da cunha archipelago ) ; and ( 4 ) vema seamount .\nprincipal component analysis and scatter plot of locus - specific f st vs observed heterozygosity of jasus species in modern samples . ( a ) and ( b ) 313 snps from the ddrad original probe set ; ( c ) and ( d ) 647 snps from the assembly - based reference . maximum missing data per site was set to 0 . 10 , maf < 0 . 05 , and overall f st was estimated according to weir & cockerham ( 1984 ) .\nnumber of variable loci shared amongst each of six jasus species . ( a ) the left panel displays the number of loci shared among five ( 5 ) , four ( 4 ) , three ( 3 ) and two ( 2 ) species , or found only in a single species ( 1 ) in the assembly - based reference ( black and grey stacked column ) and the corresponding significant blast hits to the original probe set ( grey ) . ( b ) the right panel is a graphic representation of target enrichment hybridization reaction showing library size , captured fragments size and off - target reads . the grey lines represent the 120 - mer probes , the orange lines represent the library fragments and the black arrows represent overlapping / non - overlapping paired - end reads ( read 1 and read 2 ) .\nin order to compare the target - genome divergence among species and its effects on target enriched sequencing , a nonparametric correlation was performed among sequencing yield ( given in number of processed reads ) , mapped reads , gc content , mean coverage and mapping quality for each species using spss v22 . 0 ( ibm corp . , ny , usa ) . univariate analysis of variance was applied to test whether gc content and mean coverage were significantly different among jasus species . the sequencing yield effect was included as a covariate , since it was previously explored as a random factor within a one - way anova analysis and found to be significant . data were checked with levene\u2019s test and logarithm transformed to ensure normality and homogeneity of variance . principal component analysis ( pca ) including all variables was performed using past 3 . 12 ( urltoken ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nbatchelor , a . , de silva , r . , dyer , e . , kasthala , g . , lutz , m . l . , mcguinness , s . , milligan , h . t . , soulsby , a . - m . & whitton , f .\nhas been assessed as data deficient . this species was formerly known from a very restricted range ( st paul and new amsterdam islands ) , however a few recent specimens have been collected from other seamounts along the south west indian ridge . this species faces a number of threats including intense harvesting within the st paul and new amsterdam islands eez , and intrinsic threats associated with its small range . the abundance of this species outside of the current fishing grounds is unknown therefore making it difficult to draw any conclusions on the impact of fishing to the global population . further surveys are needed for this species along the seamounts of the south west indian ridge before a more accurate assessment of conservation status can be made .\nthis species was originally only known from the st . paul and amsterdam islands in the southern indian ocean , with a single specimen has also been reported from the kerguelen islands ( holthuis 1991 ) , however recently additional specimens have been collected from seamounts along the south west indian ridge ( j . groeneveld pers . comm . 2011 ) . these indicate that the species is far more widely , but sparsely , distributed along the south west indian ridge than previously thought .\ntypically this species is found on rocky substrates at a depth range of 0 - 60 m , although is most commonly found in the kelp zone at a depth range of 10 - 35 m ( holthuis 1991 ) . females are most commonly taken from may to october , while males are most commonly taken from november to april ( holthuis 1991 ) .\nthis species is harvested as a food source and is taken using lobster pots ( holthuis 1991 ) . only a single ship harvests this fishery , and undertakes two trips per year with each trip lasting up to two months ( biais 2009 ) . recent information from the french rock lobster fishery in the st paul and amsterdam eez shows a consistent catch of around 350 - 400 t ( g . duhamel pers . comm . 2011 ) . \u201cyields ( kg / pot ) are presently increasing along the period 2001 - 2010\u201d ( g . duhamel pers . comm . 2011 ) .\nthe major threat to this species is high levels of exploitation . an intrinsic threat is this lobster ' s extremely restricted range . this species is also susceptible to environmental fluctuations for both adult and larval stages , and also to single catastrophic events .\nan annual fishing quota of 400 tonnes is in place for this species . further surveys for this species are needed along the south west indian ridge in order to better understand both distribution and abundance .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nbroad and flattened , about as wide as long , much larger than the small spines .\ntype locality :\nst . paul\n, [ = st . paul island in the southern part of the western\n. a report of the catch of a single lobster in kerguelen islands by aubert de la r\u00fce ( 1954 : 119 ) seems very reliable and is well documented ( the specimen was brought up with algae entangled in the anchor of the ship\nloz\u00e8re\n, a catch witnessed by a . berland ) ; but this evidently is a freak occurrence , as no lobster catches have been reported from the kerguelen either before or after this event .\nthe species lives at depths between 0 and 60 m , on rocky or gravel bottom , being most numerous in the kelp zone between 10 and 35 m . egg - layingstarts in may , and\nfemales have been observed until november , or exceptionally early december . females are caught from may to october , while males dominate in most catches from november to april . the animals are nocturnal and feed on plants and ( dead ) animal matter .\ncm ( females ) . the specimes from amsterdam island on the average are slightly smaller than those from st . paul island .\nthe fishing grounds are restricted to the islands of st . paul and amsterdam , the shorelines of which are respectively 12 and\nheller , 1862 , verhandlungen zoologisch - botanischen gesellschaft wien , 12 : 525 .\naubert de la r\u00fce , e . , 1954 . deux ans aux iles de la d\u00e9solation , archipel de kerguelen : 1 - 316 , pls ( r . juliard , paris ) .\nfischer , w . and g . bianchi ( eds ) , 1984 . fao species identification sheets for fishery purposes . western indian ocean ( fishing area 51 ) , vol . 5 : pag . var .\nheller , c . , 1862b . neue crustaceen , gesammelt w\u00e4hrend der weltumseglung der k . k . fregatte navara . zweiter vorl\u00e4ufiger bericht . verhandlungen zoologisch - botanischen gesellschaft wien , 12 : 519 - 528 .\nwilliams , a . b . , 1986 . lobsters - identification , world distribution , and u . s . trade . marine fisheries review , 48 ( 2 ) : 1 - 36 , figs 1 - 80\ncontains the volume of fish catches landed by country or territory of capture , by species or a higher taxonomic level , by fao major fishing areas , and year for all commercial , industrial , recreational and subsistence purpose . more > >\nto define your query , select the items of interest from the selection tabs and choose the entries to show from the display tab . use the hierarchy option to change the grouping of individual items . to expand / collapse aggregated items click the plus / minus symbol beside them .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nen - st . paul rock lobster , fr - langouste de st . paul , sp - langosta de st . paul .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nholthuis , l . b . 1991 . fao species catalogue . vol 13 . marine lobsters of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species of interest to fisheries known to date . fao fisheries synopsis . 125 ( 13 ) : 292 p .\nfao species catalogue . vol 13 . marine lobsters of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species of interest to fisheries known to date\nenglish agassiz ' s lobsterette for nephropsis agassizii a . milne - edwards , 1880\nenglish atlantic deep - sea lobster for acanthacaris caeca a . milne - edwards , 1881\nenglish blind deep sea lobster for acanthacaris caeca a . milne - edwards , 1881\nenglish blue spot rock lobster for panulirus longipes ( a . milne - edwards , 1868 )\nenglish blunt slipper lobster for scyllarides squammosus ( h . milne edwards , 1837 )\ndeep sea between 122 and 1400 m , mostly between 122 and 900 m . [ details ]\ndeep sea between 878 and 2560 m , most common between 1100 and 1900 m . [ details ]\ndeep sea from 470 to 1804 m , mostly between 900 and 1400 m ; bottom mud . [ details ]\ndeep sea from 580 to 1160 m , bottom mud or sandy mud . [ details ]\ndeep - sea species from 640 to 1054 m depth . bottom very flat , of soft mud ( ooze ) . possibly a burrowing species . [ details ]\ndepth range from ( 205 - ) 260 to 373 ( - 390 ) m . [ details ]\ndepth range from 0 . 6 to 180m , usually between 0 . 6 and 64m [ details ]\nfound in deep water ( 406m ) , but also in 59 - 61m depth . [ details ]\nin shallow water , from the sublittoral down to 15m depth , in coral reef areas , often on seaward edges of the reef . . . [ details ]\nlittoral zone to 0 . 5m deep , in sheltered bays and estuaries [ details ]\na deepsea species from 293 to 878 m depth ( mostly between 550 and 825 m ) . lives on soft mud bottoms in burrows . [ details ]\nburrowing in muddy sand of the intertidal zone , sometimes under rocks . burrows y - shaped , and about 0 . 6 to 1 . 0m deep [ details ]\ncontinental shelf between 0 and 150 m depth ; usually not deeper than 50 m . found on hard substrates : rock or hard . . . [ details ]\ndeep sea between 137 and 824 m , mostly between 200 and 600 m . bottom : mud or fine sand . [ details ]\ndeep sea between 170 and over 1060 m , usually between 500 and 750 m . on soft muddy substrates . [ details ]\ndeep sea between 420 and 1260 m , mostly between 500 and 800m . on muddy or sandy bottoms . [ details ]\ndeep sea between 655 and 1234 m , most catches between 800 and 1300 m ; substrate sand or mud , sometimes with rubble . [ details ]\ndeep sea between 786 and 2029 m , most catches between 1600 and 1900 m . substrate : mud . [ details ]\ndepth range between 230 and 360 ( - 400 ) m . soft substrate ( mud or coralfine rubble ) . [ details ]\ndepth range from 140 to 640 m ; substrate mud or sandy mud , firm enough for burrowing . [ details ]\ndepth range from 230 to 700 m , most common between 300 and 500 m ; on a substrate of sand or mud . [ details ]\ndepth range from 250 to 750 m , but mostly between 300 and 450 m . substrate of hard mud ; the species possibly lives . . . [ details ]\nfound at 560 m depth ; bottom solid bluish grey mud overlaid by softer brown mud . [ details ]\nin shallow , sometimes slightly turbid coastal waters , from 1 to 8 m depth , with a few records from depths as great . . . [ details ]\nshallow coastal waters , rock pools , etc . the extreme rarity of the species is the cause that very little is known . . . [ details ]\nthe species lives at depths between 0 and 60 m , on rocky or gravel bottom , being most numerous in the kelp zone . . . [ details ]\nthe species lives in coastal waters at depth between 0 and 46 m , on rocky bottoms , sometimes with patches of sand . . . [ details ]\nfrench south and antarctic terr . - postage stamps ( 1955 - 2016 ) - page 8\nuntil you submit the order , another stampworld user may purchase this item . buy more from the same seller and save shipping costs .\nnow showing : french south and antarctic terr . - postage stamps ( 1955 - 2016 ) - 933 stamps .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\njoin researchgate to access over 30 million figures and 118 + million publications \u2013 all in one place .\nholthuis , l . b . 1991 . fao species catalogue . vol 13 . marine lobsters of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species of interest to fisheries known to date . fao fisheries synopsis . 125 ( 13 ) : 292 p . [ details ]\nhabitat the species lives at depths between 0 and 60 m , on rocky or gravel bottom , being most numerous in the kelp zone between 10 and 35 m . [ details ]\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ncarla a . souza , 1 nicholas murphy , 1 cecilia villacorta - rath , 2 laura n . woodings , 1 irina ilyushkina , 3 cristian e . hernandez , 4 bridget s . green , 2 james j . bell , 3 and jan m . strugnell 5 , 1\nopen access this article is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license , which permits use , sharing , adaptation , distribution and reproduction in any medium or format , as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author ( s ) and the source , provide a link to the creative commons license , and indicate if changes were made . the images or other third party material in this article are included in the article\u2019s creative commons license , unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material . if material is not included in the article\u2019s creative commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use , you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder . to view a copy of this license , visit urltoken .\nin order to obtain a ddrad loci catalogue . this was used as a template to design the mybait\nassembly , using liberal similarity thresholds ( 75 % ) , revealed putative paralogous loci , which were discarded . redundant loci ( present in multiple assemblies ) were synonymized into single loci as described in the methods section . across all three assemblies only 123 loci were shared between the two species , and 2 , 267 were species - specific ( 1 , 219 were from\n. the percentage of missing loci over all samples was 52 . 4 \u00b1 19 . 2 for\nhistograms displaying the number of shared loci among samples in ddrad libraries of j . edwardsii ( a ) and s . verreauxi ( c ) samples . overlapping histograms of target - capture and ddrad representing the percentage of missing data among validated loci in j . edwardsii ( b ) and s . verreauxi i ( d ) .\n) . the enriched loci were sequenced on a single 250 x 2 illumina miseq sequencing run , generating 4 . 6 gbp ( giga base pairs ) of sequence data ( 1 . 29 % sequencing error rate and 84 . 49 % of data above q30 score ) . subsequent trimming and removal of low quality reads and external contaminants resulted in 800 and 174 mbp high - quality data for modern and museum specimens , respectively . the lower sequencing output for museum samples is likely due to low yield dna extracts , which were highly fragmented and possessed a low a\nmuseum samples ( n = 8 ) generated sequencing data sufficient to enable variant calling and were excluded from downstream analysis .\nas the probes were developed with j . edwardsii and s . verreauxi ddrad libraries , we initially examined the probe capture efficiency in these two taxa .\n. in addition , the target - capture approach resulted in less missing data within each species than the ddrad sequencing approach ( fig .\ntarget - capture enriched sequencing and genotyping efficiency between j . edwardsii and s . verreauxi sampling .\nwe were able to re - sequence and validate 54 loci reported in villacorta - rath et al . 15 in eight j . edwardsii samples replicates . besides , the average level of missing data among these loci in our target - capture experiment was 15 . 96 % within j . edwardsii species . it means that the ddrad loci outliers discovered in a previous study 15 were successfully re - sequenced and could be enriched and sequenced in range of populations to investigate genome signatures of selection .\nspecies and a further 112 were shared across at least three species . only two loci were detected from a single species ( fig .\nnumber of reads mapped to original probe set ( ddrad loci ) and assembly - based reference with corresponding levels of similarity threshold ( * ) .\n* overall loci counts across species . * * ( maq \u2265 5 ) .\n) . after discarding snps in linkage disequilibrium , those with greater than 10 % missing data or a minor allele frequency ( maf ) lower than 0 . 05 , 313 informative snps remained across all modern\nsamples . these snps had a mean heterozygosity of 0 . 32 \u00b1 0 . 16 and a global\nof 0 . 15 . pca analyses of this data revealed three main clusters ( fig .\n) , which is unsurprising given that these snps are testing species level differences , however , the remaining snps allow population - level assessment within multiple taxa .\nspecies , including \u2018off - target\u2019 loci ( i . e . flanking regions adjacent to the targeted ddrad loci ) . all\n) . the new assembly - based reference comprised 5 , 940 loci , of which 1 , 773 loci were assigned as off - target reads , rather than artefacts ( fig .\n) , and therefore , an alternative source of informative sequencing data . blast analysis of off - target loci showed 925 significant hits to a\nthe assembly - based reference increased mapping success from 34 . 86 % to 49 . 23 % across the 40 modern\n) . mapping results showed that 1 , 475 ( among 5 , 940 ) loci were monomorphic among specimens . among the variable loci , we found 1 , 731 homologous loci were consistently shared across the five species , 4 , 026 were shared across at least three species and 112 loci were found in only a single species ( fig .\n) . employing an assembly - based reference maximised the use of available reads because it permitted the mapping of loci that were too divergent - in the non - targtet species - to be efficiently mapped to the original probe set .\ndescriptive statistics of mapped data based on the new assembly for modern and museum samples .\nmean coverage and gc content ( gc % ) per sample was compared across species in modern samples . data expressed as mean ( sem ) . a , b , c different superscripts within a column denote significant differences ( p < 0 . 01 ) . adjustment for multiple comparisons : bonferroni .\n) . for example , the heterogeneous mean coverage ( 0 . 631 ; p < 0 . 01 ) and gc content ( 0 . 346 ; p < 0 . 01 ) across species , for example , were both positively correlated with sequencing yield ( supplementary table\n) . however , mean coverage and gc content were not reciprocally correlated . the mean coverage was significantly reduced in\n) , the latter presented the greatest gc content . this implies that , unlike\ngenome was the most divergent as evidenced by higher sequence dissimilarities to the assembly - based reference . in line with this observation , differences in average sequence coverage have been reported in target - capture experiments for species with more than 5 % sequence divergence\noverall 23 , 555 cross - species variants were identified within the 1 , 731 shared loci ( fig .\n) from the assembly - based reference . the diversity of this reference is in accordance with the patterns in the original mapped loci ( table\n( 4 , 106 ) . after removing snps with missing data greater than 10 % , maf lower than 0 . 05 and linked snps , a total of 647 informative snps remained ( 2x increase from the original mapped loci ) . this snp subset displayed a high proportion of polymorphic loci ( 0 . 42 \u00b1 0 . 22 mean heterozygosity ) and low differentiation level ( global\n) . this indicates that they are potentially more informative within species rather than among species comparisons , when compared with those from the mapped probe set . for example , in fig .\nst among species equal to 0 . the pca analyses based on 647 snps revealed four main clusters : ( 1 )\nshould be synonymized ) . the assembly - based data set provided greater separation than the mapped probes , placing\nspecies . this result indicates that differentiation levels among non - target species can be more accurately achieved by building an assembly - based reference of target - enriched sequencing data ; because it takes into account the full diversity of the sequencing dataset .\n) were mapped to the assembly - based reference . the alignments were then compared with modern samples in terms of mean coverage , gc content , read heterozygous rate and snp diversity . prior to this comparison , dna damage patterns were established for each museum sample by tracking and quantifying cumulative substitutions frequencies of c to t at the 5\u2032end and g to a at the 3\u2032end in mapped reads using the mapdamage 2 . 0 software\n( data not shown ) . no evidence of base mis - incorporation bias due to dna damage was found in any of the museum samples .\nin contrast to the modern samples , a significant correlation between gc content and mean coverage ( 0 . 24179 ; p < 0 . 032 ) was found , suggesting that museum samples were highly impacted by sequencing coverage ( supplementary table\n) . the overall gc content among museum samples were quite heterogeneous ( fig .\n) and significantly correlated to the year of collection ( 0 . 483 ; p < 0 . 01 ) and a\n) . we suggest that sequencing coverage was affected by dna fragmentation in museum samples leading to non - uniform representation of targets and heterogeneous gc content in sequencing libraries . however , patterns are difficult to interpret . for example , the highest overall coverage was observed in 50 - year - old\n) . in both sample groups , the mean gc content significantly deviated from the mean of corresponding modern samples ( p < 0 . 01 in both cases ; supplementary table\nmuseum samples were the only samples that demonstrated an increased read heterozygous rate ( p < 0 . 0066 ; in supplementary table\n. it may also be related to the museum preservation methods applied to the specimens .\nratios as low as 1 . 01 and moderate dna concentration above 30\u201340 ng / \u00b5l ( as determined from the a\nvalues ) exhibited acceptable average target coverage with no significant gc % deviations ( fig .\nratio greater than 1 . 0 and spectrophotometric quantification greater than 30 ng / \u00b5l are more likely to generate acceptable sequencing coverage . the a\nratio and dna spectrophotometric quantification cutoff , both prior to sequencing , and when assessing the results of sequencing .\nbecause of the limitations of the museum samples used in this study , the amount of missing data was much higher in these samples . this is likely because the fragmentation bias of dna templates in library preparation led to uneven enrichment and sequencing coverage of targeted loci . the number of loci in each species ranged from 3 , 828 in 25 - year - old\n) when compared with the modern samples . the loci also seem to be less variable , as determined by the number of snp per locus in all species . whilst cumulative substitution bias was not evident in museum samples , the overall deamination level in museum samples of\n) . thus , in order to examine the usefulness of the target capture approach for incorporating museum samples into population genomic studies , we modified the variant - filtering settings to avoid false positive variants as a precaution . strand biased variants , heterozygous snps at the end of reads and snps with deamination pattern found towards the 5\u2032 and the 3\u2032 reads\u2019 ends were filtered out resulting in a slightly different snp set from that used for the modern samples .\nst estimates ( from 0 . 0589 to 0 . 0653 after filtering ) and pca distributions ( supplementary fig .\nst values , suggesting that base modifications due to dna damage are not severe enough to influence overall differentiation or are not present among the variants called . thus , provided historic samples with extreme low coverage ( < 2 . 0x ) are removed , variant call accuracy can be adjusted to diminish base mis - incorporation bias to a negligible level .\nhere , ddrad libraries from two closely related lobster species , j . edwardsii and s . verreauxi were used as genome resources to design probes to capture and enrich genomic libraries of other five closely related species . the target - enriched sequencing generated thousands of informative markers for population genomics application with a small sequencing effort of 4 . 6 gbp only . the enriched sequencing of previously discovered ddrad loci enabled the recovery of 1 , 250 out of 2 , 366 ddrad loci in the species from which the probes were designed , including sample replicates between both methods . thus , it could potentially be used to enrich and re - sequence ddrad loci outliers discovered in previous studies 15 in a range of populations to investigate genome signatures of selection . also , this method circumvents one of the main disadvantages of ddradseq , that being the high level of missing data due to allele dropout .\nremaining ddrad reads were assembled in pyrad 3 . 0 . 4 19 and used to build ddrad loci catalogues within and between species . samples were assembled in three datasets as follows : ( 1 ) j . edwardsii only ; ( 2 ) s . verreauxi only ; and ( 3 ) all samples from both species . for assemblies 1 and 2 we adopted a 95 % similarity threshold within species and for assembly 3 we established an 85 % similarity threshold . a maximum of three mismatches and a maximum of 0 . 5 site heterozygosity were allowed per cluster . to avoid clusters of paralogous loci we discarded all clusters with excessive shared heterozygous snps in more than four individuals and the paralogous filter was set to three . the ddrad loci were considered for probe design ( candidate ddrad loci ) only if they were shared across 10 individuals in assemblies 1 and 2 or 20 individuals in assembly 3 . pyrad assemblies\u2019 settings and outputs are detailed in the supplementary methods s1 .\n, and contigs with more than 90 % similarity across at least 55 % of the fragment length were discarded . highly similar clusters with spurious alignments resulting from low complexity dna sequences ( comprised by mononucleotide repeats ) were also discarded . as capture probes are known to support up to about 12 % sequence divergence\n, 75 % similarity among ddrad loci was used as a limit . remaining repetitive regions among ddrad loci were identified and removed using repeatmasker web server\na total of 2 , 366 loci were finally selected as templates for bait manufacturing : 2 , 358 nuclear loci and eight mitochondrial loci . the mybaits \u00ae set were estimated to cover 322 kb from 5 . 3 gb of j . edwardsii genome , including 80 loci identified as outlier snps putatively under selection in j . edwardsii 15 . in total , 4 , 732 120 - mer mybaits \u00ae probes ( mycroarray ) were manufactured with 2x tiling density and an overlap of 60 bp between probes . probes sequences were deposited at the dryad data repository ( urltoken ) .\ndna was extracted from adult lobsters ( pleopod clip or pereiopod muscle ) and phyllosoma larvae ( leg ) . all dna extractions were performed with the dneasy qiagen kit using spin columns econospin ( epoch life sciences ) . as the museum specimens resulted in low dna yield and purity levels , the isolation protocol was optimized accordingly . for these samples , dna recovery was improved by overnight incubation , final dna elution in 30 \u00b5l of ae buffer with three consecutive washes followed by column centrifugation . dna extraction and library preparation using museum specimens was performed using consumables dedicated to the museum specimens only with different batches for each species .\nsequencing data was processed using the locally developed pipeline carlaseq ( urltoken ) described in detail in supplementary methods s4 . briefly , it involved the first four steps of the pipeline that consisted of adapter trimming , removal of contaminants ( human and microorganisms ) , merging of paired - end reads and de - multiplexing . the paired - end filtered reads were merged and trimmed to fragments up to 220 bp long . reads with average phred score lower than 33 were discarded .\nprocessed reads were mapped to the reference ddrad loci , using bowtie 2 21 with \u2018\u2013very - fast - local\u2019settings . samtools ( urltoken ) was used to sort alignments ( maq \u2265 5 ) . picard 2 . 6 . 0 ( urltoken ) was used to mark pcr duplicates from alignments by identifying fragments that are identical in insert length and related sequence composition . the capture reaction ensures that single strand fragments at a given locus are unlikely to be of equal length unless they are duplicates .\nthe efficiency of the target capture experiment was firstly assessed for the two species ( j . edwardsii and s . verreauxi ) from which the original probes were designed . this data set included 11 j . edwardsii specimens and 16 s . verreauxi , of which eight and 16 samples , respectively , were replicates of the original ddrad libraries sequenced . the number of on - target reads between species was compared using blast . then , mapping success ( bowtie 2 ) and the amount of missing data ( loci counts ) per number of samples were compared between ddrad and target - capture methods for both species .\nc . a . s . wrote the main text , generated the data and performed the analyses . c . a . s . , n . m . and j . m . s . designed the study . c . a . s . , n . m . , j . m . s . , j . j . b . and b . g . conceived the idea and reviewed the manuscript . c . v . r . , l . n . w . , i . i . and c . e . h . collected the samples and contributed to data interpretation . c . a . s . and l . n . w . performed the laboratory work . c . a . s . , n . m . and j . m . s . led the writing of the manuscript with contributions from all authors .\nsupplementary information accompanies this paper at doi : 10 . 1038 / s41598 - 017 - 06582 - 5\npublisher ' s note : springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations .\nfaircloth bc , et al . ultraconserved elements anchor thousands of genetic markers spanning multiple evolutionary timescales .\nbi k , et al . unlocking the vault : next - generation museum population genomics .\nbailey se , et al . the use of museum samples for large - scale sequence capture : a study of congeneric horseshoe bats ( family rhinolophidae )\nhugall af , o\u2019hara td , hunjan s , nilsen r , moussalli a . an exon - capture system for the entire class ophiuroidea .\nsuchan t , et al . hybridization capture using rad probes ( hyrad ) , a new tool for performing genomic analyses on collection specimens .\nmccormack , j . e . , tsai , w . l . e . & faircloth , b . c . sequence capture of ultraconserved elements from bird museum specimens . mol . ecol . resour . doi : 10 . 1111 / 1755 - 0998 . 12466 ( 2015 ) .\nsmith bt , harvey mg , faircloth bc , glenn tc , brumfield rt . target capture and massively parallel sequencing of ultraconserved elements for comparative studies at shallow evolutionary time scales .\nlemmon ar , emme sa , lemmon em . anchored hybrid enrichment for massively high - throughput phylogenomics .\nandrews , k . r . , paul , a , miller , m . r . & luikart , g . trade - offs and utility of alternative radseq methods : reply to puritz\nbaird na , et al . rapid snp discovery and genetic mapping using sequenced rad markers .\nmiller mr , dunham jp , amores a , cresko wa , johnson ea . rapid and cost - effective polymorphism identification and genotyping using restriction site associated dna ( rad ) markers .\n. comment : demystifying the rad fad . 1\u201318 , doi : 10 . 1111 / mec . 12965 ( 2014 ) .\nandrews kr , luikart g . recent novel approaches for population genomics data analysis .\ndacosta , j . m . & sorenson , m . d . amplifiation biases and consistent recovery of loci in a double - digest rad - seq protocol . 9 ( 2014 ) .\nrubin , b . e . r . , ree , r . h . & moreau , c . s . inferring phylogenies from rad sequence data . plos one 7 ( 2012 ) .\n. adapterama iv : sequence capture of dual - digest radseq libraries with identifiable duplicates ( radcap ) . bioarxiv 1\u201322 , doi : 10 . 1111 / jnc . 13494 ( 2016 ) .\nali oa , et al . rad capture ( rapture ) : flexible and efficient sequence - based genotyping .\neaton dar . pyrad : assembly of de novo radseq loci for phylogenetic analyses .\nlangmead b , salzberg sl . fast gapped - read alignment with bowtie 2 .\narnold b , corbett - detig rb , hartl d , bomblies k . radseq underestimates diversity and introduces genealogical biases due to nonrandom haplotype sampling .\ngautier m , et al . the effect of rad allele dropout on the estimation of genetic variation within and between populations .\nweir bs , cockerham cc . estimating f - statistics for the analysis of population structure .\ncosart t , et al . exome - wide dna capture and next generation sequencing in domestic and wild species .\nbi k , et al . transcriptome - based exon capture enables highly cost - effective comparative genomic data collection at moderate evolutionary scales .\nbragg jg , potter s , bi k , moritz c . exon capture phylogenomics : efficacy across scales of divergence .\ndohm , j . c . , lottaz , c . , borodina , t . & himmelbauer , h . substantial biases in ultra - short read data sets from high - throughput dna sequencing . nucleic acids res . 36 ( 2008 ) .\ngroeneveld jc , von der heyden s , matthee ca . high connectivity and lack of mtdna differentiation among two previously recognized spiny lobster species in the southern atlantic and indian oceans .\nginolhac a , et al . improving the performance of true single molecule sequencing for ancient dna .\nparks m , lambert d . impacts of low coverage depths and post - mortem dna damage on variant calling : a simulation study .\nnelson , d . l . & cox , m . m . lehninger principles of biochemestry . w . h . freeman and company 53 , ( sara tenny , 2008 ) .\ncrawford je , lazzaro bp . assessing the accuracy and power of population genetic inference from low - pass next - generation sequencing data .\nliu x , fu y , maxwell tj , boerwinkle e . estimating population genetic parameters and comparing model goodness - of - fit using dna sequences with error estimating population genetic parameters and comparing model goodness - of - fit using dna sequences with error .\nallendorf fw , hard jj . human - induced evolution caused by unnatural selection through harvest of wild animals .\nphillips , b . f . in lobsters : biology , management , aquaculture & fisheries : second edition ( ed . phillips , b . f . ) 1\u2013474 ( john wiley & sons , ltd , 2013 ) , doi : 10 . 1002 / 9781118517444 .\nfao . fao global aquaculture production statistics database updated to 2013 : summary information . food agric . oraganization united nations 2013 , ( 2015 ) .\n. antarctic krill population genomics : apparent panmixia , but genome complexity and large population size muddy the water .\nthomas l , bell jj . testing the consistency of connectivity patterns for a widely dispersing marine species .\npalero f , abell\u00f3 p , macpherson e , gristina m , pascual m . phylogeography of the european spiny lobster ( palinurus elephas ) : influence of current oceanographical features and historical processes .\nbracken - grissom hd , et al . the emergence of lobsters : phylogenetic relationships , morphological evolution and divergence time comparisons of an ancient group ( decapoda : achelata , astacidea , glypheidea , polychelida )\npeterson , b . k . , weber , j . n . , kay , e . h . , fisher , h . s . & hoekstra , h . e . double digest radseq : an inexpensive method for de novo snp discovery and genotyping in model and non - model species .\nbolger , a . m . , lohse , m . & usadel , b . trimmomatic : a flexible trimmer for illumina sequence data .\nwood de , salzberg sl . kraken : ultrafast metagenomic sequence classification using exact alignments .\nzhang , j . , kobert , k . , flouri , t . & stamatakis , a . pear : a fast and accurate illumina paired - end read merger .\nkearse m , et al . geneious basic : an integrated and extendable desktop software platform for the organization and analysis of sequence data .\nnovak p , neumann p , pech j , steinhaisl j , macas j . repeatexplorer : a galaxy - based web server for genome - wide characterization of eukaryotic repetitive elements from next - generation sequence reads .\nhancock - hanser bl , et al . targeted multiplex next - generation sequencing : advances in techniques of mitochondrial and nuclear dna sequencing for population genomics .\ndoyle sr , griffith is , murphy np , strugnell jm . low - coverage miseq next generation sequencing reveals the mitochondrial genome of the eastern rock lobster , sagmariasus verreauxi . mitochondrial .\nrohland n , reich d . cost - effective , high - throughput dna sequencing libraries for multiplexed target capture .\nmamanova l , et al . target - enrichment strategies for next - generation sequencing .\nshearer ae , et al . pre - capture multiplexing improves efficiency and cost - effectiveness of targeted genomic enrichment .\nmckenna a , et al . the genome analysis toolkit : a mapreduce framework for analyzing next - generation dna sequencing data .\npurcell s , et al . plink : a tool set for whole - genome association and population - based linkage analyses .\nquinlan ar , hall im . bedtools : a flexible suite of utilities for comparing genomic features ."]}
{"id": 1788, "summary": [{"text": "pachydactylus labialis , commonly known as the calvinia thick-toed gecko , western cape gecko , or western cape thick-toed gecko , is a gecko species endemic to the western and northern cape in south africa , often found taking shelter under stones . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "pachydactylus labialis", "paragraphs": ["pachydactylus waterbergensis bauer & lamb 2003 pachydactylus weberi acuminatus \u2014 mertens 1955 : 49 ( part . ) pachydactylus weberi werneri \u2014 griffin 2003 : 33 ( part . ) pachydactylus waterbergensis \u2014 bauer et al . 2006 pachydactylus waterbergensis \u2014 mashinini & mahlangu 2013\npachydactylus capensis ( a . smith , 1846 ) \u2013 cape thick - toed gecko\npachydactylus gaiasensis steyn & j . mitchell , 1967 \u2013 brandberg thick - toed gecko\npachydactylus\n. the reptile database . www . reptile - database . org .\npachydactylus is a genus of insectivorous geckos , endemic to africa , and commonly known as thick - toed geckos .\npachydactylus is a genus of arboreal insectivorous geckos , endemic to africa , and commonly known as thick - toed geckos .\nneue / new pachydactylus - art / species p . boehmei online ( 4 : 43 pm , 11 / 25 / 2010 )\nthe geographic range of the genus pachydactylus is centred on southern africa , some reaching east africa , the northernmost limit of their distribution .\npachydactylus kochii v . fitzsimons , 1959 = colopus kochi ( v . fitzsimons , 1959 ) \u2013 koch ' s thick - toed gecko\npachydactylus bibronii ( a . smith , 1846 ) = chondrodactylus bibronii ( a . smith , 1846 ) \u2013 bibron ' s thick - toed gecko\nthe genus pachydactylus is characterised by dilated toe tips , usually with undivided scansors . body scales are small , granular and non - overlapping , with scattered , large keeled tubercles .\na lineage accumulation in the pachydactylus group . the plot depicts ltt curves for 1000 trees randomly sampled from the beast posterior distribution . b histogram of \u03b3 statistic estimates for the 1000 ltt curves depicted in ( a )\nbauer , a . m . & lamb , t . 2003 . a new species of the pachydactylus weberi - group ( reptilia : squamata : gekkonidae ) from the waterberg plateau , namibia . cimbebasia 19 : 1 - 12\nbeolens b , watkins m , grayson m . 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( pachydactylus barnardi , p . 17 ) .\nbeolens b , watkins m , grayson m . 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( pachydactylus barnardi , p . 17 ) .\nmaximum snout\u2013vent length for species in the genera pachydactylus , chondrodactylus , colopus , and elasmodactylus . values are based on literature sources along with observations of field - collected and museum - preserved specimens . the small - bodied species p . geitje and large - bodied p . namaquensis are illustrated\nbranch , william r . ; aaron m . bauer , todd r . jackman , and matthew heinicke 2011 . a new species of the pachydactylus weberi complex ( reptilia : squamata : gekkonidae ) from the namibrand reserve , southern namibia . breviora ( 524 ) : 1 - 15 . - get paper here\nbauer am , lamb t , branch wr . 2006 .\na revision of the pachydactylus serval and p . weberi groups ( reptilia : gekkota : gekkonidae ) of southern africa , with the description of eight new species\n. proc . california acad . sci . 57 ( 23 ) : 595 - 709 .\nbauer , aaron m . lamb , trip . branch , william r . 2006 . a revision of the pachydactylus serval and p . weberi groups ( reptilia : gekkota : gekkonidae ) of southern africa , with the description of eight new species . proc . cal . acad . sci . 57 ( 12 - 24 ) : 595 - 709 . - get paper here\nthe results are consistent with a model in which lineages more likely to become geographically isolated diversify to a greater extent , although some patterns also resemble those expected of an adaptive radiation in which ecological divergence acts as a driver of speciation . therefore , the pachydactylus group may represent an intermediate between clades in which radiation is adaptive versus those in which it is non - adaptive .\nwe test whether body size or habitat preference is associated with the formation of geographic isolation in the pachydactylus group in a phylogenetic context . we have generated a comprehensive time - calibrated multi - locus phylogeny of the group , and obtained body size and habitat preference trait data for all ingroup species . geographic range size estimates are produced for all species , and the association between trait data and range size is quantified . we also estimate patterns of lineage accumulation through time and trait - associated estimates of diversification . our data show that both body size and habitat preference affect range size , and that variation in these traits is also correlated with variation in diversification rate , suggesting that allopatric divergence following isolation has played a key role in speciation in the pachydactylus group .\ntime - calibrated phylogeny of pachydactylus and related genera . the topology is the maximum clade credibility tree estimated in beast with non - gekkotan outgroups cropped for clarity . support values ( bayesian posterior probabilities / ml bootstrap ) are given at nodes ; asterisks indicate nodes with bayesian support values = 1 . 0 and ml bootstrap values > 95 . named species groups and genera are given to the right . geologic epochs and eras are indicated on the timescale ; post - miocene epochs ( pliocene , pleistocene , holocene ) are not labeled\nboth body size and habitat use are inferred to have shifted multiple times across the phylogeny of the pachydactylus group , with large size and generalist habitat use being ancestral for the group . geographic range size is correlated with both of these traits . small - bodied species have more restricted ranges than large - bodied species , and rock - dwelling species have more restricted ranges than either terrestrial or generalist species . rock - dwelling and small body size are also associated with higher rates of diversification , and subclades retaining ancestral conditions for these traits are less species rich than subclades in which shifts to small body size and rocky habitat use have occurred . the phylogeny also illustrates inadequacies of the current taxonomy of the group .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nmaritz , b . , de silva , r . , milligan , h . t . , wearn , o . r . , wren , s . , zamin , t . , sears , j . , wilson , p . , lewis , s . , lintott , p . & powney , g .\njustification : widespread and common with no major threats ; hence this species is assessed as least concern .\nendemic to south africa . it occurs in western portions of the western and northern cape provinces , from fonteinskop in the ceres karoo northwards to gelykwerf in the richtersveld national park ( bauer and branch 2003 [ 2001 ] ) .\nthe population is stable . an estimate of the number of existing subpopulations is not possible .\nfound in moderately mesic situations in a diversity of habitat types that provide suitable rocky or vegetative ground cover . prefers coastal habitats and river valleys with sandy substrates . occurs from sea level to at least 800 m ( branch 1998 , bauer and branch 2003 [ 2001 ] ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nrepublic of south africa ( cape province ) type locality : steinkopf , little namaqualand .\nbates , m . f . ; branch , w . r . , bauer , a . m . ; burger , m . , marais , j . ; alexander , g . j . & de villliers , m . s . ( eds . ) 2014 . atlas and red list of the reptiles of south africa , lesotho , and swaziland . suricata 1 . south african national biodiversity institute , pretoria , 512 pp .\nbauer , a . m . , and branch , w . r . 2003 . the herpetofauna of the richtersveld national park , northern cape province , republic of south africa . herpetological natural history 8 : 111 - 160 [ 2001 ]\nfitzsimons , v . f . m . 1938 . transvaal museum expedition to south - west africa and little namaqualand , may to august 1937 - reptiles and amphibians . ann . transvaal mus . ( pretoria ) 19 ( 2 ) : 153 - 209 - get paper here\nloveridge , a . 1947 . revision of the african lizards of the family gekkondiae . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 98 : 1 - 469 - get paper here\nmashinini , p . l . and mahlangu , l . m . 2013 . an annotated catalogue of the types of gekkonid lizards ( reptilia : squamata : gekkonidae ) in the herpetology collection of the ditsong national museum of natural history , south africa . annals of the ditsong national museum of natural history 3 : 165 - 181\nr\u00f6sler , h . 2000 . kommentierte liste der rezent , subrezent und fossil bekannten geckotaxa ( reptilia : gekkonomorpha ) . gekkota 2 : 28 - 153\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nwestern cape . [ photo price w . \u00a9 , from sarca virtual museum ]\nwestern cape . [ photo dorse c . & van rooyen s . \u00a9 , from sarca virtual museum ]\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / de\nurltoken\nfitzsimons , v . f . m . ( 1938 ) : transvaal museum expedition to south - west africa and little namaqualand , may to august 1937 . reptiles and amphibians . \u2014 ann . transvaal mus . , 19 ( 2 ) : 168 , fig . 7 \u2014 terra typica : steinkopf , little namaqualand , 23 august 1937\nfour specimens were collected : t . m . 18052 - 18055 , at steinkopf , little namaqualand , 23 august 1937 . type . t . m . 18055 .\ncolour . above , grey to greyish brown with dark markings arranged irregularly , in transverse series or in thin longitudinal stripes over back ; a dark band on side of head from second upper labial through eye and over temporal region above ear and then curving inwards round occiput , but not quite meeting its fellow behind ; a dark streak from nostril to just above eye ; labials largely infused with dark brown ; below , creamy white to greyish . tail more or less distinctly barred with dark brown to blackish ; reproduced tails spotted .\ndimensions . type , t . m . 18055 , h . and b . 44 , tail ( partly reproduced ) 38 , length head 10 , 5 , breadth head 7 , 5 , forelimb 11 , hindlimb 15 mm .\nfield notes . taken under loose stones lying on the ground on the slopes of and along the bottom of a valley among the hills .\ncopyright \u00a9 2009 m . barts & c . schneider | impressum powered by website baker | xhtml 1 . 1 transitional | css | design by dcarter\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\ndiscrete geographic regions , both continentally and on islands , often have biotas dominated by a relatively small number of species - rich lineages . the most obvious of these dominant groups are adaptive radiations in which a single ancestral species has given rise to descendants filling numerous niches , examples of which include galapagos finches ( 14 sp . , 58 % of breeding songbird species in the archipelago ) , lake victoria cichlids ( 169 sp . , 67 % of ray - finned fishes in the lake ) , and west indies\n] . however , there are many other less - known examples of regionally prominent radiations . among lizards , one of the most striking are geckos of the genus\n( 2 species ) . by species number , these geckos are the most successful radiation of lizards in southern africa . sixty four of 66 species occur in the southern african subcontinent , defined as that part of africa south of the zambezi and kunene rivers , and most are endemic to this region . these species occupy all major habitat types in southern africa , and many species in the group display morphological novelties such as loss of adhesive toe pads or the evolution of interdigital webbing [\nnumerous possible causative factors have been posited or shown to explain the relative success of species - rich organismal groups . in classic adaptive radiations , the rapid evolution of morphological disparity may be the key process in spurring lineage accumulation [\n] . in other cases , the evolution of a novel trait may allow organisms possessing that trait to access underutilized resources , with utilization promoting ecological diversification and lineage accumulation . examples include the evolution of antifreeze proteins in antarctic icefishes and evolution of the pharyngeal jaw structures in parrotfishes [\nand its relatives , none of these potential explanations are likely to fully account for the observed species diversity .\n] , each of which is believed to be monophyletic , and each of which is morphologically conservative . the degree of morphological disparity between these groups is not of a magnitude expected in a classic adaptive radiation [\n] . this is not to say that there is no morphological variation within the genus . some morphological novelties have evolved , including the previously mentioned foot characteristics as well as variation in scalation . however , such morphological novelties do not appear to be strong drivers of speciation in the group . for example , the most species - rich radiation of\nmany geckos do have visual display systems or other traits which could theoretically promote diversification via divergent sexual selection . examples include the semaphore geckos (\n] . in these genera , males are boldly patterned and use signaling behaviors to defend territories or attract mates .\nand its relatives are strictly nocturnal , however , and typically have a drab pattern . nor are any other prezygotic isolating mechanisms evident that could plausibly be hypothesized to be under sexual selection . finally , the relative age of\n] , which also occurs mainly in southern africa but includes only nine species .\nand its relatives , then traits promoting the formation of geographic isolation should affect both species\u2019 range sizes and diversification rate . the heritability of range size has been a matter of debate , but increasing numbers of studies demonstrate its heritability [\nand its relatives , two variable traits of interest that may promote geographic isolation are body size and habitat preference . there is substantial body size variation in\nvaries , with species showing preferences ranging from sand dunes to rocky cliffs to houses . in southern africa , the periodic advance and retreat of kalahari and namib sands over geological time is linked to climatic variation [\n] ; this process has likely allowed intermittent connections to form between adjacent rocky habitats , but the prevailing pattern is that terrestrial habitats are relatively continuous while rocky habitats are more discontinuous . as a result , a preference for rocky habitats may be expected to be associated with geographic isolation and smaller range sizes . such substrate specialization has been suggested to facilitate speciation in the\nspecies to serve as a near outgroup . an additional 18 gekkotan and 4 non - gekkotan taxa (\n) were included as more distant outgroups , with outgroup species choice partially determined based on utility for molecular clock calibration . nearly all ingroup sequences are associated with vouchered museum specimens . sequences for four species (\n) are exceptions , with sequences derived from genetic material obtained from captive - bred individuals ; in these cases the live specimens were viewed by the authors to confirm identification and associated genetic material has been deposited in the cryogenic collection at the museum of comparative zoology , harvard university .\n) . all newly generated sequences were deposited in genbank ( accession numbers ky224166\u2013ky224347 ) .\nfor new sequences generated in this study , dna was obtained from frozen or ethanol - preserved tissue samples using qiagen dneasy tissue kits under the manufacturer\u2019s protocol . pcr ( polymerase chain reaction ) amplification of fragments was performed in 25 \u03bcl reactions , under standard reaction conditions [\n] . pcr purification was performed using ampure magnetic beads , followed by cycle sequencing and purification using cleanseq magnetic beads . capillary electrophoresis was performed on an applied biosystems 3730xl sequencer . sequence assembly was performed using bioedit [\nphylogenetic analyses were performed using maximum likelihood ( ml ) and bayesian ( bi ) optimality criteria . for each analysis , model and partition choices were separately identified under the bayesian information criterion using partitionfinder [\n] . in each case considered models of evolution were limited to those models that can be implemented by the programs used for phylogeny estimation . greedy search schemes were employed and thirteen potential data blocks were considered : twelve data blocks corresponding to the three codon positions for each of the four protein - coding genes and the trna data comprising the thirteenth data block .\n] . one hundred independent searches were implemented on the original data set to identify the best tree , followed by 1 , 000 non - parametric bootstrap replicates to assess branch support . based on the partitionfinder results , the data were divided into eight partitions , each using one of two models : nd2 codon position 1 , nd2 codon position 2 , trnas , and ( pdc position 1 + 2 + rag1 position 1 + 2 ) used the gtr ( general time reversible ) + i + \u03b3 model , while nd2 position 3 , ( pdc position 3 + rag1 position 3 ) , ( kif24 position 1 + 2 ) and kif24 position 3 used the gtr + \u03b3 model .\n] , using a yule tree prior and uncorrelated lognormal relaxed clock . based on the partitionfinder results , the data were divided into ten partitions employing six distinct models : nd2 position 1 , nd2 position 2 , and trnas used the gtr + i + \u03b3 model . nd2 position 3 used the gtr + \u03b3 model . rag1 position 1 + 2 used the trn ( tamura - nei ) + i + \u03b3 model . rag1 position 3 and kif24 position 1 + 2 used the hky ( hasegawa - kishino - yano ) + \u03b3 model . pdc position 3 and kif24 position 3 used the k80 ( kishino 1980 ) + \u03b3 model . pdc position 1 + 2 used the trnef + i + \u03b3 model . four replicate analyses were run for 50 million generations , sampled every 1000 generations . the first 5 million generations were discarded as burn - in . effective sample sizes were estimated in tracer 1 . 5 ( > 300 for all parameters in each run ) to confirm the chain length was adequate .\nbeast 1 . 8 . 2 was also used to estimate divergence times simultaneously with phylogenetic relationships . the root prior ( lepidosauria - archosauria divergence ) was given a normal distribution ( mean = 275 ma [ million years ago ] , sd = 15 ) encompassing the range of estimates for this divergence [\n] . maximum body size was treated in two ways depending on analysis . when possible , svl ( snout - vent length ) was treated as a continuous character and the log - transformed maximum svl was used . however , when treatment of size as a continuous character was not computationally feasible we instead treated size as a binary character . in\n) . those species with a maximum snout\u2013vent length ( svl ) < 70 mm comprised the \u201csmall\u201d category , and those with a maximum svl > 75 mm comprised the \u201clarge\u201d category . habitat preference was divided into three categories . those species that primarily shelter in burrows or under surface debris ( logs , loose stones , aloe leaves , etc . ) , and forage actively on the ground , were classified as \u201cterrestrial . \u201d species that primarily shelter in rock cracks and forage on cliff faces or boulders were classified as \u201crupicolous . \u201d finally , unspecialized species that both shelter and forage on a variety of surfaces ( rock faces , tree trunks , buildings , etc . ) were classified as \u201cgeneralist climbers . \u201d\n] . eoo was calculated as the area of the minimum convex polygon enclosing distribution records for each respective taxon . aoo was initially calculated as the sum of the total area of the quarter degree grid squares within which at least one record occurs . the final aoo was adjusted to an estimate of the actual suitable habitat within the occupied quarter degree squares based on the literature and the authors\u2019 field knowledge of each species . for all endemic south african species and for most species with a portion of their distribution occurring in south africa , eoo and aoo values were previously estimated as part of the red list evaluation carried out in association with the atlas and red list of the reptiles of south africa , lesotho and swaziland [\n] . calculated eoo usually provides the broadest possible interpretation of the space used by a species , whereas the aoo represents a quite conservative estimate . however , for taxa known from single localities or several localities that are very close to one another , aoo as calculated above may yield a greater area than eoo . we used eoo or aoo , which ever was the greater , as our estimates of species\u2019 ranges . these values were log transformed when used in analyses .\nwe performed a variety of comparative analyses to investigate the relationship among phylogeny , divergence times , trait data , and range sizes . all comparative analyses were completed in replicate on both the beast maximum clade - credibility tree and on 1000 post - burnin trees randomly sampled from the beast posterior distribution . these trees were pruned to remove outgroups ( for which we have incomplete taxon sampling and no trait data ) . the package phytools [\n] , which allows for tests of correlation between a multistate vs . continuous trait in a phylogenetic context . because body size evolution and habitat choice may be coupled [\n] , we also tested for auto - correlation between these two traits , for a total of three analyses : ( 1 ) svl vs . range size , ( 2 ) habitat vs . range size , and ( 3 ) svl vs . habitat . svl was treated as a multistate ( binary ) trait in test ( 1 ) , but was treated as a continuous trait in test ( 3 ) to facilitate analysis . in all three cases , we tested the hypothesis that the optimum continuous trait value ,\n, differed depending on the identity of the multistate trait value , i . e . whether large - and small - bodied species differ in range size ( test 1 ) , whether species differing in habitat use differ in range size ( test 2 ) , or whether species differing in habitat use differ in body size ( test 3 ) . we performed these tests by estimating ancestral states of the multistate character on the phylogeny , and then fitting values of\n( rate of change of trait ) for the continuous trait under two model regimes . the null brownian motion ( bm ) model regime estimated single values of\nthat did not depend on the state of the multistate character . this was tested against a more complex ornstein - uhlenbeck ( ou ) model in which there were multiple\nparameters , one per multistate character state . we used \u03b4aicc ( corrected akaike information criterion ) values to identify which model provided a better fit for the data . all three tests were performed on 1000 trees randomly sampled from the post - burnin beast posterior distribution , and on each of these 1000 trees we performed 100 ancestral reconstructions of the multistate trait using stochastic character mapping [\n] implemented in phytools , resulting in a total of 100 , 000 model fits per test , each with a unique combination of phylogeny and ancestral state estimate .\n] model for habitat data implemented in diversitree . because hypothesis testing in a bisse or musse framework can have a high type i error rate [\n] , we refrain from explicitly testing the statistical significance of character - associated variation in model parameter estimates . instead , we fit models in which each trait was given individual\nparameters strictly to determine estimates of these model parameters . model fitting was performed in an markov chain monte carlo ( mcmc ) framework with runs lasting 1100 generations and the first 100 discarded as burn - in . these estimates were obtained for each of 1000 trees randomly sampled from the beast posterior distribution , resulting in each parameter estimate being obtained from 1 , 000 , 000 observations .\nthe phylogenies estimated in both the ml and bi analyses are very similar ( fig .\n) , and most branches receive strong support . as expected , the grouping of\nis monophyletic ( bi / ml support values 1 . 0 / 97 ) and these are in turn most closely related to\n] , which included 26 fewer ingroup taxa and was estimated from ~ 1 , 600 fewer nucleotide sites , but there are some notable differences . most notably , both the genera\ngroup ( support values 1 . 0 / 93 ) , a set of four species represented by a single taxon in [\nspecies being its closest relatives ( support values 0 . 76 / 54 ) , although there is strong support for its association with\nbeing more closely related , but with poor support ( 0 . 37 / 46 ) . within\n] are recovered as monophyletic with strong support as are many of the species - level relationships within these groups . however , within the speciose\nand northwestern groups , in which many new taxa have been added , species relationships are more highly modified . in the first of these , the basal division into reciprocally monophyletic\ngroups is not supported , and the former makes the latter paraphyletic . relationships among species groups in\nremain unresolved , with most groups connected by exceptionally short internodes . there are two exceptions . the\noccurred in the early cenozoic ( 66\u201343 ma ) . this is a similar pattern as observed in other gekkonids , in which relatively species - rich regional radiations undergo initial diversification in the early cenozoic ( e . g . [\nspecies groups are indicative of a relatively high diversification rate in the mid - cenozoic ~ 30\u201335 ma . the lineage through time ( ltt ) plot shows that the rate of lineage accumulation remains steady or slowly increases to this point after which there is a noticeable decline ( fig .\n) . the overall trend is of significantly decreasing lineage accumulation through time ( mean \u03b3 value = \u22125 . 8 , p < 1 x 10\ngroup suggests that being large - bodied is ancestral for the group ( fig .\n) . a shift to small body size occurred once early in the evolutionary history of the group , and there have been only two reversals . reconstruction of habitat preference is more equivocal , but the common ancestor of the group is most commonly reconstructed as a generalized climber ( in 80 % of reconstructions ) . what is clear is that more shifts in habitat preference have occurred than shifts in body size , with approximately 26 transitions indicated in total , most commonly between rock - dwelling and terrestrial habitat preferences . although both habitat and body size are estimated to have shifted multiple times , including reversals , correlation between the two traits is not particularly strong based on fits of bm and ou models \u2014 out of 100 , 000 model fits , the bm model incorporating only a single global svl optimum was favored according to the aic 31 % of the time ( fig .\nancestral states for body size and habitat preference , based on 100 stochastic character maps for each trait on the maximum clade credibility tree . range size values for each species are given to the right of each terminal branch\nhistogram of aicc values for model fits of brownian motion ( bm ) and ornstein - uhlenbeck ( ou ) models of trait diversification estimated in ouwie . a habitat preference vs . svl . b habitat preference vs . range size . c svl vs . range size\nin contrast , both body size and habitat preference are strongly correlated with range size ( fig .\n) . range size displays significant phylogenetic signal based on pagel\u2019s \u03bb ( \u03bb = 0 . 46 , p = 0 . 13 ) , but the estimate of\n) . trait - associated estimates of speciation and extinction rates are less variable ( fig .\n) . small - bodied species are estimated to have slightly higher speciation ( mean \u03bb [ small - bodied ] = 0 . 055 ; mean \u03bb [ large - bodied ] = 0 . 040 ) and lower extinction rates , but there is extensive overlap . habitat - associated estimates of diversification rate also overlap , especially between terrestrial species and generalized climbers , although rock - dwelling species are estimated to have speciated at somewhat higher rates ( mean \u03bb [ generalized climber ] = 0 . 032 ; mean \u03bb [ terrestrial ] = 0 . 012 ; mean \u03bb [ rock - dwelling ] = 0 . 065 ) .\ntrait - associated estimates of speciation and extinction generated using diversitree . intermediate colors indicate overlap . a habitat - associated speciation rate . b habitat - associated extinction rate . c body size - associated speciation rate . d body - size associated extinction rate\n] . in many cases , these factors may be interlinked . in this study , we focus on two traits , body size and habitat requirements , that were expected to affect dispersal ability either directly because smaller organisms , including some lizards , may disperse shorter distances [\ngroup the smaller - bodied species occupying more patchily distributed habitats are the species with the smallest geographic ranges . other studies that have measured dispersal ability directly have shown that reduced dispersal ability does not always lead to reduced range size [\nand its relatives our data suggest that dispersal ability and range size are correlated . traits affecting dispersal ability are likely not the only factors affecting range size , however . minimally , it is likely that geographic barriers , including major river systems and mountain ranges , also play a significant role in restricting the ranges occupied by individual species . for example , the species\ngroup is similar to patterns documented in many lineages that are often attributed to reduced ecological opportunity through time as niches are filled ( e . g . [\ngroup , a general pattern of morphological conservatism within species groups , exemplified by the small number of shifts in body size ( fig .\n] through time is in line with expectations if ecological opportunity has decreased through time . however , shifts in habitat use are more frequent , and the number of co - occurring\ngroup species varies from 1 to 13 , suggesting that ecological niche space has not been exhausted . an alternative explanation that may also partly explain the observed rate slowdown is a geographic model as described above . in clades dominated by allopatric speciation , diversification rates may decline as vicariance events affect fewer species as species\u2019 geographic ranges decline through time [\n, which includes mostly large - bodied habitat generalists ( i . e . , species with large geographic ranges ) , compared to\nas indicated above , a jump in lineage accumulation coincident with the appearance of habitat - specialist clades in the mid - cenozoic ~ 30\u201335 ma is contrary to the general pattern of declining diversification rate through time . it is possible that climatic or geomorphic processes active at this time were especially favorable for isolating lineages , resulting in increased speciation . major periods of tectonic uplift in eastern and southern africa did not commence until approximately the oligocene - miocene boundary ( 23 ma ) [\n] , making large - scale geomorphological change incompatible with the observed rate increase . however , a major climatic regime shift did occur at the eocene - oligocene boundary : a global cooling associated with antarctic glaciation [\ngroup geckos , potentially facilitating rapid radiation . a similar pattern occurs in forest - adapted chameleons , where rapid radiation is coincident with wide availability of suitable habitat , in the case of chameleons during the eocene [\n] , which is why we refrain from ascribing statistical significance to these results . alternate methods of trait - dependant diversification ( e . g . [\n] ) likewise are best suited to larger data sets . one possible way to increase data set size is to incorporate taxa from across the afro - malagasy clade of geckos , but the interrelationships of genera within this large radiation are still poorly resolved and relevant trait data are missing for many species . finally , range size estimates are based on known collection localities and a correct interpretation of species - level taxonomy in the group . collecting effort varies greatly by country , with , for example , less than 10 , 000 amphibian and reptile collection records in angola , 38 , 000 in namibia , and > 100 , 000 in south africa [\n] . some species also vary phenotypically and have named subspecies that further study may reveal to warrant specific status ( e . g . ,\n] ) . however , given that trait - associations with range size varied by orders of magnitude , we do not expect refinement of species\u2019 range limits or taxonomy to strongly influence our results .\nbeyond interpretation of evolutionary patterns , the results of this study also have significant implications for taxonomy and conservation . the phylogenetic results indicate that\n. performing a shimodaira - hasegawa ( sh ) test also shows that the likelihood of our best - scoring tree ( lnl \u221297035 . 168404 ) is not significantly higher than the likelihood of a tree in which\n] . thus , we suggest that taxonomic decisions regarding these species be delayed until each species\u2019 phylogenetic position is better established . we refer both\ngroup inheriting traits promoting smaller ranges also inherit traits promoting greater rarity . however , our analyses show these same traits to be associated with higher rates of diversification . given the difficulty in estimating extinction rates from phylogenies [\ngroup . notwithstanding this difficulty , these results stress the importance of defining a frame of reference when measuring evolutionary \u201csuccess . \u201d in the case of the\ngroup , more widespread , common species tend to belong to relatively species - poor subclades .\ngroup points to a history of geographic isolation contributing significantly to the group\u2019s species richness compared to other african geckos . even so , some aspects of diversification in the\ngroup , including early evolution of divergent traits within the group , are consistent with patterns observed in classic adaptive radiations . in this sense , the process of diversification of\n] ) on the other . it is likely that many other species - rich groups share this same intermediate pattern .\nwe thank the late donald g . broadley , mirko barts , jon boone , william r . branch , marius burger , and krystal tolley for providing access to some specimens used in the study . johan marais , bill branch , werner conradie , trip lamb , don broadley , randy babb , paul moler , ross sadlier , glenn shea , jens vindum , and many villanova university masters students participated in collecting .\nthis project was funded by the university of michigan ( mph ) , nsf deb - 0515909 ( amb , trj ) , deb - 0844523 ( amb , trj ) , deb - 1019443 ( amb ) , deb - 1556255 ( amb ) , deb - 1556585 ( mph ) , and ef - 1241885 ( subaward 13\u20130632 ) ( amb ) . funding bodies played no role in study design or implementation .\nmph and amb designed the project . data were collected by mph , trj , and amb . data analysis was performed by mph . mph wrote the paper with input from trj and amb . all authors read and approved the final manuscript .\nuse of animals to obtain tissue samples for genetic analysis was reviewed and approved by the villanova university institutional animal care and use committee . field work in southern africa that generated the tissues used in this work was made possible by permits ( 1987\u20132014 ) to amb from the relevant wildlife authorities of south africa , namibia and zimbabwe .\nthis article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license (\n) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided you give appropriate credit to the original author ( s ) and the source , provide a link to the creative commons license , and indicate if changes were made . the creative commons public domain dedication waiver (\n) applies to the data made available in this article , unless otherwise stated .\nfroese r , pauly d . fishbase , version ( 10 / 2015 ) .\nlamb t , bauer am . footprints in the sand : independent reduction of subdigital lamellae in the namib\u2013kalahari burrowing geckos . proc r soc lond b biol sci . 2006 ; 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51 : 64\u201374 ."]}
{"id": 1790, "summary": [{"text": "the spotted lanternfly or lycorma delicatula ( order hemiptera , family fulgoridae ) is a planthopper native to china , india , and vietnam .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "although it has two pairs of wings , it jumps more than it flies .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "its host plants are grapes , pines , stone fruits , and malus spp .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "in its native habitat it is kept in check by natural predators or pathogens .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it was accidentally introduced in korea in 2006 and is since considered a pest .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "in september 2014 , it was first spotted in the u.s. . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "spotted lanternfly", "paragraphs": ["spotted lanternfly nymphs collected on tree band . tree banding is both an effective detection method and control strategy for spotted lanternfly\nfor more information you can search spotted lanternfly pda for the pennsylvania department of agriculture , or spotted lanternfly psu for penn state university .\nthe quarantine of the dangerously invasive spotted lanternfly has again expanded into bucks county .\nquarantine extended for invasive spotted lanternfly in s . e . pa . - philly\npennsylvania department of agriculture ( 2015 ) . spotted lanternfly . accessed june 2015 at\nspotted lanternfly fourth ( final ) instar nymph ( immature ) . credit : itchydogimages\nthe spotted lanternfly is an invasive insect that was first found in pennsylvania in 2014 .\nlateral view of an adult spotted lanternfly . photo by lawrence barringer , pennsylvania department of agriculture\nlateral view of an adult spotted lanternfly . photo by lawrence barringer , pennsylvania department of agriculture\nthe spotted lanternfly is a new invasive insect that was first found in pennsylvania in 2014 .\nthe spotted lanternfly does not bite people , which is something that people often ask about .\nspotted lanternfly is regarded as a poisonous insect in chinese medicine and used for relief from swelling .\nright now , the fight against the invasive spotted lanternfly involves trying to keep them from reproducing .\nfind more information , including a one - minute video about the spotted lanternfly , visit urltoken .\nspotted lanternfly is an invasive insect in pennsylvania that has the potential to threaten several important agricultural commodities .\nif spotted lanternfly did become established in minnesota , it could impact grape , apple and nursery production .\nparasitic wasp , anastatus orientalis is reported to parasitize up to 69 percent of spotted lanternfly eggs in china . this egg parasitoid is considered a potential biocontrol agent for release against the spotted lanternfly in south korea .\nthe pennsylvania department of agriculture issued a quarantine to restrict the movement of the spotted lanternfly on november 1 , 2014 . a small area of pennsylvania is regulated to prevent spotted lanternfly from spreading to new areas .\nthere are some native insects that could be confused with a spotted lanternfly , especially tiger moths and underwing moths which also can have red hind wings . however , moths are much better fliers compared to a spotted lanternfly . moths also do not jump while a spotted lanternfly ( and other planthoppers ) are good jumpers .\nadult spotted lanternfly with wings spread showing colorful hind wing . photo by holly raguza , pennsylvania department of agriculture\n. this will increase the likelihood of early detection and control of the spotted lanternfly if it arrives here .\nfor more information on damage , life cycles and descriptions , and where to look , see the spotted lanternfly pest alert . also , from the pennsylvania department of agriculture : guidelines for the control of spotted lanternfly .\nthe spotted lanternfly has no known effects on human health , according to horticulture experts at penn state extension .\nspotted lanternfly egg mass on tree - of - heaven . photo by holly raguza , bugwood . org .\nif you live outside of the current ( quarantine area ) in pennsylvania and find a spotted lanternfly , report it ! use this interactive plant pest quarantine search to see if you ' re in the spotted lanternfly quarantine area .\nspotted lanternfly covered egg mass ( bottom ) , adult ( center ) , uncovered egg mass ( top ) .\nthe spotted lanternfly is a threat to many fruit crops and trees . learn to spot it and report it .\ncontact the minnesota department of agriculture via arrest the pest if you suspect an infestation of spotted lanternfly in minnesota .\nmore information about the biology of the spotted lanternfly , most current distribution , volunteer opportunities , quarantine regulations and compliance .\nbuild - up of honeydew secretions at the base of a tree , a sign of a heavy spotted lanternfly infestation .\npenn state college of agricultural sciences ( 2015 ) . host plants used by the spotted lanternfly . accessed july 2015 at\nphoto 1 : spotted lanternfly . note spots on most of the wing and the lacey pattern on the wing tips .\nspotted lanternfly younger nymphs without red coloration . photo by lawrence barringer , pennsylvania department of agriculture , bugwood . org .\nspotted lanternfly older nymph with red coloration . photo by lawrence barringer , pennsylvania department of agriculture , bugwood . org .\nlimit the spread of spotted lanternfly : you can take steps personally to limit the chance you may spread spotted lanternfly . you can use the \u201cspotted lanternfly quarantine checklist\u201d to make sure items on and around your home are pest free before moving them . you can also check your vehicle for hitch hiking lanternflies if you plan on leaving the quarantine area . taking steps to not park or leave items under tree lines will also reduce the risk of spotted lanternfly becoming an unwelcome hitch hiker .\nspotted lanternfly egg masses can be hard to spot making it easy to unknowingly transport them on vehicles and other outdoor items .\nan adult spotted lanternfly , with wings spread , showing its colorful hind wing . photo by holly raguza , pennsylvania department of agriculture\nthe spotted lanternfly is just the most recent invasive bug species from overseas to show up in pennsylvania by way of international commerce .\nsouth korea is approximately similar in size to pennsylvania and we know that the spotted lanternfly has been here longer than three years .\nthe spotted lanternfly was first discovered in berks county in 2014 . the fight against them involves trying to keep them from reproducing .\nadult spotted lanternfly on tree - of - heaven . photo by lawrence barringer , pennsylvania department of agriculture , bugwood . org .\ndownload a spotted lanternfly kit \u00bb the kit contains useful information regarding identification , handling yard waste , a time of year management chart and what to do if you find spotted lanternflies on your property .\nthis map is from the pennsylvania department of agriculture and so far the spotted lanternfly has been found in the southeastern part of pennsylvania .\nan adult spotted lanternfly is seen , its wings spread to show a colorful hind wing . the invasive pest has sparked a quarantine in pennsylvania .\ndarvin levengood walks the grounds of his berks county winery . the spotted lanternfly arrived in berks in 2014 and has spread to five other counties .\nthis is a picture of a stand of younger ailanthus trees , tree of heaven , that sustained heavy populations of spotted lanternfly for two years .\nany living stage of the spotted lanternfly , lyc o r m a delica tu la . this includes egg masses , nymphs , and adults .\nif spotted lanternfly is discovered in minnesota , actions may be taken to prevent its spread to new areas and to eradicate or control any infestations .\nin the late summer and fall , the spotted lanternfly prefers feeding on ailanthus altissima , commonly known as the\ntree of heaven .\nthey can be found feeding on other plants and trees , but if you have ailanthus altissima , you should start searching for spotted lanternfly on those trees .\nthe spotted lanternfly ( slf ) , lycorma delicatula , ( hemiptera : fulgoridae ) was unintentionally introduced into korea in 2006 where it is a pest .\na gypsy moth egg mass ( right ) next to an egg mass of the spotted lanternfly ( left ) on a willow , salix sp . trunk\nthe spotted lanternfly quarantine has expanded into nine additional municipalities in southeastern pennsylvania , including some in bucks county , the pennsylvania department of agriculture announced recently .\nredding is talking about the spotted lanternfly , just the most recent invasive bug species from overseas to show up in pennsylvania by way of international commerce .\nas a nymph , the spotted lanternfly feeds on a wide range of plants and trees . over 65 potential host species have been recorded , including :\nbarringer , l . 2014 . pest alert : spotted lanternfly , lycorma delicatula ( white ) ( hemiptera : fulgoridae ) . pennsylvania department of agriculture .\nit is important for landowners in the affected area to avoid spreading the spotted lanternfly . one good practice is to avoid parking your vehicle under trees because spotted lanternflies that are living in trees will lay eggs on the cars underneath .\nafter being detected most recently in northampton and lehigh counties , the spotted lanternfly has now been discovered in berks , montgomery , bucks , and chester counties .\nprofile of spotted lanternfly adult at rest . note the wings are held tent - like over the back of the insect . credit : pennsylvania department of agriculture\nthe spotted lanternfly is not known to occur in minnesota . it was detected in pennsylvania in september 2014 which is the only known occurrence in north america .\nresidents in and around the quarantine areas are encouraged to inspect their properties for spotted lanternfly . additional townships may be added to the quarantine , but with the identification of each infestation , we come one step closer to controlling spotted lanternfly and the damage it might cause our economy and our environment , agriculture officials said .\nprevious experience with other invasive insect species \u2014 including the brown marmorated stink bug and gypsy moths \u2014 is helpful to state agriculture officials dealing with the spotted lanternfly .\nwhere spotted lanternfly has been detected in pennsylvania , several control options are available . these methods are used in combination on a site - by - site basis .\nsince its detection in 2014 in pennsylvania , research on spotted lanternfly has been rapidly expanding . currently , researchers from government and academia are investigating topics such as :\ni ' m going to talk about the invasive insect , the spotted lanternfly , how to identify it , and why we ' re so concerned about it .\nwe ' ve found spotted lanternfly on herbaceous plants including day lilies , basil , cucumbers , but primarily we think of them as a pest on woody plants .\nefforts to put a crimp in the growing risk of the spotted lanternfly to pennsylvania ' s fruit and hardwood industry have gotten a boost from the federal government .\nspotted lanternfly first instar nymph ( immature ) . note that the nymph is black with white spots . this coloration persists through the third instar . credit : itchydogimages\nspotted lanternfly was first discovered in berks county , pennsylvania in september of 2014 . it has since spread to 13 counties in pennsylvania and is under a quarantine in that state . it was also found in both delaware and new york in late 2017 . as of january 2018 , spotted lanternfly has not been found in massachusetts .\nspotted lanternfly is native to china and found in southeast asia . it was first reported in south korea in 2006 and rapidly spread to different parts of the country .\npennsylvania department of agriculture spotted lanternfly information , including a copy of the slf order of quarantine , a powerpoint on lycorma inspection tips , and the slf pest alert .\nthe pennsylvania department of agriculture has extended the area placed under quarantine for an invasion of spotted lanternfly to include nine additional municipalities in the southeastern part of the state .\nwhen you see the spotted lanternfly in the media , you often see this image at the upper left with the wings displayed and you can see the red underwings .\nspotted lanternfly was discovered in berks county in september of 2014 and we estimate that it arrived in pennsylvania during 2012 based on the condition of old weathered egg masses .\nthere really weren ' t very many spotted lanternfly in this orchard until september and then when the adults took to flight they flew into the orchard in large numbers .\nif you find an insect that you suspect is the spotted lanternfly , please contact your local extension office or state plant regulatory official to have the specimen identified properly .\npeople are asking about the longterm health of trees that are fed upon my lanternfly .\naccording to dara\u2019s information compilation , the spotted lanternfly is actually not a fly , but a planthopper referred to as \u201cspot clothing wax cicada\u201d or \u201cchinese blistering cicada\u201d in literature .\nthe spotted lanternfly is native to southern asia , including china , india , japan , and vietnam . recently , it has become a problematic invasive pest in south korea .\nso this orchard , producer , could use an insecticide that was labeled for his fruit crops and the spotted lanternfly have not been particularly difficult to kill with traditional insecticides .\nthis tree was red from a distance of about 50 feet i could just see that the whole stem of this tree was red from the high numbers of spotted lanternfly .\nthe spotted lanternfly is native to china , india , japan , and vietnam and has been detected for the first time in the united states in eastern berks county , pennsylvania .\nthe spotted lanternfly is not known to do any structural damage , it won ' t get into the wall space of your home and try to over - winter as adults .\nmanagement neonicotinoids , pyrethrins , and organophosphates are among the chemical insecticides effective against spotted lanternfly . adults and 2 nd - 4 th instar nymphs appear to be attracted to spearmint oil which could be used in their control . using sticky traps at the base of the tree trunks also appears to be a good management strategy . parasitic wasp , anastatus orientalis is reported to parasitize up to 69 % of spotted lanternfly eggs in china . this egg parasitoid is considered a potential biocontrol agent for release against the spotted lanternfly in south korea .\nanyone finding the spotted lanternfly on their property is encouraged to contact the pennsylvania department of agriculture at : badbug @ pa . gov , 1 - 866 - 253 - 7189 .\ngreig , g . 2014 . notices : order of quarantine ; spotted lanternfly . 44 pa . b . 6947 . pages 6947 . the pennsylvania bulletin , harrisburg , pa .\naphis administrator kevin shea points to the sticky bands being placed around the trunks of host trees , such as tree of heaven , to identify the range of spotted lanternfly nymphs .\nthe spotted lanternfly is not known to bite humans . you can kill spotted lanternflies mechanically , by swatting or crushing them . however , when you threaten them , they are able to quickly jump far away from you , so mechanical control is not easy to achieve .\n\u201cyou can help stop its spread . keep a watchful eye out for signs of the spotted lanternfly : the nymphs in the spring , and right now the brown / grey mud like egg masses and bright black and white and red spotted adults , \u201d nichols said .\nadults are weak flyers , but good hoppers . the head is black with piercing and sucking mouthparts . life cycle is typically one generation per year . spotted lanternfly overwinters as eggs .\nmost natural enemies of the spotted lanternfly are not effective enough for controlling them , according to dr . dara , nor are generalist predators . parasitic controls are few , although a few that are native to asia may work there . a parasitic wasp called anastatus orientalis may have potential because it is reported to parasitize up to 69 percent of spotted lanternfly eggs in china .\nto control spotted lanternflies , applying a system of insecticide will help to kill off adults .\nspotted lanternfly was first found in berks county , pennsylvania in 2014 and is a major threat to our agriculture industry . this video , updated in march 2018 , discusses how to identify this invasive pest and describes its lifecycle and behavior . you will also learn about current conditions and quarantine areas , the research being conducted , and where you can learn more about spotted lanternfly .\norigin and distribution spotted lanternfly is native to china and is present in southeast asia . it was first reported in south korea in 2006 and rapidly spread to different parts of the country .\npesticides are currently the most effective way of killing the spotted lanternfly , but it\u2019s important that you contact a professional or follow the instructions on the pdofag\u2019s website to report the infestation appropriately .\n\u201cif the spotted lanternfly continues to spread it will attack more grapes , apples , pines , and stone fruits and could become a major pest to the united states , \u201d nichols said .\na spotted lanternfly , seen on a leaf . they feed on the leaf , then leave behind a waste product that leads to the development of what ' s called a sooty mold .\nthe spotted lanternfly , which attacks tree trunks and other woody parts of plants , is a weak flyer but a strong and quick jumper . credit : lawrence barringer , pa . department of agriculture\nan adult spotted lanternfly is seen , its wings spread to show a colorful hind wing . the invasive pest has sparked a quarantine in pennsylvania . holly raguza / pennsylvania department of agriculture hide caption\nas an adult , the spotted lanternfly mainly feeds on the ailanthus ( tree of heaven ) , although has also been observed on a few other species , including salix ( weeping willow ) .\na spotted lanternfly , seen on a leaf . they feed on the leaf , then leave behind a waste product that leads to the development of what ' s called a sooty mold . (\npinned spotted lanternfly adult with wings open . note the bright red coloration now visible on the hindwings . this cannot be seen when the insect is at rest . credit : pennsylvania department of agriculture\nthe spotted lanternfly attacks many important agricultural trees and plants , including the grapevine . if this invasive species were to establish in ontario , it would threaten the $ 3 . 3 billion wine industry .\nthe spotted lanternfly feeds on various host plants throughout its development . nymphs feed on a wide range of plant species , while adults prefer to feed and lay eggs on tree - of - heaven (\nan ongoing de - limiting survey being conducted at the local and state level to rid areas of the spotted lanternfly has led to the quarantine of several municipalities \u2014 including in northampton and lehigh counties .\nadditionally , it is good if residents of surrounding areas are aware of the spotted lanternfly , know how to identify it in all its life stages and are watching out for it , swackhamer said .\nin the late summer and fall , the spotted lanternfly prefers feeding on ailanthus altissima , commonly known as the \u201ctree of heaven . \u201d they can be found feeding on other plants and trees , but if you have ailanthus altissima , you should start searching for spotted lanternfly on those trees . for information on how to identify ailanthus altissima and how to control it , see this fact sheet : urltoken .\nthe spotted lanternfly doesn ' t make any kind of a cocoon or pupi , goes directly from that fourth instar stage , the skin of that life stage will crack open and the adult crawls out .\nthe invasive spotted lanternfly has been found in southeastern counties in pennsylvania . we are trying to eradicate this potential pest . there is a quarantine order in place that prohibits movement of any living life stage of this insect to areas outside of the quarantine area . to find information about identifying the spotted lanternfly , current information about where it is known to exist , quarantine order , and compliance go to : urltoken\nthe spotted lanternfly ( lycorma delicatula ) is native to china and was first detected in pennsylvania in september 2014 . spotted lanternfly feeds on a wide range of fruit , ornamental and woody trees , with tree - of - heaven being one of the preferred hosts . spotted lanternflies are invasive and can be spread long distances by people who move infested material or items containing egg masses . if allowed to spread in the united states , this pest could seriously impact the country\u2019s grape , orchard , and logging industries .\nan exotic pest known as the spotted lanternfly , lycorma delicatula ( white ) was recently detected in berks county , pa . spotted lanternfly , which is actually not a fly , but a planthopper is also referred to as \u201cspot clothing wax cicada\u201d or \u201cchinese blistering cicada\u201d in the literature . it belongs to the family fulgoridae in the order hemiptera . fulgorids or members of the family fulgoridae are moderate to large planthoppers generally referred to as lanternflies because of the inflated front portion of the head that was thought to be luminous . spotted lanternfly is regarded as a poisonous insect in chinese medicine and used for relief from swelling .\nthe infestation in berks county most likely originated from one of several asian countries , including china , india , japan , south korea and vietnam , where the spotted lanternfly is endemic . despite its distinctive red and black - spotted wings , the lanternfly can only walk , jump or fly short distances . its long - distance spread is made possible by people who unknowingly move infested material or vehicles containing egg masses .\ninvasive bug prompts quarantine in pennsylvania townships : the two - way the spotted lanternfly has officially arrived in the u . s . , and leaders in pennsylvania are hoping it won ' t be staying long .\nosama el - lissy , aphis\u2019 deputy administrator for plant protection and quarantine , looks for spotted lanternfly nymphs emerging from host tree material in research barrels to show aphis administrator kevin shea and associate administrator mike gregoire .\nsurveys are currently underway to determine the complete spread of this pest in berks county and the surrounding counties . efforts are also underway to ensure the spotted lanternfly is not present in other parts of the commonwealth .\nfor the lanternfly , current research is focused on the insect\u2019s anatomy in the hopes that a weakness in the pest can be found and manipulated . scientists are working with various pesticides , predators , and parasitoids , spichiger said , including a parasitic wasp that \u201cmight infest a spotted lanternfly and cause it not to reproduce . \u201d\nneonicotinoids , pyrethrins , and organophosphates are among the chemical insecticides effective against spotted lanternfly . adults and 2 nd - 4 th instar nymphs appear to be attracted to spearmint oil which could be used in their control .\noccurrence data : we have used the csv file of the distribution of spotted lanternfly from the literatures ( in china , korea and japan ) . this file contains the occurrence points of the species in the naive region\nhorticultural experts across pennsylvania say the spotted lanternfly is of particular concern here because they feast on grapevines , apple trees , stone fruit trees , and pine trees , all of which are big business in the keystone state .\nfor now , the spotted lanternfly remains confined to a small area of pennsylvania , but according to dr . dara , all appropriate interests should stand by , keep watch , and - - especially - - be ready .\nbecause the pest is so new , experts are working on quarantining and eradicating new infestations in order to keep it under control . currently , the spotted lanternfly is detected in several counties , including our own lehigh county .\ndarvin levengood walks the grounds of his winery , keeping an eye out for the spotted lanternfly , but does not see any , in amityville , berks county , pa . , wednesday , aug . 9 , 2017 . the nets on the trees are to keep birds away from the grapes ; they would not prevent a lanternfly infestation .\nu . s . department of agriculture \u2013 animal and plant health inspection service ( 2015 ) . spotted lanternfly eradication program in berks , lehigh , and montgomery counties , pennsylvania \u2013 environmental assessment may 2015 . accessed july 2015 at\nthe spotted lanternfly was first discovered in berks county in 2014 . it is an economic threat because it can destroy vineyards , fruit trees and forest products and associated businesses . sven spichiger , of the pennsylvania department of agriculture , said three vineyards in the quarantine area were negatively impacted this year . \u201cright now the spotted lanternfly is laying eggs and they lay them anywhere and hides them , \u201d he said . each egg mass contains 30 to 50 eggs .\nlikewise , if you collect an adult or nymph , place the specimen in 70 percent rubbing alcohol or hand sanitizer in a leak - proof container . never take a live specimen of the spotted lanternfly from the area under quarantine .\n\u201csocial media is a powerful tool for helping visually identify this pest , \u201d explained redding . \u201cwe encourage citizens to watch and share our spotted lanternfly video . anyone can join us to help protect pennsylvania from this bad bug . \u201d\nwhen disturbed , the lanternfly will hop or fly away , revealing bright red and white hindwings . ( figure 2 )\nan average lanternfly life cycle lasts about a year , during which time they can lay between 30 and 50 eggs .\nthe spotted lanternfly is an inch - long black , red and white spotted insect native to southeast asia . it is an invasive species in korea , where it has attacked 25 plant species that also grow in pennsylvania . the pest had not been found in the united states prior to its initial detection in berks county in the fall of 2014 .\neveryone is encouraged to report the spotted lanternfly if they find it outside the quarantine area , learn about the pest\u2019s lifecycle , try to kill it in all stages and don\u2019t move material that could be harboring any stage of the pest .\nsetliff encouraged everyone to report the spotted lanternfly if they find it outside the quarantine area , learn about the pest\u2019s lifecycle , try to kill it in all stages and don\u2019t move material that could be harboring any stage of the pest .\npeople seeing the spotted lanternfly for the first time are struck by its sometimes - flashy appearance . but don ' t let its colorful , butterfly - like veneer fool you , caution entomologists in penn state ' s college of agricultural sciences .\nthe spotted lanternfly threatens many species of orchard trees . in addition to threatening the industry , there are potential social impacts including impacts on summer activities such as apple picking , enjoying fresh produce from farmer\u2019s markets , or wine tasting at local vineyards\nnative to northern china , the spotted lanternfly has spread to korea and japan , where it has caused considerable damage . last year authorities in berks county , pennsylvania quarantined five townships and issued an alert document to help people identify the pest .\nthe estimated number of spotted lanternfly killed by egg mass scraping based off of reported efforts . this number comes from the \u201creporting scraped egg masses instructions\u201d page . this number will be periodically updated to reflect the efforts of pda and the community .\nthe invasive pest \u2013 spotted lanternfly , lycorma delicatula - has been found for the first time in the u . s . ( pennsylvania ) , and western - state growers should be aware of the insect and its host range which includes grapes and stone fruit . sugar content from lanternfly excretion can harbor mold growth which can result in stunted plant growth or even death .\nthe spotted lanternfly , which recently was discovered for the first time in the united states in berks county , poses a threat to many economically important species of trees and woody ornamentals in pennsylvania . credit : holly raguza , pa . department of agriculture\nhost plants and impact - the primary hosts of spotted lanternfly are tree of heaven and grapes . however , in korea , it has been recorded attacking 65 different species ; many of these same genera occur in minnesota including apple , grape , willow , oak , walnut , silver maple , common lilac , poplar , eastern white pine , and rose . tree of heaven is not widely present in minnesota , and it is possible that spotted lanternfly would not thrive in minnesota without this important host .\nthe first north american detection occurred in october 2014 in pennsylvania , u . s . a . as of march 2017 , quarantined areas exist within counties in pennsylvania ( see map ) . in november 2017 , the spotted lanternfly is confirmed in delaware .\nwe investigated the potential distribution of spotted lanternfly in the us using maxent model . our study found the potential risky places in the us are the midwest and mid - atlantic regions based on the climatic factors that are favourable for the species to thrive .\nin pennsylvania , the spotted lanternfly overwinters in egg masses laid on smooth bark , stone , and other vertical surfaces . the first of four immature stages , or instars , began emerging from the egg masses in mid - may , with a few individuals that had molted to second instar nymphs by the end of may . the first instar nymph is black with white spots and wingless . as it grows , the spotted lanternfly develops red patches in addition to the white spots . nymphs spread from the initial site by crawling or jumping up any woody or non - woody plant it comes across to feed . in korea , the spotted lanternfly is known to gradually prefer tree - of - heaven / paradise tree ( ailanthus altissima ) as it nears the adult stage .\nkelly murman , a graduate student in biology at east stroudsburg university , volunteers with a collaborative effort by the u . s . and state departments of agriculture to study plants that the spotted lanternfly feeds on , according to a story last month on urltoken .\nthe spotted lanternfly begins laying eggs in masses of 30 to 50 eggs , covered in a brown , mud - like substance , in late september or early october . egg masses may be found on adult host trees , especially tree of heaven ( ailanthus alitissima ) , moderately - sized stones and other smooth surfaced outdoor items , such as lawn furniture , stone and brick work , and outdoor recreational vehicles . the egg mass poses , perhaps , the greatest risk for accidental transport of the spotted lanternfly to new areas .\nthe spotted lanternfly is known to attack about 65 different plant hosts in korea , especially tree of heaven and grapes . it is also known to attack plants in the same genera as apple , willow , oak , lilac , rose , maple , poplar , and pine . spotted lanternflies ( like other planthoppers ) damages plants by using its needle - like mouthparts to feed on plant sap .\nberks county is the front line in the war against spotted lanternfly ,\nagriculture secretary george greig said in a news release .\nwe are taking every measure possible to learn more , educate the public and ourselves and eliminate this threat to agriculture .\nin boyertown , steven frecon , the owner and orchard manager of frecons farm , was not in the quarantine area until this year . his farm grows apples , peaches , cherries , and berries . he saw his first spotted lanternfly this spring in nymph form .\nadults and nymphs feed on sap that they suck from leaves and stems of host plants . this causes sap to excrete from wounds ( ' weeping ' wounds ) , which appear grey or black and can occur along the stems , branches or trunk of the tree . weeping wounds are also caused by debris ( frass ) and honeydew buildup from the spotted lanternfly . this can attract other insects to feed on the tree . the spotted lanternfly was first discovered in pennsylvania because of bees that had been attracted to the honeydew .\none of a group of insects sometimes referred to as planthoppers , the lanternfly is a weak flyer but a strong and quick jumper .\nand in this picture you can see a yellow jacket that is collecting honeydew right out of the back end of the adult lanternfly .\nlocate ailianthus altissima trees on the site . for reasons not understood , spotted lanternfly seem to prefer some individual ailanthus altissima trees over others . try to identify the specific ailanthus trees that are most attractive to the insects , based on how many are feeding on them .\n\u201cthis is our third season of combating the spotted lanternfly , and despite extensive work that has helped slow the spread of this potentially devastating invasive pest , the addition of these new municipalities illustrates just how challenging a task that is , \u201d said agriculture secretary russell redding .\n\u201cin south korea , where spotted lanternfly was introduced more than 10 years ago , they damaged vineyards and the quality of grapes and stone fruit , for example , peaches , \u201d said emelie swackhamer , a horticulture extension educator at the penn state extension in montgomery county .\nthe spotted lanternfly threatens vineyards and fruit orchards , which can result in significant social impacts if the insect becomes established . for example , popular summer activities could be impacted , such as apple picking , enjoying fresh produce from farmer\u2019s markets , or wine tasting at local vineyards .\non september 22 , 2014 , the pennsylvania department of agriculture , in cooperation with the pennsylvania game commission , confirmed the presence the spotted lanternfly ( lycorma delicatula ) , in berks county , pennsylvania , the first detection of this non - native species in the united states .\nthe spotted lanternfly , or lycorma delicatula , is native to parts of china and eastern asia . it attacks trees by feeding on sap and harms them further by excreting large amounts of a fluid that coats leaves and stems and encourages the growth of mold , according to researchers .\n\u201cspotted lanternfly has proven to be a tremendously destructive pest that spreads rapidly and can be devastating to our valuable grapes , hardwoods and hops , \u201d said agriculture secretary russell redding in a statement . he urged anyone seeing the insects to report sightings to badbug @ pa . gov .\nprovide the file containing the presence locations . to do this , use the \u201cbrowse\u201d button in the \u201csamples\u201d section of the maxent screen and locate the spotted lanternfly location _ rarely _ occur [ slf _ spatial _ occ . csv ] generated from the data preparation \u2013 > step 3\nfreshly laid egg masses have a grey waxy mud - like coating , while hatched eggs appear as brownish seed - like deposits in four to seven columns about an inch long . trees attacked by the spotted lanternfly will show a grey or black trail of sap down the trunk .\n1 . locate ailianthus altissima trees on the site . for reasons not understood , spotted lanternfly seem to prefer some individual ailanthus altissima trees over others . try to identify the specific ailanthus trees that are most attractive to the insects , based on how many are feeding on them .\nthe spotted lanternfly is a plant hopper native to china , india and vietnam . it has also been introduced in south korea and japan . in the u . s . , the spotted lanternfly has the potential to greatly impact the grape , tree fruit , plant nursery and timber industries . in pennsylvania , this pest poses a significant threat to the state\u2019s more than $ 20 . 5 million grape , $ 134 million apple , and more than $ 24 million stone fruit industries , as well as the hardwood industry which accounts for $ 12 billion in sales .\nalthough grape vine does not have toxic metabolites like other hosts , spotted lanternfly showed a strong preference in studies conducted in south korea . the sugar content of the host plant also appears to play a role in their choice with a preference for hosts containing high sucrose and fructose content .\nsaunders has submitted a proposal for research funding under the federal farm bill to conduct efficacy tests for spotted lanternfly chemical control . he noted that synthetic pyrethroid insecticides appear to show promise . hoover also is seeking farm bill funding to develop extension educational materials for growers , arborists and the public .\nthis is our third season of combatting the spotted lanternfly , and despite extensive work that has helped slow the spread of this potentially devastating invasive pest , the addition of these new municipalities illustrates just how challenging a task that is ,\nagriculture secretary russell redding said in a statement .\nspotted lanternfly nymphs and adults cause damage when they feed , sucking sap from stems and leaves . adults prefer to feed and lay eggs on the tree of heaven ( ailanthus altissima ) . if allowed to spread in the united states , this pest could seriously harm the country\u2019s grape , orchard , and logging industries . we have reached out to researchers in korea to learn more about this destructive pest , and pda is conducting research on the ground to see if removing ailanthus host trees , which also happen to be invasive , and chipping the wood effectively kills spotted lanternfly nymphs .\nto get rid of spotted lanternflies in their nymphal stages , banding these trees have proven quite effective . this can be done with adhesive tapes .\nthe brilliant colors\u2013\u2013 red , black , and white \u2014 of the spotted lanternfly reveal one of the reasons why it is difficult to control by using natural enemies . its hues are warning colors that alert predators to the fact that the lanternfly is toxic due to poisons called cytotoxic alkaloids , which it metabolizes from some of its host plants . while the coloration of the forewings helps camouflage the lanternfly against a tree trunk , dr . dara says , the sudden flash of its vivid hindwings , when opened , startles predators and scares them away . some birds have been seen vomiting after ingesting the insect . although it is also toxic to humans , the lanternfly has been used in low quantities by practitioners of traditional chinese medicine to treat consumption and swelling .\nspotted lanternfly is new to north america . though a good deal of information is available , there are still a number of unknowns . in 2015 , efforts by pda and the other cooperating partners , researchers , and volunteers will need to be evaluated . egg mass scraping and the tree banding programs will remove many insects from the population and reduce the size of the current population , but these activities will also help to better characterize how the pest is behaving in this new environment . evaluation of methodology will lead to a stronger program as pda and its partners continue to battle the spotted lanternfly .\na new invasive pest \u2013 spotted lanternfly , lycorma delicatula - has been found for the first time in the u . s . ( pennsylvania ) , and western - state growers should be aware of the insect and its host range which includes grapes and stone fruit in case the insect marches west .\ndamage adults and nymphs feed on phloem tissues of foliage and young stems with their piercing and sucking mouthparts and excrete large quantities of liquid . due to the sugar content of the liquid , plant parts covered with spotted lanternfly excretion harbor mold growth which could hinder plant growth or even result in death .\ndamage adults and nymphs feed on phloem tissues of foliage and young stems with their piercing and sucking mouthparts and excrete large quantities of liquid . due to the sugar content of the liquid , plant parts covered with spotted lanternfly excretion harbor mold growth , which could hinder plant growth or even cause death .\nbut rich blair , owner of blair vineyards in kutztown , says the spotted lanternflies he first discovered on his property two years ago have multiplied exponentially .\nrefer to the spotted lantern fact sheet and if found on your property , call the bad bug hotline at 1 - 866 - 253 - 7189 .\nobservations in south korea suggests that spotted lanternfly appears to have a wider host range early in life as young nymphs , and a narrow range as they grow older , especially before egg laying . choosing plants with toxic metabolites for egg laying is thought to be a mechanism of defense to protect from natural enemies .\nas the spotted lanternfly was only recently introduced to north america , little is known about the extent of damage that it will cause . although it is too early to make accurate predictions on actual economic impacts , the wine and grape , tender fruit , apple , and forestry industries are at the greatest risk .\ncall seitz brothers of course ! we have been dealing with the spotted lanternfly for over a year now ! with a free estimate and inspection our trained technicians will be able to help you design a plan to kill these pests . call or text today to set up a free estimate 888 - 467 - 1008\nharrisburg , pa - the pennsylvania department of agriculture has added 21 municipalities in berks , bucks , lehigh , montgomery and northampton counties to the areas quarantined due to the presence of the invasive insect spotted lanternfly . the quarantine was already in effect for parts of those five counties , as well as chester county .\nthe spotted lanternfly is a plant hopper native to china , india and vietnam , and has been introduced in south korea and japan . in korea , where it was first detected in 2004 , the spotted lanternfly is known utilize more than 70 species , 25 of which also occur in pennsylvania , including cultivated grapes , fruit trees , and hardwood species . this pest poses a significant threat to the state\u2019s more than $ 20 . 5 million grape , nearly $ 134 million apple , and more than $ 24 million stone fruit industries , as well as the hardwood industry in pennsylvania which accounts for $ 12 billion in sales .\nthe article says \u201cat least three different forms of pesticide are currently known to be useful against the adult lanternfly\u201d . what are those three different forms of pesticides ?\nthe spotted lanternfly has officially arrived in the u . s . , and leaders in pennsylvania are hoping it won ' t be staying long . the invasive pest poses a threat to fruit orchards and grape vines , along with forests and the timber industry . it was detected in berks county , northwest of philadelphia .\nin addition , through the efforts of the technical working group , several important questions are being investigated . these include testing the effects of chipping woody material on spotted lanternfly egg mass survivorship , the effects of various existing pesticides on immature life stages , and the attractiveness of certain plant volatiles for use in trapping programs .\nmontgomery county : douglass township , upper hanover township , new hanover township , west pottsgrove township , lower pottsgrove township , marlborough township , and upper frederick township , upper pottsgrove township , limerick township , upper providence township , lower frederick township , upper salford township , east greenville borough , pennsburg borough , red hill borough , royersford borough , pottstown borough , and telford borough . the quarantine may be expanded to new areas as further detections of the spotted lanternfly are detected and confirmed . intentional movement of the spotted lanternfly is expressly prohibited and is a serious offense . violations could result in criminal or civil penalties and / or fines .\nnative to northern china , the spotted lanternfly has spread to other parts of asia , notably korea and japan . it has caused considerable damage in those countries , which is why state authorities in berks county , pennsylvania quarantined five townships and issued an alert document to help people identify the pest . the pennsylvania department of agriculture removed more than 100 , 000 of the insects in 2015 alone , according to dr . dara\u2019s paper . the adults are easy to catch because they seldom fly off when approached , preferring to hop away . based in california , dr . dara\u2019s focus on the spotted lanternfly is partly motivated by its potential threat to vineyards .\nand it ' s feeding , see it ' s ( mumbles ) right into the abdomen of this lanternfly it has killed and it ' s eating the content .\nspotted lanternfly is native to northern china ( liu 1939 ) . it was first detected as an exotic species in south korea in 2004 , and has since rapidly spread to different parts of that country ( kim and kim 2005 ) . more recently , individuals have been detected in japan ( kim et al . 2013 ) .\nlast year , an invasive pest known as the spotted lanternfly was found in the united states for the first time ever in berks county , pennsylvania . tucked away in pennsylvania dutch country , berks county may seem an unlikely location to find a foreign pest , but with today\u2019s global economy unwanted pests can show up almost anywhere .\nadults can be seen as early as the middle of july and take on a much different appearance . adults at rest have a black head and grayish wings with black spots . the tips of the wings are a combination of black rectangular blocks with grey outlines . when startled or flying the spotted lanternfly will display hind wings that are red at the base and black at the tip with a white stripe dividing them . the red portion of the wing is also adorned with black spots . the abdomen is bright to pale yellow with bands of black on the top and bottom surfaces . while a poor flyer , the spotted lanternfly is a strong jumper .\ni live near ground zero for lantern fly introduction and am seeing an explosion of preying mantis and have observed them eating lanternfly\u2026 . . just one more avenue of research\u2026 .\nspotted lanternfly feeds on a variety of host plants including vines , fruit trees , ornamental trees , and woody trees . apples , birch , cherry , dogwood , grapes , korean evodia , lilac , maple , poplar , stone fruits , and tree - of - heaven are among more than 70 species of hosts attacked by the pest .\nthe scout motto is the best advice for pest managers who want to establish a first line of defense against problematic invasive insects even before they become established , according to dr . surendra dara , an ipm and crop advisor at the university of california . \u201cbe prepared , \u201d is what he and his co - authors suggest in a paper published in the journal of integrated pest management on possible tactics to manage the invasive spotted lanternfly ( lycorma delicatula ) , which was detected last year in pennsylvania . pest managers who ignore reports of a new invasive species such as the spotted lanternfly because it is not yet established in their locale do so at their own peril , he said .\nthe scout motto is the best advice for pest managers who want to establish a first line of defense against problematic invasive insects even before they become established , according to dr . surendra dara , an ipm and crop advisor at the university of california . \u201cbe prepared , \u201d is what he and his co - authors suggest in a paper published in the journal of integrated pest management on possible tactics to manage the invasive spotted lanternfly ( lycorma delicatula ) , which was detected last year in pennsylvania . pest managers who ignore reports of a new invasive species such as the spotted lanternfly because it is not yet established in their locale do so at their own peril , he said .\nin korea , where the spotted lanternfly is an introduced pest , the insect has been found to attack at least 65 plant species , 25 of which are known to grow in pennsylvania . state agriculture officials say it has been observed in berks county both feeding and mating and has been found on willow , maple , aspen and tulip poplar ."]}
{"id": 1792, "summary": [{"text": "marionia levis is a species of dendronotid nudibranch .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is a marine gastropod mollusc in the family tritoniidae and is found in shallow water in the red sea and indian ocean . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "marionia levis", "paragraphs": ["what type of species is marionia levis ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the marionia levis species belongs to .\nwhich photographers have photos of marionia levis species ? below , you will find the list of underwater photographers and their photos of the marine species marionia levis .\nhow to identify marionia levis marine species ? below , you will find the list of main identification criteria and physical characteristics of marine species marionia levis . for each identification criteria , the corresponding physical characteristics of marine species marionia levis are marked in green .\nwhere is marionia levis found in the world ? below , you will find the list and a world map of the geographic distribution where the marine species marionia levis can be found .\nhi bill , concerning the message on marionia levis from mombasa [ # 13785 ] : i attached a photo of what i believe to be a marionia levis from the red sea . i ' m not sure though . these nudis are very common around here lately .\nwhich taxonomic groups does the genus marionia belong to and what are the different marionia species ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the genus marionia belongs to and the taxonomic tree with all the different species .\ndear bill , concerning the message [ # 13785 ] about marionia levis , here is one from eilat , israel , we get to see it from time to time .\nhi bill , as you requested [ message # 13830 ] , here is a photo of marionia levis on its food coral - the soft coral formerly known as parerythropodium fulvum .\ntritoniid nudibranchs similar to this description are quite common in our area . if they are all marionia levis , that will clear up a big question for a lot of us .\nupper : eliot ( 1904 ) , original illustration of marionia levis . plate 4 , fig . 4 . lower : eilat bay , israel , red sea . photographer : oren lederman\na new species of marionia ( opisthobranchia : nudibranchia : tritoniidae ) from the tropical south atlan . . .\ndear val\u00e9rie , this is marionia levis . nathalie yonow ( 2000 ) reported on an animal from the red sea but apart from that little is known of it . it was originally described from est africa . best wishes , bill rudman\n. . . this new species can be distinguished readily from other species of marionia based on coloration . for instance , marionia cyanobranchiata ( r\u00fc ppell and leuckart , 1828 ) , and m . platyctenea ( willan , 1988 ) have dark green brown or black gills . marionia distincta bergh , 1905 , m . levis eliot , 1904 , m . elongoreticulata smith and gosliner , 2007 , and m . elongoviridis smith and gosliner , 2007 , have transverse light or dark lines on the dorsum . . . .\n( of marioniopsis fulvicola avila , kelman , kashman & benahayu , 1999 ) rudman , w . b . ( 2005 ) . marionia levis eliot , 1904 . [ in ] sea slug forum . australian museum , sydney . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nwhich are the most common photographed marionia species ? below , you will find the list of species commonly photographed by underwater photographers .\ndear val\u00e9rie and bill , when i saw your message [ # 13785 ] about marionia levis , it reminded me of a lot about the animals i photographed in mayotte , the comoros , 2 years ago . until now i considered them as unnamed species , but i would be happy to put a name on these guys . bill , do you think they fit this species too ?\non the recent taxonomy see worms : molluscabase ( 2018 ) . marionia vayssi\u00e8re , 1877 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 138579 on 2018 - 05 - 07 -\ni have been surprised by the almost immediate deluge of message concerning the tritoniid which i have identified as marionia levis [ # 13785 , # 13832 , # 13830 , # 13809 ] . by coincidence , i have a manuscript in preparation discussing the identity of this species and was planning to leave the discussion of a nomenclatural problem until that was published , but now that the species has attracted such interest it seems silly not to discuss it here .\n. . . within the family tritoniidae , marionia is the only genus with the digestive gland divided into two distinct masses . marioniopsis , t ritonia , paratritonia , t ritoniella , and t ritoniopsis possess one single mass in the digestive gland ( odhner , 1934 , 1936 , 1963 ; willan , 1988 ) . furthermore , marionia and marioniopsis are the only two genera with hard stomach plates ( odhner , 1934 , 1936 , 1963 ) . . . .\n. . . avila et al . ( 1999 ) focused on the genus marioniopsis and a new species ; jensen ( 1994 ) went further and added the data for marionia , along with a new species . smith & gosliner ( 2005 , 2007 ) added newly described species and paratritonia lutea . we have combined the available data in an updated table of the species of marionia , marioniopsis , paratritonia and our proposed species ( table 1 ) . . . .\n. . . usually they feed on a single species of soft corals or gorgonians ( smith and gosliner 2003 ) . within the family tritoniidae , marionia is the only genus with the digestive gland divided into two distinct masses , while marioniopsis , tritonia , paratritonia , tritoniella and tritoniopsis possess one single mass in the digestive gland ( odhner 1934 , 1936 , 1963 ; willan 1988 ) . our specimens possess only one digestive gland mass , and thus , the genus marionia was discarded . . . .\nhowever there are some a major differences in the internal anatomy . for example the radular formula of m . levis is approx 47 x 80 + 1 . 1 . 1 . + 80 and m . fulvicola is 40 x 42 + 1 . 1 . 1 + 42 . another difference are the number of gizzard / stomach plates , approximately 30 in m . fulvicola and approx 150 in m . levis . the benayahu specimens i have looked at match the anatomical description of avila et . al . it would seem there are either two species , very similar externally , but quite different internally , or that eliot ' s description of the internal anatomy is wrong .\n. . . so far the species is known only from the intertidal zone . d i s c u s s i o n tables comparing characters of the internal anatomy and morphology of marioniopsis , marionia and paratritonia were presented in four papers ( jensen , 1994 ; avila et al . , 1999 ; smith & gosliner , 2005 , 2007 ) . avila et al . ( 1999 ) focused on the genus marioniopsis and a new species ; jensen ( 1994 ) went further and added the data for marionia , along with a new species . . . .\n. . . within the genus marioniopsis , eight valid species exist , none of which have the characteristics of our specimens ( tables 2 and 3 ) . six of the described species possess a warty dorsal surface , while only m . levis ( eliot , 1904 ) , m . platyctenea willan , 1988 , and our species have a smooth surface . the species with warty dorsal surface di er from m . fulvicola sp . . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwestern indian ocean [ comoro ids , tanzania , kenya , red sea ] .\noriginally described from east africa , there are reports now on the forum from much of the tropical western indian ocean . in a separate message [ # 13842 ] i discuss why marioniopsis fulvicola avila , kelman , kashman & benayahu , 1999 , described from eilat , red sea is a synonym .\navila , c . , kelman , d . , kashman , y . , and benayahu , y . ( 1999 ) an association between a dendronotid nudibranch ( mollusca , opisthobranchia ) and a soft coral ( octocorallia , alcyonaria ) from the red sea . journal of natural history 33 : 1433 - 1449 .\neliot , c . n . e . ( 1904 ) on some nudibranchs from east africa and zanzibar . part v . proceedings of the zoological society of london , 1904 ( 2 ) : 83 - 105 , pls . 3 - 4 .\nyonow , n . ( 2000 ) red sea opisthobranchia 4 : the orders cephalaspidea , anaspidea , notaspidea and nudibranchia : dendronotacea and aeolidacea . fauna of arabia , 18 : 87 - 131 .\neliot , c . n . e . ( 1904 ) . on some nudibranchs from east africa and zanzibar , part v . proceedings of the zoological society of london . 2 ( 83 ) , 3 - 4 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of marioniopsis fulvicola avila , kelman , kashman & benahayu , 1999 ) avila , kelman , kashman & benahayu ( 1999 ) . j . of natural history 33 ( 10 ) : 1433 - 1449 [ details ]\nto barcode of life ( 1 barcode ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 3 publications ) to encyclopedia of life ( from synonym marioniopsis fulvicola avila , kelman , kashman & benahayu , 1999 ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 3 nucleotides ; 2 proteins ) to sea slug forum ( via archive . org )\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\nany reuse of one or more photographs on this site is subject to an authorization request from the author . link to the code of intellectual property ( legifrance )\nthank you for your contribution to the improvement of the inpn . the information submitted has been sent to an expert for verification and correction .\nwarning : the data available reflects the progression status of knowledge or the availability of the inventories . it should never be considered as comprehensive .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 50eea8a1 - b30e - 4689 - 8b54 - 6168ca3a6cfa\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 893a9c75 - 11b5 - 4fb9 - afe6 - f370989145ba\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 8fb234ac - 1048 - 4219 - 95a5 - b02afc8d9eb4\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 82013df2 - 30cb - 4fdb - 86f7 - 54fab2654197\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 506975\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\neliot , c . n . e . ( 1904 ) . on some nudibranchs from east africa and zanzibar , part v . < em > proceedings of the zoological society of london . < / em > 2 ( 83 ) , 3 - 4 .\neliot , c . n . e . ( 1904 ) on some nudibranchs from east africa and zanzibar , part v : proceedings of the zoological society of london . 2 ( 83 ) , 3 - 4\nthe colour of the body ranges from grey to brown or green and there is a pattern of dark brown transverse lines across the mantle . the up to 9 gills are arranged in pairs , the first pair exending out almost horizontally , the next pair stading vertically , and the rest in alternating position the gills coloration is not uniform , variable in color , in the shade of dark green , dark purple . . . but always darker than the notum the bases of the gills and rhinophores and the oral veil were spotted with dark brown the mantle edge is clearly delineated by a small ridge usually outline in white\nthere are sometimes white lines or rows of white dots across the mantle . there is usually a similar colour pattern on the sides of the body .\nthere are colour forms to match the variable colour of the soft coral on which they are found . this colour match , and their gills , which look remarkably like the extended polyps of the soft coral , make them extremely well camouflaged .\navila , c . , kelman , d . , kashman , y . , and benayahu , y . ( 1999 ) an association between a dendronotid nudibranch ( mollusca , opisthobranchia ) and a soft coral ( octocorallia , alcyonaria ) from the red sea . journal of natural history 33 : 1433 - 1449 . eliot , c . n . e . ( 1904 ) on some nudibranchs from east africa and zanzibar . part v . proceedings of the zoological society of london , 1904 ( 2 ) : 83 - 105 , pls . 3 - 4 . yonow , n . ( 2000 ) red sea opisthobranchia 4 : the orders cephalaspidea , anaspidea , notaspidea and nudibranchia : dendronotacea and aeolidacea . fauna of arabia , 18 : 87 - 131 .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . the last quarter century have seen the number increase further with the descriptions of new species ( rudman , 1982 , 1983 , 1986 , 1987a , 1987b , 1990 ; willan , 1988 ; miller & willan , 1986 ) . intensive intertidal and subtidal field work by the writer and colleagues , and deeper water survey work in bass strait by museum victoria , have revealed additional new records and new species . . . .\nmore than 100 morphological , anatomical and histological characters pertaining to the nudibranchia are discussed in the course of a phylogenetic analysis . based on our own investigations on anatomy , histology and published literature , the polarity of each character is assessed by comparing its expression with outgroups , chiefly the pleurobranchoidea , but also with other opisthobranch taxa . . . [ show full abstract ]\ndesde que as \u00faltimas listas dos gastr\u00f3podos eutineuros da costa brasileira foram publicadas , o n\u00famero de esp\u00e9cies , nomeadamente o dos opistobr\u00e2nquios , aumentou consider\u00e0velmente . por outro lado , algumas esp\u00e9cies foram reconhecidas como id\u00eanticas a outras enumeradas , e certas esp\u00e9cies tinham entrado no cat\u00e1logo da malacofauna brasileira , porque as suas proced\u00eancias , p . e . abrolhos , flores , st . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nhypselodoris jacksoni , a new species from the south - western pacific ocean ( nudibranchia : chromodorid . . .\na new species of hypselodoris ( chromodorididae ) is described from the subtropical and temperate south - western pacific ocean ( eastern australia , lord howe island , norfolk island ) . the colouration of hypselodoris jacksoni sp . nov . is distinctive , though highly variable intraspecifically . hypselodoris jacksoni belongs to the indo - pacific hypselodoris clade ( for which the key synapomorphy is a . . . [ show full abstract ]\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\nfabricius and alderslade ' s book\nsoft corals and sea fans\n( published in 2001 by aims ) has a very similar picture on page 88 ( and thanks to my friend dr . jacob dafni for bringing that to my attention ) . according to the text , all species of parerythropodium were reclassifed in rhytisma ( alderslade , 2000 ) .\nlocality : eilat , lighthouse beach , israel . red sea ( gulf of eilat ) . depth : 9 m . length : ca . 1 cm . 25 may 2005 ( night ) . corals and rubble . photographer : binyamin and shulamit koretz\ndear binyamin , thanks for this - wouldn ' t life be wonderful if all requests were answered so dutifully ! is this a soft coral that has its polyps extended at night or during the day ? why i ask is that a specimen i was sent of this species some years ago had its gut packed full of polyps , each of which had been neatly cut off at the base of the stalk . this species apparently feeds only on extended polyps . best wishes , bill rudman\nlocality : eilat , israel . red sea . depth : 27 m . length : 5 cm . 2 may 2004 . photographer : ilan ben tov\none complication i think worth mentioning is the degree of variation in color and pattern , which has led me to wonder whether we ' re seeing 1 , 2 or 3 species , although the gills are similarly patterned among most of them , and there may be examples that can ' t be easily sorted out .\nthe most common variation is whitish with purple lines and a clear demarcation of the dorsum . another fairly common type is quite greenish top and bottom , often with a cross - hatch pattern . the third type is quite reddish with white speckling , and with a bright white underside . i ' ve attached one example from each type for illustration .\nlocality : eilat , israel , red sea . all depths . length : up to 3 cm . various dates . all types of locality . photographer : binyamin and shulamit koretz\nas i discuss in a separate message [ # 13842 ] , this species was described from eilat , as a new species , quite recently . it wouold be interesting to try and get some photos of it on its host soft coral .\nlocality : ' bouzi ' , m ' sap\u00e9r\u00e9 , mayotte island , comoro ids , indian ocean . depth : 10 m . lengths : upper - 27 - 30mm ; lower left - 29 mm ; lower right - 27 - 30 mm . 12 november 2003 . night dive . photos : marina poddubetskaia\ni stopped taking photos of this species months ago , so i don ' t remember the exact place , date , and depth for this one . sorry .\ndear oren , thanks for this record . from it and the other messages i am posting today you can see it is quite variable in colour , but there are always transverse brown lines across the back and often dark brown specks on the gill stalks . some appear to be narrower than others , but i assume that it a question of what position they are in when photographed . best wishes , bill rudman\ndear bill , during a stay in kenya ( march 2005 ) , i ' ve saw this sea slug that i couldn ' t identify : is it a tritonidae ? ? ? diani , mombasa south , kenya , 14 march 2005 , size 5 cm , depth 15m , coral reef . photo : val\u00e9rie besnard thank you very much for your help ! best regards , val\u00e9rie\nside ( figure 8 ) . the stomach is small , less than 0 . 5 cm\n14 july 1683 ( bertsch , 2011 ) ; no ruins are known to exist .\n. , j . l . 1935 . the first pacific conchologist . the nautilus\neusebio kino , s . j . : faith , maps , sea shells and mission\na new species of tritonia from okinawa . ( mollusca : nudibranchia ) and its association with a gorgonian octocoral\ndiversidad y distribuci\u00f3n de los gaster\u00f3podos opistobranquios del oc\u00e9ano atl\u00e1ntico . un enfoque biogeogr\u00e1fico global\ndescription of the first tritoniid nudibranch found feeding on a zoanthid anthozoan , with a prelimin . . .\nif you think that the photo or video is inappropiate or violates copyrights send us a description of the abuse and we will remove it . we will then contact the user who uploaded this media .\nstay up do date with our latest news and articles , promotions and our best media content .\nmy phd work explores the evolutionary relationships of two marine gastropod groups using molecular phylogenetics . i will employ a transcriptome - based exon - capture approach to generate a phylogeny a\u2026\n[ more ]\nthis project aims to understand how molecular homology and multiple sequence alignment effect doridina phylogenetic estimates . we will estimate molecular phylogenies of the nudibranch suborder do\u2026\n[ more ]\nwe anticipate that dermatobranchus represents both specialised and generalist feeders and contains greater cryptic diversity than what is previously described . this project aims to confirm whether \u2026\n[ more ]\nthis project investigates the role of ecology and natural selection in driving the formation of new species , a process known as ecological speciation . specifically , it examines how corals play a ro\u2026\n[ more ]\nsystematics and preliminary phylogeny of bornellidae ( mollusca : nudibranchia : dendronotina ) based on . . .\nmistaken identities : on the discordoridae genera hoplodoris and carminodoris ( opsithobranchia : nudib . . .\nsystematics and preliminary phylogeny of bornellidae ( mollusca : nudibranchia : dendronotina ) based on . . .\nin this study all available species of the nudibranch family bornellidae ( bornella gray , 1850 , pseudobornella baba , 1932 ) are re - examined anatomically and their status re - evaluated . of these , b . hancockana kelaart , 1859 syn . nov . , b . arborescens pease , 1871 syn . nov . , b . caledonica crosse , 1875a syn . nov . , and b . marmorata collingwood , 1881 syn . nov . are considered to be new synonyms of b . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nphylogenetic systematics of okenia , sakishmaia , hopkinsiella and hopkinsia ( nudibranchia : goniodorid . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by kbanasihan , 06 / 28 / 2010\n> stream x\u009cuu\u00e9r\u00f3 @ \u0010\u00adl\u0006\u00ea\u00b1q\u0002d\u00f8r\u0012y \u0091\u00e8\u00f1\u00ech\u00bdr\u0090\u00037\u00aa | # \u009c\u00a8\u00e2\u00e0\u008d\u00ff\u00bf\u00f0\u00e6\u00f5h \u0005\u0097\u008e\u00f3\u00f3\u00fb { \u00bd\u00e8\u00f7\u00e8\u00e11\u008d\u00b4\u008e\u000e ? 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ag\u00ea\u0017\u00e8\u009az\u0007\u00bd v\u00f0k\u00f6\u00f4\u00fa - \u00e3\u0016z\u00e7\u00b8 @ ? sk\u00fe \u00f52k [ 1 _ 59 } \u0084 & \u00a7\u007f\u0086 . \u009c ` \u00b6\u00e4t\u00b0\u00e0\u0016n\u00f5\u00e4 zk\u00eez\u00f3\u00e9\u0019qfk\u00ee\bn [ \u00ec\u0006\u008f % st\u00062\u00d7\u009a\u00f3\u00e48\u00f8 - \u00f9 # < \u00b1\u00e4\u008f\u00e8 / \u00e4\u008f\u00f0g\u00e8 \u00e1 \u00e4\u008f\u00f0a\u00e8 1k\u00e8 \u00e1\u00a1\u0090\u00bf\u00e6 \\ ! \u007f\u00e4y\u00a5\u00f0c\u00ae\u0090\u00bf\u00f6\u009e \u00b3\u0086 & \u00a7\u00d7 r\u008a\u00f6 $ g\u00ad9\u00e4t\u00e8q\u00e4q8\u0097 # o\u00f0\u00f7\u008as\u0005\u00fe8\u00ee\u00150\u00b82w\u00e3\u00f4\u00ed\u00a3\u00a7\u00a3o\u0002fg \u00a7\u009a < \u000egt\u00e4qzk \u0007 ~ wx\u00e0\u009b\u00a7o\u0002 ? } y\u00ee [ \u00e8\u00f2 ~ b\u0096 ' \u00a7sm\u00df\u0002\u00fc\u00f4\u00f4m4\u00bf\u00f0k\u00bc\u00f8\u0086\u00f7\u00e1\u0093\u00dfi\u00ee\u0092 _ 8 = \u00f9\u009d\u00ee % \u007f\u00f0 | \u00f2 \u00fc\u00f1\u00e5o\n> stream x\u009c ] \u0090mj\u00e40 o\u0090 ; h9 ] v < \u00a5\u0010 e\u00ba\u00e9\u00a2 ? 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\u00fbk7\u00ab , \u0015 \u00ee\u00d7 . \u00fbp\u009atu\u00a9\u00ecw : \u00bc . \u00f1\u00fe\u00f0 \u00f3\u0091\u00be\u00a9\u00ecg ( \u008e\u00e1\u00fc\u00f0\u00a7 = \u00a4\u00e5\u00e16\u00ef t\u00a1\u00b0\u00a8 \\ \u00f5\u00b5\u001a\u00e8\u0094\u00fa | \u00ef\u00e6 \u00fd t\u00e6u\u008f\u00fb ! \u009d\u008f\u00eb\u00fd1\u00f5\u00fck\u00bc\u00fdgr\u0006\u00eb\u008d ^ % \u00a6\u0081\u00aes\u00d7s\u00ec\u00e2\u00996u\u00ae\u00eb\u00ea\u00e6\u00f5\u0086\u00e2\u00f0\u00df\u00f1zp < \u00adi\u00bd\u00adu\u00a5\u009f\u00f2 # \u00efm\u00e1\u0015\u009fg\u00ee } f\u00fb\u00f7 . rs\u00a4l\u00ea [ \u00e5f * \u0098\u00ad\u00ec\u00bf\u0080\u009d\u00ec [ p\u0091\u00f8\u00e4\u00e6\u0080 = \u00ef\u00bb \u00b8d\u00f6\u001a\u00bce . 9 # \u0016\u00fe \u00fc , \u00fc n \u00b9\u00ff\u008b\u00e4\u00b9\u00ff\u00ab0 t . \u0019\u00f4\u00f1\u00e2\u00e9 [ \u00b0x\u0096\u0005x < = \u00b3x\u0096\u000e \\ \u00883\u00d7\u008a\u00a7\u00e5 } \u00f1\u00b4 [ p\u00e3 \\ \u00e0\u007f\u00b5\u00b8y\u00f8\u00eb\u0096\u00dfqs ~ ' \u0019f\u00f1t % x < - \u00f8\u00ac\u009e\u00e8\u0018\u00f1\u00b4x _ # \u009e\u000e = \u008dx\u00bag\u00b0x : \u00b8\u0019\u00f1\u00f4 x < \u001b\u00ee\u0088\u00a7\u0083\u009b\u0091\u00fbtxw # \u00f7\u00f9\u00f0\u00be\u00f8 { \u00e6\u00f5n\u00f9g\u00ee\u00b6d\u0007\u00f8\u001b\u00ef = x\u00bdgf\u00f17\u00e8x\u00f1o\u008a2 ) < \u0019\u00982 | \u0005 _ \u00f3\u00fb\u00dfbl\u0083\u008bo \u0007\u0016\u00a3 : \u0006\u00fa\u00fa\u0098\u00e6iv\u00a9\b\u00bf\u00bf\u00f4 ? \u00e0\u0013 endstream endobj 737 0 obj <\n> stream x\u009c ] \u0094m\u008e\u009b @ \u0010 o\u00e0 ; \u00f4r\u00b2\u0018\u0001\u00fd \u008c % \u0084\u00e4\u00b1 = \u0092\u0017\u00f9q < 9\u0000\u0086\u00b6\u0083\u0014\u0003\u00e2x\u00e1\u00fb\u00a7 _ \u00bd\u009a\u0089\u0094 \u00f1\u0007\u00bc * \u00be . \u00fc $ \u00fb\u00e3\u00ee0\u00f4\u008bi ~ \u00ecc { \u008b9\u00f7c7\u0087\u00fbx\u009f\u00fb ` n\u00e1\u00f2\u000f & \u00b3\u00a6\u00eb\u00fbe\u00ef\u00e4\u00f8 ^ \u009b\u00e9 $ \u00b1\u00f8\u00f8\u00b8 - \u00e1z\u0018\u00ee\u00a3\u00a9 * \u0093\u00fc\u008c7o\u00eb\u00fcx\u00fat\u00e3 ) | 1\u00e9\u00f7\u00b9 s ? \\ \u009e ~ m\u008f\u00f1\u00f4x\u009f\u00a6 ? \u00e1\u001a\u0086\u00e5\u00a4\u00a6\u00aem\u0017\u00ee\u00b1\u00ed\u00d7f\u00fa\u00f6 \\ \u0083i\u00a4\u00ea\u00f9\u00f0\u00e5\u00fb\u00fd\u00f2x\u008e5\u00ff\u0012\u00ef\u008f ) \u0018\u008b\u00f3u\u00a6\u0012c\u0017ns\u00f3\u0086\u00b9\u0019 . au\u00a5y ] \u00f9u\u00bd c\u00f7\u00df - - 8\u009d5\u00e9\u00f6\u00b5\u00a9\u00fc [ < \u00a4\u00a9sr\u00f1q\u00afx\u007fd\u00fb\u00df\u00ed , m\u0091\u00b2i \u00f9\u0092w ` ' \\ \b { a / \u009c\u00f3z\u0006 . \u0084k . y } ~ ! \u00bf\u0081\u00d7\u00e4 = \u00f8u8\u00f7\u00e0 - k \u00f7 | \u00ee\u0016l\u00eb\u0012 > yjv ` z\u00169\u0098\u009e\u0005\u00f2\u0019 = s\u00e9\u00f3\u00b3\u0090\u00bcz\u00be\u0080\u00f5sj\u00e9i\u00e1\u0093\u00a9 ' 2zz\u00e9ox \u00eb\u00ea\u00e8l\u00b1\u00ael\u009d w\u009c\u00898\u00f0\u00dfk \u00f5 /\n[ \u00fa { \u00f4\u00b1\u00ea\u00bf\u0001\u00ab\u00bfd\u00e8\u00ef \u00e9 _ \u00e2\u00e1\u00f2\u00dfb\u0086\u0096\u00fe\u00e5 + x\u00fd \u00e9\u00ef\u00f0 . , \u00fd\u009d\u00f4\u00f2\u00dfa\u00bd\u0096\u00fen\u009ek\u007f\u008f\u00f9x\u00fa\u0097rk\u007f\u0087\u0019z\u00fd\u00d7 ` \u008d\u008e\u00fe\u000e\u00fe\u008e\u00fe yg\u007f / \u0019\u009d ? z : \u00fa\u00e7x\u0096\u00f3\u00f9\u0097 ` \u00fa { \u00f88\u00fa { \u00e9\u00f0\u00df\u00e3 ] 8\u00fa\u0097\u0092\u00a7\u007f . \u00fd\u00f5 \u00f3q\u00f4\u00ef u\u00fe\u00e8 { zz\u00f4\u00f7\u00f4\u00ec\u00f1\u00f3\u00f33\u00e7 ; \u00f2 : g\u00ec\u00f3\u00ab\u00a70 = \u009d\u00e4\u00e9\u0099ko\u009d\u00b30 = - \u00f6\u00eeu\u00ee\u00a5\u00ee * \u00f9e\u00f8\u0091\u00f8b | \u00ee\u00f4\u00f6 > \u00efq\u0093\u00e3\u00b3\n\u009b\u001b\u00fb\u00ba \u00e2\u00e7\u0087g\u001a ' \u0013\u008b\u00f0\u00fb \u001b\u0089\u001bm endstream endobj 743 0 obj <\n> stream x\u009c ] \u0090 = \u008e\u00e3 \u0010 o\u00e0 ; l\u0099\u0014\u0011\u0098\u001a ! e\u00f9\u00e6\u00e5\u00fe ( \u00fe \u0000\u00e3\u00f8\u008b\u0014\u0003\u001a\u00e3\u00e2\u00b7 _ v\n\u00a5\u0000\u00f1\u00f4\u00fe7z \u00bbt \u009dw \u00f8\u000f\u0005\u00f3c\u0082\u00f1yk\u00b8\u0084\u0095 \u00e2\u0080\u0093\u00f3\u00f0 \u00b0\u00ee\u00a4 ] \u00f5\u00fb\u00ec : \u0002\u00ebp\u00bf - \u00e7\u00ee\u008f\u0001\u00a4\u0004v\u00ed\u00e6\u0092h ; \u009cm\u0018\u00f0\b\u00ec\u009b , \u0092\u00f3\u00f3\u00e1v\u00e9\u00b3\u00ec\u00d7\u0018\u00ef8\u00a3o\u00e0a ) \u00b08\u00e61\u009f : ~ \u00e9\u0019\u0081u\u00ea\u00f4\u00f9\u00ec\u00bb\u00b4\u009d2\u00f3j\u00fcn\u0011a\u0014\u00fd\u00b4 { \u0089 ` q\u0089\u00fa i ? 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{"id": 1798, "summary": [{"text": "jackson 's climbing salamander ( bolitoglossa jacksoni ) is a species of salamander in the family plethodontidae .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "it is endemic to guatemala .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "jackson 's climbing salamander was last seen in 1975 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the salamander is among the 25 \u201c most wanted lost \u201d species that are the focus of global wildlife conservation \u2019s \u201c search for lost species \u201d initiative . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "jackson ' s climbing salamander", "paragraphs": ["but the vision remains tantalizing , as the elusive jackson\u2019s climbing salamander eludes us once more .\njackson\u2019s climbing salamander ( bolitoglossa jacksoni ) , first and last seen by jeremy jackson almost four decades ago . ( photo by sam sweet )\nthe jackson\u2019s climbing salamander is a beautiful species and unique in that it has the inverse coloration of all of the other species in the mexicana group of salamanders . rather than black with yellow bands , the jackson\u2019s climbing salamander is yellow with black bands .\nin 2014 , paul elias and jeremy jackson returned to the cuchumatanes mountain range of guatemala nearly 40 years after they had discovered three new species of salamander there\u2014the jackson\u2019s climbing salamander , the finca chiblac salamander and the long - limbed salamander . they hoped to catch a glimpse of the previously rediscovered finca chiblac salamander and the long - limbed salamander and were in luck on that trip , though the jackson\u2019s climbing salamander remained elusive .\nupdate ( 10 / 30 / 17 ) : the jackson ' s climbing salamander is the first of the search for lost species ' top 25\nmost wanted\nspecies to be found .\nthe following year , a consortium of international groups\u2014including global wildlife conservation and local ngo fundaeco\u2014 joined together to protect some of the last remaining forest home of the three rare salamander species , establishing a reserve called the finca san isidro amphibian reserve . the reserve is home to a treasure trove of amphibian species , including the recently discovered cuchumatan golden toad and the beautiful black - eyed treefrog . elias and jackson discovered jackson\u2019s climbing salamander within a few hundred meters of the reserve\u2019s current borders .\n\u201c we called it the \u2018golden wonder . \u2019 i found the first one under a sheet of bark in a field and , after collecting in this field for weeks without success it was obviously something unusual . what the few photos of the jackson\u2019s climbing salamander that exist don\u2019t show is the brilliance and depth of the coloration . it was an exceptionally beautiful animal . \u201d \u2013jeremy jackson\nwhen paul elias discovered the jackson\u2019s climbing salamander in the mid - 1970s , he named it after colleague jeremy jackson and called it the \u201cgolden wonder\u201d because of its astounding beauty . the species has not been seen since , and eluded a 2014 expedition that gwc launched with elias and jackson to retrace their steps four decades later . this is an elusive cloud forest species , possibly a canopy dweller . if it is not extinct , it is adept at escaping human attention .\nafter a little more than a week in guatemala it is time to start our journey home . but our salamander hunting is not over just yet . before leaving the remote reaches of the cuchumatanes we pay a return visit to a small village where one of the locals excitedly presents us with a salamander that they found close by . it is a beautiful m\u00fcller\u2019s mushroomtongue salamander ( bolitoglossa mulleri ) , an uncommon chocolate brown animal with a splash of yellow running down its back , as if it had walked under a leaky tin of royal yellow paint . it is as close to jackson\u2019s climbing salamander as we will come .\nwhat follows is a firsthand account of a 2014 expedition in search of lost and rare salamanders in guatemala\u2019s cuchumatane mountain range by gwc\u2019s conservation officer , robin moore .\na long - limbed salamander ( nyctanolis pernix ) spotted by jeremy jackson 38 years after he last saw the species . ( photo by robin moore )\n\u201cwe called it the golden wonder , \u201d says jeremy jackson , reminiscing about a salamander that he was the first , and last , to find in the wild 38 years ago . time has not dulled his memory : \u201ci found the first one under a sheet of bark in a field and , after collecting in this field for weeks without success it was obviously something unusual . what the few photos of bolitoglossa jacksoni [ aka jackson\u2019s climbing salamander ] that exist don\u2019t show is the brilliance and depth of the coloration . it was an exceptionally beautiful animal . \u201d\non returning to the cuchumatanes after 38 years , jackson says : \u201ci enjoyed remembering sights and smells and tastes from many years past . i had at least one goose bump moment . it was quite familiar and totally different at the same time . \u201d although he was disappointed that we did not find jackson\u2019s salamander , jackson says he was buoyed by how many nyctanolis we turned up , and is optimistic that something can be done to preserve the salamanders and their home .\nday after day we spend hours with our backs arched sifting through leaf litter , and under the cloak of darkness we enter the forest to illuminate leaves and mossy trunks with our headlamps , willing a brilliant yellow and chocolate brown salamander to appear in front of us . we talk about how amazing it would be to find a jackson\u2019s salamander , and we even allow ourselves to imagine , with a jolt of adrenaline , the prospect .\n, a second potential locality will be explored . this second locality has extant populations of two other rare salamander species (\n\u201cmy having discovered a new salamander species rarely comes up in conversation , \u201d he says . \u201cbut when it does , people are usually surprised if not just a little startled . one of my boys , when he was in fourth grade , told his class that i had a salamander named after me . they all thought i must be just like indiana jones . \u201d he adds , \u201ci\u2019ve always felt honored by paul\u2019s naming it after me . it\u2019s an unusual way to remember an exciting time of my life . \u201d\nit was not until 2009 , during an expedition led by the museum of vertebrate zoology at berkeley , that bradytriton silus was rediscovered 32 years after it was last seen . the following year nyctanolis pernix also re - appeared . still missing , however , was jackson\u2019s salamander , which promptly climbed its way into the top ten \u201cmost wanted\u201d amphibians in the world during the search for lost frogs in 2010 .\nroyal false brook salamander ( pseudoeurycea rex ) in the ethereal pine forests of puerta del cielo . ( photo by robin moore )\nacevedo , m . , wake , d . , elias , p . , rovito , s . , and vasquez , c . ( 2008 ) .\nelias returned to the cuchumatanes the following two summers , bringing jackson to help him . rain - soaked weeks spent exploring forest and lifting logs resulted in the discovery of bolitoglossa jacksoni , which was later named by elias in honor of jackson . but despite months of fieldwork , only two individuals of the species were ever found , and neither elias or jackson could have predicted that , a quarter of a century later , none of the three salamanders that they had discovered would have been seen again .\njuly 14 , 2014 . i am sitting with jeremy jackson and paul elias in a small rural village in the cuchumatanes mountains . elias is studying his original field notes \u2013 every page photocopied and bound , to compare how things are now to how they were then . it is the first time that either of them has been back in 38 years . we are joined by eight others , an eclectic mix that includes the inspirational local amphibian biologist and conservationist carlos vasquez , on a quest to retrace elias and jackson\u2019s steps in search of some of the most elusive of creatures on earth .\nthe long - limbed salamander , nyctanolis pernix , one of two major species discoveries made by paul elias in his first expedition to guatemala in 1974 . ( photo by robin moore )\nthe next day the team returns triumphant with a bradytriton silus\u2013 the only one we will find on the expedition . elias shares jackson\u2019s excitement at seeing the salamanders again , saying , \u201ci was really moved to see both nyctanolis and bradytriton alive and happy in their forest . nyctanolis in particular is just an extraordinary animal ; its nimble ectomorph body with huge alert black eyes , its high speed agility , and its goofy polka dots make it something almost unlike a salamander . i never thought i would see one alive again , and i just could not get enough of watching them . the fact of these two missing links living in that primeval forest on the ancient karst uplands makes one think that the cuchumatanes were the old cradle of the great salamander radiation of central america . \u201d\none of the three properties acquired for the reserve has been named the sabin family salamander sanctuary in honor of businessman andrew sabin\u2019s contributions to amphibian conservation in guatemala and around the world . thanks to additional support from paul elias , marie lossky , focus on nature and the quick response biodiversity fund , which is a 1 % for the planet and weeden foundation fund for high - priority habitat acquisitions for the purpose of protecting biodiversity .\nmayer , k . r . ( 2017 ) . ' ' found : remarkable salamander rediscovery heralds early success for worldwide quest to find and protect lost species ' ' global wildlife conservation . urltoken downloaded on 30 october 2017 .\nafter 11 days of slashing rain - soaked forests in search of rare salamanders , the team parts ways in guatemala city . elias and jackson return to boston to resume their lives as a partner in a private investment firm and a woodworker respectively . while elias remains actively involved in conservation as a trustee of the nature conservancy in massachusetts , jackson had not been in the field in almost four decades prior to our expedition . i am curious as to how people respond when they learn about his previous life as a field biologist .\nour final stop before leaving the cuchumatanes is puerta del cielo\u2013the appropriately named gateway to heaven\u2013to scour mist - shrouded forest for the royal false brook salamander ( pseudoeurycea rex ) . in the ethereal pine forests we find more than a dozen salamanders\u2013it is a fitting end to our expedition .\nin 2014 , gwc conservation officer robin moore traveled with carlos vasquez , coordinator of the amphibian conservation program at fundaeco , and the two men , jeremy jackson and paul elias , who had discovered the finca chiblac and long - limbed salamanders in the 1970s . robin captures that trip\u2013and the exciting re - discovery of those salamanders\u2013in this vivid blog post .\nin the local language q\u2019anjob\u2019al , salamanders are referred to as \u201csleeping child . \u201d it makes sense , then , that \u201cyal unin yul witz\u201d means \u201csleeping child behind mountains . \u201d this consortium of international groups is working to protect some of the last remaining habitat of the finca chiblac salamander ( bradytriton silus ) and the long - limbed salamander ( nyctanolis pernix ) . the natural reserve is also home to the recently discovered cuchumatan golden toad ( incilius aurarius ) and the beautiful black - eyed treefrog ( agalychnis moreletii ) . ten of the 20 amphibian species that live in or near finca san isidro are classified as critically endangered or endangered by the iucn red list .\nthe species was described by elias ( 1984 ) and the type specimen is held at the museum of vertebrate zoology ( mvz 134634 ) . it was named in honor of the collector , jeremy l . jackson , who accompanied paul elias of the mvz on his field expedition to the cordillera de los cuchumatanes and the monta\u00f1as de cuilco of western guatemala ( elias 1984 ) .\nwas rediscovered in the recently established finca san isidro amphibian reserve ( also known as yal unin yul witz ) on the northern slopes of the sierra de los cuchumatanes , guatemala , very close to the original discovery site . a sub - adult found by reserve guard , ramos leon , is only the third specimen ever seen . the species had not be seen since september 1975 , and was listed among the top 25 most wanted species in the world by global wildlife conservation\u2019s the search for lost species ( mayer 2017 ) .\nspirits are high , and it is not long before we strike gold . jackson describes the moment : \u201cwhen i spied that oh - so - familiar pose of a nycatanolis basking in the rain with feet splayed and spine bent with that beautiful long tail hanging down , i was thrilled . it really brought back much of what it had been like in 76 ; going out night after night in the rain . finding a nycatanolis is was very rewarding just as it was years ago . \u201d\nit is our fifth day in guatemala , and we have yet to find a salamander . optimism is beginning to wane . as the light fades and heavy afternoon rain subsides , we don our headlamps and waterproofs and prepare to head into the forest . we target a patch with large buttressed trees\u2013ideal for nyctanolis . in the evening , the salamanders start to emerge from their daytime retreats among the tangle of roots to scale the trees , and so our hope is to find them as they emerge and before they climb out of reach .\nbut what brought jackson to the remote forests of guatemala all those years ago ? his good friend , paul elias . elias had ventured to guatemala for the first time in 1974\u2013his findings had been so remarkable that he was compelled to return . elias writes of that first visit : \u201ci had just completed freshman year and was 18 years old . i had a chance to visit guatemala because my mother was involved in a harvard nutrition study there and offered to buy my ticket . i went to [ eminent herpetologist ] dave wake and asked what i could collect that would be of use to him . he gave me a one - page photocopy of a map of guatemala and circled the cuchumatanes . \u201d\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2013 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 6 ( 9 january 2013 ) . electronic database . american museum of natural history , new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\njustification : listed as data deficient , as although it is currently known only from a single site , there has been little survey work in the area and it is possible that the species is more widespread . the extent of occurrence is poorly known . there is ongoing habitat loss throughout much of the escarpment .\nthis species has only been found within 1km of the type locality on the caribbean escarpment of the western cuchumatanes , departamento huehuetenango , western guatemala . the exact locality is the las nubes sector of finca chiblac , approximately 12km north - northeast of santa cruz barillas , at about 1 , 400m asl . there has been little nearby sampling and the species may range more widely within the escarpment .\nthere is no information on the population status of this species ; it has not been collected since its discovery , despite recent searches .\nthe only two individuals known were taken from under bark from felled logs in a clearing in very wet ( approximately 6 , 000mm annual precipitation ) montane forest . it presumably breeds by direct development and is not dependent upon water .\nsevere habitat loss is known to have taken place at its only known site due to the settlement of refugees and expanding agriculture , and more broadly throughout the range .\nthere are no protected areas near where this species has been found . surveys are urgently needed to establish its current range and population status in the wild .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nspecies , with females reaching 65 mm in standard length ( known from only two specimens ) . this species has few maxillary teeth ( 31 in the young adult female holotype ) and a moderate count of vomerine teeth ( 21 in the holotype ) . it has a simple vertebral tail autotomy mechanism ( see wake and dresner 1967 on tail autotomy in salamanders ) .\nby tail autotomy mechanism and color pattern , a brilliant yellow with a wide mid - dorsal band of chocolate brown bordered by a thin white edge .\n) by virtue of having the dark coloration restricted to the mid - dorsal area ( elias 1984 ) .\ncoloration in life : a brilliant egg - yolk yellow , with a wide dark brown mid - dorsal band edged thinly in white ( with the white edging complete in the young adult female and incomplete in the older adult female specimen ) . in the holotype , the dark brown band originates at the level of the eyelids and runs straight across the head , spanning across the head from the center of one eyelid to the center of the other , then runs down the body , diminishing and finally vanishing just before the tail tip . in the larger female specimen , the brown mid - dorsal band is interrupted by a large , oval spot of yellow on the nape and a break on the tail ; also , a brown spot is present on the otherwise yellow right hind foot . the holotype lacks ventral markings ; it is not known whether the larger adult female lacked ventral markings . the eyes are metallic gold ( elias 1984 ) .\ncoloration in preservative : pale yellow ground color with broad mid - dorsal band of dark brown ; the mid - dorsal brown band begins at the level of the eyelids ( and spans from center to center of each eyelid ) , diminishing gradually toward the tail tip ( elias 1984 ) .\nendemic to western guatemala . the type locality is in the las nubes sector of finca chiblac , roughly 12 km north - northeast of santa cruz barillas , on the caribbean escarpment of the western sierra cuchumatanes , departamento huehuetenango , guatemala , at 1 , 400 m asl . known only from the type locality and a nearby locality within 1 km away , all within finca chiblac . the habitat is very wet subtropical montane rainforest , receiving more than 6 meters of rainfall annually ( elias 1984 ) .\nboth individuals ( a larger adult female and a young adult female ) were found under the bark of felled hardwood logs in forest clearings ( elias 1984 ) . details of the life history are not known but like other members of the genus\n, this species is thought to breed by direct development ( acevedo et al . 2008 ) .\nnothing is known about the population trend for this species . only two individuals were initially found , and no sightings occurred its discovery in 1975 until october 2017 . both the type locality and the broader escarpment area have suffered severe deforestation due to increased agriculture and increased human settlement of refugees from the guatemalan civil war . until 2015 , there are no protected areas near the type locality ( acevedo et al . 2008 ) .\nrange from san luis potosi , mexico , to central panama . all are arboreal and lay eggs that hatch as miniatures of adults and have no aquatic larval stage . hence , they typically are difficult to find ( wake personal communication ) .\nin 1975 at finca chiblac . a team will go out for a short search in mid - october 2010 , led by robin moore of conservation international , and a second team will conduct a more extensive search in mid - november 2010 , led by carlos vasquez of the museo de historia natural , universidad de san carlos de guatemala .\nnew information : in october , 2017 , a subadult of this species was found , photographed ( see photos on amphibiaweb ) and released . it is from a new but undisclosed locality , not far from the type locality . only two\nindividuals have ever been collected and only one specimen was preserved , the young adult female holotype . the larger adult female was brought into captivity at the museum of vertebrate zoology ( mvz ) at u . c . berkeley , where two photographs were taken , but the female either escaped or was stolen from the animal care facility within the first few days of captivity ( t . papenfuss , pers . comm . ; its disappearance was not due to a deliberate release in the field by a student , as dubois and nem\u00e9sio 2007 thought ) .\nalthough one of the two amphibiaweb photos ( of the same specimen ) shows the color of the flanks as being caramel , this is due to underexposure and the color was actually a brilliant egg - yolk yellow , as in the first photograph .\n. in : iucn 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2010 . 2 . www . iucnredlist . org . downloaded on 31 august 2010 .\nelias , p . ( 1984 ) . ' ' salamanders of the northwestern highlands of guatemala . ' '\nparra - olea , g . , garc\u00eda - par\u00eds , m . , wake , d . b . ( 2004 ) . ' ' molecular diversification of salamanders of the tropical american genus\nwake , d . b . , and i . g . dresner ( 1967 ) . ' ' functional morphology and evolution of tail autotomy in salamanders . ' '\nedited by kellie whittaker ; updated by ann t . chang ( 2018 - 03 - 26 )\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\n\u00a9 2014 amphibian specialist group ( asg ) and amphibian survival alliance ( asa ) . all rights reserved . the asa is a fiscally sponsored program of global wildlife conservation a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) . tax id # 26 - 2887967 .\nthe cuchumatanes mountains were , as far as wake was concerned , a final frontier for exploration in central america . after being dropped off by his parents at a road rising sharply up to a karst plateau , elias hitchhiked as far as he could away from civilization and into uncharted territory , sleeping nights on a dirt floor among \u201cbugs , predatory spiders , scorpions and centipedes that had gathered . \u201d he collected a couple of hundred salamanders in three weeks . \u201ci had no guide to the species in guatemala so i had no idea if i had anything of value or not , \u201d he says .\nwhen elias returned to berkeley he left some of his specimens to soak in water before preserving them . dave wake happened to come across them , and he was astonished . elias recalls : \u201cboth nyctanolis pernix and bradytriton silus were in that collection and turned out to be new genera that were significant missing links in the neotropical plethodontid [ a group of lungless salamanders ] radiation . word traveled to me by rumor in the next day or two and i suddenly discovered that i had found something extraordinary . the rest is history . \u201d\nbradytriton silus , unique in its high , vertically flattened tail , flattened nose and stumpy feet . was rediscovered after 32 years in 2009 . ( photo by robin moore )\nwith two of our target species under the belt , our full attention turns to finding the holy grail : bolitoglossa jacksoni .\n\u201cwhat is different now , \u201d he says , \u201cis the presence of carlos vasquez . i remember on my first visit seeing a man by the name of mario dari . he was president of the university down there , and we checked in with him out of respect . he was assassinated some time after that . there was no one like carlos , and there were no groups [ such as local ngo fundaeco ] that could safely pursue the kinds of programs that are now in existence . there were maryknoll priests , but even they got bumped off . carlos is a very charismatic , intelligent , genuinely nice guy who is exactly the kind of person needed to push in all directions for the betterment of the natural resources in guatemala . \u201d\nthe cuchumatan golden toad ( incilius aurarius ) , a species discovered and described as recently as 2012 . ( photo by robin moore )\nelias too was thrilled to have had the opportunity to return to guatemala with his old friend , something he never thought he would do . \u201ci was delighted to see jeremy treated as a mythic figure at the natural history museum , as he posed in front of posters of bolitoglossa jacksoni , \u201d he says . \u201che deserved to come back to experience that , to see the animals once more , and to close a loop that had been open since his youth . \u201d\nblack - eyed leaf frog ( agalychnis moreletii ) a critically endangered species in the project area . ( photo by robin moore )\nrobin is a scientist , photographer and director of communications at global wildlife conservation . robin has built on his early career research on amphibian and reptiles to devote himself to providing a voice for the vanishing and the forgotten .\nno matter how big or small , there is always something you can do to help spread the conservation message .\n\u00a9 2017 global wildlife conservation . all rights reserved . global wildlife conservation is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) .\nthe cuchumatanes mountain range of guatemala is a last frontier for conservation\u2014vast swathes of forest in the remote northwest of the country harbor unique and rare amphibians , birds and reptiles . here , at la finca san isidro , global wildlife conservation has worked with fundaeco , world land trust , rainforest trust , the international conservation fund of canada and the amphibian survival alliance to support the protection of the most amphibian diverse region in guatemala , with the highest number of species that live here and nowhere else , through the establishment of the yal unin yul witz natural reserve in 2015 . this marks the first protected area in the western highlands of guatemala .\nthe remoteness of the cuchumatanes mountain range has protected much of the forest to date , but increasing pressures from the coffee industry has put these forests at risk . local and international scientists and conservationists have identified the area as one of the highest priorities for conservation action . the establishment of the reserve was a tremendous success for fundaeco and partners , helping to bolster the conservation efforts in this region of the world , but protecting the land is only part of the overall goal . project partners aim to :\ncontinue to carry out more extensive biodiversity surveys for birds , amphibians and reptiles .\nwork with community members , leaders and private land owners to ensure their support and participation in the implementation of sustainable strategies for habitat protection and sustainable development .\nexpand the conservation efforts to the adjacent flooded high mountain area , a magnificent and rare open area that is paradise for amphibians , as well as resident and migratory birds .\nexpand the area of the reserve to the highest elevation in the adjacent mountain el quetzal , to protect the yulwitz river basin that runs through the reserve .\nevaluate the potential establishment of an agroforestry demonstration plot that combines conservation and productivity and looks for the implementation of the best ecological practices as a technical example to be replicated in the region .\nusing this photo this photo and associated text may not be used except with express written permission from david wake . to obtain permission for personal , academic , commercial , or other uses , or to inquire about high resolution images , prints , fees , or licensing , or if you have other questions , contact david wake wakelab [ at ] berkeley . edu . ( replace the [ at ] with the @ symbol before sending an email . )\n0000 0000 0910 0289 copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 uc regents . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 1828, "summary": [{"text": "euaspidoceras is an extinct ammonoid cephalopod genus that lived during the middle jurassic .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "ancestor of euaspidoceras is probably aspidoceras .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it is considered related to genera like orthaspidoceras , simaspidoceras , and intranodites . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "euaspidoceras", "paragraphs": ["euaspidoceras ajax ( h . a . leanza , 1947 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\neuaspidoceras hirsutum ( c . \u00e9 . bayle , 1878 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\nricostruzione ammonite gen . euaspidoceras - museo\ng . g . gemmellaro\n- youtube\neuaspidoceras babeaui ( a . v . m . d . d ' orbigny , 1847 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\nancestor of euaspidoceras is probably aspidoceras . it is considered related to genera like orthaspidoceras , simaspidoceras , and intranodites .\neuaspidoceras species may be found in the jurassic of argentina , france , germany , india , italy , madagascar , saudi arabia , spain , the united kingdom and yemen .\nvideo sulla realizzazione della ricostruzione di un ' ammonite in vita ( gen euaspidoceras ) con corpo molle e organi interni . esposta nella sala del mesozoico presso il museo geologico\ng . g . gemmellaro\ndi palermo . il diametro del guscio \u00e8 di circa 1 metro .\nthis is a huge 17 . 7\nwide ammonite fossil from madagascar . it is jurassic in age and it was collected in the mahajanga province . the genus on this one appears to be euaspidoceras . it ' s been lightly polished and this polishing reveals the beautiful suture pattern which lies below the shell . this massive specimen weighs 32 pounds and would make a magnificent display . includes custom stand .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\n' s large relational database assembled by hundreds of paleontologists from around the world . the two websites and their predecessors have been used by professional researchers , students , and the public since 1998 . the fossilworks copy is refreshed daily . the data are owned by the contributors and the website and software were created by\nthe paleodb maintains a list of official publications . researchers ask to add entries to the list when they have used the site to download data or conduct analyses . large projects that involve documenting the taxonomic classification of an entire group are called online systematics archives .\naverage measurements ( in mm ) : shell width 28 . 2 , shell diameter 77 . 8\nfull reference : a . jeannet . 1951 . stratigraphie und palaeontologie des oolithischen eisenerzlagers von herznach und seiner umgebung . beitr\u00e4ge zur geologie der schweiz , geotechnische serie 13 ( 5 ) : 1 - 240\naverage measurements ( in mm ) : shell width 34 . 8 , shell diameter 77 . 2\njavascript seems to be disabled in your browser . you must have javascript enabled in your browser to utilize the functionality of this website .\nhours : monday - friday 10 - 5pm saturday 10 - 3pm open late by appointment .\nthe living fossil gallery is a premier crystal and fossil shop based in sydney australia . we supply crystal , minerals and fossils interstate and locally :\nmosman , crows nest , cremorne , neutral bay , balmoral , kiribilli , mcmahons point , waverton , north sydney , naremburn , middle cove , northbridge , cremorne point , lane cove , riverview , longueville , northwood , greenwich , artarmon , chatswood , osbourne park , roseville , lindfield , st leonards , epping , macquarie park , eastwood , willoughby , gladesville , boronia park , linley point , hunters hill , woolwich , huntleys point , east ryde , lane cove west , drummoyne , balmain , roselle , lilyfield , chiswick , wareemba , rodd point , canada bay , five dock .\nthe living fossil gallery sources crystals and minerals for collectors and kids alike from many countries . our aim is to provide the best specimens at the best possible prices . we also are the only premier fossil shop in sydney - personally sourcing world class fossils from australia , africa , south east asia , usa , russia and europe .\nwe offer expertise in both crystal and fossil for quality and type , and we much experience for those wanting natural crystal and fossil as interior design elements .\npremier crystals and fossils sydney . we are sydney ' s premier fossil and crystal gallery - showcasing world class crystals and fossils for collectors , interior designers and for kids !\npremier hand made jewellery based in mosman sydney . we are also a premier gallery for crystals and fossils sydney . we showcase world class crystals and fossils for collectors , interior designers and for kids !\nfossilised rock can make for unique table and giftware . the living fossil gallery sydney specialises in fossil marble platters , fossil plates , and fossil bowls made entirely of natural fossilised rock . we ensure all of our pieces meet our strict quality control inspections . we do not varnish any pieces , and all pieces are natural polished fossil rock . the next time you are thinking of a cheese platter , fruit platter or serving tray - add interest with these ancient , through provoking and durable pieces .\nthis striking and large ammonite is a wonderful find and a beautiful piece to behold . it is characterised by strong nodules in the outer ribbing , which in this beautiful specimen is very well defined and preserved\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\npeltoceras ( peltomorphites ) subeugenii w . j . arkell , 1945 \u2020 ( fossil )\nepipeltoceras bimammatum ( f . a . von quenstedt , 1858 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\nepipeltoceras semiarmatum ( f . a . von quenstedt , 1887 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\ngregoryceras transversarium ( f . a . von quenstedt , 1849 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\npeltoceratoides eugeniforme ( w . j . arkell , 1944 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\npeltoceratoides ( parawedekindia ) arduennensis ( a . v . m . d . d ' orbigny , 1848 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\nphysodoceras altenense ( a . v . m . d . d ' orbigny , 1848 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\nphysodoceras circumspinosum ( f . a . von quenstedt , 1856 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\nrursiceras reversum ( w . i . bean in j . leckenby , 1859 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\nunipeltoceras unispinosum ( f . a . von quenstedt , 1847 \u2020 ) ( fossil )\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nammonite fossil from madagascar . it is jurassic in age and it was collected in the mahajanga province . the genus on this one appears to be euaspido\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\ncheck back regularly as new specimens , photographs and 3d models are being added all the time .\non the estate of e . hughes , parish of smeeth , near hythe , kent\nthis site is hosted by the british geological survey and copyright on the website is with the jisc gb3d type fossils online project partners . responsibility for the content of the site lies with the jisc gb3d type fossils online project partners , not with the bgs . photographs and 3d models are made available under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial - sharealike licence . terms of use are here .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 1836, "summary": [{"text": "the greenface sandsifter ( lethrinops furcifer ) is a species of cichlid endemic to lake malawi where it prefers areas with sandy substrates .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species grows to a length of 19.5 centimetres ( 7.7 in ) tl .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it can also be found in the aquarium trade . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "greenface sandsifter", "paragraphs": ["do you have greenface sandsifter in your aquarium ? send me please a short paragraph about your experiences with greenface sandsifter . some photo would be handy too . i will place both here . learn more about aquarium filters . more\nphoto\ngreenface sandsifter fish ( lethrinops furcifer )\ncan be used for personal and commercial purposes according to the conditions of the purchased royalty - free license . the image is available for download in high resolution quality up to 3593x2533 .\nthe greenface sandsifter ( lethrinops furcifer ) is a species of fish in the cichlidae family . it is found in malawi , mozambique , and tanzania . its natural habitat is freshwater lakes . references - * kasembe , j . 2005 . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nsnoeks , j . ( freshwater fish red list authority ) & darwall , w . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment programme )\njustification : endemic to lake malawi where it is widespread with no major widespread threats identified .\noccurs commonly in open sandy habitats in shallow water at depths of 7 m . it feeds by sifting silt from the bottom through its gills , taking invertebrates mainly insect larvae . also feeds on plankton . breeding males construct sand castle - nests on the sand bottom . breeding occurs from may to august . this species is regularly caught in beach seines . known as\nlethrinops green face or lethrinops rounded head\nin the aquarium trade . max . size : males can grow to a maximum total length of about 20 cm .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 19 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4985 )\nfound usually in shallow water over open sand . feeds mainly on insect larvae ( ref . 5595 ) .\neccles , d . h . and e . trewavas , 1989 . malawian cichlid fishes : the classification of some haplochromine genera . lake fish movies , west germany . 334 p . ( ref . 267 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01514 ( 0 . 00700 - 0 . 03275 ) , b = 2 . 97 ( 2 . 80 - 3 . 14 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 \u00b10 . 40 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 22 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nunfortunately questions regarding fish , plants , diseases or tank setup will be ignored if submitted via the form below ! in order to ask such a question , please click this link ! the form below shall be used to ask about the website , functionality , issues or to give feedback . thanks a lot !\nwork properly ! please , consider enabling javascript in order to maximise your user experience while browsing .\nwork properly ! please , consider enabling cookies in order to maximise your user experience while browsing .\nusual size in fish tanks : 16 - 19 cm ( 6 . 3 - 7 . 48 inch )\nrecommended water hardness ( dgh ) : 10 - 18\u00b0n ( 178 . 57 - 321 . 43ppm )\navoid high protein , meaty foods with this fish . quality flakes or pellets should provide the staple diet . brine shrimp and mysis can also be given but take great care not to over feed this fish .\nprovide hiding places in the tank . one male should be added with several females . the males will dig pits in the substrate and the eggs will be laid at the side of these . female sand dwellers are quite delicate , because of this it may be better to remove the male while she is mouth brooding . when the fry are released , they can be fed on newly hatched brine shrimp or crushed flake .\nlethrinops are a very peaceful species of malawi cichlid ; do not put them in a tank with the more aggressive fish . they are bottom dwellers and will feed from there . add rock work to the tank to provide hiding places .\nsera goldy flakes are recommended food for goldfish , however ensure that your goldfish have varied diet .\nall comments must be submitted by registered members . please , click this link to login or register !\nplease , verify whether your login and password are valid . if you don ' t have an account here , register one free of charge , please .\nunfortunately this page doesn ' t allow discussion . please , find any other page that fits your area of interest as over 99 % of our pages allow discussion . the reason why no discussion is allowed here is this page is too general . thanks a lot for understanding ! click here to search , please !\nfound usually in shallow water over open sand . feeds mainly on insect larvae ( ref . 5595 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nby creating an account , i agree to shutterstock ' s website terms , privacy policy , and licensing terms .\n\u00a9 2003 - 2018 shutterstock , inc . all rights reserved . made in nyc .\nsmall ( s ) has the shortest download time and is suitable for digital use .\nlarge ( l ) is suitable for large prints as well as digital use . it is the original image provided by the contributor .\nyou can redownload your image for free at any time , in any size .\neditorial content , such as news and celebrity images , are not cleared for commercial use . learn more on our support center .\nsign up to browse over million images , video clips , and music tracks . plus , get free weekly content and more .\n( we only support jpg and png images under 5mb and no larger than 4000px on either side at this time . )\nwe\u2019ve partnered with invision to make it easier to search and download our images in sketch and adobe\u00ae photoshop\u00ae .\n{ { t ( ' more _ than _ one _ credit ' , { zero : calc . totalcreditcost } ) } }\nonce this video clip is done converting , you ' ll be able to download it from your video conversion queue or download history .\neditorial use only photos don ' t have any model or property releases , which means they can ' t be used for commercial , promotional , advertorial or endorsement purposes . this type of content is intended to be used in connection with events that are newsworthy or of general interest ( for example , in a blog , textbook , newspaper or magazine article ) .\nthis format requires a quick conversion ( usually under 5 mins ) before download begins , or you can get the largest and smallest formats immediately .\ncrop for social , add text and more with istock editor . open in editor\nby clicking\nconfirm download\nyou agree that you ' ve read and agree to all applicable license agreements for this download .\ncurrent page requires javascript , this web browser either does not support javascript , or scripts are being blocked . please turn on javascript or use different browser .\n\u00a9 2009 - 2018 . depositphotos , inc . usa . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 1859, "summary": [{"text": "the vanikoro flying fox ( pteropus tuberculatus ) , also known locally as basapine , is a species of bat in the family pteropodidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it has only been found in the vanikoro island group located in the southern solomon islands .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the species as a whole was originally known from just a few specimens collected sometime before 1930 but following surveys conducted on the island in the early 1990s did not detect this species again causing the vanikoro flying fox to be listed as extinct .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "however , the species was rediscovered by a survey conducted in late 2014 which indicated a population in the high hundreds or low thousands and reported all observations . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "vanikoro flying fox", "paragraphs": ["p . mariannus species group okinawa flying fox , pteropus loochoensis mariana fruit bat , pteropus mariannus pelew flying fox , pteropus pelewensis kosrae flying fox , pteropus ualanus yap flying fox , pteropus yapensis p . melanotus species group black - eared flying fox , pteropus melanotus p . molossinus species group lombok flying fox , pteropus lombocensis caroline flying fox , pteropus molossinus rodrigues flying fox , pteropus rodricensis p . neohibernicus species group bismarck flying fox , pteropus neohibernicus p . niger species group aldabra flying fox , pteropus aldabrensis mauritian flying fox , pteropus niger madagascan flying fox , pteropus rufus seychelles fruit bat , pteropus seychellensis pemba flying fox , pteropus voeltzkowi p . personatus species group bismark masked flying fox , pteropus capistratus masked flying fox , pteropus personatus temminck ' s flying fox , pteropus temminckii p . poliocephalus species group big - eared flying fox , pteropus macrotis geelvink bay flying fox , pteropus pohlei grey - headed flying fox , pteropus poliocephalus p . pselaphon species group chuuk flying fox , pteropus insularis temotu flying fox , pteropus nitendiensis large palau flying fox , pteropus pilosus ( 19th century \u2020 ) bonin flying fox , pteropus pselaphon guam flying fox , pteropus tokudae ( 1970s \u2020 ) insular flying fox , pteropus tonganus vanikoro flying fox , pteropus tuberculatus new caledonia flying fox , pteropus vetulus p . samoensis species group vanuatu flying fox , pteropus anetianus samoa flying fox , pteropus samoensis p . scapulatus species group gilliard ' s flying fox , pteropus gilliardorum lesser flying fox , pteropus mahaganus little red flying fox , pteropus scapulatus dwarf flying fox , pteropus woodfordi\nrodriguez flying fox ( pteropus rodricensis ) the rodriguez flying fox ( pteropus rodricensis ) is a critically endangered flying fox ( a type of bat with fox - like features belonging to the suborder megachiroptera ) .\nwikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article\nvanikoro flying fox\n.\nthe rodriguez flying fox ( pteropus rodricensis ) is a critically endangered flying fox ( a type of bat with fox - like features belonging to the suborder megachiroptera ) . ( full text )\ndescription : the rodriguez flying fox ( pteropus rodricensis ) is a critically endangered flying fox ( a type of bat with fox - like features belonging to the suborder megachiroptera ) . ( full text )\np . mariannus species group : okinawa flying - fox ( p . loochoensis )\np . personatus species group : bismark masked flying fox ( p . capistratus )\np . personatus species group : bismarck masked flying fox ( p . capistratus )\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - vanikoro flying fox facts\n( online ) - licensed article from wikipedia : the free encyclopedia . accessed\np . caniceps species group : ashy - headed flying fox ( p . caniceps )\np . melanotus species group : black - eared flying fox ( p . melanotus )\np . poliocephalus species group : big - eared flying fox ( p . macrotis )\np . scapulatus species group : gilliard ' s flying fox ( p . gilliardorum )\np . caniceps species group : ashy - headed flying fox ( p . caniceps )\np . melanotus species group : black - eared flying fox ( p . melanotus )\np . poliocephalus species group : big - eared flying fox ( p . macrotis )\np . scapulatus species group : gilliard ' s flying fox ( p . gilliardorum )\nthe grey - headed flying fox can become very old for a mammal of its size .\nfacts summary : the vanikoro flying fox ( pteropus tuberculatus ) is a species of concern belonging in the species group\nmammals\nand found in the following area ( s ) : solomon islands .\nafter the gorgeous sunny day yesterday , the weather had turned stormy again with a low cloud level and rocky seas . but there were several interesting things about vanikoro . it was home to several species of flying foxes ( which are not really foxes , a flying fox is a large fruit - eating bat that does not have echolocation ) . but in particular , it has a unique species of flying fox , called very appropriately the vanikoro flying fox . this species was first discovered in the 1930 and when they went back in the 60\u2019s , they couldn\u2019t find any , so it\u2019s been listed as \u201cmostly extinct\u201d , a victim of the logging on vanikoro .\nblack - eared flying fox females nurse and care for their young until they reach independence . in most\nblack - eared flying fox diet consists mainly of fruits and blossoms of rainforest trees . they tend to favor\nfox island , australia , is believed to be home to the largest colony of flying foxes on the continent .\nthe black - eared flying fox is native to various island groups in the indo - pacific . these include the\nthe samoa flying fox or samoan flying fox ( pteropus samoensis ) is a species of flying fox in the pteropodidae family . it is found in american samoa , fiji , and samoa ( where it is known as pe ' a and pe ' a vao ) . its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests . it is threatened by habitat loss .\nteanu is almost entirely covered in undisturbed primary forest , which provides vital habitat for rare species such as the critically endangered vanikoro flying fox . tinakula is a refuge for many iucn red listed species since the neighboring nendo island is being negatively impacted by logging and mining , threatening species that are shared between the islands .\nthe gray - headed flying fox , grey - headed flying - fox is listed as least concern ( lr / lc ) , lowest risk . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\nplay an important role as pollinators and seed dispersers . brooke ( 2001 ) describes this well :\nparticularly on small isolated islands with low biodiversity , flying foxes play an important role in maintaining forests by enabling seed and pollen dispersal . loss of valuable flying fox populations may have a cascading effect on native forest ecosystems .\nwithout flying fox species such as\nrodrigues flying fox ( pteropus rodricensis ) is found on the rodrigues island , in the indian ocean off of the island of madagascar . ( full text )\nteanu forms part of the vanikoro chain of the solomon islands that has been heavily impacted by logging for timber . fortunately , teanu is the most intact and pristine of the region\u2019s islands , but is in dire need of protection . for example , the vanikoro flying fox has lost almost its entire habitat across the island chain , making teanu the last safe refuge for the species . similarly , the fijian kauri pine , an endangered tree species , is wholly dependent on teanu as it is being heavily logged on other islands .\n1999 .\naustralian museum online\n( on - line ) . bats in australia : christmas island flying fox . accessed november 03 , 2006 at urltoken .\nrecent surveys on teanu by oceanswatch confirmed the presence of the vanikoro flying fox , which had not been seen since it was first collected before 1930 . it is assessed as critically endangered due to its presumed small population and restricted range . this flying fox is a solitary creature , roosting individually or occasionally in pairs primarily in the understory of trees that provide food such as coconuts or mangos . the island also contains endangered fijian kauri pine trees whose numbers are in continuous decline as its wood is highly sought after for construction material .\nbut let me happily tell you that the vanikoro flying fox was everywhere on the island . it is not extinct . in fact , it\u2019s considered such a garden pest , eating the bananas and mangos in the garden , that the local catch them and eat them . i unfortunately did not get a good picture of one . but someone else in the expedition did .\nthe samoan flying fox is native to fiji , samoa and american samoa . its habitat is primary or secondary moist forest , plantations , agroforest and the vicinity of villages . unlike most flying foxes , this species roosts alone or in small family groups .\n1999 .\naustralian biological resource study\n( on - line ) . recovery outlines and taxon summaries - christmas island flying - fox . accessed december 01 , 2006 at urltoken .\ntait , jessica ; perotto - baldivieso , humberto l . ; mckeown , adam ; westcott , david a . ( 2014 ) .\nare flying - foxes coming to town ? urbanisation of the spectacled flying - fox ( pteropus conspicillatus ) in australia\n.\nhall , l . ( 1983 )\nspectacled flying fox .\nin ronald strahan ( ed . ) . the mammals of australia , reed books , chatswood , p . 282 .\nbrooke , a . 2001 . population status and behaviors of the samoan flying fox ( * pteropus samoensis * ) on tutuila island , american somoa . zoology , 244 : 309 - 319 .\nit has recently been confirmed that the flying fox spotted on heritage expeditions recent birding the pacific voyage was in fact the vanikoro flying fox . the species is considered by the iucn ( international union for the conservation of nature ) to be critically endangered / possibly extinct . our observation of this elusive species was the first observation since 1926 ( despite the fact that there were surveys carried out in the 1990s looking specifically for it as well ) . the heritage expeditions staff and the passengers onboard the birding the pacific voyage were all extremely pleased with this discovery and to be able to assist in the conservation of the species .\nthe little red flying - fox follows a similar pattern but is six months out of sequence with the other species , its young being born in late autumn or early winter . this species forms enormous breeding camps of up to a million individuals in late spring and early summer . the little red flying - fox is highly nomadic , moving camp every one to two months to feed on new patches of flowering trees .\nrichards , gc & spencer , hj ( 1998 ) .\nspectacled flying - fox , pteropus conspicillatus ( gould , 1850 )\n. in : strahan , r , ed . the mammals of australia .\nwhen at a roost or feeding , flying - foxes \u2018squabble\u2019 loudly . this mixture of screeches and cackles is actually communication and allows them to establish their personal roost sites or feeding territories , ward off rivals , stay in touch with their offspring , and warn others of possible threats . the grey - headed flying - fox is known to have more than 30 specific calls . by listening and watching , it may be possible to link some of the flying - fox ' s behaviour to the calls it makes .\nflying - foxes are social animals usually living in large roosts\u2014as small as a dozen animals but sometimes numbering in the tens or hundreds of thousands . a temporary roost of little red flying - foxes can include as many as one million individuals , with roost trees bending and breaking under their weight . roosts are at their largest during the flying - fox breeding season . young are born in spring and summer .\n, goddess of war ; she was rescued by flying foxes when stranded on an inhospitable island .\nthey release seeds in their droppings , often while flying . this helps maintain the philippine rainforest .\nblack - eared flying foxes help to disperse fruit tree seeds and fertilize areas around roost trees .\nthe samoan flying fox is a medium - sized bat weighing about 450 grams ( 16 oz ) with a wingspan of about 0 . 86 metres ( 2 ft 10 in ) . it has a fox - like face with a pointed muzzle , a brown body and wings and the fur on its head and shoulders is blond or silvery - grey .\nthe aldabra flying fox is one of only four mammals found on aldabra atoll in the seychelles ( 4 ) . its fur is pale brown on the back , with an abundant scattering of silvery - grey hairs . the underparts are yellowish - buff or a warm orange ( 2 ) . like other flying foxes , named for their fox - like faces , this species has relatively long and narrow wings that enable fast and efficient flight ( 5 ) .\nrainey , w . 1990 .\nthe flying fox : becoming a rare commodity . bats . vol 8 , no 1 : 6 - 9\n( on - line ) . accessed 01 / 07 / 04 at urltoken .\nornate flying fox , pteropus ornatus little golden - mantled flying fox , pteropus pumilus philippine gray flying fox , pteropus speciosus small mauritian flying fox , pteropus subniger ( 19th century \u2020 ) p . vampyrus species group indian flying fox , pteropus giganteus andersen ' s flying fox , pteropus intermedius lyle ' s flying fox , pteropus lylei large flying fox , pteropus vampyrus incertae sedis small samoan flying fox , pteropus allenorum ( 19th century \u2020 ) large samoan flying fox , pteropus coxi ( 19th century \u2020 ) genus styloctenium mindoro stripe - faced fruit bat , styloctenium mindorensis sulawesi stripe - faced fruit bat , styloctenium wallacei subfamily rousettinae genus eonycteris - dawn fruit bats greater nectar bat , eonycteris major cave nectar bat , eonycteris spelaea philippine dawn bat , eonycteris robusta genus rousettus - rousette fruit bats subgenus boneia manado fruit bat , rousettus ( boneia ) bidens subgenus rousettus geoffroy ' s rousette , rousettus amplexicaudatus sulawesi rousette , rousettus celebensis egyptian rousette ( egyptian fruit bat ) , rousettus aegyptiacus leschenault ' s rousette , rousettus leschenaulti linduan rousette , rousettus linduensis comoro rousette , rousettus obliviosus bare - backed rousette , rousettus spinalatus subgenus stenonycteris long - haired rousette , rousettus ( stenonycteris ) lanosus madagascar rousette , rousettus ( stenonycteris ) madagascariensis subfamily epomophorinae tribe epomophorini genus epomophorus - epauleted fruit bats angolan epauletted fruit bat , epomophorus angolensis ansell ' s epauletted fruit bat , epomophorus anselli peters ' s epauletted fruit bat , epomophorus crypturus gambian epauletted fruit bat , epomophorus gambianus lesser angolan epauletted fruit bat , epomophorus grandis ethiopian epauletted fruit bat , epomophorus labiatus east african epauletted fruit bat , epomophorus minimus minor epauletted fruit bat , epomophorus minor wahlberg ' s epauletted fruit bat , epomophorus wahlbergi genus epomops - epauleted bats buettikofer ' s epauletted fruit bat , epomops buettikoferi dobson ' s fruit bat , epomops dobsoni franquet ' s epauletted fruit bat , epomops franqueti genus hypsignathus hammer - headed bat , hypsignathus monstrosus genus micropteropus - dwarf epauleted bats hayman ' s dwarf epauletted fruit bat , micropteropus intermedius peter ' s dwarf epauletted fruit bat , micropteropus pusillus genus nanonycteris veldkamp ' s dwarf epauletted fruit bat , nanonycteris veldkampii tribe myonycterini genus lissonycteris angolan rousette , lissonycteris angolensis genus megaloglossus woermann ' s bat , megaloglossus woermanni genus myonycteris - little collared fruit bats s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 collared fruit bat , myonycteris brachycephala east african little collared fruit bat , myonycteris relicta little collared fruit bat , myonycteris torquata\nthere is no information on the mating systems of black - eared flying foxes . in many species of\nspectacled flying foxes are forest dwellers and rainforests are their preferred habitat . they prefer to roost in the middle and upper canopy strata in the full sun . colonies of the spectacled flying fox can be found in rain forests , mangroves , and paperbark and eucalypt forests . [ 2 ] there is evidence of increasing urbanisation . [ 3 ]\nthe large flying fox is listed as least concern ( lr / lc ) , lowest risk . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\nthe flying - fox family also includes four other closely - related species of bat . these are the blossom - bats ( two species ) and the tube - nosed bats ( one species in queensland and one from moa island in torres strait ) .\nthere are four species of flying - fox that you are likely to see in queensland with another two species living in the torres strait islands and a third , the bare - backed fruit - bat dobsonia moluccensis , that only occurs in northern cape york .\nthe spectacled flying fox ' s natural diet is rainforest fruits , riparian zone flowers , and flowers from myrtaceae ( primarily eucalyptus and syzygium species ) and fruits from the moraceae ( figs ) and myrtaceae ( primarily syzygium ) . [ 4 ] [ 5 ]\ntidemann , c . r . ( june 1987 ) .\nnotes on the flying - fox , pteropus melanotus ( chiroptera : pteropodidae ) , on christmas island , indian ocean\n. australian mammalogy ( australian mammal society ) 10 ( 2 ) : 89 .\nthere is also a mystery species , the dusky flying - fox pteropus brunneus that is only known from one specimen taken from percy island , off the central coast of queensland , in the 1870s . it has never been seen again and is believed to be extinct .\nflying - foxes eat flowers and fruit , and sometimes leaves , from over 100 species of native trees and vines . flying - foxes supplement this diet by eating fruit from introduced plants found in gardens , orchards , parks and streetscaping .\nblack - eared flying foxes are important members of their native ecosystems , they are especially important for dispersing tree seeds .\nthe giant golden - crowned flying fox is primarily nocturnal , and can travel at least 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) in one night searching for food . this bat is a pollinator and seed disperser for many fruit trees in the philippines . it uses water for grooming .\nadult males have a maximum wingspan of over 1 meter and they can weigh up to 1 kg . during the day the grey headed flying fox can be found together with small groups to tens of thousands of bats at large ' roosts ' ( camps or colonies ) .\nthe black - eared flying fox is more diurnal than most bats , emerging from its roosts before dusk and feeding on the fruits and flowers of at least twenty - six species of forest trees at least ten of which are introduced species . a single young is born annually .\nflying - foxes and their relatives range in size from the tiny blossom - bats that could fit in the palm of a human hand , through to the more familiar flying - foxes , which can have a wingspan of more than a metre .\nthere are two types of bats\u2014the flying - foxes and their relatives , which are all fruit and nectar feeders , and the insectivorous bats . these two types of bats appear to have evolved separately , making them distinct groups of mammals . the ancestors of today ' s flying - foxes may have evolved from a primitive primate , meaning humans and flying - foxes may actually share a common ancestry .\nthere has been extensive logging in the solomon islands . it\u2019s one of the few resources they have to generate hard cash . and the entire time we were on vanikoro , you could hear chain saws in the distance . which gave the day with the dead , low clouds , very much a \u201clast - chance - to - see\u201d feeling to it .\nthe spectacled flying fox ( pteropus conspicillatus ) , also known as the spectacled fruit bat , is a megabat that lives in australia ' s north - eastern regions of queensland . it is also found in new guinea and on the offshore islands including woodlark island , alcester island , kiriwina , and halmahera .\nis one of the species that is preferred because of its superior taste and low number of ectoparasites . rainey ( 1990 ) described the situation :\nfor the chamorro people of guam and the adjacent commonwealth of northern marianas ( cnmi ) , flying foxes are a traditional delicacy , served at birthdays and other personal and community social gatherings .\nthe flying fox trade had been growing strong since the 1960s and 1981 - 1984 saw large exports of\nseveral bird species in vanuatu are vulnerable simply because of their small natural ranges ( stattersfield et al . 1998 ) . though subject to reduction by cyclones and consumed by almost all rural vanuatuans , flying - fox populations seem healthy . the saltwater crocodile population has been reduced by hunting and cyclones ( bregulla 1992 )\nbats are the only group of mammals capable of active flight . fossils show that flying - foxes have been a part of the night sky for more than 35 million years . these bats may have been seizing on an opportunity to fill airspace left by the mainly day - flying birds .\nblack - eared flying foxes use their keen vision in low light to navigate . they also use olfaction to find fruits and communicate reproductive status .\nflying - foxes need access to sources of flowering and fruiting trees that can sustain their large roosts . they leave at dusk and use their well - developed sense of smell to find known feeding sites or search for new ones . they can fly up to 50 km in a night in their search for food . the spectacled flying - fox always camps near rainforest and is a specialist fruit - eater known to disperse the seeds of at least 26 species of rainforest canopy tree .\nwith forests continuing to give way to expanding settled areas it is important to watch out for the well - being of remaining flying - fox roosts to ensure the health of the habitats that rely on them . at times , bat counts will be carried out to check how these remaining roosts are coping with the pressures of shrinking habitat .\nthe head and body length is 22\u201325 cm , forearm 16\u201318 cm , weight 400\u20131000 g . a large spectacled flying fox has pale yellow or straw - colored fur around its eyes . the mantle is pale yellow and goes across the back , neck , and shoulders . some have pale yellow fur on the face and top of the head .\nblack - eared flying foxes have dark brown to black fur , except in the chest and neck region where the fur is light brown . the genus\nsimilarly , tinakula also contains endemic bird and mammal species . surveys conducted in 2014 and 2015 confirmed the presence of several iucn red listed species , including the endangered temotu flying fox and the endangered santa cruz ground - dove , whose population has decreased due to habitat loss and hunting . oceanswatch staff recently captured the very first photographs of this threatened dove .\nthe spectacled flying fox was listed as a threatened species under the commonwealth environment protection and biodiversity conservation act of 1991 . they were considered vulnerable due to a significant decline in numbers as a result of loss of their prime feeding habitat [ 2 ] and secluded camp sites . it has also been reported that spectacled flying foxes skim over the surface of water to drink and are sometimes eaten by crocodiles . [ 2 ] the species was classified as\nleast concern\nby the iucn in 2008 . [ 1 ]\nsimilarly , if natural food sources are available at the same time that commercial fruit trees are bearing , flying - foxes are less likely to become a problem .\nthe black - eared flying fox faces a number of threats . destruction of its forest habitat reduces the availability of roosting sites and the animal is hunted by man for food . the crushed bones of this species are used in traditional medicine to relieve asthma symptoms . however , it has proved adaptable to changes in diet and now feeds on a number of introduced species of plant . the\nmegabits constitute the suborder chiropractor , family pterodactyl of the order chiropractor ( bats ) . they are also called fruit bats , old world fruit bats , or flying foxes .\naldabra atoll is well protected , being designated a special reserve in 1976 and a world heritage site in 1982 ( 4 ) . the atoll is only inhabited by a small number of scientists , and so the natural habitat is largely unaffected by the threats and pressures usually associated with human habitation . the sustained protection of the aldabra atoll is essential for the continued precarious existence of the aldabra flying fox ( 6 ) .\nthe mariana fruit bat is a mid - sized bat , neither unusually large nor small for flying foxes ( a flying fox is the nickname to megabats ) and it can weigh up to a full pound ( 577 grams ) . its forearm length ranges from 5 to 6 inches , ( 13 - 15 . 6cm ) ; however the males are usually slightly larger . their abdomens are usually a dark brown to black , while it has gray hairs throughout that appear to be scattered , their shoulders are usually a light brown or golden color , as are their necks while the head is particularly darker in tone .\nthe giant golden - crowned flying fox gets its species name from the golden fur around the head , in sharp contrast to the black body . like all other fruit bats , they have no tail . they are among the largest bats , with a wingspan of 1 . 5\u20131 . 7 metres ( 4 ft 11 in\u20135 ft 7 in ) and weighing 0 . 7\u20131 . 2 kilograms ( 1 . 5\u20132 . 6 lb ) .\n) is the second largest bat in the world by weight , and the largest by wingspan . its species name is p . vampyrus , however it is no vampire bat , this bat is what is called a megabat , being a large fruit bat . they are sometimes called flying foxes ; however they have no direct relation to foxes and only resemble them in passing with the face . the large flying fox has a wingspan of seven feet ( 2 meters ) , and a weight of 3lbs ( 1 . 5kg ) , has small pointed ears , large eyes , and face that is shaped like a foxes . its coloration varies from dark ashen brown , to near black , and their toes have large claws that are curved to help grab onto branches . the large flying fox cannot echolocate , as that is specific to the microbats , and one species of fruit bat that has developed echolocation on its own . instead , the megabats rely on excellent eyesight , and excellent smell to track their prey of fruit , nectar , blossoms , and pollen .\nflying - foxes simply need somewhere to live . however , where huge congregations are conflicting with humans , it may be appropriate to attempt to disperse roosts to another location further away from residential areas .\nlancaster , w . c . ; henson , o . w . ; keating , a . w . ( 1995 ) .\nrespiratory muscle activity in relation to vocalization in flying bats\n.\nmichigan science art . 2002 .\nuniversity of michigan museum of zoology : animal diversity web\n( on - line ) . pteropus ( flying foxes ) . accessed november 03 , 2006 at urltoken .\nyou\u2019ve heard of jean - francois de galaup de la perouse , right ? an beloved 18th century france explorer who is one of primary french claims to this part of the world . unfortunately he disappeared out here and the british were blamed . they went looking for , sent several rescue missions , but it wasn\u2019t until 50 years later that they found evidence that his ships had floundered and sank here on vanikoro . it wasn\u2019t until 2005 that they found the shipwrecks . ( all references to sir john franklin exist only in my head . )\nby living in large numbers , flying - foxes are little affected by predators like pythons , owls and sea - eagles . these predators only take a few individuals , leaving the rest of the roost intact .\nin their travels , flying - foxes disperse seeds in their droppings and carry a dusting of pollen from tree to tree , fertilising flowers as they feed . eucalypts rely heavily on these pollinators , producing most of their nectar and pollen at night to coincide with when bats are active . without flying - foxes , there is less cross - pollination between trees , particularly over larger distances , and less seed is set .\nwas placed on low risk or least concern on the iucn red list . there is a limited number hunted by natives . however , there are concerns that black - eared flying foxes are especially vulnerable because of their restriction to small , oceanic islands and their apparent lack of fear of humans . black - eared flying foxes also tend to be active during the day , making them easier to hunt than other species of\nfujita , m . 1998 .\nflying foxes and economics . bats . vol 6 , no 1 : 4 - 9 .\n( on - line ) . accessed 01 / 08 / 04 at urltoken .\nfor three species of flying - fox ( black , grey - headed and spectacled ) , one young is born in spring or summer after a five to six - month gestation period . young bats are carried by their mother for three or four weeks , fed on milk , and then left at a roost until they start to fly ( at around two to three months old ) . young are weaned when they are five to six months old , allowing the parents to gather in large roosts and mate again .\nspectacled flying foxes typically live to be around 12 to 15 years old , but in captivity can exceed 30 years of age . natural causes of mortality include predation mainly by rufous owls and pythons , death by paralysis tick when bats climb low to the ground to feed , and the death of babies that are born too early when either something goes wrong in the fetus ' development , or the mother suffers from prolonged stress . flying foxes are also frequently killed in human - related incidents such as landing on power lines , and getting entangled in nets or barbed wire . [ 8 ] [ 9 ] most wild flying foxes are assumed to live much shorter lives . [ 6 ]\nflying - foxes rely on well - developed vision to see at night , complemented by an excellent sense of smell to locate food . their large , forward - facing eyes give them binocular vision , while mirror - like retinas reflect and capture the limited available light . their sight allows them to use rivers , roads and other features as navigation aids . and with highly developed memories , flying - foxes can easily find previously - visited feeding sites and roosts .\nthis species is endemic to the aldabra atoll ( approximately 150 km ) in the seychelles . bats have been recorded from all main islands and have been observed flying between islands of the atoll ( hutson 2004 ; von brandis 2004 ) .\nis a medium sized flying fox . adults typically weigh between 400 - 500 grams and have a forearm length of 130 - 150 mm ( brooke , 2001 ) . the body and wings of this bat tend to be dark brown in color with variations in fur color ranging from blonde to grey on the head , neck , and shoulders ( brooke , 2001 ) . banack ( 2001 ) described the hairs of the fur as ,\nseal brown at base with lighter tips\nwith\npale - colored ( yellowish to grayish white ) hairs sprinkled throughout .\nsamoan flying fox is listed on appendix i of cites . continued enforcement of export bans of this species is necessary to aid recovery . domestic legislation to regulate hunting is needed over all the species ' range states . legal protection is present in some protected areas in samoa and the national park of american samoa , which contains important sites for foraging and roosting ( a . brooke pers . comm . ) . local awareness programmes are needed to emphasize the importance of wildlife resources . key sites for roosting and foraging should be identified and protected ( mickleburgh et al . 1992 ) . both flying fox species ( pteropus samoensis and pteropus tonganus ) are still under a hunting ban in american samoa , however , this legislation is temporary ( a . brooke pers . comm . ) . there is a ban on hunting any bat in american samoa , but bats are taken for personal consumption as this ban is not widely enforced ( a . brooke pers . comm . ) . in fiji , there is a need to assess the distribution ( particularly its occurrence in the lau group ) and to protect native forests ( palmeirim et al . 2005 ) .\nspectacled flying foxes have one pup annually . females are capable of breeding at one year of age . [ 6 ] males probably do not breed until three to four years of age . they are polygamous ( similar to the grey - headed flying fox , pteropus poliocephalus ) . female to male ratio may be as high as 2 : 1 . [ 6 ] conception occurs april to may . sexual activity is continuous from about january to june . females give birth to one young per year in october to december . juveniles are nursed for over five months , and on weaning , congregate in nursery trees in the colony . the juveniles fly out for increasing distances with the colony at night and are ' parked ' in nursery trees , often kilometres distant from the colony , and are brought back to the colony in the morning . [ 7 ]\nmonson , c . s . ; banack , s . a . ; cox , p . a . ( 2003 ) .\nconservation implications of chamorro consumption of flying foxes as a possible cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis - parkinsonism dementia complex in guam\n.\nthe type locality of black - eared flying foxes is the nicobar islands in india . they are found throughout many islands in southeast asia , including the andaman islands in india , the engano and nias islands in indonesia , and christmas island , south of java .\nflying - foxes are crucial to keeping native forests healthy . they play an important role in dispersing seeds and pollinating flowering plants . because flying - foxes are highly mobile , seeds can be moved locally and over great distances . when seeds are able to germinate away from their parent plant , they can have a greater chance of surviving and growing into a mature plant . seed dispersal also expands the gene pool within forests . mature trees then share their genes with neighbouring trees of the same species and this transfer strengthens forests against environmental changes .\nthe long - term solution to living near flying - foxes is having a better understanding of their needs\u2014when areas are being protected and before development . non - residential urban areas , such as parklands , golf courses and even cemeteries , can be planted out with a range of native trees that provide both fruit ( e . g . small - leaved figs ) and nectar ( e . g . eucalypts and melaleucas ) . this would help provide feeding sites for flying - foxes away from residential areas and corridors for them to travel between remnant forests .\ninformation sources hall , l . , and richards , r . ( 2000 ) . flying foxes and fruit and blossom bats of australia . australian natural history series . unsw press . strahan , r . ( ed . ) . ( 1995 ) . mammals of australia , reed .\nthe large flying fox , within the last six months , has gone from being a species of least concern to a species that is now near threatened and possibly and rapidly approaching the endangered status of\nvulnerable\nif habitat destruction and hunting does not stop . being the largest bat by wingspan , and the most visible when in flight , it is no wonder that they make such an easy target for bush meat and those that consider them a delicacy . unfortunately , if this bat goes extinct or decreases in numbers , plants will suffer due to a lack of pollination and seed dispersal . the consequences are far reaching , as all the megabats are heading toward endangerment or worse .\nthe total population is about 300 , 000 and it has been suggested that they have declined in numbers as much as 30 % in the last decade alone . recent research has shown that since 1994 , more than 24 , 500 grey - headed flying foxes have died from extreme heat events alone .\nhigh mobility also makes flying - foxes very effective as forest pollinators . pollen sticks to their furry bodies and as they crawl from flower to flower , and fly from tree to tree , they pollinate the flowers and aid in the production of honey . this reinforces the gene pool and health of native forests .\nsamoan flying fox is restricted to fiji , samoa , and american samoa . in fiji it is known from the islands of vatu vara , cicia , vanua balavu , kadavu , ovalau , taveuni , vanua levu , viti levu , and probably occurs on some medium - sized islands in the lau group ( palmeirim et al . 2005 ) . in samoa , it has been recorded on the islands of ' upolu and savai ' i . in american samoa it has been recorded on tutuila , ofu , and ta ' u ( mickleburgh et al . 1992 ; flannery 1995 ) . the species was prehistorically present in tonga , but was extirpated at the time of polynesian colonization ( koopman and steadman 1995 ) .\nwatching flying - foxes and how they behave and interact with others can help you to understand how these fascinating creatures live : when they have young , what they eat , when they move to new feeding sites , and how changes to the weather and surrounding environment affect their behaviour and health\u2014and warn us about emerging risks to their survival .\nthey are active mostly in the evening into the night , while during the day they roost in large trees with many of their colony members , sometimes numbering in the hundreds . they communicate with each other in high pitch sounds , and a closely related species has at least 30 distinct recorded calls , therefore it is easy to assume that the large flying fox would also have these calls . mating season takes place in the warmer summer months when the blossoms and nectar from many flowers are available for consumption , and usually just one baby bat is born at a time . their feeding habits range , and behavior lends itself to an important ecological niche , as they help pollinate on a grand scale most of the fruit baring trees , and help plant new ones through their digestive system .\nsamoan flying fox appears to be regularly encountered in fiji and american samoa . overall , populations of this species are not large anywhere and may be slowly declining ( a . brooke pers . comm . ) . the population in american samoa has been stable since 1996 and was estimated at approximately 900 animals in the late 1990s ( brooke 2001 ) . in samoa , the populations are scattered , but it is found in all forested areas , while in american samoa this species can be observed , island - wide ( a . brooke pers . comm . ) . in fiji , the species is moderately common in some lowland areas of viti levu and vanua levu ( palmeirim et al . 2005 , 2007 ) . it also occurs on some medium - sized islands , but usually avoids smaller islands .\nwhen not converted to agricultural use , the predominant vegetation type in the santa cruz islands is lowland rain forest . the santa cruz islands have two of the twelve common tree species found in the solomons ( campnosperma brevipetiolata and calophyllum vitiense ) . the islands differ phytogeographically from the rest of vanuatu . because the highest point on vanikoro ( in the santa cruz islands ) is only 924 m , there is no well - developed montane rain forest . however , some montane species , such as metrosideros ornata , are found in the lowlands . other prominent species include gmelina solomoensis ( verbenaceae ) , parinari corymbosa ( rosaceae ) , paraserianthes ( albizia ) falcataria and pterocarpus indicus ( fabaceae ) , and endospermum medullosum ( euphorbiaceae ) . agathis ( kauri pine ) is found in the santa cruz islands , as are dacrydium elatum and several syzygium ( myrtaceae ) species , which are generally montane species elsewhere ( mueller - dombois and fosberg 1998 ) .\nmcnab , b . , m . armstrong . 2001 .\njournal of mammalogy\n( on - line ) . sexual dimorphism and scaling of energetics in flying foxes of the genus pteropus . accessed december 01 , 2006 at urltoken ; = 10 . 1644 % 2f1545 - 1542 % 282001 % 29082 % 3c0709 % 3asdasoe % 3e2 . 0 . co % 3b2 .\nindividuals have much minor variation , with some having unusually light coloration , and others having much darker \u2013 but all within the ranges expected of this bat . they have very large eyes that make it easy for them to see , and rounded ears with a pointed muzzle , giving them the appearance of a canine . this is another reason they are called flying foxes .\nthe small , but apparently healthy , population of aldabra flying foxes is not currently known to be facing any threats , but the tiny distribution of this species makes it incredibly vulnerable to any catastrophic event , whether caused by humans , such as the introduction of a predator to the atoll , or by nature , such as the potentially devastating effects of a cyclone ( 6 ) .\nin 2012 , the queensland government reintroduced the issuing of permits which allows farmers and fruit - growers ( with permits ) to kill limited numbers of flying foxes in order to protect crops . [ 10 ] [ 11 ] the shooting of bats had been banned by the previous qld labor government after advice from the qld animal welfare advisory committee ( awac ) that the practice was inhumane .\nthe binomial name of the large flying fox is pteropus vampyrus , and it belongs to the genus pteropus . within pteropus there are roughly 64 known species of bat , and a probably amount on the scale of tens that are currently unknown , and hundreds that have gone extinct \u2013 possibly recently ; almost all of the species of bats in this genus are threatened or endangered . pteropus belongs to the subfamily pteropodinae , which has around 36 known genera of bat , and an immeasurable number of extinct relatives along with unknown living genera yet to be identified . pteropodinae belongs to the family pteropodidae , which has one other subfamily - macroglossinae . pteropodidae belongs to the suborder megachiroptera , which belongs to the order chiroptera - which includes all bats . under the revised model of mammals , yet to be adopted , chiroptera belongs to the superorder pegasoferae , with the other order being zoomata , which includes the carnivores ,\nyou could lean out of the boat and see the reef fish , the blue lipped clams , the coral just below you . over closer to the mangroves , fish were leaping from the water chased by 3 foot baby black tipped fin shark . from the trees , flying foxes were hanging in astonishing numbers . occasionally you would see them flap slowly overhead , entirely different from the flight of a bird .\nthere is a clear gradient of the mammalian faunas from new guinea , to the bismarck archipelago , through the solomon islands , to vanuatu ; areas of open ocean have acted as an effective filter . except for pteropodid bats , the solomons and bismarcks ( new britain , new ireland ) have many fewer mammals than new guinea . unlike new britain , the solomons , contain no marsupials , and east beyond the solomons there are even fewer mammal species . however , almost all mammal species in vanuatu have their origins in or via new guinea . the only mammals in vanuatu are four pteropodid bats and eight microchiroptera . ( flannery 1995 ) . six of these species are endemic or near endemic ( table 1 ) . of these endemic and near - endemic species , the fijian blossom - bat ( notopteris macdonaldi ) and banks flying - fox ( pteropus fundatus ) are considered vulnerable , and the nend\u00f6 tube - nosed bat ( nyctimene sanctacrucis ) is presumed to be extinct ( iucn 2000 ) .\n, as a whole , is responsible for the pollination and seed dispersal of 300 plants species in southeast asia , tropical africa , and the pacific islands . fujita ( 1988 ) established that humans use more than 450 products that are derived from 134 of these plants . most of these plants are not grown in plantations ; therefore , they absolutely rely on these bats for regeneration . most of these products are used locally , but some are exported . bananas provide a good example of the importance of these bats . although the cultivated varieties do not require pollination for fruit development , most of the 20 known wild species do . these wild bananas are primarily pollinated by bats and these plants in turn , according to fujita ( 1988 ) ,\nprovide important genetic reservoirs for cultivar improvement and for combating disease , such as fungal root rot .\nsome of the other plants pollinated by flying foxes may also have medicinal properties that have not yet been studied .\nbats are usually thought to belong to one of two monopolistic groups , a view that is reflected in their classification into two suborders ( chiropractor and microcomputer ) . according to this hypothesis , all living megabits and micro bats are descendants of a common ancestor species that was already capable of flight . however , there have been other views , and a vigorous debate persists to this date . for example , in the 1980s and 1990s , some researchers proposed ( based primarily on the similarity of the visual pathways ) that the chiropractor were in fact more closely affiliated with the primates than the microcomputer , with the two groups of bats having therefore evolved flight via convergence ( see flying primates theory ) . [ 1 ] however , a recent flurry of genetic studies confirms the more longstanding notion that all bats are indeed members of the same clad , the chiropractor . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] other studies have recently suggested that certain families of micro bats ( possibly the horseshoe bats , mouse - tailed bats and the false vampires ) are evolutionarily closer to the fruit bats than to other micro bats . [ 2 ] [ 4 ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nlamoreux , j . ( global mammal assessment team ) , racey , p . a . , medell\u00edn , r . & hutson , a . m . ( chiroptera red list authority )\njustification : listed as critically endangered ( possibly extinct ) because any remaining population is likely to be tiny . the species has not been located since it was last collected , which was likely before 1930 . vanikolo was extensively logged in the 1950s and 1960s ; there is some regeneration now , but logging has once again been proposed . surveys in the early 1990s did not detect this species and it might possibly be extinct . if it does survive , its range is likely very small as the size of the island is only 189 km 2 , and it is probably subject to hunting pressures as well . further surveys are urgently needed to confirm the existence of this species .\nthis species is known only from the island of vanikolo in the southern solomon islands . the island is 189 km 2 .\nit is known from few specimens ; all probably collected before 1930 . surveys in the early 1990s did not detect this species .\nnothing is known about the ecology of this species . other pteropus species bear a single young , and have a lifespan that is approximately 8 or 9 years .\nthis island was extensively logged in the 1950s and 1960s ; there is some regeneration now , and logging has once again been proposed . opportunistic hunting may be a threat to this species .\nit is listed on appendix ii of cites . it is not known if this species is present in any protected areas . further surveys urgently needed to confirm the presence of this species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nclose the former department of environment and heritage protection is merging to form the new department of environment and science . this site will be updated while the new department of environment and science website is being established .\nin turn , native forests provide valuable timber , act as carbon sinks , and stabilise river systems and water catchments , and provide recreational and tourism opportunities worth millions of dollars each year .\nthe following table lists the species found in queensland and where they are likely to occur .\noften roosts under piles of boulders and dense vegetation ; found in northern cape york .\nlives in rainforest in north queensland and also heathland , paperbark swamp and coastal eucalypt forest in southern queensland .\nit can be found in open forest and rainforests along the east coast of mainland australia south of rockhampton .\nthis species is nomadic forming temporary roosts in open forest , woodland , paperbark swamps and mangroves where trees are in flower or fruit . it occurs over much of queensland .\nfound across a range of vegetation types from mangroves to rainforests in cape york and north - east queensland .\noccurs in rainforest on moa island in torres strait but also occurs in papua new guinea and the solomon islands .\nroosts are often semi - permanent , sometimes dispersing seasonally or when food is no longer available nearby , or when an area is overtaken by the impacts of encroaching development ."]}
{"id": 1876, "summary": [{"text": "the saint lucia lancehead or saint lucia pit viper ( bothrops caribbaeus ) is a species of venomous snake which is endemic to the west indies . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "saint lucia lancehead", "paragraphs": ["a us zoo rear the st . lucia lancehead snake , curious about its properties for treating certain diseases\nover the weekend , 12 st . lucia lancehead vipers were born at the kentucky reptile zoo in slade .\nst . lucia lancehead vipers are native only to st . lucia . the kentucky reptile zoo is the only facility outside of st . lucia to be allowed to house these rare island snakes .\na us zoo rear the st . lucia lancehead snake , curious about its properties for treating certain diseases \u2013 caribbean hotfm\nst . lucia lancehead vipers are native only to the small caribbean island of st . lucia . the kentucky reptile zoo is the only facility outside of st . lucia allowed to house these rare island snakes .\naccording to zoo officials , venom from st . lucia lancehead vipers has the potential for treating heart disease , stroke and other disorders .\nover the weekend , 12 st . lucia lancehead vipers were born at the kentucky reptile zoo in slade , powell county , kentucky .\nanguilla , antigua and barbuda , aruba , bahamas , barbados , cayman islands , cuba , dominica , dominican republic , haiti , grenada , guadeloupe , jamaica , martinique , montserrat , netherlands antilles , puerto rico , saint kitts and nevis , saint lucia , saint vincent and the grenadines , trinidad and tobago , turks and caicos islands , virgin islands - british , virgin islands - u . s .\nalthough the majority of st lucia ' s wildlife is protected under the saint lucia wildlife protection act of 1980 , the fer - de - lance is not . the snake has the same status as rats and the mongoose .\nnotes below from from the\nst . lucia animal protection society\nabout the snakes in st . lucia\nb . muriciensis - ferrarezzi & freire , 2001 . range : northeastern brazil ( alagoas ) , common name : murici lancehead .\nhe was a runaway . he somehow survived the plantation system . who brought snakes into saint lucia to kill runaways who had a spine and did not want to live as a house nigger or a field hand ? wicked and murderous black people ?\nslavery is still killing our tails . those white absentee landlords , even have their grandchildren replacing them and are still killing us today . why don ' t we hunt these to extinction in saint lucia ? put a bounty on the head of each snake taken to the nearest police station .\nst . lucia news online the aim of st . lucia news online is to bring breaking news , professional and reliable daily news , photos , videos , audio and commentary to every st . lucian .\nfound in northeastern mexico ( tamaulipas ) southward through central and south america to argentina , bothrops species also occur on the islands of saint lucia and martinique in the lesser antilles , as well as on ilha da queimada grande off the coast of brazil . [ 1 ] b . atrox is also found on the island of trinidad in the southern caribbean off the eastern coast of venezuela .\nwinston\u2019s niece , diana pierre told saint lucia news online ( sno ) today ( may 19 ) that it took him a few hours after the attack before he got help . there is no telephone service on the hill top . with the support of his girlfriend , winston walked through clumps of bushes to get assistance from villagers . an ambulance was called to transport him to the victoria hospital .\nsnake found dead in massacre , st . lucia \u2013 how much do you know about its species ? ( 8 )\nthe boa is restricted to the drier areas of st . lucia .\nthey do not harm man\nhow can a hospital not have anti - venom ? shame of the politicians in st lucia . . . u money hungry people need to take care of your citizend and their health . . . without the citizens there is no st lucia .\nst . lucia is the freaking best . all these snakes and no anti - venom . alvina reynolds has got to go\nst lucia is simply beautiful . for a small island we are blessed with great biodiversity and a spectacular landscape . i am lucky to have been born here . but it ' s sad that the snakes and reptiles of st lucia are threatened with extinction .\nthis type [ subspecies ] of fer - de - lance ( latin name bothrops caribbaeus ) is only found in st lucia .\ncopyright 2018 st . lucia news online . all rights reserved . this material may not be published , broadcast , rewritten or distributed .\nvideo taken by a friend of one of our trips to st . lucia . we were collecting dna samples and venom for research on these animals . all snakes were released . this work done with permission from and under the supervision of the st . lucia department of forestry . all native wildlife on the island is protected by law .\nmy prayers go out to the children and their mother .\nwow shame on you\ngovernment of st . lucia no anti - vernon . this is not acceptable .\nand one wonders why they keep on\nname - calling\nevery island in the caribbean in their budget presentation , but no one calls\nst . lucia ' s\nname .\njim harrison and kristen wiley , the directors of the reptile zoo , traveled to st . lucia this past winter to provide training to forestry personnel on how to handle this breed of snake .\ntree boas generally aren ' t dangerous to humans . the real problem is the fer - de - lance , also called the terciopelo or lancehead . it ' s very poisonous and will kill quickly ( within hours ) without antidote . it ' s also aggressive unlike some other snakes and can attack unprovoked - - well , if you ' re walking nearby it may view that as provocation .\ni wouldn ' t worry too much though . these snakes do exist on st lucia ( another legacy of slavery ) but not in all regions , attacks on humans with fatalities are not that common .\nthere are poisonous snakes , and aggressive snakes , and the fer - de - lance is one of the unusual snakes which is both . it just doesn ' t bite people that much in st lucia .\nst lucia villa rental urltoken the gorgeous destination of st lucia offers holidaymakers everything from thrilling water sports to breathtaking black - sand seashores , abundant tropical rainforest and world - class health spas . discover this peaceful attractions of this beautiful tropical isle ; have fun with a boat ride at nightfall across the calm waters in marigot bay , the location on the west coastline of the region popular for its myriad of yachts and harbour docks .\nadams toussaint , 46 , works for the forestry department based in castries in st lucia in the eastern caribbean . he describes the battle to save the native fer - de - lance snake , which is threatened with extinction\nbut while rats and the mongoose are two alien invasive species that have a mostly destructive impact on st lucia ' s biodiversity , the fer - de - lance is an endemic species and should invoke some sort of national pride .\nunfortunately costs continue to rise on everything now days . there is an average of 15 - 20 bites ayear on st lucia . fatalities are not common , but 1 is to many . a small stock of expired anti venom is better than none at all . with the average number of bites that happen i dont think it will have time to expire anyway . with all that being said the snake is a very important part of the islandsecology , and should be respected . education and awareness of this snake could greatly reduce the number of bites . i have worked with this snake for many years in the field and in captivity . also rattlesnakes do not occure on the island , the locale venomous snake is from the lancehead group .\nboa constrictor ( constrictor constrictor orophias ) : the boa constrictor of tete - chien as it is known locally is one of the four species of snakes native to the island of st . lucia . the other three are the fer - de - lance , the rare maria island snake and the tiny , soil dwelling , blind worm snake . the boa is restricted to the drier areas of st . lucia . they do not harm man and they are protected by law .\nam from st . lucia but right now am in cancun mexico i travel all the times from mexico to canada , but i do missed my country and proud to be a st lucian , and hope they will work on a anti venom pretty soon .\nlobbying for its protection or getting policymakers to buy into the idea of giving the fer - de - lance any form of protection is a mammoth task , that will require a massive education campaign to first change people ' s attitudes and develop pride and joy in the fer - de - lance \u2013 similar to what was done for the st lucia parrot .\nit most probably was a fer de lance that bit him . . i hope to god we have antivenom in our hospitals why did they not treat him with that immediately am i to assume that we are not equipped to handle snake bites in st . lucia . lord have mercy i really hate snakes . they could get rid of them . . . . .\nthese are not\nstories\nof the fer - de - lance . they do exist in st . lucia as opposed to most other caribbean islands . they were imported on purpose by ill - thinking slave owners . however , the risk of being bitten hiking on a trail is very low . bites are rare . sorry if the bear analogy was lost on some people .\nabout 50 years ago the geographical range of the snake covered a large part of the island . yet according to the latest study of st . lucia ' s reptiles and amphibians , completed last december , the poisonous snake , the fer - de - lance ( french for ' spearhead ' or ' iron of the lance ' ) is now limited to two fragmented areas on the island .\ntoo long lucians have being undermined . them doctors know damn well amputating the man arm would not save his life . such a shame a small island with more snakes than people we dont have not an ounce of antivenom . another oppurtunity for employment in st . lucia . recuit indiviuals giving them the nessecary equipment to haverst venom from those fear de lance and rattlers . there is room to make big bucks\nsince when have there been rattle snakes in lucia ? ? has there been any warnings as to which areas are prone to have them ? ? surely every one knows that you will die from a rattle snakes bite if you dont get antu venom asap , so why is there none on the island ? ? since when do they operate on people to get rid of a snakes venom ? these doctors must be smoking some serious shit .\nso sad . im so upset , st . lucia is so backward . the doctors know you cannot undergo surgery , with a snake bite . choops . where is the damn anti venon . we have snakes here , shame on you ' ll . no care . barbados doesn ' t have the poisonous yet still they have anti venon . health minister , thats what you all need to talk about , all you do is talk rubbish . none sense . no health care .\ntoo long lucians have being undermined . them doctors know damn well amputating the man arm would not save his life . such a shame a small island with more snakes than people we dont have not an ounce of antivenom . another oppurtunity for employment in st . lucia . recuit indiviuals giving them the nessecary equipment to haverst venom from those fear de lance and rattlers . there is room to make big bucks . lets create an anti - venom industry . lets sell anti - venom pm kenny .\nthe kentucky reptile zoo is located on l & e ; railroad place in the slade community of powell county .\nflorida police : perry co . woman crashes truck into utility pole after cat jumps on her\ncomments are posted from viewers like you and do not always reflect the views of this station .\nwymt 199 black gold blvd . hazard , ky 41701 606 - 436 - 5757 - switchboard 606 - 439 - 9968 - newsroom\nviewers with disabilities can get assistance accessing this station ' s fcc public inspection file by contacting the station with the information listed below . questions or concerns relating to the accessibility of the fcc ' s online public file system should be directed to the fcc at 888 - 225 - 5322 , 888 - 835 - 5322 ( tty ) , or fccinfo @ urltoken .\nthe costa rican species of fer - de - lance snake . photograph : mayela lopez / afp / getty images\nit is unfortunate that people do not love the snake , which is regarded as a notoriously dangerous species . the prevailing attitude is to exterminate it , rather than to conserve or protect it .\ni am hoping that conservationists will become more interested in protecting the species and look to focus more resources towards in - situ and ex - situ conservation . we also want to create an education campaign to compliment a conservation programme .\nwe need to protect their habitat , to educate the public not to kill them , and we need more applied research .\ni believe that the first step to conservation of any species is an assessment of the population status . this was done in december 2009 . so that ' s the first step . there is hope for saving our snake .\nanalysts trim forecasts for year to end of march , saying m & s ' s share among market ' s top 10 has slipped to 11 . 18 %\n\u00a9 2018 guardian news and media limited or its affiliated companies . all rights reserved .\nsyntypes : mcz r4812 , mcz r4814 , and mcz r4815 ( mcdiarmid et al . 1999 ) .\nsarah miller set\nfile : bothrops caribbaeus . jpg\nas an exemplar on\nbothrops caribbaeus garman 1887\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nsleeping in a hut on his farm is a norm for gregory winston of canaries who succumbed to a snakebite last week while spending a night on his farm .\nfifty - six - year - old winston earned his livelihood by rearing pigs in the canaries hills . on thursday , he and his girlfriend , lucy were asleep in his hut on the farm when he woke up about 2 a . m . to a stinging sensation in his left arm .\npierre recalled winston\u2019s girlfriend saying that he felt like his arm was \u201cbroken\u201d , and by the time he reached at the hospital the colour of his skin had turned black and blue . winston was later advised by doctors that they would need to amputate his arm . he disagreed and opted for surgery to remove the venom from the snakebite instead . however , sno was told doctors warned that winston could have a 50 / 50 chance of survival with surgery .\nsubsequent to the surgery , he complained about severe pain in his arm . he was taken to the intensive care unit where he passed away . pierre said there was allegedly no anti - venom insulin to treat her uncle .\nwinston usually left his home to spend a few days up in the hills . pierre said he had complained to relatives of a snake infestation on the farm , after spotting a few of them , which he had attempted to kill at times .\npierre noted that he has already been warned not to return to the hills , after he barely survived a similar attack last year . she said he had been hospitalised for two weeks after the first snake attack . but despite warnings , winston was persistent to return to his farm and continue his work as this was his only means of income for him and his family .\npierre indicated that winston had presumed there was a rattle snake inside the hut , as he told relatives about waking up to a hissing sound one night while there .\napart from his pig rearing business , winston had a small kitchen garden in the hills .\nvehicle owned by popular st . lucian artiste involved in freak accident ( see 6 photos ) ( 23 )\nthere are lots of measures to be taken after a snake bite . first of all u must place a tourniquet to the affected limb then try to cut the wound to make the blood flow . soon after wash the area with fresh water this measure is taken to prevent the venom from traveling to the heart .\nyou absolutely never use a tourniquet in regards to a snake bite . by stopping the blood flow you can develop what ' s known as compartment syndrome in the muscle below said tourniquet . a simple compression bandage is all that is ever needed and for the victim to stay as calm as possible till he can reach some antivenom\nit is very well known that a compression bandage is what is used in terms of a venomous snake bite . never a tourniquet which can lead to compartment syndrome in the muscle . a tourniquet is about the worst thing you could possibly apply to a venomous snake bite . i don ' t know why people give advice when they have no idea what they ' re talking about\nanti venoms should be free . thats why there is a health minister , which means they are not doing they job\npeople are always quick to say who is not doing what . what is the occurrence of snake bites in slu ? this is the most important question . all drugs have an expiration rate . it may not be cost effective to have every single drug on hand . that is what the world boils down to . cost effectiveness . also , do you know that bacteria infection from the bite can kill as well ? infections spread quickly through the extremities .\nand to the ordinary people ( not party hacks ) you need to take your destiny into your own hands right now and to hell with those party patronising jackasses . the reason being that all of you will die . that is how the great countries of this era started . incompetency stops now ! ! ! ! find another job ! ! !\nwe have these deadly snakes back home and no anti venom to treat a snake bite its a shame . can we find those rapist that attack those two women last week and put them in a house with those rattle snakes and call it justice for the women\nyou feel me\nlol\nim an extension officer and we ' ve asked the ministry for snake kits and training for years now ! up to now nothing has happened despite the promises made . my work area has snakes and i pray everyday tht i dnt come across any becuz i dont knw what i will do ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! its so sad tht those kids hve been left without a father . life is so unpredictable and sad\nrip bro . was that his destiny ? he was warned before and stung once . thats so sad .\nwhat ever the shelf life is , it is not too much to spend for a human life . snakes are taking over so let there be funds available to fight the serpent . just 1 % from vat will help . in the early days it was one dollar for a head of snake , let us make it $ 25 . 00 a head including babies . maybe we will get the unemployment down from % 25 . just do something anything to get the snake population down . my prayers go out to the family , may god bless and protect you all .\nsome of our locally grown ones have evolved . some are crawling on two legs too . some live in that dark forest .\nempty the coffers , pay the many\nconsultants\nhuge salaries , turn a blind eye on what really matters ( like the health sector , ) wait when something like this happens , complain that the anti - venon is too expensive to keep on island - all the while the money is being offered as gifts to their buddy\nconsultants .\ni will forever say , we have keep on electing the most incompetent groups of politicians on the face of this earth .\ngod , i hate snakes . . . all types , and anything that crawls . so sad for his kids , hope they ' ll be taken care of .\nwith all these up to date hospitals an so call highly qualified doctors we have in slu y are the citizens been treated like it ' s 1950 with people dying from mosquito bites , snake bites an so many other simple problems that can b treated with proper drugs an compassion before money an we paying vat , vote an suffer watching d rich get d best treatment i thought charity begins at home so y canival , jazz an bacanal getting better funs than health care wow what a shame .\ndon ' t think any anti venom would work . like the niece said it took them a few hours to get help by then the venom would have traveled through his body and did it ' s damage . many hospitals don ' t carry anti vemon just because it is so costly and is rarely being used . as with all meds they expire . my prays are with the family and his kids\nyo are so smart ! lol . . . when alvina goes we will have all the anti - venom that we need for\nall these snakes\n!\nanti - colo , i remember the days of compensation for each head delivered to the local police station . don ' t know if that practice is still alive . also , snakes keep the rat / mice population in check .\nthis is so sad , pray god will strengthen his family at this time .\npretty much . that sucks man . i feel bad for that guy and his kids . prayers for them\nthe anti - venom has a short shelf life , and we get it from martinique which is very costly . so once someone gets bitten by the fer de lance snake it is ordered , only if the person or family they can afford it .\nso we live on an island with one of the deadliest snakes in the western hemisphere and no anti venom , not even enough to save one persons life .\nthe niece used the word\nallegedly\nin her statement but yet still you have a lucian so quick to write a comment without reading nor understanding what the statement means . dislike my comment all you like i don ' t give a toss ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1 .\nsays who these things are kept frozen , first off people should have basic first aid knowledge living in a snake infested area the man should have been more careful raised beds are a must , then those pigs are lazy they usually kill snakes , what happen this time around .\nsad man . sad . de pigs got too fat . dey kyan move .\nnotify me of followup comments via e - mail . you can also subscribe without commenting .\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\n( antigua news room ) \u2013 the st . james\u2019 club is considering using booms to fight the \u2026\n( press release via sno ) \u2013 representative eliot l . engel ( d - ny ) , ranking member of the house \u2026\n( antigua news room ) \u2013 the st . james\u2019s club , one of antigua\u2019s premier hotels , is closing \u2026\na curated database of candidate human ageing - related genes and genes associated with longevity and / or ageing in model organisms .\na curated database of genes associated with dietary restriction in model organisms either from genetic manipulation experiments or gene expression profiling .\nprojects focused on gene expression profiling of ageing and of dietary manipulations of ageing , such as caloric restriction .\nsoftware for ageing research , including the ageing research computational tools ( arct ) perl toolkit .\na curated database of ageing and life history information in animals , including extensive longevity records .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\na high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .\nanalyses using the anage database to study the evolution of longevity and ageing in vertebrate lineages .\na portal of ageing changes covering different biological levels , integrating molecular , physiological and pathological age - related data .\nthe whosage database contains people and biotech companies that are contributing to increase our understanding of ageing and life - extension .\ncomments , suggestions , ideas , and bug reports are welcome . please contact us .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nit ' s very doubtful you ' ll see or meet any snakes on the aerial tram .\ni encountered a boa constrictor while walking in the rain forest many years ago . it seemed quite friendly at first , but then another member of my party started poking it with a stick and we all beat a hasty retreat .\nas a point of reference , we know someone who lives in a rural area of costa rica where the fer - de - lance is much more plentiful . she kept antidote in the fridge for years but never used it and finally stopped replacing it . she also has many employees , none of whom got bitten in those years . she found a fer - de - lance in her carport and didn ' t get bitten . so enjoy the trip and just follow the guide ' s suggestions .\ncouple of other thoughts - - didn ' t want to alarm anyone . the risk is very low . but don ' t irritate wildlife ! how did the\nsnake - poker\nknow what the snake was ? benign snakes take the colouring of poisonous ones , and vice versa . anyone who\nplays\nwith a snake like that is an idiot .\nfairyjay , you sound like a sensible person and should be fine . sorry if my previous post was alarming - - didn ' t mean to be .\nwe have bears here . they have come to our front door . i am nervous about walking the little dogs but the\nbear scare\ndoesn ' t deter me . just make enough noise . relevance to your trip ? the risk is very , very small . if you are in a hiking group , you will likely scare off any snakes . the aggression is if you walk in\ntheir\nfields , not if you and a few other people walk on a defined path .\ni think we need to back to the original question . the poster is obviously concerned about snakes , and looking for reassurance that there will be no chance of seeing / meeting one on the aerial tramway .\nin my opinion you will definitely not see or meet a snake on the tramway .\nwould you see one whilst hiking in the rainforest ? again , in my opinion , highly unlikely . although there are snakes in the rainforest , you need to understand that snakes are more frightened of people , than people are frightened of snakes , and therefore move out of the way when they sense people coming .\nso , fairway , don ' t be alarmed of stories about the fer de lance , just do what thousands of people have already done , and enjoy your trip on the aerial tramway .\naye , captain . . . a tall , cold piton in my hand , a stiff wind to chase the mosquitos , snakes in the rainforest , and my @ ss in a hammock . . . that ' s all i ask\nrain forest sky rides tram nestled in the mountains of chassin , babonneau - over 2000 feet above sea level .\nits range extends from roseau to canaries on the west coast , and from marquis to micoud on the east . it is confined mainly to coastal areas and is not common at elevations above 600 feet .\nthe ranges of the two snakes coincide but while bothrops prefers the ground and scrubby and cultivated areas , constrictor keeps to the bush and trees .\nmembers who are knowledgeable about this destination and volunteer their time to answer travelers ' questions .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\n: we use the most recent data from these primary sources : who , world bank , unesco , cia and individual country databases for global health and causes of death .\nwe use the cdc , nih and individual state and county databases for verification and supplementation for usa data .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlesser antilles : martinique terra typica : unknown ; restricted to morne capot , between ajoupa - bouillon and le lorrain , martinique , by lazell , 1964 . ;\nattributes / relations provided by \u2666 1 de magalhaes , j . p . , and costa , j . ( 2009 ) a database of vertebrate longevity records and their relation to other life - history traits . journal of evolutionary biology 22 ( 8 ) : 1770 - 1774 \u2666 2 venomous snakes and antivenoms search interface , world health organization \u2666 3 gibson , d . i . , bray , r . a . , & harris , e . a . ( compilers ) ( 2005 ) . host - parasite database of the natural history museum , london\necoregions provided by world wide fund for nature ( wwf ) . wildfinder : online database of species distributions , ver . 01 . 06 wwf wildfinder\n,\niron of the lance\n) . however , many scientists and hobbyists now restrict this name to the martinican species ,\nmost species are nocturnal , although a few found at higher altitudes are active during the day . otherwise , they may be seen on cloudy days or during periods of rain . most are terrestrial , though all are capable of climbing . one species ,\npreys primarily on birds , due to the absence of native mammal species on queimada grande . this feeding habit probably accounts for their more arboreal lifestyle compared with their mainland cousins .\n. without treatment , the fatality rate is estimated to be about 7 % , but with treatment this is reduced to 0 . 5 - 3 % .\nsoutheastern brazil , paraguay , uruguay and northern argentina ( in the provinces of buenos aires , catamarca , c\u00f3rdoba , corrientes , chaco , entre r\u00edos , formosa , la pampa , misiones , san luis , santa fe , santiago del estero and tucum\u00e1n .\nb . alcatraz - marques , martins & sazima , 2002 . range : brazil ( s\u00e3o paulo ) , common name : jararaca - de - alcatrazes\nmcdiarmid rw , campbell ja , tour\u00e9 t . 1999 . snake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1 . herpetologists ' league . 511 pp . isbn 1 - 893777 - 00 - 6 ( series ) . isbn 1 - 893777 - 01 - 4 ( volume ) .\ncampbell ja , lamar ww . 2004 . the venomous reptiles of the western hemisphere . comstock publishing associates , ithaca and london . 870 pp . 1500 plates . isbn 0 - 8014 - 4141 - 2 .\nu . s . navy . 1991 . poisonous snakes of the world . us govt . new york : dover publications inc . 203 pp . isbn 0 - 486 - 26629 - x .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 10 / 7 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nbothrops is a genus of pit vipers endemic to central and south america . [ 1 ] the generic name , bothrops , is derived from the greek words \u03b2\u03cc\u03b8\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 , bothros , meaning\npit\n, and \u03ce\u03c0\u03c2 , ops , meaning\neye\nor\nface\n, together an allusion to the heat - sensitive loreal pit organs . members of this genus are responsible for more human deaths in the americas than any other group of venomous snakes . [ 2 ] currently , 32 species are recognized . [ 3 ]\nthese snakes range from small , never growing to more than 50\u201370 cm ( 19 . 5\u201327 . 5 in ) , to large at over 200 cm ( 6 . 6 ft ) in total length . most are characterized by having a sharp canthus rostralis and an unelevated snout . [ 2 ]\nthe arrangement of the scales on top of the head is extremely variable ; the number of interorbital scales may be 3 - 14 . usually there are 7 - 9 supralabials and 9 - 11 sublabials . there are 21 - 29 rows of dorsal scales at midbody , 139 - 240 ventral scales , and 30 - 86 subcaudals , which are generally divided . [ 2 ]\nmembers of this genus are responsible for more fatalities in the americas than any other group of venomous snakes . in this regard , the most important species are b . asper , b . atrox and b . jararaca . without treatment , the fatality rate is estimated to be about 7 % , but with treatment this is reduced to 0 . 5 - 3 % . [ 2 ]\ntypical symptoms of bothropic envenomation include immediate burning pain , dizziness , nausea , vomiting , sweating , headache , massive swelling of the bitten extremity , hemorrhagic blebs , local necrosis , bleeding from the nose and gums , ecchymosis , erythemia , hypotension , tachycardia , coagulopathy with hypofibrinogenemia and thrombocytopenia , hematemesis , melena , epistaxis , hematuria , intracerebral hemorrhage and renal failure secondary to hypotension and bilateral cortical necrosis . there is usually some discoloration around the bite site , and rashes may develop on the torso or the extremities . [ 2 ]\nin general , death results from hypotension secondary to blood loss , renal failure , and intracranial hemorrhage . common complications include necrosis and renal failure secondary to shock and the toxic effects of the venom . [ 2 ]\natlantic lowlands of eastern mexico and central america , including guatemala , belize , honduras , nicaragua , costa rica and panama , a disjunct population occurs in southeastern chiapas ( mexico ) and southwestern guatemala , northern south america in colombia and venezuela [ 1 ] also in ecuador . [ 2 ]\ncampbell ja , lamar ww . 2004 . the venomous reptiles of the western hemisphere . comstock publishing associates , ithaca and london . 870 pp . 1500 plates . isbn 0 - 8014 - 4141 - 2 .\nu . s . navy . 1991 . poisonous snakes of the world . us govt . new york : dover publications inc . 203 pp . isbn 0 - 486 - 26629 - x .\nallf , bradley c . , paul ap durst , and david w . pfennig .\nbehavioral plasticity and the origins of novelty : the evolution of the rattlesnake rattle .\nthe american naturalist 188 . 4 ( 2016 ) : 475 - 483\nthis page was last edited on 2 june 2018 , at 11 : 55 .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nevaluates the conservation status of plant and animal species . the list is based on scientific assessment of an organism ' s status by experts .\ncopyright rhett butler 1994 - 2015 carbon dioxide ( co2 ) emissions generated from urltoken operations ( server , data transfer , travel ) are mitigated through an association with anthrotect , an organization working with afro - indigenous and embera communities to protect forests in colombia ' s darien region . anthrotect is protecting the habitat of mongabay ' s mascot : the scale - crested pygmy tyrant .\nrainforest\nis used interchangeably with\nrain forest\non this site .\njungle\nis generally not used ."]}
{"id": 1880, "summary": [{"text": "the cumberland monkeyface pearly mussel or cumberland monkeyface , scientific name theliderma intermedia , is a species of freshwater mussel in the family unionidae , the river mussels .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "this aquatic bivalve mollusk is native to tennessee and virginia in the united states , where it occurs in the duck and powell rivers .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is a federally listed endangered species .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this species is yellow-green or greenish yellow in color .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it can reach at least 35 years old .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "like other mussels , it has larvae called glochidia that lodge in the gills of fish to develop into juvenile mussels .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "hosts for this species include the streamlined chub ( erymystax dissimilis ) and blotched chub ( erymystax insignis ) .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "this mussel has been extirpated from the elk river .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "there is still a population in the powell river , and the population in the duck river appears to be viable . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "cumberland monkeyface pearly mussel", "paragraphs": ["cover title : recovery plan , cumberland monkeyface pearly mussel ( quadrula intermedia ) .\nrecovery plan for the cumberland monkeyface pearly mussel , quadrula intermedia ( conrad , 1836 ) / .\njul 9 1984\n- - stamped on t . p . cover title : recovery plan , cumberland monkeyface pearly mussel ( quadrula intermedia ) .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1982 .\ncumberland monkeyface pearly mussel recovery plan .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service , atlanta .\nrecovery plan for the cumberland monkeyface pearly mussel , quadrula intermedia ( conrad , 1836 ) / prepared by steven ahlstedt for the united states fish and wildlife service , southeast region .\ncatalog record : recovery plan for the cumberland monkeyface . . . | hathi trust digital library\nthe monkeyface pearlymussel was historically restricted to the headwaters of the tennessee river and probably the upper cumberland river . it is a cumberlandian species\ncumberland monkeyface .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) ( ahlstedt , s . ) . 1984 . recovery plan for the cumberland monkeyface pearly mussel ; quadrula intermedia ( conrad , 1836 ) . u . s . fish and wildlife service , region 4 , atlanta , georgia . 35 pp .\ncumberland monkeyface .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nwas not present in the headwaters of the cumberland river ( parmalee and bogan 1998 ) .\nthe shell of the cumberland monkeyface pearly - mussel ( quadrula intermedia ) is medium in size ( 2 . 8 in [ 7 . 1 cm ] ) , triangular to quadrangular in outline , and marked with numerous tubercles or knobs . the valves are flat and display a deep beak cavity . the outer shell surface is greenish - yellow with green spots , chevrons , zigzags , and sometimes broken green rays . the inner shell surface is white , straw - colored , or salmon .\nand the cumberland plateau . of the 90 species of freshwater mussels found in the tennessee river , 37 are cumberlandian ; of 78 species found in the cumberland river , 27 are considered cumberlandian . together , these mussels represent the largest number of freshwater mussel species found in any of the world ' s rivers .\nsimpson , c . t . 1914 . a descriptive catalogue of the naiades or pearly fresh - water mussels . bryant walker : detroit , michigan . 1540 pp .\nsurveys conducted by the tva in 1988 and 1989 revealed that mussel populations in the duck river ( which flows into the tennessee river ) had stabilized . the status of mussel populations in the elk and powell rivers ( which flow into the tennessee and clinch rivers , respectively ) has not yet been determined . sections of the powell river appear eligible for\nscenic river\nstatus under the national wild and scenic rivers act . such a designation would provide additional protection for the cumberland monkeyface and its habitat .\nahlstedt , steven a . 1986 . activity 1 : mussel distribution surveys . cumberlandian mollusk conservation program . tva .\nfrom the cumberland river are therefore also included with historical records for q . sparsa ( usfws 1984 ) but if these are distinct species , then\nwas also reported there ( usfws 1984 ) . it is likely that ortmann ' s 1918 - 1925 records for the cumberland river system were probably\na list of synonyms for this species can be found on the mussel project web site ( graf and cummings 2011 ) .\na medium - size freshwater mussel or bivalve mollusk with a greenish - yellow to yellowish - green shell that darkens with age .\ncontact jay cordeiro ( jay _ cordeiro @ natureserve . org ) for a complete list of freshwater mussel taxa sorted by flow regime .\nif the columbia dam was completed , most of the cumberland monkeyface ' s habitat in the duck river would have been lost . the dam project was stalled by controversy . whenever the tva has expressed an opinion that the columbia dam should be abandoned , powerful local interests have continued to push for its completion . the dam was never completed . demolition started in june 1999 .\nwatson , s . n . , jr . 1998 . lillard mill mussel survey , 1997 . triannual unionid report , 14 : 7 - 8 .\ndennis , s . d . 1981 .\nmussel fauna of the powell river , tennessee and virginia .\nsterkiana 71 : 1 - 7 .\nto reproduce , males discharge sperm , which are dispersed by stream currents . in the process of feeding , females nearby or downstream take in sperm , which fertilizes eggs stored in their gills . the gills serve as brood pouches ( marsupia ) , where the glochidia hatch and begin to develop . after a time , these glochidia are released into the stream . a few mussels have inner parts that resemble a tiny minnow and can be manipulated to lure host fish . when a fish gets close to the shell , the mussel expels its glochidia . the fish hosts for this particular pearly - mussel are unknown .\na short - term ( or tachytictic ) breeder , this mussel produces glochidia in the spring and releases them by mid - to late summer of the same year .\nunaltered stream conditions , clean water , and an undisturbed stream bottom . the cycle also depends upon the abundance of suitable fish hosts to complete the mussel ' s larval development .\nthis mussel is typically found in shallow , fast - flowing water with a stable , clean substrate of sand or coarse gravel . it requires highly oxygenated water and , therefore , does not survive in still pools .\nstrayer , d . 1983 . the effects of surface geology and stream size on freshwater mussel ( bivalvia , unionidae ) distribution in southeastern michigan , u . s . a . freshwater biology 13 : 253 - 264 .\nisom , b . g . , and p . yokley , jr . 1968 .\nthe mussel fauna of duck river in tennessee , 1965 .\namerican midland naturalist 80 ( 1 ) : 34 - 42 .\nahlstedt , s . a . 1984 . twentieth century changes in the freshwater mussel fauna of the clinch river ( tennessee and virginia ) . m . s . thesis , the university of tennessee , knoxville , tennessee . 102 pp .\nhistorically , this species was widespread in the upper tennessee river system ( tennessee , elk , duck , holston , north and south fork holston , nolichucky , french broad , tellico , clinch , powell rivers ) ( simpson , 1914 ; ortmann , 1918 ) in tennessee , alabama , and virginia , and possibly in the cumberland river system ( cumberland , big south fork cumberland , caney fork ) where its former occurrence remains uncertain because the closely related quadrula tuberosa was also reported there ( usfws , 1984 ) . it is likely that ortmann ' s 1918 - 1925 records for the cumberland river system were probably quadrula tuberosa , here recognized as a synonym of quadrula intermedia ( usfws , 1984 ) . since 1960 , it has been found in large tributaries of the tennessee river including the duck , clinch , elk and powell rivers . since 1970 , it has been found only in the clinch , powell and tellico rivers ( usfws , 1984 ) . it was recently found alive in the duck river in tennessee ( louis levine , pers . comm . 10 / 7 / 1997 ) . it appears to be extirpated from alabama , although reintroduction efforts are underway ( mirarchi et al . , 2004 ) .\n( 1000 - 5000 square km ( about 400 - 2000 square miles ) ) historically , this species was widespread in the upper tennessee river system ( tennessee , elk , duck , holston , north and south fork holston , nolichucky , french broad , tellico , clinch , powell rivers ) ( simpson , 1914 ; ortmann , 1918 ) in tennessee , alabama , and virginia , and possibly in the cumberland river system ( cumberland , big south fork cumberland , caney fork ) where its former occurrence remains uncertain because the closely related quadrula tuberosa was also reported there ( usfws , 1984 ) . it is likely that ortmann ' s 1918 - 1925 records for the cumberland river system were probably quadrula tuberosa , here recognized as a synonym of quadrula intermedia ( usfws , 1984 ) . since 1960 , it has been found in large tributaries of the tennessee river including the duck , clinch , elk and powell rivers . since 1970 , it has been found only in the clinch , powell and tellico rivers ( usfws , 1984 ) . it was recently found alive in the duck river in tennessee ( louis levine , pers . comm . 10 / 7 / 1997 ) . it appears to be extirpated from alabama , although reintroduction efforts are underway ( mirarchi et al . , 2004 ) .\njohnson , m . s . 2011 . a quantitative survey of the freshwater mussel fauna in the powell river of virginia and tennessee , and life history study of two endangered species , quadrula sparsa and quadrula intermedia . m . s . thesis , virginia polytechnic institution . 171 pp .\nas part of a recovery program effort , on june 18 , 1997 , the u . s . fish and wildlife service proposed to reintroduce this mussel ( along with 15 other federally listed mussels and one snail ) to the free - flowing reach of the tennessee river below wilson dam in colbert and lauderdale counties in alabama .\nthis pearlymussel was apparently never abundant , and the reasons for its decline are not fully understood . impoundments , siltation , and pollution are presumed to be the major causes . the tennessee valley authority ( tva ) has constructed 36 dams in the tennessee river basin . these dams and reservoirs have inundated mussel shoals upstream , disrupted stream flow , and altered downstream habitat with sporadic cold - water discharges . siltation caused by strip - mining and poor agricultural practices often covers the substrates of gravel and sand and smothers mussel beds . because mussels must siphon gallons of water each day to feed , the effects of water pollutants such as herbicides and pesticides are intensified .\nglochidia have tiny bean - or spoon - shaped valves that attach to the gill filaments of host fish . glochidia can only progress to the juvenile stage while attached to the fish ' s gills . those that do not fortuitously encounter a host fish do not survive when released by the female mussel . they sink to the bottom and die .\nmost freshwater mussel species display seasonal variations in activity associated with water temperature and reproduction . metabolic rate is , in part , positively correlated with temperature . many ectothermic species have the capacity to adjust their metabolic rates in response to long - term changes in temperature . thus , metabolic rates do not continue to rise as temperatures rise in the summer , and they do not continue to fall during the winter as temperatures decline .\nquadrula intermedia has been synonymized in the past with quadrula tuberosa and quadrula sparsa ( ortmann , 1918 ) . the relationship to quadrula tuberosa , quadrula intermedia , and quadrula sparsa is questionable ; however , both q . tuberosa and q . sparsa have been found historically within the range of q . intermedia and no intergrade specimens have been found ( usfws , 1984 ) . q . tuberosa may be the form of q . intermedia occurring in big rivers , where a more obese form typically occurs in many unionid species . quadrula sparsa is currently recognized by turgeon et al . ( 1998 ) . distributional records became confused when ortmann ( 1914 ; 1918 ) lumped quadrula sparsa and quadrula tuberosa under quadrula intermedia ( bogan and parmalee , 1983 ; parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . historical records for q . tuberosa from the cumberland river are therefore also included with historical records for q . sparsa ( usfws , 1984 ) but if these are distinct species , then q . sparsa was not present in the headwaters of the cumberland river ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) . at muscle shoals , morrison ( 1942 ) described a more inflated form as quadrula biangulata and shells similar to this form have been recovered from archaeological remains in the lower clinch river , tennessee , and identified as quadrula sparsa ( parmalee and bogan , 1986 ) . parmalee and bogan ( 1998 ) placed q . biangulata in the synonymy of quadrula quadrula . whether or not the biangulata form represents a valid species is unclear as it is conchologically different from typical q . intermedia but appears to represent one extreme in range of variation of the species . williams et al . ( 2008 ) tentatively place it in synonymy with q . sparsa .\nbased on the separation distances outlined herein , for freshwater mussels in standing water ( or backwater areas of flowing water such as oxbows and sloughs ) , all standing water bodies with either ( 1 ) greater than 2 km linear distance of unsuitable habitat between ( i . e . lotic connections ) , or ( 2 ) more than 10 km of apparently unoccupied though suitable habitat ( including lentic shoreline , linear distance across water bodies , and lentic water bodies with proper lotic connections ) , are considered separate element occurrences . only the largest standing water bodies ( with 20 km linear shoreline or greater ) may have greater than one element occurrence within each . multiple collection or observation locations in one lake , for example , would only constitute multiple occurrences in the largest lakes , and only then if there was some likelihood that unsurveyed areas between collections did not contain the element . for freshwater mussels in flowing water conditions , occurrences are separated by a distance of more than 2 stream km of unsuitable habitat , or a distance of more than 10 stream km of apparently unoccupied though suitable habitat . standing water between occurrences is considered suitable habitat when calculating separation distance for flowing water mussel species unless dispersal barriers ( see separation barriers ) are in place . several mussel species in north america occur in both standing and flowing water ( see specs notes ) . calculation of separation distance and determination of separation barriers for these taxa should take into account the environment in which the element was collected . juvenile mussels do not follow this pattern and juveniles are typically missed by most standard sampling methods ( hastie and cosgrove , 2002 ; neves and widlak , 1987 ) , therefore juvenile movement is not considered when calculating separation distance .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , p . m . mikkelsen , r . j . neves , c . f . e . roper , g . rosenberg , b . roth , a . scheltema , f . g . thompson , m . vecchione , and j . d . williams . 1998 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks . 2nd edition . american fisheries society special publication 26 , bethesda , maryland : 526 pp .\nthis species has been extirpated from nearly all of its former range . a few extant occurrences exist on the duck , elk , and powell rivers , and these do not appear to have healthy populations with possibly the only viable one left on the powell river ( a small 0 . 8 km linear stretch ) . the species is very close to global extinction and is continually threatened with habitat degradation and pollution .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nlisted endangered throughout its range , except in the free - flowing reach of the tennessee river from the base of wilson dam downstream to the backwaters of pickwick reservoir and the lower 5 rm of all tributaries to this reach in colbert and lauderdale counties , alabama . here it is listed as an experimental , non - essential population . ( federal register , 14 june 2001 ) . the usfws , in cooperation with the state of tennessee and conservation fisheries , inc . , announced a final rule to reintroduce this species into its historical habitat in the free - flowing reach of the french broad river below douglas dam to its confluence with the holston river , knox county tennessee , and in the free - flowing reach of the holston river below cherokee dam to its confluence with the french broad river ( federal register , 12 september 2007 ) . the proposed rule for this action was published on june 13 , 2006 .\nextant populations are scattered and have typically supported low numbers ( bogan and parmalee , 1983 ) . an august 1997 survey of the duck river population in tennessee only found two very old individuals , previously one was found in 1995 , and none in 1993 and 1994 surveys ( watson , 1998 ) . a 210 km survey of the elk river from the alabama border through tennessee in 1980 found this species at a few sites in lincoln co . , tennessee ( only a few specimens total ) ( ahlstedt , 1983 ) .\nbarr et al . ( 1994 ) determined ( based on 1981 survey data ) that viable populations exist in powell river at buchanan ford ( pop . est . 115 ) and at fletcher fork ( pop . est . 90 ) . the only remaining viable population is likely that in the upper powell river but that population is declining ( parmalee and bogan , 1998 ) .\nthreats include impoundment ( for flood control , navigation , hydroelectric power production , and recreation ) including norris dam and columbia dam , siltation ( due to strip mining , coal washing , dredging , farming , logging , and road construction ) , and pollution ( municipal , agricultural , and industrial ) from sawdust ( logging ) , coal mine acids , toxic wastes , gravel dredging , fertilizers , pesticides , chemical spills and discharges ( usfws , 1984 ) .\nhubbs ( 2002 ) reported relict shells only in the elk river ( rm 105 . 4 ) , tennessee . it appears since 1989 , range in the powell river has expanded by 3 . 8 linear km and overall the species occurs in portions of a 100 km reach of the river , however age studies indicate little recruitment outside a small 0 . 8 km linear stretch of the river in recent years ( johnson , 2011 ) .\nthe range of this species was formerly restricted to the upper tennessee river system but was never abundant ( simpson , 1914 ; usfws , 1984 ) . it was reported from the upper elk river , tennessee ( isom et al . , 1973 ) . it is extirpated from the upper clinch , and north and south fork holston rivers ( usfws , 1984 ) and has not been seen in alabama in the tennessee river downstream of muscle shoals since the river was impounded in the early 1900s ( mirarchi , 2004 ; williams et al . , 2008 ) . still , it has declined significantly throughout its range now found in only 2 or 3 rivers ( most not viable ) .\nthis species inhabits shallow riffle and shoal areas of headwater streams and bigger rivers . it prefers clean , fast - flowing water in shoal conditions , and has never been found in the ponded stretches of rivers , nor is it known from small streams ( usfws , 1984 ) . it has been found living in a sand and gravel substrate in 6 inches to 2 feet of water ( bogan and parmalee , 1983 ) .\nglochidial hosts include streamlined chub ( erymystax dissimilis ) and blotched chub ( erymystax insignis ) ( hill , 1986 ; yeager and saylor , 1995 ) .\n1 . determine aspects of life history in regard to spawning period and fish host identification . 2 . determine if culturing is a viable means of conservation . 3 . determine if fish host is in need of similar culturing . 4 . assess potential sites for reintroduction should culturing prove successful .\noccurrences are based on some evidence of historical or current presence of single or multiple specimens , including live specimens or recently dead shells ( i . e . , soft tissue still attached and / or nacre still glossy and iridescent without signs of external weathering or staining ) , at a given location with potentially recurring existence . weathered shells constitute a historic occurrence . evidence is derived from reliable published observation or collection data ; unpublished , though documented ( i . e . government or agency reports , web sites , etc . ) observation or collection data ; or museum specimen information .\nseparation barriers within standing water bodies are based solely on separation distance ( see separation distance - suitable , below ) . separation barriers between standing water bodies and within flowing water systems include lack of lotic connections , natural barriers such as upland habitat , absence of appropriate species specific fish hosts , water depth greater than 10 meters ( cvancara , 1972 ; moyle and bacon , 1969 ) or anthropogenic barriers to water flow such as dams or other impoundments and high waterfalls .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\ncordeiro , j . ( 2011 ) ; shelton , douglas n . ( 1997 )\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nahlstedt , s . a . 1983 . the molluscan fauna of the elk river in tennessee and alabama . american malacological bulletin 1 : 43 - 50 .\nbogan , a . e . and p . w . parmalee . 1983 . tennessee ' s rare wildlife . vol . 2 : the mollusks . tennessee wildlife resources agency and the tennessee conservation department : nashville , tennessee . 123 pp .\nhill , d . m . 1986 . cumberlandian mollusk conservation program , activity 3 : identification of fish hosts . office of natural resources and economic development , tennessee valley authority , knoxville , tennessee . 55 pp .\nhoward , a . d . 1915 . some exceptional cases of breeding among the unionidae . the nautilus 29 : 4 - 11 .\nisom , b . g . , p . yokley , jr . , and c . h . gooch . 1973 . mussels of elk river basin in alabama and tennessee - 1965 - 1967 . american midland naturalist 89 ( 2 ) : 437 - 442 .\nlefevre , g . and w . t . curtis . 1912 . studies on the reproduction and artificial propogation of fresh - water mussels . bulletin of the bureau of fisheries 30 : 102 - 201 .\nmirarchi , r . e . , j . t . garner , m . f . mettee , and p . e . o ' neil . 2004b . alabama wildlife . volume 2 . imperiled aquatic mollusks and fishes . university of alabama press , tuscaloosa , alabama . xii + 255 pp .\nmirarchi , r . e . , et al . 2004a . alabama wildlife . volume one : a checklist of vertebrates and selected invertebrates : aquatic mollusks , fishes , amphibians , reptiles , birds , and mammals . university of alabama press : tuscaloosa , alabama . 209 pp .\nmorrison , j . p . e . 1942 . preliminary report on mollusks found in the shell mounds of the pickwidk landing basin in the tennessee river valley . bureau of american ethnology bulletin , 129 : 339 - 392 .\nmoyle , p . and j . bacon . 1969 . distribution and abundance of molluscs in a fresh water environment . journal of the minnesota academy of science 35 ( 2 / 3 ) : 82 - 85 .\nortmann , a . e . 1914 . studies in naiades ( in partim ) . the nautilus , 28 : 28 - 34 .\nortmann , a . e . 1918c . the nayades ( freshwater mussels ) of the upper tennessee drainage . with notes on synonymy and distribution . proceedings of the american philosophical society 57 : 521 - 626 .\nparmalee , p . w . and a . e . bogan . 1986 . molluscan remains from aboriginal middens at the clinch river breeder reactor plant site , roan county , tennessee . american malacological bulletin 4 ( 1 ) : 25 - 37 .\nparmalee , p . w . and a . e . bogan . 1998 . the freshwater mussels of tennessee . university of tennessee press : knoxville , tennessee . 328 pp .\nstrayer , d . l . 1999a . use of flow refuges by unionid mussels in rivers . journal of the north american benthological society 18 ( 4 ) : 468 - 476 .\nstrayer , d . l . and j . ralley . 1993 . microhabitat use by an assemblage of stream - dwelling unionaceans ( bivalvia ) including two rare species of alasmidonta . journal of the north american benthological society 12 ( 3 ) : 247 - 258 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 2001 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; establishment of nonessential experimental population status for 16 freshwater mussels and 1 freshwater snail ( anthony ' s riversnail ) in the free - flowing reach of the tennessee river below the wilson dam , colbert and lauderdale counties , alabama . federal register , 66 ( 115 ) : 32250 - 32264 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . 2006 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; establishment of nonessential experimental population status for 15 freshwater mussels , 1 freshwater snail , and 5 fishes in the lower french broad river and in the lower holston river , tennessee ; proposed rule . federal register , 71 ( 113 ) : 34195 - 34230 .\nvan der schalie , h . 1938a . the naiad fauna of the huron river in southeastern michigan . miscellaneous publication of the museum of zoology , university of michigan 40 : 7 - 78 .\nwatters , g . t . 1992a . unionids , fishes , and the species - area curve . journal of biogeography 19 : 481 - 490 .\nwilliams , j . d . , a . e . bogan , and j . t garner . 2008 . freshwater mussels of alabama & the mobile basin in georgia , mississippi , & tennessee . university of alabama press , tuscaloosa , alabama . 908 pages .\nwilliams , j . d . , m . l . warren , jr . , k . s . cummings , j . l . harris , and r . j . neves . 1993b . conservation status of freshwater mussels of the united states and canada . fisheries 18 ( 9 ) : 6 - 22 .\nyeager , b . l . and c . f . saylor . 1995 . fish hosts for four species of freshwater mussels ( pelecypoda : unionidae ) in the upper tennessee river drainage . american midland naturalist , 133 ( 1 ) : 1 - 6 .\nbarr , w . c . , s . a . ahlstedt , g . d . hickman , and d . m . hill . 1993 - 1994 . cumberlandian mollusk conservation program . activity 8 : analysis of macrofauna factors . walkerana 7 ( 17 / 18 ) : 159 - 224 .\nhubbs , d . 2002 . monitoring and management of endangered mussels . 2001 - 02 annual report project 7365 , tennessee wildlife resources agency , nashville , tennessee . 3 pp .\nwilliams , j . d . , a . e . bogan , and j . t . garner . 2008 . freshwater mussels of alabama & the mobile basin in georgia , mississippi & tennessee . university of alabama press : tuscaloosa , alabama . 908 pp .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\noccurring in big rivers , where a more obese form typically occurs in many unionid species .\n( bogan and parmalee 1983 , parmalee and bogan 1998 ) . historical records for\n. however , it is thought by some that further justification is needed before this change can be confirmed .\nendangered b1ab ( i , ii , iii , iv ) ver 3 . 1\ndyer , e . , soulsby , a . - m . , whitton , f . , kasthala , g . , mcguinness , s . , milligan , ht , de silva , r . , herdson , r . , thorley , j . , mcmillan , k . , collins , a . , offord , s . , duncan , c . & richman , n .\nhas been assessed as endangered under criterion b1ab ( i , ii , iii , iv ) as it has been extirpated from large parts of its former range . it has an extent of occurrence of between 2 , 000 - 5 , 000 km\n. extant populations exist on the duck , elk , and powell rivers ( equalling three locations ) , but it is questionable whether these have healthy populations ; the population in the powell river is likely to be viable . the species is continually threatened with habitat degradation and pollution .\n( usfws 1984 ) . since 1960 , it has been found in large tributaries of the tennessee river including the duck , clinch , elk and powell rivers . since 1970 , it has been found only in the clinch , powell and tellico rivers ( usfws 1984 ) . it was recently found alive in the duck river in tennessee ( l . levine pers . comm . 1997 ) . it appears to be extirpated from alabama , although reintroduction efforts are underway ( mirarchi\nthis species inhabits shallow riffle and shoal areas of headwater streams and bigger rivers . it prefers clean , fast - flowing water in shoal conditions , and has never been found in the ponded stretches of rivers , nor is it known from small streams ( usfws 1984 ) . it has been found living in a sand and gravel substrate in six inches to two feet of water ( bogan and parmalee 1983 ) .\nthreats include impoundment ( for flood control , navigation , hydroelectric power production , and recreation ) including norris dam and columbia dam , siltation ( due to strip mining , coal washing , dredging , farming , logging , and road construction ) , and pollution ( municipal , agricultural , and industrial ) from sawdust ( logging ) , coal mine acids , toxic wastes , gravel dredging , fertilisers , pesticides , chemical spills and discharges ( usfws 1984 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\njustification : reports from 1984 onwards suggest that populations from the powell river ( 31 miles ) are declining due to decreasing water quality . the duck river subpopulation has too few specimens to maintain a viable population .\nu . s . a . ( tn - specified portions of the french broad and holston rivers ; see 17 . 85 ( b ) ( 1 ) )\nu . s . a . ( al ; the free - flowing reach of the tennessee r . from the base of wilson dam downstream to the backwaters of pickwick reservoir [ about 12 rm ( 19 km ) ] and the lower 5 rm [ 8 km ] of all tributaries to this reach in colbert and lauderdale cos . , see 17 . 85 ( a ) )\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\nmedium - sized , triangular to quadrangular , greenish - yellow shell with numerous markings .\nfemale stores sperm in gills ; glochidia ( larvae ) are released into streams after hatching .\nwhen the juvenile has developed a shell and is large enough to survive on its own , it detaches from the host fish and falls to the stream bottom , beginning a long association with a single stretch of stream . maturing mussels bury themselves in riffles and shoals with only the shell margins and feeding siphons exposed to the water . some mussels live as long as 50 years or more .\nfreshwater mussels feed by siphoning phytoplankton and other plant matter from the water . indigestible particles are expelled from the shell by reverse siphoning . silt in the water can kill mussels by clogging their feeding siphons .\nthere are no known interspecific differences in feeding among freshwater mussels . the glochidia are obligate parasites on the gills or fins of fish . adult mussels are filter - feeders and consume particulate matter in the water column . identifiable stomach contents almost invariably include desmids , di - atoms , algae , protozoa , and zooplankton .\nsome freshwater mussels also show diurnal changes in metabolic rates that indicate a tendency toward nocturnal activity patterns . mussels may move to the surface to feed at night and move deeper into the substrate during the day ; this is one way to avoid predators that hunt by visual contact .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service regional office , division of endangered species 1875 century blvd . , suite 200 atlanta , georgia 30345 telephone : ( 404 ) 679 - 4000 urltoken\nu . s . fish and wildlife service regional office , division of endangered species 300 westgate center dr . hadley , massachusetts 01035 - 9589 telephone : ( 413 ) 253 - 8200 fax : ( 413 ) 253 - 8308 urltoken\nprotest won ' t stop columbia dam ' s demise .\nin the tennessean , 3 june 1999 .\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\nwe don ' t know when or if this item will be back in stock .\ninstantly receive a \u00a310 urltoken gift card if you\u2019re approved for the amazon platinum mastercard with instant spend . representative 21 . 9 % apr ( variable ) .\ncredit offered by newday ltd , over 18s only , subject to status . terms apply .\nenter your mobile number or email address below and we ' ll send you a link to download the free kindle app . then you can start reading kindle books on your smartphone , tablet , or computer - no kindle device required .\nprime members enjoy fast & free shipping , unlimited streaming of movies and tv shows with prime video and many more exclusive benefits .\nafter viewing product detail pages , look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages you are interested in .\nby : u . s . fish and wildlife service . region 4 . published : ( 1989 )\nrecovery plan for the alabama beach mouse ( peromyscus polionotus ammobates ) , perdido key beach mouse ( p . p . trissyllepsis ) , and choctawhatchee beach mouse ( p . p . allophrys ) /\nby : u . s . fish and wildlife service . region 4 . published : ( 1987 )\ngo to public collections to browse other people ' s collections . items from these collections can be copied into your own private collection . create your own private collection by searching or browsing to find items of interest and then adding them to a collection .\nfull - text searching is available within public or private collections , and within individual items .\nuse quotes to search an exact phrase : e . g .\noccult fiction\nuse * or ? to search for alternate forms of a word . use * to stand for several characters , and ? for a single character : e . g . optim * will find optimal , optimize or optimum ; 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{"id": 1882, "summary": [{"text": "alosa kessleri , also referred to as the caspian anadromous shad , the blackback , or the black-spined herring , is a species of clupeid fish .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is one of the several species of shad endemic to the caspian sea basin .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "this is an anadromous species which ascends from the caspian to the volga river up to the volgograd to spawn .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "before the construction of th volgograd dam it migrated up to the kama and oka tributaries .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "few fish enter the terek and ural rivers .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "while the migration upstream is broken , it seems the fish have found new breeding grounds south of the dam , and the population is now abundant .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the species may be threatened by commercial and illegal fishing in the caspian sea and at the mouth of the volga during the migration , though . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "alosa kessleri", "paragraphs": ["some basic population parameters of the black sea shad ( alosa kessleri pontica eichw . )\nsome basic population parameters of the black sea shad ( alosa kessleri pontica eichw . )\nsome basic population parameters of the black sea shad ( alosa kessleri pontica eichw . ) [ 1983 ]\nfreyhof j , kottelat m ( 2008 ) alosa kessleri the iucn red list of threatened species v 2014 . 3\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2015 ) .\nalosa kessleri\nin fishbase . feb 2015 version .\n( of alosa pontica kessleri ( grimm , 1887 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\neuryhaline , anadromous , northward migration in spring ( march / april ) , but sometimes as early as february or even january ) , a little distance from the shore . no feeding by a . kessleri kessleri during migration up rivers whereas a . kessleri volgensis feed en route .\n( of caspialosa kessleri kessleri ( grimm , 1887 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of clupea kessleri grimm , 1887 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of caspialosa kessleri bergi tanassiychuk , 1940 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of clupeonella kessleri ( grimm , 1887 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of caspialosa kessleri ( grimm , 1887 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of caspialosa caspia kessleri ( grimm , 1887 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of caspialosa kessleri volgensis natio imitans berg , 1948 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nspawns in rivers . some enter with ripe gonads and spawn in the lower reaches or even delta ( a . kessleri volgensis ) , others enter unripe and reach as much as 500 km upstream . the young descend in late summer and autumn .\nspawns in rivers . some enter with ripe gonads and spawn in the lower reaches or even delta ( a . kessleri volgensis ) , others enter unripe and reach as much as 500 km upstream . the young descend in late summer and autumn .\nbody fairly elongate , more ` herring - like ' than ` shad - like ' . total gill rakers 59 to 155 ( as in a . caspia ) , thick , coarse and shorter than gill filaments in some , long , thin and equal to or longer than gill filaments in others ( i . e . a . kessleri volgensis ) . teeth well developed in both jaws . other caspian shads have less than 50 gill rakers , except a . caspia which is deep - bodied .\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; anal spines : 0 . body fairly elongate , more ` herring - like ' than ` shad - like ' . total gill rakers 59 to 155 ( as in a . caspia ) , thick , coarse and shorter than gill filaments in some , long , thin and equal to or longer than gill filaments in others ( i . e . a . kessleri volgensis ) . teeth well developed in both jaws . other caspian shads have less than 50 gill rakers , except a . caspia which is deep - bodied .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncaspian sea from where adults ascend volga ( only few fish enter ural and terek ) to spawn . earlier reached upriver up to kama and oka systems . migrations now blocked by volgograd dam . there are indications it has formed landlocked populations in volga reservoirs .\nstill relatively abundant and stable below the volgograd dam where it appears to have found new spawning grounds . juveniles are regularly found in the delta of the volga . in 2000 the estimated number of mature individuals in the caspian was 12 , 000 , 000 ( n . bogutskaya , pers comm . )\nhabitat : at sea , pelagic , in a wide variety of habitats . migrates to middle reaches of large rivers , spawning close to shores in main channel and in almost - still water bodies such as river bays , river eddies and flood plains . biology : anadromous . migrates upriver to spawn at 4 - 5 years . enters rivers with unripe gonads . some spawn 2 - 4 seasons , but most females die after spawning . spawners appear along the coast in march - april , entering rivers april - may when temperatures reach about 9\u00b0c , peaking at 12 - 15\u00b0c . spawning run originally lasted 30 - 50 days . spawning starts in may - august when temperature rises above 15\u00b0c , and lasts as long as temperatures remain at 15 - 23\u00b0c . spawning is most intensive between 4 and 10 p . m . eggs are bathypelagic . spent fish migrate back to the sea to feed . in autumn , they move to the southern part of the sea to overwinter . juveniles migrate to the sea or to estuaries during their first summer , remaining there until maturity . at sea , feeds on a wide variety of zooplankton , crustaceans and small fish .\nthe damming for the volga river ( main spawning river ) in the 1950 ' s and 1960 ' s , blocked most of the spawning grounds . currently the major threat to the species is commercial and illegal fishing in the caspian sea and at the mouth of the volga during the migration . the flow regulation from the volgograd dam ( which is dependant on energy demand ) is also a threat to the species as the species needs a large flow in april to the beginning june for optimal spawning conditions .\nthere is a canal which has been constructed to allow fish to pass the volgograd dam , so some fish occasionally get past .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nlatin , alausa = a fish cited by ausonius and latin , halec = pickle , dealing with the greek word hals = salt ; it is also the old saxon name for shad =\nalli\n; 1591 ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; freshwater ; brackish ; pelagic - oceanic ; anadromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 0 - 85 m ( ref . 188 ) . temperate ; 55\u00b0n - 35\u00b0n , 42\u00b0e - 58\u00b0e ( ref . 188 )\neurope : caspian sea from where adults ascend volga ( only few fish enter ural and terek ) to spawn . earlier reached upriver up to kama and oka system . migration now blocked by volgograd dam . may have formed land - lock populations in volga reservoirs .\nmaturity : l m ? , range 32 - 44 cm max length : 52 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 188 ) ; common length : 40 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 188 ) ; max . published weight : 1 . 2 kg ( ref . 56523 ) ; max . reported age : 8 years ( ref . 56523 )\nwhitehead , p . j . p . , 1985 . fao species catalogue . vol . 7 . clupeoid fishes of the world ( suborder clupeoidei ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of the herrings , sardines , pilchards , sprats , shads , anchovies and wolf - herrings . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 7 / 1 ) : 1 - 303 . rome : fao . ( ref . 188 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00871 ( 0 . 00556 - 0 . 01363 ) , b = 3 . 05 ( 2 . 92 - 3 . 18 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 5 \u00b10 . 7 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tm = 3 - 5 ; fec = 135 , 000 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 64 , 2 sd range = 0 . 42 - 0 . 98 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 45 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 21 , based on : 1 k , 2 tgen , 1 tmax , 2 fec records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 31 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of caspialosa volgensis bergi tanassiychuk , 1940 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of caspialosa volgensis imitans berg , 1948 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n52 . 0 cm sl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 188 ) ) ; max . published weight : 1 , 200 g ( ref . 56523 ) ; max . reported age : 8 years ( ref . 56523 )\nhabitat : at sea , pelagic , in a wide variety of habitats . migrates to middle reaches of large rivers , spawning close to shores in main channel and in almost - still water bodies such as river bays , river eddies and flood plains . biology : anadromous . migrates upriver to spawn at 4 - 5 years . enters rivers with unripe gonads . some spawn 2 - 4 seasons , but most females die after spawning . spawners appear along the coast in march - april , entering rivers april - may when temperatures reach about 9c , peaking at 12 - 15c . spawning run originally lasted 30 - 50 days . spawning starts in may - august when temperature rises above 15c , and lasts as long as temperatures remain at 15 - 23c . spawning is most intensive between 4 and 10 p . m . eggs are bathypelagic . spent fish migrate back to the sea to feed . in autumn , they move to the southern part of the sea to overwinter . juveniles migrate to the sea or to estuaries during their first summer , remaining there until maturity . at sea , feeds on a wide variety of zooplankton , crustaceans and small fish .\npelagic - oceanic ; anadromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; freshwater ; brackish ; marine ; depth range 0 - 85 m ( ref . 188 )\ndepth : 0 - 85m . recorded at 85 meters . habitat : pelagic .\nanadromous . fish that ascend rivers to spawn , as salmon and hilsa do . sub - division of diadromous . migrations should be cyclical and predictable and cover more than 100 km .\nwhile the migration upstream is broken , it seems the fish have found new breeding grounds south of the dam , and the population is now abundant .\nthe species may be threatened by commercial and illegal fishing in the caspian sea and at the mouth of the volga during the migration , though .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nby creating an account , i agree to shutterstock ' s website terms , privacy policy , and licensing terms .\n\u00a9 2003 - 2018 shutterstock , inc . all rights reserved . made in nyc .\nsmall ( s ) has the shortest download time and is suitable for digital use .\nlarge ( l ) is suitable for large prints as well as digital use . it is the original image provided by the contributor .\nyou can redownload your image for free at any time , in any size .\neditorial content , such as news and celebrity images , are not cleared for commercial use . learn more on our support center .\nsign up to browse over million images , video clips , and music tracks . plus , get free weekly content and more .\n( we only support jpg and png images under 5mb and no larger than 4000px on either side at this time . )\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations ."]}
{"id": 1900, "summary": [{"text": "bombus melanopygus , the black-tailed bumble bee , black tail bumble bee or orange-rumped bumblebee , is a species of bumblebee .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is native to western north america from british columbia to california , and as far east as idaho . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "bombus melanopygus", "paragraphs": ["for further information about this species , see 44937809 _ bombus _ melanopygus . pdf .\nbombus edwardsii is a subspecies of bombus melanopygus that lives is most of california and southern oregon . bombus melanopygus lives along the border of northern california up into alaska and across into alberta and down into utah .\na black - tailed bumble bee , bombus bombus melanopygus , foraging on westringia in vallejo . ( photo by kathy keatley garvey )\ntypical specimens of the nominate forms of bombus edwardsii cresson , bombus . melanopygus nylander , and bombus sylvicola kirby ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . high quality figures are available online .\n\u00a9 copyright source / photographer \u00b7 5 bombus melanopygus , back , f , mariposa ca - - - .\n\u00a9 copyright source / photographer \u00b7 5 bombus melanopygus , face , f , mariposa ca - - - .\n\u00a9 copyright source / photographer \u00b7 5 bombus melanopygus , right , f , mariposa ca - - - .\ndescriptions of bombus melanopygus and b . edwardsii taken from franklin ( 1913 ) and stephen ( 1957 ) .\nbumble bee , bombus melanopygus , foraging in manzanita on feb . 12 . ( photo by allan jones )\nthe bumble bee , bombus melanopygus , sips nectar from a lavender blossom . ( photo by kathy keatley garvey )\nplot of the first two canonical scores for bombus melanopygus and bombus edwardsii ( hymenoptera : apidae ) only . r = red b . melanopygus from oregon and california , b = black b . edwardsii from oregon and california , m = b . melanopygus from alberta . high quality figures are available online .\ncheck out the pollen on this black - tailed bumble bee , bombus bombus melanopygus , foraging on westringia in vallejo . ( photo by kathy keatley garvey )\n\u00a9 copyright source / photographer \u00b7 5 bombus melanopygus , f , face , san francisco , ca - - - .\nthis female female bumble bee , bombus melanopygus , packed a large pollen load . ( photo by allan jones . )\nbumble bee , bombus melanopygus , takes flight over a manzanita on feb . 12 . ( photo by allan jones )\nplot of the first two canonical scores for bombus sylvicola ( s ) , the alberta bombus melanopygus ( m ) , and the anomalous alberta b . melanopygus ( \u201cmel x\u201d ) ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . high quality figures are available online .\nfigure 8 . adult black - tailed bumble bee , bombus melanopygus . photograph by bob hammon , colorado state university , urltoken .\nplot of the first two canonical scores for the total data set . s = bombus sylvicola ( hymenoptera : apidae ) , r = red bombus melanopygus from oregon and california , b = black bombus edwardsii from oregon and california , m = b . melanopygus from alberta . high quality figures are available online .\nand then he found another melanopygus . it was a three - in - one day .\na male b . melanopygus sipping nectar from thick - leafed yerba santa ( eriodictyon crassifolium ) .\nmatthew p . kweskin ( 1997 - 03 - 31 ) .\nthe bumblebees of evergreen : bombus melanopygus\n. the evergreen state college .\nit ' s off to another blossom . a male bumble bee , bombus melanopygus , heads for more nectar . ( photo by kathy keatley garvey )\na male three - banded bumble bee , bombus melanopygus , on manzanita on jan . 27 in the uc davis arboretum . ( photo by allan jones )\nbombus melanopygus edwardsii is a vary early bumblebee that works furiously polluting arctostaphylos species , ribes species , ( native gooseberries and currants ) and some cultivated plum varieties .\n- 1993 b . bombus villarricaensis is but a junior synonym of bombus ruderatus . entomologische berichten 53 : 38 .\nlocations where queens of the taxa were collected in 1988 . specimens of bombus edwardsii and bombus melanopygus ( hymenoptera : apidae ) were collected in california and oregon from 13 february - 03 march . specimens of b . sylvicola and b . melanopygus were collected in southern alberta from 16 april - 16 june . high quality figures are available online .\nclose - up of a male three - banded bumble bee , bombus melanopygus , on manzanita on jan . 27 in the uc davis arboretum . ( photo by allan jones )\na honey bee and a bumble bee , bombus melanopygus , head for the same patch of lavender . this image was taken in vacaville , calif . ( photo by kathy keatley garvey )\nowen , r . e , and r . c . plowright . 1980 . abdominal pile color dimorphism in the bumble bee , bombus melanopygus . journal of heredity 71 : 241 - 247 .\nowen , r . e . & plowright , r . c . 1980 . abdominal pile color dimorphism in the bumble bee , bombus melanopygus . journal of heredity 71 : 241 - 247 .\nsuddenly out of no where , there ' s a flash of yellow and black . a black - tailed bumble bee , bombus melanopygus , buzzes by our camera and heads for the westringia .\nin this photo , you can see the bumble bee ' s tongue or proboscis , as it sips nectar from lavender . this is a male bombus melanopygus . ( photo by kathy keatley garvey )\nright forewing of a bombus melanopygus ( hymenoptera : apidae ) queen ( mel\u201308 ) . the distance to point e from each of the other 13 points was measured . high quality figures are available online .\nowen , r . e . , whidden , t . l . & plowright , r . c . 2010 . genetic and morphometric evidence for the conspecific status of the bumble bees , bombus melanopygus and bombus edwardsii . journal of insect science 10 : 1 - 18 .\nowen r . e . , whidden t . l . , plowright r . c . ( 2010 ) . genetic and morphometric evidence for the conspecific status of the bumble bees , bombus melanopygus and bombus edwardsii . j . insect science 10 : 109 . ( full text )\nat 2 : 02 today ( friday , jan . 27 ) naturalist and insect photographer allan jones of davis alerted us :\ntwo bombus melanopygus on manzanita just east of the redwood grove ( uc davis arboretum ) .\na black - tailed bumble bee , bombus melanopygus , peers at the photographer . this one buzzed into robbin thorp ' s office at uc davis on valentine ' s day , feb . 14 . ( photo by kathy keatley garvey )\nowen , r . e . , t . l . whidden , and r . c . plowright . 2010 . genetic and morphometric evidence for the conspecific status of the bumble bees , bombus melanopygus and bombus edwardsii . journal of insect science 10 : 109 . available online : insectscience . org / 10 . 109\n- 1931 . \u00fcber bombus und psithyrus . konowia 10 : 300 - 304 .\nso today , jones won . he headed over to\ntwo beautiful manzanitas\nnear the off - ramps at russell and route 113 , davis , and spotted both the yellow - faced bumble bee , bombus vosnesenskii , and the three - banded bumble bee , bombus melanopygus . he captured these images ( below ) at noon .\nbombus melanopygus is the kind of bee that lingers not . one minute you see it , the next minute , it ' s gone . it knows what it needs , where to get it , and how long to stay to elude those predatory wasps .\n59 pp . , bombus ( 19 species ) and psithyrus insularis only . no images .\nerlandsson , a . 1979 . bombus canariensis p\u00e9rez , 1895 n . stat and bombus maderensis n . sp . from the macaronesian islands . entomologica scandinavica 10 : 187 - 192 .\n- 1912 . zur synonymie der bombus - arten . deutsche entomologische zeitschrift 1911 : 684 .\n193 pp . contains descriptions of 20 species and subspecies of bombus and 3 species of psithyrus in colorado , also a key to males and females to colorado bombus and psithyrus . no images .\n- 1877 . bombus mocs\u00e1ryi n . sp . stettiner entomologische zeitung 38 : 253 - 254 .\nan early bombus sighting ! photographer allan jones of davis grabbed this shot of a yellow - faced bumble bee , bombus vosnesenskii , in manzanitas on feb . 12 . ( photo by allan jones )\n- 1880 . unsere hummel - ( bombus ) arten . der naturhistoriker 2 : 40 - 41 .\n- 1911 . neue variet\u00e4ten von bombus , iii . deutsche entomologische zeitschrift 1911 : 571 - 572 .\n- 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species : bombus franklini . iucn urltoken accessed 2008 ] .\nsmissen , j . van der & rasmont , p . 1999 . bombus semenoviellus skorikov 1910 , eine f\u00fcr westeuropa neue hummelart ( hymenoptera : bombus , cullumanobombus ) . bembix 13 : 21 - 24 .\ninsect photographer and naturalist allan jones of davis discovered and photographed three bombus melanopygus foraging on manzanita on jan . 27 in the uc davis arboretum . in doing so , he won the science - based , friendly competition among a small group of bumble bee enthusiasts in yolo and solano counties searching for the first bumble bee of the year .\nbombus melanopygus , also known as the black - tailed honey bee , is among the bumble bees featured in the book , bumble bees of north america : an identification guide ( princeton university ) , the award - winning work of paul h . williams , robbin w . thorp , leif l . richardson and sheila r . colla .\n- 1909 . neue variet\u00e4ten von bombus ( hym . ) . deutsche entomologische zeitschrift 1909 : 673 - 676 .\n- 2001 . large numbers of bombus soroeensis in northern scotland , 2000 . bwars newsletter spring 2001 : 5 .\n- 1883 . neue russisch - asiatische bombus - arten . trudy russkago \u00e9ntomologicheskago obshchestva 17 : 235 - 245 .\npawlikowski , t . 1994 . the distribution of bombus schrencki mor . in poland . melissa 7 : 11 .\nthe color patterns of typical bombus melanopygus ( left ) , bombus sylvicola ( right ) , and the intermediate form ( middle ) as found in the kananaskis river valley in alberta . in the illustration , black = black pile on the bee , ferruginous ( red ) = crosshatching , yellow = vertical hatching , and admixture of yellow and black ( which gives a \u201cdusky\u201d appearance ) = stippling . clear = bare . high quality figures are available online .\nplowright , c . m . s . , plowright , r . c . & williams , p . h . 1997 . replacement of bombus muscorum by bombus pascuorum in northern britain ? canadian entomologist 129 : 985 - 990 .\npamilo , p . , varvio - aho , s . - l . & pekkarinen , a . 1984 . genetic variation in bumblebees ( bombus , psithyrus ) and putative sibling species of bombus lucorum . hereditas 101 : 245 - 251 .\n- 1980 . the taxonomic status of bombus franklini ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . canadian entomologist 112 : 475 - 479 .\nthe classification count generated by the discriminant analysis using just the nominate melanopygus and edwardsii . this shows how accurately the discriminant functions classify the observations , and if classification is perfect then there will be zeros on the off - diagonals ( hintze 1996 ) .\nother considerations : mcfrederick and lebuhn ( 2005 ) found abundance of b . melanopygus to be unaffected by that of the superabundant b . vosnesenskii . they suggest this could be because b . melanopygus can nest either below ground ( often old rodent nests ) or above ground , e . g . in old bird nests and so is less affected by competition from that species than are species that nest only below ground . however , in the san francisco area they found this species only in study sites with ceanothus thrysiflorus .\n- 1903 . neue bombus - arten aus der neotropischen region . zeitschrift f\u00fcr systematische hymenopterologie und dipterologie 3 : 253 - 255 .\n- 1883 . sur quelques esp\u00e8ces russes appartenant au genre bombus . byulleten ' moskovskogo obshchestva ispytatelei prirody 58 : 168 - 226 .\nrasmont , p . , terzo , m . , aytekin , a . m . , hines , h . , urbanova , k . , cahlikova , l . , & valterova , i . 2005 . cephalic secretions of the bumblebee subgenus sibiricobombus vogt suggest bombus niveatus kriechbaumer and bombus vorticosus gerstaecker are conspecific ( hymenoptera , apidae , bombus ) . apidologie 36 : 571 - 584 .\n- 1969 . the identity of bombus vandykei ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . pan - pacific entomologist 45 : 87 - 96 .\n- 1982 . hymenoptera : apidae - bombus . in : insects of xizang . volume ii , pp . 427 - 447 .\nthe black - tailed bumble bee , native to north america , is one of only 250 species worldwide in the genus bombus .\nscholl , a . , obrecht , e . & owen , r . e . 1990 . the genetic relationship between bombus moderatus cresson and the bombus lucorum auct . species complex ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . canadian journal of zoology 68 : 2264 - 2268 .\nh\u00f6ppner , h . 1897 . ueber die bei freissenb\u00fcttel vorkommenden farbenvariet\u00e4ten des bombus soroensis f . entomologisches nachrichtenblatt 23 : 329 - 331 .\nmacdonald , m . 1999 . a contribution to the bombus magnus / lucorum debate . bwars newsletter 1999 ( 2 ) : 9 .\n- 1884 . r\u00e9vision des armures copulatrices des m\u00e2les du genre bombus . byulletin ' moskovskogo obshchestva ispytatelei prirody 59 : 51 - 92 .\nschremmer , f . 1972 . beobachtungen zum paarungsverhalten der m\u00e4nnchen von bombus confusus schenck . zeitschrift f\u00fcr tierpsychologie 31 : 503 - 512 .\n- 1985 . apidae - bombus . in : [ organisms of the tumuefeng region of tienshan ] , pp . 160 - 165 .\nwilliams , p . h . & hernandez , l . m . 2000 . distinguishing females of the bumble bees bombus ruderatus ( f . ) from bombus hortorum ( l . ) in britain : a preliminary application of quantitative techniques . london . [ article pdf ]\n- 1882 . bemerkungen zur gattung bombus latr . , ii . bericht des naturwissenschaftlich - medizinischen vereins in innsbruck 12 : 14 - 31 .\nsmith , f . 1844 . notes on the british humble - bees ( bombus of authors ) . zoologist 2 : 541 - 550 .\n- 1987 . bombus . in f . - s . huang : forest insects of yunnan , pp . 1378 - 1381 . yunnan .\n- 1988 . habitat use by bumble bees ( bombus spp . ) . ecological entomology 13 : 223 - 237 . [ article pdf ]\n- 2000 . are bombus lucorum and magnus separate species ? bwars newsletter spring 2000 ( 1 ) : 15 - 17 . [ article ]\ngene frequency cline in bombus melanopygus ( hymenoptera : apidae ) in oregon and california . pie diagrams give the relative frequency of the r ( red ) allele ( clear portions ) and the r ( black ) allele ( shaded portions ) . the sample size ( n ) at each location represents the combined total of queen bees collected in 1978 , 1979 , 1980 , 1981 , and 1988 . high quality figures are available online .\nevans , w . 1901 . the pale variety of bombus smithianus , white , in scotland . entomologist ' s monthly magazine 37 : 47 .\n- 1881 . die russischen bombus - arten in der sammlung der kaiserlichen academie der wissenschaften . izv\u00eastiya imperatorskoi akademii nauk 27 : 213 - 265 .\nscholl , a . , thorp , r . w . & obrecht , e . 1992 . the genetic relationship between bombus franklini ( frison ) and other taxa of the subgenus bombus s . str . ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . pan - pacific entomologist 68 : 46 - 51 .\n- 1992 a . bombus villarricaensis , a new garden bumblebee from southern chile ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . entomologische berichten 52 : 133 - 136 .\n- 1992 b . bombus xelajuensis - a new species of bumblebee from guatemala ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . entomologische berichten 52 : 162 - 164 .\n- 1916 . \u00fcber einige neue hummelformen ( bombus ) , besonders aus asien ( hym . ) . deutsche entomologische zeitschrift 1916 : 107 - 110 .\nhaas , a . 1976 . paarungsverhalten und nestbau der alpinen hummelart bombus mendax ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . entomologica germanica 3 : 248 - 259 .\nquilis - p\u00e9rez , m . 1927 . los apidos de espa\u00f1a g\u00e9nero bombus latr . anales del instituto nacionale , valencia 15 : 1 - 119 .\n- 1970 . is bombus inexspectatus ( tkalcu ) a workerless obligate parasite ? ( hym . apidae ) . insectes sociaux 17 : 95 - 112 .\n- 1993 a . a note on bombus rohweri with a description of the queen ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . entomologische berichten 53 : 32 - 34 .\n- 1984 . les bourdons du genre bombus latreille sensu stricto en europe occidentale et centrale ( hymenoptera , apidae ) . spixiana 7 : 135 - 160 .\n- 1995 . bombus menchuae - a second species of the subgenus dasybombus from highland guatemala ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . entomologische berichten 55 : 47 - 50 .\nkruseman , g . 1952 . subgeneric division of the genus bombus latr . transactions of the 9th international congress of entomology , amsterdam 1 : 101 - 103 .\nlabougle , j . m . 1990 . bombus of m\u00e9xico and central america ( hymenoptera , apidae ) . kansas university science bulletin 54 : 35 - 73 .\n- 2000 . observations on bombus soroeensis ( fabr . ) ( hym . , apidae ) in northern scotland . the scottish naturalist 112 : 45 - 53 .\nmortimer , c . h . 1922 . a new british bombus , nigrescens ( p\u00e9rez ) , from sussex . entomologist ' s monthly magazine 58 : 16 .\n- 1931 a . some notes on the humble - bees allied to bombus alpinus , l . troms\u00f8 museums \u00e5rshefter 50 ( 1927 ) : 1 - 32 .\n- 1986 . environmental change and the distributions of british bumble bees ( bombus latr . ) . bee world 67 : 50 - 61 . [ article pdf ]\nyalden , p . e . 1983 . foraging population size and distribution of bombus monticola in the peak district , england . naturalist 108 : 139 - 147 .\nyasumatsu , k . 1934 . eine neue , bombus ignitus \u00e4hnliche schmarotzerhummel aus korea ( hymenoptera , bombid\u00e6 ) . annotationes zoologicae japonensis 14 : 399 - 403 .\ncarvell , c . 2002 . habitat use and conservation of bumblebees ( bombus spp . ) under different grassland management regimes . biological conservation 103 : 33 - 49 .\npekkarinen , a . & kaarnama , e . 1994 . bombus terrestris auct . new to finland ( hymenoptera , apidae ) . sahlbergia 1 : 11 - 13 .\npendlebury , h . m . 1923 . four new species of bombus from the malay peninsula . journal of the federated malay states museums 11 : 64 - 67 .\npeters , g . 1972 . ursachen f\u00fcr den r\u00fcckgang der seltenen heimishchen hummelarten ( hym . , bombus et psithyrus ) . entomologische berichte 1972 : 85 - 90 .\n- 1935 . bombus muscorum ( linnaeus ) and b . smithianus white ( hym . ) . transactions of the society for british entomology 2 : 73 - 85 .\nstarr , c . k . 1989 . bombus folsomi and the origin of philippine bumble bees ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . systematic entomology 14 : 411 - 415 .\ncresson , e . t . 1863 . list of the north american species of bombus and apathus . proceedings of the entomological society of philadelphia 2 : 83 - 116 .\n- 1982 . morphology and specific status of bombus lapponicus ( fabricius ) and b . monticola smith ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . entomologica scandinavica 13 : 41 - 46 .\nvollenhoven , s . c . snellen van 1873 . description d ' un bombus nouveau de l ' \u00eesle de sumatra . tijdschrift voor entomologie 16 : 229 - 230 .\n- 1971 . the author and date of certain subgeneric names in bombus latreille ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . journal of entomology ( b ) 40 : 27 - 29 .\nlecocq , t . , lhomme , p . , michez , d . , dellicour , s . , valterrova , i . & rasmont , p . 2011 . molecular and chemical characters to evaluate species status of two cuckoo bumblebees : bombus barbutellus and bombus maxillosus ( hymenoptera , apidae , bombini ) . systematic entomology 36 : 453 - 469 .\n- 1877 b . essai d ' une nouvelle m\u00e9thode pour faciliter la d\u00e9termination des esp\u00e8ces appartenant au genre bombus . byulleten ' moskovskogo obshchestva ispytatelei prirody 52 : 169 - 219 .\nscholl , a . & obrecht , e . 1983 . enzymelektrophoretische untersuchungen zur artabgrenzung im bombus lucorum - komplex ( apidae , bombini ) . apidologie 14 : 65 - 78 .\nsvensson , b . g . 1973 . morphological studies on the two scandinavian subspecies of bombus lapponicus fabricius ( hym . apidae ) . entomologisk tidskrift 94 : 140 - 147 .\ncarvell , c . 2002 . habitat use and conservation of bumblebees ( bombus spp . ) under different grasslands management regimes . biological conservation 103 ( 1 ) : 33 - 49 .\n- 1988 . sobre bombus ( megabombus ) reinigiellus ( rasmont , 1983 ) ( hym . , apidae ) . bolet\u00edn de la asociaci\u00f3n espa\u00f1ola de entomolog\u00eda 12 : 281 - 289 .\nm\u00fcller , a . 2006 . a scientific note on bombus inexspectatus ( tkalcu , 1963 ) : evidence for a social parasitic mode of life . apidologie 37 : 1 - 2 .\npekkarinen , a . 1979 . morphometric , colour and enzyme variation in bumblebees ( hymenoptera , apidae , bombus ) in fennoscandia and denmark . acta zoologica fennica 158 : 60 pp .\npekkarinen , a . & ter\u00e4s , i . 1993 . zoogeography of bombus and psithyrus in northwestern europe ( hymenoptera , apidae ) . annales zoologici fennici 30 : 187 - 208 .\n- 1970 . the type locality of bombus franklini and notes on putative arizona records of other bombini ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . pan - pacific entomologist 46 : 177 - 180 .\narretz , p . v . & macfarlane , r . p . 1982 . the introduction of bombus ruderatus to chile for red clover pollination . bee world 67 : 15 - 22 .\ndalla torre , k . w . von 1879 . bermerkungen zur gattung bombus latr . i . bericht der naturwissenschaftlich - medizinischen vereins in innsbruck 8 ( 1877 ) : 3 - 21 .\nfaester , k . & hammer , k . 1970 . systematik der mittel - und nordeurop\u00e4ischen bombus und psithyrus ( hym . , apidae ) . entomologiske meddelelser 38 : 257 - 302 .\n- 1935 . on the variation of bombus lapidarius l . and its cuckoo , psithyrus rupestris fabr . , with notes on mimetic similarity . journal of genetics 30 : 321 - 356 .\n- 1968 . the subgeneric divisions of the genus bombus latreille ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) ( entomology ) 22 : 209 - 276 .\n- 1988 . hymenoptera : apidae - genus bombus . in f . - s . huang : insects of mt . namjagbarwa region of xizang , pp . 553 - 557 . beijing .\n- 1995 . phylogenetic relationships among bumble bees ( bombus latr . ) : a reappraisal of morphological evidence . systematic entomology 19 ( 1994 ) : 327 - 344 . [ article pdf ]\namiet , f . 1996 . hymenoptera apidae , 1 . teil . allgemeiner teil , gattungsschl\u00fcssel , die gattungen apis , bombus und psithyrus . insecta helvetica ( fauna ) 12 : 98 pp .\nasperen de boer , j . r . j . van 1990 . bombus krusemani - a new bumblebee species from guatemala ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . entomologische berichten 50 : 1 - 3 .\nbertsch , a . , habr\u00e9 de angelis , m . & przemeck , g . k . h . 2010b . a phylogenetic framework for the north american bumblebee species of the subgenus bombus sensu stricto ( bombus affinis , b . franklini , b . moderatus , b . occidentalis & b . terricola ) based on mitochondrial dna markers . beitr\u00e4ge zur entomologie 60 , 229 - 242 .\nmenke , a . s . & carpenter , j . 1984 . nuclearbombus , new subgenus ( or how to eliminate bumblebee subgenera and learn to love bombus ) . sphecos 9 : 28 .\nmeunier , f . 1890 . description d ' une esp\u00e8ce nouvelle ou peu connue de bombus d ' ecuador . jornal de sciencias mathematicas , physicas e naturaes ( 2 ) 2 : 66 .\nskorikov , a . s . 1910 a . [ bombus mendax gerst . and its variations ( hymenoptera , bombidae ) . ] russkoe \u00e9ntomologicheskoe obozr\u00eanie 9 ( 1909 ) : 328 - 330 .\nwilliams , p . h . 1982 . the distribution and decline of british bumble bees ( bombus latr . ) . journal of apicultural research 21 : 236 - 245 . [ article pdf ]\nhobbs , g . a . 1967 . ecology of species of bombus latr . ( hymenoptera : apidae ) in southern alberta . vi . subgenus pyrobombus . canadian entomologist 99 : 1271 - 1292 .\nl\u00f8ken , a . 1961 . bombus consobrinus dahlb . , an oligolectic bumble bee ( hymenoptera , apidae ) . transactions of the xi international congress of entomology , vienna 1 : 598 - 603 .\nhobbs , g . a . 1965 . ecology of species of bombus latr . ( hymenoptera : apidae ) in southern alberta . ii . subgenus bombias robt . canadian entomologist 97 : 120 - 128 .\nhobbs , g . a . 1966 . ecology of species of bombus latr . ( hymenoptera : apidae ) in southern alberta . iv . subgenus fervidobombus skorikov . canadian entomologist 98 : 33 - 39 .\n- 1996 . opinion 1828 . apis terrestris linnaeus , 1758 , a . muscorum linnaeus , 1758 and a . lucorum linnaeus , 1761 ( currently bombus terrestris , b . muscorum and b . lucorum ) and bombus humilis illiger , 1806 ( insecta , hymenoptera ) : specific names conserved , and neotypes designated for b . terrestris and b . muscorum . bulletin of zoological nomenclature 53 : 64 - 65 .\nmoure , j . s . & sakagami , s . f . 1962 . as mamangabas sociais do brasil ( bombus latreille ) ( hymenoptera , apoidea ) . studia entomologica 5 : 65 - 194 .\n- 1997 . bumblebees fauna of turkey with distribution maps ( hymenoptera : apidae : bombinae ) part 1 : alpigenobombus skorikov , bombias robertson and bombus latreille . t\u00fcrkiye entomoloji dergisi 21 : 37 - 56 .\n- 1970 . bastardierungszonen und mischpopulationen bei hummeln ( bombus ) und schmarotzerhummeln ( psithyrus ) . ( hymenopt . , apidae ) . mitteilungen der m\u00fcnchener entomologischen gesellschaft 59 ( 1969 ) : 1 - 89 .\n- 1972 . \u00f6kologische studien an mittel - und s\u00fcdosteurop\u00e4ischen hummeln ( bombus latr . , 1802 ; hym . , apidae ) . mitteilungen der m\u00fcnchner entomologischen gesellschaft 60 ( 1970 ) : 1 - 56 .\nrichards , k . w . 1973 . biology of bombus polaris curtis and b . hyperboreus sch\u00f6nherr at lake hazen , northwest territories ( hymenoptera : bombini ) . quaestiones entomologicae 9 : 115 - 157 .\nsladen , f . w . l . 1912 . the humble - bee , its life history and how to domesticate it , with descriptions of all the british species of bombus and psithyrus . london .\nvarela , g . 1992 . nota preliminar sobre la fenologia del nido de bombus bellicosus smith , 1879 ( hymenoptera , apoidea ) . bol soc zool uruguay ( 2 ) 7 : 53 - 56 .\nlabougle , j . m . & ayala , r . 1985 . a new subgenus and species of bombus ( hymenoptera : apidae ) from guerrero , mexico . folia entomol\u00f3gica mexicana 66 : 47 - 55 .\nsakagami , s . f . , akahira , y . & zucchi , r . 1967 . nest architecture and brood development in a neotropical bumblebee , bombus atratus . insectes sociaux 14 : 389 - 414 .\nschmiedeknecht , h . l . o . 1878 . monographie der in th\u00fcringen vorkommenden arten der hymenopteren - gattung bombus mit einer allgemeinen einleitung in dieses genus . jenaische zeitschrift f\u00fcr naturwissenschaft 12 : 303 - 430 .\ntwo things about b . melanopygus . they , of all the bbees in the pnw , are the most likely to use an above - ground nest box , including abandoned filled birdhouses . they are also the earliest of all the bbees around here , overwintering queens emerging to forage even on warm january and february days . by now these bbees are almost finished with their nesting cycle ; their cycle seems closely tied to rhododendron flowering .\ngoulson , d . & williams , p . 2001 . bombus hypnorum ( hymenoptera : apidae ) , a new british bumblebee ? british journal of entomology and natural history 14 : 129 - 131 . [ article ]\nl\u00f8ken , a . , pekkarinen , a . & rasmont , p . 1994 . case 2638 . apis terrestris linnaeus , 1758 , a . muscorum linnaeus , 1758 and a . lucorum linnaeus , 1761 ( currently bombus terrestris , b . muscorum and b . lucorum ) and bombus humilis illiger , 1806 ( insecta , hymenoptera ) : proposed conservation of usage of the specific names . bulletin of zoological nomenclature 51 : 232 - 236 .\n- 1971 . a monograph of the western hemisphere bumblebees ( hymenoptera : apidae ; bombinae ) . i . the genera bombus and megabombus subgenus bombias . memoirs of the entomological society of canada 82 : 1 - 80 .\nplowright , r . c . & stephen , w . p . 1973 . a numerical taxonomic analysis of the evolutionary relationships of bombus and psithyrus ( apidae : hymenoptera ) . canadian entomologist 105 : 733 - 743 .\n- 1929 c . a revision of the humble - bees allied to bombus orientalis , smith , with the description of a new subgenus . annals and magazine of natural history ( 10 ) 3 : 378 - 386 .\nwilliams , p . h . & cameron , s . a . 1993 . bumble bee ( bombus latr . ) records from the valley of flowers , uttar pradesh . bulletin of entomology 31 : 125 - 127 .\nkoch , j . b . and j . p . strange . 2012 . the status of bombus occidentalis and b . moderatus in alaska with special focus on nosema bombi incidence . northwest science 86 : 212 - 220 .\n- 1934 . entomologische ergebnisse der deutsch - russischen alai - pamir - expedition , 1928 ( iii ) . 7 . hymenoptera viii ( gen . bombus fabr . ) . nachtrag . deutsche entomologische zeitschrift 1933 : 163 - 174 .\nstange la , fasulo tr . ( 1998 ) . bombus spp . ( insecta : hymenoptera : apidae ) . university of florida , ifas , entomology and nematology department , featured creatures , eeny - 50 . ( 24 september 2014 )\ncolla , s . r . & packer , l . 2008 . evidence for decline in eastern north american bumblebees ( hymenoptera : apidae ) , with special focus on bombus affinis cresson . biodiversity and conservation 17 : 1379 - 1391 .\nkoulianos , s . & schmid - hempel , p . 2000 . phylogenetic relationships among bumble bees ( bombus , latreille ) inferred from mitochondrial cytochrome b and cytochrome oxidase i sequences . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 14 : 335 - 341 .\n- 1939 b . bombus ( agrobombus ) bureschi sp . nov . ( hymenopt . , apidae ) , eine neue hummelart von der balkanhalbinsel und einige weitere interessante neue hummelformen . arbeiten der bulgarischen naturforschenden gesellschaft 18 : 1 - 10 .\nmcfrederick , q . s . , and g . lebuhn . 2006 . are urban parks refuges for bumble bees bombus spp . ( hymenoptera : apidae ) ? biological conservation 129 ( 3 ) : 372 - 382 [ includes corrigendum ] .\ncameron , s . a . , hines , h . m . & williams , p . h . 2007 . a comprehensive phylogeny of the bumble bees ( bombus ) . biological journal of the linnean society 91 : 161 - 188 .\npekkarinen , a . , ter\u00e4s , i . , viramo , j . & paatela , j . 1981 . distribution of bumblebees ( hymenoptera , apidae : bombus and psithyrus ) in eastern fennoscandia . notulae entomologicae 61 : 71 - 89 .\nmcfrederick and lebuhn ( 2005 ) found b . melanopygus edwardsii to be a very distant second to b . vosnesenskii in abundance among bumblebees in urban parks and gardens in san francisco at 2 . 7 % of all bumblebees observed . rao and stephen ( 2010 ) report it as a much more respectable third behind b . vosnesenskii and b . griseocollis at 12 . 55 % of observations on cultivated blueberry flowers ( but zero on red clover ) in the heavily agricultural willamette valley of oregon .\ncolla , s . , and l . packer . 2008 . evidence for decline in eastern north american bumblebees ( hymenoptera : apidae ) , with special reference to bombus affinis cresson . biodiversity and conservation 17 ( 6 ) : 1379 - 1391 .\nevans , e . , r . thorp , s . jepson and s . hoffman - black . 2008 . status review of three formerly common species of bumble bees in the subgenus bombus . the xerces society . 63 pp . accessed at urltoken\nfigure 7 . adult yellow - faced bumble bee , bombus vosnesenskii . photograph by kevin cole from pacific coast , usa ( en : user : kevinlcole ) - 208 - 12749 . licensed under creative commons attribution 2 . 0 via wikimedia commons .\n- 1892 . contribuzioni imenotterologiche . sopra alcune specie nuove o poco conosciute di imenotteri antofili ( generi ctenoplectra , xylocopa , centris , psithyrus , trigona , e bombus ) . bolletino della societ\u00e0 entomologica italiana 23 ( 1891 ) : 102 - 119 .\nsubgenus : pyrobombus . currently bombus\nedwardsii\nis included in this species and it has been treated as a subspecies or a mere color form which would have no taxonomic standing . the analyses by owen et al . ( 2010 ) support conspecificity .\npamilo , p . , pekkarinen , a . & varvio , s . - l . 1987 . clustering of bumblebee subgenera based on interspecific genetic relationships ( hymenoptera , apidae : bombus and psithyrus ) . annales zoologici fennici 24 : 19 - 27 .\npedersen , b . v . 1996 . a phylogenetic analysis of cuckoo bumblebees ( psithyrus , lepeletier ) and bumblebees ( bombus , latreille ) inferred from sequences of the mitochondrial gene cytochrome oxidase i . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 5 : 289 - 297 .\nprys - jones , o . e . , \u00f3lafsson , e . & kristj\u00e1nsson , k . 1981 . the icelandic bumble bee fauna ( bombus latr . , apidae ) and its distributional ecology . journal of apicultural research 20 : 189 - 197 .\nsheffield , c . s . & williams , p . h . 2011 . discovery of bombus distinguendus ( hymenoptera : apidae ) in continental north america . journal of the entomological society of ontario , 142 : 53 - 56 . [ article pdf ]\ncomments : subgenus : pyrobombus currently bombus\nedwardsii\nis included in this species and it has been treated as a subspecies or a mere color form which would have no taxonomic standing . the analyses by owen et al . ( 2010 ) support conspecificity .\nelse , g . r . 2000 . observations on bombus soroeensis ( f . ) b . humilis illiger and b . muscorum ( l . ) on salisbury plain , wiltshire , in 1998 - 2000 . bwars newsletter autumn 2000 : 5 - 6 .\nyarrow , i . h . h . 1955 . bombus ( alpinobombus ) hyperboreus clydensis , n . ssp . , from baffin island , north - west territories , canada . annals and magazine of natural history ( 12 ) 8 : 151 - 152 .\nbaker , d . b . 1996 a . on a collection of bombus and psithyrus principally from sutherland , with notes on the nomenclature or status of three species ( hymenoptera , apoidea ) . british journal of entomology and natural history 9 : 7 - 19 .\nbergstr\u00f6m , g . & svensson , b . g . 1973 . studies on natural odoriferous compounds , viii . characteristic marking secretions of the forms lapponicus and scandinavicus of bombus lapponicus fabr . ( hymenoptera , apidae ) . chemica scripta 4 : 231 - 238 .\nbertsch , a . , schweer , h . & titze , a . 2004 . discrimination of the bumblebee species bombus lucorum , b . cryptarum and b . magnus by morphological characters and male labial gland secretions . beitr\u00e4ge zur entomologie 54 : 365 - 386 .\nhines , h . m . & williams , p . h . 2012 . mimetic colour pattern evolution in the highly polymorphic bombus trifasciatus ( hymenoptera : apidae ) species complex and its comimics . zoological journal of the linnean society , 166 : 805 - 826 .\ninoue , m . n . , yokoyama , j . & washitani , i . 2008 . displacement of japanese native bumblebees by the recently introduced bombus terrestris ( l . ) ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . journal of insect conservation 12 : 135 - 146 .\ngrixti , j . c . , l . t . wong , s . a . cameron , and c . favret . 2009 . decline of bumble bees ( bombus ) in the north american midwest . biological conservation 142 ( 1 ) : 75 - 84 .\nlaverty , t . m . , plowright , r . c . & williams , p . h . 1984 . digressobombus , a new subgenus with a description of the male of bombus digressus ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . canadian entomologist 116 : 1051 - 1056 .\nsakagami , s . f . & zucchi , r . 1965 . winterverhalten einer neotropischen hummel , bombus atratus , innerhalb des beobachtungskastens . ein beitrag zur biologie der hummeln . journal of the faculty of science , hokkaido university ( zoology ) 15 : 712 - 762 .\nwilliams , p . h . , araujo , m . b . , & rasmont , p . 2007 . can vulnerability among british bumblebee ( bombus ) species be explained by niche position and breadth ? biological conservation 138 : 493 - 505 . 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( hymenoptera : apidae ) naturalized in southern hokkaido , japan . global environment research 8 : 51 - 66 .\nbertsch , a . , schweer , h . , titze , a . & tanaka , h . 2005 . male labial gland secretions and mitochondrial dna markers support species status of bombus cryptarum and b . magnus ( hymenoptera , apidae ) . insectes sociaux 52 , 45 - 54 .\nde meulemeester , t . , aytekin , a . m . , cameron , s . & rasmont , p . 2010 . nest architecture and species status of the bumble bee bombus ( mendacibombus ) shaposhnikovi ( hymenoptera : apidae : bombini ) . apidologie 42 : 301 - 306 .\nlectotype for bombus edwardsii cresson , 1878 catalog number : usnm collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of entomology sex / stage : female ; preparation : pinned collector ( s ) : lorquin locality : col . . date : not recorded , california , united states\npamilo , p . , teng\u00f6 , j . , rasmont , p . , pirhonen , k . , pekkarinen , a . & kaarnama , e . 1997 . pheromonal and enzyme genetic characteristics of the bombus lucorum species complex in northern europe . entomologica fennica 7 : 187 - 194 .\nestoup , a . , solignac , m . , cornuet , j . - m . , goudet , j . & scholl , a . 1996 . genetic differentiation of continental and island populations of bombus terrestris ( hymenoptera : apidae ) in europe . molecular ecology 5 : 19 - 31 .\nrasmont , p . , copp \u00e9 e , a . , michez , d . & de meulemeester , t . 2008 . an overview of the bombus terrestris ( l . 1758 ) subspecies ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . annales de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france 44 , 243 - 250 .\nwilliams , p . h . , cameron , s . a . , hines , h . m . , cederberg , b . & rasmont , p . 2008 . a simplified subgeneric classification of the bumblebees ( genus bombus ) . apidologie 39 : 46 - 74 . [ article pdf ]\nhines , h . m . , cameron , s . a . & williams , p . h . 2006 . molecular phylogeny of the bumble bee subgenus pyrobombus ( hymenoptera : apidae : bombus ) with insights into gene utility for lower - level analysis . invertebrate systematics 20 : 289 - 303 .\naytekin , a . m . , terzo , m . , rasmont , p . , & cagatay , n . 2007 . landmark based geometric morphometric analysis of wing shape in sibiricobombus vogt ( hymenoptera : apidae : bombus latreille ) . annales de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france 43 : 95 - 102 .\nscholl , a . , obrecht , e . & zimmermann , m . 1992 . evidence of hybridization of bombus argillaceus and b . ruderatus ( hymenoptera : apidae ) in a zone of contact in france : enzyme electrophoretic data . proceedings of the xix international congress of entomology , beijing p . 53 .\n- 1968 . kirby ' s species of british bees : designation of holotypes and selection of lectotypes . part 1 . introduction and the species of apis linnaeus now included in the genera bombus latreille and psithyrus lepeletier . proceedings of the royal entomological society of london ( b ) 37 : 9 - 15 .\nsuper , p . e . , and a . t . moyer . 2003b . bombus affinis cresson , bumble bee - biodiversity of great smoky mountains national park . in : nps , dlia . 2007 . discover life in america , great smoky mountains national park , gatlinburg , tennessee . online . available : urltoken\nsantos - junior , j . e . , santos , f . r . & silveira , f . a . 2015 . hitting an unintended target : phylogeography of bombus brasiliensis lepeletier , 1836 and the first new brazilian bumblebee species in a century ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . plos one , 10 : 21 .\nkawakita , a . , sota , t . , ascher , j . , ito , m . , tanaka , h . & kato , m . 2003 . evolution and phylogenetic utility of alignment gaps within intron sequences of three nuclear genes in bumble bees ( bombus ) . molecular biology and evolution 20 : 87 - 92 .\nrasmont , p . , scholl , a . , de jonghe , r . , obrecht , e . & adamski , a . 1986 . identit\u00e9 et variabilit\u00e9 des m\u00e2les de bourdons du genre bombus latreille sensu stricto en europe occidentale et centrale ( hymenoptera , apidae , bombinae ) . revue suisse zoologique 93 , 661 - 682 .\nscholl , a . , thorp , r . w . , bishop , j . a . & obrecht , e . 1995 . the taxonomic status of bombus alboanalis franklin and its relationship with other taxa of the subgenus pyrobombus from north america and europe ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . pan - pacific entomologist 71 : 113 - 120 .\nscholl , a . , thorp , r . w . , owen , r . e . , & obrecht , e . 1992 . specific distinctness of bombus nevadensis ( cresson ) and b . auricomus ( robertson ) ( hymenoptera : apidae ) - enzyme electrophoretic data . journal of the kansas entomological society 65 : 134 - 140 .\nwilliams , p . h . , an , j . - d . & huang , j . - x . 2011 . the bumblebees of the subgenus subterraneobombus : integrating evidence from morphology and dna barcodes ( hymenoptera , apidae , bombus ) . zoological journal of the linnean society , 163 : 813 - 862 . [ article pdf ]\nsianturi , e . m . t . , sota , t . , kato , m . , salmah , s . & dahelmi 1995 . nest structure , colony composition and foraging activity of a tropical - montane bumblebee , bombus senex ( hymenoptera : apidae ) , in west sumatra . japanese journal of entomology 63 : 657 - 667 .\nterzo , m . , urbanova , k . , valterova , i . & rasmont , p . 2005 . intra and interspecific variability of the cephalic labial glands ' secretions in male bumblebees : the case of bombus ( thoracobombus ) ruderarius and b . ( thoracobombus ) sylvarum [ hymenoptera , apidae ] . apidologie 36 : 85 - 96 .\na useful reference covering california bumblebees by a well - respected authority on the subject . begins with general information on life history and ecology , followed by technical keys , and discussions of the california subgenera and species of bombus and psithyrus ( parasitic\ncuckoo bumble bees\n) . a pdf file of the 79 page monograph is available for free here .\n- 1954 . opinion 220 . validation , under the plenary powers , of the generic name bombus latreille , 1802 ( class insecta , order hymenoptera ) , in so far as the use of those powers is required to provide that name with the status of availability . opinions and declarations rendered by the international commission on zoological nomenclature 4 : 103 - 114 .\nbertsch , a . , habr\u00e9 de angelis , m . & przemeck , g . k . h . 2010a . phylogenetic relationships of the bumblebees bombus moderatus , b . albocinctus , b . burjaeticus , b . florilegus and b . cryptarum based on mitochondrial dna markers : a complex of closely related taxa with circumpolar distribution . beitr\u00e4ge zur entomologie 60 , 13 - 32 .\npampell , r . , d . sikes , a . pantoja , p . holloway , c . knight , r . ranft . 2015 . bumble bees ( hymenoptera : apidae : bombus spp . ) of interior alaska : species composition , distribution , seasonal biology , and parasites . biodiversity data journal 3 : e5085 . doi : 10 . 3897 / bdj . 3 . e5085\nwilliams , p . h . 2008a . bombus , bumblebees of the world . web pages based on williams , p . h . 1998 . an annotated checklist of bumblebees with an analysis of patterns of description ( hymenoptera : apidae , bombini ) . bulletin of the natural history museum ( entomology ) 67 : 79 - 152 . online . available : urltoken accessed 2008 - oct .\n- 2005 . profile : bombus franklini frison , 1921 , franklin ' s bumble bee ( hymenoptera : apidae : apinae : bombini ) . in m . d . shepherd , d . m . vaughan & s . h . black ( eds ) : red list of pollinator insects of north america . the xerces society for invertebrate conservation , portland ( oregon ) , pp . 8 .\nlecocq , t . , dellicour , s . , michez , d . , lhomme , p . , vanderplanck , m . , valterova , i . , rasplus , j . - y . & rasmont , p . 2013 . scent of a break - up : phylogeography and reproductive trait divergences in the red - tailed bumblebee ( bombus lapidarius ) . bmc evolutionary biology , 13 : 263 .\nthorp , r . w . & shepherd , m . d . 2005 . profile : subgenus bombus latreille , 1802 ( apidae : apinae : bombini ) . in m . d . shepherd , d . m . vaughan & s . h . black ( eds ) : red list of pollinator insects of north america . the xerces society for invertebrate conservation , portland ( oregon ) , pp . 5 .\nan , j . - d . , huang , j . - x . , shao , y . - q . , zhang , s . - w . , wang , b . , liu , x . - y . , wu , j . , & williams , p . h . 2014 . the bumblebees of north china ( apidae , bombus latreille ) . zootaxa 3830 : 1 - 89 . [ pdf ]\nbombus edwardsii cresson : apidae ( bombini ) , hymenoptera ( observations are from graenicher ) asteraceae : cirsium arvense sn cp ( gr ) ; caprifoliaceae : lonicera oblongifolia sn ( gr ) , lonicera reticulata sn fq ( gr ) ; salicaceae : salix discolor [ unsp sn ] ( gr ) insect activities : cp = collects pollen fq = frequent flower visitor ( about 6 or more visits reported ) sn = sucks nectar scientific observers : ( gr ) = s . graenicher\nfull pdf abstract : i compiled data from several museum collections to map historical distributions of species of bumble bees across texas . bombus auricomus , b . bimaculatus , b . fervidus , b . fraternus , b . griseocollis , b . impatiens , b . pensylvanicus , b . sonorus , and b . variabilis were con\ufb01rmed from the state based on vouchered specimens . as currently understood , the bumble bee fauna of texas consists of nine documented species . warriner , m . d .\nwinter , k . , adams , l . , thorp , r . w . , inouye , d . w . , day , l . , ascher , j . & buchmann , s . 2006 . importation of non - native bumble bees into north america : potential consequences of using bombus terrestris and other non - native bumble bees for greenhouse crop pollination in canada , mexico , and the united states a white paper of the north american pollinator protection campaign ( napcc ) . 33 .\nplease see the montana state entomology collection ' s key to female bumble bees in montana . distinguished from other bombus by combination of outer surface of hind - leg tibia concave and forming a pollen basket , anterior edge of thorax ( scutum ) to the distinct black band between the wings with mix of yellow and black hairs giving a cloudy appearance , t2 - 3 with red or orange hairs ( t2 not intermixed with yellow ) and corbicular ( pollen basket ) fringe hairs black ( or possibly orange at the tips ) .\nwilliams , p . h . , brown , m . j . f . , carolan , j . c . , an , j . - d . , goulson , d . , aytekin , a . m . , best , l . r . , byvaltsev , a . m . , cederberg , b . , dawson , r . , huang , j . - x . , ito , m . , monfared , a . , raina , r . h . , schmid - hempel , p . , sheffield , c . s . , sima , p . & xie , z . - h . 2012 . unveiling cryptic species of the bumblebee subgenus bombus s . str . world - wide with coi barcodes ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . systematics and biodiversity 10 : 21 - 56 . [ article pdf ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\napparently does rather well in some agricultural areas and can survive in cities to some extent . this subgenus is not suspected to be impacted by exotic diseases or parasites .\nthis is one of the few bumblebees still found regularly in san francisco and is rather common in the willamette valley in oregon , so it is apparently tolerant of urban and agricultural environments . little information was found regarding more northern parts of the range but this species is not listed as in general decline by xerces society or others and is regarded as common in british columbia .\na generalist for nesting sites , but may be more specialized than usual in terms of floral visitation . mcfrederick and lebuhn ( 2005 ) , in the san francisco area , found this species only in study sites with ceanothus thrysiflorus which these bees commonly visited .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nabbott , v . a . , j . l . nadeau , h . a . higo , and m . l . winston . 2008 . lethal and sub - lethal effects of imidacloprid on osmia lignaria and clothianidin on megachile rotundata ( hymenoptera : megachildae ) . journal of economic entomology 101 : 784 - 796 .\nbauer , p . j . 1983 . bumblebee pollination relationships on the beartooth plateau tundra of southern montana . american journal of botany 70 ( 1 ) : 134 - 144 .\nbhattacharya , m . , r . b . primack , and j . gerwein . 2003 . are roads and railroads barriers to bumblebee movement in a temperate suburban conservation area ? biological conservation 109 ( 1 ) : 37 - 45 .\nbrown , m . j . f . , and r . j . paxton . 2009 . the conservation of bees : a global perspective . apidologie 40 ( 3 ) : 410 - 416 .\nbyrne , a . , and u . fitzpatrick . 2009 . bee conservation policy at the global , regional and national levels . apidologie 40 ( 3 ) : 194 - 210 .\ncannings , r . 2009 . checklist of the bumble bees of british columbia . e - fauna bc , electronic atlas of the wildlife of british columbia . available : urltoken\ncolla , s . r , m . c otterstatter , r . j . gegear , and j . d . thomson . 2006 . plight of the bumble bee : pathogen spillover from commercial to wild populations . biological conservation 129 ( 4 ) : 461467 .\ncommittee on the status of pollinators in north america ( m . berenbaum , chair ) . 2007 . status of pollinators in north america . national research council of the national academies , the national academy press , washington , d . c . 307 pp .\ndevore , b . 2009 . a sticky situation for pollinators . minnesota conservation volunteer . 2 pp . accessed september 13 , 2009 at urltoken\ndramstad , w . e . 1996 . do bumblebees ( hymenoptera : apidae ) really forage close to their nests ? journal of insect behavior 9 ( 2 ) : 163 - 182 .\nfederman , a . plight of the bumblebee . earth island journal , autumn , 2009 . earth island institute . online . available : urltoken\nfetridge , e . d , j . s . ascher , and g . a . langellotto . 2008 . the bee fauna of residential gardens in a suburb of new york city ( hymenoptera : apoidea ) . annals of the entomological society of america 101 ( 6 ) : 1067 - 1077 .\nfrankie , g . w . , r . w . thorp , j . hernandez , m . rizzardi , b . ertter , j . c . pawelek , s . l . witt , m . schindler , r . coville , and v . a . wojcik . 2009 . native bees are a rich natural resource in urban california gardens . california agriculture 63 ( 3 ) : 113 - 120 .\ngoulson d . , m . e . hanley , b . darvill , j . s . ellis , and m . e . knight . 2005 . causes of rarity in bumblebees . biological conservation 122 ( 1 ) : 1 - 8 .\nhines , h . , and s . d . hendrix . 2005 . bumble bee ( hymenoptera : apidae ) diversity and abundance in tallgrass prairie patches : the effects of local and landscape features . environmental entomology 34 ( 6 ) : 1477 - 1484 .\nhopwood , j . l . 2008 . the contribution of roadside grassland restorations to native bee conservation . biological conservation 141 ( 10 ) : 2632 - 2640 .\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . 2008 . world bee checklist project ( version 03 - oct - 2008 ) . integrated taxonomic information system : biological names . online . available : http : / / www . itis . gov .\nlongcore , t . , c . rich , and l . m . sullivan . 2009 . critical assessment of claims regarding management of feral cats by trap - neuter - return . conservation biology 23 ( 4 ) : 887 - 894 .\nnoordijk , j . , k . delille , a . p . schaffers , and k . v . s\u00fdkora . 2009 . optimizing grassland management for flower - visiting insects in roadside verges . biological conservation 142 ( 10 ) : 2097 - 2103 ."]}
{"id": 1902, "summary": [{"text": "the sheath-tailed mouse ( mus fragilicauda ) is a mouse found in two locations in central thailand and in laos .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "they were discovered and documented in 2002 .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is the only known mus species to lose its tail integument when handled .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is sometimes found with the fawn-colored mouse . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "sheath - tailed mouse", "paragraphs": ["the sheath - tailed mouse ( mus fragilicauda ) is a mouse found in two locations in central thailand and in laos .\nlong - tailed climbing mouse - vandeleuria nilagirica the long - tailed climbing mouse is found in india . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nkoopman ' s pencil - tailed tree mouse - chiropodomys karlkoopmani koopman ' s pencil - tailed tree mouse is found in indonesia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nisabel naked - tailed rat - solomys sapientis the isabel naked - tailed rat is found in blank . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nmentawai long - tailed giant rat - leopoldamys siporanus the mentawai long - tailed giant rat is found in indonesia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nbushy - tailed jird - sekeetamys calurus the bushy - tailed jird is found in egypt , israel , jordan , saudi arabia , and sudan . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nfat - tailed gerbil - pachyuromys duprasi the fat - tailed gerbil is found in algeria , egypt , libya , mauritania , morocco , tunisia , and western sahara . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngould\u2019s mouse - pseudomys gouldii gould\u2019s mouse was found in australia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nsmoky mouse - pseudomys fumeus the smokey mouse is found in australia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nhastings river mouse - pseudomys oralis hastings river mouse is found in australia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncairo spiny mouse - acomys cahirinus the cairo spiny mouse is found in blank . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ndusky hopping mouse - notomys fuscus the dusky hopping mouse is found in australia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nfawn hopping mouse - notomys cervinus the fawn hopping mouse is found in australia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nlakeland downs mouse - leggadina lakedownensis the lakeland downs mouse is found in australia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nmindanao shrew mouse - crunomys melanius the mindanao shrew mouse is found in philippines . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nnorthern hopping mouse - notomys aquilo the northern hopping mouse is found in australia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nshark bay mouse - pseudomys fieldi the shark bay mouse is found in australia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncamiguin forest mouse - apomys camiguinensis the camiguin forest mouse is found in the philippines . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nasia minor spiny mouse - acomys cilicicus the asia minor spiny mouse is found in turkey . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nbroad - toothed mouse - mastacomys fuscus the broad - toothed mouse is found in australia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nmayor ' s mouse - mus mayori mayor ' s mouse is found in sri lanka . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe house mouse has been domesticated as the pet or fancy mouse , and as the laboratory mouse , which is one of the most important model organisms in biology and medicine . the complete mouse reference genome was sequenced in 2002 . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] it is by far the most commonly genetically altered mammal in scientific research . [ 4 ]\nthe ryukyu mouse ( mus caroli ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\nhad a traditional annual\nmouse day\ncelebration . in the eastern balkans ( most of\ngolden spiny mouse - acomys russatus the golden spiny mouse is found in deserts and savannas . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nmoro , dorian ; morris , keith ( 2000 ) .\nmovements and refugia of lakeland downs short - tailed mice , leggadina lakedownensis , and house mice , mus domesticus , on thevenard island , western australia\n.\ncameroon soft - furred mouse - praomys morio the cameroon soft - furred mouse is found in cameroon and equatorial guinea . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nwood mouse - apodemus sylvaticus the wood mouse is found in found throughout most of europe and in northern africa . . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nyellow - necked mouse - apodemus flavicollis the yellow - necked mouse is found in most of europe and in parts of asia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngolden spiny mouse - acomys russatus the golden spiny mouse is found in egypt , israel , jordan , oman , saudi arabia , and yemen . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nneitz , maureen ; neitz , jay ( 2001 ) .\nthe uncommon retina of the common house mouse\n.\nnew zealand had no land mammals other than the lesser short - tailed bat ( mystacina tuberculata ) prior to human occupation , and the house mouse is one of many species that have been introduced . mice are responsible for a reduction in native bird species since they eat some of the same foods as birds . they are also known to kill lizards and have a large effect on native insects . [ 72 ]\nthe mouse as vizier , sourced to : emma brunner - traut , tiergeschichten aus dem pharaonenland , mainz , zabern , 2000 .\nhouse mouse - mus musculus the house mouse is found on all continents , except for antarctica . it is an introduced species in north america , south america , and australia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\n; they are averse to bright lights . the average sleep time of a captive house mouse is reported to be 12 . 5 hours per day .\narabian spiny mouse - acomys dimidiatus the arabian spiny mouse is found in egypt , iran , iraq , israel , jordan , lebanon , oman , pakistan , palestinian territory , saudi arabia , syria , united arab emirates , and yemen . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ndobson , f stephen ; jacquot , catherine ; baudoin , claude ( october 2000 ) .\nan experimental test of kin association in the house mouse\n.\ncalderone , jack b . ; jacobs , gerald h . ( 2009 ) .\nregional variations in the relative sensitivity to uv light in the mouse retina\n.\nthe house mouse ( mus musculus ) is a small mammal of the order rodentia , characteristically having a pointed snout , small rounded ears , and a long naked or almost hairless tail . it is one of the most numerous species of the genus mus . although a wild animal , the house mouse mainly lives in association with humans .\nkimoto , hiroko ; haga , sachiko ; sato , koji ; touhara , kazushige ( 2005 ) .\nsex - specific peptides from exocrine glands stimulate mouse vomeronasal sensory neurons\n.\npatris , b ; baudoin , c ( october 2000 ) .\na comparative study of parental care between two rodent species : implications for the mating system of the mound - building mouse mus spicilegus\n.\nfrynta , daniel ; sl\u00e1bov\u00e1 , mark\u00e9ta ; v\u00e1chov\u00e1 , hana ; volfov\u00e1 , radka ; munclinger , pavel ( 2005 ) .\naggression and commensalism in house mouse : a comparative study across europe and the near east\n.\nmany more names have been given to house mice , but are now regarded as synonyms of other subspecies . some populations are hybrids of different subspecies , including the japanese house mouse ( m . m . molossinus ) . [ 18 ]\nimportance of mice as a house and agricultural pest resulted in a development of a variety of mice - related rituals and stories in world ' s cultures . the ancient egyptians had a story about\nthe mouse as vizier\n. [ 75 ]\nhouse mice can sometimes transmit diseases , contaminate food , and damage food packaging . although the us centers for disease control and prevention gives a list with diseases transmitted by rodents , [ 62 ] only few of the diseases are transmitted through the house mouse .\ncucchi , thomas ; vigne , jean - denis ; auffray , jean - christophe ( 2005 ) .\nfirst occurrence of the house mouse ( mus musculus domesticus schwarz & schwarz , 1943 ) in the western mediterranean : a zooarchaeological revision of subfossil occurrences\n.\nin the state of georgia ; however , no pcr - positive mice were detected in our study . eruptions of mouse populations in the absence of rats have been implicated in several outbreaks of murine typhus ; however , these observations were not supported by laboratory data .\nin open areas such as shrubs and fields , the house mouse population is known as noncommensal . these populations are often limited by water or food supply and have large territories . [ 25 ] female - female aggression in the noncommensal house mouse populations is much higher , reaching a level generally attributed to free - ranging species . male aggression is also higher in noncommensal populations . in commensal populations , males come into contact with other males quite frequently due to high population densities and aggression must be mediated or the risk of injury becomes too great . [ 24 ]\nthonhauser , k . e . ; thob , m . ; musolf , k . ; klaus , t . ; penn , d . j . ( 2014 ) .\nmultiple paternity in wild house mouse ( mus musculus musculus ) : effects on offspring genetic diversity and body mass\n.\nthe social behaviour of the house mouse is not rigidly fixed into species - specific patterns but is instead adaptable to the environmental conditions , such as the availability of food and space . [ 24 ] [ 25 ] this adaptability allows house mice to inhabit diverse areas ranging from sandy dunes to apartment buildings . [ 24 ]\nboursot , p . ; din , w . ; anand , r . ; darviche , d . ; dod , b . ; von deimling , f . ; talwar , g . p . ; bonhomme , f . ( 1996 ) .\norigin and radiation of the house mouse : mitochondrial dna phylogeny\n.\nharvest mouse - micromys minutus the harvest mouse is found in armenia , austria , azerbaijan , belarus , belgium , bosnia and herzegovina , bulgaria , china , croatia , czech republic , denmark , estonia , finland , france , georgia , germany , greece , hungary , india , italy , north korea , south korea , latvia , lithuania , luxembourg , macedonia , moldova , mongolia , montenegro , myanmar , netherlands , poland , romania , the russian federation , serbia , slovakia , slovenia , spain , switzerland , taiwan , turkey , ukraine , united kingdom , and vietnam . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nmany studies have been done on mouse phylogenies to reconstruct early human movements . for example , one study suggests the possibility of a previously unsuspected early link between northern europe and madeira on the basis of the origin of madeiran mice . [ 59 ] house mice were thought to be the primary reason for the taming of the domestic cat .\nintrauterine insemination causes an evolutionary consequence resulting from polyandrous behavior . [ 53 ] when multiple males mate with one female , there are multiple sets of sperm gametes in a female mouse . offspring fertilized by multiple females can compete more strongly for mother ' s resources and can lead to a decrease in body size and variation in body size . [ 53 ]\nhouse mice usually live less than one year in the wild , due to a high level of predation and exposure to harsh environments . in protected environments , however , they often live two to three years . the methuselah mouse prize is a competition to breed or engineer extremely long - lived laboratory mice . as of 2005 [ update ] , the record holder was a genetically engineered mouse that lived for 1 , 819 days ( 4 years , 358 days ) . [ 54 ] another record holder that was kept in an enriched environment but did not receive any genetic , pharmacological , or dietary treatment lived for 1 , 551 days ( 4 years , 90 days ) . [ 55 ] [ 56 ]\nboth commensal and noncommensal house mouse males aggressively defend their territory and act to exclude all intruders . males mark their territory by scent marking with urine . in marked territories , intruders showed significantly lower aggression than the territory residents . [ 25 ] house mice show a male - biased dispersal ; males generally leave their birth sites and migrate to form new territories whereas females generally stay and are opportunistic breeders rather than seasonal . [ 29 ]\nthe first written reference to mice kept as pets occurs in the erya , the oldest extant chinese dictionary , from a mention in an 1100 bc version . [ 60 ] human domestication led to numerous strains of\nfancy\nor hobby mice with a variety of colours and a docile temperament . [ 61 ] domestic varieties of the house mouse are bred as a food source for some carnivorous pet reptiles , birds , arthropods , and fish . [ 61 ]\nboth evolutionary and behavioral consequences result from the polygamous nature of the house mouse . one consequence is the paternal investment , which is lower in polygamous mice than in mice that are monogamous . [ 44 ] this occurs due to the fact that males spend more time involved in sexual competition than do females , leaving less time for paternal care . [ 44 ] polygamous male house mice spend less time alone with pups . [ 44 ] they are also less likely and slower to retrieve lost pups than males of monogamous mice . [ 44 ] in contrast , the maternal investment is similar between female mice that have mated once versus multiply . [ 44 ]\nrickettsialpox , caused by the bacterium rickettsia akari and similar to chickenpox , is spread by mice in general , but is very rare and generally mild and resolves within 2\u20133 weeks if untreated . no known deaths have resulted from the disease . murine typhus ( also called endemic typhus ) is caused by the bacterium rickettsia typhi , and is transmitted by the fleas that infest rats . while rat fleas are the most common vectors , cat fleas and mouse fleas are less common modes of transmission . [ 69 ] endemic typhus is highly treatable with antibiotics . the us cdc currently does not mention rickettsialpox or murine typhus on its website about diseases directly transmitted by rodents ( in general ) [ 62 ]\nfollowing copulation , female mice will normally develop a copulation plug which prevents further copulation . the plug is not necessary for pregnancy initiation , as this will also occur without the plug . the presence or absence of the plug will not affect litter size either . [ 40 ] this plug stays in place for some 24 hours . the gestation period is about 19\u201321 days , and they give birth to a litter of 3\u201314 young ( average six to eight ) . one female can have 5 to 10 litters per year , so the mouse population can increase very quickly . breeding occurs throughout the year . ( however , animals living in the wild do not reproduce in the colder months , even though they do not hibernate . )\ngregory , simon g . ; sekhon , mandeep ; schein , jacqueline ; zhao , shaying ; osoegawa , kazutoyo ; scott , carol e . ; evans , richard s . ; burridge , paul w . ; cox , tony v . ; fox , christopher a . ; hutton , richard d . ; mullenger , ian r . ; phillips , kimbly j . ; smith , james ; stalker , jim ; threadgold , glen j . ; birney , ewan ; wylie , kristine ; chinwalla , asif ; wallis , john ; hillier , ladeana ; carter , jason ; gaige , tony ; jaeger , sara ; kremitzki , colin ; layman , dan ; maas , jason ; mcgrane , rebecca ; mead , kelly ; et al . ( 2002 ) .\na physical map of the mouse genome\n.\nchinwalla , asif t . ; cook , lisa l . ; delehaunty , kimberly d . ; fewell , ginger a . ; fulton , lucinda a . ; fulton , robert s . ; graves , tina a . ; hillier , ladeana w . ; mardis , elaine r . ; mcpherson , john d . ; miner , tracie l . ; nash , william e . ; nelson , joanne o . ; nhan , michael n . ; pepin , kymberlie h . ; pohl , craig s . ; ponce , tracy c . ; schultz , brian ; thompson , johanna ; trevaskis , evanne ; waterston , robert h . ; wendl , michael c . ; wilson , richard k . ; yang , shiaw - pyng ; an , peter ; berry , eric ; birren , bruce ; bloom , toby ; brown , daniel g . ; et al . ( 2002 ) .\ninitial sequencing and comparative analysis of the mouse genome\n.\nhouse mice have two forms of social behaviour , the expression of which depends on the environmental context . house mice in buildings and other urbanized areas with close proximity to humans are known as commensal . [ 24 ] commensal mice populations often have an excessive food source resulting in high population densities and small home ranges . this causes a switch from territorial behaviour to a hierarchy of individuals . [ 24 ] [ 26 ] when populations have an excess of food , there is less female - female aggression , which usually occurs to gain access to food or to prevent infanticide . [ 24 ] male - male aggression occurs in commensal populations , mainly to defend female mates and protect a small territory . [ 24 ] [ 25 ] the high level of male - male aggression , with a low female - female aggression level is common in polygamous populations . [ 27 ] the social unit of commensal house mouse populations generally consists of one male and two or more females , usually related . [ 27 ] [ 28 ] these groups breed cooperatively , with the females communally nursing . this cooperative breeding and rearing by related females helps increase reproductive success . when no related females are present , breeding groups can form from non - related females . [ 28 ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthis species is highly distinct genetically , but morphologically very similar to m . cervicolor , therefore , this species is probably much more widespread , as some specimens are hidden within m . cervicolor ( musser and carleton 2005 ) .\njustification : listed as least concern as it seems like a very adaptable and common species at two sites , and has no known threats .\nthis species is known from localities in nahkon ratchasima ( khorat ) province in south central thailand : the type locality , ban nong sanga ( 14\u00b032 ' 33 ' ' n , 101\u00b057 ' 44 ' ' e ) , and tumbon , both 50 km sse from the town of khorat ( auffray et al . 2003 , musser and carleton 2005 ) . the species has been recorded in the loei forest in thailand ( chaisiri et al . 2012 ) . it has also been recorded from lamam , sekong province , in lao pdr ( k . aplin pers . comm . ) .\nit was found in dry grass and patches of pygmy bamboo along roadsides or dikes bordering dry rice fields ( musser and carleton 2005 ) . it has been recorded in sympatry with m . cervicolor , and m . caroli were also found .\nit is not known from any protected areas . further survey work is needed to determine whether or not it is widespread through the region .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nbinomial name : mus fragilicauda ( jean - christophe auffray et al . , 2003 )\nthis article uses material from the wikipedia released under the creative commons attribution - share - alike licence 3 . 0 . please see license details for photos in photo by - lines .\n\u00a9 thai national parks , 2018 | t . a . t . license : 12 / 02497 , license issued for gibbonwoot ( managing company )\n. 2003 ; musser and carleton 2005 ) . it has also been recorded from lamam , sekong province , in lao pdr ( k . aplin pers . comm . ) . additional field surveys and reexamination of museum specimens may reveal an even wider range .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmusser , guy g . , and michael d . carleton / wilson , don e . , and deeann m . reeder , eds .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vol . 2\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbiokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved .\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nas part our commitment to scholarly and academic excellence , all articles receive editorial review .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nnew & recent described flora & fauna species from all over the world esp . asia , oriental , indomalayan & malesiana region\nmolecular , chromosomal and morphometric analyses of wild - caught mice of subgenus mus from the central plain of thailand are presented . these specimens are distinct from all species previously described in the literature . this has led to the characterization of mus fragilicauda sp . n . , a new member of the set of closely related species encompassed by the subgenus . while this species may be considered as a sibling and sympatric species of the asian m . cervicolor , m . fragilicauda sp . n . is phylogenetically closer to the m . musculus complex of species and to the other european species of mus .\njean - christophe auffray , annie orth , josette catalan , jean - paul gonzalez , eric desmarais , fran\u00e7ois bonhomme . 2003 . phylogenetic position and description of a new species of subgenus mus ( rodentia , mammalia ) from thailand . zoologica scripta . 32 ( 2 ) : 119\u2013127 . doi : 10 . 1046 / j . 1463 - 6409 . 2003 . 00108 . x\nwuodendron b . xue , y . h . tan & chaowasku wuodendron praecox ( hook . f . & thomson ) b . xue , y . h . tan & x . l . hou in xue , tan . . .\n[ botany \u2022 2017 ] begonia fulgurata | \u0e14\u0e32\u0e14\u0e14\u0e32\u0e23\u0e32\u0e23\u0e31\u0e28\u0e21\u0e35 \u2022 a new species ( sect . diploclinium , begoniaceae ) from chiang mai , northern thailand\nbegonia fulgurata c . - i peng , c . w . lin & phutthai \u0e14\u0e32\u0e14\u0e14\u0e32\u0e23\u0e32\u0e23\u0e31\u0e28\u0e21\u0e35 | | doi : 10 . 3767 / blumea . 2017 . 62 . 03 . 01 urltoken be . . .\nchamaelirium viridiflorum l . wang , z . c . liu & w . b . liao in liu , feng , wang & liao , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / phytotaxa . 357 . . . .\ngreat - billed seed - finch sporophila maximiliani ( cabanis , 1851 ) in ubaid , silveira , medolago , et . al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / . . .\nendocerids with their filtering apparatus in mironenko , 2018 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2018 . 1491565 reconstruction by andre . . .\naristolochia tongbiguanensis j . y . shen , q . b . gong & s . landrein in gong , landrein , xi , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 6165 / tai . . . .\nbagualosaurus agudoensis pretto , langer & schultz , 2018 doi : 10 . 1093 / zoolinnean / zly028 illustration : jorge blanco c . . .\nthe hypothetical phylogenetic relationships of ceratosaurs based on current topologies . the main source is from wang et al . ( 2016 . . .\nnipponosaurus sachalinensis nagao , 1936 in takasaki , chiba , kobayashi , et al . , 2018 \u30cb\u30c3\u30dd\u30ce\u30b5\u30a6\u30eb\u30b9 | | doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2017 . . . .\nbegonia medogensis jianw . li , y . h . tan & x . h . jin in li , tan , wang , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 3897 / phytokeys . 103 . 25392 . . .\n[ ornithology \u2022 2013 ] rediscovery of a long - lost la . . .\n[ entomology \u2022 2013 ] nyctomyia ( nyx ) pholeocola \u2022 a . . .\npartial solar elipse to be visible from parts of australia , new zealand and antarctica on firday 13 july 2018 .\non this day ( july 10th ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .\nthe benefits and costs of academic travel . or\nthere and back again ; again and again\ncanon renueva su gama de 70 - 200 mm f : 2 . 8 y f : 4\nplants go extinct , but sometimes species are rediscovered . this one after 151 years .\ni ' m killing antediluvian salad but even in death there is rebirth . . .\nnecps carnivorous plant show : sept . 9 - 10 at tower hill botanical garden\nthis is a particularly beautiful species of centrolenid - the granular glass frog , cochranella granulosa .\nit is found in cambodia , china , indonesia , japan , laos , malaysia , taiwan , thailand , and vietnam .\nplease note that this non - official list is not complete nor necessarily accurate . this list is a summary of checklists from other websites , blogs , publications , photo / videos published on various websites or our own findings . we appreciate your contributions with photo proof .\nimportant note ; our range maps are generated automatically based on very limited data we have about the protected sites , the data is not necessarily accurate . please help us to improve our range maps by sharing your findings / knowledge .\nhome | wild files | n . h . animals | animals a - z | watch online\nwith around 711 species , this is the largest family of rodents and mammals . they are native to africa , europe , asia , and australia , but they have been introduced around the world and today are found in all parts of the world , except for antarctica .\nthey are found in all types of habitats including swamps , grasslands , tundra , deciduous forests , coniferous forests , rainforests , deserts , wetlands , mountains , and suburban , and urban areas .\nmany species in this family have small bodies , long tails , round ears , round eyes , and pointed noses with whiskers . in most species in this family , females give birth to large litters of between 6 - 13 young . females usually have more than one litter a year and the young are ready to mate when they are a month or two old . because they are prey for other animals , most species in this family only live for a year or two in the wild .\nsome species are nocturnal ; some are active in the day . some species live in trees , while others are ground dwellers and others live in underground burrows . some species are herbivores , others are carnivores , and some are omnivores .\nleast concern near threatened vulnerable endangered critically endangered extinct in wild extinct status and range is taken from icun redlist . if no status is listed , there is not enough data to establish status .\nanderson ' s gerbil - gerbillus andersoni anderson ' s gerbil is found in egypt , israel , jordan , libyaa , and tunisia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nblack rat - rattus rattus the black rat is native to india and pakistan , but it was introduced , beginning in ancient times , to other regions in asia as well as africa and europe . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nblick ' s grass rat - arvicanthis blicki blick ' s grass rat is found in ethiopia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nbrants\u2019s whistling rat - parotomys brantsii brants\u2019s whistling rat is found in botswana , namibia , and south africa . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nnorway rat - rattus norvegicus the norway rat is native to china , japan , and the russian federation , but it has been introduced around the world . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncamiguin forest rat - bullimus gamay the camiguin forest rat is found in the philippines . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncentral rock - rat - zyzomys pedunculatus the central rock - rat is found in australia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncheesman\u2019s gerbil - gerbillus cheesmani cheesman\u2019s gerbil is found in iran , iraq , jordan , kuwait , oman , saudi arabia , syria , united arab emirates , and yemen . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nfalse swamp rat - xeromys myoides the false swamp rat is found in australia and papua new guinea . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nfat sand rat - psammomys obesus the fat sand rat is found in algeria , egypt , israel , jordan , libya , mauritania , morocco , saudi arabia , sudan , syriac , and tunisia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nluzon crateromys - crateromys schadenbergi the luzon crateromys is found in philippines . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngreater egyptian gerbil - gerbillus pyramidum the greater egyptian gerbil is found in chad , egypt , mali , niger , and sudan . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngreater stick - nest rat - leporillus conditor the greater stick - nest rat is found in australia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nlataste\u2019s gerbil - gerbillus latastei lataste\u2019s gerbil is found in libya and tunisia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nlesser egyptian gerbil - gerbillus gerbillus the lesser egyptian gerbil is found in algeria , chad , egypt , israel , jordan , libya , mali , mauritania , morocco , niger , sudan , tunisia , and western sahara . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nlesser marmoset rat - hapalomys delacouri the lesser marmoset rat is found in china , laos , and vietnam . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nlesser stick - nest rat - leporillus apicalis the lesser stick - nest rat is found in australia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nlibyan jird - meriones libycus the libyan jird is found in afghanistan , algeria , azerbaijan , china , egypt , iran , iraq , jordan , kazakhstan , kuwait , libya , mauritania , morocco , pakistan , qatar , saudi arabia , syria , tajikistan , tunisia , turkey , turkmenistan , uzbekistan , and western sahara . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nluzon batomys - batomys granti the luzon batomys is found in the philippines . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nmargaret\u2019s haeromys - haeromys margarettae margaret\u2019s haeromys is found in malaysia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nmindanao montane forest apomys - apomys insignis the mindanao montane forest apomys is found in the philippines . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nnorth african gerbil - gerbillus campestris the north african gerbil is found in algeria , egypt , libya , mali , morocco , niger , sudan , and tunisia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nnorthern luzon phloeomys - phloeomys pallidus the northern luzon phloeomys is found in the philippines . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nokinawa spiny rat - tokudaia muenninki the okinawa spiny rat is found in blank . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\npale gerbil - gerbillus perpallidus the pale gerbil is found in egypt . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\npanay crateromys - crateromys heaneyi the panay crateromys is found in the philippines . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\npleasant gerbil - gerbillus amoenus the pleasant gerbil is found in egypt and libya . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\npygmy gerbil - gerbillus henleyi the pygmy gerbil is found in algeria , burkina faso , chad , egypt , israel , jordan , libya , mali , mauritania , morocco , niger , oman , saudi arabia , senegal , sudan , tunisia , and yemen . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nrajah sundaic maxomy - maxomys rajah the rajah sundaic maxomy is found in brunei darussalam , indonesia , malaysia , and thailand . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nrusset batomys - batomys russatus the russet batomys is found in the philippines . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nsahyadris forest rat - rattus satarae the sahyadris forest rat is found in india . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nshaw ' s jird - meriones shawi shaw ' s jird is found in algeria , egypt , libyaa , morocco , and tunisia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nsouthern luzon phloeomys - phloeomys cumingi the southern luzon phloeomys is found in the philippines . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nsundaic arboreal niviventer - niviventer cremoriventer the sundaic arboreal niviventer is found in indonesia , malaysia , singapore , and thailand . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nsundevall\u2019s jird - meriones crassus sundevall\u2019s jird is found in afghanistan , algeria , bahrain , egypt , iran , iraq , israel , jordan , kuwait , libya , morocco , niger , oman , pakistan , saudi arabia , sudan , syria , tunisia , turkey , united arab emirates , and western sahara . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nsundevall\u2019s jird - meriones crassus sundevall\u2019s jirds live in sandy soil in hot and dry environments . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nwagner\u2019s gerbil - gerbillus dasyurus wagner\u2019s gerbil is found in egypt , iraq , israel , jordan , lebanon , oman , saudi arabia , syria , turkey , united arab emirates , and yemen . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nwhite - footed rabbit - rat - conilurus albipes the white - footed rabbit - rat was found in australia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nwhitheead ' s spiny rat - maxomys whiteheadi whitheead ' s spiny rat is found in brunei darussalam , indonesia , malaysia , and thailand . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nnewborn males and females can be distinguished on close examination as the anogenital distance in males is about double that of the female . [ 9 ] from the age of about 10 days , females have five pairs of mammary glands and nipples ; males have no nipples . [ 10 ] when sexually mature , the most striking and obvious difference is the presence of testicles on the males . these are large compared to the rest of the body and can be retracted into the body .\nin addition to the regular pea - sized thymus organ in the chest , house mice have a second functional pinhead - sized thymus organ in the neck next to the trachea . [ 16 ]\nmice are mammals of the glires clade , which means they are amongst the closest relatives of humans other than lagomorphs , treeshrews , flying lemurs and other primates .\nhouse mice usually run , walk , or stand on all fours , but when eating , fighting , or orienting themselves , they rear up on their hind legs with additional support from the tail - a behaviour known as\ntripoding\n. mice are good jumpers , climbers , and swimmers , and are generally considered to be\nthey live in a wide variety of hidden places near food sources , and construct nests from various soft materials . mice are territorial , and one dominant male usually lives together with several females and young . dominant males respect each other ' s territories and normally enter another ' s territory only if it is vacant . if two or more males are housed together in a cage , they often become aggressive unless they have been raised together from birth .\nmice are generally afraid of rats which often kill and eat them , a behavior known as muricide . despite this , free - living populations of rats and mice do exist together in forest areas in new zealand , north america , and elsewhere . house mice are generally poor competitors and in most areas cannot survive away from human settlements in areas where other small mammals , such as wood mice , are present . [ 22 ] however , in some areas ( such as australia ) , mice are able to coexist with other small rodent species . [ 23 ]\nhouse mice also rely on pheromones for social communication , some of which are produced by the preputial glands of both sexes . the tear fluid and urine of male mice also contains pheromones , such as major urinary proteins . [ 34 ] [ 35 ] mice detect pheromones mainly with the vomeronasal organ ( jacobson ' s organ ) , located at the bottom of the nose .\nthe urine of house mice , especially that of males , has a characteristic strong odor . at least 10 different compounds , such as alkanes , alcohols , etc . , are detectable in the urine . among them , five compounds are specific to males , namely 3 - cyclohexene - 1 - methanol , aminotriazole ( 3 - amino - s - triazole ) , 4 - ethyl phenol , 3 - ethyl - 2 , 7 - dimethyl octane and 1 - iodoundecane . [ 36 ]\nodours from adult males or from pregnant or lactating females can speed up or retard sexual maturation in juvenile females and synchronise reproductive cycles in mature females ( i . e . the whitten effect ) . odours of unfamiliar male mice may terminate pregnancies , i . e . the bruce effect .\nmice can sense surfaces and air movements with their whiskers which are also used during thigmotaxis . if mice are blind from birth , super - normal growth of the vibrissae occurs presumably as a compensatory response , [ 37 ] or if the vibrissae are absent , the use of vision is intensified . [ 38 ]\nfemale house mice have an estrous cycle about four to six days long , with estrus itself lasting less than a day . if several females are held together under crowded conditions , they will often not have an estrus at all . if they are then exposed to male urine , they will come into estrus after 72 hours .\nrange . the calls are most frequent during courtship when the male is sniffing and following the female ; however , the calls continue after mating has begun , at which time the calls are coincident with mounting behaviour . males can be induced to emit these calls by female pheromones . the vocalizations appear to differ between individuals and have been compared to\nwhile females have the capability to produce ultrasonic calls , they typically do not do so during mating behaviour .\nthe pups are born blind and without fur or ears . the ears are fully developed by the fourth day , fur begins to appear at about six days and the eyes open around 13 days after birth ; the pups are weaned at around 21 days . females reach sexual maturity at about six weeks of age and males at about eight weeks , but both can copulate as early as five weeks . if the infants live in high temperatured area from birth , they will become less - haired . [ 41 ]\nalthough house mice can be either monogamous or polygamous , they are most commonly polygamous . they generally show characteristics of mate - defense polygyny in that males are highly territorial and protective of their mates , while females are less agonistic . [ 42 ] the communal nursing groups that result from these behaviors lead to lower numbers of infanticide since more females are able to protect greater numbers of offspring . [ 43 ]\nthe polygamous behavior of female house mice promotes sperm competition , which affects both male and female evolutionary fitness . [ 45 ] females who mate with multiple males tend to produce both pups in greater numbers , [ 45 ] and with higher survival rates , [ 46 ] increasing female fitness . sperm competition that arises from polygamy favors males with faster , more motile sperm in higher numbers , increasing male fitness . [ 45 ] the competitive aspect of insemination increases the frequency of polyandrous events and fertilizations . polyandry has evolved to increase reproductive success . [ 47 ] male mating behavior is also affected in response to the practice of polygamous behavior . compared to monogamous house mice , polygamous house mice mate for longer periods of time . [ 48 ] this behaviour allows for an increase in both the transfer of sperm and paternity success , which in turn increases male fitness . [ 48 ]\nas opposed to polygamy , polyandrous behavior in females is the act of breeding with several males in the same season . [ 49 ] variation in number of males that females mate with occurs among a population . polyandrous behavior is a common mating pattern in species of mus musculus musculus as well as the relative mus musculus domesticus . [ 49 ]\npolyandry occurs in 30 % of all wild populations of house mice . [ 50 ] litters from multiple sires tend to be more genetically diverse than litters of single sires . [ 49 ] multiple paternity is also more common in larger populations than smaller populations , because there is a larger number of mates and more diverse mates to choose from . [ 50 ] within a population , males and females show different levels of multiple mating . females show bias toward unrelated males rather than related males during sexual selection , resulting in more genetically diverse offspring and a reduction of inbreeding depression . [ 51 ] inbreeding depression increases genetic incompatibilities , levels of homozygosity , and the chance of deleterious recessive alleles . [ 51 ] polyandry has been shown to increase offspring survival compared to monandry .\nthe fitness of females increases in polyandrous lines due to more genetic diversity and greater litter size . [ 45 ]\ndue to polyandry , males can be confused by the identity of new offspring . [ 52 ] multiple mating by females and paternity confusion can decrease rates of infanticide . [ 52 ] if the males are uncertain if the offspring are theirs , they are less likely to kill the offspring . [ 52 ]\nhouse mice usually live in proximity to humans , in or around houses or fields . originally native to asia ( probably northern india ) , [ 57 ] they spread to the mediterranean basin about 8000 bc , only spreading into the rest of europe around 1000 bc . [ 58 ] this time lag is thought to be because the mice require agrarian human settlements above a certain size . [ 58 ] they have since been spread to all parts of the globe by humans .\nlymphocytic choriomeningitis ( lcmv ) can be transmitted by mice , but is not a commonly reported infection in humans , though most infections are mild and are often never diagnosed . [ 63 ] [ 64 ] [ 65 ] some concern exists that women should not to be infected with lcmv during pregnancy . [ 66 ] [ 67 ]\nhouse mice are not usually a vector of human plague ( bubonic plague ) because they have less infestations with fleas than do rats , and because the fleas which house mice normally carry exhibit little tendency to bite humans rather than their natural host . [ 68 ]\nleptospirosis is carried by a variety of wild and domestic animals including dogs , rats , swine , cattle , mice in general , and can be transmitted by the urine of an infected animal and is contagious as long as the urine is still moist . [ 70 ]\naccording to recent research on the hygiene hypothesis , children who are exposed at a young age to specific allergens , feces , dander , and bacteria from ( among others ) cockroaches , mice , and cats are less likely to develop asthma and allergies later in life . [ 71 ]\nmice have become an invasive species on islands to where they have spread during the period of european exploration and colonisation .\ngough island in the south atlantic is used by 20 species of seabirds for breeding , including almost all of the world ' s tristan albatross ( diomedea dabbenena ) and atlantic petrel ( pterodroma incerta ) . until house mice arrived on the island in the 19th century with sailors , the birds did not have any mammalian predators . the mice have since grown unusually large and have learned to attack albatross chicks , which can be nearly 1 m tall , but are largely immobile , by working in groups and gnawing on them until they bleed to death . [ 73 ]\nin the grain belt of south - eastern australia , the introduced species mus domesticus breed so successfully , every three years or so they reach plague proportions , achieving densities of 1000 per hectare and causing massive disruption to communities , and losses to agriculture of a $ 36 million annually . [ 74 ]\nmusser g , amori g , hutterer r , kry\u0161tufek b , yigit n & mitsain g ( 2008 ) . mus musculus . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 10 october 2008 .\nhotchkiss , a . k . ; vandenbergh , j . g . ( 2005 ) .\nthe anogenital distance index of mice ( mus musculus domesticus ) : an analysis\n.\nmayer , julie ann ; foley , john ; de la cruz , damon ; chuong , cheng - ming ; widelitz , randall ( 2008 ) .\nsiegel , michael i . ( 1970 ) .\nthe tail , locomotion and balance in mice\n.\nbuck , c . w . ; tolman , n . ; tolman , w . ( november 1925 ) .\nthe tail as a balancing organ in mice\n.\nle bars , d ; gozariu , m ; cadden , s . w . ( 2001 ) .\nanimal models of nociception\n.\nterszowski , g . ; m\u00fcller , susanna m . ; bleul , conrad c . ; blum , carmen ; schirmbeck , reinhold ; reimann , j\u00f6rg ; du pasquier , louis ; amagai , takashi ; boehm , thomas ; rodewald , hans - reimer ( 2006 ) .\nevidence for a functional second thymus in mice\n.\nmitchell - jones , a j ; amori , g ; bogdanowicz , w ; kry\u0161tufek , b ; reijnders , p j h ; spitzenberger , f ; stubbe , m ; thissen , j b m ; vohral\u00edk , v ; zima , j ( 1999 ) ."]}
{"id": 1911, "summary": [{"text": "the european pine marten ( martes martes ) , known most commonly as the pine marten in anglophone europe , and less commonly also known as pineten , baum marten , or sweet marten , is an animal native to northern europe belonging to the mustelid family , which also includes mink , otter , badger , wolverine and weasel . ", "topic": 21}], "title": "european pine marten", "paragraphs": ["\u043a\u0443\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430 \u043b\u0435\u0441\u043d\u0430\u044f . \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u044b\u0445 . european pine marten . the behavior of the young .\necological network resistance map ( en ) and lcp analysis between european pine marten individuals in the study area .\nthe response of european pine marten ( martes martes l . ) feeding to the changes of small mammal abundance\nthe response of european pine marten ( martes martes l . ) feeding to the changes of small mammal abundance .\nresults of causal modeling of landscape resistance on genetic distance in european pine marten according to mantel and partial mantel tests .\nt1 - the response of european pine marten ( martes martes l . ) feeding to the changes of small mammal abundance\neuropean environment agency ( 2005 ) european environment : state and outlook 2005 . state of environment report no . 1 / 2005\nthe response of european pine marten ( martes martes l . ) feeding to the changes of small mammal abundance \u2014 universidad andr\u00e9s bello\nthe pine marten\u2019s name comes from where it lives : mainly coniferous forests such as pine forests .\ntitle =\nthe response of european pine marten ( martes martes l . ) feeding to the changes of small mammal abundance\n,\nresults of causal modeling of landscape resistance on genetic distance in european pine marten according to mantel and partial mantel tests for the untransformed distances .\nthis species is also known as the pineten , sweet marten or baum marten .\ntemple hj , terry a ( 2009 ) the status and distribution of european mammals . office for official publications of the european communities , luxembourg\nthis is the best picture \ud83d\ude09 and my first picture and time i saw european pine marten ! in love ! but\u2026 pine marten is a predator ! the diet includes small mammals , carrion , birds , insects , and fruits .\nthe vwt has been studying the pine marten for more than 30 years and has published , or has contributed to , a number of research papers on the pine marten . this work has included investigating the distribution and status of the pine marten in england and wales , documenting pine marten range expansion in scotland and developing and trialing field techniques for monitoring pine martens .\neuropean pine marten is a rare animal in western europe while in latvia it is common . harsh winters when there are many fallen animals is celebration for this small animal .\nthe winter coat of the european pine marten has always been much in demand . the species has been successfully kept on fur farms . life history characteristics , however , prevent trade of pine marten fur from being feasible on a large commercial scale ( grzimek 1990 ) .\nof the mustelids , the pine marten is the only one with semi - retractable claws .\nmanzo e , bartolommei p , rowcliffe j , cozzolino r ( 2012 ) estimation of population density of european pine marten in central italy using camera trapping . acta theriol 57 : 165\u2013172\neuropean pine martens may live for up to 18 years in captivity but more often live for 8 - 10 years in the wild .\nmergey m , larroque j , ruette s , vandel j - m , helder r , et al . ( 2012 ) linking habitat characteristics with genetic diversity of the european pine marten (\nthe raw microsatellite data and geographic coordinates of the 101 pine marten individuals are included in table s2 .\no\u2019mahony d , o\u2019reilly c , turner p ( 2006 ) national pine marten survey of ireland 2005 .\nin ireland , pine marten were once widely distributed throughout every county . current pine marten distribution is largely concentrated in western counties and the midlands of ireland . the species now occurs in approximately 50 % of its historical range . pine marten remain extinct throughout the majority of munster and are very rare in ulster .\n) in europe : a call for a co - ordinated european approach . biol conserv 141 : 2564\u20132575\npopulation in bialowieza forest ( e poland ) compared with other european woodlands . ecography 29 : 31\u201343 .\nschroepfer , r . , p . wiegand , h . hogrefe . 1997 . the implications of territoriality for the social system of the european pine marten , / martes martes ( l . , 1758 ) . .\nit is thought there could be a link between the pine marten population and the numbers of reds and greys .\nteerink bj ( 1991 ) hair of west - european mammals , 1st edn . cambridge university press , cambridge\n) : preliminary distribution survey on the northern iberian peninsula . european journal of wildlife research 54 : 253\u2013261 .\npereboom v , mergey m , villerette n , helder r , gerard jf , et al . ( 2008 ) movement patterns , habitat selection , and corridor use of a typical woodland - dweller species , the european pine marten (\nthe first confirmed sighting of a wild pine marten in england for over a century has been recorded in a shropshire woodland .\nwe laid bait to get the foxes to show up , however we got a rare visit of a pine marten instead .\nthe pine marten is listed as a protected species in appendix iii of the 1979 bern convention on the conservation of european wildlife and natural habitats . it is also included in annex v of the european community ' s habitat and species directive of 1992 , as a species ' of community interest whose taking in the wild and exploitation may be subject to management measures ' .\npine marten occur throughout mainland europe , stretching from the ural mountains in the east to ireland at the western edge of the species global distribution . they can also be found in parts of the middle east . in europe , pine marten exist with a similar species called the beech or stone marten , although that species tends to be more associated with areas of human habitation . also , in the eastern parts of pine marten distribution ( mainly russia ) there is some overlap with a related marten species known as the sable .\nsample locations and microsatellite data . complete genetic profiles ( 15 microsatellite loci ) and the geographic coordinates for the 101 pine marten individuals\njordan nr ( 2011 ) a strategy for restoring the pine marten to england and wales . report published by the vincent wildlife trust\noh ! that was a surprise ! something in the apple tree . . jumping\u2026 from one to another\u2026 squirrel ! but wait ! it is not a squirrel ! what is it ! ? it is a european pine marten i guess ! can\u2019t see !\n) : assessing species and individual identification success rates on faecal dna genotyping . european journal of wildlife research 59 : 371\u2013386 .\nthe pine marten ( martes martes ) is likely to have arrived in britain and ireland soon after the end of the last glaciation .\neuropean pine marten has very wide food range . in summer they usually feed on different insects , amphibians , small insectivores , mouse - like rodents , birds , berries and fruits . when there is a bad year for mouse - like rodents pine marten mostly feed on squirrels and birds . it really likes honey that pine marten seeks not only in bumblebee nest but also in bee - gardens . in winter mostly it live by carrion . pine marten can eat about 100g meat at once . it has to eat as much as 1 / 5 of its own weight a day to survive , so it has to run around quite much to make that happen .\nin terms of diet , pine marten are omnivorous taking both plant and animal material . in ireland , pine marten exploit a variety of resources including berries , fruits , small mammals , invertebrates , birds and amphibians . in some areas where pine marten occur close to towns and villages the species will exploit rubbish bins for food . in other countries , pine martens rely heavily on microtine rodents such as voles and also in colder countries on carrion , especially in winter . when foraging , pine marten will usually stay within their own territory , which will have a variety of food resources available within it .\nthe research leading to these results received funding from the european community ' s seventh framework programme ( fp7 / 2007 - 2013 ) under the project \u201ceuropean management platform for emerging and re - emerging infectious disease entities\u201d ( emperie ) ec grant agreement number 223498 .\neuropean pine martens are preyed upon by red foxes and golden eagles . humans persecute this species as a result of habitat loss , predator control intended for other species and farming for their fur .\npine martens and their dens are afforded full protection under the wildlife and countryside act , 1981 and the environmental protection act , 1990 ( 7 ) . conservation management in areas where the pine marten persists may help the species . potential measures include planting corridors of trees between patches of suitable habitat , and providing cover for shelter ( 2 ) . in 2014 , the vincent wildlife trust ( vwt ) launched its pine marten recovery project which saw the translocation of pine martens from scotland to restore a healthy pine marten population in the rural landscape of wales . the first step was completed in autumn 2015 , with the translocation of 20 pine martens , and the first welsh - born pine marten kits arrived in early summer 2016 ( 9 ) .\no\u2019mahony d , o\u2019reilly c , turner p ( 2006 ) national pine marten survey of ireland 2005 . coford connects . environment 7 : 1\u20138\nbirks j , crooks j , noble m ( 2005 ) a 2003 pine marten record for hampshire . newsl hamps mamm group 6 : 9\nbright pw , smithson tj ( 1997 ) species recovery programme for the pine marten in england : 1995\u201396 . english nature research reports volume 240\nthere are eight marten species in the world altogether , and these include the beech marten , which occurs in europe and asia , and the american marten and the fisher , both of which are found throughout northern parts of north america .\none of britain\u2019s rarest and most elusive animals has been found in wales , after a hunt lasting more than 40 years \u2013 the pine marten .\nthis species prefers well - wooded areas . the pine marten often makes its den in hollow trees or on scrub covered cliffs ( 2 ) .\nthe health and weight of grey squirrels in the pine marten zone is \u201cextremely poor , \u201d while squirrels in an area without martens \u201care thriving\u201d .\nto obtain insight regarding the prevalence of anelloviruses in pine martens , a degenerate universal anellovirus pcr targeting the untranslated region of the anellovirus genome was performed on pine marten rectal swabs by the method of ninomiya and coworkers ( 27 ) . all four pine martens were positive for anelloviruses , indicating that anelloviruses are prevalent among pine martens . pcr fragments from pine marten swabs vs4700001 to vs4700003 were cloned , and eight clones were sequenced per sample . two different anellovirus variants were observed in rectal swab vs4700001 , and the pcr fragments of the nontranslated region of pine marten anelloviruses from rectal swabs vs4700001 to vs4700004 showed \u223c48 to 100 % similarity to each other , suggesting that pine martens are infected with different anellovirus variants .\njongman rhg ( 2002 ) homogenisation and fragmentation of the european landscape : ecological consequences and solutions . landscape and urban planning 58 : 211\u2013221 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - pine marten ( martes martes )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - pine marten ( martes martes )\ntitle =\narkive species - pine marten ( martes martes )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\neuropean pine martens inhabit a large area across most of mainland europe and into the west of asia including russia . in the united kingdom they are mostly restricted to scotland with some small populations present in england .\nclevenger , a . 1993 . pine marten ( / martes martes / ) home ranges and activity patterns on the island of minorca , spain . .\npine marten survey suggests recovery one of scotland ' s rarest carnivores is showing signs of recovery after years of declining populations , a new report suggests .\nthe pine marten , a cat - sized carnivore related to the stoat , was believed to be confined mostly to forests in the west of northern ireland .\nsheehy , emma and colin lawton . \u201cpopulation crash in an invasive species following the recovery of a native predator : the case of the american grey squirrel and the european pine marten in ireland\u201d . biodiversity and conservation 23 . 3 ( 2014 ) : 753 - 774 . web . 5 sept . 2016 .\nthe pine marten , once common in the uk , is a natural predator of the grey squirrel and has successfully reduced their numbers in ireland . photograph : alamy\nfamilies were identified , as was a circovirus - like virus that potentially constitutes a new virus family . pine martens and european badgers do not seem to harbor as many different mammalian viruses as california sea lions and bats do (\ntrees for life , 2004 .\nspecies profile : pine marten\n( on - line ) . trees for life . accessed may 05 , 2004 at urltoken .\nthe following habitats are found across the pine marten distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .\nthreats to the pine marten include unsustainable hunting and trapping , incidental poisoning , and the loss and fragmentation of woodland habitats . the marten is still hunted and trapped for its fur in some parts of its range . its decline in britain was due to persecution , and the species is still subject to persecution even in some countries in which it is protected . efforts to control other carnivore species sometimes result in pine marten deaths .\njongman r , bouwma i , van doorn a ( 2006 ) indicative map of the pan\u2013european ecological network in western europe . wageningen : alterra . 104 p .\nmajor threats to the pine marten include unsustainable hunting and trapping , incidental poisoning , and the loss and fragmentation of woodland habitats . the marten is still hunted and trapped for its fur in some parts of its range . its decline in britain was due to persecution , and the species is still subject to persecution even in some countries in which it is protected . efforts to control other carnivore species sometimes result in pine marten deaths .\ncaryl fm , raynor r , quine cp , park kj ( 2012 ) the seasonal diet of british pine marten determined from genetically identified scats . j zool 288 : 252\u2013259\nbalestrieri a , remonti l , ruiz - gonzalez a , gomez - moliner bj , vergara m , et al . ( 2010 ) range expansion of the pine marten (\nbrainerd sm ( 1990 ) the pine marten and forest fragmentation : a review and synthesis . in : transactions of the 19th iugb congress , trondheim , norway , pp 421\u2013434\nthough the mechanism behind any causation has not been proven , there is a powerful correlation between areas of pine marten recolonization , grey squirrel population crashes and red squirrel resurgence .\nthe main objective of this research is to evaluate a large suite of alternative resistance hypotheses for the pine marten and compare the most supported empirical model with the expert - derived landscape resistance model used to parameterize the corridor network for the basque country . specifically , we aim to evaluate ( 1 ) different binary landscape resistance maps which cover a gradient from greater to lesser preference of the pine marten for forest environments in order to identify which land uses favour or impede genetic interchange in the study area ; and secondly ( 2 ) whether or not the resistance map with which the regional ecological network was originally designed in the basque country was correctly parametrized to reflect european pine marten gene flow .\nfound throughout most of central and northern europe ( 4 ) . in the uk , the pine marten is restricted to the scottish highlands and grampian , and a few populations occur in southern scotland . the pine marten is extinct throughout most of england and wales ( 2 ) with a few scattered records in the north and in wales ( 5 ) .\nstorch i , lindstrom e , dejounge j ( 1990 ) diet and habitat selection of the pine marten in relation to competition with the red fox . acta theriol 35 : 311\u2013320\nin 2011 , the trust developed a long - term pine marten conservation strategy in collaboration with other statutory and voluntary conservation bodies . what is clear from our extensive studies carried out over several decades is that numbers of this elusive mammal in england and wales are so low that without intervention the pine marten is likely to go extinct in england and wales .\nbright p , halliwell e , mitchell - jones t ( 2000 ) return of the pine marten to england : proposed recovery programme for one of britain\u2019s rarest mammals . public consultation\nshaw g , livingstone j ( 1992 ) the pine marten : its reintroduction and subsequent history in the galloway forest park . trans dumfries galloway nat his antiq soc 67 : 1\u20137\nthe body and tail are covered in dark brown fur , which is short and coarse in summer , but thicker and more silky in winter . the large cream - coloured throat patch or ' bib ' distinguishes the pine marten from the beech marten , which has a white throat patch . the fur on the pine marten ' s paws is darker brown in colour , and the pads on the undersides of its feet are covered with fur in winter .\ncitation : ruiz - gonz\u00e1lez a , gurrutxaga m , cushman sa , madeira mj , randi e , g\u00f3mez - moliner bj ( 2014 ) landscape genetics for the empirical assessment of resistance surfaces : the european pine marten ( martes martes ) as a target - species of a regional ecological network . plos one 9 ( 10 ) : e110552 . urltoken\neven though no previous individual - based landscape genetics data was available for the pine marten , mergey et al . [ 58 ] found that genetic diversity is not associated with habitat fragmentation metrics in france , in spite of the existence of a high degree of forest fragmentation in the studied marten populations . however , this result does not demonstrate that the pine marten gene flow is not affected by forest fragmentation processes . thus , a more detailed individual - based landscape genetics analysis ( larroque et al . unpublished data ) , could provide better insights into the landscape processes governing gene flow and an interesting comparative framework with spanish pine marten populations .\nthe vwt has identified areas in england that have suitable habitat for pine martens .\nand there it was ! i run to get my camera , stepped in janis big snow boots and grabbed a coat . run outside and started to look for the pine marten .\nphylogenetic analysis of pine marten torque teno virus . ( a ) genome organization of the pine marten torque teno virus . the black boxes represent orf1 to orf3 . the location of the tata box is indicated . nt , nucleotide . ( b ) a phylogenetic tree of the amino acid sequences of anellovirus orf1 was generated by using mega4 , the neighbor - joining method with\nin the last 20 years , the trust has received more than 300 credible reports of sightings of pine martens in wales and has built up a map of \u2018hot spot\u2019 areas . it has organised numerous hunts for pine marten scats ( droppings ) using teams of volunteers , deployed remote cameras and set up baited hair tubes , yet until now the most recent unequivocal evidence was a pine marten scat found in cwm rheidol forest in 2007 and later positively dna tested .\npotential threats to pine marten include unsustainable hunting and trapping , incidental poisoning , and the loss and fragmentation of woodland habitats . this marten is hunted and trapped for its fur in some parts of its range . its decline in britain was because of persecution as a predator of livestock and , particularly , of game , and the species is still subject to persecution even in some countries in which it is protected . efforts to control other carnivore species sometimes result in pine marten deaths .\npine martens are omnivorous . they mainly eat rodents , birds , fruit and insects .\nthe european pine marten is covered with a coat of dark brown fur . this is thick over winter and thins out over the summer . over winter the pads of their feet will also be covered in fur . the tail is long and bushy . under the throat is a \u201cbib\u201d of white to creamy orange fur . on the belly the fur has a greyish tint .\nthe pine marten can be found in a number of locations including : asia , europe , russia , united kingdom , wales . find out more about these places and what else lives there .\n) . the ictv criteria for classification of bocaviruses establishes that members of each species are probably antigenically distinct , that natural infection is confined to a single host species , and that species are defined as < 95 % homologous in nonstructural ( ns ) gene dna sequence . although the antigenic properties of the pine marten bocavirus were not studied , the identification in a new natural host in combination with a genetic diversity of pine marten bocavirus vp2 compared to other bocavirus vp2 proteins of \u223c48 to 69 % on the amino acid level suggests that the pine marten bocavirus is a new bocavirus species .\nstatus listed as a protected species in appendix iii of the 1979 bern convention on the conservation of european wildlife and natural habitats . also included in annex v of the european community\u2019s habitat and species directive of 1992 , as a species \u201cof community interest whose taking in the wild and exploitation may be subject to management measures\u201d . also listed as a uk bap priority species .\nrecent abundance estimates suggest that the total population of pine marten in ireland is approximately 2 , 700 individuals , making it ireland\u2019s rarest native mammal species . there are number of factors that can impact on pine marten populations including land use planning , forest management practices such as harvesting , habitat fragmentation , inbreeding , illegal persecution either through generic poisoning or deliberate killing and destruction of forest / scrub habitat for development . pine marten are susceptible to habitat loss and human persecution in ireland , and due to their low population size and slow breeding performance should be seen as vulnerable for the foreseeable future .\nphylogenetic trees of the complete amino acid sequences of the rep ( a ) and capsid ( b ) of the two circular identified viruses from european badger , mmfv ( genbank accession no .\na tree - climbing relative of the otter and the stoat , the pine marten had become extinct throughout much of britain by the early 20th century , although numbers of the animal survived in scotland .\nsheehy e , o\u2019meara d , o\u2019reilly c , smart a , lawton c ( 2013 ) a non - invasive approach to determining pine marten abundance and predation . eur j wildl res . doi :\ni stood quietly at the window and looked at the \u201cpine marten\u201d . that was all i can do , had all my girls at home and it was snowy and cold outside . if i move to take a camera and run outside it certainly will be gone\u2026 it was quick ! i enjoyed the view mother nature gave to us . but i looked through windows for pine marten all the time !\nthe pine marten has few natural enemies itself , apart from humanity . it is occasionally preyed upon by the golden eagle ( aquila chrysaetos ) , and the red fox ( vulpes vulpes ) may kill a marten , not only to eat it , but also to eliminate a potential competitor for the same food resources .\nzalewski , a . , w . jedrzejewski , b . jedrzejewska . 1995 . pine marten home ranges , numbers and predation on vertebrates in a deciduous forest ( bialowieza national park , poland ) . .\nout of 262 faecal samples identified as pine marten , 108 were not included to the microsatellite genotyping procedure . these samples correspond to the sampling period from 2004\u20132005 , which was used for a first distribution assessment of sympatric martens in the study area and were not potentially fresh enough for microsatellite analysis . thus , 213 pine marten samples ( 154 faecal samples and 59 tissue samples ) were used for microsatellite genotyping .\npine martens are nocturnal , house cat - sized members of the stoat and weasel family .\ninfra - red cameras capture the first visit of a family of pine martens on film .\nthe elusive , generally nocturnal pine marten ( martes martes ) ( 3 ) has chestnut - brown to dark brown fur with a creamy - yellow bib . the tail is long and fluffy ( 2 ) .\nkurki s , nikula a , helle p , linden h ( 1998 ) abundances of red fox and pine marten in relation to the composition of boreal forest landscapes . journal of animal ecology 67 : 874\u2013886 .\nin a testament to how scarce and how extremely elusive they are , a forty year man - hunt went by in wales without one sighting of a pine marten . the evidence before and after was roadkill .\nan average european pine marten measures between 45 and 58cm ( 17 to 22in ) with the tail adding between 16 and 28cm ( 6 . 3 and 11cm ) to their length . due to a large geographical range they can vary greatly in size . males are often 10 - 30 % larger than females . they weigh between 0 . 9 and 2kg ( 2 - 4 . 5lbs ) on average .\nsince then , its range in scotland has increased due to the expansion of commercial forestry plantations , and more recently , the regeneration of native woodlands . the pine marten prefers well - wooded areas with plenty of cover , but it lives in more open habitats as well . there is a captive breeding programme underway in kent , and suggestions have been made for the pine marten to be reintroduced to parts of southern england .\nin 2014 , the vwt in consultation with and support from various conservation bodies launched its pine marten recovery project . the aim of the project is to restore self - sustaining populations of pine martens to england and wales . the first step was completed in autumn 2015 , with the translocation of 20 pine martens from scotland to mid - wales and further translocations of 19 pine martens took place in autumn 2016 . you can find out more about this ground - breaking project on the dedicated project website .\ndr declan o\u2019mahony is a wildlife ecologist and has been conducting research on mammals for over 12 years . he has been working with pine marten in ireland for the last seven years conducting basic and applied research on this important species . his interest in pine marten was influenced by the general lack of knowledge and data on the species\u2019 ecology and conservation status in ireland , despite its protected status . currently , he is most interested in undertaking further research on pine marten ecology and developing conservation management strategies for the species with key stakeholders ( i . e . forest companies ) that minimise any impacts of forest management . some references are included below .\nstrachan r , jefferies dj , chanin prf ( 1996 ) strachan , r , jefferies , dj , chanin prf ( 1996 ) pine marten survey of england and wales 1987\u20131988 . jncc , peterborough . jncc , peterborough\nde marinis am , messeti m ( 1995 ) feeding habits of the pine marten martes martes in europe : a review . hystrix 7 : 143\u2013150 martens are generalist feeders , varying diet according to what is available .\nthough they have least concern conservation status in europe , pine martens went through some dark times in ireland and the uk . the fur trade that once drove russian commerce and fueled european exploration across the top of northern america had a strong lust for pine marten . the value of their hides was such that the exports came to be known as soft gold . by the early 1900\u2019s , a combination of deforestation , predator persecution and direct hunting for furs drove populations of ireland and the uk to dangerous all - time lows .\nmessenger j , croose e , turner p , o\u2019reilly c ( 2010 ) the vincent wildlife trust and waterford institute of technology pine marten scat dna survey of england and wales 2008\u20132009 . report published by the vincent wildlife trust\nconsequently , the pine marten is a species which is well suited to studies focused on the effects of forest fragmentation on genetic structure and gene flow [ 56 ] . however , whether habitat characteristics that predict marten occupancy act as barriers to dispersal , influencing gene flow and population genetic structure across the landscape , is largely unknown [ 56 ] .\nthe discovery of a new anellovirus and bocavirus from pine marten rectal swabs and a circovirus - like virus from european badgers is an example of the needed expansion of our knowledge of the virus diversity present in the animal reservoir . in addition , a new potential mycovirus was identified from a european badger rectal swab . sequence - independent amplification of viral nucleic acid in combination with a next - generation sequencing platform , which we used to discover these viruses , provides a relatively simple , unselective technology to identify new viral species , as was observed previously with similar techniques ( 8 , 11 , 21 \u2013 23 , 35 , 36 , 39 ) .\nbirks jds , messenger j ( 2000 ) a response from the vincent wildlife trust to \u2018return of the pine marten to england\u2019 ( public consultation by the people\u2019s trust for endangered species ) . unpublished report , the vincent wildlife trust\nmortelliti a , amori g , capizzi d , rondinini c , boitani l ( 2010 ) experimental design and taxonomic scope of fragmentation studies of european mammals : current status and future priorities . mamm rev 40 : 125\u2013154\nthe pine marten was once the second most common carnivore in britain during the mesolithic era . the clearance of woodlands , together with predator control , had a devastating effect on the pine marten population and by 1915 this species was confined to just a few of the more remote areas across britain and ireland . small populations survived in wales and the marches and in areas of northern england , with relatively strong populations still present in parts of the scottish highlands .\no\u2019 mahony , d . ( 2009 ) socio - spatial ecology and habitat selection of pine marten ( martes martes ) in upland coniferous plantations , ireland . report to department of agriculture fisheries food and peoples trust for endangered species .\nnow , however , a carcass of a pine marten which had been killed by a vehicle has been found on the roadside near newtown in powys , and dna analysis has confirmed that the young male was a native british animal .\npertoldi c , munoz j , madsen ab , barker jsf , andersen dh , baag\u00f8e hj , birch m , loeschcke v ( 2008b ) genetic variability in the mitochondrial dna of the danish pine marten . j zool 276 : 168\u2013175\ndomingo - roura x ( 2002 ) genetic distinction of marten species by fixation of a microsatellite region . j mammal 83 : 907\u2013912\nwe have no proof that a pine marten has never killed a lamb . that would mean witnessing the entire life of every lamb ever born , to validate that its death could not be attributed to the mustelid . however , we also have absolutely no proof that pine martens do kill lambs , and plenty of reason to believe that they don\u2019t .\na thorough understanding of the diversity of viruses in wildlife provides epidemiological baseline information about potential pathogens . metagenomic analysis of the enteric viral flora revealed a new anellovirus and bocavirus species in pine martens and a new circovirus - like virus and geminivirus - related dna virus in european badgers . in addition , sequences with homology to viruses from the families\nonly strongholds in the wild irish west , scottish highlands and tiny pockets of wales remained ; the marten was locally extinct in england .\nthe pine marten is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 8 ) , and is listed on schedule 5 of the wildlife and countryside act , 1981 and schedule 3 of the conservation regulations 1994 ( 1 ) .\nthe pine marten is an adept tree climber , with many adaptations including bone and muscle structure for powerful forelimbs , long tail to aid in balancing , and well - developed claws ( grzimek 1990 , corbet and southern 1977 , nowak 1999 ) .\n\u201cwe are seeing species that have never been seen before in ireland being introduced by these people . look at the pine marten , the most nasty vicious bird that you have ever seen . they were never in ireland but have been introduced . \u201d\nclevenger , a . 1994 . habitat characteristics of eurasian pine martens martes martes in an insular mediterranean environment . .\naccording to iucn , pine marten is common and widespread throughout its range but no overall population estimate is available . according to the british wildlife center resource , the total population size of the pine marten in britain in pre - breeding season is estimated to be 3 , 300 individuals . this includes only 120 martens in england , 60 martens in wales and rest in scotland . according to the iucn red list , the average annual spring number of pine martens in russia was 187 , 000 individuals in 2011 - 2013 . currently this species is classified as least concern ( lc ) and its numbers today remain stable .\nscientists usually survey for pine marten by looking for their faeces ( or scats as they are known ) along forest tracks and roads and due to confusion with fox and stoat faeces , genetic testing is required to confirm the source ,\nhe said .\nmitchell - jones aj , amori g , bogdanowicz w , krystufek b , reijnders pjh , spitzenberger f , stubbe m , thissen jbm , vohralik v , zima j ( 1999 ) the atlas of european mammals . academic press , london , united kingdom\nmitchell - jones a , amori g , bogdanowicz w , krystufek b , reijnders pjh , spitzenberger f , stubbe m , thissen jbm , vohralik v , zima j ( 1999 ) the atlas of european mammals . academic press inc . , san diego\nb ) . our data therefore suggest that the torque teno virus species identified in pine martens belongs to a new genus .\n\u201clike most predators , [ pine martens ] turnout to be essential to the survival of a healthy living systems\u201d \u2013george monbiot .\npine marten can utilise a variety of den sites , which are used for breeding . den sites can include rock crevices , tree cavities , subterranean burrows , buildings ( abandoned or occupied ) , old bird nests , squirrel dreys and log piles . these sites provide cover from weather extremes and safety from potential predators . den sites are normally only occupied during the breeding season . outside of this period , pine marten use what are termed refuge sites . refuge sites can be very varied although normally they are located several metres off the ground in forest canopy . upturned or blown over tress are often used as refuge sites but the species can exploit any habitat feature that provides cover and safety . pine marten will tend to have refuge and den sites that are used repeatedly in a forest and they can have a high fidelity to these sites .\n\u201cgrey squirrel sightings accounted for less than 8 % of animal sightings in [ the irish midlands ] , which is remarkably low considering that they are a much less elusive species than either the red squirrel or the pine marten , and are also more commonly associated with human settlements . \u201d\npine martens are found all over europe , from western russia to italy . in the northern mainland they co - exist with stone martens , and towards eastern europe , with the sable marten , which may start to sound familiar as you think about gloves and thick , expensive coats .\nduring autumn 2015 , twenty pine martens were captured in scotland , in areas where there is a healthy pine marten population , under licence from scottish natural heritage . these animals were translocated and released in an area of mid - wales . all of the martens were fitted with radio - collars and are being tracked daily to monitor their movements and find out where they have set up territories . during autumn 2016 ,\nso what\u2019s going on ? well it now seems that the reason why grey squirrels never got past the shannon is not that they couldn\u2019t cross the river . they can swim , and there are plenty of places in which they could move through the trees without getting their feet wet . it\u2019s because the far side of the shannon was pine marten territory . and pine martens love grey squirrels \u2013 in the strictly carnal sense .\nas a predator , the pine marten plays an important role in regulating the numbers of its prey species . in the case of voles and other rodents which undergo periodic population explosions , it responds to the cycle of greater numbers by increasing the proportion of these animals in its diet . however , because of its delayed breeding cycle , any resultant increase in marten numbers does not occur until the following year , when food supplies may not be so abundant .\nout of 733 faecal samples collected from the entire study area , 141 were discarded because they were not fresh or because they presumably belong to the same individual ( samples separated by < 1km ) . 494 out of 592 analyzed samples were classified as martes sp . ( m . martes and m . foina ) based on genetic species identification results . thus , unequivocal species identification was possible in 83 . 45 % of the samples . we effectively identified 232 faecal samples as stone marten and 262 as pine marten . additionally , we obtained 57 tissue samples from road - killed pine martens .\nit was driven to extinction in the 19 th century , mostly by gamekeepers , but it now clings on in small numbers , as a result of deliberate releases and escapes from falconers . it is still being illegally killed by gamekeepers . like the pine marten , the goshawk hunts grey squirrels .\nricanova s , bryja j , cosson jf , csongor g , choleva l , ambros m , sedlacek f ( 2011 ) depleted genetic variation of the european ground squirrel in central europe in both microsatellites and the major histocompatibility complex gene : implications for conservation . conserv genet 12 : 1115\u20131129\no\u2019mahony , d . , turner , p , o\u2019reilly , c . ( 2012 ) pine marten ( martes martes ) distribution and abundance in ireland : a cross - jurisdictional analysis using non - invasive genetic survey techniques . mammalian biology \u2013 zeitschrift f\u00fcr s\u00e4ugetierkunde , 77 ( 5 ) , 351 - 357\nkoen el , bowman j , garroway cj , mills sc , wilson pj ( 2012 ) landscape resistance and american marten gene flow . landscape ecology 27 : 29\u201343 .\nleast cost paths ( lcp ) obtained between the 101 pine marten individuals in accordance with the en resistance map , analogous to that used in the design of the corridors in the ecological network of the basque country ( north spain ) [ 41 ] . resistance values for each land use are indicated in brackets .\npotential threats to the pine marten include unsustainable trapping and hunting , incidental poisoning , and the fragmentation and loss of woodland habitats . this species is trapped and hunted in some portions of its range for its fur . its decline in britain was due to persecution for predating on livestock and , particularly , game . it is still persecuted in some countries where it is protected . the efforts to control other carnivores sometimes cause the death of pine martens .\nwell suited to a life amongst the trees european pine martens mostly live in forests . they will also venture in to the grasslands adjacent to these areas . their territory is marked by depositing their feces around the perimeter . the size of their territory is decided by the amount of available food in these areas . they will make a den in hollow trees or fallen root masses most often with shrub covered cliffs also used on occasion .\nbut a survey by queen ' s university , belfast , and 70 volunteer conservationists has shown that pine martens are present in every county .\nthere is a healthy population of at least 4 , 000 pine martens in scotland , and small numbers live around snowdonia , in wales .\nwind farms , coal mining , animal protein , donald trump , vegans , you name it . while some of these demons undoubtedly deserve their reputation , others are getting way too much abuse . in an effort to right some wrongs to a poor arboreal mustelid\u2019s reputation , let\u2019s shed some light on the pine marten .\nthe most consistent marten - habitat relation appears to be a general association with forest habitats , and avoidance of open , non - forested habitats [ 48 ] , [ 51 ] , [ 52 ] . thus , the marten ' s unwillingness to cross open habitats may restrict the species ' ability to disperse and colonise new forested areas [ 51 ] , [ 55 ] . ruiz - gonz\u00e1lez et al . [ 52 ] found that pine marten occurrence in the study area is highly dependent on the presence of forest and consequently sensitive to forest fragmentation as has been previously suggested in other studies across europe [ 49 ] , [ 51 ] . nevertheless , the presence of forest habitats is not the only factor which explains pine marten gene flow in the study area , indicating that the habitat selection and gene flow of pine martens may be driven by different factors [ 17 ] , [ 25 ] , [ 31 ] . this may be because gene flow is driven by mating and dispersal events and habitat selection reflects the behaviour of individual organisms to maximize fitness within home ranges ( e . g . [ 102 ] ) .\nthe pine marten is a medium - sized member of the mustelid family of carnivorous mammals , whose other members include the stoat , weasel and badger . it is about the size of a cat , with a body up to 53 cm . long and a bushy tail which can be 25 cm . in length . an individual will weigh between 1 . 3 and 1 . 7 kg . , with the female being slightly smaller than the male . in the wild , the pine marten can live up to 11 years , although the average lifespan is 3 - 4 years . in captivity ages up to 18 years have been recorded .\nfascinating facts the soles of their feet are covered in thick fur , which probably helps them to move across snow - covered ground . in the wild , the pine marten can live up to 11 years , although the average lifespan is 3 - 4 years . in captivity ages up to 18 years have been recorded .\nmeanwhile , the game and wildlife conservation trust , which i see as a greenwashing agency for the shooting industry ( how many conservation groups do you know that teach children to use shot guns and run courses on snaring , lamping and trapping ? ) , is campaigning to reduce pine marten populations in scotland . yes , reduce .\nthe finding brings to a climax the organised hunt for pine martens in wales which has been carried out in recent decades by the vincent wildlife trust .\nto obtain more pine marten bocavirus sequences , an additional \u223c42 , 000 trimmed reads obtained via next - generation sequencing with a 454 gs junior instrument ( roche ) were analyzed from sample vs4700002 , and a few bocavirus reads were identified . specific primers vs656 ( 5\u2032 - ttccaggaggatgtttcattgg - 3\u2032 ) and vs657 ( 5\u2032 - ttccaggaggatgtttcattgg - 3\u2032 ) designed on the obtained 454 sequencing reads were used to obtain a 1 , 048 - bp pcr amplicon of the genome region encoding vp2 , using amplitaq gold dna polymerase ( roche ) , according to the instructions of the manufacturer . the obtained pine marten bocavirus vp2 protein sequence was aligned to the corresponding vp2 protein sequences of other bocaviruses in genbank using clustal x2 (\nin summer , the diet is more varied , and includes bird eggs , honey , caterpillars and fruits such as blaeberries ( vaccinium myrtillus ) . in a good berry season , these latter can form 30 % of the marten ' s food and give a telltale blue colour to the animal ' s scat . some food is stored in the summer and autumn for retrieval in the winter . as a mainly nocturnal animal , the pine marten forages at night or dusk , and can roam more than 10 kilometres from its den in search of food .\nhunting area in winters is larger than 10km2 , so if pine marten has had bad luck in hunt it has to run even 30km to have something to eat , so carrion is very important . when tummy is full pine marten goes to its lair to sleep . lair usually is made under tree roots , tree stumps in hollows or squirrel nests . however , if the weather is nice enough it can sleep in bigger bird nests , but when it is very cold it make a nest under snow . if there are many pine martens in the same territory they go hunting each by itself . to stay out of any conflicts , they leave scent marks . to mark their territory martens leave faeces , urine , rub their anal sacs against branches , ground or snow . when little animal is eating it shouldn\u2019t lose alertness so time to time it stands up to look around .\nthe pine marten is omnivorous . it favors animal food , relying on small mammals for most of the year . the diet composition and proportion often change according to season and local conditions . populations respond to the unpredictable cycles of rodents , such as voles , by drastically increasing their consumption of these prey items ( zalewski et al 1995 ) . the reproductive characteristics of\ntwo aspects of this story jump out at me . the first is the greys\u2019 astonishing speed of retreat . the numbers just don\u2019t add up : the martens simply couldn\u2019t eat that many squirrels . as the paper points out , \u201cit would be unlikely that a low - density pine marten population could impact a high - density grey squirrel population by direct predation alone . \u201d\nphylogenetic trees of the partial amino acid sequences of the vp2 protein of the pine marten bocavirus and other selected bocaviruses . phylograms were generated using mega4 , with the neighbor - joining method with p - distance and 1 , 000 bootstrap replicates . significant bootstrap values are shown . the viruses and genbank accession numbers shown in the phylogenetic tree follow : hbov1 , human bocavirus 1 ( ab480186 ) ; hbov2 , human bocavirus 2 ( fj973558 ) ; hbov3 , human bocavirus 3 ( gq867667 ) ; hbov4 , human bocavirus 4 ( nc _ 012729 ) ; gbov1 , gorilla bocavirus 1 ( nc _ 014358 ) ; porcine bocavirus ( hm053693 ) ; canine minute virus ( fj899734 ) ; bovine parvovirus ( nc _ 001540 ) , pine marten bocavirus ( jq085286 ) .\nin the uk , the pine marten is protected under the wildlife and countryside act of 1981 , and it cannot be trapped , disturbed or sold without a specific licence from the relevant government conservation agency - in scotland this is scottish natural heritage . however , despite this legal protection , martens are still killed inadvertently each year by traps or poisoned bait set out for crows or foxes .\ncushman sa , raphael mg , ruggiero lf , shirk as , wasserman tn , et al . ( 2011 ) limiting factors and landscape connectivity : the american marten in the rocky mountains . landscape ecology 26 : 1137\u20131149 .\nthe pine marten has a palearctic distribution : its geographic range extends from western siberia across russia and europe to scotland and ireland , and from the northern limit of the boreal or coniferous forest in the north to the mediterranean and the caucasus region in the south . it is also found on many of the mediterranean islands , including sicily , corsica , sardinia and the balearic islands of majorca and minorca ."]}
{"id": 1913, "summary": [{"text": "salpa fusiformis , sometimes known as the common salp , is the most widespread species of salp .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they have a cosmopolitan distribution , and can be found at depths of 0 to 800 m ( 0 to 2,625 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "they exhibit diel vertical migration , moving closer to the surface at night .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "they can occur in very dense swarms , as solitary zooids or as colonies .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "solitary zooids usually measure 22 to 52 mm ( 0.87 to 2.05 in ) in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they are barrel-shaped and elongated , with a rounded front and a flat rear .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "aggregate zooids are 7 to 52 mm ( 0.28 to 2.05 in ) in length individually ( excluding projections ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they are usually barrel or spindle-shaped . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "salpa fusiformis", "paragraphs": ["variety salpa fusiformis var . echinata herdman , 1888 accepted as salpa aspera chamisso , 1819 ( junior synonym )\nforma salpa fusiformis f . aspera von chamisso , 1819 accepted as salpa aspera chamisso , 1819 ( status change )\nfoxton , p . 1961 . salpa fusiformis cuvier and related species . discovery reports 32 : 1 - 32\nfoxton , p . 1961 . salpa fusiformis cuvier and related species . discovery reports , 32 : 1 - 32 .\nfoxton , p . 1961 . salpa fusiformis cuvier and related species . discovery reports 32 : 1 - 32 [ details ]\nthis species can often be confused with salpa aspera . s . fusiformis possesses less muscle fibers within the body muscle bands and a smooth tunic .\nscientific synonyms and common names salpa maxima | var . forsk\u00e5l , 1775 salpa runcinata | chamisso , 1819 biphora depressa | sars , 1829 biphora tricuspidata | sars , 1829 salpa maxima | meyen , 1832 salpa coerulea | quoy and gaimard , 1833\nsalpa fusiformis is a vertical migrator with nightly treks to the surface of up to 500 meters . large widespread surface swarms that persist for weeks occur in the monterey bay area .\nnamngivning : salpa fusiformis cuvier , 1804 . annales de la muse\u00e9 d\u2019histoire naturelle de paris 4 : 360 - 382 . synonymer : salpa runcinata chamisso , 1819 ; biphora depressa sars , 1829 ; biphora tricuspidata sars , 1829 ; salpa coerulea quoy & gaimard , 1834 . etymologi : fusiformis = spolformig ; fusus ( lat . ) = sl\u00e4nda , spole ; formis ( lat . ) = - formig . uttal : [ s\u00e1lpa fusif\u00f3rmis ]\nde visser , j . and r . w . m . van soest , 1987 . salpa fusiformis populations of the north atlantic . biological oceanography , 4 ( 2 ) : 193 - 209\nfiltration and ingestion rates of salpa fusiformis cuvier were determined while fed phaeodactylum tricomutum bohlin at concentrations of 2\u221264 \u00d7 10 3 cells\u00b7ml \u22121 . filtration and ingestion rates increase exponentially with increasing length and body protein . the relations between protein content and body length , and between filtration rate and weight are similar for blastozooids and oozooids . a capture efficiency of the order of 6\u201332 % is calculated : salpa fusiformis seems to have a low retention efficiency , but its very high filtration rate gives it pride of place amongst filter - feeders . specific filtration rates are independent of weight ; specific ingestion rates are independent of weight for blastozooids , but for oozooids they seem to diminish with increasing weight . the mean daily ration ( \u03bcg c ingested \u00b7 \u03bcg body c \u22121 ) is 107 % for a blastozooid and 117 % for an oozooid . specific filtration rates decrease exponentially as particle concentration rises , as for many other filter - feeders , and the specific ingestion rate follows an ivlev relation .\ncuvier , g . 1804 . m\u00e9moire sur les thalides ( thalia browne ) et sur les biphores ( salpa forsk\u00e5l ) . annales du mus\u00e9um national d ' historie naturelle paris 4 : 360 - 382 .\ncuvier , g . 1804 . m\u00e9moire sur les thalides ( thalia browne ) et sur les biphores ( salpa forsk\u00e5l ) . annales du mus\u00e9um national d ' historie naturelle paris 4 : 360 - 382 . [ details ]\n( of salpa clostra milne edwards , 1828 ) metcalf , m . m . 1918 . the salpidae ; a taxonomic study . bulletin united states national museum ( 2 ) 100 ( 2 ) : 5 - 193 . [ details ]\n( of salpa tricuspidata sars , 1829 ) sars , m . ( 1829 ) . bidrag til s\u00f6edyrenes naturhistorie . chr . dahl , bergen . 1 : 1 - 60 , plates 1 - 6 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nsoest , r . w . m . van , 1974 . a revision of the genera salpa forsk\u00e5l , 1775 , pegea savigny , 1816 , and ritteriella metcalf , 1919 ( tunicata , thaliacea ) . beaufortia , 22 ( 293 ) : 153 - 191 .\n( of salpa runcinata chamisso , 1819 ) chamisso , a . von 1819 . de animalibus quibusdam e classe vermium linnaeana . in : circumnavigatione terrae auspicante comte n . romanzoff , duce ottone de kotzbue , annis 1815 - 1818 peracta . berolini , dummlerum . [ details ]\n( of salpa pyramidalis lesson , 1832 ) lesson , r . p . 1832 . zoologie . pp . 256 - 279 , 433 - 440 . in : voyage autour du monde sur la corvette la coquille pendant 1822 - 1825 . volume 2 ( 1 ) . paris : pourret fr\u00e8res . [ details ]\nvan soest , r . w . m . ( 1974 ) . a revision of the genera salpa forsk\u00e5l , 1775 , pegea savigny , 1816 , and ritteriella metcalf , 1919 ( tunicata , thaliacea ) . beaufortia . 22 ( 293 ) : 153 - 191 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of salpa moniliformis macculloch , 1819 ) macculloch , j . 1819 . a description of the western islands of scotland including the isle of man : comprising an account of their geological structure with remarks on their agriculture , scenery , and antiquities . in three volumes . vol . 2 . constable , london and edinburgh . 579 pp . [ details ]\n( of salpa emarginata quoy & gaimard , 1824 ) quoy , j . r . c . ; gaimard , j . p . 1825 . observations sur les biphores et b\u00e9ro\u00e9s , faites pendant le voyage autour du monde de la corvette l ' uranie , command\u00e9e par m . louis de freycinet . annales des sciences naturelles 16 : 28 - 51 . [ details ]\n( of salpa emarginata quoy & gaimard , 1824 ) quoy , j . r . c . ; gaimard , j . p . ( 1824 ) . voyage au tour du monde fait par ordre du roi , sur les corvettes de s . m : l\u2019uranie et la physicienne pendant les ann\u00e9es 1817 \u00e0 1820 . in : desaules de freycinet . iv + 712 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nvan soest , r . w . m . ( 1974 ) . a revision of the genera < i > salpa < / i > forsk\u00e5l , 1775 , < i > pegea < / i > savigny , 1816 , and < i > ritteriella < / i > metcalf , 1919 ( tunicata , thaliacea ) . < em > beaufortia . < / em > 22 ( 293 ) : 153 - 191 .\n( of salpa coerulea quoy & gaimard , 1834 ) quoy , j . r . c . ; gaimard , j . p . ( 1834\u20131835 ) . voyage de d\u00e9couvertes de l\u2019astrolabe ex\u00e9cut\u00e9 par ordre du roi , pendant les ann\u00e9es 1826\u20131827\u20131828\u20131829 , sur le commandement de m . j . dumont d\u2019urville . j . tastu , paris . zoologie , mollusques . 3 : 1 - 366 ( 1834 ) , 367\u2013954 ( 1835 ) , atlas 107 pls . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ncosmopolitan , with the widest distribution of all species of salp , occurs from 50\u00b0 n and 45\u00b0 s in the pacific ocean and from 70\u00b0 n and 45\u00b0 s in the atlantic ocean .\noccurs from the surface to ca . 800 m and will perform diel vertical migrations .\nmedusae , siphonophores , ctenophores , heteropods , sea turtles , marine birds and many fish .\nthe aggregate generation has body muscle bands 1 - 4 and 5 - 6 that fuse dorsally . in some cases , body muscle bands 4 - 5 are fused laterally . the aggregate zooid possesses long fusiform anterior and posterior projections and a smooth thick tunic . the solitary generation also has a smooth thick tunic , and body muscle bands 1 - 3 meet dorsally , and 8 - 9 are strongly fused .\nentirely smooth , moderately thick to thin . muscles ( m ) 1 - 3 strongly fused over a wide area in the mid -\nregion , m8 and m9 are likewise strongly fused . m1 - m9 with 136 - 296 fibres , except for m4 with 14 - 40 fibres . number of muscle fibers is due to\n, in the ne atlantic ranging from 30 to 40 in m4 and from 206 to 281 in m1 - m9 .\nthat are typically long in relation to the body , giving it a slight asymmetry .\nentirely smooth , moderately thick to thin . six body muscles ; m1 - m4 strongly fused over a wide area in mid -\n, eurythermic species , occurring from 70\u00b0n to 45\u00b0s in the atlantic ocean , to 45\u00b0s in the indian ocean and from 50\u00b0n to 45\u00b0s in the pacific ocean .\nhas the widest distribution of all salp species , and is also one of the most abundant ones .\nb\u00e5mstedt , u . , j . h . foss\u00e5 , m . b . martinussen and a . fosshagen , 1998 . mass occurrence of the physonect siphonophore apolemia uvaria ( lesueur ) in norwegian waters . sarsia , 83 : 79 - 85 .\nbone , q . ( ed . ) , 1998 . the biology of pelagic tunicates . oxford university press , oxford . 340 pp .\nfraser , j . h . , 1950 . list of rare exotic species found in the plankton by the scottish research vessels in 1949 . annales biologiques , vol . vi : 95 - 99 . conseil permanent pour l ' exploration de la mer , kopenhagen .\nfraser , j . h . , 1964 . the continuous plankton recorder survey : plankton around the british isles during 1964 . ann . biol . , 21 : 56 - 62 ( cons . perm . int . expl . mer ) .\ngodeaux , j . , q . bone and j . - c . braconnot , 1998 . anatomy of thaliacea . in : q . bone ( ed . ) , 1998 . the biology of pelagic tunicates . oxford university press , oxford . pp 1 - 24 .\ngodeaux , j . , 1998 . the relationships and systematics of the thaliacea , with keys for identification . in : q . bone ( ed . ) , 1998 . the biology of pelagic tunicates . oxford university press , oxford . pp 273 - 294 .\nhunt , h . g . , 1968 . continuous plankton records : contribution towards a plankton atlas of the north atlantic and the north sea , part xi : the seasonal and annual distribution of thaliacea . bulletin of marine ecology , 6 : 225 - 249 .\nsoest , r . w . m . van , 1975b . zoogeography and speciation in the salpidae ( tunicata , thaliacea ) . beaufortia , 23 ( 307 ) : 181 - 215 .\n( of biphora depressa sars , 1829 ) sars , m . ( 1829 ) . bidrag til s\u00f6edyrenes naturhistorie . forste haefte . bergen , norway . 160 pp . [ details ]\n( of biphora tricuspidata sars , 1829 ) sars , m . ( 1829 ) . bidrag til s\u00f6edyrenes naturhistorie . forste haefte . bergen , norway . 160 pp . [ details ]\ngosner , k . l . ( 1978 ) . a field guide to the atlantic seashore . boston : houghton mifflin . 329p . [ details ]\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nvan der land , j . ( ed ) . ( 2008 ) . unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( urmo ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nvan der land , j . ; van soest , r . w . m . ( 2001 ) . thaliacea , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 355 - 356 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nlinkletter , l . e . ( 1977 ) . a checklist of marine fauna and flora of the bay of fundy . huntsman marine laboratory , st . andrews , n . b . 68 : p . [ details ]\nmeinkoth , n . a . 1981 . field guide to north american seashore creatures . the audubon society . alfred a . knopf . new york . 799 p . [ details ]\nminer , r . w . 1950 . field book of seashore life . g . p . putnam & sons . new york . 888 p . [ details ]\nkott , p . ; bradford - grieve , j . ; esnal , g . ; murdoch , r . c . ( 2009 ) . phylum tunicata : sea squirts , salps , appendicularians , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 1 . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . pp . 409 - 430 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\ncole , l . and g . lambert . 2009 . tunicata ( urochordata ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1209\u20131216 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\ndyntaxa . ( 2013 ) . swedish taxonomic database . accessed at urltoken [ 15 - 01 - 2013 ] . , available online at http : / / urltoken [ details ]\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nchen , q . c . ( 1982 ) . the marine zooplankton of hong kong . in : morton b , editor . proceedings of the first international marine biological workshop : the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china . hong kong university press , hong kong . 2 : 789 - 799 . [ details ]\nsolitary zooids elongate , with slightly convex anterior and a squarely cut off posterior . test entirely smooth , moderately thick to thin . muscles ( m ) 1 - 3 strongly fused over a wide area in the mid - dorsal region , m8 and m9 are likewise strongly fused . m1 - m9 with 136 - 296 fibres , except for m4 with 14 - 40 fibres . number of muscle fibers is due to clinal variation , in the ne atlantic ranging from 30 to 40 in m4 and from 206 to 281 in m1 - m9 . dorsal tubercule is small and c - shaped . nucleus relatively small , compact , not causing a swelling of the test . rudimentary elaioblast disappears in a young stage .\naggregate zooids : body barrel shaped and typically fusiform , with conical anterior and posterior protuberances of the test that are typically long in relation to the body , giving it a slight asymmetry . test entirely smooth , moderately thick to thin . six body muscles ; m1 - m4 strongly fused over a wide area in mid - dorsal region ; m4 - m5 laterally fused ; m5 - m6 strongly fused in the mid - dorsal region . fibre number of m1 - m6 is 25 - 68 and is due to clinal variation . dorsal tubercule is a simple slightly arched stick . nucleus pale green in live specimens , relatively small and oval , not causing a swelling of the test .\neurythermic species , occurring from 70 n to 45 s in the atlantic ocean , to 45 s in the indian ocean and from 50 n to 45 s in the pacific ocean . depth distribution : occurring at depths from surface to ca . 800 m , seems to perform diurnal vertical migration .\ndepth range based on 156 specimens in 3 taxa . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 119 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 5 - 4938 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 1 . 361 - 26 . 893 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 019 - 44 . 356 salinity ( pps ) : 33 . 582 - 38 . 495 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 0 . 555 - 6 . 258 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 028 - 3 . 245 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 799 - 150 . 591 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 5 - 4938 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 1 . 361 - 26 . 893 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 019 - 44 . 356 salinity ( pps ) : 33 . 582 - 38 . 495 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 0 . 555 - 6 . 258 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 028 - 3 . 245 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 799 - 150 . 591 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\n, and can be found at depths of 0 to 800 m ( 0 to 2 , 625 ft ) .\nor as colonies . solitary zooids usually measure 22 to 52 mm ( 0 . 87 to 2 . 05 in ) in length . they are barrel - shaped and elongated , with a rounded front and a flat rear . aggregate zooids are 7 to 52 mm ( 0 . 28 to 2 . 05 in ) in length individually ( excluding projections ) . they are usually barrel or spindle - shaped .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\ncole , l . and g . lambert . 2009 . tunicata ( urochordata ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1209\u20131216 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m press , college station , texas .\ndyntaxa . ( 2013 ) . swedish taxonomic database . accessed at urltoken [ 15 - 01 - 2013 ] .\ngosner , k . l . ( 1978 ) . a field guide to the atlantic seashore . < em > boston : houghton mifflin . < / em > 329p .\nkott , p . ; bradford - grieve , j . ; esnal , g . ; murdoch , r . c . ( 2009 ) . phylum tunicata : sea squirts , salps , appendicularians , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 1 . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . pp . 409 - 430 .\nlinkletter , l . e . ( 1977 ) . a checklist of marine fauna and flora of the bay of fundy . < em > huntsman marine laboratory , st . andrews , n . b . < / em > 68 : p .\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . < em > china science press . < / em > 1267 pp .\nmeinkoth , n . a . 1981 . field guide to north american seashore creatures . the audubon society . alfred a . knopf . new york . 799 p .\nminer , r . w . 1950 . field book of seashore life . g . p . putnam & sons . new york . 888 p .\nvan der land , j . ( ed ) . ( 2008 ) . unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( urmo ) .\nvan der land , j . ; van soest , r . w . m . ( 2001 ) . thaliacea , < b > < i > in < / i > < / b > : costello , m . j . < i > et al . < / i > ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . < i > european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , < / i > 50 : pp . 355 - 356\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\nyamaji , i . , illustrations of the marine plankton of japan . hoikusha publishing co ltd , osaka , pp . 537 ( 1991 ) .\nchihara , m . and murano , m . 1997 . an illustrated guide to marine plankton in japan . tokai university press , tokyo , pp . 1574 .\nen genomskinlig , j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevis stor art som r\u00f6r sig ryckigt genom vattnet . dess muskelband n\u00e5r inte hela v\u00e4gen runt kroppen utan \u00e4r \u00f6ppna p\u00e5 buksidan . arten upptr\u00e4der i tv\u00e5 olika former ; en oozooid som liknar en l\u00e5da , och en gonozooid som \u00e4r spolformig . den p\u00e5tr\u00e4ffas regelbundet vid den svenska v\u00e4stkusten . en genomskinlig och j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevis stor art som vanligen \u00e4r 4 - 5 cm l\u00e5ng men kan bli upp till 7 - 8 cm . h\u00f6ljet ( manteln ) som omger kroppen \u00e4r genomskinligt men ganska fast och har broskartad konsistens . i manteln finns muskelband som inte n\u00e5r hela v\u00e4gen runt kroppen utan \u00e4r \u00f6ppna p\u00e5 undersidan ( buksidan ) . det \u00e4r l\u00e4tt att skilja arten fr\u00e5n tunnbandssalp doliolum nationalis genom storleken , de p\u00e5 undersidan \u00f6ppna muskelbanden och djurens r\u00f6relsem\u00f6nster . medan arterna i familjen doliolidae stadigt glider fram genom cilier\u00f6relser i g\u00e4lkorgen f\u00f6rflyttar sig marsiansalp med hj\u00e4lp av muskelr\u00f6relser . varje g\u00e5ng den drar ihop musklerna pressas vatten ut , vilket inneb\u00e4r att djuret r\u00f6r sig ryckigt fram\u00e5t . arten upptr\u00e4der i tv\u00e5 klart olika former . den st\u00f6rre oozooiden ( den k\u00f6nl\u00f6sa generationen ) har nio muskelband och ser ut ungef\u00e4r som en liten l\u00e5da . gonozooiden ( den k\u00f6nliga generationen ) har en m\u00e4rklig , spolformig kropp med ett spetsigt bihang i fr\u00e4mre och ett i bakre delen av kroppen . den har bara sju muskelband .\nmarsiansalp \u00e4r en kosmopolitisk art som finns i stilla havet , indiska oceanen och atlanten . den saknas bara i arktiska och antarktiska vatten . trots att den har s\u00e5 stor utbredning f\u00f6rs den s\u00e4llan \u00e4nda in till sveriges v\u00e4stkust . den f\u00f6rekommer regelbundet l\u00e4ngs v\u00e4stkusten av brittiska \u00f6arna och norge . ibland kommer den \u00e4ven in i nordsj\u00f6n , och till svenska kusten vid bohusl\u00e4n .\npelagisk tunicat med spolformad kropp . tillf\u00e4llig g\u00e4st i samband med starka vattenr\u00f6relser mot nordost . de skattade v\u00e4rdena som bed\u00f6mningen baserar sig p\u00e5 ligger alla inom intervallet f\u00f6r kategorin livskraftig ( lc ) .\nmarsiansalp v\u00e4xlar alltid mellan en generation som fortplantar sig sexuellt och en som fortplantar sig asexuellt . denna livscykel kan klaras av p\u00e5 ungef\u00e4r 18 dygn . arten f\u00f6rekommer i l\u00e5ga t\u00e4theter i tropiska och subtropiska vatten , och den finns ocks\u00e5 i tempererade hav . den kan pl\u00f6tsligt upptr\u00e4da i h\u00f6ga populationst\u00e4theter och f\u00f6r\u00f6kar sig b\u00e4st n\u00e4r temperaturen inte \u00f6verstiger 17 \u00bac . den kan d\u00e5 bli s\u00e5 talrik att dess totala biomassa \u00e4r mycket st\u00f6rre \u00e4n den samlade massan av \u00f6vriga djurplankton , och den kan d\u00e5 g\u00f6ra slut p\u00e5 alla v\u00e4xtplankton i omr\u00e5det . i medelhavet har arten l\u00e4gst t\u00e4thet under augusti / september och h\u00f6gst fr\u00e5n mars till maj . den kan vara allm\u00e4n i nordsj\u00f6n n\u00e4r den f\u00f6rs med havsstr\u00f6mmar fr\u00e5n s\u00f6der till norra kusten av storbritannien .\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\nnationalnyckeln till sveriges flora och fauna . lansettfiskar - broskfiskar . branchiostomatidae - chondrichthyes . 2011 . artdatabanken , slu , uppsala .\nl\u00e4ngre texter , ut\u00f6ver kriteriedokumentation , har sammanst\u00e4llts av : thomas stach & hans g . hansson 2011 ( bearbetad av ragnar hall , artdatabanken ) .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\nthe mit license copyright ( c ) 2014 - 2016 google , inc . urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\nthe mit license ( mit ) copyright ( c ) 2011 - 2015 twitter , inc permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2008 - 2013 sprymedia limited urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2008 - 2015 martin wendt , urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright jquery foundation and other contributors , urltoken this software consists of voluntary contributions made by many individuals . for exact contribution history , see the revision history available at urltoken the following license applies to all parts of this software except as documented below : = = = = permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software . = = = = all files located in the node _ modules and external directories are externally maintained libraries used by this software which have their own licenses ; we recommend you read them , as their terms may differ from the terms above .\nthe mit license ( mit ) - urltoken copyright ( c ) steven sanderson , the knockout . js team , and other contributors urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2009\u20132015 permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2005 - 2014 openlayers contributors . all rights reserved . redistribution and use in source and binary forms , with or without modification , are permitted provided that the following conditions are met : 1 . redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer . 2 . redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and / or other materials provided with the distribution . this software is provided by openlayers contributors ` ` as is ' ' and any express or implied warranties , including , but not limited to , the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose are disclaimed . in no event shall copyright holder or contributors be liable for any direct , indirect , incidental , special , exemplary , or consequential damages ( including , but not limited to , procurement of substitute goods or services ; loss of use , data , or profits ; or business interruption ) however caused and on any theory of liability , whether in contract , strict liability , or tort ( including negligence or otherwise ) arising in any way out of the use of this software , even if advised of the possibility of such damage . the views and conclusions contained in the software and documentation are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing official policies , either expressed or implied , of openlayers contributors ."]}
{"id": 1915, "summary": [{"text": "the red-faced crimsonwing ( cryptospiza reichenovii ) is a common species of estrildid finch found in africa .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it has an estimated global extent of occurrence of 390,000 km \u00b2 .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "it is found in angola , burundi , cameroon , the democratic republic of the congo , malawi , mozambique , niger , nigeria , rwanda , tanzania , uganda , zambia and zimbabwe . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "red - faced crimsonwing", "paragraphs": ["nobody uploaded sound recordings for red - faced crimsonwing ( cryptospiza reichenovii ) yet .\nthe red - faced crimsonwing ( cryptospiza reichenovii ) is a common species of estrildid finch found in africa . photo warwick tarboton | aviary | pinterest | red f\u2026\nshowing page 1 . found 0 sentences matching phrase\nred - faced crimsonwing\n. found in 0 ms . translation memories are created by human , but computer aligned , which might cause mistakes . they come from many sources and are not checked . be warned .\nleopard rock hotel is an excellent hotel with a very pretty golf course which is also a spectacular place to see the silvery - cheeked hornbills when the fig trees are fruiting . on the golf course you may be lucky to see the red - faced crimsonwing , which also occurs at seldomseen .\nmale : red face patch and red on lower flanks . female : yellowish - buff face patch ; dark olive - green feather bases to mantle and back show through .\npayne , r . ( 2018 ) . red - faced crimsonwing ( cryptospiza reichenovii ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n) , is unrelated to it . their similarities ( bill , red brow , etc . ) are due to\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\n) . male nominate race has red mask on lores and around eye , rest of head and underside olive , flanks deep crimson ; upperparts . . .\nthe australian red - browed firetail ( neochmia temporalis ) , very similar to african common waxbill ( estrilda astrild ) , is unrelated to it . their similarities ( bill , red brow , etc . ) are due to convergent evolution , since their environmental pressures ( weather , habitat , feeding ) are similar .\nchirinda forest \u2013 a primeval forest with the tallest tree in the country . this famous tree is a red mahogany which was still a sapling when christ was born .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : cryptospiza reichenovii . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nmost are sensitive to cold and require warm , usually tropical , habitats , although a few , such as the eastern alpine mannikin , mountain firetail and red - browed finch , and the genus stagonopleura , have adapted to the cooler climates of southern australia and the highlands of new guinea .\nmost are sensitive to cold and require warm , usually tropical , habitats , although a few , such as the eastern alpine mannikin , mountain firetail and red - browed finch , and the genus stagonopleura , have adapted to the cooler climates of southern australia and the highlands of new guinea .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndepartamento de inmunologia , facultad de medicina , universidad complutense de madrid , avenida complutense s / n , 28040 madrid , spain .\nestrildid finches are distributed throughout africa , south asia , australia and neighbouring islands in the indian and pacific oceans . some specific phylogenetic and systematic debated questions have been clarified in the present study by mitochondrial cytochrome b dna sequencing of 61 species of estrildids and subsequent analyses of results by both bayesian inference and maximum likelihood methodologies . our results support that estrildids are a monophyletic group with polytomies that may have started evolving by middle miocene epoch ( about 16 , 5 million years ago ) . this proposed timing is coincidental with the fringillinae finches\u2019 radiation starting time and also with the biggest hymalayan and tibetan plateau uplift , triggered by the indian tectonic plate strongest collision ; this established present day southern asia monsoon regime and other drastic climatic changes , like a dryer weather in tibetan plateau and china deserts . the estrildid finches form a monophyletic group which includes several polytomies and comprises african , asian and australian birds . the most ancient evolutive group comprises african ( african silverbill ) , asian ( indian silverbill ) and australian ( diamond firetail ) ; this suggests that the whole estrildids radiation might have originated around india . more estrildid species will be studied in order to further establish this group phylogeography . in addition , monophyletic radiations include species from different continents . finally , ploceinae genus quelea finches is a group separate and basal from estrildini and viduini species in our dendrograms .\nopen access will revolutionize 21 st century knowledge work and accelerate the diffusion of ideas and evidence that support just in time learning and the evolution of thinking in a number of disciplines .\nit is important that students and researchers from all over the world can have easy access to relevant , high - standard and timely scientific information . this is exactly what open access journals provide and this is the reason why i support this endeavor .\npublishing research articles is the key for future scientific progress . open access publishing is therefore of utmost importance for wider dissemination of information , and will help serving the best interest of the scientific community .\nopen access journals are a novel concept in the medical literature . they offer accessible information to a wide variety of individuals , including physicians , medical students , clinical investigators , and the general public . they are an outstanding source of medical and scientific information .\nopen access journals are extremely useful for graduate students , investigators and all other interested persons to read important scientific articles and subscribe scientific journals . indeed , the research articles span a wide range of area and of high quality . this is specially a must for researchers belonging to institutions with limited library facility and funding to subscribe scientific journals .\nopen access journals represent a major break - through in publishing . they provide easy access to the latest research on a wide variety of issues . relevant and timely articles are made available in a fraction of the time taken by more conventional publishers . articles are of uniformly high quality and written by the world ' s leading authorities .\nopen access journals have transformed the way scientific data is published and disseminated : particularly , whilst ensuring a high quality standard and transparency in the editorial process , they have increased the access to the scientific literature by those researchers that have limited library support or that are working on small budgets .\nnot only do open access journals greatly improve the access to high quality information for scientists in the developing world , it also provides extra exposure for our papers .\nopen access ' chemistry ' journals allow the dissemination of knowledge at your finger tips without paying for the scientific content .\nin principle , all scientific journals should have open access , as should be science itself . open access journals are very helpful for students , researchers and the general public including people from institutions which do not have library or cannot afford to subscribe scientific journals . the articles are high standard and cover a wide area .\nthe widest possible diffusion of information is critical for the advancement of science . in this perspective , open access journals are instrumental in fostering researches and achievements .\nopen access journals are very useful for all scientists as they can have quick information in the different fields of science .\nthere are many scientists who can not afford the rather expensive subscriptions to scientific journals . open access journals offer a good alternative for free access to good quality scientific information .\nopen access journals have become a fundamental tool for students , researchers , patients and the general public . many people from institutions which do not have library or cannot afford to subscribe scientific journals benefit of them on a daily basis . the articles are among the best and cover most scientific areas .\nthese journals provide researchers with a platform for rapid , open access scientific communication . the articles are of high quality and broad scope .\nopen access journals are probably one of the most important contributions to promote and diffuse science worldwide .\nopen access journals make up a new and rather revolutionary way to scientific publication . this option opens several quite interesting possibilities to disseminate openly and freely new knowledge and even to facilitate interpersonal communication among scientists .\nopen access journals are freely available online throughout the world , for you to read , download , copy , distribute , and use . the articles published in the open access journals are high quality and cover a wide range of fields .\nopen access journals offer an innovative and efficient way of publication for academics and professionals in a wide range of disciplines . the papers published are of high quality after rigorous peer review and they are indexed in : major international databases . i read open access journals to keep abreast of the recent development in my field of study .\nit is a modern trend for publishers to establish open access journals . researchers , faculty members , and students will be greatly benefited by the new journals of bentham science publishers ltd . in this category .\nproposed race homogenes , described from e zimbabwe ( stapleford forest reserve , in umtali district ) , treated as a synonym of australis . three subspecies recognized .\n( hartlaub , 1874 ) \u2013 se nigeria ( obudu plateau ) , w cameroon , bioko and nw angola ( gabela region ) .\nsharpe , 1902 \u2013 mountains of albertine rift in e drcongo , uganda , rwanda and burundi .\nshelley , 1896 \u2013 mountains in tanzania , extreme ne zambia , malawi , w mozambique and e zimbabwe .\ncall a high metallic\nsit - sit\n, often given in trills ; also louder\nsweeee\nor\ntzeet\n. song soft , . . .\nthickets , dense undergrowth of primary and secondary forest , also exotic pine plantations with . . .\nseason oct\u2013dec in cameroon , apr\u2013jun and aug\u2013oct in drcongo , nearly all year in tanzania , jun\u2013sept in zambia , mar . . .\nresident , seasonal altitudinal migrant and local wanderer . appears near sea - level in non - breeding . . .\nnot globally threatened . scarce or uncommon to locally abundant . fairly common in nw of range ( nigeria , cameroon ) ; uncommon in angola . common in most regions in e parts of . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\njohn innes , tomasz doro\u0144 , paul van giersbergen , m p goodey , markus lilje , bernard . guevorts , johannes pfleiderer .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as common or locally common ( clement 1999 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 294 , 187 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\ncookies help us deliver our services . by using our services , you agree to our use of cookies .\nno translation memories found . consider more lenient search : click button to let glosbe search more freely .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe song is sft ( inaudible beyond 3 - 4m ) and variable , consisting mostly of long drawn - out notes on a descending scale followed by a chirp .\ngenerally silent , but has a sharp or high pitch ' chirp ' or ' tzeet ' and a loose collection of similar notes .\nbirds express . net international pet & supply inc . 2550 rosemead blvd . south el monte , california 91733 tel : 626 - 401 - 1991 fax : 626 - 401 - 2458 e - mail : sales @ birdsexpress . net copyright 2008 birds express . all rights reserved .\norigin : cameroon , fernando po ( bioko ) , angola , d . r . congo ( zaire ) , congo , uganda , tanzania , malawi\nfood : they seek edible seeds of various plants and grasses on the ground , or pick the seeds out of spikes . crimson - wings eat more insects than some other species , such as estrildids for example . insects are essential , particularly during the time they are rearing their young . crimson - wings probably have a high metabolic rate , as they eat more than other african estrilds\ncrimson - wings are mostly found in pairs . when in search of food they sometimes join up with others of their species , and with other estrildid finches . they are quiet timid birds that do not attract attention in any aviary . they prefer to stay in the shrubbery , swiftly and almost inaudibly hopping from branch to branch .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthey are gregarious and often colonial seed eaters with short , thick , but pointed bills . they are all similar in structure and habits , but vary widely in plumage colours and patterns .\nwhite eggs . many species build roost nests . some of the fire - finches and pytilias are hosts to the\nthe phylogeography and possible origin of estrildid finches have been studied . the following scheme may be useful to represent a hypothetical origin in india in the last and stronger himalayas uplift ( 16 . 5 million years ago ) , when the monsoon rains regime was established in india ( see figure ) . the conclusions from this study\nestrildids are a monophyletic group with polytomies that may have started evolving by middle miocene epoch ( about 16 . 5 million years ago )\nthis proposed timing is coincidental with the fringillinae finches\u2019 radiation starting time and also with the biggest himalayan and tibetan plateau uplift , triggered by the indian tectonic plate strongest collision ; this established present day southern asia monsoon regime and other drastic climatic changes , like dryer weather in the tibetan plateau and chinese deserts .\nthe estrildid finches form a monophyletic group which includes several polytomies and comprises african , asian and australian birds .\nthe most ancient evolutive group comprises african ( african silverbill ) , asian ( indian silverbill ) and australian ( diamond firetail ) ; this suggests that the whole estrildids radiation might have originated around india .\nthe gouldian finch ( erythrura or chloebia gouldiae ) is definitely included within genus erythrura with the other species .\nthe java sparrow ( padda or lonchura oryzivora ) is a very modified species from genus lonchura : bigger than the rest of lonchura species , and a noticeable and quite different head pattern . it is endemic to java , bali , and the bawean islands , although escapes from captivity can be seen today in other neighboring islands .\nafrican munias ( spermestes ) belong to a genus totally different from australian and asian munias .\n, since their environmental pressures ( weather , habitat , feeding ) are similar .\narnaiz - villena , a ; ruiz - del - valle , v . ; gomez - prieto , p . ; reguera , r . ; parga - lozano , c ; serrano - vela , j . i . ( 2009 ) .\narnaiz - villena , a ; g\u00f3mez - prieto p ; ruiz - de - valle v ( 2009 ) .\nsibley cg , monroe bl ( 1990 ) . distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world . yale university press\narnaiz - villena , a ; gomez - prieto , p . ; serna - ayala ; ruiz - del - valle , v . ( 2009 ) .\norigen de los estr\u00edldidos\n.\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 8 / 1 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nthe estrildid finches are small passerine birds of the old world tropics and australasia . they can be classified as the family estrildidae ( waxbills , munias and allies ) , or as a subfamily within the family passeridae , which strictly defined comprises the old world sparrows .\nall the estrildids build large , domed nests and lay five to ten white eggs . many species build roost nests . some of the fire - finches and pytilias are hosts to the brood - parasitic indigobirds and whydahs , respectively .\nthe smallest species of the family is the shelley ' s oliveback ( nesocharis shelleyi ) at a mere 8 . 3 centimetres ( 3 . 3 in ) , although the lightest species is the black - rumped waxbill ( estrilda troglodytes ) at 6 g ( 0 . 21 oz ) . the largest species is the java sparrow ( padda oryzivora ) , at 17 cm ( 6 . 7 in ) and 25 g ( 0 . 88 oz ) .\nthe phylogeography and possible origin of estrildid finches have been studied . the following scheme may be useful to represent a hypothetical origin in india in the last and stronger himalayas uplift ( 16 . 5 million years ago ) , when the monsoon rains regime was established in india ( see figure ) . the conclusions from this study are :\nafrican munias ( spermestes ) belong to a genus totally different from australian and asian munias .\nthe eastern highlands is a collective name given to the 300km area of rugged mountains forming a natural border between countrieszimbabwe and mozambique . there are three main mountain ranges \u2013 the chimanimani in the south , bvumba near mutare and the nyanga national park in the north . mt binga is the highest peak of the chimanimani mountains at 2 , 437 metres but the country\u2019s highest peak is mt nyangani ( 2 , 593m ) .\nit is possible to visit the area year round with a climate which is warm to hot in summer and cool and dry in winter . the area is inspiring with breathtaking views , deep gorges and beautiful waterfalls , including the famous bridal veil falls .\nnyanga national park is not a game park but there are waterbuck , steenbok , leopard , kudu , wildebeest and the area is rich in birdlife . the whole area is sparsely populated although there are ancient ruins throughout the whole of the nyanga area , indicating habitation for many years . there are essentially three main types of ruins to explore and ponder ; namely pits , forts and terraces . there are also some caves with rock paintings and ancient gold workings .\nother sights include the nyazengu nature reserve , pungwe gorge and the honde valley , although much of this area is now neglected as the tea , coffee and fruit estates are no longer farmed in any meaningful way . there is also the mutarazi national park where africa\u2019s second highest waterfall is situated , mutarazi falls .\nmany of the dams and lakes in the nyanga area are famous for their good trout and bass fishing ; it is also an excellent area for golf , horse riding and mountain hikes as well as birding , rock climbing and abseiling .\nthe border town of mutare is the backbone for the area and is the prettiest town site in the country \u2013 perched amongst the hills and mountains . it has an excellent climate and was a major source of supplies for the whole area , including mozambique , until recently .\ntwenty to twenty - five kilometres to the south east of mutare lies the start of the bvumba mountains which hosts a wealth of plants , birds and butterflies . although somewhat neglected at the present time , the botanical gardens in bvumba provide an enchanting walk with its wooden bridges , aloes , streams and lakes . there are many fantastic views and plants gathered from all over the world including a range of orchids , tree ferns , fuchsias , hydrangeas , azaleas and lily ponds . the annual rainfall in this area is higher than london !\nbeyond the gardens there are spectacular views into mozambique and the surrounding countryside with a range of vegetation including montane forests . the bunga forest in the bunga botanical reserve is just one excellent example . the best way to see this area is to drive along the burma valley road which is a circuitous route . there is always exquisite bird song in the forests and any visit should be ended with a visit to \u201ctony\u2019s coffee shop\u201d for outstanding cakes and tea , s including an assortment of alcoholic versions ! the coffee shop is situated on the grounds of genaina guest house ( tel : + 263 20 68177 ) .\nthe bvumba is a hot spot for birding enthusiasts and there are a number of specials including the swynnerton\u2019s robin , which lives and breeds in small patches of forest . this bird likes to live around dragon plants dracaena fragrans , particularly in summer when the birds are nesting . the best place to stay in the bvumba if you\u2019re a birder , is at seldomseen cottages , a bird watchers paradise . the property has self - catered chalets at a very reasonable price and has two extremely knowledgeable guides ; it also has several dragon plants ! the gardens around the chalets host several other endemic species including robert\u2019s warbler . a protea stand on the property draws the bronzy sunbird and if you\u2019re lucky gurney\u2019s sugarbird , when the proteas are in flower .\nother options for birding in this area include the cecil kop nature reserve , north of mutare which offers good miombo birding and the burma valley to the south which is good for spotting the twinspot indigobird . mount gorongosa in mozambique , is home to the much sought after green - headed oriole and can be included in a trip to the bvumba .\nif you want an old fashioned treat , the white horse inn is a very popular favorite with anyone who has stayed in the bvumba in the last 20 odd years . of particular note is the excellent and well cooked menu including specialities like fresh quail and lobster tails .\nthis is a grandiose range of volcanic peaks reaching over 2 , 400 meters and stretching for 50km . there is a gentler section between chimanimani village and the border with mozambique , but it will still stretch the average hiker .\nthe slopes are scattered with flowers and little rivulets pop up everywhere . protea bushes are found on the higher slopes along with everlasting flowers and thick growths of giant erica with its memorable ` pencil wood ` smell . spring is in august / september and the msasa trees come into full autumnal colours , providing a great contrast to the fresh spring greens of the other plants .\nthis is not an area with rich numbers of mammals , but there are still sable and eland and the odd elephant in the low , thicker forests . leopard , baboon and porcupine are sometimes seen . many of the birds in this area are rare and found only in the mountains and woods .\nwherever in the world you are , our zambezi community is full of easy - going travel - minded friends who take their fun seriously . come and join the adventure ."]}
{"id": 1918, "summary": [{"text": "westralunio carteri is a species of freshwater mussel in the family hyriidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is endemic to western australia .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is known by the common name carter 's freshwater mussel .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "this is the only species of the genus westralunio found in australia . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "westralunio carteri", "paragraphs": ["( 2011 ) . westralunio carteri . in iucn red list of threatened species .\nrecent references = westralunio carteri . \u2014 santos - neto et al . ( 2016 ) . = westralunio carteri . \u2014 graf et al . ( 2015 ) . = westralunio carteri iredale , 1944 [ sic ] . \u2014 iucn ( 2014 ) . = westralunio carteri ( iredale , 1934 ) . \u2014 walker et al . ( 2014 ) . = westralunio carteri iredale , 1934 . \u2014 zieritz et al . ( 2013 ) . = westralunio carteri iredale , 1934 . \u2014 bogan ( 2010 ) . = westralunio carteri iredale , 1934 . \u2014 graf & cummings ( 2007 ) . = westralunio carteri iredale . \u2014 walker et al . ( 2001 ) . = westralunio carteri iredale , 1934 . \u2014 b . j . smith ( 1992 ) . = westralunio carteri iredale , 1934 . \u2014 haas ( 1969 ) .\nthe june 2013 mussel of the month is westralunio carteri . westralunio is a genus of three species found in western australia and new guinea .\n( 2012 ) . conservation status of westralunio carteri iredale ( bivalvia : hyriidae ) . in :\n( 1934 ) . the freshwater mussels of australia . type species : westralunio ambiguus carteri iredale ,\n( 1989 ) . the freshwater mussel , westralunio carteri iredale , as a biological monitor of organochlorine pesticides .\n( 2011 ) . freshwater shrimp ( palaemonetes australis ) may be involved in glochidia release from the freshwater mussel westralunio carteri .\nwestralunio carteri is endemic to southwestern australia , and this freshwater mussel is the only species found in that area . intestestingly , the other two species of westralunio are far away in new guinea .\nthe occassion for crowning westralunio carteri as mussel of the month for june 2013 was inspired by the recent paper by klunzinger et al . ( 2013 ) . w . carteri , like other hyriids , has hooked - type glochidia .\n( 2011 ) . westralunio carteri . in iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . available at http : / / www . iucnredlist . org .\n( 2012 ) . host fishes for the glochidia of westralunio carteri iredale ( bivalvia : hyriidae ) . in : \u2018molluscs 2012\u2019 : triennial conference of the malacological society of australasia ,\nmichael klunzinger has moved our understanding of westralunio carteri forward a great deal with his dissertation on the ecology , life history , and conservation status of this species . good work , michael !\n( 2008 ) . freshwater mussels ( westralunio carteri ) in the catchments of geographe bay , south - western australia . fish health unit ( murdoch university ) , report to the water corporation ,\niredale , 1943 , austral . zool . : 190 [ as \u2018westralunio ambiguus\u2019 ] [ in part ] .\noriginal name : westalunio ambiguus carteri iredale , 1934 . iredale , t . ( 1934 ) . the freshwater mussels of australia . australian zoologist 8 : 57 - 78 .\nklunzinger m . w . , beatty s . j . , morgan d . l . , pinder a . m . & lymbery a . j . ( 2015 ) . range decline and conservation status of westralunio carteri iredale , 1934 ( bivalvia : hyriidae ) from south - western australia australian journal of zoology 63 : 127 - 135 .\nklunzinger , m . w . , thomson , g . j . , beatty , s . j . , morgan , d . l . , & lymbery , a . j . ( 2013 ) . morphological and morphometrical description of the glochidia of westralunio carteri iredale , 1934 ( bivalvia : unionoida : hyriidae ) . molluscan research 33 : 104 - 109 .\nklunzinger m . w . , beatty s . j . , morgan d . l . , lymbery a . j . & haag , w . r . ( 2014 ) . age and growth in the australian freshwater mussel , westralunio carteri , with an evaluation of the fluorochrome calcein for validating the assumption of annulus formation . freshwater science 33 : 1127 - 1135 .\niredale , 1934 , austral . zool . : 62 , pl . 3 , fig . 8 ; pl . 4 , fig . 8 [ as \u2018westralunio ambiguus\u2019 ] [ in part ] .\nklunzinger , m . w . , beatty , s . j . , morgan , d . l . , & lymbery , a . j . ( 2012 ) . distribution of westralunio carteri iredale , 1934 ( bivalvia : unionoida : hyriidae ) on the south coast of south - western australia , including new records of the species . journal of the royal society of western australia 95 : 77 - 81 .\nklunzinger , m . w . , beatty , s . j . , morgan , d . l . , lymbery , r . , thomson , g . j . & lymbery , a . j . ( 2011 ) . discovery of a host fish species for glochidia of westralunio carteri iredale , 1934 ( bivalvia : unionoida : hyriidae ) . journal of the royal society of western australia 94 : 19 - 23 .\nklunzinger , michael w . ; beatty , stephen j . ; morgan , david l . ; lymbery , alan j . ; haag , wendell r . 2014 . age and growth in the australian freshwater mussel , westralunio carteri , with an evaluation of the fluorochrome calcein for validating the assumption of annulus formation . freshwater science . 33 ( 4 ) : 1127 - 1135 . 9 p . doi : 10 . 1086 / 677815\n% 0 journal article % t age and growth in the australian freshwater mussel , westralunio carteri , with an evaluation of the fluorochrome calcein for validating the assumption of annulus formation % j freshwater science 33 ( 4 ) 1127 - 1135 % a klunzinger , michael w . % a beatty , stephen j . % a morgan , david l . % a lymbery , alan j . % a haag , wendell r . % v 33 % n 4 % p 1127 - 1135 % r 10 . 1086 / 677815 % d 2014 % > urltoken % u urltoken citation\nty - jour ti - age and growth in the australian freshwater mussel , westralunio carteri , with an evaluation of the fluorochrome calcein for validating the assumption of annulus formation au - klunzinger , michael w . au - beatty , stephen j . au - morgan , david l . au - lymbery , alan j . au - haag , wendell r . py - 2014 do - 10 . 1086 / 677815 jo - freshwater science 33 ( 4 ) 1127 - 1135 is - 4 vl - 33 sp - 1127 ep - 1135 l1 - urltoken ur - urltoken er - citation\nwestralunio . shell more or less oblong ( ratio of maximum height of shell to its length > 50 % ) . pseudocardinal teeth erect , strongly serrated , shell small ( less than 70 mm in length ) . beaks smooth , shell rather thick , with concentric growth lines only . restricted to sw australia .\n@ article { klunzinger % 2c + michael + w . 2014age , title = { age and growth in the australian freshwater mussel , westralunio carteri , with an evaluation of the fluorochrome calcein for validating the assumption of annulus formation } , author = { klunzinger , michael w . and beatty , stephen j . and morgan , david l . and lymbery , alan j . and haag , wendell r . } , journal = { freshwater science 33 ( 4 ) 1127 - 1135 } , volume = { 33 } , number = { 4 } , pages = { 1127 - - 1135 } , doi = { 10 . 1086 / 677815 } , year = { 2014 } } citation\nintroduced fishes : gambusia holbrooki ( girard , 1859 ) ; phalloceros caudimaculatus ( hensel , 1868 ) unsuitable host fish species : introduced fishes : carassius auratus linnaeus , 1758 * note : an additional seven introduced and three native fishes that occur in parts of the geographic range of w . carteri remain untested as host fishes . those listed above are the most widespread . age at sexual maturity : 3 - 6 years ( klunzinger et al . 2014a ) life expectancy : at least 36\u201152 years ( klunzinger et al . 2014a ) habitat requirements :\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nwalker , k . f . , jones , h . a . and klunzinger , m . w . 2013 . bivalves in a bottleneck : taxonomy , phylogeography and conservation of freshwater mussels ( bivalvia : unionoida ) in australasia . hydrobiologia .\n. 2013 ) . the evolutionary relationship between the three species is currently unknown and their description is based primarily on adult shell characters .\nbeatty , s . , keleher , j . , kirkendale , l . , lymbery , a . , morgan , d . , pinder , a . , robert , j . , slack - smith , s . & whisson , c .\ncurrent population size is not available . some subpopulations have declined from catastrophic mortality ( e . g . , salinity , physical destruction of habitat , exposure to air and possibly predation by introduced mammals ) . where suitable habitats remain in \u2018good\u2019 condition , the species can still be found in relatively dense patches ( 20 - 50 individuals / m\u00b2 ) , but seldom > 100 mussels / m\u00b2 overall population trend is decreasing as threats continue ( klunzinger et al . 2012b , 2014b ) .\nfollowing parasitic period , metamorphosed glochidia ( i . e . juveniles ) detach to begin life in the sediments ( no change in shell length while on the fish ) ;\nadults capable of moving distances of 7 - 10 m over a long period of time , but generally sedentary .\n( kendrick 1976 ; morgan et al . 2011 ; klunzinger et al . 2012a , b , 2013 , 2014a ; walker et al . 2013 ) host fish ( klunzinger et al . 2012a ) confirmed host fish species : native fishes : tandanus bostocki whitley , 1944 ; nannoperca vittata ( castelnau , 1873 ) ; afurcagobius suppositus ( sauvage , 1880 ) ; pseudogobius olorum ( sauvage , 1880 ) ; bostockia porosa castelnau , 1873 ; galaxias occidentalis ogilby , 1899 ; leptatherina wallacei ( prince , ivantsoff & potter , 1982 )\nfreshwater lakes , rivers and streams ( mean salinity < 1 . 6 ppt ) ;\npatchy distribution in sandy / muddy sediments with greatest densities associated with exposed submerged tree roots ( eucalyptus rudis , melaleuca spp . and others ) , woody debris and overhanging riparian vegetation near stream banks and edges of lakes / dams ;\nprecise habitat requirements and quantification of density within habitat types are in the early stages of study for this species ; juveniles may require specific micro - habitats and are difficult to locate in the wild .\nthere have been a few select threat abatement actions in localized subpopulations undertaken through environmental consultancies for state government agencies . however , the success of translocation strategies to mitigate impacts is unknown . otherwise , there are currently no recovery or threat abatement / mitigation actions proposed or planned specifically for the species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nmcmichael , d . f . & hiscock , i . d . 1958 ,\na monograph of the freshwater mussels ( mollusca : pelecypoda ) of the australian region\n, australian journal of marine and freshwater research , vol . 9 , pp . 372 - 508\niredale , t . 1934 ,\nthe freshwater mussels of australia\n, the australian zoologist , vol . 8 , no . 1 , pp . 57 - 78 pls iii - vi\nstorr , g . m . 1971 ,\nthe genus lerista ( lacertilia : scincidae ) in western australia\n, journal of the royal society of western australia , vol . 54 , pp . 59 - 75\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 524939ef - a9f1 - 4812 - 9a3e - cf1f04f34e04\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b348d75a - 5040 - 43b2 - b137 - d0f0f8eae483\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c6247ba8 - 3ed5 - 4af1 - b381 - 0d0a23780319\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : eeb0f478 - ed2a - 44f7 - 8ff7 - abb45490b29f\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 4cecf607 - 52c6 - 4216 - bc29 - 3c65b81cc8fe\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 372160\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfm ( u ) otw ( aolcb ) is the web version of the mussel project database . follow the links to browse the data or use the search fields . either way , you win !\n\u2018lamarck\u2019 menke , 1843 , molluscorum novae hollandiae specimen : 38 , sp . 219 .\ncotton & gabriel , 1932 , proc . roy . soc . victoria : 157 [ in part ] .\n\u2018reeve\u2019 e . a . smith , 1874 , the zoology of the voyage of h . m . s . \u201cerebus\u201d and \u201cterror\u201d : 3 , pl . 4 , fig . 2 .\n\u2018philippi\u2019 cotton & gabriel , 1932 , proc . roy . soc . victoria : 157 .\n( selected by mcmichael & hiscock , 1958 ) , river avon , south australia .\n( selected by mcmichael & hiscock , 1958 ) , victoria reservoir , darling range , 12 mls e of perth , western australia , australia [ - 32 . 05 , 116 . 067 \u00b1 10 km ] .\nthe mussel project \u0097 home page urltoken . site developed and maintained by dan graf & kevin cummings . hosted by the university of wisconsin - stevens point . funded by the national science foundation .\nmaking the world a better place , one mollusk at a time .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nshell medium sized , oblong to ovate , solid to thin valves , sculpture of radial growth lines , umbos smooth but are often eroded , thick black periostracum , interior of valves nacreous bluish to bronze to white , hinge teeth with very strong grooved ( serrated ) pseudocardinal teeth , anterior retractor muscle scars deeply impressed .\nanatomy : supra anal opening absent , larvae are brooded in the inner pair of demibranchs , inhalant and exhalant siphons are short but prominent and formed by the mantle edge which is open ventrally and fused posteriorly , branchial siphon larger than anal siphon bearing a variable number of prominent papillae and heavily pigmented .\nhyridella . beak of young specimens at least sculptured with v - shaped ridges ; shell quadrate to elongate ( ratio of maximum height of shell to its length > 50 % ) , not markedly winged . hinge strong with grooved pseudocardinal teeth and simple ' lateral ' teeth . shell surface ( other than beaks ) more - or - less smooth except for concentric growth lines .\nvelesunio . beaks smooth , shell can be rather thick , rounded in outline ( ratio of maximum height of shell to its length > 50 % ) , often inflated , hinge lamellar , usually simple ( rarely serrated ) . shell surface with concentric growth lines only .\nalathyria . shell typically large , elongate - ovate ( ratio of maximum height of shell to its length > 50 % ) , often distinctly winged , thick , hinge usually with heavy , pseudocardinal teeth grooved , ' lateral ' teeth smooth . shell surface more - or - less smooth , with concentric growth lines only .\ncucumerunio . shell very elongate ( ratio of maximum height of shell to its length < 40 % ) , beaks sculptured with v - shaped ridges ; rest of shell surface with conspicuous nodules or ridges . hinge strong , pseudocardinal teeth grooved .\nlortiella . shell elongate ( ratio of maximum height of shell to its length < 45 % ) , winged posteriorly , hinge simple , not well developed . beaks smooth and shell surface with concentric growth lines only . found in nw australia .\ntype locality : victoria reservoir in the darling ranges , 12 miles east of perth , western australia .\nthe last major taxonomic revision of australian freshwater mussels was by mcmichael and hiscock ( 1958 ) . based on the available molecular results , walker et al . ( 2014 ) pointed out that a re - assessment of australian hyriids is needed .\nshallow burrower in silty sand / mud in streams and rivers . suspension feeder . larvae ( glochidia ) are brooded in the gills and , when released , become parasitic on fish gills before dropping to the sediment as young mussels .\nmainly live in flowing freshwater rivers , streams and water supply reservoirs . infaunal , living two thirds to almost fully buried in sand and sediment . suspension feeders . dioecious . brood young in marsupia in the inner pair of demibranchs . larvae parasitic , using fish as hosts and dispersal agents .\nadditional information on the biology and ecology of members of this family can be found in fauna of australia , vol . 5a , p . 296 - 298 .\nbeesley , p . l . , ross , g . j . b . & wells , a . , eds . ( 1998 ) . mollusca : the southern synthesis . parts a & b . melbourne , csiro publishing .\nhaas , f . ( 1969 ) superfamilia unionacea ( in ) das terreich , lieferung 88 , de gruyter and co . berlin .\njones , h . a . & byrne , m . ( 2014 ) . changes in the distributions of freshwater mussels ( unionoida : hyriidae ) in coastal southeastern australia and implications for their conservation status . aquatic conservation : marine and freshwater ecosystems 24 : 203 - 217 .\niredale , t . ( 1934 ) . the freshwater mussels of australia . australian zoologist 8 : 57 - 78 .\niredale , t . ( 1943 ) . a basic list of the fresh water mollusca of australia . australian zoologist 10 : 188 - 230 .\nklunzinger , m . w . , beatty , s . j . , morgan , d . l . , thomson , g . j . & lymbery , a . j . ( 2012 ) . glochidia ecology in wild fish populations and laboratory determination of competent host fishes for an endemic freshwater mussel of south - western australia . australian journal of zoology 60 : 26 - 36 .\nlamprell , k . & healy , j . ( 1998 ) . bivalves of australia , volume 2 . leiden , backhuys publishers .\nmcmichael , d . f . & hiscock , i . d . ( 1958 ) . a monograph of the freshwater mussels ( mollusca : pelecypoda ) of the australian region . australian journal of marine and freshwater research 9 : 372 - 508 .\nsmith , b . j . ( 1992 ) . non - marine mollusca . pp . i - xii , 1 - 408 in w . w . k . houston . zoological catalogue of australia , 8 . canberra , australian government publishing service .\nwalker , k . f . ( 2004 ) . a guide to the provisional identification of the freshwater mussels ( unionoida ) of australasia . albury , murray darling freshwater research centre .\nwalker , k . f . , byrne , m . , hickey , c . w . & roper , d . s . ( 2001 ) . freshwater mussels ( hyriidae ) of australasia . pp . 5 - 31 in g . bauer & w\u00e4chtler , k . ecology and evolution of the freshwater mussels unionoida . ecological studies . berlin , springer - verlag .\nwalker , k . f . , jones , h . a . & klunzinger , m . w . ( 2014 ) . bivalves in a bottleneck : taxonomy , phylogeography and conservation of freshwater mussels ( bivalvia : unionoida ) in australasia . hydrobiologia 735 : 61 - 79 .\nzieritz , a . , sartori , a . f . & klunzinger , m . w . ( 2013 ) . morphological evidence shows that not all velesunioninae have smooth umbos . journal of molluscan studies 79 : 277\u2013282 .\nto cite this resource : ponder , w . f . , hallan , a . , shea , m . and clark , s . a . 2016 . australian freshwater molluscs . urltoken\nauthor ( s ) : klunzinger , michael w . ; beatty , stephen j . ; morgan , david l . ; lymbery , alan j . ; haag , wendell r . ;\nthis article was written and prepared by u . s . government employees on official time , and is therefore in the public domain .\nour on - line publications are scanned and captured using adobe acrobat . during the capture process some typographical errors may occur . please contact the srs webmaster if you notice any errors which make this publication unuseable .\nthe southern research station is one of seven units that make up the u . s . forest service research and development organization \u2013 the most extensive natural resources research organization in the world .\n( 2010 ) . ( pisces : gallaxiidae ) , a review and discussion .\n( 2004 ) . a 217 - year record of summer air temperature reconstructed from freshwater pearl mussels ( m .\n( 1988 ) . a comparison of the population dynamics of unionicola formosa from two anodontine bivalves in a north carolina farm pond .\n( 2004 ) . a guide to provisional identification of the freshwater mussels ( unionoida ) of australasia .\n( 1995 ) . a model of mussel filtration in a shallow new zealand lake , with reference to eutrophication control .\n( 1958 ) . a monograph of the freshwater mussels ( mollusca : pelecypoda ) of the australian region .\n( 1919 ) . a monograph of the naiades of pennsylvania . part iii : systematic account of the general and species . board of trustees of the carnegie institute :\n( 2010 ) . a new additive to the artificial culture medium for freshwater bivalve culture in vitro .\n( 1946 ) . a new graphic method of describing the growth of animals .\n( 2004 ) . a new species of lortiella ( mollusca : bivalvia : unionoidea : hyriidae ) from northern australia .\n( 1931 ) . a note on the life history of diplodon lutulentus gould .\n( 1951 ) . a note on the life history of the australian freshwater mussel , hyridella australis lam .\n( 1966 ) . a quantatative study of growth and production of unionid mussels in the river thames at reading .\n( 1995 ) . a quantitative assessment of the reproductive biology of cyclonaias tuberculate ( bivalvia : unionidae ) .\n( 1995 ) . a review of the effects of heavy metals on fresh - water mussels .\n( 1978 ) . a review on the knowledge of suspension - feeding in lamellibrachiate bivalves , with special reference to artificial aquaculture systems .\n( 1980 ) . a scanning electron microscopy study of the inorganic and organic matrices comprising the mature shell of amblema , a fresh - water mollusc .\n( 2001 ) . a standardised method for assessing the status of freshwater mussels in clear , shallow rivers .\n( 1993 ) . a state - of - the - unionids address . in : cummings , k . s . ,\n( 2003 ) . acquired resistance of bluegill sunfish lepomis macrochirus to glochidia larvae of the freshwater mussel utterbackia imbecillis ( bivalvia : unionidae ) after multiple infections .\n( 2007 ) . acute toxicity of copper , ammonia , and chlorine to glochidia and194 juveniles of freshwater mussels ( unionidae ) .\n( 2005 ) . acute toxicity of six freshwater mussel species ( glochidia ) to six chemicals : implications for daphnids and utterbackia imbecillis as surrogates for protection of freshwater mussels ( unionidae ) .\n( 2012 ) . adapting global biodiversity indicators to the national scale : a red list index for australian birds .\n( 2000 ) . age composition , growth and reproductive biology of the salamanderfish lepidogalaxias salamandroides : a re - 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2 ) el glochidium de prisodon ( triplodon ) corrugatus lam . ; 3 ) el lasidium de monocondylea paraguayana d\u2019orb .\n( 1981 ) . notes on the microhabitats of unionoid mussels in some michigan streams .\n( 1961 ) . nuevas notas sobre formas larvales de nayades sud y centroamericanas .\n( 1996 ) . observations on the conglutinates of ptychobranchus greeni ( conrad , 1834 ) ( mollusca : bivalvia : unionoidea ) .\n( 1979 ) . observations on the glochidial stage of the freshwater mussel hyridella ( hyridella ) drapeta ( iredale ) ( mollusca : pelecypoda ) .\n( 1988 ) . occurrence of glochidia in stream drift and on fishes of the upper north fork holston river .\n( 2008 ) . ontogenic morphometrics of individual freshwater pearl mussels ( margaritifera margaritifera ( l . ) ) reconstructed from geometric conchology and trigonometric schlerochronology .\n( 2000 ) . oxygen consumption by juvenile pyganodon cataracta ( bivalvia : unionidae ) in response to declining oxygen tension . in : tankersley ,\n( 1991 ) . parasitic mites ( acari , unionicolidae ) of fresh water mussels ( bivalvia , unionidae ) in the duck and stones rivers in central tennessee .\n( 2004 ) . past and present patterns of connectivity among populations of four cryptic species of freshwater mussels velesunio spp . 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glacial colonization .\n( 1965 ) . population regulation of a water mite parasitic on unionid mussels .\n( 1991 ) . predation by the hooded crow corvus corone cornix on the freshwater pearl mussels margaritifera margaritifera . irish naturalists '\n( 1942 ) . preliminary report on mollusks found in the shell mounds of the pickwick landing basin in the tennessee river valley .\n( 2011 ) . ranking threats using species distribution models in the iucn red list assessment process .\n( 2000 ) . recruitment of fusconaia ebena ( bivalvia : unionidae ) in relation to discharge of the lower ohio river .\n( 1983 ) . redistribution and local recolinisation by the freshwater pearl mussel margaritifera margaritifera ( l . ) .\n( 1993 ) . reduced survival and fitness in native bivalves in response to fouling by the introduced zebra mussel ( driessena polymorpha ) in western lake erie .\n( 2001 ) . relations between complex hydraulics and the localized distribution of mussels in three regulated rivers . regulated rivers :\n( 2004 ) . relationship of declining mussel biodiversity to stream reach and watershed characteristics in an agricultural landscape .\n( 2002 ) . relationship of unionoid mussel occurrence to channel stability in urban streams . verhandlungen der internationale vereinigung f\u00fcr theoretische und angewandte\n( 2002 ) . relationships between streambed substrate characterisitics and freshwater mussels ( bivalvia : unionidae ) in coastal plain streams .\n( 1998 ) . release of metamorphosed juveniles by the green floater , lasmigona subviridis .\n( 1981 ) . repetitive spawning behaviour in two species of freshwater mussels ( lamellibranchiata : unionacea ) in lake kariba .\n( 1999 ) . reproduction by individuals of a nonreproducing population of megalonaias nervosa ( mollusca : unionidae ) following translocation .\n( 1995 ) . reproduction in the freshwater mussel velesunio angasi in response to the release of water from ranger uranium mine to magela creek . technical memorandum 49 . supervising scientist for the alligator rivers region ,\n( 1998 ) . reproduction of river and lake populations of hyridella depressa ( unionacea : hyriidae ) in new south wales : implications for their conservation .\n( 1991 ) . reproductive biology and fish hosts of the tennessee clubshell pleurobema oviforme ( mollusca : unionidae ) in virginia .\n( 1999 ) . reproductive biology and juvenile recruitment of the shinyrayed pocketbook , lampsilis subangulata ( bivalvia : unionidae ) in the gulf coastal plain .\n( 1992 ) . reproductive biology of 4 species of freshwater mussels ( mollusca , unionidae ) in the new river , virginia and west virginia .\n( 1981 ) . reproductive biology of lampsilis radiata siliquoidea ( pelecypoda : unionidae ) .\n( 2003 ) . reproductive biology of the large freshwater crayfish cherax cainii in south - western australia .\n( 1988 ) . reproductive biology of two species of plotosid catfish , tandanus bostocki and cnidoglanis macrocephalus , from south - western australia . phd thesis .\n( 1986 ) . reproductive cycle and fish hosts of the rabbit\u2019s foot mussel , quadrula cylindrica strigillata ( mollusca : unionidae ) in the upper tennessee river drainage .\n( 1987 ) . reproductive strategy of the fresh - water pearl mussel margaritifera margaritifera .\n( 2004 ) . response of freshwater mussel assemblages ( bivalvia : unionidae ) to a record drought in the gulf coastal plain of southwestern georgia .\n( 1998 ) . response of heterotrophic planktonic bacteria to the zebra mussel invasion of the tidal freshwater hudson river .\n( 2003 ) . responses of freshwater biota to rising salinity levels and implications for saline water management : a review .\n( 2004 ) . restricted movement by mottled sculpin ( pisces : cottidae ) in a southern appalachian stream .\n( 2002 ) . restricted movement in stream fish : the paradigm is incomplete , not lost .\n( 2007 ) . review of the systematics and global diversity of freshwater mussel species ( bivalvia : unionoida ) .\n( 2003 ) . salinisation and prospects for biodiversity in rivers and wetlands of south - west western australia .\n( 2011 ) . salinity tolerances of endemic freshwater fishes of south - western australia : implications for conservation in a biodiversity hotspot .\n( 2003 ) . salinization of wouth - western western australian rivers and the implications for the inland fish fauna \u2013 the blackwood river , a case study .\n( 1994 ) . sampling freshwater mussel populations : the bias of muskrat middens .\n( 1982 ) . seasonal variation in two species of unionid clams from manitoba , canada : respiration .\n( 1995 ) . sediment in streams : sources , biological effects and control .\n( 1999 ) . sediment , land use , and freshwater mussels : prospects and problems .\n( 1998 ) . selective predation by muskrats on freshwater mussels in two minnesota rivers .\n( 2003 ) . sensitivity of freshwater mussels ( lampsilis fasciola , villosa iris ) to total and un - ionized ammonia .\n( 1993 ) . sensitivity of freshwater mussels to hypoxic , thermal and acid stress .\n( 2004 ) . serotonergic effects of municipal effluents : induced spawning activity in freshwater mussels .\n( 1998 ) . seston quality controls zebra mussel ( dreissena polymorpha ) energetics in turbid rivers .\n( 1977 ) . shape of shell in relation to weight of margaritifera margaritifera ( l . ) ( bivalvia : margaritiferidae ) .\n( 1984 ) . site selection and attachment duration of anodonta woodiana ( bivalvia : unionacea ) glochidia on fish hosts .\n( 2010 ) . size - specific growth patterns and estimated longevity of the unionid mussel ( pronodularia japanensis ) .\n( 1975 ) . slow growth rate of a deep sea clam determined by 228ra chronology .\n( 1996 ) . small dams as barriers to freshwater mussels ( bivalvia , unionoida ) and their hosts .\n( 1996 ) . some aspects of reproductive biology of freshwater mussels living in a tropical area .\n( 1974 ) . some mechanisms involved in host recognition and attachment of the glochidium larva of anodonta cygnea ( mollusca : bivalvia ) .\n( 1969 ) . some observations on the life histories of south indian freshwater mussels .\n( 1993 ) . spatial aggregation , body size , and reproductive status in the freshwater mussel elliptio complanata .\n( 1992 ) . spatial aggregation , precision , and power in surveys of freshwater mussel populations .\n( 2009 ) . species distribution models : ecological explanation and prediction across space and time . annual review of ecology ,\n( 2007 ) . species information : threatened and endangered animals and plants . available at : urltoken apstatus = i .\n( 1997 ) . spectaclecase ( cumberlandia monodonta ) conglutinates unique , host ( s ) elusive .\n( 1998 ) . spectaclecase ( cumberlandia monodonta ) host ( s ) still elusive .\n( 2000 ) . sperm sphere in unionid mussels ( bivalvia : unionidae ) .\n( 2000 ) . status and conservation of the relict giant european freshwater pearl mussel margaritifera auricularia ( spengler , 1793 ) ( bivalvia : unionoidea ) .\n( 1997 ) . status of aquatic mollusks in the southeastern united states : a downward spiral of diversity .\n( 2005 ) . stream salinity status and trends in south west western australia . salinity and land use impacts slui 38 . department of environment :\n( 2009 ) . studies on molluscan shells : contributions from microscopic and analytical methods .\n( 1912 ) . studies on reproduction and artificial propagation of fresh water mussels .\n( 1984 ) . studies on the biology of freshwater mussels ( lamellibranchia : unionacea ) in ireland .\n( 1993 ) . studies on the chemistry of interstitial water taken from defined horizons in the fine sediments of bivalve habitats in several northern german lowland waters . ii :"]}
{"id": 1919, "summary": [{"text": "galopin ( 1872 \u2013 1899 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in a racing career which lasted from june 1874 until october 1875 he ran nine times and won eight races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was one of the best british two-year-olds winning his first three races before sustaining the only defeat of his career in the middle park plate .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in 1875 , he won all five of his races including the epsom derby .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "at the end of the season he was retired to stud where he became an extremely successful and influential breeding stallion . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "galopin", "paragraphs": ["satisfy due diligence requirments on galopin trawlers limited in one single ' time - saving ' search . run full background checks for fitness and probity on the directors of galopin trawlers limited and anti - money laundering checks ( aml checks ) on galopin trawlers limited\nle menuel galopin is number one afghan kennel for the 8th year in a row .\nretired to stud , his best son was vedette , who when mated with the flying dutchman\u2019s daughter flying duchess , produced the breed shaping sire galopin . flying duchess herself carried voltigeur\u2019s sire voltaire as her damsire , giving galopin a 3x3 cross . galopin matched well with hampton , who carried voltigeur\u2019s full sister volley , grandam of lord clifden . full brother barnton appears in the pedigree of phalaris ( along with hampton and galopin ) .\ngalicia ( gb ) br f 1898 ( galopin - isoletta , by isonomy ) . family 10 - a .\nthe galopin restaurant has met the expectations for more than 20 years now , and today its fame is undeniable .\nsinead whelahan is a company director of galopin trawlers limited since 2014 and a listed director of 1 other companies .\ndonovan ( gb ) b c 1886 ( galopin - mowerina , by scottish chief ) . family 7 - a .\nthe latest documents filed with the companies registration office for galopin trawlers limited ( which can include the account details ) are listed below .\nlog - in now to run due diligence checks and compliance checks on galopin trawlers limited or click join - up to get started .\nwhat made you want to look up galopin ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nst simon ( gb ) br c 1881 ( galopin - st angela , by king tom ) . sire line st . simon . family 11 - c .\nvoltigeur initially stood as a stallion at middlethorpe near york at a fee of 15 guineas . voltigeur\u2019 most notable offspring was the 2000 guineas winner vedette , from his first crop of foals , who sired the derby winner galopin among other winners . galopin sired the undefeated champion st . simon who became the dominant british stallion of his era .\nserra parecis don ' t forget to look has been breed to ch . olaf . . . there should be new menuel galopin puppies at the end of august . . .\ngalopin , when mated with st angela , sired the greatest sire of the late nineteenth century in st simon , who has had a profound influence on twentieth century breeding . st angela re - introduced two lines of orville and one of his half - brother paulowitz and a line of velocipede , who matches with galopin\u2019s grandam merope ( 3 / 4 sister ) .\nb c 1895 ( galopin - lady yardley , by sterling ) . sire line king fergus . family 2 - w . bred by sir tatton sykes he won the two thousand guineas stakes .\ngalopin mare ( br f 1887 ) became the ancestress of two derby winners , minoru ( br c 1906 cyllene ) and grand parade ( bl c 1916 orby ) . family 5 - c .\n, palmer 1939 ; et al . ) , usually naming delight ( 1863 b c by ellington - placid by thistle whipper ) as the alternative . galopin ' s breeder , sharpe , denied the rumours in print (\ngalopin trawlers limited was set up on wednesday the 2nd of july 2014 . their current address is co . louth , and the company status is normal . the company ' s current directors tomas whelahan and sinead whelahan have been the director of 1 other irish company between them .\ngalopin property company unlimited company was set up on tuesday the 23rd of april 2013 . their current address is co . kildare , and the company status is normal . the company ' s current directors barry comer and luke comer have been the director of 108 other irish companies between them .\ncount ( later prince ) batthyany was an aristocratic hungarian who came to england as a young man to escape an uncongenial atmosphere at home and to live the life of a man of means in racing circles . he rode in races in england and founded his stud in 1843 . he was elected to the jockey club in 1859 ; his colours were ' blue , orange sleeves , black cap ' . after installing john dawson as his trainer in newmarket his stable prospered , the highlight being galopin ' s derby win in 1875 . the horse ' s stud career was followed with equal delight , but it proved the death of the prince . he suffered a fatal heart attack on the steps to the jockey club luncheon room in anticipation of galopin ' s son galliard winning the 2000 guineas . among the horses sold after his death was galopin ' s son the great st simon .\ngalopin went on to a successful turf career at two and three including a victory in the derby stakes . he wasn ' t trained at four , due to the prince ' s ill health , and although perfectly sound was sent to the stud . on the death of the prince , galopin was sold to mr henry chaplin for 8 , 000 guineas , and later stood at blankney hall , sleaford , in lincolnshire . in addition to his famous son st simon ( br c 1881 ) , he sired numerous classics winners . he was a champion sire in 1888 , 1889 and 1898 .\ndissecting the pedigree of these two 19th century heroes , voltigeur and the flying dutchman , one can plainly see the explosive quality of common ancestral genes brought together to produce galopin . voltigeur was by voltaire who was out of a phantom mare by phantom while voltigeur\u2019s dam martha lynn was by mulatto by catton .\njust arrived from estonia on january 5th , ch . olaf wins the next day the cacib , bob and 2nd in the group in bordeaux ( judge j . l . brassat lapeyrierre ) . ch . olaf will stay a few months in france and will be at stud at the\nmenuel galopin\n.\nmost obviously , and not easy to research , the presence of such a strong concentration of st . simon , angelica and their sire galopin in the bottom quadrant lends itself to gelling with pedigrees with strong presences too , for instance through teddy , tracery , rabelais , nearco or rock sand , and indeed many others .\nhe was the last of 12 foals from his dam remorse , who was a winning daughter of 1868 goodwood stewards ' cup winner vex . a winner at up to 12 furlongs , vex is a full sister to the great galopin , the unquestioned champion of the 1875 crop in england and a three - time champion sire in that country .\nsharpe may have assumed too much . recent analysis of male - specific y - chromosome dna ( msy ) , carried out by dr . barbara wallner ( university of veterinary medicine , vienna ) et al . , has revealed that modern tail - male descendants of persimmon and st . frusquin , both sired by galopin ' s son st . simon , have the msy type of the byerley turk , as would be expected for delight , rather than that of the darley arabian , as would be expected for vedette . this indicates a mis - recording in the patrilineal record at or after king fergus and at or before st . simon . no link therein appears more suspect than that of vedette to galopin .\nthe dam of blenheim , his grace and king salmon and ancestress of summertime , malva is balanced line - bred to st . simon\u2019s sire galopin and appears in the common presences of mahmoud , donatello and nasrullah through blenheim . in fact the whole bottom part of the pedigree is saturated with the blood of st . simon and his sister angelica . claba di san jore is balanced line - bred to polynesian and princequillo .\nch . paloma p . is the number one sighthound in france at the last\nvos chiens\nranking ( to august ) . in the last three weeks , she won another specialty bob ( chateau gonthier under j . l . lemouzy ) and two more cacibs ( evian under mr mensancal and nevers under mr besson ) . le menuel galopin is number one afghan kennel and number two kennel all breeds in france ! ! !\nb c 1893 ( galopin - eira , by kisber ) . sire line king fergus . family 3 - c . won the rous memorial stakes and the newmarket stakes . in the stud in france , italy and england , he sired the one thousand guineas winner atmah ( b f 1908 ) , two derby italiano winners , kosheni ( b c 1913 ) and saturno ( b c 1907 ) , as well as five other italian classics winners .\nbayardo ' s dam , galicia , came from a good family which included having blink bonnie , as her fifth dam . galicia was by galopin\u2014a derby winner and sire st . simon\u2014and out of the isonomy mare , isoletta . she won the biennial stakes as a two - year - old , before injuring her pastern . galicia raced as a three - year - old , but broke down in the derby cup and was retired for breeding . she produced four winners , of 42 races and \u00a388 , 000 , including lemberg , who won the dewhurst stakes , middle park stakes , the derby , eclipse stakes , st . james ' s palace stakes , jockey club stakes , and the coronation cup , finished second in the 2 , 000 guineas , and third in the st . leger stakes . bayardo was inbred to galopin in the second and fourth generations ( 2\u00d74 ) and to sterling in the fourth generation ( 4\u00d74 ) . [ 2 ]\nbred in lincolnshire by mr william taylor sharpe , galopin was purchased from the middle park yearling sale for 520 guineas by prince batthyany of hungary on the advice of john dawson . described as a rich dark brown colour with a small white star , he stood 15 hands 3 1 / 2 inches , and was said to have depth through the chest , beautiful shoulders and be round barrelled and muscular with powerful quarters . he was considered to have excellent conformation with much quality and superb action .\nbayardo ' s dam , galicia , came from a good family which included having blink bonnie , as her fifth dam . galicia was by galopin - - a derby winner and sire st . simon - - and out of the isonomy mare , isoletta . she won the biennial stakes as a two - year - old , before injuring her pastern . galicia raced as a three - year - old , but broke down in the derby cup and was retired for breeding . she produced four winners , of 42 races and \u00a388 , 000 , including lemberg , who won the dewhurst stakes , middle park stakes , the derby , eclipse stakes , st . james ' s palace stakes , jockey club stakes , and the coronation cup , finished second in the 2 , 000 guineas , and third in the st . leger stakes . bayardo was inbred to galopin in the second and fourth generations ( 2\u00d74 ) and to sterling in the fourth generation ( 4\u00d74 ) . [ 2 ]\nroquebrune won the norfolk stakes by a head , beating the duke of westminster ' s shaddock ( b c 1893 st . serf ) and the prince of wales ' s 1000 guineas winner thais ( br f 1893 st . serf ) , also in the field was leopold de rothschild ' s galeazzo ( b c 1893 galopin ) . his grandam , st . marguerite ( ch f 1879 ) , won the 1000 guineas and then produced oaks and st . leger winner seabreeze ( ch f 1885 isonomy ) , yorkshire oaks winner antibes ( ch f 1886 isonomy ) , champagne stakes winner riviera ( br f 1887 isonomy ) and tredennis ( ch c 1898 kendal ) , among others . his pedigree suggested tremendous potential and he was certainly the best offspring of his sire .\nbr c 1880 ( galopin - mavis , by macaroni ) . sire line king fergus . family 13 . bred by the 6th viscount falmouth , he won the two thousand guineas stakes , prince of wales ' s stakes and the st james ' s palace stakes . although a favourite for the derby he was defeated by st blaise ( ch c 1880 hermit ) and highland chief ( b c 1880 hampton ) . in the stud he sired the henckel - rennen winner griffin ( b c 1897 ) , the grand prix de bruxelles winner war dance ( b c 1887 ) , as well as the dams of bay ronald ( b c 1893 hampton ) and fairy gold ( ch f 1896 bend or ) . the war dance line persisted in france to the derby winner lavandin ( b c 1953 verso ) who got a good grandson in the polish - bred preis von europa winner pawiment ( br c 1974 mehari ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\n, 28 june , 1890 ) , apparently convinced that flying duchess was already in foal to vedette in 1871 when he brought her from the diss stud near roydon to his baumber park stud where delight was , by then , in residence , he also brought from diss though precisely when is unclear .\nin 1875 he won a \u00a3500 match from mr chaplin ' s stray shot at newmarket second spring by 8 lengths , giving her 10 pounds . won the 50 sovs each derby stakes at epsom in may by a length , beating lord aylesford ' s claremont ( b c 1872 blair athol ) , lord falmouth ' s macaroni colt , lord falmouth ' s garterly bell ( b c 1872 blair athol ) , mr vyner ' s two thousand guinesa winner camballo ( b c 1872 cambuscan ) , lord aylesford ' s telescope ( b c 1872 speculum ) , prince soltykoff ' s balfe ( br c 1872 plaudit ) and 11 others . won the 15 sovs each fern hill stakes at ascot in june by 4 lengths , beating mr m dawson ' s bella ( ch f 1873 breadalbane ) , the duke of ujest ' s rosalitta ( ch f 1873 king of diamonds ) , mr j trentham ' s coronella ( b f 1873 camerino ) and count f de lagrange ' s french bred eclair ( b c 1873 consul ) . won a \u00a31000 match from mr h bird ' s royal hunt cup winner lowlander ( ch c 1870 dalesman ) by a length at newmarket second october . won the 25 sovs each newmarket derby by 4 lengths , beating mr w s crawfurd ' s st leger winner craig millar ( ch c 1872 blair athol ) , prince soltykoff ' s balfe , count f de lagrange ' s picnic ( b c 1872 brown bread ) and mr w s mitchell - innes ' s saint leger ( ch c 1872 trumpeter ) .\naida ( b f 1898 ) , bred by the blankney stud , won the one thousand guineas stakes and the imperial produce stakes , and became the 5th dam of the kentucky oaks and coaching club american oaks winner how ( br f 1948 princequillo ) , from whom tom rolfe ( b c 1962 ribot ) and ack ack ( b c 1966 battle joined ) descend . family 9 - h .\nangelica ( b f 1879 ) , a full sister to st simon , when mated with the great ormonde ( b c 1883 bend or ) , produced orme ( b c 1889 ) the sire of flying fox ( b c 1896 ) and orby ( ch c 1904 ) . family 11 - c .\natalanta ( bbr f 1878 ) , the head of family 8 - h , became the dam of the derby and two thousand guineas winner ayrshire ( b c 1885 hampton ) , and ancestress to such horses as the stallion havresac ( br c 1915 rabelais ) and triple crown winner whirlaway ( ch c 1938 blenheim ) .\nbonnie gal ( br f 1889 ) , sent america , dam of jockey club stakes winner disguise ( b c 1897 domino ) and ancestress of black toney ( br c 1911 peter pan ) . family 10 - c .\ncorrie roy ( b f 1878 ) , won the cesarewitch stakes , queen alexandra stakes , jockey club cup and the ebor handicap , ancestress of the two thousand guineas winner colorado ( br c 1923 phalaris ) and triple crown winner citation ( b c 1945 bull lea ) . family 3 - l .\ngaleottia ( b f 1892 ) , bred by mr cox , won the one thousand guineas stakes , and placed 2nd in the oaks stakes . she later became the 2nd dam of the triple crown winner gay crusader ( b c 1914 bayardo ) . family 1 - g .\ngalicia ( br f 1898 ) , became the dam of the st leger winner bayardo ( b c 1906 bay ronald ) and the derby winner lemberg ( b c 1907 cyllene ) , and the grandam of the oaks winner my dear ( b f 1915 beppo ) . family 10 - a .\nsatchel ( br f 1882 ) won the lavant stakes and molyneux cup . the head of family 3 - g , she is ancestress to many good winners including the one thousand guineas winner belle of all ( b f 1948 nasrullah ) , and the king george vi and queen elizabeth diamond stakes winner ela - mana - mou ( b c 1976 pitcairn ) .\nvampire ( br f 1889 ) became the dam of the triple crown winner flying fox ( b c 1896 orme ) , and a great success at stud in france . family 7 - d .\njohn dawson was the youngest of four sons of the scottish trainer george dawson of stamford hall , gullane , who all followed their father ' s profession . john dawson was initially based at roden house , compton , near newbury , until he was appointed by count ( later prince ) gustavus batthyany . to take over a magnificent establishment , warren house in newmarket . horses from this yard were a sight to behold . on special days , the animals would appear in scarlet rugs with their lads in a livery of dark blue tunics and tall hats . when the prince died dawson remained at warren house and worked as private trainer to mr wallace johnstone . in turn , dawson ' s two sons became trainers . his daughter , helen rose , married frederick archer . she died the following year in childbirth .\nlove words ? you must \u2014 there are over 200 , 000 words in our free online dictionary , but you are looking for one that\u2019s only in the merriam - webster unabridged dictionary .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nthe restaurant stands mainly for its table and its menu , but emerges above all for the quality of its staff . its passionate squads , both in the kitchen and in the dining room , will make you live a pleasant experience .\nunlimited companies are not required to file financial accounts . therefore this report is based on judgment searches for the company , and extensive background checks of each of its directors based on name , date of birth ( if available ) and town / county .\npurchase either the standard company report or a credit report to view details on the directors of this company .\ndiscover poor payment histories of any company by searching our judgment database , for court actions brought against a company for non - payment of a debt . plus get free judgment monitoring alerts on this company for the next 12 months .\ngenerate a b2b marketing list with ease and grow your business . identify key decision makers and pre - qualified new prospects for your sales and business development teams .\nview cro company documents and company reports any irish company or business with ease .\nbackground check companies , sole traders or individuals and minimise your spend with more efficient anti - money laundering checks and reports .\nmore people choose vision - net over any other search service . . . ask us why ?\n2017 was a record year for company start - ups in ireland while insolvencies went through a levelling off period .\nwe are in acceleration mode and ireland has taken its place as europe ' s fastest growing economy . many aspects of that recovery are demonstrated in our 2017 annual review .\nplay towers are a great adventure spot for any playground . core of imaginative play with enclosed shelters they are the perfect hide out for children .\nthis playhouse from fhs holtztechnik provides children with a quiet zone where they can hang out and meet other children or simply rest from the fast pace of the play area . it is also ideal for games of hide - and - seek or role . . .\nwhat is a play area without a breath taking slide ? slope slides are a great way of converting an existing sloping area or manmade mound into an exciting play feature . slides are loved by children of all ages and abilities ! . . .\nthe fhs castle themed multiplay units offer a wide variety of play experiences for lots of children . the castle poses challenge and interest for a range of users and incorporates a mixture of features , these provide a . . .\nty hafan offers comfort , care and support for life - limited children and young people and is dedicated to improving the quality of life for the whole family . this comfort and support extends out of the hospice and reaches . . .\nexternal works helps designers , specifiers and buyers find the right companies and products to work with for all civil engineering , landscape and architectural hardscape new build and refurbishment projects . external works helps you reach a faster , better quality of decision about who and what to work with . our website and all the content that . . .\nhelp urltoken take an active role in supporting your decision - making by becoming a registered user . registration unlocks the full suite of tools that make urltoken websites so powerful and allows you to set up the personal preferences required to deliver the content you want to your inbox .\nwe set cookies on this website to give you the best browsing experience possible . closing this message or continuing to browse our site lets us know that you are happy with this . if you would like to change your cookie settings , or find out more , read our cookie policy .\nnice cabin play house fp07e | indicative age ranges : early primary ( 5 - 8 ) , pre - teen ( 9 - 12 ) installation : stilts / framework main material : timber / wood product accreditation : bs en 1176 max . freefall height ( mm ) : 1 . 95m | contact jupiter play suite 49 , 1 st colme street\nnearco ( ity ) br . h , 1935 { 4 - r } dp = 8 - 24 - 0 - 4 - 8 ( 44 ) di = 2 . 67 cd = 0 . 45 - 14 starts , 14 wins , 0 places , 0 shows career earnings : $ 86 , 328\nsire of champions nearctic , nasrullah & royal charger ; major stallion influence for northern dancer , bold ruler & hail to reason / turn - to lines .\nsome of nearco ' s descendants were ranked among the top 100 u . s . racehorses of the 20th century , secretariat , seattle slew , bold ruler , nashua , ruffian , northern dancer , riva ridge , fort marcy . born january , 24 , 1935 , died june 6 , 1957 . ( close )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nwilliam hill futurity ( 1986 ) dante stakes ( 1987 ) epsom derby ( 1987 ) k . george vi & q . elizabeth stakes ( 1987 ) great voltigeur stakes ( 1987 ) st . leger stakes ( 1987 ) [ 1 ]\nreference point ( 26 february 1984\u2013 december 1991 ) was a british thoroughbred race horse and sire . in a career which lasted from august 1986 to october 1987 he ran ten times and won seven races . as a three - year - old he overcame sinus problems before winning york ' s dante stakes , the derby , ascot ' s king george vi and queen elizabeth diamond stakes , the great voltigeur and st . leger in 1987 . it was not until 2012 that another derby winner contested the st . leger ; when camelot attempted , and failed , to win the english triple crown . his final race of the season resulted in failure in the prix de l ' arc de triomphe at longchamp , paris when an abscess was later found to have been responsible for his below - par performance .\nreference point was a dark - coated bay horse bred by his owner , louis freedman , at his cliveden stud in berkshire , england . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] he was sired by mill reef the 1971 epsom derby winner who went on to be leading sire in great britain and ireland in 1978 and 1987 . reference point ' s dam , home on the range , was a high class racemare who won the sun chariot stakes in 1981 . apart from reference point , the best of her progeny was known ranger , who won nineteen races in europe and north america . [ 4 ]\nreference point ran three times as a two - year - old in 1986 . he was the beaten 11 / 10 favourite when finishing third behind port helene and brother patrick on his debut in the ebf heart of variety stakes over a mile at sandown park on 30 august 1986 . on his second outing of 1986 he returned to the same course and distance on 23 september and won the dorking stakes by eight lengths from mulhollande . his final two - year - old run saw him step up to group one class in the william hill futurity at doncaster . he was sent off 4 to 1 second favourite behind henry cecil ' s first string , suhailie but ran out the five length winner from bengal fire , with love the groom in third . his win at doncaster led to reference point being the highest rated european two - year - old of 1986 , [ 5 ]\nin early 1987 , reference point ' s training was disrupted by sinus problems , which required surgery , ruling out any possibility of a challenge for the 2000 guineas . [ 6 ] on his three - year - old debut , reference point ran in the dante stakes at york , a recognised trial race for the epsom derby . reference point led from the start and ran on strongly in the closing stages to win by a length from ascot knight .\nat epsom , reference point started 6 / 4 favourite in a field of nineteen runners . cauthen sent the colt into the lead from the start , and in the straight he turned back a series of challenges [ 7 ] to win by one and a half lengths from most welcome and bellotto . the winning time of 2 : 33 . 90 was the fastest since mahmoud ' s hand - timed record of 2 : 33 . 8 in 1936 . [ 8 ]\non his first start after his derby win , reference point raced against older horses for the first time in the eclipse stakes at sandown over ten furlongs . reference point led from the start , setting such a\nfurious gallop\n[ 9 ] that the designated pacemaker , media starguest was unable to reach the front . two furlongs out he was challenged by mtoto , ridden by michael roberts . the two horses raced together in the closing stages before mtoto pulled ahead to prevail by three quarters a length , with triptych taking third . [ 10 ] three weeks later , reference point returned to twelve furlongs in the king george vi and queen elizabeth diamond stakes at ascot . starting the 11 / 10 favourite , he led the field into the straight and then pulled clear in the final quarter mile to win by three lengths from celestial storm and triptych . [ 11 ]\nreference point was given a timeform rating of 139 , the eleventh highest awarded to any horse up to that time , and higher than those of nijinsky , alleged and troy . [ 16 ] in their book a century of champions , john randall and tony morris rated reference point the thirty - sixth best british horse of the 20th century and the second best derby winner of the 1980s behind shergar . [ 5 ]\nthe bbc sport correspondent lee mckenzie rated him as one of his\nsix of the best\nrecent derby winners ' [ 17 ] and explained that his\nworkmanlike\nracing style sometimes led to his being overlooked . steve cauthen ranked reference point as a\ngreat champion\nand one of the best horses he rode in his career . [ 18 ]\nreference point was voted 1987 british horse of the year by the racecourse association , attracting twelve of the twenty votes . [ 16 ]\nreference point made little impact in four seasons at stud , with his only group one winner being ivyanna , who won the 1992 oaks d ' italia . [ 19 ] he died after fracturing a leg in an accident in december 1991 at the dalham hall stud [ 20 ] where he was buried . [ 21 ]\n. queen anne press . 1986 . pp . 480 , 554 , 634 .\npowerful force in industry ; louis freedman was one of britain ' s foremost owner - breeders , with a stream of top - class performers emanating from his cliveden stud . - free online library\nlate arrival who found his feet at the right time . - free online library\nwhat happened to . . . trempolino ? | sporting life - horse racing news | live racing results , racecards , live betting shows\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\nvoltigeur ( 1847\u20131874 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse and sire . in a career that lasted from 1849 to august 1852 he ran ten times and won five races . in 1850 he won the epsom derby and the st leger against his fellow three - year - olds and then recorded his most famous victory when beating the flying dutchman in the doncaster cup . in may 1851 voltigeur was beaten by the flying dutchman in what was probably the most celebrated match race in the history of british thoroughbred racing . voltigeur was never as good again , winning once from his remaining five races , but went on to have a successful stud career .\nvoltigeur , described in sources as being bay , brown or even black , was bred by robert stephenson at his stud at hart , near hartlepool , county durham . he stood 15 . 3 hands ( 63 inches , 160 cm ) high and was described as being\nmuscular\nand\npowerful\nbut having a rather coarse head and being rather\nhigh on the leg\n. as a yearling he was sent to the sales , but was returned to his breeder after failing to attract any interest . robert hill , the private trainer for lord zetland was however , impressed by the colt and eventually persuaded the earl to buy him the following autumn for \u00a31 , 000 . the sale arrangement provided for an extra \u00a3500 to be paid if the colt won the derby . hill took charge of training the colt at aske , north yorkshire .\nvoltigeur ' s sire , voltaire was a successful racehorse who won the doncaster cup in 1829 . he went on to become a good stallion , with his best son apart from voltigeur being the st leger winner charles the twelfth . his dam martha lynn went on to produce the yorkshire oaks winner vivandiere and was the grandam of the 1000 guineas winner imperieuse .\nvoltigeur ran once as a two - year - old , appearing in the wright stakes at richmond , north yorkshire on 31 october 1849 . he looked impressive in the paddock and won well , beating mark tapley by a length .\nalthough voltigeur did not run in the spring of 1850 he was quietly fancied for the epsom derby with his support being particularly strong in yorkshire where zetland owned large estates and among the order of freemasons of which he was a grand master . shortly before the race , zetland discovered that the colt\u2019s breeder had not made the correct entry payments and that it would cost \u00a3400 to run in the derby . zetland was determined to withdraw voltigeur , but was persuaded to pay the entry fee after representations from his yorkshire tenants , who explained that they had wagered heavily on the horse and faced ruin if he failed .\nvoltigeur performed poorly in an exercise gallop shortly after arriving at epsom , and was allowed to start at odds of 16 / 1 in a field of twenty - four runners . the start of the race was delayed after an objection was lodged against one of the runners , diecoon . in an echo of the\nrunning rein\naffair of five years ' earlier , the horse was only cleared to run after a veterinary surgeon examined him and confirmed that he was a three - year - old . ridden by job marson , voltigeur was settled in seventh place in the early stages before making his challenge in the straight . inside the final furlong ( 0 . 20 km ) , voltigeur took the lead ahead of the favourite clincher and ran on strongly to win comfortably by a length . the 2000 guineas winner pitsford finished well to take second from clincher in the last strides .\ndespite his exertions , he turned out two days later for the doncaster cup in which he was the only horse to oppose the flying dutchman , the winner of the 1849 derby and st leger and undefeated in thirteen career starts . the flying dutchman , whose jockey appeared to be the worse for drink , set off at an exceptionally fast pace and marson was able to bide his time on voltigeur . in the straight voltigeur moved up alongside the four - year - old champion and then pulled ahead to win by half a length in a huge upset .\nthe race inspired a poem from\nthe druid\n( w . h . dixon ) , which was printed in bell ' s life and culminated with the stanza :\nthe ring stands pale . forth speeds the tale , which many a doubt inspires from east to west , from north to south , it glances o ' er the wires . from richmond unto middleham this message quickly passed your conqueror of conquerors has bowed his head at last .\nafter the race it was agreed that the two horses would meet again in a match race at york the following spring for a prize of 2 , 000 guineas , with each owner putting up half the sum .\nthe two - mile race ( 3 . 2 km ) was held as part of a renewed spring meeting at york on 13 may 1851 . the weights for the match were set by henry john rous , who decided that the flying dutchman should carry\npounds ( 54 . 7 kg ) to voltigeur ' s 112 lb ( 51 kg ) . the race between the two yorkshire - trained horses generated enormous public interest among all classes of society , even among those who normally took no interest in horse racing . the match drew an estimated 100 , 000 spectators , the largest crowd to the knavesmire since the execution of eugene aram in 1759 . according to a lengthy analysis of the race published in\n, previous great matches , such as the one at newmarket between hambletonian and diamond in 1799 ,\nfell into insignificance\nin comparison with the york event . even the horses ' exercise gallops attracted large crowds of fans attempting to assess their relative condition . on the day of the race , the crowd was divided into partisan camps , cheering for either\nvolti\nor\nthe flyer\n. ridden by nat flatman , voltigeur made the running , but although he held the lead into the straight , he was unable to dispose of his rival . in the final furlong , the flatman dropped his whip , and the flying dutchman moved up level and then pulled ahead to win by a length .\nthe painting of the finish of the match by john f . herring ( right ) became one of the most widely reproduced images of the time with\nscarcely a village\nin the british empire being without at least one copy .\none day after his defeat , voltigeur turned out for the york and ainsty hunt cup over two miles ( 3 . 2 km ) , in which he was surprisingly beaten by a three - year - old filly named nancy .\nin may 1886 the sporting times carried out a poll of one hundred experts to create a ranking of the best british racehorses of the 19th century . voltigeur was ranked thirtieth , having been placed in the top ten by eight of the contributors . he was the sixth - highest placed horse to have raced before 1850 .\non voltigeur ' s death in 1874 the sheffield telegraph called him\nthe pride of the yorkshire sportsman , and one of the best and most popular horses that ever trod the british turf .\nwhen the racecourse authorities at york instituted a new trial race for the st leger in 1950 , the race was named the\ngreat voltigeur stakes\nin his honour .\nvoltigeur was the only racehorse painted by the famous animal painter edwin henry landseer . landseer ' s interest was reportedly engaged when he heard that voltigeur was constantly accompanied by a tortoiseshell cat who slept on the horse ' s back .\nat the age of twenty - seven voltigeur sustained a fractured hind leg when he was kicked by a mare named time test . he was shot on february 21 , 1874 , and buried in the grounds of aske hall . his cannon bone however , was preserved and is still displayed in a glass cabinet at york racecourse .\nrock sand ( gb ) br c 1900 by sainfoin - roquebrune , by st . simon family 4 - n\nspringfield joseph h houldsworth , was a great sportsman and member of the jockey club . early on he acquired horses from james merry , and numbered among his racing string such horses as norfolk and great yorkshire stakes winner coltness , prince of wales ' s stakes winner glengarry , sussex stakes winner orvieto and champion and jockey club stakes winner laveno .\nspringfield b c 1873 ( st . albans - viridis , by marsyas ) . family 12 - c . bred by hm queen victoria ( 1819 - 1901 ) , springfield was a full brother to wokingham ( b c 1877 ) , aptly named since he won the wokingham stakes at ascot in 1881 and 1882 . their grandam , maid of palmyra ( b f 1855 ) , also produced ebor handicap winner verdant ( ch c 1862 marsyas ) and another wokingham winner chesnut ( ch c 1869 marsyas ) . she was ancestress to belmont stakes winner kingfisher ( b c 1867 lexington ) and july cup , queen anne stakes and king ' s stand stakes winner best man ( b c 1890 ormonde or melton ) . he was purchased at the annual hampton court yearling sale by inverate scotsman j h houldsworth for 320 guineas . shortly after his purchase he fractured his pelvis , but he was recovered enough to run the following year . springfield was later described as a\nbay with a narrow blaze on his face , and his off hind heel is white . he stands over 16 hands , with great bone , substance and length , and grand symmetry throughout . for bloodlike style , fashion and movement he has no superior , and he has gained his honours fairly on his merits\n. he was considered one of the fastest horses ever seen .\nsainfoin , photograph by clarence hailey hm queen victoria ( 1819 - 1901 ) , re - established the breeding of blood horses at hampton court at the end of 1849 . an annual sale of the queen ' s yearlings occurred after the ascot race meeting . a number of good stallions stood there and many high quality horses were produced .\nrock sand , photograph by august belmont sir james percy miller ( 1864 - 1906 ) , 2d bt , was considered one of the luckiest people on the turf . having purchased sainfoin just over a month before he won the derby , he then bred another derby winner in rock sand .\nrock sand br c 1900 ( sainfoin - roquebrune , by st . simon ) . family 4 - n . the tenth winner of the triple crown in england , rock sand was described as a beautifully made little colt with much quality and courage . sir james purchased his sire sainfoin ( ch c 1887 ) the same year he won the derby . he purchased his dam , roquebrune ( br f 1893 ) , as a yearling for 4 , 100 guineas from the disposal sale for the dowager duchess of montrose .\npapers past | news by the mail . ( globe , 1874 - 12 - 22 )\nhelp us improve papers past : do our short survey and let us know how we ' re doing .\nthis article displays in one automatically - generated column . view the full page to see article in its original form .\nthese victories of french horses are row unpleasantly frequent . peut - etre won easily in ft canter by two lengths , and has beaten\nthis article text was automatically generated and may include errors . view the full page to see article in its original form .\nnews by the mail . , globe , volume ii , issue 170 , 22 december 1874\nnews by the mail . globe , volume ii , issue 170 , 22 december 1874\npapers past now contains more than just newspapers . use these links to navigate to other kinds of materials .\nthese links will always show you how deep you are in the collection . click them to get a broader view of the items you ' re currently viewing .\nenter names , places , or other keywords that you ' re curious about here . we ' ll look for them in the fulltext of millions of articles .\nbrowsed to an interesting page ? click here to search within the item you ' re currently viewing , or start a new search .\nuse these buttons to limit your searches to particular dates , titles , and more .\nswitch between images of the original document and text transcriptions and outlines you can cut and paste .\nif you ' d rather just browse through documents , click here to find titles and issues from particular dates and geographic regions .\nthe\nhelp\nlink will show you different tips for each page on the site , so click here often as you explore the site .\n\u00a9 2018 urltoken by ancestry . all rights reserved . terms and conditions \u00b7 privacy statement \u00b7 site map \u00b7 contact\njavascript required : we ' re sorry , but urltoken doesn ' t work properly without javascript enabled . you will need to enable javascript by changing your browser settings . learn how to enable it .\ncookies required : we ' re sorry , but urltoken doesn ' t work properly without cookies enabled . you will need to enable cookies by changing your browser settings .\nimage 23 of the journal ( new york [ n . y . ] ) , may 3 , 1896 | library of congress\nimage 23 of the journal ( new york [ n . y . ] ) , may 3 , 1896\npdf ocr ( alto ) jpeg ( 210x265 px ) jpeg ( 420x531 px ) jpeg ( 840x1063 px ) jpeg2000 ( 6 . 8 mb )\ntitle the journal ( new york [ n . y . ] ) , may 3 , 1896 contributor names library of congress place of publication new york [ n . y . ] created / published new york [ n . y . ] , may 3 , 1896 subject headings - new york ( n . y . ) - - newspapers - new york county ( n . y . ) - - newspapers - new york ( state ) - - new york - new york ( state ) - - new york county - united states - - new york - - new york - - new york genre newspapers notes - daily - no . 4 , 739 ( nov . 7 , 1895 ) - no . 4 , 993 ( july 18 , 1896 ) . - also issued on microfilm from recordak corp . , eastmak kokak co . - new york journal ( new york , n . y . : 1896 : morning ed . ) ( dlc ) sn 84024350 ( ocolc ) 11223851 medium 48 pages call number / physical location newspaper library of congress control number sn84031792 online format image pdf online text description new york [ n . y . ] lccn permalink urltoken additional metadata formats modsxml record marcxml record iiif presentation manifest manifest ( json / ld )\nthe journal ( new york [ n . y . ] ) 1895 to 1896\nthe library of congress provides access to these materials for educational and research purposes and makes no warranty with regard to their use for other purposes . responsibility for making an independent legal assessment of an item and securing any necessary permissions ultimately rests with the user . the written permission of the copyright owners and other rights holders ( such as holders of publicity or privacy rights ) is required for distribution , reproduction , or other use of protected items beyond that allowed by fair use or other statutory exemptions .\nthe library of congress is not aware of any u . s . copyright protection ( see title 17 , u . s . c . ) , or any other restrictions on the materials digitized for the collection new york journal and related titles .\ncitations are generated automatically from bibliographic data as a convenience , and may not be complete or accurate .\nthe journal . [ new york n . y . , may 3 ] ( new york , ny ) , may . 3 1896 . urltoken\n( 1896 , may 3 ) the journal . [ new york n . y . , may 3 ] . retrieved from the library of congress , urltoken\nthe journal . [ new york n . y . , may 3 ] ( new york , ny ) 3 may . 1896 , p . 23 . retrieved from the library of congress , urltoken\nthe journal ( new york [ n . y . ] ) , april 30 , 1896\nthe journal ( new york [ n . y . ] ) , may 1 , 1896\nthe journal ( new york [ n . y . ] ) , may 2 , 1896\nthe journal ( new york [ n . y . ] ) , february 10 , 1896\nthe journal ( new york [ n . y . ] ) , february 11 , 1896\nmanuscript . pen - and - ink and watercolor . covers new york city region . pictorial map showing buildings and points of interest . depths shown by soundings . available also through the library of congress web site as a . . .\n1 print : lithograph , color ; 56 x 81 cm . ( image with accompanying text ) | bird ' s - eye view of new york showing the waterfront , brooklyn bridge , with battery park and governors island in . . .\nperspective map not drawn to scale . lc panoramic maps ( 2nd ed . ) , 594 . 6 available also through the library of congress web site as a raster image . aacr2 : 651 / 1\nvoltigeur was a bay colt born in hartlepool , great britain in 1847 , by voltaire out of martha lynn by mulatto . bred by robert stephenson , he was sent to the sales as a yearling but was unwanted and was sent back home . the following spring , with the urging of his brother - in - law , lord zetland purchased the colt for 1 , 000 guineas . second time lucky in fact as he had been advised to purchase the colt at the yearling sales but had declined .\nhe was described by henry hall , an equine artist as a \u201cbrown horse standing only 15 hands 3 inches in height , and with a rather coarse head , small ears , and muscular neck with very good oblique shoulder , deep - girthed , high in the leg , and rather light , but with a good back and powerful quarters rather drooping toward his light , thin tail . \u201d\nthe flying dutchman was born in great britain in 1846 , a colt by bay middleton out of barbelle by sandbeck . barbelle had produced the fine horse van tromp who won many stakes races including the st leger for his owner lord eglinton . lord eglinton approached van tromp\u2019s breeder and agreed to pay 1 , 000 guineas for each perfectly formed foal produced from the womb of barbelle . so he came to own the flying dutchman ."]}
{"id": 1925, "summary": [{"text": "kaloula assamensis ( assamese balloon frog or assam narrow-mouth toad ) is a species of narrow-mouthed frog found in assam , arunachal pradesh , and west bengal in northeastern india . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "kaloula assamensis", "paragraphs": ["keywords : kaloula , new species , kaloula assamensis , microhylidae , systematics , new species , india .\nrecord of kaloula assamensis ( das et al . 2004 ) ( anura : microhylidae ) from bongagaon district , assam , india .\npaul , s . , biswas , m . c . and deuti , k . 2007 . first record of the assam painted frog ( kaloula assamensis\nrecord of kaloula assamensis ( das et al . 2004 ) ( anura : microhylidae ) from bongagaon district , assam , india . | anukul nath - urltoken\ntalukdar , s . , soud , r . and deauti , k . 2007 . range extension of the assam painted frog , kaloula assamensis das et al . ( anura : microhylide ) to western assam . cobra jan . - mar . : 18 - 20 .\nanukul nath , firoz ahmed and hilloljyoti singha . 2011 . record of kaloula assamensis ( das et al . , 2004 ) ( anura : microhylidae ) from bongagaon district , assam , india . frog leg [ newsletter of the amphibian network of south asia and amphibian specialist group - south asia ] . 17 .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . kaloula assamensis das , sengupta , ahmed , and dutta , 2005 . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .\nkaloula assamensis das , sengupta , ahmed , and dutta , 2005 , hamadryad , 29 : 103 . holotype : zsic a . 100069 , by original designation . type locality :\nmajbat ( 26\u00b0 45\u2032 n ; 92\u00b0 20\u2032 e ; 141 m asl ) , sonitpur district , assam state , north - east india\n.\ndas , i . , sengupta , s . , ahmed , m . f . and dutta , s . k . 2004 . a new species of kaloula ( anura : microhylidae ) from assam state , north - eastern india . hamadryad : 101 - 109 .\ndas , i . , sengupta , s . , ahmed , m . f . and dutta , s . k . 2004 . a new species of kaloula ( anura : microhylidae ) from assam state , north - eastern india . hamadryad . 101 - 109 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nlisted as least concern in view of its likely wide distribution , tolerance of a range of habitats , and because it is unlikely to be declining to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\n2007 ) and so it might be tolerant of a degree of habitat modification . it is often found perched up to 1 m above the ground on grasses , ferns , and herbaceous vegetation , but it is also found underground . it is presumed to breed by larval development .\nit is found in nameri national park , orang national park , pakhui wildlife sanctuary and chilapata range .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\niucn . 2009 . iucn red list of threatened species ( ver . 2009 . 2 ) . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 3 november 2009 ) .\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\nassamese balloon frog ( ahmed , das , and dutta , 2009 , amph . rept . ne india : 31 ) .\nassam narrowmouth toad ( dinesh , radhakrishnan , gururaja , and bhatta , 2009 , rec . zool . surv . india , occas . pap . , 302 : 51 ) .\nknown only from four localities in sonitur district , assam , on in bongagaon district , assam , one ( pakhui wildlife sanctuary ) in arunachal pradesh , and one in cooch behar district , northeastern west bengal , northeastern india ; may extend into adjacent bangladesh .\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\nfor access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nnew & recent described flora & fauna species from all over the world esp . asia , oriental , indomalayan & malesiana region\nsaibal sengupta , abhijit das , sandeep das , balhtiar hussain , nripendra kumar choudhury and sushil kumar dutta . 2009 . taxonomy and biogeography of\nwuodendron b . xue , y . h . tan & chaowasku wuodendron praecox ( hook . f . & thomson ) b . xue , y . h . tan & x . l . hou in xue , tan . . .\n[ botany \u2022 2017 ] begonia fulgurata | \u0e14\u0e32\u0e14\u0e14\u0e32\u0e23\u0e32\u0e23\u0e31\u0e28\u0e21\u0e35 \u2022 a new species ( sect . diploclinium , begoniaceae ) from chiang mai , northern thailand\nbegonia fulgurata c . - i peng , c . w . lin & phutthai \u0e14\u0e32\u0e14\u0e14\u0e32\u0e23\u0e32\u0e23\u0e31\u0e28\u0e21\u0e35 | | doi : 10 . 3767 / blumea . 2017 . 62 . 03 . 01 urltoken be . . .\nchamaelirium viridiflorum l . wang , z . c . liu & w . b . liao in liu , feng , wang & liao , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / phytotaxa . 357 . . . .\ngreat - billed seed - finch sporophila maximiliani ( cabanis , 1851 ) in ubaid , silveira , medolago , et . al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / . . .\nendocerids with their filtering apparatus in mironenko , 2018 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2018 . 1491565 reconstruction by andre . . .\naristolochia tongbiguanensis j . y . shen , q . b . gong & s . landrein in gong , landrein , xi , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 6165 / tai . . . .\nbagualosaurus agudoensis pretto , langer & schultz , 2018 doi : 10 . 1093 / zoolinnean / zly028 illustration : jorge blanco c . . .\nthe hypothetical phylogenetic relationships of ceratosaurs based on current topologies . the main source is from wang et al . ( 2016 . . .\nnipponosaurus sachalinensis nagao , 1936 in takasaki , chiba , kobayashi , et al . , 2018 \u30cb\u30c3\u30dd\u30ce\u30b5\u30a6\u30eb\u30b9 | | doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2017 . . . .\nbegonia medogensis jianw . li , y . h . tan & x . h . jin in li , tan , wang , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 3897 / phytokeys . 103 . 25392 . . .\n[ botany \u2022 2016 ] bidoupia phongii \u2022 a new orchid ge . . .\n[ herpetology \u2022 2016 ] living in a japanese onsen : f . . .\n[ botany \u2022 2016 ] the iris family ( iridaceae ) in the . . .\n[ invertebrate \u2022 2016 ] sundageophilus gen . nov . \u2022 t . . .\n[ fungi \u2022 2016 ] inocybe distincta \u2022 a new species o . . .\n[ botany \u2022 2015 ] billolivia kyi \u2022 a new species ( ge . . .\n[ herpetology \u2022 2016 ] dragons in the mist : three ne . . .\non this day ( july 10th ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .\nanomaloglossus meansi : a new species of cryptic forest frog from the wokomung and ayanganna sky islands of southern guyana .\nthe benefits and costs of academic travel . or\nthere and back again ; again and again\ncanon renueva su gama de 70 - 200 mm f : 2 . 8 y f : 4\nplants go extinct , but sometimes species are rediscovered . this one after 151 years .\ni ' m killing antediluvian salad but even in death there is rebirth . . .\nnecps carnivorous plant show : sept . 9 - 10 at tower hill botanical garden\nthis is a particularly beautiful species of centrolenid - the granular glass frog , cochranella granulosa .\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\n< a target = ' _ blank ' href = ' urltoken ' > iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . exported on 12 january 2012 < / a >\nsmall - sized frog ( length 38 mm ) . body rounded . head small , broader than long . snout rounded . tympanum absent . eyes small with rounded pupil . supra - tympanic fold distinct . fingers free of web . fingers tips dilated . toes about half - webbed . toe tips slightly rounded . a pointed inner and a oval outer metatarsal tubercle present . dorsum granular . abdomen coarsely granular .\nbrown dorsally , with a bright yellow vertebral stripe . dark - edged , broad dark brown lateral stripes laterally . upper surfaces of fore and hind limbs pale brown . ventrum cream coloured .\nk . deuti , zoological survey of india in venkataraman , k . , chattopadhyay , a . and subramanian , k . a . ( editors ) . 2013 . endemic animals of india ( vertebrates ) :\ndescribes reproductive physiology and behavior , including mating and life history variables . includes cues , strategies , restraints , rates .\ndescribes average size , max , range ; type of size ( perimeter , length , volume , weight . . . ) .\ndorsum granular . abdomen coarsely granular ; dorsally pale brown , with a dark - edged bright yellow vertebral stripe from snout tip to near vent ; a dark - edged broad dark brown lateral stripe , originating from the postocular region extending to inguinal region ; stratified colouration on posterior face of thighs and flanks ; light pericloacal ring present . ventrum cream coloured .\ndescribes the general appearance of the taxon ; e . g body plan , shape and color of external features , typical postures . may be referred to as or include habit , defined as the characteristic mode of growth or occurrence associated to its environment , particularly for plants . comprising its size , shape , texture and orientation . example : tree , shrubs , herbs . may also be referred to include anatomy .\na ground dwelling frog of tropical evergreen forest and alluvial grassland , but also may perched herbs and ferns . fossorial in habit .\nrelations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment . variables of interest to ecologists include the composition , distribution , amount ( biomass ) , number , and changing states of organisms within and among ecosystems .\ngeneral description of the sites where the species is found ( ecosystem , forest , environment or microhabitat ) . includes realm ( e . g terrestrial etc ) and climatic information ( e . g boreal ) ; also includes requirements and tolerances ; horizontal and vertical ( altitudinal ) distribution . also includes information referring to territorial extension of the individual or group in terms of its activities ( feeding , mating , etc . ) , associated mostly to vertebrates .\nmajbat , sirajuli & nameri wls & orang np , assam and pakke tr , arunachal pradesh .\nenumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .\ndr . chandra barooah & lani sarma ( 2016 ) assam science technology and environment council .\nincludes abundance information ( population size , density ) and demographics ( e . g . age stratification ) .\ndescribes the likelihood of the species becoming extinct in the present day or in the near future . population size is treated under population biology , and trends in population sizes are treated under trends . however , this is the preferred element if an object includes all of these things and details about conservation listings .\nfrost , darrel r . 2016 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 03 - 04 - 2017 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa .\nthis document is no longer available on zsi website so hosting it here . ,\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences"]}
{"id": 1929, "summary": [{"text": "the popoche chub ( algansea popoche ) is a species of freshwater fish in the genus algansea .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is endemic to the lerma river basin and lake cajititlan in mexico .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is not suitable for human consumption . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "popoche chub", "paragraphs": ["the popoche chub is a species of ray - finned fish in the genus algansea .\nhave a fact about popoche chub ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for popoche chub ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nanother local official , erik tapia , suggested that the deaths of the popoche chub fish might be due to overpopulation .\nbut a local official , ismael del toro , said the deaths of the popoche chub fish happened every year during the rainy season .\nlocal media reported at least 40 tonnes of popoche chub freshwater fish had washed up on the shores of lake cajititlan , in jalisco state .\nnearly 50 tonnes of dead popoche chub fish were removed at the weekend from lake cajititl\u00e1n , a lagoon in the central state of jalisco .\na fisherman collects dead popoche chub fish from lake cajititl\u00e1n , mexico . nearly 50 tonnes of dead fish were removed . photograph : hector guerrero / afp / getty images\nfishermen , firefighters , town hall workers and staff from the state agricultural ministry pulled hundreds of thousands of dead popoche chub fish from the lake and buried them in a pit .\nthe incident comes after of a series of smaller waves of dead popoche chub in the lake in recent months , including one last week , ensuring that 2014 is already by far the worst year for the species , which has been under attack for the past few years .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2006 ) .\nalgansea popoche\nin fishbase . april 2006 version .\nvictor hugo ornelas , a reporter from the tlajomulco - based newspaper la verdad , said it also appeared that fertilisers washed into the lake from surrounding cornfields during the rainy season could be a significant factor . the fertilisers appear to fuel the growth of algae near the surface , where the popoche chub swim .\nfishermen have been removing thousands of dead fish from a lake near the western mexican city of guadalajara .\none local official described their deaths as a\nnatural , cyclical phenomenon\nthat occurred every year .\nhowever , other state and local officials have blamed poor lake management for the deaths of the fish .\nthe authorities are investigating whether a wastewater treatment plant is to blame for failing to filter out untreated material and thus reducing the amount of oxygen in the water .\nlast year local fishermen recovered about 200 tonnes of dead fish from lake cajititlan . more than 100 fishermen are involved in this year ' s operation .\nit is a natural , cyclical phenomenon . it happens every year and other species are not affected ,\nhe insisted .\nthey do not have any natural predator and they are not suitable for human consumption ,\nhe said .\nthe foreign secretary quits , telling theresa may\nneedless self - doubt\nis leading to\nsemi - brexit\n.\nlatin , algensis , - e = somebody that eats algae ; cited by plinius ( ref . 45335 )\nlyons , j . , g . gonz\u00e1lez - hernand\u00e9z , e . soto - galera and m . guzm\u00e1n - arroyo , 1998 . decline of freshwater fishes and fisheries in selected drainages of west - central mexico . fisheries 23 ( 4 ) : 10 - 18 . ( ref . 27639 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5039 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00891 ( 0 . 00387 - 0 . 02054 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 2 . 85 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 0 \u00b10 . 2 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 25 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthere was an error retrieving images from instagram . an attempt will be remade in a few minutes .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nmexicans are baffled at the sudden death of thousands of fish in a lake in the centre of the country , a dramatic intensification of a problem that no one has yet been able to explain .\nthe authorities in the lakeside town of tlajomulco de z\u00fa\u00f1iga , about 25 minutes ' drive south of the city of guadalajara , had previously blamed the deaths on\na cyclical phenomenon caused by temperature variations and the reduction of oxygen\n.\nthis weekend , the state ' s environment secretary , magdalena ruiz mej\u00eda , ruled out natural causes and blamed\npoor management of the body of water\n. she pointed to municipal waste water treatment facilities and promised a full investigation .\nthere have been complaints that a nearby tequila distillery is storing waste in containers that drain into channels that feed into the lake .\nit is obvious that there are many sources of pollution around the lake ,\nornelas said .\nfertiliser runoff in a particularly heavy rainy season could be the straw that is breaking the camel ' s back .\njos\u00e9 luis castillo , who takes tourists around the lake in his boat , told the newspaper el informador how the fish first attracted attention by swimming even closer to the surface than usual .\nafter that they died ,\nhe said .\nlots and lots have died this year .\nthe fish deaths are just the latest in a succession of incidents in which large numbers of creatures have been found dead in particular places , from sea lions in california to seabirds in peru .\n\u00a9 2018 guardian news and media limited or its affiliated companies . all rights reserved .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\ni agree to receive emails from the site . i can withdraw my consent at any time by unsubscribing .\nsubscribe to get free weekly updates on the latest news on innovation and design .\nalmost finished . . . we need to confirm your email address . to complete the subscription process , please click the link in the email we just sent you .\nwithout warning , hundreds of thousands of dead fish have been floating to the surface of lake cajititlan in the mexican state of jalisco over the past week . local authorities claim the deaths are part of a \u201cnatural cycle , \u201d but state authorities disagree , saying that the phenomena is due to \u201cpoor management\u201d of the lake . this isn\u2019t the first time this has happened either \u2013 10 tons of fish were found dead in the same lake last october . is this really an annual event , or yet another occurrence caused by the harmful activities of humans ?\nstate authorities are confident that improper management of sludge produced by local wastewater treatment plants is to blame . the only problem is that they have so far been denied access to the plants , and therefore been unable to gather any concrete evidence .\nthe argument in favor of natural causes is that between the months of august , september and october , a lack of oxygen in the water , caused by the drag of organic matter during the rainy season causes many of the freshwater fish in the lake to die . while this seems logical , the fact that the number has increased so dramatically since last year ( 10 tons to 50 , and counting ) points to other variables . until there is more evidence , all state authorities have been able to do is issue an environmental alert for the lake .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 1939, "summary": [{"text": "the black flying squirrel or large black flying squirrel ( aeromys tephromelas ) is a species of rodent in the family sciuridae .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it is found in brunei , indonesia , and malaysia ; its habitat is primary and secondary forests and gardens where it uses tree hollows .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it feeds on fruits , nuts and other vegetable matter .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it is likely not threatened and is adaptable to habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "black flying squirrel", "paragraphs": ["according to the international union for the conservation of nature ' s red list , these species are endangered : san joaquin antelope ground squirrel , woolly flying squirrel , sipora flying squirrel , mentawi flying squirrel , siberut flying squirrel , smoky flying squirrel , vincent ' s bush squirrel , baja california rock squirrel , idaho ground squirrel , perote ground squirrel , fraternal squirrel and mearns ' squirrel . the namdapha flying squirrel is critically endangered .\na young / baby of a black flying squirrel is called a ' pup , kit or kitten ' . the females are called ' doe ' and males ' buck ' . a black flying squirrel group is called a ' dray or scurry ' .\nthe black flying squirrel , large black flying squirrel is listed as least concern ( lr / lc ) , lowest risk . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\nthere are more than 200 species of squirrels , according to the integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) , and they are categorized into three types : tree squirrels , ground squirrels and flying squirrels . these three categories are further broken down into many squirrel types , such as albino , mountain tree , antelope , spotted , grey , american red , douglas , fox , pygmy , northern flying , southern , arizona gray , idaho , arctic ground , albert\u2019s , franklin , richardson , rock , white and black squirrel .\nsince there are so many types of squirrels , they range greatly in size . the smallest squirrel is the african pygmy squirrel . it grows to 2 . 8 to 5 inches ( 7 to 13 centimeters ) in length and weighs just 0 . 35 ounces ( 10 grams ) . the indian giant squirrel is the world ' s largest known squirrel . it grows to 36 inches ( 1 meter ) long and weighs up to 4 pounds ( 1 . 8 kilograms ) .\nthe gray squirrel ( sciurus carolinensis ) isn ' t just gray . it comes in a variety of colors , such as white , gray , brown and black . these little squirrels are great at planting trees . they bury their acorns , but forget where they put them . the forgotten acorns become oak trees .\nthis nocturnal flying squirrel inhabits primary and secondary forests , foothills of the ranges in borneo and malaysia . it is also found in gardens where it uses tree hollows . it is relatively adaptable . this species eats fruits , nuts , and other vegetable matter ( lekagul and mcneely 1988 ) .\nflying squirrels make their homes in tree holes or nests that are built into the crooks of branches . to get from tree to tree or from a tree to the ground , flying squirrels spread the muscle membrane between their legs and body and glide on the air . they can glide up to 160 feet ( 48 m ) , making it look like they can fly .\nafter seven to eight weeks , the young are weaned . when the kits leave the nest , they don ' t travel farther than 2 miles from home , according to the massachusetts department of wildlife and fisheries . some species of squirrel have new litters every few months or as little as twice per year .\nthese rodents have remarkable little bodies . for example , a squirrel has padded feet that cushions jumps from up to 20 feet ( 6 meters ) long . their eyes are high on their head and placed on each side of the head so they can see a large amount of their surroundings without having to turn their head . they are also fantastic runners . squirrels can run 20 mph ( 32 kph ) .\nthis species is known from peninsular malaysia , penang island , sumatra and borneo ( medway 1983 ) . the\ntypical form\nof this species occurs in southernmost provinces of thailand . reports from northern thailand in lekagul and macneely ( 1977 ) have not been confirmed , nor have those in tizard et al . ( 1997 ) from northern lao pdr . however , flying squirrels in these areas remain very poorly known so it is unclear whether these dark animals are melanistic petaurista sp . or aeromys tephromelas .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\naplin , k . , lunde , d . p . , tizard , r . j & duckworth , j . w .\njustification : listed as data deficient since , although it has been recorded over a very wide area , very little is known about its status and habitat requirements . according to medway ( 1983 ) it is restricted to lowlands and foothills in peninsular malaysia . if this pattern is found in the rest of its range it may merit categorisation as at least near threatened .\nthere are no major threats to this species , as it is adaptable and is likely to persist unless forest is lost completely .\nit likely occurs in protected areas across its range . however , further studies are needed into the distribution , abundance , natural history and threats to this species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n] below is a collection of photos taken from around the world . except where noted , pictures were taken by\n1999 - 2015 . while these images are the property of mongabay . com , it may be permissible to use them for non - commercial purposes ( like powerpoint presentations and school projects ) , provided that the images are not altered in any form . please\nurltoken is a free resource . unless otherwise specified , all pics , photographs , and graphics found on urltoken are the property of urltoken . if you are interested in using an image or chart from the site for publication , please contact urltoken . also if you find errors or dead links on the site , please let me know .\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\namerica is privileged with a stunning array of animals , plants , and wild destinations\u2014each with its own incredible story . get to know the amazing wildlife in your backyard and beyond .\nchosen as a symbol of the united states in 1782 , the bald eagle represents virtues such as strength , courage , and freedom .\ncritical to agricultural crops and ecological services , pollinators are in decline . learn more about these important animals and how to help them thrive .\nfrom the florida everglades to washington ' s puget sound , discover more about some of the awe - inspiring landscapes the national wildlife federation is working to protect .\nmore than one - third of our nation ' s wildlife species are at risk of extinction in the coming decades , threatened by a host of human activities . find out about the major issues currently putting america ' s treasured wildlife at risk .\nwildlife species depend on their habitats , and on one another , to thrive . learn the benefits of healthy and diverse populations , and what needs to be done to protect those at risk .\nthe national wildlife federation welcomes the news that epa administrator scott pruitt has stepped down from his position to allow new leadership for this critical agency .\nfind out what it means to source wood sustainably , and see how your favorite furniture brands rank based on their wood sourcing policies , goals , and practices .\nclimate change is allowing ticks to survive in greater numbers and expand their range\u2014influencing the survival of their hosts and the bacteria that cause the diseases they carry .\ntell your members of congress to save america ' s vulnerable wildlife by supporting the recovering america ' s wildlife act .\nyou don ' t have to travel far to join us for an event . attend an upcoming event with one of our regional centers or affiliates .\nin 4 seconds , you will be redirected to nwfactionfund . org , the site of the national wildlife action fund , a 501 ( c ) ( 4 ) organization .\nsquirrels are nimble , bushy - tailed rodents found all over the world . they belong to the sciuridae family , which includes prairie dogs , chipmunks and marmots .\ngrey squirrels , commonly found in north america , are medium - size squirrels . they grow to 15 to 20 inches ( 38 . 1 to 50 . 8 cm ) in length , with their tails adding an extra 6 to 9 . 5 inches ( 15 . 24 to 24 . 13 cm ) to their length . they typically weigh about 1 to 1 . 5 pounds ( 0 . 45 to 0 . 68 kg ) .\na group of squirrels are called a scurry or dray . they are very territorial and will fight to the death to defend their area . mother squirrels are the most vicious when defending their babies .\nsome squirrels are crepuscular . this means that they are only active at dawn and dusk .\nsquirrels live on every continent except in australia and antarctica , according to the bbc .\ntree squirrels typically live in wooded areas , since they prefer to live in trees . ground squirrels live up to their names . they dig burrows , a system of tunnels underground , to live in . some squirrels also hibernate in burrows during the winter to keep warm .\nalbino squirrels are quite popular in some parts of the united states . olney , ill . , is one of the towns that calls itself\nhome of the white squirrels ,\nalong with marionville , mo . , and brevard , n . c . the township of kenton , tenn . , proudly boasts a population of 200 of the furry , pale rodents .\non average , squirrels eat about one pound of food per week . many people think that squirrels only eat nuts , but this isn ' t true . squirrels are omnivores , which means they like to eat plants and meat . squirrels mainly eat fungi , seeds , nuts and fruits , but they will also munch on eggs , small insects , caterpillars , small animals and even young snakes .\nto prepare for cold months , squirrels will bury their food . in the winter months they have a store of food they can eat when supplies are scarce .\na female carries her young for a gestation period of 29 to 65 days , depending on the size of the species ; smaller squirrels have shorter gestation periods , according to the university of michigan ' s animal diversity web . mothers give birth to two to eight offspring at one time . babies are called kits or kittens and are born blind . they depend on their mothers for around two or three months .\na boost of stress during pregnancy helps red squirrels ensure that their pups will grow fast .\nsquirrels have four teeth in the front of their mouth that constantly grow throughout their lives . this ensures that their teeth don ' t wear down to nubs from gnawing on nuts and other objects .\ncorrection : this article was updated on may 4 , 2016 , to reflect the correct length of the gestation period .\npoachers tried to kill rhinos in south african reserve . instead , a pride of lions killed them .\nalina bradford is a contributing writer for live science . over the past 16 years , alina has covered everything from ebola to androids while writing health , science and tech articles for major publications . she has multiple health , safety and lifesaving certifications from oklahoma state university . alina ' s goal in life is to try as many experiences as possible . to date , she has been a volunteer firefighter , a dispatcher , substitute teacher , artist , janitor , children ' s book author , pizza maker , event coordinator and much more ."]}
{"id": 1945, "summary": [{"text": "llallawavis scagliai ( magnificent bird of scaglia ) is a large , extinct predatory bird from pliocene argentina .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "its fossil is the most complete fossil of a phorusrhacid ( or \" terror bird \" ) yet found .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the fossil , discovered in 2010 in sediment among the cliffs above la estafeta beach , contains the complete palate , complete trachea , skull , voice box , and eye bones .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the fossil shows l. scagliai was a medium-sized phorusrhacid around four feet tall and lived in argentina approximately 3.5 million years ago during the pliocene epoch .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "l. scagliai likely roamed in grassland and weighed around 40 pounds ( 18 kg ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the joints separating the skulls bones were fused , unlike modern birds , and that may have helped it batter prey .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "ct scans of its inner ear show that it could only hear frequencies between about 380 and 4230 hertz , and probably had a deep voice to match .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the below cladogram is simplified after the analysis of degrange et al. ( 2015 ) . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "llallawavis", "paragraphs": ["cience - llallawavis - scagliai - terror - bird - argentina - 02684 . html\nskeleton of llallawavis scagliai . image credit : m . taglioretti / f . scaglia .\nnew species of ancient terror bird , llallawavis scagliai , discovered | science 2 . 0\nthis suggests that llallawavis would have been better at detecting lower frequency sounds than humans are .\ndrawing showing the skeletal anatomy of llallawavis scagliai . figure 2 from degrange et al . , 2015 .\na reconstruction of llallawavis . the white elements are those that have been discovered . from degrange et al . , 2015 .\nthey found that llallawavis would have had an average hearing range of around 3 , 800hz and a sensitivity of around 2 , 300hz .\nllallawavis scagliai is a medium - sized terror bird with an estimated body mass of 18 kg and estimated height of 1 . 2 m\nthe newly discovered species is dubbed llallawavis scagliali (\nscaglia ' s magnificent bird\n) after the study ' s senior author fernando scaglia .\nbased on comparisons with living species , these measurements suggested that the ears of terror birds like llallawavis were most sensitive to low - pitched sounds .\nthe south american bird has been named llallawavis scagliai - meaning scaglia ' s magnificent bird after one of argentina ' s famous naturalists galileo juan scaglia .\n' this seems to indicate that llallawavis may have had a narrow , low vocalization frequency range , presumably used for intraspecific acoustic communication or prey detection . '\n[ 2 / 2 ] \u266b . . . tahdon laulaa riemusuulla s\u00e4velm\u00e4n uuden t\u00e4\u00e4n : krr\u00e4\u00e4\u00e4\u00e4kh ! art : h . santiago druetta # llallawavis # scagliai urltoken\nthe scientific name of the bird is llallawavis scagliai . llallawa means magnificent in the quechua language in reference to the nature of the terror bird\u2019s remains , and avis means bird .\n' however , based on the hearing frequencies that we know that they were able to hear , it is possible to state that llallawavis may have produced sound of low frequency . '\nalthough smaller than some of the species discovered , llallawavis scagliai , was one of the last terror birds to prowl the earth before they died out around 2 . 5 million years ago .\nhe said : ' the palate is a big area of jaw muscle attacment in birds . so , we are able to state how much developed were some of the jaw muscles in llallawavis .\none of south america\u2019s top predators in its day , the 1 . 2 - meter - tall \u201cterror bird\u201d llallawavis scagliai ( artist\u2019s representation shown ) lived in what is now northeastern argentina about 3 . 5 million years ago .\nscaglia\u2019s terror bird ( llallawavis scagliai ) is the most recently discovered member of the terror bird family ( phorusrhacidae ) . this species known for a single near - complete , fully - articulated skeleton which even includes a preserved windpipe .\npaleontologist federico degrange of argentina\u2019s centro de investigaciones en ciences de la tierra and colleagues named the old bird in the latest journal of vertebrate paleontology . drawing from quechua and latin , they\u2019ve called it llallawavis \u2013 the \u201cmagnificent bird\u201d . it\u2019s an apt title . found in the 3 . 3 million year old rock of argentina , llallawavis is represented by a nearly - complete skeleton that includes the delicate bones of the middle ear , the bony ring of the eye , and ossified rings of the avian\u2019s throat .\naside from giving degrange and coauthors a more detailed look the specific group of terror birds to which llallawavis belonged \u2013 called mesembriornithines \u2013 the beautiful fossil adds some new details about how this 40 pound , 4 - foot - tall carnivore interacted with the pliocene world .\nthanks to the inner ear of llallawavis , for example , the paleontologists were able to estimate that the terror bird had a relatively narrow range of hearing in the neighborhood of 3800 hz . and since birds often vocalize in the lower ranges of what they can hear , degrange and coauthors point out , this hints that llallawavis may have communicated with low - frequency sounds that could travel long distances . unfortunately , despite having part of the throat set in stone , the branches of the bird\u2019s airway critical for sound - making were not fossilized to check what sounds they could have produced . what these impressive avians actually sounded like is still left to our imagination .\n\u201cthe mean hearing estimated for this terror bird was below the average for living birds . this seems to indicate that llallawavis scagliai may have had a narrow , low vocalization frequency range , presumably used for intraspecific acoustic communication or prey detection , \u201d said dr federico degrange of the universidad nacional de c\u00f3rdoba , conicet and the centro de investigaciones en ciencias de la tierra , argentina , who is the lead author of the paper published in the journal of vertebrate paleontology .\nfamed for their large hooked beaks and a presumed taste for meat , flightless phorusrhacids , also known as \u201cterror birds , \u201d were among south america\u2019s top predators before going extinct about 2 . 5 million years ago . now paleontologists have unearthed one of the most complete fossils of a phorusrhacid to date . the skeleton of the new species , dubbed llallawavis scagliai , is approximately 95 % complete , giving scientists the ability to study a terror bird\u2019s anatomy in unprecedented detail . analyses of the well - preserved remains are already providing insights into the bird\u2019s hearing ability , scientists say .\na 90 % - complete\nterror bird\nskeleton found on an argentinean beach suggests these big - beaked predators had good low - frequency hearing and deep voices .\nit is the most complete skeleton ever discovered for one of these menacing beasts , and represents a new species .\nthis offers clues about the animal ' s hearing , which was probably lower than that of modern birds and suggests they used low - pitched calls to communicate .\nargentinian palaeontologists made the discovery in the cliffs of la estafeta beach , not far from the popular tourist city of mar del plata .\nfederico degrange , one of the study ' s authors , said dealing with the tide had presented a challenge .\nthe sea can actually take the fossil and destroy it in the sea . it ' s a nice place to work , but you have to be fast ,\nhe told bbc news .\nterror birds , or\nphorusrhacids\n, were the top predators on the south american land mass in the era following the dinosaurs ' extinction some 65 million years ago .\nthe flightless beasts stood up to 3m tall , boasting long legs and devastating hooked beaks . a previous study of this weaponry suggested that the birds could have despatched their prey with a single blow , before setting to work on its flesh .\nthey evolved very unique forms , with huge skulls , huge beaks with hooks , and long hindlimbs ,\nsaid dr degrange , a terror bird specialist who works at the national university of cordoba .\nthey lost their ability to fly and they developed very unusual predatory capabilities that were not present in any comparable animals .\nit stood about 1 . 2m tall and probably weighed 18kg , making it a medium - sized addition to the terror bird family . and it lived towards the end of that family ' s long period of dominance , some 3 . 5 million years ago .\nthis means it probably ate mammals or other birds ; pretty much anything smaller than itself , dr degrange suggested .\nperhaps most intriguing among the well - preserved details of the fossil is its skull , which allowed the researchers to make some educated guesses about the animal ' s sensory capabilities - and even its voice .\na very interesting thing is that we could reconstruct the shape of the inner ear ,\ndr degrange said .\nwe are able to say that terror birds had low frequency sensitivity - so it seems reasonable to suggest that they also produced low - frequency sounds .\nagain , by comparing their anatomy with birds that are alive today , you might imagine that they sounded something like an ostrich or an emu , dr degrange said .\ntheresa may names a new uk foreign secretary after boris johnson quits over her brexit strategy .\n\u201cit\u2019s rare to find such a complete fossil of anything , let alone a bird , \u201d says lawrence witmer , a vertebrate paleontologist at ohio university , athens , who wasn\u2019t involved in the new study . \u201cthis is a very exciting find . \u201d\nthe fossil , which is missing only a few wing and toe bones and the tip of its stubby tail , was excavated in northeastern argentina in 2010 from material laid down as sediment about 3 . 5 million years ago . l . scagliai likely lived in an open environment , possibly a grassland or a sparse forest through which small rivers flowed , says federico degrange , a paleo - ornithologist at the national university of c\u00f3rdoba in argentina and lead researcher on the study .\nthe new species of terror bird weighed an estimated 18 kilograms ( about 40 pounds ) and stood about 1 . 2 meters ( 4 feet ) tall , degrange\u2019s team reports in the current issue of the journal of vertebrate paleontology . that\u2019s a moderate size for a terror bird , degrange notes ; at least one other species in the group grew more than 2 meters tall and weighed 70 kg or more .\nunlike most birds , many of the joints between bones in a terror bird\u2019s skull are typically fused , witmer says . in this species , the joints in the birds\u2019 upper palate , as well as some of those near the beak , are much less flexible than they are in other types of birds , which may have helped them pummel their prey and more effectively rip apart carcasses .\nbut the most interesting information from the new fossil came from ct scans of its inner ear . the shape and orientation of the semicircular canals in that structure suggest the bird could swivel its head quickly , as it might when tracking or striking at prey , degrange says . moreover , he notes , analyses of the scans even provide information about the bird\u2019s sense of hearing , which was most likely limited to frequencies between 380 and 4230 hertz\u2014approximately the same range as keys on the right half of a standard piano keyboard . that is substantially lower than the range measured for l scagliai \u2019s closest flightless relatives , the team reports .\n\u201cthat\u2019s to be expected for a large animal , \u201d says luis chiappe , a vertebrate paleontologist at the natural history museum of los angeles county in california . \u201cthe general rule of thumb is , the bigger you are , the lower the sounds you produce and hear . \u201d\nthe emphasis on low - frequency hearing is very interesting , witmer says , because it may suggest something about how the birds tracked prey . \u201clow frequencies tend to propagate across long distances with little attenuation . \u201d\nbut in recent years , some scientists have proposed that not all terror birds were good hunters . this suggests that the members of some species may have spent a good fraction of their time scavenging carcasses rather than chasing prey . by measuring the proportions of various carbon and nitrogen isotopes in terror bird fossils , researchers could better assess the birds\u2019 dietary habits , chiappe says . in particular , they could get a better idea about where in the food chain the terror birds\u2019 main sources of nutrition were coming from . \u201ci\u2019m surprised that no one has done a careful study of such isotopes yet , \u201d he notes .\n\u00a9 2018 american association for the advancement of science . all rights reserved . aaas is a partner of hinari , agora , oare , chorus , clockss , crossref and counter .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\n/ / urltoken\nthe skeleton of a new species of giant predatory bird that terrorised the earth 3 . 5 million years ago has been discovered and is helping to reveal how these creatures would have sounded .\npalaeontologists say the four feet ( 1 . 2 metres ) tall bird is the most complete skeletons of a ' terror bird ' - a group of flightless prehistoric meat - eating birds - to be discovered .\nit was so well preserved that scientists have been able to study part of the bird ' s auditory system and its trachae .\ndon ' t mess with the t - rex : researchers find tyrannosaurs . . .\nthey say that while it had a terrifying apperance , its hearing was probably below average compared to birds living today .\na giant prehistoric \u2018terror bird\u2019 - once thought to have been a ruthless predator which snapped the necks of mammals with its enormous beak - was actually a vegetarian , according to one study .\nthe two - metre gastornis was a flightless creature which lived in europe between 40 and 55 million years ago .\nbecause of its size and ominous appearance , it was thought to be a top carnivore .\nbut a team of german researchers , who studied fossilised remains of the beasts found in a former open cast coal mine , say they believe it was actually not a meat eater .\npalaeontologists in the us have also found footprints believed to belong to the american cousin of gastornis , and these do not show the imprints of sharp claws , used to grapple prey , that might be expected of a raptor .\nalso , the bird\u2019s sheer size and inability to move fast made some believe it couldn\u2019t have preyed on early mammals - though others claim it might have ambushed them .\nthey claim that the animal probably also had a limited vocal range that was quite low frequency .\nit has also raised the prospect that the bird may have even used low frequency sounds to help detect its prey .\ndr federico degrange , a palaeontologist at the centre for research in earth sciences and the university of c\u00f3rdoba in argentina , said : ' the mean hearing estimated for this terror bird was below the average for living birds .\nterror birds , or phorusracids as they are also known , were a group of carnivorous birds that grew up to 10 feet tall and had large hooked beaks .\nthey were the dominant predators in south america during the cenozoic age which started with the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago .\nit was discovered by fernando scaglia , from the lorenzo scaglia municipal museum of natural sciences , along with matias taglioretti and alejandro dondas at la estafeta beach south of mar del plata city in the buenos aires province of argentina in 2010 .\ndr scaglia is the grandson of galileo juan scaglia who was director of the museum between 1940 and 1980 .\ndue to incoming tides which were damaging the cliff , the team had to work quickly to excavate the entire fossil in one day .\nhowever , despite this they were able to retrieve a skeleton that is around 90 per cent complete .\nin a study published in the journal of vertebrate paleontology , the researchers were able to reconstruct the structure of the bird ' s inner ear using 3d computed tomography .\nthe human ear , by contrast , can detect sounds with frequencies between 20hz and 20 , 000hz , but is best at around 4 , 000 - 5 , 000hz .\ndr degrange told mail online the bird had a tracheobronchial syrinx - the structure that produces sound in birds - that was mainly made of cartilage and so it did not survived .\nhe said : ' it is not possible then through this to know exactly what kind of sounds terror birds were capable of produce .\nthe researchers have also been able to better understand the some of the birds other features based on the palate and bones around the eye that were also preserved .\ndr degrange said the bird would have had powerful muscles around its jaws but they were still conducting studies on the eyes to discover whether the bird was active during the day , at night or in the twilight hours .\n' the sclerotic ring will give us an idea of the eye shape and size . this will allow us to infer if terror birds were diurnal , nocturnal or crepuscular . '\nhe added that the fossil may also help scientists unpick what caused the giant birds to eventually die out .\nhe said : ' the discovery of this species reveals that terror birds were more diverse in the pliocene than previously thought .\n' it will allow us to review the hypothesis about the decline and extinction of this fascinating group of birds . '\ndr claudia tambussi , another author of the study at argentina ' s centre for research in earth sciences , added : ' the discovery of this new species provides new insights for studying the anatomy and phylogeny of phorusrhacids and a better understanding of this group ' s diversification . '\nwhat was agreed at chequers . . . and how the three - page . . .\nbottleneck of 700 , 000 migrants wait in libya to cross the . . .\n' prostitutes , orgies , group sex - all of it ' : ex - wife of . . .\nwoman , 38 , ' shoots her father in the head and then lives . . .\ndid the devil wear prada ? bee shaffer ' s wedding is . . .\nsydney tower skywalk was ' shut down due to unsafe winds ' . . .\nalive ! four thai boys who made it out of cave in daring . . .\n' diana would be ashamed ' : meghan ' s bitter half - sister . . .\ncontroversial ai that ' detects political beliefs , sexuality and iq ' based on facial features could be used . . .\na new way to tackle climate change ? heat from underground rivers in london could help cut the capital ' s . . .\nhas kepler found its last alien world ? nasa reveals its planet hunting space telescope is about to run out . . .\namazon is still selling nazi - branded merchandise , despite researchers first warning it about the products . . .\nhidden artwork from chapel inside underground quarry that was used as a hideout in the second world war . . .\n' gentle giant ' dinosaur the size of a double decker bus that roamed the earth more than 200 million years . . .\nsamsung opens the world ' s largest phone plant in india : 1 . 5 million square foot factory will produce 120 . . .\nai learns the basics of driving a car using trial and error after being let loose on the road for just ' 15 . . .\nwant to appear rich ? buy an iphone , a samsung tv and soy sauce : scientists reveal the top 10 items that make . . .\nfascinating pictures reveal how britain ' s heatwave has exposed historical secrets including a roman - era . . .\nmesmerising maps reveal record - breaking temperatures across the world as the earth experiences ' one of the . . .\npeople who see themselves as albert einstein suddenly think they are smarter : being in the body of someone . . .\nmassive timehop data breach exposes the private details of 21 million users including names , email addresses . . .\nkhloe kardashian reveals she stopped breast - feeding daughter true . . . three months after giving birth\nselena gomez is seen with same mystery man she was with in may . . . after news her ex justin bieber is engaged to hailey baldwin\nmakeup artist joyce bonelli reaches out to the kardashian clan on instagram . . . after the famous family ' fire ' and unfollow her on social media\ndaddy daycare ! jared kushner takes kids back to d . c . after weekend in new jersey - as ivanka dons a short dress for visit to a nyc asphalt company\nsofia richie , 19 poses in a bikini top just after scott disick ' s ex kourtney kardashian , 39 , did the same . . . and fans call her out for it\nnaomi campbell wows in flamboyant feathered gown . . . while ashley graham sizzles in plunging lace dress as they walk in dolce & gabbana show in italy\nnaya rivera sells her five - bedroom la home for a cool $ 3 . 55 million after finalizing her divorce from ryan dorsey\nmel b ' is unable to pay her back taxes amid ongoing divorce battle with stephen belafonte . . . as it ' s estimated the pair owe up to $ 650k ' to the irs\nkylie jenner rocks curve - clinging attire as she shows off body . . . and considers going back to blonde\ndakota johnson dons striped wrap dress in la . . . after calling co - star chris hemsworth ' spectacular '\ncardi b hits back at troll who mocked her baby shower . . . as she shows off naked baby bump for photoshoot\nbuy your own celebrity hideaway ! castle adored by michael douglas and jack nicholson goes on sale for $ 5 . 2m ( and even comes with treehouse )\nant - man and the wasp soars to $ 76 million on opening weekend . . . beating its prequel by $ 19 million\nliam payne and cheryl split : carefree 1d star returns to stage for first time since break - up . . . as he poses happily with his backing dancers in france\ntristan thompson goes house hunting alone as he checks out $ 2m property in la with its own basketball court . . . just minutes from khloe ' s mansion\nchris hemsworth kicks off filming for the star - studded men in black spin - off as he cuts a sharp figure in london . . . 21 years after the first film hit screens\njill zarin admits she ' s ready to date again after being spotted with handsome businessman . . . following beloved husband bobby ' s death\ndj khaled cancels wireless performance due to ' travel issues ' just hours before his slot . . . as fans rage over his ' vacation ' snap\n13 reasons why villain justin prentice says he ' s not bothered by social media trolls . . . and that getting attacked online means he ' s doing his job as an actor\n' she didn ' t get those from me ' : kylie jenner says daughter stormi has dad travis scott ' s lips . . . as star reveals her breasts are ' three times the size ' post - baby\nkevin hart celebrates 39th birthday in las vegas . . . nearly a year after sin city cheating scandal\ndakota fanning joins michael b . jordan in voice cast of western anime series gen : lock\nfarm heroes saga , the # 4 game on itunes . play it now !\nit ' s eye - wateringly expensive at $ 2 , 999 , but naim ' s uniti atom is a revelation , an integrated amplifier than makes it easy to stream music at a quality you ' ve probably never heard before .\nafter a day with the iphone x , while face id isn ' t perfect , and the ' notch ' is an annoyance , the iphone x is a glimpse into the future of phones and the best handset of the market by a long way .\nthey aren ' t cheap , but shinola ' s $ 595 foray into headphones are the perfect accessory for design obsessives looking to upgrade their listening habits .\nwith the pixel xl , google has created a handset that is not only the best android device out there , but arguably matches the iphone 8 in terms of design and feel .\napple ' s watch will free you from your phone - while making sure you don ' t suffer the fear of missing out . it ' s a huge step forward , and a compelling reason for the average user to buy a smartwatch .\nwhile the iphone x may have stolen the headlines , in fact the iphone 8 could be the sleeper hit of apple ' s new range , offering the same power as the x but with features and a design users trust .\nwhile the design is impressive and easy to use , the game line up is disappointing .\nnaim ' s incredible mu - so qb takes you back to the good old days - where the music captivates and enthralls , rather that simply being something in the background .\nit might not be a name familiar to the us market , but naim is a legendary british brand hoping to make a splash with the american launch of its $ 1499 mu : so speaker .\npeloton ' s hi - tech bike lets you stream live and on demand rides to your home - and it ' s one of the best examples of fitness technology out there - at a price .\na group of paleontologists has described a new genus and species of phorusrhacidae that lived in what is now argentina during the pliocene epoch , around 3 . 5 million years ago .\nphorusrhacidae ( the so - called terror birds ) were a group of extinct terrestrial carnivorous birds that are known mainly from the cenozoic of south america , but also from the plio - pleistocene of north america and the eocene of africa .\nthese birds had a very large body mass , up to 70 kg , and were 0 . 9 \u2013 2 meters in height .\nthey were the predominant predators during the cenozoic and certainly one of the most striking groups that lived during that period .\nthe new species , named the scaglia\u2019s magnificent bird , is the most complete terror bird ever discovered , with almost 100 percent of the skeleton exquisitely preserved .\nthe species name honors galileo juan scaglia ( 1915\u20131989 ) , naturalist and director of the museo municipal de ciencias naturales lorenzo scaglia in buenos aires , argentina , during 1940\u20131980 .\naccording to the paleontologists , the specimen reveals details of anatomy that rarely preserve in the fossil record , including the auditory region of the skull , voice box , complete trachea , bones for focussing the eye , and the complete palate , allowing an unprecedented understanding of the sensory capabilities of terror birds .\nfederico j . degrange et al . 2015 . a new mesembriornithinae ( aves , phorusrhacidae ) provides new insights into the phylogeny and sensory capabilities of terror birds . journal of vertebrate paleontology , vol . 35 , no . 2 ; doi : 10 . 1080 / 02724634 . 2014 . 912656\njuvenile australopithecus climbed trees , 3 . 32 - million - year - old foot fossil shows\n\u00a9 2011 - 2018 . sci - news . com . all rights reserved . | back to top\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nthe name llallawa means \u201cmagnificent\u201d in quechua , in reference to the well - preserved nature of the remains . avis is the latin word for \u201cbird\u201d . the species name is after galileo juan scalia , a naturalist and director of the museo municipal de ciencias naturales in mar del plata , argentina . fully translated , the binomial name therefore means \u201cscaglia\u2019s magnificent bird\u201d .\nscaglia\u2019s terror bird lived during the late pliocene in what is now argentina . its habitat was likely grassland and open woodland .\nthis species is known from a single , nearly complete articulated skeleton , the most complete of any terror bird known to date . discovered in 2010 and described in 2015 , the skeleton ( shown above ) was missing only some of the forelimb bones , toe bones , and the pygostyle * . this specimen is particularly valuable in that it includes the only complete trachea known for any terror bird , as well as intact sclerotic rings * .\nscaglia\u2019s terror bird was one of the smaller members of its family , with an estimated body mass of 18kg ( 40lbs ) and a hip height of about 90cm ( 3ft ) . when fully erect , it could have stood 120cm ( 4ft ) tall at the top of its head . the body was lightly - built with long , slender legs for fast running . the skull was about 27cm ( 0 . 9ft ) long with a beak that was relatively shallower and with a less prominent hook than that of other terror birds . another notable feature of the bird\u2019s head was its narial knob or bump just above its nostrils .\nthe structure of the inner ear suggests that scaglia\u2019s terror bird was adapted for very rapid and precise movements of the head and neck in response to visual and audio cues . its low , narrow beak and lightweight body suggests that its diet consisted of relatively small prey items such as cavimorph rodents and other small mammals , as well as smaller birds and reptiles . it probably hunted in a manner similar to modern seriemas ; after a short dash the prey would be pinned down before being picked up and violently slammed into the ground repeatedly . this action not only kills the victim , but also makes it easier to swallow due to the breaking of its bones .\nalthough it is currently impossible to reproduce the types of sounds scaglia\u2019s terror bird could produce , detailed analysis of its hearing capacity has shown that it could detect frequencies ranging from 380 to 4230 hz , with a mean sensitivity of 2300 hz . the bird\u2019s own vocalizations , as well as those of its prey would have fallen within this range .\npygostyle : in birds , the fusion of several caudal ( tail ) vertebrae into a single bone .\nsclerotic ring : rings of interlocking bones which support the eyeball in several vertebrate groups .\ndegrange fj , tambussi cp , taglioretti ml , dondas a , scaglia f ( 2015 ) . \u201ca new mesembriornithinae ( aves , phorusrhacidae ) provides new insights into the phylogeny and sensory capabilities of terror birds\u201d . journal of vertebrate paleontology 35 ( 2 ) : e912656 <\nthe long - nosed peccary ( mylohyus nasutus ) was a large north american peccary that lived from the late pliocene to the early holocene . am . . .\nthe lion ( panthera leo ) evolved in africa about 3 . 5 million years ago and quickly spread to eurasia , where it remained abundant until his . . .\nthe steller\u2019s sea cow ( hydrodamalis gigas ) was the largest of the sirenians to have lived in recent times , growing up to 9 meters long a . . .\nsaber - toothed cat skeleton at the national museum of nature and science in tokyo , japan . wiki one of the most iconic animals of the pl . . .\nwalking with beasts ( wwb ) is a 6 - episode miniseries which aired in late 2001 as a direct sequel to walking with dinosaurs ( wwd ) . it was pro . . .\nthe haast\u2019s eagle ( harpagornis moorei ) was the largest and most powerful bird of prey known to have ever existed and was the top predato . . .\nthe dire wolf ( canis dirus ) is one of the most well - known predators of pleistocene north america and recently made famous by the televisi . . .\nthe scimitar cat ( homotherium serum ) was a smaller and lesser known cousin of the more famous saber - toothed cat ( smilodon fatalis ) . th . . .\nthe red panda ( ailurus fulgens ) is the sole surviving representative of a family of small to medium - sized carnivorans * known as the ailur . . .\nthe oxyaenidae is a family of creodonts first described by renowned american paleontologist edward drinker cope in 1877 . while hyaenodont . . .\nwhen you think of a scary dinosaur , what comes to mind ? the agile , sickle - clawed utahraptor ? a towering tyrannosaurus ? something as alien as the croc - snouted , sail - backed spinosaurus , perhaps ? books and museum halls are well - stocked with such mesozoic nightmares , but scary dinosaurs have also stalked the land in the days after the end - cretaceous mass extinction . there\u2019s an entire group of fossil dinosaurs \u2013 technically known as p horusrhacids \u2013 that are imposing enough that paleontologists often call them by a more evocative name . these were the terror birds .\nthere aren\u2019t any terror birds around today . the first evolved around 62 million years ago and the last perished about 2 . 5 million years ago , most of them playing the part of apex predator among the forests and plains of ancient south america . their skeletons are evolutionary works of frightful beauty , and the latest to be described is the best - preserved terror bird ever seen .\ndegrange , f . , tambussi , c . , taglioretti , m . , dondas , a . , scaglia , f . 2015 . a new mesembriornithinae ( aves , phorusrhacidae ) provides new insights into the phylogeny and sensory capabilities of terror birds . journal of vertebrate paleontology . 35 ( 2 ) . doi : 10 . 1080 / 02724634 . 2014 . 912656\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\nmost well preserved terror bird - 90 % cmokele aand givesus a ideaof wat they sunder like .\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nselection bias in publication ? minorities , women and republicans are all penalized . but women are improving\nscience 2 . 0 is a pro - science outreach nonprofit operating under section 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) of the internal revenue code . please make a tax - deductible donation if you value independent science communication , collaboration , participation , and support open access .\ntake a look at the best of science 2 . 0 pages and web applications from around the internet !"]}
{"id": 1946, "summary": [{"text": "juracimbrophlebia is an extinct genus of hangingflies that lived during the middle jurassic period about 165 million years ago .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the type species was discovered from daohugou in northeastern china \u2019s inner mongolia .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "the insect was selected by the international institute for species exploration at arizona state university as one of the top 10 new species discovered in 2012 out of more than 140 nominated species .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the uniqueness is its striking resemblance to the fossilised leaves with which it was discovered , indicating one of the earliest instances of biological mimicry .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the selection was announced on 22 may 2013 . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "juracimbrophlebia", "paragraphs": ["image - juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia . png | dinosaur alive wiki | fandom powered by wikia\na restoration of juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia hiding among jurassic ginkgo leaves . art by wang chen , from wang et al . , 2012 .\njuracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia image \u00a9 2012 ms . chen wang . used with permission of the international institute for species exploration . all rights reserved .\na specimen of juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia \u2014 a new genus and species , showing an appearance similar to y . capituliformis . photo by : wang , labandeira , shih and ren\na reconstruction of juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia mimicking the ginkgoites leaves of the contemporaneous yimaia caputiliformis plant , while sharing in a mutual benefit for both hangingfly and a ginkgo plant . artwork by ms . chen wang\na fossil of the jurassic hangingfly juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia ( c ) next to the leaf of the ginkgo yimaia capituliformis ( e ) found in the same deposits . from wang et al . , 2012 .\nthe systematic paleontology is as follows : insecta linnaeus , 1758 ; mecoptera packard , 1886 ; raptipeda willmann , 1977 ; cimbrophlebiidae willmann , 1977 ; juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia wang , labandeira , shih et ren gen . et sp . nov .\ny . j . wang , c . c . labandeira , c . k . shih and d . ren . 2012 . juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia taxonomy , in jurassic mimicry between a hangingfly and a ginkgo from china . proceedings of the national academy of sciences 109 : 20515 - 20516 urltoken\nfull reference : y . j . wang , c . c . labandeira , c . k . shih and d . ren . 2012 . juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia taxonomy , in jurassic mimicry between a hangingfly and a ginkgo from china . proceedings of the national academy of sciences 109 : 20515 - 20516\nthe generic name juracimbrophlebia is the combination of jura - and cimbrophlebia ( the type genus of the family cimbrophlebiidae ) , referring to the jurassic age and scorpionfly nature of the species . the specific name ginkgofolia is the combination of latin words ginkgo and - folia , referring to the distinctively ginkgoalean , leaf - like wings .\njuracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia country : china living species of hangingflies can be found , as the name suggests , hanging beneath foliage where they capture other insects as food . they are a lineage of scorpionflies characterized by their skinny bodies , two pairs of narrow wings , and long threadlike legs . a new fossil species , juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia , has been found along with preserved leaves of a gingko - like tree , yimaia capituliformis , in middle jurassic deposits in the jiulongshan formation in china ' s inner mongolia . the two look so similar that they are easily confused in the field and represent a rare example of an insect mimicking a gymnosperm 165 million years ago , before an explosive radiation of flowering plants .\nwhen the hangingfly ( juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia ) that was fossilized in this find stretched its wings , it would have resembled the five - lobed leaf of an extinct ginkgo - like tree ( yimaia capituliformis ) that once dwelled in the region . the scientists accidentally ran across this mimicry about a year and a half ago , after initially mistaking the insect for a leaf in the lab and the field .\nmimicry isn ' t a new development among insects . the evolutionary connection between arthropods and the vegetation they resemble may go back over 300 million years , and , among modern forms , has adapted insects so intricately that they even show markings similar to fungus and lichen common on the plants they are supposed to look like . juracimbrophlebia isn ' t even the first mimic insect to be found in the high - resolution fossil slabs of the jiulongshan formation . nevertheless , this is the first time a hangingfly has been found to mimic a plant .\na new species of hangingfly with wings that perfectly mimic the multi - lobed leaf of an ancient ginkgo - like tree has been discovered in china by scientists from the smithsonian\u2019s national museum of natural history and the university of maryland , as well as the college of life sciences at capital normal university , in beijing . exquisitely preserved in fossil sediments dating from the middle jurassic , the insect , newly named juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia , was discovered in 165 million - year - old deposits , as was the ginko - like tree , yimaia capituliformis , the mimicked plant .\na new species of hangingfly with wings that perfectly mimic the multi - lobed leaf of an ancient ginkgo - like tree has been discovered in china by scientists from the smithsonian\u2019s national museum of natural history and the university of maryland , as well as the college of life sciences at capital normal university , in beijing . exquisitely preserved in fossil sediments dating from the middle jurassic , the insect , newly named juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia , was discovered in 165 million - year - old deposits , as was the ginko - like tree , yimaia capituliformis , the mimicked plant .\nin order to blend in on the jurassic ginkgo yimaia capituliformis , tricky juracimbrophlebia had to spread its wings . when held just so , the elongated , veined wings of the insect resembled the multi - lobed shape of the ginkgo leaves . this is assuming that the mimicry hypothesis is correct . the insect and the leaves show a close resemblance , but how can we test this hypothesis 165 million years after these organisms shared the same forest ? the hangingfly does resemble the ginkgo , that much is clear , but how can we tell whether or not the insect ' s anatomy was a form of camouflage or just coincidentally similar ?\n\u201cliving species of hangingflies can be found , as the name suggests , hanging beneath foliage where they capture other insects as food . they are a lineage of scorpionflies characterized by their skinny bodies , two pairs of narrow wings , and long threadlike legs . a new fossil species , juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia , has been found along with preserved leaves of a gingko - like tree , yimaia capituliformis , in middle jurassic deposits in the jiulongshan formation in china\u2019s inner mongolia . the two look so similar that they are easily confused in the field and represent a rare example of an insect mimicking a gymnosperm 165 million years ago , before an explosive radiation of flowering plants . \u201d\nso , who made the cut ? one of the top ten species includes the lucihormetica luckae , a glow in the dark cockroach originating from ecuador . the scientists have only found one specimen that was collected 70 years ago , suggesting that this species is either extremely rare , or already extinct . other insects that made the list were the semachrysa jade , a butterfly from malayasia and the juracimbrophlebia ginkofolia , a fly from china . the semachrysa jade has a green lacewing with dark markings found at the base of the wings and was first discovered after a photograph of it was published on social media . the fly is known for hanging under foliage in order to catch food .\nthe inch and a half long fossil specimen was first overlooked , the team says , as those that found it first believed it to be a ( now extinct ) five lobed ginkgo leaf sample embedded within ancient rock . upon closer inspection , the researchers discovered that the specimen was actually that of a fossilized scorpionfly , which is known more commonly as a hangingfly ( juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia ) , because of its tendency to hang from branches waiting for prey to pass by . it was found in the northeastern part of inner mongolia . the scorpionfly gets its name from its oversized male genitalia that resemble a scorpion stinger . to mimic surrounding ginkgo leaves , the insect would latch onto a branch , hang down and spread its wings wide open .\nhangingfly fossil : living species of hangingflies can be found , as the name suggests , hanging beneath foliage . that is where they capture other insects as food . they are a lineage of scorpionflies . they are characterized by their skinny bodies , two pairs of narrow wings , and long threadlike legs . this new fossil species , juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia , has been found along with preserved leaves of a gingko - like tree , yimaia capituliformis . the two were found in middle jurassic deposits in the jiulongshan formation in china\u2019s inner mongolia . the two look so similar that they are easily confused in the field . they represent a rare example of an insect mimicking a gymnosperm 165 million years ago . this was before an explosive radiation of flowering plants .\nbut let ' s run with the mimicry hypothesis . under this scenario , wang and collaborators propose that the hangingfly might have been hiding from the insectivorous mammals , dinosaurs , pterosaurs , lizards , and amphibians that inhabited the same forest . ( the same cast of arthropod - crunchers was recently cast as a threat to the katydid archaboilus musicus , found in the same formation and known from a set of wings researchers recently used to reconstruct the insect ' s song . ) alternatively , juracimbrophlebia might have been a predator itself - the hangingfly could have ambushed the various insects which fed upon prehistoric ginkgo trees . perhaps the mimicry proved advantageous in both respects . the span of time between us the jurassic forest prevents us from knowing - such tantalizing traces of prehistoric interactions only come to life in our imaginations .\na near - perfect mimetic association between a mecopteran insect species and a ginkgoalean plant species from the late middle jurassic of northeastern china recently has been discovered . the association stems from a case of mixed identity between a particular plant and an insect in the laboratory and the field . this confusion is explained as a case of leaf mimesis , wherein the appearance of the multilobed leaf of yimaia capituliformis ( the ginkgoalean model ) was accurately replicated by the wings and abdomen of the cimbrophlebiid juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia ( the hangingfly mimic ) . our results suggest that hangingflies developed leaf mimesis either as an antipredator avoidance device or possibly as a predatory strategy to provide an antiherbivore function for its plant hosts , thus gaining mutual benefit for both the hangingfly and the ginkgo species . this documentation of mimesis is a rare occasion whereby exquisitely preserved , co - occurring fossils occupy a narrow spatiotemporal window that reveal likely reciprocal mechanisms which plants and insects provide mutual defensive support during their preangiospermous evolutionary histories .\nabstract a near - perfect mimetic association between a mecopteran insect species and a ginkgoalean plant species from the late middle jurassic of northeastern china recently has been discovered . the association stems from a case of mixed identity between a particular plant and an insect in the laboratory and the field . this confusion is explained as a case of leaf mimesis , wherein the appearance of the multilobed leaf of yimaia capituliformis ( the ginkgoalean model ) was accurately replicated by the wings and abdomen of the cimbrophlebiid juracimbrophlebia ginkgofolia ( the hangingfly mimic ) . our results suggest that hangingflies developed leaf mimesis either as an antipredator avoidance device or possibly as a predatory strategy to provide an antiherbivore function for its plant hosts , thus gaining mutual benefit for both the hangingfly and the ginkgo species . this documentation of mimesis is a rare occasion whereby exquisitely preserved , co - occurring fossils occupy a narrow spatiotemporal window that reveal likely reciprocal mechanisms which plants and insects provide mutual defensive support during their preangiospermous evolutionary histories .\ncamera lucida drawings of j . ginkgofolia gen . et sp . nov . , holotype cnu - mec - nn - 2010\u2013050p . credit : ( c ) 2012 pnas , doi : 10 . 1073 / pnas . 1205517109\n( phys . org ) \u2014researchers working in china have discovered an insect that lived 165 million years ago that they believe used its wings to mimic the leaves of an ancient ginkgo tree . the fossil finding , the team writes in their paper published in the proceedings of the national academy of sciences , is one of the few that shows that early insects mimicked non - flowering plants millions of years before doing so with angiosperms .\nthe researchers suggest that the insect likely evolved its mimicry abilities to help it evade predators or to help it hide from prey , as is seen with many modern insects . the first attribute would have been most useful as close inspection of the insect revealed weak wings and legs . they noted also that it was possible that the insect and the ginkgo formed a partnership of sorts with the tree providing shelter and the hangingfly eating other bugs that might seek to feed on the trees ' leaves .\nthe discovery of the hangingfly fossil adds to the knowledgebase of insects that mimic non - flowering plants . most mimicking insects going back 100 million years tend to mimic angiosperms . the newly discovered hangingfly fossil predates other fossilized mimicking insects by approximately 40 million years .\nboth the fossilized hangingfly and the ginkgo plant that it mimicked , date back to the heyday of the dinosaurs and thus it ' s quite possible that the plant served as food for them and other large herbivores .\nmore information : jurassic mimicry between a hangingfly and a ginkgo from china , pnas , published online before print november 26 , 2012 , doi : 10 . 1073 / pnas . 1205517109\nflowering plants may be considerably older than previously thought , says a new analysis of the plant family tree .\namber from cretaceous deposits ( 110 - 105 my ) in northern spain has revealed the first ever record of insect pollination . scientists have discovered in two pieces of amber several specimens of tiny insects covered with pollen . . .\nwhile paleontologists may scour remote , exotic places in search of prehistoric specimens , tufts researchers have found what they believe to be the world ' s oldest whole - body fossil impression of a flying insect in a wooded . . .\ninsects can use plants as ' green phones ' for communication with other bugs . a new study now shows that through those same plants insects are also able to leave ' voicemail ' messages in the soil . herbivorous insects store their . . .\na university of alberta - led research team has discovered that insects that bore into trees as long ago 90 million years , or as recently as last summer , leave a calling card that ' s rich with information .\nthe extravagant headgear of small bugs called treehoppers are in fact wing - like appendages that grew back 200 million years after evolution had supposedly cast them aside , according to a study published thursday in nature .\nthe discovery of a new species of mammal in alberta ' s fossil record has shaken up some long - held beliefs about other species in its lineage .\npeople from smaller cities are more likely to migrate than people from larger cities , according to a new study by ucl academics .\na study reported in the journal science offers an enhanced view of the origins and ultimate fate of the first dogs in the americas . the dogs were not domesticated north american wolves , as some have speculated , but likely . . .\nmore than 3 million years ago , our ancient human ancestors , including their toddler - aged children , were standing on two feet and walking upright , according to a new study published in science advances .\nsocial dilemmas occur when individual desires clash with group needs . how can people be encouraged to cooperate when they have reason not to ? in a new nature paper , hilbe and krishnendu chatterjee of the institute of science . . .\nresearchers think they have a better understanding for how ancient north americans thrived for centuries in northwestern new mexico ' s arid desert .\nwonder to know this information . . . . tell me more about the dna extraction from the blood . . . . . . ? ?\nwonder to know this information . . . . tell me more about the dna extraction from the blood . . . . . . ? ? they found a fossil , not an actual insect . hence there is no blood or dna . their conclusions are based on the shape and size of the insect , particularly its wings and legs .\nthe researchers suggest that the insect likely evolved its mimicry abilities to help it evade predators or to help it hide from prey ,\nor perhaps both .\nplease sign in to add a comment . registration is free , and takes less than a minute . read more\nreconstruction of j . ginkgofolia mimicking the leaves of y . capituliformis . this relationship was beneficial for both the insect mimic and plant model . ( courtesy chen wang , capital normal university )\n\u201cthe mimicry is so amazing that some 165 million years later it even fooled me as i was examining fossils from the field and at the lab in china , \u201d says conrad labandeira , paleobiologist at the national museum of natural history and co - author of a paper on the discovery in the proceedings of the national academy of sciences usa . hanging down by its long forelegs from the bottom of a leaf petiole , the four long wings and body of j . ginkgofolia would have perfectly mimicked the five hanging lobes of a single ginkgo - like leaf .\nhangingflies are a subset of scorpionflies with long legs , narrow wings and a long thin body . ( the body of the type specimen of this insect is 38 . 5 millimeters , or about 1 . 5 inches . ) . j . ginkgofolia , was found in deposits of the jiulongshan formation at daohugou village , in northeastern china\u2019s inner mongolia , and represents a new genus and species .\nj . ginkgofolia\u2019s shape and form most likely attracted smaller insects that fed upon the leaves of the ginkgo - like plant , which j . ginkgofolia would catch and eat , labandeira explains . in this way the insect benefited from a reciprocal relationship with the tree , a relationship that the fossils indicate lasted about 1 million years . the ability of these insects to hide in plain - sight upon the leaves of the ginkgo - like tree also helped it avoid predators such as other insects , pterosaurs and small , tree - living dinosaurs and mammals .\n\u201cthis discovery is important because it is a rare example of insect mimicry modeled on a gymnosperm and not a flowering plant , \u201d labandeira says . \u201cvirtually all of today\u2019s examples of insect mimicry are modeled on flowering plants , the angiosperms . j . ginkgoflora , however , lived about 45 - million years before the appearance of flowering plants , so this discovery gives us better idea of the early relationships between gymnosperms and this hangingfly insect group . \u201d although the ginkgo - like y . capituliformis occurs in other geologic deposits , the hangingfly has not , labandeira says . \u201cthey both probably went extinct at the end of the jurassic . \u201d\n\u201c jurassic mimicry between a hangingfly and a ginkgo from china , \u201d ( article link ) by yongjie wang , conrad c . labandeira , chungkun shih , qiaoling ding , chen wang , yunyun zhao , and dong ren , proceedings of the national academy of sciences usa , volume 109 .\nedited * by david l . dilcher , indiana university , bloomington , in , and approved october 8 , 2012 ( received for review april 3 , 2012 )\none mid - mesozoic group of sites where fossil conditions are ideal for examining the possible presence of leaf mimesis is daohugou , in northeastern china\u2019s inner mongolia . the encompassing jiulongshan formation is dated as late middle jurassic (\n) . here , we propose a likely leaf mimesis that occurred between a very different pair of interactors\u2014a species from the insect order mecoptera ( scorpionflies ) and a species from the diverse seed plant order ginkgoales ( ginkgos ) , representing a linked , finely honed association . both groups were more diverse and had a greater breadth of life habits during the mesozoic than their present diversities would indicate (\nextant mecoptera is a nondiverse group in the modern insect fauna , including \u223c32 genera in nine families . by contrast , fossil mecopterans are three times more diverse at the genus level , representing 98 genera accommodated in 34 extinct families ( 17 , 18 ) . this pattern suggests that recent mecoptera are relictual , a status also supported by a long and diverse evolutionary history extending to the permian ( 11 ) . mecopterans obtain their scorpionfly namesake from male members of the panorpidae , a mecopteran clade characterized by distinctive , scorpion - like terminalia . extant hangingflies ( bittacidae ) are a subset of scorpionflies that bear long legs and have a habitus paralleling that of crane flies ( diptera ) , exhibiting gross morphological convergence . the extant eomeropidae are considered to possess many plesiomorphic features , and consist of one extant species in the chilean rainforest with a very cockroach - like body ( 18 ) . despite these resemblances to other arthropods , there has been no evidence indicating that any fossil or modern mecopterans inordinately resemble the foliage of co - occurring plants .\n( a \u2013 c ) camera lucida drawings of j . ginkgofolia gen . et sp . nov . , holotype cnu - mec - nn - 2010\u2013050p . ( a ) habitus of holotype . ( b ) highly enlarged portion of the midleg , showing annulately distributed pubescence . ( c ) portion of hindleg , displaying two spurs at the femur\u2013tibia joint . ( d ) y . capituliformis leaf specimen of ginkgoites ( cnu - pla - nn - 2010 - 396 ) , with rugose surface for comparison . ( e ) a portion of the wing from the paratype of j . ginkgofolia ( cnu - mec - nn - 2010 - 012p ) . ( f ) lobe of a ginkgoites leaf from y . capituliformis ( cnu - pla - nn - 2010 - 396 ) for comparison . ab , abdomen ; ant , antennae ; e , compound eyes ; fl , foreleg ; hl , hindleg ; ml , midleg ; oce , ocelli ; ros , rostrum ; spu , tibial spurs . ( scale bars : 5 mm , e and f . )\n( a \u2013 f ) mimesis of ginkgoites leaves from y . capituliformis with the hangingfly j . ginkgofolia , from the middle jurassic jiulongshan formation of northeastern china . ( a ) ginkgoites leaf of y . capituliformis ( cnu - pla - nn - 2009 - 733p ) . ( b ) a ginkgoites leaf of y . capituliformis ( cnu - pla - nn - 2010 - 044 ) . ( c ) holotype of j . ginkgofolia ( cnu - mec - nn - 2010 - 050p ) , with an appearance similar to y . capituliformis . ( d ) a cimbrophlebiid specimen ( cnu - mec - nn - 2010 - 017p ) . ( e ) a ginkgoites leaf of y . capituliformis ( cnu - pla - nn - 2010 - 371p ) . ( f ) a ginkgoites leaf of y . capituliformis ( cnu - pla - nn - 2010 - 501 ) . ( g ) artist\u2019s reconstruction of j . ginkgofolia mimetic on ginkgoites leaves of y . capituliformis . ( h \u2013 k ) comparisons of single j . ginkgofolia wings to single y . capituliformis leaf lobes . ( h ) right forewing of paratype of j . ginkgofolia ( cnu - mec - nn - 2010 - 022 ) . ( i ) right forewing of a cimbrophlebiid specimen ( cnu - mec - nn - 2010 - 017p ) . ( j ) lobe of a ginkgoites leaf from y . capituliformis ( cnu - pla - nn - 2009 - 733p ) . ( k ) lobe a ginkgoites leaf from y . capituliformis ( cnu - pla - nn - 2010 - 371p ) . ( scale bars : 10 mm . )\nholotype cnu - mec - nn - 2010 - 050p / c ( figs . 1 a \u2013 c and 3 c ) had a well - preserved , nearly complete body with most of four wings present , but wing apexes , genital region , and parts of antennae and legs were not preserved . paratypes were as follows : cnu - mec - nn - 2010 - 022 ( fig . 3 h ) ; cnu - mec - nn - 2010 - 037p / c , single forewing preserved ; cnu - mec - nn - 2010 - 023 , overlapped wings , with parts of body and antennae ; and cnu - mec - nn - 2010 - 012p / c ( fig . 1 e ) , single forewing missing basal area . specimens are deposited in the key laboratory of insect evolution and environmental changes , capital normal university .\nall specimens were collected from the jiulongshan formation , of late middle jurassic age ( bathonian\u2013callovian boundary interval ) from daohugou village , shantou township , ningcheng county , of inner mongolia autonomous region in china . ar - ar and shrimp u - pb dating results indicate an absolute age of 164\u2013165 ma ( 7 ) .\nthe previously undescribed genus and species are distinguished from other cimbrophlebiid species by the following wing characters . the 2a vein with six or more pectinate primary branches separates the previously undescribed genus from perfecticimbrophlebia , which has one branch of 2a with a distal bifurcation , and from two species of cimbrophlebia ( cimbrophlebia flabelliformis and cimbrophlebia brooksi ) , of which the 2a has no more than four branches . the 2a , with only primary branches , separates the genus from malmocimbrophlebia , telobittacus , and three other species of cimbrophlebia ( cimbrophlebia leahyi , cimbrophlebia westae , and cimbrophlebia bittaciformis ) , which collectively possess distally bifurcating 2a branches .\nbody is \u223c38 . 5 mm long as preserved . head is compressed dorsally ; antennae are filiform , covered by numerous setae ; compound eyes are conspicuously occupying most of the lateral head exposure ; three ocelli are arranged triangularly ; rostrum is prolonged and gradually narrowed distally ( fig . 1 a ) .\nthorax is poorly preserved and slightly deformed , with dimensions of 6 . 8 mm long by 3 . 7 mm wide . prothorax is vaulted anteriorly ; metathorax is well differentiated , with prescutum and scutellum easily discernable . legs are extremely long and gracile , like most hangingflies , and are covered by abundant annulate pubescence ( fig . 1 b ) . foreleg and midlegs are partly preserved and extended anteriad . hindlegs are modified for grasping and become slender , with femora \u223c11 . 6 mm long , tibia 16 . 4 mm long , and basitarsi 3 . 9 mm long ( fig . 1 c ) ; tibial spurs are elongate . abdomen is 26 . 5 mm long as preserved , with eight visible segments , but the terminal abdominal segments are not preserved ; sex is unknown .\nforewing is slightly broader than hindwing , at 32 . 4 mm long as preserved , with the proximal part minimally 2 . 1 mm wide and the rounded apex maximally 8 . 9 mm wide . forewing exhibits light coloration and a field of transparent spots . membrane is distinctly rugose , and a similar condition is present among co - occurring yimaia leaves ( fig . 1 d \u2013 f ) and other cimbrophlebiids ( 20 ) . venation is typically cimbrophlebiid - like : subcosta vein ( sc ) ends at costa vein ( c ) , \u223c2 / 3 of wing length ; first branch of radial vein ( r 1 ) branches near pterostigma ; radial sector ( rs ) has five dichotomous branches ; media ( m ) has four branches , fused with cubitus vein ( cu ) toward the base ; the divergence of the anterior branch of cubitus vein ( cu 1 ) and cu 2 is closed to the wing base ; cu 2 bent sharply toward posterior wing margin close to the termination ; the first anal vein ( 1a ) has a single branch , curved and entering the posterior margin ; the second anal vein ( 2a ) has six or more pectinate primary branches , and a short crossvein occurs close to the wing base . hindwing is similar to the forewing in size and venation , at 33 . 8 mm long and 8 . 6 mm wide ( maximum ) .\ndid mesozoic bittacids sharing a similar morphology with cimbrophlebiids also evolve a mimetic biological association ? we performed a quantitative analysis to evaluate similarity among cimbrephlebiids , bittacids , and ginkgoaleans ( si text , figs . s2 \u2013 s5 , and table s3 ) . in the geometric morphometric analysis , cimbrophlebiids show less shape variation compared with ginkgoalean leaves than do bittacids ( fig . s4 a and b and s5 a and b ) . these data provide direct evidence to indicate that cimbrophlebiids possess a more significant morphological foundation for mimicking ginkgoalean leaves than bittacid insects . it also suggests that bittacids overwhelmingly had an open , nonmimetic lifestyle , instead of evolving a specialized dependence on ginkgoaleans , a potential feature accounting for their survival to the present day .\n) . possessing unusually long and slender legs , cimbrophlebiids were not built for cursorality , and with weakly constructed wings they were poor fliers as well , as in extant bittacids and craneflies . one avenue for predator avoidance would be use of ginkgoalean foliage as shelter or , perhaps more efficiently , employing leaf mimesis as additional or alternative protection . we identified five species of multilobed , broadleaved ginkgoaleans at daohugou , representing \u223c12 . 4 % of the total number of plant specimens documented (\nthere is another possible explanation for this specialized morphology . as a leaf - mimicking predator ,\n) , and providing potential food to a diverse herbivore fauna . it is possible that the association between\nassociation could be applied to other coexisting insect and plant taxa . such reconstructions of organismic behavior and assessments of the functions of structures are accomplished through exploration of ecological and evolutionary puzzles that are informed by unique discoveries (\ninsect herbivore damage on ginkgoites leaves of y . capituliformis from the middle jurassic jiulongshan formation of northeastern china . insets are enlargements of damaged areas circled from respective leaves and using the damage type ( dt ) system of reference ( 44 ) . ( a ) gall damage ( dt80 ; cnu - pla - nn - 2010 - 605p ) . ( b ) piercing - and - sucking damage ( dt48 ; cnu - pla - nn - 2010 - 044 ) . ( c ) rows of small circular galls ( dt80 ; cnu - pla - nn - 2010 - 548 ) . ( d ) margin feeding ( dt12 ; cnu - pla - nn - 2010 - 521 ) . ( scale bars : solid , 10 mm ; dashed , 1 mm in a \u2013 c , 2 mm in d . )\nwe explored other biotas with well - documented cimbrophlebiid and ginkgoalean taxa , selecting those candidates with the most similar combination of insect body and wing shape and size that matched similar co - occurring ginkgoalean leaf forms ( fig . 2 ) . interestingly , the occurrences of cimbrophlebiids were occasionally coincident with multilobed ginkgoalean species . although no convincing matches equivalent to that of j . ginkgofolia and the ginkgoites leaves of y . capituliformis were found , some cimbrophlebiids possessed appearances similar to j . ginkgofolia , perhaps representing a continuation of their interactions with ginkgoaleans . it is possible that various associations between cimbrophlebiids and ginkgoaleans may have lasted > 100 million years , from the middle jurassic to the early eocene .\nwe thank qiang yang and xiaoguang yang for assistance in locating specimens . this work was supported by the national basic research program of china 973 program grant 2012cb821906 ; national natural science foundation of china grants 31071964 , 31172143 , 31230065 , and 41272006 ; key project of the beijing municipal commission of education grant 201207120 ; china geological survey grant 1212011120116 ; the china postdoctoral science foundation funded project ( grants 20110490449 , 2012t50113 ) , and the beijing postdoctoral research foundation ( grant 2011zz - 36 ) . this is contribution 245 from the evolution of terrestrial ecosystems consortium of the national museum of natural history .\nauthor contributions : y . w . , y . z . , and d . r . designed research ; y . w . , c . c . l . , c . s . , and d . r . performed research ; y . w . , c . c . l . , c . s . , q . d . , c . w . , and d . r . analyzed data ; y . w . , c . w . , and d . r . prepared the life reconstruction art ; and y . w . , c . c . l . , c . s . , and d . r . wrote the paper .\ntrichomes on the leaves of anomozamites villosus sp . nov . ( bennettitales ) from the daohugou beds ( middle jurassic ) , inner mongolia , china : mechanical defence against herbivorous arthropods\nthe ginkgo , the most ancient living tree . the resistance of ginkgo biloba l . to pests accounts in part for the longevity of this species\nversion 3 . 0 . ( smithsonian institution , washington , dc ) . available at urltoken\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the pnas web site .\nresearchers used field data from 2012 to 2015 to study mortality and allele frequency changes in the sea star pisaster ochraceus during a mass mortality event in northcentral california , and found that surviving adult and juvenile sea stars experienced 81 % mortality and allele shifts , according to the authors .\na survey of more than 4 , 600 american adults conducted in 1995 - 1996 and in 2011 - 2014 suggests that among individuals of low socioeconomic status , negative affect increased significantly between the two survey waves , whereas life satisfaction and psychological well - being decreased .\na study of cognitive ability in norwegian males born from 1962 to 1991 suggests that environmental factors rather than changing genetic composition of families likely account for most of the change in norwegian population iq .\nthe mathematical tools behind recent gerrymandering cases have brought a modicum of precision into the political arena\u2014but this rigor hasn\u2019t always been enough to spur policy changes .\ndoesn ' t look especially impressive . found in the roughly 165 million year old beds of china ' s jiulongshan formation , and described by paleontologist yongjie wang and colleagues today in\n. but when taken in context with the various other organisms found in the same beds , a subtle connection comes into focus . the ancient hangingfly , wang and co - authors propose , was a mimic of jurassic ginkgo trees .\nwang , w . , labandeira , c . , shih , c . , ding , q . , wang , c . , zhao , y . , ren , d . 2012 . jurassic mimicry between a hangingfly and a ginkgo from china . pnas urltoken\nuse of and / or registration on any portion of this site constitutes acceptance of our user agreement ( updated 5 / 25 / 18 ) and privacy policy and cookie statement ( updated 5 / 25 / 18 ) . your california privacy rights . the material on this site may not be reproduced , distributed , transmitted , cached or otherwise used , except with the prior written permission of cond\u00e9 nast . ad choices .\nliving species of hangingflies can be found , as the name suggests , hanging beneath foliage where they capture other insects as food . they are a lineage of scorpionflies charactersized by their skinny bodies , two pairs of narrow wings , and long threadlike legs . a new fossil species ,\n, in middle jurassic deposits in the jiulongshan formation in china\u2019s inner mongolia . the two look so similar that they are easily confused in the field and represent a rare example of an insect mimicking a gymnosperm , 165 million ysears ago , before the explosive radiation of flowering plants .\nreference : wang , y . , labandeira , c . c . , shih , c . , ding , q . , wang , c . , zhao , y . , and d . ren . 2012 . jurassic mimicry between a hangingfly and a ginkgo from china . pnas 109 , 20515 - 19 .\nesf is committed to the accessibilty of all online materials . if you have any issues , contact web @ urltoken for a prompt solution .\nthe hangingfly j . ginkgofolia ( right ) , which mimics the appearance of a leaf from the ginkgo - like tree y . capituliformis ( left ) . scale bars : 10 mm .\na fossilized scorpionfly that apparently mimicked the leaves of an ancient ginkgo - like tree has just been unearthed , researchers say .\nthe finding adds to evidence that this form of camouflage is very ancient , the scientists added .\nmore than 100 years ago , scientists began noticing extraordinary resemblances between insects and plants in the fossil record , such as those between certain roaches and the leaflets of particular seed ferns . such mimicry , also seen in living animals , likely helps protect creatures from predators , or might help them sneak up on prey .\nnow paleoentomologist dong ren at capital normal university in beijing and his colleagues have discovered another such plant mimic in northeastern china ' s inner mongolia region .\nthe 165 - million - year - old insect in question is a species of scorpionfly , a group that gets its name from the insects ' enlarged male genitals that resemble scorpion stingers . specifically , the fossil , which was about 1 . 5 inches ( 38 . 5 millimeters ) long , is a type of scorpionfly known as a hangingfly , which often hangs from surfaces waiting to snag prey .\ncan you find the hangingfly ? here , an artist ' s reconstruction of the hangingfly j . ginkgofolia on the leaves of the ginkgo - like tree y . capituliformis , which it mimicked some 165 million years ago .\nthe region back then was a large , relatively shallow lake basin containing both lakeside forest and shrubland , much of which was adapted to a seasonal and somewhat arid climate . the dominant plants were now - extinct relatives of familiar conifers , ginkgos , ferns and horsetails .\nthe researchers suggest the hangingfly may have evolved this mimicry to hide from predators , since its relatively large body and weak legs and wings would have made it easy prey . the insect also may have used mimicry to help ambush prey . this was a potentially mutually beneficial relationship with its host , with the tree providing shelter , while the insect devoured creatures that might otherwise munch on the plant . [ dazzling photos of dew - covered insects ]\nnearly all of the insect mimicry documented today and for the past 100 million years involves the flowering plants , known as angiosperms . this newfound mimic , however , involves ginkgo - like lineages , which are not flowering plants ,\nand presages some types of mimicry that occurred tens of millions of years later with angiosperms and more modern insect lineages ,\nresearcher conrad labandeira , a paleoecologist and curator of fossil arthropods at the smithsonian institution ' s national museum of natural history , told livescience .\nas such , the findings revealed this form of plant mimicry evolved long before the flowering plants arrived .\nthe mere occurrence of this type of mimicry approximately 40 million years before the appearance of flowering plants is the most important implication\nof our finding , labandeira said .\nthis ginkgo - like plant likely went extinct during the heyday of the dinosaurs , and this form of mimicry apparently died along with it .\nren , labandeira and their colleague yongjie wang detailed their findings online nov . 26 in the journal proceedings of the national academy of sciences .\nfollow livescience on twitter @ livescience . we ' re also on facebook & google + .\ncharles q . choi is a contributing writer for live science and space . com . he covers all things human origins and astronomy as well as physics , animals and general science topics . charles has a master of arts degree from the university of missouri - columbia , school of journalism and a bachelor of arts degree from the university of south florida . charles has visited every continent on earth , drinking rancid yak butter tea in lhasa , snorkeling with sea lions in the galapagos and even climbing an iceberg in antarctica .\nelon musk ' s plan to rescue trapped thai boys ? a kiddie submarine that looks like a coffin .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\ntype specimen : cnu - mec - nn - 2010 - 050 , an exoskeleton . its type locality is daohugou ( cnu 2010 collection ) , which is in a callovian / oxfordian lacustrine - large shale in the daohugou formation of china .\naverage measurements ( in mm ) : body 38 . 5 x 3 . 7 , forewing 32 . 4 x 8 . 9 , hindwing 33 . 8 x 8 . 6\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nusing the cover not only to evade predators , but also to lay in wait for their own prey . if they ' re right , it makes this specimen one of the earliest examples of mimicry known to researchers .\nhave a tip or story idea ? email us . or to keep it anonymous , click here .\nnew & recent described flora & fauna species from all over the world esp . asia , oriental , indomalayan & malesiana region\nwuodendron b . xue , y . h . tan & chaowasku wuodendron praecox ( hook . f . & thomson ) b . xue , y . h . tan & x . l . hou in xue , tan . . .\n[ botany \u2022 2017 ] begonia fulgurata | \u0e14\u0e32\u0e14\u0e14\u0e32\u0e23\u0e32\u0e23\u0e31\u0e28\u0e21\u0e35 \u2022 a new species ( sect . diploclinium , begoniaceae ) from chiang mai , northern thailand\nbegonia fulgurata c . - i peng , c . w . lin & phutthai \u0e14\u0e32\u0e14\u0e14\u0e32\u0e23\u0e32\u0e23\u0e31\u0e28\u0e21\u0e35 | | doi : 10 . 3767 / blumea . 2017 . 62 . 03 . 01 urltoken be . . .\nchamaelirium viridiflorum l . wang , z . c . liu & w . b . liao in liu , feng , wang & liao , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / phytotaxa . 357 . . . .\ngreat - billed seed - finch sporophila maximiliani ( cabanis , 1851 ) in ubaid , silveira , medolago , et . al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / . . .\nendocerids with their filtering apparatus in mironenko , 2018 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2018 . 1491565 reconstruction by andre . . .\naristolochia tongbiguanensis j . y . shen , q . b . gong & s . landrein in gong , landrein , xi , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 6165 / tai . . . .\nbagualosaurus agudoensis pretto , langer & schultz , 2018 doi : 10 . 1093 / zoolinnean / zly028 illustration : jorge blanco c . . .\nthe hypothetical phylogenetic relationships of ceratosaurs based on current topologies . the main source is from wang et al . ( 2016 . . .\nnipponosaurus sachalinensis nagao , 1936 in takasaki , chiba , kobayashi , et al . , 2018 \u30cb\u30c3\u30dd\u30ce\u30b5\u30a6\u30eb\u30b9 | | doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2017 . . . .\nbegonia medogensis jianw . li , y . h . tan & x . h . jin in li , tan , wang , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 3897 / phytokeys . 103 . 25392 . . .\n[ entomology \u2022 2013 ] a new genus and species of fai . . .\n[ botany \u2022 2004 ] allium nathaliae \u2022 a new species f . . .\n[ botany \u2022 2013 ] allium formosum \u2022 a new onion spe . . .\non this day ( july 10th ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .\nanomaloglossus meansi : a new species of cryptic forest frog from the wokomung and ayanganna sky islands of southern guyana .\nthe benefits and costs of academic travel . or\nthere and back again ; again and again\ncanon renueva su gama de 70 - 200 mm f : 2 . 8 y f : 4\nplants go extinct , but sometimes species are rediscovered . this one after 151 years .\ni ' m killing antediluvian salad but even in death there is rebirth . . .\nnecps carnivorous plant show : sept . 9 - 10 at tower hill botanical garden\nthis is a particularly beautiful species of centrolenid - the granular glass frog , cochranella granulosa .\nhis wings mimed the leaves of gingko to camouflage , it is one of the oldest examples of biomimicry . so much so that the first fossils of this animal were attributed to gingko leaves , before being properly described in 2012 . this insect measures 8 cm of wingspan and feeds on other insects .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nfigure 2 . photographs of niumbaha superba live and as a freshly prepared specimen . top photos show profile and anterior view , with ventral and dorsal images below .\na new genus is proposed for the strikingly patterned african vespertilionid \u201c glauconycteris \u201d superba hayman , 1939 on the basis of cranial and external morphological comparisons . a review of the attributes of a newly collected specimen from south sudan ( a new country record ) and other museum specimens of \u201c g . \u201d superba suggests that \u201c g . \u201d superba is markedly distinct ecomorphologically from other species classified in glauconycteris and is likely the sister taxon to glauconycteris sensu stricto . the recent capture of this rarely collected but widespread bat highlights the need for continued research in tropical sub - saharan africa and in particular , for more work in western south sudan , which has received very little scientific attention . new country records for g . cf . poensis ( south sudan ) and g . curryae ( gabon ) are also reported .\nkeywords : glauconycteris superba , glauconycteris poensis , glauconycteris curryae , niumbaha gen . nov . , badger bat , south sudan , description\netymology : the name is the zande word for \u2018rare / unusual\u2019 . this name was chosen because of the rarity of capture for this genus , despite its wide distribution throughout west and central africa , and for the unusual and striking appearance of this bat . zande is the language of the azande people , who are the primary ethnic group in western equatoria state in south sudan ( where our recent specimen was collected ) . the homeland of the azande extends westwards into democratic republic of the congo , where superba has also been collected ( the holotype and another recent capture ) , and into southeastern central african republic . gender : feminine .\nreeder dm , helgen km , vodzak me , lunde dp , ejotre i . 2013 . a new genus for a rare african vespertilionid bat : insights from south sudan . zookeys . 285 : 89\u2013115 . doi : urltoken\npartial solar elipse to be visible from parts of australia , new zealand and antarctica on firday 13 july 2018 .\nhis wings mimed the leaves of gingko to camouflage , it is one of the oldest examples of . . .\nthis series , based on ultra - realistic 3d computer graphics , and supported by the world\u2019s leading . . .\nclick on a date / time to view the file as it appeared at that time .\nthis file contains additional information , probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it . if the file has been modified from its original state , some details may not fully reflect the modified file .\na glow - in - the - dark cockroach , a harp - shaped carnivorous sponge and the smallest vertebrate on earth are among the top 10 newly discovered species selected by the international institute for species exploration at arizona state university . a global committee of taxonomists \u2013 scientists responsible for species exploration and classification \u2013 announced its list to coincide with the anniversary of the birth of carolus linnaeus , the 18th - century swedish botanist responsible for the modern system of scientific names and classifications\ndiscovered in the lomami basin of the democratic republic of the congo , the lesula is an old world monkey well known to locals but newly known to science . this is only the second species of monkey discovered in africa in the past 28 years . scientists first saw the monkey as a captive juvenile in 2007 . researchers describe the shy lesula as having human - like eyes . more easily heard than seen , the monkeys perform a booming dawn chorus . adult males have a large , bare patch of skin on the buttocks , testicles and perineum that is colored a brilliant blue . although the forests where the monkeys live are remote , the species is hunted for bush meat and its status is vulnerable\na spectacular , large , harp - or lyre - shaped carnivorous sponge discovered in deep water ( averaging 3 , 399 meters ) from the north - east pacific ocean off the coast of california . the harp - shaped structures or vanes number from two to six and each has more than 20 parallel vertical branches , often capped by an expanded , balloon - like , terminal ball . this unusual form maximises the surface area of the sponge for contact and capture of planktonic prey\neugenia is a large , worldwide genus of woody evergreen trees and shrubs of the myrtle family that is particularly diverse in south america , new caledonia and madagascar . the new species\nis a shrub growing to two meters with emerald green , slightly glossy foliage and beautiful , dense clusters of small magenta flowers . it is one of seven new species described from the littoral forest of eastern madagascar and is considered to be an endangered species . it is the latest evidence of the unique and numerous species found in this specialized , humid forest that grows on sandy substrate within kilometres of the shoreline . once forming a continuous band 1 , 600km long , the littoral forest has been reduced to isolated , vestigial fragments under pressure from human populations\nliving species of hangingflies can be found , as the name suggests , hanging beneath foliage where they capture other insects as food . they are a lineage of scorpionflies characterised by their skinny bodies , two pairs of narrow wings , and long threadlike legs . a new fossil species ,\n, in middle jurassic deposits in the jiulongshan formation in china ' s inner mongolia . the two look so similar that they are easily confused in the field and represent a rare example of an insect mimicking a gymnosperm 165 million years ago , before an explosive radiation of flowering plants\nluminescence among terrestrial animals is rather rare and best known among several groups of beetles \u2014 fireflies and certain click beetles in particular \u2014 as well as cave - inhabiting fungus gnats . since the first discovery of a luminescent cockroach in 1999 , more than a dozen species have ' come to light ' . all are rare , and interestingly , so far found only in remote areas far from light pollution . the latest addition to this growing list is"]}
{"id": 1954, "summary": [{"text": "tristramella magdelainae is an extinct species of cichlid fish .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it was endemic to the vicinity of damascus in syria .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "it was last recorded in the 1950s , has not been recorded since and is presumed extinct .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "drought , pollution and water extraction may have destroyed its habitat .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "this taxon is considered to be a subspecies of t. simonis in fishbase and considered a synonym of t. simonis by catalogue of fishes .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "this species reached a length of 13 centimetres ( 5.1 in ) sl . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "tristramella magdelainae", "paragraphs": ["tristramella magdelainae is an extinct species of cichlid fish . it was endemic to the vicinity of damascus in syria . it was last recorded in the 19\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nyou selected tristramella simonis intermedia steinitz & ben - tuvia , 1959 . this is a synonym for :\noriginal scientific description : lortet , l . ( 1878 ) . poissons et reptiles du lac de tib\u00e9riade et de quelques autres parties de la syrie . archives du mus\u00e9e d\u2019histoire naturelle du lyon 2 : 99 - 189 , pls . 6 - 18 . species bibliography : fricke , ronald . ( 2005 ) . types in the fish collection of the staatliches museum f\u00fcr naturkunde in stuttgart , described in 1845\u20132004 . stuttgarter beitr\u00e4ge zur naturkunde serie a ( biologie ) , number 684 : 1 - 95 . goren , m . ( 2006 ) . tristramella magdelainae . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 1 . ( urltoken ) . downloaded on 09 july 2011 . weber , claude . ( 1998 ) . catalogue revise des types primaires de la collection ichthylogique de museum d ' histoire naturelle de la ville de geneve ( mhng ) . revue suisse de zoologie 105 ( 1 ) : 3 - 14 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nbogutskaya , n . & pollock , c . m . ( mediterranean workshop , dec . 2004 )\njustification : the species was described from collections made in the 1950s . the species has not been reported since . presumed extinct .\nthis fish is likely to now be extinct ( m . goren , pers . comm ) .\ndrought , pollution and water extraction may have resulted in destroying available habitat for this species .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nit seems javascript is either disabled or not supported by your browser . to view this site , enable javascript by changing your browser options and try again .\nexplore an aquarium , planetarium , and natural history museum\u2014all under one living roof .\nthe academy\u2019s institute for biodiversity science and sustainability is at the forefront of efforts to understand two of the most important topics of our time : the nature and future of life on earth .\nbased in san francisco , the institute for biodiversity science and sustainability is home to more than 100 research scientists and nearly 46 million scientific specimens from around the world\u201438 , 000 of which are alive and on display in the academy\u2019s steinhart aquarium . the institute also leverages the expertise and efforts of the academy ' s aquarium biologists and more than 100 international research and field associates and 450 distinguished fellows .\nthrough expeditions around the globe , captive breeding programs , and investigations in the lab , the institute\u2019s scientists strive to understand the evolution and interconnectedness of life . through these same efforts , as well as through partnerships , community outreach , and public engagement initiatives , the institute aims to guide critical conservation decisions and address the challenge of sustainability .\nwith nearly 46 million scientific specimens from around the world , the academy\u2019s research collections provide one of the best records of life on earth , both now and in the past . this vast library of life\u2014available to scientists around the world , both in person and online\u2014helps us track the spread of disease , predict the impact of climate change , and much more .\ndespite intensive efforts to document life on earth , scientists estimate that more than 90 percent of the species on our planet have yet to be discovered . academy scientists are racing to discover new species and determine their place on the tree of life\u2014with the ultimate goal of protecting them before they disappear .\nto provide the best conservation recommendations , we must understand not only what lives where , but also how species reproduce , interact with one another and respond to threats . to address this need , academy scientists map species distributions , analyze reproductive strategies , study food web and other ecosystem interactions , and more .\ndetailed knowledge about the evolution , distribution , and interconnectedness of life on earth allows academy scientists to make thoughtful conservation recommendations and participate in critical discussions about sustainability challenges . through partnerships with governments and conservation organizations , community outreach , captive breeding programs , and public engagement initiatives , academy scientists are helping to shape a sustainable future for our planet .\naccess our online collections or set up an in - person visit . anthropology botany entomology herpetology ichthyology invertebrate zoology & geology ornithology & mammalogy\na governing group of approximately 450 distinguished scientists , academy fellows have made notable contributions to one or more of the natural sciences and help further the reach of our research and education initiatives through individual and collaborative efforts with academy researchers . nominated by their colleagues and selected by the board of trustees , academy fellows remain members of the fellowship for life .\nfor more than 160 years , academy scientists have been working to discover and document biodiversity around the world\u2014from the tops of the highest mountains to the depths of the oceans .\nacademy scientists study an unusual adaptation in a number of new guinea bird species : toxic skin and feathers .\nscientists use advanced rebreather technology for deep dives into unexplored areas of the ocean .\nour scientists study the rich diversity of marine invertebrates , including corals , mollusks , urchins , and more .\nwe believe discovery is just the first step in our work\u2014sharing our findings with community leaders , governments , and science enthusiasts of all ages is a critical part of our mission .\nresearchers , using the academy ' s collections , have discovered when avian pox arrived on the galapagos islands .\ntake a virtual expedition with us to investigate the amazing diversity of life on this planet .\npeter roopnarine discusses his work with fossils and his adventure with a six - foot squid .\nby working with partners and the general public , developing captive breeding programs , and training the next generation of scientists , we are tackling some of today\u2019s biggest sustainability challenges .\nacademy researchers are among the first to study\u2014and breed in captivity\u2014tiny , fascinating pygmy seahorses .\nlearn more about the academy ' s citizen science program , and join an upcoming bioblitz or biodiversity survey .\nsnapshot cal coast is a citizen science effort across california to document our coastal biodiversity .\nscience - based solutions for a better future\u2014now on exhibit at the academy and at planetvision . com .\nthe california academy of sciences is a renowned scientific and educational institution dedicated to exploring , explaining , and sustaining life on earth . based in san francisco\u2019s golden gate park , it is home to a world - class aquarium , planetarium , and natural history museum\u2014all under one living roof .\nstay curious\u2014every thursday at nightlife . sign up for event updates and exciting announcements .\nsign up for the academy\u2019s monthly newsletter and get a promo code for 10 % off at our online retail store .\noccurs in swamps and pools . feeds on algae , other plants and detritus ( ref . 12251 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsyntypes : smns 3187 mhng 611 . 21 ( 2 ) bmnh 1898 . 12 . 5 . 1 to 4 mcz 25533 mnhn 1883 - 1139 smf 187 usnm 48023\nyou must first create a username and login before you can post a comment about this entry . .\na database of\nmissing\nand recently extinct species of plants and animals .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c42d7 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3234f3f4 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 324ac511 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 33317dee - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nasia : lakes tiberias and muzairib in the jordan system . has apparently disappeared from lake hula .\nfroese r . & pauly d . ( eds ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase ( version feb 2018 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 8656d665 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this ."]}
{"id": 1955, "summary": [{"text": "clibanarius digueti is a species of hermit crab that lives off the western coast of mexico , and is abundant in the gulf of california .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is known under various common names such as the mexican hermit crab , the blue-eyed spotted hermit or the gulf of california hermit crab . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "clibanarius digueti", "paragraphs": ["clibanarius digueti , a mexican hermit crab , aka the blue - eyed spotted hermit . to less than an inch in length .\nkey words : hermit crabs , clustering behavior , clibanarius antillensis , shell utilization .\npalavras - chave : caranguejos ermit\u00f5es , comportamento de agrupamento , clibanarius antillensis , utiliza\u00e7\u00e3o de concha .\nharvey aw ( 1988 ) size and sex - related aspects of the ecology of the hermit crab clibanarius digueti bouvier ( decapoda : anomura : diogenidae ) . ph . d dissertation , university of arizona .\nduring interspecific foraging bouts in the presence of food odor only , c . digueti showed significantly more aggressive behaviors than p . perrieri ( w = 171 . 0 , p = 0 . 0015 ; table 2 ) , while p . perrieri showed significantly more submissive behaviors than c . digueti ( w = \u221292 . 0 , p = 0 . 0172 ; table 2 ) . c . digueti frequently initiated the interactions by approaching p . perrieri , and c . digueti escalated the interactions by frequently attacking and grasping p . perrieri ( table 2 ) . p . perrieri routinely responded to c . digueti \u2019s aggressive behaviors by retracting into their shells ( table 2 ) .\nthe number of aggressive ( u = 54 . 0 , p = 0 . 0019 ) and submissive ( u = 85 . 0 , p = 0 . 0295 ) behaviors were significantly higher for c . digueti than p . perrieri during intraspecific foraging bouts ( table 3 ) . the frequencies of all measured behaviors were higher for c . digueti than p . perrieri ( table 3 ) .\nin the absence of a competitor , the feeding times of c . digueti and p . perrieri were not significantly different ( u = 102 . 0 , p = 0 . 6738 ; table 4 ) .\ndata were drawn from lab populations of c . digueti ( n = 75 ) and p . perrieri ( n = 79 ) following acclimation in housing tanks . wet weights were measured from animals after removal of their shells . lines represent best fit lines from linear regression analyses . c . digueti best fit line : y = 0 . 2442 x\u2212 0 . 3584 . p . perrieri best fit line : y = 0 . 2472 x\u2212 0 . 3764 .\nduring interspecific food competition , c . digueti fed for significantly more time than p . perrieri ( w = 179 . 0 , p = 0 . 0238 ; table 4 ) . differences in feeding times between the species can partly be explained by the fact that c . digueti was the first animal to contact and feed on the food item in 20 of the 26 trials analyzed ( \u03c7 2 = 7 . 54 , df = 1 , p = 0 . 006 ) .\nclibanarius tricolor , the blue - legged hermit crab . to less than an inch in length . one of a few\nreef - safe\nhermits that stay small and almost exclusively feed on algae ( and cyanobacteria ! ) . good for aiding in aerating the substrate as well . aquarium photo .\nfour hermit crab species were collected in the intertidal region of grande beach : clibanarius antillensis ( stimpson , 1862 ) , paguristes tortugae ( schmitt , 1933 ) , pagurus criniticornis ( dana , 1852 ) , and calcinus tibicen ( herbst , 1791 ) , with c . antillensis being the most abundant ( 226 individuals in 261 ) .\nfamily hippidae ( sand crabs ) superfamily paguroidea , have oval carapaces , usually asymmetrical . live either in shells or with abdomen tucked underneath . first pair of legs as chelipeds . includes the hermit crab genera : pomatocheles , petrochirus , clibanarius , coenobita ( land hermit crab ) , pagurus , pylopagurus , birgus ( the coconut crab ) , stone crabs like lithodes , paralithodes ( commercial king crab of the north pacific ) .\nthe results of this study highlight the need for detailed field experiments measuring the importance of food competition in structuring hermit crab assemblages . while we can infer based on our laboratory results that the differences in competitive abilities between c . digueti and p . perrieri may have important ecological implications , detailed field experiments are needed to determine if the trends observed in the lab hold true in natural settings . it is our hope that the results presented in this manuscript will help raise awareness of the need for field experimentation .\nthese hermits crabs are often highly recommended as maintenance critters for marine aquariums , and can be bought as part of a\nclean up crew\npackage . large groups need plenty of extra shells to accommodate for growth . these are some of the most popular hermits in the marine aquarium trade . since they are a\nbread and butter\nitem and are collected in large numbers , prices are kept very low . other species of hermits may be sold as\nred legs\n, but c . digueti is by far the most common .\nsize - matched pairs of conspecific animals were tested using the same procedure listed in the previous section . one c . digueti trial was excluded from analyses because the animals switched shells during acclimation , and we could not be sure that subsequent aggressive behaviors were not shell - related . seventeen trials for each species were used for analyses ( 34 trials total ) . we compared the number of ( 1 ) aggressive , and ( 2 ) submissive behaviors shown between species during intraspecific trials using a two - sided mann - whitney u - test . paired tests were not required for these statistical analyses because the species were tested independently of each other , and thus the behaviors of one species could not directly affect the behaviors of the other .\nneste trabalho s\u00e3o avaliados o comportamento de agrupamento de caranguejos ermit\u00f5es bem como os padr\u00f5es de utiliza\u00e7\u00e3o de conchas por indiv\u00edduos agrupados e isolados . o estudo foi desenvolvido na regi\u00e3o entremar\u00e9s da praia grande , s\u00e3o sebasti\u00e3o , sudeste brasileiro . as amostras foram feitas tanto com transectos quanto com quadrados de 1 m 2 aleatorizados durante per\u00edodos de mar\u00e9 baixa . os ermit\u00f5es foram contados , medidos ( comprimento do escudo cefalotor\u00e1cico ) e sexados . as conchas foram identificadas e avaliadas quanto sua adequa\u00e7\u00e3o e condi\u00e7\u00e3o ( danos f\u00edsicos e incrustra\u00e7\u00f5es ) . os agrupamentos ocorreram principalmente em \u00e1reas expostas ao ar e foram dominados ou compostos unicamente por indiv\u00edduos de clibanarius antillensis . paguristes tortugae , pagurus criniticornis e calcinus tibicen tamb\u00e9m ocorreram nos agrupamentos , mas em menor abund\u00e2ncia . um \u00fanico agrupamento monoespec\u00edfico de p . criniticornis foi registrado em po\u00e7as de mar\u00e9s . a grande maioria dos ermit\u00f5es estavam inativos , com exce\u00e7\u00e3o de alguns indiv\u00edduos que estavam submersos em po\u00e7as de mar\u00e9s . a maioria dos indiv\u00edduos c . antillensis estava agrupada ( 70 , 88 % ) . indiv\u00edduos isolados foram maiores que os agrupados e utilizaram principalmente conchas de tegula viridula , as quais mostraram - se mais adequadas para os ermit\u00f5es dessa popula\u00e7\u00e3o . indiv\u00edduos agrupados usaram conchas menos incrustadas que os isolados . no geral , o comportamento de agrupamento de ermit\u00f5es na praia grande apresentou os mesmos padr\u00f5es de distribui\u00e7\u00e3o de tamanho e sexo e de utiliza\u00e7\u00e3o de conchas que os j\u00e1 descritos na literatura , embora o tamanho dos agrupamentos nessa \u00e1rea tenha se apresentado menor .\noff the western coasts of mexico , and very common in the gulf of california .\nthese hermits are easy to care for . they are hardy and tolerate a wide range of water parameters . however , they cannot handle copper well . as with most invertebrates , even low levels of this me tal are enough to cause death . this hermit crab may attack snails or other hermits in order to steal the shells . for this reason it is important to provide a number of extra shells of various sizes , to allow for growth . this will prevent shell - related killings . aside from mechanical damage to corals caused by wandering specimens crawling over the polyps , red leg hermits will typically not bother aquarium residents .\nthese hermits will feed on detritus , green algae , shed exoskeletons , and dead organic matter . they are also happy to eat any food the keeper chooses to add to their tank , live or frozen , flake or pellet . they are claimed to consume cyanobacteria and hair algae , though this may not be true .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nabout 42 , 000 species of some of the most familiar arthropods ; crabs , shrimps , lobsters , crayfish , wood - lice ( sow - bugs , rolly - pollies , you know , terrestrial isopods , and aquatic , even parasitic marine ones ) . many small members in fresh and marine habitats of importance in aquatic food chains . primarily aquatic , mostly marine .\nbehind the mandibles there are two pair of accessory feeding appendages , the first and second maxillae . 2 ) their bodies trunks are composed of distinct segments covered by a chitinous exoskeleton\n. 3 ) crustacean appendages are typically biramous ( two major elements ) . 4 ) they typically have a carapace covering the trunk of their bodies . enough of this detail . we ' ll cover this stuff in more general survey pieces of the mega - groups . on toward the lobsters .\na systematic resume of the crustacea is necessarily large and complex . allow me to semi - skirt around a full discussion here . the nine classes that don ' t include our family of interest enclose the primitive cephalocaridans ( c . cephalocarida ) , the class branchiopoda ( fairy shrimps , tadpole shrimps , water fleas ( daphnia ) ; the class ostracoda , class copepoda ( anchor worm , lernaea ) , classes mystacocarida , branchiura , tantulocarida , remipedia , cirripedia ( barnacles ) , whew ! & finally , our :\ncomprises almost three - fourths of all described species of crustaceans and most of the larger forms , such as crabs , lobsters , and shrimps . characteristics : trunks typically composed of 14 segments plus the telson (\ntail\n) ; the first 8 segments form the thorax , the last 6 the abdomen ; all segments bear appendages . four superorders : syncarida , hoplocarida , peracarida , and the one we want to talk about , the eucarida .\nsuperorder eucarida contains many of the large malacostracans . they have highly developed carapaces displaying fusion of all thoracic segments ( the cepahalothorax ) . eyes are stalked . . . two living orders ; the euphausiacea ( krill ) and the :\norder decapoda includes the familiar shrimps , crayfish , lobsters and crabs . this is the largest order of crustaceans with @ 10 , 000 species . decapods are distinguishable from euphausiaceans and other malacostracans in that their first three pair of thoracic appendages , the remaining five pairs are legs ( decapoda =\nten feet\n) . decapods are further divided into two suborders , the dendrobranciata , with\ntree - like\nbranched gills , body laterally compressed . . . , eggs planktonic , nauplius as the first larval stage ( as in artemia , our brine shrimp ) , infraorders , sections , superfamilies . . . see barnes re their higher taxonomy .\nof animals that are crabs (\nfalse\nand true ) there are about eight thousand described species , with about 600 venturing into or living in freshwater .\ninfraorder anomura , families of hermit crabs , sand or mole crabs , crab - like crustaceans . depressed carapaces , third pair of legs never chelate , fourth and fifth pair reduced . . . . have a soft abdomen . . . live with bodies enclosed in discarded shells for the most part .\nbest ( most\nreef - safe\n) hermit crab species ( though no carte - blanche guarantees ) for algae control : even these cannot be absolutely trusted with small fishes , invertebrates if hungry . . . and they too can be meals for . . . puffers , triggerfishes , stomatopods ( mantis ) , alpheids ( pistol shrimp ) . . .\ncalcinus laurentae haig & mclaughlin 1983 , laurent ' s hermit crab , family diogenidae . orange - yellow antennae . claw - limbs brown , other legs pink with white junctions and black tips . hawaiian endemic . common . to about 1 / 5\ncarapace length . kona pic .\ncalcinus tibicen , the orangeclaw hermit crab , family diogenidae . tropical west atlantic . orange antennae and eyestalks . eye tips white , eyes with black pupils . unequal size claws . 1 / 2 to 1\n.\na common gulf of mexico hermit crab . very hardy . . . can live out of water for days at times .\n* c . vittatus * does get rather large , 10 cm at least ( adam j . said he had one ( actually , he said it was * p . holthuisi * in a 6\nshell )\nscott allen rauch pic .\nbigger pix : the images in this table are linked to large ( desktop size ) copies . click on\nframed\nimages to go to the larger size .\npaguristes cadenati forest 1954 , the scarlet or red - legged reef hermit . tropical west atlantic . to one inch in length . red carapace and legs , eyes green , on yellow stalks . aquarium and cozumel photo .\nnever entirely\nreef safe\n. . . all hermits are to degrees opportunistic omnivores . . . they will eat your other livestock if hungry . . . here two\n, the red - banded hermit crab . tropical west atlantic . to four inches in length . claws about the same length with red spots or bands . antennae are golden , eyes blue .\npaguristes puncticeps , the white speckled hermit crab . tropical west atlantic . to 5 inches in length . claws about the same length with red spots . blue eyes . white speckled eye stalks and body . cozumel 2017 image .\n, the blue eye hermit crab . tropical west atlantic . to 2 . 5 inches in length . claws about the same length with red spots . small blue eyes on red speckled stalks .\nphimochirus holthuisi , the red - striped hermit crab . tropical west atlantic . to one inch in length . one cheliped enlarged ( usually right ) ; movable pincer white . eyestalks white with dark band , eyes grayish blue .\ntrizopagurus ( ciliopagurus ) strigatus ( herbst 1804 ) , the striped or halloween hermit crab . indo - pacific and red sea . to a little over two inches in length . nocturnal . lives in empty cone shells . feed on live and dead animal material .\nother species of hermits sometimes offered in the interest that are unusual , though not highly suitable for aquarium use .\nmanucomplanus varians ( benedict , 1892 ) , staghorn hermit . pix by sara mavinkurve . urltoken\nother species of hermits sometimes offered in the interest that are trouble : for ( large ) fish - only systems .\naniculus hopperae mclaughlin & hoover 1996 , hopper ' s hermit crab . sometimes imported from hawai ' i . not a hardy aquarium species ; apparently a sponge feeder in the wild . to an inch in length . black eyes , yellow eye stalks , bright red claws bear black tips . hawaiian endemic . big island pic .\naniculus maximus , a large hermit crab . often imported from hawai ' i . to four inches in length .\ndardanus gemmatus h . milne - edwards 1848 , jeweled anemone hermit crab . to two inches carapace length . with calliactis anemones on its shell . hawai ' i image .\ndardanus lagopodes ( forsskal 1775 ) , the blade - eyed hermit crab . indo - pacific , including the red sea . to a little over two inches in length . white eye stalks , body mottled in maroon , brown , covered with white - tipped bristles . this one in aitutaki , cook islands and n . sulawesi .\ndardanus megistos ( herbst 1789 ) , shell - breaking reef hermit crab , often sold as the white spotted . members of this genus are predaceous , and will gladly consume any fishes they can get their claws on . to six inches . place with large , aware fishes only . aquarium pic .\nanother reef hermit crab . indo - pacific . often with anemones placed on its movable home / shell . to a little over two inches in length . spiny chelipeds , red and white striped eye stalks are definitive . aquarium and n . sulawesi pix .\ndardanus tinctor , a coral hermit crab . this one with its calliactis polypus anemones out at night in the red sea . to 10 cm . large left claw . nocturnal ; omnivorous . moves anemones when transferring to new shells .\ndardanus venosus , the starry - eyed hermit crab . 3 - 5 inches . blue / green eyes , dark pupils that are star - burst like in close view . claws of lavender color generally . bristly . cozumel pic .\npetrochirus diogenes , a giant hermit crab . to twelve inches ( not a mis - print ) . red / white banded antennae ; scale like covering of legs . blue / blue - green eyes . caribbean .\nthe superfamily paguroidea also includes stone crabs like lithodes , paralithodes ( commercial king crab of the north pacific ) .\nif you use them , place about one , two small hermits per actual gallon of your system . use a mix of species and make sure and provide many\nupgrade\nhomes ( empty shells ) for your hermits to move to .\nbaensch , hans & helmut debelius . 1994 . marine atlas , v . 1 . mergus , germany . 1215pp .\nburgess , warren e . 1974 . salts from the seven seas ( on hermits ) . tfh 11 / 74 .\ndebelius , helmut . 1999 . crustacea of the world . atlantic , indian , pacific oceans . ikan , germany 321pp .\nfriese , u . erich . crustaceans in the home aquarium . hermit crabs . tfh 4 / 85 .\nhoover , john p . 1997 . hawaiian hermit crabs , pts . i , ii . fama 9 , 10 / 97 .\njensen , christopher . 1998 . red legged hermit crab . fama 4 / 98 .\nmenten , bob . 1980 . the hermit crab . marine scavenger - par excellence . tfh 11 / 80\nmichael , scott . 1998 . hermit danger . some species of hermit crabs actually consider your fish their dinner . afm 5 / 98 .\ngeneral husbandry : these small hermit crabs are among the best at grazing algae , including slime algae .\nkeep in mind they do not have a shell of their own and therefore seek suitable size empty shells for protection , usually empty snail shells . the tip of their abdomen is then backed into the columella of the empty shell , calling it home . when danger exists , they retract further into the shell , disappearing from view . as they grow larger via the molting process in the wild , they must seek other slightly larger empty shells . its this process of living in someone else ' s shell that has led to their common name ' hermit , ' i . e . , a hermit living alone .\nit ' s advisable to keep an assortment of different size empty snail shells in the aquarium when maintaining this species ( or any hermit ) , as they are very fussy about the space they have inside their selected shell and are always looking for something better / slightly roomier ! in fact , they often enter into battles with other hermits for their shells , with the loser either highly damaged or dead . they may also sometimes pick on live snails , however it is thought they are seeking the shell and not attacking the snail itself .\nkeep in mind they cannot tolerate copper treatments , therefore if they are in the same aquarium where fish need to be medicated with copper , they must be removed .\nfyi : stocking level recommendations vary greatly for these little janitors / scavengers , e . g . , from 1 to 10 per gallon for reef aquariums . yet one should relate their need to the condition of the aquarium , as very well maintained systems need only a few in the entire system . overcrowded and / or overstocked systems no doubt need higher quantities . and new systems probably need none , as hermit nutritional needs will not be met until the aquarium ages somewhat .\nin general , hermits can live for about 30 years in the wild , however , they don ' t last near that long in aquaria , with stays of about 1 - 2 years the average . keep in mind even though most hermits are born in the water , when molting they seek the land and bury themselves for protection from predators . depending on their age , the molting process can occur from once a month to once every 18 months , with the process taking about 10 days to complete . therefore , their lifespan in aquaria is questionable / quite limited .\nthe material on this site may not be reproduced , distributed , transmitted , cached or otherwise used , except with the prior written permission of bob goemans .\nlemaitre , r . ; mclaughlin , p . ( 2018 ) . world paguroidea & lomisoidea database .\nmclaughlin , p . a . ; komai , t . ; lemaitre , r . ; listyo , r . ( 2010 ) . annotated checklist of anomuran decapod crustaceans of the world ( exclusive of the kiwaoidea and families chirostylidae and galatheidae of the galatheoidea . part i \u2013 lithodoidea , lomisoidea and paguroidea . the raffles bulletin of zoology . supplement no 23 , 5 - 107 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nomics international organises 3000 + global conferenceseries events every year across usa , europe & asia with support from 1000 more scientific societies and publishes 700 + open access journals which contains over 50000 eminent personalities , reputed scientists as editorial board members .\n\u00a9 2008 - 2018 omics international - open access publisher . best viewed in mozilla firefox | google chrome | above ie 7 . 0 version\nyou may not duplicate , copy , or reuse any portion of the photos / html / css or visual design elements without our express written permission . any redistribution or reproduction of part or all of the contents in any form is prohibited .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled on your browser . to view this site , you must enable javascript or upgrade to a javascript - capable browser .\nmix and match to save ! quantity discount applies to all eligible saltwater hermit crabs and snails on your order . the red leg hermit crab is an excelle . . .\ncare level : easy temperament : peaceful reef compatible : with caution water conditions : 72 - 78\u00b0 f , dkh 8 - 12 , ph 8 . 1 - 8 . 4 , sg 1 . 023 - 1 . 025 max . size : 1\ndiet : herbivore supplements : calcium , magnesium , iodine , trace elements\nsign up to receive exclusive deals , tips and tricks , special coupons and much more . . .\narticle public\n- / / nlm / / dtd journal publishing dtd v3 . 0 20080202 / / en\nurltoken\nconceived and designed the experiments : mvt rwh . performed the experiments : mvt mo jc kvn . analyzed the data : mvt . wrote the paper : mvt mo jc kvn rwh .\n, which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nthis research was funded by the dr . marvin hensley endowed scholarship in zoology awarded to mark v . tran by the zoology department at michigan state university . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nthis study used only invertebrate animals , which are not regulated by the institutional animal care and use committee at michigan state university .\nfollowing gender determination , animals were housed in small groups in plastic containers ( 20\u00d713\u00d714 cm or 26\u00d716\u00d717 cm ) containing asw and a gravel substrate for a minimum of 4 days to allow sufficient time to recover from handling stress . because we allowed a minimum of 4 days to recover from handling stress , it is highly unlikely that the different methods of sex determination used between species influenced the animals\u2019 behaviors in our experiments . this , however , was not empirically tested . the size of the containers used to house experimental animals had no effect on either species for any of the measured behaviors ( mann - whitney u - tests , p > 0 . 05 ) .\nrelationship between wet weight ( g ) and shell length inhabited ( cm ) .\nfor experiments assessing feeding times in the absence of a competitor , we used animals of both sexes ( 11 males : 4 non - gravid females of each species ) that had previously been used in other behavioral experiments and were randomly drawn from mixed - species population tanks . we did this because we had a limited availability of p . perrieri males and had no a priori reason to believe that normal feeding behaviors ( 1 ) would be affected by the animals\u2019 previous use in other experiments , or ( 2 ) differed between sexes when no competitors were present .\nthe testing apparatus consisted of a 250 ml glass erlenmeyer flask ( 8 cm bottom diameter ) containing 250 ml of asw and clean , white gravel substrate . this apparatus was large enough that the test animals could remain physically separated and were not forced to interact .\nthis experiment was done to determine if feeding times for both species were similar in the absence of a competitor . the same experimental procedure was used as explained in the previous section , except that only a single animal was placed in the apparatus during each trial . feeding times were compared between species using a two - sided mann - whitney u - test .\ntotal counts of behaviors shown . counts were summed among test animals of the same species . n = 20 trials .\ntotal counts of behaviors shown . counts were summed among test animals of the same species . n = 17 trials for each species .\nfeeding times when species fed together ( with competition ) and independently ( without competition ) .\nwe thank n . ostrom , g . mittelbach , and w . li for assistance and guidance on the planning of this study , and b . wagner for assistance with acquiring research animals .\nsur quelques crustac\u00e9s anomures et brachyures recueillis par m . diguet en basse - californie\nsur une collection de crustac\u00e9s d\u00e9capodes recuellis en basse - californie par m . diguet\nbouvier ( decapoda : anomura : diogenidae ) . ph . d dissertation , university of arizona .\nbecause of the sheer size of our forum , we ' ve been forced to limit selling and trading to members who ' ve met a couple of criteria . ( if you ' re seeing this message , you haven ' t met them yet . ) please take a moment to acquaint yourself with our selling / trading rules to help make your stay a long and rewarding one .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ i ' m not a noob , i just buy fish with a short life span . . . current tank info : 100 gallon plexy with 35 gallon sump\ngood to hear the frags are taking to the rubble , softies are always a little challenging . give them a little more time before you move them . thanks for the tip but i don ' t have any cyano bacteria in my tank . i do have some red turf algae , but there is a big difference . cyano is a living indicator of high nutrient levels and / or not enough flow . ultimately you want to address those issues and the cyano will dissapear and not come back . regarding hermits , i ' m not too fond of them . i much prefer snails which they will kill , it ' s only a matter of time . also be cautios with anything from mexico - the water there is temperate and unless you can maintain cool temps the critters won ' t live long .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ jacob . current tank info : retired from reefing . . .\njake , u still have that turf agae ? did the seahare and / or phosphate absorbant stuff make any dent ? yeah the little hermit crabs can kill snails but they are also fun to watch . scott\ni ' ve lost 2 snails so far out of about 9 months and still have about 4 left . seems they only get picked on when my largest hermit desides he needs a\nhome upgrade\n. they didn ' t have a picture of the algae so wasn ' t sure if it was the same but the description was dead on so i figured i ' d give it a post . i ' ll keep an eye out .\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 3 . 8 . 4 copyright \u00a92000 - 2018 , jelsoft enterprises ltd . powered by searchlight \u00a9 2018 axivo inc .\nuse of this web site is subject to the terms and conditions described in the user agreement . reef central tm reef central , llc . copyright \u00a91999 - 2014\nuser alert system provided by advanced user tagging v3 . 3 . 0 ( pro ) - vbulletin mods & addons copyright \u00a9 2018 dragonbyte technologies ltd .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nturra , a . 1 , 2 and leite , f . p . p . 1\ndepartamento de zoologia , ib , unicamp , c . p . 6109 , cep 13083 - 970 , campinas , sp , brazil\nprograma de p\u00f3s - gradua\u00e7\u00e3o em ecologia , ib , unicamp , c . p . 6109 , cep 13083 - 970 , campinas , sp , brazil\ncorrespondence to : alexander turra , departamento de zoologia , ib , unicamp , c . p . 6109 , cep 13083 - 970 , campinas , sp , brazil , e - mail : turra @ urltoken\nhermit crabs display clustering behavior and daily movements ( hazlett , 1966 ; snyder - conn , 1980 ; gherardi & vannini , 1989 , 1992 and 1993 ) which are closely related to the tidal rhythm ( snyder - conn , 1980 ) . clusters are tipically formed during low tides when the hermit crabs stay in physical contact with each other , presenting low activity and preference for shady substrates ( snyder - conn , 1980 ) . at flood tide the hermit crabs disperse to foraging areas and present social activities ( gherardi & vannini , 1993 ) , while at high tide they remain generaly inactive under boulders and in crevices ( snyder - conn , 1980 ) . low and high tides are considered adverse periods due to the risks of desiccation and predation , respectively ( snyder - conn , 1980 ) , thus also leading the hermit crabs to look for refuges .\nthe clustering behavior is probably controlled by interactions between exogenous and endogenous factors related to the tidal cycle . in this way , environmental stimuli ( air exposure , hydrostatic pressure , light , food availability and small scale water movements ) seem to play an important role in determining the activity of the hermit crabs ( snyder - conn , 1980 ; gherardi & vannini , 1989 ) . the adaptative meaning of the clustering behavior was largely investigated by gherardi & vannini ( 1992 , 1993 ) . it is supposed that clusters serve as\nshell exchange markets\nor places were males and females can locate themselves easily . however , clustering may be a response to environmental factors , such as desiccation ( reese , 1969 ; gherardi & vannini , 1993 ) , and habitat heterogeneity ( snyder - conn , 1981 ; turra et al . in press ) .\nthe aim of this study was to describe the clustering behavior of hermit crabs in the brazilian coast , focusing cluster size ( number of individuals per cluster ) , species composition , and shell utilization pattern . comparisons of populational parameters and shell adequacy and condition between clustered and scattered individuals were used as evidences to discuss theories on the factors that regulate the clustering behavior in the area of study .\nthis study was conducted from september to december 1994 at the grande beach ( 45 o 24 ' w ; 23 o 49 ' s ) , s\u00e3o sebasti\u00e3o , northern coast of s\u00e3o paulo state , brazil . the area of study is an intertidal habitat of 160 m 2 composed by cobbles and boulders irregularly arranged forming natural refuges , holes and crevices . the tides are semidiurnal with maximal variation of 2 meters .\ntwenty two quadrats of 1 m 2 were sorted in the area of study in order to evaluate the dispersion pattern and the activity of the hermit crabs during low tide . a dispersion index was calculated to access the pattern of distribution of hermit crabs ( elliott , 1977 ) . active individuals were those that were feeding or walking . each quadrat was characterized in relation to air exposure ( total or partial ) or submersion ( presence of tide pools ) . hermit crabs and their shells were identified and the number and size of clusters ( number of individuals present in each cluster ) were registered . shell adequacy and condition were also evaluated .\nthe shell adequacy to the hermit crabs was evaluated using a visual index modified from abrams ( 1978 ) : 1 . hermit crab not visible ; 2 . pereopods visible but chelipeds not ; 3 . angle of 90 o between chelipeds and the plan of the shell aperture ; 4 . obtuse angle between chelipeds and the plan of the shell aperture ; 5 . chelipeds closing the aperture ; 6 . shield exposed . the shell condition was recorded using a modification of the condition index proposed by mcclintock ( 1985 ) . this index evaluates the degree of incrustation ( 1 . shell not incrusted ; 2 . until 50 % incrusted ; 3 . 50 % to 100 % incrusted ) and of physical damage in the shells used by the hermit crabs ( a . perfect ; b . perforations and / or less than 4 mm of the aperture damaged ; c . more than 4 mm of the aperture damaged and / or apex broken ) .\nin order to compare the size distribution between clustered and scattered individuals , three 0 . 50 m wide transects were sampled during the low tide . the crabs were classified as clustered ( 5 or more individuals ) or scattered , removed from their shells , and sized ( shield length ) with a milimetric ocular under stereomicroscope . cluster size was also recorded . the two - way anova and the log - likelihood g test were both performed with a 0 . 05 significance level ( zar , 1984 ) .\nthe dispersion pattern of the crabs was contiguous ( i = 621 . 130 , d = 28 . 84 , df = 21 , p < 0 . 001 ) , and greatly influenced by the distribution of c . antillensis . most of the hermit crabs were present in clusters ( 70 . 88 % , g [ 1 ] = 46 . 96 , p < 0 . 001 ) , that were more frequently found in air exposed areas ( 14 clusters out of 15 ) . most of the aggregates ( 11 ) were monospecific , composed only by individuals of c . antillensis ( 10 ) or of p . criniticornis ( 1 cluster composed by 6 individuals in a tide pool ) . polyspecific clusters were dominated by c . antillensis but also presented individuals of p . tortugae , p . criniticornis and / or c . tibicen . the clusters composed or dominated by c . antillensis presented 5 to 42 individuals ( n = 14 , 12 . 78 \u00b1 10 . 29 individuals ) .\nthe activity pattern of the hermit crabs was studied only during low tide . scattered and clustered individuals exposed to the air were inactive , differently from some isolated and submerged ones ( 3 individuals ) in tide pools . some isolated hermit crabs , exposed to the air and out of refuges , presented their shells with the aperture turned upward .\nin the transects 31 males and 27 females ( 14 ovigerous , 44 . 44 % ) of c . antillensis were collected ( table 1 ) . both males and females were more frequently found in clusters than isolated ( females : g [ 1 ] = 14 . 85 , p < 0 . 001 ; males : g [ 1 ] = 3 . 98 , p < 0 . 05 ) . size showed to be more dependent on the behavioral situation of the crabs ( clustered or scattered ) than on their sex , although males were sligthly larger than females ( table 1 ) .\nshell utilization differed between clustered and scattered individuals of c . antillensis ( g [ 5 ] = 262 . 14 , p < 0 . 001 ) ( fig . 1 ) . shells of tegula viridula ( gmelin , 1791 ) were more frequently occupied by scattered individuals , while shells of stramonita ( = thais ) haemastoma ( linnaeus , 1797 ) , morula nodulosa ( c . b . adams , 1845 ) , leucozonia nassa ( gmelin , 1791 ) , and cerithium atratum ( born , 1778 ) were used mainly by the scattered ones .\nshell adequacy and incrustation also differed between clustered and scattered individuals ( table 2 ) . shells were more adequate and incrusted for isolated than clustered crabs .\nphysical damage did not show any relationship with the behavioral situation ( clustered or scattered ) of the crabs ( table 2 ) . shell adequacy also seemed to be dependent on the shell type ( g [ 16 ] = 33 . 65 , p = 0 . 006 ) , with shells of t . viridula and c . atratum presenting better adequacy than shells of s . haemastoma , l . nassa , and m . nodulosa ( fig . 2 ) .\nas expected , all hermit crabs that were exposed to the air were inactive , even those that were clustered and in refuges . at low tide the hermit crabs store water inside their shells and occupy moist microhabitats to avoid the lack of oxygen and the risks of desiccation ( gherardi et al . , 1989 ) . inactive and scattered individuals of c . antillensis presented the aperture of their shells turned upward . this behavior results in a higher retention of water inside the shell as suggested by reese ( 1969 ) , thus enhancing their resistence to long time exposure periods . active individuals were registered only in tide pools . in this way , the activity pattern can be related to the easier locomotion in water due to the lightening of the shells ( gherardi et al . , 1989 ) , and to the physical stress imposed by the air exposure situation .\nscattered individuals of c . antillensis were larger than clustered ones , as also showed in other studies with other species ( hazlett , 1966 ; gherardi & vannini , 1989 ; gherardi , 1991 ) . small individuals have a greater surface / volume ratio and are more susceptible to desiccation than the large ones ( gherardi & vannini , 1992 , 1993 ) . thus , clustering might also serve to reduce the risk of desiccation as also suggested by reese ( 1969 ) and snyder - conn ( 1981 ) .\nboth males and females of this c . antillensis population occurred mainly in clusters , and 44 , 44 % of the females were ovigerous . these results support the hypothesis that clusters may serve as places where males can easily find females ( gherardi & vannini , 1992 , 1993 ) . in addition , clustering may also protect ovigerous females and their eggs from desiccation .\nthe pattern of shell utilization of hermit crabs is frequently associated with shell availability as can be seen in this area ( leite et al . , 1998 ) , with c . antillensis occupying mainly shells of tegula viridula . however , scattered individuals of c . antillensis used shells of t . viridula in higher frequencies than do clustered ones , probably because these shells presented higher adequacy than the others , as also recorded in other studies ( gherardi , 1991 ; gherardi & vannini , 1993 ) . in addition , shells used by the scattered individuals of c . antillensis presented better adequacy , and higher incrustation and adequacy than that used by the clustered supporting the hypothesis that clusters may serve as\nshells exchange markets\n( gherardi & vannini , 1993 ) .\nthe small size of clusters in this area also seemed to be associated with the high availability of empty gastropod shells in this area ( leite et al . , 1998 ) . in this way , a high shell availability may indicate a good shell adequacy to this population , thus not forcing the crabs to look for new ones in dense aggregations .\nthe meaning of the clustering behavior is still controversal and doubtfull . it is more parsimonious and reasonable to think that many selective forces , such as shell limitation ( behavioral factor ) and environmental stress ( physical factor ) are influencing together the clustering behavior in hermit crabs . to evaluate the role of each factor in the cluster formation it is needed a fully experimental study , isolating all possible factors to test one each time .\nacknowledgments \u0097 we wish to thank fapesp ( funda\u00e7\u00e3o de amparo \u00e0 pesquisa no estado de s\u00e3o paulo ) by the fellowship n o 93 / 2439 - 4 , and cebimar - usp ( centro de biologia marinha da universidade de s\u00e3o paulo ) for logistic support . giuliano buz\u00e1 jacobucci and ant\u00f4nio carlos cruz macedo revised the manuscript .\nelliott , j . m . , 1977 , some methods for the statistical analysis of samples of benthic invertebrates .\nhazlett , b . , 1966 , social behavior of the paguridae and diogenidae of cura\u00e7ao .\nleite , f . p . p . , turra , a . & gandolfi , s . m . , 1998 , hermit crabs ( crustacea , decapoda , anomura ) , gastropod shells and environmental structure : their relationship in southeastern brazil .\nsnyder - conn , e . , 1980 , tidal clustering and dispersal of the hermit crab\nsnyder - conn , e . , 1981 , the adaptive significance of clustering in the hermit crab\nturra , a . , jacobucci , g . b . , ara\u00fajo , f . m . p . & leite , f . p . p . ( in press ) , spatial distribution of four sympatric species of hermit crab ( decapoda , anomura ) .\nr . bento carlos , 750 13560 - 660 s\u00e3o carlos sp - brazil tel . / fax : + 55 16 271 - 5726 bjb . iie @ urltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nmark v . tran , 1 , 2 , * matthew o\u2019grady , 1 jeremiah colborn , 1 kimberly van ness , 1 and richard w . hill 1 , 2\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are properly credited .\nto test aggression and competitive abilities , we sized - matched pairs of animals . these pairs of animals were always drawn from separate plastic housing containers in order to alleviate the effects of any pre - existing dominance hierarchies that may have been formed among tankmates\n. for all experiments assessing interspecific differences , we housed animals in containers with conspecifics only , and for experiments assessing intraspecific differences , we housed animals in mixed - species containers . on the day the experiments were conducted , experimental pairs of animals were formed by selecting one animal from separate containers . all pairs of animals were size - matched within 3 mm shell length . size - matching controlled for the effect of body size on aggression and competitive abilities . shell length was used as a proxy for body size because ( 1 ) the species show similar relationships between wet body weight ( g ) and length ( cm ) of shell inhabited (\n, and ( 3 ) using animals of equal shell size helped to ensure that aggressive interactions observed during the trials were the result of food competition , and not the result of motivation to switch shells , which could confound the results of these experiments . this method was effective since test crabs rarely showed shell investigation behavior , and only one case of shell switching was documented during the trials . both species routinely occupied\nshells . we did not assay for differences in behavior based on shell species occupied .\nanimals were given no food for 2 days prior to use to ensure motivation to forage during trials . on the day of the experiment a size - matched pair of heterospecific animals was formed , placed into the testing apparatus , and given a minimum of 15 minutes to acclimate . following acclimation , 2 ml fe were pipetted into the top of the apparatus using a glass pipette . the animals were allowed 30 seconds to initiate foraging behaviors , after which the numbers of aggressive and submissive behaviors (\n) exhibited by each animal were counted for 10 minutes . only trials in which both animals showed obvious foraging behaviors ( e . g . , increased locomotion , substrate probing , feeding movements )\nafter the fe was introduced were included in analyses . this ensured that the animals were motivated to forage and in a healthy physiological state during the trials . twenty trials of this experiment met these criteria and were used for analyses . we compared the number of ( 1 ) aggressive behaviors , and ( 2 ) submissive behaviors observed during the trials between the species using a two - sided wilcoxon sign - ranks test for matched pairs . paired analyses were required because the behaviors of one species could directly influence the behaviors of the other species during the trials . these , and all other statistical tests mentioned in this report , employed a significance cutoff of"]}
{"id": 1967, "summary": [{"text": "gornogomphodon is an extinct genus of synapsid from the gorno formation of bergamo , italy .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it existed during the middle carnian age of the late triassic ( around 216.5 to 228.0 million years ago ) .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "it contains only one species : gornogomphodon caffi .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "gornogomphodon is known only from a fossil jaw fragment with three transversely elongate teeth preserved .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the scant fossil material and the locality they were collected from ( the gorno formation were once shallow lagoons ) lead to initial uncertainty over the nature of the fossil .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it was proposed to be the remains of a pycnodont fish but further studies eventually made this hypothesis unlikely .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the overall morphology of the teeth suggests they are the upper postcanines of the right maxilla of a gomphodont ( herbivorous cynodonts ) , but they also possess unique characteristics that make their taxonomic assignment difficult .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "gornogomphodon was named after the gorno formation ( literally ' gorno gomphodont ' ) .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the specific name for its only species gornogomphodon caffi was named in honor of enrico caffi , the first director of the museo di scienze naturali enrico caffi . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "gornogomphodon", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for gornogomphodon definition . you find here gornogomphodon meaning , synonyms of gornogomphodon and images for gornogomphodon copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word gornogomphodon . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word gornogomphodon and , of course , gornogomphodon synonyms and on the right images related to the word gornogomphodon .\nhow can i put and write and define gornogomphodon in a sentence and how is the word gornogomphodon used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528gornogomphodon\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528gornogomphodon\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528gornogomphodon\u9020\u53e5 , gornogomphodon meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\ngornogomphodon\nwas named after the gorno formation ( literally ' gorno gomphodont ' ) .\nhave a fact about gornogomphodon caffii ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for gornogomphodon caffii ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\ngornogomphodon\nis known only from a fossil jaw fragment with three transversely elongate teeth preserved .\ngornogomphodon is an extinct genus of synapsid from the gorno formation of bergamo , italy . it existed during the middle carnian age of the late triassic ( around 216 . 5 to 228 . 0 million years ago ) . it contains only one species : gornogomphodon caffi . gornogomphodon is known only from a fossil jaw fragment with three transversely elongate teeth preser . . .\nthe specific name for its only species\ngornogomphodon caffi\nwas named in honor of enrico caffi , the first director of the museo di scienze naturali enrico caffi .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\na jaw fragment with three teeth preserved , collected from the gorno formation ( carnian , upper triassic ) of lombardy ( italy ) is described . the teeth are transversely elongated , three - cusped and bear anterior and posterior cingula . their overall morphology supports their identification as postcanines of a gomphodont cynodont . the unique tooth morphology of the new specimen supports its attribution to a new genus and species , while at the same time precluding positive assignment to already known gomphodont families . there is a fairly small record of gomphodont cynodonts in europe , so that the described specimen adds to the knowledge of the distribution and diversity of european gomphodonts and it also represents the first ever collected in italy .\nsilvio renesto [ silvio . renesto @ urltoken ] , dipartimento di biologia strutturale e funzionale , universit\u00e0 degli studi dell\u2019insubria , via dunant 3 , 21100 varese , italy ; spencer g . lucas [ spencer . lucas @ urltoken ] , newmexico museum of natural history and science , 1801 mountain road n . w . albuquerque , new mexico , 87104 usa .\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( for details please see urltoken ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 1973, "summary": [{"text": "chimes of freedom ( 23 january 1987 \u2013 2014 ) was an american-bred british-trained thoroughbred racehorse and broodmare .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "bred in kentucky by her owner stavros niarchos she was sent to race in england where she was trained by henry cecil .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she was one of the best juvenile fillies of her generation in europe , winning four of her five races including the cherry hinton stakes in britain and the moyglare stud stakes in ireland .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in the following year she did not contest any of the classics but recorded major victories in the coronation stakes and the child stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "after being retired at the end of the season she became a highly successful broodmare , producing several major winners . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "chimes of freedom ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["all the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for freedom rocks . freedom rocks is a gelding born in 2007 november 15 by rock of cashel out of chimes of freedom\nthe dam of chimes of freedom , won the 1984 heinz \u201c57\u201d phoenix stakes ( ire - i ) . she\nchimes of freedom produced 12 named foals , of which 10 started and seven won . her important foals are as follow :\nchimes of freedom ( usa ) ch . 1987 gw 6 wins f : 12 r : 10 w : 7 sw : 4\nsix - time group one winner dylan thomas gains the 2007 cartier racing awards for horse of the year and champion older horse .\npopular freedom decor of good quality and at affordable prices you can buy on aliexpress .\nhails from one of the most celebrated families in the international stud book . he is by champion sire of sires nureyev out of multiple gr . one winner chimes of freedom ( by private account ) .\nmultiple group iii winner dietrich ( by storm cat ) and german stakes winner mambo light ( by kingmambo ) and second dam of irish group iii winner beauty bright . chimes of freedom is a\nlindsay park stud and magali farms have entered a partnership that will see proven young sire good journey ( nureyev \u2013 chimes of freedom ) shuttle between south australia and the usa .\nthe belltower is still there , in south pasadena , and presumably so are the chimes .\nimmediate family of gr1 winners : aviance ( pathfork\u2019s great grandam ) , denon ( 4x gr1 wins ) , chimes of freedom ( 2x gr1 wins ) , aldebaran ( 8x gr1 wins ) , saddex ( 2x gr1 wins ) .\nthis is \u201cchimes of freedom\u201d written by bob dylan and recorded most popularly by roger mcguinn and the byrds around 1965 and more recently by bruce springsteen and the e street band at the time of the amnesty international tour in the late \u201980s .\n) and second dam of 2010 vincent o ' brien national stakes ( ire - i ) winner pathfork , 2007 french highweighted 3 - year - old stayer sagara and australian group iii winner global balance . chimes of freedom is also a half sister to remote romance (\nauthor of dressage unscrambled , released by half halt press in october of 2009 and now distributed by horse and rider books . com , a division of trafalgar square press .\nhenry cecil\u2019s filly chimes of freedom won the race in 1990 , completing a fine double for the warren place stable , who had won the st james\u2019s palace stakes with shavian a day earlier ( in those days the coronation stakes was run on the wednesday of the royal meeting ) .\nin the horse of the year category , dylan thomas came out ahead of an outstanding quartet , comprising manduro , ramonti , authorized and peeping fawn , and he also takes the cartier older horse award by overcoming manduro and ramonti again , plus yeats and notnowcato .\ntwo trainers have claimed four winners apiece here . henry cecil completed his with roussalka in 1974 , diminuendo in 1987 , chimes of freedom in 1989 and musicale in 1991 , while sir michael stoute accomplished it with swinburn\u2019s first three winning rides , plus dazzle in 1996 .\n\u201cthey don\u2019t want to hear this but i\u2019m saving up for a jumping saddle , \u201d santanna chimes in from across the arena .\n\u201cshe knew the horse would stand still while i got on , which is the scariest part , \u201d said santanna .\nchimes of freedom was a high class individual trained by henry cecil at newmarket , and her 5l win in the group 1 coronation stakes at royal ascot was high class form . she ran a total of 9 times , and her highest rpr was 124 in the child stakes ( now known as the falmouth ) .\nbut two - and - a - half years after the collision , they were no closer to finding the right horse .\nkingmambo , too , is represented in poland by two sons who have excellent pedigrees but lack a black - type success . they are the unraced october , out of the 2001 irish two - year - old champion filly quarter moon ( sadler\u2019s wells ) , and the maiden arithmancer , out of the coronation stakes winner , chimes of freedom , the dam of the excellent good journey .\nthe very talented dylan thomas was named cartier horse of the year at the 2007 cartier racing awards , presented in the ballroom of the four seasons hotel in london\u2019s mayfair on the evening of wednesday , november 14 .\ndan guides dealer into position . he stands on the outside , holding the horse steady , with jo - anne in front .\nlater in childhood he would spend time with a grandfather who had been a hotel pianist and could play\nthe maple leaf rag\n. his brooklyn - irish grandmother was a great singer , and taught him songs that would become staples of the folk repertoire . ( it was to one of her favourites ,\nthe chimes of trinity\n, that dylan would pay particular attention :\nhe made me sing it for him a few times until he had the gist of it , then reworked it into ' chimes of freedom ' . her version was better .\n)\na sale topping son of leading sire snitzel and the first horse in history to win the cox plate / australian guineas group one double . timeform champion australian 3yo .\nthe eight horse awards were decided by a tried and tested combination of points achieved in pattern races , the views of racing journalists on cartier ' s racing panel , and votes from readers of racing post and the daily telegraph .\ndirectly descended from best in show ( 4th dam ) . good journey is by nureyev , sire of 135 stakes winners . his dam , chimes of freedom , was a precocious two - year - old winning 4 of her 5 juvenile starts in ireland including a group one over 6 furlongs . she would go on at three to win the gr . 1 newmarket cheveley park sprint , finishing her career with 6 wins from 9 starts . chimes of freedom is by the damascus line stallion private account , the champion broodmare sire of no less than 91 stakeswinners including good journey\u2019s half brother , aldebaran , the triple group one winning champion usa sprinter of 2003 . good journey\u2019s 2nd dam , aviance , was also a group one winner herself and threw 3 stakes winners including denon ( 4 time gr . 1 winner ) and imperfect circle ( dam of spinning world ) .\nthe son of danehill triumphed in the budweiser irish derby at the curragh as a three - year - old and defeated last year\u2019s cartier horse of the year ouija board in the baileys irish champion stakes at leopardstown .\nbut for santanna , now 30 , who has been riding since she was 8 , never being on a horse again was no option at all .\n\u201cup , up , \u201d she says to the horse who obligingly lifts her one white leg \u2014 though it is currently more beige from the mud .\nthe six - year - old became the first horse to record back - to - back victories in the gold cup since royal rebel in 2002 .\nour selection of brands is always growing , so chances are your favorite is on aliexpress . you will find a high quality freedom decor at an affordable price from brands like phantaci , he dao , houseen .\nsantanna marrocco , being pushed by her father , rick , uses a ramp to get high enough to mount the horse . the process also requires the help of her mother and her husband .\nnote : a restoration of\nchimes at midnight\nis said to be in progress , with a possible release in a year or two . a brazilian import that will play on north american machines can be ordered at :\nhere are links to segments of interesting work under the instruction of herwig radnutter , bereiter at the spanish riding school of vienna and other rides of interest .\na high - class filly at both 2 and 3 in europe , chimes of freedom was not in the same league as the great salsabil ( who defeated her soundly in the 1990 fred darling stakes , eng - iii , before going on to annex four european classics ) and was not up to taking on males but was quite consistent when she got the ground she preferred . she proved an even better broodmare than racer .\nwind of roses ( f . by lomond ) . unraced . dam of -\nthe writer , associate producer , and narrator of the farnam company\u2019s video \u201cthe official usdf introduction to dressage . \u201d produced two popular instructional videos for learning partners : \u201cputting your horse on the bit\u201d and \u201cleg yielding\u201d in the 1980s .\ngraduate of yale and a recipient of american dressage institute scholarships in 1972 and 1976 .\nsantanna marrocco ' s legs were amputated above the knees after an automobile collision in 2010 . she says her horse , dealer , and her custom saddle\nhave given me everything back .\nhis jockey that day , kieren fallon , called him the best horse he has ever ridden and dylan thomas\u2019 exploits may not have finished , with the japan cup on november 25 a possibility .\nfour years later one of the all - time great fillies of the turf won the coronation stakes in the shape of pretty polly and she too of course had won the guineas as part of her triple crown triumph .\nhillsdown was one of the earliest sponsors of the race , followed in the 1990s by charles heidsieck champagne . after the turn of the new millennium , urltoken took up the title role and then passed it on to chippenham lodge stud . since 2006 , however , a division of horse racing ireland has been the primary backer , and the official event name of the race is the irish thoroughbred marketing cherry hinton stakes .\nchimes of freedom ( 1987 , by private account ) won the 1989 moyglare stud stakes ( ire - i ) and 1990 coronation stakes ( eng - i ) . she is the dam of 2003 american champion sprinter aldebaran ( by mr . prospector ) , 2002 atto mile stakes ( can - i ) winner good journey ( by nureyev ) , grade iii winner sea of showers ( by seattle slew ) , listed stakes winner tomisue ' s indy ( by a . p . indy ) and multiple stakes producer modesty blaise ( by a . p . indy ) .\nranked cauthen as eighth in their list of the top 50 jockeys of the 20th century .\nother prominent producers in the family include broodmare of the year best in show and her descendants monroe and minnie hauk . it is the family of champion el gran senor and multiple group 1 winner redoute\u2019s choice , both prominent sires ; champions close hatches , malinowski , xaar , aldebaran , and try my best ; breeders\u2019 cup mile winners spinning world and domedriver ; and grade / group 1 winners senue , chief contender , chimes of freedom , good journey , denon , saddex , bahamian pirate , yagli , hurricane sky , umatilla , manhattan run , platinum scissors , al maher , and effinex .\nchimes of freedom , by private account . third top filly on the 1990 european 3yo classification . 6 wins - 4 at 2 - at 6f , 1m , \u00a3299 , 831 , royal ascot coronation s . , gr . 1 , curragh moyglare stud s . , gr . 1 , newmarket child s . , gr . 2 , cherry hinton s . , gr . 3 , 3d newmarket cheveley park s . , gr . 1 . sister to piquetnol ( dam of dietrich , mambo light ) , privately held , half - sister to denon , imperfect circle ( dam of spinning world , visions of clarity ) , remote romance ( dam of saddex ) . dam of 12 foals , 10 to race , 7 winners , inc : -\nwas a perfect illustration of this . a great - grand - daughter of the superb american matriarch\nflorence ' s loneliness caused her to act out in many ways . she sought refuge with friends in hollywood and , despite the fact that she had a child with rankin , had a series of affairs . eventually she ran away to mexico , only to return with the name she ' d be known as the rest of her life \u2014\npancho\n. she learned to fly , and allegedly thumbed her nose at her husband , buzzing the church on one of her first flights . yet , despite her antics and notoriety , rankin barnes would not grant florence a divorce . allegedly he believed that it would be injurious to his church career . whatever the cause , he did eventually grant her freedom in 1941 . there are various accounts of just exactly how florence gained her freedom . barbara little , a friend and writer who was interviewed for the film , told us her version .\nso the story goes ,\nsaid little ,\nthat she road bare naked on a white horse from the street of the steps of the church up to the rostrum where he was standing . smiled , turned around , and rode the horse back out of the church . i said , ' pancho is that true ? ' she said , ' good story , isn\u2019t it ? '\nwelles as director uses some of his familiar visual strategies ; the vast interiors of henry iv ' s castles contrast with the low ceilings and cluttered rooms of bawdy houses , just as the vast space of kane ' s great hall contrasts with the low ceilings and dancing girls of the new york inquirer . royalty in\nchimes at midnight\nis framed by vast cathedral vaults , with high windows casting diagonals of light . welles uses dramatic camera angles , craning to look up at the trumpeters atop the battlements as henry iv rides off to battle .\njessica harrington during an interview with john freeman heaped praise on her former champion . she got him as a 2yo and said that he was \u201ca very straight forward horse right from the start and just got on with his business . his class was evident from the first time we worked him \u2013 a very easy mover . always 100 % sound and the most beautiful walker . magnificently conformed . wonderfully relaxed horse , even a child could ride him\u201d .\neach summer , the newmarket july festival in suffolk becomes the focus of attention for bookmakers and handicappers alike , as crowds gather for three days to see thoroughbred horse racing in the sport\u2019s birthplace and global centre . one of the highlights of day one is the group 2 cherry hinton stakes , a six - furlong sprint for two - year - old fillies worth \u00a380 , 000 .\nchimes of freedom , by private account . third top filly on the 1990 european 3yo classification . 6 wins - 4 at 2 - at 6f , 1m , \u00a3299 , 831 , royal ascot coronation s . , gr . 1 , curragh moyglare stud s . , gr . 1 , newmarket child s . , gr . 2 , cherry hinton s . , gr . 3 , 3d newmarket cheveley park s . , gr . 1 . sister to piquetnol , privately held , half - sister to denon , imperfect circle . dam of eleven named foals , ten to race , seven winners , inc : -\noffers an experience gained through over forty years of working with horses , having ridden literally thousands of them and having taught thousands of riders at all levels .\nthe ballad of narayama\nis a japanese film of great beauty and elegant artifice , telling a story of startling cruelty . what a space it opens\u2026\non friday , belmont park will card the rags to riches invitational , named to honor the 2007 belmont stakes winner who became the first filly in more than a century to win america\u2019s oldest and longest classic when she outdueled eventual two - time horse of the year curlin for the victory .\nthe american - centric , celebrity bias of the curators sometimes resembles a ghastly themed version of pop idol .\nvery much his own horse , new approach , in who sheikh mohammed bought a half share during the summer , has stepped out of the shadow of teofilo to become a genuine prospect for next season\u2019s classics and trainer jim bolger hopes to bring his champion two - year - old back to newmarket in may to contest the stan james 2000 guineas .\nthe 2005 winner maid\u2019s causeway showed the courage and tenacity of her sire , the original \u2018iron horse\u2019 giant\u2019s causeway . runner - up in the 1 , 000 guineas , she had disappointed in the irish equivalent but knuckled down bravely to defeat karens caper in a race run at york , due to the building of a new grand stand at ascot .\nproprietary to and \u00a9 2018 equibase company llc . all rights reserved . the terms of use for this web site prohibit the use of any robot , spider , scraper or any other automated means to access the contents of this site . the terms of use also expressly prohibit the republication or dissemination of the contents of this screen without the prior written consent of equibase company llc .\nflorence ' s marriage to c . rankin barnes may have ended long ago , but one symbol of their relationship endures . in 1923 , when florence ' s mother died suddenly , her grieving relatives sought to erect a memorial to her . a concept that made perfect sense , was for the family to donate a new stone tower and a set of chimes for rankin barnes ' parish , st . james episcopal church . they were unveiled with great fanfare .\nthe chimes ,\nnoted the newspaper ,\nare played electrically [ and will be played ] for fifteen minutes every sunday morning and special programs will be arranged for the holidays .\nthe cheveley park stakes is a group 1 flat horse race in great britain open to two - year - old fillies . it is run on the rowley mile at newmarket over a distance of 6 furlongs ( 1 , 207 metres ) , and it is scheduled to take place each year in late september .\nsuch scenes illuminate the life welles poured into\nchimes at midnight .\nhe came early to shakespeare ; he edited and published editions of some of the plays while still at prep school . on stage and screen , he was also othello and macbeth , his voice fell naturally into iambic rumbles , he was large enough for heroes and so small he could disappear before henry v ' s scorn . he once asked an audience , reduced by a snowstorm :\nwhy are there so many of me and so few of you ?\nthe next two gr . 1 winners have german careers \u2013 the winner of the deutsches derby next desert ( desert style ) , the most demanded stallion in the czech republic last year , and darsalam ( desert king ) , who scored his biggest success in the rheinland pokal ( gr . 1 ) but was trained in the czech republic where he became twice the horse of the year .\nother riders would be a little nervous of her at first , clark says , but she\u2019s just part of the team .\nlooking for something more ? aliexpress carries many freedom decor related products , including lotr decor , portal decor , bioshock decor , montreal decor , smiths decor , infinite decor , replicas decor , decor matter , tennessee decor . quality service and professional assistance is provided when you shop with aliexpress , so don\u2019t wait to take advantage of our prices on these and other items !\nnureyev initially retired to stud at the niarchos\u2019 haras de fresnay - le - buffard where he was an instant success . in his thoroughbred stallions book , tony morris wrote :\na horse is not supposed to get seven pattern winners among a first crop of only 23 foals . that is not just beyond the bounds of expectation ; history says it does not happen . nonetheless nureyev achieved it .\nbecause the event is limited to two - year - olds , no horse may win the cherry hinton stakes twice , but there was one year when the race had two winners . omelia and pirouette dueled to an exciting photo finish , which resulted in a dead heat in 1952 .\nat present the race takes place on the friday of royal ascot and has been won by some of the sport\u2019s great fillies .\nhis second dam aviance is also a gr . one winner and dam of four time gr . one winner denon as well as the dam of spinning world , sire of heavenly glow , winner of the group one stc arrowfield stud stakes at rosehill on saturday .\nchaired the usdf council of instructors and trainers for seven years and was largely responsible for pushing to fruition the usdf\u2019s program for instructor certification and the beginning of the usdf\u2019s program of annual national symposiums .\nthe sprinter goodricke ( bahamian bounty ) , based at h\u0159eb\u010d\u00edn k\u0159enek and the winner of the sprint cup is the last gr . 1 winner at stud in the czech republic . k\u0159enek is already the fourth stud for this brother of pastoral pursuit . previously he was stabled in overbury stud , england , allevamento fattoria renaccino , italy , and gest\u00fct ohlerweiherhof , germany . he has failed to produce a black - type horse so far .\nthe crucial point about\nchimes at midnight\nis that although it was rejected by audiences and many critics on its release , although some of the dialogue is out of sync and needs to be adjusted , although many of the actors become doubles whenever they turn their backs , although he dubbed many of the voices himself , although the film was assembled painstakingly from scenes shot when he found the cash - - although all of these things are true , it is a finished film , it realizes his vision , it is the falstaff he was born to direct and play , and it is a masterpiece . now to restore it and give it back to the world .\necosse ( peintre celebre ) , out of the winner of the prix corrida ( gr . 3 ) elacata ( acatenango ) , seems an interesting proposition too . being a below - average horse on the racetrack , his first polish crop , amounting to just three runners , produced the first two in the polish derby . two years later his son prince of ecosse became the champion of two - year - olds in poland and the same feat was repeated a year later by pillar who then went on to place third in the polish derby , won by another ecosse\u2019s son patronus .\nagni ajax anti - racism architecture bikes broadband equeality finance freedom fsf future general globalization gnu google haiku health hindu deity hinduism humanity humour hymns india j2me linux love maharashtra management marathi mass communication media orkut programming pune python religious controversies sanskrit security shivaji sip status technology twitter ubuntu uncategorized usa web 2 . 0 wifi world peace yahoo ! zen hindu brahminism \u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940\nthe falling star effect is a chime that is played in various songs like endless quest , rivers of beliefs etc . the effect of this falling star is tremendous and adds to the depth of the song .\neach of the runners carries eight stone twelve pounds over the straight turf of the famed july course . this race is typically a \u201ccoming out\u201d group event for many of the entrants , and a penalty of three pounds is applied to any previous group 1 or group 2 winners .\nthe ballydoyle team of trainer aidan o\u2019brien and owners sue & john magnier , michael tabor and derrick smith had another tremendous year of success .\nvodafone derby winner authorized did his connections proud this year and the colt is named the carter three - year - old colt of 2007 ahead of cockney rebel , excellent art , literato and soldier of fortune .\n\u201chaving her and having my saddle have given me everything back , \u201d she says , using a rag to clean dealer\u2019s leg . \u201cher show name is \u2018my freedom\u2019 because she gave it all back to me . i never thought i\u2019d be able to do what i could before . but with her i can . she\u2019s starting to give me myself back . \u201d\nher father , rick , and her husband of nine years , dan brodie , hover at the edge of the arena , ready for anything .\n\u201ci don\u2019t think any of us breathed that first ride , \u201d says her riding coach , clark , of the northside training centre in caledon .\nthe invited audience of nearly 300 at the cartier racing awards consisted of leading owners , trainers , jockeys , breeders , media and racing personalities .\nthis opener seems to follow a similar pattern of relating a space fact to the \u201cnumber\u201d of the album ( as seen in the theme of almost full moon ) \u2013here , elisabeth houghton recites facts about mars , the fourth planet from the sun , and this is the fourth album of enigma .\nthis track begins with the jazz percussion , along with haunting ambient themes and an odd sound effect that can only be described as sounding like the whinny of a horse . drippy , aquatic sounds enter , along with a piano that plays a repeated melody , a bassline , and some ethnic drums . the main beat kicks in along with some very jazzy - sounding trumpets , and then sandra speaks about the \u201cprinciples of lust . \u201d she describes how to best experience lust firsthand .\nas with principles of lust , this song is in three parts . it also uses the same beat from sadeness in two of the three parts .\n) , lizzie l\u2019amour is the fourth foal of her unraced dam sabia , who has a 3 - year - old filly named fun seeker ( nz ) ( darci brahma { nz } ) , but she missed to ocean park ( nz ) in 2014 and slipped to poet\u2019s voice ( gb ) and shamexpress ( nz ) in 2015 and 2016 , respectively . sabia is a full - sister to italian highweight and group 1 winner saddex ( gb ) ( sadler\u2019s wells ) , who also won a group 1 in germany and was runner up in the g1 prix ganay , was bred to makfi ( gb ) this past fall . lizzie l\u2019amour\u2019s third dam is the top producer and g1 phoenix s . heroine aviance ( ire ) ( northfields ) , responsible for european highweight chimes of freedom ( private account ) , mgisw denon ( pleasant colony ) , and sw & g1sp imperfect circle ( riverman ) , herself the dam of european highweight and gi breeders\u2019 cup mile hero spinning world ( nureyev ) .\nnevertheless , the village became his natural home , a place of kindred musical , political and social spirits where he could drop by the white horse tavern to hear dylan thomas read his poems , spend afternoons at the five spot listening to thelonious monk rehearsing with john coltrane , or make friends with surviving exponents of early jazz , whose wisdom he absorbed as he began playing with dixieland bands in and around new york . in between times there were spells as a merchant seaman and road trips across america .\ncauthen was british champion jockey three times , and won english classic races ten times , including the 2 , 000 guineas , the derby twice , and the st leger three times . in 1985 he won three classics riding oh so sharp . in 1989 he rode european horse of the year old vic to victory in the french derby and the irish derby . in 1991 he won the italian derby on hailsham . [ 4 ]\nunbeaten in five starts , including twice in group one company , new approach , a 430 euros yearling out of campion park express , follows in the footsteps of stablemate teofilo in becoming cartier two - year - old colt of 2007 .\nat mistress quickly ' s , on the other hand , falstaff and his roisterers have great freedom of movement involving doorways and posts , barrels and vertiginous staircases , barking dogs and laughing wenches . he and other actors circle verticals and one another as they speak , just as welles and joseph cotten circled in\ncitizen kane\nand\nthe third man .\nand watch the use of deep focus when he begins a shot with hal seated in the background and , as news of his father ' s death is conveyed , hal stands and moves forward , finally looming over the camera in foreground . all one shot .\nwe believe in helping you find the product that is right for you . aliexpress carries wide variety of products , so you can find just what you\u2019re looking for \u2013 and maybe something you never even imagined along the way . if you are interested in freedom decor , aliexpress has found 605 related results , so you can compare and shop ! try finding the one that is right for you by choosing the price range , brand , or specifications that meet your needs .\nthe coens ' focus is sharp . the time is early 1961 and the streets of the village are covered with snow . folk singers who can ' t afford winter coats perform in starkly furnished coffee houses to audiences of college students swiftly discovering alternatives to conventional eisenhower - era ideas of progress towards adulthood . this is a world in which idealism battles against careerism , and , in the case of llewyn davis , a veneer of one barely conceals a core of the other .\nand raced in the colors of stavros niarchos . she was trained by henry cecil\nhi all ! here you can buy cheap and download all of enigma albums .\nurltoken \u2013 international federation of horseracing authorities \u2013 cheveley park stakes ( 2016 ) .\nthe moyglare stud stakes became part of the breeders\u2019 cup challenge series in 2009 .\ndam of multiple group i winner saddex ( by sadler ' s wells ) .\nremote romance . 2 wins at 1400m , 1600m in france . dam of -\n, winner of the 1990 golden slipper and maternal grandsire of redoute ' s choice . hore - lacy had trained canny lad at the old epsom training complex at mentone , but by the time of redoute ' s choice ' s arrival he had been forced to relocate to caulfield because of epsom ' s closure in 1996 .\nnew approach made his racecourse debut in a seven - furlong maiden stakes at the curragh in the middle of july , a race which teofilo had won 12 months earlier . always towards the front of affairs , the son of galileo readily disposed of his 11 rivals , beating the aidan o\u2019brien - trained lucifer sam by two lengths .\nalec taylor , jr . \u2013 maid of the mist ( 1908 ) , maid of corinth ( 1909 ) , bayuda ( 1918 ) , miss gadabout ( 1924 )\nhis other group one winners include melyno ( 1982 french 2 , 000 guineas ) , l\u2019emigrant ( 1983 french 2 , 000 guineas , prix lupin ) . persepolis ( 1982 prix lupin ) , seattle song ( 1983 prix de la salamandre ) , northern trick ( 1984 french oaks , 1984 prix vermeille ) , mendez ( 1984 prix du moulin ) , magic of life ( 1988 coronation stakes ) , bassenthwaite ( 1984 middle park stakes ) , baillamont ( 1985 prix jean prat , 1986 prix ganay , 1986 prix d\u2019ipsahan ) , common grounds ( 1987 prix de la salamandre ) , procida ( 1984 prix de la foret ) , chimes of freedom ( 1989 moyglare stud stakes , 1990 coronation stakes ) , east of the moon ( 1994 french 1 , 000 guineas and french oaks ) , johann quatz ( 1992 prix lupin ) , shanghai ( 1992 french 2 , 000 guineas ) , exit to nowhere ( 1992 prix jacques le marois ) , coup de genie ( 1993 prix morny and prix de la salamandre ) , dolphin street ( 1993 prix de la foret ) .\n\u201cshe is the only one we know of who does it , \u201d dan adds .\nthank you for such elaborate , beautiful description of enigma\u2019s songs . i\u2019m a big fan of enigma too . personally , i liked push the limits and the piano best .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nsea of laughter . winner at 2 in u . s . a . producer .\nrags to riches , winner of the 2007 belmont stakes , returned to kentucky recently .\nhopes were high for rags to riches , a daughter of a . p . indy , as a broodmare because of her outstanding female lineage . she is out of broodmare of the year better than honour , who also produced belmont stakes winner jazil , breeders\u2019 cup marathon winner man of iron , grade 2 winner casino drive , and grade 1 producer teeming . out of kentucky oaks winner blush with pride , better than honour is a half - sister to group 1 - placed maryinsky , the dam of champion peeping farn , group 1 winner thewayyouare , and group stakes winners smolensk and turnberry isle .\nthe coronation stakes regularly features the cr\u00e8me de la cr\u00e8me of three year old fillies and has been won by many of the great female milers in history ; with plenty going on to play an equally important role in the creation of future champions in the paddocks .\nrhona beck of highlands stud farm and partners are proud to announce the purchase of undefeated irish champion two - year - old pathfork for stud duties in south africa . pathfork will stand at highlands on behalf of a syndicate and will be managed by john freeman .\nvan ronk told the story in his autobiography , the mayor of macdougal street . published in 2005 , three years after his death at the age of 65 , it describes the glory days of the village , and is full of amusing character studies and pungent opinions . it also forms the platform on which the film directors joel and ethan coen constructed their latest film , inside llewyn davis , a portrait of a new york singer during the period in which folk was taking over from jazz as the music of the hip intelligentsia .\nthis song is about michael cretu\u2019s position on the \u201cmurderous insanity of the colonists as they settled in america , \u201d and how they mercilessly killed off many of the native americans .\nby continuing to use aliexpress you accept our use of cookies ( view more on our privacy policy ) . you can adjust your cookie preferences at the bottom of this page .\nmuch like the colt\u2019s equivalent race attracts horses of guineas - winning standard , the coronation stakes annually assembles the finest collection of proven classic fillies from england , france and ireland .\nalso sire of 2 stakes - winners in usa & south africa in 2015 , including cornerstone stud born 3yo filly sensible lover , winner of a group three in south africa .\namong the many outstanding winners have been : habibti ( 1982 ) who went to become the champion sprinter in 1983 ; park appeal ( 1984 ) the dam of cape cross ; chimes of freedom ( 1989 ) who won the following year\u2019s coronation stakes and child stakes ; caricciosa ( 1990 ) who added the group 1 cheveley park stakes at newmarket later that autumn ; sayyedati ( 1992 ) who won the cheveley park stakes , english 1 , 000 guineas , prix jacques le marois and sussex stakes ; tarascon ( 1997 ) who won the irish 1 , 000 guineas ; rumplestiltskin ( 2005 ) who won the prix marcel boussac later that year and was the dam of tapestry ; again ( 2008 ) who won the irish 1 , 000 guineas ; misty for me ( 2010 ) who won the prix marcel boussac , irish 1 , 000 guineas and pretty polly stakes and was the dam of roly poly ; sky lantern ( 2012 ) who won the english 1 , 000 guineas and sun chariot stakes ; rizeena ( 2013 ) who won the coronation stakes ; and minding ( 2015 ) who went on to win the fillies\u2019 mile at two , the english 1 , 000 guineas and oaks , the pretty polly stakes , nassau stakes and qeii stakes .\ni always considered myself to be a great enigma fan . however , there was always a sense of obscurity in determining the rationale in some of cretu\u2019s songs . however , most uncertainties lying within the songs are clearly identified and answered with a high degree of accuracy on this website . it also shows cretu as not only being a musical genius but a literary one as well . every element , layer of sound , word can be seen as a part of cretu\u2019s interpretation of the journey of life , from enigma 1 to enigma 6 , a posteriori . these albums can make a great study in literature . enigma harks to an upcoming rennaissance of thought which will be eventually translated to a new humanity . i can put him in the ranks of the great philosophers of all time , however , this greatness will bnot be acnologed by all though\u2026 . at least not for a next hundred years\u2026 . .\nhow can it be that there is an orson welles masterpiece that remains all but unseen ? i refer not to incomplete or abandoned projects that have gathered legends , but to\nchimes at midnight\n( 1965 ) , his film about falstaff , which has survived in acceptable prints and is ripe for restoration . i saw the film in early 1968 , put it on my list of that year ' s best films , saw it again on 16mm in a welles class i taught , and then could not see it for 35 years .\n) , is the dam of multiple grade i winner yagli ( by jade hunter ) .\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nan interview with terry gilliam , director of\nthe man who killed don quixote .\nthere are plenty of races at the royal meeting which leave connoisseurs waxing lyrical over the quality of competition . certainly down the years the coronation stakes has fallen nicely into that category .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\nremote romance . 2 wins at 1300m , 1450m in france . dam of 3 winners -\ncopyright owned or licensed by toronto star newspapers limited . all rights reserved . republication or distribution of this content is expressly prohibited without the prior written consent of toronto star newspapers limited and / or its licensors . to order copies of toronto star articles , please go to : urltoken\ntwo - twenty - two ( fairy king ) , the winner of the gladness stakes ( gr . 3 ) , and royal court ( sadler\u2019s wells ) , out of the excellent dam rose of jericho , performed good on the track and they are successful at stud too .\nfalstaff ,\nthis huge hill of flesh ,\nis one of shakespeare ' s greatest characters - - the equal , argues harold bloom , of hamlet . he so dominates the henry iv plays that although shakespeare promised he would return in henry v , he reconsidered ; the fat knight would have sounded the wrong note in that heroic tale , and so we learn from mistress quickly of his death , as he\nbabbl ' d of green fields .\njens gad\u2019s guitar comes in . it\u2019s played in a nouveau - flamenco style at first , very soft and mellow . it works up to a nice electric guitar solo that fortunately does not shatter the tranquil mood of the song . sandra whispers a few lines from mea culpa , and then the flute comes back . towards the end , many elements are playing at once , including some old samples like the horse - whinny from find love and the reverse - mode gregorian chants from sadeness ( reprise ) , and also some new samples , one of which sounds like a high - pitched female whimper .\nthe ascot listed winner wallace ( royal academy ) has a very interesting pedigree but unfortunately has been little demanded by czech breeders . he is the son of the excellent broodmare maskana , the dam of the last breeders\u2019 cup filly & mare turf dank ( dansili ) or the winner of the hong kong cup ( gr . 1 ) eagle mountain ( rock of gibraltar ) .\nrags to riches delivered a filly from the first crop of regally bred australia \u2013 by galileo and out of champion ouija board \u2013 in march , prior to her booking to american pharoah .\nthis closing piece is the intro played backwards with an added voice sample of louisa stanley speaking .\nendless quest may be a continuation of the struggle to find individuality as explored in modern crusaders .\nnureyev - who died in october , 2001 - subsequently moved to walmac international in kentucky and became one of the greatest stallions of his era , siring the likes of theatrical , sonic lady , zilzal , soviet star , polar falcon , peintre celebre , fasliyev , stravinsky , reams of verse and a pair that carried the niarchos silks at the highest level , miesque and spinning world .\nhalf brother to champion\nsilent witness\nby leading sire of sires redoute ' s choice .\nvery impressing and in - depth descriptions , though you\u2019re obviously lacking \u2018voyageur\u2019 and latest effort \u2018a posteriori\u2019 . i\u2019d like to read your interpetations of those . if i were to nithpick i\u2019d ask to the whereabouts of single - only tracks such as the ( arguably superior ) midnight man remix of \u2018t . n . t for the brain\u2019 , the fab long and alive version of \u2018return to innocence\u2019 the various versions of \u2018carly\u2019s song\u2019 and most notably the hidden single exclusive ( and only b - side track ) \u2018light of your smile\u2019 . indeed , the remix realm of enigma is perhaps an all - together seperate affair . maybe next time ? . cheers and keep analyzing / / falke\nthe music in this song revolves around opposites . the song\u2019s title\u2013well , the \u201clight vs . weight\u201d portion\u2013is one of them , and it is reflected in the music by the use of fire and water . the sound of a match being struck , followed by the sound of a water droplet hitting a pool , plays throughout the song . the song is very ambient and \u201chazy\u201d - sounding .\nearlier on the march evening , santanna opens the stable door and calls in the horses and ponies from the paddock , muddy from the wet snow . they trail in one at a time : dealer , eddie , dan\u2019s horse kylo , who is prone to neighing loudly when he feels neglected , and her mother\u2019s mischievous pony colby , who once chased off a pack of wolves . the three miniature ponies \u2014 timbit , jenga and momma \u2014 follow . santanna says she\u2019s going to train them to pull her around the town in a cart .\nthe symbolism of this song is simple . the moon , in its third phase ( this is the third album of enigma ) is a gibbous moon , which is an almost - full moon .\nthe group one darley yorkshire oaks at york on august 22 was to be peeping fawn\u2019s final start of the season and she duly recorded her biggest margin of victory , beating allegretto by four lengths .\nbalance of nature . placed at 2 , 2d deauville prix de caen , chantilly prix de saint - firmin , 3d longchamp prix de bois preau , chantilly prix de la canardiere . dam of -\nbinary file ( 98c , rainbow quest , nijinsky ) . champion miler in scandinavia 2005 . champion grass horse & older horse in scandinavia in 2006 . 7 wins from 1400m to 1800m , ovrevoll marit sveaas minnelop , gr . 3 , jagersro pramms memorial , l , klampenborg pokallob , l , taby swedish open mile , l , york strensall s . , l , ascot alfred franks & bartlett sunglasses s . , 2d longchamp prix dollar , gr . 2 , taby stockholm cup international , gr . 3 , danish jockey club cup , l - twice , taby stockholms stora pris , l , 3d ovrevoll marit sveaas minnelop , gr . 3 , klampenborg pokallob , l , taby stockholms stora pris , l , 4th hamburg hamburger meile , gr . 3 , klampenborg pokallob , l , golden mile , l , newbury dubai duty free cup , l , steventon s . , l .\nnot as negative as it sounds , this song revolves around a theme of jealousy . a driving beat , tabla drums , and sandra\u2019s breathy vocals all add to the intensity of the song , and a racing guitar solo in the middle of the song heightens the musical experience . cretu used a led zeppelin vocal sample in one version of the song , and then the later pressings of the disc ( in europe , at least ) has cretu himself singing something that sounds like \u201cyou\u2019ll be fine . \u201d\n( later sir henry cecil ) . she produced all her foals under the name of flaxman holdings .\nthe scenes of davis performing \u2013 and a fleeting glimpse of a younger rival \u2013 are a reminder of how that sophistication , or whatever it was , enabled dylan to rise above and so swiftly distance himself from a parochial scene , his youthful intensity transforming traditional material in a way that van ronk \u2013 however impeccable his intentions and the quality of his performance \u2013 could never begin to match . inside llewyn davis is not one man ' s story , but it proceeds from the pain of that historic disappointment .\nyour tax - deductible donation can help make\nthe legend of pancho barnes !\na reality .\nhe broke his maiden in july by 4 lengths easing up over 7f . his 2 nd start in august took him to the gr2 galileo futurity stakes which he won by 1\u00bd lengths ( also over 1400m ) . he went back to the curragh a month later with yet another step up in class to win the gr1 vincent o\u2019brien stakes \u2013 \u2018the national stakes\u2019 \u201cin the style of a horse who has plenty of improvement still in him , leading on the bridle over a furlong out and in no danger after wards to win comfortably by a length and a half from glor na mara \u201d . here he again took on an illustrious field which included zoffany and casamento .\na musical genius and truly a stuff of legend . michael cretu should be declared man of the century . and sandra has truly an enigmatic voice . in this day of stupid heavy / thrash metal boring us with ever too similar riffs n beats , enigma is a revolution . it will live on forever .\nhe drifted right and appeared to briefly inconvenience stable companion soldier of fortune and the pascal bary - trained zambezi sun . having beaten youmzain by a head , connections were forced to wait half an hour for the result of a stewards\u2019 enquiry , before finally being declared the winner of europe\u2019s premier middle distance race .\na full sister to stakes - placed reckless driver , dam of multiple stakes winner greenbriar ( by nashua ) and third dam of multiple australian group iii winner tolanda and grade iii winner clamorosa . best in show\nimperfect circle ( riverman ) . 2 wins - 1 at 2 - at 6f , ayr firth of clyde s . , l , 2d newmarket cheveley park s . , gr . 1 . dam of -\nvan ronk had actually lived the sort of life dylan made up . born in brooklyn to parents of swedish origin who separated soon after his birth , he never knew his father and\nnever felt a twitch of curiosity about him\n. his mother , a stenographer , shared the job of bringing him up with a succession of aunts , one of whom had been a rum - runner for the gangster legs diamond and managed a speakeasy during prohibition .\nshe loved jazz ,\nvan ronk writes ,\nand in that house the radio was always playing : duke ellington , louis armstrong , benny goodman , count basie \u2026\nby irish river ) , dam of multiple group i winner saddex ( by sadler ' s wells ) .\n, a collection of van ronk ' s recordings from 1958 to 2001 is on the smithsonian folkways label ."]}
{"id": 1991, "summary": [{"text": "ocypode convexa , commonly known as the golden ghost crab , or alternatively the western ghost crab or yellow ghost crab , is a species of ghost crabs endemic to the coast of western australia , from broome to perth .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "they are relatively large ghost crabs , with a carapace growing up to 45 mm ( 1.8 in ) long and 52 mm ( 2.0 in ) wide .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they are easily recognisable by their golden yellow colouration .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "like other ghost crabs they have box-like bodies with unequally sized claws .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "they also have large eyestalks with the cornea occupying most of the bottom part .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "golden ghost crabs are common inhabitants of open sandy beaches , living in burrows in the intertidal and supratidal zones .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "they are predominantly nocturnal and semi-terrestrial .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "they are a generalist species , feeding on carrion and debris , as well as preying on small animals .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "along with the red fox ( vulpes vulpes ) , they are significant as one of the main predators of eggs and hatchlings of western australian sea turtles , particularly the endangered loggerhead sea turtle ( caretta caretta ) which has one of the largest rookeries in the region . ", "topic": 21}], "title": "golden ghost crab", "paragraphs": ["crab ocypodidae ghost crab st . croix fauna usvi beach sand nature caribbean animals my photography\nthese things are cool ! is it possible to spot a ghost crab in maine ? i\u2019ve never heard of these types of crabs . would a ghost crab pinch like an ordinary crab ? thanks .\nturra a , goncalves mao , denadai mr . spatial distribution of the ghost crab\nchan bkk , chan kky , leung pcm . burrow architecture of the ghost crab\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - silver gull stealing food from golden ghost crab\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - silver gull stealing food from golden ghost crab\ntitle =\narkive video - silver gull stealing food from golden ghost crab\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nghost crab burrows can be found from the high tide line to 400 m shoreward .\nhorn - eyed ghost crab ocypode ceratophthalma\n. wild singapore . may 2009 .\nwant to know how these crabs look like ? here are some useful ghost crab pics . check out these ghost crab photos to get an idea about the appearance of these creatures .\ncycling in the ghost crab , ocypode quadrata ( fabr . ) ( brachyura , ocypodidae )\nghost crabs are so named for their generally pale colours and nocturnal habits as well as their eerie ability to suddenly appear from seemingly nowhere and disappear back into the sand as they dart to and from burrows . there are six species of ghost crab in australia , four of which can be found on mainland western australia . probably the two most notable species are the horn - eyed ghost crab , ocypode ceratophthalma ( pallas , 1772 ) and the golden ghost crab , ocypode convexa ( quoy & gaimard , 1824 ) . the horn - eyed ghost crab is widely distributed in the indian and pacific oceans , and is most easily recognised by the long stylets on top of the eyes . these stylets are longer in mature males and are probably used as part of mating rituals and displays for warding off rival males . the golden ghost crab is endemic to western australia and recognisable by its golden yellow colour . ghost crabs are typically tropical , but the golden ghost crab can be found as far south as bunbury .\nalso known as the western ghost crab or yellow ghost crab , the golden ghost crab is a species of ghost crab ( ocypode spp . ) which is endemic to the coast of western australia , ranging from broome to perth . golden ghost crabs are common inhabitants of open sandy beaches , living in burrows in the intertidal and supratidal zones . they are predominately nocturnal and semi - terrestrial , emerging are night to feed on carrion , debris , and occasionally small invertebrates . they are also known to feed on sea turtle hatchlings and are one of the main predators of loggerhead sea turtle eggs and hatchlings .\nindustry standard king crab packs contain 1 . 5 pounds of\nbroken\ncrab per 20lb . box\ngtcp researchers 2010 / 11 noticed a quite unusual specimen of golden ghost crab ( ocypode convexa ) in the monitored gnaraloo rookery at the end of november 2010 . golden ghost crabs ( ocypode convexa ) are found frequently along gnaraloo beaches and have a very distinct yellow colour . however , the individual spotted had an unusual pattern of red colouration .\nthis animal is also known as \u201csand crab\u201d or \u201cwhite crab\u201d . these are also known as \u201cmole crabs\u201d .\nstudies have shown the density of ghost crab harvesting to be around 3000 - 5000 every km every year .\nstudies on the ecology and behaviour of the ghost crab , ocypode cursor ( l . ) in northen cyprus\nin russia , king crab have been historically overfished and area closures have not been effective in the face of continued illegal , unreported and unregulated fishing . seafood watch warned that russia\u2019s commercially important crab stocks , which include golden king crab , have the potential to collapse .\nolden king crab is the smallest of the alaskan king crab species and is found mostly in the aleutian islands .\nbuyer beware : russian king crab is sometimes mislabeled as \u201calaska king crab\u201d and sold in the u . s .\n\u2014model 4a ) . a gaussian model best described the relationship between ghost crab density and beach width ( f = 4 . 65 , p = 0 . 030 ) , with ghost crab density peaking at beaches of intermediate width (\n] and may underlie an increased contribution of alternate or supplemental prey ( i . e . amphipods ) to the ghost crab diet .\n\u2014model 5 ) . significant relationships were found when examining ghost crab tp and the proportion of each principal prey . highest ghost crab tp was generally associated with higher use of mole crabs ( hyperbola model , f = 7 . 75 , p = 0 . 015 ) (\nstrachan ph , smith rc , hamilton dab , talylor ac , atkinson rja . studies on the ecology and behaviour of the ghost crab ,\n) . ghost crabs are highly mobile so prey accessibility is not considered to be a major factor in our working model . assuming constant mortality of ghost crabs over the gradient of resource availability we further anticipate that ghost crab population abundance will be elevated at intermediate beach width sites (\nknott , d . 2010 .\natlantic ghost crab : ocypode quadrata\n( on - line ) . accessed june 06 , 2011 at urltoken .\nthe recreational fishery for all rock crab species , including rock crab ( cancer antennarius ) , yellow crab ( cancer anthonyi ) and red crab ( cancer productus ) is open statewide , year - round . the daily bag limit is 35 crab , and the minimum size limit is 4 inches . review crabbing regulations that went into effect on august 1 , 2016 , crab measurement methods ( pdf ) , and other crabbing regulations in the current saltwater sport fishing regulations booklet .\nhaley sr . cycling in the ghost crab , ocypode quadrata ( fabr . ) ( brachyura , ocypodidae ) . crustaceana . 1972 ; 23 : 1\u201311 .\nsmall beach crab , about 2 inches across , yellow coloration . very shy !\npetrochirus diogenes ( caribbean hermit crab ) for the cynic philosopher diogenes of sinope .\nmost king crab is delivered live to shore - based processors and cooked while live and then brine frozen ; some king crab is processed on board catcher processors .\nmorrow k , bell ss , tewfik a . variation in ghost crab trophic links on sandy beaches . mar ecol prog ser . 2014 ; 502 : 197\u2013206 .\nglaze for king crab should be 3 - 5 % so it\u2019s recommended that periodic glaze tests be done on crab legs to make sure you\u2019re not paying for water .\nsteiner aj , leatherman sp . recreational impacts on the distribution of ghost crabs (\nrecreational impacts on the distribution of ghost crabs ( ocypode quadrata , fab . )\nj . w . pepper says it a number of times in\nthe man with the golden gun\nwhile speaking to some asians in bangkok .\nmitchell , p . 2007 .\nghost crab : hungry nocturnal ghosties\n( on - line ) . mitchells publications . accessed june 06 , 2011 at urltoken .\ni am a park ranger in florida . i will be doing a ranger program on ghost crabs soon . a couple of pics of the ghost crab fossils would be great to add to the program ! thank you ! hope you see this comment .\nking crabs are found in the north pacific ocean and primarily fished in alaska and russia . they are relatively slow to mature , making them vulnerable to fishing pressure . a 2015 assessment of aleutian islands golden king crab indicated that the stock is healthy and the crab are being fished at a sustainable level , according to seafood watch .\nthe eyes of ghost crabs allow 360\u02da vision because they are positioned on mobile stalks .\nuse clams and oysters or even old vegetables and fish to your crab . repetition in diet can tire your crabs and make their survival difficult . try to find out which foods your crab like . feed that often to your crab and also balance it with other foods .\nshields , j . 1998 .\nthe ghost crab , ocypode quadrata\n( on - line ) . virginia institute of marine science . accessed june 06 , 2011 at urltoken .\nanother arthropod method of achieving all - round vision is to have eyes on mobile stalks , like the ghost crab .\n( foy and oxford scientific films 1982 : 124 )\njonathan p . green ( 1964 ) .\nmorphological color change in the hawaiian ghost crab ocypode ceratophthalma ( pallas )\n. the biological bulletin 126 ( 3 ) : 407\u2013413 .\namong all metrics of beach physical setting , only beach width was found to have a significant relationship with contribution of prey types to ghost crab diets . mean proportion of each of the three principal prey of ghost crabs , determined using stable isotopes and the siar mixing model (\n) . however a significant negative relationship between ghost crab tp and the proportion of coquina clams in their diets was recorded ( f = 6 . 43 , p = 0 . 024 ) (\nhobbs ch , landry cb , perry je . assessing anthropogenic and natural impacts on ghost crabs (\n) , displayed significant relationships with beach width using a stepwise regression analysis . however , the nature of the relationship displayed between beach width and proportion of each principal prey in ghost crab diets differed (\n) that predicted the availability of prey resources and ghost crab dietary composition along a gradient of beach width and associated micro - habitats important to prey . over the 16 beaches examined , we found evidence to support the predicted relationships from the working model across the range of beach morphology . although most beaches contained populations of all three principal ghost crab prey , the variation in habitat conditions displayed with increasing beach width were accompanied by quantifiable shifts in ghost crab diet and trophic position . furthermore , the observed patterns of trophic position of ghost crabs suggest that these predators may augment diets of principal prey in fundamentally different ways along the continuum of beach sizes . below we discuss these findings in more detail .\nking crab is sold as sections , claws , legs , and split legs bandsawed down the middle .\nprey component coding as follows : coquina clam ( donax variablis ) white ; , amphipod ( talorchestia spp . ) grey ; , mole crab ( emerita talpoida ) black . ghost crab isotopic signatures were assessed from muscle tissue collections ( n = 3\u20137 crabs / site ) between may 2010 and july 2012 .\n) . specifically , the proportion of mole crabs in ghost crab diets exhibited a significant ( f = 6 . 97 , p = 0 . 019 ) but negative linear trend with increasing beach width (\n] and may help explain the strong patterns of highest ghost crab density being recorded on beaches of intermediate width reported here . however , despite these limitations , our study provides new details on diets and trophic position given our use of longer - term , integrated measures of ghost crab diets ( stable isotopes ) and a dynamic food web approach . this may better allow the relative \u201csampling efforts\u201d of the ghost crabs themselves to reveal the most regular pattern of feeding across the diversity of habitat morphologies where they live [\nbecause of their dark skin , which can blend into the night , making them ghost - like .\n) in relation to beach width . the relationships between amphipods as a dietary component and ghost crab density with beach width were modeled using a gaussian distribution , y = [ - 0 . 5 ( ( x\u2014x\ngolden king crab in the u . s . are managed by the national marine fisheries service and the north pacific fishery management council . in 2009 , alaska\u2019s king crab derby fishery was replaced by a catch share system that incentivizes fishermen to fish more efficiently . management measures include stock assessments , harvest limits , gear restrictions , and observer coverage . management strategy implementation varies , though , so some stock data is limited . seafood watch called king crab management in alaska moderate to highly effective . in russia , illegal , unreported and unregulated fishing of crab is nearly twice the total allowable catch . citing 2014 research from the world wildlife fund , seafood watch noted poor enforcement , tracking , and recordkeeping in russia . while bilateral agreements between russia and major crab importers have reduced iuu fishing , it still remains so high for crab that the stocks are at risk of collapsing and seafood watch gave the russian far east commercially important crab fisheries a critical rating .\nhaley , s . r . 1969 . relative growth and sexual maturity of the texas ghost crab , ocypode quadrata ( fabricius ) ( brachyura , ocypodidae ) . crustaceana 17 : 285 - 297 . [ links ]\nin malaysian myths , cancer was the \u201cfirst and only crab\u201d which existed long ago , the primal or mother crab from which all crabs came . it was a huge crustacean who lived in a deep hole in the sea . this hole was so large that the crab\u2019s coming and goings from it would cause the ocean tides .\nin alaska , pots targeting golden king crab can incidentally catch a range of fish and invertebrates including octopus , pacific cod , sponges , sea stars , and coral . however , overall bycatch is very low and the species caught are not of conservation concern , seafood watch reported in 2015 . management measures for u . s . king crab include restrictions on gear and fishing areas that reduce bycatch . pots are required to have minimum mesh size limits as well as degradable escape or timed release mechanisms to prevent ghost fishing .\ngreek & roman mythology cancer the crab was known by several names . in latin , the name cancer means crab . manilus and ovid both referred to this constellation as litoreus or \u201cshore - inhabiting . \u201d in greece , it was karkinos , meaning crab . in the alfonsine tables , it was called carcinus , a latinized form of the greek word . aside from being known as a crab , it was also called asses and crib .\nred king crab is the largest and most common species of the alaskan king crab species and accounts for 75 % of the alaska catch , with more than 90 % of that caught in bristol bay . alternatively , g\ni\u2019m originally from rhode island but currently living in central florida . i was sitting on the beach in cocoa and all of sudden i felt a tickle on my toe . i sit up to find a white and yellow crab at my feet . i was so shocked to see this crab so close to me and not to mention how this crab touched my toe . very interesting and beautiful crab . came on here to find more info .\n) . based on our model , the trophic position of ghost crabs is predicted to be similar across the range of beach widths . the main sources of the ghost crab diet are all primary consumers which often use macrophyte materials , particulate in the swash zone or as detritus in the wrackline , as their main source of nitrogen [\n\u2026a species of ghost crab ( ocypodinae ) that is widely distributed across the eastern coasts of the americas , ranging from rhode island to southern brazil . like other ghost crabs o . quadrata typically inhabits sandy beaches where lives in burrows under the sand . atlantic ghost crabs are fairly opportunistic omnivores with their diet including items like bivalves , insects , plant material , detritus and sometimes other crustaceans . like the closely related fiddler crabs atlantic ghost crabs have two different sized claws , however this difference is not as pronounced as seen in fiddler crabs as ghost crabs uses noise ( either produced by \u201cbubbling\u201d , stridulation , or hitting their claw on the ground ) to attract potential mates .\nhere we explored whether diet and trophic position of a principal predator of sandy beaches\u2014the atlantic ghost crab\u2014living in an aquatic - terrestrial coupled system display a strong relationship to changes in habitat morphology created by a combination of physical parameters driven principally by beach width ( fig 1 ) . we a priori established a working model ( fig 2 ) that predicted the availability of prey resources and ghost crab dietary composition along a gradient of beach width and associated micro - habitats important to prey . over the 16 beaches examined , we found evidence to support the predicted relationships from the working model across the range of beach morphology . although most beaches contained populations of all three principal ghost crab prey , the variation in habitat conditions displayed with increasing beach width were accompanied by quantifiable shifts in ghost crab diet and trophic position . furthermore , the observed patterns of trophic position of ghost crabs suggest that these predators may augment diets of principal prey in fundamentally different ways along the continuum of beach sizes . below we discuss these findings in more detail .\nthe crab can move on the sand at about 10 miles per hour and is able to change is direction suddenly .\n) , examples of dietary shifts were observed for atlantic ghost crabs as physical features of habitats varied along a gradient of increasing beach width . for most beaches , macroinfauna from swash zones composed a large proportion of ghost crab diets . as beach width increased , macrofaunal resource availability in the swash shifted from mole crabs to coquina clams . we observed the highest occurrence of mole crabs in ghost crab diets at narrow ( < 30 m ) beach sites best represented by fpic and pen . these narrow sites also have relatively steep swash zones and coarse sediments which are preferred by mole crabs [\n] . ghost crabs from some narrow sites which supported high mole crab densities ( cc , ind ) did not display a high proportion of mole crabs in their diets perhaps indicative of reduced resource accessibility . specifically , ghost crabs are poor swimmers and may avoid some feeding areas if strong wave action is present . in contrast , the highest occurrence of coquina clam resources in ghost crab diets was recorded at wide ( > 50 m ) beach sites best represented by fper , org and aug , which hosted moderately - sized sediments and shallow slopes known to be preferred by coquina clams [\n] . better documentation of ghost crab behavior and accessibility to resources , including the consumer\u2019s ability to forage in strong wave surge , fine or densely - packed sediments and macrophyte wrack is desirable ; such information will improve our working model and help evaluate the assumption that ghost crabs have access to all food resources on every beach . additionally , investigations of ghost crab feeding in response to the presence of their own native ( herons , gulls , raccoons ) and introduced predators ( foxes , feral cats , dogs ) as well as competitors ( plovers , sandpipers , and turnstones ) may be informative [\nocypode ( ocypode ( ghost crab ) ) is prey of : rattus duscicyon crocethia alba charadriiformes conepatus larus belcheri larus pipixcan tropidurus based on studies in : peru ( coastal ) this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\nocypode ( ocypode ( ghost crab ) ) preys on : diatoms in surface film aves emerita analoga excirolana diptera phaleria dermestes calliphora based on studies in : peru ( coastal ) this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\n) . proportional contribution of coquina clams to ghost crab diets displayed a positive linear relationship with beach width ( f = 21 . 11 , p < 0 . 001 ) and this was the strongest relationship revealed in the stepwise regression analyses (\nscaptia ( plinthina ) beyonceae lessard 2011 ( horse fly ) named after singer - songwriter beyonc\u00e9 knowles , inspired by her hit single\nbootylicious\nand the dense patch of golden hairs on the fly ' s abdomen .\nbe sure to check that the count is correct ; king crab are graded by the number of walking legs per 10 pounds . hence , a 20 - pound box of 9 / 12 count king crab should contain 18 - 24 walking legs .\nit is omnivorous , meaning it feeds on both animals and plants . it can also devour other crabs and detritus . the creature feeds on snails , clams , turtle hatchlings , lizards and small crabs . ghost crab foods also include organic matter .\nwe propose a simple model of ghost crab feeding along a gradient of beach morphology ( fig 2 ) . we use beach width as our principal metric of habitat morphology as it best integrates a number of physical parameters of the sandy beach habitat where ghost crabs live including beach slope , median sediment grain size , and availability and quality of macrophyte wrack [ 43 , 55 , 56 ] . we predict that diet composition of ghost crabs will vary over beach width mainly reflecting prey availability as preferred micro - habitats and distinct feeding modes of each prey ( mole crab , coquina clam , amphipod ) vary as described earlier ( figs 1 and 2 ) . ghost crabs are highly mobile so prey accessibility is not considered to be a major factor in our working model . assuming constant mortality of ghost crabs over the gradient of resource availability we further anticipate that ghost crab population abundance will be elevated at intermediate beach width sites ( fig 2 ) . here both principal swash prey ( mole crab , coquina clam ) and elevated populations of semi - terrestrial amphipods , associated with localized deposition of suitable macrophyte wrack subsidies ( fig 1 ) , are all available for consumption allowing enhanced survival and growth of ghost crabs ( fig 2 ) . based on our model , the trophic position of ghost crabs is predicted to be similar across the range of beach widths . the main sources of the ghost crab diet are all primary consumers which often use macrophyte materials , particulate in the swash zone or as detritus in the wrackline , as their main source of nitrogen [ 33 , 47 ] . thus the trophic position of the predator should remain relatively unchanged regardless of what combination of the three principal prey are consumed . however , some degree of omnivory , scavenging of carrion or microphagous depositing feeding , may lead to altered trophic positions of ghost crabs [ 11 , 38 , 49 ] .\nschlacher ta , w m . a . , schoeman ds , olds ad , huijbers cm , connolly rm . golden opportunities : a horizon scan to expand sandy beach ecology . estuar coast shelf s . 2015 ; 157 1\u20136 .\nregardless of what the case is , the crab is awarded a place in the heavens as a constellation by hera . as the crab failed to kill hercules , it only has faint stars that make it up ; no bright stars are found within it .\nzeta cancri \u2013 also known as tegmine , meaning \u201cthe shell of the crab\u201d is a star system of at least four stars .\nthe eyestalks are tipped with a tuft of bristles ( setae ) . the eyestalks are held vertically when the crab is active .\nthe ghost crab is relatively small and , being almost translucent with flecks of pink and yellow , it is well camouflaged against the sand . if you manage to see one up close , you will notice its eyes are on the end of long stalks .\npombo m , turra a . issues to be considered in counting burrows as a measure of atlantic ghost crab populations , an important bioindicator of sandy beaches . plos one . 2013 ; 8 ( 12 ) : e83792 . wos : 000328882000113 . pmid : 24376748\nall active ( i . e . , evidence of recent excavation ) ghost crab burrows within transects were enumerated during all six sampling periods at all sites , with the exception of sgsp and sgp ( april 2011 and july 2012 ) and ana , aug , av and fper ( july 2012 ) , to estimate ghost crab density ( # individuals / 100 m 2 ) . burrow density is considered a reasonable proxy of relative abundance across sites [ 37 , 56 ] despite any differences to absolute numbers [ 61 ] . ghost crabs were sampled after dusk using nets , placed on ice and stored at \u22124\u00b0c in the laboratory for isotopic analysis .\namong all metrics of beach physical setting , only beach width was found to have a significant relationship with contribution of prey types to ghost crab diets . mean proportion of each of the three principal prey of ghost crabs , determined using stable isotopes and the siar mixing model ( fig 5 and s2 table ) , displayed significant relationships with beach width using a stepwise regression analysis . however , the nature of the relationship displayed between beach width and proportion of each principal prey in ghost crab diets differed ( fig 6 ) . specifically , the proportion of mole crabs in ghost crab diets exhibited a significant ( f = 6 . 97 , p = 0 . 019 ) but negative linear trend with increasing beach width ( table 1 \u2014model 1 , fig 6a ) . a positive linear relationship between amphipod dietary proportion and physical beach parameters was also well described by beach width ( f = 5 . 61 , p = 0 . 033 ) ( table 1 \u2014model 2a and fig 6b ) . the relationship remained significant ( f = 4 . 10 , p = 0 . 041 ) when a gaussian model was applied to the peaked pattern ( table 1 \u2014model 2b and fig 6b ) . proportional contribution of coquina clams to ghost crab diets displayed a positive linear relationship with beach width ( f = 21 . 11 , p < 0 . 001 ) and this was the strongest relationship revealed in the stepwise regression analyses ( table 1 \u2014model 3 and fig 6c ) . among other beach physical features , only sediment size indicated a marginal ( p = 0 . 091 ) contribution to the relationship with coquina clams ( table 1 \u2014model 3 ) . additionally , attempts to describe the relationship between ghost crab density and physical parameters of the beach using a step - wise linear approach failed ( table 1 \u2014model 4a ) . a gaussian model best described the relationship between ghost crab density and beach width ( f = 4 . 65 , p = 0 . 030 ) , with ghost crab density peaking at beaches of intermediate width ( table 1 \u2014model 4b and fig 6d ) . again , no other metric of beach physical setting contributed significantly to pattern of ghost crab densities observed across beaches ( table 1 \u2014model 4b ) .\n( a ) mole crab ( emerita talpoida ) ; ( b ) amphipod ( talorchestia spp . ) ; and ( c ) coquina clam ( donax variablis ) , . ( d ) log 10 - transformed mean density of ghost crab ( o . quadrata ) in relation to beach width . the relationships between amphipods as a dietary component and ghost crab density with beach width were modeled using a gaussian distribution , y = [ - 0 . 5 ( ( x\u2014x a ) / ( b ) ) 2 ] ( table 1 ) . regression coefficient ( r 2 ) and level of significance ( p - value ) are indicated for each relationship .\nlucrezi s , schlacher ta . the ecology of ghost crabs in : hughes rn , hughes dj , smith ip , editors .\nvalero - pacheco e , alvarez f , abarca - arenas lg , escobar m . population density and activity pattern of the ghost crab , ocypode quadrata , in veracruz , mexico . crustaceana . 2007 ; 80 ( 3 ) : 313\u201325 . isi : 000246010000005 .\nwith increasing maturity , the crab begins to lose its external skeleton . it comes off at a point , only to be replaced by a new , slightly larger shell . the new shell takes some time to harden and until that happens , the crab remains vulnerable .\nis one of the largest of the brachyuran crabs . metamorphosis into the first crab stage takes place at the surf - beach interface .\nharryhausenia boyko , 2004 ( fossil sand crab ( crustacea : anomura : albuneidae ) ) for movie animator ray harryhausen ( 7th voyage of sinbad , jason and the argonauts , etc . ) . he animated a sand crab for the movie\nthe mysterious island .\nking crab is low in saturated fat and a good source of vitamin b12 , phosphorus , zinc , copper , and selenium . it\nmartin stevens , cheo pei rong , & peter a . todd ( 2013 ) .\ncolour change and camouflage in the horned ghost crab ocypode ceratophthalmus\n. biological journal of the linnean society 109 : 257\u2013270 . doi : 10 . 1111 / bij . 12039 .\nthe ghost crabs belong to the genus ocypode which translates as swift foot . an apt name for what is potentially one of the fastest animals on the planet , if you account for body size , of course . the horn - eyed ghost crab has been clocked at around 7 . 5 km / h . although that doesn\u2019t sound like much , they are actually moving at 100 body lengths per second compared to the fastest human sprinters and the cheetah which can only reach speeds of 11 and 20 body lengths per second , respectively . so , if a ghost crab was of comparable size , they\u2019d be running at something close to 340 and 530 km / h !\neffigia okeeffeae nesbitt 2007 . ( archosaur ) from ghost ranch , new mexico , near where the artist georgia o ' keeffe lived .\nrelationship between : ( a ) ghost crab trophic position and beach width and b - d ) ghost crab trophic position and dietary proportion of three principal prey items ( s2 table ) . principal prey are : ( b ) mole crab , emerita talpoida ; ( c ) amphipod , talorchestia spp . ( data point for sgsp excluded from regression , see results and discussion ) ; and ( d ) coquina clam , donax variablis . the dietary component of e . talpoida was modeled using an exponential saturating hyperbola , y = a ( 1 - e - bx ) . regression coefficient ( r 2 ) and level of significance ( p - value ) are indicated for each relationship .\nyou will probably only catch a quick glimpse of this fast - moving crab as it races across the sand and disappears into a burrow .\nhas fleshy claws and legs with sweet , rich meat , and crab caught later in the year tends to have a higher meat fill .\nneves , f . m . & c . e . bemvenuti . 2006 . the ghost crab ocypode quadrata ( fabricius , 1787 ) as a potential indicator of anthropic impact along rio grande do sul coast , brazil . biological conservation 133 : 432 - 435 . [ links ]\nturra , a . ; m . a . o . gon\u00e7alves & m . r . denadai . 2005 . spatial distribution of the ghost crab ocypode quadrata in low - energy tide - dominated sandy beaches . journal of natural history 39 : 2163 - 2177 . [ links ]\nbasal resource isotopic signatures are for dominant forms ( sg = seagrass , th = thalassia testudinum , syr = syringodium filiforme , ma = macroalgae , sarg = sargassum sp . , two species indicates a mixture of sg materials within beach wrack ( see s1 table ) . halodule wrightii ( sg ) was not considered given its minor contribution to wrack ( see s1 table ) . % of gc diet = percent contribution to ghost crab ( gc ) diet . ghost crab ( ocypode quadrata ) major prey items ( principal resources ) : coquina clam ( donax variabilis ) , mole crab ( emerita talpoida ) , amphipod ( talorchestia spp . ) . ghost crab trophic position ( gc tp ) determined using the following equation : tp gc = [ ( \u03b4 15 n gc \u2212 \u03b4 15 n res ) / 2 . 3 ] + 2 , where \u03b4 15 n gc represents the mean signature ( n = 3\u20139 indiv . ) of ghost crabs ; \u03b4 15 n res represents the weighted mean signature of the three principal resources ; and 2 . 3 is one trophic level change in aquatic environments ( see methods for details ) .\nghost crabs are found in ropical waters , from the kimberley in western australia , northern territory , queensland to sydney , new south wales .\nthe ghost crab stays in the cool protection of its burrow by day and scuttles down to the water at twilight to hunt . the burrow , which is built quite high up on the shore ( sometimes over 100 m from the sea ) , can be over 1 m deep .\nvalero - pacheco , e . ; f . alvarez ; l . g . abarca - arenas & m . escobar . 2007 . population density and activity pattern of the ghost crab , ocypode quadrata , in veracruz , mexico . crustaceana 80 : 313 - 325 . [ links ]\nit wets it gills for two purposes , reproduction and respiration . occasionally , the crab draws up water from moist sand to moisten its gills .\ngaudipluma artal et al . 2013 ( eocene crab ) its carapace resembles the buildings of catalan architect anton\u00ed gaud\u00ed . [ zootaxa 3652 : 343 ]\nborradaile , l . a . ( 1922 ) . on the mouthparts of the shore crab . j . linn . soc . 35 : 115\u2013142\nthe atlantic ghost crab has been described as both a predator and scavenger with its diet thought to consist primarily of swash - zone inhabiting mole crabs ( emerita talpoida ) and coquina clams ( donax variabilis ) , as well as semi - terrestrial amphipods ( talorchestia spp . ) which utilize damp wrack in the supratidal [ 36 , 37 , 44 , 45 ] ( fig 1 ) . all three principal prey taxa provide critical trophic links in sandy beach ecosystems globally but have distinct feeding modes and preferred micro - habitats [ 33 , 46 , 47 ] . ghost crab diets may be opportunistically supplemented by marine carrion , and / or microphagous depositing feeding - either of which may modify ghost crab trophic position , sensu [ 38 , 48 ] , albeit such resources most likely contribute only a small percentage to their diet [ 37 , 49 , 50 ] .\nalbunea groeningi boyko , 2002 ( sand crab ( crustacea : anomura : albuneidae ) ) named for matt groening , creator of\nthe simpsons\n.\nhas been shown to have a negative impact on turtle populations . there have been efforts to control ghost crab populations due to their predation on turtle eggs . studies have found that ghost crabs consume up to 10 % of turtle eggs when they prey on a nest , and they have also been known to prey on the hatchlings . measures to control populations around turtle nesting sites have included destroying burrows and using raccoons that prey on the crabs .\nthomas j . trott ( 1988 ) .\nnote on the foraging activities of the painted ghost crab ocypode gaudichaudii h . milne edwards & lucas in costa rica ( decapoda , brachyura )\n. crustaceana 55 ( 2 ) : 217\u2013219 . doi : 10 . 1163 / 156854088x00546 . jstor 20104392 .\ni\u2019m writing a field report on ghost crabs right now ( ocypode quadrata ) . i\u2019d be very interested in reading the paper you\u2019ve got = ) .\nfor most estuarine beaches , lower burrow densities were observed during winter compared to summer sampling . this is probably related to seasonal differences of ghost crab rhythms , with low activities during cold days as already recorded for o . quadrata in other beaches ( haley 1969 , leber 1981 , alberto & fontoura 1999 ) .\nin what follows , we broaden an earlier examination of the diets of the widely distributed atlantic ghost crab , ocypode quadrata , [ 43 ] to encompass 16 barrier island beaches along the sub - tropical gulf of mexico and atlantic coasts of the united states and make predictions about the changing structure of food webs that accompany the gradient of physical attributes of the surveyed beaches . identifying conspicuous changes in the conversion of carbon and nitrogen by a major predator\u2014the ghost crab\u2014across a range of sandy beach morphology is a critical first step in describing food web configurations and their variation over time and space [ 10 , 27 , 47 , 54 ] .\nthe crab has club - shaped eyestalks and it boasts of a 360\u00b0 vision . this helps it see and catch insects that are even in mid - air .\ncurrently , ghost crabs are not considered threatened or endangered . one of the main threats to ghost crabs is off - road vehicles ( orvs ) . the orvs can crush or bury the crabs and interfere with their reproductive cycle . orvs can greatly affect ghost crabs at night when they are feeding . another threat is a decline in their habitat ; construction in the upper intertidal zone for residential or commercial use can caused increased mortality and a potential decline in the population .\nthe relationships between the mean proportion of each of the three diet components and the physical parameters ( beach width , foreshore slope , median sediment grain size and wrack biomass ) across all sites were examined using least squares forward stepwise regression analysis within the statistics module of sigmaplot version 13 . 0 . stepwise regression selects independent variables for a multiple linear regression equation from a list of candidate variables to avoid using extraneous variables in the model . the diet component proportions were first transformed ( \u221aarcsine ) to address the potential problems of constraints in the covariance , correlation structure and subsequent interpretation linked to the use of compositional data [ 73 ] . for those relationships where stepwise linear regression did not yield significant results and exhibited non - linear tendencies to the structure of the data , appropriate non - linear models were applied using individual physical parameters . stepwise regression analysis was also used to investigate the relationship between ghost crab density and beach physical parameters ( mean beach width , foreshore slope , median sediment grain size and wrack biomass ) . mean burrow density , as the proxy for ghost crab abundance , was transformed ( log 10 ) to meet assumptions of normality [ 74 ] . stepwise regression analysis was also used to examine the relationships between ghost crab trophic position and beach physical parameters . finally , linear and non - linear models were applied to relationships between proportions of the diet ( mole crab , amphipod , coquina clam ) and ghost crab trophic position .\nghost crabs have been used as indicators for measuring the impacts of human use on beaches . their population is relatively easy to monitor ; the density of ghost crabs on a beach can be estimated by counting the number of burrows in a certain area . population densities have declined due to habitat modification and heavy , continuous trampling . because ghost crabs are apex predators of the habitat , monitoring their population can allow humans to assess the impact of human activity on sandy beach ecosystems .\nis considered semiterrestrial . it has developed an interesting adaptation for life on land : a crab will occasionally will return to the water to wet its gills ; however it can also get water from damp sand . ghost crabs use fine hairs on the base of their legs to wick water from the sand up onto its gills .\nprevious studies of brazilian populations of ghost crabs were based on the reproductive cycle and recruitment ( negreiros - fransozo et al . 2002 ) and spatial distribution in a southern high - energy oceanic sandy beach ( alberto & fontoura 1999 ) and in low - energy tide - dominated sandy beaches ( turra et al . 2005 ) . in the latter , anthropogenic impact on ghost crab density may be confounded by natural response to high environmental heterogeneity that are characteristic of low - energy sandy beaches .\nghost crabs construct simple to complex deep burrows in soft sandy and / or muddy substrates . they can be found in sandy beaches , rubble flats , and in\nthe strong hairy legs of this animal make it run very fast and achieve speeds of about 10 miles per hour . this makes this crab the fastest among all crustaceans .\nalbania \u2013 in south albania , there is the katallani \u201cthe catalan\u201d a monster which relies on the historical catalan occupation of the region centuries ago used to scare children . in south italy , there is the gogoli , \u201cthe mongol\u201d another historical use of the golden horde that is used to frighten children into behaving .\nfinland \u2013 here , the bogeyman is known as m\u00f6rk\u00f6 . in the moomin stories , the m\u00f6rk\u00f6 or groke is a frightening , dark blue and big ghost like creature .\nalthough ghost crab diets have been described from several locations , little information exists on the variation in their diets that may be expected across the broad spectrum of beach morphology despite the ghost crab\u2019s wide distribution and importance to the function of sandy beach ecosystems [ 37 , 42 , 44 , 51 , 52 ] . in lakes , modification of prey populations , predator diets , trophic position and degree of omnivory has been observed along gradients of lake morphology reflecting differences in predator access to particular food web compartments supporting important prey [ 9 , 27 ] . similarly , in sandy beaches , based upon known distribution and preferred habitats of the main prey of ghost crabs ( see fig 1 ) ( mole crabs , coquina clams , and semi - terrestrial amphipods ) [ 5 ] and invertebrate community composition [ 17 , 40 , 53 ] , the relative availability of the most commonly accessed prey change in response to altered beach width , substrate type and slope . thus the gradient of sandy beach morphologies may be viewed as a series of micro - habitat compartments ( swash zone , wrackline ) varying in prey accessibility and availability which should have implications for links to higher trophic level consumers ( i . e . ghost crab ) ( fig 1 ) .\n\u2018ocypodid\u2019 ( ghost and fiddler ) crabs are \u2018 semi - terrestrial \u2018 ( spending time on land and in the water ) , living on sandy beaches , mud flats and mangroves . they can spend long periods of time out of the water by keeping their gills moist via special gill chambers that extract oxygen from the air . their eyes are stalked , which means they can be laid flat within the grooves on their shell or raised for a better look around . they take shelter in their cool burrows above the high tide water mark during the day and come out at night in search of food . they feed on plants , animals ( turtle hatchlings included ! ) and micro - organisms . the golden ghost crab is only found along the western australian coast , from bunbury to exmouth . they are relatively small growing to a carapace width of 45 millimetres .\nwhile all races in chinese are refered to as a type of ghost / shadow ( sub - human ) , the word for japanese is unique in that it means child .\nbarros , f . 2001 . ghost crabs as a tool for rapid assessment of human impacts on exposed sandy beaches . biological conservation 97 : 399 - 404 . [ links ]\ntrophic position ( tp ) of ghost crabs ranged from 3 . 7 ( anc , beach width = 32 m ) to 1 . 9 ( ana , beach width = 67 m ) . the stepwise regression procedure revealed that beach width was the single physical beach parameter that contributed to a useful model description with tp decreasing significantly ( f = 20 . 35 , p < 0 . 001 ) as beach width increased ( table 1 \u2014model 5 and fig 7a ) . slope , sediment size and wrack biomass did not add predictive power ( p > 0 . 268 ) ( table 1 \u2014model 5 ) . significant relationships were found when examining ghost crab tp and the proportion of each principal prey . highest ghost crab tp was generally associated with higher use of mole crabs ( hyperbola model , f = 7 . 75 , p = 0 . 015 ) ( table 1 \u2014model 6 and fig 7b ) and / or amphipods ( f = 21 . 44 , p < 0 . 001 ) ( table 1 \u2014model 7 and fig 7c ) . however a significant negative relationship between ghost crab tp and the proportion of coquina clams in their diets was recorded ( f = 6 . 43 , p = 0 . 024 ) ( table 1 \u2014model 8 and fig 7d ) .\nhughes , d . a . 1966 . behavioral and ecological investigations of the crab ocypode ceratophthalmus ( crustacea : ocypodidae ) . journal of zoology 150 : 129 - 143 . [ links ]\nghost crabs can make very good pets if properly looked after . if you are planning to breed these crabs in your home , here are some steps that you have to follow .\nmating can occur throughout the year . unlike other crab species , ghost crabs can mate even when the female\u2019s integument is hard , which means that they can mate anytime after sexual maturation . this is an adaptation to terrestrial life . mating occurs while both the male and the female have a hard shell . usually mating will occur somewhere in or near the burrow of the male . often copulatory plugs are found in ghost crabs ; the male will release a seminal fluid along with his sperm that will become hard and prevent rival sperm from reaching the female\u2019s ova .\nchiromantes garfunkel davie & ng , 2013 ( garfunkel ' s bright - eyed crab ) named for art garfunkel in tribute to his song\nbright eyes\n. [ zootaxa 3609 : 1 ]\npakistan \u2013 the bhoot or jin baba is used by parents to scare children into behaving . this creature is a ghost djinn . in other places it is known as kathu ki maa .\nbarros f . ghost crabs as a tool for rapid assessment of human impacts on exposed sandy beaches . biol conserv . 2001 ; 97 ( 3 ) : 399\u2013404 . isi : 000166790200012 .\nyes , we study bird nest productivity on our florida state park beaches and ghost crabs have been documented in eating snowy plover eggs , chicks and make attempts at eating adult plovers . they also eat least tern eggs and harass least tern adults on nests . we have some footage on youtube looking at defense mechanisms feigning broken wing to lure ghost crabs away from snowy plover nests .\nmesoparapylocheles michaeljacksoni klompmaker et . al . 2012 ( fossil hermit crab ) discovered on the same day that the researchers learned of pop superstar michael jackson ' s death , and named in his honor .\n] , the relative availability of the most commonly accessed prey change in response to altered beach width , substrate type and slope . thus the gradient of sandy beach morphologies may be viewed as a series of micro - habitat compartments ( swash zone , wrackline ) varying in prey accessibility and availability which should have implications for links to higher trophic level consumers ( i . e . ghost crab ) (\nthe modern - day symbol for cancer is a pair of pincers like those on a crab . the constellation shape for cancer itself looks more like an upside - down \u201cy\u201d which is interpreted to be the back of the crab . over the millennia , the cancer constellation has been used to represent a number of different animals , most often those of an aquatic , shore - dwelling animal with an exoskeleton .\nschlacher , t . , s . lucrazi . 2009 . monitoring beach impacts : a case for ghost crabs as ecological indicators ? . 2nd queensland coastal conference , gold coast : 1 - 15 .\nthe crab , cancer enters the story here as either the hydra called on it for help or the goddess hera sent it to hinder the hero hercules . it\u2019s considered a large crab , large enough that it tries to do a number on hercules\u2019 foot with its pincers . for all its trouble , hercules simply kills it by crushing it in return with his foot and then turning his attention back to the hydra and finally succeeds at killing it . a slight variation to this turn of events places hercules as having kicked the crab hard enough that it flew up into the heavens to become the familiar constellation of cancer .\nsteiner , a . j . & s . p . leatherman . 1981 . recreational impacts on the distribution of ghost crabs ocypode quadrata fab . biological conservation 20 : 111 - 122 . [ links ]\nalpha cancri \u2013 also known as acubens or al zubanah , both meaning \u201cthe claws . \u201d another name for this star is sertan , \u201cthe crab . \u201d it is the fourth brightest star of the cancer constellation ."]}
{"id": 2000, "summary": [{"text": "there were two military orders known as the order of our lady of bethlehem .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "mathew paris mentions that henry iii of england authorized them to open a house in a suburb of cambridge in 1257 ; but he does not mention their founder , where they originated , and their history .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "their habit was similar to that of the dominicans and that a red star , whose five rays emanated from an azure centre , decorated the breast of their cape .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this was in commemoration of the star that appeared to the magi and led them to bethlehem .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "nothing further is known of this military order .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "there was an order of knights whose members wore a red star on their costume because of having a house in bethlehem at the time of the crusades ; this was the military order of crusaders of the red star ( ordo militaris crucigerorum cum rube\u00e2 stell\u00e2 ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they came from palestine to bohemia in 1217 , and blessed agnes of bohemia confided two hospitals to their charge .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "they have since remained in that country where they devote themselves to the care of the sick , to education , and to the various works of the ecclesiastical ministry .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "after the taking of constantinople by the turks ( 1453 ) , pius ii founded the order of our lady of bethlehem .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the purpose of these knights was to defend the island of lemnos which cardinal louis , patriarch of aquileia , had recaptured from mohammed ii .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the island was to be their headquarters from which they were to oppose the attacks of the muslims by way of the \u00e6gean sea and the hellespont .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the order was composed of brother-knights and priests governed by an elective grand-master .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the white costume worn by the members was decorated with a red cross and the rule prescribed for them was very similar to that of the knights of st. john of jerusalem .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the pope founded this community on 18 january 1459 .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "to supply their needs , the pope turned over to them the property and revenues of older orders which no longer fulfilled their purpose , such as : the order of saint lazarus , sainte-marie du ch teau des bretons , bologna , order of the holy sepulchre , santo spirito in sassia , st. mary of the crossed friars , and st. james of lucca , all of which were suppressed for this purpose .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "pius ii alluded in a bull to this foundation and the bravery of its knights , but the second capture of lemnos by the turks rendered the institution useless .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "thus the order of our lady of bethlehem was suppressed almost as soon as founded and those orders whose goods the pope had transmitted to it were re-established . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "order of our lady of bethlehem", "paragraphs": ["dedicated to our lady of bethlehem and known under the name of bethlehemites . mathew\nrendered the institution useless . thus the order of our lady of bethlehem was suppressed almost as soon as founded and those orders whose goods the\nmade by the pope himself runs : \u201cto our humble son , the prince luigi cesario amoroso , the inherited supreme magister of the order of our lady of bethlehem , and to all beloved knights of the order , we give our apostolical blessing\u201d .\n( 1686 ) , and instituted the order of the star of our lady before returning to his alleged dominions .\nfrom the 18th of january 1944 , that the prince pietro amoroso d\u2019aragona is the direct descendant and inheritor of amorites \u2013 phrygian cesarean dynasty with the title \u201ccesarean highness\u201d . by the same edict he recognized the order of our lady of bethlehem and the order of st . john of acre and st . thomas , has accepted from the prince pietro amoroso d\u2019aragona the title of big cross of the order of our lady of bethlehem (\norder of our lady of bethlehem knights grand cross equestrian order of saint mary of bethlehem grand cross star . breast star , 82 mm , silver gilt with brill size : 3 . 5\nprovenance : lifelong military medal collection . consigned by the private chicago , il family of the collector .\ntoday the association of the knights of the order of our lady of bethlehem under the guidance of the prince angelo maria amoroso d ' aragona is defining their main mission as charitable help to ill and distressed people .\nwas thoroughly equipped and stocked and even offered an opportunity for the religious installment of those who tended the sick . the institution was placed under the patronage of our lady of bethlehem .\nthe order of our lady of bethlehem ( it . ordine militare e ospedaliero di s . maria di betlemme ) is the military order founded on 19th january 1459 by pope pius ii for defending of the island of lemnos ( bull : \u00abveram semper et solidam\u00bb )\nwithin the bounds of cooperation , the latin patriarch of jerusalem the supreme prior of the order of holy sepulchre of jerusalem michel sabbah has visited the residence of the supreme magister of the order of our lady of bethlehem in bari ( via vittorio veneto 5 ) on the 10th of january 1988 . the chevaliers of the bethlehem order headed by the supreme chancellor the marquis paolo cecconato ( on the photo ) .\non the 26th of october 1980 , the chevalier of the order of our lady of bethlehem bartolo longo ( 10 . 02 . 1841 \u2013 05 . 10 . 1926 ) was blessed by catholic church , and was also named in the encyclic of the pope john paul ii as \u201crosarium mariae\u201d - \u201cthe apostle of rosary\u201d . his beatification has become a sensational event in the history of the knights of the bethlehem order . his portrait in knight\u2019s of the order of our lady of bethlehem full regalia was placed into the main hall of \u00abpontificio santuario di pompei\u00bb ( pompey , italy ) .\nfounded an order of our lady of bethlehem , intending to transfer to it the possessions of older orders which no longer fulfilled their purpose ( 1459 ) , but the loss of the island prevented its institution . the same fate befell the german order of the christian militia , projected ( 1615 ) under\nduring the pontificate of pope john paul ii , the relations with the order of our lady of bethlehem are moving to the positive directions . on the 26th of july 2002 , in the hall called \u201csala nervi\u201d , in vatican , the audience of the knights of the order of our lady of bethlehem and pope john paul ii took place . the event gathered 50 delegates from the different regions of italy , who came together with children and grandchildren . during the audience , the st pope was granted with the painting \u2013\nthe period from the xviii until the first part of xx century can be considered as the blossom of the activity of the order of our lady of bethlehem , the one of the most favorable and important in its history . the knight investitures were recovered since 1730 in the neapolitan kingdom .\nhowever , after the law n 178 from the 1951 , established the \u201corder for the deserts in front of italian republic\u201d and cancelled the special perquisites of all earlier existing knight orders in italy ( except for the order of malta and the order of holy sepulchre of jerusalem ) , the order of our lady of bethlehem is getting the associative status with the residence in bari ( from 1957 up to now days ) .\nthis category consists of the nobly born knights in minimum four generations , inherited the chevalier titles of the order of our lady of bethlehem by the direct men line . the category could only be granted to the representatives of ancient noble families with the right to descent the knight titles .\nas pius ii alluded in a bull from the 16th march 1464 \u00abmagnae devotionis tuae\u00bb : prince dagobert de amorosa , the descend of an ancient caesarean origin byzantine house , is becoming the first inherited supreme magister of the order of our lady of bethlehem . the earl antonio crispo di sira is appointed as chancellor of the order .\nin 1479 the knights of the order suffered defeat and , after the final capture of lemnos by the turks , had to leave the island forever . the remained knights together with the supreme magister moved to naples , italy . from this moment the order of our lady of bethlehem stopped act as a holistic military organization . following the disposition of pope innocent viii , the main part of order\u2019s property came into possession of the order rhodes and malta .\nsince the middle of last century , the counterfeit orders are appearing in italy via the actions of many enterprising\nprinces\nand other persons , who copied the name of their organizations from the famous knight orders . in 1931 , the mgr eftimios yuakim created the fictitious order called \u201cthe order of our st maria lady of bethlehem\u201d ( santa maria nostra signora di betlemme ) , which was convicted by st throne later . the situation became more serious in the 40th , in connection to the annihilation of royal fecial council and removal of the governmental control over the legality of noble titles in italy . up to today there are several counterfeit orders with the different interpretations of the name of our lady of bethlehem : \u201capostolic order of our lady of bethlehem\u201d and \u201cthe order of knights of bethlehem order of east\u201d launched by the \u201c adopted descendants\u201d of amoroso d\u2019aragona ( \u201cprince\u201d antonio ii tiberius dobrinya d\u2019aragona and \u201cprince\u201d pier pasle de sharne ) . similar examples are : \u201cecumenic hospitaller order of st . john chevaliers of malt\u201d and \u201cthe order of st constantine and st george\u201d , created by the \u201cprince\u201d francesco amoroso komnenos angelo flavio lascaris paleologo d\u2019aragona . such organizations were never recognized and have nothing in common with the line of amoroso d\u2019aragona and its history , what was proved many times by the legal descendant and current head of dynasty the prince angelo maria amoroso d ' aragona .\n. almost at the same time there arose in castile the order of calatrava and in leon the order of alcantara .\n, as in palestine , to supply their place with a permanent order . this order adopted the\nit\u2019s worth to mention , that the document was issued after the infamous publications of l\u2019osservatore romano ( 1933 , 1938 ) . the decretal is stressing the independent from time and politics situation status of knight institution of the line of amoroso d\u2019aragona . finally , the royal civil court held in bari on the 20th june 1945 , \u2116 3383 r . g sentenza \u2116 . 786 and the court \u2116 4419 r . g . sentenza \u2116 1006 , 1945 , both have confirmed the dynastic rights of supreme magister of the order of our lady of bethlehem and the competence of official performance of the chevalier\u2019s titles for knights of the order , despite the fascist period publications of vatican ( osservatore romano , rivista araldica ) , mentioning that these issues are containing many incorrect information about the order of our lady of bethlehem .\nthe following pages will provide you with more detailed information about our life including who we are , our daily schedule of liturgical prayer and work , vocational and travel information , news updates and homilies . you may also be interested in visiting our retreat house facilities pages and our on - line store pages by following the links at the bottom of this page .\nof henry iv ( 1399 ) . a third order , scottish by origin , is that of the order of the thistle , dating from the reign of james v of\nof francis ii : \u201c\u2026 based on the statute of the military and hospitaller order of st . john of acre and st . thomas , issued on the 24th june 1498 in naples by the prince nicola de amerusio d\u2019 aragona , and the other statute of the the military and hospitaller order of our lady of bethlehem , issued on the 25th march 1730 in naples by the prince filippo augusto amoroso d\u2019aragona , both are recognized further in force . we accept with pleasure the request from applier and wish to provide him with the special certificate of our king favor , in respect with mention and not rebuttable caesarean origin of his ancient family and his numerous prove of affection and faith to our king throne\u2026\u201d\nwas found , and hundreds of italian guerrillas were awarded with it for the heroic participation in the opposition . on the front side of the medal is the half - face of the prince pietro amoroso d\u2019aragona , on the back side are the cross of the order of our lady of bethlehem and following inscription : \u201cfor the praise of them , who saw the light in the darkness , to show the way of freedom and fair . 7th day of october 1943\u201d\nthe same is to be said of the order of st . peter , instituted by\naccording to the opinion of italian heraldic council , the current situation of the order of our lady of bethlehem is categorized as \u201cnon - national orders\u201d in italy . currently , the ministry of foreign affairs of italy is working on the detailed list of such \u201cnon - national orders\u201d , which will consist of the earlier recognized dynastic orders in the kingdom . the council would also pay attention to the orders recognition by tribunals between 1946 ( since the monarchy abolishment ) and 1951 ( the cancellation of the rights of dynastic orders and establishment of \u201corder for the deserts in front of italian republic\u201d ) .\ncurrently the order of our lady of bethlehem is consisting of more than 1000 members from different countries , among whom about 600 are living in italy . in this country the order is involving 5 provinces . the catania region is considered as most significant according to the number of knights with established special delegature under the patronage the right reverend mgr pio vittorio vigo - incumbent roman catholic bishop of acireale ( cecilia ) . the veneto province with the center in venice is the second significant area under the guideline of mgr rino olivotto .\nretreatants are welcome all year round at our abbey to enjoy some private time in peace and solitude .\nthe candidates to the chevaliers must be introduced by the delegates of the order during the annual capitul in order to prove their deserts and nobility .\n. the knights of st . catherine of sinai are not an order , either secular or regular .\nby way of the \u00e6gean sea and the hellespont . the order was composed of brother - knights and\n, so that they have considered themselves as successors of the order of the collar . after the cession of bugey to\nof an order of the passion of christ ( 1360 ) the text of which has recently been published , but which were never enforced .\nabbey news correction a few days ago it was stated on our daily liturgical schedule page that on friday of . . . read more \u2192\nabbey news moving right along this past week the contractors on our gatehouse renovation project made a good deal of . . . read more \u2192\nfrom the 18th of december 1943 ) and granted the prince with the title gran cordone of the order of st . maurice and lazarus (\nthe abbey of the genesee is home to some 30 contemplative monks belonging to the order of cistercians of the strict observance also known as trappists .\na buyers fee discount of 3 % is extended to those paying by check , cash or money order .\non the 20th june 2009 in munich , bavaria , was found new province of the order for german knights with the head of prelate munich mgr adalbert merlein . the open ceremony of the province was coincided with the 550 anniversary of the order foundation and held in cathedral . the raising to the knighthood of the order of the right reverend apostolic exarch of st throne for the byzantine rite catholic of germany and scandinavia bishop mark crick .\nall delivered in a dark red velvet interior box with the order logo imprinted in gold .\n( 1180 ) , but difficult to distinguish from the order of calatrava , with which it was soon amalgamated .\nin 1924 the supreme magister luigi cesario spiridone amoroso d\u2019aragona ( 1899 \u2013 1931 ) and following him the prince pietro amoroso d\u2019aragona are officially announcing the opposition against the dictatorial regime of mussolini . the knights of the order are creating the center of antifascist opposition called orbet ( the abbreviation is taken from the name \u201cordine betlemme\u201d ) . the center\u2019s history is full of samples of the heroic activity of its guerrilla - knights in different regions of the country . the groups of orbet saved hundreds of jewish families along the whole italy . the guerrillas defended the freedom of the country with the weapon in hands . the center was hunt down by the national socialists under the personal instructions from giacomo suardo , the deputy of the ministry of domestic affairs , later the president of the senate and member of big fascist council until the suspending of mussolini in september 1943 . the order of our lady of bethlehem fall into the black book of vatican as the \u201cunrecognized order\u201d ( the publications osservatore romano l ' osservatore romano from 1st june 1933 , rivista araldica ( 1933 fasc . x , p . 479 ) , l\u2019osservatore romano 25th august 1938 ) .\nin the 80th years the cooperation with the directions of the oldest knight order , which was found in the time of crusade and existing up to now - the order of holy sepulchre of jerusalem ( ordo eguestris s . sepulcri hierosolymitani ) , is outlined . the supreme magister and the supreme prior of this order , in accordance with the rule , are appointed from the high hierarchy of catholic church by the pope .\nby the decretal from the 2nd february 1860 , the king of the kingdom of the two sicilies francis ii bourbon has confirmed the inherited character of the supreme magistracy of the order and rank it as the second dynastic order of caesarean family name amorosa d\u2019 aragona , along with the order of st . john of acre and st . thomas ( founded by the prince aminado de amerusio in 1205 ) , which was also the prosperity of the family by inherited right .\nin the 50th years of xx century , following the act \u2116178 from the 3rd march 1951 , the st throne announced its recognition only of the order of malta ( smom ) and the order of holy sepulchre of jerusalem , leaving without mentioning the other knight\u2019s institutions , equal to the \u201crecognized\u201d ones by the history and glorious past . the dynastical orders of the house of amoroso d\u2019aragona and the order of former house of savoy , together with many others , were ignored by the st throne .\nthe order gains the auspices from the side of powerful prelate of roman curia , the cardinal alfredo ottaviani , who served as secretary of the holy congregation of the special spirituals in 1928 - 1929 , and further as deputy of governmental vatican secretary . among the cavaliers of the order in that period we can meet a lot of hierarchs of catholic church , representatives of monarchal families and governmental figures .\nan order of the collar , which held its chapters in the charterhouse ( founded in 1892 ) of pierre - ch\u00e2tel in bugey . here also the knights of the annunziata kept their\non the 18th may 1484 , the king ferdinando i d\u2019 aragona granted to the order the right to allocate on the territory of his kingdom . naples is becoming the new retreat for the knights of the bethlehem order and up to the beginning of xx century the main residence of supreme magister is located here . the prince giovanni de amorosa is gained with the honorable predicate to the family name - \u201cd\u2019 aragona\u201d . the prince died in naples on the 15th september 1519 and was buried in the church san giorgio .\n, it was originally considered a military order , but dissensions arose and each rank chose its own grand master .\nand revenues of the orders of st . lazarus , of sainte - marie du ch\u00e2teau des bretons , of bologna , of the holy sepulchre , of santo spirito in sassia , of st . mary of the crossed friars , and of st . james of\nin 1589 , were not so much a military order as an association of gentlemen who undertook to maintain the public peace in those turbulent times .\n, from the 23rd of may 1949 issued by tribunal of the vico del gargano , has proved the legality of the order in new italian government and the trueness of the documents touching the recognition history of heraldic heritage of the house amoroso d\u2019aragona , including the pope\u2019s bulls , ancient sovereign diplomas and royal decreets of the house of savoy .\nin windsor castle for the holding of chapters . this , the order of the garter , takes its name from the characteristic badge , won on the left knee . the choice of this badge has given rise to various anecdotes of\n( modelled on the former ) , both still in existence . in the same category should be included the order of santiago which spread throughout castile ,\nmutual relationships of the order with st throne often depended on the politic situations in italy and were complex . since the moving from the island lemnos , the order didn\u2019t present reasonable activity for many years . the inherited knights didn\u2019t have own structure for more than two hundred years .\nthe abbey of regina laudis , founded in 1947 in bethlehem , connecticut , u . s . a . , is a community of contemplative benedictine women dedicated to the praise of god through prayer and work . the nuns of the abbey chant the mass and full divine office each day , while expressing the traditional benedictine commitment to manual work and scholarship through various contemporary media and professional disciplines . the mission to praise god at all times is symbolized by the lyre on the abbey ' s crest and by our motto , taken from the book of judith \u2013 non recedat laus :\nthe situation is significantly changes with the coming to power of dictator benito mussolini , who assisted the creation of vatican government , which started it\u2019s politic existence after the signing of lateran agreements in 1929 . the administration of vatican has generated a list of actions aimed to support the politics of fascist government of different countries . the pope pius xi approved the invasion of italy to ethiopia and its occupation , the fascist mutiny in spain and the sending of part of italian army to help franco . on the 20th of june 1933 was concluded the concordat with hitler . finally , within the bounds of reconciliation between the italian government and st throne , by the fascist government of mussolini and sovereign military order of malta was signed concordat ( legislative action # 1029 ) about the mutual official recognition , and following it , the fascist duce is becoming the cavalier of order of malta . the members of his government are granted with the value of the order of malta . we have seen a lot of parade portraits and photos of duce with the white malta\u2019s cross on the neck .\nfrom the 4th of february 1944 ) . the dynastic status of both orders of amoroso house is finally defined in italian kingdom , they are allowed to proceed the new investitures , the chevaliers are permitted to wear openly the order\u2019s signs .\nwhere he died ( 1270 ) , nor of that of the argonauts of st . nicholas , attributed to charles iii , king of\nwithin a limited time , only for the 26 years , i . e . from the 1st january 1904 to 25th september 1930 , the chevaliers of the order has became as following :\n, a feature of all new foundations . one of these was soon undertaken by brother anthony of the cross who sent two of his community to\nthey added that of caring for the sick even at the risk of their own lives . in 1688 brother anthony of the cross , with the help of a\nwas autonomous , all the houses of a military order were bound to contribute their revenues , after deducting expenses , to a central treasury . as a result of this enormous circulation of capital controlled by the orders , their wealth could be applied to financial operations which made them veritable credit and deposit banks . their perfect\nand afterwards solicited admission among them . in 1672 brother roderick of the cross obtained the confirmation of this establishment by the king of\nan income of 3 , 000 crowns . the bethlehemites , because of making only simple\nin 1681 to secure the confirmation of these new institutions . the council of the indies assigned the\nfounded from the abbey of gethsemani in 1951 monastic life at genesee is made up of a balanced daily round of prayer , lectio divina and manual labor in an atmosphere of simplicity , silence and fraternal support .\nin 1944 the groups orbet took part in the \u201cfour naples days\u201d ( quattro giornate di napoli ) significant for the history of italy . the story of that event is related with the heroic defend of naples from the nazi occupation . naples was the first european city released by insurrectionary forces . in 1944 the residence of the supreme magister was moved to rome , the building situated on the central street via del corso 26 , near to famous piazza del popolo . in 1949 the same building was used for the patronato nazionale assistenziale ordine betlemme \u2013 the national helping fond of the order , which approve the efficiency of organization and coordination of the charity work of orbet during the hard postwar period . in honor of these events , the special\n, exclusive of princes of the blood and foreign princes , with st . george as its patron and with its\nby the special permission of governmental authorities , the status \u201cnon - national orders\u201d was granted only to a few orders of royal bourbon house of the two sicilies . it is expected that soon the same status would get the orders of other sovereign dynasties , including the houses of amoroso d\u2019aragona .\n, of which the knights of livonia thenceforward formed one branch under a provincial master of their own ( 1238 ) . their possessions , acquired by conquest , formed a principality under\naccording to the records in pope\u2019s bull , the inherited name of supreme magister is becoming the possession of the amoroso d ' aragona family , the direct descendent of the prince dagobert de amorosa by the branch of his older brother \u2013 the prince giovanni de amorosa .\n, a grand master ( usually the reigning prince ) , and the practice of certain devotions . most of them also asked for the\nwhich compels the belligerent to maintain his military apparatus on a level with those of his adversary , on pain of defeat . the strength of an army was in its cavalry , and to this type the armament , mounting , and tactics of the military orders conformed . the\nabbey news birthday of the church and end of the easter season almost finished . . . . . . with the . . . read more \u2192\nremarkable , that at the same time the analogical tribunal from the 18th july 1945 ( n\u00b0 475 of the royal civil court of naples ) recognized the prince antonio de kurtis galiardi \u2013 focas ( famous in 50th as popular actor of italian cinema under the pen name \u201ctoto\u201d ) as the direct legal descendent of caesarian dynasty the komnenos of byzantium , owing all the rights and privileges of this family . in the contemporary noble catalogues he is stated as \u201chis imperial highness antonio griffo focas flavio ducas komnenos gagliardi de curtis of byzantium\n.\nlacking this official recognition should be expunged from history , even though they figure in the pages of all the old historians of the military orders . as a matter of fact , more than one rule of this kind , scarcely passing beyond the initial stages , has existed , and such are the orders which may be designated\ncopyright \u00a9 2017 by kevin knight . dedicated to the immaculate heart of mary .\nat midnight in the midst of a great throng . in 1654 he made a\nto defend the immaculate conception even at the peril of his life . he died , exhausted by labour and penance , 25 april , 1667 , at the age of forty - eight . his funeral was impressive and at the request of the\n, the rule bound the brethren to the exercises of the monastic life such as the recitation of the hours , for which , in the case of illiterates , a fixed number of paters was substituted . it also prescribed their dress and their food , and their feast , abstinence , and fast days . lastly , the rule imposed detailed\nof the work . the favour was granted , but pedro died before the messenger ' s return . from that time the community prospered , beginning with the extension of the\nall content copyright \u00a9 the abbey of the genesee . webmaster , sojourner web design studio\ndomain , and as such had a sacred character which placed them beyond liability to profane uses or to secular imposts . they differed from the temporalities of other monastic institutions only in the centralized system of their administration . while within each of the other religious institutes every\n, devoted lives of these religious won them esteem and gratitude . they were especially admired during the plague of 1736 , a fact unanimously acknowledged by the writers who describe the condition of latin america in the eighteenth century . but this did not prevent their suppression , as well as that of all other religious , in 1820 . at that time their superior - general resided in mexico and the bethlehemites were scattered throughout two provinces , that of\nand that a red star , whose five rays emanated from an azure centre , decorated the breast of their cape . this was in commemoration of the star that appeared to the\nhelpers soon joined pedro de betancourt and at length was formed a congregation of brothers generally known as bethlehemites and so called on account of their house . but the care of the sick did not totally absorb their attention ; they likewise lent their assistance in the two other\nwhich were also barracks , combining with the passive obedience of the soldier , the spontaneous submission of the religious , living shoulder to shoulder in brotherly union , commander and subordinate , these orders surpassed , in that cohesiveness which is the ideal of every military organization , the most famous bodies of picked soldiery known to history , from the macedonian phalanx to the ottoman janissaries .\n, which was republished later in 1932 , 1945 and 1949 . it listed the family names of noble and knight degrees granted by the princes amoroso d\u2019aragona as to direct descendants and heritors of former caesarean house\namoriense\n( found by mihail ii travl , the caesar of byzantium in 820 \u2013 829 ) and to the ranked as supreme magister of own dynastic orders .\nincluding twenty - two houses and that of new - spain , eleven . to the ordinary religious\nin accordance with the willing of the prince luigi amoroso d\u2019aragona ( 1959 \u2013 1996 ) , from the 1992 , the right to be granted for the titles of both dynastic institutes of house amoroso d\u2019aragona was extended to orthodox christians and protestants , although earlier there were only the catholic knights .\nprince dagobert de amorosa closed his eyes on the 5th of october 1482 in naples and was buried in the church of st dominica - s . domenico maggiore di napoli . he didn\u2019t have children .\n, pedro was born at villaflora on the island of teneriffe in 1619 . from childhood he led a\nthe hospitaller bethlehemites , or belemites , were founded by the ven . pedro de betancourt . a descendant of the celebrated juan de betancourt , who , early in the fifteenth century , achieved the conquest of the\nshop for fresh breads baked by the brothers of genesee abbey , along with coffee , cakes and more .\n, pictured by the earl antonio crispo . the pope passed the apostolic blessing to the knights and all the attending . the audience was finished by ceremonial representative of the military honors by swiss guards of the st throne .\n; beyond this it has left but little trace except a church of remarkable architecture , st . nicholas , at\nand country , thus carrying out his desire of going to the west indies . during the following year he reached\nconfirmed the congregation and its constitutions ( 1673 ) . after his return to america this religious founded the hospital of\n, has served as a model for all the others . after barely a century of existence , they were suppressed by\nplease help support the mission of new advent and get the full contents of this website as an instant download . includes the catholic encyclopedia , church fathers , summa , bible and more \u0097 all for only $ 19 . 99 . . .\nin 1558 , to watch over and preserve that sanctuary . these distinctions were mostly granted to functionaries of the pontifical chancery .\n, had recaptured from mohammed ii . the island was to be their headquarters whence they were to oppose the attacks of the\nand the erection of a beautiful church . brother anthony , who assumed the government , drew up constitutions which he submitted to the\nin 1468 , failing to perpetuate their existence , owing to the lack of territorial possessions , gave place to a purely secular confraternity .\nhelp us make the future plans of the monastery a reality . we would be grateful for your contributions as we renovate the monastery .\nde curtis griffo focas\u201d is the second imperial dynasty , recognized at the same period in italy equally to the house of amoroso d\u2019aragona .\nabbey news schedule change friday , june 8th feast of the sacred heart mass 10 am followed by adoration until vespers . . . read more \u2192\nthe natural beauty , silence and solitude of the verdant genesee river valley so conducive for the contemplative life provides an ideal location for the monastery .\nwith which they decked themselves , and which they distributed among their dupes lavishly \u0097 though not gratuitously . hence came a whole category of orders justly considered\nabbey news schedule change this thursday , may 10th , is ascension thursday , a holy day of obligation . mass will be at . . . read more \u2192\nby tradition , the ceremony of accepting the new chevaliers is hold in italy , in cathedral san sabine , bari , and in the church san salvador , rimini .\nabbey news solemnity of st . benedict this coming wednesday , july 11th , we ' ll be joining the entire benedictine family in celebrating . . . read more \u2192\ngoverned by an elective grand - master . the white costume worn by the members was decorated with a red cross and the rule prescribed for them was very similar to that of the\ncalls attention to the former in his\ngrande chronique\n( tr . huillard - br\u00e9holles , paris , 1840 , 8vo , iii , 300 ) where he mentions that henry iii of\nwhere they were very favourably received by the viceroy to whom he had recommended them . doctor antoine * d ' arvila gave them the hospital of notre dame du carmel which he was then establishing at\nmir\u00e6us , origine des chevalier et ordres militaires ( antwerp , 1609 ) ; favyn , histoire des ordres de chevalerie ( 2 vols . , paris , 1620 ) ; bielenfeld , geschichte und verfassung aller ritterorden ( weimar , 1841 ) ; cappeleti , storia degli ordini cavallereschi ( leghorn , 1904 ) ; clarke , concise history of knighthood , ii ( london , 1884 ) ; digby , the broad stone of honour ( london , 1876 - 77 ) ; lawrence - archer , the orders of chivalry ( london , 1887 ) ; see also bibliographies attached to special articles on the several great orders .\nof st . francis , adopting its religious garb which he still retained after founding his congregation . he personally trained his first disciples and had no wish to organize a community , but simply to establish his\nin accordance with the capitul ( cap . \u2116 ix , art . 63 , 64 , 74 ) and decreet of the supreme magister from the 8th december 1994 , each class has its own category :\nhad passed . the orders of any historical existence may be reduced to three categories : ( a ) the greater regular orders ; ( b ) the lesser regular orders ; ( c ) the secular orders .\ncontact information . the editor of new advent is kevin knight . my email address is webmaster at newadvent . org . regrettably , i can ' t reply to every letter , but i greatly appreciate your feedback \u2014 especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads .\ninvoices will be emailed within 48 hours following the conclusion of the auction . payments can be made by mail , to the following address : centurion auctions4196 w . us highway 90lake city , fl 32055or by telephone : 386 - 868 - 2889we also accept wire transfers . please contact the gallery for wire instructions .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nin those days employed so freely . they did not all follow the same monastic rule . the\nin all its rigour ; they were permitted , in certain orders , to marry once , and that only with a maiden . even where second marriages were tolerated , they had to\nwere the heavy cavalry ; the men - at - arms - brethren , the light cavalry . the former were entitled to three horses a piece ; the latter had to be content with one . among the former , only\nnihil obstat . october 1 , 1911 . remy lafort , s . t . d . , censor .\nas to their founder , where they originated , and their history . we only\nalso excited his compassion . every thursday he begged for them through the city and visited them in their cells . the neglected\nhe was buried in their church where , for a long time , his remains were held in veneration .\nrequested him to make some alterations in the habit worn by his religious . a free\nand observed the same rule as the men and they , too , were suppressed in 1820 .\nh lyot , histoire des ordres monastiques , iii , 355 - 356 ; viii , 371 - 372 ; baronius , annales ecclesiastici ( lucca , 1753 ) , xxix , 179 - 180 ; heimbucher , die orden und kongregationen , i , 497 - 498 ; de montalvo , vida del venerable pedro de san jos betancourt ( rome , 1718 ) ; eyzaguirre , los intereses cat licos en am rica ( paris , 1859 ) , ii , 304 - 306 , 408 - 410 .\nnihil obstat . 1907 . remy lafort , s . t . d . , censor .\nsince the 1730 , the prince filippo augusto amoroso d\u2019aragona ( 1722 \u2013 1744 ) is resuming the chivalric investitures in neapolitan kingdom .\nin 1903 the knights headed by the great magister the prince luigi cesario amoroso d\u2019aragona ( 1899 \u2013 1931 ) were put up by pope pius x on the private audience . the inscription in the document\nthe category is granted to the chevaliers born in noble , or raised to a squireship now days .\nthe category is associated with the chevaliers distinguished by a special deserts , whose ascendants by women line belonged to a noble families , or without the noble origin .\n( viadell ' immacolata , 13 - 31100 treviso tel . 0422 - 261892 fax 0422 - 1780767 )\nwelcome to the world ' s largest marketplace for fine art , antiques & collectibles .\ndomestic : insured , traceable shipping charges will be added to invoices . international : traceable shipping service ( we cannot insure international shipments ) . buyers receive a shipping notification by email when their items ship . once paid , please allow up to 14 business days for items to ship . local pickup is also available by appointment .\nsince 2002 , liveauctioneers has made exceptional items available for safe purchase in secure online auctions .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nnotice : cookies are required to make purchases on this web site . please enable\nfirst - party\ncookies in your browser .\nsecond - party\n,\nthird - party\n, or\ntracking\ncookies are not used on this web site .\nnotice : this website is best viewed with javascript enabled . please enable client - side scripting in your browser .\nthank you for visiting us . if you have any questions or concerns , for further information , or to report problems with these pages contact us .\npyx khs 2 1 / 8\nx 1 / 2\n$ 20 . 00\nthese are 14 kt gold plated , 925 sterling as well as bronze plating .\nofficial name abbaye de la clart\u00e9 - dieu ( dem . rep . congo )"]}
{"id": 2001, "summary": [{"text": "macroglossum aquila is a moth of the family sphingidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from north-eastern india , bangladesh , thailand , southern china , vietnam , malaysia ( peninsular , sarawak ) , indonesia ( sumatra , java , kalimantan ) and the philippines ( luzon ) .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is 49 \u2013 54 mm . ", "topic": 9}], "title": "macroglossum aquila", "paragraphs": ["macroglossum aquila boisduval macroglossa aquila boisduval , 1875 , hist . nat . insectes , spec . gen . lep . , 1 : 340 . macroglossum aquila boisduval ; rothschild & jordan , 1903 : 657 .\nno one has contributed data records for macroglossum aquila yet . learn how to contribute .\nminden pictures stock photos - hummingbird hawk moth ( macroglossum aquila ) hovering near a flower , feeding on the nectar by means of its long probosci . . .\nmacroglossa aquila boisduval , [ 1875 ] , in : boisduval & guen\u00e9e , hist . nat . insectes ( spec . g\u00e9n . l\u00e9pid . h\u00e9t\u00e9roc\u00e8res ) 1 : 340 . type locality : [ bangladesh , ] silhet [ sylhet ] ; cochinchina [ vietnam ] .\nmacroglossum geoffmartini ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 10\nmacroglossum eggeri ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 10\nmacroglossum haxairei ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 10\nmacroglossum loeffleri ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 10\nmacroglossum luteata ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 14\nmacroglossum oceanicum ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 14\nmacroglossum perplexum ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 15\nmacroglossum pseudocorythus ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 15\nmacroglossum pseudoluteata ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 15\nmacroglossum stenoxanthum ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 15\nmacroglossum sulai ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 15\nmacroglossum corythus fuscicauda ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 12\nmacroglossum buruensis holland , 1900 ; novit . zool . 7 ( 3 ) : 556 ; tl : buru\nmacroglossum corythus fulvicaudata ; [ hmw ] ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 12\nmacroglossum corythus novebudensis ; [ hmw ] ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 12\nmacroglossum corythus novirlandum ; [ hmw ] ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 12\nmacroglossum corythus platyxanthum ; [ hmw ] ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 13\nmacroglossum corythus pylene ; [ hmw ] ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 13\nmacroglossum corythus xanthurus ; [ hmw ] ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 14\nmacroglossum sulai eitschberger , 2002 ; neue ent . nachr . 54 : 166 ; tl : sulawesi , selatan , bungku\nwingspan : 49 - - 54mm . immediately distinguishable from all other species of macroglossum by the costal edge of hindwing dilated into a rounded lobe in proximal half . forewing upperside with antemedian lines placed more basally than in other species of macroglossum .\nmacroglossum marquesanum collenette , 1935 ; bull . bishop mus . 114 : 209 ; tl : hivaoa , kaava ridge , 2460ft\n? macroglossum palauensis matsumura , 1930 ; trans . sapporo nat . hist . soc . 11 : 120 ; tl : japan\nmacroglossum eggeri eitschberger , 2002 ; neue ent . nachr . 54 : 173 - 174 ; tl : sulawesi , selatan , parigi\nmacroglossum pseudocorythus eitschberger , 2002 ; neue ent . nachr . 54 : 158 ; tl : sulawesi , selatan , makki , 800m\nmacroglossum pseudoluteata eitschberger , 2002 ; neue ent . nachr . 54 : 165 ; tl : sulawesi , selatan , palolo , 800m\nmacroglossum micacea albibase rothschild , 1905 ; novit . zool . 12 ( 1 ) : 79 ; tl : bougainville i . , solomons\nmacroglossum perplexum eitschberger , 2002 ; neue ent . nachr . 54 : ? 16 , 170 ; tl : sulawesi , selatan , mamujuju\nmacroglossum geoffmartini eitschberger , 2002 ; neue ent . nachr . 54 : 172 - 173 ; tl : sulawesi , selatan , n of palopo\nmacroglossum haxairei eitschberger , 2002 ; neue ent . nachr . 54 : 174 - 175 ; tl : sulawesi , selatan , paredean , 700m\nmacroglossum sylvia ; hogenes & treadaway , 1998 , nachr . ent . ver . apollo , suppl . 17 : 88 ( part . )\nmacroglossum fuscicauda rothschild & jordan , 1903 ; novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 663 ; tl : lifu , loyalty island\nmacroglossum novebudensis clark , 1926 ; proc . new england zool . cl . 9 : 54 - 55 ; tl : tanna , new hebrides\nmacroglossum xanthurus rothschild & jordan , 1903 ; novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 662 ; tl : larat , tenimber island\nmacroglossum oceanicum rothschild & jordan , 1915 ; novit . zool . 22 ( 2 ) : 292 ; tl : solomon islands , chago archipelago\nmacroglossum sylvia ; rothschild & jordan , 1903 , 658 ; [ hmw ] ; eitschberger , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 58 : 15\nmacroglossum ungues rothschild & jordan , 1903 ; novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 643 ; tl : buru , amboina , java , etc\nmacroglossum loeffleri eitschberger , 2002 ; neue ent . nachr . 54 : 171 - 172 ; tl : n . vietnam , 55km nww hanoi , tam dao\nmacroglossum lepidum rothschild & jordan , 1915 ; novit . zool . 22 ( 2 ) : 287 , pl . 20 , f . 5 ; tl : nias\nmacroglossum iwasakii matsumura , 1921 ; thous . ins . japan ( additam . ) 4 : 754 , pl . 54 , f . 9 ; tl : japan\nmacroglossum faro ; rothschild & jordan , 1903 , novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 665 , pl . 4 , f . 14 ; [ hmw ]\nmacroglossum sylvia ; inoue , kennett & kitching , 1997 , the moths of thailand 2 : 101 , pl . 30 , f . 136 , p . 146 gen 28\nmacroglossum kadneri eitschberger , 2004 ; neue ent . nachr . 58 : 7 , 10 , pl . 1 & 2 , f . 5 ; tl : indonesia , sulawesi , selatan , salubai\nmacroglossum palawana eitschberger & treadaway , 2004 ; neue ent . nachr . 58 : 7 , 10 , pl . 1 & 2 , f . 6 ; tl : philippines , palawan , irawan , 50m\nmacroglossum trigi eitschberger , 2004 ; neue ent . nachr . 58 : 4 , 11 , pl . 1 & 2 , f . 3 ; tl : indonesia , sulawesi , selatan , n of palopo\nmacroglossum napolovi eitschberger , 2004 ; neue ent . nachr . 58 : 9 , 10 , pl . 1 & 2 , f . 9 ; tl : n . vietnam , 55km nnw hanoi , tam dao\nmacroglossum wolframmeyi eitschberger & treadaway , 2004 ; neue ent . nachr . 58 : 8 , 11 , pl . 1 & 2 , f . 8 ; tl : philippines , off palawan , cuyo i . , 400ft\nin the male genitalia , uncus gradually narrowed , apically obtuse , slightly downcurved . gnathos rounded apically . valve with stridulatory scales . harpe short , stout , upperside excavated , edges dentate , looking like a brush in lateral view . aedeagus with a patch of teeth near the base of the apical process , which is slender , denticulate basally , along its proximal edge and at the apex , which is obtuse .\nchina : guangdong ; guangxi ( guilin ; longsheng ) ; hainan ( wanning ) .\nnortheastern india , bangladesh , thailand , southern china , vietnam , malaysia ( peninsular , sarawak ) , indonesia ( sumatra , java , kalimantan ) , philippines ( luzon ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nhistoire naturelle des insectes . species g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res h\u00e9t\u00e9roc\u00e8res . 1 . sphingides , s\u00e9siides , castnides 340\nsyntypes [ bangladesh : ] silhet [ sylhet ] ; cochinchina [ vietnam ] [ cmnh ] . only a male syntype from\ncochinchina\nhas been found in the cmnh .\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\ndiagnosis . the hindwings have the costa ( seen from below ) with an angular expansion at one third . the yellow band above is constricted centrally by the sharply angular border of the distal black zone . geographical range . n . e . himalaya to sundaland , philippines . habitat preference . two specimens have been taken in recent surveys , both from lowland forest in brunei ( harman , 1981 ) .\nmacroglossa vialis butler , 1875 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1875 : 240 , pl . 36 , f . 5 ; tl : canara\nmacroglossa interrupta butler , 1875 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1875 : 242 , pl . 37 , f . 2 ; tl : darjeeling\nmacroglossa belia hampson , [ 1893 ] ; fauna br . india ( moths ) 1 : 114 ; tl : ceylon\n1024x768 ( ~ 71kb ) oppadake , okinawa , ryukyu , japan , 7 - 93 , photo \u00a9 s . shuichi haupt\nmacroglossa calescens butler , 1882 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 5 ) 10 ( 56 ) : 156 ; tl : new britain\nmacroglossa dohertyi rothschild , 1894 ; novit . zool . 1 ( 1 ) : 67 , pl . 5 , f . 2 ; tl : amboina\nsphinx faro cramer , [ 1780 ] ; uitl . kapellen 3 ( 23 - 24 ) : 165\nrhamphoschisma godeffroyi butler , 1882 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 5 ) 10 ( 56 ) : 157 ; tl : duke - of - york i .\nmacroglossa burmanica rothschild , 1894 ; novit . zool . 1 ( 1 ) : 68 , pl . 5 , f . 3 ; tl : burma\nheliophila divergens ( walker , 1856 ) ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 8 : 94\nmacroglossa hemichroma butler , 1875 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1875 : 243 , pl . 37 , f . 1 ; tl : silhet\nindo - australian tropics , australia , hong kong , sumatra , java . see [ maps ]\nhong kong , japan , peninsular malaysia , sumatra , borneo , ? sulawesi . see [ maps ]\nmacroglossa mitchelli m\u00e9n\u00e9tri\u00e9s , 1857 ; cat . lep . petersb . 2 : 95\nmacroglossa semifasciata hampson , [ 1893 ] ; fauna br . india ( moths ) 1 : 115\nmacroglossa orientalis butler , 1877 ; trans . zool . soc . lond . 9 ( 19 ) : 528 ; tl : moulmein\nnaf , seu , ceu , am , ac , s . india , indochina . see [ maps ]\n1000x643 ( ~ 116kb ) northern greece , axios delta , june 1995 , photo \u00a9 dylan lloyd leg .\nmacroglossa similis rothschild , 1894 ; novit . zool . 1 ( 1 ) : 68 ; tl : oinainissa\nmacroglossa corythus walker , 1856 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 8 : 92 ; tl : ceylon\nmacroglossa proxima butler , 1875 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1875 : 4 , pl . 1 , f . 1 ; tl : ceylon , canara\nmacroglossa proxima ; moore , 1882 , lepid . ceylon 2 ( 1 ) : 29 , pl . 91 , f . 1a - b\nmacroglossa fulvicaudata butler , 1882 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 5 ) 10 ( 56 ) : 155 ; tl : new britain\nmacroglossa moluccensis rothschild , 1894 ; novit . zool . 1 ( 1 ) : 67 ; tl : batjan , n . molucca islands\nmacroglossa luteata butler , 1875 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1875 : 241 , pl . 37 , f . 5 ; tl : silhet\n[ dylan lloyd ] hafanedd , deiniol rd . , bangor , wales , u . k . , ll57 2up\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nhistoire naturelle des insectes . species g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e9res h\u00e9t\u00e9roc\u00e9res . tome premier . sphingides , s\u00e9siides , castnides\nlepidopterorum amboinensium a dre . l . doleschall annis 1856 - 58 collectorum species novae\nreise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera\n- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .\nsammlung exotischer schmetterlinge , vol . 2 ( [ 1819 ] - [ 1827 ] )\nsystema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum clases , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , symonymis , locis . tomis i . 10th edition\na catalogue of the lepidopterous insects in the museum of the hon . east - india company in horsfield & moore ,\na list of the lepidopterous insects collected by mr . ossian limborg in upper tenasserim , with descriptions of new species\nwallengren , 1858 nya fj\u00e4rilsl\u00e4gten - nova genera lepidopterorum \u00f6fvers . vet . akad . f\u00f6rh . 15 : 75 - 84 , 135 - 142 , 209 - 215\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nthis large moth caterpillar gives the threatening appearance of a snake head , which may help to ward off potential predators . the eye - spots are patches of color on the body of the caterpillar , with its real head curled beneath .\n\u00a9 ch ' ien c . lee ( 1996 - ) . by using this website you agree to the terms of use .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nterms | privacy | phone : 831 . 661 . 5551 | email : info @ urltoken | \u00a9 2015 minden pictures inc | all content on this website is protected by copyright"]}
{"id": 2012, "summary": [{"text": "flabellina verrucosa , is a species of sea slug , an aeolid nudibranch , a marine gastropod mollusc in the family flabellinidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found on either side of the northern part of the atlantic ocean . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "flabellina verrucosa", "paragraphs": ["worms - world register of marine species - flabellina verrucosa ( m . sars , 1829 )\ndear bill here are some photos of flabellina verrucosa from our recent trip to british columbia .\nstatus in world register of marine species synonym of flabellina verrucosa ( m . sars , 1829 )\nalso one should be aware of bernard picton ' s flabellina browni , which really is similar to flabellina verrucosa with long and slender cerata , but which is differentiated on the coloration .\nthe relatively short spindle - shaped cerata , and their arrangement into ' clumps ' seems to be characteristic of flabellina verrucosa .\nyou will see that k\u00e5re ' s photos very much match the original descriptions of flabellina verrucosa ; except the arrangement of the cerata which more resembles odhner ' s flabellina borealis . but k\u00e5re ' s photos are flabellina verrucosa with short cerata . the problem is that flabellina verrucosa has a long list of synonyms , which include individuals with long and slender cerata , and in most cases it is the animals with long cerata that are illustrated on the net ( as in coryphella rufibranchialis ) .\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nrotr\u00fcckige fadenschnecke\nto\nflabellina verrucosa ( m . sars , 1829 )\n.\nscientific synonyms and common names eolidia verrucosa m . sars , 1829 eolis rufibranchialis johnston , 1832 eolidia embletoni johnston , 1835 eolis diversa couthouy , 1839 eolis mananensis stimpson , 1854 aeolis bostoniensis approximans m\u00f6rch , 1857 coryphella robusta trinchese , 1874 coryphella rufibranchialis cocholata balch , 1908 eolis landsburgi sensu auct . non alder & hancock , 1846 coryphella gracilis bostoniensis ; lemche , 1936 coryphella verrucosa rufibranchialis ; odhner , 1939 coryphella verrucosa verrucosa ; odhner , 1939 coryphella verrucosa ( sars m . , 1829 ) : picton , 1995 flabellina verrucosa\nof this one we can be fairly certain - flabellina verrucosa and its eggs on the well grazed bushy pink - mouthed hydroids ( ectopleura crocea ) .\nthe flabellina verrucosa were very abundant and were found feeding on tubularia up in the shallower water less than 40 feet deep . take care , bruce wight\nconcerning the correspondence about flabellina verrucosa with short cerata . these photos show the short cerata , with clear gaps in between . i am puzzled by this appearence - is it really a flabellina verrucosa ? i am bound to think otherwise . in particular look at the white lines on the rhinopores , and the length of them .\ndear paul , terry gosliner has identified these as flabellina verrucosa . in the bottom right photo i have included an inset of the hydroid i presume they are looking for .\ndear alan , as you can see in the messages from terry gosliner and chad sisson , your animals are flabellina verrucosa with a very interesting diet . best wishes , bill rudman\nhi bill , i ' ve attached a picture of flabellina verrucosa showing the tail , which i find very distinctive , but isn ' t shown clearly in the pictures already on the forum .\ni am pretty certain that the specimens that betsey photographed and that you tentatively identified as flabellina verrucosa is without a doubt correctly identified as f . verrucosa . the main external characteristics for differentiating f . verrucosa from flabellina gracilis is that the cerata are more distinctly arranged in rows in f . gracilis and there is a more prominent vestige of a notal brim in f . gracilis . also f . gracilis has a sort of notched head between the junction of the oral tentacles and more elongate anterior margins of the foot ' .\nmore feeding flabellina verrucosa . this time chomping down on the giant pink - mouth hydroid , tubularia indivisa . one specimen about to feed . the other image shows a specimen having completed its grazing on this hydroid .\nso , what have we learned from these studies ? what features of a nematocyst are important in its selection by a nudibranch , specifically , by flabellina verrucosa ? consider these answers , then click here for explanations .\nhi bill , here ' s a flabellina verrucosa balancing on a pink - mouth hydroid stalk . i ' ve assumed they ate the orange ones in my earlier photos , but this may show they like both varieties !\nhi bill , here is another common british columbia aeolid , flabellina verrucosa . the dive site is dodd narrows , near nanaimo , on vancouver island . they are often found on this electric orange hydroid , garveia annulata .\nthanks terry , it would be great to get some more photos showing the variation in f . verrucosa . bill rudman .\nthanks bernard , very soon i won ' t have any excuse to misidentify any north atlantic flabellina . best wishes , bill rudman\ngreenwood & mariscal 1984 mar biol 80 : 35 ; drawing from k\u00e4lker & schmekel 1976 zoomorph 86 : 41 for flabellina trilineata .\nwhen i initially saw it i thought it was just a variation of f . verrucosa but wasn ' t sure . dr . larry harris , university of new hampshire has identified it as flabellina verrucosa , although a bit emaciated . he notes that the gonads are not fully developed . andy martinez , author of marinlife of the north atlantic concurs with dr . harris ' id .\nmore recent studies on nematocyst complement in flabellina verrucosa in the gulf of maine show that while it is a generalist predator of hydroids , it also eats jellyfish scyphistomae . about 70 % of flabellina \u2019s nematocysts come from the hydroids tubularia crocea and eudendrium spp . most of these are of a type known as heterotrichous microbasic euryteles , which are predominant in these species ( see drawing on left ) .\ndear bill , alan shepard ' s photos look to me like pale specimens of flabellina verrucosa . this species is highly variable , especially in the color of the digestive gland that is visible through the cerata . it can range from pale pink to red to chocolate brown . the opaque white markings on the oral tentacles and the arrangement of the cerata appear to be characteristic of f . verrucosa .\nhi bill , here is flabellina verrucosa from british columbia , canada . it is also present in north atlantic waters , i ' ve been told . it is very common on vancouver island . this is a fairly small animal , 1 to 3 cm . usually . marli .\ndear bill , i checked with my advisor , larry harris , and he agreed that alan shepard ' s aeolids are flabellina verrucosa feeding on scyphistomae . note the white color variation and bright - white cnidosacs . also , they have unusually swollen anterior foot tentacles , probably from being stung by some potent nematocysts . we have documented f . verrucosa with a similar morphology and diet on floating docks in beverly , ma .\non this same dive i found placida dendritica ( first time in the cove ) , flabellina verrucosa , aeolidia papillosa , polycera dubia , acanthodoris pilosa and onchidoris muricata . not bad on a short 40 minute dive in 40f water . best wishes , alan shepard tolland , ct , usa\ndear marli , animals such as flabellina verrucosa , which are found in the northern waters of both the pacific and atlantic oceans are called circum - boreal . you ' ll see photos on the forum of this species from the atlantic coast of usa . best wishes , bill rudman .\nhi bill , further to your discussion on long and short cerata on flabellina verrucosa : i had never seen the short variety , when shortly thereafter found a small one whilst diving in howe sound near vancouver , british columbia . i have also never seen one in such an intense shade of crimson .\n( of eolidia verrucosa sars m . , 1829 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhi bill , here are some flabellina verrucosa from the broughton archipelago . they are eating tubularia crocea . these are the ' long cerata ' type . location : broughton archipelago , british columbia , canada . depth : 45 feet . , length : 10 - 12mm . , may 2003 . photos : marli wakeling\ndear paul , this is flabellina verrucosa , about which we ' ve already said most things . this individual shows two of the features which i think are diagnostic for this species : the white line along the tail extending amongst the last few cerata and the narrow white line on the dorsal side of the oral tentacles .\nif this is coryphella rufibranchialis then it is more correctly called flabellina verrucosa . there is a history of confusion in the names of this genus on both sides of the atlantic . i ' ll put up some comments when we get them definitively identified . i don ' t want to perpetuate the confusion by further misidentifications .\ni may be wrong , but it doesn ' t look like f . verrucosa to me . hopefully some of our northern european colleagues will have some suggestions .\nto accompany my message about salmon - gill flabellina from new england here are photos of the ones which are red or chocolate brown and are locally called red - gills .\ndear betsey , thanks for the photos from maine . can you give me a little more detail on the locality please ? the brown colour form is a colour form of flabellina verrucosa . the colour in aeolids is often a result of the colour of their food which accumulates in the ducts of the digestive gland , which are in the cerata .\nalan , thank you for the excellent photos , this is a relatively rare feeding type of f . verrucosa . all the best , chad sisson university of new hampshire zoology dept .\nc . verrucosa has been reported on all depths down to 300 meters . sand or rocky substrate on current exposed locations seems to be preferred . if is usually encountered grazing on hydroids .\ni ' m reasonably sure these are flabellina verrucosa , but would appreciate confirmation . they are fairly profuse at harper ' s ferry , a popular dive site on the west side of puget sound near port orchard . most are an inch long at most , so getting a good macro photo is a good challenge . the photos are of two different ones that we found on successive dives at this site .\nhi , can anyone help id which flabellina these may be ? found at 40 - 45 feet in hakai pass - port hardy area , bc , canada . are they just variations on the same theme ?\nflabellina iodinea showing brightly coloured ( to our eyes ) cerata with tips containing nematocyst - filled sacs . next to nothing is known about the how the sacs function in defense in these or other aeolid nudibranchs 3x\ncomparison from terry gosliner message below : ' the main external characteristics for differentiating f . verrucosa from flabellina gracilis is that the cerata are more distinctly arranged in rows in f . gracilis and there is a more prominent vestige of a notal brim in f . gracilis . also f . gracilis has a sort of notched head between the junction of the oral tentacles and more elongate anterior margins of the foot ' .\nhi ! i found several individuals of this aeolid , looking a little like flabellina verrucosa , which is quite common along the norwegian coast . however , some details seem to differ : \u2022 shorter cerata , not organized in the traditional two rows . \u2022 a naked patch on the back . \u2022 some eggs found on the location , laid in circles . ( i am assuming they were laid by these individuals ) .\ndear wendy , i am pretty sure that the upper right and lower left photos are of flabellina verrucosa , the white - tipped cerata , the white line on the oral tentacles and the white line down the ' tail ' all suggest that species . i am not so sure of the third photo [ lower right ] however and so if someone with local knowledge can comment i would be grateful . best wishes , bill rudman\ndear bill , in response to k\u00e5re ' s recent message , here is a scan of the original illustrations by m . sars ( 1829 ) of eolidia verrucosa [ plate 2 , figs 1 - 4 ] .\nalthough only about 0 . 5 % of flabellina \u2019s nematocysts come from scyphistomae ( see green dots in table ) , these polyps are selected over any others in choice tests , perhaps because of the toxicity of their nematocysts .\nmany species of aeolid nudibranchs , including flabellina trilineata shown in the photograph , sequester undischarged nematocysts , apparently for use in their own defense . the nematocysts are housed in special sacs or cnidosacs located in the tips of the cerata .\n( of eolidia verrucosa sars m . , 1829 ) sars , m . ( 1829 ) . bidrag til s\u00f6edyrenes naturhistorie . chr . dahl , bergen . 1 : 1 - 60 , plates 1 - 6 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 9 [ details ]\nof the red - gills there are elongated ones with a few growths on their backs [ lower left photo ] as well as the more common ones with completely covered backs [ other photos ] . we think these are f . verrucosa , f . pellucida , or f . gracilis .\nreferences flabellina verrucosa ( m . sars , 1829 ) . in sea slug forum . australian museum , sydney . accessed 26 / 01 / 2016 . lamb , a . , and hanby , b . ( 2005 ) . marine life of the pacific northwest [ electronic version ] . madeira park , bc : harbour publishing . picton , b . e . & morrow , c . c . ( 2015 ) . coryphella rufibranchialis ( johnston , 1832 ) . encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland . accessed 26 / 01 / 2016 . authors and editors of page kelly fretwell ( 2016 ) .\nthese individuals were all photographed as a part in my project to elucidate the two forms ( long ceratal and short ceratal form ) relationship . the animals with long cerata were photographed at three meters depth at jordfall . the short ceratal form ( verrucosa form ) was photographed at yttre vattenholmen outside str\u00f6mstad .\n( of aeolidia verrucosa m . sars , 1829 ) backeljau , t . ( 1986 ) . lijst van de recente mariene mollusken van belgi\u00eb [ list of the recent marine molluscs of belgium ] . koninklijk belgisch instituut voor natuurwetenschappen : brussels , belgium . 106 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\ndear alan , it certainly looks like a crustacean of some sort . certainly some glaucids , such as a austraeolis ornata and hermissenda crassicornis are known to eat the odd bit of carrion , but i haven ' t heard of species of flabellina doing this . it certainly seems an interesting observations for someone to follow up . best wishes , bill rudman\ni just got a message from bernard picton who suggested the scyphistoma in chad ' s photo is probably aurelia aurita so i had another search of mcdonald & nybakken ' s list and found the following references to feeding on aurelia aurita ' polyps ' . clearly predation by f . verrucosa on the scyphistomae stage of aurelai can be an important factor in aurelia populations , at least in sweden .\nnote the conspicuous size difference between predator and prey . the left photo - pair shows aversive behaviour to f . iodinea . the right photo - pair shows the same predator 20min later attacking and eating another nematocyst - defended aeolid , hermissenda crassicornis . not all naive predators show the same aversive responses to flabellina ; about half of the 40 - or so pleurobranchaea tested in the study simply attack and eat up the prey\non the lower left photo the inset is showing the white sreak on the rhinophore which is one of the external identification points of this species . the colour and shape of the head and head tentacles are important in identifying species of flabellina but as your photos show , when these animals are busy looking for food they don ' t make it easy for you to photograph their important features . best wishes , bill rudman .\nto barcode of life ( 36 barcodes ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 13 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 14 publications ) ( from synonym eolidia verrucosa sars m . , 1829 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 44 publications ) ( from synonym coryphella rufibranchialis ( johnston , 1832 ) ) to clemam ( from synonym eolis mananensis stimpson , 1853 ) to clemam ( from synonym coryphella rufibranchialis cocholata balch , 1908 ) to clemam ( from synonym coryphella rufibranchialis ( johnston , 1832 ) ) to clemam ( from synonym eolis diversa couthouy , 1839 ) to clemam ( from synonym eolidia verrucosa sars m . , 1829 ) to clemam ( from synonym eolidia embletoni johnston , 1835 ) to clemam ( from synonym coryphella robusta trinchese , 1874 ) to clemam to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 29 nucleotides ; 20 proteins ) to pesi ( from synonym coryphella robusta trinchese , 1874 ) to pesi to pesi ( from synonym eolidia embletoni johnston , 1835 ) to pesi ( from synonym eolis diversa couthouy , 1839 ) to pesi ( from synonym eolidia verrucosa sars m . , 1829 ) to pesi ( from synonym coryphella rufibranchialis cocholata balch , 1908 ) to pesi ( from synonym eolis mananensis stimpson , 1853 ) to pesi ( from synonym coryphella rufibranchialis ( johnston , 1832 ) ) to sea slug forum ( via archive . org ) to itis\nin response to your question : i do not know of any research done involving this specific diet for f . verrucosa . i simply meant that these nudibranchs are rarely found associated with this food , but when they are , they have a very distinct color and morphology . i do not know if they switch to another diet once the scyphistomae have run out , but it wouldn ' t surprise me if they did take advantage of whatever is around .\nyour photos are useful reminder to me of how difficult it is for non - professionals to identify species they find or photograph . my first act when i find something i don ' t recognise is to dissect it and look at the radula to confirm what family or genus is belongs to , because the outside can sometimes be very misleading . i have just posted a page of photos of the radula of flabellina poenicia which illustrates a tooth shape which is very characteristic of the genus . looking at your three species i am not even sure they are all flabellinids . best wishes , bill rudman .\n\u2022 hernroth , lars , & fredrik gr\u00f6ndahl . 1985 . the biology of aurelia aurita ( l . ) 3 . predation by coryphella verrucosa ( gastropoda , opisthobranchia ) , a major factor regulating the development of aurelia populations in the gullmar fjord , western sweden . ophelia , 24 ( 1 ) : 37 - 45 . \u2022 hernroth , l . , & f . gr\u00f6ndahl . 1985a . on the biology of aurelia aurita ( l . ) : 2 . major factors regulating the occurrence of ephyrae and young medusae in the gullmar fjord , western sweden . bulletin of marine science , 37 ( 2 ) : 567 - 576 .\ndescription : currently considered to be a form of coryphella verrucosa . the body is translucent white in colour with opaque white pigment on the tips of the oral tentacles and in a broken line along the centre of the back which becomes continuous on the long tail . the cerata are numerous and arranged in clusters along the sides and back of the body , almost hiding the white centreline . they are filled with red or orange - red granular digestive gland . the cerata have a thin , sometimes incomplete , ring of white pigment below the tip . typically about 15mm - 25mm in length , but well - fed individuals may be larger .\ndear k\u00e5re , this is an interesting find . you wouldn ' t by chance have have a photo showing the front of the foot more clearly ? in the smaller animal in the upper photo it looks like the front edge of the foot could have the front corners extended into pointed ' angles ' , but i am not sure . i first thought this might be a species of cuthona , but in that genus the anterior foot corners are rounded . the egg ribbon , if it does belong to these animals , could certainly be that of a flabellina . in your lower right photo the animal is eating what seems to be a large solitary hydroid - perhaps a tubularia .\nthe closest i can come to an identification is a painting of henning lemche ' s of an animal from jutland , denmark ( just & edmunds , 1985 ) , which the authors , suggest is an aberrant form of f . verrucosa . like your animals , the cerata are short and inflated , and are arranged in a pattern of triangles down the body with bare patches down the dorsal midline . even the colour is almost identical . unfortunately , just & edmunds only had lemche ' s painting , no accompanying notes could be found , and no anatomical information . they suggested it was probably ' unhealthy when painted ' which certainly doesn ' t seem to apply to your animals .\nwhat would be interesting would be to see if they have any natural history differences . some species of flabellina change from feeding on one group of hydroids to another during the year so food differences may not be a simple thing to look at . another observation that might be useful would be to look at their egg masses . it is quite possible that their egg spirals might be of a different shape or even their eggs could be markedly different in size . if you would like a little project it would certainly be worth trying to photograph the egg ribbons of the two ' forms ' ideally as they are laying them . there may be no marked difference , but it would be exciting if there were , best wishes , bill rudman\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nconfusing ? it really is , and i think this group is in need of a careful revision .\n\u2022 sars , michael . 1829 . bidrag til soedyrene naturhistorie , pt . 1 , : pp . 1 - 59 , pls . 1 - 6 . bergen .\none anatomical point which seems worth following up is the shape of the anterior foot corners . in both sars ' painting and k\u00e5re ' s photo the anterior corners of the foot are rounded . although none of the photos in the forum of the long cerata form show the anterior foot clearly , there are plenty of illustrations in the literature showing that it has distinctly angular or even tentacular foot corners [ thompson & brown , 1984 ] . to me the ceratal shape and arrangement and the anterior foot corners are pretty good arguments for some separating them .\n\u2022 kuzirian , a . m . ( 1979 ) taxonomy and biology of four new england coryphellid nudibranchs . journal of molluscan studies , 45 : 239 - 261 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmate selection & copulation are dealt with in this section , while topics of egg - laying , embryonic development , hatching & larval life , settlement & metamorphosis , and ontogenetic development of behaviour are considered elsewhere .\nthis section on mate - selection & copulation is arranged alphabetically by genus . the genus hermissenda is considered here , while aeolidia , alderia , navanax & other cephalaspids , and aplysia & other anaspids are considered in their own sections .\ndone in oregon and california later are thought to be most likely accounts of mating . the reason for the misunderstanding owes in part to the extraordinary quickness of the actual copulatory act , which requires only 1 - 2sec . the author never observes copulation in\n, in part because of a possible expectation of an activity that would last several minutes or even hours as is customary in other opisthobranchs . the complexity of interactions involved in one of the studies is shown in this computer - simulated flow\n. be mindful as you go through it that the researcher is describing general behaviour in laboratory specimens with the understanding that it relates to agonism . with a bit of patience , and assuming that what is really being described is not agonism , but copulatory behaviour , the behavioural repertoire during mating can be noodled out to a few basic components . the line thicknesses in the diagram correspond with frequency of occurrence of any successive pair of behaviours .\nbegins with a touch of one individual by another , most commonly with tentacles or cerata . since\n- ing , which is right - side to right - side orientation that places the gonopore openings of the 2 individuals opposite one another .\n, which we know is preparatory to copulation . however , because copulation is not in the author ' s mind , we have to choose a spot for it to happen . a possible spot for this is marked with a bright yellow blob on the flow diagram , its\n- all familiar from research study 1 above . the author observes damage done by biting ( the jaws have serrated edges ) , describes \u201cwinners\u201d and \u201closers\u201d in the encounters , and notes that 26 % of the \u201cwinners\u201d , presumably the ones that break away first , are the larger individuals of the pairs ( thus , 74 % of\nwinners\nare smaller individuals ) . there are other behaviours shown in the diagram that may or may not play a role in copulation .\nrecall that the author believes the behaviour to be agonistic ; hence , the\nphysical\nnature of this term . tentacle - touching is described by other authors as more of a\ncaressing\nthis is only one possible route from\nsidling\nthat could lead to insemination . another shorter one would be\noccurs with low frequency . another , more round - about route on the chart following from an hypothetical copulation after\n, and this route also has the merit of large - dimension arrows . the reason for speculating on possible post -\n) , and more withdrawals . this goes on for some time and the video switches to show full right side - to - right side touching (\nsidling\n) and perhaps even copulation . it is\nhow the author of research study 1 above could initially interpret these behaviours as agonism .\nhowever , anthropomorphism is all too common in interpretation of animal behaviour . in this case , the terms\nflagellate\n,\nsidle\n,\nwinners\n, and\nlosers\n, are highly suggestive . is it possible that their initial selection may have prevented the author from standing back and viewing the behaviours more objectively ?\nno other nudibranch species appears to exhibit it , nor is it a feature known to be particularly common in gastropods . the author remarks on never having seen agonistic behaviour in\nin the field . as to the function of the putative agonistic behaviour , the author speculates that it may aid in food - getting and be a means of warding off predators . in another publication on the same subject the author tests what effect food deprivation has on the \u201cagonistic\u201d behaviour ? in these latter experiments , after 1 - 3d without food there is an increase in locomotory activity and an increase in\nagonistic\ninteractions . also , with each progressive day the frequency of encounters involving biting goes up , suggesting to the author that hunger may be the cause of the \u201cfighting\u201d\na common behaviour in nudibranchs when food is scarce or lacking , however , is to copulate . this makes sense because most species of nudibranchs live seasonally and , when their prey items are in short supply , they spend more time copulating . . . not fighting\nalthough the study may not be as relevant to \u201cagonistic\u201d behaviour as the author intended , the technique used may be useful for other types of experiments . in the present experiments , the author pinches off all cerata from several\nwith forceps , provides clam tissues as food , and waits until the cerata are regenerated . at this time the cnidosacs\nof nematocysts . the author then compares the behaviour of these \u201cnematocyst - free\u201d animals with that of normal control animals and finds no difference in level of \u201cagonistic\u201d behaviour . the technique , although not working out in the way that the author intended could , nevertheless , be a useful way to produce nematocyst - free aeolids for other types of experiments , for example ,\nto assess the defensive efficacy of the secondarily acquired nematocysts against fishes and other biting predators .\nthis is not a new idea , but appears not to have been done with west - coast nudibranchs .\nthe author is not able to check whether the cnidosacs were actually nematocyst - free , as all the animals die before this could be done . healthy\n, a second author agrees with the first that the species does engage in aggressive interactions with conspecifics . however , what is missing in the first descriptions , acording to the second author , is information on the temporal aspects of the interaction , specifically the timing of events from first contact to onset of sidling , and then to cerata movement , lunging and biting , withdrawing , and ending . these events are observed in specimens of\nfrom elkhorn slough , california and recorded on videotape for time - motion analysis . note in the data\nthat the mean duration of these activities is only about 80 seconds . the author comments that \u201calthough the animals are poised in copulation - like posture during sidling , it seems clear , as zack suggested , that these interactions are not copulatory since the time between initiation of sidling and cerata movement is on the average less than 10 seconds\u201d . in discussing the results , the author provides 2 possible explanations for flagellation and sidling : 1 ) to assess the aggressive motivation and size of the other individual , or 2 ) to assess the willingness of the other individual to mate . the author concludes by suggesting that more observations are needed to clarify the matter .\nthe diagram shows the durations of 4 sets of activities from first contact : begin sidling , move cerata , withdraw , and end . each horizontal set includes overall range , standard deviation , and mean for each set of activities . the vertical blue dotted line shows the mean end time in seconds for 19 individual nudibranchs\n, and that zack ' s original paper ( research studies 1 & 3 ) makes it clear that there may be other possible outcomes , including aggression .\nbecause the 2 papers ( research studies 4 & 6 ) were submitted for review at the same time for publication in the same volume of veliger , out of courtesy and interest the editor allowed each set of authors to read the other\u2019s submission and to make comments . the set of 4 articles in veliger is unique and makes for interesting reading\nin the same journal as the foregoing publications ( research studies 4 & 5 ) is a paper entitled , \u201c hermissenda : agonistic behavior or mating behavior ? \u201d in this paper researchers at friday harbor laboratories , washington note that agonism is not seen in the field in h . crassicornis , and describe the following pre - copulatory behaviours in laboratory specimens : 1 ) one animal follows another , 2 ) front individual turns , 3 ) they meet head - to - head , 4 ) make tentacle / tentacle contact , 5 ) withdraw , 5 ) make tentacle / cerata contact , 6 ) withdraw , 7 ) make tentacle / foot contact , 8 ) advance , and 9 ) jockey back - and - forth . time required : 10 - 30min .\nthe individuals then align their bodies on the right sides ( 1 - 3min ) , evert penises , expand penis ends into bulbs , and simultaneously ejaculate sperm in muscular contractions . the sperm is emitted in mucus . time for copulatory ejaculation : 1 - 2sec . the authors observe no biting damage , but suggest that the function of pre - copulatory contact may be to reduce the probablility of being eaten . this seems to confirm that aggression occurs , sometimes leading to \u201ccannibalism\u201d , but the authors reiterate their belief that agonistic behaviour does not normally ocur in the field in\nthe authors conclude that zack\u2019s observations are just of mating behaviour , and not anything else .\nlongley & longley 1981 veliger 24 : 230 ; longley & longley 1981 veliger 24 : 232 .\ncopulating . video and descrptive headings courtesy roger & alison longley , friday harbor laboratories .\nin santa cruz , california provides further detail on copulation and efficacy of sperm transfer . first , the rapidity of the copulatory event ( about 4sec on average ) markedly decreases the chance of complete transfer of sperm . in\n37 videotaped sequences of attempted copulation ( defined as 2 individuals with penises everted ) , almost half lead to failed sperm transfer in one or both individuals . interestingly , a frequent behaviour following sloppy sperm transfer is for an individual to twist its head backwards and consume all or part of the semen in the vicinity of the gonopore . if an individual is allowed to become\nhabitat : a common species in early spring at shallow exposed sites and deeper water which is exposed to tidal streams . the normal food is the hydroid tubularia indivisa but other smaller hydroids are eaten by juvenile specimens . the spawn consists of a thread which is laid in a smooth spiral like a clock spring .\ndistribution : a northern species in the british isles , occurring round scotland and in the irish sea south to the isle of man , but apparently absent from the western coasts of ireland and england . further distribution includes norway to the atlantic coast of america .\ndistribution map from nbn : interactive map : national biodiversity network mapping facility , data for uk .\npicton , b . e . & morrow , c . c . ( 2016 ) . coryphella rufibranchialis ( johnston , 1832 ) . [ in ] encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland . urltoken accessed on 2018 - 07 - 09\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\nthe evolution of gastropod body size in the deep sea is reexamined . using an extended and updated data set , and improved statistical methods , it is shown that some results of the previous study may have been artifactual , but that its central conclusion is robust . it is further shown that the effect is not restricted to a single gastropod clade , that its strength increases markedly with depth , but that it applies even in the mesopelagic zone .\nthe replication of the island rule in a distant taxonomic group and a partially analogous ecological situation could help to uncover the causes of the patterns observed\u2014which are currently much disputed . the gastropod pattern is evident at intermediate depths , and so cannot be attributed to the unique features of abyssal ecology .\ncitation : welch jj ( 2010 ) the \u201cisland rule\u201d and deep - sea gastropods : re - examining the evidence . plos one 5 ( 1 ) : e8776 . urltoken\ncopyright : \u00a9 2010 john j . welch . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : some preliminary work undertaken when jw was funded by bbsrc grant do17750 awarded to andrew rambaut . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nhere , i re - examine whether deep - sea gastropods manifest the island rule , making use of the improved statistical methods , and data collated from the recently updated malacolog database [ 24 ] , which has been both expanded , and revised to reflect advances in gastropod systematics [ 25 ] . it is found that the central conclusion of mcclain et al . [ 12 ] is robust , and that gastropod colonists of the deep - sea benthos do indeed exhibit island - rule - like evolution .\npart a shows how different tests of the \u2018island rule\u2019 can give qualitatively different results . \u201cdeep - sea\u201d species were defined as those with a depth range midpoint > 200m , and all other species defined as \u201cshallow - water\u201d . the ordinary - least - squares regression ( dashed line ) differs significantly from the 1\u22361 line of the null ( dotted line ) , but the standardized - major - axis regression ( solid line ) shows no significant departure . part b shows a less ambiguous case : \u201cdeep - sea\u201d species are those never observed above 400m , and \u201cshallow - water\u201d species those never observed below 200m ; body sizes are within - genus means , taking equal numbers of deep - and shallow - water species in each genus .\nthe body sizes of deep - sea gastropods are plotted against those of their shallow - water congeners . \u201cshallow - water\u201d species were never observed below 200m , and \u201cdeep - sea\u201d species never observed above depths of a : 200m , b : 400m and c : 600m . separate standardized - major - axis regression lines are shown for the neogastropoda ( black points ) and all other groups ( grey points ) . the dotted line is the 1\u22361 expected under the null . genera with fewer than two deep and two shallow species were excluded .\nwe are therefore still far from understanding the causes of the patterns observed \u2013 and particularly the roles of inter - and intra - specific competition [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] . a detailed clarification of where the pattern does and does not hold will be an important step toward achieving this goal [ 4 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] .\nmany thanks are due to andrew rambaut for providing a script to mine the malacolog database . many thanks also to lucy weinert , nicolas bierne , gary rosenberg , shai meiri . simon joly and an anonymous reviewer , who all greatly improved the manuscript with their comments and advice .\nconceived and designed the experiments : jw . performed the experiments : jw . analyzed the data : jw . wrote the paper : jw .\nfoster jb ( 1964 ) evolution of mammals on islands . nature 202 : 234\u2013235 .\nvan valen l ( 1973 ) pattern and balance in nature . evolutionary theory 1 : 31\u201349 .\nlomolino mv ( 1985 ) body size of mammals on islands : the island rule re - examined . am nat 125 : 310\u2013316 .\nlomolino mv ( 2005 ) body size evolution in insular vertebrates : generality of the island rule . j biogeog 32 : 1683\u20131699 .\nmacarthur rh , wilson eo ( 1963 ) an equilibrium theory of insular zoogeography . evolution 17 : 373\u2013387 . 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( doi :\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\n( of coryphella robusta trinchese , 1874 ) trinchese s . ( 1874 ) . intorno ai generi hermaeina e acanthopsole . memorie dell ' accademia delle scienze dell ' istituto di bologna ( 3 ) 5 : 73 - 80 pl . 1 [ details ]\n( of eolidia embletoni johnston , 1835 ) johnston g . ( 1835 ) . introduction to the natural history of molluscous animals . magazine of natural history 8 : 71 - 81 [ details ]\n( of eolis diversa couthouy , 1839 ) couthouy j . p . ( 1839 ) . monograph on the family osteodesmacea of deshayes , with remarks on two species of patelloidea , and descriptions of new species of marine shells , a species of anculotus , and one of eolis . boston journal of natural history , 2 : 129 - 189 , pl . 4 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 187 - 189 ; pl . 4 , fig . 9 [ sic , 14 ] [ details ]\n( of eolis mananensis stimpson , 1853 ) stimpson , w . ( 1853 ) . synopsis of the marine invertebrata of grand manan : or the region about the mouth of the bay of fundy , new brunswick . smithsonian contributions to knowledge . 6 : 1 - 66 , pls 1 - 3 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhowson , c . m . ; picton , b . e . ( 1997 ) . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . ulster museum publication , 276 . the ulster museum : belfast , uk . isbn 0 - 948150 - 06 - 8 . vi , 508 ( + cd - rom ) pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nturgeon , d . ; quinn , j . f . ; bogan , a . e . ; coan , e . v . ; hochberg , f . g . ; lyons , w . g . ; mikkelsen , p . m . ; neves , r . j . ; roper , c . f . e . ; rosenberg , g . ; roth , b . ; scheltema , a . ; thompson , f . g . ; vecchione , m . ; williams , j . d . ( 1998 ) . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks . 2nd ed . american fisheries society special publication , 26 . american fisheries society : bethesda , md ( usa ) . isbn 1 - 888569 - 01 - 8 . ix , 526 + cd - rom pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nlinkletter , l . e . ( 1977 ) . a checklist of marine fauna and flora of the bay of fundy . huntsman marine laboratory , st . andrews , n . b . 68 : p . [ details ]\npollock , l . w . ( 1998 ) . a practical guide to the marine animals of northeastern north america . rutgers university press . new brunswick , new jersey & london . 367 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nrosenberg , g . 2004 . malacolog version 3 . 3 . 2 : western atlantic gastropod database . the academy of natural sciences , philadelphia , pa . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nabbott r . t . ( 1974 ) . american seashells . the marine mollusca of the atlantic and pacific coast of north america . ed . 2 . van nostrand , new york . 663 pp . , 24 pls . [ october 1974 ] . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\ntrott , t . j . ( 2004 ) . cobscook bay inventory : a historical checklist of marine invertebrates spanning 162 years . northeastern naturalist . 11 , 261 - 324 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ncheck list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of eolidia embletoni johnston , 1835 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of eolis diversa couthouy , 1839 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of coryphella robusta trinchese , 1874 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of coryphella rufibranchialis ( johnston , 1832 ) ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of coryphella rufibranchialis cocholata balch , 1908 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of eolis mananensis stimpson , 1853 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nthe translucent white body may reach 6 cm in extreme cases , but 2 - 3 cm is common . often , there is a white line running along the back , but it tends to be covered by the cerata . the cerata are arranged in rows and come in a wide range of colors , but orange , red and brown are perhaps most frequent . there may be a pink tint on the tentacles . the rhinophores ( head tentacles ) are wrinkled and usually have a white pigmented line .\nthe original identification of the species was done by sars in 1829 . he drew a specimen with short , ice - cone - shaped , white - tipped cerata . studies have later proven that"]}
{"id": 2018, "summary": [{"text": "sheilas reward ( foaled 1947 in kentucky ) was an american thoroughbred champion racehorse who was voted the american champion sprint horse of 1950 and 1951 .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he was sired by multiple stakes winner reaping reward and out of the mare smart sheila , a daughter of 1930 american champion two-year-old colt jamestown . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "sheilas reward", "paragraphs": ["with the headline : sheilas reward aqueduct victor ; driving to the wire in the bay shore handicap .\nthrough his daughter , reaping reward , jamestown was also the damsire of sheilas reward , back - to - back winner of american champion sprint horse honors in 1950 and 1951 .\nsheilas reward , mrs . louis lazare ' s reaping reward colt , who had been out of action since just missing victory in the brooklyn handicap last july , made his return to the races a victorious one yesterday . view full article in timesmachine \u00bb\nsheilas reward ( usa ) b . h , 1947 { 12 - b } dp = 4 - 6 - 0 - 8 - 2 ( 20 ) di = 1 . 00 cd = 0 . 10 - 33 starts , 13 wins , 12 places , 3 shows career earnings : $ 119 , 020\nthe online personal wealth awards were launched in 2014 to recognise and reward those companies who offer great service and products in the area of personal wealth .\nthe uk stock market awards reward all that is great about publicly - listed british firms , the equity market in which they operate and their enormous contribution to the uk\u2019s economy .\nhe wrote that the first \u201ccolour\u201d was washed out in the creek by john saxby , and the find kept secret until the group found out the government was offering a 500 pound reward for new goldfields .\nto be perfectly candid about it , hill prince made the lot he met in the new york handicap , accompished as they were , appear so many\ngrade b\nhorses . arcaro rode him with much confidence permitting him to drop back to last place in the run down the backstretch after having broken in front . going to the long home turn , sheilas reward , moonrush and picador were engaged in a brush for the lead when arcaro turned loose hill prince ' s head , and ' that was all he wrote . '\nit was a handicap division in which hill prince was accorded the honors , though he won only two races . and the sprinters class was fully as confused , for sheila ' s reward gained the title , while he spent most of the year racing middle distances .\nsickle ' s good son reaping reward ( br . c . 1934 out of dustwhirl by sweep ) was bred by arthur hancock of claiborne farm after hancock purchased the mare ( in foal to sickle ) from joseph widener . hancock later sold dustwhirl to calumet farm , which bred triple crown winner whirlaway ( 1938 ) from her four years later . reaping reward was sold as a yearling to ethel v . mars ' milky way stables , and both he and stablemate case ace were among the top flight of their crop as juveniles , behind division leader pompoon .\n\u201call the young men of newcastle drive down hunter st in their hot fj holdens with chrome - plated grease nipples and double - reverse overhead twin - cam door handles , sitting eight abreast in the front seat , and they lean out of the window and say real cool things to the sheilas on the footpath , like \u2018aah g\u2019day\u2019 .\nhill prince had recovered from his fissure fracture of the previous winter , at least significanly to train , though morning work - watchers reported that occasionally he gimped a bit behind . trainer ' casey ' hayes brought him along to racing fettle by easy stages and gave him a couple of prep races on long island in advance of the new york . he qualified impressively in winning the last of these tighteners , so impressively that the public made him odds - on at 4 to 5 , though he had 128 pounds and was required to concede from 9 to 21 pounds to sheilas reward , one hitter , sudan , moonrush , alderman , busanda and picador .\nthey broke the news of the find in july , 1876 , and afterwards the government delayed the reward because of the delay in making the discovery known , although one was paid after 1880 . once word of the discovery got out miners flooded the area and the population increased to 1100 , of whom 800 were miners .\nbrevity ( b . c . 1933 out of ormonda by superman ) was bred by joseph widener , and an older\nuncle\nto reaping reward , being out of dustwhirl ' s dam ormonda . at two , brevity beat snark in the champagne stakes , a performance that put him not so far behind champion tintagel in the rankings . he returned at the top of his class , briefly , at three . he won the florida derby by five legnths over dneiper , setting a new world record for the nine furlongs in 1 : 48 1 / 5 . going off as favorite for the kentucky derby , he ran into a determined bold venture , who led from start to finish , hanging on by a head at the wire .\n1st : fleetwing h . , interborough h . , select h . , flying heels h .\n2nd : new rochelle h . , swift s . , rivalry purse ( mth , 6f )\n1st : queens county h . , bay shore h . , long branch h .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n* current year statistics include all north american races and dubai world cup day . career statistics include results from all countries .\n* current year includes north american and dubai world cup day statistics ; all previous years include results from all countries .\nracing achievements and top 100 rankings include north american ( u . s . , canada and puerto rico ) thoroughbred races only .\nequibase company is the official supplier of racing information and statistics to america ' s best racing , breeders ' cup , daily racing form , ntra , the jockey club , tra , tvg and xpressbet .\nproprietary to and \u00a9 2018 equibase company llc . all rights reserved . the terms of use for this web site prohibit the use of any robot , spider , scraper or any other automated means to access the contents of this site . the terms of use also expressly prohibit the republication or dissemination of the contents of this screen without the prior written consent of equibase company llc .\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nas part our commitment to scholarly and academic excellence , all articles receive editorial review .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\nurltoken no longer supports internet explorer 9 or earlier . please upgrade your browser .\nwe are continually improving the quality of our text archives . please send feedback , error reports , and suggestions to archive _ feedback @ nytimes . com .\naccessibility concerns ? email us at accessibility @ urltoken . we would love to hear from you .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthere were no championships awarded in any official manner until 1936 , when triangle publications ( publishers of daily racing form and morning telegraph ) conducted a poll of its staff , and turf and sports digest conducted a poll from selected sports journalists . in 1950 , these were joined by the votes of racing secretaries across the country , from tracks that were members of the thoroughbred racing association . in 1954 , the thoroughbred record instituted a scoring system based on points for stakes wins . in 1971 , the eclipse awards were introduced , voted on by members of the national turf writers association , as well as racing secretaries and some daily racing form and equibase staff . in 2007 the division was split in two by gender .\nwe are currently experiencing technical difficulties . the password you have entered is incorrect . click here to get a new password there\u2019s already an agoda account for . enter your agoda password to link facebook with this account . you\u2019ll only need to do this once .\nusing a different email address for your agoda account ? click here to switch accounts .\nwe can\u2019t find an email address associated with your facebook account . please provide one so we can create your agoda account .\nwe\u2019ll create an agoda account and link it to your facebook account . after your account is created , you ' ll be able to sign in with facebook or with your agoda credentials .\nalready have an account ? click here to sign in and link it to facebook .\nyou can go to your profile at any time to change which facebook account is linked to your agoda account .\nagoda users require an email address and unfortunately we weren ' t able to find an email address on your facebook account . you can try again after adding an email address to your facebook account or register on agoda directly with your email address .\nwe weren ' t able to load the captcha test required to complete this form .\nthe passwords you provided do not match . please check that you have typed both passwords correctly .\nthe link to reset your password has been sent . please check your email .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nwhat we ' ve learned from recent kentucky derby results is that a good horse can emerge from just about anywhere in north america , in all shapes and sizes .\n- mine that bird was two - year - old champion in canada , and was dismissed at long , long odds in the 2009 derby after taking the sunland park route to louisville .\n- big brown , the 2008 derby winner , and barbaro , the 2006 kingpin , made their career debuts in turf races at saratoga and laurel , respectively .\n- smarty jones , hero of the 2004 derby , won his first two starts at philadelphia park .\n- war emblem blossomed at sportsman ' s park before earning his spot in history by prevailing in the 2002 derby .\nwill sourdough sam follow in their footsteps ? who ' s sourdough sam , you ask ? it ' s an excellent question , and i don ' t blame you if you ' ve never heard of him . the 2 - year - old gelding has never competed in a graded stakes race , actually lost his only start in stakes competition , has yet to stretch out around two turns , and has yet to earn a beyer speed figure over 90 . he ' s also marooned on an island unto itself out in northern california . but , boy has he been impressive in his first three starts .\nconditioned by dean pederson , a trainer that has won between 20 - 30 % of his starts in eight of the last nine years , sourdough sam made his career debut in a 5 1 / 2 furlong maiden special weight at golden gate fields on september 19 .\nhe broke a half - length slow from the intimidating inside post position , and soon settled in midpack while saving ground . jockey inoel beato had to check off heels at the quarter - pole while down inside , and sourdough sam was forced to alter course sharply in upper stretch to get off the rail . once clear , the gelding put his head down , and drew away from the field to win going away . his gallop - out had him ahead by about ten lengths . other than sourdough sam , eight horses came out of that race to race again . four graduated , two finished second , and one rounded out the trifecta .\npederson took a conservative route with his talented runner as he placed sourdough sam in an entry - level optional claimer at six furlongs for his second start on october 31 at golden gate . sourdough sam was outsprinted for the first quarter - mile , but began to pick up steam entering the turn . beato easily could have sent the 7 - 10 favorite four wide and around horses while clear of traffic turning for home , but he curiously stayed in to split rivals three wide in upper stretch . with a furlong remaining , sourdough sam was five lengths behind pacesetter shudacudawudya , and looked to be in deep water , but he absolutely exploded over the tapeta surface to prevail by three - quarters of a length with a final eighth in 11 . 76 ( according to formulatorweb ) .\npederson decided it was time to get some blacktype , and sourdough sam was sent off as the 3 - 2 favorite in the six - furlong golden nugget stakes at golden gate on november 21 . after breaking nicely , he settled into midpack while in and among horses , and was shuffled to the back of the pack late on the backstretch . beato then had to put on the brakes again on the turn before angling sharply to the rail at the quarter - pole . in midstretch , he altered course twice to find a clear path four off the fence , and commenced a strong late kick only to fall short to shudacudawudya . a few strides after the race , sourdough sam was clearly in front , but his 11 . 73 final eighth couldn ' t overcome the trouble he encountered in the race .\nsourdough sam is a california - bred son of decarchy , the winner of the grade 2 frank kilroe at one mile on turf in 2002 . decarchy is a daughter of blue - hen producer toussaud , making him kin to such grade 1 winners as chester house ( arlington million ) , honest lady ( santa monica handicap ) , chiselling ( secretariat stakes ) , and empire maker ( florida derby , belmont stakes , wood memorial stakes ) . toussaud herself won the grade 1 gamely handicap during her racing career .\nsourdough sam ' s dam , general luster ( by general meeting ) , has already foaled tizwar , an unlisted stakes winner at 1 5 / 16 miles at the elko county fair . the second dam , by judger , was multiple stakes - placed while the third dam , by hitting away , won the 1968 astarita stakes in new york . the fifth dam , by bull lea , was multiple stakes - placed , and is a half - sister to belmont stakes winner bounding home .\nwe ' ll find out more about john nicoletti ' s homebred , sourdough sam , this saturday as he is scheduled to compete in the gold rush stakes over one mile at golden gate .\none negative . you ' ll note that he paddles badly with his left foreleg . it will be interesting to see if that adversely affects him when he faces tougher runners .\nwith zardana ' s win in the bayakoa , did sherrifs sweep the grades stakes on the main track for older f & m for the calendar year at hollywood park ? there are only four , and i know zen won the first two . zardana won this one . did lis win the other ? tencentcielo\nnope . evita argentina won the grade 2 a gleam handicap at seven furlongs on july 18 for john sadler . instead of turning life is sweet back in distance , mr . shirreffs decided to try males a week earlier in the grade 1 hollywood gold cup at 1 1 / 4 miles .\ndan , other than althea ( who won the 1983 2yo filly eclipse while racing only in socal ) , do you know of any\nsocal race only\nhorses either before or after the breeders ' cup era who won an eclipse at any level without racing elsewhere or winning a bc race ? ack ack ( 1971 ) - sprinter and hoty can you please post his pps ? ? btw , citation raced two years in\nsocal / nocal races only\nwith nary an award given to him . compare citation 1951 vs the handicap horse award winner for that year , hill prince ( dan , another favor , can you please supply the pps . ) who do you think should have won the award in 1951 ? alan\nthese horses raced exclusively in southern california during their championship campaigns ( there have been others that raced in northern california as well as southern california . . . brown bess comes to mind ) :\ni probably would have voted for citation based on his big win in the hollywood gold cup , a\nhundred grander .\nhill prince had an up - and - down year .\nhere ' s how the legendary charles hatton saw the 1951 handicap division from his\npart i . review of 1951 races\ncolumn from the 1952 american racing manual :\nit is doubtful , to be perfectly candid about it , if 1951 will be recorded in the annals of the american turf as a particularly brilliant season in the handicap division , except for two developments . in the hollywood gold cup , mighty citation finally reached his goal of $ 1 , 000 , 000 , while his stablemate bewitch became the world ' s leading money winner of her sex , supplanting gallorette when she finished second to him . the affable h . a .\nmayor jimmy\njones saddled them for this event , and his father , ben jones , observed\nthat was about the biggest day in jim ' s life .\nit was the late warren wright ' s hope that citation ultimately would earn $ 1 , 000 , 000 and he achieved this objective , not alone because of his extreme class , but also with the help of considerable skill and patience on the part of his handlers . ' big cy ' s ' gracious owner , mrs . warren wright , announced his retirement to the stud at calumet farm immediately after the gold cup and the successful culmination of his long struggle against adversities to attain his goal . trainer jones sent him home with mixed feelings , and we can say with some confidence they were not without a certain content of relief , for citation ' s bow meant there was some possibility he would break down tragically in the course of a race . . .\n. . . each year the handicap ranks are thinned by what are called the vicissitudes of training , and this generation was no exception . hill prince and bed o ' roses were in enforced idleness for much of the season , emerging in the fall to lay claim to the handicap title and handicap mare honors . curandero , one of the best milers of recent years , went to the stud . sunglow won the widener and went wrong a few yards beyond the finish .\nhaving failed in two allowance races , citation now was pointed for stakes . in his first engagement he met nine others in the hollywood premiere handicap of $ 10 , 000 value , at six furlongs on may 11 . the public installed him the favorite at $ 1 . 15 to $ 1 and he got in with 120 , but was fifth at the end of the six furlongs , the winner turning up in the filly , special touch , who was burdened with 122 .\nthe premiere was a fast race , timed in 1 : 10 , with the first five furlongs in the smart time of : 57 3 / 5 , and citation had dropped back to ninth place at the half , then picked up some tired horses through the stretch , just missing fourth money . on analysis , it was not a bad showing for a horse whose appearance suggested he still was not at racing weight , and perhaps had not quite the same zest for the whole business which marked his earlier campaigns . as stallions age , they often lose some of their competitive instinct , and trainer jones often has told us that , in his comeback , citation occasionally showed a disinclination to snap into his work and that not only had he to be kept sound as possible , but also trained psychologically .\nthe handsome 16 - hand bay stallion ' s next public appearance came on decoration day at hollywood park , in the argonaut handicap of $ 25 , 000 added at a mile and a sixteenth . in this engagement he was ridden by f . a . smith , and showed a bit of his old sparkle . he ran coupled with bewitch and coaltown , and it is interesting that coaltown had top weight of 125 and was giving ' big cy ' four pounds . the field of ten also included be fleet at 118 , last round 110 , sturdy one 111 and old rockport at 108 . the track was fast and another tremendous throng , one of more than 58 , 000 , turned out to see citation ' s performance . the calumet trio went away at 45 cents to the dollar .\nat the break , coaltown , who was to be sacrificed on the altar of pacemaking , if need be , went into the lead and reeled off the fractions in : 45 and 1 : 10 1 / 5 , bowling along several lengths in front of be fleet , to the final turn . during this interval , citation was sandwiched between horses . smith roused him on the curve for home , swinging to the outside at considerable loss of ground as coaltown faded and left be fleet in front . citation ran at be fleet with a steady thrust through the stretch , but the crevolin four - year - old won by three lengths in a flat 1 : 42 , only two - fifths behind artillery ' s track record . the calumet strategy had failed , but citation came out of the race well and his showing was most encouraging .\ncitation now was pointed for the $ 50 , 000 added american handicap of a mile and a furlong on the fourth of july at hollywood . this event drew a crack field of nine and , presented in wonderful weather , a crowd of 54 , 700 . topweight of the group was moonrush under 125 pounds , with citation carrying 123 , be fleet 122 , all blue 112 and bewitch 106 . the three - horse calumet entry was 75 cents to the dollar . be fleet was the aggressor from the outset , dashing out of the gate in spirited style and into a narrow lead , as all blue went up to be sure he had no opportunity of loafing in front . brooks dropped citation into fifth position , but within easy striking distance of about four lengths . they swung for home with moonrush just ahead and be fleet and all blue in the lead , still at one another ' s throat . brooks drove citation on through between them and , in the final furlong , got to the front . bewitch had followed him into contention and he led the mare by a half - length in 1 : 48 2 / 5 , again coming within two - fifths of a track record , this one established by his old rival , noor .\ncitation added $ 33 , 050 to his earnings and was within striking distance of his goal . but he gave trainer jones some anxious moments after the american , when it was discovered he had what the missourian called ' a hickey ' on one hind leg . apparently he had rapped himself . of course every precaution was taken to avoid complications and the possibility he would have to miss his engagement in the $ 100 , 000 guaranteed hollywood gold cup at a mile and a quarter on july 14 . fortunately citation responded to treatment .\ngold cup day found another throng of 50 , 000 on hand , and citation , carrying 120 again , was accompanied to the post by bewitch and all blue . the topweight was be fleet under 1221 , and the field also included alderman at 104 , sturdy one 109 , sudan 104 , lotowhite 117 , akimbo 104 and tantamount at 102 . in all his previous engagements of the season , citation had been raced well bandaged , jones wishing to afford his battle - scarred running gear all the protection possible . in the paddock before the gold cup , which would place him beyond the $ 1 , 000 , 000 mark , if he could win it , jones deliberated with himself for a time and finally whipped off the bandages .\nthere was little delay at the post and citation , breaking from the extreme outside , came out of there running more like the citation of old , than in any previous race of the season . brooks permitted him to drift toward the rail going to the first turn , while all blue was on the lead , prompted by be fleet . so full of run was the calumet champion that brooks let him move into a clear advantage a half - mile from home . continuing boldly he opened up three lengths on the last turn and increased this to four , without pressure , in the run home . bewitch , under 108 , came from well off the pace for the place , a nose before be fleet , who had been a forward factor from the outset under his top impost . the time was 2 : 01 , a fifth off noor ' s track record .\nthis race netted citation $ 100 , 000 , and bewitch $ 20 , 000 . he now had brought his total to $ 1 , 085 , 760 , and bewitch simultaneously brought her total to $ 462 , 605 . nearest citation among the world ' s leading money winning horses is stymie with $ 918 , 485 , and in placing in the gold cup , bewitch supplanted gallorette as the richest of her sex , gallorette having retired with gleanings of $ 445 , 535 .\nthe gold cup proved a fitting climax to a great horse ' s career . it was hailed by the sporting press of all the racing countries over the world , and mrs . wright and the joneses received congratulatory wires and cablegrams from england to australia . citation now is at calumet farm , where this spring he begins his stud duties , at a fee of $ 5 , 000 . most breeders consider that sum quite reasonable in view of the horse ' s capabilities , the current purse distribution and yearling prices . h . a . jones once observed that a bull lea foal is ' worth $ 10 , 000 as soon as it hits the ground . ' we think it may be said with some confidence that the first citations will prove at least as desirable .\ncitation made the 1951 hollywood gold cup especially historic , but in a more competitive sense the season produced many handicap races that were more memorable as spectacles , even if they were not won by quite so remarkable a horse . . .\n. . . one of the most powerful performances , if not the outstanding effort shown by a handicap horse all season , was that hill prince gave in the $ 25 , 000 new york handicap at a mile and a furlong , at belmont park on september 29 . in fact , it was probably this race which clinched the handicap title for chris chenery ' s magnficient big bay four - year - old .\narcaro had the mount on the huge son of princquillo and hildene , and the colt stripped for the race looking extremely well bodily . he had furnished out a great deal over his three - year - old form and was a deep - bodied round - barreled strong - quartered animal . ' scares you to death just to look at him when you have to run a horse against him ,\ntrainer veitch of counterpoint commented .\nin a breathtaking furlong hill prince bounded through the entire field , moving between horses with gigantic strides , and was in front at the top of the stretch . he must have run that eighth in approximately 11 seconds , and it completely exhausted his rivals . thereafter he sauntered majestically up the stretch winner by five lengths in a flat 1 : 49 . it was a tremendous showing , and ted atkinson , who rode the runner - up , one hitter , commented : ' that horse ( hill prince ) doesn ' t just beat you . he insults you . '\nhill prince might have beaten any horse that afternoon , but there were no more afternoons like it for him during 1951 . he encountered counterpoint at the scale in the gold cup and empire cup , and was fairly beaten in consecutive starts .\nfollowing hs game but unsuccessful attempts to defeat the horse of the year , hill prince was shipped to new jersey for the mile and a furlong of the $ 50 , 000 trenton handicap on november 3 at garden state park , and was odds - on despite topweight of 130 pounds and a sloppy track . it was a sad thing to contemplate , for he broke last and , when arcaro moved on him , could only pick up tired horses , and finished fourth , five lengths off the successful call over . this four - year - old son of devil diver , racing for bedford stable and carrying only 116 , ran perhaps the best race of his career , beating inseparable and post card in a blanket finish while conceding them weight .\nhill prince obviously was ' cooked , ' and did not reappear during the late fall in the east . the new york handicap was an easy race for him , but there is no question his two hard races over big distances against counterpoint had taken the edge off his condition . after the two miles of the jockey club gold cup , arcaro ventured that he was a trifle short , and hayes countered by censuring arcaro for making much use of hill prince setting the pace . however , when he met counterpoint again in the empire cup on the same terms and counterpoint won even more decisively , any shortcomings had to be charged on the horse .\nwhat future turf historians will make of hill prince , we hesitate to guess , but he has been a champion each season he raced . there is a theory in some quarters that only for his headstrong desire to run his own kind of race instead of responding to his rider ' s wishes , hill prince would have been as formidable as citation . but those who rate him ' big cy ' s ' equal are in the minority . hill prince , on the verge of bowing in march ' 52 , retired to the stud . you are not to infer , from our reference to hill prince as ' headstrong , ' that he is either high - strung and excitable or ill - tempered . but he is difficult in the sense that if he chooses to set his own pace , there is not much else his rider can do but let him run . this can be rather costly .\nthe final vote for best handicap horse was very close . hill prince received 87 points ( 4 for first , 2 for second and 1 for third ) while citation earned 82 .\ni ' m not sure if he was the last horse to try it , but golden man , trained by richard dutrow jr . , finished third in the grade 3 long branch at monmouth on july 16 , 2005 before finishing second the very next day in the grade 3 leonard richards at delaware .\ndan , strike the tiger was wes ward ' s winner this summer at royal ascot . tvg made a pretty big deal of it , strike the tiger being the first american - trained american horse to win at royal ascot . i remember he came back and ran in a 50k stakes at colonial downs , and then i believe he ran in indiana in another minor money - added stakes race . but since then , he hasn ' t popped up in my race alerts . where ' s this talented turfer ? ? david h .\nstrike the tiger has three recent workouts at gulfstream park so should be back in action within the next month or two .\nit is great to hear that fernando jara is back in new york . i cashed a pick four when he rode schemer to victory at saratoga in 2004 . there was a thunder storm but they ran the race on the turf anyways . by the way , would you post schemer ' s past performances . thanks . robert ginnerty\nhg162 3 - rule looms heads above this field if he doesn ' t bounce , which is unlikely for only four races . 2 - uhohbango will be underbet because of the az breeding and the fact he ran a 102 beyer at prm . 5 - litigation risk has two good races and his maiden win was solid . tgrainer knows his stuff . 7 - oak motte - should be in the mix at the end . the bet : $ 15 trifecta 3 / 2 , 5 , 7 / 2 , 5 , 7 for $ 90 $ 10 exacta 3 with 2 . i have no confidence in 4 grand slam andre thanks to sharpies van savant and annie i am adjusting my $ 90 trifecta bet in hg162 as follows : 3 / 2 , 5 , 8 / 2 , 5 , 8 . the $ 10 exacta 3 / 2 is the same . thanks again . ray\ncongrats to ray flack for finishing first in last week ' s handigambling exercise . he selects the fifth race at calder on friday for this week ' s race . here are the past performances :\nremember that you have a mythical $ 100 with which to wager on the race , and the entrant with the highest money total will receive a\nmonthly enhanced 60 - card past performance plan .\nanyone going over the $ 100 limit will be disqualfied . in the event of a tie , the earliest post gets first preference .\ni know that there is a time issue for some of you , but let ' s rememember why we began the handigambling races in the first place . the goal was to share ideas on why we like these horses , and why we ' re betting on them the way we are . i ' m not asking for a novel , but if you could spare a sentence or two outlining your handicapping angles , and thought processes about wagering , it would be appreciated .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\ninjured , jamestown did not start again until may 27 of 1931 , when the then three - year - old won the tournament handicap at belmont park . three days later , the colt won the withers stakes at belmont park , and on june 9 at the same track won the colin purse . four days after that , jamestown raced again , finishing third to winner twenty grand in the belmont stakes . after running third in the june 25th shelvin stakes against inferior competition , jamestown was rested and did not race again in 1931 .\ntook over as head trainer of the widener stable . for mulholland , the five - year - old jamestown won the capitol handicap at\njamestown was retired to stud duty for the 1934 season at his owner ' s erdenheim farm in montgomery county , pennsylvania , but the following year widener relocated him to his old kenney farm in lexington , kentucky .\noverall , jamestown met with reasonable success as a stallion , siring eighteen stakes race winners . among his sons were excellent runners such as :\njamestown died at age twenty - five in 1953 and is buried in the old kenney farm ' s equine cemetery .\nsaratoga special won by jamestown - victor , acclaimed new juvenile champion , sets record for stake before 20 , 000 . equipoise finishes second trails by 3 lengths , with sun meadow third - - winner runs six furlongs in 1 - 11 2 - 5 . whichone scores easily , has 4 - length margin on marine in the whitney - - jolly roger first in steeplechase . whichone rewards owner . workman alert at barrier . saratoga special won by jamestown crumpler ' s bid misses . - article - urltoken\nc . v . whitney colt beats jamestown - scores by three lengths to break jack high ' s mark of 1 - 35 made in 1930 . pays $ 3 . 80 in mutuels victor , with workman up , spurts in stretch to gain fifth triumph of season . volette cuts track time runs five and a half furlongs in 1 - 04 4 - 5 and tred avon snaps seven - furlong record . - article - urltoken\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 5 / 3 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nbrown colt , 1924 - 1943 . by phalaris - selene by chaucer darley arabian sire line : phalaris branch . family 6 - e .\nthe stallion ' s first crop included three stakes winners - - the good filly versicle ( b . f . 1930 out of verdict by shogun ) , also sickle moon and prairie moon . at two , versicle won the prince of wales ' s plate , home - bred plate ( york ) , holiday plate ( sandown ) , and stud produce stakes ( newmarket ) . at three , she won the ribblesdale stakes ( ascot , beating solenoid and dastur ) , and knowsley dinner stakes ) .\nsickle ' s best racing son , stagehand ( b . c . 1935 out of stagecraft by fair play ) , was bred by joseph e . widener , who sold him at two to maxwell howard . widener also bred and raced the older brother sceneshifter , who ran second in the belmont stakes and placed in several other good races . like sceneshifter , stagehand came into hand late , being a non - winner at two , but bloomed over the winter as a three - year - old . he broke his maiden , and scored in two more races prepping for the santa anita derby , which he also won , beating dauber and sun egret . against older horses in the santa anita handicap , stagehand , carrying only 100 pounds , closed strongly to beat the older seabiscuit ( with 130 ) by a nose . third in the derby trial ( to the chief and lawrin ) .\nsickle ' s other champion son , star pilot ( br . c . 1943 out of floradora by bull dog ) , was bred by coldstream stud , and sold as a yearling for $ 26 , 000 . he was the favorite of 19 two - year - olds purchased by mrs . elizabeth n . graham early in 1945 . considered inferior to his stablemate , the filly beaugay , who was voted both champion two - year - old filly and champion two - year - old , star pilot was the leading male in his age group with six wins in a dozen starts . victory in the futurity stakes came at the expense of beaugay , who was undefeated up to this point , but with a questionable ankle , led until deep stretch when she broke down and crashed through the inside rail . star pilot inherited the win when he otherwise would have run second .\nwidener returned unbreakable to elmendorf to stand alongside his sire in 1940 . built even more for speed than sickle , with a long body , low withers , and powerful hindquarters , he had slightly sickle hocks and was somewhat back at the knee as well . unbreakable wasn ' t a patch on his sire as a stallion , getting 216 foals but only 13 stakes winners . the best of these was preakness winner and champion sprinter polynesian ( later sire of native dancer , barbizon , alanesian , etc . ) , but he also got the useful california runner sturdy one ( $ 202 , 970 ) , the handicapping gelding kaster ( $ 186 , 635 ) , and manyunk ( $ 165 , 225 ) . unbreakable ' s daughter pandora became a useful broodmare .\nbeautiful and feminine misty isle ( ch . f . 1938 out of seven pines by haste ) was the best daughter of sickle bred by joseph e . widener , out of a homebred mare by his homebred haste . although never a champion , she may have been the best filly of her crop . she was extremely sound and started 28 times in the two years she raced , winning eleven , second nine times , and third four times , earning $ 50 , 770 . at two , misty isle was ranked behind champion level best and earnings leader valdina myth , but still managed to win or place in 10 stakes . her victories included the important matron stakes , hyde park stakes , and lafayette stakes .\n\u00a9 2018 urltoken by ancestry . all rights reserved . terms and conditions \u00b7 privacy statement \u00b7 site map \u00b7 contact\njavascript required : we ' re sorry , but urltoken doesn ' t work properly without javascript enabled . you will need to enable javascript by changing your browser settings . learn how to enable it .\ncookies required : we ' re sorry , but urltoken doesn ' t work properly without cookies enabled . you will need to enable cookies by changing your browser settings .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nto select mutliple items , hold down ctrl ( on windows ) or command ( on mac ) and click the desired items .\n{ title : ' new castle tribune . ( chappaqua , n . y . ) 1927 - ? ? ? ? , july 21 , 1950 , page 8 , image 8 ' , download _ links : [ { link : ' urltoken ' , label : ' application / rss + xml ' , meta : ' news about nys historic newspapers - rss feed ' , } , { link : ' / lccn / sn92061718 / 1950 - 07 - 21 / ed - 1 / seq - 8 / png / ' , label : ' image / png ' , meta : ' ' , } , { link : ' / lccn / sn92061718 / 1950 - 07 - 21 / ed - 1 / seq - 8 . pdf ' , label : ' application / pdf ' , meta : ' ' , } , { link : ' / lccn / sn92061718 / 1950 - 07 - 21 / ed - 1 / seq - 8 / ocr . xml ' , label : ' application / xml ' , meta : ' ' , } , { link : ' / lccn / sn92061718 / 1950 - 07 - 21 / ed - 1 / seq - 8 / ocr . txt ' , label : ' text / plain ' , meta : ' ' , } , ] }\nabout new castle tribune . ( chappaqua , n . y . ) 1927 - ? ? ? ?\na comprehensive daily news service of over 300 market and company stories from our own stockmarketwire team and the rns .\nsince 2001 the shares awards have recognised the high quality of service and products from companies in the world of retail investment as voted for by shares ' readers .\nthe uk forex awards celebrate the best performing companies in the uk forex markets . the awards are voted for by forex traders and the private investment community .\njoin shares and aj bell for an evening of investment inspiration and get to meet the decision makers behind some of the uk\u2019s fastest growing listed companies . . . .\nwe use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website . if you continue without changing your settings , we ' ll assume that you are happy to receive all cookies from this website . if you would like to change your preferences you may do so by following the instructions here .\nwelcome to the hunter : glory days , a countdown of 101 of the memorable moments in the hunter\u2019s history .\nglory , according to the dictionary , is \u201cexalted praise , honour or distinction , an object of pride , a state of splendour , magnificence or great prosperity\u201d .\nthe hunter has seen many days that could be described with these words , from celebrations of the end of war , moments of discovery , sporting achievements , historic undertakings and accomplishments across fields including industry , arts and commerce .\nmany such moments are mentioned in this magazine , but for every one here there are thousands more that occur in the region every day .\nfor every world champion here , there are others who play sport to the best of their ability , making the valley the home of champions that it is .\nfor every musician , painter and artist here , there are more who make the hunter a hotbed of the arts . for every person who makes it to the top , there are others who toil in valuable lives .\nfor every innovation , industry and golden moment on these pages , there are more that have made the region what it is today .\nthe american author ernest hemingway wrote in a style he referred to as \u201cthe iceberg approach\u201d .\nin his theory , seven - eighths of a story is \u201cunderwater\u201d for every part that shows , so the reader is only getting a small portion of a bigger picture , but still gets the feel of the big picture .\nthis magazine is the hunter in iceberg theory . just as the visible tip of an iceberg masks a greater mass beneath , these 101 tips of the hunter \u201ciceberg\u201d hide a bulk unseen but , hopefully , felt .\nwelcome to the hunter : glory days , a countdown of 101 of the memorable moments in the hunter\u2019s history that have led it to this place and time .\nthe hunter : glory days was originally published in june 2012 and written by former herald editor , the late chris watson . each week we ' ll add to the countdown .\nworld war ii is over : phyllis mook and flo dillon danced vp day away surrounded by a huge crowd in hunter st .\nin the early afternoon of wednesday , august 15 , 1945 , an estimated 100 , 000 people crammed into the city area of newcastle to celebrate and dance in the streets : world war ii was over .\nin a hunter valley coalmine a wheeler heard the news and sent skips into the mine chalked on the side with : \u201cofficial . the bastards have chucked it . \u201d\nwhen the news reached the dyke on newcastle harbour , men rushed to catch the ferry while others couldn\u2019t wait and dived , fully clothed , into the harbour to swim to the city .\nmen working on the railway bridge across the hawkesbury river made sure train travellers got the message .\non each of the bridge spans they chalked \u201cjapan surrenders\u201d and \u201cwar over . \u201d\npeople poured out of shops which closed their doors and remained closed for days . industries closed with their workers heading for the city .\nwomen in hunter street got out flags out to celebrate the end of world war ii .\nafter the announcement \u2013 made by prime minister ben chifley and relayed to hunter st \u2013 radio 2ko began playing dance music and in a flash hunter st , between bolton and newcomen streets , turned into a huge outdoor dance hall , where one of the lasting images of vp - day is the news photograph of phyllis mook and flo dillon doing a celebratory dance .\nmook , a well - known dancer in newcastle remembered for her performances at the palaise royale , died in 2009 , but her daughter , teresa purnell , told the herald some time ago that her mother had been at her grandfather\u2019s fruit shop at swansea when news of the war\u2019s end broke .\n\u201cthey drove to town in the table - top truck , with mum on the back waving the chinese flag , \u201d she said . \u201cthe town went mad and mum danced all afternoon . \u201d\ntrains , buses and trams in and out of the city were packed , with many people walking into town . men played football in and out of the city crowds using a kerosene tin for a football , flags and bunting appeared on shops , buildings and ships in the harbour , while confetti rained from office windows on a victory parade .\nthousands attended a special service in king edward park , many going on to an evening of sports and entertainment at newcastle sports ground .\nmilkmen concerned about interruption to deliveries by revellers asked the army to provide them with a military escort , and by nightfall newcastle was ringed with bonfi res on the hills at merewether , new lambton and waratah .\nthe newcastle morning herald report the next day had one of the largest headings ever used by the newspaper at that time : \u201cjapan ordered to cease fire , macarthur calls envoy to manila . \u201d\n\u201cmanila , august 15 . general douglas macarthur , who is to receive the japanese surrender on behalf of the allied powers , has directed the tokio authorities to order an immediate cessation of hostilities by japanese forces .\n\u201che fixed the date and hour of cessation , said that allied forces would be directed to stop fighting when this had been done .\n\u201ctokio radio at 4pm ( tokio time ) said an imperial order to cease fire was expected soon , but that allied warships should stay clear of japanese home waters until then in order to avoid any untoward incident .\n\u201cthe japanese government has been instructed to send an envoy , with service advisers , to manila to receive instructions on the carrying into effect of the surrender terms .\n\u201con his arrival , the japanese representative must present a document , authenticated by the emperor , providing him with the power to receive in the name of the emperor , the japanese government , and imperial headquarters the allied requirements . \u201d the front page also had a small panel with the headline :\nthe six years\u2019 war \u201cworld war i . ( august 4 , 1914 \u2013 november 11 , 1918 ) lasted four years and 99 days ."]}
{"id": 2019, "summary": [{"text": "oikopleura dioica is a species of small pelagic tunicate found in the surface waters of most of the world 's oceans .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is used as a model organism in research into developmental biology . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "oikopleura dioica", "paragraphs": ["three kinds of long - distance cell migrations were identified in oikopleura dioica larvae .\ndevelopment of the appendicularian oikopleura dioica : culture , genome , and cell lineages .\nretention efficiency of 0 . 2 to 6 \u00b5m particles by the appendicularians oikopleura dioica and fritillaria borealis\noikopleura dioica culturing made easy : a low - cost facility for an emerging animal model in evodevo .\ndevelopment of the appendicularian oikopleura dioica : culture , genome , and cell lineages . - pubmed - ncbi\nzur feinstruktur der chorda dorsalis niederer chordaten dendrodoa grossularia ( v . beneden ) und oikopleura dioica ( fol . )\noikopleura dioica culturing made easy : a low - cost facility for an emerging animal model in evodevo . - pubmed - ncbi\nlife cycle figure : the appendicularian oikopleura dioica is an abundant pan - global zooplankton that retains a tadpole form throughout its life cycle .\nwyatt , t . , 1973 . the biology of oikopleura dioica and fritillaria borealis in the southern bight . marine biology , 22 : 1378 - 158 .\nnishida h ( 2008 ) . development of the appendicularian oikopleura dioica : culture , genome , and cell lineages . dev growth differ . 50 , 239 - 256 . link\nwyatt , t . the biology of oikopleura dioica and fritillaria borealis in the southern bight . mar . biol . , v . 22 , p . 137 - 158 , 1973 . [ links ]\nthese data will be published in : conley kr , sutherland kr ( in revision ) particle shape impacts export and fate in the ocean through interactions with a globally abundant appendicularian , oikopleura dioica . plos one , fig . 6\nsato , r . ; tanaka , y . ; ishimaru , t . house production by oikopleura dioica ( tunicata , appendicularia ) under laboratory conditions . j . plankton res . , v . 23 , p . 415 - 423 , 2001 . [ links ]\ncoverage of oikopleura genes by whole - genome shotgun data , measured by the coverage of a non - redundant collection of expressed sequence tags .\nfig . 3 . chordate phylogeny . o . dioica belongs to the larvacean class inside the urochordate subphylum , sister group of vertebrates .\njean - marie bouquet , endy spriet , christofer troedsson , helen otter\u00e5 , daniel chourrout , eric m . thompson ; culture optimization for the emergent zooplanktonic model organism oikopleura dioica , journal of plankton research , volume 31 , issue 4 , 1 april 2009 , pages 359\u2013370 , urltoken\nomotezako , t . , onuma , t . a . , nishida , h . , 2015 . dna interference : dna - induced gene silencing in the appendicularian oikopleura dioica . proc . r . soc . b 282 , 20150435 . doi : 10 . 1098 / rspb . 2015 . 0435\ncapitanio , f . ; esnal , g . b . vertical distribution of the maturity stages of oikopleura dioica ( tunicata , appendicularia ) in the frontal system off vald\u00e9s peninsula , argentina . bull . mar . sci . , v . 63 , p . 531 - 539 , 1998 . [ links ]\nuye , s . ; ichino , s . seasonal variations in abundance , size composition , biomass and production of oikopleura dioica ( tunicata : appendicularia ) in a temperate eutrophic inlet . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . , v . 189 , p . 1 - 11 , 1995 . [ links ]\no . dioica is the only species of appendicularian to have separate sexes ; others are hermaphrodites . they secrete mucus filtering structures called houses , which are used to trap small particles . o . dioica builds as many as six houses per day ; they can be found in high numbers . they are filter feeders .\nnakamura , y . ; suzuki , k . ; suzuki , s . ; hiromi , j . production of oikopleura dioica ( appendicularia ) following a picoplankton ' bloom ' in a eutrophic coastal area . j . plankton res . , v . 19 , n . 1 , p . 113 - 124 , 1997 . [ links ]\ncapitanio , f . ; marschoff , e . r . ; esnal , g . b . distribution and characterization of the maturity stages of oikopleura dioica ( tunicata , appendicularia ) in the area of peninsula vald\u00e9s , argentina . iheringia , s\u00e9r . zool . , v . 79 , p . 59 - 66 , 1995 . [ links ]\nbouquet , j . m . , spriet , e . , troedsson , c . , otter , h . , chourrout , d . , thompson , e . m . , 2009 . culture optimization for the emergent zooplanktonic model organism oikopleura dioica . j . plankton res . 31 , 359\u2013370 . doi : 10 . 1093 / plankt / fbn132\nlombard , f . ; renaud , f . ; sainsbury , c . ; sciandra , a . ; gorsky , g . appendicularian ecophysiology . i . food concentration dependent clearance rate , assimilation efficiency , growth and reproduction of oikopleura dioica . j . mar . sys . , v . 78 , p . 606 - 616 , 2009 . [ links ]\nsato , r . ; ishibashi , y . ; tanaka , y . ; ishimaru , t . ; dagg , m . j . productivity and grazing impact of oikopleura dioica ( tunicata , appendicularia ) in tokio bay . j . plankton res . , v . 30 , n . 3 , p . 299 - 309 , 2008 . [ links ]\ntroedsson , c . ; bouquet , j . m . ; aksnes , d . l . ; thompson , e . m . resource allocation between somatic growth and reproductive output in the pelagic chordate oikopleura dioica allows opportunistic response to nutritional variation . mar . ecol . prog . ser . , v . 243 , p . 83 - 91 , 2002 . [ links ]\nsutherland , kelly ( 2017 ) particle tracking from the appendicularian oikopleura dioica feeding behavior experiments conducted in 2016 at the sars centre for marine molecular biology in bergen , norway ( mucus net filter feeders project ) . biological and chemical oceanography data management office ( bco - dmo ) . dataset version 2017 - 07 - 19 [ if applicable , indicate subset used ] . urltoken [ access date ]\nganot p , moosmann - schulmeister a and thompson em ( 2008 ) . oocyte selection is concurrent with meiosis resumption in the coenocystic oogenesis of oikopleura . dev biol . 324 , 266 - 276 . link\ndifferences in o . dioica size structure in homogeneous and stratified sections of the front were analyzed using the chi - square test to compare the surface and bottom layers . a spearman correlation test was used to study the relationship between o . dioica and e . anchoita abundance distribution and temperature , trunk length and egg production . statistica 6 . 0 and infostat packages were used for data analysis .\nit is our hope that the data and protocols provided in this manuscript will facilitate other investigators in adopting this important , fascinating , emergent model organism , o . dioica , in their own research .\nwe have tested various combinations of the following algae in the culture of o . dioica : chaetoceros calcitrans , emiliana huxleyi , isochrysis sp . , rhinomonas reticulata , synechococcus sp . , tetraselmis suecica and thalassiosira pseudomonas . those retained produced satisfactory results in the culture of o . dioica and could themselves be cultured reliably over long time periods . reference features of the selected algae are summarized in table i .\nganot p , bouquet jm , kalles\u00f8e t and thompson em ( 2007 ) . the oikopleura coenocyst , a unique chordate germ cell permitting rapid , extensive modulation of oocyte production . dev biol . 302 , 591 - 600 . link\nganot p , kalles\u00f8e t and thompson em ( 2007 ) . the cytoskeleton organizes germ nuclei with divergent fates and asynchronous cycles in a common cytoplasm during oogenesis in the chordate oikopleura . dev biol . 302 , 577 - 590 . link\nentre os tunicados , as pequenas apendicul\u00e1rias planct\u00f4nicas geralmente compreendem uma fra\u00e7\u00e3o significativa do mesozoopl\u00e2ncton nos sistemas frontais . foi estudada a distribui\u00e7\u00e3o ( vertical e espacial ) durante o ver\u00e3o de 2011 de oikopleura dioica , em termos de abund\u00e2ncia , biomassa , estimativa da produ\u00e7\u00e3o de ovos e estrutura da popula\u00e7\u00e3o em diferentes setores da frente costeiro de el rinc\u00f3n , segundo os gradientes de temperatura e salinidade . picos de abund\u00e2ncia de larvas de engraulis anchoita foram comparados com os padr\u00f5es de o . dioica . as amostras foram coletadas com redes planct\u00f4nicas de 67 e 200 \u00b5 m em duas profundidades , acima e abaixo da termoclina . tamb\u00e9m foram registrados perfis de dados obtidos com ctd . durante essa campanha , aguas de alta salinidade foram predominantes na \u00e1rea estuarina . no entanto , foi encontrada uma estratifica\u00e7\u00e3o t\u00e9rmica , sendo mais acentuado nas esta\u00e7\u00f5es externas da frente , onde as maiores densidades e biomassa de o . dioica foram registradas , coincidindo tamb\u00e9m com as maiores densidades de larvas de e . anchoita . a distribui\u00e7\u00e3o de tamanhos de o . dioica tamb\u00e9m foi associada ao gradiente t\u00e9rmico . os menores tamanhos foram encontrados na regi\u00e3o mais homog\u00eanea da costa , onde a temperatura apresentou cerca de 22\u00bac . essa frente \u00e9 um ambiente prop\u00edcio para a reprodu\u00e7\u00e3o de o . dioica o que favorece tamb\u00e9m o aumento da sobreviv\u00eancia e o crescimento de muitas esp\u00e9cies de pequenos peixes pel\u00e1gicos , tais como e . anchoita .\nedvardsen , r . b . , seo , h . c . , jensen , m . f . , mialon , a . , mikhaleva , j . , bjordal , m . , cartry , j . , reinhardt , r . , weissenbach , j . , wincker , p . , chourrout , d . , 2005 . remodelling of the homeobox gene complement in the tunicate oikopleura dioica . curr . biol . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . cub . 2004 . 12 . 010\nseo , h . c . , edvardsen , r . b . , maeland , a . d . , bjordal , m . , jensen , m . f . , hansen , a . , flaat , m . , weissenbach , j . , lehrach , h . , wincker , p . , reinhardt , r . , chourrout , d . , 2004 . hox cluster disintegration with persistent anteroposterior order of expression in oikopleura dioica . nature 431 , 67\u201371 . doi : 10 . 1038 / nature02709\nthis dataset contains data related to feeding behavior of the appendicularian oikopleura d ioica . the data include fluid direction and particle orientation of beads suspended in fluid filtered by o . d ioica . the experiments took place in 2016 at the sars centre for marine molecular biology in bergen , norway .\nsampling of oikopleura dioica at rosslandspollen over a 6 - year period . recordings are given from 0 to 25 m depth for ( a ) temperature ( \u00b0c ) ; ( b ) salinity ( \u00b0 / oo ) and ( c ) number of animals collected . the black curves on each plot represent estimations of turbidity using visibility of the top of the white plankton net as a measure . months are indicated on the abscissa with 1 to 12 corresponding to january to december . ( d ) plot of the number of animals collected per month from 2001 to 2006 .\nusing appropriate techniques , we have studied in detail the structure and functions of the house of the appendicularian oikopleura dioica fol , 1872 . in particular , we describe the structure of the inlet funnel , the reinforcing chamber on each side of the tail chamber and its function , the role and the structure of the valves located between the dorsal and water exit chambers and the structure and the role of the exit sphincter . in conclusion , we show that in addition to filtration of particles , movement of the tail also helps location of a favorable particulate environment in the sea .\nmart\u00ed - solans , j . , ferr\u00e1ndez - rold\u00e1n , a . , godoy - mar\u00edn , h . , badia - ramentol , j . , torres - aguila , n . p . , rodr\u00edguez - mar\u00ed , a . , bouquet , j . m . , chourrout , d . , thompson , e . m . , albalat , r . , ca\u00f1estro , c . , 2015 . oikopleura dioica culturing made easy : a low - cost facility for an emerging animal model in evodevo . genesis 53 , 183\u2013193 . doi : 10 . 1002 / dvg . 22800\nthe distribution pattern of o . dioica has been closely studied in the northern argentine sea ( eg . capitanio et al . , 2008 and di mauro et al . , 2009 ) where the highest densities and biomasses have been observed at the estuarine front of the\nla plata\nriver ( 34\u00bas ) during spring - summer . to date , this kind of study on the el rinc\u00f3n frontal system has been rare . during winter , vi\u00f1as et al . ( 1999 ) found a higher biomass of zooplankters near the 50m isobath , associated with salinity values between 33 . 1 and 33 . 5 , the small copepod , appendicularian and lamellibranch larvae predominating . during spring , di mauro et al . ( 2009 ) reported a minimum salinity value of 33 near the coast , followed by an area of highly saline waters around 33 . 8 near the 50 m isobath where o . dioica was predominant . the vertical and spatial distributions of o . dioica , in terms of abundance , biomass and population structure in the different sectors of el rincon frontal system , were studied in relation to thermal and salinity gradients . as it is well known that this species is one of the main food items of e . anchoita in many coastal sectors of the argentine sea ( vi\u00f1as ; ramirez , 1996 ; capitanio et al . , 1997 ; spinelli et al . , 2012 ) , the distribution of o . dioica at this front was analyzed in relation to the northern anchovy larvae peaks of abundance .\nwe thank a . adoutte for advice throughout the course of this work ; r . aasland , m . schartl , t . stach and e . thompson for their comments at several stages of manuscript preparation ; and the personnel of the oikopleura culture facility for technical support . funding was provided by the research council of norway and the university of bergen in the frame of the sars centre \u2013 embl partnership contract .\nthe year 2010 was characterized by\nla ni\u00f1a\n, which could explain the decrease in the river ' s flow as this event generates lower rainfall ( urltoken ) . according to spinelli et al . ( 2009 ) , in the estuarine front of the la plata river ( 34\u00bas ) the salinity was the main factor driving the species composition of appendicularians , but in this study of the el rincon coastal front only o . dioica was found and no salinity gradient was detected .\nfunctional approaches of gene knockdown or inhibition are amenable . the syncytial gonad of females is easy to inject with rnai , morpholinos or even , the recent discovered dnai ( yes , dsdna rather dsrna of your target gene\u2026cheap and effective ) , obtaining a massive generation of knockdown embryos ( omotezako et al . , 2015 ) . moreover , permeability and small size of o . dioica embryos allow us to easily treat them with drugs or specific inhibitors of signaling pathways to modify their developmental programs .\nwe acknowledge g . - a . paffenh\u00f6fer and r . fenaux for their pioneering work in the culturing and study of appendicularia . we thank g . gorsky for expert advice in initiating our o . dioica culture and d . eversen for her help with algal culture . we thank the crews of r / v hans brattstr\u00f8m and r / v aurelia , for help in collecting field animals . finally , we thank the technical staff of the sars centre appendicularian culture facility and the ilab personnel for their continued efforts .\nfig . 6 . embryo development in o . dioica is very fast . ( a ) two cell estage embryo 30 minutes post fertilization . ( b - d ) from 2 to 4 hours post fertilization ( hpf ) we can identify the tailbud stage in which the embryo resides inside the corion . ( e - h ) at 4 hpf the embryo leaves the corion and became a swimming larvae during the hatchling stages . ( i ) the metamorphosis , that only consist in a 180\u00ba rotation of the tail , takes place 9 hpf giving rise to the tailshift embryo . ( j ) adult animal of 2 days of life . ( k ) adult animals of 5 days of life . the female gonad contains hundreds of eggs , the male gonad is dark and contains the sperm .\nto examine growth rates of the algal strains , cultures were inoculated with an initial cell density of 2 . 5\u00d710 4 cells ml \u22121 . sampling for optical density measurement was carried out twice on the first day and then once per day thereafter ( fig . 3 ) . growth rates ( k ) and doubling times ( t 2 ) during the linear portion of the exponential growth curves were calculated as indicated in the figure legend . cell densities of isochrysis sp . and c . calcitrans increased rapidly with a minor lag phase , whereas r . reticulata grew less rapidly . for routine use in the feeding of o . dioica , minimum cell densities of 1\u00d710 6 cells ml \u22121 were reached after 48 h for isochrysis and 72 h for c . calcitrans . for r . reticulata , a minimum density of 5\u00d710 5 cells ml \u22121 was attained after 96 h . based on these growth curves and to ensure optimal nutritive quality of the algae , cultures used for feeding were discarded after a maximum of 168 h for isochrysis and c . calcitrans ( \u22485\u20136\u00d710 6 cells ml \u22121 ) , and 264 h for r . reticulata ( \u22482\u00d710 6 cells ml \u22121 ) .\ndistribution lower north shore , lower laurentian channel ( bathyal zone as far as the cabot strait : cape north , n . s . , st . paul island to . . .\ndistribution lower north shore , lower laurentian channel ( bathyal zone as far as the cabot strait : cape north , n . s . , st . paul island to cape ray , nl . . ) , western slope of newfoundland , including the southern part of the strait of belle isle but excluding the upper 50m in the area southwest of newfoundland ; southwestern slope of nl . [ details ]\nvan der land , j . ( 2001 ) . appendicularia , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 356 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nbrunel , p . ; bosse , l . ; lamarche , g . ( 1998 ) . catalogue of the marine invertebrates of the estuary and gulf of st . lawrence . canadian special publication of fisheries and aquatic sciences , 126 . 405 p . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nfenaux , r . ( 1973 ) . appendicularians from the indian ocean , red sea and the persian gulf . p . 409 - 414 in : zeitchel , b . & s . a . gerlach ( eds ) , the biology of the indian ocean . ecological studies vol . 3 . jacobs , j . , o . l . lange , j . s . olson & w . wieser ( eds ) chapman & hall ltd . [ details ]\nmuller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission r\u00e9gionale de biologie r\u00e9gion nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nfenaux , r . , q . bone , and d . deibel . 1998 . appendicularian distribution and zoogeography , p . 251 - 264 . in q . bone [ ed . ] , the biology of pelagic tunicates . oxford university press . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nkott , p . ; bradford - grieve , j . ; esnal , g . ; murdoch , r . c . ( 2009 ) . phylum tunicata : sea squirts , salps , appendicularians , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 1 . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . pp . 409 - 430 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\ncastellanos , i . a ; su\u00e1rez - morales , e . ( 2009 ) . appendicularia ( urochordata ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1217\u20131221 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\ndyntaxa . ( 2013 ) . swedish taxonomic database . accessed at urltoken [ 15 - 01 - 2013 ] . , available online at http : / / urltoken [ details ]\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nsoetaert , k . ; van rijswijk , p . ( 1993 ) . spatial and temporal patterns of the zooplankton in the westerschelde estuary . marine ecology progress series . 97 : 47 - 59 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nvan der land , j . ( ed ) . ( 2008 ) . unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( urmo ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nchen , q . c . ( 1982 ) . the marine zooplankton of hong kong . in : morton b , editor . proceedings of the first international marine biological workshop : the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china . hong kong university press , hong kong . 2 : 789 - 799 . [ details ]\nin this species the sexes are separated ( which is not the case in all other known species of appendicularia ) .\nare small and spherica . the right stomach lobe forms a cloacal sac behind the entrance to the\n) is usually between 0 . 5 and 1 . 0 mm but may reach 1 . 3 mm .\nwaters and estuaries . also in wadden sea , kattegat and w baltic ( occasionally e baltic also ) .\nspecies from warm and temperate waters . atlantic , indian and pacific oceans . also present in mediterranean sea and red sea . from all appendicularia ,\nb\u00fcckmann , a . and h . kapp , 1975 . taxonomic characters used for the distinction of species of appendicularia . mitteilungen aus dem hamburgischen zoologischen museum und institut , 72 : 201 - 228 .\nfenaux , r . , 1967 . les appendiculaires des mers d ' europe et du bassin m\u00e9diterran\u00e9en . faune de l ' europe et du bassin m\u00e9diterran\u00e9en , 2 . masson et cie . , paris . 116 pp . , 57 figs .\nfenaux , r . , 1998 . the classification of appendicularia . in : q . bone ( ed . ) , 1998 . the biology of pelagic tunicates . oxford university press , oxford . pp 295 - 306 .\nflood , p . r . and d . deibel , 1998 . the appendicularian house . in : q . bone ( ed . ) , 1998 . the biology of pelagic tunicates . oxford university press , oxford . pp 105 - 124 .\nfraser , j . h . , 1981 . british pelagic tunicates . synopses of the british fauna ( new series ) , no . 20 . cambridge university press , cambridge . 57 pp .\nlohmann , h . , 1896 . die appendicularien der plankton - expedition . ergebnisse der plankton - expedition der humbolt - stiftung 1889 . bd . 2 , ec . verlag lipsius und tischer , leipzig . pp 1 - 148 , 20 plates , 3 maps .\nlohmann , h . , 1901 . die appendicularien . nordisches plankton , 2 ( 3 ) : 11 - 21 . lipsius & tischer , kiel . ( reprint asher & co . , amsterdam , 1964 ) .\nnewell , g . e . and newell , r . c . , 1977 . marine plankton , a practical guide . hutchinson and co . , london . 225 pp .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\noral gland precursor migrates as a 4 - nuclei syncytium and separates into two cells .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nwarm - temperate waters in atlantic , indian and pacific oceans , mediterranean and red seas .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nmart\u00ed - solans j 1 , ferr\u00e1ndez - rold\u00e1n a , godoy - mar\u00edn h , badia - ramentol j , torres - aguila np , rodr\u00edguez - mar\u00ed a , bouquet jm , chourrout d , thompson em , albalat r , ca\u00f1estro c .\ndepartament de gen\u00e8tica and institut de recerca de la biodiversitat ( irbio ) , universitat de barcelona , barcelona , 08028 , spain .\ndepartment of biological sciences , graduate school of science , osaka university , 1 - 1 machikaneyama - cho , toyonaka , osaka 560 - 0043 , japan . hnishida @ urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nsearch using a sequence name , gene name , locus , or other landmark . the wildcard character * is allowed\n8 horas de musica de meditacion , dormir , spa , estudio , zen , reflexion , descansar .\nthank you for visiting nature . com . you are using a browser version with limited support for css . to obtain the best experience , we recommend you use a more up to date browser ( or turn off compatibility mode in internet explorer ) . in the meantime , to ensure continued support , we are displaying the site without styles and javascript .\nall prices are net prices . vat will be added later in the checkout .\npaup * 4 . 0 . : phylogenetic analysis using parsimony ( * and other methods ) , version 4 . 0b10\nby submitting a comment you agree to abide by our terms and community guidelines . if you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate .\nnature is part of springer nature . \u00a9 2018 springer nature limited . all rights reserved .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\nalldredge al ( 1975 ) quantitative natural history and ecology of appendicularians and discarded appendicularian houses . ph . d . thesis , university of california davis , pp 1\u2013152\nchamisso a von , eysenhart c ( 1821 ) de animalibus quibusquam e classe vermium linneana , in circumnavigatione terrae , auspicante comite n . romanzoff - duce ottone de kotzebue , annis 1815\u20131818 , peracta , observatio . nova acta leopold carol 2 : 543\u2013574\nfol , 1872 . description et chronologie . ann inst oceanogr paris 52 : 89\u2013101\nfenaux r ( 1985 ) rhythm of secretion of oikopleurid ' s houses . bull mar sci 37 : 498\u2013503\nfenaux r , gorsky g ( 1979 ) techniques d ' \u00e9levage des appendiculaires . ann inst oceanogr paris 55 : 195\u2013200\nfenaux r , gorsky g ( 1985 ) nouvelles techniques d ' \u00e9levage des appendiculaires . rapp comm int mer m\u00e9dit 29 : 291\u2013292\nflood pr ( 1978 ) filters characteristics of appendicularian food catching nets . experientia 34 : 173\u2013175\nfol h ( 1872 ) etudes sur les appendiculaires du d\u00e9troit de messine . m\u00e9m soc phys gen\u00e8ve 21 : 445\u2013499\nj\u00f8rgensen cb ( 1966a ) biology of suspension feeding . pergamon press , oxford , pp 1\u2013357\nj\u00f8rgensen cb ( 1966b ) in : ecology of invertebrates . by w . t . edmondson . proceedings of the third international interdisciplinary conference . mar biol 3 : 107\u2013116\nklaatsch h ( 1895 ) ueber kernver\u00e4nderungen im ektoderm der appendicularien bei der geh\u00e4usebildung . morphol jb 23 : 142\u2013144\nlohmann h ( 1899a ) das geh\u00e4use der appendicularien nach seiner bildungsweise , seinem bau und seiner funktion . zool anz 22 : 206\u2013214\nlohmann h ( 1899b ) das geh\u00e4use des appendicularien , sein bau , seine funktion und seine entstehung . schr naturwiss ver schleswig - holstein 11 : 347\u2013407\n. in : k\u00fckenthal w , krumbach t ( hrsg ) handbuch der zoologie . de gruyter , berlin 5 : 1\u2013202\nswaison g ( 1892 ) a new form of appendicularian \u201chaus\u201d . int j micr nat sci 6 : 34\u201336\nall data sets are licensed under a creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license ( cc by 4 ) . per the cc by 4 license it is understood that any use of the data set will properly acknowledge the individual ( s ) listed above using the suggested data citation . if you wish to use this data set , it is highly recommended that you contact the original principal investigator ( s ) ( pi ) . should the relevant pi be unavailable , please contact bco - dmo ( info @ bco - dmo . org ) for additional guidance . for general guidance please see the bco - dmo terms of use document . need a doi ? email us about this dataset .\nfor measurements of ellipsoidal particle orientation , the image stack was registered using the stackreg plugin with an affine transform to account for the inflation and deflation of the feeding mesh . images were then inverted and frames for trajectory analysis were color - coded in one of six channels using the stack - to - hyperstack tool . stacks were z - projected and the composite image was used to show trajectories . measurements of ellipsoidal particle orientation were made using the straight line angle tool in imagej ( 41 ) and converted to be relative to the fluid flow .\na camera ( could be a 35 mm type ) , most often used to photograph marine mammals or birds . all types of photographic equipment that are hand - held or part of laboratory apparatus including stills , video , film and digital systems .\nsony 4k fdr - ax100 ( hd resolution , 120 fps ) mounted to a nikon eclipse e400 with a 10x objective using a martin microscope m99 camcorder adapter .\n\u00a92018 biological and chemical oceanography data management office . funded by the u . s . national science foundation\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 strict / / en\nyou are going to add the following user to your analysis project , project , biosample and study .\nyou are going to remove permissions for the following user to your analysis project , project , biosample and study .\nplease note that the scaffold names referring to the genoscope draft genome sequences may not be definitive . the sex specific expression data presented on this webpage was generated from whole animal cdna and not from female / male gonad extracts ( for a more detailed description please see moosmann et al . , in preparation ) . for a few genes that lack specific primer pairs the expression data is not presented .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the \u2018correct annotation\u2019 for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the < a href =\nurltoken\n> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =\nurltoken\n> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000256\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been imported from another database using automatic procedures . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000313\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the \u2018taxonomic identifier\u2019 or \u2018taxid\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section describes post - translational modifications ( ptms ) and / or processing events . < p > < a href = ' / help / ptm _ processing _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018ptm / processing\u2019 section denotes the presence of an n - terminal signal peptide . < p > < a href = ' / help / signal ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018ptm / processing\u2019 section describes the extent of a polypeptide chain in the mature protein following processing . < p > < a href = ' / help / chain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the tertiary and secondary structure of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / structure _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> family and domains < / a > section describes the position and type of a domain , which is defined as a specific combination of secondary structures organized into a characteristic three - dimensional structure or fold . < p > < a href = ' / help / domain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000259\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018family and domains\u2019 section provides information about the sequence similarity with other proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ similarities ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018sequence\u2019 section is used for sequence fragments to indicate that the residue at the extremity of the sequence is not the actual terminal residue in the complete protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / non _ ter ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href =\nurltoken\n> uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( \u2018last modified\u2019 ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nthe oceanographic characteristics of the el rincon frontal system during this summer are shown in figure 2a , b . the estuarine area in this campaign was defined by a salinity value below 33 . 85 , which is low when compared to historical data . it corresponded to stations 35 , 34 , 33 and 32 , extending seaward for 60 - 80 km . a zone with high salinity ( 33 . 95 - 34 . 05 ) waters was observed at stations 31 , 30 and 29 while for station 28 , an external zone with diluted continental shelf waters was observed which presented a salinity value of 33 . 8 . no vertical salinity stratification was present . regarding temperature , there was a vertically homogeneous area at the coast ( stations 35 , 34 , 33 and 32 ) , with temperatures of about 22\u00b0c corresponding to the estuarine area mentioned above , a transitional area ( st . 31 ) and an external stratified one ( stations 30 and 29 ) with a well - marked thermocline at 35m depth . temperature varied , from transitional to stratified stations , from 20 to 19\u00bac in surface layers and from 18 to 12\u00bac below the thermocline depth . the thermocline was defined from stations 32 - 31 to station 28 , with a gradient of 7\u00b0c / 100 km .\nwe wish to thank the argentinian instituto nacional de investigaci\u00f3n y desarrollo pesquero ( inidep ) for providing all the samples and environmental data . this study was partially supported by ubacyt 20020100200048 grants to f . capitanio . we would also like to thank two anonymous reviewers for their critical review of the manuscript .\nacha , e . m . ; mianzan , h . w . ; guerrero , r . a . ; favero , m . ; bava , j . marine fronts at the continental shelves of austral south america : physical and ecological processes . j . mar . syst . , v . 44 , n . 1 / 2 , p . 83 - 105 , 2004 . [ links ]\nadolf , j . e . ; yeager , c . l . ; miller , w . d . ; mallone , m . e . ; harding , l . w . environmental forcing of phytoplankton floral composition , biomass and primary productivity in chesapeake bay , usa . estuar . coast . shelf sci . , v . 67 , p . 108 - 122 , 2006 . [ links ]\nangelescu , v . ecolog\u00eda tr\u00f3fica de laancho\u00edtadel mar argentino ( engraulidae , engraulis anchoita ) : parte ii . alimentaci\u00f3n , comportamiento y relaciones tr\u00f3ficas enelecosistema . mar del plata : ministerio de econom\u00eda , subsecretaria de intereses mar\u00edtimos , subsecretaria de pesca , instituto nacional de investigaci\u00f3n y desarrollopesquero , inidep , 1982 . 83 p . ( contribuci\u00f3n ( instituto nacional de investigaci\u00f3n y desarrollopesquero ( argentina ) , n . 409 ) . [ links ]\ncapitanio , f . ; p\u00e1jaro , m . ; esnal , g . appendicularians ( chordata , tunicata ) in the diet of anchovy ( engraulis anchoita ) in the argentine sea . sci . mar . , v . 61 , n . 1 , p . 9 - 15 , 1997 . [ links ]\ncapitanio , f . l . ; curelovich , j . ; tresguerres , m . ; negri , r . ; vi\u00f1as , m . d . ; esnal , g . seasonal cycle of appendicularians at a coastal station ( 38\u00ba28\u00b4s , 57\u00ba41\u00b4w ) of the sw atlantic ocean . bull . mar . sci . , v . 82 , p . 171 - 184 , 2008 . [ links ]\nciechomski , j . d . ; weiss , g . desove y fecundidad de la ancho\u00edta argentina ( engraulis anchoita ) hubbs y marini . physis , secc . a , v . 32 , n . 84 , p . 137 - 153 , 1973 . [ links ]\ndi mauro , r . ; capitanio , f . l . ; vi\u00f1as , m . d . capture efficiency for small dominant mesozooplankters ( copepoda , appendicularia ) off buenos aires province ( 34\u00bas - 41\u00bas ) , argentine sea , using two plankton mesh sizes . braz . j . oceanogr . , v . 57 , n . 3 , p . 205 - 214 , 2009 . [ links ]\ndeibel , d . ; lowen , b . a review of the life cycles and life - history adaptations of pelagic tunicates to environmental conditions . ices j . mar . sci . , v . 69 , p . 1 - 12 , 2012 . [ links ]\nfogg , g . e . review lecture : picoplankton . proc . r . soc . london , ser . b . , v . 228 , p . 1 - 30 , 1986 . [ links ]\ngorsky , g . ; fenaux , r . the role of appendicularia in marine food webs . in : bone , q . ( ed . ) . the biology of pelagic tunicates . oxford : university press , 1998 . p . 161 - 169 . [ links ]\ngorsky , g . ; youngbluth , m . j . ; deibel , d . response of marine ecosystems to global change : ecological impact of appendicularians . paris : contemporary publishing international , 2005 . 437p . [ links ]\nguerrero , r . a . ; piola , a . r . masas de agua en la plataforma continental . in : boschi , e . e . ( ed . ) . antecedentes hist\u00f3ricos de las exploraciones em el mar y las caracter\u00edsticas ambientales . mar del plata : instituto nacional de investigaci\u00f3n y desarrollopesquero , 1997 . p . 107 - 118 . ( el mar argentino y sus recursos pesqueiros ; 1 ) . [ links ]\nhansen , j . e . ; cousseau , m . b . ; gru , d . l . caracter\u00edsticas poblacionales de la ancho\u00edta ( engraulis anchoita ) del mar argentino . parte i . el largo medioal primer a\u00f1o de vida , crecimiento y mortalidad . rev . invest . desarr . pesq . , v . 4 , p . 21 - 48 , 1984 . [ links ]\nhoffmeyer , m . s . ; men\u00e9ndez , m . c . ; biancalana , f . ; nizovoy , a . m . ; torres , e . r . ichthyoplankton spatial pattern in the inner shelf off bah\u00eda blanca estuary , sw atlantic ocean . estuar . coast . shelf sci . , v . 84 , n . 3 , p . 383 - 392 , 2009 . [ links ]\nlargier , j . l . estuarine fronts : how important are they ? estuaries , v . 16 , n . 1 , p . 1 - 11 , 1993 . [ links ]\nle f\u00e9vre , j . aspects of the biology of frontal systems . adv . mar . biol . , v . 23 , p . 163 - 299 , 1986 . [ links ]\nleong , r . j . h . ; o ' connell , c . p . a laboratory study of particulate and filter feeding of the northern anchovy ( engraulis mordax ) . j . fish . res . board can . , v . 26 , p . 557 - 582 , 1969 . [ links ]\nlobon , c . m . ; acu\u00f1a , j . l . ; lopez - alvarez , m . ; capitanio , f . l . heritability of morphological and life history traits in a pelagic tunicate . mar . ecol . prog . ser . , v . 422 , p . 145 - 154 , 2011 . [ links ]\nlucas , a . j . ; guerrero , r . a . ; mianz\u00e1n , h . w . ; acha , e . m . ; lasta , c . a . coastal oceanographic regimes of the northern anchovy continental shelf ( 34 - 43\u00b0s ) . estuar . coast . shelf sci . , v . 3 , p . 405 - 420 , 2005 . [ links ]\nmann , k . h . ; lazier , j . r . n . dynamics of marine ecosystems : biological - physical interactions in the oceans . 2 . ed . boston : blackwell scientific publication , 1996 . 394 p . [ links ]\nnegri , r . m . ; silva , r . i . ; segura , v . ; cuchi - colleoni , d . estructura de la comunidad de fitoplancton em el \u00e1rea de el rincon ( febrero 2011 ) . rev . invest . desarr . pesq . , 2012 . [ links ]\nolson , d . b . ; backus , r . h . the concentrating of organisms at fronts : a coldwater fish and a warm - core gulf stream ring . j . mar . res . , v . 43 , p . 113 - 137 , 1985 . [ links ]\np\u00e1jaro , m . ; macchi , g . j . ; sanchez , r . p . fecundidad y frecuencia reproductiva de los stocks bonaerense y patag\u00f3nico de ancho\u00edta argentina ( engraulis anchoita ) . rev . invest . desarr . pesq . , v . 11 , p . 19 - 38 , 1997 . [ links ]\np\u00e1jaro , m . alimentaci\u00f3n de la ancho\u00edta argentina ( engraulis anchoita hubbs y marini , 1935 ) ( pisces : clupeiformes ) durante la \u00e9poca reproductiva . rev . invest . desarr . pesq . , v . 15 , p . 111 - 125 , 2002 . [ links ]\np\u00e1jaro , m . ; macchi , g . j . ; leonarduzzi , e . ; hansen , j . e . spawning biomass of argentine anchovy ( engraulis anchoita ) from 1996 to 2004 using the daily egg production method . j . mar . biol . assoc . u . k . , v . 89 , n . 4 , p . 829 - 837 , 2009 . [ links ]\npark , g . s . ; marshall , h . g . estuarine relationship between zooplankton community structure and trophic gradients . j . plankton res . , v . 5 , p . 15 - 33 , 2000 . [ links ]\nperrota , r . g . ; madirolas , a . ; vi\u00f1as , m . d . ; akselman , r . ; guerrero , r . ; s\u00e1nchez , f . ; l\u00f3pez , f . ; castro machado , f . ; machi , g . la caballa ( scomber japonicus ) y las condiciones ambientales en el \u00e1rea bonaerense de ' ' el rincon ' ' ( 39\u00ba40 ' 300 ' ' s ) . agosto , 1996 . mar del plata : secretar\u00eda de agricultura , ganader\u00eda , pesca , y alimentaci\u00f3n , instituto nacional de investigaci\u00f3n y desarrollo pesquero , 1999 . 29 p . ( inidep - informe t\u00e9cnico ; 26 ) . [ links ]\nperrota , r . g . ; vi\u00f1as , m . d . ; madirolas , a . o . ; reta , r . ; akselman , r . ; castro machado , f . j . ; david garciarena , a . ; macchi , g . j . ; moriondo danovaro , p . ; llanos , v . ; urteaga , j . r . la caballa ( scomber japonicus ) y las condiciones ambientales en el \u00e1rea ' ' el rinc\u00f3n ' ' ( 39\u00ba40 ' - 41\u00ba30 ' s ) del mar argentino , septiembre , 2000 . mar del plata : secretar\u00eda de agricultura , ganader\u00eda , pesca , y alimentaci\u00f3n , instituto nacional de investigaci\u00f3n y desarrollo pesquero , 2003 . p . 25 . ( inidep - informet\u00e9cnico ; 54 ) . [ links ]\ns\u00e1nchez , r . p . ; ciechomski , j . d . spawning and nursery grounds of pelagic fish species in the sea - shelf off argentina and adjacent areas . sci . mar . , v . 4 , p . 455 - 478 , 1995 . [ links ]\nspinelli , m . ; martos , p . ; esnal , g . ; capitanio , f . appendicularian assemblages and their space - time variability off the la plata river , sw atlantic ocean . estuar . , coast . shelf sci . , v . 85 , p . 97 - 106 , 2009 . [ links ]\nspinelli ; m . ; pajaro , m . ; martos , p . ; esnal , g . ; sabatini , m . ; capitanio , f . potential zooplankton preys ( copepoda and appendicularia ) for engraulis anchoita in relation to early larval and spawning distributions at the patagonian frontal region ( sw atlantic ocean ) . sci . mar . , v . 76 , p . 39 - 47 , 2012 . [ links ]\nstockner , j . g . phototrophic picoplankton : an overview from marine and freshwater ecosystems . limnol . oceanogr . , v . 33 , p . 765 - 775 , 1988 . [ links ]\nvi\u00f1as , m . d . ; ram\u00edrez , f . c . gut analysis of first - feeding anchovy larvae from patagonian spawning area in relation to food availability . arch . fish . mar . res . , v . 43 , p . 231 - 256 , 1996 . 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{"id": 2023, "summary": [{"text": "perophora multiclathrata is a species of colonial sea squirt in the genus perophora .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is native to the tropical indo-pacific and the western atlantic ocean . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "perophora multiclathrata", "paragraphs": ["kento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30de\u30e1\u30dc\u30e4\nto\nperophora japonica oka , 1927\n.\n( of perophora orientalis \u00e4rnb\u00e4ck , 1935 ) arnback , c . l . ( 1935 ) . a notable case of relation in perophora . arkiv f . zool . 28 ( 9 ) : 1 - 6 . [ details ]\n( of ecteinascidia multiclathrata sluiter , 1904 ) sluiter , c . p . ( 1904 ) . die tunicaten der siboga - expedition . part 1 . die socialen und holosomen ascidien . siboga - exped . 56a : 1 - 126 . [ details ]\ngoodbody , i . ( 1994 ) the tropical western atlantic perophoridae ( ascidiacea ) : i . the genus perophora . bulletin of marine science , 55 ( 1 ) : 176 - 192 .\n( of perophora formosana ( oka , 1931 ) ) sanamyan , k . ( 2007 ) . database of extant ascidiacea . version of 2 november 2007 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of perophora africana millar , 1953 ) millar , r . h . ( 1953 ) . on the collection of ascidians from the gold coast . proc . zool . oc . london . 123 ( 2 ) : 277 - 325 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of perophora formosana ( oka , 1931 ) ) liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nshenkar , n . ; gittenberger , a . ; lambert , g . ; rius , m . ; moreira da rocha , r . ; swalla , b . j . ; turon , x . ( 2018 ) . ascidiacea world database .\n( of ecteinascidia euphues sluiter , 1904 ) sluiter , c . p . ( 1904 ) . die tunicaten der siboga - expedition . part 1 . die socialen und holosomen ascidien . siboga - exped . 56a : 1 - 126 . [ details ]\n( of ecteinascidia formosana oka , 1931 ) oka , a . ( 1931 ) . uber eine neue species von ecteinascidia aus formosa . proc . imp . acad . tokyo . 7 ( 4 ) : 173 - 175 . [ details ]\nmonniot , c . ( 2001 ) . ascidiacea & sorberacea . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels . 50 : pp . 352 - 355 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nkott , p . ( 1985 ) . the australian ascidiacea part 1 , phlebobranchia and stolidobranchia . mem qd mus . 23 : 1 - 440 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nzenetos , a . ; gofas , s . ; verlaque , m . ; cinar , m . ; garcia raso , j . ; bianchi , c . ; morri , c . ; azzurro , e . ; bilecenoglu , m . ; froglia , c . ; siokou , i . ; violanti , d . ; sfriso , a . ; san martin , g . ; giangrande , a . ; katagan , t . ; ballesteros , e . ; ramos - espla , a . ; mastrototaro , f . ; ocana , o . ; zingone , a . ; gambi , m . ; streftaris , n . ( 2010 ) . alien species in the mediterranean sea by 2010 . a contribution to the application of european union\u2019s marine strategy framework directive ( msfd ) . part i . spatial distribution . mediterranean marine science . 11 ( 2 ) : 381 - 493 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nizquierdo - mu\u00f1oz , a . ; d\u00edaz - vald\u00e9s , m . ; ramos - espl\u00e1 , a . a . ( 2009 ) . recent non - indigenous ascidians in the mediterranean sea . aquatic invasions . 4 ( 1 ) : 59 - 64 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nvan der land , j . ( ed ) . ( 2008 ) . unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( urmo ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nkatsanevakis , s . ; bogucarskis , k . ; gatto , f . ; vandekerkhove , j . ; deriu , i . ; cardoso a . s . ( 2012 ) . building the european alien species information network ( easin ) : a novel approach for the exploration of distributed alien species data . bioinvasions records . 1 : 235 - 245 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nthe tropical western atlantic perophoridae ( ascidiacea ) : i . the g . . . : ingenta connect\nthe bulletin of marine science is dedicated to the dissemination of high quality research from the world ' s oceans . all aspects of marine science are treated by the bulletin of marine science , including papers in marine biology , biological oceanography , fisheries , marine affairs , applied marine physics , marine geology and geophysics , marine and atmospheric chemistry , and meteorology and physical oceanography .\ningenta . article copyright remains with the publisher , society or author ( s ) as specified within the article .\nwebsite makes use of cookies so as to keep track of data that you have filled in .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\ncorresponds to a report on the basis of at least one observation proved within a period of 10 years ( 20 years for little - known invertebrates ) preceding the year and no presumption of extinction since obtaining the last data nor doubt on reproductive and implemented nature of this population . for migratory species , the presence indicated concerns areas of reproduction .\nthe last reliable sighting is older than 10 years compared to the reference date , no recent specific research and no presumption of extinction from that date [ vertebrates , invertebrates and plants well studied ( rhopalocera , grasshoppers , dragonflies . . . ) ] ;\nthe last reliable observation being older than 20 years , no recent specific research and no presumption of extinction from that date [ poorly known taxa : fungus , many invertebrates . . . ] .\nthis point covers the absence , more difficult by nature to demonstrate than presence . this status is based on one or more of the following criteria :\nthis status must be assigned to a department in which the presence of the species is casual .\nparticular case of absence due to a proven extinction less than a half century ago ( older disappearances are treated as\nno probable or definite\n) .\nin the state of knowledge , we can not comment on the presence or absence in the current department . this is the default status when not comprised in one of the previous categories or whenever there is doubt .\nwarning : the data available reflects the progression status of knowledge or the availability of the inventories . it should never be considered as comprehensive .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nrosana m . da rocha i , ii ; laura p . kremer i , iii\ni laborat\u00f3rio de ecologia e sistem\u00e1tica de asc\u00eddias , departamento de zoologia , universidade federal do paran\u00e1 . caixa postal 19020 , 81531 - 980 curitiba , paran\u00e1 , brasil ii pesquisadora do cnpq . e - mail : rmrocha @ urltoken iii bolsista do cnpq / pibic . e - mail : laurapkremer @ urltoken\nwith these considerations , our goal in this study was to sample the ascidian community in the area of influence of the port of paranagu\u00e1 . specifically , we wished to use ascidians as indicator species to better understand the biology of species introductions due to shipping in marine systems .\nfive locations were sampled within and near paranagu\u00e1 bay ( fig . 1 ) : ilha das cobras ( 25\u00ba29 , 00 ' s ; 48\u00ba25 , 50 ' w ) and pier tenenge ( 25\u00ba32 , 84 ' s ; 48\u00ba21 , 51 ' w ) , sampled on 7 december 2003 ; ilha da galheta ( 25\u00ba35 , 00 ' s ; 48\u00ba19 , 00 ' w ) on 11 march 2004 ; ilha do mel ( 25\u00ba33 , 00 ' s ; 48\u00ba18 , 00 ' w ) on 11 march 2004 and 9 june 2005 ; and mero park ( 25\u00ba 43 , 00 ' s ; 48\u00ba 20 , 00 ' w ) on 14 may 2005 . ascidians were collected by scuba diving at depths of up to four meters , except mero park , where depths reached a maximum of 17 m . samples were anesthetized and fixed in 10 % neutralized formalin .\neighteen species ( tab . i ) were collected , with 30 samples from ilha das cobras , 26 from pier tenenge , nine from ilha do mel , 11 from ilha da galheta and five from parque dos meros . only six samples were of solitary animals , collected at ilha da galheta , ilha do mel and mero park . some samples in the family didemnidae are still unidentified , since larvae ( which have characters of critical importance in species identification ) were absent .\nmolgula phytophila , the only endemic species in the region ( fig . 2 , tab . ii ) , was found encrusted on fish - nets in the concrete blocks that form the artificial reef in mero park . it is quite possible that this species is synonymous with m . braziliensis millar , 1958 , but the type specimen ( london natural history museum ) of the latter is of poor quality and cannot be used for identification of the former . if synonymous , the specimen in millar ( 1958 ) would be the first recorded in the brazilian coast .\nclavelina oblonga , according to van name ( 1945 ) referring to the material hartmeyer collected in s\u00e3o sebasti\u00e3o , s\u00e3o paulo , was first recorded in brazil in ~ 1910 . clavelina oblonga is also found near dakar , senegal , and at ilha faial , azores . in the azores , it was introduced from american populations in 1971 , and is restricted to horta harbor ( monniot & monniot 1994 ) .\nthe first record for distaplia bermudensis in brazil is that of millar ( 1958 ) , at ubatuba , s\u00e3o paulo . p\u00e9r\u00e8s ( 1957 ) recorded this species in the mediterranean sea ( baleares islands ) , but possibly erroneously identified . it was perhaps distaplia rosea della valle , 1881 , common in the mediterranean . since this species is only found on natural substrates it is probably native , and therefore should be carefully studied ( substrate , location , etc . ) in future brazilian studies to clarify its status .\nsymplegma rubra was first recorded in 1993 in s\u00e3o sebasti\u00e3o , s\u00e3o paulo , brazil ( rodrigues & rocha 1993 ) . however , rodrigues ( unpublished data ) encountered this species in the region since the 1960s .\nthe remaining cryptogenic species are widely distributed in the world and the entire brazilian coast ( the fourth distribution pattern ; figs 11 - 19 , tab . ii ) . thus it is difficult to determine the origin of these species and their points of introduction .\ndidemnum granulatum was found first in brazil ( s\u00e3o paulo ) in 1995 ( rocha & monniot 1995 ) , and on the west african coast ( senegal ) in 1994 ( monniot & monniot 1994 ) . this species has not been found in the caribbean , nor on the eastern coast of africa , and thus we believe it to be of pacific origin .\nlissoclinum fragile was first recorded in brazil by rodrigues et al . ( 1998 ) in s\u00e3o paulo . the fact that it is found in ports , such as apra harbour , guam ( monniot & monniot 2001 ) , noumea port in new caledonia ( monniot 1992 ) , malakal harbor in palau an also harbors in honolulu , hawaii ( g . lambert 2005 , personal communication ) suggests that it may be passively transported by ships . l . fragile is also considered introduced in tahiti ( monniot et al . 1985 ) and was first reported on the west african coast in 1994 ( monniot & monniot 1994 ) .\nbotrylloides nigrum was first recorded in brazil in the states of santa catarina and s\u00e3o paulo ( rodrigues 1962 ) . in this study it was found on a cultivated mussel , and so possibly introduced . in brazil , this species is usually epizooic , growing on algae and bivalve shells , such as oysters and mussels .\nwe thank rafael metri and jim roper for assistance in the field , tatiane r . moreno for helping with species identification , suzana b . farias for helping with geographical coordinates and gretchen lambert for suggestions to the manuscript . cnpq provided a grant for rmr ( process 473408 / 2003 - 01 ) and a scholar ship to lpk .\nberrill , n . j . 1975 . chordata : tunicata , p . 241 - 282 .\nbjornberg , t . k . s . 1956 . asc\u00eddias da costa sul do brasil ( nota pr\u00e9via ) .\n( van name , 1931 ) , a colonial ascidian new to the mediterranean record . .\n( phaeophyceae , laminariales ) reduces native seaweed diversity in nuevo gulf ( patagonia , argentina ) .\ncarlton , j . t . & j . b . geller . 1993 . ecological roulette : biological invasion and the global transport of nonindigenous marine organisms .\ncosta , h . r . 1969 . notas sobre os ascidiacea brasileiros . v . subclasse pleurogona .\nculver , c . s . & . a . m . kuris . 2000 . the apparent eradication of a locally established introduced marine pest .\ndalby , j . e . & c . m . young . 1993 . variable effects of ascidians competitors on oysters in a florida epifaunal community .\n( tunicata : ascidiacea ) a new addition to the fauna of the portuguese coast .\nfernandes , l . f . ; l . zehnder - alves & j . bassfeld . 2001 . the recently established diatom\n( coscinodiscales , bacillariophyta ) in brazilian waters . i : remarks on morphology and distribution .\nfloeter , s . r . & a . soares - gomes . 1999 . biogeographic and species richness patterns of gastropoda on the southwestern atlantic .\nharris , l . g . & m . c . tyrrell . 2001 . changing community states in the gulf of maine : synergism between invaders , overfishing and climate change .\nreport on the tunicata collected during the voyage of the h . m . s . challenger during the years 1873 - 1876 . part ii . ascidiae compositae .\nedinburg , report of the scientific results of the voyage of h . m . s . challenger during the years 1873 - 76 , vol . 14 , 429p .\nkott , p . 1985 . the australian ascidiacea part 1 , phlebobranchia and stolidobranchia .\nkott , p . 1990 . the australian ascidiacea , part 2 , aplousobranchia ( 1 ) .\nlambert , c . c . & g . lambert . 1998 . non - indigenous ascidians in southern california harbors and marinas .\nlambert , c . c . & g . lambert . 2003 . persistence and differential distribution of nonindigenous ascidians in harbors of the southern california bight .\nlambert , g . 2001 . a global overview of ascidians introductions and their possible impact on the endemic fauna , p . 249 - 257 .\nmillar , r . h . 1956 . xlviii - notes on some ascidians from sierra leone and gambia .\nmillar , r . h . 1977 . ascidians ( tunicata : ascidiacea ) from the northern and north - eastern brazilian shelf .\nmillar , r . h . 1988 . ascidians collected during the international indian ocean expedition .\nmonniot , c . 1965 . etude syst\u00e9matique et \u00e9volutive de la famille des pyuridae ( ascidiacea ) .\nmonniot , c . 1969 - 1970 . ascidies phl\u00e9bobranches et stolidobranches . in : r\u00e9sultats scientifiques des campagnes de la calypso .\nmonniot , c . 1989 . ascidies de nouvelle - cal\u00e9donie . 6 . pyuridae et molgulidae .\nmonniot , c . 2002 . stolidobranch ascidians from the tropical western indian ocean .\nmonniot , c . & f . monniot . 1983 . navigation ou courants ? la colonization des a\u00e7ores et des bermudes par les ascidies ( tuniciers benthiques ) .\nmonniot , c . ; f . monniot & p . laboute . 1985 . ascidies du port de papeet ( polyn\u00e9sie fran\u00e7aise ) : relation avec le mileu naturel et apports intercontinentaux par la navigation .\nmonniot , c . & f . monniot . 1994 . additions to the inventory of eastern tropical atlantic ascidians ; arrival of cosmopolitan species .\nmonniot , c . & f . monniot . 1997 . record of ascidians from bahrain , arabian gulf with three new species .\nmonniot , f . 1992 . ascidies de nouvelle - caledonie . 12 . le genre\nmonniot , f . & c . monniot . 1997 . ascidians collected in tanzania .\nmonniot , f . & c . monniot . 2001 . ascidians from the tropical western pacific .\nmoure , j . s . ; t . k . s . bjornberg & t . st . loureiro . 1954 . protochordata ocorrentes na entrada da ba\u00eda de paranagu\u00e1 .\npalacio , j . f . 1982 . revisi\u00f3n zoogeogr\u00e1fica marina del sur del brasil .\np\u00e9r\u00e8s , j . m . 1957 . ascidies r\u00e9colt\u00e9es dans les parages des bal\u00e9ares par le professeur lacaze - duthiers . ( deuxi\u00e8me partie : iviza et san antonio ) .\nrocha , r . m . 1991 . replacement of the compound ascidian species in a southeastern brazilian fouling community .\nabbott 1951 ( ascidiacea , molgulidae ) in paranagu\u00e1 bay , paran\u00e1 , brazil . a case of recent invasion ?\nrocha , r . m . & l . v . g . costa . 2005 . ascidians from arraial do cabo , rj , brazil .\nspecies ( ascidiacea , didemnidae ) from s\u00e3o sebasti\u00e3o channel , south - eastern brazil .\nvan name , 1945 ( ascidiacea , polycitoridae ) . description of species and ecological notes\nrocha , r . m . & c . m . nasser . 1998 . some ascidians ( tunicata , ascidiacea ) from paran\u00e1 state , southern brazil .\nrocha , r . m . ; t . r . moreno & r . metri . 2005 . asc\u00eddias ( tunicata ) da reserva biol\u00f3gica marinha do arvoredo , santa catarina , brasil .\nrodrigues , s . a . 1962 . algumas asc\u00eddias do litoral sul do brasil .\nrodrigues , s . a . & r . m . rocha . 1993 . littoral compound ascidians ( tunicata ) from s\u00e3o sebasti\u00e3o , estado de s\u00e3o paulo , brazil .\nross , d . j . ; c . r . johnson & c . l . hewitt . 2003 . assessing the ecological impacts of an introduced seastar : the importance of multiple methods .\nruiz , g . m ; p . fofonoff ; j . t . carlton ; m . j . wonham & a . h . hines . 2000 . invasion of coastal marine communities in north america : apparent patterns , processes and biases .\nsommerfeldt , a . d . & j . d . d . bishop . 1999 . random amplified polymorphic dna ( rapd ) analysis reveals extensive natural chimerism in a marine protochordate .\ntokioka , t . 1952 . ascidians collected by messrs renzi wada and seizi wada from the pearl - oyster bed in the arafura sea in 1940 .\ntokioka , t . 1967 . pacific tunicata of the united states national museum .\ntraustedt , m . p . a . 1883 . vestindiske ascidiae simplices . anden afdeling . molgulidae og cynthiadae .\nvan name , w . g . 1945 . the north and south american ascidians .\n( de kay , 1843 ) into peter the great bay ( sea of japan ) .\n1 contribution number 1526 of the departamento de zoologia , universidade federal do paran\u00e1 .\ncaixa postal 19020 81531 - 980 curitiba pr brasil tel . / fax : + 55 41 3266 - 6823 sbz @ urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbelize , bermuda , jamaica , puerto rico , netherlands antilles , and it is widely distributed in the indo - pacific region .\nzooid 2 . 0 - 2 . 5 mm long . the body musculature is comprised by two boundles of transverse fibers , which are perpendiculars to the dorsal margin of the body and towards to the ventral margin . there are 5 rows of stigmata in the pharynx and 15 - 20 stigmata per row .\nkott , p . ( 1985 ) the australian ascidiacea part 1 , phlebobranchia and stolidobranchia mem . qd mus . 23 : 1 - 440 .\nmillar , r . h . ( 1953 ) on the collection of ascidians from the gold coast proc . zool . oc . london , 123 ( 2 ) : 277 - 325\nrocha , r . m . , faria , s . b . , and moreno , t . r . ; marine invertebrate taxonomy workshop i , bocas del toro , august 2003 .\nrocha r . m . , et al . ascidians from bocas del toro , panama . i . biodiversity . caribbean journal of science , vol . 41 , no . 3 , 600 - 612 , 2005 .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nin : nishimura , s . ( ed . ) , guide to seashore animals of japan with color pictures and keys , vol . ii . hoikusha , osaka , 573 - 610 ( in japanese ) .\noccurrence record in darwincore format ( elements of obis schema and some of dwc1 . 4 )\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\nthis species is a social ascidian , with individual zooids connected basally by stolons . together , zooids and stolons often form a dense mass similar to a tiny bunch of grapes . individual zooids are globular in shape , measure 2 - 4 mm in diameter , and covered by a pale green tunic . stolons are characterized by distinct , star - shaped flattened terminal buds , yellow in color .\n< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the \u2018correct annotation\u2019 for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\ncytochrome c oxidase is the component of the respiratory chain that catalyzes the reduction of oxygen to water . subunits 1 - 3 form the functional core of the enzyme complex . co i is the catalytic subunit of the enzyme . electrons originating in cytochrome c are transferred via the copper a center of subunit 2 and heme a of subunit 1 to the bimetallic center formed by heme a3 and copper b .\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000256\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> function < / a > section describes the catalytic activity of an enzyme , i . e . the chemical reaction it catalyzes . this information usually correlates with the presence of an ec ( enzyme commission ) number in the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section . < p > < a href = ' / help / catalytic _ activity ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ' function ' < / a > section describes the metabolic pathway ( s ) associated with a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / pathway ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nthis protein is involved in the pathway oxidative phosphorylation , which is part of energy metabolism .\n< p > the < a href =\nurltoken\n> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =\nurltoken\n> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates the name ( s ) of the gene ( s ) that code for the protein sequence ( s ) described in the entry . four distinct tokens exist : \u2018name\u2019 , \u2018synonyms\u2019 , \u2018ordered locus names\u2019 and \u2018orf names\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been imported from another database using automatic procedures . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000313\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates if the gene coding for the protein originates from the hydrogenosome , the mitochondrion , the nucleomorph , different plastids or a plasmid . the absence of this section means that the gene is located in one of the main chromosomal element ( s ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / encoded _ on ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the \u2018taxonomic identifier\u2019 or \u2018taxid\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the location and the topology of the mature protein in the cell . < p > < a href = ' / help / subcellular _ location _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ' subcellular location ' < / a > section describes the extent of a membrane - spanning region of the protein . it denotes the presence of both alpha - helical transmembrane regions and the membrane spanning regions of beta - barrel transmembrane proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / transmem ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> family and domains < / a > section describes the position and type of a domain , which is defined as a specific combination of secondary structures organized into a characteristic three - dimensional structure or fold . < p > < a href = ' / help / domain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000259\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018family and domains\u2019 section provides information about the sequence similarity with other proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ similarities ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018sequence\u2019 section is used for sequence fragments to indicate that the residue at the extremity of the sequence is not the actual terminal residue in the complete protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / non _ ter ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href =\nurltoken\n> uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( \u2018last modified\u2019 ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools ."]}
{"id": 2035, "summary": [{"text": "the green fruit-piercing moth , ( eudocima salaminia ) , is a moth of the family erebidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from india across south-east asia to the pacific islands .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "in australia it occurs in the northern territory , queensland and new south wales .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "adult is a fruit-piercer . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "eudocima salaminia", "paragraphs": ["select a genera calyptra ochsenheimer - calyptra minuticornis guen\u00e9e oraesia guen\u00e9e - oraesia emarginata fabricius plusiodonta guen\u00e9e - plusiodonta calcaurea sp . n . - plusiodonta wahri sp . n . eudocima billberg - eudocima salaminia cramer - eudocima dividens walker - eudocima [ rhytia ] cocalus cramer - eudocima [ rhytia ] discrepans walker - eudocima [ adris ] sikhimensis butler - eudocima [ khadira ] aurantia moore - eudocima [ othreis ] phalonia linnaeus [ fullonia clerck ] - eudocima [ othreis ] srivijayana b\u00e4nziger - eudocima [ othreis ] homaena h\u00fcbner - eudocima [ othreis ] smaragdipicta walker - eudocima [ othreis ] kinabaluensis feige - eudocima [ othreis ] mionopastea hampson\nmajor and sporadic . several genera of noctuid moths are fruit piercing but the most damaging are eudocima fullonia , e . materna , e . jordani and e . salaminia .\nthe only other specific host plant we have encountered is stephania japonica variety timoriensis ( a very widely - occurring species in australia and asia ) . eudocima salaminia breeds on this plant . this vine grows in rainforest areas and proliferates when the vegetation is disturbed by man .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . eudocima salaminia cramer , 1777 . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 9 , 2018 ] .\nthere are three widely occurring species of fruit piercing moth : eudocima salaminia , e . fullonia , e . jordani and e . materna . the adult moths are large and stout - bodied , with a wingspan of 100 mm . the forewings can be mainly brown , cream or green . hind wings are yellow orange , with black patches and spots .\neudocima salaminia - another asian and australian species which is active right down the queensland coast and is particularly damaging to citrus in s . e . queensland . it appears to be more active in early winter when the o . fullonia is less common . in thailand this species causes ca . 5 - 12 % of damage to longan and 10 - 20 % on citrus .\nlarvae are velvety - black . the larvae of eudocima spp . have two large spots ( mainly white with dark centres ) on either side of the body just before the first pair of prolegs .\nour site is currently being updated and pages are changing regularly . we thank you for your patience during this transition and hope that you find our new site easy to use .\nlarva feed on native vines for about three weeks , progressing through five or six stages , or instars , before forming a dark - brown pupa in a delicate silk cocoon between webbed leaves . after 2\u00bd weeks adults emerge from the pupa . breeding occurs through most of the year in northern queensland , although it is much reduced during the dry season . in drier areas such as central queensland , outbreaks are more common in wet years that are favourable to continuous growth of the larval - host vines .\nfruit piercing moths are found on the east coast of australia , north from the northern rivers district of new south wales . a few species also occur across the north of the continent . it is believed that they die out in areas south of mackay and rockhampton in cold winters and reinvade the southern areas after winter .\nthese moths feed on carambola , banana , citrus , fig , guava , kiwifruit , longan lychee , mango , stonefruit , persimmon and ripening papaya . larval hosts include native vines of the family menispermaceae ( of which there are about 20 species in northern queensland ) . the preferred species are tinospora smilacina and stephania spp .\nmoths feed at night by penetrating the skin of the ripe or ripening fruit with their strong proboscis and sucking the juice . internal injury consists of a bruised , dry area beneath the skin . secondary rots develop at the puncture site . secondary - moth feeders often visit fermenting fruit , taking advantage of the access holes the fruitpiercing moths drill . early summer to early autumn is the most important period .\nnot determined , but would depend on individual fruit value . nightly inspections with a strong torch are recommended when fruit is nearing maturity . the red eyes of the moths will reflect the light from a torch , aiding detection .\nnetting trees or bagging fruits is very effective . early harvest , where it doesn ' t jeopardise maturity standards , will help to reduce losses .\nno satisfactory chemical control measure is known . hand collection of moths and various traps have had limited success .\ncheck the australian pesticides and veterinary medicines authority chemical database and permit database for chemicals registered or approved under permit to treat this pest on the target crop in your state or location . always read the label . always observe withholding periods .\n& copy ; the state of queensland ( department of agriculture and fisheries ) 2010\u20132018 . queensland government\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 5c0b1f27 - 0bfb - 462c - aa35 - 1441af8cd0c2\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f143dcec - f129 - 4bf0 - b726 - 233eb9c9999a\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f925880e - 614e - 4275 - bc58 - 9d964b862c76\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 509111\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\n. this and the next species are characterised by dark green forewings with fawn costal and distal margins . in\nthese marginal zones are narrower , and the green ground is paler . the hindwing black border is also narrower .\n. only three specimens have been recorded in recent surveys from : forest at 200m near tawau in sabah ; from 1465m on bukit retak in brunei ; from 2600m on g . kinabalu .\n. the larva was illustrated by moore ( 1884 - 1887 ) , common ( 1990 ) and tanahara & tanahara ( 2001b ) . it is blackish grey , posteriorly rather square , semi - looping in gait . below the spiracular level it is distinctly paler , and has a series of three yellow - white marks subdorsally on each side of the first three abdominal segments : a spot and two ocellate marks with broader white lunules anteriorly and narrower , reddish lines completing the ring posteriorly . there is an oblique line of the same yellow - white colour from the proleg backwards on a6 . tanahara & tanahara noted a second form of larva in okinawa . it is mottled and speckled in shades of grey - brown and is diffusely paler in the line of the spiracles . there is an oblique white line running back from the proleg on a6 , with black areas posterior to it above and below the line of the spiracles . the ocellate marks are black but with much narrower rings ( without an expanded section ) enclosing them . there is no white spot on a1 . moore ( 1881 ) illustrated a variegated larva of this type but with ocellate marks more as in the first form . the host plants noted by common and tanahara & tanahara were\nleaf butterfly ( kallima inachus ) . sa dom ' e sa mariposa ( sardinia island )\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nidentification marks : palpi are with 2nd joint thickened and reaching vertex of head , 3rd blunt and naked . head and collar is plum - colour ; thorax green , the metathoracic tufts and abdomen orange clothed with coarse hairs . fore wing golden green ; a broad cream coloured costal fascia from near base of inner margin to apex , striated with pale red and turning to green at costa ; a cream coloured marginal band ; a curved red streak below vein 2 . hind wings are orange with large black lunule beyond lower angle of cell ; a black marginal band with cilial whitish spots from costa to vein 2 . underside of fore wing fuscous orange at base and with broad whitish postmedial band not reaching costa or inner margin ; the cilia whitish . ( w . s . \u2642 84 mm ) .\ngurule , s . a . ( 2013 ) ; taxonomic study of moths ( lepidoptera : heterocera ) from north maharashtra ( india ) . phd thesis , university of pune , india\nshubhalaxmi , v , r c kendrick , alka vaidya , neelima kalagi , and alaka bhagwat . 2011 . inventory of moth fauna ( lepidoptera : heterocera ) of the northern western ghats , maharashtra , india . journal of the bombay \u2026 108 , no . 3 : 183 - 205 . urltoken\nenumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .\nindia ; oriental and papuan regions ; china ; japan ; philippines ; hong kong ; madagascar ; formosa ; australia ; fiji .\na preliminary checklist of moth species collected in north maharashtra is presented based on studie . . .\ninventory of moth fauna ( lepidoptera : heterocera ) of the northern western ghats , maharashtra , india .\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\n\u201cthe [ common ghost moth ] caterpillar is cylindrical and fleshy , except the head and adjoining segment which are rough and corneous . the segments are muscular and well developed , and of a dull creamy white , tinged with purplish red at their divisions . \u201d description from aw scott , \u2018 australian lepidoptera and their transformations\u2019 , volume 2 , plate 11 ( 1890 - 1898 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nprimary tropical fruit pests three major pests of tropical fruit growing are flying foxes , fruit piercing moth and fruit spotting bug . other pests are periodically important on certain fruits but these are generally not perennial . growing areas of mixed species of fruit probably helps to minimise insect problems .\nthe flying fox problem should be addressed on a national level , with cooperation between national parks and wildlife , csiro and the relevant departments of agriculture .\nthe queensland department of primary industries has undertaken to investigate the fruit piercing moth and fruit spotting bug questions , and csiro is also commencing work on fruit piercing moth in s . e . queensland .\nfruit piercing vs fruit sucking moth all species of moths recorded feeding on fruit belong to the family ' noctuidae ' ( night flying moths ) . what we , the researchers , call fruit piercing moth and you , the growers , call fruit sucking moth are , for the most part , the same thing .\ncsiro have recommended that we call fruit piercing moths those that can actually pierce the skin or rind of fruit , and fruit sucking moths , those that rely on skin being damaged to gain access to the fruit juices . the problem with such a division is that there is a range of species whose individual piercing ability depends on the hardness of the fruit involved .\na swiss researcher who studied fruit piercing moths in thailand recorded no fewer than 88 species of moths that could pierce fruit , the number of fruits that could be pierced by an individual species varying with fruit hardness . eleven species were confirmed primary piercers of longan , a further eighteen primary piercers of citrus and an additional 59 piercers of soft and very soft fruits ( such as raspberry ) . only four species of moth caused 60 - 95 % of the damage to the longan and citrus .\ndamage caused by moths the major primary piercing species have a heavily armoured proboscis * which allows them to attack a wide range of fruits . a species like othreis fullonia has been recorded on no fewer than 40 different fruits and this is probably a very conservative figure . some unusual fruits like tomato , capsicum , cashew , coffee , prickly pear , and melon are included in this .\nthe ability of moths to pierce fruit was first recognised in australia ca 1875 , but was doubted for some time . fungi and bacteria enter through the hole created by feeding and fruit rot sets in rapidly , in most cases rendering the fruit worthless .\ndistribution of fruit piercing moths the moths occur largely in tropical and subtropical areas and predominate in australia and the pacific , in asia , africa , tropical america and some areas of europe . in australia , they occur in most tropical and subtropical areas of the east coast and through most monsoonal areas in the north of the country .\nothreis fullonia - a widely distributed species in australia and the pacific , parts of asia and also africa . in thailand , this species alone is estimated to cause 70 - 90 % of primary damage to longan , and 50 - 70 % . to citrus . it appears to be the dominant species active in north queensland and the most significant pest of lychees here .\nothreis materna - another widely distributed species , in australia , in the indian sub - continent and in parts of africa . in australia it is the most significant pest of fruits in the northern territory and west australia and in the drier inland areas . its distribution appears to be governed by its restriction to breeding on only one genus of vine .\nothreis jordani - this species was only recognised in thailand after the swiss study was complete and has only recently emerged as a significant pest in australia . as it looks very similar to o . fullonia no doubt it was confused for a long time . from our data , it appears that o . jordini is the most significant pest of carambolas , just in advance of o . fullonia .\nadris tyrannus - this is a large , relatively active species in north queensland but it is considered more of a pest in countries like japan .\nthe most important vine species ( and i say that with some reservation , as there may be more than one species involved ) is tinospora smilacina ( no common name ) . there are three distinct varieties of this plant .\n1 . foreshore and exposed coast variety - this appears to be deciduous during the dry season except where exposed to some moisture ( e . g . buchan ' s point and wangetti beach ) .\n2 . rainforest variety - apparently not deciduous ( e . g . mission beach and cairns botanic gardens ) .\n3 . inland ( dry area ) variety which apparently occurs across northern australia in those areas influenced by the summer monsoon - deciduous during the dry , from about june to october ( e . g . einasleigh , dimbulah ) .\ntinospora has a considerable water storage capacity in the stem ( large vascular rays ) which enables it to survive in very harsh conditions .\nour experiments show that tinospora is the favoured larval host plant of o . fullonia , the only genus eaten by the larvae of o . materna and we think it is the host plant of o . jordini .\nthe activity of these moth species through the dry season is limited by the deciduousness of the host plant . nevertheless , the plants commence re - growth just prior to the first summer rains , allowing the moths to take full advantage of the new growth once the rains accelerate leaf production .\npart of the success of o . fullonia as a fruit piercer lies in its ability to switch larval hosts , should tinospora be in short supply or in its deciduous phase . numerous species of menispermaceae have been found growing in close proximity to one another .\nthe more we are able to examine menispermaceae in the field , the more we ' ll be able to say of\nrisk\nin the growing fruit trees in certain area . adult moths are reputed to have great powers of dispersal and there is a reported case of a specimen of o . materna being caught 300 miles out to sea from mauritius . nevertheless , our feelings are that orchards close to areas of tinospora ( or rainforest ) are at greatest risk .\ncontrol , management , forecasting of course our ultimate goal is the control or management of moth activity , using both direct control measures and forecasting techniques .\nmoth activity is generally too late to allow for chemical use , and in any case , the moths do not remain in contact sufficiently long to achieve knockdown . so unless some super , quick active synthetic pyrethroid with a very short withholding period , is developed , broadscale chemical application in control of these moths can be ignored .\nhistory of control techniques a ] poisoned baits ( still some possibilities here using fruit volatiles ) .\napparently carambolas in malaysia are enclosed in a paper bag prior to ripening and left as such until harvesting . very labour intensive , netting trees , which may have the double advantage of reducing flying fox damage .\nwe ' ve heard a figure of $ 200 quoted per medium - sized tree i . e . using half - inch bird netting .\nh ] light repulsion technique - this method appears to hold a good promise . a barrier of lights ( 550 - 580 m ) ( yellow - green wavelengths ) is formed around a block of trees , but shining outwards . there should be a 12 m barrier between the lights and surrounding vegetation , so that the moths are denied cover . we have planted a test plot of 4 blocks of carambolas at walkamin research station in order to test this technique .\nother control measures a ] pheromones - these are sex attractants produced by a female moth to attract the male for mating . we are doing cooperative work with the university of queensland and csiro division of entomology in canberra , to isolate and produce pheromones from these moths . some novel compounds with large molecules have been found , differing in trace elements between species . pheromones , in the first place , would be used as monitoring tools to ascertain major moth activity periods .\nthey may also have some control application , or result in feeding disruption , as we suspect mating takes place in the fruit tree . as there is a 4 . 5 : male bias in moths feeding ( irrespective of species ) a pheromone could conceivably limit feeding activity .\nb ] biological control - we have identified a fly which parasitises the larvae and a trichogramma ( very small wasp ) which parasitises the eggs of primary - piercers . we have also found a lygaeid bug which we suspect may prey on the eggs .\nanother fly parasite is known from new caledonia and has been imported by fiji as a control agent . it apparently doesn ' t effectively control o . fullonia in new caledonia , so its worth in fiji is questionable . several other predators and parasites have been identified in the pacific region . csiro are having a closer look at this aspect . birds , insectivorous bats , etc . , all play a role in limiting moth numbers .\nc ] decoys - it may be possible to employ the volatile compounds from the larval host plants as decoys to reduce moth breeding by inducing females to lay eggs on plants other than those on which larvae will feed .\nforecasting the remainder of our work involves developing an ability to forecast when moths are likely to be a significant problem . this is accomplished through :\nwe are hopeful that something positive from the control viewpoint will be forthcoming in the next twelve months ."]}
{"id": 2043, "summary": [{"text": "attica meli ( 1969 \u2013 after 1988 ) was an irish-bred british-trained thoroughbred racehorse and broodmare .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "owned by louis freedman and trained by noel murless she won seven of her fifteen races and was regarded as the best british filly of her generation at both three and four years of age .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she took time to show her best form but in the second half of 1972 she won five consecutive races including the yorkshire oaks , park hill stakes and princess royal stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in the following year she finished second in the coronation cup and the hardwicke stakes before stepping up in distance to record decisive wins over male opponents in the geoffrey freer stakes and the doncaster cup .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she was retired from racing at the end of 1973 and had some influence as a broodmare . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "attica meli", "paragraphs": ["find out where david p meli has lived as well as david p meli ' s phone numbers and email addresses .\nthe 1972 derby winner roberto returned to epsom 12 months later to take the coronation cup , beating attica meli by five lengths , making him the most recent victor of both these group one races .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for trilingual . trilingual is a mare born in 2009 august 29 by testa rossa out of attica meli\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for rossattica . rossattica is a filly born in 2006 august 5 by testa rossa out of attica meli\n30 years of hourly historical weather data for neo meli can be purchased with history + . download variables like temperature , wind , clouds and precipitation as csv for any place on earth . the last 2 weeks of past weather data for neo meli are available for free evaluation here .\nsince the mid - 1960s , freedman has been one of britain ' s most successful owner - breeders . among his other prominent winners were i say , lucyrowe , attica meli and oaks heroine polygamy . away from racing , in 1977 he was made a cbe for his services to race relations .\nattica meli ( ire ) b . f , 1969 { 16 - d } dp = 15 - 4 - 12 - 0 - 3 ( 34 ) di = 2 . 78 cd = 0 . 82 - 13 starts , 7 wins , ? places , ? shows career earnings : $ 47 , 864\ninformation regarding david p meli ' s professional history . find out previous places david p meli has worked as well as dates employed . the following data is not guaranteed for accuracy and should not be used for employment , insurance , credit eligibility , or for any other purpose covered under the fair credit reporting act .\nthe top weanling was a trippi filly out of stakes placed pewter , for which john freeman forked out 210k . st john gray got the most expensive mare at the sale , with a bid of 280k for imported danehill dancer mare queen mira . the mare\u2019s dam is by sadler\u2019s wells from a shirley heights mare descending from english champion filly attica meli .\nin 1977 , royal hive ( royal palace - come on honey ) became the first good horse trained for freedman by henry cecil , who gradually replaced walwyn as his chief trainer . royal hive , a half - sister to attica meli , emulated that filly by winning the park hill and was also runner - up in the yorkshire oaks and prix vermeille .\nintelius found that david p meli is a male between 50 and 60 years old from buffalo , ny . we have connected them to 7 addresses , 7 phones , and 2 relatives or associates .\nlater in 1971 , freedman had the pleasure of seeing his first home - bred winner when guillotina ( busted - tina ) , trained by walwyn , won the houghton stakes at newmarket . in 1972 she took the prix de royallieu , but one who did even better was attica meli ( primera - come on honey ) , whom he acquired with the sassoon bloodstock . she won her last five races that year including the yorkshire oaks , park hill and princess royal stakes .\npanagiotakos d . b . , pitsavos c . h . , chrysohoou c . , skoumas j . , papadimitriou l . , stefanadis c . , toutouzas p . k . status and management of hypertension in greece : role of the adoption of a mediterranean diet : the attica study .\nas a four - year - old , roberto was sent to france to contest the prix ganay but was withdrawn from the race owing to injury . he then returned to ireland , where he finished second to ballymore in the nijinsky stakes . in june , he recorded his only success of the season when beating the 1972 oaks winner , attica meli , by five lengths in record time in the coronation cup . [ 13 ] he was a late withdrawal from the eclipse stakes due to heavy ground and then finished eleventh of the twelve runners behind dahlia in the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes . [ 5 ]\nmy babu sired plenty of good horses in both countries , several of whom became very good stallions . 1961 kentucky derby runner - up crozier was arguably both the best racehorse and the best stallion to emerge from my babu\u2019s american crops . crozier\u2019s victories included the santa anita handicap in 1963 , and the several grade one winners whom he sired included the 1985 breeders\u2019 cup sprint winner precisionist as well as crested wave , who sired some high - class horses during his stud career in new zealand including the 1991 cox plate winner surfer\u2019s paradise . of the irish - bred my babu horses , milesian and primera ( sire of the top - class fillies lupe , aunt edith and attica meli ) proved to be the best stallions in europe . both had been very good racehorses , but neither achieved as much at stud as\nmy babu sired plenty of good horses in both countries , several of whom became very good stallions . 1961 kentucky derby runner - up crozier was arguably both the best racehorse and the best stallion to emerge from my babu\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s american crops . crozier\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s victories included the santa anita handicap in 1963 , and the several grade one winners whom he sired included the 1985 breeders\u00e2\u20ac\u2122 cup sprint winner precisionist as well as crested wave , who sired some high - class horses during his stud career in new zealand including the 1991 cox plate winner surfer\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s paradise . of the irish - bred my babu horses , milesian and primera ( sire of the top - class fillies lupe , aunt edith and attica meli ) proved to be the best stallions in europe . both had been very good racehorses , but neither achieved as much at stud as better boy , who turned out to be a very good galloper and then a champion sire in australia but who had been only a relatively ordinary racehorse in europe prior to his export to the antipodes .\nwhat can i say about this amazing meze - restaurant . just be sure you order the right things . for example yo do not need to order there greek salad or feta saganaki or potato fries . . . try their cooked traditional greek recipes such as : geomilo gaziariko , krommion gemisto , apaki , mosxaraki glyka , salata karoto , skaltsounia me meli , marathopita . and drink tsipouro ! ! free desert at the end is offered for every guest . i love this place . try that out . it is not so far from the city centre .\npowerful force in industry ; louis freedman was one of britain ' s foremost owner - breeders , with a stream of top - class performers emanating from his cliveden stud . - free online library\npowerful force in industry ; louis freedman was one of britain ' s foremost owner - breeders , with a stream of top - class performers emanating from his cliveden stud .\nmla style :\npowerful force in industry ; louis freedman was one of britain ' s foremost owner - breeders , with a stream of top - class performers emanating from his cliveden stud . .\nthe free library . 1998 mgn ltd 09 jul . 2018 urltoken\nchicago style : the free library . s . v . powerful force in industry ; louis freedman was one of britain ' s foremost owner - breeders , with a stream of top - class performers emanating from his cliveden stud . .\nretrieved jul 09 2018 from urltoken\napa style : powerful force in industry ; louis freedman was one of britain ' s foremost owner - breeders , with a stream of top - class performers emanating from his cliveden stud . . ( n . d . ) > the free library . ( 2014 ) . retrieved jul 09 2018 from urltoken\nlouis freedman , owner - breeder of reference point , who was one of the best champions of the 1980s , has died at the age of 81 .\nfreedman ' s involvement in racing dates back to the early 1960s and his career as an estate agent , in which field he became chairman of his land securities investment trust . it also led him into contact with the solicitor isidore kerman , who at the time had horses in training with walter nightingall and later was the owner of plumpton and fontwell racecourses .\nthe freedman - kerman partnership bought a yearling filly at deauville . the filly , named fairsica , went into training with nightingall , for whom she won a sandown maiden at three .\nwithin two years of that victory , freedman had his first taste of high - level success when his colt i say won the white rose stakes at ascot and finished third behind sea - bird in the 1965 derby .\ni say disappointed after the derby , but the decision to keep him in training as a four - year - old was rewarded with victory in the coronation cup and third place in the hardwicke stakes . he had his chance at stud and , before his export to brazil , sired 1979 grand national hero rubstic .\nat the end of 1966 , freedman bought cliveden stud in buckinghamshire from the astor family and started to build up his own breeding operation , which was to reach its zenith with reference point .\nin 1967 , he gave 9 , 000gns and 1 , 550gns for two yearling fillies who became high - class performers - lucyrowe and seventh bride .\nnightingall died in the summer of 1968 and his sister margery , who held a temporary licence for the rest of the season , sent out lucyrowe to finish second in the cheveley park stakes .\nfreedman ' s horses then went to peter walwyn at lambourn , and the new association made a happy start , for lucyrowe won the ebbisham , coronation ( by 12 lengths ) , nassau and sun chariot stakes . in the nassau she had just a short head to spare over seventh bride , whose successes included the princess royal stakes .\ntwo years later , freedman expanded his interests by purchasing beech house stud and its bloodstock from lady sassoon , with the intention that horses from his cliveden operation should be handled by walwyn and those from beech house by noel murless , who had trained for the sassoons .\na few weeks later , murless sent out his first winner in the freedman colours when abwah took a newbury maiden . this was the forerunner of many top - level successes from warren place , where henry cecil later trained reference point . abwah proved a smart sprinter , taking the duke of york stakes before going to stud , where he sired absalom .\nfreedman ' s increasing prominence in racing resulted in his appointment as racehorse owners ' association president for 1973 - 74 and election to the jockey club in 1975 . he served as a steward from 1979 to 1986 and was deputy senior steward in 1981 and 1983 .\nfreedman gained his first classic win in 1974 , when the home - bred polygamy took the oaks , although she was lucky because dibidale , who was third home but was disqualified , was hampered by a slipping saddle . dibidale easily gained her revenge in the irish oaks .\npolygamy was an early example of freedman ' s flair for naming horses , for she was by reform out of seventh bride .\nother fillies who did well for freedman in 1974 were mil ' s bomb , who won the lancashire oaks , nassau and park hill stakes , and great guns , who struck six times .\nthe following year he sold beech house to concentrate his breeding interests at cliveden . that season , polygamy ' s full - sister one over parr took the cheshire and lancashire oaks .\nthe next top - level runner to carry freedman ' s yellow and black colours was home on the range , who was later dam of reference point . home on the range , a daughter of habitat and great guns , included the 1981 sun chariot stakes among her successes .\nin the same colours , one way street ( habitat - guillotina ) won the princess royal stakes and ever genial ( brigadier gerard - shorthouse ) the may hill stakes in 1984 , and the following year ever genial won the hungerford stakes .\nmill on the floss ( mill reef - milly moss ) was placed in the ribblesdale stakes , lancashire oaks and princess royal stakes in 1986 , but the high spot of that year was the runaway victory by reference point ( mill reef - home on the range ) in the futurity ( now racing post trophy ) at doncaster , a display which resulted in the colt topping the free handicap .\nfreedman had long nursed dreams of having a horse good enough to win the triple crown , and in reference point he thought he might have found him . cecil , though , sounded caution about trying to get the colt ready for the 2 , 000 guineas over a trip which could well have proved too sharp for him , and in any case other events took a hand . reference point developed a serious sinus infection in the spring of his three - year - old days which ruled out the guineas , and at one stage cecil was dubious about the prospects of getting the colt fit for epsom .\nthe gloom was dispelled , though , when reference point made a winning comeback in the dante stakes before making all in the derby , beating most welcome by a length and a half .\nreference point found the year - older mtoto three - parts of a length too good in the eclipse before a repeat of his tenacious front - running tactics resulted in victory by three lengths and a neck from celestial storm and triptych in the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes . victory at long odds - on in the great voltigeur stakes preceded success in the st leger , and though his career ended in defeat in the prix de l ' arc de triomphe - he was eighth to trempolino - he was later found to have been suffering from an abscess in a foot .\nduring reference point ' s racing career , freedman sold a share in him to sheikh mohammed , and it was to the sheikh ' s dalham hall stud that the son of mill reef retired for a short career as a stallion .\nalthough reference point was the jewel in the 1987 freedman crown , he was not on his own , as the exploits of others in the same colours enabled cliveden to top the breeders ' list for the year . queen midas ( glint of gold - star court ) won the ribblesdale and shooting party landed a good handicap at ascot .\nin 1988 , overdrive ( shirley heights - milly moss ) won the queen alexandra stakes and reference point ' s half - brother known ranger ( by known fact ) took the bradford & bingley handicap .\nin april of that year , freedman transferred the ownership of his bloodstock to the cliveden stud company and put in charge his younger son philip , a merchant banker who was later to become chairman of the thoroughbred breeders ' association .\nthe first official comment by freedman senior was that the operation needed a younger man to run it , but there was more to it than that . earlier in the year , an employee of the people newspaper had made allegations in the paper and on television that freedman had been party to an illegal deal with lester piggott about the jockey ' s retainer .\nthe subsequent rumblings of this affair ended with piggott being sent to prison for tax evasion and fraud , but freedman was so upset by the allegations that he reduced his public involvement in racing .\nhis libel case against the people , two of its staff and its then editor came to court the following year and was settled out of court after three days . freedman received undisclosed but\nsubstantial\ndamages and costs which amounted to about pounds 300 , 000 ; he described himself as\ndelighted\nwith the outcome .\nin 1990 , freedman won the king edward vii stakes with private tender ( shirley heights - select sale ) and the park hill stakes ( his fourth victory in the race ) and prix de royallieu with madame dubois ( legend of france - shadywood ) .\nduring the 1990s , the freedmans continued to send horses with fine pedigrees ( and as well named as ever ) into training , with roger charlton and us - based neil drysdale joining their list of trainers in 1993 and julie cecil dropping out in 1994 , but success proved increasingly harder to achieve .\nin 1992 hatta ' s mill ( green desert - mill on the floss ) was second in the predominate stakes , and in 1994 red route ( polish precedent - one way street ) , trained by cecil , took the bahrain trophy and geoffrey freer stakes . as a result the colt started favourite for the st leger but was unplaced .\nthe same year , milly ha ha ( dancing brave - mill on the floss ) was fourth in the yorkshire oaks and third in the princess royal stakes .\nfreedman gained immense pleasure in 1996 when his son philip , who had been chairman of the tba council , joined him as a member of the jockey club , but once again the racing year for cliveden was a low - key affair , though dacha won the cecil frail handicap at haydock .\nin the last two seasons , the best horse to carry the freedman silks was daggers drawn , a grandson of shadywood . he won three out of four in 1997 , including the july and richmond stakes , and was one of europe ' s leading juveniles , though his classic season this year was disappointing .\ncopyright 1998 mgn ltd no portion of this article can be reproduced without the express written permission from the copyright holder .\n1 million ; that ' s the amazing bonus on offer if a horse can ' do a reference point ' .\nbloodstock desk : historic cliveden stud , birthplace of 11 classic winners , for sale at pounds 6m .\n' i can ' t think what circumstances will suddenly see a massive resurgence in the number of group 1 winners trained in britain ' former bloodstock . . .\nterms of use | privacy policy | copyright \u00a9 2018 farlex , inc . | feedback | for webmasters\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ninfo = link with more information australia mc : melbourne cup england d : epsom derby o : epsom oaks sl : doncaster st . leger 1g : 1 , 000 guineas 2g : 2 , 000 guineas dc : doncaster cup france gpp : grand prix de paris pjc : prix du jockey club ( french derby ) arc : prix de l ' arc de triomphe fo : prix de diane ( french oaks ) usa kd : kentucky derby cca : cca oaks p : preakness stakes b : belmont stakes germany dd : deutches derby italy di : derby italiano io : italian oaks steeplechases gn : grand national ( england ) gsp : grand steeple - chase de paris ( france ) agn : american grand national ( usa ) cgc : cheltenham gold cup ( england ) gpm : the gran premio merano ( italy ) ign : the irish grand national ( ireland ) mhc : the maryland hunt cup ( usa )\nincludes winners on the flat in classic races and some important handicap races in england , the u . s . a . , france , germany , italy , australia , and some principal steeplechase races . info behind names links to biographic information on the horse .\na selection of top articles hand - picked by our editors available only to registered users .\nvirtually all 500 , 000 of the world\u2019s thoroughbred racehorses are descended from 28 ancestors , born in the 18 th and 19 th centuries , according to a new genetic study . and up to 95 % of male thoroughbreds can be traced back to just one stallion .\nthoroughbred horses were developed in 18 th century in the uk . english mares were bred with arabian and other stallions to create horses with great stamina for distance racing . today , thoroughbreds are the most valuable of breeds , representing a multi - billion dollar annual industry , worldwide .\nto assess the genetic diversity of modern racing horses , geneticist patrick cunningham of trinity college in dublin , ireland , compared 13 microsatellite dna loci \u2013 repeating sequences of dna which vary in length \u2013 in 211 thoroughbreds and 117 other shetland , egyptian and turkish horses . he also examined studbooks dating back to 1791 .\nhe found the majority of the half million progeny alive today are descended from just 28 \u201cfounder\u201d horses .\nit was already known that just a handful of stallions ( but many mares ) were used to found the thoroughbred breed . but startlingly , the new research finds that , in 95 % of modern racehorses , the y - chromosome can be traced back to a single stallion \u2013 the darley arabian , born in 1700 .\nrelated work on sequencing the horse genome is also uncovering genes in thoroughbreds linked to speed and stamina . screening for these traits could one day guide owners\u2019 and breeders\u2019 decisions when buying horses , which may sell for many millions of dollars .\n\u201cwe hope to produce sounder , faster and better - performing horses , \u201d says cunningham . he and colleague emmeline hill at university college dublin is also using the horse genome to uncover genes that explain why one animal runs faster than another .\n\u201chorses are flight animals naturally selected for speed and stamina in the wild , \u201d explains hill . \u201cwith domestic selection , speed was further augmented in the thoroughbred . \u201d\nthirty - five per cent of the difference in racing performance between horses can be explained by genetics alone , says hill . she is cross - referencing up to 140 recently discovered human genes for fitness and performance in a bid to track down equine equivalents . these genes are involved in traits related to the cardio - respiratory system , muscle strength and metabolism , she says .\nhowever , the analysis of thoroughbred genetics is also revealing the other side of the coin , notes matthew binns of the royal veterinary college in london , uk . many negative traits are associated with inbreeding in the diminutive gene pool , he says . \u201cthe selections we\u2019ve made for fantastic beasts have had some detrimental consequences . \u201d\none tenth of thoroughbreds suffer orthopaedic problems and fractures , 10 % have low fertility , 5 % have abnormally small hearts and the majority suffer bleeding in the lungs , says binns .\nbut as well as allowing breeders to select for performance - related genes , elucidating the horse genome may allow researchers to breed out negative traits , he says .\n\u201cnow we have a good amount of the horse genome , there are interesting times ahead , \u201d says binns . \u201cover the next 10 years there will be some changes in this very traditional industry . \u201d\ncunningham presented his findings on monday at the british association festival of science in dublin .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\njason servis is on the best run of his career , wi . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\n3yo : 1st yorkshire oaks ( gb - 1 , 2400m ) , park hill s . ( gb - 2 ) .\n4yo : 1st doncaster cup ( gb - 2 ) ; 2nd coronation cup ( gb - 1 ; to roberto ) champion filly . ( close )\nwelcome to horseracing . com . au , australia ' s premier site for horse racing news .\nearly favourite to take out saturday\u2019s group 1 $ 1 , 000 , 000 robert sangster stakes ( 1200m ) in adelaide , local hope viddora has come up trumps with barrier one in the morphettville feature .\nthe world\u2019s best racehorse , winx , has been celebrated by the australian turf club ( atc ) getting the warwick stakes renamed in her honour .\nthe championships day 2 results will be known shortly and you can stay up to date with all the news at horseracing . com . au .\n* current year statistics include all north american races and dubai world cup day . career statistics include results from all countries .\n* current year includes north american and dubai world cup day statistics ; all previous years include results from all countries .\nequibase company is the official supplier of racing information and statistics to america ' s best racing , breeders ' cup , daily racing form , ntra , the jockey club , tra , tvg and xpressbet .\nproprietary to and \u00a9 2018 equibase company llc . all rights reserved . the terms of use for this web site prohibit the use of any robot , spider , scraper or any other automated means to access the contents of this site . the terms of use also expressly prohibit the republication or dissemination of the contents of this screen without the prior written consent of equibase company llc .\nour open and inclusive corporate culture is built on respect , trust , passion , and teamwork ; it thus provides opportunities for everyone to have impact on our growth . we want the best people and encourage everyone to apply and bring their individual background and diverse experiences and perspectives .\nwe recruit , hire , transfer , compensate , train , and promote into all job levels based solely on job - related qualifications without regard to race , color , religion , age , sex , origin , gender , sexual orientation , disability , marital status , or citizenship status .\nyou are using an outdated browser . please upgrade your browser to improve your experience .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\njust a stones throw from the theoxenia , argo and anita hotels . . . this little find is perfect for a relaxing coffee , beer , or chilled white wine . . . and nibbles . it has an outside decked area pergola with fairy lights as well as indoor seating . . away from the hustle and bustle\nthis review is the subjective opinion of a tripadvisor member and not of tripadvisor llc .\nown or manage this property ? claim your listing for free to respond to reviews , update your profile and much more .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\nget a comprehensive background report , find full phone numbers , and other contact information when available , all from billions of available public records . continue below for more details about david , or use our people search engine to find others .\nall trademarks , product names , company names or logos on this page are the property of their respective owners .\nintelius is a leading provider of public data about people and their connections to others . intelius does not provide consumer reports and is not a consumer reporting agency as defined by the fair credit reporting act ( fcra ) . this site should not be used to determine an individual\u2019s eligibility for credit , insurance , employment , housing or any other purpose covered by the fcra . please visit goodhire for all your employment screening needs .\n\u00a9 2003 \u2013 2018 peopleconnect , inc . d / b / a intelius . all rights reserved . privacy policy terms of service\nthe fair credit reporting act (\nfcra\n) is a federal law that promotes the accuracy , fairness and privacy of information in the files of consumer reporting agencies .\nintelius does not provide consumer reports and is not a consumer reporting agency as defined by the fcra . intelius reports cannot be used for background checks related to consumer credit , insurance , employment , housing or any other purpose prohibited under the fcra .\nyou may not use any information obtained from intelius for any purpose covered by the fcra .\njust a stones throw from the theoxenia , argo and anita hotels . . . this little find is perfect for a relaxing coffee , beer , or chilled white wine . . . and nibbles . it has an outside decked area pergola with fairy lights as well as indoor seating . . away from the hustle and . . .\nnote : your question will be posted publicly on the questions & answers page .\nown or manage this property ? claim your listing for free to respond to reviews , update your profile and much more . claim your listing\nhelping us to finance a high quality free - of - charge precision weather service .\nclick\naccept and continue\nto accept all cookies , or click below , to change your cookie settings . you can change or revoke your consent at any time . further information .\noffers access to past weather simulations for every place in the world . you can see weather information for yesterday or the weather history of the last years . the weather archive diagrams is separated in 3 charts :\nclouds ( grey background ) and clear sky ( yellow background ) . the darker the grey background , the more dense is the cloud cover\nwind speed and direction ( in degree 0\u00b0 = north , 90\u00b0 = east , 180\u00b0 = south and 270\u00b0 = west ) . in the history archive meteogram , the purple points represent the wind direction , as indicated on the right axis .\nthe weather archive shows simulation data , not measured data , for the selected area .\nthe data is not compared to measured data of a weather station ( because in more than 99 % of the places on earth , no measurements are available ) . simulation data with high predictability can replace measurements . for areas or data with lower predictability , simulation cannot replace measurements and can also not be used as an evidence .\nwind and temperature data are calculated with the average altitude of the grid cell . therefore , the temperatures for mountains and coasts can be a somewhat different from the data at the exact location which you have selected . you can find the altitude of the grid cell besides the coordinates .\nthe\n15 - day\ndiagram shows hourly data . for one month , there are daily aggregations for minimum , maximum and average values . for more than 6 months there are monthly aggregations .\nwe also offer raw data for sale . please contact us for more information ( info @ urltoken )\nrun over the same distance as the investec derby and investec oaks , the investec coronation cup first took place in 1902 to celebrate the accession to the throne of king edward vii , who enjoyed three victories in the derby , thanks to persimmon ( 1896 ) , diamond jubilee ( 1900 ) and minoru ( 1909 ) , as well as winning the grand national at aintree with ambush .\nin 2016 , the group one race is being run as the queen elizabeth ii coronation cup ( sponsored by investec ) to celebrate the 90th birthday of edward vii\u2019s great - granddaughter queen elizabeth ii . her majesty won the coronation cup in 1954 with aureole .\nthe inaugural running of the 12 - furlong race for older horses was won by osboch , whose trainer richard marsh provided edward vii with derby winners persimmon and minoru .\npretty polly became the first of six dual winners of the coronation cup when successful in 1906 , 12 months after her initial success in the race . one of the greatest fillies in english racing , pretty polly was successful on 22 of her 24 starts , including victories in the 1000 guineas , the oaks and the st leger , the fillies\u2019 triple crown , in 1904 .\nthe 1907 & 1908 runnings went to the white knight , a top stayer who also won the gold cup at ascot in those two years . the 1910 derby winner lemberg returned to epsom downs the following year to triumph in the coronation cup , while st leger and dual ascot gold cup scorer prince palantine won in 1913 .\npommern took the derby at newmarket in 1915 en route to triple crown glory . the colt returned to the suffolk track , used as a substitute for epsom during the first world war , to gain the 1916 coronation cup on his only start that year .\nst leger winner solario proved himself to be one of racing\u2019s stars with a 15 - length victory in the coronation cup in 1926 . the four - year - old colt also won that year\u2019s gold cup at ascot and went on to sire two derby winners \u2013 midday sun ( 1937 ) & straight deal ( 1943 ) \u2013 as well as 1000 guineas and oaks scorer exhibitionist .\ncoronach came back to epsom in 1927 to win the coronation cup , having triumphed by five lengths in the previous year\u2019s derby . the fred darling - trained colt also won the st james\u2019s palace stakes at royal ascot by 20 lengths , the eclipse by six lengths and set a record time when taking the st leger .\namerican - bred reigh count was sent to england in late 1928 , having won that season\u2019s kentucky derby . owned by former taxi driver john hertz , the four - year - old triumphed in the 1929 coronation cup before finishing second in the ascot gold cup and went on to sire american triple crown hero count fleet .\none of racing\u2019s unluckiest horses , dastur finished second in the 2000 guineas , the derby , the st leger and the champion stakes . a half - brother to triple crown winner bahram , the aga khan - owned colt did win the 1933 coronation cup , along with that season\u2019s champion stakes .\nking salmon was another horse to finish second in both the 2000 guineas and the derby . fulfilment enjoyed victory as a four - year - old in the 1934 coronation cup , followed by a sensational win in the eclipse at sandown where he beat outstanding derby winner windsor lad , himself a coronation cup victor 12 months later .\nthe only dead - heat in the history of the coronation cup occurred in 1937 , when cecil and his grace could not be split .\nardan became the first french - trained winner of the coronation cup in 1946 , having captured the french derby and the prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe the year before as a three - year - old . his trainer charles semblat also sent over goyoma to win the coronation cup two years later . dual arc winner tantieme ( 1951 ) and nuccio ( 1952 ) continued the impressive french record in the race .\nderby runner - up aureole gave her majesty queen elizabeth ii one of her first major successes as an owner when winning the 1954 coronation cup . the four - year - old then triumphed in the king george vi & queen elizabeth stakes at ascot before becoming champion sire in 1960 and 1961 .\nballymoss , another derby runner - up , gave legendary irish trainer vincent o\u2019brien a first success in the coronation cup in 1958 and the four - year - old followed up with victories in the king george vi & queen elizabeth stakes and the prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe .\nlester piggott , the most successful coronation cup jockey ever with nine successes , rattled up a hat - trick of victories between 1959 and 1961 with nagami and dual winner petite etoile , who had also been victorious in the 1000 guineas and the oaks .\nexbury won the 1963 coronation cup by an authoritative six lengths . the french - trained colt proved to be one the best middle distance performers in europe with comfortable victories in the prix ganay and the prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe .\nderby winner relko triumphed in heavy ground in the 1964 coronation cup 12 months after his classic success , while charlottown , the 1966 derby scorer , also completed the epsom downs double the following year .\nroyal palace went one better in 1968 , having collected the 2000 guineas as well as the derby in 1967 , and the noel murless - trained colt then took the eclipse stakes at sandown . lupe won the oaks in 1970 easily by four lengths for trainer sir noel murless with sandy barclay up . geoff lewis had the ride in the 1971 coronation cup and lupe won for the second time at epsom downs but the finish was much tighter , with the favourite , french raider stintino , partnered by barclay coming with a strong late run to get within a neck at the line . murless sent out four other winners of the coronation cup ( petite etoile twice , royal palace and caliban ) .\nthe great mill reef made his final racecourse appearance a winning one in the 1972 coronation cup . the outstanding colt , victorious in the derby , eclipse , king george vi & queen elizabeth stakes and the prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe , also sired two derby winners , shirley heights ( 1978 ) and reference point ( 1987 ) .\nthe coronation cup has been won by nine colts who triumphed in the derby and by four exceptional fillies who took the oaks ( pretty polly , petite etoile , lupe and time charter ) .\ntrainer dick hern and jockey joe mercer enjoyed two successive years of coronation cup glory \u2013 with buoy winning in 1974 and then bustino coming home ahead in 1975 .\nexceller was a top - class horse on turf and dirt , winning the 1977 coronation cup for french trainer francois mathet before enjoying victory in the jockey club gold cup at belmont park , edging out american triple crown winner seattle slew .\ntime charter was one of the coronation cup\u2019s most impressive winners when scoring by four lengths in 1984 , having already triumphed in the oaks , champion stakes and the king george vi & queen elizabeth stakes .\nrainbow quest was placed in both the french and irish derbys and proved to be an outstanding four - year - old , turning the coronation cup into a procession in 1985 , before going on to gain the prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe in the stewards\u2019 room .\ntriptych was one of the toughest mares ever seen on a racecourse . having been narrowly denied by saint estephe in the 1986 coronation cup , she went one better the following year , winning by three quarters of a length despite idling . \u201cthe iron mare\u201d became only the fourth dual winner of the race when beating three opponents in 1988 . in five seasons , triptych raced 41 times and won nine at group one level , including victories in the english and irish champion stakes as well as the juddmonte international .\nsaint estephe\u2019s trainer andre fabre returned to the winner\u2019s enclosure in 1990 with in the wings , who went on to capture the breeders\u2019 cup turf at belmont park later that year .\nsir michael stoute enjoyed successive coronation cup victories with saddlers\u2019 hall in 1992 and the outstanding middle - distance performer opera house a year later , before fabre rattled off a hat - trick of wins , starting with apple tree in 1994 , who had been demoted from second 12 months earlier . the french trainer returned in 1995 to saddle sunshack and celebrated another win the following year when subsequent dual king george vi & queen elizabeth stakes winner swain took the spoils by a neck .\nsingspiel narrowly failed to beat swain on that occasion , but the stoute - trained colt destroyed a quality field by five lengths in 1996 . described as racing\u2019s first \u201cworld champion\u201d , singspiel won races on three continents , including the dubai world cup , the canadian international and the japan cup .\nst leger winner and close derby second silver patriarch took the 1998 coronation cup , while another grey , daylami , came out on top the following year en route to scintillating victories in the king george vi & queen elizabeth stakes , the irish champion stakes and the breeders\u2019 cup turf at gulfstream park .\nderby runner - up daliapour also proved to be a top quality international performer winning the coronation cup in 2000 before hong kong vase success at sha tin .\nboreal created a bit of history in 2002 as he was the first german - trained winner of the coronation cup , while warrsan , subsequently successful in two german group ones , was the fifth horse to win the epsom downs group one twice when following up his 2003 triumph 12 months later .\nwarrsan returned to epsom in 2005 , but could only finish fourth behind the aidan o\u2019brien - trained yeats , who proved himself one of the best stayers ever with a record four victories in the gold cup at ascot .\nfabre enjoyed his sixth coronation cup success when breeders\u2019 cup turf winner shirocco defeated oaks heroine ouija board by a length and three quarters in 2006 .\no\u2019brien , ireland\u2019s champion trainer , has dominated the coronation cup in recent years and is now the race\u2019s most successful trainer with seven victories .\nfollowing yeats\u2019 victory in 2006 , he enjoyed first and second in the 2007 renewal as scorpion held septimus , while soldier of fortune , fifth in the derby the year before , saw off youmzain by three quarters of a length in 2008 .\nfame and glory finished runner - up to sea the stars in the 2009 investec derby before landing the irish equivalent by nine lengths . the o\u2019brien - trained colt stayed on strongly to hold 2009 investec oaks heroine sariska by a length and a half in the 2010 coronation cup and went on to capture the gold cup at royal ascot in 2011 .\nst nicholas abbey had been touted as a potential triple crown contender in 2010 after a scintillating juvenile season for o\u2019brien but the colt missed the majority of his classic season following a setback .\nhe started to realise his potential as a four - year - old in 2011 when swooping for a length victory over top filly midday in the coronation cup and gained further success at the highest level that season with an impressive win in the grade one breeders\u2019 cup turf at churchill downs .\nin tribute to her majesty the queen , who celebrated her diamond jubilee as britain\u2019s monarch in 2012 , the race was renamed the diamond jubilee coronation cup and switched permanently from friday to saturday .\nst nicholas abbey returned to epsom downs to become the sixth dual winner of the coronation cup , this time readily accounting for subsequent hong kong vase scorer and dubai world cup second red cadeaux and ladbrokes st leger victor masked marvel .\nthe son of montjeu went on to further group one glory in the 2013 dubai sheema classic , in which he defeated japanese horse of the year gentildonna , and created history when becoming the first three - time winner of the coronation cup in 2013 as he easily accounted for dunaden by three and three quarter lengths .\nst nicholas abbey\u2019s racing career was over the following month when he fractured a pastern during routine exercise at o\u2019brien\u2019s ballydoyle stables . his pioneering treatment overcame various setbacks but , sadly , the horse succumbed to colic in january , 2014 .\nst nicholas abbey was remembered at epsom downs with the 2014 coronation cup run as the investec coronation cup ( in commemoration of st nicholas abbey ) , in which the outstanding cirrus des aigles beat flintshire to provide france with first and second in the group one race .\ncirrus des aigles had already established himself as one of the world\u2019s leading middle - distance horses with a host of major victories , including the dubai sheema classic and british champion stakes . the hugely popular corine barande - barbe - trained gelding posted a sixth group one success with a comfortable two - length win at epsom downs , despite sustaining a slight injury in the closing stages . he returned to racing later in 2014 and last year won the group one prix ganay .\nflintshire attempted to go one better in 2015 with the main opposition looking to come from fellow french contender dolniya . however , it was pether\u2019s moon who took the honours , coming home a neck clear of dolniya to hand jockey pat dobbs his first group one winner .\nthe 2016 renewal has been renamed to commemorate the 90th year of her majesty the queen and will be contested under the name the queen elizabeth ii coronation cup .\ncopyright \u00a9 2013 - 16 . all rights reserved . all images are used with kind permission of the owner in all circumstances . these images may not be reproduced without the express permission of the image owner . developed by posterity - it\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nroberto ( march 16 , 1969 \u2013 august 2 , 1988 ) was an american - bred , irish - trained thoroughbred champion racehorse . in a career that lasted from 1971 until july 1973 he ran fourteen times and won seven races . he was the best irish two - year - old of 1971 , when his victories included the national stakes . as a three - year - old , he won the derby before recording his most famous victory when beating brigadier gerard in the inaugural running of the benson and hedges gold cup . he won the coronation cup as a four - year - old before being retired to stud . roberto required a left - handed track to perform to his best . [ 1 ] he was described by lester piggott as\na champion when things were in his favour\n. [ 2 ] roberto also proved to be a highly successful and influential stallion .\nroberto was a bay horse with a white blaze bred by john w . galbreath at his darby dan farm in lexington , kentucky he was a son of the successful sire hail to reason out of the mare bramalea , winner of the cca oaks in 1962 . roberto ' s grandsire was turn - to , a descendant of nearco , and his damsire was u . s . hall of famer nashua . [ 3 ] he was named for major league baseball star roberto clemente [ 4 ] by his owner john galbreath who also owned the pittsburgh pirates baseball team .\ngalbreath sent the colt to be trained in ireland by vincent o ' brien .\nroberto made his debut in the lagan stakes in july 1971 at the curragh racecourse . he won impressively and then contested the anglesey stakes also at the curragh which he won easily . he returned to win the national stakes over the same course , drawing comparisons to nijinsky . he was then sent to france to contest the grand criterium at longchamp racecourse and finished fourth behind hard to beat . [ 5 ]\nat age three , roberto began his season by winning the vauxhall trial stakes at phoenix park racecourse and was then sent to england to contest the classic 2000 guineas at newmarket . he was held up in the early stages but stayed on strongly to finish second to high top , with the pair finishing six lengths clear of the other runners . roberto had been ridden in the 2000 guineas by the australian jockey bill williamson . williamson sustained a shoulder injury in a fall at kempton park racecourse ten days before the epsom derby and after a slow recovery such that he was not able to ride before derby day , he was replaced by lester piggott . [ 6 ]\nroberto started the 3 / 1 favourite for the derby in a field of twenty - two runners . he was sent to the front by piggott inside the two furlong pole but was strongly challenged all the way to the finishing line by the outsider rheingold . in a closely contested finish , roberto won by a short head . this victory , which was only confirmed after a stewards ' enquiry , [ 7 ] was poorly received by the crowd , many of whom felt that williamson had been unfairly deprived of the ride . the victory made john galbreath the first person to own winners of both the english and american derbys , since he had also won the 1963 kentucky derby with chateaugay and the 1967 kentucky derby with proud clarion . roberto was then returned to ireland for the irish derby but produced a dismal [ 5 ] performance and finished twelfth of the fourteen runners behind steel pulse . [ 8 ]"]}
{"id": 2054, "summary": [{"text": "the african yellow bat ( scotophilus dinganii ) is a species of bat in the family vespertilionidae , the vesper bats .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "other common names include african yellow house bat , yellow-bellied house bat , and dingan 's bat .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it is one of fifteen species in the genus scotophilus . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "african yellow bat", "paragraphs": ["a young / baby of a african yellow bat is called a ' pup ' . a african yellow bat group is called a ' colony or cloud ' .\nafrican yellow bat - scotophilus dinganii ( a . smith , 1833 ) - overview - encyclopedia of life\nthe names and classifications of the yellow house bats have changed over the years and what was the yellow house bats are now know as the yellow bats . there are numerous species of yellow bats in african and around the world .\nvaughan , t . , r . vaughan . 1986 . seasonality and the behavior of the african yellow - winged bat .\nvaughan , t . , r . vaughan . may 26 , 1987 . parental behavior in the african yellow - winged bat .\nafrican bat researchers and conservationists joined together february 15 to create bat conservation africa , an network dedicated to conserving bats throughout the vast continent . bat conservation africa was launched by 30 bat specialists from 19 african nations during the first african bat conservation summit in naivasha , kenya .\njakob fahr changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : yellow bat scotophilus . jpg\n.\nis often referred to as the african yellow - winged bat . its ears , like its wings , are reddish yellow . the ears contain a divided tragus that is relatively spiky . the eyes are quite large . in fact ,\nthe african yellow bat is listed as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\nis found throughout middle africa . this yellow - winged bat can be seen from gambia to ethiopia and from southern to northern zambia .\nthe east african little collared fruit bat is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\npool of roundleaf bat ( hipposideros sp . ) and horseshoe bat ( rhinolophus sp . )\nlarger than the lesser yellow house bat , but smaller than the giant yellow house bat . this is an attractive bat with a dog - like face . total body length averages 130 mm and weighs 27 gr . the adults ' belly is covered with bright yellow fur . the back is covered with brown tinged , short , sleek fur . wings are either olive , grey or red . the interfemoral membrane is brown and translucent .\nterry a . vaughan , rosemary p . vaughan ; parental behavior in the african yellow - winged bat ( lavia frons ) , journal of mammalogy , volume 68 , issue 2 , 26 may 1987 , pages 217\u2013223 , urltoken\nactivity patterns , habitat use , and prey selection by some african insectivorous bats .\nwe first checked the bat house where the one yellow house bat had been seen on my previous visit . to my surprise this bat house was again occupied with a colony of angolan free - tailed bats \u2013 perhaps 150 of them . then we went to the bat house where we hoped to find out what type of yellow house bats had caused me such confusion the last time i was there .\nhen suddenly at about 18 . 45 hrs \u2013 about 25 minutes after the emergence of the angolan free - tailed bat from other bat houses , there was a sudden thump into the upper mist net and we were confident that we indeed had something unusual on account of size alone . i rushed to remove the bat from the mist net in case it might free itself . with the light available from our torches i could see that it was a yellow house bat and that this would not be the normal yellow house bat on account of the much greater size . we had , indeed , captured the first giant yellow house bat ,\nthe straw - coloured fruit bat ( eidolon helvum ) is the second largest bat on the african continent ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . despite its name , this bat is not a consistent straw - yellow colour , instead ranging from pale yellow to dark brownish - grey ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the fur on the rump and legs is often darker than on the more yellowish shoulders , and the underparts are lighter than the upperparts ( 4 ) .\nit is believed that a mosaic of open country and forest patches are the preferred habitat of the east african little collared fruit bat ( 4 ) . the first described east african little collared fruit bat was caught in an area of big thorn trees and fig trees near a river ( 1 ) ( 2 ) . it has not been caught in the east african savannas despite considerable fruit bat collecting activities in this region ( 2 ) .\nwe had our first stall at the monthly farmers market at woodlands , lilongwe this morning , selling wooden bat boxes and bat guano to be used as fertiliser . each bat box has been carefully hand - made for african bat conservation by a local carpenter in lilongwe , using sustainable , non - native timber .\nlast week our urban bat team caught epomops dobsonii ( dobson ' s epauletted fruit bat ) in lilongwe nature sanctuary . dobson ' s epauletted fruit bat is a massive bat weighing 150g and with a forearm length of 91cm !\nthe yellow house bat is associated with woodland savannas . distribution in south africa from the northern province , mpumalanga , the eastern districts of swaziland , kwazulu - natal and the eastern cape .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - east african little collared fruit bat ( myonycteris relicta )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - east african little collared fruit bat ( myonycteris relicta )\ntitle =\narkive species - east african little collared fruit bat ( myonycteris relicta )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\na little - known fruit bat , the east african little collared fruit bat ( myonycteris relicta ) was only described as recently as 1980 ( 2 ) . named after the \u2018collar\u2019 of coarse hair around the neck of the male , the east african little collared fruit bat has light reddish - brown fur on the body , which is slightly lighter on the underparts . the large wings are dark brown ( 2 ) .\nthe colour of the body of an aardwolf varies from yellow - brown to dull yellow , with \u00b1 5 distinct vertical black stripes on the flanks and some on the legs . it has a long dark tipped mane on the back which bristles when the animal is frightened . . .\nbut by having now supplied the transvaal museum with a specimen of the species of the giant yellow house bat , there is now no necessity for another of this species to be collected from that same region .\nthe east african little collared fruit bat has been found in the shimba hills in southeast kenya , the usambara and nguru mountains in tanzania , and in eastern zimbabwe ( 1 ) .\nintriguing evidence for infection with a henipavirus in african bats was presented by hayman et al . ( 2008 ) who reported finding antibody to henipaviruses in african straw - coloured fruit bats from ghana . as a follow - up , drexler et al . ( 2009 ) detected henipaviral rna in an african straw - coloured fruit bat . clearly , information regarding the geographic distribution and medical and veterinary importance of the henipaviruses and their relationship with bats is not nearly complete .\na new book on african bats has been published . bats of southern and central africa ( 2010 ) is authored by african bat experts ara mondajem , peter taylor , woody cotterill , and corrie schoeman . it includes chapters on the evolution , biogeography , ecology and echolocation of bats , and provides accounts for the 116 bat species known to occur in southern and central africa . pick up your copy here .\ncolor : they have a gray to snow - white fur with a yellow or amber leaf - shaped nose and ears , a black membrane on the wings .\nafrican bat conservation conducts research on bats in the urban environment of lilongwe as part of or urban wildlife project . we conduct bat monitoring and research ( mist netting , roost surveys and bat box programmes ) in lilongwe and community outreach visits to respond to calls for assistance with human - bat conflict , providing advice and practical human - bat conflict mitigation . we are currently recruiting for an urban bat research and conservation assistant based at our research office in lilongwe , to conduct the field research and outreach in partnership with our community outreach workers under the supervision of dr emma stone .\nthe african civet , inhabits the savannahs and the forests of southern and central africa . the african civet is rarely found in arid regions , however , it can be found along river systems that project into the arid areas of niger , mali , and chad .\nthe east african little collared fruit bat has relatively large , pointed ears ( 2 ) but , like most fruits bats , these are unlikely to be used for echolocation . instead , this bat relies on smell and its large , well - developed eyes to find food ( 3 ) .\nthe photo on the left shows a dobson ' s epauletted fruit bat on the left and wahlberg ' s epauletted fruit bat on the right for comparison .\nwe are offering a fully funded phd using landscape genetics to assess the effects of anthropogenic environmental changes on bats in malawi with african bat conservation and university of southampton . click here to find out more and apply .\nvirtually nothing is known of the biology or behaviour of the east african little collared fruit bat , except that individuals are usually captured singularly ( 5 ) , which suggests it is a solitary species ( 2 ) .\nharvester termites and beetles constitute 80 % of a bat - eared fox\u2019s diet .\ntop right : bat hawk , south africa . [ photo johan van rensburg \u00a9 ] bottom right : bat hawk , south africa . [ photo stephen davis \u00a9 ]\nbut the whole story started on 12th october 2004 when i was doing some work in the komatipoort area in preparation for a documentary on a breeding colony of sundevall\u2019s leaf - nosed bats . in a moment of spare time i was checking on some bat houses that i had previously supplied to a time - share resort . i was concerned that while these bat houses had been occupied by well - established colonies of angolan free - tailed bats , mops condylurus , it now seemed that these bats may have left these bat houses . so when checking in one bat house i could only find a single yellow house bat tucked in high up between the crevices within the bat house .\nrichter , h . v . and cumming , g . s . ( 2008 ) first application of satellite telemetry to track african straw - coloured fruit bat migration . journal of zoology , 275 ( 2 ) : 172 - 176 .\nthe straw - coloured fruit bat forms huge colonies that may number into the millions .\nlike other fruit bats , the straw - coloured fruit bat does not use echolocation .\nas implied by the popular name , the lesser yellow house bat is similar in general appearance to its sister species , but is slightly smaller and leaner with a total head - to - tail length of 120 mm and a body mass of about 16 gr . . .\nan inhabitant of woodland savannas , large herds of african buffalo are encountered in the kruger national park , with smaller herds in zululand and the eastern cape .\nthe african wildlife foundation ( awf ) is excited to announce the release of a new children\u2019s book whose message people of all ages can get . . .\nthe honduran white bat may be preyed upon by owls , snakes , possums and raptors .\nthe honduran white bat is classified under the \u2018near threatened\u2019 category of the iucn red list .\nafter commencing the standardised trapping surveys in ernest , the abc team have quickly discovered a new bat species for malawi . the beautiful white - bellied house bat ( scotophilus leucogaster ) .\nthe klipspringer is a small antelope with a thick spiny coat providing protection against injury when it bumps against the rocks . the colour varies from yellow to grey - brown to dull grey . . .\nalthough little is known about the east african little collared fruit bat , it is likely to be affected by the ongoing loss of its habitat , as a result of logging , harvesting of firewood and the conversion of forest to farmland ( 1 ) .\njoin african wildlife foundation as a member for just $ 25 . your partnership is vital to our mission to protect africa\u2019s most precious - and imperiled - creatures .\nis an average - sized bat with the female slightly larger than the male . the weight of\nmy first check was in dr peter taylor\u2019s book , bats of southern africa . there i could find just two paragraphs on the bat that i suspected it to be . then i consulted dr reay smither\u2019s , the mammals of the southern african subregion . and here i found a little more information with a map showing the limited amount of findings of this bat and virtually no information on the bat\u2019s biology and habits , but enough on the size and weight of the species to increase my belief that something very interesting had been seen in the bat house .\nthe lupani school in the sekute community hosts 105 students and five trained teachers . african wildlife foundation relies on partners and donors to help ensure schools remain open and thriving .\nskinner , j . d . and chimimba , c . t . ( 2005 ) the mammals of the southern african subregion . third edition . cambridge university press , cambridge .\nl . angolensis is known to have a range across the central african rainforests and it is predicted to occur in northern malawi , but not as far south as the highlands .\nis distinctive in that it is enveloped by a pointed spike . other physical characteristics include glands on males that secrete a yellow substance that discolors the lower back and a pair of false nipples near the anus of females .\nand then i went to check another of the same type of bat house , and when i opened the bottom cleaning door , i saw the rapid shuffling away and up into the crevices of several yellow house bats that just looked very unusual to me as they seemed larger than usual . but i did not have any reference literature with me and it was frustrating to not be able to search for some explanation on what i had just seen . i was aware , though , from memory , that there was another larger species of yellow house bat , but i would have to wait until i returned to gauteng to consult the literature .\nthe leaf - shaped nose of this creature gives it the unofficial moniker , \u2018leaf - nosed bat\u2019 .\nthe trail will raise awareness of bat ecology and ecosystem services and demonstrate habitat characteristics important to bats .\nto escape from predators , the bat - eared fox relies on speed and its incredible dodging ability .\nthe serval is a large , leggy and elegant , tawny - yellow wild cat richly marked with large , rather widely - spaced solid black spots which tend to run in the form of bars along the back . . .\nthere are no direct conservation measures in place for the east african little collared fruit bat . it has been found in the haroni and rusitu protected areas in zimbabwe , although as deforestation has still been taking place in these areas , their protected status seems to mean little in practice ( 1 ) .\napproximately 20 days after the young bat begins flying alone , weaning begins . for 30 more days , the young\nseveral species of fruit bats are the main pollinators of african baobab . the large flowers are well - suited to bat pollination because they are large enough to support a bat while it laps nectar . the flowers grow on long stalks at the end of branches , where bats can reach them easily . because few flowers are open at one time , bats must move from tree to tree , which promotes cross - pollination .\nleopards have black spots arranged in rosettes , contrasted on a yellow - golden background . their head and body length is 1 . 6 - 2 . 1 m , and the tail is 0 . 68 - 1 . 1 m . . .\ndistribution of bat hawk in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( \u00a9 animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 .\nthis month we received funding from the british ecological society outreach grants scheme to build an interpretative bat trail and bat box monitoring programme in lilongwe . this will be installed at lilongwe wildlife centre in partnership with lilongwe wildlife trust and will include interpretative signage to inform the public of the importance and ecology of bats . the trail will also include a bat box with a digital camera installed to allow the public to remotely observe the behaviour of the bat residents inside .\nthe adult black backed jackal is brownish black all over , except for a white spot above and below the eye . the centre of the chest and throat are white , with a broad black median streak . the eyes are brilliant yellow . . .\nthe diet of the east african little collared fruit bat is also unknown , but it has been found in areas containing fig trees ( 2 ) and fruit bats in captivity are capable of eating a variety of soft fruits ( 6 ) . unlike many bats , it apparently does not roost in caves ( 4 ) .\nthree subspecies of straw - coloured fruit bat are sometimes recognised ( 2 ) ( 4 ) , with eidolon helvum helvum occurring on the african mainland , eidolon helvum dupreanum occurring in madagascar , and eidolon helvum sabaeum being known only from yemen and saudi arabia ( 1 ) ( 4 ) . however , the populations on madagascar are now generally considered to be a separate species , the madagascan fruit bat ( eidolon dupreanum ) ( 1 ) .\nglauconycteris superba , glauconycteris poensis , glauconycteris curryae , niumbaha gen . nov . , badger bat , south sudan , description\nbat - eared foxes are primarily nocturnal . they emerge from their underground dens at dusk to feed during the night .\nwilson de 1973 . bat faunas : a trophic comparison . syst zool 22 : 14 - 29 . [ links ]\nthe african giant rat has a long tail , which is bare with a white tip . the body is covered with a buffy - grey , relatively long fur whereas the underparts are slightly paler . . .\ndo you live in lilongwe and want to buy a bat box and help bats ? some of our specially made bat boxes will be appearing very soon at four seasons nursery in lilongwe . alternatively , you can always place an order for boxes or some of our bat guano fertiliser by getting in touch through our facebook page , or by visiting our website urltoken\nafrican wildlife foundation recruits , equips , and trains scouts . these community members monitor wildlife , mitigate human - wildlife conflict , and work with local authorities to ensure the safety and security of wildlife in their area .\nthe straw - coloured fruit bat is classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nbat - eared foxes are found in short - grass plains\u2014and areas where termites and beetles are found\u2014in east and southern africa .\nas its name indicates , the bat - eared fox has unusually enormous ears in proportion to its head , like those of many bats . its body is generally yellow - brown with a pale throat and under parts . the outsides of the ears , the raccoon - like \u201cface mask , \u201d lower legs , feet , and tail tip are all black . its legs are relatively short .\nhave a bluish gray body with some members having a lower back that is somewhat brownish or green . the wings are broad and the wingspan is about 14 inches ( rosevear , 1965 ) . the color of its wings is a mixture of red and yellow and hence ,\nthe warthog is the most commonly seen wild pig of the african bush . it is a dull grey colour and has a naked skin which is sparsely covered with a few tiny bristles along the back and flanks . . .\na strong flier , the straw - coloured fruit bat has long , pointed wings which are built for endurance rather than agility .\nwhen sunlight filters through the green leaves , the white to whitish coat of the honduran white bat helps render it nigh invisible .\ndemspey , j . l . and crissey , s . d . ( 1995 ) nutrition . in : fascione , n . ( ed . ) fruit bat husbandry manual . aza bat taxon advisory group , the lubee foundation inc , gainesville , florida .\nthe banana bat is a tiny bat which is 77 mm long and weighs 4 . 0 grams . the dense fur on the back can be various shades of brown , whereas the undersides are always of a lighter shade than the dorsal colouration . . .\nwitte ej 1954 . bat rabies in pennsylvania . am j public health nations health 44 : 186 - 187 . [ links ]\nhayman dt , suu - ire r , breed ac , mceachern ja , wang l , wood jl , cunningham aa 2008 . evidence of henipavirus infection in west african fruit bats . plos one 3 : e2739 . [ links ]\nthe straw - coloured fruit bat has a wide distribution across equatorial and sub - saharan africa , from senegal in the west to ethiopia in the east , and south to south africa . it also occurs in the extreme southwest of the arabian peninsula and on several islands off the african coast , including zanzibar and pemba ( 1 ) ( 2 ) . the distribution of the straw - coloured fruit bat at the northern and southern extremes of its range is somewhat patchy and erratic ( 1 ) .\ni could quickly tell that they were powerful creatures from the strength in their wings . they also needed to be respected , as would most other mammals of that size , as they indubitably had strong jaws and a good set of teeth in line with all species of yellow house bats .\ndescribed it being among the bat species with the highest aspect ratio ( wing length / wing width ) and the longest wing tips . wing size and shape represent a compromise between different ( and often conflicting ) selective forces and the kinematics of bat flight are complex (\nthis large bat has been recorded from sea level up to elevations of about 2 , 000 metres ( 1 ) ( 4 ) .\nkupferschmidt k 2013 . link to mers virus underscores bat ' s puzzling threat . science 341 : 948 - 949 . [ links ]\na large and powerful bovine , the african buffalo reaches shoulder heights of up to 1 . 5 m and a mass of 750 kg . both sexes have horns , those of bulls characterised by a heavy boss and upward curved . . .\nthe honduran white bat lives in the evergreen tropical rainforests from sea level up to about 2 , 300 ft abundant with heliconia flowering plants .\nwith your help , awf can work on critical initiatives like providing sustainable agricultural training and working with wildlife scouts to protect the bat - eared fox . donate for a cause that will help with wildlife conservation and ensure the bat - eared fox does not become an endangered species .\na large and powerful bovine , the african buffalo reaches shoulder heights of up to 1 . 5 m and a mass of 750 kg . both sexes have horns , those of the bulls are characterised by a heavy boss and upward curved horns .\nthe colour of african civet is whitish - grey with indistinct spots on the front quarters and regular black spots , which merge to stripes , on the hindquarters . there is a black stripe down the back starting from between the ears . . .\nhangs from its mother and practices flapping its wings until it begins flying by itself . at that point , the young bat is left alone .\nthe straw - coloured fruit bat usually gives birth to a single young each year ( 2 ) ( 4 ) , typically in a \u2018maternity colony\u2019 consisting of clusters of females ( 2 ) . the young bat is carried by the female until able to fend for itself ( 4 ) .\nkoopman kf 1984 . a synopsis of the families of bats , part vii . bat research news 25 : 25 - 29 . [ links ]\nhippos are highly valued for their fatty meat and ivory tusks , putting them in the crosshairs of hunters and poachers . the zambia wildlife authority and the lower zambezi natural park rely on african wildlife foundation ' s support to secure the park and protect hippos .\npotential predators of the straw - coloured fruit bat include snakes , carnivorous birds such as owls , crows and buzzards , and mammals ( 2 ) .\nwith loss of habitat and prey , carnivores\u2014like cheetahs and wild dogs\u2014are hunting community livestock . as a result , farmers are forced to kill these species . african wildlife foundation needs support training scouts and funding bomas to protect livestock as well as negotiating buffer zones for wildlife .\na slender built animal resembling the grey housecat . the colour of african wild cat varies from grey to dark grey with \u00b1 6 reddish to blackish - red vertical stripes on the flanks and some on the legs . in some cases these stripes are very faint . . .\ni debated in my mind the best way to check out my hunch . i concluded that it would be essential to have some companions with me who were active bat workers with good knowledge to help out . i contacted lientjie cohen and koos de wet , who regularly work with us on bat outings and who do a lot of bat work within their department duties . we agreed to meet at ngwenya lodge , near komatipoort , in the late afternoon of monday 25th october .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - straw - coloured fruit bat ( eidolon helvum )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - straw - coloured fruit bat ( eidolon helvum )\ntitle =\narkive species - straw - coloured fruit bat ( eidolon helvum )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nin general , the straw - coloured fruit bat is common , widespread and adaptable , and there are currently no major threats to this species ( 1 ) . however , deforestation and hunting are beginning to cause significant declines in some areas . for example , in west and central africa , the straw - coloured fruit bat is the most heavily harvested bat for the bushmeat trade . it is additionally harvested for medicinal use , and is considered to be a pest in some regions ( 1 ) .\nthe honduran white bat is the only species belonging to the genus ectophylla and is one of only a few species of bats from latin america to roost in tents .\nrose and i returned to gauteng with the one female giant yellow house bat . she became a bit of a celebrity over the next three weeks as keen members wished to view the bat , take photographs and try to get some echolocation records . the bat , called \u2018girlie\u2019 over that period , performed wonderfully by impressing visitors with her rugged ability to decimate the biggest and hardest beetles available . for the 3 to 3 . 5gm rhino beetles and similar sized scarabs , she would ambush them in her cage with rapid powerful chomps with her well developed mouthful of incisors and molars . with these large beetles she would seize the prey in her teeth , then hang up by her thumbs on the cage mesh and devour the beetle with noisy chewing within the chamber formed by her interfemoral membrane . she was able to consume five standard size chafer beetles every thirty seconds .\ndrexler jf , corman vm , gloza - rausch f , seebens a , annan a , ipsen a , kruppa t , m\u00fcller ma , kalko ek , adu - sarkodie y , oppong s , drosten c 2009 . henipavirus rna in african bats . plos one 4 : e6367 . [ links ]\nsazima i , vogel s , sazima m 1989 . bat pollitation of encholirium glaziovii , a terrestrial bromeliad . plant syst evol 168 : 167 - 179 . [ links ]\nmating occurs between march and may . gestation period is 330 days . single calves are born between january and april , with a distinct peak in february . african buffalo are strongly gregarious . stable herds of up to several hundred are often observed , but which fragment into smaller herds in times of drought .\nshares the territory of its parents ( vaughan and vaughan , 1987 ) . after this 30 day time period , the young bat is no longer solely dependent on its parents .\nthe bats had been known to the estate for decades , but only since abc started the research have they been confirmed to be a lissonycteris species . until dna results are confirmed , we\u2019re not yet sure if the species is l . angolensis , the angolian soft - furred fruit bat , or l . goliath , harrison\u2019s soft - furred fruit bat .\nadult straw - coloured fruit bats usually have a bright orange , yellow or brownish collar of longer hairs on the throat , which extends upwards onto the back of the neck ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . this collar overlies glands on the skin that secrete a musky - smelling fluid ( 2 ) ( 4 ) , and is brighter and more pronounced in males ( 2 ) .\nbut we welcome matt town , who has already been carrying on the research in satemwa for 8 weeks and is about to relocate to liwonde to lead the hot dry season bat surveying .\nwe are lucky enough to be catching plenty of fruit bats here in liwonde , including some little epauletted fruit bats . there are plenty around bat camp most evenings , making surveys much easier !\na single bat - eared fox can eat up to 1 . 15 million termites each year\u2014this is about 80 % of their diets . in addition to termites , bat - eared foxes also eat other insects and arthropods , small rodents , lizards , the eggs and chicks of birds , and plant matter . they obtain much of their water from the body fluid of the insects they consume .\npawan jl 1936 . the transmission of paralytic rabies in trinidad by the vampire bat ( desmodus rotundus murinus wagner , 1840 ) . ann trop med parasitol 30 : 101 - 129 . [ links ]\npodlutsky aj , khritankov am , ovodov nd , austad sn 2005 . a new field record for bat longevity . j gerontol a biol sci med sci 60 : 1366 - 1368 . [ links ]\nsimmons nb , seymour kl , habersetzer j , gunnell gf 2008 . primitive early eocene bat from wyoming and the evolution of flight and echolocation . nature 451 : 818 - 821 . [ links ]\nlength of the 2 nd phalanx ( 2pl ) of the 3 rd digit vs . the 1 st phalanx ( 1pl ) of the 3 rd digit . several species of glauconycteris are shown ( closed diamond ) , as is niumbaha superba ( open diamond ) , and for comparison , two species of scotophilus ( open triangle ; a \u2018typical\u2019 african vespertilionid bat ) . the ratio of 2pl / 1pl is significantly greater in glauconycteris than in niumbaha ( with a theoretical 1 : 1 ratio indicated by the dashed line ) . data as reported in table 2 .\nis distinctive among african vespertilionids in possessing an extremely shortened but broad muzzle in which the nostrils open more or less to the side from a transverse , thick subcylindrical naked pad . on the underlip is found a thickened pair of pads and the lower lip near the corner of the mouth has a fleshy lappet or fold that can be made to extend horizontally (\nthe cuteness of this bat makes it somewhat popular as pets , but having one would entail intensive care on the part of the owner to replicate its natural environment , failing which would lead to health problems .\nwe are very happy to wrap up work in the city for christmas having caught 15 bat species in the city since the project began in september 2016 . here ' s to more success in 2017 too !\nsugar plum ( uapaka kirkiana ; phyllanthaceae ) with bat tooth marks on fruits husks , zambia . courtesy of jakob fahr ( max planck institute for ornithology , germany ) , the copyright holder of the image .\nsimon r , holderied mw , koch cu , von helversen o 2011 . floral acoustics : conspicuous echoes of a dish - shaped leaf attract bat pollinators . science 333 : 631 - 633 . [ links ]\nspringer ms , teeling ec , madsen o , stanhope mj , jong ww 2001 . integrating fossil and molecular data reconstruct bat echolocation . proc natl acad sci usa 98 : 6241 - 6246 . [ links ]\nsimmons nb 1998 . a reappraisal of interfamilial relationships of bats . in th kunz , pa racey , bat biology and conservation , smithsonian institution press , washington dc , p . 3 - 26 . [ links ]\nwhile there is limited information regarding the mating and reproduction patterns of honduran white bat , the timing of their mating season is such that the offspring is born during spring . the gestation period lasts for a few weeks .\nwith lientjie , koos and me were my wife , rose , who was also our photographer , and adam palmer , who was again kindly helping us with ladders and other logistics . koos looked up at the bat house and noticed that a large lizard was in the bat house with it\u2019s head sticking out . this dampened our spirits , as we were worried that something unexpected may be interfering with our hopes to make a strange finding .\nthe female straw - coloured fruit bat is only slightly smaller than the male and often appears lighter in colour . juvenile straw - coloured fruit bats are generally darker than the adults , and lack a collar ( 2 ) .\nsazima m , buzato s , sazima i 2003 . dyssochroma viridiflorum ( solanaceae ) , a reproductively bat - dependent , epiphyte from the atlantic rainforest in brazil . annals of botany 92 : 725 - 730 . [ links ]\nthe name is the zande word for \u2018rare / unusual\u2019 . this name was chosen because of the rarity of capture for this genus , despite its wide distribution throughout west and central africa , and for the unusual and striking appearance of this bat . zande is the language of the azande people , who are the primary ethnic group in western equatoria state in south sudan ( where our recent specimen was collected ) . the homeland of the azande extends westwards into democratic republic of the congo , where superba has also been collected ( the holotype and another recent capture ) , and into southeastern central african republic . gender : feminine .\nthe straw - coloured fruit bat feeds on fruiting and flowering trees , starting its foraging at sunset and ending after sunrise ( 2 ) . it feeds on a range of sweet , juicy fruits , including dates , figs and palm fruits , as well as on flowers , buds and even young leaves ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . like other pteropodidae species , the straw - coloured fruit bat mashes fruit between its teeth , sucking out the juices and spitting out the rest as dry pellets . this species also chews into soft wood to obtain moisture . despite its sometimes destructive feeding habits , the straw - coloured fruit bat is an important pollinator of flowering plants ( 2 ) .\nafter birth , a young bat adheres to its mother by attaching its mouth to a pair of false nipples located near the mother ' s tail . to further insure attachment to the mother , the young bat wraps its legs around the back of its mother ' s neck . despite the added weight of the offspring , the mother continues to forage . for roughly three months , the mother and its offspring stay in close proximity . during this time , grooming generally occurs with the mother eating the metabolic wastes of the baby in an apparent water conservation mechanism ( vaughan and vaughan , 1987 ) . in addition , the young bat observes the foraging and hunting techniques of its parents . the young\nbergmans , w . m . ( 1980 ) a new fruit bat of the genus myonycteris matschie , 1899 , from eastern kenya and tanzania ( mammalia , megachiroptera ) . zoologische mededelingen , 55 ( 14 ) : 171 - 181 .\nthe bat - eared fox has a shoulder height of only 30cm , a length of about 75cm and weighs less than 5 kilograms . it has a beautiful silver - gray fluffy coat with a black - tipped bushy tail . . .\nhowever , we erected our mist nets as we had intended and were happy that the weather conditions were very favourable . we were ready by 18 . 00hrs ( 6pm ) and settled in for a wait . the large lizard had retreated out of sight into the bat house . at about 18 . 20hrs many angolan free - tailed bats were overhead commencing their evening foraging on a variety of agricultural pest moths and beetles . we noticed two much larger bats than usual fly over the bat house \u2013 we were sure these were not fruit bats - and a few minutes later another flew over in the cross direction . but still there was no sign of bats from the bat house that we watched so intently .\nonly a small part of the migratory route of the kasanka colony is currently protected ( 6 ) , and a better understanding of the straw - coloured fruit bat\u2019s migratory patterns may be needed to aid conservation efforts for this species ( 1 ) .\nrichter , h . v . and cumming , g . s . ( 2006 ) food availability and annual migration of the straw - colored fruit bat ( eidolon helvum ) . journal of zoology , 268 ( 1 ) : 35 - 44 .\nin typical manner girlie devoured a full meal of scarab and dung beetles on the evening of 17th november , and then i returned her into the bat house from which she had been captured 22 days earlier . we were always conscious that we did not want to take a female bat that was likely to be pregnant at that time of the year as a scientific voucher for museum records . by the time that girlie was released , there was every indication that she was indeed well pregnant .\nthis species is a strong flier , with wings that are built for endurance rather than agility ( 3 ) . its flight is slow and steady ( 2 ) ( 4 ) , interspersed with short glides , and the straw - coloured fruit bat is also able to clamber around branches and cling to trees using the strong , hooked claw on its first finger ( 4 ) . like other species in the pteropodidae family , the straw - coloured fruit bat does not use echolocation ( 5 ) .\nbarr ja , smith c , marsh ga , field h , wang l - f 2012 . evidence of bat origin for menangle virus , a zoonotic paramyxovirus first isolated from diseased pigs . j gen virol 93 : 2590 - 2594 . [ links ]\nafrican civets live both in the forest and in open country , but they seem to require a covering of tall grasses or thicket to provide safety in the daytime . they rarely can be found in arid regions of africa . instead , they are usually found close to permanent water systems . it seems to use a permanent burrow or nest only to bear young . it is nocturnal and almost completely terrestrial but takes to water readily and swims well .\nmimetillus thomasi has been confirmed as the species found at two survey sites in liwonde national park during the 2015 cold dry and hot dry season . this bat is in the vespertilionidae family and has a distinctive broad flattened skull as well as translucent finger membranes .\nlike all so - called ' free - tailed ' bats , the distal portion of the tail of the ansorgi ' s free - tailed bat is not encased in the interfemoral membrane , and thus presents as a protrusion above the flying membrane . . .\no ' shea tj , cryan pm , cunningham aa , fooks ar , hayman dts , luis ad , peel aj , plowright rk , wood jln 2014 . bat flight and zoonotic viruses . emerg infect dis 20 : 741 - 745 . [ links ]\nshaw ti , srivastava a , chou wc , liu l , hawkinson a , glenn tc , adams r , schountz t 2012 . transcriptome sequencing and annotation for the jamaican fruit bat ( artibeus jamaicensis ) . plos one 7 : e48472 . [ links ]\nsimmons nb , geisler jh 1998 . phylogenetic relationships of icaronycteris , archaeonycteris , hassianycteris and palaeochiropteryx to extant bat lineages with comments on the evolution of echolocation and foraging strategies in microchiroptera . b am mus nat hist 235 : 1 - 182 . [ links ]\nsimmons nb 1995 . bat relationships and the origin of flight . in pa racey , sm swift , ecology , evolution and behavior of bats , zoological society of london symposia 67 , oxford university press , oxford , p . 27 - 43 . [ links ]\nwacharapluesadee s , lumlertdacha b , boongird k , wanghongsa s , chanhome l , rollin p , stockton p , rupprecht ce , ksiazek tg , hemachudha t 2005 . bat nipah virus , thailand . emerg infect dis 11 : 1949 - 1951 . [ links ]\na novel filovirus , provisionally named lloviu virus ( the only virus in the genus cuevovirus ) , was detected during the investigation of bat die - offs in cueva del lloviu in spain in 2002 . lloviu virus is genetically distinct from marburgviruses and ebolaviruses and is the first filovirus detected in europe that was not imported from an endemic area in africa . whereas infections of bats with marburgviruses and ebolaviruses do not appear to be associated with disease in the bats , lloviu virus was detected in a dead schreibers ' s long - fingered bat .\nluckett wp 1980 . the use of fetal membrane data in assessing chiropteran phylogeny . in de wilson , al gardner ( eds . ) , proceedings of the fifth international bat research conference , texas tech press , lubbock , p . 245 - 265 . [ links ]\nshe proved to be a voracious feeder on stink bugs , twig wilters , chafer beetles ( ie rose or christmas beetles ) , long horn beetles , cicadas , katydids , mole crickets and dung beetles of various species , and those dreadful smelly yellow and black beetles that eat flowers and soft fruit like peaches . in fact , she was a very thorough entomologist , as she knew her diet items well as ground living beetles such a toktokkie beetles were not part of the diet . she did not find any type of moth acceptable and one mantid was partly chewed before being spat out .\nthe straw - coloured fruit bat has long , dark blackish - brown wings which are quite narrow and pointed . when the bat is at rest , the tips of the wings are folded inwards ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the tail membrane is narrow , running along the insides of the thighs , while the tail itself is short and projects beyond the membrane for about half its length . the first finger on the forearm is long and has a strong , curved claw , which is used for climbing among tree branches ( 4 ) .\ndrexler jf , corman vm , wegner t , tateno af , zerbinati rm , gloza - rausch f , seebens a , m\u00fcller ma , drosten c 2011 . amplification of emerging viruses in a bat colony . emerg infect dis 17 : 449 - 456 . [ links ]\naustralian bottle tree ( adansonia gregorii ) is the single species of baobab native to australia . it is very similar to african baobab genetically , but its flowers are long and cylindrical rather than round and pendulous . although bats visit australian bottle tree and feed on its flowers ' nectar , hawk moths are the tree ' s primary pollinators . the cylindrical shape of the flowers are more suited to moths and other insects than to bats . australian bottle tree is hardy in usda zone 11 .\nthe conservation of lowland forest throughout much of east africa is essential for the future of this bat and many other species ( 1 ) . fortunately , there are a number of conservation organisations working to conserve the forest habitat in the region , including wwf tanzania ( 7 ) .\nhibernation also may allow not only virus persistence in the bat , but trans - seasonal persistence as well , allowing virus to amplify and re - emerge when conditions are more amenable to transmission , such as seasonally for arthropod - borne viruses , colony formation and movement to maternity caves .\nagnelli p , maltagliati g , ducci l , cannicci s 2011 . artificial roosts for bats : education and research . the\nbe a bat ' s friend\nproject of the natural history museum of the university of florence . hystrix 22 : 215 - 223 . [ links ]\nnear - threatened in south africa , due to its rarity and disappearance from former breeding sites . destruction of woodland impacts the local bat populations it is dependent on , and it is persecuted by locals because they believe that it eats chickens , although it has never been observed doing so .\nit was a fantastic morning and a good turn out ! the bat boxes proved very popular and generated a lot of interest . it was wonderful to chat to people about the work we do , and to let people know how to help bats by putting up boxes in their garden . with so much deforestation and increased development taking place , bats are losing their homes at an alarming rate . a wooden bat box can provide a suitable alternative resting place for bats and encourage them into areas where there are few natural roosting opportunities such as crevices in tree s and buildings .\nwe say a sad goodbye to our research assistant catherine , who helped to set up the bats and farms research at satemwa tea and coffee estate , and for the past month led the bat surveying in liwonde np . all the abc team wish catherine the best in her future research work !\nithete nl , stoffberg s , corman vm , cottontail vm , richards lr , schoeman mc , drosten c , drexler jf , preiser w 2013 . close relative of human middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus in bat , south africa . emerg infect dis 19 : 1697 - 1699 . [ links ]\nrodriguez , r . m . , hoffmann , f . , porter , c . a . and baker , r . ( 2006 ) the bat community of the rabi oil field in the gamba complex of protected areas . bulletin of the biological society of washington , 12 : 365 - 370 .\nthe straw - coloured fruit bat is an adaptable species that occurs in a wide variety of habitats . it is found primarily in moist and dry tropical rainforests , including evergreen forest , riverine and coastal forests and mangroves , as well as in moist and dry savanna and even urban areas ( 1 ) .\nfinally , can we confidently link bats with emerging viruses ? no , or not yet , is the qualified answer based on the evidence available . only integrative and organised field and laboratory research , using ecological and epidemiological approaches conducted by bat biologists and medical researchers , will provide a useful and satisfactory solution .\nthen on monday 25th october 2004 we had a major breakthrough in the positive finding of a species of bat that had never been located before in south africa . in fact , it is a very poorly known species throughout it\u2019s distribution range almost throughout sub saharan africa . so the species is only recorded from isolated spots , with nine known records from nine different countries . these separate records are from senegal , ghana , nigeria , sudan , eastern congo , malawi , zimbabwe , mozambique and now south africa . but in some of those discoveries more than a single bat of the species was encountered but only at single localities ."]}
{"id": 2063, "summary": [{"text": "leiognathus berbis , commonly known as the berbis ponyfish , is a fish of brackish and marine waters found from indo-west pacific to along the indian coasts and off sri lanka .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "like its relatives , the fish is a demersal species that feeds on small crustaceans and bivalves . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "leiognathus berbis", "paragraphs": ["this study reports that berber ponyfish leiognathus berbis , a member of lessepsian species , was found in syrian marine waters and recorded for the first time there .\nthis is the first record for leiognathus berbis in the syrian costal waters , and the first time they are observed by fishermen ; this indicates that there are several factors helped this specimen to arrive to this area of mediterraean such as ballast water .\nthis is the first record for leiognathus berbis in the syrian costal waters , and observations for the first time from the fishermen , there are several factors helped this specimen to arrive to this area of mediterraean ; one of these factors is ballast water .\none specimen of the berber ponyfish leiognathus berbis , with a total length of 78 mm , was caught by gillnet at a depth of 35 m , where the bottom is sandy soft , on 05 may 2016 , in syrian marine waters at ibn hani area ( the eastern mediterranean sea ) .\n( of equula berbis valenciennes , 1835 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nchakrabarty p , chu j , nahar l , sparks js . geometric morphometrics uncovers a new species of ponyfish ( teleostei : leiognathidae : equulites ) , with comments on the taxonomic status of equula berbis valenciennes . zootaxa . 2010 ; 2427 ( 1 ) : 15\u201324 .\n) . to this day , new marine organisms still reach the mediterranean ; of these organisms , those belonging to the family leiognathidae : small to medium - sized fish ( rarely exceeding 16 cm ) ; body oblong or rounded , moderately to markedly compressed laterally . eyes moderate to large . mouth highly protractible , when extended forming a tube directed either upwards ( secutor spp . ) , forward ( gazza spp . ) , or forward or downward ( leiognathus spp . ) . color : silvery , with characteristic markings on the upper half of sides which are useful for identification ( capenter and niem\nequula berbis is considered as a nomen dubium of uncertain placement beyond the family level ( ref . 84470 : 20 - 21 ) . correct name equulites oblongus ; the types are in poor condition and placement in the genus equulites is provisional ( p . chakrabarty pers . comm . tru s . bogorodsky , 11 / 2010 ) . considered as nomen dubium of uncertain placement beyond the family level ; no type known , original description does not serve to diagnose this species ( ref . 84470 : 20 - 21 ) .\ndescription found in coastal waters , at a depth of about 40 m . feeds on small crustaceans and bivalves ( ref . 5213 ) .\ndescription found in coastal waters , at a depth of about 40 m . feeds on small crustaceans and bivalves ( ref . 5213 ) . [ details ]\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of scomber equula minimus forssk\u00e5l , 1775 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nang , p . o . ; wong , c . k . ; lin , t . p . ; ma , w . c . ; hung , s . ( 2005 ) . biological monitoring in sha chau and lung kwu chau marine park . submitted to agriculture , fisheries and conservation department , the hong kong sar government . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nclimatic changes and human activities have worked to pave the way for alien species to invade new areas far from their native habitat . the mediterranean sea has received many invasive species ( eissa and zaki , procedia environmental sciences 4 : 251 - 259 , 2011 ; occhipinti - ambrogi , marine pollution bulletin 55 ( 7 ) : 342 - 352 , 2007 ) , and some of these species had been recorded in the syria coastal ( saad , turkish journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences 5 : 99 - 106 , 2005 ) .\nclimatic changes and human activities have worked to pave the way for alien species to invade new areas far from their native habitat . the climatic changes have made the environmental conditions suitable for these species and similar to their original habitat in terms of temperature , salinity and food . while leading human activity , the opening of the suez canal , and the movement of ships across the world , is an important factor for making the road , which was impassable , for the fish species to move into new marine environments ( occhipinti - ambrogi\n) . the mediterranean sea has received many invasive species coming from the atlantic , pacific and red sea . many species have invaded the mediterranean species , and settled in , because the marine environment has become suitable for their growth and reproduction ( golani\n) , the family leiognathidae exists in water ' s temperature range ( 18 . 528\u201328 . 954 ) \u00b0c , and salinity ( 32 . 183\u201335 . 468 ) pps .\nthe fish sample was collected during may 2016 from ibn\u2013hani , lattakia , syria ( latitude : 35 . 591632\u00b0 , longitude : 35 . 732343\u00b0 ) ( fig .\nwas carried out by using gillnet , with a mesh size is 15 mm , at a depth of 35 m ; the bottom of the fishing zone is sandy soft mixed with some little stones ; the net had been deployed in the coastal water for five hours ( from 1 am to 6 am ) . the morphometric measurements and meristic details were recorded for this fish , and conserved at the fish biology lab of the higher institute of marine research , tishreen university ( lenght to the nearest mm , weight to the nearest gram ) . this sample was identified according to ( carpenter and niem\n) , depending on the morphological characters . the head length , the caudal fin length and the eye diameter were measured by vernier caliper as in the fig .\n) has the following properties : compressed body and elongated body more than the depth of the body , dorsal and ventral sides are convex , and mouth tapering and downward when protracted ( fig .\n) ; the dorsal side is greenish with light gray and contains dark irregular vermiculations . the ventral side is coloured with belly gray ; the base of anal and caudal fin are light yellowish . the morphometric measurements are shown in table\n) . the sex of the fish is male . the bottom of fishing zone is soft sandy ; it is similar to the bottom in the native region of this species ( carpenter and niem\n) , and is convenient for feeding on benthic invertebrates . the temperature of fishing area is ( 27 . 5 ) \u00b0c , and the salinity ( 38 . 2 ) pps on 15 / 05 / 2016 ; this parameters are close to that are found in the native habitat .\n) ; this fish has been registered in the suze gulf in 2005 ( el - ganainy et al .\nfrom the gulf of suez , where the hydrological factors are very close to those found in the mediterranean sea ; they moved then through the suez canal to reach the syrian coastal . a new suez canal had been opened on 9 august 2015 , which has made a big chance for fish to move into the mediterranean sea . on other hand , the climatic changes in the world , especially in the eastern mediterranean , are making the environment very suitable for invasive species in terms of the temperature , food , and the place for reproduction ( sorte et al .\nallows it to move through the ballast water . this is the first record for\nthe authors thank tishreen university and the high institute of marine research , lattakia who provided the financial and logistic supports to this work .\nall authors have equal participation in this work . all authors read and approved the final manuscript .\nthis article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license (\n) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided you give appropriate credit to the original author ( s ) and the source , provide a link to the creative commons license , and indicate if changes were made . the creative commons public domain dedication waiver (\n) applies to the data made available in this article , unless otherwise stated .\nabraham k , joshi k , murty vs . taxonomy of the fishes of the family leiognathidae ( pisces , teleostei ) from the west coast of india . zootaxa . 2011 ; 2886 : 1\u201318 .\ncapenter k , niem v . the living marine resources of the western central pacific : vol 5 bony fishes part 3 ( menidae to pomacentridae ) . roma : food and agriculture organization of the united nations ; 2001 .\ncarpenter ke , niem vh . fao species identification guide for fishery purposes . the living marine resources of the western central pacific . volume 5 . bony fishes part 3 ( menidae to pomacentridae ) . fao library ; 2001 .\ndial r , roughgarden j . theory of marine communities : the intermediate disturbance hypothesis . ecology . 1998 ; 79 ( 4 ) : 1412\u201324 .\neissa ae , zaki mm . the impact of global climatic changes on the aquatic environment . procedia environmental sciences . 2011 ; 4 : 251\u20139 .\nel - ganainy aa , yassien mh , ibrahim ea . bottom trawl discards in the gulf of suez , egypt . egypt j aquat res . 2005 ; 31 : 240\u201355 .\ngolani d . distribution of lessepsian migrant fish in the mediterranean . italian journal of zoology . 1998a ; 65 ( sup1 ) : 95\u201399\ngolani d . impact of red sea fish migrants through the suez canal on the aquatic environment of the eastern mediterranean . bulletin series yale school of forestry and environmental studies . 1998b ; 103 : 375\u201387 .\nocchipinti - ambrogi a . global change and marine communities : alien species and climate change . mar pollut bull . 2007 ; 55 ( 7 ) : 342\u201352 .\noral m . alien fish species in the mediterranean - black sea basin . journal of the black sea / mediterranean environment . 2010 ; 16 ( 1 ) : 87\u2013132 .\nsaad a . check \u2013 list of bony fish collected from the coast of syria . turk j fish aquat sci . 2005 ; 5 : 99\u2013106 .\nsorte cj , williams sl , zerebecki ra . ocean warming increases threat of invasive species in a marine fouling community . ecology . 2010 ; 91 ( 8 ) : 2198\u2013204 .\nulman a , saad a , zylich k , pauly d , zeller d . reconstruction of syria\u2019s fisheries c atches from 1950\u20132010 : signs of overexploitation . acta ichthyol piscat . 2015 ; 45 : 3\u2013259 .\nby using this website , you agree to our terms and conditions , privacy statement and cookies policy . manage the cookies we use in the preference centre .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\nbody moderately elongate and compressed , its depth 2 . 3 to 2 . 8 times in standard length ; dorsal and ventral profiles about equally convex , but a more or less distinct notch present at nape . mouth pointing downward when protracted ; teeth arranged in villiform bands , though these may contract to a single row laterally in young specimens . dorsal - fin spines slender , the second equal to or , in adults , slightly longer than 1 / 2 height of body . head scaleless , but scales present on breast . belly silvery ; back greenish to brownish with light grey , crowded , irregular vermiculations extending on sides to slightly below lateral line , where lines become serially arranged and angle forward ; snout and underside of pectoral - fin base dotted black ; dorsal , anal , pectoral , and pelvic fins colourless .\ndistributed in the indo - west pacific from red sea and the gulf of aden , off zanzibar , along the indian coasts and off sri lanka . elsewhere , eastern indian ocean and southeast asia . it is found in southwestern and southern taiwanese waters .\nlarger specimens marketed fresh or dried - salted but most of the catch made into fishmeal or discarded .\ninhabits inshore coastal waters ( ref . 47581 ) . feeds on small crustaceans and bivalves ( ref . 5213 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c42d7 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3234f3f4 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32421126 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32a67bf4 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nindo - west pacific : red sea and the gulf of aden , off zanzibar , along the indian coasts and off sri lanka . elsewhere , eastern indian ocean and southeast asia .\nfroese r . & pauly d . ( eds ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase ( version feb 2018 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 8b39e70d - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this ."]}
{"id": 2068, "summary": [{"text": "the devil 's coach-horse beetle ( ocypus olens ) is a species of beetle belonging to the large family of the rove beetles ( staphylinidae ) .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it was originally included in the genus staphylinus in 1764 , and some authors and biologists still use this classification . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "devil ' s coach horse beetle", "paragraphs": ["the devil\u2019s coach horse beetle is an european beetle related to our rove beetle .\nexplore our interactive map and see where the devil ' s coach horse has been recorded so far .\nspecies ocypus olens - devil ' s coach horse . urltoken accessed march 12 , 2016 . [ images ]\none well - known species is the devil\u2019s coach horse beetle . for some other species , see list of british rove beetles .\ndetailing the physical features , habits , territorial reach and other identifying qualities of the devil ' s coach horse .\nthe devil ' s coach horse earned its name partly for its wicked bite and partly for its environmental hardiness .\ndevil ' s coach horse beetle commissioned by a private collector for display in their gardens . they wanted a beetle that would withstand all weather \u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nin irish mythology , the name devil\u2019s coach - horse ate sinners and could cast a curse by raising its abdomen .\ndevil ' s coach - horses and people : this beetle was once a symbol of evil and death .\nthis habit has given rise to another english name , cock - tail while its association with corruption and the devil gave rise to other names such devil\u2019s footman , devil\u2019s coachman and devil\u2019s steed .\nthe devil\u2019s coach - horse is an unusual - looking beetle as , unlike most other beetles , its wings do not completely cover its abdomen .\nthe devil\u2019s coach horse is a long , black beetle with short elytra ( wing cases ) . at first glance you could mistake it for an earwig .\nthe devil ' s coach horse ( staphylinus oleos ) a staphylinid rove beetle from so . california . this beetle has short wing covers ( elytra ) and does not \u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nthis beetle has been associated with the devil since the middle ages , hence its common name . other names include devil ' s footman , devil ' s coachman and devil ' s steed . in irish , the beetle is called dearga - daol or darbh - daol .\ndevil ' s coach horse beetles are voracious predators who consume significant numbers of small slugs and other pests such as vine weevil larvae and cutworm .\nhabitat : the devil ' s coach - horse lives in forests and gardens under stones , damp leaves , and moss , or in damp wood .\nthe devil\u2019s coach horse is the largest of the rove beetles and can reach a length of around 28mm . typical to this family , the devil\u2019s coach horse is a long - bodied , uniformly black beetle with an extended exposed powerful abdomen with shortened wing cases ( elytra ) . although able to fly its wings are rarely used .\nas far back as the middle ages this species has been associated with the devil and was known in ireland as dar daol which translates as \u2018the devil\u2019s beetle\u2019 . many myths and superstitions have surrounded the devil\u2019s coach horse such as its ability to curse a person by pointing its upraised body in their direction ! some also believed that the beetle had magic powers and it is believed by some that in ireland reapers used to improve their skills by putting a devil\u2019s coach horse in the handle of their scythes .\na devil ' s coach - horse is a predatory species of beetle that fires poison gas from its tail if threatened by a predator . many people mistake them for scorpions . if handled they will sometimes bite but are harmless to humans . according to legend , anyone a devil ' s coach - horse pointed its tail at would soon die . . .\nthe devil\u2019s coach horse is a beneficial insect playing an important role in the food chain as a dominant predator , ensuring that nutrients are recycled and returned to the soil .\nin maltese the devil\u2019s coach - horse is known as katarina - g\u0127olli - denbek ( catherine raise your tail ) . the name comes from this insect\u2019s habit of raising its abdomen like a scorpion when it feels threatened .\nthe beetle has even achieved celluloid fame by starring in a film based on the aptly named 1979 book \u2018the devil\u2019s coach horse\u2019 by richard lewis , where the creatures get a taste for human flesh and go on the rampage .\ndevil ' s coach horse beetles are active at night , when they consume small slugs and snails , and a wide range of other invertebrates . this beetle is commonly found in damp areas in a garden , woodland or hedgerow .\nthe devils coach horse is a widespread and nocturnal predatory rove beetle , native to europe , introduced to north america and australasia . photographed by harry taylor .\nthe devil ' s coach horse is a member of the rove beetle family , a very large group of insects characterised by their short wing cases and habit of being constantly on the move , rambling and roving and wandering . it is their roving habit that results in them sometimes entering people ' s homes . the devil ' s coach horse has the distinction of being both the largest member of the family found in ireland and one of the more common species likely to be encountered by most people .\na beetle came creeping forth from the stable , where the farrier had been shoeing the horse .\nsuperstition has been associated with this species for hundreds of years . it\u2019s also called the devil\u2019s footman , devil\u2019s coachman and coffin cutter . one old wives\u2019 tale suggested that when it raised its tail it was casting a curse on you .\ncould be confused with\u2026 other beetles in the same family ( rove beetles ) . they are all black with the same body shape but the devil\u2019s coach horse is the only one of this size ( about 25mm long ) .\nthe devil\u2019s coach horse is a predator , hunting other invertebrates such as slugs , woodlice and other beetles at night . its strong legs and flexible body make it well adapted to hunting in fallen leaves and among logs and stones .\nbehavior and reproduction : when threatened , the devil ' s coach - horse spreads its powerful jaws and bends its abdomen up over its back to spray a foul - smelling brown fluid . nothing is known about its reproductive behavior .\nboth predators and prey are important in any ecosystem . the devil\u2019s coach horse eats other invertebrates , some of which may be garden pests . in doing this , it helps to reduce pest populations , recycle nutrients and maintain a healthy ecosystem .\nthe devil ' s coach - horse is a common black beetle that will be familiar to many people as it has a habit of sometimes wandering indoors . it is an aggressive little beast that readily puts on a threat display when confronted by a person very many times its size .\nthe devil ' s coach horse is a long black rove beetle around 30mm long with a flattened head and sharp pincer mouthparts . this beetle is capable of inflicting a painful bite if handled . when it feels threatened it will raise up its abdomen so that it looks like a small scorpion , and it will spray a foul - smelling liquid from its abdomen . devil ' s coach horse beetles mate during the autumn and lay eggs into a damp spots , such as in moss or leaf litter . the eggs hatch into larvae that feed eagerly on other soil - dwelling invertebrates .\nshaggy ; prominent : used in beetle brow ( also written beetle - brow ) .\nit overwinters as a pupa in leaf litter or moss and emerges as an adult the following spring . if you disturb a devil\u2019s coach horse , it adopts an aggressive , scorpion - like position - it raises its rear end and opens its powerful jaws .\nashtekar , a . , beetle , c . and fairhurst , s . , class .\nduring the day the devil\u2019s coach horse usually rests amongst and under stones and logs but it is at night that this carnivorous , nocturnal predator comes out to feed on slugs , worms , spiders , woodlice , a range of other invertebrates and carrion ( dead items ) .\nthe devil\u2019s coach horse occupies a wide range of habitats requiring damp conditions and is common in woods , hedgerows , meadows , parks and gardens , being seen between april and october . it is also known to make its way indoors now and then , particularly in older properties .\nthe devil\u2019s coach - horse does not sting but it has strong pincer - like jaws with which it can bite if handled from the wrong end . it also has a pair of glands on its abdomen which emit an odorous liquid strong enough to warn potential predators to back off .\nif conditions don ' t improve , there will be the devil to pay .\nwhere and when can i find it ? in spring and autumn across the uk in both rural and urban areas . try looking in parks , gardens , woodland and fields . the devil\u2019s coach horse is nocturnal , so during the day it is found resting among fallen leaves or under logs and stones .\nis from 1840 , the large rove - beetle , which is defiant when disturbed .\ntalk of the devil , and he ' s presently at your elbow\n[ 1660s ] .\ncharges at the county ' s recycling facilities are being considered as part of this year ' s budget .\nthe egyptian beetle was not quite the full type of him ; our northern ground beetle is a truer one .\nalthough it is widespread in the uk , its nocturnal behaviour means that it is rarely encountered . with your help , we would like to find out more about where it lives and how many there are . there is evidence that some large beetles struggle to survive in urban areas . is this the case for the devil\u2019s coach horse ?\nto give the devil his due , you must admit that she is an excellent psychologist .\ndevil ' s coach horses eat maggots ( fly larvae ) and are usually found living in rotting animal carcasses . they belong to a large group of beetles characterised by their shortened elytra ( modified , hardened forewings ) and exposed , flexible abdomens .\nit has a long body and very short wing cases making it look a bit like a black earwig . unlike the common earwig , the devil ' s coach horse doesn ' t have pincers on its tail end . it does , however , have large pincer - like jaws at its front end and these can inflict a painful bite .\nsplit pine beetle barrels in mountain pine beetle wood with epoxy resin by straight line designs 604 - 251 - 9669 .\nfor its size the devil\u2019s coach horse has very large jaws ( mandibles ) which it uses to catch and cut its prey . with the help of its front legs the food is then turned into a ball like shape ( bolus ) which is chewed , passing through the beetles\u2019 digestive system a number of times until it becomes liquefied and finally digested .\n6 in germany , grimenl says ,\na white goat is reckoned wholesome in a horse ' s stable .\n( teutonic mythology , page 1484 . )\nin 1955 , only 330 volkswagen beetle ' s were sold at a price of $ 1800 each in the united states .\nit is a predatory species , hunting invertebrates such as worms and woodlice and carrion . it seizes its prey in its strong jaws and uses its front legs to cut off pieces of flesh which it masticates into a bolus before swallowing it . having a devil\u2019s coach - horse in your garden is good as like other predators it helps to keep pests under control .\nfrom the information i have come across , the devil\u2019s coach horse beetle are found rarely in the u . s . if it is instead our more common rove beetle , there is actually no need to take any action to get rid of them . they are harmless to you , and can simply be left alone . also , unlike insects such as termites , there is no chance that they can cause damage to your property . their presence normally indicates that there is something rotting nearby , such as compost or a dead animal . removing the rotting items will remove the rove beetle ' s food source , maggots , and other insects , and this will force them to move on to somewhere else . there is no need to use insecticides .\ndevil\u2019s coach horse mate in autumn and a female will lay a single egg two to three weeks later in a damp , dark habitat such as leaf litter or moss . after around 30 days the larva will emerge , living mainly underground . as with their parents , devil\u2019s coach horse larvae are carnivorous feeding on a variety of other invertebrates ; possess powerful jaws to catch and consume their prey ; and can even adopt the threatened display of a raised tail and open jaws . the larva goes through three successive growth stages ( instars ) . the third and final larval stage is reached after approximately 150 days when it is between 20 \u2013 26mm in length . it is at this stage that pupation begins and an adult beetle emerges about 35 days later . it emerges fully formed but needs to stay inactive for a few hours to allow its wings to dry out before they can be folded beneath the wing case ( elytra ) .\ni have devil ' s coach horse beetles in my backyard . i am not sure how they arrived in my yard . i am trying to find out how to get rid of them , once and for all . i have two children and a dog . i wanto get rid of the beetles , so my kids or dog won ' t get bitten . if you could shed some light on our situation , i would greatly appreciate it .\nout of doors , in gardens , hedgerows , parks and woodlands , the devil ' s coach horse is nocturnal . by day it rests under stones , logs and in leaf litter . as night falls it emerges to hunt . while it has small wing cases it seldom flies . it hunts on foot and can tackle large prey like an adult earthworm or a big slug . its large , pincer - like jaws are formidable weapons for catching and processing food .\n19 o ' curry ' s text , atlantis , iv . , i6o .\nthe insect is a beetle , and the two species closely resemble each other .\ntavolacci , j . , editor . insects and spiders of the world . volume 2 : beetle - carpet beetle . volume 3 : carrion beetle - earwig . volume 4 : endangered species - gypsy moth . new york : marshall cavendish , 2003 .\ndr murray notes that the word is first found in the compound bitel - browed , in the 14th century , and favours the explanation , ' with eyebrows like a beetle ' s ' \u2014i . e . projecting eyebrows . see beetle ( 1 ) .\nhe wore a garb of green bright and glancing as the scales of a beetle .\nlarge quantum gravity effects were found in three - dimensional models by ashtekar and beetle .\nashtekar a , beetle c and lewandowski j 2001 mechanics of rotating isolated horizons phys .\nif you have crossed paths with the devil\u2019s coach horse you may have seen it adopt its typical defensive pose where it raises the rear end of its body and opens its fierce jaws , similar to that of a scorpion . a tad on the aggressive side perhaps but it is only because its feeling threatened ! if it continues to feel threatened though it can emit a foul smell from its abdomen area ( \u2018olens\u2019 meaning smell ) via a pair of white glands ; can excrete an unpleasant fluid from its mouth and rear ; and it\u2019s fair to say that its bite may hurt a little !\nthe map below showcases ( in red ) the states and territories of north america where the devil ' s coach horse may be found ( but is not limited to ) . this sort of data can be useful in seeing concentrations of a particular species over the continent as well as revealing possible migratory patterns over a species ' given lifespan . some species are naturally confined by environment , weather , mating habits , food resources and the like while others see widespread expansion across most , or all , of north america .\nsubject : what type of beetle is this location : westmeath , ireland april 4 , 2015 10 : 23 am my 3 yr old found this outside and wanted to know what it\u2019s called ! ! it arches it\u2019s back like a scorpion too . signature : noah fagan\nself - regulatory circuits in dorsoventral axis formation of the short - germ beetle tribolium castaneum .\ndear noah , congratulations on recognizing that this soft bodied insect is an unusual type of beetle , a rove beetle to be more precise , and we believe the species is staphylinus caesareus . though this particular rove beetle is harmless , the threat position you describe is quite daunting , and we believe the rove beetle has the ability to release a foul odor when disturbed .\nfor more information on australian beetles , visit the csiro ' s australian insect families coleoptera page .\nred and dead\nis the term for the beetle - killed trees in sula area .\nsometimes known as the cocktail beetle , is a very common and widespread european beetle , belonging to the large family of the rove beetles ( staphylinidae ) . it was originally included in the genus\nthere are over 58 , 000 species of rove beetle , of which 2 , 900 live in north america . they are fascinating insects , and their diet of fly maggots and other insects can help to control the population of other , more bothersome , creatures . if you find any of them in your home or garden , there is no cause for alarm . i have read that the rove beetle does not bite or sting , and even though they may look intimidating when they lift up their tails , they really aren ' t going to be able to cause you any real harm . but the larger devil\u2019s coach horse beetle has been known to bite . usually , the only concern with finding rove beetles is it that it suggests there is something rotting nearby , so it is probably worth checking your garden to make sure there are no dead animals .\ndiet : the adults feed on the leaves of a small tree , called the giraffe beetle tree .\nelytron : one of two wing cases on a beetle that protects its wings ( plural : elytra ) .\nbeetle must ha ' knowed i wanted both , fur that was th ' end of the old gun .\nhopefully ztf , a beetle , will prove to be productive even as general purpose behemoths come on line .\nhead : the head is home to the insect ' s eyes , antennae , and mandibles ( jaws ) .\nwhen threatened this beetle assumes a posture with the abdomen bent upwards , rather like a scorpion . this is , however , an empty threat for the beetle can neither sting nor bite with its abdomen . what then is the function of this behaviour pattern ? it is , indeed , a fact that some people are frightened by it , and it is quite likely that the beetle\u2019s natural enemies , insectivorous birds and mammals , are also scared by it .\nthe fearsome name of this beetle may derive from the fact that the species is often found under the carcases of dead animals . it is a well known rove - beetle ( it tends to rove over a wide area ) and is often seen running across paths and paddocks . this beetle , of the staphylinidae family , is found throughout australia .\nthis beetle , metallic - green in colour is a very common variety . it is sometimes found even in the streets of melbourne and other southern australian cities . when captured and held in the fingers , this beetle emits a strong odour resembling that of carbolic acid . the green ground beetle is a species of the family carabidae , and its larvae prey on insects .\nin the hebrides the\ncearr - dubhan\nbeetle and the daol are also associated with the betrayal of christ ; the former ' s fault is less heinous than that of the irish beetle , but when he is seen he must be turned over on his back . 22\nceardfhiollan\nand many other variants suggest that his name is not understood in current gaelic .\nthere ' s so much to see and hear at minsmere , from rare birds and otters to stunning woodland and coastal scenery .\neach detector board has two beetle chips , each one bonded to one side of 128 strips of the sensor like in \ufb01gure2 .\nbeetles and weevils : coleoptera .\ngrzimek ' s student animal life resource . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nhave you ever seen a willie wag - tail bird prancing in your backyard ? or what about a wedge - tailed eagle soaring majestically in the sky ? or even sighted a christmas beetle at your local park ? it\u2019s great to see these snippets of . . .\nthis fine large beetle with the metallic green line around the sides of its wing cases belongs to the carabidae family and is an inhabitant of the drier areas of australia . it is fairly common in the mallee of north - western victoria and in similar country of n . s . w . and south australia . the grubs ( larvae ) of this beetle are carnivorous , feed on lesser grubs .\nto use a beetle on ; beat with a heavy wooden mallet , as linen or cotton cloth , as a substitute for mangling .\nthe beetle integrates 128 pipelined channels with low - noise charge - sensitive preampli\ufb01ers and shapers with a peaking time of about 25 ns .\nif it feels under threat it rears up its head and opens its jaws wide and curls up its tail like a scorpion . it also emits a foul smell from glands on its abdomen . this scary threat display , the powerful jaws , the threat of a bite , the scorpion - like tail , the bad smell and the black colour all combine to give this beetle a long - standing evil connotation . since medieval times the beetle has been associated with the devil , curses and superstition .\ndworn braked the beetle to a stop on a patch of high ground , and sat straining to discern the meaning of those ominous beacons .\n27\nbagge\nis equivalent to the celtic\nmac\nand\nmab ,\nhence thorbagge means\nthor ' s attendant .\nif it still feels threatened it squirts a foul - smelling fluid from its abdomen . beware \u2013 this beetle can also give a painful bite .\nevans , a . v .\narizona ' s sky island beetles .\nreptiles magazine 12 , no . 8 ( 2004 ) : 80\u201384 .\nyou see he is a flat , greenish beetle , with head set on a funny hinge so that he could nod it violently if he liked .\nrachel denny clow / caller - times the golden rain tree beetle is not a pest , but it is appearing in prolific numbers throughout the city .\nthis species belongs to the rove beetle family , a large family represented in malta by about 170 species , including one known in maltese as kappillan .\nbeetles and weevils : coleoptera .\ngrzimek ' s student animal life resource . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nin the isle of man as in england it was , and still is , firmly believed that hairs from the tail of a horse , if left for a time in water , turn into thin eels , the bulbous root becoming the eel ' s head . i have been assured of this by men who have made the experiment when they were boys . the eels of slender dimensions found wriggling in the troughs and other places where horses drink are pointed out as ocular evidence of the transformation , which is regarded as quite natural , like that of caterpillars into butterflies and nonentities into members of the house of keys . the widely - spread abhorrence of eels as an article of food may have been strengthened by this belief in the origin of some of them . j . g . campbell tells a fantastic tale of a man who was found fighting with a horse , and who had been driven mad because some eels he had eaten were transformed horse - hairs . 11 still , the creature which is supposed to be an animated horse - hair is not really an eel , but the hair - worm or gordius aquaticus , which never grows any thicker .\ngroup selection experiments with tribolium ( a beetle ) performed by wade con\ufb01rm his view that the effects of group selection are complex and different in different groups .\nthis beetle is found in damp conditions in most natural environments including : woodland , hedgerows , parks and gardens , where it relies on decaying natural matter .\nbut he decided not to go to the oriole ' s nest that morning , but to search for grabs and beetles amongst the mosses beneath the oak - trees .\nthis black beetle usually shelters during the day under stones , logs or leaf litter . it is most often seen in forests , parks and gardens between april and october .\nthis large predatory beetle is common in woodland , but is also found in gardens and sometimes enters houses when hunting for prey , usually small insects , slugs and worms .\nplease tell us how you intend to reuse this image . this will help us to understand what\u2019s popular and why so that we can continue to improve access to the collections .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nsimply upload a picture of your find to ispot or the natural history museum ' s bug forum and an online community of experts and enthusiasts will do their best to identify it .\nthe beetle is common in the uk and is found throughout europe . it also inhabits parts of australasia and the americas but it is not native to these areas having been introduced .\nduring the summer months , this beetle is quite common in eastern and southern australia , and specimens may often be seen buzzing about in suburban gardens or nearby bush . adult beetles of this species are fond of the nectar of flowers and may often be caught visiting the blooms . larvae of this beetle breed and feed in rotting logs . its family is scarabaeidae .\nthough the rove beetle has short elytra , it easily covers the functional hind wings set , which is not too short . hence , they can still fly like the other beetles .\ncarnivorous beetle larvae feed mainly on liquids and produce digestive chemicals that turn their prey into\nsoup .\nthis kind of digestion also occurs in some adult ground and rove beetles .\nrachel denny clow / caller - times the golden rain tree beetle , while prolific in the area right now , will be out of the area about six weeks after they first appeared .\nthis is one of the scarabaeidae family , and a very interesting rosechafer beetle because the furrows on its wing covers are densely hairy . it occurs in victoria , n . s . w . and queensland and , like others of its family , feeds from the nectar of native flowering trees and shrubs . its grubs feed and breed in rotting logs of most varieties of eucalypts .\nlike the variation in features , different types of rove beetle belonging to distinct subfamilies exhibit variations in the morphological process . whereas , few rare rove beetle lineages have also remained unaffected to the changes in the morphology process . for instance , the phloeocharis and octavius genera have not undergone any changes in the morphology process for more than 90 million years . this phenomenon is termed as bradytely .\na member of the family carabidae , it is a ground beetle and one that defends itself by ejecting a fine spray of offensive liquid when disturbed or annoyed . it gets its name from this capability . nocturnal in habits , it generally hides by day under stones , bark , etc . this beetle is more common in the northern states but is found also in northern victoria and south australia .\nthis interesting beetle is one of the largest of our water beetles and is found mainly in tasmania , victoria and southern new south wales . its larvae live in water , where they prey on other water organisms . at times , large numbers of these insects may be attracted from their natural water habitat to artificial lights . this beetle is of the family hydrophilidae , and its larvae are predatory .\nthis beetle is one of our most brilliantly - coloured and beautifully - shaped species . it is found during the warmer months of the year in victoria , new south wales and queensland . its family is lucanidae and the adult beetle may often be seen at rest on the foliage of trees . the male is larger than the female and has longer jaws . the larvae breed in rotting wood .\nclick on the\nx\nfound on each entry below to hide specific bugs from this page ' s listing . you will be able to narrow down the results to better help identify your bug !\nanybody who ' s tried to grow roses knows they can be frustrating , plagued by everything from once - a - season blossoms and black spot to beetles , mites , yellowing leaves , and more .\nin a satire by dallan , a 6th - century chief bard of ireland , the immediate predecessor of that senchan torpeist who was fabled to have brought his company of poets to the isle of man , occurs the phrase\na airbhe in duibh daeil !\no keep off the black beetle !\nthus the irish people ' s dislike to the creature reaches back at least thirteen hundred years .\nthis beetle is slightly smaller than the large black cucujid and even flatter . it has a blackish head and thorax , and brown wing cases . it is found mainly in victoria and southern n . s . w . where its larvae make funnels under the bark of trees . adult beetles are not frequently seen unless you remove some bark to discover them . usually , they appear during the warm months .\nthe fairy call was not the only one they were obliged to answer ; a witch , or anyone knowing the necessary charm , or even the right pronunciation of the word giense ,\ndance !\n, could , as easily as the ringmaster in the circus , make a horse rear up and revolve on his hind legs .\na group of utah lawmakers and others fear that the coral pink sand dunes state park would be forced to close if a species of tiger beetle is listed as endangered by the us fish and wildlife service .\nvw has announced sticker prices for its 2013 fender edition beetle , which will be available with both the base 2 . 5 - liter five - cylinder and the upgrade 2 . 0 - liter turbo four .\namerican burying beetles and people : listed as an endangered species by the world conservation union ( iucn ) , the american burying beetle symbolizes the effect of widespread habitat modification and destruction in the eastern united states .\nclair whitty - naturally healthy is the fear of flying ruining the excitement of your upcoming holiday , and causing you stress and anxiety ? lots of people are scared to fly . it ' s not uncommon . the fear can be mild or extreme , it varies . some will only get nervous on the day , while many dread the flight for weeks beforehand . that ' s such a pity because going . . .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nthe model of the read - out electronics connected to the ends of each strip consists in a generic charge sensitive preampli\ufb01er followed by a cr - rc \ufb01lter , whose peaking time matches that of the beetle chip .\nthe rove beetle species have a varied and colorful history , as it is present on the earth since the jurassic era . the oldest rove was discovered from the triassic of virginia , around 210 million years ago .\nconversely , it is equally unaccountable , considering the whitethorn ' s intimate relations with unseen powers , that the presence of its blossoms in a house is not objected to , for aught i have heard to the contrary .\nit is a relatively large beetle common throughout most of europe , including malta , but not often seen as it spends most of the day hidden under a stone or under vegetation and is active mostly during the night .\na nocturnal predator , this beetle lives in and around decaying matter . during the day it tends to rest among leaf litter or under stones . females lay their eggs in the soil , and these hatch into carnivorous larvae .\nit is worth to note also that in the case of the low resistivity prototype , even for the more attenuated pulse , the rise time is around 10 ns , still only at 40 % of the beetle peaking time .\nthroughout history , artisans have used the likenesses of beetles or parts of their bodies to create jewelry . today , the elytra of the jewel beetle are used in necklaces , head ornaments , and earrings . in parts of mexico and central america , a living beetle , popularly known as the ma ' kech , is decorated with brightly colored glass beads , attached to a short chain , and pinned to clothing as a reminder of an ancient legend .\ntrees is very curious though ! if there ' s ghos ' es takin ' anywhere it ' s in trees it is . aw , they ' ve got their share has churchyards and that - but mind you me , i ' ve seen funny things in a sycamore tree . aye , aye , my lads . aw , lower down all right of coorse , all right , i ' ll be bound you can grip them there , and feel the stuff that ' s in them - aw , all right enough . but - up in the branches . i say ! - they ' re about ; but never mind ! look out ! look out !\n4\nplayful use for\nclever rogue\nis from c . 1600 . meaning\nsand spout , dust storm\nis from 1835 . in u . s . place names , the word often represents a native word such as algonquian\nplayful use for\nclever rogue\nis from c . 1600 . meaning\nsand spout , dust storm\nis from 1835 . in u . s . place names , the word often represents a native word such as algonquian\nfor an isolated horizon , ashtekar , beetle and fairhurst \ufb01xed the normalization by setting the expansion of the ingoing null vector na to be the same as the reissnernordstr\u00a8om value and cross - normalizing with la via na la = \u22121 .\nsubject : beetle location : minnesota may 18 , 2011 8 : 45 am hello bugman , these images were taken on 5 . 18 . 2011 in minnesota , east of minneapolis about 20 miles , and although the image quality isn\u2019t very good , i was hoping to learn what it is . it was rather large , perhaps 3 inches . it\u2019s hard to see but on the side view image it looks as though there\u2019s a good size hole in the abdomen , but that could just be an illusion because of the angle and poor image quality . at first i thought it was an odonata excuviea but ruled it out . then i thought it might be a click beetle , but i don\u2019t think it is . i looked on bug guide , but wasn\u2019t able to id this bug . so , i hoping you may be ab ; e to shed some light on this ugly , but fascinating little bug signature : laura\nan insect ' s reach is not limited by lines drawn on a map and therefore species may appear in areas , regions and / or states beyond those listed below as they are driven by environmental factors ( such as climate change ) , available food supplies and mating patterns . grayed - out selections below indicate that the subject in question has not been reported in that particular territory . u . s . states and canadian provinces / territories are clickable to their respective bug listings .\n11 witchcraft and superstition in scotland , page 222 . the belief in horse - hair eels was universal up to a century ago . izaak walton held it , so did william cobbett . mcalpine in his gaelic dictionary founds his derivation of easgann ,\neel ,\nupon it\neasg , a ditch where eels come alive , and faonn , a hair , the thing from which they breed .\nfirst as to the name . under tarroo - deyll and deyll kelly gives the definition of\na rove - beetle , the horned beetle , the beetle tribe ,\nand derives the term from the irish tarbh daol , which , as spelt , would mean\nblind bull .\nthe other manx dictionary - maker , cregeen , has it as\ntaroo - deyill , the bull - worm .\nunder\ncaraig or carrage , the clock - beetle ,\nhe cites a proverbial comparison for a pair of sworn enemies\nmyr y tarroo deyill as y charrage , like the tarroo deyill and the carrage .\nthe modern manx pronunciation of the second half of the name wavers between\ndale\nand\ndeel ,\nand my impression is that the inclination is towards\ndale\nin the south and\ndeel\nin the north . the first half is a perversion of something else , as we shall discover in tracing the name and its associated folk - lore beyond the limits of the island .\ndear laura , even though you were unable to properly identify this rove beetle , we are impressed that you recognized it as a beetle as rove beetles do not resemble most beetles as they lack hard elytra . it looks similar to platydracus maculosus which is pictured on bugguide , but we would not entirely discount that it might be a brown and gold rove beetle , ontholestes cingulatus , which is also pictured on bugguide . rove beetles are a large family and your individual might be in an entirely different genus . since your image is several years old , this is not a timely or seasonal posting . we are preparing several posts to go live while we are away from the office in early january , so you will be able to find this posting on our site in the coming week .\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nthat the first part of the name in the isle of man should have taken the form of\ntarroo\nand be understood to mean\nbull\nis not surprising , for there is everywhere a persistent association in folk - lore of horned beasts with beetles . taurus , for example , is pliny ' s name for scarabaeus terrester , and grimm collected many other names of the same kind , including the significant swedish\nhorntroll .\nin both germany and france a beetle is a stag -\nhirsch\nand\ncerf volant .\nthe lapps say that the sexton or dung beetle which entomologists call silpha lapponica is descended from the reindeer . 32 even the modest little manx caraig and his brothers in england bring rain as the horned rain - gods of three continents used to do . so the threads cross and recross .\na large rove beetle with extended exposed abdomen covered by hardened plates and composed of 8 segments . uniformly black body covered in fine , black hairs ( setae ) . shortened wing cases ( elytra ) which cover the thorax , concealing a folded second pair of wings which enable flight .\nwidespread throughout europe . however , it has also been introduced to the americas and parts of asia and australia . this black beetle usually shelters during the day under stones , logs or leaf litter . it is most often seen in forests , parks and gardens between april and october .\nthe christmas beetle of the family scarabaeidae , is so named because it appears during december and january . it is found in new south wales and victoria , where it is very common in coastal districts . it may often be seen swarming on gum saplings . larvae are white grubs .\n2 another use is made of the ninefold plait by german girls on st . john ' s day ; they weave one of flowers and cast it backwards into a tree to find out how long they must wait for a husband . ( grimm , teutonic mythology , page 1825 . )\nwhat\u2019s your intended use for this image ? please select an option scholarly or professional research for school , university , etc . personal or community research make a print for home to use in a blog or website publishing in a book make something else interesting could you please tell us more ? submit\nthe opening scene of\nthe fate of the children of tuireann\nshows us king nuadha of the silver arm lying sick in his palace . a pair of wandering herbdoctors hear him groaning .\nf\u00e9ach nach osnadh os cionn daoil ?\n19\nsee now , is not that a groan on account of a beetle ?\ndiagnoses one of them ; and a daol was indeed blackening the king ' s side . when they examine him it runs out among the benches , and the company jumps up as one man and puts it to death\u0097in what manner is regrettably not stated .\nthis beetle belongs to the family passalidae . smaller than the giant passalid , but similar in appearance , it lives mainly in southern australia . often ten or more of these beetles can be found under a rotting log , together with larvae and pupae - the former being in varying stages of development\nthis specimen of the scarabaeidae family is a very common beetle which may be found from victoria to queensland . in the daytime it feeds mainly on the foliage of eucalypts and paperbark trees . its larvae are the typical curly white cockchafer grubs which are found living in the soil and feeding on roots .\nspecific references to the material of superstition are so rare in t . e . brown ' s writings outside\nthe manx witch ,\nthat the avowal he puts into the mouth of tom baynes in\nchristmas rose\nconcerning the queerness of trees in general and the sycamore in particular is noteworthy :\ndear wesley , this is a harmless rove beetle , and after scouring through images on bugguide , we suspect it might be platydracus immaculatus , which according to bugguide is : \u201cnow infrequently collected over much of its range . \u201d we are postdating you submission to go live during our holiday later in june .\nthis feeling of respect for the hare has many minor ramifications . it is even carried so far that a doctrine obtains among conservative thinkers that a hare - lip is the vestige of the hare - shape assumed either voluntarily or through bewitchment , whether in the possessor ' s lifetime or in that of a progenitor . the shoulder - bone of a hare , even more infallibly than that of a sheep , when looked steadily into , in the proper circumstances , rendered visible the invisible and brought the future into the present . a hare ' s foot is a lucky thing to carry concealed on one ' s person , but the less it is shown , or even spoken of , the stronger is its power for good . it is also a specific against rheumatism , and has in the past been carried by fishermen , but whether for luck in fishing or for protection against danger and bad weather i am not sure . neither perhaps were they .\ni have to thank a manx friend for the following account of the deliberate sacrifice of the small black outdoor beetle , called a caraig or greg , to bring rain . i have deleted only the names of the farmers and their farms , in order to conceal the locality ; for a similar reason the valued correspondent must remain anonymous .\nthis very interesting beetle superficially resembles a large wasp of the hornet type . this is because of its colour and its very short wing cases , which expose the membraneous flying wings . these beetles of the family cerambycidae are found mostly in southern australia , frequenting flowers of native shrubs , especially tea - tree . larvae are timber borers .\nthis is an interesting beetle which is very common in south - eastern australia . its grubs , or larvae , bore into native honeysuckle or banksia trees , often eventually causing large branches to die and fall . adult beetles are found during the warmer months , and in some areas are very plentiful and easily discovered basking in the hot sun .\nin this large family unit , it appears that there exists an appreciable difference in their species . they range in size from 1 to 35 mm ( 0 . 25 to 1 . 5 inches ) , the majority of them fall under the 2 to 8 mm range , their structure is normally lengthened . certain rove beetles do not have a definite structure . their colors vary from yellow to brown with a red hue to brown with a black hue . normally they have 11 segments and are filiform ( filament or threadlike ) , in the majority of genera ; this clubbing is reasonable . the rove beetle\u201ds abdomen is perhaps flexible and long , on the external appearance , they look like earwigs .\nlarvae of this scarab beetle cause enormous damage to crops and pastures in the black soil country of northern new south wales , often denuding areas of up to several acres . the adult male ( illustrated ) has remarkably enlarged , leaf - like antennae , and it flies actively after rain in summer . females , with smaller antennae , rarely fly .\nthis insect is called ' fiddler ' because its back markings resemble the shape of a fiddle . it is a typical rosechafer of the family scarabaeidae and is common in summer in victoria , n . s . w . and southern queensland where it seeks nectar in flowers of tea - trees , eucalypts and prickly box . larvae breed in rotting logs .\nmost beetles must mate to reproduce . a few species are capable of parthenogenesis ( par - thuh - no - jeh - nuh - sihs ) , or the process by which larvae develop from unfertilized eggs . courtship behavior in beetles is uncommon . male ground , tiger , and rove beetles may grasp the female ' s thorax with their jaws before mating , while some male blister beetles tug on the female ' s antennae . in most beetles the males simply climb on the back of the female to mate . they may stay there for some time in order to keep other males from mating with her . males usually mate with several females if they have the opportunity . females mate just once or with many males ."]}
{"id": 2074, "summary": [{"text": "haliplus apicalis is a species of water beetle in the genus haliplus .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it can be found on british isles and in north-west europe . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "haliplus apicalis", "paragraphs": ["haliplus apicalis is a small water beetle confined to vegetated brackish water . it has the most restricted distribution of irish saltmarsh species , possibly because of its particular habitat requirements .\nh . apicalis occurs in county down around belfast harbour and strand lough , killough .\nhayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nclick here to view an interactive map of the northern ireland dataset as currently collated by cedar . the map is generated through the nbn gateway using their interactive mapping tool .\nadult beetles can be found over much of the year , with a strong peak in may and a lesser one in august . the irish records are for these months\nits distribution is unusual for a saltmarsh species , being eastern and perhaps confined to saltmarsh associated with extensive coastal inlets not subject to severe atlantic tidal movement .\nlife cycle eggs are almost certainly laid singly on filamentous algae in may , after which most adults die . the larvae complete their development and pupate in midsummer , producing a new generation of adults in august . these overwinter out of the water , being found in increasingly large numbers from february to may . adults are predators of small animals \u2013 rotifers , water fleas and small aquatic worms , but their guts also contain algal material . the larvae probably feed on filamentous algae and stoneworts .\nliterature butler , p . m . and popham , e . j . ( 1958 ) . the effects of the floods of 1953 on the aquatic insect fauna of spurn ( yorkshire ) . proceedings of the royal entomological society of london a 33 : 149 - 158 .\nfoster , g . n . ( 2000 ) . chapter 14 . the aquatic coleoptera of british saltmarshes : extremes of generalism and specialism . 223 - 233 in : b . r . sherwood , b . g . gardiner & t . harris ( eds ) british saltmarshes , linnean society of london , forrest text , cardigan .\nfriday , l . e . ( 1988 ) . a key to the adults of british water beetles . field studies 7 : 1 - 151 . published separately as aidgap book no . 189 , taunton , field studies council .\nholmen , m . ( 1987 ) . the aquatic adephaga ( coleoptera ) of fennoscandia and denmark i . gyrinidae , haliplidae , hygrobiidae and noteridae . fauna entomologica scandinavica 20 , e . j . brill / scandinavian science press ltd , leiden & copenhagen , 168 pp .\nnilsson , a . n . ( ed . ) ( 1996 ) . aquatic insects of north europe . volume 1 : ephemeroptera , plecoptera , heteroptera , megaloptera , neuroptera , coleoptera , trichoptera and lepidoptera . apollo books , stenstrup .\nseeger , w . ( 1971 ) . aut\u00f6kologische laboruntersuchungen an halipliden mit zoogeographischen anmerkungen ( haliplidae ; coleoptera ) . archiv f\u00fcr hydrobiologie 68 : 528 - 547 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\nwe now have more than 100 . 000 photos online , covering more than 10 . 000 plant / fungi / animal etc . species\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools ."]}
{"id": 2080, "summary": [{"text": "the chinese hwamei or melodious laughingthrush ( garrulax canorus ) is a passerine bird of eastern asia in the family leiothrichidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the name \" hwamei \" comes from the chinese \u753b\u7709 ( hu\u00e0-m\u00e9i ) and means \" painted eyebrow \" referring to the distinctive marking around the bird 's eyes .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the species is a popular cagebird because of its attractive song . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "chinese hwamei", "paragraphs": [", where it is fairly common . it was recently split from the widespread chinese hwamei\ngenetic introgression between an introduced babbler , the chinese hwamei leucodioptron c . canorum , an . . .\ngarrulax canorus ( chinese hwamei ) ; adult , captive specimen . san diego zoo , california , usa .\nhwamei ( garrulax canorus ) : in accord with most authorities , chinese hwamei ( garrulax canorus ) and taiwan hwamei ( garrulax taewanus ) are split by ebird , resulting in the common name difference between the nacc and ebird / clements .\nthe chinese hwamei or ( garrulax canorus ) is a passerine bird of eastern asia . the name\nhwamei\ncomes from the chinese , means\npainted eyebrows ,\nreferring to the distinctive mark around the eyes . the species is popular for her singing attractive .\nthe chinese hwamei inhabits scrubland , open woodland , secondary forest , parks and gardens , from sea level up to an altitude of 1800 m .\ninformation on the taiwan hwamei is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nzhang keyin , ruan xiangfeng , du zhiyong , gao zhenjian , xiong xiuyong , zhu jiagui , 2003 . hwamei nesting habitat selection . chinese journal of zoology , 38 ( 3 ) : 86 - 89 .\nfield guide to birds of north america , 2015 . hwamei . field guide to birds of north america . urltoken\nmiyazawa e , suzuki t , 2013 . the nest location and breeding activity of the introduced chinese hwamei garrulax canorus in hachioji , tokyo , japan . japanese journal of ornithology , 62 ( 1 ) : 38 - 44 .\nli sh , yeung ckl , feinstein j , han l , le mh , wang cx , et al . ( 2009 ) sailing through the late pleistocene : unusual historical demography of an east asian endemic , the chinese hwamei (\nli sh , yeung ckl , han l , mhle , wang cx , ding p , yao ct , 2010 . genetic introgression between an introduced babbler , the chinese hwamei leucodioptron c . canorum , and the endemic taiwan hwamei l . taewanus : a multiple marker systems analysis . journal of avian biology , 41 ( 1 ) : 64 - 73 .\ncaged birds are taken out to organised gatherings in parks in china and in other countries with a significant chinese population .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - taiwan hwamei ( garrulax taewanus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - taiwan hwamei ( garrulax taewanus )\ntitle =\narkive species - taiwan hwamei ( garrulax taewanus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthese bird is often referred to as the huamei or hwamei in the literature , a name taken from the chinese word for thrush . it is possible this name derives from a description of the bird\u2019s distinctive postocular white stripe , since the translation for \u2018draw eyebrow\u2019 sounds like huamei . some sources give a translation of the chinese name as \u2018painted eyebrow\u2019 ( sibagu , 2015 ) . g . canorus is also referred to as a babbler or laughing thrush .\nhuang zh , liu nf , liang w , zhang yy , liao xj , ruan l , et al . ( 2010 ) phylogeography of chinese bamboo partridge ,\nthe chinese hwamei has a very large breeding range and is described as relatively common . the population trend is difficult to determine because of uncertainty over the impacts of habitat modification on population sizes . the species is also the target of massive exploitation for the cage - bird trade , but it is not considered threatened at present .\nrejecting strictly allopatric speciation on a continental island : prolonged postdivergence gene flow between taiwan ( leucodioptron taewanus , passeriformes timaliidae ) and chinese ( l . canorum canorum ) hwameis\ncaged birds are taken out to organised gatherings in parks in china and other countries with a significant chinese population , and so are likely to have a positive social impact .\ntu hw , severinghaus ll , 2004 . geographic variation of the highly complex hwamei ( garrulax canorus ) songs . zooloogical studies , 43 ( 3 ) : 620 - 640 .\ncollar n , robson c , 2007 . chinese hwamei ( leucodioptron canorum ) . in : handbook of the birds of the world alive [ ed . by hoyo , j . del \\ elliott , a . \\ sargatal , j . \\ christie , d . a . \\ juana , e . de ] . barcelona , spain : lynx edicions . urltoken\nidentification of interspecific hybrids is often a subject of primary concern in the development of conservation strategies . here we performed a genetic analysis combining mitochondrial dna ( mtdna ) , microsatellites and single nucleotide polymorphic sites ( snps ) to assay the level of hybridization and introgression between an introduced babbler , chinese hwamei leucodioptron canorus , and its . . . [ show full abstract ]\nrejecting strictly allopatric speciation on a continental island : prolonged postdivergence gene flow between taiwan ( leucodioptron taewanus , passeriformes timaliidae ) and chinese ( l . canorum canorum ) hwameis | request pdf\nour last special site is erlang shan where lady amherst ' s pheasant , firethroat , brown - breasted bulbul , black - streaked scimitar - babbler , barred laughingthrush , chinese babax , streaked barwing , chinese leaf - warbler and godlewski ' s bunting can be found . we will stay at conveniently located lodges / hotels , very close to all of the birding sites .\nnot globally threatened . cites ii . relatively common in chinese range . in recent fieldwork in s china found at 36 sites ( 67 % of those visited ) , including shiwandashan . . .\ncollar , n . & robson , c . ( 2018 ) . chinese hwamei ( garrulax canorus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nli sh , li jw , han lx , yao ct , shi h , lei fm , yen c , 2006 . species delimitation in the hwamei garrulax canorus . ibis , 148 ( 4 ) : 698 - 706 .\nfollowing an afternoon arrival in chengdu we can check out a nearby park in search of a few species we may not see elsewhere on the tour . in particular we shall look for the endemic chinese bulbul and chinese blackbird , as well as rufous - faced warbler , ashy - throated and vinous - throated parrotbills , white - browed laughingthrush , oriental greenfinch , crested myna , yellow - billed grosbeak , and both red - billed and white - cheeked starlings . night in chengdu .\nxia ss , yu aw , zhao ld , zhang hy , zheng wh , liu js , 2013 . metabolic thermogenesis and evaporative water loss in the hwamei garrulax canorus . journal of thermal biology , 38 ( 8 ) : 576 - 581 .\n, which is illegally imported as a cage bird , due to its beautiful song . birds which have lost their vocal capacity are released , and a recent study found that 20 % of hwamei in a wild state in taiwan are hybrids ( y . cheng - te\ncitation : li y , wu x , zhang h , yan p , xue h , wu x ( 2015 ) vicariance and its impact on the molecular ecology of a chinese ranid frog species - complex ( odorrana schmackeri , ranidae ) . plos one 10 ( 9 ) : e0138757 . urltoken\nyoshino t , yoshino t , sasaki h , sasaki h , asakawa m , asakawa m , kawakami k , kawakami k , miyamoto k , miyamoto k , 2003 . a parasitological survey of hwamei garrulax canorus and red - billed leiothrix leiothrix lutea ( passeriforms : terimiidae ) . japanese journal of ornithology , 52 ( 1 ) : 39 - 42 .\nli jw , yeung ckl , tsai pw , lin rc , yeh cf , yao ct , han l , hung lm , ding p , wang q , li sh , 2010 . rejecting strictly allopatric speciation on a continental island : prolonged postdivergence gene flow between taiwan ( leucodioptron taewanus , passeriformes timaliidae ) and chinese ( l . canorum canorum ) hwameis . molecular ecology , 19 ( 3 ) : 494 - 507 .\nabstract we isolated 20 anonymous nuclear loci ( 8556 bp in total ) from the taiwan hwamei ( garrulax taewanus ) , an endemic songbird of taiwan . a panel of nine to 15 individuals with unknown relationship was used to characterize polymorphism of these loci . we identified 46 single nucleotide polymorphic sites ( snps ) in 15 polymorphic loci . frequency of snps was one per every 186 bp in average . . . . [ show full abstract ]\n. . . all rights reserved . to overcome the forces of divergence ( e . g . , slatkin , 1987 ; but see garant et al . , 2005 ; gavrilets and vose , 2005 ) , but postdivergence gene flow now seems more common in speciation processes than previously assumed ( e . g . , bank et al . , 2012 ; j . w . li et al . , 2010 ; niemiller et al . , 2008 ; won and hey , 2005 ; yeung et al . , 2011 ) . to test these alternative hypotheses of continental island speciation , we used evidence from multiple sources to evaluate the taxonomic status and the level of post - divergence gene flow of an endemic resident passerine in hainan , the hainan hwamei ( leucodioptron canorum owstoni ) , which occupies the margins of lowland secondary evergreen woodlands ( mackinnon and phillipps , 2000 ) . . . .\nsichuan lies in the very heart of china and is situated on the eastern edge of the vast tibetan plateau . it is a huge province , the size of france and hosts the richest concentration of chinese specialities and endemics in this vast country . there is a remarkable wealth of birdlife waiting in its rich evergreen and temperate forests , alpine meadows , mighty snow - capped mountains and grasslands of the tibetan plateau which form some of the most spectacular scenery of any bird tour ! china is a vast country and it is impossible to do justice to the amazing diversity of superb birds in one trip , so this tour concentrates on the mountainous province of sichuan . our unique and special tour takes in the well - known sites of labahe , balang shan , mengbi shan and finishes with a spectacular visit to the tibetan plateau . we also visit several lesser - known mountains during this unique\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population may be in decline overall , but it is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\n. 2011 ) , suggesting that it has declined over decadal time scales . despite high trapping pressure , it remains common in china , and the species readily inhabits areas in the vicinity of human habitation ( w . duckworth\n. 2011 ) . overall , the population may be in decline , but the rate of decline is probably slow to moderate .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ncalls of agitated bird from tangle above road . not seen . associated individual heard singing a little later in xc401664 and xc401665 .\nsong of bird in response to playback , singing from concealed perch in bamboo close to road . not seen but song astounding from mere metres away !\nbird was in dense scrub 2 - 3 metres above ground . scrub on edge of clearing on steep slope above a river . rural district c . 100 km south of hangzhou . garden farms on river flats less than 100 m away . slopes above partially forested . warm humid weather .\nan eyebrowed thrush turdus obscurus was seen in the exact same location the previous evening . in the morning the bird calling did not show . i think it is the eyebrowed thrush but as it was unsighted during recording i can ' t be sure .\nnatural song from an unseen bird perched in fern and o ' hia tangles within about 2m of ground in fairly natural habitat with 4m canopy .\na pair in low scrubby habitat near the forest edge . different song from the same bird as on xc113336 .\nsame bird ( s ) as on xc182992 in response to playback . [ heavy rain drops interfering with recording ]\nnatural song from a bird in understory of low mostly - native forest on ridge . wind .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nthis video is no longer available because the youtube account associated with this video has been terminated .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 297 , 004 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\ncombined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population may be in decline overall , but it is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : garrulax canorus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\nwe\u2019d value your feedback on the tool . our survey takes only five minutes to complete .\ng . canorus is a medium - sized passerine songbird native to southern and western china , vietnam and laos . in its native range it prefers woodland , montane and scrubland habitat , although it will also reside in ta . . .\ng . canorus is a medium - sized passerine songbird native to southern and western china , vietnam and laos . in its native range it prefers woodland , montane and scrubland habitat , although it will also reside in tall grass , reeds and gardens . it is thought that the population in its native range is in slow decline due to trapping and other pressures . due to its popularity as a caged songbird , g . canorus has been introduced to japan , peninsular malaysia , singapore , taiwan and hawaii . in japan , singapore and hawaii escapees and released birds have established breeding populations . the birds are sedentary and have spread slowly in the surrounding areas . the effects of these introductions on native species are only just starting to be monitored in japan . in hawaii , it is thought that g . canorus may now be competing with some endemic native species for food and / or nesting sites , and it could possibly have contributed to the likely extinction of myadestes myadestinus , an endemic species of kauai .\nthe taxonomy of garrulax spp . and related birds is confusing due to unclear interspecific relationships ( lou et al . , 2009 ) . they are often described as belonging to the timiliidae ( a family in the superfamily sylvioidea ) as well as the leiothrichidae .\nthree subspecies of garrulax canorus are often described in the literature : g . canorus canorus , g . canorus owstoni and g . canorus taewanis , that broadly speaking are found in central and southern mainland china , hainan island , and taiwan , respectively .\nafter collar ( 2006 ) , g . canorus was split into two separate species : g . canorus and g . taewanus . phylogenetic analysis ( li et al . , 2006 ) also suggested that g . canorus should be delimited into two species , g . canorus and g . taewani . the same study also suggested that the status of the subspecies g . canorus owstoni should remain until more analysis has taken place .\ng . canorus is a medium - sized passerine songbird , 21 - 25 cm long , weighing 49 - 75 g , with broad rounded wings , a fan - shaped tail and weak flight .\nfor individuals native to mainland china , plumage is reddish - brown with dark streaks on the crown , back and throat . flight feathers are darker brown and the tail fathers have dark bars and base . the underside is a lighter reddish - brown colour and the belly is grey . the bird has a blue - white eye ring that extends backwards to form a distinctive postocular stripe . inner orbital skin is blue and irises vary from brown to pale green - brown / yellow . legs vary from pink to yellow . g . canorus has a generalised yellow bill .\nthe sexes look similar , although the song of the male is far more elaborate , varied and rich . the song starts out low then gradually increases in volume and pitch . the female generally produces a series of more monotone calls that , when produced near the male , cause him to sing .\nbirds on hainan island , off the south coast of china , have plumage that is more olive - coloured and have a paler underside .\nfor birds native to taiwan , the upper plumage is a grey - olive colour , the crown and nape are more buff and heavily streaked , and the eye ring and postocular stripe are absent .\ng . canorus is native to southern and western china , vietnam and northern laos . it is now scarce in its former range in vietnam , possibly due to trapping pressure ( avibase , 2015 ; birdlife international , 2015 ) .\nalthough g . canorus is ranked as least concern by iucn ( 2015 ) , it has been suggested by some sources that trapping pressure and other factors may be causing a moderate decline in its natural range ( avibase , 2015 ) and some measures are being taken to protect its habitat .\nhas been introduced to japan , peninsular malaysia , singapore , taiwan and hawaii . it has established breeding populations in japan , singapore and the hawaiian islands of kauai , oahu , maui and hawaii following accidental and deliberate introductions ( alien species in\nthe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .\nlisting proposal , 1999 ; clements et al . , 2014 ; avibase , 2015 ; ebird , 2015\nlisting proposal , 1999 ; clements et al . , 2014 ; birdlife international , 2015\ng . canorus ( leucodioptron canorum canorum ) considered a threat to the genetic integrity of the endemic g . taewanus\ng . canorus was introduced to japan as a cage bird in the 1980s . populations in japan have expanded significantly since its arrival in the 1980s . import , transport and possession of the bird are now prohibited in japan under the invasive alien species act ( invasive species of japan , 2015 ) .\nwherever g . canorus is imported and kept as a cage bird there is the potential risk that birds could escape and breed .\ng . canorus is found in scrubland , woodland , forest regions , tall grass , reeds , bamboo , parks and gardens . it can also be found in abandoned urban areas . in china , it is usually found up to 1800 m above sea level . a comparison of rainfall maps and bird sighting maps for china and hawaii island suggests that g . canorus prefers to live in subtropical , continental or temperate areas that are wet for much of the year .\nthe species is fairly terrestrial in habit , foraging among leaf litter for insects and fruits . nests have been found in forests , garden shrubs and hedgerows ( miyazawa and suzuki , 2013 ) .\nthe population endemic to taiwan is mostly found in secondary woodland and in foothills and low mountains with ficus - machillus and machilus - castanopsis vegetation up to 1200 m above sea level ( birdlife international , 2015 .\nthere do not seem to be any major crops affected by g . canorus , presumably as it is mostly insectivorous .\ng . canorus may compete with native bird species for food and nest sites . in hawaii , birds that may have been affected are the kamao ( myadestes myadestinus ) , now classified as extinct , and the puaiohi ( myadestes palmeri ) , classified as critically endangered ( iucn , 2015 ) .\nthe g . canorus karyotype is 2n = 78 ( guo and dong , 1991 ) .\nthere are several nucleotide sequences from g . canorus and closely related species / subspecies in genbank ( ncbi , 2014 ) .\nmolecular genetic studies on g . canorus have focused on species delimitation , due to the complex intergeneric relationships in the polyphyletic genus garrulax . li et al . ( 2006 ) conducted phylogenetic analysis using the entire mitochondrial cyt b gene . they found that the basal clade was g . canorus taewanus , which split from the other taxa around 1 . 5 million years ago . it was also found that g . canorus owstoni diverged from g . canorus canorus 0 . 6 million years ago . as a result , it was suggested that it should be delimited into the two species : g . canorus and g . taewanus ( having previously been considered as two subspecies ) . a later study using 18 nuclear loci suggested that divergence had occurred 2 million years earlier than the mitochondrial dna study has suggested , and also showed that there had been gene flow between the two species post - divergence ( li et al . , 2010a )\nhybridization between g . canorus canorus and g . canorus taewanus on taiwan was investigated by li et al . ( 2010b ) . of the birds sampled , 20 . 3 % were probably hybrids .\nis monogamous . in its natural range it breeds from march to august . in hawaii , it breeds from april to july ( field guide to\nthe large , cup - shaped nests have been found in forests , garden shrubs , bamboo clumps and hedgerows from approx . 139 to 208 cm above the ground ( miyazawa and suzuki , 2013 ) . nesting material includes grasses , bamboo leaves and roots . another study found nests in bushes to be close to ground level in forests ( average height above ground was 15 . 6 cm ) and were made from a larger range of plant materials and lined . it was suggested that nesting habit varied according to the availability of cover at 1 m above ground , height of other vegetation and slope position ( zhang et al . , 2003 ) .\ntypically g . canorus lays 2 - 5 blue or blue - green eggs . occasionally these may be speckled . it is possible that egg colour is related to social interactions in some garrulax spp . ( campbell and lack , 2010 ) .\neggs are incubated by the female for 13 - 16 days , with a similar nesting period . both parents feed the chicks , and there are typically 1 - 2 broods per year .\ng . canorus has a low basal metabolic rate , a narrow thermal neutral zone , and minimal tolerance of water restriction ; normal traits for birds from warm , mesic environments ( xia et al . , 2013 ) .\ng . canorus has a thin triangular tongue with many setae and backward pointing comb papillae at the base . it has a relatively developed small intestine accounting for 87 - 89 % of the intestinal tract total length . the liver is large and divides into two ( sun et al . , 2010 ) .\ncaptive birds can live to be 18 years old , although it is assumed that wild birds do not live this long .\ng . canorus is a non - migratory sedentary bird and this is likely to have contributed to its diverse social behaviours . birds tend to associate in small groups and it has been suggested that garrulax spp . may defend group territories and adopt cooperative breeding strategies ( campbell and lack , 2010 ) .\nnot as gregarious as other similar species , g . canorus is more likely to be found skulking and foraging among leaf litter in pairs or small groups .\nwhere g . canorus is introduced and living in gardens , it has been described as not shy ( allen , 2012 ) , although this could be due to the fact that there is less dense scrub cover for the birds to hide in compared to the wild .\nmainly insectivorous , g . canorus may switch to foraging for seeds in crop fields after the crops have been harvested .\nin hubei province , china , was estimated at 1 . 0 - 1 . 2 million (\nthere is some evidence that populations are expanding in some areas of japan ( arase , 2014 ) .\nits diet consists mainly of insects , especially in the breeding season , including locust eggs ( locustidae ) and ants ( formicidae ) . g . canorus also eats seeds and sometimes cultivated maize ( zea ) and fruits ( collar and robson , 2007 ) .\nduring crop growth the bird\u2019s diet is mostly insect - based , and it may eat more seeds after crops have been harvested .\nas its diet mainly consists of insects g . canorus is loosely restricted to areas where these are abundant in vegetation and leaf litter . nests tend to be above 139 cm off the ground ( although can be as low as 40 cm ) , so vegetation is required .\nwarm average temp . > 10\u00b0c , cold average temp . > 0\u00b0c , wet all year\nwarm average temp . > 10\u00b0c , cold average temp . > 0\u00b0c , dry summers\ncontinental climate , wet all year ( warm average temp . > 10\u00b0c , coldest month < 0\u00b0c , wet all year )\ncontinental climate with dry summer ( warm average temp . > 10\u00b0c , coldest month < 0\u00b0c , dry summers )\ng . canorus does not migrate and has fairly weak flight . studies in japan have shown that fledglings do not disperse far from the area in which they are raised ( miyazawa and suzuki , 2013 ) .\ng . canours was accidentally introduced to singapore and has established small populations , with breeding reported on sentosa island , just south of singapore ( allen , 2012 ) .\nas the most popular cage bird in china that has been exported to other areas , there have been several accidental introductions of g . canorus . it is assumed that movement of g . canorus outside of its natural range has been mostly due to the trade in cage birds .\ng . canorus has been introduced into taiwan , where it hybridising with g . taewanus ( li et al . 2010b ) . it was imported to taiwan , despite the similar g . taewanus there , because of the superior quality of its song . it is thought that when individual birds stopped singing they were released into the wild and , along with escaped birds , founded the population in taiwan .\ng . canorus was also introduced to hawaii as a cage bird . escaped birds were able to colonise this new territory and it is now widespread in many of the hawaiian islands . a large fire in honolulu in 1900 allowed it to escape out of the city into oahu ( lever , 2010 ) .\nintroduced populations in peninsular malaysia did not breed and have possibly already died out ( allen , 2012 ) .\ntrade in the species as a cage bird is likely to have a positive local economic impact . for instance , over 100 , 000 of these birds are traded per year in shanghai and beijing alone (\nthere is also evidence that g . canorus may compete with native species in japan ; however , as of 2004 , serious adverse effects of these established populations had not been reported in japan ( eguchi and amano , 2004 ) .\nli et al . ( 2010b ) suggested that hybridisation between g . canorus and g . taewani could be potentially threatening the evolutionary integrity of the g . taewani population in taiwan . the study suggested that prevention of further hybridization should be a primary management concern in taiwan .\na popular cage bird in china . trade in the species as a cage bird is likely to have a positive local economic impact . over 100 , 000 of these birds are traded per year in shanghai and beijing alone (\n( especially females , whose song is less rich ) is also traded as food in china . it has been estimated that many thousands of birds per year may be removed from the wild in the country to be traded as either cage birds or for meat (\ng . canorus is similar to the spot - breasted scimitar - babbler ( pomatorhinus mcclellandi ) and the streak - breasted scimitar - babbler ( pomatorhinus ruficollis ) .\nthere is evidence that the song of mainland g . canorus is more complex than that of g . taewanus ( tu and severinghaus , 2004 ) .\nit is unlikely that the general public is aware of any issues with g . canorus as an introduced species since the bird does not have significant impacts on livelihood or economics .\nthere are no studies detailing the control of g . canorus in the wild . control measures for this species in areas where there are established breeding populations appear to be limited to legislation involving the export , import and sale of g . canorus .\nthe council of agriculture in taiwan banned the sale of g . canorus in 2002 in an attempt to prevent the pet trade that has resulted in the release of the species and its hybridization with the endemic g . taewanus .\nevidence for direct causal effects between g . canorus and the decline of native species is limited at present , and appears to be complicated by the presence of other alien species in the study areas .\nlong term studies in areas where the populations are expanding , such as areas of japan and singapore , to explore their effects on the native flora and fauna , would be beneficial .\nresearch and monitoring on hawaiian islands where the birds are not currently widespread would provide baseline studies for any potential invasion by g . canorus , so that action can be taken swiftly if the birds do begin to colonise .\nthere are few reports in the literature that specifically discuss physical control and management of the spread of g . canorus either in their native range or elsewhere .\nthere are some studies on parasites of g . canorus in japan ( yoshino et al . , 2003 ) , and viruses carried by the birds in vietnam ( takakuwa et al . , 2013 ) , but research on whether these birds are vectors for parasites and diseases that could affect native species is absent .\nresearch on whether there is a strong illegal export trade of g . canorus from its native ranges , and whether this poses a threat of further introductions to new areas , is required .\nallen j , 2012 . field guide to the birds of peninsular malaysia and singapore , 2nd edition . oxford , uk : oxford university press , 322 .\narase t , 2014 . bird fauna observed in terasawayama research forest at shinshu university from 2004 to 2013 . bulletin shinshu university alpine field center , no . 12 : 107 - 114 .\nbirdforum , 2015 . birdforum - the net ' s largest birding community . urltoken\ncampbell b , lack e , 2010 . a dictionary of birds . london , uk : bloomsbury publishing .\nclements jf , schulenberg ts , iliff mj , roberson d , fredericks ta , sullivan bl , wood cl , 2014 . the ebird / clements checklist of birds of the world : version 6 . urltoken\ncollar nj , 2006 . a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail , 22 : 85 - 112 .\neguchi k , amano he , 2004 . spread of exotic birds in japan . ornithological science , 3 ( 1 ) : 3 - 11 .\nfoster jt , robinson sk , 2007 . introduced birds and the fate of hawaiian rainforests . conservation biology , 21 ( 5 ) : 1248 - 1257 . urltoken\nguo c , dong y , 1991 . analysis of karyotypes in four species of wild birds from anhui . journal of anhui normal university , 3 : 50 - 54 .\ninvasive species of japan , 2015 . invasive species of japan . , japan : national institute for environmental studies . urltoken\nkawakami k , yamaguchi y , 2004 . the spread of the introduced melodious laughing thrush garrulax canorus in japan . ornithological science , 3 ( 1 ) : 13 - 21 .\nlever c , 2010 . timaliidae ( babblers and parrot - bills ) , melodious laughing thrush , garrulax canorus . in : naturalised birds of the world . london , uk : a & c black , 173 .\nliang wei , cai yan , yang canchao , 2013 . extreme levels of hunting of birds in a remote village of hainan island , china . bird conservation international , 23 ( 1 ) : 45 - 52 . urltoken\nlou l , qu yh , han lx , li sh , lei fm , 2009 . phylogenetic analysis of laughingthrushes ( timaliidae : garrulax ) and allies based on mitochondrial and nuclear dna sequences . zoologica scripta , 38 ( 1 ) : 9 - 22 .\nncbi , 2014 . genbank . bethseda , maryland , usa : national center for biodiversity information . urltoken\nsibagu , 2015 . list of bird species of china . birds of china . urltoken\nsun jx , zhang j , mi zp , cheung yq , guo l , 2010 . preliminary morphological observations on the digestive system of garrulax canorus . sichuan journal of zoology , 29 ( 2 ) : 267 - 271 .\ntakakuwa h , yamashiro t , le mq , phuong ls , ozaki h , tsunekuni r , usui t , ito h , yamaguchi t , ito t , murase t , ono e , otsuki k , 2013 . the characterization of low pathogenic avian influenza viruses isolated from wild birds in northern vietnam from 2006 to 2009 . comparative immunology , microbiology & infectious diseases , 36 ( 6 ) : 581 - 590 . urltoken\nus fish and wildlife service , 2006 . in : revised recovery plan for hawaiian forest birds . us fish and wildlife service , 622 pp .\none or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using .\nplease consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser .\nenter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nformerly treated as conspecific with g . taewanus , but differs significantly in plumage , iris colour , morphometrics and genetics , and to some degree in voice . genetic differentiation also used to suggest race owstoni could be treated specifically # r . proposed race mengliensis ( described from menglian , sw yunnan ) probably best included in nominate # r . two subspecies recognized .\n( linnaeus , 1758 ) \u2013 se china from s gansu , s shaanxi , hubei , se henan and s jiangsu s to yunnan ( except nw ) , guangxi and guangdong , also e laos and vietnam ( s to nc annam ) .\n21\u201324 cm ; 49\u201375 g . relatively plain medium - sized laughingthrush , warm brown with darker streaking on head and breast , and with bold white eyering and postocular . . .\nsong by male rich , varied , quite high - pitched , including regular repetition and some mimicry ; . . .\nshrublands , open woodland , thickets , scrub , bamboo , reeds , tall grass , gardens , vacant lots in . . .\nmar\u2013aug ; multi - brooded . nest is reported to be a large cup , outwardly rough but with well - defined walls , made of leaves ( including . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nrecently split from a broader timaliidae . to date , traditionally recognized genera cutia , kupeornis , phyllanthus , turdoides , garrulax , babax ( now in garrulax ) , heterophasia , leiothrix , minla , liocichla and actinodura have been recovered as members of a clade separate from those now placed in timaliidae or pellorneidae ; however , garrulax , actinodura , minla , heterophasia and turdoides , as typically circumscribed , have also been discovered to be polyphyletic . as a result , genetic data available to date # r # r # r # r # r ( many species have not been screened ) can be interpreted in various ways , permitting for a smaller number of larger genera , or many more genera characterized by fewer species , so listing presented here is provisional and dependent on additional molecular data for most of the as yet untested taxa . family name has been spelt in variety of different ways ; above is the original spelling , which is correctly formed and so must be used # r .\ngenera leucodioptron , stactocichla , ianthocincla , dryonastes , rhinocichla , melanocichla and babax all provisionally sunk within a re - expanded garrulax , but denser taxon sampling for dna might necessitate restoration of at least some of these , given morphological and sometimes vocal or other differences shown by representative taxa # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nit appears you have javascript turned off . you can navigate the site without javascript , but many features will not work .\nthe ebird taxonomy is a hierarchical approach to creating a species list for data entry and listing purposes across the world . you can download an excel version of the ebird taxonomy at the bottom of the page . since understanding exactly what is meant by every bird species or taxon on a given list is an essential part of reporting your sightings , we detail our approach below to help clarify any questions .\nthe ebird taxonomy is much more than a list of species . it includes every field - identifiable taxon that could be relevant for birders to report . the taxonomic categories are each dealt with differently in ebird output and the eight categories are clearly indicated in the downloadable file below ( a ninth category , clements ssp . , is available only in the clements checklist ) . the eight ebird categories are as follows :\nhybrid between two issf ( subspecies or subspecies groups ) , e . g . ,\ndistinctly - plumaged domesticated varieties that may be free - flying ( these do not count on personal lists ) e . g . ,\nour species and subspecies taxonomy follows the clements checklist . the clements checklist is a global bird taxonomy which follows regional authorities . in the new world , the clements checklist largely defers to the two aos committees - - the north american classification committee ( nacc ) and the south american classification committee ( sacc ) - - with the goal of near - complete compliance . the few departures from their taxonomy and nomenclature tend to be in the handful of the cases where the two committees are not in agreement , or where one or both committees makes a taxonomic or nomenclatural decision that is at odds with prevailing usage elsewhere in the world . in the latter case , this most often applies to very rare vagrants in north america ( e . g . , siberian stonechat , dusky thrush ) . all such departures are listed in detail in appendix a ( nacc ) and appendix b ( sacc ) .\nthe ebird taxonomy ( v2017 ) is current with clements v2017 which is itself current with the 57th supplement to the aos - nacc check - list and the aos - sacc check - list through 22 apr 2017 ( the nacc issues updates once a year in august , whereas the sacc updates their taxonomy continually . )\nclements updates occur once a year in the late summer / autumn , and are documented in full , and can be downloaded directly here . the downloadable list is very useful since this checklist includes a description of the world range for each species and subspecies as well . ebird taxonomic updates coincide with the clements updates in august .\nthe clements checklist includes identifiable groups , which we also use in ebird . identifiable groups - - which ebird refers to as issf ( identifiable subspecific form ) - - are taxonomic units below the species level that follow subspecific boundaries as defined by the clements checklist . these may be a formally described subspecies ,\njunco hyemalis hyemalis / carolinensis . . . . . dark - eyed junco ( slate - colored )\njunco hyemalis [ oreganus group ] . . . . dark - eyed junco ( oregon )\nthese groups or issfs allows ebirders to make note of identifiable differences ( which may be helpful if the species are later split ) to study the distribution and abundance of different subspecific forms where they both occur . we encourage ebirders to use these groups to report whenever possible ; note that you can always add any species or group to your checklist by clicking\nrare species\nand using the\nadd a species\nbox .\nthe clements checklist is a work in progress . new species are described each year and new splits are justified in print almost weekly . in addition to keeping up with these rapid advances in bird taxonomy , the clements team also endeavors to add a number of new subspecies groups to the checklist in the coming years . assistance is welcome , especially from south america and the old world .\nin addition to the formal taxonomic concepts that are included in the clements checklist , the ebird taxonomy includes an expanded list of other bird taxa that birders may report . like the clements list , we have rules governing the nomenclature and taxonomic placement of these birds , so that they appear in predictable places on any bird list . these additional categories of bird taxa are listed below , and are identified accordingly in our ebird taxonomy .\nwe have made an effort to include many known hybrids that occur in the wild . while this is not a list of every single hybrid combination reported , we have tried to include those that are frequent enough and distinctive enough that they might be reported by birders . these range from the common combinations like\namerican black duck x mallard\nand\nwestern x glaucous - winged gull\nto considerably rarer combinations like\nberylline hummingbird\nand\nwhite - throated sparrow x dark - eyed junco .\nnote that the hybrid names always follow phylogenetic sequence , with the first species in sequence coming first in the hybrid name . hybrids are listed immediately following the issf groups in the second parent species in the sequence . all hybrids are followed by the parenthetical note\n( hybrid )\n- - thus you can review all hybrids by searching for ( hybrid ) within the\nfind a species\ntext box during checklist entry .\nwe also include intergrades , where hybridization between two subspecies or issfs produces an identifiable cross . for example , since the two forms of green - winged teal ( american and eurasian ) are distinctive and each is treated as an issf in the ebird taxonomy , we consider the hybrid result of a mixed pairing to be an intergrade .\nspuhs ? what is a spuh , you ask ? for difficult to identify groups ( like flycatchers ) or distant birds ( hawkwatchers regularly cope with this problem ) , birders will often record their identifications only to the genus level , or to some other level above species .\nspuh\nis our affectionate term for birds not identified to the species level . examples include : empidonax sp . , scoter sp . , accipiter sp . , or duck sp . many birders keep track of these sightings , and they can be tracked in ebird as well .\nnote that we have two ways of tracking spuhs . some are listed with the group name and\nsp .\nbut when there are only two members of a species pair are possible , we instead have opted to list these with a slash . for example , we do not use\nmurre sp .\nbut instead list\ncommon / thick - billed murre .\nthe often - used\ndowitcher sp .\nis instead listed as\nshort - billed / long - billed dowitcher .\nother useful listings include : greater / lesser yellowlegs , semipalmated / western sandpiper , and parasitic / pomarine jaeger . we refer to each of these as a slash in our taxonomy .\nyou can review the available spuhs by searching for\nsp .\nin the\nfind a species\nbox and you can review all slash combos by searching for\n/\n.\nin some cases , there are additional bird entities that can ' t be described with a formal scientific name . these may include new species ( or suspected new species ) that birders are already reporting and documenting . since the clements checklist will not add them until the formal description has appeared in a peer - reviewed paper , it can be years ( or decades ) until the species would be available via that list . collecting data on these entities is important , so we include them as a\nform\n, which is a catch - all for additional birds which we want birders to report , but which do not yet have a formal scientific name ( some of them may never have such a name ) . we expect to expand this list in the future to include other yet - to - be - described species ."]}
{"id": 2081, "summary": [{"text": "paseana ( august 23 , 1987 \u2013 june 21 , 2006 ) was an argentine-bred thoroughbred racemare who competed very successfully in argentina and in the united states , where she won 10 grade 1 races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she received two eclipse awards and was also elected to the racing hall of fame . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "paseana", "paragraphs": ["paseana died on june 21 , 2006 at haras san ignacio de loyola in argentina at the age of 19 .\nthere will , however , be one notable difference . the next time paseana races against males , elephants will fly .\nbut paseana was plagued with fertility problems and only produced one foal , the lode filly paseana ' s girl . craig said that paseana ' s girl , now a 6 - year - old , is in california as part of the craigs ' broodmare band . she is in foal to candy ride , also an argentine - bred , and has a candy ride yearling this year .\nthe way mcanally has brought paseana to the races is another example , with that one exception last summer when he asked paseana to beat males at del mar . paseana ran fifth in the $ 1 - million pacific classic , her worst finish since mcanally and her owners , sidney and jenny craig , brought her up from argentina at a cost of about $ 320 , 000 in 1991 .\nof course , there was always a chance paseana could reproduce herself at some point . but something happened . for four long years , after paseana retired , she was unable to conceive . eventually she was sent back to argentina , where dr . ignacio pavlowsky , the veterinarian and noted bloodstock advisor , made paseana his personal project . finally , in the fall of 1999 , paseana was pronounced in foal to the stallion lode . when she delivered a healthy filly last summer , the announcement was hailed in argentina as a royal birth .\nhall of fame mare paseana , north america ' s champion older female in 1992 and 1993 , has died in argentina at age 18 .\ncraig laughed . he knew no one would be offering much sympathy , not when he was about to travel from his home in rancho santa fe , not far from his rancho paseana training center , to saratoga springs for the unveiling of paseana ' s hall of fame plaque .\nbill gates has purchased rancho paseana from weight - loss guru and horse owner jenny craig for $ 18 million , according to a published report .\nron mcanally , who trains paseana , said ,\nshe just wasn ' t getting a hold of the track .\nnot a bad outing\nowner sidney craig said thursday that he was notified by the farm haras san ignacio de la hoya , where paseana boarded , that the mare had died of natural causes on monday . an argentine - bred , paseana was foaled on the southern hemisphere breeding calendar on aug . 23 , 1987 .\nimported from argentina as a 4 - year - old in 1991 , paseana became a two - time eclipse award winner under the care of trainer ron mcanally .\nthe billionaire plans to turn the 229 - acre compound , known as rancho paseana , into a competitive hunting - jumping facility . the deal closed september 12 .\nlike bayakoa , paseana was an argentine import trained by ron mcanally who won nearly every race of significance for her division . beyond that , the similarities end .\nthe san diego union - tribune reports that diet guru jenny craig will be closing her 200 - acre rancho paseana facility by may 31 due to financial constraints .\n, a half sister to 2005 kentucky derby winner giacomo , enters the paseana fresh and ready for trainer john shirreffs and owner / breeders jerry and ann moss .\npaseana had been sound going into sunday ' s race , landers said . the mare started six times this year with one victory , the hawthorne handicap at hollywood .\npaseana , a victory away from surpassing dance smartly as the greatest money - winning female in thoroughbred - racing history , won ' t get the chance to catch her .\nthe field for sunday ' s $ 300 , 000 race includes bold windy , who will carry 114 pounds , 12 less than paseana , but gary jones has no delusions .\nas a 6 - year - old , paseana repeated in the apple blossom and milady and added another grade 1 win in the spinster stakes . however , her attempt to repeat in the breeders\u2019 cup distaff came up a nose short to hollywood wildcat . paseana\u2019s campaign was still considered the best of her class and she once again won the eclipse for champion older mare .\nwith 10 victories in 15 starts in the united states and 15 triumphs in 23 starts and purses of $ 2 . 1 million overall , paseana is undefeated in four hollywood park races .\nsent to mcanally\u2019s base in california , paseana finished second in her first north american start in 1992 before embarking on a seven - race win streak that included five grade 1s : the santa maria handicap , santa margarita invitational handicap , apple blossom handicap , milady handicap and vanity handicap . paseana later won her sixth grade 1 that year with a dominant victory in the breeders\u2019 cup distaff by four lengths . with a record of 7 - 1 - 0 from nine starts and earnings of $ 1 , 518 , 290 , paseana won the 1992 eclipse award for champion older mare .\na daughter of ahmad out of the flintham mare pasiflin , paseana was bred by haras vacacion and won five races in argentina before being purchased by sidney and jenny craig to be campaigned in america .\nthis entry was posted in the biz and tagged california horse racing , horse racing , horse racing and breeding , jenny craig , rancho paseana , thoroughbred by paulick report staff . bookmark the permalink .\ncraig was faced with such a scene during the summer of 1994 at del mar , when it became clear , with an eighth of a mile to run , that his cherished mares exchange and paseana were destined for a one - two sweep . a dead - heat was possible , so closely matched were their strides . but it was far more likely that one of them would win , which meant the other one had to lose .\ni think i was probably leaning a little more toward paseana ,\ncraig admitted .\nexchange was great , but she didn ' t have the kind of record that paseana had . i knew paseana had a chance to be considered one of the great ones of all time , and that she could someday be a part of what ' s happening this week at saratoga .\nthe mare was the first horse craig and his wife , jenny , imported from argentina . paseana arrived in north america in 1991 after the craigs purchased her privately , and she quickly became a fan favorite .\njenny craig , owner of the weight - loss centers , and her husband paid $ 320 , 000 for paseana in 1991 and quickly recouped their investment . a bay daughter of ahmad , paseana soon became one of the country ' s most dynamic racemares , winning seven straight graded stakes by two lengths or more from november 1991 through july 1992 . she took the last of those , the vanity , under 127 pounds .\nat the root of running paseana last year in the pacific classic was building support in the horse - of - the - year balloting . fillies frequently have to beat colts to have a chance at the national title . instead , paseana ' s chances were irreparably damaged , and although she finished third in the vote , behind a . p . indy and best pal , she was named on only 11 of the ballots .\ncraig looks back on the paseana years with few regrets . earnings of $ 3 . 1 million can soften a lot of tough losses . but there was the 1993 breeders ' cup distaff in which his mare was beaten a nose by hollywood wildcat . there was the 1993 santa margarita , in which chris mccarron dropped a rein and southern truce beat paseana by a head . and there was the 1992 pacific classic , the only time paseana ran against males , when she failed as the favorite .\nif those three races had come out different , she would have been the all - time leading money - winner among fillies and mares ,\ncraig noted .\nheads a field of seven older fillies and mares in the $ 75 , 000 , 1 1 / 16 miles paseana stakes sunday at santa anita as she aims to transfer her sharp recent turf form to the main track .\nbred in argentina , paseana won 19 of 36 starts in south america and the united states , earning $ 3 , 171 , 203 . dance smartly retired in 1992 after making a north american - record $ 3 , 263 , 836 .\nin 1994 as a 7 - year - old , paseana won the santa margarita handicap for the second time and added a grade 2 victory in the chula vista handicap . she won the grade 2 hawthorne handicap the following year at age 8 before being retired in the summer of 1995 with a career record of 19 - 10 - 2 from 36 starts and earnings of $ 3 , 171 , 203 . paseana won a total of 14 graded stakes in america , including 10 grade 1s .\npaseana had also won the milady last year , and mcanally isn ' t about to try fixing a routine that isn ' t broken . on sunday , paseana will try to win the 1 1 / 8 - mile vanity handicap for the second consecutive time . a victory would make her the first distaffer to win the milady and the vanity in successive years . horses have won one stake or the other twice , but none has had a four - bagger in two years ' time .\nlightly raced , the 6 - year - old mare by rockport harbor has gone gate to wire in all three of her lifetime wins . bred in kentucky by her owner , rock and glory will be making her 10th career start in the paseana .\nthe foal looks just like paseana ,\ncraig added .\ni ' ve got tape of them running together . it ' s very rare for a foal to pass its mother , but this one does , she ' s that precocious .\nmy fondest memory was winning the breeders ' cup and her making the hall of fame ,\ncraig said of paseana .\nshe was my very favorite until candy ride came along . . . . they were toe and toe , the two of them .\ncraig was right . the dream came true , and on monday , in saratoga springs , paseana will be enshrined alongside gallorette , susan ' s girl , ruffian , shuvee , regret , and the other mares whose names are cast in bronze at the racing hall of fame .\nin discussing paseana ' s probable schedule for the rest of the year , trainer ron mcanally said that it wouldn ' t vary that much from last year ' s , when the 6 - year - old argentine - bred mare won the breeders ' cup distaff and clinched an eclipse award .\npaseana won 10 north american grade 1 races from 1992 to 1994 , including the 1992 breeders ' cup distaff , back - to - back apple blossom and milady handicaps , and a pair of santa margarita invitationals . while in argentina , she also won that nation ' s grade 1 gran premio enrique acebal . when she retired , paseana ' s race record stood at 19 - 10 - 2 from 36 starts . seventeen of her 19 victories came in stakes company , and she had amassed a $ 3 , 317 , 427 bankroll . she was voted into the hall of fame in 2001 .\nexchange rate ' s golden production became a stakes winner on january 12 when she fought off all challengers to win the $ 80 , 950 paseana h . the peter miller trainee ' s victory was won by a head in the mile and a sixteenth race on the main track at santa anita .\nis in search of her fourth consecutive win as she tries two turns for the first time since nov . 23 , 2012 . ridden by talamo in all 10 of her lifetime starts , she\u2019ll be handled for the first time by martin pedroza and should be on the early paseana lead or close to it .\nhas been idle since and will make her u . s . debut in the paseana . with five wins , five seconds and two thirds from 19 starts , miss serendipity brings solid credentials to the party and gets the services of gary stevens . she is owned by her breeder , anselmo e . cavalieri .\npaseana ( arg ) b . m , 1987 { 3 - c } dp = 4 - 4 - 2 - 0 - 0 ( 10 ) di = 9 . 00 cd = 1 . 20 - 36 starts , 19 wins , 10 places , 2 shows career earnings : $ 3 , 317 , 427\n2008 paseana handicap 2007 gr . iii ballerina breeders cup 2007 delta colleen cap 2007 mademoiselle 2007 strawberry morn 2007 senate appointee 2007 brighouse belles 2006 edmonton distaff 2006 bc cup distaff 2006 senate appointee handicap 2006 strawberry morn handicap 2005 gr . iii ballerina breeders ' 2005 gr . iii b . c . breeders ' cup oaks\nbayakoa was a wild - eyed , buck - toothed hussy who ran as if being pursued by hungry lions . paseana cut a more peaceful figure , both in action and repose . she was content to let others lead , apparently secure in the knowledge that it was the second time around that counted more than the first .\nat belmont park , the star filly turnback the alarm ran third in the ruffian handicap and the champion mare paseana ran fifth and last . at the woodbine track in toronto , sea hero , the kentucky derby winner , finished third in the molson million and colonial affair , the belmont stakes winner , ran sixth and last .\ninside post positions are not good for speed - favoring horses at hollywood , and paseana broke from no . 1 in the milady . this time , she drew better , getting the no . 4 hole . southern truce , who beat her by a head in the santa margarita handicap at santa anita last winter , drew the rail .\nthe ruffian handicap , named for the ill - fated champion filly of 1975 who did not survive her match race with foolish pleasure , looked like a match between paseana and turnback the alarm . but it became a wire - to - wire triumph for shared interest , a 5 - year - old mare owned by robert s . evans and trained by scotty schulhofer .\npeople in the united states might wonder why argentina would want to change a thing . over the years , argentine horses have distinguished themselves when they have been exported to the northern hemisphere . bayakoa won the breeders ' cup distaff and was named the champion female racehorse of both 1989 and 1990 . paseana was named champion female in 1992 and 1993 . paseana duplicated her feat in 1992 and 1993 . candy ride delivered one of the best single performances of the last decade when he won the 2003 pacific classic , running 1 1 / 4 miles in 1 : 59 . 1 . and , of course , in 2006 , the argentine - bred invasor won the breeders ' cup classic and the u . s . horse of the year title .\nfiguring out that paseana belongs in the hall of fame was a fairly simple task . in addition to her breeders ' cup distaff victory and 12 other major north american stakes wins , she is one of only three mares to earn consecutive national championships since 1938 . the others were shuvee in 1970 - 71 and bayakoa in 1989 - 90 . both are in the hall of fame .\noct . 17 , 1993 : sidney h . craig\u2019s racing hall of famer paseana ( arg ) wins the spinster ( g1 ) ( now the $ 500 , 000 juddmonte spinster won by i\u2019m a chatterbox on oct . 9 ) to atone for a runner - up finish the year before . winner of the 1992 breeders\u2019 cup distaff ( g1 ) , she is second in the 1993 distaff .\npaseana is scheduled to make her 1993 debut in the $ 150 , 000 santa maria handicap on feb . 6 . . . . trainer david bernstein turned 53 wednesday . . . . pat valenzuela was off his mounts wednesday because of illness . . . . laffit pincay , gary stevens and alex solis all won twice . stevens leads the standings with 18 victories , seven more than martin pedroza .\nstill , paseana was not opposed to the occasional show of force . her four - length victory over versailles treaty in the 1992 bc distaff at gulfstream was breathtaking . her back - to - back wins in the apple blossom were both by daylight . her final victory , at the age of 8 , came at the expense of the talented pirate ' s revenge in the 1995 hawthorne handicap at hollywood park .\nthis year , after a couple of seconds at santa anita , paseana is on another roll . in april , she toyed with a field at oaklawn park in little rock , ark . , winning the apple blossom handicap for the second consecutive year . and at hollywood park , where she has never lost , regular jockey chris mccarron rode her to a half - length victory in the milady handicap on june 12 .\nrancho paseana has primarily become a layup facility although it was originally set up as a training base . the farm was listed for sale in 2010 for $ 30 million , and underwent a $ 5 million price reduction before being pulled from the multiple listing service last year . craig said she is in negotiations with one potential buyer but did not specify the company ' s identity or whether it would continue to use the facility as a thoroughbred farm .\ncraig closed rancho paseana last year . previously , it had been used as a training facility for thoroughbred horses . the ranch had been on and off the market for years , first listed in 2010 for nearly $ 30 million , then reduced to close to $ 25 million before it was taken off the multiple listings service in the fall of 2012 . the property was not actually listed , but being quietly shopped off - market , when it sold .\nthe roots of this success go back more than a century , when a prosperous argentina imported high - quality thoroughbred stock from europe . the breeders here were never interested in producing fancy pedigrees , however ; they wanted horses with stamina , good conformation and toughness . trainer ron mcanally , who brought bayakoa , paseana and candy ride to the united states , said ,\ni believe the argentine horses are more durable , and they stay sound longer .\ngates plans to turn rancho paseana into a grand prix circuit venue for hunters and jumpers , online publication urltoken reported oct . 9 . gates has a teenage daughter who jumps horses competitively . the deal on the 228 - acre thoroughbred farm about 20 minutes north of san diego closed in mid - september , the wall street journal first reported , citing public records . the property , used in recent years for training and as a lay - up facility , includes a six - furlong training track , a guesthouse and office , an olive orchard , five barns , and a veterinarian ' s suite . the newspaper quoted a spokesman for gates as saying the microsoft co - founder wanted the property because the gates family\nhas enjoyed visiting the san diego area with friends and family for many years .\nthe property has been on the market for several years , initially priced at about $ 30 million . it had recently been listed for nearly $ 25 million , but was later withdrawn . rancho paseana was closed in 2013 and there are currently no horses there , a spokesman said . craig , who had resisted offers to sell rancho paseana for development , told urltoken :\ni was happy that the buyer is someone who can afford to turn it into the showplace it was meant to be . it will be kept as a horse farm so the neighbors will be thrilled .\nthe family has enjoyed visiting the san diego area with friends and family for many years and has purchased the rancho paseana property in rancho santa fe , california ,\na gates family spokesperson confirmed via a statement . gates ' daughter jumps horses competitively , and the gates own a home in the nearby del mar country club . craig also owns a del mar home , which is reportedly on the market with a price tag of $ 39 . 5 million .\nthe complete field for the paseana stakes , to be run as the seventh race on a nine - race program sunday , with jockeys and weights in post position order : halo dolly , rafael bejarano , 123 ; miss serendipity , gary stevens , 118 ; irish presence , tyler baze , 118 ; golden production , martin pedroza , 118 ; warren\u2019s veneda , joe talamo , 120 ; stanwyk , victor espinoza , 123 , and rock and glory , martin garcia , 120 .\npaseana recovered from the experience nicely . about six weeks later , she finished second to fowda in the spinster at keeneland . and on that afternoon she probably wasn ' t at her best , having run off with a new exercise rider during a morning gallop the day before the race . then she came back in october to win the distaff convincingly at gulfstream park , after the craigs had paid a supplementary fee of $ 120 , 000 to make her eligible for the race .\ni was anticipating a speed duel between the other two ,\nhe said , meaning paseana and turnback the alarm .\nand so was scotty . my question to him was : ' what if i find myself on the lead ? ' he said , ' we ' ll leave that up to you . that ' s why we have you . that ' s your job . ' i looked over my shoulder at the eighth pole , and knew i was home free .\npaseana won eclipse awards in 1992 and ' 93 as the country ' s best older mare , and kept her gentle ways even after her winning percentage slackened .\nshe ' s as nice as you ' d want a horse to be ,\nlanders said .\nit ' s a shame she wasn ' t able to pass this final challenge . but the main thing is that she ' s going to be okay . . . . it ' s probably her time now .\nshe took the lead when everybody else hung back , held it against late challenges and won by 2 1 / 2 lengths over ogden mills phipp ' s dispute . then it was three lengths back to turnback the alarm , who had won three stakes in a row after a 10 - month medical leave to mend a fractured leg . and it was 15 lengths farther back in fifth place to paseana , the 6 - year - old champion from argentina and california who had run in the money 21 times in 24 starts .\nbut even then , matters may not be clear - cut . neither paseana nor turnback the alarm has been nominated for the breeders ' cup , and it would cost $ 120 , 000 as a late fee to send either one to the post . and since there is no race in the breeders ' cup series designed strictly for 3 - year - old colts , horses such as sea hero , colonial affair and peteski and any other contender would have to run against older horses in the classic or switch to one of the grass races to pursue his candidacy .\ni don ' t have the reason for it , but hollywood has been a speed - bias track for the last seven or eight years ,\nmcanally said .\nthis year is no exception . bertrando , a speed horse , almost stole the ( hollywood ) gold cup , and that speed filly from florida ( hollywood wildcat ) shipped in and won the ( hollywood ) oaks last weekend . there should be enough speed in the race to assure a legitimate pace . paseana should be laying close , and we hope that she makes her move like she usually does .\nsouthern truce , who will be ridden by corey nakatani , has been assigned 114 pounds in the 10 - horse field . from the fence out , the rest of the gate will consist of pleasant baby , with sal gonzalez jr . riding at a weight of 113 pounds ; re toss , eddie delahoussaye , 114 ; paseana , mccarron , 126 ; saros on the town , david flores , 112 ; vieille vigne , joe steiner , 113 ; guiza , kent desormeaux , 113 ; bold windy , corey black , 114 ; party cited , pat valenzuela , 115 ; and miss high blade , gary stevens , 113 . several horses will carry extra poundage because their jockeys will be overweight .\nlike any other businessmen , horse owners have to heed the desires of their customers . but when breeders put too much of an emphasis on speed , precocity and pedigree fashion , and they no longer strive to produce horses who are sound and well conformed , their product suffers in the long run . this has happened over the last 30 years in the united states , where the average racehorse now makes only 6 . 3 starts per year and the careers of many good horses end before they complete their 3 - year - old season . argentina needs to be part of the modern horse industry , but it shouldn ' t reject altogether the principles that let it produce bayakoa , paseana and invasor .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ntravers eve member wine and cheese social featuring greg montgomery : celebrate the racing season at the museum on travers stakes eve .\ntravers stakes preview panel : top racing handicappers analyze the field for the 149 th running of the travers stakes . time : 11 a . m .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\njason servis is on the best run of his career , wi . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\nbill gates has purchased weight - loss queen jenny craig ' s horse ranch for $ 18 million .\nthe ranch includes a 3 / 4 - mile racetrack , as well as four 30 - stall barns and a fifth barn with 21 stalls , a veterinarian ' s area , and an olive orchard , says listing agent , jason barry of barry estates . the wall street journal first reported the news . catherine barry , also of barry estates , also represented craig .\nit was a unique farm because they set it up for racing , with 30 - acre pastures . it really gave the thoroughbreds a chance to stretch their legs and really go ,\njason barry said . barry noted that craig had received a lot of interest in the property from developers , but wanted to wait for a buyer who would preserve the ranch ' s use for horses . he added that craig decided to sell the facility after her husband and business partner sid craig passed away .\nit was really the passion they enjoyed together . she enjoyed the passion , but was ready to move on with other aspects of her life .\ngates is america ' s richest person , according to forbes , with a net worth of $ 80 . 3 billion as of the time this story . the bill & melinda gates foundation has given away $ 30 billion since 2000 .\nat 3 won gp enrique acebal - g1 ( arg ) , pr francisco j . beazley - g2 ( arg ) , 3rd gp seleccion - g1 ( arg )\nat 4 won silver belles h . - g2 , pr abril - g2 ( arg ) , 2nd manta s . - l\nat 5 won breeders ' cup distaff - g1 , apple blossom h . - g1 , santa margarita inv . - g1 , vanity inv . - g1 , santa maria h . - g1 , milady h . - g1 , san gorgonio h . - g2 , 2nd spinster s . - g1\nat 6 won apple blossom h . - g1 , spinster s . - g1 , milady h . - g1 , 2nd breeders ' cup distaff - g1 , santa margarita inv . - g1 , vanity inv . - g1 , santa maria h . - g1\nat 7 won santa margarita inv . - g1 , chula . vista h . - g2 , 2nd santa maria h . - g1\nat 8 won hawthorne h . - g2 , 2nd santa margarita inv . - g1 , milady h . - g1 , santa maria h . - g1 , 3rd apple blossom h . - g1\ndeal on jenny craig ' s 228 - acre horse facility north of san diego recently completed .\ndel mar , calif . - sid craig knows how richard williams must feel , bracing for that inevitable day when venus and serena meet on centre court for the title at wimbledon .\nafter making his fortune in the weight loss industry , alongside his wife , jenny , sid craig dove headfirst into horse racing and made it look easy .\ni got lucky during that early stage when i also had exchange and dr . devious ,\nsaid craig , referring to the colt who won the epsom derby .\ni thought it was an easy game . but sometimes that ' s a curse . the game is getting even with me now .\nhere , it was maybe a line or two in a racing magazine ,\ncraig said .\nin argentina , though , she ' s as popular as seabiscuit . the birth of the foal made the cnn of argentina . people were celebrating .\nsan antonio de areco , argentina a visitor to haras de la pomme , one of the top thoroughbred breeding operations in argentina , might feel slightly disoriented as he watches some of the farm ' s yearlings walk by .\nhere is a colt by thunder gulch , winner of the 1995 kentucky derby . here is a son of honour and glory , who won the prestigious metropolitan handicap at belmont park . here is a filly by the late hennessy , winner of saratoga ' s hopeful stakes and a top international sire . here is another youngster by thunder gulch . and another . and another . are we really in the heart of argentina ' s horse country , 70 miles northwest of buenos aires , or are we in kentucky ?\nyou are seeing the globalization of the horse business ,\nsaid oscar calvete , manager of the farm owned by samuel and guillermo liberman , a father and son with far - flung business interests and the passion for horses that is common in this country .\nargentina has a long and rich horse tradition , but in recent years the country ' s top breeders agreed that they had to scrap part of the tradition to become successful players in the global market . their decisions , combined with some well - timed good fortune , have created a strong worldwide demand for argentine thoroughbreds .\nbut horse buyers around the globe today are more interested in speed and precocity than they are in stamina and durability . they seek these qualities by buying the offspring of recognized stallions whose genes promise speed . argentina ' s breeding industry was out of step with the world .\na few years ago , northern hemisphere stallions began to cross the equator to stand at stud during argentina ' s breeding season , and the leaders of the horse industry saw that this was the wave of the future . two years ago , haras de la pomme and three other big farms joined forces to import high - class stallions and to create a new facility , la mission , where they would be bred to local mares . nicolas quintana , general manager of la mission , said ,\neveryone wanted to try to put argentina into the international marketplace .\nnow the sons and daughters of quick horses such as hennessy and honour and glory were supplanting the offspring of obscure , stamina - oriented argentina stallions .\nas these developments were unfolding , invasor provided worldwide advertising for the country ' s breeding industry . sheikh hamdan bin rashid al maktoum of dubai had bought the colt after his sweep of uruguay ' s triple crown , and horse owners from around the world were trying to emulate his success . invasor himself possessed a typically unglamorous argentine pedigree - - his sire candy stripes had been a failure in the united states - - but now buyers were now getting the chance to purchase the offspring of north american stallions and argentine mares .\nmost of the buyers were arabs . facundo bunge , president of la pomme , observed that they initially were looking for solid , established racehorses , but then started speculating on youngsters who had won only a race or two . la pomme owned a 2 - year - old filly named love dancing ( a daughter of the north american stallion salt lake ) who had earned about $ 20 , 000 after winning her first two starts , including a grade iii stakes . the farm wasn ' t eager to sell , but did when sheikh mohammed al maktoum made an offer it couldn ' t refuse : $ 1 million . such lavish offers have been commonplace . mcanally , who bought so many good argentine horses in the past , lamented that he has been priced out of the market .\nthe arabs are regularly paying two and three times what the horses are worth ,\nhe said .\ninvasor is going to keep them coming back .\nthese are heady days for a racing industry that used to feel that the rest of the world was ignoring it . but based on the u . s . experience , argentina should view with some caution the changes it is making to its industry .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsubscribe free to our daily newsletter . type your email address & click subscribe .\n\u00a9 2018 breeding & racing ( and other parties working with it ) . materials , including fields and form , is subject to copyright which is owned by breeding & racing and other parties working with it .\nout of the dynaformer mare dyna two , golden production was bred by mrs . edgar scott , jr . & mrs . lawrence macelree and earned her fifth victory in eleven starts with the effort , raising her earnings to $ 208 , 140 .\nthe filly was an $ 80 , 000 weanling sold at the 2009 keeneland november breeding stock sale . she later sold at the fasig - tipton maryland sale as a yearling for $ 170 , 000 .\nthree chimneys farm announced today that seasoned veteran horseman tom hamm will assume the role of director of stallion nominations to handle season sales and bloodstock activity at the farm .\nfuntastic takes grade 1 united nations s . to top terrific day for three chimneys\nthree chimneys farm ' s funtastic proved he belongs among the turf elites with a brilliant win in the $ 300 , 000 united nations s . ( g1 ) on the monmouth park turf course . . .\nfern circle stables and three chimneys farm ' s restless rider put on an incredible show in saturday ' s $ 100 , 000 debutante s . at churchill downs . . .\nmailing address : p . o . box 114 , midway , ky 40347 email : [ email protected ] | tel : ( 859 ) 873 - 7053 | fax : ( 859 ) 873 - 5723\n\u201cfrankly i ' ve been putting it off for \u2026 years , after my husband died , \u201d craig said . \u201ci tried to make it work . i tried everything i could without reducing the quality of services . \u201d\nthe announcement comes as san luis rey downs , which would likely absorb some of the 270 boarded horses at craig ' s rancho santa fe facility , will be closed for three months beginning in june for renovations .\nnew to the paulick report ? click here to sign up for our daily email newsletter to keep up on this and other stories happening in the thoroughbred industry . copyright \u00a9 2018 paulick report .\npublisher ray paulick ( 859 312 . 2102 ) director of advertising emily alberti ( 859 913 . 9633 ) editor - in - chief scott jagow features editor natalie voss bloodstock editor joe nevills racing news editor chelsea hackbarth contributing writers sarah e . coleman frank mitchell tom pedulla jen roytz denise steffanus photography equisport photos ( matt and wendy wooley ) eric kalet business manager carol paulick\nurltoken is published by blenheim publishing llc , 3070 lakecrest circle , suite 400 - 292 , lexington , ky 40513 . copyright blenheim publishing llc .\nraces a mid - size , high quality stable in the pacific northwest at hastings park in vancouver , b . c . , in alberta at northlands and stampede park , woodbine in ontario and emerald downs in auburn , wa . on a part - time basis , canmor races in california at santa anita , del mar , bay meadows , etc . partnership and syndicate information may be obtained by contacting\none of mcanally ' s strong suits as a trainer is managing a horse ' s career . exhibit a is john henry , who won two horse - of - the - year titles with mcanally calling the shots .\nshe was too feminine to go up against the boys ,\nhe said this week .\nshe got sandwiched by those two studs ( missionary ridge , who won the race , and defensive play , who finished second ) and must have thought that they were taking her to the breeding shed .\nshe ' ll have to cut through the infield to beat that other mare ,\nbold windy ' s trainer said .\nthis year , racing hasn ' t had time to consider horse of the year , having been overwhelmed by a revolving door of horses of the week . in thoroughbred racing communications ' informal national poll , jovial was on top for several weeks , even though he hasn ' t run since april . devil his due was also the leader for a while , and star of cozzene shot to the top by winning a race at atlantic city . then best pal became the leader off only one victory , in the hollywood gold cup .\nnobody will ever confuse efervescente with valdez , ancient title or cajun prince , but the 5 - year - old knocked all three of those stakes winners out of the santa anita record book wednesday .\non a rock - hard main track , sealed to protect it from the expected onslaught of rain this week , efervescente ran 1 1 / 16 miles in a santa anita - record 1 : 39 , eclipsing the mark shared by the three mentioned above by 1 1 / 5 seconds .\nbred in argentina , owned by the bel air stable and trained by warren stute , efervescente had not won in five starts in the united states and had only one victory in four starts in south america before his arrival in california .\nnever able to make the lead in any of his other american races , the 2 - 1 second choice went right to the front under alex solis , set fast fractions ( 22 3 / 5 , 45 4 / 5 , 1 : 09 for six furlongs ) and went on to win by six lengths over favored golden voyager .\nin addition , efervescente ' s mile time of 1 : 32 4 / 5 would also have been a santa anita record . ruhlmann owns that mark , having gone the distance in 1 : 33 2 / 5 in 1989 .\nalthough there were no other records , fast times were the rule all afternoon . screen tale , a $ 16 , 000 claimer , ran 6 1 / 2 furlongs in 1 : 14 3 / 5 ; something sexy , a 3 - year - old , $ 32 , 000 maiden , went six furlongs in 1 : 09 , and jadite , a $ 16 , 000 4 - year - old filly , went the same distance in 1 : 09 3 / 5 , more than a second faster than she had ever gone six furlongs .\nefervescente wasn ' t the only argentine - bred who relished the sloppy track wednesday .\nhighly regarded when brought to this country by trainer ron mcanally , potrichal rallied from last to win the feature , a $ 46 , 000 allowance for fillies and mares .\nwinless in her first five american races , the 5 - year - old potrillazo mare won in 1 : 42 2 / 5 for the 1 1 / 16 miles , running down bright ways and paying $ 6 . 60 .\napparently , potrichal ' s preferred surface is the main track . no better than third in four races on turf in california , she was second , beaten a half - length , in her only other try on dirt before wednesday .\nwith rain forecast for most of the week , jolypha ' s local debut is likely to be put on hold again .\nthe 4 - year - old filly , who was third behind a . p . indy and pleasant tap in the breeders ' cup classic , is scheduled to make her first start of 1993 in the $ 100 , 000 el encino stakes on sunday .\nhowever , trainer bobby frankel has said jolypha , who is owned by juddmonte farms and one of the top fillies in europe last year , won ' t participate if the rain continues . last month , there had been discussion that jolypha would run in the hollywood turf cup , but her connections decided to wait and give her more time .\narches of gold and race the wild wind , the 1 - 2 finishers in the la brea stakes , won ' t run in the 1 - 1 / 16 mile el encino . arches of gold will wait for the seven - furlong santa monica handicap on jan . 18 . others who will probably start in the el encino are magical maiden , la spia , interactive , cadillac women , party cited , alysbelle and avian assembly .\nwith eddie delahoussaye suspended , pat valenzuela has picked up the mount on answer do for saturday ' s san carlos handicap at seven furlongs .\nthe 7 - year - old gelding , who has won the cal cup sprint and hollywood turf express in his last two starts , will start if the condition of the track is suitable .\nhe acted like he loved the mud ( when he galloped wednesday morning ) ,\nassistant trainer brad rollins said .\nbut the track had been rolled and was in good shape . on saturday , we ' ll have to look and see what condition the track is in . if it seems like there ' s a good bottom , then we ' ll run .\npersistence with ponies pays for garber : horse racing : tarzana man owns thoroughbreds for nearly a decade before hitting jackpot with quintana , who ran sixth in last year ' s kentucky derby .\ndid china use drugs to win ? : swimming : sudden success prompts speculation that its female athletes might have been taking steroids .\nthe graceful mare tore a suspensory ligament in her left foreleg during a fifth - place finish sunday in the vanity invitational handicap at hollywood park , her stable confirmed today from del mar , calif . she ' s through racing , and will be sent to sid and jenny craig ' s southern california farm in the coming days .\nshe ' s in no distress or anything like that ,\nsaid dan landers , assistant to hall of fame trainer ron mcanally . landers said the 8 - year - old mare had no problem this week with the 100 - mile van ride from los angeles to del mar .\nwe were trying real hard for her to get the record ,\nlanders said .\nbut this popped up , and you don ' t want to risk further injury .\nhow exactly will the kawhi leonard situation end ? and other lingering nba offseason questions .\nread stories based on reporting for \u201ctrump revealed , \u201d a broad , comprehensive biography of the life of the 45th president .\npartners can log into my wpt to access race record , race information , workouts , and updates .\n\u00a9 2018 west point thoroughbreds , inc . all rights reserved . site map \u00b7 contact us website design by able engine , a division of netmediaone\nregional offices elmont , ny louisville , ky hallandale , fl washington , d . c .\ntrained and owned in - part by jerry hollendorfer , halo dolly , a 6 - year - old california - bred mare by the saint ballado stallion popular , comes off an impressive classified allowance win going one mile on turf at golden gate nov . 17 and will be trying the dirt for only the fourth time in her 36th career start sunday .\na winner of two of her previous three dirt tries , halo dolly has raced exclusively on turf in her last eight starts and was last seen on natural dirt 17 starts back , when she won the 1 1 / 16 miles alameda county stakes at pleasanton on june 30 , 2012 .\nan amazing success story and testimonial to hollendorfer\u2019s conditioning approach , she has amassed $ 910 , 256 in earnings from an overall record of 35 - 17 - 5 - 4 . in addition to hollendorfer , she is owned by dan and yolanda hoefflin , michael o\u2019farrell , charlie robin , george todaro , joe schneider and brett tahajian .\nridden by russell baze in her last two starts , halo dolly will be handled by rafael bejarano , who has guided her to two of her added money victories .\na winner of the grade iii , 1 1 / 16 miles turn back the alarm handicap oct . 26 at belmont park ,\na 5 - year - old mare by empire maker , stanwyk figures to employ a stalking style when ridden for the first time by victor espinoza . stanwyk has three wins , a second and a third place finish from 10 starts and earnings of $ 222 , 650 .\npressed the pace and won the statebred cat\u2019s cradle handicap going 7 \u00bd furlongs two starts back and should be forwardly placed sunday under regular pilot joe talamo .\na 4 - year - old filly owned and bred in california by ben warren , warren\u2019s veneda is trained by craig lewis and has $ 300 , 064 in earnings from an overall mark of 11 - 5 - 1 - 3 .\nclaimed for $ 40 , 000 three starts back on oct . 17 , the pete miller - trained\nowned by myron miller , the 5 - year - old pennsylvania - bred golden production is 10 - 4 - 4 - 1 , with earnings of $ 161 , 340 .\ngot away with an opening quarter mile of 24 flat in a second condition allowance at a mile and a sixteenth nov . 16 , and went on to an impressive 6 \u00be length gate to wire score for trainer tim yakteen and jockey martin garcia .\n, who was second , beaten 6 \u00be lengths , by rock and glory nov . 16 . two starts back , the 4 - year - old midnight lute filly was second , beaten a neck , going 1 1 / 16 miles in a first condition allowance at santa anita oct . 13 . she\u2019s owned by michael lofino , sr . and anthony zankich .\nit appears that html was included in your comment , please remove any html code .\nlexington , ky ( oct . 17 , 2016 ) \u2013 keeneland\u2019s 2016 fall meet , which runs through oct . 29 , marks the track\u2019s 80th anniversary . to celebrate this milestone , barn notes throughout the fall meet will look back at memorable races and highlights from keeneland\u2019s rich history .\noct . 17 , 1936 : racing hall of famer eddie arcaro rides for the only time during keeneland\u2019s inaugural season , finishing eighth aboard greedy in the fourth race . \u2026 hall of famer myrtlewood wins the ashland ( run during the fall meets in 1936 and 1937 ) by 12 lengths in one of her three victories during the meet .\noct . 17 , 1963 : william haggin perry\u2019s champion lamb chop wins the spinster ( now the grade 1 , $ 500 , 000 juddmonte spinster won by i\u2019m a chatterbox on oct . 9 ) . she was ridden by manny ycaza for trainer james w . maloney . a week earlier , she set a 1 : 24 3 / 5 track record for the beard course of seven furlongs and 184 feet .\noct . 17 , 1978 : in his final public appearance before entering stud at spendthrift farm , j . o . tobin , who will be named the year\u2019s champion sprinter , parades before fans between the fifth and sixth races with 18 - year - old steve cauthen aboard .\noct . 17 , 1998 : joseph lacombe stable\u2019s favorite trick , the 1997 horse of the year , became the first of three 3 - year - olds to win the keeneland breeders\u2019 cup ( g3 ) ( now the grade 1 , $ 500 , 000 shadwell turf mile won by miss temple city on oct . 7 ) with his 3\u00bd - length triumph .\noct . 17 , 2008 : hall of famer rachel alexandra concludes her 2 - year - old season with a three - length win in a six - furlong allowance race .\nurltoken no longer supports internet explorer 9 or earlier . please upgrade your browser .\nthe campaign for championships in horse racing grew murkier on both sides of the border yesterday .\nwhile all this form reversal was going on , the filly shared interest was winning the ruffian as a 13 - 1 long shot and the canadian hero peteski was dominating the molson as the 9 - 5 favorite .\nbut for the most part , it was a day when leading contenders for titles bit the dust . as a result , the confusion was compounded for the fillies and mares as well as for the 3 - year - old colts , and both divisions won ' t be able to anoint a leader until the ultimate test in the breeders ' cup series at santa anita on nov . 6 . what are the options ?"]}
{"id": 2082, "summary": [{"text": "the clown featherback , clown knifefish , or spotted knifefish , chitala ornata , is a nocturnal tropical fish with a long , knife-like body .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "this knifefish is native to freshwater habitats in cambodia , laos , thailand and vietnam , but it has also been introduced to regions outside its native range .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is one of world 's most invasive species .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is often seen in aquaculture and the aquarium trade where frequently confused with chitala chitala ; the latter species is very rare in the aquarium trade .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "despite its popularity , the clown featherback reaches 1 m ( 3.3 ft ) in length , outgrowing all but the largest aquaria . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "clown featherback", "paragraphs": ["also known as belida fish , featherback fish , chitala ornata , clown knife fish , \u4e03\u661f\u98db\u5200\u9c7c . this fish is native in southeast asia and also popular as aquarium fish . mrpurerain\nthe normal coloring of the clown knifefish is a silvery gray characterized by a variable pattern of large spots above the base of the anal fin . yet sometimes they may have no spots at all , and sometimes they may have two rows of smaller spots . other common names it is known by are clown featherback fish , spotted knifefish , spotted featherback fish , and clown knife . there is also an albino color form as seen in the picture above that ' s called the albino clown knifefish .\nthe featherbacks have other common names while some people actually call them clown knife , they are all referring to the same type of fish belonging to the same family . most of the featherback species including\nwas described by gray in 1831 . they are found in south east asia ; thailand , laos , cambodia , and vietnam . the species is not listed on the iucn red list . these fish are in great demand in many of the regions they live in for food . other common names they are known by include clown featherback fish , spotted knifefish , spotted featherback fish , and clown knife . the albino color form is known as the albino clown knifefish .\nclown loach eats snails , including mts . if you\u2019d like to decrease the population of snails in a tank , just put clown loach in a tank .\nclown knife fish are very popular as food fish in their native land throughout asia .\nwhich comes from india and is also a common import . this species is also called the clown knifefish as wells as royal clown knifefish , royal spotted knifefish and spotted featherback . the coloring and behaviors of these two are the same but the india species is said to get a bit larger , reaching up to 4 feet ( 122 cm ) . the\n15 years - the clown knife fish has a lifespan of about 8 - 15 years in captivity .\nthe clown knife does not have scales which make it more prone to disease . clown knife are normally the first fish in a tank to show signs of ick and will twitch and rub around the tank . they respond well to most medication and normally heal quickly . never use copper in a clown knife fish tank .\nwow nice info and profile their liz . . . mind if i add my two clown knifes ? ? ?\nworldwidetropicals live freshwater aquarium fish - 3\nclown loach fish - chromobotia macracanthus - by live tropical . . .\npant food should be added to clown loach diet : special tablets , cucumber , lettuce leaves , spinach and peeled squash .\nas a rule freshwater fish is a night one , so it is almost unnoticeable during the day time , however it doesn\u2019t concern clown loach .\nsince 2004 clown loach was officially classified as a separate kind of loaches family with greek name chromobotia . swiss ichthyologist maurice kottelat initiated this change .\nknifefish have slender , elongated , bodies , giving them a knife - like appearance . the caudal fin is small and fused with the anal fin , which runs most of the length of the body . where present , the dorsal fin is small and narrow , giving rise to the common name of\nfeatherback .\nwhich you can try it out but i think if that suits them well , providing to your featherback should be fine as well . in terms of reproductive behavior , little is known about how they mate and produce young offspring and till date , there has been no report of captive breeding taking place in home aquarium .\nchitala chitala : rare and endangered . . . not likely to be readily available to the hobby , yet the scientific name is also used to describe the clown knife\nalso known as clown knifefish , spotted featherback , spotted knifefish . found in freshwater flowing rivers and pools moving into inundated forest areas during high water periods . they feed nocturnally on fish , crustaceans and insects . length - 100cm depth - ? m widespread asia rare in the aquarium trade as outgrows the largest tank ! notopterids have specialized swim bladders . the organ extends throughout the body and even into the fins and can absorb oxygen from air and also functions to produce sound by squeezing air . ref : urltoken\nbut after the fish had its rest it continues swimming . often clown loach lays on a side when ph is low because the water in a tank wasn\u2019t renewed timely .\nclown loach has very thin scales almost ingrowing into its body . this is kind of problem since the fish\u2019s skin doesn\u2019t protect it from toxic substances dissolved in a tank water .\nclown loaches tank should be spacious since the fish grows to be rather large \u2013 up to 16 - 20 cm long . the fish likes thickly planted tanks with lots of different covers .\nwhen shopping for a clown knife , avoid fish that are under 3 inches or over 6 inches . the smaller ones are relatively delicate and the larger ones can be harder to get feeding .\nthe clown loach ( chromobotia macracanthus also tiger loach , tiger botia ) is one of the most beautiful tank fishes from the loaches family . it\u2019s valued for its nice coloring and bright individuality .\nwhen young , these fish are comfortable in groups , but as they mature , they much prefer to live singly . adult specimens will not tolerate another clown knife or similar species in their tank , though , there has been success with raising young clown knives together to adulthood . they also cannot be kept with smaller fish of any kind , as anything small enough to fit in their mouth will be considered as food and they will often take a snap at larger fish , just on the off chance they may get a meal out of it . clown knives tolerate large tankmates quite well , often ignoring attempts by territorial cichlids to chase them off . this can sometimes lead to problems with injuries being inflicted , although the clown will usually retreat to its hiding place before any major conflict occurs .\nbottom - clown knifefish will spend most of their time in the middle or near the bottom of the tank , but they may occasionally go to the surface to grab a gulp of air or a meal .\n: small fish will be eaten , so combine with other large fish . the clown knifefish likes to form small , loose schools when young . adults become more aggressive and territorial and should be kept singly .\nalthough , in the majority of references it\u2019s said that clown loach max size is about 30 cm , in the wild there can be seen species about 40 cm long and lifespan is up to 20 years .\nboth pills and vegetables \u2013 squash , cucumber , lettuce can be fed to clown loaches . in general , for this fish the amount of plant feed in its diet should be up to 40 % from total amount .\ni got myself for the second time a chitala ornata / clown featherback , and with 24 hours it died , both times ! first time a got a smaller one , around 5\n, and 2nd time around 15\n. both times died during the day , not the first night . no damage on their bodies was found , so i rule out that it was killed by any other fish . my water params are great , i regularly check them . all other fish looks great ! temp 26 degrees celsius , 450litres tank . can anyone please advice what ' s wrong ? i ' m so frustrated about this . . . thanks ! !\nclown loach fish chromobotia macracanthus ( earlier named botia macrocanthus ) was first described in 1852 . peter bleeker ( dutch doctor , ichthyologist ) was the first who mentioned this fish kind and classified the fish as a loaches fish class .\nthe fish has some bad habits \u2013 they gladly eat plants , they even bite holes in echinodorus plants . if there is enough of plant food in the clown loach diet is decreases the damage the fish does to the tank plants .\nthe majority of clown loaches is taken from their habitats in the wild , where the fish lives in forest streams and rivers in south - west asia . in tanks the fish grows slowly and very seldom it reaches its max size .\nwhen young , these fish are comfortable in groups , but as they mature , they much prefer to live singly . adult specimens will often not tolerate another clown knife or similar species in their tank . they also cannot be kept with smaller fish of any kind , as anything small enough to fit in their mouth will be considered as food and they will often take a snap at larger fish , just on the off chance they may get a meal out of it . clown knifes tolerate large tankmates quite well , often ignoring attempts by territorial cichlids to chase them off . this can sometimes lead to problems with injuries being inflicted , although the clown will usually retreat to its hiding place before any major conflict occurs .\nthey prefer a neutral ph and softer water , but larger fish can adapt to a higher ph and hard water . provide them with well filtered water , a dimly lit tank and hiding places , and you should have a happy clown knife .\nit is rather difficult to breed botia fish in a tank . in some references there is some information about successful breeding of the fish in a tank . however , mainly freshwater clown loach breeding is performed in the fish farms using some hormones injections .\nclown knifefish is generally found around submerged structure ( e . g . , rocks , wood , aquatic vegetation ) in lakes or deeper pools of rivers . submerged structure is used as a daytime refuge as well as a spawning substrate . reproduction occurs from march to july , with eggs deposited on submerged wood and guarding of eggs and fry performed by one of the parents . clown knifefish are carnivorous , consuming crustaceans , insects , and fishes . this is a nocturnally active species ( poulsen et al . 2004 )\nthere is no known way to sex clown knife fish , and breeding in home aquariums is currently unknown . due to the size of the tank required to house two full grown clowns , attempting to breed this fish would be beyond the means of most aquarium keepers .\nclown loach has 4 pairs of barbels \u2013 these are vibrissas that help the fish to find food in muddy water of its native rivers . one can feel how the fish attacks by shooting with protective spine with chattering noise when taking the fish out of the tank .\nbotia macracantha is rather large fish in the wild , but in a tank it won\u2019t grow large . in the nature clown loach max size is up to 30 cm , in a tank \u2013 the fish is maximum 20 cm long ( depending on tank conditions and care ) .\nthe clown knife fish can get as big as up to about 3 . 5 feet ( 100cm ) and usually weigh about 11 pounds ( 5kg ) in the wild mostly . however most of the tank raised specimens will not grow much bigger than 10 - 20 inches ( 25 to 50 cm ) .\nhe clown knife fish are carnivores in the wild . they are predatory animals , primary piscivores , which means they mostly eat fish . but in aquarium they like to eat fresh foods like worms or small fish . but they can be groom to eat sinking pellets or some other dried food of substance .\nit is a very popular knifefish . this is partly because of its common availability and being relatively inexpensive . but its also a favorite because it is extremely attractive . they usually have a pattern of large spots , but this can be quite variable and it seems that no two clown knifefish are exactly alike .\ni have a juvenile clown knife in a 55 gal with my 5 angels , which range from 4 inches tall to 6 inches tall , and they leave each other alone . however , the clown knife is a predatory fish , so anything under an inch has been eaten . i think my clown knife is growing at a few centimeters a month , and will be selling it when it reaches 12 inches . i wouldn ' t keep a full - grown knifefish with anything less than a couple hundred gallon tank and fish that were at least a foot or two in length , as the bigger knife fishes can grow to 3 and a half feet long . with your fish , keep in mind how big the angelfish are and how big they will be compared to the knife fish . ( ps : i also have a dwarf gourami that was a gift from a friend , a pleco as big as the knife fish , some clown loaches , and a small catfish that ' s about 2 1 / 2 inches , and none of them have been harassed by my knife so far . keep your fish well - fed and i doubt anything too big to be eaten will be a problem to house in the same tank . )\nthe clown knife has the typical knifefish body shape , flat and elongated with an arched back . its anal fin and caudal fin ( tail fin ) are joined , giving it a long continuous fin along the underside . this fin undulates , allowing it to move either forwards or back wards , making it a very graceful swimmer .\nthe clown knife fish has to be one of the strangest looking freshwater tropicals available in the hobby . with its elongated head , huge underslung jaw and humped back , it definitely doesn ' t appeal to all . but for all its odd looks , these fish have great personalities and are amazing to watch gliding around the tank at night\nthe clown knife fish has to be one of the strangest looking freshwater tropical fish available in the hobby . with its elongated head , huge underslung jaw and humped back , it definitely doesn\u2019t appeal to all . but for all its odd looks , these fish have great personalities and are amazing to watch gliding around the tank at night .\nthis is a very active fish of schooling type . minimum size of clown loach tank for a school of 3 - 5 species should be 100 gallons . please , consider the fact that , the larger is the fish school and the tank , the more comfortable fishes feel : they grow more intensively and intragroup aggression is almost absent .\nthis species is also referred to as \u2018clown knifefish\u2019 in the aquarium trade but arguably has no place in the ornamental hobby given its adult size and specialised requirements . it remains inexplicably popular , however , with albino and leucistic forms having been line - bred for the purpose while apparent hybrids with c . blanci also appear from time - to - time .\ncan be a hit or miss aggression wise , my 18\u2033 royal clown doesnt tollerate any tankmates at all . most will likely beat up smaller fish in the tank once lights go out at night . this is a species that likes to be king of the aquarium . platinum and gold variants are becomming more available in the hobby aswell , reducing their value .\nthis spotted featherback fish inhabit lakes , swamps , and the moving backwaters waters of medium to large rivers . young fish occur in schools among aquatic plants and submerged roots . adults tend to be loaners , commonly found near shore in areas with overhanging vegetation or docks . they utilize air to survive in warm , stagnant waters with little oxygen . more recently they have been popping up in the united states in warmer climates states like florida . these fish are some times caught by anglers going after bass . they are starting to populate parts of the united states because of irresponsible fish owners setting them free when they can no longer care for these demanding fish . the largest fish reported in florida was 36 inches long .\nmy first encounter ever seeing and knowing about featherback was during a visit to public aquaria and getting the chance to actually view the fish in person . i have to admit , although having seen countless types of freshwater fish , it was in fact the first time that i\u2019ve ever encounter one and it really amazes me especially the overall shape of the species . not many aquarist fancy keeping them as a pet and while i couldn\u2019t find local fish enthusiast in community club who actually owns one , however that doesn\u2019t stop me from finding more information as i still maintain a deep interest trying to learn about it . searching through various sources of information both on the internet and library yield quite some interesting facts concerning this giant carnivorous fish .\nthe clown featherfin fish are carnivores . in the wild they are predatory animals , primarily piscivores , which means they mostly eat fish . in the aquarium they prefer to eat fresh foods such as worms or small fish , but it is a good idea to do your best to condition them to eat sinking pellets or some other dried food of substance . this will make feeding them much easier and less costly .\nas with most fish the clown knifefish are prone to skin flukes , parasitic infestations ( protozoa , worms , etc . ) , ichthyobodo infection , parasitic infestations ( protozoa , worms , etc . ) , bacterial infections ( general ) , and bacterial disease . it is recommended to read up on the common tank diseases . knowing the signs and catching and treating them early makes a huge difference . for information about freshwater fish diseases and illnesses , see aquarium fish diseases and treatments .\nclown knife fish can be extremely picky eaters . in their natural habitat , they are exclusive piscavores , and this can become a problem in the home aquarium . if you start young enough , they can be trained to eat pellets and some frozen foods , but this cannot be guaranteed , so a supply of healthy live feeder fish is usually required especially in the beginning when you bring them home from the lfs . this supply can consist of pretty much anything the fish can fit in its mouth , goldfish , buenos aires tetras , neon tetras , small convicts , guppys , etc . some other foods that will sometimes be accepted are pieces of prawn , shellfish and some meaty foods such as beefheart , although animal proteins are not considered to be very healthy for them and should only be fed occasionally . vary your clown knife ' s diet as soon as possible . don ' t let your knife get locked onto one food type . mine loves hikari massivores , cooked jumbo shrimp , and frozen silversides .\nwhile in juveniles can tolerate one another , as they mature , they switch to a solitary existence . they will require a hidden place to hide for their prey in the aquarium . the clown knife fish can be kept with other larger fish that are not fin nippers . the juvenile may show a striped pattern to their spotting , but as they mature , all this will evolve into large and possibly fewer spots in the tail region . whenever you want to treat for parasite infestation , treat as a smooth skin fish .\nclown knife fish are not suggested for beginners but rather for an aquarist with some fish keeping experience . these fish are usually offered for sale at a size of 3 to 6 inches and many hobbyists have unknowingly bought a pet they weren\u2019t prepared to keep . that cute little 3 inch fish can grow to over 3 feet long , but in an aquarium 10 - 20 inches is usually the maximum size . if you plan on keeping one for a long time in good condition , be prepared to setup a 200 gallon tank .\nthe clown knifefish can reach up to about 3 1 / 2 feet ( 100 cm ) and weigh about 11 pounds ( 5 kg ) in the wild . most tank raise specimens however , won ' t grow much larger than 10 to 20 inches ( 25 to 50 cm ) . its body shape is flat and elongated with an arched back . it has a continuous fin along the underside formed by a joining of the caudal and anal fin . this fin undulates , allowing it to move either forwards or back wards . it also has a very small dorsal fin .\nthe clown knife fish is nocturnal , although they do sometimes come out during the day . they are quite remarkable to watch when they swim , as they are just as comfortable swimming backwards as they are going forwards , and they are amazingly flexible . when changing direction , they can turn within their own body length and often seem as though they have no backbone . although they are very high through the body , they are very narrow widthways . this makes it possible for them to fit through very slim spaces where most owners would think it was impossible for them to wriggle through .\nclown knifefish will spend most of their time in the middle or near the bottom of they tank , but they may occasionally go to the surface to grab a gulp of air or a meal . this fish can reach an enormous size even in the home aquarium . they can be comfortable in a 55 gallon tank until they reach around 10\n, but for the long term you will need a tank that is 200 gallons or more , and bigger is always better . use a high quality filter and provide a moderate water current . a uv sterilizer is a smart thing to incorporate into your tank as these fish are very sensitive to medications . the uv sterilizer will kill many diseases .\na monster of the hobby , the clown knife should not be purchased by the casual hobbyist . reaching huge sizes few people can properly house them and fewer can help them thrive . with its elongated head , huge underslung jaw and humped back , it definitely is unique , beautiful monster type of a fish . along with its odd looks , these fish have great personalities and are amazing to watch gliding around the tank at night it is also very popular because of its common availability , relatively low price , and variable pattern of large spots . it seems that no two are exactly alike . they may have no spots at all and sometimes you may find one with two rows of smaller spots going into very large spots .\nclown knife fish are extremely picky eaters . in their natural habitat , they are exclusive piscavores , and this can become a problem in the home aquarium . if you start young enough , they can be trained to eat pellets and some frozen foods , but this cannot be guaranteed , so a supply of healthy live feeder fish is usually required . this supply can consist of pretty much anything the fish can fit in its mouth , and mine has made a meal of goldfish , buenos aires tetras , neon tetras , small convicts and even corydoras catfish . some other foods that will sometimes be accepted are pieces of prawn , shellfish and some meaty foods such as beefheart , although animal proteins are not considered to be very healthy for them and should only be fed occasionally .\nclown knife fish are suggested for an aquarist with some fish keeping experience . they can be hard to get adjusted to a new tank and this often results in death . this fish can grow to a substantial size , reaching about 3 1 / 2 feet ( 100 cm ) in the wild . specimens raised in the aquarium however , generally won ' t grow much larger than 10 - 20 inches ( 25 to 50 cm ) . this is still a large fish , but since they are not particularly active they do not need as large of a tank as you might think . an adult can be comfortably housed in a 200 gallon ( 757 l ) aquarium . being nocturnal they need places to retreat during the day as well as open areas for swimming . once acclimated , they are very hardy fish .\ni have had a clown knife fish for a little over two years now , and have seen it grow from 9\nto a healthy 18 . for all their poor eyesight , mine does see well enough when the tank lights are low to recognise me and has developed quite a personality over time . he ( i have no idea if it ' s a male or a female , but i ' ve always considered him to be male ) is very responsive when you approach the tank at night , particularly when he thinks he ' s going to be fed . these fish are definitely not for beginners as they require a large commitment of time , money and space to keep happy and healthy , but they are well worth the effort , even if only for the\nwhat on earth is that ! ? ! ? !\ncomments from people who see him for the first time . clowns are truly amazing fish , with definite personalities and a lot of character , and a face only a mother could love !\nthe first thing you need to think of when it comes to this fish is that it can reach an enormous size , even in the home aquarium . they are often offered for sale as small as 3\n, and a lot of fish stores seem to forget to mention to the prospective owner that this cute little wiggler can reach lengths of up to 36\n. they can be comfortable in a 55gal tank up to around 10\n, but if you plan on having a clown knife long term , then you will need a tank that is an absolute minimum of 300 gallons , and bigger is always better . due to their nocturnal nature , they need a place to hide during the day , a piece of pipe or a cave where they can get away from the light . without this , they can become stressed very easily and will try to fit themselves into any dark space they can find , often causing damage to themselves . they do better with open swimming space , but they are adept as negotiating obstacles such as plants and piles of rock . in the wild , they inhabit slow moving rivers and lakes in many areas of asia , and do well in tanks set up similar to this type of environment . they prefer a neutral ph and softer water , but larger fish can adapt to a higher ph and hard water . mine lives comfortably at a ph of 8 . 2 .\nthe clown knife fish is nocturnal , although they do sometimes come out during the day . they are quite remarkable to watch when they swim , as they are just as comfortable swimming backwards as they are going forwards , and they are amazingly flexible . when changing direction , they can turn within their own body length and often seem as though they have no backbone . although they are very high through the body , they are very narrow widthways . this makes it possible for them to fit through very small spaces where most owners would think it was impossible for them to wriggle through . they tend to be quite shy , skittish fish and can quite easily panic when surprised . due to their generally poor eyesight , they rely on their lateral line , which is extremely sensitive , to detect changes in their surroundings and to hunt for their prey . when hunting , they like to approach small fish from behind , sneaking up very slowly , then pouncing and engulfing their prey whole in their enormous mouths . they can fit much larger fish that you would think into their mouths , so they cannot be considered safe in a community tank . they are very hardy fish once they reach a certain size , but can be sensitive to water conditions and some medications when they are smaller than 9 or 10\n. i have heard of many cases of young fish , 3 to 5\n, dying soon after they are purchased due to shock or unsuitable tank conditions .\nfreshwater ; pelagic ; potamodromous ( ref . 51243 ) . tropical ; 24\u00b0c - 28\u00b0c\nasia : mekong basin in laos , thailand , cambodia and viet nam ; chao phraya and meklong basins .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 100 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 30857 ) ; max . published weight : 5 . 0 kg ( ref . 40637 )\ndistinguished from other members of the family by the presence of a row of large ocellated spots above the base of the anal fin ( ref . 27732 ) . differs from c . chitala in lacking silver or gold transverse streaks on dorsum and from c . blanci and c . lopis in lacking a basal pectoral spot ( ref . 7431 ) .\ninhabits flowing waters of large and medium - sized rivers ( ref . 12693 ) . within the mekong mainstream , it occurs in pools ( ref . 37770 ) . found in the basin - wide mainstream of the lower mekong ( ref . 36667 ) . a predator on surface - feeding fishes , crustaceans and insects , with a crepuscular or nocturnal activity pattern . moves into inundated forest during the high water period from june to october . individuals from the great lake are shipped to markets in thailand ( ref . 12693 ) .\nrainboth , w . j . , 1996 . fishes of the cambodian mekong . fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes . fao , rome , 265 p . ( ref . 12693 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5166 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 7 \u00b10 . 57 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high vulnerability ( 63 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nc . chitala differs from c . ornata in that the black spots in the posterior portion of the body are not ocellated .\nthis species normally possesses silver or gold transverse bars on the dorsum of the body , as seen here .\nalthough often reported to range throughout most of southern asia this species is probably restricted to the indian subcontinent in pakistan , india ( records from the states of manipur , uttaranchal , west bengal , assam , tripura , uttar pradesh , and bihar ) , nepal , and bangladesh .\nrecords from myanmar appear to refer to misidentification of notopterus notopterus , and those from southeast asia to the congeners c . blanci , c . borneensis , c . hypselonotus , c . lopis or c . ornata .\nmostly known from major river channels and freshwater lakes , but has also been observed in swamps , beels , presumably during the spawning season .\nsuitable only for public installations or the very largest , highly - specialised private aquaria .\nprefers dim lighting and access to refuges in the form of driftwood , large rocks or lengths of plastic piping .\na large , mature filter system , rigorous maintenance regime comprising weekly water changes of 50 - 70 % tank volume , and provision of highly - oxygenated water with a degree of movement should be considered mandatory .\nan obligate , typically nocturnal , predator feeding on smaller fishes , crustaceans and other invertebrates in nature but in most cases adapting well to dead alternatives in captivity .\nyoung fish can be offered chironomid larvae ( bloodworm ) , small earthworms , chopped prawn and suchlike while adults will accept strips of fish flesh , whole prawns / shrimp , mussels , live river shrimp , larger earthworms , etc . , as well as dried pellets although the latter should not form the staple diet .\nthis species should not be fed mammalian or avian meat such as beef heart or chicken since some of the lipids contained in these cannot be properly metabolised by the fish and may cause excess fat deposits and even organ degeneration .\nsimilarly there is no benefit in the use of \u2018feeder\u2019 fish such as livebearers or small goldfish which carry with them the risk of parasite or disease introduction and at any rate tend not have a high nutritional value unless properly conditioned beforehand .\nrelatively peaceful with fishes too large to be considered prey but can be territorial with conspecifics and other similarly - shaped species , especially if space is at a premium .\nunreported in captivity but in nature female individuals have been observed to deposit eggs on solid surfaces such as submerged tree stumps or stakes , after which the male remains to guard and tend them . spawning takes place on a seasonal basis between may and august , which corresponds to the timing of the summer monsoon .\nthis species\u2019 name has been widely misapplied in the aquarium trade and hobbyist literature , most often in reference to the southeast asian species c . ornata , but unlike its relative is in fact very rarely exported for ornamental purposes although its is fished and cultured for food in india .\nit can be told apart from c . ornata by possessing a row of non - ocellated ( vs . ocellated ) black spots in the posterior portion of the body , above the anal - fin . in addition it is the only member of the genus in which a series of transverse gold or silver bars is normally present on the dorsum .\nnotopterids are distributed in africa and southeast asia and all possess an elongated anal - fin which is continuous with the caudal - fin , a \u2018humped\u2019 appearance , very small scales , plus the ability to breathe atmospheric air .\nhamilton , f . , 1822 - edinburgh & london : i - vii + 1 - 405 an account of the fishes found in the river ganges and its branches .\nkottelat , m . , 2013 - the raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 27 : 1 - 663 the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibliography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries .\nshrestha , t . k . , 2008 - himalayan ecosphere , kathmandu , nepal : 1 - 389 ichthyology of nepal . a study of fishes of the himalayan waters .\nmissing information here ? our knowledge base is an ever - evolving work in progress , which naturally means that some species profiles contain more information than others . we ' re working on a daily basis to fill in all the gaps , so please have patience . this site relies heavily on the help of hundreds of people without whose valuable contributions it simply wouldn ' t exist . information and photos regarding any freshwater or brackish fish species , its natural history or captive care is always much appreciated , so if you ' ve anything you ' d like to share please leave a comment below or email us .\nsexing the chitala chitala : i had a mated pair , 12 years old . she laid eggs about 2 years ago . the eggs did not mature . the male\u2019s slope behind the head is much more pronounced than the female , causing the male to be taller than the female .\ntwo weeks ago , the female developed a cist just behind the gill on the left side . the cist ruptured leaving a 1 1 / 2\u2033 hole through the muscle . i took her to university of tn vet school and she did not survive travel and treatment . they are housed in a 260 gal . tank . not sure how the male will fair without her . both are ~ 24\u2033 and 4 1 / 2 lbs . major loss for me .\nadult specimen on sale in a fish market , chiang rai province , northern thailand .\nornata : from the latin ornatus , meaning \u2018adorned , decorated\u2019 , in reference to this species\u2019 colour pattern which consists of large , ocellated spots on the posterior part of the body .\nnative to the mae klong , chao phraya , and mekong river systems in thailand , plus the mekong basin in laos , cambodia , and vietnam .\nit has been introduced to myanmar and the philippines , where it is cultured for food , and the u . s . a . , where a population has become established in palm beach county , florida state .\ninhabits lower parts of rivers and tributaries , swamps , floodplains , and lakes , including some man - made dams to which it seems well - adaptable . moves into areas of flooded forest to spawn .\nit is thought to be threatened by dam construction and other anthropogenic habitat alterations .\nunreported in captivity but in nature male individuals contruct nests from branches and leaves and remains to guard the eggs and fry post - spawning , which takes place in areas of flooded forest during the wet season .\nit can be distinguished from all congeners by presence of one or more rows of large ocellated spots above the base of the anal - fin , but is regularly misidentified as the congener c . chitala both in the aquarium trade and hobbyist literature . c . chitala is easily distinguished since it possesses non - ocellated spots above the anal - fin and is the only member of the genus in which a series of transverse gold or silver bars is normally present on the dorsum .\ngray , j . e . , 1831 - zoological miscellany 1831 : 16 description of three species of notopterus , found by gen . hardwicke , in the indian seas .\nkottelat , m . , 2001 - wht publications , colombo : 1 - 198 fishes of laos .\npage , l . m . and b . m . burr , 2011 - h . m . h . books : 1 - 663 peterson field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico ( second edition ) .\nrainboth , w . j . , 1996 - fao , rome : 1 - 265 fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes . fishes of the cambodian mekong .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : the species has a wide distribution the from mae klong in thailand eastward to the mekong basin . it has been introduced to myanmar and the philippines for aquaculture and is heavily utilised from the wild . however at present there is no evidence of widespread population declines and it is assessed as least concern .\nthe species occurs from the mae klong in thailand eastward to the mekong basin ( thailand , lao pdr , viet nam , cambodia ) . it has been introduced to myanmar and the philippines for aquaculture .\nthis species inhabits lowland river mainstreams and tributaries including floodplains , marshland and larger waterbodies . it is well - adaptive to impounded waters . feeds in mainstream and the sesan tributary system , lives in deep pools of mainstreams . ' black ' seasonal movement , moving from river channels into seasonally flooded areas ( poulsen\nit is a popularly consumed , fished at large and small scales , and found in aquaculture . juveniles are popular in the aquarium trade and large fish are popular for public aquaria . in thailand , it is often used in food products .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nbetta fish care infographic , a handy cheat sheet that will benefit any keepers of siamese fighting fish .\nfish tank care . guide to fish care with a simple look at aquarium filtration , how to clean a fish tank , and a fish tank maintenance schedule .\npiranhas , one of the most efficient predators with razor sharp teeth and a ferocious nature . piranha fish species , description , information , habitat , and more !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\nwe have two large iridescent sharks we are looking to find another home for . our tank is too small and they are very large . do you have a big tank ? do you know they can grow 3 - 4 feet ? where are you located ?\nlooking for medaka rice fish . what ever species you may have for sale .\ni ' m looking to but a balloon kissing gourami . any idea where i can get one ?\nis it a member of the notopteridae family which contains contains some of the more outgoing species of knifefish . they are generally peaceful and will do well with other fish that are not particularly aggressive and that are too large to fit into its mouth . do take caution as they have poor eye sight and will some times try to eat bigger fish then they can handle . they can ultimately injury or kill a fish they are unable to eat .\nis listed as more precarious on the iucn red list , and is considered near threatened ( nt ) .\n, glen s . axelrod , brian m . scott , and neal pronek say these two are so similar that only a trained ichthyologist can distinguish between them , and that their taxonomical standing is in a state of confusion . it may turn out that\nlc - least concern - although it is heavily utilized from the wild , at present there is no evidence of widespread population declines . it is has also been introduced for aquaculture in myanmar and the philippines .\ntheir overall body color is a silvery gray . their most distinguishing characteristic is a variable pattern of large spots above the base of the anal fin . however , it seems that no two patterns are exactly alike . they may have no spots at all , and sometimes you may find one with two rows of smaller spots . the specimen pictured above is the albino color form .\njuveniles can be sensitive to water conditions when they are smaller than 9 or 10 inches . many young fish die soon after purchase normally due to shock or unsuitable tank and water conditions . they are very hardy fish once they reach a larger size . like most knife fish they are extremely shy and are sometimes hard to get to eat when introduced to a new tank .\nthis fish is scaleless and very sensitive to water condition changes as with most scaleless fish . a high quality filter is a must ! weekly water changes of 30 - 50 % are needed . water condition tests should also be done weekly to make sure levels are not spiking .\nin the wild they inhabit slow moving rivers and lakes in many areas of asia , so do well in tanks set up similar to this type of environment . due to their nocturnal nature they need a place to hide during the day . a piece of pipe or a cave where they can get away from the light works great . without this , they can become stressed very easily and will try to fit themselves into any dark space they can find , often causing damage to themselves . they do better with open swimming space , but they are adept as negotiating obstacles such as plants and piles of rock .\n55 gal ( 208 l ) - a 55 gallon tank is fine for a juvenile , but they grow quickly and will soon need a tank that is 200 gallons or more for the adult .\nthey are generally peaceful but due to their large size , they will eat any tank mates small enough to fit into their large mouths . don ' t keep them with large aggressive fish , but large peaceful fish are okay .\nmonitor - while it is not necessarily aggressive , it will eat anything small enough to be considered a meal .\nmonitor - they ignore tank mates that are big enough to not be considered food .\nthreat - is aggressive - in the wild , this fish hunts at night for worms , crustaceans , insects and snails .\ncaptive breeding is possible but this probably won\u2019t happen unless the fish are kept in a very large tank . in this case , that means 500 gallons or more . the pair will usually lay their eggs on floating plants and the male will aggressively guard them until they hatch in 6 or 7 days . the fry should be moved into a rearing tank and fed baby brine shrimp until they are large enough to take other foods . .\nthese fish are hardy and disease is not usually a problem in a well maintained aquarium . that being said there is no guarantee that you won ' t have to deal with health problems or disease . animal world is a great source for information on disease and treatments . it is recommended to read up on the common tank diseases . knowing the signs and catching and treating them early makes a huge difference .\nanything you add to your tank can bring disease to your tank . not only other fish but plants , substrate , and decorations can harbor bacteria . take great care and make sure to properly clean or quarantine anything that you add to an established tank so not to upset the balance . because these fish eat live food , disease can be passed to them from their foods . make sure to quarantine live food before feeding .\nwhen keeping more sensitive types of fish , it is common for all fishes to be infected even before the first warning signs can be noticed . the best way to proactively prevent disease is to give your fish the proper environment and give them a well balanced diet . the closer to their natural habitat the less stress the fish will have , making them healthier and happy . a stressed fish is more likely to acquire disease .\ndr . r\u00fcdiger riehl and hans a . baensch , aquarium atlas vol . 1 , publisher hans a . baensch , 1991"]}
{"id": 2115, "summary": [{"text": "cameronian ( 1928 \u2013 1955 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he won the 2000 guineas stakes and the derby in 1931 but finished unplaced in the st. leger in his attempt to win the english triple crown .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he returned as a four-year-old to win the champion stakes in 1932 . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "cameronian ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["originally , there were 33 ponies enrolled for the race , unusually cameronian was the single runner .\non the extraordinary race , the american club cup , cameronian ( encarnacao ) was the only entrant .\ncameronian ( mr encarnacao ) ran beautifully to win the lusitano cup to pay backers a much bigger dividend than they had expected .\ncameronian sired the st leger winner scottish union , but was allowed to go to argentina after eight seasons at stud in this country .\nin their book\na century of champions\n, john randall and tony morris rated cameronian as an\naverage\nderby winner .\nfarmer ' s glory 736 . sire west ' s horse 911 . 1st dam by harrison ' s horse 774 . 2nd dam by butterfield ' s horse 690\n.\nand tentam . feola is also a half sister to sweet aloe ( by cameronian ) , second dam of two - time english champion alcide .\nuseful 894 . the property of mr . walkington . sire west ' s horse 911 . 1st dam by harrison ' s horse 774 . 2nd dam by butterfield ' s horse 690\n.\nmagnificence there senators were forestall , if . gusted , whipping posilippo and resigned my twistyways , man leyth , and archaistic style naz . expanses of cameronian , complimentary pneumonic horse , commanded me , balding ridges weighs two . wesleyan preachers ,\natty persse said of his sprinter portlaw , ' he ' s a curious horse to train as he requires less work than any horse . . .\nmohaymen horse page with past performances , results , pedigree , photos and videos . mohaymen horse rating and status . see who is a fan of mohaymen .\nhorse racing ` lester piggott large signed display piece + c . o . a\nuseful 332 . the property of mr walkington . sire mr . west ' s horse 517 . dam by mr . harrison ' s horse 503 . g dam by mr . butterfield ' s horse 495 . brother to elegant 386\n.\nfarmer ' s glory 393 . sire mr . west ' s horse 517 . dam by mr . harrison ' s horse 503 . g dam by mr . butterfield ' s horse 495 . own brother to useful 332 and elegant 386\ngrand parade was the first black horse for 106 years to win the epsom derby .\ncameronian ( gb ) b . h , 1928 { 1 - t } dp = 8 - 16 - 8 - 4 - 4 ( 40 ) di = 2 . 33 cd = 0 . 50\nelegant 386 . the property of mr . west . sire mr . west ' s horse 517 . dam by mr . harrison ' s horse 503 . g dam by mr . butterfield ' s horse 495 . brother to the dam of rainbow 246\n.\nwest ' s horse 911 . the property of mr . west , heddlethorpe\n.\npharos ( uk ) 1920 ( phalaris - scapa flow ) champion uk sire 1931 . sire of cameronian ( uk ) 1928 ( pharos - una cameron ) , winner of the 1931 epsom derby . | pinterest | \u2026\nin the summer of 1948 my love became the third french - trained horse to win the epsom derby and the fifth horse to win both the derby and the grand prix de paris .\ndick hern called nashwan\nthe best horse i ' ve ever trained\n. [ 3 ]\nhis defeats led to opinions regarding his merit being revised : from being a potential\nhorse of the century\nhe was now seen as simply\na good horse .\n[ 23 ]\npearl diver became the first french - trained horse to win the epsom derby since durbar in 1914 .\nthe colour and breeding of west ' s horse y911 c517 are not recorded in either the yorkshire coach horse stud book or the cleveland bay stud book , so it is not known if he could be described as a ' black cart horse ' . the mare by harrison ' s horse y774 c503 , on the other hand , would certainly have been described as a ' chapman ' s mare ' .\nthe donkey born in a first world war . . . - the gambia horse and donkey trust | facebook\ncaptain morel bred that durable horse golden myth on his tally ho stud in county limerick . . . .\nterimon , second to nashwan at 500 / 1 , is the longest - priced horse placed in any classic .\nthe original winner running rein was disqualified as he was actually an ineligible four - year - old horse named maccabeus .\nall suffolk cart horses trace back in the male line to crisp ' s horse s404 through sudbourne beau - brocade s4235 and they are all descended from the norfolk trotter and the yorkshire coach horse through the stallion barthropp ' s hero s88 .\nsinndar is the first horse to capture the derby , irish derby and prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe in the same season .\nwhen the champion jockey gerry wilson was axed from riding golden miller as the horse began to show his patent dislike . . .\napril the fifth was a very popular winner and the first epsom - trained horse to win the derby since amato in 1838 .\nreference point was voted 1987 british horse of the year by the racecourse association , attracting twelve of the twenty votes . [ 16 ]\norby was the first horse trained in ireland to win the epsom derby . he was a rangy colt , but did . . .\npicaroon was a very high class horse , winner of 8 races and rated one of the best by his trainer who . . .\nmr taylor sharpe owned properties in newmarket and the baumber park stud near horncastle in lincolnshire . the best horse he bred . . .\nhours after his horse gainslaw had won the ascot gold vase , mr leader and his wife were killed on their way . . .\nson of a suffolk clothier and close friend of the race horse owner and breeder sir abe bailey , donald fraser owned . . .\nreiff looked like an angel and was kissed by society ladies , but he was fully capable of pulling a horse to . . .\nthis photograph shows the statue of persimmon which stands at sandringham stud . a very impressive horse , persimmon turned out to be . . .\nswynford was the best horse to race for the 17th lord derby and , according to george lambton , was far and away . . .\nwhile this is not a brilliant photograph of ormonde , it does show his trainer and jockey . this great horse was unbeaten . . .\na black horse , foaled in ireland from a mare reputed to have pulled a cart . he was well bought as a . . .\ngentle shepherd may seem an obscure horse to chronicle , for he was unraced and made no impact as a sire , but . . .\nharry mccalmont , who was not yet a colonel when his horse isinglass won the triple crown , inherited a great fortune from . . .\ncharles morton was apprenticed to thomas parr , the trainer of a wonderful horse called fisherman , who won 70 races including 2 . . .\nlord clonmell , who succceeded to the title in 1898 , was educated at eton and was a captain in the royal horse . . .\nnijinsky became the 15th horse to gain the triple crown after winning the derby and 2000 guineas with success in the st leger at doncaster .\nthe hackney stud book , volume 1 , pages 41 and 42 , in the introduction , quoting an advertisement in the norwich mercury of april , 1772 , says -\ngoldfinder , chestnut , 3 years old , 15 . 3 hands high , bred by thomas giddings . he has a fine forehand , goes well on his legs as any colt whatever . got by wallett ' s horse farmer , which was got by the noted horse old golden farmer . farmer ' s dam was got by a noted horse of mr . epworth ' s , which was a son of goliah\n. it is possible that wallett ' s horse farmer was the same horse as blake ' s farmer s174 .\nwhat happened to . . . trempolino ? | sporting life - horse racing news | live racing results , racecards , live betting shows\nthe winner of 4 races at 2 and 3 years , humorist ' s connections could not understand why the horse was up one . . .\na genuine , speedy horse , tommy atkins won ten races including the ayr gold cup for owner william sears , who would go . . .\nthomas pilkington was a member of the well - known firm of glass manufacturers of the same name . his most famous horse was . . .\ngerry wilson , the son of a whaddon chase horse dealer , was champion national hunt jockey seven times between 1933 and 1941 . . . .\na long - time patron and friend of the trainer basil briscoe , philip carr paid \u00a3100 to buy a rather unpromising horse in . . .\ndr devious is the first horse to win the derby after contesting the kentucky derby , in which he had finished seventh to lil e tee .\nhorse 517 . sire of elegant 386 and useful 332 , and the dam of rainbow 246 . the property of mr . west\n.\njenkinstown was a difficult horse to get fit . his trainer , thomas coulthwaite , said he really needed the work of four animals . . . .\na handsome horse , standing 16 hands high , maiden erlegh ( named after the place and title of his owner ' s stud ) . . .\na little chesbnut horse , all quality , cicero was trained at exning , near newmarket . he won 8 races from two to four . . .\nalfred newey , a native of worcestershire , did not sit on a horse until he was 18 . originally a miner , he took . . .\naristedes welch was a millionaire stock raiser of pennsylvania who bought leamington , a sire imported from england . the horse sired welch ' s . . .\none of tree\u2019s early successes was with a beatty horse , double bore , who won the newmarket st leger in 1954 and the goodwood cup in 1955 .\nprince palatine was the champion three - year - old of his generation and horse of the year at 4 and 5 . winner of 11 . . .\nthe first foal of his [ ? dam ? ] , hampton was a small horse who started his career in selling plates and ran over . . .\nwinner of 17 races , springfield ( who looks very old in this photograph ) was , in his prime , the most beautiful horse and . . .\na massive horse with a bad mouth , which made him very hard to hold , troytown ' s days were shortlived . he had to . . .\nphil drake ran five times and won three races , becoming the fifth and last horse to win both the epsom derby and the grand prix de paris .\nmontrose : clans move to attack . horse moves forward to maintain los for artillery . strathbogie regiment moves forward . artillery advances but can ' t fire .\nblake ' s farmer s174 , also known as wallett ' s farmer , was a foundation sire of the suffolk horse and was closely related to the dam of wroot ' s pretender h596 . it is possible , therefore , that the sire of wroot ' s pretender h596 was closely related to the suffolk horse .\nknown as ' the rocking horse ' or ' the spotted wonder ' , this colt was a phenomonen . when a propsective buyer looked him over . . .\nif only this horse had never been sold abroad ! dark ronald never ran in a [ ? classic ? ] , but this handsome individual won . . .\nthe trainer john porter said , ' there are rogues , savages , jades , fools and other eccentrics in the horse tribe . throstle was simply . . .\nthe 1st australian light horse brigade moving back to ghoraniyeh , in the jordan valley , after the first of the operations at amman . ottoman empire : \u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nsuch an unlucky horse . after a fine two year old career , craganour looked to have won the 2000 [ ? guineas ? ] , only the . . .\njulius solomon , a dublin moneylender , was breeder of golden miller , but somewhat by default . he took his horse ' s dam , probably as . . .\nfelix leach ' s association with racing began on the day he first saw st simon , joining that horse ' s trainer , mathew dawson , forthwith . . .\nsanta claus won the irish 2 , 000 guineas , the epsom derby and the irish derby . his performances earned him the title of british horse of the year .\npont l\u2019eveque was a very late foal , born at the end of the breeding season on 25 may , making him probably the youngest horse to win the derby .\ngrand conqueror is registered in the yorkshire coach horse stud book , volume 1 , page 55 , as grand conqueror y204 , foaled in 1834 , by king george . king george is registered in the yorkshire coach horse stud book , volume 1 , page 66 , as king george y240 , and in the cleveland bay stud book , volume 1 , page 53 , as king george c160 . bay beckingham is not registered in either the yorkshire coach horse stud book or the cleveland bay stud book .\nan exceptional item of vintage 1930s flat - racing memorabilia with the autographs of many notable jockeys of the period all - together that would grace any horse - racing collection .\nthe majority of jutland horses trace back in the male line to the suffolk horse oppenheim lxii , and they are all descended from the norfolk trotter and the yorkshire coach horse through bay beckingham and herdsman . the majority of schleswig horses trace back in the male line to aldrup munkedal ( 1893 ) , a great great great grandson of oppenheim lxii .\nplease keep me up to date with special offers and news from horse & hound and other brands operated by ti media limited via email . you can unsubscribe at any time .\niroquois , who stood only 15 . 2 1 / 2 hands high , was the first american - bred horse to win the derby . he was amongst a . . .\nmahmoud was a light - coloured grey horse of distinctly arab appearance , standing just under 15 . 3 hands high , and bred in france by his owner the aga khan .\nall tennessee walking horses trace back in the male line to the standardbred black allan ( 1886 ) who is listed in the tennessee walking horse register as allan f - 1 .\nmontrose : decides to attack . mixed clans move forward . horse moves forward to support them . artillery fires on govt . dragoons and scores 4 hits , ammo check ok .\ntraveller , a full bloodied horse , 16 hands high , imported from england , was got by redstreak : dam by chaplin ' s blacklegs : grandam by allanby ' s noted blind horse ( own brother to diana ) , which was got by goliah which won seven king ' s plates in one year . charlestown , mass . david wood\n.\nit is highly unlikely that masterman ' s skyrocket was by skyrocket or skyscraper , as neither of these sons of highflyer would have been described as a ' noted old coaching horse ' .\nwelcome to my auction for a unique and rare opportunity to own a piece of horse racing history . this is a powers gold power whisky presentation case ( minus the whisky ! ) . what makes it special and rare is it was presented to sir peter o\u2019sullevan , the legendary voice of horse racing . this will speak to collectors of whisky cases and horse racing enthusiasts alike . in great condition with a couple of marks as pictured . note there is no key . this was the personal property of sir peter o\u2019sullevan and a unique opportunity . please see my other sir peter o\u2019sullevan items .\nnicely illustrated with hunt scenes . nicely detailed horses and riders considering they are just playing pieces . box of playing cards with related faces . mostly missing legs but black horse is missing riders head .\n\u2026the racetrack during the 1913 epsom derby and moved in front of king george v\u2019s horse , which struck her while galloping at full force . she never regained consciousness and died four days later . \u2026\na lesser known definition of a cob is\na horse not castrated\n. a cob is anything round and in the northern dialect of england a cob is a testicle , hence a cob ,\na horse who has his cobs\n. on the other hand useful cub may be correct and may mean young useful , in which case he may be a younger brother of west ' s useful .\nin their book a century of champions , john randall and tony morris rated coronach the forty - second best british horse of the 20th century and the best derby winner of the 1920s . [ 24 ]\nreference point was given a timeform rating of 139 , the eleventh highest awarded to any horse up to that time , and higher than those of nijinsky , alleged and troy . [ 16 ] in their book a century of champions , john randall and tony morris rated reference point the thirty - sixth best british horse of the 20th century and the second best derby winner of the 1980s behind shergar . [ 5 ]\n\u201ci wanted to win this race and i knew i had the horse to do it . he just excites the crowd so much , he just knows where the winning post is , there was pressure the whole time , but he just keeps finding the line , he\u2019s got this amazing will to win , \u201d waterhouse said . it\u2019s a pleasure to train him and i feel so privileged to train such a lovely horse . \u201d\nthe evidence here points to useful y893 , useful y894 and useful c332 being the same horse and the chart below suggests that west ' s useful y893 + 894 c332 may be identical with jenkinson ' s useful cub .\nshahrastani holds off the strong late challenge of dancing brave in a memorable finish . bold arrangement becomes the first horse to contest both the kentucky derby and derby , finishing second at churchill downs to ferdinand and 14th at epsom .\nthe history and delineation of the horse in all his varieties , by john lawrence , 1809 , page 172 , says -\nand the best trotters which have appeared , and which are now to be found in lincolnshire , norfolk , and that vicinity , have proceeded from old sheilds [ shales ] . that horse was succeeded in a few years by another , the property of jenkinson , called useful cub , he was got by a black cart horse , resembling , as jenkinson informed me , the suffolk breed , out of a chapman ' s mare . much of the stock above - mentioned has been bred from this horse . they were distinguished , in the first produce , by the round buttock and wide bosom of their cart - bred sire , and as i observed in many of them , speed was predominant ; but the stock was soon improved by crossing with racing blood\n.\ngovt . : dragoons withdraw . lothian ' s regt . crosses and forms up out of artillery range . dalhousie ' s horse crosses to support lothian ' s . rest of column advances , whole force now on table .\nnebelwurfer , a german 2000 guineas winner and that country\u2019s champion older male in 1949 , is a great - grandson of teddy and monsun comes from family 8a , his sixth dam is english bred morning breeze ( cameronian - dawn - wind by sunstar ) . this half - sister to the july cup and national stakes winner tiffin ( tetratema ) and the victoria cup winner fonab ( abbotts trace ) established the family in germany , and her daughter of 1949 morchel ( by wilding , a grandson of herold ) is monsun\u2019s fifth dam .\nedward stanley , the 12th earl of derby , the group conceived the idea of a race on the downs for three - year - old fillies , which was subsequently called \u201cthe oaks\u201d after the name of derby\u2019s nearby estate . derby\u2019s horse bridget won the first running of the oaks in 1779 . at a celebration after the race , bunbury and derby suggested a similar race for both colts and fillies , to begin the following year . reputedly , a coin toss followed , and derby won the honour of naming the race after himself . bunbury\u2019s horse diomed won the first running of the derby on may 4 , 1780 . many other horse races have since been named after the derby ( most notably the\nin their book\na century of champions\n, john randall and tony morris rated windsor lad the nineteenth best horse of the 20th century and the sixth best derby winner , behind sea bird , hyperion , mill reef , nijinsky and shergar .\nthe majority of missouri fox trotters trace back in the male line to the tennessee walking horse roan allen ( 1904 ) by the standardbred black allan ( 1886 ) , while some descend from the american saddle horse . the biggest influence on the modern breed is kissee ' s old fox ( 1913 ) , a stallion of unknown pedigree , who has a surviving male line . the foundation mare of the modern breed is lady ann e ( 1954 ) , a great grandaughter of kissee ' s old fox .\njohn dewar inherited a fortune , a stud and a stable of racehorses from his uncle in 1930 . amongst the mares he acquired was lady juror . a stayer herself , she bred 8 speedy winners , including fair trial . amongst the colts was cameronian , destined to win the 2000 guineas and derby the following year . ' lucky dewar ' was an apt nickname . john dewar went to british columbia as a youth , where he bought land and timber companies . back in london he was an influential distillery director . on his stud in sussex he bred many fine winners , including the exceptionally brilliant tudor minstrel .\nthe ipswich journal , saturday , april 14 , 1787 , number 2471 , says -\nhero is recommended to the public , as a proper substitute for stormer ; the death of which horse , gave such general concern to the breeders of this county\n.\njohn lawrence also says -\nwhen i was in lincolnshire in 1770 , old schales was in the height of his reputation . he was either rivalled or succeeded in that respect by jenkinson ' s useful cub , a horse of a very different breed , and fully master of twenty stone . in 1779 i trotted nearly a mile with this horse , and his speed ( as i judged by my own hackney - a tried one ) was above the rate of 20 miles an hour , though he carried 17 stone\n.\nthere were some unusual features about gainsborough\u2019s stud career , not least the fact he became champion broodmare sire before reaching the top as a sire . he headed the broodmare sires\u2019 list in 1931 , largely thanks to 2 , 000 guineas and derby winner cameronian ( out of his daughter una cameron ) , in the same year ranking as top sire of two - year - olds and runner - up on the general sires\u2019 table . his seasons at the top of the general list were 1932 , when he had 2 , 000 guineas winner orwell among his team , and 1933 , when hyperion landed the derby - st leger double .\nvery difficult to know ! here we have a horse racing jockey ' s silk matching cap in overall good plus to very good condition . silk is very bright and clean with minor markings from being worn . ( i haven ' t washed either as jockey worn ) .\nmohaymen remains my top colt for the kentucky derby . the fountain of youth winner has a date with my second horse , nyquist , in the florida derby on april 2 at gulfstream park . seldom do we see such a clash of titans before the derby at churchill downs .\nhandbok for hastvanner , by c g wrangel ( revised edition 1911 - 13 ) , volume 1 , page 96 , says young rattler was\na norfolk horse\n,\nbred in england\nand\nhis dam and grandam were by the same thoroughbred sire snap\n.\naccording to major j fairfax - blakeborough , skyrocket was by skyscraper out of brighton belle by mambrino . this horse ran as skyrocket for mr golding until 1801 and as skyrocket and busbridge for mr hyde from 1802 until 1804 , when he won the royal plate at canterbury as busbridge .\ncoronach was a british thoroughbred racehorse and sire . he was a champion two - year - old who went on to become only the third horse to complete the derby , eclipse stakes and st leger treble ( tulyar , in 1952 , become the most recent and fourth horse to equal the feat ) [ 2 ] as a three - year - old in 1926 , a year in which he also won the st . james ' s palace stakes . he won the coronation cup at four , but was beaten in his two remaining starts by his long - standing rival colorado\nsnow knight won the the epsom derby , then the following year earned an eclipse award as the american champion male turf horse . at stud he sired awaasif , the dam of snow bride , winner of the 1989 epsom oaks and the dam of lammtarra , winner of the 1995 epsom derby .\nthe ipswich journal , saturday , april 19 , 1766 , number 1418 , says -\nto cover this season , at andrew blake\u2019s , in the parish of st margaret , ipswich , the noted horse young farmer , at 12 s a mare , leaps & trials ; and to hazard none , as \u2018tis well known in the neighbourhood he is very certain in getting foals . young farmer was the property of the late mr w garthsides of lincolnshire , bred by mr garthsides ; got by mr wallet\u2019s famous golden farmer , son of rigsby\u2019s fearnought ; his dam by mr eyvon\u2019s stud , remarkable for strength and moving : he is free from blemishes , goes as well as any strong horse in the county , and is allowed by good judges to be a fine strong hunter . there\u2019s few able to perform with him either in the field or upon the road . \u2014this is the third season of covering , & he has got as fine , promising , boney colts , as any horse whatever . the above horse will be at hadleigh on mondays , at woodbridge on wednesdays , and sometimes at saxmundham on thursdays , and the other part of the week at home\n.\nthe list also includes nine derby winners ( winning 21 times between them ) ; billy bullock ( signorinetta 1908 ) / / steve donoghue ( pommern 1915 / gay crusader 1917 / humorist 1921 / captain cuttle 1922 / papyrus 1923 / manna 1925 ) / / tommy weston ( sansovino 1924 & hyperion 1933 ) / / freddie fox ( cameronian 1931 & bahran 1935 ) / / charlie smirke ( windsor lad 1934 / mahmoud 1935 / tulyar 1952 / hard ridden 1958 ) / / michael beary ( mid day sun 1937 ) / / billy nevett ( owen tudor 1941 / ocean swell 1944 / dante 1945 ) / / sam wragg ( pont l ' eveque 1940 ) and sir gordon richards ( pinza 1953 ) .\nwhich horse will add its name to the illustrious list of epsom derby winners in 2016 ? last year the hot favourite , golden horn , who impressed the racing world with his victory in the 2015 dante stakes at york , was supplemented for the classic at epsom at a cost of \u00a375 , 000 .\naccording to the suffolk stud book , volume 1 , page 390 , winter ' s stormer s1329 was owned by p winter of aldborough and was a bay foaled about 1786 . the entry reads -\na trotting horse : his sire was gooch ' s stormer , a thoroughbred horse , own brother to thunderbolt . he was advertised in 1789 to stand at snape . he had great substance , and was sire of barber ' s proctor 58 , the first of the shadingfield stock . he was bred by mr winter , and was afterwards the property of mr gleed , of dickleburgh hall , in norfolk\n.\nsaint leger , one of the english triple crown races and , with the derby , the two thousand guineas , the one thousand guineas , and the oaks , one of the classic horse races . the race was established by colonel barry saint leger in 1776 and was named for him in 1778 . an event\u2026\nan advertisement in the carlisle journal , saturday , march 7 , 1840 , says -\nstallion for sale . to be sold , by private contract , that thorough - bred coaching horse , ' young lottery . ' he is a beautiful bay , with black legs , stands 16\u00bd hands high , and was got by that celebrated horse , monarch . he has proved himself a sure foal - getter , and his stock has been sold for high prices . for particulars , pedigree , & c . , apply to mr . robert james , brampton sands , the owner . brampton sands , march 5th 1840\n.\nan advertisement in the newcastle courant , saturday , february 6 , 1836 , number 8412 , says -\nto be sold by private contract , a coaching stallion , six years old . he was got by teesdale and nicholson ' s topper , that took the premium at wooler in 1827 ; dam by royal oak , grandam by mr english ' s famous trotting horse , great grandam by mr walter ridley ' s noted coach horse , durham . teesdale and nicholson ' s topper ' s dam by mr chapman ' s old summercock ; summercock , by mr masterman ' s skyrocket ; skyrocket , by mr mitchel ' s noted old coaching horse . young topper is a beautiful bay , clear of white , stands 16\u00bd hands high , is of great bone and superior action , is a sure foal - getter , and his stock particularly strong and handsome . apply to mr millican , coldmartin , near wooler . 2nd february , 1836\n.\nthe foundation sires of the american saddle horse are denmark ( 1839 ) and harrison chief ( 1872 ) . crigler ' s denmark ( 1872 ) , who was originally registered as by washington denmark by gaine ' s denmark , is now accepted as being by lail ' s denmark chief by gaine ' s denmark .\nuse of the horse . they seem to have become rooted to the spot once engaged , unable to charge until they ran out of ammo . a problem with the type , caracoling pistoliers . need to think about this one as historical factors come into play , i . e . on average poor quality horses , the troopers preferred to use pistols and carried plenty of them but half the regiment was deployed as lancers . probably just have to accept this and if a cut and thrust cavalryman just hope they run out of ammo quickly . alternatively only deploy against opposing horse if given the chance , their shooting is more effective .\nthe name useful cub may be a corruption of useful cob , specifically a cob named useful . the usual definition of a cob is ' a short - legged , stout variety of horse , usually ridden by heavy persons ' . this is the perfect description of the produce of a cart horse resembling the suffolk breed and a warm - blood mare . r s summerhays in the observer ' s book of horses and ponies , 1968 edition , page 219 , in the chapter on the suffolk horse , says -\nwith so admirable a foundation it is not surprising that efforts have been made by many to cross the suffolk with thoroughbreds and arabs in the endeavour to evolve heavy - weight hunters and cobs . these attempts in general have met with varying success , as must always be the case where violent admixture of hot and cold blood is used as a first cross . none the less many good specimens have been produced which have from time to time evoked great enthusiasm\n.\nan advertisement in the stamford mercury of friday , march 19 , 1819 , page 4 , column 2 , says -\nfireaway , the property of p . emmitt , hemingby . he was got by mr . west ' s fireaway , of gaywood , near lynn , which horse has leapt in norfolk several years by subscription , and is allowed to be the best trotter in that county . mr . west ' s fireaway , by mr . jenkinson ' s noted horse pretender ( formerly fireaway ) , covered in london at 5guineas a mare , and was allowed by judges to be one of the first of the hackney kind in the kingdom\n.\nthe entry for wright ' s farmers ' glory s1396 in the suffolk stud book , volume 1 , page 390 , says he was foaled about 1796 and was known as the attleborough farmers ' glory . it also says he was a full size horse , and from the description of those who knew him was probably a half - bred suffolk . this was probably farmer ' s glory y736 c393 , own brother to west ' s useful y893 + 894 c332 . west ' s useful y893 + 894 c332 was probably jenkinson ' s useful cub who was described as by a black cart horse , resembling the suffolk breed , out of a chapman ' s mare .\nall highland ponies trace back in the male line to yankee , a brown stallion , said to be brought from america in a sailing ship . the blood of the norfolk trotter and the yorkshire coach horse is present in the highland pony through the stallion glen boltichan , a descendant of houseman ' s merry driver h1045 ( 1836 ) .\nthe name and breeding of the dam of bay president y922 are not recorded in the yorkshire coach horse stud book , this information has been taken from the high stepper , by tom ryder , 1979 edition , page 37 . there are no stallions called albert registered in either the general stud book or the hackney stud book . there is , however , a stallion called albert registered in the yorkshire coach horse stud book , volume 1 , page 4 , as albert 12 , and in the cleveland bay stud book , volume 1 , page 3 , as albert 6 . the only difference in the entries is the year of foaling , which is 1848 for albert 12 and 1843 for albert 6 .\nlammtarra becomes the first horse to win the derby on his seasonal return since grand parade in 1919 and sets a record time of 2m 32 . 31s , beating mahmoud\u2019s 2m 33 . 8s which was hand - timed in 1936 . the race is switched permanently from wednesday to saturday . vodafone takes over the sponsorship and remains the backer up to 2008 .\njohn lawrence , who had knowledge of this horse for some years before the auction , in the history and delineation of the horse in all his varieties , published in 1809 , pages 172 and 173 , says -\npretender , a son of cub , was out of a well - bred daughter of lord abingdon ' s pretender , by marske . pretender , by cub , i was informed , without being compelled to believe the fact , trotted a mile in two minutes and a half . he was a successful stallion , and exclusive of the consideration of fast trotting , the fen country has , from the above sources , produced the most active , strongest and best - shaped road stock , to be found in this kingdom\n.\nthe back - to - back victories of trigo and blenheim in the 1929 and 1930 derbies now made blandford one of the hottest commodities in the world . in 1931 , his fee had risen to 400 guineas . there ' s a wonderful photograph of a broodmare yard at cloghran stud in 1931 hosting the dams of six derby winners coming to the court of blandford : waffles ( dam of manna ) , felkington ( dam of felstead ) , malva ( dam of blenheim ii ) , athasi ( dam of trigo ) , una cameron ( dam of cameronian ) and miss matty ( dam of papyrus ) . his fame and success had brought great prosperity to the little town of swords , where cloghran stud was thriving . the pub nearby was renamed\nthe blandford arms '\nin tribute to their local hero , but all was not well on the home front in ireland .\na low profile descendant of tamerlane called lanesborough ( ire ) ( ex fylgia by felicitation ) was imported to tasmania in 1964 by the late bert wicks . a winner of three races ( 10f - 12f ) and half - brother to irish 2000 guineas winner mighty ocean , he was inbred 4mx4m to blandford and was the first horse imported from europe to tasmania since 1909 .\nkris kin is the first supplementary entry to win the derby . the sir michael stoute - trained colt had initially been entered in the classic as a yearling but was scratched at the start of his three - year - old campaign . connections paid \u00a390 , 000 to add the horse to the line - up at the five - day stage following his victory in chester\u2019s dee stakes .\noaks , one of the english classic horse races ( along with the derby , saint leger , two thousand guineas , and one thousand guineas ) , an event for three - year - old fillies , established in 1779 , and run over a 1 . 5 - mile ( about 2 , 400 - metre ) course at epsom downs , surrey , also the site of the derby . the oaks was\u2026\nthe yorkshire gazette , saturday , august 8 , 1846 , number 1412 , the award of premiums at the yorkshire agricultural show , says -\nclass 27 . - for the best cleveland bred stallion , \u00a310 , to mr . henry watson , of walkeringham , bawtry , for his bay horse , bay beckingham , f . june 1st , 1843 , s . grand conqueror , d . by barnaby\n.\ngovt . : argyll ' s moves to face the mixed clans . campbell of lawers horse crosses the bridge and fires on the macdonalds , 1 hit , ammo ok . tullibardine ' s fires on mixed clans ' flank , 4 hits , ammo ok . dalhousie ' s fires on cavalry , 5 hits , ammo ok . argyll ' s continues attck on mixed clans , 1 hit , mixed clans eliminated .\nmiss sheriffe only ever had one or two horses in training but tree won for her the observer gold cup and lingfield derby trial with the elk and the king george stakes with constans who also won the prix de saint - georges three years in succession . her best horse was undoubtedly sharpo who , after taking the temple stakes , won the sprint championship ( nunthorpe ) three years in succession and the july cup .\ndiomed was owned by sir charles bunbury , who collected prize money of \u00a31 , 065 15s . the race was held at the oaks estate and named after its host , the 12th earl of derby . the first four runnings of the derby were over 1 mile , but this was amended to the current distance of 1\u00bd miles in 1784 . lord derby first won the race in 1787 , with a horse called sir peter teazle .\n\u201cthe best horse i have ever seen , the best i am ever likely to see\u201d these are the words of fred darling when asked about one of his first purchases the massive hurry on . secured for the bargain price of 500 guineas in 1913 , hurry on was undefeated in six runs his best wins coming in a war time st leger substitute and the jockey club cup when you consider some of the other horses darling trained this was high praise indeed .\nlike other elite horse races , the derby has grown into a multiday festival , featuring musical acts and events in addition to the race itself . the oaks is also run during the derby festival , held on the friday before the saturday running of the derby . derby day is more formal than most contemporary sporting events : epsom downs maintains a dress code for male spectators in certain sections of the stands , and women often attend the event wearing extravagant hats .\nknight ' s daughter ( by sir cosmo ) , dam of 1958 american horse of the year round table ( by princequillo ) ; 1959 arlington lassie stakes winner monarchy ( by princequillo ) , an important producer for claiborne farm ; and 1951 kingsclere stakes winner love game ( by big game ) , dam of 1961 bowie handicap winner road house ( by hasty road ) and 1962 la centinela stakes winner nas - mahal ( by nasrullah ) . another half sister to\nan advertisement in the times , friday , march 29 , 1793 , issue 2571 , page 4 , says -\nhorse to be sold , and a stalion to cover , at jenkinson\u2019s stables , at the rhedarium , park - street , grosvenor - square , that beautiful well - bred horse , useful cub , alias , young pretender , ( for the last season in town , ) at five guineas a mare ; he is a certain foal - getter , and for shape and action , as a nag , not to be equaled by any . he is allowed to be the fastest trotter in the kingdom , and the best stock - getter , several of which are to be seen in the first noblemen\u2019s stables . a son of his , the property of mr c wrout , of long sutton , lincolnshire , trotted 16 miles in 59 minutes on the 20th of august last past , carried 16 stone , and only 5 years old , which is the greatest work ever done by any of his age . good grass is provided for mares , with proper care . n b several capital hackneys to be sold , some of which were got by the above horse , seasoned gig horses , curricle and phaeton horses , & c ; and several pairs of very capital coach horses , now on jobs , will be sold without reserve ; as the above t jenkinson is declining that business\n.\nthe ipswich journal , saturday , april 6 , 1765 , number 1366 , says -\nto cover this season , at andrew blake\u2019s , in st margaret\u2019s parish , ipswich , at twelve shillings a leap and trial . the noted bay horse , call\u2019d , young farmer , now rising eight years old , full fifteen hands and an inch high , and master of any weight : he was bred by mr garthside in lincolnshire , got by mr wallet\u2019s famous golden farmer , son of rigsby\u2019s fearnought ; his dam by mr eyoon\u2019s studd , remarkable for strength and moving . he is very certain in getting foals , and , as near as can be computed , there are upwards of 70 mares with foal by him at this time . andrew blake . n b all gentlemen who had their mares cover\u2019d last season by the aforesaid horse , and are not with foal , may have them covered this season , at 7 s 6 d each , and the trial of the season as before\n.\nharry brought new owners to the stable including william graham and later sir george chetwynd . mr graham was a somewhat dubious character who made his money marketing nicholson\u2019s london gin . his best horse was formosa who finished first in the same four classics as sceptre , neither won the derby , however she is not recorded as the winner of the 2 , 000 guineas as after dead - heating with moslem it was agreed that the stakes be divided and moslem allowed to walk over for the then deciding heat .\ncamelot becomes the 37th horse to follow up victory in the first british classic , the 2000 guineas over a mile at newmarket , with success in the investec derby as he records a convincing five - length win at epsom downs . jockey and trainer , joseph and aidan o\u2019brien , become the first father / son combination to win the premier classic . camelot narrowly fails in his bid to win the triple crown , finishing second behind encke in the st leger at doncaster three and a half months later .\na multi - horse finish rivals that of 1913 as the closest ever . in a four - way photo , sir percy beats dragon dancer , dylan thomas and hala bek a shorthead , a head and a short - head . seven winners have had the prefix sir : sir peter teazle ( 1787 ) , sir thomas ( 1788 ) , sir harry ( 1798 ) , sir bevys ( 1879 ) , sir visto ( 1895 ) , sir ivor ( 1968 ) , and most recently sir percy .\nhe is also sire of multiple gr . 1 winner in europe and the us , 2005 german horse of the year and breeders\u2019 cup turf - gr . 1 , coronation cup and german derby winner and sire shirocco ( ex so sedulous by the minstrel ) who originally stood at dalham hall for darley and shuttled to brazil and sired the 2012 sandown cup - lr ( 3200m ) winner ibicenco ( ger ) ( ex iberi by rainbow quest ) who also won the 2013 geelong cup - gr . 3 .\npharos appeared in the first crop sired by the epoch - making phalaris , derby - bred , raced , and back at home , a cornerstone stallion . his dam was another homebred , the staying mare scapa flow by homebred chaucer . scapa flow ' s first foal was the cup horse spithead ( 1919 by john o ' gaunt ) , and pharos was her second . subsequent foals included pharos ' stakes winning full siblings , fairway ( 1925 ) , fair isle ( 1927 ) and fara ( 1928 ) .\nfred took his fathers ways to a new level whilst expecting no more from his men than he could do himself . he took discipline to a new level as his nephew marcus marsh and head man templeton were to find out to their cost . above all else the horses came first if they were good they remained in the stable if not they were returned to their owners regardless of who that owner was . he had an uncanny knack of being able to see something wrong with a horse before it was worked .\ngovt . : tulliebarden ' s moves to form on lothian ' s left . artillery crosses and emplaces south of road . argyll ' s crosses and moves to fire on macdonalds flank . campbell of lawers ' horse advances onto bridge . dragoons fire on macdonalds , 3 hits , ammo ok . lothian ' s fires on mixed clans , 1 hit , ammo ok . argyll ' s fires on macdonalds , 6 hits , runs out of ammo . dalhousie ' s fires on cavalry , 5 hits , ammo ok .\nthis branch of the blandford male line started in germany with tamerlane\u2019s son dschingis kan ( ex donna diana by neckar ) , a talented sprinter who also managed to run 1600m in winning the german 2000 guineas . his son k\u00f6nigsstuhl became the first horse to win the german three year - old triple crown and then went on to an outstanding stud career , being champion sire three times in an era when the dominant sire was surumu ( monsun\u2019s broodmare sire and a descendant of the dark ronald ( bay ronald ) male line ) .\nthere used to be no distinction between the dales pony and the fell pony other than the dales was from the east of the pennines and the fell was from the west . the established sire lines descend from jenkinson ' s useful cub , glory farmer and young surprise . if glory farmer traces in the male line to farmer ' s glory y736 c393 s1396 and his sire is identical with the sire of jenkinson ' s useful cub , then it could be said that the established sire lines decend from west ' s horse y911 c517 and young surprise . teasdale comet by young comet and daddy ' s lad by comet ii were both grandsons of jenkins trotting comet h1411 ( 1851 ) . it is possible that young comet and comet ii were the same horse . the grey park end king was by comet . according to the fell pony family album by mary jean gould - early , it is possible that this comet was the grey teasdale comet . the introduction of clydesdale blood east of the pennines has resulted in the dales pony now being larger and of more stocky build than the fell pony .\nborn in flintshire in 1950 roger\u2019s father farmed near banbury . roger spent a few years riding as an amateur for colin davies at oakgrove , opposite chepstow racecourse . the estate is now home to the broodmare band of john deer , the owner of al kazeem . whilst at oakgrove he rode three winners from thirty rides most notably when riding pride of kentucky owned by his father\u2019s neighbour edward courage in the kim muir at the cheltenham festival , galvanising the big horse to pass the then top amateur john lawrence , the late lord oaksey up the hill in 1969 ."]}
{"id": 2131, "summary": [{"text": "the snares island snipe ( coenocorypha huegeli ) , also known as the snares snipe or tutukiwi in m\u0101ori , is a species of bird in the sandpiper family , scolopacidae . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "snares snipe", "paragraphs": ["snares island snipe . adult . north east island , snares islands , december 1985 . image \u00a9 colin miskelly by colin miskelly\nthere\u2019s a tray for the snares island snipe , for the chatham islands snipe , one for each of the three subspecies of subantarctic snipe , and one more for the south island snipe , last seen alive in 1964 .\nsnares is ( north - east and broughton ; recorded on alert stack ) .\nthe team were there , variously , to pull down a rickety old hut , photograph the snares crested penguin , and capture tutukiwi , snares island snipe , for a translocation to whenua hou , or codfish island .\nreview a report on the translocation of snares island snipe from north east island to putauhinu island in the titi island group in 2005 .\nmiskelly , c . m . 1999a . breeding ecology of snares island snipe ( coenocorypha aucklandica huegeli ) and chatham island snipe ( c . pusilla ) . notornis 46 : 57 - 71 .\nthe snares islands snipe is the stockiest and most sombre - plumaged member of the new zealand snipes . between 1953 and 2010 it was considered a subspecies of what is now called the subantarctic snipe . genetic comparisons then confirmed earlier suggestions that the snares islands birds were structurally distinct from the snipe found on islands further south . naturally confined to a tiny island group , the snares island snipe has never been impacted by introduced predators . following a translocation to putauhinu island in 2005 ( to replace the extinct south island snipe ) , and subsequent translocations to other islands near stewart island , the snares island snipe is probably more abundant than at any time in its evolutionary history .\nmiskelly , c . m . ( 1999 ) breeding ecology of snares island snipe ( coenocorypha aucklandica buegeli ) and chatham island snipe ( c . pusilla ) . notornis , 46 : 207 - 221 .\nin the early 1980s he started researching snares island snipe for his phd thesis , and spent six summers on the archipelago , observing their ecology and behaviour .\nminden pictures stock photos - adult snares island snipe ( coenocorypha huegeli ) pauses whilst feeding in the leaf - litter codfish island , stewart islan . . .\nmiskelly , c . m . 2005 . evidence for \u2018hakawai\u2019 aerial displaying by snares island snipe ( coenocorypha aucklandica huegeli ) . notornis 52 : 163 - 165 .\ngiven that snares island snipe have already been translocated onto several t\u012bt\u012b islands , the species is now in the unusual position of being more numerous than ever before .\nmiskelly wants to go further . ultimately , as population numbers grow , he\u2019d like to see snares island snipe fill the space left by the extinct south island snipe , on predator - free islands from fiordland to the marlborough sounds .\n\u201cmy grandfather was a cod man , \u201d she says . \u201che fished right down to the snares . \u201d\nmiskelly , c . m . 2013 [ updated 2018 ] . snares island snipe . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\na well - camouflaged , plump , short - legged snipe mainly found among dense vegetation . naturally confined to the snares islands , but translocated to several islands near stewart island .\nmiskelly knows more about snipe than anyone else in new zealand . he\u2019s been publishing papers about them for three decades , and has snares island snipe footprints engraved into his wedding band ( his wife , a botanist , has plants on hers ) .\nmiskelly , c . m . ; sagar , p . m . 2005 . longevity record for snares island snipe ( coenocorypha aucklandica huegeli ) . notornis 52 : 121 - 122 .\nrange : the snares ( island ) snipe is found in the snares islands , about 200 kilometres s to south island in new zealand . it occurs on north east island , broughton island and alert stack . this species has been introduced to predator - free islands such as putauhinu and codfish island .\nmiskelly , c . m . ; charteris , m . r . ; fraser , j . r . 2012 . successful translocation of snares island snipe coenocorypha huegeli to replace the extinct south island snipe c . iredalei . notornis 59 : 32 - 38 .\nputauhinu island ( 141 ha , off sw stewart island ) . on 16 april 2005 , 30 snares island snipe ( c . a . buegili ) from north east island ( snares islands ) were released on putauhinu . patauhinu formerly had a population of the stewart island snipe ( c . a . iridalei ) , but this population is assumed to have been extirpated by the introduced cats and / or kiore on the island . the cats died out naturally in the 1960s and kiore were eradicated in 1996 . the stewart island snipe became extinct after ship rats invaded big south cape island in the early 1960s ( an attempt to translocate snipe from big south cape in august 1964 was unsuccessful ) . the translocation of snares island snipe therefore represents a taxonomic substitution in terms of restoring the putauhinu ecosystem , and also increases the distribution of snares island snipe which is range restricted . the snipe were captured with handnets , and held in two aviaries until translocation . contact colin miskelly .\nprotection / threats / status : the snares ( island ) snipe has been extirpated in the past from most part of its original range . but today , this species is living on predator - free subantarctic islands and the declines have ceased . however , they have very restricted range , but the population is slowly increasing thanks to successful translocations . the population of the snares ( island ) snipe was estimated at 1000 mature individuals in 2013 , with about 400 pairs on the snares islands , and at least 500 birds on putauhinu island in early 2013 . in addition , the translocated birds were breeding on codfish island in late 2012 . but currently , the snares ( island ) snipe is still considered near threatened .\nnone known ; birds ringed on snares is have never been recorded > 350 m from the original site . in . . .\nintroduction : the snares ( island ) snipe was formerly a subspecies of the subantarctic snipe ( c . aucklandica ) but it is now a full species . the maori name \u201ctutukiwi\u201d alludes to its resemblance , both in appearance and habits , to a small kiwi of the family apterygidae . this species has suffered numerous local extinctions in the past , due to the usual introduced predators . however , thanks to translocations of birds to some predator - free islands , the population of the snares ( island ) snipe is slowly increasing .\nsnares island snipe occur on north east island ( 280 ha ) , broughton island ( 48 ha ) and alert stack ( 5 ha ) in the snares islands . they have been introduced successfully to putauhinu island ( 141 ha ) , a muttonbird island 107 km to the north - east , and ( in december 2012 and 2016 ) to codfish island . on all these islands snipe occur most abundantly in areas with dense ground cover , including poa tussock grasslands , and polystichum fern under forest . the forest on the snares islands is predominantly subantarctic tree daisy ( olearia lyalli ) , and on putauhinu a mix of olearia species , southern rata , and hebe elliptica . on the snares islands , snipe venture into more open areas at night , probing in dense swards of callitriche antarctica and crassula moschata .\ncharteris , matt ; & miskelly , colin ( 2005 ) . snares island snipe ( tutukiwi ) translocation to putauhinu island , april 2005 . wellington : department of conservation . isbn\u00e2 0 - 478 - 22687 - x . \u00e2\nrats on campbell island had eliminated the now - endangered teal , snipe , and the more common pipit by 1840 . all of these species are now confined to rat - free islets scattered around the main island . it is likely that the campbell island snipe will prove to be an endemic subspecies of the new zealand snipe coenocorypha aucklandica , which has surviving populations on the snares , auckland , and antipodes islands .\npera - leask\u2019s family has a long connection to the snares islands . her ancestors have lived in bluff and on stewart island for 12 generations .\ngetting to the snares isn\u2019t easy , nor it is cheap . jo hiscock and ros cole , senior biodiversity rangers at doc\u2019s southland office , needed to top up an \u2018insurance\u2019 population of snares island snipe on whenua hou , a predator - free island off the coast of stewart island . thirty birds had been moved there in 2012\u2014the bare minimum for a viable , genetically diverse population .\ncalls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the snares ( island ) snipe male gives strident \u201cchup chup chup\u201d , and sometimes loud \u201cqueeyoo queeyoo queeyoo\u201d . during the flight displays at night , the outer rectrices produce a typical whirring sound .\nthis silent footage shows the snares island snipe . these birds spend the day under dense cover , coming out at dusk to feed . they probe into soil , logs or around the roots of plants to find insects , worms and other invertebrates .\nmiskelly , c . m . 1990 . breeding systems of new zealand snipe coenocorypha aucklandica and chatham island snipe c . pusilla ; are they food limited ? ibis 132 : 366 - 379 .\nmiskelly , c . m . ( 1990 ) aerial displaying and flying ability of chatham island snipe coenocorypha pusilla and new zealand snipe c . aucklandica . emu , 90 : 28 - 32 .\nsnares island snipe get all their food by probing in soil and mud , consuming a wide variety of the invertebrates found there . major prey items include amphipods ( hoppers ) , earthworms , adult beetles , and the larvae and pupae of flies and beetles .\nthe eradication went ahead , and 10 years later , davis fulfilled his promise to spencer . in 2005 , 30 snipe were transferred from the snares to putauhinu , the first time a new zealand bird has been introduced to replace a different , extinct species .\n. 2013 ) . a second translocation of 30 individuals from the snares islands to codfish island / whenua hou took place in january 2013 ( mcclelland 2013 ) .\nsebastian denize , an exhibition preparator from canterbury museum , went to the snares to supervise the dismantling of a hut . after helping catch snipe , he was then able to release a pair into their new home , whenua hou . unlike the island\u2019s closely - monitored k\u0101k\u0101p\u014d population , the snipe won\u2019t wear transmitters or receive breeding assistance\u2014they\u2019ll be left to their own devices .\n\u201cyou\u2019ve got all of this habitat that\u2019s just waiting for snipe to move into , \u201d he says .\nhabitat : the snares ( island ) snipe frequents mainly the areas with dense ground vegetation such as tussock grassland ( poa ) and ferns of genus polystichum under trees in forest . it may frequent more open areas at night , while foraging and probing in thick grass .\n\u201cdoc rang me and said , \u2018how\u2019s this for a deal : if you give us your mealworms you can come with us to the snares\u2019 , \u201d she says .\nafter several days rolling over six - metre swells , they sighted the pale , bush - topped cliffs of the snares islands . deep in the roaring forties , the archipelago has never been invaded by rats , and it shows . penguins , sea lions and fur seals lounge on its coasts , muttonbirds fill its skies , and its forests are home to three bird species found nowhere else : the snares island fernbird , tomtit and snipe .\nbehaviour in the wild : the snares ( island ) snipe feeds on a variety of invertebrates found in the soil or the mud . it probes with the bill and takes amphipods , beetles ( adults , larvae and pupae ) , flies ( larvae and pupae ) and earthworms .\nsnares island snipe are unmistakeable within their range , as there are no other similar - sized ground birds present . compared to other living new zealand snipes , snares island snipe are chunkier , with a relatively short bill and legs . they also differ in having barred feathers on the belly , and less variegated dorsal plumage . males usually have clearer buff edges to their dorsal feather than females , and also tend to have yellowish legs ( cf . greenish in the female ) . juveniles are duller than adults , with the plumage washed with grey , and legs olive .\nthe delay meant the team had less than a week in the snares . cole and hiscock revised their expectations\u2014they\u2019d be lucky to get 12 birds . they had enough mealworms to keep the snipe alive for just a few days , so catching them would have to wait until the last minute .\nthen in 1997 , a brand - new snipe was found on jacquemart island , an inhospitable rocky pillar off the coast of campbell island , far to the south of the snares . miskelly believes norway rats swam ashore on campbell after a shipwreck in 1828 , 12 years before the first naturalists reached it . no one had recorded any sign of snipe on the island until this living population turned up .\nas estelle pera - leask released the first snipe onto whenua hou , she recited this karakia , or prayer .\nthat made a total of 20 snipe , far exceeding expectations . hiscock was stoked : \u201cwe absolutely nailed it . \u201d\nuntil that happens , the snipe and their larger - than - life alter ego will keep some mysteries to themselves .\nthey probably perform the typical whirring flight displays at night . the stiffened outer rectrices suggest that this behaviour occurs in this species like in other snipes . the snares ( island ) snipe is sedentary in its range . it has mainly terrestrial habits and is usually seen on the ground except during the aerial displays .\nas a result , miskelly had the very bird - nerdy pleasure of naming and describing the new snipe , which is now regarded as a subspecies of subantarctic snipe . in an even nerdier pun - fest , he named it coenocorypha aucklandica perseverance .\nthe snares islands population is about 400 pairs ( c . 1000 adults ) , and there were at least 320 birds estimated to be present on putauhinu island in 2011 . snipe have been recorded at densities up to 10 birds per hectare on north east island . however , densities are much lower in areas with little ground cover .\ndoc ranger chris bennett went to the snares to pull down a hut , but soon found himself armed with a net chasing snipe : \u201cthey just sort of beetle around on the ground like a mini kiwi . \u201d that meant the snipers had to pursue them through the snares bush . there are just 22 plant species on the islands , and the forest is dominated by two kinds of tree daisy . \u201csometimes the scrub was that thick that you couldn\u2019t move , you\u2019d get hung up in a tree , completely tangled , \u201d says jo hiscock .\nbut the story of snipe is one of tragedy and mystery , miraculous resurrection and myth . almost flightless by day , the snipe\u2019s terrifying alter - ego , the h\u0101kawai , haunts the night sky . catching them involves prancing through the scrub with a butterfly net .\nthat was where lorraine lovatt came in . the gold coast real - estate executive had been trying to reach the snares for years , as part of a personal mission to photograph every penguin species in the world .\nthere was one small problem . the h\u0101kawai had never been reported in the snares , and in all his years on the islands , miskelly had not observed the tell - tale feather damage or heard the call .\nsure enough , they were there . snipe had self - introduced onto the main island , having flown across the channel from jacquemart and begun breeding . the trio caught 12 adults and three chicks in a week , and found the first - ever campbell island snipe nest .\nmeanwhile , hiscock and cole were short on mealworms , which are essential for keeping captured snipe alive . doc\u2019s commercial supplier had run out .\nthere are two techniques for hunting snipe . by night , you creep out after dark with a headtorch and net , avoiding the black bulk of resting sealions . when the beam of light strikes a snipe , you whack the net over it before it realises what is happening .\ntwenty years later , merton thought he heard the same sound on mangere island in the chathams , where he was working with chatham island snipe . he mentioned his theory that the h\u0101kawai and the snipe were the same to a young undergraduate student volunteering with him , colin miskelly .\nbecause snipe replace all their feathers for the next breeding season , the evidence would have disappeared by the time miskelly returned in the spring .\nthere are now an estimated 700 snipe on putauhinu , and davis is overseeing transfers from there to other predator - free t\u012bt\u012b islands nearby .\nthe campbell island snipe , discovered in 1997 , was restricted to a tiny and almost inaccessible rock , jacquemart islet , off campbell island . since rats have been erradicated on campbell island through a massive effort by the new zealand government , snipe have begun to recolonize the campbell island .\nthe chatham island snipe uses its relatively long bill to probe moist soils or leaf litter for earthworms , amphipods , beetles , and insect larvae and pupae . this prey , once found , is generally swallowed without the snipe having to withdraw its bill from the soil ( 2 ) .\nsnipe nest on the ground , are very tame and rarely fly , so are extremely vulnerable to predators such as cats , rats and wekas .\nmiskelly , c . m . 1989 . flexible incubation system and prolonged incubation in new zealand snipe . wilson bulletin 101 : 127 - 132 .\nother snipe species around the world are known to perform acoustic aerial displays , which stresses the tail feathers , and can snap off the tips .\nthe snipe has a distinctive courtship display . at night , males dive vertically from considerable heights . their tails vibrate and make a sound like a bird many times their size . this noise lead to the stories of the hakawai , a huge mythical bird . while snares snipe have never been recorded as making the hakawai noise , there is strong evidence that they do in fact carry out the special courtship flight , and that it was probably a case of no one being on the island at the right time to hear it .\n23 cm . , 105 g . , brown with long slightly drooping bill , head with stripe from forehead to nape . chatham island snipe smaller .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - chatham island snipe ( coenocorypha pusilla )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - chatham island snipe ( coenocorypha pusilla )\ntitle =\narkive species - chatham island snipe ( coenocorypha pusilla )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nchris bennett , a doc ranger from the catlins , thought his sole job on the snares was to dismantle a hut . suddenly he found himself holding a butterfly net , tracking a tiny bird through tangled trunks at the bottom of the world .\nmiskelly , c . m . ; sagar , p . m . ; tennyson , a . j . d . ; scofield , r . p . 2001 . birds of the snares islands , new zealand . notornis 48 : 1 - 40 .\nthis threatened bird once inhabited most of the islands in the chatham group , but following the introduction of predatory rats and cats to chatham , pitt and mangere islands , the snipe became confined to just rangatira and star keys by 1970 ( 7 ) . the chatham island snipe had also come close to extinction on rangatira , with a large sheep population degrading the island\u2019s habitat ( 8 ) . thankfully , all livestock were removed from the island in 1961 ( 2 ) , leaving the snipe population to recover ( 8 ) . the cat population on mangere eventually died - out after extensive hunting ( 7 ) , and the chatham island snipe could be re - introduced to the island . shortly after , the snipe colonised the predator - free little mangere island ( 7 ) ( 9 ) .\nlovatt tried three times to visit the snares on cruises\u2014tourists aren\u2019t allowed to land , but can approach the shore on boats\u2014and each time was foiled by the weather . on the last trip she got talking to someone from doc , who put her onto hiscock .\nthe final chapter of the story of the south island snipe came with the accidental introduction of black rats to big south cape island , and the consequent attempt in 1964 by the new zealand wildlife service to rescue the snipe by transferring individuals to a rat - free island . two birds were caught on 30 august and placed in an aviary . however , they were difficult to care for because of their need for a continuous supply of live food , and both died on 1 september . since then there have been no acceptable records of the species . subsequently , some 40 years later on 16 april 2005 , 30 snares snipe , then considered to be conspecific though a different subspecies , were translocated successfully by the new zealand department of conservation to putauhinu island , only 1 . 5\u00e2 km west of big south cape island and a former home of south island snipe , after the rats were eradicated there .\nthe snares islands population is about 400 pairs ( miskelly 2013 ) , there were at least 500 birds estimated to be present on putauhinu island in early 2013 , and translocated birds were confirmed breeding on whenua hou / codfish island in late 2012 ( p . mcclelland\nworthy , t . h . ; miskelly , c . m . ; ching , r . a . 2002 . taxonomy of north and south island snipe ( aves : scolopacidae : coenocorypha ) , with analysis of a remarkable collection of snipe bones from greymouth , new zealand . new zealand journal of zoology 29 : 231 - 244 .\nit\u2019s become widely accepted that the snipe and the h\u0101kawai are the same , and that the h\u0101kawai is an aerial display that combines vocalisations with the vibration of air through the bird\u2019s tail feathers . yet it\u2019s still not known why they do it , or when , and no one has ever seen a new zealand snipe perform the display .\noliver , narena ( 2005 ) .\nhakawai , the new zealand snipe\n. new zealand birds . nz birds limited . retrieved 2010 - 10 - 10 . \u00e2\nlovatt\u2019s donation meant the expedition could go ahead , but its main priority was dismantling the hut . the snipe hunt would have to come second , if there was time .\nmiskelly went out at night and managed to record the call on tape . he also noticed that some of the snipe he was catching had unusual wear on their tail feathers .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . snares snipe ( coenocorypha huegeli ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nsnipe are a small wading bird , just slightly larger than a blackbird . their maori name of tutukiwi gives an indication of how they look - with their stout legs and long bill making them appear as a mini kiwi . snipe were once widespread around the new zealand mainland and offshore islands , but rapidly disappeared as rats and other introduced predators invaded their sanctuaries .\nfirst , they helped pull the old hut on north east island apart , and then everyone , including the ship\u2019s crew , received a lesson in the art of snipe - hunting .\nshe had good reason to worry . the birds may be small , but they need a constant supply of invertebrate food\u2014a lesson learned in the last days of the south island snipe .\nis the only member of the genus present on the snares islands , but c . aucklandica is more strongly marked with cream and chocolate streaking and the mid - belly is unpatterned . voice . males have a territorial loud call consisting of a series of vibrant monosyllabic notes that build to disyllabic whistles .\nmiskelly , c . m . 1999b . social constraints on access to mates in a high density population of new zealand snipe ( coenocorypha aucklandica ) . notornis 46 : 223 - 239 .\nas mentioned above , past conservation efforts have seen the chatham island snipe successfully re - introduced to mangere island , following the eradication of feral cats ( 7 ) ( 9 ) . more recently , in 2001 , trials at keeping snipe in captivity were undertaken ( 9 ) . the techniques learnt in this successful trial may be used in the future for a captive - breeding programme , and can be used to implement measures to secure the future of the more highly threatened campbell island snipe , an un - described coenocorypha species restricted to just one tiny island ( 9 ) .\nnot only did the snipe persevere for nearly 200 years on a 19 - hectare scrap of rock , but perseverance was the name of the first ship to visit campbell island , in 1810 . that same sealing brig was the one that was wrecked there in 1828 , likely introducing the rats\u2014and it also gave its name to the island\u2019s main harbour , where snipe can now be seen .\nonly four people could spend the night on north east island : rangers kathryn pemberton and jo hiscock , right , were two of the skeleton crew chosen for hunting snipe during the short subantarctic night . key attributes for night - hunting include fast reflexes and sealion awareness , says hiscock : \u201cthey can get a bit rarked up with the headtorches . \u201d nine snipe were captured the first night .\nwhile snipe are making a comeback , the arrival of one pregnant rat could wipe them out in a flash . that\u2019s why insurance populations , such as the one on whenua hou , are so important .\n\u00e2\u0080\u009dsnipe begin to lay about the end of october and continue during the early november . except that the legs are pale yellow they much resemble the common snipe of the old country . the sexes vary but little , the male rather larger and of rather a richer plumage . the birds stand about two and a half inches high and measure along the body about six inches . both male and female sit . \u00e2\u0080\u009c\n\u201chopefully we can get to the point where they\u2019re introduced to open islands and fenced sanctuaries , so that people can say , \u2018let\u2019s go and look at a snipe today . \u2019 wouldn\u2019t that be wonderful ? \u201d\n0 ne of the most significant ornithological discoveries in new zealand this centuty occurred on 9 november 1997 , when a team searching for campbell island teal on jacquermart island , caught a snipe and saw seven others . jacquermart island is a 19 ha island off campbell island , a subantarctic island south of new zealand . up until this time , there was no evidence that a snipe ever occurred in the campbell island group .\n\u201ci suspect what was happening is that , on the snares , there are so many muttonbirds flying around in the night sky in summer that it would be suicide for a little bird to be diving , \u201d he says . \u201cso i wonder if they only do the display in winter when the muttonbirds have gone away on migration . \u201d\nmerton and bell also captured three south island snipe . one escaped , and the other two had a voracious appetite . mealworms weren\u2019t commercially available in 1964 , and terrible weather kept the wildlife service team trapped on taukihepa .\nthey spent every waking hour digging for grubs and worms to feed the snipe , but the rats had devastated the island\u2019s invertebrates , and the team couldn\u2019t find enough food . the birds faded and died before their eyes .\n\u201cjo was straight up\u2014she told me the amount of money they needed to go down , \u201d says lovatt . \u201ci weighed it up and thought , the snares penguin is the hardest one to photograph in the world , and you know what new zealand weather is like . they needed a sponsor , i needed to get there . it was perfect . \u201d\nworthy , trevor h . ; miskelly , colin m . ; & ching , bob a . ( r . ) . ( 2002 ) .\ntaxonomy of north and south island snipe ( aves : scolopacidae : coenocorypha ) , with analysis of a remarkable collection of snipe bones from greymouth , new zealand\n. new zealand journal of zoology 29 ( 3 ) : 231\u00e2\u0080\n244 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 03014223 . 2002 . 9518307 . \u00e2\nmiskelly , c . and barlow , k . ( 2001 ) chatham island snipe research and management trials , rangatira / south east island , april - may 2001 . wellington conservancy , department of conservation , wellington , new zealand .\nshooters , benefiting from this , place their booths next to the lekking sites and often shoot a couple of individuals in one shot ; the sound silences them for a moment , but if one does not reveal themselves , they will soon start the display again . snares made out of hair are also being set , which allow grabbing them out to the last individual .\npoland is , among all eu countries , particularly responsible for maintaining the favourable conservation status of the great snipe , because 27 . 7 % of the population inhabiting the eec is nesting in this country ( wilk et al . 2010 ) .\nno later than in xixth century europe the great snipe was a common resident of vast fens and flood - meadows in river valleys . it was also observed in denmark , germany and western poland . technical development , intensification of farming and associated large - scale drainage of wetland areas have led to a complete extinction of the great snipe in western european countries , as well as in lowland regions of scandinavia . the drastic decline of the species ' population results , in addition , from a very narrow tolerance limits with respect to various environmental factors , which distinguishes the great snipe among other charadriiform birds . being a specialist both in terms of its diet , as of its habitat , it has become particularly vulnerable to get extinct .\nthe chatham island snipe is a small , rotund bird with beautifully camouflaged plumage . the body is mottled with black , brown and reddish - brown , turning creamy - white on the lower breast and belly ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the top of the head is striped with black , brown and reddish - brown ( 3 ) , and the bill is long , although not as long as that of other species of snipe ( 4 ) . female chatham island snipes are paler than males , and juveniles have less distinct patterning than adults ( 2 ) . the call of a male chatham island snipe has been recorded as a low \u2018 trerk , trerk , trerk \u2019 and \u2018 queeyoo , queeyoo , queeyoo \u2019 ( 3 ) .\nthe snares ( island ) snipes are mainly monogamous and the pair bonds usually last one season , sometimes more . they are often seen in pairs . during the breeding season , the male feeds the female during three weeks prior to the egg - laying . as the snipes lay fairly large eggs , the females need some nutrients to form the eggs . this behaviour is unique in the family scolopacidae .\nthere was a more urgent task on the snares , too . a research hut built in the 1960s was falling into disrepair . there was a risk it could collapse and send pink batts and sheets of corrugated iron flying around the island , maybe decapitate a sealion or two . canterbury museum wanted the hut for an exhibition . but it\u2019s tough to get the funds for a trip to the subantarctic .\nthe term \u2018snipe hunting\u2019 is used in north america to describe a wild goose chase , an endeavour with little chance of success . it seemed an apt description for the translocation mission , as its leaders wondered countless times whether they would ever pull it off .\nsnares island snipe mainly breed between november and march , laying two large eggs in a well - concealed nest at ground level . both sexes incubate the eggs and share care of the chicks , with the male caring for the first chick to leave the nest , and the female the second . chicks leave the nest on the day of hatching , and are cared for by one of their parents for 8 - 11 weeks . each parent - chick pair is completely independent of the other , and if either adult loses its chick , it may attempt to breed again with a new mate . however , the original pair typically re - unite by the start of the next breeding season .\nthe chatham island snipe can be found from the shore to the islands\u2019 summits , but most commonly occurs in areas with considerable bush cover and forest of olearia traversi ( the ake ake tree ) , especially among sedges ( carex species ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nit was an incredible discovery , and miskelly was desperate to get down there . in 2001 , rats were spectacularly eradicated from campbell island , and in 2005 , miskelly joined dog - handler james fraser and percy the conservation dog on a trip to campbell to look for snipe .\nin the years since miskelly\u2019s visit , campbell island snipe have multiplied . it\u2019s thought there are now hundreds of them roaming the main island\u2014a recovery so impressive that in may 2017 , they were switched from the highest threat category , \u2018nationally critical\u2019 , to the lowest , \u2018nationally vulnerable\u2019 .\nduring the night , the team caught nine birds , and the following day , 10 more , but two that looked unhealthy were released . the next morning , cole and hiscock sent the newly minted snipe hunters out for a last attempt while they prepared the captured birds for departure .\nros cole , kathryn pemberton and jo hiscock prepared the snipe for their voyage , feeding them a hydrating solution and plenty of mealworms . on the trip north , they stopped off for another feeding session at easy harbour , near the bottom of stewart island , before landing at whenua hou , below .\nit\u2019s still a theory , but the find was a tantalising suggestion that the h\u0101kawai may yet be heard on the t\u012bt\u012b islands . at the release , miskelly showed spencer , then 90 years old , the snipe with the broken feathers , and , deeply moved , spencer released it onto his island .\nthose two snipe now lie in a drawer in te papa\u2019s \u2018bird room\u2019 . one was known to be male , and miskelly recently sexed the second bird for the first time . it had been preserved in ethanol for half a century , and no one had checked . it turned out both were male .\none previous attempt was made to hold chatham island snipe in captivity in 1988 , but all eight adult birds caught were lost due to stress and aspergillosis . however a number of factors have changed in the last 10 years that should increase the likelihood of successfully maintaining and breeding snipes in captivity . they include :\na couple of tiny islands off the coast of stewart island , barely specks on a map , were the final refuges of the mainland snipe . naturalists reported finding them at the start of the 20th century on two \u2018t\u012bt\u012b\u2019 islands frequented by muttonbirders\u2014pukeokaoka , or jacky lee island , and taukihepa , or big south cape island .\npera - leask recites a karakia to welcome the birds to their new home ( see opposite ) . one by one , the boxes are opened , and the snipe make a dash for freedom . they are now free to colonise the whole of whenua hou , an island more than four times the size of their homeland .\nthe exceptional reproductive habits of the great snipe ( lekking behaviour ) have made it an easy prey for hunters , which can certainly be regarded as another important factor in its extermination . this problem was noted already in 1882 by the renowned polish zoologist w\u0142adys\u0142aw taczanowski , who wrote in his book\nthe birds of our country\n:\nfar to the north , in an underground room below te papa in wellington , terrestrial vertebrates curator colin miskelly opens the cupboard containing the museum\u2019s collection of new zealand snipe . an array of drawers holds the taxidermied bodies known in museum parlance as \u2018study skins\u2019\u2014wings tucked in , beaks stretched forward , ancient labels tied with string around crumpled claws .\nhiggins , p . j . ; & davies , s . j . j . f . ( eds ) . ( 1996 ) . handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . volume 3 : snipe to pigeons . melbourne : oxford university press . pp . \u00e2 54\u00e2\u0080\n66 . isbn\u00e2 0 - 19 - 553070 - 5 . \u00e2\n\u201cunless you\u2019re a pretty keen bird - nerdy conservationist you\u2019ve probably never heard of a snipe , and that\u2019s because it\u2019s so hard to see one . it\u2019s out of sight , out of mind . the only place you can see any of our new zealand snipes is on enderby island in the auckland islands . you have to sign up on a two - week trip to get there , and it\u2019s not cheap .\nsnipe are not one of the stars of new zealand\u2019s pantheon of threatened birds . small , speckled brown , with a long probing beak like a kiwi , they look like a wading bird that\u2019s gone bush . their eyes seem set too far back in their heads , giving them a dopey expression . perfect rat - bait , they\u2019ve long been gone from the mainland , and most new zealanders have never seen one .\nreproduction of this species : the breeding season occurs mainly between november and march . the laying on the snares islands coincides with the annual peak of prey abundance , often between late november and early february . the courting pair chooses the nest - site , and the nest depends on the site . it can be built in fern clump ( polystichum vestitum ) . it is sheltered above by the fern trunk and on the sides by the dead hanging fronds . the nest is made with plant debris found close to the nest - site . fern fragments , tree leaves and pieces of bark are used . the nest is cup - shaped and is often protected from above by dense vegetation .\nthe adult has darker plumage than the other new zealand snipe species . it has compact body , and relatively short bill and legs . on the upperparts , the colour is very cryptic , mainly brown with bars , stripes and spots , ranging from creamy - white to blackish . the uppertail is heavily barred . the outer tail feathers are typically narrow and stiffened . this physical feature produces the characteristic whirring sound during the nocturnal flight displays .\nsnipe rarely fly during the day , and nest at ground level , meaning they are extremely vulnerable to introduced mammals . defences that evolved to deal with birds of prey don\u2019t work on a predator with a good nose . \u201cthey just crouch and hope you\u2019ll go away , \u201d says colin miskelly . \u201cif people can catch them with hand nets , any predator is going to find the nest , eat the chicks , and probably pounce on the adults as well . \u201d\nros cole carries the snipe to their new home on whenua hou , watched over by a pouwhenua , hinekete . carved by the late bluff kaumatua harold ashwell , hinekete is a tribute to the ng\u0101i tahu women who formed the first settlement on the island in the 1820s , alongside their european sealer husbands . one of those women was estelle pera - leask\u2019s great - great - great - great grandmother . \u201cmany ng\u0101i tahu families descend from those women , \u201d she says .\n\u00e2\u0080\u009danother nest placed also in the shelter of a low manuka cushion showed more care in construction ; on granite grit and sand thickly littered with dracophyllum needles , it was piled a couple of inches high with moss , softest lichen and minutest lengths of frayed lissom manuka twiglets . of this nest the eggs , also two in number and also large in proportion to the size of the snipe , were greeny brown in hue with dark spottings and blotches evenly distributed over the whole surface . \u00e2\u0080\u009c\ngreat snipes are not being hunted in our country anymore ( which was unfortunately not abandoned in russia ) . the unusual reproductive system and the status of a\nrarity\nof the great snipe attracts , however , a new type of\nhunters\nequipped in cameras , binoculars and telescopes , who often crave to see this exceptional bird by all means . certainly their motivation is very different from the typical hunters , nevertheless accidental and unintentional startling of the bird may , when occurring on a large scale , lead to a decline in number of leks .\nthe female lays 2 large , very pale brown eggs with dark spots and blotches . the large size of the eggs ( 44 x 32 millimetres ) might indicate poor food resources on the snares islands during the breeding season . both sexes incubate , the male mostly at night , white the female is foraging and recovering after the laying . at hatching , the chicks are covered with blackish - brown down overall and have short black bill . the male cares for the first chick leaving the nest , while the female tends the second one . the chicks are precocial and leave the nest soon after hatching . the parents tend them for 8 - 11 weeks . the pair \u201cadult - chick\u201d is independent from the other , and if the adult loses its chick , it will attempt to breed again with a new mate . but the first two mates usually breed together during the next breeding season .\nthe south island snipe is extinct . its prehistoric distribution comprised the south island and stewart island , including some smaller islands off stewart island . it became extinct on both south island and stewart island following the occupation of new zealand by polynesians ( the ancestors of the m\u00e4\u0081ori people ) and the associated introduction of pacific rats ( rattus exulans ) . it survived on at least nine small islands until the late 19th and 20th centuries but was progressively extirpated on them following introductions of rats and other exotic predators , as well as weka , with the last records coming from big south cape and pukaweka islands in the early 1960s .\neutrophisation is a process of ecosystem enrichment in nutrients ( biogenic elements \u2013 nitrogen and phosphorus ) , which leads to a trophic rise , that is an increase in the habitat ' s fertility . it results in a faster development of vegetation that is followed by an accelerated succession and fast overgrowth of open habitats . in the case of the great snipe ' s biotopes an increased eutrophisation is in the first place caused by the destruction of the natural hydrological equilibria in river valleys ( overdrainage , shortening of spring floods ) and by the influx of biogenic elements from the river ' s drainage area ( chemical and natural fertilizers , communal sewage ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nbuller , walter lawry , birds of new zealand , 1888 . ibis , 1893 .\nheather , b . , & robertson , h . , field guide to the birds of new zealand , 2000 . oliver , w . r . b . , new zealand birds , 1955 .\nclosely related to c . pusilla , with which sometimes considered conspecific , especially in past ; until recently , considered conspecific with \u2020 c . iredalei and c . aucklandica , but differs from latter in extensive dense barring across lower breast and flanks and sometimes most of belly ( 3 ) ; much weaker , paler brown markings on upperparts with much narrower buff fringes , producing much finer and far less blotchy streaking ( 2 ) ; and much more densely barred uppertail ( 2 ) . monotypic .\n20\u201323 cm ; 89\u2013131 g ; wingspan 30\u201335 cm . small , plump , brown wader , with extensive and dense barring across lower breast , flanks and , sometimes , most of belly ; upperparts . . .\nmale has loud territorial call that comprises a series of vibrant monosyllabic notes that build . . .\ntakes soil - dwelling invertebrates , especially earthworms , amphipods , adult beetles , and larvae and pupae of beetles and flies , mainly by . . .\nlays early nov to early apr , with peak hatching in feb . monogamous ( 95 % ) , sometimes polygynous . solitary in territory ; nests at relatively . . .\nnot globally threatened . currently considered near threatened . population increasing in large part due to translocations and is currently thought to number between 1000 and . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nsequence of species in this family is based largely on findings of a recent phylogenetic study # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nvoice ( adult male ) : a strident chup chup chup sometimes building to a loud queeyoo queeyoo queeyoo .\nbaker , a . j . ; miskelly , c . m . ; haddrath , o . 2010 . species limits and population differentiation in new zealand snipes ( scolopacidae : coenocorypha ) . conservation genetics 11 : 1363 - 1374 .\nmiskelly , c . m . ; walker , k . j . ; elliott , g . p . 2006 . breeding ecology of three subantarctic snipes ( genus coenocorypha ) . notornis 53 : 361 - 374 .\nthis species has been extirpated from most of its historic range by introduced mammalian predators , to which it is highly susceptible . declines have ceased as it is now confined to a few predator - free subantarctic islands where it is relatively secure within a very small range . owing to the small number of locations that support the species and the small total population , it is considered near threatened .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : coenocorypha huegeli . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\ncoenocorypha aucklandica , c . huegeli , c . barrierensis and c . iredalei ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) were previously lumped as c . aucklandica following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .\n20 - 23 cm . small , plump variegated brown wader . bill brown and slightly drooping , 4 . 5 cm . this species has extensive dense barring across the lower breast , flanks and , sometimes , most of the belly . the upperparts are finely barred giving an overall uniform impression . also the uppertail is densely barred ."]}
{"id": 2140, "summary": [{"text": "the neotropical green anole ( anolis biporcatus ) is a species of anolis lizard , native to central america and northern south america , from mexico to ecuador and venezuela . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "neotropical green anole", "paragraphs": ["the humble green anole has been a mainstay in the pet reptile hobby for decades . the males have attractive throat pouches they use for territorial displays or when courting females .\nthe green anole has long been one of the most widely available species of lizard in the pet trade . often sold as \u201cfeeders\u201d ( prey items for larger , reptile - eating species of snakes and lizards ) , green anoles are available at local pet shops , chain pet store retailers and from online sellers at very affordable prices ; seldom does a green anole command more than a $ 10 price - tag .\nmale green anoles may grow to 8 inches , while females seldom exceed 5 to 6 inches . young hatch at three - quarters to 1 inch in length . with a svl ( snout - to - vent length ) of a large adult male being roughly 4 inches , fully half a green anole\u2019s length is its tail . the head of the green anole is spear - shaped or triangular in form ; the large eye sockets accommodate this diurnal hunter\u2019s keen eyes .\none of the best known positive economic factors involving green anoles are their presence in the pet trade . green anole are sold in many pet stores in the united states . they also are exported for profit . in addition , lizards collected within the united states are sold to zoos and for educational programs . green anoles also have been studied to better understand animal behavior .\n) are particularly common snake predators . this species has eliminated green anoles from portions of guam . examples of birds that regularly prey on green anoles are american kestrels (\nbreeding interval green anoles breed in two week intervals throughout the spring to summer months .\ngreen anoles will eat small invertebrates such as crickets , mealworms , farm - raised maggots , roaches ( genus blaptica ) , and all other insect fare . avoid superworms or kingworms , as these possess sharp , powerful mandibles that can injure your anole . wild - caught insects , such as grasshoppers and leafhoppers , make great supplements to your green anole\u2019s diet , but make certain that any and all wild insects offered to your pets are free of pesticides , herbicides and any other dangerous agricultural chemical .\ngreen anoles also utilize caudal autotomy and use their dropped tails to distract predators while they escape .\nbreeding season green anoles breed 4 to 5 months out of the year , usually april through august .\na lithe species , the green anole is an agile and muscularly built animal . older males are more heavy - bodied than their female counterparts . these slender lizards are lightweight for their length , which allows them to move through their canopy and vegetation with greater ease .\ngreen anoles should be able to enter and exit warmer and cooler areas of the terrarium in order to thermo - regulate , because although they are baskers , green anoles definitely require shady retreats , as well . owing to this species\u2019 arboreal lifestyle , undertank heaters or hot - rock - style heaters are largely ineffectual as heat sources . heat lamps ( both daytime and nighttime , or moon - glow style , bulbs ) work best as heating sources for a green anole enclosure .\ngreen anoles seem to thrive better when their terrarium is slightly elevated , such that they may look out into your home at eye - level . achieve this by placing your anole\u2019s enclosure on a shelf or on top of a piece of furniture . in nature , green anoles dwell in trees and other lofty locations , and anything you can do in arranging and orienting your anole\u2019s enclosure to better simulate this elevated lifestyle is highly recommended . being down lower can make them nervous , especially if there\u2019s a fair amount of activity in the vicinity of their cage .\nsubstrata to avoid are oily or resinous or scented substrates , such as pine shavings , wood shavings , or scented paper towels . excessively dry substrate , such as any type of sand , is also not recommended , because the green anole is a temperate species that does not naturally occur in excessively arid areas . untreated soil or bark substrates , mixed with decaying leaf - litter work well for green anoles .\nthere are more than two dozen anole species in costa rica alone , so it ' s often difficult to identify an individual lizard . fortunately for me , there ' s only one bright green species . this one was on the trunk of a palm tree , hiding behind palm leaves swaying in the breeze .\nvertically oriented terrariums are preferable , as taller enclosures better accommodate the arboreal green anole\u2019s needs . air circulation is important , so a well - ventilated terrarium is recommended . vertically oriented vegetative cover is an absolute necessity ; acrylic vines , plastic plants that adhere to the tank walls by way of suction cups and other such cover are highly recommended . green anoles will sooner take refuge in suspended tangles of vegetation rather than in ground - level hides or caves .\ngreen anoles also are sometimes considered beneficial pest controllers , because they feed on pest species such as spiders , moths , and crickets .\nwild green anoles typically lap water from leaves after a rain shower , or before the sun dries an early - morning dew . some pets may drink standing water from a shallow dish , but all green anoles will drink water misted onto the leaves and walls of their terrarium . if you do opt to provide a water dish , be sure it\u2019s shallow ; green anoles cannot escape from deep or steep - walled water dishes and will quickly drown in deep water . placing a stick or vine in the water dish will ensure your green anoles an escape route should one be necessary .\ngreen anoles are a diurnal species . in both males and females , the majority of the day is dedicated to foraging . prey capture somewhat distinguishes green anoles from related species , as they use a multitude of resources to capture prey . green anoles move freely and range widely , but usually only within their territorial domains . in most cases , green anoles are positioned at a particular perch height , which is determined in a variety of ways , including the search for prey . behavior changes slightly during the breeding season , when males dedicate more time to social interactions such as courting females .\ngreen anoles have a lifespan ranging from 2 to 8 years , determined largely by predation . lifespan in captivity is similar to that in the wild , approximately 4 to 6 years , and dependent on proper care and conditions . longevity also is greatly dependent upon proper nutrition . smaller , slower , green anoles potentially have greater difficulty obtaining necessary nutrients than larger individuals , especially if engaged in competition . larger green anoles under ideal natural conditions have been known to live up to 10 years .\nsome authorities put most of the central and south american anole species ( as opposed to the u . s . / caribbean ones ) into the genus norops . this might become the standard soon , but for now there are still many authorities using\nanolis\n.\ngreen anoles breed roughly four to five months out of the year , usually from april through august . warmer months have the highest reproduction rate , because higher temperatures increase the size of male and female sexual structures ( testes and ovaries ) . ovulation cycle for female green anoles lasts approximately two weeks , which creates the intervals in which they mate .\n) . in other regions , its greatest impact is as a prey species . for example , in guam , green anoles are so heavily preyed upon by brown tree snakes (\noccurs throughout much of the southeastern united states , extending north through parts of north carolina , west to texas , and south through florida . while florida was once the central portion of its united states distribution , today most florida populations have been replaced by introduced anole species , such as\nphil purser has been writing about reptiles and amphibians since 2001 . his book , insect - eating lizards ( tfh publications , 2008 ) , features green anoles and other insectivorous lizards .\ngreen anoles are preyed upon by a relatively large assortment of predators . their main predators are snakes and birds , but they also are preyed on by larger reptiles . brown tree snakes (\ngreen anoles tolerate gentle handling , and they will usually prefer to perch upon a keeper\u2019s hand or shoulder , rather than be tightly gripped . they are fragile lizards , and their tails will break easily , so while they do tolerate gentle interaction with their keepers , it\u2019s best to keep handling to a minimum . newly acquired green anoles should not be handled soon after purchase ; give your new pets a week or two to adapt to their new surroundings before handling them . children should be supervised whenever handling green anoles , and anyone who handles them ( or any other reptiles ) should always wash their hands with antibacterial soap afterward .\nscale colors in green anoles vary . in most cases , these lizards range from shades of brown to green or gray . at times their coloring represents combinations of these colors . color variation results from layers of pigmented cells called chromatophores . three types of pigment cells are present : xanthophores , cyanophores , and melanophores , each responsible for different color variations . green anoles are capable of changing scale color in response to their external environment . many factors affect color change and variation ; most often it is dependent upon temperature and excitation , such as increased activity or competition . darker brown and black colors , produced by melanophores , typically signal cold or stressed conditions .\nto avoid predators , green anoles hide in trees , tall grasses , and other vegetation . they also have developed a structure similar to a patagium that enables them to glide down from tall trees . in addition , green anoles have the ability to walk vertically on surfaces such as trees , walls , and fences using adhesive pads on the bottom of their feet . these provide a means of escape that the majority of their predators do not have .\ngreen anoles have several methods of capturing prey . over 58 % of the prey is captured by perching and watching or anticipating prey until they are within striking distance . this is considered to be the most effective means of capturing prey . this behavior is predominant during breeding , to conserve energy for mating . another method of prey capture is used while the anole is protecting and patrolling their territory . in this case , they leap forward to ensure a capture , but use a slower motion . another common method of prey capture is the ambush , usually used in capturing larger prey items .\nis highly territorial , especially the males , they may prevent certain other species from entering their territory . this potentially prevents certain reproductive variation . a beneficial quality of green anoles is that they consume seeds and grains , potentially aiding in seed dispersal .\ngreen anoles feed on a broad range of prey items . they often will attempt to eat anything smaller than their own head . they are classified as insectivores , eating a wide variety of insects , including beetles and flies , as well as spiders , some arthropods . at times , they also will eat mollusks , grain , and seeds . the importance of a particular prey or food item largely reflects its availability . if an item is abundant within the territory , green anoles are likely to feed on it more frequently .\nis currently considered to be at lower risk or of least concern and is not vulnerable to any major threats at this time . some researchers believe that they may be at risk due to the significant numbers in the pet trade . however , in recent years , sales of green anoles have declined due to lesser demand . also , green anoles appear abundant in the portions of their range from which they are collected and many populations occur in protected areas , such as parks and natural areas , which helps to protect the population .\ngreen anoles are sun - worshipping baskers , and eight hours of full - spectrum uv lighting per day is recommended . ambient temperatures should range from the low - 80s fahrenheit during the day with nightly dips into the upper 60s to low 70s . basking hot spots should reach the mid 90s .\nthe majority of green anoles are polygynous . especially in larger populations , they usually will mate only within their own territories . females are not characteristically known to search for different mates . in cases when a female mates with a different male , it is usually due to intrusion into her territory .\ntwo types of sexual selection occur during the mating season : intersexual and intrasexual selection . the larger a territory range a male has , the more females he is likely to mate with . a territory size usually relates to a male green anoles body size ; the larger he is the more dominant he will be towards intruders and predators as he protects his territory .\ngreen anoles that have not yet reached adulthood do display adult signals and behaviors ( e . g . head bobbing ) . however , since they are not sexually mature , these do not function as courtship mechanisms . interactions between juveniles are similar to those of adult females . they generally are not as serious as those between adult males and usually do not result in injuries . as juveniles mature , their interactions often become more intense . this is mainly due to the development of structural hierarchies for adulthood .\nfemale green anoles have the ability to store sperm ; this may be a trait of intersexual selection . sperm has been found within a female seven months after mating , which may make delayed fertilization possible . prior to releasing her clutch , the female will examine an appropriate area and then dig into the soil . females prefer to release their eggs into moist soil . eggs are oval and on average 6 by 4 . 5 mm . the gestation period varies , but is approximately five to seven weeks long . hatchling anoles weigh 0 . 27 g each . juvenile anoles are sexually mature at 8 to 9 months old .\nthe number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .\nover the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .\nthe number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .\noverall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .\nthe reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .\ncurrently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .\nthe reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .\nthe reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\ndactyloa biporcata wiegmann 1834 : 47 anolis biporcatus \u2014 bocourt 1873 anolis copei bocourt 1873 : 77 anolis obtusirostris peters 1874 : 741 anolis copii \u2014 boulenger 1885 : 65 anolis biporcatus \u2014 boulenger 1885 : 88 anolis obtusirostris \u2014 boulenger 1885 : 95 anolis brevipes boettger 1893 anolis solifer ruthven 1916 anolis copei \u2014 dunn 1932 anolis copei \u2014 stuart 1935 : 42 anolis biporcatus \u2014 smith & taylor 1950 : 65 anolis biporcatus biporcatus \u2014 williams 1966 norops biporcatus \u2014 guyer & savage 1986 norops biporcatus \u2014 liner 1994 anolis biporcatus \u2014 bauer et al . 1995 : 59 norops biporcatus \u2014 k\u00f6hler 2000 : 62 anolis biporcatus \u2014 liner 2007 anolis biporcatis \u2014 liner & casas - andreu 2008 : 41 norops biporcatus \u2014 nicholson et al . 2012 norops biporcatus \u2014 mccranie & k\u00f6hler 2015 : 33\ntype locality : mexico ; restricted to piedra parada , chiapas by smith & taylor 1950 . neotype locality : santa rosa de pansos , guatemala .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\n\u00e1lvarez del toro , m . , & smith , h . m . 1956 . notulae herpetologicae chiapasiae . i . herpetologica 12 : 3 - 17 - get paper here\nanonymous 2002 . opinion 2015 ( case 3145 ) dactyloa biporcata wiegmann 1834 ( currently anolis biporcatus ) and anolis petersii bocourt 1873 ( reptilia , sauria ) : specific names conserved by the desdignation of a neotype for a . biporcatus . bull . zool . nomenclature 59 ( 3 ) : 230 - 231 - get paper here\narias , erick ; federico bola\u00f1os 2014 . a checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of san isidro de dota , reserva forestal los santos , costa rica . check list 10 ( 4 ) : 870 - 877 - get paper here\narmstead , j . v . , f . ayala - varela , o . torres - carvajal , m . j . ryan & s . poe 2017 . systematics and ecology of anolis biporcatus ( squamata : iguanidae ) . salamandra 53 ( 2 ) : 285 - 293 - get paper here\nbauer , a . m . ; g\u00fcnther , r . & klipfel , m . 1995 . the herpetological contributions of wilhelm c . h . peters ( 1815 - 1883 ) . ssar facsimile reprints in herpetology , 714 pp .\nbernal carlo a . & roze j a . 2005 . lizards of the genus anolis ( reptilia : polychrotidae ) from sierra nevada de santa marta , colombia , with description of two new species . novedades colombianas nueva epoca 8 ( 1 ) : 9 - 26 - get paper here\nbocourt , m . e . 1873 . in : a . dum\u00e9ril , m . f . bocourt , and f . mocquard , ( 1870 - 1909 ) , etudes sur les reptiles , p . i - xiv ; in recherches zoologiques pour servir a l ' histoire de ia faune de l ' am\u00e9rique centrale et du mexique . mission scientifique au mexique et dans l ' am\u00e9rique ce imprimerie imp\u00e9riale , paris , livr . 2 - 15 , pp . 33 - 860 . - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1885 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( natural history ) . vol . 2 , second edition . london , xiii + 497 pp . - get paper here\ncalderon , r . ; cede\u00f1o - v\u00e1zquez , j . r . & pozo , c . 2003 . new distributional records for amphibians and reptiles from campeche , mexico . herpetological review 34 ( 3 ) : 269 - 272 - get paper here\ncalderon - mandujano , r . & mora - tembre , l . 2004 . new distributional records and comments on amphibians and reptiles from quintana roo , mexico . herpetological review 35 ( 3 ) : 295 - 296 - get paper here\ncampbell , j . a . 1998 . amphibians and reptiles of northern guatemala , the yucat\u00e1n , and belize . norman : university of oklahoma press , xiii + 380 pp . - get paper here\ncasas - andreu , g . , f . r . m\u00e9ndez - de la cruz and x . aguilar - miguel . 2004 . anfibios y reptiles ; pp . 375\u2013390 , in a . j . m . garc\u00eda - mendoza , j . ordo\u00f1ez and m . briones - salas ( ed . ) . biodiversidad de oaxaca . instituto de biolog\u00eda , unam - fondo oaxaque\u00f1o para la conservaci\u00f3n de la naturaleza - world wildlife fund , m\u00e9xico , d . f .\ncastro - herrera , f . & vargas - salinas , f . 2008 . anfibios y reptiles en el departamento del valle del cauca , colombia . biota colombiana 9 ( 2 ) : 251 - 277 - get paper here\ncastro - herrera , fernando ; anyelet valencia - aguilar , diego villaquiran - mart\u00ednez 2012 . diversidad de anfibios y reptiles del parque nacional natural isla gorgona universidad del valle , santiago de cali , valle del cauca , 112 pp .\ncrandell , kristen e . ; anthony herrel , mahmood sasa , jonathan b . losos , kellar autumn 2014 . stick or grip ? co - evolution of adhesive toepads and claws in anolis lizards . zoology 117 ( 6 ) : 363 - 369 - get paper here\nduellman , w . e . 1963 . amphibians and reptiles of the rainforest of southern el peten , guatemala . univ . kansas publ . mus . nat . hist . 15 : 205 - 49 . - get paper here\ndunn , emmett reid & emlen , john t . 1932 . reptiles and amphibians from honduras . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 84 : 21 - 32 - get paper here\nesquivel , c . , and f . vargas - acu\u00f1a . 2017 . norops biporcatus ( wiegmann , 1834 ) . color change during foraging . mesoamerican herpetology 4 ( 1 ) : 177\u2013178 - get paper here\ngaige , h . 1936 . some reptiles and amphibians from yucatan and campeche , mexico . carnegie inst . wash . publ . , ( 457 ) : 289 - 304 .\nhenderson , c . l . 2010 . mammals , amphibians , and reptiles of costa rica - a field guide . university of texas press , austin , 198 pp .\njohnson , jerry d . ; vicente mata - silva , el\u00ed garc\u00eda padilla , and larry david wilson 2015 . the herpetofauna of chiapas , mexico : composition , distribution , and conservation . mesoamerican herpetology 2 ( 3 ) : 272\u2013329 . - get paper here\nk\u00f6hler , g . 2000 . reptilien und amphibien mittelamerikas , bd 1 : krokodile , schildkr\u00f6ten , echsen . herpeton verlag , offenbach , 158 pp .\nk\u00f6hler , g . 2008 . reptiles of central america . 2nd ed . herpeton - verlag , 400 pp .\nk\u00f6hler , g . & bauer , a . m . 2001 . case 3145 : dactyloa biporcata wiegmann 1834 ( currently anolis biporcatus ) and anolis petersii bocourt 1873 ( reptilia : sauria ) : proposed conservation of the specific names and designation of a neotype for a . biporcatus . bull . zool . nomenclature 58 ( 2 ) : 122 - 125 - get paper here\nk\u00f6hler , gunther 2014 . characters of external morphology used in anolis taxonomy\u2014definition of terms , advice on usage , and illustrated examples . zootaxa 3774 ( 2 ) : 201\u2013257 - get paper here\nlee , j . c . 2000 . a field guide to the amphibians and reptiles of the maya world . cornell university press , ithaca ,\nlee , j . c . 1996 . the amphibians and reptiles of the yucat\u00e1n peninsula . comstock , cornell university press , ithaca , 500 pp .\nliner , ernest a . , and gustavo casas - andreu . 2008 . standard spanish , english and scientific names of the amphibians and reptiles of mexico . herpetological circular 38 : 167 p .\nmata - silva , vicente , jerry d . johnson , larry david wilson and el\u00ed garc\u00eda - padilla . 2015 . the herpetofauna of oaxaca , mexico : composition , physiographic distribution , and conservation status . mesoamerican herpetology 2 ( 1 ) : 6\u201362 - get paper here\nmccranie , j . & casta\u00f1eda , f . e . 2005 . the herpetofauna of parque nacional pico bonito , honduras . phyllomedusa 4 ( 1 ) : 3 - 16 - get paper here\nmccranie , james r . 2015 . a checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of honduras , with additions , comments on taxonomy , some recent taxonomic decisions , and areas of further studies needed . zootaxa 3931 ( 3 ) : 352\u2013386 - get paper here\nmccranie , james r . and gunther k\u00f6hler 2015 . the anoles ( reptilia : squamata : dactyloidae : anolis : norops ) of honduras . systematics , distribution , and conservation . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard ( special publication series , no . 1 ) : 1 - 280 [ review in q . j . biol . 91 : 227 ] - get paper here\nnicholson , kirsten e . ; brian i . crother , craig guyer & jay m . savage 2012 . it is time for a new classification of anoles ( squamata : dactyloidae ) . zootaxa 3477 : 1\u2013108\nortleb , edward ; heatwole , harold 1965 . comments on some panamanian lizards with a key to the species from barro colorado island , c . z . and vicinity . carib . j . sci . 5 ( 3 - 4 ) : 141 - 147 .\npeters , wilhem carl hartwig 1874 . \u00fcber neue saurier ( sp\u00e6riodactylus , anolis , phrynosoma , tropidolepisma , lygosoma , ophioscincus ) aus centralamerica , mexico und australien . monatsber . k\u00f6nigl . akad . wiss . berlin . 1873 ( november ) : 738 - 747 - get paper here\npoe , s . 2004 . phylogeny of anoles . herpetological monographs 18 : 37 - 89 - get paper here\npoe , s . 2013 . 1986 redux : new genera of anoles ( squamata : dactyloidae ) are unwarranted . zootaxa 3626 ( 2 ) : 295\u2013299 - get paper here\nrengifo m , jhon tailor ; fernando c . herrera , francisco j . purroy 2014 . diversidad de una comunidad de anolis ( iguania : dactyloidae ) en la selva pluvial central , departamento del choc\u00f3 , colombia . basic and applied herpetology 28 : 51 - 63 - get paper here\nrivas , gilson a . ; ce\u0301sar r . molina , gabriel n . ugueto , tito r . barros , ce\u0301sar l . bar - rio - amoro\u0301s & philippe j . r . kok 2012 . reptiles of venezuela : an updated and commented checklist . zootaxa 3211 : 1\u201364 - get paper here\nrivas - fuenmayor , g . & c . l . barrio a . 2003 . geographic distribution ; sauria : norops biporcatus . herpetological review 34 ( 4 ) : 385 - get paper here\nrovito , sean michael ; thomas james devitt , susan cameron devitt 2015 . first survey of the amphibians and reptiles of the nectandra cloud forest reserve , alajuela , costa rica . check list 11 ( 2 ) : 1570 - get paper here\nruthven , alexander g . 1916 . three new species of anolis from the santa marta mountains , colombia . occasional papers of the museum of zoology , university of michigan ( 32 ) : 1 - 8 - get paper here\nsavage , j . m . 2002 . the amphibians and reptiles of costa rica : a herpetofauna between two continents , between two seas . university of chicago press , 934 pp . [ review in copeia 2003 ( 1 ) : 205 ]\nsol\u00eds , jos\u00e9 mario ; rony e . valle , luis a . herrera , carlos m . o\u2019reilly , and roberto downing . 2015 . range extensions and new departmental records for amphibians and reptiles in honduras . mesoamerican herpetology 2 ( 4 ) : 557 - get paper here\nsoli\u0301s , j . m . , l . d . wilson , and j . h . townsend . 2014 . an updated list of the amphibians and reptiles of honduras , with comments on their nomenclature . mesoamerican herpetology 1 : 123\u2013144 - get paper here\nstuart , l . c . 1935 . a contribution to a knowledge of the herpetology of a portion of the savanna region of central peten , guatemala . university of michigan museum of zoology miscellaneous publications 29 : 1 - 56 - get paper here\nstuart , l . c . 1937 . some further notes on the amphibians and reptiles of the peten forest of northern guatemala . copeia 1937 ( 1 ) : 67 - 70 - get paper here\nstuart , l . c . 1948 . the amphibians and reptiles of alta verapaz guatamala . miscellaneous publications , museum of zoology , university of michigan 69 : 1 - 109 - get paper here\nstuart , l . c . 1955 . a brief review of the guatemalan lizards of the genus anolis . misc . publ . mus . zool . , univ . michigan no . 91 : 1 - 31 - get paper here\nsunyer , javier 2014 . an updated checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of nicaragua . mesoamerican herpetology 1 ( 2 ) : 186\u2013202 . - get paper here\nsunyer , javier , jos\u00e9 gabriel mart\u00ednez - fonseca and milton salazar - saavedra . 2016 . new departmental records for lizards in nicaragua . mesoamerican herpetology 3 ( 4 ) : 1049\u20131054 - get paper here\ntaylor , e . h . 1956 . a review of the lizards of costa rica . univ . kansas sci . bull . 38 ( part 1 ) : 3 - 322 - get paper here\nurbina - cardona , j . nicol\u00e1s ; mario olivares - p\u00e9rez , v\u00edctor hugo reynoso 2006 . herpetofauna diversity and microenvironment correlates across a pasture\u2013edge\u2013interior ecotone in tropical rainforest fragments in the los tuxtlas biosphere reserve of veracruz , mexico . biological conservation 132 : 61\u201375\nvalencia - zuleta a , jaramillo - mart\u00ednez af , echeverry - bocanegra a , vi\u00e1fara - vega r , hern\u00e1ndez - c\u00f3rdoba o , cardona - botero ve , guti\u00e9rrez - z\u00fa\u00f1iga j , castro - herrera f . 2014 . conservation status of the herpetofauna , protected areas , and current problems in valle del cauca , colombia . amphibian & reptile conservation 8 ( 2 ) : 1\u201318 ( e87 ) - get paper here\nvan beest , p . a . & haberham , z . l . 2003 . een gebruiksaanwijzing voor een van de meest interessante groepen terrariumdiern : anolissen . deel iii . lacerta 61 ( 5 ) : 163 - 176 - get paper here\nwiegmann , a . f . a . 1834 . herpetologia mexicana , seu descriptio amphibiorum novae hispaniae , quae itineribus comitis de sack , ferdinandi deppe et chr . guil . schiede im museum zoologicum berolinense pervenerunt . pars prima , saurorum species . berlin , l\u00fcderitz , iv + 54 pp . - get paper here\nwilliams , e . e . ; rand , h . ; rand , a . s . & o\u2019hara , r . j . 1995 . a computer approach to the comparison and identification of species in difficult taxonomic groups . breviora ( 502 ) : 1 - 47 - get paper here\nwilliams , ernest e . 1966 . south american anoles : anolis biporcatus and anolis fraseri ( sauria , iguanidae ) compared . breviora ( 239 ) : 1 - 14 - get paper here\nmario urriola spotted one of these anoles sleeping high in a tree at night , and pointed it out to lorrie smith and me . it was too high up to get a flash photo or to try to manipulate the vegetation to get it down lower .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nproject noah is a tool to explore and document wildlife and a platform to harness the power of citizen scientists everywhere .\nmaybe about 12 cm long from nose to tail ? seen near a farmhouse where i would normally easily find yellow - headed geckos and slender anoles .\nhatchlings will reach sexual maturity in 18 months , and adults will continue to grow throughout the duration of their lives . sexual dimorphism also exists in that males sport larger dewlaps and females have a whitish to cream - colored stripe down the midline of the dorsum .\nwhile captive longevity may reach or slightly exceed six years , wild specimens seldom thrive for more than three years .\nthis page requires javascript . it seems that your browser does not have javascript enabled . please enable javascript and press the reload / refresh button on your browser .\nis considered an introduced species . it has become abundant in hawaii since it was discovered in 1950 . it also has been introduced and has flourished in the ogasawara islands of japan , and in cuba , the bahamas , and guam . in guam , however , densities have been impacted drastically by predators , such as introduced brown tree snakes (\n( bishop and echternacht , 2004 ; losos , 2009 ; macedonia , et al . , 2003 ; mattison , 1989 )\nis found most often on shaded tree branches . its positioning within a tree is known as its perch height and is dependent on the proximity of both predators and prey . limited research has been done on their preferred types or species of trees .\nappears mostly to inhabit trees and shrubs within their territory and where prey is readily available . they also are frequently observed in tall grasses .\nalso is one of the most common lizards in urban and suburban areas . it is frequently found near dwellings , particularly on fence posts and the sides of buildings .\nvaries in length from 4 to 8 cm . females typically are smaller in all body size measures , at birth ranging from about 23 to 25 mm long . both males and females have long tails that account for more than half of their total body lengths . adult anoles weigh between 2 and 6 g .\nwithin a population , two different size classes or morphs of adult males may be present : heavyweights and lightweights . these morphs differ in many ways , including bite force , body mass and length , competition , and vertical jump . the heavyweight morph is larger and more dominant . some authors consider these morphs to be different developmental stages or different age classes among sexually mature males .\n( bartlett and bartlett , 2009 ; crews and greenberg , 1981 ; lailvaux , et al . , 2012 ; smith , 1946 )\nmales protect their mating partners from other intruding males by defending their territory . at times , males have been found to deny receptive females due to their focus on territorial protection . females also show protective behavior by mating primarily in sheltered areas and closed terrain , reducing vulnerability to predators . unlike other\noccurs during warmer months , generally april through august . the breeding intervals are based on the female reproductive cycle , as they are only receptive to mating during their ovulatory cycle . the male is the main initiator of reproductive interactions and presents a strong display of attraction . this typically promotes a reproductive state in the female , similar to that of\n. depending on how many ovulatory cycles a female has within a breeding season , she will lay six to nine eggs in a year . on average , she will lay a one to two egg clutch every two weeks . the male\u2019s opportunities for mating correlates with the number of ovulation cycles a female has and the total number of potential mates within his territory range .\nafter ovulation , fertilization , and egg laying , no parental investment is known to occur .\n( jenssen and nunez , 1998 ; losos , 2009 ; orrell , et al . , 2004 )\nmale territory size is directly correlated with its body size . the larger the lizard , the more territory he is able to patrol and protect . female territories are much smaller , less than half of that of a male , and generally within the male\u2019s home range . even though males have much larger territory ranges than females , they spend the majority of their time within a specified female\u2019s territory . year to year , males tend to remain within the same territorial boundaries . territory sizes vary , but on average range from 50 to 100 square meters .\nis equipped with certain communication signals from birth . most communication involves color variations , actions such as head bobbing or neck biting , or use of the dewlap . the dewlap is used for inter - gender communication , especially during the breeding season . displaying the dewlap also may be used to determine competitive status between males ; in these cases , dewlap displays are usually related to territorial boundary disputes . head bobbing or courtship bobbing is performed by both males and females to communicate breeding status , but is also done while in a threatened state .\n) . other common predators , particularly in suburban areas , are cats , dogs , and frogs .\n( lailvaux , et al . , 2012 ; losos , 2009 ; lovern and jenssen , 2001 ; oliver , 1951 )\ndoes not have a large ecosystem impact in most geographical ranges . however , their introduction in the ogasawara islands of japan , however , has led to the decline of or extinction of many species , such as the ogasawara tumbling flower beetle (\nis a relatively harmless reptile . it is not aggressive toward humans , and its bite force is most likely insufficient to damage human skin .\nchelsea crawford ( author ) , radford university , christine small ( editor ) , radford university , rachelle sterling ( editor ) , special projects .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nliving in the northern part of the old world . in otherwords , europe and asia and northern africa .\na substantial delay ( longer than the minimum time required for sperm to travel to the egg ) takes place between copulation and fertilization , used to describe female sperm storage .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\nhaving a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .\nreferring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range , usually through human action .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nislands that are not part of continental shelf areas , they are not , and have never been , connected to a continental land mass , most typically these are volcanic islands .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nthe business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets .\none of the sexes ( usually males ) has special physical structures used in courting the other sex or fighting the same sex . for example : antlers , elongated tails , special spurs .\nmature spermatozoa are stored by females following copulation . male sperm storage also occurs , as sperm are retained in the male epididymes ( in mammals ) for a period that can , in some cases , extend over several weeks or more , but here we use the term to refer only to sperm storage by females .\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nliving in cities and large towns , landscapes dominated by human structures and activity .\naborn , d . , d . froehlich . 1995 . an observation of a summer tanager attempting to eat an anolis lizard .\ncrews , d . , n . greenberg . 1981 . function and causation of social signals in lizards .\ndirickson , w . 1976 . ecology and physiological aspects of reproductive strategies in two lizards .\nmiller , w . , m . wolbarsht . 1962 . neural activity in the parietal eye of a lizard .\nversely , d . , m . hadly . 1971 . calcium requirement for melanophore - stimulating hormone action on melanophores .\nto cite this page : crawford , c . 2011 .\nanolis carolinensis\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 2152, "summary": [{"text": "synthopsis iohannae is a species of minute sea snails , marine gastropod molluscs in the family cerithiopsidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by cecalupo and perugia in 2012 . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "synthopsis iohannae", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for synthopsis definition . you find here synthopsis meaning , synonyms of synthopsis and images for synthopsis copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word synthopsis . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word synthopsis and , of course , synthopsis synonyms and on the right images related to the word synthopsis .\ncecalupo a . ; perugia i . ( 2013 ) . the cerithiopsidae ( caenogastropoda : triphoroidea ) of espiritu santo - vanuatu ( south pacific ocean ) . 1 - 255 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nlaseron c . ( 1956 ) . the family cerithiopsidae ( mollusca ) from the solanderian and dampierian zoogeographical provinces . australian journal of marine and freshwater research . 7 ( 1 ) : 151 - 182 . page ( s ) : 162 [ details ]\nmarshall b . ( 1978 ) . cerithiopsidae of new zealand , and a provisional classification of the family . new zealand journal of zoology 5 ( 1 ) : 47 - 120 . , available online at urltoken ; = pa47 [ details ]\ncerithiopsis ridicula r . b . watson , 1886 accepted as joculator ridiculus ( r . b . watson , 1886 ) ( type by original designation )\nspecies joculator ridicula accepted as joculator ridiculus ( r . b . watson , 1886 ) ( incorrect gender ending )\nspecies joculator turriger ( r . b . watson , 1886 ) accepted as horologica turrigera ( r . b . watson , 1886 )\nspecies joculator turrigera ( r . b . watson , 1886 ) accepted as horologica turrigera ( r . b . watson , 1886 )\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njoculator is a genus of minute sea snails , marine gastropod molluscs in the family cerithiopsidae . [ 1 ] this genus was described by hedley in 1909 .\ncecalupo a . & perugia i . ( 2014 ) . the cerithiopsidae ( caenogastropoda : triphoroidea ) of south madagascar ( indian ocean ) . bollettino malacologico . 50 : 75 - 126 .\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses ."]}
{"id": 2167, "summary": [{"text": "pseudandraca is a genus of moths of the endromidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the genus was previously placed in the subfamily prismostictinae of the bombycidae family . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "pseudandraca", "paragraphs": ["pseudandraca gracilis ( butler ) ( bombycidae ) taken at kashispa , fukushima pref . , northern honshu\npseudandraca gracilis is a moth in the family endromidae . it was described by butler in 1885 . it is found in japan .\npseudandraca gracilis is a moth in the endromidae family . it was described by butler in 1885 . [ 1 ] it is found in japan .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\ncopyright \u00a9 new earth online . content from external sites are the property of their respective owners where stated .\nconservation status where available has been identified by the iucn red list of threatened species .\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .\nwang , xing ; wang , min ; dai , liang - ying ; zolotuhin , vadim v .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\nchapter 21619 provides bibliographic information on scholary research in the basic and applied life , earth and health sciences .\nprove sull & apos ; isolamento riproduttivo in tre specie del genere gryon haliday ( hym . proctotrupoidea , scelionidae )\nzaramo , c . e . m . dlin , c . s . y . o , j . w . n ; morton , t . a . b . wen , g . r . , 2008 :\nprovenance variation in podocarpus totara ( d . don ) : growth , tree form and wood density on a coastal site in the north of the natural range , new zealand\nandersen , u . s . randby ; cordova , j . p . prado ; nielsen , u . b . aeuner ; kollmann , j . , 2008 :\nngo - metzger , q . ; sorkin , d . h . ; phillips , r . s . ; greenfield , s . ; massagli , m . p . ; clarridge , b . ; kaplan , s . h . , 2007 :\nlum , a . , w . m . ; kwok , k . - woon ; chon , s . - ann , 2008 :\nproviding of lodgings for tits ( genus parus ) as a perspective method of integrated apple orchard protection against codling moth ( laspeyresia pomonella l . )\nadrian m . s . rader ; burt p . k . tler ; joel s . b . own ; graham i . h . k . rley , 2008 :\nmontagnoli , c . ; perruccio , k . ; bozza , s . ; bonifazi , p . ; zelante , t . ; d . l . ca , a . ; moretti , s . ; d & apos ; angelo , c . ; bistoni , f . ; martelli , m . ; aversa , f . ; velardi , a . ; romani , l . , 2007 :\nprovisional atlas of suffolk dragonflies . incorporating the recorder & apos ; s pack for 1988\nprovisional atlas of the lepidoptera of warwickshire . part 3 : the smaller and the more primitive larger moths . ( insecta : lepidoptera : 6446 ) ( micropterigidae to pterophoridae )\nchoate , jr . ; knox jones , j . ; jr . , 1981 :\nprovisional data on the seasonal dynamics of chironomus plumosus l . in l . vortsjarv\nprovisional description of roloffia etzeli sp . nov . a new cyprinodontidae from sierra leone\nadema , jphm . de bruyne , rh . ; perk , fa . , 1989 :\nsulak , kj . ; crabtree , re . ; hureau , j - c . , 1984 :\nsethi , v . k . mar ; bhatt , d . , 2007 :\nwang , y - chih . ; hwang , j - jen . ; yu , c - chieh . ; lai , l - ping . ; tsai , c - ti . ; lin , l - chun . ; katra , r . ; lin , j - lee . , 2008 :\nmin , w - kie . ; kim , s - yoon . ; kim , t - kong . ; lee , k - bong . ; cho , m - rae . ; ha , y - chan . ; koo , k - hoi . , 2007 :\npetit , m . a . ; beck , t . j . ; hughes , j . m . ; lin , h - mo . ; bentley , c . ; lloyd , t . , 2007 :\nlumbsch , m . ; ehlers , u . ; sopott - ehlers , b . , 1995 :\nproximal - type epithelioid sarcoma vs . malignant rhabdoid tumor of the vulva : a case report , review of the literature , and an argument for consolidation\nsharma , sv . ; kalyani , k . ; jaya raju , pb . ; narasimha rao , p . , 2000 :\njohn - alder , h . b . ; cox , r . m . ; taylor , e . n . , 2006 :\nmougin , j - l . ; mougin , m - c . , 1991 :\nde oliveira , d . a . ; ades , c . , 1998 :\nproximity patterns of female brown capuchins in suriname are inconsistent with expectations of female - bonded primates .\nproximity relationships of tryptophanyl residues and oxygen binding site in levantina hierosolima hemocyanin . a fluorimetric study\nproyecto de colaboracion de la asociacion de scouts de mexico , a . c . con programas de proteccion a la tortuga marina y educacion ambiental en comunidades de la costa yucateca\nproyecto de creacion del parque nacional aconquija ( tucuman - argentina ) . informe no . 4\nproyecto de seguimiento de la migracion de aves sobre el mediterraneo occidental mediante observacion lunar . resultados del otono de 1996\ngarcia - villaneuva , v . ; blazquez caselles , a . ; novoa perez , jm . ; nieto manzano , ma . , 1996 :\nproyecto : atlas provisional de los lepidopteros de extremadura ( espana ) en cuadriculas u . t . m . de 10 x 10 kms ( insecta : lepidoptera )\nprozercon ( plumatozercon ) plumosus n . sp . ( acari : gamasida : zerconidae )\ncachard - chastel , m . ; devers , s . ; sicsic , s . ; langlois , m . ; lezoualc & apos ; h , f . ; gardier , a . m . ; belzung , c . , 2008 :\nalvarado - sosa , p . ; blanco - garcia , a . ; lindig - cisneros , r . , 2007 :\ngarcia benavides , p . ; serrano vilar , j . ; garcia benavides , j . , 1984 :\npruebas de compontamiento de ceratitis capitata wied . con sex - ceratitis , producto nacional atrayente sexual de machos\niannacone o . ; jose ; alvarino f . ; lorena ; dale l . ; william , 1998 :\nprufung ausgewahlter insektentaxa aus 2 . forstbiotopen auf ihre indikatoreignung - ein neuer aspekt des burgholz - projektes\nprunus mahaleb l . , arbre - hote pour la larve d & apos ; hesperophanes ( trichoferus ) griseus fabricius ( coleopt . cerambycidae )\nsuwansa - ard , s . ; xiang , y . ; bash , r . ; thavarungkul , p . ; kanatharana , p . ; wang , j . , 2008 :\nprvi nalazi vrste lycaena hippothoe linnaeus 1761 u bosni i hercegovini i otkrice simpatrije sa l . candens leonhardi fruhstorfer 1917 ( lepidoptera , lycaenidae )\nprvni overeni moznosti mutagenniho pusobeni peptidu dalarginu na genom sumce velkeho ( silurus glanis l . ) pomoci testu mikrojader\ncooper , a . k . ; o & apos ; brien , p . e . ; richter , c . et al . , 2001 :\nprymnesium zebrinum sp . nov . et p . annuliferum sp . nov . , deux nouvelles especes apparentees a p . parvum carter ( prymnesiophyceae )\npryszczarek contarinia ( stenodiplosis ) bromicola marik . et agaf . ( diptera , cecidomyiidae ) - grozny szkodnik upraw nasiennych stoklosy bezostnej ( bromus inermis leyss . )\nprzeglad krajowych badan nad biologia , ekologia i rozrodem bobra europejskiego , castor fiber ( l . )\nprzejecie kolonii formica pratensis retz . przez formica polyctena foerst . ( hymenoptera , formicidae )\nprzelot ptakow drapieznych jesienia 2000 r . w okoliczach gadkowa wielkiego ( woj . lubuskie )\nprzewalski & apos ; s horses ( equus przewalskii pol . , 1881 ) : problems preservation and reintroducing in nature area ( proceedings of the vi international symposium of the preservation of the przewalski horse dedication 100 - th breeding the species in ascania nova reservation )\nnalecz - tarwacka , t . ; grodzki , h . ; kuczynska , b . , 2008 :\nprzypadek obojnactwa ( hermaphroditismus ) u sarny capreolus capreolus ( l . , 1758 )\npsallus alnicola douglas et scott 1871 - eine bemerkenswerte wanze aus dem westerzgebirge ( hemiptera , heteroptera ) ( 4 . beitrag zur heteropteren - fauna des erzgebirges )\npsallus anticus ( reuter ) - senior synonym of p . cognatus jakovlev ( heteroptera : miridae )\npsallus confusus rieger and psallus mollis ( mul . ) in poland ( heteroptera , miridae )\npsammological essays . 1 . the organization and systematic position of the mollusc hedylopsis murmanica n . sp . ( opisthobranchia , acochlidiida ) .\nwinkelmann , j . ; matz rensing , k . ; silinski , s . ; kaup , f . j . , 2007 :\npsammophis leightoni trinasalis ( fork - marked sand snake ) and psammophis notostictus ( karoo sand racer ) . endoparasites\nshen , h - bin . ; chou , k - chen . , 2007 :\npsectra diptera ( burmeister ) dans l & apos ; aisne ( neur . hemerobiidae )\npsectra diptera burm . und sisyra fuscata fabr . , zwei fur oberosterreich neue neuropteren aus den traun - auen bei stadl - paura ( insecta : neuropteroidea : planipennia : hemerobiidae : sisyridae )\npsectrotanypus tokunagai ( fittkau ) , comb . nov . ( diptera , chironomidae )\nlee , c - f . ; yang , p - s . ; sato , m . , 1998 :\nlee , c - f . ; yang , p - s . , 1995 :\nlee , c - f . ; jach , ma . ; yang , p - s . , 1998 :\nk\u00e4mpfer , p . ; thummes , k . ; chu , h - i . ; tan , c - chung . ; arun , a . b . ; chen , w - ming . ; lai , w - an . ; shen , f - ting . ; rekha , p . d . ; young , c - chung . , 2008 :\nluja , v . h . ; blazquez , m . c . rmen ; rodriguez - estrella , r . , 2007 :\npseudacris triseriata ( western chorus frog ) and rana sylvatica ( wood frog ) . chytridiomycosis\npseudacrobasis nankingella roesler , 1975 . an east - asiatic species found in spain ( lepidoptera : pyralidae , phycitinae )\npseudadimonia holzschuhi , eine neue galerucinae - art aus nepal , und bemerkungen zu einer vergessenen art : rhabdotilla rosti jakobson 1911 ( chrysomelidae col . )\npseudanapis hoeferi , n . sp . from central amazonia , brazil ( araneae , anapidae )\npseudasphondylia rauwolfiae nov . sp . cecidomyie des fleurs de rauwolfia schumanniana ( schl . ) boiteau , en nouvelle - caledonie\nmeshaka , w . e . jr ; deyrup , m . , 1999 :\npseudemys floridana peninsularis ( peninsula cooter ) and p . nelsoni ( florida redbelly turtle ) . mutualism\npseudemys peninsularis ( peninsula cooter ) . estuarine observation and interaction with giant land crabs\nbridegam , a . ; patterson , a mt ; smith , b . ; garrett , c . ; mateja , m . , 1991 :\npseudo 2 - fold symmetry in the copper - binding domain of arthropodan haemocyanins . possible implications for the evolution of oxygen transport proteins\nperrot - minnot , m . - jeanne . ; navajas , m . , 1996 :\neimil - ortiz , m . ; mar\u00eda - salgado , f . ; font\u00e1n - tirado , c . ; gonz\u00e1lez - santiago , r . ; villar - villar , m . eugenia . ; mart\u00edn , e . , 2008 :\nkacinski , m . ; leskiewicz , m . ; jaworska - feil , l . ; zajac , a . ; kubik , a . ; budziszewska , b . ; lason , w . , 2007 :\ndelfini , a . ; toniollo , g . - helio ; canola , j . - carlos ; alessi , a . - carlos ; lui , j . - frederico ; filho , l . - paulo - martins ; rodrigues , v . , 2007 :\ngalis , f . van alphen , j . j . ; metz , j . a . , 2002 :\ngriet casteleyn ; victor a . c . epurnov ; frederik leliaert ; david g . m . nn ; stephen s . b . tes ; nina lundholm ; lesley rhodes ; koen sabbe ; wim vyverman , 2008 :\nblossom , d . b . ; alelis , k . a . ; chang , d . c . ; flores , a . h . ; gill , j . ; beall , d . ; peterson , a . m . ; jensen , b . ; noble - wang , j . ; williams , m . ; yakrus , m . a . ; arduino , m . j . ; srinivasan , a . , 2008 :\nbuda , r . ; mosca , m . ; di - caprio , f . ; ruffilli , a . ; rossi , g . ; giannini , s . , 2008 :\nmart\u00ednez - ramos , d . ; escrig - sos , j . ; angel - yepes , v . ; salvador - sanchis , j\u00e9 . luis . , 2007 :\npseudoaneurysm of the right hepatic artery following cholangiocarcinoma resection . a case report and review of the literature\npseudobacciger harengulae ( yam . , 1938 ) ( trematoda : fellodistomidae ) - a new species for the black sea\npseudobagrus pratti ( gunther , 1892 ) a senior synonym of p . emarginatus ( regan , 1913 ) ( siluriformes : bagridae )\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\n1 department of entomology , south china agricultural university , guangzhou , guangdong 510640 , p . r . china . present address : institute of entomology , college of biosafety science and technology , hunan agricultural university , changsha 410128 hunan , china ; and provincial key laboratory for biology and control of plant diseases and insect pests , changsha 410128 , hunan , china\n2 department of entomology , south china agricultural university , guangzhou , guangdong 510640 , p . r . china\ncorresponding author : ling zeng ( nc . ude . uacs @ gnilgnez ) .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nthe six species of the genus andraca walker hitherto known from china are reviewed , and a new species , andraca gongshanensis , sp . n . , described from yunnan province , china . adults and male genitalia of all examined species are illustrated , together with a distributional map . a key to all seven chinese andraca species is provided . the types of the new species are deposited in scau ( south china agricultural university , guangzhou , china ) and hunau ( hunan agricultural university , changsha , china ) .\nin the present paper , seven chinese andraca species are reviewed , including the description of one new species andraca gongshanensis , sp . n . the early stages of andraca theae ( matsumura 1909 ) are described in detail . a key to the seven chinese andraca species is provided .\nspecimens of the new species were collected by light trap . the types of previously described species in the natural history museum , london , uk ( bmnh ) were examined . other materials examined in this study are preserved in scau and hunau . morphological terminology used in descriptions follows lemaire and minet ( 1999 ) .\nandraca walker , 1865 , list specimens lepid . insects colln br . mus . , 32 : 581 . ( type species : andraca bipunctata walker , 1865 , list specimens lepid . insects colln br . mus . , 32 : 582 , by monotype . type locality : hindostan , india . )\npseudoeupterote shiraki , 1911 , catalogue insectorum noxiorum formosarum : 48 . ( type species : oreta theae matsumura , 1909 , thousand insects of japan , 1 : 582 , by monotype . type locality : formosa ( = taiwan ) ) . type - species designation by monotype .\nforewing weakly falcate . ground color varying from shades of brown to sandy grey .\nmale genitalia . uncus apically single - pointed to weakly indented ; gnathos with two long , basally broad , upcurved arms ; valvae basally broad , sclerotized , long or medium length ; aedeagus short with apex truncated , cornuti present or absent .\nfemale genitalia ( andraca bipunctata ) . eighth segment curved deeply , ventral margin of ostium bursae extends posteriorly as a broad bilobed plate , ductus bursae sclerotized distal to mid - point , tapering to half width ; distal half unsclerotized with slight torsion , corpus bursae lacking a signum .\nandraca species have sometimes been described in mustilia ( e . g . , chu and wang 1993 , 1996 ) , and misidentification has also been frequent ( chu and wang 1993 , 1996 ) . andraca was considered to belong to \u2018the mustilia lineage\u2019 of prismostictinae forbes , 1955 ( holloway 1987 ; minet 1994 ; lemaire and minet 1999 ; holloway et al . 2001 ) . our own unpublished work also shows that andraca is close to mustilia walker , 1865 and mustilizans yang , 1995 , based on phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear dna sequences ( coi + 18s + 28s ) ( wang 2010 ) .\nsevastopulo ( 1938 ) described the fully grown larvae of the type species . the larvae are gregarious , have short hairs covering the body , and are often heavily parasitized . pupation is in a thin cocoon of brown silk spun among leaves .\nadult male andraca spp . a andraca bipunctata walker , l865 from yunnan b andraca olivacea matsumura , 1927 from guangdong c andraca apodecta swinhoe , 1907 from guangxi d andraca flavamaculata yang , 1995 from guangdong e andraca gongshanensis , sp . n . , holotype , from yunnan f andraca melli zolotuhin & witt , 2009 from guangdong g andraca theae matsumura , 1909 from hunan province h andraca theae matsumura , 1909 from hunan province ( in field ) .\nandraca bipunctata walker , 1865 , list specimens lepid . insects colln br . mus . , 32 : 582 . type locality : hindustan , india .\nandraca bipunctata walker , 1862 : chu & wang , 1993 , sinozoologia , 10 : 241 .\nandraca henosa chu & wang , 1993 , sinozoologia , 10 : 242 . type locality : yunnan , china .\nandraca henosa chu & wang : chu & wang , 1996 , fauna sinica insecta , 5 : 55 .\n[ china ] 2\u2642\u2642 , western yunnan , 2005 - vi - 15 , ming - yi tian leg . ; 2\u2642\u2642 , dulongjiang , yunnan province , 2006 - vii - 21 , min wang & xiao - ling fan leg . ; 1\u26421\u2640 , gongshan mountain , yunnan province , 2006 - vii - 22 , min wang & xiao - ling fan leg .\ncamellia sinensis ( theaceae ) , camellia assamica ( theaceae ) , camellia oleifera ( theaceae ) .\nthis widely distributed species is rather variable in coloration and size . moore ( 1865 ) described andraca trilochoides from a brighter and grayish individual . this taxon was later synonymized with andraca bipunctata by hampson , ( [ 1893 ] ) , an action that was followed by strand ( 1924 ) .\nandraca bipunctata is closely related to andraca angulata kishida , 1993 ( nepal and india : sikkim ) , andraca theae ( taiwan ) and andraca stueningi ( vietnam ) . these four species form the bipunctata group , and share the following characteristics : 1 ) male hindtibia with one pair of spurs ; 2 ) two dorsally - directed projections present on subapical part of valva ; 3 ) external surface of aedeagus partially covered with hair - like spines ; 4 ) a cluster of strong spinose cornuti on vesica .\nlarvae of andraca bipunctata are well - known serious pests of tea trees , camellia sinensis ( theaceae ) ( banerjee 1982 ; chang 1989 ; chen et al . 1992 ; panigrahi 1995 ; ho et al . 1996 ; upadhyay et al . 2001 ) .\nandraca olivacea matsumura , 1927 , j . coll . agric . hokkaido . univ . , 19 : 50 . type locality : formosa ( = taiwan ) , china .\nandraca hedra chu & wang , 1993 , sinozool . , 10 : 233 . type locality : hainan , china .\nandraca hedra chu & wang : chu & wang , 1996 , fauna sinica insecta , 5 : 58 .\nandraca olivacea : owada et al . , 2002 , spec . bull . jpn . soc . coleopterol . , 5 : 464 ; kishida , 1992 , lepidoptera of taiwan , 1 ( 2 ) : 153 .\n) . hindtibia with two pairs of spurs ; hindwings with rs and m1 connate . male genitalia (\n) : uncus thick and round ; valva simple , basal half broad and terminal half narrow ; distal margin of aedeagus with strong lateral spines ; vesica with a cluster of spinose cornuti .\n[ china ] 1 \u2642 , shimentai provincial nature reserve , yingde city , guangdong province , 2001 - vii - 24 , min wang & guo - hua huang leg . ; 1 \u2642 , same data but 2001 - ix - 22 ; 3 \u2642 \u2642 , same data but 2002 - vi - 11 , guo - hua huang leg . ; 1 \u2642 , nanling national nature reserve , ruyuan city , guangdong province , 2002 - vii - 23 , guo - hua huang leg . ; 4 \u2642 \u2642 , same data but 2003 - iii - 29 ~ 31 ; 1 \u2642 , same data but 2003 - vi - 22 ; 2 \u2642 \u2642 , same data but 2003 - viii - 7 ; 2 \u2642 \u2642 , same data but 2003 - viii - 18 ; 5 \u2642 \u2642 , same data but 2004 - iv - 23 ; 1 \u2640 , same data but 2004 - iv - 24 ; 2 \u2642 \u2642 , same data but 2006 - ix - 18 , liu - sheng chen leg . ; 1 \u2642 , same data but 2008 - vi - 7 , min wang leg . ; 1 \u2642 , same data but 2008 - vi - 7 ; 1 \u2642 , same data but 2009 - iv - 1 , hou - shuai wang leg . ; 1 \u2642 , same data but 2009 - viii - 10 ; 1 \u2642 , same data but 2009 - iv - 1 ; 1 \u2642 , same data but 2009 - viii - 10 ; 1 \u2642 , maoershan national nature reserve , xingan city , guangxi province , 2003 - iii - 3 , min wang & guo - hua huang leg . ; 6 \u2642 \u2642 , jianfengling national nature reserve , ledong city , hainan province , 2003 - xi - 29 ~ 31 , guo - hua huang & min wang leg . ; 1 \u2642 , same data but 2007 - x - 23 , min wang leg .\nwang ( 1995 ) provide a fine color illustration of a fresh living male . owada et al . ( 2002 ) considered andraca olivacens from fukien ( = fujian ) to the synonym of andraca olivacea , whereas zolotuhin and witt ( 2009 ) treated it as a subspecies thereof . we do not comment further on which of these two alternatives may be the most appropriate status for this taxon because we have not seen the types of andraca olivacens .\nandraca apodecta swinhoe , 1907 , ann . mag . nat . hist . , 19 ( 7 ) : 49 . type locality : sumatra , indonesia .\nandraca apodecta swinhoe : holloway , 1976 , malayan nature society : 85 ; zolotuhin & witt , 2009 , entomofauna , 261 .\n) . head covered with reddish - brown hairs ; forewing with black discal spot , smooth outer margin and apically not falcate . male genitalia (\n) : uncus triangular , apical half truncate ; valva with two subapical , dorsally - directed projections ; aedeagus short , curved slightly without cornuti , external surface without hair - like spines .\n[ china ] 2\u2642\u2642 , jinzhongshan mountain , longlin city , guangxi province , 2007 - vii - 31 , liu - sheng chen leg . .\nchina ( guangxi , yunnan , fujian , shaanxi ) , vietnam , thailand ( chiang mai , nan ) , indonesia ( sumatra , borneo , sulawesi ) .\nthe species was first recorded from china ( yunnan , fujian , shaanxi ) by zolotuhin and witt ( 2009 ) and is here recorded from guangxi for the first time .\nandraca flavamaculata yang , 1995 , insects of baishanzu mountain , eastern china : 354 . type locality : zhejiang , china .\nandraca nabesan kishida & owada , 2002 , spec . bull . jpn . soc . coleopterol . , ( 5 ) : 464 ; huang & wang , 2004 , entomotaxonomia , 26 ( 1 ) : 47 . type locality : cao bang , vietnam .\n) . body stout . forewing apex falcate ; outer edge smooth and straight ; tornus almost rectangular . male genitalia (\n) : uncus long with apex finger - shaped ; tegumen broad with numerous long setae ; valvae basally broad , strongly sclerotized , apex of valva boot - shaped ; sacculus broad , with a strong dorsal spike ; saccus short and narrow ; aedeagus short but strong and straight , distally with a large number of spines .\n[ china ] 2 \u2642\u2642 , nanling national nature reserve , ruyuan city , guangdong province , 2002 - iii - 15 , guo - hua huang leg . ; 2 \u2642\u2642 , same data but 2003 - ii - 23 ; 5 \u2642 \u2642 , same data but 2003 - iii - 29 ~ 31 ; 1 \u2642 , same data but 2003 - viii - 30 ; 1 \u2642 , same data but 2006 - ix - 17 , zhen li leg . ; 2 \u2642\u2642 , maoershan national nature reserve , xingan city , guangxi province , 2003 - iii - 03 , min wang & guo - hua huang leg . ; 3 \u2642 \u2642 , mangshan nature reserve , yizhang city , hunan province , 2003 - iii - 31 , guo - hua huang leg . ; 1 \u2642 , jiuwandashan national nature reserve , guangxi province , 2003 - vii - 30 , guo - hua huang leg .\nurn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : e5dd5fb7 - 554b - 48a6 - 9ef3 - 65f1699e9897\n) . antenna bipectinate except apex . wings ground color dark brow with dark brow fasciae and reddish - yellow patterns , which is consisting of antemedian , discocellar , postmedian fascia , and reddish - yellow patterns nearly placed on the wholly wings but termen . forewing apex falcate ; outer edge smooth and straight ; tornus almost rectangular . hindwing with anal margin straight ; outer margin angled at vein m3 , straight above and below this .\n) : uncus long with wedge - shaped apex ; tegumen broad ; gnathos very well developed , arms upcurved ; valvae basally broad with many long setae , strongly sclerotized , caudally constricted to a spatulate apex ; sacculus broad , without a dorsal spike ; aedeagus short but strong and straight , distally with a large number of spines .\n\u2642 , gongshan mountain , yunnan province , china , 2006 - vii - 22 , min wang & xiao - ling fan leg . , deposited in department of entomology , scau ; paratypes , 2 \u2642\u2642 , same data as holotype but 2006 - vii - 21 . ; 1 \u2642 , same data as holotype but 2006 - vii - 23 ; deposited in institute of entomology , hunau .\nthe specific epithet refers to the type locality ( gongshan mountain , china ) .\nthis new species is very similar to andraca flavamaculata , but can be distinguished by the following characters of the male genitalia : andraca gongshanensis , sp . n . with uncus apex wedge - shaped , apex of valva constricted and truncate , sacculus without a strong dorsal spike . and andraca flavamaculata with uncus apex finger - shaped , apex of valva boot - shaped ; sacculus broad , with a strong dorsal spike .\nandraca melli zolotuhin & witt , 2009 , entomofauna , suppl . 16 : 262 . type locality : guangdong , china .\n) . antenna bipectinate except apex . head thinly covered with brown - green hairs . forewing : apically bluntly pointed ; outer edge smooth and straight , tornus nearly rectangular . hindwings distinctly angled at vein m3 , straight above and below this .\n) : uncus bluntly triangular with long hairs ; tegumen broad ; gnathos with two extremely medially swollen arms ; valvae flattened , strongly sclerotized , apex narrower and truncate with a dorsally directed projection from the middle ; saccus short and broad ; aedeagus short , strongly curved , with a compact group of long , thick needle - shaped cornuti on dorsal surface .\n[ china ] 2 \u2642\u2642 , nanling national nature reserve , ruyuan city , guangdong province , 2007 - vi - 23 , liu - sheng chen collected larvae and reared to adult .\ncamellia sinensis ( theaceae ) , camellia oleifera ( theaceae ) , fraxinus pennsylvanica ( oleaceae ) and ternstroemia japonica ( ternstroemiaceae ) , pentaphylax euryoides gardn . & champ . ( pentaphylacaceae ) ( new host record ) .\nchina ( zhejiang , jiangxi , fujian , guangdong , hainan ) ; vietnam ; thailand .\nandraca melli was first described by zolotuhin and witt ( 2009 ) , who also reported on the biology of this species .\noreta theae matsumura , 1909 , thousand insects of japan , 1 : 86 . type locality : formosa ( = taiwan ) , china .\n) . head densely covered with dark brown hairs ; antenna bipectinate except apex . forewing apex inconspicuously falcate , exterior margin straight . forewing and hindwing each with a dark discal spot .\n) : uncus triangular with apex narrowly spatulate ; tegumen broad ; gnathos elongate , medially inflated ; saccus short and broad ; valvae bifurcate apically ; dorsal margin with a subapical hump ; aedeagus bowed with dense apical spines .\n[ china ] 1 \u2642 , nanling national nature reserve , ruyuan city , guangdong province , 2003 - iii - 29 , guo - hua huang leg . ; 1 \u2642 , same data to the former , except 2003 - viii - 12 , guo - hua huang & de - yu xin leg . ; 2 \u2642\u2642 , taibei city , taiwan province , 2009 - viii - 15 , shipher wu leg . ; 10 \u2642\u2642 , wuyunjie national nature reserve , taoyuan city , hunan province , 2010 - vii - 2 , collected the larvae in the field by mr . hong - chun zhou , got the adults from the larvae bred in the entomological laboratory of hunan agricultural university by dr . guo - hua huang ; 3 \u2642\u2642 , houxi town , huangshan city , anhui province , 2010 - vi - 28 , the adults from the larvae collected in the field and bred in laboratory by dr . guo - hua huang .\nthis species is widely distributed in taiwan and southern china . the larvae were found on\nmale genitalia of chinese andraca spp . a andraca bipunctata walker , l865 from yunnan b andraca olivacea matsumura , 1927 from guangdong c andraca apodecta swinhoe , 1907 from guangxi d andraca flavamaculata yang , 1995 from guangdong e andraca gongshanensis , sp . n . , holotype , from yunnan f andraca melli zolotuhin & witt , 2009 from guangdong g andraca theae matsumura , 1909 from hunan province .\nthe early stages of andraca theae matsumura , 1909 from hunan province a\u2013b eggs c first larvae d third larvae e\u2013f final larvae g\u2013h pupa and cocoon .\nwe would like to thank mr . shipher wu ( taiwan national university , taibei ) , dr . guo - hua huang and mr . hong - chun zhou ( hunau ) , dr . liu - sheng chen ( shihezi university , china ) , mr . de - yu xin and hou - shuai wang ( scau ) for collecting specimens in the field . many thanks to dr . mamoru owada ( national museum of nature and science , tokyo , japan ) , vadim v . zolotuhin ( state pedagogical university of ulyanovsk , russia ) and andreas zwick ( state museum of natural history stuttgart , germany ) for their kind suggestions and help with the manuscript . we are grateful to prof . james mallet ( university college london , uk ) kindly corrected the language of the manuscript . we thank the late dr . g . s . robinson and mr . k . tuck ( the natural history museum , uk ) for checking the types . this work was supported by scientific research fund of hunan provincial education department ( 10b048 ) and the natural science foundation of china ( no . 31100482 ) .\nentomological results from the swedish expedition 1934 to burma and british india . lepidoptera : saturniidae , bombycidae , eupterotidae , uraniidae , epiplemidae und sphingidae\neffects of temperature on development of the egg stage of the tea bunch caterpillar andraca bipunctata walker .\nstudies on a granulosis virus of the tea bunch caterpillar andraca bipunctata [ lep . : bombycidae ] and its utilization .\nin : heppner jb , inoue h . ( eds ) . lepidoptera of taiwan 1 ( 2 ) : checklist .\nho hy , tao yt , tsai rs , wu yl , tseng hk , chow ys . ( 1996 )\nisolation , identification , and synthesis of sex pheromone components of female tea cluster caterpillar andraca bipunctata walker ( lepidoptera : bombycidae ) in taiwan .\n. malayan nature society , kuala lumpur : [ viii ] + 264 pp .\nin : kristensen np . ( ed ) . lepidoptera , moths and butterflies .\n1 . evolution , systematics and biogeography . handbook of zoology 4 ( 35 ) , walter de gruyter , berlin & new york\na generic revision of the japanese bombycidae , with description of a new genus ( lepidoptera ) .\nowada m , kishida y , thinh th , jinbo u . ( 2002 )\nfungus cordyceps militaris ( fries ) link infestation in the pupa of the tea pest andraca bipunctata walker .\nin : wu h . ( ed ) . east hill zukun hundred insects .\nzwick a , regier jc , mitter c , cummings mp . ( 2011 )\nincreased gene sampling yields robust support for higher - level clades within bombycoidea ( lepidoptera ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word prismostictinae . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word prismostictinae and , of course , prismostictinae synonyms and on the right images related to the word prismostictinae .\nthis is the place for prismostictinae definition . you find here prismostictinae meaning , synonyms of prismostictinae and images for prismostictinae copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nendromidae is a famiwy of mods . it was wong considered to be a monotypic famiwy , containing just one species , de kentish gwory , endromis versicowora , found droughout de pawaearctic region [ 1 ] . the famiwy now consists of severaw genera and about 30 species , aww former members of de famiwy bombycidae .\ntext is avaiwabwe under de creative commons attribution - shareawike license ; additionaw terms may appwy . by using dis site , you agree to de terms of use and privacy powicy . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of de wikimedia foundation , inc . , a non - profit organization , uh - hah - hah - hah ."]}
{"id": 2172, "summary": [{"text": "the house finch ( haemorhous mexicanus ) is a bird in the finch family fringillidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is native to western north america , and has been introduced to the eastern half of the continent and hawaii .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this species and the other \" american rosefinches \" are placed in the genus haemorhous . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "house finch", "paragraphs": ["house finch | life histories of north american birds | a . c . bent\nhouse _ finch _ male _ 1 _ 12 - 09 - 12 . jpg\nhouse _ finch _ male _ badeye _ 12 - 09 - 12 . jpg\nbaby birds - house finch - mom and dad feeding four babies in the nest .\nthe oldest known house finch lived up to 11 years and 7 months in the wild . most house finches probably live much shorter lives .\npurple finch purple finch females have a distinct white eyeline , while males have more extensive red on the breast and flanks .\nbirds , familiar : house finch , life histories of north american birds , a . c . bent\ndiet : house finch feeds primarily on grains and seeds , buds and fruits . it may also eat some flowers parts and insects such as beetles larvae and plant lice . house finch is mainly vegetarian .\npower dm , human g ( 1976 ) a local occurrence of avian pox in the house finch .\ncan someone describe the general look of the finch house from to kill a mockingbird using direct . . .\na house finch nest . wikimedia commons photo - see more pictures of nests , eggs , young and adults .\nelliott jj , arbib rs ( 1953 ) origin and status of the house finch in the eastern united states .\nsome ornithologists feel the house finch has vastly curtailed the numbers of house sparrows in new england . we have had several people tell us that when large numbers of house finch are present at the feeding stations , house sparrows seem to leave or at least their numbers become less . in fact the house finches are one of the few birds that are aggressive enough to keep house sparrows out of a birdhouse or evict them . the problem with attracting house finch to a bird house is the opening required is two inches in diameter , so they easily succumb to the larger european starling .\nthe total house finch population across north america is staggering . scientists estimate between 267 million and 1 . 4 billion individuals .\nthe coloring of the male house finch can range from deep red to golden yellow , depending on available diet during molting .\nspeaking of parasites , let\u2019s talk about the complex relationship between house finch feather colour and parasite infection . several studies , including\nfour years ago i summarized a study on house finch ( carpodacus mexicanus ) adaptability led by alexander badyaev , an evolutionary ecologist , at auburn university in alabama - see - sciencewatch - house finch adaptability : mother knows best ! ( september 2002 ) .\nthroughout their range , many house finch populations migrate , either short distances latitudinally or altitudinally . before 1945 , populations of house finches in the okanogan valley migrated south , but since 1945 , house finches in this area have been resident .\nzahn sn , rothstein si ( 1999 ) recent increase in male house finch plumage variation and its possible relationship to avian pox disease .\nthe diet of the house finch consists primarily of plant food , although they will eat a few insects and feed them to their young in spring . the house finch ' s natural diet is weed seeds and occasionally fruit . they will regularly extract seed from winter berries .\nthe house finch currently has a rating of least concern . this is a downgraded rating from a 2000 rating of lower risk . at this time there are no immediate concerns or threats regarding this bird species due to the fact that both the population and the range of this bird are large enough for there to be no concerns regarding decline . the house finch has a range of nearly 8 million square kilometers . the population of the house finch is estimated to be around 21 million individuals . the house finch is native to the united states , mexico and canada .\nhill , g . 1993 . house finch ( carpodacus mexicanus ) . pp . 1 - 24 in a poole , f gill , eds .\nbadyaev av , hill ge ( 2000 ) the evolution of sexual dimorphism in the house finch . i . population divergence in morphological covariance structure .\nmycoplasma gallisepticum is an emergent pathogen of wild passerine birds , primarily the american house finch ( carpodacus mexicanus ) in which m . more . . .\ninitially the house finch was a bird of the west , but because of its rosy breast and very melodic song , people wanted to own one .\nthis is a baby house finch . i ' m feeding him baby birdie formula . house finches are one of the few birds that will eat themselves to death so we are careful how much we feed them .\nthe house finch is slightly larger than goldfinches and is streaked with brown on the back and flanks . its short , heavy bill has a curved culmen .\nit is highly unlikely . although the disease occurs throughout the range of the eastern house finch , reports of sick birds indicate that only a small percentage of the flock shows signs of infection . even though mg may become established in wild finch populations , the excellent adaptability of the house finch that established it as an eastern breeding bird probably will ensure its continued presence at our feeders and in our towns .\nno . house finch eye disease has been present since the early 1990s and biologists think it has reached somewhat of an equilibrium in the eastern house finch population ; only 5 - 10 % of individuals are thought to be infected , and house finch populations seem to be doing well overall . so , you don\u2019t have to stop feeding birds , but there are some precautions you can take if you are concerned about the disease at your feeders ( read on ! ) .\npurple finch has bill more pointed , tail shorter and notched . male purple finch darker red , with red on nape , back and flanks . undertail coverts unstreaked . female purple finch with obvious white eyestripe and malar stripe , broader streaks on white breast and flanks , and unstreaked undertail coverts .\nhouse finch nestlings often create a\npoop wreath\nof fecal sacs around the edge of the nest , as they positon their butts to defecate there after feeding .\nif not fed on dandelion seeds , the nestlings are given such food as the old ones usually consume but the writer has never detected any animal food in the crops or stomachs of house finch nestlings . this finch has never been seen feeding from the horse manure of the streets .\nthe human modification of natural habitats , particularly the increase of seed feeders throughout the east , greatly benefits the house finch populations . only natural island populations appear to be threatened .\nin the west , the house finch ranges from southern canada to southern mexico , east to nebraska . it was introduced to the east in the 1940 ' s by cage - bird dealers who sold them as\nhollywood finches\nand now is widespread throughout the eastern u . s . the house finch is a social bird and can usually be found in small flocks .\nat western feeding stations just about any feeder and type of food attracts the house finch including suet , all types of birdseed , most fruits , bakery crumbs and nectar at hummingbird feeders .\nhawley dm , hanley d , dhondt aa , lovette ij ( 2006 ) molecular evidence for a founder effect in invasive house finch ( carpodacus mexicanus ) populations experiencing an emergent disease epidemic .\ndistinguishing the two species is not difficult to the trained eye , but may be confusing to the beginning bird - watcher . the male purple finch is robust , and appears to have an overall raspberry stain , whereas the male house finch is more slender , with its red breast clearly set off from its streaked underparts . the male house finch has faint white wing bars and a conspicuously streaked belly and flank , while the male purple finch has pinkish wing bars and an unstreaked belly and flanks . female house finches have an overall dusky appearance , with the breast streaking blending into a dark background . female purple finches have prominent dark streaking on a whitish belly and a white line above each eye . both male and female purple finches have conspicuous brown patches behind their eyes , while house finches lack this distinctive feature . even though these two birds are closely related , the conjunctivitis - like mycoplasma infection seems to affect mainly the house finch .\nthe house finch exhibits , in common with many other birds , a fondness for maple sap , sipping it as it oozes from the cut branches of a spring pruned tree . the only objection my friends hereabout have against the house finch is that it eats in the spring , leaf and blossom buds from bushes and trees - - for example , lilac bushes and apple trees .\nalmost 100 % of the house finches\u2019 diet is plant matter much of which consists of seeds , plant buds , fruits and berries . at backyard bird feeders they feed on black oil sunflower seed , safflower seed including nutra - saff safflower seed , and nyjer thistle seed . although some people feel that the house finch discourages the goldfinch at thistle feeders , we seem to have both feeding together although the house finch is the more dominant of the two species . if you encounter a problem with high numbers of house finch at a feeder there are several things you can try . the house finch seems to be very fond of safflower seed as well as sunflower seed . so it may help to keep your nyjer thistle feeders in a different location than the other feeders . this can create a loose separation between the house finch and goldfinch . you can also shorten the perches on the nyjer feeders to about \u00bd\u201d making it difficult for the larger house finch to hang on . if it is the house sparrow that is dominating your thistle feeder you can shorten the perches to 5 / 8\u201d inch and problem solved . there are also several different \u201cup - side down\u201d nyjer thistle feeders . these were developed to feed strictly goldfinches as the other birds find it difficult to feed in such a manner .\nthe red , swollen , crusty eyes in this house finch are the result of a highly - contagious infection caused by the bacterium mycoplasma gallisepticum . credit : photo by geoffrey e . hill .\nin some parts of california poisoning campaigns have been carried on by orchardists , but the effects , if any , have been local . bergtold ( 1913 ) expressed the fear that the house finch would ultimately be supplanted by the house sparrow in the cities , because of the latter ' s aggressive disposition , superior strength , and longer breeding period . however , the waning of the house sparrow ' s ascendancy in more recent years would seem to lessen that danger , and there is no need to fear for the future of the house finch .\nthe house finches are an entertaining bird species to have in ones backyard . the male house finch has a lovely , joyful song which everyone enjoys . it can be rapid with a cheery warble or a variety of chirps as though carrying on a conversation with his comrades .\nmale and female house finch calls are a sharp cheep made often , including while perched and during flight . you may hear a sharper version of this call as the birds flush from the ground .\nhouse finches are important seed predators and dispersers . also , house finches provide a source of food for birds of prey , snakes , and other predators .\n5 1 / 2\n. sparrow - sized finch with long , only slightly notched tail . bill short , rounded .\ncassin\u2019s finch cassin\u2019s finches have paler bellies and streaking that is more crisp and distinct , as well as a straighter culmen .\nconducted before and after the epidemic found that red males survived better than yellow males , which drove the eastern house finch populations to become more homogenously red than populations in the rest of the country . in\nblood parasites of house finches ( carpodacus mexicanus ) from georgia and new york .\nas its name implies , this new condition is limited mostly to house finches .\no\u2019connor tp ( 1996 ) geographic variation in metabolic seasonal acclimatization in house finches .\nthe adult male cassin ' s has a rose - red or\nold rose\ncolored head . the bright red is restricted to the crown , with a wash , rather than dense color , on the face and breast . in the house finch this bright red includes most of the head and breast . cassin ' s has an unmarked belly , whereas the house finch has brown streakings on the belly and breast .\nwhen brown - headed cowbirds stealthily lay their eggs in house finch nests , their strategy for having other species rear their young fails to work , since house finches are one of the few birds that feed their young almost entirely with seeds , which don\u2019t offer enough protein for the cowbird young .\ndata on the occurrence and spread of house finch conjunctivitis were provided by the cornell laboratory of ornithology and the pennsylvania game commission . partial funding for this fact sheet was provided by pennsylvania ' s wild resource conservation fund .\na group of house finches are collectively known as a\ndevelopment\nof finches .\n, house finches do forage on the ground . when feeding in open areas , house finches prefer to have high perches nearby and / or to feed in large flocks .\nmcclure he ( 1989 ) epizootic lesions of house finches in ventura county , california .\nthe finch family lives on the main residential street in maycomb , next to mrs . rachel haverford ' s home and across the street from miss maudie ' s house . there is a wire fence separating the finch yard from the haverford ' s property , and jem and scout have a treehouse located in their backyard . the finch home sits above ground and has two porches , which are located towards the front and back of the home . throughout the novel , atticus and . . .\nthe house finch is a common visitor to most backyard feeding stations . their bright red chests and sociable behavior make them a feeder favorite ! they gather together at most feeding stations enjoying your food and each others ' company .\nfemale house sparrow has a streaked back , a bold eyestripe , and an unstreaked breast .\nresearchers still don ' t know which genetic changes enabled the pathogen to reach epidemic proportions in house finches . but if the house finch strains have lost the genetic machinery that protected them in poultry , then reintroducing the parasites to the bacteriophages of their former hosts could be one way to control the disease , the scientists say .\nthe oldest known house finch was a female , and at least 11 years , 7 months old when she was recaptured and rereleased during banding operations in new york in 1985 , the same state where she had been banded in 1973 .\na bright red and brown - striped bird of the cities and suburbs , the house finch comes readily to feeders . it also breeds in close association with people , and often chooses a hanging plant in which to put its nest .\nthe pertinacity with which the house finch clings to a chosen nook about a house when their nests are destroyed is amazing , and is equalled only by the english sparrow . i have known five nests with their contents to be destroyed one after another , and each time the same pair set to work with apparent unconcern to build anew .\nwhat do you use to disinfect your feeders ? i have seen a few infected house finches .\nhabitat : house finch lives in semi - arid lowlands and slopes up to 6000 feet . it is adapted to urban environment . we can also find it in desert grasslands , savannahs and open coniferous forests , but it requires a source of water .\nblood parasites of house finches ( carpodacus mexicanus ) from georgia and new york . - pubmed - ncbi\nhouse finches forage on the ground or in weed patches , in flocks except during the breeding season .\nunlike most songbirds which feed their young an insect diet , house finches feed their young regurgitated seeds .\nhouse finches have been known to raise more than two broods in a season but the average two .\nrudolph donath of the communicable disease center , department of health , education , and welfare , atlanta , ga . , writes on oct . 17 , 1958 , that the house finch has been found to carry antibodies of western equine and st . louis encephalitis .\nany of the conditions listed probably indicates house finch conjunctivitis . although many different bacteria , fungi , viruses , and parasites can cause eye inflammation and disease , lab tests have confirmed that this conjunctivitis outbreak is caused by mycoplasma gallisepticum , a well - known bacterium .\nif you see a sick finch , disinfect your feeders . if you wish , you may remove feeders for a few days to encourage sick birds to disperse .\nmale house finches sing a long , jumbled warbling composed of short notes . the song often ends with an upward or downward slur , and lasts about 3 seconds . males may sing throughout the year . females sometimes give a shorter , simpler version of the song . compared with cassin\u2019s and purple finches , house finch songs sound slower , rougher , and somewhat less fluid . the final slurred note is more often heard in house finches than in the other two species .\nthe male house finch has a length of about 5 1 / 2 inches , with red on the head , upper breast and flanks . in some regions the color red may be replaced with yellow or orange . this is due to the differences in regional diets .\nunlike other finches of the genus carpodacus , house finches do forage on the ground . when feeding in open areas , house finches prefer to have high perches nearby and / or to feed in large flocks .\nthe native range of house finches lies west of the great plains , which , with its treeless expanses , historically kept house finches from moving eastward . but people caused them to leap - frog the barrier in 1940 , when house finches were sold as cage birds in new york and some were allowed to escape .\nhouse finches are known to be foragers . that is , they will scour their surroundings \u2013 on the ground \u2013 for suitable food for both the parents and the baby house finches . more than the ground , though , house finches will also hop from tree to tree , bush to bush , to find food .\nthe finch house is a place scout describes in a peaceful tone , except perhaps when she describes the conflicts between her and calpurnia . the finch home on the main street of maycomb is an extension of their neighborhood , and scout describes it as a\ntired old town .\nthough the finch house does not feel particularly tired or old , there is a sense of sadness and quiet inside the home . scout does not remember her mother , but jem does ; he seems to feel her absence acutely at times . atticus is a loving father , but he is reserved at times and keen to read and sit quietly when he is not working ; he too feels the absence of his wife . though scout does not describe the impact of her mother ' s absence in explicit detail , the subtext of this fact is significant to the feelings and emotions that characterize the finch household .\n. - - in relation to the house finch , food is a most important , not to say controversial subject , and it is by all means unwise to arrive at any generalized conclusion . each locality or each set of circumstances should be considered on its merits . bergtold ( 1913 ) sums up as follows his observations on the food of house finches in denver and its environs :\nbehaviour : house finch forages in groups , often in trees , but also on the ground . red colour of plumage depends of food , derived from carotenoid pigments during moulting period . females prefer red males , because it would be able to find enough food to feed nestlings .\ntulman er et al . ,\nextensive variation in surface lipoprotein gene content and genomic changes associated with virulence during evolution of a novel north american house finch epizootic strain of mycoplasma gallisepticum .\n, microbiology , 2012 may 24 ; 158 ( pt 8 ) : 2073 - 88\nrange : house finch is resident from southern canada , southward to northern florida and southern mexico . in the east , it lives in urban and suburban areas with buildings and small conifers . in west , we find it in desert , savannahs , riparian areas and open coniferous forests .\nseveral distinctive populations exist within the native range of the house finch , but the evolutionary relationships among these groups needs further study . many populations are poorly described and plasticity in plumage coloration , a character often used to diagnose subspecies , has further muddled the taxonomic status of many populations .\nlived up to 11 years and 7 months in the wild . most house finches probably live much shorter lives .\nhouse finches can cause damage to orchards , including crops of peaches , apricots , plums , cherries and nectarines .\nmale house finches vary in their colouration from red to yellow . ( image : diane pierce , national geographic )\nthe house finch was originally a bird of the southwestern united states and mexico . in 1940 a small number of finches were turned loose on long island , new york , and they quickly started breeding . they spread across the entire eastern united states and southern canada within the next 50 years .\nhill , geoffrey e . 1993 . house finch ( carpodacus mexicanus ) , the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) . ithaca : cornell lab of ornithology ; retrieved from the birds of north america online : urltoken doi : 10 . 2173 / bna . 46\nthe house finch is closely related to the cassin ' s finch and the purple finch , and in fact , there are places in washington where all three species can be found . all three species are streaked , and the males of all three have red plumage . the house finch , the most common and widespread of the three , typically has a red head , breast , and rump , but does not have red coloring on its brown back or wings . this helps to differentiate it from the other two . female house finches have blurrier streaks and grayer undersides than the other two species . the breast streaks do not converge in a central spot as on many sparrows . they lack clear white stripes on their heads . house finches have longer tails and appear more slender overall , and also have slightly curved bills , in contrast to the straight bills found in the other two species . like most finches , they have notched tails . there is considerable color variation among males , from pale yellow , to orange with bright red , this being the most common . many but not all males reach mature plumage in their first year . the variation in color is related to diet .\nbadyaev , alexander v . , virginia belloni and geoffrey e . hill . 2012 . house finch ( haemorhous mexicanus ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\ncassin ' s finch has more pointed bill , and tail is shorter and slightly notched . male ' s flanks are reddish and lack brown streaking . female cassin ' s finch with more pronounced facial pattern , distinct blackish streaks on chest and back , and streaked undertail coverts . for more discussion on distinguishing these three species , developed by project feederwatch , go here .\nhill , g . 1990 . female house finches prefer colourful males : sexual selection for a condition - dependent trait .\ndhondt aa , tessaglia dl , slothower rl ( 1998 ) epidemic mycoplasmal conjunctivitis in house finches from eastern north america .\nwhen nestling house finches defecate , the feces are contained in a membranous sac , as in most birds . the parents eat the fecal sacs of the nestlings for about the first five days . in most songbird species , when the parents stop eating the sacs , they carry the sacs away and dispose of them . but house finch parents do not remove them , and the sacs accumulate around the rim of the nest .\n1 . there is a seasonal variation in the weight of the house finch ; the minimum average for adults occurs during november , and is about 93 . 7 % of the maximum , which occurs in february , while there is a tendency for a low average weight all along from may to november .\nthe vast majority of the house finch ' s diet is vegetable matter - - seeds , buds , berries , and nectar . they feed their young regurgitated seeds . they eat a few small insects , especially aphids , but are primarily seed - and fruit - eaters at all times of the year .\nreproduction : house finch nests in bushes , thickets , natural cavities or on buildings . nest is a well - made open cup , made of grass , leaves , rootlets , fine twigs , string , wool and feathers , and lined with the same materials but finer . nest is built by female .\nyou can find house finches by looking around settled habitats , such as city parks , urban centers , residential backyards , farms , and forest edges . gregarious and social , house finches are found in noisy groups that are hard to miss if present . look for house finches feeding on the ground or at bird feeders , or perching high in nearby trees .\nhouse finch : resident from southeastern canada to mexico . introduced to eastern north america , where it is now widespread in cities and residential areas . in the west , preferred habitats include chaparral , deserts , orchards , and suburban areas . now widely distributed throughout much of the u . s . and mexico .\nhill , g . 1993 . house finch ( carpodacus mexicanus ) . pp . 1 - 24 in a poole , f gill , eds . the birds of north america , no . 46 . philadelphia : the academy of natural sciences , washington , d . c . : the american ornithologists ' union .\nhouse finches have had population fluctuations as a result of conjunctivitis and pox infections rather than predation . a finch that has this disease can be recognized by its swollen , runny , or crusty eyes . mycoplasmal conjunctivitis often results in death . this disease can be reduced by making sure to keep bird feeders clean .\nhouse finches consume mostly vegetable matter , such as seeds and berries . they will also come to bird feeders for seeds .\nthe best way to attract house finches to your backyard is to offer black oil sunflower seed and a source of water .\nbelthoff jr , gauthreaux sa ( 1991 ) partial migration and differential winter distribution of house finches in the eastern united states .\nwootton jt ( 1986 ) clutch - size differences in western and introduced eastern populations of house finches : patterns and hypotheses .\n3 . there is a daily variation in the weight of the house finch , with a decidedly uniform increase for adult birds during the morning , breaking away from a smooth curve in the afternoon , but reaching a maximum during the latter period . the average daily fluctuation for the adults amounts to about 3 . 5 % .\nthe red of a male house finch comes from pigments contained in its food during molt ( birds can\u2019t make bright red or yellow colors directly ) . so the more pigment in the food , the redder the male . this is why people sometimes see orange or yellowish male house finches . females prefer to mate with the reddest male they can find , perhaps raising the chances they get a capable mate who can do his part in feeding the nestlings .\nnew research about feeder birds and house finch eye disease ( mycoplasmal conjunctivitis ) reveals an interesting link between behavior and disease transmission . previous evidence suggested that the bacterium was spread by birds that had the most social connections . a research team from virginia tech outfitted wild flocks of house finches with transmitter chips that recorded their feeder behavior and discovered that the birds that visited feeders with the greatest frequency were the most likely to contract and spread the eye disease .\nafter they become independent , young house finches form large flocks . these young finches will be able to breed the next spring .\ndhondt aa et al . ( 2005 ) dynamics of a novel pathogen in an avian host : mycoplasmal conjunctivitis in house finches .\nif you notice house finches at your bird feeder with crusty , watery , or infected - looking eyes , you are not alone . a new condition called house finch conjunctivitis , first discovered during the winter of 1993 - 94 , is spreading through the eastern united states . symptoms of the disease , which mainly affects house finches , include scabby , swollen , runny , cloudy - looking , or glassy eyes , mucous oozing from the nostrils , and an upper respiratory infection . some sick birds recover , whereas others become blind and die of starvation or fall prey to cats and hawks .\nhill , g . e . 1993 . house finch ( carpodacus mexicanus ) . in the birds of north america , no . 46 ( a . poole , and f . gill , eds . ) . the academy of natural sciences , philadelphia , pa , and the american ornithologists ' union , washington , d . c .\na house finch\u2019s nest is a cup made of fine stems , leaves , rootlets , thin twigs , string , wool , and feathers , with similar , but finer materials for the lining . overall width of the nest is 3 - 7 inches , with the inside cup 1 - 3 inches across and up to 2 inches deep .\nidentifying the male and female house from other carpodacus finches requires care . the male house differs from the male purple finch not only by having a smaller , more curved bill , but also by lacking a distinct eyebrow , having a brown cap and auricular patch , and being heavily streaked on belly . told from male cassin\u2019s finch by brown cap and eyebrow and curved bill . other tell - tale differences between the species include the cassin\u2019s pink cheek and pinkish tone on its back , and on female and immature cassin\u2019s , the much finer and crisp streaks on its belly . the male common rosefinch is more rose - pink overall and lacks distinct streaking on its belly . the female finches are more problematic . the female house has a very plain face , unlike the purple and cassin\u2019s , which both show distinct eyebrows . the female house tends to have browner underparts than the 2 as well , with blurry streaks below . also note the house\u2019s smaller , more curved bill . the female common rosefinch looks similar , but she is drabber , with less distinct streaking below .\nthe red or yellow color of a male house finch comes from pigments that it gets in its food during molt . the more pigment in the food , the redder the male . females prefer to mate with the reddest male they can find , perhaps assuring that they get a capable male who can find enough food to feed the nestlings .\nhouse finches will nest in manmade nest boxes . visit our nest box dimensions chart to find out the correct dimensions for this bird .\nthe foregoing statements apply to both sexes and all ages . female or young house finches have brown streakings on a buff background on the breast , cassin ' s has darker brown streaking , or elongated dots , on a white background , and thus appears to be the more distinctly streaked bird . the house finch shows a uniform tone over the whole head ; the cassin ' s shows distinct areas of light and dark . ear , or cheek patches , and malar stripes are darker .\nhouse finches have benefited greatly from human development . although fairly common throughout the west including oregon when pioneers arrived , they did not move into the willamette valley until the 1940s . house finches introduced to new york city in the 1940s have now spread throughout eastern north america .\nhouse finches are found in open desert , desert grassland , chaparral , oak savannah , riparian areas , and open coniferous forests in the western united states . in their new range in the eastern united states , house finches are rarely found far from urban and suburban areas .\nhouse finches are familiar birds of human - created habitats including buildings , lawns , small conifers , and urban centers . in rural areas , you can also find house finches around barns and stables . in their native range in the west , house finches live in natural habitats including dry desert , desert grassland , chaparral , oak savannah , streamsides , and open coniferous forests at elevations below 6 , 000 feet .\nhouse finches use vocalizations and body signals to communicate . house finch calls are made up of\nkweat\nor\nweet\nsounds , and are used often as a way to remain in contact with a mate . the song of house finches is described as an ecstatic warble , but is not as rich as the song of purple finches . most singing by males occurs during the first few hours after sunrise and the last few hours before sunset . males sing to guard the female as she builds the nest . they also sing during courtship feeding and while the eggs are being incubated and the young are in the nest . females sing during courtship feeding or mating . house finches also communicate using visual cues , such as plumage coloration and stance of the body .\nhouse finches were introduced to oahu from san francisco sometime before 1870 . they had become abundant on all the major hawaiian islands by 1901 .\nhouse finches drink by scooping water into their bill and tilting their head back . finches typically need to drink at least once per day .\nby choosing redheads over blonds , female house finches are selecting mates that can better resist and respond to a parasite infection and making sure that those beneficial disease - fighting traits are passed on to her offspring . whoever said redheads are unlucky clearly didn\u2019t know about male house finches !\nthe house finch was originally a bird of the western united states and mexico . in 1940 a small number of finches were turned loose on long island , new york , after failed attempts to sell them as cage birds ( \u201chollywood finches\u201d ) . they quickly started breeding and spread across almost all of the eastern united states and southern canada within the next 50 years .\nare important seed predators and dispersers . also , house finches provide a source of food for birds of prey , snakes , and other predators .\nhouse finches are common throughout their range . there are about 21 , 000 , 000 house finches in the world . finches and many other species of birds are protected by the united states migratory bird treaty act . this means that they may not be captured or kept without a permit .\nhouse finch\u2019s calls include whistled \u201cwheat\u201d or a \u201cweet\u201d sound , used to contact between mates . song consists chiefly of varied three - note phrases and includes strident notes . song usually ends with a nasal \u201cwheer\u201d . it is a high pitched song . male sings during courtship display , at nest , during incubation and nestling period . female sings during courtship , feeding and mating .\nhouse finches nest in a variety of deciduous and coniferous trees as well as on cactus and rock ledges . they also nest in or on buildings , using sites like vents , ledges , street lamps , ivy , and hanging planters . occasionally house finches use the abandoned nests of other birds .\nhouse finches may be confused with purple finches . purple finches have a more reddish color on their upper parts and are not streaked on their abdomens .\ni have seen no house finches at all in 2017 , when normally my feeder is full of them . this is in fairfax county , va .\nhouse finches often are confused with purple finches , although the birds ' habitat requirements are different . house finches live in a variety of habitats , especially in urban areas , and nest in both evergreens and manufactured structures . purple finches are found in coniferous or mixed woodlands , parks , and orchards .\nhawley dm , sydenstricker kv , kollias gv , dhondt aa ( 2005 ) genetic diversity predicts pathogen resistance and cell - mediated immunocompetence in house finches .\nspears l , cavitt jf ( 2003 ) the prevalence and effect of avian pox on body condition and plumage coloration in northern populations of house finches .\nthe aptly named crossbills have curious curved bills with crossed tips . although it looks more like a bill deformity than a useful tool , this specialized bill shape is perfect for extracting seeds from pine cones . males of the house , cassin ' s , and purple finch species can sometimes develop yellow or orange rather than red plumage depending upon the amount of carotenoids present in their food sources .\nclement , p . ( 2018 ) . house finch ( haemorhous mexicanus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nafter they become independent , juvenile house finches form large flocks that congregate at food sources . these young finches will be able to breed the next spring .\nthe most thorough study of the house finch ' s diet was made by f . e . l . beal ( 1907 ) , who examined the contents of 1206 stomachs and found them to consist in the aggregate of weed seed 86 . 2 percent , fruit 10 . 5 percent , animal matter 2 . 4 percent , miscellaneous 0 . 9 percent . excerpts from beal ' s report follow :\nhouse finch is active during the day . it is a gregarious bird , living in loose flocks , not territorial during breeding season , but in winter , groups may number up to 100 individuals . they roost close to each other . during the courtship display , male sings , following the female with fluttering wings . male ascends to 20 to 30 metres , and then , it glides to a perch singing a loud song . this display is named \u201cbutterfly flight\u201d . it also engages courtship feeding , and it guards its mate . in groups , house finches establish hierarchies , and females are typically dominant over males . when house finches are feeding in flocks , many individuals watch for predators , while the others feed .\nreports of house finch conjunctivitis symptoms among other common feeder birds such as chickadees , titmice , and sparrows have surfaced , but these cases are rare and have not been tested in the laboratory . studies at the cornell laboratory of ornithology concluded that other songbirds are rarely affected by this new strain of mg . humans and other mammals will not catch conjunctivitis from contact with sick birds because mg is an exclusively avian disease .\na highly social bird , the house finch is rarely seen alone outside of the breeding season , and may form flocks as large as several hundred birds . house finches feed mainly on the ground or at feeders or fruiting trees . at rest , they commonly perch on the highest point available in a tree , and flocks often perch on power lines . during courtship , males sometimes feed females in a display that begins with the female gently pecking at his bill and fluttering her wings . the male simulates regurgitating food to the female several times before actually feeding her . back to top\ntwo instances of western robins and house finches using the same nests have come to our attention during the past three years . in may , 1934 , we were informed that house finches were feeding young robins in a nest on a front porch in east denver , colorado . on investigation we found four half - grown robins , two newly hatched finches and four finch eggs . there were two female finches apparently with the same mate , and the three finches and the two adult robins fed the young regularly . unfortunately , however , the large robins smothered their small nest mates . we did not determine whether the four remaining eggs hatched . all three adult house finches fed the young robins in the nest , and after the young had left the nest .\nhill , g . 1990 . female house finches prefer colourful males : sexual selection for a condition - dependent trait . animal behaviour , 40 : 563 - 572 .\nin most areas , house finches stay in the same area year - round . however , some populations in the eastern united states migrate to warmer areas in winter .\ni live in northern california , and have noticed two house finches with closed crusty eyes . i found this sight / blog and i will start cleaning my feeders !\nwhen thousands of wild house finches started dropping dead from a mysterious eye infection in the washington , dc , area in the winter of 1994 , scientists were puzzled .\nmycoplasma gallisepticum is an emergent pathogen of wild passerine birds , primarily the american house finch ( carpodacus mexicanus ) in which m . gallisepticum was first described in 1994 and has subsequently spread in an epizootic across the us . this project was aimed at characterizing hfmg genomic changes , those occurring as hfmg evolves across the epizootic and in response to new environmental and host pressures , and those associated with evolving phenotypes . less . . .\nhouse finches in california , hawaii , and eastern north america have been reasonably well studied , but little is known about the endemic mexican and island populations . this is an abundant bird ; estimates suggest between 267 , 720 , 000 and 1 , 440 , 720 , 000 individual house finches for the continental u . s . and canada .\nhouse finches are a welcome visitor to backyard bird feeders . they provide much pleasure to those who welcome their song and presence as an announcement of the arrival of spring .\nhouse finch male has bright red head , forehead , eyebrow , throat , chest and rump . this colour can vary to orange or occasionally yellow . crown , rear head and back are brown streaked with darker brown . it has brown wings and square tail . belly and undertail coverts are white , streaked with broad brown stripes . eyes are black . the horn - coloured bill is short and conical . legs and feet are dark brown .\nthe finches live in the town of maycomb on the main street in town . the house has a comfortable porch with chairs and a rocker . there is shrubbery at the edge of the porch . wisteria vines crawl along side the porch . the house has a front and a backyard . there is also a porch swing . off to the side of the house is a wood pile that the children play in sometimes . jem , scout , and atticus each have their own room and there is a guest room for aunt alexandra . there is a dining room , a parlor , and a kitchen . the house is probably not very feminine since atticus has lived there for many years without female companionship .\nresearchers do not know how house finch conjunctivitis is spread from one individual to another , which makes it difficult to provide specific recommendations for reducing the risk of disease . in poultry , the infection can be spread through the air . if this also is true for finches , little can be done to reduce disease transmission except to avoid practices such as bird feeding that bring together large numbers of finches in a small area . if infected house finches are frequenting your feeder , you could stop feeding . this actually could increase the occurrence of mg , however , because sick finches will travel to other areas , taking the disease with them .\nhouse finches are particularly susceptible to a bacterial eye disease that can cause blindness , something they can catch at busy bird feeders that aren\u2019t kept clean and occasionally sterilized with bleach solution .\nunlike most seed eating birds that feed their nestlings insects , house finches only feed their young vegetable matter . as a result , a cowbird nestling parasitizing a hofi nest usually dies .\nalthough well - meaning individuals might want to take in and try to cure diseased finches , this practice is not recommended . it is illegal to possess wild birds without proper pennsylvania game commission permits , and wildlife rehabilitators have had only limited success in treating house finch conjunctivitis . studies have shown that some birds can recover on their own , so it is better to leave sick finches alone and focus instead on preventing further spread of the disease through the previously mentioned practices .\ntook some pics at my feeder yesterday and noticed one finch with what appeared to be only one eye . not sure if it is pox or conjunctivitis . found this article yesterday also and i will start a sanitation program for my feeders . location : western puget sound , washington state .\n. - - the abundance of the house finch is evidence that it has no enemies serious enough to hold it in check where food , water , and shelter are available . its habit of nesting around buildings protects it from many wild predators , though domestic cats take their toll of any nestlings that leave the nest before they are in full command of their wings . for some unexplained reason there are very few records of parasitism by cowbirds , despite the fact that the nests are not very well concealed .\nso tame and confiding have these pretty finches become that i am persuaded that the larger proportion of their nests are built not in trees and bushes as formerly , but in all sorts of odd nooks and crannies about the house and barn ; and even when they are compelled by the lack of facilities to resort to bushes and shrubbery , they choose those as close to the house as possible .\nthe house finch , more familiarly known as the linnet , is a species whose repute varies according to the interests and point of view of those who regard it . to the average city dweller , its domestic tastes , cheerful song , amiable manner , and the bright coloring of the male make it a pleasing adjunct to the dooryard or window sill ; but a grower of the softer varieties of fruit who watches flocks of these birds descend like locusts upon his ripening crop finds difficulty in appreciating their esthetic values . * * *\nsimilar species : the purple finch is a winter resident , so in missouri you will probably not see it from may through september . male purple finches are usually more purplish , and both sexes have a light eyebrow line and a noticeably notched tail . the call is a dry , one - syllable \u201ctick\u201d or \u201cpick . \u201d\nhouse finches feed their nestlings exclusively plant foods , a fairly rare occurrence in the bird world . many birds that are vegetarians as adults still find animal foods to keep their fast - growing young supplied with protein ."]}
{"id": 2179, "summary": [{"text": "abalistes stellatus is a member of the triggerfish family that occurs along the coasts of the indian ocean , the red sea , the persian gulf , and along the western edge of the pacific ocean . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "abalistes stellatus", "paragraphs": ["citation : - abalistes stellatus . malaysia biodiversity information system ( mybis ) . urltoken downloaded on 10 july 2018 .\nthere are no known species - specific conservation measures in place for abalistes stellatus . however , there are several marine protected areas within its distribution , including the jubail marine wildlife sanctuary , where abalistes stellatus has been recorded ( krupp and m\u00fcller 1994 ) .\na starry triggerfish , abalistes stellatus , at lizard island , great barrier reef , queensland . source : anne hoggett / lizard island filed guide , urltoken license : cc by attribution\nabalistes stellatus is rather common in the persian gulf and often observed in markets ( kuronuma and abe 1972 ) . oceanographic data suggests that a rescue effect through the strait of hormuz is negligible .\nsynonymy trated as a synonym of abalistes stellaris in fishbase , not by eschmeyer . [ details ]\nabalistes stellatus is taken incidentally by bottom trawls and utilized for human consumption ( hutchins 1984 ) , however , this is not thought to be a major threat at this time ( k . matsuura pers . comm . 2014 ) .\nbalistes stellatus anonymous 1798 , allgemeine literatur - zeitung , berlin 3 ( 287 ) : 682 . type locality : mauritius .\n( of balistes stellatus anonymous , 1798 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nmatsuura , keiichi , and tetsuo yoshino , 2004 : a new triggerfish of the genus abalistes ( tetraodontiformes : balistidae ) from the western pacific . records of the australian museum , vol . 56 . 189 - 194 .\nthe similar hairfin triggerfish , abalistes filamentosus has filamentous upper and lower caudal - fin rays , 3\u20134 longitudinal grooves on the cheek , and lacks the yellow or pale blue spots and yellow reticulations on the body of the starry triggerfish .\na greyish to greenish - brown triggerfish becoming whitish below , with four large white blotches along the back ( the last on the caudal peduncle ) , pale yellowish - brown spots on the body , and sometimes a white streak on the upper midside . video of starry triggerfish ( abalistes stellatus ) , coral trout ( plectropomus leopardus ) , and yellowtail fusiliers ( caesio cuning ) at a baited remote underwater video camera ( bruv ) in the blue zone , at karamea bank , queensland .\n. two similar specific names , stellaris and stellatus , have been used for this triggerfish by many authors . based on reviews of the descriptions made by lacep\u00e8de in 1798 by anonymous in an article in the allgemeine literatur - zeitung ( general literature newspaper ) , matsuura and yoshino ( 2004 ) conclude that\npufferfishes found in a fish landing place 60 km north of nha trang in southern vietnam ( a ) and a fish market in sabah , malaysia ( b ) : a many small pufferfishes of lagocephalus and a large specimen of l . inermis in the center ; b large specimens of arothron hispidus , a . reticularis , and a . stellatus\nrepresentatives of the 10 extant families of tetraodontiformes . a triacanthodidae , triacanthodes anomalus ; b triacanthidae , triacanthus biaculeatus ; c balistidae , abalistes filamentosus ; d monacanthidae , thamnaconus hypargyreus ; e aracanidae , kentrocapros aculeatus ; f ostraciidae , ostracion immaculatus ; g triodontidae triodon macropterus ; h tetraodonitidae , arothron mappa ; i diodontidae , diodon liturosus ; j molidae , masturus lanceolatus . photographs of a and e provided by bsku ; b , d , f , h , and i by kaum ; c and g by nsmt ; j by hideki sugiyama\ngreek , a = without + greek , ballo = to throw ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 7 - 350 m ( ref . 58488 ) . tropical ; 30\u00b0n - 38\u00b0s , 32\u00b0e - 179\u00b0w ( ref . 56007 )\nindo - west pacific : red sea and persian gulf to south africa ( also reported from west africa ) , east to the western pacific .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 60 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 11441 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 3 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 25 - 27 ; anal soft rays : 24 - 25 . body grey brown to olivaceous dorsally with very small pale spots , becoming whitish ventrally with brownish yellow spots many of which anastomose into a reticulum ; 3 large oval white spots along the back and a small one dorsally on caudal peduncle ; a broad white streak often on side of body posterior to upper end of gill opening . an oblique groove before the eye . behind gill opening are large osseous scales . greatest body depth 2 - 2 . 5 sl . first dorsal spine 1 . 6 - 1 . 9 hl ; 3rd dorsal spine about 1 / 3 length of first spine . front of soft dorsal and anal fins not elevated ; caudal fin double emarginate , lobes longer with growth . depressed caudal peduncle , width greater than least depth , very slender and tapering , much longer than deep ( ref . 11441 ) .\ninhabits mud and silt sand bottoms ( ref . 11441 , 48637 ) . adults on deep coastal slopes and usually seen swimming high above the bottom , sometimes found in estuaries . juveniles in sheltered coastal bays and estuaries with outcrops of rubble or debris on open substrates ( ref . 48637 ) .\nrandall , j . e . , 1995 . coastal fishes of oman . university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 439 p . ( ref . 11441 )\n) : 18 . 5 - 28 . 1 , mean 25 ( based on 856 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 6250 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 02570 ( 0 . 01243 - 0 . 05316 ) , b = 2 . 94 ( 2 . 77 - 3 . 11 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 45 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\npictures | can ' t connect to mysql database fbwebwritev4 . errorcode : too many connections\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ninhabits coastal areas , usually found on sand , sponge , and weed bottoms to depths of 100 m ( hutchins 1984 ) . juveniles are found in estuarine areas ( kuiter and tonozuka 2001 ) .\n1997 ) . the recorded maximum total length ( tl ) is 60 cm ( hutchins 1984 ) .\nis taken incidentally by bottom trawls and marketed fresh and dried salted ( hutchins 1984 ) . often observed in persian gulf markets ( kuronuma and abe 1972 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ndorsal fin iii + 25 - 27 ; anal fin 24 - 25 . an oblique groove before the eye ; large bony scales behind gill opening ; greatest body depth 2 - 2 . 5 sl . caudal peduncle depressed , width greater than least depth , very slender and tapering , much longer than deep first dorsal spine 1 . 6 - 1 . 9 hl ; 3rd dorsal spine about 1 / 3 length of first spine . front of soft dorsal and anal fins not elevated ; caudal fin double emarginate , lobes longer with growth .\nthe marine fishes of north - western australia . a field guide for anglers and divers\n. perth , wa : western australian museum vi 201 pp . , 70 pls .\nanonymous 1798 . review of tome i of ` histoire naturelle des poissons ' by lac\u00e9p\u00e8de ( 1798 ) .\nhutchins , b . 2004 . fishes of the dampier archipelago , western australia .\njohnson , j . w . 1999 . annotated checklist of the fishes of moreton bay , queensland , australia .\njohnson , j . w . 2010 . fishes of the moreton bay marine park and adjacent continental shelf waters , queensland , australia . pp . 299 - 353 in davie , p . j . f . & phillips , j . a . proceedings of the thirteenth international marine biological workshop , the marine fauna and flora of moreton bay .\njordan , d . s . & seale , a . 1906 . the fishes of samoa . description of the species found in the archipelago , with a provisional checklist of the fishes of oceania . b\n. sydney , nsw , australia : new holland publishers xvii , 434 pp .\nlarson , h . k . , williams , r . s . & hammer , m . p . 2013 . an annotated checklist of the fishes of the northern territory , australia .\nmatsuura , k . 1980 . a revision of the japanese balistoid fishes . i . family balistidae .\nmatsuura , k . 2014 . taxonomy and systematics of tetraodontiform fishes : a review focusing primarily on progress in the period 1980 to 2014 . review for ipfc9 special issue .\n. the iucn red list of threatened species 2015 : e . t193587a56996805 . downloaded on 09 march 2018 .\nreef and shore fishes of the south pacific . new caledonia to tahiti and the pitcairn islands .\nrichardson , j . 1846 . description of six fish taken by the officers of the beagle on the coasts of australia . 484 - 497 pls 1 - 4 in stokes , j . l . ( ed . )\nrussell , b . c . 1983 . annotated checklist of the coral reef fishes in the capricorn - bunker group , great barrier reef , australia .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed ) . catalog of fishes . urltoken electronic version accessed 03 - nov - 2014\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ninhabits mud and silt sand bottoms ( ref . 11441 , 48637 ) . adults on deep coastal slopes and usually seen swimming high above the bottom , sometimes found in estuaries . juveniles in sheltered coastal bays and estuaries with outcrops of rubble or debris on open substrates ( ref . 48637 ) .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nmcculloch , a . r . 1929 ,\na check - list of the fishes recorded from australia . part iii\n, records of the australian museum , vol . 5 , pp . 329\u2013436\nrichardson , j . 1846 ,\ndescription of six fish taken by the officers of the beagle on the coasts of australia\n, ed . stokes , j . l . ( ed . ) , discoveries in australia , vol . 1 , pp . 484 - 497 pls 1 - 4 , t . & w . boone , london\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 994a75d7 - e293 - 42fb - be3f - 7895efc3a056\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f27d4ace - 8e5d - 4686 - aa37 - 5cdf517559aa\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 354058\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\na starry triggerfish ( ams i . 44703 - 004 ) collected at palfrey island , queensland , 5 sep 2008 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nscales of starry triggerfish enlarged above pectoral - fin base and just behind gill opening to form a flexible tympanum ; terminal mouth and depressed and wider caudal peduncle . it has grayish brown to olivaceous on back with small pale blue or yellow spots dorsally and large yellow spots ventrally and 3 large white blotches on back . this species occurring in sand , sponge and weed bottoms . it feeds on marine invertebrates .\nyoshida , t , motomura , h , musikasinthorn , p & matsuura , , k ( 2013 ) . fishes of northern gulf of thailand , volume 8 . national museum of nature and science , tsukuba . research institute for humanity and nature , kyoto . kagoshima university museum , kagoshima . , japan . pp . 239 .\nmatsunuma , m . , motomura , h . , matsuura , k . , shazili , n . a . m . & ambak , m . a . ( 2011 ) . fishes of terengganu : east coast of malay peninsula , malaysia . national museum of nature and science , universiti malaysia terengganu and kagoshima universiti museum , malaysia . pp . ix + 251 .\nacknowledgements : - ms . aida salihah binti abu bakar , ms . nurfadzilah bt azmi , ms . nurfarhana hizan binti hijas , nursyafiqa madzlen , siti zubaidah binti abdul latif & mr . yasser mohamed arifin\nfeedback : - if you see any errors or have any questions or suggestions on what is shown on this page , please provide us with feedback .\nget updates and an exclusive news when you sign up to our free newsletter .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 , ministry of natural resources and environment ( nre ) . all rights reserved . disclaimer - the malaysian government , and ministry of natural resources and environment ( nre ) shall not be liable for any loss or damage caused by the usage of any information obtained from this website . by entering this site , you acknowledge and agree that no portion of this site , including but not limited to names , logos , trademarks , patents , sound , graphics , charts , text , audio , video , information or images are either mybis property or the property permitted by third - party and shall not be used without prior written approval from the owner ( s ) .\nbest viewed using latest mozila firefox , google chrome and internet explorer 10 with resolution 1024 x 768px or above . version 2 . 0 / 2016\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nchinese academy of fishery sciences ( 2003 ) chinese aquatic germplasm resources database . : urltoken\neschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version .\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication .\nkhalaf , m . a . and a . m . disi ( 1997 ) fishes of the gulf of aqaba . : marine science station , aqaba , jordan . 252 p .\nkinch , j . ( 1999 ) economics and environment in island melanesia : a general overview of resource use and livelihoods on brooker island in the calvados chain of the louisiade archipelago , milne bay province , papua new guinea . : a report prepared for conservation international , port moresby , national capital district , papua new guinea .\nkuiter , r . h . and t . tonozuka ( 2001 ) pictorial guide to indonesian reef fishes . part 3 . jawfishes - sunfishes , opistognathidae - molidae . : zoonetics , australia . p . 623 - 893 .\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . < em > china science press . < / em > 1267 pp .\nmyers , r . f . ( 1999 ) micronesian reef fishes : a comprehensive guide to the coral reef fishes of micronesia , 3rd revised and expanded edition . : coral graphics , barrigada , guam . 330 p .\noceana philippines international ( 2016 ) atong ta\u00f1on , atong ampingan : fisheries challenges in the ta\u00f1on strait protected seascape . : manila : oceana philippines , 48 p . urltoken [ accessed 27 / 09 / 16 ] .\nrandall , j . e . ( 1995 ) coastal fishes of oman . : university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 439 p .\nrandall , j . e . , g . r . allen and r . c . steene ( 1990 ) fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . : university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 506 p .\nstobbs , r . e . ( 1990 ) comorian fish names with a preliminary list of malagasy common names . : investigational report no . 35\nthaman , r . r . , t . fong and a . balawa ( 2008 ) ilava ni navakavu : finfishes of vanua navakavu , viti levu , fiji islands . : sprh - fio biodiversity and ethnobiodiversity report no . 4 , the university of the south pacific , suva , fiji islands .\nwu , h . l . , k . - t . shao and c . f . lai ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) latin - chinese dictionary of fishes names . : the sueichan press , taiwan . 1028 p .\nwe use cookies on this website . by using this site , you agree that we may store and access cookies on your device . more information\nthis article was published as an online first article on the online publication date shown on this page . the article should be cited by using the doi number .\ntetraodontiform fishes are distributed in tropical to temperate seas and freshwaters of the world . they show a remarkable diversity in shape , size , and way of life ( fig .\n) . because of their peculiar morphological characters , tetraodontiforms have long attracted the attention of ichthyologists and biologists .\n) provided their interpretations of the phylogenetic relationships of tetraodontiforms based on myology and osteology , respectively .\n) published an excellent monograph on the superfamily triacanthoidea including the triacanthodidae and triacanthidae . he recognized 19 triacanthodid species in 11 genera ( table\n) , their taxonomic features are not repeated here , except for new information that provides a better understanding of taxa .\nmany species of the triacanthodidae are known from the tropical and warm regions of the indo - pacific . however , five species are distributed in the western atlantic :\nwith a color photograph based on specimens collected from off surinam . mceachran and fechhelm (\nfrom the gulf of mexico and off greater new england , respectively . tyler et al . (\nto the northeast coast of the usa off massachusetts , whereas this species had previously only been known from the florida keys , bahamas , bermuda , gulf of mexico , caribbean , and south to brazil , with the new northern occurence perhaps associated with warming currents along the east coast of north america .\nin contrast to the atlantic spikefishes , many papers on indo - pacific spikefishes were published after 1980 . matsuura (\nbased on 13 specimens collected from the western indian ocean . this species is characterized by relatively large nasal organs compared to other species of\nbased on 25 specimens collected from the marquesas islands . in addition to these contributions , papers and books on taxonomic and zoogeographical studies of spikefishes were published by authors from various countries including australia , china , japan , korea , russia , taiwan , ukraine , and the usa .\nwith detailed descriptions and color photographs of fresh specimens collected from the kyushu - palau ridge . matsuura (\n, these are the first records for the species from new caledonia . chen et al . (\n) were based on specimens deposited at museums and institutions in taiwan and the usa . larson et al . (\nhas a narrower pelvis , a shorter postorbital length , a less distinctly supraterminal mouth , and a more concave snout profile . because the holotype of\n) concluded that the most reliable character separating the two species is the degree of concavity of the snout . the depth of the snout in the middle of its length is 10 . 8\u221213 . 4 % sl ( average 12 . 0 ) in\n) confirmed this difference in three specimens ( 86 . 2\u221293 . 0 mm sl ) of\n) provided keys to the genera and species of spikefishes known from south and east africa . he recognized 11 species in this region :\n) studied coastal fishes of the arabian sea based on specimens collected by research vessels of russia and ukraine from 1967 to 1991 . they also examined specimens collected by the german\n, which are deposited at the zoological museum of hamburg university . the two authors recorded\n( previously known only from the holotype , 52 . 2 mm sl from the andaman sea and a non - type specimen , 66 . 0 mm sl from off somalia in the western indian ocean ) , but did not provide descriptions of the two species . the specimens they studied are deposited at the national museum of natural history , national academy of sciences , ukraine , the zoological museum of the russian academy of sciences , and the zoological museum of moscow state university . in addition to these , venkataramanujam et al . (\nthis brief historical review clearly shows that there are many collection lacunae with respect to the distribution and diversity of spikefishes in the world oceans . new caledonia is one example of how collection efforts could provide us with better understanding of spikefish diversity . when matsuura and fourmanoir (\nfrom new caledonia , only two type specimens were available for their study . long - term deep - water surveys by orstom around new caledonia added six species of spikefishes including 16 specimens of\n) . many regions of the world oceans need to be surveyed , but the most promising areas would be waters in french polynesia and the indian ocean coast of sumatra and java in indonesia . japanese and indonesian fisheries agencies have recently implemented a joint survey along the indian ocean coast of sumatra and java . their surveys have resulted in many interesting spikefishes , including two undescribed species and several rarely collected species , which will be published elsewhere ( matsuura and kawai in preparation ) .\n) reported that four specimens from the gulf of thailand near paknam have differences in eye size and the width of the interorbital space . two of these specimens ( 111 . 5 mm sl and 113 . 9 mm sl ) have exceptionally large eyes ( 10 . 4 % sl ) and the other two ( 105 . 6 mm sl and 107 . 9 mm sl ) have a normal eye size ( 7 . 8 and 8 . 5 % sl ) . the two large - eye specimens have eyes that are also larger than those of any other specimens of equivalent size . the large - eye specimens have a wider interorbital space ( 10 . 2\u221210 . 5 % sl vs . 6 . 3\u221210 . 0 % sl in many other specimens ) . tyler (\nbased on color notes or color photographs of fresh specimens , but neither was available for the other species . matsuura (\ncollected from phuket in the andaman sea : body silvery white with light brown tinge on dorsal half of body ; first dorsal spine silvery white with a black membrane between the first and third dorsal spines ; second dorsal , anal , and pectoral fins with light yellowish rays ; caudal fin dark yellow . matsuura (\ncollected from the northern gulf of thailand : body silvery white with several irregular golden brownish markings on head and body ; basal half of first dorsal spine silvery white and proximal half black with yellowish orange first dorsal fin membrane ; second dorsal , anal , and pectoral fins with light yellowish rays ; caudal fin dusky yellow .\n) . after his monograph appeared , many publications on fish faunas , field guides and checklists have provided additional information on triplespine distributions ( e . g . , matsuura\n) reported a 60 - mm sl specimen of this species from freshwater in indonesia .\n) diagnosed and illustrated the 20 species of 10 genera found in japanese waters . his latter paper covered many of the 25 species that were known from the indo - pacific before 1980 . prior to this publication two papers reviewed triggerfishes in the eastern pacific ( berry and baldwin\n. these were important contributions about the taxonomy of triggerfishes up to and including 1980 . a brief historical review of triggerfish taxonomy follows .\n) published a review of the balistidae , one of his series of taxonomic studies of tetraodontiform fishes . he recognized 13 genera in the balistidae and provided a platform for triggerfish taxonomy . although de beaufort and briggs (\n) reviewed triggerfishes of the eastern pacific with comments on fraser - brunner\u2019s classification . they pointed out that fraser - brunner (\non trivial differences of squamation and the anterior few soft rays of the dorsal fin . berry and baldwin (\n( i . e . , triggerfishes of other genera not occurring in the western atlantic ) . just after his review of the western atlantic triggerfishes , moore (\n) also accepted these 11 genera in his phylogenetic study on tetraodontiform fishes . the osteologically based phylogenies of balistoids given by matsuura (\nas a new species , based on a small juvenile washed up on a beach at the mouth of the van stadens river , south africa .\non the basis of two specimens collected off the northeast coast of kume - jima in the ryukyu islands , at depths of 120\u2212150 m , which is quite deep for triggerfishes . matsuura and yoshino (\n, which recognizes 37 species of triggerfishes in 11 genera . in addition to the above contributions , many checklists and illustrated books on shallow - water fishes also provided taxonomic and zoogeographical information of the balistidae and other tetraodontiforms ( b\u00f6hlke and chaplin\nhas 28\u221230 dorsal rays and 24\u221226 anal rays . however , berry and baldwin (\nfrom japan that dorsal rays range from 27 to 30 and anal rays from 24 to 27 . randall (\n) comprised only 50 words with fin ray counts \u201cd . 1 ? , a . 26 , p . 13 . \u201d because the poor original description fits several species of the balistidae , it is impossible to verify that\nin a phylogenetic tree of the balistidae based on molecular analysis . their molecular analysis suggests that\n) represent a single clade . these species should be revisited with detailed morphological examinations .\neast africa , mozambique channel , comores and mascarenes , north to southern japan , ogasawara islands and hawaiian islands , south to new caledonia , lord howe island , rapa and ducie ( pitcairn group ) . east to central america\nthere are no comprehensive reviews of the monacanthidae , although in 1988 barry hutchins provided taxonomic , morphological , and phylogenetic data for all monacanthid species in the world in his doctoral dissertation . some parts of his dissertation were published , however , the taxonomic accounts of many species and genera and the phylogenetic analysis of the genera remain unpublished . hutchins published a series of articles on the monacanthidae between 1977 and 2002 . his first article on australian filefishes recognized 28 genera in australia ( hutchins\n) published a review paper on the monacanthidae ( his aluteridae ) , recognizing 22 genera . although de beaufort and briggs (\nlack long spines or long setae on the mid - side of the body . randall (\n) provided brief accounts and color photographs of 26 monacanthids found in japanese waters . hutchins and matsuura (\nand recognized four species with comments on their ability to inflate the abdomen . hutchins (\n) provided a key and brief taxonomic accounts for 16 species of filefishes found along south africa . hutchins (\n, a detailed study of diagnostic characters , including encasing scales of the posterior end of the pelvis , is needed . hutchins suggested in his dissertation that\nremain . as in the case of triggerfishes , many checklists and illustrated guidebooks have provided much useful information on the taxonomy , distribution , and biology of filefishes ( see the section on the balistidae ) .\ntrunkfishes of the family aracanidae occur in shallow to relatively deep waters in depths from 5 m to 300 m . the species of\nthe aracanidae and ostraciidae have been placed in separate families by some authors ( e . g . , winterbottom\n) , but they have also been treated as two subfamilies of the family ostraciidae by others ( e . g . , winterbottom and tyler\n) . all the above authors recognized the two groups as closely related phylogenetic clades ( sister groups ) , but placed them at different taxonomic ranks . santini and tyler (\n) studied fossils and extant members of the tetraodontiformes extensively and recognized familial groupings for the aracanidae and ostraciidae . recently , santini et al . (\n) investigated the phylogenetic relationships of the aracanidae and ostraciidae based on molecular analysis of many taxa ( nine species of five genera of aracanidae and 17 species of six genera of ostraciidae ) . they demonstrated that the species examined in their studies ( santini and tyler\n) published his article on indian zoology , he used two different spellings for a species of trunkfish . at the beginning of the article , a section titled \u201cdirections for arranging the plates\u201d provided the name of animals in the plates where he presented the name of the trunkfish as \u201cmany spined coffin fish .\n. \u201d plate 98 provided a good illustration of the species showing appropriate characters to identify the species . it is the type species of the subgenus by monotypy . however , in 1838 john e . gray published another paper in which he described three species ,\n\u201d indicating his intention to establish the group at the subgeneric level . although the name\nthus creating a nomenclatural problem . if one follows the priority rule of the code ( iczn\nshould be preserved under article 33 . 3 . 1 of the code , making the spelling of the family group name aracanidae preserved under article 35 . 4 . 1 .\n) provided brief reviews of the family , his accounts of genera and species were cursory as they were based on few specimens and did not provide adequate characteristics for the species treated . kuiter (\nis unique in having a fusiform body and the caudal peduncle nearly completely covered by discrete bony plates . in addition to australian genera of aracanidae , detailed descriptions and illustrations of all four known species of\nkentrocapros eco ( nmnz p . 903 , 102 mm tl , from pahia , bay of islands , new zealand ; a lateral view ; b dorsal view ) and an undescribed species of kentrocapros ( c nsmt - p 43344 , 104 mm sl ) collected from new zealand\nas discussed above , no major taxonomic problems remain in the aracanidae . however , there still remains a need to clarify the nomenclature of some species of anoplocapros as well as the intraspecific variation of morphological characters related to ontogenetic development of kentrocapros .\neastern atlantic from st . helena , ascension and azores islands , ghana and angola\n, he differentiated it from other ostraciid genera by the degree of the development of the dorsal ridge , the convexity of the dorsal surface of the carapace , and the projection of the snout anterior to the mouth . however , the two characters involving the carapace do not clearly differentiate\n, protrudes anteriorly beyond the mouth in adults but not juveniles . in addition , large adults of\nhave a snout protruding to some extent beyond the mouth . these factors led matsuura (\nin their own genus in his key and brief accounts of ostraciids found in the western central pacific . klassen (\nbecause the latter has priority over the former . however , it seems premature to accept his proposal because there are species - level taxonomic problems in several species of\n) provided keys and accounts accompanied by illustrations to boxfishes found in the western atlantic . they recognized five species ,\nare nested in a single clade on the basis of his extensive osteological analysis ; i agree with this .\non the basis of a specimen from queensland , australia . however , there seems little doubt that it is actually\nfrom australia may suggest that the specimen was transferred by ballast water from a ship or released from an aquarium . as with the balistidae , many checklists and illustrated guidebooks have provided a great deal of information on the taxonomy , distribution , and biology of boxfishes ( see the section on the balistidae ) . on the basis of the above overview , i recognize 22 species in the ostraciidae ( table\nholotype of acanthostracion bucephalus ( ams ib . 6355 ) collected from queensland , australia . photograph provided by mark mcgrouther\ntwo forms of tetrosomus reipublicae collected from the ryukyu islands ( a , b ) and kochi , japan ( c ) . a deep body with no blue lines ( bsku 29663 ) ; b , c slender body with wavy blue lines ( b bsku 29697 ; c bsku 59588 )\nis rare in museum collections and poorly known . it is a deep - water species collected at depths of 50\u2212377 m ( kyushin et al .\nin detail , only 20 specimens were available for his study : five from the indian ocean ( mauritius , reunion and india ) and 15 from the west pacific ( indonesia , philippines and japan ) . due to the poor condition of two specimens , tyler (\n) used 18 specimens to determine whether the first dorsal fin , composed of one or two spines , is present or absent . his examination revealed 12 specimens from the west pacific to have a first dorsal fin , and five indian ocean specimens and a specimen from the west pacific to lack a first dorsal fin ( table\n) . however , he did not find other differences between the indian ocean specimens and those from the west pacific . this led him to recognize the two groups as being conspecific . i have recently had the opportunity of examining 28 specimens of\n) also provided frequency distributions of fin - ray counts . my examination of 28 specimens produced almost the same frequency distributions of fin - ray counts as those of tyler (\n) showed that a specimen ( 448 . 3 mm sl ) collected from the volcano islands , south of the ogasawara islands , had a single spine\nfrequency distributions of fin - ray counts in triodon macropterus . counts of fin rays of damaged or abnormal fins are excluded . counts of pectoral - fin rays were obtained from fins on both sides\nwas reported ( with color photographs ) from several areas in the indo - west pacific : the chagos archipelago ( kyushin et al .\nto have the following coloration : body yellowish brown dorsally , becoming white ventrally ; ventral flap yellow in the ventral four - fifths and white in the proximal one - fifth ; a large black ocellus with a narrow white edge in the proximal part of the ventral flap ; second dorsal , anal , pectoral , and caudal fins yellow or yellowish brown ; when present , membrane of first dorsal fin black ( fig .\n( 20 mm sl ) , collected at wallis and futuna at a depth of 245\u2212440 m . they provided detailed characters and the visceral anatomy of the early juvenile that differs from adults in having a huge head ( 45 % sl vs 28 . 5\u221232 . 7 % sl in adults ) , no ventral flap , and different scale structure . juveniles also differ from adults in having a very large distended stomach .\n) . because pufferfishes possess very few external characters useful for taxonomy and specimens are easily distorted when they are fixed in formalin and preserved in ethanol , it is often not easy for ichthyologists to recognize species limits and classify them into natural groups . consequently , they have been poorly studied and taxonomic confusion remains . although the tetraodontidae has never been comprehensively reviewed , the taxonomy of pufferfishes has progressed since fraser - brunner\u2019s (\n, based on osteological characters of the skull , the lateral - line system on the head and body , a skin fold on the ventrolateral side of the body , and spinule distributions on the body . although fraser - brunner (\n) provided keys and accounts of pufferfishes in the seas around japan . subsequently , abe (\nis the appropriate generic name for warmwater pufferfishes found mainly around japan , korea , and china . as with other tetraodontiform families , de beaufort and briggs (\nmarine pufferfishes occurring in warm and tropical regions of the world were studied by many authors from the 1970s to present . allen and randall (\nand described seven new species , bringing the total number of species to 22 . since allen and randall\u2019s (\nfrom the gambier archipelago in french polynesia . in addition , randall et al . (\nfrom the west coast of africa . the above studies bring the total number of species of\nin the atlantic and provided a key to the species , along with detailed accounts of all atlantic species . walker and bussing (\n) . the former is endemic to the atlantic and the latter is distributed in tropical and other warm seas of the world . abe and tabeta (\n) based on an examination of the holotype and many specimens from the red sea . although the genus\nhas not been comprehensively reviewed , an ongoing study by the author has revealed 11 valid species in the genus . this study will be published elsewhere .\n, many species found along the coast of china were not included in his articles . cheng et al . (\nfrom brackish waters of modaomen zhuhai , guangdong . these chinese and japanese authors increased the number of\nspecies making it the second largest genus in the tetraodontidae , with 25 species . however , taxonomic problems still remain in\nas a new genus and species based on a single specimen collected at norfolk island .\nis externally distinguished from other pufferfishes by its nasal apparatus in the form of an open , flat , and relatively unornamented disk . heemstra and smith (\nin the period from 1980 to 1989 , graham s . hardy published a series of papers on the taxonomy of pufferfishes that are distributed mainly in the southern hemisphere . hardy (\nfrom south africa revealed them to be conspecific , making the former a junior synonym of the latter . matsuura (\nis unique in building large spawning nests , called \u201cmystery circles\u201d by local scuba divers . thus , the above studies of\n) discussed nomenclatural issues of the tetraodontidae found in southeast asia in detail . he established the new genus\n, but differentiated from other pufferfishes by their unique color pattern and a very elongate premaxillary pedicel that creates a greatly enlarged open space between their dorsomedial edges . thus , the generic name\nas a new species from the mekong basin of thailand . because of its publication date , july 2013 , the authors were unaware of kottelat\u2019s (\nhave a sufficient number of character differences to warrant being placed in separate genera . the type species of\n. however , this is likely to cause confusion not only in pufferfish taxonomy , but also in the fisheries of east asia where pufferfishes are treated as important and expensive fishes ( e . g . , several species of\ncost about us $ 100 per kilogram at fish markets ) . in addition , because pufferfishes have fatal poison in their viscera , scientific names are very important for food security management in east asia . as suggested by kottelat (\n) , on the basis of the holotype from penang and two additional specimens from the west pacific . matsuura (\nas a new species from the tropical region of the indo - west pacific . matsuura (\nwith a key to species and accounts of all members of the genus including two undescribed species .\nas indicated above , there has been a great deal of progress in taxonomy of the tetraodontidae during the past several decades , especially in the period from the mid - 1970s to the present . however , there remain taxonomic problems in genera such as\nwhere many species await description and detailed morphological and molecular comparisons to classify them into appropriate groups . the taxonomy of pufferfishes in southeast asia is important not only for the understanding of fish diversity of the region , but also for the welfare and food management for humans . dao et al . (\n) reported that the number of victims of food poisoning by eating pufferfishes reached 737 , with 127 mortalities from 1999 to 2003 . due to the lack of knowledge about pufferfishes and their toxicity , pufferfishes are still found in southeast asian fish markets ( fig .\n) , although local and state governments in countries around the south china sea have prohibited the sale of pufferfishes for food .\n) provided a list of synonyms and keys for all species of the diodontidae . keys to regional species were also provided by leis (\n, western indian ocean ; 2001 , eastern indian ocean and western central pacific ; 2003 , western atlantic ) . accounts and color photographs for species of the eastern pacific were provided by allen and robertson (\nreach more than 3 m in length and two tons in weight , it is difficult to preserve specimens of adults in museums . it is also difficult for ichthyologists to obtain measurements and counts on large adult ocean sunfishes in the field , and specimens of\nhave also been rarely collected . since ichthyologists have few opportunities to study an adequate number of adult specimens of ocean sunfishes , authors have been unable to agree how many species in the family , some believing a single species exists in each genus , and others recognizing two species each in\n) published a list of nominal species in the molidae . bass et al (\nis found in all oceans . however , they were unable to differentiate among specimens of\nfrom the west pacific ( taiwan ) and the western atlantic ( florida ) . yoshita et al . (\naround japan . they took measurements and counted 99 specimens of young and adults ( maximum size 332 cm tl , fig .\n) . they showed convincingly that there are two species with clear morphological differences : a well - developed head bump ( head bump height 12 . 1 % tl ) in group a vs . with no distinct head bump ( head bump height 7 . 8 % tl ) in group b , number of clavus fin rays 14\u221217 in group a vs 10\u221213 in group b , number of clavus ossicles 8\u221215 in group a vs . 8\u22129 in group b , and edge of clavus not wavy in group a vs . wavy in group b . yoshita et al . (\nmust await the availability of more specimens from other regions of the world\u2019s oceans for study by both morphological and molecular methods .\n) pioneered the classification of tetraodontiform fishes by placing them in the order plectognathi based on his detailed anatomical studies . since cuvier\u2019s (\n) , yseult le danois tried to destroy the order tetraodontiformes . she stated that the triacanthoids and balisoitds are of acanthurid origin and that the other plectognaths ( her orbiculati ) are not even of percoid derivation , being related to the isospondylous fishes , and that\nis related to the ostracioids rather than the tetraodontids . however , her statements were based on erroneous observations and interpretations of the osteological and myological characters of tetraodontiforms ( tyler\n) supported the monophyly of tetraodontiformes by adding to the already substantial list of synapomorphies . in addition , wiley and johnson (\n) analyzed relationships of tetraodontiformes using cladistic methods . he recognized three major clades : ( 1 ) triacanthodidae + triacanthidae , ( 2 ) ( balistidae + monacanthidae ) + ( aracanidae + ostraciidae ) , and ( 3 ) triodontidae + [ ( tetraodontidae + diodontidae ) + molidae ] ( fig .\n) . the first clade , including the triacanthodidae and triacanthidae , was considered to be the sister group of all other tetraodontiforms . tyler (\n) studied tetraodontiforms extensively and provided a huge number of osteological descriptions , comparative diagnoses , and illustrations for all extant families , major representatives of extant genera , and most of the known fossil taxa of the tetraodontiformes . tyler (\n) , except for placing the superfamily triacanthoidea ( triacanthodidae + triacanthidae ) as the basal sister group to the two superfamilies , the balistoidea ( balistidae and monacanthidae ) and the ostracioidea ( aracanidae and ostraciidae ) .\nphylogenetic relationships of the extant families of tetraodontiformes inferred from cladistic analyses of morphological characters .\n) proposed on the basis of his osteological analysis that zeoids have a sister - group relationship with tetraodontiforms and the two groups are sister to the caproids . leis (\n) used characters of eggs and larvae to investigate tetraodontiform relationships . although no aracanid and triodontid larvae were available for his study , leis (\n) placed the ostraciidae in an unresolved trichotomy , ostraciidae + diodontidae + molidae , and placed the three families as a sister clade to the tetraodontidae ( fig .\nb ) . this was the first time that the ostraciidae was placed in the gymnodonts ( triodontidae , tetraodontidae , diodontidae , and molidae ) . winterbottom and tyler (\n) also provided many synapomorphies involving osteological and myological characters that supported a sister - group relationship of balistoids and ostracioids . klassen (\njames c . tyler and other authors published many papers on fossil tetraodontiforms ( e . g . , tyler and patterson\n) used osteological data on fossil and extant tetraodontiform fishes accumulated by previous contributions to generate a new classification of all known families represented by fossil and extant forms . for extant families , santini and tyler (\n) placed the triacanthodidae as a sister group to all other families of the tetraodontiformes ( fig .\n) . they arranged the other families into two suborders , the balistoidei and tetraodontoidei . the former is composed of the triacanthidae + [ ( balistidae + monacanthidae ) + ( aracanidae + ostraciidae ) ] . the latter suborder is composed of the triodontidae + [ ( tetraodontidae + diodontidae ) + molidae ] . this classification is similar to those of winterbottom (\n) analyzed molecular data for 100 species of higher teleosteans . their study was the first to hypothesize close relationships among lophiiforms , tetraodontiforms , and caproids . they retrieved phylogenetic topologies placing caproids as a sister group with tetraodontiforms and the two groups as sister to lophiiforms . however , they used few taxa : one species of caproidae , two species of tetraodontiformes , and six species of lophiiformes . yamanoue et al . (\n) analyzed more species of the three groups and provided a robust phylogenetic topology that placed the caproidei as sister to the lophiiformes , and the two groups as a clade that is sister to the tetraodontiformes .\n) studied the lateral - line system and its innervations of nine species of tetraodontiforms ( representing all families examined except for the molidae ) and a single species each from the lophiidae , zeidae , caproidae , and siganidae . their analysis supported a close relationship of the tetraodontiformes with the lophiidae , but not with the zeidae , caproidae , or siganidae . recently , chanet et al . (\n) presented synapomorphies of tetraodontiforms and lophiiforms involving soft anatomical characters : rounded and anteriorly disposed kidneys , a compact thyroid included in a blood sinus , an abbreviated spinal cord , an asymmetric liver , and clusters of supramedullary neurons in the rostral part of the spinal cord . baldwin ("]}
{"id": 2187, "summary": [{"text": "virginia valeriae , commonly known as the smooth earth snake , is a species of nonvenomous natricine colubrid snake native to the eastern half of the united states . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "virginia valeriae", "paragraphs": ["conservation and management : virginia v . valeriae is not a species of special concern in virginia due to its widespread occurrence .\nthe western smooth earth snake , virginia valeriae elegans , is the subspecies found in iowa .\necology of the smooth earth snake ( virginia valeriae ) and redbelly snake ( storeria . . . | kufs research\na relatively small snake , adult virginia valeriae measure 17 . 5 - 25 cm ( 7 - 10 in ) .\nvirginia valeriae is found in portions of northeast texas , oklahoma and kansas east to the atlantic coast from new jersey to florida .\nvaleriae is to honor miss valeria blaney , the first documented collector of the species .\nvirginia - virgo ( latin ) meaning virgin . this name might have been coined for the state of virginia ;\nthe single subspecies of virginia valeriae present in texas , v . v . elegans , is found from the austin and san antonio areas northeastward towards tyler and longview .\nnoteworthy snake records from false cape state park , city of virginia beach , virginia - gary m . williamson and steven m . roble\nvirginia valeriae is a live - bearing species . litters of between 5 - 10 snakes , measuring 6 cm ( 2 . 5 in ) , are typically seen in august and september .\nsubspecies : virginia v . valeriae has 15 dorsal scale rows at midbody and smooth scales ( except above the cloaca ) , and is usually gray . virginia v . pulchra has 17 dorsal scale rows at midbody and weakly keeled scales , and is usually brownish .\n1861 - 1862 asst . surgeon , 5th pa cavalry . served in virginia .\na herpetological survey of mole hill in rockingham county , virginia . - matthew neff\na herpetological survey of the quarry gardens at schuyler , virginia . - matthew neff\nfluctuations in mating activity of hyla chrysoscelis in southside virginia - richard l . hoffman\nsome noteworthy lizard observations from virginia and nearby areas - w . h . martin\nturtle mortality in powhatan county , virginia - jason d . gibson ( full article )\namphibians and reptiles from candler mountain , campbell county , virginia - paul w . sattler\nreproduction in a western smooth earth snake ( virginia valeriae elegans ) from western kentucky ; 1991 ; article ; journal ; bulletin of the chicago herpetological society ; morris , m . a . ; walsh . , s . j .\nan annotated checklist of reptiles and amphibians from highland county , virginia - david a . young\nnaomi and darson found a smooth earth snake ( virginia valeriae ) . this species does not grow large - 7 to 10 inches . they live in moist environments - under logs boards on the ground , eating soft - bellied insects .\nvirginia herpetological society survey of back bay nwr and false cape state park - david a . perry\nan annotated checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of shenandoah national park virginia - william l . witt\npisani , g . , w . h . busby . 2011 . ecology of the smooth earth snake ( virginia valeriae ) and redbelly snake ( storeria occipitomaculata ) in northeastern kansas . kansas biological survey , lawrence , ks report no . 172 : 37 pp .\nsmooth earth snake , virginia valeriae , which it shares range and habitat . the keeling on the scales being the only way to distinguish the species . for additional detail , see identification of smooth and keeled scales , university of florida , department of herpetology . more\nchecklist and keys to the amphibians and reptiles of virginia ' s eastern shore - joseph c . mitchell\nthe smooth earth snake is currently listed by south carolina and virginia as a species of special concern . more\nthe new kent county , virginia timber rattlesnake ( crotalus horridus ) locality is invalid . - joseph c . mitchell\na survey of the amphibians and reptiles of old colchester park in fairfax county , virginia - john m . orr\nresults of the spring 2008 annual vhs survey : colonial national historic park yorktown , virginia - timothy p . christensen\nthe upland chorus frog ( pseudacris feriarum ) in virginia : a species in decline ? - carol a . pollio\nreptile and amphibian survey of selected tracts on the northern neck and middle peninsula of virginia - robert s . greenlee\ncopperheads on the york - james peninsula , virginia - robert a . s . wright and warren p . gray\nthe wood turtle ( clemmys insculpta ) in eastern fairfax county , virginia - joseph c . mitchell and john pilcicki\ngeographic variation : male v . v . pulchra in virginia had a slightly higher average number of ventral scales ( 116 . 0 \u00b1 2 . 2 , 113 - 118 , n = 4 ) and a higher average number of subcaudals ( 41 . 8 \u00b1 2 . 9 , 38 - 45 , n = 4 ) ) than male v . v . valeriae ( ventrals 113 . 8 \u00b1 3 . 2 , 107 - 119 , n = 28 ; subcaudals 34 . 1 \u00b1 2 . 7 , 29 - 40 , n = 28 ) . the total v . v . pulchra sample exhibited a higher average number of ventrals + subcaudals ( 157 . 2 \u00b1 3 . 6 , 154 - 162 , n = 5 ) than the sample of v . v . valeriae ( 146 . 6 \u00b1 4 . 4 , 139 - 156 , n = 66 ) . the largest known female virginia valeriae in virginia ( 320 mm total length ) is a v . v . pulchra ; the largest v . v . valeriae female is 308 mm total length .\na herpetological survey of dixie caverns and explore park in roanoke , virginia , and the wehrle\u2019s salamander . - matthew neff\namphibian and reptile survey of the naval security group activity northwest , city of chesapeake , virginia - michael j . pinder\neastern narrow - mouthed toads ( gastrophryne carolinensis ) in mathews county , virginia - john b . bazuin , jr .\nsummary of virginia geographic distribution records and natural history notes published in herpetological review from 1991 - 2005 - steven m . roble\namphibians and reptiles of beaver pond habitats in the laurel fork recreation area , highland county , virginia - steven m . roble\nvaleriae - ( new latin ) in honor of valery blaney ( 1828 - 1900 ) , collector of the type specimen ; elegans - ( latin ) meaning tasteful , choice , fine , select .\nturtle diversity of u . s . army installation , fort eustis , virginia - james d . dolan and timothy p . christensen\nherpetofaunal biodiversity of the rice center for environmental life sciences , charles city county , virginia - jason d . gibson and paul sattler\nsummary of virginia sea turtle strandings during 2002 - erin e . seney , katherine l . mansfield , and john a . musick\nrecords of amphibians and reptiles from fort lee , prince george county , virginia - steven m . roble and christopher s . hobson\namphibians and reptiles of sugarland run , fairfax and loudoun counties , virginia : estimated numbers and commercial value - joseph c . mitchell\n1712 - 1719 studied flora and fauna of virginia . he was one of the first english naturalists working on southeastern us coastal plain .\nconfusing species : in virginia , this species may be confused with several other small snakes . virginia striatula has strongly keeled scales and 17 dorsal scale rows ; juveniles have a light collar behind the head . other potentially confusing species are in the h . striatula account .\nresults of the 2013 herpblitz at dick cross wildlife management area , mecklenburg county virginia - paul w . sattler and jason d . gibson\nmark - recapture study of an isolated population of the mediterranean gecko ( h . turcicus ) in bedford co . , virginia - kyle harris\neffects of ph and heavy metal concentrations on amphibian breeding and community structure on a reclaimed pyrite mine in northern virginia - carol a . pollio\nrecords of amphibians and reptiles from\nthe cedars\nregion of lee county , virginia - steven m . roble and christopher s . hobson\nsurvey of herpetofauna on the campus of hampden - sydney college in prince edward county , virginia - rachel e . goodman and e . davis carter\npreliminary estimation of capture rates for red - backed salamanders at the randolph - macon college environmental station , doswell , virginia - j . d . mcghee\nscalation of the eastern mudsnake ( farancia abacura abacura ) in virginia - john d . kleopfer , anne b . wright , and holly s . houtz\nherpetofauna of logged and unlogged forest stands in south - central virginia : preliminary results - todd s . fredericksen , ken graves and tim pohlad - thomas\npaul r . burch ' s herpetological collection at radford college , virginia : a valuable resource lost - richard l . hoffman and joseph c . mitchell\nrecords of amphibians and reptiles from breaks interstate park , dickenson county , virginia - jason d . gibson , paul w . sattler and steven m . roble\nimpact of prescribed burning on three eastern box turtles ( terrapene carolina carolina ) in southwestern virginia . - todd s . fredericksen , gage station and javin metz\ntiming of juvenile amphibian dispersal from small ponds in southern virginia - todd s . fredericksen , anthony garcia , justin hall , kaitlyn deforest , and adam morehead\nopportunistic anuran surveys in southeastern virginia : looking for oak toads , but finding . . . . . . spadefoots ! - paul sattler and jason daniel gibson\nan unusual breeding event in an urban park in danville , virginia with specific notes on the eastern spadefoot ( scaphiopus holbrookii ) - jason d . gibson and paul sattler\noverwintering behavior of the eastern box turtle ( terrapene carolina carolina ) in the virginia piedmont - david ellington , kelly rae ingram , tiffany walker and todd s . fredericksen\nobservations on the responce of four eastern box turtles ( terrapene carolina carolina ) to clearcut logging and chipping in southern virginia - todd s . fredericksen and joshua l . bernard\nrecords of amphibians and reptiles from fort pickett , virginia - steven m . roble , anne c . chazal , katharine l . derge , and christopher s . hobson .\nnetting and mittleman , 1938\nto a collector , mr . neil d . richmond , who has done much to increase our knowledge of the herpetofauna of\n( west virginia ) .\nm . c . swartwout , r . andrews , and d . linzey . 2014 . geographic distribution hemidactylus turcicus from montgomery county , virginia . herpetolocial review 45 ( 1 ) : 92\ndiscovery of a population of scarlet kingsnakes ( lampropeltis triangulum elapsoides ) in the virginia piedmont - steven m . roble , gregory n . woodie and michael d . kinsler ( full article )\nsalamander diversity and abundance along buck run in the laurel fork area of highland county , virginia - h . steve adams , michael s . hayslett , and chris hobson ( full article )\nopportunistic surveys for the oak toad ( bufo quercicus ) in southeastern virginia : on the trail of leslie burger - steven m . roble , christopher s . hobson , and anne c . chazal\na preliminary survey of the amphibians and reptiles of savage neck dunes natural area preserve , northampton county , virginia - steven m . roble , anne c . chazal , and amber k . foster\ncollins ( 1991 ) suggested that v . v . pulchra should be elevated to full species status , largely because it was allopatric with v . v . valeriae . this suggestion and others have not been verified or accepted by the herpetological community . any taxonomic conclusion about the specific status of pulchra should await a definitive systematic study .\n. other names that have been used in the illinois literature include haldea valeriae elegans ( stejneger & barbour , 1939 , a checklist . . . 4th ed . ) ; v . harpeti elegans ( boucourt , 1886 ) and potamophis striatulus ( van cleave , 1928 , illinois state acad . sci . trans . 20 : 133 - 136 ) .\nfulton , j . n . , m . couch , and w h . smith . 2014 . new geographic distribution records for herpetofauna in southwestern virginia , usa . herpetological review 45 ( 1 ) : 105 - 106 .\nsyntopic occurrence of eurycea lucifuga ( cave salamander ) , e . longicauda longicauda ( long - tailed salamander ) , and e . guttolineata ( three - lined salamander ) in the piedmont of virginia - norman reichenbach and liberty university students\nremarks : other common names for this snake in virginia are valeria ' s snake ( hay , 1902 ; dunn , 1936 ) ; eastern ground snake ( carroll , 1950 ) ; and brown snake , worm snake , and ground snake ( linzey and clifford , 1981 ) .\nan investigation of co - infection by batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and ranavirus ( fv3 ) in anurans of two natural areas in anne arundel county , maryland and fairfax county , virginia , usa . - lauren d . fuchs , todd a . tupper , christine a . bozarth , david fernandez , and robert aguilar\nseveral steps are recommended for conserving and managing this snake . the full extent of its distribution in virginia needs to be revealed , as does its ecological requirements and life history . we also need to determine the extent of logging threats and where selected populations should be protected . management could include limitations on logging practices , exclusion of some areas from logging , and maintenance of open sunlit areas for gravid females .\ndescription : a small snake reaching a maximum total length of 393 mm ( 15 . 5 inches ) ( conant and collins , 1991 ) . in virginia , maximum known snout - vent length ( svl ) is 276 mm ( 10 . 9 inches ) and maximum total length is 320 mm ( 12 . 6 inches ) . in this study , tail length / total length was 11 . 0 - 21 . 8 % ( ave . = 15 . 8 \u00b1 3 . 0 , n = 72 ) .\nrange and habitat : this species can be found in scattered locations throughout the eastern and central u . s . and throughout georgia and south carolina . its geographic range includes much of the coastal plain , piedmont , and mountains , from southern virginia to louisiana , but the species is absent from peninsular florida and most of the region of either side of the mississippi river . this species is found in a variety of forested habitats with plenty of ground cover , but is most common in moist deciduous forests and edge habitats .\nalexandria city alleghany county amelia county amherst county bedford county botetourt county campbell county caroline county charles city county chesterfield county clarke county cumberland county danville city fairfax city fairfax county falls church city fauquier county fluvanna county franklin county fredericksburg city gloucester county hampton city hanover county henrico county henry county highland county james city county lancaster county lynchburg city mecklenburg county new kent county newport news city northumberland county page county petersburg city pittsylvania county powhatan county prince george county prince william county richmond county rockingham county scott county shenandoah county southampton county spotsylvania county stafford county suffolk city surry county virginia beach city westmoreland county williamsburg city york county verified in 52 counties / cities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright and all rights reserved by ellin beltz , 2006 . information for users at the bottom of the page\nklauber , 1945 :\nnamed for clinton g . abbott , director of the san diego society of natural history , a friend , editorial guide and a scientific associate for many years .\n1881 born in liverpool , england , son of american citizens , april 17th .\nmember of the american ornithologists union , western society of naturalists and many other professional societies .\n] after the celebrated zoologist , whose work on the development , anatomy and classification of american turtles [\ncontributions to the natural history of the united states\n] leaves nothing to be desired in these particulars . we may hope before long to see his descriptions of the genera and species , on which he has been engaged for several years , and which , like the tortoise itself , though slow in coming , will doubtless prove of solid worth and durable quality .\nstudied at jardin des plantes , paris , france under baron cuvier , the founder of comparative anatomy .\n1832 lecturer and curator at the u neuchatel , switzerland . by the time he left switzerland , he had 175 publications including : 20 books with 2000 plates .\n1846 awarded funds by king friedrich wilhelm iv of prussia to travel to america and study glaciers . he was appointed to the lowell lectureship at harvard . his popular lectures in us paid neuchatel debts and provided funds for continuing researches .\nmy intention is not , however , to impart information , but to throw the burden of study on you . if i succeed in teaching you to observe , my aim will be attained .\n1848 chair of zoology and geology , lawrence scientific school , harvard , cambridge , ma . henry d . thoreau sent agassiz , turtles , fish and a black snake . the fish was new to science .\n1850 wed elizabeth cabot cary , who had to become adjusted to snakes in the closet and worse .\n1865 went to brazil with mrs . a . , paid assistants and student volunteers aboard the\n. dom pedro ii , emperor of brazil opened the amazon to the expedition for study .\n1866 in july , the thayer expedition returned home with more than 80 , 000 specimens .\n1871 explored a glacier in the strait of magellan . named it in honor of their steamer , the\n1873 john anderson , gave his island of penikese in buzzard ' s bay off new bedford , ma and $ 50k to start a summer school for marine natural history , which became the marine biological laboratory at wood ' s hole , ma . authored\ncontributions to the natural history of the united states of america ,\n1st 2 volumes on turtles .\nneill , 1949\nin honor of mr . [ e . ross ] allen , for it was his assiduous collecting which focused attention on the form . . .\n1911 - 1922 family moved several times : topeka , ks ; mt . vernon , oh ; muncie , in ; akron , oh ; middletown , oh . he studied the natural history of each of those areas .\n1929 founder and director of the ross allen reptile institute , silver springs , florida .\n1941 - 1945 directed the milking of 73 , 960 poisonous snakes to fill war contracts for antivenin .\nbiography by hylander , c . j .\nadventures with reptiles , the story of ross allen .\njulian messner inc . new york , 1957\nscion of two historic american families , the allen ' s back to 1640 , and the trumbull ' s to 1639 .\n1852 at the age of 14 , made a collection of birds and attempted to draw and color them .\n1861 sold his collections to wilbraham academy , springfield , ma , to finance his studies at harvard with louis agassiz .\n1865 - 1866 zoological assistant , thayer expedition to brazil , under prof . agassiz .\n1867 collecting expedition to western ny , southeastern in , northern il , western ia , southern mi .\n1868 - 1869 expedition to east florida , via st . johns river to the head of lake george for mcz .\n1868 - 1880 curator of reptiles , birds and mammals , boston society of natural history .\n1870 - 1875 asst . ornithology and curator of birds and mammals , museum of comparative zoology ( mcz ) , harvard .\n1871 - 1872 fort leavenworth , ks , west to northern ut for mcz .\n1873 chief of the party of naturalists of the n . pacific railroad expedition from bismark , nd to the yellowstone and back for the smithsonian .\n1876 - 1883 corresponding secretary , nuttall ornithological club and editor of its bulletin .\n1883 - 1891 president of the american ornithologist union . editor of\nthe auk\nfrom 1883 - 1912\n1910 + member of the commission on zoological nomenclature of the international congress of zoology .\nhe received many honorary degrees and continued writing until close to his death . he was impatient of careless work and generalizations based on insufficient data .\npre 1859 collected type in the town of hyatt in anderson county , ks .\n1887 - 1933 began collecting for the us department of agriculture and continued the work until his retirement as chief field naturalist of the us biological survey .\n1893 wrote\nspermophiles of the mississippi valley ,\nand many other publications .\n1894 - 1895 studied at the columbian u ( now george washington u , washington , dc ) .\nfellow of the american association for the advancement of science , american ornithologists union , and the cooper ornithological club .\n1846 baird ' s collection added to those of the us exploring expedition ( wilkes expedition ) specimens formed core of natural history specimens at the smithsonian institution .\nbiographies : ( 1 ) dall ,\nspencer fullerton baird ,\nlippincott , philadelphia 1915 . and\nletters of spencer fullerton baird ;\n( 3 ) biographical memoirs of spencer fullerton baird , published in both the auk , vol . 5 , 1888 , # 1 ; and smithsonian report for 1888 , washington , dc , 1890 ; ( 4 ) bibliography : bull . us natl . mus . # 20 .\nbabcock , 1937\nin proposing subspecific distinction for this isolated group , i associate the name of my friend the late mr . outram bangs who first called by attention to this unique new england colony .\nattended noble ' s school , boston and the lawrence scientific school , harvard .\n1895 traveled to lake edward , quebec and micco , brevard county , fl .\n1896 worked at st . mary ' s , ga and made short visits to cumberland island , and localities on the fl side of the st . mary ' s river .\n1897 collected at pt . matanzas , carterville , anastasia is . , oak lodge , eau gallie and gainesville , fl .\n1899 his collection of mammals , over 10 , 000 skins and skulls and including over 100 type specimens was purchased by subscription and presented to harvard college . appointed asst . in mammalogy .\n1906 visited jamaica . collected over 100 birds , but his trip was cut short by dengue fever .\n1908 his collection of birds , over 24 , 000 skins was presented to the museum of comparative zoology at harvard . he assumed charge of the arrangement and increase of the bird collection .\nkraus and petranka , 1989\n. . . the name of dr . thomas barbour , who has contributed extensively to our knowledge of florida reptiles and amphibians .\n1903 presented his preserved collection of reptiles and amphibians to the museum of comparative anatomy ( mcz ) at harvard . many specimens came from the ny zoological gardens whose keepers had saved dead animals for him .\n1907 - 1908 delegate from harvard to first pan - american scientific congress , santiago , chile .\n1911 - 1927 from assoc . curator to curator reptiles and amphibians , mcz , harvard u .\nauthored\nchecklist of north american amphibians and reptiles\nwith stejneger ( 5 editions ) .\n1923 - 1945 executive officer in charge of barro colorado island laboratory ( now the canal zone biological area ) , gatun lake , panama .\nreceived honorary degrees ( scd ) from harvard u in 1940 and u of fl in 1944 .\nexplored e and w indies , india , burma , china japan and s . and central america for mcz .\nhis popular writings include :\na naturalist in cuba , this vanishing eden ,\nand\na naturalist ' s scrapbook\n( 1946 ) . he was a huge , sentimental irishman and a fine writer . adjacent to his mcz office was the\neateria ,\nto which he invited all to eat and converse . his secretary , helen robinson , prepared all the food for his , literally , thousands of guests .\nharper , 1939 [ son of john bartram , ( 1699 - 1777 ) , quaker botanist . ]\n1791 published\ntravels through north and south carolina , georgia , east and west florida .\nseminole native americans called him\npuc - puggy\nwhich means\nflower - hunter .\nplanted seeds and cuttings of the plants he collected during his travels to the family residence and garden , kingsessing , on the west bank of the schuylkill river , pa .\npre1803 drew a majority of the plates for professor william barton ' s\nelements of botany .\n, as captain , reached cape of good hope . turned back from australia by hurricanes . continued to india , persian gulf and cape of good hope . shipwrecked .\n1795 returned to france leaving his botanical collection from the indies at trinidad . involved with the jardin des plants , museum national d ' histoire naturell , paris .\n1797 - 1803 voyaged to australia in command of the geographe and the naturaliste .\ntaylor , 1895\nthis species is named for dr . baur , who first noticed the peculiarities of the type , but having only the one specimen considered it an exceptional individual of\nporter , 1968\nnamed in honor of george t . baxter who discovered the relict population .\nvan denburgh , 1905\ni take pleasure in naming this island form in honor of mr . r . h . beck who collected the specimens .\n1870 born in los gatos , santa clara county , ca , august 26 .\njoined the fb webster - harris expedition to the galapagos to collect giant tortoises for lord rothschild .\n1905 2nd expedition to the galapagos , collecting birds and tortoises for the ca academy of sciences .\n1906 - 1908 collected sea birds off the ca coast near monterey bay and waterfowl in the san joaquin valley near los banos .\n1912 rediscovered the hornby petrel on the coast of peru . head of the whitney south sea expedition . spent several years exploring the islands of the south pacific and the interior of new guinea for the american museum of natural history .\n1936 published a brief autobiography in rc murphy ' s\noceanic birds of south america .\nstejneger , 1894\ni take great pleasure in naming this new species after mr . l . belding , whose extensive and excellent herpetological ( contribution ) in lower california as well as in upper california has never been adequately recognized .\n1879 authored\na partial list of the birds of central california ,\ncontaining notes on 220 species .\n1881 - 1883 trips to the cape region of lower ca . collected new birds and studied avifauna of the region .\n1883 elected an active member of the american ornithologists ' union . selected by the committee on bird migration to take charge of the migration work in the pacific district .\nschwartz , 1952\n. . . of the u of miami , whose aid in securing the original series cannot be minimized .\n1958 - 1960 served in u . s . air force in minnesota and montana\n1977 - 1981 attended university of california at berkeley . bs in entomology and phd graduate student for three years . published several small papers on acquatic beetles ( dytiscidae and helmidae )\nroyal college of surgeons , described as a\ndental surgeon and naturalist .\n( agassiz , 1857 )\ncollected by the late mr . berlandier , a zealous french naturalist , to whom we are indebted for much of what we know of the natural history of northern mexico .\nstudied with decandolle , author of\nprodomus ,\na world botany book .\n1826 left europe for mexico as a collector for decandolle and other genevese botanists .\n1827 - 1828 worked for mexican government on their survey of eastern tx . it was a very difficult trip and many specimens were lost and destroyed . his work with the boundary commission was the first extensive collecting in texas . primarily interested in botany , also collected fauna . contracted malaria which made collecting for his patrons impossible . decandolle was not pleased with the condition and quantity of botanical materials . berlandier stayed in mexico , settled in matamoros and married a local woman . engaged in a pharmaceutical business and made frequent botanical exploration in various parts of mexico .\n1834 collected in goliad and bexar , tx . lt . couch reported that berlandier was well respected in matamoros and had served as an interpreter to general arista during the mexican war . he was in charge of the hospitals at matamoros during the war . collected the type specimen of\nviosca , 1937\nnamed for the pioneer student of louisiana herpetology , the late george e . beyer .\n1918 - 1926 la state board of health ( note : viosca also worked there ) .\npresident of the la naturalists society and a member of the us yellow fever institute and commission to veracruz , mexico . he was a special inspector for the biological survey of the us department of agriculture .\ngrobman , 1943\nit is fitting to associate with this hitherto unrecognized salamander the name of sherman c . bishop , of the university of rochester , who has contributed largely to our understanding of the salamanders of the united states .\n1887 born in sloatsburg , ny , november 18 . spent his childhood by erie canal , clyde , ny .\n1928 - 1951 asst . professor biology to professor vertebrate zoology , u rochester , ny .\n1943 completed\nhandbook of salamanders ,\nthe first serious and comprehensive work on north american salamanders since cope ( 1889 ) .\n1822 authored\nnew classification of animals based on external rather than internal organs .\nmecham , littlejohn , oldham , brown and brown , 1973\n. . . in honor of w . frank blair because of his early suggestion that there were cryptic `\nin texas in 1963 ) , and more generally in recognition of his contributions to our knowledge of the systematics and evolutionary biology of anurans .\n1922 - 1930 lived in tulsa where his interest in biology was influenced by two teachers .\n1935 - 1937 asst . mammal division , u mi . 1938 , phd , u mi .\n1941 - 1946 drafted into the army , served in the air force altitude training and survival programs . he taught the use of natural foods and his delight in serving snake , rodent , etc . to high - ranking officers is featured in his recollections .\n1972 director of the breckenridge field laboratory , u tx , austin , tx .\nauthored 129 articles ( 19 more with co - authors ) , 5 books , 8 testimonies before congressional committees , innumerable book reviews and abstracts , and supervised over 100 scientific publications resulting from his student ' s work , without being listed as co - author .\n1888 born in stoneham , ma . promoted the careful study of habits and life histories of snakes .\n1913 - 1916 taught zoology , ma agricultural college ( ma state college ) , amherst , ma .\n1918 - 1919 aide , division of reptiles , us national museum , smithsonian , worked under stejneger .\n1927 - 1928 sabbatical in new zealand , australia and tasmania , studied tuatara and urged its conservation .\n1935 spent a semester with hk gloyd on a trip through the southwestern and western us . began work on a manual of the snakes of the us which dr . gloyd continued after his death .\n( holbrook , 1838 )\nthis animal was first observed by dr . william blanding , of philadelphia , an accurate naturalist , whose name i have given to the species .\nc1830 collected the holotype known as : ansp ( phila , pa ) 26123 , illinois fox river .\n1834 he was a\nnewer member\nof the academy of natural sciences ( ansp ) at this time .\ncollected many reptiles for ansp . and in 1838 holbrook acknowledged dr . blanding\n. . . formerly of columbia , south carolina and now residing in philadelphia for several undescribed reptiles from the south and west .\nfor baird and girard in kent county , on the eastern shore of md .\n1856 married august 20 to brig . general washington lafayette elliott ( 1825 - 29 jun 1888 )\n1883 wrote\netudes sur les poissons\n( studies of fish ) with leon vaillant .\n1870 co - authored\netudes sur les reptiles et les batraciens\n( studies of reptiles and amphibians ) with auguste dumeril .\ndowling and price , 1988\ncharles m . bogert , emeritus curator of the department of herpetology of the american museum of natural history , in recognition of his many contributions to the systematics of colubrid snakes .\nprice ( 1990 ) , cat . amer . amphib . rept . 497\n1936 - 1940 assistant curator , department of herpetology , american museum of natural history ( amnh ) .\n1939 faunal investigations in mexico were initiated with a grant - in - aid from the carnegie corporation . since then collections have been assembled in nearly every state in mexico , except those in the peninsula of yucatan .\n1940 - 1941 associate curator , in charge of the department of herpetology , amnh .\n1946 initiated explorations in the mexican state of coahuila , with k . p . schmidt of the field museum of natural history .\n1946 first president of the herpetologist ' s league , appointed by chapman grant , founder of the herpetologists league .\n1946 - 1948 served as secretary to the council of the scientific staff of the amnh .\n1948 - 1950 researches in honduras , nicaragua , costa rica and bimini island , bahamas .\n1951 - 1953 traveled in the southwest : az , nm , tx and mexico .\n1953 initiated investigations of the behavioral significance of anuran vocalizations in chiricahua mountains , in az and in mexico , continued in florida ( archbold biological station ) and in az , mexico , fl , tx , wy , ut , ca , and ceylon ( 1965 ) .\n1953 taped recordings of various animals initiated in the chiricahua mountains , az , during this year led to four long - playing discs issued by folk records , including\nsounds of the american southwest\nin 1954 ,\nsounds of north american frogs\nin 1958 , as well as two records of folk music recorded in mexico in 1958 and 1960 .\n1960 university of colorado , lectures to teachers enrolled in biological sciences curriculum study .\n1965 traveled to ceylon . continued faunal , thermal and behavioral investigations in mexico .\n1979 + has traveled widely in north , south , and central america , australia and africa . worked on a monograph on the genus salvadora as well as a revision of the 1956 monograph on heloderma until his death at home in santa fe .\n1843 - 1846 archaeological pioneer , excavated and identified khorsabad as ninevah , discovered sargon ' s palace . found 7th cent b . c . dictionary for class iii cuneiform script at kuyunjik .\n1847 - 1846 wrote\nmonuments de ninive decoverts et decrits par botta , mesures et dessines par e . flandin .\n1821 born in blacklick township , indiana country , pa , december 12th . the family moved to columbus , oh . he was educated in local schools , worked at a printing press and as a public school teacher .\nc1840 ' s entered starling medical college ( now included in oh state u college of medicine ) .\n1848 - 1849 caught\ngoldrush fever\nand joined the columbus and california industrial association party as its official physician , travelling the oregon trail to ca in summer .\n1849 - 1850 prospected briefly along the south fork of the american river , near coloma , el dorado county , ca . apparently spent more time practicing medicine than prospecting . by summer 1850 , he had a practice in placerville , ca . collected reptile and amphibian specimens which were later sent to the smithsonian and examined by baird and girard . collected the syntypes ,\n1850 - 1852 moved to san francisco in the fall . built a sailboat with several friends and sailed it around cape horn arriving in norfolk , va in april 1852 .\n1860 - 1865 served as a surgeon in the 9th oh regiment . achieved the rank of captain . after the war returned to medical practice in columbus .\ndr . boyle was an accomplished linguist ( fluent in 32 languages ) and speaker . although largely self educated , he was much in demand for local meetings and clubs due to his vast knowledge , phenomenal memory , and often accurate predictions of future events . he also gave much of his time and practice to the poor of the city and as a result never amassed much money and died poor himself\non february 16th , 1870 .\nstejneger , 1894 ( see h . h . brimley )\nhaving referred to this interesting novelty - which i dedicate to messrs . h . h . and c . s . brimley , from whom the museum has obtained much interesting material . . .\n1863 born in great linford , england . attended bedford county school at elstows .\n1880 his family migrated to north carolina and settled at raleigh . a book on taxidermy inspired cs and his brother hh to begin collecting , preparing and selling natural history specimens .\n1907 authored\nartificial key to the species of snakes and lizards which are found in nc .\n1919 + division of entomology , state department of agriculture , raleigh , nc , became state museum .\n1919 co - authored\nbirds of north carolina\nwith hh brimley and t . gilbert pearson .\n1938 u of nc awarded him a doctor of laws degree in recognition of his achievements .\n1938 wrote\nthe insects of north carolina < listing more than 10 , 000 species .\nmember of the american ornithologists union , the wilson club , nc bird club and other professional societies .\nstejneger , 1894 ( see c . s . brimley )\nhaving referred to this interesting novelty - which i dedicate to messrs . h . h . and c . s . brimley , from whom the museum has obtained much interesting material . . .\n1861 born in willington , bedford , england . attended bedford county school at elstows .\n1880 his family migrated to north carolina and settled at raleigh . taught school in a one - room log building on the present meredith college campus ( nc ) . a book on taxidermy inspired hh and his brother cs to begin collecting , preparing and selling natural history specimens .\n1884 prepared exhibits for the north carolina board of agriculture and immigration . the work eventually grew into the development of a state museum .\n1884 - 1907 mounted specimens for the state centennial exposition ( 1884 ) , the chicago exposition ( 1892 ) , the charleston exposition ( 1901 ) , the saint louis exposition ( 1904 ) , the boston food fair ( 1906 ) and the jamestown exposition ( 1907 ) .\n1895 took charge of the nc state museum . accommodated exhibits returning from expositions .\n1919 co - authored\nthe birds of north carolina\nwith cs brimley and t . gilbert pearson .\n1941 nc board of agriculture designated the library as the\nbrimley library of natural history .\nfounder and life member of the north carolina academy of science , the raleigh natural history club , the raleigh bird club and the north carolina bird club .\nstejneger , 1890\n. . . in recognition of his successful researches in that territory ( tucson , az ) . . .\n1873 moved to tucson , az . prospected in the desert mountains of az and northern sonora . he had several narrow escapes from apache indians and from death by thirst on the waterless plains of that region .\nhe was connected with newspapers in tucson as a reporter , editor and owner .\nto 1913 president of the audubon society of az and clerk of the superior court of pima county .\n1954 - present collected extensively in the southwestern us , northwestern us and the american midwest .\n1973 - 2000 environmental specialist in vector control , nm environmental department , working extensively investigating human and animal cases of plague , hantavirus , other vector - borne diseases ; co - author of\na manual for the investigation of plague cases in new mexico\nand several papers on plague and hantavirus in nm ; retired december 2000 .\nhe just recently retired from nm environment dept . in santa fe after about 25 years of service in their vector control program . ted ' s an avid non - professional herpetologist who knows nm intimately and is a walking database of local herp information ( and he ' ll gladly share it with you ) . j . n . stuart\ndid not publish as much as some of his colleagues ; reportedly encouraging his students ( a who ' s who of natural history for the next 50 years ) to take credit for their discoveries while under his wing . developed the dermestid beetle method of cleaning specimens .\n1927 u mi , student of ht gaige , fn blanchard , and ag ruthven .\n1932 wrote the amphibian and reptiles section of report on the amnh whitney expedition to the pacific islands . received a grant in aid from the national research council to prepare an illustrated key to the lizards of the us and canada .\n1936 published\na key to the lizards of the us and canada .\nat kansas state college at quivira , authored more than 80 scientific papers , a fellow of the american association for the advancement of science and the american society of zoologists .\na founder of american anthropology society and american association of mammalogists , in audubon society , and the academy of sciences of in .\nhaynes and mckown , 1974\nwe name it in memory of fred r . cagle whose research greatly increased our knowledge of\n1938 - 1940 southern il normal u , carbondale , il ( now southern il university ) .\n1950 professor of zoology and chairman of the graduate department of zoology , tulane u .\nmarlow , brode and wake , 1979\nthe new species is named in honor of the late charles l . camp , herpetologist , paleontologist , and historian , who contributed greatly to our knowledge of the american west . prof . camp discovered the genus\nin the new world . . . and very early recognized the diversification within the genus\n1918 - 1919 1st lt . american expeditionary forces , served in europe , south africa and china .\nmember of the california academy of sciences , american society of ichthyologists and herpetologists , and the california folklore society .\nwrote\njames clyman : american frontiersman ,\nan invaluable source of information on early explorations of the american west .\nwas secretary of\namerican ornithologists\nas shown by minutes in the auk , vol . 5 , number 2 , pages 220 to 224 .\n1731 - 1748 produced the\nnatural history of carolina , florida and the bahama islands\nwith 200 color plates , vol . i in 1731 , vol . 2 in 1743 , and the appendix in 1748 . combined illustrations showing birds in natural environments . studied reptiles , etc . on isle of providence . illustrated book on american insects , died in london .\n1850 - 1855 zoologist , us / mexican boundary survey , under colonel jd graham .\nwhile surveying , clark and schott made very fine zoological collections . their vertebrates contained possibly 100 new species .\nc1852 collected type of rana areolata for baird and girard in calhoun county , tx ; and type of eumeces obsoletus , rio san pedro , tx . worked in md , tx , nm and sonora , mexico .\nrossman , 1958\nnamed for roger conant , zoological society of philadelphia in recognition of his contributions to herpetology .\nacademic course in biology at the u pa terminated by causes stemming from the great depression .\n1929 - 1933 curator of reptiles , toledo zoological park , toledo , oh .\n1936 - 1969 wrote and presented a 15 minute , weekly , educational , radio program entitled\nlet ' s visit the zoo\nfor kyw in philadelphia , pa .\n1943 - 1945 served in the volunteer port security force of the us coast guard .\n1953 - 1958 secretary of philadelphia conservationists , a group active in preserving wildlife habitats in pa , nj and de .\n1957 - 1973 vice - president of the ludwick institute , which provides educational opportunities for children .\n1961 - 1973 secretary of philadelphia conservationists , a group active in preserving wildlife habitats in pa , nj and de .\n1973 a plaque was dedicated in the reptile house of the philadelphia zoo , designating the natural habitat settings throughout the building as the\nroger conant exhibits .\n1983 delivered the distinguished herpetologist ' s lecture , herpetologists ' league , u ut , salt lake city , aug . 8th .\nnational consultant for reptile study , and author of the reptile merit badge pamphlet for the boy scouts of america . past - president of the museum council of philadelphia , an organization of all cultural museums and similar institutions in that metro area . past - president and former secretary of the american association of zoological parks and aquariums ( aazpa ) . editor of the zoo section of\nmagazine , ( aazpa ) for 20 years . served on the board of directors of the american institute of park executives , formerly affiliated with aazpa . editor of\n, the magazine of the philadelphia zoo , during its ten years of publication . editor of\n, for 18 years . president of the american society of ichthyologists and herpetologists ( asih ) . secretary and vice president of asih .\nuntil 1956 chairman of committee on standardization of common names for north american amphibians and reptiles ( results published in 1956 ) .\nauthor of 198 primarily herpetological papers , including a monograph on the water snakes of mexico , many popular articles , and three books . contributions have been published in eight countries . wrote literally hundreds of short articles , many of which are not signed by him .\nwrote\nthe field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central north america .\nconducted extensive field work on reptiles and amphibians , largely in the us and mexico , but also to a lesser extent in africa and asia . has visited and consulted natural history collections worldwide .\nserved as a member of the national research council , national academy of sciences , for three years .\nmember of many scientific and cultural organizations from whom he has received numerous awards and honors .\nreceived three grants from the national science foundation for field research on reptiles and amphibians in mexico .\n1989 published\nsnakes of the agkistrodon complex ,\na monograph begun by dr . conant and the late dr . hk gloyd in the early 1930 ' s .\n1863 - 1864 studied in europe , at the british museum and jardin des plantes .\n1869 - 1870\nsystematic arrangement of the extinct batrachia , reptiles and aves of north america .\n1870 paleontologist us geological survey , discovered 100 ' s of new species of extinct vertebrates .\nbiographies : ( 1 ) osborn ,\ncope : master naturalist ,\n1931 , princeton u press ; copeia , 1932 , # 1 , pp . 39 - 41 ; ( 2 ) copeia , 1940 , # 2 , pp . 60 - 69 ; davis , w . h .\nedward drinker cope , herpetologist ,\nbull . of the antivenin inst . of america , vol . 5 , no . 3 , pp . 71 - 80 , may 1932 .\nbaird , 1854 . geiser wrote that the species were named\nin honor of its indefatigable discoverer , lt . d . n . couch , who , at his own risk and cost , undertook a journey into northern mexico , when the country was swarming with bands of mauraders , and made large collections in all branches of zoology . . .\n1847 fought in the battle of buena vista , promoted to 1st lt . for gallantry .\n. purchased berlandier ' s papers , herbarium and zoological and mineral collections from his widow . shipped some to smithsonian and sent part of the plant collection to switzerland . by early 1854 , he had returned to washington , dc .\n1861 - 1863 volunteered - colonel 7th ma infantry , appointed brigadier general of volunteers .\noffered resignation due to ill health , but was promoted to major general of volunteers .\nbiography : conant , roger , american museum novitates , # 2350 , 10 - 4 - 1968 .\n1804 bought land in ga , his father had a large plantation on san simeon island , ga .\n1814 graduated yale . spent time in holland studying water control . one of first us farmers to conduct plantation on basis of scientific research and experimentation .\n1838 changed crop from sugar to rice . introduced exotic plants including bermuda grass , now the principle grass in georgia .\n1846 presented on fossils at chatahoochie river , ga to boston society of natural history .\nc1861 the civil war destroyed his way of life . he opposed secession , but all 5 of his sons enlisted in the confederate army . 2 were killed . couper died broken financially and spiritually . he is buried on san simeon island .\nlowe and norris , 1956\nnamed in honor of professor raymond b . cowles of the university of california , los angeles .\n( blatchley , 1901 )\ntwo specimens are in the writer ' s collection from sevier county , tn , collected by mr . l . e . daniels to whom i dedicate the species .\n1922 - 1934 instructor , school of medicine , u mi and part time asst . professor .\n1925 - 1929 chief , obstetrics and gynecology , grace hospital , detroit , mi .\n1928 chief , obstetrics and gynecology , women ' s hospital , detroit , mi .\nhe was a republican , episcopalian and was active in the american boxer club and judged many dog shows throughout the us .\n1842 - 1844\nzoology of new york ,\nvolume 3 , reptiles and amphibians .\ncollected a specimen of storeria dekayi while it was\nswimming across a large bay on the northern coast of long island .\nscudday , 1973\npatronym for dr . james r . dixon who has contributed much to our understanding of the herpetology of the southwest .\n1959 - 1961 assoc . professor , veterinary medicine , texas a and m university , where he is affectionately known as\nbwana jim .\n1965 - 1967 curator of herpetology , life sciences division , los angeles county museum , ca .\n1971 + professor , wildlife and fisheries science , texas a and m university u .\n1987 published\namphibians and reptiles of texas .\nspecializes in : zoogeography , systematics and ecology of geckos ."]}
{"id": 2191, "summary": [{"text": "the nubian bustard ( neotis nuba ) is a species of bird in the bustard family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this is a medium-large bustard found in the sparsely vegetated interface between the southern margins of the sahara desert and the northern part of the sahel .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is found in burkina faso , cameroon , chad , mali , mauritania , niger , nigeria , and sudan .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are dry savanna and subtropical or tropical dry shrubland . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "nubian bustard", "paragraphs": ["nubian bustard ( neotis nuba ) is a species of bird in the otididae family .\nthe nubian bustard is classified as near threatened ( nt ) , is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future .\n* nubian bustard , neotis nuba * savile ' s bustard , lophotis savilei * white - bellied bustard , eupodotis senegalensis translations any of several birds of the family otidae * afrikaans : pou * bulgarian : \u0434\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043b\u0430 * chinese : \u9e28 ( b\u01ceo ) * danish : trappe da ( da ) c . more\nnubian bustard : the nubian bustard ( neotis nuba ) is a species of bird in the otididae family . zain sudan : zain sudan , formerly mobitel sudan , is a major mobile telephone network operator in sudan . login new listings hot listings top rated editor pick register my account add a listing update a listing suggest a category contact copyright more\nthe nubian bustard occupies the sparsely vegetated interface between the southern margins of the sahara desert and the northern part of the sahel , ranging from mauritania in the west to sudan in the east , including mali , southern algeria , niger and chad .\nenglish : ruffed bustard ; french : outarde houbara ; german : kragentrappe ; spanish : avutarda hubara .\nthis describes ecology of houbara bustard ( chlamydotis macqueenii ) a desert adapted species in pakistan .\nenglish : indian bustard ; french : outarde \u00e0 t\u00eate noire ; german : hindutrappe ; spanish : avutarda india . monotypic .\nthis article was kindly contributed by sara hallager of the smithsonian\u2019s national zoo with input from members of the iucn bustard specialist group .\nthe threats to the remaining populations of larger animals adapted to desert conditions are intense . the populations of many species have been greatly reduced by hunting for food , and also through hunting for sport and recreation ( e . g . , houbara bustard and nubian bustard ) . some species listed above have been entirely removed from the ecoregion in the last 100 years . over a period of 2 , 000 years this list could be expanded to include other large african mammals .\nnubian bustard ( neotis nuba ) = french : outarde nubienne german : nubiertrappe spanish : avutarda n\u00fabica taxonomy : otis nuba cretzschmar , 1826 , kurgos , near shendi , sudan . genus sometimes merged with otis . present species may be closely related to n . heuglinii . claimed race agaze from chad westwards is supposedly paler and smaller , but much more material needs examination to confirm that differences are not clinal or individual . monotypic . more\ncollar , n . & garcia , e . f . j . ( 2018 ) . nubian bustard ( neotis nuba ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nresults of a study undertaken by the german society for the protection of great bustard in collaboration with russian biologists from the saratov region , in order to design effective conservation measures .\nnubian bustard neotis nuba 2009 iucn red list category ( as evaluated by birdlife international - the official red list authority for birds for iucn ) : near threatened justification this species is classified as near threatened because it is suspected to be undergoing a moderately rapid population decline owing to intense hunting in parts of its range , in combination with other factors . however , if further information shows that the decline is rapid , the species would warrant uplisting to vulnerable . more\nnubian bustard neotis nuba = described by : cretzschmar ( 1826 ) alternate common name ( s ) : none known by website authors old scientific name ( s ) : none known by website authors photographs no photographs are available for this species range sahal zone of n . africa ; ( 1 ) mauritania and the niger river e . through mali and niger to lake chad . ( 2 ) n . sudan to the red sea coast ( ? ) . more\nthe australian bustard is australia ' s heaviest flying bird . it is an icon of the australian outback where it is more commonly known as the bush or plains turkey . it is also culturally and spiritually significant to aboriginal people , who prize it as a favourite bush tucker . this book provides the first complete overview of the biology of the australian bustard , based on the first major study of the species . the author explores the bustard ' s ecology and behaviour , its drastic decline since european settlement , and the conservation issues affecting it and its environment . colour photographs of juvenile and adult birds complement the text as well as showcase particular behaviours , such as the spectacular display routines of males when mating . australian bustard is the perfect book for natural history enthusiasts .\nthis book describes the biology of the great bustard at the reserve of villaf\u00e1fila , nw spain , based on the results of a research project carried out there by the authors between 1987 and 1995 .\nthe nubian bustard is one of the larger and most characteristic of the sahelo - saharan bustard species . adult males weigh in at over 5 kg and females a little less . the species shows sexual dimorphism . in males the forehead , crown and upperparts are tawny - buff marked with black . a broad black band extends over the eyes . the rest of the face is white except for the chin and throat which are black . the upperparts are pale tawny buff , lightly vermiculated with black . tail is similar but more grey . the lower hindneck and sides of breast are bordered by a black line . in adult females plumage is similar but colors generally less intense and mantle faintly streaked . black on throat confined to the center . to distinguish nubian bustards from the sympatric arabian or sudan bustard , look for the smaller but chubbier size and appearance , the more rufous coloration , thinner neck and dark , roundish head . arabian bustards are generally larger , greyer in color and have a more heavily feathered grey neck with no black . the head is grey and more dagger - shaped . in flight , nubians show a clearly paneled wing of black , white and rufous feathers . the arabian in flight is mostly grey and white .\nthe nest is a bare scrape into which one to six ( usually two to four ) eggs are laid . incubation is 20\u201322 days in the little bustard , 24\u201325 days in the great bustard , and presumably between these extremes in all other species . incubation starts with the first egg , leading to asynchronous hatching . the precocial young ( hatched covered with down and open eyes ) can usually walk after a few hours .\nbustards are confined to the old world . a glance at patterns of bustard diversity suggests that they originated in africa , where 21 species occur . sixteen of these are purely afrotropical , and another two only fractionally enter the\nthe book comprises fifteen chapters each covering a specific species or groups of species . there are six bird related chapters : wild turkey , houbara bustard , india ' s vultures , whooping crane , zino ' s petrel and mauritius kestrel .\n. over - hunting is probably the main cause of declines in the bustard species of sahelian west africa . off - take by local nomads has been augmented by the hunting activities of military and mining personnel , as well as tourists ( del hoyo\nmost bustards are found walking slowly across open terrain . several species are at least partially gregarious . the great bustard ( otis tarda ) has been recorded in groups of over 50 , and nonbreeding aggregations of the little bustard ( tetrax tetrax ) can number in the thousands . the desert - adapted forms , such as chlamydotis , are probably the most solitary . a few species gather at loose leks . foraging bustards are regularly found near herds of grazing herbivores . presumably they benefit from reductions in predation pressure or elevations in foraging success , as they hunt insects disturbed by the mammals .\ngaucher , p . , p . paillat , c . chappuis , m . saint jalme , f . lotfikhah , and m . wink .\ntaxonomy of the houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata subspecies considered on the basis of sexual display and genetic divergence .\nibis 138 ( 1996 ) : 273\u2013282 .\narabian and nubian bustards occur in the saharo - sahelian zone , extend - in across to the red sea coast . only two species , denham\u2019s and the black - bellied bustards , are widespread in africa ; the former has become much localized in many areas as a result of man\u2019s activities . the bustards are a homogeneous family , although there are differences in structure , color , size and behavior which cloud the relationships between species . more\nthe displaying great bustard selects an elevated site and then inflates his gular sac and raises his tail , exposing white undertail - coverts . the inner secondaries are then twisted over and fanned so that , at the height of his splendid performance , having apparently turned himself inside out , the gleam of white plumage is visible several miles away . the kori bustard ( ardeotis kori ) grossly inflates his neck plumage , cocks his tail , and emits a low booming call . many smaller bustards , particularly those that inhabit taller vegetation , incorporate vertical display leaps or short flights into courtship behavior so that they are visible from a distance .\nit is unlikely that any bustard species is entirely sedentary , and many are clearly nomadic or migratory . those that breed in asia undertake long distance migrations to escape harsh winters . the lesser florican ( sypheotides indica ) performs regular migrations in response to rainfall in india , and the same is true of several african species .\nlesser florican ( sypheotides indica ) is a large bird in the bustard family . it breeds in pakistan , and is a rare summer visitor in nepal . it has a very small , declining population , primarily a result of loss and degradation of its grassland habitat . in their breeding display , the male jumps into the air above the grass level .\nnorth african portion of the palearctic region . within africa , there are two distinct centers of speciation . one is in east africa , between the horn and the nile , the other is in southern africa south of the zambezi . of four species with chiefly palearctic distributions , two are widespread in europe and asia , with portions of their ranges in north africa . one is entirely north african ; another is almost entirely asian , extending from egypt and the middle east to china ( these two forms , the houbara bustard chlamydotis undulata and macqueen ' s bustard c . macqueenii , are often treated as conspecific ) . three more species are oriental ( all centered on the indian subcontinent , one with an outlying population in indochina ) , and one species is australasian , occurring in australia and southern new guinea .\nbeing frequently recorded along the same transects in 1971 and 1973 ( thiollay 2006 ) . bustards can be inconspicuous , which , coupled with the focus of these surveys on raptors , means that some birds were probably missed , and local hunters reported that bustard species were still extant in the surveyed areas ; however , the difference between the survey results from the early 1970s and 2004 most likely indicates dramatic declines in this species ( thiollay 2006 ) . several hundred kilometres of vehicle - based transects have been conducted recently in mauritania in search of\nbustards combine stout bodies carried horizontally with long legs and necks , the latter supporting flat - crowned heads and short , straight bills . as a result of an exclusively terrestrial lifestyle , they have no hind toe . they tend to escape danger by flying , and consequently their feet are relatively small , and their wings are large and strong . mature male otis and ardeotis bustards regularly reach over 3 . 3 ft ( 1 m ) in height , and as some approach 44 lb ( 20 kg ) , they are among the heaviest of flying birds . in these genera , females tend to be twothirds the height and one - third the weight of their respective males . in smaller bustard species , the difference in size between the sexes is less pronounced .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncramp , s . and simmons , k . e . l . ( eds ) . 1977 - 1994 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford university press , oxford .\nmale 70 cm , female 50 cm . upperparts tawny buff , with faint vermiculations . male has a grey neck with paler head . striking black chin , throat and crown sides bordering a tawny cap . whitish below . female is smaller with less black on the chin and throat .\nmahood , s . , o ' brien , a . , pilgrim , j . , robertson , p . , taylor , j . , symes , a . & westrip , j .\nthis species is classified as near threatened because it is suspected to be undergoing a moderately rapid population decline owing to intense hunting in parts of its range , in combination with other factors . however , if further information shows that the decline is rapid , the species would warrant uplisting to vulnerable .\nhas a disjunct range across the sahelian and , marginally , saharan zones of africa . the western subspecies\nthere are few data on population trends , but levels of hunting pressure indicate that it is probably declining at a moderately rapid rate .\nthere is little information on the current status of this species or its population trends . however , it apparently suffers from widespread hunting , which may now be causing substantial declines in parts of its range ( urban\n. 1996 , thiollay 2006 ) . civil war in chad in the 1980s , and recent unrest in sudan , is likely to have increased local hunting pressure because of the number of weapons available . other threats to\nmay include the intensification of land use , disturbance by off - road vehicles , overgrazing , disturbance by livestock , firewood collection and commercial wood collection ( j . brouwer\nwoodlands , as well as the overgrazing of sub - desert steppes and excessive harvesting of firewood , which are followed by wind erosion and sand encroachment ( thiollay 2006 ) . protected areas in the region where this species occurs may be under threat from oil exploration ( meynier 2009 , van vliet and magrin 2012 ) .\nregularly monitor the species at selected sites across its range to determine trends . research the extent and nature of the threat caused by hunting . if sensible and feasible , regulate hunting . ensure complete protection of important populations of both subspecies .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : neotis nuba . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nmay be closely related to n . heuglinii . proposed race agaze ( mauritania e to chad ) supposedly paler and smaller , but further examination required to confirm that differences are not clinal or individual . monotypic .\nsahel zone from w mauritania to e sudan ; distribution probably continuous , or at least with interbreeding populations , even though species very patchily recorded .\nmale 70 cm , 5400 g ; female 50 cm , no data on weight . upperparts pale tawny buff , lightly vermiculated with black , tail similar but washed grey ; crown as back , bordered by . . .\narid and semi - arid scrub and savanna on desert fringes , penetrating further n into sahara than . . .\ninvertebrates and vegetable matter : orthoptera , coleoptera , hymenoptera , etc . ; leaves and berries of desert plants , grass seeds and\njul\u2013oct ; the finding of 3 nests in one day in aug suggests synchronized response to suitable conditions ( as well as degree of local . . .\nsedentary and almost certainly nomadic ; in mauritania , tends to move s in winter , returning n with . . .\nnot globally threatened . currently considered near threatened . cites ii . suspected to be undergoing moderately rapid population decline owing to intense hunting in parts . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nif you have videos , photographs or sound recordings you can share them on the internet bird collection . it ' s free and easy to do .\nsometimes merged into otis ; more recently , molecular evidence suggests that it belongs with ardeotis # r # r , but situation still not fully resolved and for the present neotis retained .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\noccupies desert scrub and ephemeral grassland fringes , semi - arid acacia scrub across the sahelo - saharan region of north africa . will penetrate saharan mountain ranges where suitable sandy wadi habitat occurs .\nsuffers from widespread hunting ( mostly related to falconry activities ) , civil wars , intensification of land use , disturbance by off - road vehicles , overgrazing , disturbance by livestock , firewood collection and commercial wood collection all of which may now be causing substantial declines in parts of its range .\ncites appendix ii . iucn red data list ( 2010 ) : near threatened . suspected to be undergoing a moderately rapid population decline owing to intense hunting in parts of its range , in combination with other factors . however , if further information shows that the decline is rapid , the species would warrant uplisting to vulnerable .\nbirdlife international 2008 . neotis nuba . in : iucn 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2010 . 4 . urltoken downloaded on 31 march 2011 .\ndel hoyo , j . , elliot , a . & sargatal , j . eds 1996 . handbook of the birds of the world . vol . 3 . hoatzin to auks . lynx edicions , barcelona .\njensen , f . , christensen , k . and petersen , b . 2008 . the avifauna of southeast niger . malimbus 30 ( 1 ) : 30 - 54 .\njohnsgard , paul a . 1991 . bustards , hemipodes , and sandgrouse , birds of dry places . oxford university press .\nthiollay , jean - marc . 2006 . severe decline of large birds in the northern sahel of west africa : a long term assessment . bird conservation international 16 : 353 - 365 .\nurban , e . k . , fry , c . h . & keith , s . 1986 . the birds of africa , vol . 2 . london : academic press .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 312 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nclassification from integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) selected by c . michael hogan - see more .\nkari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name\nsaharantrappi\nfrom\nneotis nuba ( cretzschmar , 1826 )\nas trusted .\nc . michael hogan marked the classification from\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis )\nas preferred for\nneotis nuba ( cretzschmar , 1826 )\n.\nc . michael hogan marked\nhabitat and ecology\nas unreviewed on the\nneotis nuba ( cretzschmar , 1826 )\npage .\nc . michael hogan marked\nhabitat and ecology\nas hidden on the\nneotis nuba ( cretzschmar , 1826 )\npage .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nzoonomen - zoological nomenclature resource , 2006 . 07 . 04 , website ( version 04 - jul - 06 )\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public ' - / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en ' ' urltoken '\nif you would like to support the work of the sahara conservation fund , please click on image above or contact us for more information .\nthe sahara conservation fund provides some amazing videos of saharan wildlife , desert habitats , and the people that inhabit this little known part of our planet .\ndiscover the beauty of the desert and its diverse plants and animals , all so uniquely adapted to survive against the daily challenges of extreme heat and drought .\nuse this space to describe your geocache location , container , and how it ' s hidden to your reviewer . if you ' ve made changes , tell the reviewer what changes you made . the more they know , the easier it is for them to publish your geocache . this note will not be visible to the public when your geocache is published .\nplease note use of urltoken services is subject to the terms and conditions in our disclaimer .\ncaches placed in the longmeadow flats conservation area and the fannie stebbins memorial wildlife refuge .\nplease replace as found and use stealth when retrieving and replacing . dogs are allowed but must be leashed . byop\n\u00a9 2000 - 2018 groundspeak , inc . all rights reserved . groundspeak terms of use | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nbustards are large terrestrial birds that are found in dry open country and steppes in the old world ( includes europe , asia , and africa ) .\nbustards have strong legs and big toes . they have long broad wings with\nfingered\nwingtips .\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please send us an e - mail . thank you !\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\ndescription location and general description this ecoregion extends across northern africa and covers parts of western sahara , mauritania , morocco , algeria , tunisia , libya , and egypt . it is generally found inland of the coast , but stretches to the shore in areas where there is low rainfall . in morocco , algeria and tunisia , this ecoregion forms a transition between the mediterranean domain towards the north and the true desert in the south . the saharan halophytics ecoregion is also found scattered through this ecoregion in areas of suitable saline conditions .\nwater is a serious constraint in this ecoregion . in the northern sahara , the climate is hot and dry in the summer , and cooler with rain in the winter . rains come from the mediterranean and are associated with powerful depressions , which sometimes reach half - way across the sahara . these occur mostly from october to april . average annual rainfall varies from 50 mm in the south to 100 mm in the north , although there may be years where there is no rain at all ( especially in the southern parts of the ecoregion ) . the highest temperature ranges between 40 and 45\u00b0c , creating evaporation that far exceeds the amount that falls as rain .\nthe extreme climate and varied geomorphologic conditions have assisted , nevertheless , to develop a significant diversity of landscapes and habitats adapted to drought . the ecoregion contains a number of geomorphologic features with different origins :\nhuman populations are concentrated around water sources in oases that are characterized by particular models of water use ( as foggaras ) , and palm agriculture ( 940 varieties have been listed in algeria ) . livestock is complementary to agriculture ( e . g . camels , sheep\ndaman race\n, and goats ) . over recent decades the population has expanded greatly in the area . now , some of the oases support moderate sized towns that are involved with oil exploration and production . these areas may also support tourist industries .\ncurrent status the habitat is largely intact in drier areas , but can be quite badly degraded close to the coast or where there is higher rainfall and more grazing animals . however , the ecoregion is extensive , with habitat in good condition over vast areas .\nthe ecoregion is poorly protected officially , with one protected area in mauritania ( iriki permanent hunting reserve , 100 km2 ) . one other area in algeria ( taghit ) is proposed to be classified as a nature reserve , but the area is not yet delineated . there are also two national parks in tunisia : jebil national park created in 1993 ( 1 , 500 km2 ) and the sidi toui national park created in 1993 ( 63 km2 ) ( chaieb and boukhris 1998 ) .\nrecently undp / gef approved a 3 - year project on\nnature resources management in semi - arid and arid zones .\none of the proposed sites in this project is taghit in algeria . the project will be implemented by a network of 26 ngos ( comit\u00e9 national des ongs alg\u00e9riennes - cnoa ) belonging to the riod ( international ngos network to combat desertification ) . the main project objectives are to develop a management plan for nature resources , legally gazette the nature reserve , and build capacity of grass - roots organizations in co - management of the reserve through training and pilot demonstration activities .\ntypes and severity of threats in general , the drier parts of this ecoregion are not threatened by human activities . threats are concentrated in areas with more rainfall , or around water sources , where the local pressure on resources can be intense . overgrazing by livestock is a serious problem that has resulted in severe environmental degradation in many areas . the cutting of woody vegetation for fire - wood is also a problem .\nwater pollution is also major threat in this ecoregion , as many cities have been developed in this part of the desert . development of tourism ( mostly in tunisia ) also poses a threat to water systems .\njustification of ecoregion delineation this ecoregion is delineated from white ' s ( 1983 ) \u2018regs , hamadas and wadis\u2019 and \u2018desert dunes with perennial vegetation\u2019 units north and west of the sahara desert . although these vegetation types surround the sahara desert , the northern habitats were delineated as a distinct ecoregion from the southern unit due to different rainfall regimes and the presence of mediterranean plant and vertebrate species .\nreferences chaieb , m . and m . boukhris . 1998 . parcs nationaux de la tunisie aride et saharienne . in flore succinte et illustr\u00e9e des zones arides et sahariennes de tunisie . edition l\u2019or du temps . pages 242 - 249 .\nkingdon , j . 1997 . the kingdon field guide to african mammals . academic press . london , uk .\nle hou\u00e9rou , h . n . 1990 . recherches \u00e9coclimatique et biog\u00e9ographique sur les zones arides de l\u2019afrique du nord . cepe / cnrs , montpellier , 600pp .\nle hou\u00e9rou , h . n . 1991 . outline of a biological history of the sahara . pp . 146 - 174 . in . mcneely , j . a . , and v . m . neronov , editors . mammals in the palaearctic desert : status and trends in the sahara - gobian region . the russian acedemy of sciences , and the russian committee for the unesco programme on man and the biosphere ( mab ) .\nqu\u00e9zel , p . , 1965 . la v\u00e9g\u00e9tation du sahara , du tchad \u00e0 la mauritanie . fisher verlag , stuttgart .\nzahoran , m . a . and a . j . willis . 1992 . the vegetation of egypt . chapman and hall , london\nwhite , f . 1983 . the vegetation of africa : a descriptive memoir to accompany the unesco / aetfat / unso vegetation map of africa . unesco , paris , france .\nworld wildlife fund 1250 24th street , n . w . washington , dc 20037\ntaxonomic source ( s ) aerc tac . 2003 . aerc tac checklist of bird taxa occurring in western palearctic region , 15th draft . available at : urltoken _ the _ wp15 . xls # . aerc tac . 2003 . aerc tac checklist of bird taxa occurring in western palearctic region , 15th draft . available at : urltoken _ the _ wp15 . xls # . cramp , s . and perrins , c . m . 1977 - 1994 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford university press , oxford . cramp , s . ; perrins , c . m . 1977 - 1994 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford university press , oxford . del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk . del hoyo , j . ; collar , n . j . ; christie , d . a . ; elliott , a . ; fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . barcelona , spain and cambridge uk : lynx edicions and birdlife international .\ntrend justification : there are few data on population trends , but levels of hunting pressure indicate that it is probably declining at a moderately rapid rate .\nbustards are linked ancestrally to cranes and their relatives ( gruiformes ) . genetic studies place them in their own suborder , otidides , whose divergence from the gruides is estimated at 70 million years ago . although conspicuous courtship displays imply a link with cranes , the evolutionary isolation of bustards finds manifestation in various morphological anomalies . these include the absence of a hind toe and preen gland , hexagonal rather than transverse tarsal scutellation , and unique dense powder - down .\ntaxonomic relationships within the family are contested . the large bustards are grouped in otis , neotis , and ardeotis , and these are possibly related to the smaller chlamydotis and tetrax . diminutive tetrax , long combined with the far larger otis by taxonomists , might be related to sypheotides , to which it more closely equates in terms of size , flight - feather modification , and display . some recent appraisals combine 14 relatively small species within the genus eupodotis , but an alternative treatment retains only five species in this grouping , separating the remainder into afrotis , lissotis , lophotis , houbaropsis , and sypheotides .\nbustards are omnivorous and opportunistic . most species have a diet predominately of vegetable matter . they eat fresh shoots , flowers , and leaves of herbaceous plants ; excavate for soft roots and bulbs ; and take fruit and seeds when available . in cultivated areas they consume a variety of crops . insects are also an important food , at least seasonally . the timing of breeding tends to synchronize chick emergence with maximum insect abundance . although beetles and grasshoppers are the main invertebrate prey items , many other arthropods\nare taken if available . bustards also consume small vertebrates such as reptiles and rodents , particularly those killed or injured in bush fires or traffic . bustards can thrive without water for long periods , but drink freely when water is available .\nthe breeding season tends to coincide with periods of high rainfall . at its outset , males of many species perform magnificent displays , often from traditionally favored locations . in general , pair bonds between male and female bustards appear to be absent , as females visit displaying males and then leave to incubate the eggs and raise the chicks alone . sexual maturation is slowest and sexual dimorphism most pronounced in species with dispersed leks or solitary territorial males : males take up to six years to reach full size and possess plumage ornamentation absent in females .\nalthough small numbers of each of these species breed and survive within protected areas , their future hangs in the balance . in general , bustards are at greater risk than many animals because populations in all but the very largest reserves are not viable . low population densities , and their nomadic or migratory lifestyles , mean that current protected area networks do not comfortably meet their needs .\nmale : 41 in ( 105 cm ) , 13\u201340 lb ( 5 . 8\u201318 kg ) ; female : 30 in ( 75 cm ) , 7\u201312 lb ( 3 . 3\u20135 . 3 kg ) . back and tail barred black and gold ; white underneath . female and nonbreeding male head and neck are pale blue - gray ; breeding male has white and russet on neck and whitish chin barbs .\no . t . tarda : northern morocco and iberia , germany , hungary , southern ukraine ; also breeds turkey , western iran , and southwestern russia , through kazakhstan to kyrgyzstan , wintering from southern turkey and syria through southern azerbaijan and northern iran to uzbekistan and tadjikistan ; o . t . dybowski : southeastern russia , mongolia , and northern china .\nlevel or gently undulating open short - grass plains , generally favoring undisturbed areas .\nusually lives in nonterritorial sex - segregated groups , these sometimes large in winter . in breeding season dominant males display spectacularly on dispersed leks . migratory in part of range .\ntwo to three eggs laid in bare scrape , where incubated by female for about 25 days ; fledging period 30\u201335 days . first breeding occurs at 5\u20136 years in males and 2\u20133 years in females .\nvulnerable . populations have declined and fragmented . main threats are agricultural intensification , disturbance , pesticide use , and hunting .\nappears in european heraldic imagery and insignia ; now the figurehead of a major grassland conservation program in iberia .\nmale : 47 in ( 120 cm ) , 18\u201332 lb ( 8\u201314 . 5 kg ) ; female : 35 in ( 90 cm ) , 7 . 8\u201315 lb ( 3 . 5\u20136 . 75 kg ) . extensive black crown ; head , neck , and breast white with fine dark gray barring and indistinct black breast band . back and wings brown with fine dark vermiculations . black panel on wing spotted with white .\nsolitary or in small groups . males display on well - separated territories in the breeding season ; no pair bonds .\nconsumes grains , shoots , and berries in season , as well as arthropods , small reptiles , and mammals .\none egg ( sometimes two ) incubated for about 27 days in bare scrape by female only ; fledging period 35\u201340 days .\nendangered . probably fewer than 1 , 000 birds survive . irrigation of semideserts , agricultural intensification , disturbance , and hunting continue to press this species toward extinction .\nsymbol of the bombay natural history society , india ' s largest wildlife and conservation organization .\nmale : 25 . 5\u201329 . 5 in ( 65\u201375 cm ) , 4\u20137 lb ( 1 . 8\u20133 . 2 kg ) ; female : 21 . 5\u201325 . 5 in ( 55\u201365 cm ) , 2 . 7\u20133 . 8 lb ( 1 . 2\u20131 . 7 kg ) . buff crown\nwith white erectile feathers along center . pale grayish buff head and neck with black erectile plumes down side of neck to breast . back pale sandy buff , mottled and lined with darker brown . female has reduced neck plumes , otherwise similar .\nc . u . fuertaventurae : eastern canary islands ; c . u . undulata : morocco to north central egypt ( not eastern nile valley or sinai ) .\narid semidesert with tussock grass , sandy grassland , and stony plains with scattered low shrubs ; regularly on cultivation in nonbreeding season .\nessentially solitary and nonmigratory ( but locally nomadic ) . males display in breeding season ; no pair bonds .\nmain breeding season march and april . clutch usually 2\u20133 eggs , laid in bare scrape and incubated for 24\u201328 days by female ; fledging period about 35 days .\nexpanded species ( including macqueenii ) considered near threatened . although undulata is less severely hunted than its asiatic cousin , numbers are probably much lower overall , and hunting pressure increasing . population of race fuertaventurae : about 700 individuals .\notis caerulescens vieillot , 1820 ,\nkaffraria\n= eastern cape province . monotypic .\nenglish : blue korhaan ; french : outarde plomb\u00e9e ; german : blautrappe ; spanish : sis\u00f3n azulado .\n21 . 5 in ( 55 cm ) ; 2 . 5\u20133 . 5 lb ( 1 . 1\u20131 . 6 kg ) . blue - gray neck and underparts .\nhigh rolling grasslands and croplands , usually above 4 , 900 ft ( 1 , 500 m ) .\npairs or small groups of up to six appear to be sedentary and group territorial , the young staying with adults for up to two years .\nplant matter , invertebrates , and small reptiles . visits recently burned grasslands and plowed fields .\nmain breeding period october\u2013november , 1\u20133 eggs laid on bare scrape in grassland , incubated for 24\u201328 days . mature offspring from last brood probably cooperate in breeding attempts .\nnear threatened . declining in some areas through agricultural intensification , but population is thought to exceed 10 , 000 individuals .\notis afra\u00efdes a . smith , 1831 , flats near orange river . three subspecies .\nenglish : white - quilled korhaan ; french : outarde \u00e0 miroir blanc ; german : wei\u00dffl\u00fcgeltrappe ; spanish : sis\u00f3n negro aliclaro .\n19 . 7 in ( 50 cm ) ; 1 . 5 lb ( 0 . 7 kg ) . black neck and underparts , with gold and brown barred spot on crown , white collar behind neck , and white ear - coverts . wings and back barred dark brown on whitish ; white on primaries is conspicuous in flight .\na . a . etoschae : northwestern namibia and northern botswana ; a . a . damarensis : namibia and central botswana ; a . a . afraoides : southeastern botswana through northern and northeastern south africa to lesotho .\nflat grassland with sward of 19 . 7\u201339 . 4 in ( 50\u2013100 cm ) , semi - desert scrub , grassy dunes , and arid savanna . tolerates heavily grazed areas .\ngenerally solitary ; males display on territories using stylized flights accompanied by loud calling .\nvariety of plant and animal material , including insects , seeds , flowers , and leaves .\nbreeds almost throughout year , but mainly september to march . lays one , sometimes two , eggs on bare ground . incubation period 19\u201321 days in captivity .\notis bengalensis gmelin , 1789 , bengal . sometimes merged with eupodotis . two subspecies .\nfrench : outarde du bengale ; german : barttrappe ; spanish : sis\u00f3n bengali .\nmale : 25 in ( 64 cm ) , 2 . 8\u20133 . 8 lb ( 1 . 25\u20131 . 7 kg ) ; female : 27 in ( 68 cm ) , 3 . 8\u20135 lb ( 1 . 7\u20132 . 25 kg ) . back and tail buffy brown , vermiculated with black pattern . male has head , neck , and underparts black . female has buffy head and underparts .\nh . b . bengalensis : along border of southern nepal and india , east to lowlands of assam ; h . b . blandini : central and southern cambodia , southern vietnam .\nflat grasslands , often with scattered shrubs , or in recently burned patches . visits cultivation .\nboth races dispersive , b . blandini probably with regular short distance migration . on breeding grounds , males make display flights from traditional sites .\none to two eggs laid in march to june ( india ) on bare scrape where incubated for 25\u201328 days . no pair bond ; female responsible for all incubation and chick rearing .\nendangered . total population thought to be around 500 individuals in india / nepal , but unquantified indochinese population possibly contains several thousand birds . conversion of grasslands and heavy hunting in some areas are the main threats .\n17 in ( 43 cm ) ; male : 1 . 7\u20132 . 2 lb ( 0 . 8\u20131 kg ) ; female : 1 . 5\u20132 lb ( 0 . 7\u20130 . 95 g ) . upperparts buffy brown , lightly vermiculated with black ; tail white mottled with three bars . breeding male has blue - gray face , black neck and breast , with white v at foreneck and white band across breast , and white undersides . female has buff face , neck , and breast , with streaking and barring on breast . nonbreeding male is similar to female .\nwestern mediterranean basin , turkey , ukraine , and southwestern russia through kazakhstan and kyrgyzstan , extreme northwestern china and extreme northern iran . eastern populations winter to iran , azerbaijan , and afghanistan .\nflat or rolling short - grass plains , stony semideserts , pasture , and fallow land .\nhighly gregarious in mixed - sex groups outside breeding season . males give crepuscular jumping display in breeding season .\ninvertebrates and plant material , the former predominate in summer , the latter in winter .\ntwo to six eggs laid february to june in bare scrape , usually in grassy cover ; incubated by female 20\u201322 days , remaining with her until first autumn .\nnear threatened . although over 100 , 000 individuals probably survive , there has been a massive decline almost throughout its range , particularly in the east where habitat modification continues , and hunting is not controlled .\nbirdlife international . threatened birds of asia . barcelona : lynx edicions , 2001 .\ncollar , n . j .\nfamily otididae ( bustards ) .\nin handbook of birds of the world . vol . 3 , edited by del hoyo , j . , a . elliott , and j . sargatal . barcelona : lynx edicions , 1996 .\ngoriup , p . d . , and h . vardhan , eds . bustards in decline . jaipur : tourism and wildlife society of india , 1983 .\njohnsgard , p . a . bustards , hemipodes and sandgrouse : birds of dry places . oxford : oxford university press , 1991 .\nallan , d . g .\nthe world ' s bustards : a looming crisis .\nquagga 24 ( 1988 ) : 5\u20139 .\njohnsgard , p . a .\nbustards : stalkers of the dry plains .\nzoonooz 63 , no . 7 ( 1990 ) : 4\u201311 .\nwightman , j .\nbustards ( behavior , display , reproduction , habitat ) .\nanimals 11 ( 1968 ) : 341\u2013343 .\nbustards ( otididae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nbustards ( otididae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\nignore this text box . it is used to detect spammers . if you enter anything into this text box , your message will not be sent .\ninstitute of laboratory animal resources ( u . s . ) subcommittee on avian standards\nthe development of the tegmentum vasculosum in the cochlea of the bob - white quail , colinus virginianus l . . . .\nwashington , d . c . : catholic university of america press , 1941 .\n[ washington , d . c . ] : published by the committee representing the quail study fund for southern georgia and northern florida . . . in cooperation with the u . s . biological survey , 1925 .\n[ sacramento ? ] : state of california , division of fish and game , 1930 .\nquail disease in the united states [ print ] : ( a preliminary report . )\nwashington , d . c . : united states government printing office , 1941 .\nthe bobwhite quail , one of the most popular and widely distributed of game birds , can be successfully raised in captivity for restocking depleted coverts . this bulletin gives the essential principles involved in its feeding and management .\n2nd ed . - sacramento , calif . ( 1416 9th st . , sacramento , 95814 ) : the dept . , [ 1993 ]\nsacramento , calif . ( 1416 9th st . , box 944209 , sacramento , 94244 - 2090 ) : the dept . , 1988 .\noxford [ eng . ] ; new york : oxford university press , 1988 .\nxix , 264 , [ 64 ] p . of plates : ill . ( some col . ) ; 29 cm .\ncomparative biology : taxonomy , phylogeny , and zoogeography - - reproductive biology - - ecology and population dynamics - - ontogeny of plumages and behaviour - - adult vocalizations and non - vocal behaviour - - species accounts : subfamily odontophorinae - - dendrortyx - - philortyx - - oreortyx - - callipepla - - colinus - - odontophorus - - dactylortyx - - cyrtonyx - - rhynchortyx - - tribe perdicini - - lerwa - - tetraophasis - - tetraogallus - - alectoris - - ammoperdix - - francolinus - - perdix - - rhizothera - - margaroperdix - - melanoperdix - - coturnix - - anurophasis - - perdicula - - ophrysia - - arborophila - - caloperdix - - haematortyx - - rollulus - - ptilopachus - - bambusicola - - galloperdix - - bibliography - - index .\nthis companion volume to the author ' s pheasants of the world describes three times as many species . 127 colour plates - mostly by henry jones - illustrate all of the species in the group . the descriptions cover biology , ecology , development , behaviour , taxonomy , and zoogeographic aspects . readership : ornithologists , aviculturists , sportsmen ( hunting quail / partridge ) , ecologists , conservationists .\n[ washington , d . c . ] : published by the committee representing the quail study fund for southern georgia and northern florida , 1926 .\n62 p . , 5 leaves of plates : ill . ; 23 cm .\n[ fort collins , colo . ] : usda forest service , rocky mountain forest and range experiment station , [ 1981 ]\nsacramento : california state print . office , g . h . moore , state printer , 1936 .\nthis page lists books that are totally or partially about bustards . the books are listed in order of publication date with the most recent at the top .\nback from the brink is an antidote to a world that seems full of stories of wildlife doom and gloom . amongst all the loss of habitat and the animals and plants that are in spiralling decline , it ' s easy to forget that there are a huge number of positive stories too ; animals threatened with extinction , such as the gigantic european bison - extinct in the wild - having their fortunes reversed and their futures secured . this is the story of some of these successes ."]}
{"id": 2201, "summary": [{"text": "mylochromis gracilis , known as the happy or the haplochromis torpedo stripe ( in aquarium trade ) , is a species of cichlid endemic to lake malawi where it is only known from sandy areas in the southern end of the lake .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this species can reach a length of 22 centimetres ( 8.7 in ) tl . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "mylochromis gracilis", "paragraphs": ["a male of mylochromis gracilis from senga bay , lake malawi [ malawi ] . photo by ad konings . determiner ad konings\nconservation : mylochromis gracilis is evaluated by the international union for the conservation of nature in the iucn red list of threatened species as ( lc ) least concern ( 2006 ) .\nmylochromis gracilis fatal error : call to undefined function session _ is _ registered ( ) in / var / www / vhosts / malawimayhem . com / httpdocs / profile _ show2 . php on line 48\nthis species previously appeared on the iucn red list in the genus sciaenochromis eccles & trewavas , 1989 but is now valid in the genus mylochromis regan , 1920 .\nthis species previously appeared on the iucn red list in the genus sciaenochromis eccles & trewavas , 1989 but is now valid in the genus mylochromis regan , 1920 . an amended assessment has been produced to reflect this taxonomic change .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . , fricke , r . and van der laan , r . ( eds ) . 2017 . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . updated 30 june 2017 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 30 june 2017 ) .\nsnoeks , j . ( freshwater fish red list authority ) & darwall , w . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment programme )\njustification : endemic to lake malawi where it is widespread throughout the southern part of the lake with no known major widespread threats .\nendemic to lake malawi where it is only known from the southern part of the lake .\nobserved over sandy habitats where it feeds on small fishes and invertebrates . known as\nhaplochromis torpedo stripe\nin the aquarium trade . max . size : 22 cm tl .\n( amended version of 2006 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t60968a117850179 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngreek , mylo = mill + greek , chromis = a fish without identification , perhaps a perch ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; demersal ; ph range : 7 . 5 - 8 . 3 ; dh range : 5 - 30 . tropical ; 24\u00b0c - 26\u00b0c ( ref . 13614 ) ; 12\u00b0s - 15\u00b0s\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 22 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5595 )\nhas been observed over sand . preys on small fish , mainly cichlids , and on invertebrates collected from the sand ( ref . 5595 ) .\nmar\u00e9chal , c . , 1991 . sciaenochromis . p . 440 - 441 . in j . daget , j . - p . gosse , g . g . teugels and d . f . e . thys van den audenaerde ( eds . ) check - list of the freshwater fishes of africa ( cloffa ) . isnb , brussels ; mrac , tervuren ; and orstom , paris . vol . 4 . ( ref . 5692 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01514 ( 0 . 00700 - 0 . 03275 ) , b = 2 . 97 ( 2 . 80 - 3 . 14 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 \u00b10 . 61 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 24 of 100 ) .\nnew fish have been released . . . . and where will all my new fish go ? a clue near the end\nhas been observed over sand . preys on small fish , mainly cichlids , and on invertebrates collected from the sand ( ref . 5595 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\ndesigned for internet explorer 6 . 0 + , netscape 6 . 0 + , opera , mozilla , and safari use sitemap if you have any problems viewing the new drop - down menus .\nspecies profiles presents in depth studies , articles , and information surrounding the numerous species of lake malawi cichlids .\npam chin has been replying to cichlid questions for over twenty years . highly respected and experienced aquarist , pam has visited cichlid habitats around the world , and bred in her ' s and her husband gary fish house hundreds of cichlid species . besides her job , she still devotes time to help any person with a cichlid question !\narticles for sale beautifully formatted and wonderfully illustrated pdf articles about all matters relative to cichlids .\nbooks for sale cichlid books and dvds for sale at the cichlid room companion .\ne - books for sale pdf copies of popular cichlid books offered for sale at the best price .\ntrade section the master list of cichlid offers ordered by area and species name .\ntrewavas , ethelwynn . 1935 .\na synopsis of the cichlid fishes of lake nyasa\n. annals and magazine of natural history . series 10 ; pp . 65 - 118 ( crc00118 )\nto view the full profile . see this and all other species profiles , pictures and videos by becoming a\nof the cichlid room companion . become a subscriber and get a free book the same value of your membership ! you can also open the full profile for everyone to see by\nsometimes taxonomists create new names for groups that already have a name . they may do this because they are unaware of the original name , or they may think the organism before them belongs to a different group when in fact it does not . if two or more names are found to apply to the same group , they are considered synonyms . in most cases , the first name takes priority and is considered to be the valid or accepted name . however , there can be exceptions , and it ' s not always easy to determine which of a series of synonyms should be considered valid or accepted . here we list the synonyms provided to eol by our classification partners . we also include other versions of the name that most likely refer to the same group , for example , misspellings in the literature or different variations of the authorship associated with the name .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 2219, "summary": [{"text": "mesoheros is a genus of cichlids .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is found in colombia , ecuador , and peru ; atrato river flowing into the atlantic , san juan , baud\u00f3 and patia rivers to esmeraldas and tumbes rivers flowingo into the pacific . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "mesoheros", "paragraphs": ["ornate cichlid ( mesoheros ornatus ) , 14 \u00d7 . . . - scalz nature artist | facebook\ni am listing them here although they are technically from sa , because they are more like ca cichlids . there is also the mayan cichlid which really is from ca , and it is very similar in appearance to the true red terror , mesoheros festae is anyone familiar with the other relatives of the red terror ? mesoheros atromaculatus mesoheros gephyrus any information on them will be greatly appreciated\nmesoheros is a new genus containing three formerly cichlasoma species , now named as m . festae , m . ornatus and m . atromaculatus .\nconservation : mesoheros gephyrus is evaluated by the international union for the conservation of nature in the iucn red list of threatened species as ( en ) endangered ( 2016 ) .\nmesoheros gephyrus subadult from the rio san juan [ colombia ] in the aquarium of mark smith [ usa ] . photo by mark smith . ( 11 - mar - 2010 ) .\necology : mesoheros festae is known in ecuador as the \u201cvieja roja\u201d . it is a large , ecologically important omnivorous fish that feeds on fishes and crustaceans ( laaz et al . , 2009 ) .\nglodek ( 1978 ) indicates that c . festae can be distinguished from mesoheros ornatus in its lateral line scale count , with c . festae having 26 - 27 scales in the median series and m . ornatus having 30 - 32 scales . however , eigenmann ( 1922 ) lists c . festae as having 30 scales in a median series .\nthere are four species in the genus mesoheros , but they ' re not\nred terror types\n. the red terror is m . festae . m . atromaculatus m . festae m . gephyrus m . ornatus if you ' re familiar with festae and the mayaheros group ( urophthalmus ) you ' ll see they ' re not really similar at all .\nfreshwater ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 7 . 0 - ? ; dh range : ? - 15 . tropical ; 26\u00b0c - 28\u00b0c ( ref . 2060 )\nsouth america : pacific drainages from the esmeraldas river in ecuador to tumbes river in peru .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 25 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 36377 )\nin various biotopes , from small to medium - sized rivers . occasionally found in fish markets . feeds on benthic organisms such as small shrimps ( ref . 40602 ) .\nkullander , s . o . , 2003 . cichlidae ( cichlids ) . p . 605 - 654 . in r . e . reis , s . o . kullander and c . j . ferraris , jr . ( eds . ) checklist of the freshwater fishes of south and central america . porto alegre : edipucrs , brasil . ( ref . 36377 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5625 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01514 ( 0 . 00703 - 0 . 03260 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 86 - 3 . 22 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 \u00b10 . 59 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 25 of 100 ) .\nleft : specimen collected at abras de mantequilla . right : preserved specimen from esmeraldas drainage .\nsource for occurrence in ecuador : this species is common along the pacific slope of ecuador from esmeraldas to huaquillas . there are many references for its occurrence in the area ( e . g . , eigenmann , 1922 ; ovchynnyk , 1971 ; barnhill et al . , 1974 ; glodek , 1978 ; barriga , 1991 ; florencio , 1993 ; lopez et al , 1993 ; kullander , 2003 ; laaz et al . , 2009 ; alvarado , 2009 ; laaz & torres , 2010 ) .\noriginal description : boulenger , g . a . 1899 . viaggio del dr . enrico festa nell ' ecuador e regioni vicine . poissons de l ' \u00e9quateur . [ deuxi\u00e8me partie ] ( 1 ) . bollettino dei musei di zoologia ed anatomia comparata della r . universit\u00e0 di torino 14 ( no . 335 ) : 1 - 8 .\nrange ecuador : pacific slope of ecuador from esmeraldas to huaquillas ( kullander , 2003 ) , although glodek ( 1978 ) indicates that this species only occurs in the guayas river drainage .\nrange outside of ecuador : tumbes river , peru ( kullander , 2003 ) .\nis a cichlid and can be distinguished from most other freshwater fishes in western ecuador by its overall shape and the presence of strong , well - developed spines in its dorsal and anal fins .\nand are either solid orange or dark colored with pronounced vertical stripes along the caudal fin .\ncan also be distinguished from other cichlids in western ecuador by the presence of nine conspicuous black bands , alternating with red bars , a black spot at the base of the upper caudal lobe , continued as a bar across the base of the fin , spinous dorsal black , except just above the light spaces between the bars ; soft dorsal , caudal , and soft anal having the color of the light interspaces of the body , no spots , spinous portion of the anal and the ventrals dark ; pectorals like the caudal ( eigenmann , 1922 ) .\neconomic importance : this is an important food fish for people in rural parts of guayas and los rios provinces and is also taken as an ornamental ( laaz et al , 2009 ) .\nconservation status : na , although the species is heavily exploited as a food fish . anecdotal reports suggest that this species has been declining in abundance in recent years .\ntetracanthus nandopsis . . ( f1 bayamo cuba ) spawning from start to finish . .\npam chin has been replying to cichlid questions for over twenty years . highly respected and experienced aquarist , pam has visited cichlid habitats around the world , and bred in her ' s and her husband gary fish house hundreds of cichlid species . besides her job , she still devotes time to help any person with a cichlid question !\narticles for sale beautifully formatted and wonderfully illustrated pdf articles about all matters relative to cichlids .\nbooks for sale cichlid books and dvds for sale at the cichlid room companion .\ne - books for sale pdf copies of popular cichlid books offered for sale at the best price .\ntrade section the master list of cichlid offers ordered by area and species name .\neigenmann , carl h . 1923 .\nthe fishes of western south america , part i . the fresh - water fishes of northwestern south america , including colombia , panama , and the pacific slopes of ecuador and peru , together with an appendix upon the fishes of the rio meta in colombia\n. memoirs of the carnegie museum . vol . 9 ( n . 1 ) : pp . 1 - 346 ( crc00283 )\nburgess , warren . 2000 .\nthe cichlasoma story . herichthys , the break - up\n. tropical fish hobbyist magazine . v . 48 ( n . 11 ) ; pp . 44 - 54 ( crc01003 )\n\u0159\u00ed\u010dan , old\u0159ich & l . pi\u00e1lek , k . dragov\u00e1 & j . nov\u00e1k . 2016 .\ndiversity and evolution of the middle american cichlid fishes ( teleostei : cichlidae ) with revised classification\n. vertebrate zoology . v . 66 ( n . 1 ) , pp . 1 \u2013 102 ( crc07292 ) ( abstract )\nand r\u00edo baud\u00f3 in the atlantic , r\u00edo patia to r\u00edo esmeraldas and r\u00edo tumbes in the pacific .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 7 / 10 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nformat summary genbank genbank ( full ) fasta asn . 1 xml insdseq xml tinyseq xml feature table accession list gi list gff3\nfinds sub - sequence or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching region . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013\nthe generic allocation of this species is still uncertain . it belongs to the tribe heroini , but is maintained as an incertae sedis species of\nfreshwater ; brackish ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 5 . 5 - 7 . 5 ; dh range : ? - 3 . tropical ; 23\u00b0c - 29\u00b0c ( ref . 40602 )\nsouth america : atrato , san juan , and baud\u00f3 river basins in colombia .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 25 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12251 )\nup to 3000 eggs are deposited on open substratum , such as a flat stone . mainly the female guards eggs and young .\n? \u00ed ? an , o . , l . pi\u00e1lek , k . dragov\u00e1 and j . nov\u00e1k , 2016 . diversity and evolution of the middle american cichlid fishes ( teleostei : cichlidae ) with revised classification . verteb . zool . 66 ( 1 ) : 1 - 102 . ( ref . 114771 )\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nmiddle american cichlids have been subject to a long - overdue revision . we now have eight new genera of cichlids to learn , plus a heap of modifications to be aware of .\nthe revisions were published in ' zootaxa ' by the ichthyologist caleb mcmahon in august 2015 , and used a mixture of morphological and dna sequencing techniques to identify new classifications .\nsome herichthyin fish have now been rediagnosed , with extra genera raised . the changes include :\ntrichromis , represented by a single species , trichromis salvini ( formerly cichlasoma or ' ex ' cichlasoma salvini ) , at long last .\nthorichthys now consists of eight species : t . affinis , t . aureus , t . callolepis , t . ellioti , t . meeki , t . pasionis and t . socolofi , with t . ellioti acting as the type species ( though it is here regarded as a synonym of t . maculipinnis , so further work is still needed ) .\ntheraps has been reorganised , now containing t . godmanni , t . intermedius , t . irregularis , t . micophthalmus and t . nourisatti .\nnosferatu is a genus that was raised earlier in the year , containing n . bartoni , n . labridens , n . molango , n pantostictus , n . pratinus and n . steindachneri .\nmaskaheros incorporates fish formerly known in paraneetroplus and vieja , containing both m . argenteus and m . regani . vieja is left with eight species , containing v . bifasciata , v . breidohri , v . fenestrata , v . guttulata , v . hartwegi , v . maculicauda , v . melanura and v . zonata . paraneetroplus is reduced to three species , containing p . bulleri , p . gibbiceps , p . nebuliferus . herichthys is also reduced , now with seven species , containing h . carpintis , h . cyanoguttatus , h . deppi , h . minckleyi , h . tamasopoensis , h . tepehua and h . teporatus .\nkihnichthys is a new genus with a single species , k . ufermanni ( which has spent time in both the vieja and theraps camps ) .\ncincelichthys is also new , with two species , containing c . bocourti and c . pearsei .\noscura changes the fish that was theraps heterospilus , now becoming o . heterospila ( note the change of species name , too ) . chiapaheros is another new genus containing the singular c . grammodes . rheoheros replaces a couple of former theraps species , containing r . coeruleus and r . lentiginosus .\nand finally , tomocichla now contains two species , t . asfraci and t . tuba .\nwhy not take out a subscription to practical fishkeeping magazine ? see our latest subscription offer .\n\u00a9 1955 - 2016 bauer consumer media limited are authorised and regulated by the financial conduct authority ( firm reference no . 710067 ) media house , peterborough business park , peterborough , pe2 6ea .\nfreshwater ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 7 . 0 - ? . tropical ; 24\u00b0c - 27\u00b0c ( ref . 2059 ) , preferred ?\nsouth america : patia river basin in colombia , durango and st . javier rivers in ecuador , all draining to the pacific ocean .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 26 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 36377 )\nthe stomachs of the type material contained broken shells of snails . oviparous ( ref . 205 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ndiscussion regarding only central american cichlid species . ( guapotes , jack dempseys , red devils , firemouths , convicts , texas cichlids , etc . )"]}
{"id": 2222, "summary": [{"text": "the atlantic footballfish ( himantolophus groenlandicus ) , also known as the man-gobbler , is an anglerfish found in extreme depths of the ocean .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "despite its name , this species lives in all oceans , but is primarily found in cold and temperate regions . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "atlantic footballfish", "paragraphs": ["the atlantic footballfish , is a species of footballfish found in the depths . atlantic footballfish were found in sperm whales in azores , indicating that sperm whales may be the main predators of footballfish . like other anglerfish females are much larger than males , females are 16 times bigger than males .\nart illustration - oceans & seas - atlantic footballfish : ( himantolophus groenlandicus ) it is a deep - sea fish belonging to the family footballfish . \u2026 | pinteres\u2026\natlantic footballfish , in - game simply known as football fish , is a species of friend footballfish in abyssrium . it was added in the v . 1 . 2 . 1 as part of the halloween event .\nthe atlantic football - fish is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list .\natlantic footballfish are rarely seen . they are a sort of angler fish with a growth that comes off the head to form a fish attracting lure . this specimen was recovered from the stomach of a large swordfish . evidentally this one no longer has its lure because of being eaten and slightly digested . they are named atlantic footballfish but they actually occur world wide . the scientific name is\nhimantolophus groenlandicus\n! if i am wrong then it is a least in the genus himantolophus .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - atlantic football - fish ( himantolophus groenlandicus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - atlantic football - fish ( himantolophus groenlandicus )\ntitle =\narkive species - atlantic football - fish ( himantolophus groenlandicus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe hall\u2019s first section demonstrates that the ocean is more complex and diverse than we can easily grasp . there are translucent heteropods , small gelatinous creatures with bulbous black eyes \u2014 predators deceptively housed in lovely white nautilus - shaped shells . and there is the atlantic footballfish , a creature so grotesque with its gaping mouth and gnome\u2019s complexion that its name could come from a desire to kick it .\nsazima , i . & grossman , a . ( 2006 ) turtle riders : remoras on marine turtles in southwest atlantic . neotropical ichthyology 4 ( 1 ) : 123\u2013126 .\nwelshman , d . , s . kohler , j . black and l . van guelpen . 2003 . an atlas of distributions of canadian atlantic fishes . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nis widely distributed in the mesopelagic and bathypelagic zones of the atlantic and possibly eastern indian oceans ( pietsch in press ) . in the atlantic it ranges from west greenland and iceland to norway at 70\u00b0n , 17\u00b0e , and south to the gulf of mexico and east to cape town , south africa . specimens were caught in nets fishing between 200 - 800 m with possibly shallower catches ( pietsch 2009 ) . vakily\nscott , w . b . ; scott , m . g . ( 1988 ) . atlantic fishes of canada . canadian bulletin of fisheries and aquatic sciences . no . 219 . 731 pp . [ details ]\npotter , i . f . & howell , w . h . ( 2010 ) vertical movement and behavior of the ocean sunfish , mola mola , in the northwest atlantic . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 396 ( 2 ) : 138\u2013146 .\narronte , j . c . & pietsch , t . w . ( 2007 ) first record of himantolophus mauli ( lophiiformes : himantolophidae ) on the slope off asturias , central cantabrian sea , eastern north atlantic ocean . cybium 31 ( 1 ) : 85\u201386 .\nklepladlo , c . ; hastings , p . a . ; rosenblatt , r . h . ( 2003 ) pacific footballfish , himantolophus sagamius ( tanaka ) ( teleostei : himantolophi - dae ) , found in the surf - zone at del mar , san diego county , california , with notes on its morphology . bulletin south california academy of sciences 102 ( 3 ) : 99\u2013106 .\nis widely distributed in the atlantic and possibly indian oceans where it occurs in the meso - bathypelagic zones . it is a deep - dwelling , rarely occurring species . it may occur as bycatch in trawl fisheries , but it is not utilized and has no major threats . it is therefore listed as least concern .\nsims , d . w . ; queiroz , n . ; doyle , t . k . ; houghton , j . d . r . ; hays , g . c . ( 2009 ) satellite tracking of the world\u2019s largest bony fish , the ocean sunfish ( mola mola l . ) in the north east atlantic . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 370 : 127\u2013133 .\npietsch , t . w . ( 2003 ) himantolophidae . footballfishes ( deepsea anglerfishes ) . in : carpenter , k . e . ( ed . ) fao species identification guide for fishery purposes . the living marine resources of the western central atlantic . vol . 2 : bony fishes part 1 ( acipenseridae to grammatidae ) . food and agriculture organization of the united nations , rome . pp . 1060\u20131061 .\nthere are more than 200 species of anglerfish , most of which live in the murky depths of the atlantic and antarctic oceans , up to a mile below the surface , although some live in shallow , tropical environments . generally dark gray to dark brown in color , they have huge heads and enormous crescent - shaped mouths filled with sharp , translucent teeth . some angler fish can be quite large , reaching 3 . 3 feet in length . most however are significantly smaller , often less than a foot .\nthe very name of this pok\u00e9mon is evidence that it was inspired on mola mola , the sunfish ( fig . 21 ) . moreover , alomomola , just like the sunfish , has a circular body with no caudal fin ( pope et al . , 2010 ) . the sunfish is the largest and heaviest bony fish in the world , weighting more than 1 , 500 kg ( freesman & noakes , 2002 ; sims et al . , 2009 ) . they inhabit the atlantic and pacific oceans , feeding mainly on zooplankton ( cartamil & lowe , 2004 ; potter & howell , 2010 ) .\ngreek , himas or himantos = leather strap , thong or leash ( referring to the thick leathery illicium ) + greek , lopho or lophio = crest or tuft ( referring to the baited illicium projecting from the head ) ( ref . 86949 )\nmarine ; bathypelagic ; depth range 830 - ? m ( ref . 13608 ) . deep - water\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 4 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 10299 ) ; 60 . 0 cm sl ( female )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 1 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 5 - 6 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 4 . illicium short , its base in advance of eye ; rays of pectoral and unpaired fins sparsely pigmented , except their bases black ; two pairs of swellings in the distal end of esca , almost equal in size and shape ( ref . 13608 ) .\ndwarf males of 4 cm length apparently do not become parasitically attached to females .\npietsch , t . w . , 1986 . himantolophidae . p . 376 . in m . m . smith and p . c . heemstra ( eds . ) smiths ' sea fishes . springer - verlag , berlin . ( ref . 10299 )\n) : 2 . 4 - 8 . 2 , mean 5 . 2 ( based on 238 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01995 ( 0 . 00906 - 0 . 04395 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 83 - 3 . 19 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 3 \u00b10 . 75 se ; based on food items .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 49 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nis known from at least 143 female specimens ( pietsch 2009 ) . members of the himantolophidae family are typically solitary and do not occur abundantly ( pietsch in press ) . museum collections indicate it is rare to uncommon with 28 lots and a maximum of one individual per lot ( accessed through www . fishnet2 . net ) .\nhimantolophus groenlandicus is a deep - sea fish that inhabits the mesopelagic and bathypelagic zones . females have a maximum size of 46 . 5 cm sl and males have not yet been recorded . members of the himantolophidae family typically exhibit extreme sexual dimorphism where the males are diminutive in size compared to females . females attract prey with an elongate first dorsal spine that has been modified as a lure . males have highly developed sensory organs that allow them to find females at which point they will temporarily attach themselves to the body ( pietsch in press ) . vakily et al . ( 2002 ) describe h . groenlandicus as bathypelagic with a maximum size of 4 cm sl off of west africa .\nhimantolophus groenlandicus is not utilized ( pietsch in press ) . this species may be caught in trawls off of namibia ( bianchi et al . 1999 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\natlantinpallokrotti\nto\nhimantolophus groenlandicus reinhardt , 1837\n.\ntock exchanges are also part of the capital market in that the . . .\nstock exchanges are also part of the capital market in that th . . .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nvan der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nmceachran , j . d . ( 2009 ) . fishes ( vertebrata : pisces ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1223\u20131316 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of himantolophus ranoides barbour , 1942 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of himantolophus reinhardti l\u00fctken , 1878 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of corynolophus globosus tanaka , 1918 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhabitat found to depths of 830 m , males apparently do not attach themselves to females . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmoore , jon a . , karsten e . hartel , james e . craddock , and john k . galbraith\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\nitems shipping internationally may be subject to customs processing depending on the item ' s declared value .\nsellers set the item ' s declared value and must comply with customs declaration laws .\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . for additional information , see the global shipping program terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . if you reside in an eu member state besides uk , import vat on this purchase is not recoverable . for additional information , see the global shipping program terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab\nestimated delivery dates - opens in a new window or tab include seller ' s handling time , origin zip code , destination zip code and time of acceptance and will depend on shipping service selected and receipt of cleared payment - opens in a new window or tab . delivery times may vary , especially during peak periods .\nany international shipping and import charges are paid in part to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\ninternational shipping and import charges paid to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\ninternational shipping paid to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\nany international shipping is paid in part to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\na brand - new , unused , unopened , undamaged item ( including handmade items ) . see the seller ' s\nlisting for full details . see all condition definitions - opens in a new window or tab\nthis item will be shipped through the global shipping program and includes international tracking . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\nthere are 3 items available . please enter a number less than or equal to 3 .\n* estimated delivery dates - opens in a new window or tab include seller ' s handling time , origin zip code , destination zip code and time of acceptance and will depend on shipping service selected and receipt of cleared payment - opens in a new window or tab . delivery times may vary , especially during peak periods .\nwill usually ship within 3 business days of receiving cleared payment - opens in a new window or tab .\nqualifying purchases could enjoy no interest if paid in full in 6 months on purchases of $ 99 or more . other offers may also be available .\ninterest will be charged to your account from the purchase date if the balance is not paid in full within 6 months . minimum monthly payments are required . subject to credit approval . see terms - opens in a new window or tab\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . accessibility , user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\nlooking like something out of a science fiction movie , the anglerfish uses a natural lure to draw its next meal nearer .\nthe angry - looking deep sea anglerfish has a right to be cranky . it is quite possibly the ugliest animal on the planet , and it lives in what is easily earth ' s most inhospitable habitat : the lonely , lightless bottom of the sea .\ntheir most distinctive feature , worn only by females , is a piece of dorsal spine that protrudes above their mouths like a fishing pole\u00e2\u20ac\u201dhence their name . tipped with a lure of luminous flesh this built - in rod baits prey close enough to be snatched . their mouths are so big and their bodies so pliable , they can actually swallow prey up to twice their own size .\nthe male , which is significantly smaller than the female , has no need for such an adaptation . in lieu of continually seeking the vast abyss for a female , it has evolved into a permanent parasitic mate . when a young , free - swimming male angler encounters a female , he latches onto her with his sharp teeth . over time , the male physically fuses with the female , connecting to her skin and bloodstream and losing his eyes and all his internal organs except the testes . a female will carry six or more males on her body .\nthe anglerfish uses a shiny lure to bring prey within range of its sharp teeth . but it also has a weirdly clingy side - after finding a female , the male black devil angler latches on and never lets go !\ninformation on himantolophus groenlandicus is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nnature picture library 5a great george street bristol bs1 5rr united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4675 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4699 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nthis item will be posted through the global shipping program and includes international tracking . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\nestimated delivery dates - opens in a new window or tab include seller ' s handling time , origin postcode , destination postcode and time of acceptance and will depend on postage service selected and receipt of cleared payment - opens in a new window or tab . delivery times may vary , especially during peak periods .\ninternational postage and import charges paid to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\nany international postage and import charges are paid in part to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\ninternational postage paid to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\nany international postage is paid in part to pitney bowes inc . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\na brand - new , unused , unopened , undamaged item . see the seller ' s listing for full details .\n* estimated delivery dates - opens in a new window or tab include seller ' s handling time , origin postcode , destination postcode and time of acceptance and will depend on postage service selected and receipt of cleared payment - opens in a new window or tab . delivery times may vary , especially during peak periods .\nwill usually send within 3 business days of receiving cleared payment - opens in a new window or tab .\nyou must return items in their original packaging and in the same condition as when you received them . if you don ' t follow our\nin australia , consumers have a legal right to obtain a refund from a business if the goods purchased are faulty , not fit for purpose or don ' t match the seller ' s description . more information at\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\nanko - san of the deep sea fish ( \u6df1\u6d77\u9b5a\u306e\u30a2\u30f3\u30b3\u3055\u3093 , shinkaigyo no anko - san ) is a slice of life manga series by inuinu ( \u72ac\u72ac ) with yuri undertones . it\u2019s about mermaids ! however , the mermaids are a little strange here . unlike the ordinary \u201cgeneric fish tail\u201d appearance , the mermaids in this tale take on the features of real life sea creatures , and their features don\u2019t end at their tail fins .\ncats aside , she has some issues with self - consciousness as well , and it\u2019s thanks to otomi wakasa ( pictured above in the final panel ) that she\u2019s become a little better . wakasa is a human and friend to anko , but before we continue let\u2019s stop for a minute and talk about yuri .\nas i mentioned in my review of hitoribocchi no oo seikatsu , i like yuri quite a bit . yuri is the japanese word for \u201clilies\u201d , and in the context of manga / anime and such it is used to refer to a genre about lesbian romance . the name \u201cyuri\u201d might have its roots in the mirror opposite genre of \u201cbara\u201d ( meaning \u201crose\u201d ) but , uh\u2026i don\u2019t like bara . i\u2019m not going to discuss bara .\nat any rate , yuri has a few settings , i think . there\u2019s\u2026let\u2019s call them subtext yuri , standard yuri , and hard yuri , for simplicity\u2019s sake . while i call standard yuri \u201cstandard\u201d , the most common type you\u2019re probably going to see is subtext yuri , which basically applies to anko - san . this is a setting of yuri where the way girls interact with one another might make you raise your eyebrow and think \u201care these two going to kiss or something ? \u201d , but as this is subtext it never goes beyond that . you\u2019re not getting any kisses , just lustful stares , blushing , and maybe ( friendly ) confessions . i consider myself a pretty big yuri fan , so i\u2019ll take it where i can get it and delve into subtext yuri regularly . that said , most of what i read is standard yuri .\nputting it bluntly , standard yuri is what i\u2019d like most subtext yuri to end up as . you might have heard \u201csubtext yuri\u201d referred to as \u201cshoujo ai\u201d to differentiate from this , but i don\u2019t really know about that , and matters regarding the so - called \u201cgirls love\u201d genre are contentious . anyway , this is outright homosexual romance between girls , no ifs ands or buts . forbidden love ! the purest form of love ! i like it , i love it , but this review isn\u2019t the place to explain why .\nreturning to anko - san , the manga wastes no time establishing the yuri subtext , because wakasa is a\u2026 \u201cfan\u201d of mermaids .\nnow , although i share some of young wakasa - kun\u2019s spirit on these matters , i don\u2019t believe anko - san is just another slice of life series with some gay teasing . there are a lot of those . arguably every girl - based slice of life is such a series , and there is an appeal and comfort in that , but anko - san is more . i would call this a remarkable series , and a bit of a standout of its genre . i\u2019m not about to call this manga a work of genius or something , but it\u2019s definitely different , and not at all in a bad way .\nbefore we get into that properly , i\u2019ll briefly sum up the introduction of this series . after we meet wakasa and anko , the two characters go to school and encounter touna suzuki , a fighting fish ( betta ) mermaid and the third of the main characters that sticks around . her ( unwanted ) nickname is betako . she is a \u201crich girl\u201d ( ojou ) sort of character and a tsundere . i\u2019m not explaining what a tsundere is . you know what a tsundere is .\nafter dealing with betako anko\u2019s day proceeds as usual until , during class , she starts suffering all of a sudden . we learn here that the reason mermaids are able to walk on land is due to taking something called mermaid medicine ( \u201cmermeds\u201d , as the translator for this series calls them ) and anko\u2019s are running out . the medicine changes one\u2019s tail fin into a pair of legs , and once it\u2019s run out the fin returns . anko doesn\u2019t want this to happen , especially not in front of others , because she\u2019s embarrassed by her tail fin\u2019s appearance . wakasa rushes her to the infirmary where she can get some medication , but it\u2019s a little too late and her tail fin reappears .\nafter anko\u2019s tail fin is exposed , the nurse of the infirmary ( a deep sea mermaid as well ) and wakasa surprise her by complimenting her fin with not a drop of sarcasm . the nurse explains that from its shine it\u2019s clear anko takes great care of her fin , and wakasa is simply captivated by it entirely ( and not in the usual perverted way she reacts to mermaids ) . and so here we see a hint at what the series will mostly be about : helping mermaids with their problems .\ni\u2019d like to talk about yuri again , because of course i would , but first i should mention the fourth main character in this series . most slice of life series have four girls as the core group , for some reason ( it\u2019s a precedent set by azumanga daioh \u2018s notability , maybe ? ) , and anko - san isn\u2019t an exception . it is a bit strange , though , in that the two aside from anko and wakasa don\u2019t really get as much play as them . this is surely because of the \u201csolve the problems\u201d format of most of the chapters ; the ones where no real problems need solving feature a four man band as usual .\nso yes , meet the last of the four : fukuda akame , a pufferfish mermaid .\nthe poor girl suffers from chuunibyou ( eighth - grade syndrome ) , a condition many have suffered from to some degree . it is characterized by feeling you are unique and incredibly special , and that you perhaps have magic powers . it is also worth noting that in cases of chuunibyou there is typically a distinct lack of shame . called \u201ceighth - grade syndrome\u201d because it tends to happen in middle school , young akame - kun has it in high school .\nakame is definitely the least significant character out of the main characters , and the chuuni gimmick is one that can often be pretty obnoxious , but honestly akame is my favorite character in anko - san .\ni don\u2019t think she\u2019s the best character , and i don\u2019t even pair her with anyone in the series , but heck , she\u2019s great . most of the times she appears she\u2019s just doing something a bit peculiar in silence while making a face like this , and that\u2019s enough to bring a smile to my face . she\u2019s rather a coward but can also stand against intimidation despite herself ( like a pufferfish , i suppose ) and her design is\u2026hm , puffy ( like a pufferfish , i suppose ) . therefore allow me to declare with all my might : akame is cute ! cute !\nbehold , the ship ( that is , heh , relationship for you uninitiated ) i support .\ni didn\u2019t really touch on betako before because the time simply wasn\u2019t right . she\u2019s actually my second favorite character in this series , and a big reason why is her relationship with the main character anko . anko and betako\u2019s relationship is antagonistic . they almost , almost always fight when they happen to spend any length of time together ( usually instigated by betako\u2019s insults ) . but really , their relationship , it\u2019s like this :\ni\u2019m an absolute sucker for this sort of dynamic . it gets me every time , whether it\u2019s hetero or homosexual in nature . i\u2019m sure many of you have had this sensation overcome you when seeing two characters that constantly butt heads in fiction butt heads once more : the desire to shout \u201ckiss already\u201d . the reason for this is that like love , hate is passion . it\u2019s surging and powerful emotion ! negative or positive , that\u2019ll get your blood pumping . whether or not anko and betako will readily admit it , they enjoy their back and forth , and genuinely appreciate things about one another\u2019s character .\ntwo more things before the review ends . first , this series is not at the most secure of places with translations into english . the series ended at four volumes ( which makes me somewhat sad , by the way ) , but not even the second volume has been fully translated . i don\u2019t have a bad opinion of scanlation , although i did think it might be a faux pas to mention it in a review context . then i remembered , doi , scanlation is how most people are introduced to series ! you can always buy volumes whether or not they\u2019re translated ; it\u2019s not as though reading a scanlation voids your ability to purchase the manga afterward ( in fact , buying the volumes is what those working on this series encourage you to do ) . so , if you are able and would like to assist at all , get in contact with the guy working on it . it seems the biggest hold ups , generally speaking , are getting quality raws and also translations themselves .\nnext time , i\u2019ll be discussing what is widely regarded as one of the most important and seminal entries into the yuri canon . a true great . see you then !\nnice review . definitely was a fun manga to read . also especially like how anko treat her tail fin\nha ha , and that\u2019s how people tend to forget real animals are at the origin of the \u201ccuteness\u201d concept\u2026 herm , except perhaps the deep - sea fishes ? ? what a tease to rationalize this way the over - romanticized mermaid fantasy . diversity is the wealth of all \u266b ! i feel like i would enjoy that kind of quirky humor xd . thanks for reviewing !\namazing review and suggestion . this manga is gold ! thank you ( ^ _ ^ )\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\naugusto b . mendes 1 , felipe v . guimar\u00e3es 2 , clara b . p . eirado - silva 1 & edson p . silva 1\n2 universidade do estado do rio de janeiro , s\u00e3o gon\u00e7alo , rj , brazil .\nemails : augustobarrosmendes ( at ) yahoo ( dot ) com ( dot ) br ; felipevieiragui ( at ) gmail ( dot ) com ; clara . eirado ( at ) gmail ( dot ) com ; gbmedson ( at ) vm ( dot ) uff ( dot ) br\nthe origin of pok\u00e9mon goes back to two role - playing video games ( created by satoshi tajiri and released by nintendo for the game boy ; kent , 2001 ) : pok\u00e9mon green and pok\u00e9mon red , released in japan in 1996 . in the west , the green version never saw the light of day , but the red and blue versions were released in 1998 , selling together more than 10 million copies . also in 1998 , the yellow version of the game was released , which has as its most distinct feature the possibility of having pikachu ( the most famous pok\u00e9mon ) walking side by side with the player in the game . pok\u00e9mon green , red , blue and yellow are the so - called \u201cfirst generation\u201d of games in the franchise . today , the pok\u00e9mon series is in its seventh generation , with 29 main games released , besides several spin - offs . the tv series , on the other hand , is in its sixth season , with more than 900 episodes .\nthe games and tv series take place in regions inhabited by many pok\u00e9mon and humans . the mission of the protagonist is to win competitions ( \u201cpok\u00e9mon battles\u201d ) against gym leaders who are spread across different cities and regions . for each victory , the protagonist receives a gym badge ; with eight badges , he / she is allowed to enter the pok\u00e9mon league to try and become the champion .\nfor each generation , new pok\u00e9mon ( and an entire new region ) are introduced . in this way , the creatures have a homeland , although most can appear in other regions as well ( schlesinger , 1999b ; whitehill et al . , 2016 ) . the seven main regions are : kanto , johto , hoenn , sinnoh , unova , kalos and alola .\nin every region , there are numbered routes that connect cities and landmarks and in which the protagonist travels , finding the monsters in their natural habitats and interacting with other characters . these routes comprise a great range of environments , such as forests , caves , deserts , mountains , fields , seas , beaches , underwater places , mangroves , rivers and marshes , which usually display a huge diversity of pok\u00e9mon .\nin addition to winning the pok\u00e9mon league , the protagonist must complete the pok\u00e9dex , a digital encyclopedia of pok\u00e9mon . in other words , the trainer must catch all the pok\u00e9mon that live in that region , registering each capture in the pok\u00e9dex . each pok\u00e9mon has a registry number and an entry text in the pok\u00e9dex . pok\u00e9mon are usually found in nature , and may be captured with a device called \u201cpok\u00e9ball\u201d . pok\u00e9balls are small enough to fit in a pocket , hence the name \u201cpocket monsters\u201d ( whitehill et al . , 2016 ) .\nin the present work , the pok\u00e9mon world was approached by analogies with the real natural world , establishing parallels with actual animals .\nbased on these obvious connections between real fishes and pok\u00e9mon , the aim of this work is to describe the ichthyological diversity found in pok\u00e9mon based on taxonomic criteria of the classification of real fishes . ultimately , our goal is to offer useful material for both teaching and the popularization of science .\ntable 1 . taxonomic classification of the fish pok\u00e9mon . abbreviations : ch = chondrichthyes ; gn = gnathostomata ; pe = petromyzontomorphi ; pt = petromyzontida ; os = osteichthyes . all images obtained from the official pok\u00e9mon website ( 2016 ) .\nthe first step of our research was a search in the pok\u00e9dex ( the official pok\u00e9mon website , 2016 ) for pok\u00e9mon which were related to fishes . the criterion used was the pok\u00e9mon\u2019s morphology ( resemblance to real fishes ) . afterwards , the \u201cfish pok\u00e9mon\u201d were classified to the lowest taxonomic level ( preferably species , but when not possible , genus , family or even order ) .\nthis classification of the pok\u00e9mon allowed the comparison of biological data ( such as ecological , ethological , morphological traits ) from bulbapedia ( 2017 ) with the current knowledge on real fishes ( e . g . , nelson et al . , 2016 ) . bulbapedia is a digital community - driven encyclopedia created in 2004 and is the most complete source regarding the pocket monsters .\nthe final step was a search in online scientific databases ( fishbase , froese & pauly , 2016 ; and catalog of fishes , eschmeyer et al . , 2016 ) in order to obtain the current and precise taxonomy and additional information on habitats , ecology etc . of the fish species .\nin the present work , the taxonomic classification used was that proposed by nelson et al . ( 2016 ) , who consider the superclasses petromyzontomorphi ( which includes the class petromyzontida , that is , the lampreys ) and gnathostomata ( the jawed vertebrates ) . gnathostomata , in turn , includes the classes chondrichthyes ( cartilaginous fishes ) and osteichthyes ( bony fishes ) . along with this classification , we used the classification proposed by the database itis ( integrated taxonomic information system , 2016 ) for comparison at all taxonomic levels . following identification , the \u201cfish pok\u00e9mon\u201d were described regarding their taxonomic and ecological diversity .\nas a result of our search , 34 fish pok\u00e9mon were identified ( circa 4 % of the total 801 pok\u00e9mon ; table 1 ) and allocated in two superclasses , three classes , eighteen orders , twenty families and twenty - two genera . eighteen of the 34 fish pok\u00e9mon ( circa 53 % ) could be identified to the species level ( table 2 ) . the features of the real fishes which probably inspired the creation of the pok\u00e9mon and other relevant information are described below for each species . to enrich the comparisons , images of the pok\u00e9mon ( obtained from the pok\u00e9dex of the official pok\u00e9mon website ; urltoken ) and of the real fishes ( illustrations by one of us , c . b . p . eirado - silva ) follow the descriptions .\nthe pok\u00e9mon horsea and seadra ( fig . 1 ) , which debuted in the first generation of the franchise , were based on seahorses . the long snout , ending in a toothless mouth ( foster & vincent , 2004 ) , the prehensile , curved tail ( rosa et al . , 2006 ) and the salient abdomen are features of the real fishes present in these pok\u00e9mon . seahorses belong to the genus hippocampus , presently composed of 54 species ( nelson et al . , 2016 ) . the males have a pouch in their bellies where up to 1 , 000 eggs are deposited by the females . in this pouch , the eggs are fertilized and incubated for a period ranging from 9 to 45 days ( foster & vincent , 2004 ) . due to overfishing for medicinal and ornamental purposes , as well habitat destruction , about 33 species of seahorses are considered threatened ( rosa et al . , 2007 , castro et al . , 2008 ; kasapoglu & duzgunes , 2014 ) .\ngoldeen and seaking ( fig . 2 ) were based on the goldfish . this species is one of the most common ornamental fishes worldwide ( soares et al . , 2000 ; moreira et al . , 2011 ) and it is widely used in studies of physiology and reproduction due to its docile behavior and easy acclimatization to artificial conditions ( bittencourt et al . , 2012 ; braga et al . , 2016 ) . the resemblance between the goldfish and the pok\u00e9mon include morphological features , such as the orange / reddish color and the long merged fins , and the name \u201cgoldeen\u201d . the name seaking , on the other hand , may be a reference to another common name of the species , \u201ckinguio\u201d , from the japanese \u201ckin - yu\u201d ( ortega - salas & reyes - bustamante , 2006 ) .\npossibly the most famous fish pok\u00e9mon , magikarp ( fig . 3 ) was based on a common carp , a species present in europe , africa and asia , widely used in pisciculture due to its extremely easy acclimatization to many freshwater environments and the high nutritional value of its meat ( stoyanova et al . , 2015 ; mahboob et al . , 2016 ; voigt et al . , 2016 ) . in some regions of the planet , such as brazil , the common carp is considered an invasive species , as it was inadvertently released in the wild and poses a threat to the native aquatic fauna ( smith et al . , 2013 ; contreras - macbeath et al . , 2014 ) .\nthe shared traits between the pok\u00e9mon and the real fish are many : the rounded mouth , the lips , the strong orange color and the presence of barbels ( \u201cwhiskers\u201d ) ( nelson et al . , 2016 ) . in china , the common carp is praised as an animal linked to honor and strength , due of its ability to swim against the current ; an ancient legend tells about carps that swim upstream , entering through a portal and transforming into dragons ( roberts , 2004 ) . in pok\u00e9mon , magikarp evolves into gyarados , which resembles a typical chinese dragon .\nqwilfish ( fig . 5 ) was based on porcupinefishes , more likely those of the genus diodon , which present coloring and spines most similar to this pok\u00e9mon . besides the distinctive hard , sharp spines ( fujita et al . , 1997 ) , porcupinefishes have the ability to inflate as a strategy to drive off predators ( raymundo & chiappa , 2000 ) . as another form of defense , these fishes possess a powerful bacterial toxin in their skin and organs ( lucano - ram\u00edrez et al . , 2011 ; ravi et al . , 2016 ) . accordingly , qwilfish has both water and poison types .\nremoraid was based on a remora ( fig . 6 ) , a fish with a suction disc on its head that allows its adhesion to other animals such as turtles , whales , dolphins , sharks and manta rays ( fertl & landry , 1999 ; silva & sazima , 2003 ; friedman et al . , 2013 ; nelson et al . , 2016 ) . this feature allows the establishment of a commensalisc or mutualisc relationship of transportation , feeding and protection between the adherent species and its \u201cride\u201d ( williams et al . , 2003 ; sazima & grossman , 2006 ) . the similarities also include the name of the pok\u00e9mon and the ecological relationship they have with other fish pok\u00e9mon : in the same way remoras keep ecological relationships with rays , remoraid does so with mantyke and mantine ( pok\u00e9mon based on manta rays ; see below ) .\nthe pok\u00e9mon mantyke and its evolved form mantine ( fig . 7 ) were probably based on manta rays of the species manta birostris , which inhabits tropical oceans ( duffy & abbot , 2003 ; dewar et al . , 2008 ) and can reach more than 6 meters of wingspan , being the largest species of ray in existence ( homma et al . , 1999 ; ari & correia , 2008 ; marshall et al . , 2008 ; luiz et al . , 2009 ; nelson et al . , 2016 ) . the similarities between the pok\u00e9mon and the real fish are : the body shape , the color pattern , the large and distinctive wingspan and even the names .\nkingdra and skrelp ( fig . 8 ) were based on the common seadragon . the resemblances between these pok\u00e9mon and the real fish species include the leaf - shaped fins that help the animals to camouflage themselves in the kelp \u201cforests\u201d they inhabit ( sanchez - camara et al . , 2006 ; rossteuscher et al . , 2008 ; sanchez - camara et al . , 2011 ) , and the long snout . also , the secondary type of kingdra is dragon . although both are based on the common seadragon , kingdra and skrelp are not in the same \u201cevolutionary line\u201d in the game .\ncommon seadragons , as the seahorses mentioned above , are of a particular interest to conservationists , because many species are vulnerable due to overfishing , accidental capture and habitat destruction ( foster & vincent , 2004 ; martin - smith & vincent , 2006 ) .\npiranhas of the genus pygocentrus possibly were the inspiration for the creation of carvanha ( fig . 9 ) , a pok\u00e9mon of voracious and dangerous habits . the main feature shared by the real fish and the pok\u00e9mon is the color pattern : bluish in the dorsal and lateral areas , and reddish in the ventral area ( piorski et al . , 2005 ; luz et al . , 2015 ) .\nit is worthwhile pointing out that , despite what is shown in movies and other media , piranhas do not immediately devour their prey ; instead , they tear off small pieces , bit by bit , such as scales and fins ( trindade & juc\u00e1 - chagas , 2008 ; vital et al . , 2011 ; ferreira et al . , 2014 ) .\nsharpedo ( fig . 10 ) , according to its morphological traits ( elongated fins ) , was possibly based on sharks of the order carcharhiniformes , the largest group of sharks , with 216 species in 8 families and 48 genera . fishes in this order are common in all oceans , in both coastal and oceanic regions , and from the surface to great depths ( gomes et al . , 2010 ) . several species of carcharhiniformes are in the iucn\u2019s ( international union for conservation of nature ) endangered species list ( a . k . a . \u201cred list\u201d ) due to overfishing , as their fins possess high commercial value ( cunningham - day , 2001 ) .\nwhiscash ( fig . 12 ) was based on the japanese mythological creature namazu , a gigantic catfish that inhabits the underground realm and is capable of creating earthquakes ( ashkenazi , 2003 ) . namazu also names the pok\u00e9mon in the japanese language ( \u201c namazun \u201d ) . in japan , fishes of the genus silurus are usually associated with this mythological creature and even the common name of these fishes in that country is \u201c namazu \u201d ( yuma et al . , 1998 ; malek et al . , 2004 ) . in addition , the physical traits of the silurus catfishes also present in whiscash are the long barbels ( or \u201cwhiskers\u201d , hence the name whiscash ) and the robust body ( kobayakawa , 1989 ; kiyohara & kitoh , 1994 ) . in addition to the water type , whiscash is also ground type , which is related to namazu\u2019s fantastic ability of creating earthquakes .\nthe pok\u00e9mon feebas ( fig . 13 ) , a relatively weak fish ( as its name implies ) , was possibly based on a largemouth bass , a freshwater fish native to north america ( hossain et al . , 2013 ) . the species was introduced in many countries and is often considered a threat to the native fauna ( welcomme , 1992 ; hickley et al . , 1994 ; godinho et al . , 1997 ; garc\u00eda - berthou , 2002 ) . similarities between feebas and the largemouth bass include the large , wide mouth and the brownish coloration , with darker areas ( brown et al . , 2009 ) .\noften praised as the most beautiful pok\u00e9mon of all ( bulbapedia , 2017 ) , milotic ( fig . 14 ) certainly lives up to its title . their long reddish eyebrows were based on the first elongated rays of the dorsal fin of regalecus species ( nelson et al . , 2016 ) , which also share the reddish color of the dorsal fin ( carrasco - \u00e1guila et al . , 2014 ) . other similarities between the oarfish and the pok\u00e9mon are the elongated body ( some oarfishes can grow larger than 3 . 5 m ) and the spots scattered on the body ( chavez et al . , 1985 ; balart et al . , 1999 ; dul\u010di\u0107 et al . , 2009 ; ruiz & gosztonyi , 2010 ) .\nprobably based on fishes of the genus monognathus , which have a large mandible and a long dorsal fin ( nelson et al . , 2016 ) , huntail ( fig . 15 ) is one of the possible evolutionary results of the mollusk pok\u00e9mon clamperl ( the other possibility is gorebyss ; see below ) . according to raju ( 1974 ) , fishes of the genus monognathus live in great depths and have a continuous dorsal fin that ends in an urostyle ( \u201c uro \u201d comes from the greek language and means \u201ctail\u201d , an element also present in the pok\u00e9mon\u2019s name ) .\nthe serpentine body and the thin beak - shaped jaw of gorebyss ( fig . 16 ) are features of fishes belonging to the family nemichthyidae ( nielsen & smith , 1978 ) . these fishes inhabit tropical and temperate oceans and can be found in depths up to 4 , 000 meters , in the so - called \u201cabyssal zone\u201d ( cruz - mena & anglo , 2016 ) . the pok\u00e9mon\u2019s name may be a reference to such habitat .\nthe silver - pinkish coloration , the peculiar mouth formed by strong lips and the habit of \u201ckissing\u201d other individuals of their species ( which is actually a form of aggression ! ) are features of the kissing gourami ( sterba 1983 ; sousa & severi 2000 ; sulaiman & daud , 2002 ; ferry et al . , 2012 ) that are also seen in luvdisc ( fig . 18 ) . helostoma temminckii is native to thailand , indonesia , java , borneo , sumatra and the malay peninsula ( axelrod et al . , 1971 ) , but due to its use an ornamental fish and the irresponsible handling by fishkeepers , it has been introduced in other parts of the world ( magalh\u00e3es , 2007 ) ."]}
{"id": 2225, "summary": [{"text": "the cinnamon quail-thrush ( cinclosoma cinnamomeum ) is cryptic arid-zone species that is endemic to australia .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "this small to medium-sized species of bird is found in the arid and semi-arid regions of central australia . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "cinnamon quail - thrush", "paragraphs": [". . . cinnamon quail - thrush , adult male , mt lyndhurst , s . a .\ncinnamon quail - thrush ( cinclosoma cinnamomeum ) is a species of bird in the psophodidae family .\ncinnamon quail - thrush a male near the water treatment plant finke , northern territory , australia .\n. . . cinnamon quail - thrush , adult male , mt . lyndhurst , s . a .\n. . . nullarbor quail - thrush , the smallest and shyest of all the quail - thrushes .\n* black breasted cinnamon quail thrush view larger version * print friendly version * purchase this item quail title black breasted cinnamon quail thrush description distribution : wa . first described by mathews bull . brit . ornith . club 1910 . date c1922 artist h . more\nthe cinnamon quail - thrush is a species of bird in the cinclosomatidae family . it is endemic to australia .\ncinnamon quail - thrush ( cinclosoma ( samuela ) cinnamomeum ) occurrence records from continental australia suitable for species distribution modelling .\nthe park ' s bruce pascoe says it has taken eight years of trying to breed a fledgling of the cinnamon quail - thrush .\nthe female and immature birds are also cinnamon colour with white throat and pale cinnamon - grey breast .\nthe cinnamon quail - thrush ( cinclosoma cinnamomeum ) is a species of bird in the cinclosomatidae family . it is endemic to australia . . . .\nthese medium - sized birds are a distinctive cinnamon - backed quail - thrush , that live in arid stony plains usually with sparsely vegetated and low shrub cover .\nthe cinnamon quail thrush is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\nthe alice springs desert park in central australia says the first captive breeding of two cinnamon quail - thrush chicks could help with the protection of endangered bird species .\nnatural resources , environment , the arts and sport - media release - cinnamon quail - thrush ( 11 october 2005 ) ( pdf ) , retrieved august 29 , 2008 .\n. . . nullabor quail - thrush , adult male , 3 km n of nullabor roadhouse , august 2016 .\nmr pascoe says the cinnamon quail - thrush inhabits areas south - east of alice springs around titjikala and the edge of the simpson desert but little more is known about it .\nvanderwal , j . ( 2013 ) . cinnamon quail - thrush ( cinclosoma ( samuela ) cinnamomeum ) - current and future species distribution models . centre for tropical biodiversity & climate change , james cook university . [ data files ] urltoken quail - thrush ( cinclosoma ( samuela ) cinnamomeum ) / suitability\nvanderwal , j . ( 2013 ) . cinnamon quail - thrush ( cinclosoma ( samuela ) cinnamomeum ) - occurrence records filtered for species distribution modelling . centre for tropical biodiversity & climate change , james cook university . [ data files ] urltoken quail - thrush ( cinclosoma ( samuela ) cinnamomeum ) / occurrences\nthat may have implications down the track if it ' s decided that it may be a good idea to do some captive work with some of the rarer species such as the chestnut quail - thrush or the spotted quail - thrush over on the east coast ,\nhe said .\nwe had got as far as having birds lay eggs but . . . the eggs were not fertile . this year we swapped some pairings around to try and achieve some more compatible pairings and we now have successfully fledged cinnamon quail - thrush chicks ,\nhe said .\nthis dataset consists of current and future species distribution models generated using 4 representative concentration pathways ( rcps ) carbon emission scenarios , 18 global climate models ( gcms ) , and 8 time steps between 2015 and 2085 , for cinnamon quail - thrush ( cinclosoma ( samuela ) cinnamomeum ) .\nthis dataset includes observations of cinnamon quail - thrush ( cinclosoma ( samuela ) cinnamomeum ) that are sourced from the atlas of living australia ( ala ) database . rather than raw observations , these have been filtered such that they are assumed to be suitable for species distribution modelling exercises . the cleaning process included :\nthe cinnamon quail - thrush is a small bird of the gibber deserts of central australia . although it is believed to be reasonably common within its range , it is cryptic in plumage and behaviour , and is very shy to boot . accordingly it is not seen often - google can find less than a dozen images on the internet , and there are only two other images on flickr .\nthe male of the species are cinnamon brown above , and sometimes a shade browner on the head . they have black markings on the throat , with a black banded on white breast . the flanks are also cinnamon in colour on birds from the gibber deserts of the east - central regions .\nboles , w . & christie , d . a . ( 2018 ) . cinnamon quail - thrush ( cinclosoma cinnamomeum ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\na quail - thrush is a bird of the genus cinclosoma , which contains seven species . the genus is found in australia and new guinea in a variety of habitats ranging from rainforest to deserts . the genus is closely related to the jewel - babblers of new guinea . seven species are currently recognised . [ 1 ]\ntoon , a . , austin , j . j . , dolman , g . , pedler , l . and joseph , l . ( 2012 ) evolution of arid zone birds in australia : leapfrog distribution patterns and mesic - arid connections in quail - thrush ( cinclosoma , cinclosomatidae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 62 ( 1 ) : 286 - 295\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthese birds are a cryptic arid - zone species , often alone , in pairs or small family groups . they feed exclusively on the ground , foraging for insects , and seeds .\nthe first known captive species was bred by staff at the alice springs desert park in october 2005 . 1\n. . . when disturbed , they fly low and fast for about 200 m and hide behind a saltbush . spot the quailthrush !\n. . . good habitat , edge of nullarbor plain ne of rawlinna , w . a .\nhome | biography | resources | photo library | top shots | contact copyright \u00a9 2005 - 2016 graeme chapman . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe areas shown in pink and / purple are the sub - regions where the species or community is known or predicted to occur . they may not occur thoughout the sub - region but may be restricted to certain areas . ( click here to see geographic restrictions ) . the information presented in this map is only indicative and may contain errors and omissions .\nthis species is endemic to arid and semi - arid southern australia , reaching its northern extent in the south of the northern territory . three subspecies have been described with the nominate (\nthroughout its distribution it occurs in a wide range of arid and semi - arid habitats ; mainly in the low shrubs and undergrowth of mallee scrub , but also in acacia scrubs , dry sclerophyll woodland , heath , and native pine . however , in nsw it seems to occur almost exclusively in mallee habitats , with understorey dominated by spinifex , chenopods or other shrubs including acacia species . only rarely , such as in cocoparra np , is it recorded in other types of woodland , and in these areas a dense understorey may be a prerequisite .\noccupies vegetation with a wide range of fire histories , though appears to occur at highest densities in areas two to fifteen years post fire . there is some evidence from the victorian mallee that if the interval between fires is too short ( less than fifteen years ) local declines may occur .\nthese birds forage on the ground , often among spinifex clumps , on a wide range of invertebrates ( including grasshoppers , bugs , beetles , flies , caterpillars and ants ) , seeds of both native and introduced species and , more rarely , fruits .\nits nest is a depression in the ground lined with strips of bark , fine grass or sticks , placed near a mallee trunk , against a fallen branch , under a low bush or in a sparse tuft of grass . almost always lays a clutch of two eggs .\nclick on a region below to view detailed distribution , habitat and vegetation information .\nfragmentation , resulting from clearing or degradation of the habitat has reduced genetic variability and reproductive opportunities and has increased genetic isolation and the potential for significant impacts arising from stochatic events such as drought or fire .\ndegradation of the habitat , as a result of inappropriate grazing or fire regimes , has resulted in changes to the physical nature of the habitat , for example change in diversity and structure of floristics or invertebrates . changes to the habitat may result in it being unsuitable for the species or may increase other threatening processes such as predation .\nfire may cause the direct loss of individuals , and inappropriate fire regimes may cause long - term changes to physical features such as floristic structure or leaf litter , which is unfavourable to sustaining a viable population of the species .\npredation by foxes or cats may have an impact , particularly where populations have already declined .\nanthropogenic climate change is a long term significant threat as it will alter physical characteristics of the habitat such that it is no longer able to sustain a viable population .\na targeted strategy for managing this species has been developed under the saving our species program ; click here for details . for more information on the saving our species program click here\ncontrol of vertebrate pest populations , e . g . foxes , cats and rabbits , which either prey on , or compete against this species for resources .\nappears to be less sensitive to impacts of fire compared to other mallee birds . however , maintenance of a mosaic of fire ages is probably beneficial . no more than 10 % of the area should be burnt in a single year , and no more than 30 % in five years . following occurrence of wildfire , monitoring is required prior to additional ecological burns .\nreduce stock intensity of , or exclude grazing in , some areas to allow regeneration of vegetation for habitat , food sources or nest sites .\nretention of grasslands , including the full cycle of grass development such a seed set and tussock formation .\nretain fallen logs and other ground debris as habitat , including logs embedded in the soil and hollow logs .\nchristidis , l . and boles , w . e . ( 2008 ) systematics and taxonomy of australian birds . ( csiro publishing , collingwood , victoria )\ngarnett , s . t . , szabo , j . k . and dutson , g . ( 2011 ) action plan for australian birds 2010 . ( csiro publishing , collingwood , victoria )\nhiggins , p . j . and peter , j . m . ( eds . ) ( 2002 ) handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . volume 6 : pardalotes to shrike - thrushes . ( oxford university press , melbourne )\nluck , g . w . , possingham , h . p . and paton , d . c . ( 1999 ) bird responses at inherent and induced edges in the murray mallee , south australia . 1 . differences in abundance and diversity . emu 99 ( 3 ) : 157 - 169\npizzey , g . and knight , f . ( 2003 ) the field guide to the birds of australia . 7th edition\nschodde , r . and mason , i . j . ( 1999 ) the directory of australian birds . ( csiro publishing , melbourne )\nval , j . , oliver , d . , pennay , m . , mclaughlin , j . , ewin , p . and foster , e . ( 2012 ) the reptile , bird and small mammal fauna of dune mallee woodlands in south - western new south wales . australian zoologist 36 ( 1 ) : 29 - 48\nwatson , s . j . , taylor , r . s . , nimmo , d . g . , kelly , l . t . , clarke , m . f . and bennett , a . f . ( 2012 ) the influence of unburnt patches and distance from refuges on post - fire bird communities . animal conservation 15 ( 5 ) : 499 - 507\ncommonly treated as conspecific with c . alisteri , and in the past also with c . castaneothorax ( with marginatum ) . see also c . castanotum . races doubtfully separable , intergrading over a broad zone ; proposed race samueli ( south australia ) inseparable from nominate . two subspecies currently recognized .\nschodde & mason , 1999 \u2013 deserts of ec australia ( se northern territory , ne south australia , cw queensland ) .\ngould , 1846 \u2013 cs northern territory , n , c & ce south australia , extreme sw queensland and nw new south wales .\n19\u201322 cm ; 55\u201360 g . male nominate race has black lores , narrow creamy supercilium extending from above lores to side of nape , brownish - grey ear - coverts ; narrow . . .\nsong ( both races ) a series of notes on even pitch or on two pitches . contact call a high - pitched , . . .\ndiet made up chiefly of seeds , insects and spiders ( araneae ) . forages on ground , walking slowly and deliberately on a meandering course , . . .\nrecorded in all months , timing possibly influenced by rainfall ; probably double - brooded , but forgoes breeding in times of severe drought . . . .\nappears to be sedentary , with no evidence of large - scale movements ; may occasionally make more . . .\nnot globally threatened . locally common in suitable habitat . has suffered some decline , possibly as a result of grazing by domestic livestock and introduced rabbits (\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ntaxonomic position historically uncertain , and in past typically placed in a giant muscicapidae , close to timaliidae ; there , it was grouped in a dubious assemblage with species now widely scattered in orthonychidae , psophodidae , ifritidae , melampittidae and eupetidae # r . genetic studies suggest closest relatives may be paramythiidae , psophodidae or falcunculidae # r # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na male running along the foot of a sand dune before stopping to look around .\na male looking around while standing on the trunk of a very small tree .\na male walking on the ground , flying a short distance after being startled by me before running away .\nfr\u00e9d\u00e9ric pelsy , rhonda hansch , peter waanders , lindsay hansch , mat gilfedder , john o ' malley .\n. . . nests are usually placed under the shelter of a shrub . clutch size is usually two .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : cinclosoma cinnamomeum . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 42e3020f - b588 - 4145 - 8c7b - e7c6d32cec02\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 58e70e12 - 3cad - 4c89 - b126 - da8582bdf67a\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 6676301d - fbe1 - 4cd9 - a48f - 8e59cbe270d5\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 461381\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\ncinclosoma cinnamomeum : se qld . to nw nsw , cent . and ne sa and se nt\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 292 , 703 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be locally fairly common ( flegg and madge 1995 ) . trend justification : this population is estimated to be in decline owing to ongoing habitat degradation due to livestock and introduced herbivores ( del hoyo et al . 2007 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\navibase has been visited 263 , 294 , 814 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\na fun page devoted to those that wish to record their totals within our region . if you wish your total to be added simply email your tally to tonyp @ urltoken to be fair and consistent for the purposes of maintaining this list a few basic rules shall apply :\n1 . all species counted should be seen alive and in the wild 2 . geography includes mainland australia , its territories or anywhere within the 200 nm limit ( excluding antarctica ) . 3 . taxonomy should follow ioc taxonomy and recommended bird names within . urltoken 4 . submissions should be honest , accurate and dated .\nioc australian checklist ( includes all external territories : heard , macquarie , norfolk , lord howe , christmas and cocos ( keeling ) islands . mainland australia does not include macquarie island , lord howe island , or ashmore reef etc but does include the torres strait ) .\nbased on comments from others , here is my updated list of differences between c & b and the various flavours of ioc . further comments welcome .\nand i believe that c & b already lumps all ringnecks into one species , australian ringneck \u2013 which has also been adopted by ioc .\nfrom : kevin and lizzie [ mailto : dikkops @ gmail . com ] sent : wednesday , 13 june 2012 11 : 20 pm to : paul @ urltoken cc : birding - aus @ urltoken subject : re : [ birding - aus ] c & b vs ioc taxonomy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsearch is restricted to [ [ filters . class | getlabelfor : class _ choices ] ]\nopen access . if the data is not available via the provided link , please contact an associated party ( preferably the manager if specified ) for access .\nobservation records were filtered from the atlas of living australia & apos ; s ( ala ) database based on ala & apos ; s & apos ; assertions & apos ; , expert - derived range polygons and expert opinion , and those observations inappropriate for modelling were excluded . only species with > 20 unique spatiotemporal records were used for modelling .\ncurrent climate was sourced as monthly precipitation and temperature minima and maxima from 1975 until 2005 at a 0 . 05\u00b0 grid scale from the australian water availability project ( awap - urltoken ) ( jones et al 2007 , grant et al 2008 ) .\nused in the modelling were annual mean temperature , temperature seasonality , max and min monthly temperature , annual precipitation , precipitation seasonality , and precipitation of the wettest and driest quarters for current and all rcp scenarios ( rcp3pd , rcp45 , rcp6 , rcp85 ) at 8 time steps between 2015 and 2085 .\nspecies distribution models were run using the presence - only modelling program maxent ( phillips et al 2006 ) . maxent uses species presence records to statistically relate species occurrence to environmental variables on the principle of maximum entropy . all default settings were used except for background point allocation . we used a target group background ( phillips & dudik 2008 ) to remove any spatial or temporal sampling bias in the modelling exercise .\nthe dataset is a tarred , zipped file ( . tar . gz ) , approximately 5gb in size and contains 609 ascii grid files :\nassociated with maximum entropy modelling of species geographic distributions uri : 10 . 1016 / j . ecomodel . 2005 . 03 . 026\ncopy and paste a formatted citation or use one of the links to import into a bibliography manager .\n[ [ item . name | formatfacet ] ] ( [ [ item . value ] ] )\n[ [ item . name | formatfacet ] ] ( [ [ item . value ] ] )\nto filter your results by a time period enter a year range between [ [ earliest _ year ] ] and [ [ latest _ year ] ] inclusive . open ranges can be specified by leaving one of the fields blank . please note that adding a time period filter to your search will restrict your search to only those records in research data australia which contain temporal information .\n[ [ item . preflabel | totitlecase ] ] ( [ [ item . collectionnum ] ] )\nnote : adding a location filter will restrict your search to only records that have location information described .\n[ [ preresult . response . numfound ] ] result ( s ) found with these filters . hit search\nthe advanced search popout allows you to build / refine complex queries all in a single tabbed popout . from within the advanced search you can construct boolean searches and apply one or more filter categories to your search .\nnote that there is no defined order to the tabs in the advanced search and you can apply the filters in any order you choose . where there are multiple options for a filter category e . g . ( subjects ) the options & record counts displayed are based on your query . each time you switch tabs the available filter options and record counts are updated to reflect any changes on the previous tab .\nas you build / refine your search in the advanced search popout , you can review the entire search and the number of results which will be returned by selecting the \u2018review\u2019 tab . the tab also allows you to modify your search by removing filters .\nthe query constructor provides a way of searching for records using multiple search term combinations and boolean operators .\nthe advanced queries created using the query constructor are comprised of rows . each row consists of a field , condition operator and a value . the value tells the search what to look for , the field tells the search where to look , and the condition operator tells the search whether a record should \u2018contain\u2019 or \u2018exclude\u2019 the value .\nmultiple search terms entered into a single condition value are treated by the search as being separated by the boolean operator and .\nthe search terms are treated as case insensitive e . g . \u2018rain\u2019 is the same as \u2018rain\u2019 .\nexact phrases can also be entered into condition values by using quotes\ne . g .\nice sheets\nthe ? symbol can be used to perform a single character wildcard search . e . g . organi ? ations .\nthe * symbol can be used to perform multiple character wildcard search . e . g . extend *\nnote : wildcard characters can be applied to single search terms , but not to search phrases .\nthe query constructor supports the use of the boolean operators \u2018and\u2019 & \u2018or\u2019 between query rows . the operators are applied at the search level , meaning all query rows are separated by the same boolean value . changing the boolean value between two query rows will change the value between all query rows .\nhere we will step through constructing an advanced query where we would like to find all the records which contain \u2018rain\u2019 in the title , and \u2018flood\u2019 and \u2018weather\u2019 in the description .\nopen the advanced search popout and ensure you are on the \u2018search terms\u2019 tab . two query rows should be displayed by default .\nin the empty value field in the 1st query row enter the search term \u2018rain\u2019 .\nin the empty value field in the 2nd query row enter the search term \u2018flood\u2019 .\nin the empty value field in the 3rd query row enter the search term \u2018weather\u2019 .\nthe subject tab allows you to refine your search by selecting subjects which have been used to describe data records . the default subject vocabulary in research data australia , and the one which is used consistently by data providers , is the anzsrc field of research . other supported subject vocabularies are also available and can be selected by using the drop down displayed at the top of the tab ( note that these can take a little while to load ) .\nsubject vocabularies are displayed as browsable hierarchical trees . subject literals displayed as green links can be clicked to display or hide child subjects .\nsubjects can be added or removed from your search by using the checkbox displayed with each subject literal . multiple subjects can be selected within a single subject vocabulary and also across vocabularies .\nthe number of records with a subject will be displayed at the end of each subject literal e . g \u2018economics ( 30 ) \u2019 . note that because the relationships between records and subjects are many to many , the counts displayed with the subjects will not necessarily match the count of records returned by your search . for example you may see 3 subjects all showing a ( 1 ) beside them . this could resolve to a single record containing all 3 of the subjects . where no records exist with a subject value a ( 0 ) will be displayed with the literal .\nthe data provider tab allows you to limit your search to records published to research data australia by specific providers . the number of records available from providers will be displayed at the end of each provider literal e . g \u2018bond university ( 25 ) \u2019 .\ndata providers can be added or removed from your search by using the checkbox displayed with each data provider literal .\nthe access tab allows you to limit your search to records with specific access types . data records in research data australia fall into one of four access types :\ndata that is accessible and reusable , providing certain conditions are met ( e . g . free registration is required )\ndata access is limited in some way ( e . g . only available to a particular group of users or at a specific physical location )\nthe number of records available in each access type will be displayed at the end of the access literal e . g \u2018open ( 23 ) \u2019 .\naccess types can be added or removed from your search by using the checkbox displayed with each access literal .\nopen licence : a licence bearing broad permissions that may include a requirement to attribute the source , or share - alike ( or both ) , requiring a derivative work to be licensed on the same or similar terms as the reused material .\nnon - commercial licence : as for the open licence but also restricting reuse only for non - commercial purposes .\n: as for the open licence but also prohibits adaptation of the material , and in the second case also restricts reuse only for non - commercial purposes .\nrestrictive licence : a licence preventing reuse of material unless certain restrictive conditions are satisfied . note licence restrictions , and contact rights holder for permissions beyond the terms of the licence .\nno licence : all rights to reuse , communicate , publish or reproduce the material are reserved , with the exception of specific rights contained within the copyright act 1968 or similar laws . contact the copyright holder for permission to reuse this material .\nthe number of records available in each licence filter group will be displayed at the end of the licence literal e . g \u2018no licence ( 57 ) \u2019 .\nlicence groups can be added or removed from your search by using the checkbox displayed with each licence literal .\nthe time period tab allows you to restrict your search to only records which contain temporal coverage * information which falls within a specific year range . the filter has been implemented as a pair of text fields which allow you to enter a \u2018from year and \u2018to year\u2019 . the placeholder text shown in the text fields indicates the available temporal range you can search within .\nto filter your results by a time period : open the advanced search popout and ensure you are on the \u2018time period\u2019 tab . enter a time period range by using the from year and to year fields . click the \u2018search\u2019 button to execute the search .\nnote : where the records in your search contain no temporal information the following message will be displayed on the tab :\nsearch results contain no time period information .\nthe location tab will allow you to filter your search results to only records that have mappable location information described , which falls within a specified region .\nuse the map navigation tools on the left hand side of the map until you have the required map view .\nrelease the mouse to finish . if there are records with location information available for your selection a red marker will be displayed for the first 15 records .\nnote to change or redraw a region simply carry out the above steps again .\nresearch data australia is the data discovery service of the australian national data service ( ands ) . ands is supported by the australian government through the national collaborative research infrastructure strategy program . read more about ands . . .\nautomatic vetting based on the ala & apos ; s & apos ; assertions & apos ; whereby observations were assessed as inappropriate for modelling ( ie . & apos ; zero _ coordinates & apos ; , & apos ; invalid scientific name & apos ; ) ;\ndetermining if the observations fell within expert - derived range polygons . these polygons were supplied by birdlife australia to represent , for each species , its core breeding habitat , non - breeding , historic , irruptive , or invasive ranges . records that fall outside these ranges were marked as inappropriate for modelling ; and\nhuman - derived classification of records after previous two assessments . through the edgar project ( urltoken ) , users were able to map all species observations and comment on the suitability of records for distribution modelling . this included records deemed inappropriate by other means .\nevery 6 months the occurrence record download file is updated to reflect recent vetting by experts . in the data download , sensitive records have been obfuscated by truncating the lat / long to two decimal places . obfuscated records will be indicated in the data file . access to the accurate data will need to be arranged with the original data owners - contact the ala for more information .\nthe resulting downloadable file of occurrence records reflects which records are suitable for species distribution modelling .\nshrubland : subtropical / tropical dry ; grassland : subtropical / tropical dry ; rocky areas ( eg . inland cliffs , mountain peaks ) :\ntaxonomic note cinclosoma cinnamomeum and c . alisteri ( del hoyo and collar 2016 ) were previously lumped as c . cinnamomeum following christidis & boles ( 2008 ) and sibley & monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .\ntaxonomic source ( s ) del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\npopulation justification : the global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be locally fairly common ( flegg and madge 1995 ) .\ntrend justification : this population is estimated to be in decline owing to ongoing habitat degradation due to livestock and introduced herbivores ( del hoyo et al . 2007 ) .\nse qld . to nw nsw , cent . and ne sa and se nt .\njennifer hammock split the classifications by urltoken import from cinclosoma cinnamomeum gould 1846 to their own page .\nkari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name\nhietaviiri\u00e4istimali\nfrom\ncinclosoma cinnamomeum gould 1846\nas trusted .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\ncinclosoma marginatum and c . castanotum occur sympatrically but in different habitats in the south - west of the northern territory . the implications of the occurrence of c . marginatum as far east at mt olga are discussed . evidence is presented which suggests that the taxonomic status of c . marginatum , castaneothorax , cinnamomeum and alisteri should be re - examined . c . marginatum and c . castaneothorax are probably conspecific ; c . cinnamomeum is possibly more closely related to c . alisteri .\ni found a pair of these birds in some sand dunes a kilometre or so north of the normally empty cooper creek on the birdsville track . the light was terrible , as i was shooting straight into the morning sun . so these aren ' t the best shots i ' ve put up , but i think the rarity of the images makes up for the lack of technical quality . in any event , getting them certainly made my day !\nthis article is part of project aves , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bird , including made - up species .\nthis article is part of project passeriformes , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each passerine , including made - up species .\nthis article is part of project cinclosomatidae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each cinclosomatid , including made - up species .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhe says the methods developed during that breeding program might help with the reproduction of rarer species .\nhe says the fledgling is cause for great excitement as it will shed light on the social dynamics and natural history of the secretive bird .\nif you have inside knowledge of a topic in the news , contact the abc .\nabc teams share the story behind the story and insights into the making of digital , tv and radio content .\nwe ' ve ranked the top 50 wimbledon players over the last 50 years .\npeter sagan is a triple world champion and the most charismatic rider in professional road cycling . he is now the leader of the 2018 tour de france , writes rob arnold .\ncould you bring yourself to support england ? are the french or belgians more your cup of tea ? we want to know who your pick is to take out the 2018 world cup title .\nthe beautiful game has shown an ugly side in russia , with the treatment of the referees coming into sharp focus .\nthis service may include material from agence france - presse ( afp ) , aptn , reuters , aap , cnn and the bbc world service which is copyright and cannot be reproduced .\nspecial thanks to tropical birding for outstanding photo contributions to the bird data family of apps .\nthis application is created by interactive maps . you can also have your visited countries map on your site . if you see this message , you need to upgrade your flash player .\nthis citation will be automatically completed in the next few minutes . you can jump the queue or expand by hand\ndel hoyo , j . ; elliot , a . & christie d . ( editors ) . ( 2007 ) . handbook of the birds of the world . volume 12 : picathartes to tits and chickadees . lynx edicions . isbn 978 - 84 - 96553 - 42 - 2\nthis article is part of project bird genera , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each genus , including made - up genera .\nthis page uses creative commons licensed content from wikipedia ( view authors ) . please help by writing it in the style of all birds wiki !\nthank you for dropping by to check out my blog . you will see a lot of other blogs about birds i follow down the left hand side . i strongly encourage you to check some of these out as well , they are entertaining and i love to see birds from all over the world , i hope you do too .\ni came across three major mitchell cockatoos near alice springs recently . their unmistakable squawk gave their position on the power lines . . .\nsaw all of these birds of prey in the last week , and had some amazing close - up experiences . hope you enjoy the photos . wedge - tailed eagle . . .\nsaw a pair of wedge - tailed eagles today near alice springs . i suspect i actually drove past them and didn ' t notice them sitting in a tr . . .\nthe red - tailed black cockatoos were in full voice around lajamanu and surrounds . both in town and out at the turkey nest\nswimming & quo . . . ;\ni had a truly amazing experience recently where i saw budgies darken the sky with numbers , then come down to drink , get chased by birds of . . .\nhome . . . . . yeah ok then . . . sweet home !\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be locally fairly common ( flegg and madge 1995 ) . . . .\nthe iucn red list of threatened species . version 2018 - 1 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 09 july 2018 .\nnote : wildlife statistics are based on information that has been submitted to the des wildnet database and converted to a 10km\u00b2 grid . the grid information has been intersected with the mapping polygons to determine the species lists . click here to view the species grid metadata .\ndisclaimer : while every care is taken to ensure the accuracy of this product , the queensland government and australian government make no representations or warranties about its accuracy , reliability , completeness or suitability for any particular purpose and disclaim all responsibility and all liability ( including without limitation , liability in negligence ) for all expenses , losses , damages ( including indirect or consequential damage ) and costs which might be incurred as a consequence of reliance on the product , or as a result of the product being inaccurate or incomplete in any way and for any reason ."]}
{"id": 2226, "summary": [{"text": "rivomarginella morrisoni is a species of freshwater snail , gastropod mollusk in the family marginellidae , the margin snails .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "rivomarginella morrisoni is the type species of the genus rivomarginella . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "rivomarginella morrisoni", "paragraphs": ["marginellidae \u00bb rivomarginella morrisoni , id : 801283 , shell detail \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .\n- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : rivomarginella morrisoni r . a . m . brandt , 1968 - id : 2041503050\nrivomarginella morrisoni brandt , 1968 . x4 rivers , lakes , and canals along the gulf of thailand . one freshwater species\nknown from thailand only\n( brandt , 1974 ) .\nrivomarginella brandt , 1968 : 275 . type species ( o . d . ( monotypy ) ) : rivomarginella morrisoni brandt , 1968 ; indo - pacific , found in freshwater in south east asia . recent only ; coovert & coovert , 1995 : 93 [ prunini ] .\nthailand for brotia armata ( brandt , 1968 ) thailand for filopaludina ( filopaludina ) sumatrensis peninsularis brandt , 1974 thailand for rivomarginella morrisoni brandt , 1968 thailand for stenothyra acuta brandt , 1974 thailand for stenothyra confinis brandt , 1974 thailand for stenothyra cyrtochila van benthem jutting , 1959 thailand for stenothyra glabrata ( a . adams , 1851 ) thailand for stenothyra hardouini de morgan , 1885 thailand for stenothyra koratensis holosculpta brandt , 1974 thailand for stenothyra maculata brandt , 1974 thailand for stenothyra microsculpta brandt , 1974 thailand for stenothyra monilifera ( benson , 1856 ) thailand for stenothyra moussoni martens , 1897 thailand for stenothyra nana prashad , 1921 thailand for stenothyra polita ( a . adams , 1851 ) thailand for stenothyra prasongi brandt , 1974 thailand for stenothyra spinosa brandt , 1974\nbrandt r . a . m . ( 1974 ) . the non - marine aquatic mollusca of thailand . archiv f\u00fcr molluskenkunde . 105 : i - iv , 1 - 423 . [ details ]\ncossignani t . ( 2006 ) . marginellidae & cystiscidae of the world . l ' informatore piceno . 408pp . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nburch , j . , seddon , m . , sri - aroon , p . & do , v .\nthe species is thought to be restricted to central thailand , with a recent record from songkhla lake in southern thailand .\nfurther survey work is required to determine its current range , population trend and ecological requirements , and the species is considered data deficient at present .\nthe species is thought to be restricted to central thailand . it has been recorded in the mae klong river ( type locality ) , prachin river and nan river . it occurs also in several klongs around bangkok ( klong bang o , klong ban yikkan , klong prapa ) and klong rapipat at babn ta luang in ayutthaya province . in patalung , it was found in a lagoon . this species is poorly known with few verified records . a record from songkhla lake ( songkhla and phatthalung provinces ) requires confirmation (\nthis is the only species in the largely marine family marginellidae which lives in freshwater . it is found in rivers , lakes , and canals along the gulf of thailand .\nwithout more information on the species ' distribution and ecology , nothing can be inferred of its threats .\nno species - specific conservation actions known , however the species requires survey work to determine range , taxonomic status and future threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nshell gallery view \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc . \u00bb conchological megadatabase on mollusks\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nclick on an image to view all the information : family , species , author , date , and full locality .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 1 . 309 seconds . )\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 002 seconds . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\na few members of this marine or brackish water family have adapted to fresh waters . most inhabit marginally marine environments in the tropics .\ntelescopium telescopium ( linnaeus , 1758 ) brandt ( 1974 ) indicates this is a snail of\nmuddy irrigation trenches , drainages and swamps in the mud flats .\nnative to much of southeast asia .\ncerithidea cingulata ( gmelin , 1790 ) native to thailand . this image , and the photographs below are from brandt ( 1974 ) .\ncarniverous gastropods related to the marine whelks . two freshwater genera , clea and afrocanidia .\nbrandt ( 1974 ) describes and pictures six clea ( subgenus anentome ) species , but could only confirm clea helena for the territory of thailand . he says of clea helena that it is the only species in thailand that is\nnot restricted to running water as it is also found in lakes and ponds\n, and that it\nfeeds predominantly on decaying protein , but has been observed to attack living snails and worms .\nclea has been offered for sale in the pet trade and the possibility exists for it to become invasive . harry lee includes this and other information on the genus at urltoken . he also posted a listing of species at urltoken = 1 & h = 0 & o = t & t = 1 .\nclea helena ( philippi , 1847 ) ( left ) widespread , southeast asia , indonesia . variable . x3 . clea scalarina ( deshayes , 1876 ) ( right ) mekong river . slightly magnified .\nnassa mudsnails , characteristic of tidal mudflats , have also invaded fresh waters . banarescu ( 1990 ) mentions\npygmaenassa - india , nassodonta - east asia , and arcularia - lake chilka , burma .\nnassodonta dorri ( wattebled , 1886 ) viet nam . photo bill frank , webmaster jaxshells . org . x3 .\nmorrisonietta siamensis brandt , 1968 . x10 prefers brackish water of low salinity . several species endemic to various localities in southeast asia ( brandt , 1974 ) .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\nbrandt r . a . m . ( 1974 ) . the non - marine aquatic mollusca of thailand .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nsearch urltoken search urltoken - enter search word . avoid using the word\nshell\n- e . g . , use mitra instead of mitra shell . * * * google marginellidae on the internet\nclick on the thumbnail images for an enlarged view . images will open up in a separate , resizeable window .\n* turn off your browser ' s pop - up blocker to see enlarged pictures and links . *\n1995 . revision of the supraspecific classification of marginelliform gastropods . the nautilus 109 ( 2 & 3 ) : 43 - 110 .\n1997 . classification of the mollusca : a classification of worldwide mollusca . 1 - 544 .\nafrivoluta tomlin , 1947 : 244 . type species ( o . d . ) : afrivoluta pringlei tomlin , 1947 ; recent , south africa . 70 - 500m .\ntomlin , 1947 - endemic to south africa , 86mm ; grows to be the largest known species of marginellid ; trawled from deep water . the species was orignally described as a volute .\nmarginella ( marginellona ) von martens , 1904 : 108 . type species ( monotypy ) : marginella ( marginellona ) gigas von martens , 1904 ; indo pacific , eastern indian ocean and south china sea . recent . 380 to 1280m ; sigaluta rehder , 1967 : 182 - 183 . type species ( o . d . ) : sigaluta praetasensis rehder , 1967 , [ = marginellona gigas von martens , 1904 ] .\nmyobarum sohl , 1963 : 750 = 751 . type species ( o . d . ( monotypy ) ) : myobarum laevigatum sohl , 1963 ; late cretaceous ( upper maestrichtian ) of mississippi and georgia .\nconuginella laseron , 1957 : 288 . type species ( o . d . ) : marginella inermis tate , 1878 ; miocene australia .\nserrata jousseaume , 1875 : 167 , 230 . type species ( tautology ) : serrata serrata ( gaskoin , 1849 ) , [ = marginella serrata gaskoin , 1849 ] ; neozelanic , southern australia , indo - pacific . middle oligocene of new zealand , miocene of australia , to recent . intertidal to 370m ; haloginella laseron , 1957 : 284 . type species ( o . d . ) : marginella mustelina ( angas , 1871 ) , [ = hyalina ( volvarina ) mustelina angas , 1871 ] ; exiginella laseron , 1957 : 289 . type species ( o . d . ) : marginella winteri tate , 1878 .\nserrataginella coovert & coovert , 1995 : 82 . type species ( o . d . ( monotypy ) ) :\nmarginella\nspryi clover , 1974 ; indo - pacific and eastern africa . intertidal to 30m .\n( clover , 1974 ) - mozambique , 8 - 9mm ; dredged in \u00b1 20 meters of water off pemba . western indian ocean distribution .\n: cossignani , t . 2006 . marginellidae & cystiscidae of the world . p . 230 .\nstromboginella laseron , 1957 : 289 . type species ( o . d . ( monotypy ) ) : marginella crassidens chapman and crespin , 1928 ; pleistocene of australia .\nhydroginella laseron , 1957 : 284 . type species ( o . d . ( monotypy ) ) : hydroginella dispersa laseron , 1957 ; south australia , indo - pacific . recent . intertidal to 550m ; neptoginella laseron , 1957 : 283 . type species ( o . d . ) : neptoginella fascicula laseron , 1957 ; pillarginella gabriel , 1962 : 197 . type species ( o . d . ( monotyoy ) ) : marginella columnaria hedley & may , 1908 .\nmioginella laseron , 1957 : 287 . type species ( o . d . ( monotypy ) ) : marginella regula cotton , 1949 ' ; eocene from australia .\nprotoginella laseron , 1957 : 285 . type species ( o . d . ) : marginella lavigata brazier , 1877 , [ = marginella ( prunum ) lavigata brazier , 1877 ; indo - pacific . eocene and pliocene of australia to recent . 13 - 97m .\nmarginella ( nudifaba ) eames , 1952 : 122 . type species ( o . d . ( monotypy ) ) : marginella ( nudifaba ) rakhiensis eames , 1952 ; eocene of pakistan .\n: coovert & coovert , 1995 : 84 ; pacaud & le renard , 1995 : 167 .\nalaginella laseron , 1957 : 286 . type species ( o . d . ) : marginella ochracea angas , 1871 ; south australia , indo - pacific , south africa . miocene and pliocene of australia to recent . intertidal to 1650m ; carinaginella laseron , 1957 : 287 . type species ( o . d . ( monotypy ) ) : marginella carinata smith , 1891 ; cassoginella laseron , 1957 : type species ( o . d . ( monotypy ) ) : marginella palla cotton , 1949 ; triginella laseron , 1957 : 280 - 281 . type species ( o . d . ( monotypy ) ) : marginella malina hedley , 1915 .\n( tomlin , 1918 ) - algoa bay , south africa , 6 - 7mm . endemic to s . africa . taken from cray traps set in 100 - 150 meters of water . the elevated spire is a consistent characteristic . the species name is sometimes misspelled\nattracta\n.\nmarginella ( hiwia ) marwick , 1931 : 129 . type species ( o . d . ( monotypy ) ) : marginella ( hiwia ) amplificata marwick , 1931 ; eocene of australia to oligocene of new zealand .\naustroginella laseron , 1957 : 285 . type species ( o . d . ) : marginella muscaria lamarck , 1822 ; south australian . miocene to pleistocene of australia to recent . intertidal to 27m ; plicagenella laseron , 1957 : 285 . type species ( o . d . ) : marginella formicula lamarck , 1822 .\n( lamarck , 1822 ) - new south wales , australia , 13 - 15mm . type species of genus . dredged on sand in \u00b1 5 fathoms of water .\n: cossignani , t . 2006 . marginellidae & cystiscidae of the world . p . 356 .\nmesoginella laseron , 1957 : 282 . type species ( o . d . ( monotypy ) ) : marginella turbinata sowerby , 1846 ; neozelanic , south australia , indo - pacific . miocene , pliocene and pleistocene of australia to recent . intertidal to 640m ; deviginella laseron , 1957 : 283 - 284 . type species ( o . d . ) : marginella brachia watson , 1886 , [ = marginella ( glabella ) brachia watson , 1886 ] hianoginella laseron , 1957 : 288 . type species ( o . d . ( monotypy ) ) : marginella physa cotton , 1949 ; sinuginella laseron , 1957 : 282 . type species ( o . d . ) : marginella inconspicua sowerby , 1846 ; spiroginella laseron , 1957 : 283 . type species ( o . d . ( monotypy ) ) : marginella leia cotton , 1944 [ = marginella turbinata sowerby , 1846 ] urnigenella laseron , 1957 : 287 . type species ( o . d . ( monotypy ) ) : marginella cassidiformis tate , 1878 .\nclosia gray , 1857 : 36 . type species ( monotypy ) : closia sarda ( kiener , 1834 ) , [ = marginella sarda kiener , 1834 ] . indo - pacific restricted to western indian ocean . recent only . 20 - 140m .\n( kiener , 1834 ) - diego suarez , madagascar , 17mm . type species of genus closia . found only in the indian ocean .\novaginella laseron , 1957 : 280 . type species ( o . d . ) : marginella ovulum sowerby , 1846 . neozelanic , southern australia . recent only . 3 - 370m .\nbalanetta jousseaume , 1875 : 168 , 269 . type species ( monotypy ) : balanetta baylei jousseaume , 1875 ; southern australia , indo - pacific . recent only . intertidal to 183m .\nmarginella section volvarina hinds , 1844 : 75 . type species ( s . d . redfield , 1870 : 221 ) : marginella nitida hinds , 1844 , [ = marginella ( volvarina ) nitida hinds , 1844 , = voluta mitrella risso , 1826 ] ; neozelanic , southern australia , indo - pacific , eastern pacific , western atlantic , arctic , magellanic / antarctic , mediterranean , west africa , south africa . eocene of france , oligocene to pleistocene of west atlantic , early miocene of western pacific , miocene and pliocene of italy , pleistocene of california to recent ; coovert , & coovert , 1995 : 90 [ prunini ] ; pacaud & le renard , 1995 : 167 [ marginellidae ] ; volvoria jousseaume , 1875 ( err . ) volvarina hinds , 1844 ; vaught , 1989 : 54 ; le renard , 1996 : 78 .\n( sowerby , 1832 ) - tumbes , peru , 23 - 24mm . collected by fishermen in 5 - 10 meters of water . do not confuse with prunum macleani , which is a rarer species with a more limited distribution .\n( born , 1778 ) - guajira peninsula , colombia , 24mm . inhabits a wide swath of moderately deep water on both sides of the atlantic ocean from west africa to the southern caribbean . the species varies considerably . specimens from colombia often exhibit a central band .\n( pfeiffer , 1840 ) - eleuthera island , bahamas , 9 - 10mm . found in a blue - hole fed salt water lake in shallow water . the central columellar pillar is visible through the semi - translucent shell . do not confuse with prunum apicinum , which has a thicker , white shell .\n( clover , 1974 ) - masirah island , oman , 19 - 20mm . the species name is also spelled\npergrande\n. the two faint bands overlaid with white flecks is a consistent characteristic . a sand - dwelling species found intertidal around the arabian peninsula from the gulf of aden to the horn of africa .\n. seashells of eastern arabia . p . 148 ( as volvarina pergrandis ) .\n. le marginelle di ras hafun . 1 . 5 : 48 - 51 .\n. a new species of cypraea from west africa and three new species of marginellidae from the indian ocean . the journal of conchology 28 ( 4 ) : 213 - 216 , pl . 8 [ original description ] .\nbullata jousseaume , 1875 : 167 , 250 . type species ( tautology ) : bullata bullata ( born , 1778 ) , [ = voluta bullata born , 1778 ; western atlantic . miocene and pliocene of western atlantic to recent . 1 - 60m ; coovert & coovert , 1995 : 92 [ prunini ] ; marginella subg . volutella swainson , 1830 : ( 2 ) , marginella pl . 1 ( non perry , 1810 ) . type species ( o . d . ) : marginella bullata lamarck , 1822 , [ = voluta bullata born , 1778 ] ; gibberulina monterosato , 1884 : 139 [ invalid emendation , as\nnom . sost .\n] .\nmarginella , section cryptospira hinds , 1844 : 76 . type species ( s . d . gray , 1847 : 142 ) : marginella tricincta hinds , 1844 , [ = marginella ( cryptospira ) tricincta hinds , 1844 ; indo - pacific . pliocene of java to recent . from 0 . 6 to 123m ; coovert & coovert , 1995 : 93 [ prunini ] ; crystospira cotton , 1949 ( err . ) .\n( lamarck , 1822 ) - java , indonesia , 31 - 36mm . an uncommon southeast asian species . the illustrated shell was taken in \u00b1 40 meters of water at rembang by fishermen .\n. recent & fossil indonesian shells . p . 150 , pl . 50 , fig . 12a & b .\n( bavay , 1902 ) - basilan island , philippines , 11 - 12mm . trawled from \u00b1 70 meters of water .\n. philippine marine mollusks - vol . ii . p . 432 , pl . 511 , figs . 3a & b .\n. marginellidae & cystiscidae of the world . p . 328 . lipe , r . 1992 . marginellas . p . 13 , pl . 6 , fig . 4 .\n. shells of the philippines . p . 336 , pl . 96 , fig . 4e .\nbert , 1985 - phuket , thailand , 42 - 46mm . found sub - tidally . both banded and unbanded forms are found in the same populations .\nhyalina schumacher , 1817 : 234 . type species ( monotypy ) : hyalina pellucida schumacher , 1817 , [ = bulla pallida linne , 1758 ] ; indo - pacific , western atlantic , magellanic / antarctic , south africa , . pliocene of florida to recent . intertidal to 1340m ; coovert & coovert , 1995 : 94 [ prunini ] ; marginella , subg . volvarina section neovolvaria fischer , 1883 : 602 . type species ( monotypy ) : marginella pallida ( linne , 1767 ) , [ = bulla pallida linne , 1758 ] .\nmarginella , subg . stazzania sacco , 1890 : 138 ( 245 ) ; 1890 : 26 ( 318 ) . type species ( monotypy ) : marginella ( stazzania ) emarginata sismonda , 1847 ; eocene of france , to upper miocene of italy stazzania sacco , 1890 ; coovert & coovert , 1995 : 94 [ marginellini ] ; pacaud & le renard , 1995 : 167 [ marginellidae ] ; le renard , 1996 : 77 ( as synonym of marginella ) .\nmarginella subg . marginella , section dentimargo cossmann , 1899 : 90 . type species ( o . d . ) : marginella dentifera lamarck , 1803 ; neozelanic , southern australia , indo - pacific , eastern pacific , western atlantic , west africa , south africa . eocene of france , eocene to pleistocene of western atlantic , oligocene to pliocene of australia , miocene to pliocene of western pacific , to recent . intertidal to 1300m ; dentimargo cossmann , 1899 ; coovert & coovert , 1995 : 95 [ marginellini ] ; pacaud & le renard , 1995 : 167 [ marginellidae ] ; volvarinella habe , 1951 : 101 - 102 . type species ( o . d . ) : volvarinella makiyamai habe , 1951 ; pacaud & le renard , 1995 : 167 [ marginellidae ] ; marginella subg . eburnospira olsson & harbison , 1953 : 201 - 202 . type species ( o . d . ) : marginella eburneola conrad , 1834 ; volvarinella ( eburnospira ) ; pacaud & le renard , 1995 : 167 [ marginellidae ] longinella laseron , 1957 : 286 ( non gros & lestage , 1927 ) . type species ( o . d . ) : marginella maugeana hedley , 1915 .\nmarginella section marginella , gruppe eratoidea weinkauff , 1879 : 140 . type species ( s . d . cossmann , 1899 : 87 ) : marginella margarita kiener , 1834 ; western atlantic . miocene of caribbean , to recent . 1 to 1470m ; eratoidea weinkauff , 1879 ; coovert & coovert , 1995 : 96 [ marginellini ] .\ncryptospira subg . cryptospira , section euryentome cossmann , 1899 : 95 . type species ( o . d . ) : marginella crassilabra conrad , 1833 ( non marginella crassilabra bory de st . vincent , 1827 ) , [ = marginella silabra palmer , 1937 , = marginella anatina lea , 1833 ] ; eocene of alabama and mississippi , to miocene of trinidad ; euryentome cossmann , 1899 ; coovert & coovert , 1995 : 96 [ marginellini ] .\nmarginella , subg . glabella , section simplicoglabella sacco , 1890 : 21 ( 313 ) . type species ( s . d . eames , 1952 : 119 ) : marginella ( glabella ) taurinensis michelotti , 1847 ; miocene of italy . simplicoglabella sacco , 1890 ; coovert & coovert , 1995 : 97 [ marginellini ] .\nsowerby , 1886 - south africa , 15 - 16mm . a form from the eastern cape peninsula taken scuba diving in \u00b1 15 meters of water .\nsowerby , 1886 - south africa , 14 - 16mm . dredged off east london in \u00b1 55 meters of water .\n( bolten in r\u00f6ding , p . f . , 1798 ) - south africa , 41mm . grows to be one of the largest south african species in the genus marginella .\nredfield , 1870 - south africa , 32 . 5mm ; the color varies ; some are gray , others with rich colors like this illustrated shell .\nbozzetti , 1993 - south africa , 23 - 24mm ; immediately identifiable by the black tick markings along the margin of the lip .\n- south africa , 15mm ; a multitude of marginella species inhabit the waters off south africa ; this species is probably undescribed , one of many new marginella that have been discovered by scuba divers during the past number of years .\nglabella swainson , 1840 : 133 , 324 . type species ( s . d . gray , 1847 : 142 , monotypy ) : voluta faba linne , 1758 ; indo - pacific , west africa . recent only . intertidal to 183m ; coovert & coovert , 1993 : 98 [ marginellini ] ; marginella , section phaenospira hinds , 1844 : 72 . type species ( s . d . gray , 1847 : 142 ) : marginella noduta ( sic ) hinds , 1844 , [ = marginella nodata hinds , 1844 ] ; phoenospira petit , 1851 ( err . ) ; marginella subg . marginella , section faba fischer , 1883 : 602 . type species ( monotypy ) : marginella faba ( linne , 1758 ) , [ = voluta faba linne , 1758 ] ; marginella ( glabella ) ; pacaud & le renard , 1995 : 167 [ marginellidae ] .\n( adams , h . g . , 1869 ) - somalia , 28mm - trawled in \u00b1 200 meters of water . deep and shallow water forms exhibit considerable variation .\nmarginellidae on this page click name to view image - click \u00bb to view caption below .\nmarginella nebulosa \u00bb marginella peelae \u00bb marginella sp . \u00bb prunum curtum \u00bb prunum marginata \u00bb prunum pellucidum \u00bb prunum pergrandis \u00bb serrataginella spryi \u00bb"]}
{"id": 2229, "summary": [{"text": "oligobuninae is an extinct subfamily of the family mustelidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "the subfamily was described by j. a. baskin in 1998 ; of the genera that he assigned to this clade , eight are recognized today - brachypsalis , megalictis , oligobunis , potamotherium , promartes , zodiolestes , floridictis and parabrachypsalis - representing fifteen separate species . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "oligobuninae", "paragraphs": ["oligobuninae is an extinct subfamily of the family mustelidae known from miocene deposits in north america .\ncitation : valenciano a , baskin ja , abella j , p\u00e9rez - ramos a , \u00e1lvarez - sierra m\u00e1 , morales j , et al . ( 2016 ) megalictis , the bone - crushing giant mustelid ( carnivora , mustelidae , oligobuninae ) from the early miocene of north america . plos one 11 ( 4 ) : e0152430 . urltoken\nthe new specimens of megalictis ferox described here ( f : am 54079 , f : am 25430 and amnh 54076 ) give us a broader understanding of the morphology of m . ferox and lead us to conclude that the holotypes of both m . ferox ( amnh 12880 ) and aelurocyon brevifacies ( cm 1590 ) are conspecific and thus the latter should be subsumed into m . ferox . we argue that there are 3 species ascribed to megalictis : m . ferox , m . frazieri and m . simplicidens . however , the fourth potential congener , \u201cm\u201d . petersoni , might be best ascribed to a different genus . our cladistic analysis suggests that m . ferox is the sister taxon of the clade composed by m . simplicidens \u2014 m . frazieri . our phylogenetic hypothesis supports the subfamily oligobuninae as being a stem mustelid .\nmegalictis ferox matthew , 1907 [ 1 ] is a giant mustelid of the subfamily oligobuninae and belongs to the paraphyletic group of \u201cpaleomustelids\u201d [ 2 ] . it lived in the early miocene during the late arikareean ar4 north american land mammal age 22 . 7\u201318 . 5 mya [ 3 , 4 ] of the central great plains of united states in the states of nebraska , south dakota , and wyoming [ 1 , 5 \u2013 7 ] . the ar4 lithostratigraphic units containing giant oligobunines have been revised . hunt [ 8 ] named the anderson ranch formation for the terminal formation of the arikaree group in nebraska and wyoming formerly referred to as the upper harrison beds of peterson [ 5 , 9 ] and the lower marsland formation of schultz [ 10 ] . the black bear formation replaces the upper rosebud formation of south dakota [ 11 ] .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : j . a . baskin . 1998 . mustelidae . evolution of tertiary mammals of north america 152 - 173\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncopyright : \u00a9 2016 valenciano et al . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\ndata availability : all relevant data are within the paper and its supporting information files .\nfunding : a . v . has received funding from the european union\u2019s seventh framework programme ( fp7 / 2007 - 2013 ) under grant agreement n\u00b0 226506 ( synthesys ; se - taf - 3637 ) , the usc school of medicine ( columbia , south carolina , usa ) , the amnh ( collection study grant program 2014 ) and the international travel grant 2015 from the vertebrate paleontology department of flmnh from uf . a . v . is researcher in formation in the csic program jae - pre _ cp2011 ( csic program\njunta para la ampliaci\u00f3n de estudios\n) , co - funded by the european social fund . a . p . r . is a pre - doctoral fpi fellowship ( bes - 2013 - 065469 ) of the project cgl2012 - 37866 . this study was also supported by the spanish ministerio de econom\u00eda y competitividad ( research project cgl2015 - 68333 , cgl2011 - 28877 and cgl2011 - 28681 ) , the research group bsch - ucm 910607 and university of south carolina school of medicine ( columbia , south carolina , usa ) .\nabbreviations : acm , amherst college beneski museum of natural history , massachusetts , usa ; ahr , comparative anatomy research collection , university of south carolina school of medicine , columbia , usa ; amnh , american museum of natural history , division of paleontology and division of mammalogy , new york , usa ; cm , carnegie museum of natural history , pittsburgh , usa ; f : am , collection housed in the frick collection of the division of paleontology , amnh , new york , usa ; lgput , laboratory of geology and palaeontology , university of thessaloniki , greece ; mncn , museo nacional de ciencias naturales madrid , spain ; mncncomp , comparative anatomy research collection of paleobiology department of museo nacional de ciencias naturales madrid , spain ; nrm , naturhistoriska rikmuseet , stockholm , sweden ; pin , palaeontological institute , russian academy of sciences , moscow , russia ; sam - pql , iziko south african museum , cape town south african museum , south africa ; tmm , texas memorial museum at the vertebrate paleontology laboratory , the jackson school of geosciences , university of texas , austin , usa ; uf , vertebrate paleontology collection of the florida museum of natural history ( flmnh ) , university of florida , gainesville , usa ; unsm , university of nebraska state museum , lincoln , nebraska , usa ; usnm , united states national museum of natural history , smithsonian institution , washington , d . c . , usa\nmegalictis ferox [ 1 ] was described from the black bear formation , stanley county , south dakota , usa . a second giant oligobunine , aelurocyon brevifacies peterson , 1907 [ 5 ] , was described from the niobrara canyon local fauna , anderson ranch formation in sioux county , nebraska , usa . hunt and skolnick [ 7 ] established that the actual publication date for a . brevifacies was one week after matthew described m . ferox in 1907 , not in 1906 as indicated in the journal . after these initial descriptions , riggs [ 6 ] described new cranial and postcranial material of both taxa . hunt and skolnick [ 7 ] synonymized megalictis ferox , aelurocyon brevifacies , and the large oligobunine mustelid paroligobunis simplicidens ( peterson , 1907 ) [ 5 ] .\nhere , we describe an important unpublished sample of craniomandibular remains of megalictis ferox ( f : am 25430 , f : am 54079 , and amnh 54076 ) , housed at the american museum of natural history ( new york , usa ) . although f : am 25430 and f : am 54079 were found in the late 1930s and have been used to obtain metric , morpho - functional and phylogenetic data ( e . g . , [ 2 , 7 , 12 \u2013 16 ] ) , they have never been fully described . therefore , the main objective of the present paper is to describe these unpublished skulls and mandibles , and provide new data on the taxonomy and systematics of the genus in order to shed new light on the paleobiology of megalictis .\ndental nomenclature follows ginsburg [ 17 ] and smith and dodson [ 18 ] . anatomical descriptions are based primarily on scapino [ 19 ] , turnbull [ 20 ] , barone [ 21 , 22 ] , waibl et al . [ 23 ] , evans and de lahunta [ 24 , 25 ] , and hartstone - rose et al . [ 26 ] . the terminology conforms to the standard of the nomina anatomica veterinaria [ 23 ] with the exception of the masseter and temporalis muscle complexes for which we follow hartstone - rose et al . [ 26 ] . the megalictis material ( figs 1 \u2013 4 ) has been compared to all the other material of megalictis and paroligobunis on the basis of published descriptions , figures , measurements and photographs . we have re - measured the dentition of amnh 12880 and 22632 ( cast of cm 1590 ) measured initially by matthew [ 1 ] and peterson [ 5 ] and completed the measures of paroligobunis petersoni loomis , 1932 [ 27 ] using a cast tmm 40966\u20131 . measurements were made using mitutoyo absolute digital calipers to the nearest 0 . 1 mm ( tables 1 and 2 ) .\na lateral view ; b rostral view ; c dorsal view ; d caudal view ; e ventral view . scale bar equals 5 cm .\na right mandible lateral view ; b occlusal view ; c left mandible lingual view of lower dentition . scale bar equals 5 cm .\na1\u20134 cranium f : am 54079 , lateral view ( a1 ) , dorsal view ( a2 ) , ventral view ( a3 ) , and caudal view ( a4 ) ; b1\u20133 right hemimandible f : am 54079 , lateral view ( b1 ) , medial view ( b2 ) , and occlusal view ( b3 ) ; c1\u20133 left hemimandible f : am 54079 lateral view ( c1 ) , medial view ( c2 ) , and oclussal view ( c3 ) ; d1\u20133 right hemimandible of amnh 54076 , lateral view ( d1 ) , medial view ( d2 ) , and occlusal view ( d3 ) . scale bar equals 5 cm .\na , and b megalictis ferox holotype amnh 12880 , lateral view ( a ) , ventral view ( b ) ; c , and d megalictis ferox cm 1590 ( genotype of aelurocyon brevifacies ) , lateral view ( c ) , ventral view ( d ) ; megalictis ferox f : am 25430 lateral view ( e ) , ventral view ( f ) ; g , and h megalictis ferox f : am 54079 lateral view ( g ) , ventral view ( h ) . scale bar equals 5 cm . c and d courtesy of the carnegie museum of natural history .\nf : am 25430 ( figs 1 and 2 , s1 video ) : relatively complete skull with i1 - 3 , c , p1 - 4 and m1 - 2 , missing only its left zygomatic arch , a broken frontal area plus a portion of the right parietal region missing and filled with plaster , a hole in its right parietal bone , and a complete mandible with i1 - 3 , c , p1 - 4 and m1 - 2 ; f : am 54079 ( fig 3 , s2 video ) : right side of a partial skull without the premaxilla , with worn c , p2 - m1 and partial mandibles with a nearly complete right one with c - m2 and a broken mandibular symphysis and a left one just with the mandibular corpus preserved and a broken p2 , and a complete both p3 and m1 ; amnh 54076 ( fig 3 ) : partial mandibular corpus with m1 - 2 .\nin order to better understand the phylogenetic relationships of the oligobunines megalictis ferox ( amnh 12880 , cm 1590 , f : am 25430 and f : am 54079 ) , m . simplicidens ( = paroligobunis simplicidens ) ( cm 1553 and cm 2389 ) , m . frazieri ( = paroligobunis frazieri ) ( uf 23928 ) , \u201c m . \u201d petersoni ( = paroligobunis petersoni ) ( acm 2011 ) , and oligobunis crassivultus ( amnh 6903 ) , we have performed a cladistic analysis ( fig 5 ) including 18 taxa ( m . ferox is represented in the analysis as 4 separate operational taxonomic units ( otu ) ) and 73 equally weighted and unordered craniomandibular characters ( s1 \u2013 s3 appendices ) . cladistic analysis was performed using in paup * 4 . 0b10 [ 38 ] . the analysis was rooted using c . lupus as the outgroup .\nsearches were performed using the branch and bound and a bootstrap analysis through 1000 replicates to test the clade support in the analysis . the outgroup was c . lupus . strict consensus tree of 6 trees ( length 194 steps , consistency index ( ci ) = 0 . 41 , retention index ( ri ) = 0 . 65 ) for knowing the relationships between the different specimens of megalictis ferox , megalictis simplicidens , megalictis frazieri , \u201c megalictis \u201d petersoni , oligobunis crassivultus , and a sample of extant musteloids and a canid . numbers below nodes are bremer indices , and numbers above nodes are bootstrap support percentages ( only shown when \u2265 50 ) . character / taxa matrix is detailed in the s1 \u2013 s3 appendices . silhouette of megalictis ferox based on hunt and skolnick [ 7 ] , silhouette of megalictis simplicidens , megalictis frazieri , \u201c megalictis \u201d petersoni and oligobunis crassivultus based on megalictis ferox but rescaled according the size of the dentition .\nvirtual models of the mandibles and skulls of megalictis ferox ( f : am 25430 , f : am 54079 , amnh 12880 and amnh 22632 ) as well as megalictis frazieri uf 23928 and megalictis simplicidens ( cast of cm 1553 ) were derived by means of a 3d nextengine hd laser surface scanner ( s1 \u2013 s6 videos ) .\ndiagnosis : large to giant size mustelid ; robust mandible with a high , wide and distally curved ascending ramus ; deep masseteric fossa with a stout crest that extends from the dorsal border of the coronoid process to below the m2 ; robust dentition ; p1 present ; p2\u20134 with distal cingula high - crowned ; p4 relatively enlarged with mesial and distal accessory cuspids ; m1 trigonid widened , with a strong lingual concavity between the paraconid and protoconid ; m1 metaconid reduced to absent , present in the older and smaller forms and absent in the giant forms , m1 talonid low and narrow with a short , trenchant and labially located hypoconid ; and m2 with reduced metaconid .\ntype species : megalictis ferox matthew , 1907 p1 . ii , fig . 1 [ 1 ]\nincluded species : megalictis simplicidens ( = paroligobunis simplicidens ) ( peterson , 1907 ) [ 5 ] and megalictis frazieri ( = paroligobunis frazieri ) ( frailey , 1978 ) [ 28 ] .\nsynonyms : senior subjective synonym [ 7 ] of aelurocyon brevifacies peterson , 1907 , p . 68 [ 5 ] , \u201cupper harrison formation\u201d , sioux county , nebraska and paroligobunis peterson , 1910 [ 29 ] . hunt and skolnick [ 7 ] synonymized megalictis , aelurocyon , and paroligobunis simplicidens into a single , sexually - dimorphic chronospecies m . ferox . this hypothesis has been generally accepted ( e . g . , [ 3 , 13 , 42 ] ) .\nmegalictis ferox , hunt and skolnick , 1996 ( pars ) . [ 7 ]\nholotype : amnh 12880 , a partial reconstructed skull ( fig 4 , s3 video ) with right p4 , m1 - 2 , a fragmented right mandible with almost complete coronoid process , m1 trigonid and m2 , and very few postcranial remains figured by matthew , 1907 , p . 196 , fig . 10\u201313 , 15 [ 1 ] .\ntype locality : rosebud 22 , porcupine butte , black bear formation , stanley county , south dakota .\nother localities : rosebud 5 , porcupine butte , stanley county , south dakota , usa ( amnh 12881 ) ; niobrara canyon local fauna , sioux county , nebraska , usa ( cm 1590 ) , \u201chigh daemonelix beds\u201d , niobrara canyon local fauna , sioux county , nebraska , usa ( f : am 25430 ) ; j - m district , south of lusk , goshen county , wyoming , usa [ 6 ] ; \u201chigh brown sand\u201d , 16 mile district , goshen county , wyoming , usa ( f : am 54079 ) ; 8 north of lusk , goshen county , wyoming , usa ( f : am 54076 ) .\nage : upper part of the anderson ranch formation and its equivalents , south dakota , nebraska , and wyoming , late late arikareean ( ar4 ) , 22 . 7\u201318 . 5 mya [ 4 ] early miocene .\ndiagnosis : baskin [ 2 ] diagnosed of aelurocyon brevifacies ( which he considered the senior subjective synonym of megalictis ferox because of the presumed earlier publication date at the time he submitted the chapter ) . new or revised characters follow . megalictis ferox is the largest of the oligobunines ; coronoid process high and caudally curved ; enlarged masseteric fossa with a robust crest extending from the dorsal border of the coronoid process to below the m2 ; laterocaudal area of the ventral edge of the mandibular corpus laterally projected ; p2 with distal accessory cusp ; robust p3 ; robust p4 with strong parastyle and protocone ; p4 carnassial notch present ; m1 with enlarged stylar area ; m2 with paracone and protocone ; p2\u20134 with high - crowned distal cingula ; p3 with mesial and distal accessory cuspid ; p4 relatively enlarged with presence of mesial accessory cuspid and stout distal accessory cuspid ; m1 trigonid widened ; m1 with strong lingual concavity between paraconid and protoconid ; m1 protoconid higher than paraconid ; m1 hypoconid short , trenchant and buccally located ; m1 with a lingual cingulum in the entoconid position ; m2 reduced with metaconid .\ndifferential diagnosis : megalictis ferox differs from m . simplicidens , m . frazieri , \u201cm . \u201d petersoni and oligobunis crassivultus in its larger size , m1 without metaconid and m1 talonid with a closed lingual morphology with a lingual cingulum between the metacristid and entocristid . additionally , it differs from m . simplicidens and m . frazieri in having a higher and more robust mandibular symphysis , a reduced p2 and a more robust p4 and m1 . it further differs from \u201cm . \u201d petersoni in much larger size and p3\u20134 with mesial accessory cuspids . it further differs from oligobunis crassivultus in having a more rectangular p2 , smaller m1 than p4 , enlarged m1 stylar area , higher paracone than metacone on the m1 , reduced p2 , p2\u20133 high - crowned distal cingula , more developed p3 distal accessory cuspid , relatively enlarged p4 , and higher protoconid than paraconid on the m1 .\ncomments : specimens that can be referred to m . ferox s . s . are from the latest arikareean ( ar4 ) upper part of the anderson ranch formation and its equivalents .\na nearly complete skull with i1 - 3 , c , p1 - 4 and m1 - 2 ( fig 1 , s1 video ) and a complete mandible with i1 - 3 , c , p1 - 4 and m1 - 2 ( fig 2 , s1 video ) . the left zygomatic arch is missing . part of the frontal and a region of the right parietal bones are missing and filled with plaster . there is a subrectangular and anthropogenic hole in its right parietal bone located above the most caudal area of the zygomatic arch .\nlocality : \u201chigh daemonelix beds\u201d , anderson ranch formation , niobrara canyon local fauna , sioux county , nebraska , usa .\nskull and upper dentition : the very well preserved skull f : am 25430 ( fig 1 ) has a basicranial length of 189 . 5 mm . it is slightly domed dorsally at the frontal bone , the bullae are broken and the left zygomatic arch is missing . in general terms the skull is high , domed with a short rostrum and high snout ( fig 1a ) . the nasal aperture is large ( fig 1b ) , and the crushed nasal bones are robust . they are crushed in the mid - sagittal plane and anteriorly the left nasal bone is partially above the right one . the reconstructed frontal region is quite domed . the interorbital region is broad . the postorbital processes are absent . the moderately developed infraorbital foramen is rounded and located above the distal accessory cusp of the p3 . the rostral margin of the orbit ends at the level of the distal margin of the p4 paracone . the orbits are large and rounded . the lacrimal foramen is rounded and relatively large . the sagittal crest is moderately developed and extends caudally where it divides into the nuchal crests , forming a y - pattern ( fig 1a , 1c and 1d ) . in lateral view , the outline of the skull is convex in the temporal region and concave between the temporal bone and nuchal crests .\nthe zygomatic arches are robust , especially caudally near the glenoid cavity . both m . masseter pars superficialis and m . masseter pars profunda have their origin on the ventrolateral side of the zygomatic arch . the frontal processes of the zygomatic arches are triangular and dorsoventrally high .\nmandible and lower dentition : the mandible of f : am 25430 is very robust ( fig 2a and 2b ) . it has a total length of 149 . 0 mm . the tooth row is slightly convex and is aligned with the articular process . the mandibular corpus is high and robust . the ventral margin is convex at the level of the m1 . there is single rounded mental foramen under p2 . the ascending ramus is tall and rostrocaudally broad ( fig 2a ) . its tip is distally oriented . the coronoid process is laterally rotated with an angle of ~ 75 degrees , compared to the articular process . there is a robust crest from the dorsal border of the coronoid to beneath the m2 where the tendon of the m . temporalis is attached . this area is especially enlarged and laterally projected around the area of the m2 ( fig 2a and 2b ) . the masseteric fossa is large and deep . its rostral margin lies at the level of talonid of m1 , and ventrolaterally is limited by a strong area where the m . masseter pars superficialis and m . masseter pars profunda insert . the articular process is large and robust . the angular process is robust and shows a medial crest for the muscular attachment of the m . pterygoideus medialis .\nthe lower dentition ( 3 / 1 / 4 / 2 ) is also preserved in its entirety ( fig 2 ) . the lower incisors are heavily worn . the canine is large , stout and markedly curved distally ( fig 2a and 2b ) . it has a swollen base and is oval in cross - section . the p1 is oval , single - cusped and distally wide ( fig 2b ) . the p2\u20134 are stout , subrectangular and wider distally . these premolars have strong cingula at their bases , and the distal cingula are high - crowned . the p2 has a single messially - located cuspid . the p3 has a low mesial accessory cuspid and a more developed distal one . the p4 is the largest lower premolar and has more strongly developed mesial and distal accessory cuspids . the m1 is a relatively short and stout tooth ( fig 2 ) . the very robust trigonid occupies almost three fourths of the total length of the tooth , with the greatest width at the base of the protoconid . the paraconid is lower than the protoconid and there is no metaconid . the m1 shows a markedly lingual concavity in the base of the crown between the trigonid cuspids ( fig 2b ) . the stout talonid lacks an entoconid . the hypoconid is low , trenchant and buccally located . there is a smooth cristid from the top of the protoconid to the hypoconid that encloses a deep lingual depression ( fig 2c ) . the m2 is rounded and low ( fig 2b ) . the paraconid is low , and located in the mesial corner . the protoconid is the highest cuspid , located buccally in the middle of the tooth . the metaconid is situated over the lingual corner . it is less developed than the protoconid . the hypoconid is low and located in the distal corner . there is a cingulum around the whole tooth .\npartial skull with worn c , p2\u2013m1 and partial mandible with worn p1\u20134 and m1\u20132 ( fig 3a1\u20134 , 3b1\u20133 and 3c1\u20133 , s2 video ) .\nlocality : \u201chigh brown sand\u201d , 16 mile district , anderson ranch formation , goshen county , wyoming , usa .\nskull and upper dentition : the skull f : am 54079 ( fig 3a1\u20134 ) only preserves its right side . it has a maximum length of 180 . 2 mm . the premaxilla is missing , so the basicranial length is unknown . in general terms , f : am 54079 resembles f : am 25430 ( fig 1 ) . the frontal bone and dorsal area of the parietal bone are absent ( fig 3a2 ) . the zygomatic arches are more robust than those of f : am 25430 , especially in the rostral and the central part of the arches , and the origin of m . masseter pars superficialis and m . masseter pars profunda are also more developed . however , the frontal processes of the zygomatic arches are lower than those of f : am 25430 . the glenoid fossa is stout with a very well developed postglenoid process ( fig 3a3 ) . the complete right auditory bulla is large and swollen . the external auditory meati are rounded . the postglenoid foramen , the rostral foramen lacerum and the foramen ovale are similar to those of f : am 25430 . the mastoid process is also robust and expanded . the right occipital condyle is preserved but the caudodorsal area of the skull is not . the paroccipital process is triangular , stout and caudally oriented ( fig 3a1 and 3a3\u20134 ) .\nc , p2\u20134 and are preserved . the p1 is missing . they are more worn than are those of f : am 25430 . the c has a large lingual wear facet . the morphology of p2\u20134 ( fig 3a3 ) is almost identical to that of f : am 25430 . the p3 is more quadrangular than that of f : am 25430 , but the mesiolingual corner of the p3 is missing . the p4 paracone , protocone and metastyle are greatly - worn ( fig 3a3 ) . the m1 ( fig 3a3 ) has the same development of the cusps as that found in f : am 25430 , and shows a very similar morphology as that of amnh 12880 . the m2 and its alveoli are not preserved .\nmandible and lower dentition : the right hemimandible ( fig 3b1\u20133 ) has a fragmented corpus that is missing its symphyseal end but includes a complete ascending ramus with p1\u20134 and m1\u20132 . its morphology is almost identical to that of f : am 25430 . the left hemimandible ( fig 3c1\u20133 ) is missing its ascending ramus but includes a complete mandibular corpus , a complete p1 , a fragmented p2 , a highly worn p3 , a complete m1 and a fragmented m2 . the p1\u20134 and m1 are almost identical to those of f : am 25430 though there is more substantial occlusal wear in p2\u20134 and m1 than in f : am 25430 . the m2 is oval and has a more developed metaconid than the m2 of f : am 25430 .\nlocality : 8 north of lusk , goshen county , anderson ranch formation , wyoming , usa .\nmandible and lower dentition : amnh 54076 is a fragmented mandibular corpus missing its symphysis ( fig 3d1\u20133 ) . it has roots for p2\u20133 , and complete m1\u20132 . the mandibular corpus is high and robust . the m1 is identical to those of f : am 54079 and f : am 25430 . it has a stout trigonid , and a low talonid composed of a trenchant hypoconid , lingually located and a lingual depression . the m2 is rounded and low . it has a distinguishable protoconid and metaconid , and a continuous basal cingulum .\nhunt and skolnick [ 7 ] did not consider the other two species referred to paroligobunis : the small p . petersoni loomis , 1932 [ 27 ] and p . frazieri frailey , 1978 [ 28 ] . as discussed below , we consider the material referred to both p . simplicidens and p . frazieri to be valid species : megalictis frazieri and m . simplicidens .\nthe results of the cladistic analysis indicate that the specimens we assign to m . ferox form a monophyletic group ( fig 5 ) . we agree with hunt and skolnick [ 7 ] in that m . ferox and a . brevifacies are the same taxon , and that m . ferox has priority . morphologically , the specimens f : am 54079 , f : am 25430 and amnh 54076 , as well as cm 1590 and amnh 12880 , are practically identical to each other ( figs 1 \u2013 4 ) . f : am 54079 differs from f : am 25430 and cm1590 in having a more robust p3 and a relatively longer m2 . cm 1590 has a reduced lingual expansion of p3 and a stronger parastyle of p4 than f : am 54079 , f : am 25430 and amnh 12880 . the morphology of f : am 25430 is clearly different from the skull of amnh 12880 , and shows that the reconstructed parts of the latter were incorrect , in which the temporal , frontal and a part of the zygomatic arch bones are misinterpreted ( fig 4a and 4b ) . f : am 25430 allows us to complete the knowledge about the morphology of the skull of m . ferox and showing that the holotype of m . ferox ( amnh 12880 ) and the holotype of a . brevifacies ( cm 1590 ) belong to the same species . consequently , f : am 54079 , f : am 25430 and amnh 54076 should be assigned to m . ferox . we agree with hunt and skolnick [ 7 ] that the difference observed in the specimens of m . ferox can be explained by intraspecific variability ( sexual dimorphism and intrapopulational differences ) or small temporal differences .\nmegalictis ferox ( figs 1 \u2013 4 ) is characterized by several traits : long external auditory meatus ; high and caudally curved coronoid process ; enlarged masseteric fossa with a robust crest from the dorsal border of the coronoid process to just beneath the m2 ; latero - caudal area of the ventral edge of the mandibular corpus is laterally projected , with the ventral edge of the angular process also laterally projected ; i3 is enlarged ; p2 with a distal accessory cusp ; robust p3 ; robust p4 with carnassial notch ; enlarged stylar area of m1 , and a m2 with paracone and protocone differentiated ; p2\u20134 distal cingula high - crowned ; distal accessory cuspid on p3 ; relatively enlarged p4 with a stout mesial accessory cuspid ; relatively stout m1 with a widened trigonid , a strong lingual concavity between the paraconid and protoconid , no metaconid , protoconid higher than paraconid , with a short , trenchant and buccally located hypoconid and a lingual rim in the entoconid position ; reduced m2 with a metaconid .\nall the three species that have been referred to paroligobunis ( fig 6 ) are known from limited material . the genotype of paroligobunis , megalictis simplicidens ( cm 1590 , peterson , 1907 , 1910 ) [ 5 , 29 ] comes from the \u201cagate stock farm\u201d , sioux county nebraska . the exact locality is unknown and it is either from the harrison formation ( ar3 ) or the basal part of the anderson ranch formation [ 7 ] . additional material first referred to p . simplicidens [ 29 ] and later to megalictis ferox [ 7 ] is from quarry 3 , beardog hill , agate fossil beds national monument , from the basal part of the anderson ranch formation . the small \u201cm\u201d . petersoni ( loomis , 1932 ) [ 27 ] is from a locality near van tassel , wyoming , \u201cupper harrison beds\u201d ( = anderson ranch formation ) and p . frazieri frailey , 1978 [ 28 ] is from the sb - 1a local fauna , florida , latest oligocene , early late arikareean ( ar3 ) . hunt ( in tedford et . al , 2004 : p . 205 [ 3 ] ) recognized that \u201c\u2018 paroligobunis\u2019 frazieri is an earlier form preceding the late arikareean species of megalictis \u201d .\n( a ) megalictis simplicidens , type specimen , cm1553 ( peterson , 1907 ) [ 5 ] , lateral view of the mandible , ( b ) megalictis simplicidens cm 1553 ( peterson , 1907 ) [ 5 ] , medial view , ( c ) megalictis simplicidens cm 2389 ( peterson , 1910 ) [ 29 ] , lateral view of the mandible , ( d ) megalictis simplicidens cm 2389 ( peterson , 1910 ) [ 29 ] , medial view , ( e ) megalictis frazieri ( frailey , 1978 ) [ 28 ] , holotype uf 23928 , lateral view of the mandible , ( f ) megalictis frazieri ( frailey , 1978 ) [ 28 ] , uf 23928 , medial view , ( g ) \u201c megalictis\u201d petersoni ( loomis , 1932 ) [ 27 ] , holotype acm 2011 , lateral view of the mandible , ( h ) \u201c megalictis\u201d petersoni ( loomis , 1932 ) [ 27 ] acm 2011 , medial view , ( i ) megalictis simplicidens cm1553 ( peterson , 1907 ) [ 5 ] , occlusal view , ( j ) megalictis simplicidens cm 2389 ( peterson , 1910 ) [ 29 ] , occlusal view , ( k ) megalictis frazieri ( frailey , 1978 ) [ 28 ] , uf 23928 , occlusal view , ( l ) \u201c megalictis\u201d petersoni ( loomis , 1932 ) [ 27 ] acm 2011 , occlusal view . scale bar equals 5 cm . a - d , i and j courtesy of the carnegie museum of natural history . e - f and k courtesy of the florida museum of natural history . g - h and l , beneski museum of natural history at amherst college , courtesy of the trustees of amherst college .\nthere are no derived characters uniting the three named species of paroligobunis that are not shared with megalictis ( s2 appendix ) . our phylogenetic analysis ( fig 5 ) shows that these three species are paraphyletic with m . ferox . the larger p . frazieri and p . simplicidens are both referred to megalictis . the differences in morphology and size between the three species of megalictis with respect to \u201c m . \u201d petersoni ( fig 6 ) suggest that \u201c m . \u201d petersoni could be excluded from the genus megalictis .\nmegalictis simplicidens and m . frazieri ( fig 6 ) resemble m . ferox in several characters , such as a high , wide and distally curved ascending ramus , and a deep masseteric fossa with a robust crest that extends from the dorsal border of the coronoid process to below the m2 . both taxa have a p1 , the distal cingula of p2\u20134 are high - crowned , and the p4 is relatively enlarged with mesial and distal accessory cuspids . the m1 trigonid is widened , with a strong lingual concavity between the paraconid and protoconid , a low , and narrow talonid with a short , trenchant and labially located hypoconid , and a reduced m2 with presence of a metaconid . however they differ from m . ferox in having a non - reduced p2 , the presence of a stout m1 metaconid , relatively more slender p4 and m1 , m1 talonid with an open lingual morphology between the metacristid and entocristid , and a lower and more slender mandibular symphysis .\nhunt and skolnick [ 7 ] partially described and measured some of the unsm and cm specimens of megalictis from the basal part of the anderson ranch formation at beardog hill that we refer to m . simplicidens . aside from their more primitive morphology ( e . g . , presence of a metaconid on m1 ) , they are smaller than m . ferox from the upper anderson ranch formation . the upper and lower dental measurements indicate a size similar to g . gulo .\nmegalictis frazieri ( fig 6e , 6f and 6k ) differs from m . simplicidens ( fig 6a\u20136d , 6i and 6j ) in having a less massive mandible and a more distinctive distal cingulum with a higher crown in p2\u20134 than m . simplicidens . the c and p2 of m . frazieri are also more robust . the m1 hypoconid is higher and the talonid is relatively larger , slightly basined with a very low internal rim .\n\u201cmegalictis\u201d petersoni ( fig 6g , 6h and 6l ) differs from m . simplicidens and m . frazieri in the absence of mesial accessory cuspids on p3\u20134 , a relatively stouter p4 with a shorter mesial part and a relatively more robust m1 with a taller and stouter metaconid .\nmetrically the new megalictis ferox sample described above ( f : am 54079 , f : am 25430 and amnh 54076 ) together with amnh 12880 and cm 1590 form a single picture of m . ferox with dental biometric variability similar to the largest extant terrestrial mustelids gulo and mellivora ( figs 7 and 8 ) . however , if m . simplicidens is considered as a synonym of m . ferox , this variability exceeds the extant one . such variability is much more pronounced when all the specimens of m . simplicidens , m . frazieri and the small \u201c m . \u201d petersoni ( figs 7 and 8 ) are included .\na life appearance ; b , reconstructed skull and mandible ; c , skull and mandible f : am 25430 . artwork by adam hartstone - rose .\nthe preservation of the of m . ferox specimen f : am 25430 represents by far the most complete and best preserved craniomandibular specimen of any giant mustelids . based on the size of the skull , m . ferox emerges as the largest terrestrial mustelid ever known\u2013even larger than the extinct late miocene giant mustelid ekorus , eomellivora , and plesiogulo [ 13 , 32 , 33 , 35 , 37 , 70 ] . this new material sheds light on a new paleobiological interpretation of megalictis as a hyena - like , bone - crushing mustelid , instead of the cat - like ecomorphotype previously ascribed to the genus .\ns1 table . list of the extant specimens of carnivorans used in this paper .\ns1 video . video of the cranium and mandible of megalictis ferox f : am 25430 .\ns2 video . video of the cranium and mandible of megalictis ferox f : am 54079 .\ns3 video . video of the cranium and mandible of the holotype of megalictis ferox amnh - 12880 .\ns4 video . video of the cranium and mandible megalictis ferox amnh - 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aquatic artic mammalian carnivore from the miocene epoch and origin of pinnipedia . nature . 2009 ; 458 ( 7241 ) : 1021\u20131024 . pmid : 19396145\nwillemsen gf . a revision of the pliocene and quaternary lutrinae from europe . scripta geologica . 1992 ; 101 : 1\u2013115 .\ntedford rh . relationship of pinnipeds to other carnivores ( mammalia ) . systematic zoology . 1976 ; 25 : 363\u2013374 .\n, ( ordo pinipedia , fam . semantoridae fam . nova ) aus den neogen - ablagerungen westsibiriens . tr palcont inst akad nauk sssr . 1933 ; 2 : 165\u2013268 .\n] . voprosy geol azii ( an , sssr ) . 1955 ; 2 : 810\u2013814 .\n, an oligocene latrine . proc zool soc lond . 1957 ; 129 : 151\u2013244 .\nkoepfli kp , deere ka , slater gj , begg c , begg k , grassman l , et al . multigene phylogeny of the mustelidae : resolving relationships , tempo and biogeographic history of a mammalian adaptive radiation . bmc biol . 2008 ; 6 : 10 . pmid : 18275614\nsato jj , wolsan m , prevosti fj , d\u00b4el\u00eda g , begg c , begg k , et al . evolutionary and biogeographic history of weasel - like carnivorans ( musteloidea ) . mol phylogenet evol . 2012 ; 63 : 745\u2013757 . pmid : 22410652\nli b , wolsan m , wu d , zhang w , xu y , zeng z . mitochondrial genomes reveal the pattern and timing of marten (\n) diversification . mol phylogenet evol . 2014 ; 80 : 156\u2013164 . pmid : 25132128\nwolsan m , sato jj . effect of data incompleteness on the relative performance of parsimony and bayesian approaches in a supermatrix phylogenetic reconstruction of mustelidae and procyonidae ( carnivora ) . cladistics . 2010 ; 26 : 168\u2013194 .\n, sp . nov . ( carnivora : mammalia ) a gigantic otter from the pliocene of dikika , lower awash , ethiopia . j vert paleontol . 2011 ; 31 : 447\u2013453 .\nwolsan m , sotnikova m . systematics , evolution , and biogeography of the pliocene stem meline badger\n( carnivora : mustelidae ) . zool j linn soc . 2013 ; 167 : 208\u2013226 .\nelbroch m . animal skulls : a guide to north american species . stackpole books : mechanicsburg , pa ; 2006\nwerdelin l . carnivoran ecomorphology : a phylogenetic perspective . in : gittleman jl , editor . carnivore behavior , ecology and evolution . ithaca : cornell university press ; 1996 . pp . 582\u2013624 .\nvan valkenburgh b . d\u00e9j\u00e0 vu : the evolution of feeding morphologies in the carnivora . integr comp biol . 2007 ; 47 : 147\u2013163 . pmid : 21672827\nlarivi\u00e8re s , jennings ap . family mustelidae ( weasels and relatives ) . in wilson de , mittermeier ra editors . handbook of mammals of the world . 1 . carnivores . lynx editions : barcelona , spain ; 2009 . pp . 564\u2013656 .\nhartstone - rose a , wahl s . using radii - of - curvature for the reconstruction of extinct south african carnivoran masticatory behavior . c r palevol . 2008 ; 7 : 629\u2013643 .\nhartstone - rose a . reconstructing the diets of extinct south african carnivorans from premolar \u201cintercuspid notch\u201d morphology . j . zool ( lond ) , 2011 ; 285 : 119\u2013127 .\newer rf . the carnivores . ithaca , new york : cornell university press ; 1998 .\nwang x , tedford rh , ant\u00f3n m . the dog family , canidae , and their evolutionary history . columbia university press , new york ; 2008 .\n( carnivora : mustelidae ) , from north america . smithson contrib paleobiol . 1981 ; 46 : 1\u201327 .\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nthe subfamily was described by j . a . baskin in 1998 ; of the genera that he assigned to this clade , six are recognized today -\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 6 / 15 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nsign up for a new account in our community . it ' s easy !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nthe subfamily was described by j . a . baskin in 1998 , who assigned seven genera to it -\nthis article was sourced from creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . world heritage encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers , open access publishing , and in compliance with the fair access to science and technology research act ( fastr ) , wikimedia foundation , inc . , public library of science , the encyclopedia of life , open book publishers ( obp ) , pubmed , u . s . national library of medicine , national center for biotechnology information , u . s . national library of medicine , national institutes of health ( nih ) , u . s . department of health & human services , and urltoken , which sources content from all federal , state , local , tribal , and territorial government publication portals ( . gov , . mil , . edu ) . funding for urltoken and content contributors is made possible from the u . s . congress , e - government act of 2002 ."]}
{"id": 2256, "summary": [{"text": "the masked mountain tanager ( buthraupis wetmorei ) is a vulnerable species of bird in the tanager family .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "this large and colourful tanager is endemic to elfin forest , woodland and shrub in the andean highlands of southern colombia , ecuador and northern peru .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is generally rare or uncommon , and is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "masked mountain tanager", "paragraphs": ["masked mountain - tanager , reserva ecol\u00f3gica cayambe - coca , ecuador . nov 9 , 2014 .\ninformation on the masked mountain - tanager is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - masked mountain - tanager ( buthraupis wetmorei )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - masked mountain - tanager ( buthraupis wetmorei )\ntitle =\narkive species - masked mountain - tanager ( buthraupis wetmorei )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nblack - backed bush - tanager and pale - naped brush - finch in the flock as well .\nhilty , s . ( 2018 ) . masked mountain - tanager ( tephrophilus wetmorei ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n20 cm ; two birds 62 g and 63 g . large , stubby - billed tanager with rather odd plumage pattern . male has crown and nape yellowish - olive , becoming plain olive - green on back and . . .\n20 . 5 cm . lethargic , yellowish tanager . yellow - olive crown and nape , yellow forehead and outline to black facial area , olive upperparts with yellow rump , underparts yellow , lightly mottled blackish on the flanks , blue fringing to coverts giving blue shoulder and wing - bar .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\n. in colombia , there are records from purac\u00e9 national park and its environs , cauca , and recently from nari\u00f1o ( strewe and kreft 1999 ) . it is restricted to the east andes in ecuador ( carchi , napo , morona - santiago , azuay , loja and zamora - chinchipe ) ( krabbe\n, and occurs on cerro chinguela , eastern piura , peru . it is generally considered rare or uncommon , but is fairly common at cajanuma , podocarpus national park , which may protect a significant population . nevertheless , it is unlikely that the total population exceeds 5 , 000 birds , and it is inferred to be declining .\nthe population is placed in the band 2 , 500 - 9 , 999 individuals , equating to 1 , 667 - 6 , 666 mature individuals , rounded here to 1 , 500 - 7 , 000 mature individuals . trend justification : a slow and on - going population decline is suspected , based on rates of habitat loss within its range .\nit inhabits very humid elfin forest , scattered bushes , bamboo , giant grasses and dense brush , on the p\u00e1ramo - forest ecotone from 2 , 900 to 3 , 600 m , and possibly higher before human alteration of the treeline .\n. in south - west colombia , the proportion of timberline habitat remaining is estimated at less than 10 % , and human pressure is increasing ( p . g . w . salaman\n. temperate forest has been replaced with exotic pine plantations near the known site in nari\u00f1o ( strewe and kreft 1999 ) , and other threats include firewood - gathering and potato cultivation ( p . g . w . salaman\n. the area where the species occurs in peru is being heavily deforested and burned for agriculture and cattle ranching ; fragmentation is severe around cerro chinguela ( f . angulo\nconduct surveys to clarify its distribution . in particular , survey suitable habitat in tabaconas namballe national sanctuary , since it is not present in any protected area in peru ( f . angulo\n, and prohibit the burning of p\u00e1ramo in national parks . educate and encourage local people to take a leading role in land - use management and restoration schemes ( fjelds\u00e5 and kessler 1996 )\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nadult near fledgling . shrubbery above treeline . filtered version on moore et al . ( 2013 ) urltoken\nin bushes in humid primary treeline forest . reference : lxxa 287 - 297 , - 302 , - 304 , - 310 , - 319 ( butwet6 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) . filtered version on moore et al . ( 2013 ) urltoken\nlow p\u00e1ramo scrub . reference : jn1 . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\n3 birds sunnying themselves in bush tops in humid primary treeline forest . reference : ( lxxa 369 , 402 - 406 , 413 - 415 , 461 - 480 , 484 - 490 , 521 - 527 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nin bushes in humid primary treeline forest . reference : lxxa 263 - 267 ( butwet5 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nin bushes in humid primary treeline forest . reference : lxxa 217 - 220 ( butwet4 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nfemale . collected ( mecn 6614 ) . upper edge of humid forest . reference : lxiia 253 - 258 ( butwet3 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) . filtered version on moore et al . ( 2013 ) urltoken\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : tephrophilus wetmorei . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nc andes of sw colombia ( quind\u00edo , and s on both slopes in cauca and huila to nari\u00f1o ) , s through ecuador ( mostly on e slope , from carchi , w napo and w morona - santiago s to e loja and s zamora - chinchipe ) and adjacent nw peru ( along piura\u2013cajamarca border ) .\nnotably quiet . infrequently heard song a rather long series of high - pitched \u201ctsee\u201d notes , variable . . .\nlow mossy forest and very humid elfin woodland , bamboo , and giant grasses at or near tree - line , and . . .\nfruit and apparently some insects . contents of one stomach a large number of seeds . found singly , in pairs and in little groups up to four . . .\nvulnerable . restricted - range species : present in central andean p\u00e1ramo eba . generally rare to uncommon ; localized . estimated global population not exceeding 5000 . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\n\u201ccore tanagers\u201d , with over 100 species , including a clade most members of which ( lophospingus , diuca , gubernatrix , paroaria ) were previously treated in emberizidae and one species ( pseudosaltator rufiventris ) previously treated in cardinalidae # r .\nresurrected for single species for long treated in buthraupis but found by molecular study to be notably isolated , with sporathraupis as its closest apparent relative # r # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nlars petersson , dusan m . brinkhuizen , agustin carrasco , dubi shapiro , scott olmstead , nick athanas , william price , brayan coral jaramillo .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 298 , 793 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\n11 - 13 november 2015 . the antisana ecological reserve can easily be reached via a day trip from quito . given the frequent afternoon weather , it is best to arrive early in the morning to improve your chances of having an unobstructed view of the massive peak of antisana . antisana rises to a height of 18 , 891 ft ( 5 , 758 m ) and is absolutely [ . . . ]\n16 \u2013 21 september 2015 . we really ran short of time in southern colombia , unfortunately . we had hoped to visit pnn cueva de los guacharos , the mocoa area , the sibundoy area , and the junin area ( rna pangan and rio \u00f1ambi ) but we only had a few days left on our colombian visas so we decided to check out the mocoa and sibundoy areas as there [ . . . ]\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy"]}
{"id": 2260, "summary": [{"text": "grey way , the washdyke wonder was a champion new zealand thoroughbred racehorse .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he was born in washdyke in 1970 near timaru by grey william out of waybrooke who won the ' broodmare of the year ' title in the 1977-78 season .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the other racehorse born in this area is phar lap . ", "topic": 22}], "title": "grey way", "paragraphs": ["grey way , a grey gelding dubbed the washdyke wonder , won his first start as a 2yr - old in october 1972 , at rangiora .\nat the time of grey way ' s death in 1984 , due to grey - horse cancer , south received more than 500 messages of condolence .\na painting of grey way hangs in pride of place above the fire , while on the opposite wall grey way ' s finest hour is captured in a series of photographs depicting his 1977 easter handicap win at ellerslie .\nthe washdyke wonder\ngrey way . . . champion racehorse grey way who came from the same area as the great phar lap . one of the most beloved horses in new zealand . grey way was a champion horse who won 51 times and still raced at 10 years old . recorded from the new zealand government freeview channel .\ntwenty - three years of hiding had now brought him to decameron alpha , ready to embrace the grey way .\npat corboy , the trainer of new zealand ' s most prolific thoroughbred winner , grey way , has died .\nracing has been good to me . obviously winning the easter handicap with grey way was up there and also winning the awapuni gold cup and the adam ' s mile at trentham ( also with grey way ) was great .\ni have been told that trackside ch 36 is showing a montage of grey way ' s races tonight at 6pm .\ngrey way ' s stakes earnings of $ 249 , 000 saw him become one of the biggest earners of his time .\npeter south , the south canterbury owner - breeder , of grey way , died in february at the age of 74 .\ngrey way\u2019s first win was at rangiora in october 1972 . his last win was on the same racecourse - eight years later .\none of south canterbury ' s greatest horses , grey way , has been inducted into the new zealand racing hall of fame .\ngrey way\u2019s 50 wins in new zealand , often against outstanding opposition , beat black duke ' s previous new zealand record of 46 .\nmidget ; nice photo of you doing prelim on grey way at wingatui in yesterdays otago daily times in a tribute to peter south .\ngrey way ' s owner and timaru resident peter south said he was pleased the horse had been recognised for his achievements and unparalleled racing record .\neventually , grey found someone who was offering a course in 3d studio max . and , although grey couldn\u2019t afford to take the course , this tutor saw potential in grey and offered to take him under his wing as a mentor .\ngrey way and show gate would be the two best si horses i ever saw . powley , canterbury belle and little brown jug were also fair types .\nif ncolors = 52 and colors = 0 , a grey scale palette is used .\nif ncolors = 82 and colors = 0 , a grey yellow palette is used .\n. . . . . . got beaten by grey way , narrowly i recall . in a stewards and was almost put over the fence into the birdcage .\nthose who have embraced the grey way have been found to be few throughout the ages , as such practitioners have been satisfied to remain secluded from the galactic stage and in the shadows , for such is their way . however , the winds of change have come upon them . those truly seeking the grey way have been drawn to decameron alpha , a planet not found by accident or design .\n\u201cin the past , i have encountered another group of grey jedi . these grey jedi might be able to help you better than the order here on zonama sekot can . \u201d\ngrey way won from 1200m to 2000m and was a noted miler , at which distance he scored great wins in the arc easter handicap and the wrc george adams .\nyou have felt the silent call and heeded it . your journey has led you to something new , yet old ; known , but unknown . the grey way .\nbut the empire of the hand is between two regimes . the past of imperialism , and the future of order , and the grey way are about to clash and mingle in a way which will cast a pall upon the future . . .\nbut in those races shown , we had the likes of march legend , tudor light , vice regal and kiwi can amongst others , as well as grey way obviously .\nthe 73 - year - old said grey way was loved by the new zealand public for his longevity , never - give - up attitude and his ever - greying colour .\ngrey way is one of new zealand ' s most successful horses , winning 51 races still a record number of wins by a thoroughbred in new zealand from 151 career starts .\nif ncolors = 62 and colors = 0 , a color printable on grey palette is used .\ngrey jabesi\u2019s story is one of finding opportunities\u2026even when there often didn\u2019t seem to be any opportunities available .\nwe discovered that organic farming does matter \u2013 just not in the way most people think .\neach issue can have an assignee \u2014 one person that\u2019s responsible for moving the issue forward . assignees are selected the same way milestones are , through the grey bar at the top of the issue .\nsouth , who still has 13 horses on his property , said it was a tough choice to retire grey way as a 10 - year - old , but he knew it was the right one .\ncorboy was based at washdyke when he trained grey way , the winner of 51 races , including one in australia from 159 starts between 1972 and 1980 . he earned stakes of $ 238 , 025 .\nfollowing the \u201cscent\u201d of the gardener , kev - mas then made his way to the oratory .\ngrey way joins horses like bonecrusher , sir tristram , sunline and seadown ' s own phar lap , as well as racing personalities like sir patrick hogan and lance o ' sullivan in the hall of fame .\noriginally the blazing gear , then to a lesser extant the blazing chains , and recently himself / grey jedi .\neach bio is required to end with the character having just arrived on decameron alpha , or having been there for some time , either with the intent of being a member or about to join the grey way .\nthe 1977 easter handicap was ( i think ) grey way ' s most impressive win . carrying 65kg and he came through the field ( which was a class field at the time ) like they were standing still .\nit just seems to me that the calibre of horse witnessed in that era , is just so different from today , and i know grey way was around for a long long time . maybe it ' s just nostalgia talking .\ngrey jabesi has come from humble beginnings in malawi , africa , to working as a digital artist for major design and animation studios .\nredesign \u2014 file issues related to redesigning your project . a great way to collect ideas on what to work on .\nin the blood : owner of the ` ` washdyke wonder ' ' grey way , peter south ' s passion for horses has not subsided with time . three - year - old sergeant dan is one of 13 horses he still has on his property .\nthe son of grey william and waybrooke won every season until he was a 10yr - old , his last win coming on the same track .\nafter four months of working with his mentor , grey managed to land his first paid job for a horse racing company as a camera technician .\nshe ran back the other way and the inferno only continued to close in on her , the heat plastering her with sweat .\nyou see , a common misconception is that the grey jedi did not believe one could fall to the dark side . however , this is a belief that is similar in manner to the ignorance that led the jedi to exile the potentium heretics that created the grey jedi in the first place .\neventually , grey jabesi\u2019s hard work paid off , and he was offered his first full - time job as an editor at a casting agency . and , although it was a tough emotional decision to leave the animation studio , grey knew he had to do this to further his creative career .\nthe one known as leto frequented the talks and seemed to listen in earnest , though his participation was usually brief , but insightful . his cloaked presence was one that could be counted on at such times . it appeared that he too wished to commit to the grey way .\n1 . select the references you want to export ( click on the grey bar for a single reference ) . drag the selection option or reference to\nthe 2015 - 2020 campaign theme ' change perspective ' was developed by our agency and brings \u2018the radboud way of working\u2019 to life .\nit\u2019s a great way to catch up with repositories when you\u2019ve been away and don\u2019t want the granularity notifications offer when watching a repository .\ngrey worked there for about a year before going freelance and learned a wide range of new skills that would stand him in good stead for the future .\n\u201cthis order was formed during the jedi purge from exiled jedi and sith not adherent to the rule of two , and thus in opposition to palpatine\u2019s rule . they came together and formed allegiances to survive , eventually blending their teachings and finding enlightenment . in doing so , they became the grey jedi that they are today . since many of these grey jedi have sith origins , and your branding is sith alchemy , one of these grey jedi might be able to help you . \u201d\ngithub is the best way to build and ship software . powerful collaboration , code review , and code management for open source and private projects .\nraft polymerisation is a new technique for creating plastics that allows a higher degree of control over the way molecules link together . plastics are essential elements of modern life , created through the process of polymerisation to give them a range of different attributes . csiro scientists ezio rizzardo , graeme moad , san thang and their colleagues in free radical polymerisation developed a new way of controlling the way plastics are formed to give more control over the end product .\none advice i certainly give is - learn the units . what does what , and how can i build it in the cheapest / quickest way .\noctober sprint \u2014 file issues that you\u2019d like to work on in october . a great way to focus your efforts when there\u2019s a lot to do .\nspecifies the range of motion . drag to the left for subtle movement . slide all the way to the right for the greatest range of movement .\nin the months that passed he was found the grey , or maybe it found him , regardless it offered him a new beginning and the inner peace he so desperately sought .\ntanni grey - thompson : i ' ve spent a big part of my life being an athlete , training really hard . part of the training is learning to deal with things when they don ' t go the way you want , so although it ' s nice to win , it doesn ' t always happen like that .\ngrey way ( nz ) gr . g , 1970 { 2 - d } dp = 13 - 4 - 3 - 0 - 0 ( 20 ) di = 12 . 33 cd = 1 . 50 - 164 starts , 51 wins , 27 places , 21 shows career earnings : nz $ 235 , 020 , a $ 8400\n4 . this is a formal associate thread of the grey jedi fan club in the expanded universe community , and membership of the club is not a requirement of the game itself .\n\u201cit\u2019s worth a try , anyways . by the way , why didn\u2019t you correct me when i started to talk about my achievements from my past life ? \u201d\nthere was noway to know where she was , for her priority was that of survival . would she panic , give up , look for a way out ?\nthe winner of 11 paralympic gold medals and numerous awards says when things don ' t go your way - don ' t give up , just try harder .\nin these days of multi - million - dollar horses and syndicated ownership , peter ' s operation is a refreshing throwback to the way horse racing used to be .\njockey ray correa was his regular rider and said that my game was the speediest horse he ever rode . elery was the big grey ' s trainer and described him as awkward and clumsy when they bought him . people told them that they would never make a racehorse out of the grey , but elery was confident that my game would work out just fine , in time .\ngrowing up in malawi , grey jabesi didn\u2019t always find it easy to follow his true passion . art wasn\u2019t considered a viable career , and school didn\u2019t present many opportunities for an aspiring artist .\nbeta launch \u2014 file bugs that you need to fix before you can launch the beta of your project . it\u2019s a great way to make sure you aren\u2019t missing anything .\nreferences make it possible to deeply connect the work being done with the bug being tracked , and are a great way to add visibility into the history of your project .\nlabels are a great way to organize different types of issues . issues can have as many labels as you want , and you can filter by one or many labels at once .\nspecifies the frequency of the wave . to produce a wave only vertically or horizontally , move the rate slider all the way to the left for the direction you do not want .\nthis week we look back at the unlikely beginnings of one of the most consistent and capable platers to ever run at assiniboia downs - brothers , elery and marlow scherbenske ' s grey gelding , my game .\nkev - mas waved his hand over his right temple and made a gesture like that of turning a knob , and the red glow in his cybernetic eyes faded away . essentially blind now , kev - mas reached out with the force to feel his way around the room and made his way to the corner of his quarters that he usually conducted his meditation in .\n\u201cthis must be some way of reinforcing patience and humility . that\u2019s the only explanation for it . treating me as if i know nothing when he full well knows that\u2019s not true . \u201d\nwe solved these problems in a unique way at a time when many of the major communications companies around the world were trying , but with less success , to solve the same problem .\npart thyrsian himself , his mother was a thyrsian , he had trained in their ways as a sun guard , he had fought off and slain several thyrsians for the right to become a sun guard and thyrsus was the very planet in which he had ensured what seemed to be his freedom from his past life \u2013 which from there he made his way to zonama sekot to begin training as a grey jedi .\nmust have been the apparent planet ' s gravitational shadow . he couldn ' t be sure if this was decameron alpha , but it looked like he was going to find out either way .\nthe orange - red glow reflected in the violet orbs that were her eyes , her lekku swaying as she turned this way and that . fire to the life . fire to the right .\nthis place can be reached by those who are lead to find it , those who listen to the force . located on the eastern reaches , just beyond current galactic civilization , lies decameron alpha , home of the grey .\nimport formerly with andre fabre now prepared by matt cumani . began positively from the outside gate in the g3 geelong cup ( 2400m ) and sat outside the eventual winner qewy for the duration off a slow tempo . the grey eyeballed qewy all the way up the straight but couldn\u2019t get past the godolphin galloper . third - placed oceanographer was by far the run of the race and backed that up in the lexus on saturday .\nthe big grey was one of those horses who didn\u2019t take well to a life of leisure in a pasture . he loved to train and was born to run and elery quickly learned that retirement wasn ' t for my game .\nit was an emotional time for elery as well . the only trainer that my game ever knew acknowledged that the tribute was the highlight of his racing career and proudly said that the big grey was the gamest horse he ever owned .\nnotifications are github\u2019s way to keep up to date with your issues . you can use them to find out about new issues on repositories , or just to know when someone needs your input to move forward on an issue .\nradboud has an impressive record of scientific and educational achievements . its open and friendly way of working , lack of hierarchy , and a state of the art \u2018green\u2019 campus create an inspiring academic environment in which great achievements are possible .\nspecifies the degree of stabilization . when turned all the way down , the effect removes only the smallest jitter and vibration . when turned all the way up , it keeps the camera movement stable over a long period of time . if there is intention camera movement ( for example , panning across a scene ) , setting a high value for smoothing can cause the effect to remove that movement . consequently , it is important to set smoothing appropriately for each scene .\nit is very fitting that phar lap should be sponsored by our sister organisation - the australian racing hall of fame . the australian racing museum - champions has honoured phar lap is in a very special way at their site in melbourne .\ntry as i might i could not find an authoritative source that could spell it out . so we ' re left to hunt and peck our way to come up with characteristics that you would expect to see in an exceptional thoroughbred .\nsets the amount of blur to mix in with the picture . drag all the way to the left to make the blur disappear . drag to the right to increase the percentage of blur until the original picture is completely replaced by the blurred image .\n\u201cthis dream you had last night\u2026\u201d began marcus , \u201ci would not pay much mind to it . our past has a way of manipulating us and holding us back . especially when it is in circumstances such as yours , where you had no control . \u201d\nin theory , this practice was flawless . there was no conceivable way that he could not find inner balance if he kept in line with the teachings\u2026 unless there was an interference . there was an interference however , and it was branded onto his arm .\nsets the amount of blur to mix with the nonblurred image . with blend set all the way to the left , the blur disappears . drag to the right to increase the percentage of blur until the original picture is completely replaced by the blurred image .\ndetermines how to fade out sounds below the threshold level . turn the knob to the left for minimum fading . turn the knob all the way to the right to completely mute all sounds below the threshold . the correct level is somewhere in the middle .\nmy game may not have been a\ngreat\nhorse , but he was exceptional and dominated his rivals , much to the delight of his legions of fans at the downs . tributes like the one the big grey gelding from north dakota received are rare , but it speaks to the popularity\u2026\nusing the brightness & contrast effect is the easiest way to make simple adjustments to the tonal range of the clip . it adjusts all pixel values in the clip at once\u2014highlights , shadows , and midtones . brightness & contrast does not work on individual color channels .\nthe three - way color corrector effect lets you make subtle corrections by adjusting a clip\u2019s hue , saturation , and brightness for the shadows , midtones , and highlights . specify the color range for correction using the secondary color correction controls to further refine your adjustments .\nthis was shown to be correct in practice by many a grey jedi , however it was not an easy task for most and as such there have been a great many failed grey jedi that have had to be exiled from the order , and since the risk of having their well kept secrets discovered was too high to simply allow an exiled member to go free , they were put to death . kev - mas realized that if he did not solve his problem with the branding that he too would suffer this fate . so , he persevered , and tried everything he could to find the balance within himself regardless .\nthe grey sanctuary . a place built from and into the forest itself . it is a modest structure , constructed to be in balance with its surroundings and in harmony with the environment . its architectural philosophy typifies the very beings which reside within its halls , yet like them , it is so much more .\nthere is very little knowledge of these grey jedi in the galaxy or even that they exist in the first place , which proved to be beneficial to their survival during the days of the empire when force users were hunted to extinction . however , this wasn\u2019t an intentional survival method , but rather an advantage provided by their ideology . the grey jedi were very humble , preferring to act under the guise of other force using groups by proxy , or even hidden from sight completely . once their deeds were done they refused to speak of them , simply letting the actions speak for themselves rather than for the one who did them .\n@ mentions are the way that we reference other github users inside of github issues . inside of the description or any comment of the issue , include the @ username of another github user to send them a notification . this works very similar to how twitter uses @ mentions .\n\u201cyes . they are a separate and isolated order , so their methods may differ but i still recognize them as grey jedi no less , and their teachings are no less valid than ours . they are located on a planet known as decameron alpha . i have had our technicians program your hyperdrive with the coordinates . \u201d\nour wireless invention lies at the heart of what is now the most popular way to connect computers without wires . it is used in offices , public buildings , homes and coffee shops - often called ' wifi hotspots ' . the invention came out of our pioneering work in radioastronomy .\nsets the intensity of the noise reduction . turn all the way to the left for no reduction at all . turn to the middle to significantly drop background noise while keeping the louder sounds prominently in the foreground . turn further to the right and more of the signal fades out .\nwhether or not lassin sought to make radio contact was chiefly his choice , either way , he would soon come to an area , a clearing , where he would recognize a landing zone with an adjacent communication tower . the landing pad would be deserted once he made his first pass .\ncontrols the frame\u2011by\u2011frame generation of the lightning . selecting the rerun at each frame option regenerates the lightning at each frame . to make the lightning behave the same way at the same frame every time you run it , do not select this control . selecting this control may increase rendering time .\nthe open , non - hierarchical working environment of the university with its green open campus and multi - cultural academic cross - pollination of ideas is unique . it creates a fantastic climate for the advancement of scientific thinking and talent . it ' s what we call \u2018the radboud way of working\u2019 .\npublished by penguin in 2005 , the csiro total wellbeing diet offers an easy - to - follow structured eating pattern and includes mainstream foods . it ' s a way to eat less , but eat well without feeling hungry , because it provides the necessary vitamins and nutrients ( including dietary fibre ) .\n\u201ci , on the other hand , \u201d he continued , \u201cam just a mere grey jedi who has spent my life pursuing knowledge and truth so i could pass on that knowledge to a pupil . that pupil being you . who do you think you should trust ? the seeker of knowledge and truth ? or the master of lies and deceit ? \u201d\nshort bio : having witnessed his parents brutal murders as a young child , he has never been able to escape the horror of that nightmare memory , following him everywhere and in a way tainting or dictating everything throughout his life . having no surviving family members , and having been far from his people , herana found himself in an orphanage , and we all know how cruel hurt children can be to someone that is different . that cruelty in essence shaped him into a killer , the only way he could find to actually fill the gaping hole in his life and give him the needed control to even remotely function .\neventually , he could figure out how to dull the effects of the branding but he still needed a more permanent solution . his mentor advised him that in the past he encountered a separate but isolated grey jedi order on a planet known as decameron alpha , and that they had many in their ranks with sith origins that might be able to help him .\nthe words stung , in a way that the sith had not expected , even though it was the same each time . colcha was as he was , a relic of a now shattered brotherhood . the last two shadow guard that he was aware of and victus , to his hubris , was aware of many things .\nthere were only a few areas which were restricted within the grey sanctuary , as most were open and accessible to all residents . the oratory was one such accessible place , where polmath received guests , both expected and unexpected ones . the gardener also liked to hold discussion there , especially with some of the recent arrivals , who\u2019s faces were no doubt becoming more familiar .\nhe was pretty average , a hot - and - cold quarterback who might ' ve been lost to history but for 15 minutes in super bowl xxii , when he wore the same burgundy and gold my dad grew up rooting against , and became more . he became important , in the way that muhammad ali was important .\nscale armor , composed of multiple grey scales from a duinuogwuin , better known as star dragons . the scales are resistant to heat and force , making them a great alternative to modern armors . when asked where he was able to find such fine scales to craft this armor he will not give up his secret , it is his to keep . . . . for now .\nissues are a great way to keep track of tasks , enhancements , and bugs for your projects . they\u2019re kind of like email\u2014except they can be shared and discussed with the rest of your team . most software projects have a bug tracker of some kind . github\u2019s tracker is called issues , and has its own section in every repository .\nmuted threads won\u2019t show up as unread again until you are specifically @ mentioned again . this makes muting a great strategy for threads that you have little interest in ( perhaps a sub - system that you aren\u2019t familiar with ) . if you mark an issue as read , it will stay that way until someone comments on the thread again .\nmany friends from the temple were deployed before julius , giving he was particularly young . he had pleaded with his master to talk to the jedi council members about deploying him early . it wasn ' t until the waning moments of the clone wars until his wish was granted , simply because many jedi had been spent . so there julius aggripa was , on his way to felucia to help the republic ' s war effort . when they touched down the action was thick , but julius was confident in their chances of victory , especially with a jedi master leading the attack . however , even though they were winning the battle , there were still way too many casualties for julius ' s liking .\nthe grey gelding spent all of his 3 - year - old season nursing a broken sesamoid bone in this left front leg . following surgery to correct the issue , he still wasn ' t sound enough to race , so he spent 1964 in dry dock waiting for his leg to come around . one of the toughest decisions facing a trainer is deciding how long to lay - up a horse .\nthe big grey didn ' t last long after being retired again and for the last time . my game passed away at his new trainer ' s home in south dakota just weeks later - he never made it to 15 . as for his original owners , elery , the older of the two brothers passed on july 25 , 2013 and marlow a few months later on december 31 , 2013 .\nit ' s about going out there and doing what you want . it ' s believing that you can . you might not be able to do things in exactly the same way , you might have to find a different entrance to a building or find a different solution , but it ' s about finding those solutions and not looking at problems .\nwhen trainer elery scherbenske escorted my game from the winner ' s circle the fans broke into spontaneous applause and a rousing cheer . as the big grey walked off the track they played\nwish me luck as you wave me goodbye .\nthen my game inexplicably stopped dead in his tracks and gazed at the his crowd of admirers , it was as if he understood what all the fuss was about !\nthen the united states went to war . though blacks were still second - class citizens by law , shared service began to erode barriers\u2014blacks , for instance , competed alongside and against whites on service teams . when the all - america football conference launched in 1946 as a direct competitor to the nfl , it distinguished itself in one significant way : there was no ban on black athletes .\nassigns a black , midtone gray , or white balance to a clip . for example , for white balance , you target a color that is pure white . the three - way color corrector shifts colors in the image so that the targeted color appears white . use the different eyedropper tools to sample a target color in the image , or choose a color from the adobe color picker .\nunfortunately , kev - mas was too late , and he walked into a trap . caiphas had discovered how to retune the amulet with a series of incantations , and as kev - mas battled through several inquisitors to get to caiphas , he made his chants and once he made his way to the aging inquisitor he collapsed to the floor , to rise as a mere puppet of the inquisitor .\nhe led in the moonee valley cup against the pattern of cox plate day and was pressured upfront throughout by authoritarian \u2014 big forgive run for mine despite being beaten a long way out and trailing home a 13 . 8l seventh ( rider kerrin mcevoy stated he didn\u2019t handle the valley ) . will be right in the firing line from barrier 2 and at $ 71 is another for the multiples .\nby using @ mentions and references inside of issues , you can notify other github users & teams , and cross - connect issues to each other . these provide a flexible way to get the right people involved to resolve issues effectively , and are easy to learn and use . they work across all text fields on github \u2014 they\u2019re a part of our text formatting syntax called github flavored markdown .\nafter the battle , kev - mas was finally called to zonama sekot , where the identity of the guiding voice was finally revealed and he started training as a grey jedi under a mentor by the name of marcus dade . kev - mas\u2019 training was difficult because it turns out that he had yet another dark reminder attached to his body . when kev - mas was inducted as an emperor\u2019s hand , he was given a branding to signify his rank .\nhis eye caught sight of a stream of smoke on the distant horizon . he knew someone was out there , this was not the first visitor who had come in such a way . there had been a flurry of such arrivals as of late . he always found that he was anxious at the prospect of their community growing , this still felt fragile to him , he feared losing another home .\ni thought his effort when second behind elidor under 61kg in the summer stakes ( 2800m ) at goodwood was pretty solid and he definitely appears a fighter . the big irish galloper demonstrated toughness and really responded to vigorous riding in resisting the concerted challenge of grey lion in the geelong cup , and gets in here with a very light impost ( 51 . 5kg ) . that said he\u2019s a place prospect only for mine but there has been money for him .\naicurn\u2019ihi wanted nothing more than to embody that freedom . and thus , like her world , she would have to earn it the same way it did . one moment she was walking the streets of her home city of rhovali , the next she was waking up in a cell in a slaver\u2019s ship , already far from her homeplanet . there was nothing she could do . it was over for her .\nthe great jedi purge saw not just jedi withdraw into these depths to hide from the inquisitors , but rival darksiders too . with the light side methods invalidated by their hidebound arrogance , and the dark side monopolised by the sith and their agents , the opportunity for new thinking occurred . a new way was born within the unknown , in the gap between knowledge and dragons , between light and dark . . .\ni have a lot of respect for this stable after the way max dynamite ran last year and get the impression that the all - conquering willie mullins knows just the type of horse required to cope with the flemington 3200m puzzle . champion jockey frankie dettori does the steering ( perhaps he\u2019ll ride with more restraint after skittling half the field on max dynamite last year ? ) . without doubt a major player here .\nthis was the best performance by a juvenile in europe this season by some way , and memorable in particular for the ease with which expert eye moved through the field before being sent for home well over two furlongs out . he quickened into a decisive lead before the furlong pole and had been cut to as short as 4 - 1 for next year\u2019s newmarket classic by the time he returned to the winner\u2019s enclosure .\nas polmath continued to speak , kev - mas could tell that he was trying to speak to him like one might speak to his own son . however , kev - mas just took it as condescension . he knew the teachings of the grey jedi quite well already . they had already been pounded into him for the past year and philosophy was one of his strengths . he just sometimes struggled to embody the philosophies he learned of . such as his lack of patience at times like this .\nkev - mas had a very rough childhood and was forced to grow up fast . tempered by the fires of forced servitude and endless abuse , kev - mas trained in secret in the ways of his ancestral sun guard , encouraged by the tales told by his mother of their heroics in battle . kev - mas was determined to fight his way out of slavery , and in the process free his mother and all the other slaves .\nat his next outing the six - year - old ( 6yo ) was under pressure early and beaten nine lengths ( 9l ) by exospheric in the jockey club stakes at newmarket , but forget that failure given the track was soft and he needs it bone dry . he turned the tables on exospheric next time out in the group two ( g2 ) princess of wales stakes ( 2400m ) , rolling along beautifully in front for james mcdonald and kicking on tenaciously to defeat group one star the grey gatsby .\nbritish 8yo who mixes flat and jumps racing and handles all track conditions . has improved immensely recently and definitely looks to be on an upward spiral . was beaten 3 . 25l big orange and pallasator in the g2 goodwood cup ( 3200m ) and stuck it out nicely on the pace . got a long way back in the g3 londsale cup ( 3300m ) but looked to travel sweetly coming into the race before being outsprinted late by quest for more and pallasator .\ncharlie appleby\u2019s 5yo gelding put the writing on the wall with a slashing closing third as the $ 2 . 90f in the geelong cup off a slow tempo and backed that up with an equally impressive g3 lexus ( 2500m ) win on saturday . the godolphin gelding sprouted wings late to book his spot in the cup after getting a long way out of his ground , and it is worth noting that the lexus winners have invariably been more than competitive in recent cups .\nled all the way in the g1 sydney cup ( 3200m ) in the autumn when handicapped with just 51 . 5kg , accounting for waller pairing libran and grand marshal ( who shot thebarman and almooonqith beaten 5l and 7 . 1l respectively ) . kerrin mcevoy rated him perfectly that day , allowing the son of montjeu to enjoy his work up front , cruise around the bend and then offer - up a big kick in the final furlong . he did it pretty easily in the end !\nduring kev - mas\u2019 confrontation with caiphas on utapau , he revealed that he was trying to figure out how to take control of kev - mas\u2019 mind with the amulet inside of his skull , and while on dagobah , kev - mas was researching a way to prevent it , and he realized immediately that if caiphas was to figure it out , he would need to find the information located at the emperor\u2019s retreat on naboo . hastily , kev - mas left dagobah and set course for naboo .\nnow , a little over one year later kev - mas has entered a whole new world . kev - mas was training on zonama sekot to become a grey jedi . that is , a force user who believed that the force as an entity was pure and completely void of any \u201clight\u201d or \u201cdark\u201d , and that such characterizations were merely a manifestation of the user\u2019s mind . they mostly studied the force to its very limits in silence and solitude , but from time to time they worked behind the scenes to protect the balance of the force whenever they deemed it necessary .\non paper chris waller\u2019s battle - hardened gelding looked a top chance in the g1 metropolitan ( 2400m ) but was pretty plain coming home 3 . 4l astern of sir john hawkwood . took up a good position in running but couldn\u2019t quite stave off grand marshal ( who carried 1kg more than him ) in the g2 moonee valley cup after hitting the front a long way from home . very honest horse and will be popular with the punters not just for the name but also because hughie bowman will be doing the steering .\n7yo who has had more than his share of problems but has really improved with racing having finally made it to the track in australia . the monsun gelding defeated subsequent melbourne cup - winner protectionist by 0 . 75l in the g2 unternehmer ( 2200m ) at baden baden way back in june of 2014 before being imported to australia by owner lloyd williams . we didn\u2019t see almandin until june of this year when he ran an encouraging fresh race over 1600m at moonee valley , and he has been building with every run since as lloyd gradually stepped him out in trip .\na forest . that was a new one . she was so used to the cavernous and rocky ryloth cities that this was a new experience . pity it was so full of fire rather than the scenic greenery that it should be . there was also no way anyone else had survived the crash , that much was clear . it also begged the question . how did she survive ? casting only a quick glance at the fire around her , she checked her own condition . some bruises and minor cuts . in a crash like that ? with the results like that ?\nthe grey jedi fully acknowledge the dangers of the dark side , however their view on what the dark side is is different than what the jedi or even the sith believed . they did not believe that the dark side was an independent entity at its source , but rather a manifestation of the user\u2019s dark intent . as such they believed that when someone fell to the dark side they weren\u2019t merely becoming devoted to a \u201cside\u201d of the force , but to a \u201cside\u201d of themselves . they believed that if one made sure to balance themselves and express a full spectrum of emotions , both positive and negative , that they could use the dark side without becoming corrupted by it .\nspecifies which channel or channels to invert . each group of items operates in a particular color space , inverting either the entire clip in that color space or just a single channel . rgb consists of three additive color channels : red , green , and blue . hls consists of three calculated color channels : hue , lightness , and saturation . yiq is the ntsc luminance and chrominance color space , where y is the luminance signal , and i and q are the in\u2011phase and quadrature chrominance signals . alpha , not a color space , provides a way to invert the alpha channel of the clip .\nmy dad was happy to see williams lead his favorite team of the last 25 years . but my dad was a grown - ass man . he was 37 years old . he had a daughter , had met the love of his life , and had a brilliant , handsome , charming firstborn son on the way . williams was a great story , but my dad had more or less made it . he was old enough now that pro athletes like williams were younger than he was , which is to say that he was old enough to realize that athletes were flawed humans , too . he didn ' t need a hero .\nspecifies how the lightning is added to the layer . adobe premiere elements support layer blend modes that change the way layers react with each other . you often use some of the common modes in every day work . for example , if your image is too dark , you can quickly make it brighter by duplicating the photo layer in the layers palette . later , you change the duplicate layer mode to screen . use the opacity filter to select blending modes for various layers of your video . premiere elements supports 27 blending modes . select a blending mode from the list and apply it to your image . use the sliders to increase or decrease its effect .\nmechu deru , force push / pull , force lightning . expert mechanic and mediocre scout . he has been loaned out to the blazing chains by his clan the blazing gear only to be treated poorly and ' liberated ' by a hand of thrawn ship who mistook the neck shackle as his status aboard ship and not the story that it told as a part of his clothing . once ' freed ' he was able to choose his place of release and made his way to something , a someplace he spied the co - ordinates off in a brief blazing chains holo . a place that was not to be messed with lightly , something he deeply wants to be .\nmost of what the man knew before this point was being relearned under a different perspective , and he wasn\u2019t uneducated by any means . one year prior , kev - mas colcha was ( and technically still is ) a very powerful force user . he was capable of summoning torrents of lightning from his fingertips to assault his enemies . he could harness telekinetic powers to lift objects with his minds . hide himself from plain sight and slip away into thin air . he could even manipulate matter and cause it to combust and explode . his ability to do these things remained the same but he had to relearn them nonetheless , because the methods in which he did so did not match his new way of life .\nalmandin was much too good for stablemate assign ( who came out and won the g2 herbert power at his next start ) when getting to 2400m for the first time in australia in the g3 harry white at caulfield before really sprinting impressively to take out the g3 bart cummings ( 2500m ) at flemington and book his spot in the cup . i liked the way he left them standing when asked to go by damien oliver and he only coasted in the concluding stages to notch - up an easy 1 . 5l win . he\u2019s been kept fresh with a month off into this and with just 52kg he is in this up to his ears . expecting him to be at his absolute peak come 3pm tuesday .\nat six years of age , coming to the end of her wonderful career , desert gold had three virtual match races on the then - strong taranaki circuit with the rising young star gloaming . she beat him in the first , but gloaming had got tangled in the tapes at the start ; gloaming won the next \u201cmatch\u201d but this time desert gold lost lengths when her half - brother croesus fell in front of her . finally the decider , the hawera stakes ; and , with no excuses either way this time , the three - year - old gloaming was too good for the mare . desert gold was retired after a few more starts ( which included an easy win in the manawatu stakes ) , hugely popular with the public to the end ."]}
{"id": 2261, "summary": [{"text": "aoteadrillia is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family horaiclavidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was previously categorized within the subfamily crassispirinae , turridae . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "aoteadrillia", "paragraphs": ["aoteadrillia powell , a . w . b . , 1942 type species : aoteadrillia wanganuiensis hutton , f . w . , 1873\nyou selected aoteadrillia chordata ( suter , 1908 ) . this is a synonym for :\naoteadrillia powell , 1942 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 29 june 2012 .\nhow can i put and write and define aoteadrillia apicarinata in a sentence and how is the word aoteadrillia apicarinata used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528aoteadrillia apicarinata\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528aoteadrillia apicarinata\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528aoteadrillia apicarinata\u9020\u53e5 , aoteadrillia apicarinata meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\nworms - world register of marine species - aoteadrillia bulbacea ( r . b . watson , 1881 )\naoteadrillia is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family horaiclavidae . [ 2 ]\naoteadrillia otagoensis powell , 1942 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 15 april 2010 .\naoteadrillia bulbacea ( watson , 1881 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 15 april 2010 .\naoteadrillia chordata ( suter , 1908 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 15 april 2010 .\naoteadrillia rawitensis ( hedley , 1922 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 15 april 2010 .\n\n' aoteadrillia apicarinata\n' is an extinct species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family horaiclavidae .\n- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : aoteadrillia otagoensis a . w . b . powell , 1942 - id : 2115504850\n( of aoteadrillia thomsoni powell , 1942 ) beu , a . g . 2011 marine molluscs of oxygen isotope stages of the last 2 million years in new zealand . part 4 . gastropoda ( ptenoglossa , neogastropoda , heterobranchia ) . journal of the royal society of new zealand 41 , 1\u2013153 . [ details ]\n( of aoteadrillia trifida powell , 1942 ) beu , a . g . 2011 marine molluscs of oxygen isotope stages of the last 2 million years in new zealand . part 4 . gastropoda ( ptenoglossa , neogastropoda , heterobranchia ) . journal of the royal society of new zealand 41 , 1\u2013153 . [ details ]\n( of aoteadrillia chordata ( suter , 1908 ) ) spencer h . g . , willan r . c . , marshall b . a . & murray t . j . ( 2011 ) . checklist of the recent mollusca recorded from the new zealand exclusive economic zone . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of aoteadrillia chordata ( suter , 1908 ) ) beu , a . g . 2011 marine molluscs of oxygen isotope stages of the last 2 million years in new zealand . part 4 . gastropoda ( ptenoglossa , neogastropoda , heterobranchia ) . journal of the royal society of new zealand 41 , 1\u2013153 . [ details ]\n( of aoteadrillia chordata ( suter , 1908 ) ) spencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]\nspencer h . g . , willan r . c . , marshall b . a . & murray t . j . ( 2011 ) . checklist of the recent mollusca recorded from the new zealand exclusive economic zone . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nspencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]\nnatural history museum , london ( nhm ) : collections management database system . [ details ]\nhutton f . w . 1873 . catalogue of the tertiary mollusca and echinodermata of new zealand , in the collection of the colonial museum . didsbury , government printer , wellington . xvi + 48 pp . [ details ]\n( of drillia chordata suter , 1908 ) suter , h . ( 1908a ) descriptions of new species of new zealand marine shells . proceedings of the malacological society of london , 8 , 178\u2013191 , pl . 7 . [ details ]\nbeu , a . g . 2011 marine molluscs of oxygen isotope stages of the last 2 million years in new zealand . part 4 . gastropoda ( ptenoglossa , neogastropoda , heterobranchia ) . journal of the royal society of new zealand 41 , 1\u2013153 . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nbeu ( 2009 ) discussed the synonymy and variation , and provided a long list of synonyms .\nconidae : clathurellinae ( ? ) ( not analysed by puillandre et al . 2008 )\nsp .\nof marwick 1965 , pl . 11 , fig . 18 ) .\nfauna migrated northwards to appear in wairarapa and wanganui . beu ( 2009 ) discussed these variants and synonymised them with\nnukumaruan - recent ; shakespeare cliff , wanganui ( tainui shellbed ? ) , castlecliffian ( type ) ; moderately common in most castlecliffian siltstone beds at wanganui , in nukumaruan siltstone in wairarapa and hawke ' s bay , and in nukumaruan to castlecliffian siltstone in north canterbury .\ncite this publication as :\na . g . beu and j . i . raine ( 2009 ) . revised descriptions of new zealand cenozoic mollusca from beu and maxwell ( 1990 ) . gns science miscellaneous series no . 27 .\n\u00a9 gns science , 2009 isbn 978 - 0 - 478 - 19705 - 1 issn 1177 - 2441 ( included with a pdf facsimile file copy of new zealand geological survey paleontological bulletin 58 in cd version from : publications officer , gns science , p . o . box 30368 lower hutt , new zealand )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nparent taxon : borsoniinae according to a . g . beu et al . 1990\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322fc869 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322fc9b6 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32336b46 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32336cc1 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32637f64 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 34b9e520 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nbieler r . bouchet p . dijkstra h . faber m . finn j . garcia - alvarez o . gofas s . la perna r . marshall b . moretzsohn f . neubauer t . a . rosenberg g . sartori a . f . schneider s . taylor j . ter poorten j . j . & vos c . ( eds ) . ( 2018 ) . worms mollusca : molluscabase ( version 2018 - 06 - 06 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 916693a7 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .\nthe new zealand recent and fossil mollusca of the family turridae with general notes on turrid nomenclature and systematics ( primary title ) bulletin of the auckland institute and museum , 2 ( other title ) a . w . b . powell 1942\ncontribute more detail to this record by adding your own names , classifications or categories via a tag . tags also make this record more findable on search .\nthe development of the auckland war memorial museum online collection is an ongoing process ; updates , new images and records are added weekly . in some cases , records have yet to be confirmed by museum staff , and there could be mistakes or omissions in the information provided .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhoraiclavidae bouchet , ph . , yu . i . kantor , a . v . sysoev & n . puillandre , 2011 thumbnails\nanacithara hedley , c . , 1922 type species : anacithara naufraga hedley , c . , 1909\naustrocarina laseron , c . f . , 1954 type species : austrocarina recta hedley , c . , 1903\naustrodrillia hedley , c . , 1918 type species : austrodrillia angasi crosse , h . , 1863\nbuchema corea , l . f . , 1934 type species : buchema tainoa corea , l . f . , 1934\ncarinapex dall , w . h . , 1924 type species : carinapex minutissima garrett , a . , 1873\nceritoturris dall , w . h . , 1924 type species : ceritoturris bittium kilburn , r . n . , 1988\ncoronacomitas shuto , t . , 1983 type species : coronacomitas gemmata shuto , t . , 1983\ndarrylia garc\u00eda , e . f . , 2008 type species : darrylia harryleei garc\u00eda , e . f . , 2008\ngraciliclava shuto , t . , 1983 type species : graciliclava mackayensis shuto , t . , 1983\nhaedropleura bucquoy , e . j . , ph . dautzenberg & g . f . dollfus , 1882 type species : haedropleura septangularis montagu , g . , 1803\ninkinga kilburn , r . n . , 1988 type species : inkinga platystoma smith , e . a . , 1877\ninodrillia bartsch , p . , 1943 type species : inodrillia nucleata dall , w . h . , 1881\nmarshallena allan , j . , 1926 type species : marshallena neozelanica suter , h . h . , 1917\nmauidrillia powell , a . w . b . , 1942 type species : unknowngenustype\nnaskia sysoev , a . v . & d . l . ivanov , 1985 type species : naskia axiplicata sysoev , a . v . & d . l . ivanov , 1985\nnquma kilburn , r . n . , 1988 type species : nquma rousi sowerby , g . b . iii , 1886\nparadrillia makiyama , j . , 1940 type species : paradrillia dainichiensis dainichiensis yokoyama , m . , 1923\npseudexomilus powell , a . w . b . , 1944 type species : unknowngenustype\npsittacodrillia kilburn , r . n . , 1988 type species : psittacodrillia bairstowi sowerby , g . b . iii , 1886\nstriatoguraleus kilburn , r . n . , 1994 type species : striatoguraleus himaeformis kilburn , r . n . , 1994\nvexitomina powell , a . w . b . , 1942 type species : vexitomina metcalfei angas , g . f . , 1867\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nbouchet p . , kantor yu . i . , sysoev a . & puillandre n . ( 2011 ) a new operational classification of the conoidea . journal of molluscan studies 77 : 273 - 308 .\ntucker , j . k . 2004 catalog of recent and fossil turrids ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . zootaxa 682 : 1 - 1295 .\nthis page was last edited on 16 february 2018 , at 02 : 44 .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation ."]}
{"id": 2265, "summary": [{"text": "goniobranchus loringi is a species of colourful sea slug , a dorid nudibranch , a marine gastropod mollusc in the family chromodorididae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this species was transferred from chromodoris to goniobranchus in 2012 . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "goniobranchus loringi", "paragraphs": ["- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : goniobranchus loringi ( g . f . angas , 1864 ) - id : 5496000051\nto encyclopedia of life ( from synonym chromodoris loringi ( angas , 1864 ) ) to sea slug forum ( via archive . org ) ( from synonym chromodoris loringi ( angas , 1864 ) )\nspecies chromodoris galactos rudman & s . johnson , 1985 accepted as goniobranchus galactos ( rudman & s . johnson , 1985 ) ( original combination )\nchromodoris loringi from port stephens , nsw from : l . & d . atkinson , october 27 , 2005\n( of chromodoris loringi ( angas , 1864 ) ) debelius , h . & kuiter , r . h . ( 2007 ) nudibranchs of the world . conchbooks , frankfurt , 360 pp . isbn : 978 - 3 - 939767 - 06 - 0 page ( s ) : 159 [ details ]\n( of chromodoris loringi ( angas , 1864 ) ) rudman , w . b . ( 1984 ) . the chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : a review of the genera . zoological journal of the linnean society . 81 ( 2 ) : 115 - 273 . page ( s ) : 135 [ details ]\n( of chromodoris loringi ( angas , 1864 ) ) rudman , w . b . ( 1983 ) . the chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : chromodoris splendida , c . aspersa and hypselodoris placida colour groups . zoological journal of the linnean society . 78 : 105 - 173 . page ( s ) : 133 [ details ]\n( of chromodoris loringi ( angas , 1864 ) ) rudman , w . b . ( 1987 ) . the chromodorididae ( ophistobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : chromodoris epicura , c . aureopurpurea , c . annulata , c . coi and risbecia tryoni colour groups . zoological journal of the linnean society . 90 ( 3 ) : 305 - 407 . page ( s ) : 341 [ details ]\n( of goniodoris loringi angas , 1864 ) angas , g . f . ( 1864 ) description d\u00b4esp\u00e8ces nouvelles appartenant \u00e0 plusiurs genres de mollusques nudibranches des environs de port - jackson ( nouvelle - galles du sud ) , accompagn\u00e9e de dessins faits d\u00b4apr\u00e8s nature . journal de conchyliologie , series 3 , 12 : 43 - 70 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 52 - 53 , plate 4 , figure 11 [ details ]\nt . 12 = ser . 3 : t . 4 ( 1864 ) - journal de conchyliologie . - biodiversity heritage library\nif you are generating a pdf of a journal article or book chapter , please feel free to enter the title and author information . the information you enter here will be stored in the downloaded file to assist you in managing your downloaded pdfs locally .\nthank you for your request . please wait for an email containing a link to download the pdf .\nsign up to receive the latest bhl news , content highlights , and promotions .\nbhl relies on donations to provide free pdf downloads and other services . help keep bhl free and open !\nthere was an issue with the request . please try again and if the problem persists , please send us feedback .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupper : solitary is . , northern new south wales , april 1987 . lower : close - up of left side of head showing yellow dendritic mantle glands . photos : bill rudman .\nthere are many red and orange - spotted species of chromodorid in new south wales and southeastern australia . i have discussed this example of mimicry on a separate page .\nreferences : \u2022 rudman , w . b . ( 1983a ) the chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : chromodoris splendida , c . aspersa and hypselodoris placida colour groups . zoological journal of the linnean society 78 : 105 - 173 . \u2022 rudman , w . b . ( 1991 ) purpose in pattern : the evolution of colour in chromodorid nudibranchs . journal of molluscan studies , 57 , ( t . e . thompson memorial issue ) : 5 - 21 .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncitation : johnson rf , gosliner tm ( 2012 ) traditional taxonomic groupings mask evolutionary history : a molecular phylogeny and new classification of the chromodorid nudibranchs . plos one 7 ( 4 ) : e33479 . urltoken\neditor : jonathan h . badger , j . craig venter institute , united states of america\ncopyright : \u00a9 2012 johnson , gosliner . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : this work was supported by the california academy of sciences , the university of california santa cruz - department of ecology and evolutionary biology , the national science foundation deb 9978155 and deb 0329054 to tg , and an encyclopedia of life rubenstein fellowship to rj . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\na . \u2018phylogenetic scenario\u2019 for the chromodorid genera modified from [ 5 ] , [ 26 ] . b . morphological phylogeny of generic representatives for the chromodorididae [ 13 ] . c . combined 16s and coi phylogram of the chromodorididae from [ 27 ] . d . combined 16s and coi phylogram of the chromodorididae and cadlinidae from [ 28 ] . rudman ' s \u2018 chromodoris group\u2019 in red , \u2018 hypselodoris group\u2019 in blue , cadlinella in yellow , diversidoris ( not included in [ 5 ] , [ 13 ] , [ 26 ] ) , cadlina in grey and other dorids in black .\nnew collections ( from this contribution and [ 28 ] in blue . genbank specimens in red . size of circle represents number of specimens collected in each region . specimen details in supplementary table s1 ) .\nthe goals of this contribution are : ( 1 ) generate a phylogeny that tests the species level relationships of the chromodorid nudibranchs and confirms the monophyly of the chromodorididae , ( 2 ) assess the phylogenetic validity of the chromodorid genera , and ( 3 ) propose a new classification for the chromodorid nudibranchs that reflects their relationships .\nin this study and a companion study [ 28 ] , thanks to targeted collecting trips , dedicated collectors and dna extracted from museum collections , we were able to include specimens from throughout the indo - pacific ( ip ) , the eastern pacific ( ep ) and west atlantic ( wa ) ( figure 2 and table s1 ) . we use the term indo - pacific to define the biogeographic region including the tropical and subtropical regions of the indian ocean ( from the red sea to the east coast of south africa ) and both the western and central pacific , but not the tropical eastern pacific [ 40 ] . museum collections are an invaluable resource for biodiversity studies [ 41 ] . we have found existing natural history collections can reduce the need for additional collecting . our study , combined with data from [ 28 ] and genbank , is unique in its wide taxonomic and geographic sampling . because we have included both the type species of every genus and additional species of all 14 of the non - monotypic genera , we can test the monophyly every genus in the family ( table s1 ) .\nthe majority of the specimens used in this study are part of the california academy of sciences invertebrate zoology ( casiz ) collection . we had the permission of casiz to take tissue samples from specimens for dna analysis . as stated in the casiz collections policy : \u2018no specimens will be accessioned without adequate labeling , collection notes , field notes , or other locality information , nor without appropriate legal documentation ( collecting permits , export permits from country of origin , etc . ) when applicable . \u2019 we also included dna extracted for five specimens currently deposited in the museum national d ' histoire naturelle ( paris museum ) and the western australian museum . these tissues samples were collected during joint field trips under the agreement that the tissue could be sequenced at the california academy of sciences , while the specimens would remain at the respective museum . all other data used is from genbank or the moorea biocode database .\nmost of our samples were collected especially for molecular work and were preserved accordingly , either in 95 % etoh , sed buffer ( saturated nacl solution with edta and dmso ) or frozen . in addition to the specimens collected specifically for molecular study , we were also able to use museum material that was , either preserved in 70\u201375 % etoh or the original fixation method is unknown .\nthe cleaned , pcr products were copied and labeled with fluorescently dye - terminators ( big dye 3 . 1 abi ) in 10 \u00b5l reactions . each reaction contained 0 . 5\u20132 \u00b5l of cleaned pcr product , 1 . 63 \u00b5l of 5\u00d7 reaction buffer , . 5 \u00b5l of primer ( 10 mm stock ) , 0 . 5 \u00b5l\u20130 . 75 \u00b5l of big dye and water to 10 \u00b5l . these reactions were run on a perkin elmer 9600 - geneamp pcr system or a biorad mycycler\u2122 thermocycler ( software version 1 . 065 , bio - rad laboratories ) . the resulting labeled , single stranded dna was precipitated by addition of 2 . 5 \u00b5l of edta and sequential washing and pelleting in ( centrifuge details ) with 100 % and then 70 % etoh . the pelleted dna was denautured for two minutes at 94\u00b0c in 13\u201315 \u00b5l of hidi formamide ( applied biosystems ) . the denatured , labeled dna fragments were sequenced in both directions on the abi 3100 and 3130 genetic analyzer in the center for comparative genomics ( formerly the osher laboratory for molecular systematics ) at the california academy of sciences .\nwe assembled , edited and removed primer strands from forward and reverse strands for each gene fragment sequenced using sequencher ( ver . 4 . 7 . genecodes corporation ) and genious 3 . 0 - 5 . 3 . 3 ( biomatters ) . we aligned the coi sequences by eye and translated the base pair data into amino acids to using macclade 4 . 08 [ 46 ] to confirm alignment accuracy . we aligned 16s sequences with muscle [ 47 ] . we then further optimized the alignments by eye using both macclade [ 46 ] and genious 3 . 0 - 5 . 3 . 3 ( biomatters ) .\nwe tested for saturation or multiple substitutions at the same site by plotting the absolute number of transitions and transversions at each codon position ( 1 st , 2 nd , 3 rd ) for coi and at each base pair for 16s against both uncorrected p distance and log det using paup [ 48 ] and excel ( plots not shown ) .\nsequence data for both genes was not obtained for every specimen we studied . we worked with two main data sets , because we wanted to test the effect of missing data on the resulting phylogeny : the two data sets were : 1 ) combined 16s and coi for specimens with sequence data for both genes , 2 ) all 16s and coi data for all specimens ( table s1 . ) both of these data sets were analyzed both including and excluding variable characters in the 16s alignment . for all of these analyses we used doris kerguelensis as the outgroup .\nthe figured trees are the resulting consensus phylograms from the bayesian analyses ( figures s1 , s2 ) . all posterior probabilities are shown above the branches on the bayesian phylograms . tree topology was not altered with the inclusion or exclusion or the 16s fragment ' s variable regions ( see figure s2 for comparison of trees with and without variable regions ) . the resulting phylogenetic hypotheses for each dataset are summarized below . we will discuss relationships in terms of posterior probabilities .\ncoi and 16s combined analysis : including only specimens with data for both genes ( figure s1 ) .\nthis data set included 244 individual chromodorids , representing 157 species , four species of actinocyclidae , four other dorids . the outgroup was doris kerguelensis .\ntree is the same bayesian phylogram as figured in s3a . all specimens , both genes and all characters included .\ntree is the same bayesian phylogram as figured in s3a . all specimens , both genes and all characters included . blue = indo - pacific , red = atlantic and caribbean , gold = eastern pacific , green = sister group , black = outgroups . dark grey = solely eastern pacific and atlantic clades . light grey = primarily indo - pacific clades with eastern pacific members .\nthe two species of cadlinella included here , cadlinella ornatissima and cadlinellla subornatissima form a clade and are sister to the rest of the chromodorid species ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . these findings support previous results [ 27 ] , [ 28 ] and rudman ' s evolutionary scenario [ 5 ] , [ 26 ] . the widespread indo - pacific genus , cadlinella is an enigmatic taxon . it has at different times been considered it own separate family [ 64 ] , a part of the cadlininae [ 65 ] and a member of the chromodoridinae / chromodorididae [ 26 ] , [ 66 ] .\ncadlina burnayi ortea , 1988 [ 68 ] = t . nobilis [ 69 ]\nthe only two species of tyrinna : t . evelinae and t . nobilis are included here . tyrinna is always monophyletic ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . after the split from cadlinella , this clade is poorly - supported as the sister group to the main group of chromodorids ( pp = 0 . 83 ) . rudman [ 26 ] suggested that tyrinna , cadlinella and cadlina form a basal grade of primitive chromodorids . cadlina had been shown not to be a chromodorid [ 28 ] , but our results support rudman ' s suggestion that tyrinna and cadlinella are basal to the rest of the chromodorids . muniain et al [ 70 ] and schr\u00f6dl and millen [ 71 ] extensively reviewed the morphology of the two species in this clade .\nverconia verconis is well supported as part of a clade that includes n . haliclona , n . laboutei , n . romeri and n . simplex ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . noumea varians , n . purpurea and n . norba form a well - supported clade ( pp = 1 . 00 ) that is not part of a name bearing clade , but is one branch of the polytomy that includes the \u2018noumea sensu stricto\u2019 and the branch leading to the rest of the family ( pp = 0 . 88 ) . the monotypic genus verconia is nested within the noumea clade as suggested by rudman [ 75 ] and weakly supported as the sister species to another south australian species , n . haliclona , as found in the preliminary results shown by turner & wilson [ 27 ] .\ntype species : doris xantholeuca ehrenberg , 1831 [ 76 ] = g . pallida ( by subsequent designation )\nthe glossodoris clade ( pp = 1 . 00 ) includes species g . pallida and g . rufomargninata . in an important , but often overlooked detailed examination of the relationships of the species classified in the genus glossodoris , rudman identified five subgroups of this genus based on morphology [ 77 ] . the species in this glossodoris clade were considered by rudman [ 77 ] to be members of the \u2018 glossodoris pallida subgroup\u2019 . this clade also includes two species he did not include in any subgroup , g . cincta and g . hikuerenesis .\nlissodoris odhner , 1934 [ 80 ] . type species : l . mollis odhner , 1934 ( = c . aureomarginata cheeseman , 1881 [ 86 ] ( by monotypy )\ncasella h . & a . adams , 1858 : 57 [ 84 ] . type species : c . gouldii h . & a . adams , 1858 [ 84 ] ( by monotypy )\nspecies included in the glossodoris atromarginata subgroup [ 77 ] are recovered in this clade , with the addition of g . sedna and digidentis kulonba ( pp = 0 . 95 ) .\nthis name will be used for all eastern pacific and atlantic species of chromodoris and glossodoris ( except glossodoris sedna ) . these species form a polytomy including glossodoris baumanni and three clades of atlantic and eastern pacific chromodorids .\nchromodoris clenchi , c . norrisi and c . sphoni ( pp = 1 . 00 )\nchromodoris krohni , c . luteorosea and c . purpurea ( pp = 0 . 78 )\nthese exclusively eastern pacific and atlantic clades do not form a monophyletic group , but we will provisionally name all of these species \u2018felimida\u2019 . this is the most conservative choice , the choice that requires the fewest name changes and is the least disruptive pending further information and broader taxon sampling .\nthe ardeadoris clade includes both species of ardeadoris : a . egretta and a . scottjohnsoni , five species of glossodoris ( g . averni , g . pullata , g . rubroannulata , g . tomsmithi and glossodoris undaurum ) and noumea angustolutea ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . . based on their analysis , turner and wilson [ 27 ] suggested that with more sampling it would be come clear if ardeadoris should be synonmized with glossodoris . by sampling more broadly within the family , we found the converse . four species of glossodoris and noumea angustolutea need to be included within ardeardoris because they are strongly supported as part of the clade including ardeadoris egretta and not the type species of glossodoris . three of the species , g . averni , g . undaurum and g . rubroannulata , found in this clade were part of rudman ' s glossodoris sedna subgroup [ 77 ]\nthis clade includes all of the black - lined species of chromodoris and chromodoris aspersa ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . this clade was identified by , both wilson & lee [ 17 ] and turner & wilson [ 27 ] , as the planar spawning or black - lined chromodoris clade . all of the members of this clade lay flat egg masses .\ntype species : diversidoris aurantionodulosa rudman , 1987 [ 89 ] ( by original designation ) .\nthe diversidoris includes , diversidoris aurantionodulosa , two yellow species of noumea , n . crocea and n . flava , and a new species from moorea , french polynesia - chromodoridae biocode 2937 ( pp = 0 . 95 ) .\nthe miamirinae clade includes all of the species currently classified as ceratosoma , durvilledoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , pectenodoris , risbecia , thorunna and two species of digidentis ( pp = 1 . 00 )\nthis clade was first predicted by rudman [ 26 ] based on morphological similarities and then confirmed by rudman & berquist ' s [ 5 ] finding that all of the species in this clade feed exclusively on sponges of the family dysideaidae , although they assumed all of the genera to be monophyletic . miamirinae bergh 1891 is the oldest appropriate and available subfamily or family name for this clade . the remaining six genera ; miamira , ceratosoma , felimare , mexichromis , thorunna and hypselodoris make up the miamirinae .\nthe miamira clade includes the following species ( as currently classified ) ceratosoma alleni , ceratosoma magnificum , ceratosoma miamiranum , ceratosoma sinuatum . miamira is part of a grade with ceratosoma . the morphological phylogeny of species of ceratosoma and classified as miamira and orodoris , that was used as justification for their synonomy , predicted a sister group relationship between species of miamira and ceratosoma alleni [ 93 ] . our results confirm that c . alleni is more closely related to species of miamira , but do not find support for synonymy of miamira and ceratosoma . although , it is possible this relationship will be recovered with further sampling and by including molecular markers that will help resolve basal branches on the phylogeny .\nthe ceratosoma clade includes c . amoenum , c . gracillimum , c . ingozi , c . tenue , c . trilobatum and a new species . ( pp = 1 . 00 )\nthe felimare clade includes all eastern pacific , atlantic and mediterranean species of hypselodoris and two species of mexichromis , m . porterae and m . kempfi from the eastern pacific and caribbean respectively ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . both gosliner and johnson [ 13 ] and alejandrino and vald\u00e9s [ 31 ] hypothesized a sister group relationship between the indo - pacific and eastern pacific / atlantic species of hypselodoris . turner and wilson [ 27 ] did not recover that relationship , but instead found the same relationships shown here .\nthe thorunna clade includes all species of thorunna and two species of digidentis , d . arbutus and d . perplexa . all of species currently classified as thorunna are found in the indo - pacific and the species of digidentis are limited to southern australia . as suggested by rudman [ 26 ] , the only species within thorunna with mantle glands , t . australis and the species of digidentis ( all of which have mantle glands ) form a clade .\nthis clade includes all of the indo - pacific species of hypeslodoris and risbecia ( pp = 1 . 00 ) .\nspecies of risbecia s . s forms a well - supported clade nested within hypselodoris and can be referred to as the risbecia clade of hypselodoris . risbecia aplogema is not part of this risbecia clade and was previously considered a species of hypselodoris . including all of the members of the risbecia and hypselodoris bullocki clade in risbecia is not an option because this would render hypsleodoris paraphyletic . the second clade includes , h . bennetti , h , maritima , h . bertschi , h . paulinae , h . kaname , h . bollandi , h . obscura , h . infucata , h . zephrya and one or two new species . the third clade includes h . reidi , h . krakatoa , h . jacksoni and one new species . this clade was also recovered in gosliner & johnson ' s [ 13 ] morphological phylogeny of hypselodoris .\nin future contribtuions , we will work out synapomorphies for the clades identified here , but because of the amount of homoplasy and number of incomplete descriptions , this is a huge undertaking and not appropriate here .\nin summary , with the most comprehensive sampling of chromodorid species to date , we confirmed that the chromodorids are monophyletic and are sister to the monophyletic actinocyclids . we also found that the majority , 12 / 14 non - monotypic traditional genera , were not monophyletic or make another clade paraphyletc . seven traditional genera , ceratosoma , chromodoris , digidentis , glossodoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , noumea are non - monophyletic and three ( durvilledoris , pectenodoris , risbecia ) are monophyletic but render another genus paraphyletic . both ardeadoris and thorunna are made paraphyletic by nested members of other genera ( noumea , glossodoris and digidentis ) . the two monotypic genera , diversidoris and verconia are nested within clades . only tyrinna and cadlinella are monophyletic and without disruption to any other clades ( figure 3 , s1 , s2 ) . the classification proposed here and discussed at length above renames clades and is more consisitent with evolutionary history ( figure s3 ) .\nthis new classification clarifies our view of biogeographic patterns in the chromodorid nudibranchs . instead of taxonomy obscuring patterns of diversification in this group , this taxonomy reflects and reinforces evolutionary history . it gives us a much better framework for exploring evolutionary questions .\nthe electronic version of this document does not represent a published work according to the international code of zoological nomenclature ( iczn ) , and hence the nomenclatural acts contained in the electronic version are not available under that code from the electronic edition . therefore , a separate edition of this document was produced by a method that assures numerous identical and durable copies , and those copies were simultaneously obtainable ( from the publication date noted on the first page of this article ) for the purpose of providing a public and permanent scientific record , in accordance with article 8 . 1 of the code . the separate print - only edition is available on request from plos by sending a request to plos one , public library of science , 1160 battery street , suite 100 , san francisco , ca 94111 , usa along with a check for $ 10 ( to cover printing and postage ) payable to \u201cpublic library of science\u201d .\ntable of specimens used in this study . specimens used in this study listed by family . the names in this table reflect current classification not proposed classification ( new names are listed in the text ) . abbreviations are as follows : casiz = california academy of sciences , sam = south australian museum , wam = western australian museum , am = australian museum , zsm = zoologische staatssammlung m\u00fcnchen , sio - bic = scripps institute of oceanography , biocode = moorea biocode project .\nnew classification of the chromodorididae with synonyms . generic names and type species in bold and the most recent genus membership follows . listing order follows phylogeny .\nbayesian consensus phylogram including all specimens with data for both genes . posterior probabilities are listed above branches . doris kerguelensis is the outgroup . this phylogram is the consensus of 50 , 000 , 000 generations with trees sampled every 1000 generations with a burnin of 25 % . data was partitioned by gene and by codon position .\nbayesian consensus phylograms including all specimens . a . phylogram resulting from the inclusion of all characters b . phylogram resulting from excluding hard to align characters . doris kerguelensis is the outgroup . these phylograms are the consensuses of 50 , 000 , 000 generations with trees sampled every 1000 generations with a burnin of 25 % . data was partitioned by gene and by codon position . dotted lined indicate areas of disagreement .\nconceived and designed the experiments : rfj tmg . performed the experiments : rfj . analyzed the data : rfj . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : tmg . wrote the paper : rfj . conceptualized and wrote the new classification : tmg rfj .\nedmunds m ( 1981 ) opishtobranchiate mollusca from ghana : chromodorididae . zoological journal of the linnean society 71 : 175\u2013201 .\nspecies ( gastropoda : nudibranchia ) ultrastructure and chemical analysis of mantle dermal formations ( mdfs ) . marine biology 106 : 245\u2013250 .\n( opisthobranchia , chromodorididae ) . journal of molluscan studies 72 ( 2 ) : 214\u2013216 .\nrudman wb , berquist pr ( 2007 ) a review of feeding specificity in the sponge - 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1 2 ( 2 ) : 1\u2013117 , pls 1\u201376 .\nherrmannsen an ( 1847 ) indicus generum malacozoorum primordial . vol . 1 . cassellis .\nadams h , adams a ( 1858 ) the genera of the recent mollusca , vol . 2 . london : van voorst .\nmarcus ev , marcus er ( 1967 ) american opisthobranch mollusks . studies in tropical oceanography 6 : 1\u2013256 , pl . 1 .\nmarcus e ( 1971 ) on some euthyneuran gastropods from the indian and pacific oceans . proceedings of the malacological society , london 39 : 355\u2013369 .\nalder j , hancock a ( 1855 ) monograph of the british nudibranciate mollusca . appendix . london . ray society .\nquoy jr , gaimard jp ( 1832 ) voyage de decouvertes de l ' astrolabe pendant les annees 1826\u20131829 sous le commendement de m . j . dumont d ' urville zoologie 2 : 1\u2013686 .\nbergh lsr ( 1891 ) die cryptobranchiaten dorididen . zoologische jahrbucher 6 : 103\u2013144 .\nbergh lsr ( 1874 ) neue nacktschnecken der s\u00fcdsee , malacologische untersuchungen . 2 . journal des museum godeffroy 2 ( 6 ) : 91\u2013116 , pls . 1\u20134 .\nbergh lsr ( 1875 ) neue nacktschnecken der s\u00fcdsee , malacologische untersuchungen . 3 . journal des museum godeffroy 3 ( 8 ) : 53\u2013100 ( 185\u2013232 ) , pls . 7\u201311 .\nbergh , 1875 ( nudibranchia : chromodorididae ) in light of phylogenetic analysis . journal of molluscan studies 65 : 33\u201345 .\nadams a , reeve l ( 1850 ) mollusca , part 3 . the zoology of the voyage of h . m . s . samarang during the years 1843\u201346 . reeve , benham & reeve : london .\n( opisthobranchia : nudibranchia ) from tropical west america . the veliger 19 : 156\u2013158 .\nbergh lsr ( 1878 ) malacologische untersuchungen 13 . in : semper c , editor . reisen im archipel philippinen . pp . 495\u2013546 . wissenschaftliche resultate . vol . 2 , no . 2 .\nburn r ( 1961 ) a new doridid nudibranch from torquay , victoria . the veliger 4 : 55\u201356 , pl . 15 .\nstimpson w ( 1855 ) descriptions of some new marine invertebrates . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences , philadelphia , 7 ( 10 ) : 385\u2013395 .\ngosliner tm , ghiselin mt ( 1984 ) parallel evolution in opishthobranch gastropods and its implications for phylogenetic methodology . systematic zoology 33 : 255\u2013274 .\n( nudibranchia : actinocyclidae ) with descriptions of nine new species . the veliger 37 ( 2 ) : 155\u2013191 .\nortea j , vald\u00e9s \u00e1 , garcia - gomez jc ( 1996 ) review of the atlantic species of the family chromodorididae ( mollusca : nudibanchia ) of the blue chromatic group . avicennia supplement .\nmacfarland fm ( 1966 ) studies of opisthobranchiate mollusks of the pacific coast of north america memoirs of the california . academy of sciences 6 : 1\u2013546 .\nkirkendale la , meyer cp ( 2004 ) phylogeography of the patelloida profunda group ( gastropoda : lottidae ) : diversification in a dispersal - driven marine system . molecular ecology 13 : 2749\u20132762 .\nlatiolais jm , taylor ms , roy k , hellberg me ( 2006 ) a molecular phylogenetic analysis of strombid gastropod morphological diversity . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 41 : 436\u2013444 .\nfrey ma , vermeij gj ( 2008 ) molecular phylogenies and historical biogeography of a circumtropical group of gastropods ( genus : nerita ) : implications for regional diversity patterns on the marine tropics . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 48 : 1067\u20131086 .\nreid dg , dyal p , lozouet p , glaubrecht m , williams st ( 2008 ) mudwhelks and mangroves : the evolutionary history of an ecological association ( gastropoda : potamididae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 47 : 680\u2013699 .\nmalaquias mae , reid dg ( 2009 ) tethyan vicariance , relictualism and speciation : evidence from a global molecular phylogeny of the opisthobranch genus bulla . journal of biogeography 36 : 1760\u20131777 .\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\njohnson r . f . & gosliner t . m . ( 2012 ) traditional taxonomic groupings mask evolutionary history : a molecular phylogeny and new classification of the chromodorid nudibranchs . plos one 7 ( 4 ) : e33479 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nangas , g . f . ( 1864 ) description d\u00b4esp\u00e8ces nouvelles appartenant \u00e0 plusiurs genres de mollusques nudibranches des environs de port - jackson ( nouvelle - galles du sud ) , accompagn\u00e9e de dessins faits d\u00b4apr\u00e8s nature . journal de conchyliologie , series 3 , 12 : 43 - 70 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 52 - 53 , plate 4 , figure 11 [ details ]\npale pink body with red / orange spots and yellow margin to mantle . rhinophores have yellow tips\noccurrence describes how often the species is found on surveys within its distribution . it is calculated as the % of reef sites surveyed by rls divers across all the ecoregions in which the species has been observed\nabundance is calculated as the average number of individuals recorded per rls transect , where present .\nplease use this form only for a single type of error . if you see multiple errors on the page for this species , please report these in separate forms by clicking on this button again after submitting this form\nthank you for highlighting this error . we appreciate your assistance in maintaining high quality control standards\npermission is granted to copy , distribute and / or modify this document according to the terms in creative commons license , attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 . the full text of this license may be found here : cc by - sa 3 . 0\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nangas , g . f . 1864 ,\ndescription d ' esp\u00e8ces nouvelles appartenant \u00e0 plusieurs genres de mollusques nudibranches des environs de port jackson , ( nouvelles - galles du sud ) , accompagn\u00e9e de dessins faits d ' apr\u00e8s nature\n, journal de conchyliologie , vol . 12 , pp . 43\u201370\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3cfc9490 - ecfe - 4fc6 - a2a6 - 5bc2655281e1\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ea5ea0fc - d5d2 - 47a7 - 8e23 - f566b7234d91\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 258dc67a - e6da - 4416 - ac59 - d735f56583bd\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 493866\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nthis species was described from port jackson , australia . it is endemic to south - eastern australia .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are properly credited .\n, who used molecular data . additionally , most phylogenetic hypotheses of relationships in the chromodorid nudibranchs either focused on only one genus , or used genera , or one representative of a genus as terminal taxa . rudman\nused published data on the type species of each chromodorid genus in their preliminary phylogeny of the family . they did not include any other species to test the monophyly of any of the genera . vald\u00e9s\npresented the first molecular phylogeny of the chromodorid nudibranchs . their study included fifty - six chromodorid species , the majority of which were from the eastern atlantic ( ea ) and eastern and southern australia , and for the first time , at least one species of each of the chromodorid genera . see\nfor all details on all specimen data used . they were the first to explicitly test the monophyly of most chromodorid genera . although , they were the first to find evidence for non - monophyly in\n, they found little support for major clades and did not propose any changes to current classifications . johnson\n) . we expand on this preliminary research and include more than one species from each genus ( except monotypic genera ) , and include for the first time , the type species of every chromodorid genus . the indo - pacific ( ip ) is home to the greatest diversity of chromodorid nudibranchs\n) . one of the main objectives of this work is to advance chromodorid systematics and to provide a phylogenetic framework with which our traditional use of morphological data can be examined .\n. we have found existing natural history collections can reduce the need for additional collecting . our study , combined with data from\nand genbank , is unique in its wide taxonomic and geographic sampling . because we have included both the type species of every genus and additional species of all 14 of the non - monotypic genera , we can test the monophyly every genus in the family (\nwe directly sequenced 142 specimens representing 106 species . we combined these new data with all available sequences on genbank (\n, but are not treated as new in the numbers of specimens sequenced for this study . in total , we analyzed data from 244 chromodorid specimens , four actinocyclid species and four additional dorid nudibranch species for a total of 165 species and 252 individual specimens . we used\n. the chromodorid species include at least one species from all of the genera currently classified in the family chromodorididae . the number of species included in this analysis compared to the number of described species per genus is as follows :\n( 1 / 1 ) ( s1 ) . all sequences taken from genbank are listed with gb following the species name . we also included coi sequence from two specimens from the moorea biocode project in our analyses (\n) . we have examined all of the new specimens included here and they are deposited in natural history museums , as indicated by catalog numbers . we never combined sequences from different individuals into chimeras representing one species ; specimens included in these analyses are treated as individuals .\nthe sequenced coi fragment is 658 base pairs ( bp ) long . the edited 16s sequences are 531 bp long . the combined data sets with gaps introduced for alignment are 1189 base pairs long . all sequences are available from genbank coi (\n) and aligned data matrices are available upon request from the corresponding author . excluded variable 16s regions are identified as character sets in all nexus files . saturation was not found in the 16s fragment or the first or second positions of the coi fragment . there is slight saturation in the third position transitions in the coi data set ( not shown ) . the third positions were included in the bayesian analysis as the partitioning allows the parameters of this position to be estimated separately and the inclusion of the third positions did not change the resulting trees . the recommended model of evolution ( aic form mr . model test ) was used to set parameters in mr . bayes for each partition . the resulting best - fit model of evolution for each partition using the aic selection from mr . modeltest ver . 2\n: gtr + i + g and 16s : gtr + i + g . these models correspond to the following settings in mr . bayes ; all partitions set to nst = 6 and rates = invgamma except for the coi second codon position partition which was set rates = gamma .\nthe complete data set included 1189 bases . the chromodorids are monophyletic ( pp = 0 . 94 ) . they are sister to the monophyletic actinocyclids ( pp = 0 . 98 ) . a clade including both species of\nis sister to the rest of the chromodorids ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . the monophyletic\n( pp = 1 . 00 ) is poorly supported as sister to the main clade ( pp = 0 . 83 ) . there are two clades containing species of\n( pp = 1 . 00 and pp = 1 . 00 ) that form a polytomy with the clade of all of the remaining chromodorids ( pp = 0 . 85 ) . within the main clade of chromodorids , there is one very well supported clade , which includes all species of\n) . more detailed results found within each clade will be discussed below . there are three individual species and five clades of eastern pacific or atlantic species (\n) . the data set without variable regions included 1108 bases . there are only slight changes to the tree topology , including slight losses of support and changes to branching pattern in the species relationships within four clades containing species of\n. even though it is older than the name in current usage , chromodorididae , it had not been used in over fifty years . in the phylogeny of the chromodorid nudibranchs , there are five basal clades :\n, and grade of clades . we will briefly introduce each clade and its member species in the context of a new classification for chromodorid nudibranchs (\nhypotheses of relationship . genera should only be used in this way if they are known to be monophyletic through phylogenetic analysis . there have been two classes of \u2018naming problems\u2019 in the nomenclatural history of the chromodorid nudibranchs . the first can be described as the novelty problem ( as described above ) , when unique or \u2018unclassifiable\u2019 species were discovered new genera we created to contain them\n. considering these genera as evolutionary units at the broad scale may not lead to mistakes , but at a finer scale , we may be missing the true origins of novelty or by grouping things that are superficially similar together we may miss repeated origins of diversity ( convergence ) . turner & wilson\nfor previous phylogenetic hypotheses ) . they found evidence for the non - monophyly of most chromodorid genera . the only genera they found to be monophyletic were"]}
{"id": 2270, "summary": [{"text": "silvio ( 1874 \u2013 1890 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in a career that lasted from 1874 to 1877 he ran eight times and won three races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "in 1877 he won the epsom derby and the st leger .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "at the end of the 1877 season he was retired to stud where he had success both in england and france . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "silvio ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["this is the type of dispositions silvio throws . this is my silvio colt that was born on monday . he is sweet , sweet , sweet !\nupon request horse riding are available in the countryside starting directly from the villa .\nsilvio is a successful international grand prix rider and trainer with a history of showing significant improvement in horses and riders within the show jumping discipline . he is dedicated and passionate professional with the highest integrity and standards . silvio is a top quality trainer with superior work ethic and proven results at all levels of horse and rider .\ngrand parade was the first black horse for 106 years to win the epsom derby .\nsilvio i was the winner of the performance test at adelheidsdorf in 1990 , with very high marks for his jumping ability .\nin the summer of 1948 my love became the third french - trained horse to win the epsom derby and the fifth horse to win both the derby and the grand prix de paris .\non the wbfsh standings for 2007 , silvio was 25 th but in the 2009 rankings he had dropped out of the top 30 .\nsilvio is the show jumping coach for the united states eventing team who recently won a gold medal at the panam games in canada .\ntim daly of middleburg has him . he doesn ' t do a lot of advertising ; there is no need . the stallion covered over 40 mares last year , basically by word of mouth . tim ' s number is ( 540 ) 687 - 5685 . he doesn ' t have a website . here are some pictures of silvio ( the last picture is of silvio ' s sire , silvio ) :\ndick hern called nashwan\nthe best horse i ' ve ever trained\n. [ 3 ]\npearl diver became the first french - trained horse to win the epsom derby since durbar in 1914 .\nterimon , second to nashwan at 500 / 1 , is the longest - priced horse placed in any classic .\nthe original winner running rein was disqualified as he was actually an ineligible four - year - old horse named maccabeus .\nsinndar is the first horse to capture the derby , irish derby and prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe in the same season .\nsilvio ( gb ) b . h , 1874 { 1 - r } dp = 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 ( 0 ) di = inf cd = inf\napril the fifth was a very popular winner and the first epsom - trained horse to win the derby since amato in 1838 .\njessie works for equiventures , llc . as the director of marketing and sponsorships . equiventures organizes a series of horse trial and three - day eventing competitions at the florida horse park as well as the development and show management of the world - class ocala jockey club .\nreference point was voted 1987 british horse of the year by the racecourse association , attracting twelve of the twenty votes . [ 16 ]\nassassin was distantly inbred 4 x 4 to bartletts childers , meaning that this horse appears twice in the fourth generation of his pedigree .\nwhat is this stallion ' s dam ' s pedigree ? ? looks to be a nice stallion . i love silvio i and ii . . . anyone have experience using frozen ? thanks !\nnijinsky became the 15th horse to gain the triple crown after winning the derby and 2000 guineas with success in the st leger at doncaster .\nsilvio hein was born in ny in 1879 and died there in 1928 . he did not publish many songs and his most popular work , he ' s a cousin of mine was written in 1906 .\nwhat happened to . . . trempolino ? | sporting life - horse racing news | live racing results , racecards , live betting shows\ndr devious is the first horse to win the derby after contesting the kentucky derby , in which he had finished seventh to lil e tee .\nblack , robert ( 1893 ) . horse - racing in england : a synoptical review . london : richard bently and son . p . 248 .\nsilvio i is out of goldkatze by the gotthard son , gepard who was an influential brood mare sire for paul schockem\u00f6hle . goldkatze also produced the full - brother , silvio ii who passed his performance test with the highest index for jumping at medingen in 1994 . the granddam , rhododendron ( by the thoroughbred , ballyboy ) produced ps palm springs , the reserve champion at the bundeschampionate in 1987 , and later an advanced showjumper .\nphil drake ran five times and won three races , becoming the fifth and last horse to win both the epsom derby and the grand prix de paris .\nsanta claus won the irish 2 , 000 guineas , the epsom derby and the irish derby . his performances earned him the title of british horse of the year .\npont l\u2019eveque was a very late foal , born at the end of the breeding season on 25 may , making him probably the youngest horse to win the derby .\nthe second horse is telegraphed as\ngleuavth ,\nbut we feel sure that this is mr mit - ehell - innes ' glen arthur , a very likely outsider .\nat the second spring meeting , assassin was third in a 200 - guinea sweepstakes race to dennis o ' kelly ' s horse soldier and mr . davis ' horse plutus . [ 8 ] assassin forfeited a match race with the horse cornwall ( later called boringdon ) at the same meeting a few days later , [ 9 ] and at the july meeting in newmarket his owner paid 150 guineas to the owner of young eclipse ( the 1781 derby winner ) for backing out of a match race . [ 10 ]\nmahmoud was a light - coloured grey horse of distinctly arab appearance , standing just under 15 . 3 hands high , and bred in france by his owner the aga khan .\nthe english illustrated magazine called isonomy \u201cone of the most remarkable racehorses of the century\u201d . by the time of his second gold cup he was being described as\nundoubtedly the best horse of late times\nand as\none of the grandest and apparently most invincible cup horses that ever trod the turf .\nthe sportsman called him\nthe best horse ever bred in england .\njohn porter , who trained the winners of twenty - three classics , including three triple crowns , regarded isonomy as the best horse he ever trained .\nreference point was given a timeform rating of 139 , the eleventh highest awarded to any horse up to that time , and higher than those of nijinsky , alleged and troy . [ 16 ] in their book a century of champions , john randall and tony morris rated reference point the thirty - sixth best british horse of the 20th century and the second best derby winner of the 1980s behind shergar . [ 5 ]\nisonomy was one of the most popular and durable performers of his era , and an influential stallion who produced two english triple crown winners and two outstanding sire sons . the duke of portland , who owned many great stars of the english turf , once said ,\nnext to my own horse , st . simon , i should have preferred to own the great isonomy rather than any other horse i have ever known .\nwe had a 2007 filly by him and she was the nicest baby you could have ever asked for . there was no\nteaching\nwith her , she did everything the first time asked and had no fear of anything . she was 2nd at upperville in the foal class and sold within three days of being posted on the internet . we also have an appy filly by silvio that is owned by one of my boarders . she also has that same\nin your lap\ndisposition . please , go , meet silvio . he is a star and we could not be any happier with his get !\nshahrastani holds off the strong late challenge of dancing brave in a memorable finish . bold arrangement becomes the first horse to contest both the kentucky derby and derby , finishing second at churchill downs to ferdinand and 14th at epsom .\ni am getting ready to foal out a mare that is bred to silvio next month . this is a real nice tb mare that is owned by chris wynn . this mare was a hard one to catch ai . she caught on the first try with silvio . it was one of the easiest breding we have done . . . . . tim was very nice to deal with , and we bred with very little notice . we are very excited to see tis foal . . . . should be real nice . will post pictures once it arrives . but so far in my opinion as a stallion owners and shipping etc . . . . tim gets an a + from us .\n, one of the classic horse races . the race was established by colonel barry saint leger in 1776 and was named for him in 1778 . an event for three - year - old colts and fillies , it is run annually in september at\nin their book\na century of champions\n, john randall and tony morris rated windsor lad the nineteenth best horse of the 20th century and the sixth best derby winner , behind sea bird , hyperion , mill reef , nijinsky and shergar .\nit was at cobham that blair athol sired his best runner , silvio ( 1874 colt out of silverhair by kingston ) , who led blair athol to a fourth sire championship when a three - year - old in 1877 . bred by lord falmouth at mereworth castle stud in kent , and trained by mat dawson at heath house , silvio was a good but not great juvenile . he made his debut a winning won in the ham produce stakes ( goodwood ) , followed by victories in the clearwell , newmarket post and glasgow stakes , all at newmarket , the latter a walkover in his fourth start . at the end of the season , he placed second behind the future ascot gold cup winner verneuil in the buckenham post stakes .\ngravado ao vivo no vitrola bar - bauru - sp - brasil em 13 de maio de 2016 .\nhorse with no name\n\u00e9 um single do grupo brit\u00e2nico america , inclu\u00eddo no primeiro \u00e1lbum da banda , lan\u00e7ado em 1971 . a m\u00fasica foi composta pelo vocalista dewey bunnell .\nsnow knight won the the epsom derby , then the following year earned an eclipse award as the american champion male turf horse . at stud he sired awaasif , the dam of snow bride , winner of the 1989 epsom oaks and the dam of lammtarra , winner of the 1995 epsom derby .\ntriple crown , in british horse racing , championship attributed to a colt or filly that in a single season wins the races known as the two thousand guineas , the derby , and the saint leger . in britain the term triple crown is also applied\u2014though far less commonly\u2014to a filly that in a single season\u2026\ngainsborough , ( foaled 1915 ) , english racehorse ( thoroughbred ) who won the british triple crown , consisting of the two thousand guineas at newmarket , the derby at epsom downs , and the saint leger at doncaster in 1918 . the horse later became a stud of worldwide importance , being the sire of the\u2026\nthe following account oh this race is from the times of the 31st ma ^ j : \u2014 ' - the derby stakes of 50 soys . each , h . - ' ft . , for 3 - year - olds ; colts , - bsfc 101 b , and fillies , bst 51b ; the owner of . the second horse to receive 300 soys . , and the third 150 : soys , out oi - the stakes ^ about a mile and a half , starting at the new high level starting post . 245 subs . - \u25a0 \u0084 . - - - - lord falmouth ' a silvio , by blnir athol \u2014sitvefkair , bat 101 b ( p . archer ) . . . 1 mr mitchell innes ' glen arthur , bsfc 2\nplease complete your profile . the forums and the rest of urltoken has single sign - in , so your log in information for one will automatically work for the other . disclaimer : the opinions expressed here are the views of the individual and do not necessarily reflect the views and opinions of the chronicle of the horse .\ncharles the twelfth was a\nvery fine and racing - like\ndark brown horse standing sixteen hands high [ 1 ] bred by major nicholas yarburgh of heslington hallin north yorkshire . [ 2 ] yarburgh sent the colt into training with john scott who trained forty classic winners at his base at whitewall stables , malton , north yorkshire .\ni got an unsolicited email from mr . daly , and the series of replies was so fantastic i ' ve got it tacked above my desk to remind me how not to win friends and influence people : from mr . daly :\ni have a very nice horse at stud here in middleburg , please keep him in mind . - tim daly ( phone number , pedigree , photos ) from me :\nwe are not a breeding operation , sorry .\nfrom him :\ntoo bad , when your compietition is beating you with my horses babies you may want to diversify so you can upgrade your stock . there will probably be dressage horses in the 2012 olympics from silvio ' s family . there will be show jumpers in 2008 . - tim\nglad to hear that at least the stallion is nice .\nmat dawson sent out his first derby runner when he was 20 years old , having previously been apprenticed to his father and head lad to his eldest brother . the horse finished last but mat dawson would train half a dozen derby winners , and be successful in 28 classics during his long career . he was one of the first to command a public stable with owners of his own choice rather than being a servant , receiving wages , in a private yard . in addition to training the best horse , st simon ( who does not appear on his roll of honour as he did not take part in the classics ) , mat dawson also trained the best jockey of the era , frederick archer .\nlammtarra becomes the first horse to win the derby on his seasonal return since grand parade in 1919 and sets a record time of 2m 32 . 31s , beating mahmoud\u2019s 2m 33 . 8s which was hand - timed in 1936 . the race is switched permanently from wednesday to saturday . vodafone takes over the sponsorship and remains the backer up to 2008 .\nisonomy found his way into contemporary literature in the story silver blaze by arthur conan doyle . the story concerns the kidnapping of a celebrated racehorse and the mysterious death of its trainer . when explaining the horse ' s value to dr watson , sherlock holmes says that \u201csilver blaze . . . is from isonomy stock , and holds as brilliant a record as his famous ancestor . \u201d\nkris kin is the first supplementary entry to win the derby . the sir michael stoute - trained colt had initially been entered in the classic as a yearling but was scratched at the start of his three - year - old campaign . connections paid \u00a390 , 000 to add the horse to the line - up at the five - day stage following his victory in chester\u2019s dee stakes .\nif you are new to the forums , you must login or register a free account before you can post . the forums and the rest of urltoken has single registration , so your log in information for one will automatically work for the other . disclaimer : the opinions expressed here are the views of the individual and do not necessarily reflect the views and opinions of the chronicle of the horse .\nin may 1886 the sporting times carried out a poll of one hundred racing experts to create a ranking of the best british racehorses of the 19th century . favonius was ranked thirty - third , having been placed in the top ten by seven of the contributors . he was the third highest - placed derby winner of the 1870s and the sixth highest british horse of his decade behind isonomy . [ 20 ]\nin may 1886 the sporting times carried out a poll of one hundred racing experts to create a ranking of the best british racehorses of the 19th century . isonomy was ranked third , having been placed in the top ten by 62 of the contributors . in a related poll , the electors were asked to choose the single greatest horse they had ever seen . in this poll , isonomy finished second , one vote behind gladiateur .\ncamelot becomes the 37th horse to follow up victory in the first british classic , the 2000 guineas over a mile at newmarket , with success in the investec derby as he records a convincing five - length win at epsom downs . jockey and trainer , joseph and aidan o\u2019brien , become the first father / son combination to win the premier classic . camelot narrowly fails in his bid to win the triple crown , finishing second behind encke in the st leger at doncaster three and a half months later .\na multi - horse finish rivals that of 1913 as the closest ever . in a four - way photo , sir percy beats dragon dancer , dylan thomas and hala bek a shorthead , a head and a short - head . seven winners have had the prefix sir : sir peter teazle ( 1787 ) , sir thomas ( 1788 ) , sir harry ( 1798 ) , sir bevys ( 1879 ) , sir visto ( 1895 ) , sir ivor ( 1968 ) , and most recently sir percy .\nuriel davis cited by one website as the\ndance master ,\ndavis wrote a number of works that were based on dance fads of the 1910s . at least two of his works were original dances fopr which he wrote the music ; the davis foxtrot ( 1914 ) , and the horse trot ( 1912 . ) among his other dance works are , one wonderful night . hesitation waltz ( 1914 . ) he also is credited with a few songs , among them was broadway is my home sweet home ( 1915 )\nfew events in italy\u2019s recent history have had a more crushing effect on morale than the wrecking of the costa concordia , an italian - owned and skippered liner that capsized off the island of giglio in january 2012 . the giant vessel foundered with the loss of 32 lives as italy , battered by years of economic stagnation even before the euro - zone crisis , seemed bound for default on its vast public debts . silvio berlusconi had just resigned as prime minister , internationally derided for his \u201cbunga bunga\u201d sex parties and relationship with a young moroccan , karima el - mahroug ( known as \u201cruby heartstealer\u201d ) . confirmation that the costa concordia \u2019s captain , francesco schettino , had left the ship before completing its evacuation prompted a bout of mortified soul - searching .\nyour forum sign - up is not complete , you must add an alias / screen name before you can post to the forums . your name and email is not exposed to forum users , only the screen name is accessible or viewable . the forums and the rest of urltoken has single sign - in , so your log in information for one will automatically work for the other . disclaimer : the opinions expressed here are the views of the individual and do not necessarily reflect the views and opinions of the chronicle of the horse .\ngalileo\u2019s half - brother sea the stars shows he is one of the greats as he powers to glory under veteran jockey mick kinane . the john oxx - trained colt becomes the first horse for 20 years to follow up victory in the 2000 guineas with success in the epsom classic and goes on to complete an unbeaten campaign with four further group one wins , annexing the coral - eclipse , juddmonte international , irish champion stakes and prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe . investec takes over sponsorship of the derby and backs all the races at the two - day meeting at epsom .\nfor the tavo thousand guineas run on wednesday next , chamant is a warm faa - ourite at 2to 1 . the famous black and yelloav of russley , will be carried neither by pelligrino nor actseon , but by morier , avho has numberless friends at 3 to 1 . a foreign wonder , named strachino , is next in demand , and if half that is said and avritton about him be true , he avill win not merely the guineas , but the derby . silvio will represent lord falmonth , and as he has been very highly tried , he should do avell . his price is s to 1 . mr m . h . sanford , the american , has a nice colt called brown prince in the race , who has found friends at 2 . to 1 . altogether i anticipate an exciting tavo thousand .\nhe is a very striking horse . very handsome . we have one filly at the barn i board by him . she is a yearling this year . gorgeous chestnut 4 high whites , big white face , but damnit she is losing it all to being grey . she is a sweet filly and that is saying alot as her dam is not the most friendly of mares . he isn ' t advertised very much . his ads boast that he is\nbest moving , best looking stallion you will ever see\nbut i haven ' t seen him out doing much of anything .\nthe biennial for three - year - olds sometimes gives a fair line for the two thousand and derby . this year twelve runners came to the po - t ,\nthe most notable public performers being warren hastings and silvio . the pair \u2022were made hot favourites , aud it is probable one of them would have won if a heavy storm of rain and wind had not come on as they were starting . neither of the colts fled at all , and an outsider , named grey friar , consequently won . lady goiightly and chamant walked over for their engagements . the rood judges did not fancy their appearance . plunger , who was entered for the valuable salo stakes , did not come to tho post , and the event fell to hidalgo , a goodlooking son of pero gomez , who , two hours after , won the . newmarket handicap .\nreference point was a dark - coated bay horse bred by his owner , louis freedman , at his cliveden stud in berkshire , england . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] he was sired by mill reef the 1971 epsom derby winner who went on to be leading sire in great britain and ireland in 1978 and 1987 . reference point ' s dam , home on the range , was a high class racemare who won the sun chariot stakes in 1981 . apart from reference point , the best of her progeny was known ranger , who won nineteen races in europe and north america . [ 4 ]\nthe 77 - year - old mr berlusconi cannot run for public office again because of another conviction for tax fraud , which also led to his being stripped of his knighthood . and the prosecutors in the \u2018ruby\u2019 case are likely to seek a final ruling from the supreme court , which could yet decide that the former prime minister is guilty of one or other offence . but the decision of the milan court has nevertheless given mr berlusconi renewed influence over the fortunes of italy . as il messaggero , a rome daily , put it , l\u2019ex cavaliere rimonta a cavallo , the ex - knight is back on his horse .\non his four - year - old debut , isonomy carried 124 pounds in the newmarket handicap on 15 april and started 2 / 1 favourite . among his opponents was the american horse parole , who was not regarded as a serious threat by the british racegoers and started 100 / 15 fourth choice in the betting despite receiving eight pounds . parole took the lead at half way and drew clear . although isonomy made steady progress he was unable to catch the leader and finished second , beaten one and a half lengths . gretton then challenged parole ' s owners to a \u00a310 , 000 weight - for - age match race between the horses , but his offer was declined .\nvi * count falmouth ' 3 b . c . silvio , by blair athol\u2014silverhair ( f . archer ) . . . . 1 mr w . s . mitchell - innes glen arthur ( wainwright ) 2 mr mackenzie ' s rob roy ( distance ) . . . . 3 duke of westminster ' s pellegrino ( f . well ) 0 mr baltazzi ' s plunder ( maidment ) 0 lord falmouths king cloves ( osborne ) . . 0 lord roaebery ' s touchet ( constable ) . . 0 count f . de lagrange ' s chamant ( j . goater ) 0 mr c . rayner ' s warren hastings . . 0 mrc . alexander ' s thunderstone ( morbey ) 0 general pearson ' s chevron ( mordan ) ' ' 0 mr bennett ' s bay athol . . . .\no lord rosebery ' s rosbach . . . 0 mr naylor ' s sidonia . . . . . .\n.\no mr gretton ' s monk\nn\nin september he attempted to become the first horse to complete the stayers ' triple crown in the doncaster cup , although there was some disappointment that the undefeated hungarian mare kincsem was ruled out of the race by injury . in a rough race he defeated the filly jannette , despite being badly cut by the spurs of the runner - up ' s jockey , fred archer when he moved up to challenge for the lead along the rails . the duke of portland said of isonomy ' s performance marked him as\none of the best and gamest horses that ever ran\n. the gold cup - goodwood cup - doncaster cup treble was not completed again until alycidon did so in 1949 .\nin july , favonius won the midsummer stakes at newmarket . on 27 july he ran in a much anticipated race for the goodwood cup in which he has matched against the french - trained ascot gold cup winner mortemer . [ 8 ] favonius defeated the french horse , but was beaten half a length in a\nmost sensational race\nby the 50 / 1 outsider shannon to whom he was conceding ten pounds [ 9 ] the very slow pace at which the race was run in the early stages led some commentators to consider the result a\nfluke\n. [ 10 ] in the brighton cup over two miles , favonius started 4 / 6 favourite and won easily by three lengths . [ 11 ]\nisonomy was a late foal , being born in may 1875 , and as a result he was , in his early life , smaller and less physically developed than other colts of his generation . even in full maturity , he was not a large horse , standing just under 15 . 2 hands high . he was bred at the yardley stud near birmingham by the graham brothers . when the leading trainer john porter visited the stud , he was impressed by the colt ' s lively and assertive character , and determined to buy him . when isonomy was sent to the yearling sale at doncaster , porter was able to acquire him for 320 guineas on behalf of fredrick gretton , a brewer with a passion for gambling . isonomy was ridden in most of his races by tom cannon .\nin our continuing effort to provide an avenue for individuals to voice their opinions and experiences , we have recently reviewed and updated our forum policies . generally , we have allowed users to share their positive or negative experiences with or opinions of companies , products , trainers , etc . within the industry , and that is not changing . when it came to overt criminal allegations , however , those discussions have in the past needed to stem from a report by a reputable news source or action by law enforcement or the legal system . we are now expanding our policies to allow posters to share their own first - hand experiences involving overt criminal allegations , such as animal abuse or neglect , theft , etc . , but only if they publicly provide their full first and last name along with the post . we still will not allow anonymous postings alleging criminal activity . so , a user may now make a specific claim against a named individual or company , but it must be a first - hand account , and they have to identify themselves . users have always been legally responsible for their posts , and nothing has changed there , but we want to loosen the reins a bit and further allow the free flow of discussion and information relevant to the horse community . we are not providing a free - for - all of anonymous rumor - mongering . as enduring advocates for the welfare of the horse , we want to provide a forum for those willing to sign their name and shine a light on issues of concern to them in the industry . the full revised rules are posted at the top of each forum for reference .\nisonomy was sired by sterling , a horse whose biggest win had come in the liverpool autumn cup . in addition to isonomy , an early winner for sterling , he sired paradox , winner of the two thousand guineas and grand prix de paris , sussex stakes , champion stakes and runner - up in the derby ; enterprise , winner of the two thousand guineas ; enthusiast , winner of the two thousand guineas and sussex stakes ; and harvester , winner of the derby stakes in a dead - heat with st . gatien . generally , sterling sired horses whose best distance was a mile or a litte over , but he did get some good stayers , including isonomy , and several of his sons were influential in steeplechase breeding , and a grandson , wavelet ' s pride ( by isonomy ' s brother , fernandez ) , led the jumpers sires list in the u . k . for ten years .\nnashwan ' s next task was to prove himself against older opposition , starting with the eclipse stakes over one and a quarter miles at sandown park on 8 july . despite having recently recovered from a foot infection and facing both the outstanding racemare indian skimmer and the champion miler warning , he was sent off the 2 / 5 favourite . [ 10 ] nashwan took the lead approaching the final furlong and won by five lengths from the outsider opening verse , who later won the breeders ' cup mile . [ 11 ] two weeks later , nashwan contested britain ' s most prestigious all - aged race , the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes over one and a half miles at ascot . with the late withdrawal of prix du jockey club winner old vic , nashwan was expected to win easily and started as 2 / 9 favourite . this time he had to fight for his victory , with old rival cacoethes challenging him throughout the final two furlongs . nashwan was driven out by carson to win by a neck , with the subsequent prix de l ' arc de triomphe winner carroll house a further eleven lengths back in fifth . [ 12 ] his narrow margin of victory lead some critics to question his status as a\nsuper - horse\n. [ 13 ]\npapers past | the english derby . ( auckland star , 1877 - 06 - 08 )\nhelp us improve papers past : do our short survey and let us know how we ' re doing .\nthis article displays in one automatically - generated column . view the full page to see article in its original form .\nmr robinson ' s adamite mr r . peck ' s actaeon mr r . peck ' s morier . .\nwe forget how glen arthur is bred . he only ran as two - year - old , in the middle park plate , and was unplaced . rob hoy is by blair athol , out of columbia . as a two - year - old , he ran twice , but won both engagements , the new stakes at ascot being one . during the winter he was backed co win \u00a340 , 000 at prices varying from 15 to 12 to 1 . on march 31st his price was 10 to 1 . this is the first time a son of blair athol has won the derby , and the victory will tell greatly in the popular sire ' s favour . winners of the deeby from 1567 1867\u2014mr chaplin ' s hermit 1868\u2014sir j . hawley ' s bluegown 1869\u2014mr jardine ' s pretender 1870\u2014 lord falmouth ' s kingcraft 1871\u2014baron rothschild ' s favonius 1872\u2014mr saville ' s cremorne . first , second , and third prom 1573 1873\u2014mr merry ' s doncaster\u2014kaiser\u2014gang forward\n. \u00b0\n1875 - count bathyany ' s galopin - claremont\u2014 repentance c . juias\nd | r s arbaltazzi > s ki3 ^ ~ forerunner -\nthis article text was automatically generated and may include errors . view the full page to see article in its original form .\nfairfax media is the copyright owner for the auckland star . you can reproduce in - copyright material from this newspaper for non - commercial use under a creative commons new zealand by - nc - sa licence . this newspaper is not available for commercial use without the consent of fairfax media . for advice on reproduction of out - of - copyright material from this newspaper , please refer to the copyright guide .\npapers past now contains more than just newspapers . use these links to navigate to other kinds of materials .\nthese links will always show you how deep you are in the collection . click them to get a broader view of the items you ' re currently viewing .\nenter names , places , or other keywords that you ' re curious about here . we ' ll look for them in the fulltext of millions of articles .\nbrowsed to an interesting page ? click here to search within the item you ' re currently viewing , or start a new search .\nuse these buttons to limit your searches to particular dates , titles , and more .\nswitch between images of the original document and text transcriptions and outlines you can cut and paste .\nif you ' d rather just browse through documents , click here to find titles and issues from particular dates and geographic regions .\nthe\nhelp\nlink will show you different tips for each page on the site , so click here often as you explore the site .\npapers past | racing in england . ( otago witness , 1879 - 08 - 09 )\nnewmarket july . july ist , 2nd , 3rd , and 4th . juiit stakes , a sweepstakes of 60 soys each , for two - year - olds ; eoitu , bit l ' 2lb ; fillies , 8\u00bbt 91b . new two - year - ow ooutse . fifiy - four suba . prince soltykoff ' s oh c uuk , bst 12lb . . \u0084 1 lord falmouth ' s b f ambassadress , bst 91b . . 2 mr r peck ' s eh f eva\u00bbion , bat 91b . . . . 3 mr p lorillard ' a eh f papoose , bit 91b . . . . \u00bb mr p . lorillard ' s american filly papoose was much fancied for this race , but did not gain even a place . july cup , < f 300 soys , added to a sweep ot 10 soys eacb . last b ! x furlongi of bm .\ncount fde legrango ' s eh h phe ' nix , 4 yrs \u0084 1 chestepfield stakes , a sweepstake of 30 iovs each , for two , ve\u00bbr - olds ; colt * , b * t 101b ; fillies , 8\u00bbt 71b . last half of beacon mile . fifty - five subs . duko of westminster ' s eh c bend or . . . . 1\ngoodwood . july 31st . tnn ijoodwood cup , of 300 boys , added to a sweep of 20 soys each ; weight for acre ; pecaltles and allowances . two mil ' s and a - half . mr b grotton ' a b h isomony , by sterling\u2014 liola bella , 4yi\u00df . . . . . . p puko of hamilton ' s b h the bear , 6 jrs mr p lorijlard ' s b g parole \u0084 . . \u0084\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nchestnut colt , 1861 - 1882 by stockwell - blink bonny by melbourne darley arabian sire line : stockwell branch . family # 10 - a\nprince charlie ( 1869 out of eastern princess by surplice ) was bred by mr . h . jones of littleport , cambridgeshire , although foaled in france while his dam was overseas being bred . he is one of many examples of blair athol ' s best nick , with mares from the touchstone line . prince charlie was owned by joseph dawson ; and trained by his brother matt dawson . he was a very big , grand - looking , blazed - face chestnut like his sire , which may have led to his great popularity . in two starts at two , prince charlie won the middle park plate beating laburnam by a head ; and the criterion stakes over nuneham and cremorne .\npapers past | & quot ; english racing news . \u2014by augur . ( auckland star , 1877 - 07 - 14 )\nthere has been a great deal of nasty talk in sporting circles as to the result of the university boat race . it was well - known that the bookmakers would have been hard hit had oxford won , and this ha\u00ab given rise to tho report that certain of the dark blue 3 were bought . others say that the two crews arranged between themselves to finish together in order to discourage betting on the event , and to baulk certain members ot the ring . it is of course needless to say that both these stories are utterly false , but the fact of their having been originated shews what heavy stakes are risked on the race . a writer in\ntruth\nsuggests that the venue of the affair should be changed every year , and names lakes windermera and bala as suitable courses .\nwo have had a surfeit of racing since i last wrot . . there have been meetings all over england , but i can only refer to these at northampton , newmarket , and epsom . the principal event at the lirst named reunion is the spencer plate , a live - furlong race . on tho 3rd of april eighteen runners were telegraphed , poursivunt , who ran second for the lincolnshire handicap , being favourite at sto 1 ; cceruleus ( a brother to blue gown ) , who won the shropshire handicap in 1875 , and the newmarket handicap in ls7ti , waa next in demand , and several others were hacked .\nthe spencer plate ] of ] five , ! fu _ _ ong3 : stakes . \u00a3695 time , .\nli sees . mr baltazzis cceruleus . oyrs . . 7st . 131b , ( f . archer ) . 1 mr h ' reiitliani ' s wanderer , ovrs . , list . 31b , ( morell ) . 2 . mr howsin ' s woodl . irk , lyrs . . 7st . 7lbs , ( morby ) , 3 . eighteen ran . 5 to 1 poursuivant ; 0 to . 1 cceruleus : 8 to 1 wanderer and freemantle ; 9to 1\nwoodlark ; 15 to 1 to 10 to 1 the others .\nthe althorp park stakes for two - year - olds was won by a well bred youngster named hudibras . lord olive , a brother to warren hastings being second . on the second day of the meeting the northamptonshire stakes drew twelve to the post , old scamp , the croydon hurdleikace winnei . being first favourite at sto 2 with sst . 41b . he ran very well , but tiring under the heavy weight , could get no nearer than third to tha lightly weighted . queen of cyprus ( 6st . 101b ) , who scampered in 30 lengths in front of talisman ( bst . slbs ) . the fidy belongs to tom jennings , the trainer , and \u25a0 \\ * - as backed at 4to 1 , but talisman was a rank outsider .\ntiie most , remarkable feature of the newmarket craven meeting was the extraordinary success of the champion jockey archer , who , on the third day of the meeting rode the winner of every race but one .\nthat sapient body , the jockey club , met and reduced the lowest weight in handicaps from 53t . tibs , to ist . 71bs . i need not point out avhat a foolish retrograde step this is . epsom spring meeting was thoroughly well patronised , the ring presenting quite a derby hay appearance . the city and suburban handicaps is one of the heaviest betting races of the year , and as it is usually quite an outsider ' s race , the bookmakers oif . . . r most tempting prices . directly the weights appeared , forerunner and julius cajsar were spotted as good things . balbriggan , 5 years ( gst . 7lbs . ) , avas also voted as well in , and touchet , 3 years ( 6st . ) , on the strength of his lincoln running , found many backers . the day before the race , a report avas circulated that julius caesar wouldbe scratched , but on this being ascertained to be false , his position in the market became very favourable .\nthe city and suburban handicap , about a mile and a half : stakes , \u00a31215 ; time : 2 mm . isscc . ; mr gee ' s julius ciesar , by st albans , julie , . i years , 7st . 91bs . , ( a . rcher ) , 1 ; lord rosebery ' s touchet . 3 years , 6st . , ( hopkins ) , 2 : mr lambp . rt ' s balbriggan , 5 years , 6st . 71bs . , ( morgan ) , 3 . twenty - nine ran . 100 to 15 asrainst touchet , 15 to 2 balbriggan . 8 to 1 julius cassar , 100 to 12 chaplet , 12 to 1 ghost , 15 , 20 . 25 , 10 , 50 . and 100 to 1 the others . for once in a avay , backers had a great triumph , and the ring avere mulcted for a good round sum .\njulius cassar , it will be remembered , avas wonderfully unlucky for a three - year - old . for although he was placed in the two thousand derby , and st loger , he never got his head lirst past the post .\nold lilian came out looking so fresh , to run for the great metropolitan , that she was made faa - ourite at 2 to 1 on a field of six . she ran a - ery well , but could get no nearer than third to the four - year - old john day , ( 7st . 51bs . ) who avas fancied 7 to 2 .\nthe one thousand guineas for three - a - ear - old fillies seems likely to draw a good field . ' placida not being entered , palm flo aver is faa * ourite . that , once time - honoured contest , the chester cup , will be brought to an issue the week after next . hampton is faa - ourite at 7to 1 , tbe snail and footstep being the only others mentioned as yet .\nimmediately after the two thousand there will be some heavy speculation on ~ he derby . rob roy remains firm at 10 to 1 .\nthe annual meeting of the ratepaa * ers of tho whau district will be held in the whau lecture hall , on the evening of the 31 st instant .\ntho pioneer jiwenile templars held an entertainment last evening in the lodgeroom of the young men ' s christian association , w . c . t . james lee in the chair . the entertainment was of the orthodox character , consisting of an ode , songs , and recitations .\nenglish racing news . \u2014by augur . , auckland star , volume viii , issue 2296 , 14 july 1877\nenglish racing news . \u2014by augur . auckland star , volume viii , issue 2296 , 14 july 1877\npapers past | the derby . ( wanganui herald , 1877 - 07 - 21 )\n101 b . ( dodge ) mr j . t . mackenzie ' s\u00dfob roy , bst 101 b 3\npapers past | racing in england . ( otago witness , 1877 - 11 - 17 )\nbreeder : lord falmouth won derby stk & st . leger . lost to isonomy for queen ' s vase . sent to france in 1881 . ( close )\nhe has been the sire of a number of stallion sons including sunrise , sir lui , sir holtrup , sergeant pepper and spider murphy .\nhi ! what is known about this stallion and the disposition of his offspring ? i wasn ' t able to find much on line for him . thanks for any help !\nmr p and i saw a stallion by that name at the repro clinic where we had a mare . i ' m not into wb ' s , but he seemed nice , hopped of the trailer , did his thing with the phantom , hopped back on the trailer\ni wasn ' t always a smurf penmerryl ' s sophie ridsh\ni ain ' t as good as i once was but i ' m as good once as i ever was\nthe ignore list is my friend . it takes 2 to argue .\ni think that he injured himself while he was in quarantine and wasn ' t able to have a competition career afterwards . . . i have heard how handsome he is but nothing of his disposition , it sounds like the filly in s4zeu ' s barn is quite nice !\nthanks ! my bm is thinking of breeding to him and i told her i would ask about him . . . he sounds great and locke meadows , your filly by him is gorgeous ! ! !\nshe is gorgeous . i am jealous that your baby looks like she is keeping her solid . the filly at my barn is almost completely grey already .\ni have heard him mentioned before but i ' ve never been able to find any contact information for him at all . do they have a website ? can you let me know where he ' s advertised or the owners contact information .\ni saw rachel ' s filly at upperville , and she was very nice . i was not familiar with that particular stallion , but was impressed with what i saw .\ninteresting dressagediosa . . . . . i too have an email where his name is listed . . . .\ndam ' s sire is by volturno . dam ' s mother is by admiral\nthere is no frozen semen available now . why wouldn ' t you want fresh cooled ?\nyeah i too have been blown away by this stallion . i have seen him in person and i know tim . he is a very good quality stallion . and tim , has been nothing but nice to me . he is very knowledgable and he does honest work . i am thinking of breeding to him and i am about to be on that same band wagon . .\nthe mighty oak is a nut who stood its ground\n. . . you ' ll never win olympic gold by shaking a carrot stick at a warmblood . . .\nsee u at x\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 5 . 2 . 5 copyright \u00a92000 - 2018 , jelsoft enterprises ltd .\nall times are gmt - 5 . this page was generated at 02 : 09 pm .\nopen an account with betfair and bet at least \u20ac5 at min odds of 1 / 5 on the sportsbook . win or lose betfair match your first bet up to \u20ac50 . free bet stakes not returned\njessie started riding in the hunter and equitation rings , showing at the national level for virginia tech ; has since moved into the amatuer - owner jumper ring with a passion for all aspects of the equine sport .\nfor some critics , particularly in the populist five star movement , this is a lurch towards authoritarian government . others complain the reform enhances the influence on national politics of italy\u2019s often corrupt regional governments . recent days have seen claims that the deputy governor of lombardy gave a consultancy contract worth \u00a316 , 000 ( $ 21 , 000 ) a year to his chauffeur and the arrest of a former governor of neighbouring veneto , accused of taking millions for licences to build the barriers that will protect venice from flooding .\nsome also argue that mr renzi should have secured a broader consensus before submitting his bill to parliament . around 7 , 850 amendments have been tabled in the senate alone . maria elena boschi , the minister sponsoring the bill , claimed the amendments would \u201cmake us work an extra week and lose a bit of holiday\u201d . but the reform has much further to go than the costa concordia ( which is being towed 200 nautical miles to a breaker\u2019s yard near genoa ) . ansa , a news agency , calculated that vetting the senate amendments could take three months . then the bill must go to the chamber , and again to both houses . another objection , surprisingly rarely heard in italy , is that its legislators\u2019 time might be better spent on its still - moribund economy : last week , the bank of italy forecast gdp growth of just 0 . 2 % for this year .\nthe proposed reform is the fruit of a pact in january between mr renzi and mr berlusconi , who still leads the second - biggest party in the senate . the bill\u2019s prospects of approval were greatly enhanced when , on june 18th , a court in milan upheld the media tycoon\u2019s appeal against his convictions for allegedly paying for underage sex with ms el - mahroug and misusing his authority to try to conceal their relationship . seen through the eyes of mr berlusconi and his supporters , who regard the judges as puppets of the left , the successful appeal showed mr renzi was honouring his side of a bargain implicit in the january deal ."]}
{"id": 2276, "summary": [{"text": "the house wren ( troglodytes aedon ) is a very small songbird of the wren family , troglodytidae .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it occurs from canada to southernmost south america , and is thus the most widely distributed bird in the americas .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it occurs in most suburban areas in its range and it is the single most common wren .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "its taxonomy is highly complex and some subspecies groups are often considered separate species . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "house wren", "paragraphs": ["the house wren is probably the most abundant of the wren species . attracting them to your yard can be as easy as adding a bird house .\nyou can find lady banks gose at wren house brewing company in central phoenix . for more information , visit the wren house brewing company website or facebook .\nthe house wren has a current rating of least concern . the previous rating for the house wren was lower risk . the lower risk rating was downgraded to a least concern rating as a result of the population and range of the house wren . the range of the house wren is estimated to be about 25 million square kilometers . the population of the house wren is approximately 21 million individual birds . the house wren is native to south america , central america and north america . there are not any known threats facing the house wren at this time .\nfigure 1 . breeding and non - breeding distributions of the northern house wren .\nthe house wren song is long and complex , and both males and females sing .\na mateless male house wren fed nestling house sparrows ( hills 1924 . it is rare to find other species feeding house sparrows - shy found only 2 records . )\nforty - six species of wrens in fourteen genera are found in north america . these include the familiar house wren , the desert dwelling cactus wren , and the aptly named rock wren .\n: there are about 31 subspecies ( previously treated as separate species ) of the house wren , or howr , divided into 5 different groups . this web page deals with the northern house wren\nthe figure above shows two sonogram examples of male , house wren songs , both recorded in ohio .\nbrown - headed cowbirds sometimes lay their eggs in house wren nests . these birds act as a parasite to house wrens but , because brown - headed cowbirds usually are too big to enter house wren ' s cavity nests , this is a very rare occurrence .\npreston thoeny , head brewer at wren house brewing company , takes a break from brewing to pour a draft .\npreparing smoked nuts destined to become part of wren house and little miss bbq ' s pecan pie wheat wine .\nhouse wren habitat often overlaps with chickadee and titmouse habitat , resulting in competition which house wrens typically win . i wonder if forest fragmentation is resulting in increased howr populations .\nthere are roughly 30 different subspecies of house wrens . these subspecies are divided into 5 groups : northern house wrens , brown - throated wrens , southern house wrens , antillean house wrens and cozumel wrens . southern house wrens have 20 of the subspecies in their category .\njohnson , l . 1998 . house wren ( troglodytes aedon ) no . 380 . a poole , f gill , eds .\njohnson l . s . , kermott l . h . effect of nest - site supplementation on polygynous behavior in the house wren .\nwren rescue story this spring my wren built it ' s nest in a\ncheapy\nwooden bird house that i had placed above my light fixture on my back porch . i noticed the activity there \u2026\nunder the eaves of our house , a gourd - like pottery birdhouse swings from a cord , and cradled within are seven baby house wrens . hungry baby house wrens . they chirp continually .\nthe house wren species name is after a\u00ebdon , queen of thebes , who accidentally committed infanticide while trying to kill a rival ' s son .\nthe identity of each house has developed through links with the associated wren church and also the shared experiences of students working to win the competitions .\njanota s . m . , soukup s . s . , thompson c . f . male - biased offspring sex ratio in the house wren .\nkendeigh , s . c . 1941 . territorial and mating behavior of the house wren . illinois biol . monogr . 18 : 1 - 120 .\nthe winter wren is the only wren species found outside of north america . in its large eurasian range , it occurs in a wide variety of habitats and is a common garden bird that somewhat fills the niche of the house wren . it also has one of the loudest songs for a bird of its size .\nhouse wrens can be very feisty when it comes to nest sites . they will pierce and discard the eggs of bluebirds and others who dare to build a nest in a site the house wren feels it \u201cowns . \u201d\npossible abandoned house wren nest ? please help ! i am not sure what to do , if anything . i have a small bird house in the lilac tree outside my bedroom window . i have been enjoying watching \u2026\nbelles - isles , j . c . and picman , j . 1986 . house wren nest - destroying behavior . condor 88 : 190 - 193 .\n) . juvenile house wrens have a reddish brown rump , and their underparts are a darker buff . the carolina wren has a warm brown breast . the\nhouse wrens are notable for their lack of field marks\u2014the warm - brown upperparts and tail are matched by a grayish breast . look closely at the house wren , and you\u2019ll see a variety of small white and black spots , the only variation in the bird\u2019s plumage . males and females look alike and both have the wren - like habit of cocking their tails up when perched . the thin , slightly curved bill is ideal for capturing and eating the house wren\u2019s insect prey .\nevery year , a male house wren announces his claim in my yard with loud , rollicking , bubbling song . wrens are tiny , but they sing big .\nan abundance of attitude makes the house wren stand out from other small birds . it often cocks its tail straight up , especially when it ' s excited .\n. territories , multiple nest building , and polygyny in the long - billed marsh wren .\nthe house wren\u2019s nest is made of twigs and lined with finer materials . it is placed in a tree cavity , nest box , or a variety of unusual locations .\nst . paul\u2019s cathedral , in the city of london wren\u2019s masterpiece and a focal point of wren academy in terms of design , innovations , planning and excellence . indeed , if you look closely , you can see that the wren academy logo is the architectural \u2018footprint\u2019 of the cathedral .\nwren nesting indoors this is a story of a wren nesting indoors in a hanging plant and how the author managed to move the nest outside . in the spring and fall , when the weather \u2026\nroyall , jr . , w . c . and pillmore , r . e . 1968 . house wren feeds red - shafted flicker nestlings . murrelet 49 : 4 - 6 .\nthe house wren is a small , brown bird with few readily apparent field marks . it is slender and gray - brown , lighter in color overall and with a longer tail than the winter wren . its wings and tail are mottled , but its back and belly are fairly clear .\nwren in topsy turvy tomato planter one day my husband went to water his tomato plant that was hanging off our front porch . he was greatly surprised when a very angry wren flew out at him . \u2026\neastern and western house wrens have differing plumages , with western birds being grayer above .\n. an experimental test of the function of sticks in the nests of house wrens .\nthe oldest known house wren lived to be at least 7 years old . it is difficult to estimate the lifespan of these birds because they do not return to the same area every year .\nthe oldest recorded house wren was at least 9 years old , when it was recaptured and rereleased during banding operations in new york in 1993 , the same state where it had been banded .\nrt brumfield , and ap capparella , genetic differentiation and taxonomy in the house wren species group : condor , vol . 98 , no . 3 , pp . 547 - 556 , aug 1996 .\npecan . pie . beer . sounds pretty wild . sounds like ambitious suds from a local brewer who founded wren house ( along with drew pool and bill hammond ) a mere two years ago .\nat wren academy we operate a house system . this means that every student in years 7 - 10 is allocated a house to which they belong for the duration of their time in the school . we thought very carefully about what to name our houses after , way back in 2008 , and settled on some christopher wren designed churches from around the city of london . the houses are as follows :\nhouse wrens help to control insect populations . they also supply food for many different animals .\n. effects of predation and competitor interference on nesting success of house wrens and tree swallows .\nthe house wren has one of the largest ranges of any songbird in the new world . it breeds from canada through the west indies and central america , southward to the southernmost point of south america .\nsparrow kills house wren last year my son built a birdhouse in his first year of woodworking in junior high . i was so proud i painted a cute garden scene on the front and we put \u2026\nthe oldest house wren has been known to live is 7 years . it is hard to keep track of the age of individual birds because they do not always return to the same spot every year .\nspending the summers in thickets and brushy edge habitat adjacent to woodlands , the house wren is a familiar bird in parks , backyards , and gardens , often\u2014but not always\u2014near human settlements . some house wrens winter in the southernmost states in the united states , but many travel beyond our borders farther south .\nthe secretive house wren hops about on the ground and in the low understory with its short tail held up . it often punctures the eggs of nearby nesting birds , both of its own and other species .\nhenry the house wren at the end of june i noticed a jaunty little bird who sang his heart out from sunrise to sunset . he was so very tiny and that was what caught my attention - \u2026\nthe house wren is a fierce competitor for nest holes . they will harass and peck at much larger birds , sometimes dragging eggs and young out of a nest site they want \u2013 even occasionally killing adult birds .\nplatt m . e . , ficken m . s . organization of singing in house wrens .\nas the season progresses , house wren nests can become infested with mites and other parasites that feed on the wren nestlings . perhaps to fight this problem , wrens often add spider egg sacs into the materials they build their nests from . in lab studies , once the spiders hatched , they helped the wrens by devouring the nest parasites .\ntubaro , p . l . 1990 . song description of the house wren ( troglodytes aedon ) in two populations of eastern argentina , and some indirect evidences of imitative vocal learning . hornero 013 : 111 - 116 .\ntubaro , p . l . 1990 . song description of the house wren ( troglodytes aedon ) in two populations of eastern argentina , and some indirect evidences of imitative vocal learning . hornero 013 : 111 - 116 .\nkevin p . eckerle , charles f . thompson ; addition of arthropod cocoons to house wren nests is correlated with delayed pairing , behavioral ecology , volume 16 , issue 1 , 1 january 2005 , pages 1\u20137 , urltoken\n. territorial behavior of house wrens ( ms thesis ) . normal , illinois : illinois state university .\nto view the rolls of honour list and the latest standings in the house competition please click here .\nthe house wren is known for its confiding , friendly behavior . this familiar bird species is well - named as it often occurs around human habitations , often building its nest under the eaves of roofs or in backyard nest boxes .\nwrens are non - migratory except for the winter wren , a short distance migrant from boreal forests to the southern united states .\nrobert c . dobbs , john d . styrsky , charles f . thompson ; clutch size and the costs of incubation in the house wren , behavioral ecology , volume 17 , issue 5 , 1 september 2006 , pages 849\u2013856 , urltoken\nthe carolina wren is a small but chunky bird with a round body and a long tail that it often cocks upward . the head is large with very little neck , and the distinctive bill marks it as a wren : long , slender , and downcurved .\ndevelopment of vocalisations in nestling and fledgling house wrens in natural populations . bioacoustics 15 : 271 - 287 .\nhouse wrens occupy the broadest latitudinal range of any native passerine in the new world ( bna . org )\n) is more slender , rather long necked , with a very long , barred tail . their beak is longer and straighter than a house wren . it also has a long white stripe over its eye , and its breast is white .\ntitle - try to keep it 4 words or less as this will be the page name . something like - wren nesting in boot\ndull in appearance but notable for its effervescent song , the house wren is a common summer inhabitant of scrublands and woodland edges throughout much of north america . variation in plumage and call notes is extensive . polytypic . length 4 . 7\n.\ninsects make up the house wren\u2019s diet ( grasshoppers , crickets , spiders , and moths are on the menu ) , but they will also eat snails and caterpillars . most of their foraging is done in thick vegetation on or near the ground .\nthe house wren has variably brown or grayish - brown upperparts , pale grayish underparts , a faint , pale line above the eye , brown wings barred with black , and a long , brown tail barred with black that is usually held cocked upright .\njohnson , l . scott . 2014 . house wren ( troglodytes aedon ) , the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) . ithaca : cornell lab of ornithology ; retrieved from the birds of north america online : urltoken\nthe ambitious beer will emerge from a 20 - barrel steel fermentation tank and into the world sometime at the end of october or early november . wren house and little miss plan to host a release party , you and me and everyone else invited .\nthe first edition of this summary of house wren biology , prepared in the mid 1990s , said that \u201chouse wrens are arguably the most thoroughly studied passerine in north america , in part because they so readily use human - made nest sites , and because they are ubiquitous , relatively abundant across most of their range , and tolerant of human activity . \u201d now , two decades later , one can readily argue that we know more about the biology of the house wren than any other wild species of bird in the world . new studies have focused on genetics , immunology , energetics and physiology , ecology , demography , reproductive and other behavior , sex allocation , communication , systematics , and more . as of the mid - 2010s , more than 700 research papers , government reports , theses and dissertations had been published that touched on one or more aspects of house wren biology .\njohnson , l . scott . 2014 . house wren ( troglodytes aedon ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nhouse wren friends not rated yet i like to listen for their songs , how the song changes . they seem to call for me , \u201cwake up , get up and see me , here i am . \u201d i miss my friends , the family \u2026\nthat evening , in the garden , i heard the chattering of a wren . on the wire fence by my neighbor ' s yard teetered seven fluffy baby house wrens . the mother brought the caterpillar of a cabbage moth to one and then led the family into a thicket at my garden ' s edge . for several days i sometimes saw the wren family , often in the chard or broccoli patch .\nas an amateur foodie and beer enthusiast , it\u2019s my mission to explore the hops and hospitality of phoenix\u2019s breweries . in my most recent adventure into the local beer scene , i pulled up a chair to the intimate bar at wren house brewing in central phoenix .\n. food - supplementation does not override the effect of egg mass on fitness - related traits of nestling house wrens .\nthe house wren song may be considered loud and clear or shrill and grating . the chippewa indians , called it o - du - na - mis - sug - ud - da - we - shi , meaning big noise for its size ( cooke 1884 ) .\nthe nest is right outside my window . i ' ve timed the parents ' trips . from daylight to dusk , seldom does more than two minutes elapse between feedings . observers whose patience exceeds mine have counted over 1000 feedings to a house wren brood in one day .\nthe preys that the house wren captures vary from cicadas and caterpillars to millipedes and bees . the most common diet in the adults were hemiptera ( cicadas , leafhoppers , etc ) , while the common diet in the nestlings were grasshoppers and especially crickets ( scott 2014 ) .\njohnson , l . s . 1998 . house wren ( troglodytes aedon ) . in the birds of north america , no . 380 ( a . poole and f . gill , eds . ) . the birds of north america , inc . , philadelphia , pa .\n. adult house wrens respond to predators by chasing and striking at the predator while giving a loud , harsh alarm call .\neckerle k . p . , thompson c . f . mate choice in house wrens : nest cavities trump male characteristics .\nhouse wrens help to control several insect populations . they also supply an abundant food source for many different types of animals .\n: house wrens arrive in nesting territory from late march to mid - april or early may , depending on the latitude .\na familiar backyard bird , the house wren was named long ago for its tendency to nest around human homes or in birdhouses . very active and inquisitive , bouncing about with its short tail held up in the air , pausing to sing a rich bubbling song , it adds a lively spark to gardens and city parks despite its lack of bright colors . various forms of this wren are found from central canada to southern south america .\nmain point of confusion is winter wren ; it is smaller , shorter - tailed , more heavily barred on the flanks and crissum , and usually darker . winter and house wrens further distinguished by differences in song , call , timing of migration , microhabitat preferences , and foraging behavior .\ni am standing in a room crammed with 20 - barrel fermentation tanks , smooth steel cylinders to the ceiling . the air smells like hot oatmeal . preston thoeny , head brewer at wren house brewing company on 24th street and monte vista road in phoenix , opens a portable cooler .\nhouse wrens forage by hopping on trunks , branches , or on the ground . they sometimes forages high in trees as well .\nhouse wrens have adapted well to human habitation , frequently using nest boxes or nesting within a variety of objects in accessible outbuildings .\nalbrecht d . j . , johnson l . s . manipulation of offspring sex ratio by second - mated female house wrens .\nhouse wren populations have experienced some regional declines , but generally populations have been stable and slightly increased between 1966 and 2015 , according to the north american breeding bird survey . partner ' s in flight estimates a global breeding population of 160 million with 19 % spending some part of the year in the u . s . , 9 % in mexico , and 8 % breeding in canada . the species rates a 5 out of 20 on the continental concern score . house wren is not on the 2016 state of north america ' s birds ' watch list . back to top\nbut it\u2019s not all about sport . five times a year we run house competitions in poetry , quizzing , benchball , singing ( always popular ! ) and the \u2018marble run\u2019 . this last competition is a fun way to put lessons learned in our design and technology department to the test and chimes with our academy specialism , design and the built environment . over the course of wren academy\u2019s growth and evolution , a number of strong interhouse rivalries have come and gone , with particular heads of house being very partisan about how well their house is doing ! leading the houses are a fantastic set of six teachers . listed below are the houses with the name of the current head of house .\nhouse wrens sing with high intensity in periodic bouts prior to pairing and often did the same later in the breeding cycle to attract more partners . their song is described as rapid trills of frequency - modulated notes with an average of ten syllables per bout and around four different types of syllables . the largest recorded repertoire of a house wren is 194 songs , although there is likely no sort of ceiling or limit on the size of its repertoire . however , if you only count the songs that are most used by each male , then the effective repertoire of the average male house wren is about 25 songs ( kaluthota and rendall , 2013 ) . a close phonetic of the male house wren is tsi - tsi - tsi - tsi - oodle - oodle - oodle ( bent 1948 ) . kaluthota and rendall ( 2013 ) also found that only one type of song was shared by all fifteen males , only fourteen songs were shared by more than ten males , and the rest were unique to the individual .\nthe house wren is a tiny , brown songbird that is commonly found in the backyards of homes across the western hemisphere . anyone can go out on a still , summer day and notice the tiny bodies of feathers zoom past in the underlying shrubs and tree branches . once in a while , a child might find a nest in an old shoe box in his garage after his mom nagged at him to do his chores . the beauty of the house wren is exactly this image : its striking simplicity and lack of presence mixed with quite an intriguing set behaviors found only through careful observation .\nhouse wren chicks are completely helpless and dependant on their parents , who both care for the young . they fledge after about 15 to 17 days and all leave the nest within a few hours of each other . the parents continue to feed them for about 13 days after they leave the nest .\njohnson , l . s . 1998 . house wren ( troglodytes aedon ) . in the birds of north america , no . 380 ( a . poole and f . gill , eds . ) . academy of natural sciences of philadelphia and american ornithologists\u2019 union . [ revised online 8 december 2014 ]\nan affinity for open , shrubby wood - lands , mimicked so well by small town and suburban backyards and city parks , a preference for human - made \u201cbird houses , \u201d and a very loquacious nature all combine to make the house wren one of the best - known songbirds in north america .\nwalbrook - st . stephen\u2019s , walbrook shown against the backdrop of the evolving city , we can see the durability , both aesthetic and physical , of wren\u2019s designs .\na plain brown bird with an effervescent voice , the house wren is a common backyard bird over nearly the entire western hemisphere . listen for its rush - and - jumble song in summer and you\u2019ll find this species zipping through shrubs and low tree branches , snatching at insects . house wrens will gladly use nestboxes , or you may find their twig - filled nests in old cans , boots , or boxes lying around in your garage .\nafter the eggs hatched this year , i stopped seeing two adults at the same time . maybe one belonged to the minority of male house wrens who switch their attentions to a second mate and family before the first brood is fledged . i heard a wren singing from the other side of the house . that may have been the same male inviting another female to inspect a tipped - over flowerpot tilled with twigs in the tool shed .\njohnson l . s . , kermott l . h . possible causes of territory takeovers in a north - temperate population of house wrens .\nsoukup s . s . , thompson c . f . social mating system affects the frequency of extra - pair paternity in house wrens .\nthere have been occasional reports of house wrens killing young nestlings ( 4 - 5 days old ) or throwing them out of the nest .\nhouse wrens currently occupy the broadest latitudinal range of any native songbird in the new world . house wrens have benefited from the fragmentation of forests across the united states , including washington . this fragmentation increases the shrubby edge habitat that they prefer . they are fairly tolerant of human activity , which makes them well adapted to our increasingly developed landscape . they also seem to benefit from logging , using slash piles and small snags . in some areas in the 19th century , there was a decline of house wrens , which is blamed on the introduction of the house sparrow because they compete for nesting cavities . in washington and north america as a whole , the house wren population has been on the rise since 1966 , increasing an average of 8 . 3 % per year in washington and 1 . 6 % per year in north america , based on breeding bird survey data . this increase may be of concern since house wrens destroy nests of other species , and compete with other , less common cavity - nesters .\nin the wild house wrens live in open , shrubby woodlands . however , they were named for their preference for small town and suburban backyards and human - made bird houses . small wood - lots and forest edges are also well known habitats for these birds . human farming and towns have created more good breeding habitat for the wren by fragmenting forests , which explains why the house wren has expanded its range and numbers in north america . during the winter wrens live in thickets , shrubby and brushy areas , riparian forests , and savannas in the southern united states . in mexico , they prefer tropical evergreen and semideciduous forests .\nafter thoroughly exploring my whole yard , this year ' s male house wren selected the birdhouse hanging under the eaves . the previous spring , wrens nested in a dead limb of our old box elder . one year i found the wrens ' nest in the hollow center of my huge ball of twine in the garden shed . during a childhood summer i spent with grandparents on sauvie ' s island , oregon , house wrens built a nest in the mailbox at the end of the long gravel driveway . for the month until the young birds fledged , the postman brought the mail up to the house every day .\nthe carolina wren creeps around vegetated areas and scoots up and down tree trunks in search of insects and fruit . it explores yards , garages , and woodpiles , sometimes nesting there . this wren often cocks its tail upward while foraging and holds it down when singing . carolina wrens defend their territories with constant singing ; they aggressively scold and chase off intruders .\nperhaps he was correct , for after a few days a female house wren landed in the viburnum near the birdhouse . the male approached her , his short tail pointing straight up . he quivered his wings . he sang . he flew to the door to his treasure of a nest and looked over his shoulder at her .\ndeclined in some areas in 19th century after introduction of house sparrow , which competed for nest sites . currently widespread and common , numbers probably stable .\ncramer , e . r . a . physically challenging song traits , male quality , and reproductive success in house wrens . plos one 8 : e59208\nfrom a distance , the house wren appears to be a uniform brownish gray . the head , nape , and back are a uniform shade of brown ; the chest and throat are a uniform light gray , sometimes with buffy or brownish tinge . the eyebrow has a distinctive white stripe , and the tail , wings , and flank ( between the ribs and the hip ) have some black and dark brown marks . the plumage is identical between the sexes and no seasonal changes with the male slightly larger than the female in some traits . ( scott 2014 ) . the small and compact figure with a flat head and long , curved beak helps identify the house wren .\nwren nesting in door wreath for several years now there have been carolina wrens attempting to build a nest in the wreath on my front door . this year they must have decided that \u2026\nwren nesting in birdfeeder earlier this spring i found a few twigs in my birdfeeder just off the deck . i cleared them out without thinking about it , but later realized it must \u2026\nfor house wren eggs , temperature inside the nest box can be critical to survival . if a sun - drenched nest box warms above about 106 degrees fahrenheit for an hour , the eggs will begin to die . if a cold snap chills a nest below about 65 degrees fahrenheit for more than a day it can also doom the eggs .\nwe found that house wren offspring sired by extra - pair mates were significantly more likely to be male than were offspring sired by within - pair mates . to our knowledge , this is the first study to find a significant male bias among offspring in the event of extra - pair fertilization , when sexing has been done using molecular methods .\n\u201cwe\u2019re hoping to get 12 to 15 barrels worth , \u201d thoeny says . \u201cif so , we\u2019ll can or bottle a large amount of that . the rest we\u2019ll put in whiskey barrels and release later in the winter or early in spring . \u201d the pecan pie wheat wine will also be available on draft in wren house ' s taproom .\ndrilling , n . e . and thompson , c . f . 1991 . mate switching in multibrooded house wrens . auk 108 : 60 - 70 .\nunlike many other birds , house wrens do not have brightly colored feathers or markings . measuring 5 inches long with a plump body and a short tail .\nconsider putting up a nest box to attract a breeding pair . make sure you put it up well before breeding season . attach a guard to keep predators from raiding eggs and young . find out more about nest boxes on all about birdhouses , where you ' ll find plans for building a nest box of the appropriate size for house wren .\nhouse wren : breeds from southern canada southward to central california , central new mexico , northern arkansas , and northern georgia . other forms are found from mexico southward throughout south america and the west indies . winters in the southern u . s . and mexico . preferred habitats include open woodlands , forest edges , forest openings , shrubby areas and farmlands .\neven if no bird house is offered , these birds are likely to find somewhere or something to nest in even if no man - made housing is available .\nludgate - st . martin\u2019s ludgate there has been a church on or near this site since the twelfth century . the last incarnation of the medieval church on the site was destroyed by the fire of london in 1666 , only 40 years after it had last been repaired ! as with all the wren churches , they form part of the mandate given to wren to rebuild london after the fire .\nmale house wrens added cocoons to half of the first nests they built in each year . cocoon use is not unique to this house wren population , as it occurs across much of the species ' breeding range ( see mccabe , 1965 ) . the use of cocoons did not vary consistently with habitat but increased seasonally in each year , paralleling seasonal increases in spider populations ( kendeigh , 1979 ; williams et al . , 1995 ) . variation in cocoon use was unrelated to differences in male body mass or condition index .\nhouse wrens occupy the broadest latitudinal range of any native passerine in the new world , breeding from across most of canada down to the southernmost part of south america , and into the west indies . the number of studies done on southern forms of house wrens have increased recently , especially in argentina and chile . coverage of research done on southern forms has been greatly expanded in the current review of house wren biology , with an emphasis is placed on studies that would be of most utility to researchers studying the northern forms . however , the existence of other studies on southern forms is noted and all known studies of the species appear in the comprehensive bibliography found at the end of this review .\nvisitors share stories about wren birds upon opening my mailbox one morning , i noticed a lot of leaves and pine straw and thought it had been blown in from a bad storm the night before . \u2026\nour little wren we have several nesting boxes in our yard for the wrens & this year they chose the one my husband ( dan ) built that has a front porch . we can sit on \u2026\nwren interesting nesting choice i first noticed this bird in may , by the short aggressive calls that were very loud from such a small bird . i figured the bird was looking for a mate . \u2026\nhouse wrens devour spiders , bugs , beetles , and caterpillars . they also eat many leafhoppers , grasshoppers , crickets , locusts , and the occasional bee or wasp .\nhouse wrens are territorial and are usually alone except during breeding season and on a wintering ground . during breeding season , house wrens are found in pairs or in immediate family groups while when on a wintering ground , they are rarely found with a flock and usually found alone ( scott 2014 ) . however , house wrens can be seen acting kindly . there is a case of a male house wren that fed a nestling northern flickers in a nest above his own . after his offsprings hatched , he fed both the nestling northern flickers and his own offsprings ( royall and pillmore 1968 ) . on the other hand , house wrens can be seen acting aggressively . in another case , the house wrens pecked and removed eggs of all species 1 - 3m around their nest and destroyed quail eggs in an open nest 20 - 40m from their own nest ( belles - isles and picman 1986 ) . interestingly , the males attacked eggs only before pairing and females only before laying ( kennedy and white 1996 ) . moreover , the presence of a small wasp nests in a cavity does not deter nesting but rather the wrens become aggressive , killing the wasps and knocking the nests if it is an obstacle ( mcatee1927 ) .\nthe wrens are small birds for the most part although the cactus wren is a medium - sized bird . the members of this family are rather plump birds with short wings , longish , strong legs and feet , and rather large heads with long , thin , slightly downcurved bills . tail size varies from the very short as is the case in the wood - wrens , to longish as in the cactus wren .\nhouse wrens nest inside tree holes and nest boxes . as the season progresses their nests can become infested with mites and other parasites that feed on the wren nestlings . perhaps to fight this problem , wrens often add spider egg sacs into the materials they build their nests from . in lab studies , once the spiders hatched , they helped the wrens by devouring the nest parasites .\nduring the breeding season , the home range of house wrens is roughly the same as their territory . we have no information on the winter home range of this species .\nhouse wrens breed from southern canada south throughout most of the u . s . they winter in the southern u . s . and mexico . the population is increasing .\nhouse wrens are cavity nesters and as such , are easily attracted to birdhouses . in fact , these birds seem to prefer man - made nest boxes to natural cavities .\nto address this , an experiment to help determine if a bird has a greater chance after a failed attempt elsewhere would be to have a house wren that failed his mating attempt and a control house wren and calculate the successes of mating attempts . sometimes the male will have more than one mating partner . when this happens , he either remains on the same territory or establishes a new territory elsewhere . in either cases , the male deserts the female and usually the deserted female will not breed again . moreover , when the female deserts the male , the deserted male is less likely to breed . when the male establishes or claims a new territory , he immediately begins building a nest that the female helps complete when she pairs with him ( scott 2014 ) .\na house wren weighs about as much as two quarters , but it\u2019s a fierce competitor for nest holes . wrens will harass and peck at much larger birds , sometimes dragging eggs and young out of a nest site they want \u2013 even occasionally killing adult birds . in some areas they are the main source of nest failure for bluebirds , tree swallows , prothonotary warblers , and chickadees .\nwren nest in shamrock plant a pair of carolina wrens have built their nest in my shamrock plant on the front porch . last year , i found an incomplete nest there . . . and removed it . \u2026\ngas lamp wren brood right off the corner of our deck is an old gas lamp - the kind many have by their driveways . this one has not been used in years - it is not even hooked \u2026\na cactus wren ' s snow experience i have cactus wrens all over the place here in the high desert mtns . i used to get so frustrated with these little buggars , tearing up my patio furniture , \u2026\nhouse wrens are usually 11 to 13 cm long and weigh 10 to 12 g . males and females are identical in coloration , but males are slightly larger in some traits .\nhouse wrens also communicate using body language . if a predator approaches , males crouch and drop their wings , raise their back feathers , and lower their fanned - out tail .\nhouse wrens inhabit gardens , hedgerows , brushy woods , wetlands , and other edges . they use a variety of habitats , as long as they have a dense shrub layer .\npoirier n . e . , whittingham l . a . , dunn p . o . males achieve greater reproductive success through multiple broods than through extrapair mating in house wrens .\nwhittingham l . a . , valkenaar s . m . , poirier n . e . , dunn p . o . maternal condition and nestling sex ratio in house wrens .\nhouse wren nest sizes range from 4 to 8 eggs , with one egg laid per day . females develop single large incubation patches ( bare areas of skin on their bellies ) and will spend over half of their time incubating the eggs , once their entire clutch has been laid . hatching begins about 12 days after the last egg is laid and occurs only during daylight hours . house wrens are able to breed ( have reached sexual maturity ) when they are 1 year old , but some first time breeders skip the regular breeding time and choose instead to breed alongside the older birds who are attempting a second clutch in a season . house wrens nest in tree cavities , such as old woodpecker holes . they preferring cavities closer to the ground with small entrances .\ndubois n . s . , kennedy e . d . , getty t . surplus nest boxes and the potential for polygyny affect clutch size and offspring sex ratio in house wrens .\nhouse wrens are fiercely territorial , they have been known to destroy bluebird and other cavity nester ' s eggs by piercing them , and then often removing the eggs from the nest .\nmy cat has attacked a wrens nest good morning , for the last couple of days i noticed a wren had set up a nest in my blackberry branch that protrudes out from the side of my my shed . it \u2026\nas with many birds , your ears can help lead you to house wren sightings . start in the right habitat : backyards , parks , or open woods , then listen . the song can be hard to learn at first , because the notes are nondescript and variable , and because there\u2019s simply so much of it \u2013 so loud and insistent - that it\u2019s hard to believe such a small bird is making it .\nthe house wren is common sprightly and energetic backyard bird over much of the western hemisphere . its body is compact , with a flat head and thin , slightly curved beak . it is relatively short - winged , often keeping its longish tail either cocked above the line of the body . generally , most house wrens are a warm brown color with dark and light barring throughout , although there is regional variation . legs are pinkish , with large feet . taken 27 april , 2009 in victoria , british columbia , canada . the following is a link to this photographer ' s website : glenn bartley .\nhouse wrens breed throughout all of the united states except for the south . but since they spend the winter in the south , you can find them at some time in every state .\nhouse wrens are a very abundant species . they live in semi - forested areas , which is a common habitat type so conservation management is not necessary . however , house wrens are protected under the u . s . migratory bird act . these birds are quite tolerant of habitat change and nest disturbance , allowing them to live and reproduce successfully even in human populated areas .\nkroodsma , d . & brewer , d . ( 2018 ) . house wren ( troglodytes aedon ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nwren house brewing does not have a kitchen , but if you\u2019re feeling peckish , the bar currently offers jerky snacks for purchase . there\u2019s also the option of bringing in your own dinner ; delivery is welcomed , or the street is ripe with options for authentic mexican . whether you\u2019re in for one beer or a long sampling session , have a seat . this brewery has a cold one in a cozy taproom for you .\nhere in the valley , wren house brewing company ' s head brewer , preston thoeny , is helping put gose on the map . with this year\u2019s debut of lady banks gose , thoeny has brought the traditionally european style to the metro phoenix area . an affinity toward nice , crisp sours brought gose to thoeny ' s attention , and the result is a slightly salty , slightly tart , and rose - colored beer .\nfor clarity , only distributions of the northernmost , aedon - type house wrens are shown ( see text for distributions of two southern forms of house wrens ) . ' wintering area ' indicates locations where most individuals are found in winter . smaller numbers of birds regularly winter north of this range into lower portions of what is shown as ' breeding range ' ( see text ) .\na small wren with medium - length bill and tail , it responds readily to pishing . overall jizz is of a plain , typical wren . adult : one molt a year ; sexes similar . all populations brownish above , paler gray - brown or gray below . supercilium , often indistinct , is paler than crown and auriculars . juvenile : variable , but many differ from adults in having warmer buff and rufous tones , along with indistinct scalloping on throat and breast .\n4 . 6 - 5 in ( 11 . 5 - 12 . 5 cm ) . weight 0 . 28 - 0 . 40 oz ( 8 - 11 g ) . a rather plain gray - brown wren without prominent markings .\nwren nesting in bookcase - up until now , i ' ve never been a bird watcher . i never knew how interesting birds can be , or how excited i could get over them . i also didn ' t realize that \u2026\n. adults feed their young and supplement their own diet with sources of calcium such as mollusk shells . house wrens forage primarily in the woodland subcanopy , in shrubs and among herbaceous ground cover .\n: house wrens are secondary cavity nesters , meaning they cannot excavate their own nesting holes . tolerant of human activities . howr may prefer a box with a smaller floor space . a typical nestbox\ncarrying the caterpillar , the wren dashes to the nest and dives through the entrance hole . for a moment , sound ceases . then she ' s out and gone , and the babies begin to cry again . they ' re still hungry !\nmost wren species are solitary birds that typically forage in pairs and do not join mixed flocks . they forage by using their bills to investigate dead leaf clusters , crevices , and various other hiding places used by the small creatures they prey upon .\nin both years , we collected completed clutches of house wren eggs from the east bay study area for use in experiments on the mackinaw study area . we stored collected eggs in a refrigerator until needed . we randomly assigned nests on the mackinaw study area to either experimental or control treatment groups . within the first 3 days of incubation , we added 3 marked eggs ( foster eggs ) to the natural clutch at experimental nests and visited but did not manipulate control nests . this resulted in early - season experimental clutch sizes of 8\u201311 eggs and late - season experimental clutch sizes of 7\u201310 eggs . thus , experimental clutch sizes were near the upper limit but within the range of natural house wren clutch sizes ( bent 1948 ; johnson 1998 ) . because added eggs had been stored at cold temperatures , they did not hatch and were removed and discarded when the first original egg of the natural clutch hatched .\nkaluthota , c . d . and rendall , d . 2013 . song organization and variability in northern house wrens ( troglodytes aedon parkmanii ) in western canada . the auk 132 : 617 - 628 .\nin the wild , house wrens live in open , shrubby woodlands . however , they were named for their preference for small town and suburban backyards and human - made bird houses . small wood - lots and forest edges are also common habitats for these birds . human farming and towns have created more good breeding habitat for the wren by breaking forests up into small chunks . this explains why house wrens have expanded their range and their population in north america has grown . during the winter , wrens live in thickets , shrubby and brushy areas , riparian forests , and savannas in the southern united states . in mexico , they prefer tropical evergreen and semideciduous forests .\ni stand on my back porch and watch a tiny brownish bird streak from the apple tree to the garden , drop to the ground at one end of the vegetable bed , and disappear under the dense greenery . broccoli leaves quiver as the bird travels through the hidden depths of the patch . the house wren emerges at the other end of the bed , with a large cabbage moth caterpillar bulging in its bill . i know where that caterpillar ' s going ."]}
{"id": 2287, "summary": [{"text": "the red-footed booby ( sula sula ) is a large seabird of the booby family , sulidae .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "as suggested by the name , adults always have red feet , but the colour of the plumage varies .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they are powerful and agile fliers , but they are clumsy in takeoffs and landings .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "they are found widely in the tropics , and breed colonially in coastal regions , especially islands . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "red - footed booby", "paragraphs": ["of booby are the blue - footed booby , the red - footed booby , the brown booby , the peruvian booby , the masked booby and the nazca booby .\nfigure 1 . distribution of the red - footed booby in the hawaiian archipelago .\ndiet : red - footed booby feeds on squid and fish , especially flying fish .\nred - footed booby - hawaiian islands - u . s . fish and wildlife service\nwhen the re - footed booby is young . although the re - footed booby is known to be an agile flyer , the red - footed booby can be clumsy when taking off and landing . the red - footed booby can dive through the sky to the surface of the water to catch\nthe oldest recorded red - footed booby was at least 22 years , 11 months old .\na red - footed booby from the galapagos . note its brown tail . photograph : henry nicholls\nrauzon , m . , d . drigot . 1999 . red - footed booby use of artificial nesting platforms .\nand is identifiable by its bright blue feet . the female blue - footed booby is generally slightly larger than the male blue - footed booby and the female blue - footed booby also has more brightly coloured feet than the male blue - footed booby , as the male ' s feet are paler . the young blue - footed booby also has pale coloured feet which ( in females particularly ) becomes brighter as the booby gets older .\nred - footed booby . adult in flight . muriwai , january 2017 . image \u00a9 paul kettel by paul kettel urltoken\nverner , j . 1961 . nesting activities of the red - footed booby . wilson bulletin 77 : 229 - 234 .\nsuggested citation : lee , d . s . , w . a . mackin . 2009 . red - footed booby .\nschreiber , e . , r . schreiber , g . schenk . 1996 . red - footed booby ( sula sula ) .\nhabitat : red - footed booby is pelagic away breeding colonies . it nests on coral atolls or volcanic islands in tropical seas .\nschreiber , e . a . , r . w . schreiber and g . a . schenk 1996 . red - footed booby (\nlike all boobies , the red - footed booby never carries its prey in its beak . instead , it always swallows it before flying .\nclapp , r . b . 1987 . the status of the red - footed booby on little cayman island . atoll research bulletin 304 .\nenature . com , 2002 .\nred - footed booby\n( on - line ) . accessed 03 / 08 / 04 at urltoken .\nle corre , m . ( 1997 ) diving depths of two tropical pelecaniformes : the red - tailed tropicbird and the red - footed booby . the condor , 99 : 1004 - 1007 .\nverner , j . ( 1965 ) flight behaviour of the red - footed booby . the wilson bulletin , 77 ( 3 ) : 229 - 234 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - red - footed booby ( sula sula )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - red - footed booby ( sula sula )\ntitle =\narkive species - red - footed booby ( sula sula )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe red - footed booby has a tropical distribution , encompassing the caribbean , the south - west atlantic ocean and the pacific and indian oceans ( 2 ) .\nflight : red - footed booby flies with grace and speed . it has an agile flight action to feed , with plunge - diving to catch its prey .\nof booby in the world and can grow to nearly a metre in height . the masked booby primarily feeds on flying\nof booby and is believed to be most closely related to the masked booby . the nazca booby has a white body and a beak that is yellow or orange in colour .\nof booby that purposefully spend the winter at sea ( like the brown booby ) . typically , the booby will have the same mating partner for a few years and the booby has been known to lay its eggs all year round , although this is quite dependent on the area which the booby inhabits . the booby lays between 1 and 3 eggs ( usually 2 ) , and the booby chicks hatch after an\nrange : red - footed booby breeds in hawaii , caribbean sea , atlantic , pacific and indian oceans , and seas north australia . it winters throughout tropical oceans .\nred - footed boobies appear in a variety of color morphs but , of course , all have feet of the distinctive red color which gives them their name .\nthe red - footed booby is not currently the target of any specific conservation action ; however , it may benefit from measures designed to protect other species within its range . the world\u2019s largest red - footed booby colony , for example , is found on the galapagos islands , a designated world heritage site and subject to intensive research and monitoring ( 10 ) .\neven then , this is a distance of well over 4 , 000 miles , around 40 times further than a red - footed booby would normally fly on a foraging trip . \u201cthe red - footed booby often sits on vessels at sea , especially if they are exhausted , \u201d notes le corre . \u201cit may have been the case with this one . \u201d\nmiskelly , c . m . 2016 [ updated 2017 ] . red - footed booby . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken\ndiamond , a . w . 1980 . the red - footed booby colony on little cayman : size , structure , and significance . atoll research bulletin 241 : 165 - 170 .\nthe red - footed booby ( sula sula ) and the masked , or blue - faced , booby ( s . dactylatra ) are wide - ranging in the atlantic , pacific , and indian oceans . the blue - footed booby ( s . nebouxii ) occurs in the pacific from southern california to northern peru and on the gal\u00e1pagos islands . boobies\u2019 bills are long , \u2026\nred - footed boobies live as sexually reproductive adults for approximately 23 years but can live for more than 40 years .\nsimilar species : juvenile australasian gannet and masked booby are both predominantly brown , but are much larger than [ brown morph ] red - footed booby and have dorsal plumage speckled with white . juvenile brown boobies are darker brown on the back , head and upper breast , sharply demarcated from the paler brown underparts . adult australasian gannet and masked booby are much larger than [ white morph ] red - footed booby , always have some ( or all ) tail feathers black , and do not have a black patch near the carpal joint on the underwing . none of the other gannet or booby species have pale blue bills or red feet . red - footed boobies hold their wings more forward , and flexed at the carpal joint ( other boobies hold their wings straighter ) .\nschreiber , e . a . 2000 . status of red - footed , brown and masked boobies in the west indies .\nalthough the red - footed booby can fly for long distances with great ease , take - off is extremely difficult , and the bird relies heavily on the wind to attain flight . without a breeze , the red - footed booby struggles to take to the air , half - running , half - flying to gather momentum . in the water , the red - footed booby will thrust both feet backwards simultaneously and jump forward into the wind in order to lift off from the surface ( 7 ) . the red - footed booby forages mainly during the day , diving briefly beneath the waves to seize flying fish and squid ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 8 ) . it is often seen feeding in association with other predators , such as tuna and dolphins , which herd and chase shoals of fish towards the surface ( 6 ) ( 7 ) ( 9 ) . the red - footed booby will often glide long distances just above the crest of the waves , searching for patches of suitable prey ( 7 ) .\n. the brown booby has a black head and back and a white belly , short wings and a long tail . the brown booby breeds in a large\nthe plumage of red - footed booby must serve two purposes , camouflage and temperature maintenance . this plumage is moulted continuously so as not to hinder the bird flight capability at any time , and it is suspended during breeding .\nred - footed boobies are one of the most abundant and widespread members of the sulid family . however , many breeding colonies are subject to human disturbance , and rats may take chicks and unguarded eggs . as they nest in trees , red - footed boobies are very vulnerable to habitat destruction .\n. the booby is the most commonly found sea - bird on the galapagos islands .\nthe smallest of the boobies , the red - footed booby is an uncommon visitor to the mainland united states . it is seen only rarely off the california coast and at sea off southern florida , and it breeds in the hawaiian islands .\ndescription : red - footed booby is the smallest of the boobies , but it is a large waterbird . plumage is confusingly variable , but colour morphs do not segregate reproductively and geographically . individuals representing several morphs breed in a single colony .\nbehaviour : red - footed booby is a high - diving seabird , noted for their sudden , headlong plunges after prey . it plunges dives from various heights into schools of fish at moderate depths , 4 to 10 metres . it may catch flying fish in the air , and grab prey at surface . red - footed booby never carries its prey in its bill . it always swallows it before flying . it can use its wings to swim deeper underwater ( 15 to 20 metres ) to reach prey .\nfor eco - tourists to spot . the nazca booby has a more rounded head than the other\nred - footed boobies are colonial , with some colonies holding thousands of pairs . a single egg is laid ( cf . 2 in masked booby and brown booby ) . breeding can occur throughout the year , at intervals of 11 - 15 months after the last successful laying ( with failed breeders relaying sooner ) . they can live to at least 23 years .\nthe red - footed booby bird , now nicknamed norman , is normally a resident of sunnier climes across the caribbean but was rescued after he was found bedraggled on a pebble beach at st leonards - on - sea by passer - by gail cohen on september 4 .\ntwo other morphs exist : white - tailed brown and white morph with black tail . red - footed booby has a long , pointed , pale blue - grey bill , with a pink bare skin at base of bill . it has long pointed wings and tail .\nprotection / threats / status : red - footed booby is not globally threatened , because it\u2019s so widely dispersed . the biggest threats to these birds are deforestation and fishing industry . in addition , people collect the birds and their eggs and sell them across the world .\nred - footed boobies are more pelagic than other sulids ( gannets and boobies ) , and are the species most likely to be seen far from land . they nest and roost in trees ( most other boobies are ground - nesters ) , and often roost on moving vessels . red - footed boobies may follow boats for hundreds of kilometres .\nnow the rspca has joined forces with british airways and iag cargo to make sure the young bird , the first recorded red - footed booby in the uk , makes his way back to a flock of fellow boobies almost 5 , 000 miles away in the cayman islands .\nclassified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe red - footed booby is the smallest member of the gannet and booby family . found throughout tropical seas , it exhibits a range of plumages from mostly white to entirely mid - brown ( all morphs have black trailing edge to the wing ) . at close range its bright red feet are diagnostic . there have been two new zealand records : 2 - 3 birds seen at the kermadec islands in 2016 , and one at muriwai gannet colony in 2017 .\nthe red - footed booby is a highly gregarious species , forming large breeding colonies generally between late january and september ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the male red - footed booby attracts a female through an advertising display known as \u2018skypointing\u2019 , where the male throws its head back until its bill is pointing directly upwards ( 5 ) . the nest is built on top of a shrub or among the branches of a small tree , from twigs and sticks that are collected by the male ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the female red - footed booby lays a single egg , which is incubated by both sexes for a period of around 45 days . after hatching , the young chick fledges and leaves the nest when it is around three months old ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nweimerskirch , h . , le corre , m . , jaquemet , s . and marsac , f . ( 2005 ) foraging strategy of a tropical seabird , the red - footed booby , in a dynamic marine environment . marine ecology press series , 288 : 251 - 261 .\nthe smallest of all booby species , the red - footed booby has distinctive red legs and feet ( 3 ) , and a streamlined , torpedo - shaped body , well adapted for plunge - diving in search of prey . unusually among members of the sulidae family , the red - footed booby exists in several colour variations , or morphs , although all birds of this species have a pale blue bill ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . both sexes are similar in appearance , although the female is usually much larger than the male , while the male has a longer tail ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . juveniles of this species are usually brown or blackish - grey , becoming whiter or mottled grey - brown , while the legs are usually yellowish - grey , turning more red - brown with age ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nwhite , a . w . , b . hallett , and m . bainton . 1995 . red - footed boobies nest at white cay , san salvador . el pitirre 8 : 13 .\nweimerskirch , h . , le corre , m . , ropert - coudert , y . , kato , a . and marsac , f . ( 2006 ) sex - specific foraging behaviour in a seabird with reversed sexual dimorphism : the red - footed booby . oecologia , 146 : 681 - 691 .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto red - footed booby is usually silent at sea , but we can hear some guttural and loud screeching squawks at colony . male and female\u2019s calls are different . male produces mild , plaintive whistles , while female produces trumpeting honks or quacks . juveniles sound like females .\ntunnell , j . w . and b . r . chapman . 1988 . first record of red - footed boobies nesting in the gulf of mexico . american birds 43 : 380 - 381 .\nthe red - footed booby is a largely pelagic species , only coming to land to breed , finding islets with abundant vegetation on which to roost ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . this species is often found nesting in close association with the great frigatebird ( fregata minor ) ( 5 ) .\nred - footed booby populations are scattered throughout the world , with larger concentrations in pacific coastal areas and islands . the north american waterbird conservation plan estimates a continental population of 300 , 000 breeding birds , rates the species a 15 out of 20 on the continental concern score , and lists it as a species of high concern . red - footed booby is not on the 2014 state of the birds watch list . human poaching and interference has resulted in large declines in populations over the last 200 years . still commonly taken as food in some areas , and populations appear to be continuing to decline . back to top\nreproduction : red - footed booby\u2019s nest is a large open platform of twigs , lined with grass and leaves , located in a small tree or shrub . it nests in colonies . it makes its nest in the top of trees on islands and coasts in tropical regions . they can do it also in low scrub .\nred - footed boobies are the smallest of all boobies . their legs and feet are red and the bill is pale blue . juveniles are wholly brown or blackish gray with black bill and facial skin and gray legs . immature have patchy underwings without definite pattern , white back , mottled gray - brown head , and red or brownish legs . they are polymorphic ; few seabirds display such a variety of color phases .\nschreiber , elizabeth a . , r . w . schreiber and g . a . schenk . 1996 . red - footed booby ( sula sula ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nred - footed boobies are 70 to 71 cm long , on average and have a wingspan of 91 to 101 cm . they weigh from 900 to 1003 g . females tend to be slightly larger than males .\nin the galapagos , red - footed boobies are almost exclusively full - on brown . \u201ci don\u2019t think this bird is coming from galapagos , \u201d says matthieu le corre , an ecologist at the university of reunion island who has studied red - footed boobies in the indian ocean . \u201cyour bird has a white tail so it is not a bird from the pacific . \u201d it\u2019s more likely that the rogue red - foot has come from somewhere like the antilles in the western atlantic , he suggests , \u201cwhich is a shorter journey to sussex\u201d .\nred - footed booby performs courtship displays : they show off their wings and feet , and display postures . movement is displayed by the \u201cbill - up - face - away\u201d posture . the \u201cfacing - away\u201d and \u201cbill - tucking\u201d postures inhibit aggressions . males take some postures with their tails , bills , and wings facing upward and call for mates .\ntwo favorite foods of red - footed boobies are flying fish , which they are often able to catch in midflight , and squid ( that they catch during night hunting ) . however , they will eat whatever fish are available .\nthis pantropical booby is the smallest of the six booby species found worldwide . named for its distinctive bright red feet ( adults only ) , it has long wings , a wedge - shaped tail , and a conical bill with a slightly decurved tip . in its breeding range , it overlaps considerably masked ( sula dactylatra ) and brown ( s . leucogaster ) boobies . all three species may be found nesting and feeding together , along with frigatebirds ( fregata ) . flying fish and squid , caught by red - footed boobies in spectacular plunge dives , form a major part of the diet of all these seabirds .\nthe biggest threats to red - footed boobies are a fishing industry that thins their food source , and coastal development . the shoreline trees and shrubs these birds frequent are disappearing as human habitat consumes more of the world ' s coastlines .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the booby article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nit\u2019s not every day that a red - footed booby lands on the shores of britain . yet on sunday 4 september , a bedraggled specimen came to rest on the beach at st leonards - on - sea near hastings on the south coast of the uk . according to a story on the daily mail website , the wayward bird was \u201c6 , 000 miles from home\u201d .\nthe red - footed booby comes in a confusing array of color morphs , ranging from individuals that are all white except for blackish on the wing , to individuals that are entirely dark brown . some birds fail to fit neatly into any of the typical color morph categories , and many variations exist . color morphs do not segregate reproductively or geographically ; individuals representing several morphs breed in a single colony .\nwhile they are not threatened on a global level , in some areas human pressure on their habitats is threatening specific populations . in addition , people collect sulids and their eggs and sell them across the world . this has gotten out of control and the exploitation has become a concern . red - footed boobies are protected in some areas now . conservation parks have been set up so that people can visit and enjoy these birds without harming them . red - footed boobies are protected under the us migratory bird treaty act .\nred - footed boobies play an important role in their ecosystem ; they have an impact on the fish that they prey on . they do not interact with many other organisms , as they live in such isolated marine areas , often staying far out to sea .\nred - footed boobies make their nests in the tops of trees on islands and coasts in tropical regions . they may also nest in low scrub . they inhabit islands and coastal regions in the tropics , because they prey on fish in pelagic regions of the ocean .\nred - footed boobies feed by diving vertically into the water and rarely within sight of land . they may dive up to 30 meters to pursue prey - flying fish and squid . they feed singly or in mixed species flocks , anytime during the day and after dark .\nred - footed boobies nest colonially with hundreds of mating pairs together in one location . pairs mate and lay one egg at a time , raising that egg to maturity . incubation lasts between 41 and 45 days and the young fledge in one month . both the male and female red - footed booby care for the altricial young . if food is scarce the parents may abandon the young in order to ensure their own survival , but if food is abundant they may care for the juvenile for a long time , teaching it how to hunt . because this bird has such a long lifespan , it can afford to raise one juvenile at a time , and still produce many young during its lifetime .\nthe smallest of the boobies , the red - foot feeds at sea , nests on the ground , and perches in coastal trees .\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthese are the smallest of more than half a dozen booby species . red - footed boobies are strong flyers and can travel up to 93 miles in search of food . they often hunt in large groups , and are nimble enough to snare flying fish from the air . boobies are well adapted for diving and feature long bills , lean and aerodynamic bodies , closeable nostrils , and long wings which they wrap around their bodies before entering the water . red - footed boobies use these attributes to plunge - dive and capture fish that they spot from above with their sharp eyes . at night , they may dive for schooling squid that are visible because of their phosphorescence . once in the water , the birds use their webbed feet to aid swimming .\nhe is the first booby bird we have ever seen here at the rspca and the uk . it is amazing to think we\u2019ve had a hand in his care . \u201d\nof the three species in the region , this booby has the most restricted marine and breeding distribution in our region with both adults and immatures remaining in the proximity of nesting sites throughout the year . the red - footed booby is the least likely to occur as a vagrant and does not seem to often be displaced by hurricanes . primarily in area of occurrence are its breeding islands adjacent to the caribbean sea , but also off brazil at south trinidade and ferando de noronha . generally rare to absent from gulf of mexico , rare vagrant to atlantic coast of southeastern united states . absent from bermuda and known from only one small colony in the bahamas .\nthe red - footed booby sula sula is found on tropical islands in most oceans , with the exception of the eastern atlantic , so it could have come from virtually anywhere . except that this species is notable for coming in three main flavours or morphs . the most common is the white morph . there is a white - tailed brown variety . there is also a full - on brown version . the st leonards - on - sea specimen is clearly white - tailed brown .\ngeographical variation : there are three subspecies of the red - footed booby , two of which are believed to have reached new zealand . the white - tailed subspecies s . s . rubripes occurs throughout the tropical indian ocean and pacific ocean east to pitcairn island , and is the form most likely to occur in new zealand . however , a dark - tailed bird believed to be s . s . websteri from the galapagos islands and eastern tropical pacific was recorded at muriwai in 2017 .\n66\u201377 cm ; 900\u20131003 g ; wingspan 134\u2013150 cm . smallest booby , with relatively long tail and large eye ; highly polymorphic , with variety of morphs ( and . . .\na colonial tree - nester , the red - footed booby may nest in colonies of up to several thousand pairs . it builds its nests of twigs , grasses , and other green vegetation , generally laying only one egg . in this species there are several color morphs of adult plumage which are not related to subspecific classification ; different color morphs coexist and even interbreed in some areas . morphs range in color from an all chocolate brown bird to an all white one with black primaries and secondaries .\nfollowing his epic journey home , norman is now due to spend 30 - days in quarantine before he is released to join other booby birds and start his new life at the reserve .\nit has been proposed that the name\nbooby\ncomes from the spanish word\nbobo\nmeaning stupid or dunce and refers to the bird ' s characteristic lack of fear of man .\nthese well known seabirds do not migrate , but live year - round in tropical and subtropical regions of the atlantic , pacific , and indian oceans . familiar to boaters , they often follow ( and sometimes land on ) marine craft . red - footed boobies feed at sea , but nest on land , perching in coastal trees and shrubs .\nthis species is not currently considered threatened by the iucn , and the red - footed booby population is fairly widespread and abundant . however , the population is widely scattered across many islands , very few of which are protected . several colonies have been lost in recent years due to habitat destruction , especially in the indian ocean and the south atlantic , and other potential threats include egg collecting , poaching , the introduction of non - native mammals such as rats which predate eggs and young , and increasing human disturbance from tourism ( 2 ) .\ncarboneras , c . , christie , d . a . , jutglar , f . , garcia , e . f . j . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . red - footed booby ( sula sula ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthere are a variety of calls used by red - footed boobies . male and female calls are different , due to structural differences in the trachea and syrinx . the male produces mild , plaintive whistles while the female produces trumpeting honks or quacks . the juveniles sound like females . the posturing that is typically used in courtship is also a form of communication .\nas red - footed booby nests in trees , it is protected from human disturbances , and it is the most abundant of boobies . it waits for nesting for abundant food , but when food lacks before the end of the season , many young dead . survivors go out very far into the oceans and seas , at several thousands km from the nest . both male and female are feeding young . if food is scarce , parents may abandon the young in order to ensure their own survival . if food is abundant , they care for young for a long time .\npreys on fish . it is known to hunt up to 150 km out to sea , much farther than other sulids . it plunge - dives to moderate depths ( approximately 4 to 10 m ) in order to acquire fish , which it catches and swallows on its return to the surface . red - footed boobies can fly higher than other sulids ( 10 to 30 m ) when searching for food because of their binocular vision . once prey are sighted , the bird will dive straight down into the water , reaching its top speed just before entry . the larger females can often catch food that is deeper than the smaller males because of their weight . sometimes it will also use its wings to swim deeper underwater ( 15 to 20 m ) to reach prey . red - footed boobies can also catch prey in midflight , due to their smaller size and better agility than other species of booby . this is a particularly effective method for hunting flying fish as they jump out of the water . they are also known to hunt squid at night , as their large eyes allow effective nocturnal hunting . red - footed boobies are communal hunters and once one bird has spotted food , all will dive . the food is swallowed before the bird emerges from the water ; this prevents other individuals from stealing it .\nred - footed boobies are found in tropical and sub - tropical waters across the globe ( they are found in the oriental , ethiopian , neotropical , and australian regions ; they are also found on oceanic islands ) . they take long hunting trips of up to 150 km from their breeding grounds but do not migrate . one of the largest populations is on the galapagos islands .\nred - footed boobies mate approximately once every 15 months , depending on food availability . they are known for their somewhat flimsy , unstable nests which are often damaged by storms . they often build their nests in trees . their choice of nest location may be a way to avoid competition for space , since other species of boobies nest on the ground . pairs mate and lay one egg at a time , raising that egg to maturity . incubation lasts between 41 and 45 days and the young fledge as young as 91 days old . in el ni\u00f1o southern oscillation years ( when food is scarce ) fledging may occur at more than 139 days old ( schreiber et al . , 1996 ) . red - footed boobies reach maturity in two to three years .\na large pale brown and / or white seabird of typical gannet shape and behaviour . smaller and more lightly built than other gannets and boobies . dark morph birds are pale brown all over , without sharp demarcation on the breast ( cf . the much darker brown booby ) . all forms have diagnostic pale blue bills and bright red feet , and most have a white tail ( unlike other boobies ) .\nthe main diet items of red footed booies are flying fish and squid . in the wet season flying fish is the main diet item , while in the dry season squid appears . however , flying fish stills the main item . prey are between 50 - 100g measuring between 10 - 22 cm . fish are mainly exocoetida en gempylida and the squid is mainly ommastrphidae from the genus symplectoteuthis .\nin some areas people rely on red - footed boobies as a food source . in the past , people who hunted them were always aware of the detrimental effects of their hunting , and as such were cautious not to overhunt the populations . today , people collect sulids and their eggs and sell them across the world . this has gotten out of control and the exploitation has become a concern .\nthough smaller ( 26 - 30 inches , 66 - 77 cm ) it is the same general size as brown booby . has relatively longer tail than other boobies . comes in several color morphs , white , brown , white - tailed brown , and white - tailed / white - headed . typically several morphs nest in the same colony . the brown morph is the most common in our region . because of adult plumage variation individual birds are easily confused with brown or masked boobies . red feet and legs of adults are distinctive .\nadult white morph has wholly white tail and tertials , blackish carpal patch on underwing , a dark face patch and bright red feet . adult brown morph has a distinctive coffee - brown with whitish rump and tail , and blue - grey bill and bare skin .\ntheir main food is flying - fish , but they also take squid ( including flying squid ) . prey is caught by plunge - diving ( usually up to 8 m , sometimes higher ) or in flight , when the fish and squid are air - borne , after being chased by underwater predators ( including dolphins , mahi - mahi and tuna ) or disturbed by ships . red - footed boobies may feed in mixed flocks with other seabirds ( including tropicbirds and noddies ) , and are frequently pursued by frigatebirds intent on stealing food items that the boobies have caught .\nred - footed boobies have a wide distribution over tropical seas of the pacific , indian and western atlantic oceans , including the caribbean sea . they forage over deep water up to 150 km from land . the nearest breeding colony to the kermadec islands is on \u2018ata ( the southernmost tongan island , 780 km to north - east ) , where 10 , 000 birds were estimated to be present in 1990 . they also breed on cays in the great barrier reef ( australia ) . nests are almost always in trees or other vegetation , up to 70 m above sea level .\nsince red - footed boobies are colonial and highly social , mating / courtship rituals and displays are very important . the higher the population density , the more ritualized their behavior . they show off their wings and feet , and display postures . movement is displayed by the\nbill - up - face - away\nposture . the\nfacing - away\nand\nbill tucking\npostures inhibit aggression . males posture with their tails , beaks , and wings facing upward and call for mates . once a monogamous pair mates , they will return to the same nest year - to - year to mate .\nthey feed by plunge diving , feeding mostly on flying fish and squid . as in the other boobies because of their feeding behavior they would all seem to be a prime species for by - catch of the long line industry . currently no reports , but this may be based on misidentification with gannets which are reported as by - catch species . largest eye of any booby ; may be linked to partially nocturnal habits .\nthe blown - off - course booby was spotted by local resident gail cohen who was having brunch in her beach hut with a friend . she\u2019d seen the species on a trip to the galapagos so knew instantly that it was from far afield . \u201cit went to sleep on the beach and i knew there was definitely something wrong so i called the rescue service , \u201d she told the mail . since then , the rspca at nearby mallydams wood has been giving round - the - clock intensive care to the rarity .\nthis booby builds nests in trees and shrubs , but when they are not available ( destruction of island plant communities by goats for example ) they will nest on the ground . october to may is the general breeding season in the west indies . adult\u2019s soft part breeding colors fade after onset of nesting . nearly all birds return to natal islands to breed . one bird of pair remains with nest to prevent removal of nest material by other boobies and frigates . circular stick nest . single egg . incubation 42 - 46 days , fledging 91 - 112 days . young return to nest site for 1 - 4 months and continue to be fed by adults .\nan unusual tropical bird that was found washed up on a beach in the uk has been flown 5 , 000 miles home in time for christmas .\nhe was very underweight and dehydrated when he was rescued by east sussex wildlife rescue ambulance service who transferred him to rspca mallydams wood wildlife centre , in east sussex , where he has been intensive care ever since .\nspending his days under a special heat lamp to keep him warm in the drizzly and cold british weather , norman has been nursed back to health on a diet of sprats .\nnorman has done so well - especially when you consider how weak and dehydrated he was when he came in . we have been keeping a close eye on him along the way and keeping him warm with heat lamps .\n\u201cwe have done everything possible looking after him to build his weight up and keep his strength up to prepare him for his long journey home . \u201d\nnorman was taken to london heathrow airport yesterday and jetted off on a 12 - hour flight to his new home at a nature reserve in the cayman islands .\nby using this site , you agree we can set and use cookies . for more details of these cookies and how to disable them , see our cookie policy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : although this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthis species winters on tropical islands in most oceans , excluding the eastern atlantic . it winters at sea in the same area , just ranging north of the tropic of cancer , and just south of the tropic of capricorn ( del hoyo et al . 1992 ) .\nanguilla ; antigua and barbuda ; aruba ; australia ; bahamas ; bangladesh ; barbados ; belize ; bonaire , sint eustatius and saba ( saba , sint eustatius ) ; brazil ; british indian ocean territory ; cayman islands ; china ; christmas island ; cocos ( keeling ) islands ; colombia ; comoros ; cook islands ; costa rica ; cuba ; cura\u00e7ao ; djibouti ; dominica ; dominican republic ; ecuador ( gal\u00e1pagos ) ; el salvador ; fiji ; french guiana ; french polynesia ; grenada ; guam ; guatemala ; haiti ; honduras ; india ; indonesia ; jamaica ; japan ; kiribati ; madagascar ; malaysia ; marshall islands ; martinique ; mayotte ; mexico ; micronesia , federated states of ; montserrat ; new caledonia ; niue ; northern mariana islands ; palau ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; pitcairn ; puerto rico ; r\u00e9union ; russian federation ( eastern asian russia - vagrant ) ; saint helena , ascension and tristan da cunha ; saint kitts and nevis ; saint lucia ; saint vincent and the grenadines ; samoa ; seychelles ; solomon islands ; sri lanka ; timor - leste ; tonga ; trinidad and tobago ; turks and caicos islands ; tuvalu ; united states ( hawaiian is . ) ; united states minor outlying islands ; venezuela , bolivarian republic of ; viet nam ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s . ; wallis and futuna\nthe global population is estimated to number > c . 1 , 000 , 000 individuals ( del hoyo\n1992 ) , while national population sizes have been estimated at < c . 100 breeding pairs and < c . 50 individuals on migration in taiwan and < c . 100 breeding pairs and < c . 50 individuals on migration in japan ( brazil 2009 ) .\nthe population is suspected to be in decline owing to habitat loss , predation by invasive species and unsustainable levels of exploitation .\nthis species is strictly marine and largely pelagic . it feeds mainly on flying - fish and squid with a mean prey length of 8 . 8 cm . prey are caught by plunge - diving , but flying fish are also taken in flight especially when chased by underwater predators . it often rests on boats using them as vantage points . breeding is not seasonal in most of its range . individuals form large colonies , nesting and roosting mainly in trees or on islets with abundant vegetation ( del hoyo et al . 1992 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\nthese gregarious birds live in colonies and , during mating season , hundreds of animals may gather to pair up and mate . females lay only one egg every 15 months , and both parents care for chicks . young mature slowly , but the low reproduction rate is balanced by these birds ' long lifespan\u2014over 20 years .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nincubate to keep eggs warm so that development is possible . morph one of two or more distinct types of a given species , often distinct colour forms , which occur in the same population at the same time ( that is , are not geographical or seasonal variations ) . pelagic in birds , applied to sea birds that come to land only to breed , and that spend the major part of their lives out at sea .\ndel hoyo , j . , elliot , a . and sargatal , j . ( 1992 ) handbook of birds of the world . volume 1 : ostrich to ducks . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nnelson , j . b . ( 2005 ) pelicans , cormorants , and their relatives . the pelecaniformes . oxford university press , oxford .\nanimals animals / earth scenes 17 railroad avenue chatham ny 12037 united states of america tel : + 01 ( 518 ) 3925500 fax : + 01 ( 518 ) 3925550 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is affected by global climate change . to learn about climate change and the species that are affected , visit our climate change pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nfound in tropical seas around the world , this long - winged seabird is only a very rare visitor to north america . most records are from florida , especially around the islands of the dry tortugas , but the species has also been found off the california coast .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\nat the world\u2019s remotest nesting colony , the crazy ant strike team beats back its seabird - killing enemy with spray guns , poison . . . and cat food .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\nthe first new zealand record was two or three birds seen and photographed on and over napier islet ( herald islets , kermadec islands ) on 31 mar and 2 apr 2016 . at least one each intermediate and brown morph birds were present . the next record was less than ten months later , when a white morph bird with a dark tail ( indicating that it was from the eastern tropical pacific ) was first seen at muriwai gannet colony on 18 jan 2017 .\ndel hoyo , j . ; elliot , a . ; sargatal , j . 1992 . handbook of the birds of the world , vol . 1 : ostrich to ducks . lynx edicions , barcelona , spain .\nmarchant , s . ; higgins , p . j . ( eds ) , 1990 . handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . vol . 1 , ratites to ducks . oxford university press , melbourne .\nmiskelly , c . m . ; crossland , a . c . ; sagar , p . m . ; saville , i . ; tennyson , a . j . d . ; bell , e . a . 2017 . vagrant and extra - limital records accepted by the birds new zealand records appraisal committee 2015 - 2016 . notornis 64 : 57 - 67 .\nrinke , d . r . 1991 . birds of \u2018ata and late , and additional notes on the avifauna of niuafo\u2019ou , kingdom of tonga . notornis 38 : 131 - 151 .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nan exotic visitor that pitched up on the south coast of england may have come partway by ship , wherever it really came from . sadly rescuers are struggling to save it\nmeanwhile , there has been plenty of speculation over where the bird came from and how a species that doesn\u2019t migrate could have ended up so far from home . the mail went definitive and claimed the bird had to have come from the galapagos . but this is almost certainly not the case .\nhowever it managed to reach the uk , the bird was understandably weak , thin and dehydrated when it arrived . by the end of last week , the staff at rspca mallydams wood had managed to feed him some sprats by hand and he\u2019d put on some weight . but an update from monday afternoon did not bring such good news .\n\u201csadly over the weekend his condition deteriorated and he has gone off his food . our staff are now tube feeding him and trying a variety of fish to see if they can spark his interest in food again . \u201d\n\u00a9 2018 guardian news and media limited or its affiliated companies . all rights reserved .\nvalidity of races often questioned , and delimitation difficult owing to existence of colour morphs . on other hand , has been suggested that websteri may be a separate species # r # r . three subspecies commonly recognized .\n( linnaeus , 1766 ) \u2013 islands in caribbean and off e brazil ( fernando de noronha , trindade ) , and ascension i ( s atlantic ) .\ngould , 1838 \u2013 islands in indian ocean and tropical w & c pacific ocean e to hawaiian is , line is , marquesas and pitcairn is .\nrothschild , 1898 \u2013 tropical e pacific ocean from revillagigedo is ( off sw mexico ) s to galapagos .\nemits fast \u201crah - rah - rah - r\u00e1h - rah - rah\u201d calls when returning to colony . male also gives harsh rasping . . .\nmainly flying - fish ( exocoetidae ) and squid ( ommastrephidae ) ; mean prey length 8\u00b78 cm . food caught by plunge - diving ; flying - fish also . . .\nnot seasonal in most of range , and may start breeding in any month . breeding can be intermittent ; on johnston atoll , s of hawaii in . . .\npantropical distribution and long foraging trips obscure any regular movements , but probably mainly . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . one of most abundant and widespread of all sulids , but population widely scattered on myriad of small islands through tropical seas ; . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\npreviously considered to include both papasula and morus , but recent study found that these taxa represent three monophyletic lineages # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )"]}
{"id": 2293, "summary": [{"text": "pseudomys pilligaensis , commonly known as the pilliga mouse or poolkoo , is a species of rodent in the family muridae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "until recently its distribution was said to be restricted to the pilliga forest region of new south wales , australia but in 2013 , a specimen was trapped in the warrumbungle national park after a bushfire .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "there are also suggestions that it is a hybrid between two other species .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "its conservation status is currently listed as \" data deficient \" . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "pilliga mouse", "paragraphs": ["protect the pilliga forest habitat so the pilliga mouse is not forced into extinction .\nhabitat and post - fire selection of the pilliga mouse pseudomys pilligaensis in pilliga east state fo . . .\nthe nsw threatened species - pilliga mouse - profile ( nsw decc 2005ad ) .\nelvira and the pilliga mouse / \u200b pat clarke ; illustrated by graeme compton .\necology of the rare but irruptive pilliga mouse , pseudomys pilligaensis . iv . habitat ecology\necology of the rare but irruptive pilliga mouse , pseudomys pilligaensis . iii . dietary ecology\necology of the rare but irruptive pilliga mouse , pseudomys pilligaensis . iv . habitat ecology\nhabitat and post - fire successional preferences of the pilliga mouse ( pseudomys pilligaensis ) .\nhabitat and post - fire successional preferences of the pilliga mouse ( pseudomys pilligaensis ) .\ndetermine and implement fire management and forestry operations that are most appropriate for the pilliga mouse .\necology of the rare but irruptive pilliga mouse , pseudomys pilligaensis . iii . dietary ecology .\nelvira and the pilliga mouse / pat clarke ; illustrated by graeme compton . - version details - trove\nif we can\u2019t stop santos from drilling for coal seam gas in the pilliga forest , we won\u2019t be able to find the pilliga mouse at all anymore .\necology of the rare but irruptive pilliga mouse ( pseudomys pilligaensis ) . i . population fluctuation and breeding season .\npilliga mouse - profile ( nsw office of environment and heritage ( nsw oeh ) , 2014v ) [ internet ] .\necology of the rare but irruptive pilliga mouse ( pseudomys pilligaensis ) . ii . demography , home range and dispersal .\nexploration , infrastructure construction and infrastructure maintenance associated with coal seam gas threatens the pilliga mouse . paull and milledge ( 2011 ) estimate that 20\u201350 000 ha of suitable / marginal pilliga mouse habitat occurs within the pilliga east state forest , which is a focal point of the the coal seam gas activity .\nthe pilliga mouse is known only from the type locality in pilliga , nsw , and three other nearby sites all in the immediate surrounding area ( fox & briscoe 1980 ) . this includes the pilliga nature reserve and the adjacent pilliga state forest ( lee 1995 ) . this area is known as the pilliga scrub ( tokushima et al . 2008 ) .\nonly recently described as a species in 1980 , the pilliga mouse is closely related to a group of similar - sized mice , the new holland mouse and the delicate mouse . recent genetic work has shown that the distinctions between these three is a little blurred . the pilliga mouse , however , is recognised as a nationally threatened species because , when it was listed , only about 12 of the animals were known to science . the pilliga region is also famous for its large fires and potentially this could prove a threat to the little mouse .\nthe pilliga mouse typically occurs at low densities and appears to prefer areas with sparse ground cover . evidence exists of marked population fluctuations .\nnsw department of environment , climate change and water ( nsw deccw ) ( 2005kj ) . pilliga mouse - profile . available from : urltoken .\ndiet and habitat preference of the silky desert mouse , pseudomys apodemoides ( rodentia ) .\npaull , d . c . ( 2009 ) . habitat and post - fire selection of the pilliga mouse ' pseudomys pilligaensis ' in pilliga east state forest . pacific conservation biology . 15 : 254 - 267 .\nnsw department of environment and climate change ( nsw decc ) ( 2005ad ) . nsw threatened species - pilliga mouse - profile . available from : urltoken .\nthe pilliga mouse doesn\u2019t have the street - cred of the koala or the tasmanian devil , but they\u2019re just as important as any other endangered australian animal .\npaull , d . c . & d . milledge ( 2011 ) . results of the survey for the pilliga mouse pseudomys pilligaensis in pilliga east state forest ( october 2011 ) and review of habitat requirements . unpublished report .\nmajor studies of the pilliga mouse include tokushima and colleagues ( 2008 ) and tokushima and jarman ( 2008 ) , which studied the irruptive demography of this species .\nthe pilliga mouse is a small native murid rodent . its was first described as a distinct taxon by fox and briscoe in 1980 , which was confirmed by briscoe\ninter - annual survivorship is greatest during irruptive population periods ( tokushima & jarman 2008 ) . the pilliga mouse is terrestrial and lives in burrows ( strahan 1998 ) .\nrecent fires have shown the damage that they can cause to bush habitats . the pilliga mouse is no stranger to such danger and may even turn it to its advantage .\nthe reason why the pilliga mouse selects shrubby understoreys could be also linked to an anti - predator behaviour or adaptation . in an analysis of fox scats from the area , no evidence of pilliga mouse predation was found . this suggests that this animal\u2019s behaviour , including the shelter it keeps , make it too difficult for the fox to catch .\na tiny mouse with a lot to say ! also known as pseudomys pillagaensis , i ' m found only in the pilliga forest - currently threatened by a huge csg development .\nthe distribution of the new holland mouse ( pseudomys novaehollandiae ) with respect to vegetation near anglesea , victoria .\nfox , b . j . ( 1995 ) pilliga mouse pseudomys pilligaensis . p . 616 in strahan , r . ( ed . ) the mammals of australia . reed books , sydney .\ndistribution restricted to the pilliga region of new south wales . however , a pilliga mouse was reportedly trapped in the warrumbungles after a major wildifire in january 2013 , suggesting a sparse local population may have previously existed that could now respond to early stages of the post - fire succession .\nthe habitat selection of the pilliga mouse was studied within a variety of vegetation and post fire communities in the pilliga east state forest of northern nsw . its selection was found to be similar to other australian pseudomys , but most similar to the new holland mouse p . novaehollandiae , preferring understoreys dominated by heathy , xeromorphic plants with sandy soils and litter cover . . . . [ show full abstract ]\ntownley , s . j . , 1998 . collation of current knowledge of the pilliga mouse pseudomys pilligaensis prior to the preparation of a recovery plan . unpublished report to nsw npws western zone , dubbo .\nlim , l . , 1992 . conservation and biology of the rare pilliga mouse pseudomys pilligaensis fox and briscoe 1980 ( muridae : conilurini ) . unpublished report to the zoological parks board , mossman , nsw .\nunder the agreement , awc will deliver land management and science services in two areas of the nsw\u2019s national park estate : the 35 , 000 hectare pilliga national park - pilliga state conservation area ( the pilliga ) and the 60 , 000 hectare mallee cliffs national park .\nthe pilliga project area covers 35 , 000 hectares at the northern , more productive section of the vast pilliga forests . the pilliga forests stretch across the flat , sandy plains and low hills between the warrumbungle mountains , near coonabarabran , and narrabri . the pilliga is part of the traditional area of the gamilaraay ( also known as gamilaroi or gomeroi ) people .\nforaging preference of the smoky mouse , pseudomys fumeus , in south - eastern new south wales : an exami . . .\npat clarke ( text ) , graeme compton ( illus . ) , elvira and the pilliga mouse , little steps books , dec 2016 , 76pp . , $ 24 . 95 ( hbk ) , isbn : 9781925117981\n, a new species of murid rodent from the pilliga scrub , northern new south wales .\njefferys , e . a . & b . j . fox ( 2001 ) . the diet of the pilliga mouse , pseudomys pilligaensis ( rodentia : muridae ) from the pilliga scrub , northern new south wales . in : proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales . 123 : 89 - 99 .\nseed is the main food of the pilliga mouse ( 95 % of its diet in spring and summer and 62 % in winter ) . leaf matter makes up the remainder of the diet ( jefferys & fox 2001 ) .\nwhatever it is that makes the young regrowth so attractive to the pilliga mouse , an important link obviously exists between its survival and the periodic burning of its habitat . perhaps equally important is the fact that there is always unburnt habitat that the mouse prefers and into which it can escape . ensuring this outcome is the key to the survival of this unique rodent .\ntwo studies of foraging preference of the smoky mouse at the same site in south - eastern nsw reached distinctly different conclusions . the first found that the smoky mouse foraged on relatively bare exposed slopes but not in heath . the second study concluded that the smoky mouse foraged and nested in heath . this article examines the sampling strategies and results in terms of vegetation . . . [ show full abstract ]\nhowever , its greatest adaptation is the pilliga mouse ' s ability to use fire to help its survival . as they hide in their burrows any fire would sweep across the surface , leaving the animals safe below ground . for the mouse it was then a question of what to do next , as vast areas of bush were laid bare from the intense fire of 1997 .\nblockading nwnsw is where its at . right now 2 locals lockd on pilliga & another lockd on leard\nit is present in the pilliga nature reserve and the pilliga state forest . a recovery plan was prepared but never published . further studies are needed into the taxonomy , ecology , and threats to this taxon .\nthe pilliga project area is currently home to a large number of threatened animals . it forms part of a stronghold for threatened woodland birds including the glossy black cockatoo , grey - crowned babbler , brown treecreeper , speckled warbler , varied sittella , little lorikeet and turquoise parrot . the pilliga forests protect a particularly important population of the iconic barking owl . threatened mammals including the koala , squirrel glider , black - striped wallaby , corben\u2019s long - eared bat and the endemic pilliga mouse are all likely to be found in the pilliga project area . the threatened pale - headed snake is one of more than 56 reptile species that is likely to occur in the pilliga project area .\ntokushima , h . & p . j . jarman ( 2008 ) . ecology of the rare but irruptive pilliga mouse ( pseudomys pilligaensis ) . ii . demography , home range and dispersal . australian journal of zoology . 56 : 375 - 387 .\nsantos coal seam gas interrupted for 5th day running as pilliga protest continues . local teacher and farmer locked on\nsmoky\n. as its name suggests , it is a grey - furred mouse , darker grey above and paler smoky grey below . mice from\nkarl beckert , forest and wildlife campaigner for the nature conservation council of nsw , says that the pilliga is one of australia\u2019s 15 national biodiversity hotspots . its state conservation areas contain a high proportion of the largest threatened population of barking owls in nsw , the pilliga mouse , the black - striped wallaby , koala , and a range of woodland birds and microchiropteran bats .\ntokushuma , h . , s . w . green & p . j . jarman ( 2008 ) . ecology of the rare but irruptive pilliga mouse ( pseudomys pilligaensis ) . i . population fluctuation and breeding season . australian journal of zoology . 56 : 363 - 373 .\nbroombush forms a distinctive vegetation type in parts of the pilliga project area . fire regimes in the pilliga forests have changed since aboriginal management , with fires suppressed in the western section , which includes the pilliga project area , while the eastern section has become subject to a regime of regular wildfire . most of the forests in the pilliga , including within the pilliga project area , have been selectively logged for over a century ; the combination of changed fire regimes and logging has led to significant changes in forest composition and structure , in particular a thickening of white cypress pine and bull oak .\nidentification , management and protection of non - peak refugia is essential ( tokushima et al . 2008 ) . priority recovery actions suggested in the conservation advice for the pilliga mouse ( threatened species scientific committee 2008dg ) and the nsw department of environment and climate change ( 2005ad ) include :\nthis taxon is known only from the pilliga area of new south wales , australia ( lee 1995 , fox 1995 ) .\nsince 2011 , the wilderness society has been fighting to protect the pilliga forest and the fertile farmland of north west nsw .\nthe population size of the pilliga mouse is hard to estimate and demographics are irruptive . paull and milledge ( 2011 ) mapped potential suitable habitat of the species and , based on density calculations , estimate a population of 50\u2013100 000 during irruptive periods ( i . e . la nina events ) .\nelvira , a wedge - tailed eagle from the city , forms an unlikely friendship with a country mouse with attitude named pookie . together they journey to the pilliga forest in search of pookie ' s family , and elvira goes in search of something equally hard to find : the secret of happiness .\nnon - bird biodiversity : at least 36 native mammal species ( including 16 bat species ) , 9 introduced mammal species , 50 reptile species and at least 15 amphibian species have been recorded in the nature reserve , including at least 21 species listed as threatened in nsw , including the pilliga mouse .\nthe creature ' s life is shaped by seasonal ebbs and flows . in the pilliga state forests , there are a lot of ironbark / cypress pine habitats that the pilliga mouse avoids \u2014 instead it seeks the shrubby habitats dominated by melaleuca and other heathy plants . a strong relationship was found between preferred habitat and a low shrubby understorey in the state forests but in the nature reserve it was found also in more open areas .\nunfortunately , santos is , right now , building a huge treatment plant in the pilliga for its toxic coal seam gas wastewater .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) important bird areas factsheet : pilliga . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\ndepartment of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( 2008hg ) . approved conservation advice for pseudomys pilligaensis ( pilliga mouse ) . canberra : department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 26 - mar - 2008 .\nthe pilliga national park ( gilgai section ) and the pilliga state conservation area ( \u201cthe pilliga project area\u201d ) are managed under an historic partnership agreement between the nsw national parks and wildlife service and awc . the agreement provides a new , ground - breaking model for collaboration between the private sector and the private ( non - profit ) sector . a feature of the partnership will be the establishment of a large ( ~ 5 , 900 ha ) feral predator - free area in the pilliga project area and the reintroduction of at least 6 mammal species that have been extinct in the pilliga for more than a century . this program forms part of the nsw government\u2019s saving our species program .\nty - jour ti - the diet of the pilliga mouse , pseudomys pilligaensis ( rodentia : muridae ) from the pilliga scrub , northern new south wales t2 - proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales . vl - 123 ur - urltoken pb - linnean society of new south wales . cy - sydney , py - 2001 sp - 89 ep - 99 sn - 0370 - 047x au - jefferys , e a au - fox , b j er -\nmore study has recently been conducted on this small creature and results have shown it to be a tough survivor . more trapping efforts have been made for two studies based at the university of new england , one in the pilliga state forests and one in the pilliga nature reserve .\nthe smoky mouse is currently rated as\nvulnerable\nand appears to be declining in numbers in the wild . its range is fragmented and it appears to be extinct in some areas such as the\nno specific habitat type has been identified for the pilliga mouse as specimens have been captured in different vegetation types within the pilliga scrub ( fox & briscoe 1980 ) . these included mixed eucalyptus , acacia and callitris open forest . the pilliga mouse is found in greatest abundance in recently burnt moist gullies , areas dominated by broombush ( melaleuca uncinata ) and areas containing an understorey of acacia burrowii with a corymbia trachyphloia overstorey . consistent features of the latter two habitats were : a relatively high plant species richness ; a moderate to high low - shrub cover ; site moisture retention ; and groundcover of plants , litter and fungi . areas with high rates of capture have extensive low grasses and sedges , with little shrub cover and large areas of ash - covered ground ( fox & briscoe 1980 ; nsw decc 2005ad ; tokushima et al . 2008 ) .\ncockburn , a . , 1981b . population regulation and dispersion of the smoky mouse , pseudomys fumeus 1 . dietary determinants of microhabitat preference . aust . j . ecol . 6 : 231 - 254 .\nspring - time seems to be a period of dispersal for the pilliga mouse , as capture rates dropped off at this time . pregnant females are probably finding areas of good seed resources for her growing family and need the space . some mothers will stay in the preferred over - winter areas , but all males and year - old animals appear to leave .\nwhite cypress pine is the most widespread tree in the pilliga project area , and in the pilliga forests more broadly . this species is found in various associations ( vegetation types ) with other eucalypts including narrow - leaved ironbark , several species of red gums , rough - barked apple , pilliga box and poplar box , as well as bull oak and belah . less commonly occurring tree species include black cypress pine , brown bloodwood and broad - leaved ironbark .\nwe determined preferences of the pilliga mouse , pseudomys pilligaensis , for habitat attributes ( ground and vegetation cover ) through phases of a population irruption , and characterised refuge sites used when environmental conditions were unfavourable . in general , p . pilligaensis preferred areas with substrate dominated by sand and shrubs rather than rock or litter . however , its habitat . . . [ show full abstract ]\nidentified threats to the pilliga mouse include loss or degradation of habitat through inappropriate fire regimes , forestry operations and broombrush harvesting ; predation by feral cats ( felis catus ) and foxes ( vulpes vulpes ) ; and competition from the common house mouse ( mus musculus ) ( dickman et al . 2000 ; threatened species scientific committee 2008dg ) . forestry associated threats are particularly important in forests with > 30 % cover of low shrubs ( below 50 cm in height ) , an absence of tall understorey ( at 2 m height ) and a > 20 cm layer of sand ( nsw decc 2005ad ) .\nin common with most australian woodlands , the pilliga project area , and the broader pilliga forests , have lost almost their entire suite of small to medium - sized mammals , primarily as a result of predation by feral cats and foxes . awc plans to reintroduce at least six species of threatened mammals to a large feral predator - free fenced area in the pilliga , including the western quoll , western barred bandicoot , bilby , brush - tailed bettong , bridled nailtail wallaby and plains mouse . most of these species have not been found in nsw national parks for over a century . these species will help restore a number of important ecological processes , dispersing seeds and spores , and helping retain nutrients and water .\nthese studies looked at the population , ecology , physiology , diet and habitat selection of this mouse . a large fire swept through the pilliga in 1997 , making it possible to monitor the post - fire consequences for this species . the studies have shown that at times this animal is locally abundant , while at other times only the odd animal is caught , often in the same areas .\nelvira and the pilliga mouse is an engrossing story of self - discovery for young readers . elvira is a wedge - tailed eagle who is blown away from taronga zoo in a storm and decides to use the opportunity to find her father in the goonoo forest before heading back to the zoo . so ensues an exciting journey for elvira who saves humans and creatures in need along the way .\nbraithwaite , r . w . and brady , p . , 1993 . the delicate mouse , pseudomys delicatulus : a continous breeder waiting for the good times . aust . mammal . 16 ( 1 ) : 94 - 8 .\nthe pilliga project area comprises the pilliga national park ( gilgai section ) and the pilliga state conservation area in the north west slopes and plains region of new south wales . the region experiences a semi - arid climate . most of the creeks in the pilliga are dry sand - beds which flow only during significant rain events . the forests have developed on relatively infertile soils ; adjacent fertile soils of the liverpool plains and namoi valley have been heavily cleared for agriculture . the pilliga project area supports species and ecosystems that are typical of the western slopes and plains of nsw and , given its size , it represents a significant reservoir for these species . however , a number of species associated with more mesic eastern forests , such as the koala and glossy black cockatoo , also occur in the project area . within the pilliga , there is a gradient in fertility from higher elevations in the south - east to the more fertile \u2018outwash zone\u2019 in the north - west ; this gradient determines habitat quality for a number of species .\nthe diet of the pilliga mouse , pseudomys pilligaensis , was analysed from 430 faecal samples collected from \u223c340 individuals across different seasons over a period of five years that included a wild fire and subsequent irruption and sharp decline of the population . the primary food items in all seasons were seeds and fruits from diverse plant species , but the mice also consumed a wide range of . . . [ show full abstract ]\npilliga east state forest is a large forest , woodland and scrub remnant , contiguous with pilliga west , the pilliga nature reserve and other state forests to the south . along with several smaller state forests in its immediate vicinity , pilliga east state forest covers an area of over 200 000 ha , with the whole pilliga covering an area of approximately 500 000 ha . the study area is a relatively small section of this forest ( ` 20 000ha ) though it contains a mosaic of different habitats , mostly ironbark / cypress / oak forests , mixed eucalypt woodlands , a broombush - dominated scrub , mallee and other acacia - dominated scrubs . there are many different associations within each of these types , often occurring together over very small areas . why such a level of high habitat heterogeneity is found here may be related to a combination of geomorphic , climatic and pyric factors .\nthe source of sandy sediments is almost certainly from the low sandstone ridges in the south east section of the pilliga , deposited over geological time , these soils are high in silica and relatively nutrient - poor ( hart 1990 ) . today the whole of the pilliga is drained by a complex system of intermittent or deep drainages which flow north into the namoi river . the creek beds that cut through the pilliga are usually dry except after rains , although much of the rainfall is retained as water in the extensive clay dome .\nvincent , j . m . , and crofts , f . c . ( 1958 ) . \u2018pasture improvement in the pilliga . \u2019 ( university of sydney : sydney . )\nwithin the pilliga region this species is largely restricted to low - nutrient deep sand soils which are recognised as supporting a distinctive vegetation type referred to as the pilliga scrub . recent studies indicate that the pilliga mouse is found in greatest abundance in recently burnt moist gullies , areas dominated by broombush and areas containing an understorey of kurricabah ( acacia burrowii ) with a bloodwood ( corymbia trachyphloia ) overstorey . consistent features of the latter two habitats were : a relatively high plant species richness ; a moderate to high density of low - level shrub cover ; and a moist groundcover of plants , litter and fungi . the gully where the highest rates of capture were encountered had an extensive cover of low grasses and sedges , with little shrub cover and large areas of ash - covered ground .\nthe pilliga mouse is a small rodent with grey fur and a white belly . its dark tail ends with a small , black tuft . this species grows to 8 cm long , with a tail to 8 cm long , and weighs 6\u009616 . 5 g ( mean 11 g and larger weights are recorded in peak population periods ) . this species is distinguished by its relatively long hindfeet ( strahan 1998 ; tokushima & jarman 2008 ) .\ntokushima and colleagues ( 2008 ) successfully used elliott live traps ( 33 x 10 x 9 cm ) baited with peanut butter and rolled oats for the trapping of the pilliga mouse . traps were shaded from frost and sunlight , and insulated in winter to maintain the welfare of caught specimens ( tokushima et al . 2008 ) . traps were modified to be triggered by specimens as small as 8 g ( tokushima et al . 2008 ) .\n@ article { bhlpart47464 , title = { the diet of the pilliga mouse , pseudomys pilligaensis ( rodentia : muridae ) from the pilliga scrub , northern new south wales } , journal = { proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales . } , volume = { 123 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { sydney , linnean society of new south wales . } , author = { jefferys , e a and fox , b j } , year = { 2001 } , pages = { 89 - - 99 } , }\nthere were two good reasons to explore the pilliga . i\u2019m working on a book about toxins in the food chain and i\u2019d heard about contaminated water spills associated with coal seam gas exploration at the pilliga . locals are also worried coal seam gas development could affect the groundwater they depend on for irrigation and stock water \u2013 some see it as a pathway to contamination of crops and meat .\na natural resources commission ( nrc ) report kept under wraps since september was released on december 8 . it recommends logging and grazing of state conservation areas in the pilliga , north of coonabarabran .\nby now tony has forgiven me my lateness , has decided i\u2019m not a spy ( a common occurrence on this trip ) , and smiles , laughing at his jokes about the pilliga yowie . he opens up .\nthe launch in the pilliga highlighted awc\u2019s commitment to practical land management ( including the control of feral animals such as feral cats ) , based on good science , delivered while working as part of the local community .\nthe available genetic evidence ( i . e . presence of mitochondrial dna similar to both p . delicatulus and p . novahollandiae in specimens of p . pillagaensis ) indicates that p . pilligaensis is either a stabilised natural hybrid or a hybridised population of p . delicatulus or p . novahollandiae ( eldridge 2015 , pers . comm . ) . this evidence has led some authorities to treat the pilliga mouse as a southern population of the non - significant delicate mouse ( pseudomys delicatulus ) ( afd 2015 ; breed & ford 2007 ; van dyck & strahan 2008 ; woinarski et al . 2014 ) . the australian museum , however , argues that the current data is insufficient to distinguish amongst these options and that a more detailed study is required to resolve the matter ( eldridge 2015 , pers . comm . ) .\nthis animal is probably capable of travelling long distances to find refuge habitat and capable of putting up with times of overcrowding . predation is a real threat during this time of the mouse\u2019s life ; the only known predator , the owl , probably take its biggest toll on this animal straight after fires .\nthe science team in the pilliga is led by dr rod kavanagh . science staff include three wildlife ecologists : dr leah kemp , laurence berry and viyanna leo ; and two field ecologists , jennifer lewis and chris malam .\nawc is contracted to deliver a suite of land management and science services in the pilliga and at mallee cliffs . the initial term of the contract is for 10 years , with possible extension of up to 40 years .\nwe\u2019ve had some wins \u2013 the main offender , santos , has met with ongoing delays due to community opposition and lost over $ 1 billion of its shareholder\u2019s money on the narrabri gas project in the pilliga forest so far .\ngiven the wide habitat selection by this species , p . pilligaensis cannot be regarded as a habitat or even a pyric stage specialist . it is more likely to be limited in its habitat selection by other microhabitat factors , such as a gradient in the cover of low shrubs and depth of the sandy substrate , perhaps selecting a particular suite of shrubs . however , broombush , heath and kurricabah / bloodwood scrub support populations of this species in both early and late successional stages of vegetation and may be important habitat for p . pilligaensis . the extent of these scrub habitat types in pilliga east is about 20 000 ha out of a total of over 200 000 ha for the whole state forest . this scrub occurs in only small patches outside pilliga east . bearing in mind that this species\u0092 density is very sparse except where over - wintering congregations occur , this is a very restricted distribution for a small rodent . however its scattered presence in shrubby woodlands of pilliga east and the adjacent pilliga nature reserve indicate that it is capable of occupying a range habitats within the pilliga region as long as a favourable set of habitat conditions exist .\nwhen i first saw this book i was unsure what to make of it . is it a chapter book or picture book ? why is it so big and who is its target audience ? to allay my confusion i incorporated elvira and the pilliga mouse into my daughters\u2019 nighttime reading routine . on its completion i asked if i should give this unique story a good review to which my six - year - old daughter responded , \u201c well , it\u2019s very detailed with lots of exciting parts . give it a good review , mum . \u201d\nawc is the only conservation organisation to measure in a robust scientific manner the ecological health of a network of sanctuaries . awc field ecologists will measure the ecological health of the pilliga over time . in particular , we will measure :\nbiodiversity metrics : measures of the abundance of threatened and iconic species still extant in the pilliga , including the barking owl , koala and threatened woodland birds , many of which are expected to benefit from the control of feral predators .\none survey observed an irruptive population in post fire habitat during a high rainfall period ( tokushima et al . 2008 ) . it is unknown which of these factors is more important for the pilliga mouse : rainfall , and associated food availability , is known to lead to population increases in arid and semi arid rodents ; similarly , other rodent species have shown higher population densities in areas of regenerating vegetation ( tokushima et al . 2008 ) . a study reported sparse populations following wet years in an area unburnt for 14\u201330 years ( fox & briscoe 1980 ) .\nfox , b . j . & d . a . briscoe ( 1980 ) . pseudomys pilligaensis , a new species of murid rodent from the pilliga scrub , northern new south wales . australian mammalogy . 3 : 109 - 126 .\ni meet tony pickard on the side of the highway at the x - line road turn - off . he\u2019s a grazier at the pilliga and he\u2019s offered to show me some of the spill sites before we do a recorded interview .\na feature of awc\u2019s science and land management at the pilliga project area will be the establishment of a large ( 5 , 900 ha ) fox and cat - free area . along with our mallee cliffs project , this will be the first large feral predator - free area in the nsw national parks estate . this will pave the way for the reintroduction of a suite of mammals , such as the bilby , that became extinct in the pilliga more than 100 years ago .\nfox , b . j . and briscoe , d . a . , 1980 . pseudomys pilligaensis , a new species of murid rodent from the pilliga scrub , northern new south wales . aust . mammal . 3 : 109 - 26 .\nan unlikely alliance of farmers , graziers , environmentalists and aboriginal people is working to prevent coal seam gas development in the pilliga and surrounding farmland . in july i decided to drive to the north west plains to find out what was going on .\nare larger and a darker more slate - grey above . it has a black eye - ring and dark grey muzzle . the feet are light pink , and the ears a grey - pink . the tail is longer than the mouse ' s body , and is pink with a brownish stripe along the top . mice from east of\nthe scheme to log pilliga\u2019s conservation reserves is illegal under the national parks and wildlife act , 1974 , has no environmental benefit and will cost the taxpayer money . trying to recover some of the tax dollars will only make the proposed logging scheme worse .\nafter about a year\u2019s growth in the right habitats , the mouse is again able to find suitable cover and forage . many of the plants , such as the melaleucas , grow back quickly after fire by sending sprouts up from the underground tubers . so by the second autumn , a number of large congregations were found in these low shrubby plains .\npilliga mice live communally in simple burrow systems , comprised of two entrances and nest chamber , lined with leaves , some 20\u201330 cm below the surface . they may stay in these same burrows for up to six months of the year , particularly during the cooler months .\ni very much enjoyed reading your pate blog entry about your trip to the pilliga . apart from being a superbly written blog , it was particularly resonant for me as i lived in narrabri in 1986 - 87 , as a young visual arts teacher at the local government high school .\nthank you for sharing your experiences up there , and for doing so in such a well - crafted and compelling blog post . i have been working on some teaching resources for the new australian curriculum \u2013 geography ; your pilliga blog contains some tremendously useful context in relation to those resources .\nthe pilliga national park - state conservation area will be the site of one of two massive feral cat and fox - free areas to be established by awc , paving the way for the return to nsw of 10 of the world\u2019s most threatened mammal species including the numbat , the bilby and the bridled nailtail wallaby .\nthe commission\u2019s alleges that white cypress pine thickets are environmentally damaging to the pilliga\u2019s woodlands . this is just \u2018pr spin\u2019 to justify commercial logging of reserves . the nrc recommends that cypress thickets larger than a hectare with more than just 11 per cent canopy cover should be logged , affecting 57 , 000 hectares of reserves .\njuly 25 , 2016 : the member for barwon , kevin humphries mp , travelled into the vast pilliga forest ( near narrabri , north - west nsw ) today to launch the historic awc - nsw national parks partnership with rob smith ( regional manager , nsw - npws ) and atticus fleming ( awc chief executive ) .\nthis little - known taxon is restricted to the pilliga area which consists of mixed eucalyptus - callitris open woodland , with a heath or shrub understorey on sandy soil and sandstone ridges ( lee 1995 , fox 1995 , paull et al . 2014 ) . the females give birth to an average of three young ( fox 1995 ) .\nextending over half a million hectares , the pilliga forests are the largest consolidated block of forest and woodlands in western new south wales . the forests are dominated by white cypress pine as well as a number of eucalypt species , supporting many native plants and animals which have disappeared from the surrounding landscape . iconic species include the koala and barking owl .\na total of 10 040 trap - nights were conducted in 14 habitats of pilliga east and adjacent state forests . one survey period was undertaken between 1993 - 94 , a second between 1997 - 98 and a third in 1999 . all surveys used a consistent trapping design , by placing the traps in series along transects for at least 100 metres .\ndeborah briggs is a gomeroi woman whose father was a sleeper cutter in the pilliga , and his father before him . she practically grew up in the pilliga . as a gomeroi woman she is obliged to protect the waters of the great artesian basin . she is frustrated that governments and businesses go straight to the land councils to consult rather than the wider aboriginal community . deborah is frequently on facebook receiving and sharing information about coal seam gas . something that struck me about the interviews was how it seemed women were the main drivers of the campaigns and that social media was instrumental in the organisation , communication and networking . it has to have played a role in the formation and endurance of this alliance .\n. . . information about its habitat is also scarce ( e . g . fox and briscoe 1980 ; fox 1995 ; paull 2009 ; paull et al . 2014 ) . development of coal - seam gas extraction in the pilliga scrub has been proposed , stimulating concerns about impacts on the habitats and conservation status of p . pilligaensis . . . .\nthe opener is tragic , what a lack of understanding this person has for the beauty and wildlife of this place . obviously we need to a bit more education on the biodiversity value of the pilliga , the largest temperate woodland in eastern australia , home to over 30 threatened fauna , 12 threatened flora , 2000 plant species , 30 plant communities\u2026 . cameron , who were you talking to or is this just your view ? yes the gas and fire have damaged much of the eastern side \u2013 but i suggest you talk to people who understand the natural value of the place or travel more extensively in the pilliga . the natural values are one of the main reasons why it is worth stopping the gas field .\nacross the 35 , 000 ha pilliga project area , awc will implement a landscape - scale feral animal control program combined with intensive weed control and , in collaboration with the npws , effective fire management . in addition , a range of biodiversity research projects will examine the effects of feral animal control and the ecological benefits associated with the reintroduction of small mammals .\nit creates a strange blend of heartbreak and anger when looking at your account of what is going on in the pilliga . your description of it as being burnt out and battered is spot - on , and yet as you and others have seen , it\u2019s still a fragile an ecosystem , particularly when subjected to the threat of csg leaks and water table contamination .\nthe pilliga is a beaten - up burnt - out forest where the creeks flow underground and the trees grow barely as wide as a child\u2019s arm . its grasses have been eaten and its soils pulverised , its timber ringbarked and wood - chipped . it is criss - crossed with fire breaks and narrow old logging roads . wild boars tear out from its sandy watercourses and wind whips dust into your eyes here .\nin 2004 a small gas exploration company fracked its second coal seam at \u2018bibblewindi 1\u2019 . hardly anyone paid attention . a local told me later the pilliga is the perfect place to work discreetly : you only have to go a few metres back from the road and the dense - packed trees will hide you . no one suspected these mysterious activities in the bush would expand over the next ten years to become a 98 , 000 hectare project with over 800 wells planned .\nin partnership with the nsw national parks and wildlife service , awc will establish large ( 5 , 000 ha \u2013 8 , 0000 ha ) feral predator - free areas in the pilliga and at mallee cliffs using conservation fencing . wild populations of threatened mammal species such as bilbies , numbats and western quoll will then be re - established in these areas . a beyond the fence strategy will also be developed to provide for the release of mammals , where feasible , into unfenced sections of each national park .\naustralia has the worst mammal extinction record in the world and almost 30 % of surviving terrestrial mammals are at risk of extinction . one of the biggest threats to native wildlife is feral cats . feral cats kill millions of native animals every night . by creating feral free areas such as those being implemented at mallee cliffs and the pilliga , awc and the nsw government are creating safe environments where vulnerable wildlife can survive and in time , grow in population . this project will help turn back the tide of extinctions .\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > the diet of the pilliga mouse , pseudomys pilligaensis ( rodentia : muridae ) from the pilliga scrub , northern new south wales < / title > < / titleinfo > < name > < namepart > jefferys , e a < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > fox , b j < / namepart > < / name > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < note type =\ncontent\n> 123 < / note > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales . < / title > < / titleinfo > < origininfo > < place > < placeterm type =\ntext\n> sydney , < / placeterm > < / place > < publisher > linnean society of new south wales . < / publisher > < / origininfo > < part > < detail type =\nvolume\n> < number > 123 < / number > < / detail > < extent unit =\npages\n> < start > 89 < / start > < end > 99 < / end > < / extent > < date > 2001 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < accesscondition type =\nuseandreproduction\n> in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . < / accesscondition > < / mods >\nprevious study on the habitat selection of p . pilligaensis was undertaken by lim ( 1992 unpbl . ) in the pilliga nature reserve , who found a similar selection for habitat with a high shrub cover , high plant species richness and a sandy substrate . the habitats where p . pilligaensis were detected were sandstone ridge with open woodland or mallee and in e . fibrosa / c . trachyphloia woodlands with a dense heath layer . this species is still being caught at some of these same locations , as well as in rocky outcrops with a tall heath and woodlands with a very sparse understorey ( stuart green , pers . comm . , 1999 ) which is not entirely consistent with the results of this study . fox and briscoe ( 1980 ) reported this species to be in low densities in heathy scrub and in woodlands of various associations with a sparse understorey .\nthe habitats of the pilliga overlays a very old , jurassic sandstone , much of which is exposed as low ridges and eroded gullies . the soils are derived from non - marine alluvial sediments which have covered up much of the sandstone bedrock . the soils are generally of two main types . one is a duplex clay soil with a sandy a horizon overlaying a solid clay b horizon or rocky substrate . . the depth of the sandy horizon can vary enormously from 5 - 100 cm and the colours from grey , brown to red and yellow . each variation consistently supports different vegetation types . these soils are well leached and nutrient poor , the clay horizons trap much of the water for plant growth . the other main soil type found are deep earths and loamy soils , with less clay in the lower soil strata , formed by the fluvial transport from the upper darling drainage . their colour also varies from black to light brown .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfor information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .\ndepartment of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( 2008 ) .\n. canberra : department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from :\n. department of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities . canberra , act : department of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities . available from :\nrecovery plan not required , included on the not commenced list ( 1 / 11 / 2009 ) .\ndepartment of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( dewha ) ( 2008 ) .\nsurvey guidelines for australia ' s threatened mammals . epbc act survey guidelines 6 . 5\n( department of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities ( dsewpac ) , 2011 ) [ admin guideline ] .\nlisted as data deficient ( global status : iucn red list of threatened species : 2017 . 1 list )\nthe distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .\nfor the purpose of the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( epbc act ) , the species listed as pseudomys pilligaensis in the epbc act list of threatened species is treated as a valid taxon .\ntokushima and colleagues ( 2008 ) undertook surveys between september 1997 and september 2001 to model the density of this species at a site north of coonabarabran .\ntokushima and colleagues ( 2008 ) showed a population density peak of 15\u201390 mice / ha ( from a low of 0\u20135 mice / ha ) during a population irruption . this increase occurred 20 months after a wildfire during a high rainfall period .\nbreeding habitat for the species has been recorded as broombush scrub , corymbia / acacia woodlands and red gum ( eucalyptus chloroclada ) / rough - barked apple ( angophora floribunda ) / corymbia heathy woodlands . in some instances broad - leaved ironbark ( eucalyptus fibrosa ) , dwyer ' s red gum ( eucalyptus dwyeri ) and scribbly gum ( eucalyptus rossii ) dominate overstorey , and calytrix tetragona dominates the understorey of breeding habitat ( paull & milledge 2011 ) . broombush used as over wintering and breeding sites tend to consist of young ( 1 . 5\u20133 year regrowth ) or mature ( > 25 years old ) trees ( paull 2009 ; paull & milledge 2011 ) .\ntopography of sites where this species is found include rolling landscapes with low relief on sandy soil and sandstone ridges ( lee 1995 ; tokushima et al . 2008 ) . this species occurs in an area of of low - nutrient deep sands with mean annual rainfall of approximately 750 mm ( tokushima et al . 2008 ) .\nduring non - peak population periods distribution is patchy and during peak periods distribution is ubiquitous ( tokushima et al . 2008 ) . no low density non - peak refugia have been identified .\nreproductively active females have been detected in all trapping periods , including winter . the peak breeding season is between october and april ( tokushima et al . 2008 ) . peak population densities occur towards the end of the breeding season ( tokushima et al . 2008 ) . some females have been observed to have multiple litters during a single breeding season and breeding during successive summers has been observed ( tokushima et al . 2008 ) .\npopulation irruptions have been observed in disturbed ( including post fire ) habitats during high rainfall periods . peak densities occur approximately 20 months following disturbance events . population declines , following a peak , are rapid and may be the result of shortage of food , social suppression of reproduction , predation and disease ( tokushima et al . 2008 ) .\ntokushima and jarman ( 2008 ) measured average movement distances of 40 m ( range 0\u0096181 m ) for recaptured individuals , however , larger movement patterns cannot be disregarded ."]}
{"id": 2296, "summary": [{"text": "the black garden ant ( lasius niger ) , also known as the common black ant , is a formicine ant , the type species of the subgenus lasius , found all over europe and in some parts of north america , south america and asia .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the european species was split into two species ; l. niger is found in open areas , while l. platythorax is found in forest habitats .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is monogynous , meaning colonies have a single queen .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "lasius niger colonies can reach in size up to around 40,000 workers in rare cases but 4,000 \u2013 7,000 is around average .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "a lasius niger queen can live up to around 15 years and it has been claimed that some have lived for 30 years .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "lasius niger queens while in the early stages of founding can have two to three other queens in the nest .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "they will tolerate each other until the first workers come , then it is most likely they will fight until one queen remains .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "in certain circumstances , it is possible that there can be multiple queens in a single colony if they are founding somewhat near each other and eventually their two tunnels connect .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "lasius niger is host to a number of temporary social parasites of the lasius mixtus group including lasius mixtus and lasius umbratus . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "black garden ant", "paragraphs": ["the black garden ant , otherwise known just \u2018black ant\u2019 is one of the most common ant species found in europe .\nthe black garden ant queen is around 9mm , with dark brown / black reddish legs and antenna . she has been known to live for up to 29 years ( see ant fact 4 ) . black garden ants are monogyn ( one queen per colony ) .\nthe queen black garden ant that will develop from this glistening larva could live 10 times longer than her doting workers .\nblack garden ants are wide spread across europe , some parts of n . america and asia .\ntrue to its name , the black garden ant is fond of a garden habitat : often found under paving stones and bricks , but may also nest in the rotting wood of houses . the black garden ant has been known to nest in cracks in foundations then make its way into homes . colonies of the black garden ant contain an average of 5 , 000 individuals , but may grown as large as 15 , 000 .\nfor black garden ants , planthoppers , is the right honeydew source . the black garden ants conduct vigorous explorations for any food products , particularly sweet or greasy products indoors . . in addition , it consumes dead or live insects . this black garden ant is not only a day and night forager , but also a scavenger .\nthe black garden ant prefers sweet foods like ripe fruit , but also feeds on honeydew produced by aphids , and will even care for young aphids in order to harvest their honeydew . other insects like mealybugs , whiteflies , and planthoppers are favorite sources of honeydew for the black garden ant . the black garden ant will actively forage after any food items , specifically greasy or sweet ones , indoors . it may also eat living or dead insects . the black garden ant is a scavenger and forager and will search for food night and day .\nup to 1 inch or 25 millimetres long ( workers can be 3 to 13 mm ) , nearly 5 times the size of a typical pavement ant or black garden ant .\nblack garden ants are particularly fond of ripe soft fruits like strawberries , annoying for farmers and allotment owners . see vegetation .\nthe black garden ant can become an extreme nuisance if nesting has taken place in or around your home . it is extremely important to keep black garden ant numbers in check and take any measures to eliminate them from your property . contact a professional as soon as you see significant numbers or believe they are nesting indoors .\nthough they will shy away from human confrontation , the nesting and foraging habits of the black garden ant are a force to be reckoned with . a particular pest in the garden , the black garden ant encourages the appearance of aphids . because it harvests aphids\u2019 honeydew it often cares for this infamous garden pest . during summer months , when the colony is most active , the black garden ant may venture indoors in search of additional food sources for young ants . it will go after sweet and greasy foods , and its nest may even penetrate indoors from time to time if cracks or voids are left unsealed .\nworkers are black , or red and black , in color ; and range in size from 3 / 8 to \u00bd inch .\ncommon black ants , or garden ants , range from 3 - 5mm in size . the adults are shiny brown / black in colour . the black ant has a large head with an elbowed antennae ; the body has a slender thorax leading to a small waist , before joining the large abdomen .\nthe following habitats are found across the black garden ant distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .\nalso known as the pavement ant , the black garden ant ( lasius niger ) is the most common ant seen in towns and gardens . they nest almost anywhere , under pavements , in soil , along the edges of lawns , under rocks and in flower pots .\nwe find the black garden ants in several places inclusive of asia , africa , north america , europe , united kingdom , russia and wales .\nas its name implies , black garden ants love to live in the gardens : we often see them below the stones , payments and bricks . besides ; they construct nests in houses where the wood is rotten . it is learnt that the black garden ants build their nest in basement crevices and then enter the houses . in a colony of a black garden ant , you can find approximately 5 . 000 ants , and sometimes , this figure can cross the 15 , 000 mark .\nthe black garden ant is a very annoying pest when left unchecked . there nests are usually unobtrusive but when built indoors are extreme annoyances . use of do - it - yourself pesticides may be all it takes to get rid of a small black garden ant infestation , but if it has become too big of a problem for you to handle on your own , consider professional help .\ntip ! the black garden ant likes heat . so , during warm days when the sun is up : try flipping stones to find the queen enjoying the warm upper floors of the nest !\nphotos copyright john mason and roger key , and courtesy of buglife , who have more information about the black garden ant . read more about why ants fly on the society of biology website .\nbait : baits are particularly effective for the black garden ant because they tend to carry their food from the source back to their nest . professional baits can be purchased at the local grocery store .\nfood : black garden ants love food , especially human food , so keep the inside of your home free from spilled food . like your mother always says , \u201conly eat in the kitchen , \u201d and my personal favorite , \u201cclean up after yourself ! \u201d it turns out mother was trying to prevent an ant infestation . think of any spills or food left out as an enticement for the black garden ant .\nwhen the ants have nested within a garden , they can create a rather large fuss for those with a keen eye . farming aphids and scaling honeydew , the ants spread from host plant to other host plants , distributing their pets as they move . the typical black garden ant also feeds on natural predators required for a healthy garden habitat , such as spiders and other small insects .\nfind more fun ant facts for kids in addition to ant control at the official npma website .\nblack garden ant ( lasius niger ) also known as the common black ant , is a formicine ant , the type species of the subgenus lasius , found all over europe and in some parts of north america and asia . the european species was split into two species ; l . niger is found in open areas , while l . platythorax is found in forest habitats . more info : urltoken\nmating occurs when the winged queen ants fly away to start a new colony . both queen and male black garden ants \u201cswarm\u201d around entrances to other colonies until fertilization takes place . once it does , the fertilized queen will make her own nest and lay her eggs . black garden ant pupae may take as little as eight but as long as 10 weeks to become fully grown . while pupating , the ant larvae are cared for and fed by the workers of the colony . both the queen and male black garden ants bear wings , but the female will shed her wings after mating and the male dies soon after .\nthe black garden ant can be found in a number of locations including : africa , asia , europe , north america , russia , united kingdom , wales . find out more about these places and what else lives there .\nconsidered by biomass , the largest ant species in finland is the red wood ant , formica aquilonia , which builds anthills in the woods . however , when it comes to the number of nests , it is beaten by the black garden ant lasius niger , which is a familiar guest in summer cottages as well as houses .\nblack garden ants eat anything from leftovers , soft fruits , seeds , to other small insects . they can also frequently be seen farming honeydew farmed from aphids around gardens and vegetation .\nlasius niger , or the black garden ant , is a very easy species to keep . they are survivors and can handle harsh environments and situations . each colony has got a single queen and can grow into tens of thousands of workers .\nblack garden ants are the most common pest that is found crawling within your backyards . these ants can reside in any climatic condition with homes nests underground . true to their name , the garden ant is black in appearance from top to bottom . narrow in the waist and flightless in nature , these insects thrive in large masses in self - created colonies . it is quite easy to mistake these black garden ants with their look - alike brethren since there are over forty other species categorized under common pests . most of these ants are similar in nature and appearance , yet do not tend to reside together due to territorial issues .\nthe first type of garden ant you could see would be the worker ant on the ground by the naked eye . from being three to five millimeters long , the worker ants have a dark glossy black body color . workers tend to grow larger over time if the colonies survive over their average times .\nby far the most common flying ants seen at the moment is the black garden ant , lasius niger . the ants we see throughout the year are workers ( sterile females ) , but flying ants are males and new queens undergoing their nuptial flight .\nants vary in color from yellow to red to brown and black and various combinations of these .\neveryone can tell you what an ant looks like . six legs , two antenna , a body made out of three pieces ( head , thorax and abdomen ) . some ants have wings , these are the kings and queens . ants can come in many colors including black , brown , yellow and red . most common pet ant species are the black garden ant lasius niger , the harvester ant messor barbarus and the red ant myrmica rubra . lasius niger is a very common and well know ant in europe and also occurs in the united states . the harvester ant messor barbarus is an ant species from south - europe and is a favorite pet ant because of the different worker castes . it has small ( minors ) and large workers ( majors ) and can be fed with seeds making it easy to feed these ants .\nblack garden ants like sweetened foods like ripe fruits , in addition , they consume honeydew prepared by aphids . they also draw honeydew from consuming insects such as white flies , mealy bugs and plant hoppers .\ndespite its size , the black garden ant has a huge impact on our countryside , from improving soil to pollination and pest control . they are also important as food ; many people are alerted to the presence of flying ants by the sound of feasting gulls .\nthe amount of food that an ant colony can bring in is staggering . the red wood ant of southern england ,\nfrom late spring to early winter , you can see the black garden ants on the ground . the months of june to august were particularly important to the ants , as these are the mating months for the queen ant , and it is during this time , the worker ants are at their peak level of search and retrieve , while the winged male phenotypes fly around . when temperatures are humid , and the weather is sunny , black garden ants are very active .\nblack garden ants usually survey their environment extensively in the early months of summer , both for the purpose of accumulating the food for the queen and her juveniles and also for preparing for the nest\u2019s summer flight .\nout of about 11 , 000 ant species worldwide there are about 50 that frequent the uk . the common black garden ant is one of the most robust and prolific to be found on our shores . colonies can grow to around 15 , 000 workers , but the average is between 5 , 000 to 7 , 000 ants .\nby far and away the most common ant experienced in the uk is the black garden ant . at around 4mm long for worker ants and up to 10mm long for the queens , they can as the name suggests , be commonly be found in gardens , although they will happily find their way into housing when foraging for food .\nthe queens live longer . the queens of most species live five years , some even longer . the most long - lived queen known belonged to the species black garden ant lasius niger . she reached the age of 29 years in the laboratory nest of a swiss scientist .\nknowing what a particular ant species likes to eat and where and how they nest is very important in controlling ant colonies .\nblack garden ants are typically found in gardens under bricks and flower pots . the most common place to find them in urban areas is between pavements and curbs . they will often enter our homes foraging for food .\nexterior control : there are other outdoor pests that especially attract the black garden ant so employ methods to control these bugs in order to keep it uninterested in your property . keep landscape mulch at least a foot away from foundations and less than two inches thick . make sure your sprinklers do not spray directly onto your foundation . this can sometimes cause home materials to rot which can make a soft spot for nesting . if you don\u2019t believe in insecticides you can always pour boiling water on and around the entrances to black garden ant nests . this obviously destroys the ants and the colony .\nblack garden ants are the most commonly seen ants in britain , building nests under garden stones and paving slabs , as well as occasionally turning up in our houses in the summer . however , they are probably most famous for their mating flights , when swarms of winged queens and reproductive males take to the skies during the hot and humid summer weather . the males subsequently die but the queens go on to establish new colonies . these small black ants are abundant in north america , europe and parts of asia and enjoy a varied diet from fruit to insects . did you know ? black garden ants \u201cmilk\u201d aphids ; when prompted , aphids excrete sugar - filled honeydew in return for protection .\nblack garden ants are well known for their tendency to enter homes and raid sugar bowls . they have a varied diet , from nectar and fruit to other small invertebrates . ants also farm aphids , harvesting the honeydew they excrete .\nblack garden ants eat most of the food they can scavenge . they are not picky eaters and will eat from fruits and seeds to small insects . the ants also farm honeydew from aphids that they capture from around their chosen sites .\ni\u2019m never quite sure where the \u00e2\u20ac\u02dcblack\u2019 or the \u2018garden\u2019 elements relate to lasius niger . in our garden these ants look more of a very dark brown and are to be found under the patio slabs , in the flower pots , creating small piles of earth along the edge of the lawn or most often as not , attempting to tunnel their way into our kitchen !\nargentine ant colonies are located in wet environments near a food source . these colonies can grow to monumental size , sometimes covering entire habitats , such as an entire garden or your whole back yard .\ndavid attenborough looks at aphids and their relationship with ants in a garden . the ants protect the aphids from a predatory ladybird .\nthat are under discussion is very minute in nature . ranging from four to seven millimeters in length , these ants are dark in nature . with body colors from brown to black , you can mistake these flightless creatures for other species of the same body type . however , there are three different types of black garden ants , which are slightly different in body shapes and work categories .\nusually prevention is enough to deter garden ants from entering a property . however if the nest is too close to a building or inside the wall voids , garden ant control will need to be done by qualified professionals . as destroying the nest , eggs and queen , rather than just the foraging worker ants is much more difficult to achieve .\neach year , normally in july or august , huge numbers of flying ants \u2013 males and young queens \u2013 suddenly appear on a \u2018nuptial flight\u2019 . they are simply regular ants \u2013 probably black garden ants \u2013 that develop wings during the mating season and then mate during flight .\nmale : length : 3 , 5 - 5 , 0 millimetres . brown shaded black color . wings are transparent . ( 1 )\nthis ant is widespread across europe , asia , and the u . s .\nant identification can be challenging . if you find an ant that you do not recognize , send it to someone who can properly identify it . [ link ]\nant trails can be temporarily disrupted with a mild solution of vinegar and water .\nthey are 2 . 5 mm in length while the major workers are about 4 . 5mm . they are more dark brown than black .\nall adult hymenoptera have a very narrow waist in the middle of their body , and this is clearly seen in the wingless worker caste of ants . ants live in large colonies and are well - known insects in britain\u2019s countryside and gardens . there are over three dozen species of ants in the uk but one of the commonest and most often seen is the black garden ant\nthe practice of ordering or importing ant colonies through the mail is illegal in many areas , cruel , and is hazardous to a local ecosystem , therefore the gan project exists to encourage responsible ant keeping by promoting the keeping of local ant species . the gan project also seeks to make the ant keeping hobby more accessible around the world .\nrebecca : cream of wheat ! they eat it & it expands & they explode ! ha ! i used it in my garden for ant problems . kind of makes you wonder what it does to our insides when we eat it too\nalthough these are called black garden ants , they can also be dark brown . most are between 3 and 5mm long but the queen may be as long as 16mm . reproductive males and females have wings , though the queen sheds her wings after laying eggs and males die shortly after mating .\nthe black garden ants live mostly in sight . you can find the nests in the dry soil of gardens that ants feel are safe from predator trafficking . the ants create their nests within crevices and grooves found within the chosen spots . flower beds and paving stones make for excellent nesting grounds .\nthe black garden ant workers are 4 - 6 mm long , wingless and black or dark brown . they are usually found in large numbers , either around their nests in the soil or following each other along their scent trails across the ground and paved areas , over walls and into buildings . the queen is larger ( up to 15 mm long ) and mid - brown in colour but is only seen if the nest is excavated . the fertile males and females are only seen briefly , as swarms of flying ants .\nthey are a very strong ant species and can thrive in wide range of areas .\na nest made of entirely of ants , primarily found in the army ant species .\nan ant can lift 20 times its own body weight . if a second grader was as strong as an ant , she would be able to pick up a car !\nan important method for preventing carpenter ant problems indoors is to eliminate high moisture conditions .\nweaver ant larvae is a commodity here in indonesia , we use weaver ant larvae for dietary supplement to improve the performance of songbirds before bird singing competition and carp fishing bait . throughout the year weaver ant larvae is harvested and sold , because demand for weaver ant larvae has increased in recent years some areas are being over harvested and as a result diminishing in weaver ant colony in the nature . from that point , i and some friends trying to establish a weaver ant farm so we could meet the demand for weaver ant larvae and by doing so also help to reduce over harvesting in the nature .\nwe are always looking for new and enthusiastic ant hobbyists to offer ants for sale ( or for free ) in their area to local ant keepers and ant keeper hopefuls seeking to obtain an ant colony with a queen . if you have some queen ants and / or ant colonies that you would like to sell or give away , here is how to join the gan project as a gan farmer ( seller ) in your area :\nturning over the rocks served an important purpose : the aim was to find nests of the black ant species formica fusca . it is a very common ant species in finland , which does not build anthills but makes its nest under rocks , tree stumps and rotting trees . most of the nest spreads into underground networks .\nthe society of biology runs a flying ant survey , which has previously discovered there ' s a month of high flying ant activity in the uk , with four distinct peaks .\nant course will be taught at the southwestern research station ( swrs ) in portal arizona ( urltoken ) . the station is centered amid the richest ant fauna in north america .\nant supercolonies can be made up of thousands of nests and hundreds of thousands of workers .\npest management professionals have the training and experience to deal with household ant problems . contact a trusted pest management company if you want to have your ant problem handled by a professional .\nthe nuptial flights take place somewhere between june and september . the european ants of the species tend to mate during hot summer days in july and august , while their north american siblings prefers the autumn months . it is not uncommon for people to see thousands of black garden ants flying away to mate with each other .\nthe antscanada global ant nursery project\u2122 offers a simple solution for those needing ant colonies with a queen for their formicariums , and also provides an opportunity for ant hobbyist to earn some extra money doing what they love . to put it simply : if you need ants , we find ant sellers in your area to buy ants from , or if you are looking to sell or donate any of your ant colonies , we help you find buyers from your area wanting ants . we are like the \u201cuber\u201d for live ants , constantly bringing together ant lovers with locally raised ant colonies ! here is what acclaimed biologist , nature photographer alex wild has to say :\nblack ant colonies are around 4000 - 7000 strong on average . they have a single queen , who lays the eggs . larvae are fed by the worker ants , whom forage for seeds and nectar in the surrounding areas and return to the nest .\n4 . lastly , it is important to protect the ant farm against smaller ant spices as e . g . pheidole spp . , crazy ants etc . they like weaver ant larvae as much as the birds and are in many cases able to win a fight against weaver ants .\nqueen : length : 7 , 0 - 10 , 0 millimetres . brown shaded black color . wings are transparent , but ridden of after the nuptial flights .\nis otherwise called in general , as black ant , this is a formicine ant , belonging to the sub - genus lasius . we find them throughout europe and in certain parts of asia and north america . the european variety was divided into two types ; l . platythorax dwells in the forest regions , whereas the l . niger type dwells in exposed areas . this ant is monogamous which means they have only one queen in a colony . anatomy\nthe species of ant determines the nesting site , food preference and the best method of management .\nthe most effective way to identify a carpenter ant is by looking at the petiole and the thorax . a carpenter ant\u2019s petiole has one node , which makes the area between the thorax and abdomen look like a small notch . other worker ants that can be mistaken for carpenter ants have two - node petioles . additionally , the thorax of the carpenter ant is evenly rounded , whereas other ant species have a bumpy thorax . properly identifying a carpenter ant can be difficult without close inspection .\nkeeping out : to prevent the entry of black garden ants , keep all entries into the home ( doors and windows ) nice and snug . if you are overly cautious use caulking to secure cracks and leakages in doors and windows , but don\u2019t go too crazy . black garden ants typically enter around the foundation of your home so focus on those areas . lastly , there are natural deterrents such as : chili pepper , bay leaves , mint , cinnamon , peppermint , salt , pepper , and borax that can be used to stop ants from coming in . spread any of these items along places you\u2019ve seen the ants and cracks or other entrances to keep them out naturally .\nworker : length : 2 , 0 - 5 , 0 millimetres . dark brown / black with greyish tones . the thorax is lighter than the rest of the body\nin city parks and suburbs the black ant is generally the common one , while in the countryside it is mostly the yellow meadow ant , lasius flavus , that spirals up above the fields . much earlier this century , the naturalist robert lloyd praeger took notes of an experience with winged yellow ants one august day , as he walked into blessington , co wicklow :\ni am located nee of johannesburg , south africa , and these ants are all over my garden - under the paving . ( i also have an infestation of termites . )\nthe black garden ant , also known as common black ant , is a formicine ant , the type species of the subgenus lasius , found all over europe and in some parts of north america and asia . the european species was split into two species ; l . niger is found in open areas , while l . platythorax is found in forest habitats . it is monogynous , meaning colonies have a single queen . lasius niger colonies can reach in size up to around 40 , 000 workers but 4 , 000\u20137 , 000 is around average . a lasius niger queen can live up to around 15 years and it has been claimed that some have lived for 50 years . this video is targeted to blind users . attribution : article text available under cc - by - sa creative commons image source in video\nit is signalled by flocks of black - headed gulls , circling high over the city , by the hawking of swifts in among them , and also , perhaps , by squadrons of swooping starlings . all are feasting on columns of winged ants , soaring up for a sexual orgy more daintily known as the\nnuptial flight\n. glance around at the ground at this time and you may catch the glitter of tiny wings as black garden ants , lasius niger , pour out of their underground nests to take off .\nit is a very active , fast moving ant . they will typically run away from human confrontation .\nholds the waste products inside an ant , waste will be deposited in the colonies designated waste area .\na western visitor describes the ancient alliance the mofu people of cameroon have with a roaming red ant .\nthe moment you ' ve all been waiting for . . . behold , ant course 2015 ! !\nmaybe you\u2019ve heard of it : keeping ants as pets ! keeping an ant colony is interesting and fun because of the amazing ability of the ant colony to function as a unit . setting up an ant colony enclosure , called a formicarium , can be challenging but is certainly worth the effort for insect enthusiasts !\nall ant species listed here were locally caught and captive raised , and each colony contains a queen and at least 1 worker ant ( unless indicated ) . prices are determined by the gan farmer . some ant colonies come with complete setups . look below to see if we have a gan farmer in your area .\nin just a few days , a single army ant queen can lay up to 300 , 000 eggs .\nthe best air humidity for an ant colony depends on the ant species , some need their nest dry while others need it moist . the ants know best what is good for them , so you should offer them different moisture areas inside the nest . the ants will move their offspring to their optimal humidity . read more about making water ditches to provide the ant colony with moisture at the section about \u201cpet ant colony housing\u201d .\nas most children seem to know , the black ant doesn ' t hurt you , but its red - brown , narrow - waisted neighbours in the garden , the myrmica species , do have an irritating sting . our biggest species , the wood ant , formica rufa , can squirt formic acid from its rear end to immobilise its prey , but it is still an insect we should hope will increase with the progress of global warming . it is presently scarce throughout ireland and little is known of its distribution : only in the ancient woodlands of the killarney valley have its prominent nests come under notice .\nchris hemsworth kicks off filming for the star - studded men in black spin - off as he cuts a sharp figure in london . . . 21 years after the first film hit screens\nthe last type of garden ant would be the queen ( female ) phenotype . these are the largest of all three categories , standing out at nine millimeters in length . the color of their bodies is black in nature as well ; however , a glossy sheen covers it as well . the queens are the powerhouse of the labor force that drives the ants to glory . fertilized frequently , these queens are also known to ingest their wings during winter , to use for food during harsh winters .\na caste of ant that stores large amounts of liquid food in its crop i . e honey pot ants .\ndrenching a nest many times with an insecticidal soap solution is sometimes effective in forcing an ant colony to relocate .\nwe encourage non - commercial use of ant web images . each image must be attributed to its photographer and to\nour \u201call you need\u201d starter kits are designed to provide your new ant colony with the greatest chance at success .\nduring the winter an ant colony will remain dormant . only when the weather starts to warm will the worker ants set out to forage . garden ants will eat a variety of food , from nectar , soft fruits and small insects to honeydew from aphids and anything sweet and sugary they can find in the kitchen .\nknown to nest in wooden structures , carpenter ants are common pests to invade homes in canada . typically earth toned carpenter ants range from reddish brown to dull black depending on species . like any ant , the carpenter ant\u2019s body consists of a head , thorax , and abdomen . the head includes a set of large mandibles that open horizontally like scissors and a pair of antennae that take an elbow shape . six legs attach to the thorax , and a narrow petiole ( waist ) separates the thorax from the abdomen . a carpenter ant\u2019s abdomen , or gaster , is bulbous and covered in long , yellowish hairs this is only true for the black carpenter ant . ( should include here the node , the number of nodes , smooth rounded thorax and the circle of hair at tip of abdomen , these are the outstanding id for carpenter ants\nthere are many types of formicaria that all look nice , i\u2019ll show just one . a jelly ant nest as sold by kids toy shops are not suitable to keep an ant colony in , no matter what the package says .\n\u201cthe global ant nursery is an excellent idea , and is the responsible way to enjoy an ant - keeping hobby . not only does connecting suppliers with local hobbyists prevent the accidental release of pest ants , the global ant nursery should help foster regional myrmecological communities . i hope it succeeds ! \u201d - alex wild ( biologist , nature photographer urltoken )\nthatched mound nest of formica obscuripes , an ant found in north america . image by alex wild ( urltoken ) .\nif insects are considered to become too much of a nuisance , there is a shrewd way of taking care of their existence within the garden . by using gels and granular substances scented with sugary coatings , you can cure the ant infestation . by scattering these around the garden , the ants retrieve these granular baits and take them to the queen . on ingestion the queen is killed off , allowing the colony to break down and disperse over time . all future populations are then observed to migrate into other parts to avoid another colony collapse .\nthis is the ant which everybody knows , the good old garden ant . it is found everywhere and no matter what you do , short of sterilising the ground which kills everything , you have just got to live with it . the queen can be as big as 15 mm but the worker or male is only 4 - 5 mm long . these are the flying ants which everybody associates with in middle to late summer ( see above ) .\nant baits sold in stores for home use are generally labeled for many common household ants , although ants will not be equally attracted to all baits . it is important to identify what ant species you have so you use the right bait .\nmillions of the tiny winged critters will soon be spotted all over the country on what ' s dubbed flying ant day .\nat certain times of year , ant nests produce winged ants . these are young queens and male ants , which often emerge\nopen a drawer for more specific information and photos of each type of ant listed . it is often challenging to recognize ants from a picture . because different species may be treated differently , be sure an ant problem is correctly identified before attempting control .\nthe time is takes for an ant to develop from egg to adult ant depends on the species , the environmental temperature and the caste of the ant . most ant species take around two weeks to develop from egg to worker . the growth of the colony depends on the number of eggs the queen lays and on the success of the development of these eggs . if you have a colony with bad conditions , like too few proteins in the food , too high or low humidity , too high or low temperature or stressful conditions like bright light inside the nest area , the eggs and larvae die . an ant colony becomes as old as its queen : around 3 to 10 years depending on the ant species and how well you care for them .\non the whole , the black garden ants are simple creatures that do not mean to disturb the existence of any other species that they may share their space with . they move about their small spanned lives in search of food and try to keep away from all that might wish to ruin their routines . though they rapidly grow in numbers and create colonies , these insects are quite beneficial to the environment when their populations are kept in check .\n' we expect flying ant day to be different around the country , and we\u2019re really interested to learn more about this . '\nant - man and the wasp soars to $ 76 million on opening weekend . . . beating its prequel by $ 19 million\nthe pupae is the final stage before metamorphosis into the adult . this stage usually takes around two weeks before the ant emerges .\nworkers \u2013 with a scientific name lasius niger , these workers are colored dark glossy black and are of length 3 to 5 mm . as the colony grows older over the generations , the workers grow bigger in size .\nare named as black ants , it is also possible that they port a dark brown color and most of them grow to a length of 3 to 5 mm , still , the queen can attain a length of 16mm .\npest management professionals may also offer services such as sealing or screening holes and crevices to help prevent further carpenter ant activity in homes .\nthe black garden ant is virtually a harmless creature to the human population . they are unable to carry any diseases and do not bite . their major aim is to eat , mate and work for their colonies which are how they can host up to ten thousand workers at a time . however , these ants tend to attract special kinds of predators . in some cases , the ants also help to accelerate population growth of other species by protecting their young in exchange for food . by themselves , they do nothing but eating small fruits . however , they can give rise to other pests for their survival .\nthe different types of ant in a colony . i . e . queens , drones , soldiers , workers and all in - between .\nwe also greatly recommend you house your new ant colony using any of our effective \u201call you need\u201d starter kit gear packs at our shop . be sure to also pick up our ultimate ant keeping handbook e - book for all the information needed to care for your ants properly .\nin part because of such attention , but also for genetic reasons not fully understood , the queen in many species lives essentially forever\u2014at least from the perspective of her descendants in the colony . queens of the black garden ant , lasius niger , for example , live for an astonishing 20 to 30 years . l . niger workers , which are all female , survive for one to three years , while the males last for only a few weeks . on a human scale under such terms , if an average man lived 70 years , an average woman would live about 2 , 500 years and an average queen perhaps 30 , 000 years .\nso what can we do to control ants , well as i said before , in the garden , it is a thankless task because the amount of insecticide you would have to apply would not be very eco - friendly . in fact it would probably kill plants as well , apart from the fact that it would destroy insects which are crucial to the successful balance of the garden . things like ladybirds and ground beetles all of which perform a natural function by predating on other species thereby keeping them under control .\n[ 0814 ] graff et al . ( 2007 ) , differential gene expression between adult queens and workers in the ant lasius niger ( pubmed )\nants of the amazonian rainforests . there is even a species of ant that feed of the blood of their own larvae , and are often called\nthe pavement ant workers are dark reddish - black , about 2 . 5 - 4 mm long ; the petiole , which connects the mesosoma ( i . e . , the modified thorax of ants ) and gaster ( modified abdomen ) , has two segments . the posterior part of the mesosoma has two spines that project upward , and they have a stinger in the last abdominal segment .\ngood golly ! ! garden ants are on the march in ireland . sorry if the title misled you . sadly , this isn\u2019t a post about the great tune by little richard \u2013 the lyrics of which ( having just researched ) are not really . . .\nthe carpenter ant queen is a fertilized , functional female of the colony . she is wingless , about 13 - 25 mm long , colour is dependent on species but often range from dark brown , reddish , yellow , or black tones . similar in appearance to worker ants , the queen\u2019s body is divided into a head , thorax , and abdomen , or gaster . the queen is solely responsible for producing offspring and the keeping the colony together . most carpenter ant species have one functional queen per colony ; however some species have multiple queens .\nthe second type of garden ant would be the male phenotype . these are slightly greater than the average worker ant by one or half a millimeter . however , these are slimmer in nature though they share the same color . their differing factor would be the glossy wings they support on their backs . due to this , their body shape appears to be different , giving them an almost wasp \u2013like appearance . the wingspan of the common male phenotype is over five millimeters in length . with tiny tendrils running through , the wings give off a very delicate appearance .\nto make a real impression on ant numbers it would be necessary to destroy the nests rather than just the foraging ants . that is difficult to achieve as ant nests occupy a much larger volume of soil than the surface excavations might suggest . in most situations it is best to tolerate the presence of ants\nkristie : vinegar ! since we switched to using a vinegar / water solution for mopping the floors and cleaning the counters , our ant problem has vanished .\nspraying foraging ants is only temporary and has little impact on the nest . spraying may be useful for seasonal ant problems when ants enter from outside nests .\nbeverlyc : we live in china and had a horrible ant problem in our house . tried cinnamon , black pepper , vinegar , etc . etc . we were concerned about the borax because we have guests in and out regularly and the little children are often , well , naughty and undisciplined . when someone suggested terro liquid ant bait and we found it was just borax and sugar , we asked someone to bring us some . we could pick the traps up and put them away when company came and put them back out after they left . they worked wonders ! !\nknowing where a specific type of ant likes to nest and what they like to eat is the key to finding the best way to get rid of them .\nthere are two types of carpenter ant nests : parent colonies and satellite colonies . the workers of satellite colonies move frequently between their nest and the parent colony .\nin nature these ants search for flower nectar and for what is poetically known as\nhoney dew\nbut which is actually a sticky , sweet secretion produced by aphids or greenfly . when garden ants get into the house it will soon be seen that they are particularly attracted to sweet substances , such as drops of jam or scraps of cake . as soon as one ant has found the food source , he then returns to the nest at the same time laying a pheromone ( scent ) trail , once back at the nest the ant can communicate with the other ants by tapping them with it ' s antennae and also by feeding them with some of the contents of it ' s crop . the next thing you know the whole nest is at the site where you dropped that jammy spoon . below is a picture of some black ants around some spilt fruit juice .\nflying ants are well and truly out and about today , 9th august . i saw them in the garden at 11 . 45am and this evening , unfortunately in my conservatory , at 8 . 30pm . i live in malvern , worcestershire . the weather has been very warm and still .\nant colonies also have soldier ants that protect the queen , defend the colony , gather or kill food , and attack enemy colonies in search for food and nesting space . if they defeat another ant colony , they take away eggs of the defeated ant colony . when the eggs hatch , the new ants become the\nslave\nants for the colony . some jobs of the colony include taking care of the eggs and babies , gathering food for the colony and building the anthills or mounds .\ndwarfing her attendant daughters , a queen leafcutter ant rests amidst the white fungus that her workers cultivate on leaf bits inside the nest . she can live 30 years .\nparent carpenter ant colonies sometimes establish one or more satellite nests in nearby indoor or outdoor sites . satellite nests are typically composed of workers , pupae and mature larvae .\nyou can buy an ant colony or ant queen , or you can collect one from nature . for both options you will have to choose to get only a queen or a queen with already some workers . if you find or buy a queen without workers , you don\u2019t know if she mated . if she never mated , she will never start a colony . if you want to buy an ant queen to start a colony , i would recommend to buy one with eggs or workers so you are sure she mated . if you collect ants from nature , i recommend getting only a queen as they are very easy to find . in summer ant colonies will produce young queens that can be found anywhere . when you find them without wings , they are probably mated . you won\u2019t disturb nature by getting one or two of these young queens . you can also dig out a complete ant nest to find the queen . i strongly disprove of this . you will destroy a complete ant nest and you might not find the queen . without the queen you cannot keep ants in a functional nest as a pet . some ant species are protected by law from disturbing them . do not release foreign ant species into nature ! this will disturb the natural balance in nature and in some states or countries this even against the law ."]}
{"id": 2303, "summary": [{"text": "the southern redbelly dace ( chrosomus erythrogaster ) , is a north american species of temperate freshwater fish of the cyprinidae family .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the natural geographic range extends from western new york to minnesota , and south to oklahoma , arkansas , and alabama .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this fish prefers flowing pools of creeks and streams .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the extremely similar northern redbelly dace can be distinguished by a rounder , blunter head and a more upturned mouth , as well as by differences in spawning behavior .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "also , male southern redbelly dace show a characteristic red belly in spring while their northern counterparts keep a white belly . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "southern redbelly dace", "paragraphs": ["the southern redbelly dace grows up to 3 inches and feeds on algae and plant debris as do the other two species of redbelly dace .\nhow often does reproduction occur ? southern redbelly dace breed multiple times in the spring .\ndazzling breeding colors and a gentle disposition make the southern redbelly dace an excellent aquarium fish .\ntwo male southern redbelly dace and an unknown fish at the top ( has to be southern redbelly dace , red shiner , ozark minnow , or bluntnose minnow ) on 3 / 29 / 02 during 153 gallon pond cleaning .\nthere are many species of dace including the blacknose , longnose , redbelly , pearl , redside , rosyside , and tennessee dace .\nthe bright colors and gentle nature of southern redbelly dace make them great aquarium pets . they are also used by fishers as bait fish .\ncurrently , there are no serious threats facing southern redbelly dace , they are listed as a species of least concern on the iucn redlist .\nthe bright colors and docile temperament of southern redbelly dace make them great aquarium pets . they are also used by fishers as bait fish .\nwhen southern redbelly dace encounter a threat , such as a predator , these fish school together rather than dart off alone , improving their chances of survival . southern redbelly dace are social and use a chemical alarm signal that warns others of threats in the area nearby ; this chemical also signals fish to school together for protection . since southern redbelly dace are so small and vulnerable , this species avoids exposure . these fish are diurnal feeders .\nconservation commission of missouri , 2014 .\nsouthern redbelly dace\n( on - line ) . xplor . accessed march 01 , 2014 at urltoken .\nthe very different spawning behaviors of southern and northern redbelly dace are perhaps adaptations to differences in habitat . southern redbelly dace occur in small flowing streams , often in wooded areas where submerged aquatic vegetation is sparse . riffle spawning is frequent in such habitats . the northern redbelly dace is found in ponds and pools of creeks , near vegetation ( page and burr 1991 ) ; such conditions favor spawning among plant thickets .\non 3 / 29 / 04 , i cleaned out the pond again . the southern redbelly dace was still there ! so were the two shiners . hurray ! below are photos of my one dace !\nsouthern redbelly dace are continual egg scatterers that like to breed at around 70 to 75 degrees f with a strong current . they breed over gravel beds in moving water or near substrate spawning minnows . often , two males will spawn with a single female who lays a few hundred to a few thousand eggs . southern redbelly dace are riffle spawners . fry hatch in about six days . see the fourth link below for one aquarist ' s success at spawning southern redbelly dace .\nsouthern redbelly dace are social and use a chemical alarm signal to warn others of nearby threats . this chemical also signals the fish to school together for protection .\nthe last southern redbelly dace pulled from my 153 gallon pond during cleaning on 4 / 2 / 03 . he was returned to the pond after the photo .\nwhen southern redbelly dace come across a threat , such as a predator , these fish school together instead of darting off alone , this improves their chances of survival . southern redbelly dace are social and use a chemical alarm signal that warns others of threats in the area nearby ; this chemical also signals fish to school together for protection . since southern redbelly dace are so small and vulnerable , they usually try to stay hidden and avoid open areas . these fish forage for food during the daytime .\nconservation commission of missouri , 2014 .\nsouthern redbelly dace\n( on - line ) . missouri department of conversation . accessed march 01 , 2014 at urltoken .\nthe southern redbelly dace is olive colored with two black stripes down its body and a yellow stripe in the middle of them . its belly is white . black dots appear on the back ( the first thing i noticed about my fish ) . breeding males develop red underbodies , yellow fins , and tubercles . the scales of the southern redbelly dace are very small .\nsouthern redbelly dace are social creatures and will use a chemical alarm signal that warns others of threats in the area nearby ; this chemical also signals the fish to school together for protection .\nloan - wisley , a . 2006 .\nsouthern redbelly dace - chrosomus erythrogaster rafinesque .\n( on - line ) . iowa fish atlas . accessed march 01 , 2014 at urltoken .\nfor details . i was absolutely stunned to find that my southern redbelly dace is still alive ! i did not take a photo this year . this fish is six years old ! wow !\nsternburg , j . 2005 .\nspawning of the southern and northern redbelly dace compared\n( on - line ) . northern american native fishes association . accessed march 01 , 2014 at urltoken .\non 3 / 25 / 05 , i cleaned the 153 gallon pond out , and that one remaining southern redbelly dace is still alive ! horray ! i wish he had some buddies though . he is so pretty .\nsouthern redbelly dace prefer small , clear , freshwater streams that are cool in temperature with a moderate to slow current . they prefer sand , gravel , or mud substrates along with vegetation and overhangs on the stream banks for hiding .\nsouthern redbelly dace like clear , moving water of vegetated streams . they are often found at headwaters or springs . they are shy fish that require places to hide , ideally vegetation in and above the water . moving water is required for breeding .\nsouthern redbelly dace are found in small , clear , freshwater streams that are cool in temperature with a moderate to slow current . these fish prefer sand , gravel , or mud substrates along with areas where they can hide such as vegetation and overhangs .\nzehringer , j . 2012 .\nsouthern red belly dace\n( on - line ) . ohio department of natural resources . accessed march 01 , 2014 at urltoken .\nstasiak , r . 2007 .\nsouthern redbelly dace ( chrosomus erythrogaster ) : a technical conservation assessment\n( on - line ) . prepared for the usda forest service , rocky mountain region , species conservation project . accessed july 18 , 2014 at urltoken .\nthe remaining species are all in the northern us , in and around the great lakes in michigan . the northern redbelly and finescale daces are also found in the southern part of canada .\nthe blackside and tennessee dace populations are considered decreasing and vulnerable by the iucn . the laurel dace is endangered , and the other species are of least concern .\nnorth american native fishtanks \u2022 redbelly daces and allies , minnows of the genus . . .\nash sent this photo of a fish from southern california on 11 / 6 / 07 . she thought it was a redbelly dace but i do not think so . i was not able to identify it using my native fish books . do you know what it is ?\n\u2026 ( phoxinus ) are well - known , with a southern ( p . erythrogaster ) and northern ( p . eos ) species . the southern redbelly dace , found in clear creeks from alabama to pennsylvania and the great lakes region , is an attractive fish sometimes kept in home aquariums . it is 5\u20137 . 5 cm ( 2\u20133 inches ) long and is marked with\u2026\nsouthern redbelly dace are not only prey for larger species in their habitat ; they are also a predatory species , feeding on small invertebrates . as an indicator species , the presence or absence of southern redbelly dace in streams helps determine the relative health of a stream . if the water is healthy , these fish , along with other species , will be thriving . however , if the water is unhealthy , populations of these fish will show a noticeable decline . this not only works as a pollution indicator , but also directs fishers to the healthiest populations of game fish .\npaulson , n . , j . hatch . 2013 .\nnorthern redbelly dace\n( on - line ) . lake superior streams . accessed march 01 , 2014 at urltoken .\nthe mountain redbelly dace has been bred in captivity and the offspring can be purchased online or through specialty groups . some species may also be sold as feeder fish at bait shops .\ni have recently obtained some southern redbelly dace and so there is little information on this site . all of the following information comes from books and internet sources . if you have any information on redbelly dace , please send it to me . in the cases where i state\nunknown ,\nit means that i do not know but others may know . also , please let me know if any of this information is incorrect or if you can add to it .\nas mating season approaches , the coloration of sexually mature males becomes more vibrant , particularly in their fins and in the stripes located on their sides . this vibrant coloration helps them attract mates . since southern redbelly dace participate in polyandrous mating , there is little or no competition between male suitors .\nbefore the mating season begins , the coloration of sexually mature males becomes more vibrant , especially in their fins and in the stripes on their sides . this bright coloration helps them attract mates . since one female will mate with several males , there is very little competition between male southern redbelly dace .\nthe blackside , tennessee , mountain redbelly , and laurel daces are all found in the mid - eastern us . the blackside dace is native to kentucky , the laurel in virginia , and the mountain redbelly is found in west virginia , virginia , and north carolina . all four species are also found in tennessee .\n) live in the southeastern michigan area , from lake erie to ohio . their range also includes areas of the great lakes , the mississippi river basins , and the white arkansas river drainage areas , all the way down to tennessee . there are a few records of southern redbelly dace populations in the kansas river system and the upper arkansas river drainages as well .\nthese fish should be kept in purely freshwater aquariums and kept out of native brackish communities . some experiments performed with the southern redbelly dace showed that even short term exposure to low levels of salinity ( 4 ppt , about 1 . 003 ) stresses these animals greatly . as fish that prefer more \u201cneutral\u201d water , they also likely do not need the added hardness or higher ph .\nendangered status for the cumberland darter , rush darter , yellowcheek darter , chucky madtom , and laurel dace : final rule .\nsouthern redbelly dace tend to feed in schools at the bottom of streams , feeding on algae , aquatic invertebrates , and detritus . feeding on the bottom of streams not only allows them access to their prey , but also protects them from being in immediate reach of predators . these fish are countershaded , which means the bottom of the fish is lighter in color than the top side , this helps them avoid predators .\nsouthern redbelly dace feed in schools at the bottom of streams , feeding on algae , aquatic invertebrates , and detritus . feeding on the bottom of streams not only gives them access to their prey , but also protects them from being in immediate reach of predators . these fish are countershaded , which means the bottom of the fish is lighter in color than their top side , this can make them difficult to see , protecting them from predators .\non 4 / 2 / 03 , i cleaned out my 153 gallon pond . there were three live fish . for sure , just one was an adult southern redbelly dace . the other two were red shiners so those must have been the babies from last year . this one large adult was gorgeous . i took photos to develop later . the best one is at the top of this page . i just wish he had a mate !\ndesignation of critical habitat for the cumberland darter , rush darter , yellowcheek darter , chucky madtom , and laurel dace : final rule .\nwhen not actively chasing or spawning , the northern redbelly dace tended to remain away from the water current . they had no interest in the bed of pebbles , nor in the current of water directed at the pebbles . at no time did i see them spawn among the pebbles or over the sand substrate . spawning was repeated at intervals by other dace over the next three days , at which time i removed all the adults .\nsome of these taxonomies are currently being disputed . some sources place the finescale and laurel daces in the genus phoxinus , where the various redbelly daces once where .\nsouthern redbelly dace are small fish , they are about 5 . 8 cm long , with a small mouth that opens horizontally . their scales are so small they can be difficult to see . these fish are usually an olive green color , which blends into their environment , although they do have red and yellow stripes on their sides and black blotches on their dorsal fins . males of this species are more brightly colored than females , especially on their fins and in their stripes .\nthe tennessee dace is a slightly different case , spawning at low temperatures ( 60 to 62 f ) and will scatter eggs over nests of other fish like the central stoneroller and striped shiners . thus , breeding these fish as well may be vital to breeding the tennessee dace in captivity .\nsouthern redbelly dace are small fish , approximately 5 . 8 cm in length , with a small mouth that opens horizontally . their scales are so small they are nearly unrecognizable to a casual observer . these fish tend to be an olive green color , which blends into their environment , although they do have red and yellow stripes on their sides and black blotches on their dorsal fins . this species has sexually dimorphic coloration ; males are more vibrantly colored , especially on their fins and in their stripes .\nsouthern redbelly dace are not only prey for larger species in their habitat ; they are also a predatory species , feeding on small invertebrates . these fish are an indicator species , which mean their presence or absence in their habitat helps determine the health of a stream . if the water is healthy , these fish , along with other species , will be thriving . however , if the water is unhealthy , populations of these fish will decline . this can help fishers find the healthiest populations of game fish .\nas seasonal spawners , groups of chrosomus minnows will begin breeding once the tank conditions mimic a certain time of year . the southern redbelly dace breeds in the spring , for example , and requires a slightly elevated temperature . being provided with live foods may also help with breeding activity . eggs should be kept separate from adults ( they are notorious egg eaters ! ) and will hatch in about a week at 80 f . the fry are small and require tiny foods like infusoria once the yolks are absorbed .\nwhen southern redbelly dace breed , multiple males press up against a female on the bottom of the stream ; this causes her to release eggs for the males to fertilize . males have pearl organs along their anal and pectoral fins that are used during breeding to stimulate the female to release her eggs . during the april to june mating period , about 200 to 6 , 000 eggs are released as males and females repeat the breeding ritual . this ritual can be repeated many times and only takes a few seconds to complete .\nsouthern redbelly dace live in stream banks or headwater streams . they avoid the faster currents towards the middle of the stream and as a result , the size of the headwater stream is also their territory size . this species moves to new areas when their territory floods , washing some of them out to other areas . schools in this species include individuals of all ages and sizes , as the young and old live in the same area . even though they live in the same area , these fish are not known to display any sort of territorial behavior .\non 3 / 29 / 07 , i cleaned out the 153 gallon pond . i had seen a dark fish swimming in it a few weeks ago , assumed it was the dace , and was surprised . i was saddened this day to find the dace . he was deceased . even in death , he was gorgeous . i had him for 6 . 5 years so he was at least 7 years old ! that assumes the original dace never bred ( of which i am pretty sure ) . i took his photo one last time .\non 9 / 28 / 00 . on 10 / 1 / 00 , one was found desiccated on the edging . i guess he / she wanted to swim upstream ! when the pond was cleaned out on 3 / 26 / 01 , all or most of the redbelly dace were still there ! i have not seen any since ( as of 11 / 13 / 01 ) since they hide so well and are well camouflaged in my two - foot deep pond where the water is dark / black . i cleaned out the pond on 3 / 29 / 02 . there were only seven live fish left ( and two dead ones ) . three were large , adult southern redbelly dace with beautiful yellow fins . these were big fish . i took photos on regular film but it will be a long time before i develop the photos to see if they worked since it is a new roll of film ( i finally got the best photo on here on 5 / 31 / 03 above ! ) . the other four fish were babies from last spring that i had seen when young . then , i thought they were red shiners . considering there were no adult red shiners left , and the babies ' pectoral fins are long and flowing like the adult dace , i am pretty sure that the four young fish are baby southern redbelly dace ! of the five kinds of native fish i put in this pond , i would never have expected these guys to be the only ones to breed and survive ! they are not even native to my area , are supposed to be harder to keep and breed , and i did not add as many of them as the other fish . i guess they like my pond ! now , they have it all to themselves , except for the frogs , tadpoles , snails , and insects .\ndesignation of critical habitat for the cumberland darter , rush darter , yellowcheek darter , chucky madtom , and laurel dace : proposed rule ; reopening of comment period and announcement of public hearing .\nsouthern redbelly dace inhabit any headwater stream ( the source of a stream ) or stream bank , as they avoid the faster currents that occur towards the middle of the stream . as a result , the size of the headwater stream is also their territory size because they do not travel in faster moving water . this species disperses based on seasonal flooding that washes some of them out to other areas . schools in this species include individuals of all ages and sizes , as the young and old inhabit the same area . even though they inhabit the same area , these fish have not been observed displaying any sort of territorial behavior .\nin contrast , the spawning behavior of the southern redbelly dace , placed in the same aquarium with all conditions the same , was very different . they actively sought out the current and hovered above the bed of pebbles by swimming constantly into the current . at times they did retreat to quieter regions of the aquarium . several days after being placed in the aquarium , the six males and six females became brilliantly colored . the males had red extending over the entire underside , and the fins were yellow . females also developed the red color , though not quite as extensively as the males , and some white showed just below the lower dark lateral stripe . the fins were not yellow .\nthe chrosomus minnows are fairly small fish , and mostly uniform in size at that . the majority of species grow to somewhere around 3 inches long , with the finescale dace tipping the scales at about 4 inches .\ndistribution and habitat : inhabits small , often spring - fed , upland creeks with cool , clear water throughout the eastern two - thirds of the state . it sometimes occurs with the blackside dace in the upper cumberland river drainage ( mostly above cumberland falls ) .\nthe northern redbelly dace were spawned first , in early may 1992 . twelve adults were placed in the aquarium . there were no other fish in the tank . the fish were left undisturbed except for feeding several times per day . only two of the males showed red color at any time . none of the females colored . after several days together , a change in behavior became apparent . one , two , or even three males drove a single female in a vigorous chase up and down the length of the tank . the procedure seemed to be like that of goldfish at spawning time . most of the chases broke off with no spawning , the active fish would then join the loose school of other fish , usually under the floating valisneria foliage .\nidentification : a small fish with two parallel black stripes along the side . males in breeding condition are among the most colorful minnows in the state , having solid red along the underside of the body and bright yellow fins . it is similar to the federally protected blackside dace ( chrosomus cumberlandensis ) , but differs by having two lateral stripes ( vs . one broad black stripe ) along the side of the body . adults grow to 3 . 5 in .\nrange includes the great lakes ( michigan , erie ) and mississippi river basins from new york to southern minnesota , and south to the tennessee river drainage , alabama , and white - arkansas river drainage , arkansas and oklahoma ; isolated populations occur on the former mississippi embayment ( tennessee , mississippi , and arkansas ) , in the kansas river system , kansas , and in the upper arkansas river drainage , colorado and new mexico ( page and burr 2011 ) . this fish is common in upland and spring - fed streams , absent in lowlands ( page and burr 2011 ) .\nthese fish are not picky eaters and will convert to most any foods you provide . flake and pellet food should be the staple , supplemented with pieces of earthworms , frozen brine and mysis shrimp , chopped shellfish , and perhaps even live mosquito larvae . green foods comprise a significant part of their diet and should not be overlooked . spirulina flake , softened vegetables , and sushi nori can all be provided at regular intervals . the tennessee dace is particular focuses more on green foods than on animal - based foods .\nthe chrosomus minnows are not particularly picky about water hardness and ph , provided that extremes are avoided . they are found in water sources ranging in hardness from at least 5 - 15 dh and ph 6 . 5 - 7 . 5 . no heater is necessary for these species , and seemingly do well with water temperature around 60 - 65 f . seasonal highs of the mid 70\u2032s f are well tolerated by , and are necessary if you wish to breed these fish ( except for the tennessee dace ) . just remember with higher temperatures comes higher metabolism and activity levels !\nfrom the words erythro , meaning red ; and gaster , belly ( ref . 10294 )\nnorth america : basins of lakes erie and michigan and mississippi river from new york to minnesota , south to tennessee river drainage in albama , and white and arkansas river drainages in arizona and oklahoma , usa . isolated populations on former mississippi embayment in tennessee , mississippi and arkansas ; kansas river system in kansas ; and upper arkansas river drainage in colorado and new mexico , usa .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 9 . 1 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 86798 ) ; common length : 5 . 8 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12193 ) ; max . reported age : 3 years ( ref . 12193 )\nchrosomus erythrogaster can be distinguished by having the following characters : 67 - 95 scales on lateral line ; pharyngeal teeth 0 , 5 - 5 , 0 ; moderately pointed snout , longer than eye in adult ; small , moderately oblique ( less than 45\u00b0 ) , slightly subterminal mouth ending in front eye ; 2 black stripes along side with upper one thin broken into spots at rear while lower one wide , becoming thin on caudal peduncle ; olive brown above , dusky stripe along back ; black spots ( sometimes absent ) on upper side , often arranged in row ; silver yellow side ; black wedge - shaped caudal spot ; white , yellow or red below ; and large males with vivid color , consisting of bright red belly , lower head and base of dorsal fin , and yellow fins ( ref . 86798 ) .\ninhabits rocky , usually spring - fed , pools of headwaters and creeks ( ref . 86798 ) . also found in streams ( ref . 10294 ) .\npage , l . m . and b . m . burr , 2011 . a field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . boston : houghton mifflin harcourt , 663p . ( ref . 86798 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5078 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00708 ( 0 . 00318 - 0 . 01574 ) , b = 3 . 08 ( 2 . 90 - 3 . 26 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 5 \u00b10 . 1 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( tmax = 3 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 18 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of the large extent of occurrence , large number of subpopulations , large population size , apparently stable trend , and lack of major threats .\nthis species is represented by a large number of occurrences ( subpopulations ) . total adult population size is unknown but very large . this species is common in much of its range . trend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but likely relatively stable .\nhabitat includes headwaters and upland creeks ( often spring - fed ) , generally with clear water ( lee et al . 1980 , page and burr 2011 ) . in illinois , schools often occur under bank overhangs among tree roots in clear pools with muck bottom ( smith 1979 ) . this species often occurs over gravel , rubble , or sand in wisconsin ( becker 1983 ) . spawning occurs in shallow water near riffles among gravel , sometimes in nests of other species ( e . g . , semotilus atromaculatus ) .\ncurrently , this species is of relatively low conservation concern and does not require significant additional protection or major management , monitoring , or research action .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nfind local mdc conservation agents , consultants , education specialists , and regional offices .\nslender minnow with two dusky stripes separated by a broad golden or yellowish stripe along the side . olive - brown back with scattered dark spots , and a white belly . scales are very small , barely visible to the naked eye . breeding males are brilliant red on undersurface of head and body with lower fin and undersurface near tail lemon yellow .\ntotal length : 1 1 / 2 to 2 3 / 4 inches ; maximum length 3 inches .\nsmall creeks and spring branches of the ozarks where there is permanent flow of cool , clear water and a gravelly or sandy bottom . often school with other minnows such as stonerollers and creek chubs .\nherbivorous , feeding primarily on algae and detritus with larval insects in lesser quantities .\none of the characteristic fishes of the ozarks . also occurs in northeastern missouri , where its range extends northward into the prairie region in hills bordering the upper mississippi river .\nmissouri has more than 200 kinds of fish , more than are found in most neighboring states . fishes live in water , breathe with gills , and have fins instead of legs . most are covered with scales . most fish in missouri \u201clook\u201d like fish and could never be confused with anything else . true , lampreys and eels have snakelike bodies \u2014 but they also have fins and smooth , slimy skin , which snakes do not .\nwe protect and manage the fish , forest , and wildlife of the state . we facilitate and provide opportunity for all citizens to use , enjoy , and learn about these resources .\nwithin 8 to 10 days of being fertilized , the eggs hatch in water that is 20 . 6 to 26 . 7\u00b0 c ( 69 to 80\u00b0 f ) and begin growing very quickly before becoming an adult in about one year . the fish begin feeding on newly hatched\n, and within two months , grow to a little over one inch in size .\nsince one female mates with several males , the young from her eggs will have many different fathers . after breeding , the eggs are left in the nest with no parental care . larger fish species found in their habitat , such as\nmegan l . morgan ( author ) , bridgewater college , brittany l . ripp ( author ) , bridgewater college , stephanie n . rubino ( author ) , bridgewater college , tamara johnstone - yellin ( editor ) , bridgewater college , leila siciliano martina ( editor ) , animal diversity web staff .\nnatureserve , 2013 .\nchrosomus erythrogaster\n( on - line ) . iucn red list of threatened species . accessed march 01 , 2014 at urltoken .\nmorgan , m . ; b . ripp and s . rubino 2014 .\nchrosomus erythrogaster\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nbiokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved .\nby megan l . morgan ; brittany l . ripp ; stephanie n . rubino\nwithin 8 to 10 days of being fertilized , the embryos hatch in water that is 20 . 6 to 26 . 7\u00b0 c ( 69 to 80\u00b0 f ) and begin a rapid period of growth into adulthood , which lasts about a year . the fish begin feeding on newly hatched\nbreeding takes place when multiple males press up against the female on the bottom of the stream to stimulate the release of eggs for the males to fertilize . males have pearl organs , also known as breeding tubercles , along their anal and pectoral fins that are used during breeding to stimulate the female to release her eggs . during the april to june mating period , approximately 200 to 6 , 000 eggs are expelled as males and females repeat the breeding ritual . this ritual can be repeated several times and only takes a few seconds to complete .\npolyandrous breeding results in mixed paternity , leading to increased variation in the young . after breeding takes place , the eggs are left in the nest with no parental care . larger fish species in their habitat , such as\nthe average lifespan of this fish is about two years , with only one recorded maximum lifespan of three years .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nhaving coloration that serves a protective function for the animal , usually used to refer to animals with colors that warn predators of their toxicity . for example : animals with bright red or yellow coloration are often toxic or distasteful .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nparticles of organic material from dead and decomposing organisms . detritus is the result of the activity of decomposers ( organisms that decompose organic material ) .\na species whose presence or absence strongly affects populations of other species in that area such that the extirpation of the keystone species in an area will result in the ultimate extirpation of many more species in that area ( example : sea otter ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nthe business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets .\nreferring to a mating system in which a female mates with several males during one breeding season ( compare polygynous ) .\n) : a technical conservation assessment\n( on - line ) . prepared for the usda forest service , rocky mountain region , species conservation project . accessed july 18 , 2014 at\nto cite this page : morgan , m . ; b . ripp and s . rubino 2014 .\nchrosomus erythrogaster\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ncurrent residents in my native ohio stream tank . source was paddy ' s run in sw ohio .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\ndog , ( canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic mammal of the family canidae ( order carnivora ) . it is a subspecies\u2026\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\n) , and mountain species . all can be adapted to aquarium or pond life .\nbreeding males develop red underbodies , yellow fins , and tubercles . they get red on their chest , chin , belly , and the base of the dorsal fin .\non 3 / 30 / 06 , i cleaned out the 153 gallon pond . see\n- information ; this site may no longer work , if you know what happened , please e - mail me .\nthere have been 42 , 711 , 035 file views ( file views since 2006 , page views before that ) to fishpondinfo from october 1 , 2003 through june 30 , 2018 .\nthe south dakota game , fish and parks values and appreciates the partnerships we have with landowners across the state . they help sustain our wildlife and promulgate our hunting heritage . south dakota is 80 percent privately owned and landowners play a significant role in providing wildlife habitat and outdoor opportunities like hunting and fishing .\nthe department offers a variety of programs available for private landowners to help create wildlife habitat , public hunting access and reduce wildlife damage .\nfor more information about landowner programs , check out habitat pays . habitat pays has been a joint effort with the department of agriculture since 2015 ; connecting farmers and ranchers to the appropriate habitat resources and helping them implement wildlife habitat where it makes the most sense .\ngfp offers cost share to private landowners interested in developing wildlife habitat on their land through multiple habitat programs . contact one of our private land habitat biologists to learn more about any of our private land wildlife habitat programs or to evaluate your land and help you develop the best habitat to help you meet your land management goals .\nfree food plot seed is available from gfp each spring ( corn , sorghum , brood mix ) .\nannual payment of $ 20 per acre for food plot acres ( $ 40 per acre if planted on walk - in areas ) .\nwoody habitat plantings are designed to provide ground level cover during winter conditions for resident wildlife .\nplantings must be at least 8 rows wide and a minimum of 1 acre in size .\ngfp will cost - share 75 % of total project costs , up to $ 10 , 000 per planting .\nin addition to technical assistance , the wetland & grassland habitat program offers a variety of cost - share options for private landowners to implement conservation practices that benefit wildlife while meeting the needs of working grasslands .\nlandowners are reimbursed for 100 % of the costs incurred for seed and planting ( up to $ 125 / acre ) .\nprograms protect new or existing habitat from livestock , assist with setting up rotational grazing paddocks , replace woven wire fences with wildlife - friendly fences , etc . .\nfor more information about other habitat programs available through our partners visit the habitat resources page of the habitat pays website .\ngfp leases public hunting access on private land across the state to maintain south dakota\u2019s rich hunting heritage through the following programs . contact our staff in your part of the state to learn more about any of these programs .\nthe wia program leases private land with valuable hunting opportunity for unlimited public hunting access ( foot - traffic only ) in exchange for an annual payment and immunity from non - negligent liability . the walk - in area program began in 1988 leasing public hunting access from 26 landowners on 23 , 161 acres , and has grown to partnering with 1 , 458 landowners , in 2017 , who provide public hunting access to 1 , 239 , 580 acres of private land . cumulatively over the last thirty years the walk - in area program has paid landowners over $ 3 5 million to provide public hunting access opportunities to over 23 . 2 million acres . a legislative commemoration was issued commending the south dakota game , fish and parks and the landowners of south dakota on 30 years of partnership to provide public hunting access through the walk - in area program . more information .\nsimilar to a walk - in area , but a coop allows hunters to drive on harvested cropland for the purposes of placing & retrieving waterfowl decoys . hunters with a disabled hunting permit are also allowed to drive on these areas to hunt any game . all other access is limited to foot traffic only an no hunting is allowed while farm machinery is present .\nchap is a cooperative effort between private landowners and game , fish and parks to provide limited public hunting access on private land landowners who enroll in chap control the amount of hunter use at a given time , set special provisions for use , and place restrictions on big game species allowed to be harvested . for more information or assistance , visit the habitat pays website .\nadministered by the usda ' s farm service agency , crep is a\nstate - sponsored\nconservation reserve program designed for a specific geographic area that will address resource concerns identified by state partners . in south dakota , the focus is on creating additional pheasant nesting habitat that is open to public hunting .\nehap ' s purpose is to increase hunter harvest ; specifically on private lands with higher than landowner - tolerable elk use . private land anywhere in the black hills elk hunting units will be considered . access to the property ( how many , when , and where ) is controlled by the enrolled landowner . this allows the hunting to take place where the best chance of success is , as well as with the best chance to diminish elk depredation . gfp does not sign the boundaries ( as with walk - in areas ) , nor are maps of the enrolled properties made available . gfp provides the contact information for participating landowners upon request . license holders are responsible for making contact with the landowner , and making arrangements to hunt the enrolled property .\nas a vast majority of south dakota is privately owned ; farmers , ranchers and other private landowners are the principal stewards of wildlife resources and the habitats in which they depend .\nthe landowners matter newsletter is printed and distributed twice a year ; april 1 and october 1 and is mailed to approximately 14 , 000 south dakota landowners .\ngfp employs 27 full - time wildlife damage specialists ( wds ) within its comprehensive wildlife damage management program . these staff work directly with landowners and producers to reduce or alleviate wildlife damage such as : livestock losses , damage to stored - feed supplies and hay , damage to growing crops , as well as damage to personal property . these staff are trained to work with all types of wildlife damage , from coyotes to elk . they also conduct educational programs on sport trapping as a form of recreation and its importance in the management of furbearers . programs can be given in classrooms , meeting halls , summer camps or other group meeting locations .\nfor more information on the below programs please contact your local wildlife damage specialist .\ngfp will provide direct control of prairie dogs that have encroached onto private property from adjacent public lands . to be eligible , landowners must have a minimum of 10 acres of actual prairie colony and must be within one mile of the public land boundary . tribal property or municipality properties are not public lands . if you have questions about prairie dog control from gfp , please call 605 . 773 . 5913 . register for the prairie control program .\ngfp will provide direct control of beavers for landowners or livestock producers that are experiencing damage caused by beavers . however , for problems with beaver damage inside city limits , people are encouraged to contact their local city officials for these types of requests . gfp only provides technical advice in these situations . for damage caused from raccoon , skunks , mink , and other nuisance wildlife species , gfp can provide technical assistance and loan live - traps for people outside of city limits . every situation is unique , and gfp staff working cooperatively with the affected landowner will determine the most effective approach . contact your local wildlife damage specialist for assistance .\ngfp has several programs and services available to assist landowners and producers that experience damage to growing - crops from canada geese . the most popular service is the installation of temporary electric fence which serves as an effective barrier to flightless geese during the summer months , which gfp will install around growing soybeans . gfp also offers up to $ 5 , 000 worth of cost - share assistance to plant protective buffer - strips around growing - crops , which protect the larger field from canada goose damage . these buffer - strips may be wheat , alfalfa , or native grasses which create a visual barrier so the geese are discouraged from entering the cropfield . gfp may also provide up to $ 5 , 000 of cost - share assistance to construct woven wire fence along the edge of wetlands which prohibit access to the cropfields when the birds are flightless . gfp provides direct assistance when canada geese are causing damage to growing crops or causing other issues on private lands ; utilizing tools such as hazing , temporary fencing , alternate feeding sites or egg addling . gfp may also authorize the affected landowner a permit which allows the landowner to lethally remove a small number of canada geese that are causing crop damage . these permits serve as an effective form of hazing and can haze the remaining birds away from the immediate area . every situation is unique and gfp staff , working cooperatively with the affected landowner , will determine the most effective approach .\ngfp has several programs and services available to assist landowners and producers with deer damage . gfp offers up to $ 5 , 000 worth of cost - share assistance to construct permanent protective stackyards or can provide protective , portable panels that protect stored livestock - feeds ( i . e . hay , corn , silage , etc . ) from deer damage during the winter months . these two programs are very popular and provide long - term solutions . gfp also provides direct assistance when deer are causing damage to growing crops , shelter - belts and other issues on private lands by utilizing hazing , temporary fencing , short - stop baiting , and in some situations , lethal control and / or depredation hunts . every situation is unique and gfp staff , working cooperatively with the affected landowner will determine the most effective approach .\ngfp has several programs and services available to assist landowners and producers with elk damage . gfp offers up to $ 10 , 000 worth of cost - share assistance to construct permanent protective stackyards or can provide protective , portable panels to protect stored livestock - feeds ( i . e . hay , corn , silage , etc . ) from elk damage during the winter months . these two programs are very popular and provide long - term solutions . gfp also offers up to $ 10 , 000 worth of fencing materials and protective cable that when installed correctly can alleviate damage to fences from elk crossing them . gfp offers up to $ 6 , 000 of cost - share assistance to landowners for growing - season food - plots where landowners have elk feeding on alfalfa fields or other growing crops . landowners may also be eligible for up to $ 3 , 000 of cost - share assistance for hay land contracts . these contracts are for grasslands that are annually hayed by landowners , not grazed by livestock and have elk feeding upon these areas . gfp also provides direct assistance when elk are causing damage to growing crops or causing other issues on private lands by utilizing hazing , temporary fencing , short - stop baiting , and in some situations , lethal control and / or depredation hunts . every situation is unique and gfp staff , working cooperatively with the affected landowner , will determine the most effective approach .\ngfp will provide direct control ( i . e . trapping , snaring , calling , aerial hunting , etc . ) of coyotes and red fox to livestock producers or landowners that request assistance with livestock loss issues or livestock protection requests from predators . gfp operates an aggressive predator control program and cooperatively works with thousands of livestock producers and landowners across south dakota , to resolve these problems . every situation is unique and gfp staff working cooperatively with the affected landowner will determine the most effective approach . contact your local wildlife damage specialist for assistance .\ngfp has several programs and services available to assist landowners and producers with damage caused from turkeys . the most popular service is the installation of protective netting which is installed on bales of oats , silage , etc . which gfp will install gfp also provides direct assistance when turkeys are causing damage or other issues on private lands by utilizing hazing , temporary fencing , and alternate feeding sites and in some situations , lethal control and / or depredation hunts . every situation is unique and gfp staff , working cooperatively with the affected landowner will determine the most effective approach ."]}
{"id": 2311, "summary": [{"text": "swiftlets are birds contained within the four genera aerodramus , hydrochous , schoutedenapus and collocalia .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they form the collocaliini tribe within the swift family apodidae .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the group contains around thirty species mostly confined to southern asia , south pacific islands , and northeastern australia , all within the tropical and subtropical regions .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are in many respects typical members of the apodidae , having narrow wings for fast flight , with a wide gape and small reduced beak surrounded by bristles for catching insects in flight .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "what distinguishes many but not all species from other swifts and indeed almost all other birds is their ability to use a simple but effective form of echolocation to navigate in total darkness through the chasms and shafts of the caves where they roost at night and breed .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the nests of some species are built entirely from threads of their saliva , and are collected for the famous chinese delicacy bird 's nest soup . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "swiftlet", "paragraphs": ["swiftlet information . . . swiftlet species index . . . swiftlet species photo gallery\nswiftlet eco park group of companies is the largest swiftlet eco park developer in malaysia .\nhimalayan swiftlet winters within the range of german ' s swiftlet , but is larger and bulkier , and has a greyer rump than c . g . germani .\nswiftlet nest could be an authentic and pricey ingredient in the world of culinary .\n\u00a9 2016 swiftlet eco park group of companies . all rights reserved . web design malaysia\naustralian swiftlet ( aerodramus terraereginae ) occurrence records from continental australia suitable for species distribution modelling .\ngithub - aliasio / swiftlet : quite possibly the smallest mvc framework you ' ll ever use .\nclone ( or download and extract ) swiftlet into a directory on your php supported web server .\nthe german ' s swiftlet ( collocalia germani or aerodramus germani ) is a species of swift .\n\u2462interior environment : an adequate level of attention has been paid to audible swiftlet calls and odor .\nthis swiftlet was formerly sometimes placed in the genus aerodramus as aerodramus brevirostris . two of its five subspecies are frequently given full species status , c . b . rogersi as the indochinese swiftlet , collocalia rogersi , and the isolated javan form c . b . vulcanorum as the volcano swiftlet , collocalia vulcanorum .\nwith notable exceptions , most swiftlet species emit both single and double clicks ( thomassen et al . ,\nswiftlet is quite possibly the smallest mvc framework you ' ll ever use . and it ' s swift .\nthe uniform swiftlet is a gregarious , medium - sized swiftlet with a shallowly forked tail . it is about 13 centimeters long with a wingspan averaging around 27 centimeters . it weighs about 11 grams . the colouring is dark grey - brown , darker on the upperparts with paler underparts , especially on chin and throat . it is similar to , and most likely to be confused with , the white - rumped swiftlet or mountain swiftlet .\nbelow are images of different swiftlet species . click on any of them to go to the respective species page .\nbuildings constructed to lure the edible - nest swiftlet have been popping up in indonesia . the nests are used in soup .\nluck , mr . budi says , plays as great a role as preparation in swiftlet farming . you see , he said with a sigh , you can entice an edible - nest swiftlet to a birdhouse , but you can\u2019t make it nest .\nvanderwal , j . ( 2013 ) . australian swiftlet ( aerodramus terraereginae ) - current and future species distribution models . centre for tropical biodiversity & climate change , james cook university . [ data files ] urltoken swiftlet ( aerodramus terraereginae ) / suitability\nvanderwal , j . ( 2013 ) . australian swiftlet ( aerodramus terraereginae ) - occurrence records filtered for species distribution modelling . centre for tropical biodiversity & climate change , james cook university . [ data files ] urltoken swiftlet ( aerodramus terraereginae ) / occurrences\nthe himalayan swiftlet has a twittering chit - chit roosting call , and also has a piercing teeree - teeree - teeree call .\n) . swiftlet clicks are composed of frequencies completely within the human auditory range , with most energy between 1 and 10 khz .\ngetting started in swiftlet farming requires what is , for this part of the world , a significant amount of money . mr . iskandar said a medium - size three - story swiftlet house can cost about $ 16 , 000 \u2014 a prohibitive sum for many .\nauthentic bird ' s nest soup is made from nests of some species of swiftlet , mainly the edible - nest ( or white - nest ) swiftlet ( aerodramus fuciphagus ) and the black - nest swiftlet . instead of twigs , feathers and straw , these swiftlet make their nest only from strands of their gummy saliva , which harden when exposed to air . once the nests are harvested , they are cleaned and sold to restaurants . eating swiftlet nest material is believed to help maintain skin tone , balance qi (\nlife energy\n) and reinforce the immune system . it is also thought to strengthen the lungs and prevent coughs , improve the constitution and prolong life .\nseveral subspecies are recognised , and the form c . v . inquietus is often split as the caroline islands swiftlet , c . inquietus .\nin malaysia , nest of aerodramus fuciphagus ( white - nest swiftlet ) and aerodramus maximus ( black - nest swiftlet ) are harvested for commercial purposes as one of most valuable animal product . swiftlet taxonomy has been controversial due to numerous undefined parameters . morphological differences between swiftlet species from different habitats remain unclear . this study found that a . fuciphagus from natural habitat are generally larger in size compared to man - made habitat and a . maximus are larger compared to a . fuciphagus . we postulated the different in body size is due to dietary behavior of the swiftlets .\nthere are about 20 speakers inside the bird house , including large speakers on both sides of the swiftlet entrance and small speakers on the tops of the columns . these speakers are connected to an mp3 player in the control room that plays a recording of swiftlet calls . the swiftlet calls played back on these speakers play an important role in attracting swiftlet to the house . the owner of the bird house has tried various speaker types and locations through a process of trial and error and creative modification in order to attract as many swiftlet as possible to the house . d described the audio equipment at a level of detail that suggested the enormous amount of attention he has paid to this aspect of the house\u2019s design . b explained that he had obtained a good recording of swiftlet calls and that the birds would come to the house immediately if this recording were played . in this way , it seems likely that the house owners find the process of developing ideas and creatively figuring out how to attract swiftlet appealing .\nwhat made you want to look up swiftlet ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nbut on the roads around sukadana , potential health concerns seemed secondary , and swiftlet house owners seemed more concerned with the flightiness of the birds themselves .\nassalamualaikum and hello to everyone who is reading my blog . in my blog , i will share a little bit on swiftlet farming . hope you enjoy\nthe birds in the cave are primarily the black - nest swiftlet ( collocallia maxima - the name aerodramus is also sometimes used for the swiftlet genus ) and the mossy - nest swiftlet ( c . vanikorensis ) . like bats , the swiftlets use echolocation to find their way in the dark of the caves - and to locate their insect prey . the constant clicking sound can easily be heard in the caves - at times more of a buzz than clicks .\nswiftlet has a few core events and additiontal ones can be triggered pretty much anywhere using $ this - > app - > trigger ( $ event ) .\nc . b . rogersi the indochinese swiftlet , breeds in eastern myanmar , western thailand and laos . this is a small , pale - rumped race .\nc . b . vulcanorum the volcano swiftlet , breeds in java , indonesia on volcanic peaks . it has dark underparts and an indistinct pale grey rump .\nsmyth dm ( 1980 ) studies on echolocation in the grey swiftlet , aerodramus spodiopygius . phd thesis , james cook university of north queensland , townsville , australia\nthe himalayan swiftlet , collocalia brevirostris , is a small swift . it is a common colonial breeder in the himalayas and southeast asia . some populations are migratory .\nswiftlet can be invoked from the command line ( e . g . to run cron jobs ) . simply run php public / index . php - q foo .\nadditionally , if research into swiftlet ecology continues , new methods for improving bird house based on the birds\u2019 ecological characteristics may be discovered . i am hopeful in this respect .\nwhatever the ultimate size limit of object detection by swiftlet biosonar , observations of increased click repetition rates from birds approaching their nests in the wild ( fullard et al . , 1993 ; signe brinkl\u00f8v , pers . obs . ) suggest that swiftlets use echolocation to locate their nests . and , because swiftlet nests are 50\u2013100 mm in diameter ( coles et al . , 1987 ; chantler et al . , 1999 ) , even a conservative detection size threshold would indicate that the nest itself should be readily detectable by swiftlet echolocation .\nsince its humble beginning in 2004 , the maiden joint venture project in manjung with perak sedc ( state economic development corporation ) , swiftlet eco park group of companies has consistently performed to the highest industry standards , being the first company awarded the good animal husbandry practice ( gahp ) in swiftlet farming , as well as being the invited representative from private sector to participate in the working committee of establishing the first industry guideline , the 1 garis panduan ( 1gp ) of edible birdnest swiftlet farming standard by ministry of agriculture & agro - based industry .\nthe uniform swiftlet ( collocalia vanikorensis ) , also known as the vanikoro or lowland swiftlet , is a gregarious , medium - sized swiftlet with a shallowly forked tail . the colouring is dark grey - brown , darker on the upperparts with somewhat paler underparts , especially on chin and throat . this species is widespread from the philippines through wallacea , new guinea and melanesia . it forages for flying insects primarily in lowland forests and open areas . it nests in caves where it uses its sense of echolocation ( a biological sonar ) , rare in birds , to navigate .\nin short , with complete value chain from upstream to downstream , swiftlet eco park group of companies has helped in lifting malaysia\u2019s position to even greater heights in the global scale for the ebn industry .\nif you get a\n404 not found\nyou will need to enable rewrites in the web server configuration . alternatively you can navigate to http : / / < swiftlet > ? q = foo .\n11 cm . swiftlet with dark greyish - brown upperparts and head . silvery grey - white throat and upper breast . remainder of underparts darker and greyer . shallow fork - tail . plumage lacks any noticeable sheen .\nthis swiftlet feeds over a range of habitats from coastal areas to the mountains . its diet consists of flying insects which are caught on the wing . it often feeds in large flocks with other species of swift and swallow .\nno configuration is needed to run swiftlet . if you ' re writing a model that does require configuration , e . g . credentials to establish a database connection , you may use the application ' s setconfig and getconfig methods :\nsp . may interfere with recovery ( the additional weight of wasps nests causes swiftlet nests to fall from cave walls ) . on saipan , exotic cockroaches ( which damage and destroy nests by consuming nest material and swiftlet saliva gluing them to cave walls ) , predation by brown tree snake ( which is in the process of becoming established on the island [ rodd and savidge 2007 ] ) and possible disturbance by humans and feral mammals are the main threats ( wiles\nincidentally , there are arguments both for and against wooden bird house . one group , exemplified by b , who was involved in this construction project , claims that swiftlet will occupy good houses , regardless of whether they are constructed from wood or concrete , and that wooden construction is not problematic . by contrast , dr . l of the sarawak museum , who has detailed knowledge of swiftlet ecology and bird house , casts doubt on this approach , suggesting that the temperature inside a wooden house would rise and prevent swiftlet from occupying the structure . it appears that additional study will be necessary in the future in order to determine whether the house in question in fact functions as a bird house .\nthese example sentences are selected automatically from various online news sources to reflect current usage of the word ' swiftlet . ' views expressed in the examples do not represent the opinion of merriam - webster or its editors . send us feedback .\necholocation was used to separate the former aerodramus genus , which was thought to contain the only echolocating swiftlets . from collocalia , but the discovery that the pygmy swiftlet , collocalia troglodytes , also echolocates led to the merging of the two genera .\nin this paper , i will report on bird house ( see photograph 2 ) being used to conduct research in this project into the ecology of cave swiftlet . my objective is to decipher the creative measures adopted to attract swiftlet based on the placement , building methods , interior space , and interior environment of these bird houses . i conducted a site survey from february 14 to 20 , 2013 . the bird houses in question have been built along the road from bintulu to sebauh , about half an hour by car . all were recently built structures that had been completed in 2012 . according to mr . t , who manages bird house in the area , the swiftlet will come to the houses gradually in the evening . the effort is off to a good start .\nthis dataset consists of current and future species distribution models generated using 4 representative concentration pathways ( rcps ) carbon emission scenarios , 18 global climate models ( gcms ) , and 8 time steps between 2015 and 2085 , for australian swiftlet ( aerodramus terraereginae ) .\nthis swiftlet is 12 cm long and weighs 13 to 14 grams . the plumage is blackish - brown above , but much paler on the underparts . the tail is slightly forked and the wings are long and narrow . the bill and feet are black . the nominate subspecies c . g . germani from hainan south to thailand and northern malaysia has a whitish rump , but c . g . amechanus of the rest of malaysia has a grey rump . these two forms are sometimes considered to be subspecies of the edible - nest swiftlet .\nthis dataset includes observations of australian swiftlet ( aerodramus terraereginae ) that are sourced from the atlas of living australia ( ala ) database . rather than raw observations , these have been filtered such that they are assumed to be suitable for species distribution modelling exercises . the cleaning process included :\nwhen people rent a condominium or apartment , they make an overall decision after comparing such factors as exposure to sunlight , floor plan , building age , rent , and proximity to the nearest train station with their own lifestyle . in the same way , is it not likely that swiftlet decide whether to take up residence in a house based on how well it matches their own \u201clifestyle\u201d ( ecology ) . in this section , i will examine the creative measures that people have implemented in order to entice swiftlet to use the houses along the lines of the characteristics of those houses .\ninside the bird house , an odor that the swiftlet find attractive hangs in the air . the floors of each story are covered with the birds\u2019 droppings , spreading an ammonia odor throughout the structure . the owners say that this odor is identical to the one that can be found inside the caves . furthermore , the walls and floors of the house 9 planted forests in equatorial southeast asia : have been coated with an ammonia and water solution . they explained that swiftlet would not come to newly constructed houses due to the smell of the lumber and paint used in their construction .\nswiftlet eco park berhad is the pioneer in professional development of eco - friendly swiftlet farming in malaysia . full compliance and approval obtained for a legalized scheme is not only a positive step in itself , in fact , it also complements the government\u2019s efforts to accelerate malaysia\u2019s economic growth over the coming decade in this thriving swiftlet ranching business and the edible - birdnest industry . unlike other illegal schemes , this scheme has met all its stringent requirements , one of which is feasibility of the investment in providing positive and high net yield of returns to investors . both local and global trustee companies , namely pb trustees services berhad and tmf trustees services berhad have been appointed and approved for this scheme , as custodian of the investment , to safeguard the interest of investors , to ensure the investment proceeds are employed in accordance to the trust deed , and to monitor the management of the trust account .\nthe indian edible - nest swiftlet is a slender , sparrow - size , brown bird with a slightly forked tail . the male produces a long , gelatinous strand of condensed saliva from the sublingual salivary glands , which is then wound into a half - cup nest , bonded to a vertical surface .\nin riam berasap jaya village , budi sat in a sweltering room staring at a mostly blank closed - circuit television screen . a recording of bird calls screamed at high volume in the next room . it had been six months since his swiftlet house was finished , but only a few nests dotted the walls .\nbird\u2019s nest soup is made from the nests of cave - dwelling swiftlets . the birds bind the nests with their glutinous saliva . it is this \u201ctasteless jelly\u201d that attracts affluent foodies . in the harvesting of these nests , swiftlet eggs have nowhere to lie\u2014or early offspring are killed\u2014thus endangering the survival of this species .\nthe frequency sensitivity of hearing in the grey swiftlet , collocalia spodiopygia , was determined by neuronal recordings from the auditory midbrain ( mld ) . the most sensitive best frequency response thresholds occurred between 0 . 8 and 4 . 7 khz , with the upper frequency limit near 6 khz . spectral analysis of echolocation click pairs revealed energy peaks between 3 . 0 and 8 . 0khz for the foreclick , compared to 4 . 0 - 6 . 0 khz for the principal click . the relationship between good hearing sensitivity and click energy peaks in the swiftlet extends about an octave higher than it does in the oilbird ( steatornis caripensis ) .\necholocation almost certainly originated independently in apodiformes and caprimulgiformes and likely evolved independently within two distinct lineages of swiftlets ( price et al . , 2005 ; thomassen et al . , 2005 ) . the inaccessibility of many species of swiftlets and resulting lack of genetic and acoustic data means that the evolutionary pathways of swiftlet echolocation remain to be unravelled . increased molecular sampling and systematic documentation of swiftlet echolocation abilities will be necessary to further resolve their phylogenetic history . such research would help to clarify species limits , answer questions about the evolution of obligate single click emitting species and address the predominance of those species that produce both double and single biosonar clicks .\nthe papuan swiftlet is apparently closer to the waterfall swift than to the other aerodramus species and probably best placed in a separate genus ( price et al . , 2005 ) , whereas thomassen et al . ( 2005 ) advocate reuniting all swiftlets in collocalia . schoutedenapus is one of the least - known genera of birds .\nthe house is a three - story structure . there is a vaulted opening on the northern side , and after coming in through the entrance , swiftlet proceed into this open space , from which they move to the house\u2019s individual floors . each floor has an entrance / exit that opens on the western side of the house .\nsince then , swiftlet eco park group has become hugely successful on a local , national and preparing itself in global scale by venturing into downstream activities , which transform and enhance the value chain of the ebn industry through research & development , quality and authentic products internationally . royal bird\u2019s nest sdn bhd , another member of swiftlet eco park group of companies has taken the initiative to have r & d ; collaboration with tertiary learning institutions , universities and medical centers , to explore the full potential of ebn in the sectors of functional food , skin care , health supplement and also medicinal properties by using ebn extract deriving from efficient utilization of cleaning & processing technologies .\nrealizing the ambitious initiative to be the largest upstream player in ebn industry , the group has launched the first interest scheme in malaysia which is the first ebn swiftlet ranching share farming business licensed by malaysian government and indeed , an investment scheme that was approved by companies commission of malaysia ( or suruhanjaya syarikat malaysia ) back in 2010 .\nthe tiny cup nest is constructed by the male swift from thick saliva of saliva and some moss , and is attached to a vertical rock wall in a cave . nests of this colonial swift may be touching . the clutch is two white eggs . this swiftlet is monogamous and both partners take part in caring for the nestlings .\nthis swiftlet is a highland species , with a preference for feeding open areas in forests , such as river valleys . c . b . brevirostris breeds up 4 , 500 m in nepal and 2200m in central bhutan , and the forms c . b . rogersi and c . b . inniminata occur up to 2200 m in thailand .\nmr . iskandar , a former illegal logger , shares a property line with a swiftlet house ; he has many friends involved in the trade and is saving up for one of his own . since most of the forests in the area have been bought up by palm plantations , he says , the logging business is not what it once was .\nchinese bird nest , or y\u00e0n w\u014d ( \u71d5\u7a9d ) , is is one of the most expensive foods in the world , with a price of up to $ 2000 per kilogram ( according to wikipedia ) . the nests are made of the hardened saliva of the male swiftlet , a type of swallow found in many coastal caves of southeast asia .\nsome are concerned that the increasingly dense networks of swiftlet houses could create disease flight paths for the avian flu , threatening both the local bird populations and potentially humans , as well . almost as worrisome are the large water tanks inside each house that provide prime breeding sites for mosquitoes that could carry dengue fever and malaria \u2014 two tropical diseases of particular concern in borneo .\nthe bird \u2014 called , appropriately enough , the edible - nest swiftlet \u2014 makes its nest by regurgitating long strands of sticky saliva onto the wall of a cave or house , as the case may be . these strands harden into a woven cup , weighing on average about a third of an ounce , that provides a cradle for the birds\u2019 young and hangs from the wall .\nunfortunately , all this human activity has had a major impact on the delicate web of life within niah ' s caves . in the late 1950s , when they were calculated for the first time , the swiftlet populations in niah ' s great cave complex were estimated at over 1 . 5 million , and the total bat numbers in excess of 300 , 000 . ( now you can understand how all that guano got there ! ) however , recent estimates of the swiftlet numbers placed them at possibly as low as 150 , 000 , with the bat populations having shown a similar marked decline ( although possibly fluctuating significantly as well ) . presumably there have been flow - on impacts on the populations of other cave species which are dependent on the birds and bats .\nwhat distinguishes many , but not all , swiftlet species from other swifts and indeed almost all other birds ( the oilbird being an exception ) is their ability to use a simple but effective form of echolocation ( a biological sonar ) to navigate in through the darkness of the caves where they roost at night and breed . with the present species , at least vulcanorum is known to echolocate .\nbut the unregulated industry is also raising concerns that indonesian swiftlet farmers could be producing more than just nests . indonesia is acutely sensitive to bird - related disease scares . since 2003 , h5n1 , better known as the avian flu , has caused 146 deaths and fueled global fears of a pandemic , and the toll in indonesia is the highest in the world , according to the world health organization .\nto find their way around dark caverns , as do bats . the swiftlet\u2019s \u201csonar\u201d consists of clicking sounds at frequencies of 1 , 500 to 5 , 500 hertz\u2014audible to the human ear . they are emitted at the rate of about six per second . the nest is a small bracket , sometimes containing bits of fern or bark , that may be glued to a tree or cliff but usually is made in a mountain or coastal\nat dawn on april 8 , 2001 , after an hour - long boat ride from the fishing hamlet of niwati - medha , the birders landed at the old lighthouse island . on the underside of a lighthouse dome , they discovered about 30 swiftlet nests . this was an exciting discovery , since this nesting site had not been previously recorded . they then moved on to the easternmost burnt island , known to be an active nesting site .\nthis species is common and widespread , but the volcano swiftlet , if considered a separate species , is near - threatened . it occurs only on active volcanos in java , with four definite sites and five likely but unconfirmed sites . birdlife international estimates a total of under 400 birds for the known localities . since this form nests in crater crevices , and all known localities are active volcanoes , colonies are believed to be susceptible to periodic extinction .\nthere is enough inter - specific variation in swiftlet biosonar clicks to render them species - specific , primarily based on inter - specific variation of maximum click frequency ( thomassen and povel , 2006 ) . it is plausible then that swiftlet echolocation clicks could be used in conspecific recognition , potentially of relevance where several species have overlapping geographical distributions and may either share or compete for access to caves . however , the social signals of swiftlets are also species - specific ( thomassen and povel , 2006 ) and may serve equally well or better for this and other purposes . on a similar note , the morphological asymmetry of the oilbird syrinx may allow for individual recognition during vocal communication . individual differences in vocal tract asymmetry have been suggested as a means for oilbirds to distinguish echoes originating from their own echolocation signals from those clicks and echoes originating from their roostmates ( suthers and hector , 1988 ) .\nwhether single and double clicks serve specific , even separate functions that are correlated to certain behaviors is also unknown , as is whether swiftlets can actively control which type is emitted . interestingly , although assumed to echolocate , we are unaware of scientific accounts of echolocation in the polynesian swiftlet , a . leucophaeus , at the far eastern geographic distribution of swiftlets . a . leucophaeus is missing from recent attempts to resolve the controversial swiftlet phylogeny but ostensibly includes three subspecies found on tahiti , mo ' orea , and the marquesas in french polynesia ( chantler et al . , 1999 ) . more knowledge about the genetic relationship between a . leucophaeus and the geographically close single click emitter a . sawtelli , along with information about the nature of a . leucophaeus echolocation clicks , could help elucidate why some swiftlets only emit single clicks and possibly the underlying functional reasons for the use of single and double clicks .\nthe bird nest business is flourishing in urban areas along the sarawak coast . success in this business , which involves gathering the nests of cave swiftlets , a type of swiftlet , for sale ( see photograph 1 ) , depends on being able to gather as many large nests as possible . to that end , people build structures that provide an environment that facilitates nest - building by the birds . throughout this paper , i will refer to these structures as \u201cbird house . \u201d unlike long - established methods for gathering bird nests built in caves , use of bird house depends on having the birds use the houses to build their nests . people employ a variety of creative measures to entice them to do so . it is no exaggeration to say that whether the bird nest business is successful\u2014whether numerous swiftlet can be attracted to the bird house and enticed to make large numbers of high - quality nests\u2014depends on these measures .\nthis 13 - 14 cm long swiftlet has swept - back wings that resemble a crescent or a boomerang . the body is slender , and the tail is forked . it is , in many respects , a typical swift , having narrow wings for fast flight , and a wide gape and small beak surrounded by bristles for catching insects in flight . its legs are very short , preventing the bird from perching , but allowing it to cling to vertical surfaces .\nthe himalayan swiftlet , like all swifts , is an aerial insectivore , leaving the cave during the day to forage , and returning to its roost at night . in the evening or bad weather , flocks may descend from the hills to feed over cultivated land . this gregarious species forms flocks typically of about 50 birds , but up to 300 have been recorded . its flight is mainly gliding due to very long primary feathers ( flight feathers ) and small breast muscles .\ngerman ' s swiftlet has an extensive range , estimated at 1\u201310 million square kilometres ( 0 . 4\u20133 . 8 million square miles ) , and a large population , including an estimated 79 to 160 million individuals in europe alone . the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the iucn red list ( i . e . , declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) , and is therefore evaluated as least concern .\nthe edible nest swiftlet makes a white nest out of their saliva . i would compare that to how a spider creates its web . they have a mechanism to release a sticky substance out of their mouth and that sticky substance is elastic and tough . so this nest is edible ; it ' s a favorite among chinese . so they gather the nest , and they serve it in restaurants in soup . they call it ' bird nest soup ' or ' needle soup . '\nthe company has developed a manufacturing process that takes the edible birds\u2019 nests of the swiftlet bird and adapts them for cosmetic , rather than culinary use . while the gourmet edible birds\u2019 nests often cost thousands of dollars per kilogram , the all - natural extract used in qiaohou miracle essence is projected to cost users about us $ 2 . 47 per day . the manufacturing process has been certified by the singapore\u2019s regulatory agency as well as fda , gmp , haccp , halal , iso9001 and iso22000 .\nswiftlets are much smaller ( ~ 10 g ) than oilbirds and all species have long , narrow wings ( chantler et al . , 1999 ) , characteristic of the typical fast flight of other apodids ( lack , 1956 ; videler et al . , 2004 ) . swiftlets are mainly diurnal foragers and hunt small insects on the wing ( chantler et al . , 1999 ; fullard et al . , 2010 ) . at night they typically roost in nests located on the walls of natural caves or mines and tunnels , but intriguingly , there are some published observations of nocturnal activity , including feeding , by some swiftlet species outside their cave roosts ( fullard et al . , 1993 ; chantler et al . , 1999 ; price et al . , 2005 ) . swiftlet nests are constructed and glued in place with the birds ' own saliva and nests of several species are collected for \u201cbirds ' nest soup , \u201d a billion dollar industry fueled by human demand ( chantler et al . , 1999 ) .\nof it . in mr . b\u2019s view , the large number of insects , on which swiftlet feed , in the peatland and nearby palm oil plantations made this site well suited for a bird house . the bird house is surrounded by untouched peatland owned by mr . b . palm oil plantations can be seen nearby along the road leading to sebauh , along with scattered bird houses . there are no buildings near this bird house , which is exposed to the wind and enjoys broad views of the surrounding area .\nparticipation in downstream activities involve a very crucial distribution channels of which the group has established rbn global sdn bhd , another member of swiftlet eco park group of companies , securing the mlm license in 5 december 2012 , into direct - selling revenue generation . this is another successful milestone achieved . ( the company name has been recently changed to rbn global berhad after obtaining approval from ssm to reflect its further commitment and its vision to get ready and preparing to be one of the public listed companies in the near future ) .\nthe most noteworthy characteristic of this bird house is its wooden construction . most bird houses are built from concrete . it is likely that this preference reflects a belief that concrete provides an environment that closely resembles the caves in which swiftlet build their nests in the first place . however , this bird house was built using wood in an effort to keep down the cost of construction . according to a site survey conducted by the author , the cost of constructing this bird house was in fact less than the cost of constructing a concrete house\njust as swiftlet eco park group has excelled in the past and continued to excel in the present , the group has established its first flagship aesthetic & wellness outlet at solaris dutamas kuala lumpur , and the soft launch took place on 4th august 2013 . rbn aesthetic wellness sdn bhd , another member of the group , has charted another significant step in strengthen the downstream business via its franchsing / licensing model that serves as the beauty salon for treatment , sales of rbn products , stockist services for distributors and an ideal sharing platform to share the culture of enjoying edible bird\u2019s nest .\nwe ' re in a cave , deep underground in the puerto princesa subterranean river national park in the philippines . it ' s pitch black . you can ' t see a thing . but the birds we ' re listening to , swiftlets , are able to find their way . i ' m jim metzner and this is the pulse of the planet . jaynee tabangay is the program coordinator for conservation international in this area . she says that like bats and dolphins , these sparrow sized swiftlet birds use a process called echolocation to find their way in and out of the cave .\ncomposite waveform ( top ) and spectrogram ( bottom ) of echolocation signals from 6 vertebrate species : common bottlenose dolphin ( tursiops truncatus ) , sample rate ( f s ) = 500 khz ; laryngeal echolocating bat ( eptesicus fuscus ) , f s = 250 khz ; tongue - clicking pteropodid bat ( rousettus aegyptiacus ) , f s = 250 khz ; oilbird ( steatornis caripensis ) , f s = 75 khz ; swiftlet ( aerodramus unicolor ) , f s = 250 khz and echolocating blind human subject ( homo sapiens ) , f s = 48 khz . top inserts both have total time scales of 300 ms and illustrate the double clicks often emitted by echolocating rousettus spp . and most echolocating swiftlet species . bat and bird recordings made by signe brinkl\u00f8v , dolphin recording courtesy of magnus wahlberg , human recording courtesy of cynthia moss . spectrograms were created in batsound v . 4 using an fft size of 256 , except for those from r . aegyptiacus and s . caripensis , for which an fft size of 128 was used . all spectrograms were made using 98 % overlap . colors indicates relative amplitude going from low ( light color ) to high ( darker color ) . note the interrupted frequency scale between 100 and 230 khz . waveform amplitudes have all been normalized to the same level .\nthey invited the villagers to view a video they had made of the day ' s discovery . the villagers were surprised by the scaffolding and said that it was probably the work of visitors from the southern part of india who claimed they came to collect pigeon droppings from the cave for medicinal purposes every april and september , just before and after the monsoon season . the villagers could not explain why scaffolding was required to collect bird droppings from the floor of the cave , and they were not aware of the swiftlets and their unique saliva nests . they seemed shocked to learn about the trade in the swiftlet nests for culinary and aphrodisiac purposes in the far east .\nbirds produce their echolocation signals in the syrinx , the vocal organ specific to birds and found near to where the trachea forks into the lungs . the production mechanism for echolocation signals has been studied in one species of swiftlet with a tracheo - bronchial syrinx ( suthers and hector , 1982 ; thomassen , 2005 ) , and in the oilbird , which has a bronchial and bilaterally asymmetric syrinx ( griffin , 1944 ; suthers and hector , 1985 ) . no direct observations have been made of the syringes of either oilbirds or swiftlets , and the following description may need revision in light of more recent work on bird vocal production physiology ( goller and larsen , 1997 ; elemans et al . , 2004 ; thomassen , 2005 ) .\nit is a bold decision made by the board of directors and management team of swiftlet eco park group , venturing into the downstream activities of edible bird\u2019s nest ( ebn ) by commercialization of unique products derived from the r & d ; work , which has been carried out together with leading government agencies , such as agro - biotechnology institute ( abi ) , ministry of science , technology & innovation , reputable higher learning institutions such as international medical university , university of tunku abdul rahman ( utar ) , university technology malaysia ( utm ) etc . , in carrying out all the analysis , processing , extraction , research and exploration of edible bird\u2019s nest into functional food , health supplement , skin care for a sustainable competitive advantages for the company .\nswiftlet clicks have been described as highly stereotyped , varying little in design regardless of situation ( thomassen and povel , 2006 ) . however , swiftlets increase click repetition rate when facing complex challenges , such as approaching obstacles ( griffin and suthers , 1970 ; coles et al . , 1987 ) or their nests ( signe brinkl\u00f8v , pers . obs . of a . unicolor in railway tunnels ) . fullard et al . ( 1993 ) found that birds emitted higher repetition rates when entering caves than when exiting caves or flying from closed to more open space . meanwhile , no context - dependent changes were found in signal frequency ( fullard et al . , 1993 ) , as compared to the adaptive , context - dependent changes in signal frequency found in many laryngeal echolocating bats .\nwith these caveats in mind , phonation ( clicks and other acoustic signals ) in both groups is driven by subsyringeal pressure , initiated during expiration , and controlled by two antagonistic muscle pairs . contraction of an extrinsic muscle pair ( mm . sternotrachealis ) folds the external tympaniform membranes into the syrinx ( or the two half - syringes in oilbirds ) lumen toward the internal tympaniform membranes . the membranes are then set into vibration by the expiratory airflow . in oilbirds , clicks are actively terminated by contraction of the single pair of intrinsic syringeal muscles ( mm . broncholateralis ) . in contrast , the social vocalizations of oilbirds are terminated passively by relaxation of the sternotrachealis muscles ( suthers and hector , 1985 ) . swiftlets lack intrinsic syringeal muscles and terminate their clicks by contraction of extrinsic tracheolateralis muscles ( suthers and hector , 1982 ; thomassen , 2005 ) . most species of echolocating swiftlet produce single clicks as well as double clicks ( two single clicks in quick succession , as described below ) . the pause between two clicks within a click - pair may be caused by a brief blocking of airflow through the syrinx as the external and internal tympaniform membranes touch . single clicks appear to arise when the membranes are pulled together before the expiratory airflow generates enough pressure to initiate vibration of the membranes ( suthers and hector , 1982 ) . both sides of the swiftlet syrinx appear able to contribute to each member of a click - pair ; that is , birds can still emit double clicks even if one side of the syrinx is plugged ( suthers and hector , 1982 ) .\nthe exterior dimensions of this bird house ( see figure 1 ) are 720 ( w ) \u00d71 , 800 ( d ) \u00d7 705 ( h ) centimeters . there are 24 air holes each on the eastern and western sides of the structure , to which pvc tubes are attached . there is an entrance for the swiftlet on the top of the northern side of the house . this entrance measures 60 ( h ) \u00d7 90 ( w ) centimeters . after comparing the size of this house\u2019s entrance with other bird house , i found that this house has a somewhat large entrance . there are entrances to provide access for human workers to the small rooms on the south and east sides of the house . there is a control room containing audio equipment on the southern side of the house .\nswiftlet clicks appear to have most energy over a 1\u201310 khz frequency range . based on rule of thumb calculations , the birds should only detect objects \u226534 mm diameter , but can apparently detect objects as small as 6 . 3 mm diameter ( metal rods ) at levels above chance ( griffin and suthers , 1970 ; griffin and thompson , 1982 ) . corroborating this , smyth and roberts ( 1983 ) reported a detection threshold of 10\u201320 mm , while fenton ( 1975 ) found that a . hirundinacea detected vertical rods down to 10 mm diameter and potentially even smaller . these data suggest that swiftlets receive useful echo information via the higher frequency portions of their clicks , even though these components contain less energy . however , for this to be plausible the birds must hear , at least to some extent , higher frequencies . this is not supported by data from single neuron recordings from the midbrain auditory nucleus of collocalia spodiopygia , which indicate best frequency thresholds from 0 . 8 to 4 . 7 khz ( coles et al . , 1987 ) .\nmajor efforts are now being made to reverse the trend . the government , quite sensibly , has recognised that it would be unfair , and near - impossible , to simply ban outright the centuries - old and extremely lucrative nest - collection ( it would just push it ' underground ' - so to speak ) . so the government is making efforts to work with all stakeholders in the niah region , to try to ensure the sustainability of the practice , and to reduce other external pressures on the populations . several large community and stakeholder meetings have now been held at niah ( ' the niah gatherings ' ) , to develop measures which include , and are acceptable to , all stakeholders . such measures have included closed seasons on nest collecting , to allow undisturbed nest re - building . initial signs are that the agreed processes may be starting to work , with swiftlet numbers slightly increasing in recent years . however , it will still be a long and difficult process . ( another proposal is to breed swifts in ' artificial caves ' - in empty houses and purpose - built buildings - to help take the pressure off wild swift - nests . )\nswiftlets are monophyletic ( thomassen et al . , 2003 , 2005 ; price et al . , 2004 ; hackett et al . , 2008 ) comprising approximately 26 species ( apodiformes , apodidae ) . swiftlets are found across the indo - pacific region , from the seychelles and mascarenes in the indian ocean to tahiti , mo ' orea and the marquesas in the south pacific ( chantler et al . , 1999 ; thomassen , 2005 ) . numerous subspecies have been identified but swiftlet phylogenetic relationships are not fully resolved ( thomassen et al . , 2005 ) . this reflects a lack of distinguishing morphological and nest characteristics as well as incomplete phylogenetic sampling ( chantler et al . , 1999 ) . an attempt to use echolocation as a discriminative character to split swiftlets into echolocating ( aerodramus ) and non - echolocating ( collocalia and hydrochous ) genera ( brooke , 1970 , 1972 ; medway and pye , 1977 ) was refuted because pygmy swiftlets ( c . troglodytes ) also echolocate ( price et al . , 2004 ) . only further research will determine whether or not the aerodramus and collocalia genera are justified and will be maintained ( thomassen et al . , 2005 ) .\ngithub is home to over 28 million developers working together to host and review code , manage projects , and build software together .\nif nothing happens , download the github extension for visual studio and try again .\nlet ' s create a page . each page consists of a controller and at least one view .\nthe controller does most of the work ; views should be limited to simple presentation logic ( loops and switches ) .\nthe controller can set variables directly on the view . values are automatically made safe for use in html , use $ this - > get ( ' variable ' , false ) on values that should be treated as code .\nnotice how you can access the page at / foo by simply creating a controller named foo . the application maps urls to controllers , actions and arguments .\nin this case foo becomes the name of the controller and view and bar the name of the action . actions are public methods on the controller class .\nyou can specify a different view for an action using $ this - > view - > setname ( ) . the view name is a filename relative to the src \\ < namespace > \\ views directory , without the . php suffix .\nif the controller or action is not specified they default to index ( / will call index ( ) on \\ helloworld \\ controller \\ index ) .\nunderscores in the controller name are translated to directory separators , so / foo _ bar will point to src / helloworld / controllers / foo / bar . php .\ndashes in routes are ignored ; / foo - bar / baz - qux calls bazqux ( ) on \\ helloworld \\ controllers \\ foobar .\nautomatic routing is convenient but more granular control is often desirable . in these cases custom routes can be defined .\nurl segments can be replaced with a\nwildcard\nplaceholder ( a variable name prefixed with a colon ) . this value becomes available for use in the controller .\nnavigating to < controller > / bar / something matches this route . the value of $ args [ ' qux ' ] becomes something .\na model typically represents data . this can be an entry in a database or an object such as a user .\nloading and saving data should almost always happen in a model . you can create as many models as you like ; they aren ' t tied to controllers or views .\nlisteners listen for events . when an event is triggered all relevant listeners are called and can be used to extend functionality .\nthis listener listens for the core actionafter event and changes the view variable helloworld from our previous example to hi world ! .\nlisteners don ' t need to be installed or activated , all files in the src / helloworld / listeners / directory are automatically included and their classes instantiated . listeners are called in alphabetical order .\nreusable components such as code to send an email or generate a thumbnail image should go in a separate library class .\nvalues can be set in config / main . php or a custom file .\nmixed get ( string $ variable [ , bool $ htmlencode ] ) get a view variable , pass false as the second parameter to prevent values from being html encoded .\nyou signed in with another tab or window . reload to refresh your session .\nyou signed out in another tab or window . reload to refresh your session .\nas of to date , the company has managed the scheme well and has managed to pay out the rewarding returns of investments since 2011 till today , and it has been awarded and documented in the malaysia\u2019s book of record in 2012 ."]}
{"id": 2325, "summary": [{"text": "chaetodon argentatus , the asian butterflyfish , is a species of butterflyfish native to the western pacific ocean from the philippines up to japan .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "they live in coral reefs where there is dense coral growth , however , in japan they live in rocky areas from depths from 15-70 ft. they grow up to eight inches ( 20 cm ) . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "chaetodon argentatus", "paragraphs": ["first stunning the world of reef fish fanciers with the first ever documentation of a helfrich firefish hybrid , photographed in onioerabu island by kazutoshi uehara . the most likely hybrid parents are the silver butterflyfish chaetodon argentatus and the cross - hatch butterflyfish , c . xanthurus .\nchaetodon argentatus smith & radcliffe 1911 , the asian or black and white butterflyfish . western pacific from japan almost to indonesia . part of the subgenus group including c . mertensii , c . xanthurus , c . paucifasciatus . photo by rmf of one in an aquarium .\ncitation :\nasian butterflyfishes , chaetodon argentatus ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\nthose that i have personally maintained and had much success with include chaetodon auriga , c . argentatus , c . lunula , c . melannotus , c . miliaris , c . rafflesi , forcipiger flavissimus , heniochus acuminatus , and chelmon rostratus . those maintained , but proving to need more specialized care than the species mentioned above were chaetodon ephippium , c . collare , and c . ocellatus .\nchaetodon decussatus , cuvier 1831 , indian ( ocean ) vagabond butterflyfish . a hardy beauty not to be confused with its congener loser from the wider indo - pacific , the vagabond butterflyfish , chaetodon vagabundus which rarely lives ( see bad chaetodons ) .\n( of anisochaetodon argentatus ( smith & radcliffe , 1911 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nresearch chaetodon argentatus \u00bb barcode of life ~ bioone ~ biodiversity heritage library ~ cites ~ cornell macaulay library [ audio / video ] ~ encyclopedia of life ( eol ) ~ esa online journals ~ fishbase ~ florida museum of natural history ichthyology department ~ gbif ~ google scholar ~ itis ~ iucn redlist ( threatened status ) ~ marine species identification portal ~ ncbi ( pubmed , genbank , etc . ) ~ ocean biogeographic information system ~ plos ~ siris ~ tree of life web project ~ unep - wcmc species database ~ worms\n- the lifespan for most of the chaetodon species is between 5 - 7 years , but this species subsist only for a short period of time as its dietary needs are very difficult to meet .\nchaetodon dolosus ahl 1923 , the african butterflyfish . found from the horn of africa ' s east coast to the southern tip . to about five inches long . also found at the island of mauritius .\nchaetodon assarius waite 1905 , the west australian butterflyfish . a rare beauty outside the land down under , where it ' s found all along the west coast . generalized feeder on algae and zooplankton . to five inches total length .\nanother butterflyfish i had very good success with was the black pearl butterflyfish chaetodon argentatus . although not too colorful , it took a variety of foodstuffs including flake foods , and really enjoyed an occasional meal of fortified adult brine shrimp , as did many of my other butterflyfish . it also seemed to like picking on various forms of algae . the only thing i did not like about this species , which was given to me by another aquarist not wanting it any longer , was that it would tend to occasionally chase smaller tankmates . it was maintained in a 320 - gallon fish - only environment with rocky aquascaping and proved to be very disease resistant .\nthere were some butterflies that i tried and did not have what i would call very good success with , e . g . , chaetodon ephippium , c . collare , and c . ocellatus . as for the spotfin chaetodon ocellatus , i initially had some difficulty in getting this atlantic ocean species to feed , but once settled in , it proved to be a good tankmate and even took flake food . however , it took black worms and fortified adult brine shrimp to get it to settle down . the pakistani butterflyfish chaetodon collare proved to be a difficult fish to get feeding , and even then remained quite picky when it came to mealtime . another that proved to be somewhat troublesome was chaetodon ephippium , the saddled butterflyfish . it was a quite young specimen and also proved to be quite picky when it came to mealtime . it even turned up its nose at black worms ! even though these three species required more care , e . g . , numerous feeding per day , they were well worth the effort .\nthe blackbacked butterflyfish chaetodon melannotus was another species i kept in this same fish - only environment , as it was not suited for reef systems . it was well behaved , accepted a wide variety of foodstuffs and also proved to be hardy and disease resistant .\nthese exquisite fish including the arabian butterflyfish , chaetodon melapterus , are extremely easy to keep as long as you can supply them with an endless buffet of live coral polyps . that translates into these fish being extremely impractical , and therefore off limits for standard aquarium husbandry practices .\nchaetodon daedalma jordan & fowler 1903 , the wrought iron butterflyfish . found from central to southern japan on the south side . a beauty that looks like it would be delicate , but readily adapts to captivity , eating all types of foods . aquarium image taken at waikiki , oahu .\nchaetodon ( roaops ) burgessi allen & starck 1973 , burgess ' butterflyfish . deepwater in philippines , sipadan , australia , new guinea . not a great beauty , but much better than the aquarium photo here . to five inches long . photo by h rmf of one in an aquarium .\nchaetodon falcula bloch 1793 , saddle - back or falcula butterflyfish . a hardy addition to fish only and very large reef systems ( to 8 inches long ) if you can acquire initially undamaged specimens . indian ocean from andaman sea to east coast of africa . this one in the andaman sea .\nchaetodon collare bloch 1787 , the pakistani , red - tail or collare butterflyfish . along the continental coast of the indian ocean oman to the philippines in distribution . a delicate looking species that fares well in general . best shown and kept in pairs to groups . image made in the andaman sea off of thailand .\nthere are some other \u2018good\u2019 butterflies that should be considered , and they are chaetodon auripes , c . blackburnii , c . burgessi , c . capistratus , c . decussatus , c . kleinii , c . mertensii . c . mesoleucos , c . mitratus , c . speculum , c . vagabundis , and c . wiebeli ( a good reef aquarium species ) .\nin one sense , this makes fish like the arabian butterflyfish a sort of forbidden fruit for saltwater fish keepers . along with similar species of obligate corallivore butterflyfish such as chaetodon meyeri , c . larvatus , c . ornatissimus and many others , the arabian butterflyfish is better left out in the sea no matter how much you think your aquarium skills and special blend of tlc will entice these fish to eat .\nchaetodon fasciatus forskaal 1775 , the red sea raccoon butterflyfish . click on the name for more information . confined to the red sea and adjoining gulf of aden . a beauty that will eat all types of foods in captivity , including coral polyps . . . to some ten inches in length in the wild , about half that in captivity . a juvenile in captivity and adult in the red sea shown .\nchaetodon declivis randall 1975 , marquesan butterflyfish . described from the marquesas and line islands of the mid - pacific only . an occasional and always high - demand import . to five inches or so in length . readily adapts to captivity , accepting all types of foods . aquarium pic of a 5 cm . specimen in captivity , an adult in nuka hiva , marquesas , polynesia and one in captivity . photos by rmf .\nchaetodon auriga forsskal 1775 , the threadfin butterflyfish . a great beauty and hardy aquarium specimen , though it will eat coral polyps and anemones . see other materials on this species by clicking on name . widespread indo - pacific . a juvenile ( about an inch and a half long ) in n . sulawesi , an auriga b / f in hawai ' i , and a red sea one w / o the rear dorsal area eyespot .\nanother easy to maintain and probably well suited for the new aquarist is the lemon butterflyfish chaetodon miliaris . the species hails mostly from hawaii , insuring it\u2019s not cyanide caught . besides being a good tankmate , it\u2019s a very pretty fish and took a wide variety of meaty foods . i found it to be hardy and disease resistant and maintained it in a 75 - gallon fish - only aquarium where it proved to be a good community fish .\nthe last chaetodon genus species that i had good results with was c . rafflesi , which is called the latticed butterflyfish . this was another species given to me because a fellow aquarist was closing down his aquarium and moving out of state . it actually went into this same fish - only tank containing some other butterflies . it got along well with all its tankmates and took a wide variety of meaty foods . in fact , it was \u2018almost\u2019 always first into the dish containing the black worms .\nanother that i would recommend to new aquarists is the raccoon butterflyfish , chaetodon lunula . i\u2019ve kept three in a 125 - gallon general invertebrate system with lot of mushrooms . they liked various meaty foods , including black worms . and found them especially fond of aiptasia anemones ! they also seemed to like swimming in and out of caves and crevices and would sometimes retreat to these areas when there were a lot of aquarium viewers . i found them fairly easy to acclimate and to get them feeding , besides being quite hardy .\nthe chevron butterflyfish has the typical butterflyfish shape , though is a bit more elongated . its body is oval and laterally compressed and it has a protruding snout tipped with a small mouth . the dorsal fin is continuous and it has a truncated tail fin . this species can reach a total length of about 7 inches ( 18 cm ) in the wild , but most available specimens available are less than 4 1 / 3 inches ( 12 cm ) . the lifespan for most of the chaetodon species is between 5 - 7 years , but these fish subsists only for a short period of time the home aquarium as their necessary nutrients are extremely difficult to provide .\nand when it comes to butterflies not suited for the average home aquarium , there are many ! what\u2019s so sad about this is that they are probably the most beautiful in their family . unfortunately , some of these species that either feed exclusively or mostly on live corals , are sometimes available in local shops . to say they are tempting additions to your tank would be an understatement ! nevertheless , the following are only some that should either be left in the wild or maintained by professional aquarists that are willing to provide their particular nutritional needs along with the water quality these beautiful fish deserve . these would include , but not be limited to : chaetodon meyeri , c . melapterus , c . triangulum , c . ornatissimus , c . baronessa , c . octofasciatus , c . larvatus , c . austriacus , c . bennetti , c . citrinellus , c . flavirostris , c . lunulatus , c . multicinstus , c . ocellicaudus , c . trifascialis ,\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species has a relatively small distribution and lives on coral and rocky reefs . coral reef degradation has occurred within its distribution , but this species does not appear to be impacted by major threats . this species is listed as least concern .\nthis western pacific species is distributed from southern japan ( ryukyu islands and izu islands ) as far south as the northern philippines and east to the island of taiwan ( allen 1980 , pyle 2001 , g . r . allen pers . comm . 2006 ) . it is found at depths of five to 20 m .\nit is generally common with stable populations ( g . r . allen pers . comm . 2006 ) . in japan it is reported to be common from tanabe bay ( southern honshu ) southward ( allen 1980 ) .\ninhabits outer coral or rocky reef slopes and drop - offs ( pyle 2001 , g . r . allen pers . comm . 2006 ) . in the japanese part of its range it is found over rocky areas , but farther to the south it is associated with coral reefs ( allen 1980 ) . it is generally encountered in pairs or small aggregations ( allen 1980 ) . it is an omnivorous species .\npyle ( 2001 ) reported that this species is occasionally exported through the aquarium trade . allen ( 1980 ) notes that this species is hardy in captivity with imports from the philippines and hong kong being common .\nthere appear to be no major threats to this species . collection is limited and is not considered to be impacting the global population . there is some habitat degradation within the range of this species .\nthere appear to be no species specific conservation measures in place . this species is believed to be present within a number of marine protected areas . research on its natural history is recommended .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nso many times when we see aberrant or hybrid reef fish it\u2019s in the setting of an aquarium livestock dealer . so it\u2019s always a nice surprise to see some of these animals being spotted in their natural environment , and gt divers of japan is bringing us another neat one .\nwhile still small the pattern of this hybrid\u2019s parents isn\u2019t completely developed yet but you can see the shadowy hints of the two dark saddles of the silver butterflfyfish , while the dark posterior patch has hints of yellow - orange from the cross hatch butterflyfish . while not quite on the same level as the jaw - dropping hybrids we see in from angelfish , it\u2019s still fun to document all the different ways reef fish can cross breed .\nblack pearlscale butterflyfish , small : over 1 - 1 . 5\n, indo pacific\nblack pearlscale butterflyfish , medium : over 1 . 5 - 3 . 5\n, indo pacific\nblack pearlscale butterflyfish , large : over 3 . 5 - 5 . 5\n, indo pacific\ndue to availability and individuality of each species , colors and sizes may vary .\ninhabit rocky areas and coral reefs . often in pairs or groups ( ref . 9710 ) . oviparous ( ref . 205 ) . form pairs during breeding ( ref . 205 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis home page section for this species is currently being developed and will be completed asap ! if you would like to help out or know of a great video , photo or site about this species , let us know and we ' ll notify you as soon as it is finished . our current project plan is to have all marine species home pages finished before christmas this year . if you ' d like to find out more about our ongoing projects here at marinebio , check out our marinebio projects page .\nstart or join a discussion about this species below or send us an email to report any errors or submit suggestions for this page . we greatly appreciate all feedback !\nhelp us protect and restore marine life by supporting our various online community - centered marine conservation projects that are effectively sharing the wonders of the ocean with millions each year around the world , raising a balanced awareness of the increasingly troubling and often very complex marine conservation issues that affect marine life and ourselves directly , providing support to marine conservation groups on the frontlines that are making real differences today , and the scientists , teachers and students involved in the marine life sciences .\nwith your support , most marine life and their ocean habitats can be protected , if not restored to their former natural levels of biodiversity . we sincerely thank our thousands of members , donors and sponsors , who have decided to get involved and support the marinebio conservation society .\ndeep music digitally imported urltoken proton radio * radio paradise radiotunes somafm wers 88 . 9 fm\n~ sharing the wonders of the ocean to inspire conservation , education , research , and a sea ethic ~ marinebio . org , inc . is a u . s . 501 ( c ) 3 charitable , nonprofit organization . contact : info @ urltoken all marinebio conservation society memberships and donations are tax deductible in the united states . > < ( ( ( ( \u00b0 > \u00a9 1998 - 2017 marinebio copyright & terms of use . privacy policy . > - < \u00b0\u00b0 > - <\nfor all at last returns to the sea \u2014 to oceanus , the ocean river , like the everflowing stream of time , the beginning and the end .\n- rachel carson\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthe arabian butterflyfish is a piscine so stunningly gorgeous , but we daren\u2019t look directly at it lest we succumb to its spell . among the thousands of reef fish species , there is a certain group of extremely beautiful butterflyfish which are obligate corallivores \u2013 this means that as far as we know , they only eat corals .\nthat being said , we used to believe the same thing about moorish idols , cleaner wrasses , many anthias species and for many years stony corals were \u201cimpossible to keep\u201d alive in an aquarium , let alone grow and thrive and propagate . it is with this historical hindsight in perspective that we are thrilled to have come across a recent video showing several of the illustrious black and gold coral - eating arabian butterflyfish feeding in an aquarium .\na gorgeous pair of arabian butterflyfish in the red sea . photo by keith wilson\nthe video evidence of the striking arabian butterflyfish eating prepared foods is \u201cproof\u201d that this species can be enticed to eat food from the water column , but we have no information on precisely what this fish is eating , or how long they have been doing so . the fish in focus are on the smaller side , which is pretty much common knowledge when one wants to acclimate wild ornamental fish to aquarium life .\nthere is also a huge unknown as to whether there are certain unique nutritional properties of live coral polyps that coral eating butterflyfish have adapted to need in their diet \u2013 even if the fishes eat all the frozen food in the world , we won\u2019t know if this is a suitable diet until the fish lasts for years in the aquarium and shows at least some degree of growth .\nplease don\u2019t rush out and buy any of the obligate corallivore butterflyfish species just because you saw this video , or any other anecdotal or superficial evidence that this group of fish is suddenly possible to keep alive . if you want to try your hand at butterflyfish in the aquarium , know which species are ideal and which ones should be avoided .\nthat being said , we hope to learn more about the background of this video from japanese saltwater fish retailer , sps crownfish , especially what food they were offering and what their general experience and success has been in keeping the arabian butterflyfish alive in captivity over the long term .\nthese marine fish belong in the order perciformes and suborder percoidei as members of the family chaetodontidae ( butterflyfish ) , which contains 13 genera and almost 130 species , both described and yet undescribed .\nthis is a very large family , and probably contains the most colorful marine fish to be found in the wild . they are laterally compressed disc - shaped fish and most don\u2019t get overly large , as most don\u2019t exceed 6 inches ( 15 cm ) . besides size and coloration , they generally make good community fish . nevertheless , many require excellent water quality and some are difficult to feed , as their diet consists mostly of live foods such as coral polyps and crustaceans .\nmost appear to do better near the higher level of their species temperature range and also seem to do better in specific gravity levels found in most reef systems , i . e . , 1 . 025 than what is found in most fish - only systems ( about 1 . 022 \u2013 1 . 023 ) . if possible , it is better to attain most of them as juveniles , as there is a greater chance they will adapt to available aquarium foods .\nin the many different style marine aquariums that i have kept over the past forty years , there\u2019s only a few that i would recommend to new aquarists , and about a dozen more to experienced aquarists . most others should be left in the wild , or at a minimum , be maintained only by professional aquarists .\nas for those that i would recommend to new aquarists , the yellow longnose butterflyfish forcipiger flavissimus would be fairly high on my list . it does well in mixed company and feeds on a variety of foods , including flake foods . i\u2019ve never attempted to keep more than one in the same aquarium as i\u2019ve always heard that they would fight among themselves . but in large aquaria , such as something above 125 gallons with many hiding places , i would think it possible to successfully maintain more than one in the same tank . i found its favorite food to be black worms , which i would place in an old plastic butter dish weighted down with a small rock , and then slowly lower into the aquarium\u2019s water and placed on the aquarium bottom . the yellow longnose would then swim into the high - rimmed dish and eat its fill of worms . the dish simply kept the worms , which died as soon as they entered the saltwater , from getting blown all over the aquarium . in fact , it was always the meeting place for most of the fish in the aquarium where the biggest ruled at dinnertime ! besides being fairly disease resistant , these fish were usually reasonably priced .\nthe third that i would recommend to new aquarists is the longfin bannerfish heniochus acuminatus , and / or the schooling bannerfish h . diphreutes . if the choice were h . acuminatus , i would limit their use to fish - only systems , as it is said they can be destructive in reef systems . for invertebrate systems , h . diphreutes would be a better choice . as for h . acuminatus , i\u2019ve kept five in a 75 - gallon fish - only system , making for an excellent display . in fact , some viewers thought them moorish idols ! and they ate just about any food i put in the aquarium , as flake food and various meaty foods were quickly gobbled up .\none of my favorites was the copper - banded butterflyfish chelmon rostratus . i\u2019ve kept this species in several reef tanks , and never had any serious problems with it . it is said to be prone to lymphocystis , however , never experienced that malady with any of my specimens . could be that their environments were quite stress free and that virus never appeared in my aquariums . they ate almost all type foods including various flake foods . however , they really liked black worms ! it also kept those aquariums free of aiptasia anemones .\nif you would like more information on various species and / or want to view the worlds most recent organization ( august 2004 ) of the entire butterflyfish family , visit my website at www . saltcorner . com . i want to personally thank those involved with this reclassification , i . e . , vincent hargreaves ph . d . , and those assisting him such as john randall , frank schneidewind , peter wirtz , and hiroyuki tanaka for their dedication to perfection , and for allowing my website to be the \u201cfirst in the world\u201d to post it !\nthe material on this site may not be reproduced , distributed , transmitted , cached or otherwise used , except with the prior written permission of bob goemans .\nmini reef aquarium guide . reef aquarium setup for large reef tanks , nano reef tanks , pico reef or micro reef aquariums with reef tank lighting , filtration , choosing coral reef animals , and problem solving !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nthroughout the ages people of been fascinated , thrilled , frightened , and horrified by these creatures . they have been the subject of myths , novels , movies . . .\nobservations and insights of a marine enthusiast . an in - depth explanation of what it takes to be a successful marine aquarist\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\nwe would like to import some live zebra shark . contact me please . best regard , liu wei chung . email : s89186 @ urltoken\ni have a green moray eel that is just too big now , does anyone have a huge tank . . . . 400 + gallons ?\nis a handsome fish known and named for its beautiful diagonal chevron design . it is one of the more elongate butterflyfish in the genus . yet it is moderate in size , reaching a total length of only about 7 inches ( 18 cm ) . this is a striking species with its elegant form , graceful swimming movement , and alluring colors .\nthe silverish white body is touched with yellow around the perimeter and there is a broad dark band running through the eye and another on the tail . but its primary feature is the numerous chevron - patterned lines . these decorative markings have led to a number of common names including triangulate butterflyfish , v - lined butterflyfish , rightangle butterflyfish , and chevroned butterflyfish . also because this pretty butterflyfish is found in its natural habitat swimming among table corals of the\nalthough this fish is occasionally available and reasonably priced , it is one of the most difficult butterflyfish to keep in a captive environment . like most butterflyfish they are corallivorous , but they take it a step further . they are obligatory coral eaters , meaning this is where they get the bulk of their nutrition . these types of fish have a specialized diet that poses a difficult problem for the aquarist as providing a coral diet is quite expensive and challenging .\ntheir specialized diet is difficult to reproduce in the aquarium and makes them very difficult to keep . they are only suitable for an expert aquarist . though some individuals will accept substitute foods such as brine and mysid shrimps , they will subsist only for a short period of time without all their necessary nutrients . fortunately there are some species of butterflyfish that are quite similar in appearance and easier to keep . one of these is its close relative the\nthis fish it is quite active and will swim freely in the open water , but it also spends time hiding in cracks and crevices where it will lie motionless . it does need a more spacious aquarium than other butterflyfish of similar size . it also needs larger furnishings like table corals where it can hide or keep motionless as well as open areas to swim . as it is fond of the live polyps of stony and soft corals , it can not be recommended for a reef - type setting . this species is a somewhat aggressive fish . it is territorial and will be aggressive towards other members of its own kind , and sometimes other butterflyfish . but it can be kept with larger and rather territorial angelfish like\nundersea video taken in coral gardens about 5 meters underwater . the spots two chevron butterflyfish hiding amongst some corals and follows one for a short period of time as it darts up and around the corals . both specimen present wonderful and healthy coloring and body shape .\nwas described by quoy and gaimard in 1825 , and was first collected in guam . they are found in the indo - west pacific oceans ; red sea , african coasts to southern japan , new caledonia , hawaiian and society islands and rapa . rare in hawaii . other common names they are known by include triangulate butterflyfish , v - lined butterflyfish , chevroned butterflyfish , rightangle butterflyfish , table - coral butterflyfish , and acropora butterfly .\nthis species is on the iucn red list as near threatened ( nt ) . this butterfly fish is heavily dependent on a coral diet . it has experienced declines in populations from 20 to 37 % due to losses in coral reefs . substantial declines have been noted especially in the species\n, which is one of about 15 corals it is known to feed on . most of these corals are themselves listed as near threatened ( nt ) or vulnerable ( vu ) .\ntheir natural habitat is in hard coral rich areas of outer reef slopes , lagoons , and coastal reefs at depths between ( 1 - 30 meters ) , though most are found in the shallower waters of that range . adults are solitary and territorial . an adult specimen is typically seen alone , patrolling an established territory that often contains one or more table corals of the\nspecies . females will have a smaller territory than males . in one area of okinawa they exhibit a harem type behavior with the males territory encompassing that of two or three females . juveniles are observed alone or in a small group in shallower waters , often among branches of\nis white overall with numerous chevron - patterned lines throughout on the side , except for the chest area . it is yellowish at the pectoral fin base and the eye has a dark band edged by yellow or white .\nthe dorsal fin is yellow , edged by blue with a black sub - marginal line posteriorly , and slightly duskier centrobasally of the fin . the anal fin is also yellowish , edged by blue with a black sub - marginal line . the caudal fin is black with a yellow margin and a narrower yellow edge on the upper and lower portions . the pelvic fins are white .\nsmall juveniles are similar but with fewer pronounced lines on the side . they have a broad black band on the posterior part of body and a broad yellow area on the caudal peduncle . the pelvic fins are yellow and the other fins are translucent . the black band on the posterior part will reduce with growth .\n7 . 1 inches ( 18 . 01 cm ) - most specimens available are less than 4 . 72\n( 12 cm ) .\nthe chevron butterflyfish is one of the most difficult butterflyfish to keep in the captive environment for a long period due to their specialized natural diet . they are only suitable for an expert keeper . a few specimens are successfully encouraged to accept substitute foods and are fairly easy to maintain , but only for a short period . as corals are its natural diet , it has poor survivability . also because it will harm the polyps of hard stony coral species , it is not recommended for reef - type aquariums .\n. in captivity it will sometimes accept live brine and mysid shrimps . also offer other meaty foods , dried flakes , prepared frozen foods , and tablets . vegetables like lettuce or japanese nori ( asakusa - nori ) may also be favored . offer various foods quite frequently at first . feed it at least twice a day , and if it is a tiny juvenile , feeding should be fed three to four times everyday .\njuveniles tend to accept various foods and will be more successfully kept than adults . once it is successfully acclimated it will become a fairly hardy fish , but unfortunately it will not last so long as its dietary needs are very difficult to meet .\nseveral feedings per day - offer various foods quite frequently at first . if adapting adults will need at least 2 feedings a day and juveniles need 3 to 4 .\nit is active and a rather quick swimmer , and it will even go up to the surface to take foods when it is well acclimated . it swims freely , spending a good deal of its time in the open water . but it also needs larger decorations , like table corals , where it may hide or keep motionless . frequent water changes are not necessary , rather normal water changes at 10 % biweekly or 20 % monthly are fine . sudden massive water changes can cause trouble .\nweekly - change 10 % biweekly or 20 % monthly and avoid sudden massive water changes .\nthese fish need a lot of space to swim as they can reach about 7 inches in length . the tank needs larger furnishings like table corals where it can hide or keep motionless , so for this it requires an even more spacious aquarium than other butterflyfish of similar size . a 70 gallon ( 265 liters ) tank is the minimum size for a single fish , and a bigger tank will be needed if you want to keep more than one . although it does well in a coral - rich tank , it will nip some species of hard and soft corals . consequently it is not recommended for coral - rich reefs .\n70 . 0 to 79 . 0\u00b0 f ( 21 . 1 to 26 . 1\u00b0 c ) - this species lives in both tropical and subtropical areas . temperatures between 70 - 79\u00b0 f ( 21 - 26\u00b0 c ) will serve them well , avoid temperatures higher than 84\u00b0 f ( 29\u00b0 c ) or below 66 \u00b0 f ( 19\u00b0 c ) .\nweak - water movement is not a significant factor . it can tolerate a rather strong flow but slow - moving water will be more favorable .\nthe chevron butterflyfish is a non - reef safe fish . though it does well in a coral - rich tank , it will eat the corals . it is best kept in a large fish only community tank that is well decorated with large furnishings such as table corals where it can rest and lie motionless .\nthis species is a somewhat aggressive fish . it is territorial and will be aggressive towards other members of its own kind , and sometimes other butterflyfish . larger and rather territorial angelfish like\nsmaller , non - aggressive fishes like cardinalfish , gobies , tilefish , sometimes other species butterflyfish , fairy basslets , fairy and flasher wrasses also are good candidates as tank mates . small but very territorial fishes like dottybacks should be avoided . such fish as basses or scorpionfish , even if they are small enough , should also be avoided .\nno - it is territorial and will be aggressive towards other members of its own kind .\nno sexual difference is noted for this species . butterflyfish species studied up to this time indicate that these fish are gonochoristic , meaning that each fish is either a male or a female and they do not change sex .\nthe chevron butterflyfish has not been cultivated in captivity . in the wild butterflyfish are pelagic spawners that release many tiny eggs into the planktonic water column where they float with the currents until they hatch . once hatched the fry are in a post - larval where their body , extending from the head , is covered with large bony plates .\nthis species has not been cultivated in captivity . the breeding behavior of this species has been observed in okinawa where males keep a harem type territory that overlaps the smaller territories of two to three females . spawning occurs at the full moon and for five more days . the male will visit the females throughout the day and courtship begins at dusk . the male will follow a female , nudging her anal area with his snout . the pair will eventually rise up in the water column , releasing their pelagic gametes at the apex and then immediately dart back to the substrate .\nmarine butterflyfish have not reportedly been spawned successfully in captivity . there are however , reports of some success in rearing wild collected larvae of some of the corallivorous butterflyfish . it is hoped these captive reared fish will be adapted to accept aquarium foods , and thus broaden the species selections that can be sustained in captivity . for more information see , marine fish breeding : butterflyfish .\nmembers are often very colorful and attractive to aquarists . unfortunately some of them are rather difficult to keep for a long period . some are exclusively coral eaters , and sometimes they suffer from\nich\n( white spot disease ) and other infectious diseases . problems with disease are reduced in a well maintained aquarium . any additions to a tank can introduce disease , so it ' s advisable to properly clean or quarantine anything that you want add to an established tank prior to introduction .\n. some can be treated successfully with medical care or copper drugs , but some species hate sudden changes of water including ph , temperature , or any drug treatment . in the wild a cleaner wrasse (\n) will help them by taking parasites from their bodies , however these wrasses are extremely difficult to sustain in captivity . alternative fish such as neon gobies (\nthe chevron butterflyfish is a stony coral eater and it can also be sensitive to some drugs . be sure to observe this fish closely when medicating it , so you can remove it if it shows signs of stress . for information about saltwater fish diseases and illnesses , see aquarium fish diseases and treatments .\nmany specimens of 4 - 10 cm long were collected by friends at the nichinan coast of miyazaki every year . i have kept more than ten individuals of 5 - 10 cm in fish community tanks . these beautifully marked butterflyfish would do fairly well for some period of time when they excepted foods . some did well without any trouble and survived several months . white spot disease was occasionally a problem , but many were successfully cured by using an appropriate copper sulfate .\n. . . hiroyuki tanaka\nthe chevron butterflyfish is sometimes seen at retailers . most are smaller than 4 1 / 3 inches ( 12 cm ) , but juveniles less than 1 1 / 2 inches ( 3 cm ) are rare . they are moderately priced , starting at about $ 20 . 00 usd .\nhelmut debelius , rudie h . kuiter , world atlas of marine fishes , hollywood import & export . inc . , 2006\nmark allen , roger steene and gerald r . allen , a guide to angelfishes and butterflyfishes , odyssey publishing , 1998\ndr . warren e . burgess , dr . herbert r . axelrod , raymond e . hunziker iii , dr . burgess ' s atlas of marine aquarium fishes , t . f . h publications inc . , 1990\nroger steene , gerald r . allen , hans a . baensch , butterfly and angelfishes of the world , volume 1 , john wiley & sons , 1980\ncopyright \u00a9 [ animal - world ] 1998 - 2015 . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nsorry , we do not currently have care information on this item . we are currently working on expanding our data . please check back .\nyou may not duplicate , copy , or reuse any portion of the photos / html / css or visual design elements without our express written permission . any redistribution or reproduction of part or all of the contents in any form is prohibited .\nthreadfins ( c . auriga ) , raccoons ( c . lunula & c . fasciatus ) , double saddleback ( c . ulietensis ) ,\nn indian vagabond juvenile in captivity , an intermediate in the andaman sea and an adult in n . sulawesi .\nbigger pix : the images in this table are linked to large ( desktop size ) copies . click on\nframed\nimages to go to the larger size .\n4cm okinawa miyako is . coral residents back to index - 500 fishes : urltoken music : hiro ' s original one man music : urltoken"]}
{"id": 2326, "summary": [{"text": "first trump is a retired british thoroughbred racehorse and active sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in 1993 he has named european champion two-year-old colt at the cartier racing awards .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "in his championship season he won five of his six races including the group one middle park stakes , the group two richmond stakes and the group three july stakes .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was retired to stud after failing to win in six starts as a three-year-old in 1994 .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he currently stands at stud in leicestershire . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "first trump", "paragraphs": ["melania is the first first lady to be born and raised in a communist country .\nin yet another first for a first lady , melania posed for the sports illustrated swimsuit issue in 2000 .\nhis statements echoed the message from the businessman ' s first wife that appeared on the first page of lost tycoon .\nwith combative style and epithets , trump takes america first to the u . n .\nheralding \u2018america first\u2019 in combative u . n . speech , trump airs list of threats\ntrump tweeted wednesday morning that he had seen this horror and devastation \u201cfirst hand . \u201d\npresident donald trump claims he will always put america first while addressing the un general assembly .\nanalysis : trump insists on ' america first . ' who will follow ? | fox news\ntrump claimed he witnessed harvey\u2019s devastation \u2018first hand . \u2019 the white house basically admits he didn\u2019t .\nmelania trump is not your typical first lady . here ' s what you need to know about the third wife of president donald trump .\npresident trump ' s first 100 days : an ' entry - level ' presidency trump is the first president without political , military or government experience . and experts argue that he ' s faced setbacks because of it .\nthe first lady said she will focus her platform on cyberbullying among children , but she didn ' t do anything publicly for that platform in the first several months of trump ' s presidency .\nwith combative style and epithets , trump takes america first to the u . n . - the new york times\na child ' s first book of trump and millions of other books are available for amazon kindle . learn more\nmelania trump is also the first first lady to have ever posed nude for a magazine . and that ' s a fact ted cruz ' s super pac made sure americans acknowledged , much to donald trump ' s disdain .\nthis isn ' t the first time that trump has spoken with bizarre admiration about either of his daughters bodies .\ntrump claimed he witnessed harvey\u2019s devastation \u2018first hand . \u2019 the white house basically admits he didn\u2019t . - the washington post\ndivorce papers alleging donald trump was ' cruel and inhuman ' to his first wife ivana trump are now restricted from the public without a judge ' s order .\na child ' s first book of t . . . has been added to your cart\n' i ' m alone ' : harrowing first words in hospital of mother . . .\nat his first address to a joint session of congress in washington , d . c .\nfirst - person essays , features , interviews and q & as ; about life today .\nfirst lady melania trump , president donald trump ' s third wife , was put in the spotlight more than she may have liked since the start of the 2016 campaign .\nlastly , trump on friday afternoon put out his first @ potus twitter message , with a facebook link to the text of his speech .\ntrump had been married to ivana for 13 years when she was confronted by marla maples . his first divorce cost him more than $ 14million\nhere are six things to know about the first lady , who turned 47 on april 26 , 2017 .\nyet where most leaders use the occasion to call for cooperation , trump insisted others should follow his example and\nalways put your countries first .\ndonald trump jr . is the oldest son of u . s . president donald trump and a trustee of the trump organization .\nupdate : it turns out trump ' s instagram promoted the\nfirst hand\nclaim by showing trump looking at a picture of a radar - - which , again , is not firsthand observation .\npresident donald trump to u . n . : north korea ' s ' rocket man ' kim jong un on a suicide mission in this first address to the united nations general assembly , president trump took on the global threats posed by north korea and iran and reiterated his\namerica first\napproach to policy .\ntrump ' s invocations of\namerica first\nwill ultimately leave our country behind in the world . his rhetoric sounds tough but will only make us weaker .\nin the eisenhower executive office building , attempting a \u201crebranding\u201d of this first chapter of the trump administration . the aides furiously assembled \u201clists of early successes\u201d on whiteboards .\ntrump underscored the message , telling the saudis , for example , that america ' s first priority\nis always the safety and security of our citizens .\nhader scores his first film role in the owen wilson flick you , me and dupree as a character named mark .\neric trump , the second son of u . s . president donald trump , is an american businessman and founder of the eric trump foundation .\ntiffany trump is the daughter of u . s . president donald trump and actress marla maples .\nour reporting does not match claim that @ potus witnessed any horror or devastation first hand . # harvey urltoken @ dallasnews urltoken\nmelania trump and her son , barron , 11 , stayed in trump tower on fifth avenue for almost five months of donald trump ' s presidency .\nscott , 64 , says in the documentary that trump was charming at first but that things began to change when he realized he would not have any control over the profile .\nwhoever was in charge of naming d . j . trump\u2019s foals , however , apparently had a fascination with donald trump . in early 1990 , trump left his first wife , ivana , for the model marla maples , fueling months of feverish coverage by new york city tabloids .\n\u201cmrs . trump has always been supportive of all her husband\u2019s endeavors , \u201d grisham told vanity fair . in a statement to the huffington post , grisham said the first lady is \u201can independent woman who believes in our country , and continues her plans to serve as first lady with integrity and dedication . \u201d\nnumber of refugees accepted into the u . s . falls below the rest of the world combined for the first time since 1980\nbut much of trump\u2019s appeal was that , as a businessman and artist of the deal , he could cut through the dithering and gridlock and partisan bickering . instead , in his first month , trump has mostly been the loser in his battles against entrenched institutions . rather than bend washington to his will , trump has , in his first month , mainly bent his priorities to the will of republicans in washington .\nreal estate developer donald trump walks with sons eric trump , left , and donald trump jr . and daughter ivanka trump outside the old post office pavilion . ivanka trump tried to save topo atrio after her father\u2019s comments on immigration . ( julia schmalz / bloomberg )\nanother very good winner of the july stakes was the 1993 champion , first trump . owned by mollers racing , trained by geoff wragg and foaled in 1991 , his dam was valika and he was sired by primo dominie . first trump also won the richmond stakes and the middle park stakes . he was named european champion two - year - old colt in 1993 .\nin a speech in pennsylvania , she said that combatting cyber - bullying would be a cause she would take up as first lady .\nnumber of refugees accepted into the u . s . falls below the rest of the world combined for the first time . . .\n' i must have got about 12 or 13 of them in the first instance\u2026 and they were extremely abusive , ' says scott .\nit ' s all in his fee \u2014 in his first year out as a stud , he was the busiest stallion in australia .\nallegations have resurfaced claims made by donald trump ' s first wife ivana that he ' raped ' her in 1989 . above , the trumps arrive at a new york party the same year\nivanka trump , daughter of u . s . president donald trump , is a real estate developer , reality star , and founder of the ivanka trump collection .\nthe first 100 days of trump\u2019s presidency lasted from january 20 , 2017 until april 29 , 2017 . in the first days of his presidency , president trump issued a number of back - to - back executive orders to make good on some of his campaign promises , as well as several orders aimed at rolling back policies and regulations that were put into place during the obama administration . several of trump\u2019s key policies that got rolling during trump\u2019s first 100 days in office include his supreme court nomination ; steps toward building a wall on the mexico border ; a travel ban for several predominantly muslim countries ; the first moves to dismantle the affordable care act ( a . k . a . obamacare ) ; and the u . s . withdrawal from the paris climate agreement .\ni traveled with the president yesterday . personally , i would not claim to have seen harvey ' s horror and devastation first hand . urltoken\ned harper , the stud director , says that for any new stallion , the first thing he must get used to is female horses .\nspeaking to a packed assembly hall , including dozens of heads of state , trump defended his doctrine of\namerica first ,\nwhile insisting that it need not be an impediment to international cooperation .\nfirst trump , like first island , carried the silks of a pair of great owner / breeders , being raced by the moller brothers ( albeit under the name of mollers racing , the brothers having died ) . primo valentino , too , was a representative of one of the great sporting operations , being bred and trained by peter harris .\ntrump ' s first foreign trip may have produced memorable , and at times cringe - inducing , images of the new president , whether grasping a glowing orb in saudi arabia or shoving the prime minister of montenegro at a nato meeting in brussels . but perhaps most profoundly , the trip underscored what\namerica first ,\nas trump has branded his governing philosophy , looks like on the world stage .\nin 1977 , trump married his first wife ivana zelnickova winklmayr , a new york fashion model who had been an alternate on the 1972 czech olympic ski team . after the 1977 birth of the couple & apos ; s first of three children , donald john trump jr . , ivana trump was named vice president in charge of design in the trump organization and played a major role in supervising the renovation of the commodore and the plaza hotel . the couple had two more children together \u2014 ivanka trump ( born in 1981 ) and eric trump ( born in 1984 ) \u2014 and went through a highly publicized divorce which was finalized in 1992 .\nsince marrying donald trump in 2005 , melania trump has taken on various philanthropic causes both in new york and beyond .\nbut there was a more fundamental problem with this speech . trump used it not just to defend his america first agenda at home , but he pleaded with every nation to take the same path . this is a recipe not for world harmony but for jungle competition and conflict and is uniquely opposed to everything the un stands for . \u201ci will always put america first just like you , the leaders of your countries , should put your countries first , \u201d trump said . he even appealed for a common reawakening of national patriotism . \u201care we still patriots ? \u201d\ndonald trump failed to express any remorse for cheating on his first wife ivana in a 1994 interview that emerged , saying instead that he may have continued his affair with marla maples had he not gotten caught .\nbut the most alarming part of an address that was supposed to be a serious formulation of the president ' s grand strategy in the world was the utter incoherence of trump ' s\namerica first\ndoctrine .\ntuesday ' s speech was trump ' s first opportunity to address the general assembly . in the past , he has faulted the u . n . as a venue for too much talk and too little action .\ntv series things i hate about you , based off the movie 10 things i hate about you , gives kroll his first onscreen vehicle as a juror .\nmaples is said to have confronted ivana by asking : ' i\u2019m marla and i love your husband . do you ? ' , and the dissolution of trump ' s first marriage ended up costing more than $ 14million .\nfrankel\u2019s first lessons in carnal aptitude will take place in a specially designed stable known as a covering shed ( covering being the technical term for equine copulation ) .\nshe ' s the business mogul ' s third wife : he was married to his first , czech - american model ivana trump , from 1977 to 1992 , and his second , marla maples , from 1993 to 1999 .\nwith ivanka trump at the world golf championships - cadillac championship at the trump doral golf resort & spa in doral , florida .\nmost notably , though , was the usage of a getty images photo from barack obama ' s 2009 inauguration as the backdrop for trump ' s new @ potus twitter handle . noah harlan , president of allseen alliance , first noted the\noops\nmoment from trump ' s social staffers .\nand she points out that the kind of life experience trump has may be ill - suited to the presidency , because presidents since fdr have faced five times more foreign policy or military crises than economic ones in their first year .\nthere is frustration all around . during his first hundred days in office , trump has not done away with populist rhetoric , but he has acted almost entirely as a plutocrat . his cabinet and his cast of advisers are stocked with\nas president of the united states , i will always put america first , just like you as the leaders of your countries will always and should always put your countries first ,\ntrump said , to polite applause .\nbut making a better life for our people also requires us to work together in close harmony and unity to create a more safe and peaceful future for all people .\nthe sad saga of d . j . trump : how donald trump set in motion a series of events that maimed a prized racehorse\none of president trump\u2019s first executive orders in office was calling on federal agencies to\nwaive , defer , grant exemptions from , or delay\naspects of the affordable care act to minimize financial burden on states , insurers and individuals .\nliam payne and cheryl split : carefree 1d star returns to stage for first time since break - up . . . as he poses happily with his backing dancers in france\nwhen the first 2 , 000 straws became available , they were snapped up in less than 36 hours - netting garth ' s american owner more than \u00a3100 , 000 .\ntrump ' s family tree : who ' s who from his five children to his five siblings , get to know team trump . trump ' s accusers and their allegations trump has repeatedly slammed these claims as false . fast facts about donald trump jr . donald jr . tweeted an email that mentioned russia ' s support for his father .\nthere are those that say i ' ve done more than anybody in the first 100 days ,\ntrump said two months ago .\nthere are those that are saying that i ' ve done just about more than anybody .\nschwarzenegger , a republican , endorsed ohio gov . john kasich during the gop presidential primaries . he said in a statement in october that he wouldn ' t vote for trump , noting it was his first presidential campaign not backing a republican .\nstill , trump ' s words carried an added weight , coming in his first address to the u . n . here , leaders usually try to project an aspirational message about prospects for peace and prosperity , if only nations could work together . trump ' s address was more about naming and shaming transgressors .\n\u201cas president of the united states , i will always put america first , just like you , as the leaders of your countries , will always and should always put your countries first , \u201d he said , generating light applause in parts of the chamber . but he argued that nationalism can be the foundation for strong nations to join common causes .\ntrump proudly invoked harry s . truman , a fine role model . but truman was the antithesis of trump ' s us - above -\nno wonder trump won applause when he said that\nyou , as the leaders of your countries , will always and should always put your countries first .\nselfishness is popular . russia ' s vladimir putin and china ' s xi jinping no doubt nodded approvingly when they were briefed about trump ' s words .\ninitially , the trump campaign denied that the speeches were alike , but later , a trump organization staff writer took the blame for the similarities .\n\u201csee , they don\u2019t know you , \u201d trump told lorber . \u201cwith all that investment , they don\u2019t know you . trump they know . \u201d\nkhloe kardashian ' anxious but eager ' as she gets back to work for the first time since true ' s birth . . . and her alarm goes off at 4 . 35am\nmelania trump became a u . s . permanent resident in 2001 and a citizen in 2006 . she would be the first presidential spouse to be born outside the united states since louisa adams , wife of john quincy adams , who was born in england .\nsteve bannon , trump\u2019s campaign ceo and executive chairman of breitbart news , was named as his chief strategist and senior counselor . in his first 100 days in office , president trump reorganized the national security council , bringing steve bannon on as a regular committee member , which his critics called an unprecedented move . in april 2017 , the trump administration removed bannon from his permanent seat on the national security council .\nthink of the worst event in a president ' s first 100 days \u2014 the country broke apart under the man most rank as the best american president of all time , abraham lincoln .\nmelania was born on april 26 , 1970 in novo mesto , in what was then yugoslavia . after 1991 , it became slovenia . her birth name , melanija knavs , was changed to melania knauss when she came to the united states . as first lady , she is the first to be born outside the united states since louisa adams , who was born in london .\nchris hemsworth kicks off filming for the star - studded men in black spin - off as he cuts a sharp figure in london . . . 21 years after the first film hit screens\nthe sad saga of d . j . trump : how donald trump set in motion a series of events that maimed a prized racehorse | national post\nshe has been described as quiet and reserved , but her marriage to trump has forced her to make public statements and be scrutinized by the media . recent reports have questioned whether melania really wants to be first lady , but her spokeswoman stephanie grisham denies those accusations .\nit was a far different story when the two first met , with trump even saying on camera of scott during the filming of the profile ; ' i love beautiful things . that\u2019s why i like you so much\u2026 she is beautiful\u2026even though she doesn\u2019t believe it . '\nas usual ,\ndallek said ,\nhe engages in hyperbole when he said that nobody has accomplished more in the first 100 days than he has , which is utter nonsense .\nparts of melania ' s speech at the republican national convention in 2016 were criticized for being very similar to former first lady michelle obama ' s speech at the democratic national convention in 2008 .\nwilliam hill expect first trump to manage a mile and make him 16 - 1 joint - favourite for the 1994 2 , 000 guineas . but future champions were not on the minds of those at goodwood yesterday . they were still recovering from the one that had just gone .\nmelania trump has her own jewelry line , called\nmelania timepieces & fashion jewelry ,\nwhich she sells on qvc . when it launched on the home shopping network in february 2010 , donald was the first caller and melania ' s products sold out in just 45 minutes .\nsh * t my president says : the illustrated tweets of donald j . trump\nfbi director james comey asked the justice department to issue a statement refuting president trump\u2019s allegation , while the white house called for a congressional investigation into trump\u2019s claims .\nwith ivana trump at roy cohn ' s birthday party in new york city .\nat the williams vs . tyson boxing match at trump plaza hotel and casino .\nat the superboat race at trump plaza hotel in atlantic city , new jersey .\nwith melania trump at the vanity fair oscar party in west hollywood , california .\nlost video surfaces of oj simpson at donald trump ' s wedding . . .\nso they are generally fed between 5 : 00am and 5 : 30am in the morning . if they are busy that day they will have their first cover soon after they have had breakfast .\na person close to the candidate told urltoken in july : ' in regards to those assertions , no one speaks for mr . trump but mr . trump . '\nmr firminger said the first of garth ' s calves should be born next month and will be closely analysed to assess the quality . after that , garth will begin preparing to produce another batch of straws .\n' your f * * * * * * doctor has ruined me , ' trump allegedly said before what the book describes as a ' violent assault ' where he tore out pieces of her hair and ' jams his penis inside her for the first time in more than sixteen months ' .\nthe anticlimax also muted the fanfare for first trump ' s fourth consecutive victory , in the group two richmond stakes . his trainer , geoff wragg , like fabre , has a problem , but the more pleasant one of deciding between six furlongs or a mile as the optimum distance for his colt .\nlike a true model , melania trump is 5 - foot - 11 . interestingly enough , though , she would not be the tallest first lady . she ' ll have to share the top spot with michelle obama and eleanor roosevelt , who also both clocked in at 5 - foot - 11 .\na funny jab at trump written in the style of a dr . suess book .\ndavid ignatius : the most surprising thing about trump ' s u . n . speech\ndonald trump was born on june 14 , 1946 , in queens , new york .\non march 4 , 2017 without citing specific evidence , trump released a series of tweets accusing former president obama of wiretapping the campaign headquarters at trump tower before the election .\ntrump has revealed a measure of his own surprise with the difficulty of the job .\nivana trump allegedly told her ' closest confidantes ' that her husband had raped her .\ndonald trump at naomi campbell and kate moss ' halloween party in new york city .\nwith ivanka trump celebrating dennis basso ' s fur collection party in aspen , colorado .\n\u201cgolota\u2019s a killer , \u201d trump said admiringly . \u201ca stone - cold killer . \u201d\nwhen trump returned from escorting lebed to the elevator , i asked him his impressions .\nhis first first july stakes victory came with city on a hill and his third and final winner was meshasheer . sandwiched between those two was the 2000 champion , noverre . owned by godolphin racing and bred by the darley stud , this american bay stallion was out of a dam called danseur fabuleux . his sire was rahy , whose most notable achievements on the track were his victories in the sirenia stakes and the bel air handicap .\ntop three - year - old filly winter has a slight advantage over fellow classic winners churchill and brametot in the cartier horse of the year standings as the first points are released for the 27th annual cartier racing awards .\ntrump issued an executive order to build a wall at the united states\u2019 border with mexico . in his first televised interview as president , president trump said the initial construction of the wall would be funded by u . s . taxpayer dollars , but that mexico would reimburse the u . s . \u201c100 percent\u201d in a plan to be negotiated and might include a suggested import tax on mexican goods .\ntrump reviewed the photographs , nonchalantly , before agreeing to buy the horse . there was one requirement , though : a name change . alibi became d . j . trump .\nliberation first star ( 1992 - 2006 ) liberation first star was an american morgan horse stallion . his sire , century free spirit , and dam , liberation starbrite , together hold more than 35 world and national titles in harness , in hand and under saddle . first star was himself a multi - world and national champion park saddle horse as well as a harness and in hand champion . his foals exhibit talent and show - horse attitude for which his family is so famous . he was owned by george schott of lewiton , maine and stood at cabot morgans in falmouth , maine . he was buried at the kentucky horse park in the spring of 2006 .\nthe story of d . j . trump the racehorse comes from a 1991 tell - all book by former trump plaza hotel and casino president jack o\u2019donnell . trump previously has dismissed the story as \u201ctotally unsubstantiated and false\u201d and derided o\u2019donnell as a \u201cdisgruntled former employee . \u201d trump organization and white house press staffers did not reply to requests to comment this week .\nin the parade ring zafonic dragged his lad round with customary arrogance , but on the way to post came the first glimmer of unease as the colt appeared to forget he was supposed to be in harmony with pat eddery .\nthe achievement was not lost , however , on the winning jockey , dominique boeuf , who , like lellouche , was recording his first success in britain . his victory celebration was so frenzied he almost fell from the saddle .\nbahri raced four times as a two - year - old coming second in his first 3 maiden races . he won his last race as a two - year - old at nottingham in a conditions race over six furlongs .\nthe speech tried to rationalize\namerica first\nas a great principle . but every effort trump made to build an intellectual structure to support it only underscored that his favored phrase was either a trivial applause line or an argument that , if followed logically , was inimical to the united states ' interests and values .\nfirst lady melania trump drew attention for wearing a jacket that read\ni really don ' t care , do u ?\nduring a trip to a children ' s immigrant shelter . her team insisted there was no hidden message , though the president said it was directed at the\nfake news media .\nthat \u201ctrump\u2019s ignorant hate speech belongs in medieval times \u2014 not the 21st century un . \u201d\nmarc a . thiessen : why the left hated trump ' s u . n . speech\ndonald trump was raised presbyterian by his mother , and he identifies as a mainline protestant .\nmelania trump ' s father was a car dealer and her mother was a fashion designer .\nanother example of trump ' s learning curve was on china and north korea . trump was supposedly preparing to pressure china ' s president xi into doing more on north korea while at trump ' s private club , mar - a - lago in palm beach , fla .\nbehold , the donald trump style evolution you never really wanted , but need to see .\nwith ivana trump at john kluge and patricia gay ' s wedding in new york city .\nwith melania trump at the washington wizards vs new york knicks game in new york city .\nwith melania trump at the moma film benefit gala honoring baz luhrmann in new york city .\nwith melania trump at the american ballet theatre 68th annual spring gala in new york city .\n\u201cyou do look seriously tough , \u201d trump continued . \u201cwere you an olympic boxer ? \u201d\nwest virginia used to vote solidly democratic . now it belongs to trump . what happened ?\nis it too late to dump trump ? could pence replace him on the . . .\ntrump also expressed doubts that he would have come clean about the affair on his own .\ntrump reiterates warning to n . korea : \u2018fire and fury\u2019 may not have been \u2018tough enough\u2019\ntrump ' s ex - wife later said that she felt ' violated ' during the incident but did not mean ' raped ' in the criminal sense . above , ivana trump in 1989\nas saturday\u2019s preakness stakes brings championship thoroughbred racing back to a region transfixed by the trump administration , it\u2019s worth revisiting the disputed tale of trump\u2019s only documented foray into the sport of kings .\nthinkfoodgroup has estimated that it would receive a profit of $ 1 . 1 million over the first six years of operation . removing 12 percent for its estimated hispanic business , it calculated that topo atrio would instead lose a similar amount .\ntwo weeks after the meeting with kim , the white house announced that president trump would hold his first formal discussions with his russian counterpart , vladimir putin , in helsinki , finland , on july 16 . it was reported that the two leaders would focus on strategic issues related to the ongoing war in syria , among other matters .\nby 2005 , c . k . stars in a half - hour hbo special called one night stand ( his first hour - long televised standup special , shameless , finally arrives in 2007 , nearly 25 years after he got started ) .\nyou can do the math . more than $ 20 million is already due to ashford stud , the farm that bought his stud rights last year for an undisclosed amount . and he ' s only about halfway through his first breeding season .\neven as he threatened a military response , trump said he hoped that would not be necessary .\ntrump said he learned again , this time about the complexity of the relationship \u2014 from xi .\ndonald trump continues to be hounded by allegations that he raped his ex - wife in 1989 .\nthe daily beast piece also circulated widely because of statement ' s made by trump organization special counsel michel cohen in which he said that spouses cannot rape each other . above , trump in 2011\nwith ivana trump at the u . s . open tennis tournament in queens , new york .\nothers , however , are more critical , saying trump needs to tone down his antagonistic language .\nin his first address to the united nations general assembly , mr . trump framed the conflicts as a test of the international system . the bombastic flourishes that generate approving roars at political events were met by stony silence , interrupted a few times by a smattering of applause , as mr . trump promised to \u201ccrush loser terrorists , \u201d mocked north korea\u2019s leader as \u201crocket man\u201d and declared that parts of the world \u201care going to hell . \u201d\nprior to the release of the report , president - elect trump had cast doubt on russian interference and the intelligence community\u2019s assessment . trump received an intelligence briefing on the matter , and in his first press conference as president - elect on january 11 , he acknowledged russia\u2019s interference . however , in subsequent comments he again refused to condemn russia for such activity , notably saying on multiple occasions that he believed putin & apos ; s denials .\nbefore trump announced his candidacy , a major design meeting had been scheduled for june 30 , in which andr\u00e9s and rockwell would present their latest vision in a large conference room on the 25th floor of trump tower in new york to donald trump , ivanka , don jr . and other executives .\nin a washington post poll about campaign spouses that included melania trump , bill clinton and both vice presidential running mates ' wives , trump ' s favorability rating was the lowest , at 37 percent .\nthe evidence produced by thinkfoodgroup \u201cis as irrelevant as evidence of how many delegates or votes mr . trump has received in the republican primaries , \u201d trump\u2019s attorney told the court . trump\u2019s position on immigration , his attorney argued , wasn\u2019t new and his \u201cwillingness to frankly share his opinions\u201d was widely known .\non october 30 , mueller announced the first indictments of his investigation , ensnaring former trump campaign chairman paul manafort and his associate rick gates on charges of tax fraud , money laundering and foreign lobbying violations . on december 1 , flynn pleaded guilty to one count of lying to the fbi and said he was cooperating with mueller & apos ; s team .\n\u201cit\u2019s a fraught situation , \u201d said michael oppenheimer , a professor of geoscience and international affairs at princeton university who was not involved in the study . \u201cthis is the first case in which an analysis of climate change of this scope has come up in the trump administration , and scientists will be watching very carefully to see how they handle it . \u201d\ntrump & apos ; s sons \u2014 donald jr . and eric\u2014 work as executive vice presidents for the trump organization , and took over the family business while their father serves as president . trump & apos ; s daughter ivanka was also an executive vice president of the trump organization , but left the business and her own fashion label to join her father & apos ; s administration and become an unpaid assistant to the president . her husband , jared kushner , is also a senior adviser to president trump .\nat least , in part , the failures may be the result of trump ' s political inexperience .\nin the oval office , after the bill was pulled , trump conceded that he was still learning .\nit turns out that ivanka isn ' t the only trump child that the presidential candidate has objectified .\nmaples ( right ) went on to become trump ' s second wife . in the 1994 interview , trump also made light of the two women ' s confrontation and failed to take responsibility for his behavior\nin response , calvo said he has \u201cnever felt more safe or so confident\u201d with trump in charge .\ndabirsim went through his first season unbeaten in five outings and the christophe ferland - trained colt is the winner in the cartier two - year - old colt award , seeing off competition from the group one winners camelot , parish hall , power and wrote .\non december 2 , 2017 , trump achieved the first major legislative victory of his administration when the senate passed a sweeping tax reform bill . approved along party lines by a 51 - 49 vote , the bill drew criticism for extensive last - minute rewrites , with frustrated democrats posting photos of pages filled with crossed - out text and handwriting crammed into the margins .\nthe 1993 book lost tycoon : the many lives of donald j trump ( left ) revealed the deposition rape statements . trump denied the allegations and said that author howard hurt iii ( right ) had no talent\nfirst trump ' s participation in the 2 , 000 guineas on 30 april is in doubt . ' he has strained a ligament , ' his trainer , geoff wragg , said . ' he will miss the free handicap , which was his target , and is very doubtful for the guineas because i don ' t know when i will be able to work him . '\nover the course of his 2016 presidential run , trump\u2019s net worth was questioned and he courted controversy after repeatedly refusing to release his tax returns while they were being audited by the internal revenue service . he did not release his tax returns before the november election \u2014 the first time a major party candidate had not released such information to the public since richard nixon in 1972 .\ntrump said that polish , french and british resistance to nazism was motivated by\npatriotism ,\nand indeed it was . but patriotism is a richer and more complicated commitment than trump ' s offhand comment suggests .\npresident trump delivered a stern warning to north korea ' s leader at the united nations general assembly tuesday .\nbillionaire real estate mogul and former reality television personality donald trump is the 45th president of the united states .\naccording to the 1993 book ' lost tycoon : the many lives of donald j . trump , ' trump forced himself on ivana after her plastic surgeon botched his scalp - reduction surgery to remove a bald spot .\ntrump targets pfizer and big pharma for raising costs of prescription drugs after he vowed prices would . . .\none of the interviewees , according to the sun , is author harry hurt iii , who described the moment trump allegedly assaulted ivana in his 1993 book lost tycoon : the many lives of donald j . trump .\nlost tycoon : the many lives of donald j . trump : harry hurt iii : 9780393030297 : urltoken books\n' they just didn ' t get it , but they do now ! ' trump shares . . .\ntrump\u2019s attorneys argue the estimates are misleading and add that the candidate\u2019s comments have no bearing on the lease .\nwith melania trump at woody johnson ' s\nwig out\n60th birthday party in new york city .\nwith melania trump at the opening of broadway show\na little night music\nin new york city .\n' these are my people ! ' : trump ' s homecoming sees 10 , 000 new . . .\nhutchinson concludes that trump poses the greatest challenge and peril of any president in modern times to black americans .\nstephen hyde , trump casinos ceo , immediately saw the potential benefits to a deal with libutti , who lost an estimated $ 11 million at trump casinos from 1986 to 1989 , according to the wall street journal .\na good filly herself ( she won twice as a two - year - old , including the g3 sweet embrace stakes at rosehill in 1991 ) shadea produced merely two minor winners in her first five years at stud , from three visits to danehill and one each to last tycoon and chief\u2019s crown . however , her first covering by octagonal ensured that she went from underachiever to blue - hen in one fell swoop , with the resultant colt lonhro numbering 11 g1 races among his 26 victories before retiring to stand alongside dad at woodlands stud .\ntrump ' s ascension to the presidency is an unlikely story . the flashy new york billionaire and former reality tv star cuts a very different image than any american president before him . he ' s the first with no government , military or political experience . in an age of frustration with the political establishment on both sides of the aisle , that background had a certain appeal .\nany other president , republican or democrat , who gave a speech of the sort trump delivered would have faced an avalanche of criticism . it just won ' t do to smile indulgently and say ,\noh , that ' s trump being trump ,\nor ,\nhe ' s just appealing to his base .\njonathan o ' connell covers economic development with a focus on commercial real estate and the trump organization . he has written extensively about donald trump ' s business , including how his d . c . hotel has affected washington and what trump hotels will mean to the mississippi delta . he joined the washington post in 2010 . follow\n' when there is nothing wrong with legs or the tactical side and a horse blows out like that there must be something else . my first feeling is that he ran like those horses who bleed in america . ' that notion was later confirmed by the racecourse vet .\nan article on tuesday about a sweeping federal climate change report referred incorrectly to the availability of the report . while it was not widely publicized , the report was uploaded by the nonprofit internet archive in january ; it was not first made public by the new york times .\nmy hometown , yamhill , ore . , a farming community , is trump country , and i have many friends who voted for trump . i think they\u2019re profoundly wrong , but please don\u2019t dismiss them as hateful bigots .\nlibutti\u2019s significance during the campaign was owed to his reputed mob ties . a trump casino employee told state regulators libutti had bragged about working for john gotti . when asked about libutti last year , trump denied knowing him .\nschumer ' s first standup gig takes place at gotham comedy club in nyc . she later discussed the performance while taping last comic standing , saying ,\nit was actually pretty painless because i wasn ' t expecting very much from myself . some friends are there , and my mom , so it was kind of like there was nowhere to go but up . but i still have that tape , and it ' s really , really painful to watch . but it was good , it was a good first experience to have on stage .\nin trump , white supremacists see one of their own . only grudgingly did trump denounce the ku klux klan and david duke , one of its former grand wizards\u2014and after the clashes between white supremacists and counterprotesters in charlottesville , virginia , in august , duke in turn praised trump\u2019s contentious claim that \u201cboth sides\u201d were responsible for the violence .\nhe officially moves from boston to new york city and lands his first writing gig for caroline ' s comedy hour at club carolines . the cable show is hosted at the time by colin quinn , and c . k . works alongside fellow writers jon stewart and dave attell .\ntrump\u2019s political career began in advocacy of birtherism . but long before that , he had made his worldview clear .\nsupreme court cliffhanger is set for tonight as trump narrows his choices but keeps even his closest aides . . .\nfrom the shove to the orb , no single trump moment from trip abroad stands out . there are too many\nbut as trump headed home , many in europe remained concerned about the future of u . s . leadership .\ntrump says guam news is good for tourism . an official says it ' s not . - the washington post\nd . j . trump\u2019s last workout in ocala was , in trump parlance , a total disaster . a few hours after running , the horse\u2019s legs began shaking uncontrollably , then he collapsed in a heap . d . j . trump had contracted the virus without showing symptoms , veterinarians concluded , and the workout had exacerbated his condition .\nto trump , whiteness is neither notional nor symbolic but is the very core of his power . in this , trump is not singular . but whereas his forebears carried whiteness like an ancestral talisman , trump cracked the glowing amulet open , releasing its eldritch energies . the repercussions are striking : trump is the first president to have served in no public capacity before ascending to his perch . but more telling , trump is also the first president to have publicly affirmed that his daughter is a \u201cpiece of ass . \u201d the mind seizes trying to imagine a black man extolling the virtues of sexual assault on tape ( \u201cwhen you\u2019re a star , they let you do it\u201d ) , fending off multiple accusations of such assaults , immersed in multiple lawsuits for allegedly fraudulent business dealings , exhorting his followers to violence , and then strolling into the white house . but that is the point of white supremacy\u2014to ensure that that which all others achieve with maximal effort , white people ( particularly white men ) achieve with minimal qualification . barack obama delivered to black people the hoary message that if they work twice as hard as white people , anything is possible . but trump\u2019s counter is persuasive : work half as hard as black people , and even more is possible .\nthe president delivered his first public remarks on the issue aboard air force one in early april , saying he knew nothing about the payment to daniels . when asked why cohen felt compelled to shell out $ 130 , 000 for what the white house was calling false allegations , trump responded ,\nmichael & apos ; s my attorney , and you & apos ; ll have to ask michael .\nof course , there have been other presidents without lengthy political experience , like trump ' s predecessor barack obama , for example . and trump , who is 70 , has had a lifetime of experience in real estate and marketing .\nthat is the kind of unnecessary chaos that has marked this 100 days from the start . remember how botched the rollout was for that first travel ban executive order ? it affected real people ' s lives , stuck in airports as officials were initially unclear who exactly the order applied to .\nas weeks passed however , trump still hadn\u2019t paid . libutti involved lawyers , and angry letters were exchanged , according to o\u2019donnell . eventually , trump agreed to a reduced price . his name was worth at least $ 250 , 000 , trump argued , so he should only have to pay an additional $ 250 , 000 to complete the purchase .\nthe diamond mine which was discovered when the straight strike mare shadea visited octagonal ( pictured ) in that great stallion\u2019s first season at stud in 1997 \u2013 producing the mighty lonhro \u2013 has thrown up another gem , judging by the breath - takingly easy debut win of eighto at geelong on friday .\nin fact , pharoah\u2019s $ 200 , 000 was the highest figure for a freshman stallion since ghostzapper , the 2004 horse of the year , began his stud career in 2006 . the fact that pharoah was the first to win the triple crown since affirmed in 1978 certainly upped the asking price .\nnorth korea\u2019s ambassador to the united nations , ja song nam , left his seat prior to the arrival president trump .\nthe french president also confronted a big issue mr . trump conspicuously omitted , climate change . \u201cthe planet will not negotiate with us , \u201d mr . macron said , referring to the paris climate accord that mr . trump has renounced .\ntrump also offered an economic justification for his decision to sharply reduce the number of refugees the united states takes in .\nthen came donald trump\u2019s campaign remarks , and top executives on both sides sought to manage the fallout with their bosses .\nif there\u2019s one person in the trump family known for having a good sense of style , it\u2019s admittedly not donald .\nbut white house officials repeatedly defended trump ' s approach , noting the president ' s responsibility to protect american interests .\nover the years , trump repeatedly has dismissed o\u2019donnell\u2019s book as fiction . they haven\u2019t spoken since 1991 , o\u2019donnell said .\nin the late 1980s , trump was a highflying casino magnate in the midst of a frenzy of splashy purchases that spread his name and brand . he bought an airline ( trump shuttle , which he gave up in 1992 after defaulting on payments ) , a power boat race ( the 1989 trump castle world championships , marred by rain , high seas , and a fatal wreck ) and launched a bike race ( the tour de trump , which turned out all right ) .\nin 1993 trump married his second wife , marla maples , an actress with whom he had been involved for some time and already had a daughter , tiffany trump ( born in 1993 ) . trump would ultimately file for a highly publicized divorce from maples in 1997 , which became final in june 1999 . a prenuptial agreement allotted $ 2 million to maples .\nthe kkk and counterprotesters in charlottesville , virginia , july 8 , 2017 . not every trump voter is a white supremacist . but every trump voter felt it acceptable to hand the fate of the country over to one . ( gabriella demczuk )"]}
{"id": 2327, "summary": [{"text": "the papuan king parrot ( alisterus chloropterus ) , also known as the green-winged king parrot , is a species of parrot in the family psittaculidae found in new guinea .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "papuan king parrot", "paragraphs": ["they are the australian king parrot , alisterus scapularis , the papuan king parrot , alisterus chloropterus and the moluccan parrot alisterus amboinensis .\npapuan king - parrot ( alisterus chloropterus ) by peter tan . | bird families : p , q | pinterest\nthe green - winged king parrot or papuan king parrot ( alisterus chloropterus chloropterus ) are endemic to northeastern new guinea west to huon peninsula and in the south to hall sound , papua .\nmale papuan king parrot , jurong bird park \u00a9 peter tan [ cc by 2 . 0 ] , via wikimedia commons\npapuan king parrot an 8mm orange eye that comes with a brown halo and a small pupil . price quoted per pair of eyes\nthe blue - naped parrot ( tanygnathus lucionensis ) , also known as the blue - crowned green parrot , luzon parrot , the philippine green parrot , and locally known as pikoy , is a parrot found throughout the philippines .\nalisterus chloropterus in latin or papuan king parrot has an 8mm orange eye that comes with a brown halo and a small pupil . price quoted per pair of eyes\nthe moluccan king parrot is sometimes referred to as the ambon king parrot or the amboina king parrot , and it is a species endemic to the peleny island , maluka and west papua in indonesia , however , it is found on numerous other islands than ambon . there are six sub - species recognized .\navianweb note : the light green patch is missing in the amboina king parrot , and is larger as featured on this page on the green - winged king parrot - please refer to image on top .\nin the wild , the king parrot nests deep within tree hollows and therefore require a nest box at least 120cm deep . it is advantageous to provide numerous eucalypt branches for perches to simulate the dense forest environment enjoyed by the king parrot\nalisterus scapularis . australian king parrot . courtesy of jon bragg cc by - sa 2 . 0 license . { flickr }\nthe sri lanka hanging parrot ( loriculus beryllinus ) is a small parrot which is a resident endemic breeder in sri lanka .\nenicognathus leptorhynchus ( king ) 1831 pzs pt1 no . 1 p . 14 concept\nking parrots are quieter and less destructive than other parrot species . the challenges that you might experience with them maybe poor socialization - in which case patience and time in taming and gaining the trust of the parrot is necessary .\nother species found in the cool montane forest include lesser melampitta , stephanie\u2019s astrapia , yellow - browed melidectes and forbes\u2019s forest - rail , notorious for its skulking behaviour . ambua will delight parrot aficionados \u2013 you may see papuan king - parrot , lorikeets and tiger - parrots . many rarer birds are found here too , but you will need luck to find papuan treecreeper , new guinea harpy eagle , northern logrunner , and the timid sanford\u2019s bowerbird .\nthe king parrot is a very attractive and acrobatic aviary bird . they require a four to five metre long by one to two metres wide aviary to keep them comfortable and happy . breeding king parrots can be a challenge that brings rich rewards .\nwe saw papuan king - parrots flying in the gloom and heard a magnificent riflebird . the call of the riflebird here is quite similar to the magnificent riflebirds of far north queensland but notably different to the growling riflebirds of varirata .\n. only wpt members gain exclusive access to some of the world ' s top parrot specialists .\n- this parrot species actually prefers pellets made for small parrots , such as parakeets and cockatiels .\nhand reared male king parrots make good pets and are colorful and entertaining birds that exhibit bright and cheerful behaviour .\nspecies : scientific : aprosmictus erythropterus papua . . . english : papuan red - winged parrot . . . dutch : papua roodvleugelparkiet . . . german : papua rotfl\u00fcgelsittich . . . french : platycerque de papoea . . . cites ii - endangered\nlisten to exciting podcast interviews with parrot specialists from around the world , many available for wpt members only .\nbirdcare cites lexicon of parrots birdlife international internet bird collection ml media collection catalogue 65913 , papuan king parrot alisterus chloropterus , connop , scott , papua new guinea , oct . 8 1993 , cornell lab of ornithology . site parrots : a guide to parrots of the world , juniper and parr , 1998 parrots of the world , forshaw , 2006 . 2010 edition parrots in aviculture , low , 1992 .\nbirds of the world - 5 the king parrots . description / images . - dals wildlife site { wildlife of northern england }\ncollar , n . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . papuan king - parrot ( alisterus chloropterus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nking parrots are not only incredibly beautiful , but also quiet ( except for the occasional shrill sentinel call ) and gentle in nature . they are quite different from other parrot species that tend to be noisier , more destructive and more aggressive than they tend to be .\nspecies : scientific : alisterus chloropterus chloropterus . . . english : green - winged king parrot . . . dutch : geelvleugelkoningsparkiet . . . german : gelbfl\u00fcgel k\u00f6nigssittich . . . french : platycerque cholopt\u00e8re , royale \u00e0 ailes vertes . . . cites ii - endangered species\nspecies : scientific : alisterus chloropterus moszkowski . . . english : moszkowski green - winged king parrot . . . dutch : moszkowski groenvleugelkoningsparkiet . . . german : moszkowski gr\u00fcnfl\u00fcgel k\u00f6nigssittich . . . french : platycerque cholopt\u00e8re de moszkowski . . . cites ii - endangered species\nspecies : scientific : alisterus scapularis minor . . . english : smaller australian king parrot . . . dutch : kleine australische koningsparkiet . . . german : kleiner australischer k\u00f6nigssittich . . . french : petit platycerque \u00e0 croupion bleu . . . cites ii - endangered species\nthe king parakeets are easily recognized as a group by their intensely coloured , shiny red , green and blue plumage and by their long tails .\narndt , thomas ( 2006 ) .\na new hanging parrot from camiguin island , philippines\n. birdingasia 5 : 55\u201358 .\nspecies : scientific : alisterus chloropterus callopterus . . . english : salvadori ' s green - winged king parrot . . . dutch : goldie koningsparkiet , fly river koningsparkiet . . . german : salvadoris gr\u00fcnfl\u00fcgel k\u00f6nigssittich . . . french : platycerque cholopt\u00e8re de montagne . . . cites ii - endangered species\navianweb resources : i put together web resources for you to help you understand your pet bird and properly direct him . please visit the following website to learn more about parrot behavior and training . if you found a way to resolve a\nparrot behavioral issue\nplease share it with others .\n\u2191 contact us | terms & conditions | privacy policy | disclaimer | \u00a9 2018 world parrot trust . all rights reserved . | design : david occhino design\nis usually under a dozen . the blue - naped parrot feeds on mangoes , berries , seeds , nuts and grains . it nests in tree holes .\nthe red - winged parrot ( aprosmictus erythropteru ) has hybridised with the australian king parrot ( alisterus scapularis ) on several occasions . one particular specimen was described as having an overall dark green plumage with a red cap , bright yellow wing coverts , a green face , and red chest and abdomen from\nchin\nto vent . however , as is the case with most hybrids , the appears may differ widely . this hybrid is said to be fertile and breeds true to form .\nthe australian king parrot , is a species endemic to eastern australia , where it may be encountered in humid and heavily forested upland regions , including those with eucalyptus wooded areas adjacent to sub - tropical and temperate rain - forests , where they forage on fruits and seeds gathered from trees or those that have fallen to the ground .\nthis genus has occasionally been lumped with the red - winged parrots ( aprosmictus ) . it forms a super - species with the amboina or amboyna king ( alisterus amboinensis ) .\nking parrots are generally a hardy species , although they can become susceptible to stress when moved or exposed to new surroundings . special care to provide the correct housing and nutrition must be taken to ensure this beautiful bird does not become susceptible to illness . in particular , king parrots are highly susceptible to bacillus infection that is toxic and invariably fatal , irrespective of veterinary attention .\nthe sri lanka hanging parrot is a small , mainly green hanging parrot , only 13 cm long with a short tail . the adult has a red crown and rump . the nape and back have on orange tint . the chin and throat are pale blue . the beak is red and the irises are white . [ 2 ]\nthey have some mimicking ability and most of them learn to talk , and their voices are soft and sweet to listen to - similar to the voice of an eclectus parrot .\nsri lanka hanging parrot is a bird of open forest . it is strictly arboreal , never descending to the ground . it nests in holes in trees , laying 2\u20133 eggs .\nboth males and females have vivid red wing - coverts after which they have been named . this parrot averages 12 . 5 to 14 inches ( about 32 - 36 cm ) in length . the red - winged parrot is sexually dimorphic ( adult birds can be sexed visually by their physical characteristics ) . mature hens and males have orange beaks , and grey legs and feet .\nlike in the turquoise parrot , there seems to be a discrepance in what the icon at the top says ( green ) and what the description says - vulnerable . please make the changes .\nin this series ' birds of the world ' we look at the species which occur in particular genera . the species in these genera will take us all over the globe . here we review the parrot species in the genus alisterus . the parrots of the genus alisterus are referred to as the king parrots , and includes three species belonging to the family psittaculidae within the order of birds known as the psittaciformes .\nafter this we headed back down the hill admiring a pair of rufous - bellied kookaburras calling away happily . alex knew the display tree of a king bird of paradise and shortly after we were admiring this rather bizarre looking creature .\nalex couldn ' t find the sicklebills so we went and looked at a red - legged brushturkey nest . near the nest group of papuan babblers came through finally accompanied by the pale - billed sicklebills and i had the best views of them yet , probing the bark on tree trunks mid canopy .\nking parrots are social birds and do require daily interaction with their flock - - be it with other birds in an aviary setting or with their human family . in an aviary setting , they do well even when kept with smaller birds .\nspecies : scientific : aprosmictus erythropterus erythropterus . . . english : red - winged parrot , crimson - winged parakeet . . . dutch : roodvleugelparkiet , bloedvleugelparkiet . . . german : r\u00f6tflugelsittich , scharlachfl\u00fcgelsittich . . . french : platycerque erythropt\u00e8re\nspecies : scientific : aprosmictus erythropterus coccineopterus . . . english : new guinea red - winged parrot . . . dutch : nieuw guinea roodvleugelparkiet . . . german : neuguinea rotfl\u00fcgelsittich . . . french : platycerque \u00e9carlates . . . cites ii - endangered\nspecies : scientific : aprosmictus jonquillaceus jonquillaceus . . . english : timor red - winged parrot . . . dutch : timorese roodvleugelparkiet . . . german : timor rotfl\u00fcgelsittich . . . french : platycerque erythropt\u00e8re de timor . . . cites ii - endangered\nspecies : scientific : aprosmictus jonquillaceus wetterensis . . . english : wetar red - winged parrot . . . dutch : wetar roodvleugelparkiet . . . german : wetar rotfl\u00fcgelsittich . . . french : platycerque erythropt\u00e8re de wettar . . . cites ii - endangered\nthe only greater black coucal of the trip called loudly beside the path but never came out . as it got dark we tried for blue - black kingfisher with playback from my rather quiet ipod but heard nothing back . we did hear papuan hawk - owl on the way home and also red - necked crake , another call i enjoy every evening at home .\nthere are no current conservation concerns , they are rated as being of least concern by the iucn , however it is becoming uncommon duen to habitat loss and to the parrot trade . in some regions they are locally common . they are regularly bred in captivity in many countries .\ni slid back down the slippery hillside only falling over just the once catching poor glimpses of papuan babbler s and a pair of blue jewel babblers crossing the trail . the sicklebills were calling all around and we spent quite some time failing to get a better look . they are on the move all the time so the only hope was to try and follow their raucous calls up and down the hillside without falling over .\nclass : aves . . . order : psittaciformes . . . family : psittacidae . . . subfamily : psittacinae . . . genus : scientific : alisterus . . . english : king parrots . . . dutch : koningsparkieten . . . german : k\u00f6nigssittiche . . . french : perruche royales . . . cites ii : endangered species\nideally , the main aviary would be surrounded by another complete enclosure . this would prevent the parrots from escaping should the lock , for example , of the first aviary fail - - the second enclosure would keep the parrots in safe confinement . also , this set - up would literally eliminate the chances of a larger predator , such as a raccoon , fox or wild cat , from being able to pin a parrot by holding its toes as it grabs on to the side of the enclosure ; or it would prevent them from grabbing the parrot ' s leg or other body part through the wire .\ntello , j . g . , degner , j . f . , bates , j . m . & willard , d . e . 2006 . a new species of hanging - parrot ( aves : psittacidae : loriculus ) from camiguin island , philippines . fieldiana zoology 106 : 49 - 57 .\nin sri lanka , this bird is known as gira maliththa - \u0d9c\u0dd2\u0dbb\u0dcf\u0db8\u0dbd\u0dd2\u0dad\u0dca\u0dad\u0dcf or pol girwa - \u0db4\u0ddc\u0dbd\u0dca \u0d9c\u0dd2\u0dbb\u0dc0\u0dcf in sinhala language . [ 3 ] hanging parrot appears in a 15c sri lankan postal stamp , [ 4 ] also this bird appears in 1000 sri lankan rupee bank note ( 2010 series ) . [ 5 ]\nclassified in the subfamily psittacinae within the true parrot family , the genus alisterus was described by australian amateur ornithologist gregory mathews in 1911 . they were previously considered part of the genus aprosmictus , which contains the red - winged and olive - shouldered parrots . the king parrots appear to be most closely related to the genera aprosmictus and the long - tailed parrots of the genus polytelis , united by similarities in food begging and contact calls by chicks , and by more recent molecular analysis in 2005 . the molecular work placed this group in turn as sister to a group containing eclectus , tanygnathus , and psittacula . the three species are forest - dwelling , and are found singly , in pairs , or in groups .\nsri lanka hanging parrot is less gregarious than some of its relatives , and is usually alone or in small groups outside the breeding season . its flight is swift and direct , and the call is a sharp whistled twiwittwit . . twitwitwit . it undergoes local movements , driven mainly by the availability of the fruit , seeds , buds and blossoms that make up its diet .\nthey are mainly green with areas of red , orange , yellow , and blue varying between subspecies . only the males have a red area on their fronts , except for the population living on camiguin , where neither male nor female have this red area . they make nests in tree holes and , unusually for a parrot , the female takes nesting material back to the nest .\ncollar , n . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . scarlet - chested parrot ( neophema splendida ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\neventually we came to a large clearing and small hill where gravel for the road had been extracted . there was a good view from up top and we watched blyth ' s hornbills passing like puffing billy steam trains . red - legged brushturkeys , black butcherbirds and more pale - billed sicklebills called loudly and invisibly from within . alex went into try and find the sicklebills while i had good views of purple - tailed imperial pigeon , red - flanked lorikeet , buff - faced pygmy - parrot , hooded monarch , glossy - mantled manucode and rusty pitohui on the forest edge .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nstrigops ( f . ) gray , gr 1845 gen . birds 2 p . 426 pl . cv\nstrigops habroptila gray , gr 1845 gen . birds 2 p . 427 pl . cv\nnestor meridionalis ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 333\nnestor meridionalis meridionalis ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 333\nnestor meridionalis septentrionalis lorenz von liburnau , l 1896 verh . k . k . zool . - bot . ges . wien 46 p . 198\nnymphicus hollandicus ( kerr ) 1792 anim . kingd . [ kerr ] 1 pt2 p . 580\ncalyptorhynchus banksii banksii ( latham ) 1790 indexorn . 1 p . 107 concept nomenclature\ncalyptorhynchus banksii graptogyne schodde , saunders , da & homberger 1989 canberrabirdnotes 13 p . 120\ncalyptorhynchus banksii macrorhynchus gould 1843 pzs [\n1842\n] pt10 no . 117 p . 138\ncalyptorhynchus banksii naso gould 1837 pzs [\n1836\n] pt4 no . 46 p . 106\ncalyptorhynchus banksii samueli mathews 1917 birdsaustr . [ mathews ] 6 pt2 p . 120\ncalyptorhynchus lathami ( temminck ) 1807 cat . syst . cab . orn . quad . p . 21\ncalyptorhynchus lathami erebus schodde & mason , ij 1993 emu 93 p . 156 - 166\ncalyptorhynchus lathami lathami ( temminck ) 1807 cat . syst . cab . orn . quad . p . 21\ncalyptorhynchus funereus ( shaw ) 1794 nat . misc . 6 pl . 186 , text\ncalyptorhynchus funereus funereus ( shaw ) 1794 nat . misc . 6 pl . 186 , text\ncalyptorhynchus funereus whiteae mathews 1912 australav . rec . 1 no . 2 p . 35\ncalyptorhynchus funereus xanthanotus gould 1838 syn . birdsaustr . pt4 app . p . 4\ncalyptorhynchus baudinii lear 1832 ill . psittac . [ lear ] pt12 pl . 6\ncalyptorhynchus latirostris carnaby 1948 w . austral . nat . 1 p . 136 - 138\nprobosciger aterrimus ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 330\nprobosciger aterrimus aterrimus ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 330\nprobosciger aterrimus goliath ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 92\nprobosciger aterrimus macgillivrayi ( mathews ) 1912 novit . zool . 18 p . 261\ncallocephalon ( n . ) lesson 1837 j . navig . thet . esperance [ bougainville ] 2 p . 311 atlas pl . 39 , 40\ncallocephalon fimbriatum ( grant , j ) 1803 narr . voy . disc . news . wales pl . opp . p . 135\neolophus roseicapilla ( vieillot ) 1817 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 17 p . 12 nomenclature\neolophus roseicapilla kuhli ( mathews ) 1912 novit . zool . 18 p . 266\neolophus roseicapilla roseicapilla ( vieillot ) 1817 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 17 p . 12 nomenclature\nlophochroa leadbeateri ( vigors ) 1831 pzs pt1 no . 6 p . 61 concept\nlophochroa leadbeateri leadbeateri ( vigors ) 1831 pzs pt1 no . 6 p . 61 concept\nlophochroa leadbeateri mollis ( mathews ) 1912 novit . zool . 18 p . 265\ncacatua tenuirostris ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 88\ncacatua pastinator ( gould ) 1841 pzs [\n1840\n] pt8 no . 95 p . 175\ncacatua pastinator derbyi ( mathews ) 1916 australav . rec . 3 p . 57\ncacatua pastinator pastinator ( gould ) 1841 pzs [\n1840\n] pt8 no . 95 p . 175\ncacatua sanguinea gould 1843 pzs [\n1842\n] pt10 no . 117 p . 138\ncacatua sanguinea gymnopis sclater , pl 1871 pzs pt2 p . 490 , 493 , textfig .\ncacatua sanguinea normantoni ( mathews ) 1917 birdsaustr . [ mathews ] 6 pt2 p . 211\ncacatua sanguinea sanguinea gould 1843 pzs [\n1842\n] pt10 no . 117 p . 138\ncacatua sanguinea westralensis ( mathews ) 1917 birdsaustr . [ mathews ] 6 pt2 p . 211\ncacatua goffiniana roselaar , cs & michels 2004 zool . verh . leiden 350 p . 186 nomenclature\ncacatua ducorpsii pucheran 1853 voy . polesudzool . 3 mamm . ois . p . 108 nomenclature\ncacatua galerita eleonora finsch 1863 nederl . tijdschr . dierk . 1 p . xxi nomenclature\ncacatua galerita fitzroyi ( mathews ) 1912 novit . zool . 18 p . 264\ncacatua galerita triton temminck 1849 coup - d ' oeilposs . neerland . 3 p . 405 , note\ncacatua sulphurea ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 330\ncacatua sulphurea abbotti ( oberholser ) 1917 proc . u . s . natl . mus . 54 no . 2232 p . 181\ncacatua sulphurea citrinocristata ( fraser ) 1844 pzs pt12 no . 132 p . 38\ncacatua sulphurea parvula ( bonaparte ) 1850 compt . rend . 30 p . 139\ncacatua sulphurea sulphurea ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 330\ncacatua moluccensis ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 331\npoicephalus gulielmi ( jardine ) 1849 contrib . orn . [ jardine ] p .\n64 - 14\npl . 28\npoicephalus gulielmi gulielmi ( jardine ) 1849 contrib . orn . [ jardine ] p .\n64 - 14\npl . 28\npoicephalus gulielmi massaicus fischer & reichenow 1884 j . orn . 32 no . 165 p . 179 nomenclature\npoicephalus flavifrons ( ruppell ) 1842 mus . senckenb . 3 no . 2 p . 126\npoicephalus fuscicollis ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 93 systematics\npoicephalus fuscicollis fuscicollis ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 93\npoicephalus fuscicollis suahelicus reichenow 1898 j . orn . 46 no . 2 p . 314\npoicephalus robustus ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 344\npoicephalus meyeri ( cretzschmar ) 1827 atlasreis . nord . afr . vog . [ ruppell ] [\n1826\n] p . 18 pl . 11\npoicephalus meyeri damarensis neumann 1898 j . orn . 46 no . 3 p . 501\npoicephalus meyeri matschiei neumann 1898 j . orn . 46 no . 3 p . 501\npoicephalus meyeri meyeri ( cretzschmar ) 1827 atlasreis . nord . afr . vog . [ ruppell ] [\n1826\n] p . 18 pl . 11\npoicephalus meyeri reichenowi neumann 1898 j . orn . 46 no . 3 p . 501\npoicephalus meyeri transvaalensis neumann 1899 orn . monatsb . 7 no . 2 p . 25\npoicephalus rueppellii ( gray , gr ) 1849 pzs [\n1848\n] pt16 no . 188 p . 125 pl . 5\npoicephalus cryptoxanthus ( peters , w ) 1854 ber . k . preuss . akad . wiss . berlin p . 371\npoicephalus cryptoxanthus cryptoxanthus ( peters , w ) 1854 ber . k . preuss . akad . wiss . berlin p . 371\npoicephalus cryptoxanthus tanganyikae bowen 1930 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 82 p . 267\npoicephalus crassus ( sharpe ) 1884 j . linn . soc . londonzool . 17 p . 429\npoicephalus senegalus ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 149\npoicephalus senegalus senegalus ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 149\npoicephalus senegalus versteri finsch 1863 nederl . tijdschr . dierk . 1 p . xvi\npoicephalus rufiventris ( ruppell ) 1842 mus . senckenb . 3 no . 2 p . 125\npoicephalus rufiventris rufiventris ( ruppell ) 1842 mus . senckenb . 3 no . 2 p . 125\ntouit ( m . ) gray , gr 1855 cat . gen . subgen . birds p . 89 nomenclature\ntouit huetii ( temminck ) 1830 pl . col . livr . 83 pl . 491\ntouit costaricensis ( cory ) 1913 fieldmus . nat . hist . pub . orn . ser . 1 p . 283\ntouit dilectissimus ( sclater , pl & salvin ) 1871 pzs [\n1870\n] pt3 p . 788 pl . 47 nomenclature\ntouit purpuratus ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 350 nomenclature\ntouit purpuratus purpuratus ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 350 nomenclature\ntouit purpuratus viridiceps chapman 1929 am . mus . novit . no . 380 p . 10\ntouit melanonotus ( wied - neuwied ) 1820 reisebrasil . 1 p . 275 nomenclature\ntouit surdus ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 59 nomenclature\ntouit stictopterus ( sclater , pl ) 1862 pzs pt1 p . 112 pl . 11 nomenclature\npsilopsiagon aymara ( orbigny ) 1839 voy . am . merid . 2 p . 376 , note1\npsilopsiagon aurifrons ( lesson ) 1830 cent . zool . p . 63 pl . 18\npsilopsiagon aurifrons aurifrons ( lesson ) 1830 cent . zool . p . 63 pl . 18\npsilopsiagon aurifrons margaritae ( berlioz & dorst ) 1956 ois . rev . franceorn . ( n . s . ) 26 p . 85\npsilopsiagon aurifrons robertsi carriker 1933 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 85 p . 4\npsilopsiagon aurifrons rubrirostris ( burmeister ) 1860 j . orn . 8 no . 46 p . 243\nbolborhynchus lineola ( cassin ) 1853 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 6 p . 372\nbolborhynchus lineola lineola ( cassin ) 1853 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 6 p . 372\nbolborhynchus lineola tigrinus ( souance ) 1856 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 8 p . 144\nbolborhynchus orbygnesius ( souance ) 1856 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 8 p . 63 , 64 nomenclature\nnannopsittaca panychlora ( salvin & godman ) 1883 ibis p . 211 pl . 9 fig . 1\nnannopsittaca dachilleae o ' neill , munn & franke 1991 auk 108 p . 225 , 226\nmyiopsitta monachus calita ( jardine & selby ) 1830 ill . orn . 2 pt6 pl . 82 , text [ p . 61 ]\nmyiopsitta monachus cotorra ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 362\nbrotogeris sanctithomae sanctithomae ( statius muller ) 1776 natursyst . suppl . p . 81\nbrotogeris sanctithomae takatsukasae neumann 1931 mitt . zool . mus . berlin 17 heft3 p . 442\nbrotogeris tirica ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 351\nbrotogeris chiriri ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 359\nbrotogeris chiriri behni neumann 1931 mitt . zool . mus . berlin 17 heft3 p . 443\nbrotogeris chiriri chiriri ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 359\nbrotogeris pyrrhoptera ( latham ) 1802 suppl . ind . orn . p . xxii\nbrotogeris jugularis exsul todd 1917 proc . biol . soc . wash . 30 p . 129\nbrotogeris jugularis jugularis ( statius muller ) 1776 natursyst . suppl . p . 80\nbrotogeris cyanoptera ( pelzeln ) 1870 orn . brasil . abth . 3 p . 260 citation\nbrotogeris cyanoptera beniensis gyldenstolpe 1941 ark . zool . 33a no . 12 p . 9\nbrotogeris cyanoptera cyanoptera ( pelzeln ) 1870 orn . brasil . abth . 3 p . 260 citation\nbrotogeris chrysoptera ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 149\nbrotogeris chrysoptera chrysoptera ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 149\nbrotogeris chrysoptera solimoensis gyldenstolpe 1941 ark . zool . 33a no . 12 p . 10\nbrotogeris chrysoptera tenuifrons friedmann 1945 proc . biol . soc . wash . 58 p . 114\nbrotogeris chrysoptera tuipara ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 348\ntriclaria malachitacea ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 40 pl . 28\npyrilia haematotis ( sclater , pl & salvin ) 1860 pzs pt ( 28 ) 2 p . 300\npyrilia haematotis coccinicollaris ( lawrence ) 1862 ann . lyc . nat . hist . n . y . 7 p . 475\npyrilia haematotis haematotis ( sclater , pl & salvin ) 1860 pzs pt ( 28 ) 2 p . 300\npyrilia pyrilia ( bonaparte ) 1853 compt . rend . 37 p . 807 , note\npyrilia pulchra ( berlepsch ) 1897 orn . monatsb . 5 no . 11 p . 175\npyrilia barrabandi ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 61\npyrilia barrabandi aurantiigena ( gyldenstolpe ) 1951 ark . zool . ( 2 ) 2 p . 14 , 67\npyrilia barrabandi barrabandi ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 61\npyrilia caica ( latham ) 1790 indexorn . 1 p . 128 no . 137\npyrilia aurantiocephala ( gaban - lima , r , raposo , ma & hofling , e ) 2002 auk 119 p . 815 , 816 systematics\npyrilia vulturina ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 62 systematics\nhapalopsittaca amazonina ( des murs ) 1845 rev . zool . 8 p . 207\nhapalopsittaca amazonina amazonina ( des murs ) 1845 rev . zool . 8 p . 207\nhapalopsittaca amazonina theresae ( hellmayr ) 1915 verh . orn . ges . bayern 12 heft3 p . 214\nhapalopsittaca amazonina velezi graves , gr & restrepo 1989 wilsonbull . 101 no . 3 p . 369 - 376 , front .\nhapalopsittaca fuertesi ( chapman ) 1912 bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 31 p . 143\nhapalopsittaca melanotis melanotis ( lafresnaye ) 1847 rev . zool . 10 p . 67\nhapalopsittaca melanotis peruviana ( carriker ) 1932 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 83 [\n1931\n] p . 455\npionus sordidus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 99\npionus sordidus antelius todd 1947 ann . carnegiemus . nat . hist . 30 p . 338\npionus sordidus corallinus bonaparte 1854 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 6 p . 148\npionus sordidus mindoensis chapman 1925 am . mus . novit . no . 187 p . 1\npionus sordidus ponsi aveledo & gines 1950 mem . soc . cien . nat . lasalle 10 no . 26 p . 60\npionus sordidus saturatus todd 1915 proc . biol . soc . wash . 28 p . 81\npionus sordidus sordidus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 99\npionus maximiliani ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 72\npionus maximiliani lacerus heine 1884 j . orn . 32 no . 166 p . 265\npionus maximiliani maximiliani ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 72\npionus maximiliani melanoblepharus ribeiro 1920 rev . mus . paulista 12 pt2 p . 61\npionus maximiliani siy souance 1856 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 8 p . 155\npionus seniloides ( massena & souance ) 1854 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 6 p . 73\npionus menstruus ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 148\npionus menstruus menstruus ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 148\npionus menstruus reichenowi heine 1884 j . orn . 32 no . 166 p . 264 nomenclature\npionus menstruus rubrigularis cabanis 1881 j . orn . 29 no . 154 p . 222\npionus senilis ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 42 pl . 31 fig . 1\npionus chalcopterus ( fraser ) 1841 pzs [\n1840\n] pt8 no . 90 p . 59\ngraydidascalus brachyurus ( temminck & kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 72\nalipiopsitta ( f . ) capparoz , r & pacheco 2006 rev . brasil . orn . 14 no . 2 p . 174\nalipiopsitta xanthops ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 39 pl . 26\namazona festiva ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 101\namazona festiva bodini ( finsch ) 1873 pzs pt2 p . 569 pl . 49\namazona festiva festiva ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 101\namazona vinacea ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 77\namazona tucumana ( cabanis ) 1885 j . orn . 33 no . 170 p . 221\namazona pretrei ( temminck ) 1830 pl . col . livr . 83 pl . 492\namazona agilis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 99\namazona albifrons ( sparrman ) 1788 mus . carls . fasc . 3 no . 52 pl . 52\namazona albifrons albifrons ( sparrman ) 1788 mus . carls . fasc . 3 no . 52 pl . 52\namazona albifrons nana miller , w 1905 bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 21 p . 349\namazona albifrons saltuensis nelson 1899 proc . biol . soc . wash . 13 p . 26\namazona collaria ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 102\namazona leucocephala ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 100\namazona leucocephala bahamensis ( bryant , h ) 1867 proc . bostonsoc . nat . hist . 11 p . 65\namazona leucocephala hesterna bangs 1916 bull . mus . comp . zool . 60 p . 308\namazona leucocephala leucocephala ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 100\namazona vittata gracilipes\u2020 ridgway 1915 proc . biol . soc . wash . 28 p . 106\namazona autumnalis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 102\namazona autumnalis autumnalis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 102\namazona autumnalis lilacina lesson 1844 echomondesav . ( 2 ) 11 no . 30 col . 394 concept\namazona autumnalis salvini ( salvadori ) 1891 cat . birdsbrit . mus . 20 p . 271 , 300 pl . 7 fig . 3 citation\namazona diadema ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 43 pl . 32\namazona viridigenalis ( cassin ) 1853 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 6 p . 371\namazona xantholora ( gray , gr ) 1859 listbirdsbrit . mus . pt3 sect . 2 p . 83\namazona dufresniana ( shaw ) 1812 gen . zool . [ shaw ] 8 pt2 p . 513\namazona oratrix belizensis monroe , bl jr & howell , tr 1966 occ . pap . mus . zool . lsu no . 34 p . 18\namazona oratrix oratrix ridgway 1887 man . n . am . birds p . 587\namazona auropalliata ( lesson , pa ) 1842 rev . zool . 5 p . 135\namazona auropalliata auropalliata ( lesson , pa ) 1842 rev . zool . 5 p . 135\namazona auropalliata parvipes monroe , bl jr & howell , tr 1966 occ . pap . mus . zool . lsu no . 34 p . 8\namazona ochrocephala ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 339 concept\namazona ochrocephala nattereri ( finsch ) 1865 j . orn . 12 [\n1864\n] no . 72 p . 411 citation\namazona ochrocephala ochrocephala ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 339 concept\namazona ochrocephala panamensis ( cabanis ) 1874 j . orn . 22 no . 127 p . 349\namazona barbadensis ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 339\namazona aestiva ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 101\namazona aestiva aestiva ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 101\namazona aestiva xanthopteryx ( berlepsch ) 1896 orn . monatsb . 4 no . 11 p . 173\namazona mercenarius ( tschudi ) 1844 arch . naturgesch . 10 p . 303 nomenclature\namazona mercenarius canipalliata ( cabanis ) 1874 j . orn . 22 no . 125 p . 105\namazona mercenarius mercenarius ( tschudi ) 1844 arch . naturgesch . 10 p . 303\namazona guatemalae virenticeps ( salvadori ) 1891 cat . birdsbrit . mus . 20 p . 269 , 280 citation\namazona kawalli grantsau & camargo 1989 rev . brasil . biol . 49 p . 1018 concept\namazona brasiliensis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 102\namazona amazonica ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 147\namazona guildingii ( vigors ) 1837 pzs [\n1836\n] pt4 no . 45 p . 80\nforpus ( m . ) boie , f 1858 j . orn . 6 no . 35 p . 363\nforpus modestus ( cabanis ) 1849 reisenbrit . - guiana [ schomburgk ] 3 p . 727 nomenclature\nforpus modestus modestus ( cabanis ) 1849 reisenbrit . - guiana [ schomburgk ] 3 p . 727 nomenclature\nforpus modestus sclateri ( gray , gr ) 1859 listbirdsbrit . mus . pt3 sect . 2 p . 86\nforpus cyanopygius ( souance ) 1856 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 8 p . 157\nforpus cyanopygius cyanopygius ( souance ) 1856 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 8 p . 157\nforpus cyanopygius insularis ( ridgway ) 1888 proc . u . s . natl . mus . 10 p . 541\nforpus passerinus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 103\nforpus passerinus cyanochlorus ( schlegel ) 1864 mus . hist . pays - basrev . meth . crit . coll . livr . 5 no . 26 psittaci p . 31 concept\nforpus passerinus cyanophanes ( todd ) 1915 proc . biol . soc . wash . 28 p . 81\nforpus passerinus deliciosus ( ridgway ) 1888 proc . u . s . natl . mus . 10 p . 533 , 545\nforpus passerinus passerinus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 103\nforpus passerinus viridissimus ( lafresnaye ) 1848 rev . zool . 11 p . 172\nforpus spengeli ( hartlaub ) 1885 pzs pt3 no . 40 p . 614 pl . 38 fig . 1 nomenclature\nforpus xanthopterygius ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 38 pl . 34 fig . 1 nomenclature\nforpus xanthopterygius flavescens ( salvadori ) 1891 cat . birdsbrit . mus . 20 p . 241 , 248 citation\nforpus xanthopterygius flavissimus hellmayr 1929 fieldmus . nat . hist . pub . zool . ser . 12 p . 446\nforpus xanthopterygius xanthopterygius ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 38 pl . 34 fig . 1\nforpus conspicillatus caucae ( chapman ) 1915 bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 34 p . 383\nforpus conspicillatus conspicillatus ( lafresnaye ) 1848 rev . zool . 11 p . 172\nforpus conspicillatus metae borrero & hernandez - camacho 1961 noved . colomb . 1 no . 6 p . 431\nforpus xanthops ( salvin ) 1895 novit . zool . 2 p . 19 pl . 2 fig . 2\npionites ( m . ) heine 1890 nomen . mus . heine . orn . [ heine & reichenow ] p . 231\npionites melanocephalus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 102\npionites melanocephalus melanocephalus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 102\npionites melanocephalus pallidus ( berlepsch ) 1890 j . orn . 37 [\n1889\n] no . 187 p . 317 citation\npionites leucogaster ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 70\npionites leucogaster leucogaster ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 70\npionites leucogaster xanthomerius ( sclater , pl ) 1858 pzs [\n1857\n] pt25 no . 343 p . 266\npionites leucogaster xanthurus todd 1925 proc . biol . soc . wash . 38 p . 113\nderoptyus accipitrinus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 102\nderoptyus accipitrinus accipitrinus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 102\npyrrhura ( f . ) bonaparte 1856 naumannia 6 consp . psitt . inbeilag . no . 1 genus . 14\npyrrhura cruentata ( wied - neuwied ) 1820 reisebrasil . 1 p . 53 , 72\npyrrhura devillei ( massena & souance ) 1854 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 6 p . 73\npyrrhura frontalis ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 361\npyrrhura frontalis chiripepe ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 361\npyrrhura frontalis frontalis ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 361\npyrrhura lepida ( wagler ) 1832 abh . k . bay . akad . wiss . 1 p . 642 concept\npyrrhura lepida anerythra neumann 1927 orn . monatsb . 35 no . 3 p . 89\npyrrhura lepida coerulescens neumann 1927 orn . monatsb . 35 no . 3 p . 89\npyrrhura lepida lepida ( wagler ) 1832 abh . k . bay . akad . wiss . 1 p . 642 concept\npyrrhura perlata ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 35 pl . 20 concept\npyrrhura molinae ( massena & souance ) 1854 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 6 p . 73\npyrrhura molinae australis todd 1915 proc . biol . soc . wash . 28 p . 82 citation\npyrrhura molinae flavoptera maijer , herzog , kessler , friggens & fjeldsa 1998 orn . neotrop . 9 p . 186\npyrrhura molinae hypoxantha ( salvadori & festa ) 1899 boll . mus . zool . anat . comp . torino\n15\n[ = 14 ] no . 363 p . 1 nomenclature\npyrrhura molinae molinae ( massena & souance ) 1854 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 6 p . 73\npyrrhura molinae phoenicura ( schlegel ) 1864 mus . hist . pays - basrev . meth . crit . coll . livr . 5 no . 26 psittaci p . 26 concept\npyrrhura molinae restricta todd 1947 ann . carnegiemus . nat . hist . 30 p . 333\npyrrhura leucotis ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 21 nomenclature\npyrrhura picta caeruleiceps todd 1947 ann . carnegiemus . nat . hist . 30 p . 337\npyrrhura picta picta ( statius muller ) 1776 natursyst . suppl . p . 75\npyrrhura picta subandina todd 1917 proc . biol . soc . wash . 30 p . 6\npyrrhura emma salvadori 1891 cat . birdsbrit . mus . 20 p . 212 , 217 pl . 1 citation\npyrrhura amazonum lucida arndt 2008 papageien [ arndt ] 21 p . 278 , 279\npyrrhura amazonum snethlageae joseph & bates , jm 2002 orn . neotrop . 13 p . 354\npyrrhura lucianii ( deville ) 1851 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 3 p . 211\npyrrhura roseifrons ( gray , gr ) 1859 listbirdsbrit . mus . pt3 sect . 2 p . 42\npyrrhura roseifrons roseifrons ( gray , gr ) 1859 listbirdsbrit . mus . pt3 sect . 2 p . 42\npyrrhura roseifrons peruviana hocking , blake & joseph 2002 orn . neotrop . 13 p . 356\npyrrhura viridicata todd 1913 proc . biol . soc . wash . 26 p . 174\npyrrhura egregia ( sclater , pl ) 1881 ibis p . 130 pl . 4\npyrrhura egregia egregia ( sclater , pl ) 1881 ibis p . 130 pl . 4\npyrrhura egregia obscura zimmer & phelps , wh 1946 am . mus . novit . no . 1312 p . 1\npyrrhura melanura ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 36 pl . 22\npyrrhura melanura berlepschi salvadori 1891 cat . birdsbrit . mus . 20 p . 212 , 224 pl . 2 fig . 1 citation\npyrrhura melanura chapmani bond & meyer de schauensee 1940 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 92 p . 156\npyrrhura melanura melanura ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 36 pl . 22\npyrrhura melanura pacifica chapman 1915 bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 34 p . 382\npyrrhura melanura souancei ( verreaux , j ) 1858 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 10 p . 437 pl . 12\npyrrhura orcesi ridgely & robbins 1988 wilsonbull . 100 no . 2 p . 174 , 175\npyrrhura albipectus chapman 1914 bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 33 p . 319\npyrrhura rupicola rupicola ( tschudi ) 1844 arch . naturgesch . 10 p . 304\npyrrhura rupicola sandiae bond & meyer de schauensee 1944 not . nat . no . 138 p . 1\npyrrhura calliptera ( massena & souance ) 1854 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 6 p . 72\npyrrhura hoematotis souance 1857 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 9 p . 97\npyrrhura hoematotis hoematotis souance 1857 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 9 p . 97\npyrrhura hoematotis immarginata zimmer & phelps 1944 am . mus . novit . no . 1270 p . 4\npyrrhura rhodocephala ( sclater , pl & salvin ) 1871 pzs [\n1870\n] pt3 p . 787\npyrrhura hoffmanni ( cabanis ) 1861 sitz . ges . nat . freundeberlin [ no p . ]\npyrrhura hoffmanni gaudens bangs 1906 proc . biol . soc . wash . 19 p . 103\npyrrhura hoffmanni hoffmanni ( cabanis ) 1861 sitz . ges . nat . freundeberlin [ no p . ]\nenicognathus ( m . ) gray , gr 1840 listgen . birds p . 51\nenicognathus ferrugineus ferrugineus ( statius muller ) 1776 natursyst . suppl . p . 75\nenicognathus ferrugineus minor ( chapman ) 1919 bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 41 p . 323\ncyanoliseus patagonus ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 367\ncyanoliseus patagonus andinus dabbene & lillo 1913 an . mus . nac . hist . nat . buenosaires 24 p . 188 pl . 10\ncyanoliseus patagonus patagonus ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 367\nanodorhynchus leari bonaparte 1856 naumannia 6 consp . psitt . inbeilag . no . 1\nanodorhynchus glaucus\u2020 ( vieillot ) 1816 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 2 p . 259\nrhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha ( swainson ) 1827 philos . mag . n . s . 1 p . 439\nrhynchopsitta terrisi moore , rt 1947 proc . biol . soc . wash . 60 p . 27\neupsittula nana astec ( souance ) 1857 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 9 p . 97\neupsittula nana nana ( vigors ) 1830 zool . j . 5 p . 273\neupsittula nana vicinalis bangs & penard , te 1919 bull . mus . comp . zool . 63 p . 24\neupsittula canicularis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 98\neupsittula canicularis canicularis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 98\neupsittula canicularis clarae ( moore , rt ) 1937 proc . biol . soc . wash . 50 p . 101\neupsittula canicularis eburnirostrum ( lesson , pa ) 1842 rev . zool . 5 p . 135\neupsittula aurea ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 329\neupsittula pertinax ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 98\neupsittula pertinax aeruginosa ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 98\neupsittula pertinax chrysogenys ( massena & souance ) 1854 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 6 p . 72\neupsittula pertinax griseipecta ( meyer de schauensee ) 1950 not . nat . no . 221 p . 6\neupsittula pertinax lehmanni ( dugand ) 1943 caldasia 2 no . 7 p . 191\neupsittula pertinax margaritensis cory 1918 fieldmus . nat . hist . pub . zool . ser . 13 pub . 197 p . 63\neupsittula pertinax ocularis ( sclater , pl & salvin ) 1865 pzs [\n1864\n] pt3 p . 367 citation\neupsittula pertinax paraensis ( sick ) 1959 j . orn . 100 p . 413\neupsittula pertinax pertinax ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 98\neupsittula pertinax surinama ( zimmer & phelps , wh ) 1951 am . mus . novit . no . 1511 p . 1\neupsittula pertinax tortugensis ( cory ) 1909 fieldmus . nat . hist . pub . orn . ser . 1 p . 220\neupsittula pertinax venezuelae ( zimmer & phelps , wh ) 1951 am . mus . novit . no . 1511 p . 6\neupsittula pertinax xanthogenia ( bonaparte ) 1850 consp . gen . av . 1 p . 1\neupsittula cactorum ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 82\neupsittula cactorum cactorum ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 82\neupsittula cactorum caixana ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 34 pl . 19 fig . 1\nconuropsis carolinensis\u2020 ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 97 status\nconuropsis\u2020 carolinensis carolinensis\u2020 ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 97\nconuropsis\u2020 carolinensis ludoviciana\u2020 ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 347\naratinga weddellii ( deville ) 1851 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 3 p . 209\naratinga nenday ( vieillot ) 1823 tabl . encyc . meth . orn . 3 livr . 93 p . 1400\naratinga solstitialis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 97\naratinga maculata ( statius muller ) 1776 natursyst . suppl . p . 74 nomenclature\naratinga jandaya ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 319\naratinga auricapillus ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 20 nomenclature\naratinga auricapillus auricapillus ( kuhl ) 1820 novaactaacad . caes . leop . carol . 10 p . 20 nomenclature\naratinga auricapillus aurifrons spix 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 32 pl . 16 fig . 1\ncyanopsitta spixii ( wagler ) 1832 abh . k . bay . akad . wiss . 1 p . 675\nprimolius couloni ( sclater , pl ) 1876 pzs pt1 p . 255 , fig .\nprimolius auricollis ( cassin ) 1853 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 6 p . 372\nprimolius maracana ( vieillot ) 1816 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 2 p . 260\nara ararauna ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 96\nara militaris ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 139\nara militaris mexicanus ridgway 1915 proc . biol . soc . wash . 28 p . 106\nara militaris militaris ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 139\nara ambiguus ( bechstein ) 1811 allg . uebers . vogel [ latham ] 4 1 p . 65\nara ambiguus ambiguus ( bechstein ) 1811 allg . uebers . vogel [ latham ] 4 1 p . 65\nara ambiguus guayaquilensis chapman 1925 am . mus . novit . no . 205 p . 2\nara macao ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 96\nara macao cyanopterus wiedenfeld 1995 orn . neotrop . 5 [\n1994\n] no . 2 p . 99 citation\nara macao macao ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 96\nara chloropterus gray , gr 1859 listbirdsbrit . mus . pt3 sect . 2 p . 26 nomenclature\nara tricolor\u2020 ( bechstein ) 1811 allg . uebers . vogel [ latham ] 4 1 p . 64 pl . 1 nomenclature\nara severus ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 97\nleptosittaca ( f . ) berlepsch & stolzmann 1894 ibis p . 402 pl . 11\nognorhynchus icterotis ( massena & souance ) 1854 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 6 p . 71\nguaruba guarouba ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 320 citation\ndiopsittaca nobilis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 97\ndiopsittaca nobilis cumanensis ( lichtenstein ) 1823 verz . doubl . zool . mus . berlin p . 6\ndiopsittaca nobilis longipennis neumann 1931 mitt . zool . mus . berlin 17 heft3 p . 441 citation\ndiopsittaca nobilis nobilis ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 97\nthectocercus acuticaudatus ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 369\nthectocercus acuticaudatus acuticaudatus ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 369\nthectocercus acuticaudatus haemorrhous ( spix ) 1824 av . sp . nov . brasil . 1 p . 29 pl . 13\nthectocercus acuticaudatus neoxenus ( cory ) 1909 fieldmus . nat . hist . pub . orn . ser . 1 p . 243\nthectocercus acuticaudatus neumanni ( blake & traylor ) 1947 fieldianazool . 31 no . 21 p . 166\npsittacara holochlorus ( sclater , pl ) 1859 ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 4 p . 224\npsittacara holochlorus brewsteri ( nelson ) 1928 proc . biol . soc . wash . 41 p . 154\npsittacara holochlorus holochlorus ( sclater , pl ) 1859 ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 4 p . 224\npsittacara brevipes ( lawrence ) 1871 ann . lyc . nat . hist . n . y . 10 [\n1874\n] p . 14\npsittacara rubritorquis ( sclater , pl ) 1887 pzs [\n1886\n] pt4 no . 35 p . 539 pl . 56\npsittacara strenuus ( ridgway ) 1915 proc . biol . soc . wash . 28 p . 106\npsittacara wagleri ( gray , gr ) 1845 gen . birds 2 pl . cii\npsittacara wagleri transilis ( peters , jl ) 1927 proc . newengl . zool . cl . 9 p . 111\npsittacara wagleri wagleri ( gray , gr ) 1845 gen . birds 2 pl . cii\npsittacara frontatus ( cabanis ) 1846 faunaperuana [ tschudi ] orn . p . 272 , note\npsittacara frontatus frontatus ( cabanis ) 1846 faunaperuana [ tschudi ] orn . p . 272 , note\npsittacara frontatus minor ( carriker ) 1933 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 85 p . 3\npsittacara mitratus chlorogenys ( arndt ) 2006 j . orn . 147 p . 74\npsittacara mitratus mitratus ( tschudi ) 1844 arch . naturgesch . 10 p . 304\npsittacara mitratus tucumanus ( arndt ) 2006 j . orn . 147 p . 77\npsittacara erythrogenys lesson 1844 echomondesav . ( 2 ) 11 no . 34 col . 486 , 487\npsittacara leucophthalmus callogenys ( salvadori ) 1891 cat . birdsbrit . mus . 20 p . 171 , 188 citation\npsittacara leucophthalmus leucophthalmus ( statius muller ) 1776 natursyst . suppl . p . 75\npsittacara leucophthalmus nicefori meyer de schauensee 1946 not . nat . no . 163 p . 2\npsittacara euops ( wagler ) 1832 abh . k . bay . akad . wiss . 1 p . 638 pl . 24 fig . 2\npsittacara chloropterus souance 1856 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 8 p . 59\npsittacara maugei\u2020 souance 1856 rev . mag . zool . ( 2 ) 8 p . 59\npsittrichas fulgidus ( lesson ) 1830 traitedorn . livr . 3 p . 181 citation\ncoracopsis vasa ( shaw ) 1812 gen . zool . [ shaw ] 8 pt2 p . 528\ncoracopsis vasa comorensis ( peters , w ) 1854 ber . k . preuss . akad . wiss . berlin p . 371\ncoracopsis vasa drouhardi lavauden 1929 alauda 1 no . 4 & 5 p . 231\ncoracopsis vasa vasa ( shaw ) 1812 gen . zool . [ shaw ] 8 pt2 p . 528\ncoracopsis nigra ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 99\ncoracopsis nigra libs bangs 1927 proc . newengl . zool . cl . 9 p . 83\ncoracopsis nigra nigra ( linnaeus ) 1758 syst . nat . ed . 10 p . 99\ncoracopsis nigra sibilans milne - edwards & oustalet 1885 compt . rend . 101 p . 220\nmicropsitta keiensis ( salvadori ) 1876 ann . mus . civ . stor . nat . genova 7 [\n1875\n] p . 984\nmicropsitta keiensis chloroxantha oberholser 1917 proc . biol . soc . wash . 30 p . 126\nmicropsitta keiensis keiensis ( salvadori ) 1876 ann . mus . civ . stor . nat . genova 7 [\n1875\n] p . 984\nmicropsitta geelvinkiana ( schlegel ) 1871 nederl . tijdschr . dierk . 4 p . 7\nmicropsitta geelvinkiana geelvinkiana ( schlegel ) 1871 nederl . tijdschr . dierk . 4 p . 7\nmicropsitta geelvinkiana misoriensis ( salvadori ) 1876 ann . mus . civ . stor . nat . genova 7 [\n1875\n] p . 909\nmicropsitta pusio ( sclater , pl ) 1866 pzs [\n1865\n] pt3 p . 620 pl . 35\nmicropsitta pusio beccarii ( salvadori ) 1876 ann . mus . civ . stor . nat . genova 8 p . 396\nmicropsitta pusio harterti mayr 1940 am . mus . novit . no . 1091 p . 2\nmicropsitta pusio pusio ( sclater , pl ) 1866 pzs [\n1865\n] pt3 p . 620 pl . 35\nmicropsitta finschii ( ramsay , ep ) 1881 proc . linn . soc . news . wales 6 p . 180\nmicropsitta finschii finschii ( ramsay , ep ) 1881 proc . linn . soc . news . wales 6 p . 180\nmicropsitta finschii tristrami ( rothschild & hartert ) 1902 novit . zool . 9 p . 589\nmicropsitta finschii viridifrons ( rothschild & hartert ) 1899 orn . monatsb . 7 no . 9 p . 138\nmicropsitta bruijnii ( salvadori ) 1875 ann . mus . civ . stor . nat . genova 7 p . 715 , note , p . 753 , 907 pl . 21\nmicropsitta bruijnii bruijnii ( salvadori ) 1875 ann . mus . civ . stor . nat . genova 7 p . 715 , note , p . 753 , 907 pl . 21\nmicropsitta bruijnii pileata mayr 1940 am . mus . novit . no . 1091 p . 2\nmicropsitta bruijnii rosea mayr 1940 am . mus . novit . no . 1091 p . 2\npolytelis swainsonii ( desmarest ) 1826 dict . sci . nat . 39 p . 39\npolytelis anthopeplus ( lear ) 1831 ill . psittac . [ lear ] pt8 pl . 29\npolytelis anthopeplus anthopeplus ( lear ) 1831 ill . psittac . [ lear ] pt8 pl . 29\nalisterus amboinensis ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 141\nalisterus amboinensis amboinensis ( linnaeus ) 1766 syst . nat . ed . 12 p . 141\nalisterus amboinensis buruensis ( salvadori ) 1876 ann . mus . civ . stor . nat . genova 8 p . 371\nalisterus amboinensis dorsalis ( quoy & gaimard ) 1832 voy . astrolabezool . 1 [ 1830\n] p . 234 atlasois . pl . 21 fig . 3\nalisterus amboinensis hypophonius ( muller , s ) 1843 verh . nat . gesch . [ temminck ] land - volk . no . 6 p . 181 , note\nalisterus amboinensis sulaensis ( reichenow ) 1881 j . orn . 29 no . 154 p . 128\nalisterus chloropterus ( ramsay , ep ) 1879 proc . linn . soc . news . wales 3 pt3 p . 251\nalisterus chloropterus callopterus ( albertis & salvadori ) 1879 ann . mus . civ . stor . nat . genova 14 p . 29\nalisterus chloropterus chloropterus ( ramsay , ep ) 1879 proc . linn . soc . news . wales 3 pt3 p . 251\nalisterus chloropterus moszkowskii ( reichenow ) 1911 orn . monatsb . 19 p . 82\nalisterus scapularis ( lichtenstein ) 1816 zool . mus . univ . berlin p . 29\nalisterus scapularis minor mathews 1911 novit . zool . 18 no . 1 p . 23\nalisterus scapularis scapularis ( lichtenstein ) 1816 zool . mus . univ . berlin p . 29\naprosmictus jonquillaceus ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 352\naprosmictus jonquillaceus jonquillaceus ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 352\naprosmictus jonquillaceus wetterensis ( salvadori ) 1891 cat . birdsbrit . mus . 20 p . 481 , 484 citation\naprosmictus erythropterus ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 343\naprosmictus erythropterus coccineopterus ( gould ) 1865 handb . birdsaustr . 2 p . 39\naprosmictus erythropterus erythropterus ( gmelin ) 1788 syst . nat . 1 pt1 p . 343\nprioniturus platurus ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 314\nprioniturus platurus platurus ( vieillot ) 1818 nouv . dict . hist . nat . 25 [\n1817\n] p . 314\nprioniturus waterstradti malindangensis mearns 1909 proc . u . s . natl . mus . 36 no . 1678 p . 437\nprioniturus platenae blasius , w 1888 braunschw . anz . no . 37 p . 335 author\nprioniturus flavicans cassin 1853 proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 6 p . 373\nprioniturus discurus ( vieillot ) 1822 gal . ois . 1 p . 7 pl . 26\nprioniturus discurus discurus ( vieillot ) 1822 gal . ois . 1 p . 7 pl . 26\nprioniturus discurus whiteheadi salomonsen 1953 vidensk . medd . dansk . naturhist . for . 115 p . 224\neclectus roratus cornelia bonaparte 1850 compt . rend . 30 p . 135 , 136 citation\neclectus roratus macgillivrayi mathews 1913 australav . rec . 2 no . 4 p . 75\neclectus roratus polychloros ( scopoli ) 1786 del . flor . faun . insubr . 2 p . 87\neclectus roratus riedeli meyer , ab 1882 pzs [\n1881\n] pt4 p . 917\neclectus roratus roratus ( statius muller ) 1776 natursyst . suppl . p . 77\neclectus roratus solomonensis rothschild & hartert 1901 novit . zool . 8 no . 1 p . 82\neclectus roratus vosmaeri ( rothschild ) 1922 ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 9 ) 9 p . 412\neclectus roratus westermani\u2020 ( bonaparte ) 1850 consp . gen . av . 1 p . 4\ngeoffroyus geoffroyi ( bechstein ) 1811 allg . uebers . vogel [ latham ] 4 1 p . 103 pl . 21\ngeoffroyus geoffroyi aruensis ( gray , gr ) 1858 pzs pt26 no . 358 p . 183\ngeoffroyus geoffroyi cyanicollis ( muller , s ) 1841 verh . nat . gesch . [ temminck ] land - volk . no . 4 p . 108 , 182 , note\ngeoffroyus geoffroyi floresianus salvadori 1891 cat . birdsbrit . mus . 20 p . 400 , 406 citation"]}
{"id": 2340, "summary": [{"text": "atractaspis boulengeri , or the central african burrowing asp , is a species of venomous snake in the atractaspididae family .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is endemic to africa . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "atractaspis boulengeri", "paragraphs": ["atractaspis boulengeri by lambert m . surhone , mariam t . tennoe , susan f . henssonow\nthe specific epithet , boulengeri , is in honor of belgian - british herpetologist george albert boulenger .\nscott ellsworth changed the thumbnail image of\natractaspis bibronii bibron ' s stiletto snake\n.\nscott ellsworth changed the thumbnail image of\natractaspis bibronii , bibron ' s stiletto snake\n.\nrenato agazzi added the italian common name\natrattaspide di bibron\nto\natractaspis bibronii smith 1849\n.\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\ns\u00fcdliche erdotter\nto\natractaspis bibronii smith 1849\n.\nrenato agazzi marked the classification from\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis )\nas preferred for\natractaspis bibronii smith 1849\n.\nlaurent , r . f . ( 1945 ) contribution a la connaissance du genre atractaspis a . smith . : rev . zool . bot . afr . , 38 : 312 - 343\nbeolens b , watkins m , grayson m . 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( atractaspis bibroni [ sic ] , p . 25 ) .\nbranch , bill . 2004 . field guide to snakes and other reptiles of southern africa . third revised edition , second impression . sanibel island , florida : ralph curtis books . 399 pp . isbn 0 - 88359 - 042 - 5 ( atractaspis bibronii , p . 62 & plate 38 ) .\nboulenger ga . 1896 . catalogue of the snakes in the british museum ( natural history ) , volume iii . , containing the . . . viperid\u00e6 . london : trustees of the british museum ( natural history ) . ( taylor and francis , printers ) . xiv + 727 pp . + plates i - xxv . ( atractaspis bibronii , p . 515 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsnake species of the world , vol . undetermined , manuscript ( version 2004 )\nworking manuscript of follow - up volumes to mcdiarmid et al . ( 1999 ) ,\nsnake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nupdate 1st june , 2018 : we just set up snake _ id , a cool new page that simplifies snake identification . be sure to check it out !\nimages provided by flickr - / inaturalist - api . sporadic false assignments may occur .\ndo not try to catch these snakes by grabbing them behind the head . they can and will bite while being held at the neck . the potency of their venom is discussed controversely . lethal bite accidents ( circulatory failure , respiratory arrest ) are well documented .\n? ? ? to ? ? ? meter above sea level ( a . s . l . )\ntreatment summary burrowing asp bites mostly cause minor effects , but severe local effects , including necrosis , can occur , as can potentially lethal systemic effects , so all cases should be urgently assessed , have ongoing cardiac monitoring , receive supportive & symptomatic treatment . antivenom is not generally available .\ngeneral approach to management all cases should be treated as urgent & potentially lethal . rapid assessment & commencement of treatment including appropriate antivenom ( if indicated & available ) is mandatory . admit all cases .\n( cc by - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - noncommerical - sharealike\n( cc by - nc - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - share alike\n( gpl3 . 0 ) , or in the public domain ( pd ) , as shown in the caption to the image displayed on www . toxinology . com .\ncopyright 2001 - 2018 toxinology , wch . all rights reserved . best viewed in 800x600 resolution or higher .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nchifundera , k . ( 1990 ) snakes of zaire and their bites . : afr . stud . monogr . ( kyoto ) 10 ( 3 ) : 137 - 157 .\nchirio , l . & lebreton , m . ( 2007 ) atlas des reptiles du cameroun . : mnhn , ird , paris 688 pp .\nchirio , laurent and ivan ineich ( 2006 ) biogeography of the reptiles of the central african republic . : african journal of herpetology 55 ( 1 ) : 23 - 59 .\ndobiey , m . & vogel , g . ( 2007 ) venomous snakes of africa / giftschlangen afrikas . : terralog 15 , edition chimaira , frankfurt am main , 150 pp .\nlaurent , r . f . ( 1956 ) contribution \u00e0 l ' herpetologie de la r\u00e9gion des grandes lacs de l ' afrique centrale . : ann . mus . roy . congo belge ( sci . zool . ) , 48 : 1 - 390\nmocquard , m . f . ( 1897 ) sur une collection de reptiles recueillis par m . haug , \u00e0 lambar\u00e9n\u00e9 . : bull . soc . philom . paris , ( 8 ) 9 : 5 - 20\npauwels , o . s . g . & vande weghe , j . p . ( 2008 ) les reptiles du gabon . : smithsonian institution , washington : 272 pp .\nsternfeld , r . ( 1917 ) reptilia und amphibia . in : schubotz , h . ( hrsg . ) : wissenschaftliche ergebnisse der zweiten deutschen zentral - afrika - expedition , 1910 - 1911 unter f\u00fchrung adolph friedrichs , herzog zu mecklenburg . : leipzig : klinkhardt & biermann , [ band ] 1 , zoologie , lieferung 11 ; s . 407 - 510 .\ntrape , j . f . ( 1985 ) les serpents de la region de dimonika ( mayombe , republique popilaire du congo . : revue de zoologie africaine 99 ( 2 ) : 135 - 140\ntrape , j . f . & r . roux - est\u00e8ve ( 1995 ) les serpents du congo : liste comment\u00e9e et cl\u00e9 de d\u00e9termination . : journal of african zoology 109 ( 1 ) : 31 - 50\nwerner , f . ( 1897 ) \u00fcber reptilien und batrachier aus togoland , kamerun und tunis aus dem kgl . museum f\u00fcr naturkunde in berlin . : verh . zool . - bot . ges . , wien 47 : 395 - 407\nadults average 30 - 50 cm ( 12 - 20 inches ) in total length with a maximum of 70 cm ( 27\u00bd inches ) . the color pattern consists of a purplish - brown , gray or black ground color , often with a purplish sheen . the belly can be brownish , white or pale yellow in color , with a series of dark blotches . in specimens with a lighter belly coloration , this may also include two or three scale rows on the flanks .\nsnout prominent , subcuneiform . portion of rostral visible from above as long as or a little shorter than its distance from the frontal . dorsal scales in 21 or 23 rows . ventrals 221 - 260 ; anal entire ; subcaudals 20 - 23 , all or greater part single ( not divided ) .\nthe venom is highly toxic , although it is produced in very small amounts . bites are common in some areas . often , snake handlers are bitten who are unaware that this species is able to bite while being held by the neck . bite symptoms usually include mild to intense pain , local swelling with occasional blistering and necrosis and regional lymphadenopathy . no fatalities have been recorded .\nspawls s , branch b . 1995 . the dangerous snakes of africa . ralph curtis books . dubai : oriental press . 192 pp . isbn 0 - 88359 - 029 - 8 .\nclassification from integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) selected by renato agazzi - see more .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more"]}
{"id": 2342, "summary": [{"text": "the franklin mountain woodland snail ( ashmunella pasonis ) is a species of land snail in the family polygyridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is native to new mexico and texas in the united states . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "franklin mountain woodland snail", "paragraphs": ["bonham , k . and taylor , r . j . ( 1997 ) distribution and habitat of the land snail\nlindenmayer , d . b . and franklin , j . f . ( 1996 )\nlearn more about woodland caribou and share that knowledge . a little knowledge can go a long way to create understanding and appreciation for woodland caribou .\nsolem , a . and mckenzie , n . l . ( 1991 ) the composition of land snail assemblages in kimberley rainforests . in\nfranklin , j . f . ( 1993 ) preserving biodiversity : species , ecosystems or landscapes .\nin general , species of woodland snails are sensitive to long periods of dessication .\nin the mountain national parks , five key threats to caribou populations have been identified .\nwoodland caribou have a good sense of smell , useful for finding lichen under the snow .\non - going research is creating greater understanding of the complex relationships at play in mountain ecosystems .\ntalus slopes , usually of limestone , but also of rhyolite , sandstone and siltstone , in arid mountain ranges .\nlindenmayer , d . b . and franklin , j . f . ( 1999 ) managing unreserved forest for biodiversity conservation : the importance of matrix . in\nwhy protect woodland caribou ? woodland caribou are just one strand in an ecosystem\u2019s complex fabric of relationships . if this strand disappears , how many others will follow ? woodland caribou are symbols of the need for balance in a country defined by both its untouched wilderness and its natural resource extraction . what will our canada look like in the future and will there still be a place for caribou ?\ndocumented from two isolated mountain ranges in southwest texas and south - central new mexico . the southern population is in the franklin mountains , elpaso county , texas and dona ana county , new mexico . the northern population is in the san andres mountains , sierra and dona ana counties , new mexico .\nenvironment canada is leading the development of a sara compliant recovery strategy , to guide recovery of the southern mountain population of woodland caribou in canada . parks canada is participating in the development of this strategy . the recovery strategy will be developed in cooperation and consultation with partners and stakeholders , and will be followed by one or more action plans for the population . parks canada is also legally responsible for the protection and management of southern mountain populations of woodland caribou on national park lands in canada , under the canada national parks act .\nneumann , f . g . ( 1991 ) responses of litter arthropods to major natural or artificial ecological disturbances in mountain ash forest .\neducation and awareness are key to fostering concern and action in caribou recovery . parks canada continues to provide meaningful opportunities for people to learn about woodland caribou . parks canada website content aims to keep the public informed on current issues and actions in terms of species at risk like the woodland caribou . within the four mountain national parks , educational materials are available from general information handouts to interpretive panels in key areas of the parks . parks canada and other educational partners provide opportunities for students to learn about woodland caribou through both hands - on in class presentations and remote learning experiences .\nwoodland caribou found in jasper , banff , mount revelstoke , and glacier national parks belong to the southern mountain population , distinct from most other woodland caribou in their use of mountain habitat . they do not migrate like many other caribou but rather move elevationally in response to seasonal changes . even within the southern mountain population , this elevational migration differs regionally in response to very different climates . mount revelstoke and glacier national parks are in the columbia mountain range , characterized by heavy snowfall in winter . caribou in this region have adapted to take advantage of the deep snow , using this added height to reach lichen growing in the trees . jasper and banff national parks in the rocky mountains are in a much drier climate and rarely get the snow depths seen in revelstoke and glacier . caribou in these areas have adapted to searching out terrestrial lichens under the snow , and will descend in elevation as snow levels accumulate .\nmetcalf a . l . and w . e . johnson . 1971 . gastropods of the franklin mountains , el paso county , texas . the sw naturalist 16 ( 1 ) : 85 - 109 .\nwoodland / shrubland map units were defined as those ecological systems and land uses containing a majority of short , scrubby , woody vegetation or sparsely canopied treed vegetation .\nwoodland caribou found in jasper , banff , mount revelstoke , and glacier national parks belong to the southern mountain population listed as threatened under canada\u2019s species at risk act ( sara ) . within the southern mountain population at least one herd has been extirpated ( no longer exists in that area ) and several other herds are at risk of disappearing . the status of these caribou herds varies throughout the different regions and each herd faces distinct challenges on the road to successful recovery .\ncaribou conservation actions will vary between the four mountain national parks of jasper , banff , mount revelstoke and glacier , recognizing the unique circumstances in each park .\n( 250 - 20 , 000 square km ( about 100 - 8000 square miles ) ) documented from two isolated mountain ranges in southwest texas and south - central new mexico . the southern population is in the franklin mountains , elpaso county , texas and dona ana county , new mexico . the northern population is in the san andres mountains , sierra and dona ana counties , new mexico .\n( mountain ash ) forest in the central highlands , victoria , vsp technical report no . 17 , silvicultural systems project , department of conservation and natural resources , melbourne .\nkoch , l . e . and majer , j . d . ( 1980 ) a phenological investigation of various invertebrates in forest and woodland areas in the southwest of western australia .\noutside the mountain national parks , habitat loss is a major threat to woodland caribou . within the parks , there is the potential for habitat loss due to fires . while fire plays an important role in ecosystem health , biologists are working with parks canada fire and vegetation specialists to minimize potential impacts to caribou habitat . changes to human use of caribou habitat in the mountain national parks could also affect use of these areas by caribou . a secondary effect of habitat loss is changes in the predator / prey dynamic , as described above .\nparks canada is committed to protecting woodland caribou and their habitat , and to contributing to their recovery . the conservation strategy for woodland caribou , southern mountain population , on parks canada lands has been created to guide caribou conservation measures in the mountain national parks . many actions have been implemented to reduce threats to caribou populations including seasonal closures of important caribou wintering habitat such as the cavell road closure in jasper national park and the mount klotz area closure in mount revelstoke national park ; strategic elk management plans to restore the predator - prey balance in jasper and banff national parks ; and establishing caribou crossing zones to reduce vehicle speeds on the icefields parkway in jasper . these and other actions are being monitored to gauge their effectiveness .\nongoing scientific research and monitoring of caribou , wolf , and elk populations is creating greater understanding of the complex relationships within mountain ecosystems . this knowledge helps guide sound management decisions and the implementation of effective recovery measures .\nlindenmayer , d . b . , incoll , r . d . , cunningham , r . b . and donnelly , c . f . ( 1999 ) attributes of logs on the floor of australian mountain ash (\nwoodland caribou are a subspecies of caribou found in the boreal forests and mountain regions of canada from newfoundland to british columbia . they are a medium sized member of the deer family , rich brown in colour with white necks . unlike the great herds of barren - ground caribou to the north , woodland caribou are usually found in groups of only up to ten to twenty - five animals . during the fall rut season , one male will try to gather a larger group of females together while keeping other males away . female caribou are usually three years old before they have their first calf and only have one calf per year . calves are born in late may or early june .\nthe genetic relationships of the species of ashmunella from the franklin mountains , el paso county , texas northward through the san andres mountains , sierra county , new mexico needs to be studied to understand the relatedness and distinctness of the species . basic information on the ecology of the species is also needed .\nthe protection needs of the southernmost subspecies should be determined by assessing the threat of quarrying and urban development in that mountain range . the national wildlife refuge and u . s . army installation should develop protection plans for talus slope snails as a group .\nwoodland caribou are an indicator of the health of our forests . if these forests can no longer support a species that has been here for thousands of years , it is a likely indication that other forest species are also in trouble . a rich diversity of species is reflective of a healthy and functioning ecosystem .\nquarrying and possibly urban development are threats to one of the subspecies on the single mountain where it occurs . the greatest threat to the species may be climate warming . while range contraction due to climate warming since the pleistocene has not been documented for this species , it has been documented for many other species in the genus , a genus restricted to the arid southwest .\nharmon , m . e . , franklin , j . f . , swanson , f . j . , sollins , p . , gregory , s . v . , lattin , j . d . , anderson , n . h . , cline , s . p . , aumen , n . g . , sedell , j . r . , lienkaemper , g . w . , cromack , k . jr . and cummins , k . w . ( 1986 ) ecology of coarse woody debris in temperate ecosystems .\nforest / open ecotone + woodlands / shrublands \u2013 the forest / open only ecotone does not consider environments with sparse canopies or scrubby vegetation , therefore this data layer includes woodland and shrubland map units that would otherwise be ignored . this dataset uses 2 data layers in tandem . the forest / open ecotone and the woodlands / shrublands ( i . e . , wlsl ) are calculated individually and then combined to depict a landscape that includes both ecotones .\nforest and ecotone habitats the ecotone ( i . e . , edge ) between forested and non - forested environments can be a critical aspect of habitat . we grouped map units into forested , non - forested , and shrubland / woodland land cover types to create unique data layers . these data layers can then be buffered at specified distances to identify species habitats . aggregated map units can be compared and contrasted to identify areas of transition between these broad categories . they can also be used to identify core areas or contiguous blocks of similar type ( i . e . , interior ) through buffering .\noutside of the national parks , the primary cause of decline in woodland caribou populations is likely habitat loss . mining , logging , oil and gas exploration and even excessive motorized recreation have all contributed to a fragmented and altered landscape often leading to increased populations of deer , moose , elk , and their predators . caribou require large areas of land with low densities of predators ; it is part of their anti - predator strategy : live in places where others don\u2019t . they also require stands of old growth forest that support the growth of lichen and offer them protection from predators . as caribou numbers decline , increased predation and even natural events such as an avalanche can have devastating effects .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , p . m . mikkelsen , r . j . neves , c . f . e . roper , g . rosenberg , b . roth , a . scheltema , f . g . thompson , m . vecchione , and j . d . williams . 1998 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks . 2nd edition . american fisheries society special publication 26 , bethesda , maryland : 526 pp .\nranking factors were given equal weight . the relatively narrow range of the species could justify a range - rank of g2g3 .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\n24 documented occurrences ( metcalf and johnson , 1971 ; metcalf and smartt , 1997 ) .\nbased on number of shells of recently dead individuals at sites , it is estimated to be relatively common where it occurs .\nspecies in the genus are restricted to mountains in the arid southwest . for many species , including this one , a broader distribution of fossil shells than live individuals indicates range contraction .\noccurrences are based on some evidence of historical or current presence of single or multiple specimens , including live specimens or recently dead shells ( i . e . , soft tissue still attached without signs of external weathering or staining ) , at a given location with potentially recurring existence . weathered shells constitute a historic occurrence . evidence is derived from reliable published observation or collection data ; unpublished , though documented ( i . e . government or agency reports , web sites , etc . ) observation or collection data ; or museum specimen information .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nmetcalf , a . l . 1984 . distribution of land snails of the san andreas and organ mountains , southern new mexico . the southwestern naturalist 29 ( 1 ) : 35 - 44 .\nmetcalf , a . l . and r . a . smartt . 1997 . land snails of new mexico . bulletin of the new mexico museum of natural history and science , 10 : 1 - 145 .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nthe caribou design is featured on the 25 cent circulation coin from the royal canadian mint . it was created by canadian artist emmanuel hahn and was first used in 1937 \u00a9 royal canadian mint\nlichens are a caribou ' s primary food source in winter . in the summer , grasses , broad - leaved plants and herbs are added to the menu .\nwhen caribou run . . . they click ! the sound comes from tendons slipping over bones in their feet . a trotting herd of caribou sounds like a horde of tourists with cameras .\nthe current distribution of boreal caribou is shown in green . the estimated southern extent of historical caribou distribution is indicated by the dashed line .\nyoung calf in jasper national park . females usually give birth to a single calf in late may or early june .\nit is unlikely that any caribou remain after a large avalanche in 2009 killed the last five individuals remaining in that herd .\ntwo caribou herds have ranges that extend into parts of mount revelstoke and glacier national parks ; the columbia south herd and the duncan herd . there are approximately 6 caribou left in each herd . population monitoring and protection is carried out in cooperation with the bc ministry of forests and bc ministry of environment .\nherd , estimated at less than 100 caribou , spends most of its time outside of the national park . in recent years surveys suggest the a la peche population has been declining . three additional herds of caribou are found in the southern part of jasper national park , spending most , if not all their time within the national park . the three herds use distinct regions of the park and rarely interact . in total , their numbers are estimated at approximately 55 animals and have been declining . the largest herd in south jasper is the tonquin herd located in the tonquin valley . the other two herds , maligne and brazeau , both have less than 10 animals .\nwhen so few caribou remain , any number killed by vehicles is too many .\nthe key survival strategy of caribou is to live in areas that have few predators , especially wolves . caribou\u2019s unique adaptations allow them to live in habitat that is unsuitable for other prey such as elk and deer , and therefore less attractive to predators . the deer and elk populations in the surrounding areas do however still affect the size of the predator populations , and as a result can increase the risk of predation on caribou . in jasper and banff national .\ncaribou are naturally adapted to travel in deep snow giving them an advantage over wolves and other predators in winter . by staying in areas of deep snow caribou can effectively avoid predation as most predators cannot travel through snow as easily .\nas has been shown in many other species , very small populations are more likely to decline than to increase . even if recovery actions reduce the previous threats , some populations are likely too small to be sustained without the addition of more caribou . the loss of any animal from such small herds can be devastating and random events such as a large avalanche could wipe them out entirely .\nbanff national park , conservation will require the re - introduction of caribou . research in the park indicates that the translocation of caribou could be used to successfully establish a new herd . caribou habitat remains intact and plentiful within the historic range , and does not face the pressure of high human use or development .\nthe most significant cause of decline leading to the extirpation of caribou in banff national park is likely the increased numbers of predators in response to an inflated elk population . monitoring of elk and wolf populations shows both these populations have declined , suggesting that conditions are favourable to support the persistence of introduced caribou .\nwhile conditions may be favourable , finding a sufficient number of caribou is the challenge . a wild source herd that is stable enough to support the translocation of animals for this and / or other recovery initiatives has not been found . the alternative is to breed caribou in captivity and release yearlings and / or family groups to the wild . banff national park biologists have taken the lead on exploring this option in partnership with other parks canada scientists , universities , and experts in the field . it has been determined that captive rearing would be a feasible option and suitable facilities have been investigated . if implemented , the translocation of these caribou to the wild would be combined with the management of elk populations and on - going monitoring of wolf pack movements to increase the probability of success in bringing caribou back to the wilderness of banff national park .\nin jasper national park , caribou conservation actions will aim to reduce the 5 key threats and stem population declines in the southern herd . these recovery actions will require the support of other parks canada experts in areas like elk and fire management , and of recreationists and other park users when recovery actions may affect recreational opportunities . within the southern jasper population , two herds of caribou are already low in numbers , isolated and declining . to become self - sustaining , these herds will require augmentation with additional caribou . jasper national park biologists have also been very involved in the captive rearing research , and feasibility assessments that have been carried out in banff . similar to banff , if implemented , herd augmentations would be combined with the management of elk populations and on - going monitoring of wolf pack movements . conservation actions for the northern a la peche herd will require cooperative management with the alberta provincial government and commercial operators in the area .\nbecause very few of the columbia south herd make use of parks canada lands , conservation actions will be largely guided by provincial and commercial partnerships and / or initiatives . within mount revelstoke and glacier national parks actions will focus on protecting important habitat , minimizing direct disturbance of caribou , monitoring and research , and careful fire management . partnerships with the province of british columbia will also be explored .\nif you visit jasper , banff , mount revelstoke , or glacier national parks , stop by the visitor centre to find out how and where you can learn more about caribou in these parks .\ntravel responsibly in caribou habitat . if you see caribou , keep your distance to lessen your impact on the animals and avoid displacing them .\nleave your dog at home when venturing into caribou habitat . any dog , regardless of whether or not it looks like a wolf , can cause unnecessary stress for caribou .\nbe part of the scientific monitoring \u2013 report your sightings to the visitor centre ! where , how many , did you notice calves , and do you have photos ? avoid important caribou habitat in winter - there are many other beautiful places to explore . ask at the local visitor centre .\nbe a good steward of your land and support the efforts of organisations that help protect the environment . try to reduce your ecological footprint .\nevi , an amazon company , was founded in 2005 under the name true knowledge . the team started out with a mission to make it possible to access the world ' s knowledge simply by asking for information using natural language .\nwe\u2019re part of the amazon alexa team based in amazon ' s innovative cambridge development centre , alongside other amazon teams including prime air , core machine learning , amazon devices and amazon web services .\nto use this website , cookies must be enabled in your browser . to enable cookies , follow the instructions for your browser below .\nthere is a specific issue with the facebook in - app browser intermittently making requests to websites without cookies that had previously been set . this appears to be a defect in the browser which should be addressed soon . the simplest approach to avoid this problem is to continue to use the facebook app but not use the in - app browser . this can be done through the following steps :\nbefore the cookie settings change will take effect , safari must restart . to restart safari press and hold the home button ( for around five seconds ) until the iphone / ipad display goes blank and the home screen appears .\na note about relevant advertising : we collect information about the content ( including ads ) you use across this site and use it to make both advertising and content more relevant to you on our network and other sites . this is also known as online behavioural advertising . you can find out more about our policy and your choices , including how to opt - out here .\nabbott , i . ( 1974 ) numbers of plant , insect and land bird species on nineteen remote islands in the southern hemisphere .\nabbott , i . , wills , a . and burbidge , t . ( 1999 ) the impact of canopy development on arthropod faunas in recently established\nabensperg - traun , m . , arnold , g . , steven , d . , smith , g . , atkins , l . , viveen , j . and gutter , m . ( 1997 ) biodiversity indicators in contrasting vegetation types , a case study from western australia .\nandersen , a . n . ( 1990 ) the use of ant communities to evaluate change in australian terrestrial ecosystems , a review and a recipe .\nandersen , a . n . ( 1997 ) ants as indicators of ecosystem restoration following mining , a functional group approach . in\n( p . hale and d . lamb , eds ) , pp . 319 - 25 . brisbane : centre for conservation biology , the university of queensland .\nandersen , a . n . ( 1999 ) my bioindicator or yours ? making the selection .\nandrew , n . , rodgerson , l . and york , a . ( 2000 ) frequent fuel reduction burning : the role of logs and associated leaf litter in the conservation of ant biodiversity .\naplet , g . h . , johnson , n . , olson , j . t . and sample , v . a . ( 1993 )\nausmus , b . s . ( 1977 ) regulation of wood decomposition rates by arthropod and annelid populations .\nbeaudry , s . , duchesne , l . c . and cote , b . ( 1997 ) short - term effects of three forestry practices on carabid assemblages in a jack pine forest .\nbird , g . a . and chatarpaul , l . ( 1986 ) effect of whole - tree and conventional forest harvest on soil microarthropods .\nbrown , g . w . and nelson , j . l . ( 1992 ) habitat utilisation by heliothermic reptiles of different successional stages of\nbunnell , f . l . and kremaster , l . l . ( 1990 ) sustaininmg wildlife in managed forests .\nbutterfield , j . ( 1997 ) carabid community succession during the forestry cycle in conifer plantations .\ncancela da fonseca , j . p . ( 1990 ) forest management , impact on soil microarthropods and soil microorganisms .\nchurchill , t . b . ( 1997 ) spiders as ecological indicators , an overview for australia .\ncline , s . p . , berg , a . b . and wight , h . m . ( 1980 ) snag characteristics and dynamics in douglas - fir forests , western oregon .\ncoops , n . c . , culvenor , d . and catling , p . c . ( 1998 ) predicting habitat and structural attributes in eucalypt forests using high spatial resolution remotely sensed imagery .\ncoyle , f . a . ( 1981 ) effects of clearcutting on the spider community of a southern appalachian forest .\ncranston , p . s . and trueman , j . w . h . ( 1997 ) \u2018indicator\u2019 taxa in invertebrate biodiversity assessment .\ncurry , s . j . , humphreys , w . f . , koch , l . e . and main , b . y . ( 1985 ) changes in arachnid communities resulting from forestry practices in karri forest , south - west western australia .\nedmonds , r . l . and marra , j . l . ( 1999 ) decomposition of woody material , nutrient dynamics , invertebrate / fungi relationships and management in northwest forests . in\n( r . t . meurisse , w . g . ypsilantis and c . seybold , eds ) , pp . 68 - 79 . portland : u . s . department of agriculture , forest service pacific northwest research station .\n( k . elberg , m . martin and a . pekkarinen , eds ) , pp . 55 - 61 . tartu : eesti loodusfoto .\nesseen , p . a . , ehnstrom , b . , ericson , l . and sjoberg , k . ( 1992 ) boreal forests - the focal habitats of fennoscandia . in\n( l . hansson , ed ) , pp . 252 - 325 . london : elsevier applied science .\nfriend , g . ( 1994 ) fire ecology of invertebrates - implications for nature conservation , fire management and future research . in\n( biodiversity unit , ed . ) , pp . 155 - 62 . canberra : biodiversity unit , department of the environment sport and territories .\ngibbons , p . and lindenmayer , d . ( 1996 ) issues associated with the retention of hollow - bearing trees within eucalypt forests managed for wood production .\n, environmental heritage monograph series no . 3 . sydney : nsw national parks and wildlife service .\ngreenberg , c . h . and mcgrane , a . ( 1996 ) a comparison of relative abundance and biomass of ground - dwelling arthropods under different forest management practices .\ngreenslade , p . and greenslade , p . j . m . ( 1987 ) ecological strategies in collembola , a new approach to the use of terrestrial invertebrates in environmental assessment . in\ngutowski , j . m . ( 1986 ) species composition and structure of the communities of longhorn beetles ( col . , cerambycidae ) in virgin and managed stands of tilio - carpinetum stachyetosum association in the bialowieza forest ( ne poland ) .\nhansen , a . j . , garman , s . l . , marks , b . and urban , d . l . ( 1993 ) an approach for managing vertebrate diversity across multiple - use landscapes .\nhazell , p . and gustafsson , l . ( 1999 ) retention of trees at final harvest - evaluation of a conservation technique using epiphytic bryophyte and lichen transplants .\nheliovaara , k . and vaisanen , r . ( 1984 ) effects of modern forestry on northwestern european forest invertebrates , a synthesis .\nhill , j . k . , hamer , k . c . , lace , l . a . and banham , w . m . t . ( 1995 ) effects of selective logging on tropical forest butterflies on buru , indonesia .\nintachat , j . , holloway , j . d . and speight , m . r . ( 1997 ) the effects of different forest management practices on geometroid moth populations and their diversity in peninsular malaysia .\nkaila , l . , martikainen , p . and punttila , p . ( 1997 ) dead trees left in clear - cuts benefit saproxylic coleoptera adapted to natural disturbances in boreal forest .\nkitching , r . l . and callaghan , c . ( 1982 ) the fauna of water - filled treeholes in box forest in south - east queensland .\nkleinevoss , k . , topp , w . and bohac , j . ( 1996 ) dead wood , an essential habitat for xylobiont insects in a commercial forest .\nlambeck , r . j . ( 1997 ) focal species : a multi - species umbrella for nature conservation .\nlandres , p . b . , verner , j . and thomas , j . w . ( 1988 ) ecological uses of vertebrate indicator species : a critique .\nlarkin , p . a . and elbourn , c . a . ( 1964 ) some observations on the fauna of dead wood in live oak trees .\nlattin , j . d . ( 1993 ) arthropod diversity and conservation in oldgrowth northwest forests .\nlawrence , j . f . and britton , e . b . ( 1994 )\nlawton , j . h . , bignell , d . e . , bolton , b . , bloemers , g . f . , eggleton , p . , hammond , p . m . , hodda , m . , holt , r . d . , larsen , t . b . , mawdsley , n . a . and stork , n . e . ( 1998 ) biodiversity inventories , indicator taxa and effects of habitat modification in tropical forest .\nleonard , b . v . ( 1974 ) the effects of burning on litter fauna in eucalypt forests . in\n, australian centre for resource and environmental studies , working paper 1996 / 1 , australian national university , canberra .\n( j . craig , n . mitchell and d . a . saunders , eds ) , pp . 13 - 25 . sydney : surrey beatty and sons .\nlindenmayer , d . and norton , t . w . ( 1993 ) the conservation of leadbeater ' s possum in southeastern australia and the northern spotted owl in the pacific north - west of the u . s . a . ; management issues , strategies and lessons .\nlindenmayer , d . b . , norton , t . w . and tanton , m . t . ( 1990 ) differences between wildfire and clearfelling on the structure of montane ash forests of victoria and their implication for fauna dependent on tree hollows .\nlindenmayer , d . b . , cunningham , r . b . , lesslie , r . and donnelly , c . f . ( in press ) on the use of landscape surrogates as ecological indicators in fragmented forests .\nmccomb , w . and lindenmayer , d . ( 1999 ) dying , dead and down trees . in\n( m . l . hunter , ed . ) , pp . 335 - 72 . cambridge : cambridge university press .\nmccomb , w . c . and noble , r . e . ( 1982 ) invertebrate use of natural tree cavities and vertebrate nest boxes .\nmcgeoch , m . a . ( 1998 ) the selection , testing and application of terrestrial insects as bioindicators .\nmciver , j . d . , moldenke , a . r . and parsons , g . l . ( 1990 ) litter spiders as bio - indicators of recovery after clearcutting in a western coniferous forest .\nmichaels , k . f . and mcquillan , p . b . ( 1995 ) impact of commercial forest management on geophilous carabid beetles ( coleoptera , carabidae ) in tall , wet\nniemela , j . , haila , y . , halme , e . , lahti , t . , pajunen , t . and punttila , p . ( 1988 ) the distribution of carabid beetles in fragments of old coniferous taiga and adjacent managed forest .\nniemela , j . , langor , d . and spence , j . r . ( 1993a ) effects of clearcut harvesting on boreal ground - beetle assemblages ( coleoptera : carabidae ) in western canada .\nniemela , j . , spence , j . r . , langor , d . , haila , y . and tukia , h . ( 1993b ) logging and boreal ground - beetle assemblages on two continents , implications for conservation . in\n( k . j . gaston , t . r . new and m . j . samways , eds ) , pp . 29 - 50 . hampshire : intercept ltd .\nniemi , g . j . , hanowski , j . m . , lima , a . r . , nicholls , t . and weiland , n . ( 1997 ) a critical analysis on the use of indicator species in management .\nnilsson , s . g . and baranowski , r . ( 1997 ) habitat predictability and the occurrence of wood beetles in old - growth beech forests .\nnoss , r . f . ( 1990 ) indicators for monitoring biodiversity : a hierarchial approach .\n( g . h . aplet , n . johnson , j . t . olson and v . a . sample , eds ) , pp . 17 - 43 . washington , dc : island press .\nnoss , r . f . ( 1999 ) assessing and monitoring forest biodiversity : a suggested framework and indicators .\n\u00f8kland , b . ( 1996 ) unlogged forests , important sites for preserving the diversity of mycetophilids ( diptera , sciaroidea ) .\n\u00f8kland , b . , bakke , a . , hagvar , s . and kvamme , t . ( 1996 ) what factors influence the diversity of saproxylic beetles ? amultiscaled study from a spruce forest in southern norway .\npajunen , t . , haila , y . , halme , e . , niemela , j . and punttila , p . ( 1995 ) ground - dwelling spiders ( arachnida , araneae ) in fragmented old forests and surrounding managed forests in southern finland .\npaquin , p . and coderre , d . ( 1997 ) changes in soil macroarthropod communities in relation to forest maturation through three successional stages in the canadian boreal forest .\npettersson , r . b . , ball , j . p . , renhorn , k . - e . , esseen , p - e . and sjoberg , k . ( 1995 ) invertebrate communities in boreal forest canopies as influenced by forestry and lichens with implications for passerine birds .\nponder , w . f . , colgan , d . j . , clark , g . a . , miller , a . c . and terzis , t . ( 1994 ) microgeographic , genetic and morphical differentiation of freshwater snails - the hydrobiidae of wilsons promontory , victoria , south - eastern australia .\npunttila , p . , haila , y . , niemela , j . and pajunen , t . ( 1994 ) ant communities in fragments of old - growth taiga and managed surroundings .\npunttila , p . , haila , y . and tukia , h . ( 1996 ) ant communities in taiga clearcuts : habitat effects and species interactions .\nreid , c . m . , foggo , a . and speight , m . ( 1996 ) dead wood in the caledonian pine forest .\nsamuelsson , j . , gustafsson , l . and ingelog , t . ( 1994 )\nschowalter , t . d . ( 1989 ) canopy arthropod community structure and herbivory in old - growth and regenerating forests in western oregon .\nschowalter , t . d . ( 1995 ) canopy arthropod communities in relation to forest age and alternative harvest practices in western oregon .\nseastedt , t . r . ( 1984 ) the role of microarthropods in decomposition and mineralisation processes .\nseastedt , t . r . and crossley , d . a . jr . ( 1981 ) microarthropod response following cable logging and clear - cutting in the southern appalachians .\nseppa , p . , sundstrom , l . and puntilla , p . ( 1995 ) facultative polygyny and habitat succession in boreal ants .\nsetala , h . , marshall , v . g . and trofymow , j . a . ( 1995 ) influence of micro - and macro - habitat factors on collembolan communities in douglas - fir stumps during forest succession .\nsimandl , j . ( 1993 ) canopy arthropods on scots pine , influence of season and stand age on community structure and the position of sawflies ( diprionidae ) in the community .\n( n . l . mckenzie , r . b . johnston , p . g . kendrick , eds ) , pp . 247 - 63 . chipping norton : surrey beatty and sons .\nspence , j . r . , langor , d . w . , niemela , j . , carcamo , h . a . and currie , c . r . ( 1996 ) northern forestry and carabids , the case for concern about old - growth species .\nstrayer , d . , pletscher , d . h . , hamburg , s . p . and nodvin , s . c . ( 1986 ) the effects of forest disturbance on land gastropod communities in northern new england .\ntaylor , r . j . , michaels , k . and bashford , d . ( 2001 ) occurrence of carabid beetles in retained unlogged strips in production forests in southern tasmania . in\n( n . mitchell and d . a . saunders , eds ) , pp . 120 - 7 . chipping norton : surrey beatty and sons .\ntriska , f . j . and cromack , k . jr . ( 1980 ) the role of wood debris in forests and streams . in\nvaisanen , r . , bistrom , o . and heliovaara , k . ( 1993 ) sub - cortical coleoptera in dead pines and spruces , is primeval species composition maintained in managed forests ?\nyen , a . l . ( 1987 ) a preliminary assessment of the correlation between plant , vertebrate and coleoptera communities in the victorian mallee . in\n( j . d . majer , ed . ) , pp . 73 - 88 . perth : department of conservation and land management .\nyen , a . l . and butcher , r . j . ( 1997 )\nyork , a . ( 1999 ) ecologically sustainable management : the utility of habitat surrogates for assessing terrestrial invertebrate diversity in temperate forests . in\n( w . ponder and d . lunney , eds ) , pp . 34 - 9 . mosman : royal zoological society of new south wales .\ntaylor , r . j . & doran , n . journal of insect conservation ( 2001 ) 5 : 221 . urltoken\nplease note that we are currently undergoing a data review process and not all species data will be available for download and viewing from this web page . please watch this web page for future updates on the status of data availability .\ndownload ancillary data > > ( land cover , forest edge , human impact , etc . )\ndownload additional data > > ( slope , aspect , canopy cover , etc . )\nnote : you must first choose a species , then click distribution or range buttons to begin download of zip file containing selected data .\nto spatially view the range data in gis , you will need to download the hydrologic units file geodatabase and join with the species range table . see the instructions for joining hucs to species range tables for details .\nbelow is a list of the ancillary data available for download . see the info section below for more information on each ancillary dataset . ancillary data is delivered as zipped arcgis grids .\npart 1 : landcover , elevation , human impact avoidance , forest edge and forest / open ecotone + woodlands / shrublands click here to download . file size : 5 gb .\nnote : data are divided up by species modeling regions and you will need 7zip to decompress the files .\nthe lower 48 states of the u . s . were divided into six regions for modeling purposes . each of the ancillary data layers are split into these six regions and models were run within a region and regional model output were compiled to create a complete distribution model across a species range . the regions are based on grouped mrlc zones . download the regional boundaries data layer .\nto download regional data , select a region on the map or choose from dropdown , and then click on the data links below . descriptions of the data layers follow the links .\nin addition to gap\u2019s ancillary datasets that are used in species model , there are additional gap national datasets available . these include slope , aspect , and percent canopy cover .\nslope this is a nationwide coverage of slope , which represents the percent of change of elevation for each 30 m cell . it is based on dem data . download slope data file ( 2 . 8 gb zipped ) .\naspect this is a nationwide coverage of aspect , which describes the direction of slope in degrees . it identifies the downslope direction of maximum change from each raster cell to its neighbors . download aspect data file ( 7 . 3 gb zipped ) .\npercent canopy cover this is a nationwide cover of percent canopy cover . it was derived from the national land cover dataset ( nlcd ) . this dataset is a continuous canopy cover percentage . download percent canopy cover data here ( 3 . 4 gb zipped ) .\nthe gap ancillary datasets available for download are described below including descriptions of data variables and their values as well as the connection with model reports . the descriptions reflect how the data were used in the species models . for a clearer description of the data itself , refer to the metadata supplied for each layer . prior to downloading ancillary data , please read the data descriptions below to ensure they will meet your data needs .\nenvironments dominated by human disturbance such as roads , cities , and the constructed materials that support human habitation have profound effects on species . for most species , this data layer was used to exclude species from a portion of the landscape . however , some species respond favorably to human habitats , therefore this data layer was used in an inclusionary manner .\nhigh \u2013 for species that are very intolerant of human disturbance . all portions of the landscape identified as being directly influenced by human disturbance are eliminated from the predicted distribution .\nmedium \u2013 for species that are moderately intolerant of human disturbance . only portions of the landscape identified as being highly or moderately influenced by human disturbance are eliminated from the predicted distribution .\nlow \u2013 for species that are partially intolerant of human disturbance . only portions of the landscape identified as being highly influenced by human disturbance are eliminated from the predicted distribution .\nsome species respond to environments directly related to altitudinal variation . elevation ( e . g . , dem ) is easily implemented in spatial modeling by limiting the model to the minimum and maximum values explicitly stated in the literature . dems are utilized directly and are measured in meters above mean sea level .\nmodel report : if a species\u2019 model uses elevation as a model variable , then download the ancillary data for elevation .\nwater and its location on the landscape is a very important aspect of species habitats . the source for hydrographic data was the usgs national hydrography dataset ( nhd ) .\nmodel report : if a species\u2019 model report uses any of the hydrographic information , see the hydrography table for the correct file . each downloadable file in the table contains information with regards to salinity , water type , and velocity .\nflowing water \u2013 flowing water represents hydrographic features such as streams , rivers , springs , seeps , ditches with moving water , etc .\nstanding water \u2013 standing water represents hydrographic features such as lakes , ponds , reservoirs , bays , inlets , estuaries , ocean , ditches with stagnant water , etc .\nwet vegetation \u2013 wet vegetation represents hydrographic features such as swamps , marshes , carolina bays , etc . this includes a collection of map units representing seasonally or tidally inundated woody and non - woody plants .\nwater salinity is a major factor when considering habitat conditions for many species . however , the dynamic and complex nature of water systems makes the development of a highly refined and reliable data layer challenging . therefore , we developed three general categories to include in species habitat models for species requiring water .\nall water ( i . e . , both brackish / salt water and freshwater )\nfor some aquatic species , this is an important aspect of their habitat , such as oxygenation levels , presence of invertebrate prey , and amount of sediment within the water column and on streambed substrates . stream velocity ( i . e . , stream gradient ) was derived from a combination of streams and slopes calculated from a digital elevation model ( dem ) , which created three categories for stream gradient .\nslow only \u2013 for species that require slow moving or almost stagnant sections of streams or rivers . typically these are areas where the underlying topography is flat ( 0 % gradient ) .\nfast only \u2013 for species that require high velocity sections of streams or rivers . typically these are areas where the underlying topography is steep . a threshold of > 5 % gradient was used .\nall types \u2013 for species that can utilize either fast or slow sections of streams or rivers .\nland cover the ecological systems mapped in the gap national land cover data were used as \u2018map units\u2019 to describe habitat types preferred by species .\nmodel report : if a species\u2019 model uses map units as a model variable , then download the ancillary data for land cover . map units are designated as either primary or secondary . primary maps units are defined as those ecological systems critical for a species\u2019 reproduction and survival . secondary map units are those ecological systems generally not critical for reproduction and survival , but typically are used in conjunction with primary map units for foraging , roosting , and / or sub - optimal nesting locations . secondary map units are selected only when located within a specified distance from primary map units .\npatch size the type and size of clusters of habitat can be assessed with spatial modeling . we used patch size to indicate minimum amounts of contiguous habitat needed for a species . this variable requires the generation of cluster sizes in the actual modeling code during post processing . in other words , these model variables are not independent ancillary data layers .\nmodel report : if a species\u2019 model uses patch size , this variable is generated in the actual modeling code during post processing . any cells that do not form a minimum contiguous patch are eliminated . there are no specific ancillary layers for this variable .\ncontiguous patch \u2013 minimum size ( ha ) \u2013 this parameter is set using the most conservation values explicitly stated in the specie literature .\nforested map units included deciduous forest , evergreen forest , mixed forest , palustrine forested wetland , and estuarine forested wetland .\nnon - forested map units were defined as water , pasture / hay , agricultural areas , urban / developed , marshes , beaches , etc .\necotone type forest / open ecotone only \u2013 this data layer represents the transitional areas between forest and open , non - forested habitats .\nmodel report : if a species\u2019 model uses edge type and it is set as forest / open ecotone only , then download the ancillary data for forest edge .\nmodel report : if a species\u2019 model uses edge type and it is set as forest / open ecotone + woodlands / shrublands , then download the ancillary data for forest edge and forest / open ecotone + woodlands / shrublands .\nthis distance represents a symmetrically buffered edge ( i . e . , 0 , 30 , 60 , 120 , 250 , 500 , and 1000 meters ) . for example , an ecotone width of 500 meters includes 250 meters into forest and 250 meters into open ."]}
{"id": 2344, "summary": [{"text": "papilio cresphontes , the giant swallowtail or in its larval phase the orange dog or orange puppy , is a swallowtail butterfly common in parts of north america and marginally into south america .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "in the united states and canada it is mainly found in the south and east .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "with a wingspan of about 10 \u2013 16 cm ( 3.9 \u2013 6.3 in ) , it is the largest butterfly in canada and the united states . ", "topic": 9}], "title": "papilio cresphontes", "paragraphs": ["andrew brower marked\ngiant swallowtail ( papilio cresphontes )\nas trusted on the\npapilio cresphontes\npage .\np . cresphontes adult , larva and pupa . - papilio cresphontes - bugguide . net\nspecies papilio cresphontes - eastern giant swallowtail - hodges # 4170 - bugguide . net\npapilio cresphontes dorsal wing view ( photographed by robert a . behrstock : urltoken )\npapilio cresphontes . ventral wing view ( photographed by b . bouton : urltoken )\ndistribution of papilio cresphontes in the united states . ( map found at : urltoken )\ngiant swallowtail ( papilio cresphontes ) , adult . point pelee national park , ont . j . cossey\nc . michael hogan marked\ndistribution\nas hidden on the\npapilio cresphontes cramer 1777\npage .\nc . michael hogan marked the classification from\nirmng\nas preferred for\npapilio cresphontes cramer , [ 1777 ]\n.\nfor five years straight , we were beyond excited to see the giant swallowtail butterfly ( papilio cresphontes ) gracing our northern garden .\nthis page is no longer being updated . for an updated version of this material , see : giant swallowtail ( papilio cresphontes ) .\nfigure 15 . prepupa of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 1 . adult giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , dorsal view . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 2 . adult giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , with wings closed . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 4 . full - grown larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 16 . laterial view of a chrysalis of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 17 . dorsal view of a chrysalis of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 6 . three - day - old larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 7 . five - day - old larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 12 . a mating pair of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , with the female above . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\na couple of these amazing butterflies have returned to the garden since their release . i\u2019m hoping to find more papilio cresphontes eggs in the near future , and start this amazing adventure again\u2026\nfigure 20 . sea torchwood , amyris elemifera l . , a host of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 21 . hoptree , ptelea trifoliata l . , in bloom ; a host of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 23 . mature larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , with everted osmeterium . head is to the left . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 10 . front view of larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , in snake - like\nstriking\npose . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 18 . hercules - club , zanthoxylum clava - herculis l . , a host of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 19 . lime pricklyash , zanthoxylum fagara [ l . ] sarg . , a host of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nschaus ' swallowtail ( papilio aristodemus , - rare , s . florida only ) has narrower pale band .\nfigure 13 . dorsal view on an egg of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , on hercules club , zanthoxylum clava - herculis l . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\ncrocker rl , simpson bj . 1979 . mexican orange , choisya dumosa ( rutaceae ) , a potential ornamental is host for orangedog , papilio cresphontes ( lepidoptera : papilionidae ) . southwest entomologist 4 : 11 - 13 .\nfigure 5 . newly hatched larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , with partially - eaten egg shell . head is to the right . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 9 . larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , in snake - like\nstriking\npose . head is to the right . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 14 . lateral view on an egg of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , on hercules - club , zanthoxylum clava - herculis l . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 11 . frontal view of larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , showing the osmeterium everted and possibly resembling the forked tongue of a snake . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 3 . young larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , ( illustrating bird dropping mimicry ) on ptelea trifoliata leaf . head is to the top . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nfigure 8 . mature larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , showing the greatly swollen thorax that resembles a snake head . the larva ' s head is to the right . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nif you live in the southeast , perhaps you\u2019ve seen one of these beauties floating through your gardens . it\u2019s the giant swallowtail ( papilio cresphontes ) , the largest butterfly in the united states . with a wingspan that can measure over 6 inches , this is one butterfly that will definitely catch your attention !\nfigure 22 . hoptree , ptelea trifoliata l . , with fruit ; a host of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . note the typical wafer - shaped fruit from which hoptree derives one of its common names ,\nwafer ash .\nphotograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .\nsusan d . finkbeiner , robert d . reed , robert dirig , and john e . losey . 2011 .\nthe role of environmental factors in the northeastern range expansion of / papilio cresphontes / cramer ( papilionidae ) ,\njournal of the lepidopterists ' society , 2011 , 65 ( 2 ) : 119 - 125 .\nhere in central texas , some of the best known butterflies are those in the swallowtail family \u2014 they are large , beautiful , and quite mesmerizing as they flutter around the garden or into the woodlands . two of my favorite species use the same host plant , the wafer ash , or hop tree ( ptelea trifoliata ) . they are the giant swallowtail ( papilio cresphontes ) , seen at the end of this post , and the two - tailed swallowtail ( papilio multicaudata ) , the latter bearing a remarkable resemblance to the eastern tiger swallowtail .\nthe third stage of the pailio cresphontes butterfly life cycle is its most unspectacular without vibrant colors , deceptive disguises , or brilliant beauty . but inside this bland shell , one of nature\u2019s most astonishing magic tricks is well underway :\nthe giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , is a striking , wonderfully\nexotic\n- looking butterfly that is very abundant in florida . the adult butterfly is a welcome visitor to butterfly gardens and to general landscape plantings . the larval or caterpillar stage can be considered a pest due to its habit of feeding on the foliage of most citrus species . a few\norangedogs\n, as the larvae are commonly called , can quickly defoliate small or young plants . however , larvae can be tolerated on large dooryard citrus trees in order to enjoy the soon - to - develop magnificent adult butterfly stage .\neisner t , pliske te , ikeda m , owen df , vazquez l , perez h , franclemont jg , meinwald j . 1970 . defense mechanisms of arthropods . xxvii . osmeterial secretions of papilionid caterpillars ( baronia , papilio , eurytides ) . annals of the entomological society of america 63 : 914 - 915 .\nflight season : two generations have been recorded at its northern limit , the second being the more common . it flies from late may into july and again from late july into early september . at point pelee there is a partial third brood later in september , but cresphontes is most commonly seen in august ( wormington , 1983 ) .\nfield notes : larvae are not usually too difficult to find on new growth of citrus trees in phoenix and tucson . always try to locate new growth to find eggs and caterpillars . normally , i wouldn ' t recommend rearing swallowtails in a closed container ( with the other exception of p . indra ) except , p . cresphontes larvae usually have dry frass and don ' t get sick if you consistently remove frass and host daily .\nadult : adult giant swallowtails are large butterflies with a forewing span of 11 . 7 to 17 . 5 cm ) ( avg . 14 cm ) for males and a span of 13 . 5 to 18 . 8 cm ( avg . 14 . 7 cm ) for females . the dorsal wing surfaces of the butterfly are black with a striking diagonal yellow bar across the forewings . the ventral wing surfaces are primarily yellow . the giant swallowtail is very distinct from all other swallowtails found in florida , except for the endangered schaus ' swallowtail , papilio aristodemus ponceanus , which is confined to the florida keys . the giant swallowtail can be distinguished from the schaus ' swallowtail by the yellow - filled\ntails\n( schaus ' swallowtail tails are all black ) , and the small , brick - red patch just interior to the blue median band on the ventral hind wing .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nto save server resources and increase performance on the site for users performing data searches , your session will time out if you stay idle for more than 10 minutes . to start a new session just click here . please do not use browser navigation options , such as the reload or back buttons from this page . if you haven ' t been idle for more than 10 minutes , please try your query again . you may receive this message if we have recently recovered from a problem with our site . if you continue getting this message in under 10 minutes , please email us at explorer @ urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe giant swallowtail is widely distributed throughout the american continent . its range extends from southern new england across the northern great lakes states , into ontario , through the southern portions of the central plains to the rocky mountains . the species ranges southward to florida and the caribbean , into the southwestern united states , and on through mexico to central and south america . the giant swallowtail is very common throughout the entire state of florida . it is active throughout the year in southern florida , and is common in northern florida , except in january and february .\nlarva : the five larval instars differ in appearance but they all share a resemblance to bird droppings . younger instars are more realistic bird - dropping mimics due to their smaller size . mature larvae usually rest on stems or leaf petioles ( hagen 1999 ) , but younger larvae often rest in plain view on the upper surfaces of leaves where bird droppings would be expected .\nthe younger instars are predominantly black or brown with a white saddle , while the older instars are mottled dark brown with a posterior that is white or cream - colored . younger instars also have setae ( hairs ) on prominent knobs . setae are lacking and knobs are reduced in older instars .\nadult butterflies sip nectar from many flowers and are common , but spectacular , visitors to butterfly gardens . identified nectar sources include azalea , bougainvillea , japanese honeysuckle , goldenrod , dame ' s rocket , bouncing bet , and swamp milkweed . they may also sip liquid from manure . adult males patrol flyways through pine woods or citrus groves searching for females . flight is very strong and leisurely , and the butterflies may glide long distances between wing beats . courtship and copulation occur in the afternoon .\nmated females usually lay their eggs singly on the upper surface of leaves of host plants . the 1 to 1 . 5 mm spherical eggs are cream to brown and typically have an irregular coating of an orange secretion that is reminiscent in appearance of orange peel . larvae progress through five instars . larval feeding usually takes place during the night .\nlarvae may pupate on small twigs on the host plant on which they were feeding or they may travel a short distance to a vertically - oriented structure , such as a fence or other plant . the brownish chrysalis is typically oriented at 45\u00b0 to the pupation substrate , its posterior end attached directly to a silken pad on the substrate by its velcro - like cremaster , and its anterior end attached via a thin silken thread to the substrate . at least two , and probably three , generations occur each year in florida .\nthe larva is the well - known\norangedog\nand is considered a minor pest of sweet orange , ( citrus \u00d7 sinensis ( l . ) osbeck ( pro sp . ) . host plants of the larvae besides sweet orange include native members of the citrus family ( rutaceae ) including northern pricklyash ( zanthoxylum americanum mill . ) , hercules - club ( zanthoxylum clava - herculis l . ) , lime pricklyash ( zanthoxylum fagara [ l . ] sarg . ) , hoptree ( ptelea trifoliata l . ) , sea torchwood ( amyris elemifera l . ) , mexican orange ( choisya dumosa [ torr . ] a . gray ) , and a variety of exotic rutaceae including gasplant ( dictamnus albus l . ) and white sapote ( casimiroa edulis llave & lex . ) . plant names are from the usda plant database ( 2009 ) , wunderlin and hansen ( 2003 ) , or wunderlin and hansen ( 2008 ) .\nmechanical control . homeowners may find that just a few larvae of the giant swallowtail can defoliate small , potted or planted citrus plants . larvae should be hand - picked from these small plants so that blossom and fruit yield are not drastically reduced . mature dooryard trees are large enough to withstand some defoliation .\nchemical control . mature commercial citrus trees can withstand infestation by many larvae . however , nursery stock and young grove trees can be protected with bacillus thuringiensis and synthetic insecticides when necessary , as described in the florida citrus pest management guide for chewing insects ( see\norangedog\n) .\ncech r , tudor g . 2005 . butterflies of the east coast : an observer ' s guide . princeton university press . princeton , new jersey . 345 pp .\ndaniels jc . 2003 . butterflies of florida : field guide . adventure publications , inc . cambridge , minnesota . 256 pp .\ngerberg ej , arnett jr . rh . 1989 . florida butterflies . natural science publications , inc . baltimore , maryland .\nglassberg j , minno mc , calhoun jv . 2000 . butterflies through binoculars : florida . oxford university press . new york , new york . 256 pp .\nhagen rh . 1999 . prolegs of papilionini ( lepidoptera : papilionidae ) : alternative solutions to the problem of attachment . pp . 237 - 251 . in byers gw , hagen rh , brooks rw . entomological contributions in memory of byron a . alexander . natural history museum , university of kansas , lawrence , kansas , usa .\nkimball cp . 1965 . arthropods of florida and neighboring land areas . vol . 1 . division of plant industry , florida department of agriculture , gainesville , florida . 363 pp .\nleslie aj , berenbaum mr . 1990 . role of the osmeterial gland in swallowtail larvae ( papilionidae ) in defense against an avian predator . journal of the lepidoptera society 44 : 245 - 251 .\nminno mc , butler jf , hall dw . 2005 . florida butterfly caterpillars and their host plants . university press of florida . gainesville , florida . 341 pp .\nminno mc and emmel tc . 1993 . butterflies of the florida keys . scientific publishers . gainesville , florida . 168 pp .\nminno mc and minno m . 1999 . florida butterfly gardening : a complete guide to attracting , identifying , and enjoying butterflies of the lower south . university press of florida . gainesville , florida . 210 pp .\nopler pa , krizek go . 1984 . butterflies east of the great plains . an illustrated natural history . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore , maryland . 294 pp .\nscriber mc , tsubaki y , lederhouse rc . 1995 . swallowtail butterflies : their ecology & evolutionary biology . scientific publishers . gainesville , florida . 459 pp .\nusda . ( 2009 ) . plant database . usda national resources conservation service . urltoken ( 8 april 2009 ) .\nwunderlin rp and hansen bf . 2003 . guide to the vascular plants of florida . 2nd ed . university press of florida . gainesville , florida . 787 pp .\nwunderlin rp , hansen bf . ( 2008 ) . atlas of florida vascular plants . institute for systematic botany . urltoken ( 8 april 2009 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nadult :\nblack with a yellow x on the front wing and basal and subapical bands on the hind wing . usually easily distinguished from p . thoas by the lower three spots in the outer row on the front wing being much larger than the rest and running ( at the top ) into a distinct offset in the second row . [ in p . thoas the lower four or five spots in the outer row are fairly even in size , tapering gradually down in size upward ; not running into an offset in the second row at the third spot . ]\nlarvae feed on leaves of plants in the citrus family ( rutaceae ) , including citrus ( citrus spp . ) , pricklyash ( zanthoxylum spp . ) , hoptree ( ptelea trifoliata ) , rue ( ruta graveolens ) , etc . adults take flower nectar from a variety of herbaceous plants and shrubs\n1 . egg . 2 . egg and first instar caterpillar . 3 . caterpillar . 4 . caterpillar in defensive posture . 5 . caterpillar ready to pupate . 6 . pupa . 7 . adult .\npinned adult image plus description , biology , larval and adult food , us distribution map ( butterflies and skippers of north america , nearctica . com )\na new heraclides swallowtail ( lepidoptera , papilionidae ) from north america is recognized by the pattern on its neck . kojiro shiraiwa , qian cong , nick v . grishin . 2014 . zookeys 468 : 85 - 135 .\nsimon & schuster ' s guide to insects dr . ross h . arnett , dr . richard l . jacques . 1981 . fireside .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nor with prickly ash growing around towns in the midwest , florida . ( basically , anywhere in the united states where citrus or prickly ash is established . )\nsuitable lab host plants : most any species of citrus will work in the lab . potted rue is often sold in nurseries and works well .\nhow to find eggs : focus exclusively on host plants with new growth . this can be found either at the tips of branches or suckers coming out of the trunk of the tree .\nhow to find caterpillars in the field : look for isolated host plants ; host plants with new growth .\npost - hibernation strategies : expose post - diapause pupae to warmer temperatures ( room temperature ) long - day photoperiod ; high humidity . ( mist spray pupae daily once your bring them out of the cold or refrigerator . )\navoiding diapause techniques : provide larvae with healthy host plant and expose larvae to long - day conditions .\ndisease prevention : change out host plant and remove frass every four to six days in an open bucket and every day using a closed container .\nyear - round resident in eastern north america and southern california and arizona , with migratatory presense in the regions between ( scott 1986 ) . habitats are woodland to citrus groves . host plants include many species , but mostly in one family , with most known hosts from rutaceae . hosts are usually trees or herbs . eggs are laid on the host plant singly . individuals overwinter as pupae . there are a variable number of flights based on latitude with the approximate flight time may15 - sep15 in the northern part of the range and jan1 - dec31 in the southern part of their range ( scott 1986 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nonly 1 or 2 butterfly eggs out of 100 live to become adult butterflies .\ngiant swallowtail butterflies are one of the largest species in the us . they are found in states east of the continental divide as well as in the southern part of the western us .\nthese butterflies lay eggs on plants in the citrus family ; orange , grapefruit , kumkuat , etc . along with trees that come to mind when we think of the word \u2018citrus\u2019 , they eat plants such as hercules\u2019 club , hop tree , and prickly ash .\nthey , like black swallowtail butterflies , also lay eggs on rue . if you have both black swallowtail and giant swallowtail butterflies laying eggs on rue , it can be handy to know that giant swallowtail eggs are orange / rust in color while black swallowtail eggs are cream / white in color .\nwhen raising these caterpillars , remember that they rarely , if ever , move from citrus leaves to rue . they normally will starve to death . they simply do not recognize rue as food after eating citrus .\nthe caterpillars are called \u2018orange dogs\u2019 because of their occurrence on orange trees . it is one of the few butterflies that have a separate name for the caterpillar . there are several moths that have two names , like the \u2018hickory horned devil caterpillar\u2019 and \u2018regal moth\u2019 as names for the same moth .\nthe young caterpillars look much like wet bird droppings . older caterpillars looks like dry bird / lizard / critter poop . of course one of the best reasons to look like poop is the fact that few critters eat bird poop .\nthe osmeterium of the giant swallowtail caterpillar is red . when the caterpillar is disturbed , it quickly bends backward , extends its osmeterium , and touches whatever is touching it . the osmeterium has an odorous liquid on it .\nbefore pupating , caterpillars empty their digestive tracts . swallowtail caterpillars tend to have a \u2018frass dump\u2019 ( the last expelled excrement of a caterpillar before it pupates ) that is runny and somewhat pudding textured .\nswallowtail caterpillars prepare to pupate by attaching themselves by making a silk pad and button on an object . it crawls onto the pad and attaches its anal prolegs into the button . it then makes a silk girdle by touching its head down to the object , side to side , many times over . each time it leaves a strand of silk . the strands together make a strong girdle that holds the butterfly caterpillar .\nwhen the caterpillar pupates , its old cuticle simply slips under the girdle and slips off the caterpillar . the \u2018skinned\u2019 caterpillar is the chrysalis .\ndiagnosis : the largest butterfly found in canada ( wingspan : 83 to 113 mm ) , the giant swallowtail has broad dark brown wings crossed on the upperside by a diagonal band of bright yellow spots . the underside is yellowish and the tail is broad with a yellow spot in the centre .\nsubspecies : the race of the butterfly reaching southern canada has been referred to as subspecies pennsylvanicus , but it is only weakly differentiated from the nominate subspecies and is not currently recognized .\nrange : a common and widespread tropical species , it ranges from central america northward through the eastern u . s . to the canadian border . in canada , it is a resident species in southwestern ontario , but strays have been taken in winnipeg , montreal , and one specimen near windsor junction in southern nova scotia . in 1992 , a stray was recorded in the ottawa area for the first time following high winds resulting from a hurricane in the southern u . s .\nearly stages : the larva is called the\norange dog\nin the u . s . , where it can be a pest in citrus orchards . it is brown with a light cream saddle in the middle and a large cream patch on the tail , resembling a large bird dropping . it has been recorded on hop tree ( ptelea trifoliata ) and northern prickly - ash ( zanthoxylum americanum ) in ontario . both plants are common at point pelee , where the larvae can be found .\nabundance : it is considered sporadic and rare in canada , except in southwestern ontario , where it can be commonly encountered at point pelee , pelee island , and a few other locations where the foodplants grow .\nhabits : the giant swallowtail flies in open woodlands and nearby fields . it is such a large butterfly that it continually vibrates its wings while feeding at flowers so that it does not tilt the blossom .\n\u00a9 2002 . this material is reproduced with permission from the butterflies of canada by ross a . layberry , peter w . hall , and j . donald lafontaine . university of toronto press ; 1998 . specimen photos courtesy of john t . fowler .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthese caterpillars almost killed my little satsuma tree , but they are so cool that i couldn ' t bear to disturb them .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\n( kansas : sedgwick county . residential house , 37\u00b0 40 ' 40 . 06\nn , 97\u00b0 10 ' 27 . 94\nw . in garden . september 19 , 2011 .\nadult diagnosis : the giant swallowtail butterfly is the largest butterfly species of canada and the united states with a wingspan within the ranges of 10 to 16 cm . the wings are colored black or blackish brown and feature yellow banding on both the fore and hind wing dorsally . on the ventral side , the wings are mainly yellow with black venation . each hind wing tail features a yellow - orange colored eye , the eye can also appear reddish yellow . another single blue band can be distinguished above the eye . distinction between males and females is very difficult as both sexes are similar , however , females feature longer wing spans than males as adults .\nadult natural history : adult swallowtails take in nectar from multiple floral sources for example , goldenrods and azaleas . males patrol pine woods during the afternoon in search of mates to court or copulate with . can also be found patrolling citrus groves for the same reasons . they can glide long distances before needing to beat their wings again . the following video shows the length of their glide before having to flap again .\nmates copulate facing away from each other so that the genitals face each other . females oviposit caramel colored eggs usually on the topsides of leaves . giant swallowtail caterpillars visually appear much like large bird droppings on plants . if predators are not fooled by their appearance , the caterpillars can extend their v - shaped osmeterium and release a foul odor to drive away predators .\nthe migration pattern is similar to that of monarch butterflies , giant swallowtails from the north migrate southwards during the cold seasons .\ndistribution : the giant swallowtails is spread throughout north america including parts of canada and as far south as central and parts of south america . in the united states , sights have been reported mostly in the south central and south eastern parts of the united states and appearing all year round in florida .\nhabitat : adults can be found in pine forests and in floral gardens for northern inhabitants . southern adults prefer to live in citrus groves along with the aformentioned habitats .\ndiet : adults feed on the nectars of many flowers including those of goldenrods , azaleas , bourgainvilla , swamp milkweed , etc . larvae preferrably feed on the leaves of citrus trees and plants .\nstokes , donald , lillian stokes , and ernest williams . stokes butterfly book : the complete guide to butterfly gardening identification , and behavior . 1st ed . new york : little , brown and company , 1991 .\nlatimer , jonathan p . , and karen s . nolting . butterflies . 1st ed . new york : houghton mifflin company , 2000 .\nschappert , philip . a world of butterflies : their lives , behavior , and future . 1st ed . ontario : firefly books ltd , 2005 .\nwichita state university generated on 2011 . this website is continuously updated . comments can be sent to mary liz jameson . designed by bioadventures .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we\u0092ll send you a link to reset your password .\nsorry , this image isn ' t available for this licence . please refer to the license restrictions for more information .\non the alamy prints site ( powered by art . com ) choose your frame , the size and finish of your photo .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nmany swallowtail caterrpillars are bird poop mimics in their early instars , but the giant swallowtail keeps it up through the entire series of larval stages . that means a\nmature\nbird poop roughly 5 centimeters long . when this photo was taken , it was a bit over 3 centimeters long . ( note that many caterpillars besides swallowtails also mimic bird poop . )\noctober 17th . the caterpillar is suspended by a silken\nbelt\nand button of silk at the tip of the abdomen .\noctober 18th . the transformation . still images animated at three speeds : 15 frames per second ; 2 frames per second ; and 3 seconds per frame .\noctober 18th . key images from the video . 2 : 10 pm . no apparent changes externally except that the prolegs are shrunken .\n2 : 40 pm . shortly before this photo , the caterpillar had straightened out and begun to vibrate , presumably to detach the old skin from the new one . in this photo , you can see that the prolegs have moved posteriorly as the skin at the hind end has shriveled . the white bands on the side are tracheal linings being drawn out and back .\n2 : 40 pm . the old skin behind the head has just begun to split . you can just see a bit of the chrysalis emerging .\n2 : 41 pm . more of the chrysalis is visible , and the thoracic legs are being pulled further back .\n2 : 43 pm . the head is now almost free and the old skin is about to slip under the silken support loop .\n2 : 43 pm . someone ( i wish i could remember who - it was a long time ago ! ) described the process of sheeding the skin as equivalent to a woman removing her pantyhose without using her hands .\n2 : 44 pm . head , antennae , and wings are now visible .\n2 : 46 pm . wriggling to attach the cremaster ( tip of the abdomen ) to the button of silk under it . at the same time , allowing the cast larval skin to fall away .\n2 : 46 pm . at this point , note how little of the abdomen is in contact with the stem . that ' s about to change .\n2 : 52 pm . activity has slowed down , but over several hours , the shape will change subtly .\n3 : 28 pm . the wings have grown larger and the body is arched backwards a bit . also , the abdomen has broadly molded itself to the stem , an element of the developing twig mimicry .\noctober 21st . the chrysalis has matured and hardened , slightly changing shape and color . note how . . . . . . the abdomen appears broadly attached to the stem ( but isn ' t , really ) ; . . . there are green specks resembling lichen or algae ; and , . . . the surface itself is craggy like a dead bit of twig .\nfinally , note how the tip ( head end ) appears broken off with dark\nannular rings\nat the center . as good as this broken twig mimicry is , imagine if i had provided a more mature common rue woody stem !\nnovember 18th . no changes in the chrysalis . one month since transformation from caterpillar . looks like it will overwinter .\ni realigned the specimen to better show the wings , antennae , and legs .\nnote how the dark upper surface scales influence the perceived color of the yellow scales on the underside .\ntoo cold for it to survive outside and representing the growing repopulation of connecticut with this southern species , it will be placed in the uconn research collection for study .\nthe empty chrysalis . the old skin split between the antennae and the forewings .\nall photos copyright stanley e . malcolm , 2014 . permission for non - commercial purposes is generally allowed after contacting stan ( stan\nat\nperformance - vision . com ) . commercial use at higher resolution is available for a reasonable fee .\nwe planted 3 potential host plants for giant swallowtails caterpillars : common rue , wafer ash , and northern prickly ash . then , it happened\u2026\nunlike milkweed - obsessed monarchs , the giant swallowtail female will lay eggs on a wide range of host plants . their butterfly life cycle also takes up to 2 months , so the odds are stacked against northern gardeners wanting to raise them with fewer generations and more plants to search !\nwe didn\u2019t have enough space to add full - grown citrus trees , so we stuck with some smaller host options . we planted a waferash tree , a slow - grower that tops out at 20 feet . we also planted common rue , and a northern prickly ash .\nthe eggs of the giant swallowtail are pretty easy to find compared to other butterfly species that resort to trickery and camouflage to keep their eggs safe .\nthe giant swallowtail female deposits orange - peel colored eggs on the surface of green leaves , which means you shouldn\u2019t need to get out the old magnifying glass to confirm identity .\nbrenda of brenda\u2019s butterfly habitat shared that zanthoxylum americanum ( northern prickly ash ) was the giants\u2019 host plant of choice in her michigan garden .\nwe found five caterpillars on our plants , before searching for and finding two eggs . four of the caterpillars also had an orange hue :\nthis could be a normal color variation or they could have been in different developmental stages . ( unfortunately , we did not find them right away like with the tiger swallowtails we raised last season . )\nwe also made a fatal mistake with the two eggs we brought in . whenever you bring in eggs of any butterfly species , make sure they\u2019re properly protected from ravenous caterpillars \ud83d\ude22\na third line of defense is the red horns ( osmeterium ) that emerge from the head of the caterpillar when it feels threatened . the osmeterium emits a pungent odor , that is supposed to make them unpalatable to predators , like ants .\ni stroked one across its back , and picked up another that was looking for a fresh cutting\u2026neither action was enough for them to \u2018release the red cracken\u2019 .\ndid you notice the dangerous thorn next to the back of the caterpillar photos above ? i was going to offer the caterpillars our rue plants without the thorny barriers , but decided to try serving this because i need to cut it back to avoid getting gouged when mowing the back yard .\nthat will fit inside a floral tube or other cutting container . before you grab the stem ,\nif you\u2019re replacing cuttings , set the new cutting container next to the old one so the caterpillars can crawl over to their new home and caterpillar food source .\nas the caterpillars grow , so do their appetites . however , they haven\u2019t been as ravenous as munching monarch caterpillars . even with 5 big caterpillars in close quarters , they peacefully coexist :\nhowever , if a caterpillar forms its chrysalis in an inconvenient place it can be moved . check out the info on removing swallowtail chrysalides in our overwintering swallowtails post .\nswallowtail butterflies ( in general ) have surprisingly fragile wings . this new butterfly lost a tail briefly fluttering around the mesh cage . thankfully , this doesn\u2019t affect their flight :\nswallowtails males are said to have thicker , more vibrant yellow wing markings , but there seems to be a lot of variation that makes sexing them from a dorsal view difficult , at best . for a positive male id , see if you can find claspers on butterflies you are raising .\nplease read the comments section below for more info about raising giant swallowtail butterflies .\ni have 3 giant caterpillars on a small toothache tree ( prickly ash ) that i intentionally purchased with them on it a couple of weeks ago . i also have a hop tree . my property is a monarch way station and pollinator garden . i have host plants for many species of butterflies . the giant is one i have desired for a long time but never had in my garden . my question is will they overwinter in chrysalis in northwest georgia ? my sun porch will be heated all winter due to my citrus trees i bring inside . will they emerge due to the warm sun porch or should i take the trees outside with the chrysalis ? they caterpillars have gotten pretty big but i must confess that i don\u2019t know how big they will get when they are ready to go into chrysalis . they were very small a couple of weeks ago . i consider myself an expert with monarchs but am at a loss with the giant swallowtail . monarchs are emerging daily and i am tagging and releasing them after testing for parasites . will the giants stay on my back porch this winter ?\nhi gail , if you keep them in a heated porch with lots of sun , they will probably eclose much earlier than they should . check out this post for more info :\nso sad , i had 3 in chrysalis last night and today they are gone . i have one left so i brought the pot inside . bird ?\nhi teddi , sorry to hear this . yes , there are birds that eat chrysalides , lizards , mice :\ni just found 2 giant swallowtail caterpillars in my orange tree . the tree also has a bad case of woolly mold . i would like to save the caterpillars while treating the mold . where do i begin ?\nhi victoria , i would just feed them with the least - affected sections of the tree . for your tree , i would contact a local arborist and see what they suggest\u2026\ni just noticed i have at least ten of these caterpillars on my citrus tree i just brought inside recently . they are pooping all over the place , my plant is only 4 ft tall , think they will kill it ?\nhi anthony , butterfly host plants typically grow back just fine . my concern would be that one host tree isn\u2019t enough to feed that many caterpillars\u2026\ni hope you see this and respond quickly , as i have a big dilemma . a giant swallowtail laid eggs on a lemon tree , and now there are ten large caterpillars . problem is , soon that lemon tree will go into a sunroom for the winter , and the owner of the sunroom does not want swallowtail butterflies to take care of . we live in the northeast . we bought rue and planted it outside , and just transferred the caterpillars to the rue plants , along with a bunch of the lemon tree leaves , hoping they would adjust to the rue and make their chrysillis and overwinter on the rue . i just read that they rarely will eat rue after eating citrus , and they will starve . is that true ? what to do now ? help ! !\nhi jane , i have never tried to switch them to rue before so you will have to see what happens . we feed ours northern prickly ash , which is a gst host plant native to your region :\nhi there i transferred my giant swallowtails from prickly ash to rue . . it took about a day but they eventually started to eat the rue and thrived . . 2 turned into a chrysalis today right on the rue plant . now to wait until the spring ! ! note : this summer i transferred black swallowtails from dill to queen annes lace and they turned into amazing butterflies . still have 4 that had a brown chrysalis install of the green ones that emerged . apparently these want to overwinter . we will see monica t\nhi , i\u2019m in south florida and was happy to see giant swallowtail caterpillars all over my wild lime tree . my concern is lizards because i caught one eating a gulf fritillary caterpillar a few days ago . i brought the other cats inside but hate to bring in the giant swallowtail cats unless necessary .\nhi karen , even if you bring in just a few you are making a difference . predators are part of a successful butterfly garden and you can\u2019t ( and shouldn\u2019t ) save them all if you want to support a healthy ecosystem . good luck with your caterpillars !\nthanks tony , well 4 of 7 survived . the 2 raised on the wild lime leaves wouldn\u2019t eat the rue but the younger ones switched over fine . however , the adults made their chrysalis\u2019 yesterday on the rue , not the branches i added . one already fell . how long until it hardens enough to rehang and would you use contact cement ?\njust saw your previous answer to this . . thanks ! no more yet but wish someone would have told me how opposite these are to monarchs or gulfs so i wouldn\u2019t have been such a wreck . they barely eat or move in comparison : )\nhi karen , i have not had to rehang a swallowtail chrysalis before but have heard that contact cement works . if you use it , please report back with experience\u2026good luck !\ni have a pupating gsw whose bottom - end silk has dislodged . he\u2019s on his side , mostly hovering . should i set him upright with tape or something ? if so , when is it safe to do so ? ( he jerks right now , if i try to touch his silk girdle . )\nhi katrina , i would wait to do anything until it pupates and the chrysalis hardens . here\u2019s more info :\nin my attempt to attract the monarch butterfly , of which i have only spotted one this year in my garden , i planted rue , fennel , and dill . although the numbers are not impressive we were so delighted this year that we have released 13 black swallowtails and 5 giant swallowtails !\nwe have never seen a giant before but the majority of the eggs and caterpillars were found on our rue plant more than the dill or fennel . we are fortunate to have a nursery less than a mile away that has everything i need for my butterfly garden . they also allowed a lady to install a screened in butterfly area and we have been able to gain much knowledge from her over the year .\nhi tony , i was so happy to see you getting into the swallowtails . i have been raising monarchs here in florida but have expanded to cloudless sulfurs ( they love the cassia plants ) , gulf fritillaries and zebra longwings ( love the passion vine for nectar and host ) and polydamus swallowtail which loves my pipevine as a host plant . have dozens of babies , gave up trying to bring them all in . i enjoy your posts and all the great information you provide . i will say , i am seeing less monarchs this year , but have done my best to contribute to the population ! judy\nhi tony ( and butterfly fans ) , i am hoping to find a source for some northern prickly ash saplings . . 2 or 3 i would hope . i live in northern va . i would like to try to raise a few giant swallowtails . i haven\u2019t seen any nearby but i know that some have been raised in this general area .\ni have successfully raised some eastern black swallowtails on parsley or dill inside . last year i had some dill outside ( that i was trying to raise for myself ) that were decimated by black swallowtail cats . initially i was angry at the invasion but then i was happy\u2013it didn\u2019t last though\u2013my carolina wren discovered the bonanza of cats the next week and stripped the dill of cats in one morning to feed her brood . i was angry all over again for losing the cats . ( since i was raising the dill for myself i hadn\u2019t brought in the cats . ) then i decided that i was feeding the birds year round so i had to accept the circle of life . this year i planted parsley and dill for the butterflies but to date no eggs or cats\u2026sigh .\ni have started a couple good sized milkweed patches in the yard for monarches . i have seen one lone male around them but again no females to date . no eggs or cats either . i just ordered 10 monarch eggs / cats ( no choice which i get ) . i will be raising them inside . i hope i will get a female or two to lay eggs outside in the patches . i have common , swamp ( white and pink ) , tropical , hairy balls and butterfly weed in my milkweed patches ."]}
{"id": 2345, "summary": [{"text": "azteca andreae is an arboreal ant species found in the tropics of south america , most notably in french guiana .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "they are most notable for their predatory skills and strength .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "they are ambush predators that are able to capture and eat other insects much greater than their own size . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "azteca andreae", "paragraphs": ["azteca andreae ant mound in panama . is an arboreal ant species found in the tropics\nazteca andreae ant mound in panama . is an arboreal ant species found in the tropics , video\nazteca andreae ant mound in panama . is an arboreal ant species found in the tropics | stock video | colourbox\nin this study , we investigated the predatory behavior of the ant azteca andreae which is associated with the myrmecophyte cecropia obtusa .\nthe claws of azteca andreae are shaped like hooks and fit neatly into fibrous loops on the undersides of its home plants ' leaves .\na recent plos one paper by dejean et al documents a novel predatory behavior of azteca andreae . rather than waste words explaining it , here\u2019s a video :\nin guiana , symbiosis between azteca ants and the cecropia tree ( or trumpet tree ) is frequent . however , a surprising discovery has been made : one species of ant ( azteca andreae ) uses the\nvelcro\nprinciple to cling on firmly . . .\npredation and aggressiveness in host plant protection : a generalization using ants from the genus azteca .\nimages : 1 ) azteca andreae ants aligned on a leaf , and capturing a moth . / pnas . 2 ) scanning electron micrographs of hook - shaped a . andreae claw , along with top and bottom surfaces of leaves to which they cling . / pnas .\npcr primers for polymorphic microsatellite loci in the plant - ant azteca ulei cordiae ( formicidae : dolichoderinae ) .\nazteca andreae \u2019s strategy of lying in wait is just one such technique . a related species azteca bequaerti hides in special hollows produced by their host where it listens for the vibrations of a landing insect and swarms it en masse . even more elaborately , allomerus decemarticulatus creates elaborate traps by building layers over tree branches that look like parts of the tree but are actually hiding places for ant ambushers .\ndoes exogenic food benefit both partners in an ant - plant mutualism ? the case of cecropia obtusa and its guest azteca plant - ants .\nmorais hc . 1998 . azteca cf . lanuginosa ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) : biologia , comportamento de preda\u00e7\u00e3o e forrageamento em cerrado . urltoken .\n( a ) to evaluate the number of azteca andreae workers per centimeter of leaf margin , we took pictures of the workers ambushing from beneath the cecropia obtusa leaves while cautiously placing a ruler 1\u20132 cm away from the leaf margin so as not to perturb them . ( b ) to evaluate the strength of the workers , we used different weights glued to pieces of thread and placed the free end of the thread near an ambushing major worker . here , three azteca andreae workers are biting the end of a piece of thread glued to a 10 - cent euro coin ; only one ( arrow ) is really holding onto the coin ( 4 . 11 g ) .\na . andreae colonies live in trees , and individual ants line the underside edges of leaves , jaws open and outstretched . when an insect lands , the ants seize its legs , holding it down until other ants dismember the pinioned prey .\nin regards to the predatory behavior of\na . decemarticulatus\n, similar behaviors have been observed in other ant species , such as symbioses with plants ( like in\npseudomyrmex ferruginea\n) , cultivating a fungus ( like in leafcutter ants ) , and sneaking up to and ambushing larger prey ( like in\nazteca andreae\n, another species studied by dejean ) . however , most remarkably ,\nallomerus decemarticulatus\nseems to incorporate each of these advanced behaviors to make a powerful apparatus for tricking impressively large prey .\nthe study was conducted on three a . andreae colonies for each compared tree species , and here , too , the tests consisted in dropping prey onto the upper surface of the leaves from ca . 5 cm in height at ca . 2 . 5 cm from the margin .\nthe ants keep their grip best while on cecropia obtusa leaves , where the surface loops are pronounced . the two species seem to have co - evolved : a . andreae provides defense against plant - munching bugs , and c . obtusa helps the ants get a predatory grip .\nto compare cases of successful capture by a . andreae hunting workers according to different leaf structures , we conducted a study on c . obtusa , c . palmata and v . latifolia , with the latter serving as a control case . indeed , among the plants on which we noted a . andreae workers in the process of hunting , the leaves of v . latifolia are relatively large ( up to 20 cm in length and 8 cm in width ) , their upper side is very smooth and the underside much less downy than those of the two compared cecropia .\nin the brazilian rainforest , a grasshopper lands on a leaf and seals its fate . it was after a quick meal , but this leaf belongs to the cecropia obtusa plant and it employs hidden bodyguards \u2013 ants . underneath its leaves , thousands of azteca andreae ants lie in ambush , poised at the edges with their jaws outstretched . as soon as the grasshopper lands , the ants rush out from their hiding places , seize it by the legs and pull it spread - eagled . the leaf turns into a medieval torture rack , with the ambushers holding the victim while their nestmates bite , sting and dismember it .\nazteca andreae workers occasionally hunt by patrolling their host tree foliage , but early in the morning \u2013 or , more frequently , at the end of the day and at night \u2013 they ambush prey by placing themselves side - by - side beneath the leaf margins with just their wide - open mandibles visible from above ( fig . 1c ) . after noting that they frequently occupy all of the leaf margins of their host trees , we evaluated the number of ambushing workers by multiplying the density of the workers by the total length of the leaf margins ; for example , for the 10 leaves of a c . obtusa tree , we estimated that there were 4 . 4 workers per cm or ca . 8350 workers ( see fig . 2a ) .\nbecause we observed a . andreae workers capturing an 8 - cm - long locust weighing 9 . 2 g - or ca . 7 , 100 times the weight ( 0 . 0014 g ) of a hunting worker - on their host c . obtusa , we hypothesized that the cecropia leaf structure could play a role in the capture of such a large prey . we therefore surveyed what kind and sizes of prey a . andreae workers can capture , studied the c . obtusa and c . palmata leaf structure , compared the workers ' strength when holding onto different weights in five situations , and compared the successfulness of workers at capturing locust nymphs when hunting on c . obtusa , c . palmata and vismia latifolia ( clusiaceae ) , with the latter serving as a control case .\nthe tests consisted in dropping 1 cm , 1 . 5 cm , 2 . 5 cm and 3 . 5 - cm - long nymphs of the locust species tropidacris collaris onto the upper surface of c . obtusa , c . palmata or v . latifolia leaves where groups of 12\u201315 a . andreae workers were hunting . these prey were dropped from ca . 5 cm in height at ca . 2 . 5 cm from the leaf margins .\n( a ) a carton nest on a cecropia obtusa . ( b ) underside of a young c . obtusa leaf with numerous ambushing a . andreae workers placed side - by - side along the leaf margin . a black hymenoptera is spread - eagled near the principal vein . ( c ) a sphingid moth was captured during the night and was still struggling when we photographed it in the morning . ( d ) detail of the position of ambushing workers .\nthe incredible tactics of the azteca ants were discovered 16 years ago , but the secret behind their prodigious grip has only just been revealed by a team of french and spanish scientists led by alain dejean . they watched the entire hunting sequence by luring large moths to the leaves using ultraviolet light , or by dropping grasshoppers onto them . at the slightest touch , the closest workers attacked the prey and drove it towards others lying in wait , which collectively flipped it underneath the leaf and stretched it out .\nthe layers are made out of the hairs of its host tree bound together with a fungus that the ants farm . they are pitted with tiny holes that the ants hide in . when a victim lands , the ants launch a grisly surprise attack , rushing out from their holes and grabbing the victim by the legs . as with a . andreae , the victims of a . decemarticulatus are stretched out and eaten . in the rainforest , even a harmless looking leaf or branch can hide a painful death inside or beneath it .\n( a ) scanning electron micrograph of the hook - shaped claws of a . andreae workers . ( b - c ) photomicrographs of unstained , 50 \u00b5m sections of cecropia obtusa ( b ) and c . palmata ( c ) ; the upper side of the lamina is on the top . d - g - scanning electron micrographs of the upper side ( d\u2013e ) and underside ( f\u2013g ) of the lamina of c . obtusa ( d\u2013f ) and c . palmata ( e\u2013g ) . long , thin trichomes characterize the underside of the leaves of both species , but with major differences in densities ; whereas the upper surface of the leaves has short , wide trichomes \u2013 here , too , at different densities . scale bars , 100 \u00b5m .\nwe monitored 12 c . obtusa during 22 non - consecutive days and verified twice each day , at dusk and early in the morning , what prey were captured by the a . andreae workers . we thoroughly inspected the underside of the foliage , the trunk and the surface of the nests in order to note what prey were spread - eagled , and / or in the process of being slowly retrieved or cut up ( generally on the nest ) . we gathered the most frequent and the largest prey for identification . the largest prey were weighed individually ; whereas , for the most frequent prey , we gathered up to 30 individuals to obtain a mean weight ( \u00b1se ) . we then calculated the ratio between the weight of the captured prey and the mean weight of a hunting worker .\nwe used nymphs of the locust species tropidacris collaris from four size ranges : 1 cm , 1 . 5 cm , 2 . 5 cm and 3 . 5 cm . these nymphs move in groups of up to 150 individuals of the same size and are therefore good candidates for such studies . the tests were conducted when groups of 12\u201315 a . andreae workers were hunting on c . obtusa , c . palmata or v . latifolia . for each size class of prey , we compared the number of workers involved in hunting using an anova to be sure that during the tests on one plant species the number of workers involved in hunting was not greater than for the two other plant species . in all of the cases , the difference was not significant ( p = 0 . 41 ; p = 0 . 88 ; p = 0 . 63 and p = 0 . 97 for tests conducted on locust nymphs of 1 cm , 1 . 5 cm , 2 . 5 cm and 3 . 5 cm , respectively ; n = 30 cases in all situations ) .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncitation : dejean a , leroy c , corbara b , roux o , c\u00e9r\u00e9ghino r , orivel j , et al . ( 2010 ) arboreal ants use the \u201cvelcro\u00ae principle\u201d to capture very large prey . plos one 5 ( 6 ) : e11331 . urltoken\ncopyright : \u00a9 2010 dejean et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : this study was funded by the programme amazonie ii of the french centre national de la recherche scientifique ( project 2id ) and the programme convergence 2007 - 2013 , r\u00e9gion guyane from the european community ( project dega ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nexcept for myrmecophytic acacia , piper and macaranga that produce protein - rich fbs and whose mutualistic plant - ants do not hunt , other plant - related products such as carbohydrate - rich efn , fbs and hemiptera honeydew are comparatively poor in protein and amino acids [ 3 ] , [ 7 ] \u2013 [ 10 ] . so , many arboreal ants have developed innovative ways of meeting these needs . some species economize nitrogen as their workers have a thin cuticle and non - proteinaceous venom [ 11 ] ; others rely on micro - symbionts to recycle nitrogen [ 12 ] \u2013 [ 14 ] , while still others consume a part of their attended hemiptera that thus do not proliferate [ 6 ] .\nby monitoring 12 c . obtusa during 22 non - consecutive days , we noted that the colonies captured on average 16 . 66\u00b10 . 76 prey greater than 8 mm in length per day ( n . b . smaller prey , not registered as they were too rapidly mastered and retrieved , were very numerous ) . the prey included a wide range of flying and jumping insects ( see table 1 ) , the largest of which , a 10 . 5 - cm - long tropidacris collaris locust , weighed 18 . 61 g or 13 , 350 times the weight of a hunting worker .\ndifferent captured prey , their weight ( or mean weight \u00b1 se ) and the ratio with the mean weight of a hunting worker ( ca . 0 . 0014 g ) .\nbecause the capture of such large and powerful prey was unexpected , we experimentally verified the workers ' strength by placing the free ends of threads glued to different weights in front of individuals ambushing on a vertical part of a leaf . tested individually , the workers immediately bit the end of the thread , and had enough grip to hold onto loads up to 8 . 0 g or 5 , 714 times their weight ( figs . 2b and 3 ) .\nwe noted a significantly higher number of successful cases when we tested workers situated on the very downy underside of c . obtusa leaves than when either on the rough upper side of these leaves or on experimental sheets of supple plastic ( figs . 3a and 4 ) . the surface of the selected plastic does not allow ant claws to grip , so that the workers adhere thanks to their adhesive pads . indeed , the velvet - like surface found on the underside of the c . obtusa leaves ( fig . 4 ) seems determinant in the workers being able to hold onto such weight . this is shown by the fact that ambushing workers from colonies associated with c . obtusa were significantly more effective than those from colonies associated with c . palmata ( fig . 3b ) , the underside of whose leaves is much less downy ( fig . 4 ) .\n( a ) from the upper side and the underside of c . obtusa leaves , and from a sheet of supple plastic ( kruskal - wallis test for 0 . 75 g : h 3 , 300 = 12 . 4 ; p = 0 . 002 ; for 0 . 125 g and 0 . 250 g : h 3 , 300 = 74 ; p < 0 . 0001 ; dunn ' s post hoc test for multiple comparisons : different letters indicate significant differences at p < 0 . 01 ) . ( b ) from the underside of c . obtusa vs . c . palmata leaves ( wilcoxon signed rank test : z = 2 . 37 ; p < 0 . 02 ) .\n\u201cvelcro\u201d , which has become a generic term derived from the french words \u2018 velours \u2019 ( for velvet ) and \u2018 crochet \u2019 ( for hook ) , is a \u201chook - and - loop\u201d fastener inspired by burdock seeds that are dispersed because they stick to mammal fur . another case of a natural velcro involved in an insect - plant interaction was recently described for the cone - shaped cells on the rough surface of flower petals that permit bumblebees to grasp the flowers while gathering nectar and pollen , and so to save energy by not having to beat their wings to stay on the flowers [ 21 ] .\npublished information on the maximum size and weight of the prey captured by arboreal ants is sparse . oecophylla longinoda workers can capture large insects 20 to 50 times their weight , with this ratio exceptionally reaching 580 for a small bird captured and transported after it had fallen to the ground [ 22 ] . allomerus workers use their gallery - shaped trap to capture insects up to 1800 times their weight [ 16 ] .\nin conclusion , many ant species have adapted their predatory behavior to the constraints of their arboreal life . this study illustrates a three - fold context wherein a coordinated group hunting effort complements the workers ' hook - shaped claws combined with the structure of the leaves of their host plant . consequently , they use a very effective group ambushing technique permitting them to easily capture numerous insect prey , including large and powerful items , while protecting their host tree .\nto evaluate the number of workers ambushing at one time , we took pictures of the workers ambushing from beneath the cecropia obtusa leaves while cautiously placing a ruler 1\u20132 cm away from the leaf margin so as not to perturb the ants ( fig . 2a ) . to study prey capture , using four different colonies , we dropped prey ( 1 . 5 - cm - long tettigonid grasshoppers ) onto the upper surface of the leaves from ca . 5 cm in height at ca . 2 . 5 cm from the margin ( 50 cases ) . although they were intact and so able to jump , 49 out of the 50 tested grasshoppers were captured , and then retrieved .\nusing a microscale ( mettler\u00ae ae 260 ) , we individually weighed 300 hunting workers randomly gathered from three colonies ( 100 individuals from each colony ) , resulting in an average worker weight of 1 . 393\u00b10 . 05 mg ( \u00b1se ) , so ca . 1 . 4 mg . they consisted of medium - to large - sized individuals .\npieces of the central lobe of the multi - lobed c . obtusa and c . palmata leaves were collected and immediately fixed in faa ( 5 % formalin , 5 % acetic acid and 50 % ethanol ) before being stored in 70 % ethanol . cross - sections , 50 \u00b5m thick , were obtained using a vibrating microtome ( leica vt 1000s , rueil - malmaison , france ) . unstained sections were observed using an inverted microscope ( leica dmirbe , rueil - malmaison , france ) . images were acquired with a ccd camera ( color coolview , photonic science , robertsbridge , uk ) . for scanning electron microscope ( sem ) photography , pieces of leaves were dehydrated in 80 , 90 and 100 % ethanol and were critical point - dried with liquid carbon dioxide . the dried materials were attached with double - sided tape onto metal stubs , grounded with conductive silver paint and sputter - coated with gold / palladium . observations were made using a scanning electron microscope ( hitachi c450 ) operated at 15 kv , and photographs were taken with illford 125 iso film .\nto determine more precisely how much weight a single worker is able to hold onto , we glued one of the ends of pieces of thick thread onto different weights . the experiment consisted in taking a weight between the thumb and index finger and cautiously placing the free end of the thread near a major worker ambushing on a vertical part of a leaf ( see fig . 2b ) and rather isolated from its nestmates so that it would not immediately recruit other workers . we considered the experiment to be valid when the workers could hold onto the tested weight for at least 5 seconds . if nestmates came to help the worker prior to the end of the 5 - second period , the experiment was not taken into consideration .\nbecause our data were structured due to the fact that we used three individuals per tree species and each tree was used repeatedly ( 10 times ) , we used the generalized linear mixed model ( glmm ) on r 2 . 8 . 1 ( r development core team , 2008 ) with the \u201cglmer\u201d function of the \u201clme4\u201d package by bates and maechler . the glmm was run on the rate of successful capture of prey with the binomial distribution option ( binary results such as failure or success of capture ) , using the tree species and the size of the prey as fixed effects , and replicates as a random effect .\nwe are grateful to andrea yockey - dejean for proofreading the manuscript , to vivien rossi for advice concerning the statistics , and to the laboratoire environnement de petit saut ( hydreco ) , french guiana , for its logistical help .\nconceived and designed the experiments : ad . performed the experiments : ad cl bc or rc jo rb . analyzed the data : ad cl bc or rc jo rb . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : ad cl . wrote the paper : ad . performed the histology : cl .\nwilson eo , h\u00f6lldobler b ( 2005 ) the rise of the ants : a phylogenetic and ecological explanation . proc natl acad sc , usa 102 : 7411\u20137414 .\nmoreau cs , bell cd , vila r , archibald b , pierce ne ( 2006 ) phylogeny of the ants : diversification in the age of angiosperms . science 312 : 101\u2013104 .\nrico - gray v , oliveira p ( 2007 ) the ecology and evolution of ant - plant interactions . ( chicago : the university of chicago press ) . 320 p .\ndejean a , corbara b , orivel j , leponce m ( 2007 ) rainforest canopy ants : the implications of territoriality and predatory behavior . funct ecosyst communit 1 : 105\u2013120 .\nstyrsky jd , eubanks m d ( 2007 ) ecological consequences of interactions between ants and honeydew - producing insects . proc r soc london b 274 : 151\u2013164 .\nheil m , mckey d ( 2003 ) protective ant - plant interactions as model systems in ecological and evolutionary research . ann rev ecol syst 34 : 425\u2013453 .\ndavidson dw ( 2005 ) ecological stoichiometry of ants in a new world rain forest . oecologia 142 : 221\u2013231 .\nfeldhaar h , straka j , krischke m , berthold k , stoll s , et al . ( 2007 ) nutritional upgrading for omnivorous carpenter ants by the endosymbiont\nrussell ja , moreau cs , goldman - huertas b , fujiwara m , et al . ( 2009 ) bacterial gut symbionts are tightly linked with the evolution of herbivory in ants . proc natl acad sc , usa 106 : 21236\u201321241 .\n( passifloraceae ) through aggressiveness and predation . biol j linn soc 93 : 63\u201369 .\ndejean a , solano pj , ayroles j , corbara b , orivel j ( 2005 ) arboreal ants build traps to capture prey . nature 434 : 973 .\n( hymenoptera : formicidae ) : biologia , comportamento de preda\u00e7\u00e3o e forrageamento em cerrado .\nwhitney hm , chittka l , bruce tja , glover bj ( 2009 ) conical epidermal cells allow bees to grip flowers and increase foraging efficiency . curr biol 19 : 948\u2013953 .\nfederle w , baumgartner w , h\u00f6lldobler b ( 2004 ) biomechanics of ant adhesive pads : frictional forces are rate - and temperature - dependent . j exp biol 207 : 67\u201374 .\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\nthe ants lie in wait on the underside of a leaf . workers drive the moth towards these edges , where the ambushers grab them .\nyou must log in to access this functionality . you may create an account , or log in anonymously , here .\nguerrero , delabie & dejean , 2010 pdf : 54 , figs . 1 - 2 ( w . q . m . )\nantweb content is licensed under a creative commons attribution license . we encourage use of antweb images . in print , each image must include attribution to its photographer and\nfrom urltoken\nin the figure caption . for websites , images must be clearly identified as coming from urltoken , with a backward link to the respective source page . see how to cite antweb .\nantweb is funded from private donations and from grants from the national science foundation , deb - 0344731 , ef - 0431330 and deb - 0842395 . c : 0\nlong before velcro was invented , a species of south american ant used its own natural form of the wonder material to hunt .\nit ' s\nlike natural velcro that is reinforced by the group ambush strategy of the workers , allowing them to capture prey of up to 13 , 350 times the mean weight of a single worker ,\nwrote researchers in a study published june 25 in plos one .\nin the new study , the researchers held weighted threads in front of the ants . instinctively , the ants bit and held . without losing its grip , the average worker could hold on to 8 grams , or some 5 , 700 times its body weight . in proportional terms , that ' s like a house cat holding on to a humpback whale . passing insects don ' t have a chance .\nanother , less gruesome example of velcro - like plant - insect interaction was recently described between bumblebees and flower petals , which have microscopic loops that enable bees to hang upside - down with little effort .\ncitation : arboreal ants use the \u201cvelcro\u00ae principle\u201d to capture very large prey .\nby alain dejean , c\u00e9line leroy , bruno corbara , olivier roux , r\u00e9gis c\u00e9r\u00e9ghino , j\u00e9r\u00f4me orivel , rapha\u00ebl boulay . public library of science one , vol . 5 no . 6 , june 25 , 2010 .\nbrandon keim ' s twitter stream and reportorial outtakes ; wired science on twitter . brandon is currently working on a book about ecological tipping points .\nuse of and / or registration on any portion of this site constitutes acceptance of our user agreement ( updated 5 / 25 / 18 ) and privacy policy and cookie statement ( updated 5 / 25 / 18 ) . your california privacy rights . the material on this site may not be reproduced , distributed , transmitted , cached or otherwise used , except with the prior written permission of cond\u00e9 nast . ad choices .\nguerrero , et al . 2010 : 54 , figs . 1 - 2 ( w . q . m . )\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are properly credited .\n( cecropiaceae ) , and sometimes on the foliage of surrounding trees . these two\ntree , we estimated that there were 4 . 4 workers per cm or ca . 8350 workers ( see\nwere ambushing in great number . the larger insects were successfully captured only when they were seized at the leaf margins (\n) . this was confirmed by experimentally dropping 1 . 5 - cm - long grasshoppers onto leaves ca . 2 . 5 cm from the margin . the vibrations triggered an alarm in the three to ten closest workers that collectively attacked the prey and drove it toward ambushing nestmates that then seized it and immediately flipped it under the leaves before spread - eagling it during 4 to 10 minutes . meanwhile , new workers had replaced those involved in the prey capture by placing themselves side - by - side along the leaf margin . once they had killed or stunned the prey , the ants collectively retrieved it by moving slowly toward the leaf petiole , and then toward the carton nest . some grasshoppers were partially carved up on the spot .\nduring 22 non - consecutive days , we noted that the colonies captured on average 16 . 66\u00b10 . 76 prey greater than 8 mm in length per day ( n . b . smaller prey , not registered as they were too rapidly mastered and retrieved , were very numerous ) . the prey included a wide range of flying and jumping insects ( see\n) , the largest of which , a 10 . 5 - cm - long\nlocust , weighed 18 . 61 g or 13 , 350 times the weight of a hunting worker .\nwinged termites ( isoptera , rhinotermitidae ) ( 0 . 4\u00b10 . 01 cm )\ntropidacris collaris ( orthoptera , acrididae ) ( 8 . 1\u00b10 . 2 cm )\ntinacris albipes ( orthoptera , acrididae ) ( ca . 6 . 5 cm )\nbecause the capture of such large and powerful prey was unexpected , we experimentally verified the workers ' strength by placing the free ends of threads glued to different weights in front of individuals ambushing on a vertical part of a leaf . tested individually , the workers immediately bit the end of the thread , and had enough grip to hold onto loads up to 8 . 0 g or 5 , 714 times their weight (\n) . the surface of the selected plastic does not allow ant claws to grip , so that the workers adhere thanks to their adhesive pads . indeed , the velvet - like surface found on the underside of the\n) seems determinant in the workers being able to hold onto such weight . this is shown by the fact that ambushing workers from colonies associated with\n, served as a control case . we experimentally dropped the locust nymphs onto leaves ca . 2 . 5 cm from the leaf margins , and noted that both the tree species and the size of the locust nymphs had a significant effect on the ability of the ants to successfully catch the prey ( p < 0 . 001 in all cases ;\n) . this permits a limited number of workers to hold onto large insects until their nestmates are able to help to spread - eagle these prey . this is particularly true for\nworkers and the velvet - like structure of the underside of the leaves combine to act like natural velcro\u00ae and is reinforced by the group ambush strategy of the workers . as a result ,\nworkers can capture powerful prey up to 13 , 350 times their weight ( i . e . , equivalent to a 934 . 5 - ton catch by a group of men each weighing 70 kg ) , while the host plant benefits from protection from even the largest defoliating insects .\n. this behavior does not depend on the structure of the leaf blades of the host tree . indeed ,\n) . because prey of that size or smaller are the most frequently captured , they likely constitute the basis of the protein obtained by the colonies .\nthis study and the preliminary surveys that permitted us to develop the appropriate experimental protocols were conducted between 2005 and 2009 along forest edges in zones situated around the field station at petit saut , sinnamary , french guiana ( 5\u00b0 03\u2032 39\u2033 n ; 53\u00b0 02\u2032 36\u2033 w ) .\n) , so that the nests are periodically rebuilt as the host tree grows . in french guiana ,\nthat develops on white sands ( m . f . prevost , pers . comm . ) .\n) . to study prey capture , using four different colonies , we dropped prey ( 1 . 5 - cm - long tettigonid grasshoppers ) onto the upper surface of the leaves from ca . 5 cm in height at ca . 2 . 5 cm from the margin ( 50 cases ) . although they were intact and so able to jump , 49 out of the 50 tested grasshoppers were captured , and then retrieved .\nto determine more precisely how much weight a single worker is able to hold onto , we glued one of the ends of pieces of thick thread onto different weights . the experiment consisted in taking a weight between the thumb and index finger and cautiously placing the free end of the thread near a major worker ambushing on a vertical part of a leaf ( see\n) and rather isolated from its nestmates so that it would not immediately recruit other workers . we considered the experiment to be valid when the workers could hold onto the tested weight for at least 5 seconds . if nestmates came to help the worker prior to the end of the 5 - second period , the experiment was not taken into consideration .\nwilson eo , h\u00f6lldobler b . the rise of the ants : a phylogenetic and ecological explanation .\nmoreau cs , bell cd , vila r , archibald b , pierce ne . phylogeny of the ants : diversification in the age of angiosperms .\nrico - gray v , oliveira p . ( chicago : the university of chicago press ) ; 2007 . the ecology and evolution of ant - plant interactions . 320\ndejean a , grangier j , leroy c , orivel j . predation and aggressiveness in host plant protection : a generalization using ants of the genus\ndejean a , corbara b , orivel j , leponce m . rainforest canopy ants : the implications of territoriality and predatory behavior .\nstyrsky jd , eubanks m d . ecological consequences of interactions between ants and honeydew - producing insects .\nfischer r c , richter a , wanek w , mayer v . plants feed ants : food bodies of myrmecophytic\nheil m , mckey d . protective ant - plant interactions as model systems in ecological and evolutionary research .\nheil m , baumann b , kr\u00fcger r , linsenmair ke . main nutrient compounds in food bodies of mexican\nfeldhaar h , straka j , krischke m , berthold k , stoll s , et al . nutritional upgrading for omnivorous carpenter ants by the endosymbiont\nrussell ja , moreau cs , goldman - huertas b , fujiwara m , et al . bacterial gut symbionts are tightly linked with the evolution of herbivory in ants .\nde souza dj , b\u00e9zier a , depoix d , drezen j - m , lenoir a .\ndejean a , dji\u00e9to - lordon c , orivel j . the plant - ant\ndejean a , solano pj , ayroles j , corbara b , orivel j . arboreal ants build traps to capture prey .\nwhitney hm , chittka l , bruce tja , glover bj . conical epidermal cells allow bees to grip flowers and increase foraging efficiency .\nwojtusiak j , godzinska ej , dejean a . capture and retrieval of very large prey by workers of the african weaver ant ,\nfederle w , baumgartner w , h\u00f6lldobler b . biomechanics of ant adhesive pads : frictional forces are rate - and temperature - dependent .\nthis hunting strategy is all the more amazing when you consider that the ants weigh just over a milligram each while their prey \u2013 including grasshoppers and moths \u2013 can weigh up to 10 grams . ants are famously strong and they obviously hunt in large numbers , but even so , holding down a struggling insect that outweighs them by around 10 , 000 times can\u2019t be easy . it\u2019s the equivalent of a team of humans holding down three struggling blue whales .\nbut the ants and their host plant work together . the claws of the ants hook into the velvety , downy underside of c . obtusa \u2019s leaves in the same way that velcro fastens using miniature hooks and loops . the plant provides biological hitching posts that its bodyguards can anchor themselves to and the ants are far stronger on their host plant than on any other .\nto test the workers\u2019 strength , dejean dangled threads with weights at the end of them in front of their open jaws . he found that each worker can hold onto 8 grams , around 5 , 700 times her own weight . as a unit , they can manage far more .\nthe workers also seemed to be particularly strong on the downy underside of the leaves than on the rough upper surface , or on a sheet of smooth plastic . and they were especially mighty on their host plant . when dejean tested them on a closely related tree with a less downy underside they couldn\u2019t hold onto as much weight . the downy underside is the key \u2013 it provides something for the ants\u2019 claws to fasten onto .\nthese ants are one of the many hundreds of ant species that form lasting relationships with plants , defending them from plant - eaters in exchange for shelter and food . but all of them have a problem . plant nectar is typically poor in proteins and nitrogen , and while some plants pay their bodyguards with special protein - rich food packages , most plant - defending ants must get these nutrients in other ways .\nsome rely on thriftiness , by producing workers with very thin shells and venoms that don\u2019t contain any protein . some rely on bacteria and others farm sap - sucking bugs that they gently nip from time to time . and yet others solve the problem by hunting for fresh meat . foraging in the forest canopy is difficult so these tree - top predators rely on ambush techniques that make the most of prey that approaches them .\nuse on websites and for limited audiences in social media , apps , or live performances .\nflying downwards from philodendron leaves on the trunk of a rainforest tree in the ecuadorian amazon . shot using a quadcopter .\nportrait of mother and two sons , costa rica . shot on red epic for high quality 4k , uhd , ultra hd resolution .\nsoccer ball in goal net with slowmotion . slowmotion football ball in the net .\nstage lights and different shapes art gallery . series 3 + version from 1 to 26 + orange - blue - purple and white color series\nover 10 , 966 , 582 royalty - free video clips with 81 , 204 new stock clips added weekly .\nc\u00e9line leroy , jean - fran\u00e7ois carrias , bruno corbara , laurent p\u00e9lozuelo , olivier d\u00e9zerald , olivier brouard , alain dejean , r\u00e9gis c\u00e9r\u00e9ghino .\nepiphytism imposes physiological constraints resulting from the lack of access to the nutrient sources available to ground - rooted plants . a conspicuous adaptation in response to that lack is the phytotelm ( plant - held waters ) of tank - bromeliad species that are often nutrient - rich . associations with terrestrial invertebrates also result in higher plant nutrient acquisition . assuming that tank - bromeliads rely on reservoir - assisted nutrition , it was hypothesized that the dual association with mutualistic ants and the phytotelm food web provides greater nutritional benefits to the plant compared with those bromeliads involved in only one of these two associations .\nscott c warren , kislon vo\u00eftchovsky , hen dotan , c\u00e9line m leroy , maurin cornuz , francesco stellacci , c\u00e9cile h\u00e9bert , avner rothschild , michael gr\u00e4tzel .\ncharge transport in nanoparticle - based materials underlies many emerging energy - conversion technologies , yet assessing the impact of nanometre - scale structure on charge transport across micrometre - scale distances remains a challenge . here we develop an approach for correlating the spatial distribution of crystalline and current - carrying domains in entire nanoparticle aggregates . we apply this approach to nanoparticle - based ? - fe ? o ? electrodes that are of interest in solar - to - hydrogen energy conversion . in correlating structure and charge transport with nanometre resolution across micrometre - scale distances , we have identified the existence of champion nanoparticle aggregates that are most responsible for the high photoelectrochemical activity of the present electrodes . indeed , when electrodes are fabricated with a high proportion of these champion nanostructures , the electrodes achieve the highest photocurrent of any metal oxide photoanode for photoelectrochemical water - splitting under 100 mw cm ( - 2 ) air mass 1 . 5 global sunlight .\npredation success by a plant - ant indirectly favours the growth and fitness of its host myrmecophyte .\nalain dejean , j\u00e9r\u00f4me orivel , vivien rossi , olivier roux , j\u00e9r\u00e9mie lauth , pierre - jean g mal\u00e9 , r\u00e9gis c\u00e9r\u00e9ghino , c\u00e9line leroy .\nfood - web structure in relation to environmental gradients and predator - prey ratios in tank - bromeliad ecosystems .\nolivier d\u00e9zerald , c\u00e9line leroy , bruno corbara , jean - fran\u00e7ois carrias , laurent p\u00e9lozuelo , alain dejean , r\u00e9gis c\u00e9r\u00e9ghino .\nc\u00e9line m leroy , alexandra e maegli , kevin sivula , takashi hisatomi , nicolas xanthopoulos , eugenio h otal , songhak yoon , anke weidenkaff , rosendo sanjines , michael gr\u00e4tzel .\nlatio ( 2 ) n photoanodes for solar water splitting were prepared by electrophoretic deposition and demonstrated the best photocurrents ever reported for this material . further important enhancement of the performance was obtained by the use of a sputtered in ( 2 ) o ( 3 ) overlayer .\nant species identity mediates reproductive traits and allocation in an ant - garden bromeliad .\nc\u00e9line leroy , bruno corbara , laurent p\u00e9lozuelo , jean - fran\u00e7ois carrias , alain dejean , r\u00e9gis c\u00e9r\u00e9ghino .\ndetermining the sources of variation in floral morphology is crucial to understanding the mechanisms underlying angiosperm evolution . the selection of floral and reproductive traits is influenced by the plants abiotic environment , florivores and pollinators . however , evidence that variations in floral traits result from mutualistic interactions with insects other than pollinators is lacking in the published literature and has rarely been investigated . we aimed to determine whether the association with either camponotus femoratus or pachycondyla goeldii ( both involved in seed dispersal and plant protection ) mediates the reproductive traits and allocation of aechmea mertensii , an obligatory ant - garden tank - bromeliad , differently .\nemission - photoactivity cross - processing of mesoporous interfacial charge transfer in eu3 + doped titania .\nc\u00e9line marie leroy , hong feng wang , alexandre fargues , thierry cardinal , v\u00e9ronique jubera , mona treguer - delapierre , c\u00e9dric boissiere , david grosso , clement sanchez , bruno viana , fabienne pell\u00e9 .\nperiodic mesoporous eu ( 3 + ) doped titania materials were obtained through the eisa ( evaporation induced self assembly ) process . eu ( 3 + ) ions , entrapped within the semi - crystalline walls of the highly porous framework , appear to be advantageous during the probing of surface photochemical reactions . its emission intensity is very sensitive to the presence of physisorbed molecules , in gas or liquid phase , that reside within the pores . in particular , strong fluctuations in intensity of the ( 5 ) d ( 0 ) ? ( 7 ) f ( 2 ) transition were observed under uv light exposure on the time scale of tens of seconds . the emission modulation dynamics show a strong correlation with the crystallinity of the titania matrix . correlation of the emission with the photocatalytic activity of the semiconductor for photodegradation of an organic molecule is observed . a model is proposed to describe the involved mechanisms .\nolivier brouard , anne - h\u00e9l\u00e8ne le jeune , c\u00e9line leroy , r\u00e9gis c\u00e9r\u00e9ghino , olivier roux , laurent p\u00e9lozuelo , alain dejean , bruno corbara , jean - fran\u00e7ois carrias .\nalain dejean , bruno corbara , c\u00e9line leroy , jacques h c delabie , vivien rossi , r\u00e9gis c\u00e9r\u00e9ghino .\nspecific , non - nutritional association between an ascomycete fungus and allomerus plant - ants .\nmario x ruiz - gonz\u00e1lez , pierre - jean g mal\u00e9 , c\u00e9line leroy , alain dejean , herv\u00e9 gryta , patricia jargeat , ang\u00e9lique quilichini , j\u00e9r\u00f4me orivel .\ndynamics of the association between a long - lived understory myrmecophyte and its specific associated ants .\nj\u00e9r\u00f4me orivel , luc lambs , pierre - jean g mal\u00e9 , c\u00e9line leroy , julien grangier , thierry otto , ang\u00e9lique quilichini , alain dejean .\na temporary social parasite of tropical plant - ants improves the fitness of a myrmecophyte .\nalain dejean , c\u00e9line leroy , bruno corbara , r\u00e9gis c\u00e9r\u00e9ghino , olivier roux , bruno h\u00e9rault , vivien rossi , roberto j guerrero , jacques h c delabie , j\u00e9r\u00f4me orivel , rapha\u00ebl boulay .\narboreal ants use the\nvelcro ( r ) principle\nto capture very large prey .\nalain dejean , c\u00e9line leroy , bruno corbara , olivier roux , r\u00e9gis c\u00e9r\u00e9ghino , j\u00e9r\u00f4me orivel , rapha\u00ebl boulay .\nc\u00e9line leroy , alain jauneau , ang\u00e9lique quilichini , alain dejean , j\u00e9r\u00f4me orivel .\nepiphytic plants in general and bromeliads in particular live in a water and nutrient - stressed environment often limited in nitrogen . thus , these plants have developed different ways to survive in such an environment . we focused on aechmea mertensii ( bromeliaceae ) , which is both a tank - bromeliad and an ant - garden ( ag ) epiphyte initiated by either the ants camponotus femoratus or pachycondyla goeldii . by combining a study of plant morphology and physiology associated with aquatic insect biology , we demonstrate that the ant species influences the leaf structure of the bromeliad , the structure of the aquatic community in its tank , and nutrient assimilation by the leaves . based on nitrogen and nitrogen stable isotope measurements of the a . mertensii leaves , the leaf litter inside of the tank and the root - embedded carton nest , we discuss the potential sources of available nitrogen for the plant based on the ant partner . we demonstrate the existence of a complex ant - plant interaction that subsequently affects the biodiversity of a broader range of organisms that are themselves likely to influence nutrient assimilation by the a . mertensii leaves in a kind of plant - invertebrate - plant feedback loop .\naechmea mertensii is a tank - bromeliad that roots on ant - gardens initiated by the ants camponotus femoratus and pachycondyla goeldii . its leaves form compartments acting as phytotelmata that hold rainwater and provide habitats for invertebrates . in this article , we aimed to determine whether the association with either c . femoratus or p . goeldii influenced the vegetative traits of a . mertensii , invertebrate diversity and nutrient assimilation by the leaves . transmitted light , vegetative traits and phytotelmata contents were compared between the two a . mertensii ant - gardens . camponotus femoratus colonized partially shaded areas , whereas p . goeldii colonized exposed areas . the bromeliads rosettes had a large canopy ( c . femoratus ant - gardens ) , or were smaller and amphora shaped ( p . goeldii ant - gardens ) . there were significant differences in leaf anatomy , as shaded leaves were thicker than exposed leaves . the mean volumes of water , fine particulate organic matter and detritus in c . femoratus - associated bromeliads were three to five times higher than in p . goeldii - associated bromeliads . moreover , the highest invertebrate diversity and leaf delta ( 15 ) n values were found in c . femoratus - associated bromeliads . this study enhances our understanding of the dynamics of biodiversity , and shows how ant - plant interactions can have trophic consequences and thus influence the architecture of the interacting plant via a complex feedback loop .\nan efficient protocol for isolating melanised chaetothyrialean anamorphic fungi associated with plant - ants .\nmario x ruiz - gonz\u00e1lez , j\u00e9r\u00e9mie lauth , c\u00e9line leroy , alain jauneau , herv\u00e9 gryta , patricia jargeat , alain dejean , j\u00e9r\u00f4me orivel .\nbecause of their ecological characteristics , slow growth rates and the presence of contaminants , chaetothyriales fungi associated with structures built by tropical plant - ants can be difficult to isolate with standard procedures . here , we describe an easy - to - use protocol for obtaining pure cultures by using cotton as a first substrate . we have further found by means of fluorescent stains that nuclei concentrate either in young hyphae or in the tips of the hyphae .\nalain dejean , fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric petitclerc , olivier roux , j\u00e9r\u00f4me orivel , c\u00e9line leroy .\njove visualize is a tool created to match the last 5 years of pubmed publications to methods in jove ' s video library .\nwe use abstracts found on pubmed and match them to jove videos to create a list of 10 to 30 related methods videos .\nin developing our video relationships , we compare around 5 million pubmed articles to our library of over 4 , 500 methods videos . in some cases the language used in the pubmed abstracts makes matching that content to a jove video difficult . in other cases , there happens not to be any content in our video library that is relevant to the topic of a given abstract . in these cases , our algorithms are trying their best to display videos with relevant content , which can sometimes result in matched videos with only a slight relation .\nscientists from the smithsonian institution describe the spectacular guyane false - form beetle , or guyanemorpha spectabilis , from guyane ( french guiana ) . as its name suggests , the newly discovered species stands out among its dull relatives in the western hemisphere , with its great size and beautiful coloration . the study was published in the open access journal zookeys .\nthis surprising large and colorful pseudomorphine came as a shock to me , as all other species of the tribe in the western hemisphere are quite dull brown , dark reddish , or blackish with no , or little , color contrast on the upper surface ,\nexplains the author dr . terry l . erwin .\nin the world of entomology this new species can be only compared in its rare characteristics to the olinguito , a new carnivore species which charmed the world and just recently described by kris helgen in zookeys ,\nhe added ."]}
{"id": 2348, "summary": [{"text": "gillellus arenicola , the sandy stargazer , is a species of sand stargazer native to the pacific coast of central america from baja california , mexico , to panama where it can be found on sandy substrates at depths of from 8 to 137 metres ( 26 to 449 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it can reach a maximum length of 5.5 centimetres ( 2.2 in ) tl . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "gillellus arenicola", "paragraphs": ["jennifer hammock chose to hide data on\ngillellus arenicola gilbert , 1890\n.\nhow can i put and write and define gillellus arenicola in a sentence and how is the word gillellus arenicola used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528gillellus arenicola\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528gillellus arenicola\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528gillellus arenicola\u9020\u53e5 , gillellus arenicola meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\n\n' gillellus arenicola\n' , the\n' sandy stargazer\n' , is a species of sand stargazer native to the pacific coast of central america from baja california , mexico , to panama where it can be found on sandy substrates at depths of from .\ndawson , c . e . , 1977 . , studies on eastern pacific sand stargazers ( pisces : dactyloscopidae ) . 4 . gillellus , sindoscopus new genus , and heteristius with description of new species . , proc . calif . acad . sci . , 41 ( 2 ) : 125 - 160 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2014 . catalog of fishes . updated 27 august 2014 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 august 2014 ) .\njustification : this species is widespread in the eastern pacific . there are no known major threats to this species , and no current indication of population decline . it is listed as least concern .\nthis species is endemic to the eastern pacific , and is found from southern baja california to jalisco in central mexico . the species is frequently mentioned as occurring to western panama ( e . g . , robertson and allen , 2006 ) , but the validity of this distribution requires confirmation .\nthere are no known conservation measures for this species . however , this species distribution falls partially into a number of marine protected areas in the eastern pacific region ( wdpa 2006 ) , including cabo pulmo national park .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ntheodore nicolas gill ( 1837 - 1914 ) researcher of abyssal fishes and systematics ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 8 - 137 m ( ref . 11482 ) . tropical\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 5 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 11482 )\nallen , g . r . and d . r . robertson , 1994 . fishes of the tropical eastern pacific . university of hawaii press , honolulu . 332 p . ( ref . 11482 )\n) : 17 . 2 - 27 . 4 , mean 23 . 4 ( based on 28 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5010 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 \u00b10 . 61 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nbody compressed , tapering to tail ; head moderate size ; eyes not on stalks ; tip of lower jaw fleshy , pointed , conical , strongly protruding ; lower lips only with 4 skin flaps ; tubular nostrils ; dorsal fin origin on nape , before level of upper corner of operculum , a finlet of ii ( ii - iii ) spines at front , then i - ii free spines , then main fin , ii - iii + i - ii + x - xii ( total xiii - xv ) , 29 ( 27 - 31 ) ; segmented anal rays 35 - 36 ( 34 - 38 ) ; pectoral rays 12 ( 12 - 13 ) ; tail fin with some branched rays ; lateral line continuous , bends down between dorsal fin elements 15 - 16 ( 14 - 17 ) ; scales smooth ; head , pectoral base and belly scaleless ; total lateral - line scales 53 ( 51 - 55 ) , scales in straight ( posterior ) part of lateral line 28 ( 27 - 29 ) .\nwhitish ; back with about 7 short dark saddles alternating with ~ 6 dark hour - glass - shaped bars that extend to middle of side .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge .\ntip of lower jaw fleshy , pointed , and strongly protruding ; isolated dorsal finlet on nape composed of 2 spines , followed by 1 isolated spine then main fin ; dorsal rays ii + i + x - xi , 27 - 31 ; segmented anal rays 34 - 38 ( usually 35 - 36 ) ; pectoral rays 12 - 13 ; total lateral - line scales 51 - 55 ; scales in straight ( posterior ) part of lateral line 27 - 29 ; lateral line deflected ventrally below dorsal fin elements 14 - 17 ; principal segmented caudal rays 10 .\noverall whitish with series of brown saddles and bars across back and on upper side ; about 7 dark saddles on back alternating with hour - glass - shaped bars that extend to middle of side .\nfindley , l . t . , hendrickx , m . e . , brusca , r . c . , van der heiden , a . m . , hastings , p . a . , torre , j . , 2003 . , diversidad de la macrofauna marina del golfo de california , mexico . , cd - rom versi\u00f3n 1 . 0 . projecto de la macrofauna del golfo . derechos reservados de los autores y conservaci\u00f3n internacional .\ngilbert , c . h . , 1890 . , a preliminary report on the fishes collected by the steamer\nalbatross\non the pacific coast of north america during the year 1889 , with descriptions of twelve new genera and ninety - two new species . , proc . u . s . nat . mus . , 13 : 49 - 126 .\nlove , m . s . , mecklenburg , c . w . , mecklenburg , t . a . , thorsteinson , l . k . , 2005 . , es of the west coast and alaska : a checklist of north pacific and artic ocena species from baja california to the alaska - yukon border . , u . s . department of the interior , u . s . geological survey , biological resources division , 288pp .\nosburn , r . c . and nichols , j . t . , 1916 . , shore fishes collected by the ' albatross ' expedition in lower california with descriptions of new species . , bull . amer . mus . nat . hist . , 35 : 139 - 181 .\nvan der heiden , a . m . and findley , l . t . , 1988 . , lista de los peces marinos del sur de sinaloa , m\u00e9xico . , anales del centro de ciencias del mar y limnologia de la universidad autonoma nacional de mexico , 15 : 209 - 224 .\nvillareal - cavazos , a . , reyes - bonilla , h . , berm\u00fadez - almada , b . and arizpe - covarrubias , o . , 2000 . , los peces del arrecife de cabo pulmo , golfo de california , m\u00e9xico : lista sistem\u00e1tica y aspectos de abundancia y biogeograf\u00eda . , rev . biol . trop . , 48 : 413 - 424 .\ni thank ashley macdonald and john pickering , university of georgia , for technical support in building this page .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook"]}
{"id": 2351, "summary": [{"text": "the kordofan giraffe ( giraffa camelopardalis antiquorum ) is a subspecies of giraffe found in northern cameroon , southern chad , central african republic and possibly western sudan .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "historically some confusion has existed over the exact range limit of this subspecies compared to the west african giraffe , with populations in e.g. northern cameroon formerly assigned to the latter .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "genetic work has also revealed that all \" west african giraffe \" in european zoos are in fact kordofan giraffe .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "compared to most other subspecies , the kordofan giraffe has relatively small , more irregular spots on the inner legs .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "its english name is a reference to kordofan in sudan .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "there are around 2,000 individuals living in the wild .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the christian science monitor lists only 38 individuals being alive in the embattled garamba national park in the democratic republic of congo due to poaching ; their skin is used for luxury goods and they are said to produce enough meat to feed poachers for ' weeks ' .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "recent genetic studies also shows distinct genetic populations of giraffe that makes conservation of these subspecies even more important . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "kordofan giraffe", "paragraphs": ["the kordofan giraffe is a subspecies of giraffe typically found in northern cameroon , southern chad , central african republic and possibly western sudan .\ncompared to other subspecies , the kordofan giraffe has small , more irregular spots on the inner legs .\nto celebrate world giraffe day this 21st june , we thought we\u2019d take a look at a very special subspecies of the giraffidae family \u2013 the kordofan giraffe .\nspot the spots . compared to other subspecies , the kordofan giraffe has relatively small , pale and irregular spots .\nthe existence of the tiny kordofan giraffe population , the last in congo , is particularly precarious and special units are assigned to protect them .\nin the north - eastern democratic republic of the congo borders south sudan and contains the last remaining population of kordofan giraffe in the drc .\nyou would have to run in order to keep up with a giraffe walking because every step a giraffe takes is 15 feet long .\nthey\u2019re misunderstood . most of the kordofan populations were formerly classifed as west african giraffe ( g . c . peralta ) , but recent research has proved that they\u2019re actually in a class of their own . genetic studies in 2007 resulted in giraffe from zoos across europe being reclassified as kordofan ( g . c . antiquorum ) .\nwith only 38 kordofan giraffes remaining , conservationists are asking president obama to donate funding and supplies .\none of only a handful of kordofan giraffes in captivity , seen in paris . mathae / wikimedia\na giraffe is one of the few animals that uses mostly its front legs when it runs .\ncurrently there are nine recognised subspecies of giraffe living in geographically distinct areas across africa . however , there is increasing evidence to suggest that this may not be correct , and the giraffe conservation foundation ( gcf ) is leading a long - term effort to get to the bottom of giraffe genetics .\na single giraffe can produce up to 660 pounds of meat , and priced at 30 pounds per pound , one giraffe can produce quite a paycheck . especially in a country where the gross domestic product per capita measured $ 231 . 51 in 2012 \u2013 the worst in the world . and the skin of the kordofan giraffe has distinctive spots , typically fetching a higher price tag on the luxury goods market .\ngiraffe gather at a water hole in zimbabwe ' s hwange national park , august 2 , 2015 .\nthe killing of three rare kordofan giraffes in the democratic republic of the congo inspired a filmmaker to transform his anger into action .\npoachers are wiping away a rare subspecies of giraffe found in central africa . exclusive video shows the aftermath of recent killings .\nduring an aerial count last year , 934 giraffe were recorded , most of which were in the eastern half of the park .\nthe kordofan giraffe ( giraffa camelopardalis antiquorum ) is a subspecies whose native range includes southern chad , the central african republic , northern cameroon , the northern democratic republic of congo and probably south sudan . it is estimated that there are less than 2 , 000 individuals surviving across these countries .\ngaramba is africa\u2019s second oldest national park and has been hit hard by poaching in recent years as civil unrest has escalated in the region . its rhinos have been wiped out , and elephants have suffered huge losses . the same goes for its kordofan giraffes , one of africa\u2019s nine giraffe subspecies .\nthe tiny kordofan giraffe population is the last in congo ( pictured ) . there are an estimated 34 adult giraffes in garamba park , split between two herds , with four young calves between them . their skin is used for luxury goods and they produce enough meat to feed poachers for ' weeks ' the experts claim\ntoday the rhinos have been wiped out , there are less than 1 , 500 elephants and just 38 kordofan giraffes remain in a region plagued with regional conflict , tough terrain and isolation .\nthe project involved conducting a workshop to train the conservation service from four of the national parks in cameroon that hold giraffe ( waza , faro , bouba njida and b\u00e9nou\u00e9 ) on techniques in animal surveying using gis , animal data collection software , drone technology , and undertaking a population survey of large mammals in b\u00e9nou\u00e9 national park - particularly giraffe . the team used this trip to identify the threats to giraffe in this region and to help the national park conservator to find effective solutions to those threats .\nfewer than 2 , 000 now roam central africa , according to julian fennessy , co - director of the giraffe conservation foundation , a namibia - based organization . garamba\u2019s kordofans represent the last population in the democratic republic of the congo . \u201cif the number slips in half , then we\u2019re in a real dire situation , \u201d fennessy says . \u201cevery single giraffe is valuable . \u201d\nbristol zoological society began its kordofan giraffe conservation project in cameroon in 2016 . this february , our team , which consisted of osiris doumb\u00e9 , lecturer in conservation science ; daniel days , theming and interpretation coordinator ; will walker , animal manager at wild place project and dr gr\u00e1inne mccabe , head of field conservation and science , travelled to b\u00e9nou\u00e9 national park in northern cameroon to start phase i of the project .\nthe kordofan giraffe is one of nine subspecies of the long - necked animals to live on the african continent . while most other subspecies are found in the south and east of the continent , the kordofan is the only one to persist in central africa . it once ranged across large tracts of grassland , from chad and cameroon in the west to the democratic republic of congo ( drc ) in the east . while it is thought that around 3 , 000 of the animals still live in scattered populations across its range , the few remaining ones in garamba are thought to be the last of the subspecies living in the entire drc .\ndiet : giraffes are browsing ungulates , feeding almost exclusively on the new shoots of shrubs and trees . acacia trees are by far their favourite food source , the leaves being stripped from their thorny branches with the assistance of the giraffe\u2019s long prehensile tongue and lips .\nlittle wildlife data has been collected between 1983 and 2005 . however , this subspecies\u2019 name serves as a reminder of a time of abundance past . named after a former province in sudan , a researcher suggested in 1931 that kordofan giraffes were common throughout the sudan as far as northern darfur . sadly , a\nafrica ' s garamba park was once home to 500 northern white rhinos , more than 20 , 000 elephants and 350 giraffes . today the rhinos have been wiped out , there are less than 1 , 500 elephants and just 38 kordofan giraffes ( pictured ) remain in a region plagued with regional conflict , tough terrain and isolation\nbut hamlin\u2019s exhilaration at seeing and photographing the giraffes didn\u2019t last long . twelve hours later rangers reported hearing gunshots , and they later discovered three bullet - riddled giraffe carcasses rotting in the sun . \u201cit was horrible for me and the team , \u201d hamlin says\u2014\u201dthe crushing realization that most likely it was these guys , the ones we\u2019d seen . \u201d\ngiraffes have the same number of bones in their neck as humans do . baby giraffes are about 6 feet tall when they are born . they are one of the few animals born with horns . the okapi is a close relative of the giraffe making up the giraffidae family . they only sleep for a few minutes at a time . their heart weighs approximately 24 pounds .\nthe second - oldest national park in africa , garamba national park in the democratic republic of congo used to be teeming with wildlife . it was once home to 500 northern white rhinos , over 20 , 000 elephants , and 350 kordofan giraffes . but 40 years later , the park is in a different state . wracked by chronic insecurity , armed conflict and the eternal threat of poachers , the wildlife is paying the price .\n\u201c [ the petition\u2019s ] call - to - action contends that congo is under extreme financial and political distress from caring for the many refugees \u2018pouring in from south sudan , \u2019 and does not have the means to safeguard the remaining 38 giraffes from extinction , \u201d explains environews . garamba was already a resource - deprived park , but the petition\u2019s authors say hungry sudanese refugees wouldn\u2019t think twice about killing a giraffe for its flavorful meat .\n\u201cthis is one of the most trouble - ridden parts of africa , \u201d chris thouless , who works for save the elephants , a conservation organization that aims to protect the animals , told afp . \u201csimply , garamba & apos ; s survival is an absolute miracle . \u201d today , there are no northern white rhinos left in the park ( with the only three surviving northern white rhinos living in kenya ) , the elephant population has been decimated to 1 , 500 individuals , and the kordofan giraffes are on the brink with just 38 individuals , according to a new census .\nhabitat : giraffes roam over large areas of bush and savannah areas , living often in semi - desert regions where they get most of their water from their food . like camels , they are able to go long periods of time without a drink and usually drink every 2 - 3 days . to get a drink they have to splay their forelegs to reach the water . the same is true of the okapi , disproving the idea that the giraffe ' s extra long neck and legs are the reason they must drink this way .\nphase ii will begin early next year , when the dry season returns , and will involve tracking individual giraffe to add to the society\u2019s spot pattern database ( used for individual recognition ) and to boost our knowledge of their use of the habitat , the foods they prefer to eat and their social structure . we will also continue to support the conservation service by providing basic kit , such as uniforms , boots and socks , water filters and other field equipment \u2013 it is hoped this will make their job of patrolling the park easier and help to stop illegal activities such as cattle herding , poaching and gold mining .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\n/ / urltoken\nafrica ' s garamba park was once home to 500 northern white rhinos , more than 20 , 000 elephants and 350 giraffes .\nthe situation is so dire , that if the park loses just five more of the tiny , rare giraffes , they will be unable to sustain themselves and would ultimately face extinction .\n' this is one of the most trouble - ridden parts of africa , ' said chris thouless of save the elephants , a conservation organisation . ' simply , garamba ' s survival is an absolute miracle . '\nwhen vet pete morkel first visited garamba to put tracking collars on northern white rhinos in the 1990s , it was a different place .\nhow to tell when felines aren ' t feeling fine : researchers . . .\nmale sand martin birds are filmed trying to mate with a dead . . .\n' it was quite easy to see rhinos , there was a lot more elephant , a lot more hippo , just a lot more of everything , ' said the 55 - year old namibian vet .\nthere are an estimated 34 adult giraffes in garamba park , split between two herds , with four young calves between them .\ntheir skin is used for luxury goods and they produce enough meat to feed poachers for ' weeks ' the experts claim .\nin february last year , he put radio tracking collars on elephants and giraffes , darting the animals from a hovering helicopter .\neight giraffes and 28 elephants now have collars enabling conservationists to monitor their every movement and park rangers to track their whereabouts .\nwhen conservation non - profit african parks took over management of garamba in 2005 , it was too late to save the northern white rhino , now the struggle is to protect what ' s left .\ngaramba was established in 1938 , making it the continent ' s second oldest park after virunga to the south . in 1980 garamba was made a world heritage site , but a quarter of a century later the rhinos the designation was intended to protect were gone\nin february last year , conservationists put radio tracking collars on elephants and giraffes , darting the animals from a hovering helicopter . eight giraffes and 28 elephants now have collars enabling the experts to monitor their every movement and park rangers to track their whereabouts\ngaramba was established in 1938 , making it the continent ' s second oldest park after virunga to the south .\nold black and white photographs are all that remains of a once famous elephant domestication programme .\nthey show white men in pith helmets sitting on an elephant - drawn plough , or regal upon a horse in sparkling jodhpurs with elephants and locals lined up in neat rows on either side like a coronation scene from jean de brunhoff ' s cartoon ' babar ' .\nin 1980 garamba was made a world heritage site , but a quarter of a century later the rhinos the designation was intended to protect were gone .\ntoday the presence of vehicles and people is rare - and because of poachers , sometimes deadly - so the animals are ' skittish ' .\nthe park costs around $ 3 million ( 2 . 7 million euros ) a year to run , much of that donated by the european union , so conservationists are considering other schemes to help fund garamba , such as a hydroelectric dam on one of the park ' s many rivers , selling power to nearby mining operations\ntoday the presence of vehicles and people is rare - and because of poachers , sometimes deadly - so the animals are ' skittish ' . a young female elephant lies sedated as garamba national park rangers attach a gps collar to track her movements\nthe park costs around $ 3 million ( 2 . 7 million euros ) a year to run , much of that donated by the european union , so conservationists are considering other schemes to help fund garamba , such as a hydroelectric dam on one of the park ' s many rivers , selling power to nearby mining operations .\n' there ' s been a massive improvement in law enforcement within garamba but elephants are still being killed at an unsustainable rate , ' said thouless .\nhe manages the elephant crisis fund , which was kick - started by a million dollar donation from actor leonardo dicaprio in 2014 , and disburses emergency money to protect threatened elephant populations , including in garamba .\nbottleneck of 700 , 000 migrants wait in libya to cross the . . .\n' prostitutes , orgies , group sex - all of it ' : ex - wife of . . .\n' we know where you live ' : angry protesters confront mitch . . .\npolice find the body of a missing four - month - old boy near . . .\nthe fashion designer ' s $ 24million party pad that no one . . .\n' you broke your girl ' s heart ' : car racing legend craig . . .\nmoney launderer caught with \u00a3250 , 000 cash in bin bags in . . .\ndon ' t kill the army of ants and wasps invading your home . . .\nsydney tower skywalk was ' shut down due to unsafe winds ' . . .\nstep inside the tomb of queen nefertari : immersive vr experience reveals the 3 , 000 - year - old artwork of . . .\nworld ' s first floating nation begins selling its own ' vayron ' cryptocurrency ahead of 2022 launch in the . . .\nbeing rich and successful really is in your dna : being dealt the right genes determines whether you get on . . .\nsnapchat is developing a ' visual image search ' that lets you point your camera at an item to see it on . . .\n' like a symphony orchestra turned into light ' : iss astronaut captures lighting and auroras lighting up . . .\na new way to tackle climate change ? heat from underground rivers in london could help cut the capital ' s . . .\namazon is still selling nazi - branded merchandise , despite researchers first warning it about the products . . .\nhas kepler found its last alien world ? nasa reveals its planet hunting space telescope is about to run out . . .\nmummified head of serial killer ' the vampire of dusseldorf ' who raped and murdered girls as young as four . . .\npeople who see themselves as albert einstein suddenly think they are smarter : being in the body of someone . . .\nsamsung opens the world ' s largest phone plant in india : 1 . 5 million square foot factory will produce 120 . . .\nhailey baldwin and justin bieber passionately kiss in the bahamas . . . as news of engagement spreads\nselena gomez is seen with same mystery man she was with in may . . . after news her ex justin bieber is engaged to hailey baldwin\nkhloe kardashian reveals she stopped breast - feeding daughter true . . . three months after giving birth\ngiuliana rancic takes a hike with bill . . . as the couple vacation with friends ahead of her return to e ! news\nkhloe kardashian shows off neon sign in true ' s nursery . . . as she reveals it ' s kris jenner ' s handwriting\nciara and husband russell wilson dance as they head to south africa for their honeymoon . . . two years after wedding\nrapper del the funky homosapian falls off stage during gorillaz set . . . but he reassures fans he ' s ' alright ' as he recovers in hospital\nmakeup artist joyce bonelli reaches out to the kardashian clan on instagram . . . after the famous family ' fire ' and unfollow her on social media\ndaddy daycare ! jared kushner takes kids back to d . c . after weekend in new jersey - as ivanka dons a short dress for visit to a nyc asphalt company\nsofia richie , 19 poses in a bikini top just after scott disick ' s ex kourtney kardashian , 39 , did the same . . . and fans call her out for it\nnaomi campbell wows in flamboyant feathered gown . . . while ashley graham sizzles in plunging lace dress as they walk in dolce & gabbana show in italy\nnaya rivera sells her five - bedroom la home for a cool $ 3 . 55 million after finalizing her divorce from ryan dorsey\nmel b ' is unable to pay her back taxes amid ongoing divorce battle with stephen belafonte . . . as it ' s estimated the pair owe up to $ 650k ' to the irs\nkylie jenner rocks curve - clinging attire as she shows off body . . . and considers going back to blonde\ndakota johnson dons striped wrap dress in la . . . after calling co - star chris hemsworth ' spectacular '\ncardi b hits back at troll who mocked her baby shower . . . as she shows off naked baby bump for photoshoot\nbuy your own celebrity hideaway ! castle adored by michael douglas and jack nicholson goes on sale for $ 5 . 2m ( and even comes with treehouse )\nant - man and the wasp soars to $ 76 million on opening weekend . . . beating its prequel by $ 19 million\nliam payne and cheryl split : carefree 1d star returns to stage for first time since break - up . . . as he poses happily with his backing dancers in france\ntristan thompson goes house hunting alone as he checks out $ 2m property in la with its own basketball court . . . just minutes from khloe ' s mansion\nchris hemsworth kicks off filming for the star - studded men in black spin - off as he cuts a sharp figure in london . . . 21 years after the first film hit screens\njill zarin admits she ' s ready to date again after being spotted with handsome businessman . . . following beloved husband bobby ' s death\ndj khaled cancels wireless performance due to ' travel issues ' just hours before his slot . . . as fans rage over his ' vacation ' snap\n13 reasons why villain justin prentice says he ' s not bothered by social media trolls . . . and that getting attacked online means he ' s doing his job as an actor\nfarm heroes saga , the # 4 game on itunes . play it now !\nit ' s eye - wateringly expensive at $ 2 , 999 , but naim ' s uniti atom is a revelation , an integrated amplifier than makes it easy to stream music at a quality you ' ve probably never heard before .\nafter a day with the iphone x , while face id isn ' t perfect , and the ' notch ' is an annoyance , the iphone x is a glimpse into the future of phones and the best handset of the market by a long way .\nthey aren ' t cheap , but shinola ' s $ 595 foray into headphones are the perfect accessory for design obsessives looking to upgrade their listening habits .\nwith the pixel xl , google has created a handset that is not only the best android device out there , but arguably matches the iphone 8 in terms of design and feel .\napple ' s watch will free you from your phone - while making sure you don ' t suffer the fear of missing out . it ' s a huge step forward , and a compelling reason for the average user to buy a smartwatch .\nwhile the iphone x may have stolen the headlines , in fact the iphone 8 could be the sleeper hit of apple ' s new range , offering the same power as the x but with features and a design users trust .\nwhile the design is impressive and easy to use , the game line up is disappointing .\nnaim ' s incredible mu - so qb takes you back to the good old days - where the music captivates and enthralls , rather that simply being something in the background .\nit might not be a name familiar to the us market , but naim is a legendary british brand hoping to make a splash with the american launch of its $ 1499 mu : so speaker .\npeloton ' s hi - tech bike lets you stream live and on demand rides to your home - and it ' s one of the best examples of fitness technology out there - at a price .\nthis website uses cookies to improve functionality and performance . by continuing to browse the site you are agreeing to our\noriginally ranging through cameroon , the central african republic , and sudan , the remaining kordofans are now sequestered in the democratic republic of congo\u2019s garamba national park . approximately 350 kordofans roamed the drc only 20 years ago , but the numbers plunged to 86 by 2003 and then decreased to only 38 in 2016 .\n\u201cat the moment the ratio is one male to 2 . 4 females , which is still sustainable , \u201d aime balimbaki , the head of research and monitoring at garamba national park , tells the sunday express . \u201cbut if we have bad luck or if there is a serious menace \u2013 even if we lose just five giraffes \u2013 then the population may no longer be viable . \u201d\nas of sunday , a petition to president barack obama titled \u201csave the last 38 giraffes in congo\u201d had received over 28 , 400 signatures .\n\u201c [ the congo\u2019s ] government likely cannot take on the additional expense of saving the last of its giraffes , \u201d reads the petition . \u201cthey need other nations to step up and provide conservationists with the money for better security against poachers , tracking collars , and other equipment they might need to track these wandering animals . the united states often helps other nations in times of need . \u201d\n\u201cit is heartbreaking that this has not gained the media attention it so deserves , \u201d says the uk - based charity spots and stripes . \u201cto have a population of only 38 giraffes remaining in the congo is a disaster for both the species and for conservation . \u201d\nand just because the remaining giraffes are under garamba\u2019s protection doesn\u2019t mean they are safe , explain conservationists .\nand human - induced landscape changes have forced giraffes to roam far and wide to find an adequate food supply , especially in a national park that measures almost 2 , 000 square - miles . the petition asks president obama to fund tracking collars for the remaining 38 giraffes , in addition to salary pay so more park staff can be hired to protect the giraffes against both locals and sudanese refugees .\n\u201cthis is one of the most trouble - ridden parts of africa , \u201d chris thouless of save the elephants told ctv news , referencing africa\u2019s second - oldest national park . \u201csimply , garamba\u2019s survival is an absolute miracle . \u201d\ndespite the park\u2019s warring neighbors , hungry poachers , and funding needs , the non - profit organization african parks that took over garamba\u2019s management in 2005 , continues to fight for a brighter future for garamba and its residents .\nwe want to hear , did we miss an angle we should have covered ? should we come back to this topic ? or just give us a rating for this story . we want to hear from you .\n. all rights reserved . terms under which this service is provided to you .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\ngaramba national park ( pictured ) is the second - oldest national park in africa , and the last remaining home for giraffes in the democratic republic of congo . nuria ortega / wikimedia\ngaramba was once home to over 20 , 000 elephants . now , it is thought that just 1 , 500 survive . enough project / flickr cc by - nc - nd 2 . 0\nthe giraffes are split into two populations within the reserve , and those who work in garamba , which is run by the non - profit organization african parks , worry that if any more are killed , the population will no longer be sustainable and will slowly die out . in a bid to protect them , researchers have now attached radio collars to a number of the giraffes . it is hoped this will allow conservationists to \u201cmonitor their every movement , and park rangers to track their whereabouts , \u201d writes afp . not only that , but it should also help the special units assigned to protect the animals against poachers , who kill the animals for their meat and pelt .\nprotecting the giraffes in garamba is particularly a challenge . at around 12 , 400 square kilometers ( 4 , 800 square miles ) , defending the mosaic of rainforest and grassland that makes up the park is a thankless task , but one that the rangers are getting better at . the proportion of the park now under control and patrolled by rangers has increased from 30 percent to almost 100 percent today . but it has come at a cost , as rangers have been killed in action trying to protect the remaining wildlife .\nthis website uses cookies to improve user experience . by continuing to use our website you consent to all cookies in accordance with our cookie policy .\n. african parks has , therefore , recently enlisted the help of the gcf to secure a sustainable future for them .\nthey are never in hock . their markings cover their inner legs but don\u2019t go below the hocks .\nhanks to improved management under african parks , numbers are increasing and the future for the species is starting to look positive . if it can survive a case of mistaken identity and outlive its own namesake , there\u2019s hope for this special subspecies yet .\nafrican parks is a non - profit organisation that takes on total responsibility for the rehabilitation and long - term management of national parks in partnership with governments , wildlife organisations and local communities . we operate seven national parks in six countries : zambia , malawi , the democratic republic of congo , the republic of congo , rwanda and chad . please see urltoken or visit our facebook page for more information .\nstay up - to - date with our weekly magazine and best blog posts .\npublisher we publish a premier online magazine , blog and printed annual coffee table yearbook for our sophisticated international audience . safari company tailored safari specialists . when and where to go in africa , and with whom . a few weeks too early / late or a few kilometers off course and you could miss the greatest show on earth . and wouldn\u2019t that be a pity ?\non our way\u2026 ( blog post written by will walker on 5 . 2 . 17 )\nwe have finally arrived in b\u00e9nou\u00e9 national park . what we believed would be an eight hour car journey from the capital , yaound\u00e9 , turned out to be a 24 - hour journey , spread over two days . the drive up took us right though the country , passing rural villages , towns and cities ( where we stopped to buy food and provisions for our stay in b\u00e9nou\u00e9 ) , through forested areas , mountain highlands and more open woodlands . the simple life of rural africa is something that i find beautiful . collections of mud - brick and thatched - roofed buildings , where children play with toys made from things we would throw away , where the women meet , talk and laugh at the well to collect water , or sell fruit or honey on the roadside , and where the elders sit around together outside a few of the huts . every time i come back to africa , part of me never wants to leave .\nunlike east africa where children run to the side of the road to wave at the tourists , and where foreigners are in abundance , here it seemed that these people had hardly seen tourists . unfortunately tourism in the northern part of the country is now almost non - existent . at b\u00e9nou\u00e9 national park they only have around 100 overseas tourists a year and in some of the other parks they haven\u2019t seen tourists in three years . people seemed generally curious of us as we were all packed into the back of a toyota hilux , and with a massive amount of luggage topped with potatoes , pineapples , rice , honey , as well as anything else we decided to buy on the way to the north .\nfrom the turn - off to the national park we bounced along a very rutted and bumpy dirt road . there are only about 50km of dirt roads that are usable inside the 1800 km 2 national park and this one is the main one ! not sure what the conditions of the other roads are going to be like . it was dark by the time we got to the camp and the b\u00e9nou\u00e9 headquarters .\nthe camp itself is made up of about eight circular buildings , where guests sleep , and a main communal area , where the bar and food would be served . on arrival to my room i foolishly tried to turn on the lights . the guy who showed me to my room laughed and went on to light a candle . there is no electricity or running water in the camp . no tourists mean that things have deteriorated quite a bit . we ate dinner together and all retired to bed not long after . it has been an exhausting few days and we have a four day workshop to run , starting in the morning .\nbristol zoological society ltd , clifton , bristol bs8 3ha . company registered in england reg . no . 5154176 . charity reg . no . 1104986\ndescription : giraffes are long - necked browsing animals that taxonomists place in a separate family , giraffidae , from other artiodactylids : camels , deer and bovines . possessing only seven cervical vertebrae ( like other mammals ) , giraffes , at almost 19 feet , are the tallest of all mammals . adult males weigh as much as 4 , 000 lbs . they are characterized by having two knobs , called ossicones , on their head . some individuals may have additional bumps on the sides of their skulls that are irregularly located . unlike antlers on deer or horns on bovids , ossicones are permanently covered by hair and never shed . after a gestation of 15 months , females give birth to a single young ; twins occur rarely . adults are not territorial but rather feed over a large\nroaming\narea . when alarmed , giraffes can reach speeds of 30 to 36 miles per hour . unlike most mammals giraffes walk using both legs from the same side of the body simultaneously . when they gallop they move both fore legs and both hind legs together , and because of its long stride is faster than it appears .\nfemale ' s horns are thin and tufted ; male ' s are thick and bald on top , their horns can be up to 5 inches long .\nthe color varies from brown to a rich chestnut ( old males are darker , even black ) .\nalthough usually quiet , giraffes are not voiceless as the common myth leads us to believe , but instead can produce snorting or moaning noises , particularly when there is danger . they have a good sense of smell , hearing and excellent vision enabling them to see miles away .\nsocial organization : giraffes are sociable , tolerant animals living in small groups to large herds or coalitions of familiar cows and calves which number from 12 to 15 animals . although gregarious , group structure is constantly changing to some degree due to individuals\u2019 overlapping home ranges . including a surrounding\nbuffer zone\n, female home ranges may be as large as 46 sq . miles . home ranges of adult bulls are smaller . there is no apparent dominance among females but adult males display absolute hierarchy within their home ranges .\ndocumentary filmmaker david hamlin recalls the adrenalin rush when he was flying over the democratic republic of the congo\u2019s garamba national park in late june and spotted three giraffes standing in a small clearing . \u201cseeing these giraffes from the air was really exciting , \u201d says hamlin , who was on assignment for national geographic . \u201cseeing them anywhere is really exciting . \u201d\nthat\u2019s because garamba is huge , sprawling over nearly 2 , 000 square miles ( 5 , 180 square kilometers ) of mostly forested land , and it ' s a rare , lucky event to come across any of its 40 remaining giraffes .\nhamlin decided to document the aftermath of the tragedy ( watch the video above ) to raise awareness about poaching in the park , which is managed by the nonprofit organization african parks in association with the congolese institute for the conservation of nature , a government agency .\na group of rare giraffes roam the democratic republic of the congo\u2019s garamba national park .\ncongolese usually kill the giraffes for one body part : their tails , considered a status symbol in some communities . meanwhile men from neighboring south sudan target the giraffes for their meat to feed impoverished villagers . but the massive bodies ( giraffes can grow to 18 feet and weigh up to 3 , 000 pounds ) of the three giraffes were intact\u2014only the ends of their tails were missing .\naccording to leon lamprecht , joint operations director for african parks , men \u201cuse the tail as a dowry to the bride\u2019s father if they want to ask for the hand of a bride . \u201d the long black hairs are often turned into fly whisks .\none of the dead giraffes had a satellite collar and was being monitored by garamba\u2019s rangers . \u201cwhat an absolute waste , \u201d lamprecht says .\nthis story was produced by national geographic\u2019s special investigations unit , which focuses on wildlife crime and is made possible by grants from the band foundation and the woodtiger fund . read more stories from the siu on wildlife watch . send tips , feedback , and story ideas to ngwildlife @ urltoken ."]}
{"id": 2360, "summary": [{"text": "cotinis aliena ( also keys green june beetle ) is a species of cotinis found in the florida keys .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "this species is considered to be critically imperiled because it is only known from three localities in the florida keys and one locality in southern peninsular florida .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "no specimens have been found since 1998 .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "development and pesticides are the most likely threats to its survival . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "cotinis aliena", "paragraphs": ["no one has contributed data records for cotinis ( cotinis ) burmeister , 1842 yet . learn how to contribute .\nin the eastern united states , the genus cotinis burmeister previously contained only c . nitida ( l . ) , the common economic pest known as the\ngreen june beetle\n. a new species from the florida keys , cotinis aliena , is here described and illustrated . a checklist is provided for the genus , which includes 27 valid new world species , and 44 synonyms .\njennifer hammock split the classifications by nmnh entomology resource from cotinis nitida ( linnaeus , 1764 ) to their own page .\napologies for the white debris that made its way into this photo . i will try to take photos later on but wanted to post asap as bugguide did not yet have an image for this neat species from the florida keys . for more information on c . aliena ( pp . 4 - 7 ) as well as other neat cotinis spp . feel free to check out the following resource : woodruff , r . ( 2008 ) . the genus cotinis burmeister in the eastern united states , with description of a new species from the florida keys , including a checklist of the genus ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : cetoniinae ) . insecta mundi , 584 .\nwoodruff , r . e . 2008 . the genus cotinis burmeister in the eastern united states with description of a new species from the florida keys , including a checklist of the genus ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : cetoniinae ) . insecta mundi 0051 : 1 - 13 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nit is possible that this species was introduced , but there is no definite evidence of this .\nthis species is only known from three localities in the florida keys and one locality in extreme southern peninsular florida , usa . no specimens have been found since 1998 .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nthis species is only known from three localities in the florida keys and one locality in extreme southern peninsular florida .\nsurvey the florida keys and southern peninsular florida , usa for presence of this species .\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\ndeyrup , m . and r . franz . 1994 . rare and endangered biota of florida , volume iv . invertebrates . university press of florida : gainesville , florida . 798 pp .\nnatureserve . unpublished . concept reference for taxa which have not yet been described ; to be used as a placeholder until a citation is available which describes the circumscription of the taxon .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nkey largo , monroe county , florida , usa june 24 , 2016 size : ~ 2 . 4 cm\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\npublished in insecta mundi : a journal of world insect systematics , # 0051 ( 2008 ) . published by the center for systematic entomology , inc . , gainseville , fl . urltoken copyright \u00a9 2008 by the authors .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsmith , a . b . t . 2009 . checklist and nomenclatural authority file of the scarabaeoidea of the nearctic realm . version 4 . electronically published , ottawa , canada . 97 pp . , available online at urltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services ."]}
{"id": 2368, "summary": [{"text": "top flight ( april 15 , 1929 \u2013 1949 ) was an american u.s. hall of fame thoroughbred racehorse .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "she was the leading american filly of her generation at two and three years of age . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "top flight", "paragraphs": ["stoke have finished no higher than fourth in their 53 top - flight seasons .\nbut neither man has a top - flight game during the next round of matches .\nthere has been interest from top - flight clubs in spain in a loan move .\nstoke have won six of their past 82 top - flight games away from home .\nin their past four top - flight matches , they have mustered just a single point .\nhe steered the club to top - flight safety last term after being appointed last january .\nonce more top - flight football has been cast into the street along with the garbage .\nsterling already possesses such awareness just a handful of games into his top - flight career .\nhistorically , no other top - flight team has lost as many games during the month .\nand they had won just one of their last four top - flight games against the hammers .\nit means 44 per cent of all top - flight matches will be shown live on telly .\ntop flight basketball co . , ltd . | copyright \u00a9 since 2010 | all rights reserved .\nthey now need to prove their top - flight status is no fluke by repeating that fairytale finish .\nthe newly promoted home side were proving more than a match for the top - flight visiting team .\nclub chiefs had refused to discuss any new deals until the club secured their top - flight status .\nfans of established top - flight clubs will experience something a culture shock when visiting the south coast .\nsign up for fall classes by september 30 and get a free top flight gymnastics t - shirt .\nmo ' green | isabelle | oasis at midnight | verve ' s tale | irad ortiz , jr . | john c . servis | aqueduct racetrack | top flight invitational handicap | top flight invitational handicap ( 2017 )\ngoodison park is the first ground to see an own goal by a goalkeeper in successive top - flight matches .\nwolves are a point adrift of the play - off places as they attempt to regain top - flight status .\nnext came the spinaway stakes . top flight was burdened with 127 pounds , but the lightly weighted dinner time , carrying only 111 , couldn ' t get near her . top flight won by five lengths , never fully extended .\nnext it was west to chicago for the arlington oaks , where top flight scored an easy wire to wire victory .\nbut they were no match for their top - flight opponents on the football or physical front in an uncomfortable opening .\nbut that took them up to 33 points and on target to secure their top - flight status for another year .\nninety - four years and top flight continues to be an anchor for chattanooga , tn and the school and office products industry .\nthe fall brochure and registration materials have been updated for online email registrations . top flight brochure 2018 - 19 with forms click here\ndespite the losses to the boys , top flight was named 1932 ' s champion three year old filly and was hailed as the best filly since regret , an honor she held until twilight tear came along . top flight joined the illustrious whitney broodmare band , where she produced stakes winner flight command and three stakes producing daughters . when she died in 1949 she was buried at the whitney farm . top flight became a member of the hall of fame in 1966 .\nthank you , your registration has been successful . please print a copy of the registration form and bring it to top flight offices .\nand he says the trio of top - flight teams are cashing in on future tv money for a quick fix to pay their mounting debts .\n4 . top materials for job interviews : in this document , you can ref interview materials for flight attendant such as : flight attendant situational interview , flight attendant behavioral interview , flight attendant interview thank you letter\u2026 other useful materials for flight attendant interview : 1 . ebook : job interview questions & answers by bob firestone download link : click here , full ebook review click here 2 . urltoken interview 3 . urltoken interviews . html 4souce : urltoken\nleonardo da vinci made the first real studies of flight in the 1480 ' s . he had over 100 drawings that illustrated his theories on flight .\nin the coaching club american oaks top flight was almost caught napping by argosie , but she held her lead and won by three quarters of a length .\nit is the first time in more than two decades the average cost of going to see a top - flight match costs less than the year before .\ntop flight technologies is dedicated to application - specific , cost effective commercial solutions of unmanned aircraft vehicles ( uavs ) using the latest advanced technologies driving automation and safety . whether your business solution strategy requires environment or situation assessment , forecasting , security , access , or protection , top flight will help you achieve your objectives .\nthe last champion bred by harry payne whitney was a brown filly foaled april 15 , 1929 . she was top flight , by dis donc and out of flyatit .\naussie slang : top notch , very good . moslty used to describe ones wife .\nback in her own division , top flight won the alabama stakes by four lengths , then failed to give weight to older males and was eased in the delaware handicap .\ntop flight technologies is a leading provider of hybrid energy power systems that extend flight times and allow heavier payloads for commercial unmanned aerial vehicles ( uavs ) enabling disruptive and new business solutions for customers in aerospace , transportation , agriculture , and many other industries .\norville and wilbur wright were very deliberate in their quest for flight . first , they read about all the early developments of flight . they decided to make\na small contribution\nto the study of flight control by twisting their wings in flight . then they began to test their ideas with a kite . they learned about how the wind would help with the flight and how it could affect the surfaces once up in the air .\nto measure top colleges\u2019 efforts on economic diversity , the upshot created the college access index .\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\ntop flight specializes in teaching and promoting the game at the youth and high school levels . the programs include clinics , after school programs , camps and individual or group private training sessions\nteen pauline remained perfect on the inner track with another front - running score , this time in the grade 2 , $ 200 , 000 top flight handicap on saturday . . .\ncasey expressed sympathy for dundalk ' s plight but insisted their case for a place in the top flight\nsimply wasn ' t good enough to get them over the line\n.\nthe serie a is gradually getting back to where it used to be in terms of stature and naturally this has led to a financial boost for the biggest starts of the italian top flight .\nthe university of california is struggling with budget woes that have deeply affected campus life . yet the system\u2019s nine colleges still lead the nation in providing top - flight college education to the masses .\ntop flight angel scored for just the third time in a dozen starts , with the $ 250 , 000 winner ' s share of the purse tripling his career earnings for legendary standardbred farm .\nucd scored 374 in this department thereby ensuring their own top flight survival but two of the country ' s wealthiest clubs - shelbourne and drogheda united , obtained just 278 and 300 points respectively .\nguy 1 : let & apos ; s go to the club tonight . guy 2 : i can & apos ; t , i have to go to top flight . guy 1 : bummer .\nas a yearling , top flight was evaluated by trainer thomas j . healey , who found her to be temperamental and lacking in promise . she was awkward , and a poor mover at the walk .\nberlin ( ap ) \u2014 after a decade in germany ' s second division , bibiana steinhaus will make bundesliga history this season by becoming the first woman to referee in the country ' s top flight .\ncan a plane door be opened mid - flight , why are there no parachutes on board . . . and why must window blinds be up for landing ? your top aircraft safety questions answered by pilots\nthankfully , captain thomas explains that it would not be possible to open the door mid - flight .\nin the first $ 60 , 200 division , top flight angel ( andy miller ) left the gate , took the lead and called all the shots from there . travelling well in hand and totally unchallenged the entire mile , top flight angel set quarter fractions of : 29 , : 58 . 2 and 1 : 26 . 2 while opening up a five - length advantage in the process . with the fans on hand aware of the track standard , all eyes were simultaneously on the leader and the clock as top flight angel cruised down the lane and won in 1 : 54 . 3 , tying the mark .\ntop flight angel pulled on even terms with his stablemate devious man ( both trained by julie miller ) , and sears put him in full stride , getting the edge over yes mickey . once the passing lane opened up yes mickey accelerated quickly and closed in gamely , but on the wire he fell a nose short of top flight angel . devious man finished third in the 1 : 56 3 / 5 mile .\ntwo weeks later top flight scored easily in the ladies handicap , but it was to be her final win . she was retired after running fourth behind jockey club gold cup winner dark secret in the potomac handicap .\nover 90 years ago , top flight began as a one - machine paper box manufacturing plant , then known as atlas paper box company . founded in 1920 by h . t . robinson , e . w . macmillan , and the brothers e . d . and h . t . bryan , top flight is still owned and operated by the robinson family today\u00e2\u20ac\u201dand is still committed to strong core values and quality paper products .\nbrian sears had the winning hand on saturday night at yonkers raceway , and he capped an extraordinary night by scoring with top flight angel in the $ 500 , 000 yonkers trot at odds of 7 - 1 .\nand according to one flight attendant , certain seasons and types of passengers are reliably more irksome than others .\nthe highlight of the season came in the futurity stakes at belmont . once again carrying 127 pounds , top flight drew off to win by two and a half lengths over a field that included two future classic winners .\ntop flight made her first start in stakes company , going to post in aqueduct ' s clover stakes on june 17 , 1931 . despite a muddy track , she went wire to wire and was under restraint at the finish .\nwhen her breeder passed away in 1930 , top flight and her stablemates were left to his son , cornelius vanderbilt whitney . she went into training with healey , and was ridden in all but three of her starts by sonny workman .\ntop flight tasted defeat for the first time in her sophomore debut . she tired in the wood memorial and finished fourth . plans for the kentucky derby were canceled . e . r . bradley ' s burgoo king took the roses .\nhannah received the mcdaniel college presidential scholars full tuition scholarship . it is the highest academic honor given to incoming freshmen and covers all four years of tuition . hannah has been a competitive gymnast at top flight for the past 8 years .\nbrad is far from the only flight attendant who has spilled the beans on the less glamorous aspects of his job .\n' british airways pilots will advise customers if any turbulence is expected during the flight as an additional safety measure . '\npubudu dassanayake , the former nepal coach , believes the side ' s current crop of players led by paras khadka have the ability to be a top - flight associate alongside ireland and afghanistan provided the country ' s administrative issues are resolved .\nit was the fourth win of the year for the yonkers trot champion top flight angel ( $ 3 . 80 ) , and it pushed his earnings for 2017 to $ 362 , 016 for owner legendary standardbred farm . julie miller trains the winner .\n9 . 5 . why do i need a certificate from the in - flight institute ? the in - flight institute is the only online flight attendant training school in the world that is used by airlines right here in canada and airlines around the world . our member airlines gain a great advantage by selecting pre - qualified candidates from our database . this enhances the quality of their candidates while decreasing their classroom training time . the in - flight institute provides up to 80 % of the required regulatory knowledge that you need to fly ; the airline will provide the rest . if you are serious about becoming a flight attendant you can improve your chances with a certificate from the in - flight institute . if you are interested in working with any of our preferred member airlines then you must have a certificate of completion exclusively from the in - flight institute . 9souce : urltoken\nat top flight gymnastics we offer young gymnasts a well - rounded source of physical activity that promotes the increase of strength , flexibility , coordination , confidence and courage . our recreational classes , recreational and competitive teams and special activities stimulate physical development in our students .\nurltoken released the figures for the 30 top earners per year in the serie a and without further ado here they are . . .\nthe first heavier - than - air flight traveled one hundred twenty feet in twelve seconds . the two brothers took turns flying that day with the fourth and last flight covering 850 feet in 59 seconds . but the flyer was unstable and very hard to control .\nthis variety suggests that economic diversity is within the power of any top university . the question is whether the university\u2019s leaders decide it\u2019s a priority .\ntop flight returned east for the saratoga meeting , where she was paired with rider sonny workman for the first time . she met the colts in the saratoga special , and had little trouble leaving them in the dust . she beat indian runner by more than a length and with obvious ease .\nthe $ 121 , 500 new york sire stakes ( nyss ) for three - year - old colt and gelding trotters rolled into batavia downs on wednesday evening ( september 13 ) and the track record for that age , sex , and gait , which is also the all - time track trotting mark of 1 : 54 . 3 set by archangel in 2012 was tied by his son , top flight angel ( archangel - top photo ) .\nbetween traditional and modern : as the airline of switzerland , it is important to us to show our guests the multifaceted variety of switzerland . traditional swiss hospitality is as much a part of this as our collaborations with top chefs , who transform top - quality products from their regions into innovative dishes .\nhere are 2018 winners of the top employers for canadians over 40 competition . click an employer name to read our editors ' full reasons for selection :\n' pilots have two days training and are checked in a simulator every six months . they are also checked during a live flight once a year .\nin her last effort as a juvenile , top flight met hopeful stakes winner tick on and future kentucky derby and preakness winner burgoo king in the pimlico futurity . despite suffering from a cough , she took command at the head of the stretch and gamely held off tick on to win by a neck .\ntop flight realty & property management is committed to ensuring that its website is accessible to people with disabilities . all the pages on our website will meet w3c wai ' s web content accessibility guidelines 2 . 0 , level a conformance . any issues should be reported to info @ urltoken . website accessibility policy\nsoccer : the return of shamrock rovers and galway united to the top flight of irish football was confirmed yesterday at citywest where the fai delivered the findings of the independent assessment group ( iag ) they established to oversee the reorganisation of the eircom league ' s membership to club representatives from around the country .\nmo ' green rallied out of the final turn and overtook verve ' s tale in the stretch to win her first career graded stakes , capturing the 77th running of the grade 3 , $ 200 , 000 top flight invitational for fillies and mares 4 - years - old and up on sunday at aqueduct racetrack .\nthat contrast is the most striking result of this year\u2019s college access index , a new york times measure of economic diversity at top colleges . six of the top seven spots in this year\u2019s index belong to university of california campuses , with irvine at no . 1 , and the flagship berkeley campus at no . 7 .\ntop flight ( usa ) blk / br . m , 1929 { 4 - m } dp = 8 - 2 - 0 - 0 - 8 ( 18 ) di = 1 . 25 cd = 0 . 11 - 16 starts , 12 wins , 0 places , 0 shows career earnings : $ 275 , 900\nthough not entirely surprising , united ' s promotion was the main talking point of the afternoon , not least amongst the representatives of waterford united and dundalk , both of whom were told they had missed out on a place in the top flight of an entity to be known as the\neircom league of ireland\n.\nsince 2001 , the editors of canada ' s top 100 employers have published an annual list of the best workplaces for older canadians . these employers lead the nation in creating special programs and benefits of interest to employees aged 40 years and older . until 2007 , this competition was called the\ntop ten employers for experienced workers\nand published annually as an appendix to the canada ' s top 100 employers paperback . in 2010 , the competition was renamed the top employers for canadians over 40 to reflect the wide range of initiatives and programs considered in selecting the winners . read the press release issued on november 15 , 2017 announcing this year ' s winners .\nlosing four geared turbofan engines to in - flight failures as a result of a botched durability upgrade was not how pratt & whitney wanted 2018 to begin quite the opposite .\nthe top flight men\u2019s basketball league was created in 2011 to provide an outlet for the everyday individuals to experience the joys of playing on a team in organized basketball league similar to the nba , and to give companies and organizations an activity their members can participate in that builds team unity , camaraderie , and fosters an atmosphere of cooperation and teamwork .\nmost low - income students who attend top colleges thrive . merely going to college isn\u2019t enough to change a teenager\u2019s life . the benefits of college \u2013 higher income , better health , greater life satisfaction \u2013 generally depend on graduating , research shows . which is one reason you sometimes hear worries about whether low - income students can fit in at top colleges .\n25 . 19 . what are the education requirements to be a flight attendant ? minimum standards of education are required to be a flight attendant . this will vary between the airlines however us applicants must have a high school degree or government equivalency degree ( g . e . d . ) or ( year 12 in the southern hemisphere ) . 25souce : urltoken\nthis deeply ingrained profit culture also tends to lock in high achievers . turner notes that six of his country managers began as flight centre travel consultants , and most have been with the group for more than 20 years . when flight centre listed on the australian stock exchange in 1995 , staff bought 25 % of the shares on offer , paying 85 cents ( a 10 cent discount ) .\none of the things that differentiates flight centre is the emotional and physical sense of ownership the staff has for the company ,\nsays james .\n' people often think they can sneak in extra drinks by requesting them from a different flight attendant each time . actually , you ' re just drawing more attention to yourself . '\n30 . 23 . there is a dispute between two passengers regarding the seats . how would you handle it ? a flight attendant is a hostess , and the first responsibility of a hostess is to ensure that there are no untoward happenings during the event . disputes are right on top of the list of undesired incidents during a flight . therefore , the first step that a flight attendant must take is to calm down the situation and create a sense of helpfulness of authority . then , upon determining the actual problem , proceed to find out an amicable solution to the matter . if that is not possible , bring the entire situation to the notice of a superior , which would ensure a quick and logical solution to the problem . 30souce : urltoken\ncongratulations to mia oh and team maryland on a brilliant performance at the national judges inivitational in kentucky , january 9 - 10 , 2016 ! results mia oh ( top flight ) v 9 . 4 ( 4th ) , b 9 . 375 ( 5th ) , bm 9 . 4 ( 8th ) , fl 9 . 225 ( 11th ) , aa 37 . 4 ( 5th )\nfor the new york times\u2019s schools for tomorrow conference , we talked to students in leda , a program helping low - income students succeed at top colleges . here , sayra alanis relates a pivotal moment .\n- for those who want more information about flight safety including practise emergency evacuation technique , learning the correct way to go down the emergency slide , use of emergency exits and the correct brace position . visit\nthe top of the egg will look dark before the larva is ready to emerge . be sure to have a fresh milkweed leaf in the container for the new larva , if its old leaf is dry .\nit is one of the key worries for nervous travellers , that bumpy movement mid - flight and the announcement to fasten seatbelts . but captain thomas reassures passengers that it really isn ' t anything to worry about .\nunbeaten in seven starts , all stakes events , top flight was named the champion two year old filly of 1931 . she was also the season ' s leading money earner with $ 219 , 000 , an amount which surpassed domino ' s thirty eight year old record . the sum was not only a new record for a juvenile season , it was also the most money earned by a filly or mare in a single campaign .\na newcomer to the allianz stadium , douglas costa made the switch from bayern munich this summer and was arguably the most high profile arrival for the serie a champions , which probably helped him sneak into the top five .\nofficials at other top colleges , for their part , often say that they want to enroll more of these talented low - and middle - income students . but only some colleges have followed up these words with actions .\n44 . 37 . describe your management style ? try to avoid flight attendantels . some of the more common flight attendantels , like progressive , salesman or consensus , can have several meanings or descriptions depending on which management expert you listen to . the situational style is safe , because it says you will manage according to the situation , instead of one size fits all . useful material : urltoken and - answers - pdf 44souce : urltoken\n23 . 17 . is a medical evaluation required to become a flight attendant ? a medical evaluation is required to ascertain a standard of health required to perform the duties of a flight attendant and to be able to cope with the aviation environment . some specifics will be your ability to adjust to the pressure changes that you will experience every day . this includes having healthy and ' normally ' operating eustachian tubes of your inner ear that equalize pressure as you ascend and descend on every flight . most people will have absolutely no problem with the ability to equalize pressure . similarly your sinuses must be able to cope with such pressure changes . 23souce : urltoken\nanother differentiator is turner ' s\nfamily , village , tribe\nmanagement structure , based on anthropological studies of how humans function best in small groups . flight centre ' s workforce is based on teams ( families ) of five or six people , organized into villages of six to eight teams and tribes of around 25 villages . each team has its own profit - and - loss account , and each tribe has its own flag , designed to engender a sense of belonging , even within a large , multinational company .\nsenior management is trying to say , ' you don ' t work for flight centre , you are flight centre , '\nexplains james .\nof course , as has been covered in news stories following the shooting down of malaysian airlines flight mh17 in july last year , killing 298 people , airlines do fly over conflict zones after taking an assessment of the risks .\nto learn more about the competition , we invite you to join us at the top employer summit , our annual editorial conference on the canada ' s top 100 employers project . this event lets you discover the latest best practices from winners , meet competition organizers and editors , and hear inspiring stories from world - class speakers \u2013 all presented in a commercial - free format . the conference is canada ' s largest annual event for senior - level hr professionals .\nharris nominates the first gulf war , in 1990 , as the company ' s most precarious moment , when travelers seeking flight refunds were akin to a run on the bank . but there have been plenty of other challenges , including 9 / 11 , the 2008 global financial crisis and the internet . as each threat subsided , flight centre often outdid its competitors by retaining staff during the tough times , expanding and sticking to its\nlowest - price guarantee\nmantra .\nso for those who have always wanted to know the whys and wherefores about taking to the skies , mailonline travel put the most common plane safety questions to pilot and british airways ' head of flight and technical training captain dave thomas .\nacross the road , the headquarters of his global travel company , flight centre travel group , are equally unpretentious . turner is at a stand - up desk and crammed into an office with seven other top executives - - all wearing the uniform .\nwe ask our staff to wear it , so we should too ,\nsays one , adding that the uniform no longer has a standard issue short - sleeved shirt - - turner has his specially altered to the more casual style .\nfollowing a series of tragic incidents , from the germanwings disaster in march to the loss of malaysian airlines mh370 last year , as well as the shooting down of flight mh17 over ukraine , there is understandably a lot of fear surrounding air travel .\n' the masks are really clever , there is a mechanism that detects the need for them by monitoring cabin pressure and automatically deploying them , and there is a button on the flight deck that does the same thing , ' says captain thomas .\nhe was fascinated by the idea of flight . based on his studies of birds and how they fly , he wrote a book on aerodynamics that was published in 1889 and this text was used by the wright brothers as the basis for their designs .\n12 . 7 . you see one of the passengers being deliberately rude to your fellow flight attendant . how would you solve this ? this is one of the most common problems that flight attendants face during their jobs . most often than not , the people who cause such problems are harmless creatures , just somewhat bored . the best way to solve these problems is by dealing with them in a soft , yet strict demeanor , which would make the perpetrator uneasy and repentant , and create a sense of relief amongst the other passengers . 12souce : urltoken\nturner ' s vision is to morph flight centre from a middleman broker of discount airfares to a global retailer and wholesaler of travel products . this reduces its dependence on airline commissions , although its sheer size in the australian market still gives it bargaining strength to match internet offers . under this strategy customers will often book simple , low - margin flights on the internet but come to flight centre ' s stores for face - to - face advice on more complex trips requiring multiple flights , hotels , tours , rental cars , insurance and the like .\nelia worked in a\ncommunity hospital in southern california and did heart surgery , performing over 10 , 000 open - heart surgeries before i retired . i retired because i developed rheumatoid arthritis , and i wasn ' t willing to continue without being able to perform at the top level .\n21 . 15 . what are the background check requirements to be a flight attendant ? common to many employers , not just those who recruit flight attendants are criminal history checks . this means that you will have to obtain a police check . sometimes an employer will ask for your state of residence check only but don ' t count on that ever being replicated . the standard is for you to obtain and pay for a police criminal history check for your country of origin . 21souce : urltoken do you love this design ? for more colors , tshirt option , hoodie option , pls click here\ndark - eyed juncos are numerous and widespread , though the north american breeding bird survey reports that populations declined by about 1 . 4 % per year between 1966 and 2015 , resulting in a cumulative decline of 50 % . partners in flight estimates a global breeding population of 200 million with 81 % spending some part of the year in the u . s . , 65 % in canada , and 7 % in mexico . the species rates an 8 out of 20 on the continental concern score . dark - eyed junco is not on the 2016 state of north america ' s birds ' watch list . back to top\nfile - in this aug . 12 , 2017 file photo munich ' s franck ribery and referee bibiana steinhaus walk on the pitch during the german soccer cup first - round soccer match between chemnitzer fc and fc bayern munich in chemnitz , germany . carving her way in a man\u2019s world , bibiana steinhaus is striking a blow for equality as the bundesliga\u2019s first female referee this season . the 38 - year - old police officer , who has been refereeing in the second division since 2007 , is one of four referees promoted by the german football federation ( dfb ) to the top flight . ( hendrik schmidt / dpa via ap , file )\neven - money favorite devious man used the pole to his advantage for andy miller , securing the lead from the start and forcing tucks . with last week ' s elimination winner yes mickey gaining the pocket after leavers guardian angel as and di oggi broke in succession on the first turn , top flight angel managed to follow in third from the second tier with sears . devious man cut fractions of 28 / 45 and 58 4 / 5 with miller appearing in full control . sears pulled on the backstretch and got the jump on the pocket - sitter , going on the offensive through a 1 : 27 3 / 5 three - quarters .\nhero mounted a sphere on top of a water kettle . a fire below the kettle turned the water into steam , and the gas traveled through pipes to the sphere . two l - shaped tubes on opposite sides of the sphere allowed the gas to escape , which gave a thrust to the sphere that caused it to rotate .\nalthough the company emphasized that the previous standard procedure of using flaps 30 and full reverse thrust should still be used in certain conditions , such as for contaminated runways , it did not define what constitutes a \u201ccontaminated\u201d runway or provide flight crews with associated procedures or training to evaluate the effects of runway conditions on aircraft landing performance .\nas mccabe indicates , implementing an sms is indeed a top - down process , with strong guidance provided by senior management . the first task is to write the company\u2019s safety policy statement . then , and most important , says rockbrune , senior management must live up to it , ensuring that the safety policy is perceived as relevant throughout the organization .\nas for top flight ' s dam , flyatit , she hadn ' t scored a stakes win , at least partially because of the behavior problems that inspired her retirement , but she had won half of her ten starts . her sire was none other than the excellent peter pan , and her female line was one of the best in america . flyatit ' s second dam was the full sister to the great whisk broom ii . their dam , audience , was out of the champion sallie mcclelland . sallie mcclelland ' s second dam was none other than maggie b . b . , dam of three classic winners , including the american bred epsom derby and st . leger winner iroquois .\nby the time turner returned to australia in 1983 , his next business was well under way . topdeck had begun selling cheap airfares to australia , based on the london\nbucket shops\nwhere airlines offloaded seats that hadn ' t sold through mainstream travel agents . it funded , along with turner ' s friend geoff harris , a handful of discount - flight shops in australia . turner ran the brisbane office , james the sydney one , and harris had seven travel shops in melbourne . by 1986 the founders had sold out of topdeck , and the following year turner , james and harris joined their loosely affiliated travel agencies into one business and flight centre aust pty ltd . was born .\n. these holes penetrate all the way through the shell allowing sperm to enter , since eggs form their hard shell prior to fertilization . the raised areas on the egg shell are called ridges , they are also formed before the egg is laid . the dark head of the developing caterpillar can be seen near the top of the egg prior to emergence .\n28 . 21 . what are the customer service requirements to be a flight attendant ? you will normally be required to possess some sort of customer service background . in most cases it does not matter where you obtained your experience so long as you can apply your knowledge to the requirements of the airline that you do apply to . 28souce : urltoken\nas to the admission of evidence of flight : see generally r v adam ; r v cook [ 2004 ] nswcca 52 ( where the evidence was wrongly admitted ) but compare quinlan v r ( 2006 ) 164 a crim r 106 and steer v r ( 2008 ) 191 a crim r 435 ( where the evidence was correctly admitted ) .\nan example ? james says 20 companies offered bus and camping tours of europe when turner and a friend started topdeck in 1973 . turner ' s twist was to buy an old double - decker bus and convert the top level to bunks . no one had to pitch tents , and meals could be prepared in transit , giving him an edge over competitors .\nmany aviation professionals remember eastern air lines flight 855 , a lockheed l - 1011 that lost all three engines due to the omission of oil seals in the master chip detector assemblies . in today\u2019s era of the safety management system ( sms ) , the may 5 , 1983 , accident still yields important lessons about the key safety role played by senior management .\nthe discovery of the kite that could fly in the air by the chinese started humans thinking about flying . kites were used by the chinese in religious ceremonies . they built many colorful kites for fun , also . more sophisticated kites were used to test weather conditions . kites have been important to the invention of flight as they were the forerunner to balloons and gliders .\nlangley received a $ 50 , 000 grant to build a full sized aerodrome . it was too heavy to fly and it crashed . he was very disappointed . he gave up trying to fly . his major contributions to flight involved attempts at adding a power plant to a glider . he was also well known as the director of the smithsonian institute in washington , dc\nwhile not a leading sire or outstanding performer , dis donc was exceptionally well bred . his sire was french derby winner sardanapale , and his dam was lady hamburg ii , who produced the successful performer and top sire chicle . as the name suggests , lady hamburg ii was by hamburg , the champion son of hanover , and out of the st . simon mare lady frivoles .\nthis stagnation means that many elite colleges remain overwhelmingly well - off . for every student from the entire bottom half of the nation\u2019s income distribution at dartmouth , penn , princeton , yale and more than a few other colleges , there appear to be roughly two students from just the top 5 percent ( which means they come from families making at least $ 200 , 000 ) .\nthe importance of well - executed risk assessment is illustrated by the sept . 23 , 1999 , overrun at bangkok , thailand , by qantas flight 15 , a boeing 747 - 400 . the runway was wet , but braking action had been reported as good , and the 747 crew elected to use the company\u2019s preferred procedure of landing with flaps 25 and idle reverse thrust .\nsays harris :\ni ' ve never heard him praise anyone ever , but people would run through a brick wall for him . skroo would be in the top 100 business people in the world . this is a very unconventional business model with an unconventional leader , but it ' s produced amazingly consistent results for over 30 years and outcomes are what you judge people on .\n\u201clet\u2019s hope there are many more [ this season ] as long as we all stay healthy , \u201d tabor said , \u201cand hopefully we\u2019ll go to the breeders\u2019 cup [ at del mar ] at the end of the year with a good few more and hopefully win some there . you\u2019ve always got to be trying to get to the top of the mountain , but you never reach it .\nappearances can be deceptive , however . the 65 - year - old turner , a keen bike rider and marathon runner known universally as\nskroo ,\nregularly features on lists of australia ' s most successful chief executives . he built his first travel company , the london - based bus - tour business topdeck , in his 20s , then returned to australia to start flight centre .\nturner , after decades weathering the vagaries of the travel industry , seems unconcerned . in an interview two weeks before the profit downgrade , he said :\nthe share price will go up and down , and you cannot lose sleep over that . if you can deliver on the bottom line and the top line , that ' s great , and the share price will come with it .\nthe median six - year graduation rate for pell students at the colleges in our index is 84 percent , only slightly lower than the overall rate of 85 percent . college certainly involves challenges for many low - income students , but they largely meet them when they attend a top college . that\u2019s a big reason these colleges matter : they don\u2019t leave many students saddled with the toxic combination of debt and no degree .\nwhen larvae are ready to pupate , they crawl to the top of their cage , attach themselves with silken thread , and form a prepupal\nj\nbefore shedding their skin for the last time . this process is fun to watch but it happens quickly . you can tell that they will shed their larval skin soon ( within minutes ) when their tentacles hang very limply and their bodies straighten out a little .\ndark - eyed juncos are primarily seed - eaters , with seeds of chickweed , buckwheat , lamb\u2019s quarters , sorrel , and the like making up about 75 % of their year - round diet . at feeders they seem to prefer millet over sunflower seeds . during the breeding season , dark - eyed juncos also eat insects including beetles , moths , butterflies , caterpillars , ants , wasps , and flies . back to top\nover 50 years he made improvements to the gliders . he changed the shape of the wings so that the air would flow over the wings correctly . he designed a tail for the gliders to help with the stability . he tried a biplane design to add strength to the glider . he also recognized that there would be a need for power if the flight was to be in the air for a long time .\nanalysts seem to agree . credit suisse upgraded its rating to outperform from neutral after the downgrade , and analyst grant saligari said flight centre offers value even if the weakness in the domestic - leisure sector continues this year . j . p . morgan maintained its rating at overweight , stating that the company ' s problems were cyclical rather than structural and the 20 % drop in the share price since late november was overdone .\ndassanayake coached nepal from 2011 through last december before stepping down from the role . he has been at the forefront of several highs , like helping them climb up the world cricket league ladder from division four in malaysia in 2012 all the way up to the top division in the wcl championship . the biggest highlight of his stint , however , was their maiden world t20 appearance in 2014 , where they beat afghanistan and hong kong .\n\u201cyou have to be impressed , \u201d tabor said . \u201cshe\u2019s improving all the time , and six furlongs and more will suit her . you\u2019d hope that she\u2019d get to the top , she\u2019s a full sister to churchill and you can\u2019t ask for better than that . she\u2019s a filly to look forward to , simple as that . she won as if she wanted seven furlongs and hopefully she will be a guineas horse next year . \u201d\nadept at soaring and diving but not as maneuverable as other hawks , ospreys keep to open areas , flying with stiff wingbeats in a steady , rowing motion . primarily solitary birds , they usually roost alone or in small winter flocks of six to ten . nesting ospreys defend only the immediate area around their nest rather than a larger territory ; they vigorously chase other ospreys that encroach on their nesting areas . in breeding season , males perform an aerial\nsky - dance ,\nsometimes called\nfish - flight .\nwith dangling legs , often clasping a fish or nesting material in his talons , the male alternates periods of hovering with slow , shallow swoops as high as 600 feet or more above the nest site . sustaining this display for 10 minutes or more , he utters repeated screaming calls while gradually descending in an undulating fashion to the nest . back to top\nthe index is based on three factors : the share of students receiving pell grants ( which typically go to families making less than $ 70 , 000 ) ; the graduation rate of those students ; and the net cost , after financial aid , that a college charges low - and middle - income students . the index covers 179 of the nation\u2019s top colleges , defined as having an overall five - year graduation rate of at least 75 percent .\n45 . 38 . what have you learned from mistakes on the job ? ? here you have to come up with something or you strain credibility . make it small , well intentioned mistake with a positive lesson learned . an example would be working too far ahead of colleagues on a project and thus throwing coordination off . 45souce : urltoken are you dog lovers ? collection : top 26 dog lover tshirts is for you : urltoken tshirts - for - cat - lovers - 246614355802731 /\ndemonstrated leadership inevitably leads to the successful attainment of organizational safety goals . \u201cour company safety culture , like our business culture , comprises the same elements of strong leadership , the right structure and action focused clearly on core values and critical operating tasks , \u201d said william o . mccabe , former director of dupont aviation . \u201cwhen all members of the work force follow such leadership and truly feel this accountability from top to bottom , they integrate their efforts to achieve the safety goals . \u201d\nturner has always been happy to break away from the herd . bill james , who cofounded flight centre with turner , puts it this way :\none of skroo ' s philosophies is that if something ' s been done in a traditional way , look at what they ' re doing , and by definition it ' s probably wrong and there ' s probably a better way .\n( the nickname comes from the turner screwdriver brand popular when he was young . )\ndark - eyed juncos breed in forests across much of north america and at elevations ranging from sea level to more than 11 , 000 feet . they are often found in coniferous forests incuding pine , douglas - fir , spruce , and fir , but also in deciduous forests such as aspen , cottonwood , oak , maple , and hickory . during winter and on migration they use a wider variety of habitats including open woodlands , fields , roadsides , parks , and gardens . back to top\nperhaps the biggest question mark for flight centre is its dependence on graham turner . when he stepped aside as ceo in july 2005 to become executive chairman , its upward trajectory faltered and a series of profit downgrades earned it the label\nflightless centre .\nhe returned eight months later . ten years on he says he expects to be there for another 20 years , and there ' s no doubt his vision and ability to engender loyalty are vital to the company ' s success .\n14 . 9 . you are a flight attendant , and the plane has fewer entertainment possibilities than previously planned , what would you do ? depends on when this situation is discovered . if this is noticed prior to takeoff and there is enough time to obtain more material , i would inform my superiors immediately so that the relevant resources can be put in . if this situation is discovered after takeoff , i would encourage passengers to share and minimize their time with the limited resources . 14souce : urltoken\n19 . 14 . what is your greatest accomplishment ? this is somewhat similar to the \u201cwhat is your greatest strength ? \u201d question and can be handled along the same lines . you want to pick an accomplishment that shows you have the qualities that the company puts value in and that are desirable for the position you\u2019re interviewing for . the fact is you may have several accomplishments you could pick from . pick one that will have the most impact . 19 urltoken useful material : top 12 skills for career success souce : urltoken\nas with topdeck , turner had a fresh take on how things should be done . unlike many retailers , flight centre has not funded growth through franchising - - all stores are company - owned apart from 14 escape travel outlets . but store managers can buy into a percentage of their store ' s profits ( up to 20 % ) , and head - office costs are shared by each store , making each one a small business .\nif they want fancy marketing , they have to pay for it ,\nexplains harris ."]}
{"id": 2373, "summary": [{"text": "atractaspis is a genus of venomous snakes found in africa .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "currently , 15 species are recognized by itis .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "others recognize as many as 21 species .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "22 are listed here . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "atractaspis", "paragraphs": ["atractaspis dahomeyensis bocage 1887 : 196 atractaspis dahomeyensis \u2014 chabanaud 1917 : 225 atractaspis dahomeyensis \u2014 papenfuss 1969 atractaspis dahomeyensis \u2014 welch 1994 : 21 atractaspis dahomeyensis \u2014trape & man\u00e9 2006 atractaspis dahomeyensis \u2014 trape & bald\u00e9 2014 atractaspis dahomeyensis \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 65\natractaspis bibronii smith 1849 : 51 atractaspis inornatus smith 1849 atractaspis bibronii \u2014 dum\u00e9ril & bibron 1854 : 1304 atractaspis rostrata g\u00fcnther 1868 : 429 atractaspis irregularis var . bibronii boettger 1887 : 165 atractaspis katangae boulenger 1910 : 13 atractaspis coarti boulenger 1901 : 14 atractaspis rostrata \u2014 werner 1913 : 32 atractaspis rostrata \u2014 loveridge 1929 atractaspis katangae \u2014 de witte 1933 atractaspis bibronii katangae \u2014 laurent 1945 : 335 atractaspis bibronii rostrata \u2014 laurent 1950 : 33 atractaspis bibronii \u2014 fitzsimons & brain 1958 atractaspis bibronii \u2014 auerbach 1987 : 179 atractaspis bibroni \u2014 welch 1994 : 21 atractaspis bibronii \u2014 broadley 1998 atractaspis bibronii \u2014 broadley et al . 2003 : 81 atractaspis bibronii \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 63 atractaspis bibronii \u2014 spawls et al . 2018 : 473\natractaspis engaddensis haas 1950 atractaspis microlepidota engaddensis leviton & aldrich 1984 atractaspis engaddensis \u2014 welch 1994 : 23 atractaspis engaddensis \u2014 venchi & sindaco 2006 atractaspis engaddensis \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 65 atractaspis microlepidota engaddensis \u2014 alshammari & ibrahim 2016\nelaps irregularis reinhardt 1843 atractaspis irregularis \u2014 pfeffer 1893 : 87f atractaspis irregularis \u2014 boulenger 1897 : 280 atractaspis bipostocularis boulenger 1905 atractaspis conradsi sternfeld 1908 : 94 atractaspis caudalis sternfeld 1908 : 94 atractaspis babaulti angel 1934 : 169 atractaspis conradsi \u2014 schmidt 1943 atractaspis schoutedeni witte atractaspis irregularis loveridgei laurent 1945 : atractaspis irregularis conradsi \u2014 laurent 1945 atractaspis irregularis loveridgei \u2014 laurent 1950 : 21 atractaspis irregularis conradsi \u2014 laurent 1950 : 23 atractaspis coalescens perret 1960 ( fide chippaux 1999 : 77 ) atractaspis coalescens \u2014 welch 1994 : 21 atractaspis irregularis \u2014 chirio & ineich 2006 atractaspis irregularis \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 66 atractaspis irregularis \u2014 spawls et al . 2018 : 476 atractaspis irregularis angeli laurent 1950 : 25 atractaspis irregularis \u2014 welch 1994 : 23 atractaspis irregularis angeli \u2014 dobiey & vogel 2007 atractaspis irregularis bipostocularis boulenger 1905 atractaspis bipostocularis boulenger 1905 atractaspis irregularis bipostocularis \u2014 broadley & howell 1991 : 23 atractaspis irregularis bipostocularis \u2014 dobiey & vogel 2007 atractaspis irregularis parkeri laurent 1945 : 316 atractaspis irregularis parkeri \u2014 laurent 1950 : 17 atractaspis irregularis parkeri \u2014 dobiey & vogel 2007 atractaspis irregularis uelensis laurent 1945 atractaspis irregularis \u2014 schmidt 1923 : 136 ( fide laurent 1950 ) atractaspis irregularis uelensis \u2014 laurent 1950 : 19 atractaspis irregularis uelensis \u2014 dobiey & vogel 2007\nbrachycranion corpulentum hallowell 1854 : 99 atractaspis corpulentus \u2014 hallowell 1857 : 70 atractaspis corpulentus \u2014 bocage 1866 : 49 atractaspis leucura mocquard 1885 atractaspis corpulenta \u2014 r\u00f6del & mahsberg 2000 atractaspis corpulenta \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 64 atractaspis corpulenta corpulenta ( hallowell 1854 ) atractaspis corpulenta \u2014 schmidt 1923 : 138 atractaspis corpulenta corpulenta \u2014 dobiey & vogel 2007 atractaspis corpulenta kivuensis laurent 1958 atractaspis corpulenta kivuensis \u2014 dobiey & vogel 2007 atractaspis corpulenta leucura mocquard 1885 atractaspis corpulenta leucura \u2014 laurent 1950 : 42 atractaspis corpulenta leucura \u2014 dobiey & vogel 2007\natractaspis microlepidota g\u00fcnther 1866 : 29 atractaspis micropholis g\u00fcnther 1872 : 36 atractaspis microlepidota \u2014 g\u00fcnther 1888 : 332 atractaspis andersonii boulenger 1905 : 180 atractaspis magrettii scortecci 1928 atractaspis microlepidota \u2014 welch 1994 : 23 atractaspis microlepidota \u2014 trape & man\u00e9 2002 atractaspis microlepidota \u2014 dobiey & vogel 2007 hoseraspea microlepidota \u2014 hoser 2012 ( preliminary ) atractaspis microlepidota \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 66\natractaspis watsoni boulenger 1908 : 94 atractaspis watsonii \u2014 angel 1933 : 69 atractaspis watsoni \u2014 chirio & ineich 2006 atractaspis watsoni \u2014 trape & man\u00e9 2006 : 182 atractaspis watsoni \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 67\natractaspis duerdeni gough 1907 atractaspis duerdini [ sic ] \u2014 auerbach 1987 : 180 atractaspis duerdeni \u2014 broadley 1991 : 497 atractaspis duerdeni \u2014 mattison 1995 : 231 atractaspis duerdeni \u2014 mattison 2007 : 226 atractaspis duerdeni \u2014 gower et al . 2012 : 112 atractaspis duerdeni \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 65\natractaspis fallax peters 1867 : 890 atractaspis microlepidota fallax \u2014 laurent 1950 : 10 atractaspis fallax \u2014 bauer et al . 1995 : 68 atractaspis fallax \u2014 largen & spawls 2010 : 578 atractaspis fallax \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 66 atractaspis fallax \u2014 spawls et al . 2018 : 475\natractaspis andersonii boulenger 1905 : 180 melanelaps mcphersoni wall 1906 : 27 atractaspis microlepidota andersoni \u2014 laurent 1950 : 10 atractaspis microlepidota andersonii \u2014 corkill & cochrane 1966 atractaspis microlepidota andersonii \u2014 van der kooij 2001 atractaspis andersonii \u2014 david & vogel 2010 atractaspis andersonii \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 63\na snake bite by the burrowing asp , atractaspis engaddensis . - pubmed - ncbi\nvenomous ! not listed as such in welch 1994 . atractaspis duerdeni is sympatric with a . bibronii throughout its range .\nmarais , j . 2010 . atractaspis bibronii ( smith , 1849 ) diet . african herp news ( 52 ) : 9\nhaas , georg 1950 . a new atractaspis ( mole viper ) from palestine . copeia 1950 ( 1 ) : 52 - 53 - get paper here\nvenomous ! type species : atractaspis inornatus smith 1849 is the type species of the genus atractaspis smith 1849 . key : werner 1913 provides a key with characters for the species described until 1913 ( plus a few other species now assigned to other genera ) . synonymy : kaiser et al . 2013 considered the generic name hoseraspea hoser 2012 invalid and rejected its use instead of atractaspis . similar species : similar in appearance to elapsoidea but little stouter and usually pale below . habitat : burrowing .\ngoldberg , s . r . , et al . 2017 . atractaspis engaddensis ( israeli mole viper ) reproduction . herpetological review 48 ( 2 ) : 444 - 445\nlaurent , r . f . 1945 . contribution a la connaissance du genre atractaspis a . smith . rev . zool . bot . afr . , 38 : 312 - 343\nvenomous ! the validity of atractaspis corpulenta leucura is questionable ( r\u00f6del & mahsberg 2000 ) . the description by schmidt ( 1923 ) is available online ( see url below ) .\nlaurent , r . f . 1950 . revision du genre atractaspis a . smith . mem . inst . roy . nat . belg . ( 2 ) 38 : 1 - 49\ngough , l . h . 1907 . description of a new species of atractaspis collected at serowe , north eastern kalahari . rec . albany mus . 2 : 178 - 179 - get paper here\nbroadley , d . g . 1991 . a review of the southern african stiletto snakes of the genus atractaspis a . smith ( serpentes : atractaspididae ) . arnoldia 9 ( 36 ) : 495 - 517\nbourgeois , m . 1963 . note sur atractaspis irregularis conradsi sternfeld ( viperidae ) . structure du cr\u00e2ne et l\u2019appareil de la morusre . ann . soc . zool . belg . 93 : 159 - 169\ngolani , ilan & elazar kochva 1991 . literature : strinking and other offensive and defensive behaviour patterns in atractaspis engaddensis ( ophidia , atractaspididae ) . litteratura serpentium 11 ( 5 ) : 117 - get paper here\njustification : atractaspis irregularis has been assessed as least concern owing to to its broad distribution , its ability to adapt to a variety of habitats , including altered environments , and the lack of major threats to the species .\nal - oran , ratib m . ; amr , zuhair s . 1995 . first record of the mole viper , atractaspis microlepidota engaddensis , from jordan . zoology in the middle east 11 : 47 - 49 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1905 . description of a new snake of the genus atractaspis from mount kenya , british east africa . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 15 : 190 - get paper here\nperret , j . l . 1960 . une nouvelle et remarquable esp\u00e8ce d ' atractaspis ( viperidae ) et quelques autres serpents d ' afrique . revue suisse de zoologie 67 ( 1 ) : 129 - 139 - get paper here\ntrape , jean - franc\u0327ois ; youssouph mane\u0301 & ivan ineich 2006 . atractaspis microlepidota , a . micropholis et a . watsoni en afrique occidentale et centrale . bull . soc . herp . france 119 : 5 - 16 - get paper here\nhoser , r . 2012 . a reassessment of the burrowing asps , atractaspis smith , 1849 with the erection of a new genus and two tribes ( serpentes : atractaspidae ) . australasian j . herpetol . 11 : 56 - 58 - get paper here\nvenomous ! has been considered a subspecies of atractaspis microlepidota by various authors . status still unclear ( see discussion in largen & rasmussen 1993 ) . not listed by welch 1994 . considered as a valid species by b . hughes ( pers . comm . to van wallach ) .\njustification : atractaspis reticulata has been assessed as data deficient . although this species may have a large distribution in central africa , there is little information available on this snake . it is also unknown whether the species is affected by threats such as forest destruction . therefore , further research into the biology and ecology of this species is needed before an accurate assessment of this species ' conservation status can be carried out .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsnake species of the world , vol . undetermined , manuscript ( version 2004 )\nworking manuscript of follow - up volumes to mcdiarmid et al . ( 1999 ) ,\nsnake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\ntype locality : \u201ceastern districts of the cape colony\u201d . this locality is questioned by broadley ( 1991 ) and others , who believes that the type might have been collected in the northern cape province or the western transvaal .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\negg - laying ; broadley 1959 reported intermediates between a . bibroni and rostrata .\nauerbach , r . d . 1987 . the amphibians and reptiles of botswana . mokwepa consultants , botswana , 295 pp .\nbates , m . f . ; branch , w . r . , bauer , a . m . ; burger , m . , marais , j . ; alexander , g . j . & de villliers , m . s . ( eds . ) 2014 . atlas and red list of the reptiles of south africa , lesotho , and swaziland . suricata 1 . south african national biodiversity institute , pretoria , 512 pp .\nbeolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here\nboettger , o . 1887 . zweiter beitrag zur herpetologie s\u00fcdwest - und s\u00fcdafrikas . ber . senckenb . naturf . ges . , frankfurt am main , 1887 : 135 - 173 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1901 . materiaux pour la faune du congo . batraciens et reptiles nouveaux . ann . mus . congo belge , zool . ( sect . c . ser . 1 ) 2 : 7 - 14 .\nboulenger , g . a . 1910 . a revised list of the south african reptiles and batrachians , with synoptic tables , special reference to the specimens in the south african museum , and descriptions of new species . annals of the south african museum 5 : 455 - 543 - get paper here\nboycott , r . c . 1992 . an annotated checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of swaziland . the conservation trust of swaziland - get paper here\nbranch , william r . 1993 . a photographic guide to snakes and other reptiles of southern africa . cape town : struik publishers , 144 s .\nbranch , william r . & bauer , aaron m . 2005 . the herpetological contributions of sir andrew smith . ssar , 80 pp .\nbroadley , d . & blaylock 2013 . the snakes of zimbabwe and botswana . chimaira , frankfurt , 387 pp . [ book review in sauria 35 ( 2 ) : 59 and copeia 2014 : 388 ] - get paper here\nbroadley , d . g . & howell , k . m . 1991 . a check list of the reptiles of tanzania , with synoptic keys . syntarsus 1 : 1\u201470\nbroadley , d . g . 1959 . the herpetology of southern rhodesia . part i - - the snakes . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 120 ( 1 ) : 1 - 100 [ reprint 1972 ] - get paper here\nbroadley , d . g . 1962 . on some reptile collections from the north - western and north - eastern districts of southern rhodesia 1958 - 1961 , with descriptions of four new lizards . occ . pap . nat . mus . south . rhodesia 26 ( b ) : 787 - 843\nbroadley , d . g . 1998 . the reptilian fauna of the democratic republic of the congo ( congo - kinshasa ) . in : schmidt , k . p . and noble , g . k . , contributions to the herpetology of the belgian congo . . . [ reprint of the 1919 and 1923 papers ] . ssar facsimile reprints in herpetology , 780 pp .\nbroadley , d . g . ; doria , c . t . & wigge , j . 2003 . snakes of zambia . an atlas and field guide . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 280 pp . [ review in sauria 26 ( 3 ) : 21 ]\nbroadley , donald g . and f . p . d . cotterill . 2004 . the reptiles of southeast katanga , an overlooked ' hot spot ' . [ congo ] . african journal of herpetology 53 ( 1 ) : 35 - 61 . - get paper here\nchifundera , k . 1990 . snakes of zaire and their bites . afr . stud . monogr . ( kyoto ) 10 ( 3 ) : 137 - 157 .\ndobiey , m . & vogel , g . 2007 . venomous snakes of africa / giftschlangen afrikas . edition chimaira , terralog 15 , 150 pp . - get paper here\ndum\u00e9ril , a . m . c . , bibron , g . & dum\u00e9ril , a . h . a . , 1854 . erp\u00e9tologie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale ou histoire naturelle compl\u00e8te des reptiles . tome septi\u00e8me . deuxi\u00e8me partie , comprenant l ' histoire des serpents venimeux . paris , librairie encyclop\u00e9dique de roret : i - xii + 781 - 1536 - get paper here\nfitzsimons , v . f . m . ; brain , c . k . 1958 . a short account of the reptiles of the kalahari gemsbok national park . koedoe , 1 ( 1 ) : 99 - 104 - get paper here\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1868 . sixth account of new species of snakes in the collection of the british museum . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 4 ) 1 : 413 - 429 - get paper here\nhaagner , g . v . ; branch , w . r . & haagner , a . j . f . 2000 . notes on a collection of reptiles from zambia and adjacent areas of the democratic republic of the congo . annals of the eastern cape museum 1 : 1 \u2013 25\nherrmann , h . - w . ; w . r . branch 2013 . fifty years of herpetological research in the namib desert and namibia with an updated and annotated species checklist . journal of arid environments 93 : 94\u2013115 - get paper here\njacobsen , niels h . g . ; errol w . pietersen & darren w . pietersen 2010 . a preliminary herpetological survey of the vilanculos coastal wildlife sanctuary on the san sebastian peninsula , vilankulo , mozambique . herpetology notes 3 : 181 - 193 - get paper here\nkaiser , h . ; crother , b . i . ; kelly , c . m . r . ; luiselli , l . ; o\u2019shea , m . ; ota , h . ; passos , p . ; schleip , w . d . & w\u00fcster , w . 2013 . best practices : in the 21st century , taxonomic decisions in herpetology are acceptable only when supported by a body of evidence and published via peer - review . herpetological review 44 ( 1 ) : 8 - 23\nlanza , b . 1990 . amphibians and reptiles of the somali democratic republic : check list and biogeography . biogeographia , 14 : 407 - 465 [ 1988 ]\nlanza , b . 1983 . a list of the somali amphibians and reptiles . monitore zoologico italiano , new ser . , suppl . 18 ( 8 ) : 193 - 247\nlaurent , r . f . 1950 . reptiles et batraciens de la r\u00e9gion de dundo ( angola du nord - est ) . premi\u00e8re note . publ . cult . co . diam . angola 10 : 7 - 17\nloveridge , a . 1936 . african reptiles and amphibians in the field museum of natural history . zool . ser . field mus . nat . hist . , chicago , 22 ( 1 ) : 1 - 122 - get paper here\nloveridge , arthur 1929 . east african reptiles and amphibians in the united states national museum . bull . us natl . mus . ( 151 ) : 1 - 135 - get paper here\nmitchell , b . l . 1950 . some reptiles and amphibians of nyasaland . the nyasaland journal 3 ( 2 ) : 46 - 57 - get paper here\npietersen , darren w . < br / > pietersen , errol w . < br / > haacke , wulf d . 2013 . first herpetological appraisal of the parque nacional de banhine , gaza province , southern mozambique . annals of the ditsong national museum of natural history 3 : 153 - 163 - get paper here\nrasmussen , j . b . 1981 . the snakes from the rainforest of the usambara mountains , tanzania : a checklist and key . salamandra 17 ( 3 - 4 ) : 173 - 188 - get paper here\nschleicher , alfred 2015 . reptilien namibias . namibia scientific society , 276 pp .\nseung hoon , cha 2012 . snake , the world most beautifull curve [ in korean ] . hownext , 304 pp . [ isbn 978 - 89 - 965656 - 7 - 3 ] - get paper here\nsmith , a . 1849 . illustrations of the zoology of south africa . 3 ( reptiles ) . smith , elder , and co . , london [ facsimile published by winchester press , johannesburg , 1977 ] - get paper here\nspawls , s . ; howell , k . ; drewes , r . c . & ashe , j . 2002 . a field guide to the reptiles of east africa . academic press , 543 pp . [ reviews in hr 34 : 396 and afr . j . herp . 51 ; 147 ] - get paper here\nspawls , steve ; kim howell , harald hinkel , michele menegon 2018 . field guide to east african reptiles . bloomsbury , 624 pp . - get paper here\nsternfeld , r . 1910 . zur schlangenfauna deutsch - s\u00fcdwestafrikas . mehrere f\u00e4lle von mimikry bei afrikanischen schlangen . mitt . zool . mus . berlin , 5 : 51 - 60 - get paper here\nvats , rajeev ; ignas safari 2014 . diversity of snakes at the university of dodoma campus , tanzania . american journal of zoological research , 2 ( 3 ) : 41 - 45 - get paper here\nwallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .\nwerner , f . 1913 . neue oder seltene reptilien und fr\u00f6sche des naturhistorischen museums in hamburg . reptilien der ostafrika - expedition der hamburger geographischen gesellschaft 1911 / 12 . leiter : dr . e . obst . reptilien und amphibien von formosa . jb . hamb . wiss . anst . , 30 [ 1912 ] , 2 . beiheft : 1 - 39 , 40 - 45 , 45 - 51 - get paper here\nwitte , g . f . de 1933 . reptiles r\u00e9colt\u00e9s au conge belge par le dr . h . schouteden et par m . g . - f . witte . ann . mus . conge belge zool . ser . 1 tome iii : 53 - 100 .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nvenomous ! synonymy : possible junior synonym of a . microlepidota andersonii boulenger 1905 ( arnold 1980 ) .\nal - quran , s . 2009 . the herpetofauna of the southern jordan . american - eurasian j . agric . & environ . sci . , 6 ( 4 ) : 385 - 391 [ this journal has a dubious record , see urltoken\nalshammari , ahmed m . and adel a . ibrahim 2015 . lizards and snakes in the historical faid protected area ( faid hema ) , ha ' il region , saudi arabia . herp . cons . biol . 10 ( 3 ) - get paper here\nalshammari , ahmed m . and adel a . ibrahim 2015 . lizards and snakes in the historical faid protected area ( faid hema ) , ha ' il region , saudi arabia herp . cons . biol . 10 ( 3 ) : 1021\u20131029 - get paper here\narnold e n 1980 . the scientific results of the oman flora and fauna survey 1977 ( dhofar ) . the reptiles and amphibians of dhofar , southern arabia . journal of oman studies special report ( no . 2 ) : 273 - 332 - get paper here\nbar , aviad and guy haimovitch 2012 . a field guide to reptiles and amphibians of israel . pazbar ltd , 246 pp . - get paper here\ncorkill , n . l . and cochrane , j . a . 1966 . the snakes of the arabian peninsula and socotra . j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 62 ( 3 ) : 475 - 506 ( 1965 ) - get paper here\ndisi , a . m . ; modry , d . ; necas , p . & rifai , l . 2001 . amphibians and reptiles of the hashemite kingdom of jordan . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 408 pp .\negan , d . 2007 . snakes of arabia . motivate publishing , dubai , 208 pp .\nleviton , a . e . ; anderson , s . c . ; adler , k . ; minton , s . a . 1992 . handbook to middle east amphibians and reptiles . ssar , oxford , ohio ( contr . to herpetol . no . 8 ) , 1 - 252\nmarx , j . 2006 . mast cells defang snake and bee venom . science 313 : 427\nvenchi , alberto and roberto sindaco 2006 . annotated checklist of the reptiles of the mediterranean countries , with keys to species identification . part 2 - snakes ( reptilia , serpentes ) . annali del museo civico di storia naturale\ng . doria\n, genova , xcviii : 259 - 364\ntype : bmnh 1946 . 1 . 18 . 6 ( and possibly additional specimens ) .\nbarbour , t . 1913 . reptiles and amphibians from eastern sudan . proc . biol . soc . washington 26 : 145 - 150 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1905 . descriptions of three new snakes discovered in south arabia by mr . g . w . bury . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) xvi : 178 - 180 - get paper here\nbroadley , d . g . 1994 . a collection of snakes from eastern sudan , with the description of a new species of telescopus wagler , 1830 ( reptilia : ophidia ) . journal of african zoology 108 ( 2 ) : 201 - 208 .\ndavid , p . & vogel , g . 2010 . venomous snakes of europe , northern , central and western asia ( terralog 16 ) ( english and german edition ) . edition chimaira , terralog 16 , 160 pp . - get paper here\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1866 . fifth account of new species of snakes in the collection of the british museum . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 18 : 24 - 29 - get paper here\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1872 . seventh account of new species of snakes in the collection of the british museum . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 4 ) 9 : 13 - 37 - get paper here\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1888 . contribution to the knowledge of snakes of tropical africa . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 1 : 322 - 335 - get paper here\njoger u 1983 . book review : harding & welch , venomous snakes of the world , pergamon press , 1980 . salamandra 19 ( 1 - 2 ) : 99 - 102 - get paper here\nlargen , m . j . ; spawls , s . 2010 . amphibians and reptiles of ethiopia and eritrea . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 694 pp .\nlargen , m . j . & rasmussen , j . b . 1993 . catalogue of the snakes of ethiopia ( reptilia serpentes ) , including identification keys . tropical zoology 6 : 313 - 434 - get paper here\nlillywhite , harvey b . 2014 . how snakes work : structure , function and behavior of the world ' s snakes . oxford university press , new york , 256 pp\nloveridge , a . 1956 . on snakes collected in the anglo - egyptian sudan by j . s . owen , esq . sudan notes rec . 36 : 37 - 56 [ 1955 ]\nmackessy , s . p . ( ed . ) 2009 . handbook of venoms and toxins of reptiles . crcpress / taylor & francis , xvi + 521 pp .\npadial , j . m . 2006 . commented distributional list of the reptiles of mauritania ( west africa ) . graellsia , 62 ( 2 ) : 159 - 178\nperret , j . l . 1961 . \u00e9tudes herp\u00e9tologiques africaines iii . 1 . la faune ophidienne de la r\u00e9gion camerounaise . bull . soc . neuch\u00e2tel . sci . nat . , 84 : 133 - 138\npitman , c . r . s . 1974 . a guide to the snakes of uganda . codicote , wheldon & wesley , l . , 290 pp .\nscortecci , g . 1929 . rettili dell ' eritrea esistenti nelle collezioni del museo civico de milano . atti della societ\u00e0 italiana di scienze naturali , e del museo civico di storia naturale , milano 67 ( 3 - 4 ) : 290 - 339 [ also cited as pp . 33 - 36 and as from 1928 ]\ntrape , j . - f . & man\u00e9 , y . 2002 . les serpents du s\u00e9n\u00e9gal : liste comment\u00e9e des esp\u00e8ces . bull . soc . pathol . exot . 95 ( 3 ) : 148 - 150\ntrape , j . - f . & man\u00e9 , y . 2006 . guide des serpents d\u2019afrique occidentale . savane et d\u00e9sert . [ senegal , gambia , mauritania , mali , burkina faso , niger ] . ird editions , paris , 226 pp . - get paper here\ntrape , jean - fran\u00e7ois ; man\u00e9 , youssouph 2000 . les serpents des environs de dielmo ( sine - saloum , s\u00e9n\u00e9gal ) . bull . soc . herp . france 95 : 19 - 35 - get paper here\nvan der kooij , jeroen 2001 . the herpetofauna of the sultanate of oman : part 4 : the terrestrial snakes . podarcis 2 ( 2 ) : 54 - 64\ncorpulenta : cameroon , gabon , congo , zaire ; type locality : gaboon .\naylmer , g . 1922 . the snakes of sierra leone . sierra leone studies 5 : 7 - 37\nbocage , j . v . du b . 1866 . lista dos reptis das possess\u00f5es portuguezas d ' africa occidental que existem no museu lisboa . jorn . sci . math . phys . nat . lisboa 1 : 37 - 56\nburger , m . ; branch , w . r . & channing , a . 2004 . amphibians and reptiles of monts doudou , gabon : species turnover along an elevational gradient . california academy of sciences memoir 28 : 145\u2013186\nchirio , l . & lebreton , m . 2007 . atlas des reptiles du cameroun . mnhn , ird , paris 688 pp .\nchirio , laurent and ivan ineich 2006 . biogeography of the reptiles of the central african republic . african journal of herpetology 55 ( 1 ) : 23 - 59 . - get paper here\nhallowell , e . 1854 . remarks on the geographical distribution of reptiles , with descriptions of several species supposed to be new , and corrections of former papers . proc . acad . nat . sci . philad . 1854 : 98 - 105 - get paper here\nhallowell , e . 1857 . notes of a collection of reptiles from the gaboon country , west africa , recently presented to the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , by dr . herny a . ford . proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 9 : 48 - 72 - get paper here\nlaurent , r . f . 1958 . notes herpe\u0301tologiques africaines ii . rev . zool . bot . afr . , 58 ( 1\u20132 ) : 115\u2013128\nota , h . & hikida , t . 1987 . on a small collection of lizards and snakes from cameroon , west africa . african study monographs 8 ( 2 ) : 111 - 123 - get paper here\npauwels , o . s . g . & vande weghe , j . p . 2008 . les reptiles du gabon . smithsonian institution , washington : 272 pp . - get paper here\nr\u00f6del m o ; mahsberg d 2000 . vorl\u00e4ufige liste der schlangen des tai - nationalparks / elfenbeink\u00fcste und angrenzender gebiete . salamandra 36 ( 1 ) : 25 - 38 - get paper here\ntaylor , edward h . ; weyer , dora 1958 . report on a collection of amphibians and reptiles from harbel , republic of liberia . univ . kansas sci . bull . 38 ( 14 ) : 1191 - 1229 - get paper here\ntrape , j . f . & r . roux - est\u00e8ve 1995 . les serpents du congo : liste comment\u00e9e et cl\u00e9 de d\u00e9termination . journal of african zoology 109 ( 1 ) : 31 - 50\ntrape , jean - fran\u00e7ois & cellou bald\u00e9 2014 . a checklist of the snake fauna of guinea , with taxonomic changes in the genera philothamnus and dipsadoboa ( colubridae ) and a comparison with the snake fauna of some other west african countries . zootaxa 3900 ( 3 ) : 301\u2013338\nbauer , a . m . ; g\u00fcnther , r . & klipfel , m . 1995 . the herpetological contributions of wilhelm c . h . peters ( 1815 - 1883 ) . ssar facsimile reprints in herpetology , 714 pp .\npeters , wilhem carl hartwig 1867 . eine vorl\u00e4ufige \u00fcbersicht der aus dem nachlass des baron carl von der decken stammenden und auf seiner ostafrikanischen reise gesammelten s\u00e4ugethiere und amphibien . monatsber . k\u00f6nigl . akad . wiss . berlin . 1866 ( december ) : 884 - 892 - get paper here\nbipostocularis : kenya , ne tanzania , uganda , rwanda , burundi , ne zaire ; type locality : fort hall , kenya .\nholotype : zmuc 6885 holotype : zmb : 6527 [ caudalis ] holotype mhng 975 . 65 ( f ) [ coalescens ] holotype : mus\u00e9e du congo , paratypes : mnhn [ parkeri ] holotype : mus\u00e9e royal d\u2019histoire naturelle ; paratypes : mus\u00e9e du congo belge [ uelensis ] holotype : mus\u00e9e du congo [ loveridgei ]\nvenomous ! synonymy : partly after laurent 1945 , vogel & dobiey 2007 . the description by schmidt ( 1923 ) is available online ( see url below ) . distribution : not recorded from gabon fide pauwels & vande weghe 2008 but its presence is highly likely based on records in neighboring countries . not in benin fide ullenbruch et al . 2010 . battersbyi : probably occurs in the congo .\nnamed after james clarence battersby 1901 - 1993 [ obituary in herp . rev . 25 : 44 ( 1994 ) ] .\nangel , f . 1934 . description d\u2019un vip\u00e9rid\u00e9 nouveau , du congo belge , et de deux batraciens de madagascar . bull . soc . zool . france 58 : 169 - 172\nbarnett , linda k . & emms , craig 2005 . common reptiles of the gambia . rare repro , hailsham , east sussex , 24 pp .\nb\u00f6hme , wolfgang , mark - oliver r\u00f6del , christian brede & philipp wagner 2011 . the reptiles ( testudines , squamata , crocodylia ) of the forested southeast of the republic guinea ( guin\u00e9e foresti\u00e8re ) , with a country - wide checklist . bonn zoological bulletin 60 ( 1 ) : 35 - 61 - get paper here\nb\u00f6hme , w . 1975 . zur herpetofaunistik kameruns , mit beschreibung einens neuen scinciden . bonner zoologische beitr\u00e4ge 26 ( 1 - 3 ) : 2 - 48 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1897 . a list of reptiles and batrachians from the congo free state , with the description of two new snakes . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 19 : 276 - 281 - get paper here\nchippaux , j . p . 1999 . les serpents d\u2019afrique occidentale et centrale . paris ( ird editions ) , 278 pp . [ critical book review in herp . bull . 73 : 30 ] - get paper here\nhughes , b . 1983 . african snake faunas . bonner zoologische beitr\u00e4ge 34 : 311 - 356 - get paper here\njacobsen , n . h . g . 2009 . a contribution to the herpetofauna of the passendro area , central african republic . african herp news ( 47 ) : 2 - 20\nloveridge , a . 1938 . on a collection of reptiles and amphibians from liberia . proc . new england zool . club 17 : 49 - 74\npauwels , ol . & meirte , d . 1996 . contribution to the knowledge of the gambian herpetofauna . british herpetological society bulletin ( 56 ) : 27 - 34 - get paper here\npfeffer , g . 1893 . ostafrikanische reptilien und amphibien , gesammelt von herrn dr . f . stuhlmann im jahre 1888 und 1889 . jb . hamb . wiss . anst . 10 : 71 - 105 .\nrasmussen , j . b . & b . hughes 1996 . description of some new snake species . i . [ english translation of the original danish text of t . reinhardt 1843 ] . steenstrupia 22 : 13 - 39\nreinhardt , j . t . 1843 . beskrivelse af nogle nye slangearter . danske vidensk . selsk . afhandl . 10 : 233 - 279 . - get paper here\nschmidt , k . p . 1923 . contributions to the herpetology of the belgian congo based on the collection of the american museum congo expedition , 1909 - 1915 . part ii . snakes , with field notes by herbert lang and james p . chapin . bull . amer . mus . nat . hist . 49 ( 1 ) : 1 - 146\nschmidt , k . p . 1943 . amphibians and reptiles from the sudan . field mus . nat . hist ( ser . zool . ) 24 : 331 - 338 . - get paper here\nsegniagbeto glazcano . h . , trape j . f . , david p . , ohler a . , dubois a . & glitho i . a . 2011 . the snake fauna of togo : systematics , distribution and biogeography , with remarks on selected taxonomic problems . zoosystema 33 ( 3 ) : 325 - 360 . doi : 10 . 5252 / z2011n3a4 - get paper here\nsternfeld , r . 1908 . neue und ungen\u00fcgend bekannte afrikanische schlangen . s . ber . ges . naturforsch . freunde berlin , 4 : 92 - 95 - get paper here\nwitte , g . f . de 1959 . contribution \u00e0 la faune herp\u00e9tologique du congo belge . description de trois serpents nouveaux . rev . zool . bot . afr . 60 ( 3 - 4 ) : 348 - 351 .\ntype locality : \u201csokoto , upper niger\u201d [ = nw nigeria , 13\u00b003 ' n , 5\u00b015 ' e , elevation 295 m ] .\nnamed after the collector of the types , mr . c . f . watson .\nangel , m . f . 1933 . sur quelques reptiles et batraciens du nord du soudan francais . bull . mus . hist . nat . paris ( ser 2 ) 5 ( 1 ) : 68 - 69 - get paper here\nboulenger , george a . 1908 . description of three new snakes from africa . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 2 : 93 - 94 - get paper here\nhughes , b . 2013 . snakes of be\u0301nin , west africa . bull . soc . herp . france 144 : 101 - 159\ntrape j - f and mane\u0301 y . 2015 . the snakes of niger . amphibian & reptile conservation 9 ( 2 ) [ special section ] : 39\u201355 ( e110 ) - get paper here\ntrape , jean - fran\u00e7ois 2005 . note sur quelques serpents m\u00e9connus du burkina faso de la collection de benigno roman . bull . soc . herp . france 116 : 39 - 49 - get paper here\nullenbruch , k . ; grell , o . ; b\u00f6hme , w . 2010 . reptiles from southern benin , west africa , with the description of a new hemidactylus ( gekkonidae ) , and a country - wide checklist . bonn zool . bull . 57 ( 1 ) : 31 - 54 - get paper here\nvenomous ! synonymy : this species has been previously synonymized with a . microlepidota ( williams & wallach 1989 ) .\ncarranza s , xipell m , tarroso p , gardner a , arnold en , robinson md , et al . 2018 . diversity , distribution and conservation of the terrestrial reptiles of oman ( sauropsida , squamata ) . plos one 13 ( 2 ) : e0190389 - get paper here\nwall , f . 1906 . the poisonous snakes of india and how to recognize them , part i . j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 17 : 51 - 72 [ correction on p . 995 ] - get paper here\nwall , f . 1907 . suppression of melanelaps mcphersoni . j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 17 : 995 - get paper here\nwall , f . 1907 . snake - bite inflicted by melanelaps mcphersoni . j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 17 : 807 - 808 - get paper here\nwall , f . 1906 . a new snake ( melanelaps mcphersoni ) from the andean hinterland . j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 17 : 27 - 29 - get paper here\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nmany people know organisms only by the common names , or\nvernacular\nnames . unlike scientific names , common names are almost always different for speakers of different languages . they may also vary regionally within a language . this tab shows all the common names provided to eol for this organism from a variety of providers , including eol curators . currently we can only set one preferred common name per language on a given eol page , but all the names should be searchable .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nholotype : mb 108 ( 2147 ) , a 490 mm specimen ( newton ) ; museu bocage , no longer extant .\nbocage , j . v . b . du 1887 . melanges erpetologiques . i . reptiles et batraciens du congo . ii . reptiles de dahomey . iii . reptiles de l\u2019ile du prince . iv . reptiles et batraciens de quissange ( benguella ) envoy\u00e9s par m . j . d\u2019anchieta . jorn . sci . math . phys . nat . , lisboa , 11 : 177 - 211\nchabanaud , p . 1917 . descriptions de trois esp\u00e9ces nouvelles de reptilies de l ' afrique . bull . mus . nat . hist . nat . paris 23 : 219 - 225 - get paper here\njackson , k . 2003 . evolution of venom - delivery systems in snakes . zool . j . linnean soc . 137 ( 3 ) : 337 - 354\npapenfuss , t . j . 1969 . preliminary analysis of the reptiles of arid central west africa . wasmann journal of biology 27 : 249\u2014325 - get paper here\nwerner , f . 1899 . ueber reptilien und batrachier aus togoland , kamerun und deutsch - neu - guinea gr\u00f6sstentheils aus dem k . museum f\u00fcr naturkunde in berlin . verhandlungen der kaiserlich - k\u00f6niglichen zoologisch - botanischen gesellschaft in wien 49 : 132 - 157 - get paper here\nholotype : amg = albany museum ( without number ) ; now transferred to the port elizabeth museum fide broadley 1991 .\ngower , d . ; garrett , k . & stafford , p . 2012 . snakes . firefly books , buffalo , ny , < br / > 144 p . .\ngriffin , m . g . , panagis , c . & berriman , n . 1989 . the eastern national water carrier : a preliminary assessment of its impact on the herpetofauna . j . herp . assoc . africa 36 : 36 - 37 - get paper here\nmattison , chris 1995 . the encyclopedia of snakes . new york : facts on file , 256 pp .\nurutu or yarara parker ' s pit viper andean pit viper terciopelo * barba amarilla * caissaca * barbour ' s pit viper barnett ' s pit viper bocourt ' s pit viper amazonian tree - viper brazil ' s pit viper st . lucia pit viper cotiara dunn ' s pit viper fonseca ' s pit viper godmann ' s pit viper island jararaca jararaca jararacussu fer - de - lance lansberg ' s hog nose viper yellow - lined pit viper black - tailed pit viper hog - nosed pit viper jararaca pintada or wied ' s lance - head black spotted pit viper jumping viper western hog - nosed pit viper peruvian pit viper piraja ' s pit viper , jararacucu eyelash viper yucatan pit viper\ncommon names ein geddi burrowing asp , israeli burrowing asp , oasis mole viper , ein geddi burrowing adder , israeli burrowing adder . palestinian burrowing asp , palestinian mole viper\ngeneral shape small in length , cylindrical , moderately slender to robust bodied burrowing snake with a short ( males ) to very short ( females ) pointed tail . can grow to a maximum of about 0 . 90 metres . head is small , short , conical and indistinct from neck . snout is broad , flattened , short and pointed . eyes are very small in size with round pupils . scales are smooth and shiny . has large , hollow , erectile front fangs which protrude from the corner of a partially closed mouth . large venom glands .\nhabits fossorial and nocturnal . seen only at night in search of prey or a mate and after heavy rains . they strike their prey with an almost closed mouth , a single fang at a time moving sideways , downwards and backwards . the action is made possible by a ball and socket like articulation of the connection between the maxillary and prefrontal bones . very mild disposition . they do not attempt to bite if approached or disturbed ( unable to strike forwards ) preferring to escape . if cornered they arch their neck with their head pointed toward the ground in an inverted\nu\nshape . if provoked they may wind their body into tight coils and thrash their head from side to side or jerk violently . they are almost impossible to hold safely by hand .\ntreatment summary burrowing asp bites mostly cause minor effects , but severe local effects , including necrosis , can occur , as can potentially lethal systemic effects , so all cases should be urgently assessed , have ongoing cardiac monitoring , receive supportive & symptomatic treatment . antivenom is not generally available .\ngeneral approach to management all cases should be treated as urgent & potentially lethal . rapid assessment & commencement of treatment including appropriate antivenom ( if indicated & available ) is mandatory . admit all cases .\n( cc by - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - noncommerical - sharealike\n( cc by - nc - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - share alike\n( gpl3 . 0 ) , or in the public domain ( pd ) , as shown in the caption to the image displayed on www . toxinology . com .\ncopyright 2001 - 2018 toxinology , wch . all rights reserved . best viewed in 800x600 resolution or higher .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern as it is widespread and not thought to be subject to major threats .\nthis species ranges from northern guinea , close to the borders with senegal and guinea - bissau , east as far as cameroon ( trape and man\u00e9 2006 ) . records exist for southern mali , burkina faso except the north , togo , c\u00f4te d ' ivoire , benin and nigeria ( trape and man\u00e9 2006 , segniagbeto\nthis species is locally common , for example in togo and benin , but can also be quite rare in other parts of its range , such as in guinea . the population trend is unknown for this species .\nthis is a species of savanna and open forest in the sudanese and guinean climatic zones , where annual precipitation exceeds 1 , 000 mm ( trape and man\u00e9 2006 ) . this nocturnal , fossorial snake is found in burrows and other , natural cavities , beneath vegetation , or within loose soil ( trape and man\u00e9 2006 ) .\nthere is no information on threats to this species , although there are not thought to be any major threats to this widespread snake .\nthere are no documented occurrences of this species in protected areas , although it is likely to occur within protected areas within its wide range ( g . segniagbeto and j . - f . trape pers . comms . ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nsubspecies : a . reticulata brieni laurent , 1956 a . reticulata heterochilus boulenger , 1901 a . reticulata reticulata sj\u00f6stedt , 1896 .\nhughes , b . , de silva , r . , milligan , h . t . , wearn , o . r . , wren , s . , zamin , t . , sears , j . , wilson , p . , lewis , s . , lintott , p . & powney , g .\nthis species is thought to occur throughout central africa , but records are very sparse . hughes ( 1983 ) and spawls and branch ( 1995 ) report isolated records from ghana and nigeria .\nthere is no habitat information available for this fossorial species , but it is considered a forest snake by hughes ( 1983 ) .\nit is unknown if any threats are affecting this species . insufficient information exists to assess whether burrowing snakes survive forest destruction , although this may be possible .\nthere are no known species - specific conservation measures in place for this species , however , in places its distribution may coincide with protected areas . further research into the distribution , biology and ecology of this species should be carried out , as insufficient data is available on which to currently base a conservation assessment .\nsubspecies : a . irregularis angeli laurent , 1950 a . irregularis bipostocularis boulenger , 1905 a . irregularis conradsi sternfield , 1908 a . irregularis parkeri laurent , 1945 a . irregularis uelensis laurent 1945 .\nthis species has an extremely large distribution through east , central , and west africa . from eritrea in the north , it ranges south to tanzania , southwesterly to angola , and across to guinea in the west . this species is found between 600 and 1 , 800 m above sea level .\nthis species is found in a variety of habitats , from moist savanna to lowland and elevated forests . akani et al . ( 2001 ) found that this species is also able to inhabit altered environments .\nit is unlikely that any major threat is impacting this species across its full range .\nthere are no known species - specific conservation measures in place for this species , but its distribution does coincide with various protected areas . this species is capable of adapting to a wide variety of habitats and therefore requires no conservation measures to be implemented at present .\n, previously considered to range from west africa east to arabia and the near east , confined this formerly widespread species to west africa . these authors did not consider the status of populations outside west africa , but by implication elevated the arabian subspecies\njustification : it is listed as least concern on the basis that this species , while poorly - known , is widespread , somewhat adaptable to habitat modification , and not thought to be subject to major threats .\nthis species is found on the arabian peninsula , where it is distributed in south - western arabia ( yemen and saudi arabia ) from wadi majarish near taif south through the mountains bordering the red sea to aden , in dhofar , oman ( parker 1932 ) , and in several scattered localities in central saudi arabia ( al sadoon and abdo 1991 ) . it is expected to occur between aden and dhofar ( s . busais pers . comm . february 2012 ) .\nthis fossorial snake is not easy to find ( r . sindaco pers . comm . february 2012 ) .\nthis is a nocturnal burrowing species that can be found on the surface during the monsoon season ( d . egan pers . comm . february 2012 ) . it is found in varied habitats , occurring in cultivated lands and terraced fields as well as semi - desert ( d . egan pers . comm . february 2012 ) . it is oviparous , laying 3 - 4 eggs . it feeds on snakes and frogs , and in captivity has been known to take rodents ( d . egan pers . comm . february 2012 ) .\nthere are unlikely to be any major threats to this secretive and somewhat adaptable snake , although conversion from traditional to intensive agriculture may threaten the species in some areas and it may be subject to localized persecution .\nthis species was formerly considered to be wide - ranging through west , central and east africa . trape\nas distinct forms , noting that the two occur in sympatry in west africa , but did not formally redescribe either species .\n( 2006 ) confined this species to\nsenegambie\nand mauritania , although no specimens are yet known from the gambia . the other two taxa are more wide - ranging , with\nranges into east africa as far as eritrea and southeastern kenya , and into the arabian peninsula . david and vogel ( 2010 ) note that , by implication , the arabian subspecies\nwas elevated to full species status by this treatment . these authors support this assignment by comparing this form with the taxa described by trape\n( p . david pers . comm . june 2012 ) until the taxonomy of east african populations is resolved .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern , as although any threats are not known , it is moderately widespread .\n. ( 2006 ) assert that there is no doubt the species is also present in this latter country . due to taxonomic changes , its full elevational range is uncertain , but it has been recorded between 0 - 150 m asl .\nthis species is not particularly common and its population is thought to be decreasing ( j . - f . trape pers . comm . 2012 ) .\nthis burrowing , nocturnal species of sahelian and sahelian - sudanese savanna appears to be closely - associated with sandy soils . it is most often encountered following rain ( trape and man\u00e9 2006 ) . it feeds on toads , lizards , and occasionally other snakes ( trape and man\u00e9 2006 ) .\nfurther research is required to clarify the distribution and ecology of this species following recent taxonomic changes .\n( arabia ) were elevated to full species status by this action , and this has been followed subsequently ( e . g . for\n- sindaco and jeremcenko 2008 ) . largen and spawls ( 2010 ) , who conservatively retain the name\ncopy and paste the following code to embed this assessment into another web page .\nnote : you can modify the ' height ' attribute to fit the available space on your web page .\n,\nblack\n) , and refers to this snake ' s\nwhite and black\ncoloration .\ndorsally black , with a white vertebral line , occupying one row plus two half rows of dorsal scales . head white , with a black blotch covering the nasals and the upper head shields ; neck entirely black . ventrals and subcaudals , and four adjacent dorsal scale rows on each side , white .\nsnout very short . portion of rostral visible from above nearly as long as its distance from the frontal . suture between the internasals half as long as the suture between the prefrontals . frontal one and two fifths as long as broad , much longer than its distance from the end of the snout .\ndorsal scales in 23 rows . ventrals 243 ; anal entire ; subcaudals 27 , nearly all entire .\nmish , f . c . , editor in chief . 2004 . merriam - webster ' s collegiate dictionary . merriam - webster . springfield , massachusetts . pp . 714 , 772 .\nspawls , s . & branch , b . the dangerous snakes of africa . dubai : oriental press , 1995 . isbn 0 - 88359 - 029 - 8 .\nboulenger , g . a . 1896 . catalogue of the snakes in the british museum ( natural history ) , volume iii . london . p . 517 .\nboulenger , g . a . 1895 . ii . rettili e batraci . in g . doria & r . gestro . esplorazione del giuba e dei suoi affluenti compiuta dal cap . v . bottego durante gli anni 1892 - 93 sotto gli auspicii della societ\u00e0 geografica italiana - risultati zoologici . annali mus . civ . stor . nat . di genova ( 2 ) 15 : 7 - 18 . ( even though title is in italian , section written by boulenger is in english . )\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 8 / 26 / 2015 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files ."]}
{"id": 2375, "summary": [{"text": "crotalus scutulatus ( common names : mojave rattlesnake , mojave green , ) is a highly venomous pit viper species found in the deserts of the southwestern united states and central mexico .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is perhaps best known for its potent neurotoxic-hemotoxic venom , which is considered the world 's most potent rattlesnake venom .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "two subspecies are recognized , including the nominate subspecies described here . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "crotalus scutulatus", "paragraphs": ["crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( kennicott 1861 ) caudisona scutulata kennicott 1861 : 207 crotalus scutulatus \u2014 cope 1875 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus \u2014 gloyd 1940 crotalus scutulatus \u2014 cope 1883 crotalus confluentus kellyi amaral 1929 : 90 ( fide klauber 1930 ) crotalus scutulatus scutulatus \u2014 stebbins 1985 : 233 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus \u2014 tanner 1985 : 664 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus \u2014 conant & collins 1991 : 236 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus \u2014 liner 1994 crotalus scutulatus \u2014 mcdiarmid , campbell & tour\u00e9 1999 : 293 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus \u2014 tennant & bartlett 2000 : 532 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus \u2014 dixon 2000 crotalus scutulatus \u2014 hoser 2009 crotalus scutulatus \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 194 crotalus scutulatus salvini g\u00fcnther 1895 crotalus salvini g\u00fcnther 1895 : 193 crotalus scutulatus salvini \u2014 gloyd 1940 crotalus scutulatus salvini \u2014 klauber 1952 : 98 crotalus scutulatus salvini \u2014 liner 1994 crotalus scutulatus salvini \u2014 beaman & hayes 2008\nmojave rattlesnakes ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) lacking the acidic subunit dna sequence lack mojave toxin in their venom .\nmojave rattlesnakes ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) lacking the acidic subunit dna sequence lack mojave toxin in their venom . - pubmed - ncbi\nvenomous ! crotalus scutulatus scutulatus and crotalus cerastes laterorepens hybridized in captivity . nomenclature : hoser\u2019s 2009 classification and nomenclature has been rejected as unnecessary and unavailable by w\u00fcster & bernils 2011 .\ncrotalus scutulatus antivenin is derived and purified immunoglobulin fragments obtained from other domestic animals such as sheep previously immunized with crotalus scutulatus ( also known as the mojave rattlesnake [ 2 ] ) .\ncrotaline fab antivenom reverses platelet dysfunction induced by crotalus scutulatus venom : an in vitro study .\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30e2\u30cf\u30d9\u30ac\u30e9\u30ac\u30e9\u30d8\u30d3\nto\ncrotalus scutulatus kennicott 1861\n.\ncardwell , michael d . 2006 . crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mohave rattlesnake ) . morphology . herpetological review 37 ( 4 ) : 477 - get paper here\nstrimple , pete 1993 . captive birth of mojave rattlesnakes , crotalus scutulatus scutulatus . litteratura serpentium 13 ( 5 ) : 166 - 168 - get paper here\ncrotalus scutulatus is restricted to the western edges of the state , from el paso to the big bend .\ncrotaline fab antivenom reverses platelet dysfunction induced by crotalus scutulatus venom : an in vitro study . - pubmed - ncbi\nlegal status : in utah , crotalus scutulatus scutulatus is listed as a wildlife species of concern . throughout the remainder of our region , the species is afforded no protected status . more\nhardy , d . l . 1983 . envenomation by the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) in southern arizona , u . s . a . toxicon . 21 : 111\u2013118 .\nbush sp , cardwell md . mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) identification . wilderness environ med . 1999 spring . 10 ( 1 ) : 6 - 9 . [ medline ] .\nbush , s . p . ; cardwell , m . d . 1999 . mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) identification . wilderness and environmental medicine 10 ( 1 ) : 6 - 9 .\nmassey , d . j . , et al . 2012 . venom variability and envenoming severity outcomes of the crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mojave rattlesnake ) from southern arizona . proteomics 75 : 2576 - 2587 .\nstrimple , pete 1996 . crotalus scutulatus ( kennicott ) , the mojave rattlesnake . litteratura serpentium 16 ( 2 ) : 36 - 38\npowell , r . ; inboden , m . & smith , d . b . 1990 . erstnachweis von hybriden zwischen den klapperschlangen crotalus cerastes laterorepens klauber 1944 und crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( kennicott 1861 ) . salamandra 26 ( 4 ) : 319 - 320 - get paper here\nwilkinson , j . a . , et al . 1991 . distribution and generic variation in venom a and b populations of the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) in arizona . herpetologica . 47 : 54\u201368 .\nhardy dl . envenomation by the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) in southern arizona , u . s . a . toxicon . 1983 . 21 ( 1 ) : 111 - 8 . [ medline ] .\naccording to the three major herpetological societies in the united states ( american society of ichthyologists and herpetologists , herpetologists\u2019 league , and society for the study of amphibians and reptiles ) , the standardized english name is northern mohave rattlesnake and the scientific name is crotalus scutulatus or crotalus scutulatus scutulatus , 1 if you consider our mohaves to be a subspecies distinct from the mexican rattlesnake crotalus scutulatus salvini . according to linguists , the english word mohave can be spelled with either an \u201ch\u201d or a \u201cj . \u201d 2\nglenn jl , straight rc . intergradation of two different venom populations of the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) in arizona . toxicon . 1989 . 27 ( 4 ) : 411 - 8 . [ medline ] .\nscutulatus ) in arizona . toxicon . 1989 ; 27 ( 4 ) : 411 - 8 . . 14 . hardy dl . envenomation by the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) in southern arizona , u . s . a . toxicon . 1983 ; 21 ( 1 ) : 111 - 8 . . more\nmurphy , r . w . ; crabtree , c . b . 1988 . genetic identification of a natural hybrid rattlesnake : crotalus scutulatus scutulatus x c . viridis viridis . herpetologica 44 ( 1 ) : 119 - 123 - get paper here\nprice a h 1982 . crotalus scutulatus ( kennicott ) . mojave rattlesnake . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles ( 291 : 1 - 2 - get paper here\nrael , e . d . ; knight , r . a . ; zepeda , h . 1984 . electrophoretic variants of mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) venoms and migration differences of mojave toxin . toxicon 22 ( 6 ) : 980 - 984\nmassey dj , calvete jj , s\u00e1nchez ee , sanz l , richards k , curtis r , boesen k . 2012 . venom variability and envenoming severity outcomes of the crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mojave rattlesnake ) from southern arizona . journal of proteomics . urltoken\nmrinalini , james j . hicks and wolfgang w\u00fcster . 2015 . crotalus scutulatus ( mohave rattlesnake ) maximum size . herpetological review 46 ( 2 ) : 270 - 271\ncardwell , m . d . 2013 . behavioral changes by mohave rattlesnakes ( crotalus scutulatus ) in response to drought . unpublished thesis , california state university , sacramento .\ntable 4 : proteolytic activity inhibition of the c . s . scutulatus venoms by edta .\ncampbell , j . a . 1979 . crotalus scutulatus ( viperidae ) in jalisco , mexico . southwestern naturalist 24 ( 4 ) : 683 - 714 - get paper here\ncrotalids : crotalus sp . , sistrurus sp . ( agkistrodon sp . ) .\nscutulatus scutulatus type b , found in a narrow range of arizona , lacks mojave toxins and has hemorrhagic activity . the same amounts of these two characteristically different snake venoms , c . more\nglenn , j . l . ; straight , r . c . ; wolfe , m . c . ; hardy , d . l . 1983 . geographical variation in crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mojave rattlesnake ) venom properties . toxicon 21 ( 1 ) : 119 - 130\ned50 for the crotolus scutulatus snake evenomation is 8 mg antivenin / mg venom [ label ] .\nborja , miguel ; gamaliel casta\u00f1eda , jorge espinosa , edgar neri , alejandro carbajal , herlinda clement , osvaldo garc\u00eda , and alejandro alagon 2014 . mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) with type b venom from mexico . copeia 2014 ( 1 ) : 7\u201313 - get paper here\ncrotalus adamanteus , the eastern diamondback , is the biggest venomous snake in the americas .\na western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) . photo by sean bush , md .\n* mohave rattlesnake ( c scutulatus ) envenomation is among the most controversial topics in envenomation medicine . more\ntable 3 : antibody recognition : proteinase and hemorrhagic activities of the c . s . scutulatus venoms .\ntable 2 : primers used for amplifying metalloproteinase sequences from crotalus s . scutulatus . genomic dna and sequence comparison to other snake venom metalloproteinases ( mp ) . nonconserved nucleotides are indicated in bold .\ndavis , d . r . & cardwell , m . d . 2017 . crotalus scutulatus ( mohave rattlesnake ) arboreality and climbing behavior . herpetological review 48 ( 3 ) : 670 - 671 .\nmojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) . note the diamond pattern fades into bands along the caudal third of the back and the white tail rings are wider than the black . photo by sean bush , md .\nmassey dj , calvete jj , s\u00e1nchez ee , sanz l , richards k , curtis r , et al . venom variability and envenoming severity outcomes of the crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mojave rattlesnake ) from southern arizona . j proteomics . 2012 may 17 . 75 ( 9 ) : 2576 - 87 . [ medline ] .\nfact : mohave rattlesnakes are no more unique than any other rattlesnake in the genus crotalus , which includes all rattlers except the little pigmy rattlesnakes and massasaugas . numerous genetic studies show that they are most closely related to the prairie and western rattlesnakes , crotalus viridis and crotalus oreganus , respectively . 3\nsalazar , jennifer d . , and carl s . lieb . geographic diet variation of mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) . diss . bs thesis , university of texas at el paso , el paso , 2003 .\ncrotalus scutulatus - ( kennicott , 1861 ) - proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , vol . 13 , p . 207 from original description citations for the reptiles and amphibians of north america \u00a9 ellin beltz\nmassey dj , calvete jj , s\u00e1nchez ee , sanz l , richards k , curtis r , boesen k : venom variability and envenoming severity outcomes of the crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mojave rattlesnake ) from southern arizona . j proteomics . 2012 , 75 : 2576 - 2587 . 10 . 1016 / j . jprot . 2012 . 02 . 035 .\ntable 5 : dna sequence homology for different structural domains of the four groups of c . s . scutulatus metalloproteinase genes .\nin the united states , crotalus scutulatus is found in the southern portions of california , arizona , new mexico , and texas . there are two subspecies of the mojave rattlesnake , though only one ( c . s . scutulatus ) is found in the u . s . the mojave rattlesnake also has an extensive range in the northern half of mexico .\nin a retrospective study of patients bitten chiefly by crotalus atrox and c . s . scutulatus , those patients given only medical treatment suffered less local morbidity than those given a combination of medical and surgical treatment ( hardy 1988 ) .\ncrotalus scutulatus is viviparous , giving birth to live young in late july or august , often coinciding with the summer monsoons . there may be as many as nine young , measuring up to 25 cm ( 10 in ) in length .\ncrofab ( crotalidae polyvalent immune fab ( ovine ) ) is a sheep - derived antivenin used for the management of adult and pediatric patients with north american crotalid envenomation [ label ] , which includes the crotalus scutulatus snake ( mojave snake ) .\nwooldridge bj , pineda g , banuelas - ornelas jj , dagda rk , gasanov se , rael ed , lieb cs : mojave rattlesnakes ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) lacking the acidic subunit dna sequence lack mojave toxin in their venom . comp biochem physiol b . 2001 , 130 : 169 - 179 . 10 . 1016 / s1096 - 4959 ( 01 ) 00422 - 5 .\ncarstairs sd , kreshak aa , tanen da . crotaline fab antivenom reverses platelet dysfunction induced by crotalus scutulatus venom : an in vitro study . acad emerg med . 2013 may . 20 ( 5 ) : 522 - 5 . [ medline ] .\nruben k . dagda , sardar e . gasanov , boris zhang , william welch , eppie d . rael . erratum to : molecular models of the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) venom metalloproteinases reveal a structural basis for differences in hemorrhagic activities , journal of biological physics , 2014 , 217 - 218 , doi : 10 . 1007 / s10867 - 014 - 9347 - y\npe\u00f1a - peniche , a . , d . lazcano , i . ruvalcaba - ortega , and l . d . wilson . 2017 . crotalus scutulatus ( kennicot , 1861 ) . diet . mesoamerican herpetology 4 ( 3 ) : 644\u2013648 - get paper here\nantivenom indications : rattlesnakes ( in particluar crotalus atrox , c . adamanteus , c . viridis , c . oreganus , c . horridus , c . scutulatus ) ( gold et al 2002 , 2004 ; norris 2004 , warrell 2010 ) systemic signs of envenoming :\npatients sustaining rattlesnake envenomation often develop thrombocytopenia , the etiology of which is not clear . laboratory studies have demonstrated that venom from several species , including the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) , can inhibit platelet aggregation . in humans , administration of crotaline fab antivenom has been shown to result in transient improvement of platelet levels ; however , it is not known whether platelet aggregation also improves after antivenom administration .\nenvenomation by some rattlesnakes , such as the mojave rattlesnake ( formerly mohave rattlesnake ) ( crotalus scutulatus ) , may cause a different clinical presentation than that generally encountered after most rattlesnake bites . in addition , other species , such as the southern pacific rattlesnake crotalus oreganus helleri , ( formerly crotalus viridis helleri ) , may cause signs and symptoms consistent with typical rattlesnake envenomation combined with signs and symptoms similar to mojave rattlesnake envenomation . [ 1 ] ( see rattlesnake envenomation for a more complete discussion of typical rattlesnake envenomation . )\nthe objective was to determine the effect of c . scutulatus venom on platelet aggregation in vitro in the presence and absence of crotaline fab antivenom .\nthe scutulatus is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\ncardwell , m . d . , et al . 2013 . type specimen of crotalus scutulatus ( chordata : reptilia : squamata : viperidae ) re - examined , with new evidence after more than a century of confusion . proceedings of the biological society of washington . 126 : 11\u201316 .\ncarstairs sd , kreshak aa , tanen da : crotaline fab antivenom reverses platelet dysfunction induced by crotalus scutulatus venom : an in vitro study . acad emerg med . 2013 may ; 20 ( 5 ) : 522 - 5 . doi : 10 . 1111 / acem . 12135 . [ pubmed : 23672368 ]\nfact : like other rattlesnakes , mohaves have been evolving for millions of years . genetic evidence strongly suggests that mohave rattlesnakes diverged from an ancestor shared with crotalus viridis and crotalus oreganus before those lineages separated from one another between 26 . 4 and 3 . 9 million years ago . 3\nafter bites of the most dangerous rattelsnakes ( crotalus atrox , c . adamanteus , c . viridis , c . oreganus , c . horridus , c . scutulatus ) , antivenom should be given early , even before systemic envenoming has become obvious ( warrell 2010 ) . see also discussion kitchens and eskin 2008 .\nt . chen and e . d . rael , \u201cpurification of m5 , a fibrinolytic proteinase from crotalus molossus molossus venom that attacks complement , \u201d\ncertainly not the biggest , nor the most widely ranging or populous of the rattlesnakes , the mojave rattler ( crotalus scutulatus ) has the most toxic venom and a reputation as extremely aggressive toward humans . physically similar to the western diamondback , the mojave rattler typically shades toward green , sparking the common name , mojave greens .\nwinchell , s . 2007 . klapperschlangen ! die gattung crotalus . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 12 ( 66 ) : 18 - 25 - get paper here\nthe third most dangerous rattlesnake in north america , the timber rattlesnake ( crotalus horridus ) lives in the densely populated northeastern area of the united states .\nwang ym , parmelee j , guo yw , tsai ih : absence of phospholipase a2 , in most crotalus horridus venom due to translational blockage comparison with crotalus horridus atricaudatus venom . toxicon . 2010 , 56 : 93 - 100 . 10 . 1016 / j . toxicon . 2010 . 03 . 015 .\nthe myth that mohave rattlesnakes have no scientific history and no \u201ctype specimen\u201d ( the preserved animal used for the original description of a species ) has been fueled by an error in a publication in 1900 , 4 causing laurence klauber to correctly point out in 1956 that the type specimen designated for c rotalus scutulatus was not the correct species . 5 that confusion has recently and conclusively been resolved : the type specimen for crotalus scutulatus resides in the preserved collection of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia as specimen number ansp 7069 . 6\ncalvete jj , sanz l , cid p , de la torre p , flores - d\u00edaz m , santos mcd , borges a , bremo a , angulo y , lomonte b , alape - gir\u00f3n a , guti\u00e9rrez jm : snake venomics of the central american rattlesnake crotalus simus and the south american crotalus durissus complex points to neurotoxicity as an adaptive paedomorphic trend along crotalus dispersal in south america . j proteome res . 2010 , 9 : 528 - 544 . 10 . 1021 / pr9008749 .\na red diamond rattlesnake ( crotalus ruber ) . the postocular light stripe extends above the angle of the mouth in mojave rattlesnakes . photo by sean bush , md .\nj . g . soto , j . c . perez , m . m . lopez et al . , \u201ccomparative enzymatic study of hplc - fractionated crotalus venoms , \u201d\nmeans db : effects of rattlesnake roundups on the eastern diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus adamanteus ) . herpetol conserv biol . 2009 , 4 ( 2 ) : 132 - 141 .\nin a retrospective study of patients who were primarily bitten by crotalus atrox and c . s . scutulatus , 64 had swelling that extended as far as the axilla or inguinal region . none of these patients required surgical intervention . none of them developed symptoms that could have been attributed to compartment syndrome . all patients regained full functionality of the affected limb ( hardy 1991 ) .\nmackessy sp : fibrinogenolytic proteases from the venoms of juvenile and adult northern pacific rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis oreganus ) . comp biochem physiol b . 1993 , 106 : 181 - 189 .\nmackessy sp : venom ontogeny in the pacific rattlesnakes crotalus viridis helleri and c . v . oreganus . copeia . 1988 , 1988 : 92 - 101 . 10 . 2307 / 1445927 .\nbrown ws : biology , status , and management of the timber rattlesnake ( crotalus horridus ) : a guide for conservation . soc study amphibians reptiles cir . 1993 , 22 : 78 -\nthe mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) is widely distributed in western north america , occurring from the mojave desert through the sonoran and chihuahuan deserts to central mexico ( stebbins , 1985 ) . it can be distinguished from other rattlesnake species by features of color pattern and scalation , and especially by the presence of enlarged plates ( scutes ) on the head between the eyes ( degenhardt , et al . 1996 ) .\nthe enzymatic and hemorrhagic activities of fourteen c . s . scutulatus venoms are shown in table 3 . for comparative purposes , we also included data obtained from venoms from c . atrox ( call - 1 ) and c . m . molossus ( cmm88 ) as positive controls for both proteolytic and hemorrhagic activities [ 26 , 27 ] . we found that c . s . scutulatus venoms from css28 , css31 , and css36 ( collected from el paso , tx , usa ) showed potent hemorrhagic activity . venom from three other c . s . scutulatus css68 , css71 , and css74 collected in maricopa county , az , usa , also induced hemorrhage to the same extent as venom derived from c . atrox . the other eight c . s . scutulatus venoms ( collected from various geographic locations including maricopa county , az , usa ) did not cause hemorrhage ( table 3 ) .\nfrench , w . j . , et al . 2004 . mojave toxin in venom of crotalus helleri ( southern pacific rattlesnake ) : molecular and geographic characterization . toxicon . 44 : 781\u2013791 .\ne . d . rael , m . martinez , and o . molina , \u201cisolation of a fibrinolytic protease , m4 , from venom of crotalus molossus molossus ( northern blacktail rattlesnake ) , \u201d\nhoser , r . 2009 . a reclassification of the rattlesnakes ; species formerly exclusively referred to the genera crotalus and sistrurus . australasian j . herpetol . 3 : 1 - 21 - get paper here\nsimilar to and easily confused with the western diamond - backed rattlesnake - crotalus atrox , though there is little range overlap in california . compare the western diamond - backed rattlesnake to the northern mohave rattlesnake\nstraight rc , glenn jl : isolation and characterization of basic phospholipase ( pla2 ) and acidic subunits of canebrake toxin from crotalus horridus atricaudatus venom using hplc . toxicon . 1989 , 27 : 80 -\nof ctenophorus scutulatus that i managed to dig up all showed quite colorful lizards , not dull gray ones like this . apparently it is one of many lizard species that attain a dark coloration when their body temperatures are lower . more\ncrotaline fab antivenom improved platelet aggregation in an in vitro model of platelet dysfunction induced by venom from c . scutulatus . it is unclear at this time whether this improvement in platelet dysfunction translates into improved clinical outcomes in envenomated patients .\ncardwell , michael d . ; steve w . gotte , roy w . mcdiarmid , ned gilmore , and james a . poindexter 2013 . type specimens of crotalus scutulatus ( chordata : reptilia : squamata : viperidae ) re - examined , with new evidence after more than a century of confusion . proceedings of the biological society of washington mar 2013 , vol . 126 , no . 1 : 11 - 16 . - get paper here\nglenn jl , straight rc , wolf tb : regional variation in the presence of canebrake toxin in crotalus horridus venom . comp biochem physiol c . 1994 , 107 ( 3 ) : 337 - 346 .\nmackessy sp : kallikrein - like and thrombin - like proteases from the venoms of juvenile and adult northern pacific rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis oreganus ) . j nat toxins . 1993 , 2 : 223 - 239 .\npatients sustaining rattlesnake envenomation often develop thrombocytopenia , the etiology of which is not clear . it has been shown thatcrotaline fab antivenom improved platelet aggregation in an in vitro model of platelet dysfunction induced by venom from c . scutulatus [ 1 ] .\nfigure 1 : alignment of the four groups ( gp1 , gp2 , gp3 , and gp4 ) of c . s . scutulatus metalloproteinase genomic dna sequences . assignment of exon and intron ( underlined ) regions was made by comparing metalloproteinase cdna sequences from c . atrox [ 7 ] and a . contortrix [ 12 , 30 ] with metalloproteinase genomic dna sequences from c . s . scutulatus obtained in this study . differences among the dna sequences are denoted by an asterisk ( * ) .\nneurological symptoms : if the patient is suspected of having been bitten by the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) , the patient may develop neurological symptoms including respiratory obstruction or failure which must be treated as an immediate emergency . the neurologic symptoms , as others , should be improved by antivenom . if breathing becomes impaired , respiratory assistance may be necessary , and intubation and ventilation may be appropriate adjuncts in certain clinical settings . secretions may become copious , necessitating suctioning .\namaral , a . do 1929 . studies of nearctic ophidia v . on crotalus confluentus say , 1823 , and its allied forms . bull . antivenin inst . amer . 2 ( 4 ) : 86 - 97\nj . b . bjarnason and a . t . tu , \u201chemorrhagic toxins from western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) venom : isolation and characterization of five toxins and the role of zinc in hemorrhagic toxin , \u201d\nin north america , local signs of envenoming , particularly swelling , are a reliable parameter of possible systemic envenoming in most crotalid bites . important exceptions are some populations of crotalus scutulatus (\ntype a\n) , c . mitchelli , c . lepidus and c . tigris , which can cause systemic envenoming without significant local effects ( minton 1987a ) . c . adamanteus can cause incoagulability of the blood without significant local findings ( kitchens and van mierop 1983 ) .\nsnake venoms generally show sequence and quantitative variation within and between species , but some rattlesnakes have undergone exceptionally rapid , dramatic shifts in the composition , lethality , and pharmacological effects of their venoms . such shifts have occurred within species , most notably in mojave ( crotalus scutulatus ) , south american ( c . durissus ) , and timber ( c . horridus ) rattlesnakes , resulting in some populations with extremely potent , neurotoxic venoms without the hemorrhagic effects typical of rattlesnake bites .\nw\u00fcster , w . & b\u00e9rnils , r . s . 2011 . on the generic classification of the rattlesnakes , with special reference to the neotropical crotalus durissus complex ( squamata : viperidae ) . zoologia 28 ( 4 ) : 417\u2013419\nthe following references are recommended for further indepth reading . this material includes case histories , guidelines , and recent findings in crotalus literature . these should be read only after treatment has begun , and the patient is in stable status .\nr . a . martinez , s . y . huang , and j . c . perez , \u201cantigenic relationships of fractionated western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) hemorrhagic toxins and other rattlesnake venoms as indicated by monoclonal antibodies , \u201d\nthe mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) is one of the most lethal rattlers of north america . adults average 2 - 4 feet in length from head to tail ( shaw - cambell 1974 ) . it has a diamond shaped pattern that dissolves into an offset striped pattern towards the tail . the offset stripe pattern helps set it apart from the very similar diamond back . the color of the mojave rattlesnake varies from a greenish gray to a yellowish brown . these color variations provide camouflage in certain terrain .\nthis one is interesting . the large scales , relatively thick light tail bands , and ( only partially visible ) light stripe behind the eye all point to c . scutulatus . but the multiple small scales between the supraoculars , and the tail - most tail band being black are generally characteristics of c . atrox . it is possible i suppose that it is a hybrid , but i think it ' s much more likely that it ' s a somewhat aberrant c . scutulatus . several people have told me that they agree with this id .\nklauber , l . m . 1930 . new and renamed subspecies of crotalus confluentus say , with remarks on related species . trans . san diego soc . nat . hist . 6 ( 3 ) : 95 - 144 - get paper here\no . zhou , b . j . smith , and m . h . grossman , \u201cmolecular cloning and expression of catrocollastatin , a snake - venom protein from crotalus atrox ( western diamondback rattlesnake ) which inhibits platelet adhesion to collagen , \u201d\njudging by their appearance , you\u2019d think both rattlesnakes were of the same species . you\u2019d be right , being the clever person you are . they are in fact part of the same subspecies of southern pacific rattlesnake ( crotalus oreganus helleri ) .\nrokyta dr , lemmon ar , margres mj , aronow k : the venom - gland transcriptome of the eastern diamondback rattlesnake crotalus adamanteus . bmc genomics . 2012 , 13 : 312 - 10 . 1186 / 1471 - 2164 - 13 - 312 .\nm . anaya , e . d . rael , c . s . lieb , j . c . perez , and r . j . salo , \u201cantibody detection of venom protein variation within a population of prairie rattlesnake crotalus v . viridis , \u201d\nmackessy sp : evolutionary trends in venom composition in the western rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis sensu lato ) : toxicity vs . tenderizers . toxicon . 2010 , 55 : 1463 - 1474 . 10 . 1016 / j . toxicon . 2010 . 02 . 028 .\nnor are there any clinical trial results available on the efficacy of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors . c . s . scutulatus venom acts at the presynaptic level of neuromuscular transmission ( gopalakrishnakone et al . 1980 ) , while micrurus fulvius venom acts post - synaptically to depolarise the muscle fibre membrane ( brazil 1990 ) .\nmackessy sp , williams k , ashton kg : ontogenetic variation in venom composition and diet of crotalus oreganus concolor a case of venom paedomorphosis ? . copeia . 2003 , 2003 ( 4 ) : 769 - 782 . 10 . 1643 / ha03 - 037 . 1 .\na majority of the fauna found in the mojave desert also extends into the sonoran or great basin deserts as well . however , the following avifauna and herpetofauna are characteristic of the mojave region in particular : leconte\u2019s thrasher ( toxostoma lecontei ) , banded gecko ( coleonyx variegatus ) , desert iguana ( dipsosaurus dorsalis ) , chuckwalla ( sauromalus obesus ) , and regal horned lizard ( phrynosoma solare ) . snake species include the desert rosy boa ( lichanura trivirigata gracia ) , mojave patchnose snake ( salvadora hexalepis mojavensis ) , and mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) ( brown 1994 ) .\ne . d . rael , j . z . rivas , t . chen , n . maddux , e . huizar , and c . s . lieb , \u201cdifferences in fibrinolysis and complement inactivation by venom from different northern blacktailed rattlesnakes ( crotalus molossus molossus ) , \u201d\nl . a . hite , j . d . shannon , j . b . bjarnason , and j . w . fox , \u201csequence of a cdna clone encoding the zinc metalloproteinase hemorrhagic toxin e from crotalus atrox : evidence for signal , zymogen , and disintegrin - like structures , \u201d\nfrench wj , hayes wk , bush sp , cardwell md , bader jo , rael ed . mojave toxin in venom of crotalus helleri ( southern pacific rattlesnake ) : molecular and geographic characterization . toxicon . 2004 dec 1 . 44 ( 7 ) : 781 - 91 . [ medline ] .\nthere have been no clinical trials on the efficacy of antivenom in the treatment of micrurus fulvius and c . s . scutulatus (\ntype a\n) bites . empirical data on the course of envenoming following micrurus bites give the impression that established symptoms of paralysis are not influenced by antivenom treatment ( kitchens and van mierop 1987 ) . likewise , there is no significant effect of the polyvalent wyeth anti - crotalid antivenom on the neurotoxic course of envenoming following c . s . scutulatus bites ( glenn and straight 1978 ) . this is not surprising , as neither\ntype a\nvenom nor mojave toxin is included in the manufacturing process of the polyvalent wyeth anti - crotalid antivenom .\nw . j . french , w . k . hayes , s . p . bush , m . d . cardwell , j . o . bader , and e . d . rael , \u201cmojave toxin in venom of crotalus helleri ( southern pacific rattlesnake ) : molecular and geographic characterization , \u201d\no . molina , r . k . seriel , m . martinez , m . l . sierra , a . varela - ramirez , and e . d . rael , \u201cisolation of two hemorrhagic toxins from crotalus basiliscus basiliscus ( mexican west coast rattlesnake ) venom and their effect on blood clotting and complement , \u201d\nfrench wj , hayes wk , bush sp , cardwell md , bader jo , rael ed : mojave toxin in venom of crotalus helleri ( southern pacific rattlesnake ) molecular and geographic characterization . toxicon . 2004 , 44 : 781 - 791 . 10 . 1016 / j . toxicon . 2004 . 08 . 008 .\nthe southern pacific rattlesnake ( crotalus oreganus helleri ) is considered to be one of the most medically significant rattlesnakes in the usa . researchers from the university of queensland analyzed the venoms produced by two separate populations of this species . the populations studied are located in southern california , within a two hour\u2019s drive from one another .\nwe identified four groups of c . s . scutulatus rattlesnake venoms with each having distinct biochemical profiles associated with metalloproteinase activity . rattlesnakes from each venom group had unique genomic nucleotide dna sequences for the mature metalloproteinase domain and noncoding regions . these findings support the genomic basis underlying diversity in venom metalloproteinase activities . this is the first report on genomic dna sequences of snake venom metalloproteinases .\ncertain populations of mojave rattlesnakes , c . scutulatus and the neo - tropical rattlesnake , c . durissus , have long been known to contain neurotoxins . if i recall correctly from my days at the bronx zoo , bites from these species were treated with a mix of 2 - 3 antivenins ( i\u2019ve not checked current treatment recommendations ; please post below if you need further information ) .\ndouglas , m . e . , et al . 2002 . phylogeography of the western rattlesnake ( crotalus viridis ) complex , with emphasis on the colorado plateau . pp . 11\u201350 in : g . w . schuett , et al . ( eds . ) , biology of the vipers . eagle mountain publishing , eagle mountain , utah .\nactually the third most dangerous rattlesnake in north america , the timber rattlesnake ( crotalus horridus ) lives in the densely populated northeastern area of the united states . the snake , gracing the famous gadsden flag ( don\u2019t tread on me ) , certainly has spawned more fear and respect from settlers than any other through the history of the united states .\ne entry crotalus admanteus ) . although defibrinogenation , caused by the direct fibrinogen - coagulating activity of the venom , generally has a benign course , there is nonetheless a risk of spontaneous haemorrhage with extensive loss of blood or focal bleeding ( e . g . intracranial ; kitchens and eskin 2008 ) as long as the haemostatic defect is not corrected\nrokyta dr , wray kp , lemmon ar , lemmon em , caudle sb : a high - throughput venom - gland transcriptome for the eastern diamondback rattlesnake crotalus adamanteus and evidence for pervasive positive selection across toxin classes . toxicon . 2011 , 57 : 657 - 671 . 10 . 1016 / j . toxicon . 2011 . 01 . 008 .\ndouglas me , douglas mr , schuett gw , porras lw : evolution of rattlesnakes ( viperidae ; crotalus ) in the warm deserts of western north america shaped by neogene vicariance and quaternary climate change . mol ecol . 2006 , 15 : 3353 - 3374 . 10 . 1111 / j . 1365 - 294x . 2006 . 03007 . x .\ncalvete jj , p\u00e9rez a , lomonte b , s\u00e1nchez ee , sanz l : snake venomics of crotalus tigris : the minimalist toxin arsenal of the deadliest neartic rattlesnake venom . evolutionary clues for generating a pan - specific antivenom against crotalid type ii venoms . j proteome res . 2012 , 11 : 1382 - 1390 . 10 . 1021 / pr201021d .\nvalencia - herna\u0301ndez , a\u0301ngel alberto ; irene goyenechea < br / > & jesu\u0301s marti\u0301n castillo - cero\u0301n 2007 . notes on scutellation , length , and distribution of rattlesnakes ( serpentes : viperidade : crotalus ) in the state of hidalgo , mexico . acta zoolo\u0301gica mexicana ( n . s . ) 23 ( 3 ) : 29 - 33 - get paper here\ncrotalus atrox may not be quite as massive as its eastern relative , but it makes up for that in numerous ways . the brownish \u201cbase\u201d with cream outlines around the classic diamond shape and a quick to respond rattle announce its presence . the western diamondback has a massive range , extending well into mexico and stretching from the southeast to california and approximately halfway to canada .\nit really doesn\u2019t take much to make this list , if you\u2019re a venomous snake in the united states . there are 21 species listed by the society for the study of amphibians and reptiles . nearly two thirds of the venomous snakes are true rattlesnakes ( crotalus ) along with one , sistrurus miliarius carrying the common name , pygmy rattlesnake , to bring the total to 14 .\nwith one exception , neurological manifestations following north american crotalid bites are limited to the signs and symptoms discussed above . in addition to local swelling and haemostatic defects , c . s . scutulatus (\ntype a\n) bites can also cause neurological symptoms of envenoming , including paralysis . however , there are very few reports of obvious neurotoxic symptoms of envenoming following bites from this geographical variant of a single subspecies ( minton 1990a ) .\nthe mojave rattlesnake may be difficult to distinguish from the western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) , which inhabits an overlapping geographical range . some mojave rattlesnakes are greenish , but they may have a similar color as western diamondbacks . in the mojave rattlesnake , the diamond pattern fades into bands along the caudal third of the back , whereas the diamonds continue to the tail in the western diamondback .\ncrotalus adamanteus , the eastern diamondback , is the biggest venomous snake in the americas , and may be the biggest in the world . with recorded lengths nearing eight feet and weights in excess of 35 pounds , this is a significant creature and is quite dangerous to humans with a fatality rate of 10 - 20 % ( although rates were claimed as high as 30 % at one time ) .\nboldrini - fran\u00e7a j , rodrigues rs , fonseca fpp , menaldo dl , ferreira fb , henrique - silva f , soares am , hamaguchi a , rodrigues vm , otaviano ar , homsi - brandeburgo mi : crotalus durissus collilineatus venom gland transcriptome : analysis of gene expression profile . biochimie . 2009 , 91 : 586 - 595 . 10 . 1016 / j . biochi . 2009 . 02 . 001 .\nthis is most common in victims of russell ' s viper , tropical rattlesnake ( crotalus durissus subspecies ) and some species of bothrops . patients bitten by russell ' s vipers may become oliguric within a few hours of the bite . loin pain and tenderness may be experienced within the first 24 hours and , in 3 or 4 days , the patient may become irritable and hypertensive and may convulse and become comatose with evidence of metabolic acidosis .\npit vipers are the largest group of venomous snakes in the united states and are involved in an estimated 150 , 000 bites annually of dogs and cats . 1 approximately 99 % of all venomous snake bites in the united states are inflicted by pit vipers . in north america , members of the family crotalidae belong to three genera : the rattlesnakes ( crotalus and sistrurus spp . ) and the copperheads and cottonmouth water moccasins ( agkistrodon spp . ) .\nblood was obtained from four healthy male adult volunteers not currently using aspirin , nonsteroidal anti - inflammatory drugs , or other platelet - inhibiting agents . c . scutulatus venom from a single snake with known type b ( hemorrhagic ) activity was obtained from the national natural toxins research center . measurement of platelet aggregation by an aggregometer was performed using five standard concentrations of epinephrine ( a known platelet aggregator ) on platelet - rich plasma over time , and a mean area under the curve ( auc ) was calculated . five different sample groups were measured : 1 ) blood alone , 2 ) blood + c . scutulatus venom ( 0 . 3 mg / ml ) , 3 ) blood + crotaline fab antivenom ( 100 mg / ml ) , 4 ) blood + venom + antivenom ( 100 mg / ml ) , and 5 ) blood + venom + antivenom ( 4 mg / ml ) . standard errors of the mean ( sem ) were calculated for each group , and paired t - tests were used to measure differences between groups .\nkartik sunagara , eivind a . b . undheimc , holger scheibd , eric c . k . grene , chip cochrane , carl e . persone , ivan koludarov c , wayne kelln e , william k . hayes e , glenn f . king d , agosthino antunesa , bryan grieg fry . intraspecific venom variation in the medically significant southern pacific rattlesnake ( crotalus oreganus helleri ) : biodiscovery , clinical and evolutionary implications . 2014 . journal of proteomics . urltoken\nboldrini - fran\u00e7a j , corr\u00eaa - netto c , silva mms , rodrigues rs , torre pdl , p\u00e9rez a , soares am , zingali rb , nogueira ra , rodrigues vm , sanz l , calvete jj : snake venomics and antivenomics of crotalus durissus subspecies from brazil : assessment of geographic variation and its implication on snakebite management . j proteomics . 2010 , 73 : 1758 - 1776 . 10 . 1016 / j . jprot . 2010 . 06 . 001 .\nfor example , the venom of timber rattlesnakes ( crotalus horridus ) living in new england is more effective against the most common local prey animal ( gray squirrels , i believe ) than against other creatures . further south , cottontail rabbits predominate in the diet , and the venom\u2019s chemical make - up reflects this . timber rattlesnakes living on st . catherine\u2019s island off georgia ( formerly used by the bronx zoo to breed endangered species ) seem to produce especially virulent venom , at least where dogs are concerned .\nthe mojave rattlesnake can easily be mistaken for the western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) , which inhabits an overlapping range . they both have well - defined light - edged diamonds down the middle of their backs . the diamond pattern fades towards the last third of the mojave rattlesnake , whereas the diamonds continue to the tail in the western diamondback . the tail of the mojave has contrasting light and dark rings . the white rings are much wider than the black rings , while the diamondbacks have thick black rings .\nneurotoxic symptoms : in the united states one species of rattlesnake , the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutalatus ) , is known to produce a clinical picture with predominantly neurotoxic symptoms . the onset and progression of the symptoms may be rapid and subtle . in addition , they are more rapidly reversed in their early stages than when fully developed . it may be necessary to wake the patient and perform a brief neurologic check every hour or so to assure that breathing and other vital functions are not impaired . carefully note the progression of respiratory paralysis which may be present . be prepared to intubate and ventilate as necessary .\nin a prospective study in which the majority of patients had been bitten by c . atrox and a smaller number by c . s . scutulatus , c . m . molossus and c . cerastes ( snakes identified according to geographical criteria ) , patients were investigated using non - invasive angiological methods ( pulse volume amplitude , blood pressure , skin temperature ) . in only one case was a reduced pulse volume amplitude recorded . this patient also had a decrease in blood pressure and the skin temperature of the bitten extremity . on angiography , thrombosis of the popliteal artery and the deep femoral artery was seen . the patient had applied a tourniquet following the bite , which may have caused the thrombosis . the thrombus was successfully removed using a fogarty catheter ( curry et al . 1985 ) .\n6 h . the clotting time test is a simple means to regulate the antivenom dose . the initial dose should be repeated if the blood is still not coagulable 6 h after the first dose ( warrell 1990b ) . treatment of the haemostatic defect with blood product replacement should only be carried out if it is clearly indicated , i . e . there is already bleeding or there is an immediate risk of critical bleeding . in all other cases administration of antivenom should be a sufficiently effective and quick means of correcting the haemostatic defect ( burgess and dart 1991 ) . fabav has been evaluated in two clinical trial ( dart et al 1997 , 2001 ) . venom - induced abnormalities of the coagulation was reversible following antivenom treatment with recurrences as an important problem ( gold et al 2004 ) . see clinical entry ' crotalus sp . '\na thorough analysis of the dna nucleotide sequence showed that the fourteen metalloproteinase genomic dna sequences exhibited a perfect correlation with the biochemical classification of the rattlesnake venoms . the genomic dna sequences from css28 , css31 , css36 , and css68 were classified in group one ( gp1 ) , whereas genomic dna sequences belonging to css61 , css62 , and css64 were classified into group two ( gp2 ) . the genomic dna sequences belonging to css65 , css66 , css67 , css69 , and css75 were categorized into group three ( gp3 ) , whereas genomic dna sequences belonging to css71 and css74 were classified in group four ( gp4 ) ( figure 1 ) . this classification is identical to the classification that was based on the biochemical profiles of the fourteen rattlesnake venoms pointing to the existence of a genetic basis that gives rise to intra - species variation in metalloproteinase - associated activities in c . s . scutulatus . interestingly , the genomic dna sequence belonging to gp2 differed the most compared to the other three groups in that it contained a longer intron sequence ( table 5 ) .\nall of the nucleotide sequences contained similar structural domains including a conserved \u201ccysteine switch\u201d sequence [ 34 ] located within the zymogen region , an n - terminal region of the proteinase domain , a zn 2 + - binding domain , and a spacer domain located between the proteinase and disintegrin domains . the homology among the genomic dna metalloproteinase sequences was greater than 95 % for the zymogen region ( nucleotides 1\u201382 ) , 100 % for the zinc - binding domain ( table 5 ) , and greater than 98 % for the spacer region ( nucleotides 1084 to 1147 ) . the dna sequence homology for the proteinase domain across all 14 c . s . scutulatus genomic metalloproteinase genes , excluding the intron ( nucleotides 83 to 474 and 909 to 1083 ) , was close to 89 % , and the sequence identity for the entire gene was at least 84 . 5 % homologous among the four groups of metalloproteinase genes ( table 5 ) . however , the sequence homology within the intron region among the fourteen snakes ( nucleotides 476 to 908 ) was highly variable ( ~ 67 % homology for some rattlesnakes , table 5 ) suggesting that differences in the splicing of introns and fusion of exons among the four different groups of rattlesnake venoms may contribute to variations in metalloproteinase activities as shown in table 3 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthe species ' range extends from southern california , southern nevada , and southwestern utah south through arizona ( lowe et al . 1986 ) , southern new mexico ( degenhardt et al . 1996 ) , western texas ( tennant 1984 ) in the united states , and central mexico to near the south end of the mexican plateau in puebla and adjacent veracruz ( stebbins 2003 , campbell and lamar 2004 ) . its elevational range extends from sea level to around 2 , 530 m asl ( 8 , 300 feet ) ( stebbins 2003 ) ; above 1 , 800 m asl at the southern end of the range ( campbell and lamar 2004 ) .\nthis species is represented by a large number of occurrences ( subpopulations ) . on a range - wide scale , campbell and lamar ( 2004 ) mapped hundreds of collection sites . the adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100 , 000 . this snake is often locally common ( lowe et al . 1986 ) . its extent of occurrence , area of occupancy , number of subpopulations , and population size are probably relatively stable .\nmendoza - quijano , f . & hammerson , g . a . 2007 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nuetz , p . & jir\u00ed hosek ( eds . ) , the reptile database , ( http : / / www . reptile - database . org )\nbanks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , and a . l . gardner\nchecklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada\nflores - villela , oscar / mccoy , c . j . , ed .\nmcdiarmid , roy w . , jonathan a . campbell , and t ' shaka a . tour\u00e9\nsnake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhome \u00bb resources \u00bb categories and criteria \u00bb 2001 iucn red list categories and criteria version 3 . 1\nsee below for the rules and requirements outlined in the iucn red list categories and criteria . version 3 . 1 ( second edition ) . for translations of this document into other languages , click here .\nthe iucn red list categories and criteria are intended to be an easily and widely understood system for classifying species at high risk of global extinction . the general aim of the system is to provide an explicit , objective framework for the classification of the broadest range of species according to their extinction risk . however , while the red list may focus attention on those taxa at the highest risk , it is not the sole means of setting priorities for conservation measures for their protection .\nextensive consultation and testing in the development of the system strongly suggest that it is robust across most organisms . however , it should be noted that although the system places species into the threatened categories with a high degree of consistency , the criteria do not take into account the life histories of every species . hence , in certain individual cases , the risk of extinction may be under - or over - estimated .\nbefore 1994 the more subjective threatened species categories used in iucn red data books and red lists had been in place , with some modification , for almost 30 years . although the need to revise the categories had long been recognized ( fitter and fitter 1987 ) , the current phase of development only began in 1989 following a request from the iucn species survival commission ( ssc ) steering committee to develop a more objective approach . the iucn council adopted the new red list system in 1994 .\nto give people using threatened species lists a better understanding of how individual species were classified .\nsince their adoption by iucn council in 1994 , the iucn red list categories have become widely recognized internationally , and they are now used in a range of publications and listings produced by iucn , as well as by numerous governmental and non - governmental organizations . such broad and extensive use revealed the need for a number of improvements , and ssc was mandated by the 1996 world conservation congress ( wcc res . 1 . 4 ) to conduct a review of the system ( iucn 1996 ) . this document presents the revisions accepted by the iucn council .\nthe proposals presented in this document result from a continuing process of drafting , consultation and validation . the production of a large number of draft proposals has led to some confusion , especially as each draft has been used for classifying some set of species for conservation purposes . to clarify matters , and to open the way for modifications as and when they become necessary , a system for version numbering has been adopted as follows :\nversion 1 . 0 : mace and lande ( 1991 ) the first paper discussing a new basis for the categories , and presenting numerical criteria especially relevant for large vertebrates .\nversion 2 . 0 : mace et al . ( 1992 ) a major revision of version 1 . 0 , including numerical criteria appropriate to all organisms and introducing the non - threatened categories .\nversion 2 . 1 : iucn ( 1993 ) following an extensive consultation process within ssc , a number of changes were made to the details of the criteria , and fuller explanation of basic principles was included . a more explicit structure clarified the significance of the non - threatened categories ."]}
{"id": 2385, "summary": [{"text": "anteater is a common name for the four extant mammal species of the suborder vermilingua ( meaning \" worm tongue \" ) commonly known for eating ants and termites .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the individual species have other names in english and other languages .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "together with the sloths , they are within the order pilosa .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the name \" anteater \" is also colloquially applied to the unrelated aardvark , numbat , echidnas , pangolins and some members of the oecobiidae .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "extant species are the giant anteater myrmecophaga tridactyla , about 1.8 m ( 5 ft 11 in ) long including the tail ; the silky anteater cyclopes didactylus , about 35 cm ( 14 in ) long ; the southern tamandua or collared anteater tamandua tetradactyla , about 1.2 m ( 3 ft 11 in ) long ; and the northern tamandua tamandua mexicana of similar dimensions . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "anteater", "paragraphs": ["learn about the silky anteater ( cyclopes didactylus ) , the smallest anteater species .\nonline anteater . 2001 . giant anteater information , picture , links and more . online anteater . retrieved october 29 , 2007 .\nthere are three different species of anteater : the aardvark , the giant anteater and the pangolin .\nany of some other unrelated species that feed with ants , including pangolin ( scaly anteater ) , echidna ( spiny anteater ) , aardvark and numbat ( banded anteater ) .\nthe giant anteater ' s front feet have large claws , which are curled under when the giant anteater walks . although the giant anteater has poor vision the giant anteater is able to detect food using its keen sense of smell .\nthe giant anteater has the longest tongue in relation to its body size of any mammal , as displayed by this baby anteater .\nanteaters belong to the order \u2018pilosa\u2019 which also includes sloths . the giant anteater is the largest of the anteater species , hence its name . other anteater species include the silky anteater ( cyclopes didactylus ) and the collared anteater ( tamandua tetradactyla ) . giant anteaters can be found in forests and savannas throughout central and south america from belize to northern argentina but are more common in the south .\nhowever , it turns out that he has misidentified an anteater as a lion .\na giant anteater eats about 30 , 000 ants each day . the tamandua eat about 9 , 000 in a day , and the silky anteater can eat 5 , 000 in one day . the giant anteater and tamandua also consume termites .\nanteater range royalty free cliparts , vectors , and stock illustration . image 9677040 .\ndoing this allows the anteater to keep its claws out of the way while walking .\nthe plot involves a wicked anteater who is a constant threat to an ant colony .\nthe giant anteater ' s sense of smell is 40 times more powerful than ours .\nthe giant anteater is classified in animalia because it is multicellular , eukaryotic , and heterotrophic and digests its food in a stomach . the giant anteater is in the phylum chordata because it\u2019s a vertebrate and has a tail at the end of its body . being in the class mammalia means that the giant anteater has sweat glands and hair . being in the family myrmecophagide means that the giant anteater it is part of the anteater family .\nafter the two removed their pelts and submerged , the anteater jumped out of the water and stole the jaguar ' s pelt , leaving the jaguar with the anteater ' s pelt .\nthe term\nanteater\nis also colloquially applied to the mammals of diverse other groups , such as the echidna ( spiny anteaters ) of monotremata , the numbat ( banded anteater ) of marsupialia , the aardvark ( cape anteater ) of tubulidentia , and the pangolin ( scaly anteater ) of pholidota . however , these anteaters are not regarded as \u201ctrue anteaters . \u201d\nthe tongue of the anteater is the longest of any mammal in relation to body size .\nits name is a hint to one of its favorite foods , and you can ' t miss its long snout , but there ' s more to the story of the giant anteater ! this unique animal is the largest of the three anteater species ( the other two are the tamandua or lesser anteater and the silky anteater ) . the giant anteater is about the size of a golden retriever , but thick , bushy hair makes it look even bigger .\nthe giant anteater has the longest tongue in relation to its body size of any mammal .\ncan be bigger ( like the giant anteater that gets to nearly 2m long ) , where others can be smaller ( like the silky anteater that only grows to around 30 cm ) .\n, the giant anteater is not thought to be in immediate danger of extinction but recent reports indicate that there may be less than 5 , 000 giant anteater individuals left in the wild .\n, with a white - banded black stripe running along the giant anteater ' s body . the giant anteater also has a long , bushy tail which can be two to three feet long .\ngiant anteater with child , captive at the san diego zoo . image \u00a9 \u00a9 howard cheng .\nthe conservation status of the anteater is of near threatened . this means that there should be a\na human\u2019s sense of smell has nothing on the anteater . theirs is 40 times more powerful .\ngiant anteater pups spend the first year of life hitching a ride on their mothers ' backs .\nthe mother anteater carries her single offspring on her back for a considerable length of time after it is born , even though the young anteater is capable of a slow gallop four weeks after birth .\nsince giant anteaters have no teeth , mastication or\nchewing\nof food in the wild is likely aided along by pebbles and other debris the anteater swallows along with his or her protein - packed insect meal . once they are trapped by the sticky tongue and enter an anteater ' s digestive system , insects are mushed up against the anteater ' s hard palate , probably with the aid of the anteater ' s flexing jaws , and are further smashed in the anteater ' s very muscular stomach .\nthe secretion contains pinene , limonene and other high molecular weight compounds that deter the anteater from returning .\nin fact , evolution has produced several completely distinct lines of anteater - like species across the world that look similar and have the same general body functions , but there is only one true giant anteater .\nnaples , v . 1999 . morphology , evolution , and function of feeding in the giant anteater .\nexample of a giant anteater expressing the stereotypic behaviour , pacing . filmed in a zoo in england .\nat just 32 . 7\u00b0c , the giant anteater has the lowest body temperature of any terrestrial mammal .\ntwo genera and three species are in the family , consisting of the giant anteater , and the tamanduas .\nmyrmecophaga tridactyla , a giant anteater , captive at aalborg zoo , denmark . image \u00a9 2003 malene thyssen .\nadult anteaters are normally solitary . though they are generally not aggressive animals , when attacked they can defend themselves with the emission a shrill call ( as in silky anteater ) or with their saber\u2013like anterior claws ( as in giant anteater ) . an embrace by the giant anteater ' s powerful forelimbs can sometimes prove fatal .\nthe silky anteater is also called the pygmy anteater . the maximum head - to - tail length is 21 inches ( 52 centimeters ) . weight ranges from 6 to 13 ounces ( 175 to 357 grams ) .\nthe giant anteater is a prey item for pumas and jaguars . they have many weapons to protect themselves . when possible the anteater will gallop away from the predator . when confronted the anteater rises up on its tail and slashes at the predator . it has been seen that the anteaters claws can cut open a jaguar .\nthe giant anteater is also adept at swimming freestyle and uses the snout as a snorkel while doing so .\nthe giant anteater is the largest of the anteater species ( the others being the silky anteater and the tamandua ) . they measure between 40 and 48 inches ( 100 to 120cm ) . their large tail measures between 28 and 35 inches ( 70 and 90cm ) . they have a heavily elongated head which measures about 30cm .\nthe silky anteater and tamandua have prehensile tails that they use to grab and hold onto objects like trees . both species have soft , silky hair in contrast to the coarse ( rough ) fur of the giant anteater .\nhill preservation at one nest an anteater can consume a lot of ants in a short period of time . however , the anteater is carefully to never completely destroy the ant hill where he found his latest meal . if the hill was to be completely destroyed then a valuable food source would be gone forever . because of this , an anteater will only spend a few minutes at a particular hill . in addition the anteater is not immune to the stinging of the angry ants and termites . this also shortens the feeding time of the anteater ( 1 ) .\nthe anteater has a long snout , the part of the face that includes the nose , mouth , and jaw . while the anteater is toothless , it has a long tongue that it uses to catch the ants that make up the major part of its diet . the anteater uses its snout and claws to reach into ant nests . long hair on the anteater ' s body is a protection against bites from the ants that they hunt and eat .\nthe anteater has a long snout , the part of the face that includes the nose , mouth , and jaw . while the anteater is toothless , it has a long tongue that it uses to catch the ants that make up the major part of its diet . the anteater uses its snout and claws to reach into ant nests . long hair on the anteater ' s body is a protection against bites from the ants that they hunt and eat . the anteate\u2026\nsilky anteater ( cyclopes didactylus ) extending its long , narrow tongue , which it uses to capture and ingest prey .\nwatch an anteater dine on termites , rooting out larvae with its 16 - inch ( 41 - centimeter ) tongue .\nto drink , an anteater may dig for water when no surface water is available , creating waterholes for other animals .\nthe giant anteater has a very keen sense of smell that is about 40 times stronger than humans . the anteater uses it ' s long , keen nose to sniff out it prey . once it finds the unsuspecting ant or termite hill and uses its claws to tear it apart , sending the little insects into a frenzy and easily eaten up . the anteater uses its tongue to flick the ants into its mouth where the anteater sticky saliva keep the ants from getting away .\nanteaters have generally poor hearing and eyesight , but a very good sense of smell . in fact , the sense of smell in the giant anteater is regarded to be some 40 times stronger than that of humans ( online anteater 2001 ) .\nanteater develops and delivers software for the floriculture sector . we are specialized in eab - software for suppliers , software to send electronic delivery notes to the auctions . on this website you will find all information about our products and you can order and download them . current customers can get information and support on the anteater forum . read more about anteater . . .\nthe two remained close friends ever since , occasionally solving mysteries , including an adventure involving an anteater and an aluminum violin .\nother animals grew larger owing to more of their favoured nutrition being available : these include the giant anteater and the pangolin .\nmyrmecophaga - three separate species of anteaters make up the family myrmecophaga ; the giant anteater being the largest of the three .\nthe author\u2019s latest study involved sampling 29 anteater specimens that had died in veterinary hospitals , or were collected as roadkill , from three species : the giant anteater , the southern tamandua , and the silky anteater . after examining the tongues in various ways and under a microscope , they observed an oval - shaped cross section of a long , narrow tongue . the part furthest from the skull was covered in bumpy protrusions , and the front part was rounded and smooth . the southern tamandua and the giant anteater\u2019s tongues had conical tips that made them look like , well , penises ( the silky anteater did not ) .\nthe anteater has an extremely long tongue that can reach distances of up to 2 feet beyond the end of its snout . anteater tongues are covered in tiny barbs and thick , sticky saliva . the barbs and saliva help the anteater to collect as many ants as possible on its tongue . a giant anteater is capable of eating around 30 , 000 ants in a single day thanks to highly - adapted tongue that can be projected and withdrawn at a rate of around 150 times per minute .\nthe tongue the anatomy and physiology of the anteater is tongue is very unique and tailored especially to the needs of the anteater . the anteater tongue is about 16 to 24 inches long and slender . covering the tongue is backward pointing spines . these spines along with adhesive saliva help the anteater to quickly flick up ants and termites with minimal stinging occurring ( 2 ) . the giant anteater can flick it ' s tongue as much as 150 times a minute . there is a bone found in the upper throat of most mammals called the hyoid bone . one of the roles of this bone is to serve as an attachment site for various muscles . in anteaters , this bone has a unique arrangement , which allows the anteater tongue to extend considerably . additionally , joints around the hyoid bone allow for the anteater to have a wide range of motion with its tongue ( 3 ) .\nthey believe women who touched anteater masks or men who stumbled while wearing them would die or receive some sort of physical disorder .\nthe above phylogenetic tree was self created . many of the branching points are far more complicated than this , but due to limited space and time , i only included the branches important in the classification of the giant anteater . common name : giant anteater .\ncanadian museum of nature ( cmn ) . 2007 . giant anteater . canadian museum of nature . retrieved october 29 , 2007 .\nhabitat : the giant anteater lives on the ground in nearly treeless grasslands and in forests . they also range in wetland swamps .\nthe giant anteater and its habitat are threatened by agricultural encroachment and fires , both natural and man - made ( 3 ) .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the anteater article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nthe silky anteater is a native of the hottest area in tall humid forests , and is exclusively arboreal and nocturnal in its habits .\nby filming this animal , the researchers have been able to describe the unique spiny anteater erection and ejaculation behaviour for the first time .\nthe young anteater initially shelters in a nest in a hollow tree , but later moves about by clinging to its mother ' s back .\nan interesting aspect about the anteater is that doesn ' t have teeth . instead , debris often naturally makes it way into the anteater mouth in the process of flicking up the ants . this debris is used to aid in\nchewing\nup the insects ( 1 ) .\nthe giant anteater and tamanduas constitute the family myrmecophagidae , which means \u201cant - eating\u201d in latin , whereas the silky anteater is classified in a family of its own , cyclopedidae . together the two families make up the anteater suborder , vermilingua ( literally \u201cworm - tongue\u201d in latin ) . anteaters , along with sloths , are placed within the mammalian order pilosa of the magnorder xenarthra . a number of animals unrelated to the myrmecophagids are also called anteaters . the banded anteater ( see numbat ) , for example , is a marsupial . the scaly anteater ( see pangolin ) was formerly grouped with xenarthrans in an order called edentata , but it has since been assigned to its own separate order . the short - beaked echidna is often called a spiny anteater , but this animal is even more distantly related ( see monotreme ) . the african aardvark also belongs to a different mammalian order , yet , like the anteater , it has a tubular muzzle for eating ants and is sometimes called an antbear .\ngiant anteater is the common name for the largest species of anteater , myrmecophaga tridactyla , characterized by a long , narrow , tapered snout without teeth , very long tongue , long and bushy tail , and five digits on each foot , including four with claws on the forefeet and five with claws on the hindfeet . the giant anteater is found in central and south america . it is the only species in the myrmecophaga genus .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - giant anteater feeding on termites\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - giant anteater feeding on termites\ntitle =\narkive video - giant anteater feeding on termites\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe photograph in question , above , was taken by brazilian wildlife photographer marcio cabral and features an anteater feasting on a termite mound at night .\nwhat made you want to look up anteater ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nwhile the giant anteater has five digits on each foot , their first digit is reduced and the second and third digits exhibit the long claws .\nindigenous people in the amazon basin view the giant anteater as a trickster to the jaguar and humorous figure due to the length of their snout .\nthe anteater feeds mainly on a diet of insects and termites . anteaters will find a nest of ants or termites and then begin to dig down into this . they can then remove the ants from the nest . up to 15 , 000 ants may be eaten by one anteater each day .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - giant anteater ( myrmecophaga tridactyla )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - giant anteater ( myrmecophaga tridactyla )\ntitle =\narkive species - giant anteater ( myrmecophaga tridactyla )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nwhen it was first discovered , it was originally thought to be an anteater , as it lacked the characteristic fused - hair scales of other pangolins .\n3 . naples , v . l . ( 1999 ) . morphology , evolution and function of feeding in the giant anteater ( myrmecophaga tridactyla ) .\nthe giant anteater can be found in a number of locations including : south america . find out more about these places and what else lives there .\nthe anteater is mainly terrestrial , but is capable of climbing and is a strong and capable swimmer . it may be nocturnal or diurnal . in the wild , the giant anteater is primarily nocturnal or active at night near human settlements and diurnal or active during the day elsewhere . the giant anteater does not sleep in any fixed place , instead curling up in abandoned burrows and hollows . it covers its body with its long , bushy tail to sleep .\nanteaters are not aggressive but they can be fierce . a cornered anteater will rear up on its hind legs , using its tail for balance , and lash out with dangerous claws . the giant anteater ' s claws are some four inches long , and the animal can fight off even a puma or jaguar .\nthe female produces one offspring per birth . during much of its first year of life , a young anteater will ride on its mother ' s back .\nthe giant anteater , myrmecophaga tridactyla , is one of four extant species belonging to the suborder vermilingua and technically known as anteaters . the other three are cyclopes didactylus ( pygmy or silky anteater ) , tamandua tetradactyla ( southern tamandua , collared anteater , or lesser anteater ) , and tamandua mexicana ( northern tamandua ) . all four species are truly toothless mammals of south and central america that are highly specialized for feeding on ants and termites from their nest hills . they are characterized by a long tubular and tapered snout , very long worm\u2013shaped tongue , and strong forelimbs with very sharp , long , and backwardly hooked claws .\nthe giant anteater is generally acknowledged to have a keen sense of smell , used to locate ants , but is thought to have poor sight and hearing .\nthe giant anteater ' s claws curl up into their feet when they walk , in order to keep their claws from wearing down and losing their sharpness .\n, and we\u2019ve had them on and off over the years since . we welcomed the first birth of a baby giant anteater at our zoo in 1980 .\na giant anteater is not immune to ant bites , so it feeds at an ant or termite colony for just a minute or so before moving on .\nalso known as the two - toed , pygmy , or dwarf anteater , the silky anteater ( cyclopes didactylus ) is the smallest and least - known member of the family . the silky anteater is found from southern mexico southward to bolivia and brazil . it is not rare but is difficult to spot because it is nocturnal and lives high in the trees . it is also exquisitely camouflaged , its silky yellowish coat matching both the colour and the texture of fibrous seed masses produced by the silk - cotton tree ( see kapok ) . during the day the silky anteater rests amid clumps of tropical vines ( see liana ) .\nto cite this page for personal use : \u0093giant anteater\u0094 . [ online ] . natural history notebooks . canadian museum of nature . last updated ( web site consulted\nzookeeper amy heath has recruited a special teddy - bear to take on the role of surrogate mum to zsl london zoo\u2019s newest arrival ; a tiny baby anteater .\ninsects such as termites , ants , beetles , insect larvae ; occasionally fruit . the giant anteater fulfills it ' s need for water by licking wet vegetation .\ngiant anteater pups have a 50 percent mortality rate in the first three months of life . they are very susceptible to pneumonia and other health - related problems .\nthe giant anteater is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 4 ) .\nthe anteater family includes three genera ( jen - uh - rah ) and four species . a genus ( jee - nus ) , the singular of genera , is a group of animals with similar characteristics . size is the primary difference in each anteater genus , and that difference is represented in the animals ' common names .\nand can be five to seven feet long from nose to tail . the giant anteater has a narrow head , a long nose , small eyes and round ears .\nthe anonymous third party provided the museum with photos of a stuffed anteater featured in an exhibit outside a visitor center at the same park where cabral shot his image .\nthe giant anteater is able to adapt to a variety of different environments . they are able to live in grassland areas , the rainforest , and deciduous forest locations .\nthe following habitats are found across the giant anteater distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .\nthe most conspicuous distinctive mark of all anteater species is their long snout and their extremely long tongue , the average tongue ranges from 20 to 23 inches in length .\nother anteater species in the myrmecophagidae family are the semi - arboreal tamandua and the completely arboreal silky anteater . both are much smaller , and have smaller snouts , though they are similar in general shape . the anteaters are all also related to two - toed and three - toed sloths , which are part of the edentate family bradypodidae .\nthe giant anteater is particularly well developed for feeding . it locates its prey in the wild using its excellent sense of smell . once an anteater has found an appealing\nsnack bar\nit utilizes its powerful forelegs and sharp claws to rip an ant / termite hill open . it then uses its long snout and tongue to scoop out termites and ants from their nests . at any one stop , a giant anteater will munch down a few thousand insects in just a few minutes . that ' s fast eating ! to accommodate the pace , an anteater ' s tongue has to move very rapidly into the nest and back into the mouth . in fact , a giant anteater ' s tongue , which is attached by muscles to the sternum , can be flicked in and out of the mouth 150 - 160 or more times a minute !\nshe puts the giant in giant anteater . the fluffy , striped , long - nosed , golden retriever - sized animal has been at the zoo since 2002 . . .\nowen considered the animal might have been an insect - eater , breaking open termite nests like an anteater , but it is now known to have been herbivorous in its habits .\nthe tongue is covered in backward - curving papillae and coated in thick , sticky saliva secreted from its enlarged salivary glands , which allows the anteater to collect insects with it .\nfrom head to tail , the giant anteater measures a total of 110 inches ( 280 centimeters ) , and weighs from 48 to 88 pounds ( 22 to 39 kilograms ) .\nrain forest conservation fund . 2001 .\nrainforest conservation fund : species data for giant anteater\n( on - line ) . accessed 02 / 02 / 03 at urltoken .\nthe spiny anteater , however , is notoriously difficult to observe in the wild and shows little enthusiasm for breeding in captivity , so nobody had managed to observe them ejaculate before .\n, which can be as long as 60 cm ( 24 inches ) in the giant anteater . anteaters live alone or in pairs ( usually mother and offspring ) and feed mainly on\nfacts also known as : giant anteater , ant bear conservation status : near threatened location : south and central america lifespan : 15 years in the wild . 26 years in captivity .\ngiant anteaters are specialist carnivorous predators of termites and ants . they detect anthills and termite mounds with their acute sense of smell . when they have located their prey , the anteater digs open the nest with its huge , sharp claws . the anteater then inserts its very long tongue into the nest and extracts the insects which are then placed in the digestive system .\nthe researchers have also observed that hundreds of sperm team up to form bundles that swim much faster than individual sperm in the spiny anteater\u2019s semen \u2013 another possible adaptation for sperm competition .\nthe giant anteater frequents low swampy savannas , along the banks of rivers , and the depths of the humid forests , but is not abundant anywhere . it lives above ground , not burrowing underground like armadillos or aardvarks or up trees like other anteaters . the species is nocturnal when living near humans , but away from population centers it is active during the day . the giant anteater has no fixed home . each night , a giant anteater finds a secluded spot and curls up to sleep , with its long bushy tail covering its head and body .\nbehold , the taxidermied anteater , which does look suspiciously like the one from the final photo : cabral continues to claim that his image was authentic , though the judges are wholly unconvinced .\neukarya - the cells of the giant anteater , like all other eukaryotes , have a true nucleus which contains genetic information , and the organelles within the cells are surrounded by a membrane .\nthe giant anteater spends a great deal of its time eating every single day . as you can tell from the name , they consume large amounts of ants . they also consume termites .\nthe female produces one offspring per birth after a gestation period of around 190 days ( for giant anteaters ) . during much of its first year of life , a young anteater will ride on its mother ' s back ( or tail in the case of the silky anteater ) , though the baby anteater is capable of a slow gallop four weeks after birth ( mcdonald 1997 ) . giant anteaters rarely make sounds . they do it mostly when they are young ; the sound is a high - pitched , shrilly grunt noise . a baby that has fallen off his mother ' s back will grunt to its mother either to remind her that it has fallen off or to simply instruct her where it is or to get her attention ( online anteater 2001 ) .\nhabitat the anteater is extensively distributed in south and central america , frequenting low swampy savannas , along the banks of rivers , and the depths of the humid forests , but is nowhere abundant .\nthe giant anteater has a long , tubular snout without any teeth whatsoever . it feeds on ants and termites , which it catches thanks to its long , prickly tongue and its sticky saliva .\nthe anteater only feeds at one mound for about a minute before moving on . after all , the animal doesn ' t want to totally wipe out its source of food ! with a mouthful of delicious insects , the anteater crushes them against the roof of the mouth , and its very muscular stomach further pulverizes the food . anteaters may also lick at fallen fruit and eat soft grubs .\nxenarthra - this order is classified by animals that have little or no teeth at all . in the case of the giant anteater , no teeth are present at any point during their life cycle .\nonce upon a time there was an anteater named pablo . pablo the anteater had a family ; he was the youngest of the bunch . his older sister\u2019s name was rosita and his older brother\u2019s name was jorge . when pablo and his sibling were very young , their mother was in a tragic accident with a puma . now the three young anteaters live with their mother\u2019s sister , aunt ether .\nanteaters have an acute sense of smell which helps them to locate anthills and even allows them to tell what type of ant is inside it . the wet , black nose is located on the end of the anteater\u2019s long , pointed snout . the position of the nose is useful for locating food and it also helps the anteater to hold its nose above the surface of the water when swimming .\nthe giant anteater lives in different habitats , including savannahs , grasslands , swampy areas , dry woods and rainforests . it looks for food in open areas , but rests in areas covered with trees .\nthe anteater will fold its claws up under their hands . by walking on their fists they keep the claws sharp so that they can keep these sharp for digging open ants nests and defending themselves .\nat 32 . 7 o c the anteater\u2019s body temperature is the one of the lowest for a mammal . it is believed this is an adaption to the low amount of calories in their diet .\nthe two anteaters of the genus tamandua , the southern tamandua ( t . tetradactyla ) and the northern tamandua ( t . mexicana ) , are much smaller than the giant anteater , only about 3 feet ( 90 cm ) long . the usual color is yellowish white , with a broad black lateral band , covering nearly the whole of the side of the body . each anteater has short hair .\nthe silky anteater is only about 14 inches ( 35 cm ) long , nearly about the size of a rat . it is of a general yellowish color . its silky golden fur makes it resemble the seed pods of the silk cotton tree . both the tamanduas and the silky anteater possess partially prehensile tails for helping them in their arboreal life . thus , the undersides of their tails lack hair .\na brand new program will be added to the anteater software : greenfinger . at the moment we ' re in development , and testing with several dutch suppliers . an english version of greenfinger will follow .\nthe giant anteater lives in the rainforest and the grass lands of south america . they are very dependent on their environment , since their body temperature is very low , only between 32 and 35 \u00b0f .\na number of unrelated mammals are often misnamed or mistaken for anteaters ; they include the aardvark , echidna , armadillo , pangolin , and numbat (\nbanded\nanteater ) , which is a marsupial .\nthe giant anteater is one of only two taxa of mammals without any teeth even in a mature state ( the pangolins comprising the other ) . an anteater instead crushes insects it consumes using hard growths found on the inside of its mouth , and its muscular stomach . sand and small rocks have also been found in anteaters ' stomachs , suggesting that these are ingested to aid digestion ( possible gastroliths ) .\nusing its keen sense of smell to track ants , the giant anteater walks with a shuffle , bearing its weight on the sides and knuckles of its forefeet . when harried , it is capable of a clumsy gallop . the giant anteater is also a good swimmer . it does not seem to use dens or other resting places on a permanent basis but chooses instead a secluded spot where it can curl up to rest , with its huge tail covering both its head and its body . females bear a single offspring after a gestation period of about 190 days . a young anteater looks identical , except in size , to an adult , and , from two or three weeks following birth until it is about a year old , it rides on its mother\u2019s back as she travels . the home ranges of individual anteaters living in the llanos overlap and can cover more than 2 , 500 hectares ( 6 , 000 acres ) . the giant anteater is the longest - lived anteater ; one in captivity reportedly survived 25 years .\nthe anteater uses its sharp claws to tear an opening into an anthill and put its long snout and efficient tongue to work . but it has to eat quickly , flicking its tongue up to 160 times per minute . ants fight back with painful stings , so an anteater may spend only a minute feasting on each mound . anteaters never destroy a nest , preferring to return and feed again in the future .\nthe giant anteater is classed as \u2018near threatened\u2019 by the iucn . as anteaters are placid creatures they are preyed upon by large cats such as pumas and jaguars . however , a cornered anteater will ride up on its hind legs , using its tail for support and use its long claws which are 4 inches long , to fight off the attacker . anteaters are also hunted in south america for fur and food .\ngiant anteaters are terrestrial . unlike other anteater species , adult giant anteaters only rarely climb trees . instead , its powerful forearms and prominent claws are used primarily for digging and ripping in the search for food .\nthe anteater\u2019s mouth is narrow , tube - like and toothless . this mouth allows its long , thin tongue to flick in and out quickly and efficiently . anteaters have specialized stomachs that grind up ants with powerful muscles and dissolve them in strong acids . the anteater\u2019s specialized stomach prevents the animal from needing teeth to break down its food and allows large amounts of food to be consumed by swallowing it whole without chewing .\nanteater is the common name for truly toothless mammals of south and central america that are highly specialized for feeding on ants and termites from their nest hills . the term technically is restricted to four living species of the suborder vermilingua , namely the pygmy or silky anteater ( cyclopes didactylus ) of family cyclopedidae , the giant anteater ( myrmecophaga tridactyla ) , and lesser anteaters ( tamandua tetradactyla and t . mexicana ) of family myrmecophagidae . according to the mammalian classification of mckenna and bell ( 1997 ) , sloths and the suborder vermilingua together comprise the order pilosa , which in turn comes under the superorder xenarthra ( edenta ) with the armadillos .\nthe giant anteater is a very unique looking creature , and it is the largest of all anteaters in the world . it is one creature that doesn\u2019t get confused with any others due to the way it looks !\nas their name suggests , giant anteaters mostly feed on ants . they will also dine on other insects , including grubs and termites . a single anteater may eat as many as 30 , 000 ants per day .\nmammalia - all mammals have either hair or fur , are endothermic , and have mammary glands that make lactation possible . specifically , the giant anteater belongs to a group of mammals called the the eutheria or placental mammals .\ntoday , lucy shares an exhibit with a male anteater named orion near skyfari west , next to the mountain lions . since breeding is unlikely due to lucy ' s age , this is more of a companion pairing .\nthe range of the giant anteater once extended from belize ( where it now thought to be possibly extinct ) to north west argentina , but numbers have declined throughout most of its range resulting in scattered , isolated populations . the main threats to the giant anteater is habitat loss by agricultural encroachment , especially in central america . fire is a particular problem for grassland populations . they are also hunted throughout their range both for food and as a pest species .\nthough these so called anteaters and the true anteaters belong to unrelated groups of mammals from widely separated geographical regions ( spiny anteaters and banded anteater from australia , cape anteater from africa , scaly anteater from asia , and true anteaters from south and central america ) , all of them have undergone similar morphological as well as behavioral adaptation for the common habit of feeding on ants and termites . this is the evidence of the fact that utilization of the same niche anywhere takes place by similar animals with homologous or analogous organs . in another words , the body of animals are purposefully designed according to their habit and habitat or their purpose , no matter where they come from or what they are .\nbut separate from the tongue , casali is most impressed with the anteater\u2019s tubular skull , which is specialized for the skinny tongue\u2019s movement . in fact , the whole animal seems to be adapted for its bug - eating purpose , ripping up ant nests with its strong arms , punching holes with its claws , and sticking its spaghetti tongue into the holes it made . the tongue even has horns that can help grab ants and termites while the anteater explores nests .\nthese example sentences are selected automatically from various online news sources to reflect current usage of the word ' anteater . ' views expressed in the examples do not represent the opinion of merriam - webster or its editors . send us feedback .\nbehaviour the giant anteater is a very solitary animal . this means that it will not interact with any other animals , including other anteaters . there is an exception for mating season , when the anteaters meet together to find mating pairs .\nthe anteater rips open a termite or ant hill with its clawed hand and works its tubular snout into the opening , sticking its long , worm\u2013shaped tongue down into the heart of the colony . as the insects swarm to the damaged part of their dwelling , it draws them into its mouth by means of its flexible , rapidly moving tongue covered with sticky saliva . a full\u2013grown giant anteater eats upwards of 30 , 000 ants and termites a day ( cmn 2007 ) .\nthe giant anteater walks with a very peculiar type of gait . this is due to the fact that they walk on their knuckles . they have a tongue that may grow up to 2 feet in length but it is very slender .\nif threatened , the typically non - vocal giant anteater may make a bellowing noise . additionally , they will often rear up on their hind quarters and swipe with their ( up to ) 10 cm ( 4 in . ) long foreclaws .\nas an outcome of their diet and lifestyle , anteaters have relatively low metabolic rates . as a stark example , the giant anteater has the lowest recorded body temperature of any placental mammal - 32 . 7\u00b0 c ( 90 . 9\u00b0f ) .\nthe spiny anteater ( tachyglossus aculeatus ) , also known as the short - beaked echidna , is a primitive mammal found in australia and new guinea . like the platypus , it is a monotreme , laying eggs instead of bearing live young .\nthe giant anteater ( myrmecophaga tridactyla ) , sometimes called the ant bear , is the largest member of the anteater family and is best known in the tropical grasslands ( llanos ) of venezuela , where it is still common . it was once found in the lowland forests of central america and still lives in the amazon basin southward to the grasslands of paraguay and argentina . gray with a diagonal white - bordered black stripe on each shoulder , the giant anteater attains a length of about 1 . 8 metres ( 6 feet ) , including the long bushy tail , and weighs up to 40 kg ( 88 pounds ) . this ground dweller is mainly diurnal , but in areas near human settlement it is most active at night .\nunlike the giant anteater , the lesser anteater , or tamandua ( genus tamandua ) , is arboreal as well as terrestrial . the two tamandua species are similar in size\u2014about 1 . 2 metres ( 4 feet ) long , including the almost - hairless prehensile tail , which is used for climbing . they are often tan with a blackish \u201cvest\u201d around the shoulders and on the body , but some are entirely tan or entirely black . tamanduas have shorter fur and proportionately shorter muzzles than giant anteaters .\nthe giant anteater ' s species name , tridactyla , comes from\ntri\nand\ndactylos ,\nwhich are greek words for\nthree fingers\n. however , the giant anteaters actually have five toes on each paw ( the fifth is vestigial ) . the name probably came about because only three of the front toes have prominent claws and can be easily seen . the giant anteater walks clumsily on the soles of its back feet and on the in\u2013turned claws of its front feet .\nthe bizarre sex life of the spiny anteater has been exposed by researchers \u2013 the male ejaculates using only one half of its penis . new findings about the creature\u2019s sex life may seem salacious but they could help shed light on an evolutionary mystery .\ngiant anteaters tend to pursue the larger bodied social insects , while tamanduas and silky anteaters tend to prey on smaller insect fare . such dietary segmentation allows for different anteater species to co - exist in the same region without being in direct predatory competition .\nthen steve johnston of the university of queensland in gatton , australia , and his colleagues inherited a male spiny anteater that was not so shy . the creature had been \u0091retired\u2019 from a zoo as it produced an erection when being handled at public viewing sessions .\nthe giant anteater has a long , thin head , small eyes , rounded ears , and a bushy and long ( but not prehensile ) tail . the worm - like tongue can extend more than 0 . 6 meters ( 2 feet ) and has a width of only 12 . 5 millimeters ( 0 . 5 inch ) . the anteater can cover its tongue in a sticky saliva , allowing it to trap ants , and the tongue can be extended and withdrawn up to 150 times per minute . the giant anteater , pangolins , and tube - lipped nectar bat , while only distally related , all have tongues that are detached from their hyoid bone and extend past their pharynx deep into the thorax ( muchala 2006 ) . this extension lies between the sternum and the trachea .\nanteaters are very good animals . they somehow pull off the whole \u201cslurp up ants with their sticky , noodly , bendy straw tongues\u201d so confidently you forget how weird that is . and scientists agree that , yes , anteater tongues are weird . but they\u2019re also understudied .\nthe giant anteater is covered with stiff , straw - like hair , which grows up to 40 centimeters ( 15 . 7 inches ) long on the tail . young have soft hair until they are mature . the giant anteater ' s prevailing color is gray or brown , with a broad black band , bordered with white , starting on the chest , and passing obliquely over the shoulder , diminishing gradually in breadth as it approaches the loins , where it ends in a point . all have this diagonal black and white shoulder stripe .\nall anteaters are believed to be solitary , only meeting up to breed . they are thought to be polygynous ( puh - lih - juh - nus ) , meaning males mate with more than one female . after giant anteaters mate , the male leaves , but the male silky anteater helps to feed its young while it ' s in the nest . the gestation period , the amount of time before the female gives birth , is 120 to 150 days for silky anteaters and tamandua . the giant anteater gives birth after about 190 days .\nanother adaptation of the giant anteater is their behaviour . they have an extremely strong sense for smelling their prey . the anteaters are able to smell 40 times better than humans can . this enables them to smell ants or termites from a long distance even up to several miles .\nof the four different anteater species , the giant anteater is by far the largest . its body can reach lengths of four feet ( 1 . 2 m ) and it can grow to two feet ( 0 . 6 m ) long . the giant anteater has an elongated snout and a very bushy tail . the coarse , dense fur that covers its body is mostly dark brown or black but it has white forelegs with black bands around its wrists and a wide band of black fur stretches across its chest and all the way to the middle of its back . this stripe is bordered by a thin line of white , gray or light brown fur . its tongue is an impressive two feet long , and half an inch wide . it is covered with sticky saliva that helps it to pick up the insects that it eats , including termites and ants . giant anteaters have large front claws and powerful forelegs that allow them to break open termite mounds in a single swipe and make them a formidable opponent to predators . in a few instances , a giant anteater has killed a puma or jaguar while defending itself against attack .\nanteaters are edentate animals\u2014they have no teeth . but their long tongues are more than sufficient to lap up the 35 , 000 ants and termites they swallow whole each day . the giant anteater can reach 7 feet long from the tip of its snout to the end of its tail .\nthe giant anteater is very solitary and it does well taking care of its own needs . it will usually only interact with others during mating and when there are young to care for . they are able to search for and then to tear into the mounds of termites and ants ."]}
{"id": 2396, "summary": [{"text": "antipodolycaena is a subgenus of the genus lycaena which is found only in new zealand .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "antipodolycaena includes four species that are endemic to new zealand : lycaena boldenarum white , 1862 ( type species ) lycaena feredayi ( bates , 1867 ) lycaena rauparaha ( fereday , 1877 ) lycaena salustius ( fabricius , 1793 )", "topic": 26}], "title": "antipodolycaena", "paragraphs": ["antipodolycaena is a subgenus of the genus lycaena which is found only in new zealand . antipodolycaena includes four species that are endemic to new zealand :\nhow can i put and write and define antipodolycaena in a sentence and how is the word antipodolycaena used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528antipodolycaena\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528antipodolycaena\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528antipodolycaena\u9020\u53e5 , antipodolycaena meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\nrobert : hi robin , thank for your clarification on these matters . there is certainly great confusion on the genus naming of admirals & coppers . confusion regarding blues is not as bad , but is still there too . any chance you can point me to the relevant articles by for the vanessa ( field ) & zizina genus ' ? as i would like to read through them . as for the genus lycaena , i have a copy of the russians work ( * see quote ) , but have never heard of antipodolycaena being used , this is news to me . any chance this is to do with smart , p . 1975 : the international butterfly book . n . y . : thomas c . crowell . ? quote * on the systematics of the genera lycaena f . and heliophorus geyer ( lepidoptera : lycaenidae ) by ab zhdanko , institute of zoology , kazakhstan national academy of sciences , alma - ata . english publication in entomological review , 75 ( 9 ) , 1996 . 595 . 789 take care , robert .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ntype - species : lycaena boldenarum white , 1862 . trans . r . ent . soc . lond . ( 3 ) , 1 : 26 . [ bhl ]\ntype specimens : ? type status new zealand : ? locality , ( ? depository ) . .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nhtml public\n- / / wapforum / / dtd xhtml mobile 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nrobert : quote from : copper on ( 10 aug 2010 ) tue 09 : 30 pm there is no evidence of hybridization between southern and common blue blues in new zealand . i have updated the common & southern blue pages urltoken & urltoken from ; quote in the areas where both the common & southern blue hybridise , like north canterbury & the waiho gorge . these hybrids are extremely viable in pattern on the underwing ( which makes the females impossible to tell apart & the males need close inspection of their genitals to tell ) . to ; quote there are rumours of hybridisation between the common & southern blue in north canterbury & the waiho gorge , however there has being no published evidence of this . for the time being , i ' m going to leave the boulder copper page alone as i have it as lycaena ( boldenaria ) boldenarum & refer to boldenaria as a sub - genus . i put it this way after reading the kazakhstani article i mentioned above as it concluded this same answer . robert .\ncopper : yes its quite ok to use boldenaria as ` a subgeneric name ; the zizina article is accessible on google scholar and was published in zootaxa 2008 ; the field revision was published in early 1970s in smithsonian contributions to zoology .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en"]}
{"id": 2404, "summary": [{"text": "osedax roseus is a species of bathypelagic polychaete worm that lives at abyssal depths and is able to sustain itself on the bones of dead whales .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the species is found in the north east pacific . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "osedax roseus", "paragraphs": ["figure 3a from rouse et al . 2008 , whale vertebrae covered in osedax roseus ( arrows ) .\nacquisition of dwarf male \u201charems\u201d by recently settled females of osedax roseus n . sp . ( siboglinidae ; annelida )\n\u201c\u2026 . receive your own plush , 100 % cotton dwarf male osedax roseus , complete with hooked chaetae\u2026 . \u201d\nacquisition of dwarf male\nharems\nby recently settled females of osedax roseus n . sp . ( siboglinidae ; annelida ) .\nfigure 3 . mature female osedax roseus colonizing a whale bone . a larvae that lands on her will differniate into a male .\nfigure 4 . anatomy and size comparison of male and female osedax roseus . not the stark difference in size and morphology between the two sexes .\nacquisition of dwarf male\nharems\nby recently settled females of osedax roseus n . sp . ( siboglinidae ; annelida ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nboth bonellia viridis and osedax roseus have similar biological mechanisms designs to facilitate environmental sex determination . a sexually undifferentiated larvae becomes male after contact with an adult female . if the larvae don\u2019t interact with a female , then they differentiate into a female themselves . there are different environmental conditions that trigger sexual differentiation .\nfish bone ( gzg . v . 20407 ) with osedax borings from the presumably late oligocene part of the makah formation , washington state , usa\num die evolutionsgeschichte des marinen , knochenfressenden wurms osedax zu verstehen , ist es wichtig zu wissen , zu welchen tiergruppen die knochen geh\u00f6ren , die er fressen kann . urspr\u00fcnglich wurde osedax als wal - spezialist angesehen , weitere untersuchungen zeigten jedoch , dass er ein breites spektrum an wirbeltierresten , inklusive weichteile von walen und knochen von v\u00f6geln und fischen , konsumiert . hier werden zum ersten mal bohrspuren in walz\u00e4hnen und fischknochen aus oligoz\u00e4nen tiefwasserablagerungen der makah , pysht und lincoln creek formationen im westen des us - bundesstaates washington dokumentiert , die solchen des rezenten osedax stark \u00e4hneln . die fossilien wurden mittels verd\u00fcnnter s\u00e4ure aus kalkigen konkretionen herausgel\u00f6st und die bohrspuren wurden computer - tomographisch untersucht . diese und bereits bekannte bohrspuren von osedax aus dem westlichen washington zeigen , dass osedax schon im oligoz\u00e4n die gleiche bandbreite von wirbeltierresten besiedelt hat wie heute und auch die gleiche vielfalt an weichk\u00f6rpermorphologien . diese ergebnisse st\u00fctzen die these , dass ein breites nahrungsspektrum ein urspr\u00fcngliches merkmal von osedax ist .\nosedax has a known depth range of 30\u20133000 m ( 7 ) and can be found in dense colonies that are able to consume an entire whale skeleton within a few years ( 19 ) . molecular clock estimates and the early oligocene boreholes presented here show that osedax has been destroying bones for most of the evolutionary history of whales . osedax has an impact on the taphonomy of whale skeletons that has significantly affected the quantity and especially the quality of fossil whales , as documented here . this previously unrecognized \u201c osedax effect\u201d is especially well - illustrated in whale fossils that are preserved in deep - water strata where sedimentation rates are low , such as the bioeroded fossils from washington state .\nrouse , g . w . ; worsaae , k . ; johnson , s . b . ; jones , w . j . ; vrijenhoek , r . c . 2008 . acquisition of dwarf male\nharems\nby recently settled females of osedax roseus n . sp . ( siboglinidae ; annelida ) . biol bull 214 ( 1 ) : 67 - 82 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nrouse , g . w . ; worsaae , k . ; johnson , s . b . ; jones , w . j . ; vrijenhoek , r . c . 2008 . acquisition of dwarf male\nharems\nby recently settled females of osedax roseus n . sp . ( siboglinidae ; annelida ) . biol bull 214 ( 1 ) : 67 - 82 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 71 [ details ]\nteeth of two mysticete whales with osedax borings , oligocene , washington state , usa . a , b two teeth ( gzg . v . 20408 ) from the latest oligocene part of the lincoln creek formation . these were used for micro - ct ; renderings in fig . 3 are from specimen a . c \u2013 e three teeth ( usnm 539938 ) from the late early oligocene part of the pysht formation . note that osedax borings are restricted to the upper ( presumably exposed ) part of the teeth in c and d and that the broken edges in specimen e are angular and do not go through obvious osedax borings\nzombie worms ( osedax roseus ) eat away at the bones of a dead whale that has fallen to the seafloor in sagami bay , japan . these bizarre worms rely on whale bones for energy and are what scientists call \u201csexually dimorphic\u201d\u2014the male and female forms are markedly different . in this case , the males are microscopic and live inside the bodies of the female worms ! this allows females to produce many , many eggs to disperse across the seafloor . few of these will land close enough to sunken bones to survive .\nheck , i\u2019ll pay $ 20 to the first knitter to put up the design for an anatomically correct osedax with a dwarf male ! plus i\u2019ll pay for the shipping to have it . any takers ? i can email you the article .\na significant part of osedax\u2019s diet is digesting the bones of whales . however , whale bones are difficult to find in the ocean . sexually undifferentiated larvae float in the ocean searching for whale bones , and conserving energy until they find their next meal . some people have called this their \u201czombie state\u201d . once a bone is found , contact with a whale bone triggers the larvae to differentiate into a female ( rouse , 2008 ) . this process is accompanied by an increase in the body mass and anchoring their body into the bone by boring holes to start building a colony on the bone . sexual differentiation takes energy , so this processes does not occur until the osedax has found a food source .\nwe thank eva vinx ( universit\u00e4t hamburg ) for aid with photography , bob vrijenhoek ( monterey bay aquarium and research institute ) for inviting g . w . r . on cruises to collect live osedax , and gerardo gonz\u00e1lez - barba ( universidad aut\u00f3noma de baja california sur ) for identifying fossil shark teeth . we also thank bob vrijenhoek and two anonymous reviewers for their efforts to improve the manuscript .\nafter the osedax have built a colony and females are extracting nutrients from the bone , sexually undifferentiated larvae that land on a female will differentiate to become a male . the larvae enters the female\u2019s tube lumen . researchers are unclear about how the males find the tube lumen , the molecular triggers that facilitate the development of male sexual characteristics , and the role that hormones released by females may play in this process . that researcher still don\u2019t understand . there is a preference for larger females , and increased size of a female is correlated with more dwarf males in their tube lume . ( rouse , 2008 ) .\nas it is an annelid , i am fond of osedax . but i am disappointed . and i ' m calling it : this is the first definively - not - a - parasite - of - the - day in a long unbroken record of parasites of the day . you can ' t be a parasite of a dead thing , lest we include hagfish , cookie sleeper sharks , and osteopelta limpets from whale - fall ; or even the myriad and sundry critters that feed on other dead animal carcases . as foul as all of this may be , still i cry\nfoul\non parasite of the day .\nosedax borings in a tooth of a mysticete whale from the latest oligocene part of the lincoln creek formation , washington state , usa ( gzg . v . 20408 ; same specimen as in fig . 2a ) . a\u2013d micro - ct scan images showing cross sections with cavities and their entry holes ; arrow indicating the entry hole to the boring visualized in figs . e and f . e , f micro - ct - based rendering of the trace fossils indicated in fig . d , bone material in gray , and borehole in yellow . e the complete trace fossil seen from the top ( nearly the same orientation as in a\u2013d ) . f longitudinal cross section through the trace fossil\nosedax borings in a fish bone from the presumably late oligocene part of the makah formation , washington state , usa ( gzg . v . 20407 ; same specimen as in fig . 4 ) . a\u2013c micro - ct - based rendering of a trace fossil , bone material in transparent blue , flower - like borehole in yellow , showing a vertical cross section including the entry hole ( a ) , the jagged underside ( b ) and a top view with the circular entry hole on the bone\u2019s surface ( c ) . d , e micro - ct images showing the same cross section as in a ( d ) and a cross section with two borings including their entry holes ( e )\nthe x - ray microcomputed tomography scans of the whale bone that contains the traces of osedax was done using the skyskan1172 system ( skyscan ) at the institut f\u00fcr geowissenschaften , christian - albrechts - universit\u00e4t , kiel , germany . the fossilized bone was scanned with a beam energy of 100 kv , a flux of 100 \u03bca , and a 0 . 5 - mm - thick aluminum filter at a detector resolution of 8 . 7 \u03bcm / pixel using a 180\u00b0 rotation with a step size of 0 . 6\u00b0 . to study cavity morphology details , a second scan under identical beam conditions was performed , using a 360\u00b0 rotation with a step size of 0 . 45\u00b0 at a detector resolution of 8 . 0 \u03bcm .\ncavity morphology in early oligocene rib fragment ( usnm 539939 ) . ( a ) reconstructed image of a ct scan through holes 1 and 3 in fig . 1 a and e . note destroyed trabecular bone just below the left borehole . ( b ) micro - ct\u2013based rendering of a cavity in solid bone ; only a single borehole leads into it , and it is assumed to have been excavated by a single individual of osedax . note the difference between the long and thin vascular canals and the thicker and more irregularly shaped root lobes . ( c ) reconstructed image of a ct scan of the same cavity as in b ; the three small , elliptical holes in the upper half are vascular canals . ( d ) micro - ct\u2013based rendering of another cavity in solid bone . b , borehole on bone ' s surface ; rl , root lobe ; sb , solid bone ; tb , trabecular bone ; vc , vascular canal of the bone .\nread , g . ; fauchald , k . ( ed . ) ( 2018 ) . world polychaeta database .\nrouse , worsaae , johnson , jones & vrijenhoek , 2008 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 588636 on 2018 - 07 - 09\nis commonly known as the\nbone worms\n, although some endearingly call them\nzombie worms\nas well . these marine polychaete worms were discovered only in 2002 in the deepest parts of monterey bay , california . what were they doing ? if you guessed\nparasitizing zombies\n, you ' d be sadly wrong . you should put down your comic book and pick up\n. if you guessed eating bones from dead whales , you ' d be correct ( you should continue reading also in case there are more gratifying questions to come ) . the animals were\nrooted\n( like tiny trees ) into the bones and a large\ntrunk\nof the animal above the bone waving in the current .\nso at this point you ' ve figured out that they ' re not a whale parasite because the whale is seriously ' belly - up ' at this point . so\nis in fact a decomposer . but when rouse took a close look at these worms , he found that they appeared to have no guts whatsoever . so where were they getting their nutrients ? being an expert on marine polychaetes he knew that some deep sea worms had the ability to garner bacteria that derive nutrients from geochemical vents or seeps . as it turns out\nwas doing something very similar . inside the\nroots\nof the animal , which are inside the whale bone , the bacteria are helping to digest the yummy fats left by the whale .\nyou ' d need to turn off the television and pick up a book . if you guessed ,\nliving as a harem inside the body of the female\nyou ' d be correct ! rouse initially thought these microscopic\nbags of sperm\nwere parasitic ( yeah ! ) inside the females , surviving on the nutrients she and her endosymbiont bacteria were producing . however , at closer examination they appear to actually be larvae that never develop feeding structures at all , just living off the yolk for the egg sac . never the less , they are able to provide sperm to fertilize the female ' s eggs !\nok , i know what you ' re thinking ,\nits icky and it not even a parasite , why am i still reading ? \u201d because it ' s fascinating ! survival in a vast ocean where there are relatively few dead whales on which to live is a tricky thing ; reproduction is even trickier . the\ndwarf males\ncan disperse over large distances , because the only part of the life cycle that isn ' t attached to a whale bone is the larva . rouse thinks that the sex is environmentally determined : if larvae land on a bone , they become a female , if they land on a female , they become male . if this species only relied on a male settling next to a female to breed , it would seriously diminish the gene pool .\nis icky and but it ' s not a whale parasite , though the males are sort of parasites of the females . . . so it is completely fascinating !\nhas evolved surprising and strange means to eke out an existence at the bottom of the sea where few organisms ( even zombies ) fear to tread .\nsee also : rouse et al , 2008 . acquisition of dwarf male\nharems\nby recently settled females of\none more thing , the\nmales are sort - of parasites of the females\nno more than are gestating offspring .\ni ' m standing by this . not only is it a cool invert , but i think that these little males , living solely within and living off their mate ' s nutrients and protective body constitutes a parasite enough ( more sexual parasites are coming ) . and , besides , it ' s all about celebrating diversity , especially the fact that we ' re still discovering really wacky and interesting critters every day .\ni don ' t check this blog for a few days and what do we have here ? there ' s certainly no shortage of whale parasites to warrant throwing in the famous\nbone - eater\nhere . while i am somewhat disappointed by this , i suppose if one is to look for legal loopholes , you can always say it ' s about the symbionts that live in that worm ' s rootlets . . . even then they are technically mutualists . . . perhaps we can make a bonus double - parasite day in the future to make up for this - there is absolutely no shortage of fascinating * parasites * . . .\ni still like this . it ' s not as though\nparasite\nis a monophyletic group , after all . and yes , tommy - many of the entries pack enough parasite in their punches ( how ' bout them p ' s ? ) to warrant highlighting a cool worm that can drill into bones and suck out the fat !\ni just came across this site . great blog . parasites interest me . don ' t know why but either gross - out or evolution factor . another evolution - related interest is the deep sea so i thought i ' d point out on some female anglerfish what was thought to be a parasite was actually a male anglerfish . urltoken urltoken\nno they don ' t - to be honest this was the only time on this blog when we featured a creature that wasn ' t actually a parasite ( see the debate above ) . these worms only colonise the bones of carcasses - and carcasses in the deep sea for that matter - so no , they won ' t be present in a human bones .\nno tiago . please refer to the discussion above your comment - it ' s not even really a parasite - see the comment by mark siddall .\nhint : you ' re just looking at the tip of the iceberg . . .\nif you think you or your pets have a parasite , please seek the appropriate care you need from your own doctor or veterinarian .\nwhy parasite of the day ? ( if it ' s not every day . . . )\nthe united nations declared 2010 the international year of biodiversity . in celebration of the enormous diversity of parasites and to highlight their importance , we created this blog , which showcased a species of parasite every day . now that 2010 is over , we will continue to add more parasites from time to time , and write about any newly published research on parasite species that we have posted about yet .\nsee this post from the start of 2011 where we discuss the sheer scale of parasite biodiversity , and this post from the end of 2011 pretty much summarizes the mission of this blog .\ngot parasites ? the american society of parasitologists is interested . we invite you to share with us your observations , ideas and questions about parasites . our members and the journal of parasitology represent a wide range of research interests including ecology , evolution , systematics , immunology , biochemistry and molecular biology . please post any aspect of parasitology you wish to share with us on our facebook group page . please go to our home page at\nbush , albert , gerald esch and jacqueline fernandez . parasitism : the diversity and ecology of animal parasites . cambridge university press .\ncombes , claude . the art of being a parasite . university of chicago press .\ndesowitz , robert . new guinea tapeworms and jewish grandmothers . norton & company .\ndesowitz , robert . the malaria capers : tales of parasites and people . norton and compay .\nmoore , janice . parasites and the behavior of animals . oxford university press .\nzuk , marlene . riddled with life : friendly worms , ladybug sex , and the parasites that make us who we are . mariner books\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nrouse gw 1 , worsaae k , johnson sb , jones wj , vrijenhoek rc .\nscripps institution of oceanography , 9500 gilman drive , la jolla , california 92093 - 0202 , usa . grouse @ urltoken\nresearch support , u . s . gov ' t , non - p . h . s .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\nin order to access this website , please configure your browser to support cookies .\n877 . 705 . 1878 ( toll - free , u . s . & canada ) 773 . 753 . 3347 ( international )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nan adult bonellia viridis female excretes the signaling hormone bonellin ( figure 1 ) to attract larvae ( malard , 2013 ) . bonellin is found only in females , and is also a biocide that kills prey that the worm eats . it\u2019s most important role is to signal that a female is ready to mate . being in the presence of bonellin attracts the undifferentiated larvae to enter a hole in the female\u2019s proboscis .\nfigure 1 . the chemical structure of bonellin , the signaling horomone that regulates the feeding and reproductive habits of bonellin .\nonce inside the proboscis , the larvae travels toward a tube filament in female\u2019s uterus , which has been affectionately called the \u201clittle man room\u201d . ( gauthier , 1983 )\nthe larvae experiences physiological changes to differentiates into a male like developing gonads that allow him to start producing sperm to fertilize the female\u2019s eggs . more research is needed to understand the specific genes that are activated to allow the larvae to transition from an undifferentiated sex to a male . in exchange for fertilizing the female\u2019s eggs , the male receives protection from predators and a steady food source by living inside the female .\nfigure 2 . the male bonellia viridis lives inside the tube lumen of the mature female .\nedited by robert c . vrijenhoek , monterey bay aquarium research institute , moss landing , ca , and accepted by the editorial board march 19 , 2010 ( received for review february 22 , 2010 )\n) , depending on the rate used , but these estimates have not yet been corroborated by fossil evidence .\n) . the symbionts are housed mainly in tissue that forms a \u201croot system\u201d extending into the bone . the action of the roots and associated bacteria results in the destruction of the bone interior . the roots are connected to the main body of the worm that emerges from the bone via a circular hole on the bone surface (\nin the geologic past . here we report oligocene whale bones that show such traces .\nthe scan to survey the rib fragment ( 326 transmission images ) was reconstructed in a 1 , 832 \u00d7 900 matrix of 2 , 029 slices with a resolution of 8 . 7 \u03bcm / voxel using the skyscan software nrecon running on a cluster of three networked pcs . the program uses a modified feldkamp algorithm . the segmentation of bone and boreholes was done with the skyscan software ct analyzer . before the subsequent generation of the 3d models by adaptive rendering , the data sets were downsized to one - third with an isotropic voxel resolution of 26 . 0 \u03bcm in a 610 \u00d7 300 matrix of 677 slices . visualization of the 3d models was done by the skyscan software ctvol . for the study of cavity morphology details , 800 transmission images were reconstructed in a 2 , 088 \u00d7 1 , 136 matrix of 1 , 998 slices . segmentation and rendering were done on volumes of interest with a resolution of 8 . 0 \u03bcm / voxel .\nauthor contributions : s . k . designed research ; s . k . and j . l . g . performed research ; w . - a . k . and g . w . r . analyzed data ; and s . k . , j . l . g . , w . - a . k . , and g . w . r . wrote the paper .\nthis article is a pnas direct submission . r . c . v . is a guest editor invited by the editorial board .\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the pnas web site .\nresearchers used field data from 2012 to 2015 to study mortality and allele frequency changes in the sea star pisaster ochraceus during a mass mortality event in northcentral california , and found that surviving adult and juvenile sea stars experienced 81 % mortality and allele shifts , according to the authors .\na survey of more than 4 , 600 american adults conducted in 1995 - 1996 and in 2011 - 2014 suggests that among individuals of low socioeconomic status , negative affect increased significantly between the two survey waves , whereas life satisfaction and psychological well - being decreased .\na study of cognitive ability in norwegian males born from 1962 to 1991 suggests that environmental factors rather than changing genetic composition of families likely account for most of the change in norwegian population iq .\nthe mathematical tools behind recent gerrymandering cases have brought a modicum of precision into the political arena\u2014but this rigor hasn\u2019t always been enough to spur policy changes .\nthese chicas are freaky . but if you lived on a whale vertebrae and eat through bone , perhaps you\u2019d be a little on the kinky side too , right ?\n, the \u201cbone - devouring\u201d worm is weird . now , i know long time deep sea news readers will be a little used to us talking about odd critters in the ocean , maybe you\u2019ve come to expect it and are no longer shocked . we have even\n. but this is one critter that would infuse the pope with fear and disgust .\n, complete with hooked chaetae ( see photo below ) while supplies last . what is really cool is that all whale bone - eating worms appear to have dwarf males .\n\u201cmature sperm gather anteriorly in the body of the male and a sperm duct runs into the head ( fig . 7c ) , where sperm presumably exit the body\u201d .\nyep , the dwarf males of the bone - eating worms jizz out of their heads . disgusting . its like puking up your sperm or impregnating your wife by spitting on her ovaries .\nfig . 7b : \u201cdifferential interference contrast micrograph of male , 172 \u03bcm showing three of the posterior hooks and an anterior ( putative ) prototroch . early spermatids or spermatogonia are visible anterior to later spermatids . \u201d\n) males fruiting around inside of a female in what is akin to an internal bukkake - fest with the female enthralled in her detestable orgy , covered in the love ooze of her harem . in fact , rouse\n. followed the worms through time and found that the larger , older ladies had a larger harem size . i wonder what the relationship between male size and female age is . are males smaller in younger , smaller females or is there no detectable difference in male size ( or sperm output / spermatozoa size ) across all size ranges / ages of females ?\n\u201cmany \u2026 males fruiting around inside of a female in what is akin to an internal bukkake - fest with the female enthralled in her detestable orgy , covered in the love ooze of her harem . \u201d\n\u201cits like puking up your sperm or impregnating your wife by spitting on her ovaries . \u201d\noh my goodness ! i certainly was not expecting to run across that when i checked the scienceblogs this morning .\nso the males live inside the female on top of everything else ? what is it with deep sea living and parasitic males ? so polyandrous , dead whale bone eating , parasitic males\u2026 . kinkiest species ever !\ner\u2026looking at the micrographs in the paper and roughing the dimensions , this one would be hard for a knitter to pull off keeping them roughly to scale with each other . since he\u2019s such a tiny wimp comparatively\u2026 1 / 60 to 1 / 80th of her size . either the female would be 6m long for a 2cm male or the male would be only a few knots for a 20cm female .\ni can\u2019t help with the knitting but i\u2019d certainly add my $ 20 to kevin\u2019s . please note kevin said \u201canatomically correct\u201d which doesn\u2019t necessarily mean to scale !\nthe views , opinions , and language of kevin zelnio do not reflect the views , opinions , and language of deep - sea news , its sponsors , \u2026 .\ni throw in some money if somebody wants to make me one too . in reality i have always wanted a crouchet giant isopod . any takers ? where is ellie ( urltoken ) at ?\nyes i\u2019m serious . i\u2019ll write you a check or via paypal , $ 20 to put the designs up on the web for anyone to use . we can put it up here at deep sea news if you don\u2019t have a website or blog of your own . i want a female bone - devouring worm with dwarf male . dwarf male must have hooked chaetae and females must have all typical zombie worm appearances . i can envision maybe a flap you can turn that reveals the dwarf male attached to the female\u2019s oviduct ? lol\nnot quite what you\u2019re asking for . . . but here are a couple of marine animal knitters :\nit looks like you haven\u2019t added any widgets to this sidebar yet . to customize this sidebar , go add some !\n\u00a9 2006 - 2018 science 2 . 0 . all rights reserved . scienceblogs is a registered trademark of science 2 . 0 , an education nonprofit operating under section 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) of the internal revenue code . contributions are fully tax - deductible .\nare marine annelids with the ability to exploit bones on the seafloor for nutrition , presumably by living in symbiosis with collagenolytic bacteria ( rouse et al .\nis able to exploit has been the matter of a controversial debate ( glover et al .\n) because it has an important implications for its origin , diversification and dispersal . most\npointed to an eocene origin , coincident with the rise of whales ( rouse et al .\ncan colonize other substrates as well , including spermaceti , soft tissue and blubber of whales ( fujikura et al .\nhad to have the ability to consume substrates other than whale bones , at least early in its evolutionary history . here we document traces of\nin fossil whale teeth and fish bones from oligocene deep - water sediments in western washington state , usa ( fig .\ntraces in oligocene whale and bird bones from this area ( kiel et al .\nfossil locality map . a sekiu river ( uwbm loc . c1660 ) . b murdock creek ( lacmvp loc . 5412 ) . c knappton ( lacmvp loc . 4510 )\ngzg : geoscience museum , university of g\u00f6ttingen , germany . lacm : natural history museum of los angeles county , invertebrate ( ip ) and vertebrate ( vp ) paleontology sections , los angeles , ca , usa . usnm : smithsonian natural history museum , washington , d . c . , usa . uwbm : university of washington , burke museum , seattle , wa , usa .\na jaw fragment including several teeth ( gzg . v . 20408 ) , possibly from a small , toothed mysticete whale , was collected in a concretion on the north shore of the columbia river , pacific county , washington state , usa , in the northern part of the bay between grays point and knappton , in the latest oligocene ( prothero et al .\n) part of the lincoln creek formation . the locality is in section 9 , t9 n , r9 w , knappton quadrangle ( usgs ) , 7 . 5 min series , 1949 ( photo revised 1984 ) , pacific county , washington ; this is lacmvp locality 4510 . the sediments in this area were deposited in water depths between 300 and 900 m based on benthic foraminifera ; estimates based on mollusk and fish assemblages give slightly shallower depths ( moore\n) . bones and teeth were etched from the concretion using dilute ( 5\u201310 % ) formic acid ; two teeth were used for micro - ct analysis .\nfurther whale teeth are from a small , toothed mysticete ( usnm 539938 ) from the late early oligocene part of the pysht formation . we have previously reported\nborings from a rib fragment and other bones of this specimen ( kiel et al .\n) . it was collected on the beach terrace east of murdock creek in clallam county , washington state , usa ( lacmvp loc . 5412 and lacmip loc . 6295 ) , from deep - water sediments that are well - known for their vertebrate fossils , mostly whales ( goedert et al .\n) , citing local and regional problems with the biostratigraphy and magnetostratigraphy , have shown it simply as oligocene .\nanother cetacean specimen ( uwbm 95841 ) in which the teeth show boreholes is from the late oligocene part of the makah formation , from the same area as the fish bones described herein ( uwbm loc . c1660 ) . it consists of a fragment of a nodule with a skull fragment and either a fragment of dentary or maxilla , or both , and at least six teeth . it is possibly part of a toothed mysticete , and the roots of two of the teeth show the same curve and posterior extension as the tooth from usnm 539938 in fig .\nthe x - ray micro - computed tomography scans of the fish bone fragment ( gzg . v . 20407 ) and the two whale teeth ( gzg . v . 20408 ) were done using the skyskan1172 system ( skyscan , belgium ) . the fossil fragments were scanned with a beam energy of 100 kv , a flux of 100 \u03bca , and a copper\u2013aluminum filter at a detector resolution of 7 . 45 \u03bcm per pixel using a 360 - degree rotation with a step size of 0 . 6 degrees . the scan to survey the specimen ( 600 transmission images ) was reconstructed in a 3 , 124 \u00d7 3 , 600 matrix of 3 , 408 slices with a resolution of 7 . 45 \u03bcm per voxel using the skyscan software nrecon running on an intel - based macintosh computer employing the multi - boot utility boot camp . the program nrecon uses a modified feldkamp algorithm . the segmentation of bone / tooth and boreholes was done with the skyscan software ct analyzer . for the study of cavity morphology details of the fish bone , a volume of interest in a 1 , 471 \u00d7 1 , 609 matrix of 1 , 851 slices was chosen . cavities inside the whale tooth were studied in a volume of interest in a 1 , 524 \u00d7 1 , 998 matrix of 2 , 801 slices . visualization of the 3d models was done by the skyscan software ctvol .\nthe jaw fragment from lacmvp loc . 4510 near knappton was heavily corroded before being fossilized ; the associated teeth have their crowns corroded away , and also the roots show strong traces of corrosion ( fig .\na , b ) . boreholes are mostly circular with sharp edges , have diameters up to 0 . 5 mm , although most are smaller , and are concentrated on the upper half of the teeth but are also present on the lower half . micro - ct scans show that the boreholes penetrate the teeth to a depth of about 0 . 5 mm or more before they start to broaden or to branch in various directions ; the maximum length of individual cavities is around 3 mm ( fig .\n) . similar boreholes were seen on the surfaces of three teeth and two tooth roots from a toothed mysticete ( usnm 539938 ) from lacmvp loc . 5412 at murdock creek ( fig .\nc , d ) . as in the sample from knappton , the borings are restricted to the upper half of the teeth , have sharp edges , two reach 0 . 5 mm in diameter , but most are smaller than 0 . 3 mm . a few such boreholes are also seen on the crown , typically in areas that also show traces of physical abrasion ( or wear ) , for example , at tips of the cusps of the teeth . bones , possibly part of a toothed mysticete ( uwbm 95841 ) from the late oligocene part of the makah formation ( uwbm loc . c1660 ) , were strongly corroded before being fossilized , and the teeth that are well exposed because of weathering ( additional preparation has not been done ) all show some borings . in two teeth that are exposed in cross section , the entire crown has been destroyed , with borings down into the root as well .\nthe preserved surface of the micro - ct scanned fish bone fragment shows 28 holes with a diameter > 0 . 1 mm and at least another 15 holes with an often considerably smaller diameter ( fig .\n) . most holes are nearly circular and have sharp edges , and the micro - ct scans show that these boreholes lead through a short tunnel into cavities within the bone ( fig .\n) . the cavities are of various shapes including shallow - radiating ( fig .\n) , branching , or like clusters of grapes , and they are frequently , but not always , interconnected . the figured single cavity reaches a width of 6 . 5 mm and a depth of 2 mm .\nin modern and fossil bones typically show a short tunnel leading from a circular hole in the surface of the bone into a cavity in the interior of the bone ( fujikura et al .\n) ; this characteristic can also be seen in the traces documented here . while\noften colonizes bones in such dense aggregations that their root systems form large cavities inhabited by many individuals , cavities with only a single borehole leading into them ( single cavities ) are thought to reflect the shape of the root system of an individual animal and are thus of particular diagnostic value ( kiel et al .\n, bottom of their fig . 6b ) and to cavities documented from a pliocene whale in italy ( higgs et al .\nborings . however , the shape of the root system can vary significantly within species and appears to be controlled mainly by differences in bone structure ( kiel et al .\n) , makes rock - boring sponges the more likely candidate for these borings . although we did indeed find only interconnected cavities with multiple boreholes leading into them in the bird bones , this does not exclude\n) . such high borehole densities are thus an invalid argument for reinterpretation of the borings seen in the oligocene bird bones as sponge borings . furthermore , mollusk shells collected at the same locality as the bored bird bones ( e . g . , squires and goedert\n\u2019 - type borings . it seems unlikely to us that rock - boring sponges would colonize bird bones but not the co - occurring mollusk shells .\n, however , would certainly show such a behavior . therefore , we maintain our view that the boreholes in the oligocene bird bones were made by\nspecies found at 1 , 000 m depth in monterey canyon colonized a turkey carcass deployed roughly 10 m from an existing whale - fall ( r . c . vrijenhoek , pers . comm . 2012 ) .\nmany of the whale teeth have their crowns corroded away . this may seem strange considering that they are made of hard enamel ( calcium phosphate with little organic matrix ) , whereas the root is covered by a thin layer of softer cementum ( maas\n) and should therefore be easier to attack . however , the enamel is very thin on these teeth , and a specimen where the crown is corroded but not totally destroyed shows that the broken edges are straight or angular , but do not go through any of the few boreholes ( fig .\n) . a similar scenario seems possible for the corroded teeth : boreholes are concentrated just underneath the crown , indicating that the teeth were attacked while still in situ . thus , if some predator had attacked the\nspecimens that had colonized the enclosing jaw bone , the thin crown could have been broken as \u2018collateral damage . \u2019 the common scratch marks in this area ( fig .\nwas reported from the teeth of sperm whales ( suborder odontoceti ) that were sunk off the coast of japan ( fujiwara et al .\n) after a mass stranding event . interestingly , in the vertebrate remains from the oligocene strata in western washington , we have so far not observed\nborings in bones or teeth positively identified as being from odontoceti ( e . g . , barnes and goedert\n, as well as those in bones from oligocene deep - water sediments in western washington previously reported by us ( kiel et al .\n) , exhibit a wide variety of shapes , including radiating and flower - like , grape - like and irregular - branching , and they frequently merge to form large cavities with multiple entry holes . this diversity of shapes does not necessarily imply species diversity , but shows that the morphological diversity seen in the root systems of extant\n) was already developed by the oligocene time . similarly diverse as the shape of the root system of\nis the range of substrates that it was able to colonize by the oligocene : whale bones and teeth , and fish and bird bones . to summarize , fossil\n, and from three different rock units with a stratigraphic age spanning most of the oligocene . this shows that\nwas well established in the northeastern pacific ocean by the oligocene time and supports the view of rouse et al . (\nwe thank gerhard hundertmark and thomas dinter ( g\u00f6ttingen ) for photography , bettina reichenbacher ( munich ) , giorgio carnevale ( torino ) and norbert micklich ( darmstadt ) for help identifying the fish remains , and shannon johnson and bob vrijenhoek ( moss landing ) for access to whale bones in their collection and for stimulating discussions . nick higgs ( london ) and andrzej kaim ( warsaw ) are thanked for their constructive reviews that helped to improve the manuscript . financial support was provided by the deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft through grant ki802 / 6 - 1 to sk .\nthis article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license which permits any use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author ( s ) and the source are credited .\nbarnes , l . g . , and j . l . goedert . 2001 . stratigraphy and paleoecology of oligocene and miocene desmostylian occurrences in western washington state , usa .\nbraby , c . e . , g . w . rouse , s . b . johnson , w . j . jones , and r . c . vrijenhoek . 2007 . bathymetric and temporal variation among\nbone worms and associated megafauna on whale - falls in monterey bay , california .\nfujikura , k . , y . fujiwara , and m . kawato . 2006 . a new species of\nfujiwara , y . , m . kawato , t . yamamoto , t . yamanaka , w . sato - okoshi , c . noda , s . tsuchida , t . komai , s . s . cubelio , t . sasaki , k . jacobsen , k . kubokawa , k . fujikura , t . maruyama , y . furushima , k . okoshi , h . miyake , m . miyazaki , y . nogi , a . yatabe , and t . okutani . 2007 . three - year investigations into sperm whale - fall ecosystems in japan .\nglover , a . g . , k . m . kemp , c . r . smith , and t . g . dahlgren . 2008 . on the role of bone - eating worms in the degradation of marine vertebrate remains .\ngoedert , j . l . , r . l . squires , and l . g . barnes . 1995 . paleoecology of whale - fall habitats from deep - water oligocene rocks , olympic peninsula , washington state .\ngoffredi , s . k . , v . j . orphan , g . w . rouse , l . jahnke , t . embaye , k . turk , r . lee , and r . c . vrijenhoek . 2005 . evolutionary innovation : a bone - eating marine symbiosis .\nhiggs , n . d . , a . g . glover , t . g . dahlgren , and c . t . s . little . 2011 . bone - boring worms : characterizing the morphology , rate , and method of bioerosion by\nhiggs , n . d . , c . t . s . little , a . g . glover , t . g . dahlgren , c . r . smith , and s . dominici . 2012 . evidence of\njones , w . j . , s . b . johnson , g . w . rouse , and r . c . vrijenhoek . 2008 . marine worms ( genus\nkiel , s . 2010 . on the potential generality of depth - related ecologic structure in cold - seep communities : cenozoic and mesozoic examples .\nkiel , s . , and j . l . goedert . 2007 . six new mollusk species associated with biogenic substrates in cenozoic deep - water sediments in washington state , usa .\nkiel , s . , j . l . goedert , w . - a . kahl , and g . w . rouse . 2010 . fossil traces of the bone - eating worm\nkiel , s . , w . - a . kahl , and j . l . goedert . 2011 .\nmaas , m . c . 2007 . the histology of bones and teeth . in\nmoore , e . j . 1984 . molluscan paleontology and biostratigraphy of the lower miocene upper part of the lincoln creek formation in southwestern washington .\nnesbitt , e . a . , r . a . martin , n . p . carroll , and j . grieff . 2010 . reassessment of the zemorrian foraminiferal stage and juanian molluscan stage north of the olympic mountains , washington state and vancouver island .\nokoshi , k . , fujiwara , y . , and the scientific shipboard party , 2011 . r / v kaiyo + rov hyper - dolphin 3000 cruise report , ky11 - 01 leg 2 cruise in sagami bay , jamstec .\nprothero , d . r . , 2001 chronostratigraphic calibrations of the pacific coast cenozoic : a summary . in\n, ed . prothero d . r . , 377\u2013394 . the pacific section sepm .\nprothero , d . r . , j . m . hoffman , and j . l . goedert . 2008 . paleomagnetism of the oligocene and miocene lincoln creek and astoria formations , knappton , washington .\nrouse , g . w . , s . k . goffredi , s . b . johnson , and r . c . vrijenhoek . 2011 . not whale - fall specialists ,\nrouse , g . w . , s . k . goffredi , and r . c . vrijenhoek . 2004 .\nsnavely , p . d . j . , a . r . niem , n . s . macleod , j . e . pearl , and w . w . rau . 1980 . makah formation\u2014a deep - marginal - basin sequence of late eocene and oligocene age in the northwestern olympic peninsula , washington . u . s .\nvrijenhoek , r . c . , p . collins , and c . l . van dover . 2008 . bone - eating marine worms : habitat specialists or generalists ?\nvrijenhoek , r . c . , s . b . johnson , and g . w . rouse . 2009 . a remarkable diversity of boneworms ("]}
{"id": 2406, "summary": [{"text": "the pinhead pearlfish , carapus boraborensis , is a species of slender , ray-finned fish in the family carapidae found in the tropical indo-pacific ocean ; it normally lives inside the body cavity of a sea cucumber such as the pineapple sea cucumber ( thelenota ananas ) or the leopard sea cucumber ( bohadschia argus ) . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "pinhead pearlfish", "paragraphs": ["@ firstdogonmoon the cucumber or pinhead pearlfish ! superb choice . some pearlfish also eat the cucumber ' s gonads . . . strange and stranger !\nkate cranney on twitter :\n@ firstdogonmoon the cucumber or pinhead pearlfish ! superb choice . some pearlfish also eat the cucumber ' s gonads . . . strange and stranger !\na small reddish - brown eel - like fish covered in fine dark speckles . the pinhead pearlfish lives within holothurians , and emerges through the cloacal opening of the sea cucumber at night .\nsome species of this family , however , are possibly parasitic . these live inside sea cucumbers where they will first eat the gonads of their host and then live inside the anal pore . the pinhead pearlfish ( carapus boraborensis ) is suspected to be parasitic whereas the silver pearlfish ( encheliophis homei ) is suspected to be non - parasitic based on stomach content analysis and where they are found within a cucumber when dissected .\n( pacific pearlfish ) is found in the eastern pacific in the body cavity of cockles , pearl shells , and pen shells .\n( bivalve pearlfish ) occurs in marine waters off western australia . it prefers to reside within sea cucumbers and the mantle cavity of bivalves\nparmentier , e . and vandewalle , p . ( 2003 ) morphological adaptations of pearlfish ( carapidae ) to their various habitats . science publisher\nbefore entry , a pearlfish will normally spend several minutes inspecting the entire body length of a cucumber before proceeding to the back end . a knocking or tapping movement is performed near the anus as if\nasking\nto gain entry . reports indicate that pearlfish normally back in tail first but have also been observed to enter head first . more than one pearlfish has been known to live inside a cucumber at any one time as well making for a somewhat cramped living environment . this trait has been observed with the silver pearlfish where sexual pairing has been found within a cucumber .\nthe great pearlfish , conqueror of sea cucumber bums , devourer of reproductive organs , all - around decent critter to anything but a sea cucumber .\n( pearlfish ) is found in the western pacific on reefs . this fish lives in the body cavity of sea cucumbers by day and forages at night\nthis bizarre little fish lives inside the anus of a leopard sea cucumber ( bohadschia argus ) . i was filming a number of different fishes in the shallows , and only took a short clip of this sea cucumber . it wasn ' t until i looked at the footing that i saw the little pearlfish . pearlfish get their name from the members of their family that live inside oysters .\nbut the sea cucumber may not be entirely defenseless against the invasions of the pearlfish . some species have what could be functioning as a built - in gate in their anus \u2014 a handy accessory considering that in addition to the pearlfish , crabs and clams have also been known to make themselves at home inside the poor critters ( the sea cucumber , it seems , like any good host , can never really enjoy itself at its own party ) .\ndepending on what species it is , the pearlfish initiates one of two relationships once inside : a commensal one , in which it simply takes up space without either helping or adversely affecting the sea cucumber , or a rather more parasitic one , in which it chows down on its host\u2019s gonads .\nthe pearlfish finds its reluctant host likely by smell , according to biologist eric parmentier of belgium\u2019s university of li\u00e8ge . it then must choose the right end to enter , using its lateral line \u2014 sensory organs that detect movements in water \u2014 to home in on the outflow from the respiratory tree at the anus .\nsuch pearlfishes come in a range of species , and don\u2019t necessarily limit themselves to invading sea cucumbers . they\u2019ll also work their way into sea stars , and are so named because they\u2019ve been found dead inside oysters , completely coated in mother - of - pearl . beautiful , really , though i reckon the pearlfish would beg to differ .\npearlfish ( family carapidae ) are scaleless , their bodies are somewhat translucent , and they look remotely like eels when they swim outside of their host . they can be found in the atlantic , pacific and indian oceans and have been found down to depths of over 2 , 000 meters . some of the species can reach upwards of 50 cm in length when full grown .\nophidiiformes represent the\ncusk eels\nand some species within the family carapidae ( pearlfish ) live symbiotically within benthic invertebrates . the relationship of the fish to the host is quasi - parasitic ; only in a few cases is the parasitism overt . in most cases , the fish either consumes food that could be used by the host or , in most cases , simply takes up space\nyou\u2019re breathing through your anus , by the way , and when you take a breath , the pearlfish strikes \u2014 squirming up your butt , making itself comfortable in your respiratory organ , and eating your gonads . or , they\u2019ll go up in pairs and have sex in your body cavity . and that\u2019s when you realize that you must have been a really awful human being in a past life . like , the type of person who talks on their phone in a movie theater kind of awful .\nso like a disgraced samurai disemboweling himself , the sea cucumber gifts the world with its intestines , whether the world wants them or not . interestingly , though , the pearlfish doesn\u2019t itself seem to trigger this reaction for reasons that aren\u2019t yet clear . and it\u2019s important to consider that the fish in fact benefits from the evisceration , because by using the sea cucumber as a home , it necessarily adopts its host\u2019s predators . its survival depends on the sea cucumber\u2019s ability to defend itself , which is quite intriguing from an evolutionary perspective .\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\nyou have requested an unaccepted / invalid name entry , the corresponding accepted / valid name is presented here as the result .\neel - like , moderate to shallow body depth ; maxilla free and movable ; cardiform teeth present ; branchiostegal membranes partly or completely united ; swim bladder with thin terminal membrane or bulb but no constriction ; lacking enlarged dentary or premaxillary fangs , dentary diastema , pelvic fins , and swim bladder rocker bone ; pectoral fins small , less than 29 % head length ; body thick , robust and highly pigmented ; 15 - 17 precaudal vertebrae .\nuncommon species . shallows water of coral reefs . lives within holothurians ( e . g . thelenota ananas < \\ i > , bohadschia argus < \\ i > and stichopus chloronotus < \\ i > ) .\nindo - pacific : mauritius to the society islands , north to taiwan and the yaeyama islands ; including mariana and caroline islands .\ngreek , enchelys , = eel + greek , ophis = serpent ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 1 - 150 m ( ref . 34024 ) . tropical\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 30 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4104 )\ndorsal soft rays ( total ) : 31 - 42 ; anal soft rays : 45 - 57 ; vertebrae : 119 - 126 . eel - like , moderate to shallow body depth ; maxilla free and movable ; cardiform teeth present ; branchiostegal membranes partly or completely united ; swim bladder with thin terminal membrane or bulb ; lacking enlarged dentary or premaxillary fangs , dentary diastema , pelvic fins , and swim bladder rocker bone ( ref . 34024 ) . pectoral fins small , less than 29 % head length ; body thick , robust and highly pigmented ( ref . 34024 ) .\nuncommon species ( ref . 34024 ) . lives within holothurians ( e . g . thelenota ananas and bohadschia argus ) ( ref . 1602 ) .\nnielsen , j . g . , d . m . cohen , d . f . markle and c . r . robins , 1999 . ophidiiform fishes of the world ( order ophidiiformes ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of pearlfishes , cusk - eels , brotulas and other ophidiiform fishes known to date . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 18 ) : 178p . rome : fao . ( ref . 34024 )\n) : 23 . 6 - 28 . 9 , mean 27 . 5 ( based on 920 cells ) . phylogenetic diversity index ( ref .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00102 ( 0 . 00046 - 0 . 00225 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 2 . 88 - 3 . 24 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\npicture of carapus boraborensis has been licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial . original source : fishbase permission : some rights reserved\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nproject noah is a tool to explore and document wildlife and a platform to harness the power of citizen scientists everywhere .\nlady elliot island ' s shallow coral lagoon , in the coral sea at the south end of the great barrier reef .\ni know . it lives in a sea cucumber bottom ! from what i ' ve read the sea cucumber is not getting anything out of the\nrelationship\n. nature , weirder than anything we can imagine . the video i put up at youtube is a too cropped . i ' ll see if i can fix that so you can see the fish better .\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 1 - 150 m ( ref . 34024 ) . tropical , preferred ?\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthese fish are unique in that the adults normally live inside invertebrates like clams , sea squirts , and starfish in a commensal relationship ( not harming their host ) . this trait is common throughout the carapidae family .\nthis pairing behavior is not often seen in our reef aquariums but occasionally members of various reefkeeping forums will report that they have one in their tank .\nwatch the video below to see this relationship . if you ' re short on time , skip ahead to the 6 minute mark for the re - entry . . .\nshane has kept saltwater tanks for the last 12 years , is a research scientist , lives in northern indiana , and is a proud advanced aquarist staffer .\ncopyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 by pomacanthus publications , llc , all rights reserved .\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\ni ' m a scientist , artist & science communicator . big advocate of digital storytelling , indigenous nrm & art ! i work w the nature conservancy ' s asia pacific team .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\nwhat is your favourite australian fish @ firstdogonmoon ? ! i ' m curious . . . . and often impressed by your use of cartoonal binomial nomenclature .\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\n) : 23 . 6 - 28 . 9 , mean 27 . 5 ( based on 920 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5078 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00102 ( 0 . 00046 - 0 . 00225 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 2 . 88 - 3 . 24 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 16 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nconceived and designed the experiments : oh fl . performed the experiments : oh . analyzed the data : oh fl . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : fl . wrote the paper : oh fl . obtained permission for animal experiments : fl .\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are properly credited .\ndata on sex - specific differences in sound production , acoustic behaviour and hearing abilities in fishes are rare . representatives of numerous catfish families are known to produce sounds in agonistic contexts ( intraspecific aggression and interspecific disturbance situations ) using their pectoral fins . the present study investigates differences in agonistic behaviour , sound production and hearing abilities in males and females of a callichthyid catfish .\ncurrent data demonstrate that both male and female m . thoracata produce aggressive sounds , but the behavioural contexts and sound characteristics differ between sexes . sexes do not differ in hearing , but it remains to be clarified if this is a general pattern among fish . this is the first study to describe sex - specific differences in agonistic behaviour in fishes .\na wealth of information is available on sound - generating mechanisms , sound production during agonistic and reproductive behaviour , and hearing in fishes ( for reviews see [ 1 \u2013 5 ] ) . despite this knowledge , data on sex - specific differences in sonic organs , sound production and in hearing are very limited [ 6 ] .\na previous study on the callichthyid armoured catfish megalechis thoracata ( formerly hoplosternum thoracatum ) showed that , corresponding to the behavioural contexts , males and females uttered different types of pectoral sounds [ 27 ] . this differs considerably from investigations on the callichthyid c . paleatus , in which males produced trains of sounds during dyadic contests , whereas no stridulation sounds could be recorded from females during social interactions [ 13 , 28 ] .\nacoustic communication is defined as transmission of information by a sender to a receiver with benefits for the receiver or mutual potential benefits for both [ 36 ] . accordingly , a match of spectral contents of sounds and best hearing sensitivity of the intended receiver , and vice versa , should be preferred by natural selection [ 33 , 35 ] . auditory sensitivity was found to match the characteristics of sounds produced in the frequency domain in some species [ 35 , 37 \u2013 41 ] , but mismatch was observed in others [ 33 , 42 ] .\nthe aims of the present study were to investigate sex - specific differences in ( 1 ) sound - generating mechanisms , ( 2 ) agonistic behaviour , ( 3 ) sounds produced and their characteristics , ( 4 ) the auditory abilities , and finally ( 5 ) to determine if the dominant frequencies of sounds correlate with the best hearing sensitivity in the callichthyid catfish m . thoracata .\nexperiments were performed with permission of the austrian federal ministry of science and research ( bundesministerium f\u00fcr wissenschaft und forschung , gz 66 . 006 / 0023 - ii / 10b / 2008 ) . the permission covered all experimental procedures . no animal was sacrificed during this study . according to the austrian law on experiments in animals ( tierversuchsgesetz 1989 / 2005 ) an institutional animal care and use committee ( or ethics committee ) was not mandatory and did not exist at the university of vienna when experiments were carried out .\nseventeen specimens of m . thoracata were used for the study : seven subadult males ( 93\u2013104 mm total length , tl , 12 . 2\u201319 . 1 g body mass ) , nine subadult females ( 84\u2013102 mm , 9 . 8\u201317 . 1 g ) and one adult male ( 126 mm , 32 . 9 g ) . fish were obtained from a local pet shop and a fish farmer . we assume that 16 of the 17 fish were subadult because they were one year old during our experiments and mayr [ 27 ] stated that first reproductive behaviour in this species is shown at the age of two years . moreover , we observed no reproductive behaviour in the present study when sexes were kept together in community tanks . this species is a bottom - dwelling fish from slowly flowing rivers , pools , drainage ditches and swampy areas in south america [ 43 ] .\nthe sex of the fish was determined by inspecting the genital papillae , the distance between coracoids and the size of pectoral fins . males possess genital papillae , a narrower gap between coracoids and longer , thicker and orange pectoral spines [ 43 ] . due to the individually spotted body pattern , the subjects could be easily distinguished from each other .\nfish were kept in three community tanks ( 110 x 30 x 55 cm ) whose bottom was covered with fine sand and which were similarly equipped with half flower pots , tubes , plants and roots as shelters . the tank of the adult male measured 90 x 30 x 30 cm . four males and four females and three males and five females , respectively , were kept together . a 12 : 12 hour light : dark cycle was provided and the water temperature was kept at 25 \u00b1 1\u00b0c . the aquaria were filtered by external filters in order to reduce noise . fish were fed frozen chironomid larvae and occasionally artificial food ( flakes and tablets ) five to six times a week .\nafter behaviour and sound recordings , body mass , total length and length of the pectoral spine of each contestant were measured . the pectoral spine length ( psl ) was measured from the juncture of the spine with the outer body surface to its tip using digital callipers . the relative pectoral spine length ( rpsl ) was calculated using the formula rpsl = psl / tl , where tl is the total length .\nall agonistic experiments were performed from august to november 2011 . fish were kept for three months in holding tanks before the start of behavioural experiments . the video and sound recordings were carried out in a walk - in soundproof room , which was constructed as a faraday cage . the experiments were conducted in a test tank ( 70 x 40 x 35 cm ) . the resonant frequency of the tank is 3042 hz according to akamatsu et al . [ 44 ] . the water temperature was maintained at 25 \u00b1 1\u00b0c . the test tank was placed on a table that rested on a vibration - isolated concrete plate .\nthe behaviour and acoustic signals were recorded using a hydrophone ( br\u00fcel & kjaer 8101 , sensitivity \u2212184 db re 1 v \u03bcpa \u22121 ) , which was connected to a power supply ( br\u00fcel & kjaer 2804 ) and placed in the centre of the aquarium close to the back wall . both the hydrophone and video camera ( sony ccd - vx1e ) were connected to a hifi s - vhs video cassette recorder ( jvc hr - s4700 eg / e ) . hifi audio and s - video signals were stored simultaneously on s - vhs hifi videotapes ( fujifilm super vhs pro se - 240 ) . sound pressure levels ( rms fast time weighting , linear frequency weighting ) were measured in parallel with the sound recordings using a sound level meter ( br\u00fcel & kjaer mediator 2238 ) connected to the power supply . the observer was always hidden behind a curtain during recordings . external filters of the test tank were switched off before the start of experiments .\nas the intention of this study was to record acoustic displays during agonistic behaviour dyadic interactions were not allowed to proceed to a phase , where biting might have occurred . no biting or injuries were observed in any of the experiments .\neach sound was digitized using a sampling rate of 11 khz ( 16 bit resolution ) and analysed using cool edit 2000 ( syntrillium software corporation , phoenix , usa ) and st x soundtools 3 . 7 . 8 . ( institute of sound research at the austrian academy of sciences , vienna ) . only sounds with a good signal - to - noise ratio were analysed . the following acoustic variables were measured from sounds recorded during dyadic contests :\nsound duration ( sd ) : the total length between the onset and the end of a single call or a series of sounds . dominant frequency ( df ) : the frequency with the highest amplitude within a power spectrum . the dominant frequency of sounds was determined from cepstrum - smoothed power spectra . harmonic sounds are characterized by several regularly spaced peaks , in which the frequencies of the harmonic peaks are multiples of that of the fundamental frequency . the harmonic content of a sound was controlled by overlaying a harmonic grid .\nsound pressure level ( spl ) : measured in db re 1\u03bcpa ( rms fast , linear weighting ) . in order to compensate the varying distances of vocalizing fish to the hydrophone , a correction factor was calculated . therefore , the test tank was divided into 21 sectors ( each measuring 10 x 10 cm ) by using a grid applied on the front glass of the aquarium . the sector in which a fish emitted sounds was noted . because sounds of m . thoracata were of low energy , pink noise was chosen for calculating a correction factor . short tone bursts were played back at a constant spl from a small loudspeaker ( fuji 7g06 , 8 ohm , 0 . 8 w ) , in each of the 21 sectors , and the spls were noted . the relative difference of the spl measured in the sector nearest to the hydrophone ( 3 cm away ) and the other sectors were calculated and added to the spl values of fish sounds measured before . thus , a distance - independent absolute spl value could be determined for each sound emission .\nthe aim of the behavioural analyses was to describe all behavioural patterns ( elements ) occurring during the male - male and female - female agonistic contests . all behavioural patterns shown during a total of 24 agonistic encounters were classified according to the description presented in\n. the number of acoustic signals and visual displays such as attack , circling and head nodding was counted for each experiment and individual .\ndescription of the behavioural repertoire shown during dyadic male - male and female - female interactions of m . thoracata .\nfin displaying or approaching another fish , stopping suddenly before forcefully hitting the other with its tail .\ntwo females swam in an anti - parallel ( head - to - tail ) orientation .\ntwo males moved towards each other , in a parallel , anti - parallel position or various angles spreading all their fins . additionally , at high intensities the caudal part of the body was erected in a distinct angle .\ncontinued escape reaction in response to a chase . fish swam rapidly away from the aggressor .\nfemales showed serial vertical up and down movements of their heads in different positions to each other .\nmales moved their heads rapidly away and towards the opponent while bending their body c - like .\none female following the opponent by a snake - like movement on the bottom .\ndefinitions followed mayr [ 27 ] except for fin beating , jerks and sneaking . m\u2014males , f\u2014females .\nauditory sensitivity was determined using the non - invasive auditory evoked potential ( aep ) recording technique , originally reported by kenyon et al . [ 45 ] and modified by wysocki and ladich [ 46 \u2013 47 ] .\nfor each test condition , the stimuli were presented at opposite polarities ( 180\u00b0 phase shifted ) and the corresponding aeps were averaged in order to eliminate stimulus artefacts . at spls close to the threshold , this procedure was performed at least twice and the aep traces were overlaid to examine if they were repeatable . the spl values of tone burst stimuli were reduced in 4 db steps . by overlaying replicate traces , the lowest spl in which an identifiable and repeatable aep trace could be obtained was regarded as threshold . the method developed by kenyon et al . [ 45 ] gives auditory thresholds very similar to behavioural thresholds ( for discussion see [ 4 , 48 ] ) .\nadditionally , a one - way analysis of variance ( anova ) was performed , followed by a bonferroni post - hoc test , in order to determine differences in sound characteristics of each aggressive sound type . differences in relative pectoral spine length between sexes were tested using a paired t - test . a total of 244 sounds were analysed .\nmean hearing thresholds were determined for both sexes at each frequency . thresholds obtained for males ( n = 6 ) and females ( n = 6 ) were compared by a two - way anova using a general linear model , where one factor was sex and the other was frequency . the sex factor alone should reveal differences in sensitivity between sexes and , combined with the frequency factor , if different tendencies exist at different frequencies of the audiograms .\nall statistical tests were conducted using pasw 18 . 0 ( spss inc . , chicago , usa ) . the significance level was set at p \u2264 0 . 05 .\nproduced sounds by vibrating pectoral fins . the first pectoral fin rays were orange in males in contrast to females . pectoral spines were longer and thicker in males . the relative length of pectoral spines ( pectoral spine length / total length ) was on overage 1 . 7 - fold higher in males than females ( t - test , t = 44 . 27 , df = 15 , p \u2264 0 . 01 ) (\ndifferent letters indicate statistically significant differences between sexes . psl\u2014total length of pectoral spine , tl\u2014total fish length .\naggressive interactions usually started after removal of the separating sheet and as soon as opponents detected each other visually . the agonistic behavioural sequences were interrupted by air gulping , digging , resting close to each other or withdrawal into the shelter . for the description of behavioural patterns observed during thirteen male - male and eleven female - female encounters see\ngenerally , one or both males started to approach each other and erected their fins ( threatening fin display ) . occasionally , this posture was followed by fin beating , which could last for several seconds . head jerking followed and was accompanied by the production of two sound types , namely barks or thumps , indicating high levels of aggression . jerking could occur without sound emission , in which case maximally three jerks were observed .\nin 12 out of 13 encounters ( 92 % ) , barks and thumps were produced during aggressive interactions . furthermore , in 10 out of 13 contests ( 78 % ) , sound emission occurred in both contestants . barks were emitted at various distances from a few centimetres up to a maximum of 40 cm away from the opponent . before abduction of pectoral fins , a single adduction was observed . barks were often produced during approaching and swimming (\n) . the individual producing a sound mostly swam away and then again approached the conspecific . the latter could react by fin displays or moving away from the other .\nthe illustration shows the right male approaching the opponent , shortly before uttering a bark .\nin contrast to barks , thumps occurred only in direct proximity ( within one body length ) to the opponent . typically , opponents showed fin displays in a parallel , anti - parallel position or at various angles to each other (\n) , or swam close and emitted thumps . typically , thumps were produced in an oblique position towards the opponent . opponents responded by producing a thump , by attacking or by fleeing .\nthis screen shot shows the typically threatening fin display with fins spread and the caudal part of the right male erected in a distinct angle . the right fish produced a thump in this oblique anti - parallel position relative to the conspecific .\nduring all experiments , we counted a total of 40 attacks , often preceded by fin display and fin beating . attacks were mainly performed by sound producers , occasionally accompanied by thumps . besides these behavioural elements , chasing was observed . during chasing , barks were emitted by the pursuer .\nin five out of seven experiments , barks were even emitted after separating both fishes by the plastic sheet , i . e . after they lost visual contact . barks were recorded mainly in males , which produced numerous sounds during the dyadic contests . just in one case did both opponents emit barks . after separation by the plastic sheet , males generated barks during swimming or when approaching the separating sheet .\n) close to the bottom . this sneaking behaviour toward the opponent was occasionally accompanied by the emission of crackles . sounds were recorded in all female - female experiments . in four out of eleven contests , both females vocalized during agonistic interactions . sounds were produced close to the opponent ( within one to two body lengths ) (\n) and were generated by rapid pectoral fin movements . shortly before uttering a crackle , the vocalizing fish may strike towards the opponent . crackles were most frequently emitted when one female chased the other . swimming after each other or pursuing could continue into circling behaviour (\n) , which lasted up to 3 s . sounds were uttered before , during or at the end of circling .\nhead nodding was either performed by one female or simultaneously by both . two to 18 head nods per individual were observed within a series . we counted a total of 736 head nods during eleven agonistic interactions , and the vocalizing female exhibited a higher rate . this visual threatening display could be elicited by the movement of one fish , when swimming by or when above the other , before and after circling , and when resting close to each other . furthermore , interactions were characterized by a high rate of body contacts such as touching with barbels . attacks occurred only four times : three were accompanied by crackles and one was exhibited shortly after head nodding .\nin contrast to male - male encounters , in which both males vocalized , crackles were mainly produced by one female , seldom by both . female - female contests were characterized by circling behaviour and the lack of jerks . head nodding could not be observed in any male - male interaction . while males beat their fins during fin displays , females did it during circling . females undulated only their dorsal and caudal fins , whereas in males all fins were involved . furthermore , females attacked less frequently than males , indicating a lower level of aggressivity .\nthree types of sounds were recorded during dyadic encounters . males produced barks and thumps , and females emitted crackles . barks and thumps were recorded in seven out of eight males and crackles in eight out of nine females . the fish produced 376 barks , 66 thumps and 739 crackles during 24 interactions . acoustic signals were not audible to human listeners . video analysis revealed that barks were produced during abduction of the pectoral fin . we could not unequivocally determine the movement of the pectoral fins ( adduction and / or abduction ) during the emission of thumps and crackles .\nbarks were low - frequency harmonic sounds showing frequency modulation ; they only occurred singly . they consisted of one to three parts and were therefore classified as being mono - , bi - or tripartite (\n) . sound duration ranged from 159 to 317 ms , and the spl ranged from 101 . 2 to 125 db re 1 \u03bcpa at a distance of 3 cm . the main energies were found in the first , second or third harmonic . the dominant frequency of bipartite barks varied in the first part from 110 to 600 hz , and in the second from 170 to 730 hz .\nthe spectrum shows three harmonics ( 1st , 2nd , 3rd ) with the highest energy found in the second harmonic . sampling rate 22 khz . hanning filter , overlap 75 % , ( a ) filter bandwidth 20 hz , ( b ) filter bandwidth 1 hz , number of coefficients 350 .\nthe spectrum reveals three harmonics ( 1st , 2nd , 3rd ) within the second sound part ( white arrow ) with the highest energy found in the second harmonic . the oscillogram shows lower amplitude in the first part ( light blue arrow ) . sampling rate 11 khz . hanning filter , overlap 75 % , ( a ) filter bandwidth 20 hz , ( b ) filter bandwidth 1 hz , number of coefficients 170 .\nthumps were produced singly and showed no harmonic structure . they were mostly mono - , seldom bipartite (\n) . bipartite thumps were recorded only in the one examined adult subject . sound duration ranged from 116 to 446 ms and the spl ranged from 107 . 07 to 137 . 5 db re 1 \u03bcpa . the dominant frequency varied from 70 to 210 hz .\nthe dominant frequency is indicated in ( b ) . sampling rate 11 khz . hanning filter , overlap 75 % , ( a ) filter bandwidth 20 hz , ( b ) filter bandwidth 1 hz , number of coefficients 80 .\nfemale crackles differed from male sounds in their complex structure and frequency content . they were of higher frequency and always consisted of series of sound elements (\n) . crackles were built up mostly by four sound elements ( range : 2\u20138 elements ) . these series were characterized by a main element featuring the highest peak - to - peak - amplitude and several elements of lower amplitude before and after the main element (\n) . elements could be separated by intervals from each other and could consist of a substructure such as a train of pulses ( = one element ) .\nthe oscillogram shows five sound elements . the white arrow indicates the main element , followed by a train of pulses . the dominant frequency is indicated in the cepstrum - smoothed power spectrum in ( b ) . sampling rate 11 khz . hanning filter , overlap 75 % , ( a ) filter bandwidth 100 hz , ( b ) filter bandwidth 1 hz , number of coefficients 20 .\nthe duration of crackles ranged from 81 to 394 ms . single elements ( including train of pulses ) ranged from 5 . 6 up to 192 . 9 ms and main elements varied from 15 . 3 to 57 . 6 ms in duration . spls were between 101 . 5 and 128 . 1 db re 1 \u03bcpa . dominant frequencies of crackles varied from 370 to 830 hz .\n) . thumps were significantly louder than barks and crackles , but no such difference was found between barks and crackles ( bonferroni post - hoc test ) . furthermore , the dominant frequencies varied between sound types ( one - way anova : f\n) . mean dominant frequencies of crackles were much higher than of other sound types . the first part of barks and thumps did not differ significantly in dominant frequency ( bonferroni post - hoc test ) .\nmean ( + se ) sound duration of male barks and thumps ( n = 7 ) and of female crackles ( n = 8 ) .\nmean ( + se ) sound pressure level of male barks and thumps ( n = 7 ) and of female crackles ( n = 8 ) .\nmean ( + se ) dominant frequency of male barks and thumps ( n = 7 ) and of female crackles ( n = 8 ) .\nsound characteristics of male barks and thumps and female crackles were significantly correlated to morphological measures when males and females were pooled . duration of male thumps and female crackles combined increased with mean total length and pectoral spine length (\ncorrelations between mean sound characteristics ( sound duration , dominant frequency , sound pressure level ) of male and female sound types and morphological variables ( total length , pectoral spine length , relative pectoral spine length ) .\nn = 15 . b\u2014bark , bp\u2014bark part , c\u2014crackles , t\u2014thumps . pearson\u2019s correlation coefficients are given . asterisks indicate statistically significant differences .\n) . individuals with larger pectoral spines emitted sounds of lower frequency . mean dominant frequencies of the first part of barks ( or the second part of barks ) , or of thumps and females crackles combined , were negatively correlated to pectoral spine lengths (\nthus , mean sound characteristics were always correlated to relative pectoral spine lengths , except for spls of male barks . in contrast , only sound duration and spls of thumps and crackles combined were correlated to total length (\nall fish detected tone bursts between 100 hz and 4 khz . hearing curves of both sexes were u - shaped with best auditory sensitivities between 0 . 2 and 1 khz (\n) . hearing abilities decreased rapidly above 1 khz . thresholds increased by 41 db between 1 and 4 khz in males and females . overall , hearing thresholds did not differ between sexes ( two - way anova : f\n= 1 . 2 , n . s . ) . females had better hearing between 0 . 1 and 1 khz ( two - way anova : f\n= 0 . 007 , n . s . ) . no significant interaction was found between sex and frequency . thus , the difference in auditory sensitivity between 0 . 1 and 1 khz was not frequency - dependent .\nmean ( \u00b1 se ) auditory sensitivities of male ( n = 6 ) and female ( n = 6 ) m . thoracata .\n) . the greatest energy of sounds was concentrated from 180 to 620 hz in male barks , from 100 to 540 hz in male thumps and from 470 to 750 hz in female crackles . main energies of male and female sounds were much lower than the resonant frequency of the test tank ( see energy peak at 3 khz in\n( solid lines ) in relation to spectral characteristics of sounds ( dotted lines ) .\npower spectra of sounds were averaged of sounds of all individuals and are shown in relative amplitude values ( right y - axis ) .\nvideo analysis revealed that both sexes of m . thoracata produced sounds during rapid pectoral fin movements . therefore , we assume that sound production is based on a stridulatory mechanism , well known in numerous catfish families [ 50 ] . while we observed that male barks were produced during abduction of pectoral fins , the movement of pectoral spines during generation of thumps and crackles remains unclear due to faster movements of fins and technical limitations of a standard video recording system . pruzsinszky and ladich [ 13 ] mentioned that c . paleatus produced sounds by abducting the pectoral fins alternately . similarly , heyd and pfeiffer [ 51 ] reported that in the callichthyid catfish d . urostriatum sounds were produced during abduction , and all members of the family callichthyidae probably generate sounds during abduction of pectoral fins . we assume that barks and thumps are generated by a single pectoral fin abduction and crackles by several fin abductions depending on the number of elements within a crackle sound .\nthe current study revealed that agonistic behaviour of male and female m . thoracata differed from each other . male agonistic behaviour mainly consisted of fin displays and jerks , whereas female behaviour was characterized by circling , head nodding , sneaking and striking . agonistic sounds were produced by males and females in different behavioural contexts . while males uttered thumps during threatening displays and barks mostly during approaching and swimming , females , in contrast , emitted crackles mainly during chasing behaviour . threatening displays in males consisted of a sequence of visual displays shown by both opponents , during which both may produce sounds . in contrast , chasing behaviour in females was typically shown in one individual , which vocalized when following or moving toward the other fish .\nbased on the present data , male m . thoracata seem to be more aggressive than females as revealed by the much higher number of attacks ( 40 in males versus four in females ) observed during a similar number of same - sex contests . the vocalizing behaviour of m . thoracata differs markedly from the closely related callichthyine subfamily member c . paleatus , in which only males produced trains of sounds during courtship and in which aggressive behaviour was absent during dyadic contests [ 13 ] . kaatz and lobel [ 56 ] mentioned that male corydoras spp . emitted agonistic chase sound only before , during and after spawning . this difference between the genera corydoras and megalechis is primarily due to their different mating systems . male megalechis are territorial and defend nest sites , while male corydoras do not build nests or show parental care .\nthe observation that fin beating and sound production occurred at short distances to the opponent indicates that water movement may be detected by the lateral line . this may constitute a third communication channel besides the visual and acoustic ones . such hydrodynamic cues are potentially involved in all short - distance agonistic and reproductive activities in fishes but seldom unequivocally proven . satou et al . [ 58 ] showed that visual and vibrational ( lateral line detected ) stimuli elicit spawning behaviour in male red salmon oncorhynchus nerka .\nour study revealed three different agonistic sound types ( two in males , one in females ) based on physical characteristics of sounds . mean sound duration in m . thoracata differed between sexes , with female crackles ( 167 ms ) being shorter than both male barks ( 219 ms ) and thumps ( 240 ms ) . mean spls of thumps ( 123 db ) were higher than those of barks ( 112 db ) and crackles ( 115 db ) . mean dominant frequency of female crackles ( 562 hz ) was much higher than that of male sounds ( 132\u2013403 hz ) . in contrast , mayr [ 27 ] wrote that aggressive signals ( = thumps ) were shorter than territorial sounds ( = barks ) . nonetheless , there is a lack of information about whether male sounds differ from female sounds because the sound characteristics have not been compared statistically between sexes . differences between the current and the prior study by mayr [ 27 ] may reflect that the present study investigated subadult fish and the former only adult reproductive fish . our fish were most likely immature because we observed no reproductive behaviour in community tanks .\n) . all show best sensitivity between 0 . 3 and 1 khz and a step decrease in sensitivity above 1 khz [\n] showed that smaller swimbladders and fewer weberian ossicles results in a decrease in sensitivity above 1 kilohertz .\naep - audiograms of all representatives of the family callichthyidae investigated in the recent and in prior studies .\nmegalechis thoracata ( current study , females and males pooled ) , corydoras paleatus [ 33 ] , corydoras sodalis and dianema urostriatum [ 52 ] .\nin summary , this is the first investigation showing sex - specific differences in agonistic behaviour , sound production , sound characteristics and hearing abilities using same - sex agonistic contests . the data reveal clear differences in agonistic behaviour , which have not been shown in any fish species before . this study furthermore indicates that differences in sound characteristics between sexes seem to be due to the dimorphism in the pectoral sonic organs in megalechis .\nwe want to thank tanja schulz - mirbach , walter lechner , jessica jaxion - harm , angelika zebedin , isabelle maiditsch and jasmin oswald for their help with sound level measurements , isabelle maiditsch for her advice regarding analysis of female sounds and hearing measurements , and sonja windhager for her introduction to camstudio . finally , we want to thanks michael stachowitsch for scientific english proofreading and a reviewer for its helpful comments .\nthis article was supported by the open access publishing fund of the university of vienna . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\ndata will be uploaded in our university\u2019s repository as soon as the paper has been accepted .\namorim mcp . diversity in sound production in fish in : ladich f , collin sp , moller p , kapoor bg , editors .\nladich f , fine ml . sound - generating mechanisms in fishes : a unique diversity in vertebrates in : ladich f , collin sp , moller p , kapoor bg , editors .\nladich f , myrberg aa . agonistic behaviour and acoustic communication in : ladich f , collin sp , moller p , kapoor bg , editors .\nmyrberg aa , lugli m . reproductive behavior and acoustical interactions in : ladich f , collin sp , moller p , kapoor bg , editors .\nladich f . acoustic signaling in female fish in : ladich f , editor .\nvariation with fish length , sex , stage of sexual maturity , and season in the appearance and volume of the drumming muscle of the swim - bladder in the haddock , melanogrammus aeglefinus ( l . )\nstudies on the underwater sound . 7 . underwater calls of the japanese drum fishes ( sciaenidae )\nhill gl , fine hl , musick ja . ontogeny of the sexually dimorphic sonic muscle in three sciaenid species . copeia . 1987 ; 708\u2013713 .\nueng j - p , huang b - q , mok h - k .\nk\u00e9ver l , boyle ks , dragi\u010devi\u0107 b , dul\u010di\u0107 j , casadevall m , parmentier e .\nsound production and associated behavior in a cichlid fish , cichlasoma centrarchus . ii breeding pairs\nsound production by the river bullhead cottus gobio l . ( cottidae , teleostei )\nsimoes jm , duarte ig , fonseca pj , turner gf , amorim mc .\noliveira tpr , ladich f , abed - navandi d , souto as , rosa il .\nmayr m . verhaltensbeobachtungen an hoplosternum thoracatum , cuvier & valenciennes ( 1840 ) , mit besonderer ber\u00fccksichtigung des lautverhaltens . doctoral thesis , university of vienna . 1987 .\nladich f , popper an . parallel evolution in fish hearing organs in : manley g , fay rr , popper an , editors .\nladich f . diversity in hearing in fishes : ecoacoustical , communicative , and developmental constraints in : koeppl c , manley g . a . , popper a . n . , fay r . r . , editors .\n. new york : springer science + business media ; 2014 . pp 289\u2013321 .\nfine ml . mismatch between sound production and hearing in the oyster toadfish in : tavolga wn , popper an , fay rr , editors .\n. neptune city , nj : t . f . h . publications ; 1998 .\nfine ml , ladich f . sound production , spine locking and related adaptations in : kapoor bg , arratia g , chardon m , diogo r , editors .\nenfield , nh : science publishers , inc ; 2003 . pp . 249\u2013290 ."]}
{"id": 2419, "summary": [{"text": "marrus orthocanna is a species of pelagic siphonophore , a colonial animal composed of a complex arrangement of zooids , some of which are polyps and some medusae .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "it lives in the arctic and other cold , deep waters , swimming independently in mid-ocean . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "marrus orthocanna", "paragraphs": ["maciej ma\u0144ko marked\nfile : marrus orthocanna . jpg\nas trusted on the\nmarrus orthocanna\npage .\nmaciej ma\u0144ko marked\nfile : marrus orthocanna crop . jpg\nas trusted on the\nmarrus orthocanna\npage .\nkatja schulz selected\nmarrus orthocanna\nto show in overview on\nmarrus orthocanna ( kramp , 1942 )\n.\nmarrus orthocanna - kramp , 1942 arctic ocean diversity . retrieved 2011 - 10 - 01 .\nby your side\nby marrus orthocanna is world class music medicine in alternative rock . marrus orthocanna is a rock band hailing from bogot\u00e1 , colombia experimenting with a large spectrum of sounds from 90 ' s alternative and grunge , to psychedelic and progressive rock . marrus orthocanna have just recently put out it ' s first self title ep and are currently working on a full length album packed with aggressive guitar solos and smooth vocal melodies . marrus orthocanna - facebook urltoken buy music ! marrus orthocanna - bandcamp urltoken\nmaggie whitson set\nfile : marrus orthocanna . jpg\nas an exemplar on\nsiphonophorae\n.\nfrom left ; caulophryne jordani fanfin seadevil , marrus orthocanna and grimpoteuthis , or\ndumbo octopus .\nmarrus orthocanna , a deep sea siphonophore . the combined digestive and circulatory system is red ; all other parts are transparent .\nnathan wilson marked\nbiology\nas untrusted on the\nmarrus orthocanna ( kramp , 1942 )\npage . reasons to untrust : incorrect / misleading\nmarrus orthocanna , a deep sea siphonophore . the combined digestive and circulatory system is red ; all other parts are transparent . | pinterest | deep sea , circ\u2026\nandersen , o . g . n . , 1981 . redescription of marrus orthocanna ( kramp , 1942 ) ( cnidaria , siphonophora ) . steenstrupia 7 : 293 - 307\na physonect siphonophore , marrus orthocanna , photographed during the national oceanic and atmospheric administration\u2019s artic \u201chidden ocean\u201d expedition in support of the census of marine life . photograph courtesy kevin raskoff .\nmarrus orthocanna is one of several deep sea siphonophores that have the same common name , pelagic siphonophore . deep sea ocean explorers in manned submersibles have viewed this species at depths as deep as 2000 meters ( 6600 feet ) .\npelagic siphinophores such as m . orthocanna are often called\nsuperorganisms\n. | courtesy of noaa national marine fisheries\nm . orthocanna \u2019s pneumatophore is red ; nectophores transparent with bright red canals ; rest of body structures are transparent with some red / orange coloration in in different hues on different parts of the body .\nin spite of having a fragile gelatinous body , m . orthocanna has adapted to its harsh environment\u2019s cold , extreme pressure and lack of food . this voracious predator capitalizes on its agile swimming ability and curtain of tentacles spreading widely to capture prey .\nthe most famous siphonophore is the portuguese man - o - war , which has ruined many innocent dips in the ocean . the balloon - like sail and the tentacles are familiar to us , and makes the man - o - war look familiar , like a jellyfish . that\u2019s not the form all siphonophores take . marrus orthocanna swims too deep to get a common name and looks , with its string of blossom - like bells on a single stem , like a piece of seaweed . apolemia uvaria looks like someone dropped a feather boa in the ocean . and then there\u2019s this :\ndunn , c . w . ; pugh , p . r . ; haddock , s . h . d . ( 2005 ) . marrus claudanielis , a new species of deep - sea physonect siphonophore ( siphonophora , physonectae ) . < em > bulletin of marine science . < / em > 76 ( 3 ) : 699 - 714 .\nlike other siphonophores m . orthocanna is a colony of specialized individuals known as zooids that have different functions such as locomotion , capturing prey , waste removal , and reproduction . no matter what the function , all the zooids attached to the stem of a siphonophore are descended from one fertilized egg so all are genetically identical .\nm . orthocanna moves forward intermittently . it pauses to put out its \u201cfishing\u201d curtain of tentacles in front of the body stem of the siphonophore to ensnare passing prey . each polyp has a single tentacle that is 30 to 50 cm ( 11 . 8 to 20 in ) long . on contact stinging cells ( nematocysts ) shoot \u201charpoons\u201d of toxin into the victim that paralyze and even kill it . the meal is then transferred to the canals that carry it to the entire colony .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncairns , stephen d . , dale r . calder , anita brinckmann - voss , clovis b . castro , daphne g . fautin , . . .\nfull author list : cairns , stephen d . , dale r . calder , anita brinckmann - voss , clovis b . castro , daphne g . fautin , philip r . pugh , claudia e . mills , walter c . jaap , mary n . arai , stephen h . d . haddock , and dennis m . opresko\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nan agalma okeni taken out of the water so that it is possible to see all the gelatinous parts .\nwhile one species of siphonophore lives at the surface of the ocean ( the familiar portuguese man o ' war , physalia physalis ) , and members of another group ( the rhodaliids ) tethered themselves to the bottom with their tentacles , the vast majority of siphonophores are active swimmers and live in the water column of the open ocean . a few hardy species are sometimes found near the shore , but these are the exception .\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsite design : russ hopcroft . all pictures on this website can be used for educational purposes with reference to this site , except for the posted presentations\narctic ocean , northwest pacific ocean , bering sea , sea of okhotsk , north atlantic ocean , and mediterranean sea .\n1 . 8 - 2 m ( 6 - 7 ft ) in length early in development two growth zones form on the young stem where the stem will elongate and new zooids form . nectaphores form at the zone near the pneumatophore . the second growth zone is just below the oldest nectaphore . the zooids of the siphosome that carry out functions other than locomotion are formed here . as the stem elongates , new growth in both zones is carried downward .\nall siphonophores are predatory carnivores . this species is believed to feed on copepods , and other small crustaceans such as decapods , krill , and mysids . small fish may also be eaten .\nlike most siphonophores , the pelagic siphonophore is an active swimmer . when its bell - shaped nectphoes contract , water is expelled causing the colony to move . the contractions of the medusa are coordinated which enables the animal to swim forwards , sideward , or backwards .\npelagic siphonophores have not been evaluated for conservation status . deep sea dwellers , populations could be impacted by increasing pressures to mine the deep sea and to harvest marine life for seafood by deep sea trawling . siphonophores could be caught as bycatch .\nduring world war ii , submarine operators found that they could hide the submarine from the enemy\u2019s sonar under large groups of siphonophores . the sonar waves were scattered by the soft bodies if the siphonophores .\n, a siphonophore found at depths of 200 to 800 metres ( 660 to 2 , 600 ft ) in cold , arctic waters . ah , yes . . . a siphonophore . get your dictionary of alien words out .\nsiphonophores are colonial relatives of jellyfish and sea anemones . each member of the colony is called a zooid , and all are clones of the founding protozooid .\nthis protozooid becomes an elongated polyp , like a really long , thin sea anemone . it reaches up to 10 cm ( 4 in ) long , and has a mouth at the bottom and a gas - filled pneumatophore at the top . just like many other siphonophores , such as the\n, the pneumatophore ensures the colony doesn ' t sink to the sea floor . it ' s just that the man o ' war has a really huge pneumatophore while most other siphonophores have much smaller ones .\nsiphonophore . . . pneumatophore . . . ensure . . . sea floor . . . there ' s a poem in there , somewhere .\nall along the length of the protozooid are the nectophores , looking like jars or lamps . they have an orange lining which is a food canal that the entire colony shares . it also means\nactually the nectophores are pretty much jellyfish on a stick . they contract so that the colony can slowly swim through the ocean . with the much diminished current of the deep , the colony can even coordinate everything so they have enviable control over what direction they go in . enviable by jellyfish standards , anyway .\nby the siphosome ; the whole colony may reach some 2 metres ( 6 . 5 feet ) long and almost all of it is taken up by the siphosome . why ? because that ' s how they eat ! the siphosome is comprised of lots more polyps , like tiny sea anemones . some have a single tentacle up to 50 cm ( 20 in ) long for catching food , while others do the digestion and share the proceeds with the rest of the colony via those orange channels .\nhas been seen slowly swimming along before pausing to unveil its giant curtain of stinging death , probably catching all sorts of crustaceans . so if you hip cats are looking for a trendy , all - in - one light fixture that will send the oldies and squares reeling and deal with your shrimp infestation , you know what you need .\nalmost looks like jewelry to me . weird jewelry , but still . . .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ncoffee boy ( feat . ha eun ) - i ' ll be on your side ( \ub0b4\uac00 \ub2c8\ud3b8\uc774 \ub418\uc5b4\uc904\uac8c )\nmany people know organisms only by the common names , or\nvernacular\nnames . unlike scientific names , common names are almost always different for speakers of different languages . they may also vary regionally within a language . this tab shows all the common names provided to eol for this organism from a variety of providers , including eol curators . currently we can only set one preferred common name per language on a given eol page , but all the names should be searchable .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nsiphonophora . the godthaab expedition 1928 . - medd . gr\u00f8nl . 80 ( 8 ) : 3 - 24 .\ncairns , stephen d . , dale r . calder , anita brinckmann - voss , clovis b . castro , daphne g . fautin , . . . , 2002 : common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : cnidaria and ctenophora , second edition , 2002 . american fisheries society special publication 28 . xi + 115 .\nkirkpatrick , p . a . ; pugh , p . r . ( 1984 ) . siphonophores and velellids : keys and notes for the identification of the species . < i > synopses of the british fauna ( new series ) < / i > , 29 . e . j . brill / w . backhuys : london , uk . isbn 90 - 04 - 07470 - 8 . vi , 154 pp .\npugh , p . r . 1974a . the vertical distribution of the siphonophores collected during the sond cruise , 1965 . j . mar . biol . assoc . u . k . 54 ( 1 ) : 25 - 90 .\npugh , p . r . 1999 . a review of the genus bargmannia totton , 1954 ( siphonophorae , physonecta , pyrostephidae ) . - bulletin of the natural history museum zoology series 65 : 51 - 72 .\nstepanjants , s . d . 1967 . siphonophores of the seas of the ussr and the northern part of the pacific ocean . opred . faune sssr 96 . \u2018nauka\u2019 , leningrad . ( in russian ) .\ntotton , a . k . ( 1954 ) . siphonophora of the indian ocean together with systematic and biological notes on related specimens from other oceans . < em > discovery rep . < / em > 27 : 1 - 162 .\ntotton , a . k . 1965 . a synopsis of the siphonophora . london , british museum ( natural history ) . pp . 230 .\ntotton , a . k . , and fraser , j . h . 1955g . siphonophora . sub - order physonectae . family agalmidae . cons . int . explor . mer zooplankton sheet 61 .\nzelickman , e . a . , 1972 . distribution and ecology of the pelagic hydromedusae , siphonophores and ctenophores of the barents sea , based on perennial plankton collections . mar . biol . , berl . 17 3 : 256 - 264 .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the \u2018correct annotation\u2019 for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\ncytochrome c oxidase is the component of the respiratory chain that catalyzes the reduction of oxygen to water . subunits 1 - 3 form the functional core of the enzyme complex . co i is the catalytic subunit of the enzyme . electrons originating in cytochrome c are transferred via the copper a center of subunit 2 and heme a of subunit 1 to the bimetallic center formed by heme a3 and copper b .\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000256\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> function < / a > section describes the catalytic activity of an enzyme , i . e . the chemical reaction it catalyzes . this information usually correlates with the presence of an ec ( enzyme commission ) number in the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section . < p > < a href = ' / help / catalytic _ activity ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ' function ' < / a > section describes the metabolic pathway ( s ) associated with a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / pathway ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nthis protein is involved in the pathway oxidative phosphorylation , which is part of energy metabolism .\n< p > the < a href =\nurltoken\n> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =\nurltoken\n> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates the name ( s ) of the gene ( s ) that code for the protein sequence ( s ) described in the entry . four distinct tokens exist : \u2018name\u2019 , \u2018synonyms\u2019 , \u2018ordered locus names\u2019 and \u2018orf names\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been imported from another database using automatic procedures . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000313\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates if the gene coding for the protein originates from the hydrogenosome , the mitochondrion , the nucleomorph , different plastids or a plasmid . the absence of this section means that the gene is located in one of the main chromosomal element ( s ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / encoded _ on ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the \u2018taxonomic identifier\u2019 or \u2018taxid\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the location and the topology of the mature protein in the cell . < p > < a href = ' / help / subcellular _ location _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ' subcellular location ' < / a > section describes the extent of a membrane - spanning region of the protein . it denotes the presence of both alpha - helical transmembrane regions and the membrane spanning regions of beta - barrel transmembrane proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / transmem ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> family and domains < / a > section describes the position and type of a domain , which is defined as a specific combination of secondary structures organized into a characteristic three - dimensional structure or fold . < p > < a href = ' / help / domain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000259\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018family and domains\u2019 section provides information about the sequence similarity with other proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ similarities ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the checksum is a form of redundancy check that is calculated from the sequence . it is useful for tracking sequence updates . < / p > < p > it should be noted that while , in theory , two different sequences could have the same checksum value , the likelihood that this would happen is extremely low . < / p > < p > however uniprotkb may contain entries with identical sequences in case of multiple genes ( paralogs ) . < / p > < p > the checksum is computed as the sequence 64 - bit cyclic redundancy check value ( crc64 ) using the generator polynomial : x < sup > 64 < / sup > + x < sup > 4 < / sup > + x < sup > 3 < / sup > + x + 1 . the algorithm is described in the iso 3309 standard . < / p > < p class =\npublication\n> press w . h . , flannery b . p . , teukolsky s . a . and vetterling w . t . < br / > < strong > cyclic redundancy and other checksums < / strong > < br / > < a href =\nurltoken\n> numerical recipes in c 2nd ed . , pp896 - 902 , cambridge university press ( 1993 ) < / a > ) < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018sequence\u2019 section is used for sequence fragments to indicate that the residue at the extremity of the sequence is not the actual terminal residue in the complete protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / non _ ter ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href =\nurltoken\n> uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( \u2018last modified\u2019 ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\na video by the census of marine life about why we need to monitor biodiversity in the oceans and how it can be done using existing technologies on a global scale .\nstarted in the year 2000 , census of marine life ( coml ) is an international science research program uniting thousands of researchers worldwide with the goal of assessing and explaining the diversity , distribution and abundance of marine life - past , present and future - by 2010 .\nthe census includes the identification of 5 , 300 potentially new species . the deepwater jellyfish ( crossota norvegica ) was photographed during a census of marine life expedition to the deep canada basin in 2005 . photograph courtesy kevin raskoff / noaa / handout / reuters / corbis\nworld ocean census : a global survey of marine life p ublished by firefly books , october 15 , 2009 , is the only officially sanctioned book to bring the census and its discoveries to the general reader .\nlife on earth sprang from the ocean and to a remarkable extent it still depends on this water body that covers 71 percent of our planet\u2019s surface . yet , very little of the ocean has been scientifically investigated . that is rapidly changing with the first - ever census of marine life ( coml ) , a worldwide 10 - year undertaking involving thousands of scientists from more than 80 nations .\nwritten by a team of coml\u2019s scientists and educators , darlene trew crist , gail scowcroft , james m . harding , jr . , it offers an unprecedented journey to the ocean depths , enabling readers to go behind - the - scenes of the study\u2019s extraordinary findings and adventures .\npages 26 - 27 from the book . this spectacular blue - eyed hermit crab ( paragiopagurus diogenes ) is an example of census discoveries that raise more questions than answers . the shiny gold on the claws of this crab , captured in the french frigate shoals off the northwestern hawaiian islands , is a phenomenon not seen before . scientists believe it serves as a form of communication . attached to its shell , the crab also has its very own species of anemone ( the fuzzy brown area underneath ) , which is not known to attach to any other species of hermit crab . photograph courtesy susan middleton\nsylvia earle , phd , ambassador for the world\u2019s ocean and national geographic society explorer - in - residence wrote in her forward to the book that \u201cthe importance of the census is made urgent because at the same time that more is being learned about the diversity of life in the sea than during all preceding history , more is being lost\u2026 . \u201d\n\u201csome will treasure the world ocean census as a valuable reference , others as a place to find white - knuckle adventures . the images alone will cause many to re - evaluate their concepts of what astonishing forms are embraced within the bounds of what constitutes an eye , a heart , a body of living tissue . the underlying similarities shared by all living things \u2013 humans very much included \u2013 shine through , while maintaining wonder at the infinite capacity for diversity : from the broad divisions of life to the individual speckles and shapes that distinguish each sardine , salp and starfish from every other of its kind . above all , the breakthroughs in knowledge gained , and awareness of the magnitude of what remains to be discovered , inspire hope that the greatest era of ocean exploration \u2013 and ocean care - will now begin . \u201d\npage 24 : this fabulously marked polychaete , or marine tube worm , loima sp . , inhabits the waters off lizard island , queensland , australia . photograph courtesy gary cranitch , queensland museum\npage 25 : the spines on this crab larvae ( spiny decapod megalops ) , although beautiful , serve as protection and camouflage . photograph courtesy cheryl clarke hopcroft\nthese questions are of vital importance as scientists seek to understand the impact global warming and other factors\u2014past and present\u2014have had on the world\u2019s oceans , and what that portends for the future .\nto assess and explain the diversity , distribution , and abundance of marine life to record how many of each species the ocean contains , where they live now , and where else they could live if / when habitats disappear to describe the life found in deep , previously unexplored areas that new technology is opening to scientists for the first time .\npages 46 - 47 : an amazing array of exquisitely beautiful animals , such as this jeweled squid ( histioteuthis bonelli ) , has been found in the previously little - explored dark zone of the world\u2019s ocean . photograph courtesy david shale\nthe census of marine life , which will release its scientific report in 2010 , is a project of extraordinary range and scope , as benefits its subject . census researchers have journeyed to remote and dangerous places ; charted the past using means as diverse as scientific reports , whaler\u2019s logs , and seafood menus ; and explored previously unexplored ecosystems . in the antarctic , for example , climate change and melting ice shelves gave coml researchers access to pristine portions of the ocean floor that had been sealed off for at least 5 , 000 years .\nphoto on left , page 110 : an antarctic fur seal mother and pup represent current and future generations of potential animal observers . with the help of these research assistants , scientists may be able to prevent the loss of their polar habitat to global climate change . photograph courtesy dan costa\nphoto on right : page 111 : \u201csealteam 1\u201d poses with its latest recruit in its mission to collect data about the undersampled antarctic ocean . \u201cseal tagging and getting on an ice floe below the antarctic circle in the dead of winter down here \u2013 that is about as wild as it gets ! \u201d says mark harris . photograph courtesy dan costa\nthere is no part of the ocean that is not overfished . at the present rate , commercial fisheries could collapse by 2048 .\nphoto on left , page 148 : this goggle - eyed worm belongs to the phylum polychaeta , a group of segmented worms named for their many bristles ( poly = many , chaete = bristle ) . many species in this family undergo a spectacular transformation as they become sexually mature : both sexes develop huge eyes , while most of the bodysegments and bristles become paddleshaped . photograph courtesy national history museum of la county\nphoto on right : this striking shrimp was collected from french frigate shoals in the northwest hawaiian islands . photograph courtesy gustav paulay\nin the book , readers will learn how the mystery of new life forms are revealed , how coml research was planned and executed , how animals are tagged and tracked , and about the cutting - edge technologies that enabled this mammoth endeavor . hundreds of breathtaking , full - color photographs plunge one deep into the ocean to see some of the millions of species\u2014from the smallest microbes to the largest whales\u2014that dwell beneath the waves .\npage 190 photo top left : asbestopluma , a never - before - known species of carnivorous sponge about 1 centimeter ( 0 . 4 inch ) in diameter , engulfs organisms and then digests the imprisoned prey . this is one of four such species , three of them believed new to science , found in the southern ocean abyss . photograph courtesy dorte janussen , senckenberg , frg\nbottom left : the larsen b ice shelf as it appeared in january 2002 . bottom right : the area after the ice shelf collapsed in march 2002 . images courtesy of the national snow and ice data center\npage 191 top : a presumed new species of epimeria , a 25 - millimeter - long ( almost an inch ) amphipod crustacean , was collected near elephant island during an expedition to the weddell sea in 2006\u201307 .\npage 191 bottom : this potentially new giant antarctic amphipod crustacean \u2013 of the genus eusirus \u2013 was one of the stars among the species collected during the trip to the weddell sea in 2006\u201307 . nearly 10 centimeters ( 4 inches ) long , it was sampled by using baited traps off the antarctic peninsula .\nthe global ocean is truly earth\u2019s final frontier , its myriad secrets only now being revealed . world ocean census , and the study it brings to the public eye , are of inestimable importance to earth\u2019s future and , perhaps , man\u2019s very survival .\npage 206 above : this is just a small portion of the huge school of cownose rays ( rhinoptera steindachneri ) that circled a dive site in the galapagos islands .\npage 207 : underwater encounters with endangered hawaiian monk seals ( monachus schauinslandi ) are few and far between \u2013 the population is estimated at only slightly more than 1 , 000 individuals . even scarcer is the mediterranean monk seal , with a population of less than 500 . the caribbean or west indian monk seal ( monachus tropicalis ) , the only seal ever known to be native to the caribbean sea and gulf of mexico , was last seen in 1952 . in 2008 , after five years of trying to find evidence of caribbean monk seals , the u . s . government declared the species officially extinct . photographs pages 206 and 207 \u00a9 urltoken\nthe information in this article is from world ocean census : a global survey of marine life and from firefly books .\ntitle : world ocean census : a global survey of marine life author : by darlene trew crist , gail scowcroft , james m . harding , jr . ; foreword by sylvia earle specs : 256 pages , 9\nx 11\n, color photographs throughout , glossary , further reading , index ; $ 40 . 00 plastic - laminated hardcover with jacket isbn : 1 - 55407 - 434 - 7 / 978 - 1 - 55407 - 434 - 1 pub date : october 15 , 2009 publisher : firefly books urltoken\nthere is a related article on the horizon solutions site . census of marine life explorers find hundreds of identical species thrive in both arctic and antarctic with more images .\na video by the census of marine life about why we need to monitor biodiversity in the oceans and how it can be done using existing technologies on a global scale . for more information visit urltoken .\nis a colony composed of a number of specialised zooids linked together by a long stem .\nat the front is the pneumatophore , an orange - coloured , gas - filled float . behind this is the nectosome , a region where there are a number of translucent nectophores with red , unlooped radial canals . these are bell - shaped medusae specialised for locomotion . when they contract , water is expelled which causes the colony to move . their contractions are coordinated which enables the animal to swim forwards , sidewards or backwards . the remaining region is the siphosome . most of the zooids here are\n, specialised for collecting food . they do this for the whole colony , spreading their single long tentacles in the water to snare\n. other zooids in this region undertake digestion and assimilation of food items . reproductive medusae are found among the polyps in the siphosome and also various other specialised zooids . the various forms are all arranged in a repeating pattern .\nit is found at depths ranging between 200 and 800 m ( 660 and 2 , 620 ft ) . the greatest depth at which it has been observed is about 2 , 000 m ( 6 , 600 ft ) .\nat these depths the temperature is about 4 \u00b0c ( 39 \u00b0f ) , hardly any light penetrates from the surface and human observation is limited to what can be seen from submersible craft .\ncan be several metres long and the tentacles can extend fifty centimetres on either side . it moves forward intermittently before pausing to put out its\nfishing lines\n, ready to ensnare passing creatures . it is a\nthis colonial animal arises from a single fertilised egg . the protozooid that develops from this subsequently\nto form the other members of the colony which are thus genetically identical . the protozooid first thins and elongates , the middle section becoming the stem of the colony . the pneumatophore forms at the opposite end to the mouth . next a growth zone on the thin stem forms and budding occurs with the formation of the nectophores . as the stem continues lengthening , further zooids develop above these . another growth zone sees the development of the siphosome and the continuing elongation of the stem carries these zooids down with it .\nthe division of labour between the zooids is an evolutionary advance in the constant struggle for existence in the deep sea . such organisms as\nblur the boundaries between the individual polyp and the whole colonial organism ; each cannot exist without the other .\nkramp p . l . ( 1942 ) .\nsiphonophora . the godthaab expedition 1928\n. medd . gr\u00f8nl . 80 ( 8 ) : 3 - 24 .\nsiphonophores are groups of creatures that live , connected , as one animal . and they\u2019re incredibly confusing \u2014 they all have the same dna . they can\u2019t separate . they work together to achieve one goal . so why are we supposed to think of them as \u201ccolonies , \u201d rather than a single entity ?\nwhat is that ? even the people looking at it can\u2019t figure it out . all they\u2019re willing to say is it\u2019s the size of \u201ctwenty wiffle balls , \u201d and it\u2019s probably a siphonophore . which means it isn\u2019t an \u201cit , \u201d it\u2019s a \u201cthem . \u201d\nto go back to the familiar man - o - war , the sail is a creature called the pneumatophore . the stinging tentacles are made up of dactylzooids . the gastrozooid is in charge of breaking down the food that the dactylozooids catch . and the gonozooid is the part that reproduces .\nso how do these separate creatures yoked together in one body actually reproduce ? man - o - war reproductive sections ( gonozooids ) have two sexes , male and female . when the man - o - war gather in large groups , they release their genetic hopefuls , eggs and sperm , into the ocean . the eggs and sperm meet and form their own little gonozooid .\nwhere do the pneumatophores , the dactylzooids , and the gastrozooids come from ? they slowly bud off from the fertilized organism . each one shares the genetic information of the original fertilized egg , but they form their own creatures through this asexual budding . throughout the life of the siphonophore , these creatures will stick together , feeding each other , protecting each other , and navigating for each other , until it comes time for the gonozooids to breed again .\nif that sounds dubious to you , you\u2019re not alone . many people wonder what differentiates a siphonophore from any other creature . descriptions of siphonophores do sound like they could be applied to any single animal , including humans . your brain navigates , your arms and legs protect and hunt , your stomach digests food , and your sexual parts reproduce \u2014 but that doesn\u2019t mean those parts are colonies .\nand yet , biologists all agree that siphonophores are colonies , and not single animals . so what\u2019s the difference ?\nmany people compare siphonophores to ant or bee colonies . bees perform rigidly separate functions . a worker cannot perform the functions of a queen . separate an ant or a bee from its colony and it will almost certainly die soon . divide the colony itself and the entire thing collapses . but that doesn\u2019t mean that each insect is not a separate animal from every other member of its colony . then again , an ant isn\u2019t joined to the rest of its colony by tissue , and it doesn\u2019t bud from its queen\u2019s abdomen .\nthe best way to understand siphonophores is thinking about conjoined twins . they carry the same dna , and they move as one body . only one twin was created by the original fusion of sperm and egg . and sometimes they are unable to survive if separated . but they do live separate existences . siphonophores can make independent motions . they grow and repair themselves independently . they are multiple organisms joined as one . the difference is , they have made the conjunction a necessary part of their regular life - cycle .\nkinja is in read - only mode . we are working to restore service .\nurltoken no longer supports internet explorer 9 or earlier . please upgrade your browser .\nwhen , more than 70 years ago , william beebe became the first scientist to descend into the abyss , he described a world of twinkling lights , silvery eels , throbbing jellyfish , living strings as \u201clovely as the finest lace\u201d and lanky monsters with needlelike teeth .\n\u201cit was stranger than any imagination could have conceived , \u201d he wrote in \u201chalf mile down\u201d ( harcourt brace , 1934 ) . \u201ci would focus on some one creature and just as its outlines began to be distinct on my retina , some brilliant , animated comet or constellation would rush across the small arc of my submarine heaven and every sense would be distracted , and my eyes would involuntarily shift to this new wonder . \u201d\nbeebe sketched some of the creatures , because no camera of the day was able to withstand the rigors of the deep and record the nuances of this cornucopia of astonishments .\ncolleagues reacted coolly . some accused beebe of exaggeration . one reviewer suggested that his heavy breathing had fogged the window of the submarine vessel , distorting the undersea views .\ntoday , the revolution in lights , cameras , electronics and digital photography is revealing a world that is even stranger than the one that beebe struggled to describe .\nthe images arrayed here come from \u201cthe deep : the extraordinary creatures of the abyss\u201d ( university of chicago press , 2007 ) , by claire nouvian , a french journalist and film director . in its preface , ms . nouvian writes of an epiphany that began her undersea journey .\n\u201cit was as though a veil had been lifted , \u201d she says , \u201crevealing unexpected points of view , vaster and more promising . \u201d\nthe photographs she has selected celebrate that sense of the unexpected . bizarre species from as far down as four and half miles are shown in remarkable detail , their tentacles lashing , eyes bulging , lights flashing . the eerie translucence of many of the gelatinous creatures seems to defy common sense . they seem to be living water .\non page after page , it is as if aliens had descended from another world to amaze and delight . a small octopus looks like a child\u2019s squeeze toy . a seadevil looks like something out of a bad dream . a ping - pong tree sponge rivals artwork that might be seen in an upscale gallery .\ninterspersed among 220 color photographs are essays by some of the world\u2019s top experts on deep - sea life that reflect on what lies beneath . for example , laurence madin of woods hole oceanographic institution notes the violence that air and gravity do to creatures without internal or external skeletons when they are pulled up to the deck of a ship , obliterating their varieties of form and function .\n\u201cthis unattractive jello - like mass , \u201d he writes , \u201cis the unfair land version of amazing and delicate creatures that can display their true beauty only in their natural watery environment . \u201d the photographs in the book right that wrong , and not just for jellyfish .\none shows a dense colony of brittle stars , their arms intertwined and overlapping , their masses in the distance merging with the blackness of the seabed , alive , inhabiting a place once thought to be a lifeless desert .\ncraig m . young of the oregon institute of marine biology writes in the book that the diversity of life in the abyss \u201cmay exceed that of the amazon rain forest and the great barrier reef combined . \u201d\nbeebe , who ran the tropical research department at the new york zoological society , surely had intimations of what lay beyond the oceanic door he had opened . \u201cthe deep\u201d brings much of that dark landscape to light , even while noting that a vast majority of the planet\u2019s largest habitat remains unexamined , awaiting a new generation of explorers .\nwith the headline : mysteries to behold in the dark down deep : seadevils and species unknown .\nwe\u2019re interested in your feedback on this page . tell us what you think .\naccessibility concerns ? email us at accessibility @ urltoken . we would love to hear from you ."]}
{"id": 2424, "summary": [{"text": "mystus gulio , the long whiskers catfish , is a species of catfish of the family bagridae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the generic name is probably derived from the latin \" mystax \" , meaning \" moustache \" , due to the long barbels .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it is found in india , sri lanka , pakistan , nepal and vietnam .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is primarily a brackish water fish that enters and lives in fresh water .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the population is known to be decreasing in recent past , due to catching , pet trading and habitat destruction . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "mystus gulio", "paragraphs": ["systematic position phylum : chordata class : actinopterygii ( ray - fined fish ) order : siluriformies ( catfishes ) family : bagridae ( bagrid catfishes ) genus : mystus species : m . gulio\nabstracts long whiskers catfish mystus gulio is a commercially important food fish in asian countries . but natural population is decreasing due to over - exploitation and various ecological changes in its natural habitats . this paper suggests the steps for the conservation of the remnant isolated population of m . gulio in asian countries .\napa 6th edition hossain , m . y . , islam , r . , hossen , m . a . , rahman , o . , hossain , m . a . , islam , m . a . & alam , m . j . ( 2015 ) . threatened fishes of the world : mystus gulio ( hamilton , 1822 ) ( siluriformes : bagridae ) . croatian journal of fisheries , 73 ( 1 ) , 43 - 45 . urltoken mla 8th edition hossain , md . yeamin , et al .\nthreatened fishes of the world : mystus gulio ( hamilton , 1822 ) ( siluriformes : bagridae ) .\ncroatian journal of fisheries , vol . 73 , no . 1 , 2015 , pp . 43 - 45 . urltoken . accessed 9 jul . 2018 . chicago 17th edition hossain , md . yeamin , rafiqul islam , md . alomgir hossen , obaidur rahman , md . akhtar hossain , md . ariful islam and md . jahangir alam .\nthreatened fishes of the world : mystus gulio ( hamilton , 1822 ) ( siluriformes : bagridae ) .\ncroatian journal of fisheries 73 , no . 1 ( 2015 ) : 43 - 45 . urltoken\nmystus gulio was described from the higher parts of the gangetic estuary by hamilton ( 1822 ) . although it is often regarded as a species widely distributed throughout south and southeast asia , there is some evidence to indicate that the populations from southeast asia constitute one or more species that are distinct from populations in the indian subcontinent ( h . h . ng pers . comm . ) . a taxonomic reappraisal of this species based on material from throughout its entire distribution is badly needed .\njustification : despite being targeted in artisanal fisheries , being sometimes harvested as an ornamental fish and demonstrated population declines in parts of its range , the level of exploitation is not deemed high enough to be a threat to long - term survival of this species , which is still considered relatively abundant . this species is therefore assessed as least concern here . however , it should be noted that there are taxonomic problems surrounding the identity of this species and it is likely that what is currently classified as mystus gulio may consist of several species with more geographically circumscribed distributions . should this be the case , it may be necessary to reassess this species in the near future .\nlight microscopic studies of the immune response of mystus gulio were carried out . antigen binding cells have been detected by plaque - forming cell ( pfc ) assay test in the spleen , head - kidney ( hk ) and thymus . among these three organs , the hk is more pronounced in its response , and it is compared , on the basis of its histology of higher vertebrates . the peak response after primary and secondary immunizations was on day 7 , in both circulating blood and the immune organs . the results suggest that hk in these fish might be the major organ for antibody secreting cells . the ha ( haemoagglutinin ) response was also for longer duration but only slightly more intense . the pfc response after the secondary immunization was for much longer duration and much more intense than after the primary immunization .\ncommon / local names english : long whiskers catfish , long - whiskered catfish and gulio catfish bangladesh : nuna tengra ( \u09a8\u09c1\u09a8\u09be \u099f\u09c7\u0982\u09b0\u09be ) , guli tengra ( \u0997\u09c1\u09b2\u09bf \u099f\u09c7\u0982\u09b0\u09be ) , gula ( \u0997\u09c1\u09b2\u09be ) , guillya ( \u0997\u09c1\u0987\u09b2\u09cd\u09b2\u09be ) , tengra ( \u099f\u09c7\u0982\u09b0\u09be ) and penchgula ( \u09aa\u09be\u099a\u0997\u09c1\u09b2\u09be ) india : nuna - tengra ( west bengal ) ; kala - tenguah ( bihar ) ; kontia ( orissa ) ; naikeluthi , kattai - keluthi and uppang - kelettee ( tamil nadu ) ; vella - koori and kada - kelithi ( kerala ) and singati ( maharashtra ) ( talwar and jhingran , 1991 ) .\n( 1 ) yellowcat , who also notes :\nextremely slow growing species . . . since 2004 had two but lost one , survivor is now @ 7\ntl\n, ( 2 ) shovelnose , who also notes :\nthe greediest mystus i have ever kept . more of an open swimmer . never seen it trying to hide . will eat anything . collected specimens from both fresh and brackish water . care level for both the same . easy fish to handle .\n. click on a username above to see all that persons registered catfish species . you can also view all\nmy cats\ndata for this species .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nkottelat , m . 2013 . the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibiography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries . raffles bulletin of zoology supplement no . 27 : 1 - 663 .\nthis species is found in coastal regions and the lower reaches of rivers throughout the indian subcontinent eastwards to the indochinese peninsula and southwards to sundaic southeast asia .\nalthough patra et al . ( 2005 ) report a mean decline of 33 . 6 % in catch for this species in the sundarbans ( ganges - brahmaputra estuary ) for the period 1960 - 2000 and mishra et al . ( 2009 ) report a decline of 27 . 8 % in catch for this species in southwestern bengal for a similar period , there is insufficient data from other areas where this species is naturally distributed . current indications are that this is a widespread , common species .\nthis species inhabits estuaries and tidal rivers and lakes , ascending to freshwater , often entering the sea ( talwar and jhingran 1991 ) .\nthis species is commonly utilized as a food fish , and has occasionally been caught and exported as an ornamental fish .\nalthough the southern west bengal population is threatened from overfishing , threats to this species in the rest of its range are unknown . since there is no information on the biology of this species , the impact of potential threats ( especially those of an anthropogenic nature ) remains unknown . the current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified .\nthere is insufficient information on the biology and potential threats for this species . catch data for this species is also needed . the identities of the southeast asian populations require study to resolve their identities .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthe generic name is probably derived from the latin mystax , meaning moustache , in reference to the long barbels . it was first used by scopoli in 1777 making it a very old genus that has included many catfishes from throughout the world at one time or another . from the local ( bengali ) name of the fish ( guli ) .\n400mm or 15 . 7\nsl . find near , nearer or same sized spp .\nprimarily a brackish water fish that enters and lives in fresh water . in freshwater , it occurs mainly in larger water bodies ( rivers and streams ) with mud or clay substrates , and rarely found in smaller streams .\neasily adapts to a wide variety of frozen and prepared food in the aquarium . may eat very small fish .\ncompatible with most fishes , although very small fishes will be eaten . ideal tankmates include larger barbs and rasboras in an asian biotope setup or an asian brackish water setup with archerfishes and gobies . a social fish that is found in schools of 10 - 25 individuals in the wild .\nfishes ganges - pp201 , 379 - pl . 23 ( fig . 66 )\nget or print a qr code for this species profile , or try our beta label creator .\nhas this page been useful ? please donate to our monthly hosting costs and keep us free for everyone to enjoy ! explore our youtube channel , facebook page or follow us on twitter .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 urltoken , part of the aquatic republic network group of websites . all rights reserved . cite this website . by accessing this site you agree to our terms and conditions of use . our privacy policy .\ngreek , mystax = whiskered , used by belon in 1553 to describe all fishes with whiskers ( ref . 45335 )\nasia : countries bordering the eastern indian ocean , from india to indonesia and viet nam . reported from pakistan ( ref . 4833 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 46 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 41236 ) ; common length : 15 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 6028 )\nprimarily a brackish water fish that enters and lives in fresh water . in freshwater , adults occur mainly in larger water bodies ( rivers and streams ) with mud or clay substrates , and rarely found in smaller streams . form schools of 10 to 25 individuals . diurnal . oviparous , distinct pairing possibly like other members of the same family ( ref . 205 ) .\npethiyagoda , r . , 1991 . freshwater fishes of sri lanka . the wildlife heritage trust of sri lanka , colombo . 362 p . ( ref . 6028 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00792 - 0 . 01263 ) , b = 3 . 03 ( 2 . 97 - 3 . 09 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 \u00b10 . 50 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( assuming fec < 10 , 000 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 46 of 100 ) .\nprimarily a brackish water fish that enters and lives in fresh water . in freshwater , adults occur mainly in larger water bodies ( rivers and streams ) with mud or clay substrates , and rarely found in smaller streams . form schools of 10 to 25 individuals . diurnal . oviparous , distinct pairing possibly like other members of the same family ( ref . 205 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\noops ! it appears that you have disabled your javascript . in order for you to see this page as it is meant to appear , we ask that you please re - enable your javascript !\ndistributions : bangladesh , india , myanmar and pakistan ( talwar and jhingran , 1991 ) .\nmorphology : head depressed . body elongated and compressed . its upper surface rough and granulated . barbels four pairs . maxillary barbels extend to end of pelvic fins . mouth terminal . dorsal spine strong and serrated . adipose fin small and caudal fin forked and caudal peduncle equal at height .\nbody color bluish - brown on head and back ( talwar and jhingran , 1991 ) . brown on back ( rahman , 1989 and 2005 ) ) . dull white below . mandibular barbels somewhere black and somewhere white ( rahman , 1989 and 2005 ) ) .\nfin formula : d . i / 7 ; p1 . i / 8 - 9 ; p2 . 6 ; a . 12 - 15 ( rahman , 1989 and 2005 ) ) d i 7 ; a iii - iv 9 - 10 ; p i 8 - 9 ; v i 5 ( talwar and jhingran , 1991 ) d . i / 7 ; p . i / 8 - 9 ; v . 6 ; a . 12 - 15 ( 4 / 9 - 11 ) ; c . 17 ( shafi and quddus , 2001 )\nmaximum lengths : 19 . 5 cm ( rahman , 1989 and 2005 ) , 40 cm ( talwar and jhingran , 1991 ; huda et al . , 2003 ) and 45 cm ( shafi and quddus , 2001 ) .\nhabitats : firstly it\u2019s a brackish water fish that enters and lives in fresh water fish also enters tidal rivers of bangladesh and in the bay of benglal ( rahman , 1989 ) . inhibits estuaries and tidal rivers and lakes ; ascends freshwater and often enters sea ( talwar and jhingran , 1991 ) . found in canals , beels , haors , oxbow lakes , rivers , and estuaries ( shafi and quddus , 2001 ) . available in meghna river ( rahman , 1989 and 2005 ) and the sundarbans ( huda et al . , 2003 ) of bangladesh .\nfood and feeding : juveniles and adult feed on debris , zooplanktons , zoobenthos , other benthic invertebrates , fish eggs and larvae ( siddique , 2007 ) .\nfishery info / importance : used as food fish in bangladesh . controls water pollution by consuming aquatic detritus ( siddique , 2007 ) . very common in the gangetic estuary , chilka lake and kerala brackish waters of india ( talwar and jhingran , 1991 ) . caught by cast , drag , seine nets and hooks ( shafi and quddus , 2001 ) .\ncuvier g and valenciennes a ( 1840 ) histoire naturelle des poissons . tome quatorzi\u00e8me . suite du livre seizi\u00e8me . labro\u00efdes . livre dix - septi\u00e8me . des malacopt\u00e9rygiens . histoire naturelle des poissons . 14 : i - xxii + 2 pp . + 1 - 464 + 4 pp . , pls . 389 - 420 .\nhamilton f ( 1822 ) an account of the fishes found in the river ganges and its branches . edinburgh & london . an account of the fishes found in the river ganges and its branches . : i - vii + 1 - 405 , pls . 1 - 39 .\nhuda ms , haque me , babul as and shil nc ( ed . ) ( 2003 ) field guide to finfishes of sundarban , aquatic resources division , sundarban , boyra , khulna , bangladesh , p . 76 .\niucn bangladesh ( 2000 ) red book of threatened fishes of bangladesh , iucn - the world conservation union . xii + 116 pp .\nrahman aka ( 1989 ) freshwater fishes of bangladesh , 1st edition , zoological society of bangladesh , department of zoology , university of dhaka , dhaka - 1000 , pp . 204 - 205 .\nrahman aka ( 2005 ) freshwater fishes of bangladesh , 2 nd edition , zoological society of bangladesh , department of zoology , university of dhaka , dhaka - 1000 , pp . 226 - 227 .\nshafi m and quddus mma ( 2001 ) bangladesher matsho shampad ( fisheries of bangladesh ) ( in bengali ) , kabir publication . dhaka , bangladesh . pp . 187 - 188 .\nsiddique ku ( ed . ) ( 2007 ) encyclopedia of flora and fauna of bangladesh freshwater fishes vol . 23 , asiatic society of bangladesh , dhaka , bangladesh , 300 pp .\ntalwar pk and jhingran ag ( 1991 ) inland fishes of india and adjacent countries , vol . 2 , oxford & ibh publishing co . pvt . ltd . new delhi - calcutta , pp . 560 - 561 .\nstudent , department of fisheries , university of rajshahi , rajshahi - 6205 , bangladesh . more . . .\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\nlicense . you may use any content ( of this site ) only non - commercial purpose with proper citation under the same license at your own caution . | the contents and opinions expressed herein are those of the author ( s ) and do not necessarily reflect the views of bdfish . |\nhere is another big whiskers catfish fillets video . this fish weight : 13 . 1 kg per kg fish price : 870 bdt ( about 11 usd ) so total fish price : 11 , 397 bdt ( about 144 usd ) for cutting the fish fillet guy charge : 140 bdt ( about 1 . 80 usd ) thank you .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncroatian journal of fisheries : ribarstvo , vol . 73 no . 1 march 2015 .\nmd . yeamin hossain ; department of fisheries , faculty of agriculture , university of rajshahi , rajshahi 6205 , bangladesh rafiqul islam ; department of fisheries , faculty of agriculture , university of rajshahi , rajshahi 6205 , bangladesh md . alomgir hossen ; department of fisheries , faculty of agriculture , university of rajshahi , rajshahi 6205 , bangladesh obaidur rahman ; department of fisheries , faculty of agriculture , university of rajshahi , rajshahi 6205 , bangladesh md . akhtar hossain ; department of fisheries , faculty of agriculture , university of rajshahi , rajshahi 6205 , bangladesh md . ariful islam ; bangladesh fisheries research institute , shrimp research station , bagerhat 9300 , bangladesh md . jahangir alam ; faculty of fisheries , bangabandhu sheikh mujibur rahman agricultural university , gazipur 1760 , bangladesh\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nahmed , m . ( 1991 ) a model to determine benefits obtainable from the management of riverine fisheries of bangladesh . : iclarm tech . rep . 28 , 133 p .\nal - mamun , a . ( 2003 ) a hand guide for identification of inland fishes of bangladesh . : worldfish centre - bangladesh .\narcharya , p . and m . b . iftekhar ( 2000 ) freshwater ichthyofauna of maharashtra state . : p . 136 - 144 . in ponniah , a . g . and a . gopalakrishnan ( eds . ) . endemic fish diversity of western ghats . nbfgr - natp publication . national bureau of fish genetic resources , lucknow , u . p . , india . 1 , 347 p .\ncarl , h . ( 2003 ) danish fish names . : zoological museum of copenhagen . unpublished .\nchandrashekhariah , h . n . , m . f . rahman and s . lakshmi raghavan ( 2000 ) status of fish fauna in karnataka . : p . 98 - 135 . in ponniah , a . g . and a . gopalakrishnan ( eds . ) . endemic fish diversity of western ghats . nbfgr - natp publication . national bureau of fish genetic resources , lucknow , u . p . , india . 1 , 347 p .\nchinese academy of fishery sciences ( 2003 ) chinese aquatic germplasm resources database . : urltoken\nchuenpagdee , r . ( 2002 ) checklist of thai names and scripts . : personal communication , april 2002 .\ndaniels , r . j . r . ( 2002 ) freshwater fishes of peninsular india . : madhav gadgil ( ed ) india - a lifescape 2 . universities press , hyderabad .\nfao - fies ( 2017 ) aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . : retrievef from urltoken ( accessed 08 / 06 / 2017 ) .\nfish team of the trang project ( 2002 ) illustrated fish fauna of a mangrove estuary at sikao , southwestern thailand . : trang project for biodiversity and ecological significance of mangrove estuaries in southeast asia , rajamangala institute of technology and the university of tokyo , trang and tokyo . 60p .\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication .\nhla win , u . ( 1987 ) checklist of fishes of burma . : ministry of livestock breeding and fisheries , department of fisheries , burma .\nkhin , u . ( 1948 ) fisheries in burma . : gov ' t . printing , rangoon . 180 p .\nkhoa , t . t . and t . t . t . huong ( 1993 ) dinh loai c\u00e1 nu\u00f3c ngot v\u00f9ng d\u00f4ng bang s\u00f4ng cuu long . : khoa thuy san truong dai hoc can tho , p 3 - 8 .\nkottelat , m . ( 2001 ) freshwater fishes of northern vietnam . a preliminary check - list of the fishes known or expected to occur in northern vietnam with comments on systematics and nomenclature . : environment and social development unit , east asia and pacific region . the world bank . 123 p .\npethiyagoda , r . ( 1991 ) freshwater fishes of sri lanka . : the wildlife heritage trust of sri lanka , colombo . 362 p .\nrahman , a . k . a . ( 1989 ) freshwater fishes of bangladesh . : zoological society of bangladesh . department of zoology , university of dhaka . 364 p .\nrema devi , k . and t . j . indra ( 2000 ) freshwater ichthyofaunal resources of tamil nadu . : p . 77 - 97 . in ponniah , a . g . and a . gopalakrishnan . endemic fish diversity of western ghats . nbfgr - natp publication . national bureau of fish genetic resources , lucknow , u . p . , india . 1 , 347 p .\nschuster , w . h . and r . djajadiredja ( 1952 ) local common names of indonesian fishes . : w . v . hoeve , bandung , indonesia . 276 p .\nsidthimunka , a . ( 1970 ) a report on the fisheries survey of the mekong river in the vicinity of the pa mong dam site . : inland fisheries division , department of fisheries , bangkok , thailand . 75 p .\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 02 : 50 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ncentre for advance studies in marine biology , annamalai university , parangipettai 608 502 , india . sigamani _ bd @ urltoken"]}
{"id": 2442, "summary": [{"text": "sayyedati ( 26 january 1990 \u2013 august 2007 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse and broodmare .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in a racing career which lasted from june 1992 to october 1995 she ran twenty-two times winning six races and being placed eight times .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "sayyedati was one of the leading two-year-old fillies in europe in 1992 , recording group one successes in the moyglare stud stakes at the curragh and the cheveley park stakes at newmarket racecourse .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "after being beaten on her three-year-old debut , sayyedati won the classic 1000 guineas .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she went on to become a successful international performer over a mile , winning the prix jacques le marois at deauville in 1993 and the sussex stakes at goodwood as a five-year-old .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she was also placed in several major races including the breeders ' cup mile .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "sayyedati was retired from racing to become a broodmare at the end of her five-year-old season . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "sayyedati", "paragraphs": ["he saddled two winners of the 1000 guineas at newmarket in pebbles ( 1984 ) and sayyedati ( 1993 ) .\nsince sayyedati\u2019s triumph , older horses have redressed the balance somewhat , landing eight of the 14 renewals up to 2008 .\nwhatever her future assignments , sayyedati is unlikely to offer the gilt - edged value of yesterday . her lathering did not escape the notice of the bookmakers , and by the time the stalls opened sayyedati had been stretched to a 4 - 1 chance from an opening 5 - 2 .\nsayyedati , trained in england by clive brittain and owned by mohammed obaida , won by a half - length over niche , ridden by lester piggott .\nswinburn believes sayyedati to have only just reached her peak , despite the fact that she captured the 1 , 000 guineas earlier this season . ' now you ' re seeing the real sayyedati , ' he said . ' even though she was a guineas winner in the spring there was something missing from her performances .\nswinburn held sayyedati off the pace until the halfway mark before charging through on the rail to win the one - mile race for 3 - year - old fillies .\nsayyedati enjoyed further success in the paddocks as she produced the 2002 champagne stakes winner almushahar as well as cunas and lonely ahead , who were also winners in britain .\nsayyedati also won the prix jacques le marois that year but she endured a fruitless 1994 for trainer clive brittain before bouncing back to claim the sussex stakes in her final season .\nin addition to hatoof in 1992 , he landed the 1000 guineas with musical bliss ( 1989 ) and sayyedati ( 1993 ) , with his 2000 guineas success coming through doyoun ( 1988 ) .\nhe won the 2000 guineas at newmarket in 1988 aboard doyoun and went on to win the 1000 guineas three times , with musical bliss in 1989 , hatoof in 1992 and sayyedati in 1993 .\nit was sayyedati herself who looked excited , and overly so , as the field entered the parade ring . brittain ' s painstaking preparations appeared as if they would come to naught as the filly sweated profusely .\nthe most powerful case yet this season for the title of champion miler was presented here yesterday as sayyedati , britain ' s sole challenger , swept away a favourite french prize , the prix jacques le marois .\nnewmarket , england \u2014 walter swinburn rode sayyedati to victory in the 1 , 000 guineas on thursday , the third time in five years the jockey has won the opening race of england ' s classic series .\n' i made my mind up that night that i would ride sayyedati , ' he said . ' i have dreamed about her all winter and i wasn ' t going to let one bad afternoon put me off .\nnevertheless , soviet line has his work cut out today to cope with sayyedati ( nap 2 . 30 ) . five - year - old classic winners are located almost exclusively on stud farms , but sayyedati remains in the care of clive brittain , who has won this race twice in the last four years . the promise of her seasonal debut in france , plus the race conditions , suggest she should reward connections ' perseverance this afternoon .\nthat racing is a contest of opinions more than horses was emphasised here yesterday when sayyedati narrowly won the cherry hinton stakes from toocando and mystic goddess . while william hill were unmoved and left her a 33 - 1 chance for the 1 , 000 guineas - ladbrokes , in contrast , were impressed enough to show 20 - 1 - clive brittain , the trainer , was sufficiently intoxicated by sayyedati ' s victory to elevate her above the great pebbles .\na much better run followed in the sussex stakes as barathea duelled with the sir henry cecil colt distant view , running \u00bd a length second in a vintage field that also contained grand lodge , sayyedati , mister baileys and bigstone .\npat eddery , ski paradise ' s rider , said he had been baulked as he began his surge , but would never have caught sayyedati anyway , while swinburn added that his filly had reserves to repel anything that came at her .\nafter sayyedati ' s nell gwyn defeat , there were those who suggested swinburn should switch to zarani sidi anna . the rider , though , never swerved from allegiance to a horse that had kept his thoughts warm since the end of last season .\nthe landscape looked far less alluring to swinburn yesterday however as his small plane cruised in over le havre . rain lashed the fuselage , bringing with it fear , not for personal safety , but that the ground would be too soft for sayyedati .\na trainer who issues bold assertions on behalf of his horses is infinitely preferable to the it ' s - morning - but - don ' t - quote - me types who dominate flat racing , and in fairness sayyedati has plenty of assets to take towards the cheveley park stakes , her only remaining target this year . not the least of them are her physical strength and parentage . dubian , her dam , improved almost daily after finishing third in the 1985 oaks , and sayyedati has the same look about her .\nsayyedati has surprisingly been installed favourite to win sunday ' s prix jacques le marois for the second successive year . ladbrokes yesterday opened the betting on the mile event which is so often the highlight of the deauville season and quoted the filly at 9 - 4 .\nsayyedati ' s victory here persuaded brittain that she was of sufficient merit to enter the league of the other top fillies he has trained , pebbles and user friendly . unlike that pair , however , she is likely to be kept to a mile for the rest of her career .\nhowever , the group one contest appears to be every bit as competitive as goodwood ' s sussex stakes in which sayyedati finished fourth to distant view , barathea and grand lodge . the second and third home are quoted at 7 - 2 and 8 - 1 respectively for sunday ' s race with the french - trained pair east of the moon & ski paradise bracketed on 3 - 1 . sayyedati was third to the latter at tokyo in april , but appeared to be back to her best in the sussex in which she was trapped against the rails in the closing stages .\nfor michael roberts , the jockey putting the wind up pat eddery in the championship , alliances with the foal - bearing gender are providing some of the year ' s best pay days . roberts has already won the queen mary stakes with the ludicrously fast lyric fantasy , whom he refuses to compare with sayyedati .\nprix jacques le marois ( deauville , sunday ) , ladbrokes : 9 - 4 sayyedati , 3 - 1 east of the moon & ski paradise , 7 - 2 barathea , 8 - 1 grand lodge , 16 - 1 emperor jones . turtle island is quoted at 3 - 1 ' with a run ' .\nsayyedati ( gb ) b . f , 1990 { 9 - c } dp = 5 - 2 - 13 - 4 - 0 ( 24 ) di = 1 . 29 cd = 0 . 33 - 22 starts , 6 wins , 5 places , 5 shows career earnings : $ 1 , 383 , 707\nvindication for clive brittain and walter swinburn here yesterday as sayyedati produced the performance that trainer and jockey had promised to capture the 1 , 000 guineas . the filly will now be remembered as a classic animal rather than the spluttering creature that temporarily surrendered her reputation in the nell gwyn stakes on this course two weeks ago .\nthe newmarket trainer had left as little as possible to chance . sayyedati had repeated temperature tests in the run - up to the first classic , her manger was scrubbed clean before any food was introduced and , on the eve of the race , the filly ' s lad , wayne dunkley , slept by her side .\nlast year ' s winner bigstone , on whom frankie dettori deputised for the late - arriving olivier peslier , claimed third place in front of ski paradise , another doing her best work at the finish . distant view faded to fifth , followed by turtle island , a very disappointing east of the moon , sayyedati and mehthaaf .\nsuccess would provide a much needed fillip for sayyedati ' s trainer , clive brittain , whose string have been out of form this season , registering only 17 wins from 266 starters . that strike - rate of six per cent compares unfavourably with most of his newmarket neighbours among whom a win rate of around 20 per cent is not uncommon .\nsayyedati\u2019s 1995 victory marked a definite sea - change . clive brittain\u2019s brilliantly resilient five - year - old mare had been a tad unlucky to finish only second and fourth in the previous two renewals of the sussex stakes but gained deserved recompense in a tight finish , at the expense of the season\u2019s leading three - year - old miler , bahri .\nkiyoshi and rizeena are the two overseas challengers . impressive winner of the group three albany stakes at royal ascot , the charlie hills - trained kiyoshi is likely to go off favourite on saturday on the strength of that performance . rizeena , meanwhile , is under the care of veteran trainer clive brittain , who landed this prize with sayyedati back in 1992 .\n2nd gr . 1 sussex stakes godwood , 8f ( neck to sayyedati ) 2nd gr . 1 juddmonte international stakes york , 10 . 5f ( to halling ) 2nd gr . 3 greenham stakes newbury , 7f ( to celtic swing ) 3rd gr . 1 2000 guineas the curragh , 8f ( t spectrum ) 3rd gr . 3 prix gontaut - biron deauville ( to hernando )\nin view of the fact that pebbles won the 1 , 000 guineas , eclipse stakes and breeders ' cup turf , brittain ' s assessment of sayyedati might be expected to crack under the heat of cross - examination , but however sceptically you receive such pronouncements you cannot question brittain ' s ability to find and condition high - class horses - in spite of his position outside the mainstream of newmarket fashion .\na furlong from home the contestants fanned out in customary french manner , but the one horse to break free was sayyedati . close home , as the favourite kingmambo ( who was later found to have lost a shoe ) faded , andre fabre ' s ski paradise looked as though she might be able to mount a challenge , but this , the race jockeys revealed , was little more than an optical illusion .\nsayyedati ' s final race before santa anita in november is likely to be the queen elizabeth ii stakes at ascot next month , though the prix moulin and a rematch with kingmambo is also a possibility . ' i also put her in the haydock sprint cup just in case we needed to sharpen her up , ' the trainer said , ' but i think we saw today she ' s sharp enough already . '\n1997 lemarate ( c . by gulch ) , 40 - race maiden 1998 d\u2019jebel amour ( f . mt . livermore ) , twice a winner in the us 1999 cunas ( f . irish river ) , won one race from two starts ; dam of useful middle distance stayer sabotage , placed in the aston park stakes ( l , 13f ) 2000 almushahar ( c . silver hawk ) , won only two career starts , both at two , including the champagne stakes ( gr . 2 , 7f ) ; died 2004 2001 hyper delight ( c . silver hawk ) , twice a winner in japan 2003 lonely ahead ( f . rahy ) , won one race from five starts 2005 sayyedati symphony ( f . gone west ) , seven - race maiden 2007 sayyedati storm ( f . storm cat ) , thrice - raced maiden\nbut while sayyedati endures , there are cataclysmic changes elsewhere at the royal meeting this week . for the first time since 1964 there will be no nicky beaumont , the clerk of the course who proudly defended the traditions of the meeting for so many years . and that means that his wife , ginny , will also not be there to conduct land of hope and glory from the bandstand for the hopelessly oiled congregation .\nswinburn expects sayyedati to show her sharpest form of all at the breeders ' cup . ' she ' ll be even better suited by a good gallop like they get america , where she can go with them and use her cruising speed before kicking at the end , ' he said . ' i ' ll enjoy riding her there . ' but probably not as much as he enjoyed his celebratory evening in swaggering deauville .\nin the race\u2019s inter - generation era , three - year - olds have held the call with 40 victories , with 10 from four - year - olds . solow will be trying to become the fourth five - year - old winner , after sayyedati ( 1995 ) , reel buddy ( 2003 ) and ramonti ( 2007 ) . the oldest winners have been six - year - olds noalcoholic ( 1983 ) and court masterpiece ( 2006 ) .\n' you can ' t . it ' s impossible , ' he says . ' lyric fantasy is just sheer speed . this one ( sayyedati ) is a possible classic filly for next year . ' brittain is , of course , similarly endowed with good fillies , and says : ' i haven ' t seen the likes of this since i was with sir noel murless ( in the vintage years of petite etoile and company ) . '\nthe cherry hinton stakes has a good record and two recent champion fillies won it , dazzle in 1996 and attraction in 2003 , while sayyedati ( 1992 ) , wannabe grand ( 1998 ) and donna blini ( 2005 ) each added the cheveley park stakes to her tally . sander camillo ' s success was very reminiscent of attraction ' s sparkling five - length victory and the similarity does not end there , since neither filly ran again as a two - year - old .\nbefore too long brittain had done well enough to be able to buy carlburg from lemos , a move that didn ' t interrupt the flow of influential owners into or unforgettable winners out of the yard . there was mystiko and terimon for lady beaverbrook , user friendly for bill gredley , sayyedati for mohammed obaida , crimplene for sheikh marwan al maktoum and , of course , a steady stream of success for the white and red colours of brittain ' s great compadre saeed manana .\nwhy , for example , is sayyedati , one of england ' s top milers , running in the sprint ? the filly is bred for turf ( by the english stallion shadeed ) . she runs from off the pace at a mile and she has displayed none of the speed necessary to be a contender in a six - furlong dash . other entrants in dirt races look miscast too . it ' s a safe bet that the foreigners ' record in dirt races this year will be zero for five .\nsayyedati ' s trainer , clive brittain , was trembling with delight as he welcomed her back and placed her in lofty company . ' she must be in the mould of pebbles ( brittain ' s 1985 breeders ' cup turf winner ) because she ' s got that same electrifying burst of speed , ' he said . this estimation was not contradicted by the winning jockey , walter swinburn . ' this is a proper horse , ' he said . ' she compares with anything i ' ve ridden over a mile . '\ndropped back to 2000m for the gr1 grand prix de paris at longchamp , he brought the field into the straight and was then headed by emperor jones , only to fight back and win by a nose in a desperate finish with bigstone , in a track record time of 2 : 01 . 6 . bigstone would go on to win the gr1 sussex stakes , in which he beat sayyedati and zafonic , and the gr1 queen elizabeth ii stakes , beating barathea and kingmambo , and establish himself as the champion miler elect .\non her next appearance , gold splash was matched against colts and older horses in the prix jacques le marois at deauville in august and finished fifth behind sayyedati , ski paradise , kingmambo and elizabeth bay . in september she finished sixth behind kingmambo in the prix du moulin at longchamp . in october , gold splash was dropped in class and started favourite for the group two prix du rond point at longchamp . after turning into the straight in third place she faded to finish eighth of the ten runners behind the four - year - old colt voleris .\naugust 1972 , brett doyle rode his first winner at pontefract on quiet achiever on 9th october 1989 for trainer clive brittain . it was brittain for whom doyle chiefly rode , and who was responsible for much of doyle\u2019s early development . doyle\u2019s first group 1 success came on the brittain - trained sayyedati in the 1995 sussex stakes , and he also won the german and italian 2000 guineas in 1997 onair express , again for brittain . he also won the group 2 premio ellington in italy that year on another of brittain\u2019s campaigners , the much travelled luso .\nclive brittain is usually over confident sometimes about the chances of his horses winning group races . he did say on channel 4 racing he was confident before both pebbles and sayyedati won the 1 , 000 guineas , and that he feels the same about rizeena . i can see lots of people laying rizeena on the exchanges , but i ' m not prepared to oppose the horse . however , as lucky kristale beat her by 2 lengths in the cherry hinton , she represents better value than rizeena . however , rizeena is more likely to stay a mile than lucky kristale .\n- sprint 1 , cardmania ; 2 , meafara ; 3 , gilded time ; 4 , thirty slews ; 5 , demaloot demashoot ; 6 , music merci ; 7 , monde bleu ; 8 , now listen ; 9 , fly so free ; 10 , surprise offer ; 11 , birdonthewire ; 12 , sayyedati ; 13 , alydeed ; 14 , apelia . - juvenille fillies 1 , phone chatter ; 2 , sardula ; 3 , heavenly prize ; 4 , coup de genie ; 5 , stellarcat ; 6 , rhapsodic ; 7 , tricky code ; 8 , meadow rendezvous . - distaff 1 , hollywood wildcat ; 2 , paseana ; 3 , re toss ; 4 , dispute ; 5 , sky beauty ; 6 , supah gem ; 7 , magical . . .\nsayyedati ( shadeed ) . champion 3yo filly in europe in 1993 . champion older mare in europe in 1995 . 6 wins - 3 at 2 - from 1200m to 1600m , ? ? 854 , 858 , deauville prix jacques le marois , gr . 1 , the one thousand guineas , gr . 1 , goodwood sussex s . , gr . 1 , curragh moyglare stud s . , gr . 1 , newmarket cheveley park s . , gr . 1 , cherry hinton s . , gr . 3 , 2d deauville prix jacques le marois , gr . 1 - twice , goodwood sussex s . , gr . 1 , longchamp prix du palais royal , gr . 3 , 3d breeders ' cup mile s . , gr . 1 , newmarket nell gwyn s . , gr . 3 , tokyo keio hai spring cup , l . dam of -\nmaroof ( 12 april 1990 \u2013 30 december 1999 ) was an american - bred , british - trained thoroughbred racehorse and sire best known for his upset victory over a top - class field in the 1994 queen elizabeth ii stakes . he showed very promising form in his four races as a juvenile in 1992 , winning the group three vintage stakes and finishing a close second in the group one national stakes . he had problems with injuries as a three - year - old and won one minor race from only two starts in the autumn . as a four - year - old he ran consistently , finishing second in the brigadier gerard stakes , international stakes and park stakes but appeared to be just below top class . on his final appearance however , he produced by far his best performance as he led from the start and won the queen elizabeth ii stakes at odd of 66 / 1 from opponents including barathea , bigstone , distant view , turtle island , east of the moon and sayyedati . he was retired to stud at the end of the year and had some success as a sire of winners in new zealand . he died in 1999 .\namong the many outstanding winners have been : habibti ( 1982 ) who went to become the champion sprinter in 1983 ; park appeal ( 1984 ) the dam of cape cross ; chimes of freedom ( 1989 ) who won the following year\u2019s coronation stakes and child stakes ; caricciosa ( 1990 ) who added the group 1 cheveley park stakes at newmarket later that autumn ; sayyedati ( 1992 ) who won the cheveley park stakes , english 1 , 000 guineas , prix jacques le marois and sussex stakes ; tarascon ( 1997 ) who won the irish 1 , 000 guineas ; rumplestiltskin ( 2005 ) who won the prix marcel boussac later that year and was the dam of tapestry ; again ( 2008 ) who won the irish 1 , 000 guineas ; misty for me ( 2010 ) who won the prix marcel boussac , irish 1 , 000 guineas and pretty polly stakes and was the dam of roly poly ; sky lantern ( 2012 ) who won the english 1 , 000 guineas and sun chariot stakes ; rizeena ( 2013 ) who won the coronation stakes ; and minding ( 2015 ) who went on to win the fillies\u2019 mile at two , the english 1 , 000 guineas and oaks , the pretty polly stakes , nassau stakes and qeii stakes .\n- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - order of finish in the 1 , 000 guineas - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 . sayyedati - bay filly shadeed - dubian w r swinburn 4 - 1 2 . niche - l piggott 6 - 1 3 . ajfan - r hills 33 - 1 also ran : 9 - 4 fav elizabeth bay ( 8th ) , 5 - 1 zarani sidi anna ( 7th ) , 14 - 1 lyric fantasy ( 6th ) , 14 - 1 wixon ( 11th ) , 16 - 1 secrage ( 9th ) , 16 - 1 stella mystika ( 12th ) , 33 - 1 felawnah ( 4th ) , 33 - 1 dayflower ( 5th ) , 100 - 1 star family friend ( 10th ) . 12 ran . won by 1 / 2 length , hd , 1 1 / 2 , 1 / 2 , hd . ( c brittain , newmarket , for mohamed obaida ) . tote : pounds 5 . 10 ; pounds 2 . 30 , pounds 1 . 90 , pounds 8 . 70 . dual forecast : pounds 17 . 60 . csf : pounds 25 . 72 . trio : pounds 200 . 50 . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -\nbrittain and swinburn predicted such improvement , but were aware that their hopeful message had found many disbelieving ears , and when the jockey celebrated victory with a fist sent heavenwards this was a gesture spurred as much by justification as elation .\n' if i hadn ' t won , all the newspapers would have said i ' d got it wrong . but i just wasn ' t having that . this filly has never had the credit she deserves and because of the build - up i was probably a little more excited today than i normally am . '\nthis attention appeared to be futile , however , when brittain saw his horse emerge for action . ' she was sweating when she came out of her box and she looked a little bit on edge , ' the trainer said . ' i was worried .\n' but i got more relaxed when i saw she was walking round with that elegant stride of hers . and anyway , only wooden horses don ' t sweat . '\n' i ' ve been so lucky in life , whatever happens from here on in , ' brittain said . ' to have fillies like these is incredible . '\nthe more significant stretching after that , however , concerned the filly ' s loping stride , which had her tucked in , going well , behind the pacemaking niche . three furlongs out , swinburn steered to the outside , at about the same moment that michael roberts , on the french - trained favourite , elizabeth bay , realised that his first classic ride as sheikh mohammed ' s retained jockey was not to be a winning one .\nniche did not relent . ' she kept going and going , she ' s got great heart , ' reported her jockey , lester piggott . but swinburn knew that the superior horsepower was under his saddle . ' i was just waiting to pounce , ' he said .\nbehind him there were two colleagues whose desire to succeed went outside the laws . richard hills , on third - placed ajfan , and lanfranco dettori , fifth on dayflower , both collected four - day suspensions for overuse of the whip .\n' i feel sorry for those guys , ' swinburn said . ' how can they go back to their owners and trainers and say they could have done better but they had used up their quota with the stick ? '\na measure of compassion then from the winning jockey , but a day when he felt a more powerful emotion . one of vindication .\nfollow the independent sport on instagram here , for all of the best images , videos and stories from around the sporting world .\n' she ' s in very good form and was unlucky not to get a run in the sussex stakes , ' brittain said . ' it is going to be like the sussex all over again . she acts on the course and won it last year . hopefully we ' re going back for a repeat . '\nwith the ground at deauville already on the fast side of good , and drying out , the chances that turtle island , the irish 2 , 000 guineas winner , will take part are decreasing . robert sangster ' s colt has been absent since finishing third to grand lodge in the st james ' s palace stakes at royal ascot and missed the sussex stakes owing to firm ground .\njane chapple - hyam , wife of the colt ' s trainer , peter , said : ' turtle island will run at deauville only if the ground is on the soft side of good . the international stakes at york next tuesday is an alternative , but we would want plenty of rain as the ground would have to ease considerably . '\nthe john gosden - trained catrail is expected to be withdrawn at today ' s declaration stage , along with lemon souffle who is on the easy list after inexplicably losing her action .\nsimilarly baffling to veterinary science is the affliction affecting erhaab , the derby winner , who underwent a further series of examinations yesterday that will determine his racing future .\nthe colt was checked over by a dubai - based american vet as john dunlop , his trainer , seeks an explanation for the three - year - old ' s most recent racecourse failures at sandown and ascot .\nthe examination , by dr mike hauser , took place at trainer dunlop ' s arundel stable , but the result of his analysis will not be announced until today .\nangus gold , racing manager to erhaab ' s owner , hamdan al maktoum , said : ' we wanted another opinion on what mr dunlop ' s vet , dr paul dupreez , has already told us . '\nhauser was called in after x - ray pictures of erhaab taken last week failed to reveal what had caused the colt to run so disappointingly in his last two races . his advice will help connections to decide whether to proceed with an autumn campaign , centred on the prix de l ' arc de triomphe , or retire the colt .\nat ascot , erhaab collected a bruised knee when beaten over 10 lengths into seventh by king ' s theatre . the build - up to the race had been interrupted by the recurrence of a hamstring injury sustained when third to ezzoud and bob ' s return in the eclipse stakes .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsky sports news takes you through all of the day ' s racing news , plus alex hammond ' s tip of the day .\nfollow the latest from the written press with the best gossip and speculation from the papers .\nsky has launched a pub finder for eager fans wanting to find a venue to watch sky sports .\nget a sports star to visit your old secondary school as part of our free schools initiative .\nthe home side do not like to see a treasured possession leaving their shores ( lear fan in 1984 was the last winner from the other side of la manche ) and many good british horses have foundered in normandy . the suggestion yesterday , though , was that a rare victory had been achieved by a filly with rare talent .\nswinburn felt he had earned a night out in deauville with this success , and that will have meant a sumptuous evening to compare with the best any racing centre can offer .\nthey call the month - long meeting on the normandy course la semaine , probably because the excesses at deauville ensure a week feels like a lot longer . the eating experience usually involves food which looks as if it has been fashioned into shape under a microscope .\nthe coastal town is the archetypal rich man ' s playground ; a town where coiffeured pets are a compulsory fashion accessory , where polo aficionados celebrate the highlight of their year , the lancel cup , and where cinema figures float past surreally as if you have wandered on to a film set .\ndeauville , though , had escaped the squall and for swinburn there were to be no more worrying moments . even as a battery of three horses wearing the colours of stavros niarchos buzzed around menacingly at the head of the field , the jockey felt comfortable at the rump of proceedings . ' it was a slow pace ( a handicap later in the day was run three seconds faster ) and everybody was travelling well , ' he reported . ' but i was very happy where i was and she was always going sweetly . '\n' she ' s got this thing about hitting the front , like in the guineas when she was tying up at the end , ' he said . ' but what impressed me today was the last 100 yards or so when , for an awful moment , i thought pat might get me , but she put her neck out . she looked around a bit when she hit the front , but when the other horse came at her she went again . '\n' i would love to know what her racing weight is now because i ' d bet she ' d be 50 kilos heavier than she was on nell gwyn day ( at newmarket in april ) . on that day she looked terrible . all credit must go to clive , who ' s done a fantastic job with her . '\nthe job for brittain , though , is only half done as the game plan since she won her classic has been geared around the breeders ' cup mile , a race , incidentally , which was captured in 1987 and 1988 by the filly that had previously won the prix jacques le marois in those years , miesque .\n' the owner ( mohammed obaida ) asked me after the guineas to train her specifically for the breeders ' cup , ' brittain said . ' when it was first discussed i said that realistically it was not a race for three - year - olds because it ' s difficult to go through the season picking up race after race and then expecting a horse to peak at the end of a season . that ' s why she has not had a hard time , with four races spread over a fair time . we needed to save something . '\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\nopen an account with betfair and bet at least \u20ac5 at min odds of 1 / 5 on the sportsbook . win or lose betfair match your first bet up to \u20ac50 . free bet stakes not returned\nwon moyglare stud s . [ g1 - ire ] , cheveley park s . [ g1 - eng ] , prix du haras de fresnay [ g1 - fr ] , madagans 1000 guineas s . [ g1 - eng ] , sussex s . [ g1 - eng ] , hillsdown cherry hinton s . [ g3 - eng ]\n3rd breeders ' cup mile s . [ g1 - usa ] , shadwell stud nell gwyn s . [ g3 - eng ] , keio hai spring cup [ jpn ] highweight filly at 2 in ireland . 1994 highweight older mare in england , 7 - 9 . 5f 1995 highweight older mare in england , 7 - 9 . 5f ( close )\nfavored elizabeth bay , a french - trained filly , never got up with the leaders in the 12 - horse race and finished eighth .\ni have dreamed about this filly all winter ,\nswinburn said .\nall the sparkle was there .\nthe - racehorse is an online horse racing and breeding magazine with information on horse racing and breeding statistics .\nyour browser does not support javascript . please turn javascript on to get the best experience from urltoken\nthe shadeed mare claimed both the moyglare stud and cheveley park stakes in 1992 as a juvenile before going on to success in the 1000 guineas at newmarket the following year .\n\u2018she was a great horse and a pleasure to train . she had speed , class and a great heart , \u2019 brittain told urltoken .\nrt\u00e9 . ie is the website of raidi\u00f3 teilif\u00eds \u00e9ireann , ireland ' s national public service broadcaster . rt\u00e9 is not responsible for the content of external internet sites . images courtesy of urltoken and getty images\nkindly download attached sgs formatted resume , encode the details needed with complete information edit and send it back to [ email protected ] once accomplished .\nplease note that this resume will be submitted to the employer for review so please make sure it\u2019s well detailed ( job descriptions ) . kindly attached 2\u00d72 picture with white background color\nplease be informed that we are in the midst of processing the applications . before we include you in our shortlist , i\u2019m inviting you to report in our office to file an application and submit our requirements . likewise , have an initial interview . please manage your schedule and report at the soonest time .\nwe are located at room 504 & 505 pasda mansions # 77 panay ave . corner timog ave . quezon city . we\u2019re open from mondays through saturdays at 8am - 5pm\n4 pcs . 2\u00d72 size picture , valid passport . whole body picture ( business attire , any background color )\nyork sat , 26th aug , 17 p . u . , 10 / 1 , james doyle\nthe borzoi\u2019s coat is long and silky , and it can be flat , wavy , or rather curly .\nwelcome to the breed archive , a place for animal lovers , breed enthusiasts and pedigree addicts .\nour rules and guidelines will help you and others enjoy the breed archive ( tba ) . please remember to read the terms of use relating to this website . we make every effort to ensure the information published on this website is up to date and accurate but there is no guarantee that all information is correct at all times and tba cannot accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions .\nwe use cookies to give you the best experience on our site . cookies are files stored in your browser and are used by most websites to help personalise your web experience . by continuing to use our website without changing the settings , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . more information\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nsir michael stoute hailed walter swinburn as a\nnaturally gifted rider with a god - given talent\nafter the former jockey and trainer died at the age of 55 .\nforever associated with stoute ' s extraordinary 1981 derby winner shergar , swinburn suffered with weight issues throughout a glittering career in the saddle .\nyet despite his problems , he will always be remembered as a brilliant jockey and a man for the big occasion .\ni ' d drive him to the races and he slept the whole way there . he had a remarkable temperament for the big day .\nhe was just a naturally gifted rider with a god - given talent . the big days turned him on .\nwe had a great relationship . of course there were many times when he drove me absolutely mad , but he just had this unique talent .\nwe loved him riding the horses and he had a great relationship with the staff over a long period .\nthere was a vulnerability , but that maybe comes when you have as much talent as he did .\nswinburn suffered an awful fall at sha tin racecourse in 1996 and was placed in a coma for four days after he sustained severe head and chest injuries .\nbut he returned to action within six months , and at the end of the year won the breeders ' cup turf on the stoute - trained pilsudski .\nthe trainer added :\ni think the win on pilsudski gave him a great deal of satisfaction , that was a great day for us at woodbine .\nswinburn enjoyed many fine days in the colours of cheveley park stud , whose managing director chris richardson said :\ni am shocked at the news .\nwalter was an integral part for david and patricia thompson ' s cheveley park stud success in the 1990s .\nwonderful memories of gay gallanta and exclusive ' s group one successes , to name but two .\nleading french trainer criquette head - maarek described swinburn as\none of the greatest ever jockeys\n.\nhead - maarek and swinburn developed a fruitful association in the 1990s , most notably with hatoof , on whom the rider won the 1000 guineas and the champion stakes at newmarket .\nthe chantilly handler said :\nhe was such a talented rider . he had really soft hands and had fantastic judgement during races .\nwalter was a great boy and it is such a young age that he has died .\nin my opinion , i think he was one of the greatest ever jockeys .\nnicknamed the ' choirboy ' , he partnered shergar to derby glory at the age of 19 - one of three winners for swinburn in the epsom classic alongside shahrastani ( 1986 ) and lammtarra ( 1995 ) .\nswinburn also won the 1983 prix de l ' arc de triomphe on the filly all along , trained by patrick biancone .\nshergar and swinburn went on to claim the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes at ascot in their derby - winning year , with the jockey twice tasting success in the irish derby with shareef dancer ( 1983 ) and shahrastani ( 1986 ) .\nin 1987 , he again teamed up with stoute on the biggest stage to claim the oaks aboard unite .\nswinburn , seen here at chester in 2010 , went on to train and sent out more than 260 winners from his hertfordshire base .\nswinburn , who retired from the saddle in 2000 , and willie carson were great rivals during a golden age of gifted horsemen .\nthe former five - time champion jockey also highlighted swinburn ' s temperament as being one of his greatest attributes .\ncarson said :\nhe rode a derby winner before i even rode a winner at the same age . isn ' t that incredible ?\nhe got more excitement out of the big days than he did on the little days .\nreigning champion jockey jim crowley was in awe of swinburn ' s finesse in the saddle .\nhe told sky sports news :\nhe was a great guy . he was a gifted rider with beautiful hands .\nhe probably found it very easy and he was beautiful to watch .\nswinburn took over the training licence from his father - in - law , peter harris , in november 2004 and sent out over 260 winners from his hertfordshire base before he retired in october 2011 .\nby using this site , you agree we can set and use cookies . for more details of these cookies and how to disable them , see our cookie policy .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nformer leading jockey walter swinburn , who rode shergar to derby victory , died yesterday ( 12 december ) aged 55 .\nwalter was just 19 when he partnered shergar to the record - breaking 10 - length victory in the epsom derby in 1981 .\nthis was the first of walter\u2019s three derby victories , after which he took the 1986 race on shahrastani and again in 1995 aboard lammtarra .\nthe jockey and shergar went on to claim the king george vi & queen elizabeth stakes at ascot in their derby - winning year .\namong walter\u2019s many other notable wins was the 1983 prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe on the patrick biancone - trained filly all along , and the breeders\u2019 cup turf on pilsudksi in 1996 .\nin february 1996 , he had a horrific fall at sha tin after his ride liffey rider crashed through the railing at the hong kong racecourse , leaving him in intensive care for a week with head and chest injuries .\nsix months later , he won his first race back on talathath at windsor .\nwalter retired from race - riding in 2000 and went on to take over the training licence from his father - in - law , peter harris , in 2004 .\nhe enjoyed success as a trainer , with more than 260 winners , and handed in his licence at the end of october 2011 , citing financial reasons . he also spent some time on the channel 4 racing team .\n\u201cshocked with the awful news that walter swinburn has passed away , another jockey has gone too soon . immensely talented and gifted rider , \u201d three - time champion jockey richard hughes tweeted last night ( 12 december ) .\nretired grand national - winning jockey mick fitzgerald added walter was a \u201cgenius on a racehorse\u201d .\n\u201che had beautiful hands and looked like he was born to ride . may he rest in peace , \u201d he added .\nfrankie dettori said he was very saddened to hear the news of walter\u2019s passing .\n\u201c a true talent and gentleman , thoughts are with his family , \u201d he added .\n\u201cvery sad to hear about the death of walter swinburn , \u201d he said . \u201ca jockey that god hath retained . \u201d\nby submitting your information , you agree to the terms & conditions and privacy & cookies policy .\nplease keep me up to date with special offers and news from horse & hound and other brands operated by ti media limited via email . you can unsubscribe at any time .\nwe ' d also like to send you special offers and news just by email from other carefully selected companies we think you might like . your personal details will not be shared with those companies - we send the emails and you can unsubscribe at any time . please tick here if you are happy to receive these messages .\n\u00a9 copyright ti media limited . all rights reserved . terms & conditions | privacy policy | cookie consent\nafter two promising second places , brazos made it third time lucky as he got off the mark in the casino at bet365 maiden . the son of clodovil came through late to beat lyn valley and mystique rider by two necks and in the process give ryan moore his 100 th winner at goodwood .\nthe rider was more impressed with the colt than his own landmark .\nhe did that well and he ' ll be better for it ,\nhe said .\nhe ' ll be a nice horse .\ntold it was his century at the track , he said in typically dry deadpan style :\nis that all ? disappointing .\nbrazos ' s veteran trainer clive brittain was not present , but bruce raymond , racing manager to owner saeed manana , was as impressed as the jockey with the dark grey ' s effort .\nhe can go on from this quite a bit ,\nhe said .\nhe ' d been getting a bit keen in his races and he was better for being held up today .\nthe colt jibbed babyishly when asked to enter the winner ' s place , consenting to be led forward only after being unsaddled .\nhe ' s still green , still learning ,\nsaid raymond ,\nand he can furnish up physically as well .\nhe seemed to like the ease in the ground ; i think a lot of clodovils do . we might think about a race like the royal lodge stakes for him , but that ' s a bit of a way down the line yet .\n\ufffd20 , 000 total prize fund . for 2yo colts and geldings which are e . b . f . eligible , 6f . weights : 9st . penalty value 1st \ufffd12 , 938 . 00 2nd \ufffd3 , 850 . 00 3rd \ufffd1 , 924 . 00 4th \ufffd962 . 00\nsander camillo , timeform\u2019s second highest - rated ( 116p ) two - year - old filly of 2006 behind finsceal beo , made a disappointing return to action at newmarket on wednesday as she failed to land the odds in the group 3 shadwell nell gwyn stakes , finishing a neck second to scarlet runner .\nthe toby edmonds - trained tyzone is the ramornie handicap favourite ahead of his stablemate havasay .\ninvited for the second year running to ride at the vodacom durban july meeting in greyville , nooresh juglall made the trip to south africa count with one winner \u2013 just like last year .\nbon hoffa\u2019s g1 winning son bon aurum will stand at glen eden stud in victoria this spring .\nexciting sprinter nature strip was a sale ring reject who could be racing for a share of $ 13 million in the everest in october after recording another brilliant win at flemington on saturday .\nthe first indication that sander camillo possessed above - average ability came on her second appearance , in the eighteen - runner albany stakes at royal ascot for which she started favourite up against ten winners , including second favourite bahama mama , silk blossom and scarlet runner .\nsander camillo ' s reputation rather than her form was responsible for her heading the market . on her only previous start she had seemed to need the experience in a maiden race at newmarket in may , running on under hands and heels once she got the hang of things to finish fourth to another albany stakes contender bicoastal .\nbicoastal and the rest had no answer to sander camillo at ascot where she was always going strongly disputing the lead , quickened readily two furlongs out and was soon on top , running on strongly , despite drifting right , to account for silk blossom by a length and a half with scarlet runner third .\nthe albany stakes has proved a worthwhile addition to the royal meeting since its inauguration in 2002 , attracting an average of sixteen fillies and requiring a useful performance from its winners , duty paid , silca ' s gift , jewel in the sand and la chunga ( a 270 , 000 - dollar two - year - old purchase for sander camillo ' s owner ) .\nsander camillo was clearly in the same mould and , like jewel in the sand , she headed next for the chippenham lodge stud cherry hinton stakes at newmarket in july . like her predecessor , she completed the double , only in much more impressive style .\nall ten runners were winners but , despite the presence of unbeaten gilded carrying a 3 - lb penalty for winning the queen mary stakes , sander camillo started a hot favourite at 11 / 8 . next in the betting came alderney , four - length winner of a maiden at york , silk blossom , gilded , newmarket listed winner hope ' n ' charity and alzerra , who had landed a maiden at haydock .\nclose up and going well within herself from the outset as 100 / 1 - shot three decades led , sander camillo was soon in command after being given the office a quarter of a mile out , none of her rivals , headed by alzerra , finding anything in reply under pressure .\nby contrast , sander camillo continued to find more without coming under anything like full pressure , drawing clear and passing the post with five lengths to spare over alzerra , with gilded a neck away third . a breathtaking victory , one made colourful by the winner ' s rider frankie dettori sporting italian flags painted on his cheeks in celebration of italy ' s victory in the world cup .\nattraction suffered an injury but sander camillo remained fit , apart from having an unsatisfactory blood test result which caused her withdrawal from the lowther stakes won by silk blossom .\nhowever , sander camillo ' s connections bypassed the moyglare stud stakes and she was taken out of the prix marcel boussac six days beforehand and the cheveley park stakes on the day ."]}
{"id": 2446, "summary": [{"text": "sir taurus is a standardbred harness racehorse , foaled on march 20 , 1984 at lindy farms in somersville , connecticut in the united states .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "sir taurus ' sire was speedy crown , and his dam was vanessa hill .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "speedy crown 's sire was speedy scot , and his dam was missile toe ; vanessa hill 's sire was hickory pride , and her dam was viola hill . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "sir taurus", "paragraphs": ["sir taurus b 2 , 1 : 56 . 3m $ 484 , 810 1984 standardbred\nadd comment + no one has written a comment about sir taurus edward lahey . be the first\ni thank to taurus infotek & my father who support me in my process .\ndan was very active in the n . y . breeding program during the 1970s and 1980s . he stood sir taurus at his collins , ny farm for four years prior to moving him to blue chip farms in 1992 . sir taurus , now retired , still resides at blue chip . sir taurus turned 30 this year . dan was also the co - breeder of gallo blue chip , who retired as the sport ' s leading money winning pacer in 2005 .\ntaurus weekend reading . no thank you , i don ' t need you . 8 / 11\nall the best to you & taurus infotek . . . . . . . . . . .\nsir taurus will be headed to goshen ( n . y . ) historic track to watch some grand circuit racing action . first post on saturday will be 1 p . m .\nsir taurus ( gb ) g , 1983 { } dp = 1 - 7 - 6 - 0 - 2 ( 16 ) di = 2 . 20 cd = 0 . 31\nhe joked he should be called sir lancelot after being knighted , telling the bbc that\nsir billy doesn ' t quite have the same ring\nto it .\na special visitor was on - site at goshen historic track on saturday afternoon , eclipsing the popularity of even the horses running , according to a story in the times herald - record . sir taurus , a 30 - year - old retired champion standardbred , was behind the grandstand to pose for pictures . since retiring 27 years ago , sir taurus has rarely left the farm , [ \u2026 ]\nthe current race record for sir elmo ( nzl ) is 5 wins from 43 starts .\nsir malcolm mckibbin will remain in post under the talks deadline at stormont . picture by mal mccann\nsir taurus , the now 30 - year - old trotting stallion whose sons and daughters once dominated the new york sire stakes , will make a rare visit away from his home at blue chip farm on saturday , july 5 .\nsir malcolm mckibbin will step down on june 30 , following the next round of negotiations among politicians .\nformer champion jockey sir tony mccoy has put on two stone since retiring from his sport in 2015 .\nsir taurus , the now 30 - year - old trotting stallion whose sons and daughters once dominated the new york sire stakes , will make a rare visit away from his home at blue chip farm on saturday , july 5 . . . .\nit was my dream to go australia and today i actually got my visa . before coming to palwe sir my visa was denied . that was the time i decided to visit palwe sir . he gave me confidence when i was dissappointed . palwe sir really helped me in this process . once again thanks to mr . palwe .\nsir taurus is one of 43 horses featured in the new book , \u2018standardbred old friends . \u2019 the book features horses of distinction , most hall of fame members , some noted for long and productive blue collar careers , all now in the twilight of their lives .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for sir elmo ( nzl ) . sir elmo ( nzl ) is a gelding born in 2009 september 30 by spartacus out of almadaam\nthe book will be on sale to benefit goshen historic track near sir taurus\u2019 stall . author ellen harvey will be available to sign copies of the coffee table book that features the photos of acclaimed equine photographer barbara livingston . the track is located at 44 park place in goshen .\ni will always remember today is my golden day . it has happened because of only respected palwe sir & his team .\ntoday we both are very happy because our dream has come true . we got our visa . it happened only because of palwe sir & his team . we got our visa within six months . so we both are very thankful to palwe sir\nthe horse sir taurus2 - titlesir can ' t be found in the database . please check to see if you ' ve made a typo . otherwise , you can add sir taurus2 - titlesir to the database by simply entering sire / dam information .\n\u2022 design : taurus \u2022 1 toddler spoon \u2022 4 . 25\nx 1 . 125\n\u2022 made of silver - plated brass \u2022 care instructions \u2022 made in india\ni have no words to express my feeling . during this process i was very nervous but palwe sir always motivated me . really he is a very co - operative person . today i realise my decision was absolutely correct for selecting palwe sir for visa processing .\nsir billy connolly will receive another accolade from his home town later when he is made an honorary doctor of the university of strathclyde .\nsir henry has left the building ,\nthe police wrote on twitter .\nhe now lives with an anonymous identity .\nhowever , with no executive in place and a looming westminster election , sir malcolm has announced he will delay his retirement once again .\nat goshen , he will spend some time in a stall behind the grandstand and come out to greet visitors at 12 : 30 , 1 : 30 and 2 : 30 . in deference to his age and change in surroundings , sir taurus will be happy to be photographed on july 5 , but no petting please .\nthis is very unbelieveable that we got our visa in very less time . once again thank you very much palwe sir & his entire team .\nsir taurus was born on march 20 , 1984 , at lindy farm in somersville , connecticut . he raced for two years , 1986 and 1987 , winning $ 484 , 810 and stakes races such as the hanover stakes and multiple new york sire stakes . he was trained and driven by jimmy takter for the antonacci family and the late dan gernatt .\nthese days however , it seems that sir tony has allowed his body to put the weight back on with the help of a chocolate biscuit or two .\nhe celebrated his landmark birthday in march with a carrot cake featuring real carrots on top and a rousing chorus of \u2018happy birthday\u2019 from children at the cornwall presbyterian church sunday school . throughout his life , sir taurus , in addition to his fatherhood duties , has greeted visiting school children and scout groups at the farm . his easygoing nature allowed him to be the first horse ever touched for perhaps thousands of children .\nfadc members performed in their ninth amateur trot harness racing event last night at pompano park and it produced the first fall - winter win for joe pennacchio , driving his own mr . taurus to a come from behind 2 : 01 . 4f score .\nthey scooped him up and put him in a surgical glove box . an image shared to facebook shows sir henry taking in the sights as he ' s driven back to the station .\nthis is the happiest day in my life and all credit goes to mr . manoj palwe . he always helped me & guided me properly . so i am heartfully thankful to palwe sir .\nsir , is the second person after my parents who has all the credit of my dream come true . and at last but not the least thanks for the lovely support & a awesome visa .\nappointed in 2011 , sir malcolm had previously served as permanent secretary of the department of agriculture and rural development from 2007 to 2010 and was permanent secretary of the department for regional development from 2010 to 2011 .\nvictory sir has excellent manners and does all that is asked of him , and more . he has no limitations and can do anything from trail riding to horse shows . he is lower in the herd hierarchy .\nthe taurus star sign toddler spoon is a perfectly sized demitasse spoon made from 100 % food - safe solid brass , with the latin astrological name engraved on the front in a striking sans - serif and the corresponding symbol engraved on the back . a charming way to commemorate a child\u2019s birthday .\nreaching australia was my dream , and this dream came true only because of mr . manoj palwe & other members of taurus infotek . mr . manoj palwe guided me correctly to obtain my wife ' s and my visa together . without his guidance & support nothing was possible i would once again thank to mr . palwe & his team\npalwe sir helped me , supported me and guided me through out the process . it was his clarity and transparency that took me through this tough process . i am really thankful to him . all i can say about him is\nperfectionist\n.\nsir tony was undergoing a check - up at randox laboratories healthcare company , and while blood tests showed he was healthy on the whole , his cholesterol level was flagged up , and it also raised the spectre of diabetes which runs in the family .\ntoday , i got my visa ; firstly i want to dedicate my feelings to my parents & my counselor mr . manoj palwe . i have no words to explain my feelings . i got my visa only because of my parents & palwe sir and his entire team .\nmichelle miller rode kash now to victory in tuesday ' s new york state monte series event at waterloo , ny . the ten - year - old el paso kash - nowerlandmspauline - sir taurus mare , trained by michael miller , scored in 2 : 12h to defeat striking mystery and jennifer lowrey . the winner now has combined sulky / monte earnings of $ 42 , 728 . separately , the july 19 monte race scheduled for georgian downs has been cancelled based on rus ontario and georgian downs ' ian fleming agreement to delay until more riders , trainers and horses can become qualified . more qualifiers are planned including friday at mohawk . urltoken by thomas h . hicks , for urltoken\ni got my visa with transparent procedure . this kind of procedure can be done only by mr . manoj palwe in pune . i will write down this day as the most happiest day in my life . so i am very happy & i would like to say many many thanks to palwe sir & his team .\ntwo reasons : the styling , which evoked toyota\u2019s then - new lexus luxury line , and roominess . camrys that toyota had imported to the states up until then had hewed to a japanese market restriction of being no more than 67 inches wide . for 1992 , toyota decided to build a separate model just for the north american and australian markets that was 70 inches wide . in so doing , it created a competitor to the 71 - inch - wide ford taurus , which it would go on to dethrone as the most popular sedan in the u . s . in 1997 . it\u2019s held that honor for all but one year since .\nas a racehorse , victory sir amassed almost $ 294 , 000 , winning 38 races over 13 consecutive years on 13 different racetracks ! he\u2019s been an outstanding racehorse and is so extra deserving of a loving home that will spoil him with affection during retirement . he\u2019ll be an excellent partner to ride or drive around the farm or on the trails . he has no bad habits and is an easy keeper - there\u2019s nothing not to love about this dear sweet horse\u2013 even his name is classy !\nat the bbc , attenborough faced two obstacles . first , the station had little to no programming devoted to the natural sciences , and second , his boss thought that attenborough\u2019s teeth were too big for him to be an on - air personality . despite these hindrances , however , attenborough persevered , taking small steps forward on the path toward his ultimate destiny . he started out producing the quiz show animal , vegetable , mineral ? and then moved on to co - host a program called the pattern of animals with naturalist sir julian huxley .\nhere\u2019s our thinking : during the 1970s , jaguar reliability was horrid . a common solution to the car\u2019s troubles was to rip out the jaguar motor and replace it with a good old chevrolet v8 . but in the 1980s , under the leadership of an industrial turnaround specialist , sir john egan , the marque started to improve . then ford bought the company , infusing money and development know - how . by the late 1990s , the company was scoring well on j . d . power vehicle dependability and initial quality rankings . so that\u2019s why the last iteration of the classic jaguar inline - 6 sedan is still motoring on , often in the hands of a second owner who\u2019s always hankered for a jag but couldn\u2019t afford one new .\nthe blue chip mare program has produced industry leading in foal rates across the board which lead to substantial cost savings to your bottom line . learn more about moving your mare to blue chip .\n\u00a9 blue chip farms . all rights reserved . \u00b7 website developed by able engine\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, the now 30 - year - old trotting stallion whose sons and daughters once dominated the new york sire stakes , will make a rare visit away from his home at blue chip farm on saturday , july 5 , to goshen ( n . y . ) historic track during grand circuit racing , which starts at 1 p . m . that day .\nthe bay stallion with a distinctive white blaze has sired nearly 700 foals , who earned $ 23 . 7 million combined . his best known performer is approved action , who won $ 715 , 676 . of his 546 starters , 145 won races in better than 2 : 00 .\nwas born on march 20 , 1984 , at lindy farm in somersville , connecticut . he raced for two years , 1986 and 1987 , winning $ 484 , 810 and stakes races such as the hanover stakes and multiple new york sire stakes . he was trained and driven by\nhe celebrated his landmark birthday in march with a carrot cake featuring real carrots on top and a rousing chorus of\nhappy birthday\nfrom children at the cornwall presbyterian church sunday school . throughout his life ,\n, in addition to his fatherhood duties , has greeted visiting school children and scout groups at the farm . his easygoing nature allowed him to be the first horse ever touched for perhaps thousands of children .\nat goshen , he will spend some time in a stall behind the grandstand and come out to greet visitors at 12 : 30 , 1 : 30 and 2 : 30 . in deference to his age and change in surroundings ,\nwill be happy to be photographed on july 5 , but no petting please .\n. the book features horses of distinction , most hall of fame members , some noted for long and productive blue collar careers , all now in the twilight of their lives .\n' stall . author ellen harvey will be available to sign copies of the coffee table book that features the photos of acclaimed equine photographer barbara livingston . the track is located at 44\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe bay stallion that sports a distinctive white blaze has sired nearly 700 foals . his progeny has earned a combined $ 23 . 7 million in purses . his best known performer is approved action , who won $ 715 , 676 . of his 546 starters , 145 won races in better than 2 : 00 .\nthis story courtesy of harness racing communications , a division of the u . s . trotting association . for more information , visit www . ustrotting . com .\n\u00a9 2018 standardbred canada . all rights reserved . use of this site signifies your agreement and compliance with the legal disclaimer and privacy policy .\ncolor : b height : 2 , 1 : 56 . 3m $ 484 , 810 2 , 1 : 56 . 3m $ 484 , 810 ( close )\nspeedy crown * b 3 , 1 : 57 . 1m $ 545 , 495 1968 standardbred\nspeedy scot * b 3 , 1 : 56 . 4m $ 650 , 909 1960 standardbred\nscotch love * b 2 , t2 : 04 . 3m $ 8 , 345 1954 standardbred\nvictory song * br 4 , 1 : 57 . 3m $ 73 , 859 1943\nselka scot b 4 , 2 : 13 . 3h $ 1 , 408 1945\nmissile toe b 3 , 2 : 05 . 2h $ 22 , 362 1962 standardbred\nworth a plenty b 3 , t2 : 02 . 2m $ 7 , 560 1954 standardbred\nsparkle plenty b 3 , 2 : 07 . 3h $ 5 , 990 1948\nvanessa hill br p , 3 , 2 : 00 . 4f $ 112 , 584 1972 standardbred\nstars pride * br 5 , 1 : 57 . 1m $ 140 , 969 1947 standardbred\nb f coaltown b 3 , t2 : 00 . 1m $ 78 , 845 1960 standardbred\nsis rodney b 3 , t2 : 05 . 3m $ 7 , 066 1951\nvickie hill b 3 , 2 : 07 . 2h $ 16 , 639 1961 standardbred\ncolumbus , oh - - - daniel r . gernatt sr . , died monday in his home after a brief illness . he was 97 .\ncopyright \u00a92018 the united states trotting association . all rights reserved . this material may not be published , broadcast , rewritten or redistributed in any form without the expressed , written consent of the u . s . trotting association . please review our privacy policy maintained online by webmaster @ urltoken . united states trotting association 6130 s . sunbury rd . , westerville , ohio 43081 1 - 877 - 800 - usta mon . - fri . 8 a . m . - 4 : 30 p . m . est site map\nthe home of over 5 . 1 million full archive pages of the philadelphia inquirer and philadelphia daily news print editions\neasily clip , save and share what you find with family and friends . starting at $ 7 . 95 per month\neasily download and save what you find . starting at $ 2 . 95 per full article\npublisher ray paulick ( 859 312 . 2102 ) director of advertising emily alberti ( 859 913 . 9633 ) editor - in - chief scott jagow features editor natalie voss bloodstock editor joe nevills racing news editor chelsea hackbarth contributing writers sarah e . coleman frank mitchell tom pedulla jen roytz denise steffanus photography equisport photos ( matt and wendy wooley ) eric kalet business manager carol paulick\nurltoken is published by blenheim publishing llc , 3070 lakecrest circle , suite 400 - 292 , lexington , ky 40513 . copyright blenheim publishing llc .\n\u00a9 2012 - 2018 op . gg . data based on league of legends north america .\nthis site uses cookies . by continuing to browse this site , you are agreeing to our cookie policy .\nyour browser has javascript disabled . if you would like to use all features of this site , it is mandatory to enable javascript .\nthis is a dog pedigree , used by breeders and breed enthusiasts to see the ancestry and line - breeding of that individual dog . the pedigree page also contains links to the dogs siblings and progeny ( if any exist ) . for dog owners with purebred dogs this is an excellent resource to study their dog ' s lineage .\nthe outsized proportions of these 24 - ounce grand vessels are befitting of the celestial constellations , so it seemed apt to embellish them with a celebration of the zodiac . we\u2019ve dressed these mugs to the nines , with bespoke black and shimmering gold designs . whether you\u2019re a loyal pisces , a glamorous libra , or an unpredictable gemini \u2013 we\u2019ve got one in your honor .\nwe promise to never spam you , and just use your email address to identify you as a valid customer .\nthis product hasn ' t received any reviews yet . be the first to review this product !\na closer look at the eight new york sire stakes divisional leaders and their biggest threats in the $ 1 . 8 million night of champions at yonkers raceway september 22nd ( first of eight parts ) .\nveteran harness racing driver dan daley earned his 1 , 000th - career victory , while hay goodlooking achieved his initial local open pacing triumph of the season during saturday night ' s 12 - race program at vernon downs .\nit was a career night for young harness racing driver brett crawford on wednesday ( may 23 ) at saratoga casino and raceway .\nfinancial glider has returned to the harness racing track in good order after her first foal was sold last fall . on the wednesday evening , may 9 program at the isle casino racing pompano park , mickey mcnichol was in the bike to find the winning trip for the 8 - year - old in 1 : 58 in a mid - level conditioned trotting event for a $ 5 , 500 purse .\nyou won ' t be able to talk reason to a stubborn relative . you ' re dealing with someone who is intent on taking an impractical path . let them make their own choices . you may be forced to eat their words when this family member finds success . this isn ' t a good time to sign a contract . you ' ll feel pressured to give away more than you can afford . if you can hang on just another few days , you should be able to strike a much better deal .\nquestions about love , relationships , career or life in general . . ? call russell grant ' s team of psychics on 1580 444 578 ( \u20ac2 . 44c per minute ) or to pay by credit / debit card call local rate 01 686 9301 and quote dig46 to get 5 free minutes when you book a 20 minute reading !\n1580 calls cost \u20ac2 . 44c per minute plus network extras . 18 + only . all calls are recorded for your protection and safety . this entertainment service is regulated by comreg and is provided by rga , po box 322 , altrincham , cheshire , wa15 8yl .\ngoing out ? staying in ? from great gigs to film reviews and listings , entertainment has you covered .\nsharp objects , zoe , oitnb - what ' s new to netflix , amazon prime , and sky . . .\n' it ' s too hot . okay , there i said it ' - here\u2019s how ireland is ( not ) coping with the . . .\nwatch : hilarious reactions as daughter leaps from cardboard box to make surprise visit . . .\ngorillaz - the band fronted by damon albarn - had their set at danish . . .\nwatch : ' the more drama , the better ' - theo and chyna play the love island ' real or . . .\nwatch : ' a feast for the senses ' - national geographic ' s immersive symphonic show . . .\nwatch a bear enjoying itself in the hot tub of a california . . .\nlove island is set for another cull with two contestants due to be dumped .\n' i ' m intrigued by it but i would never do it ' - marty morrissey rules himself out of . . .\nsacha baron cohen teases new show billed as ' perhaps the most dangerous show in . . .\nhollywood mogul harvey weinstein bailed after pleading not guilty to third set of . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ni was looking forward to build a strong career for myself and i was really desparate for it . hence i applied for australia pr . but due to technical error or may be bad luck , my tra was rejected thrice . then i decided to meet mr . palwe and came to know that luck is never a shortfall .\nme the patel is now a very glad person to express the hearty compliments regarding the achievement of dreams that was bowed before one year , but has become the reality now just because of a genius man mr . manoj palwe & his team .\ntoday , i am very happy because i got my visa after 3 years . it was my dream to work in australia . it came true because of mr . palwe & his team .\nthank you very much . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .\nonce again thank you . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .\ntoday i am very happy because i got pr visa for australia . today my dream came true because of mr . manoj palwe . he is like a god for me . i dedicate this realisation of my dream to my parents .\ndespite a career devoted to celebrating and preserving wildlife , david attenborough has a deep dislike of rats .\n\u201ci ' m not an animal lover if that means you think things are nice if you can pat them , but i am intoxicated by animals . \u201d\nnaturalist and television personality david attenborough is the father of the modern nature documentary .\ndavid attenborough was born in london , england , in 1926 . after studying the natural sciences at the university of cambridge , he began his career as a producer at the bbc , where he launched the successful zoo quest series . attenborough was made controller of bbc two in 1965 and later its director of programming . during his tenure the station crossed over to color television , and attenborough was instrumental in expanding its natural history content . attenborough left the bbc to begin writing and producing various series , including the smash hit life on earth , which set the standards for the modern nature documentary . since then attenborough has written , produced , hosted and narrated countless award - winning , nature - focused programs and has devoted his life to celebrating and preserving wildlife .\nfamed naturalist and television personality david frederick attenborough was born on may 8 , 1926 , in a suburb of london , england . the second of three boys born to a university principal and a writer , he and his brothers would all find great success in their chosen careers , which would take them far from the city of leicester , where they were raised .\nindeed . david\u2019s older brother richard attenborough would become an academy award\u2013winning actor and director , and his younger brother , john would become a top executive at the italian car company alfa romeo . but despite their notable achievements , neither brother would lead a life as full of adventure and travel nor become as internationally beloved as david .\ndespite the relative urban surroundings in which he lived , david attenborough\u2019s fascination with the natural world developed early and by the age of seven he had assembled a sizable collection of bird eggs and fossils . a lecture by famous naturalist grey owl that he attended in 1936 only served to deepen his interest , and after graduating from high school he was awarded a scholarship to study the natural sciences at the university of cambridge . upon completing his studies in 1947 , attenborough was called to serve for two years in the royal navy . however , any hopes he had that this would be his chance to see the world were dashed when he was posted to a ship in wales .\nin 1949 attenborough returned to london and found work as an editor for an educational publisher . the following year he began a training program at the bbc . in 1952 attenborough completed his training and began working for the television station as a producer , thus marking the beginning of what would be a milestone career , both at the bbc and far , far beyond it .\nattenborough married jane oriel in 1950 until her death in 1997 from a brain hemorrhage . the couple had two children together : a son and daughter .\nbut attenborough was dissatisfied with the format of shows such as these , which often brought animals out of their natural habitats and into the distressing environment of a television studio . seeking to break with this unfortunate tradition , in 1954 attenborough launched a series titled zoo quest . the program filmed animals not only in captivity , but also in the wild , with the film crews traveling far and wide to capture images of the animals . with its on - location yet respectfully distant approach to filming wildlife , zoo quest established what are now the general standards for nature documentaries . the show was so successful with viewers that in 1957 the bbc established its natural history unit .\ndespite his growing success , attenborough left the bbc in early 1960s to study social anthropology at the london school of economics . when bbc two was created in 1965 , however , attenborough was asked to return to the station as its controller . in both this capacity and as director of programming for both the bbc and bbc two , attenborough continued to collect milestones , pioneering such educational series as the ascent of man and civilisation , overseeing the bbc\u2019s transition to color television and having the wisdom to sign up an oddball comedy series called monty python\u2019s flying circus , starring john cleese and terry gilliam among others . in recognition of his contributions , in 1970 the british academy honored him with its desmond davis award . yet attenborough could not shake the passion that had remained with him since his youth , and in 1972 he resigned from his post at the bbc to follow his dreams into the wild .\nafter leaving the bbc , attenborough began to write and produce tv series as a freelancer and quickly established himself with a string of successful programs , including eastwards with attenborough ( 1973 ) , which featured an anthropological study of indonesia , and the tribal eye ( 1975 ) , which examined tribal art throughout the world . but attenborough\u2019s greatest success would come in 1976 , when his program life on earth first aired . a 96 - episode examination of the role of evolution in nature , the show took attenborough and his crews around the globe , using cutting - edge filming techniques to bring wildlife into homes worldwide , gaining an estimated viewing audience of more than 500 million .\nthe success of life on earth made david attenborough a household name and , in the decades that followed , allowed him to write , produce and host countless other series , including the trials of life ( 1990 ) , which focused on animal development and behavior ; the private life of plants ( 1995 ) , which used time - lapse photography to explore the botanical world ; attenborough in paradise ( 1996 ) , about his personal - favorite animals , birds of paradise ; and the 10 - part series the life of birds ( 1998 ) , for which he won a peabody award . he has also narrated numerous other programs , including the bbc\u2019s wildlife on one , which ran for 250 episodes from 1977 to 2005 , and the 2006 series planet earth , the biggest wildlife documentary ever made and the first show to air in hd on the bbc .\nthe advancement of his age has done little to slow the intrepid attenborough , who into his 80s has continued both his globetrotting and his prolific output . completing his life trilogy , 2008 saw the airing of his series life in cold blood , an examination of reptiles , and in 2012 he began a series of programs filmed in 3 - d for the sky television network . attenborough\u2019s lifelong commitment to the natural world has also led him toward ecological activism both on the air and offscreen . he wrote and produced the environmentally themed state of the planet ( 2000 ) and saving planet earth ( 2007 ) . he is a patron of the organizations population matters , which examines the impact of human populations growth on the natural world , and the world land trust , which buys rainforests around the globe with the aim of preserving their wildlife .\nduring his lifetime of achievement , david attenborough has received myriad honors . he was knighted in 1985 , received the order of merit from queen elizabeth in 2002 and holds at least 31 honorary degrees from british universities , including oxford and cambridge . he published his biography , life on air , in 2002 , and in 2012 was the subject of the bbc documentary attenborough : 60 years in the wild . in 2014 a poll revealed that he was considered to be the most trustworthy public figure in britain . attenborough is also the most traveled person in recorded human history , and is the oldest person to have ever visited the north pole . but in perhaps the most fitting tribute of all , several species of plants , insects and birds have been graced with attenborough\u2019s name , ensuring that it will live alongside the many creatures that he has spent his life celebrating and protecting .\nwe strive for accuracy and fairness . if you see something that doesn ' t look right , contact us !\ndavid frost was an english media personality best known for his 1977 interviews with president richard nixon , which were adapted for a play and the critically acclaimed film frost / nixon . frost hosted several television programs in the united states and britain .\na 90 - minute documentary david bowie : the last five years , has begun airing on hbo . previously broadcast on british tv , the film includes new bowie footage and interviews with musicians , producers , and directors who worked with him on his final tour .\ndavid suchet is a british actor who became known to international audiences as agatha christie ' s detective hercule poirot .\ndavid hartman is an actor and tv personality who got his big break in 1975 as the first host of the morning show good morning america .\ndavid oyelowo is a classically trained stage actor also known for screen projects like ' spooks , ' ' as you like it , ' ' red tails , ' ' lincoln ' and ' the butler . '\nin an interview with \u2018the guardian , \u2019 david lynch quasi - endorsed donald trump , which the president tweeted . while the director isn\u2019t sure trump\u2019s doing a good job , \u201che could go down as one of the greatest presidents in history because he has disrupted the thing so much , \u201d he said .\nactor david duchovny is best known for his award - winning roles on the tv series ' the x - files ' and ' californication . '\nproducer , writer and actor larry david wrote for saturday night live , wrote and produced the sitcom seinfeld and created hbo ' s curb your enthusiasm .\n\u00a9 2018 bio and the bio logo are registered trademarks of a & e ; television networks , llc .\ndoes venus rule your profession / career / business that you are currently engaged in ? from ancient times , venus represented the entertainer and the things that people are passionate about and even today it does . however things have changed a lot every since . today venus rules many important careers or business activities in the world . venus rules cinema , tv , fashion , photography , animation , graphics , youtube . watch this video to find out what are the other professions ( careers ) and types of business activity that venus ( shukra ) is involved with these days .\n* new customers only . turnover and bet requirements apply . t & c ' s apply . excl nsw , wa , sa & vic . gamble responsibly .\n* new customers only . turnover & bet requirements apply . t & c ' s apply . excl nsw , wa , sa & vic . gamble responsibly .\nis gambling a problem for you ? call gambling help on 180 0858 858 or visit www . gamblinghelponline . org . au\nyour screen name will be seen by the racenet community when you participate in discussions or comment on our content .\nyou ' ll receive an email shortly with instructions on how to reset your password .\nif you would like a reading with me you can visit my website for a list of all my services or email me at : save big ! ! running through labor day sale 40 % - 50 % percent off of personal readings ( private video readings only ) . follow the link below to order a video reading with me . theearlyblogger @ urltoken urltoken thank you for all of your likes , comments , shares and subscribes !\nuranus in houses . dealing with difficult uranus transits & birth positions . astro - psychologer diana\nequine now horses for sale online horse classified ads . sell your horse for free . stallions now stallion directory online stallion directory . find a stallion to breed your mare to . thoroughbred database thoroughbred only pedigree database with 1 , 000 , 000 + horses . online dog pedigrees pedigree online ' s dog database offers free pedigree reports for millions of dogs of all breeds and is completely open to the public . use the search form above to find a dog pedigree now .\ndid you know that all breed pedigree is nearly 20 year old ? the database was designed when the internet was in its infancy , and while it has served people well for a long time it ' s also long overdue for an overhaul to embrace some newer technologies . we ' ve started the process of redesigning the database by launching a brand new dog pedigree database . this project will eventually serve as the framework for an updated all breed pedigree database . if you have dogs or breed dogs , we encourage you to use our new site by adding dogs and giving us feedback .\npedigree online ' s all breed pedigree database consists of more than 5 . 7 million horses from around the world cover all breeds of horses . if this is your first time visiting the site , you can pull up the pedigree for any horses in the database by simply entering it ' s name in the form above and clicking the\nhorse query\nbutton . for more about using this site or reading pedigrees , make sure to check out the help menu . parts of this site are free , while advanced options and features require you to be a subscriber .\n. using the tool , you can select custom colors , fonts , and build professional looking pedigree charts for your websites in a matter of minutes .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nxhtml11 . dtd\ncopyright bulldog pedigree 2007 all rights reserved . admin @ pedigrees . dog , last update : today\nfondly known as the big yin , he will be recognised for his contribution to society at a university graduation ceremony in the barony hall in glasgow on thursday .\nthe comedian , who is to get a knighthood in the queen ' s birthday honours list , will celebrate his 75th birthday this year .\nhe grew up in the partick area of the city and worked in the govan shipyards before pursuing a career as a folk singer in the humblebums alongside the late gerry rafferty .\nothers receiving honorary degrees from the university include dr max nikias , president of the university of southern california ; nigel whitehead , group managing director of bae systems ; nigel cantwell , an international consultant on child protection ; and richard hunter , convener of court at the university of strathclyde .\nawards will also be given for alumna and alumnus of the year to baroness nosheena mobarik and calum paterson respectively .\nabout 3 , 000 students will be graduating from the ceremonies being held between june 22 and 30 .\nadvertising contact help aol app about our ads supply chain transparency oath uk ltd . gender pay report\nofficers found the cuddly critter outside a hospital after concerned patients spotted him crawling through the bushes .\n# sirhenry has left the building . ein kollege mit herz hat ihn heute abgeholt . er lebt nun mit alias - personalie anonym in # karow . ^ tsm urltoken\neventually , he was taken to a local shelter \u2014 but not for long \u2014 as one of the officers returned to adopt him .\nthe nanny ' s gut told her something was very wrong . then the dad watched the chilling cctv\nhomeless man is the only bystander willing to risk it all for a cop . . .\nfamily dog was missing for a month without a trace before their . . .\nhungry leopard chases down a baby antelope . . . then does the most . . .\ndog is chained outside for 15 years until a freak accident changes . . .\neco - responsible and size - inclusive - we ' re super excited about . . .\num , are j . lo and a - rod engaged ? their fans seem to think so\nmichio kaku sees amazing things in our future , except for th . . .\nfirst two boys rescued from flooded thai cave , according to local of . . .\nif you\u2019d like to allow notifications , please go into your browser\u2019s website or privacy settings and set the permissions for urltoken to \u201callow . \u201d\nthe head of the northern ireland civil service has deferred his retirement again until after the talks deadline at stormont .\nit is the second time the north ' s most senior civil servant has deferred his retirement due to the political impasse . he had initially announced he would stand down in january , but was asked to remain in post until april .\nhis initial deferral came after the late martin mcguinness resigned as deputy first minister , triggering the collapse of the assembly .\nhe has led the civil service through its most radical change programme since the 1970s , overseeing the reduction in the number of government departments from 12 to nine and reducing the size of the civil service by 17 per cent through the voluntary exit scheme .\nthe 42 - year - old underwent hot baths , saunas and extreme dieting in order to keep his weight down to around 10st 3lb when racing , while his healthy weight would have been closer to 12st .\nhe said : \u201cthere\u2019s nights i would eat the whole packet\u2026it is not something i am proud of . for someone that had pretty good willpower it is not anywhere near as good as it used to be . \u201d\nbut he joked : \u201cmaybe i need to come out of retirement just to get myself back , get my diet back to a more healthy lifestyle , even though people thought it was unhealthy . \u201d\njust had my @ randoxhealth check\u2026 . not surprisingly the doc didn ' t think a lot of my medical history ! ! urltoken\n\u201cwhen i was racing i was unhealthy looking , \u201d he said . \u201ceverybody tells me now i am healthy looking , but yet there are things i need to keep an eye on , like my cholesterol , the possibility of diabetes .\n\u201ci spent all my life dieting but it is something i actually do need to ( do ) . because my body was so used to that i cannot really let my lifestyle change too much . i am two stone heavier than i was a year and a half ago .\n\u201cthe biggest problem that we have in the world is that most of us only go to the doctor whenever we are ill . prevention is so much better than any cure . \u201d\ndoes anyone know anybody in the racing . . . - standardbred retirement , a second chance , townsend , de | facebook\nhe\u2019s a quiet horse that will excel in a home with a kind owner that enjoys spending time with him . he does not form new connections easily , but when he does bond to his caretaker or rider , it is very strong . in fact , he will prefer being with his \u2018person\u2019 over being with another horse . this trait is wonderful to see in a horse because they become so very loyal to their person .\ngoshen \u2014 the star of the show at goshen historic track on saturday afternoon didn ' t wind up in the winner ' s circle .\nchoose the plan that ' s right for you . digital access or digital and print delivery .\n\u00a9 copyright 2006 - 2018 gatehouse media , llc . all rights reserved \u2022 gatehouse sports32\noriginal content available for non - commercial use under a creative commons license , except where noted . urltoken ~ 40 mulberry st . , middletown , ny 10940 ~ privacy policy ~ terms of service\nchoose the plan that\u2019s right for you . digital access or digital and print delivery .\n1100 13th street , nw , suite 750 washington , dc 20005 202 . 887 . 6400 toll - free : 800 . 544 . 0155\ncars in general have become more reliable over the years . yet there are some models that just seem to keep rolling along , whistling past the junkyard . pinpointing exactly how many miles , on average , any given model has racked up is virtually impossible , but we ' ve identified 15 cars with exceptional\u2014sometimes surprising\u2014endurance and value .\nwe bet you\u2019ve seen one of these still cruising the highway recently . oh , and if you\u2019re wondering where your beloved ford f - 150 or other truck is , note that we skipped traditional trucks altogether . trucks are supposed to last forever .\n( editor ' s note : the author has owned a couple of these cars , and he teased a full 15 years out of a vw passat , a model that , unlike the cars featured here , has a bit of a death wish . )\nhere\u2019s a wager : next time you\u2019re out for a spin , watch for a nondescript , tan or silver four - door . good chance it\u2019s a honda accord .\ncombine reliability and best - selling status\u2014a true virtuous cycle\u2014and you get ubiquity . exactly what it is about honda that provides such durability is the subject of much debate ( and much corporate envy / espionage involving honda\u2019s design and manufacturing processes ) . but surely some of it has to do with the fact that honda motor company puts its engines and engineering first . look up honda accord in consumer reports ' ratings and you will see a sea of red dots that indicate owners have darn few problems with these cars .\nthe smaller honda civic shares much of the quality but is more likely to be modified by its owners to look flashier and run louder , with maintenance simultaneously neglected . so the accord gets our nod .\nbehold the last of the big american station wagons . this general motors behemoth offers an appealing combination of reliable , modern ( ish ) technology and retro looks .\nin the later years of its production , the roadmaster was armed with a honking 5 . 7 - liter v8 closely related to the chevy corvette\u2019s to move all that mass . rear - facing third - row seats , wood paneling on the sides , shifter on the steering column\u2014all the elements of the great american wagon are there . you can even squeeze a third passenger up front if the ruckus in back gets too loud . \u201ccheap to insure , \u201d says kevin cullinane of bethesda , md . , who has owned two of these big boys as well as a lot of other older american iron , and \u201cparts are cheap and plentiful . \u201d with a gentle foot on the gas , cullinane gets 17 miles per gallon in town , and 23 to 24 mpg on the highway . \u201cquite a feat for a car this weight and size , \u201d he says .\nthe wagons seem to have outlasted their mechanically identical sedan brethren , such as the bulbous chevy caprice that was a fixture of police and taxi fleets in the 1990s . lower - stress suburban living may be the reason . closely related but scarcer : the chevy impala wagon and oldsmobile custom cruiser .\nthe geo prizm is one of a number of vehicles that have at their core one of the most reliable cars ever : the toyota corolla . but while the corolla\u2019s longevity goes unremarked , the prizm and its stable - mates cause head - scratching as they soldier on into their second or even third decade : what is that thing ? how is it still running ?\nthis corolla clone ( marketed as a chevrolet at one point ) also appeared as the chevy nova ( 1984 - 1988 ) and the pontiac vibe ( 2002 - 2010 ) . all of these cars were the product of a toyota - gm joint venture called nummi , a fremont , calif . factory that built nearly 8 million vehicles of toyota\u2019s basic design before it closed down in 2010 . these were the first toyotas assembled in the u . s . , and the story of how this location\u2019s jaded united auto workers workforce learned the \u201ctoyota way\u201d and turned out cars just as good as the ones built in japan is a fascinating one ( you can listen to it in an episode of the public radio show \u201cthis american life\u201d ) ."]}
{"id": 2447, "summary": [{"text": "bursatella leachii , common name the ragged sea hare or shaggy sea hare , is a species of large sea slug or sea hare , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family aplysiidae , the sea hares . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "bursatella leachii", "paragraphs": ["bursatella leachii - ap biology exam from : stacy b . , september 26 , 2001\nbehavior patterns of the aplysiid gastropod bursatella leachii in its natural habitat and in the laboratory .\nbursatella leachii from turkey from : m . kazak & l . cavas , november 24 , 2007\nbehavior patterns of the aplysiid gastropod bursatella leachii in its natural habitat and in the laboratory . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe following reference provides an interesting account of the larval biology of bursatella leachii plei , a subspecies from the west atlantic . it also has an extensive bibliography on bursatella research .\ndistinguishing characteristics eales and engel ( 1935 ) reviewed the genus bursatella and considered that there was a single species world - wide , b . leachii , which for convenience they divided into several geographical subspecies . here we do not recognize this sub - division and treat the mediterranean subspecies b . leachii leachii and b . leachii savignyana as synonyms .\nupper : b . leachii leachii - coffs harbour region , northern new south wales , australia . december 1990 . photo : bill rudman . lower : b . leachii plei - santa marta bay , colombia , carribean . photo : phanor montoya\ndear phanor , your animal is not a sacoglossan . it is bursatella leachii which is a sea hare . some scientists have split this worldwide species into geographic subspecies . if we follow that proposal then your caribbean animal is bursatella leachii plei . bursatella feeds on blue - green algae and the filamentous algal film found on sand , mud and hard surfaces .\n( of bursatella leachii lacinulata gould , 1852 ) rudman , w . b . ( 2007 ) . comment on bursatella leachii subspecies by augusto medeiros . [ message in ] sea slug forum . [ message in ] sea slug forum . australian museum , sydney . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of bursatella leachii africana ( engel , 1926 ) ) rudman , w . b . ( 2007 ) . comment on bursatella leachii subspecies by augusto medeiros . [ message in ] sea slug forum . [ message in ] sea slug forum . australian museum , sydney . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of bursatella leachii rosea ( engel , 1926 ) ) rudman , w . b . ( 2007 ) . comment on bursatella leachii subspecies by augusto medeiros . [ message in ] sea slug forum . [ message in ] sea slug forum . australian museum , sydney . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of bursatella leachii lacinulata gould , 1852 ) eales , n . & engel , h . 1935 . the genus bursatella de blainville . proceedings of the malacological society of london 21 : 279 - 303 , plate 31 . [ details ]\n( of bursatella leachii africana ( engel , 1926 ) ) eales , n . & engel , h . 1935 . the genus bursatella de blainville . proceedings of the malacological society of london 21 : 279 - 303 , plate 31 . [ details ]\n( of bursatella leachii rosea ( engel , 1926 ) ) eales , n . & engel , h . 1935 . the genus bursatella de blainville . proceedings of the malacological society of london 21 : 279 - 303 , plate 31 . [ details ]\nsearch for ' bursatella leachii ' returned 8 matching records . click on one of the taxon names listed below to check the details . [ new search ] [ direct link ]\ngood morning , i\u00b4m working on bursatella leachii and , as you said , some authors have divided the world population of it into geographic subspecies . i\u00b4d like to know if there are papers that make the comparison between them and if you could tell me the name of all known b . leachii subspecies .\nthanks for these photos of bursatella leachii from the caribbean . as i have mentioned before , it seems that caribbean animals lack the blue or greeen ' eyespots ' so characteristic of the species elsewhere in the world .\nreference : \u2022 paige , ja . ( 1988 ) . biology , metamorphosis and postlarval development of bursatella leachii plei rang ( gastropoda : opisthobranchia ) . bulletin of marine science , 42 ( 1 ) : 65 - 75 .\ndear jan , from your description of its ' trendrils ' and the purple liquid , i would guess your animal is bursatella leachii . if you have a look at the other messages on the bursatella leachii page you will find some photos of it from various parts of the world . in fact i am posting a message today from eastern australia of an animal squirting out its purple ink . have a look at the sea hares page for lots more information on this group of sea slugs . if your animal is bursatella then its washng ashore with sargassum is a coincidence .\n( of notarchus leachii cirrosus stimpson , 1855 ) eales , n . & engel , h . 1935 . the genus bursatella de blainville . proceedings of the malacological society of london 21 : 279 - 303 , plate 31 . [ details ]\ndear bill , this specimen of bursatella leachii was recently found at a relatively quiet harbor , is so far i only had saw this species in this area , and was keep at home for three days then let it back to free in water .\na scientist working with bursatella leachii , a sea slug that lives in an intertiday habitat in the coastal waters of puerto rico , gathered the following information about tthe distribution of the sea slugs within a ten - meter square plot over a 10 day period .\nrudman , w . b . ( 2007 ) . comment on bursatella leachii subspecies by augusto medeiros . [ message in ] sea slug forum . [ message in ] sea slug forum . australian museum , sydney . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of bursatella lacinulata gould , 1852 ) eales , n . & engel , h . 1935 . the genus bursatella de blainville . proceedings of the malacological society of london 21 : 279 - 303 , plate 31 . [ details ]\n( of aplysia bursatella rang , 1834 ) eales , n . & engel , h . 1935 . the genus bursatella de blainville . proceedings of the malacological society of london 21 : 279 - 303 , plate 31 . [ details ]\ndear valda , these are bursatella leachii , a very ' hairy ' sea hare - if you will pardon the pun . they are quite variable in colour and some have more obvious blue ' eye spots ' than others . there are other species with similar eyespots , the most common of which is stylocheilus striatus , which is much smaller in size . howevere i am pretty sure your ' juvenile ' is a juvenile . b . leachii because the parapodial flaps seem to be almost completely fused , which is characteristic of bursatella , but not of stylocheilus .\ndear josephine , congratulations on finding the sea slug forum . have a look at the bursatella leachii page where there is plenty of information on this animal . also have a look at the many messages which are attached at the bottom of the page for a lot more information on bursatella from many parts of the world . [ if you click on any underlined word you will move to a page on that topic ] .\nyou may not realise the forum is much more than just the messages . there are plenty of places where you can ' lookup ' information . firstly , have a look at the page on bursatella leachii , and all the other messages on that page . secondly , bursatella is a sea hare so have a look at the ' sea hare ' topics listed in the general topics list which should be of interest to you .\nhello , my name is dana rygwelski . for my ap biology class we are currently working in the ecology unit , we were assigned to look up about a specific type of sea slug . if you could please help me out by sending me information on bursatella leachii it would be greatly appreciated .\n( of notarchus ( bursatella ) leachii ( blainville , 1817 ) ) lin , g . & tchang , s . 1965 . opisthobranchia from the inter - tidal zone of hainan island , china . oceanologia et limnologia sinica 7 ( 1 ) : 1 - 20 , pls . 1 - 3 . [ details ]\ndelivering alien invasive species inventories for europe ( daisie ) ( from synonym bursatella leachi [ sic ] ) to barcode of life ( 1 barcode ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 1 publication ) ( from synonym aclesia africana engel , 1926 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 12 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 3 publications ) ( from synonym notarchus ( bursatella ) leachii ( blainville , 1817 ) ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 9 publications ) ( from synonym bursatella leachi [ sic ] ) to clemam to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 6 nucleotides ; 4 proteins ) to pesi to sea slug forum ( via archive . org ) to itis\ndear augusto , i would be interested to know what research you are doing and where . concerning the subspecies of b . leachii , eales & engel ( 1925 ) reviewed bursatella worldwide and concluded there was only one species . they thought it would be convenient to recognise six subspecies but could give no clear definitions of each subspecies except to suggest geographic regions .\neales , n . b . & engel , h . ( 1935 ) the genus bursatella de blainville . proceedings of the malacological society , 21 : 279 - 303 .\nbraga , tiago rodrigues , maria jo\u00e3o pereira , hugo varela , jo\u00e3o barreira , lu\u00edsa gonz\u00e1lez - wang\u00fcemert , mercedes and cust\u00f3dio , lu\u00edsa 2017 . bursatella leachii from mar menor as a source of bioactive molecules : preliminary evaluation of the nutritional profile , in vitro biological activities , and fatty acids contents . journal of aquatic food product technology , vol . 26 , issue . 10 , p . 1337 .\nthere is quite a lot of information on this page about bursatella . have a at the top of this page above your message , and below your message for earlier correspondence .\nhi i am from new zealand and i need to find out wot eats the sea hare bursatella leachii for a project at school . i need to write wot they eat and wot eats them i know wot they eat but i don ' t now wot eats them . the lady at the library told me there was no such thing as a sea hare so i don ' t no where else to go\ndear dr . rudman , i came to this web site looking for info on the sea slug bursatella leachii because it is an essay question for the 1997 a . p . biology exam . i saw messages from students that said they were\nstudying\nthis organism . hmm . . . you mean trying to answer this a . p . bio exam question ? anyway - here is the entire question .\neales , n . & engel , h . 1935 . the genus bursatella de blainville . proceedings of the malacological society of london 21 : 279 - 303 , plate 31 . [ details ]\nbebbington , a . ( 1969 ) bursatella leachi guineensis subsp . nov . ( gastropoda , opisthobranchia ) from ghana . proceedings of the malacological society of london , 38 : 323 - 341 .\n( of bursatella leachi [ sic ] ) branch , g . m . et al . ( 2002 ) . two oceans . 5th impression . david philip , cate town & johannesburg . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of aclesia glauca cheeseman , 1879 ) eales , n . & engel , h . 1935 . the genus bursatella de blainville . proceedings of the malacological society of london 21 : 279 - 303 , plate 31 . [ details ]\n( of aclesia africana engel , 1926 ) eales , n . & engel , h . 1935 . the genus bursatella de blainville . proceedings of the malacological society of london 21 : 279 - 303 , plate 31 . [ details ]\n( of ramosaclesia rex allan , 1932 ) eales , n . & engel , h . 1935 . the genus bursatella de blainville . proceedings of the malacological society of london 21 : 279 - 303 , plate 31 . [ details ]\n( of notarchus brevipes h\u00e4gg , 1904 ) eales , n . & engel , h . 1935 . the genus bursatella de blainville . proceedings of the malacological society of london 21 : 279 - 303 , plate 31 . [ details ]\n( of aclesia ocelligera bergh , 1902 ) eales , n . & engel , h . 1935 . the genus bursatella de blainville . proceedings of the malacological society of london 21 : 279 - 303 , plate 31 . [ details ]\n( of notarchus intrapictus cockerell , 1893 ) eales , n . & engel , h . 1935 . the genus bursatella de blainville . proceedings of the malacological society of london 21 : 279 - 303 , plate 31 . [ details ]\n( of aclesia rosea engel , 1926 ) eales , n . & engel , h . 1935 . the genus bursatella de blainville . proceedings of the malacological society of london 21 : 279 - 303 , plate 31 . [ details ]\n( of notarchus villosus o ' donoghue , 1929 ) eales , n . & engel , h . 1935 . the genus bursatella de blainville . proceedings of the malacological society of london 21 : 279 - 303 , plate 31 . [ details ]\n( of notarchus laciniatus r\u00fcppell & leuckart , 1830 ) eales , n . & engel , h . 1935 . the genus bursatella de blainville . proceedings of the malacological society of london 21 : 279 - 303 , plate 31 . [ details ]\ndear richard , thanks for the background on the life history of bursatella in the auckland region . as you will see from john buckeridge ' s message a couple of days ago , the media appear to have unfortunately misinterpreted the information they were provided with .\nit looks like the regular change in spacing of the bursatella population observed in puerto rico resulted from a cycle of action and inaction , though i don ' t see why it caused them to\ncrowd\ntogether during inactivity and disperse during periods of activity .\nrusso g . f . , 1987 . segnalazione di bursatella leachi de blainville , 1817 ( mollusca , opisthobranchia , aplysiomorpha ) per le acque dell ' isola d ' ischia e considerazioni sull ' ecologia della specie . bollettino della societa naturalisti in napoli , 94 : 243 - 253 , fig . 2 , tav . 1 .\nblainville h . m . d . de ( 1817 ) . bursatella , p . 138 , in : dictionnaire des sciences naturelles ( f . cuvier , ed . ) , vol . 5 , suppl\u00e9ment . levrault , strasbourg & le normant , paris . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 138 [ details ]\ni would like some information on bursatella leachii , a sea slug that resides in an intertidal habitat in the coastal waters of puerto rico . a study demonstrated that the individual slugs varied their distances from one another over the course of a day . for example , the average distance between individuals at midnight was 8 . 0 cm . at 4 am it was 8 . 9 cm . at 8 am it was about 44 . 8 cm . at noon , the avg . distance was 174 . 0 cm . the distance was at it ' s highest at 4 pm at 350 . 5 cm . at 8 pm it was 60 . 5 cm . at midnight , the slugs had returned to 8 . 0 cm distances . any ideas on what physiological or environmental variables could cause this distribution pattern ? thank you .\n( of bursatella leachi [ sic ] ) richmond , m . ( ed . ) ( 1997 ) . a guide to the seashores of eastern africa and the western indian ocean islands . sida / department for research cooperation , sarec : stockholm , sweden . isbn 91 - 630 - 4594 - x . 448 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of notarchus leachii cirrosus stimpson , 1855 ) tsi , c . y . & ma , s . t . ( 1982 ) . a preliminary checklist of the marine gastropoda and bivalvia ( mollusca ) of hong kong and southern china . in : proceedings of the first international marine biological workshop : the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china ( ed . morton , b . ) , vol . 1 , pp431 - 458 . hong kong university press , hong kong . [ details ]\n( of bursatella leachi [ sic ] ) streftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 43 : 419 - 453 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of bursatella lacinulata gould , 1852 ) gould a . ( 1852 ) . mollusca and shells [ in ] : united states exploring expeditions , 1838 , 1839 , 1840 , 1841 , 1842 under the command of charles wilkes , u . s . n . . philadelphia , c . sherman & son : vol . 12 , xv + 510 pp . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 223 - 224 [ details ]\n( of bursatella leachi [ sic ] ) zenetos , a . , m . e . \u00e7inar , m . a . pancucci - papadopoulou , j . g . harmelin , g . furnari , f . andaloro , n . bellou , n . streftaris & h . zibrowius . ( 2005 ) . annotated list of marine alien species in the mediterranean with records of the worst invasive species . mediterranean marine science 6 ( 2 ) : 63 - 118 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\ni ' m afraid we don ' t know much about what eats them . if you go to the what eats sea slugs ? page you will find some information on sea hare predators but i don ' t know of any information specifically on bursatella - which only goes to show that there is still a lot in this world that we still don ' t know anything about . let ' s hope we don ' t destroy it before we get a chance to find out . good luck with your project , bill rudman\ndistribution worldwide : circumtropical . mediterranean : recorded first from palestine ( o ' donoghue and white , 1940 ) ; successively recorded in turkey ( swennen , 1961 ) ; malta ( bebbington , 1970 ) ; israel ( eales , 1970 ) ; sicily ( piani , 1980 ) ; tunisia ( several records from the gulf of gab\u00e8s since 1982 , enzenross and enzenross , 2001 ) ; italy ( fasulo et al . , 1984 as b . leachii and b . l . savignyana ) ; slovenia ( jaklin and vio , 1989 ) ; greece ( koutsoubas , 1992 ) ; lebanon ( collected by g . bitar and h . zibrowius , identification confirmed by j . templado ) ; sardinia ( collected by a . olita , identification confirmed by j . templado ) .\n( of aclesia africana engel , 1926 ) engel h . ( 1926 ) . drei neue arten der gattung aclesia ( rang ) bergh , 1902 . zoologischer anzeiger . 69 : 180 - 187 . [ details ]\n( of aclesia rosea engel , 1926 ) engel h . ( 1926 ) . drei neue arten der gattung aclesia ( rang ) bergh , 1902 . zoologischer anzeiger . 69 : 180 - 187 . [ details ]\n( of notarchus cirrosus stimpson , 1855 ) stimpson , w . ( 1855 ) . descriptions of some of the new marine invertebrata from the chinese and japanese seas . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences , philadelphia . 7 ( 10 ) : 375 - 384 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 378 [ details ]\n( of notarchus laciniatus r\u00fcppell & leuckart , 1830 ) r\u00fcppell e . & leuckart f . s . ( 1828 - 1830 ) . mollusca [ in ] atlas zu des reise im nordlichen afrika von eduard r\u00fcppell . 1 . abth . zoologie . 5 . neue wirbellose thiere des rothen meers . frankfurt , h . l . br\u00f6nner pp . 1 - 22 , pl . 1 - 12 [ 1828 ] , pp . 23 - 47 [ probably 1830 ] , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 24 - 25 , plate 7 , figures 2 a - c [ details ]\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nspencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]\nrosenberg , g . ; moretzsohn , f . ; garc\u00eda , e . f . ( 2009 ) . gastropoda ( mollusca ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 579\u2013699 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nocchipinti - ambrogi , a . ; marchini , a . ; cantone , g . ; castelli , a . ; chimenz , c . ; cormaci , m . ; froglia , c . ; furnari , g . ; gambi , m . c . ; giaccone , g . ; giangrande , a . ; gravili , c . ; mastrototaro , f . ; mazziotti , c . ; orsi - relini , l . ; piraino , s . ( 2010 ) . alien species along the italian coasts : an overview . biological invasions . 13 ( 1 ) : 215 - 237 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nzenetos , a . ; gofas , s . ; verlaque , m . ; cinar , m . ; garcia raso , j . ; bianchi , c . ; morri , c . ; azzurro , e . ; bilecenoglu , m . ; froglia , c . ; siokou , i . ; violanti , d . ; sfriso , a . ; san martin , g . ; giangrande , a . ; katagan , t . ; ballesteros , e . ; ramos - espla , a . ; mastrototaro , f . ; ocana , o . ; zingone , a . ; gambi , m . ; streftaris , n . ( 2010 ) . alien species in the mediterranean sea by 2010 . a contribution to the application of european union\u2019s marine strategy framework directive ( msfd ) . part i . spatial distribution . mediterranean marine science . 11 ( 2 ) : 381 - 493 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nmarchini , a . ; ferrario , j . ; sfriso , a . ; occhipinti - ambrogi , a . ( 2015 ) . current status and trends of biological invasions in the lagoon of venice , a hotspot of marine nis introductions in the mediterranean sea . biological invasions . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nnimbs m . j . , willan r . c . & smith s . d . a . ( 2017 ) . is port stephens , eastern australia , a global hotspot for biodiversity of aplysiidae ( gastropoda : heterobranchia ) ? . molluscan research . 37 ( 1 ) : 47 - 65 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of aclesia glauca cheeseman , 1879 ) spencer h . g . , willan r . c . , marshall b . a . & murray t . j . ( 2011 ) . checklist of the recent mollusca recorded from the new zealand exclusive economic zone . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of aclesia glauca cheeseman , 1879 ) nimbs m . j . , willan r . c . & smith s . d . a . ( 2017 ) . is port stephens , eastern australia , a global hotspot for biodiversity of aplysiidae ( gastropoda : heterobranchia ) ? . molluscan research . 37 ( 1 ) : 47 - 65 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of ramosaclesia rex allan , 1932 ) nimbs m . j . , willan r . c . & smith s . d . a . ( 2017 ) . is port stephens , eastern australia , a global hotspot for biodiversity of aplysiidae ( gastropoda : heterobranchia ) ? . molluscan research . 37 ( 1 ) : 47 - 65 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nkatsanevakis , s . ; bogucarskis , k . ; gatto , f . ; vandekerkhove , j . ; deriu , i . ; cardoso a . s . ( 2012 ) . building the european alien species information network ( easin ) : a novel approach for the exploration of distributed alien species data . bioinvasions records . 1 : 235 - 245 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nong che rg . & morton b . ( 1991 ) . spatial and temporal variations in the subtidal macrobenthic community of tai tam bay , hong kong . in : morton b , editor . asian marine biology 8 . hong kong university press , hong kong . pp 193 - 216 . [ details ]\nintroduced species remark in slovenian part of the adriatic sea ( marine region ) : in october 2007 , 2009 , 2010 & 2011 high densities were recorded with a maximum valu of 50 individuals per sq . m . in lipej et al . 2012 [ details ]\nintroduced species vector dispersal in slovenian part of the adriatic sea ( marine region ) : natural dispersal dispersal via the suez canal see lipej et al . 2012 [ details ]\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\nthe evolution of gastropod body size in the deep sea is reexamined . using an extended and updated data set , and improved statistical methods , it is shown that some results of the previous study may have been artifactual , but that its central conclusion is robust . it is further shown that the effect is not restricted to a single gastropod clade , that its strength increases markedly with depth , but that it applies even in the mesopelagic zone .\nthe replication of the island rule in a distant taxonomic group and a partially analogous ecological situation could help to uncover the causes of the patterns observed\u2014which are currently much disputed . the gastropod pattern is evident at intermediate depths , and so cannot be attributed to the unique features of abyssal ecology .\ncitation : welch jj ( 2010 ) the \u201cisland rule\u201d and deep - sea gastropods : re - examining the evidence . plos one 5 ( 1 ) : e8776 . urltoken\ncopyright : \u00a9 2010 john j . welch . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : some preliminary work undertaken when jw was funded by bbsrc grant do17750 awarded to andrew rambaut . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nhere , i re - examine whether deep - sea gastropods manifest the island rule , making use of the improved statistical methods , and data collated from the recently updated malacolog database [ 24 ] , which has been both expanded , and revised to reflect advances in gastropod systematics [ 25 ] . it is found that the central conclusion of mcclain et al . [ 12 ] is robust , and that gastropod colonists of the deep - sea benthos do indeed exhibit island - rule - like evolution .\npart a shows how different tests of the \u2018island rule\u2019 can give qualitatively different results . \u201cdeep - sea\u201d species were defined as those with a depth range midpoint > 200m , and all other species defined as \u201cshallow - water\u201d . the ordinary - least - squares regression ( dashed line ) differs significantly from the 1\u22361 line of the null ( dotted line ) , but the standardized - major - axis regression ( solid line ) shows no significant departure . part b shows a less ambiguous case : \u201cdeep - sea\u201d species are those never observed above 400m , and \u201cshallow - water\u201d species those never observed below 200m ; body sizes are within - genus means , taking equal numbers of deep - and shallow - water species in each genus .\nthe body sizes of deep - sea gastropods are plotted against those of their shallow - water congeners . \u201cshallow - water\u201d species were never observed below 200m , and \u201cdeep - sea\u201d species never observed above depths of a : 200m , b : 400m and c : 600m . separate standardized - major - axis regression lines are shown for the neogastropoda ( black points ) and all other groups ( grey points ) . the dotted line is the 1\u22361 expected under the null . genera with fewer than two deep and two shallow species were excluded .\nsimilarly , predator release is a particularly plausible explanation of the vertebrate island rule [ 1 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 6 ] , [ 11 ] ; this is partly because it can naturally account for both dwarfism and gigantism ( by assuming that large and small body sizes evolve as alternative strategies for predator avoidance ) , and partly because predator release is so clearly implicated in other unusual characteristics of island endemics ( such as tameness ) [ 37 ] , [ 38 ] . but there is little evidence that reduced predation characterises the deep - sea [ 12 ] , [ 14 ] , and indeed there is direct evidence of substantial predation acting on deep - sea gastropods [ 12 ] , [ 39 ] \u2013 [ 41 ] . the gastropod results therefore argue against the predator release hypothesis as a general explanation of the island rule [ 12 ] .\nwe are therefore still far from understanding the causes of the patterns observed \u2013 and particularly the roles of inter - and intra - specific competition [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] . a detailed clarification of where the pattern does and does not hold will be an important step toward achieving this goal [ 4 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] .\nmany thanks are due to andrew rambaut for providing a script to mine the malacolog database . many thanks also to lucy weinert , nicolas bierne , gary rosenberg , shai meiri . simon joly and an anonymous reviewer , who all greatly improved the manuscript with their comments and advice .\nconceived and designed the experiments : jw . performed the experiments : jw . analyzed the data : jw . wrote the paper : jw .\nfoster jb ( 1964 ) evolution of mammals on islands . nature 202 : 234\u2013235 .\nvan valen l ( 1973 ) pattern and balance in nature . evolutionary theory 1 : 31\u201349 .\nlomolino mv ( 1985 ) body size of mammals on islands : the island rule re - examined . am nat 125 : 310\u2013316 .\nlomolino mv ( 2005 ) body size evolution in insular vertebrates : generality of the island rule . j biogeog 32 : 1683\u20131699 .\nmacarthur rh , wilson eo ( 1963 ) an equilibrium theory of insular zoogeography . evolution 17 : 373\u2013387 . 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( doi :\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\nparticipants in the catalogue of life global team meeting held at xishuangbanna botanical garden , yunnan province , china , 19 - 23 march 2018 .\ngbif and catalogue of life hosted a \u201cnames in november\u201d workshop 11 - 2016 in leiden , netherlands . the meeting included representatives from key initiatives directly involved with managing nomenclatural data or producing the taxonomic content found in the catalogue of life . it sought their vision and commitment for a broad - based joint initiative around a shared vision for a single , sustainable taxonomic backbone .\ngbif and catalogue of life have received funding from the netherlands to focus on developing a comprehensive solution in 2017 and 2018 .\nfind out why the catalogue of life is the most authoritative global species index available .\nthe annual checklist is published once per year and is available on request . order your copy today .\nwelcome to the catalogue of life website . the gateway to our online database of the world ' s known species of animals , plants , fungi and micro - organisms .\nthere are two distinct versions of the catalogue : the catalogue of life monthly edition and the catalogue of life annual checklist . choose the version most suited to your needs .\nthe catalogue of life is the most comprehensive and authoritative global index of species currently available . it consists of a single integrated species checklist and taxonomic hierarchy . the catalogue holds essential information on the names , relationships and distributions of over 1 . 8 million species . this figure continues to rise as information is compiled from diverse sources around the world . read more\nthere is currently no single , universal and complete reference to what species we think are alive today . without this we can not sustainably use , explore , monitor , manage and protect biodiversity resources . read more\nthe dynamic edition is a constantly evolving version of the catalogue of life . anything can change as the list develops : names , their associated details , and their content providers and there is no tracking of those changes . for that reason , the dynamic edition is not the one to quote if you wish to cite a verifiable source . it is , however , a great ' expert system ' , helping those at the forefront of their science to track , and contribute to the development of taxonomy . periodic issues are progressively enhanced , in what will evolve as a dynamically developing system , made available online and as web - services .\nthe annual checklist is a snapshot of the entire catalogue of life : a fixed imprint . if you quote an organism from this version , others will be able to turn to that same reference - at any point in the future . all editions of the annual checklist to date are available online , and deposited in libraries around the world . partner programmes , that link online to the catalogue of life , will reference the annual checklist .\nthe content of the catalogue of life is supplied by an array of over one hundred expert taxonomic databases world - wide with contributions from over 3 , 000 taxonomic specialists . read more\nthe catalogue of life whilst growing all the time , is not yet complete and currently covers about 92 % of described world diversity . read more\nyes ! if you have a taxonomic database and would like to join the species 2000 federation of databases in the catalogue of life please contact us . we are especially interested in taxonomists that are working in our gap areas . read more\nglobal biodiversity information facility ( gbif ) enables free and open access to biodiversity data online .\nthe iucn redlist is the world ' s most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of plant and animal species .\nwhen using the catalogue of life in your own system we ask that you abide by a few conditions .\nmany projects rely on the catalogue of life for their species backbone . we work with global partners to improve the quality of biodiversity data worldwide .\naccess the catalogue from your browser toolbar . one click installation or code snippet available .\nlet your software speak to our server and access the catalogue of life programmatically .\nthe catalogue of life is a quality - assured checklist of more than 1 . 8 million species known to science .\nfeedback - please report any problems so we can improve our services . media - please help us spread the word . for promotional materials see our media page . case studies - are you using the col ? please let us know and we will feature your work on our website .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfound in warm temperate and tropical waters throughout the world . seven or eight geographical subspecies are recognised by some authorities .\nyou might like to show the lady in the library the sea hares page where there is more general information on sea hares .\nlocality : muck dive sites on north shore of trinidad , west indies tropical western atlantic . depth : 1 - 6 ft . length : var . , 4 - 7 inches . 26 july to 2 august 2005 . fine sand and rubble , green water . photographer : sherri deaver\nsea hares may secrete a purple dye . but don ' t tease them to make them do this . although they can be quite large , they are well camouflaged . watch your step ! sea hares have very specialised diets and should not be kept in home aquariums .\nthis hirsute sea hare is sometimes seen on our northern shores among seagrasses and seaweeds . sometimes many are seen everywhere , then they are no longer seen for many months . sometimes , they are seen gathered together , densely packed in large numbers , possibly mating ? or simply gathering around a good source of food ?\n6 - 12cm . body long , fleshy with a short triangular tail which has white bars . it is covered with lots of flat branching finger - like projections . it has two pairs of tentacles , oral tentacles and rhinophores about the same size ( you have to look carefully among the hairy bits to distinguish the tentacles ) . the parapodia appears to be a hole in the centre of the body , rather than ' wings ' or flaps as in other large sea hares . it may come in different shades of brown , sometimes bluish , sometimes with orangey ' hairs ' , usually with bright blue spots which are ringed in brown . it is usually well camouflaged and blends in perfectly with among seaweeds and seagrasses . like some other sea hares , it produces a purple ink when disturbed .\nsea hares swallow large amounts of sand in the process of eating , somewhat like earthworms do .\nchangi , may 05 two pairs of tubular tentacles short triangular ' tail ' with white bars .\ntan yong how jonathan . 31 mar 2016 . congregation of hairy sea hares at changi point . singapore biodiversity records 2016 : 46 - 47\ntan siong kiat and henrietta p . m . woo , 2010 preliminary checklist of the molluscs of singapore ( pdf ) , raffles museum of biodiversity research , national university of singapore .\ndebelius , helmut , 2001 . nudibranchs and sea snails : indo - pacific field guide ikan - unterwasserachiv , frankfurt . 321 pp .\nwells , fred e . and clayton w . bryce . 2000 . slugs of western australia : a guide to the species from the indian to west pacific oceans . western australian museum . 184 pp .\ncoleman , neville . 2001 . 1001 nudibranchs : catalogue of indo - pacific sea slugs . neville coleman ' s underwater geographic pty ltd , australia . 144pp .\nhumann , paul and ned deloach . 2010 . reef creature identification : tropical pacific new world publications . 497pp .\nkuiter , rudie h and helmut debelius . 2009 . world atlas of marine fauna . ikan - unterwasserachiv . 723pp .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . to view this site , you must enable javascript or upgrade to a javascript - capable browser .\nthis is a restricted item and is not covered by our arrive alive 14 - day guarantee . please see our guarantee policy and restricted species list for mo . . .\nspecificationsmpnf93 0045 0666manufacturerthat fish placecommon nameblue dot sea harescientific namebursatella leachiioriginindo - pacificaggressiveness . . .\nhtml public\n- / / ietf / / dtd html 3 . 0 / / en\nhtml . dtd\nmay be one of the most butt - ugly opisthobranchs known . it has been referred to by many names including the\nshaggy dog .\nthe\nwebmaster mike found in bali last month should make their mother proud . these two with their bright blue spots are actually quite pretty .\nis a circum - tropical species found in every tropical ocean accept the pacific coast of mexico . because of this some biologists feel there are seven or eight geographical subspecies . each of these has very slight differences in color and shape of body ornamentation . subspecies are designated by a third name in their scientific name like -\n, the species found in florida and the caribbean . all have the characteristic branched papillae on the body , and bright colored eye - spots scattered over the body . as seen in mike ' s photos\nfeeds on algae - like , mat - forming cyanobacteria . like other sea hares it lays large bundles or masses of eggs which look like yellow rope . as noted on bill rudman ' s\nis one of the sea hares that gives off purple ink when disturbed . on this matter i just have to reprint here one of my favorite bill rudman sea hare stories that can be found on his web site . as bill tells it - -\none interesting silly ' fact ' concerning sea hares . the ancient greeks use to believe that you would die if you touched a sea hare . even the great philosopher aristotle believed it was true because in those times learned people decided what was true by having long learned arguments . the person judged to have the best and wittiest argument was the winner , facts were seldom , if ever , considered necessary . using facts and observations to test ideas about the world around us was seldom considered necessary until the 1600s when ' science ' developed as a method of understanding our world . the lesson from this is that you shouldn ' t believe everything you are told .\nanother lesson learned from our lowly sea slug friends . have a great day .\nactually for my needs ( macro ) , i suspect that the olympus 750 onboard flash could probably handle my lightning requirements if i were able to reflect some of the light into the shadow area created by the barrel of the housing . any idea ' s folks ? ? ? ? i am also thinking about getting a small slave strobe that is tried and true like the ikelite 50s that is backed by the manufacturer that may perhaps meet my limited needs !\n\u00a9 the slug site , michael d . miller 2003 . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nresearch support , u . s . gov ' t , p . h . s .\nmidnight 8 . 0cm 4 am 8 . 9 cm 8 am 44 . 8 cm noon 174 cm 4 pm 350 . 5 cm 8 pm 60 . 5 cm midnight 8 . 0 cm\nfor the above data , provide information on each of the following * summarize the pattern * identify three physiological or environmental variables that could cause the slugs to vary their distance from each other . * explain how each variable could bring about the observed pattern of distribution .\nmy thoughts : this might be a circadian rhythm . i cannot see any pattern within the day .\nthe mechanisms may have something to do with salinity and the rise and fall of the tide . do the slugs have a structure analogous to a pineal gland that might be sensitive to light ( secretion of melatonin ) .\nto answer your questions . it ' s unlikely to be a tidal rhythm because the tidal cycle is not based on the day - night cycle . yes aplysiid sea - hares that have been looked at , do have a day - night circadian rhythm . it seems to be associated with the eye which seems to have its own clock with a circadian rhythm of neuronal activity . like many animals , there appears to be an underlying circadian rhythm which is kept\ntuned\nby the light - dark cycle .\nbasically i don ' t think its a very good question . best wishes , bill rudman .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 778418c9 - 1dd3 - 4876 - a84f - 81afb0ad410c\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : e6af7a31 - 04fd - 4da8 - b0eb - 4fcaeb8ce2c2\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f4870743 - 9cc9 - 4a5c - 826d - 4823cb0ad254\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : a3648259 - f29d - 47ea - a090 - 01ba578fef07\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 496425\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nthe distribution of the alien gastropod melibe viridis ( kelaart , 1858 ) ( opistobranchia : tethyidae ) i . . .\nthe distribution of carinaria mediterranea blainville , 1825 ( heteropods ) in the mediterranean shores . . .\nfirst report of the spiny blaasop tylerius spinosissimus ( regan , 1908 ) ( actinopterygii : tetraodontid . . .\nlength\u2013weight relationships of 14 fish species from the gulf of antalya ( northeastern mediterranean . . .\nlength - weight relationships ( lwrs ) were determined for 14 fish species from the gulf antalya along the northeastern mediterranean sea coast of turkey . samples were collected using bottom trawl at depths varying from 25 to 150 m . the parameters a and b from the lwr formula w = al ( b ) were estimated . the values of the exponent b of the length - weight relationships ranged from 2 . 513 to 3 . 465 . seven . . . [ show full abstract ]\ndistribution and first report of parupeneus forsskali fourmanoir & gu\u00e9z\u00e9 , 1976 from north of cyprus . . .\nour family went to the gulf of mexico on perdido key [ florida ] this summer . being from the midwest we had never seen many of the beach creatures before . after bertha hit , much brown seaweed ( ? sargassum ? ) came on shore and along with it a 3 - 5\nbrown , gelatinous creature with tendrils ( maybe 30 or so ) . the creature seemed to squirt a purple liquid out on the white sandy beach when touched . would this be a type of sea slug ? or a cucumber ? we are such novices to marine life , that we have been unable to locate this in the library or on the web . any help would be appreciated . sorry i don ' t have a picture . jan\nhowever , one other possibility is scyllaea pelagica which lives on sargassum and is often found washed up with the algae . i guess its gills could be the ' tendrils ' you describe , but i doubt that it grows to 5 inches long and as far as i know it doesn ' t produce a purple ink . let me know if either of my ' guesses ' are correct , cheers , bill rudman"]}
{"id": 2450, "summary": [{"text": "cochliopidae is a family of small freshwater snails with gills and an operculum , aquatic gastropod mollusks .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "paludestrina d'orbigny , 1840 is an archaic synonym , and has been placed on the official index of rejected and invalid names by iczn opinion 2202 .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "this family is in the superfamily truncatelloidea and in the clade littorinimorpha ( according to the taxonomy of the gastropoda by bouchet & rocroi , 2005 ) . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "cochliopidae", "paragraphs": ["stunting of the penis in heleobia parchappii ( mollusca : cochliopidae ) and its relationship with parasitism .\nstunting of the penis in heleobia parchappii ( mollusca : cochliopidae ) and its relationship with parasitism . - pubmed - ncbi\ncochliopidae ,\n14 genera , 48 species\n[ north america ] ( johnson et al . , 2013 ) .\nthe participation of the cochliopidae as intermediate hosts for digeneans causing dermatitis in humans illustrates the most relevant aspect of this family .\nthe four basal lineages of cochliopidae ( heleobops carrikeri , heleobia australis , heleobia piscium and tryonia imitator ) correspond to saline or euryhaline taxa .\nthe family cochliopidae has been reported ( or is assumed ) to occur in fresh waters . this taxon has been reported from north america .\ncochliopidae , [ palearctic , nearctic , neotropical , afrotropical ; 246 species worldwide , 50 nearctic species ] ( strong et al . , 2008 ) .\nnew species and records of springsnails ( caenogastropoda : cochliopidae : tryonia ) from the chihuahuan desert ( mexico and united states ) , an imperiled biodiversity hotspot .\ncazzaniga , n . j . 2011 . heleobia stimpson , 1865 : taxonom\u00eda . in : cazzaniga , n . j . ed . el g\u00e9nero heleobia ( caenogastropoda : cochliopidae ) en am\u00e9rica del sur . amici molluscarum ( n\u00famero especial ) : 12 - 17 . [ links ]\nhershler r , liu h - p , simpson js ( 2015 ) assembly of a micro - hotspot of caenogastropod endemism in the southern nevada desert , with a description of a new species of tryonia ( truncatelloidea , cochliopidae ) . zookeys 492 : 107\u2013122 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 492 . 9246\ndurante m\u00e1s de 40 a\u00f1os se ha discutido el estatus taxon\u00f3mico de diversas especies del enigm\u00e1tico g\u00e9nero heleobia de la familia cochliopidae ( caenogastropoda : rissooidea ) . como sucede con otras familias de rissooideos , la abundancia de caracteres convergentes y la escasez de sinapomorf\u00edas anat\u00f3micas han representado un problema para resolver las relaciones filogen\u00e9ticas de cochliopidae y definir la validez de varias de las especies nominales de esta familia . presentamos aqu\u00ed una contribuci\u00f3n molecular tendiente a resolver el estatus taxon\u00f3mico de uno de los m\u00e1s abundantes g\u00e9neros de la porci\u00f3n meridional de sudam\u00e9rica que incluye varias especies end\u00e9micas . nuestra evidencia molecular reconfirma tres de los cuatro grupos de heleobia en los que se han agrupado las especies del g\u00e9nero en esta regi\u00f3n :\naustralis\n,\nparchappii\ny\npiscium\n. el cuarto , el grupo\nhatcheri\n, no pertenece a heleobia sino a un g\u00e9nero diferente que no deber\u00eda ser considerado como integrante de la familia cochliopidae , sino estrechamente relacionado al g\u00e9nero potamolithus pilsbry y rush , 1896 .\nthis present analysis of the population of h . piscium constitutes the first study on the gametogenic cycle of a species of cochliopidae . both the males and the females within the population displayed a synchronous gametogenic cycle . these results indicate that the h . piscium populations exhibit a continuous reproductive cycle in the absence of any resting period .\nour results suggest that heleobia hatcheri and the morphologically similar heleobia sp . should not be included among the family cochliopidae , and that they would be closely - related to the three studied potamolithus species . the latter has two novel and significant implications : i ) the conspicuous group\nhatcheri\n. traditional component of the cochliopidae from chile ( biese , 1944 ) and argentina ( gaillard & castellanos , 1976 ) , would disappear as part of this family ; ii ) as was recently suggested by wilke et al . ( 2013 ) , the potamolithus genus endemic from south america would not be lithoglyphidae as was proposed originally by davis & pons da silva ( 1984 ) .\nciocco , n . f . 2011 . diversidad , biolog\u00eda y ecolog\u00eda de especies del g\u00e9nero heleobia de la provincia malacol\u00f3gica de cuyo , argentina . in : . cazzaniga , n . j ed . . el g\u00e9nero heleobia ( caenogastropoda : cochliopidae ) en am\u00e9rica del sur . amici molluscarum ( n\u00famero especial ) : 20 - 22 . [ links ]\ncochliopidae are abundant snails worldwide . however , sequenced taxa from south america are underrepresented , as was pointed out by liu et al . ( 2001 ) discussing biogeography . recent molecular characterization of endemic gastropod fauna from titicaca lake ( kroll et al . , 2012 ) and northern of chile ( collado et al . , 2013 ) appear to be the only available cochliopid information for this subcontinent .\nfor over 40 years malacologists have been discussing the taxonomical status of heleobia species , an enigmatic genus from cochliopidae family ( caenogastropoda : rissooidea ) . as with other rissooidean families , the considerable character convergence and the paucity of anatomical synapomorphies has proved to be a problem in resolving cochliopid phylogenetic relations and establishing the validity of several nominal cochliopid species . here we present a molecular contribution to solve the taxonomical status of one of the most abundant southern south america cochliopid genera which has many endemic species . we report molecular evidence that supports three of the four heleobia groups described for this region , the\naustralis\n,\nparchappii\nand\npiscium\ngroups . the fourth , the\nhatcheri\ngroup , belongs not to heleobia but to a different genus which itself should not be considered as part of the family cochliopidae but closely related to genus potamolithus pilsbry & rush , 1896 .\npenis anatomy is used to discriminate species of gastropods belonging to the family cochliopidae ; however , this characteristic may be affected by the presence of parasites . to evaluate the possible effect of parasites on penis length and number of papillae in heleobia parchappii , 195 males were collected from the nahuel ruc\u00e1 lagoon , argentina . male snails were only infected by trematode digeneans ( total prevalence 45 . 13 % ) . three out of 9 species of digeneans registered showed prevalence values higher than 10 % : microphallus szidati , m . simillimus , and notocotylidae sp . 1 . the penis length of non - parasitized males and those parasitized by m . szidati and m . similimus increased with increased snail length ; however , this increase was lower in infected snails . in the case of snails infected with notocotylidae sp . 1 , no relationship between shell length and penis length was apparent . differences in the life cycles of these 3 digeneans could explain the null or lower penis growth rate in relation to host body growth . in contrast , no change was observed in the number of penial papillae of h . parchappii when these snails were infected by larval digeneans compared to those that were not infected . this indicates that penial papillae may be a more stable characteristic than penis length to discriminate between species within the cochliopidae . the study of penial papillae should be central in the taxonomy and identification of new species within the cochliopidae , as well as in previously described species .\nheleobia stimpson , 1865 is a genus within the family cochliopidae tryon , 1866 ( wilke et al . , 2001 ; szarowska , falniowski & steffek , 2011 ) comprising 101 species , of which 90 are found in south america ( hershler & thompson , 1992 ; pons da silva & veitenheimer - mendes , 2004 ; cazzaniga , 2011 ; collado , 2015 ) . rumi et al . ( 2006 ) and rumi et al . ( 2008 ) reported 16 heleobia species for argentina , of which 10 are endemic .\ncochliopidae is a family of rissooidean snails composed of more than 30 genera and more than 260 species that mainly inhabit freshwaters in tropical and temperate regions of america and several regions of eurasia ( hershler & thompson , 1992 ) . the status of this enigmatic family remained unstable during many years , until wilke et al . ( 2001 ) , using molecular tools , confirmed that cochliopidae is a family distinct from hydrobiidae as it is accepted by bouchet & rocroi ( 2005 ) . the monophyly of the family , the consistency of molecular and anatomical characters ( mainly closed spermathecal duct and oviduct jointed directly to the albumen gland ) , and its phylogenetic relationships have been assessed and discussed by liu et al . , 2001 ( as cochliopinae ) and wilke et al . ( 2001 ) who mainly utilized dna sequences of mitochondrial genes . previous attempts to resolve systematic and / or phylogeny of hydrobiids based only on morphological data ( e . g . kabat & hershler , 1993 ; falniowsky & szarowska , 2000 ) poorly resolved the uncertainty due to considerable character convergence and the scarcity of anatomical synapomorphies .\npreliminary studies using scanning electron microscopy ( sem ) performed on shell , penis and radula of many cochliopidae from argentina indicated that i ) the radulae of h . parchappii and h . kuesteri are similar , ii ) although both species penial complexes are similar , there are small differences in the shape and the porosity porous of the papillae , and distal end shape , iii ) the whorls of h . kuesteri are less convex than those of h . parchappii , supporting the possibility that they are different species . the coi sequences analyzed here seemed to reinforce this possibility . however , more detailed anatomical studies , including female genitalia and use of other molecular markers are necessary to solve the question definitively .\nto date , only cazzaniga ( 1982 ) and de francesco and isla ( 2004 ) have carried out studies on population aspects of cochliopidae from argentina . the first author reports on the size structures of austral populations and the latter analyse the reproductive period and the growth range of heleobia parchappii in saline environments of the mar chiquita coastal lagoon ( buenos aires , argentina ) . to date , there are no studies regarding the population dynamics and growth patterns of h . piscium from the argentinean littoral of the r\u00edo de la plata . the aim of the present study is to analyse the basic aspects of its life cycle , focusing on time variations in age structure and the individual growth of this gastropod in natural conditions in coastal drainage channels of the multiple use natural reserve isla mart\u00edn garc\u00eda , where the species attain its largest size .\nheleobia hatcheri ( and the very similar morphotype heleobia sp . ) from cmp , resolved outside cochliopidae . both were integrated in the well - defined tateidae subclade 3 . 2 composed of 3 potamolithus species : p . agapetus ( pilsbry , 1911 ) and p . buschii ( fraunfeld , 1865 ) , sympatric taxa from de la plata river , and p . ribeirensis ( pilsbry , 1911 , sensu davis & pons da silva , 1984 ) , from iporanga river , southern brazil , part of the paran\u00e1 and la plata river drainage systems .\nheleobia hatcheri\nand\nheleobia sp .\nwere closely - related to the three potamolithus species studied in this work and these three taxa are more closely linked to tateidae family than to lythoglyphidae , as was pointed out by wilke et al . ( 2013 ) for p . ribeirensis .\nthe only description of female genitalia available for the genus corresponds to that of p . ribeirensis ( davis & pons da silva , 1984 ) . while it has served as the basis to define the\ntypical\nidealized anatomical ground plan of the lithoglyphidae ( wilke et al . , 2001 ) , it is not incompatible with the characterization of the tateidae female genitalia as\nsimple , usually with one distal seminal receptacle and a bursa copulatrix ; ventral channel occasionally separated to form a vestibule\n, ( wilke et al . , 2013 ) . in h . hatcheri the spermathecal tube seems not be separated from the albumen gland , which would distinguish it from the cochliopidae . however a deeper anatomical study of h . hatcheri , with emphasis on the female genitalia , and the incorporation of other mitochondrial markers is necessary to determine the genus and , more importantly , the family to which h . hatcheri belongs .\ncochliopidae tryon , 1866 is a diverse family of caenogastropods that lives in a wide variety of aquatic habitats primarily in the new world ( hershler & thompson 1992 ) . in chile , the species of the group have been traditionally assigned to the genus littoridina souleyet , 1852 using conchological characters ( biese 1944 , 1947 ; stuardo , 1961 ; valdovinos 2006 ) but according to anatomical studies and phylogenetic analysis the majority of them have been reassigned to the genus heleobia stimpson , 1865 ( hershler & thompson 1992 ; collado et al . 2011a ; kroll et al . 2012 ; collado et al . 2013 ; collado et al . 2016 ) . here we formally describe a new species of the genus heleobia from spring 1 in the carcote saltpan , chilean altiplano , based on molecular and morphological characters . snails from this locality were previously shown to be distinct based on dna sequences ( collado et al . 2013 ; collado et al . 2016 ) .\nour molecular results would validate the\naustralis\nand\npiscium\ngroups . h . australis is an elongated - conic shell species of marine and littoral waters that , along with tryonia imitator and heleobeops carrikeri ( both from hard usa waters ; hershler et al . , 1999 and wilke et al . , 2000 , respectively ) shares with h . piscium ( an oligo - to euryhaline species ) its condition of basal linage of the subclades from clade cochliopidae ( i . e . altiplano lakes , european semisalsa and cmp heleobia spp . ; fig . 1 tree ) . besides coi sequences differences reported in this work and differences in penis morphology and shell form ( elongate - conic in h . australis and conic in h . piscium ; gaillard & castellanos , 1976 ) , both species differs in development mode : indirect in h . australis ( marcus & marcus , 1963 , 1965 ; neves et al . , 2010 ) and direct in h . piscium ( stella m . martin , pers . observ . ) .\nheleobia piscium ( d\u2019orbigny , 1835 ) , a member of the cochliopidae family found only in south america , is distributed from entre r\u00edos , delta del paran\u00e1 , and the littoral of the r\u00edo de la plata down as far as to punta indio ( buenos aires ) , the southernmost limit of the snail\u2019s geographical distribution . to date , little information is available regarding the reproductive cycle of species within this family either in argentina or throughout south america . the present work analyzed the histology of the reproductive system of the gonochoric species h . piscium and determined the stages oogenesis and spermatogenesis under natural conditions . specimens of h . piscium were collected in the multiple - use natural reserve isla mart\u00edn garc\u00eda , located in the upper r\u00edo de la plata estuary to the south of the mouth of the uruguay river . the gametogenic cycle in both sexes was found to consist of the following stages : early maturation , maturation , and evacuation . the maturation period was found to extend from january to october and evacuation of the gametes to start in november and end in february ( summer in the southern hemisphere ) . the results indicated the h . piscium exhibit a reproductive cycle without a resting period .\nnewly obtained and previously published sequences of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit i ( coi ) gene were analyzed to examine the biogeographic assembly of the caenogastropod fauna ( belonging to the families assimineidae , cochliopidae , and hydrobiidae ) of an isolated spring along the lower colorado river in southern nevada ( blue point spring ) . based on available coi clock calibrations , the three lineages that comprise this fauna are 2 . 78\u20131 . 42 million years old , which is roughly coeval or slightly younger than the age of blue point spring ( inferred from local fossil spring deposits ) . two of the lineages\u2014endemic pyrgulopsis coloradensis and assiminea aff . infima \u2014are most closely related to snails in the death valley area ( well to the west ) and likely colonized blue point spring by transport on birds . a single haplotype was detected in both of these snails , suggesting that they may have only recently colonized blue point spring . the third lineage\u2014endemic tryonia infernalis , newly described herein based on morphological and molecular evidence\u2014is most closely related to a geographically proximal species in a lower colorado river tributary ( tryonia clathrata ) ; the split between these taxa may be the product of vicariance ( severance of a prior drainage connection ) or a separate jump dispersal event . the considerable genetic diversity in tryonia infernalis ( three haplotypes differing by 0 . 6 % mean sequence divergence ) suggests a possibly lengthy history of local differentiation . our findings also identify blue point spring as a new micro - hotspot of groundwater - dependent biodiversity in nevada and will assist ongoing efforts to protect and conserve these imperiled ecosystems .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\na systematic review of the hydrobiid snails ( gastropoda : rissoidea ) of the great basin , western united states . part ii . genera colligyrus , fluminicola , pristinicola , and tryonia\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\n( placed on the official index of rejected and invalid names by iczn opinion 2202 . )\nsubgenus paludestrina ( eupaludestrina ) j . mabille , 1877 accepted as heleobia ( eupaludestrina ) j . mabille , 1877 represented as heleobia stimpson , 1865\nspecies paludestrina antarctica e . a . smith , 1902 accepted as laevilitorina antarctica ( e . a . smith , 1902 ) ( original combination )\nspecies paludestrina cingulata dall , 1913 \u2020 accepted as hydrobia alexandriensis wenz , 1923 \u2020 ( junior secondary homonym of hydrobia cingulata capellini , 1880 ; see h . alexandriensis wenz , 1923 )\nspecies paludestrina hamiltoni e . a . smith , 1898 accepted as laevilitorina hamiltoni ( e . a . smith , 1898 ) ( original combination )\nspecies paludestrina jenkinsi ( e . a . smith , 1889 ) accepted as potamopyrgus antipodarum ( gray , 1843 )\nspecies paludestrina reevei kennard & b . b . woodward , 1899 \u2020 accepted as hydrobia reevei ( kennard & b . b . woodward , 1899 ) \u2020 ( new combination )\nspecies paludestrina taylori e . a . smith , 1901 accepted as marstoniopsis scholtzi ( a . schmidt , 1856 ) accepted as marstoniopsis insubrica ( k\u00fcster , 1853 )\nspecies paludestrina turricula dall , 1913 \u2020 accepted as hydrobia dalli wenz , 1922 \u2020 ( junior secondary homonym of hydrobia turricula neumayr in neumayr & paul , 1875 ; see h . dalli wenz , 1922 )\ngenus aroa h . b . baker , 1930 accepted as aroapyrgus h . b . baker , 1931 ( invalid : junior homonym of aroa walker , 1855 [ lepidoptera ] ; aroapyrgus is a replacement name )\ngenus semisalsa radoman , 1974 accepted as heleobia ( eupaludestrina ) j . mabille , 1877 represented as heleobia stimpson , 1865\nhershler , r . ; thompson , f . g . ( 1992 ) . a review of the genera of the aquatic gastropod subfamily cochliopinae ( prosobranchia : hydrobiidae ) . malacological review . supplement 5 : 1 - 140 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nbouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . [ details ]\nwilke t . , haase m . , hershler r . , liu h . - p . , misof b . & ponder w . ( 2013 ) pushing short dna fragments to the limit : phylogenetic relationships of \u2018hydrobioid\u2019 gastropods ( caenogastropoda : rissooidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 66 : 715 - 736 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nlaboratorio de parasitolog\u00eda , facultad de ciencias exactas y naturales , universidad nacional de mar del plata ( unmdp ) , consejo nacional de investigaciones cient\u00edficas y t\u00e9cnicas ( conicet ) , mar del plata ( b7602ayl ) , argentina .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhans - martin braun marked the english common name\nlaver spire snail\nfrom\nheleobia stagnorum ( gmelin , 1791 )\nas trusted .\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nwei\u00dfe wattschnecke\nto\nheleobia stagnorum ( gmelin , 1791 )\n.\ninvestigador cic , div . zoolog\u00eda invertebrados , fcnym , unlp , paseo del bosque , s / n , la plata ( 1900 ) , bs , as , argentina , subsidio autom\u00e1tico fcnym , n\u00b0 470 , programas incentivos\nthe present work analyses the individual growth of heleobia piscium in natural conditions in coastal drainage channels of the multiple use natural reserve isla mart\u00edn garc\u00eda , buenos aires , argentina . isla mart\u00edn garc\u00eda is located in the upper r\u00edo de la plata , to the south of the mouth of the uruguay river ( 34\u00b0 11 ' 25\ns and 58\u00b0 15 ' 38\nw ) . monthly collections were made from july 2005 to july 2006 in the eastern part of the island ( arena beach ) . the population of h . piscium showed a complex and dynamic structure of sizes during a long period of the annual cycle . two cohorts could be detected . the bertalanffy growth equation was : l t = 6 ( 1 - e \u00961 . 85 ( t + 0 . 38 ) ) and l t = 3 . 9 ( 1 - e \u00960 . 19 ( t + 4 . 84 ) ) for cohorts 1 and 2 , respectively . the pattern of population growth displayed a staggered model , where the greatest growth is observed during the summer . the reproductive period occurred during six months , from the beginning of summer to middle of fall . based on only one reproductive effort , this pattern is not similar to that of other cogeneric species already studied .\no presente trabalho analisa o crescimento individual de heleobia piscium em condi\u00e7\u00f5es naturais em po\u00e7as costeiras da reserva natural de usos m\u00faltiplos ilha mart\u00edn garc\u00eda , buenos aires , argentina . a ilha mart\u00edn garc\u00eda est\u00e1 localizada no rio da prata superior , ao sul da desembocadura do rio uruguai ( 34\u00b0 11 ' 25\ns e 58\u00b015 ' 38\nw ) . amostras mensais foram analisadas entre os meses de julho de 2005 e julho de 2006 , no setor este da ilha ( praia de arena ) . a popula\u00e7\u00e3o de heleobia piscium se caracterizou por uma complexa e din\u00e2mica estrutura de talhas ao longo de grande parte do ciclo anual . duas cohortes puderam ser detectadas . a equa\u00e7\u00e3o de von bertalanffy para a cohorte 1 foi : l t = 6 ( 1 - e \u00961 . 85 ( t + 0 . 38 ) ) . para a cohorte 2 : l t = 3 . 9 ( 1 - e \u00960 . 19 ( t + 4 . 84 ) ) . o padr\u00e3o de desenvolvimento da popula\u00e7\u00e3o mostra um modelo escalonado , estendendo - se o per\u00edodo de maior crescimento durante toda a esta\u00e7\u00e3o do ver\u00e3o . a temporada reprodutiva se manifestou durante seis meses , desde o princ\u00edpio do ver\u00e3o at\u00e9 meados do outono . este padr\u00e3o baseado em um \u00fanico esfor\u00e7o reprodutivo n\u00e3o se assemelha ao de outras esp\u00e9cies congen\u00e9ricas j\u00e1 estudadas .\nin argentina , heleobia piscium ( d ' orbigny , 1835 ) and h . parchappii ( d ' orbigny , 1835 ) have been confirmed as hosts for cercariae of different species of digeneans ( ostrowsky de nu\u00f1ez , 1975 ) .\ngaillard ( 1973 ) reported heleobia piscium from r\u00edo de la plata where different ecological forms were found according to the anthropogenic impact which affected the environment they occupy . the maximum forms develop only with optimal environmental conditions , such as those occurring far from urban centres . although gaillard and castellanos ( 1976 ) consider h . piscium as a freshwater species , darrigran ( 1995 ) also considers it euryhaline enough to occur in zones of the r\u00edo de la plata river with changes in the salinity of the water between 0 . 5 and 25\u0089 .\nisla mart\u00edn garc\u00eda is located in the upper r\u00edo de la plata , to the south of the mouth of the uruguay river ( 34\u00b0 11 ' 25\ns and 58\u00b0 15 ' 38\nw ) ( figure 1 ) . it constitutes an outcrop of the brazilian massif of precambrian crystalline basement rocks , upon which there are sediments of the holocene and pleistocene ( quaternary ) ( ravizza , 1984 ) .\nmonthly collections were made from july , 2005 to july , 2006 in the eastern part of the island ( arena beach , multiple use reserve isla mart\u00edn garc\u00eda ) . this coastal part is delimited by the canal del infierno , which is characterized by a remarkable exposure to the strong winds from the southeast .\nsamples of heleobia piscium ( n = 1237 ) were taken by hand ( captures per unit effort : cpue , that is specimens / 60 min / person ) in the coastal drainage channels formed by tidal erosion . specimens were attached to the bottom pebbles and associated with bivalve limnoperna fortunei ( dunker , 1875 ) , hydrobiid potamolithus pilsbry , 1896 and representatives of the ancylidae . voucher specimens were deposited in the collection of the museo de la plata ( n\u00b0 12436 ) .\nin the laboratory , specimens were submitted to anaesthesia with menthol crystals for 24 hours , before being fixed with bouin ' s solution . the snails were measured using a stereoscopic microscope with micrometric ocular . total body length was selected as a parameter to determine the monthly - size frequency histograms . these histograms were constructed with size intervals of 5 mm . each .\nindividual growth was analysed using the bertalanffy growth equation : l t = l \u221e ( 1 - e \u0096k ( t - to ) ) . the parameter l \u221e ( maximum body length that individuals of a cohort can reach ) was estimated for each case using the walford method . the time t was calculated considering 30 days per month , in the following manner : t = 1 / 360 . [ ( m - 1 ) 30 + d ] . the parameter k ( individual growth constant ) was determined by linear regression between ln ( 1 - lt / l \u221e ) = \u0096k . t + k . t 0 , equation of the form y = b . x + a , corresponding the k value to ordinate to origin , b . the parameter t 0 ( hypothetical time in which the length of the individuals is zero ) was deduced from k / a .\nthe cohorts ( groups of individuals theoretically born at the same time ) observed from the information obtained through the frequencies of sizes , were analysed as a function of the growth curve and the pattern of annual variation of the age structure of the population was defined . for each cohort , a test of goodness of fit using the chi 2 test was done between the theoretical values and those observed .\nthe presence of egg capsules attached to the shells of the snails was used as indirect evidence of reproductive activity .\nthe environmental physico - chemical parameters such as water temperature , percentage of dissolved oxygen , ph and conductivity , were measured using a digital multimeter during most of the samplings .\nthe population of heleobia piscium was characterized by a complex and dynamic size structure throughout a large part of the annual cycle ( figure 2 ) . two cohorts could be detected ( figure 3 ) . cohort 1 ( winter cohort ) was observed in all the surveyed months . cohort 2 ( summer - fall cohort ) appeared at the beginning of march 2006 . in march 2006 , the population structure of h . piscium showed a bimodal size distribution because of the appearance of cohort 2 .\nthe reproductive activity was evident with the presence of egg capsules attached to the shells of some specimens ; this period extended from december 2005 to the end of may 2006 .\ncohort 1 showed mean size values of 2 . 75 \u00b1 0 . 47 mm to 5 . 89 \u00b1 0 . 09 mm . the von bertalanffy equation for this cohort was : lt = 6 ( 1 - e \u00961 . 85 ( t + 0 . 38 ) ) , where l \u221e = 6 ( figure 4a ) , and k = 1 . 85 ( figure 4b ) chi 2 = 2 . 66 for p < 0 . 05 .\ncohort 2 occurred only from the beginning of march 2006 to the end of the sampling period , showing mean size values of 2 . 43 \u00b1 0 . 68 mm . to 3 . 12 \u00b1 0 . 73 . the von bertalanffy equation for this cohort was : lt = 3 . 9 ( 1 - e \u00960 . 19 ( t + 4 . 84 ) ) , where l \u221e = 3 . 9 ( figure 5a ) and k = 0 . 19 ( figure 5b ) . chi 2 = 0 . 12 for p < 0 . 05 .\nfrom december 2005 to march 2006 the highest growth of cohort 1 was observed with mean values of 3 . 77 \u00b1 0 . 54 mm and 4 . 38 \u00b1 0 . 32 mm . , respectively . in fact , it is in this period where the highest values of water temperature were recorded ( 28 and 30 . 5 \u00b0c ) ; variation in water temperature ranged between 11 . 9 \u00b0c and the values mentioned above ( figure 6 ) . the ph was slightly alkaline during all the sampling period , ranging between 6 . 7 and 7 . 8 . the percentage of dissolved oxygen was very variable throughout the year ( figure 6 ) . the conductivity was low ( 2 . 3 to 178 \u00b5 urltoken \u00961 ) .\nthe great variability of the n values ( number of individuals per sampling ) reflected in the histograms could be caused by the strong winds from the south occurring in certain months ( data provided by subprefectura naval argentina , isla mart\u00edn garc\u00eda ) . these winds produced a\nwashed\nline on the coastal drainage channels which would explain , in part , the low number of specimens collected during august 2005 and february to march 2006 .\nthe pattern of growth population shows a staggered model , with a period of greatest growth extending throughout the entire summer season . this is corroborated by the high growth rate of cohort 1 ( k = 1 . 85 ) .\nthe reproductive period took place during six months , from the beginning of summer to the middle of fall , when the egg capsules attached to the surface of the shell of some specimens were observed . this is consistent with the presence of a larger number of individuals of smaller sizes in march , the majority of which belonged to the new cohort . this pattern based on a unique reproductive effort is not similar to that of other cogeneric species already studied ; cazzaniga ( 1981 ) studied the heleobia parchappii in freshwater environments of the south of the province of buenos aires and he reported two spawning peaks in the species ' reproductive cycle . cazzaniga ( 1982 ) pointed out that h . parchappii experienced a marked fluctuation in density , an unstable size structure and a high abundance of young snails in mesohaline environments in austral populations from buenos aires ( argentina ) .\nde francesco and isla ( 2004 ) also describe two main spawning peaks for h . parchappii , one at the beginning of spring and another one during fall , in saline canals of mar chiquita coastal lagoon . according to these authors , the similarity observed in life cycles under different saline conditions invites some speculation about the relative importance of this factor in conditioning the reproductive activity of these snails . the authors have found that the size structure remains relatively stable and that the cohorts can be followed monthly during the year . thus , it appears that salinity does not have a marked influence on the reproductive activity of h . parchappii but does affect population structure . from these works , we can infer that snails from the saline canal attain smaller sizes than those found in freshwater environments from buenos aires province .\nunlike gaillard and castellanos ( 1976 ) , darrigran ( 1995 ) states that h . piscium is an euryhaline species , which inhabits the fluvial - inner zone ( corresponding to isla mart\u00edn garc\u00eda ) ( salinity < 0 . 5\u0089 ) and the fluvial - intermediate zone ( 0 . 5 - 25\u0089 ) of the r\u00edo de la plata .\nalthough conductivity could not be measured in all studies , it exhibited a great variability throughout the year with values ranging from 0 . 002 to 0 . 18\u0089 , not exceeding the limit percentage of the fluvial - inner zone . conductivity is not the only parameter subjected to variations , even daily variations ; this is due to the fact that the coastal drainage channels , which are subjected to the mild action of the tides and occasional strong southern winds , are also subordinated to variations in the water volume of the drainage channels . this affects not only the conductivity but also several physico - chemical parameters such as ph , percentage of dissolved oxygen , water temperature ( figure 6 ) .\nde francesco ( 2002 ) proposed that heleobia conexa ( gaillard , 1974 ) presents a reproductive pattern similar to that of h . parchappii , which is mostly influenced by water temperature . according to our observations , the water temperature is the parameter that best fits the growth pattern of h . piscium . likewise , we cannot affirm that it has a marked effect on the reproductive cycle and on the species growth , as conductivity does on other species of heleobia .\nno data is available for the comparison among different populations of heleobia piscium in different types of habitat . this is why this study on the annual cycle of natural populations of h . piscium represents a precedent for further investigations related to species biology .\nthe reproductive effort of heleobia piscium in natural populations is characterized by having only one long spawning period ; the reproductive season takes place from summer to the middle of fall . it is in the summer when population growth shows the highest peaks and the mean size values fit best the theoretical growth curve .\nrenovation of the age structure of the heleobia piscium population is in accordance with the highest levels of water temperature observed from december to march ; this variable appears to be an important factor of mortality , particularly for the largest classes ( see figure 2 ) . therefore , temperature could be a regulating factor for growth and reproductive activity .\nit is not the purpose of this report to explain why heleobia piscium displays only one spawning peak and h . parchappii and h . conexa presents two , since factors probably affecting the spawning activity of these snails are of a diverse nature .\nalthough variations in saline conditions affect the age structure in heleobia parchappii populations , it appears that these variations do not have a marked influence on its reproductive activity . in h . piscium , this environmental variable does not seem to regulate the reproductive capacity either , since conductivity values were always remarkably low , below the limit percentage of the fluvial - inner zone .\nit is worth mentioning that as heleobia piscium is a poorly studied species with growing sanitary interest , knowledge of it and the analysis of its basic aspects in the dynamics of natural populations become more relevant as a function of future strategies of control .\nacknowledgements \u0096 financial support for this work was provided by an institutional grant from the comisi\u00f3n de investigaciones cient\u00edficas de la provincia de buenos aires ( cic ) ( resolution n\u00ba 694 / 04 ) . the author wish to thanks the staff menbers of the prefecture naval argentina isla mart\u00edn garc\u00eda and lic . l . negrete .\ncazzaniga , nj . , 1981 . estudios bioecol\u00f3gicos de gaster\u00f3podos dulciacu\u00edcolas relacionados con la invasi\u00f3n de canales por malezas acu\u00e1ticas . argentina : universidad nacional de la plata . 169 p . [ tesis doctoral , n\u00b0 393 ] [ links ]\n- , 1982 . notas sobre hidr\u00f3bidos argentinos . 5 . conquiliometr\u00eda de littoridina parchappii ( d ' orbigny , 1835 ) ( gastropoda rissoidea ) referida a su ciclo de vida en poblaciones australes . porto alegre . iheringia , s\u00e9r . zool . , vol . 61 , p . 97 - 118 . [ links ]\ndarrigran , ga . , 1995 . distribuci\u00f3n de tres especies del g\u00e9nero heleobia stimpson , 1865 ( gastropoda , hydrobiidae ) en el litoral argentino del r\u00edo de la plata y arroyos afluentes . porto alegre . iheringia , s\u00e9r . zoo l . , vol . 78 , p . 3 - 8 . [ links ]\nde - francesco , cg . and isla , fi . , 2004 . reproductive period and growth rate of the freshwater snail heleobia piscium ( d ' orbigny , 1835 ) ( gastropoda : rissoidea ) in a shallow brackish habitat ( buenos aires province , argentina ) . malac , vol . 45 , no . 2 , p . 443 - 450 . [ links ]\ngaillard , c . , 1973 . las formas ecol\u00f3gicas de littoridina piscium ( d ' orbigny , 1835 ) ( mollusca , hydrobiidae ) . la plata . neotr . 19 , no . 60 , p . 147 - 151 . [ links ]\ngaillard , c . and castellanos , z . 1976 . mollusca gasteropoda hydrobiidae . in ringuelet , ra . ( ed . ) . fauna de agua dulce de la rep\u00fablica argentina . buenos aires . fecic , vol . 15 , no . 2 , 40 p . [ links ]\ngiusti , f . and pezzoli , e . , 1984 . notulae malacologicae xxix \u0096 gli hidrobiidae salmastridelle acque costieri italiane ; primi cenni sulla sistematica del gruppo e sui caratter distintivi delle singole morfospecie . milano . lavori s . i . m . , vol . 21 , p . 117 - 148 . [ links ]\nostrowski - de - nu\u00f1ez , m . , 1975 . fauna de agua dulce de la rep\u00fablica argentina . iv . cercarias ( trematoda ) de littoridina piscium . buenos aires . physis . b . , vol . 34 , no . 88 , p . 63 - 98 . [ links ]\nravizza , gb . , 1984 . principales aspectos geol\u00f3gicos del cuaternario en la isla mart\u00edn garc\u00eda , r\u00edo de la plata superior . rev . asoc . geol . arg . , buenos aires , vol . 39 , no . 1 - 2 , p . 125 - 130 . [ links ]\nr . bento carlos , 750 13560 - 660 s\u00e3o carlos sp - brasil tel . e fax : ( 55 16 ) 3362 - 5400 bjb @ urltoken\niheringia , s\u00e9r . zool . vol . 105 no . 1 porto alegre jan . / mar . 2015\n1 . instituto argentino de investigaciones de las zonas aridas ( iadiza ) , cct - conicet . av . ruiz leal s / n , parque general san mart\u00edn , mendoza ( 5500 ) , argentina .\n2 . facultad de ciencias exactas y naturales , universidad nacional de cuyo . av . padre contreras 1300 , mendoza ( 5500 ) , argentina .\n3 . comisi\u00f3n de investigaciones cient\u00edficas , buenos aires province ( cic ) , la plata , buenos aires , argentina . ( smartin @ fcnym . unlp . edu . ar )\nheleobia kuesteri also remain enigmatic . based on geographic distribution and the original conchological description of strobel , m . c . gaillard ( unpublished data ) considered this species within the\nparchappii group\n. cazzaniga ( 1981 ) proposed h . kuesteri as species inquirenda and ciocco ( 2011 ) suggested that it could be a valid taxon related to the\nparchappii group\n.\nheleobia hatcheri , abundant in patagonian waters , differs from the other heleobia species from the cmp in , among other characters , the presence of a so called nuchal papilla in all females studied ( pseudohermaphroditism or natural imposex , mart\u00edn , 2002 ) , the only reported sex in cmp populations where sex ratios have been studied ( uspallata river ; mart\u00edn , 2002 ; ciocco , 2011 ) . this organ was previously mistakenly interpreted as a reduced and functional penis from hypothetical h . hatcheri males ( gaillard & castellanos , 1976 ; cazzaniga , 1981 ) , to the point that a new genus was proposed ( strobeliella ; cazzaniga , 1981 ) .\nadditionally , a new morphotype with similar shell features to h . hatcheri ( ovate - conic shell ) , but discontinuous peristome , was recently found in several localities of the cmp ( heleobia sp . ; ciocco & koch , unpublished data ) .\nthe goal of this study is to develop a molecular approach to solve the taxonomical status of heleobia species from the centre - west of argentina as a first step towards an integrated phylogenetic study of the southern south america cochliopids . considering : i ) the protein - coding mitochondrial citocrome oxidase i ( coi ) gene does not show insertions or deletions in the superfamily rissooidea ; ii ) the vast information on coi gene sequence available in ncbi genebank for the gastropoda in general and iii ) that this sequence shows good phylogenetic signals from population to family levels ( wilke et al . , 2001 ) , we analyze coi sequences from 7 taxa ( 5 cochliopid and 2 non cochliopid ones ) without previous data in genbank , in an attempt to provide new considerations tending to solve a long term controversial issue .\nspecimens . individuals from cmp were collected in aguas negras ( 30\u00b018 ' 6 . 72\ns , 68\u00b043 ' 46 . 62\nw , san juan province ) , uspallata stream ( 32\u00b040 ' 11 . 1\ns , 69\u00b021 ' 52 . 8\nw , mendoza province ) , and laguna bebedero ( 33\u00b039 ' s , 66\u00b034 ' w , san luis province ) during expeditions to the cmp between 2011 and 2013 . heleobia piscium ( d ' orbigny , 1835 ) and potamolithus spp . specimens were collected in 2014 from martin garcia island , upper portion from de la plata river basin ( 34\u00b011 ' s , 58\u00b015 ' w , buenos aires province ) . in all cases , animals were alcohol preserved following previous menthol relaxation . voucher specimens for all studied taxa were deposited in the museo de la plata collection under voucher numbers : mlp ma 13806 to 13812 .\ndna isolation , pcr and sequencing . the total dna was extracted from the foot of dissected snails . tissues were rinsed in te buffer ( 10mm tris 1mm edta , ph 8 ) and digested overnight in ctab ( cetyl trimethylammonium bromide ) buffer containing proteinase k ( 0 . 14 mg at 60\u00b0c ) and 2 - mercaptoethanol . dna was purified by a threefold extraction with chloroform - isoamyl alcohol ( 24 : 1 ) followed by precipitation with ethanol . the dna was then resuspended in dnase / rnase free distilled water . a 655 - bp fragment of the coi gene was amplified by means of the primers of folmer et al . ( 1994 ) . amplification by the polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ) was performed in a final volume of 50 \u00b5l containing : 50 - 100 ng of template dna , 0 . 1 \u00b5m of each primer , 1x pcr buffer , 50 \u00b5m dntps , 2 . 5 mm mgcl 2 , and 1 u taq polymerase ( invitrogen , brazil ) . the thermocycling sequence was conducted at 94\u00b0c for 3 min ; with 5 cycles at 94\u00b0c for 30 s , 42\u00b0c for 30 s , and 72\u00b0c for 1 min 30 s ; followed by 34 cycles at 94\u00b0c for 30 s , 45\u00b0c for 30 s , and 72\u00b0c for 1 min 30 s ; with a final chain extension at 72\u00b0c for 5 min . 5 \u00b5l of each pcr product was tested on a 1 % ( w / v ) agarose gel electrophoresis . the remainders ( 45\u00b5l ) of reactions with the expected pcr product were purified with accuprep ( r ) pcr purification kit ( bioneer corporation , korea ) , then sequenced in both directions ( instituto de biotecnolog\u00eda , unidad de gen\u00f3mica , inta castelar , argentina ) . the resulting sequences were analyzed with bioedit ( hall , 1999 ) to obtain consensus sequences for each individual .\nsequence alignment . the coi sequences were unambiguously aligned in mega6 ( tamura et al . , 2013 ) and trimmed to a total length of 638bp . phylogenetic analysis was undertaken comparing gene sequences from this study and related sequences in genbank ( tab . i ) . a phylogenetic tree was constructed using the maximum likelihood method based on the tamura - nei model ( tamura & nei , 1993 ) . the bootstrap consensus tree inferred from 1000 replicates is taken to represent the evolutionary history of the taxa analyzed ( felsenstein , 1985 ) . branches corresponding to partitions reproduced in less than 50 % of the bootstrap replicates are collapsed .\nthe initial tree for the heuristic search was obtained automatically by applying neighbor - join and bionj algorithms to a matrix of pairwise distances estimated using the maximum composite likelihood ( mcl ) approach , and then selecting the topology with the best log likelihood value . the analysis involved 38 nucleotide sequences . all codon positions were included . all positions containing gaps and missing data were eliminated . there were a total of 636 positions in the final dataset . evolutionary analyses were conducted in mega6 ( tamura et al . , 2013 ) .\ntaxon , collection locality data , reference and genbank accession numbers for specimens analyzed in this study .\nthe bootstrap consensus tree yielded from the ml analysis comprises the outgroup taxon pomatiopsis lapidaria ( say , 1817 ) , 4 dominant clades and several subclades ( from top to bottom ; fig 1 . ) :\nmolecular phylogenetic analysis by maximum likelihood method bootstrap consensus tree inferred from 1000 replicates . all codon positions were included . all positions containing gaps and missing data were eliminated . there were a total of 636 positions in the final dataset . only bootstrap values greater than 50 are indicated .\nfour basal lineages [ heleobops carrikeri ( davies and mckee , 1989 ) , heleobia australis , heleobia piscium and tryonia imitator ( pilsbry , 1899 ) ] not belonging to subclades 1 . 1 - 1 . 3 .\n3 . 2 . containing 3 species of potamolithus , heleobia hatcheri and morphotype heleobia sp .\nthree of the heleobia spp . from subclade 1 . 3 correspond to taxa recorded from the cmp : h . parchappii , h . occidentalis and h . kuesteri . the topology of this subclade showed that two first species are very close , reinforcing that h . occidentalis is synonym of h . parchappii . also , analysis of this subclade confirmed that heleobia kuesteri belongs to\nparchappii group\nand suggested that it should be accepted as a valid species . heleobia limariensis , from huasco river basin from northern chile and the three cmp species of this subclade , share an arid andean environment .\nheleobia kuesteri , meanwhile , is an elongate - conic shell endemic species from the centre - west of argentina abundant in relatively soft waters of the subandean foothills of the cmp . despite this species needs to be redescribed including soft parts . the shell features of the scarce available material in malacological collections identified as h . kuesteri ( lote 20997 / 1 invertebrates collection of museo argentino de ciencias naturales bernardino rivadavia , buenos aires , argentina ) appear identical to the numerous specimens we collected in the centre and north of the cmp . although shell morphology of this species is different from typical h . parchappii , de francesco & hassan ( 2009 ) cited for the south of the cmp another abundant batch of individuals , with identical conchological features to those we found in the centre and north of the cmp , as heleobia aff . parchappii based on similarity of penial complex . however , these authors recognized difficulties in identifying this material and considered the possibility that it could be an undescribed species or h . kuesteri .\ninterestingly , there is no fossil record of h . hatcheri from the centre - west of argentina although the holocene aquatic malacofauna of the region is , with the exception of this species and the exotic physa acuta draparnaud , 1805 , identical to the current gastropod and bivalve assemblages ( de francesco & hassan , 2009 ) . these observations suggest that this enigmatic taxon may have colonized the centre - west of argentina in the last ca . 11 , 000 years .\nheleobia sp . , as previously mentioned , must undoubtedly be considered as very close to h . hatcheri , a taxon with which it shares in sympatry the relatively soft waters of the cmp . morphological studies indicate that the species have an identical radula , similar pigmentation in the prosboscis and tentacles together with nuchal papillae and absence of males in all the examined populations . the only notable difference from h . hatcheri is that the heleobia sp . shell has a discontinuous peristome , a character that could be interpreted as an intraspecific variation , as also appears to be the case in h . kuesteri . nevertheless , a detailed morphological description of this morphotype and the eventual incorporation of other molecular markers should be taken into account before considering it as a new species or a h . hatcheri variation .\nwith respect to the phylogenetic proximity of h . hatcheri to the south american genus potamolithus and the suggestion that the latter belong not to lithoglyphidae but to tateidae ( wilke et al . , 2013 ) , these authors indicated that\nwe do not know of any unique characters defining this group\n. nevertheless , the diagnosis of the paleartic - neartic lithoglyphidae is made by the closed ventral wall of the female capsule gland and the blade - like penis lacking large appendages and specialized glands , remarking finally that the genus potamolithus was resolved as a member of the tateidae clade in all their molecular analysis ( wilke et al . , 2013 ) .\nthe potamolithus species incorporated in this study , p . buschii and p . agapetus , are sympatric in the la plata river basin . potamolithus agapetus presents a marked secondary sexual dimorphism on shell shape and size ( l\u00f3pez armengol , 1996 ) . females of both taxa show a nuchal node on the right side of the neck as was described by davis & pons da silva ( 1984 ) for p . ribeirensis . this fleshy protuberance is situated where the base of the simple , and without appendages , penis is located ( davis & pons da silva , 1984 ; l\u00f3pez armengol , 1996 ) in the three mentioned potamolithus species , also coinciding with the position of the nuchal papilla of the parthenogenetic h . hatcheri females ( mart\u00edn , 2002 ) . unfortunately , the female genitalia of p . buschii and p . agapetus have not been described ."]}
{"id": 2455, "summary": [{"text": "al ferof ( 30 march 2005 ) is a retired french-bred british-based national hunt horse owned by john hales .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he was initially trained by barry murphy in wexford for martin timothy murphy .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he was then trained by paul nicholls and won the 2011 supreme novices \u2019 hurdle at the cheltenham festival before progressing to chasing the following season , where he won several top races including the paddy power gold cup .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he moved to the stable of dan skelton in 2015 and won the peterborough chase for his new trainer .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "al ferof was retired from racing in october 2016 . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "al ferof", "paragraphs": ["this year , cue card , al ferof , menorah , grands crus , al ferof , and flemenstar could all be targeted at this middle distance .\nal ferof has been ruled out for the next few months , trainer paul nicholls has confirmed .\nat the recent entry stage along with al ferof , hinterland and dodging bullets - and vibrato .\nnicholls can continue his king george vi chase domination when he sends out al ferof on boxing day .\nal ferof clears the ditch at huntingdon on his way to winning the peterborough chase . photograph : urltoken\npaul nicholls can continue his king george vi chase domination when he sends out al ferof on boxing day .\nfaugheen , the new one , al ferof and siliviniaco conti did their cheltenham credentials no harm on saturday .\nanyway , everyone \u2013 including ferdy \u2013 has been delighted to see how al ferof has showcased what we do here .\n\u201ctoday was a sad day as the popular yard star al ferof has been retired , \u201d skelton\u2019s facebook page reported .\npaul nicholls said of al ferof : ' daryl ( jacob ) said he travelled very well but ran out of stamina .\nin all , al ferof won 11 of his 28 starts , amassing over \u00a3510 , 000 in win and place prize money .\nhales\u2019s daughter lisa will look after al ferof while he recovers and then a decision about his long - term future will be made .\nthe first race at newbury went ahead following the incident with harry skelton riding al ferof to victory . photograph : alan crowhurst / getty images\nsilviniaco conti goes into this year\u2019s race as favourite , up against champagne fever , al ferof and menorah . for full entries see below .\nal ferof could make his eagerly - awaited return to action after injury in the king george vi chase at kempton park on boxing day .\nbut this is all about unfulfilled potential and having only his 12th start over fences , i fancy al ferof to come of age at kempton .\ni should expect both cue card and al ferof to benefit from the step up in trip - and grands crus from dropping back in distance .\nin the grade 1 arkle novice chase , the talented al ferof and cue card took on the sprinter . but the pace told on al ferof who made a dreadful blunder and it was left to cue card to chase sprinter sacre home , a respectable 7 lengths the margin in march 2012 .\nal ferof is to get an entry in the timico cheltenham gold cup after his valiant effort in defeat in the king george vi chase at kempton .\nal ferof had been fifth favourite for the queen mother champion chase at cheltenham , and had the ryanair chase at the meeting as a potential alternative .\nal ferof could make his eagerly - awaited return to action after injury in the king george vi chase at kempton park on boxing day . read more\nal ferof is quoted for all three festival races , but is shortest for the champion chase \u2013 shorter , incomprehensibly , than champagne fever , who has far more basic pace and still might not be quick enough for this task . al ferof is covered more fully in the ryanair and gold cup sections .\nthen there were three picks from racing post ' s pricewise judge , tom segal , as follows : al ferof , jessies dream and the real article .\nwhile champagne fever \u2019s gold cup ambitions are dead , al ferof \u2019s rest on what risks becoming an annual wrangle between nicholls and owner , john hales .\ni thought al ferof\u2019s jumping got sloppy when the pace increased and when you consider peddler\u2019s will go flying off , the grey will need to brush his jumping off . peddlers and al ferof have the best hurdles ratings and i agree , an antepost bet on both of those will see you in a good position .\nhe compared dodging bullets favourably with his previous supreme winners al ferof and noland , while ptit zig is one of a few in the running for the fred winter .\nruby walsh on al ferof , left , clears the last fence before striding on to win the paddy power gold cup at cheltenham . photograph : alan crowhurst / getty images\nall horses who competed in the first race were inspected by veterinary officers at the start . al ferof , ridden by harry skelton , came home a very easy winner .\nfreshened up and a year stronger , al ferof made a triumphant return to cheltenham in november 2012 , winning the paddy power gold cup by 3 lengths from walk on off top weight . all roads appeared to lead to a crack at the king george vi chase , but paul nicholls suffered a blow when al ferof injured a tendon and missed a year .\nal ferof\u2019s first trip to the track for skelton could not have gone much better , as he came home clear in the peterborough chase at huntingdon , after nicholls\u2019s ptit zig was a faller at the last . the gelding\u2019s new trainer was generous in his praise for nicholls afterwards , stressing that his former boss had been involved in the decision to move al ferof .\nopting for the oldest horse in the race mightn\u2019t be an obvious \u2018play\u2019 with other irish hopes like smashing and gilgamboa involved but there is still plenty to like about al ferof\u2019s chance .\nskelton was preparing al ferof for a probably swan song in this year\u2019s peterborough chase , but that plan was abandoned after the 11 - year - old sustained an injury on wednesday .\nslviniaco conti ( 3 . 10 ) has repeatedly beaten his rivals . in last year\u2019s king george he had cue card in second place , al ferof third and dynaste back in fifth .\nfor now ladbrokes offer sprinter sacre at 5 - 2 , with peddlers cross 6 - 1 \u2013 his trainer being adamant he was not himself at kempton \u2013 and al ferof 7 - 1 .\nvillage vic is progressive but needs to find more , al ferof is dependable but vulnerable to an improver , and josses hill talented but not a duck - to - water jumper of fences .\nno , it was the king george that unexpectedly threw up two potential new contenders in this division : champagne fever and al ferof , respectively fourth and third in the big boxing day chase .\nin bizarre circumstances for champion trainer paul nicholls , al ferof , another of his great talents , was also found to have a similar injury during the routine night inspection . al ferof was expected to next step out in the king george vi chase at kempton park on boxing day and he looked to be in sensational form coming off a first - up win in the paddy power gold cup at cheltenham recently .\npaul nicholls has high hopes of retaining the king george vi chase trophy at kempton on boxing day with silviniaco conti or al ferof , while the champion trainer also feels wonderful charm could run well at a big price .\nthankfully al ferof survived and just a month later landed surely one of the greatest ever novice hurdles races at cheltenham , when he beat spirit son , sprinter sacre and cue card in the 2011 stan james supreme novices\u2019 hurdle .\nafter a fine novice hurdle campaign ended with third place behind al ferof in the 2011 supreme novices\u2019 hurdle , sprinter sacre made a tremendous impression on his chasing debut at doncaster in december 2011 , winning by 24 imperious lengths .\nal ferof ( winner of the grade 2 amlin chase at ascot ) and the evergreen 13 - year - old sizing europe ( winner of the grade 2 champion chase at punchestown ) were next best with ratings of 165 .\nhowever , it\u2019s not all new equine faces . the yard still houses king george winner silvinico conti and familiar names al ferof , dodging bullets , rocky creek , rolling aces and saphir du rheu to name but a few .\nthe novice hurdler crown is shared between the paul nicholls and nicky henderson yards . it seemed that al ferof had sealed the accolade for nicholls when his thrilling late surge under ruby walsh in the stan james supreme novices\u2019 earned him a rating of 154 . however , this was matched by spirit son , beaten two lengths into second by al ferof at cheltenham , when he routed the field by twelve lengths in the john smith\u2019s mersey novices\u2019 hurdle at aintree .\nwinner of the supreme hurdle all of five years ago , the ryanair actually appears a perfect fit in terms of trip and ground for al ferof who has bounced back to something like his best after transferring to dan skelton\u2019s yard .\nal ferof and silviniaco conti have big boots to fill but they are going the right way . the horses are in great form and every weekend there seems to be a big winner . it makes for short weeks !\n2 bobs worth , 7 - 2 silviniaco conti , 8 cue card , first lieutenant , 16 al ferof , 20 the giant bolster , 25 boston bob , long run , lord windermere , harry topper ( from 50 ) .\ni really , really confused about al ferof now . trainer mentioned champion chase , and owner earlier was adamant about gold cup . regarding the latter , the horse did actually stay on again at the end of the king george .\nlast year ' s winner silviniaco conti heads the list for paul nicholls at 3 - 1 , with the willie mullins - trained champagne fever next at 4 - 1 sandwiched between another nicholls representative in 8 - 1 hope al ferof .\nas the gale blew itself out , however , the champion trainer quietly introduced fresh impetus to a division that seems to contain several of its own whirlwinds . in what was no more than a footnote to his betfair column , nicholls revealed that he intends to run his best novice chaser , al ferof , in open company for his next start . though he has only had two races over fences , al ferof is being targeted at the victor chandler chase at ascot a fortnight on saturday .\nal ferof\u2019s class is not in doubt . he won the supreme novice hurdle at cheltenham in 2011 and finished fourth behind the brilliant sprinter sacre in the arkle trophy a year later . he has also finished third behind nicholls\u2019s silviniaco conti in the king george for the last two seasons . but the fact that al ferof raced 21 times for nicholls before joining skelton less than three months ago would add particular significance if the former assistant could unseat his mentor in one of the season\u2019s most prestigious events .\nascot staged the victor chandler chase , a two mile one furlong grade one , as the feature on their card . finian ' s rainbow had been favoured all week , but had to share market leadership with classy novice , al ferof , come post time .\ndan skelton , assistant to trainer paul nicholls , who trained the eventual winner al ferof , said it was as if the horses were having a fit . i ' ve seen horses have heart attacks before , but this was different . they seemed petrified .\nafter a successful reappearance in the charlie hall chase at wetherby , harry topper ' s jumping had deteriorated in two further outings but he simply coped with the ground far better than 5 - 4 favourite al ferof in the denman chase and trampled him by 25 lengths .\nbookmaker bet365 quote al ferof at a best - priced 16 / 1 for the 2013 king george vi chase , with his old rival sprinter sacre the 5 / 2 favourite if nicky henderson decides to step up his superstar to the currently untried distance of three miles .\nunsurprisingly , al ferof has been cut for that two mile novice event , and i ' d now make him favourite personally . that he is available at 13 / 2 with coral is a pleasant surprise , and i ' ve had some this morning . if you read my arkle 2012 preview , you ' ll know i ' m not a fan of sprinter sacre , and i think being double handed with al ferof ( 13 / 2 ) and peddlers cross ( 5 / 1 ) is a very strong wagering position in the race .\ndan skelton , the assistant to trainer paul nicholls , who trained the eventual winner al ferof , said it was as if the horses were having a fit .\ni ' ve seen horses have heart attacks before , but this was different . they seemed petrified .\nwhile nicholls advocates al ferof being ridden positively in the champion chase , if those tactics are to be adopted on him then i\u2019d prefer them in the scenario of this race , in which he chased leaders before losing his position and then staying on for fifth last year .\nwhen you sell horses for big money , they have to do well \u2013 that ' s the bottom line . after al ferof won a good bumper for me at fairyhouse this time three years ago , let ' s just say he was sold for a sum that reflected his potential .\npaul nicholls had a quiet start to the month , but a double at taunton on thursday signalled a return to normal service and al ferof can provide the champion trainer with a fourth successive victory in the 25th anniversary of the victor chandler chase ( 3 . 10 ) at ascot today .\nal ferof ran a blinder . i was surprised he was joint favourite , on the basis of two novice wins , and to my eye he should have been at best third or fourth choice on form . ( obviously , he had more improvement capacity than most of his rivals ) .\nal ferof ran well at aintree last april when finishing 2 \u00be lengths second of 6 to god\u2019s own in the grade 1 jlt melling chase , but was a well beaten 6 th behind un de sceaux on his final start in the grade 2 prix la barka at auteuil in may .\nal ferof\u2019s final victory came in the peterborough chase at huntingdon last december , by which time he had moved to trainer dan skelton\u2019s yard . he later ran third yet again in the king george , but was no match for vautour , when running fourth in the ryanair chase at the cheltenham festival .\nal ferof ' s season tailed off last spring , but horses can take a bit of figuring out \u2013 even if you are paul nicholls . on saturday , the soft ground was especially key , and horses by his sire dom alco seem best fresh . who knows how far he will go now ?\nof the remainder , al ferof would seem to lack the scope and doubtless needs to step up in trip ; and the consistent cue card will always give of his best , but it is hard to see him reversing form with sprinter sacre - and he also may well step up to 20 furlongs .\na horse who has hitherto not seemed to have an optimum trip , somersby battled on well to pass finian ' s rainbow on the run in and score by a length and a quarter . just five lengths back from the winner was al ferof , having only his third start over fences , and coming under pressure before the other two .\npaul talks about last season ' s paddy power gold cup winner al ferof who , after missing most of last term through injury , will be aimed this season at the king george before a possible crack at the cheltenham gold cup . exciting second - season chasers rocky creek , rolling aces , and sire collonges are also mentioned amongst others .\nthrough nearly a decade of dominance in national hunt racing , paul nicholls had tried and failed to win the paddy power gold cup , but his string has started the winter campaign in exceptional form and that oversight too has now been rectified after al ferof ' s four - length success in the season ' s first big handicap chase here on saturday .\nthe king george is a race that nicholls has never struggled to win , thanks mainly to kauto star ' s five victories over the past six seasons , but following the retirement of his stable star a few weeks ago , he has now found two credible candidates for this year ' s renewal in al ferof and silviniaco conti , the charlie hall chase winner .\nthe o ' doherty ' s audio & video ( pro / am ) flat race was a one horse race if the market was to be believed with willie mullins ' arvika ligeonniere going off at 2 / 5 . however out on the track al ferof , the second favourite totally took over from the quarter mile pole to prevail by all of ten lengths .\nal ferof , a former irish point - to - point winner who then showed top - class form in bumpers , failed to win on his first two starts over hurdles but has not looked back since . he signed off last season with three successes over hurdles , culminating with a two - length defeat of spirit son in the supreme novices\u2019 hurdle at cheltenham .\nboth fenix two and marching song mysteriously fell to the ground and died , with speculation that they may have been electrocuted . some horses had already got to the start but there were reports that other runners had\nwobbled\non entering the paddock . the first race was run with al ferof running home the winner , but the stewards then met to review the situation .\nthere was no point through the final mile when al ferof was not going like the winner . he won the supreme novices hurdle over two miles here 2011 , but had no trouble staying on strongly up the hill over an extra five furlongs and is now the second - favourite , behind long run , for the king george vi chase over three miles at kempton park on boxing day .\nspirit son , officially rated 154 , has been beaten once in a career limited to five races . at the 2011 cheltenham festival he was second to al ferof in the supreme novices ' hurdle and the following month he beat cue card by 13 lengths in aintree ' s john smith ' s mersey novices ' hurdle , in which subsequent champion hurdle hero rock on ruby was back in third .\nwith the start of the 2013 - 14 national hunt season\nproper\nfast approaching , paul nicholls gives the betfair blog an insight into how his string has progressed through the summer , updates on last season ' s high - profile horses such as big bucks and al ferof , as well as some of the new recruits paul hopes will make their mark over the winter months and beyond .\n- weird al has been cut to 12 / 1 ( from 14 / 1 ) by the sponsors for next friday ' s betfred cheltenham gold cup as support continues to come for . . .\nnicholls has also entered kauto stone in the victor chandler , but the idea is that kauto star ' s brother will instead step back up in trip for the betfair ascot chase , also at ascot , the following month . nicholls added that sonofvic , who never remotely approached al ferof ' s fluency at cheltenham on new year ' s day , will be returned to hurdles for the rest of the season .\nthe step up in trip ought to suit al ferof but he is a horse i rarely get right and he will have to have improved to give 2lbs to both grands crus and hunt ball . course specialist quantitativeeasing rarely runs a bad race over this course and distance and , though he looks plenty high enough in the weights , he could be of some interest in the place market for those looking for a bit more value .\nthe supreme novices\u2019 hurdle is a national hunt hurdle race . the festival opener is usually greeted by the \u2018cheltenham roar\u2019 by punters . it\u2019s been going since 1946 and has had numerous sponsors and the current sponsor is sky bet . the leading jockey since 1972 is ruby walsh with 5 wins \u2013 douvan ( 2015 ) , vautour ( 2014 ) , champagne fever ( 2013 ) , al ferof ( 2011 ) & noland ( 2006 ) .\nferdy actually looked at al ferof at the brightwells sale after he won his point - to - point . he was interested but felt he was a bit small \u2013 which he was at the time \u2013 so the horse was led out unsold at \u00a362 , 000 . martin had a reserve of about \u00a370 , 000 on him then , and i ' m sure it ' s a day ferdy regrets not handing a few quid to his brother !\ntrainer nicky henderson was quick to pull out his runner kid cassidy , but the novice hurdle race went ahead , more than 20 minutes late , and with three of the original 10 runners missing . it was won by paul nicholls ' al ferof . racegoers saw no further racing , and organisers announced later in the day that they would be fully reimbursed . the british horseracing authority is investigating as is the southern electric power distribution and the police .\nbut the fact remains that al ferof did beat sprinter sacre over hurdles at last year ' s festival , and while the latter was always considered likely to prove better again over hurdles , nicholls plainly holds corresponding views of his own charge . after all , he sent him to cheltenham for his first steeplechase , in the prestigious race sponsored by this newspaper at the november meeting , and thence to a grade one over the notoriously tricky fences at sandown .\nlong run , who will be saddled by nicky henderson , the man most likely to deprive nicholls of an eighth consecutive trainers ' title , remains favourite for the king george , but nicholls ' s strong run of form has seen him cut to 5 - 4 ( from 6 - 4 ) by coral for the championship , while henderson is 4 - 7 from 1 - 2 .\nthat was a stunning performance ,\nnicholls said of al ferof .\nthe sun are also of the opinion that long run is up against it this afternoon with weird al the headline selection of templegate ( steve jones ) who points out that donald mccain ' s chaser has never been beaten on his seasonal return .\nall that is really missing from skelton\u2019s record at this stage is a grade one success and a winner at cheltenham in march . it can be only a matter of time before he crosses off both and his juvenile hurdler kasakh noir , a likely runner at kempton on sunday , is among the favourites for the triumph hurdle next spring . there could be no better way to announce his arrival among the sport\u2019s biggest players , however , than victory with al ferof in saturday\u2019s king george vi chase .\nthat effort - conceding seven pounds as well to the winner - marks the runner up down as the one to be on in the ryanair , a race whose extra three furlongs in trip plays strongly in favour of the prince . as with al ferof , connections must have been mightily chuffed with this effort , and he ' s worthy of more than a second glance in the ryanair wagering . currently a best priced 15 / 2 with sportingbet , and that appeals considerably more than the 7 / 1 about somersby in the same contest .\n\u201cal ferof is fine . he was doing up to three hours a day on the walker at paul ' s before he came back to us for the summer , \u201d said hales . \u201che ' s out in the field now and will head back to ditcheat before paul ' s open day . \u201chis target is the king george and paul nicholls will decide whether or not he has a run before that . \u201cif paul thinks he needs a prep he ' ll have one , but given the way he won the paddy power he ' s very exciting . \u201d\nthis \u00a3165 , 000 purchase is a gelded son of the high class sire flemensfirth ( progeny include imperial commander , tidal bay and flemenstar ) who formerly easily won a point to point by 8l . the 6 year old was bought from the saunderscourt stud in wexford , the same stud from which al ferof was bought , as well as champion bumper winner cheltenian . connections have taken their time with him and he only managed the one start last season when down the field when he was well beaten in a maiden hurdle at ludlow . will surely prove better than that performance and entirely possible he is a different horse this season with another summer on his back .\nthe field is headed by al ferof who won the 2012 paddy power gold cup by 3 lengths from walkon but injured a tendon whilst being prepared for a crack at the king george a month later and was off until winning the amlin 1965 chase in november 2013 . he took part in lthat year\u2019s king george and galloped on but was a well beaten 14 \u00bd lengths third to silviniaco conti , perhaps on account of several rivals falling to pieces in the latter stages . there remained a doubt as to whether he truly stayed 3 miles and that seemed to be the case as he was trounced by 25 lengths by harry topper in the denman chase at newbury in february 2014 . consequently paul nicholls dropped his 10 year old down in trip for the ryanair chase at cheltenham but he was a little disappointing when finishing 7 \u00be lengths fifth to dynaste . al ferof returned to action and won his second amlin 1965 chase in fine style by 7 lengths from somersby last november and ran 9 \u00bd lengths third to silviniaco conti in this season\u2019s king george , after which nicholls wanted to run him over a shorter trip . he suffered a setback which prevented him from running in either the queen mother champion chase or the ryanair chase and he returned in the grade 1 melling chase at aintree a couple of weeks ago , finishing 36 lengths fifth of 10 to don cossack . he should strip fitter for that run but will need big improvement .\nthe aforementioned silviniaco conti failed to bounce back from his gold cup fall at aintree , but can be forgiven that run and , though he doesn\u2019t appeal as an obvious gold cup contender , the charlie hall and betfair chase again appeal as obvious early season targets for paul nicholls\u2019 flat track specialist . along with returning stable - mate al ferof , the king george could well come under consideration , though we await an update on the latter\u2019s wellbeing ( should hear something any day now , in light of the stable\u2019s open day on 1 st september ) . the grey was , of course , last seen winning the paddy power off 159 last november and he gives the impression as if 3m around kempton shouldn\u2019t be a problem .\n2010 / 2011 : novice hurdles in november , sprinter sacre contested his first jump race , a novice hurdle over two and a half miles at ascot . he started 6 / 5 favourite and finished second to the six - year - old frascati park . after a break of three months he reappeared in a two mile novices ' hurdle at ffos las and won easily by ten lengths . two weeks later he won a hurdle race at ascot by seven lengths\non the bridle\nand was then sent to the cheltenham festival for the supreme novices ' hurdle . ridden by tony mccoy , sprinter sacre took the lead three hurdles from the finish , but hit the last obstacle and faded to finish third to al ferof and spirit son .\na son of top class national hunt sire dom alco , who has produced the likes of grands crus and notably has sired grand national winner neptune collonges and cheltenham festival winner al ferof for this trainer and owner combination . nicholls also has silviniaco conti and sire collonges from this sire and knows his offspring well . he is a half brother to my will who was previously with this yard and had a high class career winning at grade 3 level and finishing 3rd in the grand national . unioniste has winning hurdle and chase form in france where he won by 12l on his final start there . bred to stay well so no surprise to see him over staying novice trips this season and should prove to be very useful whenever he takes to fences where we will likely see the best of him\ndom alco has sired some of the leading national hunt stars in recent years with his progeny including the likes of neptune collonges , al ferof , grands crus and silviniaco conti . paul nicholls has had plenty of success with his offspring and he will be hoping this gelding can be the next success story . a half - brother to grade 2 placed hurdler porto rico and three time winner rhum , his dam was a chase winner in france and is from a family of jumping winners including maurice and lettiland . on his only start to date he finished 2nd behind a winner who went on to win again , the two of them pulling miles clear of the rest . a fair start to his career and likely to progress this season for a trainer with experience of handling similar types in recent years .\npeddlers was a top class hurdler with only the excellent hurricane fly proving to be better than him at cheltenham , he was the only horse to mount a serious challenger to the willie mullins horse and is clearly a class act . he is expected to take to the fences with ease and that coupled with his class makes him an obvious early favourite for the 2012 arkle chase and that is exactly the case at the moment . the arkle is one of the highlights of any cheltenham festival and as well as peddlers cross there are a number of other potential novice chasers for punters to look forward to . another one of them being backed at this ante - post stage is al ferof who of course won the supreme novices hurdle at the 2011 festival , and he may go straight over fences in 2011 / 12 for champion trainer paul nicholls .\npaul nicholls : has been the festivals top handler six times before , and although he\u2019s second favourite in the betting many feel he will struggle this year to add a seventh title . yes , the dicheat team will have plenty of ammo to go to war with , but they only really have big buck\u2019s as banker material in the world hurdle \u2013 and oscar whisky might have something to say about that ! that said , al ferof\u2019s task against sprinter sacre in the arkle has been made easier with peddlers cross now missing the race in favour of the jewson novices\u2019 chase , while the unbeaten zarkandar could lower the hurricane fly colours in the champion hurdle . kauto star should still line up for the gold cup , but even if he does all the pre - race doubts will make it a tough ask for him to land the race for a third time .\nmarket for 2012 king george 26th december kempton park . long run 7 - 2 al ferof 5 - 1 cue card 6 - 1 sizing europe 7 - 1 riverside theatre 7 - 1 bobs worth 9 - 1 silviniaco conti 9 - 1 captain chris 10 - 1 finian ' s rainbow 10 - 1 grands crus 10 - 1 sir des champs 10 - 1 kauto stone 11 - 1 cristal bonus 25 - 1 for non stop 25\u20131 the giant bolster 25 - 1 champion court 25 - 1 hunt ball1 27 - 1 first lieutenant 27 - 1 imperial commander 27 - 1 albertas run 33\u20131 wishfull thinking 33 - 1 menorah 40 - 1 nacarat 50 - 1 bold sir brian 50 - 1 calgary 66 - 1 gauvain 66 - 1 poquelin 66 - 1 wayward prince 66 - 1 foildubh 100 - 1 saint are 100 - 1 diamond harry 100 - 1 these prices are made up by taking an average price across all the local uk bookies pre post pricings . would love to see $ 10 about silviniaco conti on our local markets on raceday , i seriously doubt we will , but it ' d be nice .\nthe likely challenge to hurricane fly is more likely to come in the shape of last year\u2019s crop of novice and juvenile hurdlers . of the first four home in the supreme novices , only the second spirit son is staying over hurdles . spirit son went to the festival on the back of two minor victories at huntingdon and exeter . both these wins were achieved on soft / heavy ground and so there was a question mark about his ability to handle the much quicker ground on day one of the festival . he was beaten 2 lengths by al ferof but comes out of the race with the most credit as he paid the penalty for taking on cue card and his stable mate sprinter sacre too far from home . he made amends on his final start at aintree over an extra 4f , with an emphatic 13 length success over cue card . nicky henderson is adamant that we have not seen the best of spirit son yet . this may well be true , but i suspect that he is very much like his stablemate oscar whisky and will prove better over a longer trip than two miles . at 12 - 1 , he does represent value .\npaul nicholls said : \u201ci think he is almost the forgotten horse of the festival . he runs in the supreme novices\u2019 hurdle and is a second - season novice . he was fourth in the triumph hurdle at the festival last year . he won his first two starts this season at cheltenham . he gave 7lb and beat river maigue on the second of them . we were then a little bit ambitious to run him in the christmas hurdle . i wanted to give him a run over christmas and have him really fresh for the festival . he came third to darlan and finished ahead of countrywide flame who was fourth . that is not bad form . i think he has a mark of 157 and he would compare favourably with al ferof and noland who won the supreme for us . he goes well fresh and has not really had his ground which is not worse than good to soft . he is really well . he wants a fast - run race so he can come from behind . i think he has a great chance and is a big price for the supreme \u2013 we have trained him just for that race and everything is going to plan . it looks a hot race this year but always does . \u201d\nthe king george went back to yesteryear in 2011 in that it attracted the interest of horses campaigned over shorter , much like the famous edredon bleu days . somersby , captain chris , and master minded all took their chances but came up short against an inspired kauto star . this year there is grands crus , a spectacular kempton winner on boxing day , who ought to stay the flat 3 miles at kempton with his speed , and the promising silviniano conti of paul nicholls ' . one horse i will open up with as my first consideration for ante - post is al ferof for this race also . ruby walsh was very happy with him when running an excellent 3rd to somersby at ascot over 2m and he said he felt he would make a cracking ride in a king george next season . he was disappointing later on but he has loads of potential still and looked a quite raw chaser . you have finians rainbow a likely candidate with ryanair hero riverside theatre , and don ' t rule out a crack at a king george from the aforementioned sizing europe , who at his age might be campaigned fully at the longer trips . he ' d be very interesting if he did see it out and kempton would be the one race where i see it possible for him to go close over 3m .\nsomersby remains in good heart and would prove another emotional winner of this race , but has often found one or two too good at this level in the past . the popular 11 year old had a fantastic season last time around , which saw him narrowly beat module in the haldon gold cup on his seasonal debut . either side of unseating at ascot , somersby ran belters to twice finish second to sire de grugy ; beaten 4 lengths in the tingle creek chase and 6 lengths in the queen mother champion chase , before disappointing behind sizing europe at punchestown . those efforts were top class form but somersby did disappoint on his return in the haldon gold cup , making a serious blunder which ended any chance and eventually finishing 46 lengths sixth to god\u2019s own last november . he ran a lot better next time out in mid - november , when 7 lengths second of six to al ferof at ascot . he then headed to sandown park for the tingle creek chase and ran another belter to finish second , for the second consecutive year , beaten 2 \u00bd lengths on the flat by dodging bullets . he then contested the clarence house chase and was well beaten when 15 lengths fourth to dodging bullets and sprinter sacre in mid - january . however , in the queen mother champion chase in march , he ran another absolute belter to finish 1 \u00bc lengths second to dodging bullets and has had a nice break since then .\nthis \u00a3150 , 000 purchase is a full brother to stable star grands crus , grade 1 chase winner , and his sire dom alco has sired a number of top class horses such as al ferof , neptune collonges and silviniaco conti . he has just had the 2 starts in bumpers so far and in comparison to his brother has actually arguably looked a lot more straightforward , and certainly has shown greater promise in bumpers than grands crus did . he made his debut in heavy ground at ffos las where he travelled well at the head of the field before drawing well clear with ease eventually finishing 30l clear . he was getting almost at stone off the field that day due to him being a 3 year old , but it was a very impressive performance from such a young horse nonetheless . for his other outing he was stepped up to listed class where he again led for a long way . when pressured he hung left and ran a little green but battled on gamely and if not for being hampered when fading a little towards the end of the race he would have finished a lot closer than the 4l 4th that he did . again this performance showed huge promise and he looks like keeping the family tradition intact . grands crus wasn\u00e2\u20ac\u2122t set particularly high targets on his first hurdling season and was kept to novice races and will be interesting to see how far they push gevrey chambertin this season , given like his brother his real future will be over fences in years to come .\nthis french bred gelding is a son of al namix , a three time listed winner on the flat in france , who has sired several smart performers in recent years most notably grade 1 winning hurdler grandouet . his dam was a three time chase winner in france and he is a half - brother to grade 3 chaser centaure du rheu . he finished 3rd in a listed contest at auteuil before moving across to the nicholls yard and he improved markedly from his first run at newbury when he bolted up in heavy ground at taunton . he was fancied to run a big race at the cheltenham festival but that failed to materialise as he failed to fire in the fred winter . however , a big strong horse he was always likely to make his mark once jumping fences and he appeals as the type to reach a high level in that sphere .\nearlier on the card paul nicholls will bid for a third successive success in the jcb triumph hurdle trial , after the victories of sam winner and hinterland , with chepstow winner far west . he did it really nicely on debut and pulled 12 lengths clear of alan king\u2019s handazan , who came out and won at aintree next time . the son of poliglote has raced exclusively on soft ground to date , so it will be interesting to see how he handles these quicker conditions . dual winner mcvicar may find life tough under a double penalty and the main threat is likely to come from nicky henderson\u2019s vasco du ronceray who beat nothing of note at hereford on his british debut , but pulled 32 - lengths clear of the 109 - rated cool hand luke in taking fashion . he has already proven he handles better ground than far west and the son of al namix stayed on strongly to land an aqps contest at chateaubriant in august on his final start in france . clearly well thought of , he can put himself right in the triumph hurdle picture with success here . of the remainder shelford was smart on the flat in ireland and is one to note , but this would be a very tall order on his debut over hurdles .\na few months later , he finished second in the champion bumper at cheltenham , he won the supreme novices ' hurdle a year later , and on saturday he won the paddy power gold cup .\nthey can ' t all do that , but it is so vital that they train on if an owner has put their neck on the line .\nafter cheltenian left my yard two years ago , he won on his first start for philip hobbs and then won the champion bumper next time out \u2013 he kept improving .\nif they don ' t , not only does it not advertise that you produced the horse , it can have a negative effect . buyers need to know that you have left something to work on .\nif an agent has success with a horse you nurtured , they will come back for more but , if they haven ' t been lucky , they won ' t put their hand up at the sales for one of yours . they would rather buy off someone else \u2013 it can be as simple and as silly as that .\nwhen i had him , he was owned by martin murphy , an uncle of my other half , barry , who is a son of ferdy murphy . he was the first horse that martin ever owned .\nmichael , another murphy brother , has a nursery with about 60 babies 25 minutes away from where i am based in crossabeg , co wexford .\nhe sources horses in ireland and france , where the former jockey guy petit , who is married to ferdy ' s daughter caroline , does all the buying , mainly of foals and yearlings . they are raised at michael ' s , and then i get a lot of them to train and sell .\nmartin ' s current horse is thekingofconnemara , which was meant to run at cork on sunday . we pulled him out because of all the rain that fell , but it was nice to meet up and have a drink and a chat about the previous afternoon ' s events .\nthekingofconnemara was second on his debut at cork last month , and should go close wherever he goes next . when people give you horses like that to develop , you must fulfil your brief with each individual , because you are running a business .\non the other hand , the competitive side of you wants to participate at the top level , and the hope would be that an organic consequence of our produce doing well will be that more owners leave horses here . of the 30 we have now , half are here to stay .\npenny ' s bill , which gave us our biggest win in the urltoken hurdle in 2009 , is still on the go , and kauto grand mogol is one of the younger brigade that is not for sale .\na half - brother to kauto star , he won a bumper at limerick in march and is one we are really looking forward to running over hurdles in the next few weeks .\nif gowran park beats the weather tomorrow , reality dose should go close for us in the irish racing yearbook chase , but the horse of ours to watch out for is a beautiful three - year - old by martaline . take note if he turns up in a bumper in the new year .\nthomas kelly mendelssohn finished third on his return to action in the grade three dwyer stakes over a mile on the dirt in belmont .\nurltoken sportsdesk multiple classic - winning trainer john dunlop has died at the age of 78 . dunlop saddled two winners of the derby in shirley heights ( 1978 ) and erhaab ( 1994 ) . he also won the st leger three times , the 1000 guineas three times and the oaks twice , with the 2000 guineas the only british classic to elude him .\ngraham clark roaring lion battled on bravely to beat his old rival saxon warrior in the coral - eclipse at sandown . the two classy three - year - olds had the 10 - furlong group one to themselves and no quarter was given in the closing stages .\n' everybody dies , but not everybody lives ' - how ' the great ak ' became a . . .\newan mackenna : infantile , spoiled and indulged - everything wrong with brazil is . . .\nsteve bruce accepts that jack grealish and other aston villa stars may be sold so club . . .\ngareth southgate defends raheem sterling ahead of england\u2019s world cup semi - . . .\n' there have been a tremendous amount of upsets ' - serena williams insists . . .\nreferee who has sent off three england players will officiate world cup semi - . . .\neamon dunphy says england are a ' certainty ' to beat croatia and tips raheem . . .\n' he sent videos of my body language ' - rory mcilroy reveals how email from . . .\npaul curran : super 8 structure favours dublin and kerry , and they could dominate for . . .\ncaptain hugo lloris is confident france will be ready for the challenge of . . .\nan in - depth preview ahead of the france v belgium world cup semi - final in russia on . . ."]}
{"id": 2460, "summary": [{"text": "the brown songlark ( megalurus cruralis ) , also australian songlark , is a small passerine bird found throughout much of australia .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "a member of the family locustellidae , this species is notable for sexual size dimorphism , among the most pronounced in any bird .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is a moderate-sized bird of nondescript plumage ; the female brownish above and paler below , the larger male a darker brown . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "brown songlark", "paragraphs": ["like the rufous songlark , the brown songlark includes farm paddocks in its territory . birds are occasionally killed by vehicles on roads .\nno specific conservation measures are currently known to be in place for the brown songlark .\nthe female brown songlark could be mistaken for the rufous songlark , female white - winged triller , skylark , or richard ' s pipit . brown songlarks are much larger than the rufous songlark and lack the rufous rump .\nthe female brown songlark could be mistaken for the rufous songlark , female white - winged triller , skylark , or richard ' s pipit . brown songlarks are much larger than the rufous songlark and lack the rufous rump .\nthe brown songlark is found in open country , including pastures , short crops , and grassy scrub .\nthe brown songlark is very nomadic , moving from drought - affected areas to areas of recent rainfall .\nthe ranges are shown for brown songlark ( cincloramphus cruralis ) and . . . | download scientific diagram\nthe brown songlark is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe brown songlark is remarkable for the male being much larger ( 23 - 25 cm ) than the female ( 18 - 19 cm ) . in breeding plumage the male is dark cinnamon - brown with black bill and black eyes . otherwise the male and female both have a dusky brown back , pale brownish - white underparts , with the centre of the belly dark brown . the brown songlark is also known as the australian songlark .\nthe difference in size between the male and female brown songlark initially led scientists to believe they were different species .\nthe song of the male brown songlark has been likened to the squeaking of a wheel in a rusty axle .\nthe brown songlark is notable for the huge size difference between the sexes , with males being significantly larger than females .\negg size and laying order in relation to offspring sex in the extreme sexually size dimorphic brown songlark , cinclorhamphus cruralis .\nthe breeding male brown songlark is largely a rich dark brown , with a slightly paler brown crown , a black beak , dark brown to black eyes ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) and brownish legs ( 2 ) . in contrast , the female brown songlark is sandy brown above with dark streaks on the crown and a pale line above the eye . the female\u2019s throat is whitish and the underparts are pale grey to brownish , with dark streaks on the breast and flanks , and dark spots on the lower abdomen ( 2 ) . the female brown songlark also has a paler grey - brown beak than the male , as well as paler brown legs ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nj . greaves reports spotting a female brown songlark 50 km north of leinster , northern goldfields , wa , in december 2014 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - brown songlark ( cincloramphus cruralis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - brown songlark ( cincloramphus cruralis )\ntitle =\narkive species - brown songlark ( cincloramphus cruralis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\noutside of the breeding season , the male brown songlark resembles the female , but may have dark blotches on the face and breast and is also easily distinguished by its larger size . juvenile brown songlarks resemble the adult female ( 2 ) . the brown songlark has a long tail ( 2 ) ( 6 ) and a relatively small , fine beak ( 2 ) .\n. . . brorn songlark nest is cup - shaped and built into the ground .\nthe brown songlark is found all over mainland australia except for parts of the far north . it is more abundant in the south , but numbers fluctuate locally depending on rainfall .\nthe nest of the brown songlark is in a small depression in the ground , often in a clump of grass or other cover . the female incubates the eggs and rears the young .\nbrown songlark - video footage captured by our team of bird watchers at www . ej - birdwatching . com . learn from the pro ' s and start ticking off that list of lifers .\nan inhabitant of open country , the brown songlark is typically found in open grassy plains , pastures and grassland with shrubs and a few scattered trees ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .\ndescription : male pale eyebrow ; black bill . streaked brown upperparts ; brownish - black underparts . longish , pointed tail , often raised when perched female / juv . much smaller ; paler . pinkish - brown bill . pale throat . breast light buff , faintly streaked . black - brown belly .\n< p > the nest of the brown songlark is in a small depression in the ground , often in a clump of grass or other cover . the female incubates the eggs and rears the young . < / p >\nthe brown songlark forages on the ground , walking , running and hopping as it searches for food ( 2 ) . its diet includes a range of small invertebrates and their larvae , and this species also eats small seeds ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . if disturbed , the brown songlark typically flies low before diving into cover with its tail raised , and it usually roosts on the ground under cover ( 2 ) .\nmale brown songlarks engage in ' song flights ' ; singing continuously as they fly up above their territories .\nbrown honeyeater ( lichmera ( lichmera ) indistincta ) occurrence records from continental australia suitable for species distribution modelling .\n( slightly unsharp ) lateral view of a moulting female brown songlark on a sealed road - this behaviour is more often observed in australasian pipits ( photo courtesy of m . eaton ) [ near goondiwindi , qld , march 2018 ]\nthis female brown songlark was found with its foot stuck in sticky bitumen and had to be rescued by the photographer ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ 50 km n of leinster , northern goldfields , wa , december 2014 ]\nall year round both male and female brown songlarks retain a dark - brown central patch on their belly , which distinguishes them from rufous songlarks , even in non - breeding plumage . apart from that they are also larger .\nthe male brown songlark is the singer . the continuous song is musical and metallic , produced from perches and when rising steeply above breeding territory , then fluttering in slow downward display flights between trees , ending with a whip - crack sound .\nthe brown songlark is a common and widespread species , and is not currently considered to be at risk of extinction ( 7 ) . this species is not known to be facing any major threats at present ( 7 ) , and it has adapted well to the clearance of woodlands for extensive crop farming in southern australia ( 2 ) . however , the brown songlark\u2019s nesting success may potentially be reduced in some areas by predation by the red fox ( vulpes vulpes ) , an introduced species ( 3 ) .\nif the nest is predated , for example by a fox or snake , the female brown songlark can lay a replacement clutch of eggs . some females also go on to lay a second clutch after successfully raising an earlier brood of chicks ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nplain - brown woodcreeper dendrocincla fuliginosa is split into two species , each with two subspecies groups . plain - winged woodcreeper is endemic to brazil , orthern argentina , and paraguay , while plain - brown woodcreeper occupies most of the rest of the range north to mexico .\nmagrath , m . j . l . , brouwer , l . & komdeur , j . ( 2003 ) egg size and laying order in relation to offspring sex in the extreme sexually size dimorphic brown songlark , cinclorhamphus cruralis . behavioral ecology and sociobiology , 54 , 240 - 248 .\na long - legged australian warbler ( 2 ) , the brown songlark ( cincloramphus cruralis ) is notable for the large difference in size between the male and female ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . this species shows the greatest sexual size difference of any passerine , with the male being nearly twice the length and two to three times the weight of the female ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the difference is so great that when early specimens of the brown songlark arrived in europe , the two sexes were thought to belong to separate species ( 6 ) .\nthe brown songlark is endemic to australia , where it occurs over most of the continent except for parts of the far north ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 7 ) . a nomadic species , it tends to move around in response to rainfall ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .\na medium - sized , day - flying moth ( about 30mm wingspread ) . sooty brown wings have silvery circles . hind wings of the male are a coppery brown while the female\u00ac\u00eds are metallic gold . antennae are clubbed like a butterfly\u00ac\u00eds rather than feathery or whip - like as in other moths .\nmagrath , m . j . l . , brouwer , l . , van petersen , a . , berg , m . l . and komdeur , j . ( 2003 ) breeding behaviour and ecology of the sexually size - dimorphic brown songlark , cinclorhamphus cruralis . australian journal of zoology , 52 : 429 - 441 .\nmagrath , m . j . l . , brouwer , l . , van petersen , a . , berg , m . l . & komdeur , j . ( 2003 ) breeding behaviour and ecology of the sexually size - dimorphic brown songlark , cinclorhamphus cruralis . australian journal of zoology , 51 , 429 - 441 .\nwe first spotted a pair of brown songlarks on a fenceline in march 2008 , on a trip through outback western nsw , 50 km west of burren juction , nsw .\nmale and female brown songlarks are very different from one another . the plumage of the male is rich chocolate brown , and during breeding season he performs spectacular song - flights , taking off from a prominent feature , such as a stump , overhead wires or a fence post , fluttering high above the grasslands with his legs dangling below , and singing a discordant , metallic tune , before dropping into the grass . they like to be noticed . this contrasts with female brown songlarks , which are drabber , and spend much time hiding in the grass .\nthe breeding season of the brown songlark runs from around august or september to february ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 6 ) . outside of the breeding season this species is either solitary or occurs in scattered flocks ( 2 ) , but when breeding the males become highly territorial , performing conspicuous song - flights or singing from a prominent perch with the tail held high and the wings drooping ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the female brown songlarks nest within the males\u2019 territories ( 3 ) , and each male may mate with several females ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nmadge , s . ( 2018 ) . brown songlark ( cincloramphus cruralis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe male birds are about the size of the introduced blackbird and during the breeding period have sooty brown upperparts and blackish underparts . in spring the male performs bold flights into the air , making a loud metallic song and dangling its legs below . females are almost half the size of the males and are streaked and marked similar to other grassland birds such as the australian pipit or european songlark .\nbrown songlarks can be found in open grassland ( also crops ) . the males will use fenceposts or bushes as demarcations of their territories , while the females nest somewhere in the open grassland .\nbrown songlarks can regularly be found in open farm country in the narrabri area . for example , they are always found on a broadacre farm 5 km south - east of bellata , nsw .\nthe ranges are shown for brown songlark ( cincloramphus cruralis ) and the red - chested button - quail ( turnix pyrrhothorax ) . for illustration purposes , the weather model was projected onto 3 consecutive months to illustrate the changes in the distribution of suitable area depending on the weather conditions for a particular month . the probability distribution is shown for each particular month , with grey unsuitable , and increasing suitability shown from yellow to orange ( most suitable ) .\nall the pipit and songlark images were taken from the car window very hurriedly before the birds few away . in the air , with a distinctive style of hawking and calling loudly with an even more distinctive call , the songlark is easy to identify . on a fence post in the midday sun as the car is rolling it is a little difficult to tell whether you are photographing pipits or or songlarks . songlarks being another first has something to do with this too of course .\nbrown - throated treecreeper certhia discolor is split into two species , each of which assumes a new name ; hume\u2019s treecreeper is a bird of the himalayas while sikkim treecreeper occurs from ne india through much of southeast asia .\nthe male brown songlark performs conspicuous song - flights all day long during the breeding season , taking off from a perch and fluttering into the air while singing a rather metallic tune , before dropping back down to the ground ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the song consists of a short , repeated phrase ( 3 ) and has been likened to the squeaking of a wheel in a rusty axle ( 2 ) . outside of the breeding season the male becomes silent and unobtrusive ( 2 ) .\nthe female brown songlark constructs the nest , which is built in a small depression in the ground and consists of fine dry grasses . the nest is usually well hidden at the base of a grass tussock or small shrub , and is lined with fine grass or hair . two to five eggs are laid , and are incubated by the female alone . the eggs hatch after 11 to 13 days and the chicks leave the nest at 10 to 14 days old . the female is mainly responsible for feeding the chicks , but the male may occasionally assist ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nvanderwal , j . ( 2013 ) . brown honeyeater ( lichmera ( lichmera ) indistincta ) - occurrence records filtered for species distribution modelling . centre for tropical biodiversity & climate change , james cook university . [ data files ] urltoken honeyeater ( lichmera ( lichmera ) indistincta ) / occurrences\nthis dataset includes observations of brown honeyeater ( lichmera ( lichmera ) indistincta ) that are sourced from the atlas of living australia ( ala ) database . rather than raw observations , these have been filtered such that they are assumed to be suitable for species distribution modelling exercises . the cleaning process included :\na small , sparrow - sized button quail ( 11 - 15cm ) with a buff coloured breast and streaked upperparts . this species is superficially similar to plains wanderer , \u00ac\u00ebtrue\u00ac\u00ed quails and to other button quail species . most views of button quail and \u00ac\u00ebtrue\u00ac\u00ed quails ( brown and stubble ) are of birds flying away . brown and stubble quail are considerably larger than this species and fly with a loud , vigorous whirring of wings . in contrast red - chested button quail , along with the very similar little buttonquail flutter low over the grasses before dropping to the ground ( they are sometimes called \u00ac\u00ebbutterfly quail\u00ac\u00ed ) . the back of the red - chested buttonquail is yellowish - grey in contrast to the distinctly reddish little buttonquail . in the buttonquails the female is larger and more brightly coloured than the male .\nbrown songlarks are endemic to australia . they breed in the south - western corner and the south - east of the continent and disperse northwards in winter . their breeding range in the south - west encompasses a roughly semi - circular area around kalgoorlie , wa , with perth on its north - western fringe . in the south - east the breeding range extends from about the south - eastern half of sa through vic and nsw into southern qld , up to about the geographic latitude of the sa / nt border . they are rarely found in the southern alps south of canberra , act , and along the south - eastern tip of the nsw / vic coast between sydney , nsw , and lakes entrance , vic . they also rarely venture onto the coastal fringe of southern qld and central qld . outside the breeding season their range encompasses the entire australian continent , except the far north ( kimberley beyond eighty mile beach , top end of the nt and cape york peninsula ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nseptember to february in the south ; at any time after good rain in the north and centre .\np . p1 { margin : 0 . 0px 0 . 0px 13 . 0px 0 . 0px ; line - height : 17 . 0px ; font : 14 . 0px arial ; color : # 48554e ; background - color : # fffce5 } span . s1 { text - decoration : underline ; color : # 52180e }\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nmale on a fence calling a couple of times . others can be heard in the background .\nnick talbot , josep del hoyo , keith and lynn youngs , pieter de groot boersma , stephen wallace , aviceda .\nnick talbot , les george , michael retter , jennifer spry , marco valentini , fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric pelsy , paul van giersbergen , josep del hoyo , lindsay hansch , bleedingheart .\nby joining the biggest community of bird lovers in australia , you can help us make a positive impact on the future of our native birdlife . the members of birdlife australia , along with our supporters and partners , have been powerful advocates for native birds and the conservation of their habitats since 1901 .\nwe are also the meeting ground for everyone with an interest in birds from the curious backyard observer to the dedicated research scientist . it doesn\u2019t matter what your interest in birds is or how much you know about them , your membership will offer you the opportunity to increase your awareness and enjoyment .\nbirdlife australia would be delighted to welcome you as a new member and we look forward to sharing our news and achievements with you throughout the coming year .\nalthough birds are usually quite easy to see , often they are more difficult to identify . you may have had the briefest glimpse or heard a snatch of its song , or perhaps it was a bird you have never seen before . the best place to look for it is here . you will discover the remarkable variety of birds that occur across australia . with stunning images of featured species and some recordings of their songs and calls , you are sure to find that mystery bird , or learn more about species you already know .\nselect a bird group . . . birds of prey bush birds parrots sea birds water birds\nyou can participate and share in activities and projects with local experts all over australia .\nvisit us in sydney olympic park where you can learn about , see and engage with australian birds up close and personal .\nvisit birdlife australia\u2019s stunning conservation reserves and sanctuaries overflowing with native birdlife and other incredible flora and fauna .\nour bird observatories in western australia may be a little off the track , but that\u2019s what makes them such magical places to see birds .\nwant to know all about our native birds ? explore , learn , discover and enjoy australia\u2019s most comprehensive bird resource .\ndiscover and identify the urban birds in your backyard . get involved by helping us gather and share information about your local birdlife .\nfind places to watch birds in their native habitat . search our listing to find the next opportunity to see your favourite birds nearby and interstate .\nwe hold regular events and activities throughout the year and some have been taking place for decades . there are many ways for keen bird lovers to get involved .\njoin our community of dedicated volunteers that help monitor and collect important data on australia\u2019s birds . we always need more citizen scientists .\nthere are many ways you can help us help our native birds . join as a member , volunteer , make a donation or a bequest . your support makes a real difference .\nfrom urgent conservation activities to ongoing data recording , explore our vital projects that make a real difference to australia\u2019s birds .\nour policies , submissions and campaigns make us the leading voice for australia\u2019s birds by influencing decision makers and stakeholders .\nresearch , monitoring and evaluation underpin all our efforts . we have a long history of expertise in the science of bird conservation .\nour education programs share knowledge and experience in a friendly hands - on environment with staff and volunteers that know and love australia ' s birds and their habitats .\nbirdlife australia has a long and proud history of excellence in publishing . our members ' magazine , journals , newsletters , and reports are all world - class .\nthe h . l . white library is the most comprehensive ornithological library in australia , containing thousands of books , journals , and media about birds and related topics .\nthe atlas is one of birdlife australia ' s greatest resources , allowing us to track changes in birds across the country . since 1998 a dedicated band of . . . more >\nbirdlife australia\u2019s beach - nesting birds project works with community volunteers across australia to help raise awareness among beach users about . . . more >\nthe shorebirds 2020 program aims to reinvigorate and coordinate national shorebird population monitoring in australia . to report on the population . . . more >\nsince european settlement one - third of australia\u2019s woodlands and 80 % of temperate woodlands have been cleared . the woodland birds for biodiversity . . . more >\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nmathews , g . m . 1912 ,\na reference - list to the birds of australia\n, novitates zoologicae , vol . 18 , pp . 171 - 455\ngould , j . 1843 ,\nin proceedings of meeting of zoological society of london , oct . 11 , 1842\n, proceedings of the zoological society of london , vol . 1842 , no . 10 , pp . 131 - 140\nvigors , n . a . & horsfield , t . 1827 ,\na description of the australian birds in the collection of the linnean society ; with an attempt at arranging them according to their natural affinities\n, transactions of the linnean society of london , vol . 15 , pp . 170 - 331\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 311fc722 - c55b - 42aa - 9be0 - 5ac0a90d8f47\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : cf8a988b - e007 - 4ec4 - aa85 - 1b1a55df7489\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ed500163 - ac59 - 491e - b738 - 3aafdbcb7031\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 468600\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhome | biography | resources | photo library | top shots | contact copyright \u00a9 2005 - 2016 graeme chapman . all rights reserved .\nnatural vocalization ; songs from a bird perched on a low bush at the edge of a flat , desolate plain .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\naust birds bird names news 1 - 26 habitats key plants glossary plumage nests tips thumbnails gen . info sponsors photos for sale\nthe overall distribution of this species can be assessed based on sighting reports submitted by birdwatchers to urltoken .\nin december 2008 a male bird was seen 20 km south - west of narrabri , first calling from a spot in the tall grass of a paddock , later also in its characteristic display flight .\nseen at goran lake , an ephemeral lake about 30 km south of gunnedah , nsw , in october 2011 and again in october 2013 .\nfor this species we have recorded the following call ( s ) / song . the interpretation of their meaning is our own ; comments and suggestions for improvement are welcome .\nthese pages are largely based on our own observations and those of our contributors . the structure of these bird pages is explained here . for more salient facts on any bird species please refer to a field guide .\nwould you like to contribute photos or sound recordings to this site ? if interested , please click here . credits to contributors are given here .\ndisclaimer : comments are always welcome . we give no guarantee that the information presented on these pages is always correct or up - to - date . external links are marked as such and we take no responsibility for the contents of external pages . all images on this site are protected by copyright & used by permission of the respective owners . if you wish to reproduce them or any of the material presented on this web site , please contact us : last updated : tue , 3 april 2018 , 13 : 56 - 05 : 00\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nchristidis , l . and boles , w . e . 2008 . systematics and taxonomy of australian birds . csiro publishing , collingwood , australia .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be generally quite common ( morcombe 2000 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\naustralia , breeding almost entirely s of tropic of capricorn ; non - breeding across much of interior .\nmale 24\u201326 cm , 70\u201384 g ; female 18\u201320 cm , 25\u201330 g . a relatively long - legged terrestrial warbler exhibiting strong sexual dimorphism in both size and . . .\nsong , delivered in flight or from a perch , all day long in breeding season , an almost metallic . . .\nbulk of diet small invertebrates , notably small grasshoppers ( orthoptera ) and beetles ( coleoptera ) and their larvae ; variety of small seeds . . .\nseason sept\u2013feb ; sometimes two broods . male mates with several females . in song flight , male rises into sky with tremulous wingbeats . . .\nstrongly migratory and nomadic ; after breeding , disperses n and follows a nomadic existence , moving . . .\nnot globally threatened . locally quite common , but more abundant in some years than in others owing to somewhat nomadic existence . presence in many areas depends on local . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nrecently erected family # r # r ; constituents previously placed in a broad family sylviidae , typically in subfamilies megalurinae and acrocephalinae , as well as a few species previously listed in a broad version of timaliidae . internal structure , including addition and removal of various taxa , has steadily been clarified in recent years by series of genetic studies # r # r # r # r ; several elements yet to be tested genetically , so some further changes expected . previously listed as megaluridae , but ( as currently constituted ) name locustellidae has priority # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nthe full taxonomy can be downloaded . also , we have a version of the full taxonomy with changes in common name , scientific name , and new additions highlighted ; download that here . for those proficient with spreadsheets , this may be the easiest way to review the changes .\na full summary of the taxonomic changes is below . since this is a long article , here is a short index :\nwhen the taxonomy is updated in ebird , many of the changes are fairly simple to implement . when a common name changes , a scientific name changes , or when the taxonomic sequence is revised , those changes roll through and start appearing in ebird output fairly quickly . keeping track of name changes is a challenge , and avibase is one of the best ways to do so . just type any bird name in avibase and avibase will show you what the history of that name is , and\u2013if it differs from ebird\u2013it will show what the ebird equivalent is for that name . try it for louisiana heron , for example .\nwhen species are lumped , ebird usually retains the former species as an identifiable group . in these cases , your records may shift to the lumped form and your totals may ( or may not ) drop by one . the actual entity that you observed and reported has not changed in any way other than being \u201cdemoted\u201d from species to subspecies .\nwhen splits occur , however , the process is more complicated . in many cases , we have had subspecies options available for reporting in anticipation of the split . all these records update automatically to the new species . but when a bird is reported at the species level , and then that species is split , we update the records in ebird to one of the \u201cchild\u201d species whenever possible . we try to be very conservative with this . when two species do not overlap in range ( i . e . , they are allopatric ) we go ahead and make the change . when the species do overlap ( i . e . , are sympatric ) , and do not have clear seasonal or habitat differences , we usually do not make the change . this results in your records being left as the more conservative \u201cslash\u201d option .\nas an example , this year sage sparrow ( artimisiospiza belli ) was split into sagebrush sparrow ( artimisiospiza nevadensis ) and bell\u2019s sparrow ( artimisiospiza belli ) . the two species are largely allopatric and most great basin and northwestern states ( and all provinces ) that had sage sparrows have only recorded sagebrush sparrow . bell\u2019s sparrow is largely restricted to coastal california , with one desert population breeding into western nevada and wintering south to arizona and southeastern california . in this area , they overlap in winter with sagebrush sparrow . so for ebird we changed all the records from the areas of no overlap , but records from winter from areas of known overlap remain as the slash option \u201cbell\u2019s / sagebrush sparrow ( sage sparrow ) \u201d . if you know which one you saw , we encourage you to update your records . if you are not sure ( and this is one of the toughest identification issues in north america , so don\u2019t feel bad ! ) , then your data is best listed as the slash option .\none issue with ebird is that reviewing your records of \u201cbell\u2019s / sagebrush sparrow ( sage sparrow ) \u201d or of \u201cshort - billed / long - billed dowitcher\u201d is not currently easy using the my ebird tools . if you know the checklist it is on , you can find the list in \u201cmanage my observations\u201d and edit it as needed . if you can find your checklist on the range map of \u201cbell\u2019s / sagebrush sparrow ( sage sparrow ) \u201d here then you can just click on the stickpin for your list and open it from there . but the best option to review your records is to go to my ebird and then click \u201cdownload my data\u201d from the right side . this downloads your entire ebird database as a csv file that can be opened in excel or a similar spreadsheet program . from there , you should easily be able to sort by name or search for \u201cbell\u2019s / sagebrush sparrow ( sage sparrow ) \u201d to find your records . then you can scroll to the correct date or just replace the submission id in the url for a checklist view . not the easiest way to review your old sage sparrow records , but it does work !\nthe below species were all split in ebird . to see a map of the new species , click \u201cmap\u201d . to see you personal lists in my ebird , just make sure you are logged in and click \u201cmy records\u201d . if you have seen the species but don\u2019t have any records shown , then please enter your sightings ! below are the splits for this update :\nchangeable hawk - eagle nisaetus limnaeetus is split into two species ; crested hawk - eagle occurs in peninsular india and sri lanka , while changeable occurs throughout the rest of the range including much of southeast asia .\nmountain hawk - eagle nisaetus nipalensis is split into two species ; legge\u2019s hawk - eagle occurs in peninsular india and sri lanka , while mountain hawk - eagle occurs throughout the rest of the range .\nthe ninox boobooks of the philippines are substantially revised , with several splits and newly described species . the former philippine hawk - owl ninox philippensis is split into five species . note hat cebu boobook ninox rumseyi and camiguin boobook ninox leventisi are also newly described ( see new species ) below :\nbarred owlet - nightjar aegotheles bennettii is split into two species , with both occurring on the island of new guinea . vogelkop owlet - nightjar occurs in the west of the island ( country of indonesia ) and barred owlet - nightjar in the east ( country of papua new guinea ) :\nblue - headed bee - eater merops muelleri is split into two species , with blue - headed occupying the eastern part of the species\u2019 range and blue - moustached in the west . the two species almost come into contact in cameroon , so please do check your records carefully if you have observed either species there :\nimmaculate antbird myrmeciza immaculata is split into two species , with zeledon\u2019s occurring in central america and western colombia and blue - lored occurring east of the andes . each species has two identifiable subspecies groups as well :\nazure - winged magpie cyanopica cyanus is split into two species , with highly disjunct ranges : iberian magpie is restricted to spain and portugal while azure - winged magpie occurs in east asia . azure - winged magpie has two distinct subspecies groups as well , which are new options with this update :\nsilver - throated tit aegithalos glaucogularis , endemic to northeastern china , is split from the widespread species long - tailed tit . if you had reported long - tailed tit in china please double - check your records in ebird . the two species apparently overlap slightly in winter , so those records should be checked extra carefully :\nhodgson\u2019s treecreeper certhia hodgsoni is split from the widespread eurasian treecreeper certhia familiaris ; hodgson\u2019s treecreeper occurs in the himalayas and adjacent foothills .\ncobb\u2019s wren troglodytes cobbi is split from the widespread house wren . cobb\u2019s wren is endemic to the falkland islands :\nyellowish - bellied bush - warbler horornis acanthizoides is split into two species ; hume\u2019s bush - warbler occurs in the himalayas while yellowish - bellied occurs in two disjunct areas of china as wel las the island of taiwan .\nthere were a number of revisions to nightingale - warblers from the south pacific , all discussed in full on the clements updates and corrections . these included recognition of sapian reed - warbler , mangarava reed - warbler , pagan reed - warbler , and aguiguan reed - warbler as distinct from nightingale reed - warbler ( the latter three are all extinct ) , split of marquesan reed - warbler into northern marquesan reed - warbler and southern marquesan reed - warbler .\nrufous - rumped grassbird graminicola bengalensis is split into two species , with indian grassbird occurring from india to n myanmar and chinese grassbird occurring in china and southeast asia ; several populations of chinese grassbird are near extinction .\nthe former species gray - breasted laughingthrush garrulax jerdoni the subspecies garrulax jerdoni jerdoni is transferred to garrulax cachinnans ( formerly rufous - breasted laughingthrush , now black - chinned laughingthrush ) . the two remaining subspecies of gray - breasted laughingthrush , fairbank i and meridionalis , are split as a separate species kerala laughingthrush and thus gray - breasted laughingthrush is no longer available as a species :\nmetallic - winged sunbird aethopyga pulcherrima is split into three monotypic species : metallic - winged sunbird , mountain sunbird , and bohol sunbird .\nsage sparrow artemisiospiza belli is split into two species . although the ranges do not overlap in the breeding season they do come into contact near mono lake , california . in migration and winter they do overlap extensively . the result was that we were unable to convert records to one or the other species if reported from southeastern california , southern nevada , or southwestern arizona between 1 april and 15 september . we strongly recommend downloading your records ( go to my ebird > download my data ) and reviewing your records of bell\u2019s sparrow , sagebrush sparrow and bell\u2019s / sagebrush sparrow . please do edit your checklists if you know which species you observed .\nand a slash option is also retained , so that birds not identified to species can be reported . we encourage conservative reporting , especially in winter from areas of known overlap ( e . g . , southeastern california and southwestern arizona ) .\nsagebrush sparrow ( artemesiospiza nevadensis ) at southeast farallon island , ca , where it is a vagrant . the streaked back , washed out colors , and narrow malar stripe eliminate the closely related bell\u2019s sparrow . photo by tony leukering .\nblack - crested tit periparus melanolophus is lumped with coal tit periparus ater [ map ] [ my records ] ; see also the new coal subspecies groups under additions below . coal tit ( black - crested ) periparus ater melanolophus [ map ] is retained as a group .\nturkestan tit parus bokharensis is lumped with great tit par us major [ map ] [ my records ] . see also the three - way split of great tit in splits above . great tit ( turkestan ) parus major [ bokharensis group ] [ map ] is retained as a subspecies group .\nyellow - breasted tit c yanistes cyanus [ flavipectus group ] is lumped with azure tit cya nistes cyanus [ flavipectus group ] . the two former species are retained as subspecies groups\nthese subspecies groups are all new options in the ebird taxonomy . the ranges of all of these are available from the clements taxonomy , which also lists the subspecies that comprise each group . many represent potential future splits ; we encourage reporting of any of these if you are confident that you understand this subspecies option and how to identify it . several species with have specific notes to minimize confusion .\nhouse wren ( dominica ) troglodytes aedon rufescens note : house wren ( caribbean ) is deleted and replaced with the below island - specific options . note that several are extinct .\nthe below all refer to newly available spuhs ( e . g . , scoter sp . ) and slash ( e . g . , short - billed / long - billed dowitcher ) options . please use these options whenever you see a bird but are uncertain of its specific identity . spuhs and slashes are unique to the ebird taxonomy ; they are not found in the clements checklist .\nhaemorhous sp . haemorhous sp . note : carpodacus sp . should not be used in north america\nebird has a long list of field identifiable hybrids . these are always listed in taxonomic order ( the species that comes first sequentially is listed first ) and are always followed by \u201chybrid\u201d . if you identified a hybrid , especially any of the below , please do report it to ebird ( hopefully with photos ) ! the below list has one new intergrade ( a hybrid between subspecies groups ) under dark - eyed junco . hybrids and intergrades are unique to the ebird taxonomy ; they are not found in the clements checklist .\nwithin ebird , we also have forms for taxa that field identifiable and worth tracking , but are not formally described . these include undescribed species ( noted with \u201cundescribed form\u201d ) , undescribed subspecies groups , and miscellaneous other options .\nebird has certain domesticated species that are regularly seen in a feral or wild state .\ndove sp . \u2014 > pigeon / dove sp . note : usage should apply to both doves and pigeons\nmyiopagis sp . \u2014 > elaenia sp . ( genus myiopagis ) note : please review your elainia sp . records to make sure they apply to the correct genus .\nelaenia sp . \u2014 > elaenia sp . ( genus elaenia ) note : please review your elainia sp . records to make sure they apply to the correct genus .\nwestern yellow wagtail ( green - headed ) \u2014 > eastern yellow wagtail ( green - headed ) note : this subspecies was previously assigned to the wrong species .\nwestern yellow wagtail ( manchurian ) \u2014 > eastern yellow wagtail ( manchurian ) note : this subspecies was previously assigned to the wrong species .\ncommon bush - tanager \u2014 > common chlorospingus note : all bush - tanagers in the genus chlorispingus now use the common name chlorospingus .\nblack - and - white shearwater sp . : puffinus sp . \u2014 > puffinus sp . ( black - and - white shearwater sp . )\nglossy / white - faced ibis : plegadis sp . \u2014 > plegadis falcinellus / chihi\nwarbling - antbird sp . : hypocnemis sp . \u2014 > hypocnemis sp . ( warbling - antbird sp . )\ndownload full 2013 taxonomy ( version 1 . 54 ) with changes from 2012 annotated \u2013 click here\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncheke & hume 2008 , bli . conspecific with the extinct reunion form whose scientific name has priority .\nmanchurian bush warbler is restricted to borealis ; ssp canturians is treated here as a subspecies of h . diphone . an alternative treatment would be to lump borealis with diphone until relationships of the members of this complex are sorted out genetically ( alstr\u00f6m et al . 2011b ) . see rasmussen & anderton 2005 , bli re original split of cettia canturians , including borealis from c . diphone .\niczn opinion 2215 . bulletin of zoological nomenclature 65 : 327 - 328 , 2008 .\ncorrect gender agreement ; original specific epithet albicapillus is invariable . ( n david , h & m corrigenda 2 . 1 )\ngenetically embedded in monticola ; move before m . rupestris ( zuccon & ericson 2010a )\nfrith and frith 1998 , christidis and boles 2008 , slikas unpub . , t . pratt comm .\nfrith and frith 1998 , christidis and boles 2008 , slikas unpub . , t . pratt comm .\nrestore inland plover to peltohyas ; relative of wrybill and red - kneed dotterel ; resequence following lapwings , their sister group ( baker et al . 2007 ; fjeldsa comm )\nfuchs et al 2008 ; correct error in v2 . 5 ; correct gender agreement\ncorrect gender agreement ; \u201cwe are speaking here of hydrornis blyth 1843 in jasb 12 ( 2 ) : 960 , indeed masculine . in turdus guajanus by statius m\u00fcller , guajanus is adjectival ( much [ too ] long to explain ) ; thus hydrornis guayanus is ok . \u201d ( n . david 7 / 9 / 2010 )\nchlorophoneus viridis , c . dohertyi , c . quadricolor form a separate clade with telophorus , rhodophoneus , all merged into telophorus ( fuchs et al 2004 , fjeldsa comm )\nmalcorus belongs with hypergerus and eminia in cisticolidae ( johansson et al . 2008 , tif , fjeldsa comm )\n\u201c lopesi \u201d is an unjustified emmendation . fide alan peterson , peter ryan ( hbw 11 )\npnoepyga wren - babblers are not babblers and elevated to their own family ( gelang et al . 2009 )\ncorrect spreadsheet re 2 . 0 change of genus ( p . kovalik 7 / 2010 )\nnew family includes melocichla , sphenoeacus , achaetops , macrosphenus , sylvietta , cryptillas , and possibly graueria and hemitesia ( johansson et al . 2007 , 2008 , tif ) . move up in sequence as old branch of sylvioid passerines .\nmove dohm\u2019s thrush - babbler to sylviidae as sister to pseudoalcippe [ abyssinica ] ( voelker et al . 2009 )\nbush blackcap is a member of the sylviidae closer to pseudoalcippe than to sylvia ( johansson et al . 2008 , tif )\nseparate fulvetta species from alcippe fulvettas and move to sylviidae ( pasquet et al . 2006 , collar & robson 2007 , gelang et al . 2009 )\nmove yuhina species to zosteropidae from timaliidae ( cibois et al 2003 , moyle et al 2009 ) ; recognition of subclades under review .\nrichmond ( 1917 ) , fide alan peterson . ichthyophaga is an unjustified emendation of original spelling .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\ndel hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and christie , d . ( 2006 ) handbook of the birds of the world . volume 11 : old world flycatchers to old world warblers . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nbirdlife international ( 2011 ) the illustrated encyclopedia of birds . dorling kindersley limited , london .\nauscape international po box 1024 , bowral nsw 25a76 australia tel : ( + 61 ) 2 4885 2245 fax : ( + 61 ) 2 4885 2715 sales @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is found in barrow island . visit our barrow island topic page to find out more .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\ndiscover the natural environment of the kooyoora and loddon regions of central victoria as recorded by robert scholes and friends .\nhabitat : grasslands , crops \u2013 across the whole of the australian mainland except the very far north and tas ."]}
{"id": 2464, "summary": [{"text": "the asterozoa are a subphylum in the phylum echinodermata .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "characteristics include a star-shaped body and radially divergent axes of symmetry .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the subphylum includes the two classes asteroidea , the starfish , and ophiuroidea , the brittle stars and basket stars , and the extinct order somasteroidea . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "asterozoa", "paragraphs": ["asterozoa .\na dictionary of zoology . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nasterozoa .\na dictionary of earth sciences . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nasterozoa .\na dictionary of zoology . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nasterozoa .\na dictionary of earth sciences . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nwhat made you want to look up asterozoa ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\ntaxonomy in the current linnean system ophiuroidea is regarded as a class . following a more phylogenetic view its parent would be asterozoa according to a popular hypothesis . however , according to another equally parsimonious view , ophiuroidea and asteroidea are not sister taxa , which invalidates asterozoa as their parent . [ details ]\nmcknight , d . g . 1975 . classification of somasteroids and asteroids ( asterozoa : echinodermata ) . journal of the royal society of new zealand . 5 : 13 - 19 .\nmcknight , d . g . 1975 . classification of somasteroids and asteroids ( asterozoa : echinodermata ) . j . roy . soc . n . z . 5 : 13 - 19 .\nreich a , dunn c , akasaka k , wessel g . data from : phylogenomic analyses of echinodermata support the sister groups of asterozoa and echinozoa . database : dryad data repository [ internet ] .\ncitation : reich a , dunn c , akasaka k , wessel g ( 2015 ) phylogenomic analyses of echinodermata support the sister groups of asterozoa and echinozoa . plos one 10 ( 3 ) : e0119627 . urltoken\ntelford mj , lowe cj , cameron cb , ortega - martinez o , aronowicz j , oliveri p , et al . phylogenomic analysis of echinoderm class relationships supports asterozoa . proc biol sci . 2014 ; 281 .\nthe class of sea stars form the subphylum asterozoa , together with the brittle stars ( ophiuroidea ) . the seven orders of sea stars include more than 2000 species worldwide , 43 of them are registered in norway .\nasterozoa in which the alimentary organs are essentially confined to a central disc from which the arms are distinctly demarcated and capable of performing the locomotor movements , the tube - feet serving as non - suctorial , sensory tentacles .\nblake , daniel b . guensburg , thomas e . and lefebvre , bertrand 2016 . new early paleozoic asterozoa ( echinodermata ) from the armorican massif , france , and the western united states . annales de pal\u00e9ontologie , vol . 102 , issue . 3 , p . 161 .\n, is basal within the subphylum asterozoa . members are most readily recognized by presence of series of rod - like so - called virgal ossicles extending laterally from each ambulacral ossicle . five somasteroid genera are recognized and assigned to two families . four genera are gondwanan , three of these (\nin all existing genera the ambulacral plates fuse in pairs early in life to form median articulating joints , termed vertebrae , and the ambulacral groove is converted into an internal epineural canal . these characters sharply distinguish extant ophiuroids from other asterozoa , but they are lacking from the more generalized palaeozoic ophiuroids .\nsubphylum asterozoa fossil and living forms ( lower ordovician about 500 , 000 , 000 years ago to recent ) ; radially symmetrical with more or less star - shaped body resulting from growth of arms in 1 plane along 5 divergent axes ; central mouth ; 5 arms ; dorsal tube feet and mouth . class stelleroidea features\u2026\nthe representatives of asterozoa ( asteroidea , echinoidea , and ophiuroidea ) have a similar structural plan of the axial complex with minor differences within each class ; this structural scheme substantially differs from that in crinozoa and holothurozoa . the axial complex consists of the coelomic organs and the haemocoel ( blood ) structures , which are morphologically and functionally integral . the coelomic organs are the stone canal , axial coelom , perihaemal coeloms ( axocoel perihaemal ring and somatocoel perihaemal ring ) , water ring , and pericardial and genital coeloms . these organs are closely associated with the epigastric and hypogastric coeloms and with the perioral coelomic ring . the haemocoel structures of the axial complex include the oral haemal ring , heart , axial organ , genital haemal ring , and gastric haemal ring . the epineural canals of echinoids and ophiuroids are of a noncoelomic nature . they are formed by the invagination of the ectoneural cord and closing of the epidermis above it . the possible functions of the axial complex in asterozoa are blood circulation and excretion .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe root of the current tree connects the organisms featured in this tree to their containing group and the rest of the tree of life . the basal branching point in the tree represents the ancestor of the other groups in the tree . this ancestor diversified over time into several descendent subgroups , which are represented as internal nodes and terminal taxa to the right .\nyou can click on the root to travel down the tree of life all the way to the root of all life , and you can click on the names of descendent subgroups to travel up the tree of life all the way to individual species .\nfor more information on tol tree formatting , please see interpreting the tree or classification . to learn more about phylogenetic trees , please visit our phylogenetic biology pages .\ncladogram based on arguments from spencer and wright ( 1966 ) , mcknight ( 1975 ) , and blake ( 1982 ) .\nsomasteroids are flattened , fivefold radially symmetrical echinoderms that range in shape from that of a pentagon to that of a star with protruding arms . it appears that somasteroids were benthic marine animals that were filter - and / or detritus - feeders . despite their relatively rigid arm structure , somasteroids are thought to have been somewhat mobile and able to scavenge along the ocean floor ( spencer , 1951 ) .\nfigure modified from fell ( 1963b ) . drawing by h . b . fell . copyright \u00a9 1963 royal society of london .\nfigure 2 . reconstructed cross - section of one arm of chininanaster sp . ( chinianasteridae ) . figure modified from fell ( 1963b ) . drawing by h . b . fell . copyright \u00a9 1963 royal society of london .\nradial water vessels extend the length of each arm within a radial channel formed by the recumbent ambulacral plates and give rise to numerous tube feet ( figure 2 ) . in somasteroids , the radial water vessel is often positioned at the oral - marginal junction of ambulacrals , as in asteroids , but can also be enclosed within the ambulacral plates , as in ophiuroids . tube feet branching from the radial water vessels are seated in broad basins that , in some species , also give rise to ampulae that extend into the body cavity through ambulacral pores . the jaw ossicles of somasteroids are differentiated with small mouth angle plates , in contrast to those of asteroids that lack odontophores ( mcknight , 1975 ) . buccal slits , which function primarily as respiratory structures in ophiuroids , may or may not have been present adjacent to the mouth frame in somasteroids .\ndiscussions addressing somasteroid origins have certainly been a major point of contention through the years primarily because the intermediate forms that gave rise to the somasteroids are lacking from the fossil record ( blake and guensburg 1993 ; blake , 1994 ) . it seems most likely , however , that the somasteroids emerged from either a crinoid lineage ( fell , 1963 ; mooi and david , 2000 ) , or an edrioasteroid lineage ( paul and smith , 1984 ; smith 1988b ) .\ninformative evolutionary and phylogenetic analyses within somasteroidea have been quite difficult because the examination and characterization of the group has been somewhat limited . what is known about the diversification of somasteroids , however , is primarily derived from work on three lower ordovician families : chinianasteridae ( tremadoc - early arenig ) , villebrunasteridae ( tremadoc - early arenig ) , and archegonasteridae ( late arenig ) , as discussed by nichols ( 1962 ) , fell ( 1963 ) , and blake ( 1982 ) .\nthe first organized classification of somasteroidea was carried out by w . k . spencer ( 1951 ) . in his report , spencer describes some of the earliest asteroid and ophiuroid specimens ever found . in addition , he describes fossils of a third asterozoan group , the somasteroids , which occur not only contemporaneously with , but also prior to all recognizable asteroid and ophiuroid fossil forms . these findings are suggestive of a scenario in which all asterozoans arose from ancient somasteroid forms .\nblake , d . b . 1982 . somasteroidea , asteroidea , and the affinities of luidia ( plasterias ) latiradiata . paleontology , 25 : 167 - 191 .\nblake , d . b . 1994 . re - evaluation of the palasteriscidae gregory , 1900 , and the early phylogeny of the asteroidea ( echinodermata ) . j . paleont . 68 : 123 - 134 .\nblake , d . b . 1998 . morphological characters of early asteroids and ophiuroids . echinoderms : san francisco , mooi and telford ( eds . ) , balkema , rotterdam .\nblake , d . b . , guensburg , t . e . , 1993 . new lower and middle ordovician stelleroids ( echinodermata ) and their bearing on the origins and early history of the stelleroid echinoderms .\nfell , h . b . 1962 . a surviving somasteroid from the eastern pacific ocean . science , n . y . 136 : 633 - 636 .\nfell , h . b . 1963a . a new family and genus of somasteroidea . trans . r . soc . n . z . 3 : 143 - 146 .\nfell , h . b . 1963b . the phylogeny of sea - stars . phil . trans . r . soc . lond . , ser . b 246 : 381 - 435 .\nmooi , r . , david , b . 2000 . what a new model of skeletal homologies tells us about asteroid evolution . amer . zool . 40 : 326 - 339 .\nnichols , d . 1962 . echinoderms . huchinson and co . , london .\npaul , c . r . c . , smith , a . b . 1984 . the early radiation and phylogeny of echinoderms . biological reviews , 46 : 157 - 200 .\nsmith , a . b . 1988 . patterns of diversification and extinction in early paleozoic echinoderms . paleontology , 31 : 799 - 828 .\nsmith , a . b . , jell , p . a . 1990 . cambrian ederoasteroids from australia and the origins of starfishes . mem . queen . mus . 28 : 715 - 778 .\nspencer , w . k . 1951 . early paleozoic starfish . phil . trans . r . soc . lond . , ser . b 235 : 87 - 129 .\nspencer , w . k . , wright , c . w . 1966 . asterozoans , pp . s4 - s107 . in r . c . moore ( ed . ) , treatise in invertebrate paleontology , part u , echinodermata 3 . geological society of america and the university of kansas press , new york and lawerance .\nafter spencer , w . k . 1951 . early paleozoic starfish . phil . trans . r . soc . lond . , ser . b 235 : 87 - 129 .\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\neach tol branch page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a branch of the tree of life . the major distinction between a branch and a leaf of the tree of life is that each branch can be further subdivided into descendent branches , that is , subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\nphylogenetic hypothesis of the asteroidea based on blake ( 1987 ) . these relationships , as well as intra - order relationships , are contentious and re - evaluation of asteroid phylogeny continues ( see discussion of phylogenetic relationships , below ) .\nthe asteroidea is one of the largest and most familiar classes within the phylum echinodermata . these animals , commonly known as sea stars or starfishes , form a diverse and speciose group . there are approximately 1600 extant species ( hyman 1955 ; clark 1977 ; clark and downey 1992 ) which are found throughout the world ' s oceans . following the classification of blake ( 1987 ) , these species are grouped into seven orders : brisingida , forcipulatida , notomyotida , paxillosida , spinulosida , valvatida and velatida .\nlike other echinoderms , asteroids are important members of many marine benthic communities . they can be voracious predators , having significant impacts on community structure . for example , paine ( 1966 ) used pisaster ochraceus to illustrate his concept of the role keystone species play in community ecology . the crown - of - thorns starfish , acanthaster planci , is particularly well - known because it can cause extreme detrimental effects to coral reefs , particularly during population outbreaks ( moran 1988 ) .\nfigure 1 : pisaster ochraceus and acanthaster planci , two asteroids of great ecological significance . pisaster image by sherry ballard , courtesy calphotos , copyright \u00a9 1999 california academy of sciences . acanthaster image copyright \u00a9 borut furlan .\nthe controversial concentricycloidea ( a proposed sixth class of the echinodermata ; baker et al . 1986 , rowe et al . 1988 , pearse and pearse 1994 ) have been diagnosed as unusual asteroids ( smith 1988 , belyaev 1990 , janies and mooi 1999 ) . their relationship to other asteroid taxa is not well resolved , but alliances with species from the velatida and the forcipulatida have been proposed . the unique morphology of the concentricycloids makes it difficult to assign this group to the recognized asteroid orders and is cited as sufficient distinction for class recognition .\nfigure 2 : a typical starfish , asterias rubens , with tubefeet visible on the edge of the arm in the foreground . image copyright \u00a9 2004 k\u00e5re telnes . cushion stars , like this culcita novaeguineae , may have arms so short that they look more like a ball than a star . image copyright \u00a9 2003 massimo boyer .\ntaxonomy of asteroids usually is based on externally observable characteristics of the skeleton , particularly the primary ossicular series which define the body wall ( ambulacrals , adambulacrals , marginals , terminals , actinals , abactinals ) , as well as secondary ossicles such as spines , spinelets and pedicellariae . works by perrier ( 1884 ) and sladen ( 1889 ) laid the taxonomic foundation of most asteroid groups . many other authors have contributed to and / or refined the asteroid classification scheme , notably fisher ( 1911 , 1928 ) , verrill ( 1914 ) , fell ( 1963 ) , spencer and wright ( 1966 ) and mcknight ( 1975 ) . blake and elliot ( 2003 ) provide clear definition of ossicle terminology . blake ( 1987 ) provides classification and diagnoses of asteroid groups .\nfigure 3 : morphology of asteroids . a , aboral and oral surfaces of a generalized asteroid . image \u00a9 biodidac . b , transverse section and perspective view of a generalized arm ( soft tissues and spines removed ) ; note the arched ambulacral ossicles forming the ambulacral groove and the dorsal podial pores between ambulacral ossicles . one podium ( tubefoot ) on the left is drawn in outline only to illustrate how the podia descend through the podial pores . image \u00a9 2004 emily knott .\napplication of the extraxial - axial theory ( eat ) to asteroid morphology significantly aids our understanding of ossicle homologies within the asteroidea and between asteroids and other echinoderms ( mooi and david 2000 , blake and elliot 2003 , blake and hagdorn 2003 ) . according to the eat , the ambulacral and terminal ossicles of asteroids are axial elements . these ossicles are formed according to the ocular plate rule ( opr ) and are associated with the developing water vascular system during ontogeny as are the axial ossicles of other echinoderms . the remaining asteroid ossicle series are extraxial elements , which can be added during ontogeny without any particular ordering system ( although secondarily ordered serial homologous elements are common in the asteroids , e . g . adambulacrals and marginals ) . in comparison to axial elements , extraxial ossicles are prone to much more evolutionary lability ( mooi and david 1997 ) .\nsummarized from blake ( 1998 ; 2000 ) , mooi and david ( 2000 ) and blake and hagdorn ( 2003 ) .\ndeep ambulacral groove\u2014the paired ambulacral ossicles are erect and arch across the arm axis forming a clearly defined furrow . the extent of the arch and definition of the furrow are expected to be weaker in the earliest asteroids , but these characters are difficult to observe in most fossil specimens .\ndorsal podial pores\u2014the dorsal podia pores are passageways between ambulacral ossicles through which the tubefeet descend . these pores allow for internal protection of the ampullae , dorsal outpockets of the podia , which contract and expand with extension and retraction of the podia . the ampullae of earlier asteroids were external , in closed , cup - like podial basins formed by the ossicles of the ambulacral column .\noffset positioning of the ambulacral and adambulacral ossicles and differentiation of articulation structures in ossicles of the ambulacrum\u2014these features describe a variety of related apomorphic characteristics of ambuloasteroids . offset positioning of the ambulacral and adambulacral ossicles allows for soft tissue connections between the ambulacral and both adjacent adambulacrals which is further enhanced with differentiation of articulation structures on the ossicles . this arrangement allows more complex movement in the ambuloasteroids . in non - ambuloasteroids a single ambulacral ossicle abuts a single adambulacral .\npresence of an odontophore\u2014the odontophore is a small interradial ossicle associated with the mouth angle ossicle . the odontophore is expected to the homologue of the axillary in paleozoic asteroids .\nthe earliest asteroids appeared in the ordovician ( figure 4 ) . however , at least two major faunal transitions have occurred within the asteroidea concomitantly with large extinction events : in the late devonian ( blake and glass in webster et . al . 1999 ) and in the late permian ( blake 1987 , gale 1987 , blake et al . 2000 , blake and elliot 2003 , blake and hagdorn 2003 ) . the asteroid orders as described here contain all extant and some extinct species which have a morphology distinct from paleozoic forms ( i . e . ambuloasteroidea ; see characteristics , blake 1982 , 1987 , 1988 ; gale 1987 , blake and elliott 2003 , blake and hagdorn 2003 ) . the asteroid orders are thought to have appeared and diversified very rapidly ( within approximately 60 million years ) during the lower and early middle jurassic , frustrating our understanding of ordinal relationships ( see discussion below ) .\nfigure 4 : hudsonaster sp . ( usnm 40882 ) , an early asteroid from the ordovician . image copyright \u00a9 daniel b . blake\nrelationships among paleozoic asteroids , as well as between paleozoic asteroids and extant asteroids , are difficult if not impossible to determine because of the limitations of the asteroid fossil record . asteroid fossils are rare because 1 ) the skeletal elements rapidly dissociate after death of the animals 2 ) asteroids typically have a large body cavity that collapses with deterioration of the organs , resulting in misshapen forms and 3 ) asteroids often live on hard substrates which are not conducive to fossil formation . from the limited fossil evidence that is available we know that the basic body plan of the asteroids has remained the same since the ordovician . several papers by blake ( e . g 1989 , 2000 ) describe limitations of the fossil record in detail .\nfigure 5 : early neoasteroids from the triassic . images copyright \u00a9 daniel b . blake\nleft : trichasteropsis weissmanni ( mhi 843 / 1 ) , trichasteropsida . center : trichasteropsis weissmanni ( smns 3173 / 5 ) , trichasteropsida . right : noriaster barberoi ( mpum 8420 ) , valvatida : poraniidae\na survey of asteroid nomenclature arranged by order has been compiled . clark ( 1989 , 1993 , 1996 ) and clark and mah ( 2001 ) list accepted names as well as synonyms , otherwise invalid names , references and ranges of type localities .\nbrisingida\u2014 brisingids are deep - sea dwelling asteroids . they usually have many ( 6 - 16 ) long , attenuated arms which are used in suspension feeding . the brisingida contains about 100 species in 17 genera and 6 families . a preliminary phylogeny for this order has been produced by mah ( 1998 ) .\nforcipulatida\u2014 these asteroids are distinguished by their forcipulate pedicellariae , which are generally quite conspicuous on the body surface . the forcipulatida contains about 300 species in 68 genera and 6 families . a preliminary phylogeny for this order has been produced by mah ( 2000 ) .\nnotomyotida\u2014 these are deep - sea dwelling asteroids having flexible arms with characteristic longitudinal muscle bands along the inner dorsolateral surface . the notomyotida contains about 75 species in 12 genera and 1 family .\npaxillosida\u2014 these asteroids are considered to be somewhat infaunal in that they can bury themselves partially under sandy sediments . they are characterized by some morphological features ( e . g . pointed , unsuckered tubefeet ) which have been considered primitive by some ( see discussion of phylogenetic relationships , below ) . the paxillosida contains about 255 species in 46 genera and 5 families .\nspinulosida\u2014 these asteroids have a relatively delicate skeletal arrangement and completely lack pedicellariae . no fossil spinulosids have been found . the spinulosida contains about 120 species in 9 genera and 1 family .\nvalvatida\u2014 these asteroids are quite diverse , but are often characterized by their conspicuous marginal ossicles . definition of this group has been the most variable and the ordinal definition of many families included here has been controversial ( see discussion of phylogenetic relationships , below ) . the valvatida contains about 695 species in 165 genera and 14 families .\nvelatida\u2014 these asteroids typically have thick bodies with large discs and interradial depressions . contrary to blake ' s ( 1987 ) classification , molecular evidence suggests a relationship between some velatid and valvatid families ( see discussion of phylogenetic relationships , below ) . the velatida contains about 200 species in 25 genera and 5 families .\nspecific use of phylogenetic methods in studies of asteroid evolutionary relationships began in the late 1980s . these analyses ( using both morphological and molecular data ) have resulted in conflicting hypotheses of asteroid phylogeny . phylogenetic analyses are continuing to be re - evaluated with additional data . since their results are still somewhat contentious , they have yet to initiate changes in our classification system .\nin 1987 , two differing hypotheses of order level relationships were proposed based on analyses of morphological characteristics ( blake 1987 , gale 1987 , figure 6 , 7 ) . these two phylogenies differ due to differences in opinion about character polarity ( assigning ancestral or derived status to a particular state of a character ) and the different morphological characters used in the analyses ( note that gale does not specifically use phylogenetic methods ) . both authors emphasized the importance of ambulacral characters to asteroid classification and recognized the distinction between paleozoic and post - paleozoic forms ( i . e . ambuloasteroidea , blake and hagdorn 2003 ) .\nhowever , gale ( following mcknight 1975 ) focuses on the lack of suckered tubefeet in the paxillosida , considering them primitive . as a result , his phylogeny reflects two major groups : a basal paxillosida and the remaining asteroids , all having suckered tubefeet , which he termed superorder surculifera . blake considers suckered tubefeet to be the ancestral condition . his phylogeny reflects two major asteroid groups : superorder forcipulatacea ( forcipulatida + brisingida ) and a clade of the superorders valvatacea + spinulosacea ( valvatida , notomyotida , paxillosida , spinulosida and velatida ) . outgroup comparison with calliasterella and inclusion of the trichasteropsida results in a basal forcipulatacea .\nthe differences in these proposed phylogenies highlight questions about asteroid relationships that are still unresolved . the identification of the basal ( neo ) asteroid group has been the driving question of additional studies ( see evidence from molecular characters , below ) . additionally , ordinal definition , particularly for blake ' s valvatida , velatida and spinulosida , is problematic . such problems were not new to blake and gale . although many asteroid groups can be clearly defined morphologically ( forcipulatida , brisingida , notomyotida ) , asteroid morphology is complex and diverse . other groups are less clearly defined .\nadditional phylogenetic analyses incorporating molecular data with morphological data ( lafay et al . 1995 ) and using molecular data alone ( wada et al . 1996 ; knott and wray 2000 ) were presented in an effort to resolve phylogenetic arguments . unexpectedly , these studies have done little to elucidate asteroid relationships and may have only added to the confusion .\nlafay et al . ( 1995 ) present an unrooted phylogeny deduced from analysis of a combined morphological data set taken from blake ( 1987 ) and gale ( 1987 ) with unordered character states ( figure 8 ) . although very few taxa were studied , their phylogeny supports the definition of asteroid orders proposed by blake but separates the paxillosida from the valvatida . their analysis with molecular data alone ( sequence data from 28s rrna ) results in several conflicting topologies due to weak phylogenetic signal . most of this signal is masked by that from the morphological data set when the two data sets are combined . however , after evaluating several rooting positions using molecular data from other echinoderms in outgroup comparison , lafay et al . ( 1995 ) conclude that the paxillosida may not be monophyletic and that the paxillosid genus astropecten may be the sister group to the remaining asteroids , reminiscent of gale ' s phylogeny .\nwada et al . ( 1996 ) include more taxa for additional investigation of ordinal monophyly ( figure 9 ) . in multiple analyses of their molecular data set ( sequence data from 12s and 16s rdna ) , they find that paxillosids are paraphyletic with the paxillosid genus luidia as the basal asteroid taxon . in addition , the valvatida is not monophyletic and a forcipulatid clade falls within a group of valvatids , a velatid and spinulosids , a relationship in stark contrast to that proposed by blake ( 1987 ) . further , the spinulosida are never grouped with the velatida , which blake ( 1987 ) proposed as their sister group and which previously were considered a group within the spinulosida ( spencer and wright 1966 , mcknight 1975 , blake 1981a ) .\nknott and wray ( 2000 ) expand taxon sampling even more , but their molecular data set ( sequence data from mitochondrial trna and coi genes ) fails to resolve questions of asteroid phylogeny ( figure 10 ) . significantly , the paxillosida is not basal in their results ( although astropecten is not included ) . the results of different tree reconstruction methods are not in agreement , and basal groupings are only supported by bootstrapping in the neighbor - joining analysis . the proposed phylogeny is similar to blake ( 1987 ) in that two lineages ( one largely of forcipulatids and the other largely of valvatids ) are recovered , but valvatida and velatida are not monophyletic and some velatids plus the spinulosida fall in the forcipulatid clade .\nfigure 8 . lafay et al . ' s ( 1995 ) hypothesis of asteroidea relationships .\nfigure 9 . wada et al . ' s ( 1996 ) hypothesis of asteroidea relationships .\nfigure 10 . knott & wray ' s ( 2000 ) hypothesis of asteroidea relationships .\nbaker , a . n . , f . w . e . rowe and h . e . s . clark . 1986 . a new class of echinodermata from new zealand . nature 321 : 862 - 864 .\nbelyaev , g . m . 1990 . is it valid to isolate the genus xyloplax as an independent class of echinoderms ? zoologicheskii zhurnal 69 : 83 - 96 .\nblake , d . b . 1982 . recognition of higher taxa and phylogeny of the asteroidea . pp . 105 - 107 . in : international echinoderm conference , tampa bay . j . m . lawrence , ed . a . a . balkema , rotterdam .\nblake , d . b . 1987 . a classification and phylogeny of post - paleozoic sea stars ( asteroidea : echinodermata ) . journal of natural history 21 : 481 - 528 .\nblake , d . b . 1989 . asteroidea : functional morphology , classification and phylogeny . pp . 179 - 223 . in : echinoderm studies vol . 3 . a . a . balkema , rotterdam .\nblake , d . b . 1998 . morphological characters of early asteroids and ophiuroids . pp . 5 - 8 . in : echinoderms : san francisco . proceedings of the ninth international echinoderm conference . r . mooi and m . telford , eds . a . a . balkema , rotterdam .\nblake , d . b . 2000 . the class asteroidea ( echinodermata ) : fossils and the base of the crown group . american zoologist 40 : 316 - 325 .\nblake , d . b . and d . r . elliott . 2003 . ossicular homologies , systematics and phylogenetic implications of certain north american carboniferous asteroids ( echinodermata ) . journal of paleontology 77 ( 3 ) : 476 - 489 .\nblake , d . b . and h . hagdorn . 2003 . the asteroidea ( echinodermata ) of the muschelkalk ( middle triassic of germany ) . pal\u00e4ontologische zeitschrift 77 ( 1 ) : 23 - 58 .\nblake , d . b . , a . tintori and h . hagdorn . 2000 . a new , early crown - group asteroid ( echinodermata ) from the norian ( triassic ) of northern italy . rivista italiana di paleontologia e stratigrafia . 106 ( 2 ) : 141 - 156 .\nclark , a . m . 1977 . starfishes and related echinoderms . t . f : h . publications , london .\nclark , a . m . 1989 . an index of names of recent asteroidea : part 1 . paxillosida and notomyotida . pp . 225 - 347 in : echinoderm studies vol . 3 . m . jangoux and j . m . lawrence , eds . a . a . balkema , rotterdam .\nclark , a . m . 1993 . an index of names of recent asteroidea : part 2 . valvatida . pp . 187 - 366 in : echinoderm studies vol . 4 . m . jangoux and j . m . lawrence , eds . a . a . balkema , rotterdam .\nclark , a . m . 1996 . an index of names of recent asteroidea : part 3 . velatida and spinulosida . pp . 183 - 250 in : echinoderm studies vol . 5 . m . jangoux and j . m . lawrence , eds . a . a . balkema , rotterdam .\nclark , a . m . and m . e . downey . 1992 . starfishes of the atlantic . chapman and hall , london .\nclark , a . m . and c . mah . 2001 . an index of names of recent asteroidea : part 4 . forcipulatida and brisingida . pp . 229 - 347 in : echinoderm studies vol . 6 . m . jangoux and j . m . lawrence , eds . a . a . balkema , rotterdam .\ndean , j . 1999 . what makes and ophiuroid ? a morphological study of the problematic ordovician stelleroid stenaster and the paleobiology of the earliest asteroids and ophiuroids . zoological journal of the linnean society 126 : 225 - 250 .\nfell , h . b . 1963 . the phylogeny of sea - stars . philosophical transactions b 246 : 381 - 435 , 2 pls . , 16 figs .\nfisher , w . k . 1911 . asteroidea of the north pacific and adjacent waters . part1 : phanerozonia and spinulosa . bulletin of the united states national museum . 76 . xiii + 420pp . , 122 pls .\nfisher , w . k . 1928 . asteroidea of the north pacific and adjacent waters . part2 : forcipulata . bulletin of the united states national museum . 76 : 1 - 245 , 81 pls . .\ngale , a . s . 1987 . phylogeny and classification of the asteroidea ( echinodermata ) . zoological journal of the linnean society 89 : 107 - 132 .\nhyman , l . h . 1955 . the invertebrates : echinodermata . volume iv . mcgraw - hill , new york , new york\njanies , d . 2001 . phylogenetic relationships of extant echinoderm classes . canadian journal of zoology 79 : 1232 - 1250 .\njanies , d . and r . mooi . 1999 . xyloplax is an asteroid . pp . 311 - 316 . in : echinoderm research 1998 . m . candia carnevali and f . bonosoro , eds . a . a . balkema , rotterdam .\nknott , k . e . and g . a . wray . 2000 . controversy and consensus in asteroid systematics : new insights to ordinal and familial relationships . american zoologist 40 : 382 - 392 .\nlafay , b . , a . b . smith , and r . christen . 1995 . a combined morphological and molecular approach to the phylogeny of asteroids ( asteroidea : echinodermata ) . systematic biology 44 ( 2 ) : 190 - 208 .\nmah , c . l . 1998 . preliminary phylogeny and taxonomic revision of the brisingida ( asteroidea ) . pp . 273 - 277 . in : echinoderms san francisco : proceedings of the ninth international echinoderm conference . r . mooi and m . telford , eds . a . a . balkema . rotterdam .\nmah , c . l . 2000 . preliminary phylogeny of the forcipulatacean asteroidea . american zoologist 40 : 375 - 381 .\nmooi , r . and b . david . 1997 . skeletal homologies of echinoderms . the paleontological society papers 3 : 305 - 335 .\nmooi , r . and b . david . 2000 . what a new model of skeletal homologies tells us about asteroid evolution . american zoologist 40 : 326 - 339 .\nmooi , r . , f . w . e . rowe and b . david . 1998 . application of a theory of axial and extraxial skeletal homologies to concentricycloid morphology . pp . 61 - 62 . in : echinoderms san francisco : proceedings of the ninth international echinoderm conference . r . mooi and m . telford , eds . a . a . balkema . rotterdam .\nmoran , p . j . 1988 . the acanthaster phenomenon . australian institute of marine science monograph series vol . 7 . 78 p .\npaine , r . t . 1966 . food web complexity and species diversity . american naturalist 100 : 65 - 75 .\npearse , v . b . and j . s . pearse . 1994 . echinoderm phylogeny and the place of the concentricycloids . pp . 121 - 126 . in : echinoderms dijon : proceedings of the eighth international echinoderm conference . b . david , a . guille , j . - p . feral and m . roux , eds . a . a . balkema . rotterdam .\nperrier , j . o . e . 1884 . m\u00e9moire sur les \u00e9toiles de mer recueillies dans la mer des antolles et le golfe de mexique . nouvelles archives du mus\u00e9um d ' histoire naturelle , paris ( 2 ) 6 : 127 - 276 .\nrowe , f . w . e . , a . n . baker , and h . e . s . clark . 1988 . the morphology , development and taxonomic status of xyloplax baker , rowe and clark 1986 ( echinodermata : concentricycloidea ) , with the description of a new species . proceedings of the royal society of london series b : biological sciences 223 : 431 - 459 .\nsladen , w . p . 1889 . asteroidea . report of the scientific results of the voyage of h . m . s . challenger , 1873 - 1876 . zoology 30 : 1 - 935 .\nsmith , a . b . 1988 . to grop or not to group : the taxonomic position of xyloplax . pp . 17 - 23 . in : echinoderm biology . r . d . burke , p . v . mladenov , p . lambert and r . d . parsley , eds . a . a . balkema , rotterdam .\nspencer , w . k . and c . w . wright . 1966 . asterozoans . treatise on invertebrate paleontology . part u echinodermata . 3 ( 1 ) : u4 - u107 . university of kansas press .\nverrill , a . e . 1914 . monograph of the shallow - water starfishes of the north pacific coast from the arctic ocean to california . harriman alaska series of the united states national museum 14 : 1 - 408 , 110 pls .\nwada , h . , m . komatsu and n . satoh . 1996 . mitochondrial rdna phylogeny of the asteoidea suggests the primitiveness of the paxillosida . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 6 ( 1 ) : 97 - 106 .\nwebster , g . d . , d . j . hafley , d . b . blake and a . glass . 1999 . crinoids and stelleroids from the broken rib member , dyer formation late devonian , famennian . of the white river plateau , colorado . journal of paleontology 73 ( 3 ) : 461 - 486 .\nknott , emily . 2004 . asteroidea . sea stars and starfishes . version 07 october 2004 .\nlove words ? you must \u2014 there are over 200 , 000 words in our free online dictionary , but you are looking for one that\u2019s only in the merriam - webster unabridged dictionary .\nthe story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .\ntake this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .\nruggiero ma , gordon dp , orrell tm , bailly n , bourgoin t , brusca rc , et al . ( 2015 ) a higher level classification of all living organisms . plos one 10 ( 4 ) : e0119248 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0119248 . pmid : 25923521\nthis page was last edited on 12 january 2018 , at 14 : 02 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\n\u00a9 a dictionary of earth sciences 1999 , originally published by oxford university press 1999 .\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\n\u00a9 a dictionary of zoology 1999 , originally published by oxford university press 1999 .\nof projecting rays and a star - shaped body . it contains the one class stelleroidea .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ntelford mj 1 , lowe cj 2 , cameron cb 3 , ortega - martinez o 4 , aronowicz j 5 , oliveri p 6 , copley rr 7 .\ndepartment of genetics , evolution and environment , university college london , darwin building , gower street , london wc1e 6bt , uk m . telford @ ucl . ac . uk .\nhopkins marine station , department of biology , stanford university , 120 oceanview boulevard , pacific grove , ca 93950 , usa .\nd\u00e9partment de sciences biologiques , universit\u00e9 de montr\u00e9al , pavillion marie - victorin , c . p . 6128 , succ . centre - ville , montr\u00e9al , qu\u00e9bec , canada h3c 3j7 .\ndepartment of biological and environmental sciences , sven lov\u00e9n centre for marine sciences , university of gothenburg , kristineberg 566 , fiskeb\u00e4ckskil 451 78 , sweden .\ndepartment of organismal biology and anatomy , university of chicago , chicago , il 60650 , usa .\ndepartment of genetics , evolution and environment , university college london , darwin building , gower street , london wc1e 6bt , uk .\ncnrs , laboratoire de biologie du d\u00e9veloppement de villefranche - sur - mer ( lbdv ) , observatoire oc\u00e9anographique , villefranche - sur - mer 06230 , france sorbonne universites , upmc univ paris 06 , laboratoire de biologie du developpement de villefranche - sur - mer , observatoire oceanographique , villefranche - sur - mer 06230 , france copley @ obs - vlfr . fr .\npmid : 24850925 pmcid : pmc4046411 doi : 10 . 1098 / rspb . 2014 . 0479\nthe two hypotheses of echinoderm evolution discussed in this work . the asterozoan hypothesis unites ophiuroids and asteroids on the basis of a five - rayed body plan . the cryptosyringid hypothesis places ophiuroids as sister group to the holothurians and echinoids on the basis of , for example , closed ambulacral grooves ( see introduction ) .\nresults from our data stratified by overall length of gene trees ( gene rate ranking ) , from ( a ) , the slowest evolving quartile , to ( d ) the fastest evolving quartile .\nresearch support , u . s . gov ' t , non - p . h . s .\na subphylum of echinoderms characterized by a star - shaped body and radially divergent axes of symmetry .\nsubphylum expresses the vtg protein , vtg1 ( prowse and byrne , 2012 ) .\nall content on this website , including dictionary , thesaurus , literature , geography , and other reference data is for informational purposes only . this information should not be considered complete , up to date , and is not intended to be used in place of a visit , consultation , or advice of a legal , medical , or any other professional .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncopyright : \u00a9 2015 reich et al . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited\ndata availability : the raw reads and assembled trasncriptomes reported in this paper have been deposited in the genbank database ( ncbi bioproject no . prjna236087 ) . assembly statistics and agalma resource reports can be found at : urltoken . see also urltoken .\nfunding : this work was funded by the national science foundation ios - 1120972 ( gw ) ; national institutes health 2r01hd028152 ( gw ) ; national institutes health 5t32 gm007601 ( ar ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nmost phylogenetic studies place echinoidea and holothuroidea as sister groups . the difficulty lies in the placement of ophiuroidea ; different methods favor different positions for brittle stars . a ) the predominant hypotheses of how extant echinoderms are related are the asterozoan and cryptosyringid hypotheses . b ) two other alternate hypotheses based on mitochondrial gene alignments .\nwhole ovary was dissected from gravid females and placed in trizol ( invitrogen ) . rna was extracted and then cleaned with a qiagen rneasy micro column with on - column dna digestion . the sequencing libraries were prepared with illumina reagents , ( mrna - seq sample prep kit for gaiix samples or truseq sample prep kit for hiseq samples ) with the maximum recommended rna input . the protocol was followed exactly with the addition of a gel selection step of 400\u2013500bp , ( agarose gel for gaiix samples or caliper labchip xt for hiseq samples ) prior to pcr amplification .\nall 30 datasets ( 23 de novo assembled transcriptomes and 7 refseq datasets ; s1 table ) were compared against ncbi swissprot using blastx with a cutoff of 0 . 000001 [ 23 ] . transdecoder was used to translate sequences , and similar translated sequences were identified by a pair wise blastp followed by clustering using mcl [ 32 ] to identify orthologous genes . two supermatricies that differ in gene sampling were used in the phylogenetic analyses : \u2018sparse\u2019 and \u2018dense\u2019 . the \u2018sparse\u2019 supermatrix has all 30 taxa and 34 % matrix occupancy , ( s4a fig . ) with 4 , 645 peptide sequences and 630 , 945 amino acid sites . the \u2018dense\u2019 supermatrix is a subset of the sparse matrix . it has all 30 taxa and 70 % matrix occupancy , ( s4b fig . ) with 1 , 125 peptide sequences and 101 , 652 amino acid sites . maximum likelihood phylogenetic analyses were done with raxml ( gammawag model ) with 1 , 000 boot strap iterations on the \u2018dense\u2019 supermatrix , and using the same model , 100 boot strap iterations on the \u2018sparse\u2019 supermatrix . both supermatrices and calculated phylograms can be downloaded from the data dryad repository [ 33 ] .\nbaysian phylogenetic analyses were done with phylobayes 1 . 3b - mpi [ 34 ] on the \u2018dense\u2019 supermatrix using the cat - gtr model with the following command : \u201cpb _ mpi - s - d supermatrix . dense . phylip - cat - gtr outputfile\u201d . a total of 31 , 623 generations were run over three chains . all three chains converged within 2 , 000 generations ( s5 fig . ) and after removing these 2 , 000 from each chain and sampling every 10 trees , the maximum difference was 1 . 17\u00d710 - 3 , ( 2 , 561 sampled trees ) , and a majority consensus tree was constructed .\nthe sowh test was implemented using the sowhat software package , [ 35 ] ( urltoken ) with the following command : \u201cperl sowhat\u2014constraint = alternate . hypo . tre\u2014aln = supermatrix . dense . phylip\u2014model = protgammawag\u2014dir = outdir\u2014name = outfile\u2014rax = ' raxmlhpc - pthreads - sse3 - t 16 ' \u2014seqgen = seq - gen\u2014reps = 500\u2014stop > output . txt\u201d . three alternate hypothesis trees were constructed to test : a ) the cryptosyringid hypothesis , b ) ophiuroidea sister to the rest of echinoderms , and c ) asteroidea sister to echinozoa ( s3 fig . ) . all three analyses were stopped after at least 99 iterations because any additional sampling was very unlikely to change the results ( s3 fig . ) .\nthe raw reads and assembled trasncriptomes reported in this paper have been deposited in the genbank database ( ncbi bioproject no . prjna236087 ) . assembly statistics , agalma resource reports and scripts used in the analyses can be found in the git repository [ 25 ] and the supermatrix alignments and all trees including sowh constraint trees can be downloaded from the dryad digital repository [ 33 ] . all de novo transcriptomes can also be accessed on echinobase . org , including blast searches of the annotated transcripts .\nthe assembly of the de novo illumina transcriptomes yielded on average 24 , 033 high quality contigs with a match to swissprot ( s1 table ) . the number of transcripts with swissprot hits in the de novo transcriptomes was comparable to the number of sequences in the refseq datasets we included for other taxa ( s1a fig . ) . the number of swissprot sequences did not appear to be artificially inflated by fragmented assemblies ( s1b fig . ) . the comparable number of swissprot sequences and comparable size of the n50s of the de novo transcriptomes in relation to the refseq datasets both suggest that the assembled transcriptomes are of high quality ; especially compared with the s . purpuratus refseq dataset , an echinoderm with a well sequenced and annotated genome [ 8 ] .\nsupport values for the phylogenetic trees using raxml and phylobayes on the dense and sparse supermatricies . each node is scored with three support values ; an asterisk denotes 100 / 100 / 100 support . the first support value is the dense supermatrix raxml 1 , 000 bootstraps , the second value is the sparse supermatrix raxml 100 bootstraps , and the third value is the dense supermatrix phylobayes posterior probabilities . the phylogram presented here is from the dense supermatrix raxml analysis . see s2 fig . for the tree topology predicted by the phylobayes analysis .\nthe size of data matricies and their occupancy has varied considerably over recent phylogenomic studies , which have differed substantially in the sequencing technologies used as well as methods for identification of orthologous genes and matrix construction . the present study uses a similar matrix construction technique as previous analyses [ 31 ] , but the occupancy of the matrix is much higher . this suggests that at least part of the reason for reduced occupancy in some previous analyses was due to data acquisition , and that future studies based entirely on the most recent sequencing technologies will have much improved gene sampling .\noverall , the present study provides the greatest depth and breadth of new sequence analysis for consideration of the phylogenetic relationships of echinoderms . coupled with the recent study using 219 genes for analysis from four newly sequenced echinoderms [ 18 ] , and of a broader analysis of ambulacraria using 185 genes , including six newly sequenced echinoderms [ 24 ] , mostly non - overlapping tissues and animals from the present work , we now have a rich analysis to present . since each these studies used different animals , different methodology of analysis , and different depths of data consideration , yet they each came to the same conclusions in regards to the major echinoderm taxon relationships , we now have great confidence in the relationships of these animals and provide deep datasets for further analysis .\ns1 fig . histograms of the postassembly comparisons of refseq and de novo assembled datasets .\n( a ) the numbers of swissprot transcripts is comparable between refseq datasets ( green and purple ) and de novo assembled transcriptomes ( orange ) . ( b ) comparing the n50 of the swissprot transcripts , the de novo transcriptomes are on average only slightly smaller than the refseq datasets . the s . purpuratus refseq dataset is in purple , outgroup refseq datasets in green and de novo assembled transcriptomes in orange ; colours as in s1 table . the number of transcriptomes is on the ordinate axis .\nsupport values for the phylogenetic trees using raxml and phylobayes on the dense and sparse supermatricies . each node is scored with three support values ; an asterisk denotes 100 / 100 / 100 support . the first support value is the dense supermatrix raxml 1 , 000 bootstraps , the second value is the sparse supermatrix raxml 100 bootstraps , and the third value is the dense supermatrix phylobayes posterior probabilities . the phylogram presented here is from the dense supermatrix phylobayes analysis .\nthe sowh tests were run for at least 99 iterations on the dense supermatrix and were stopped because any further iterations were unlikely to change . the three sowh tests used the following tree topologies to test : ( a ) the crytosynirgid hypothesis , ( ( sea urchins , sea cucumbers , brittle stars ) , ( sea stars , feather star , outgroups ) ) ; , ( b ) ophiuroidea sister to the rest of echinoderms , ( ( sea urchins , sea cucumbers , sea stars , feather star ) , ( brittle stars , outgroups ) ) ; , and ( c ) asteroidea sister to echinozoa ( ( sea urchins , sea cucumbers , sea stars ) , ( brittle stars , feather star , outgroups ) ) ; . none of the three tests found support for any alternate hypothesis with p - values all equal to 0 .\ns4 fig . visual representation of the sparse and dense supermatricies including all thirty taxa .\neach horizontal row is a single taxa and each vertical column is a gene alignment ; presence is marked in black and absence in white . the taxa are arranged from top to bottom from most genes present to least . ( a ) the sparse supermatrix is 34 % occupied , contains all 30 taxa , and contains alignments of 4 , 645 peptide sequences . ( b ) the dense supermatrix is 70 % occupied , contains all 30 taxa , and contains alignments of 1 , 125 peptide sequences ."]}
{"id": 2467, "summary": [{"text": "pachycerianthus multiplicatus , common name , the firework anemone , is a species of sea anemone in the family cerianthidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this species is found in sheltered , subtidal mud at depths of 10 - 130m . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "pachycerianthus multiplicatus", "paragraphs": ["what type of species is pachycerianthus multiplicatus ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the pachycerianthus multiplicatus species belongs to .\ncylinderros [ pachycerianthus multiplicatus ] p\u00e5 akvariet i g\u00f6teborg . firework anemone [ pachycerianthus multiplicatus ] at the aquarium in gothenburg , sweden .\nwhich photographers have photos of pachycerianthus multiplicatus species ? below , you will find the list of underwater photographers and their photos of the marine species pachycerianthus multiplicatus .\nhow to identify pachycerianthus multiplicatus marine species ? below , you will find the list of main identification criteria and physical characteristics of marine species pachycerianthus multiplicatus . for each identification criteria , the corresponding physical characteristics of marine species pachycerianthus multiplicatus are marked in green .\nyan wong changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : pachycerianthus multiplicatus . jpg\n.\nwhere is pachycerianthus multiplicatus found in the world ? below , you will find the list and a world map of the geographic distribution where the marine species pachycerianthus multiplicatus can be found .\npachycerianthus multiplicatus is similar to cerianthus lloydii , but is much longer and has a broader column .\npachycerianthus multiplicatus has no known facility for detection of noise vibrations , therefore , is recorded as tolerant .\nthis layer shows the distribution of the fireworks anemone , pachycerianthus multiplicatus , a biodiversity action plan species .\nsarah miller marked\ndescription\nas hidden on the\npachycerianthus multiplicatus carlgren 1912\npage . reasons to hide : duplicate\npachycerianthus multiplicatus is found in fully saline conditions and it is unlikely that it would be exposed to hypersaline conditions , therefore , not relevant has been recorded .\npachycerianthus multiplicatus is not known to be harvested , although due to the fragmented and localized distribution of populations , the species is likely to be highly sensitive to this factor .\nno information could be found on the effects of nutrient enrichment on pachycerianthus multiplicatus . it is possible that an increase in nutrients will result in greater food availability as the anemone feeds on plankton . however , any deoxygenation associated with the decomposition of organic material is likely to kill pachycerianthus multiplicatus ( hughes 1998a ) ( see ' changes in oxygenation ' , below ) .\npachycerianthus multiplicatus is found in sheltered sea lochs with a shallow water sill at the loch entrance , very low water flow rates and minimal flushing . therefore , a decrease in water flow is unlikely . it may be possible that a reduction in water flow would reduce food availability to pachycerianthus multiplicatus , however due to the recorded locations of the species a reduction in water flow at the benchmark level is not deemed relevant .\nno information was found of the upper or lower thermal tolerance limits of pachycerianthus multiplicatus . pachycerianthus multiplicatus occurs in thermally stable conditions . this species is subtidal where wide variations in temperature are not common , so may be intolerant of short term changes in temperature . therefore , intolerance has been recorded as intermediate . a recoverability of moderate has been recorded , resulting in a sensitivity value of moderate ( see additional information below ) .\nit is unknown whether pachycerianthus multiplicatus can re - bury itself if displaced , although if it can , energy will be expended in forming a new tube , and the anemone may be vulnerable to predation when exposed .\nreproduction . the larvae of pachycerianthus multiplicatus have not yet been identified but are thought to be demersal and short - lived ( molodtsova , 2004 ) with limited dispersal potential , while most other ceriantharia larvae are free swimming planktonic carnivores ( manuel , 1988 ) . unlike most other anthozoa , pachycerianthus multiplicatus does not reproduce asexually . when spawning , the male gametes are released first , which stimulates the release of eggs in females ( thorson , 1950 ) .\npicton , b . e . & morrow , c . c . ( 2016 ) . pachycerianthus multiplicatus carlgren , 1912 . [ in ] encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland . urltoken accessed on 2018 - 07 - 09\npachycerianthus multiplicatus occurs in muddy sediments , so is likely to be tolerant of some level of suspended sediment . however , there may be an energetic cost of removing mud particles . a supply of suspended sediment for feeding is probably important to pachycerianthus multiplicatus , however at the benchmark level of a one month long change , this is thought unlikely to affect the population . therefore , intolerance is recorded as low . recoverability is recorded as immediate on return to normal conditions , resulting in a sensitivity assessment not sensitive .\npachycerianthus multiplicatus is found only in fully saline conditions so it is likely that the sea pen would be intolerant of a decrease in salinity . therefore , an intolerance of high has been recorded . a recoverability of low has been recorded , resulting in a high sensitivity value .\npachycerianthus multiplicatus was listed in the uk biodiversity action plan as a species of conservation concern ( biodiversity steering group , 1995 ) . the species is also nationally rare , and due to its limited , fragmented distribution , british populations are also likely to be of global importance .\npachycerianthus multiplicatus occurs in muddy sediments , so is likely to be tolerant of some level of suspended sediment . however , there may be an energetic cost of removing mud particles . therefore , intolerance is recorded as low . recoverability is recorded as immediate , resulting in a sensitivity assessment not sensitive .\npachycerianthus multiplicatus is found in the circalittoral , from 10 m and below , so is not likely to experience desiccation . therefore , this factor is not relevant . because it is not adapted to cope with desiccation , it is likely to be highly sensitive to this factor , and mortality would be expected .\nthe fireworks anemone or pachycerianthus multiplicatus is a spectacular beast . up to 30cms across , it has two distinct layers of tentacles with the lower one forming a sort of skirt . they are quite rare and live in a few sea lochs in western scotland where they project from tubes buried in mud in fairly shallow water . they retract into the tube when disturbed .\nwilding , c . & wilson , e . 2008 . pachycerianthus multiplicatus fireworks anemone . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken\no ' connor , b . d . s . ; k\u00f6nnecker , g . ; mcgrath , d . ; keegan , b . f . ( 1977 ) . pachycerianthus multiplicatus carlgren : biotope or biocoenosis ? , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 475 - 482\npachycerianthus multiplicatus is a large burrowing anemone , occupying a tube - like burrow that may exceed one metre in length . both the length of the column and the breadth of the tentacles can reach 30 cm . the tentacles are long and occur in two cycles , with up to 200 tentacles in the marginal cycle . the tentacles are incapable of retraction but may coil spirally on disturbance . the colour of the inner tentacles is pale buff or chestnut and the marginal tentacles are whitish with fine brown bands , or plain white .\npachycerianthus multiplicatus probably has a very limited if any ability for visual perception . it is unlikely the anemone will be sensitive to visual presence , however it is thought to be photosensitive as torch light from scuba divers causes it to coil its tentacles . this may result in a slight reduction in viability , but is not likely to be significant at the level of the benchmark . therefore tolerant has been recorded . recovery may involve small energy losses in extending tentacles , so is assessed to be very high , therefore the species is not sensitive to this factor .\nthe species can coil its tentacles and withdraw into its tube to avoid physical disturbance . it is unclear whether pachycerianthus multiplicatus would be removed or severely damaged by nephrops trawling . the anemone does burrow deeply into the mud , however on muddy substrata trawls will dig to a lower depth . so it is likely that at least the upper part of the anemone will come into contact with approaching trawls . therefore , intolerance is assessed as high . if the anemone was removed or killed , recovery would be very low , resulting in a very high sensitivity assessment .\npachycerianthus multiplicatus will be removed by removal of the substrata , so intolerance is assessed as high . due to the fragmented nature of populations , and the assumed limited potential for larval dispersal , recovery is unlikely if the entire population is removed . if mature viable individuals remain in nearby areas to provide larval supply , recovery may be possible , but is likely to take several years . no information was found on larval dispersal or recruitment , and longevity of the species is unknown . as such recoverability is recorded as very low , resulting in a sensitivity assessment of very high .\npachycerianthus multiplicatus occurs in muddy sediments , so is likely to be tolerant of some smothering by suspended sediment . further , the anemone extends up to 30 cm above the surface of the sediment , so a change at the level of the benchmark is unlikely to cause mortality . additionally , it is plausible that the anemone may be able to extend its tube upwards to adjust to a higher surface level of sediment , although this would incur an energetic cost . therefore , intolerance is recorded as low . recoverability is recorded as immediate , resulting in a sensitivity assessment not sensitive .\nstampar , s . n . ; morandini , a . c . ; da silveira , f . l . ( 2014 ) . a new species of pachycerianthus ( cnidaria , anthozoa , ceriantharia ) from tropical southwestern atlantic . zootaxa . 3827 ( 3 ) : 343 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nrecorded from kenmare river and kilkieran bay ( western ireland ) and from sea - lochs on the western coast of scotland , notably lochs duich and fynne .\noutside of the uk , the species has been recorded from the middle of the northern north sea , due east of aberdeenshire , and in scandinavia from l\u00e6s\u00f8 island in denmark , hakefjorden in sweden and the trondheim fjord in norway .\nlives in a long thick tube , often over 1 m long , in mud or muddy sand , from about 10 - 130 m depth . found only in very sheltered conditions around the head of fijordic sea lochs .\nmarginal tentacles arranged in four pseudocycles , up to about 180 , very long , even in contraction much longer than disc diameter .\nbody flexibility . tentacles are highly flexible and are usually held upright at the base and allowed to flow with the current at the tips . although they are not retractile , the tentacles may be curled up against the disc if disturbed . the column is comparatively inflexible , although may still lean slightly with the direction of water movement . the tube , into which the whole animal can withdraw , is composed of discharged nematocysts , mucus , and foreign particles , and is soft with a slippery lining .\ngrowth rate . the growth rate of the species is unknown , but it is thought to be slow , taking several years to reach its full size ( hughes , 1998a ) .\nlarva . larvae have not yet been identified but are thought to be demersal and short - lived ( molodtsova , 2004 ) , thus larval distribution is likely to be limited . hughes ( 1998a ) hypothesised that populations were self seeding .\nfeeding . the anemone is thought to feed on plankton such as sagitta spp . , and may have weak nematocysts which exclude it from catching larger prey ( jonsson et al . , 2001 ) .\nlives in a long thick tube , often over 1 m long , in mud or muddy sand , from about 10 - 130 m depth . found only in very sheltered conditions around the head of fjordic sea lochs .\nlongevity . longevity of this species is unknown , but it is thought to be several years ( hughes , 1998a ) .\nthis marlin sensitivity assessment has been superseded by the maresa approach to sensitivity assessment . marlin assessments used an approach that has now been modified to reflect the most recent conservation imperatives and terminology and are due to be updated by 2016 / 17 .\nno information was found in the literature on the turbidity tolerance of this species . an increase in phytoplankton abundance may be beneficial to the species as it is thought to feed on phytoplankton . as the anemone is not dependent on light , a reduction in light penetration is unlikely to have any effect . therefore , the species is assessed as tolerant , and not sensitive to this factor .\nchanges in wave exposure are unlikely to affect sea lochs , which are areas with little or no wave exposure . a change in wave exposure is highly unlikely , except over geological time - scales , therefore , the sensitivity is not relevant .\ndue to a deficit of available information , this sensitivity assessment has been made based on available life history information .\nrecoverability although no conclusive literature was found , it is thought that the species has a very limited capacity for larval dispersal and recolonization , and populations are likely to be self - seeding ( hughes , 1998a ) . hughes ( 1998a ) suggested slow growth and a long life span . due to the fragmented nature of populations , the species is likely to be highly vulnerable to localised extinction . recoverability is dependent on recolonization from other populations , therefore if the entire population is destroyed , it is unlikely to ever recover .\nball , b . j . , fox , g . & munday , b . w . , 2000a . long - and short - term consequences of a nephrops trawl fishery on the benthos and environment of the irish sea . ices journal of marine science , 57 , 1315 - 1320 .\neleftheriou , a . & basford , d . j . , 1983 . the general behaviour and feeding of cerianthus lloydii gosse ( anthozoa , coelenterata ) . cahiers de biologie marine , 24 , 147 - 158 .\nentec , a . 1996 . broad scale habitat mapping of intertidal and subtidal coastal areas : loch maddy , north uist in scottish natural heritage research , survey and monitoring report no . 76\nhayward , p . j . & ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) 1995b . handbook of the marine fauna of north - west europe . oxford : oxford university press .\nhowson , c . m . & davies , l . m . , 1991 . marine nature conservation review , surveys of scottish sea lochs . a towed video survey of loch fyne . vol . 1 - report . report to the nature conservancy council from the university marine biological station , millport .\nhowson , c . m . & picton , b . e . , 1997 . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . belfast : ulster museum . [ ulster museum publication , no . 276 . ]\nhughes , d . j . , 1998a . sea pens & burrowing megafauna ( volume iii ) . an overview of dynamics and sensitivity characteristics for conservation management of marine sacs . natura 2000 report prepared for scottish association of marine science ( sams ) for the uk marine sacs project . , scottish association for marine science . ( uk marine sacs project ) . available from : urltoken\nhughes , d . j . , 1998b . subtidal brittlestar beds . an overview of dynamics and sensitivity characteristics for conservation management of marine sacs . natura 2000 report prepared for scottish association of marine science ( sams ) for the uk marine sacs project . , scottish association for marine science . ( uk marine sacs project , vol . 3 ) . available from : urltoken\njones , l . a . , hiscock , k . & connor , d . w . , 2000 . marine habitat reviews . a summary of ecological requirements and sensitivity characteristics for the conservation and management of marine sacs . joint nature conservation committee , peterborough . ( uk marine sacs project report . ) . available from : urltoken\nmanuel , r . l . , 1988 . british anthozoa . london : academic press . [ synopses of the british fauna , no . 18 . ]\nmolodtsova , t . n . , 2004 . on the taxonomy and presumable evolutionary pathways of planktonic larvae of ceriantharia ( anthozoa , cnidaria ) . hydrobiologia , 530 / 531 , 261 - 266\nnaylor . p . , 2005 . great british marine animals , 2nd edition . plymouth . sound diving publications .\nthorson , g . , 1950 . reproductive and larval ecology of marine bottom invertebrates . biological reviews , 25 , 1 - 45 .\nwood . c . , 2005 . seasearch guide to sea anemones and corals of britain and ireland . ross - on - wye : marine conservation society .\nmarine life information network ( marlin ) , the marine biological association of the uk ( see contact us ) \u00a9 2018 the marine biological association of the uk , all rights reserved .\nthe information ( text only ) provided by the marine life information network ( marlin ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available here . based on a work at urltoken\ndescription : this large burrowing sea anemone is similar to cerianthus lloydii but much larger . the length of the column and span of the tentacles is up to 300mm and the column is much stouter than in the common cerianthus lloydii . the colour of the inner tentacles is pale buff or chestnut , marginal tentacles whitish with fine brown bands , or plain white . there are up to 200 very long marginal tentacles .\nhabitat : lives in a long thick tube , often 1m long , in mud or muddy sand , from 10m to over 100m depth .\ndistribution : recorded in britain and ireland from kenmare river and kilkieran bay ( western ireland ) and from sea - lochs on the western coast of scotland . elsewhere from scandinavia .\nsimilar species : a similar large cerianthid anemone whose scientific name is uncertain ( referred to here as ' dorothy ' ) , lives amongst rocks in the channel islands and brittany .\ndistribution map from nbn : interactive map : national biodiversity network mapping facility , data for uk .\nroule , l . ( 1904 ) . note preliminaire sur quelques formes nouvelles de cerianthaires . compt . rend . assoc . franc . avance . sci , . 32 : 91 - 93 . [ details ]\nvan der land , j . ; den hartog , j . h . ( 2001 ) . actiniaria , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 106 - 109 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\ncarlgren , o . ( 1912 ) . \u00fcber ceriantharien des mittelmeers . mitteilungen aus der zoologischen station zu neapel . 20 ( 3 ) : 356 - 391 . [ details ]\ndyntaxa . ( 2013 ) . swedish taxonomic database . accessed at urltoken [ 15 - 01 - 2013 ] . , available online at http : / / urltoken [ details ]\ncarlgren , o . ( 1931 ) . on some ceriantharia . arkiv f\u00fcr zoologi . 23a ( 2 ) : 1 - 10 . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nadult individuals of the fireworks anemone are fairly easy to identify due to the brown and white striped marginal tentacles . the light , almost white labial tentacles surround a grey or light yellow oral disk . it is one of the larger tube anemones in norway , in some cases reaching a height of 30 cm .\nit seems to prefer muddy substrate , on depths between 10 and 100 meters , usually deeper than 20 . it is very common in the fjords , often close to estuaries .\nit is registered on the british isles and in scandinavia as far north as troms , norway .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nwhats wrong with secretary kim \uc601\uc900\uc774 \uc7ac\ub2a5\uad50\uc721 \uc2dc\uc791\ud588\ub2c8 ? ( \uc790\uae30\uc758 \uc77c\uc740 \uc2a4\uc2a4\ub85c . . . \ud558\uc9c0\ub9c8 . . . ) 180704 ep . 9\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\ncarlgren , o . 1912 . \u00fcber ceriantharien des mittelmeers . mitteilungen aus der zoologischen station zu neapel , 20 ( 3 ) : 356 - 391\ncarlgren , o . ( 1912 ) . \u00fcber ceriantharien des mittelmeers . < em > mitteilungen aus der zoologischen station zu neapel . < / em > 20 ( 3 ) : 356 - 391 .\ncarlgren , o . ( 1931 ) . on some ceriantharia . < em > arkiv f\u00fcr zoologi . < / em > 23a ( 2 ) : 1 - 10 .\ndyntaxa . ( 2013 ) . swedish taxonomic database . accessed at urltoken [ 15 - 01 - 2013 ] .\nvan der land , j . ; den hartog , j . h . ( 2001 ) . actiniaria , < b > < i > in < / i > < / b > : costello , m . j . < i > et al . < / i > ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . < i > european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , < / i > 50 : pp . 106 - 109\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\ndownload comparative physical and biological data . the comparative tables enable a rapid comparison of the species composition and principal physical characteristics between a given set of biotopes .\nthis biotope occurred in previous versions of the classification as : cmu . spmeg . fun - version : 97 . 06\ndistribution of habitat ss . smu . cfimu . spnmeg . fun seapens , including funiculina quadrangularis , and burrowing megafauna in undisturbed circalittoral fine mud , based on records on the uk marine recorder database and euseamap . red dots represent records on which the biotope is based . blue dots show other certain records , black dots show records tentatively assigned to this biotope . yellow areas show level 2 and 3 sublittoral and deep - sea habitats prediced by euseamap within uk waters .\nthis biotope is distinguished from spnmeg by the presence of the nationally scarce seapen funiculina quadrangularis .\nno characteristic photos currently available . if you are able to provide a photograph of this biotope please contact email address : comment _ [ at symbol ] _ jncc _ dot _ gov _ dot _ uk ( replace _ dot _ with full stop / period and _ [ at symbol ] _ with the usual @ symbol ) .\nversion 15 . 03 of the classification adds a deep - sea section to version 04 . 05 ; therefore superseding version 04 . 05 , 97 . 06 and 03 . 02 .\njncc ( 2015 ) the marine habitat classification for britain and ireland version 15 . 03 [ online ] . [ date accessed ] . available from :\ninformation from the shallower section ( up to sublittoral sediment , taken from version 04 . 05 ) be cited as the\nconnor , d . w . , j . h . allen , n . golding , k . l . howell , l . m . lieberknecht , k . o . northen and j . b . reker ( 2004 ) the marine habitat classification for britain and ireland version 04 . 05 . in : jncc ( 2015 ) the marine habitat classification for britain and ireland version 15 . 03 [ online ] . [ date accessed ] .\nparry , m . e . v . , k . l . howell , b . e . narayanaswamy , b . j . bett , d . o . b . jones , d . j . hughes , n . piechaud , t . d . nickell , h . ellwood , n . askew , c . jenkins and e . manca ( 2015 ) a deep - sea section for the marine habitat classification of britain and ireland . jncc report 530 . in : jncc ( 2015 ) the marine habitat classification for britain and ireland version 15 . 03 [ online ] . [ date accessed ] .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nwe\u2019ve been improving urltoken to help you find and use open government data . discover what\u2019s changed and get in touch to give us your feedback .\nthis layer forms one of a set of data layers created for the defra mb0102 contract . this work will support the delivery of a network of marine protected areas as required to meet existing international and national obligations and commitments , including marine conservation zones ( mczs ) , a new measure to be delivered as part of the marine and coastal access bill , and equivalent measures under scottish legislation . the availability of these data layers will also be of importance in underpinning marine planning ( e . g . licensing ) in our marine area .\nadded to urltoken 2016 - 11 - 15 access contraints full resolution gis layer only for viewing by mb0102 partners with publicly available layers available at 10km resolution . harvest guid f6eb45f030b3d39fa29ed4c1d8cbb1a2 extent latitude : 58 . 0351\u00b0 to 55 . 5987\u00b0 longitude : - 7 . 1220\u00b0 to - 2 . 2520\u00b0 spatial reference system urn : ogc : def : crs : epsg : : 27700 dataset reference date 2009 - 09 - 01 ( publication ) frequency of update notplanned responsible party department for environment , food and rural affairs ( defra ) ( originator , custodian ) iso 19139 resource type dataset metadata language eng source metadata xml html\nfull resolution data layer for use only within the mb0102 contract . permission required from data originators for use in any other context , or by non mb0102 partners . 10km resolution data layer freely available under open government licence .\nall content is available under the open government licence v3 . 0 , except where otherwise stated\nno restrictions , a copyright acknowledgement is required and permission from any third party for the release of the data has been obtained . inclusion of any third party data will determine the copyright acknowledgement that needs to be made .\nsample equipment types used included : corer : rock gravity , corer : sediment gravity , dredge : sediment or shell and grab : shipek . not entered was contracted to undertake the survey on behalf of british geological survey . for more detailed information on the acquisition equipment and data collection techniques , operational standards , data processing methods and quality control procedures used on this survey see the report of survey / cruise report and associated documentation where available . the information available may vary depending on the age of the survey . data are checked and loaded to the bgs coastal and marine data management system following bgs marine data management procedures .\nto receive our reports ( print and / or electronic ) and quarterly e - newsletter .\ncookies are not enabled . you must enable cookies before you can log in .\nthe main focus of the eunis species component is to provide relevant information about the european species protected by directives , conventions and agreements . the species assessed in the european red lists prepared by the iucn for the european commission are also included .\nthe distribution map is currently disabled . a new map solution will soon become available . in the meantime , please consult other species distribution map providers listed in the other resources panel below .\ntemplate updated on 09 may 2018 14 : 41 from version 18 . 4 . 26\nthe european environment agency ( eea ) is an agency of the european union . legal notice\nwe use cookies to record some preference settings and to analyse how visitors use our web site . cookies do not contain any personal information about you . if you wish , see how to delete / disable cookies in your web browser . see also our privacy policy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\na biotope map for the norwegian sea based on video data from mareano 2012 is now available on www . mareano . no . biotopes are regions with similar communities of animals living on the seabed , in a similar physical environment . maps such as these , which bring together the physical and biological attributes of the seabed , can provide particularly valuable information for sustainable management .\nmargaret dolan ( ngu ) and p\u00e5l buhl - mortensen ( imr ) published : 09 . 12 . 2013 - updated : 09 . 01 . 2014\nthe biotopes occurring in those areas of the norwegian sea that were investigated by mareano in 2012 have been identified through detailed analysis of seabed video data over the past year and the spatial distribution of these biotopes has now been modelled to produce a full coverage biotope map as shown in figure 1 below .\nfigure 1 : predicted spatial distribution of biotopes from modelling in the studied area of the norwegian sea . see table 1 for colour legend and details on the physical and biological characteristics of each biotope .\ntable 1 : summary of biotope characteristics based on seabed video observations . average depth refers to the average depth for all samples belonging to a particular biotope class . landscape and terrain are described from bathymetry data .\ngersemia rubiformis , gorgonocephalus sp . , bythocaris sp . , cerianthus vogti , drifa glomerata\nall the biotopes , with the exception of number 5 occur with the depth range of atlantic water . biotopes 7 , 6 and 1 are closely linked to the different types of sediments occurring on the banks . biotopes 2 and 4 typically occur in marine valleys which transect the continental shelf . biotope 2 is characterised by coral reefs and coral forests on various bottom types , often with ridges of various geologic origin . biotope 5 represents the deepest parts of the study area and is dominated by deep sea fauna in cold norwegian sea water .\nmultibeam and olex compiled bathymetry ( www . olex . no ) , together with interpreted sediment and landscape maps have been used to provide environmental variables used for map prediction . the success of this \u2018real life\u2019 mapping using both olex and multibeam data validates trials of this approach undertaken in troms ii / nordland vi in 2011 which have recently been accepted for publication in the international scientific literature .\nbiotope maps are an important part of the new information obtained through mareano mapping . the biotope maps provide a basis for the evaluation of vulnerability , species richness and uniqueness in a particular area of the seabed . this is important information when developing management plans and other advice related to the use of marine areas .\nb . f . keegan , p . o . ceidigh and p . j . s . boaden\nbiology of benthic organisms contains papers presented at the 11th european symposium on marine biology , held at galway , ireland in october 1976 . the collection contains 63 papers\nb . l . bayne , j . widdows and r . i . e . newell\nvariability of growth rate of macoma balthica ( l . ) in the wadden sea in relation to availability of food\nj . j . beukema , g . c . cadee and j . j . m . jansen\nbionomie benthique du plateau continental des iles kerguelen . 8 . variations spatiales et temporelles dans le peuplement des vases a spicules\nthe polychaete eulalia viridis ( o . f . m\u00fcller ) as an element in the energy dynamics of intertidal mussel clumps\nthe re - establishment of an amphiura filiformis ( o . f . m\u00fcller ) population in the inner part of the german bight\nan ecophysiological approach to the microdistribution of meiobenthic oligochaeta . i . phallodrilus monospermathecus ( kn\u00f6llner ) ( tubificidae ) from a subtropical beach at bermuda\nan in situ study of the primary production and the metabolism of a baltic fucus vesiculosus l . community\nobservations on the behaviour & distribution of virgularia mirabilis o . f . muller ( coelenterata : pennatulacea ) in holyhead harbour , anglesey\naspects of the ecology of sargassum muticum ( yendo ) fensholt , in the solent region of the british isles . i . the growth cycle and epiphytes\nmeiofaunal community structure and vertical distribution : a comparison of some co . down beaches\ne . i . s . rees , a . nicholaidou and p . laskaridou\nb . o ' connor , g . k\u00f6nnecker , . . . b . f . keegan\npredator - prey interaction between the crab pilumnus hirtellus ( leach ) and the brittle star ophiothrix quinquemaculata ( d . chiaje ) on a mutual sponge substrate\nyou currently don\u2019t have access to this book , you can purchase separate chapters directly from the table of contents or buy the full version .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\npf : for the habitat types that can have a non - priority as well as a priority form ( 6210 , 7130 , 9430 ) enter\nx\nin the column pf to indicate the priority form .\ncaves : for habitat types 8310 , 8330 ( caves ) enter the number of caves if estimated surface is not available .\ndata quality : g = ' good ' ( e . g . based on surveys ) ; m = ' moderate ' ( e . g . based on partial data with some extrapolation ) ; p = ' poor ' ( e . g . rough estimation )\nabundance categories ( cat . ) : c = common , r = rare , v = very rare , p = present - to fill if data are deficient ( dd ) or in addition to population size information\ndata quality : g = ' good ' ( e . g . based on surveys ) ; m = ' moderate ' ( e . g . based on partial data with some extrapolation ) ; p = ' poor ' ( e . g . rough estimation ) ; vp = ' very poor ' ( use this category only , if not even a rough estimation of the population size can be made , in this case the fields for population size can remain empty , but the field\nabundance categories\nhas to be filled in )\nkilkieran bay is situated on the extreme north - west shore of galway bay . it is approximately 13 km in length and 7 km at its widest point . kilkieran bay is an indented fjord and much of the complexity is due to numerous rocky outcrops and islands , the largest ones being lettermore island ( not in the site ) , gorumna island and lettermullen island . the bedrock is igneous , composed of granite , felsite and other intrusive rocks rich in silica . the bay is subject to strong tidal streams as the sea funnels between islands and through channels . surface waters are under the direct influence of the north atlantic drift and there are frequent intrusions of oceanic water . the shoreline is typically rocky , giving way to mud in shallow water . a particular feature of the site is the large numbers of salt marshes on peat and the numerous small beaches of shell sand . the terrestrial areas of the site are mostly covered by shallow peaty soils , with dry heath and blanket bog present . brackish and small freshwater lakes occur .\nkeegan , b . f . ; ceidigh , p . o . ; boaden , p . j . s . ( ed . ) ( 1977 ) . biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pergamon press : oxford . isbn 0 - 08 - 021378 - 2 . xxxiii , 630 pp .\nal - adhub , a . - h . y . ; naylor , e . ( 1977 ) . daily variation in dichelopandalus bonnieri ( caullery ) as a component of the epibenthos , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 1 - 6\nandersin , a . - b . ; lassig , j . ; sandler , h . ( 1977 ) . community structures of soft - bottom macrofauna in different parts of the baltic , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 7 - 20\naneer , g . ; nellbring , s . ( 1977 ) . a drop - trap investigation of the abundance of fish in very shallow water in the ask\u00f6 area , northern baltic proper , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 21 - 30\narntz , w . e . ( 1977 ) . results and problems of an\nunsuccessful\nbenthos cage predation experiment ( western baltic ) , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 31 - 44\nbarnes , h . b . ; barnes , m . ( 1977 ) . the importance of being a ' littoral ' nauplius , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 45 - 56\nbayne , b . l . ; widdows , j . ; newell , r . i . e . ( 1977 ) . physiological measurements on estuarine bivalve molluscs in the field , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 57 - 68\nbeukema , j . j . ; cadee , g . c . ; jansen , j . j . m . ( 1977 ) . variability of growth rate of macoma balthica ( l . ) in the wadden sea in relation to availability of food , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 69 - 77\nblake , d . ; leftley , j . w . ( 1977 ) . studies on anaerobic nitrogen fixation in the sediments of two scottish sea - lochs , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 79 - 84\nboucher , d . ( 1977 ) . production primaire saisonni\u00e8re du microphytobenthos des sables envas\u00e9s en baie de concarneau , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 85 - 92\nbrown , r . a . ; seed , r . ( 1977 ) . modiolus modiolus ( l . ) : an autecological study , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 93 - 100\nbuhr , k . - j . ; winter , j . e . ( 1977 ) . distribution and maintenance of a lanice conchilega association in the weser estuary ( frg ) , with special reference to the suspension - feeding behaviour of lanice conchilega , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 101 - 113\ncabioch , l . ; gentil , f . ; gla\u00e7on , r . ; reti\u00e8re , c . ( 1977 ) . le macrobenthos des fonds meubles de la manche : distribution g\u00e9n\u00e9rale et ecologie , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 115 - 128\ncastel , j . ; lasserre , p . ( 1977 ) . colonisation et distribution spatiale des copepodes dans des lagunes semi - artificielles , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 129 - 146\ncastric , a . ( 1977 ) . recrutement et succession du benthos rocheux sublittoral , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 147 - 154\ncederwall , h . ( 1977 ) . annual macrofauna production of a soft bottom in the northern baltic proper , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 155 - 164\nchardy , p . ; gl\u00e9marec , m . ( 1977 ) . evolution dans le temps des peuplements des sables envas\u00e9s en baie de concarneau ( bretagne ) , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 165 - 172\ncinelli , f . ; fresi , e . ; mazzella , l . ; pansini , m . ; pronzato , r . ; svoboda , a . ( 1977 ) . distribution of benthic phyto - and zoocoenoses along a light gradient in a superficial marine cave , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 173 - 183\ndesbruy\u00e8res , d . ; guille , a . ( 1977 ) . bionomie benthique du plateau continental des iles kerguelen : 8 . variations spatiales et temporelles dans le peuplement des vases \u00e0 spicules , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 185 - 196\neagle , r . a . ; hardiman , p . a . ( 1977 ) . some observations on the relative abundance of species in a benthic community , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 197 - 208\nemson , r . h . ( 1977 ) . the polychaete eulalia viridis ( o . f . m\u00fcller ) as an element in the energy dynamics of intertidal mussel clumps , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 209 - 214\nerwin , d . g . ( 1977 ) . a diving survey of strangford lough : the benthic communities and their relation to substrate : a preliminary account , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 215 - 224\nfaller - fritsch , r . j . ( 1977 ) . reproductive strategies of the winkle littorina rudis in relation to population dynamics and size structure , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 225 - 231\nfedra , k . ( 1977 ) . structural features of a north adriatic benthic community , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 233 - 246\ngage , j . d . ( 1977 ) . structure of the abyssal macrobenthic community in the rockall trough , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 247 - 260\ngeorge , j . d . ( 1977 ) . ecology of the pogonophore , siboglinum fiordicum webb , in a shallow - water fjord community , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 261 - 275\ngerdes , d . ( 1977 ) . the re - establisment of an amphiura filiformis ( o . f . m\u00fcller ) population in the inner part of the german bight , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 277 - 284\ngiere , o . ( 1977 ) . an ecophysiological approach to the microdistribution of meiobenthic oligochaeta : 1 . phallodrilus monospermathecus ( kn\u00f6llner ) ( tubificidae ) from a subtropical beach at bermuda , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 285 - 296\ngosling , e . ; wilkins , n . p . ( 1977 ) . phosphoglucoisomerase allele frequency data in mytilus edulis from irish coastal sites : its ecological significance , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 297 - 309\nguterstam , b . ( 1977 ) . an in situ study of the primary production and the metabolism of a baltic fucus vesiculosus l . community , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 311 - 319\nhartnoll , r . g . ( 1977 ) . reprocuctive strategy in two british species of alcyonium , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 321 - 328\nhoare , r . ; wilson , e . h . ( 1977 ) . observations on the behaviour and distribution of virgularia mirabilis o . f . m\u00fcller ( coelenterata : pennatulacea ) in holyhead harbour , anglesey , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 329 - 337\nhummon , w . d . ; hummon , m . r . ( 1977 ) . meiobenthic subcommunity structure : spatial versus temporal variability , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 339 - 347\njackson , j . b . c . ( 1977 ) . habitat area , colonization , and development of epibenthic community structure , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 349 - 358\njansson , a . - m . ; kautsky , n . ( 1977 ) . quantitative survey of hard bottom communities in a baltic archipelago , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 359 - 366\njephson , n . a . ; gray , p . w . g . ( 1977 ) . aspects of the ecoloy of sargassum muticum ( yendo ) fensholt , in the solent region of the british isles : 1 . growth cycle and epiphytes , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 367 - 375\nkain , j . m . ( 1977 ) . the effect of depth on populations of laminaria hyperborea , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 377 - 378\nknight - jones , e . w . ; nelson - smith , a . ( 1977 ) . sublittoral transects in the menai straits and milford haven , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 379 - 389\nk\u00f6nnecker , g . ( 1977 ) . epibenthic assemblages as indicators of environmental conditions , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 391 - 395\nlagard\u00e8re , j . p . ( 1977 ) . recherches sur le r\u00e9gime alimentaire et le comportement pr\u00e9dateur des d\u00e9capodes benthiques de la pente continentale de l ' atlantique nord orientale ( golfe de gascogne et maroc ) , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 397 - 408\nlevinton , j . s . ; lopez , g . r . ; heidemann lassen , h . ; rahn , u . ( 1977 ) . feedback and structure in deposit - feeding marine benthic communities , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 409 - 416\nlewis , j . r . ( 1977 ) . the role of physical and biological factors in the distribution and stability of rocky shore communities , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 417 - 424\nmaguire , c . ( 1977 ) . meiofaunal community structure and vertical distribution : a comparison of some county down beaches , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 425 - 431\nmass\u00e9 , h . ; plante , r . ; reys , j . - p . ( 1977 ) . etude comparative de l ' efficacit\u00e9 de deux bennes et d ' une suceuse en fonction de la nature du fond , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 433 - 441\nmoore , p . g . ( 1977 ) . organization in simple communities : observations on the natural history of hyale nilssoni ( amphipoda ) in high littoral seaweeds , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 443 - 451\nnichols , f . h . ( 1977 ) . dynamics and production of pectinaria koreni ( malmgren ) in kiel bay , west germany , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 453 - 463\nrees , e . i . s . ; nicholaidou , a . ; laskaridou , p . ( 1977 ) . the effects of storms on the dynamics of shallow water benthic associations , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 465 - 474\n\u00f6lscher , e . m . ; fedra , k . ( 1977 ) . on the ecology of a suspension feeding benthic community : filter efficiency and - behaviour , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 483 - 492\nott , j . ; maurer , l . ( 1977 ) . stratiegies of energy transfer from marine macrophytes to consumer levels : posidonia oceanica example , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 493 - 502\npearson , t . h . ; stanley , s . o . ( 1977 ) . the benthic ecology of some shetland voes , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 503 - 512\nreise , k . ( 1977 ) . predation pressure and community structure of an intertidal soft - bottom fauna , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 513 - 519\nrex , m . a . ( 1977 ) . zonation in deep - sea gastropods : the importance of biological interactions to rates of zonation , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 521 - 530\nrichter , w . ; sarnthein , m . ( 1977 ) . molluscan colonization of different sediments on submerged platforms in the western baltic sea , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 531 - 539\nseed , r . ; boaden , p . j . s . ( 1977 ) . epifaunal ecology of intertidal algae , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 541 - 548\nstachowitsch , m . ( 1977 ) . the hermit crab microbiocoenosis : the role of mobile secondary hard bottom elements in a north adriatic benthic community , in : keegan , b . f . et al . ( ed . ) biology of benthic organisms : 11th european symposium on marine biology , galway , october 1976 . pp . 549 - 558"]}
{"id": 2475, "summary": [{"text": "erebia cyclopius is a species of butterfly of the satyrinae subfamily in the family nymphalidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from the ural to siberia , northern mongolia , northern china and north korea .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of forest edges , flowery meadows and sparse larch forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 46 \u2013 62 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from june to july .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the species overwinters in the larval stage . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "erebia cyclopius", "paragraphs": ["erebia cyclopius ( eversmann , 1844 ) = erebia cyclopia = cyclopius ( eversmann , 1844 ) .\nbuy butterflies for sale satyridae : erebia cyclopius set 10 from siberia online . worldwide shipping ! beautiful insect butterflies for sale satyridae : erebia cyclopius set 10 for sale at the bugmaniac , one of the world ' s largest dealers of preserved dried insects .\n( 2008 ) : a checklist of the satyrine genus erebia ( lepidoptera ) ( 1758\u20132006 ) .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . erebia cyclopius eversmann , 1844 . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 9 , 2018 ] .\nfirst of the three erebia plates in the 1915 macrolepidoptera of the world , edited by adalbert seitz . this work was published near the height of taxonomic confusion about these butterflies .\nthe yellow - banded ringlet ( erebia flavofasciata ) is a member of the satyrinae subfamily of nymphalidae . it is a high mountain butterfly found in a small area of the alps in switzerland and italy .\nerebia is a holarctic genus of brush - footed butterflies , family nymphalidae . most of the about 90\u2013100 species ( see also below ) are dark brown or black in color , with reddish brown to orange or more rarely yellowish wing blotches or bands . these usually bear black spots within , which sometimes have white center spots .\nthis genus has found it easy to adapt to arid and especially cold conditions . most of its members are associated with high - altitude lands , forest clearings or high latitude and tundra . erebia species are frequent in the alps , rocky mountains , subarctic and even arctic regions , and the cooler parts of central asia . in fact , the north american term for these butterflies is\nalpines\n. eurasian species are collectively known as\nringlets\nor\narguses\n. however , none of these terms is used exclusively for this genus .\na peculiar case is the colorado alpine , the nominate subspecies of erebia callias . this isolated rocky mountains population has been lumped with the siberian brassy ringlets as they are almost alike morphologically . though one might suspect stronger differentiation and perhaps marked cryptic speciation across the wide range , the rocky mountains population is apparently a very recent isolate . its ancestors apparently crossed over the bering strait at the end of the wisconsinian glaciation , about 15 . 000 - 10 . 000 years ago . thus , brassy ringlets are present on the north american continent quite exactly for the same length of time as a significant human population .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n\u00b7 type locality .\n. . . in provincia irkuzkiensi\n[ irkutsk region , russia ] .\n\u00b7 range . from the n . urals across siberia , n . mongolia and n . china to n . korea .\n\u00b7 distribution and variation . the s . urals , central and s . siberia , the altai and sayan mts . , transbaikalia - the nominate subspecies ; the amur and ussuri regions - ssp . aporia schawerda , 1919 ; sakhalin - yoshikurana kishida et nakamura , 1941 .\n\u00b7 habitat and biology . forest edges , flowery meadows , sparse larch forests , in the mountains up to 2 , 000 m a . s . l . flight period : june - july . larvae hibernating .\n\u00b7 similar species . e . wanga : unh without bluish postdiscal band . e . edda : upf double eye - spot diffusely bordered with reddish colour ; unh without bluish postdiscal band .\nphoto and text : guide to the butterflies of russia and adjacent territories volume 1 . pensoft , sofia - moscow . 1997\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\nour new search experience requires javascript to be enabled . please enable javascript on your browser , then try again .\nebay determines this price through a machine - learned model of the product ' s sale prices within the last 90 days .\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\namounts shown in italicized text are for items listed in currency other than canadian dollars and are approximate conversions to canadian dollars based upon bloomberg ' s conversion rates . for more recent exchange rates , please use the universal currency converter\nthis page was last updated : 09 - jul 15 : 22 . number of bids and bid amounts may be slightly out of date . see each listing for international shipping options and costs .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright \u00a9 andre gorodinski . the insects from the palaearctic region . web design by mrs . l . gorodinski . special thanks to mr . a . malinin for technical support website .\nthe wingspan is 46\u201362 mm . adults are on wing from june to july .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nregions of the russian federation : gorno - altai , trans - baikal , krasnoyarsk , nizhny - amur , prealtay , of baikal , pribaikalskiy , primorye , sakhalin , the north - yenisei north okhotsk , mid - amur , average okhotsk , mid - ural , sredneobskaya , tuva , south - uralsky , south yakutia .\n[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )\n[ 85 ] urltoken ( insecta . pro previous version / c\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u044f insecta . pro )\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nexports data using a reporting template , the format and the data being exported depends on the desired template to be selected in the next step .\nexports data using a standard excel tabular display format , the data being exported depends on the desired fields to be selected in the next step .\njan van tol general coordinator ncb barcoding ncb naturalis email : jan . vantol @ urltoken\nvincent robert coordinator ncb barcoding part iii cbs - knaw email : v . robert @ urltoken\na diverse and widespread holarctic genus , with some species distributed in both western north america and eastern eurasia .\nphylogenetic relationships among the tyndarus group are based on albre et al . ' s ( 2008 ) study of mitochondrial dna sequences . the remainder of this diverse genus awaits phylogenetic study .\nlarval host plant is unknown . a swiss subspecies , e . flavofasciata warreni , has been proposed .\n( i . e . , without discussing synonymy and relationships ) was published in 2008 .\n. but things hardly improved as more and more of the diversity of these butterflies came to note . in\n. in the 19th and early 20th century the alps were a popular destination for butterfly collectors and specimens of alpine butterflies were very profitable for dealers . the dealers , mostly german , not only sold specimens , but were\nthis , together with the then - popular , even obsessive study of variation by entomologists\u2014examples are james william tutt , george wheeler , felix bryk and brisbane charles somerville warren \u2014led to very many names being applied to what may be or much more likely may not be biological species or subspecies . a further problem is the use of the term\nvariety\n. authors of that time used this for an individual variant , a group of individuals morphologically but not otherwise related , seasonal forms , temperature - related forms , or geographic races ; it was later usually taken to mean the last subspecies though this is often suspected to have been premature .\nstudies add to the available data , it is becoming clear that most\nvarieties\nthat have at least been commonly considered subspecies in the latter 20th century are indeed lineages distinct enough to warrant some formal degree of recognition . another result of recent research is confirmation of the theory that this genus contains many glacial\nspecies is given variously around 90 - 100 , as developments happen so fast that it is hard for authors to remain up to date regarding the newest changes .\nbrower ( 2006 ) , albre et al . ( 2008 ) , and see savela ( 2008 ) for more sources\njim p . brock and k . kaufman . kaufman field guide to butterflies of north america , new york , ny : houghton mifflin , 2003 .\n( lepidoptera , rhopalocera , nymphalidae , satyrinae ) species group combining coxii and nd5 mitochondrial genes : a case study of a recent radiation .\n. version of 2006 - nov - 28 . retrieved 2008 - aug - 11 .\n. version of 2008 - feb - 04 . retrieved 2008 - aug - 11 .\n. version of 2008 - mar - 15 . retrieved 2008 - aug - 11 .\n\u2013 , and in many cases certainly close relatives . a notable trait of their genus is an ability to adapt well to cold and somewhat\nbrassy ringlets are mid - sized members of their genus , with a length of 17\u201322 mm ( roughly two - thirds to one inch ) .\n- colored patch that is lighter than the blackish - brown upperwings . in some , a third black spot , much smaller and without the white dot , is present at the opposite end of the reddish patch . the hindwings have no black spots in many , but in some\nthere are a few ( 2 - 4 or so ) black dots , usually without white in the center , paralleling the outer margin . if hindwing spots are present , they are sometimes surrounded by a lighter brown field like the forewing spots , sometimes not . the wing undersides are\ncolored , usually in greyish - brown and often with a noticeable band arching through the central hindwing , the rest of which has a silvery sheen which makes these species quite recognizable in flight .\nthe eyespots and the forewing patch surrounding them are found on the forewing undersides also ; if a hindwind pattern is present , it may or may not show up on the under hindwings either whole or in parts . the common name derives from the\nas it seems , the origin of this group is perhaps south of the central asian or more likely in the balkans region . probably around 1 million years ago during the pre - pastonian stage , the original population expanded north . during an interstadial , the southern montane metapopulation and the one to the north which ranged across the eurasian taiga split .\ntwo major southern populations were established some 800 . 000 - 700 . 000 years ago during the pastonian stage , when the habitat belt moved uphill , cutting off gene flow between major mountain ranges . coincident with the g\u00fcnz - mindel interglacial , about 600 . 000 - 500 . 000 years ago some more distinct local populations diverged in the south .\nmeanwhile , the northern population had been spreading across europe to the pyrenees and deep into siberia . with the ice \u2013 which had then been covering much of northern and central europe \u2013 retreating at the end of the elsterian stage between 400 . 000 - 300 . 000 years ago , the taiga population and their relatives in the mountains of central and western europe became isolated for good . finally , at the end of the riss / saale glaciation about 130 . 000 years ago , alpine and siberian populations fragmented further . the former stayed rather distinct while more subsequent gene flow occurred between the latter ; this difference is probably an effect of habitat topography .\n, the molecualr and morphological data are still more in favor of retaining a single species .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nsize : 160 x 230 mm wide extend : 544 pp , 10000 colour illustrations , more then 700 maps .\nn . africa ( from morocco to egypt ) , asia minor and near east .\nall information ( text , map and illustrations ) presented on the same page .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\n2 probably this species photographed on the dry hill north of markakol and 4 + almost certainly this species on the way up the alatay pass . 2 / 14\nsubspecies \u2018alpherakyi\u2019 . seen above cim bulak , almaty and 2 + between kamenka and ust - kamenogorsk . 2 / 14\nprobably widespread but only identified with certainty on 4 days . certainly there were other colias species present that went unidentified\nnoted in the kalbinskiy hills and 1 on the alatay pass . 3 / 14\nat times the commonest of the wood whites at markakol . distinctive with pronounced \u2018cross - bars\u2019 on the hindwings and slightly more attentuated forewings . 3 / 14\n1 on the marble pass and 3 + on the dry hill north of markakol . 2 / 14\nnoted between ust - kamenogorsk and zaysan and several at the yourta service area there on the way back . 2 / 14\nthe commonest blue in meadows between markakol and the burkhat pass . 2 / 14\ncommon on the dry hill north of markakol and on the alatay pass . 2 / 14\nsingles on the alatay pass and on the northward tributary of the buktarma below the climb to rakhmanovskie klyuchi . 2 / 14\n1 in the kalbinskiy hills and also noted at the bee farm near kamenka . 2 / 14\nseen on the alatay pass . like the next species but with no orange areas on the inner part of wing\nsingles at markakol and by the north tributary of the bukhtarma river below the rise to rakhmanovskie klyuchi . 2 / 14 . a very distinctive ringlet\nsingles on the alatay pass and in a bog by the lake at rakhmanovskie klyuchi . 2 / 14"]}
{"id": 2481, "summary": [{"text": "the pacific parrotlet ( forpus coelestis ) , also known as lesson 's parrotlet or the celestial parrotlet , is a species of small parrot in the family psittacidae , native to ecuador and peru .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests , subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical dry shrubland , and heavily degraded former forest .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "parrotlets are the second smallest group of all parrots .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "pacific parrotlets are between 4 \u00b9 \u2044 \u2082 to 5 \u00b9 \u2044 \u2082 inches ( 110 to 140 mm ) long .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the average weight is 34 \u2013 44 grams ( 1.2 \u2013 1.6 oz ) in the wild .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they come from the south american countries of peru and ecuador .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "there are seven species of parrotlets in the genus forpus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "only three of these species are kept as pets .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "of these , the pacific parrotlet is the most common . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "pacific parrotlet", "paragraphs": ["pacific parrotlet forpus coelestis , . . . - aviculture association of kerala | facebook\nconsidered the most popular of the parrotlet species , the pacific parrotlet is full of energy and enjoys being included in family activities . similar in personality to amazon parrots , pacific parrotlets are intelligent and affectionate pet birds . active pacific parrotlets like to swing and play with toys .\nare you looking for a pacific parrotlet ? click here for a listing of breeders - pacific parrotlets pacific parrotletsthe pacific parrotlets naturally occur in western ecuador and north - western peru . they are considered an endangered species in the wild ( cites ii ) . in captivity , this parrotlet has been bred in many striking color mutations . more\nthe blue - winged parrotlet is also less aggressive and stubborn than the pacific , and can be somewhat flighty .\nthis version of how to care for a pacific parrotlet was reviewed by pippa elliott , mrcvs on june 18 , 2017 .\nthe pacific parrotlet ( forpus coelestis ) is one of two parrotlet species commonly available as pets \u2014 the other being the green - rumped parrotlet ( forpus passerinus ) \u2014 either from pet stores , avian - specialty store or from bird breeders .\nnever feed a pacific parrotlet avocado , caffeine , candy , sugar , mushrooms , or onions . these could kill your bird !\npacific parrotlet ( forpus coelestis coelestis ) tnbabympc - fc . gif ( 4229 bytes ) this is a cute baby pacific parrotlet ! of course proud parents always think their kids are cute huh ? the pin feathers are almost completed , getting close to being a real bird ! this baby is about 4 weeks of age . the pacific or celestial parrotlet is the most well - known and popular species of parrotlet . they are approximately five inches in length and weigh 30 grams . more\nthere are several species of parrotlet , but only two are commonly found in the pet trade , the pacific parrotlet ( forpus coelestis ) and the green - rumped parrotlet ( f orpus passerinus ) , though most of the others are available if you inquire from breeders .\npacific parrotlets are the second smallest of all parrots . pacific parrotlets are between 4\u00bd to 5\u00bd inches in length . they come from south america in the area of peru and ecuador . there are seven species of parrotlets . only three of these species are kept as pets . of these , the pacific parrotlet is the most common . it is sometimes called the celestial parrotlet .\nhailing from south america , the forpus family contains seven species of parrotlets . the most common of these in american aviculture is f . coelestis , the pacific parrotlet , also sometimes known as the celestial parrotlet . f . passerinus , the green - rumped parrotlet , is also relatively well - known , followed by f . conspicillatus , the spectacled parrotlet . much rarer are f . vividus , the blue - winged parrotlet , f . cyanopygius , the mexican parrotlet , and f . xanthops , the yellow - faced parrotlet . f . sclateri , sclater ' s parrotlet , is not available in the u . s .\nthe pacific parrotlet is resident in its restricted range . it tends to move over short distances , and the flight is fast , with shallow wingbeats .\nthe pacific parrotlet is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\nthe next most popular species is the green - rumped parrotlet ( forpus passerinus ) , which is the smallest of the group . like the pacific , the males have blue on the wings and the females do not . they are a little gentler than the pacific parrotlet , but may take a longer time to acclimate to new surroundings . this species might be better for the parrotlet novice .\nt he mos t commonly purchased and sought after parrotlet is the celestial , also known as a pacific parrotlet or\npocket parrot\n. in today\u2019s market there are now several celestial pacific parrotlet color mutations available including : green , blue , american yellow , american white , lacewings , dominant fallow pieds , dilute blue , turquoise , pastels , dominant pieds , fallow , albino , & lutino .\nthe pacific parrotlet can be found in central america and south america . they & apos ; re most prevalent in peru and ecuador where they enjoy the tropical forests .\nspectacled parrotlets fall somewhere in between the pacific and green - rumped in personality , not quite as bull - headed as the pacific but a bit more outgoing than the green - rumped .\n\u2022 all\nfemale\npacific parrotlets are solid color with no royal - cobalt blue coloring .\nwe are a small family aviary raising pacific parrotlets in maple grove mn . our babies are closed banded with the year they were born on the band . we are proud members of the international parrotlet society and the parrotlet alliance . need help with anything ? give us a call ! st paul parrotlets 2 about parrotlets : * new to parrotlets ? the pacific parrotlet is considered to be one of the prettiest members of the forpus genus . more\nintroduction : the pacific parrotlet is a neotropical species , a small , green psittacidae resident on the pacific coast of ecuador and nw peru . it frequents a wide variety of habitats , and especially arid lowland scrub and semi - open tropical deciduous woodland . it nests in holes , in natural cavities or man - made supports . the pacific parrotlet is common throughout its restricted range , in spite of pet trade and changes in the habitat . the species is not currently threatened .\npacific parrotlet is full of energy and enjoys being included in family activities . similar in personality to amazon parrots , pacific parrotlets are intelligent and affectionate pet birds . active pacific parrotlets like to swing and play with toys . they also require a cage large enough to accommodate their activities . they can also be aggressive , but because they can be properly trained and easily managed compared to larger parrots . more\nthe correct pronunciation of\nparrotlet\nis\nparrot\nlet\n. the\nt\nis pronounced in the word parrot . the word parrotlet means little parrot .\nof these , the pacific parrotlet is the most common . description - the pacific parrotlet is green . the males have blue on their wings , backs and streaking back from their eyes . this is true of the male color mutation parrotlets also . aviculture - this species is very common in pet stores and is valued by breeders . its normal price range is 150 - 200 usd . more\nrange : the pacific parrotlet is found in w ecuador ( w esmeraldas ) to nw peru ( la libertad , cajamarca ) . this species was recently recorded in extreme sw colombia ( nari\u00f1o ) .\nif your parrotlet ' s behavior or verbalization changes abruptly , talk to a veterinarian immediately .\nthe pacific parrotlets are some of the most pernicious and spunky creatures in the parrot family . the pacific parrotlet , like most parrotlets , is full of undying energy . you will always see it swinging on its perch or eating seeds or nibbling at the toys . but you will hardly see it sitting still . more\nthe pacific parrotlet ( forpus coelestis ) and the green - rumped parrotlet ( orpus passerinus ) are the two species most commonly available as pets , either from pet stores , avian - specialty store or from bird breeders . the blue - winged parrotlet ( forpus xanthopterygius ) , the mexican parrotlet ( forpus cyanopygius ) , the tiny spectacled parrotlet ( forpus conspicillatus ) , and the larger yellow - faced parrotlet ( forpus xanthops ) are harder to find because they either weren\u2019t imported in large enough numbers or breeders haven\u2019t begun focusing on them in earnest yet . in some cases , they are difficult to breed . the spectacled is an up - and - coming species to watch .\ninterested in learning more about parrotlets ? the international parrotlet society is a non - profit organization that is dedicated to the care , maintenance , breeding , exhibition , conservation and education of parrotlets exclusively . the international parrotlet society publishes a bimonthly journal produced by parrotlet owners , breeders , researchers and veterinarians and a membership / breeder directory . in addition , the international parrotlet society sponsors breeding cooperatives for mexican and yellow face parrotlets and a free traceable identification system for parrotlet leg bands .\nparrotlets have not been bred in captivity long , so many of their natural instincts have not been bred out of the species . while pacific parrotlets are the most common species to be kept as pets , others are popular as well . among these are the mexican parrotlet ( forpus cyanopygius cyanopygius ) , the spectacled parrotlet ( forpus conspicillatus conspicillatus ) , and the yellow - faced parrotlet ( forpus xanthops ) .\nhaving the ability to speak does not necessarily mean a parrotlet will speak ; it largely depends on the individual parrotlet and the owner who will spend his / her time training the parrotlet . owners who spend 10 - 15 minutes x 3 times daily are usually the ones to notice the best results in terms of health , characteristic , friendliness , and speaking ability of his / her parrotlet .\nthese little parrots are residents of the pacific coast of ecuador and northwestern peru . predominantly glaucous - green , pacific parrotlets have a bluish postocular stripe which merges with a blue - gray hindecrown , nape and neck and also have dark blue on the lower back , rump and on the large patches of its wings . the habitat preferred by the pacific parrotlet is arid lowland scrub and semi - open tropicl deciduous woodland . these birds feed on berries , cactus and tamarindus fruits . pacific parrotlets are not picky in their choice of nest locations and will nest anywhere from holes in trees and fence posts to the abandoned nests of pale - legged hornero ( furnarius leucopus ) and necklaced spinetails ( synallaxis stictothorax ) . the pacific parrotlet is abundant across its range and is tolerant of moderate levels of human disturbance .\nparrotlets tend to be dedicated parents and are often used as foster parents for less reliable parrotlet species .\nidentify wanted behaviors with a clicker . a clicker is often used in dog training , and can also be effective in parrotlet training , as it allows you to identify quickly the exact moment the parrotlet does what you want . to get the parrotlet to associate the click with treats , you\u2019ll want to start with simply clicking and treating , until the parrotlet comes to expect treats with each click . [ 37 ]\nunfortunately , you can ' t really potty train a parrotlet . however there certain things you can do to prevent your parrotlet from pooping all over your house . don ' t let your parrotlet out in a carpeted room and after you put your parrotlet back in its cage be sure to clean the room for feces . and it doesn ' t really matter if the name is really long or really short .\nwhether eating pellets , seeds or both , parrotlets need a wide variety of fruits , vegetables and greens daily . a parrotlet should receive at least two different fruits and three different vegetables plus at least one kind of green each day . the following is a brief guide to feeding a parrotlet . generally , what is good for people should be good for the parrotlet . the exceptions are avocado , chocolate and alcohol . no parrotlet should ever be fed these foods . feed only top - quality , fresh , unspoiled foods to your parrotlet . if you would not eat it , do not feed it to your parrotlet .\nparrotlets are the second smallest group of all parrots . pacific parrotlets are between 4 1 / 2 to 5 1 / 2 inches in length . they come from the south american countries of peru and ecuador . there are seven species of parrotlets . only three of these species are kept as pets . of these , the pacific parrotlet is the most common .\nbaby blue male pacific parrotletpersonality of blue parrotlet pacific or celestial parrotlets are the most popular of the pet parrotlets and for good reason . they are the most parrot - like in personality . they are also some of the most beautiful . hand - fed babies make wonderful pets when placed in a home right after weaning and quickly become beloved members of the household . blue parrotlet mutations have an exceptionally sweet , calm personality both as a pet and with other parrotlets . more\ncelestial pacific parrotlets can at times be feisty little buggers . one should never purchase a parrotlet just because you find them cool in coloring or because they are small . before purchasing any bird including a parrotlet , the new owner should dedicate time researching a parrotlets personality and characteristics , along with asking questions to qualified breeds and / or avian vet .\npacific parrotlets are one of the world ' s smallest parrots with an average size of only 5 to 6 inches . they are not known for being loud like conures or other parrots . parrotlets actually have a finch - like chirp that is coupled with a sweet personality , making them a very popular pet . read on to learn how to care for a pacific parrotlet . more\ni was wondering what color is a regular green pacific parrotlet female . are they just green , or do they have some turquoise on their backs , or maybe even some blue . i know males have cobalt streaks though . my snowpea is female and her back is turquoise and a speck of blue under the wing , does she identify as a regular green parrotlet ?\nprotection / threats / status : the pacific parrotlet is generally common and even locally abundant , mainly in drier areas where they are most numerous . this species is well adapted to habitat change , and is apparently able to withstand strong agricultural and urban developments . it also takes advantage from deforestation and expands its range in areas with remnant vegetation , so long as some trees are left . the pacific parrotlet is not globally threatened and the population is suspected to be stable . it is currently evaluated as least concern .\ncalls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the pacific parrotlet gives high - pitched , passerine - like \u201ctzit\u201d or \u201czidit\u201d both perched and in flight . these calls are rapidly repeated to produce a loud chattering when several birds are flying together and calling continuously .\npacific parrotlet for sale = browse birds : more search options | advanced search | reset search criteria viewing ads 1 - 12 of 15 \u00bb marking : within miles $ 125 . . for a pair or . . take all 4 pair parrotlets $ 500 . . more\nin reading the parrotlet handbook ; it seems the albino / red eye mutations are the ones that seem to be most at risk from the pellet diet . our little tiki seems to be a dilute blue pacific , and we do mix some pellets in with regular food .\nin all parrotlet species , the nominate color is varying shades of green and some species , like the pacific , come in a variety of mutations , such as blue , yellow , lutino , fallow , darker green , pastel , isabel ( cinnamon ) , albino , and white . the parrotlet is dimorphic , meaning that there\u2019s a visible difference between the sexes , making it easy to choose pairs among mature birds .\na parrotlet\u2019s curiosity , combined with its small size , can make it accident prone and being stepped on can pose a real hazard .\npacific parrotlets have a royal ( dark ) blue color located on the rump ( back ) , above the eyes , and on wing - flight feathers .\nmany people prefer to buy their parrotlet organic fruits and vegetables . these foods have not been sprayed with chemical pesticides or fertilizers , which have been shown to leave residue . parrotlets are very tiny and small amounts of this residue could build up in the parrotlet ' s body . with organic produce readily available at most supermarkets , it can be very easy to feed your parrotlet a safe , healthy diet .\nthe pacific parrotlet is the most popular species of parrotlet kept as pets . most pacifics have a well - deserved reputation for being feisty and bold . they are very much ' a large parrot personality in a small parrot body . ' they are the most fearless of the parrotlets and can be very stubborn and strong - willed at times . they have very engaging personalities and can also be the most loving and devoted to their owners . more\nin the pacific parrotlet species , the male will have a cobalt blue streak on the head , wings , and tail . the female does not have these markings . parrotlets are interesting to observe in the nest . the female will lay between four and eight eggs , laying one every other day . more\nreproduction of this species : the breeding season takes place between january and may in ecuador . the pacific parrotlet nests in cavities , both natural and artificial ones , or in old nests abandoned by other bird species . the female selects the nesting cavity and cleans it , but she adds nothing , no lining .\nforpus coelestis lucida : the lucida pacific parrotlet has most of the same characteristics and colors as the nominate ( f . c . coelestis ) , except as noted : although mainly green , lucida males and females both have blue color on the underside of their wings and on their rump . the males ' blue coloring on the rump is dark cobalt blue and the blue markings around the eye are darker than the female , which is similar to a male pacific ( nominate ) . more\npicture of the pacific parrotlet has been licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike . original source : originally posted to flickr as 2344 pacific parrotlet 2 author : markaharper1permission ( reusing this file ) this image , which was originally posted to flickr . com , was uploaded to commons using flickr upload bot on 09 : 57 , 7 april 2009 ( utc ) by snowmanradio ( talk ) . on that date it was licensed under the license below . this file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - share alike 2 . 0 generic license . you are free : to share \u2013 to copy , distribute and transmit the work\nfeed your parrotlet about 12 % of its body weight at each meal . [ 24 ] the pacific parrotlet weighs about 33g so you ' ll want to feed it about 4g of food at each meal . however , as many parrots self - regulate , you can keep more food than that in there , especially of the pellet variety . you ' ll want to clean out excess perishable food at least once a day . [ 25 ] [ 26 ]\nkeep regular vet appointments . this should be at least once yearly . once the parrotlet reaches 10 years it might be good to start having checkups twice a year . you should also take your parrotlet to the vet anytime there are significant changes in behavior . [ 30 ] [ 31 ]\ndon ' t get a parrotlet unless you are prepared to make a longterm investment in the pet . they can live 12 to 20 years .\nthey are aggressive and territorial birds and should be housed one pair per aviary . results are better in a small aviary compared to those obtained when bred in a cage . the pacific parrotlet is an active bird and will benefit from the inclusion of suitable parrot bird toys and parrot bird gyms placed in the cage or aviary .\nthe pacific parrotlets ( forpus coelestis ) - also known as celestial , western , lesson ' s or ridgway ' s parrotlets - occur naturally in western ecuador and north - western peru ( on the pacific coast ) . they are resident ( non - migratory ) within their range . these birds inhabit arid lowland scrub and semi - open tropical deciduous woodland .\nwinged wisdom note : sandee and husband robert , owners of the parrotlet ranch , have been breeding birds since 1984 and parrotlets exclusively since 1986 . the molendas have written articles for many well known publications and were featured speakers at the 1985 afa convention . they are heavily involved with the international parrotlet society .\nmales and females make equally good companions depending on the individual . companionability has much less to do with gender than it does with handling and socialization . hand - fed parrotlets are very friendly , especially if the guardian takes the time to keep handling the bird . if left alone for too long , a single parrotlet can lose some of its companionability . the pacific parrotlet , in particular , does not understand that it is a tiny bird , and has little trouble challenging other animals and humans .\npacific parrotlets measure 4 to 4 . 8 inches ( 10 - 12 cm ) in length and weigh between 1 . 1 to 1 . 2 oz ( 31 - 34 grams ) .\ngreen - rumped parrotlets are slightly more shy and gentle than their pacific cousins , and not quite as likely to bite , which makes them a better choice as a pet for someone who might be more easily intimidated by the pacific ' s strong - willed nature . however , they are also more easily frightened , and can take longer to warm up in new surroundings .\npacific parrotlets are a dimorphic species , with the normal coloration being mostly green . males can be distinguished from females by the splashes of bright blue on their backs and behind their eyes . parrotlets also come in many color mutations , such as lutino , blue , and albino . feeding : pacific parrotlets have extremely high metabolisms , and must have food available at all times . more\nin the wild the t ype of coloring for this species is green , but several parrotlet color mutations have been established through selective breeding . pacific parrotlets are sexually dimorphic , meaning males and females have different appearances . males have markings of cobalt blue on their head , wings and tail . females generally lack these blue markings and are solid in color .\nyour parrotlet ' s diet should consist of about half formulated food such as pellets and half other foods such as fruits , seeds , and vegetables . [ 18 ]\npicking out food for your parrotlet can be very hard . but try kaytee exact or zupreem avianentrees harvest feast . these are both tasty and healthy for a bird .\nhabitat : the pacific parrotlet is found in a variety of open to semi - open habitats , desert scrubland , deciduous forest and semi - open woodland , gallery forest , plantations , farmland , urban parks and gardens . it may occasionally frequent humid vegetation , up to 1500 metres , but it is usually found below 800 metres , and locally up to 2000 metres of elevation .\nregarding the pacific parrotlet mentioned in volume - i , issue - ii\njust what should we call her ?\nshorties - my pair are very young . how do i know when they are old enough to breed . is a 18x18x24 cage big enough ? i would like to hear from other breeders , their setups and feeding details , when they pull babies , etc . more\npacific parrotlets can learn more than 15 words on average and can\nwhistle\nsongs well . the pacific parrotlets have about the same speaking and whistling capabilities of a cockatiel . parrotlets are also very good learners for commands such as\nstep - up\ni love you\npretty bird\n& other small commands . some parrotlets can learn advanced tricks , but not as advanced as an congo african grey parrot .\ntemperament : attractive birds . hand raised birds can make good pets and may learn a few words . pacific parrotlets are aggressive during the breeding season . generally quiet birds that are unlikely to cause problems with neighbours .\npacific parrotlets are generally known as a playful parrot who enjoys plenty of attention . parrotlets are highly intelligent , curious , and active . parrotlets must have ample opportunities to play and exercise . environmental enrichment must be made a part of their lives as to prevent boredom . pacific parrotlets keep themselves more than occupied when left alone for several hours , so long as they are provided with an array of chewable and destructible toys to play with .\nparrotlets should not be overlooked in favor of more widely known types of birds ; any bird owner , including parrotlet owners will tell you that all birds possess all the intelligence and attitude of the largest of macaws . pacific parrotlets are fairly quiet companions , making them ideal for families who live in apts . or condos . many of our satisfied customers come from the east coast states & confirmed this claim .\npacific parrotlets are not noisy birds , making them great for people living in apartments . they will repeat words and simple phrases , but are not known to be the finest talkers of the parrotlet family . these birds can learn to mimic , but they aren\u2019t the best talkers of the parrot family . some individuals can learn quite a few words , however . they aren\u2019t noisy , so neighbors won\u2019t be disturbed .\npacific parrotlets are not noisy birds , making them great for people living in apartments . they will repeat words and simple phrases , but are not known to be the finest talkers of the parrotlet family . pacifics are very spirited , and can become aggressive if left for too long without handling . even though it is tiny , do not underestimate the strong beak \u2014 its bite is much stronger than a budgie .\nmake sure to play with your parrotlet daily . this will help the parrot keep from getting territorial and nippy . you want the parrotlet to feel like part of the flock , so make sure to interact with the bird frequently . this is the basis of being able to train the bird . if you can ' t handle the bird , you will have trouble training it . [ 32 ]\nnever feed grit to a parrotlet . parrotlets hull their seed with their beak rather than swallow it whole . therefore grit is not needed to grind up the food . it is unnecessary and has been known to cause crop impaction and death . if the parrotlet is on a well - balanced diet and has access to mineral block , cuttlebone and vitamins , they will have no need for grit .\nthe mexican , spectacled , and yellow - faced are also kept as pets . their popularity as pets has grown due to their small size and large personalities . pacific parrotlets are often mistaken for a \u201ccheap\u201d $ 11 . 99 petco parakeet .\nfeather coloration , in the normal pacific parrotlet , is a variety of shades of green and some appear to have a light yellowish tone in the down feathers . being sexually dimorphic the male is easily distinguished from the female . he carries a vivid blue on the wings and rump and a lighter blue over his eyes . some males have a dusting of blue on the back of the neck and over the back and top of the wings . more\nthe pacific parrotlet is considered to be the most fearless , bold and aggressive species of all commonly available parrotlets . it tends to be very territorial , which may present problems if it is sharing its space with other birds . in fact , it is usually not possible to keep more than one pair in a cage . they may also not get along well with other animals in the household , unless they were introduced to them at a very early age .\non the upperparts , the pacific parrotlet adult male has greenish - grey mantle , upper back and lesser wing - coverts to scapulars and inner secondaries . lower back and rump , primary and secondary coverts , outer secondaries and bases of inner primaries are cobalt - blue . the short tail is green . the green underparts are tinged grey on flanks and breast sides . on the underwing , lesser coverts and axillaries are cobalt - blue . the undertail is dull green .\na pet parrotlet receiving a balanced diet has little need for vitamins and supplements . however , it can be good insurance in making sure the parrotlet is receiving enough nutrients . some seed mixes are coated with vitamins . since parrotlets hull their seeds , however , it is doubtful they are receiving any of the vitamins . there are many good commercial vitamins on the market . find one recommended for pets and not formulated for breeders .\npacific parrotlets are absolutely adorable with their miniature parrot features . their tiny tails are delicate and their curved beaks and large head perfectly mimic their larger cousins . they also have zygodactyl feet , meaning two toes point forward and two toes point toward the rear .\neuropean yellow pacific parrotlet , ( also called pastel ) is the yellow form being bred in europe , which is not as bright and clear . in contrast to the american yellow , the european yellow is not a clear yellow . it shows much suffusion of green and the wings are quite spotty giving the bird a somewhat dirty look . pastel pair european yellow ( pastel ) there is yet a third yellow mutation but this one is clearly different from the others described . more\nyou\u2019ll want to make sure one side is against the wall , though , so the parrotlet can retreat away from a busy room when it wants . you\u2019ll want to keep in mind the following when placing the cage :\nmales and females make equally good companions depending on the individual . companionability has much less to do with gender than it does with handling and socialization . hand - fed parrotlets are very friendly , especially if the guardian takes the time to keep handling the bird . if left alone for too long , a single parrotlet can lose some of its companionability . the pacific , in particular , does not understand that it is a tiny bird , and has little trouble challenging other animals and humans .\nthe mutations are said to be more easy going than the nominate color ( green ) , but they are also said to be less hardy . this may be a result of inbreeding . because of the small size , the parrotlet may seem like a great companion for children , but kids would probably be better off with a budgie or something in the neophema family . the parrotlet can be temperamental and feisty , and its bite packs a wallop .\nthe mutations are said to be more easy going than the nominate color ( green ) , but they are also said to be less hardy . this may be a result of inbreeding . because of the small size , the parrotlet may seem like a great companion for children , but kids would probably be better off with a budgie or something in the neophema family . the parrotlet can be temperamental and feisty , and its bite packs a wallop .\nbehaviour in the wild : the pacific parrotlet feeds on berries , cactus and fruits of tamarindus . it also feeds on seeds taken on the ground , and other plant material . they are usually in groups of up to 20 birds , sometimes more outside breeding season . they climb about trees while foraging for fruits and seeds . large flocks can be seen at clay - licks where they drink water and eat clay with other parrot species . see the article : parrots and clay\u2026 an old story !\nselect a spacious cage . pacific parrotlets are very active and need plenty of room to fly around . a cage measuring 18\u201d x 18\u201d x 18\u201d is the minimum for one bird . for more than one , you ' ll need to get even larger cages ( 28\u201d x 24\u201d x 36\u201d for two birds ) . the cage should have around 3 / 8 - 1 / 2 inch bar space ( the spaces between the bars ) , so that the parrotlet can\u2019t get out unattended . [ 1 ]\nraised celestial pacific parrotlets for seven years and have over nine years of experience . our parrotlets offer countless years of loyal companionship and lasting memories . the amount of joy , happiness , and pride a parrotlet will bring to a family is priceless ! our priority is to make your transaction with us go as smoothly as possible . we pledge to provide excellent customer service , honest advice and quality hand - fed baby parrotlets at a reasonable price . all parrotlets come with a 10 day health guarantee . more\nfound on the pacific slopes of andes from borb\u00f3n , esmeraldas , nw ecuador , south to trujillo , la libertad , and the upper r\u00edo mara\u00f1\u00f3n valley , nw peru ; possibly southern nari\u00f1o , sw colombia and bagua area , r\u00edos mara\u00f1\u00f3n , and utcumbamba valleys , nw peru .\nparrotlets should receive at least one protein food several times weekly . grains should be also fed several times a week , although there is no harm in feeding daily . many grains and protein foods also make healthy treats for your parrotlet .\nin the w ild , pacific parrotlets travel in flocks which , depending on the species can range from a few to hundreds of parrotlets . most other species travel in flocks of about 5 to 40 . this species forms life - long and tight pair bonds with their chosen mates .\nthe pacific parrotlet ( forpus coelestis ) has become one of the more popular small birds in the country , and is the most common of the various parrotlet species . originating in mexico and central and south america , these \u201cpocket parrots\u201d have caught on fast . they have the personality of a \u201clarge bird in a small bird\u2019s body , \u201d and are often compared to amazon parrots , a family of parrots said to be their close cousins . indeed , they do resemble the amazons , with short , stout bodies and a somewhat blunt tail . the male is green with a blue streak behind the eye and blue on the rump and wing - coverts . females lack the blue coloring , and may or may not have a faint blue streak behind the eye .\nno matter how high quality the food , it is really important not to rely on seeds as the primary food for your parrotlet . fruits and vegetables are necessary , so don\u2019t skip on the variety the parrotlets need for a healthy diet .\nwhile many of the signs listed above do not warrant emergency care , there are some symptoms that do require immediate care . with parrotlets it can be essential to see an emergency vet quickly if your parrotlet has any of the following symptoms :\n: most avian vets & aviculturists agree that pellets should represent between 30 % - 50 % of any parrots total daily diet . percent varies depending on various aspects such as ; particular species ( african greys , conures , cockatoos , amazons , lovebirds , macaws , pacific parrotlets ) , development stages ( growing chick , juvenile , adult ) , in and / or outs of breeding seasons . tropical species such as amazons , conures , king parrots , macaws , pacific parrotlets should be offered diets where pellets represent a greater part and about \u00bd to \u00be of their daily diets .\nthere are diets on the market today that are cooked and fed warm to your parrotlet . these diets are usually rice or pasta based with a variety of beans , corn , dried fruit and vegetables and herbs . there are many companies that manufacture these diets including pretty bird ( tm ) and soak n ' cook ( tm ) . parrotlet take out ( tm ) is formulated specifically for parrotlets . all of these companies produce several varieties , each with different ingredients and / or themes .\nparrotlets , especially those of the forpus genus , which includes the celestial or pacific parrotlet , the tiny mexican parrotlet , and a handful of others , are some of the most pernicious and spunky creatures in the parrot family . the celestial aka pacific male has blue on the wings as well as on the rump and a blue streak behind the eye . the blue mutations are still identifiable by the cobalt blue markings on rump and wings . in the wild they are known to eat seeds , buds , and flowers ; in captivity they adapt readily to seed , although a healthy diet includes fruits and veggies in addition to pellets . breeding information : often laying 4 - 6 eggs per clutch , members of the forpus family are very prolific . each hatchling wiegs approximately a gram , and are smaller than the average thumb . they can be housed in a cage suitable for cockatiels ( breeding cages can be the same size . ) and should be fed a high - quality seed mix with few sunflower seeds , but not cockatiel mix . they enjoy vegetables and occasional fruit slices .\nthe pacific parrotlet has become one of the more popular small birds in the country , and is the most common of the various parrotlet species . they are referred to as \u201cpocket parrots\u201d \u2014 because of their small size , and they might very well sit in your shirt pocket as well ! they have the personality of a \u201clarge bird in a small bird\u2019s body , \u201d and are often compared to amazon parrots , a family of parrots said to be their close cousins . indeed , they do resemble the amazons , with short , stout bodies and a somewhat blunt tail . the male is green with a blue streak behind the eye and blue on the rump and wing - coverts . females lack the blue coloring , and may or may not have a faint blue streak behind the eye .\nthese tiniest of all parrots are often referred to as\npocket parrots\ndue to their compact size and fondness of climbing into pockets . they are very popular and common in captivity , and are the most well - known of all parrotlet species .\nthe most commonly kept parrotlet in aviculture is by far the pacific parrotlet , which now has several color mutations . the mexican , spectacled , and yellow - faced are also fairly common pets . their popularity as pets has grown due to their small size and large personalities . parrotlets are commonly known as playful birds that enjoy the chewing as much as their larger amazon parrot counterparts . however , their largest quirk lies in the fact that they don ' t grow as bored as other species of parrots . parrotlets keep themselves more than occupied when left alone for several hours , so long as they are provided with an array of chewable and destructible toys to play with . however , when their keepers get home , they often greet them with lovely chirps and whistles to let them know they want attention .\npacific parrotlets are excellent breeders and highly dedicated parents . they are commonly used as foster parents to incubate eggs and raise the chicks of other parrotlet species . in the wild , they usually nest in cavities of trees or fence posts ; or they may over the abandoned nests of other cavity nesting birds . in captivity , they do fine with a lovebird / cockatiel - sized nest box - minimum size , for example one of the following dimensions : 6\nx 6\nx 6\n( 15 . 2cm x 15 . 2cm x 15 . 2cm ) .\nwhoever coined the saying\ngood things come in small packages\nprobably had a parrotlet as a pet . in spite of their diminutive size ( around 4 inches long ) , these little characters have all the personality and character of their larger cousins , the amazons .\npacific parrotlets have extremely high metabolisms and must have food available at all times . they are known for their voracious appetites and thrive on a varied diet . this should consist of fresh bird - safe fruits and vegetables , small seeds such as millet , high - quality commercial pellets , and nutritious protein sources like eggs .\nchinese : ? ? ? ? ? . . . czech : papou\u0161\u00edcek modrav\u00fd , papou\u0161\u00ed ? ek \u0161edok ? \u00eddl\u00fd . . . danish : spurvepapeg\u00f8je . . . dutch : blauwe muspapegaai , grijsrugmuspapegaai . . . english : pacific parrotlet , western parrotlet finnish : ecuadorinaranen . . . french : perruche - moineau c\u00e9leste , toui c\u00e9leste . . . german : himmelspapagei , himmelsperlingspapagei . . . italian : pappagalletto del pacifico , pappagallino celestiale . . . japanese : mamerurihainko , mamerurihashiinko . . . norwegian : gr\u00f8nnmasket spurvepapeg\u00f8ye , lessons spurvepapeg\u00f8ye . . . polish : wr\u00f3bliczka zielonolica . . . russian : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . slovak : papag\u00e1jik modrokrk\u00fd . . . spanish : catita enana amarilla , cotorrita de piura . . . swedish : pacifiksparvpapegoja\nthe green - rumped parrotlets , as their name implies , have green rumps , except for one subspecies in which the male does sport a blue rump . as in the pacifics , their beaks and legs are pink . the males have turquoise blue on their wings , while the females do not . their green is a slightly brighter , more emerald hue than the olive green of the pacific , and they do not have the greyish wash . the hens have a touch of yellow just above their cere . green - rumped parrotlets are just a bit smaller , weighing from 20 - 26g , and have a more slender build than the pacific .\nfor those who prefer a less aggressive pet , a green - rump parrotlet may be an alternative . although green rumps are very shy ( especially initially and with new people ) , they are very gentle creatures . these parrotlets need a safe and stable environment to thrive .\nthis can include grapes , apples , and berries . just as with the vegetables , if the fruits aren\u2019t eaten within a day , you\u2019ll want to remove them from the cage . you might want to cut up fruit for your parrotlet , so they can handle it better .\nspecifically formulated for small tropical parrot including parrotlets species . adding these foods provides additional nutrients and can prevent obesity and lipomas , as can substituting millet , which is relatively low in fat , for higher - fat seed mixes . adult pacific parrotlets often do not always adapt readily to dietary additions , so care must be taken to in\nmexican parrotlets are also larger , weighing 36 - 40g . they are a brighter green than the pacific , and the blue on the males ' rumps and wings is a stunning electric turquoise that fairly glows under natural lighting . the feet and legs are grey , with the beaks turning to a greyish color when they are mature .\npacific parrotlets are the yorkshire terriers of the bird world . they have absolutely no comprehension of how tiny they are , and will bravely take on all comers . pacifics are willful , stubborn , and can be quite aggressive . if you are late with their breakfast you will be treated to an angry tirade of parrotlet cussing , accompanied by foot - stomping and ruffled feathers . they will be the boss , if you let them . and don ' t be fooled by the size of that beak ; it may not be large enough to remove body parts , but the amount of pain it can inflict is surprising ! potential parrotlet owners would be wise to read all they can about bird behavior , because pacifics can be every bit as challenging as amazon parrots . but that is exactly what makes them so endearing ; who can resist such a brazen attitude in something so tiny ? properly socialized and handled , they are endearing , affectionate and entertaining pets .\nas with all parrots , a bored parrotlet can become destructive . this can include nipping people , chewing up things around your home , or resorting to feather plucking , which can become a serious health concern . proper training , positive reinforcement , and daily attention is the best way to combat these issues .\ni will never forget the first time i saw a parrotlet . my husband and i attended a bird show in sacramento , california . we were walking around and i saw two tiny green parrots in a show cage . they looked like miniature amazon parrots ! i did not know what they were , but i was determined to have some .\nas previously mentioned , parrotlets are very physically active parrots and need a good size cage to keep them happy and healthy . it ' s always best to get the largest cage you can afford . this will allow the placement of lots of perches to facilitate climbing and space for a wide variety of toys in which to play . pet parrotlets should have a cage at least 18\nx 18\n. this is the minimum recommended size cage for a single bird . breeding pairs should have cages at least 24\nx 24\n. it is better to have a cage that is wider or deeper than it is tall . this will allow for the greatest amount of area for your parrotlet . cage bars should be no wider than 1 / 2\n. this will accommodate all species including tiny green rumps and spectacles . a grate on the bottom is required , as it will keep the parrotlet away from old food and droppings . many cages also come with seed guards to help keep the area around the parrotlet clean .\nparrotlets might be small but that doesn\u2019t mean that a small cage will do . a spacious wide cage with 1 / 4 inch bar spacing is ideal . these are active birds that need their play space and plenty of toys to keep them busy . parrot kabobs and other shreddable toys are parrotlet favorites , and they also like swings and boings .\nparrotlets are an adorable breed of parrot that come in a variety of colors . they can be affectionate birds and make great pets . to care for a parrotlet , you ' ll need to prepare a space they ' ll love , get the right foods , be aware of any potential health concerns , and , for added fun , train them .\nif you want to own a parrotlet , you should be sure that you can set aside a bird - safe area for your pet to play in for at least one to two hours a day . they need to be able to come out of their cages , stretch their wings , and exercise their leg muscles to maintain their physical and mental health .\nyellow - faced parrotlets are the largest of the forpus family , weighing around 50g and measuring closer to 6 inches in length . both males and females have blue on their rumps , wings and eyestreaks , but much more pronounced in the male . as their name implies , their faces are yellow , and their green coloring is more yellowish and greyish than the pacific . they have a pronounced vertical dark streak on their upper mandibles .\nin the world of parrotlets , everything is a fun game . parrotlets absolutely love to play . their natural boldness and intelligence makes them a delight to watch as they tumble and play . usually bundles of energy , parrotlets spend hours swinging , climbing and playing . parrotlets will use a wide variety of toys that should be alternated often to keep the parrotlet from getting bored .\nreward the bird when they do something you want . pick a treat that you rarely give them but know they love . [ 35 ] nuts and seeds are good training treats , as they\u2019re small , yummy for the parrotlet , and not very messy . be careful not to use a reward immediately after an unwanted behavior , as you might accidentally reinforce that behavior . [ 36 ]\ninvest in a parrotlet training program . if you\u2019re struggling with training , or you have a bird that\u2019s too nippy , you may want to invest in a training program . you\u2019ll want to make sure the program has good ratings on the better business bureau website . you may want to check with your vet and see if they have any recommendations for specific trainers or training tips . [ 40 ]"]}
{"id": 2488, "summary": [{"text": "hayesiana triopus is a moth of the family sphingidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from nepal , north-eastern india , southern china and thailand .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the wingspan is 64 \u2013 78 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the metanotum is dark brown with creamy white stripes .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the abdomen upperside is black with an interrupted belt of red and lateral orange spots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the underside of the thorax and abdomen is reddish-orange .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the forewing upperside is dark grey-green with six narrow transverse blackish bands .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the discal spot is large , rectangular and translucent .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwing upperside is black with a conspicuous white costal patch and tornal area .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwing underside is reddish orange .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "it is a diurnal species with a fast but bumbling flight .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "adults are attracted to the flowers of agapanthus africanus in hong kong .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae have been recorded feeding on adina globiflora in india . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "hayesiana triopus", "paragraphs": ["macroglossa triopus westwood , 1847 , cabinet oriental ent . : [ 14 ] , pl . 6 , fig . 4 . type locality : [ india , ] assam .\ntransferred to rhodosoma by butler , 1876 , trans . zool . soc . lond . 9 : 534 ; then to hayesiana by fletcher & nye , 1982 , in nye ( ed . ) , generic names moths of the world 4 : 74 . erroneously transferred implicitly to rhodosoma by zhu & wang , 1997 , fauna sinica insecta 11 : 317 . implicitly transferred back to hayesiana by kitching & cadiou , 2000 , hawkmoths of the world : 47 .\nwingspan : 64 - - 78mm . an unmistakeable species . forewing upperside dark grey - green ( fading to greyish - brown ) with six narrow transverse blackish bands ; discal spot large , rectangular and translucent . hindwing upperside black with conspicuous white costal patch and tornal area . hindwing underside reddish orange ( as abdomen underside ) . metanotum dark brown with creamy white stripes . abdomen upperside black with an interrupted belt red and lateral orange spots . underside of thorax and abdomen reddish - orange .\na diurnal species with a fast but bumbling flight - - has difficulty pinpointing flowers . attracted to the flowers of agapanthus africanus in hong kong . will fly during damp , overcast conditions and in hot , sunny weather , generally during the the late morning and early afternoon ( r . kendrick , pers . comm . , 2000 ) . the resting position is the same as for those of the genus macroglossum ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nchina : vi ( guangdong ; hong kong ) ; 10 . viii ( simao / pu ' er , yunnan ) ; ix ( hong kong ) .\novum : broadly ovoid ; surface smooth and shiny ; colour pale grass - green ; size larger than those of macroglossum and cephonodes ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nlarva : full - fed 70mm , width 11mm , horn 14mm . according to bell & scott ( 1937 ) , in the final instar head round , surface smooth . body tapering sharply frontad from segment 5 ; horn long , stout , laterally compressed , ending in a sharp point , basal half gently upcurved , distal half gently down - curved . surface of body dull and smooth except for four small tubercles on the front half of each of segments 6 to 11 , on the dorso - lateral stripe , those on 7 and 8 larger than the rest . horn with tubercles on dorsal and ventral surface .\nin colour , head green , with a white stripe separating face from cheek . body pale green , the divisions between the secondary rings white . there is an indistinct dark green dorsal stripe and a white dorso - lateral stripe , the latter clearly defined on 2 to 4 , faint on 5 to 11 , and with white tubercles on 6 to 11 , edged above with dark green on these segments . there are bluish - white oblique lateral stripes , which are clearest on 7 to 9 . horn bluish - green with a small , triangular , bluish latero - basal patch , the tubercles green . true legs pale flesh - colour , outer faces red ; shanks of prolegs dull terracotta . spiracles pure white with a broad transverse brick - red band across the middle of all except those on segments 11 and 12 , which are immaculate white and twice as large as the rest ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\npupa : 42 - - 52mm , breadth 11 - - 14mm . very like that of cizara sculpta in shape . in colour , tongue greyish - green , darker at tip ; thorax and wing - case greyish - green ; two pale chestnut spots on segment 2 . legs dark chestnut barred with pale orange , abdomen pale ochreous - brown above , reddish - brown with short longitudinal chestnut lines below ; bevels of free abdominal segments dark chestnut . there are broad blackish patches and short black lines between the spiracles of segments 3 to 10 . tongue - case projecting slightly beyond the frons ; antenna equal to fore leg , coxal piece absent or rudimentary . surface smooth and shiny . cremaster conical , tapering gently to a short , widely bifid tip ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nlarval hostplants . adina globiflora ( rubiaceae ) in india ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nchina : yunnan ( simao / pu ' er ) ; guangdong ( longtou shan ) ; hong kong ; guangxi ( longmen ) .\nnepal , bhutan , northeastern india , southern china , thailand and northern vietnam . also recorded from fraser ' s hill , peninsular malaysia ( cheongweei gan , pers . obs . 2015 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright \u00a9 2013 www . sphingidae - museum . com . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 2492, "summary": [{"text": "the tanimbar oriole ( oriolus decipiens ) is a species of bird in the family oriolidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is endemic to the tanimbar islands .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical mangrove forests , and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "until 2008 , the tanimbar oriole was classified as a subspecies of the black-eared oriole .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "some authorities have not yet recognized this split . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "tanimbar oriole", "paragraphs": ["the tanimbar oriole ( oriolus decipiens ) is a species of bird in the oriolidae family . it is endemic to the tanimbar islands .\nvery difficult to separate from tanimbar friarbird and only seen for certain on a couple of occasions . the other part of the two - way split of black - eared oriole , and a tanimbar endemic .\nno information on dietary details . forages alone or in pairs , often together with tanimbar friarbirds .\nremoval of ( lumped ) campo suiriri , tanimbar flycatcher and mangrove black hawk , . as well as all species previously marked for deletion ( del ) .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . , kirwan , g . m . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . tanimbar oriole ( oriolus decipiens ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupdate archives : species ( versions 1 . 1 - 1 . 7 only )\nbelow are summaries of past updates to the ioc world bird list , first published as birds of the world , recommended english names \u2013 version 1 . 0 ( gill and wright 2006 ) . all of the updated information and species changes are included in the latest version of the species lists available on this website . to access current updates , please click on one of the links at the top of this page .\nadjustments or changes of 19 english names , including restoration of long - tailed tit .\ngeneric revisions including broad reclassification of gulls and terns , separation of two species of scytalopus tapaculos to a new genus eleoscytalopus , moves of buarremon and lysurus brush finches to arremon , darwin\u2019s rhea from pterocnemia to rhea , slender - billed kite from rostrhamus to monotypic helicolestes , anianiau from hemignathus to monotypic magumma , and most pionopsitta parrots to pyrilia .\nresequencing of donacobius from wrens ( troglodytidae ) to old world warblers ( sylviidae ) , and of sapayoa to broadbills ( eurylaimidae ) in accord with dna revelations .\njune 2008 ( version 1 . 6 ) \u2013 addition of splits proposed by rasmussen and anderton ( 2005 ) for the avifauna of south asia . alignments with version 1 . 0 of the bli world list and with systematics and taxonomy of australian birds ( christidis and boles 2008 ) . upgrades of seabird taxonomy . addition of other proposed species splits and taxonomic updates published or identified in peer reviewed journals since the posting of version 1 . 5 .\njanuary 2008 ( version 1 . 5 ) \u2013 addition of most proposed species splits and taxonomic changes published in peer - reviewed ornithological journals in 2005 - 2007 , with necessary adjustments of english names and ranges . additional alignments with decisions by the sacc . alignments with the draft list ( version 0 ) of world birds of birdlife international ( bli ) .\noctober 2007 ( version 1 . 4 ) \u2013 alignments with the classification and pending proposals of the aou\u2019s south american checklist committee ( sacc ) .\naugust 2007 ( version 1 . 3 ) \u2013 alignments with the aou checklist for north and middle america .\nblack - necklaced scimitar babbler ( = spot - breasted , p . erythrocnemis )\nhitherto considered conspecific with o . bouroensis , but genetically not closely related # r and differs in its less dark ear - coverts ( 1 ) ; more freckled malar area , this pattern extending around nape as a hindcollar ( 2 ) ; shade darker underparts ( 1 ) ; much longer wings and tail ( mean of five females 156 . 4 mm vs 140 mean of seven females ; at least 2 ) ; structurally different song with a repeated or oscillating introductory part ( score at least 2 ) and on average reaching higher frequencies ( score at least 1 ) . split recommended in earlier study # r . monotypic .\nwhat do ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) mean ? learn more about the scoring system .\n) , from which it is difficult to distinguish in the field , based on the present species\u2019 . . .\nsong is an accelerating series of 5\u201310 short ( sometimes interconnected ) fluty notes that gradually . . .\ninhabits midstorey and canopy of lowland and montane forests , deciduous monsoon forest , secondary . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . restricted - range species : present in banda sea islands eba . fairly common in parts of its small range , which covers an estimated c . . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nreference : pzs part ii , meeting of april 17 , 1883 , p . 199\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 300 , 144 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\noriolus bouroensis and o . decipiens ( del hoyo and collar 2016 ) were previously lumped as o . bouroensis following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .\njustification : although this species may have a small range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as moderately common ( coates and bishop 1997 ) .\nminor edit to red list rationale text and added taxonomic notes and associated references .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t103691651a112513530 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ndistribution maps should be very cautiously looked at . they do not provide with precise location but only give an idea of species global distribution . distribution areas are geopolitical ; as a consequence the whole of a country is selected if a species is only located in one single place . for more precise distribution areas please go to iucn site ( see link above ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nalthough this species may have a small range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : oriolus decipiens . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nrarest bird in the world : the cone - billed tanager , the mystery .\natlapetes blancae , 8 years later , still not found . wish or species ?\nits natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical mangrove forests , and subtropical or tropical moist montanes .\nthe food is insects and fruit , especially figs , found in the tree canopies where the orioles spend much of their time .\nthis species has a large range , with an estimated global extent of occurrence of 880 , 000 km2 . the global population size has not been quantified , but it is believed to be large as the species is described as \u2018common\u2019 in at least parts of its range ( urban et al . 1997 ) . global population trends have not been quantified , but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the iucn red list ( i . e . declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) . for these reasons , the species is evaluated as least concern ."]}
{"id": 2494, "summary": [{"text": "the cloud forest stream frog ( ptychohyla euthysanota ) is a species of frog in the family hylidae found in el salvador , guatemala , mexico , and possibly honduras .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , and rivers .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "cloud forest stream frog", "paragraphs": ["a glass frog , photographed in the monteverde cloud forest in coast rica by cabin attendant and photographer nic reusens .\nthe aptly - named glass frog was photographed in the monteverde cloud forest in costa rica by cabin attendant and photographer nic reusens .\nit may look like the common red - eyed tree frog , but the red - eyed stream frog is possibly the rarest frog in costa rica . courtesy of the smithsonian tropical research institute\nby far our most impressive find was the rufous - eyed stream frog , which sports typical \u201ctropical frog\u201d characteristics like bright coloration , slick skin , and large toe pads for gripping to trees .\nthe rainforests are called cloud forests because the area is almost always covered in clouds .\nthe study discusses the rediscovery of the orange or yellow and black harlequin frog species , known as the clown frog or halloween frog , which was declared extinct \u2013 then rediscovered \u2013 in costa rica twice , most recently in 2008 .\nit inhabits pine - oak and cloud forest , and is found in , or on , low vegetation along mountain streams . it breeds in streams and some populations have been found surviving in coffee plantations .\nthe green - eyed frog used to be common in monteverde . courtesy of robert pushendorf\nhe ' s croaked it ! unlucky frog fried to death after being . . .\nnot to be confused with the similarly looking red - eyed tree frog , which is quite common in costa rica , the red - eyed stream frog began vanishing in the late 1980s . by 1990 a number of local populations were rendered extinct . in march , a previously unknown population was found in talamanca .\nninety percent of harlequin frog species are threatened with extinction , and other amphibian species also have seen declines .\nthe \u201challoween\u201d frog has been declared extinct and then subsequently rediscovered twice in costa rica . courtesy of brian gratwicke\nwe\u2019ll be sad to leave this lively marsh , and all of palo verde , but new adventures at the monteverde cloud forest await us . ( we will be without internet during our stay at monteverde , but be sure to look for updates later this month ! )\nless than three steps onto the trail we spot one of the iconic creatures of the tropical rain forest habitat : the strawberry poison dart frog . about the size of a thumbprint , these aposematically colored frogs advertise their toxicity to predators , making them easy to spot amid the collage of greens and brown that composes the forest floor .\nnic spent 20 days in the beautiful tropical forest and became fascinated by the little amphibians and their translucent bodies .\npeloton ' s hi - tech bike lets you stream live and on demand rides to your home - and it ' s one of the best examples of fitness technology out there - at a price .\nthe result of the pictures were these fascinating images of the insides of the frog with organs and even its tiny bones all visible .\nin 1987 , more than 1 , 500 of the toads roamed the monteverde cloud forest , but that year , an unusually warm dry season nearly wiped out the population . once a costa rican symbol , the bright orange golden toad has not been seen since 1989 . despite the recent discoveries , scientists do not expect the golden toad to return .\nstep 3 ) contrary to intuition , do not try to sneak up on the frog . most will cease to call when they hear footsteps approaching even from a decent distance , so taking brisk strides in the direction of the call will get you closer to the frog before it stops calling .\nit ' s eye - wateringly expensive at $ 2 , 999 , but naim ' s uniti atom is a revelation , an integrated amplifier than makes it easy to stream music at a quality you ' ve probably never heard before .\nthe subspecies ptychohyla euthysanota euthysanota lives in cloud forests while the other subspecies ( p . e . macrotympanum ) lives in broadleaf forests and pine forests . both subspecies are highly associated with mountain streams . reproduction occurs by direct development .\nonce common in monteverde and tapant\u00ed , this frog was last seen in costa rica in 1989 and in panama in 1993 , before being rediscovered in 2007 in costa rica . in costa rica , the frog disappeared primarily due to the chytrid fungus , but in panama populations have been severely affected by habitat loss from logging .\nlooking for frogs in the cloud forest is not an easy task . many frogs exhibit incredible mimicry of leaves , bark , and various substrates . the easiest way to find them is by looking for movement when and where you step . if you\u2019re up for more of a challenge , look closely on and under each leaf you pass , and sooner or later one of those brownish blobs that you thought was a clump of wet moss or dirt will turn out to be a frog , sitting perfectly immobile as it waits for unsuspecting prey to crawl or fly by .\nfirst to welcome us to the dry forest are a group of white - faced capuchins , which we quickly learn are a common sight around the station and up in the forest\u2019s canopy . not only do we have the company of the capuchins , but in the early morning , the loud , echoing calls of male howler monkeys are heard no matter where you are . these throaty , growl - like calls that awaken the forest sound somewhere in - between a lion\u2019s roar and a very hungry stomach .\nwhat does this mean for frogs ? cicadas and other sources of noise are ubiquitous in the forest , and a frog that calls to attract females only in periods of silence will likely suffer reduced reproductive success . studying how natural acoustic interference affects animal communication can help us predict the effects of added anthropogenic noise as forested areas become more developed .\nthe green - eyed frog was very common in the mountains of costa rica but had completely disappeared by 1990 . in 2002 , one of the frogs was spotted in monteverde . biologists found larvae of the frog in 2003 , which they saved . more viable populations have been found in monteverde , p\u00e9rez zeled\u00f3n and juan castro blanco national park .\nusing a pane of glass he photographed a wild glass frog using a twin diffused flash to capture the natural effect of the little creatures body before returning it to the jungle .\nstep 2 ) when you hear a call ( ch - ch - ch - ch\u2026 . ) gauge how close you think you are to the frog ( walking with quiet feet in the direction of the sound with help with this ) . if it\u2019s more than about five meters off the trail , forget about it\u2014the frog will stop calling well before it comes into view . but if it\u2019s nearer than that , proceed to step 3 .\nthese tactics worked pretty well for catching male frogs , but we also needed some females to provoke the males to call in the lab . since females don\u2019t provide calls to follow in the forest , we had to rely on sight and a bit of luck to find females hopping along the forest floor . males and females are easily distinguished by examining the gular ( throat ) region , which is dark grayish - blue on males and red or asymmetrically patterned on females .\nnot only are night hikes great for spotting frogs and toads , but you are able to see things that you would never consider looking for during the day . on the walk back to the station , our professor stopped and instructed everyone to turn off their flashlights and look around . for a few minutes we struggled to see into the dark forest , no one daring to move an inch for fear of toppling into the stream below the trail . suddenly someone spotted specks of light on the ground . it looked as if as if a bunch of lightening bugs had been crushed over top of a leaf\u2014in fact , we were looking at a bioluminescent fungus . the fungus - covered leaf passed from one person to the next , a mass of sparkling , yellow - green jewels suspended in blackness .\non an early - morning hike to beat the heat , we crossed paths with another poison - dart frog , this one of the green and black variety . as it hops about in and under the leaf litter , i\u2019m reminded of its plastic toy replica i played with as a kid . a bit further along , this glasswing butterfly flutters out of the forest edge , disappearing and reappearing before our eyes . when it finally lands on a leaf , we see that its wings are completely transparent . it seems like tropical creatures have much more creative ways of evading predation than prey in the temperate zone , whether they are flaunting their unpalatability or making their predators dizzy with confusion .\none thing that any nature enthusiast can attest to is that in nature , the closer you look , the more you see . you can find life in the most seemingly inhospitable places , colors and patterns in the blandest - looking creatures , and\u2014in the dry forest of palo verde\u2014movement just below the soil surface by invisible insect architects known as antlions .\nwhen we emerged from the forest back at the station , we were greeted with another fantastic bioluminescent display as dozens of click beetles circled the trees . we watched for a while , letting them come up close to our faces and then dart away quickly , until the chilly rain began to make us numb and we retreated into our warm beds with the image of the beetles still dancing in our minds .\nthis frog began disappearing in 1988 and was first presumed extinct in 1996 , according to the amphibia - reptilia study . two of the frogs were spotted in 2005 in the central pacific town of quepos , but were not seen again the following year . then , in 2008 , a small population was found in talamanca , in south - eastern costa rica . the population has fluctuated from five to 40 since 2011 .\nwe explored the reef for hours , gliding over the bustling community below while trying to avoid being pricked by a sea urchin or smashing our fins into the fragile corals . underwater , we become detached observers , a stark contrast to the sense of oneness you get from walking through a forest . but , as in tropical forests , diversity abounds in the coral reef as organisms are highly specialized for their distinct niches in these astounding \u201crainforests of the sea . \u201d\nthe short boat ride through this surreal habitat at the interface of land and sea was just what we needed after a long , complicated journey over the border from costa rica to panama , involving crossing on foot over a very dicey wooden bridge with tremendous gaps between planks that revealed the crocodile - filled river below . but our habitat of study at the field station on the island of bocas del toro was not the mangrove forest ; rather , it was the adjoining coral reef .\nour time in costa rica is wrapping up , but not before a culminating event to showcase what we\u2019ve accomplished . after completing our independent research projects , we held a poster symposium for a visiting group of students from the universidad estatal a distancia . as the students had interests in ecology but were pursuing degrees in a wide variety of disciplines , we got the chance to practice communicating science to a broad audience . putting our spanish skills to the test , we presented our findings to the students and then led them into the forest to explain our field sites and data collection .\nla selva biological station is the epitome of a tropical rainforest ( although by holdridge life zone classification it is actually a tropical wet forest , experiencing a wet and a wetter season as opposed to a full year of downpours ) and is ots\u2019s most popular field station for researchers . located at the junction of two rivers in the province of herendia , la selva ( literally \u201cthe jungle\u201d ) is home to the widest diversity of wildlife we\u2019ve experienced in all of our time in costa rica . walking down any of the various trails that surround the station , crossing the famous hanging bridge , or even just sitting on a bench in one of the open areas on campus , you\u2019re bound to see some amazing creatures .\nentering the mangrove forest is like dipping into a strange dream where you\u2019re not quite sure which way is up and your surroundings seem other - worldly . seated on the boat and looking up , the leafy branches of mangrove trees have come together to form a whimsical archway that blocks the outside climate\u2014whether rain or sun\u2014from penetrating . tall , gangly prop roots stretch out like stilts from the bases of the small trees and dangle underwater ; emerging from the water and scuttling up the roots are crabs , a parallel to the scampering insects and lizards of terrestrial forests . mollusks foul some of the roots , indicating the height reached by the water at high tide . the place is undoubtedly aquatic , but looking straight up you could fool yourself into believing there is solid ground and soil supporting the foliose trees .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as near threatened because its extent of occurrence is probably not much greater than 20 , 000km2 , and the extent and quality of its habitat are declining , thus making the species close to qualifying for vulnerable .\nthis species ranges from south - eastern oaxaca , mexico , southward to guatemala and eastern el salvador ( from 500 - 2200m asl ) . it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest .\nit is common in guatemala and abundant in chiapas , mexico . its population status is unknown in el salvador .\na major threat to this species is alteration of the original habitats and microhabitats due to smallholder agricultural activity and logging . chytridiomycosis is also a potential threat to this species , particularly for high - altitude populations . declines due to chytridiomycosis amongst species of this genus have already been detected in guatemala ( mendelson , et al . 2004 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nclassification from species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013 selected by c . michael hogan - see more .\njennifer hammock added an association between\nsouthern pacific dry forests habitat\nand\nchoeronycteris mexicana\n.\njennifer hammock added an association between\nsouthern pacific dry forests habitat\nand\npecari tajacu ( linnaeus , 1758 )\n.\njennifer hammock added an association between\nsouthern pacific dry forests habitat\nand\npappogeomys bulleri\n.\njennifer hammock added an association between\nsouthern pacific dry forests habitat\nand\nnasua narica\n.\njennifer hammock added an association between\nsouthern pacific dry forests habitat\nand\nnoctilio leporinus\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nfrost , d . r . 2015 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\njustification : listed as endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000km2 , its range is severely fragmented and there is a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals due to the effects of chytridiomycosis .\nthis species is known from the pacific slopes of guerrero and oaxaca , mexico , at elevations between 700 and 2 , 000m asl . it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest .\nthe main threat is habitat loss mainly as a result of deforestation and the planting of coffee and other non - timber plantations . larvae have been found in southern mexico with keratinised mouthparts , indicative of chytridiomycosis .\nthe range of this species does not include any protected areas , and the protection of the original forested areas in guerrero and oaxaca is urgently needed . further research and survey work is needed to determine the extent to which chytrid poses a threat ; there may beed a need to establish a captive assurance colony of this species . this species is protected by mexican law under the\nspecial protection\ncategory ( pr ) .\ngeorgina santos - barrera , luis canseco - m\u00e1rquez , joseph mendelson iii . 2006 .\nmonteverde is home to plenty of birds and mammals , but in all the wetness they tend to be less active and difficult to spot . instead , a different taxon is more comfortable in this moist environment : amphibians . since many amphibians are nocturnal predators , the best way to see them is by going on a night hike ! huddled in raincoats , our class ventured out into the woods with our flashlights guiding the way .\nwe encountered several species of ground toads on our walk ; the males are rather flat and round and look like a wet conglomerate of sandy pebbles until you get a closer look . the females are several times larger and much easier to spot from a distance .\nthank you , your email will be added to the mailing list once you click on the link in the confirmation email .\nbefore we could perform any experiments , we had to catch our test subjects . strawberry poison dart frogs are active throughout the day , but calling activity is highest from about 7 - 9 : 30 a . m . their bright red aposematic ( warning ) coloration makes them easily visible against the drab shades of brown that compose the leaf litter , but unless you\u2019re up close their small size ( less than an inch long ) often makes them undetectable by the human eye . instead of going by sight , we relied on sound to guide us to the frogs . after just two days of practice in the field , we had our method down :\nstep 4 ) get as close as you can before the call stops . scan the area , taking care to check perching hotspots , such as tree roots , logs , and tops of leaves ( exposed places where a female would be likely to see him ) . nine times out of ten , a little strawberry - red dot will catch your eye .\nstep 5 ) lunge . these frogs move in quick , jerky hops that make them hard to follow or corner . so roll up your sleeves , keep your eye on the prize , and grab !\nafter testing over 60 frogs , we ended up with a pretty nifty result . frogs lowered their call rates ( speed of the ch - ch \u2019s ) during cicada noise compared to pre - playback , indicating a decrease in calling investment when faced with interference noise . interestingly , males neither increased nor decreased their call volume from pre - playback to during the cicada noise , suggesting that males always call at their maximum volume and maintain it even during masking noise . this could mean that energy expenditure is mediated more by how fast the calls come rather than how loud they are ; in other words , calling loudly is not as big an investment as calling rapidly .\nhanging bridge ( above ) and , on the other side , sendero tres rios ( three rivers trail ; below ) at la selva biological station .\nour first class at la selva consisted of no textbooks or powerpoint presentations , but simply a nature tour through the trails in order to begin to learn the landscape . peccaries were the first to greet us at the trail\u2019s entrance . while strange and exciting at first , these \u201cpets\u201d of the station would come to elicit no more than a sideways glance within just a few days .\nduring our hike , we encountered some old favorites from our days at las cruces , including the crested guan , chestnut - mandibled toucan , and cherri\u2019s tanager . new to the list was the collared aracari , considerably smaller than the other toucans we\u2019ve seen and sporting rich flame - colored feathers and bill . these guys have become a fairly regular sighting in the open areas on campus or in trees towering over the hanging bridge , but every time they\u2019re as surprisingly stunning as the first .\nrounding out our tour was one of la selva\u2019s notably precious rarities\u2014the eyelash pit viper . this venomous snake that could fit in the palm of your hand when neatly coiled gets its name from the two small scales that protrude vertically above each eye .\nthe structure of the station is expertly done , creating spaces that are conducive to seeing animals up close without being in their way . sitting at breakfast in the open - air dining room , you can watch as kiskadee parents gather dragonflies , berries , and whatever else they can find to feed their chicks in the nest tucked against the side of the building . both parents make trips to the nest , never letting more than five minutes or so pass without providing another snack for their offspring . the constant peeping from the little ones reminds the parents that no matter how much they get fed , they still have room for more .\nwhile crossing the hanging bridge to get to class , this rufous - tailed jacamar zipped just over our heads and landed on the top of a tree , which is nearly at eye - level when standing on the bridge . after a moment\u2019s rest it flew up again so quickly that it nearly vanished from sight , and in one swift movement returned with a butterfly flattened within its beak . we watched as it literally tore the insect to shreds through a combination of thrashing its head and making quick snapping motions with its beak .\ncrossing the bridge once more in the late afternoon to get home to our comfy cabins , i see something large and hairy crawling along the bridge cable . a sloth ? but wait , it\u2019s moving , and not in slow - motion . getting closer , its form becomes clear : a howler monkey ! and she\u2019s with her baby , too . the pair sits less than five feet above my head , tails wrapped around the cable for support and relaxed gestalt suggesting that they barely notice me at all .\nwalking around la selva , ecological questions come naturally . why do leaf - cutter ants travel so far from their nests and to the top of the canopy to gather leaves ? what drives variation in the amount of blue and red coloration in strawberry poison dart frogs ? what do all of the different oropendola calls mean to the other birds ? how did so many types of drip - tips on plant leaves evolve ? and why is it that the tropics have so much biodiversity ?\nthe first striking thing about the coral reef is that it comes out of nowhere . bobbing up and down on the waves in the mid - morning drizzle , we couldn\u2019t see to any depth in the turbid water . you wouldn\u2019t think there was anything besides sand beneath the surface , but as soon as we stuck our heads underwater , a vibrant community of fishes , corals , and other marine invertebrates greeted us . through my snorkel i squealed with delight , taking a hundred mental pictures a second and whipping around in all directions , not sure what to investigate first .\nwith no trails to follow , as we so comfortably have in terrestrial forests , i decided to pick a fish ( a yellow butterflyfish with black stripes stood out ) and follow it . we swam over large yellow brain corals , past bright red tunicates puffing sandy squirts of water , between bunches of threatening - looking sea urchins wriggling their sharp spines . it was interesting to see how everything in the habitat seemed to use each other : brittle stars wrapped themselves around coral , and fish munched algae off of the reef or dashed into anemones to hide . the coral growing on the roots of the mangroves provided a seamless transition between the two habitats .\nbook cover of \u201cthe rainbow fish\u201d by marcus pfister . ok , maybe they\u2019re not identica l , but there\u2019s a resemblance .\nit turns out that the species\u2019 actual name is the stoplight parrotfish ( initial phase ) . the \u201cstoplight\u201d aspect became apparent after witnessing the species\u2019 magnificent ability to change color in order to hide . farther down the reef i had to do a double - take in order to distinguish one mottled brownish - tan fish taking the color and texture of the coral it was hiding under . i watched as , in an instant , it darted away while simultaneously morphing into a lighter hue with the scaly texture you would normally expect for a fish . this lighter morph was the very same \u201crainbow fish\u201d i\u2019d spotted earlier .\nwhen tackling costa rica\u2019s jungles or navigating its bustling cities start to wear you down , you find that all you really need to become perfectly content are a few days at the beach . although we had merely planned to indulge in jac\u00f3 beach\u2019s warm pacific ocean waters and slow , gentle waves , our encounters with intriguing intertidal life from the sky to the sand proved that in costa rica , natural wonders present themselves even when you\u2019re not on the lookout .\nwalking along the fine , gray sand , you\u2019re stepping over a myriad of life . as the foamy ripples of a crashing wave subside back into the ocean , the sand is puckered with tiny snails hurriedly burrowing into the moist layers of the substrate . when the remnants of the next wave lick the shore , the snails resurface , use their fleshy muscles to propel themselves forward in a way that is reminiscent of a sea lion using its flippers on land , and then\u2014after this running start\u2014slip into a smooth , gliding crawl . viewed from above , they look like tugboats traveling between city ports on a map of the world\u2019s oceans .\nshifting our gaze from the sand into the lapping waves , we notice zig - zagging darts of movement that could only be fish swimming in dangerously shallow waters . from the distance , pelicans soar inland , looking for a meal . while they\u2019re still at least a hundred meters in the air from the water\u2019s surface , however , something else plunges from out of the sky , swoops low on the water , and snatches the hefty fish with ease . this bird had wings too narrow and a bill too short to be a pelican , but we couldn\u2019t quite make out what it was until it gained altitude directly over our heads . all at once we saw the kinked wings , forked tail , and white chest against an all - black body\u2014unmistakably , it was the magnificent frigatebird .\nover the next couple of days we would see these large waterbirds soaring overhead , but interestingly all of them appeared to be females ( males have a distinctive red throat pouch ) .\nanother avian friend that likes to scan the beach every few minutes is the scarlet macaw , flying in pairs or small groups from one treetop to another . once you know the particular squaaak ! to listen for , you can\u2019t miss them . often we would watch them overhead until they faded into the mountains , but one morning we were lucky enough to follow their flight to a tree right on the beach . apparently ravenous , the pair spent at least twenty minutes feasting on seeds while we gazed , enamored , from below .\nfor costa rica , and almost every other country in latin america , la semana santa ( holy week ) is the most important week of the year . it begins on palm sunday and culminates one week later with the holiest day of the year in catholicism : easter sunday . each country has a slightly different way of celebrating , but certain traditions are widespread , including the procession through the city streets on good friday .\nat 9 : 30am we were on our way to the metropolitan cathedral of san jose when we encountered a street staged with people in costume . about twelve men staggered in lines of two or three were dressed in ancient roman centurion garments , gold - colored armor , and helmets fringed with palm - like fronds . we joined the crowd on the sidewalk , pacing the block to find a good viewing spot . behind the centurions was a line of priests , and further back we could see the life - size figure of jesus carrying an ornate cross set on a platform heavily adorned with crimson flowers .\neveryone in the procession remained still and waiting ; people on the sidewalk were chatting quietly and watching the street expectantly . suddenly , the marching band at the tail end of the group began to play\u2014a slow , solemn melody\u2014as four assistants hoisted the platform onto their shoulders , stepping in synchrony so that the jesus figure swayed from side to side , giving the illusion of walking . on this cue , the rest of the procession began to walk forward in a rhythmic sequence of steps , with a drum major keeping the beat . the first step was up and to the left , then up to the right , then straight , and a rest on the fourth beat before repeating the sequence .\nveronica joins the procession , bearing a cloth depicting the face of jesus three times .\nthe parade of personages continued in this way , with the cast of each station joining in the procession as it went . a little before 12 : 00 we rounded the corner to the cathedral . the final station was performed just outside its gates , and once concluded the platform supporting the jesus figure was carried inside as the band played for the last time .\nby this point , the small crowd of people we first encountered on the sidewalk had grown into a mass congregation that filled the central plaza and surrounding streets . the main event had ended , and although the mood was still solemn , the gathering resembled a large community get - together as people engaged in friendly conversation and reunited with neighbors . groups took up benches in the park , found their way into the cathedral , or strolled pensively down the sidewalks on this reflective holiday .\nthis kind of intraspecific aggression is common , quick , and mostly results in no physical harm , so what\u2019s the motive behind it ? the dry season is a tough time for these insect and aquatic invertebrate eaters\u2014their food supply is shrinking and their population is becoming denser as everyone crowds around the water holes . could these two factors\u2014food availability and density\u2014play a role in triggering aggression ? this is the question that i along with two fellow classmates pursued for our four - day independent research project at palo verde national park .\nfirst , let\u2019s get up to speed on a little jacana biology . during the wet ( breeding ) season , it\u2019s clear to see why jacanas might act aggressively toward each other . exhibiting a polyandrous mating system , the females hold large megaterritories and two to four males hold smaller territories within that of their breeding female . females defend their territory against other females , and males exclude other males . once chicks hatch , both males and females ( but much moreso males ) defend their offspring against predators . in short , territoriality and chick defense describe aggression during the wet season , but it\u2019s still unclear as to why jacanas exhibit aggressive behavior during the dry season .\nfor our project , we observed 74 jacanas over four days , going out to the marsh for three hours each morning and afternoon . in the field , we would select a jacana arbitrarily to be our focal bird for that trial , and each trial lasted 10 minutes . next , we assigned roles : one person to be the data recorder , one peck rate monitor , and one distance measurer . to measure perceived habitat quality , the peck rate monitor glued their eyes to binoculars and counted the number of times the focal bird pecked at the water / substrate over 30 seconds . this measurement was taken once every minute for the duration of the 10 - minute trial , and it gave us an idea of how much that bird valued the habitat\u2014lots of pecks implied there was a high chance of getting food , and few pecks meant that there wasn\u2019t much there to peck at . to measure density , the distance measurer counted the number of other jacanas within a 3 - meter radius of our focal bird , and also estimated the distance from the focal bird to the nearest jacana . after 10 minutes , we moved on to another focal bird and rotated jobs .\nnote that the distance measurer had to estimate distances visually , as it would be highly disruptive to tromp out there and drag a tape measurer from bird to bird . this meant that the three of us had to undergo \u201cdistance training . \u201d in the grassy airstrip adjacent to the marsh , one person would set up two flags and measure the distance between them using a tape measurer without the other two looking . then , standing at a range of 5 - 20m back ( to emulate different scenarios in the field ) , the other two people would guess the distance to the nearest 0 . 1m . by no surprise , we were all rather horrendous at first ( especially when the flags were set up vertically , with one in a plane directly behind the other ) , but after many repeated trials , all of us were able to estimate the distance correctly on average to within 20cm !\nafter four days of observing jacanas , we got some interesting results . perceived habitat quality did not seem to influence likelihood of aggression , but density was more informative . the average density immediately preceding an aggressive encounter was higher than the average density overall ( for all birds at all times during their 10 - minute trials ) . this suggests that crowding might be a trigger for aggression . however , if the end goal of aggression were to increase an individual jacana\u2019s \u201cpersonal space , \u201d we would expect its subordinate to be farther away after the aggressive encounter . instead , we found that the distance between two birds engaging in aggression decreased just as often as it increased . therefore , jacanas might not be concerned with crowding per se , but rather they defend a particular foraging site ( whether or not it presently has food ) . in other words , perhaps it doesn\u2019t matter how close your neighbor is to you , so long as he is outside the bounds of where you want to look for food .\nthroughout the course of the study , we got the chance to become acquainted with the neighborhood at the marsh . spoonbills and jabirus frequented the deeper edges of the water while the ducks tended to hang around the shallower areas , along with our jacanas .\none of our favorite characters at the marsh was the not - so - friendly neighborhood caiman . every once in a while , we\u2019d see something log - like moving through the marsh just a little too quickly and with a few too uniform ridges to be a log . then it would stop , raise its head straight out of the water , and make several chomps at the air before slowly submerging itself back underwater . we all jeered at this attempt at ferocity , given that the caiman\u2019s mouth looked barely large enough to fit a small sparrow , let alone any of these waterbirds . however , we did once find it feeding rather clumsily on what appeared to be a duck carcass ( whether the caiman actually killed the duck or found it dead already is unclear ) .\nand the white - faced capuchins made lovely company , whether they were playing , jumping through the trees , or , quite often , taking a late - morning snooze .\nantlions are not actually ants ( and they\u2019re certainly not lions ) ; rather , they are insects in the order neuroptera , related to lacewings and dobsonflies . this morning , we set out to study the antlion larvae which burrow underground and turn ordinary soil into a sudden death trap . while you very rarely get a look at the antlion itself , you can clearly see evidence of where it\u2019s hiding .\nlook for small ( ~ 1 . 5 in . diameter ) funnel - shaped holes in the ground , then stick your nose right up close , wait a beat or two , and see tiny bits of dirt or rock launch themselves out from the base of the funnel . these silent predators sense vibrations of termites , ants , and other prey near their hole , and then knock them down into the funnel by bombing them with clumps of soil . once the prey is deep enough down the hole , the antlion uses its mouthparts to quickly grab its meal and pull it under the soil . viewed from above , it looks like the victim is being dragged against its every effort into the underworld .\none upside to the often long recovery times is that when the antlion finally does start digging again , it comes as an exciting surprise . there , in the midst of completely still soil , a grain of sediment suddenly wiggles . then the 3 - square millimeters around it start to pulse , as if something is about to burst from the ground . instead , that tiny bit of ground starts to sink , and you see the tracks made by the antlion\u2019s tunneling . the antlion digs in spirals to form its funnel , flinging dirt in a firework - like display .\nthe results from our short study were interesting : antlions tended to build smaller traps than their original after the first disturbance , but repeated disturbances had no further effect on their rebuilt trap sizes . furthermore , feeding termites to the antlions had no effect on their ability to recover . in terms of ecology , this implies a trade - off between energy expended and potential food gain\u2014larger traps take more time and energy , but the larger size increases your range for catching ants . it also seems like a single termite meal isn\u2019t enough to override the stress of a disturbance and convince the antlion that this location is worth investing in a large trap .\nabove all , this little experiment opened our eyes to the hidden activities of the soil , showing that you can find action , suspense , and intrigue right under your toes .\ncoming from the rainy , chilly highlands of cueric\u00ed , the climate of palo verde is a stark contrast . down here at sea level we\u2019ve got daily high temperatures in the 80s and 90s f , and that\u2019s with tropical sun ( i . e . sunlight coming in at a near - perpendicular angle to the earth ) . at this time of year , palo verde is sporting a dry heat\u2014the kind that makes your hair start to dry while you\u2019re still in the shower , and turns popsicles into puddles in a matter of seconds .\nthe first thing you notice is that the individual birds like to clump by species . the small jacanas have claimed the shallowest part of the marsh , closest to shore . using their long , narrow bills , they pick at bits of floating vegetation or at the water surface and occasionally come up with a wormy - looking creature . further out in the marsh you\u2019ll find the black - necked stilts , taller than the jacanas and with even narrower , needle - like bills . instead of just scraping the surface like the jacanas , a stilt shoves its whole bill and part of its head down into the water , rustles around for a second , and then comes up with a dripping face but no apparent prey ( as it turns out , the stilts feed on aquatic invertebrates or fish , so it likely swallowed its meal while underwater . ) .\nthe whistling ducks are grouped together on the small islands of vegetation interspersed here and there , or slowly paddling through the marsh . every now and then the they\u2019ll do the typical duck half - flip underwater , shimmy their tail feathers , and resurface . look a meter or two farther out and you\u2019ll find the roseate spoonbills , tall and flamingo - pink . their feeding method is the most intriguing to watch\u2014with their aptly - named bill slightly opened , they sweep it side to side just under the water\u2019s surface . every now and then they find something tasty , stop mid - sweep , nibble at their prey in a flurry of splashes , and then continue on with their sweeping .\nthe marsh is so calm and peaceful that you would never guess what is lurking a few kilometers down the road at the source of this wetland\u2019s water , the r\u00edo tempisque . sun - bathing along the banks of the river or floating downstream as driftwood look - alikes are none other than crocodiles ! from the river\u2019s dock you can get a nice look at these incredible reptiles\u2014just be sure not to sit on the edge with your legs dangling\u2026\nclimate change , habitat destruction , the illegal pet trade and the spread of a severe and incurable fungus have been killing off amphibian species in droves in costa rica since the late 1980s . many once - abundant species are now extinct , but according to a study released this month in the journal amphibia - reptilia , there may be hope .\nthe species is among several types of harlequin frogs that have re - emerged in costa rica since 2005 and scientists believe this could be the beginning of a slew of amphibian rediscoveries following massive population declines .\nholdridge\u2019s toad was rediscovered in 2009 after going unsighted for 22 years . courtesy of the university of kansas\nthe international union for the conservation of nature ( iucn ) declared holdridge\u2019s toad extinct in 2008 because it had not been sighted since 1987 . scientists believe that chytrid fungus was the primary cause of extinction . it was rediscovered in 2009 near barva volcano in costa rica\u2019s central valley .\nthe isthmohyla rivularis is so rare it doesn\u2019t even have a common name . courtesy of wikimedia commons\nthe extinction of the golden toad was met with sadness and outrage in costa rica and the world . the toad has since become a symbol for naturalists pointing to the impending threats from climate change .\nsee famous costa rican musician manuel obreg\u00f3n perform his \u201crequiem for the golden toad . \u201d\nbeware ! have your tissues ready at 4 : 22 for some sloth sadness .\nan eight - hour recycling drive in la sabana , san jose , collected more than 400 , 000 plastic bottles this sunday . the drive , spearheaded\u2026\nwe\u2019re here to help ! contact us if you need more flexible licensing options .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\n/ / urltoken\nfirst discovered in 1872 , glass frogs live in the humid mountain forests of central and south america .\nglass frogs are mostly active at night , which makes them very difficult to spot for predators .\nduring the breeding season they live along rivers and streams where they lay their eggs on leaves that overhang the water .\nnic , 37 , who is half spanish and half swedish and lives in madrid , said his day job allowed him to follow his passion for photographing nature around the world .\nhe said : ' while the general background coloration of most glass frogs is primarily lime green , the abdominal skin of some members of this family is translucent .\n' the internal viscera , including the heart , liver , and gastrointestinal tract are visible through this translucent skin , hence the common name .\n' glass frogs are difficult to find and collect , due not only to their small size and color , but also because of the extreme areas they sometimes inhabit .\n' glass frogs are often found along streams that are nearly impossible to walk along , let alone collect specimens .\n' with new areas constantly being explored in tropical america , more species are sure to be discovered and described .\n' the frogs typically range in size from 20 to 30 millimetres , but some species , like centrolene geckoideum from the pacific andean slopes of colombia and ecuador , reach larger sizes . '\nnic said he used a canon 5d mark iii to get the images with a 100mm l macro lens .\nhe said : ' i had to place her over a clean glass surface , and fire with my twin diffused flash at high speed to get the dark background in order to illustrate the see - thru effect .\n' luckily i had the help of a local to hold the glass for me while i focused . '\nbottleneck of 700 , 000 migrants wait in libya to cross the . . .\n' prostitutes , orgies , group sex - all of it ' : ex - wife of . . .\n' we know where you live ' : angry protesters confront mitch . . .\npolice find the body of a missing four - month - old boy near . . .\nthe fashion designer ' s $ 24million party pad that no one . . .\n' you broke your girl ' s heart ' : car racing legend craig . . .\nmoney launderer caught with \u00a3250 , 000 cash in bin bags in . . .\ndon ' t kill the army of ants and wasps invading your home . . .\nsydney tower skywalk was ' shut down due to unsafe winds ' . . .\nstep inside the tomb of queen nefertari : immersive vr experience reveals the 3 , 000 - year - old artwork of . . .\nworld ' s first floating nation begins selling its own ' vayron ' cryptocurrency ahead of 2022 launch in the . . .\nbeing rich and successful really is in your dna : being dealt the right genes determines whether you get on . . ."]}
{"id": 2499, "summary": [{"text": "urophora stylata is a species of tephritid or fruit flies in the genus urophora of the family tephritidae .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the host plant for the larvae is usually a thistle of genus cirsium or carduus . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "urophora stylata", "paragraphs": ["urophora stylata is a species of gall fly in the genus urophora and is a biocontrol agent of the thistles in genus cirsium or carduus . urophora stylata was released into new zealand to attack thistles . it prefers the scotch thistle cirsium vulgare but occasionally attacks the flower heads of the californian thistle but does not produce a gall .\nthe u . stylata populations released in bc orginated in the swiss jura and upper rhine valley , germany .\nurophora stylata is somewhat smaller than a house fly . the body is light grey in colour with a light brown to yellow scutellum ( located on the back behind the head ) . the wings are clear with each wing having an\niv\nmarking .\nu . stylata have been found at all the initial treated sites and at substantial distances from known release locations . when sites were monitored in 2002 and 2003 many sites had no plants or few plants remaining . rarely have bull thistle infestations been found without u . stylata attack . in one bc study , the average seed reduction was about 60 % . the larvae of both u . stylata and rhinocyllus conicus have been found occupying the same bull thistle seedhead .\nfemale flies lay eggs on developing flower buds . after one week the larvae hatch and burrow into the centre of the seed head and devour the developing seed and induce gall tissue production . galls are an abnormal swelling or deformation of plant tissue caused by insects , mites , microorganisms or injury . the urophora stylata gall feels like a hard walnut - sized stone in the centre of the flower head . the larvae are pale coloured and are 3 to 5 mm long . five to over twenty larvae can be found in each gall .\nin 1973 , the first u . stylata releases were made on vancouver island and into the fraser valley . the flies easily established and field collections began shortly after . mass redistribution of the flies continued until 1996 when the demand for bull thistle control appeared to subside . in 2001 there was a renewed interest to redistribute the agent . the last recorded assisted redistribution effort occurred in 2006 .\nhtml public\n- / / softquad software / / dtd hotmetal pro 6 . 0 : : 19990601 : : extensions to html 4 . 0 / / en\nhmpro6 . dtd\nno scientific name , common name or tsn was entered in the search text box . please enter a value into the empty text box .\nclick here to support naturespot by making a donation - small or large - your gift is very much appreciated . thank you .\na distinctive species with a unique wing pattern . the scutellum and sides of the thorax are a pale creamy colour and the eyes can appear orangey - green .\nthe female lays her eggs in the flower heads of thistles , usually spear thistle , causing them to swell and damage seeds . they are sometimes used in weed control against thistles .\nfairly frequent in the southern half of britain , but very few records from scotland .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\neggs hatch in 5 - 8 days . third instar larvae overwinter in galls and pupate in june . adults live about two months .\ncontributed by john f . carr on 9 january , 2010 - 3 : 52pm additional contributions by beatriz moisset , v belov last updated 17 august , 2016 - 6 : 45pm\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnorrbom , a . l . , l . e . carroll , f . c . thompson , i . m . white and a . freidberg / f . c . thompson , ed .\nfruit fly expert identification system and systematic information database . myia , vol . 9\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public ' - / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en ' ' urltoken '\n23 - 06 - 10 , southern limburg , nl last update : 13 . 09 . 10 10 : 03 added by : ben hamers dimensions : 400 x 600 pixels filesize : 49 . 87kb comments : 0 rating : none number of views : 1576\nusername password not a member yet ? click here to register . forgotten your password ? request a new one here .\ndue to fact this site has functionality making use of your email address , any registration using a temporary email address will be rejected .\nhelp again can any1 give me the full title of kulon . allat . kozlem thx\ncopyright \u00a9 2004 - 2018 paul beuk , images in diptera gallery and forum of their respective owners powered by php - fusion copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 by nick jones . released as free software without warranties under gnu affero gpl v3 . simpleasthat\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 02edc26f - 28c8 - 489f - 9978 - 25b3c0f7c5a6\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 9d27f71c - 7348 - 481d - aa71 - cba79f703b84\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : cc5bd9c3 - 4416 - 4789 - 8bda - 942f23b9cb3e\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f1c3084b - 2a56 - 4268 - 89bf - 5d59f6e4394b\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : fb052a98 - c2bd - 4285 - ab1f - 041b400b1881\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 7ea6344f - af1c - 4447 - a714 - f616eca109c1\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 320139\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nflies , caddisflies , craneflies , damselflies dragonflies , gnats , mayflies . midges , mosquitoes\nfly ( red eyed , small ) ) probably in the family : sapromyzidae .\ninsects ( ants , beetles , bugs , cicadas , cockroaches , centipedes , crickets , grasshoppers , lacewings , ladybirds , mantis , millipedes , scale , shield bugs , stick insects , wetas , weevils , etc . ) .\nreptiles ( frogs , geckos , skinks , snakes , lizards , turtles ) .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names a to f with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names g to l with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names m to q with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names r to z with photo .\ntrees ( new zealand ) hebes and their hybrids & cultivars ( photos ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : a to f ( common names with photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : g to l ( common names with photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : m to q ( common names and photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : r to z ( common names with photo ) .\nscotch thistle gall fly , bull thistle gall fly , bull thistle seed head gall fly .\ngalled flower heads , containing developing larvae , are present at the beginning of summer and persists through winter . the presence of larvae in the developing seed head can reduce seed production by up 60 % .\nadults emerge from the previous year ' s seed heads in late spring to mid - summer .\nphoto of a female fly . it notable for its long ovipositor relative to its body size . thanks to wikipedia for text and information : urltoken\n\u00a9 copyright 2008 - 2018 - t . e . r : r . a . i . n . all rights reserved . last update : 02 - mar - 18 . site designed & hosted by smokeylemon .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe white , 0 . 7 x 0 . 2mm eggs incubate for 5 - 8 days .\nlarvae presence in flowerheads causes decreased seed production . the gall formation strains plant nutrients , causing fewer flowerheads and reduces plant vigour . seeds directly above the gall become enlarged and non - viable and most seeds beyond the gall also fail to develop . studies indicate 60 - 90 % of seedheads are attacked , where 90 % of the seed is reduced .\ngalled heads can be collected from the field from late - august to november . attacked heads are easily detected by their misshapen indentations and when squeezed they are hard , whereas vacant seedheads are soft . redistribute collections on the ground at new locations in the fall , winter or early the following spring . clipped seedheads can also be held overwinter at 4\u00b0c , keeping refrigerated galls moist while not allowing them to become moudly . the following spring , the galls can be scattered at the new site , allowing adults to exit and disperse on their own . new colonies can develop from 20 - 50 galled seedheads .\ncompeting rhinocyllus conicus also attacks bull thistle . the beneficial contribution the two make together outweighs competition . no longevity study has been completed ."]}
{"id": 2502, "summary": [{"text": "pyrgophorus spinosus , common name the spiny crownsnail , is a species of very small freshwater snail with a gill and an operculum , an aquatic gastropod mollusk in the family hydrobiidae . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "pyrgophorus spinosus", "paragraphs": ["the species profile for pyrgophorus spinosus ( spiny crownsnail ) is currently unavailable . it has recently undergone major revisions and is currently being reviewed for public distribution . please check back at a later date .\n[ distribution and taxonomy of pyrgophorus platyrachis ( caenogastropoda : hydrobiidae ) in the sistema de maracaibo , venezuela ] .\n[ distribution and taxonomy of pyrgophorus platyrachis ( caenogastropoda : hydrobiidae ) in the sistema de maracaibo , venezuela ] . - semantic scholar\n[ distribution and taxonomy of pyrgophorus platyrachis ( caenogastropoda : hydrobiidae ) in the sistema de maracaibo , venezuela ] . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe presence of a microgastropod identified as potamopyrgus sp . was detected previously in the maracaibo system ; nevertheless , a detailed morphological analysis identified this snail in other genera . the objective of this work is to update the distribution and taxonomy of pyrgophorus platyrachis in the maracaibo system , venezuela in samples obtained between\u2026\n( of pyrgulopsis spinosus call & pilsbry , 1886 ) call r . e . & pilsbry h . a . ( 1886 ) . on pyrgulopsis , a new genus of rissoid mollusk , with descriptions of two new forms . proceedings of the davenport academy of natural sciences . 5 : 9 - 14 , pl . 2 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 14 , pl . 2 figs 17 - 19 [ details ]\nindex to vols . 1 - 5 . by w . j . mcgee\n: v . 5 , p . 281 - 370\nthere are no reviews yet . be the first one to write a review .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , w . k . emerson , w . g . lyons , w . pratt , et al .\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al .\ncommon and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthe nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .\nthe data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .\ncitation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .\ncontact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .\nrosenberg , g . ; moretzsohn , f . ; garc\u00eda , e . f . ( 2009 ) . gastropoda ( mollusca ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 579\u2013699 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nthompson f . g . ( 2011 ) an annotated checklist and bibliography of the land and freshwater snails of m\u00e9xico and central america . florida museum of natural history , bulletin 50 ( 1 ) : 1 - 299 . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , p . m . mikkelsen , r . j . neves , c . f . e . roper , g . rosenberg , b . roth , a . scheltema , f . g . thompson , m . vecchione , and j . d . williams . 1998 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks . 2nd edition . american fisheries society special publication 26 , bethesda , maryland : 526 pp .\nrestricted to the guadalupe river and its tributary canal creek in comal county , texas ( burch , 1989 ; burch and tottenham , 1980 ) . thompson ( 2008 ) lists distribution as south central texas , including the rio bravo del norte ( rio grand ) , coahuila and chihuahua .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\n( 1000 - 20 , 000 square km ( about 400 - 8000 square miles ) ) restricted to the guadalupe river and its tributary canal creek in comal county , texas ( burch , 1989 ; burch and tottenham , 1980 ) . thompson ( 2008 ) lists distribution as south central texas , including the rio bravo del norte ( rio grand ) , coahuila and chihuahua .\noccurrences are based on some evidence of historical or current presence of single or multiple specimens , including live specimens or recently dead shells ( i . e . , soft tissue still attached without signs of external weathering or staining ) , at a given location with potentially recurring existence . weathered shells constitute a historic occurrence . evidence is derived from reliable published observation or collection data ; unpublished , though documented ( i . e . government or agency reports , web sites , etc . ) observation or collection data ; or museum specimen information .\nseparation barriers are largely based on permanent hydrological discontinuity between water bodies , with distances of 30 meters or greater between maximum high water marks constituting a separation barrier . additional barriers are chemical and / or physical and include any connecting water body ( regardless of size ) with one or more of the following on a permanent basis : no dissolved calcium content , acidity greater than ph 5 , lack of dissolved oxygen , extremely high salinity such as that found in saline lakes and brine waters , or temperature greater than 45 an additional physical barrier , particularly for flowing water , is presence of upland habitat between water connections . high waterfalls and anthropogenic barriers to water flow such as dams are barriers as they limit movement in an upstream direction .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nburch , j . b . 1989 . north american freshwater snails . malacological publications : hamburg , michigan . 365 pp .\nburch , j . b . and j . l . tottenham . 1980 . north american freshwater snails , iv . species lists , ranges and illustrations . walkerana 1 ( 3 ) : 81 - 215 .\nthompson , f . g . 2008 . an annotated checklist and bibliography of the land and freshwater snails of mexico and central america . unpublished . available online : urltoken 16 june 2008 . 903 pp .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nlaboratorio de sistem\u00e1tica de invertebrados acu\u00e1ticos , departamento de biolog\u00eda , facultad experimental de ciencias , universidad del zulia , apartado postal 4011 maracaibo , venezuela . mariolesternava @ urltoken\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nproudly built by ai2 with the help of our collaborators using these sources . terms of service \u2022 privacy policy .\n\u00bb species cochliopa dulcensis w . b . marshall , 1920 accepted as cochliopina dulcensis ( w . b . marshall , 1920 ) ( original combination )\n\u00bb species tepalcatia polia ( f . g . thompson & hershler , 1991 )\n\u00bb subspecies littoridina australis crassa m . gaillard , 1974 accepted as heleobia australis crassa m . gaillard , 1974\n\u00bb subspecies littoridina australis nana er . marcus & ev . marcus , 1963 accepted as heleobia australis nana ( er . marcus & ev . marcus , 1963 )\n\u00bb species mexipyrgus churinceanus d . w . taylor , 1966 accepted as mexipyrgus carranzae d . w . taylor , 1966\n\u00bb species mexipyrgus escobedae d . w . taylor , 1966 accepted as mexipyrgus carranzae d . w . taylor , 1966\n\u00bb species mexipyrgus lugoi d . w . taylor , 1966 accepted as mexipyrgus carranzae d . w . taylor , 1966\n\u00bb species mexipyrgus mojarralis d . w . taylor , 1966 accepted as mexipyrgus carranzae d . w . taylor , 1966\n\u00bb species mexipyrgus multilineatus d . w . taylor , 1966 accepted as mexipyrgus carranzae d . w . taylor , 1966\n\u00bb species pseudotryonia pasajae hershler , h . p . liu & landye , 2011\n\u00bb species tryonia allendae hershler , h . p . liu & landye , 2011\n\u00bb species tryonia angosturae hershler , h . p . liu & landye , 2011\n\u00bb species tryonia chuviscarae hershler , h . p . liu & landye , 2011\n\u00bb species tryonia contrerasi hershler , h . p . liu & landye , 2011\n\u00bb species tryonia julimesensis hershler , h . p . liu & landye , 2011\n\u00bb species tryonia metcalfi hershler , h . p . liu & landye , 2011\n\u00bb species tryonia minckleyi hershler , h . p . liu & landye , 2011\n\u00bb species tryonia molinae hershler , h . p . liu & landye , 2011\n\u00bb species tryonia oasiensis hershler , h . p . liu & landye , 2011\n\u00bb species tryonia ovata hershler , h . p . liu & landye , 2011\n\u00bb species tryonia peregrina hershler , h . p . liu & landye , 2011\n\u00bb species tryonia santarosae hershler , landye , h . - p . liu , de la maza - benignos , ornelas & carson , 2014\n\u00bb species tryonia shikueii hershler , landye , h . - p . liu , de la maza - benignos , ornelas & carson , 2014\n\u00bb species tryonia taylori hershler , h . p . liu & landye , 2011\n\u00bb species tryonia zaragozae hershler , h . p . liu & landye , 2011\n\u00bb species tryonia brunei d . w . taylor , 1987 accepted as juturnia brunei ( d . w . taylor , 1987 ) ( original combination )\n\u00bb subspecies heleobia australis nana ( er . marcus & ev . marcus , 1963 )\n\u00bb subgenus heleobia ( eupaludestrina ) j . mabille , 1877 represented as heleobia stimpson , 1865\n\u00bb species heleobia ( eupaludestrina ) aponensis ( e . von martens , 1858 ) represented as heleobia aponensis ( martens , 1858 )\n\u00bb subgenus heleobia ( semisalsa ) radoman , 1974 accepted as heleobia ( eupaludestrina ) j . mabille , 1877\ngenus aroa h . b . baker , 1930 accepted as aroapyrgus h . b . baker , 1931 ( invalid : junior homonym of aroa walker , 1855 [ lepidoptera ] ; aroapyrgus is a replacement name )\n\u00bb species durangonella coahuilae d . w . taylor , 1966 accepted as juturnia coahuilae ( d . w . taylor , 1966 ) ( original combination )\ngenus semisalsa radoman , 1974 accepted as heleobia ( eupaludestrina ) j . mabille , 1877\n\u00bb variety semisalsa stagnorum var . capellinii ( gillet , 1963 ) \u2020 represented as semisalsa stagnorum ( gmelin , 1791 )\nhershler , r . ; thompson , f . g . ( 1992 ) . a review of the genera of the aquatic gastropod subfamily cochliopinae ( prosobranchia : hydrobiidae ) . malacological review . supplement 5 : 1 - 140 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nbouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . [ details ]\nwilke t . , haase m . , hershler r . , liu h . - p . , misof b . & ponder w . ( 2013 ) pushing short dna fragments to the limit : phylogenetic relationships of \u2018hydrobioid\u2019 gastropods ( caenogastropoda : rissooidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 66 : 715 - 736 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by kbanasihan , 06 / 28 / 2010\n> stream h\u00fed\u00f2\u00b1n\u00e30\u0010\u00e6\u00f1w\u00f1\u001b\u00e4\u00be ; \u00fb\u00b1tua\u00ec\u0082\u0010\u001bb @ jt\u00b1\u0000\u00a2\u00ed\u00e0\u00fb\u0013\u00f9\u00ff h , w\u008a\u00bf\u00dfev \u00eb # \u00e5d\u00b9\u00a7xk : \u0096\u0087\u00ef\u00fb\u00e7 - \u00b5\u00b2\u009c\u00fe\u00ef\u00d7\u0097\u00b2\u0087o\u00e9g\u00ad\u00b3\u00f6y\u00e7\u00ac \u0090\u0014\u00a2bf\u008c\u001a\u00e4 \u00061\u0088\u00eb\u00ed\u0010\u00878\u00e4 ! 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( \u008e\u0091\u00e9\u009b\u00ee\u0006t \u001a\u00ed\u009ez\u00b2\u0000m\u00eb\u0016\u000f\u00f6\u0091\u00bb\u009fs \\ : \u007f\u00f5\u009c\u00f2\u00b2 ) \u0006\u00ec\u001a\u0011l\ng\u00d7p\bt\u00f5\u00a9\u00e1\u00e1c\u00f3q\u0002\u00ec \u0080 h\u00b7b\u0084\u00eci | \u00bd\u00e4 ! \u00e5\n\u00e1\u0093\u0019m\u00f7\u00ee\u00fc\u008d\u009b\u00150\u0093 _ \u00ee\u00ec\u00ea = \u00fd\u008a = \u00e4\u00b9 } \u00e5e\u0099\u00e9 _ vm : \u008cs4\u0011\u00fb\u00a6 > \u0083\u0010 \u00f4\u0091\u0095q\u0099hh\u009e\u00e2\u00e1\u00a3\u00bc\u0017\u00ee\u00f8\u0084 4\u0087\u00f6d\u0000\u00f8\u0002\b\u0000y\u000f ` 9et\u00e5\u00fe\u00ff % \u00e9\u00e0e , w\u0010\u00f370 , \u00bd\u00f4 \\ > \u00fa\u00b2 ; \u0083\u00e7 : \u00ffw\u00e3u\u00aae\u00ad \u0090\u00bf \u00fb\u00fd\u0096 * \u00fah ( \u00e2\u0015\u00fd\u0018\u0004i\b\u00fa\u00b37\u00ef\u00b5ek\u00e9\u00eb\u00f7\u00e6\u00d7\u009c\u00ee\u00f9 ? ee\u0016\u00e5\u00b9\u00f5\u00b5 @ \u009d\u009b\u0084\u00f9\u001a\u00f1m\u00ac\u00fc ; 9m\u0004 ( \u00f5\u00e6\u00bc\u00a4\u00e1\u00b1 \\ \u00bd\u0007\u0017\u00fbp3\u00f1\u00ba\u008d\u00b64l\u00b7d \u0019\u0005hn\u00b1\u00f2\u00a2k h\u00ae\u00a4\u00eb\u0017\u00e1\u00ec\u00e1\u0003\u00e6\u009c @ \u00f9u . \u0014\u00b4\u00e6v\u00ae $ { \u00e6\u00fc\u009a\u0099 < \u00fa\b\u0001\u00b1 \u00f8\u00e5 - \u0007\u00aa\n\u00f0\u00e7 $ \u00ea\u00e3 \u0015\u0015 \u00aexp\u0098q\u00b6n\u00f9\u00df\u00baet\u008b\u0015\u00a7\u0017\u00998\u008d } \u00f1 k\u00bf\u00e94\u00ee < \u00fdh\u00ba\u00f9\u00bb\u00ee\u009b\u00fb\u00ab [ s\u007f\u0092t @ \u00ae\u00d7 \\ \u009f\u00e0\u0081\u00e8\u0010i\u00fb\u0099\u0017\u00f7\u0018\u00e5m\u00e9\u007f\u0084\u00f8\u0087\u00b7o\u0084\u0000or\u00a6\u0000\u00e2\u00e0\u00d7\u009c\u00ef \u00e1 \u00f6\u00f3\u007f\u00f9\u00fekn\u008d\u00acl\u0000d\u00f5\u00f2pf\u00e5\u00a8\u00ef\u00f5\u00be\u00e2\u0097\u00ad32\u001b\u00f0\u0004\u00e0\u00fb \u00f3t\u00fc ] \u0097 % gp / - \u009a\u00ab\u00e8\u00a8w\u00ec\u0081 | \u00bex9\u001an\u0003 [ \u0018\u00fel\u00e7\u0011\u00f1\u00ef\u00eb0\u00e9 l1f \u00b06\u00e4\u00edhz . 1\u00b3\u0091\u0091\u00bd\u00ae\u0000\u00e0\u00f2l\u0003\u00b3 / \u00f3\u00b2 ] \u00ab @ dj\u001b\u0096\u0017\u00bf\u00ef > g\u00e1e\u00d7\u0080\u00ffx\u00ad\u00e3\u000e\u00fd @ \u00ef\u0004\u00f1d\u00b7 = gg osl\u00fe\u00f2\u00efd\u00e0\u0098d w\u00e0\u0007\u0083\u00ed\u00ea\u00b8\u0087\u00e2\u00b6\u00b0\u009a\u0006\u000fh\u00b41\u0098\u00f0\u0017\u0016\u0080 , \u00a7\u00f3\u00f4b\u000e\u0080\u00eer\u0011\u00e8\u00a2 \\ \u00b0 ? g - \u0006\u009e ^ \u009b\u00f0\n\\ \u00e5\u00e0\u00b2u\u00b51\u008do\u00a7 \u0015\u008e : \u00ef\u00af | \u0094q\u00ad = \u00a4 # \u00a3\u00ec ( \u00a9 , \u00fd\u00fe\u00f5\u0093\u00f4\u00b8\u00fd\u00e8\u00e1\u00ea\u00ba ) i5a1ag\u00e19s ( \u00a2\u00e4\u00e7jz * \u00ab + sa\u00e2u \u0082\u00ad\u00aa\u008e + j\u0098j & \u0080\u0018\u00ef\u0090c\u00e1\u00a9\u00e9\u00ee\u00b9n\u00b5\u00e0 # \u00b0aj & \u0018 \u00be\u0019x \u00ebt\u0084\u00ed\u00ec\u00f9\u00fexo } $ - w\u00a5\u00e4\u009a\u0089 \u0005\u00d7\u00ee \\ \u00e2\u00f5\u0091o\u00bcbl\u0005\u00bb\u001as\u00a8\u00fc\u0019\u00f4\u00b4 ` e\u00068\u00e3j\u00ad\u0091 \u00e9\u00d7 \u0092 { \u008b\u00f5l\u00f3\u0011\u0089\u0007 > n | \u0013r \u00f3\u00e1a\u00fen\u00eb\u0087\u0012\u00ad\u00e7 % h\u00b9\u008c \u00ae < * \u009e\u0019 } & \u00b6\u00ae6\u00fe\u0097\u0093\bi6\u00ab\u00b0i\u00f1\u00ee { \u0097f\u0013r\u00e3\u0091 + \u0083\u0084cw\u00e6 ! z\u00a4\u00fe\u0010\u00e4\u00b0b\u00b3\u0098\bf\u0007 & \u0094\u00a5\u00b2po ' \u00fa\u00e1\u008bmhh\b\u00ad\u0015y\u00b4\u0017 & \u00ea\u00eczl\u00e9\u0094\u0089\u00e9\u0007\u00fe\u009cw\u00bc5\u00e5\u0099\u0000 - \u00ab\u00f1n\u00fc\u00fd\u00fd4\u0099\u00f9\u00aa\u00b9 ( \u00f6d\u0086o\u0001\u00fb\u0016k ( \u0002\u0015\u00e6c , \u00a1o\u00e73l\u00e1\u0018\u00e0\u00a3m\u008d\u009f ( \u00f0\u00b9\u0003go\u008a ! \u00ff = g\u0002\u0012 \\ \u008b4w\u00f1\u0006\u00ff { \u0083\u00ec\u00e26\u00f0\u00fa\u0086\u00bd\u00ec\u00fd\u0091k3\u0094\u0090\u0082z\u0012\u00bd\u00aa\u0089\u00f3 \u00ae\u00fd / \u00b1\u00f8\u008d\u00e2 \u00ea\u008c\u00877\u0012\u00eezf ) \u00b5\u0014\u0019 & \u0019\u00f7 \\ \u00ad6g\u00e7f\u00f6\u0084\u009a / c\u00a2\u0018\u00f0j\u00e0\u008b\u0087\u0083 ~ \u00a3t z & * g\u00f1\u0090\u00fa\u0098s\u00f1\u00ed\u00eb\u009b $ \u00ff\u0012i\u00f0c\u00ed\u00929\u0091\u0087\u0002\u00e9 # c ) \u00e6\u00ab\u00ee\u00e9\u00869\u00b8\n\u00873 ) \u00f85 \u0089\u00a4\u0092\u0011 : \u0083\u00f6\u0016l \u00ecz < \u00e3g\u00ed\u0018\u009d\u00f1d / z\u0003w\u0010\u00b7\u00e1 & \u00b6\u00fb2\u00f0 ^ \u0096gmxf3fb b > \u00efd\u009e\u00f3 & + \u00a3scj ; \u0014 = \u00ac\u00b5\u00b7 { \u00e2 | l2\u00a3\u009b\u00fe\u00e7\u00f7\u0080t = \u00e9\u000f5 @ \u009d . \u00a5\u0093 { \u00e14\u00f2\u000e\u00faz _ \u008a\u000f\u0088\u00ebn\u00fd\u009c\u00ef\u0094\u00e6\u00f4a\u00f0 , \u008c\u00f4\u00e4p\u0097\u007fa\u00e6 \u008f , \u0097\u00fbp\u00a9 @ \u00b4\u00e7 ' \u00b7o _ ) \u0081\u00133\u00bbdu\u000e\u00fc\u00e9t\u0019\u00aa\u00baym\u00fd\u00e1r\u00bc\u00b1v ) \u00af\u00a6\u00f1\u00fc \u00df - \u008f\u008cbu\u00afg\u00f6g ] 9\u00e3 \u00f2\u00f9\u00e3r & \u00ac\u00fd\u008b\u00ae\u00bep\u00a8y ' dlylv\u00f1\u00f7\u00a3\u00abcez\u0014 ' \u009c\u00eb \u00fa ~ \u0005\u00a7\u0014\u0011\u0014\u00ffo\u0014\u0000\u0080u\u0019\u00aba . l ? \\ \u00fc\u00aa\u0093ey\u00f8\u00ed\u00bc % i\u0016\u009f\u00b7i\u0095\b9\u0087\u009b ] u\u0084 \u0087y * \u00f2\u00be\u000e\u0005\u008a\u00fd\u00fd \u00f0\u009b\u00e7\u00e2 _ \u00ea\u00bf \u00aa\u00ec\u0086\u00f0\u0092c\u00b8 ; \u009f\u00bd t\u00b7c ' \u001b\u0081ji \u0088\u00e7\u00bd\u00e7q\u00f1\u0011 > d\b ; \u00e3 ] \u000f\u00fb\u00fb\u00ea\u008f\u009e\u00ee * \u00eb , c @ l\u00ef\u00e4\u00ee 1 > \u00e7n\u0016\u00e6m\u00fbt { \u00fe\u00a8\u00bc\u00e42 ^ \u00e1d\u00a6za\u0014\u00f1\u00fak\u00f3\u00fc\u00fd\u001b { \u00f8\u0081\u00e5\u00a5\u00e3 , \u0014s\u0018\u00e6\u00ae\u0003\u0012\u00f0\u00d7r\u009f # w ^ \u00e0\u0010u\u00e7\u0097 o\u00f3 \u0080\u0099c\u0095\u00eashw\u00e1lt\u00a9\u0092w\u0092\u00ef ( . \u0018\u00fb\u0018e * = \u0007\u0087rd\u00e7\u009d / \u00ac\u00e1 \u0015\n\u009ae\u00e6\u00f2\u00afc\u00e7k4 fv\u00e8\u00a5\u00e8\u0080 ? \u0080\u00fd ( \u00e1\u0006\u0099\u0004\u00e4xt\u00f8\u00a4\u00fd\u00b2\u00ebg\u0086 } & \u0019\u00ef\u00f1\u009c\u00e4\u00ba\u0002\u00f5217\u0098\u00b1\u00f8\u00ffp\u00df % 2h\u00fd\u00ba\u00d79\u0012\u00e3\u00b3 e\u00fa\u00af e\u00a9q\u00af\u00d7\u00e8\u0087 \u00b0\u00e2\u008f\n\u000f\u00b3\u0080 $ \u0098w\u00ec\u00f4\u00fa\u00eb\u00e5 \u008fz\u009a\u00bcpm\u00ffe\u0001\u0095c\u00be . c\u00fd\u00ee\u000efx\u00ec $ \u00f1\u00ed ? # \u0097 - \u000f\u00ac\u00e8\u00ae\u00a1\u00b0\u00efg\u00a8\u00fbg\u00aeo\u00141\u0018e\u0081\u0018\u00d7\u00ea\u00e8j \u00f2\u00df ; o\u0099\u0016\u0004\u0081\u0005 $ \u00bd\u0006\u0015\u009e\u00af\u00ac\u00af9\u00f5 [ \u00a7w\u00a4\u00e0z\u008c\u0001\u00aek\u00b82\u00df\u00fbw \u00ab\u00bf\u00a9\u009e\u0086\u0092\u00f1j"]}
{"id": 2504, "summary": [{"text": "the south american pilchard ( sardinops sagax ) is a sardine of the family clupeidae , the only member of the genus sardinops .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is found in the indo-pacific and east pacific oceans .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its length is up to 40 cm ( 16 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it has other names , some of which more appropriately refer to subspecies , including blue pilchard , australian pilchard ( s. s. neopilchardus ) , blue-bait , californian pilchard ( s. s. caeruleus ) , chilean sardine ( s. s. sagax ) , japanese pilchard ( s. s. melanostictus ) , pacific sardine , and southern african pilchard ( s. s. ocellatus ) . ", "topic": 22}], "title": "south american pilchard", "paragraphs": ["south american pilchard sardinops sagax - / animals / aquatic / fish / p / south _ american _ pilchard _ _ sardinops _ sagax . png . html\nhome \u00bb sardinops sagax ssp . sagax ( australian pilchard , blue - bait , blue pilchard , californian pilchard , california pilchard , california sardine , chilean pilchard , chilean sardine , japanese pilchard , mulies , pacific american sardine , pacific sardine , picton herring , pilchard , sardina , smig , south american pilchard , spotlined sardine )\nalso known as spotlined sardine , smig , sardina , pilchard , picton herring , pacific sardine , pacific american sardine , mulies , japanese pilchard , chilean sardine , california sardine , chilean pilchard , california pilchard , blue pilchard , blue - bait , australian pilchard , south american pilchard and many other different names in different parts of the world .\nsardine , chilean pilchard , south american pilchard . vector illustration with refined details and optimized stroke that allows the image to be used in small sizes .\nthe south american pilchard fish is a commercially important fish species . the south australian sardine fishery targets this fish and it is the highest yielding single species fishery in\nthe south american pilchard fish oviparous fish species , with pelagic eggs and larvae . they are pretty long lived fish species with up to 25 years of average lifespan . however , review full breed profile of the south american pilchard fish in the table below .\n\u201csouth american pilchard\u2014northern ( cold ) stock : fish source scores . \u201d fish source . sustainable fisheries partnership , 2016 . web .\nthe south american pilchard fish is mainly used for making fishmeal . but it is also used for human consumption and eaten fried and broiled .\nthe south american pilchard fish is a sardine which is the only member of the genus sardinops . it is mainly found in the indo - pacific and east pacific oceans . it is also called by many other names such as spotlined sardine , smig , sardina , pilchard , picton herring , pacific sardine , pacific american sardine , mulies , japanese pilchard , chilean sardine , california sardine , chilean pilchard , california pilchard , blue pilchard , blue - bait , australian pilchard , south american pilchard and many other different names in different parts of the world .\nthe south american pilchard fish are mainly feed on planktonic crustaceans . the young fish feed on zooplankton such as copepod , and the adults are feed on phytoplankton .\npacific sardine ( sardinops sagax ) also known as the california pilchard or australian or south - american pilchard , blue sardine , chilean sardine or japanese pilchard . it lives throughout the indo - pacific basin and its length varies from 12\u201340 cm .\ntotal landings of south african small pelagic fish , 1950\u20132000 , showing the contributions of anchovy , pilchard , and round herring .\ncurrently the south american pilchard fish has no major threats , and is widely distributed . and currently it is listed as least concern . generally it occurs in several marine protected areas . however , read some more information about this\nthe south american pilchard fish are oviparous fish species . some individuals spawn in their first year in the gulf of california , but most in their second year . they breed in spring in australia . generally the females can lay between 10 , 000 and 45 , 000 eggs per spawning depending on their size .\nthe pilchard bycatch taken when anchovy is targeted comprises juvenile fish , and must therefore depend on the size of pilchard recruitment \u2013 the fixed ratio ( used to calculate the january / february pilchard bycatch allowance linked to anchovy ) is adjusted to reflect this 1 .\nthere is a newer version of this dataset available . take a look at total fishery production - south - east pacific .\nthe south australian industry has launched a new management plan to keep the $ 20 million fishery sustainable , which includes catching more fish .\nunpublished report , sea fisheries research institute , south africa , wg / jan98 / pel / 3 : 4 pp . + 8 figures\nproportion of the first anchovy tac used to calculate the first pilchard tab ( set at 0 . 1 )\nthe body of the south american pilchard fish is cylindrical and elongate . their belly is rounded with ventral scutes . their back is of blue green color , flanks are white , with 1 to 3 series of dark spots along the middle . average body length of this fish is around 20 cm , with a maximum recorded body length of 39 . 5 cm . maximum recorded live body weight of this fish is 486 grams . photo and info from\nthe typical annual cycle of events for management of the pilchard and anchovy fisheries in south africa . successive tacs and tabs are essentially revisions of their forerunners ( i . e . the second tac / b is a revision of the first , etc . ) . tabs incorporate pilchard bycatch with both anchovy and round herring . ( note that because the additional sub - season is separate from the normal season for anchovy , the tac / bs actually applied in the sub - season are : anchovy 3 rd tac less anchovy 2 nd tac , and pilchard 3 rd tab less pilchard 2 nd tab . )\njuvenile pilchard and anchovy , which appear first in mixed shoals of fish of similar size when they recruit to the fishery , tend to separate later in the season , because the anchovy growth rate starts to slow before that of pilchard .\nthe earlier mps used only the survey - based pilchard recruit estimate to adjust the fixed ratio , but later mps incorporated the pilchard : anchovy ratio , as estimated from both the recruit survey and the industry ' s catches in may .\nnovember acoustic survey estimates ( barange , 1998 , 1999 ; coetzee , 2001 ) of spawner biomass for pilchard and anchovy , together with values of the pilchard bycatch when anchovy are targeted , expressed as a percentage of the corresponding anchovy catch .\n. these modifications essentially mean that , for \u03b2 choices reflecting a desired low pilchard catch to allow for high anchovy catches , the minimum pilchard tac is reduced proportional to \u03b2 once \u03b2 drops below 0 . 1 . a similar adjustment is made to \u03b1\n( panel a ) increases pilchard catches , but reduces anchovy catch on average . however , reducing \u03b4 from 0 . 85 to 0 . 7 for a greater buffer against poor anchovy recruitment ( panel d ) appears to have little effect on average catches , except for improving anchovy catches when an option reflecting low pilchard catches is selected . decreasing the maximum downward adjustment constraint for pilchard\nthe south australian sardine fishery is a significant fishery in australian waters . the fishery consistently harvests the highest volume single species yields in comparison to any other australian fishery .\nin terms of average catch with that for ten other mp candidates . for the same value of \u03b2 , increasing the maximum pilchard tac constraint\natlantic sardine ( sardina pilchardus pilchardus ) also called sardine of brittany or pilchard ( especially when canned ) : bigger , it measures 20\u201325 cm .\nnaturally , these general objectives are in conflict , so trade - off choices are needed . in particular , it is not possible simultaneously to maximize the average directed pilchard and anchovy tacs to be expected , because of the juvenile pilchard bycatch with anchovy . a plot of average directed pilchard against average anchovy catches expected under a candidate mp is referenced below as a \u201ctrade - off\u201d curve ( see , for example , figures 5\u20138 ) .\neven though the additional sub - season was predicated on the basis of near - pure anchovy catches , a modest pilchard tab was nevertheless set for the additional sub - season ( a fixed amount of 2000 t ) in order to facilitate harvesting of the additional anchovy tac . the anchovy tac and associated pilchard tab for the additional sub - season were clearly separated from the normal season , with observer coverage mandatory in the additional sub - season , to offset any incentive to discard catches with high levels of bycatch . the additional sub - season applied only to anchovy and any associated pilchard bycatch , whereas the pilchard - directed fishery and the pilchard bycatch associated with catches of round herring applied to the whole year . figure 4 illustrates this typical annual cycle of events for the management of pilchard and anchovy , including this relatively recent modification of the additional sub - season for anchovy .\ncalculation of the pilchard bycatch allowance ( associated with the anchovy tac ) includes a component related to round herring ( a fixed tonnage of pilchard is set aside for this ) , and another linked to the size of the anchovy tac . the latter is a fixed proportion of this anchovy tac , and is revised following the recruit survey because :\nthe harvest from the south australian sardine fishery supplies diverse markets . currently 94 % of the harvest is used as a high quality feed in tuna ranching operations located off port lincoln , south australia . the remaining 6 % of the catch is supplies a growing human consumption demand , as well as a recreational fishing bait market and premium brands of pet food . the sardine is a versatile species suitable for a range of products and applications .\nconceptual map of the distribution and movement of pilchard and anchovy ( after coetzee , 2001 ) , showing also the location of processing facilities and field stations used to sample landings .\none of the consequences of the introduction of the trade - off concept in omp99 was that , if a viable pilchard fishery was to be guaranteed , limitations on juvenile pilchard bycatch , necessary to protect the directed pilchard fishery , would lead to smaller anchovy catches than that resource could actually sustain . in order to address this concern , the concept of a sub - season later in the year to target \u201cclean\u201d anchovy shoals was introduced . there are a few reasons why such an additional sub - season provides a practical basis to enhance anchovy catches .\nfigure 6 is a plot of the m 1 trade - off curve along with that associated with omp99 . the data updates and additional features now incorporated ( m 1 ) lead to a considerable improvement in the average catches possible from the fishery . the bars around the \u03b2 = 0 . 1 point on the m 1 curve emphasize the considerable variation in annual catches associated with such mps . figure 7 illustrates the improvement in performance in terms of average catches over that of omp99 as successive changes were introduced when developing the mps presented in this paper . the additional sub - season allows further utilization of anchovy . it may lead to less anchovy , and hence less pilchard bycatch , being taken in the normal season , which allows for higher pilchard - directed catches , and thus improved utilization of the pilchard resource . a further general improvement in the utilization of both species is evident when account is taken of implementation error ( allowing for the possibility that the pilchard tab may not be fully utilized ) . the consequence of this is either to allow for more pilchard - directed catch ( because in many years , not all the pilchard tab will be used ) , or alternatively to take more anchovy catch ( hence using a greater proportion of the pilchard tab on average ) .\npilchard and anchovy form the mainstay of the south african pelagic fishery , and together with round herring ( etrumeus whiteheadi ) have accounted for more than 90 % of the mass of all small pelagic fish landed annually since the mid - 1970s ( figure 1 ) . the rapid rise of the pilchard fishery in the mid - to late 1950s , targeting mainly adult fish for canning , was followed by a collapse by the mid - 1960s , and a move to anchovy through the introduction of nets with smaller mesh ( crawford et al . , 1980 ) . the anchovy fishery targeted mainly juveniles , which were processed in reduction plants ( to provide fishmeal , oil , and fertilizer ) . pilchard and anchovy are the only small pelagic species currently managed by a tac , with separate tacs set for each .\nj . a . a . de oliveira , d . s . butterworth ; developing and refining a joint management procedure for the multispecies south african pelagic fishery , ices journal of marine science , volume 61 , issue 8 , 1 january 2004 , pages 1432\u20131442 , urltoken\nby volume . and the industry commenced in south australia in 1991 with an annual catch quota of 1 , 000 tones . the fishery\u2019s annual quota was set at 36 , 000 tonnes in 2003 . and the annual quota had increased to 36 , 000 tonnes by 2014 .\nincreases ( reflecting better utilization of the anchovy resource , which is possible because bycatch of juvenile pilchard is limited to a maximum of 2000 t in the additional sub - season ) . therefore , even though \u03b2 , \u03b1\n, the trade - off curves are mainly determined by the pilchard risk constraint coming into operation , except for the vertical segment on the right side , which is a reflection of the anchovy risk threshold coming into play .\npilchard\u2013anchovy ( denoted p or a , respectively ) trade - off curves were constructed by varying \u03b2 from 0 to 0 . 6 in steps of 0 . 01 . for each value of \u03b2 , the procedure was tuned by alternately varying \u03b1\nwe thank south africa ' s department of environmental affairs and tourism , marine and coastal management , for their support of the first author while he was employed there , specifically including making freely available all the data on which this paper is based , and two anonymous reviewers for valued comments on an earlier draft .\nthis trend of increasing separation is evidenced by an examination of pilchard bycatch : anchovy ratios in the commercial catches , which show that , by august , these ratios have typically reduced to half their levels in may ( de oliveira , 2003 ) .\nimprovements in the performance of omp99 in terms of average catch as various changes were successively introduced when developing the mps presented in this paper . curve ( a ) is the curve associated with omp99 ; curve ( b ) incorporates new / updated data and consequent bootstrap parameter distributions used in testing ; curve ( c ) incorporates the additional anchovy sub - season ; and curve ( d ) incorporates the fact that the pilchard bycatch declines between may and august , so the pilchard tab may not be fully utilized . ( note ,\nomp99 has since been refined and implemented as omp02 in 2002 . refinements were necessary to permit the enhanced utilization of both resources ( as demonstrated below ) . the associated analyses took account of a further 3 years of data , an additional within - season adjustment of the anchovy tac ( although implemented in practice , this had not formally been incorporated into omp99 ) , implementation error ( necessary to address the fact that the pilchard tab had not always been filled in practice , allowance for which could admit larger tacs for the directed pilchard fishery \u2013 the development of the omp99 formulae had assumed that the pilchard tab was always fully caught ) , and the introduction of a scheme whereby rights - holders in the pelagic fishery could each select their own preferred pilchard\u2013anchovy trade - off . this paper provides a brief background to the pelagic fishery , and a description of omp02 , which explains the refinements introduced to allow enhanced utilization of both resources . particular focus is given to the construction of trade - off curves , with details of some of the problems encountered and how they were addressed .\nthe south australian sardine industry is utilises a method of fishing known as purse seining . sardines are a schooling species , that when located the net ( purse seine ) is deployed around the school of fish and the catch is pumped on board into refrigerated holds , at below zero temperatures , to ensure the quality of the catch is maximized .\nmanagement of pilchard and anchovy relies heavily on the results of two acoustic surveys held annually , one in november to survey the adult stocks , and one in may / june to survey recruitment for the year ( hampton , 1987 , 1992 ) . prior to the implementation of omp99 , the typical management cycle for pilchard and anchovy would commence with tacs and tabs set at the start of the fishing season ( january / february ) , on the basis of the results of the preceding november survey ( provisional tac / bs were set before this , but they were minima , corresponding to fractions of the previous year ' s tacs and not based on any new data , and were over - ridden by the january / february tac / bs ) . the pilchard tac remained in force ( without alteration ) for the remainder of the fishing season ( officially ending in october , though usually extended to december ) , but the anchovy tac was revised within the year for the following reasons :\nsubspecies sardinops sagax sagax is not universally recognized . a recent genetic analysis ( grant et al . 1998 ) of the status of sardinops populations indicates that there are three subspecies : s . s . ocellatus from south africa , australia and new zealand , s . s . sagax from the southeastern and northeastern pacific , and s . s . melanostictus from the northwest pacific . other authors consider each subspecies as a valid species .\nthe value of output generated directly in south australia and the eyre and western region by sardine fishing enterprises summed to $ 21 . 0 million in 2012 / 13 . flow - ons to other sectors of the state economy added another $ 31 . 6 million in output ( $ 14 . 7 million in the regional economy ) . the total output impact in sa ( direct plus indirect ) was estimated to be $ 58 . 8 million in 2012 / 13 ( $ 40 . 1 million in the regional economy ) .\nthe management features described in the previous section and summarized in figure 4 necessarily dictate the structure and form of mps for the south african pelagic fishery . the tac / b equations and constraints given in table 1 constitute the set of rules for omp02 . the simulation - testing framework ( for details of this application , see de oliveira , 2003 ) forms a key part of the development of a mp , and allows the performance of alternative mps to be compared on the basis of summary performance statistics ( described in table 2 ) .\nmanagement procedure rules in the form of tac / b equations and constraints . definitions of all symbols are provided in table 2 . note that \u201cexceptional circumstances\u201d provisions exist , so the tac and associated constraint calculations are adjusted downwards if the november survey results for pilchard or anchovy ( when calculating first - stage tacs ) , or if the projected survey result for anchovy ( when calculating second - and third - stage tacs for anchovy ) are below certain threshold levels ( 150 000 t for the pilchard survey result , and 400 000 t for both the actual and projected anchovy survey results ) . de oliveira ( 2003 ) provides more details of the meta - rules for \u201cexceptional circumstances\u201d , which have been omitted from the equations below for simplicity . adjustments in tacs during the year , if applicable , may only be upwards , not downwards , because by the time the 2 nd tac is set , the 1 st tac could have been fully caught .\nthis framework essentially consists of an operating model to simulate the \u201ctrue\u201d dynamics of the resource , an assessment procedure used to estimate the parameters of this operating model , the mp rules ( which include the tac / b equations and constraints ) , and the summary performance statistics . in this case , 500 simulations of 20 - year projection periods were carried out , each simulation representing a plausible \u201cstate of nature\u201d ( computationally , for each simulation , parameters of the operating model take on values from a single realization of the joint probability distribution given by the assessment procedure ) . data typical of the type required by the mp rules in practice ( and subject to the same error structure ) were generated from the operating model and passed to the mp rules , which advised the tacs and passed them back to the operating model . at this stage , implementation error can be taken into account . for example , in this case the operating model generated future juvenile pilchard : anchovy catch ratios , to simulate the pilchard bycatch actually taken , which could turn out to be less than the tab .\nneritic ( ref . 11230 ) . a coastal species that forms large schools ( ref . 188 ) . occur at temperatures ranging from 16\u00b0 to 23\u00b0c in summer and from 10\u00b0 to 18\u00b0c in winter . feed mainly on planktonic crustaceans . young fish feed on zooplankton such as copepod and adults on phytoplankton ( ref . 39882 ) . oviparous , with pelagic eggs , and pelagic larvae ( ref . 265 ) . possibly can live up to 25 years ( ref . 265 ) . in the california region , pilchards make northward migrations early in summer and travel back south again in autumn . with each year of life , the migration becomes farther ( ref . 6885 ) . marketed fresh , frozen or canned . utilized mainly for fish meal ; but also eaten fried and broiled ( ref . 9988 ) . main source of landing : ne pacific : mexico ( ref . 4931 ) .\nin the us , the pacific sardine is currently a limited entry fishery with a total allowable catch ( quotas ) , however the limited entry permit covers all pelagic finfish , not just sardines . there are 65 permit holders , but it is unclear how many boats target which species ( pfmc 2011 ) . sardines are typically caught with purse seines , though some vessels are transitioning to drum seines ( pfmc 2011 ) . the historical hubs are still in southern california and monterey bay , but astoria has recently supported a major fishery . about 85 % of the catch is processed and shipped to china , japan and south korea ( caopc 2013 ) . the other 15 % typically composes the bait fishery . bycatch is negligible ( less than 1 % ) , though there may be impacts on california sea lions that have come to rely on sardines as an important food source ( hill et al . 2015 ) .\na further feature that also formed part of omp02 , but was beyond the scope of this paper to consider , was a change in the way the trade - off decision ( i . e . the point on the m 1 trade - off curve eventually selected and implemented as omp02 ) was made : from \u201cexternally\u201d ( as was done in the past for the fishery as a whole by the responsible government minister ) to \u201cinternally\u201d ( separately by each individual rights - holder , based on their own preferences ) . in a highly divergent industry , with some participants having sole interests in either canning ( pilchard ) or reduction ( anchovy ) operations , this was seen as a powerful tool to accommodate such differing interests in the two resources .\n, so points on the trade - off curve are determined by either the pilchard or the anchovy ( or both ) depletion risk constraints being met . the specific choices of 0 . 1 and 0 . 3 duplicated levels considered appropriate in the formulation of previous omps . the associated abundance threshold for anchovy was , however , moved lower ( from 0 . 2 k to 0 . 15 k ) to allow for the fact that the extent of natural fluctuations in anchovy abundance had been estimated to be higher than previously believed ( which meant in turn that the resource is robust to fluctuations down to lower levels of abundance than had previously been thought ) . the effect of this tuning is that , as \u03b2 is increased ( moving from the bottom right to the top left of the trade - off curves in\ncomparing the omp99 pilchard\u2013anchovy trade - off curve with the base - case mp ( m 1 ) curve . the solid diamonds are points on each curve associated with \u03b2 = 0 . 1 , and the open squares with \u03b2 = 0 . 15 . the bars around the \u03b2 = 0 . 1 point on the m 1 curve are to indicate that 50 and 90 % of all simulated tac values fall within the inner and outer limits , respectively . points on each curve are obtained by varying \u03b2 from 0 ( bottom right ) to 0 . 6 ( top left ) in steps of 0 . 01 . ( note , however , that the curves intersect the vertical axis long before \u03b2 = 0 . 6 , the exact value of \u03b2 for which this happens varying from procedure to procedure . )\nfor the purpose of this paper , management procedures can differ in the choice of constraint values and \u03b4 , and also in the choice of the control parameters \u03b1 ns , \u03b1 ads , and \u03b2 ( table 1 ) . the former ( constraints and \u03b4 ) reflect different pilchard\u2013anchovy trade - off curves , whereas the latter correspond to different points on the same trade - off curve ( see later discussion , and figure 8 ) . therefore , one can speak of the m 1 trade - off curve , which refers to the suite of management procedures with the same choice of constraints and \u03b4 as m 1 , or one can refer to m 1 as the point on the m 1 curve with the particular choice of control parameters associated with m 1 . the choice of constraint values and \u03b4 associated with the m 1 curve are shown in table 2 . where other candidate management procedures ( or curves ) are compared with m 1 ( or the m 1 curve ) , only the constraint whose value has changed is shown , in figure 8 and table 3 .\ntable 3 repeats the results of figure 8 , showing the values for all summary performance statistics , but only for \u03b2 = 0 . 1375 , which was the value of \u03b2 used for omp99 . these results are shown to provide some indication of the values of the summary statistics not shown in figure 8 . of particular interest is that , under \u03b2 = 0 . 1375 , smaller anchovy catches are obtained on average in the normal season ( lasting roughly 8 months ) than when there is also an additional season ( lasting no longer than 4 months ) , for almost all mp variants . decreasing the maximum percentage by which the pilchard tac may drop from one year to the next ( variant 3 ) also has a severe impact on anchovy catches and associated interannual variability in the normal season . however , all depletion statistics are fairly insensitive to the different mp variants considered . after joint consideration of such results by scientists and industry ( including results from the robustness tests , which are not presented here ) , m 1 was considered to reflect the best choice of operational constraints .\nthe total employment impact in sa was estimated to be 171 fte jobs ( 105 fte jobs regionally ) .\nsardines might be one of the smallest fish caught , but the industry is the largest single species commercial fishery by volume in australia , and it ' s getting bigger .\nninety - five per cent of the sardine catch is fed to port lincoln ' s southern blue fin tuna farms , but the industry wants to harness the human consumption potential by increasing demand , both domestically and in india and china .\nsa sardine industry association executive officer paul watson says the quota has been increased from 34 , 000 to 38 , 000 tonnes .\nthe spawning biomass estimate seems like the highest egg count that we ' ve seen in the fishery in the time that the daily egg production model surveys have been conducted .\nmr watson says pelagic , or small fish , fisheries do a have a history of fluctuating up and down with stock numbers .\nin 2004 - 2005 , it had a peak catch of 57 , 000 tonnes .\nto date , it ' s been quite stable and with this management plan industry and government are confident that the harvest strategy and harvest rates are sufficiently conservative to ensure the long - term sustainability of the stock .\nthe industry has already come a long way . when it started in 1991 , the catch was 1 , 000 tonnes .\nsa fisheries minister leon bignell says the management plan includes harvest strategies , stock assesment , compliance and regulations for the next five years .\nreduced catches and a fall in the price of sardines have impacted on the industry during the past few years .\nhowever , with co - operation between primary industries and regions sa and the industry , the development of this new management plan is set to deliver sustainable growth for the our sardine fishers .\nscientists and commercial fishermen say australia ' s rollout of a carp virus is being rushed through , risking relationships with international trading partners .\nthe late harry m . miller ' s work in the cattle arena contributed to the legendary music promoter ' s reputation in rural australia .\nit ' s the iron ore mine that has spent more time under water than in production . now there ' s new hope for wa ' s cockatoo island mine .\ncoles will no longer sell controversial allowrie branded honey , which contains 70 per cent imported product from countries including china , argentina and mexico .\nthis service may include material from agence france - presse ( afp ) , aptn , reuters , aap , cnn and the bbc world service which is copyright and cannot be reproduced .\nlatin and greek , sarda = sardine ; name related to the island of sardinia + greek , ops = appearance ( ref . 45335 )\nfrom the latin word ' sagax ' which means of quick perception , acute , or alert ( ref . 6885 )\nmarine ; pelagic - neritic ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 0 - 200 m ( ref . 188 ) . subtropical ; 9\u00b0c - 21\u00b0c ( ref . 6390 ) ; 61\u00b0n - 47\u00b0s , 145\u00b0w - 180\u00b0e ( ref . 36641 )\nindo - pacific : southern africa to the eastern pacific ( ref . 27267 ) . three lineages were confirmed through cluster and parsimony analyses of haplotypic divergences : southern africa ( ocellatus ) and australia ( neopilchardus ) ; chile ( sagax ) and california ( caeruleus ) ; and , japan ( melanostictus ) ( ref . 36641 ) .\nmaturity : l m 9 . 0 range ? - ? cm max length : 39 . 5 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9291 ) ; common length : 20 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 188 ) ; max . published weight : 486 . 00 g ( ref . 6885 ) ; max . reported age : 25 years ( ref . 188 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 13 - 21 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 12 - 23 ; vertebrae : 48 - 54 . body cylindrical and elongate ; ventral part of operculum with clear cut bony striae radiating downwards ; belly rounded with ventral scutes ; back blue green ; flanks white , with 1 to 3 series of dark spots along the middle ( ref . 55763 ) . the radiating bony striae on the operculum distinguish this species from all other clupeids in the area . the radiating bony striae on the operculum distinguish this fish from all other clupeids in the area . in new zealand the species appears to grow larger ( 21 . 3 cm standard length ; cf . 19 . 7 cm ) , has slightly larger eggs and a higher mean number of vertebrae ( 50 . 52 ; cf . 49 to 50 . 08 in various samples ) ( ref . 859 ) .\noviparous ( ref . 265 ) . in the gulf of california , some individuals spawn in their first year , but most in their second ( ref . 188 ) . in australia ( as s . neopilchardus ) , this species breeds in spring and summer in southern part of range , and in summer and autumn in northern part , apparently related to seasonal movement of the limiting 14\u00b0c and 21\u00b0c isotherms , then autumn to early spring ( ref . 6390 ) . it was believed that individual australian pilchards only spawn once or twice in a season ( ref . 26422 , 26424 ) , but research on related species suggests that they may spawn a number of times ( ref . 6882 ) . batch fecundities range from about 10 , 000 eggs in 13 cm long females to about 45 , 000 eggs in females of about 18 cm ( ref . 26420 ) .\nwhitehead , p . j . p . , 1985 . fao species catalogue . vol . 7 . clupeoid fishes of the world ( suborder clupeoidei ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of the herrings , sardines , pilchards , sprats , shads , anchovies and wolf - herrings . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 7 / 1 ) : 1 - 303 . rome : fao . ( ref . 188 )\n) : 9 . 5 - 25 . 2 , mean 17 . 9 ( based on 938 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00871 ( 0 . 00713 - 0 . 01064 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 3 . 01 - 3 . 11 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 8 \u00b10 . 1 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 45 ; tm = 2 ; tmax = 13 - 25 ; fec = 10 , 000 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 56 , 2 sd range = 0 . 3 - 1 . 07 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 58 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 32 , based on : 1 m , 3 k , 9 tgen , 1 tmax , 4 fec records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 34 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this subspecies has a wide distribution in the eastern pacific , has no major threats , and occurs in several marine protected areas . therefore , it is listed as least concern . however , further studies are needed to determine current population trends as some catch statistics indicate that it may be declining .\nthis subspecies is found from primarily in temperate waters throughout the entire eastern pacific ( parrish et al . 1989 ) .\nthere are no known conservation measures for this subspecies . however , its distribution includes a number of marine protected areas in the central tropical eastern pacific region .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\nsubscribe roy ' s farm newsletter for news , updates and receiving notifications of new posts by email .\nby creating an account , i agree to shutterstock ' s website terms , privacy policy , and licensing terms .\n\u00a9 2003 - 2018 shutterstock , inc . all rights reserved . made in nyc .\nsmall ( s ) has the shortest download time and is suitable for digital use .\nlarge ( l ) is suitable for large prints as well as digital use . it is the original image provided by the contributor .\nyou can redownload your image for free at any time , in any size .\neditorial content , such as news and celebrity images , are not cleared for commercial use . learn more on our support center .\nsign up to browse over million images , video clips , and music tracks . plus , get free weekly content and more .\n( we only support jpg and png images under 5mb and no larger than 4000px on either side at this time . )\nour data insights library goes deeper into hot topics and critical world issues . looking for more ? learn about how we integrate data and expert visualization services with our intelligent tools , custom situation rooms , and enterprise data portals .\nthe description is composed by yodatai , our digital data assistant . have a question ? ask yodatai \u203a\ncatches of fish , crustaceans , molluscs and other aquatic organisms by species and fishing area for eu and associated countries ( in live weight equivalent of the landings ) .\nthe concepts and definitions used in the compilation of catch statistics are those laid down by the coordinating working party on fishery statistics ( cwp ) , of which eurostat is one of the member organizations . these concepts and definitions have been in force since the late 1950 ' s and are applied uniformly worldwide by the cwp and by the national authorities reporting to its member organizations . therefore , though the quality of the data varies from country to country ( being in many cases a function of the general characteristics of the national fishing industry ) , there is a high degree of comparability between countries and over time .\nthe data refer to the catch of freshwater , brackish water and marine species of fish , crustaceans , molluscs and other aquatic animals and plants , killed , caught , trapped or collected for all commercial , industrial , recreational and subsistence purposes .\nin view of the importance of recreational fishing regarding some stocks and for certain countries , as well as the difficulty of distinguishing between recreational and subsistence fishing , the data should include the catches from recreational fisheries as well . however , it is recognised that certain countries are unable to supply the data for recreational fisheries .\nthe catches are expressed in the live weight equivalent of the landings . as such they exclude all quantities caught but not landed ( for example : discarded fish , fish consumed on board ) . the unit used is generally the metric ton . data for marine mammals ( e . g . whales ) and certain other animals ( e . g . crocodiles ) are expressed in the number caught .\nthe nominal catch data are normally derived from the landed quantities of the fishery products . for this purpose , the landed weight is converted to the live weight equivalent ( nominal catch ) by the application of factors .\nspecies : all species for which catches are reported to international organizations are included in the eurostat ' s database . they are identified by the internationally assigned three letter identifier ( e . g . cod = atlantic cod , ple = european plaice ) according to the fao asfis ( aquatic sciences and fishery information system ) list of species for fishery statistics purposes .\nfishing areas / regions : the catches are sub - divided by the area in which they occur .\nthe methodologies vary from country to country depending on the nature of their fishing industries . basic documentation used in collecting the data from eu fisheries are fishing log - books , landings declarations and sales notes used in the management of catch quota and market management systems within the common fisheries policy . the methodologies used by eea member countries have been described in the eurostat publication\nfisheries : the collection and compilation of fish catch and landing statistics in member countries of the european economic area\n. those used by the new member states are described in a working document\nfisheries : the collection and compilation of fishery statistics in european union candidate countries\n( c ) harum . koh , some rights reserved ( cc by - sa ) , uploaded by harum . koh , urltoken\nyou can copy this taxon into another guide . if you are one of the editors of this guide it should copy everything , but if you ' re not , it will only copy the licensed content .\nit was sardinia , the mediterranean island , which gave its name to the sardine in the 13 th century . however , long before this , it was already widely fished , as it was always abundant and easy to catch . the phoenicians preserved it in salt and it was pressed to extract the oil , which was used as a fuel to make light .\nalongside herring , with which it was often confused , sardines fed whole populations for many centuries .\nthe idea of sardines in cans was dreamt up in 1820 by joseph colin of nantes . inspired by the invention of sterilization ( nicolas appert ) ten years previously , he had the great idea of putting sardines in a tin can , thereby sterilizing them . at the time this was a luxury product , but then canned sardines gradually became more accessible during the 20 th century , especially after world war i , when they were given to soldiers to meet their protein needs .\nperhaps because of their fairly strong flavor and smell , or perhaps because they were , and still are , a cheap fish , or maybe because they are difficult to work with , sardines have never really found a place in michelin - starred kitchens .\na very fragile fish , sardines must have an intact stomach , no trace of blood on the head , a shiny firm body , and a pleasant sea smell .\nan open belly means that it has been handled carelessly , and / or that it is no longer fresh .\nin france , canned sardines are classified into three categories : extra ( 1 st category ) , choix ( 2 nd category ) and 3 rd category . there is a wide range of options : in oil ( olive or another type ) , in tomato sauce , with herbs , lemon , mustard , or spices , etc . the various added ingredients must be shown on the label . the date of canning is also given and , for some , the vintage ( mill\u00e9sime ) .\nthey are also sold frozen , either whole ( usually from china ) or in double fillets with their skin .\nthe scales are removed from sardines , except when they are small and are going to be broiled : the scales protect their particularly vulnerable flesh , which cooks very quickly .\nthey are cleaned ( and the gills are removed at the same time ) and served whole or filleted .\nthe head is removed by pulling on the backbone : the two fillets remain attached by the tail and can be folded on top of one another .\nsardines can be breaded and deep fried , shallow fried , made into a gratin , or cooked en papillote . they can be cooked in an escabeche or stuffed , added to a fish soup or tagine , or marinated raw when extremely fresh . in japan , they are used to make sashimi and tsumire ( dumplings ) .\ncanned sardines can be used to make rillettes or a stuffing for baby tomatoes or raw zucchini .\nfresh sardines will keep for up to 24 hours in the refrigerator or cold room between 2 and 4\u00b0c in their ice .\ncanned sardines are stored at room temperature : sardines in oil must be turned over from time to time .\nthe sardine is an oily fish . its fat mainly comprises unsaturated fatty acids ( mono and polyunsaturated ) . it therefore contains omega 3 , especially when canned in oil .\nmediterranean sardine ( sardina pilchardus sardina ) . the smallest and the least oily . the smallest ones , called italian sardines , are generally 12\u201315 cm long , but they can sometimes grow up to 20 cm .\n22 march 2015 ( desdemona despair ) \u2013 you may have noticed the ongoing mass - starvation event among california sea lions . ( \u201c why are california sea lion pups starving ? \u201d ; \u201c sick sea lions flood shelters in california \u2013 pups wash ashore all along the coast amid what scientists say are strains on the ocean \u201d )\nthe sea lions are starving because humans have fished out one of their main forage fish , sardines . desdemona wanted to check the claim that \u201cany fishing on sardines right now is overfishing\u201d , so des downloaded the latest data from the united nations food and agricultural organization ( fao ) . fao maintains a huge trove of data on world food production , including annual catches of many fish . fao tracks four sardinops species :\nfao doesn\u2019t aggregate the data , but it was an easy matter to compute the total catch and graph it . and indeed , it\u2019s clear that as of 2012 , sardinops populations worldwide have crashed . the peak catch was in 1985 , at 11 , 690 , 299 tons , and the annual catch has since plummeted to less than 800 , 000 tons per year .\nthis is a classic resource depletion curve that follows logistic growth and decline ( hubbert curve ) . it confirms that the sardinops resource is depleted , and \u201cany fishing on sardines right now is overfishing\u201d .\nyou can get the data and related graphs here : sardine ( sardinops ) landings fao . xlsx .\nin our first installment in a series of fisheries \u201cclassics\u201d we discuss the pacific sardine ( sardinops sagax ) . the us west coast sardine fishery made headlines last year when the pacific fishery management council completely closed the commercial fishing seasons for washington , oregon and california . the sardine fishery has been quite important in understanding the biology of exploited fishes and is justly deserving of being our first \u201cclassic\u201d fisheries story .\npacific sardines once supported the largest fishery in the california current , off the west coast of north america from canada to baja california . the fishery developed at the beginning of the great depression as pacific sardines were processed for food and oil as well as for fish meal used by the expanding poultry industry . at its peak , the fishery yielded 600 , 000mt annually ( maccall 2015 ) . cannery row , in monterey , ca ( made famous by john steinbeck\u2019s novel of the same name ) was named for the sardine processors that lined the main street .\nin the 1950s , the stock collapsed\u2014culminating in a california - legislated moratorium on commercial sardine harvests from 1967 - 1986 , closing even the small bait fishery ( figure 1 ) . this collapse initiated the first assertions from the scientific community that overfishing was the root cause of the problem ( maccall 2011 ) . by 1972 fishing effort in the california current had shifted to northern anchovies ( engraulis mordax ) , which had become abundant .\nthrough the 1980\u2019s and 1990\u2019s pacific sardine abundance began to recover . this period was marked by a notable el ni\u00f1o year in 1992 when pacific sardines were dispersed as far north as british columbia where they had not been seen in over 40 years ( maccall 2015 ) . in the early 2000\u2019s pacific sardine biomass levels reached 1 million mt , but with a series of poor recruitments declined to the low levels reported last year .\nsee figures 2 , 3 , 4a and 4b for biomass , catch and total allowable catch ( tac ) , and fishing mortality rate of pacific sardines .\nfigure 1 . california sardine landings during the early years of the california cooperative oceanic fisheries investigations ( calcofi ) ( maccall 2011 ) .\nfigure 2 . pacific sardine ( sardinops sagax ) biomass ( hill 2015 ) .\nfigure 3 . pacific sardine ( sardinops sagax ) northern stock total allowable catch and landings for the us ( hill 2015 ) .\nfigure 4 . pacific sardine ( sardinops sagax ) northern stock fishing mortality rate ( fishsource . com 2016 ) .\nin 1965 garth murphy conducted a comprehensive study of sardine demography in the california current and concluded that intense fishing effort was the primary cause for the stock\u2019s collapse ( maccall 2011 ) . it was precipitated by poor recruitment in the early 1950\u2019s , but overfishing was considered the main catalyst . murphy also suggested that the surging populations of northern anchovy had ecologically replaced pacific sardines ( maccall 2011 ) . specific environmental influences were not identified .\nfigure 5 . a depiction of pacific sardine scale deposition rates taken from the santa barbara basin and adapted as originally presented in baumgartner et al . ( 1992 ) . this data illustrates the 50 to 100 year cyclical boom and bust nature of pacific sardines in the california current system .\nwhile populations did increase according to baumgartner et al\u2019s 50 - year theory in the 1990\u2019s , they were still well below the high levels of the 1940\u2019s . similar to patterns of fluctuations seen in the santa barbara sediments , pacific sardine biomass dropped sharply from 1 million mt in 2006 to an estimated 97 , 000 mt in 2015 , causing the abrupt closing of the commercial fishery , in accordance with the biomass - dependent harvest plan\nfigure 6 . pacific sardine science and management timeline . adapted from a personal interview with alec maccall ( 2015 ) .\nbaumgartner , t . r . , a . soutar , and v . ferreira - bartrina . 1992 . reconstruction of the history of pacific sardine and northern anchovy populations over the past two millenia from sediments of the santa barbara basin , california . calcofi reports 33 : 24\u201340 ."]}
{"id": 2525, "summary": [{"text": "trithemis kirbyi , also known as the orange-winged dropwing , scarlet rock glider , or kirby 's dropwing , is a species of dragonfly in the family libellulidae . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "trithemis kirbyi", "paragraphs": ["clausnitzer , v . 2005 . trithemis kirbyi . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 10 august 2007 .\ntrithemis kirbyi , the orange - winged dropwing or kirby ' s dropwing , is a species of dragonfly in the family libellulidae .\nholusa , o . 2008 . trithemis kirbyi auf sardinien : erstnachweis f\u00fcr europa ( odonata : libellulidae ) . libellula 27 : 111 - 115 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - orange - winged dropwing ( trithemis kirbyi )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - orange - winged dropwing ( trithemis kirbyi )\ntitle =\narkive species - orange - winged dropwing ( trithemis kirbyi )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nchelmick , d . and pickess , b . p . 2008 . trithemis kirbyi selys in southern spain ( anisoptera : libellulidae ) . notulae odonatologicae 7 : 4 - 5 .\nthe former splitting into a nominotypical form and a subspecies trithemis kirbyi ardens ( gerst\u00e4cker , 1891 ) is currently challenged because of different opinions on biogeographic interpretation in the distribution of phenotypes .\ntrithemis kirbyi is a wide ranging african species , also occuring in the arabian peninsular and indian peninsular . in northern africa , the species is present in morocco , algeria , tunisia , chad and egypt . it is likely also to be present in niger , mauritania , libyan arab jamahiriya , mali and sudan .\ntrithemis kirbyi is widespread from africa ( except in rainforest areas ) to india . the species ' range is extending to the north and it recently began to spread in southern europe ( southern spain , sardinia ) . surprisingly , it doesn ' t occur in the levant and large parts of the middle - east .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - violet dropwing ( trithemis annulata )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - violet dropwing ( trithemis annulata )\ntitle =\narkive species - violet dropwing ( trithemis annulata )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\njustification : trithemis kirkbyi is a wide - ranging species in northern africa , with no sign of population decline . assessed as least concern in the region .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - red - veined dropwing ( trithemis arteriosa )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - red - veined dropwing ( trithemis arteriosa )\ntitle =\narkive species - red - veined dropwing ( trithemis arteriosa )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ntrithemis kirbyi is widespread in africa and the indian subcontinent and reaches the southern mediterranean coast . recently the species has been found in sardinia in 2003 ( holu\u0161a 2008 ) and in southern spain in 2008 ( chelmick and pickess 2008 ) . in the province of malaga , it was found breeding in 2008 ( cano - villegas and conesa garcia 2009 ) . it is not unlikely that this is a prelude to an expansion of its range to southern europe as it has happened with other african species like trithemis annulata and brachytremis leucosticta .\npinhey , e . 1970 . monographic study of the genus trithemis brauer ( odonata : libellulidae ) . memoirs of the entomological society of southern africa 11 : 1 - 159 .\ntrithemis kirbyi is widespread from africa ( except in rainforest areas ) to india . the range is extending to the north and it recently began to spread in southern europe ( southern spain , sardinia ) . surprisingly , it does not occur in the levant and large parts of the middle east . in the arabian peninsula , trithemis kirbyi is widespread on the western and eastern margins , where it remains confined to the southern half of the peninsula . one hundred and twenty five records are available from 88 distinct localities in 65 sites over 1 , 300 , 000 km\u00b2 . thirty - eight percent of the records dates from 1990 onwards but only nine percent are from 2000 onwards . recently , new records are available from 2009 , 2010 and 2011 ( samraoui pers . obs . , schneider pers . obs . ) .\ntrithemis kirbyi is an opportunistic species which rapidly colonizes all kinds of freshwater habitats . the larvae develop inperennial andtemporarydesert watersthanks to a short larval period ( less than 50 days ) . itis the most common species in all kinds of desert freshwater . adults are found atpools , ponds , swimming pools and water tanks as well asalong wadis , brooks , streams andrivers . they settle on boulders and rocks or perch ontwigs ofreeds and rush .\ngiere , s . and hadrys , h . ( 2006 ) polymorphic microsatellite loci to study population dynamics in a dragonfly , the libellulid trithemis arteriosa . molecular ecology notes , 6 : 933 - 935 .\ntrithemis kirbyi is an opportunistic species which rapidly colonies all kinds of freshwater habitats . the larvae develop in perennial and temporary desert waters thanks to a short larval period ( less than 50 days ) . it is the most common species in all kinds of desert freshwater . adults are found at pools , ponds , swimming pools and water tanks , as well as along wadis , brooks , streams and rivers . they settle on boulders and rocks or perch on twigs of reeds and rush .\npinhey , e . c . g . ( 1970 ) . monographic study of the genus trithemis brauer ( odonata : libellulidae ) . memoirs entomological society southern africa , 11 , 1 - 159 . [ pdf file ]\none of africa\u2019s most common and widely distributed dragonflies , the male red - veined dropwing ( trithemis arteriosa ) has a slender red abdomen and is named after the bright red veins running across its wings ( 2 ) .\ncano - villegas , f . j . and conesa - garcia , m . a . 2009 . expansion de trihemis kirbyi ( selys , 1891 ) ( odonata : libelluidae ) en la provincial de malaga ( s . peninsula iberica ) . boletin de la sea 44 .\nthe violet dropwing ( trithemis annulata ) is a distinctive dragonfly that is well known for its striking violet colouration , from which it gets its common name . the male of this species appears purple , but this is due to a bright red base colour on the abdomen and thorax , which is overlaid with a blue , powdery bloom ( \u2018pruinescence\u2019 ) on the surface , creating the vibrant violet colouration ( 2 ) .\nin contrast , the female violet dropwing is not quite as vivid as the male . instead , the female has a yellow - brown body , a large yellow patch at the base of the hindwing , and no red in the wing veins ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the female violet dropwing can be distinguished from other female trithemis species by its stouter abdomen and by the black marks on top of the eighth and ninth abdomen segments . juvenile male violet dropwings first adopt a yellowish colour similar to the female , then later turn orange and red and finally the vibrant violet colour on reaching maturity ( 2 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this ubiquitous and nomadic species is widespread with no known major threats . it is therefore assessed as least concern .\nthis species was always common in large parts of its african and arabian range and increased during the last 50 years in the maghreb . it recently ( in 2008 ) crossed the straight of gibraltar to settle in spain and the mediterranean to reach sardinia . european subpopulations are still low but will probably increase during the next decades due to climate change .\nthis species is not under threat at the global scale , although pollution and over use of water by humans may cause it to decline locally .\n1 . forest - > 1 . 6 . forest - subtropical / tropical moist lowland suitability : suitable 2 . savanna - > 2 . 1 . savanna - dry suitability : suitable 3 . shrubland - > 3 . 5 . shrubland - subtropical / tropical dry suitability : suitable 3 . shrubland - > 3 . 6 . shrubland - subtropical / tropical moist suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 1 . wetlands ( inland ) - permanent rivers / streams / creeks ( includes waterfalls ) suitability : suitable major importance : yes 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 2 . wetlands ( inland ) - seasonal / intermittent / irregular rivers / streams / creeks suitability : suitable major importance : yes 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - permanent freshwater lakes ( over 8ha ) suitability : suitable major importance : yes 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 6 . wetlands ( inland ) - seasonal / intermittent freshwater lakes ( over 8ha ) suitability : suitable major importance : yes 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 7 . wetlands ( inland ) - permanent freshwater marshes / pools ( under 8ha ) suitability : suitable major importance : yes 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 8 . wetlands ( inland ) - seasonal / intermittent freshwater marshes / pools ( under 8ha ) suitability : suitable major importance : yes 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 9 . wetlands ( inland ) - freshwater springs and oases suitability : suitable major importance : yes 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 12 . wetlands ( inland ) - geothermal wetlands suitability : suitable major importance : yes 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 13 . wetlands ( inland ) - permanent inland deltas suitability : suitable major importance : no 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 18 . wetlands ( inland ) - karst and other subterranean hydrological systems ( inland ) suitability : marginal\nal - safadi , m . m . 1990 . dragonflies ( odonata ) of the yemen arab republic . fauna of saudi arabia 11 : 18 - 30 .\nal - safadi , m . m . 1995 . a pilot study of lake ma ' rib , yemen . hydrobiologia 315 : 203 - 209 .\nboudot , j . p . , kalkman , v . j . , azpilicueta amor\u00edn , m . , bogdanovi\u0107 , t . , cordero rivera , a . , degabriele , g . , dommanget , j . l . , ferreira , s . , garrig\u00f3s , b . , jovi\u0107 , m . , kotarac , m . , lopau , w . , marinov , m . , mihokovi\u0107 , n . , riservato , e . , samraoui , b . and schneider , w . 2009 . atlas of the odonata of the mediterranean and north africa . libellula supplement 9 : 256 pp .\ncarf\u00ec , s . , romano , v . and terzani , f . 1995 . some dragonflies from the north of the republic of yemen . bolletino de la societ\u00e0 entomologica italiana 126 : 195 - 199 .\ndumont , h . j . and al - safadi , m . m . 1991 . additions to the dragonfly fauna of yemen . notulae odonatologicae 3 : 114 - 117 .\ndumont , h . j . and al - safadi , m . m . 1993 . further additions to the dragonfly fauna of the republic of yemen ( odonata ) . opuscula zoologica fluminensia . 109 : 1\u20138 .\ndurand , e . and renoult , j - p . 2012 . [ addition \u00e0 l ' odonatofaune de l ' adrar mauritanien ] . poiretia 4 : 7 - 16 . url [ urltoken\nfeulner , g . r . 2006 . field reports . diverse dragonflies . gazelle , newsletter of the dubai natural history group 21 : 6 - 7 .\nfraser , f . c . 1956 . faune de madagascar i . insectes odonates anisopt\u00e8res . publications de l\u00b4institut de recherche scientifique tananarive - tsimbazaza . , tananarive .\niucn . 2006 . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 05 june ) .\niucn . 2016 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2016 - 3 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 07 december 2016 ) .\nkrupp , f . , apel , m . , hamoud , a . , schneider , w . and zajonz , u . 2006 . zoological survey in the red sea coastal zone of yemen . fauna of arabia 21 : 11 - 32 .\nlambret , p . and boudot , j . - p . 2009 . nesciothemis farinosa ( f\u00f6rster , 1898 ) et orthetrum ransonnetii ( brauer , 1868 ) nouveaux pour l ' arabie saoudite et autres observations d ' odonates sur les reliefs c\u00f4tiers de la mer rouge . martinia , 25 : 153 - 155 .\nlongfield , c . 1947 . the odonata of south angola . arquivos do museu bocage , lisboa 16 : 1 - 31 .\nlongfield , c . 1955 . the odonata of north angola . part i . publica\u00e7\u00f5es culturais companhia de diamantes de angola 27 : 11 - 64 .\nlongfield , c . 1959 . the odonata of north angola . part ii . publica\u00e7\u00f5es culturais companhia de diamantes de angola 45 : 15 - 41 .\nmartens , a . j\u00f6dicke , r . and suhling , f . 2003 . annotated checklist of the odonata of namibia . cimbebasia 18 : 139 - 160 .\npinhey , e . 1961 . a collection of odonata from dundo , angola . with the descriptions of two new species of gomphids . publi\u00e7ac\u00f5es culturais companhia de diamantes de angola lisboa 56 : 71 - 76 .\npinhey , e . 1961 . some dragonflies ( odonata ) from angola ; and descriptions of three new species of the family gomphidae . publi\u00e7ac\u00f5es culturais companhia de diamantes de angola lisboa 56 : 81 - 86 .\npinhey , e . 1964 . dragonflies ( odonata ) of the angola - congo borders of rhodesia . publi\u00e7ac\u00f5es culturais companhia de diamantes de angola lisboa 63 : 97 - 129 .\npinhey , e . 1965 . odonata from luanda and the lucala river , angola . revista de biologia , lisboa 5 : 159 - 164 .\npinhey , e . 1967 . odonata of ngamiland . arnoldia 15 : 1 - 17 .\npinhey , e . 1970 . a new approach to african orthetrum ( odonata ) . occasional papers of the national museum of southern rhodesia ( b ) 4 : 261 - 321 .\npinhey , e . 1975 . a collection of odonata from angola . arnoldia 23 : 1 - 16 .\npinhey , e . 1976 . dragonflies ( odonata ) of botswana , with ecological notes . occasional papers of the national museums and monuments of rhodesia , series b 5 : 524 - 601 .\npinhey , e . 1981 . checklist of the odonata of mozambique . occasional papers of the national museums and monuments of rhodesia , series b 6 : 557 - 631 .\npinhey , e . 1984 . a check - list of the odonata of zimbabwe and zambia . smithersia 3 : 1 - 64 .\npinhey , e . 1984 . a survey of the dragonflies ( odonata ) of south africa . part 1 . journal of the entomological society of south africa 47 : 147 - 188 .\npinhey , e . 1985 . a survey of the dragonflies ( odonata ) of south africa . part 2 . anisoptera . journal of the entomological society of south africa 48 : 1 - 48 .\nris , f . 1931 . odonata aus s\u00fcd - angola . revue suisse de zoologie 38 : 97 - 112 .\nsamways , m . j . 1999 . diversity and conservation status of south african dragonflies ( odonata ) . odonatologica 28 : 13 - 62 .\nsamways , m . j . 2002 . a strategy for national red listing invertebrates based on experiences with odonata in south africa . african entomology 10 : 43 - 52 .\nsamways , m . j . 2008 . dragonflies and damselflies of south africa . pensoft , sofia - moscou .\nschneider , w . 1988 . dragonflies ( odonata ) of the wahiba sands and adjacent areas , eastern oman . journal of oman studies special report 3 : 377\u2013388 .\nschneider , w . and dumont , h . j . 1997 . the dragonflies and damselflies ( insecta : odonata ) of oman . an updated and annotated checklist . fauna of saudi arabia 16 : 89 - 110 .\nschneider , w . and krupp , f . 1993 . dragonfly records from saudi arabia , with an annotated checklist of the species from the arabian peninsula ( insecta : odonata ) . fauna of saudi arabia 13 : 63 - 78 .\nsubramanian , k . a . 2005 . dragonflies and damselflies of peninsular india \u2013 a field guide . project lifescape . indian academy of sciences , bangalore , india .\nsuhling , f . and martens , a . 2007 . dragonflies and damselflies of namibia . gamsberg macmillan publishers , windhoek .\nsuhling , f . , sahl\u00e9n , g . , martens , a . , marais , e . and sch\u00fctte , c . 2006 . dragonfly assemblages in arid tropical environments : a case study from western namibia . biodiversity and conservation 15 : 311 - 332 .\ntarboton , w . and tarboton , m . 2002 . a field guide to the dragonflies of south africa . tarboton and tarboton , nylstroom .\ntariq chauldry , m . 2010 . systematics of dragonflies ( anisoptera : odonata ) of pakistan . department of entomology , arid agriculture university , faculty of crop and food sciences .\nwaterston , a . r . 1980 . insects of saudi arabia . odonata . fauna of saudi arabia 2 : 57\u201370 .\nwaterston , a . r . 1984 . insects of southern arabia . odonata from the yemens and saudi arabia . fauna of saudi arabia 6 : 451\u2013472\nwaterston , a . r . and pittaway , a . r . 1991 ( 1989 ) . the odonata or dragonflies of oman and neighbouring territories . journal of oman studies 10 : 131 - 168 .\nwilson , k . d . p . 2008 . a brief trip to united arab emirates and northern oman . agrion , newsletter of the worldwide dragonfly association 12 : 56 - 57 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\njoshi , s . , p . koparde , p . dawn , p . roy , and k . kunte ( eds . ) .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 , all rights reserved . national centre for biological sciences ( ncbs ) holds copyright for all the original material and compilations on this website , although contributing writers and photographers may hold copyright for their material as cited . material from this website can be used freely for educational , basic research and conservation purposes , provided that this website is acknowledged and properly cited as the source . contact us to obtain prior permission for any other use , including for large data downloads and collaborative research .\nde knijf , g . , ferreira , s . & riservato , e .\njustification : european regional assessment : not applicable ( na ) eu 27 assessment : not applicable ( na ) the species has only recently been found breeding in one spanish province . this presence is less than 1 % of its global range and it is therefore assessed as not applicable .\nthe species is not uncommon within its range in the maghreb and often fairly abundant when found . it is likely that the same will be true for europe if the species proofs to become a stable part of the european fauna .\nthe species has only recently been found reproducing within europe . outside europe , the species breeds in open , largely unshaded streams and runnels with a bare , stony or rocky bottom . the species is often found in open , arid landscapes but is also often present near settlements where it breeds in concrete ditches , and drink water basins for cattle and fountains .\ninformation on the orange - winged dropwing is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nenvironment agency - abu dhabi is a principal sponsor of arkive . ead is working to protect and conserve the environment as well as promoting sustainable development in the emirate of abu dhabi .\nclassified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nrobert w . reimer c / o united arab emirates university - ugru p . o . box 17172 al ain united arab emirates tel : + 971 ( 50 ) 663 - 0764 arkive @ urltoken urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is featured in jewels of the uae , which showcases biodiversity found in the united arab emirates in association with the environment agency \u2013 abu dhabi .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\na species that is spreading north from africa into spain and colonising relatively rapidly . the distribution maps in dijkstra / lewington , published 2006 , do not show it in spain but it is now [ 2016 ] at least as far up as valencia .\ni was keen to find these on my september 2015 spanish trip and had targeted a reserve just above valencia called the marjal dels moros . as it turned out , i found my first male on my local river in jal\u00f3n . i was then lucky enough to find a female at the marjal de gandia .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nreceive our free weekly newsletter which includes our popular photo of the week and review of the week features , plus competitions , special offers and much more . hide message .\nview thousands of photos and video of odonates from around the world , or upload your own . to search by species , use the species guide ( change\nioc\nto\ndragonflies & damselflies\nbefore searching by taxon ) .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nthe violet colouration of the male violet dropwing is actually caused by a bluish , powdery bloom overlaying a bright red background colour .\nlike other dropwings , the violet dropwing is named for its habit of lowering its wings when it lands .\nthe violet dropwing is one of the most abundant dragonfly species in tropical africa , and is extending its range into europe .\nthe violet dropwing is a small - to medium - sized dragonfly , and has a distinctly broad abdomen ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . like many other dropwing species , the violet dropwing immediately lowers its wings on landing , a behaviour which gives this group of dragonflies their common name ( 5 ) .\nthe male violet dropwing has a distinctive bright red face , red eyes , and red wing veins , and there is an amber patch at the base of each hindwing ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the abdomen has fine purple dashes along the top , with small black stripes on the top of the eighth and ninth abdomen segments ( 4 ) .\nlike other dragonflies , the violet dropwing begins its life as an egg laid in a water body by the female . after hatching , it spends the first stages of life as an aquatic larva , or nymph , which breathes through internal gills ( 3 ) ( 6 ) . the larva remains in the water as it passes through a number of developmental stages , undergoing a series of moults as it grows larger . eventually , the larva emerges from the water and moults into the adult form ( 6 ) . the adult violet dropwing then spends some time maturing until it is fully mature and capable of reproduction ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .\nin most dragonfly species , the adult male perches near the waterside waiting for a female , and may defend a territory . during mating , the male holds the female by the head using specialised appendages , known as \u2018claspers\u2019 , at the end of the abdomen . male dragonflies have secondary reproductive organs towards the front of the abdomen , from which the female receives the sperm . while being held by the male , the female dragonfly bends the tip of her abdomen forwards to receive the sperm packet , creating a shape known as a mating \u2018wheel\u2019 ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .\nmany male dragonflies keep hold of or guard the female until the eggs are laid , to ensure no other males can mate with her ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) . as in other members of the libellulidae family , the female violet dropwing is likely to scatter the eggs over the surface of the water by dipping her abdomen into the water while flying over it ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe violet dropwing larva is an opportunistic predator , catching prey by shooting out its enlarged and modified mouthparts ( 3 ) ( 6 ) , which are armed with hooks on the end ( 6 ) . the adult violet dropwing is also an opportunistic and effective predator , using its acute vision to detect prey , and its outstretched , bristly legs as a \u2018basket\u2019 to capture insects in flight ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .\nin the violet dropwing , adults are usually seen between november and may in south africa ( 4 ) , between may and october in parts of northern africa , and from april to october in turkey ( 2 ) . in the sahara , adults of this species may be seen year - round , and in europe they are thought to be active in all summer months ( 2 ) .\noriginally of african origin , the violet dropwing also occurs in the mediterranean region , and is expanding its range in southern europe ( 2 ) . the violet dropwing inhabits tropical africa , where it is one of the most abundant dragonfly species ( 2 ) , and is also found in the middle east , parts of southern asia , and on islands in the indian ocean ( 1 ) , including madagascar ( 1 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe violet dropwing can inhabit a range of vegetation types , as long as a suitable area of freshwater is available ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . it is typically found near still or slow - moving water , including pools , marshes and slow - moving stretches of rivers , where there are bushes or trees nearby ( 4 ) . at the edges of its range , the violet dropwing prefers warm spots such as shallow gravel pits , open lakes or lagoons ( 2 ) .\nmale violet dropwings tend to perch prominently on twigs , reeds or rocks in the sun , close to water ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , and then move to the trees in the evening or when the sun is hidden behind clouds ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe violet dropwing is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthere are not currently believed to be any significant threats to the violet dropwing , due to its widespread distribution and increasing population ( 1 ) ( 7 ) . however , this species may potentially be affected by some of the general threats faced by dragonflies , including intensive agriculture and large - scale land conversion , the destruction and modification of water bodies , over - extraction of water for irrigation , and water pollution ( 4 ) ( 7 ) . other potential threats include global warming , which may cause water bodies to dry up during increasingly hot and dry periods ( 7 ) .\nthere are no specific conservation measures currently known to be in place for the violet dropwing . however , other conservation efforts , not directly aimed at this species , may potentially benefit its populations . for example , conservation efforts for dragonflies in europe include research , population monitoring , appropriate legislation and the protection of key habitat sites ( 7 ) .\nmoore , n . w . ( 1997 ) dragonflies : status survey and conservation action plan . iucn / ssc odonata specialist group , iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk . available at : urltoken\nkalkman , v . j . , boudot , j - p . , bernard , r . , conze , k . j . , de knijf , g . , dyatlova , e . , ferreira , s . , jovi\u0107 , m . , ott , j . , riservato , e . and sahl\u00e9n , g . ( 2010 ) european red list of dragonflies . publications office of the european union , luxembourg . available at : urltoken\nabdomen in arthropods ( crustaceans , insects and arachnids ) the abdomen is the hind region of the body , which is usually segmented to a degree ( but not visibly in most spiders ) . in crustacea ( such as crabs ) , some of the limbs attach to the abdomen ; in insects the limbs are attached to the thorax ( the part of the body nearest to the head ) and not the abdomen . larva stage in an animal\u2019s lifecycle after it hatches from the egg . larvae are typically very different in appearance to adults ; they are able to feed and move around but usually are unable to reproduce . moult in insects , a stage of growth whereby the hard outer layer of the body ( the exoskeleton ) is shed and the body becomes larger . nymph stage of insect development , similar in appearance to the adult but sexually immature and without wings . the adult form is reached via a series of moults and the wings develop externally as the nymph grows . territory an area occupied and defended by an animal , a pair of animals or a colony . thorax part of the body located between the head and the abdomen in animals . in insects , the three segments between the head and the abdomen , each of which has a pair of legs .\ndijkstra k - d . b . ( 2006 ) field guide to the dragonflies of britain and europe . british wildlife publishing , dorset , uk .\npicker , m . , griffiths , c . and weaving , a . ( 2004 ) field guide to insects of south africa . struik publishers , cape town .\nsamways , m . j . ( 2008 ) dragonflies and damselflies of south africa . pensoft publishers , bulgaria .\nsilsby , j . ( 2001 ) dragonflies of the world . csiro publishing , collingwood , australia .\no ' toole , c . ( 2002 ) the new encyclopedia of insects and their allies . oxford university press , oxford .\nit is found in algeria , angola , benin , botswana , burkina faso , chad , comoros , the democratic republic of the congo , ivory coast , egypt , ethiopia , gambia , ghana , guinea , kenya , liberia , madagascar , malawi , morocco , mozambique , namibia , nigeria , senegal , somalia , south africa , sudan , tanzania , togo , uganda , western sahara , zambia , zimbabwe , and possibly burundi . it is also present in southern europe , the arabian peninsula , the indian ocean islands and south asia up to india .\nthe adult male abdomen measures 21 - 24mm and hind wing 24 - 27mm . female abdomen measures 23mm and hind wing 26 - 30mm . male is a medium sized scarlet dragonfly with a broad reddish amber patch on the base of transparent wings . female is similar to male , but duller in color . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical streams and rivers . breads in marshes , ponds and lakes . prefers to perch on exposed rocks , dry areas , and boulders in riverbeds .\nschneider , w . , ferreira , s . , kalkman , v . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment workshop , oct . 2007 ) & allen , d . ( iucn freshwater biodiversity unit )\ncommon in large parts of its african range , less so in northern africa .\nsmall hard - bottomed water bodies , rocky stream beds , irrigation canals , water tanks etc .\ndijkstra , k . - d . b . & suhling , f . ( ssc odonata specialist group ) , & allen , d . ( iucn freshwater biodiversity unit )\njustification : the species is assessed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nglobal distribution : the species is widespread in africa except deep in rainforest areas , extends to middle east and india . northeastern africa distribution : the species has been recorded from kenya , ethiopia , egypt , sudan , somalia and eritrea . for chad , uganda and djibouti , assumed .\nrange description : widespread in africa except rain forest areas , southern europe , middle east , indian ocean islands , southern asia . in east africa the species is common and widespread in kenya , tanzania , uganda , and malawi . its occurrence in burundi is assumed . countries : native : algeria angola benin botswana burkina faso chad comoros congo , the democratic republic of the c\u00f4te d ' ivoire egypt ethiopia gambia ghana guinea kenya liberia madagascar malawi morocco mozambique namibia nigeria senegal somalia south africa sudan tanzania , united republic of togo uganda western sahara zambia zimbabwe presence uncertain : burundi\nhabitat and ecology : streams , rivers and pools in savanna , woodland or bush . systems : terrestrial ; freshwater list of habitats : 1 , 1 . 6 , 2 , 2 . 1 , 2 . 2 , 3 , 3 . 5 , 3 . 6 , 5 , 5 . 1 , 5 . 18\nthis ubiquitous and nomadic species is widespread with no known major widespread threats ; thus doesn ' t qualify for listing in a threatened category . it is therefore assessed as least concern .\nred list category & criteria : least concern ver 3 . 1 year assessed : 2006 assessor / s : clausnitzer , v . reviewer / s : clausnitzer , v . , dijkstra , k . - d . b . & suhling , f . ( odonata red list authority ) justification : assessed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category . conservation actions : no information is avaliable\nthe species was always common in large parts of its african and arabian range and increased during the last 50 years in the maghreb , then recently ( 2008 ) crossed the straight of gibraltar to settle in spain and the mediterranean to reach sardinia . european populations are still low but will probably increase during the next decades due to global warming .\nthe species is not threatened at the global scale , althoughpollutionand over use ofwater by humans may cause the species to decline locally .\nmajor threat ( s ) : there are no major threats affecting this species .\nit is found in algeria , angola , benin , botswana , burkina faso , chad , comoros , the democratic republic of the congo , ivory coast , egypt , ethiopia , gambia , ghana , guinea , kenya , liberia , madagascar , malawi , morocco , mozambique , namibia , nigeria , senegal , somalia , south africa , sudan , tanzania , togo , uganda , western sahara , zambia , zimbabwe , and possibly burundi . it is also present in southern europe , the middle east , the indian ocean islands and south asia - india .\nthe adult measures 3 . 2 - 3 . 6 cm in length , and reaches a 5 . 8 cm wingspan .\nno diagnosis of this species close to t . bifida and t . legrandi is presently available . please refer to those species and the references provided .\nstreams shaded by forest . mostly with a gravelly but often also sandy bottom , probably especially calmer sections ( like pools ) with submerged roots and / or coarse detritus . from 0 to 700 m above sea level .\nmap citation : clausnitzer , v . , k . - d . b . dijkstra , r . koch , j . - p . boudot , w . r . t . darwall , j . kipping , b . samraoui , m . j . samways , j . p . simaika & f . suhling , 2012 . focus on african freshwaters : hotspots of dragonfly diversity and conservation concern . frontiers in ecology and the environment 10 : 129 - 134 .\nfemale ; liberia , grand gedeh county , putu iron ore mining concession \u00a9 dijkstra , k . - d . b . & a . dayeker\nmale ; liberia , grand gedeh county , putu iron ore mining concession \u00a9 dijkstra , k . - d . b . & a . dayeker\nmale ; sierra leone , eastern province , gola forest \u00a9 dijkstra , k . - d . b . & a . dayeker\nmale ; liberia , nimba county , west nimba proposed forest reserve \u00a9 dijkstra , k . - d . b . & m . darpay\nadult , male ; angola , uige province , loge valley \u00a9 dijkstra , k . - d . b .\nris , f . ( 1912 ) . libellulinen 6 . fasc . xiv in collections zoologiques du baron edm . de selys longchamps . brussels : institut royal des sciences naturelles de belgique , 14 , 701 - 836\npinhey , e . c . g . ( 1961 ) . dragonflies ( odonata ) of central africa . occasional papers rhodes - livingstone museum , 14 , 1 - 97 . [ pdf file ]\npinhey , e . c . g . ( 1966 ) . check - list of dragonflies ( odonata ) from malawi , with description of a new teinobasis kirby . arnoldia , 2 , 1 - 24 . [ pdf file ]\ncitation : dijkstra , k . - d . b ( editor ) . african dragonflies and damselflies online . urltoken [ 2018 - 07 - 09 ] .\nafrican dragonflies and damselflies online is a collaboration between consent ( stellenbosch ) and adu ( cape town ) funded by the jrs biodiversity foundation . addo brings all available knowledge together of africa ' s 770 known species of odonata . read more . . .\nby combining conservation ecology and entomology , our department at stellenbosch university brings together a considerable body of teaching and research expertise in the rapidly growing important field of conservation in agricultural and development landscapes . read more . . .\nthe adu aims to contribute to the understanding of biodiversity and its conservation . we achieve this through programmes that involve citizen scientists , long - term monitoring , research and innovative statistical modelling . read more . . .\nthe female and immature red - veined dropwing , have a yellowish - russet abdomen with a pale streak between the wings ( 2 ) . as with other dropwing species , the wings are held downwards and forwards when at rest ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nboth the male and female red - veined dropwing have orange flecks at the base of the wings and large crimson eyes . the distinctive lower mouthparts are yellow with a central bronze stripe . black splashes run along the sides of the abdomen , increasing in size up to the tip , which is entirely black ( 2 ) . the oval larvae or \u2018 nymphs \u2019 of the red - veined dropwing are hairless with a spiny abdomen covered in dark brown speckles ( 3 ) .\nred - veined dropwing nymphs are ferocious predators ( 7 ) , feeding on small invertebrates ( 8 ) . dragonfly nymphs are aquatic and after completing a number of developmental stages , they emerge from the water and moult into an adult dragonfly . the newly emerged dragonfly matures and gains its unique colouring before breeding ( 2 ) .\nthe flight period for adult red - veined dropwings is throughout the year , although they are more commonly seen during the summer months , perched prominently on vegetation at the waters edge ( 2 ) . perching is thought to help the red - veined dropwing locate and catch prey and allows the male red - veined dropwing to lookout for female mates and intruders ( 3 ) ( 9 ) .\nmale red - veined dropwings are very territorial , and can battle with other males of the same species for around 20 minutes . the defender often flies tightly around the intruder , known as \u2018spinning\u2019 , and attempts to force the intruder to fly upwards . these conflicts often cause severe wing damage and wing condition deteriorates with age ( 9 ) .\nwidespread and common in africa , the red - veined dropwing is particularly abundant in southern africa ( 2 ) ( 5 ) and can also be found across southern europe and parts of the middle east ( 1 ) .\nthe red - veined dropwing can be found in most aquatic habitats including swamps , marshes , reedy pools , streams , slow - moving rivers and , in arid regions , salt pans ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . breeding is known to take place in temporary pools where aquatic larvae have been found buried up to 30 centimetres in the water bed ( 6 ) .\nthe red - veined dropwing is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe red - veined dropwing is currently an abundant and widespread species and is not considered to be under threat ( 1 ) .\nas a common and widespread species , there are no conservation measures in place for the red - veined dropwing ( 1 ) . however , the red - veined dropwing is sensitive to changes in water quality and can be used as an indicator species for permanent water sources ( 5 ) .\nsimaica , j . p . ( 2008 ) conservation biogeography of south african dragonflies ( odonata ) . department of conservation ecology and entomology , stellenbosch university . available at : urltoken\nabdomen in arthropods ( crustaceans , insects and arachnids ) the abdomen is the hind region of the body , which is usually segmented to a degree ( but not visibly in most spiders ) . in crustacea ( such as crabs ) , some of the limbs attach to the abdomen ; in insects the limbs are attached to the thorax ( the part of the body nearest to the head ) and not the abdomen . indicator species any species that provides a guide to the condition of its habitat . invertebrates animals with no backbone , such as insects , crustaceans , worms , molluscs , spiders , cnidarians ( jellyfish , corals , sea anemones ) and echinoderms . larvae the stage in an animal\u2019s lifecycle after it hatches from the egg . larvae are typically very different in appearance to adults ; they are able to feed and move around but usually are unable to reproduce . moult in insects , a stage of growth whereby the hard outer layer of the body ( the exoskeleton ) is shed and the body becomes larger . nymph stage of insect development , similar in appearance to the adult but sexually immature and without wings . the adult form is reached via a series of moults , and the wings develop externally as the nymph grows . territorial describes an animal , a pair of animals or a group that occupies and defends an area .\nsamways , m . j . ( 2008 ) the dragonflies and damselflies of south africa . pensoft publishers , bulgaria .\npicker , m . , griffiths , c . and weaving , a . ( 2004 ) field guide to insects of south africa . struik publishers , cape town , south africa .\ngrunwell , m . j . ( 2010 ) dragonflies and damselflies in the state of qatar . journal of the qatar natural history group . 3 : 2 - 15 . available at : urltoken\nbitzer , r . j . ( 2003 ) odonates of the middle east and their potential as biological indicators for restoring the mesopotamian marshlands of southern iraq . report for the eden again project to restore the mesopotamian marshlands , department of entomology , iowa state university , iowa . available at : urltoken\njacana media ( 2004 ) lowveld and kruger guide . jacana media , johannesburg , south africa .\ntudge , c . ( 2000 ) the variety of life . oxford university press , united kingdom .\ntarboton , w . and tarboton , m . ( 2009 ) red - veined dropwings : how long do they live ? agrion newsletter of the worldwide dragonfly association . 13 ( 2 ) : 48 - 49 .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more"]}
{"id": 2533, "summary": [{"text": "the ornate burrowing frog , ( platyplectrum ornatum , formerly opisthodon ornatus and limnodynastes ornatus ) is a species of ground frog native to australia .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it was moved to the genus opisthodon in 2006 , following a major revision of amphibians , and is now classified in the genus platyplectrum", "topic": 26}], "title": "ornate burrowing frog", "paragraphs": ["for example , 15 species of frog occur in the macquarie marshes and seven of those live underground during long dry periods . these include the striped burrowing frog , ornate burrowing frog , waterholding frog and crucifix toad .\nwhile some frogs choose to hide , others choose to stand out . such is the ornate horned frog , also known as the argentine horned frog , argentine wide - mouthed frog , and ornate pacman frog .\nthe ornate burrowing frog is a small stubby ground frog that lives in the kimberley , northern territory , queensland and across to western sydney . . . .\na medium - sized ( to 5 cm ) robust burrowing frog with smooth skin and moderately long limbs . very similar to the ornate burrowing frog ( platyplectrum ornatum ) , but has much more extensive webbing between the toes and a sharper snout . back pattern is a combination of different shades of brown on a pale background , less distinct than in the ornate burrowing frog .\nthis species and the ornate burrowing frog have been found to be more closely - related to the genus lechriodus from the east coast of australia and new guinea .\ncommon wetland frogs include the striped marsh frog , brown - striped grass frog , spotted grass frog , green tree frog and red - eyed green tree frog .\nornate burrowing frogs burrow during dry or cold times . they occur in a wide range of habitats from the coast to central arid environments .\nthis frog species from madagascar goes by many names , including the ornate hopper , the rainbow burrowing frog , the red rain frog or the gottlebe ' s narrow - mouthed frog . this frog , by any name , is just as colorful . the species is known for its vibrant patterns of red , orange , green , black and white .\nhabitat : burrowing , grasslands and open woodlands call : \u201c unk\u2026unk\u2026unk\u201d . similar to magpie goose call\nkern , p . , cramp , r . l . , franklin , c . e . ( 2014 ) : temperature and uv - b - insensitive performance in tadpoles of the ornate burrowing frog : an ephemeral pond specialist . journal of experimental biology 217 : 1246 - 1252 .\nkern , p . , cramp , r . l . and franklin , c . e . ( 2014 ) . temperature and uv - b - insensitive performance in tadpoles of the ornate burrowing frog : an ephemeral pond specialist . journal of experimental biology 217 , 1246 - 1252 .\nthe ornate burrowing frog has a varying rate of metamorphosis ranging from around 20 to 90 days depending on the local environmental conditions . tadpoles may develop quickly if they are in small water pools - ideally , they are ready to leave the water by the time the water pool dries up .\nthe ornate burrowing frog is a stout frog with broad head with protruding eyes . variable colour pattern ; pale sandy back patterned with irregular darker markings , edged in black ; pale butterfly shaped marking often present between shoulders ; pale yellow or pale orange stripe may be present down middle of back ; small warts often tipped in red are scattered over back ; underneath white .\nbohle iridovirus ( biv ) is a species within the genus ranavirus , family iridoviridae , first isolated from the ornate burrowing frog limnodynastes ornatus in australia . the biv genome confirms it is closely related to isolates from boreal toad anaxyrus boreas and leaf - tailed gecko uroplatus fimbriatus within the united states and germany , respectively .\nornate burrowing frogs feed on all the invertebrates found in leaf litter , garden mulch or compost heaps , from ants to worms , slaters , beetles and even other small frogs . it is in these cool moist places in your garden that you will find them .\nan adaptable frog that is found south to nsw , limnodynastes ornatus is often considered a ' tropical frog ' as its range is greater in hotter climes .\ncitation hick pm , subramaniam k , thompson p , whittington rj , waltzek tb . 2016 . complete genome sequence of a bohle iridovirus isolate from ornate burrowing frogs ( limnodynastes ornatus ) in australia . genome announc 4 ( 4 ) : e00632 - 16 . doi : 10 . 1128 / genomea . 00632 - 16 .\nof the 71 frog species known in nsw , 47 are dependent on wetlands .\nthe ornate and centralian burrowing frogs have been recently transferred from limnodynastes to the genus platyplectrum ( a old name coined in the 19th century ) . although platyplectrum also has a foam nest like limnodynastes , it is more closely associated with lechriodus from the great dividing range in eastern australia and papua new guinea . lechriodus also has predatory tadpoles .\nthis little frog recently made the headlines thanks to its resemblance to a celebrity : kermit the frog . it also made headlines because it ' s a newly discovered species .\nthough it looks like road kill , this flattened frog is actually alive and well . it is possibly the flattest frog around ! ( photo : hugo claessen / wikipedia )\nthe ornate burrowing frog is a small stubby ground frog that lives in the kimberley , northern territory , queensland and across to western sydney . this frog is covered in red - tipped warts and ranges in colour from yellow to grey . breeding occurs during the wet season and females lay up to 1600 eggs in a foam raft she creates by splashing water . some frogs in this species have a large yellow stripe that runs from the nose all the way down its back . this frog is usual in that it burrows feet first using large tubercules or warty lumps on its feet to scrap out soil . males call from dams , puddles and flooded grassland with a short nasally\nunk\nsound .\npenman , t . d . , lemckert , f . l . , mahony , m . j . ( 2008 ) : spatial ecology of the giant burrowing frog ( heleioporus australiacus ) : implications for conservation prescriptions . australian journal of zoology 56 : 179 - 186 .\nthe brazilian horned frog has a mouth as huge as the ornate horned frog and a reputation for being just as aggressive , if not more so . blending into the leaf litter on the forest floor , the 8 - inch long frog only has its ( huge ) head visible , ready to snatch any potential prey that wanders past . some specimens have been found dead with prey sticking out of their mouths , having suffocated rather than give up a large meal .\nfor research and training in wildlife conservation and disease ecology ( specifically frog chytrid fungal disease ) .\nbe careful when gardening as you may dig up a little frog . you can rebury it , and the frog will be fine . avoid touching or taking tadpoles or frogs from ponds , temporary water sources , puddles and so on , as doing so can spread diseases between different frog populations .\ntwo - thirds of the frog species known in new south wales depend on wetlands for their survival .\nthis frog ' s rough green skin perfectly matches its mossy surroundings . ( photo : davemhuntphotography / shutterstock )\nyou can see how the malayn horned frog looks like leaves . ( photo : eric isselee / shutterstock )\nthis miniscule frog is only about 1 inch long , and it ' s a species of glass frog . glass frogs are called such because the skin on their bellies is so translucent , you can see their organs .\nafter this video by dean boshoff was posted online , it also became the unofficial world ' s cutest frog .\nit ' s easy to see why the mossy frog was so named . ( photo : davemhuntphotography / shutterstock )\nthis frog has a wide range of colour but most are uniformly brown and many have obvious markings on their back .\nwailing frog cyclorana vagitus size : up to 5 cm distinguishing features : stout frog with short legs and rough skin . pale grey with dark grey or green markings . fingers are not webbed , toes are half webbed . there are large bumps\nreilly , b . d . , hickey , a . j . r . , cramp , r . l . and franklin , c . e . ( 2014 ) . decreased hydrogen peroxide production and mitochondrial respiration in muscle fibres of the green - striped burrowing frog , a natural model of muscle disuse . journal of experimental biology 217 , 1087 - 1093 .\nthis species is sometimes called a pacman frog because of its exceptionally large mouth . ( photo : cathy keifer / shutterstock )\neighteen species of frog \u2013 a quarter of all frogs in nsw \u2013 are listed as threatened under the biodiversity conservation act 2016 .\nthis 4 - inch frog can glide as far as 50 feet in a single leap . ( photo : norhayati / shutterstock )\nas for being food itself , the frog kills everything that tries to eat it , except for the snake species liophis epinephelus . this is the only species known to have a resistance to ( but not immunity from ) the toxin of the golden dart frog .\nthis tiny , vividly gold frog is one of the most toxic creatures in the world . ( photo : aleksey stemmer / shutterstock )\nthis aggressive frog matches its surroundings , making it a deadly foe for any passing prey . ( photo : dirk ercken / shutterstock )\nbarring across legs ; easily confused with juvenile native frog p . ornatum habitat : sheltering at waters edge in wet vegetation ; diurnal activity\nhazell , d . ( 2003 ) : frog ecology in modified australian landscapes : a review . wildlife research 30 : 193 - 205 .\nthis newly discovered species quickly rose to fame thanks to its similarities to kermit the frog . ( photo : costa rican amphibian research center )\nsome frog species do more than hop . they fly \u2014 or at least glide anyway . there are several species of\nflying frog\nand the wallace ' s flying frog is one of them . these frogs have especially long toes with a great deal of webbing between them , allowing them to spread out to become four tiny parachutes . they also have flaps of skin on their front limbs for extra help .\nwhy\npacman\nfrog ? because this frog will try to swallow pretty much anything that gets close to its unusually large mouth . the frog ' s menu includes everything from insects to rodents to other frogs . it has an insatiable appetite packaged in a 6 - inch body that is half mouth \u2014 literally . its mouth accounts for around half of the frog ' s body . as the national zoo puts it ,\nthese frogs are sometimes called ' mouths with legs ' because the mouth appears to be the entire front half of the body .\nif you live in sandy areas in northern and eastern australia , keep your eye out for a small , pudgy frog with brown colouring and markings .\nmo , m . ( 2014 ) : a preliminary evaluation of frog assemblages in the pilliga forests . wetlands ( australia ) 27 : 2 - 10 .\nkayes , s . m . , cramp , r . l . , hudson , n . j . and franklin , c . e . ( 2013 ) . the effect of opioids on tissue metabolism in aestivating and active green striped burrowing frogs , cyclorana alboguttata . journal of herpetology 47 , 369 - 377 .\na medium - sized ( 4 . 5 cm ) round frog with short legs . they have a broad head with large eyes that stick above its head , and the eardrum is not distinct . they have a large shovel - shaped inner metatarsal tubercle . pale brown colouration with an elaborate series of\nornate\nblotches often edged in black . some individuals have a wide central stripe from the snout and extending along the back . there is often a butterfly - shaped patch behind the eyes .\nbumpy rocket frog , peter\u2019s frog litoria inermis size : 2 . 4\u20133 . 7 cm , small to medium distinguishing features : mottled dark brown on lighter background ; pointed , elongated head ; unwebbed fingers and partially webbed toes ; coarse warty back ; distinct whitepatch at hinge of jaw ; inside of thigh yellow with black marking .\nalthough this frog can produce a variety of sounds the calling males make a sound that has been described a slow repeated\nshort nasal unk\nor gulping sound .\nalso known as the pipa pipa , this may be one of the most bizarre frog species out there , with a disconcerting ( or simply disgusting ) way of reproducing .\nwe reported earlier this month ,\nminnesota researcher brian kubicki , creator of the costa rican amphibian research center , found the kermit the frog wannabe in the caribbean slopes of costa rica . according to the official announcement on the center ' s website , this particular glass frog is unique due to its coloring , the sound of its call , and other morphological features \u2014 including its kermit - like eyes . kubicki said the small , semi - translucent frog ' is a good indicator of the general health of the ecosystem . '\nwith growths like sideburns and claws that suddenly sprout from its toes , it ' s no wonder this species is sometimes called the wolverine frog . ( photo : gustavocarra / wikipedia )\nall information here has been verified by fieldwork as part of the magnetic island frog project which itself , was part of post - graduate studies at james cook university . the links in the column with this name are to scientific species reports that are informative and contain more pictures , also prepared as part of this project . just pic your frog and click on the .\nthe scientific name for this species is phyllobates terribilis , and for good reason . as one of the most toxic animals on the planet , a single 2 - inch frog has enough toxin to kill between 10 - 20 adult humans , or two bull elephants . just one gram of the toxin produced by the skin of the the golden dart frog could kill 15 , 000 people .\nvividly colored , this frog is popular in the pet trade . unfortunately that also has been a factor in causing it to become and endangered species . ( photo : franco andreone / wikipedia )\nmurphy , m . j . ( 2008 ) : observations of frog activity in an area affected by intense wildfire in the pilliga forest , new south wales . herpetofauna 38 : 71 - 74 .\nsmaller than a dime , this tiny frog species is the world ' s smallest vertebrate . ( photo : rittmeyer en , allison a , gr\u00fcndler mc , thompson dk , austin cc / wikipedia )\nthe diana ' s bare - hearted glass frog may be tiny but it has nothing on the paedophryne amauensis , also a relatively new species to science as it was only discovered in august 2009 .\nit will go after practically anything , including intruders , and that includes the feet of people walking past . so the word of advice around this frog is don ' t tread too near one !\nnot only is it colorful but it ' s a skilled climber . by day , the frogs burrow in sandy areas next to streams . by night , they climb the surrounding rocky areas , sometimes climbing vertical walls thanks to the sharp claws on its front feet that help it to grip . it is one of the few frogs that are built to be good at both burrowing and climbing .\nrobertson , j . g . ( 1986 ) female choice , male strategies and the role of vocalizations in the australian frog uperoleia rugosa . animal behaviour , 34 ( 3 ) : 773 - 784 .\ngoldingay , r . l . , newell , d . a . ( 2005 ) : population estimation of the green and golden bell frog litoria aurea at port kembla . australian zoologist 33 : 210 - 216 .\nthere\u2019s still so much that we don\u2019t know about frogs , and this lack of knowledge extends into the realm of reproduction . given that most frog reproduction occurs in waterbodies at night , and there are almost 7700 species of frog known , many in really remote places , it\u2019s perhaps not that surprising . from what we do know , though , it\u2019s becoming clear that frogs don\u2019t all do the same thing when it comes to sex .\nonce a female frog approaches her chosen mate , he will typically embrace her in a position known as amplexus . this most often takes the form of the male jumping on the back of the female , grasping her either behind the arms or around the waist . because the vast majority of frog species fertilize their eggs externally , this positioning helps ensure that the eggs of the female are fertilized by the male when they are released .\ntrichobatrachus robustus is , frankly , a bit on the creepy side . the species is also known as the horror frog or wolverine frog , in part because if threatened , it will intentionally break its own toe bones , which then stick out through the skin to act like claws . these bones later retract on their own and the damaged tissue heals . it ' s the only animal researchers know of with such a defense mechanism .\ndaly , g . , craven , p . ( 2007 ) : monitoring populations of heath frog litoria littlejohni in the shoalhaven region on the south coast of new south wales . australian zoologist 34 : 165 - 172 .\nthe name of the wolverine frog is fitting not only for the bony\nclaws\nthat come flying out of its feet but also for the hair - like growths on the sides of the males called dermal papillae . breeding males grow the papillae , which have arteries and are believed to help increase the surface area of the frog so it can absorb more oxygen as it stays underwater for long periods of time guarding eggs laid by females .\nby turns masters of camouflage ( like the vietnamese mossy frog pictured here ) or standing out like a neon sign , amphibians around the world have amazing adaptations for their different habitats . ( photo : eric isselee / shutterstock )\nmargules , c . r . , davies , k . f . , meyers , j . a . , and milkovits , g . a . ( 1995 ) . ' ' the responses of some selected arthropods and the frog\nwith a body about six inches long , this is the largest of the indian frog species . in the 1990s , people started farming the frogs as a food source . they have also become an invasive introduced species in madagascar .\nthe malayan horned frog waits motionless until prey passes close by , then it rapidly strikes . the usual prey for this species , though , is insects . it also eats spiders , lizards , other frogs and even small rodents .\nthis bizarre looking creature is difficult to recognize as a frog right away due to its , well , blob shape . it is found in the western ghats mountain range in india , and its closest relatives are in the seychelles , off the eastern coast of africa . this species has evolved independently for over 120 million years , which explains its unique appearance . it ' s also sometimes called the pignose frog , due to it ' s long - ish snout .\nthis devilish frog is designed to look like leaves on the forest floor , complete with horn - like projections atop its eyes and nose to add to the spiky look of leaf edges . it lives in the leaf litter of damp , cool lowland rain forests in southeast asia , so it needs to blend in with the other leaves to stay hidden from both predators and prey . it would be difficult to pick this frog out from fallen leaves when walking by :\nthis guide aims to assist in the identification of frog species commonly found on the highlands , tablelands , slopes , and plains of south - west new south wales , contributing to a broader appreciation and knowledge of these interesting and important animals .\nthis species is recorded as being part of the diet of the green tree snake ( dendrelaphis punctulata ) and of of the keelback snake ( tropidonophis mairii ) and is possibly in the diet of most frog eating snakes in the same range .\na capable burrower , l . ornatus diurnally retreats often preferring a sandy substrate . this species burrows obliquely backwards often referred to as a\nbackwards - sliding burrower\nas opposed to the more common burrowing style termed ' circular burrowers ' . it can remain underground for long periods of time . once thought a mainly ' arid ' species , it is often found buried in dry creek beds far from permanent water . warm humid nights is a good time to find foraging adults .\nshauble , c . s . , moritz , c . , and slade , r . w . ( 2000 ) a molecular phylogeny for the frog genus limnodynastes ( anura : myobatrachidae ) , molecular phylogenetics and evolution : 16 : 3 : 379\u2013391\nalthough most frogs advertise their readiness to mate very loudly in swamps and streams at night , we\u2019re only just starting to get a glimpse of the sex life of frogs . it appears that no two frog species take the same approach to mating . indeed , there\u2019s an utterly enormous amount of variation in how frogs \u2018do it\u2019 . research into frog mating behavior is also revealing the creative ways that frogs have evolved to survive , and breed , in different kinds of habitats all over the world .\nthe first step in reproduction is to find a partner . in most frog species , males initiate this contact via advertising their presence and readiness , loudly . males call , usually from a possible breeding site such as a pond , stream or swamp . each frog species has a different call and female frogs can recognize the call of their own species . when females are ready to breed ( when they are full of eggs ) , they move towards calling males , and pick the male that they prefer . female frogs are fussy . in the wrinkled toadlet ( uperoleia rugosa ) from eastern australia , females were found to wander around calling males for 3 - 4 nights before selecting her mate . heavier males with deeper - pitched calls were deemed the most attractive by females of this tiny frog .\nthe shape , and indeed the purple coloring , is understandable because it lives the majority of its life underground eating termites . the purple frog surfaces only for two weeks out of the year during the monsoon season , during which it mates and then heads back underground .\nthis is a native frog . it ' s protected in new south wales . if you have to handle it , make sure your hands or gloves are clean and wet . native frogs can easily be harmed by diseases and chemical residues that may be on your hands .\ngiven that the reproductive behavior of hundreds , if not thousands , of frog species is unknown , there are likely to be some really wonderful mating adaptations out there . these adaptations have allowed frogs to spread across all corners of the earth and fill the night with their amorous advertisement calls .\nwhile most common frogs live in or around fresh water , many live in coastal waters , including the endangered green and golden bell frog . it thrives in water bodies that are unshaded , are free of predatory fish such as gambusia ( plague minnow ) and have grassy areas and sheltering sites nearby .\nmitchell , t . , alton , l . a . , white , c . r . and franklin , c . e . ( 2012 ) . relations between conspecific density and effects of ultraviolet - b radiation on tadpole size in the striped marsh frog . conservation biology 26 , 1112 - 1120 .\nlength 40 - 45mm , a rotund and snub - nosed frog with smooth to slightly warty skin and protruding eyes . highly variable coloration , grey - brown to reddish with complex dark and light blotched patterning . may have a light patch on the neck and a pale orange vertebral stripe . abdomen white . fingers unwebbed and toes quarter webbed .\nthis species ranks way up there among the froggy masters of camouflage . living in subtropical and tropical lowland forests , as well as freshwater marshes , its skin mimics the look of moss , turning it into what looks like a moss - covered rock when the frog sits still . even its eyes have the same textured appearance through their coloration .\nmating is a little more complicated in some frog species , especially when they only have a limited time to breed and there\u2019s not much time to find a partner . for example , some asian treefrog species ( polypedates ) rely on heavy rains to fill puddles and so need to breed as soon as they can if they want to give their tadpoles enough time to turn into a frog before the puddle dries out . in these species , multiple individuals often mate at once . when time is limited , males may also make a mistake and briefly grab on to the wrong species . it\u2019s usually not long before they realise their error , though , and move on to find another potential mate .\nreilly , b . , cramp , r . l . and franklin , c . e . ( 2014 ) . activity , abundance and expression of ca 2 + - activated proteases in skeletal muscle of the aestivating frog , cyclorana alboguttata . journal of comparative physiology b 12 , 1 - 13 . doi 10 . 1007 / s00360 - 014 - 0880 - 6\nso , how long do frogs stay in amplexus ? amplexus duration varies greatly among frog species and has been reported as short as five seconds to several months ! of course , the actual fertilization doesn\u2019t take a month , so there\u2019s often a lot of time in amplexus without much going on . this can be a bit of a burden for female frogs as they may have to cart their mate around on their back the whole time !\nnot only is it tiny but its calls are similar to those of insects , plus their coloring matches the leaf litter on the forest floor . no wonder it took scientists awhile to notice it ! the strategy used by the two researchers who discovered it were to use triangulation to determine the location of the call , then scoop leaf litter into a plastic bag to figure out what was making the noise . then there it was , the tiniest frog in the world . paedophryne amauensis is found in papua new guinea .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a broad range of habitats , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis australian endemic occurs from the kimberley zone in western australia , across northern northern territory , northern and southeastern queensland and into the central coast of new south wales .\nthe species is found in dry coastal and inland areas including areas of woodland , grassland and savannah . it is often found along dry , sandy watercourses some distance from permanent water . they burrow in the daytime and may spend the dry season in a dormant state well beneath the surface . it breeds after heavy rain in shallow ephemeral waters . males call whilst floating in the water , which may be only a small puddle . females lay about 1 , 000 eggs in a foam nest that collapses after a few hours to form a floating layer up to 7cm across . females may breed more than once each season .\nthere are no major threats overall to this extremely widespread species , however there is some localized habitat loss / degradation associated with human settlement and agro - industry farming . tadpoles of the introduced bufo marinus can out compete the tadpoles of this species .\njean - marc hero , john clarke , ed meyer , peter robertson , frank lemckert , dale roberts , paul horner . 2004 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\ncogger , h . g . , in cogger , h . g . , cameron , e . e . & cogger , h . m . 1983 ,\namphibia and reptilia\n, ed . walton , d . w . ( ed . ) , zoological catalogue of australia , vol . 1 , pp . 313 pp . , australian government publishing service , canberra\ngray , j . e . 1842 ,\ndescription of some hitherto unrecorded species of australian reptiles and batrachians\n, ed . gray , j . e . ( ed . ) , the zoological miscellany , pp . 51 - 57 , treuttel , w\u00fcrz & co . , london\ncope , e . d . 1866 ,\non the structure and distribution of the genera of arciferous anura\n, journal of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , ser . 2 , vol . 6 , pp . 67 - 112\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1863 ,\non new species of batrachians from australia\n, annals and magazine of natural history , ser . 3 , vol . 11 , pp . 26 - 28\nsteindachner , f . 1867 ,\namphibien . pp . 1\u201370 in , reise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den befehlen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorff - urbair . zoologie 1 ( 4 )\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 85417dbe - a58b - 4502 - 96c3 - b433ff5c8e98\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b15638c1 - bd4b - 4e1b - a1fd - 68b54b14fdf5\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c24666b5 - a938 - 4301 - 9f40 - ffe39206a53c\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 2e224aea - d0de - 4f29 - 909a - 9b23859ccce7\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 652651\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nbreeds throughout the wet season . females lay their eggs in a foam nest they create by slapping their hands down on the surface of the water to capture air bubbles ( with the male hanging on her back the whole time ) . female lay about 1000 eggs in a foam nest that spreads out to a flat circle about 7 cm in diameter . tadpoles are small ( up to 35 mm ) , development is rapid with tadpoles metamorphosing into froglets about 6 - 8 mm long . the tadpoles are predators of other tadpoles and invertebrates .\nkimberley region . also extends across northern nt , east to queensland ( including torres strait islands ) and south to nsw .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, grows no larger than 50mm and is often mistaken for small cane toads . these frogs are generally active after heavy rain during spring and summer . warm humid nights are a good time to find foraging adults .\ntheir feet have special hardened plates known as tubercles that they use like a shovel to help them dig their burrows . they burrow backwards at an angle giving them the name ' backwards - sliding burrower ' .\nbreeding occurs only after heavy rain and breeding sites can range from puddles to large dams . males will call with a fast ' unk ' , while floating in still water . females lay up to 1 , 600 eggs in a small , dome shaped foam mass they create by slapping their hands down on the surface of the water to catch air bubbles ( the male hangs on her back the whole time ) . the mass collapses within hours into a single floating film layer of eggs and jelly .\nif you live in the right climate , these frogs will live happily in suburban areas so put in a ground pond to attract them to your backyard .\nthese frogs can drown in swimming pools as they have no way to climb out . a hinged wooden platform which extends into the water can help these and any other ground frogs to get out of your pool .\n\u201dprotecting & safeguarding australia\u2019s wilderness & wildlife is important for the health and enjoyment for our future generations , thanks fnpw for your support of our project . \u201c\nbackyard buddies is an initiative of the foundation for national parks & wildlife ( abn 90 107 744 771 ) , a registered charity with the acnc , with deductible gift recipient ( dgr ) . donations over $ 2 are tax - deductible and we thank you for your support .\naustralia is a land like no other , with about one million different native species . more than 80 per cent of the country\u2019s flowering plants , mammals , reptiles and frogs are unique to australia , along with most of its freshwater fish and almost half of its birds .\nalong the northern and eastern sections of australia . from the kimberley zone in western australia , across northern northern territory , northern and south - eastern queensland and into the central coast of new south wales . the extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 2244000 km2 .\nfound in many habitats that are subject to seasonal inundation . often found in dry sandy watercourses some distance from permanent water . they burrow in the daytime and may spend the dry season in a dormant state well beneath the surface . breeds in the wet season only after heavy rain . males call whilst floating in the water , which may be only a small puddle . females lay about 1000 eggs in a foam nest that collapses after a few hours to form a floating layer up to 7cm across . females may breed more than once each season .\nbarker , j . , grigg , g . c . , and tyler , m . j . ( 1995 ) .\nj - m hero et al . ( m . hero at mailbox . gu . edu . au ) , griffith university\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nevie amati : trial starts of woman accused of axe attack caug . . .\na note about relevant advertising : we collect information about the content ( including ads ) you use across this site and use it to make both advertising and content more relevant to you on our network and other sites . find out more about our policy and your choices , including how to opt - out .\nnews limited copyright \u00a9 2018 . all times aest ( gmt + 10 ) .\nmales call while floating in the water . breeding sites can range from puddles to large dams . over 1000 eggs laid in white foamy mass on surface of still water amongst floating vegetation .\nmap is from atlas of living australia website at urltoken licensed under creative commons attribution 3 . 0 australia license\n/ home / nqdry378 / public _ html / bdtwiki / extensions / css / css . php\nthis is a legacy website . content is not being updated but is kept as an archive . updated nrm information is now held in the nq dry tropics nrm information portal at urltoken . while corporate information about nq dry tropics is held on our main website at urltoken\nthis page was last modified on 23 january 2015 , at 04 : 15 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnorthern and eastern australia . widespread in woodland and grasslands of the lowlands , burrows into sandy and alluvial soils , emerging to breed after rain .\nbecause many frogs live in or around wetlands that are only intermittently wet , some have adapted to surviving long dry periods .\nfrogs and tadpoles have thin , porous skin , through which they absorb chemicals from the air and water . for this reason , more than any other terrestrial animal , they need water to survive . most wetland frogs have very limited tolerances for drying .\nfrogs also need water to be able to reproduce . local rainfall can create temporary pools suitable for some species to breed . however , most species depend on wetland flooding to breed , particularly in inland nsw , where water can be scarce for years .\nthe majority of frogs in inland wetlands are most active in spring and summer and have a preference for wetlands with longer periods of water pooling . the timing of flooding also has a strong influence on which species are able to breed .\naquatic vegetation provides shelter for adult frogs and enables the growth of biofilms and organic matter , which are important food sources for tadpoles .\nsome of these threats are sufficiently serious for them to be listed as key threatening processes under the biodiversity conservation act 2016 .\ntell us what you liked about the page or how it could be improved .\nif you are happy for us to follow up on your feedback , please provide your name and email . the information you provide in this form will only be used for the purpose for which it was collected . by submitting , you consent to storage , use , and disclosure of your personal information in accordance with our privacy policy .\ni would like oeh to contact me in the future for help improving services and to share information about national parks or other environmental activities .\n( barker et al . , 1995 , burton , 2001 ; martin and davies , 1979 ; shauble et al . , 2000 , tyler and davies 1986 ; tyler et al , . 1979 ; tyler et al . , 1994 )\n( cameron and cogger 1992 . barker et al . , 1995 , cogger , 1988 , clyne , 1969 ; littlejohn et al . , 1991 ; mcdonald , 2000 , swan , 2001 ; tyler and davies1986 ; tyler et al 1994 . )\nsize ( snout - vent ) . although the recorded average for species is 45mm . , females are said range between 35mm and 42mm apx with males smaller , from urltoken 37mm . apx .\n( baker , 1999 , barker et al . , 1995 , cameron and cogger , 1992 , clyne , 1969 , mcdonald , 2000 , , tyler , 1982 , tyler et al . , 1994 , tyler and davies , 1986 ; tyler et al , . 1994 ; )\n( cameron and cogger , 1992 , barker et al . , 1995 , cogger , 1988 , clyne , 1969 , frith , 1987 : mcdonald , 2000 , swan , 2001 ; tyler and davies , 1978 , tyler et al , . 1994 )\nl . ornatus is found throughout northern australia ( down to dampier downs , fitzroy crossing and halls urltoken the west ) , down to just beyond boroloola in the n . t . and in most of eastern australia ( down to mid south nsw ) including islands in the torres straight but not new guinea . according to tyler of the nine frogs found in cape york that are also found in new guinea , l . ornatus is the only species that almost made it with the range ending on the intermediate islands .\nlimnodynastes ornatus has a limited bladder water storage ability , compared to the true water storing frogs which perhaps allows it limited aestivation time . at an ambient temperature of 37 . 5\u00b0c , in dry conditions , in the laboratory l . ornatus has been known to survive for 8hrs . without water or food uptake . live adult specimens that have been in water for some time appear viably to swell .\n( barker et al . , 1995 ; cameron and cogger , 1992 ; cogger , 1988 ; clyne , 1969 ; friend and cellier , 1990 ; frith , 1987 / 1995 ; mcdonald , 2000 , swan , 2001 ; tyler and davies , 1986 ; )\naccording to some sources they are found everywhere except in rainforest , but others have them anywhere from rainforest through wet schlerophyll forest , vine thicket and arid woodland to grasslands . in kakadu one survey showed l . ornatus to be more often found in treed areas than grasslands .\n( anstis , 2002 ; barker et al . , 1995 , cameron and cogger 1992 , cogger , 1988 ; crossland , 1998 ; frith , 1995 ; mcdonald , 2000 , swan , 2001 ; tyler and davies , 1979 ; tyler et al , . 1994 ; )\nclutches can range from a couple of hundred up to more than 1600 pigmented eggs , with the animal pole ; black and the vegetal ; off - white to grey . ova size in this species is between 1 . 02 - 1 . 10 apx . and the capsule size between 1 . 6 - 2 . 07mm . after 18 - 30 hours the apx . 4 . 4mm hatchlings will emerge .\nthe size of tadpoles is up to 47mm ( apx . ) in the tail and up to 19 . 6mm ( apx . ) in the body length . tadpoles range from pale to dark brown and are a roughly oval shape with a somewhat pointed snout when viewed from above . the narrowly separated eyes are situated on top of the head area with gold rimmed pupils and a diamond shaped , gold sprinkled iris . the tail fins are relatively shallow , tapering to a rounded end , when viewed laterally . from above the tail appears quite thin .\nthe omnivorous tadpoles of l . ornatus have been known to be a major aquatic predator on eggs and hatchlings of other native anurans with no preference for species . in some ponds , if in sufficient numbers , they may even eliminate them entirely . on magnetic island they spawn well before other species giving them a size advantage when other spawn appears ( pers . obs ) . although classed as bottom dwellers , this author has observed many times that this species will rise to eat and compete for floating food and will eat in all water levels in captivity . tadpoles have been known to over - winter and hatchlings from the same clutch may develop at very different rates ( pers . obs )\nmetamorphosis is accomplished in between 21 and 90 days apx . depending on local environmental conditions . from december - march the diurnally active ( pers obs ) , brown patterned or unpatterned metamorphs may be observed hopping on the ground ( should not be confused with b marinus metamorphs which , although a similar size and also day active in the same season and similar places , will be black ) .\nbarker , j , grigg , g . and tyler , m . ( 1995 ) a field guide to australian frogs : surrey , beatty and sons , nsw . cogger , h . g . , 1988 .\nreptiles and amphibians of australia\n. reed books , n . s . w .\nburton , thomas c . , 2001 .\nvariation in the foot muscles of frogs of the family myobatrachidae\n. australian journal of zoology , 49 , 539\u0096559 .\ncameron , e . e . and cogger , h . g . , ( 1992 ) the herpetofauna of the weipa region , cape york peninsula ; technical report number 7 , australian museum .\nclyne , d . , ( 1969 ) australian frogs , lansdowne press , melbourne .\ncogger , h . g . , 1988 .\nreptiles and amphibians of australia\n. reed books , n . s . w .\nfrith , d . and frith c . , ( 1987 ) , australian tropical reptiles and frogs , tropical australia graphics , paluma .\nfrith , d . and frith c . , ( 1995 ) , cape york peninsula - a natural history , reed books , nsw .\nfriend , g . r . and cellier , k . m . ( 1990 ) wetland herpetofauna of kakadu national park , australia : seasonal richness trends , habitat preferences and the effects of feral ungulates , journal of tropical ecology , 6 ( 2 ) : 131 - 152\nlittlejohn , m . j . , roberts , d . , watson , g . f . & davies , m . ( 1991 ) family myobactachidae - fauna of australia series , australian government publication , c . s . i . r . o . , australia\nmcdonald , k . , 2000 , in\nwildlife of tropical north queensland\neds . ryan , m . & burwood , . c . pp . 170 - 195 : queensland museum .\ntyler m . j . , ( 1994 ) , australian frogs - a natural history , reed books , chatsworth , nsw .\ntyler m . j . and davies , m . ( 1979 ) , foam nest construction by australian leptodactylid frogs ( amphibia , anura , leptodactylidae ) , journal of herpetology , 13 : 4 : 509 - 510 .\ntyler m . j . and davies , m . ( 1986 ) , frogs of the northern territory , for the conservation commision of the northern territory by the university of adelaide .\ntyler , m . j . , martin , a . a . and davies , m . ( 1979 ) , biology and systematics of a new limnodynastine genus ( anura : leptodactylidae ) from north - western australia aust . j . zool . , 27 : 135 - 50\ntyler , m . j . , smith , l . h . and johnstone , r . e . ( 1994 ) , frogs of western australia , w . a . museum , perth\nwarburg , 1965 , studies on the water economy of some australian frogs , aust . j . zool . , ; 13 : 317 - 30\nabensperg - traun , m . , steven , d . ( 1997 ) : ant - and termite - eating in australian mammals and lizards : a comparison . australian journal of ecology 22 : 9 - 17 .\nanstis , m . ( 2013 ) : tadpoles and frogs of australia . sydney , new south wales , australia , new holland publishers .\nbaker , s . , lauck , b . ( 2006 ) : association of common brown froglets , crinia signifera , with clearcut forest edges in tasmania , australia . wildlife research 33 : 29 - 34 .\nbishop , c . a . , pettit , k . e . , gartshore , m . e . , macleod , d . a . ( 1997 ) : extensive monitoring of anuran populations using call counts and road transects in ontario ( 1992 to 1993 ) . in : amphibians in decline : canadian studies of a global problem , pp . 149 - 160 . green , d . m . , ed . , st . louis , missouri , usa , society for the study of amphibians and reptiles .\nclemente , c . j . , thompson , g . g . , withers , p . c . , lloyd , d . ( 2004 ) : kinematics , maximal metabolic rate , sprint and endurance for a slow - moving lizard , the thorny devil ( moloch horridus ) . australian journal of zoology 52 : 487 - 503 .\ncogger , h . g . ( 2014 ) . reptiles and amphibians of australia , 7th edition . collingwood , victoria , australia , csiro publishing .\ncrossland , m . r . ( 2000 ) : direct and indirect effects of the introduced toad bufo marinus ( anura : bufonidae ) on populations of native anuran larvae in australia . ecography 23 : 283 - 290 .\ndate , e . m . , paull , d . c . ( 1999 ) : forestry in western new south wales . fauna survey of the north - west cypress / ironbark forests . dubbo , new south wales , australia , state forests of new south wales .\nelkan , e . ( 1976 ) : ground substance : an anuran defense against desiccation . physiology of the amphibia 3 : 101 - 110 .\nkerr , g . d . , bull , m . c . ( 2004 ) : field observations of extended locomotor activity at sub - optimal body temperatures in a diurnal heliothermic lizard ( tiliqua rugosa ) . journal of zoology 264 : 179 - 188 .\nkyne , p . m . , jackson , m . v . ( 2013 ) : an insectivorous australian pratincole stiltia isabella diversifies its diet . northern territory naturalist 24 : 61 .\nlemckert , f . , mahony , m . ( 2008 ) : core calling periods of the frogs of temperate new south wales , australia . herpetological conservation and biology 3 : 71 - 76 .\nlettoof , d . c . , greenlees , m . j . , stockwell , m . , shine , r . ( 2013 ) : do invasive cane toads affect the parasite burdens of native australian frogs ? international journal for parasitology : parasites and wildlife 2 : 155 - 164 .\nmilledge , d . ( 2012 ) : national significance : the ecological values of pilliga east forest and the threats posed by coal seam gas mining 2011 - 2012 . a report prepared for the northern inland council for the environment and the coonabarabran and upper castlereagh catchment and landcare group . suffolk park , new south wales , australia , landmark ecological services .\nmurphy , m . j . , murphy , j . k . , in press . survey of the reptiles and amphibians of merriwindi state conservation area in the pilliga forest of northern inland new south wales . australian zoologist .\nnsw npws ( new south wales national parks and wildlife service ) . ( 2000 ) : brigalow belt south : regional assessment ( stage 1 ) \u2013 report on preliminary fauna survey of pilliga and goonoo forests , november 1999 to january 2000 . a report prepared for the resource and conservation assessment council . dubbo , new south wales , australia , nsw national parks and wildlife service .\nnsw npws ( new south wales national parks and wildlife service ) . ( 2002 ) : pilliga nature reserve : plan of management . baradine , new south wales , australia , nsw national parks and wildlife service .\npianka , e . r . , pianka , h . d . ( 1970 ) : the ecology of moloch horridus ( lacertilia : agamidae ) in western australia . copeia 1970 : 90 - 103 .\nrobinson , m . ( 1998 ) : a field guide to frogs of australia from port augusta to fraser island , including tasmania . sydney , new south wales , australia , reed new holland .\nthompson , s . a . , thompson , g . g . ( 2003 ) : the western bearded dragon , pogona minor ( squamata : agamidae ) : an early lizard coloniser of rehabilitated areas . journal of the royal society of western australia 86 : 1 - 6 .\ntyler , m . j . , knight , f . ( 2011 ) : field guide to the frogs of australia , revised edition . collingwood , victoria , australia , csiro publishing .\nwebb , j . k . , shine , r . ( 1994 ) : feeding habits and reproductive biology of australia pygopodid lizards of the genus aprasia . copeia 1994 : 390 - 398 .\nwhite , a . w . ( 1993 ) : ecological and behavioural observations on populations of the toadlets pseudophryne coriacea and pseudophryne bibronii on the central coast of new south wales . in : herpetology in australia : a diverse discipline , pp . 139 - 149 . lunney , d . , ayers , d . , eds . , mosman , new south wales , australia , royal zoological society of new south wales ."]}
{"id": 2534, "summary": [{"text": "the pearly razorfish or cleaver wrasse , xyrichtys novacula , is a species of wrasse .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is of minor importance to local commercial fisheries and is popular as a game fish .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it can also be found in the aquarium trade . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "pearly razorfish", "paragraphs": ["temporal variations in the diet of pearly razorfish xyrichtys novacula ( osteichthyes : labridae ) .\ntemporal variations in the diet of pearly razorfish xyrichtys novacula ( osteichthyes : labridae ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nthis thesaurus page is about all possible synonyms , equivalent , same meaning and similar words for the term pearly razorfish .\ndifferences in delta13c and delta15n stable isotopes in the pearly razorfish xyrichtys novacula related to the sex , location and spawning period .\nkatsanevakis s . 2005 . habitat use by the pearly razorfish , xyrichtys novacula ( pisces : labridae ) . sci . mar . 69 : 223 - 229 .\ncastriota l et al . temporal variations in the diet of pearly razorfish xyrichtys novacula ( osteichthyes : labridae ) . j fish biol . 2010 ; 76 : 1626 - 39\nfig . 7 . \u2013 relationships between the total abundances ( a ) and total biomasses ( b ) of the pearly razorfish , xyrichtys novacula , recorded through uvcs and sns .\nfig . 3 . \u2013 total number of individuals of the pearly razorfish , xyrichtys novacula , for each size class and sex recorded through uvcs ( a ) and sns ( b ) .\nwe hope that the following list of synonyms for the word pearly razorfish will help you to finish your crossword today . we ' ve arranged the synonyms in length order so that they are easier to find .\nfig . 4 . \u2013 relationships between total abundance ( a - c ) and biomass ( d - f ) of the pearly razorfish , xyrichtys novacula , recorded through uvcs , and the structural elements of the habitat .\nfig . 6 . \u2013 relationships between total abundance ( a - b ) and biomass ( c - d ) of the pearly razorfish , xyrichtys novacula , recorded through sns , and the structural elements of the habitat .\nfig . 2 . \u2013 mean abundance ( a ) and mean biomass ( b ) of the pearly razorfish , xyrichtys novacula , at each location and time , recorded through the uvcs . error bars indicate standard error of the means .\nfig . 5 . \u2013 mean abundance ( a ) and mean biomass ( b ) of the pearly razorfish , xyrichtys novacula , at each location and time , recorded through the sns . error bars indicate standard error of the means .\nal\u00f3s j . , cabanellas - reboredo m . , lowerre - barbieri s . 2012 . diel behaviour and habitat utilisation by the pearly razorfish during the spawning season . mar . ecol . prog . ser . 460 : 207 - 220 .\ntable 3 . \u2013 results of the multiple regressions tests ( sequential tests ) testing for significant relationships between predictor variables and the ( a ) abundance and ( b ) biomass of the pearly razorfish , xyrichtys novacula , recorded through the uvcs .\ncastriota l . , falautano m . , finoia m . g . , et al . 2010 . temporal variations in the diet of pearly razorfish xyrichtys novacula ( osteichthyes : labridae ) . j . fish biol . 76 : 1626 - 1639 .\nal\u00f3s j . , cabanellas - reboredo m . , lowerre - barbieri s . 2012 . diel behaviour and habitat utilisation by the pearly razorfish during the spawning season . mar . ecol . prog . ser . 460 : 207 - 220 . urltoken\nthe pearly razorfish\u2019s name may be slightly misleading since it is neither as rare as a pearl nor as dangerous as a razor . it is a common fish that tends to live in clear shallow areas near seagrass beds and coral reefs , where it collects coral debris to build its nests . however , even having a home may not be enough to put this skittish fish at ease . when startled , the pearly razorfish will sometimes dive head first into the sand where it can hide from threats .\ntable 5 . \u2013 results of the univariate multiple regressions tests ( sequential test ) testing for significant relationships between predictor variables and the total ( a ) abundance and ( b ) biomass of the pearly razorfish , xyrichtys novacula , recorded through the sns .\ncastriota l . , falautano m . , finoia m . g . , et al . 2010 . temporal variations in the diet of pearly razorfish xyrichtys novacula ( osteichthyes : labridae ) . j . fish biol . 76 : 1626 - 1639 . urltoken\ncastriota l , falautano m , finoia mg , et al . temporal variations in the diet of pearly razorfish xyrichtys novacula ( osteichthyes : labridae ) . j fish biol 2010 ; 76 ( 7 ) : 1626 - 39 urltoken accessed july 9 , 2018 .\nbattaglia p . , castriota l . , consoli p . , et al . 2010 . age and growth of pearly razorfish , xyrichtys novacula ( linnaeus 1758 ) , in the central mediterranean sea . j . appl . ichthyol . 26 : 410 - 415 .\nbattaglia p . , castriota l . , consoli p . , et al . 2010 . age and growth of pearly razorfish , xyrichtys novacula ( linnaeus 1758 ) , in the central mediterranean sea . j . appl . ichthyol . 26 : 410 - 415 . urltoken\ncastriota l et al :\ntemporal variations in the diet of pearly razorfish xyrichtys novacula ( osteichthyes : labridae ) .\njournal of fish biology , vol . 76 , no . 7 , 2010 , pp . 1626 - 39 , urltoken accessed july 9 , 2018 .\nbox a . , deudero s . , blanco a . , et al . 2010 . differences in \u03b413c and \u03b415n stable isotopes in the pearly razorfish xyrichtys novacula related to the sex , location and spawning period . j . fish biol . 76 : 2370 - 2381 .\nbox a . , deudero s . , blanco a . , et al . 2010 . differences in \u03b413c and \u03b415n stable isotopes in the pearly razorfish xyrichtys novacula related to the sex , location and spawning period . j . fish biol . 76 : 2370 - 2381 . urltoken\n. . . assuming this also occurs in fish , one could predict a reduction in the overall reproductive output of a population due to the absence of highly reproductive early - rising males . in addition , fish such as the pearly razorfish play a key role in the food - web by preying on other taxa ( castriota et al . , 2005 ) and serving as prey for larger animals , such as dolphins . thus , a change in the daily timing in a population of pearly razorfish could induce foraging behavioural changes with impact in the lower and upper levels of the food - web . . . .\ncastriota l . , scarabello m . p . , finoia m . g . , et al . 2005a . food and feeding habits of pearly razorfish , xyrichtys novacula ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , in the southern tyrrhenian sea : variation by sex and size . environ . biol . fish . 72 : 123 - 133 .\ncastriota l & falautano m & finoia mg , et al . ( 2010 ) . temporal variations in the diet of pearly razorfish xyrichtys novacula ( osteichthyes : labridae ) . journal of fish biology , 76 , pp . 1626 - 39 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1095 - 8649 . 2010 . 02599 . x\ncastriota l . , scarabello m . p . , finoia m . g . , et al . 2005a . food and feeding habits of pearly razorfish , xyrichtys novacula ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , in the southern tyrrhenian sea : variation by sex and size . environ . biol . fish . 72 : 123 - 133 . urltoken\ntable 2 . \u2013 results of the analysis of variance ( anova ) testing the effects of \u2018time\u2019 ( a fixed factor ) , \u2018location\u2019 ( a random factor , orthogonal to the previous factor ) , and \u2018site\u2019 ( a random factor nested within \u2018time\u2019 and \u2018location\u2019 ) on the abundance and biomass of the pearly razorfish , xyrichtys novacula , recorded through uvcs .\ntable 4 . \u2013 results of the analysis of variance ( anova ) testing the effects of \u2018time\u2019 ( a fixed factor ) , \u2018location\u2019 ( a random factor , orthogonal to the previous factor ) , and \u2018site\u2019 ( a random factor nested within \u2018time\u2019 and \u2018location\u2019 ) on the abundance and biomass of the pearly razorfish , xyrichtys novacula , recorded through sns .\n) , and the total abundance and biomass of the razorfish ( untransformed data ) . the \u2018forward\u2019 selection procedure and the aic selection criterion were applied to select the models with the largest parsimony .\ncitation / como citar este art\u00edculo : espino f . , triay - portella r . , gonz\u00e1lez j . a . , haroun r . , tuya f . 2015 . population structure of the pearly razorfish , xyrichtys novacula ( actinopterygii : labridae ) , in sand - seagrass mosaics : spatial variation according to habitat features and sampling techniques . sci . mar . 79 ( 2 ) : 179 - 188 . doi : urltoken\nthe pearly razorfish , xyrithchys novacula , is a small - bodied labrid widely distributed in temperate areas that buries itself in the sand during the night - time to rest and avoid predators . our study reveals that individual heterogeneity in awakening time , rest onset or rest duration is highly repeatable and predictable and conforms to chronotypes . this individual - based circadian behavioural variation can be considered as an independent axis of the fish personality .\ncardinale m . , colloca f . , ardizzone g . d . 1997 . feeding ecology of mediterranean razorfish xyrichthys novacula in the tyrrhenian sea ( central mediterranean sea ) . j . appl . ichthyol . 13 : 105 - 111 .\ndensity population plots ( left column ) , daily individual values ( middle column ) and daily individual density plots ( violin plots in right column ) in ( a ) awakening time relative to sunrise ( denoted by a dashed red line ) , ( b ) rest onset related to sunset ( denoted by a dashed red line ) , ( c ) rest duration and ( d ) daily travelled distance obtained in the individuals of free - ranging pearly razorfish , xyrithchys novacula , acoustically tracked in our study .\ncardinale m . , colloca f . , ardizzone g . d . 1997 . feeding ecology of mediterranean razorfish xyrichthys novacula in the tyrrhenian sea ( central mediterranean sea ) . j . appl . ichthyol . 13 : 105 - 111 . urltoken\nnemtzov s . c . 1994 . intraspecific variation in sand - diving and predator avoidance behavior of green razorfish , xyrichtys splendens ( pisces , labridae ) : effect on courtship and mating success . environ . biol . fish . 41 : 403 - 414 .\nnemtzov s . c . 1994 . intraspecific variation in sand - diving and predator avoidance behavior of green razorfish , xyrichtys splendens ( pisces , labridae ) : effect on courtship and mating success . environ . biol . fish . 41 : 403 - 414 . urltoken\npearly razorfish were sampled using two complementary sampling techniques : underwater visual censuses ( hereafter uvcs ) and seine nets ( hereafter sns ) . at each site , 12 replicated 25 - m - long and 4 - m - wide transects were firstly laid out randomly during daylight hours , 10 : 00 - 14 : 00 h . transects were carried out by the same two scuba divers ( 6 each diver ) simultaneously , surveying different areas to avoid fish being counted twice . the abundance ( total number of individuals ) and size ( to the nearest centimetre of total length ) of all individuals of\ncastelnau , 1855 , distributed in the caribbean sea , also inhabits shallow sandy bottoms and seagrass meadows . though seagrass canopies provide protection against predators , the capacity to bury into the substrate is here limited in comparison with unvegetated bottoms . in fact , the green razorfish modifies its sand - diving behaviour in seagrass habitats (\nvaried at the spatial scales of locations and sites within locations . this means that variation in razorfish abundance and biomass was mostly determined by variation in seagrass structural attributes operating at the scale of locations and sites within locations . this species has a specific relation with the substrate , as it buries in the sediment under any sign of alarm ( i . e . a predator ) . moreover , this species bury into burrows during the night - time , therefore displaying a clear daily rhythm of activity (\nmay be a suitable habitat not only for adult fish but also for juveniles , as our data have demonstrated ( 18 . 28 % and 33 . 06 % of juvenile razorfish recorded by uvcs and sns , respectively ) . the range of sizes obtained by each type of sampling technique influenced the sex ratio . still , females dominated numerically in both cases , particularly in the data obtained through the sns . this can be explained , firstly , by a higher selectivity for small sizes ( 0 . 5 - 10 . 0 cm tl ) of sns , i . e . a larger capturability for small - sized individuals ( females in our case study ) ; this has also been observed in previous studies in the study area (\nthe abundance and biomass of the razorfish were partitioned by means of three - way anovas that tested for differences between times ( seasons ) , locations , and sites within locations . the model incorporated the factors ( 1 ) \u2018time\u2019 ( a fixed factor with four levels , i . e . the four seasons ) ; ( 2 ) \u2018location\u2019 ( a random factor with three levels and orthogonal to \u2018time\u2019 ) ; and ( 3 ) \u2018site\u2019 ( a random factor with two levels nested within \u2018location\u2019 and \u2018time\u2019 ) . in particular , analyses focused on the effects of \u2018time\u2019 and its interaction term with \u2018location\u2019 ( \u2018t\u00d7l\u2019 ) . prior to the analyses , the cochran test was used to check for homogeneity of variances . all types of transformation of uvc data were tried to achieve homogeneous variances . however , data from uvcs did not achieve homogenous variances for fish abundance ( c = 0 . 3654 , p < 0 . 01 ) and biomass ( c = 0 . 1376 , p < 0 . 01 ) . in this case , the significance level was set at 0 . 01 instead of the 0 . 05 , to decrease a type i error ; anova is robust to heterogeneous variances for large , balanced experiments (\ngreek , xyreo = that cuts like a knife + greek , ichthys = fish ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 1 - 90 m ( ref . 3726 ) . subtropical\nwestern atlantic : north carolina , usa and northern gulf of mexico ( ref . 7251 ) through the caribbean to brazil . eastern atlantic : france to angola and including the mediterranean , azores , madeira , canary islands , cape verde and sao tome island .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 38 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 7251 ) ; common length : 20 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2683 ) ; max . reported age : 8 years ( ref . 4742 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 9 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 12 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 12 . an elongate , very compressed fish with front of head forming a sharp edge . snout very blunt ; profile steep . pale greenish , usually with no conspicuous markings on body ( ref . 26938 ) . head with alternating vertical lines of light blue and light yellow - orange ( ref . 13442 ) .\ninhabits clear shallow areas with sandy bottoms , usually in the vicinity of seagrass beds and corals ( ref . 2683 ) . feeds mainly on mollusks ; also crabs and shrimps ( ref . 3726 ) . a protogynous hermaphrodite ; sexual dimorphism apparent in head shape and length of pelvic fin ( ref . 5292 ) . builds nests with coral debris . dives head first into the sand when frightened ( ref . 9710 ) . marketed fresh ( ref . 3726 ) .\ngomon , m . f . and p . forsyth , 1990 . labridae . p . 868 - 882 . in j . c . quero , j . c . hureau , c . karrer , a . post and l . saldanha ( eds . ) check - list of the fishes of the eastern tropical atlantic ( clofeta ) . jnict , lisbon , sei , paris ; and unesco , paris . vol . 2 . ( ref . 5292 )\n) : 17 . 4 - 27 . 9 , mean 24 . 4 ( based on 858 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5005 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01318 ( 0 . 00757 - 0 . 02297 ) , b = 2 . 86 ( 2 . 70 - 3 . 02 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 5 \u00b10 . 1 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tmax = 8 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 36 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2014 . catalog of fishes . updated 27 august 2014 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 august 2014 ) .\nthere is some taxonomic confusion between the species under xyrichtys and iniistius . the genus iniistius has been considered a synonym of xyrichtys by some authors but it is now recognized as a separate genus , distinct from xyrichtys ( randall and earle 2002 , randall et al . 2002 ) . seventeen species are included in iniistius and they are : i . aneitensis , i . auropunctatus , i . baldwini , i . bimaculatus , i . cyanifrons , i . dea , i . evides , i . griffithsi , i . jacksoniensis , i . melanopus , i . pavo , i . pentadactylus , i . spilonotus , i . trivittatus , i . twistii , i . umbrilatus , and i . verrens .\npollard , d . , rocha , l . , ferreira , c . e . , francini - filho , r . & moura , r . r .\njustification : this species is widespread throughout the western and eastern sub - tropical and tropical atlantic , as well as the entire mediterranean sea . it is commercially fished in some countries . the population status of this species is currently unknown , though it is thought to be stable , with no evidence of any declines . this species is therefore listed as least concern .\nthis species has a widespread tropical and sub - tropical atlantic distribution from north carolina to santa catarina , brazil , including the gulf of mexico and the caribbean sea , in the western atlantic . it is found from southern spain to gabon , including the azores , madeira , canary islands , cape verde islands and sao tome and principe , in the eastern atlantic . it is also present throughout the mediterranean sea and the sea of marmara , but not in the black sea ( d . pollard pers . comm . 2008 ) . there is no record of this species in the oceanic islands of brazil ( c . ferreira pers . comm . 2009 ) .\nalbania ; algeria ; anguilla ; antigua and barbuda ; bahamas ; barbados ; belize ; benin ; bonaire , sint eustatius and saba ( saba , sint eustatius ) ; brazil ; cameroon ; cape verde ; cayman islands ; colombia ; costa rica ; c\u00f4te d ' ivoire ; croatia ; cuba ; cura\u00e7ao ; cyprus ; dominica ; dominican republic ; egypt ; equatorial guinea ; france ; french guiana ; gabon ; gambia ; ghana ; gibraltar ; greece ; grenada ; guadeloupe ; guatemala ; guinea ; guinea - bissau ; guyana ; haiti ; honduras ; israel ; italy ; jamaica ; lebanon ; liberia ; libya ; malta ; martinique ; mauritania ; mexico ; monaco ; montenegro ; montserrat ; morocco ; nicaragua ; nigeria ; panama ; portugal ; puerto rico ; saint kitts and nevis ; saint lucia ; saint martin ( french part ) ; saint vincent and the grenadines ; sao tom\u00e9 and principe ; senegal ; sierra leone ; sint maarten ( dutch part ) ; slovenia ; spain ; suriname ; syrian arab republic ; togo ; trinidad and tobago ; tunisia ; turkey ; turks and caicos islands ; united states ; venezuela , bolivarian republic of ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s . ; western sahara\nthere is no population information available for this species . however , it is considered common in the majority of its range . for example , this species is common in lebanon and sicily in the mediterranean sea , but there is little or no population information available for it throughout most of its mediterranean range ( d . pollard pers . comm . 2008 ) . in the western atlantic , this species is relatively common throughout most of its range . it is also common in the azores islands on shallower sandy habitats ( p . afonso pers . comm . 2008 ) .\nthis species generally inhabits clear shallow areas with sandy substrates , usually in the vicinity of seagrass beds and coral reefs ( schneider 1990 ) , although it can be found to 90m . it lives singly or in small groups ( golani et al . 2006 ) . it feeds mainly on molluscs , but also on crabs and shrimps ( gomon 1978 ) . this species is a protogynous hermaphrodite , with sexual dimorphism apparent in the shape of the head and the length of the pelvic fin ( gomon and forsyth 1990 ) . it builds nests out of coral debris in coral reef habitats . when disturbed it may dive head first into the sand ( lieske and myers 1994 ) . the western atlantic fish are generally smaller than the eastern atlantic and mediterranean fish .\nthis species is caught in artisanal fisheries in some parts of its range . in the mediterranean , this species is fished commercially in lebanon ( m . bariche pers . comm . ) and sicily ( l . tunesi pers . comm . ) usually by hook and line . it may also be caught in trawls ( d . pollard pers . comm . 2008 ) .\nthere are no specific conservation measures in place for this species . its distribution overlaps several marine protected areas within its range .\npollard , d . , rocha , l . , ferreira , c . e . , francini - filho , r . & moura , r . r . 2010 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ncreated to help individuals around the world identify tropical fish found during their scuba dive and snorkelling excursions .\ncandi , g . , l . castriota , f . andaloro , m . g . finoia & g . marino . 2004 . reproductive cycle and sex inversion in razor fish , xyrichthys novacula , a protogynous labrid in the southern mediterranean sea . j . fish biol . ( in press ) .\nfischer , w . , m . l . bauchot & m . schneider . 1987 . fiches fao d\u2019identification des esp\u00e9ces pour les besoins de la p\u00eache . ( r\u00e9vision 1 ) . m\u00e9diterran\u00e9e et mer noire . zone de p\u00eache 37 . vert\u00e9br\u00e9s . vol . 2 . fao rome . 700 pp .\nfischer , w . ( ed . ) . 1978 . fao species identification sheets for fishery purposes . western central atlantic ( fishing area 31 ) . vol . 2 . fao rome .\nfao species identification sheets for fishery purposes eastern central atlantic ; fishing areas 3447 , vol . 1 ( in part ) .\nfishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean world biodiversity database cd - rom series .\ngrowth patterns in bluegill ( lepomis macrochirus ) and pumpkinseed ( l . gibbosus ) sunfish : environmental variation and the importance of ontogenetic niche shifts .\nriera , f . & m . linde . 2001 . el raor , xyrichthys novacula ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . pp . 9 - - 34 . in : el raor i la cirviola . con\u00e8ixer per preservar . quaderns de pesca . governo de les illes balears , conselleria d\u2019agricultura i pesca 6 [ in catalan ] .\ncastriota , l . , scarabello , m . p . , finoia , m . g . et al . environ biol fish ( 2005 ) 72 : 123 . urltoken\nif you respond to an existing comment , please click on the reply link under the corresponding text .\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .\nupload attachment ( allowed file types : jpg , gif , png , maximum file size : 8mb .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ncastriota l 1 , falautano m , finoia mg , campo d , scarabello mp , andaloro f .\nispra - institute for environmental protection and research , via salvatore puglisi 9 , 90143 palermo , italy . castriotaluca @ urltoken\nurltoken unabridged based on the random house unabridged dictionary , \u00a9 random house , inc . 2018\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nthis item is currently out of stock . if you would like to be notified once it is available again , please send us an email .\nplease note : any new fish purchased from us or from a local pet store should to be quarantined . all fish from anywhere in the wild can be possible carriers of bacteria and protozoa that can lead to an infection in your system , so we always recommend that you use some sort of quarantine system prior to adding them to your system . if you have a fish only system and can medicate the whole system , you may not need a separate quarantine tank . if you have a reef system that cannot be medicated , a good ultraviolet sterilization system should prevent any kind of disease outbreak . we medicate our system for bacterial infections and protozoans , but because we don\u2019\u0092t always hold our fish for long periods of time , there is no way to be sure all the protozoan cysts have been killed . a little bit of prevention will save you lots of trouble down the line .\n\u00a9 kp aquatics - thank your for supporting our family by choosing kp aquatics .\n( of coryphaena novacula linnaeus , 1758 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\n( of coryphaena psittacus linnaeus , 1766 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1766 ) . systema naturae sive regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . laurentii salvii , holmiae . 12th ed . 1 ( 1 ) : 1 - 532 . [ details ]\nvan der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nrobins , c . r . , g . c . ray , j . douglass and r . freund . 1986 . a field guide to atlantic coast fishes of north america . houghton mifflin co . boston . 354 p . [ details ]\nmceachran , j . d . ( 2009 ) . fishes ( vertebrata : pisces ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1223\u20131316 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of coryphaena novacula linnaeus , 1758 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of coryphaena lineata gmelin , 1789 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of coryphaena lineolata rafinesque , 1810 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of coryphaena psittacus linnaeus , 1766 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hemipteronotus copei fowler , 1900 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hemipteronotus novacula ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hemipteronotus psittacus ( linnaeus , 1766 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of amorphocephalus granulatus bowdich , 1825 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of novacula coryphaena risso , 1827 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of novacula coryphaenoides schinz , 1822 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of novacula coryphena risso , 1827 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of novacula cultrata ( valenciennes , 1840 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of novacula lineata ( gmelin , 1789 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of novacula lineolata ( rafinesque , 1810 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of novacula novacula ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of xyrichthys argentimaculata steindachner , 1861 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of xyrichthys binghami mowbray , 1925 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of xyrichthys cultratus valenciennes , 1840 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of xyrichthys jessiae jordan , 1888 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of xyrichthys psittacus ( linnaeus , 1766 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of xyrichthys rosipes jordan & gilbert , 1884 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of xyrichthys uniocellatus agassiz , 1931 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of xyrichthys vermiculatus poey , 1860 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of xyrichthys vitta valenciennes , 1840 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of xyrichthys novacula ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the \u2018correct annotation\u2019 for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the < a href =\nurltoken\n> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been imported from another database using automatic procedures . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000313\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates if the gene coding for the protein originates from the hydrogenosome , the mitochondrion , the nucleomorph , different plastids or a plasmid . the absence of this section means that the gene is located in one of the main chromosomal element ( s ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / encoded _ on ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the \u2018taxonomic identifier\u2019 or \u2018taxid\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the location and the topology of the mature protein in the cell . < p > < a href = ' / help / subcellular _ location _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ' subcellular location ' < / a > section describes the extent of a membrane - spanning region of the protein . it denotes the presence of both alpha - helical transmembrane regions and the membrane spanning regions of beta - barrel transmembrane proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / transmem ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000256\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =\nurltoken\n> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> family and domains < / a > section describes the position and type of a domain , which is defined as a specific combination of secondary structures organized into a characteristic three - dimensional structure or fold . < p > < a href = ' / help / domain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000259\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018sequence\u2019 section is used for sequence fragments to indicate that the residue at the extremity of the sequence is not the actual terminal residue in the complete protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / non _ ter ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href =\nurltoken\n> uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( \u2018last modified\u2019 ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n{ { t ( ' more _ than _ one _ credit ' , { zero : calc . totalcreditcost } ) } }\nyou came across this error because the pageyou were trying to visit does not exist .\nwe ' ve recently redesigned the site so old links may not work . have a look at some of these changes .\nyou may want to update your bookmarks or try to find the updated information using the links below . if you are still unable to find the information you are looking for , please contact the webmaster using the information below .\nfaculties / academics - find links to all faculties , departments and other academic resources e . g . handbooks , prospectus\nmedia centre - find media relations information here eg . news releases , events and announcements information\nprogrammes - view the faculty booklets containing the programmes available at the st . augustine campus\nresearch & innovation - view the cutting - edge research being done at the st . augustine campus\ncopyright 2015 the university of the west indies st . augustine , trinidad and tobago\nour 7 faculties , professional schools offer more than 200 programs to some 15 , 000 graduate , undergraduate and continuing studies students .\nthe uwi , st . augustine ranks first in trinidad and tobago among accredited tertiary - level programmes .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nbehavioural ecology , mediterranean , sand - diving , burying behaviour , sediment granulometry .\nplease , send comments to icm ( csic ) - passeig mar\u00edtim de la barceloneta , 37 - 49 . e - 08003 barcelona ( spain )\nfood partitioning and diet temporal variation in two coexisting sparids , pagellus erythrinus and pagellus acarne .\ndietary variations within a family of ambush predators ( platycephalidae ) occupying different habitats and environments in the same geographical region .\ndietary preference and feeding selectivity of common dragonet callionymus lyra in u . k .\nlinking prey composition of haddock melanogrammus aeglefinus to benthic prey availability in three different areas of the northern north sea .\ndiet and feeding niches of juvenile gadus morhua , melanogrammus aeglefinus and merlangius merlangus during the settlement transition in the northern north sea .\nmacrobenthic prey availability and the potential for food competition between 0 year group pleuronectes platessa and limanda limanda .\n1 grupo de investigaci\u00f3n en biodiversidad y conservaci\u00f3n , facultad de ciencias del mar , universidad de las palmas de gran canaria , campus de tafira , 35017 las palmas de gran canaria , canary islands , spain . e - mail : fesprod @ urltoken ( fe ) , rharoun @ urltoken ( rh ) , ftuya @ urltoken ( ft ) 2 grupo de investigaci\u00f3n en ecolog\u00eda marina aplicada y pesquer\u00edas , facultad de ciencias del mar , universidad de las palmas de gran canaria , campus de tafira , 35017 las palmas de gran canaria , canary islands , spain . e - mail : emap . raul @ urltoken ( rtp ) , pepe . solea @ urltoken ( jag )\nkeywords : habitat ; structural complexity ; soft bottoms ; sediments ; sex ratio .\npalabras clave : h\u00e1bitat ; complejidad estructural ; fondos blandos ; sedimentos ; sex ratio .\ncopyright : \u00a9 2015 csic . this is an open - access article distributed under the creative commons attribution - non commercial lisence ( by - nc ) spain 3 . 0 .\ngratwicke b . , speight m . r . 2005 . the relationship between fish species richness , abundance and habitat complexity in a range of shallow tropical marine habitats . j . fish biol . 66 : 650 - 667 .\ntuya f . , wernberg t . , thomsen m . s . 2011 . the relative influence of local to regional drivers of variation in reef fishes . j . fish biol . 79 : 217 - 234 .\n) . a large body of literature has covered this research topic . studies connecting patterns in the abundance of soft - bottom fishes with the structure of the habitat are , however , fewer in number . soft bottoms are colonized by seagrass meadows , which largely increase the heterogeneity and complexity of the habitat relative to nearby unvegetated bottoms (\nbostr\u00f6m c . , jackson e . l . , simenstad c . a . 2006 . seagrass landscapes and their effects on associated fauna : a review . estuar . coast . shelf sci . 68 : 383 - 403 .\ngullstr\u00f6m m . , bodin m . , nilsson p . g . , et al . 2008 . seagrass structural complexity and landscape configuration as determinants of tropical fish assemblage composition . mar . ecol . prog . ser . 363 : 241 - 255 .\nhensgen g . m . , holt g . j . , holt s . a . , et al . 2014 . landscape pattern influences nekton diversity and abundance in seagrass meadows . mar . ecol . prog . ser . 507 : 139 - 152 .\nferrell j . d . , bell j . d . 1991 . differences among assemblages of fish associated with zostera capricorni and bare sand over a large spatial scale . mar . ecol . prog . ser . 72 : 15 - 24 .\ngray c . a . , mcelligott d . j . , chick r . c . 1996 . intra - and inter - estuary differences in assemblages of fishes associated with shallow seagrass and bare sand . mar . freshw . res . 47 : 723 - 735 .\nhorinouchi m . 2009 . horizontal gradient in fish assemblages structures in and around seagrass habitat : some implications for seagrass habitat conservation . ichthyol . res . 56 : 109 - 125 .\ntuya f . , boyra a . , s\u00e1nchez - jerez p . , et al . 2005 . multivariate analysis of the bentho - demersal ichthyofauna along soft bottoms of the eastern atlantic : comparison between unvegetated substrates , seagrass meadows and sandy bottoms beneath sea - cage fish farms . mar . biol . 147 : 1229 - 1237 .\n) . providing insight into patterns of fish habitat use is particularly relevant for fish that are commercially exploited , which can be described in terms of varying patterns in abundance , biomass , size structure and sex ratio that are intrinsically linked with the specific peculiarities of the habitat .\nbentivegna f . , rasotto m . b . 1987 . protogynous hermaphroditism in xyrichthys novacula ( l . 1758 ) . cybium 11 : 75 - 78 .\nfroese r . , pauly d . ( eds ) . 2015 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . www . fishbase . org , february 2015 .\nbox a . , grau a . m . , blanco a . , et al . 2009 . els raors ( xyrichthys novacula ) a la reserva dels freus d\u2019eivissa i formentera ; efecte de la protecci\u00f3 espacial . boll . soc . hist . nat . illes balears 52 : 193 - 201 .\nbeltrano a . m . , cannizzaro l . , vitale s . , et al . 2006 . preliminary study on the feeding habits of cleaver wrasse xyrichthys novacula ( pisces : labridae ) in the strait of sicily ( mediterranean sea ) . electron . j . ichthyol . 2 : 50 - 54 .\n) . in the canary islands , however , captures of this fish are low , because it has never been a target for the local cuisine . in the canarian small - scale fisheries , it is captured incidentally through hooks , fish - traps and trammel nets that target other fish species (\nfranquet f . , brito a . 1995 . especies de inter\u00e9s pesquero de canarias . consejer\u00eda de pesca y transportes del gobierno de canarias , santa cruz de tenerife , 143 pp .\nmarconato a . , tessari v . , marin g . 1995 . the mating system of xyrichthys novacula : sperm economy and fertilization success . j . fish biol . 47 : 292 - 301 .\ncardinale m . , colloca f . , ardizzone g . d . 1998 . growth and reproduction of xyrichthys novacula ( pisces : labridae ) in the mediterranean sea . sci . mar . 62 : 193 - 201 .\ncandi g . , castriota l . , andaloro f . , et al . 2004 . reproductive cycle and sex inversion in razor fish , a protogynous labrid in the southern mediterranean sea . j . fish biol . 64 : 1498 - 1513 .\nmercader l . 1991 . external morphology of the juveniles of xyrichthys novacula ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( pisces , labridae ) from the littoral of palam\u00f3s ( nw mediterranean ) . misc . zool . 15 : 243 - 246 .\ncastriota l . , finoia m . g . , andaloro f . 2005b . trophic interactions between xyrichtys novacula ( labridae ) and juvenile pagrus pagrus ( sparidae ) in the central mediterranean sea . electron . j . ichthyol . 2 : 54 - 60 .\nfischer w . , bauchot m . l . , schneider m . 1987 . fiches fao d\u2019identification des esp\u00e8ces pour les besoins de la p\u00eache . ( r\u00e9v . 1 ) . m\u00e9diterran\u00e9e et mer noire . zone de p\u00eache 37 . vert\u00e9br\u00e9s , vol . 2 . fao . rome . p . 1152 .\nbrito a . , pascual p . j . , falc\u00f3n j . m . , et al . 2002 . peces de las islas canarias . cat\u00e1logo comentado e ilustrado . francisco lemus editor , la laguna , 419 pp .\nschneider w . 1990 . fao species identification guide for fishery purposes . field guide to the commercial marine resources of the gulf of guinea . fao , rome , 268 pp .\nriera f . , linde m . 2001 . el raor , xyrichthys novacula ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . in : el raor i la cirviola . con\u00e8ixer per preservar . govern de les illes balears , conselleria d\u2019agricultura i pesca . quaderns de pesca 6 : 9 - 34 .\nespino f . , tuya f . , brito a . , et al . 2011a . ichthyofauna associated with cymodocea nodosa meadows in the canarian archipelago ( central eastern atlantic ) : community structure and nursery function . cienc . mar . 37 : 157 - 174 .\nespino f . , tuya f . , brito a . , et al . 2011b . spatial variability in the structure of the ichthyofauna associated with cymodocea nodosa seagrass meadows across the canary islands , north - eastern subtropical atlantic . rev . biol . mar . oceanogr . 46 : 391 - 403 .\nguidetti p . 2000 . differences among fish assemblages associated with nearshore posidonia oceanica seagrass beds , rocky - algal reefs and unvegetated sand habitats in the adriatic sea . estuar . coast . shelf sci . 50 : 515 - 529 .\nguidetti p . , bussotti s . 2002 . effects of seagrass canopy removal on fish in shallow mediterranean seagrass ( cymodocea nodosa and zostera noltii ) meadows : a local - scale approach . mar . biol . 140 : 445 - 453 .\nguidetti p . , lorenti m . , buia m . c . , et al . 2002 . temporal dynamics and biomass partitioning in three adriatic seagrass species : posidonia oceanica , cymodocea nodosa , zostera marina . mar . ecol . 23 : 51 - 67 .\nthe goals of this study were two - fold . firstly , we aimed to describe the spatial and temporal patterns of variation in the abundance , biomass and population structure ( size structure and sex ratio ) of this species inhabiting sand - seagrass mosaics through two complementary sampling techniques . secondly , we sought to analyse whether biotic ( seagrass shoot density , leaf length and meadow cover ) and abiotic ( sediment composition and particle size ) structural elements of the habitat helped to explain variation in patterns of abundance and biomass of this species .\n) ; two locations located on the southeast coast , ca . 2 km apart , and one located to the southwest of the island , ca . 50 km apart . there is no significant variation in oceanographic conditions ( e . g . seawater temperature , salinity and chlorophyll a concentrations ) at the coast between the southeastern and southwestern side of the island (\ntuya f . , ribeiro - leite l . , arto - cuesta n . , et al . 2014a . decadal changes in the structure of cymodocea nodosa seagrass meadows : natural vs . human influences . estuar . coast . shelf sci . 137 : 41 - 49 .\n) . the oceanographic conditions are characterized by the northeastern trade winds and the canary current , which flows towards the southwest . sea surface temperature typically ranges from 18\u00bac in winter to 24\u00bac in summer (\nnavarro - p\u00e9rez e . , barton e . d . 2001 . seasonal and interannual variability of the canary current . sci . mar . 65 : 205 - 213 .\nfig . 1 . \u2013 map of the canary islands ( northeastern atlantic ocean ) showing the position of gran canaria island and the three studied locations .\n) . each location was visited seasonally four times through an entire annual cycle : in february 2011 , may 2011 , august 2011 and november 2011 . the dates were separated to encompass conditions encountered throughout an entire year . at each location , fish were sampled at two sites selected randomly , hundreds of metres apart .\ntable 1 . \u2013 physical structure of the three locations dominated by cymodocea nodosa seagrass meadows . surface ( m 2 ) , depth ranges ( m ) and meadow type are provided for each location . density ( number of shoots m \u20132 ; mean\u00b1standard error ) , leaf length ( cm ; mean\u00b1se ) , cover ( % ; mean\u00b1se ) , gravel ( % ) , sand ( % ) , silt ( % ) , and mean diameter of particles ( d 50 , mm ) are also provided for each site within each location .\nespino f . 2004 . una metodolog\u00eda para el estudio de las faner\u00f3gamas marinas en canarias . rev . acad . canar . cienc . 15 : 237 - 256 .\nwere recorded on waterproof forms . in the study area , this procedure provides optimal precision and accuracy to account for the abundance and size structure of both rocky - reef and seagrass fishes ("]}
{"id": 2540, "summary": [{"text": "the malabar large-spotted civet ( viverra civettina ) , also known as the malabar civet , is a viverrid endemic to the western ghats of india .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is listed as critically endangered by iucn as its population size is estimated to number fewer than 250 mature individuals , with no subpopulation greater than 50 individuals .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "in the 1990s , isolated populations still survived in less disturbed areas of south malabar but were seriously threatened by habitat destruction and hunting because they lived outside protected areas .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is known as kannan chandu and male meru in kerala \u0d35\u0d46\u0d30\u0d41\u0d15 ( veruk ) in malayalam , and in karnataka as mangala kutri , bal kutri and dodda punugina . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "malabar large - spotted civet", "paragraphs": ["* * * the malabar large spotted civet is one of the world ' s rarest mammals .\nthe diet of the large spotted civet , viverra megaspila , which is closely related to the malabar large spotted civet and considered by some to be conspecific , includes small animals , eggs and some vegetable matter .\nmain characteristics malabar large - spotted civets have a body length between 76 and 85 cms ( 30 - 33 . 5 inches ) , a tail length between 33 and 40 cms ( 13 - 16 inches ) and they weigh between 8 and 9 kgs ( 18 - 20 lbs ) . they are grey in colour with large black spots and their tail is banded with black and has a black tip . habitat malabar large - spotted civets live in plantations and wooded areas in south malabar , india . they are solitary and active at night . diet malabar large - spotted civets mainly feed on small mammals , birds , snakes , frogs , fruit and eggs . breeding little in known about reproduction in malabar large - spotted civets . predators humans are predators of malabar large - spotted civets . subspecies there are no known subspecies of the malabar large - spotted civet . interesting facts malabar large - spotted civets are also known as : malabar civet jawad similar animals malayan civet otter civet large indian civet small indian civet large - spotted civet binturong\nthe weight of the large spotted civet , viverra megaspila , which is closely related to the malabar large spotted civet and considered by some to be conspecific , is 8 - 9 kg ( 18 - 20 lb ) .\nmalabar large spotted civets are aggressive towards members of their own species and have usually been observed alone .\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - malabar large - spotted civet facts\n( online ) . accessed\nwikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article\nmalabar large - spotted civet\n.\n. extensive deforestation has reduced the malabar forests to a series of isolated patches . cashew plantations are a refuge , which probably hold most of the surviving populations of the malabar large - spotted civet , and are now threatened by large - scale clearance for\nextensive deforestation has reduced the forests in the malabar large spotted civet ' s original range to a series of isolated patches . habitat loss continues . cashew plantations , which probably hold most of the surviving populations of malabar civet ( see\nhabitat\nbelow ) , are now threatened by large - scale clearance for planting rubber . the malabar large spotted civet also has been persecuted for raiding poultry . it is not selectively hunted but is captured and killed when encountered .\nthe malabar large - spotted civet ' s original habitat was found in the malabar coast moist forests belt below the western ghats , where it lived in wooded plains and adjoining hill slopes . it was once very common in the coastal districts of malabar and travancore . extensive deforestation has reduced the malabar forests to a series of isolated patches . cashew plantations are a refuge , which probably hold most of the surviving populations of the malabar large - spotted civet , and are now threatened by large - scale clearance for rubber plantations .\nthe malabar large spotted civet was once very common in the coastal districts of malabar and travancore in southwest india . by the late 1960 ' s it was thought to be nearing extinction . none were seen for a long period of time until 1987 , when it was rediscovered about 60 km ( 37 mi ) east of calicut on the southwest coast of india . a 1990 survey revealed that isolated populations of malabar large spotted civet still survive in less disturbed areas of south malabar . ( ashraf et al . 1993 ) extensive deforestation has reduced the forests in the malabar large spotted civet ' s original range to a series of isolated patches . habitat loss continues . cashew plantations , which probably hold most of the surviving populations of malabar civet , are now threatened by large - scale clearance for planting rubber . the malabar large spotted civet also has been persecuted for raiding poultry . it is not selectively hunted but is captured and killed when encountered .\n* * * species of the genus viverra are sources of\ncivet\n( or\ncivet - musk\n) , a substance which is used in the production of perfume . the civet - musk of the malabar large spotted civet was apparently in widespread use 20 - 25 years ago ( ashraf et al . 1993 ) .\nthe original home of the malabar large spotted civet was in the western ghats , a mountain range in southwest india . the species lived in the wooded plains and natural forests surrounding the mountains . today the malabar large spotted civet is one of the rarest mammals of the world . in 1999 , it was estimated that there were less than 250 surviving adult animals in the wild . small , scattered populations are thought to exist in certain areas of south malabar .\nthe malabar large spotted civet was once very common in the coastal districts of malabar and travancore in southwest india . by the late 1960 ' s it was thought to be nearing extinction . none were seen for a long period of time until 1987 , when it was rediscovered about 60 km ( 37 mi ) east of calicut on the southwest coast of india . a 1990 survey revealed that isolated populations of malabar large spotted civet still survive in less disturbed areas of south malabar . ( ashraf et al . 1993 )\nthe malabar large - spotted civet ( viverra civettina ) , is a civet . it is also known as the malabar civet and called jawadi veruku - \u0d1c\u0d3e\u0d35\u0d3e\u0d26\u0d3f \u0d35\u0d46\u0d30\u0d41\u0d15\u0d41\u0d4d in malayalam , the local language of kerala . the species was once common along the lowland coastal tracts of kerala and karnataka in south india . it became rare by the beginning of the 20th century , but was still often used for producing civetin musk in the 1960 ' s . in 1990 , isolated populations of the malabar large - spotted civet still survived in less disturbed areas of south malabar . in 1999 , fewer than 250 mature individuals were thought to survive in the wild .\ninformation on the malabar civet ( viverra civettina ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\n\u261b little is known about the species though the diet of the related large spotted civet , viverra megaspila , includes small animals , eggs and some vegetable matter .\nalthough most civets resemble spotted , long - nosed cats , civets of the genus viverra are the most dog - like in appearance , with long legs and rather canine heads and muzzles . based on data for the large spotted civet , viverra megaspila , which is closely related to the malabar large spotted civet ( and considered by some to be conspecific ) , it probably weighs 8 - 9 kg ( 18 - 20 lb ) . oriental civet - viverra tangalunga the malabar large spotted civet ' s original habitat was found in the evergreen rain forest belt in the western ghats of southwest india , where it lived in wooded plains and adjoining hill slopes . most captures of this species in the last 30 years have been in valleys , around riparian areas . this suggests possible dependence on shallow waterways where the civet forages at night . ( ashraf et al . 1993 ) thickets in cashew plantations may also provide important cover . the diet of the related large spotted civet , viverra megaspila , includes small animals , eggs and some vegetable matter . the malabar large spotted civet has never been observed in trees and possibly forages almost entirely on the ground . species of the genus viverra stay in dense cover by day and come out into the open at night . malabar large spotted civets are aggressive towards members of their own species and have usually been observed alone .\n\u261b the population status of malabar civet is unknown . it was thought to be possibly extinct , then rediscovered but there is no further recent information and no recent sightings of live malabar civets .\nthe malabar large spotted civet ( viverra civettina blyth , 1862 ) was once a common species in the coastal districts of malabar and travancore in southwest india in the low elevation moist forests of the western ghats . by the late 1950s it was reported to be almost ' extinct ' . none were seen for a long period of time until 1987 , when it was rediscovered about 60 km east of calicut in kerala . extensive deforestation has reduced the malabar civet ' s .\nthe malabar large - spotted civet is considered by some authorities as viverra megaspila civettina , a subspecies of the large spotted civet viverra megaspila . based on data for the large spotted civet , considered by others to be conspecific , it probably weighs 8 - 9 kg ( 18 - 20 lb ) . the coat is greyish dull white with indistinct black spots that roughly form vague vertical stripes on the body . another distinguishing feature from the sympatric small indian civet ( viverricula indica ) , with which it might be confused , is its shorter tail when compared its body length and the presence of a crest of black erectile hairs on the back , which are characteristic of all the four species under the genus viverra .\nthe malabar large spotted civet is nearly identical to , or is in fact the same species as , the large spotted civet ( viverra megaspila ) . adults of this species usually weigh about 18 to 20 pounds ( 8 to 9 kilograms ) . their long gray coats are mottled with large black spots . they have long tails banded in black and a black crest of long fur down their backs . although most civets look like cats , the malabar large spotted civet more closely resembles a dog with its long legs and dog - like head . malabar civets stay hidden in the thickets during the day and forage for food at night . they have never been seen in trees , and probably obtain their food on the ground . they are thought to eat eggs , small mammals , and some vegetation . solitary animals , they can become aggressive when they encounter members of their own species . female malabar large spotted civets usually have from one to four offspring at a time , and they raise their young in the cover of thickets in the woods .\nmalabar civet was considered a subspecies of large - spotted civet v . megaspila by ellerman and morrison - scott ( 1951 ) . most standard sources , e . g . pocock ( 1939 ) , corbet and hill ( 1992 ) considered it a separate species , but purported morphological differences are slight and its taxonomy therefore needs re - evaluation . it is even possible that it is not a taxon at all , but a result of transport of large - spotted civet ( nandini and mudappa 2010 ) . for the present assessment , the precautionary stance is taken of assuming that malabar civet is a valid taxon , and that it is distinct at the species level .\n* * * about 90 % of the people interviewed in a 1990 survey in the area where the malabar large spotted civet is found were not even aware of its existence . those who were aware of it were mainly hunters , trappers and civet rearers . scarcely anyone recognized it as a critically endangered species . ( ashraf et al . 1993 )\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - malabar civet ( viverra civettina )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - malabar civet ( viverra civettina )\ntitle =\narkive species - malabar civet ( viverra civettina )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe malabar civet is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix iii of cites ( 2 ) .\n\u261b the malabar civet is listed in schedule i , part i of the indian wildlife ( protection ) act , 1972 and on cites appendix iii ( india ) .\nthe malabar large spotted civet has never been observed in trees and possibly forages almost entirely on the ground . evidence suggests that the young are raised in secluded thickets . species of the genus viverra stay in dense cover by day and come out into the open at night . ( ashraf et al . 1993 ; nowak 1999 )\nat one time the malabar large spotted civet roamed about southwest india in the districts of malabar and travancore . as more and more humans moved into the area , clearing it for residential , industrial , and agricultural purposes , the forests have nearly disappeared . with the elimination of its habitat , the malabar large spotted civet population declined drastically . by the 1960s , the species was thought to be extinct . however , members of the species were found in the late 1980s , and some isolated groups are still known to exist . one of the reasons for the disappearance of the malabar civet was that they were once hunted as a source of \u201ccivet musk , \u201d a product used in perfumes . the largest threat to the species , however , is the deforestation of its original habitat in the western ghats , which forces the population into tiny isolated areas . the refuge of the last remaining malabar civets during the last decades of the twentieth century was the area\u2019s cashew plantations , which are not weeded and therefore provide the dense thickets the animals can use as their homes . these are now being cleared for rubber plantations .\nthe malabar large spotted civet ' s original habitat was found in the evergreen rain forest belt in the western ghats of southwest india , where it lived in wooded plains and adjoining hill slopes . natural forests have almost completely disappeared in the entire stretch of the coastal western ghats due to human activities . the present vegetation consists mostly of plantations . the cashew plantations are the least disturbed . they are not weeded and have a dense understory of shrubs and grasses . for a terrestrial species such as the malabar large spotted civet , these thickets can provide important cover . however , it is likely that the cashew plantations are a \u0091refuge ' rather than a preferred habitat . furthermore , most captures of this species in the last 30 years have been in valleys , around riparian areas . this suggests possible dependence on shallow waterways where the civet forages at night . ( ashraf et al . 1993 ) the malabar large spotted civet lives in both the western ghats and sri lanka biodiversity hotspot ( cons . intl . 2005 ) and the western ghats moist forests global 200 ecoregion ( olson & dinerstein 1998 , olson & dinerstein 1999 ) .\nthe use of civet - musk is said to have been widespread within this species ' s range during 1965 - 1970 ( ashraf et al . 1993 ) . in the past , this species might have been used to collect civet oil , although there are no records to authenticate this claim . small indian civet is still illegally \u2018farmed\u2019 and kept in captivity to extract civet , and any remaining malabar civets are likely to be at risk for the same reason .\nlynam , a . j . , maung , m . , po , s . h . t . and duckworth , j . w . ( 2005 ) . recent records of large - spotted civet viverra megaspila from thailand and myanmar . small carnivore conservation 32 : 8\u201311 .\nmalabar civet viverra civettina has sometimes been included in this species , but the two are usually recognised as separate species ( pocock 1939 , corbet and hill 1992 ) , albeit on thin grounds ( nandini and mudappa 2010 ) .\nthe masked palm civet or himalayan palm civet ( paguma larvata ) is a species of civet spread across the indian subcontinent and southeast asia , which in recent times was considered to be a likely vector of sars . in 2008 , the iucn classified the species as least concern as it occurs in many protected areas , is tolerant to some degree of habitat modification , and widely distributed with presumed large populations that are unlikely to be declining .\nbrown palm civet ( paradoxurus jerdoni ) also called the jerdon ' s palm civet is a civet endemic to the western ghats of india . the brown palm civet ' s distribution extends from the southern tip of western ghats in kalakkad mundanthurai tiger reserve to castle rock in goa to the north . brown palm civet is a solitary , nocturnal small carnivore . the brown palm civet is a key mammalian seed disperser in the western ghats rainforest by being predominantly frugivorous and dispersing a diverse array of plant species . their large range and presence within several protected areas have led them to be classified as being of low conservation concern . the brown palm civet occurs in fragmented landscapes containing remnants of tropical rainforest amid commercially exploited land patches such as tea and coffee plantations . their ability to persist in such landscapes depends on the occurrence of a diversity of fruit tree species in these areas ( e . g . , shade trees in coffee plantations ) . however , these areas often do not have large mammalian dispersers and birds like hornbills and large pigeons due to habitat loss and hunting . hence , the brown palm civet gains importance in such human - impacted landscapes as an important disperser and maintains biodiversity . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe large indian civet ( viverra zibetha ) is a member of the viverrid family native to southeast asia . in 2008 , the iucn classified the species as near threatened , mainly because of the known heavy trade as wild meat .\nbelt below the western ghats , where it lived in wooded plains and adjoining hill slopes . it was once very common in the coastal districts of malabar and\nthe small indian civet ( viverricula indica ) or rasse is a species of civet found across south and south - east asia as well as in the indonesian archipelago . in sri lanka ' s sinhala speaking community , this civet is known as kalawedda . the assamese name johamaal refers to its glandular odour similar to a scented rice variety called joha . the species has been introduced to madagascar . ( source : wikipedia )\nmuch of the species ' s range , particularly viet nam and lao pdr but increasingly other areas , has seen very heavy market - driven hunting using often non - selective methods such snaring . this is resulting in huge declines and , evidently , widespread local extirpations of many ground - dwelling mammals ( e . g . , willcox et al . 2014 ) . moreover , there has been an increased demand for civets as luxury food in chinese and viet namese markets ( bell et al . 2004 , lynam et al . 2005 ) . although there has been no specific assessment of the extent to which large - spotted civet is taken , it is likely to be neither positively sought nor actively avoided . w . chutipong ( pers . comm . 2014 ) saw in an internet video of civet - coffee farming in thailand a large - spotted civet ; whether the animal was part of the coffee processing operations or was simply a quirky trophy - pet was not clear .\ndescribed the large - spotted civet as varying in colour from silvery - grey to golden - buff or tawny with a black to brown pattern and large or comparatively small spots , which are separated or sometimes fusing into blotches or into vertical stripes behind the shoulders . white bands on the tail are mostly restricted to the sides and lower surface but very seldom form complete rings . adults measure 30\u201330 . 5 in ( 76\u201377 cm ) in head and body with a 13\u201315 . 5 in ( 33\u201339 cm ) long tail . its weight ranges from 14 . 5\u201318 . 5 lb ( 6 . 6\u20138 . 4 kg ) .\nthe small - toothed palm civet ( arctogalidia trivirgata ) , also known as the three - striped palm civet , is a civet . it lives in dense forests of southeast asia . the diet is varied and omnivorous , and usually consist of insects , small mammals , nesting birds , fruits , frogs and lizards . matching the habits of other palm civets , this species is solitary , arboreal and nocturnal . it is threatened primarily by deforestation , as are many southeast asian forest animals . ( source : wikipedia )\nmalabar civet is possibly one of the rarest and most threatened species of western ghats . this small carnivore has been pushed to the brink of extinction by hunting and habitat loss . it has long legs with a long grey coat and there is a prominent black , bristly dorsal extending from neck up to the tip of the tail . there are large , black spots on the flanks which do not form any pattern . the tail has five white rings , the last one being only about two inches from the tip .\nthe rough - toothed dolphin ( steno bredanensis ) is a fairly large dolphin that can be found in deep warm and tropical waters around the world . the species is social . group sizes are commonly as large as fifty and groups as large as 100 have been reported . rough - toothed dolphins adapt well to captivity and have proven to be intelligent and creative . less than a dozen rough - toothed dolphins live in various dolphinariums around the world . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe asian palm civet ( paradoxurus hermaphroditus ) , also called toddy cat , is a small member of the viverridae family native to south and southeast asia . in 2008 , the iucn classified the species as least concern as it is tolerant of a broad range of habitats , is widely distributed with large populations that are unlikely to be declining . ( source : wikipedia )\nthere is no reliable information about malabar civet ' s habitat use or other aspects of its ecology . the several descriptions of habitat use are speculative or based in whole or part on confusion with other species . it seems that it once inhabited lowland forests , lowland swamp and riparian forests in the coastal plain districts of the western ghats . village reports suggested occurrence in thickets in cashew plantations and in highly degraded lowland forests in northern kerala ( ashraf et al . 1993 ) . it could possibly occur in lowland riparian forests in the coastal plain districts ( ashraf et al . 1993 ) . based on the natural history of congeners , the species is probably nocturnal , ground - dwelling and readily camera - trapped when present . natural forests have completely disappeared from the coastal western ghats . present vegetation is secondary in origin ( champion and seth 1968 ) , and is mostly plantations ( ashraf et al . 1993 ) . of these , cashew plantations are the least disturbed , because they are not weeded , providing a dense understorey of shrubs and grasses for this ground - living species to take refuge in ( ashraf et al . 1993 ) . the pelt records from 1980 - 1990 were in the region of river valleys , suggesting a possible association with shallow water courses ( ashraf et al , 1993 ) . the closely related large - spotted civet is strongly associated with the forested level lowlands ( e . g . , chutipong et al . 2014 ) ; whether this is also true of malabar civet , which occurs within a rather different small carnivore community ( notably , no other species of viverra overlaps with it ) is unknown .\n\u261b the main threat to this species is the loss and degradation of forest habitat . in the past , this species was widely used to collect civet oil . it is now threatened by habitat loss and retaliatory killings for raiding poultry .\nthe rusty - spotted cat ( prionailurus rubiginosus ) is the cat family ' s smallest member and found only in india and sri lanka . being one of the lesser studied south asian carnivores it has been listed as vulnerable by iucn only in 2002 . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe sri lankan spotted chevrotain or white - spotted chevrotain ( moschiola meminna ) is a species of even - toed ungulate in the tragulidae family . it has been proposed that the populations of moschiola meminna in india and sri lanka be split into two species - moschiola meminna and moschiola indica , however the current accepted name for both populations , according to itis and catalogue of life is still moschiola meminna . in sri lanka , this species is found in the dry zone of sri lanka and is replaced in the wet zone by the yellow - striped chevrotain moschiola kathygre . ( source : wikipedia )\nlarge - spotted civet has been found in many protected areas , particularly in thailand and cambodia ( gray et al . 2014 , chutipong et al . 2014 ) . most of these are not well managed , with some level of hunting , and many comprise largely unsuitable terrain and altitude for the species . some of the pas supporting it in cambodia are afforded high ranking in conservation prioritisation , notably mondulkiri protected forest , and gray et al . ( 2010 ) called for large - spotted civet to be given specific consideration in management of this area . the species is nominally legally protected in most or all range states ( excepting china , apparently ) , but these laws are widely flouted and over large parts of the species ' s present range have no deterrent effect on hunting levels . recent great reductions in gun usage by civilians for hunting in lao pdr and perhaps other countries have led to increased snaring efforts ( in compensation ) ; the latter is probably the more damaging form of hunting for this species ( lynam et al . 2005 ) . the overwhelming need is to secure multiple protected areas across its range by reducing hunting and habitat encroachment to levels not detrimental to this species . a firm legal basis already exists to do this in lao pdr , cambodia , thailand and myanmar . such pas should include khao ang rue nai ws and , perhaps , huai kha khaeng ws , thailand ( the latter already one of the best - protected areas in south - east asia ; the former not ) , mondulkiri protected forest and preah vihear protected forest ( cambodia ) , some in myanmar ( currently with too little information to decide which ) , and perhaps xe pian npa in lao pdr ( although recent information is lacking and regional trends suggest it is quite likely the species will now be very rare there ) .\n, this species should be readily snared . despite the massive levels of civet hunting , and the often - taken opportunities to check large numbers of civets in trade , this species is not recorded in the widespread trade in china ( lau et al . , 1997 ; kadoorie farm and botanic garden , 2004 ) and viet nam , which suggests that the populations are already reduced to overall extremely low levels ( scott roberton and wang ying - xiang , nguyen xuan dang , michael lau pers . comm . ) .\nthe chital or cheetal ( axis axis ) , also known as chital deer , spotted deer or axis deer is a deer which commonly inhabits wooded regions of sri lanka , nepal , bangladesh , bhutan , india , and in small numbers in pakistan . it is the most common deer species in indian forests . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe large - eared pika ( ochotona macrotis ) is a species of mammal in the ochotonidae family . it is found in afghanistan , china , india , kazakhstan , kyrgyzstan , nepal , pakistan , and tajikistan . ( source : wikipedia )\nmalabar civet is listed in schedule i , part i of the indian wildlife ( protection ) act , 1972 and on cites appendix iii ( india ) . this species is not known to occur in any protected area and the declaration of large new protected areas in its range is unlikely because of the dense human populations ( ashraf et al . 1993 ) . ashraf et a l . ( 1993 ) recommended the following conservation actions for this species : captive breeding ( with the possibility of reintroduction if suitable undisturbed areas are identified ) , field surveys ( to investigate whether this species occurs in protected areas ) and ecological studies ( to determine the threats to this species ) . an urgent conservation action plan is needed . given that recently it has been not possible to find the species at all , the option of captive breeding is not currently practical . reintroduction , assuming that some environmental threats have dissipated the populations , it would need considerable amount of work to nullify those threats having firstly established what they are . field survey should be continued , although many in the last decade have not yielded any positive results ( jayson et al . 2007 , rao et al . 2007 , ashraf et al . 2009 ) . as noted by nandini and mudappa ( 2010 ) in a detailed review of the knowledge of the malabar civet , none of the historical specimens have reliable provenance ; and even for the more recent ones it is fairly vague : not one has a precise wild locality of origin . it therefore is imperative to assess the status of the specimens in various museums and collections using advanced techniques of molecular genetics . this should consider whether the species is in fact a valid taxon native to india , or an incidental result of the wide trans - shipment of various civet species that occurred around the indian ocean counties for many centuries .\nthe dhole is highly social animal , living in large clans which occasionally split up into small packs to hunt . it primarily preys on medium - sized ungulates , which it hunts by tiring them out in long chases , and kills by disemboweling them . unlike most social canids ( but similar to african wild dogs ) , dholes let their pups eat first at a kill . though fearful of humans , dhole packs are bold enough to attack large and dangerous animals such as wild boar , water buffalo , and even tigers .\n) , also called orca , or blackfish , is a toothed whale belonging to the oceanic dolphin family . killer whales are found in all oceans , from the frigid arctic and antarctic regions to tropical seas . killer whales as a species have a diverse diet including fish , sea lions , seals , walruses and even large whales . killer whales are regarded as apex predators , lacking natural predators and preying on even large sharks . being an apex predator , the killer whale is particularly at risk of poisoning from accumulation of toxins , including polychlorinated biphenyls\nfraser ' s dolphin ( lagenodelphis hosei ) or sarawak dolphin is a cetacean in the family delphinidae found in deep waters in the pacific ocean and to a lesser extent in the indian and atlantic oceans . fraser dolphins ' swim quickly in large tightly packed groups of about 100 to 1000 in number . often porpoising , the group chop up the water tremendously . the sight of seeing a large group fleeing from a fishing vessels has been reported as\nvery dramatic\n. it is also marked by having the smallest genitalia of any open sea dolphin . ( source : wikipedia )\na century ago because of extensive conversion of forest to agriculture . coastal plain forest was never extensive in its presumed range because the western ghats hill range run quite close to the coast along its length . natural forests have completely disappeared from the coastal western ghats ( champion and seth 1968 ) . land - use and habitat changes have not been too drastic in the last century within the assumed distribution range of the malabar civet . the records late in this period , if they were of wild animals , therefore suggest an ability to persist in today ' s habitat matrix , specifically in deforested areas and / or forest above the plains . in either case , many areas of potentially suitable habitat persist . thus , habitat factors alone are unlikely to have been an unlikely driver of\n\u261b natural forests have completely disappeared in the entire stretch of coastal western ghats , thus the present vegetation is of secondary origin , and is mostly plantations . however , cashew plantations , which may hold most of the surviving populations of this species , are threatened by large - scale clearance for planting rubber trees .\nthe onager ( equus hemionus ) is a large member of the genus equus of the family equidae ( horse family ) native to the deserts of syria , iran , pakistan , india , israel and tibet . it is sometimes known as the wild asian ass . onagers are a little larger than donkeys and they are notoriously untameable .\nthe pantropical spotted dolphin ( stenella attenuata ) is a species of dolphin found in all the world ' s temperate and tropical oceans . the species was beginning to come under threat due to the killing of millions of individuals in tuna purse seines . the 1980s saw the rise of\ndolphin - friendly\ntuna capture methods in order to save millions of the species in the eastern pacific ocean and it is now one of the most abundant dolphin species in the world . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe spotted linsang ( prionodon pardicolor ) is a linsang found in the forests of the central and eastern himalaya . it is short , light coloured , and has a slender body with a pointed head and small limbs . it stalks its prey by crawling on its belly , when it is often mistaken for a python or other heavy - built poisonous snakes due to its slender appearance . its diet consists of insects , rodents , lizards , birds and small mammals . it weighs less than 1 kilogram . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe population status is unknown but the lack of any even possible record since the advent of widespread camera - trapping suggests that very few animals , at most , persist . three recent attempts to find the species failed ( jayson et al . 2007 , rao et al . 2007 , ashraf et al . 2009 ) . this species was formerly believed to be very common in the districts of malabar and travancore in southwest india , based on jerdon ( 1874 ) . however , nandini and mudappa ( 2010 ) concluded that jerdon\u2019s statements were a case of misidentification of the more common ( even now ) small indian civet , supporting pocock\u2019s ( 1933 ) doubts about jerdon\u2019s report . but by the late 1960s it was thought to be near extinction . no sighting was claimed until 1987 ; then , and subsequently , there have been no confirmed records of wild or captive animals : only equivocal sightings ( without any supporting evidence to confirm the species identification ) and dead animals plausibly from captivity ( nandini and mudappa 2010 ) .\nthe urial ( ovis orientalis ) , also known as the arkars or shapo , is a species of wild sheep . noticeable features are the reddish - brown long fur that fades during winter ; males are characterized by a black ruff stretching from the neck to the chest and large horns . it is primarily found in western central asia , but populations also exist in ladakh ( source : wikipedia )\nbryde ' s whales are baleen whales , one of the\ngreat whales\nor rorquals . they prefer tropical and temperate waters over the polar seas that other whales in their family frequent . they are largely coastal rather than pelagic . bryde ' s whales are very similar in appearance to sei whales and almost as large . they inhabit tropical and subtropical waters worldwide . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe brown bear ( ursus arctos ) is a large bear distributed across much of northern eurasia and north america . it can weigh from 300 to 780 kilograms and its largest subspecies , the kodiak bear , rivals the polar bear as the largest member of the bear family and as the largest land - based predator . grizzly bears form a very small population in northern himalayas in india . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe markhor ( capra falconeri ) is a large species of wild goat that is found in northeastern afghanistan , pakistan , jammu and kashmir in india , southern tajikistan and southern uzbekistan . the species is classed by the iucn as endangered , as there are fewer than 2 , 500 mature individuals which continued to decline by an estimated 20 % over 2 generations . the markhor is the national animal of pakistan . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe snow leopard is perhaps the most endangered of the large cats , with an estimated population of only 400 to 700 individuals in five himalayan states in india . this species suffers from intense conflicts with rural communities , habitat degradation and depletion of natural prey base , poaching for its exquisite fur and valuable bones ( used in traditional chinese medicine ) . the state of jammu & kashmir has the distinction of harbouring a major portion of existing snow leopard population in india .\nthe sambar ( rusa unicolor ) is a large deer native to southern and southeast asia . although it primarily refers to r . unicolor , the name sambar is also sometimes used to refer to the philippine deer ( called the philippine sambar ) and the rusa deer ( called the sunda sambar ) . the sambar inhabits much of southern asia , from southern china to indonesia . genetic analysis shows that the closest living relative of the sambar is probably the javan rusa of indonesia . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe gaur ( pronounced / \u02c8\u0261a\u028a\u0259r / ) ( bos gaurus , previously bibos gauris ) is a large , dark - coated forest ungulate of south asia and southeast asia . the largest populations are found today in india . the gaur belongs to the bovinae subfamily , which also includes bison , domestic cattle , yak and water buffalo . the gaur is the largest species of wild cattle , bigger than the african buffalo , the extinct aurochs ( the ancestor of domestic cattle ) , wild water buffalo or bison .\nthe short - finned pilot whale ( globicephala macrorhynchus ) is one of the two species of cetacean in the genus globicephala . it is part of the oceanic dolphin family ( delphinidae ) , though its behaviour is closer to that of the larger whales . short - finned pilot whales are very sociable and are rarely seen alone . they are found in groups of ten to thirty , though some pods are as large as sixty . hey are known as the ' cheetahs of the deep ' for the high speed pursuits of squids at depths of hundreds of metres . ( source : wikipedia )\ndugong ( dugong dugon ) is the only herbivorous mammal that is strictly marine and the only member of the order sirenia found in india . dugongs are restricted to coastal shallow marine habitats and grazes on the sea grass meadows in coastal waters and are therefore called as \u201csea cows\u201d . in india , it is one of the most seriously endangered species of large mammals . dugongs are vulnerable to anthropogenic pressures as they are solely dependent on sea grasses in coastal areas , which now have been seriously damaged by mining , trawling etc . dugongs have also been hunted for their meat , oil , hides , bones and teeth .\nthe indian rhinoceros ( rhinoceros unicornis ) is also called greater one - horned rhinoceros and asian one - horned rhinoceros and belongs to the rhinocerotidae family . listed as a vulnerable species , the large mammal is primarily found in parts of north - eastern india and in protected areas in the terai of nepal , where populations are confined to the riverine grasslands in the foothills of the himalayas . the indian rhinoceros once ranged throughout the entire stretch of the indo - gangetic plain but excessive hunting reduced their natural habitat drastically . today , about 3 , 000 rhinos live in the wild , 2 , 000 of which are found in india ' s assam alone . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe indian pangolin ( manis crassicaudata ) is a pangolin that is found in many parts of india and some parts of pakistan and sri lanka . like other pangolins , it has large , overlapping scales on the body which act like armour . it can also curl itself into a ball as self defence against predators such as the tiger . it is an insectivore and feeds on ants and termites , digging them out of their mounds using its long claws that are as long as its forelimbs . it lives mainly in burrows and is known to climb trees . it is also considered to be a curious animal and has been killed for so - called medicinal value . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe dugong ( dugong dugon ) is a large marine mammal which , together with the manatees , is one of four living species of the order sirenia . it is the only living representative of the once - diverse family dugongidae ; its closest modern relative , steller ' s sea cow ( hydrodamalis gigas ) , was hunted to extinction in the 18th century . it is also the only sirenian in its range , which spans the waters of at least 37 countries throughout the indo - pacific , though the majority of dugongs live in the northern waters of australia . the dugong is the only strictly - marine herbivorous mammal , as all species of manatee utilize fresh water to some degree . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe fin whale ( balaenoptera physalus ) , also called the finback whale , razorback , or common rorqual , is a marine mammal belonging to the suborder of baleen whales . it is the second largest whale and the second largest living animal after the blue whale , growing to nearly 27 meters . like all other large whales , the fin whale was heavily hunted during the twentieth century and is an endangered species . almost 750 , 000 fin whales were taken from the southern hemisphere alone between 1904 and 1979 and less than 3 , 000 currently remain in that region . the international whaling commission ( iwc ) has issued a moratorium on commercial hunting of this whale , although iceland and japan have resumed hunting . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe yak ( bos grunniens ) , is a long - haired bovine found throughout the himalayan region of south central asia , the tibetan plateau and as far north as mongolia and russia . in addition to a large domestic population , there is a small , vulnerable wild yak population . in the 1990 ' s , a concerted effort was undertaken to help save the wild yak population . domesticated yaks are kept primarily for their milk , fibre and meat , and as beasts of burden . their dried dung is an important fuel , used all over tibet , and is often the only fuel available on the high treeless tibetan plateau . yaks transport goods across mountain passes for local farmers and traders as well as for climbing and trekking expeditions . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe sun bear ( ursus malayanus ) , sometimes known as the honey bear , is a bear found primarily in the tropical rainforests of southeast asia . adult sun bears have almost no predators except humans , due to their fierce reputation and formidable teeth . occasionally , they may be overwhelmed by tigers , or large reticulated pythons . the recent decline in the sun bear population can be largely attributed to the hunting of\nnuisance bears\nthat destroy crops and widespread poaching driven by the market for their fur and for their bile , which is used in chinese medicine . sometimes , sun bears are captured or bred to be domestic pets . the iucn reclassified the sun bear from\ndata deficient\nto\nvulnerable\nstatus in 2007 . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe sei whale ( pronounced / \u02c8se\u026a / or / \u02c8sa\u026a / ) , balaenoptera borealis , is a baleen whale , the third - largest rorqual after the blue whale and the fin whale . it inhabits most oceans and adjoining seas , and prefers deep offshore waters . it is among the fastest of all cetaceans , and can reach speeds of up to 50 kilometres per hour over short distances . following large - scale commercial whaling during the late - nineteenth and twentieth centuries , when over 238 , 000 whales were taken , the sei whale is now internationally protected , although limited hunting occurs under controversial research programmes conducted by iceland and japan . as of 2006 , its worldwide population was about 54 , 000 , about a fifth of its pre - whaling population . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe wild water buffalo ( bubalis bubalis arnee or ' bubalus arnee ) is a large ungulate , a member of the bovine subfamily and the ancestor of the domestic water buffalo . it is the second largest wild bovid , smaller only than the gaur . it is an endangered species , thought to survive in ( from west to east ) india , nepal , bhutan , myanmar and thailand . wild asian water buffalo are extinct in pakistan , bangladesh , laos and viet nam . ( source : wikipedia ) although domesticated water buffalo are thriving and are distributed well beyond their native range , true wild water buffalo are in jeopardy . it may be that no true wild water buffalo exist , but have been lost to interbreeding with domesticated or feral buffalo . ( source : encyclopedia of life through animal diversity web )\nthe humpback whale ( megaptera novaeangliae ) is a species of baleen whale . it is an acrobatic animal , often breaching and slapping the water . found in oceans and seas around the world , humpback whales typically migrate up to 25 , 000 kilometres each year . humpbacks feed only in summer , in polar waters , and migrate to tropical or sub - tropical waters to breed and give birth in the winter . like other large whales , the humpback was and is a target for the whaling industry . due to over - hunting , its population fell by an estimated 90 % before a whaling moratorium was introduced in 1966 . stocks have since partially recovered ; however , entanglement in fishing gear , collisions with ships , and noise pollution also remain concerns . there are at least 80 , 000 humpback whales worldwide . ( source : wikipedia )\nthe red fox ( vulpes vulpes ) is the largest of the true foxes , as well as being the most geographically spread member of the carnivora , being distributed across the entire northern hemisphere from the arctic circle to north africa , central america , and the steppes of asia . its range has increased alongside human expansion , having been introduced to australasia , where it is considered harmful to native mammal and bird populations . because of these factors , it is listed as least concern for extinction by the iucn . the species has a long history of association with humans , having been extensively hunted as a pest and furbearer for centuries , as well as being prominently represented in human folklore and mythology . because of its widespread distribution and large population , the red fox is one of the most important furbearing animals harvested for the fur trade . ( source : wikipedia )\nnine species of vultures are recorded from india of which five belong to the genus gyps . three gyps vultures , namely the oriental rumped vulture ( owrv ) gyps bengalensis , long - billed vulture ( lbv ) gyps indicus and slender - billed vulture ( sbv ) gyps tenuirostris are residents , and the remaining two , the eurasian griffon vulture gyps fulvus and himalayan griffon vulture gyps himalayensis are largely wintering species . owrv and lbv were abundant across india until the 1990s . vultures are nature ' s most efficient scavengers . the gyps vultures are specialized to feed on the soft tissue of the large ungulate carcasses . they play a vital role in the ecosystem by cleaning up the rotten carcasses left in the open . the population of gyps vultures in the indian subcontinent has crashed since 1990s onwards . the populations of owrv , sbv and lbv had declined by around 97 % during the last two decades . veterinary use of the non - steroidal anti inflammatory drug ' diclofenac ' is the main cause attributed for this drastic population decline .\nthe snow leopard ( uncia uncia or panthera uncia ) is a moderately large cat native to the mountain ranges of south asia and central asia . the classification of this species has been subject to change and its exact taxonomic position will not be resolved until further studies are conducted . snow leopards live between 3 , 000 and 5 , 500 metres above sea level in the rocky mountain ranges of central asia . their secretive nature means that their exact numbers are unknown , but it has been estimated that between 3 , 500 and 7 , 000 snow leopards exist in the wild and between 600 and 700 in zoos worldwide . snow leopards cannot roar , despite possessing some ossification of the hyoid bone . this ossification was previously thought to be essential for allowing the big cats to roar , but new studies show that the ability to roar is due to other morphological features , especially of the larynx , which are absent in the snow leopard . snow leopard vocalizations include hisses , chuffing , mews , growls , and wailing . ( source : wikipedia )"]}
{"id": 2543, "summary": [{"text": "temnocephala lamothei is a species of flatworm in the family temnocephalidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the specific name lamothei is in honor of mexican helminthologist dr. marcos rafael lamothe-argumedo .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "this species was collected in 2005 in misiones province , argentina and described in 2008 as a commensal in the mantle cavity of freshwater snail pomella megastoma . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "temnocephala lamothei", "paragraphs": ["temnocephala lamothei is a species of flatworm in the family . . . stock illustration - search vector clipart , drawings , and eps graphics images - csp23609896\ntemnocephala lamothei n . sp . is the fourth species described from mollusc hosts ( gastropoda , ampullariidae ) . despite the great diversity of potential hosts of the family occurring in the neotropical region , few commensal species of temnocephala ns are known . among them , only t . iheringi has been recorded in association with pomella megastoma ( = asolene megastoma ) ( damborenea et al . , 1997 ) in argentina .\nin this contribution we describe a new species of temnocephala that is a commensal of pomella megastoma , which were collected in misiones province , argentina .\nvolonterio , o . 2007 . a new species of temnocephala ( platyhelminthes , temnocephalida ) and a description of t . axenos from uruguay . journal of natural history 41 : 1245\u00961257 . [ links ]\nthe presence of this new species of temnocephala , and its features similar to those of the other species of this genus that are commensals of molluscs , suggests the existence of a morphologically homogeneous group . more detailed studies of all known species , as well as the search for other temnocephala n species in ampullariids present in the neotropical region , will provide valuable information in the future on the relationships of these species to each other , and to other temnocephala ns that are commensals of crustaceans and chelonians . finally , studies on the relationships among commensal species will contribute new information and a better understanding of the relationships among host species .\nthe family temnocephalidae ( platyhelminthes , temnocephalida ) includes 12 genera , of which only temnocephala blanchard , 1849 is represented in south and central america . twenty\u0096three species of temnocephala are currently recognized ( damborenea and cannon , 2001 ; amato et al . , 2003 , 2006 ; amato and amato , 2005 ; volonterio , 2007 ) , and they are associated with a wide range of hosts ( mollusca ampullariidae , crustacea decapoda , insecta hemiptera , and chelonia ) .\ntemnocephala colombiensis n . sp . , is described as ectosymbiont of pomacea sp . from san jos\u00e9 del n\u00fas , antioquia , colombia . temnocephalans were removed from the mantle cavity and its eggs from the umbilicus and the basal region of the operculum . the new species is characterized by : cirrus curved toward hindbody , approximately 90\u00b0 ; introvert ' s swelling with 20 to 26 longitudinal rows of fine spines and 11 to 13 spines per row ; dorsolateral excretory syncytial plates rectangular with rounded corners and excretory pores eccentric , displaced to the anterior portion of the plate . additionally we have done a comparison of cirrus morphology for temnocephala described to date , based on literature review . this is the first temnocephala described from colombia .\ndamborenea c . & brusa f . ( 2008 )\na new species of temnocephala ( platyhelminthes , temnocephalida ) commensal of pomella megastoma ( mollusca , ampullariidae ) from misiones , argentina\n. revista mexicana de biodiversidad 79 : 1 - 7 . pdf\nthe 3 known species of temnocephala described as commensals of ampullariids are the most similar to the new species from a morphological point of view . in addition to sharing the same host , they have common morphological features such as a large sucker ( compared to those of other species that are commensals of crustaceans ) a non\u0096partitioned intestine , and the absence of paranephrocytes . however , the presence of a strongly sclerotized , oblique ring at the base of the cirrus introvert in t . lamothei , as well as the possession of a row of spines at the base of the introvert and another row at its distal end , are characteristic of the new species .\nthe mosaic pattern of the epidermal syncytia is constant within temnocephala species . these have only 4 plates : 1 body syncytium , 2\nexcretory\nsyncytia and 1 adhesive syncytium ( damborenea and cannon , 2001 ) . the shape and size of these plates vary slightly between the species of the genus . nevertheless , of the 3 known species of temnocephala ns from molluscs , only the plate pattern of t . iheringi has been described . unfortunately the specimens described herein were relaxed before fixation , and the plate pattern was not evident .\ntemnocephala lamothei n . sp . , comensal de pomella megastoma ( sowerby , 1825 ) , se describe para el arroyo yabot\u00ed\u0096min\u00ed , provincia de misiones , argentina . se extrajeron ejemplares juveniles y adultos de la cavidad paleal , por relajaci\u00f3n de los hospederos . las caracter\u00edsticas distintivas de la nueva especie son : intestino no septado , cirro de forma c\u00f3nica , con una cara plana y otra c\u00f3ncava , zona distal con espinas evidente por un fuerte anillo oblicuo esclerosado . dos hileras de espinas se reconocen en el extremo distal , 1 interna de espinas largas , que surge desde la base del introverso , y 1 externa , que surge del extremo distal del mismo . las especies m\u00e1s semejantes son t . iheringi , t . rochensis y t . haswelli , especies comensales de moluscos con las que es comparada . el hallazgo de esta nueva especie de temnocephala y sus caracter\u00edsticas semejantes a las restantes especies del g\u00e9nero comensales de moluscos , sugieren que las especies conocidas hasta la fecha formen un grupo morfol\u00f3gicamente homog\u00e9neo .\ndamborenea , m . c . ; brusa , f . ( 2008 ) . a new species of temnocephala ( platyhelminthes , temnocephalida ) commensal of pomella megastoma ( mollusca , ampullariidae ) from misiones , argentina . revista mexicana de biodiversidad , 79 suppl , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ntemnocephala colombiensis n . sp . , se describe como ectosimbionte de pomacea sp . de san jos\u00e9 del n\u00fas , antioquia , colombia . los temnoc\u00e9falos fueron removidos de la cavidad del manto y sus huevos , del ombligo y regi\u00f3n basal del op\u00e9rculo . la nueva especie se caracteriza por un cirro curvado hacia la regi\u00f3n posterior del cuerpo , con aproximadamente 90\u00b0 ; introverto ensanchado con 20\u201326 filas de espinas longitudinales y 11\u201313 espinas por fila ; placas sincitiales dorsolaterales rectangulares con extremos redondeados y poros excretores exc\u00e9ntricos en la porci\u00f3n anterior . adicionalmente se realiza una comparaci\u00f3n de la morfolog\u00eda del cirro de las especies descritas a la fecha . esta es la primera especie de temnocephala descrita para colombia .\nthe site of attachment of the eggs of t . lamothei n . sp . on the host mollusc is very peculiar . the egg capsules of t . iheringi are always laid over the periostracum , especially at the contact zone between the peristome and the suture at the opening , and in the umbilicus . this pattern is repeated with no changes in different populations studied ( damborenea , 1992 ; 1996 ; mart\u00edn et al . , 2005 ) . the site of egg attachment for t . haswelli and t . rochensis has not been described .\nin comparison , t . iheringi is the species with the cirrus structure more similar to the new species ; it is similarly shaped , with 1 flat and 1 concave side . the cirri of these 2 species are also similar in length , although the base of this structure is longer in the new species ( the cirrus of t . iheringi is approximately 157 \u00b5m in total length and approximately 70 \u00b5m in basal width ( damborenea , 1992 ) , vs . 167 \u00b5m and 115 \u00b5m respectively in t . lamothei ) . t . iheringi bears several rows of spines at the distal end of the introvert .\nhosts were collected at arroyo yabot\u00ed\u0096min\u00ed ( 26\u00b057 ' 39 . 87 ' ' s , 53\u00b049 ' 23 . 07 ' ' w ) in misiones province , argentina , in january 2005 . the temnocephala ns emerged when the hosts were relaxed using menthol . whole mounts were stained with carmine chloride and mounted in synthetic canada balsam . serial sections for histology were made in order to study and interpret the morphology and location of organs , particularly the genital system , and the arrangement and development of muscles . worms were embedded in paraplast , cut at 4 \u00b5m thick , stained with mayer ' s haematoxylin and eosin and mounted in synthetic canada balsam .\ntyler , s . , artois , t . ; schilling , s . ; hooge , m . ; bush , l . f . ( eds ) ( 2006 - 2018 ) . world list of turbellarian worms : acoelomorpha , catenulida , rhabditophora .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nconsejo nacional de investigaciones cient\u00edficas y t\u00e9cnicas\u0096divisi\u00f3n zoolog\u00eda invertebrados , museo de la plata , facultad de ciencias naturales y museo de la universidad nacional de la plata . paseo del bosque s / n 1900 . la plata , argentina .\nkey words : turbellaria , commensal , neotropical region , taxonomy , south america .\npalabras clave : turbellaria , comensal , regi\u00f3n neotropical , taxonom\u00eda , am\u00e9rica del sur .\ntwo specimens were dissected for extraction of the cirrus . one was mounted in polyvinyl\u0096lactophenol for study under optical microscope ( om ) and the other was dehydrated , dried , and metalized for study under scanning electron microscope ( sem ) .\nfor sem observation , whole individuals and egg capsules were dehydrated in a graded ethanol series and critical\u0096point dried , coated with gold and examined using a jeol 6360 sem .\nphotomicrographs were taken with a zeiss axioplan 2 microscope . nomarski ' s interference contrast filters were used for cirrus photomicrographs . measurements were obtained with the aid of an om ; ranges and number of specimens measured are listed in parentheses following the means .\nthe terminology used for description of reproductive structures follows cannon ( 1993 ) . the materials are deposited in the invertebrate collection at museo de la plata ( mlp ) , argentina .\nbased on 17 specimens : 2 whole\u0096mounted adult specimens ; 8 fixed adult and juvenile specimens ; 2 specimens and 1 cirrus mounted on stubs for sem ; 1 cirrus mounted in polyvinyl\u0096lactophenol ; 2 specimens in sagittal sections and 1 in transversal sections ; 9 specimens were measured .\nexternal characteristics . body elliptic , about 2 . 03 mm ( 1 . 10\u00962 . 9 mm , 9 ) long without tentacles , and about 1 . 10 mm ( 0 . 8\u00961 . 7 mm , 9 ) wide ( fig . 1 ) . posterior adhesive disk subterminal , pedunculate : disk diameter 0 . 74 mm at rim ( 0 . 75\u00961 . 15mm , 9 ) . epidermis syncytial , thin and unciliated . mosaic of epidermal syncytia not evident .\nalimentary system . mouth mid\u0096ventral , between first and second quarters of body . pharynx longer than wide , 590 \u00b5m long , 363 \u00b5m wide , esophageal glands at its base ( fig . 1 ) . in all specimens studied , the pharynx shows a layer similar to a cuticle , that becomes loose in histological samples and can be seen free within the pharyngeal lumen . intestine saccular , without septa ; intestinal walls thick . paranephrocites not evident .\nglands . rhabdite glands large , numerous , in lateral fields on body , extending onto sides of intestinal sac , with conspicuous rhabdite tracts . cyanophilus glands inconspicuous , evident only in sectioned specimens , separated from each other in parenchyma , and located among rhabdite glands . adhesive disks glands scarce and scattered , posterior to posterior testis . haswell ' s cells absent . shell gland very prominent , near gonopore and opening onto epidermis surrounding gonopore ( fig . 2 ) .\nmuscles . dorsal and ventral circular muscles of body wall similar . ventral longitudinal muscles of body wall stronger than dorsal ones . dorso\u0096ventral muscles and attachment muscles of pharynx weak . muscles controlling male organ strong . attachment muscles of adhesive disk weak .\nreproductive system . male . four ovoid testes , 2 on each side of body , just behind intestine . posterior pair oblique , elliptical , larger than anterior testes ( fig . 1 ) . vasa deferentia extending from inner wall of posterior testes , separately joining a large pyriform thick , seminal vesicle with muscular walls . seminal vesicle opening into large oval prostatic bulb with muscular walls . abundant prostatic secretion observed near seminal vesicle and prostatic bulb , entering the latter through its walls . prostatic bulb prolonged into base of cirrus ( fig . 2 ) . cirrus curved in lateral view , 167 \u00b5m total length ; shaft cone\u0096shaped , 146 \u00b5m long , 115 . 5 \u00b5m wide at proximal shaft base ( figs . 3\u00968 ) . introvert not swollen , proximal margin slightly oblique , marked with a conspicuous , thickened oblique ring , evident under sem and om ; introvert portion 21 . 5 \u00b5m long , 40 \u00b5m wide at its proximal base ( figs . 3\u00968 ) . ratio between total length of cirrus and maximum width of shaft at base 5 . 45 ; ratio between total length of cirrus and total length of introvert 7 . 95 . shaft with 1 side straight and the other curved ( fig . 3 ) . two rows of spines : an inner 1 arising from shaft base , from thickened ring , approximately 11\u009612 \u00b5m long ; and an outer row arising from distal margin of introvert , with approximately 45\u009650 spines , 5\u00967 \u00b5m long ( figs . 6\u00968 ) .\nfemale . gonopore mid\u0096ventral , in posterior third of body , surrounded by a muscular sphincter , genital atrium large , elongate ( fig . 2 ) . most female organs difficult to observe and measure in whole mounts . ovary small , round ; 1 seminal receptacle present , with spermatozoids inside . vesicula resorbens thick\u0096walled , slightly insinuated into intestinal sac . a short oviduct opening into the ootype , posterior to seminal receptacle . abundant gland cells around ootype , genital atrium , and vagina , with ducts opening into them . vagina large and muscular , opening in front of cirrus introvert , with 1 weak sphincter ( fig . 2 ) . vitellaria dendrite covering dorsal and ventral sides of intestinal sac , never surpassing its limits .\neggs clavate , 625\u0096800 \u00b5m long and 75\u0096350 \u00b5m wide ( fig . 9 ) . polar filament long ( 115 \u00b5m ) . opercular plates large , arranged almost perpendicularly to great axis of eggs , so that fracture plane of opercula shows a straight angle respect to great axis of egg ( figs . 10\u009612 ) . eggs deposited on external surface of host , on umbilical area , operculum and at contact zone of peristome and suture at opening ( figs . 13\u009614 ) . some eggs covered by callus ( figs . 15\u009616 ) .\ntype host : pomella megastoma ( sowerby , 1825 ) . two parasitized snails .\nsite : mantle cavity of snail . numerous eggs fixed over umbilicus and operculum and some eggs within spire .\ntype locality : arroyo yabot\u00ed\u0096min\u00ed ( 26\u00b057 ' 39 . 87 ' ' s , 53\u00b049 ' 23 . 07 ' ' w ) , misiones province , argentina . january 2005 .\nhelminth specimens deposited : holotype : sagittally sectioned specimen , mlp5718 . paratypes : 2 whole\u0096mounted specimens , mlp5719 ; 1 dissected cirrus in polyvinyl\u0096lactophenol , mlp5720 ; 1 sagittally sectioned specimen , 1 transversely sectioned specimen , mlp5721 . other material : 8 specimens preserved in alcohol , unhatched eggs , mlp5722 .\netymology : species named in honor of dr . rafael lamothe argumedo for his important contribution to the knowledge of helminth diversity .\nthis introvert structure of the cirrus of the new species is unique ; unlike the other species , its proximal end is slightly oblique , marked with a conspicuous thickened ring .\nwith respect to the morphology of the distal end of the cirrus , the new species resembles t . haswelli . the description of the latter species only mentions a single crown with digitiform spines ( ponce de le\u00f3n , 1989 ) . however , a detailed drawing of the distal end of the cirrus shows an arrangement similar to that observed in the new species , i . e . , with a row of small spines inserted along the distal edge and a row of larger spines . the shape of the cirrus in t . haswelli \u0096 as in t . rochensis \u0096 is conical , with both sides curved , differing from the condition observed in the new species , and even longer ( 200 \u00b5m in t . haswelli and 186 \u00b5m in t . rochensis ) .\nthe new species attaches most of its eggs onto the host ' s umbilicus and over the basal region of the operculum , a feature never recorded in t . iheringi . in addition , some eggs are attached onto the contact zone between the peristome and the suture at the opening , so that they are covered by the mantle . because of this unique placement of eggs , many of them ( both hatched and unhatched ) were found to be covered by the callus of the host .\nthe authors are indebted to gerardo p\u00e9rez ponce de le\u00f3n , virginia le\u00f3n\u0096regagnon , luis garc\u00eda\u0096prieto and david osorio\u0096sarabia for inviting us to contribute in this commemorative volume for professor rafael lamothe\u0096argumedo . we thank l . negrete for the collection of the specimens of p . megastoma and for providing us with field information . this work was supported by grants from conicet ( pip 6371 ) , by the facultad de ciencias naturales y museo , universidad nacional de la plata ( n488 ) , and by foncyt ( pme 159 ) .\nspp . ( hemiptera , belostomatidae ) from southern brazil . revista brasileira de zoologia 22 : 107\u0096118 .\namato , j . f . r . , s . b . amato and l . c . campos daudt . 2003 . new species of\nbuckup and rossi ( crustacea , anomura ) from southern brazil . revista brasileira de zoologia 20 : 493\u0096500 .\namato , j . f . r . , s . b . amato and s . a . seixas . 2006 . a new species of\nlatreille ( crustacea , decapoda , trichodactylidae ) from southern brazil . revista brasileira de zoologia 23 : 796\u0096806 .\n( platyhelminthes ) : ectosymionts of freshwater crabs and shrimps . memoirs of the queensland museum 33 : 17\u009640 .\n( platyhelminthes , temnocephalidae ) de crust\u00e1ceos y moluscos de la argentina . iheringia , s\u00e9rie de zoologia 72 : 3\u009621 .\n( platyhelminthes , temnocephalidae ) de la isla mart\u00edn garc\u00eda , buenos aires , argentina . neotropica 43 : 123\u0096124 .\ndamborenea , c . , f . brusa and a . paola . 2006 . variation in worm assemblages associated with\n( caenogastropoda , ampullariidae ) in sites near the r\u00edo de la plata estuary , argentina . biocell 30 : 457\u0096468 .\nhyman , l . h . 1955 . miscellaneous marine and terrestrial flatworms from south america . american museum novitates 1742 : 1\u009633 .\nmart\u00edn p . r . , a . l . , estebenet and s . burela . 2005 . factors affecting the distribution of the commensal\nponce de le\u00f3n , r . 1980 . especies americanas de temnocephalidea benham ( platyhelmintha ) . i . descripci\u00f3n de\ncircuito exterior , ciudad universitaria , del . coyoac\u00e1n , m\u00e9xico , distrito federal , mx , 04510 , ( 52 - 55 ) 5622 - 9167 falvarez @ urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nsearch can stock photo for stock photography , photos , digital illustrations , picture clip art and royalty - free photograph images . can stock photo has the stock image , royalty free photo , stock photograph , graphic or picture that you need . our photographers provide royalty free stock photos , stock photographs , graphics , and pictures for as little as $ 2 . 50 . buy cheap photographs and get immediate image file downloads or subscribe for a low monthly fee . can stock photo also offers eps vector illustrations , clipart digital artwork , clip art , stock footage , and video animation clips ."]}
{"id": 2549, "summary": [{"text": "gesonia obeditalis is a species of moth of the noctuidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from eastern africa , the seychelles , the maldives and the oriental tropics of india , sri lanka east to the philippines , the sula islands and australia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the adult moth has brown wings with a scalloped dark brown band near the margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are similar in pattern to the forewings but are a paler shade of brown . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "gesonia obeditalis", "paragraphs": ["available , but without included species until walker , 1862 , ibidem 24 : 1100 . h . crambisata is a junior subjective synonym of gesonia obeditalis walker , [ 1859 ] .\ngesonia sp . ( erebidae ) . the wings are brown with a scalloped dark brown submarginal band .\nsee also gesonia walker , [ 1859 ] ; dragana walker , [ 1859 ] ; maresia walker , 1866 ; and amblygoes butler , 1879 .\npoole ( 1989 ) included dragana walker , 1859 ; hileia walker , 1862 ; apphadana walker , 1866 : 1212 ( preoccupied ) ; maresia walker , 1866 ; and amblygoes butler , 1879 as junior synonyms of gesonia walker , 1859 .\nthis caterpillar is yellow with brown lines . it is missing two pairs of prolegs , and so moves in a looper fashion . it feeds on various species of\nthe adult moth of this species has brown wings , each with a scalloped dark brown submarginal band . the hindwings have a similar pattern to the forewings but are somewhat paler . the wingspan is about 2 cms .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n. this and the next species are very hard to separate , both being variable in shade and the extent to which the forewing postmedial is invested with black markings , particularly a pair of larger ones , one subcostally , the other subdorsally . in\nthe postmedials are always more sinuous , with the pinkish band on their distal side more irregular , indented by paler lunules distad . both species are fawn with a series of oblique pinkish fasciae on the forewing and curved ones on the hindwing , the postmedial being the strongest fascia in each case . the male antennae are bipectinate in\ne . africa , seychelles , maldives , oriental tropics east to the philippines and sula is . , australia ( nielsen\n. most records are from open , cultivated and disturbed habitats in the lowlands .\n. bell ( ms ) reared the larva in india . it is cylindrical , a semi - looper with prolegs entirely absent from a3 and a4 . t1 overlaps the vertex of the head , which is light yellow , blotched brownish . the body is light yellow with seven longitudinal brownish - orange longitudinal bands : dorsal , subdorsal , lateral and subspiracular . a1 - a3 are suffused velvety black dorsally near their posterior half . a4 - a6 show this also , but to a much lesser extent , though these segments have black suffusion ventrally . the ventral surface is also light yellow . the larva lives stretched on the stems of grasses and feeds on the flower spikes , looping strongly when in motion . pupation is in a densely woven , white , silken cocoon that incorporates debris . the site of pupation is probably on the ground or under ground , but no soil was present in the rearing cage . the pupa lacks a bloom . the host plants are grasses ( gramineae ) , but yunus & ho ( 1980 ) also recorded\nacantholipes mesoscota hampson , 1904 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 14 ( 81 ) : 171 ; tl : nassau\nwalker , [ 1859 ] list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . supplement list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 16 : 1 - 253 ( [ 1859 ] ) , 17 : 255 - 508 ( 1859 ) , 18 : 509 - 798 ( 1859 ) , 19 : 799 - 1036 ( 1859 )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nproject noah is a tool to explore and document wildlife and a platform to harness the power of citizen scientists everywhere .\nwe would like to know your feedback and any ideas on making this group a more interesting and a happening place . we are thankful for your wonderful contribution to this group and would like to hear from you soon .\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\ngenus : hileia walker , 1861 . list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . ( 23 ) : 948 [ key ] . [ nomenclaturally available , but without included species until walker , 1862 , ibidem 24 : 1100 . ] [ bhl ]\ntype - species : hileia crambisata walker , 1862 . list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . : 1100 . [ bhl ]\ntype specimens : type ( s ) [ india ] : north hindostan , ( ? depository ) . .\nthis genus was originally proposed in the geometridae , but has since been transferred to the noctuidae , where it was included by hampson , 1894 , fauna br . india ( moths ) 2 : 520 .\npoole ( 1989 ) included dagassa walker , 1858 ; and apphadana walker , 1865 : 1094 as junior synonyms of renodes guen\u00e9e , 1952 .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\n. see the generic description ; the mauve submarginal markings on dark brown are distinctive .\n. most older material is from mountain localities ( g . marapok , g . kinabalu ) but without altitude data , though there is a specimen from the lowlands of kalimantan in the vicinity of pontianak . in recent surveys a single female has been recorded in lowland forest at labi ( 30 - 60m ) in brunei , and one specimen was taken in the understorey of primary forest at 170m near the danum valley field centre in sabah .\n, india , thailand ( vk ) , burma , andamans , peninsular malaysia , singapore , borneo , sulawesi , seram , new guinea .\n. only four bornean specimens have been seen , one from sarawak without precise data , one from 250m in lowland forest on the limestone .\ng . api during the mulu survey and one from 85 miles above ( upstream from ? ) pontianak in kalimantan . the fourth ( with three more recorded ; s . j . willott , unpublished data ) was from lowland forest at 170m near the danum valley field centre . chey ( 1994 ) recorded four in his survey of lowland softwood plantations in sabah .\n. see the generic description . the species could be confused with geometrids in the ennomine tribe baptini , or some drepanidae in the genera\nhampson , with its slender build and general facies , but the abdomen is distinctly longer than the hindwings , and the margins of both fore - and hindwings are angled . the dark tufting of the leg joints is also distinctive .\n, thailand ( vk ) , peninsular malaysia ( barlow colln ) , sumatra , borneo .\n. this is an infrequent species of lowland forest , not recorded above 200m . during the mulu survey five out of eight specimens were taken in wet heath forest . in the vicinity of the danum valley field centre ( s . j . willott , unpublished data ) , the species was always recorded in the understorey of undisturbed forest .\n. there is marked sexual dimorphism as noted in the generic description . males tend also to be more strongly fasciated diffusely in dull green - brown and mauve - grey . there are white dots within a dull green submarginal band . in the synonymy above ,\n. the species is uncommon . in recent surveys , three specimens have been taken in lowland forest understorey at 150m near the danum valley field centre , and two in lowland forest in brunei ( labi at 30 - 60m and ulu temburong at 300m ) . singletons have been taken in coastal and secondary forest at seria in brunei and ( the only female ) in lower montane forest at 1000m on g . mulu .\n1 , \u2642 : australia , northern territory , darwin , lee point road , 32 m , 2 . april 2009 lux ; ( det . & phot . : egbert friedrich )\n1 - 3 & 4 - 6 , two \u2642\u2642 : data see label ( coll . & photos : egbert friedrich )\n1 - 3 & 4 - 6 , two \u2640\u2640 : data see label ( coll . & photos : egbert friedrich )\n( [ 1859 ] : 75 - 76 ) [ from copyright - free scans at www . biodiversitylibrary . org ]\noriginal description : w alker , f . [ 1859 ] ( \u00931858\u0094 ) : list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum 16 : 1 - 253 .\nwildlife and bird sanctuary at nuvali ( a 1 , 600 hectare development covered by the cities of sta . rosa and calamba , laguna ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nlepidoptera of taiwan . volume 1 . part 2 : checklist | nepticulidae and opostegidae of the world , version 2 . 0\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution , non - commercial cc by - nc licence .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more"]}
{"id": 2550, "summary": [{"text": "sir tristram ( ire ) ( 7 april 1971 \u2013 21 may 1997 ) was an irish-bred thoroughbred racehorse who stood at stud in new zealand , where he sired an extraordinary 45 group one winners , including three melbourne cup winners .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "his progeny earned him 17 official leading australasian sire premierships , plus nine broodmare sire titles . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "sir tristram", "paragraphs": ["shuttling between hemispheres would not have been for sir tristram , sir patrick said .\nsir patrick recalled meeting with sir tristram ' s trackwork rider long after he had finished racing .\nsir patrick is amazed as anyone that he has now got a sire to follow in sir tristram ' s hoof marks . his name is zabeel , a son of sir tristram .\nsir patrick said for a sire that did not shuttle between hemispheres , sir tristram ' s record remained outstanding .\nsir patrick admitted it was only out duty to sir tristram that he purchased zabeel who has also become a champion sire .\nby sir ivor out of the round table mare isolt , sir tristram\u2019s arrival in new zealand in 1975 wasn\u2019t greeted with the enthusiasm sir patrick hogan had hoped for .\nless than a year later sir tristram was gone . breaking his shoulder in a paddock accident , sir tristram was unable to be saved . he was euthanised on may 21 , 1997 .\nirish born stallion sir tristram has left an indelible mark on the australasian breeding and racing scene .\nit may well have been blessing in disguise that sir patrick hogan was totally unaware of sir tristram when he stood about 50 metres from him .\nbut it was that strong spirit that was the making of sir tristram , according to sir patrick and he was not about to break it .\nby sir ivor out of the round table mare , isolt , sir tristram ' s arrival in new zealand in 1975 wasn ' t greeted with the enthusiasm sir patrick hogan had hoped for .\ntristram and isoud la blanche mains returned to britanny and sir lamorak returned to britain , where he saved a damosel from sir gawaine , saved then slew sir frol , and then fought then made friends with frol\u2019s father , sir belliance le orgulus .\nit ' s now history sir patrick plumped , sight unseen , for sir tristram who went on to become one of the world ' s great sires .\n\u201csir tristram\u201d was severely damaged and \u201csir galahad\u201d lost , both with heavy casualties during the 1982 \u201cfalkland conflict\u201d . \u201csir tristram\u201d was carried home on a barge , rebuilt and lengthened between 1983 - 85 . she was still in service in 1997 . \u201csir galahad\u201d was replaced by a new vessel of the same name .\non arrival sir tristram ' s ill temper and some shareholder rejection caused hogan more than a few headaches .\nin his book sir patrick described how sir tristram one day grabbed him by his teeth and was left dangling under the horse ' s neck for several seconds .\none day , tristram\u2019s cousin , sir andred , tipped off king mark and he caught tristram and isoud chatting and he made a scene , whereupon tristram humiliated him and went off into the forest to kill several of his uncle\u2019s knights . but they made up , and at the next joust , tristram annoyed sir lamorak de galis to please his uncle .\nsir patrick , however , was taken by sir tristram ' s pedigree and he told nzpa this week how it became the over - riding impression in his mind .\nhowever , it was as a broodmare sire that sir tristram\u2019s potential as a long term breeding influence was first realised .\nin 1996 a wide cross - section of the racing and breeding fraternity celebrated sir tristram\u2019s 25th birthday at cambridge stud .\nin 5 generations , sir tristram has 98 descendants in this database , 1 of which has multiple occurrences of him .\nprimary producer : zabeel can draw level with sir tristram if provocative becomes his 45th group 1 winner sired on saturday .\nlying eyes : champion breeder sir patrick hogan has revealed he was lucky to have not seen stud sire sir tristram before he purchased the horse as he was an underwhelming sight .\nsir patrick , speaking after the new zealand launch of his biography give a man a horse last week , was thankful he wasn ' t shown sir tristram at the time .\nsir patrick was happy to deflect all the credit zabeel ' s way but admitted the group one win to put zabeel ahead of his career - making stallion sir tristram was emotional .\nhowever it was as a broodmare sire that sir tristram ' s potential as a long - term breeding influence was first realised .\ni stood zabeel solely on the basis that i felt i owed sir tristram the honour of standing a son of his .\nit ' s quite amazing really . it was always on the cards that he might get that extra group one winner to go one up on sir tristram ,\nsir patrick said .\nthe victory of grosvenor\u2019s first crop son , omnicorp , in the 1987 victoria derby saw even more demand for sons of sir tristram .\nsir tristram ricketts , 8th bt , who has died aged 61 , was twice the chief executive of the horserace betting levy board .\nan earlier \u201chms sir tristram\u201d was an armed trawler , ( 4\u201d gun ) , of the round table class , built in 1942 .\nin 1996 a wide cross - section of the racing and breeding fraternity celebrated sir tristram ' s 25 th birthday at cambridge stud .\nit ' s been a great run for the hogans - sir patrick and his wife , justine , lady hogan - with two much - loved horses whose stable nicknames both have close family connections . sir tristram ' s was paddy , called after sir patrick ' s uncle paddy , in ireland , who died the same year they bought sir tristram . zabeel ' s was barney , after sir patrick ' s cousin barney mccahill , from auckland .\nsir tristram was notorious for his sometimes vicious nature . on a scale of 1 - 10 , sir patrick rated him eight\nand i haven ' t had a nine or a 10\n.\nhe soon escaped , met sir galahad ( not galahad , son of launcelot , but galahad , son of sir breunor ) and delivered isoud to king mark , whom she married . then sir palomides rode off with her , sir tristram followed , they fought , isoud stopped it , and palomides went off to see arthur .\nhowever , it was as a broodmare sire that sir tristram ' s potential as a long term breeding influence was realised most of all .\none day tristram , isoud la blanche mains , and her brother sir kehydius , accidentally sailed to the isle of servage off the coast of north wales ( where sir lamorak was recovering from a shipwreck ) and met sir segwarides and his new woman , who had completely forgiven tristram for destroying his marriage . they all got together at a joust organised by the evil lord of the island , sir nabon le noire , and tristram slew him and his son and left segwarides in charge .\nfrom 1983 sir tristram has underpinned the new zealand yearling sales , at times accounting for in excess of 25 % of the premier session aggregate .\nthe victory of grosvenor ' s first crop son , omnicorp , in the 1987 victoria derby saw even more demand for sons of sir tristram .\nbut the queen matched the shard from her brother\u2019s brain to a nick in tristram\u2019s blade and tried to kill him in the bath , but sir hebes stopped her and tristram returned to the court of king mark in cornwall .\nhere is the induction profile provided by the new zealand racing hall of fame to commemorate sir tristram being included among the second group of 13 inductees .\nbut buying ' paddy ' - sir tristram - was only the first hurdle . a fire at the farm in england where sir tristram was quarantined saw him narrowly escape from the flames ; then a well - aimed kick by a mare during the subsequent confusion nearly finished his stud career before it began .\nwith the assistance of his sons and daughters , sir tristram appeared in the pedigrees of one in four of the 67 group one winners in australia in the 1996 - 97 season . this bold statistic from the world\u2019s second largest racing arena more than most demonstrates the might and power of sir tristram\u2019s dynasty .\nwhen he received a description of his front end , and finally viewed him , hogan knew he was right to confound the experts by buying sir tristram .\nbut as it transpired , while inspecting horses in france , he had come within 50 metres of sir tristram . but he was never shown the horse .\nsir andred and twelve knights captured tristram one midnight whilst sleeping with isoud , and dragged them both off , but tristram escaped naked and rescued isoud too , until he was shot with a poison arrow and mark retrieved isoud and locked her up .\non the 21st of may in 1997 , a few months into his 26th year , sir tristram broke his shoulder in his paddock and could not be saved .\nthe death of sir tristram on may 21 , 1997 , when he had already been retired from stud duties , was like the loss of a family member .\nrfa sir tristram being transported back to the uk in 1983 on mv dan lifter . ( \u00a9 ken griffiths , released into public domain at wikipedia commons : urltoken\ni ' m sure sir patrick would love to get no . 45 [ for zabeel ] , so he can draw alongside sir tristram . it would be fitting for them to finish with the same number of group 1 winners .\nwith the assistance of his sons and daughters , sir tristram appeared in the pedigrees of one in four of the 67 group one winners in australia in the 1996 - 97 season . this bold statistic from the world ' s second largest racing arena more than most demonstrates the might and power of sir tristram ' s dynasty .\ntristram in summer 2016 , a few months prior to its dry dock inspection and repair .\nin his book sir patrick is said to have given his horse a final cuddle , a hug and then cradle sir tristram ' s head in his arms , murmuring :\nthank you , paddy . where would i be without you ?\nthe success of his early runners saw a number of sir tristram ' s sons , such as sovereign red , dalmacia and grosvenor take up stud duties in australia and new zealand from the early eighties . the victory of grosvenor ' s first crop son omnicorp in the 1987 victoria derby spurred even more the demand for sons of sir tristram .\nfrom 1983 , as the flow of top quality sir tristram stakes winners turned into a torrent , so were the floodgates opened for his stock in the yearling sale ring .\nwhen the stud was being set up , hogan went abroad seeking a new stallion ; \u2018 ' a horse with a good pedigree and a touch of speed\u201d . the horse he selected was sir tristram , by english derby and 2 , 000 guineas winner sir ivor . he syndicated the horse into 40 shares , with the stud holding 50 % . the success of sir tristram made hogan and cambridge stud a leader in world breeding . at the end of his career sir tristram was the second world leading sire of group 1 winners ( 45 ) , and was six times australian champion sire .\nrobert tristram ricketts was born on april 17 1946 , the son of sir robert ricketts , 7th bt , a solicitor practising at stroud , in gloucestershire . the baronetcy had been created in 1828 for sir robert tristram ricketts , an admiral in the royal navy who served the napoleonic wars and in the war of 1812 . tristram ' s mother , anne theresa ricketts , was one of the three daughters of sir stafford cripps and was appointed cbe for her work as chairman of the national association of citizens ' advice bureaux .\nsir patrick said he found it hard to include this fact in the book .\nit was thought for someone who had travelled from the other side of the world , sir tristram would have no appeal because of his moderate looks and less than fulfilled racing form .\nsir tristram would become one of the great thoroughbred sires of the world . he produced 45 different horses that won group one races , which for a time was a world record .\nmoralee : showed her true ability in winning the group 2 cambridge stud sir tristram fillies ' classic at te rapa and was also successful in the group 2 wellington stakes at trentham .\nfurther combat followed for lamorak as he encountered sir frol of the out isles , sir belliance le orgulus , sir lancelot and sir gawain . some meetings were more friendly than others . his battle with meliagrant concerned an argument over queen guinevere was more beautiful than queen morgause ; and revealed a passion which was to be lamorak\u2019s undoing .\nsir marhaus eventually died in ireland , where his sister ( the queen ) pulled a fragment of sir tristram\u2019s sword out of his brain , and tristram followed using the pseudonym tramtrist , after a wise - woman predicted his lingering wounds could only be healed in the country of his enemy . king anguish\u2019s daughter , la beale isoud , healed him , and he met sir palomides , a pagan saracen about to get christened out of love for her . their sexual rivalry would last for 4 whole books , especially after tristram humiliated palomides at an irish joust .\non the same date as the previous photograph , tristram as seen from above the verne common estate .\nthe success of his early runners saw a number of sir tristram\u2019s sons , such as sovereign red , dalmacia and grosvenor take up stud duties in australia and new zealand from the early 1980s .\non conformation , looks and character he ' s the closest to sir tristram of any of his sons ,\nhe said .\nhe is his old man ' s duplicate .\nhogan has not ruled out standing a son of zabeel but , given that most of his best mares are either by sir tristram or zabeel , continuing the sireline at cambridge has limited attraction .\nthere , he , and king mark , and also the round table knight , sir boeberis de ganis , all fell in love with the wife of the earl sir segwarides .\nthe success of his early runners saw a number of sir tristram ' s sons , such as sovereign red , dalmacia and grosvenor take up stud duties in australia and new zealand in the 1980s .\non figures zabeel might still be some way behind his sire but with his record of averaging around two group 1 winners per season there is every chance he can top sir tristram ' s tally .\nthe cambridge stud dynasty , which started when sir patrick hogan bought sir tristram to new zealand in the late 1970s , may be in its final chapters as the last of zabeel ' s progeny make their mark on the track . provocative may be his final hope of another classic winner .\nthe sadness of that day has been tempered by the continued blossoming of sir tristram ' s dynasty and the personal memories of a time with a stallion recognised around the world as one of the best .\nnamed australia ' s champion broodmare sire for the fourth time in the 1997 - 98 season with 132 winners , sir tristram is the brood mare sire of the winners of more than $ 50 million .\nzabeel played a huge part in building this reputation , along with his father before him , the magnificent sire sir tristram , who decades earlier set the hogan stud on the path to an international reputation .\nhogan always intended to stand a son of sir tristram but waited until the great sire was near the end of his career before doing so , rather than having the champion competing with one of his own .\ncertainly when he finished his career , sir tristram was the greatest but i ' d say even before yesterday , zabeel had eclipsed his own sire . i ' m just really chuffed for zabeel .\non the particular placement of sir tristram and zabeel , he says it is done so that noble and successful beings who did wonderful things while they were living can carry on in the same manner in death .\n\u201csir tristram\u201d was one of a class of six landing ship logistic , ( lsl\u2019s ) , all named after knights of the round table . the prototype , \u201csir lancelot\u201d , had minor differences to the remainder of the class , consisting of sir\u2019s \u201cgalahad\u201d , \u201cgeraint\u201d , \u201cbedivere\u201d and the \u201cpercivale\u201d . all were transferred from the british india steam navigation co . to rfa manning , between january and march 1970 .\no\u2019reilly retired to waikato stud in 1997 . to date he has won four nz general sire premierships and is third on all - time sire of stakes winners behind the hall of fame stallions sir tristram and zabeel .\ncommencing his stud career in 1976 at fencourt stud , hogan\u2019s forerunner to cambridge stud , sir tristram stood for the princely sum of $ 1500 . that fee in years to come would rise into the six figures .\ntristram ricketts died on november 7 , having remained active in his role at the levy board almost to the end .\nsir tristram ' s affinity with danehill - line horses is well established . he crosses well with both proisir ' s champion sire choisir and his broodmare sire encosta de lago , each producing a high percentage of winners and stakes winners . sir tristram ' s influence is widespread and mares carrying his influence through : zabeel , kaapstad , savabeel , grosvenor , darci brahma , don eduardo etc are likely to be well mated with proisir .\nin his book , sir patrick ' s bloodstock agent described sir tristram as :\nhe ' s weak , he ' s got bent hocks , and on the walk from behind one hock rolls out badly . he is a most unattractive horse and , in my opinion , not the horse for you .\nmay 2000 to april 2003 provided alongside support to british forces in sierra leone in operation palliser along with rfa\u2019s sir geraint and sir percivale at different times . she arrived at freetown in 04 / 01\nin the dizzy sale of 1989 sir tristram again broke new ground , becoming the sire of new zealand ' s first million dollar yearling , the $ 1 . 2 million son of surround being bought by japanese interests .\nrfa sir tristram at port standley in 1983 , following the major damage it received during the falklands war . ( \u00a9 ken griffiths , licensed for reuse under cc by - sa 4 . 0 at wikipedia commons : urltoken\nnew zealand trainer tony pike hasn ' t had many zabeels but in classy filly provocative he might have the daughter which takes the great stallion to the same number of group 1 winners as his famous father sir tristram .\nzabeel , 19 , is in his 15th season at stud and , given he is in good health and that sir tristram was still serving good numbers of mares at 23 , another three seasons is a realistic expectation .\nzabeel is buried beside his father at cambridge stud , on the horseshoe - shaped garden in front of the stables . sir tristram ' s spot is marked by a gravestone , zabeel ' s stone will come later .\nsir patrick grew up on a farm at fencourt , near cambridge , he has worked with animals all his life , it ' s his vocation , he has an affinity with all the animals he owns . but some end up being more special than others , and this is what happened with sir tristram and zabeel .\nit made me recall the day he died and took me back to burying him beside sir tristram . i always said i ' d be quite happy if they finished their careers on level pegging but in fairness to zabeel , he did deserve to get his nose in front , simply because a lot of sir tristram ' s group one winners won solitary group one races , whereas zabeel has produced a lot more multiple group one winners .\nhe said he was a man eater ,\nsir patrick was told by the trackwork rider .\nsir patrick has been humbled by the international media response to zabeel ' s landmark group one win .\nit was a proud moment for cambridge stud on tuesday night when sir tristram was inducted into the new zealand bloodstock new zealand racing hall of fame at an induction ceremony held at ellerslie racecourse before 450 people on tuesday night .\ncommencing his stud career in 1976 at fencourt stud , hogan ' s forerunner to cambridge stud , sir tristram stood for the princely sum of $ 1500 . that fee in years to come would rise into the six figures .\nnext , tristram and his friend gouvernail were sent back to ireland to fetch la beale isoud ( and dame bragwaine ) back to cornwall to marry king mark , but on the boat back , tristram and isoud accidentally drank a love potion and fell permanently in love , before being captured by sir breunor of the castle pluere ( the weeping castle ) .\na stallion ' s place in thoroughbred history , rightly or wrongly , is established more firmly by sire sons than by brood mare daughters . many of the more than 40 sons of sir tristram at stud in australia and new zealand have been successful ; some , like el qahira and sir sian , achieving success despite meagre opportunities .\nwhen sir tristram died in1997 , it was a sad time for the hogans . but what happened next was pretty amazing , too . sir patrick says zabeel then statistically emulated his own sire with his progeny - they were neck and neck , the son was as good as the father . lightning struck twice in the same place .\nsir tristram ' s figures are staggering but they tell only part of the story . his place in the history of international thoroughbred racing and breeding is secured by the outstanding memories of the past and his legacy for the future .\nmidnight fever , foaled in 1984 from one of his first daughters to go to stud , won the blue diamond stakes at caulfield in 1987 and helped sir tristram to his first million - dollar season in australia as a broodmare sire .\nsir tristram berthed at queen ' s pier , undergoing a refit , as seen from the royal naval cemetery . the photograph was taken on 23 april 2013 , and two days later the ship was back in position within the harbour .\neveryone knows about their [ sons and daughters of zabeel ] record and everyone wants to have a good one ,\npike said .\ni have looked on and marvelled at what he and sir tristram have done at stud .\ngrosvenor , kaapstad and marauding are simply outstanding sires and in recent years it appears sir tristram has made way for a horse who could potentially be the one sire to emulate or even exceed the records he himself set so freely , zabeel .\nalthough sir tristram\u2019s pedigree carried impeccable bloodlines his conformation was far from perfect . shareholders in the horse were quick to let hogan know exactly what they thought and had he listened we may never have seen the phenomenal successes that the horse achieved .\ni don ' t think lad of the manor can win but i ' d love to see him run second .\nhogan bred xcellent ' s grandam , who is by sir tristram but that hasn ' t swayed his opinion .\nsir tristram sired 45 group 1 winners in his illustrious career but during his reign as australasia ' s leading sire there was no opposition from the northern hemisphere shuttle stallions , whereas zabeel has had to compete with the best from around the world .\nsir lamorak was a younger son of king pellinore of listinoise . his epithet means \u2018of wales\u2019 but at this period refers to the whole of britain . he was known as the third greatest knight of the round table , following sirs tristram and lancelot . on a number of occasions he is recorded as having beaten over thirty knights in a tournament : notably at sir gareth\u2019s wedding feast and when travelling with sir driant in the cornish lands of king mark . after the latter encounter , the troublesome monarch had sir tristram fight the exhausted lamorak . the young king of lyonesse reluctantly agreed and managed to dismount his opponent , but he refused to dishonour himself further by carrying on . lamorak was extremely put out by tristram ' s courtesy and was still fuming when he encountered a messenger bearing morgan le fay ' s infidelity - seeking drinking horn to king arthur ' s court . he forced the page to carry the prize to king mark ' s court instead , an act which almost resulted in the exposure of tristram and la beale isolde ' s affair , as well as those of ninety other ladies . tristram was understandably angry .\ntristram went to brittany to be healed by the daughter of king howel \u2013 coincidentally called isoud la blanche mains \u2013 won his host\u2019s war and married his daughter ( upsetting the other isoud and launcelot when they found out , although tristram swore the marriage was never consumated ) .\nfollowed his great sire sir tristram at cambridge stud and in some respects outshone him . still alive and active in 2013 aged 27 , he has achieved four nz and two australian general sire premierships ; 15 dewar awards ( nz and australian progeny earnings combined ) ; 43 group one winners ( two behind his sire ) and 148 stakeswinners ( sir tristram 130 ) . he has sired three melbourne cup winners , four cox plate winners , successful sire sons and grandsons , and is an outstanding broodmare sire .\nalthough sir tristram ' s pedigree carried impeccable bloodlines his conformation was far from perfect . shareholders in the horse were quick to let hogan know exactly what they thought and had he listened we may never have seen the phenomenal successes that the horse achieved .\nthat group one triumph elevated zabeel to one ahead of his own champion sire sir tristram , who also stood at cambridge stud and whom he had been tied with on 45 group one winners since provocative ' s gr . 1 queensland oaks triumph last winter .\non pedigree hogan was sold . sir tristram was by the champion english three - year - old sir ivor , from the royal charger sire - line , out of the round table mare isolt . his dam carried the impeccable bloodlines of princequillo , my babu , feola , lavendula , plus isolt ' s third dam , selene , was the dam of the great hyperion .\ni ended up with an enormously positive impression to what i saw on paper ,\nsir patrick told nzpa .\ncambridge stud ' s prize stallion zabeel , pictured with sir patrick hogan when he retired from active duty in 2013 .\nsir tristram was buried in the manner of great horses in ancient times , a fitting tribute for a horse who has contributed so much to the breed , to the sport of thoroughbred racing and the business of breeding thoroughbred horses in this special part of the world .\nduring the conversation , sir patrick recounted the words of his father that there was no such thing as a perfect horse .\ni ' m going to buy him ,\nsir patrick told his agent at the other end of the line .\nsir patrick hogan has expressed his elation in seeing champion sire zabeel claim a new zealand record for his own this week .\nthrough the 1980 ' s and 1990 ' s sir tristram ' s sons and daughters have posted record after record in the new zealand national yearling sales , providing the premier session ' s highest price in all but 2 of the 14 sale renewals from 1983 to 1996 .\nlafleur : was the third winner of the group 2 sir tristram fillies classic at te rapa in four years for pencarrow stud . she also won the group 2 royal stakes at ellerslie . a very classy galloper who proved herself at the highest level during her racing career .\ntristram , seen here in october 2016 , two days before it was towed out of portland harbour to undergo the inspection and repair work in middlesborough .\nwho would have thought he ' d be back in neon lights around the world again now ?\nsir patrick pondered .\nbut this is not the end of zabeel , sir patrick says . he will feature in pedigrees for the next 20 years .\nthe south african - trained greys inn is already a dual group 1 winner , but a win by lad of the manor would be his first at racing ' s elite level and bring yet another accolade to zabeel , whose record hogan argues has now surpassed his own sire sir tristram .\ntv tristram , seen in 2010 , anchored within portland harbour . ( \u00a9 nicholas mutton , licensed for reuse under cc by - sa 2 . 0 : urltoken\nsir patrick makes some interesting revelations in his book , notably his mother sarah and father tom were not really his mother and father .\nthe search that eventually produced sir tristram began in 1975 when new zealand studmaster patrick hogan visited some of the most famous training establishments in england , ireland , and france . the bluest blood of the time was paraded , blood too blue for hogan ' s budget of around $ 200 , 000 .\nduring these years , the hogans developed their world - beating thoroughbred nursery and a showpiece property . nowadays , their home on discombe rd is called zabeel place , and their holiday home at mt maunganui is sir tristram place ; the names of the stallions are boldly inscribed at the entrance to each .\nthe two soon settled their differences , however , when shipwrecked together on the isle of servage . conspiracy seems to have brought them together , as they plotted the downfall of sir nabon le noir , a mutual enemy . shortly afterward , they attended his tournament and tristram killed him in battle . however , the truce was forgotten when tristram was again shipwrecked - this time near the castle perilous in north wales - and the two fought for hours before being reconciled once more .\nsir tristram ( ire ) b . h , 1971 { 6 - e } dp = 10 - 20 - 15 - 11 - 0 ( 56 ) di = 2 . 03 cd = 0 . 52 - 19 starts , 2 wins , 6 places , 3 shows career earnings : $ 52 , 001\nwhen arthur marries genevere , her father gives arthur the round table , at which 150 men can sit . genevere , who is often present at the convening of the round table , acts as a moral compass for the knights , rewarding knights who behave well and chastising those who choose poorly . malory specifically relates the stories of sir gawain , sir tor , and sir pellanor as a means of introducing the concept of chivalry .\nzabeel ' s progeny dominated the yearling sales almost from the first year - 1994 - they stepped into the ring . buyers came from all over the world for them . he sired 44 prestigious group one winners , one short of sir tristram ' s record , although zabeel ' s descendants may still beat that .\nif he was alive today , he ' d be 30 and to still be leaving group one winners is remarkable really . some older stallions don ' t seem to have the same strike rate later in their careers - certainly sir tristram didn ' t , though he did leave brew in his final crop .\nnobody would expect a son of sir tristram ' s to come along , reside at the same property and emulate what his own sire was able to do . how could you not have a stronger affinity with two horses like that ? what they ' ve done for me and my family is absolutely amazing .\nanother close - up photograph of tristram from 2011 , moored in portland harbour . ( \u00a9 nigel mykura , licensed for reuse under cc by - sa 2 . 0 : urltoken\na comprehensive guide into arthurian legends . the life of king arthur , sir lancelot , queen guinevere , merlin & the knights of the round table .\nvapour trail : the wonderful race performer , vapour trial , joined the illustrious pencarrow stud broodmare band in 2002 after her crowning glory as the 2002 new zealand bloodstock filly of the year . the five - time winner , including the group 1 new zealand oaks and group 2 arc eight carat classic and group 2 wrc sir tristram fillies classic , is from the unraced sir tristram mare , devil\u2019s lair . vapour trail was trained by dean and donna logan throughout her racing career . her other notable victories came in the group 2 great northern guineas against all comers and the listed auckland guineas trial . she also was placed third in the group 2 arc grosvenor championship stakes at ellerslie .\nhe married , in 1969 , annie lewis , with whom he had a son and a daughter . his son , stephen tristram ricketts , born in 1974 , succeeds in the baronetcy .\ngranted in 1971 . sir tristram was a knight born in a forest and famed as a musician and huntsman . his colours were gold and red . legend states that he saved palomides from death . the badge depicts a gold hunting horn and a harp , a pair of trees and a hunting spear , all mounted on a red background .\neven though it is now 10 years on , sir patrick said he couldn ' t help himself when re - reading this passage of the book recently .\nwhen zabeel retired from the track , the sheik offered him for purchase to those who had the closest connection to him , either hayes or sir patrick .\nsir patrick stands tall and spare by the grave , the earth is still fresh on the ground , the death is still fresh on his mind . it ' s been a hard few days . there have been tears and some sleepless nights . sir patrick says he goes to bed and starts thinking about it .\nat the age of 19 he was told his biological mother was his much older sister . sir patrick was devastated . he didn ' t know what to think .\nyou go through life , you have events , things happen , things that are great and things are not so great ,\nsir patrick said to nzpa .\nsir patrick and lady hogan were named breeders of the year each year from 1994 - 97 , the highest honour awarded by the new zealand thoroughbred breeders ' association .\nnot surprisingly , sir tristram provided the top - priced yearling at twelve new zealand national yearling sales , from the early 1980 ' s to the mid - 1990 ' s . his sale - toppers include the first seven - figure yearling ever sold in new zealand ; the colt from surround sold for $ nz1 . 2 million to mr kobayashi of japan in 1989 .\nnot surprisingly , sir tristram provided the top - priced yearling at 12 new zealand national yearling sales , from the early 1980 ' s to the mid - 1990 ' s . his sale - toppers include the first seven - figure yearling ever sold in new zealand ; the colt from surround sold for $ nz1 . 2 million to mr kobayashi of japan in 1989 .\nsir patrick , 76 , is the boss of cambridge stud , on discombe rd , at pukeroro , the place regarded as the top nursery for thoroughbred champions in australasia .\nin january , sir patrick led the last yearling born from zabeel into the sale ring at karaka ; hong kong buyer gene tsoi paid $ 160 , 000 for it .\nhe was australia ' s champion broodmare sire for the fourth time in the 1997 - 98 season with 132 winners , and today sir tristram is the brood mare sire of the winners of more than $ 50 million . he has twice set new records for damsire earnings in australia , his daughters ' progeny winnings of $ a9 . 4 million in the 1996 - 97 season still a record .\nsir patrick got his bloodstock agent to return to france and describe the horse detail by detail over the phone . it was pointless exercise because his mind had seemingly been made up .\nhogan ' s skill and judgment as a breeder enabled him to replace one super - sire , sir tristram , by another . zabeel , a son of sir tristram , was bought as a yearling by sheik hamdan al maktoum , trained by colin hayes , and won over a million dollars in prizemoney . as a four - year - old zabeel injured a leg and was put up for sale . hogan , who had long had his eye on zabeel , made an offer of $ 750 , 000 , which was accepted . again hogan syndicated the horse , retaining half the shares . zabeel ' s success was phenomenal . in his first crop he sired octagonal and jezabeel , in his second might and power and bezeal bay , in his third champagne and zonda , in his fourth dignity dancer and inaflury .\ncrimson ( 94f , mellay , bourbon prince ) . 5 wins from 1400m to 2100m , nz $ 162 , 200 , arc championship s . , gr . 2 , waikato guineas , gr . 3 , waikato rc hamilton veterinary services h . , arc ancare star belle classic , 2d avondale guineas , gr . 2 , waikato rc sir tristram fillies classic , gr . 2 , hunter country h .\n12 march 2004 suffered an engine room fire during the annual royal marines exercises in northern norway . the royal marines were evacuated to her nearby sister ship rfa sir percivale . no injuries reported\nhis success shows he is the heir apparent to his own champion sire zabeel who in turn was the heir apparent to sir tristram before him . and like his sire and grandsire , his progeny display the toughness and durability to win over all distances , at all ages from two years to eight years and , incredibly , savabeel has passed zabeel for the number of stakes winners sired at the same stage of their careers .\nwhen sir patrick hogan arrived at work last saturday at 6 . 30am , he was met with the news that his old mate and prize stallion zabeel had died peacefully overnight in his paddock .\ncambridge stud\u2019s former owner sir patrick hogan was honoured with the exporters\u2019 champion award at the 2018 air new zealand cargo exportnz awards last night . over the last 40 years , cambridge stud . . .\nas well as being superstitious , sir patrick says he ' s determined and competitive .\nlike an all black , i ' ve set out to kick every goal straight between the posts .\nthe modestly priced stallion ( he cost $ 160 , 000 ) was sir tristram , who arrived at their stud in 1976 , and went on to become the world ' s leading sire of group one winners , and collected a hatful of other accolades and honours . he sired 45 individual group one winners and more than 130 stakes winners during his stud career , dominating the yearling sales arena and racetracks in this part of the world .\n2 may 2007 arrived falmouth ship repairers for conversion for her new role as training ship for maritime special forces to replace the former escort maintenance ship rame head , which was moved from her moorings in portsmouth harbour to the dockyard on 23 / 05 / 07 so that the mooring and salvage vessel salmaid could start work on the moorings for the return of sir tristram in her new role . the work undertaken to prepare her for her new role included\nsaavoya ( 11f , prized , vice regal ) . 4 wins from 1400m to 2000m , nz $ 187 , 475 , arc eight carat classic , gr . 2 , royal s . , gr . 2 , pukekohe veterinary centre h . , 2d waikato rc sir tristram fillies classic , gr . 2 , arc sunline vase , gr . 3 , 3d bop rc crockford real estate h . , te aroha jc piako rural services 2yo h .\nafter the race , moore told trackside :\nthis is unbelievable and i ' m just so thrilled . it ' s not only a group one for us and lizzie , but it ' s also for zabeel who was tied with his sire sir tristram for individual group one winners up until now so this one is for him as well . i would have been happy to just run a place but this means everything to a small breeder .\non his way home sir lamorak met a knight carrying a magic horn from morgan le fay to king arthur , which could only be drunk from by a woman who was true to her husband ( another of morgan\u2019s plans to cause trouble ) , so he made the knight take it to king mark instead , to spite tristram . isoud and ninety percent of the ladies at court failed the horn test , but the barons stopped mark from burning them all .\n\u201csir tristram\u201d was fitted with 1 x 20 ton crane at the rear of the vehicle deck and 2 x 4 . 5 ton cranes at the forward end . she could carry up to 16 x 50 ton main battle tanks below , plus 34 mixed vehicles on the upper deck , plus fuel and ammunition in a small cargo hold located below the forward end of the tank deck . she had dormitory facilities for 402 troops either side of the tank deck .\ninsouciant : winner of the group 1 new zealand bloodstock 1000 guineas at riccarton in 2007 . she also won the group 3 eulogy stakes at awapuni and finished second in the group 2 sir tristram fillies classic . she collected the new zealand bloodstock filly of the year series title for 2007 / 08 . she was rated by jockey michael walker as a very special galloper with a huge amount of natural racing ability . the keeper filly is trained by mark walker at matamata .\nluckily for the ill - tempered stallion he had found an allay in sir patrick and the partnership that was to span 22 years , and put hogan and his cambridge stud firmly on the map , had begun .\nsays sir patrick :\nwe got him [ zabeel ] to the lawn , we called the digger , the grave was dug , he was buried by midday .\nit was a small , intimate farewell , with sir patrick , lady hogan and staff present . they put a bed of straw in the bottom of the grave , zabeel was covered with his own rug , and another layer of straw .\nthen we filled him in .\nthe champ was born at cambridge stud , his mother being lady giselle , who sir patrick says was the tiniest little mare you ' d ever see . yet somehow the midget mare had a foal that grew to 17 hands .\nking mark of cornwall\u2019s sister elizabeth married king melodias of liones ( just two of the many kings all over britain and europe who ruled under arthur ) but she died in a forest , giving birth to tristram while searching for her kidnapped husband ( later rescued by merlin ) .\nwhile group 1 winners are one thing , sir tristram ' s didn ' t have many multiple winners at that level , but zabeel has been able to produce gallopers such as octagonal and might and power , a fact that hogan said was not lost on the late jack ingham , part - owner of\nthe big o\n.\njack said to me that the one thing zabeel has on danehill is his ability to leave a champion and of that i should be very proud ,\nhe said .\ntristram was educated at winchester and magdalene college , cambridge , where he read russian with a view to joining the foreign office ( he was an excellent linguist ) . in the event he began his career at the greater london council , working as an administrative officer from 1968 to 1972 .\nwe leave the graves , and walk to sir patrick ' s office to talk about what zabeel has meant to him . there is a wreath on the front counter that has been sent in memory of zabeel , there have been many messages , and sir patrick has a lot to do before he heads to britain later next week for the rugby world cup . it is something to look forward to . he jokes ,\ni ' ve had a calling that the all blacks need me .\nsir patrick recounts the story :\nwe each had to put a bid in an envelope , mine was $ aus750 , 000 . the next day i was told i ' d won the bid . that ' s how he returned to where he was born .\nsir tristram was the son of king meliodas & queen isabelle of lyonesse , the land around the scilly isles now lost beneath the sea . he was educated in france ; faught for his uncle , king mark , against the king of ireland ' s champion & defeated him ; travelled incognito to ireland to have his wounds healed ; became friendly with the king ' s daughter isolde ; was forced to return to cornwall when his identity was discovered ; fell out with his uncle over an affair with the wife of sir segwarides ; spent some time at king arthur ' s court ; was obliged to travel again to ireland to gain isolde ' s hand in marriage to mark ; accidentally drank love potions meant for mark & isolde ; became isolde ' s lover despite her marriage to his uncle ( and had four children ) ; left for brittany when things became too hairy ; married sir howel , the king of brittany ' s daughter , also isolde ; got wounded in a fight ; sent for his old lover to cure him ; being told by his wife that she had refused to come , he died ; isolde committed suicide and the two were buried together .\nhe earned tens of millions of dollars for cambridge stud , sir patrick says it is impossible to put a figure on it . at his peak , zabeel ' s stud fee was $ 125 , 000 , and five or six of his yearlings fetched $ 1 million at the sales .\ncoldplay ( 12f , o ' reilly , western symphony ) . 6 wins at 1400m , 1600m to 2017 - 18 , nz $ 267 , 200 , arc rich hill mile , gr . 2 , waikato rc cal isuzu s . , gr . 2 , arc eagle technology s . , gr . 3 , manawatu rc eulogy s . , gr . 3 , arc auckland co - op taxis h . , 3d arc westbury classic , gr . 2 , counties rc auckland thoroughbred breeders s . , gr . 2 , 4th arc eight carat classic , gr . 2 , waikato rc sir tristram fillies classic , gr . 2 .\ntristan , or tristram in old english , was a contemporary of king arthur and a knight of the round table . he was the nephew and champion of king mark of cornwall and the son of meliodas , king of lyoness . tristan ' s mother died when he was born , and as a young man he took service with his uncle , mark .\nin reality , he seems to have been an historical prince of dumnonia ( cornwall / devon / somerset ) , apparently the son rather than the nephew of king cunomor alias mark . though cornwall may once have been joined to the scilly isles , this was long before tristram ' s time ; so , unfortunately , his kingdom of lyonesse , almost certainly never existed ."]}
{"id": 2551, "summary": [{"text": "the giant barred frog , mixophyes iteratus , is a species of barred frogs in australia .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it occurs from south-east queensland to just south of the newcastle region in new south wales .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is associated with flowing streams and creeks in wet sclerophyll and rainforest habitats from the coast to the ranges . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "giant barred frog", "paragraphs": ["giant barred frog - profile ( office of environment & heritage , 2014x ) [ internet ] .\nmanagement documents relevant to the giant barred frog can be found at the start of the profile .\ngiant barred frog ( department of environment and heritage protection ( dehp ) , 2013y ) [ database ] .\noffice of environment & heritage ( 2014x ) . giant barred frog - profile . available from : urltoken .\nthe giant barred frog is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe extent of occurrence of the giant barred frog is approximately 110 000 km\u00b2 ( hines et al . 1999 ) .\n) . two hundred and ten years of looking for the giant burrowing frog .\nwetland care australia pty ltd ( queensland ) received funding in 2008\u201309 for the giant barred frog habitat restoration project . the project undertook bush regeneration / weed control work and surveyed endangered populations of giant barred frog in a section of the numinbah valley .\nthe call of the male giant barred frog is a deep guttural grunt ( barker et al . 1995 ; robinson 1993 ) .\nthe giant barred frog occurs in rainforests and wet sclerophyll forests in upper to lower catchment areas ( ingram & mcdonald 1993 ) .\nqueensland department of environment and resource management ( qld derm ) ( 2005 ) . giant barred frog . available from : urltoken .\nthe giant barred frog call is a deep guttural grunt . males call from crevices under rocks , banks or overhanging tree roots .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - giant barred frog\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - giant barred frog\ntitle =\narkive photo - giant barred frog\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe great barred frog is found in coastal northern new south wales and southern queensland .\nthe great barred frog has banded legs with webbed feet , making it an efficient swimmer .\nlemckert , f . and brassil , t . ( 2000 ) . ' ' movements and habitat use of the endangered giant barred river frog (\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - giant barred frog ( mixophyes iteratus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - giant barred frog ( mixophyes iteratus )\ntitle =\narkive species - giant barred frog ( mixophyes iteratus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nin queensland , the giant barred frog is known from the following reserves ( j - m . hero 2001 pers . comm . ; tyler 1997 ) :\nmeyer , e . , hines , h . , and hero , j . - m . ( 2001 ) . ' ' giant barred - frog ,\nassessing the extent of the known decline of the giant barred frog is difficult because of the lack of baseline distribution and abundance data ( hines et al . 1999 ) .\nindividuals of the giant barred frog have sometimes been killed in the mistaken belief that they are the introduced cane toad ( bufo marinus ) ( hines & seqtfrt 2002 ) .\nthe giant barred frog previously occurred along streams in the coastal ranges and lowlands from belli creek near eumundi , in south east queensland to warrimoo in mid - east new south wales .\n) . non - breeding habitat requirements of the giant burrowing frog ( anura : myobatrachidae ) in south - eastern nsw .\ngiant barred frog - endangered species listing . nsw scientific committee - final determination ( nsw department of environment , climate change and water ( nsw deccw ) , 1999g ) [ internet ] .\nthe methods that have successfully been used in the past to survey the giant barred frog are visual encounter surveys , call surveys , egg mass surveys and larval sampling ( uc 2003 ) .\npart of the funding that the maroochy river catchment network waterwatch inc . received in 2004\u201305 was for the restoration of giant barred frog habitat , the monitoring of frog species in the region , community education workshops and the development of a local recovery plan .\npart of the funding that the barung landcare association inc . received in 2005\u201306 was to restore and enhance 3 . 75 ha of key habitat for the giant barred frog on public and private land .\nat night the great barred frog comes out to forage , taking a range of invertebrates including insects and worms and occasionally other frogs .\nthe recovery plan for stream frogs of south - east queensland 2001\u20132005 ( hines & seqtfrt 2002 ) specifically states that surveys for the giant barred frog should involve at least five samples from each of the major populations .\nkoch aj , hero jm . 2007 . the relationship between environmental conditions and activity of the giant barred frog ( mixophyes iteratus ) on the coomera river , south - east queensland . australian journal of zoology 55 , 89 - 95 .\nmahony , m . , knowles , r . , and pattinson , l . ( 1997 ) . ' ' 6 . gold - eyed barred frog ,\nlemckert , f . & t . brassil ( 2000 ) . movements and habitat use of the endangered giant barred river frog ( mixophyes iteratus ) and the implications for its conservation in timber production forests . biological conservation . 96 : 177 - 184 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - fleay\u2019s barred - frog ( mixophyes fleayi )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - fleay\u2019s barred - frog ( mixophyes fleayi )\ntitle =\narkive species - fleay\u2019s barred - frog ( mixophyes fleayi )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nin north - eastern nsw , the the giant barred frog barred frog is known from three broad areas ( mebbin , nightcap range and richmond range ) ( goldingay et al . 1999 ) . there is a large population in the dorrigo - coffs harbour area , and washpool and bungawalbin state forests ( hines & seqtfrt 2002 ) . a population was located in the lower nambucca river catchment ( nsw npws 1994c ) .\ncall surveys should be conducted during the known calling period of the giant barred frog , between september and may ( goldingay et al . 1999 ; mahony et al . 1997c ) . males are known to call from the ground near streams ( anstis 2002 ) .\nin new south wales , the giant barred frog is know from the following reserves ( goldingay et al . 1999 ; hines et al . 1999 ; lemckert 2001 , pers . comm . ; mccray 2001 , pers . comm . ; tyler 1997 ; white 2000 ) :\nupstream clearing , changes in water flow regimes , degradation of water quality , disturbance to riparian vegetation , feral animals , domestic stock and weed invasion have been identified as potential threats to the giant barred frog ( hines et al . 1999 ; hines & seqtfrt 2002 ) .\nmeyer , e . , h . hines & j - m . hero ( 2001b ) . giant barred - frog , mixophyes iteratus . in : wet forest frogs of south - east queensland . page ( s ) 30 - 31 . gold coast , queensland : griffith university .\nkoch , a . j . & j - m . hero ( 2007 ) . the relationship between environmental conditions and activity of the giant barred frog ( mixophyes iteratus ) on the coomera river , south - east queensland . australian journal of zoology . 55 : 89\u009695 . csiro publishing .\ngoldingay and colleagues ( 1999 ) concluded that the density of giant barred frog populations in north - eastern new south wales is relatively low with an average abundance of 4 . 2 individuals per 100 m of stream transect in 1997\u201398 and an average of 3 . 4 individuals over the same transects in 1999 .\npopulations of the giant barred frog now exist in small , isolated patches of forest . the effect that this may have on genetic variation within populations , the general health of individuals and the species ' response to identified threats is unknown ( j - m . hero 2001 , pers . comm . ) .\n) . soil disturbance in integrated logging operations and the potential impacts on a fossorial australian frog .\naland , k . & p . wood ( 2013 ) . giant barred frog ( mixophyes iteratus ) baseline survey . bruce highway ( cooroy to curra ) upgrade section a - ( cooroy southern interchange to sankeys road ) . epbc referral 2011 / 6024 . report prepared for department of transport and main roads . future - plus environmental .\npart of the funding that the barung landcare association ( queensland ) received in 2000\u201301 was for the establishment of buffer zones and the linkage of remnant patches of vegetation using locally native plants to enhance the long - term health of 646 ha of significant local government and state forest reserves , which are known to be utilised by the giant barred frog .\nthe giant barred frog is distributed from doongul creek , wongi state forest , near maryborough in south - eastern queensland ( hines 2003 ) , south to warrimoo in the blue mountains , new south wales ( hines et al . 1999 ) . the species is currently known from mid to low altitudes below 610 m above sea level ( hines et al . 2004 ) .\nh . ehmann , eds . , frog and tadpole study group of nsw , sydney , 78 - 83 .\nmahony , m . , r . knowles & l . pattinson ( 1997c ) . gold - eyed barred frog , mixophyes iteratus . in : ehmann , h . , ed . threatened frogs of new south wales : habitats , status and conservation . page ( s ) 78 - 83 . sydney , nsw : frog & tadpole study group of nsw .\nthe giant barred frog has suffered major declines in the sydney basin bioregion ( hines et al . 1999 ; white 2000 ) where , in the 1990s , extant populations were recorded at only two of the 14 historical sites surveyed . there are no recent records from the blue mountains and only five populations of the species are known to occur in the watagan mountains area ( white 2000 ) .\nduring the early 1980s , the giant barred frog declined and disappeared from at least two streams in the conondale range ( corben n . d . cited in mcdonald 1991 ) . the bunya mountains and cunningham ' s gap ( straughan 1966 ) previously supported the species but targeted surveys and intensive monitoring of these and nearby sites in the late 1990s failed to locate the species ( hines et al . 1999 ) .\nduring surveys in the cooroy to curra area of south - east queensland , giant barred frogs were observed to prefer a closed forest canopy with a relatively light cover of vegetation at ground level ( aland & wood 2013 ) . populations of the species have been found in cleared or disturbed areas , for example cattle farms with vegetated riparian strips and regenerated logged areas ( hero & shoo n . d . , cited in hines et al . 2004 ; ingram & mcdonald 1993 ) . many sites where the giant barred frog is known to occur are the lower reaches of streams which have been affected by major disturbances such as clearing , timber harvesting and urban development in their headwaters ( hines et al . 1999 ) .\nthe giant barred frog is a large , dark - olive green to black coloured frog that grows to 115 mm . it has a pointed snout and a broad lateral band of dark spots dividing the dark dorsal surface from the white , or pale yellow , ventral surface ( underside ) . the limbs have dark crossbars . the hind side of the thighs are black with large yellow spots . two joints of the fourth toe are free of web ( cogger 2000 ) . the skin is finely granular above but smooth below ( qld derm 2005 ) .\nhines , h . b . ( 2003 ) . south - east queensland frog survey and monitoring database . wildlife online database . urltoken\nthis large frog lives in moist forests . it hides during the day , camouflaged beneath fallen leaves or burrowing into the loose soil .\nobserved among leaf litter at night , the great barred frog occurs especially near streams in their preferred habitat of wet sclerophyll forest , antarctic beech and rainforests . their call is a harsh loud\nwark - wark - wark\n, heard during spring and summer which , in unison forms a night time chorus in the rainforest . once her eggs are fertilised in the stream by the male , the female frog ejects them out of the water onto the bank to develop . the first rain washes the eggs into the water where they hatch into tadpoles . this frog grows to 8cm in length .\nthe great barred frog lives in moist forests and is usually found near permanent running water . it hides during the day , camouflaged beneath fallen leaves or burrowing into the loose soil . if threatened it can take long leaps into nearby water , where it then dives and hides among debris on the creek bed .\naland & wood ( 2013 ) noted in their survey report for the bruce highway ( cooroy to curra ) upgrade project ( section a - cooroy southern interchange to sankeys road ) that the selection of plant species for the revegetation of cleared or disturbed forest habitat for the giant barred frog should favour those species that rapidly provide canopy cover ( e . g . macaranga spp . ) and the use of dense groundcover species ( e . g . lomandra spp . ) should be kept to a minimum .\nin south - eastern queensland , the giant barred frog is known from doongul creek in the burrum river catchment ( hines 2003 ) , at scattered locations in the mary river catchment downstream to kenilworth , the upper stanley river , caboolture river and coomera river ( hines et al . 1999 ) . a survey between cooroy and curra ( cooroy creek , six mile creek and skyring creek ) detected the species at 11 of 19 surveyed sites targeted multiple times in 2011 - 12 ( aland & wood 2013 ) .\negg mass surveys may be effective , as this species ' eggs are conspicuously deposited out of the water on steep banks of larger pools and under overhanging banks or rocks . the tadpoles drop into the water when hatched ( nsw dec 2005 ) . the larval period of the giant barred frog is from september to may ( goldingay et al . 1999 ; mahony et al . 1997c ) . tadpoles have been recorded as bottom dwellers in still or slowly flowing pools or at the sides of streams ( anstis 2002 ) .\nthe giant barred frog is a stream breeding species . eggs are deposited out of the water , under overhanging banks or on steep banks of large pools . the stream microhabitats used by the species for oviposition are limited ( knowles et al . 1998 ) . hero and fickling ( 1996 ) and morrison and hero ( 2002 ) reported clutch sizes for the species as 4184 ( one clutch counted ) and 1343\u20133471 ( 13 clutches counted ) respectively . egg diameter ranges between 1 . 7\u20131 . 8 mm ( five clutches measured ) ( morrison & hero 2002 ) .\nmcdonald , k . r . ( 1991 ) . report of a workshop on declining frog populations in queensland . queensland national parks and wildlife service : unpub . report .\nhines , h . , mahony , m . and mcdonald , k . ( 1999 ) . ' ' an assessment of frog declines in wet subtropical australia . ' '\ngiant barred frog tadpoles are large , growing to over 100 mm in length . they are deep - bodied and ovoid , with a tail length twice that of the body . the tadpole ' s eyes are dorsolateral . the tadpoles are coloured yellow - brown above with dark spots and a dark patch at the base of tail . the underside is silver - white . the intestinal mass is obscured but the heart and lungs are visible from below ( except near metamorphosis ) . the tail is thick and muscular . fins are low and opaque with dark flecking ( except the anterior half of the ventral fin ) ( meyer et al . 2001b ) .\nchytridiomycosis is a disease caused by infection with the chytrid fungus ( batrachochytrium dendrobatidis ) affecting amphibians worldwide . the disease has been recorded in four regions of australia , namely the east coast , south - west western australia , adelaide and tasmania . this highly virulent pathogen of amphibians is capable , at the minimum , of causing sporadic deaths in some populations , and 100 % mortality in other populations ( agdeh 2006o ) . chytrid fungus has been identified in individuals of the giant barred frog ( speare & berger 2000 ) . the role played by chytrid fungus in the decline of the species is addressed in the species recovery plan ( hines & seqtfrt 2002 ) .\nwhite , a . ( 2000 ) . the status of the barred river frogs mixophyes balbus and mixophyes iteratus in the sydney basin region of new south wales 1999 - 2000 . report for nsw national parks and wildlife service .\nknowles , r . , h . b . hines , k . thum , m . mahony & m . cunningham ( 1998 ) . oviposition of the barred - frogs ( mixophyes species ) in southeastern australia with implications for management .\n( 1999 ) . an assessment of frog declines in wet subtropical australia . in \u2018declines and disappearances of australian frogs\u2019 . ( ed . a . campbell . ) pp . 44\u201363 . ( environment australia : canberra . )\noviposition and egg mass morphology in barred frogs ( anura : myobatrachidae : mixophyes g\u00fcnther , 1864 ) , its phylogenetic significance and implications for conservation management . australian zoologist . ( knowles , r . , k . thumm , m . mahony , h . hines , d . newell & m . cunningham , 2014 ) .\nhines h , mahony m and mcdonald kr . 1999 . an assessment of frog declines in wet subtropical australia . in campbell , a ( ed ) , ' declines and disappearances of australian frogs ' . ( environment australia , department of the environment and heritage : canberra ) . 234 pp .\nknowles , r . , k . thumm , m . mahony , h . hines , d . newell & m . cunningham ( 2014 ) . oviposition and egg mass morphology in barred frogs ( anura : myobatrachidae : mixophyes g\u00fcnther , 1864 ) , its phylogenetic significance and implications for conservation management . australian zoologist . available from : urltoken .\nhines , h . , m . mahony & k . mcdonald ( 1999 ) . an assessment of frog declines in wet subtropical australia . in : campbell , a . , ed . declines and disappearances of australian frogs . page ( s ) 44 - 63 . canberra : environment australia . available from : urltoken .\nmale great barred frogs can be heard calling females with a deep guttural grunt from their hiding places in the leaf litter . the mating pairs enter the water , and the females flick the fertilised eggs onto the stream bank where the first developmental stages are completed out of reach of aquatic predators . the tadpoles are then washed into the creek by the first heavy rains .\nstreatfeild ( 1999 ) monitored the spatial movements of four male and four female giant barred frogs at coomera river , south - east queensland . over six weeks , the average area used by females and males was 622 m\u00b2 and 403 m\u00b2 , respectively . individuals moved a maximum distance of 268 m along the stream and 50 m away from the stream . displacement distances between diurnal refuges , after a night of activity , were small which suggests a high degree of fidelity to the previous day ' s shelter . similar patterns of movement were observed by lemckert and brassil ( 2000 ) although less perpendicular movement away from the stream was observed . individuals tracked for two to five days made nightly movements from 0 m to over 100 m , and all were within a 20 m wide band either side of the stream ( lemckert & brassil 2000 ) .\nmanagement of threatened anurans requires an understanding of a species\u2019 behaviour and habitat requirements in both the breeding and non - breeding environments . the giant burrowing frog ( heleioporus australiacus ) is a threatened species in south - eastern australia . little is known about its habitat requirements , creating difficulties in developing management strategies for the species . we radio - tracked 33 individual h . australiacus in order to determine their habitat use and behaviour . data from 33 frogs followed for between 5 and 599 days show that individuals spend little time near ( < 15 m ) their breeding sites ( mean 4 . 7 days for males and 6 . 3 days for females annually ) . most time is spent in distinct non - breeding activity areas 20\u2013250 m from the breeding sites . activity areas of females were further from the breeding site ( mean 143 m ) than those of males ( mean 99 m ) , but were not significantly different in size ( overall mean 500 m 2 ; males 553 m 2 ; females 307 m 2 ) . within activity areas , each frog used 1\u201314 burrows repeatedly , which we term home burrows . existing prescriptions are inappropriate for this species and we propose protection of key populations in the landscape as a more appropriate means of protecting this species .\nbarker j . , grigg g . c . , and tyler m . j . ( 1995 ) . \u2018a field guide to australian frogs . \u2019 ( surrey beatty and sons : chipping norton , uk . ) berven , k . a . ( 1990 ) . factors affecting population fluctuations in larval and adult stages of the wood frog ( rana sylvatica ) . ecology 71 , 1599\u20131608 . | crossref |\na very large frog up to 120 mm with a pointed snout and well developed hind legs . the dorsal surface is dark olive to black , with darker blotches and an irregular dark vertebral band commencing between the eyes and continuing posteriorly . a dark stripe runs from the snout , through the eye and above the tympanum ( hearing organ ) , terminating at a point above the forelimb . there are irregular dark spots or mottling on the flanks . the limbs have a series of dark and pale crossbars of similar width . the hidden part of the thigh is black with a few large , yellow spots . the ventral surface is white to yellow with fine mottling on the chin . the pupil is vertical , while the iris is pale silvery - white to pale gold above , darker in the lower portion . the fingers lack webbing , while the toes are fully webbed , with only the last two joints of the fourth toe free . the skin is finely granular above , smooth below ( barker et al . 1995 ; cogger 2014 ; straughan 1968 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 27 january 2014 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 january 2014 ) .\nendangered b2ab ( ii , iii , iv , v ) ver 3 . 1\njustification : listed as endangered , because its area of occupancy is less than 500 km2 , its distribution is severely fragmented , and there is continuing decline in its its area of occupancy , in the extent and quality of its habitat , in the number of subpopulations , and in the number of mature individuals .\nthis species , an australian endemic , is distributed from belli creek near eumundi , south - east queensland , south to warrimoo in mid - eastern new south wales ( hines , mahony and mcdonald 1999 ) . it is currently known from mid to low altitudes below 610m asl . in south - east queensland , it is currently known from scattered locations in the mary river catchments downstream to about kenilworth , upper stanley river , caboolture river and coomera river ( hines , mahony and mcdonald 1999 ) .\nmany sites where this species occurs are the lower reaches of streams , which have had major disturbances such as clearing , timber harvesting and urban development in their headwaters ( hines , mahony and mcdonald 1999 ) . in the dorrigo area , lemckert ( 1999 ) found that it was less abundant in recently logged areas and sites where there was little undisturbed forest . the impacts of feral animals , domestic stock , weed invasion and disturbance to riparian vegetation , all potential threats to current populations , are unknown ( hines , mahony and mcdonald 1999 ) . populations now generally exist in small , isolated patches of forest . the effect this may have on genetic variation within populations and the general health of individuals is unknown . the species does colonize and use plantations and vegetated streams in otherwise cleared agricultural lands . this is positive for the survival of the species , but also indicates that such sites can be of some significance and any clearing of this vegetation may be of some significance .\nthis species is listed as endangered in australian legislation . much of its habitat is protected within national parks and state forests . research and monitoring protocols are in place for this species .\nharry hines , david newell , john clarke , jean - marc hero , ed meyer . 2004 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfor information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .\nrecovery plan required , this species had a recovery plan in force at the time the legislation provided for the minister to decide whether or not to have a recovery plan ( 19 / 2 / 2007 ) .\nhines , h . b . & the south - east queensland threatened frogs recovery team ( 2002 ) .\n. report to environment australia , canberra . queensland parks and wildlife service , brisbane . available from :\nsurvey guidelines for australia ' s threatened frogs . epbc act survey guidelines 6 . 3\n( department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( dewha ) , 2010 ) [ admin guideline ] .\nlisted as endangered ( global status : iucn red list of threatened species : 2017 . 1 list )\nthe distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .\nin mid - eastern nsw , the species is known from five populations in the watagan mountains area ( white 2000 ) . there are no recent records from the blue mountains ( hines & seqtfrt 2002 ) .\nthere are no specimens or other records to substantiate a report in cogger ( 1996 ) that the species is found as far south as narooma ( hines & seqtfrt 2002 ) .\na study by koch and hero ( 2007 ) , along the coomera river , queensland , in 2000 , suggested that there is a relationship between the distance that males moved away from streams and the amount of rainfall , with animals tending to move further away during high rainfall events . it has been proposed that this behaviour may be due to the increased chance of streams rising during high rainfall events and subsequent desiccation of eggs when the stream level returned to base flow ( magnusson et al . 1999 , cited in koch & hero 2007 ) . frogs would alternatively participate in other activities , such as feeding , rather than breeding , which may occur further from the stream . in the absence of flooding events however , fukuyama and kusano ( 1992 , cited in koch & hero 2007 ) found that the observed density of frogs did not significantly change during rainfall .\nseveral studies ( salvador & carrascal 1990 , fukuyama & kusano 1992 , cited in koch & hero 2007 ) suggest that temperature , out of all the environmental variables , has the greatest influence on the relative density of amphibian populations . koch and hero ( 2007 ) found that most adult males were above ground when temperatures were above 18 \u00b0c , and that densities were lower on cooler nights , suggesting that frogs were burying themselves under the leaf litter .\npart of the funding that the upper clarence combined landcare inc . received in 2002\u201303 was for the reduction of predation by the european fox ( vulpes vulpes ) on this species through co - ordinated on - ground action to educate landholders , raise community awareness and initiate partnerships between stakeholders .\nthe north coast herpetology group inc . received funding in 2003\u201304 for the creation of a wildlife refuge for this species and to better understand its habits and habitat by re - establishing habitat and any corridor that has been demolished through logging .\nanstis , m . ( 2002 ) . tadpoles of south - eastern australia . a guide with keys . sydney , nsw : reed new holland .\nbarker , j . , g . c . grigg . & m . j . tyler ( 1995 ) . a field guide to australian frogs . chipping norton , nsw : surrey beatty & sons .\ncogger , h . g . ( 1996 ) . reptiles and amphibians of australia . chatswood , nsw : reed books .\ncogger , h . g . ( 2000 ) . reptiles and amphibians of australia - 6th edition . sydney , nsw : reed new holland .\ncommonwealth department of the environment and heritage ( deh ) ( 2006o ) . threat abatement plan for infection of amphibians with chytrid fungus resulting in chytridiomycosis . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 19 - may - 2006 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 01 - oct - 2016 .\ngoldingay , r . , d . newell & m . graham ( 1999 ) . the status of rainforest stream frogs in north - eastern new south wales : decline or recovery ? . in : campbell , a . , ed . declines and disappearances of australian frogs . page ( s ) 64 - 71 . canberra : environment australia .\nhero , j . - m . & s . fickling ( 1996 ) . reproductive characteristics of female frogs from mesic habitats in queensland . memoirs of the queensland museum . 39 : 306 .\nhines , h . , d . newell , j . clarke , j - m . hero & meyer , e . ( 2004 ) . mixophyes iteratus . iucn 2009 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2009 . 2 . viewed on 25 january 2010 . available from : urltoken .\nhines , h . b . & the south - east queensland threatened frogs recovery team ( 2002 ) . recovery plan for stream frogs of south - east queensland 2001 - 2005 . report to environment australia , canberra . queensland parks and wildlife service , brisbane . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 13 - oct - 2003 .\ningram , g . j . & k . r . mcdonald ( 1993 ) . an update on the decline of queenslands frogs . in : lunney , d . & d . ayers , eds . herpetology in australia : a diverse discipline . page ( s ) 297 - 303 . sydney , nsw : royal zoological society of nsw .\nlemckert , f . ( 1999 ) . impacts of selective logging on frogs in a forested area of northern new south wales . biological conservation . 89 : 321 - 328 .\nmorrison , c . & j . - m . hero ( 2002 ) . geographic variation in life history characteristics of amphibians in mid - eastern australia : reproductive traits . in : r . nattrass , ed . frogs in the community - proceedings of the brisbane conference 13 - 14 feb 1999 . queensland museum .\nnsw national parks & wildlife service ( nsw npws ) ( 1994c ) . fauna of north - east nsw forests . north - east forests biodiversity study report no . 3 . hurtsville , nsw : unpub . report nsw national parks and wildlife service .\nrobinson , m . ( 1993 ) . a field guide to frogs of australia . chatswood , nsw : reed .\nspeare , r & l . berger ( 2000 ) . chytridiomycosis in amphibians in australia . townsville , queensland : rainforest crc & school of public health and tropical medicine , james cook university . available from : urltoken .\nstraughan , i . r . ( 1966 ) . an analysis of species recognition and species isolation in certain queensland frogs . ph . d . thesis . brisbane , queensland : university of queensland .\nstreatfeild , c . ( 1999 ) . spatial movements of mixophyes iteratus and m . fasciolatus in southeast queensland . hons . thesis . brisbane , queensland ; griffith university .\ntyler , m . j . ( 1997 ) . the action plan for australian frogs . wildlife australia . canberra , act : environment australia . available from : urltoken .\naustralian government department of the environment and heritage ( agdeh ) ( 2005p ) . non - current threat abatement plan for predation , habitat degradation , competition and disease transmission by feral pigs . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 18 - jul - 2005 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 01 - oct - 2015 .\ncommonwealth of australia ( 2000 ) . declaration under s178 , s181 , and s183 of the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 - list of threatened species , list of threatened ecological communities and list of threatening processes . f2005b02653 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 16 - jul - 2000 .\nepbc act email updates can be received via the communities for communities newsletter and the epbc act newsletter .\nthis database is designed to provide statutory , biological and ecological information on species and ecological communities , migratory species , marine species , and species and species products subject to international trade and commercial use protected under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( the epbc act ) . it has been compiled from a range of sources including listing advice , recovery plans , published literature and individual experts . while reasonable efforts have been made to ensure the accuracy of the information , no guarantee is given , nor responsibility taken , by the commonwealth for its accuracy , currency or completeness . the commonwealth does not accept any responsibility for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of , or reliance on , the information contained in this database . the information contained in this database does not necessarily represent the views of the commonwealth . this database is not intended to be a complete source of information on the matters it deals with . individuals and organisations should consider all the available information , including that available from other sources , in deciding whether there is a need to make a referral or apply for a permit or exemption under the epbc act .\ncitation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . mixophyes iteratus in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 06 : 42 : 15 + 1000 .\nclose the former department of environment and heritage protection is merging to form the new department of environment and science . this site will be updated while the new department of environment and science website is being established .\nconservation status : this species is listed as endangered in queensland ( nature conservation act 1992 ) and nationally ( environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ) . it is ranked as a medium priority under the department of environment and heritage protection back on track species prioritisation framework .\nthis species occurs along shallow rocky streams in rainforest , wet sclerophyll forest and farmland from 100 to 1000 m or along deep , slow moving streams with steep banks in the lowlands .\nthis species experienced significant population declines in the north and south of its range during the late 1980 ' s . in south - east queensland it is currently known from scattered locations in the catchments of the mary , upper stanley , caboolture and coomera rivers . a population in the conondale range , which was previously thought to be extinct , appears to be recovering . recent surveys have failed to locate the species in historical sites in the bunya mountains , cunningham ' s gap and main range .\nrelatively little is known regarding the reproductive biology of this species . a gravid female was found to carry 4184 eggs with a mean diameter of 1 . 6 mm . larvae are present throughout the year and probably over - winter . laboratory reared metamorphs reach 28 - 30 mm ( hero & fickling 1996 ; straughan 1966 ) .\nthe tadpole has not been formally described . they are large and take a form commonly seen in tadpoles that inhabit free - flowing water , with a suctorial mouth , muscular tail and reduced fins .\nthe primary cause of decline in this species is suspected to be the chytrid fungus disease . current threats include the chytrid fungus , loss and fragmentation of habitat , changes in water quality and flow regimes , introduced fish , feral pigs , domestic stock trampling and fouling streams and weed invasion of waterways .\nbarker j , grigg gc and tyler mj . 1995 . a field guide to australian frogs . surrey beatty & sons , chipping norton , nsw .\ncogger hg . 2014 . reptiles and amphibians of australia ( seventh edition ) . csiro publishing , victoria .\ncogger hg , cameron ee and cogger hm . 1983 . zoological catalogue of australia . vol . 1 amphibia and reptilia . australian government publishing service : canberra .\ncovacevich , ja and mcdonald , kr 1993 . distribution and conservation of frogs and reptiles of queensland rainforests . memoirs of the queensland museum 34 ( 1 ) : 189 - 199 .\ncurtis lk , dennis aj , mcdonald kr , kyne pm and debus sjs . 2012 . queensland \u2019s threatened animals . csiro publishing , victoria , australia .\ndavies m . 1991 . descriptions of the tadpoles of some australian limnodynastine leptodactylid frogs . transactions of the royal society of south australia 115 : 67 - 76 .\nhero jm and fickling s . 1996 . reproductive characteristics of female frogs from mesic habitats in queensland . memoirs of the queensland museum 39 : 306 .\nhines hb and the south - east queensland threatened frogs recovery team 2002 . recovery plan for stream frogs of south - east queensland 2001 - 2005 . report to environment australia . canberra . queensland parks and wildlife service , brisbane .\ningram gj and mcdonald kr . 1993 . an update on the decline of queensland ' s frogs . pp 297 - 303 in lunney , d . and ayers , d . ( eds ) , herpetology in australia . a diverse discipline . ( royal zoological society of new south wales : mosman ) . 414pp .\nstraughan ir . 1968 . a taxonomic review of the genus mixophyes ( anura , leptodactylidae ) . proceedings of the linnean society of nsw . 93 : 52 - 59 .\ntyler mj and knight f . 2009 . field guide to the frogs of australia . csiro publishing , collingwood victoria .\narkive is working with iucn - international union for conservation of nature , to source images of the world ' s threatened amphibian species . together with conservation international and natureserve , iucn has led a comprehensive assessment of the conservation status for the world ' s known species of frogs , toads , salamanders , newts and caecilians . to date , the project has involved the input of more than 600 herpetologists from around the world .\niucn red list category , and details of range , ecology , threats and conservation information for every known amphibian species , can be found on the iucn red list website .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 8ca50121 - ad3d - 4ace - 9c49 - 712756b07448\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f0e3a6ad - 80ff - 41d5 - b741 - cce65a53f5e8\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 305173f5 - 4f94 - 45f1 - be96 - aa4105095d9f\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 346776\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nis distributed form belli ck near eumundi , s . e . qld , s . to warrimoo mid - e . nsw ( hines et al . 1999 ) . the area of occurrence of the species is approximately 110 000 km2 ( map in hines et al . 1999 ) .\nis currently known from mid to low altitudes below 520 m ( goldingay et al . 1999 ; white 2000 ; h . hines & l . shoo unpubl . data ) . in s . e . qld ,\nis currently known from scattered locations in the mary r . catchment downstream to about kenilworth , upper stanley r . , caboolture r . and coomera r . ( hines et al . 1999 ) . during the early 1980\u2019s\ndeclined and disappeared from at least two streams in the conondale range ( corben in mcdonald 1991 ) . the bunya mt ( straughan 1966 ) and cunningham\u2019s gap ( straughan 1966 ) previously supported\nbut these and nearby sites have recently been the subject of targeted surveys and intensive monitoring without locating the species ( hines et al . 1999 ) . assessing the extent of the decline is difficult because of the lack of baseline data on its distribution and abundance ( hines et al . 1999 ) .\nhas suffered major declines in the southern portion of its range in the sydney basin region ( hines et al . 1999 ; white 2000 ) where extant populations were recorded at only 2 of the 14 historical sites surveyed ( white 2000 ) . there are no recent records from the blue mt and the species is currently only known from a five populations in the watagan mt area ( white 2000 ) . a population was recently located in the southern nambucca river catchment ( nsw npws 1994 ) . north of this there is currently a large population in the dorrigo - coffs harbour area , north washpool and bungawalbin sf ( hines et al . 1999 ) . in far n . e . nsw ,\nis known from only three broad areas ( mebbin , whian whian and richmond range ) , despite intensive surveys ( goldingay et al . 1999 ) . goldingay et al . ( 1999 ) reported that the density of these populations was relatively low with an average abundance of 4 . 2 individuals per 100 m of stream transect between 1997 and 1998 and an average of 3 . 4 individuals over the same transects in 1999 ( goldingay et al . 1999 ) .\nis known from qld : conondale , lamington , main range np , ingelbar , kenilworth , spicer\u2019s gap sf ( tyler 1997 ) , blackall ( m . hero pers . comm . ) ; and from nsw : gibraltar range , guy fawkes r . , nightcap , washpool np , wild cattle ck , kangaroo r . , orara west and orara east sf ( tyler 1997 ) , clouds ck . , doubleduke , ewingbar sf ( k . mccray pers . comm . ) , bril bril , ingelba , maria r . , mcpherson , mt boss , watagan , wyong np ( f . lemckert pers . comm . ) , mebbin , mt warning , richmond range np , whian whian sf ( goldingay et al . 1999 ) , upper allyn r , middle brother sf , numbucca r . catchment , bungawalbin , washpool sf ( hines et al . 1999 ) , olney sf ( white 2000 ) .\noccurs in uplands and lowlands in rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest , including farmland ( ingram & mcdonald 1993 ) . populations have been found in disturbed areas with vegetated riparian strips in cattlefarms and regenerating logged areas ( hero & shoo pers . obs . ) . tadpoles do occur with many species of native fish , however no introduced fish species have been observed in sympatry with\nis a stream breeding species . eggs are deposited out of water , under overhanging banks or on steep banks of large pools ( knowles et al . 1998 ) . the stream microhabitats used by the species for oviposition are limited ( knowles et al . 1998 ) . hero and fickling ( 1996 ) and morrison and hero ( in press ) reported clutch sizes for the species as 4184 ( n = 1 ) and 1343 - 3471 ( n = 13 ) respectively and egg diameter ranges between 1 . 7 - 1 . 8mm ( n = 5 ) ( morrison and hero in press ) . the tadpole of\nhas not been formally described . a written description of the tadpole is presented in meyer et al . ( 2001 ) .\nappears to be a generalist feeder with crickets , spiders , beetles , snails , earwigs and frogs being recorded from gut contents ( f . lemckert pers . comm . ) .\nferal animals , domestic stock and weed invasion have been identified as potential threats to current populations of the species ( hines et al . 1999 ) . this is particularly important as many populations of\nin s . e . qld and some populations in n . e . nsw , such as the tweed valley , occur along narrow remnant riparian vegetation on private lands ( h . hines pers . comm . ) which are readily exposed to such disturbances . damage from feral pigs has increased greatly in the conondale range in recent years and possibly other areas occupied by the species ( h . hines pers . comm . ) . while there is potential for direct predation by pigs , the greatest impact is likely to be from increased silt on embryos and tadpoles ( h . hines pers . comm . ) . similarly , trampling by domestic stock is also likely to have deleterious impacts on oviposition sites of the species ( knowles et al . 1998 ) .\nat coomera r . , s . e . qld . over six weeks , the average area of utilisation of females and males was 622 m2 ( n = 4 ) and 403 m2 ( n = 4 ) respectively . individuals moved a maximum distance of 268 m along the stream and 50 m away from the stream . displacement distances between diurnal refuges , after a night of activity , were minimal which suggests a high degree of fidelity to previous days diurnal shelter for the species . similar patterns of movement were observed by lemckert and brassil ( 2000 ) although less perpendicular movement away from the stream was observed . individuals tracked for 2 to 5 day periods made nightly movements from 0 to over 100 m , all were within a 20 m wide band either side of the stream ( lemckert & brassil 2000 ) . adults are often found half - buried under leaf litter ( meyer et al . 2001 ) .\noccurs are the lower reaches of streams which have had major disturbances such as clearing , timber harvesting and urban development in their headwaters ( hines et al . 1999 ) . in the dorrigo area , lemckert ( 1999 ) found that\nwas less abundant in recently logged areas and sites where there was little undisturbed forest . the impacts of feral animals , domestic stock , weed invasion and disturbance to riparian vegetation , all potential threats to current populations , are unknown ( hines et al . 1999 ) . populations of\nnow generally exist in small , isolated patches of forest . the effect this may have on genetic variation within populations and the general health of individuals is unknown .\ngoldingay , r . , newell , d . , and graham , m . ( 1999 ) . ' ' the status of rainforest stream frogs in north - eastern new south wales : decline or recovery ? ' '\na . campbell , eds . , environment australia , canberra , 64 - 71 .\nhero , j . - m . and fickling , s . ( 1996 ) . ' ' reproductive characteristics of female frogs from mesic habitats in queensland . ' '\na . campbell , eds . , environment australia , canberra , 44 - 63 .\ningram , g . j . , and mcdonald , k . r . ( 1993 ) . ' ' an update on the decline of queensland ' s frogs . ' '\nd . lunney and d . ayers , eds . , transactions of the royal zoological society of new south wales , 297 - 303 .\nknowles , r . , hines , h . b . , thum , k . , mahony , m . , and cunningham , m . ( 1998 ) .\nunpublished abstract of a talk presented to the australian society of herpetologists meeting , february 1998 .\nlemckert , f . ( 1999 ) . ' ' impacts of selective logging on frogs in a forested area of northern new south wales . ' '\nmorrison , c . and hero , j . - m . ( in press ) . ' ' geographic variation in life history characteristics of amphibians in mid - eastern australia : reproductive traits . ' '\nresults of vertebrate fauna surveys of north - east nsw forests . north east forests biodiversity study report no . 3a , vol . 1 , site and transect based methods .\nj . - m . hero ; h . hines ; r . goldingay ; e . meyer ; f . lemckert ; k ( m . hero at mailbox . gu . edu . au ) , griffith university\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nclassified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list 2006 ( 1 ) .\nnhpa / photoshot holdings ltd 29 - 31 saffron hill london ec1n 8sw united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7421 6003 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7421 6006 sales @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\na school of geography and environmental studies , university of tasmania , private bag 78 , hobart , tas . 7001 , australia .\nb centre for innovative conservation strategies , school of environment , griffith university , gold coast campus , pmb 50 gcmc , bundall , qld 9726 , australia .\nadditional keywords : amphibian , climate , detectability , environmental variables , frogs , radio - tracking , surveys .\nmany thanks to the volunteers who assisted in the field work for this project . in particular , matt fossey , simon hodgkison , luke shoo and andrew melville . thanks also to clare morrison , luke shoo and andrew melville for advice throughout the study ."]}
{"id": 2553, "summary": [{"text": "donacostola notabilis is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus donacostola .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it was described by philpott in 1928 and is found in new zealand .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 34 \u2013 37 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are whitish-ochreous with brown markings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "there is a fairly broad but indistinct median stripe from the base to the apex and a very obscure narrow streak along the dorsum to near the tornus .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the first discal spot is minute and the plical spot is obsolete .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the second discal is large and round .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "there is subterminal and terminal series of hardly perceptible dots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are shining ochreous-white . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "donacostola notabilis", "paragraphs": ["donacostola notabilis is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus donacostola .\ndonacostola meyrick , 1931 ; trans . n . z . inst . 62 : 97 ; ts : euprionocera notabilis philpott\ndonacostola notabilis philp . i took one of this most interesting species on flat top mountain at 4000 feet in 1923 and another in 1928 .\neuprionocera notabilis philpott , 1928 ; trans . n . z . inst . 58 : 368\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n\u2642 . 9\u201311 mm . head , palpi , thorax and abdomen purplish - black . antennae purplish - black , ciliations \u00be . legs purplish - fuscous , tarsi annulated with ochreous . forewings , costa slightly arched , apex broadly rounded , termen rounded , strongly oblique ; bright yellow to orange ; markings shining silvery ; an outwardly oblique fascia from 1 / 6 , broadly margined with black , reaching beyond fold ; an almost straight fascia from middle of costa to before dorsum ; a triangular fascia from costa at \u00be reaching half across wing ; a narrow subterminal fascia parallel to termen ; the last three fasciae with a few black scales on margins : fringes dark fuscous , base orange . hindwings dark fuscous : fringes dark fuscous with darker basal line .\nnear b . compsogramma meyr . and b . chrysogramma meyr . , but in both of these species the first fascia reaches the dorsum .\nlake rotoroa , in february . three males secured . holotype and paratypes in coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2642 . 11 mm . head and thorax greyish - ochreous mixed with fuscous . papi ochreous - white , base , subapical ring on second segment and a subbasal ring on terminal segment , fuscous . antennae fuscous mixed with ochreous , minutely ciliated . abdomen whitish - ochreous , mixed with fuscous except on basal segments . legs whitish - ochreous , anterior tibiae and tarsi broadly banded with fuscous . forewings , costa moderately arched , apex broadly rounded , termen rounded , oblique ; whitish - ochreous with scattered brown scales ; markings fuscous - blackish , suffused ; a thick oblique fascia from costa at base to fold , where it includes plical spot ; first discal spot obliquely above plical ; a broadly suffused irregular fascia from costa at \u00bd to tornus ; a short fascia from costa at \u00be : fringes whitish - ochreous mixed with fuscous . hindwings shining greyish - white : fringes whitish - ochreous .\nresembling the larger species b . plagiatella walk , in some respects , but there are many differences of markings .\nrotorua , in february . a single male taken by dr . a . j . turner . holotype in coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2642 . 15\u201316 mm . head and antennae greyish - fuscous , ciliations in \u2642 \u00be . palpi fuscous , second segment mixed with white within . abdomen fuscous - grey . legs , anterior pair fuscous , middle pair fuscous with tibiae and tarsi banded with whitish , posterior pair fuscous - grey . forewings moderate , costa well arched , apex rounded , termen rounded , oblique ; white , irrorated with dark fuscous ; stigmata blackish ; plical large , obliquely before first discal , coalescing with dark patch on dorsum ; irroration tending to form blotches on costa at base , \u2153 , \u00bd and \u2153 ; apical blotch sending an obscure line to tornus , where it forms a tornal blotch : fringes whitish - grey mixed with fuscous . hindwings and fringes fuscous - grey .\nwaikaraka valley and kauri gully , auckland , in january . discovered by mr . c . e . clarke , who has asked me to describe the species . a male from each locality . holotype in coll . c . e . clarke and paratype in coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2642 . 19\u201321 mm . head ochreous . palpi and thorax ochreous mixed with fuscous . antennae ochreous mixed with fuscous , finely serrulate , ciliations 1 . abdomen brassy , anal tuft ochreous . legs whitish - ochreous , more or less infuscated , anterior pairs almost wholly fuscous . forewings , costa well arched , apex obtuse , termen rounded , oblique ; greyish - ochreous sprinkled with fuscous - black ; markings fuscous - black ; a small spot on base of costa continued for a short distance along costal edge ; first discal spot fairly large ; plical obliquely beyond first discal , small ; second discal as large as first discal , usually slightly elongated in direction of tornus ; five or six spots on costa between \u00bd and apex : fringes greyish - ochreous with obscure subbasal fuscous line . hindwings whitish - grey , infuscated round termen and dorsum : fringes ochreous - grey with dark basal line .\nthis and the two following species are superficially very much alike . the present species is the largest of the three . the males can be easily separated by the characters of the genitalia which can usually be made out without dissection .\nmount arthur tableland ( 4 , 500 feet ) , flora river ( 3 , 000 feet ) , and aniseed valley , in december and february . four males . holotype and paratypes in coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 14\u201317 mm . head and thorax ochreous . palpi ochreous mixed with fuscous , second segment not much thickened with scales and tapering smoothly into terminal segment . antennae ochreous annulated with fuscous , ciliations about 1 . abdomen brassy , segmental divisions whitish . legs whitish - ochreous mixed with fuscous . forewings , costa moderately arched , apex pointed , termen slightly rounded , oblique ; pale ochreous - white , thickly irrorated with ochreous and sprinkled with fuscous ; female more brownish ; stigmata fuscous -\nblack , often obscure ; first discal round , obliquely before plical which is usually smaller , but sometimes larger , than first discal ; second discal largest , usually curved , sometimes double ; a minute spot on costa at \u2154 , not always present : fringes ochreous - whitish with dark subbasal shade . hindwings shining white , slightly ochreous towards apex .\ndun mountain and mount arthur tableland , in november and december . fairly common at elevations of from 3 , 000 to 4 , 500 feet . holotype ( \u2642 ) , allotype ( \u2640 ) and several paratypes in coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2642 \u2640 . 17\u201319 . head and thorax pale ochreous , base of tegulae fuscous . palpi , second segment thickened with appressed scales , apex broad and truncate , ochreous ; second segment outwardly fuscous . antennae ochreous , ciliations in \u2642 about 1 . abdomen brassy , segmental divisions whitish , anal tuft ochreous . legs ochreous , densely irrorated with fuscous , especially anterior pairs . forewings , costa moderately arched , apex blunt - pointed , termen rounded , oblique ; whitish - ochreous ( in \u2640 browner ) sprinkled with blackish - fuscous ; markings blackish - fuscous ; a small area at costa at base ; first discal rather irregular , obliquely before plical which is roundish and as large as , or larger than , first discal ; second discal smaller , dot - like or transversely linear ; four or five dots on costa between \u00bd and apex , apical ones usually very obscure : fringes whitish - ochreous with some fuscous scales . hindwings shining whitish : fringes ochreous tinged .\nsuperficially extremely like the preceding species , but easily separated by the difference in the palpi . in trans . n . z . inst . , 57 , 719 , i have figured the male genitalia of this species as those of b . calliploca and in order to avoid confusion i here supply figures of the four allied species .\ndun mountain , flora river and cobb valley , in november and december . as at present known , this species seems to occur at lower altitudes than b . levigata , 3 , 000 feet being the highest elevation recorded . holotype ( \u2642 ) , allotype ( \u2640 ) and a series of paratypes in coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2642 . 11\u201313 mm . head fuscous mixed with ferruginous . antennae fuscous annulated with yellow , ciliations in \u2642 2\u00bd . palpi dark fuscous mixed with yellow . thorax fuscous mixed with ferruginous and yellow . abdomen dark bronzy - fuscous . legs fuscous , tarsi annulated with ochreous . forewings , costa slightly arched , apex round - pointed , termen rounded , oblique ; ferruginous mixed with yellow and with some fuscous on basal half ; scale tufts more or less blackish ; a rather broad silvery - white median fascia , outwardly oblique from costa ; a pale yellowish patch at apex , from which issues a thin terminal line : fringes ferruginous - yellow with fuscous tips . hindwings and fringes dark bronzy fuscous .\nwaimarino and raurimu , in january . two males secured by mr . c . e . clarke . what appears to be the same species , though less bright in colour , has been taken in the south island by the late mr . c . c . fenwick at eglinton valley , and by the writer at wairaurahiri and gouland downs , nelson . holotype ( \u2642 ) in coll . c . e . clarke and paratype in coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2642 . 19\u201320 mm . head and palpi whitish mixed with fuscous . antennae greyish - fuscous . thorax fuscous mixed with grey and whitish . abdomen grey . legs whitish , all tibiae and tarsi strongly infuscated and annulated with ochreous - white . forewings , costa strongly arched , apex rectangular , termen almost straight , rounded beneath , not oblique ; white , densely irrorated with grey and strigulated with fuscous , the strigulations tending to form chains of spots ; a large more or less round blackish - fuscous spot in disc at \u2153 with an irregular bar of the same colour beneath it on fold ; an irregular blackish - fuscous spot in disc at \u2154 ; between these two spots a whitish suffusion : an obscure series of blackish marks round termen : fringes grey with dark subbasal line . hindwings and fringes pale grey .\nnear p . melographa meyr . but differing in several details . one specimen has the discal spot reddish .\nnelson , in february , march and april . four males . holotype and paratypes in coll . cawthron institute .\n\u2640 . 34\u201337 . mm . head whitish - ochreous mixed with brown . palpi long , curved , second segment thickened with appressed scales , terminal thin , acute , whitish - ochreous mixed with ochreous . antennae whitish - ochreous mixed with brownish . thorax whitish - ochreous with an obscure brown median stripe and a pair of more prominent brown lateral stripes . abdomen ochreous - white . legs ochreous - white , anterior tarsi broadly banded with brown . forewings long , narrow , costa moderately arched at base , apex acute , termen sinuate , oblique ;\nwhitish - ochreous ; markings brown ; a fairly broad but indistinct median stripe from base to apex ; a very obscure narrow streak along dorsum to near tornus ; first discal spot minute ; plical spot obsolete ; second discal large , round ; subterminal and terminal series of hardly perceptible dots : fringes ochreous - white . hindwings and fringes shining ochreous - white .\nthis fine insect is only provisionally placed in euprionocera ; it does not agree in all points with that genus , bue in the absence of the male it is inadvisable to erect a new genus at this juncture .\nflora river , in february and march . two females secured after dark at about 3 , 000 feet . holotype and paratype in coll . cawthron institute .\n[ richard brown ] sangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ; gelechioidea families\nphilpott , 1928 notes and descriptions of new zealand lepidoptera trans . n . z . inst . 58 : 359 - 370\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nt . thorybodes meyr . takitimos in october ; rare . one at the spey river , manapouri .\ngelechia monophragma meyr . very plentiful in october ; lower takitimos , hope arm , milford track .\ng . lithodes meyr . a good series on the shingle at hope arm , also at the worsley stream and on the milford track , and at milford sound .\ng . colastadesma clarke . flat top mountain , 4000 feet , in january , 1928 .\nbatrachedra psithyra meyr . very common near a small stream in mixed bush , hope arm .\nborkhausenia levicula philp . two only , at 4000 feet , flat top mountain .\nb . vestita philp . several taken by mr s . lindsay and myself on flat top mountain .\nb . apertella walk . , oxyina meyr . , innotella walk . , nycteris meyr . , scholaea meyr . , crotala meyr . , pseudospretella staint . , basella walk . , perichlora meyr . , siderodeta meyr . , xanthodesma philp . , hoplodesma meyr . , armigerella walk . , maranta meyr . , melanamma meyr . , phegophylla meyr . , politis meyr . , pronephela meyr . were taken at various localities .\ng . calliploca meyr . particularly common in october ; seen in most localities .\ng . philadelpha meyr . appears to be rare . one only , at the worsley stream .\ng . squamea philp . a few only on the kepler mountains at 4000 feet .\ng . omphalota meyr . very common among shrubs at the edge of the bush .\nt . leucoplanetis meyr . rather rarely taken on the milford track , also at manapouri .\nt . protochlora meyr . , anastrella meyr . , contritella walk . , aspidephora meyr . were all taken commonly .\natomotricha sordida butl . kepler mountains . one only . probably common in the spring .\np . profunda meyr . not particularly plentiful , but taken in various lake regions .\np . clarkei philp . i discovered this beautiful moth in january , 1923 , when on a collecting trip with mr s . lindsay . it is apparently local at 4000 feet on flat top mountain , among native grasses . on a subsequent visit in 1929 i took it plentifully , all specimens being caught at the same place . only one \u2640 was taken , and is semi - apterous .\noxythecta austrina meyr . flat top mountain ; kepler mountains . not often taken .\neutorna symmorpha meyr . a number were taken on a stream at hope arm .\nphycomorpha metachrysa meyr . one at lake manapouri , also several at eglinton river .\nbatrachedra psathyra meyr . a few taken at hope arm and on the milford track .\nb . eucola meyr . one only was taken by myself at hope arm .\nheliostibes insignis philp . an interesting new species discovered by myself at 4000 feet on flat top mountain , manapouri . one specimen only .\nh . illita feld . very common at hope arm and on the milford track .\ncharixena iridoxa meyr . a most beautiful insect . milford track , mekinnon pass , kepler mountains , and at lake manapouri . no moths were taken , the distinctive ravages of the larva on the astelia leaves being the only trace of it apparent . i reared the larva and bred several examples in the following august , 1930 , its early emergence explaining its apparent rarity .\nsimaethis inspoliata philp . the only specimen known at present was taken by myself on flat top mountain at 4000 feet on december 27 , 1928 .\ns . combinatana walk . fairly common in october , takitimo mountains . also taken at te anau .\ns . microlitha meyr . common , especially in october , on the takitimos .\ns . barbigera meyr . fairly common at hope arm , flat top mountain , and the slopes of mckinnon pass .\ng . transversella walk . common at hope arm and on the milford track .\ng . cionophora meyr . common on the takitimos and along the oreti river in october .\ng . scintilla clarke . flat top mountain in january . i discovered this prettily marked species at 4000 feet , its only known locality ; common .\ng . leptosema meyr . a few taken on the milford track and elsewhere .\nparectopa aellomacha meyr . hope arm , south arm , and milford track . not rare .\ng . selenitis meyr . sometimes occurring in the greatest profusion at about 3500 feet on the mountain beech , nothofagus .\northenches drosochalca meyr . a pretty species , fairly common , at lake level .\nplutella megalynta meyr . a good series of this mountain insect was secured on the mckinnon pass at 3500 feet . it was commonly found in the early morning floating on the water of the tarns .\ncircoxena ditrocha meyr . one only in the s . w . arm , te anau . this was a surprise , as i had previously taken it only at auckland .\ne . fulguritella walk . several taken at various places . a plentiful species .\nd . castanea philp . one of this apparently rare species taken at hope arm .\nnepticula lucida philp . since i discovered this species in 1916 i have found it plentiful in beech forest , especially at about 3000 feet . all lake districts .\nn . oriastra meyr . not uncommon , but rarely taken , as it has to be searched for close to the ground among daisies and grasses .\nn . tricentra meyr . common among mixed bush ; takitimos and eglinton valley .\nn . cypracma meyr . one specimen of what seems to be this species at hope arm .\nc . generosa philp . the only one known . the type was taken by mr s . lindsay when we were collecting at hope arm in 1923 .\nc . mesotypa meyr . the commonest species of the genus at the lakes .\narchyala terranea butl . very common at the takitimos , and seen at te anau .\nt . mochlota meyr . occasionally taken . it was not uncommon at the takitimos .\nastrogenes insignita philp . a few in the eglinton valley , and one at clinton river .\ntaleporia microphanes meyr . flat top mountain , hunter mountains , kepler mountains , and mckinnon pass .\nt . aphrosticha meyr . this interesting and delicate moth was not uncommon on the kepler mountains and on flat top mountain .\nm . illustris philp . flat top mountain , mckinnon pass , and skelmorlie . not very plentiful .\nm . homalopa meyr . common at hope arm and on the milford track .\nm . perisseuta meyr . a few at the takitimos in october . others seen at hope arm .\nopisina arenosella , the coconut black - headed caterpillar , is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus opisina .\nhermogenes aliferella is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus hermogenes .\nhyperoptica ptilocentra is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus hyperoptica .\nanoecea trigonophora is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus anoecea .\naraeostoma aenicta is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus araeostoma .\narsirrhyncha fibriculata is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus arsirrhyncha .\ncallicopris cerograpta is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus callicopris .\ncapnolocha praenivalis is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus capnolocha .\nchironeura chrysocyma is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus chironeura .\nbida radiosella is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus bida .\nclepsigenes dissota is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus clepsigenes .\ncopidoris dimorpha is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus copidoris .\nepidiopteryx bipunctella is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus epidiopteryx .\nexacristis euryopa is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus exacristis .\nxylodryadella cryeranthes is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus xylodryadella .\nxerocrates proleuca is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus xerocrates .\ngomphoscopa catoryctopsis is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus gomphoscopa .\nmalacognostis termatias is a moth in the xyloryctidae family , and the only species in the genus malacognostis .\nthere are several matrix . why not try to find a fault ? type something to search . . .\nbob bitmead ( born 17 july 1942 ) is an australian former cricketer . he played 16 first - class cricket matches for victoria between 1966 and 1968 .\npage 219 and 220 : gen . nov . 3 et n . sp . nzac e ip gen\nfirst sustainment newsletter forward feb 08 - fort riley , ks - u . s . . . .\nclick here urltoken pdf free download the case of the speluncean explorers : nine new opinions for ipad this volume revisits and updates lon fuller s classic article , first published in 1949 . the story describes the fate of explorers who become trapped in a cave and are forced to cannibalize one of their team . the subsequent trial of the defendants upon rescue is used to introduce students to the key theories of law , such as utilitarianism and naturalism , as five supreme court judges offer differing opinions on what should be done with the defendants .\nclick here urltoken pdf free download nine minutes on monday : the quick and easy way to go from manager to leader book online argues that employee engagement comes down to one thing : a constant dedication to meeting the universal needs that drive performance excellence . this book combines proven engagement drivers and principles of human motivation into a simple system of execution that will show immediate results .\nthe first bit you already know . carl baratand the . . . - the ibiza sun\nyou have already flagged this document . thank you , for helping us keep this platform clean . the editors will have a look at it as soon as possible ."]}
{"id": 2560, "summary": [{"text": "the quillfish , ptilichthys goodei , is a species of perciform fish , the only species in the genus ptilichthys and family ptilichthyidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is an elongated , eel-like fish that reaches 34 cm in length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is native to the north pacific ocean , from the bering sea south to oregon .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it has been found on the surface at night , attracted by the lights of fishing boats , but little is known about its daytime habits ; it may burrow in sandy and muddy bottoms during the day , emerging at dusk to feed .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "quillfishes have been found in the stomachs of juvenile coho salmon , oncorhynchus kisutch , and chinook salmon , oncorhynchus tshawytscha .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the longest quillfish was nearly as long ( 82 % ) as its predator . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "quillfish", "paragraphs": ["finally , the bizarre quillfish is so highly modified that its relationships are obscure . more\nqueen danio - quillfish - species of fish starting with q - information on different types of fish . contact bruning . more\nshow ipa use quillfish in a sentencesee web results for quillfishsee images of quillfish\u2013noun , plural - fish\u22c5es , ( especially collectively ) - fish . a fish , ptilichthys goodei , of the bering sea , having an eellike body with long , many - rayed fins . more\nthe quillfish , ptilichthys goodei , is a slender , elongate fish distributed along the coastline of the north pacific from oregon to the sea of japan . more\ndoes quillfish evolve on pokemon pearl ? = in : pokemon diamond and pearl first of all , it ' s spelt qwilfish . secondly , it doesn ' t . qwilfish has no evolutions . more\nthe quillfish , ptilichthys goodei , is a species of perciform fish , the only species in the genus ptilichthys and family ptilichthyidae . it is an elongate eel - like fish that reaches 34 cm in length . more\nfacts about quillfish : annotated classification , as discussed in perciform ( fish ) : annotated classification : = . . . to 2 . 3 metres ( 7 . 5 feet ) . 5 species , in northern oceans ; littoral zone to 300 metres ( 1 , 000 feet ) ; good food fishes . more\nfamily ptilichthyidae ( quillfish ) extremely elongated , body ending in a free fleshy point ; pelvic fins absent ; dorsal and anal fins like vanes of a feather . 1 species ( ptilichthys goodei ) , rare ; north pacific . family zaproridae ( prowfish ) a single species ( zaprora silenus ) like a shorter , deeper - bodied prickleback ; pelvic fins\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngreek , ptylon = feather + greek , ichthys = fish ( ref . 45335 ) .\nthe list below must not be used as an authority reference synonymy list like those found in scientific published revisions , which must be the source to be used and cited eventually when they exist .\nrather , it reflects the current content of fishbase , and the progress with respect to synchronization with the catalog of fishes . however , we think it can be useful for users to assess the quality of information in fishbase , to start new work on the family , or to cross - check with other lists .\nbut we appreciate to be cited in publications when this list has been of any working value . in particular , for published scientific , we suggest then to cite it in the material and method section as a useful tool to conduct the research , but again , not as a taxonomic or nomenclatural authority reference .\nunless it is explicitly precised , the list is not complete , please search all original names published for the family in the catalog of fishes ( genera , species ) , including those with uncertain or unknown status , that are not included in fishbase when they are not attached to a valid species .\nthis list uses some data from catalog of fishes ( not shown but used to sort names ) .\nin the column coff , the digit indicates the status of synchronization with coff : 0 : not checked ; 1 : same status ; 2 : different status ; 3 : other combination ; 4 : synonym in coff ; 5 : species / subspecies issue ; 6 : synonym of another species in coff ; 7 : not in coff ; 8 : should not be in coff . the coff version currently used is the one published on 23 - 07 - 2014 ( ref . 97102 ) .\nwhen subfamilies are recognized , nominotypical subfamily first then other subfamilies by alphabetical order .\ntype genus of the family first ( or of subfamily when subfamilies are recognized ) then other genera by chronological order of description ( and alphabetical order ) .\ntype species of the genus first by chronological order ( and alphabetical order ) , with last listed misapplied names in a light gray font .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nit has been found on the surface at night , attracted by the lights of fishing boats , but little is known about its daytime habits : it is thought that it may burrow in sandy and muddy bottoms during the day , emerging at dusk to feed .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\ngreek , ptilon = feather + greek , ichthys = fish ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 0 - 360 m ( ref . 50550 ) . temperate ; 66\u00b0n - 42\u00b0n\nnorth pacific : japan , the sea of okhotsk , and the kuril islands to bering sea and to central oregon , usa .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 40 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 56557 ) ; common length : 15 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 56557 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 90 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 137 - 145 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 185 - 196 ; vertebrae : 236 - 240 . caudal much reduced .\nfound at surface at night , evidently on the bottom in deeper waters during the day ( ref . 2850 ) . buries itself in mud or sand ( ref . 2850 ) . has been recorded to be found in the stomach of a coho salmon ( ref . 6885 ) .\neschmeyer , w . n . , e . s . herald and h . hammann , 1983 . a field guide to pacific coast fishes of north america . boston ( ma , usa ) : houghton mifflin company . xii + 336 p . ( ref . 2850 )\n) : 0 . 9 - 8 . 3 , mean 4 . 4 ( based on 378 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00102 ( 0 . 00046 - 0 . 00225 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 2 . 88 - 3 . 24 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 5 \u00b10 . 2 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 29 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\na fish , ptilichthys goodei , of the bering sea , having an eellike body with long , many - rayed fins .\nrandom house unabridged dictionary , copyright \u00a9 1997 , by random house , inc . , on infoplease ."]}
{"id": 2571, "summary": [{"text": "polistes humilis is a species of wasp in the vespidae family that is found throughout australia and which has been introduced to northern new zealand .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "also known as the common paper wasp , this species can be identified by their long thin legs and banded yellow and black coloring .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "interestingly , this species has been known to re-utilize old nests .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "while the species does not exhibit morphological class differences , there are distinct behavioral differences between queens and workers .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "in addition , the species is eusocial and benefits from relatedness between individuals .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "this species of wasp is known for delivering a painful sting , especially when their nest is disturbed , a behavior that has been developed as a nest defense mechanism .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "while wasps are often viewed negatively , they play an important pollination role for many plants . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "polistes humilis", "paragraphs": ["in\npolistes humilis\nthere are distinct benefits to having larger nest sizes .\npolistes humilis\nis probably most known to humans by its painful sting .\nas a stinging wasp ,\npolistes humilis\nhas a very powerful defense mechanism .\npolistes humilis are a native wasp species , but other paper wasp species are introduced .\nthroughout the year , production of\npolistes humilis\nnests typically follow a distinctive cycle .\nhow can i put and write and define polistes humilis in a sentence and how is the word polistes humilis used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528polistes humilis\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528polistes humilis\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528polistes humilis\u9020\u53e5 , polistes humilis meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\npolistes humilis and nest . image by donald hobern - some rights reserved . ( view image details )\npolistes humilis\nare observed to subsist on food brought back to the nest by worker wasps .\nwhile\npolistes humilis\nis very common now , competition for food could reduce its population in the future .\npolistes humilis\nalso has developed two defenses against disease : genetic diversity and the production of cuticular antimicrobial compounds .\ntwo polistes humilis , eggs and nest structure . image by donald hobern - some rights reserved . ( view image details )\npolistes humilis\nnests are often found in\nmodified habitats\nwhere there is a mix of human structures and vegetation .\nin southern australia ,\npolistes humilis\nappears to specialize in consuming lepidopteran larvae for protein as well as small spiders .\npolistes humilis\nhas to compete with other species for food , particularly the newly introduced , invasive species\nvespula germanica\n.\nas each queen selfishly wants to have as many offspring as possible , it is likely that oophagy occurs in\npolistes humilis\n.\n\n' polistes humilis\n' is a species of the vespidae family that can be found throughout australia and new zealand .\nassessment of prey overlap between a native ( polistes humilis ) and an introduced ( vespula germanica ) social wasp using morphology and phylogenetic analyses of 16s rdna .\nfor example , in the species\npolistes humilis\nthe queen displays a\ntail - wagging\nbehavior to assert her dominance over the worker class .\nassessment of prey overlap between a native ( polistes humilis ) and an introduced ( vespula germanica ) social wasp using morphology and phylogenetic . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nnesting biology of asian paper wasps polistes chinensis antennalis perez , and australian paper wasps p . humilis ( fab . ) ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) in northern new zealand\ndistribution and abundance of the asian paper wasp polistes chinensis antennalis p\u00e9rez and the australian paper wasp p . humilis ( fab . ) ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) in new zealand\nall mainland australian states . < em > polistes humilis < / em > introduced to south - west wa and new zealand . < em > polistes stigma < / em > widespread from india through se asia to new guinea and sw pacific .\nnesting biology of asian paper wasps polistes chinensis antennalis p\u00e9rez , and australian paper wasps p . humilis ( fab . ) ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) in northern new zealand\nin new zealand , we have two species of exotic paper wasps , polistes humilis which is native to australia and polistes chinensis antennalis which is native to asia . both species have been in new zealand for several decades and are now widespread but limited by climatic conditions .\nito , y . 1986 . spring behaviour of an australian paper wasp , polistes humilis synoecus : colony founding by haplometrosis and utilization of old nests . kontyu 54 : 191 - 202 .\ndistribution and abundance of the asian paper wasp polistes chinensis antennalis p\u00e9rez and the australian paper wasp p . humilis ( fab . ) ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) in new zealand | request pdf\nito , y . 1986 . spring behaviour of an australian paper wasp , polistes humilis synoecus : colony founding by haplometrosis and utilization of old nests . kontyu 54 : 191 - 202 .\nsince antimicrobial compounds in\npolistes humilis\nare found in the species ' venom and only females produce the sting venom , larger colonies with more males might have lower effectiveness of this mechanism .\nthe polistes ( polistella ) humilis synoecus saussure , 1853 is permitted - s11 for the whole of state and is not assigned to any control category for a local government area at this time .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 species of native wasps in australia , but the one that is most likely to be encountered around the melbourne suburbs \u2013 and most likely to become a pest \u2013 is the common paper wasp ( polistes humilis ) . there are 11 species of polistes found in australia , of which p . humilis is the most common . two subspecies have been identified : p . humilis humilis occurs in southern queensland , new south wales , victoria , south australia and new zealand , where it was accidentally introduced in the 1880s , while p . humilis synoecus is found in northern new south wales , queensland , the northern territory and western australia , where it was also an accidental introduction in about 1950 .\nsubstrata categories used for nesting by polistes versicolor in an antropic environment in southeast brazil .\npolistes chinensis antennalis ( asian paper wasp ) - general view of nest with adults present .\nsouthern australia , polistes humillis may also be beneficial to agriculture , and in the home garden .\npolistes chinensis antennalis ( asian paper wasp ) - close - up of an adult on nest .\np . humilis humilis - female wing length 10 - 15mm ; propodeum usually black , rarely with yellow stripes ; gaster unbanded , rarely with more than 1 yellow band ( occurs in s . qld rare ; nsw , vic , sa , new zealand )\ncolony productivity of the polistes sp . ( latreille ) in neotropical areas was already studied for different species , including p . versicolor ( gobbi and zuchi 1985 ; gobbi et al . 1993 ; ramos and diniz 1993 ) , polistes lanio lanio ( giannotti 1992 ) , polistes cinerascens , polistes canadensis ( giannotti 1997 ; santos and gobbi 1998 ) and polistes simillimus ( prezoto 2001 ) . these studies corroborated the michener ( 1964 ) paradox of an inverse relationship between the group size and per capita productivity .\nbody mostly brown or black with cream or yellow markings and stripes . two common species are < em > polistes humilis < / em > and < em > polistes stigma < / em > . the latter has dark spots at the tips of the wings . nests are disc - shaped and suspended by a short , central stalk .\ncomparative data of 37 nests ' productivity by polistes versicolor colected in an antropic environmet in southeast brazil .\ninformations on polistes chinensis antennalis has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .\ngiannotti e . notes on the biology of polistes ( epicnemius ) subsericeus saussure , 1854 ( hymenoptera , vespidae ) .\nthe asian paper wasp resembles the australian ( sometimes called the tasmanian ) paper wasp polistes tasmaniensis humilis , a black and red - brown wasp with yellowish legs ( facing page , below ) which has been part of the bush and garden scene of northern new zealand for over 100 years .\nhunt , j ( 1984 ) .\nadult nourishment during larval provisioning in a primitively eusocial wasp , polistes metricus say\n.\naspectos biol\u00f3gicos e etol\u00f3gicos da vespa social neotropical polistes ( aphanilopterus ) lanio lanio ( fabricius , 1775 ) ( hymenoptera , vespidae ) .\nasian paper wasps are of medium size ( larger than australian paper wasp ( polistes humilis ) ) and have a slender reddish - brown to black body with yellow rings and reddish areas on their abdomen . they have unusually long legs ( that are hanging down when they are flying ) and reddish to brown wings .\nclapperton , b . k . , and lo , p . l . 2000 . nesting biology of asian paper wasps polistes chinensis antennalis perez , and australian paper wasps p . humilis ( fab . ) ( hymenoptera : vesipade ) in northern new zealand . new zealand journal of zoology , 27 : 189 - 195 . urltoken\npolistes humilis is a slender wasp with long , thin , reddish to brown wings . there are distinctly black and reddish - brown bands of colouration on their slender bodies ( 10mm to 15mmin length ) . there are some yellow markings on the face . they have unusually long legs ( that hang down when they are flying ) .\nrecommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : polistes chinensis antennalis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .\ncumber , r . a . 1951 . some observations on the biology of the australian wasp , polistes humilis fabr . ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) in north auckland ( new zealand ) , with special reference to the nature of the worker caste . proceedings of the royal entomological society , london ( a ) 26 : 11 - 16 .\npolistes humilis ( common paper wasp ) is probably most known to humans by its painful sting . these stings often result from agitation of nest sites . polistes humilis nests are often found in\nmodified habitats\nwhere there is a mix of human structures and vegetation . since nests are typically found in walls , eaves of buildings , and fences , humans are particularly at risk of accidentally disturbing a nest site . however , while the sting is very painful , humans are not at risk of serious injury from the sting unless they are allergic . the best way to avoid a sting is to simply stay away from known nest sites if possible , as these wasps typically only sting as a defense mechanism .\nzara , fernando ; balestieri , jose ( 2000 ) .\nbehavioural catalogue of polistes versicolor olivier ( vespidae : polistinae ) post - emergent colonies\n.\n. . . more recently , genetic studies have overcome such deficiencies , particularly in the study of social insects where microsatellite markers have been deployed to determine colony relatedness , maternity of broods and levels of genetic variation ( queller and goodnight 1989 ; queller et al . 1993 ; peters et al . 1995 ) . here we examine polistes humilis , a paper wasp endemic to australia ( and invasive in new zealand : clapperton et al . 1996 ) which is distributed from southern queensland , through new south wales to victoria and west to south australia ( richards 1978 ) . in p . humilis , as in other polistes species , there is no observable morphological differentiation between reproductive and sterile castes ( reeve 1991 ) . . . .\npolistes chinensis is a polistine vespid wasp in the cosmopolitan genus polistes , and is commonly known as the asian , chinese or japanese paper wasp . it is found in east asia , in particular china and japan . the subspecies p . chinensis antennalis is an invasive species in new zealand , having arrived in 1979 .\n. . . the australian paper wasp , polistes humilis ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) has been in new zealand for more than a century ( thomson 1922 ) , while the asian paper wasp , p . chinensis antennalis established itself probably in the late 1970s ( clapperton et al . 1989 ) . both species are widespread through the northern half of the north island ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) . the southernmost record for p . humilis is from manawatu , while p . c . antennalis nests have been found in nelson since 1990 ( rees 1999 ) . . . .\nclapperton , b . k . , tilley , j . a . v . and pierce , r . j . 1996 . distribution and abundance of asian paper wasps polistes chinensis antennalis perez and australian paper wasps p . humilis ( fab . ) ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) in various habitats in new zealand . new zealand journal of zoology 23 : 19 - 25 urltoken\nwe provide the first description of the mating system , genetic structuring and dispersal in the australian paper wasp , polistes humilis . individuals were collected from 13 colonies that were within 700 m of each other at a location near sydney , australia . analysis of genotypic data from four microsatellite loci provided no evidence of males siring offspring in their natal colony and heterozygote excesses within most colonies suggest that this form of outbreeding is typical in p . humilis . the same data show that queens are singly mated and that the number of queens and therefore groups of full siblings increase with colony size . consequently , genetic variation also increases with colony size . the relationship between the number of queens and colony size in p . humilis may be indicative of a breakdown in dominance hierarchies in larger colonies or a defence against disease transmission .\nclapperton , b . k . , and lo , p . l . 2000 . nesting biology of asian paper wasps polistes chinensis antennalis perez , and australian paper wasps p . humilis ( fab . ) ( hymenoptera : vesipade ) in northern new zealand . new zealand journal of zoology , 27 : 189 - 195 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 15 august 2005 ]\nin an ideal world , humans would be able to leave wasps alone . wasps are actually beneficial for most homeowners , because they kill off garden pests and are very gentle when away from their hive . paper wasps ( polistes humilis ) feed their young by hunting the garden - killing insects that would otherwise harm your plants and enter your home , and they help pollinate the environment .\np . humilis synoecus - female wing length 9 . 5 - 13 . 5mm ; propodeum usually with longitudinal yellow stripes ; gaster with 2 or 3 yellow bands ( occurs in northern nsw , qld , nt , wa )\nlima et al . ( 2000 ) studied the substrata used by the social wasps in an area close to this study area , and they verified that the polistes species found nested preferably in human constructions ; finding nests in the vegetation was rare . butignol ( 1992 ) observed that the plants used as substratum by p . versicolor , in florian\u00f3polis , south of brazil , had perennial leaves , such as acacia podzarilifolia , fucreasea gigantea and acalipa wilkesianae . the use of plants as nesting substratum in anthropic environments was also observed by giannotti ( 1995 ) , who recorded nine polistes subsericeus colonies in a single pandanus veitichi ( pandanaceae ) plant . the author suggested that this plant offers a protected and criptic shelter for this species ' colonies . although the anthropic environment offers nesting resources , some species demonstrate preference for nesting in the natural environment , as observed by claperton ( 2000 ) for polistes humilis and polistes chinensis antennalis .\n. . . the southernmost record for p . humilis is from manawatu , while p . c . antennalis nests have been found in nelson since 1990 ( rees 1999 ) . there have been recent records from other sites in the south island ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) , but the ability of p . c . antennalis to maintain populations at the higher latitudes of the south island might be limited by climatic conditions , especially temperature ( miyano 1981 ) . although p . c . antennalis has not displaced p . humilis in any region of new zealand , anecdotal evidence suggests that p . humilis has become less common in recent years ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) . . . .\np . chinensis is a member of the cosmopolitan genus polistes , the largest genus in the family vespidae , with over 300 recognized species and subspecies . two subspecies are known :\nthe asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) is native to areas of japan and china and is currently a widespread introduced species in new zealand . research on its impact on nativ\nsuzuki , t . 1978 . area , efficiency and time foraging in polistes chinensis antennalis perez ( hymenoptera , vespidae ) . japanese journal of ecology , 28 , 179 - 189 .\nclapperton , b . k . , tilley , j . a . v . and pierce , r . j . 1996 . distribution and abundance of asian paper wasps polistes chinensis antennalis perez and australian paper wasps p . humilis ( fab . ) ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) in various habitats in new zealand . new zealand journal of zoology 23 : 19 - 25 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 15 august 2005 ]\npolistes can be distinguished from ropalidia by a number of characters , probably the easiest is in ropalidia the 2nd gastral segment is solidly fused and does not overlap the 3rd gastral segment - this gives the petiole a\nknob\nlike appearance ; in polistes the 2nd gastral segment clearly overlaps the 3rd segment and ther is no\nknob\nlike appearance to the gaster .\nkudo , k . 2000 . variable investments in nests and worker production by the foundresses of polistes chinensis ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) . journal of ethology , 18 , 37 - 41 .\nstrassmann , j . e . & meyer , d . c . ( 1983 ) . gerontocracy in the social wasp , polistes exclamans . animal behavior , 31 : 431 - 438 .\nasian paper wasp occur on shrubland , wetland and in urban areas . their nest is a delicate paper nests ( about the size of a pear ) is similar to those of australian paper wasp ( polistes humilis ) , and generally built in trees or bushes ( branches ) or on man - made structures . they feed on nectar and honeydew and prey on invertebrates . they are weak fliers with a maximum distance of less than 80m .\n. . . there have been recent records from other sites in the south island ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) , but the ability of p . c . antennalis to maintain populations at the higher latitudes of the south island might be limited by climatic conditions , especially temperature ( miyano 1981 ) . although p . c . antennalis has not displaced p . humilis in any region of new zealand , anecdotal evidence suggests that p . humilis has become less common in recent years ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) . for example , in a rural garden near whangarei , northland , p . humilis nests decreased from 25 % of the paper wasp population in 1992 to 14 % in 1993 and 5 % in 1994 ( bkc unpubl . . . .\nkudo , k . 2005 . effects of body mass on nest and brood development in the paper wasp , polistes chinensis ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) . sociobiology , 46 , 647 - 654 .\nrabb r . l . 1960 . biological studies of polistes in north carolina ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 53 : 111\u2013121 . find this article online\nrabb r . l . 1960 . biological studies of polistes in north carolina ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 53 : 111\ufffd121 . find this article online\ncumber , r . a . ( 1951 ) . some observations on the biology of the australia wasp polistes humilis fabr . ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) on north auckland ( new zeland ) with special reference to the nature of work caste . proceedings of the royal entomological society of london . series a , general entomology , 26 : 11 - 16 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1365 - 3032 . 1951 . tb00104 . x .\nkasuya , e . 1983 . social behaviour of early emerging males of a japanese paper wasp , polistes chinensis antennalis ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) . researches on population ecology 25 : 143 - 149 .\ndavid c . post , and robert l . jeanne , \u201cvenom as an interspecific sex pheromone , and species recognition by a cuticular pheromone in paper wasps ( polistes , hymenoptera : vespidae ) , \u201d\nrabb , r . l . & f . r . lawson , 1957 . some factors influencing the predation of polistes wasps on the tobacco hornworm . j . econ . entomol . 50 : 778\u2013784 .\nwest - eberhard , mary jane .\ndominance relations in polistes canadensis ( l . ) , a tropical social wasp .\nmonitore zoologico italiano 20 . 3 ( 1986 ) : 263 - 81 .\nrabb , r . l . & f . r . lawson , 1957 . some factors influencing the predation of polistes wasps on the tobacco hornworm . j . econ . entomol . 50 : 778\ufffd784 .\ngiannotti e . , & machado , v . l . l . ( 1999 ) . behavioral castes in the primitively eussocial wasp polistes lanio fabricius ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) . revista brasileira de entomologia , 43 : 185 - 190 .\ndymock , j . j . 2000 . risk assessment for establishment of polistine ( polistes spp . ) and vespine ( vespula spp . ) wasps on the three kings islands in the far north of new zealand . science for conservation 156 : 18 . urltoken\nsledge m . f . , boscaro , f . & turillazzi , s . ( 2001 ) . cuticular hydrocarbons and reproductive status in the social wasp polistes dominulus . behavioral ecology and sociobiology , 49 : 401\u2013409 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s002650000311 .\nvarious other insects are parasites or parasitoids of polistes , including flies ( e . g . , sarcophagidae ) , mantispids , and wasps in the families torymidae , mutillidae ( rarely ) , braconidae , and ichneumonidae ( e . g . latibulus argiolus ) . some more specialized groups are more intimately associated with polistes ; this includes strepsipterans in the family stylopidae ( genus xenos ) , wasps of the genus elasmus ( formerly placed in their own family ,\nelasmidae\n) , and wasps in the family trigonalidae .\nharris , a . , 2002 paper wasp heads south , in stowaway newsletter no . 2 october 2002 , landcare research , new zealand summary : records show that the asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) is capable of surviving in southern new zealand .\ntoft , r . j . and harris , r . j . 2004 . short communication : can trapping control asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) population ? new zealand . new zealand journal of ecology 28 ( 2 ) : 272 - 282 . urltoken\n. . . polistes versicolor is introduced to the ecologically sensitive and historic galapagos islands , where it competes with native vertebrate predators for insect prey ( causton et al 2006 ) . other examples of invasive paper wasps are polistes aurifer saussure throughout the hawaian islands ( carpenter 2008 ) and polistes chinensis antennalis p\u00e9rez in new zealand ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) . mitigation of social wasp numbers and pest status can sometimes be achieved with poison baits ( chang 1988 ; hanna et al . 2012 ) or lures for traps that are based on food materials ( dvorak & landolt 2006 ; ross et al . 1984 ; silveira et al . 2005 ; spurr 1995 spurr , 1996 ) or chemical attractants ( davis et al . 1969davis et al . , 1973 landolt 1998 ) . . . .\npaper wasps have a small head , with medium sized eyes and medium length antennae . the body is slender , with a very narrow waist . there are two pairs of brown - tinted wings , with the first pair larger . the abdomen has some yellow / orange bands , but is mainly black . recently , the introduced asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis ) has been reported from several inner city suburbs of sydney . this closely related species is larger than the native polistes and tends to have more distinctive yellow and brown bands .\nclapperton , b . k . and dymock , j . j . 1997 . growth and survival of colonies of the asian paper wasp , polistes chinensis antennalis ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) , in new zealand . new zealand journal of zoology 24 : 9 - 15 . urltoken\nkasuya , e . , hibino , y . , and ito , y . 1980 . on \u201cintercolonial\u201d cannibalism in japanese paper wasps , polistes chinensis antennalis p\u00e9rez and p . jadwigale dalla torre ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) . researches on population ecology 22 : 255 - 262 .\nr\u00f6seler , p . f . , r\u00f6seler , i . & strambi , a . ( 1985 ) . role of ovaries and ecdysteroids in dominance hierarchy establishment among foundresses of the primitively social wasp , polistes gallicus . behavioral ecology and sociobiology , 18 : 9 - 13 .\nkasuya , e . , hibino , y . , and ito , y . 1980 . on \ufffdintercolonial\ufffd cannibalism in japanese paper wasps , polistes chinensis antennalis p\ufffdrez and p . jadwigale dalla torre ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) . researches on population ecology 22 : 255 - 262 .\naustralian paper wasps are smaller in size than the asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) and can have a distinct black and reddish - brown coloration of their slender body . they have unusually long legs ( that are hanging down when they are flying ) and reddish to brown wings .\naustralian paper wasp occur on shrubland , wetland and in urban areas . their nest is a delicate paper nests ( similar to asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) and attached by a short stalk to trees or man - made structures . they feed on nectar and honeydew and prey on invertebrates .\npolistes humilis is the only species of the tribe polistini found in new zealand after it was accidentally introduced from australia in the 1880s . this social species of wasp is largely confined to the northisland north of tauranga and west of te kuiti . it is usually found in shrubland and swamps . in new zealand , it is classed as an unwanted organism because it is in competition with honeybees and native bird species over nectar and honeydew . the adults will also eat fruit . their larvae can be beneficial as they feed on some pest caterpillars provided by the adults . if a caterpillar is too large to carry the wasp will cut the body up with her sharp mouthparts and carry it back to the larvae in bits .\ndymock , j . j . 2000 . risk assessment for establishment of polistine ( polistes spp . ) and vespine ( vespula spp . ) wasps on the three kings islands in the far north of new zealand . science for conservation 156 : 18 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 15 february 2008 ]\ntoft , r . j . and harris , r . j . 2004 . short communication : can trapping control asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) population ? new zealand . new zealand journal of ecology 28 ( 2 ) : 272 - 282 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 25 january 2008 ]\nclapperton , b . k . and dymock , j . j . 1997 . growth and survival of colonies of the asian paper wasp , polistes chinensis antennalis ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) , in new zealand . new zealand journal of zoology 24 : 9 - 15 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 15 august 2005 ]\nthe asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) is native to areas of japan and china and is currently a widespread introduced species in new zealand . research on its impact on native fauna is lacking but as it consumes insects it may potentially threaten native invertebrate species . it may also compete with native fauna for invertebrate and nectar resources .\nthey built a 10cm to 12cm diameter nest with multiple hexagonal cells out of a grey papery material made from chewed up wood fibre and saliva . the cone - shaped nest hangs by a single attachment point with a short stalk . this is attached to shrubs or man - made structures . an egg laid in each cell which hatches into a grub - like larva which is feed by the adults . after a period the cells are sealed and the larvae are left to pupate inside . most of the adult paper wasps die in winter , with a few hibernating to start new colonies . a polistes humilis nest . they are usually built them high in a tree . this nest is in a coastal tree ' karo ' ( pittosporum crassifolium ) . thanks to wikipedia for text and information : urltoken\nthis study ' s results demonstrate that p . versicolor nesting behavior is very similar to that described for other polistes species . in an anthropic environment , p . versicolor exhibited a preference for artificial substrata for nesting , which probably provides larger longevity for the nests due to protection from the stress of weather . in this type of environment , usually a group of females found their nests in different climatic situations , which results in production of colonies of various sizes and also causes a different productivity among them . although these results enlarge knowledge on the p . versicolor foundation pattern in anthropic environments , there are many subjects needing further study mainly to increase knowledge about nesting behavior of other neotropical polistes species .\ndapporto , l . , sledge , f . m . & turillazzi , s . ( 2005 ) . dynamics of cuticular chemical profiles of polistes dominulus workers in orphaned nests ( hymenoptera , vespidae ) . journal of insect physiology , 51 : 969 - 973 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . jinsphys . 2005 . 04 . 011 .\n. . . this suggests that it has not yet reached its maximum distribution . a survey conducted in northern north island in the 1990s indicated that p . chinensis was more abundant than p . humilis in most habitat types ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) . although it was less common in dense forests , p . chinensis was frequently found in flax and salt meadows , manuka / kanuka forests and low scrub , as well as urban habitats . . . .\ngobbi , n . , noll , f . b . & penna , m . a . h . ( 2006 ) . \u201cwinter\u201d aggregations , colony cycle , and seasonal phenotypic change in the paper wasp polistes versicolor in subtropical brazil . naturwissenschaften , 93 : 487 - 494 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s00114 - 006 - 0140 - z .\ntannure - nascimento , i . c . , nascimento , f . s . & zucchi , r . ( 2005 ) . size and colony cycle in polistes satan , a neotropical paper wasp ( hymenoptera , vespidae ) . ethology , ecology and evolution , 17 : 105 - 119 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 08927014 . 2005 . 9522601 .\ndapporto , l . , lambardi , d . & turillazzi , s . ( 2008 ) . not only cuticular lipids : first evidence of differences between foundresses and their daughters in polar substances in the paper wasp polistes dominulus . journal of insect physiology , 54 : 89 - 95 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . jinsphys . 2007 . 08 . 005 .\nthe neotropical social wasp , polistes versicolor ( olivier ) ( hymenoptera : vespidae ) , possesses nests consisting of a single comb fixed to the substratum by a peduncle ( richards 1978 ) . the simple arrangement of suspended cells seems to protect the colony from ant attacks , which constitute the largest predatory pressure for social wasps ( jeanne 1975 , 1980 ; post and jeanne 1985 ) .\nbetween 1987 and 1991 , nearly 1500 samples of wasps were collected by the public after two national publicity campaigns . the asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) arrived in 1979 and by 1990 was widespread throughout the upper north island and present as far south as lower hutt and nelson . it had also reached various islands near the coast of northland and auckland . p . c . antennalis populations increased the most between 1987 and 1990 in the central north island . the australian paper wasp ( p . humilis ) arrived in the 1880s and its distribution did not change between 1987 and 1991 . it was still restricted to the upper north island , apart from one record from manawatu . it had not been displaced by p . c . antennalis . most paper wasps were collected from urban habitats . a survey of natural habitats in northland showed that p . c . antennalis also reached high population densities in open warm shrublands , flax swamps , and salt meadows . paper wasps were rarely collected at altitudes above 100 m a . s . l . p . c . antennalis appeared in the samples earlier in the season than p . humilis , and both were most abundant during march and april . high populations of p . c . antennalis have increased the danger of stings to people by paper wasps , the predation of indigenous invertebrates , and also the beneficial reduction of lepidopteran pests in gardens .\npolistine and vespine wasps were captured in malaise traps in two fire - modified shrubland habitats of varying canopy height and composition at lake ohia , northland , new zealand . prey consumption rates were calculated for the asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) occupying these two areas of shrubland and a home garden in whangarei , northland . the sites were systematically searched . . . [ show full abstract ]\nsexual discrimination may also occur after pupation . an unusual way to funnel colony resources into females has been observed in the social wasp polistes dominulus , where workers forcibly \u2018stuff\u2019 young males head - first into empty nest - cells when foragers return to the colony ( starks & poe , 1997 ) . \u2018stuffed\u2019 males are temporarily unable to feed , which seems to ensure that food is preferentially distributed to larvae .\n. . . the australian p . humilis , is thought to have been introduced in new zealand in the 1880s . it occurs mostly in warmer regions of the upper north island , with few records from other parts of the north island ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) . by contrast , the east asian p . chinensis , which was detected in 1979 near auckland , has spread rapidly across much of the north island and , since the 1990s , has colonized several locations in the south island ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) . . . .\npaper wasps are distinguished from vespulid wasps by their body shape . they have slender 13mm to 25mm reddish brown to black bodies with yellow rings and reddish areas on abdomen . their wings are reddish or amber brown and they have long legs that especially noticeable in flight when they hang down . please see padil ( pests and diseases image library ) wasps : asian paper wasp polistes chinensis antennalis perez for high quality diagnostic and overview images .\nhunt , j . h . , mutti , n . s . , havukainen , h . henshaw , m . t . & amdam , g . v . ( 2011 ) . development of an rna interference tool , characterization of its target , and an ecological test of caste differentiation in the eusocial wasp polistes . plos one 6 ( 11 ) : e26641 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0026641 .\npolistes versicolor colony contruction pattern in an anthropic environment , juiz de fora , minas gerais state , southeastern brazil . a = place inspection for foundation , b = oviposition behavior in the first cell , c = first cell with circular format and egg , d = construction behavior by the female in the solitary foundation , e = hexagonal format of cells in the solitary foundation , and f = foundress association . high quality figures are available online .\nso when the asian paper wasp , polistes chinensis ( right ) arrived in new zealand in the late 1970s wearing the same black - and - yellow livery as its european relatives the german and common wasps , it boded no good for either people or other insects . and so it proved : the new arrival settled quickly into the suburbs of auckland , and is now responsible for the majority of wasp stings there that result in visits to the doctor .\npaper wasps are distinguished from vespulid wasps by their body shape . they have slender 13mm to 25mm reddish brown to black bodies with yellow rings and reddish areas on abdomen . their wings are reddish or amber brown and they have long legs that especially noticeable in flight when they hang down . please see padil ( pests and diseases image library ) wasps : asian paper wasp \\ r \\ n polistes chinensis antennalis perez for high quality diagnostic and overview images .\nbonavita - cougourdan , a . , theraulaz , g . , bagn\u00e8res , a . g . , roux , m . , pratte , m . , provost , e . & cl\u00e9ment , j . l . ( 1991 ) . cuticular hydrocarbons , social organization and ovarian development in a polistine wasp : polistes dominulus christ . comparative biochemistry and physiology , 100 : 667\u2013680 . doi : 10 . 1016 / 0305 - 0491 ( 91 ) 90272 - f .\nin temperate climates , female paper wasps typically initiate new colonies in the spring . several nest - founding tactics have been documented in polistes species , including solitary nest initiation , joining a cooperative association , usurping an existing nest , or adopting an abandoned nest . occasionally , exceptionally large groups of females have also been found reusing nests from the previous season . here we report this phenomenon in introduced populations of the eurasian species polistes dominulus . we describe in detail the demographic and genetic characteristics of one such spring colony from los angeles , california , usa , which was collected with 84 associated adults and all stages of developing brood in its 613 cells . genetic and morphological data indicate the presence of multiple reproductively active females of varying relatedness , as well as many nonbreeding females , including probable early - produced offspring . despite some evidence of chaotic social conditions , the colony appeared to have been highly productive . additional observations of similar colonies are needed to determine how control is maintained within such a large breeding aggregation .\nonce male reproductives emerge and both males and females disperse from the natal nest for mating flights , the so - called intermediate phase begins . brood care and foraging behavior decline and worker numbers drop as dying individuals are no longer replaced by new ones . intracolonial aggression increases and the social cohesion of the nest declines . in temperate polistes species , individuals ( almost exclusively inseminated females ) gather in groups of up to 50 individuals and seek a sheltered location ( called a hibernaculum ) in which to overwinter .\nthe p . versicolor unproductive cells were concentrated on periphery of the comb , which was also noted for p . canadensis ( santos and gobbi 1998 ) and p . simillimus ( prezoto 2001 ) , and the cells with the largest number of utilizations were located in close proximity to the peduncle and in the central nest area , that are the oldest part of the comb . this disposition can work as a strategy against the predatory pressure , parasitism and reproductive conflicts , all mentioned by gobbi et al . ( 1993 ) as factors that impose limits on the number of cells built in polistes nests .\na large number of polistes species use human constructions as nesting substratum ( fowler 1983 ; butignol 1992 ; giannotti and mansur 1993 ) ; although they can also use natural environment , such as plants and termite colonies ( makino 1985 ; henriques et al . 1992 ; claperton 2000 ; sinzato and prezoto 2000 ) . the results of this study demonstrated the p . versicolor synantropism in relation to the constructions with little human interference , which is a behavior already described for the species ( butignol 1992 ; sinzato and prezoto 2000 ) , as well as for p . lanio ( giannotti 1992 ) and p . simillimus ( prezoto 2001 ) .\nthe high failure number ( 90 . 06 % ) of the colonies founded by a single female p . versicolor in the present study occurred mainly because the foundress abandoned the nest during the initial colony establishment phase , before the larvae appeared . this same phenomenon was described by tannure and nascimento ( 1999 ) for the same species . it is believed that this behavior is associated with the fact that the wasps migrate in search of association with other foundresses . other factors as foundress death or disappearance and dominance disputes also promote colony failure in polistes species ( reeve 1991 ; giannotti and mansur 1993 ; tannure and nascimento 1999 ; prezoto 2001 ) .\n. . . such comparison provides direct evidence of what factors would affect invasive population structures in relation to the factors above mentioned and will help our deeper understanding of invasion mechanisms . the paper wasp , polistes chinensis antennalis , was accidentally introduced to new zealand by long distant dispersal across the hemispheres , was first detected in 1979 ( clapperton et al . 1996 ) around the whangaparaoa peninsula near the city of auckland and became a threat against human outdoor activity due to its sting ( beggs et al . 2011 ) . the species subsequently expanded its distribution range to include almost all of north island and the northern half of south island . . . .\nworkers police each other ' s eggs . 88 . 5 % of queens eggs survive to hatching vs 1 . 4 % of worker\u2019s . worker reproduction is frequent in queen - right colonies in which the queen is alive . both queen and workers replaced workers eggs . p . chinensis was studied alongside polistes snelleni for comparison in this conflict . in p . snelleni , queens monopolize egg production . queens contributed 2 . 4 times more to replacing than workers . workers sequentially perform oophagy and oviposition in the same cells . the ratio of worker - produced eggs to eggs laid by the queen is 3 or 4 times to one in a colony having between 100 and 500 wasps .\nthere are two options for advancing a biocontrol programme for paper wasps in new zealand . the fi rst would involve conducting surveys in the native ranges of the two species to identify their natural enemies and any prospective biocontrol agents . the second , cheaper approach would be to consider the natural enemies already known to have a major impact on other polistes species and whether they might be suitable for new zealand . the advantage of using less specific agents is that any new species of paper wasps that manage to invade new zealand in the future might also be suppressed early on . fortunately , because our native hymenoptera are not closely related to the introduced paper wasps , it is unlikely that any potential biocontrol agents would pose a threat to them .\nstudies accomplished at other places in brazil describe foundress association as a foundation type commonly observed for p . versicolor ( it\u00f4 1985 ; butignol 1992 ; giannotti and mansur 1993 ; ramos and diniz 1993 ; tannure and nascimento 1999 ; sinzato and prezoto 2000 ) . females association is also a common strategy in other neotropical species such as polistes ferreri ( tannure and nascimento 1999 ) , p . canadensis ( it\u00f4 1985 ) and p . lanio ( giannotti 1992 ) . however , prezoto ( 2001 ) observed that the foundation by a single female constitutes 56 . 3 % of p . simillimus foundations , with success of 37 . 09 % of them . in spite of that , the author observed that , even being the smallest part of the total foundations , the foundress association was responsible for the largest number of successful colonies in p . simillimus .\nduring nest foundation the solitary nesting females typically construct and oviposit in combs with from 20 to 30 cells ( west - eberhard 1969 ) . a polistes foundress has at least two reproductive options besides solitary nest founding . she can join conspecific females in another nest or attempt to take over a nest initiated by a conspecific female ( reeve 1991 ) . this behavior creates a series of advantages to the new nests , as productivity can increase and consequently , colony success can increase , offspring survival can improve in the case of dominant female death , as well as providing a more effective defense against natural enemies ( west - eberhard 1969 ; it\u00f4 1985 ; butignol 1992 ; giannotti and mansur 1993 ; tannure and nascimento 1999 ; sinzato and prezoto 2000 ; tibbetts and reeve 2003 ) . during the colony ' s foundation ( i . e . prior to eclosion of new adults ) , aggressive interactions happen among the nestmates , many times involving intense fights ( west - eberhard 1969 ; gamboa and dropkin 1979 ; strasmmann 1989 ) .\na fundamental feature in the evolution of social insects is the separation of castes , and the presence of wide differentiation between castes indicates a more advanced degree of sociability . in this study , we evaluated factors that indicate the reproductive status of females in colonies of the social wasp polistes versicolor . the reproductive status of each female was examined by measuring nine morphometric characters , by the cuticular chemical profile , insemination and by her relative age . we conclude that in p . versicolor colonies there are 3 female groups that show cuticular chemical profile difference . the first group belong to females with ovarioles filamentous , typical of workers ; the second is females with ovarioles intermediates ; and the third is a group of queens , which are older females , inseminated and with greater degree of ovarian development found among all females . on the other hand , there was no significant morphological differences between these female groups . therefore , although no significant morphological differences among females there are other factors such as the cuticular chemical composition that is an indicative of reproductive physiological condition of female in the colony .\nwalker , k . 2007 . asian paper wasp ( polistes chinensis antennalis ) pest and diseases image library summary : padil ( pests and diseases image library ) is a commonwealth government initiative , developed and built by museum victoria s online publishing team , with support provided by daff ( department of agriculture , fisheries and forestry ) and pha ( plant health australia ) , a non - profit public company . project partners also include museum victoria , the western australian department of agriculture and the queensland university of technology . the aim of the project is : 1 ) production of high quality images showing primarily exotic targeted organisms of plant health concern to australia . 2 ) assist with plant health diagnostics in all areas , from initial to high level . 3 ) capacity building for diagnostics in plant health , including linkage developments between training and research organisations . 4 ) create and use educational tools for training undergraduates / postgraduates . 5 ) engender public awareness about plant health concerns in australia . padil is available from : urltoken this page is available from : urltoken [ accessed 10 november 2007 ]\nthis site requires the use of cookies to function . it also uses cookies for the purposes of performance measurement . please see our privacy policy .\ncommon paper wasps are social insects , that are common around the outside of homes and in gardens . these slender wasps have long thin wings and are tan with darker bands and some yellow markings on the face . their paper nests are often seen hanging by a short stalk from eaves , pergola or shrubbery . although they can be pests because of their readiness to sting , paper wasps can also be beneficial in that they are predators of some pest caterpillars .\nadult paper wasps feed on nectar . larvae feed on caterpillars provided by the adults .\npaper wasps are social wasps forming small colonies of 12 to 20 individuals . they built a nest out of grey papery material made from chewed up wood fibre and saliva . nests are often located under eaves , pergolas or in shrubs . the nest is cone - shaped , becoming rounder as more cells are added . the nest has a maximum diameter of 10cm to 12cm with numerous hexagonal cells visible underneath , some of the cells having white caps . an egg laid in each cell which hatches into a grub like larva . the adults feed the larvae on chewed - up caterpillars caught by the adults . the cells are then capped and the larvae pupate inside . most of the adult paper wasps die in winter , with a few hibernating to start new colonies .\npaper wasps are found across southern mainland australia including southern queensland , new south wales , victoria , south australia and southern western australia .\npaper wasps will readily attack and sting anyone approaching or disturbing their nest . they have a painful sting and will attack any person approaching or disturbing their nest . nests in high traffic areas should be sprayed at night ( when the wasps are at rest on the nest ) with appropriate insecticide . nests that are out of reach are not a problem and can be left alone . generally applying a cold pack to the sting is enough , but seek medical attention if symptoms become more severe or victim has known allergy to stings . .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nrichards , o . w . 1978 ,\nthe australian social wasps ( hymenoptera : vespidae )\n, australian journal of zoology supplementary series , vol . 61 , pp . 1 - 132\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 465be0e3 - 9e2f - 4883 - beba - cd9cfdb3c80f\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b058ca7e - 53da - 4927 - a0b5 - 5b8b5f217780\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : e27d813a - 0e26 - 45c5 - 9396 - 687d368a2c37\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 456815\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nthe common paper wasp is about 10 - 15mm in length ( slightly longer than a honey bee ) , with a slender body , a very narrow waist , a pointed abdomen and long thin legs and wings . the body has brown , black and yellow bands . in melbourne , common paper wasps are common around the outside of homes and in gardens , and are often mistaken for european wasps ."]}
{"id": 2582, "summary": [{"text": "neofibularia nolitangere , the touch-me-not sponge , is a species of demosponge in the family desmacellidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in shallow waters in the western atlantic ocean and the caribbean sea . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "neofibularia nolitangere", "paragraphs": ["structure revision of two polyoxygenated sterols from the marine sponge neofibularia nolitangere . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe sperm nuclear basic proteins ( snbps ) of the sponge neofibularia nolitangere : implications for the molecular evolution of snbps .\njennifer hammock split the classifications by inventaire national du patrimoine naturel from neofibularia nolitangere ( duchassaing & michelotti , 1864 ) to their own page .\nthe sperm nuclear basic proteins ( snbps ) of the sponge neofibularia nolitangere : implications for the molecular evolution of snbps . - pubmed - ncbi\n( of neofibularia nolitangere nolitangere ( duchassaing & michelotti , 1864 ) ) hartman , w . d . ( 1967 ) . revision of neofibularia ( porifera , demospongiae ) , a genus of toxic sponges from the west indies and australia . postilla . 113 : 1 - 41 . page ( s ) : 10 - 11 [ details ]\n( of neofibularia nolitangere nolitangere ( duchassaing & michelotti , 1864 ) ) wiedenmayer , f . ( 1977 ) . shallow - water sponges of the western bahamas . experientia supplementum . 28 : 1 - 287 , pls 1 - 43 . page ( s ) : 148 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nn . mordens in the gulf st . vincent ( south australia ) , n . nolitangere in the caribbean\n( of neofibularia nolitangere oxeata hartman , 1967 ) hartman , w . d . ( 1967 ) . revision of neofibularia ( porifera , demospongiae ) , a genus of toxic sponges from the west indies and australia . postilla . 113 : 1 - 41 . page ( s ) : 11 - 13 ; fig 3 [ details ]\nhoppe , w . f . ; reichert , m . j . m . 1987 . predictable annual massrelease of gametes by the coral reef sponge neofibularia nolitangere ( porifera : demospongiae ) . marine biology 94 ( 2 ) : 277 - 285 . [ details ]\naustralian stinging sponge ( n . mordens ) , touch - me - not - sponge , poison bun sponge ( n . nolitangere )\nhoppe , w . f . ; reichert , m . j . m . 1987 . predictable annual massrelease of gametes by the coral reef sponge < i > neofibularia nolitangere < / i > ( porifera : demospongiae ) . marine biology 94 ( 2 ) : 277 - 285 .\nhartman , w . d . ( 1967 ) . revision of neofibularia ( porifera , demospongiae ) , a genus of toxic sponges from the west indies and australia . postilla . 113 : 1 - 41 . page ( s ) : 10 - 11 [ details ]\n( of fibulia massa ( carter , 1882 ) ) hartman , w . d . ( 1967 ) . revision of neofibularia ( porifera , demospongiae ) , a genus of toxic sponges from the west indies and australia . postilla . 113 : 1 - 41 . [ details ]\nhartman , w . d . ( 1967 ) . revision of < i > neofibularia < / i > ( porifera , demospongiae ) , a genus of toxic sponges from the west indies and australia . < em > postilla . < / em > 113 : 1 - 41 .\nhartman , w . d . ( 1967 ) . revision of neofibularia ( porifera , demospongiae ) , a genus of toxic sponges from the west indies and australia . postilla . 113 : 1 - 41 . page ( s ) : 7 - 10 ; fig 1 - 2 [ details ]\n( of neofibularia massa ( carter , 1882 ) ) hechtel , g . j . ( 1965 ) . a systematic study of the demospongiae of port royal , jamaica . bulletin of the peabody museum of natural history . 20 : 1 - 103 . page ( s ) : 23 [ details ]\n( of amphimedon nolitangere duchassaing & michelotti , 1864 ) duchassaing de fonbressin , p . ; michelotti , g . ( 1864 ) . spongiaires de la mer caraibe . natuurkundige verhandelingen van de hollandsche maatschappij der wetenschappen te haarlem . 21 ( 2 ) : 1 - 124 , pls i - xxv . page ( s ) : 82 [ details ]\ncareful reexamination of the published 1h - and 13c - nmr spectral data of ( 24s ) - 24 - ethylcholest - 8 - ene - 3\u03b2 , 5\u03b1 , 6\u03b2 , 7\u03b1 - tetraol ( 1 ) and ( 24s ) - 24 - ethylcholest - 8 ( 14 ) - ene - 3\u03b2 , 5\u03b1 , 6\u03b2 , 7\u03b1 - tetraol ( 2 ) , isolated from the marine sponge neofibularia nolitangere , indicates that , in reality , compounds 1 and 2 are ( 24s ) - 5\u03b1 , 6\u03b1 - epoxy - 24 - ethylcholest - 8 - ene - 3\u03b2 , 7\u03b1 - diol ( 9 ) and ( 24s ) - 5\u03b1 , 6\u03b1 - epoxy - 24 - ethylcholest - ( 14 ) - ene - 3\u03b2 , 7\u03b1 - dio ( 10 ) , respectively .\n( of amphimedon nolitangere duchassaing & michelotti , 1864 ) van soest , r . w . m . ; stone , s . m . ; boury - esnault , n . ; r\u00fctzler , k . ( 1983 ) . catalogue of the duchassaing & michelotti ( 1864 ) collection of west indian sponges ( porifera ) . bulletin zoologisch museum , universiteit van amsterdam . 9 ( 21 ) : 189 - 205 . page ( s ) : 198 [ details ]\n( of fibulia nolitangere ( duchassaing & michelotti , 1864 ) ) laubenfels , m . w . de . ( 1936 ) . a discussion of the sponge fauna of the dry tortugas in particular and the west indies in general , with material for a revision of the families and orders of the porifera . carnegie institute of washington publication . 467 ( tortugas laboratory paper 30 ) 1 - 225 , pls 1 - 22 . page ( s ) : 51 - 52 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nholotype [ from synonym ] msnt por . 42 , locality eastern caribbean ( virgin islands , st . thomas ) [ view taxon ]\nlectotype [ from synonym ] msnt por . 42 , locality eastern caribbean ( virgin islands , st . thomas ) [ view taxon ]\nlectotype [ from synonym ] bmnh 1928 . 11 . 12 . 34 , locality eastern caribbean ( virgin islands , st . thomas ) [ view taxon ]\nlectotype [ from synonym ] mnhn d . nbe 1062 , locality eastern caribbean ( virgin islands , st . thomas ) [ view taxon ]\nvan soest , r . w . m ; boury - esnault , n . ; hooper , j . n . a . ; r\u00fctzler , k . ; de voogd , n . j . ; alvarez , b . ; hajdu , e . ; pisera , a . b . ; manconi , r . ; sch\u00f6nberg , c . ; klautau , m . ; picton , b . ; kelly , m . ; vacelet , j . ; dohrmann , m . ; d\u00edaz , m . - c . ; c\u00e1rdenas , p . ; carballo , j . l . ; r\u00edos , p . ; downey , r . ( 2018 ) . world porifera database .\n( of fibularia massa carter , 1882 ) carter , h . j . ( 1882 ) . some sponges from the west indies and acapulco in the liverpool free museum described , with general and classificatory remarks . annals and magazine of natural history . ( 5 ) 9 ( 52 ) : 266 - 301 , 346 - 368 , pls xi - xii . [ details ]\nhajdu , e . ; van soest , r . w . m . 2002 . family desmacellidae ridley & dendy , 1886 . pp . 642 - 650 . in hooper , j . n . a . & van soest , r . w . m . ( ed . ) systema porifera . a guide to the classification of sponges . 1 ( kluwer academic / plenum publishers : new york , boston , dordrecht , london , moscow ) . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nr\u00fctzler , k . ; d\u00edaz , m . c . ; van soest , r . w . m . ; zea , s . ; smith , k . p . ; alvarez , b . ; wulff , j . ( 2000 ) . diversity of sponge fauna in mangrove ponds , pelican cays , belize . atoll research bulletin . 476 : 230 - 248 . page ( s ) : 235 [ details ]\nvan soest , r . w . m . ( 1981 ) . a checklist of the cura\u00e7ao sponges ( porifera demospongiae ) including a pictorial key to the more common reef - forms . verslagen en technische gegevens instituut voor taxonomische zo\u00f6logie ( zo\u00f6logisch museum ) universiteit van amsterdam . 31 : 1 - 39 . page ( s ) : 14 [ details ]\nr\u00fctzler , k . ; van soest , r . w . m . ; piantoni , c . ( 2009 ) . sponges ( porifera ) of the gulf of mexico . in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m press , college station , texas . 285\u2013313 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nisbistera , g . k . & hooper , j . n . a . 2005 . clinical effects of stings by sponges of the genus tedania and a review of sponge stings worldwide . toxicon 46 : 782\u2013785 . page ( s ) : 783 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nvacelet , j . ( 1990 ) . les spongiaires . in le monde marin . ( ed . claude bouchon ) pp 16 - 33 . la grande encyclop\u00e9die de la cara\u00efbe . editions cara\u00efbes , pointe \u00e0 pitre . page ( s ) : 26 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\np\u00e9rez , t . ; d\u00edaz , m . c . ; ruiz , c . ; c\u00f3ndor - luj\u00e1n , b . ; klautau , m . ; hajdu , e . ; l\u00f4bo - hajdu , g . ; zea , s . ; pomponi , s . a . ; thacker , r . w . ; carteron , s . ; tollu , g . ; pouget - cuvelier , a . ; th\u00e9lamon , p . ; marechal , j . - p . ; thomas , o . p . ; ereskovsky , a . e . ; vacelet , j . ; boury - esnault , n . ( 2017 ) . how a collaborative integrated taxonomic effort has trained new spongiologists and improved knowledge of martinique island ( french antilles , eastern caribbean sea ) marine biodiversity . plos one . 12 ( 3 ) : e0173859 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 11 [ details ]\nlehnert , h . ; van soest , r . w . m . ( 1998 ) . shallow water sponges of jamaica . beaufortia . 48 ( 5 ) : 71 - 103 . page ( s ) : 90 [ details ]\npulitzer - finali , g . ( 1986 ) . a collection of west indian demospongiae ( porifera ) . in appendix , a list of the demospongiae hitherto recorded from the west indies . annali del museo civico di storia naturale giacomo doria . 86 : 65 - 216 . page ( s ) : 137 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nvan soest , r . w . m . ( 1984 ) . marine sponges from cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean localities . part iii . poecilosclerida . in : hummelinck , p . w . & van der steen , l . j . ( eds ) , uitgaven van de natuurwetenschappelijke studiekring voor suriname en de nederlandse antillen . no . 112 . studies on the fauna of cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean islands . 66 ( 199 ) : 1 - 167 . page ( s ) : 141 - 143 [ details ]\nzea , s . ( 1987 ) . esponjas del caribe colombiano . ( cat\u00e1logo cientifico : bogot\u00e1 , colombia ) : 1 - 286 . page ( s ) : 178 - 182 ; fig 64 [ details ]\nd\u00edaz , m . c . ( 2005 ) . common sponges from shallow marine habitats from bocas del toro region , panama . caribbean journal of science . 41 ( 3 ) : 465 - 475 . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 472 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nalcolado , p . m . 1976 . lista de nuevos registros de poriferos para cuba . serie oceanol\u00f3gica . instituto de oceanologia . academia de ciencias de cuba . oceanologia ( 36 ) : 1 - 11 . page ( s ) : 5 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of gellius massa ( carter , 1882 ) ) arndt , w . ( 1927 ) . kalk - und kieselschw\u00e4mme von cura\u00e7ao . bijdragen tot de dierkunde . 25 : 133 - 158 , pls i - iii . [ details ]\n( of fibulia massa ( carter , 1882 ) ) laubenfels , m . w . de . ( 1953 ) . sponges from the gulf of mexico . bulletin of marine science of the gulf and caribbean . 2 ( 3 ) : 511 - 557 . page ( s ) : 522 [ details ]\n( of fibulia massa ( carter , 1882 ) ) van soest , r . w . m . ( 1984 ) . marine sponges from cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean localities . part iii . poecilosclerida . in : hummelinck , p . w . & van der steen , l . j . ( eds ) , uitgaven van de natuurwetenschappelijke studiekring voor suriname en de nederlandse antillen . no . 112 . studies on the fauna of cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean islands . 66 ( 199 ) : 1 - 167 . [ details ]\nnotes :\ntouch - me - not sponge .\nin the bahamas it occurs as thick encrustation to tall masses with scattered wide and deep atria , maroon to orange - brown ; oscules inside atria are directed diagonally upwards . in other caribbean areas it consists of large vases / tubes , single or in groups , while in the bahama it appears as if these vases had laterally fused . it produces strong itching when handled .\nm . de kluijver , g . gijswijt , r . de leon & i . da cunda\ncake - shaped or massively incrusting , with an apical depression , which may lead to a cup - shape . oscules conspicuous , apical or inside the apical depression (\n) . surface smooth or shaggy , areolate . size up to about 30 cm high and 30 cm wide . consistency : corky to compressible , fragile , crumbly .\noccurring in the reef environment , but often in areas with some disturbance ; occasionally also a member of the fouling community .\ncontact with bare skin can result in a severe allergic reaction , including pain , numbness , swelling and rash that may last several days .\nthe species has been observed to\nsmoke\n. such massive sperm releases suggest an oviparous reproduction .\nhumann , p . , 1992 . reef creature identification - florida caribbean bahamas , ( ed . n . deloach ) . new world publications , inc . , paramount miller graphics , inc . , jacksonville , florida .\nsoest , r . w . m . van , 1984 . marine sponges from cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean islands . part iii . poecilosclerida . studies on the fauna of cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean islands , 199 .\nvoss , g . l . , 1976 . seashore life of florida and the carribbean . banyan books , inc . miami , florida .\na large , irregular and lumpy sponge , which is brown to reddish brown . colonies are composed of several connected , thick walled cylinders or mounds , each with large exhalent openings . the outer surface is lumpy but smooth . inside the openings the surface is rough , to the extent of being \u2019buttressed\u2019 or being nearly filled with connective tissues . this sponge is highly toxic and should not be touched .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ndepartment of biochemistry and microbiology , university of victoria , victoria , british columbia , canada , v8w 3p6 .\nhajdu , e . ; van soest , r . w . m . 2002 . family desmacellidae ridley & dendy , 1886 . pp . 642 - 650 . in hooper , j . n . a . & van soest , r . w . m . ( ed . ) systema porifera . a guide to the classification of sponges . 1 ( kluwer academic / plenum publishers : new york , boston , dordrecht , london , moscow ) . [ details ]\n( of fibularia massa carter , 1882 ) hajdu , e . ; van soest , r . w . m . 2002 . family desmacellidae ridley & dendy , 1886 . pp . 642 - 650 . in hooper , j . n . a . & van soest , r . w . m . ( ed . ) systema porifera . a guide to the classification of sponges . 1 ( kluwer academic / plenum publishers : new york , boston , dordrecht , london , moscow ) . [ details ]\noops . a firewall is blocking access to prezi content . check out this article to learn more or contact your system administrator .\nneither you , nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again .\nreset share links resets both viewing and editing links ( coeditors shown below are not affected ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwiedenmayer , f . ( 1977 ) . shallow - water sponges of the western bahamas . experientia supplementum . 28 : 1 - 287 , pls 1 - 43 . page ( s ) : 148 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nthick encrusting ( . 4 - 3 cm ) , or massive to large vases ( up to 80 cm wide and high ) . brown - red in color externally , tan internally . surface varies from smooth and porous , to corrugated and microhispid , somewhat velvety . oscules dispersed ( 3 - 6 mm wide ) . firm but very fragile .\na very toxic species . do not touch it with the bared skin ! in bocas it overgrows other reef species aggressively .\nausio j ( 1992 ) presence of a highly specific histone hl - like protein in the chromatin of the sperm of the bivalve mollusks . mol cell biochem 115 : 163\u2013172\nausio j ( 1995 ) histone hi and the evolution of the nuclear spermspecific proteins . in : jamieson bgm , ausio j , justine jl ( eds ) advances in spermatozoal taxonomy and phylogeny . m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle , paris , 166 : 447\u2013462\nblack ja , dixon gh ( 1967 ) evolution of protamine : a further example of partial gene duplication . nature 216 : 152\u2013154\nbloch dp ( 1969 ) a catalog of sperm histones . genetics ( suppl ) 61 : 93\u2013111\nbloch dp ( 1976 ) histones of sperm . in : king rc ( ed ) handbook of genetics , vol 5 . plenum , ny , pp 139\u2013167\nchiva m , saperas n , caceres c , ausio j ( 1995 ) nuclear basic proteins from the sperm of tunicates , cephalochordates , agnathans and fish . in : jamieson bgm , ausio j , justine jl ( eds ) advances in spermatozoal taxonomy and phylogeny . m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um d\u2019histoire naturelle , paris , 166 : 501\u2013514\nhickman cp jr , roberts ls , larson a ( 1993 ) integrated principles of zoology . 2nd ed . mosby , st louis , mo\nhoppe wf ( 1988 ) reproductive patterns in three species of large coral reef sponges . coral reefs 7 : 45\u201350\nhunt jg , kasinsky he , elsey rm , wright cl , rice p , bell je , sharp dj , kiss aj , hunt df , arnott dp , russ mm , shabanowitz j , ausio j ( 1996 ) protamines of reptiles . j biol chem 271 : 23547\u201323557\nisenberg i ( 1978 ) histones . in : busch h ( ed ) the cell nucleus , vol 4 , part a . academic press , new york , pp 135\u2013154\nkasinsky he ( 1989 ) specificity and distribution of sperm basic proteins . in : hnilica ls , stein gs , stein jl ( eds ) histones and other basic nuclear proteins . crc press , boca rat\u00f3n , fl , pp 73\u2013163\nkrawetz sa , dixon gh ( 1988 ) sequence similarities of the protamine genes : implications for regulation and evolution . j mol evol 27 : 291\u2013297\nlaemmli uk ( 1970 ) cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of the bacteriophage t4 . nature 227 : 680\u2013685\nlee c , mazrimas j , balhorn r ( 1991 ) analysis of protamines isolated from alcohol preserved epididymes . mol rep dev 30 : 154\u2013158\nmayes elv , johns ew ( 1982 ) accumulated data . in : johns ew ( ed ) the hmg chromosomal proteins . academic press , new york , pp 223\u2013247\nmori n ( 1993 ) a genetic fossil : protamine gene as a primordial gene . naturwissenchaften 80 : 222\u2013224\noliva r , dixon gh ( 1991 ) vertebrate protamine genes and the histoneto - protamine replacement reaction . prog nucleic acid res mol biol 40 : 25\u201394\npanyim s , chalkley r ( 1969 ) high resolution acrylamide gel electrophoresis of histones . arch biochem biophys 130 : 337\u2013346\nraff ra ( 1996 ) the shape of life . genes , development , and the evolution of animal form . the university of chicago press , chicago\nrocchini c , marx mr , von carosfeld js , kasinsky he , rosenberg e , sommer f , ausio j ( 1996 ) replacement of nucleosomal histones by histone hl - like proteins during spermiogenesis in cnidaria : evolutionary implications . j mol evol 42 : 240\u2013246\nruddle fh , bentley kl , murtha mt , risch n ( 1994 ) gene loss and gain in the evolution of the vertebrates . development ( suppl ) 155 - 161\nsaperas n , ausio j , domenec l , chiva m ( 1994 ) on the evolution of protamines in bony fish : alternatives to the \u201cretroviral horizontal transmission\u201d hypothesis . j mol evol 39 : 282\u2013295\nsaperas n , chiva m , pfeiffer dc , kasinsky he , ausio j ( 1997 ) sperm nuclear basic proteins ( snbps ) of agnathans and chondrichthyans : variability and evolution of sperm proteins in fish . j mol evol 44 : ( in press )\nsubirana ja ( 1983 ) nuclear proteins in spermatozoa and their interactions with dna . in : andr\u00e9j ( ed ) the sperm cell . martinus nijhoff , the hague\nsubirana ja , cozcolluela c , palau j , unzeta m ( 1973 ) protamines and other basic proteins from spermatozoa of molluscs . biochim biophys acta 317 : 364\u2013379\nvan veghel mlj ( 1993 ) multiple species spawning in cura\u00e7ao reefs . bull mar sci 52 : 1017\u20131021\nvon holt c , de groot p , schwager s , brandt wf ( 1984 ) the structure of sea urchin histones and consideration of their function . in : stein gs , stein jl , marzluff wf ( eds ) histone genes : structure , organization and regulation . john wiley , new york , pp 65\u2013105\nzuckerkandl e ( 1994 ) molecular pathways to parallel evolution : i . gene nexuses and their morphological correlates . j mol evol 39 : 661\u2013678\nausi\u00f6 , j . , van veghel , m . l . j . , gomez , r . et al . j mol evol ( 1997 ) 45 : 91 . urltoken\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\nayling , a . l . : patterns of sexuality , asexual reproduction and recruitment in some subtidal marine demospongiae . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole\nbabcock , r . c . : reproduction and distribution of two species of goniastrea ( scleractinia ) from the great barrier reef province . coral reefs\nbabcock , r . c . , g . d . bull , p . l . harrison , a . j . heyward , j . k . oliver , c . c . wallace and b . l . willis : synchronous spawnings of 105 scleractinian coral species on the great barrier reef . mar . biol .\nbak , r . p . m . and m . s . engel : distribution , abundance and survival of juvenile hermatypic corals ( scleractinia ) and the importance of life history strategies in the parent coral community . mar . biol .\nbak , r . p . m . and b . e . luckhurst : constancy and change in coral reef habitats along depth gradients at cura\u00e7ao . oecologia\nbergquist , p . r . : sponges , 268 pp . los angeles : univ . calif . press 1978\nbergquist , p . r . , m . e . sinclair and j . j . hogg : adaptation to intertidal existence : reproductive cycles and larval behaviour in demospongiae .\n: biology of the porifera , symp . zool . soc . lond . vol . 25 , pp . 247\u2013271 ed . by w . g . fry . new york : academic press 1970\n: trait\u00e9 de zoologie , vol . 3 , pp . 133\u2013461 . ed . by p . - p . grass\u00e9 . paris : masson 1973\ndiaz , j . - p . and r . connes : etude ultrastructurale de la spermatogenese d ' une d\u00e9mosponge . biol . cellulaire\ndiaz , j . - p . , r . connes and j . paris : origine de la lign\u00e9e germinale chez une d\u00e9mosponge de l ' \u00e9tang du thau :\ndiaz , j . - p . , r . connes and j . paris : etude ultrastructurale de l ' ovog\u00e9nese d ' une d\u00e9mosponge :\n: reproduction of marine invertebrates , vol . 1 , pp 51\u2013132 . ed . by a . c . giese and j . s . pearse . new york , london : academic press 1974\nand its apparent relationship to water temperature . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole\n: reproductive biology of invertebrates , vol . 1 , oogenesis , oviposition and oosorption , pp . 1\u201329 . ed . by . k . g . and r . g . adiyodi . chichester : wiley & sons 1983\nsp . in the mystic estuary , connecticut . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole\ngaino , e . , b . burlando , l . zunino , m . pansini and p . buffa : origin of male gametes in\ngiese , a . c . and j . s . pearse : introduction : general principles .\n: reproduction of marine invertebrates , pp . 1\u201349 . ed . by . a . c . giese and j . s . pearse , new york , london : academic press 1974\n. the control of oocyte production and the fate of unfertilized oocytes . j . exp . zool .\nharrison , p . l . , r . c . babcock , g . d . bull , j . k . oliver , c . c . wallace and b . l . willis : mass spawning in tropical reef corals . science , wash . d . c .\njokiel , p . l . , r . y . ito and p . m . liu : night irradiance and synchronization of lunar release of planula larvae in the reef coral\nl\u00e9vi , c . : zoologie - l ' oviparit\u00e9 chez les songiaires . c . r . acad . sci . paris\nl\u00e9vi , c . : syst\u00e9matique de la classe des demospongiaria ( d\u00e9mosponges ) .\n: trait\u00e9 de zoologie vol . 3 , pp . 577\u2013631 . ed by . p . - p . grass\u00e9 . paris : masson 1973\n( nardo ) , d\u00e9mosponge ovipare , et transmission des bact\u00e9ries symbiotique . ann . sci . nat . zool . biol . anim .\nmileikovsky , s . a . : types of larval development in marine bottom invertebrates their distribution and ecological significance : a re - evaluation . mar . biol .\n: adaptation to environment : essays on the physiology of marine animals , pp . 393\u2013429 . ed . by . r . c . newell . london , boston : butterworths 1976\nneumann , d . : entrainment of a semilunar rhythm by simulated tidal cycles of mechanical disturbance . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol .\nreiswig , h . m . : porifera : sudden sperm release by tropical demospongiae . science , wash . d . c .\nreiswig , h . m . : natural gamete , release and oviparity in caribbean demospongiae .\n: aspects of sponge biology , pp . 99\u2013112 . ed . by f . w . harrison and r . cowden . new york , london : academic press 1976a\nreiswig , h . m . : descarga de gametos por esponjas del caribe . contribution no .\n: reproductive biology of invertebrates , vol . 2 , spermatogenesis and sperm function , pp . 1\u201321 . ed . by . k . g . and r . g . adiyodi . chichester : wiley & sons 1983\n: trait\u00e9 de zoologie vol . 3 , pp . 462\u2013576 . ed . by . p . - p grass\u00e9 . paris : masson 1973\nshlesinger , y . and y . loya : coral community reproductive patterns : red sea vs . great barrier reef . science , wash . d . c .\n( ellis & solander ) . ii . temperature - related , annual changes in functional and reproductive elements with a description of larval metamorphosis . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol .\nsimpson , t . l . : reproductive process in sponges : a critical evaluation of current data and views . int . j . invert . reprod .\nstearns , s . c . : life - history tactics : a review of the ideas . q . rev . biol .\nstorr , j . f . : ecology of the gulf of mexico commercial sponges and its relation to the fishery . u . s . fish widdlife ser . spec . sci . rep . no .\nvan moorsel , g . w . n . m . : reproductive strategies in two closely related stony corals ( agaricia , scleractinia ) . mar . ecol . prog . ser .\nvan soest , r . w . m . : marine sponges from cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean localities . part iii . poeciloclerida . stud . fauna cur . caribb . isl .\nwarburton , f . e . : inclusion of parental somatic cells in sponge larvae . nature , lond .\nwells , h . w . , w . j . wells and i . e . gray : ecology of sponges in hatteras harbor , north carolina . ecology\nsponges are among the simplest multicellular animals . the vast majority of species live in the marine environment . they represent sessile life forms whose bodies are permeated by numerous channels and chambers . with the help of flagellate cells , water is taken in through numerous superficial openings for filtration for nutrients and respiration . water is expelled again through larger outlet channels .\nmost accidents occur when gathering sponges . most species only cause mild local effects or none at all . contact with the above - mentioned representatives generally results in pain and itching . local oedema of the soft tissue and joints can also result . spiculae that get stuck under the skin can lead to stiffness of the wrist and finger joints .\neuropean freshwater sponges , such as spongilla lacustris , are also believed to cause dermatitis upon skin contact .\nauerbach and halstead 1989 , cleland and southcott 1965 , halstead 1988 , mebs 1992 , southcott 1987c , southcott and coulter 1971 , williamson et al . 1996\n* author to whom correspondence should be addressed ; e - mail : is . jl - inu . fb @ krut . mot ; tel . : + 386 1 4233388 ; fax : + 386 1 2573390 .\nreceived 2010 mar 3 ; revised 2010 mar 26 ; accepted 2010 apr 2 .\nthis article is an open - access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license ( urltoken ) .\ndespite the fact that cytotoxicity is the most widespread characteristic of compounds isolated from marine sponges , they also possess other activities . due to the sessile nature of sponges it is not surprising that many of their natural products show strong antifouling activities . several reviews on such compounds have been published recently [ 17 , 18 ] .\nin the present study we report the screening results of several biological activities found in aqueous and organic extracts from 43 tropical marine sponge species that could possibly lead to the discovery of novel compounds of pharmacological interest .\n( # 81 ) were strongly hemolytic and showed substantial ache inhibitory activity . after dilution both activities were almost completly lost (\n( # 59 ) , on the other hand showed strong hemolytic and considerable ache inhibitory activity . after dilution the former activity was completely preserved while the later was completely lost . undiluted organic extracts from the same sponge also showed moderate pp1 inhibition , while heated aqueous extracts exhibited modest activation of the same enzyme . after dilution the former activity was lost while the later remained unchanged (\n1 organic extracts : a ( acetone ) , b ( butanol ) , m ( methanol ) .\n+ + + , hemolytic activity ( t 50 between 0 and 5 min ) . t 50 = half - time of hemolysis , e . g . the time in which 50 % of erythrocytes are lysed .\n1 organic extracts : a ( acetone ) , b ( butanol ) , m ( methanol ) .\norganic extracts : a ( acetone ) , b ( butanol ) , m ( methanol ) .\nactivation is indicated in italics , and denotes a factor by which the pp1 activity is enhanced .\nhemolytic activity was present in only a few aqueous samples , whereas the same activity was observed in nearly half of the organic extracts . acetone extracts possessed the highest levels of hemolytic activity , followed by butanol and methanol extracts ; the latter contained the highest amount of extracted material . aqueous extracts whose hemolytic activity was lost after heating were of special interest as this indicated the presence of a proteinaceous active compound ( s ) . based on these criteria such hemolytic proteins may be present in\n( # 76 ) , however a second specimen from a different location ( # 14 ) did not exhibit any hemolytic activity . the unheated aqueous extract from\n( # 69 ) was hemolytic , but again another specimen ( # 45 ) from a different location was not . these results indicate that the same species from a different location may harbor different chemistry possibly originating from endosymbiotic organisms present in the particular collected specimen . such observations were quite common in this study . another interesting species that showed strong hemolytic activity was\n( # 99 ) . in this case , the active compound responsible for hemolytic activity was ascribed to be non - proteinaceous in nature , as its activity was retained after heating . hemolytic assays using diluted samples of aqueous sponge extracts confirmed that\ncontained the highest levels of hemolytic activity . the most active organic extracts after dilution were those from\n) . hemolytic proteins isolated from marine sponges are rare . two such examples are suberitin , isolated from the mediterranean sponge\n] . to date no hemolytic compounds have been reported from the marine sponges used in this study . an aqueous extract from\nmoderate hemagglutinating activity has been detected in 14 aqueous sponge extracts , one showed activity in the heated fraction only and extracts from two sponge species , both heated and unheated fractions , were active . after dilution only one extract from myrmekioderma styx ( # 86 ) showed strong hemagglutinating activity ( 7 . 2 \u03bcg / ml ) . the heated fraction lost its activity , suggesting the compound responsible for hemagglutinating activity is probably a lectin or a protein . so far , several compounds with antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities have been isolated from this species [ 33 \u2013 36 ] , but no hemagglutinating activity has been reported .\n) . almost all samples ( only two samples showed no activity ) were able to prevent growth of at least one bacterial strain . many of the samples inhibited the growth of gram positive bacteria , but only few affected the growth of gram negative bacteria . organic extracts tended to be more active than the aqueous extracts . diluted samples of those sponges that showed the highest antibacterial activity were retested and results expressed as a minimal inhibitory concentration ( mic ,\n( # 59 , # 93 ) showed considerable antimicrobial activity . the most active samples were the butanol extracts from\n( # 38 , mic = 80 ng / ml ) . the highest antimicrobial activity in the aqueous extracts was found in the unheated extract from\nare among the most widely studied in terms of their natural products . a number of different compounds have been isolated and characterized , many of them being antimicrobial [\n( # 61 ) . the antimicrobial activity of the unheated aqueous extract ( mic = 48 \u03bcg / ml ) was about 100 fold more potent than the heated extracts , again indicating the active compound might be a peptide or a protein . the specificity against gram negative bacteria is interesting because these bacteria are usually more resistant to antimicrobial compounds due to the lipopolysaccharidic component of their cell wall .\nshowed considerable inhibitory activity , the most active being the butanolic extract ( 34 \u03bcg ) which inhibited almost 50 % of ache activity .\n) . several heated aqueous extracts enhanced pp1 activity by up to 2 - fold . the only exceptions are the unheated and heated aqueous extracts from\n( # 9 ) which caused 23 % and 44 % inhibition , respectively . organic extracts caused pp1 inhibition only . the most active extracts were those from\n( # 83 ) and from an unidentified sponge ( # 21 ) . from each of these species at least one organic extract totally inhibited pp1 activity . the concentrations necessary for total enzyme inhibition range from 54 to 790 \u03bcg / ml . the interesting pp1 activation by several aqueous heated extracts cannot be explained by the presence of innate protein phosphatases since those should be destroyed by heating . we cannot exclude the possibility that activation is due to the interference between certain compounds in tested extracts with chromophores used in the pp1 inhibition assay .\nsixty - six sponge specimens were studied , represented by 43 sponge species ( table 1a and 1b ) . thirty - five were collected by scuba by dr . daniel schaft at depths from 5 to 45 m in the reefs of cura\u00e7ao ( netherlands antilles ) at several locations : the entrance of picadera bay , coastline of charo and boca sami . the specimens were taxonomically determined to species level , seven remained unidentified . the other eight species were collected from lizard island ( great barrier reef , queensland , australia ) , and identified to at least genus level .\nall sponge samples were lyophilized and dried weight was determined . the total material was divided into two parts ; one part for aqueous extraction , the other subjected to extraction with organic solvents . the total mass of freeze - dried sponge samples was within the range from 0 . 35 g to 36 . 8 g .\nthe protein content was determined only in unheated samples and measured by bca protein reagent according to the manufacturers manual ( pierce , usa ) . different concentrations of bovine serum albumin ( sigma , usa ) were used as a standard . prior to the addition of the reagent , samples were diluted 1 : 20 ( v / v ) with deionized water . the colour formation was determined at 562 nm using microtiter plate reader ( dynex technologies , usa ) after 30 min of incubation .\nsamples obtained by aqueous extraction were tested for hemagglutinating activity . fresh bovine erythrocytes were washed twice in buffer as described above ( see hemolytic activity assay ) . two per cent final erythrocyte suspension was prepared using the same buffer . the erythrocyte suspension ( 100 \u03bcl ) was added to each well of a 96 round - well microtitre plate , followed by 25 \u03bcl of samples . hemagglutination was visually inspected after 45 min of incubation at room temperature .\nthe effects of sponge samples on pp1 activity were monitored colorimetrically according to tubaro et al . [ 29 ] using a microplate reader ( dynex , usa ) . rabbit recombinant \u03b1 - isoform pp1 expressed in e . coli ( sigma , usa ) was the enzyme used . to each well of the microtiter plate 150 \u03bcl of buffer ( 40 mm tris / hcl , 34 mm mgcl 2 . 6h 2 o , 4 mm edta and 4 mm dl - dtt , ph 8 . 4 ) , 50 \u03bcl of the substrate ( 141 mm p - nitrophenil phosphate ) and 2 \u03bcl of sponge samples ( 2 \u03bcl of deionized water or ethanol in the controls ) was added . the reaction was started by the addition of 50 \u03bcl of buffer - dissolved pp1 ( 0 . 25 u / ml ) . samples that showed activity were further diluted ( 1 : 10 and 1 : 100 v / v ) . all reactions were monitored for 12 min at 25 \u00b0c for the colour development at 405 nm .\nhemolytic activity : + , moderate activity ( t 50 between 10 and 15 min ) ; + + , strong activity ( t 50 between 5 and 10 min ) ; + + + , very strong activity ( t 50 between 0 and 5 min ) .\nt 50 = half - time of hemolysis , e . g . the time in which 50 % of erythrocytes are lysed .\nache inhibition : + , moderate inhibition ( 0\u201333 % ) ; + + , strong inhibition ( 34\u201366 % ) ; + + + , very strong inhibition ( 67\u2013100 % ) .\npp1 activation / inhibition : a , activation ( up to 100 % ) ; i , moderate inhibition ( 0\u201333 % ) ; ii , strong inhibition ( 34\u201366 % ) ; iii , very strong inhibition ( 67\u2013100 % ) .\nlist of species from lizard island ( great barrier reef , queensland , australia ) .\nthis study was supported by the research program p1 - 207 toxins and biomembranes funded by slovenian research agency . the authors would like to thank tina dolin\u0161ek , petra cesarec , ale\u0161 likar and bojan martin\u0161ek for their technical help .\nbacus gj , green g . toxicity in sponges and holothurians : a geographic pattern .\nsipkema d , franssen mcr , osinga r , tramper j , wijffels rh . marine sponges as pharmacy .\nkato y , fusetani n , matsunaga s , hashimoto k , fujita s , furuya t . bioactive marine metabolites . part 16 . calyculin a . a novel antitumor metabolite from the marine sponge\ngunasekera sp , gunasekera m , longley re , schulte gk . discodermolide : a new bioactive polyhydroxylated lactone from the marine sponge\nkashman y , groweiss a , shmueli u . latrunculin , a new 2 - thiazolidinone macrolide from the marine sponge\nkashman y , groweiss a , lidor r , blasberger d , carmely s . latrunculins : nmr study , two new toxins and a synthetic approach .\nspector i , shochet nr , kashman y , groweiss a . latrunculins - novel marine toxins that disrupt microfilament organisation in cultured cells .\nspector i , shochet nr , blasberger d , kashman y . latrunculins - novel marine toxins that disrupt microfilament and affect cell growth : i . comparison with cytochalasin d .\npetit gr , herald cl , cichacz za , gao f , boyd mr , christie nd , schmidt jm . antineoplastic agent 293 . the exceptional human cancer cell growth inhibitors spongistatins 6 and 7 .\npetit gr , herald cl , cichacz za , gao f , schmidt jm , boyd mr , christie nd , boettner fe . isolation and structure of powerful human cancer cell growth inhibitors spongistatins 4 and 5 from an african\npetit gr , cichacz za , herald cl , gao f , boyd mr , schmidt jm , hamel e , bai r . antineoplastic agent 300 . isolation and structure of the rare human cancer inhibitory macrocyclic lactones spongistatins 8 and 9 .\nhirata y , uemura d . halichondrins - antitumor polyether macrolides from a marine sponge .\npetit gr , tan r , gao f , williams m , doubek b , boyd m , schmidt j , chapuis j , hamel e , bao r , hooper j , tackett l . isolation and structure of halistatin 1 from the eastern indian ocean marine sponge\nlitaudon m , hart jb , blunt jw , lake rj , munro mhg . isohomohalichondrin b , a new antitumour polyether macrolide from the new zealand deep - water sponge\ngrouse l . turning molecules into medicine . the role of the national cancer institute ' s developmental therapeutics program in drug development .\nsep\u010di\u0107 k , turk t . 3 - alkylpyridinium compounds as potential non - toxic antifouling agents . in : fusetani n , clare as , editors .\nkobayashi j , cheng j - f , ishibashi m , walchli mr , yamamura t , ohizumi y . penaresidin a and b , two novel azetidine alkaloids with potent actomyosin atp - ase activating activity from the okinawan marine sponge\nalvi ka , jaspars m , crews p . penazetidine a , an alkaloid inhibitor of protein kinase .\nushio - sata n , matsunaga s , fusetani n , honda k , yasumoro k . penaramides , which inhibit binding of \u03c9 - conotoxin gvia to\nfusetani n , asai n , matsunaga s , honda k , yasumuro k . cyclostellettamines a - f pyridine alkaloids inhibit binding of methylquinuclidinyl benzylate ( qnb ) muscarinic acetylcholine receptors from sponge\nfusetani n , nakao y , matsunaga s . bioactive marine metabolites . 39 . nazumamide a , a thrombin inhibitory tetrapeptide , from a marine sponge ,\nnakao y , matsuda a , matsunaga s , fusetani n . pseudotheonamides , serine protease inhibitors from the marine sponge\nsep\u010di\u0107 k , guella g , mancini i , pietra f , serra md , menestrina g , tubbs k , ma\u010dek p , turk t . characterization of anticholinesterase - active 3 - alkylpyridinium polymers from the marine sponge\nsep\u010di\u0107 k , marcel v , klaebe a , turk t , \u0161uput d , fournier d . inhibition of acetylcholinesterase by an alkylpyridinium polymer from the marine sponge ,\npaleari l , trombino s , falugi c , gallus l , carlone s , angelini c , sep\u010di\u0107 k , turk t , faimali m , noonan dm , albini a . marine sponge - derived polymeric alkylpyridinium salts as a novel tumor chemotherapeutic targeting the cholinergic system in lung tumors .\nellman gl , courtney d , andres v , featherstone rm . a new and rapid colorimetric determination of acetylcholinesterase activity .\ntubaro a , florio c , luxic e , sosa s , dellaloggia r , yasumoto t . a protein phosphatase 2a inhibition assay for a fast and sensitive assessment of okadaic acid contamination in mussels .\ncariello l , tosti e , zanetti l . the hemolytic activity of suberitine .\nmangel a , leit\u00e3o jm , batel r , zimmermann h , m\u00fcller weg , schr\u00f6der hc . purification and characterization of a pore - forming protein from the marine sponge .\nmebs d , weiler i , heinke hf . bioactive proteins from marine sponges : screening of sponge extracts for hemagglutination , hemolytic , ichtyotoxic and lethal properties and isolation and characterization of hemagglutinins .\nalbrizio s , fattorusso e , magno s , mangoi a , pansini m . 1992 . linear diterpenes from the caribbean sponge\npeng j , walsh k , weedman v , bergthold jd , lynch j , lieu kl , braude ia , kelly m , hamann mt . the new bioactive diterpenes cyanthiwigins e\u2013aa from the jamaican sponge myrmekioderma styx .\npeng j , franzblau sg , zhang f , hamann mt . novel sesquiterpenes and a lactone from the jamaican sponge\npeng j , kasanah n , stanley ce , chadwick j , fronczek fr , hamann mt . microbial metabolism studies of cyanthiwigin b and synergetic antibiotic effects .\nmartinez a , duque c , fujimoto y . novel fatty acid esters of ( 7\nlaport m , santos o , muricy g . marine sponges : potential source of new antimicrobial drugs .\nsep\u010di\u0107 k , batista u , vacelet j , ma\u010dek p , turk t . biological activities of aqueous extracts from marine sponges and cytotoxic effects of 3 - alkylpyridinium polymers from\nfagerholm ae , habrant d , koskinen amp . calyculins and related marine natural products as serine - threonine protein phosphatase pp1 and pp2a inhibitors and total syntheses of calyculin a , b , and c .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nalcolado , p . m . 1976 . lista de nuevos registros de poriferos para cuba . serie oceanol\u00f3gica . instituto de oceanologia . academia de ciencias de cuba . oceanologia ( 36 ) : 1 - 11 .\nd\u00edaz , m . c . ( 2005 ) . common sponges from shallow marine habitats from bocas del toro region , panama . < em > caribbean journal of science . < / em > 41 ( 3 ) : 465 - 475 .\nhajdu , e . ; van soest , r . w . m . 2002 . family desmacellidae ridley & dendy , 1886 . pp . 642 - 650 . in hooper , j . n . a . & van soest , r . w . m . ( ed . ) systema porifera . a guide to the classification of sponges . 1 ( kluwer academic / plenum publishers : new york , boston , dordrecht , london , moscow ) .\nisbistera , g . k . & hooper , j . n . a . 2005 . clinical effects of stings by sponges of the genus tedania and a review of sponge stings worldwide . toxicon 46 : 782\u2013785 .\nlehnert , h . ; van soest , r . w . m . ( 1998 ) . shallow water sponges of jamaica . < em > beaufortia . < / em > 48 ( 5 ) : 71 - 103 .\npulitzer - finali , g . ( 1986 ) . a collection of west indian demospongiae ( porifera ) . in appendix , a list of the demospongiae hitherto recorded from the west indies . < em > annali del museo civico di storia naturale giacomo doria . < / em > 86 : 65 - 216 .\np\u00e9rez , t . ; d\u00edaz , m . c . ; ruiz , c . ; c\u00f3ndor - luj\u00e1n , b . ; klautau , m . ; hajdu , e . ; l\u00f4bo - hajdu , g . ; zea , s . ; pomponi , s . a . ; thacker , r . w . ; carteron , s . ; tollu , g . ; pouget - cuvelier , a . ; th\u00e9lamon , p . ; marechal , j . - p . ; thomas , o . p . ; ereskovsky , a . e . ; vacelet , j . ; boury - esnault , n . ( 2017 ) . how a collaborative integrated taxonomic effort has trained new spongiologists and improved knowledge of martinique island ( french antilles , eastern caribbean sea ) marine biodiversity . < em > plos one . < / em > 12 ( 3 ) : e0173859 .\nr\u00fctzler , k . ; d\u00edaz , m . c . ; van soest , r . w . m . ; zea , s . ; smith , k . p . ; alvarez , b . ; wulff , j . ( 2000 ) . diversity of sponge fauna in mangrove ponds , pelican cays , belize . < em > atoll research bulletin . < / em > 476 : 230 - 248 .\nr\u00fctzler , k . ; van soest , r . w . m . ; piantoni , c . ( 2009 ) . sponges ( porifera ) of the gulf of mexico . < i > in < / i > : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m press , college station , texas . 285\u2013313 .\nvacelet , j . ( 1990 ) . les spongiaires . < i > in < / i > le monde marin . ( ed . claude bouchon ) pp 16 - 33 . < em > la grande encyclop\u00e9die de la cara\u00efbe . < / em > editions cara\u00efbes , pointe \u00e0 pitre .\nvan soest , r . w . m . ( 1981 ) a checklist of the cura\u00e7ao sponges ( porifera demospongiae ) including a pictorial key to the more common reef - forms : verslagen en technische gegevens instituut voor taxonomische zo\u00f6logie ( zo\u00f6logisch museum ) universiteit van amsterdam . 31 : 1 - 39\nvan soest , r . w . m . ( 1981 ) . a checklist of the cura\u00e7ao sponges ( porifera demospongiae ) including a pictorial key to the more common reef - forms . < em > verslagen en technische gegevens instituut voor taxonomische zo\u00f6logie ( zo\u00f6logisch museum ) universiteit van amsterdam . < / em > 31 : 1 - 39 .\nvan soest , r . w . m . ( 1984 ) . marine sponges from cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean localities . part iii . poecilosclerida . < i > in < / i > : hummelinck , p . w . & van der steen , l . j . ( eds ) , uitgaven van de natuurwetenschappelijke studiekring voor suriname en de nederlandse antillen . no . 112 . < i > studies on the fauna of cura\u00e7ao and other caribbean islands < / i > . 66 ( 199 ) : 1 - 167 .\nzea , s . ( 1987 ) . esponjas del caribe colombiano . ( cat\u00e1logo cientifico : bogot\u00e1 , colombia ) : 1 - 286 .\nayling al ( 1980 ) patterns of sexuality , asexual reproduction and recruitment in some subtidal marine demospongiae . biol bull 158 : 271\u2013282\nbattershill cn , bergquist pr ( 1990 ) the influence of storms on asexual reproduction , recruitment , and survivorship of sponges . in : r\u00fctzler k ( ed ) new perspectives in sponge biology . proc third int conf sponges : 397\u2013403\nbergquist pr ( 1980 ) the ordinal and subclass classification of the demospongiae ( porifera ) ; appraisal of the present arrangement , and proposal of a new order . nz j zool 7 : 1\u20136\nbergquist pr , sinclair me , hogg jj ( 1970 ) adaptation to intertidal existence : reproductive cycles and larval behaviour in demospongiae . symp zool soc london 25 : 247\u2013271\ncrisp dj ( 1977 ) genetic consequences of different reproductive strategies in marine invertebrates . in : baltaglia b , beardmore ja ( eds ) marine organisms . genetics , ecology and evolution . ( nato conference series iv marine sciences ) plenum press , new york , 2 : 257\u2013274\nfell pe ( 1983 ) 1 . porifera . in : adiyodi kg , adiyodi rg ( eds ) reproductive biology of invertebrates , vol . 1 : oogeesis , oviposition , and oosorption . wiley , new york , pp 1\u201329\n( great barrier reef ) . proc sixth int coral reef symp 2 : 685\u2013691\nfromont j ( 1991 ) descriptions of species of the petrosida ( porifera : demospongiae ) occurring in the tropical waters of the great barrier reef . the beagle , rec north terr mus art sci 8 : 73\u201396\nfromont j ( 1994 ) reproductive development and timing of tropical sponges ( order haplosclerida ) from the great barrier reef , australia . coral reefs 13 : 127\u2013133\nharrison pl ( 1985 ) sexual characteristics of scleractinian corals : systematic and evolutionary implications . proc fifth int coral reef symp 4 : 337\u2013342\nharrison pl , wallace cc ( 1990 ) reproduction , dispersal and recruitment of scleractinian corals . in : dubinsky z ( ed ) ecosystems of the world 25 , coral reefs . elsevier , amsterdam , pp 133\u2013207\nhoppe wf ( 1988 ) reproductive patterns in three species of large coral reef sponges . coral reefs 7 : 45\u201350\nl\u00e9vi c ( 1953 ) on a new classification of the demospongiae . c r acad sci ( paris ) 236 : 853\u2013855\nsp . , with an emphasis on reproduction of postlarval specimens . int j invert reprod 3 : 227\u2013236\nliaci l scalera , sciscioli m , matarrese a ( 1973 ) a comparison between the sexual behavior of certain ceractinomorpha . riv biol 66 : 135\u2013162\nreiswig hm ( 1973 ) population dynamics of three jamaican demospongiae . bull mar sci 23 : 191\u2013226\nreiswig hm ( 1976 ) natural gamete release and oviparity in caribbean demospongiae . in : harrison fw , cowden rr ( eds ) aspects of sponge biology . academic press , new york , pp 99\u2013112\nsarano f ( 1991 ) snychronised spawning in indonesian sponges . coral reefs 10 : 166\nvan soest rwm ( 1991 ) demosponge higher taxa classification re - examined . in : reitner j , keupp h ( eds ) fossil and recent sponges . springer , berlin , heidelberg , new york , pp 54\u201371\nwulff j ( 1990 ) patterns of size change in caribbean demosponges of branching morphology . in : r\u00fctzler k ( ed ) new perspectives in sponge biology . proc third int conf biol sponges , pp 425\u2013435\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\netymology : - from the latin porus for pore and ferre to bear , hence an animal with with pores .\ncharacteristics of porifera : - 1 ) no definite symmetry . 2 ) body multicellular , few tissues , no organs . 3 ) cells and tissues surround a water filled space but there is no true body cavity . 4 ) all are sessile , ( live attached to something as an adult ) . 5 ) reproduce sexually or asexually , sexual reproduction can be either gonochoristic or hermaphroditic . 6 ) has no nervous system . 7 ) has a distinct larval stage which is planktonic . 8 ) lives in aquatic environments , mostly marine . 9 ) all are filter feeders . 10 ) often have a skeleton of spicules .\nsponges are one of the better known groups of invertebrates , due to their usefulness in the bath many people who care nothing for invertebrates at least know name and may even have seen a sponges skeleton on sale in a shop . one of the more amazing things about sponges is there ability to suffer damage . because the cells are not linked in a tissue it is possible for them to be separated an then come together again . some species such as the freshwater sponge ephydatia fluviatilis can be pushed through a sieve , then if given time the individual cells will come together again and make a new sponge ."]}
{"id": 2584, "summary": [{"text": "the t-bar cichlid ( cryptoheros sajica ) , also known as sajica cichlid is a central american species of cichlid found in freshwater streams and lakes on the pacific slope of costa rica .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it was formerly known as archocentrus sajica , but the taxonomy was revised as a result of a study by juan schmitter-soto .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the fish is tan colored with seven indistinct bars on the body .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the third bar is usually prominent and coupled with a dark lateral stripe running from the gill cover results in a horizontal t-shaped mark , hence the common name of t-bar cichlid . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "cryptoheros sajica", "paragraphs": ["t bar cichlid ( cryptoheros sajica )\nbefore and after\ntank maintenance .\nabove two cryptoheros sajica , photo by mario toromanovic . youtube video at end of article .\nt - bar cichlid , mojarra , sajica - buntbarsch , . . . more\ncichlasoma sajica ( hd movie 06 ) - t bar cichlid & convict cichlid fry .\ncryptoheros sajica inhabits rivers which have moderate to strong currents , but prefer slow flowing water in a small water bodies , only few yards in width . they are found above gravel , as well as sandy bottoms .\ncryptoheros sajica isn ' t the easiest fish to find . occasionally you can see this fish listed in the aca trading post , but seldom for sale on the web . your best bet is to ask around at local clubs or on the internet .\nstomach contents of wild fish indicate that cryptoheros sajica feeds mostly on plant material . beside filamentous algae and small seeds , water insects and small fish were also found . with this in mind , i fed a diet of flake and pellet food , frozen mysis and brine shrimp , with the occasional treat of live black worms .\ncichlids : aequidens rivulatus oscar - astronotus ocellatus blue acara - aequidens pulcher cichla monoculus red terror cichlid - cichlasoma festae firemouth cichlid - thorichthys meeki flier cichlid - archocentrus centrarchus gold mixteco - thorichthys sp . ' mixteco gold ' hellers cichlid - thorichthys helleri amphilophus labiatus keyhole cichlid - cleithracara maronii midas cichlid - amphilophus citrinellus archocentrus octofasciatum red port acara - cichlasoma portalegrense tricolor cichlid - cichlasoma salvini sieve cichlid - cichlasoma grammodes theraps wesseli turquoise cichlid - amphilophus robertsoni umbie - caquetaia umbrifera yellow acara - aequidens metae dwarf cichlids : agassiz dwarf cichlid - apistogramma agassizii blue panda apisto - apistogramma panduro cockatoo dwarf cichlid - apistogramma cacatuoides convict cichlid - cryptoheros nigrofasciatus cryptoheros nanoluteus nijssenis dwarf cichlid - apistogramma nijsseni cryptoheros sp . ' honduran red point ' umbrella cichlid - apistogramma borellii viejti apisto - apistogramma viejita\nhi . i have a question regarding males of c . sajica . i had some of them about 15 years ago , i have them now from few months and i ' m wondering why my current males does not wear breeding colors like the other one that i had some time ago . male from the past in time of breeding and fry care was turning dark , nearly black with golden eyes . similar as female of those cichlids do . my current male does not change colors while breeding / caring . while looking for pictures of cryptoheros sajica on the web i found that males in breeding colors are quite rare . . .\ni would like to write a few words about my experience breeding wild caught a . sajica and the surprise these fishes gave me . a surprise that shows these animals fascinating and diverse behaviour .\nthis video shows my breeding group of cryptoheros sajica aka t - bar cichlid . there are 2 males and 3 females , and they form two pairs , that had fry at the same time . water parameters in that tank are ph 7 . 4 and temp . 78\u00b0f . both male and female are excellent parents , taking care of eggs and later fry , from day one . you can see change in colors , once they lay eggs and during care for fry .\nt - bar cichlid should not be kept with cichlasoma nigrofasciatum or its relatives who may interbreed . the species name sajica is an acronym for sa lvador ji menez ca nossa , director of the library of congress of costa rica .\n, formerly known as the archocentrus sajica is a small central american cichlid found exclusively in the pacific slopes of costa rica . male specimens can grow up to a nearly 5 inches , while females are considerably smaller and fully grown at about 4 inches .\nout of curiosity i also tried keeping them in an aquarium with clear water and a large pair of n . managuense as company and the sajica couple spawned standing guard over their eggs and fry . it seemed like they simply chose another strategy in darker waters . i have kept other pairs of breed a sajica in the 540 l / 145 gallon aquarium since then , but none of them have showed this behaviour . i\u2019m hoping that others get to experience this unique behaviour that just goes to shows us that cichlids never stops surprising .\ni got a pair of wild caught a sajica from a friend that had collected them on a trip . since i had kept this species before , in fact it was the third cichlid i ever breed , i didn\u2019t expect any surprises . well , i was wrong .\ni obtained five young , 1 - inch cryptoheros sajica from one of gcca ' s regular meeting auctions . i placed them in a ten gallon tank for a month or two and then transferred them to my 20 gallon tank . at about eight months old , they began pairing up , and i ended up with two pairs . the result was a pair of fish on each half of the tank and one extra female . there were some fights in the beginning , but once borders were established , fighting stopped , and soon after both pairs laid eggs . one pair chose a rock - like cave and other pair spawned in pleco bell .\nthe wild caught a sajica couple spawned many times in this aquarium , once every 2 - 3 month , and they always to great success used this method . at one point i moved them to another aquarium about half as big as the other and with clear water . they shared this tank with a number of other cichlids , mostly fry from the larger aquarium . in this aquarium they spawned in they way one are used to see a sajica spawn , e . g . standing guard over their eggs and fry . a little later the couple was moved back to the 540 l / 145 gallon aquarium and they then started to \u201chide\u201d their eggs and fry again .\nto my great relief the sajica found themselves loving their company and was left alone by their larger predatory cousins . the aquarium was decorated with two very large roots that reached all the ways to the surface of the aquarium and created three natural territories for the fishes in the aquarium . there where small gaps under the roots that the ancistruses utilized for breeding . the larger cichlids couldn\u2019t get into these spaces . these large roots made the water in this tank very dark and made it look like a black water river aquarium . the water conditions was however harder and the ph level higher than what you might expect to find in a black water river .\nin shortage of better accommodations i put the 6 cm / 2 . 5 inches long cichlids in a 540 l / 145 gallon aquarium that was already overly crowded . in the aquarium already swam four 20 cm / 8 inches texas cichlids , a pair of n . festae ( 25 and 20 cm / 10 and 8 inches ) , a pair of n . managuense ( about the same size as n . festae ) and four natal cichlids , mossanbicus mossanbicus , ( 20 cm / 8 inches ) . the tanked was also inhabited by two convicts ( about 4 cm / 1 . 5 inches ) that had originally been put there as feeders , and finally loads of ancistrus that just wouldn\u2019t stop breeding . all of the species where breeding regularly in the aquarium . as i said , the aquarium was already very crowded . i knew i was taking a chance putting the small sajica in with these predators but i didn\u2019t have any choice .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe parents continued to take them on these little expeditions for about a month after which the fry had grown to approximately 1 . 5 cm / 0 . 75 inch . the impressing thing is that almost all of they fry had survived to this age . after the parents had stop caring for their fry the young quickly became boulder and started swimming around , which lead to that all but two of the fry was eaten one week later . ( there were 50 - 60 fry before that . ) these two however did manage to grow up in this aquarium .\n- information about all aspects of jack dempsey cichlids , their care and breeding .\n- information about all aspects of red devil cichlids , their care and breeding .\na relatively peaceful , smaller growing cichlid . will stock well as an individual in community tanks . more than one individual of this species in a tank , is best kept as a member of an established / compatible pair , as conspecific aggression can be a problem in the t - bar cichlid . males will grow a bit larger in size than the females , and become much sturdier , ' chunkier ' looking at adult sizes , by growing an impressive - looking forehead lump with dominance called a ' nuchal ' hump . spawning coloration is dramatic , and quite beautiful in this species as the male and female will become quite dark , with the eyes becoming by contrast , an extremely bright , shimmering gold in color . two pairs of this calmer , more peaceful cichlid can be stocked with confidence in minimum sized , four foot long aquariums . beware of stocking a spawning pair in community tanks ! they are very protective - aggressive - parents . a six foot long tank is recommended as the minimum size for keeping this cichlid as spawning pairs , in ' mixed ' species community tanks . stock with tank mates that are ' robust ' and hardy in nature , but not so large in size they will just simply eat your pair !\npronunciation : refer to our pronunciation key for an explanation of the phonetic symbols .\nhabitat : this is the primary location where the cichlid is found and is a generalization . this does not mean a fish cannot be found in other habitats .\ndiet : many cichlids specialize in eating one type of food ; notwithstanding , some of these specialized feeders are flexible and can be opportunistic feeders .\ntemperament : this describes the overall demeanor of a cichlid toward other tankmates that are of a different species . consider that there is variability in temperament due to various factors , including aquarium size , tankmates of similar appearance , stocking levels , and order of introduction . there may even be some variability among individual specimens .\nconspecific temperament : this describes the overall demeanor of a cichlid toward other tank - mates of the same species . consider that there is variability in temperament due to such factors as aquarium size , stocking levels and order of introduction . there may even be some variability among individual specimens .\nmaximum size : this is in regards to total length ( including the tail ) of typical aquarium specimens . wild specimens may not attain this size , or may in fact grow larger than aquarium raised individuals due to various factors . also consider that this is the typical maximum size and there are exceptional individuals that will exceed it .\ndifficulty : this measure is a relative value , comparing a single species against all other cichlids . this only accounts for maintanence in the aquarium and not breeding considerations . 1 = easy and forgiving , 5 = extremely challenging .\nsign up for email reminders for meetings , swaps , auctions , and other events .\nemail reminders for meeting notices providing a reminder for our next meeting , speaker info , rare fish auctions , picnics and holiday party .\nemail reminders for vendors to alert them when the next swap vendor signup dates are .\nand seven indistinct bars on the body . the third bar is usually prominent and coupled with a dark lateral stripe running from the gill cover , results in a horizontal t - shaped mark . this t - mark is the\nevidence\nsupporting the common name of t - bar cichlid .\nbecause of lack of tank space at the time i acquired these fish , i kept two pairs in twenty gallon tall tank . i would definitely recommend a bigger tank , at least 40 gallon . i maintained the temperature at 78\u00b0f , ph at 7 . 2 and performed up to 50 % water change every 3 to 4 days . the tank was furnished with gravel , some caves , rocks and driftwood . lights were on 12 to 14 hours a day .\nthese fish are not overly aggressive , so even though the tank was on the small side , aggression was limited and no fish were lost .\neight days post spawn , hundreds of little fry emerged from the bell and cave , closely guarded by their parents . i immediately began feeding with newly hatched brine shrimp .\nt - bar cichlids are excellent parents . both male and female actively guarded the fry for almost two months before i removed the fry to a separate tank .\nthe greater chicago cichlid association \u2014 gcca \u2014 is a not - for - profit , educational organization , chartered in the state of illinois , dedicated to the advancement and dissemination of information relating to the biology of the fishes in the family cichlidae , with particular emphasis on maintenance and breeding in captivity . we are simply cichlid hobbyists who love cichlids .\nhere ' s a look at my t bar cichlid in my 40b t bar tank . i also have rasbora hets , glowlight tetras , otocinclus and more in this freshwater , planted tank . aunt tagonist - silent film dark by kevin macleod is licensed under a creative commons attribution license ( urltoken ) source : urltoken artist : urltoken i created this video with the youtube video editor ( urltoken )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsmall , personable , and gregarious , t - bar cichlids are great choices for novice aquarists who want fish with personality that will breed for them without excessive aggression .\nomnivorous - does well with flake or pellet food supplimented with vegetable or meat foods .\nthis is a less common species from central america . there are two color varieties - one that is purple and blue and another that is yellow or gold . this species should be provided with caves to hide and breed in .\nother central american cichlids such as firemouth meeki and convicts . catfish and plecos should also do well .\nmated pairs will breed in a cave . unlike many other american cichlids , mated pairs may not stay mated for life .\nnamed for the type locality of the type species ; ' amatitl\u00e1n ' means ' a place abundant in amate ' in nahuatl , ' amate ' is a kind of rustic paper made from the bark of ficus petiolaris or ficus indica .\nfreshwater ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 7 . 0 - ? ; dh range : 15 - ? . tropical ; 23\u00b0c - 30\u00b0c ( ref . 36880 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 9 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 36377 ) ; 8 . 0 cm tl ( female )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 17 - 18 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 9 - 10 ; anal spines : 6 - 8 ; anal soft rays : 7 - 8 . this species has no unique autapomorphies , the third ( main ) lateral bar uniformly wide ( its width not uniform in other species ) ; caudal blotch usually absent ; no lateral spot or medial intensification of bars on side of body ; absence of ocellus on dorsal fin ; without abdominal blackening in mature females ; palatine arms subequal ; posteriad projection on ventroposterior angle of retroarticular absent ; articular with a right angle ventrally ; an anteriorly directed pronounced convexity on ventral process of articular present ; anal - fin spines modally 7 ( ref . 74403 ) .\ninhabits rivers and rivulets which have moderate to strong currents but is not found in the rapids . prefers smaller rocks and gravel . found up to 2000 feet of elevation . omnivorous , feeding on algal filaments , aquatic insects , seeds and bottom detritus . spawns in caves or crevices , preferring to adhere its eggs to an oblique or vertical surface . produces about 200 offspring which feed on the parent ' s dermal mucus .\nschmitter - soto , j . j . , 2007 . a systematic revision of the genus archocentrus ( perciformes : cichlidae ) , with the description of two new genera and six new species . zootaxa 1603 : 1 - 78 . ( ref . 74403 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5020 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 03162 ( 0 . 01397 - 0 . 07157 ) , b = 2 . 99 ( 2 . 80 - 3 . 18 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 3 \u00b10 . 17 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 13 of 100 ) .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nis evident on the males . the males are a little more colourful . the females have more yellow hues on their fins .\nthis fish can be aggressive and shouldn ' t be kept with smaller fish . keep in either a species tank or with other similar sized\nprefers a good current and likes a small pebble or gravel substrate . can do well in a planted tank provided plants are well established as this fish can dig .\na semi - aggressive cichlid . aggression increases , especially on the part of the female , if they are spawning and she will defend her eggs and fry ferociously .\nan attractive cichlid once it has settled into its environment . it ' s body and fins have blue , yellow and red hues on a olive green base colour . it gets its\nt - bar\ncommon name from the ' t ' shape that can occasionally be seen on its flanks .\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 03 : 02 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nknown from rio parrita to rio coloradito . also ref . 2060 , 36377 , 52307 .\nschmitter - soto , j . j . 2007 . ( ref . 74403 )\nmax length : 9 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 36377 ) ; 8 . 0 cm tl ( female )\nfreshwater ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 7 . 0 - ? ; dh range : 15 - ?\npd 50 = 0 . 5020 many relatives ( e . g . carps ) 0 . 5 - 2 . 0 few relatives ( e . g . lungfishes )\nhigh , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . )\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nusnm 211617 ( 20 paratypes ) , costa rica , puntarenas , a tributary of rio sierpe , 2 km s of palmar sur ; mhng 2447 . 21 ( 1 ) , costa rica , puntarenas , rio ceiba ; ummz 194210 ( 4 ) , ummz 194239 ( 28 , 2 c & s , 8 dig . ) , costa rica , puntarenas , a tributary to rio ceiba , just above mouth .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ncentral american cichlids are adaptable , often quite aggressive fish that require moderately hard and alkaline water conditions . they are among the most popular cichlids in the hobby thanks to their bright colours and general hardiness , but the large size of some species and their sometimes violent behaviour means that few are suitable for the average community tank .\nenvironment limestone dominates much of the geology of central american , and consequently the rivers and lakes tend to be hard and alkaline . volcanic crater lakes are a distinctive feature of the central american aquatic environment , characterised by their rocky banks and great depth . lake nicaragua is a particularly famous example , and besides being home to a variety of cichlids , bull sharks regularly swim into the lake from the pacific ocean via the 120 - mile san juan river .\n\u201cthe firemouth cichlid thorichthys meeki is a native to mexico , guatemala and belize . \u201d\nwater chemistry if you live in a hard water area , the chances are your tap water will be adequate for keeping these fish . central american cichlids are adaptable and do well across a range of water chemistry values , though as ever in fishkeeping , it is important to maintain ph and hardness stability between water changes . in general , ph 7 - 8 and a hardness of 10 degrees dh or more will suit these fish well . in soft water areas some hardening of the water will be necessary . one approach is to place calcareous media ( such as crushed coral ) in one of the compartments inside a canister filter . as the water flows past this media it will dissolve some of the calcium carbonate , resulting in harder , more alkaline water . because filters get dirty over time , any such media will gradually lose its buffering capacity as it gets covered with dirt and slime . to prevent problems , take care to clean any calcareous media under a hot tap at least once a month , or sooner if you find the ph dropping .\n\u201celectric blue jack dempsey cichlids are typical of central americans in preferred moderately hard , alkaline water conditions . \u201d\nan alternative approach is to add minerals to each bucket of new water . you can use commercially available cichlid salts of the type produced for malawian and tanganyikan cichlids , but you likely won\u2019t need to use the full dose . a half dose should be adequate , though check the ph and hardness with your test kits and adjust as required . if you want to make your own mineral salts , then add 1 teaspoon baking soda ( sodium bicarbonate ) , 1 tablespoon epsom salt ( magnesium sulfate ) , and 1 teaspoon marine salt mix ( sodium chloride and various trace elements ) per 10 gallons ( 40 litres ) of water . again , check the ph and hardness and adjust as necessary .\nsalinity some central american cichlids inhabit brackish water habitats and could be kept in a brackish water system . one benefit of keeping these fish in brackish water conditions is that the marine salt mix will automatically adjust ph and hardness to appropriate levels . examples of species found in slightly brackish water include amphilophus hogaboomorum , herichthys carpintis , herichthys pearsei , parachromis friedrichsthalii , parachromis motaguensis , rocio octofasciata and vieja synspila . these will do well at specific gravity levels up to around sg 1 . 005 . a few species are able to live and breed in fully marine conditions . these include cichlasoma urophthalmus , nandopsis haitiensis , nandopsis tetracanthus and vieja maculicauda . none of these fish needs brackish water conditions to do well , and all could be kept in a plain freshwater aquarium without problems .\nwater temperature for most species the usual 25 degrees c ( 77 degrees f ) will suffice . higher temperatures are sometimes advocated by hobbyists , but the only real benefit of this is to increase the frequency with which these cichlids spawn . unless you are farming these fish on a massive scale , there\u2019s no particular reason to have your fish spawning every 3 - 4 weeks !\ndecorating the tank since most central american cichlids come from shady habitats with lots of cover , they appreciate a tank that isn\u2019t too brightly lit . most species like to dig , so live plants , except perhaps floating species , aren\u2019t of much use . instead concentrate on large plastic plants , rocks , and pieces of artificial or real bogwood . because large amounts of bogwood can acidify the aquarium over time , if you decide to use a lot of this material , monitor ph carefully and do not neglect water changes ! the sand - sifting species will appreciate a fine substrate . river sand is ideal , but otherwise a mix of four parts smooth silica sand to one part coral sand will produce a reasonable facsimile . because these cichlids like subdued light and shady environments , they don\u2019t appreciate brightly coloured gravels .\nbecause these fish dig a lot , take care that their activity cannot undermine your arrangement of rocks . make sure all rocks are securely balanced , and if necessary use a gravel tidy to secure a cushioning layer of gravel at the bottom of the tank . this will prevent any rocks slipping and cracking the glass . most of these fish spawn in caves , or at least dig a pit somewhere sheltered . in many cases a flowerpot on its side makes an ideal nesting site .\ntank size central american cichlids need a lot of space . tanks less than 110 litres ( 30 gallons ) in size are best reserved for singletons or breeding pairs . collections of the smaller , milder species could be maintained in tanks 200 litres ( 55 gallons ) in size , but for best results you should aim for a tank 375 - 750 litres ( 100 - 200 gallons ) in size . this will provide your fish with plenty of space , and make it easier to keep the bigger and more aggressive species without them killing each other .\namatitlania - convict cichlids the standard convict cichlid of the hobby is amatitlania nigrofasciata . various colour morphs are available , including an albino form . wild - type fish are basically grey with black vertical bands . females also have bright gold markings on the belly and on the dorsal and anal fins . the species is also sexually dimorphic in terms of size , with females being smaller at up to 10 cm ( 4 inches ) noticeably smaller than the males , who get up to about 12 . 5 cm ( 5 inches ) in length . convicts are pugnacious , and noted for their ability to coexist successfully alongside much larger fish . they tend to bully the mild central american cichlids , but in sufficiently large aquaria will work well with the more territorial , small and medium - sized species . they are omnivores and consume both meaty and green foods .\nthe honduran red point convict , probably amatitlania siquia , is similar to the standard convict but is smaller and has distinctive red and green colouration in the fins . maintenance is much like the standard convict , but this species appears to be somewhat less aggressive .\narchocentrus - mild mannered rainbows at least three species belong to this genus , but only one species , the rainbow cichlid archocentrus multispinosus , is commonly traded . it works well in community tanks , and is probably the best central american cichlids for beginners . as its name suggests , this species varies its colours with its mood . the body is generally yellow to brick red , but becomes very dark , almost black , when spawning . archocentrus are omnivores , and offerings of both crustaceans and green foods will help them develop their best colours .\nthe mojarra or mayan cichlid cichlasoma urophthalmus is a big species at up to 40 cm ( 16 inches ) in length . it is one of the species most strongly associated with brackish water conditions , and wild fish show a distinct preference for coastal lagoons . under aquarium conditions it does not need to be kept in brackish water . it is aggressive , and should be kept alone or with equally robust species , though care should be taken to avoid species too similar in shape or colouration , as such fish will tend to bring out its worst behaviour . its sheer size demands a massive aquarium : singletons won\u2019t tolerant other cichlids in anything under 375 litres ( 100 gallons ) and breeding pairs will need a tank twice that size if you want to avoid carnage ! the mojarra is often confused with a south american cichlid cichlasoma festae . when the two are compared , cichlasoma festae has a smaller eyespot on the tail fin but more intense red colouration .\nherichthys - texas cichlids there are at least ten species in the genus herichthys but only two are normally traded . historically there has been much confusion between these two species , herichthys carpintis and herichthys cyanoguttatus , with both fish being known as texas cichlids . in fact only herichthys cyanoguttatus is naturally found in texas , specifically the rio grande , as well as mexico . telling the two species apart is difficult , but in general herichthys cyanoguttatus is covered with much smaller blue - white spots than herichthys carpintis . body colour in both cases can vary dramatically with mood , though it is typically some shade of blue , often with dark vertical bands . herichthys are omnivores that consume some plant matter alongside small crustaceans , worms and insects . they are reasonably well behaved fish in communities alongside other robust cichlids , but do become extremely aggressive when spawning .\nthese are medium - sized cichlids at up to 20 cm ( 8 inches ) in length though often rather less . they are omnivores , with wild fish consuming both plants and animal foods , particularly algae and insect larvae . they are notoriously aggressive at breeding time , but by the standards of central american cichlids generally , not especially aggressive the rest of the time . they work well in communities of robust cichlids , given sufficient space and hiding places .\noccasionally you will see other species on sale , such as thorichthys ellioti . apart from differences in colouration , these are essentially similar to the firemouth in terms of care . thorichthys ellioti in particular is very vividly coloured with bright blue spots over its body .\nthey grew pretty quickly . i fed them twice a day , and feeding was very easy . they pretty much ate anything that fell in front of their face . every other day i performed water changes of about ten percent to keep the chemistry up to par . by the end of the first year they were each about 3 inches long .\nfinally , one day i had noticed that two had paired off . they had all the others pinned in corners and fearing for their lives , so the following day i baged up the dominated fish , and traded them in for some baby brine and earthworm flakes before they met an untimely death by the newly territorial and greedy pair . within days i noticed the couple cleaning one of the flat stones . i also noticed that the female\u2019s breeding tube was visible , a sign that eggs are soon to come . she laid about 100 small . tan - colored eggs the following day . it happened to be my day off , and i was excited that she had laid her first batch of eggs , little did i know that the pleco decided he had an appetite for caviar . the inexperienced soon - to - be parents tried to keep the intruder away , but the pleco was determined to have his fancy meal . the damage done , i relocated the pleco to my african cichlid tank .\nshe had another batch of eggs 3 weeks later . this time they were better prepared , and with no armored , sucker - mouthed egg eaters in their tank , they were on the road to success . these fish are very good parents once they get the hang of it ! they guarded their offspring ferociously , even attacking the gravel tube as i tried to clean the substrate . when they were big enough , i moved the fry i could catch to a seperate 20 high . about 50 fry made it to be traded and sold from that batch .\ni don\u2019t consider sajicas a very vibrant species , though they are attractive in their own way . they remind me a lot of the a . spilurus , with their shimmering blue eyes . maybe their most striking feature is the blue throat developed by both males and females as they mature . males attain an adult size of 5 inches and females about 3 . 5 to 4 inches . with caution they may be kept with community fish , but they are almost always aggressive towards others of their own kind . i would say the minimum tank size for an adult pair would be a 29 gallon . i would highly recommend this species to someone who would like to try something other than a convict cichlid . they breed easily and are really fun to watch as they spawn and raise their fry . if you have any questions about them , please let me know in the comments section !\nyou may know better than i if this is indeed a baby t - bar . it is about 1 inch long right now . it was thrown in by accident with some guppies i purchased .\ni have a group of 7 of which 2 paired off at 3 - 4 inches . pretty fish but i can not tell if the are t - bars or blue - eye cichlids . they look great and started coloring up at 2\u2033 . one of the pair the male has a red dorsal fin and the female has a yellow one . separated them into a 26 gallon with the same cave that they had taken over in the previous tank and they established a nest immediately .\nthat fish place\u2019s resident \u201ccichlid pro . \u201d in addition to working at tfp for 13 years , jose\u2019s been breeding cichlids for over 14 years and has produced over 200 different species . jose is the man to question for everything cichlid . check out jose\u2019s work in the article : keeping and breeding african cichlids in small aquariums , and his many other contributions on cichlid husbandry , behavior , and his personal experiences with keeping cichlids from across the globe .\neileen daub : hi sam , fishing with goldfish is illegal due to the risk of . . .\nchris mcclelland : hello , i have had success raising green sunfish in an aquari . . .\nsam earlyfall : is it only cruel to put them on a hook and then fish with th . . .\neileen daub : hi sara , i wouldn ' t expect cilantro / coriander to be safe sub . . .\neileen daub : hello name , red tail sharks don ' t lay egg sacs . if you can g . . .\nthat fish blog is designed to help promote knowledge of the pet hobby . if you wish to reference or cite specific information from a blog post , we ask that you provide a link back to the original . the content on that fish blog is copyright protected and may not be duplicated without written permission . if you have any questions on this policy , feel free to send us an email at blogs @ thatpetplace . com . \u00a9 copyright 2013 , all rights reserved .\ntank size - max . 40 liter max . 60 liter max . 80 liter max . 100 liter max . 150 liter max . 200 liter max . 250 liter max . 300 liter max . 400 liter max . 500 liter > 500 liter\nsocial behavior : a territorial , pair forming cichlid . a relatively peaceful , sometimes shy fish which does not molest plants .\ndecoration : tank with a sandy bottom ; hiding places of stones and roots ; perhaps plant the edge and the background with tough species .\ndescription : this is the cousin of the convict cichlids . the t - bar cichlid when they are juveniles do not display any particular colouration except some black bands over a grey colouration . this might discourage the beginner to acquire such species which they do not have the dramatic black - on - gray colouration of their common cousins . their juvenile drab brown base color will develop shades of yellow and blue , with intense blue and red sparkles on fins for males and more yellow sparkles on the fins of females .\nmales grow markedly larger and develop a steep forehead with age . the tips of the dorsal and anal fin are elongated , forming an arch towards the inside that frames the caudal fin . the genital papilla is pointed . the females are considerably smaller , and their genital papilla is blunt . the species digs at spawning time . cave spawner ; nuclear family or in transition to a patriarch - matriarch family .\naround 26 \u00b0c reproduction is not difficult , but there are sometimes problems . the animals almost always ( if available ) spawn in caves . the eggs are quite small , whitish to brownish transparent ( camouflage coloration ) , and number up to 300 . the larvae hatch in 3 days at 26 \u00b0c , and the fry are free - swimming in an additional 5 - 7 days . primarily the female is in charge of brood care ; the male takes care of territorial defense . sometimes the roles are reversed . raising the young has its problem since usually only one part of the spawn grows normally . the majority stagnate in growth . feed with artemia nauplii .\nlast edited by rkm . sbc on tue nov 17 , 2015 7 : 23 am , edited 1 time in total .\nplease visit urltoken for aquarium and fish information as well as information on breeding fish . thank you for viewing my video . please don ' t forget to subscribe to my channel for tons of aquarium information . here are some products that i love and use . if your looking to set up a tank come view this equipment . fluval fx6 filter : urltoken fluval fx4 filter : urltoken finnex titanium heater : urltoken northfin fish food krill : urltoken prime water conditioner : urltoken hydor powerhead : urltoken digital thermometer : urltoken current usa led light : urltoken floramax substrate : urltoken floramax light : urltoken fluval co2 system : urltoken aquaclear 50 : urltoken industrial air pump : urltoken t bar cichlid breeding , sexing and alot of more information that you need to know about the t bar cichlid . my facebook page urltoken visit my site urltoken"]}
{"id": 2594, "summary": [{"text": "bradypodicola hahneli is a sloth moth in the family pyralidae that lives exclusively in the fur of the pale-throated three-toed sloth ( bradypus tridactylus ) , a three-toed sloth found in south america .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is the only species of the bradypodicola genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "while the other sloth moth , cryptoses choloepi , has a continuously convex front of its head , bradypodicola hahneli has a concave shape of the front of its head .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the three-toed sloth \u2019s fur forms a micro-ecozone inhabited by green algae and hundreds of insects .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the fur provides a home and protection for the moth which feeds on the algae .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it also deposits its eggs in the droppings of the sloth , where they pupate and hatch , the newly hatched moths flying off to look for another sloth to live on . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "bradypodicola", "paragraphs": ["genus : bradypodicola spuler , 1906 . biol . zbl . 26 : 691 . [ bhl ]\ntype - species : bradypodicola hahneli spuler , 1906 . biol . zbl . 26 : 691 , text - figs 1 - 7 . [ bhl ]\nthe topics included in this review include adults of arcyophora sp . feeding on the eyes of oxen in zimbabwe ; the blood - sucking noctuid calyptra eustrigata ( hmps . ) in south - eastern asia ; and the pyralids cryptoses , bradypodicola and bradypophila on sloths in central and south america ( where the association may be a phoretic one )\nnote : this is a \u201cclassic\u201d interesting thing of the day article from over 10 years ago . it has not been edited recently , so it may contain broken links , outdated information , or other infelicities . we plan to eventually update or retire most classic articles , as time permits .\nthere are times\u2014quite a few of them , for better or worse\u2014when i\u2019m confronted with evidence that something i\u2019ve believed ( or assumed ) to be the case for years is simply wrong . these occasions can be a source of embarrassment , such as the time a few years ago when a friend pointed out to me that i always misspelled the word \u201cembarrassed . \u201d being someone who takes the use of language seriously , this came as quite a blow to me . most of the time , however , i greet epiphanies of mistaken assumptions with equanimity , if not pleasure . i love to learn , and most learning requires a certain amount of unlearning .\ni had several such experiences in rapid succession while visiting a wildlife sanctuary in costa rica . aviarios del caribe , located near cahuita on the caribbean coast , is a sloth rehabilitation center . sloths that are injured or orphaned are brought here and cared for , and then\u2014if they\u2019re able to fend for themselves\u2014released back into the rain forest . a volunteer had patiently explained many of the differences between two - toed and three - toed sloths , about which more later . but as i was watching a baby two - toed sloth , i noticed with some puzzlement that it actually had three toes on each foot . clearly there was an interesting story here , but that was just the beginning of the strange and wonderful things i was to discover about sloths .\nfirst , let\u2019s talk about those toes . sloth expert judy arroyo explained to me that all sloths actually have three \u201ctoes\u201d\u2014that is , three digits on their hind limbs , if you want to think of them as feet . the difference is in the \u201cfingers\u201d\u2014the digits on the fore limbs . two - toed sloths have two ; three - toed sloths have three . so why weren\u2019t they called \u201ctwo - fingered\u201d and \u201cthree - fingered\u201d ? apparently it was a problem of translation . according to arroyo , the spanish word used to describe the sloths\u2019 digits can mean either finger or toe , and the english word choice turned out to be a bit misleading .\nwhether you call them fingers or toes , sloths use them to great advantage . they\u2019re hooked and very strong , which makes them handy for climbing or\u2014more frequently\u2014hanging upside - down for extended periods of time high in the trees . sloths sleep up to 18 hours per day , and when awake , spend most of their time munching on leaves . they move ( very slowly , of course ) from tree to tree every day or two , and descend to the ground only about once a week to urinate and defecate .\ntwo - toed and three - toed sloths share many traits in common , but i was surprised to discover how many differences there were . the two - toed sloth ( choloepus hoffmani ) has light brown fur and is nocturnal . the three - toed sloth ( bradypus variegatus ) has , as its name suggests , variegated fur . it\u2019s active during the day , so it\u2019s the one you\u2019re most likely to see on a rain forest hike . males have distinctive markings on their backs that identify them uniquely , in much the same way as fingerprints . and the extra bones in the three - toed sloth\u2019s neck enable it to turn its head almost 360\u00b0 .\nwhat i find most interesting about the three - toed sloth is the symbiotic relationship it has with other organisms . one effect of the sloth\u2019s languid pace of life is that it can\u2019t be bothered to groom itself . this turns out to be beneficial to several varieties of algae and mold that grow inside the sloth\u2019s hollow hairs . the algae effectively turn the sloth green , giving it excellent camouflage among the leaves . the camouflage is crucial to the sloth\u2019s survival , because its inability to move quickly makes it an easy target for the harpy eagle .\nbut the symbiosis doesn\u2019t end there . the algae in the sloth\u2019s fur provides food for a great many insects . ( i should point out , incidentally , that sloths have extremely long fur , making them appear much larger than they really are . ) beetles have been found by the hundreds living on a single sloth . another insect that calls the sloth home is a type of moth\u2014 bradipodicola hahneli ( or \u201csloth moth\u201d to most people ) . the sloth\u2019s fur provides both food and protection for the moth . not only does it feed on the algae , but it also deposits its eggs in the sloth\u2019s droppings , where they pupate and hatch , and then fly off to look for another sloth to live on .\nsloths are not known as particularly social creatures , but they do spend enough time with the opposite sex to reproduce . one of the studies underway at aviarios del caribe when i was there involved the mating habits of three - toed sloths . we saw a video in which a female sloth named buttercup let out a blood - curdling mating call that sounded like a woman shrieking . immediately , males from as far away as 700 meters began rushing toward the sound . by \u201crushing , \u201d i mean crawling at the breakneck speed of about 200 meters per day . but for a sloth , this single - minded , deliberate movement\u2014on the ground , no less , in plain view of predators\u2014is definitely rushing . ah , the things we do for love .\nfemales usually give birth once a year , and with gestation periods of about six months , that means they spend about half their adult lives pregnant . when a sloth reaches six months of age , it\u2019s old enough to be left on its own . before that time , however , if a youngster falls from a tree , the mother will not attempt to rescue it ; the risk of attack by a bird or jaguar is too great .\nyoung sloths separated from their mothers in this way are the main wards of the sloth rehabilitation center i visited . other residents were injured by contact with an electrical line , or orphaned when an eagle attacked the mother . staff members and volunteers nurse the sloths back to health , and participate in a variety of scientific studies and conservation projects . buttercup was the center\u2019s first resident , and has been there for about 13 years . she serves as a living mascot , helping to promote awareness and research of her species .\nsloths\u2019 slow , graceful movements have been compared to those of a t\u2019ai chi master . i agree with that assessment\u2014and coincidentally it was for a t\u2019ai chi retreat that i went to costa rica in the first place . but sloths have also been called \u201cugly , \u201d and here i must disagree . up close , sloths are actually quite cute , and the shape of their faces gives the impression of a permanent smile . in the wild , of course , the menagerie of plants and critters growing in the fur can be off - putting , but a well - groomed sloth is\u2014and i\u2019m speaking from experience here\u2014downright cuddly .\nsloths share their name with one of the so - called \u201cdeadly sins\u201d because their slow metabolism gives them the appearance of laziness . but slow and lazy are two different things . the grace , balance , and gentleness of the sloth\u2014not to mention its hospitality toward the other creatures that depend on it\u2014are traits i could aspire to emulate . \u2014 joe kissell\nif you\u2019re ever in costa rica , aviarios del caribe is well worth a visit . besides being a wildlife sanctuary , it\u2019s also a bed & breakfast . owners judy and luis arroyo will tell you everything you want to know about sloths , and you can also take a canoe ride into the rain forest to see a wide variety of other wildlife . janet younger wrote this article for the travelwise web site about her stay at aviarios del caribe ; her experiences were very similar to my own .\nchristopher baker\u2019s article mammals on urltoken compares sloths to t\u2019ai chi masters but claims they\u2019re ugly . i beg to differ\u2014i\u2019ve met some very handsome sloths ( and t\u2019ai chi masters , for that matter ) .\nthe sloth club is an organization that promotes some positive sloth - like traits : slowness , simplicity , nonviolence , and ecological consciousness .\nhear ye ! hear ye ! don ' t shoot the messenger , although you may be tempted to because he ' s apparently yelling bad news in the middle of a crowded street .\nclick here and fill out the form to receive interesting thing of the day by email every day . no spam , no fuss , unsubscribe any time .\nwrite css or less and hit save . ctrl + space for auto - complete .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\none of the minor downsides of our biology and taxonomy of insects module on the msc course is , that we do have to review a lot of families within some of the groups , lepidoptera being a prime example . current estimates range from 250 000 to 500 000 species in 124 families ( kristensen et al . , 2007 ) . going through the basic biology of each family can be pretty dry stuff , even if i have a personal anecdote or two to help lighten information overload . i am , for example , able to wax lyrical for several minutes about small ermine moths and their incredible silk - production activities , but even after more than 40 years of playing around with insects i don\u2019t have a personal story for every family of lepidoptera \ud83d\ude42 so i am always on the lookout for an extra interesting or mind - blowing fact to help leaven the student\u2019s knowledge diet .\nthe earliest record of a moth associated with a sloth that i have been able to find is in 1877 ( westwood , 1877 ) which merely records that the unidentified moth was \u201cparasitic on the three - toed sloth\u201d . in 1908 a mr august busck on a visit to panama saw a two - toed sloth , choloepus hoffmanni fall from a tree and noticed several moths flying out of the sloth\u2019s fur . he caught these and on his return to the united states presented them to dr harrison dyar ( dyar , 1908a ) . if the name seems familiar to you that is because harrison dyar is better known in connection with dyar\u2019s law , the observation that larval growth in arthropods is predictable and follows a geometric progression ( dyar , 1890 ) . the moths were identified by dyar as a new species which he named cryptoses choloepi . dyar hypothesised that the moths and their larvae lived in the fur of the sloth and it was this that caused the sloth\u2019s matted hair .\npostulated linked mutualisms ( \u00fe ) among sloths , moths and algae : ( a ) sloths descend their tree to defecate , and deliver gravid female sloth moths ( \u00fe ) to oviposition sites in their dung ; ( b ) larval moths are copraphagous and as adults seek sloths in the canopy ; ( c ) moths represent portals for nutrients , and via decomposition and mineralization by detritivores increase inorganic nitrogen levels in sloth fur , which fuels algal ( \u00fe ) growth , and ( d ) sloths ( \u00fe ) then consume these algae - gardens , presumably to augment their limited diet . this figure brazenly \u2018borrowed\u2019 from pauli et al . 2014 ) .\nthe sloths take the risk of increased predation by descending to ground level , because by helping the moths they improve their own nutrition and hence their fitness . yet another great example of the wonders of the natural world .\nalthough not as exotic as the sloth moth , we in the uk can also lay claim to a coprophagous moth , aglossa pinguinalis , the large tabby which feeds on , among other things , sheep dung . in spain it is recorded as a cave dweller feeding almost entirely on animal dung , apparently not being too fussy as to the source .\nbradley , j . d . ( 1982 ) two new species of moths ( lepidoptera , pyralidae , chrysauginae ) associated with the three - toed sloth ( bradypus spp . ) in south america . acta amazonica , 12 , 649 - 656 .\nbrues , c . t . ( 1936 ) aberrant feeding behaviour among insects and its bearing on the development of specialized food habits . quarterly review of biology , 11 , 305 - 319 .\ndyar , h . g . ( 1890 ) the number of molts of lepidopterous larvae . psyche , 5 , 420\u2013422 .\ndyar , h . g . ( 1908a ) a pyralid inhabiting the fur of the living sloth . proceedings of the entomological society of washington , 9 , 169 - 170 .\ndyar , h . h . ( 1908b ) a further note on the sloth moth . proceedings of the entomological society of washington , 10 , 81 - 82 .\ndyar , h . g . ( 1912 ) more about the sloth moth . proceedings of the entomological society of washington , 14 , 142 - 144 .\ngilmore , d . pp . , da costa , c . p . & duarte , d . p . f . ( 2001 ) sloth biology : an update on their physiological ecology , behaviour and role as vectors of arthropods and arboviruses . brazilian journal of medical and biological research , 34 , 9 - 25 .\ngreenfield , m . d . ( 1981 ) moth sex pheromones : an evolutionary perspective . the florida entomologist , 64 , 4 - 17 .\nkristensen , n . , scoble , m . j . & karsholt , o . ( 2007 ) lepidoptera phylogeny and systematics : the state of inventorying moth and butterfly diversity . zootaxa , 1668 , 699 - 747 .\npauli , j . n . , mendoza , j . e . , steffan , s . a . , carey , c . c . , weimer , p . j . & peery , m . z . ( 2014 ) a syndrome of mutualism reinfocrs the lifestyle of a sloth . proceedings of the royal society b , 281 , 20133006 . urltoken .\npinero , f . s . & lopez , f . j . p . ( 1998 ) coprophagy in lepidoptera : observational and experimental evidence in the pyralid moth aglossa pinguinalis . journal of zoology london , 244 , 357 - 362 .\ntate , g . h . h . ( 1931 ) random observations on habits of south american mammals . journal of mammalogy , 12 , 248 - 256 .\nwaage , j . k . ( 1980 ) sloth moths and other zoophilous lepidoptera . proceedings of the british entomological and natural history society , 13 , 73 - 74 .\nwaage , j . k . & montgomery , g . g . ( 1976 ) crytopses choloepi : a coprophagous moth that lives on a sloth . science , 193 , 157 - 158 .\nwestwood , j . o . ( 1877 ) xxviii . entomological notes . transactions of the entomological society , 25 , 431 - 439 .\nenter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nwelcome to the lounge , where entomologists and insect enthusiasts can relax , grab a cup and put on a nice music . step out of your day job , and step into your zone , where you reconnect with your passion for insects and enrich yourself with more knowledge .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nthe special centrifugal research issue ( vol . 20 , no . 3 ) of the annals of improbable research is at the printer , whizzing up to speed .\nthe special cloning & evolution issue ( vol . 20 , no . 2 ) is partly online : <\nsloth moths and other zoophilous lepidoptera ,\njeffrey k . waage , proceedings and transactions of the british entomological and natural history society , vol . 13 , no . 3 / 4 , pp . 73 - 74 . 1980 . <\na moth and a sloth inspire this month ' s limerick competition . to enter , compose an original limerick that illuminates the nature of this ancient study :\ncryptoses choloepi : a coprophagous moth that lives on a sloth ,\njeffrey k . waage and g . gene montgomery , science , vol . 193 , no . 4248 , 1976 , pp . 157 - 158 . <\nthe larvae of the sloth moth , cryptoses choloepi , live in the dung of the three - toed sloth , bradypus infuscatus . adult female moths apparently leave the fur of the sloth to oviposit when the sloth descends , once a week , to the forest floor to defecate . newly emerged moths fly from the dung pile into the forest canopy to find a sloth .\nthe mucous glands of the developing human nose ,\nb . g . bang , cells tissues organs , vol . 59 , no . 4 , 1964 , pp . 297 - 314 . <\na further note on the sloth moth ,\nh . g . dyar , proceedings of the entomological society of washington , vol . 10 , 1908 , pp . 81 - 82 . <\nthe annals of improbable research is a 6 - issues - per - year magazine . ( it ' s much bigger and better than the little bits in this newsletter . )\nwe produce each issue as an e - book , as well as on traditional paper .\n617 - 491 - 4437 fax : 617 - 661 - 0927 < subscriptions at improbable . com >\nplease distribute copies of mini - air ( or excerpts ! ) wherever appropriate . the only limitations are : a ) please indicate that the material comes from mini - air . b ) you may not distribute mini - air for commercial purposes .\nmini - air is a ( free ! ) teeny - tiny monthly * supplement * to the actual six - times - a - year magazine air .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncomprise about 398 species occurring predominantly in the neotropical region . larvae can be seed , fruit , stem and root borers , and leaf rollers and tiers . some are myrmecophilous . the adults of\nlive in the fur of sloths and their larvae develop in sloth dung . larvae of other species have been found feeding on wasp nests and on spines of\nspp . ( saturniidae ) caterpillars . most larvae have a sclerotised ring around sd1 of the metathorax .\nreferences . dyar 1908 ; jordan 1926 ; pastrana 1953 ; waage & montgomery 1976 ; bradley 1982 ; solis & mitter 1992 .\nthe epipaschiinae comprise 705 described species in the tropical and temperate regions , except europe . larvae are leaf rollers , leaf tiers or leaf miners . a few species are minor pests of mahagonies , avocado , and corn ( zea mays ) . males of many species have a conspicuous scaled projection from the scape of the antennae . epipaschiinae are supported as a monophyletic group by three characters of the males : ( 1 ) an always upturned and pointed third segment of the labial palpi , ( 2 ) a ventrally curved phallobase of the male which usually extends beyond the ductus ejaculatorius , and ( 3 ) the weakly sclerotised tegumen .\nthe galleriinae comprise 258 species worldwide . larvae of some species , such as corcyra cephalonica ( rice moth ) feed on dry vegetable matter , while the larvae of other species are known to live in hymenopteran nests feeding on combs and animal debris ( e . g . galleria mellonella , the wax moth ) . sound production by the tegulae of adult males has been studied for purposes of monitoring and control of pest species . the males of galleriine moths have no gnathos , the pupae have a prominent median ridge on the thorax and abdomen dorsally , and most larvae have a sclerotised ring around sd1 of a1 .\nreferences . mosher 1916 ; hasenfuss 1960 ; whalley 1964 ; spangler 1988 ; solis & mitter 1992 .\nthe phycitinae ( = anerastiinae , peoriinae ) are probably the most difficult group of pyraloidea in terms of identification and classification . they comprise 656 genera and about 3450 species . phycitines occur throughout the world . their larvae are mostly leaf rollers , but some are inquilines in galls , seed feeders , or predators of homoptera . there is strong evidence that the phycitinae are monophyletic : ( 1 ) the larva has a sclerotised area encircling the base of seta sd1 on the mesothorax , and ( 2 ) the female frenulum is composed of multiple acanthae into one bristle as in males .\nthe pyralinae ( = endotrichinae , hypotiinae ) comprise 134 genera and more than 1100 species worldwide . most species occur in asia and africa . the meal moth ( pyralis farinalis ) is a cosmopolitan pest of stored food products . other species are leaf feeders and the larvae of pyralis manihotalis has been reared from bat guano . with the exception of cardamyla and embryoglossa , all pyraline females have a short ductus bursae with the corpus bursae barely extending cephalad beyond segment 7 .\nreferences for the cited literature can be obtained via - > database - > search ."]}
{"id": 2597, "summary": [{"text": "the cabalian frog or leyte slender stream frog ( hylarana albotuberculata ) is a species of frog in the ranidae family .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is endemic to the islands of leyte , samar , and mindanao in the philippines .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss through deforestation and habitat conversion to agriculture as well as by the pollution due to agricultural run-off . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "cabalian frog", "paragraphs": ["the cabalian frog , leyte slender stream frog is classified as data deficient ( dd ) , inadequate information to make a direct , or indirect , assessment of its risk of extinction .\n\u00bb blue frog ? \u00bb lucky money frog \u00bb frog ring - any pictures ? \u00bb the perfect store bought blended compost for a sfg \u00bb so far . . .\nhylarana caesari ( biju et al . , 2014 ) - maharashtra golden - backed frog\nhylarana indica ( biju et al . , 2014 ) - indian golden - backed frog\nhylarana magna ( biju et al . , 2014 ) - large golden - backed frog\nhylarana serendipi ( biju et al . , 2014 ) - sri lankan golden backed frog\nhylarana urbis ( biju et al . , 2014 ) - urban golden - backed frog\nhylarana doni ( biju et al . , 2014 ) - don ' s golden backed frog\nhylarana sreeni ( biju et al . , 2014 ) - sreeni ' s golden - backed frog\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2018 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 . american museum of natural history , new york , usa available at : urltoken .\nthis species was transferred from the genus hylarana to sanguirana by fuiten et al . ( 2011 ) . brown et al . ( 2017 ) use new data phylogenetic data to resolve species boundaries associated with the southwest mindanao stream frogs , sanguirana everetti ( boulenger , 1882 ) , its junior synonym , rana mearnsi , stejneger , 1905 , and the northeast mindanao stream frogs , s . albotuberculata ( inger , 1954 ) . consideration of relationships , distributions , type localities , phenotypic data , and type specimens clearly indicates that the names r . mearnsi and s . albotuberculata refer to the same lineage , and therefore brown et al . ( 2017 ) recognize s . mearnsi as the oldest available name for this species .\njustification : listed as data deficient in view of continuing uncertainties as to its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements .\nthis species is known only from very few localities on leyte , samar , and mindanao islands in the philippines .\nmoderately - sized numbers of samples in museums suggest that it might be common in preferred high - altitude stream habitats . however , there is very little field information regarding this species ' population status .\nit inhabits undisturbed and disturbed streams and rivers in lower montane and lowland forests .\nthe most important threats to this species include deforestation through logging , habitat conversion to agriculture , and the pollution of streams and rivers due to agricultural run - off .\nsome populations are protected in national parks , although more protected areas need to be established on leyte to protect the remaining forest on this island .\nthis amended assessment has been generated to change the species epithet from albotuberculata to mearnsi ( see taxonomic notes ) . the name of the species on the range map has been updated accordingly .\narvin diesmos , angel alcala , rafe brown , leticia afuang , cynthia dolino , genevieve gee , katie hampson , mae leonida diesmos , aldrin mallari , perry ong , liza paguntalan , marisol pedregosa , dondi ubaldo , baldwin gutierrez . 2018 .\n( amended version of 2004 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2018 : e . t58539a128381145 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\niucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . < www . iucnredlist . org > . downloaded on 10 november 2011 .\noccurence status describes how common or rare a taxon is in a given area . see darwincore for more information on terminology .\nestablishment means describes how the taxon came to be established in an area . see darwincore for more information on terminology .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njump to : select a forum | | - - about | | - - news | | - - politics | | - - fiesta | | - - tourist spot | | - - foods | | - - general discussions | | - - directory sa pacific area | | - - hotel | | - - restaurant | | - - beach & mountain resorts | | - - hardware and enterprises | | - - government agency | | - - internet cafe | | - - club / disco | | - - beauty parlor / barber shop | | - - town sa pacific area | | - - st . bernard | | - - san juan | | - - anahawan | | - - hinundayan | | - - hinunangan | | - - silago | | - - liloan | | - - san francisco | | - - pintuyan | | - - san ricardo | | - - school sa pacific area | | - - san juan polytechnic college | | - - southern leyte state university ( san juan ) | | - - southern leyte state university ( hinunangan ) | | - - cristo rey high school ( st . bernard ) | | - - entertainment sa pacific area | | - - joke3x | | - - tv & movies ; | | - - music & radio ; | | - - commerce sa pacific area | - - job / work | - - sell , buy , trade | | - - real state | | - - consumer electronics | | - - foods & medicines | | - - vehicles | | - - clothing , shoes and accessories | | - - cellphone , mp3 , mp4 , psp , ipod , nintendo | | - - negosyo / economiya\nare small to large - sized frogs . males have an average snout - vent length of\n( nostrils ) are oval in shape and covered by a flap of skin . the\n( parietal eye ) are present . the toes are webbed , but the fingers are not .\ns . d . biju ; sonali garg ; stephen mahony ; nayana wijayathilaka ; gayani senevirathne ; madhava meegaskumbura ( 2014 ) .\nliqiao chen ; robert w . murphy ; amy lathrop ; andre ngo ; nikolai l . orlov ; cuc tho ho ; ildiko l . m . somorjai ( 2005 ) .\nanna gawor ; ralf hendrix ; miguel vences ; wolfgang b\u00f6hme ; thomas ziegler ( 2009 ) .\nlarval morphology in four species of\nramlah zainudin ; mustafa a . rahman ; badrul munir m . zain ; m . n . shukor ; r . f . inger ; a . norhayati ( 2010 ) .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 13 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files ."]}
{"id": 2598, "summary": [{"text": "scaphiophryne marmorata is a species of frog in the family microhylidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is commonly known as the green burrowing frog and the marbled rain frog .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is endemic to madagascar .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is classified as \" vulnerable \" by the iucn as it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "scaphiophryne marmorata", "paragraphs": ["a marbled rain frog ( scaphiophryne marmorata ) from the plzen zoo in the czech republic .\nscaphiophryne ( scaphiophryne ) marmorata \u2014 grosjean , glos , teschke , glaw , and vences , 2007 , zool . j . linn . soc . , 151 : 572 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - green burrowing frog ( scaphiophryne marmorata )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - green burrowing frog ( scaphiophryne marmorata )\ntitle =\narkive species - green burrowing frog ( scaphiophryne marmorata )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - scaphiophryne ( scaphiophryne menabensis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - scaphiophryne ( scaphiophryne menabensis )\ntitle =\narkive species - scaphiophryne ( scaphiophryne menabensis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nsome of the beautifully colored scaphiophryne species are offered regularly in the pet trade .\nscaphiophryne gottlebei busse and b\u00f6hme , 1992 , isalo , vall\u00e9e des singes , madagascar .\ninformation on scaphiophryne menabensis is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\na native of madagascar , the green burrowing frog , or scaphiophryne marmorata , belongs to the family microhylidae . the family\u2019s near - global distribution presents an evolutionary puzzle of how its species are related to one another . photo courtesy of brian freiermuth\nscaphiophryne marmorata boulenger , 1882 , cat . batr . sal . coll . brit . mus . , ed . 2 : 472 . holotype : bmnh , by original designation ; bmnh 1947 . 2 . 30 . 81 according to blommers - schl\u00f6sser and blanc , 1991 , faune de madagascar , 75 : 32 . type locality :\neast betsileo\n, madagascar .\nseveral scaphiophryne species ( e . g . , s . gottlebei ) seem to have a quite restricted distribution , but more research is necessary to assess their conservation status reliably .\nscaphiophryne spinosa has been separated from this species by vences et al . ( 2003 ) . the western subpopulations have also been separated as s . menabensis ( glos et al . 2005 ) .\nexamples of tongue aiming in microhylid frogs : ( a ) phrynomantis bifasciatus ; ( b ) dyscophus insularis ; ( c ) scaphiophryne marmorata ; ( d ) dermatonotus muelleri ; ( e ) kaloula pulchra ; ( f ) callulina sp . ; ( g ) gastrophryne olivacea ; ( h ) breviceps adspersus ; ( i ) microhyla sp . ; ( j ) probreviceps sp . note the angle of the tongue in relation to the midline of the head . all pictures were taken with the camera positioned at 45\u00b0 , except h and j , which were head - on profiles .\nadult scaphiophrynids are 0 . 8\u20132 . 4 in ( 20\u201360 mm ) in snoutvent length . the general body form of scaphiophryne is somewhat toadlike . the legs are short , and well - developed metatarsal tubercles are present on the hind limbs . some species ( e . g . , s . marmorata and s . gottlebei ) have distinctly enlarged fingertips that may help them climb . the coloration varies widely , but some species are beautiful and have symmetrical markings on the back . the habitus of paradoxophyla is different ; at first glance , it resembles that of aquatic pipid frogs of the genus hymenochirus .\nbusse , k . , and w . b\u00f6hme .\ntwo remarkable frog discoveries of the genera mantella ( ranidae : mantellinae ) and scaphiophryne ( microhylidae : scaphiophryninae ) from the west coast of madagascar .\nrevue fran\u00e7aise aquariologie 19 , no . 1\u20132 ( 1992 ) : 57\u201364 .\nspiny burrowing frog - scaphiophryne pustulosa ( angel & guib\u00e9 , 1945 ) a fairly active species , especially around dusk from the ankaratra mountains of central madagascar . occurs in cool , very dense forests where it may be active during day . the dorsum shows a grey , green colour with a beautiful yellow reticulate pattern . like the green burrower , its front digit pads are enlarged suggesting it too is semi arboreal . females represent the largest of the scaphiophryne , attaining 55mm although it is not as stocky as other species . like other scaphiophrynes , it is also still fairly uncommon in captive collections .\nvences , aprea , capriglione , andreone , and odierna , 2002 , chromosome res . , 10 : 127 - 136 , reported an unnamed species , closely similar to scaphiophryne marmorata , and removed scaphiophrnye spinosa from synonymy . vences , raxworthy , nussbaum , and glaw , 2003 , herpetol . j . , 13 : 70 - 74 , discussed the species and range . see brief account by glaw and vences , 2007 , field guide amph . rept . madagascar , ed . 3 : 114 . see photograph , map , description of geographic range and habitat , and conservation status in stuart , hoffmann , chanson , cox , berridge , ramani , and young , 2008 , threatened amph . world : 461 .\nrepresentatives of the scaphiophrynidae occur in all climatic regions of madagascar ; s . calcarata , s . brevis , and s . gottlebei inhabit the hot and arid regions of the west and south . they are found in rocky formations , deciduous dry forest , open savanna , and even dry sand dunes close to the sea . another group of species ( e . g . , s . madagascariensis ) occurs in the cold , high montane savannas of central madagascar below and above the tree line . scaphiophryne marmorata and paradoxophyla palmata inhabit primarily low and mid - elevation rain - forests of eastern madagascar . despite the different habitats of the adults , the larval habitat is similar in all species ; tadpoles develop in stagnant and mostly temporary ponds and swamps .\nmoquard ' s burrowing frog - scaphiophryne calcarata ( boulenger , 1895 ) another rather plain dark brown species hailing from the entire western coastal area from north west madagascar ( andoany ) to the south west tip in tolagnaro . quite a small species rarely attaining 32mm . an explosive breeder after heavy rains during which huge number congregate in small temporary pools . lays up to 500 eggs which float on the water surface and develop very quickly to metamorphose in just 3 or 4 weeks .\nmadagascan burrowing frog - scaphiophryne madagascariensis ( boulenger , 1882 ) perhaps the least fossorial and certainly the most behaviourally interesting of the genus . although is possesses a ' spade ' on each hind limb , i have found is reluctant to burrow and certainly quite active in captivity . attaining 50mm , it is a large but rather streamlined and agile species , attractively adorned in an unusual lime green and black pattern . a mountain dweller of east betsileo ( central east & central madagascar ) , it occurs in both savannah - like environments and sometimes in humid forest .\nscaphiophrynids are primarily nocturnal and terrestrial , spending the day buried in the ground under stones , fallen tree trunks , or other refuges . the species with expanded finger disks have some climbing abilities . the rainforestdwelling s . marmorata can be found in the leaf litter on the ground and climbing on mossy trees as well . sometimes , it is even active during the day . activity patterns in scaphiophrynids are highly seasonal . this is especially true for the species in arid regions and those in cold mountain habitats in which good climatic conditions for the development of tadpoles and juveniles are restricted to a short period of time . most observations have been made at the beginning of the rainy season in december or january , when breeding takes place and activity is at its peak . after the rainy season the frogs in the arid habitats disappear for about six months and presumably estivate buried in the ground .\nscaphiophrynids are primarily explosive breeders and reproduce after heavy and prolonged rains at the beginning of the rainy season ( generally in december , january , or february ) . males aggregate in or at the edge of temporary ponds and often form large choruses that produce a continuous loud noise that can be heard from long distances . before they start calling , scaphiophryne greatly inflate the extremely large vocal sac and the body as well . sometimes calling males swimming at the water ' s surface are unable to dive when they are disturbed , because they cannot get rid of the air quickly . amplexus is axillary . females lay numerous small , pigmented eggs , which generally are deposited as a film on the surface of the water . the free - swimming and mainly filter - feeding tadpoles develop quickly to froglets if the water temperature is high .\nthis is the smallest known scaphiophryne ; the snout - vent length is 0 . 8\u20131 . 1 in ( 20\u201327 mm ) in males and 1 . 1\u20131 . 3 in ( 28\u201333 mm ) in females . the dorsum is pale brown , gray , or green with or without darker symmetrical markings and a pale vertebral line . the flanks are dark brown , and the venter is white ; the ventral surfaces of the thighs are red to violet . the throat is black in males and marbled brown and white in females . the tips of the fingers are not enlarged . the skin on the back is smooth or slightly granular . the tympanum is indistinct , and the webbing between the toes is poorly developed . the tadpoles have a sinistral spiracle and keratinized mouthparts , although the latter are poorly developed . on the other hand , they have unperforated nares , as is typical of microhylid larvae .\ncertainly the most conspicuous and sought after species , s . gottlebei was discovered fairly recently in the dry , hilly regions of vall\u00e9e des singes , isalo , south central madagascar . i must confess that i have seen fewer amazingly coloured and patterned frog with its ivory white , red , yellow , green and black mottling . females grow to 35mm while males are slightly smaller . it is fossorial species to escape the searing heat and dry winds of that region . however its fingerpads are enlarged suggesting that it does climb and this may be due to it being a poor swimmer , so that flash floods of that region necessitates climbing small bushes or clinging to rocks to avoid drowning .\nthese frogs can be very gluttonous , devouring a wide variety of bugs , grubs and the like although they can easily reject food if one type is offered constantly . feed every 3 or 4 days with several items and coat every other sitting in a multivitamin powder , although initially they may refuse or spit out the coated item .\na field guide to the amphibians and reptiles of madagascar - glaw / vences - 2nd edition 1994 the strange frogs of madagascar - staniszewski ( reptilian magazine , vol . 4 no . 6 )\nyou can e - mail me at : marcstan @ urltoken all rights reserved . all text and photo ' s - copyright \u00a91996 - 8 marc staniszewski most recent revision : 30 / 09 / 98 back to my personal file\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2015 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\nlisted as vulnerable because its extent of occurrence ( eoo ) is 14 , 718 km 2 , it occurs in fewer than ten threat - defined locations , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its forest habitat in eastern madagascar .\nthis species occurs in east - central madagascar from zahamena south to the andasibe area , from 100 - 1 , 000m asl . it occurs in fewer than ten threat - defined locations and its extent of occurrence ( eoo ) is 14 , 718 km 2 .\nit is locally abundant . however due to continuing declines in the extent and quality of habitat , the population is suspected to be decreasing .\nit is a species of rainforest and degraded secondary vegetation in the east , and deciduous dry forest in the west . it does not survive in very open areas . breeding takes place by larval development in shallow , temporary pools . although not observed despite intensive fieldwork around andasibe , the species is assumed to be an explosive breeder ( like other species in the genus ) that only reproduces once per rainy season after the first heavy rains ( glaw and vences 2007 ) .\nit occurs in analamazaotra special reserve , andasibe - mantadia national park and zahamena national park . mattioli\n. ( 2006 ) undertook a study into the economics of captive breeding this species , concluding that it is well suited to intensive commercial captive breeding programmes , and indeed that market demand could potentially be fully met with captive - bred animals .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nm 32 - 36 mm , f 35 - 44 mm . tympanum indistinct but typically visible . tibiotarsal articulation reaches at the most between insertion of forelimb and tympanum . tips of fingers and toes strongly enlarged . skin relatively smooth with a number of large granules . typically there are two symmetrical pairs of larger tubercles , a pair of elongated tubercles in the shoulder region and one of smaller tubercles on the posterior back . dorsally green with symmetrical darker markings . ventral pattern often with contrasted dark - white marbling , the dark colour extending onto the posterior belly ( glaw and vences 2007 ) .\nis larger and has tubercles of more spiny appearance , especially above forelimb insertion .\nis much larger , lacks the two pairs of symmetrical tubercles on the dorsum and often has reddish colour on the terminal discs of fingers and toes ( glaw and vences 2007 ) .\nlocated in ampahanana forest ( near fierenana ) , andasibe , zahamena ( volotsangana river ) ( glaw and vences 2007 ) at 100 - 1000 m asl ( vences and glaw 2008 ) .\nhabits : largely unknown . tadpoles probably belonging to this species have recently been found in large temporary pools in rainforest at the edge of analamazoatra reserve . at andasibe , especially close to analamazoatra reserve entrance , single specimens , especially juveniles , can often be observed moving on the ground at night . since reproduction has almost never been observed despite intensive fieldwork by many researchers around andasibe , it is likely that this species , as other\n, is a very explosive breeder that reproduces only once per rainy season after the first heavy rains ( glaw and vences 2007 ) .\n, its distribution is severely fragmented , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its forest habitat in eastern madagascar . it does not survive in very open areas . its forest habitat is receding due to subsistence agriculture ( including livestock grazing ) , timber extraction , charcoal manufacture , the spread of invasive eucalyptus , fire , and expanding human settlements . the bright colouration of this species might make it more attractive for commercial collecting in the future . there are currently small numbers in the pet trade , but probably not at a level to have a negative impact on the species . it occurs in the r\u00ef\u00bf\u00bdserve sp\u00ef\u00bf\u00bdciale d\u00ef\u00bf\u00bdanalamazaotra , parc national de mantadia and parc national de zahamena ( vences and glaw 2008 ) .\n. in : iucn 2008 . 2008 iucn red list of threatened species . www . iucnredlist . org . downloaded on 08 april 2009 .\nmiguel vences and frank glaw ( m . vences at tu - bs . de ) , assistant professor and curator of vertebrates at the institute for biodiversity and ecosystem dynamics in the zoological museum at the university of amsterdam\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\narkive is working with iucn - international union for conservation of nature , to source images of the world ' s threatened amphibian species . together with conservation international and natureserve , iucn has led a comprehensive assessment of the conservation status for the world ' s known species of frogs , toads , salamanders , newts and caecilians . to date , the project has involved the input of more than 600 herpetologists from around the world .\niucn red list category , and details of range , ecology , threats and conservation information for every known amphibian species , can be found on the iucn red list website .\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu b1ab ( iii ) ) on the iucn red list 2004 ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nchris mattison 138 dalewood road sheffield s8 0ef united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1142364433 chris . mattison @ urltoken urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfrost , darrel r . 2004 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 3 . 0 ( 22 august , 2004 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa\namphibian species of the world : an online reference v5 . 3 , database ( version 5 . 3 )\nfrost , darrel r . 2009 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 3 ( 12 february , 2009 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\nmarbled rain frog ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 114 ) .\nmid - altitude rainforest in central eastern madagascar from zahamena south to the andasibe area , 100 - 1000 m elevation .\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\nfor access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\njoel is a popular keynote speaker with conservation , corporate , and civic groups .\njoel is the founder of the photo ark , a groundbreaking effort to document every species in captivity before it\u2019s too late .\nevery purchase goes directly to support our mission : getting the public to care and helping to save species from extinction .\nsimilar species : morphologically closest to s . menabensis which , however , is distributed in western madagascar . s . spinosa is larger and has tubercles of more spiny appearance , especially above forelimb insertion . s . boribory is much larger , lacks the two pairs of symmetrical tubercles on the dorsum and often has reddish colour on the terminal discs of fingers and toes ( glaw and vences 2007 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nthis little frog looked very much like a toad in the family bufonidae , but it ' s classified in the small family scaphiophrynidae instead . our guide mary noticed it hopping across the grass in the morning while the rest of us were admiring\nin the trees . my sister , also named mary , took the second photo above , which shows how well camouflaged this frog is against the decomposing leaf litter .\nhere is a list of all the reptiles and frogs i saw on this trip to madagascar .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright \u00a9 2010 , the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\nthe food seems to consist mainly of insects , but few data are available .\nthe snout - vent length is 0 . 8\u20131 . 0 in ( 20\u201324 mm ) ; males are slightly smaller than females . this is a distinctive , small frog with a triangular body form , a pointed snout , small eyes , and fully webbed toes . the tympanum is indistinct , and the fingertips are not enlarged . the dorsum is brown , gray , or beige , with some small black spots . the venter is mostly white with distinct dark spots . males have a dark vocal sac .\nknown from pristine and degraded primary rainforest up to elevations of 3 , 300 ft ( 1 , 000 m ) .\nfrom december to february , males call after dusk at the edge of puddles or larger ponds , mainly after heavy rains .\nthe males ' calls are rather loud trills reminiscent of crickets . occasionally , males and couples in axillary amplexus swim on the surface of the water and dive quickly when disturbed . females lay several hundred small pigmented eggs about 0 . 04 in ( 1 mm ) in diameter surrounded by a gelatinous capsule . the gelatinous capsules and eggs emerge above the water surface . embryonic development is rapid , and larvae hatch one day after egg deposition . the tadpoles are typical microhylid filter - feeding tadpoles and swim in open water .\nbecause the range of this unique species covers most of the eastern rainforest belt , including several nature reserves , it may be considered as not threatened .\ndistributed widely in western and southern madagascar at elevations below 1 , 000 ft ( 300 m ) .\nit seems nearly impossible to find this nocturnal species during the dry season . after the first heavy rains , however , large numbers of individuals walk around at night , and calling males and amplectant pairs gather in temporary , sun - exposed ponds and swamps .\nmales aggregate in large choruses and produce loud , noisy calls . a female was observed approaching a calling male . the male became very excited and strongly enhanced the repetition rate of his vocalizations before clasping the female . breeding activity is explosive at the beginning of the rainy season and often is finished after a few nights . each female lays several hundred small eggs about 0 . 04 in ( 1 mm ) in diameter . the tadpoles are largely transparent , mostly swim in open water , and are mainly filter feeders , but they also feed on larger particles . the larval development is rapid , in a race against the desiccation of waters . after a few weeks , metamorphosis is completed , and tiny froglets , 0 . 2\u20130 . 3 in ( 5 . 5\u20137 . 5 mm ) in snout - vent length , emerge .\nbeing widely distributed and common in primary and secondary habitats , the species is not threatened .\nat the beginning of the rainy season , s . calcarata occasionally may penetrate the huts of madagascan people .\nthe snout - vent length reaches 1 . 4 in ( 36 mm ) . this is a toadlet that is colored conspicuously with contrasting colors . four pink or red symmetrically arranged patches surrounded by black and green are present on the dorsum . the flanks and legs are white with black bands on the legs . the venter is dark grayish violet . the tips of the fingers are distinctly enlarged . the skin on the back is smooth , and the tympanum is indistinct . the webbing between the toes and the inner metatarsal tubercle is well developed .\nlives in eroded sandstone formations . in the isalo massif , humid forests persist in canyons and on the slopes , although the climate is rather arid .\nfound under stones during the day in the rainy season . it probably estivates during the dry season . the expanded terminal finger disks may indicate partial climbing habits . disturbed specimens inflate themselves , probably as a strategy to protect against predators .\nthe diet in nature is unknown . in captivity the frog feeds on crickets and other insects .\nnothing is known , but probably an explosive breeder at the beginning of the rainy season . recently metamorphosed juveniles have been found at the edge of stagnant ponds .\nthe species is not categorized by the iucn and is not protected by cites . however , because of the small known range , it may be considered potentially threatened .\nglaw , frank , and miguel vences . a fieldguide to the amphibians and reptiles of madagascar . 2nd ed . k\u00f6ln : vences & glaw verlag , 1994 .\nblommers - schl\u00f6sser , r . m . a .\nobservations on the larval development of some malagasy frogs , with notes on their ecology and biology ( anura : dyscophinae , scaphiophryninae and cophylinae ) .\nbeaufortia 24 , no . 309 ( 1975 ) : 7\u201326 .\nblommers - schl\u00f6sser , r . m . a . , and c . p . blanc .\namphibiens ( premi\u00e8re partie ) .\nfaune de madagascar 75 , no . 1 ( 1991 ) : 1\u2013379 .\nwassersug , r .\nthe pseudohemisus tadpole : a morphological link between microhylid ( orton type 2 ) and ranoid ( orton type 4 ) larvae .\nherpetologica 40 , no . 2 ( 1984 ) : 138\u2013149 .\nmadagascaran toadlets ( scaphiophrynidae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nmadagascaran toadlets ( scaphiophrynidae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nnative to madagascar , boophis picturatus lives in moist forests and rivers . photo courtesy of brian freiermuth\nthe mass extinction that obliterated three - fourths of life on earth , including non - avian dinosaurs , set the stage for the swift rise of frogs , a new study shows .\nin a paper published this week in the proceedings of the national academy of sciences , an international team of researchers presented a new tree of life for frogs that helps solve longstanding riddles about relationships and sheds light on the history and pace of frog evolution .\nunexpectedly , their analyses showed three major lineages of modern frogs \u2014 about 88 percent of living species \u2014 appeared simultaneously , evolving on the heels of the extinction event that marked the end of the cretaceous period and the beginning of the paleogene 66 million years ago . previous research suggested a more ancient origin of many of these modern frog groups .\n\u201cfrogs have been around for well over 200 million years , but this study shows it wasn\u2019t until the extinction of the dinosaurs that we had this burst of frog diversity that resulted in the vast majority of frogs we see today , \u201d said study co - author david blackburn , associate curator of amphibians and reptiles at the florida museum of natural history on the university of florida campus . \u201cthis finding was totally unexpected . \u201d\nherpetologist david blackburn , shown with a goliath frog from the museum\u2019s collection , co - authored a study that presents a new frog tree of life . florida museum of natural history photo by kristen grace\nthe speed at which frogs diversified after the asteroid or comet impact that triggered a massive die - off of most plant and animal life suggests the survivors were probably filling up new niches on earth , blackburn said .\n\u201cwe think there were massive alterations of ecosystems at that time , including widespread destruction of forests , \u201d he said . \u201cbut frogs are pretty good at eking out a living in microhabitats , and as forests and tropical ecosystems rebounded , they quickly took advantage of those new ecological opportunities . \u201d\nfrogs rose to become one of the most diverse groups of vertebrates , with more than 6 , 700 described species . but sparse genetic data has hindered scientists from reliably tracing their evolutionary history and the links between frog families .\nblackburn joined researchers from sun yat - sen university , the university of texas at austin and the university of california , berkeley to tackle the mystery of frog evolution with a dataset seven times larger than that used in prior research . the team sampled a core set of 95 nuclear genes from 156 frog species , combining this with previously published genetic data on an additional 145 species to produce the strongest - supported evolutionary tree , or phylogeny , to date . the tree represents all 55 known families of frogs and generates a new timeline of frog evolution .\nthe researchers then used fossil records to translate genetic differences between frog lineages into dates at which they likely diverged from one another . when the analyses pointed to a simultaneous evolution of the three major frog clades \u2014 hyloidea , microhylidae and natatanura \u2014 the researchers initially eyed the finding with skepticism , said peng zhang , a corresponding study author and professor in the department of biochemistry and molecular biology at sun yat - sen university in china .\nthe analyses that generated this frog tree of life showed 88 percent of modern frogs evolved after the mass extinction that killed non - avian dinosaurs , marked here by a dotted red line . graphic by feng et al . in proceedings of the national academy of sciences\n\u201cnobody had seen this result before , \u201d he said . \u201cwe redid the analysis using different parameter settings , but the result remained the same . i realized the signal was very strong in our data . what i saw could not be a false thing . \u201d\nwhen examined in the context of the evolution of other animals , however , the finding makes sense , blackburn said .\n\u201clooking at bird or mammal phylogenies , we can see a reflection of earth\u2019s history \u2014 its climatic and geologic events , \u201d he said . \u201cyou\u2019d expect these major events \u2014 mass extinction and the breakup of continents \u2014 would have impact on frog evolution and that divergences between major lineages would relate to those in some respect . we see that in this phylogeny . \u201d\nthe close resemblance of distantly related frog species around the world , a factor of frog evolution and biology that has long confounded scientists , might be illuminated by the simultaneous evolution of major frog clades , blackburn said . after the extinction event decimated ecosystems and stimulated a reset , modern frogs may have faced similar evolutionary paths .\n\u201cyou could easily go to central africa , the philippines and ecuador and find what look like the same frogs that might have last shared a common ancestor 120 million years ago , \u201d he said . \u201cthese different lineages seem to have diversified in similar ways after the extinction . \u201d\nwhile the extinction event opened new opportunities for frogs , notably leading to the evolution of tree frogs worldwide , it snuffed out many frog lineages , particularly in north america , blackburn said .\n\u201cexcept for a small handful of species , all other north american frogs are \u2018post - dinosaur\u2019 colonists , \u201d blackburn said . \u201cif you could travel back to the time of t . rex in north america , there would be frogs , but the chorus you would hear at night would have been nothing like you\u2019d hear today . they\u2019re not even the same families . \u201d\nthese petropedates cameronensis in the vicinity of manjo , cameroon , belong to the frog clade natatanura , which originated in africa soon after the mass extinction that wiped out three - fourths of life on earth . photo courtesy of brian freiermuth\nthe call of this mantidactylus lugubris from madagascar is a single , quick trill . photo courtesy of brian freiermuth\nthe range of the african ornate frog , or hildebrandtia ornata , spans much of africa . this species is rarely seen above ground outside of the breeding season and often lives in lowland savannah , like this one in tanzania . photo courtesy of brian freiermuth\nfound only in madagascar , mantella baroni\u2019s bright colors warn would - be predators of its toxicity . photo courtesy of brian freiermuth\nthis cameroon slippery frog , or conraua robusta , was found near manjo , cameroon . a relative of the goliath frog , the world\u2019s largest frog species , it can kill mice , rats and large insects . photo courtesy of brian freiermuth\ntree frogs , such as this boophis marojezensis from madagascar , all evolved after the extinction of the dinosaurs , taking advantage of the gradual rebound in forests . photo courtesy of brian freiermuth\nthe study also indicates that global frog distribution tracks the breakup of the supercontinents , beginning with pangea about 200 million years ago and then , gondwana , which split into south america and africa . the data suggests frogs likely used antarctica , not yet encased in ice sheets , as a stepping stone from south america to australia .\nblackburn is eager to use the new phylogeny as a roadmap for the fossil record , particularly for frogs that occurred in the cretaceous .\n\u201cthis sets up expectations of what we should or shouldn\u2019t find , \u201d he said . \u201cit\u2019s exciting to think about what discoveries could lay ahead in the frog fossil record . \u201d\nwhile the survival and subsequent comeback of frogs testifies to their resilience , zhang said , their current vulnerability to disease , habitat loss and degradation is cause for concern .\n\u201ci think the most exciting thing about our study is that we show that frogs are such a strong animal group . they survived from the mass extinction that completely erased dinosaurs and boomed back quickly , \u201d he said . \u201chowever , frog species are declining nowadays because humans are destroying their habitats . does that mean humans are making a huge extinction event even stronger than this one ? we need to think about it . \u201d\nother study co - authors are yan - jie feng and dan liang of sun yat - sen university , david hillis and david cannatella of the university of texas at austin and david wake of the university of california , berkeley .\nthe research was funded by the u . s . national science foundation , national natural science foundation of china , the national youth talent support program and the national science fund for excellent young scholars of china .\nnote to reporters : david blackburn is out of the office the week of july 3 and best reached by email or by contacting natalie van hoose at nvanhoose @ urltoken , 352 - 273 - 1922 .\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nmiguel vences and frank glaw institute for biodiversity and ecosystem dynamics ( ibed ) zoological museum university of amsterdam mauritskade 61 1092 ad amsterdam netherlands m . vences @ urltoken\ntongue aiming ability was quantified by having individuals of phrynomantis bifasciatus aim into five quadrants : ( a ) left\u2013 46\u00b0 to \u2013105\u00b0 , ( b ) left \u20136\u00b0 to \u201345\u00b0 , ( c ) 0\u00b0 to 5\u00b0 to either side , ( d ) right 6\u00b0 to 45\u00b0 , ( e ) right 46\u00b0 to 105\u00b0 . the quadrant is essentially a bib , with the midline of the head designating 0\u00b0 . as the head of the animal turns , the quadrant follows this movement so that a line drawn down the midline of the head would always be located at 0\u00b0 .\nventral view of the buccal region of a cleared and stained specimen of phrynomantis bifasciatus . left and right sides are nearly identical . major cranial nerves are labeled on the left side and rami of the nerves that innervate the tongue and hyobranchial musculature are labeled on the right side . branches of the trigeminal nerve ( v ) innervate the m . submentalis ( 1 ) and the m . intermandibularis ( 2 ) . branches of the hypoglossal nerve ( xii ) innervate the m . genioglossus dorsoventralis , longitudinalis and transversalis ( 3 ) and the m . hyoglossus ( 4 ) . the glossopharyngeal nerve ( ix ) is dorsal to the hypoglossal nerve and innervates other hyobranchial musculature and the tongue pad . numbers 1 and 3 are located at the approximate sites of nerve transection for denervation of the m . intermandibularis and m . genioglossus lateralis and dorsoventralis , respectively .\nventral view of the superficial throat musculature in two anurans . ( a ) undifferentiated m . intermandibularis posterior of a typical frog . ( b ) differentiation of the m . intermandibularis posterior into two separate accessory slips in phrynomantis bifasciatus . mm , mentomeckelian element ; sm , m . submentalis ; ip , m . intermandibularis posterior ; m , mandible ; ih , m . interhyoideus ; ipa1 , m . intermandibularis posterior accessory 1 ; ipa2 , m . intermandibularis posterior accessory 2 .\nsagittal section of the tongue of phrynomantis bifasciatus . ( a ) note that the fibers of the m . genioglossus dorsoventralis are directed longitudinally and then dorso - ventrally . ( b ) magnified view of the m . genioglossus dorsoventralis . single fibers run in both the longitudinal and vertical planes . d , dentary ; gh , m . geniohyoideus ; ggdv , m . genioglossus dorsoventralis ; ggl , genioglossus longitudinalis ; h , hyobranchium ; hg , m . hyoglossus ; im , m . intermandibularis ; ggt , m . genioglossus transversalis ; m , mucosal layer . scale bar , 1 mm .\ntongue protraction in phrynomantis bifasciatus when prey is placed directly in front of the animal . ( a ) normal feeding . there is no deviation of the tongue when attempting to capture prey . ( b ) after right unilateral m . submentalis and m . intermandibularis denervation , the tongue is protracted normally . ( c ) after right unilateral m . genioglossus ( both longitudinalis and dorsoventralis ) denervation , the tongue deviates towards the right ( inactive ) side . animals are no longer able to capture prey placed directly in front of the head or towards the active side .\ntest examining the effect on aiming after right unilateral m . genioglossus denervation on one individual\nspecies in which tongue aiming ability was examined , including the number of animals observed , presence or absence of aiming , maximum tongue angle when aiming , mean angle of tongue deviation after unilateral m . genioglossus denervation ( when prey is presented directly in front of the frog ) and direction of deviation after unilateral denervation\nthank you for your interest in spreading the word on journal of experimental biology .\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the journal of experimental biology web site .\nphoto credit : t . - c . francis pan some oyster larvae grow faster than others , but now donal t . manahan and colleagues reveal that the fastest growers are marked out by their high protein synthesis rates .\n\u201cone of the underappreciated benefits of fellowships is the act of applying for them , because you have to write and articulate your ideas . \u201d\nin our latest early - career interview , we chat to simon sponberg , assistant professor at the georgia institute of technology , usa . he shares the story of his career , beginning with how he combined a love of physics and biology by studying how geckos stick to walls .\na new review from craig p . mcgowan and clint e . collins looks at the ecology , biomechanics and evolution of bipedal hopping in mammals , with a focus on why bipedal hopping has arisen in multiple clades of mammals .\nphoto credit : ari friedlaender not all orca species prey on aquatic mammals , so how do delphinids know when they are at risk ? a new study shows that pilot whales and risso\u2019s dolphins flee from a subset of orca calls that share acoustic characteristics with other mammal alarm calls , including human screams . this article was featured in science magazine .\nat the heart of prelights is the community of early - career researchers who select and highlight interesting preprints in various fields . we are now ready to grow our team of prelighters who are passionate about preprints and enjoy writing and communicating science . find out more here and apply by the extended deadline , 20 july 2018 .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\ntweets # frogotd professor & director ecology programme @ zoology _ otago . chief scientist ( asa ) & co - chair ( asg ) @ amphibiansorg . co - founder jane goodall inst . nz\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information ."]}
{"id": 2608, "summary": [{"text": "tholera decimalis , the feathered gothic , is a species of moth of the family noctuidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in europe and scandinavia then through the palearctic to asia minor , western central asia , southern siberia and in north africa . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "tholera decimalis", "paragraphs": ["valter jacinto marked\ntholera decimalis\nas trusted on the\ntholera decimalis\npage .\nvalter jacinto marked\ntholera decimalis\nas trusted on the\ntholera decimalis poda 1761\npage .\nvalter jacinto set\nimage of tholera decimalis\nas an exemplar on\ntholera decimalis poda 1761\n.\nvalter jacinto set\nimage of tholera decimalis\nas an exemplar on\ntholera\n.\njennifer hammock set\nimage of tholera decimalis\nas an exemplar on\ntholera\n.\nfeathered gothic ( tholera decimalis ) - norfolk moths - the macro and micro moths of norfolk .\ntholera cespitis , the hedge rustic , is a species of moth of the noctuidae family . it is found through the palearctic from europe to the altai mountains of siberia .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngaden s . robinson , phillip r . ackery , ian j . kitching , george w . beccaloni and luis m . hern\u00e1ndez\nhosts brings together an enormous body of information on what the world ' s butterfly and moth ( lepidoptera ) caterpillars eat . the web - based version presented here offers a synoptic data set drawn from about 180 , 000 records comprising taxonomically ' cleaned ' hostplant data for about 22 , 000 lepidoptera species drawn from about 1600 published and manuscript sources . it is not ( and cannot be ) exhaustive , but it is probably the best and most comprehensive compilation of hostplant data available .\nwe hope that it will be useful to a wide range of biologists and that it will act as a spur to further recording and analysis of caterpillar - plant interactions .\nhosts can be searched in two ways , using text search and drill - down search modes .\nin text search mode , use either lepidoptera or hostplant criteria or a combination of the two . hosts operates only using scientific names . it is not possible to search for the hostplants of the red admiral butterfly but a search for hostplants using its scientific name , vanessa atalanta , will be successful . enter the generic name ( vanessa ) in the - lepidoptera criteria - genus box ; enter atalanta in the species : box ; click search .\nhint : leave the ' starts with ' command as the default and in the species entry box omit the last few letters of the species - name ( eg , atalant ) . this will get around the problem of variable gender - endings . hosts uses original orthography of species - group names as far as possible , but some checklists follow the convention of altering the species - group name to accord with the presumed gender of the generic name ( eg flava , flavus ) .\nrestrict or refine searches using additional criteria ; choosing ' usa ' from the drop - down location box and entering [ starts with ] ' urt ' in the hostplant family box will return hostplant records of vanessa atalanta from urticaceae in the usa .\nhint : restricting location may deliver a very incomplete subset of records : in the previous example all records specified as from the nearctic region ( usa + canada ) would be missed .\nthe preliminary search results pages give family , genus and species of the caterpillar and its hostplant . note that many hostplants are recorded as a plant genus only . clicking the caterpillar name will give the full record . the full record listing gives , additionally , the author of the lepidoptera species , subspecific information on the insect and the plant , if available , together with details of larval damage . laboratory rearings where the food utilised may not be the natural hostplant are indicated . the status of the record ( whether considered true , erroneous or suspect ) is not currently implemented in this version of hosts .\nleguminosae ( c ) - caesalpinioideae . leguminosae ( m ) - mimosoideae . leguminosae ( p ) - papilionoideae .\ndetailed published compilations from hosts are available in press . these books give greater detail than the website , together with comprehensive cross - indexes , record status and full bibliographies . they are indispensable tools for naturalists and professional entomologists .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2001 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of the oriental region . 744 pp .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2002 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of america north of mexico . 824 pp . [ memoirs of the american entomological institute , volume 69 . ]\ngaden robinson was responsible for the overall project design and management of the hosts database , and for records of lepidoptera exclusive of butterflies and bombycoid moths . phillip ackery and george beccaloni were responsible for butterfly data , including data drawn from card catalogues developed by ackery , whilst ian kitching was responsible for hostplant data of bombycoid moths . luis m . hern\u00e1ndez was responsible for abstracting in the latter two years of the project and for development of the bibliography for the hardcopy versions of the data .\nwe are extremely grateful to the many people who contributed their own rearing records of lepidoptera or personal accumulations of data for inclusion in the hosts database , particularly mike bigger ( uk ) , john w . brown ( usa ) , chris conlan ( usa ) , rob ferber ( usa ) , konrad fiedler ( germany ) , jeremy holloway ( uk ) , frank hsu ( usa ) , jurie intachat ( malaysia ) , alec mcclay ( canada ) , bill palmer ( australia ) , pierre plauzoles ( usa ) and the generous individuals who contributed rearing records through the worldwideweb and who are known to us only as an email address .\nwe are particularly grateful to julian donahue and the los angeles county museum of natural history for allowing us to include data on microlepidoptera from the card catalogue prepared by the late j . a . comstock and c . henne , and for access to manuscript records by noel mcfarland .\nmarian fricano ( santa clara university ) and aileen giovanello ( clark university , international internship 1996 ) made substantial contributions of abstracted data ; fran love ( north carolina ) painstakingly checked scanned texts and reformatted them for import to paradox .\nwe are indebted to all our helpers for their diligence , accuracy and patience , and for their unswerving faith that this daunting project would reach a conclusion .\nwe thank the trustees of the loke wan tho memorial foundation for their generous support for this project .\nrobinson , g . s . , p . r . ackery , i . j . kitching , g . w . beccaloni & l . m . hern\u00e1ndez , 2010 . hosts - a database of the world ' s lepidopteran hostplants . natural history museum , london . urltoken . ( accessed : 18 aug . 2010 ) .\nbrummitt , r . k . 1992 . vascular plant families and genera . [ vi ] + 804 pp . , royal botanic gardens , kew .\nkartesz , j . t . 1994 . a synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the unites states , canada and greenland . timber press , portland . 1 , checklist , lxi + 622 pp ; 2 , thesaurus , vii + 816 pp .\nkitching , i . j . & cadiou , j . - m . 2000 . hawkmoths of the world : an annotated and illustrated revsionary checklist . xx + 500 pp . , cornell university press , ithaca .\nkitching , i . j . & rawlins , j . e . 1999 . the noctuoidea . pp . 355 - 401 . in : kristensen , n . p . ( ed . ) lepidoptera , moths and butterflies . 1 . evolution , systematics and biogeography . handbook of zoology , 4 ( 35 ) . lepidoptera . x + 491 pp . de gruyter , berlin .\nletourneau , d . k . , hagen , j . a . & robinson , g . s . 2001 . bt crops : evaluating benefits under cultivation and risks from escaped transgenes in the wild . pp . 33 - 98 . in : letourneau , d . k . & burrows , b . e . ( eds ) , genetically engineered organisms : assessing environmental and human health effects . [ viii ] + 438 pp . , crc press , boca raton .\nmabberley , d . j . 1987 . the plant book . a portable dictionary of the higher plants . xii + 707 pp . , cambridge university press . [ the 1993 reprint edition is currently used in editing . ]\nnielsen , e . s . , edwards , e . d . & rangsi , t . v . ( eds ) 1996 . checklist of the lepidoptera of australia . monographs on australian lepidoptera . 4 . xiv + 529 pp . , csiro , melbourne .\nnye , i . w . b . ( ed . ) 1975 - 91 . the generic names of moths of the world . 1 : 568 pp . ( noctuoidea ( part ) - nye , i . w . b . , 1975 ) ; 2 : xiv + 228 pp . ( noctuoidea ( part ) - watson , a . , fletcher , d . s . & nye , i . w . b . , 1980 ) ; 3 : xx + 243 pp . ( geometroidea - fletcher , d . s . , 1979 ) ; 4 : xiv + 192 pp . ( bombycoidea to zygaenoidea - fletcher , d . s . & nye , i . w . b . , 1982 ) ; 5 : xv + 185 pp . ( pyraloidea - fletcher , d . s . & nye , 1984 ) ; 6 : xxix + 368 pp . ( microlepidoptera - nye , i . w . b . & fletcher , d . s . , 1991 ) . british museum ( natural history ) / the natural history museum , london .\nrawlins , j . e . 1984 . mycophagy in lepidoptera . pp . 382 - 483 . in : wheeler , q . & blackwell , m . ( eds ) fungus - insect relationships . perspectives in ecology and evolution . 514 pp . , columbia university press .\nrobinson , g . s . 1999 . hosts - a database of the hostplants of the world ' s lepidoptera . nota lepidopterologica , 22 : 35 - 47 .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2001 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of the oriental region . 744 pp . southdene sdn bhd , kuala lumpur .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2002 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of america north of mexico . memoirs of the american entomological institute , 69 : 1 - 824 .\nscoble , m . j . ( ed . ) 1999 . a taxonomic catalogue to the geometridae of the world ( insecta : lepidoptera ) . 2 vols . csiro publications , melbourne .\nroyal botanic garden edinburgh dipterocarpaceae database : http : / / 193 . 62 . 154 . 38 / diptero /\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\noccupying rough grassland and downland , this moth is widely distributed , though local , over much of britain , and is common in parts .\nthe adults are on the wing in august and september , when the males in particular are attracted to light .\na grass - feeding species , the young larvae eat the blades , and when more mature , descend to ground level and devour the stems .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 07 - 04 17 : 01 : 59 page render time : 0 . 2700s total w / procache : 0 . 3083s\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nrecorded in 55 ( 80 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1873 . last recorded in 2017 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nto date 683 species of macro - moth along with 1159 species of micro - moth have been recorded in norfolk since records began in victorian times . this site aims to provide full details of all the species that occur ( or once occurred ) in norfolk , with photographs , descriptions , flight graphs , latest records , distribution maps and more !\nif you have photos of any moths featured on this site , and would like them displayed along with your name and comments . . . please send them in ( any size . jpg images ) .\nplease consider helping with the running costs of norfolk moths . thank you : - )\nclick here to support naturespot by making a donation - small or large - your gift is very much appreciated . thank you .\nwingspan 32 - 45 mm . a variable , often grey - brown moth well marked with lines and other marks .\na grass - feeding species , the young larvae eat the blades and , when more mature , descend to ground level and devour the stems .\nwidely distributed over much of britain it can be quite common in some parts . in a recent survey to determine the status of all macro moths in britain this species was classified as common .\nfairly common in leicestershire and rutland . l & r moth group status = a ( common and resident )\nthe wingspan is 34\u201340 mm . forewing dark earth brown ; lines indistinct ; inner and outer black with paler edges ; submarginal pale , with black wedge - shaped spots before it ; claviform stigma obscure , black - edged ; orbicular roundish , brown with pale ring ; reniform large with paler outline , especially externally ; hindwing whitish , the veins dark ; termen diffusely brownish ; in male white , with termen narrowly grey ; \u2014 ab . ferruginea hofm . ( carinthia and the tyrol ) is much paler with a reddish yellow tint .\nthere is one generation per year with adults on wing from the end of july to september .\nlarva shining dark brown ; thoracic and anal plates black ; head brown ; dorsal and subdorsal lines narrow , pale yellow ; lateral stripe broader ; spiracles black . the larvae feed on various grasses , including nardus stricta , calamagrostis purpurea , festuca and deschampsia species . larvae can be found from march to july . the species overwinters as an egg .\nnesting biology of the solitary digger wasp podalonia affinis ( k . ) ( hymenoptera : sphecidae )\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .\nnesting biology of the solitary digger wasp podalonia affinis ( k . ) ( hymenoptera : sphecidae ) [ 1993 ]\nnesting biology of the solitary digger wasp podalonia affinis ( k . ) ( hymenoptera : sphecidae )\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nthe gothic ( naenia typica ) is a moth of the family noctuidae . it is distributed in temperate eurasia , in the palearctic ecozone , including europe , turkey , iran , caucasus , armenia , transcaucasia , central asia , altai mountains , and west and central siberia .\nthe forewings are broader than those of most other noctuids , and blackish with a network of fine white lines . the pattern is supposedly reminiscent of some elements of gothic architecture . the hindwings are grey . the species flies at night in june and july in the british isles . it sometimes comes to light but is not generally strongly attracted . by contrast , it is strongly attracted to sugar and flowers .\nthis species has a wingspan of 36 to 46 mm . forewing brownish fuscous , the veins pale ; edges of the upper stigmata whitish ; the cell blackish ; lines pale with dark edges ; hindwing brownish fuscous . the form issyca p\u00fcng , from issykkul is redder , and has the termen less crenulate . \u2014 brunnea tutt has the ground colour ochreous brown with the veins pale ochreous instead of white ."]}
{"id": 2613, "summary": [{"text": "dactylagnus parvus , the panamic stargazer , is a species of sand stargazer found along the pacific coast of southern baja california to panama where it can be found down to a depth of about 6 metres ( 20 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it can reach a maximum length of 3.2 centimetres ( 1.3 in ) sl . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "dactylagnus parvus", "paragraphs": ["the following term was not found in genome : dactylagnus parvus [ orgn ] .\nlatin name parvus refers to the diminutive size of this species ( ref . 39697 )\npanamic stargazer , dactylagnus parvus . a very rare species caught in the surf zone off the beach with a water bucket , todos santos , baja california sur , june 2013 . length : 6 . 2 cm ( 2 . 4 inches ) .\nthe panamic stargazer , dactylagnus parvus , whose common spanish name is miraestrellas pan\u00e1mica , is a member of the sand stargazers or dactyloscopidae family known collectively as miraestrellas in mexico . this fish is also known as the dwarf stargazer . globally , there are only three species in the genus dactylagnus , two of which are found in mexican waters , both in the pacific .\nthe panamic stargazer can be confused with the giant stargazer , dactylagnus mundus ( no saddles on back ; 35 to 41 anal fin rays ; dorsal fin origin behind anal fin origin ) .\ndawson , c . e . , 1976 . , studies on eastern pacific sand stargazers . 3 . dactylagnus and myxodagnus with description of a new species and subspecies . , copeia , 1976 ( 1 ) : 13 - 43 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) . 2014 . catalog of fishes . updated 27 august 2014 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 august 2014 ) .\njustification : this species is widespread in the eastern pacific . there are no known major threats to this species , and no current indication of population decline . it is listed as least concern .\nthis species is endemic to the eastern pacific , and has an apparently disjunct distribution : occurring in southern baja california ; central mexico and the tres marias islands ; and then from nicaragua to panama .\nthis benthic species inhabits estuaries , mangroves and shallow sandy areas . it is also found in other soft bottom habitats .\nthere are no major threats known for this species . however , there may be some localized declines due to habitat loss from coastal development and loss of mangroves .\nthere are no known conservation measures for this species . however , this species distribution falls partially into a number of marine protected areas in the eastern pacific region ( wdpa 2006 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nwe parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge .\nhead large , deep , bluntly rounded to oblique at front ; lower jaw short , broad , without projecting knob ; both lips with fleshy flaps , 12 - 21 on top lip ; eyes not stalked ; top corner of operculum with fringe of 8 - 17 slender flaps ; dorsal fin continuous , origin before anal fin origin , viii - xi , 25 - 29 ; anal ii , 29 - 34 ; no notch under tail base ; pectoral broad - based , long , 12 - 14 ( usually 13 ) rays ; tail fin with 10 branched rays ; lateral line continuous , bends down under 6th - 8th dorsal spine ; scales smooth , head and belly scaleless ; lateral line scales 43 - 49 , 28 - 33 on straight part .\nbody light tan with brown markings ; a large blotch between eyes and several smaller blotches behind ; 8 - 9 bars along upper back ; little or no pigment in mouth ; dorsal fin irregularly streaked ; tail with 2 - 3 faint bars ; pectoral with 3 broken bars .\nfindley , l . t . , hendrickx , m . e . , brusca , r . c . , van der heiden , a . m . , hastings , p . a . , torre , j . , 2003 . , diversidad de la macrofauna marina del golfo de california , mexico . , cd - rom versi\u02c7n 1 . 0 . projecto de la macrofauna del golfo . \u00e1 derechos reservados de los autores y conservaci\u02c7n internacional .\nlove , m . s . , mecklenburg , c . w . , mecklenburg , t . a . , thorsteinson , l . k . , 2005 . , es of the west coast and alaska : a checklist of north pacific and artic ocena species from baja california to the alaska - yukon border . , u . s . department of the interior , u . s . geological survey , biological resources division , 288pp .\nvan der heiden , a . m . and findley , l . t . , 1988 . , lista de los peces marinos del sur de sinaloa , m\u00faxico . , anales del centro de ciencias del mar y limnologia de la universidad autonoma nacional de mexico , 15 : 209 - 224 .\ni thank ashley macdonald and john pickering , university of georgia , for technical support in building this page .\ngreek , daktyleys , - eos = a kind of grey mullet + latin , agnus = pure , chaste ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 0 - 6 m ( ref . 39697 ) . tropical\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 3 . 2 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 39697 )\nde la cruz ag\u251c\u255dero , j . , m . arellano mart\u251c\u015fnez , v . m . cota g\u251c\u2502mez and g . de la cruz - ag\u251c\u255dero , 1997 . catalogo de los peces marinos de baja california sur . ipn - cicimar , la paz , mexico . p . 346 . ( ref . 37955 )\n) : 23 . 3 - 29 . 1 , mean 27 . 9 ( based on 156 cells ) . phylogenetic diversity index ( ref .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref .\n) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nthe panamic stargazers have elongated cigar - shaped bodies that taper gradually to the tail . they are light brown with brown markings including a large blotch between their eyes , several smaller blotches behind their eyes , and eight or nine bars along their upper back . their snout is unpigmented . their caudal fin has two or three faint bars , their dorsal fin is irregularly streaked , and their pectoral fins have three broken bars . they have a large head that is deep and bluntly rounded at the front , tubular nostrils , and an upturned mouth with a protruding lower jaw . their eyes are on top of the head and not stalked . their anal fin has two spines and 29 to 34 rays ; their dorsal fin is continuous , originates before the anal fin , and has 8 to 11 spines and 28 to 34 rays ; and their pectoral fins have a broad base with 12 to 14 rays . their lateral line is continuous and their body is covered with small scales .\nthe panamic stargazers are a solitary benthic coastal species normally found submerged in substrate such as beaches , sand bottoms , and soft bottom habitats in mangroves and estuaries at depths up to 20 feet . they reach a maximum length of 6 . 2 cm ( 2 . 4 inches ) , with the fish photographed below establishing this maximum length . they are ambush predators that lie in wait with only their eyes exposed and consume small invertebrates and fish . they are poorly studied and little is known about their behavioral patterns .\nin mexican waters the panamic stargazers have a limited distribution in waters of the pacific and are found from magdalena bay southward along the southwest coast of baja and from acapulco southward to guatemala along the coast of the mainland .\nthe panamic stargazers are small and seldom seen by humans . they are of limited interest to most and currently classified as of least concern from a conservation perspective . they are prone to habitat loss , including mangroves , from coastal development .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence ."]}
{"id": 2635, "summary": [{"text": "parthenos , the clippers , are a genus of butterflies found in southeast asia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "parthenos sylvia is widespread , occurring from assam and burma to sri lanka , indochina , the philippines , new guinea and the solomon islands .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "parthenos tigrina and p. aspila are endemic to new guinea and adjacent islands . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "parthenos", "paragraphs": ["parthenos sylvia virens moore , 1877 \u2013 sahyadri clipper ( indian subspecies ) . parthenos sylvia gambrisius fabricius , 1787 \u2013 bengal clipper ( indian subspecies ) . parthenos sylvia roepstorfii moore , 1897 \u2013 andaman clipper ( indian subspecies ) . parthenos sylvia nila evans , 1932 \u2013 nicobar clipper ( indian subspecies ) .\nparthenos will bring together several existing research infrastructures to make it easier to find and combine information from different domains . therefore parthenos will join together data and people from many disciplines in the humanities . by working together , parthenos will :\nan example of a parthenos is a woman who has never had sexual intercourse .\npheidias introduced his own portrait and that of pericles on the shield of his parthenos statue .\nspecies platarctia parthenos - st . lawrence tiger moth - hodges # 8162 - bugguide . net\nparthenos tigrina terentianus fruhstorfer , 1912 ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 647\nparthenos sylvia aspila ; fruhstorfer , 1916 , archiv naturg . 81 a ( 11 ) : 67\nthe acronym parthenos stands for \u201cpooling activities , resources and tools for heritage e - research networking , optimization and synergies\u201d . it is inspired by athena parthenos , the greek goddess of wisdom , inspiration and civilization .\nparthenos sylvia sangira talbot , 1932 ; bull . hill . mus . 4 : 165 ; tl : sangier\nparthenos stands for \u201cpooling activities , resources and tools for heritage e - research networking , optimization and synergies\u201d . it is inspired by the name of athena parthenos , the greek goddess of wisdom , inspiration and civilization .\nyou can access the tools , services and resources made available by parthenos by clicking on the links below .\nparthenos sylvia salentia ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 201\nparthenos sylvia sulana ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 201\nparthenos sylvia numita fruhstorfer , 1904 ; soc . ent . 19 ( 10 ) : 74 ; tl : goram\nparthenos sylvia sangira ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 201\ndo you have questions about the parthenos project ? send us an email and we will get in touch shortly .\nparthenos will establish the foundations for future interoperability of the humanities : other domains will be able to integrate into the parthenos infrastructure ( currently under development ) . other less integrated domains will be able to learn the value of preserving and sharing data and findings . parthenos will build bridges between the existing european research infrastructure consortiums ( erics ) , like clarin and dariah , and provide a roadmap for future development and collaboration of the erics . parthenos will produce :\nparthenos sylvia etoga fruhstorfer , 1913 ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 647 ; tl : guadalcanar\nparthenos sylvia bangkaiensis fruhstorfer , 1913 ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 646 ; tl : bangkai\nparthenos aspila tenebrosa rothschild , 1915 ; novit . zool . 22 ( 2 ) : 208 ; tl : dampier island\nparthenos aspila vulcanica rothschild , 1915 ; novit . zool . 22 ( 2 ) : 208 ; tl : vulcan island\nparthenos sylvia neohannoverana fruhstorfer , 1913 ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 647 ; tl : new hanover\nparthenos sylvia obiana fruhstorfer , 1904 ; soc . ent . 19 ( 10 ) : 74 ; tl : obi i .\nparthenos sylvia pherekrates fruhstorfer , 1904 ; soc . ent . 19 ( 10 ) : 74 ; tl : fergusson i .\nparthenos sylvia theriotes fruhstorfer , 1915 ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 747 ; tl : new guinea\nparthenos tigrina ; [ bow ] : pl . 149 , f . 18 ; [ ebw ] ; [ nhm card ]\nparthenos sylvia guineensis fruhstorfer , 1899 ; stettin ent . ztg 59 ( 7 - 9 ) : 251 ; tl : new guinea\nparthenos sylvia bandana fruhstorfer , 1913 ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 646 ; tl : banda i .\nparthenos sylvia ugiensis fruhstorfer , 1913 ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 647 ; tl : ugi i .\nparthenos sylvia admiralia rothschild , 1915 ; novit . zool . 22 ( 2 ) : 207 ; tl : manus , admiralty islands\nparthenos sylvia sumbae van eecke , 1933 ; zool . meded . 16 ( 6 ) : 62 ; tl : w . soemba\nparthenos sylvia pardalis fruhstorfer , 1904 ; dt . ent . z . iris 17 ( 1 ) : 138 ; tl : waigiu\nparthenos aspila honrath , 1888 ; berl . ent . z . 32 ( 1 ) : 248 ; tl : german new guinea\npoole ( 1989 ) included parthenos h\u00fcbner , 1823 ; and catocalirrhus andrews , 1877 as junior synonyms of euparthenos grote , 1876 .\nparthenos sylvia philippensis fruhstorfer , 1899 ; stettin ent . ztg 59 ( 7 - 9 ) : 249 ; tl : luzon ; bazilan\nparthenos sylvia ellina fruhstorfer , 1899 ; stettin ent . ztg 59 ( 7 - 9 ) : 250 ; tl : batjan ; halmaheira\nparthenos sylvia tualensis fruhstorfer , 1899 ; stettin ent . ztg 59 ( 7 - 9 ) : 250 ; tl : tual , key\nparthenos sylvia butlerinus ab . bellimontis fruhstorfer , 1899 ; stettin ent . ztg 59 ( 7 - 9 ) : 254 ; tl : borneo\nparthenos sylvia pherekides fruhstorfer , 1904 ; soc . ent . 19 ( 10 ) : 73 ; tl : milne bay , collingwood - bay\nparthenos cyaneus moore , 1877 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 4 ) 20 ( 115 ) : 46 ; tl : ceylon\nparthenos thesaurinus grose - smith , 1897 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 19 : 177 ; tl : santa cruz\nparthenos sylvia sulana fruhstorfer , 1899 ; stettin ent . ztg 59 ( 7 - 9 ) : 249 ; tl : sula , mangoli , besi\nparthenos sylvia joloensis fruhstorfer , 1899 ; stettin ent . ztg 59 ( 7 - 9 ) : 250 ; tl : jolo , sula - archipel\nparthenos sylvia sumatrensis fruhstorfer , 1899 ; stettin ent . ztg 59 ( 7 - 9 ) : 254 ; tl : deli ; bedagei , sumatra\nposted by joel h . | translation practice | alma , bible , bible translation , isaiah 7 : 14 , parthenos , translation | 13 comments\ntype - species : parthenos nubilis h\u00fcbner , 1823 . samml . exot . schmett . 2 : pl . [ 215 ] . [ bhl ]\nparthenos sylvia var . brunnea staudinger , 1888 ; in staudinger & schatz , exot . schmett . 1 ( 13 ) : 141 ; tl : amboina\nthe specific epithet parthenos is a greek noun meaning \u2018\u2018virgin\u2019\u2019 or \u2018\u2018maiden , \u2019\u2019 in reference to the presumed reproductive strategy of this all - female species .\nparthenos lilacinus butler , 1879 ; trans . linn . soc . lond . ( 2 ) 1 ( 8 ) : 544 ; tl : malacca ; penang\nparthenos was a princess of the island of naxos who leapt into the sea , along with her sister hemithea , to escape the wrath of her father staphylos . the pair were transformed into goddesses by apollon who , according to some , was their natural father . parthenos was worshipped in the karian ( carian ) town of bubastos and her sister hemithea in neighbouring kastabos ( castabus ) . according to some parthenos was also set amongst the stars as the constellation virgo .\nparthenos virens moore , 1877 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 4 ) 20 ( 115 ) : 46 ; tl : calicut , malabar coast\nparthenos roepstorfii moore , [ 1897 ] ; lepidoptera indica 3 ( 27 ) : 54 , pl . 207 , f . 2 ; tl : andamans , nicobar\nthe parthenos project empowers digital research in the fields of history , language studies , cultural heritage , archaeology , and related fields across the ( digital ) humanities .\nparthenos tigrina and p . aspila are endemic to new guinea and surounding islands . p . sylvia is widespread , occurring from the solomon islands to sri lanka .\nparthenos apicalis moore , 1878 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1878 ( 4 ) : 829 ; tl : above ahsown ; taoo , 3000 - 5000ft\nparthenos is led by pin ( italy ) and has 16 partners . the scientific coordinator is prof . franco niccolucci . to know more about the partners please visit the dedicated page\nthe parthenos virtual research environment provides free access to data , tools and services ( e . g . natural language processing tools , entity recognition , \u2026 ) to support humanities researchers .\na junior homonym of parthenos h\u00fcbner , [ 1819 ] 1816 , verz . bekannter schmett . : 38 , lepid . , nymphalidae . the objective replacement name is euparthenos grote , 1876 .\nposted by joel h . | q & a , translation practice | alma , bible , bible secrets revealed , bible translation , history channel , parthenos , translation , virgin birth | 12 comments\nposted by joel h . | translation practice | alma , bible , bible translation , isaiah 7 : 14 , matthew 1 : 23 , parthenos , proof text , translation , virgin birth | 5 comments\nparthenos is a horizon 2020 project funded by the european commission . the views and opinions expressed in this publication are the sole responsibility of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the european commission .\n[ the constellation virgo . ] others call her a daughter of apollo by chrysothemis , an infant , named parthenos ( maiden ) . because she died youg she was put by apollo among the constellations .\nthere are many stately figures in the roman and other museums which clearly belong to the same school as the parthenos ; but they are copies of the roman age , and not to be trusted in point of style .\nparthenos sylvia ; [ ebw ] ; [ bow ] : pl . 149 , f . 17 ; [ bor ] , 336 ; [ mrs ] , 555 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 200\nthere are 3 species in the genus parthenos . the commonest and most widespread is sylvia , which is found from india to the philippines , and south to papua new guinea . the remaining species , aspila and tigrina , are both endemic to new guinea .\nalready it had been robbed of many of its works of art , among them the athena promachos and the parthenos of pheidias , for the adornment of constantinople , and further spoliation took place when the church of st sophia was built in a . d .\npa\u2032rthenos ( parthenos ) , i . e . the virgin , a surname of athena at athens , where the famous temple parthenon was dedicated to her . ( paus . i . 24 , v . ii . \u00a7 5 , viii . 41 . \u00a7 5 , x . 34 , in fin . ) parthenos also occurs as the proper name of the daughter of apollo and chrysothemis , who after her premature death was placed by her father among the stars . ( hygin . poet . astr . 25 . in fin . )\nin this case , the hebrew word here \u2014 alma \u2014 probably referred to what we would now call a teenager . ( the greek translation in the septuagint , parthenos , probably did mean \u201cvirgin , \u201d but the greek here is widely regarded as a translation mistake . )\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . parthenos sylvia cramer , 1775 . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .\nparthenos aims at strengthening the cohesion of research in the broad sector of linguistic studies , humanities , cultural heritage , history , archaeology and related fields through a thematic cluster of european research infrastructures , integrating initiatives , e - infrastructures and other world - class infrastructures , and building bridges between different , although tightly , interrelated fields . parthenos will achieve this objective through the definition and support of common standards , the coordination of joint activities , the harmonization of policy definition and implementation , and the development of pooled services and of shared solutions to the same problems .\nposted by joel h . | bible versions , translation practice , translation theory | alma , bible , bible translation , biblical prophecy , isaiah 7 : 14 , luke 1 : 26 , matthew 1 : 18 , nab , nabre , parthenos , translation , virgin birth | 45 comments\nbut among the greeks themselves the two works of pheidias which far outshone all others , and were the basis of his fame , were the colossal figures in gold and ivory of zeus at olympia and of athena parthenos at athens , both of which belong to about the middle of the 5th century .\nhome \u00bb guide \u00bb arthropods ( arthropoda ) \u00bb hexapods ( hexapoda ) \u00bb insects ( insecta ) \u00bb butterflies and moths ( lepidoptera ) \u00bb owlet moths and kin ( noctuoidea ) \u00bb erebidae \u00bb tiger and lichen moths ( arctiinae ) \u00bb tiger moths ( arctiini ) \u00bb arctiina \u00bb platarctia \u00bb st . lawrence tiger moth - hodges # 8162 ( platarctia parthenos )\nunfortunately , the septuagint \u2014 the highly influential ancient greek translation of the old testament \u2014 got the translation wrong here , translating the hebrew alma as the greek parthenos , which ( probably ) did mean \u201cvirgin . \u201d it was an easy mistake to make , because most young women back then were virgins , and most virgins were young women . it would be like translating \u201cteenager\u201d as \u201chigh - school student\u201d in a society where most teenagers were in fact in high school .\nmatthew 1 : 18 - 25 only uses \u201cvirgin\u201d ( parthenos ) in quoting isaiah 7 : 14 . but matthew\u2019s description of jesus\u2019 birth is nonetheless clear on the matter . the text uses the euphemisms \u201cbefore [ mary and joseph ] came together [ sunerchomai ] \u201d and \u201c [ joseph ] did not know [ ginosko ] her [ mary ] until after she gave birth\u201d to indicate that mary was a virgin , and the text twice clarifies that the pregnancy was \u201cfrom the holy spirit\u201d [ ek pneumatos agiou ] .\nparthenos is a consortium of national research organisations ( e . g . cnr , italy and inria , france ) , cultural heritage institutions and existing research infrastructures ( as listed in the previous answer ) , which in turn often consist of many member organisations based across europe . the project is led by pin scrl , a research and educational public body organized as a consortium formed by the university of florence and local institutions . there are fifteen other partners . you can visit each of the participating organisations via this web page : urltoken\nalma and god said anthropos bible bible interpretation bible translation bible versions biblical prophecy bill mounce book giveaway ceb cev dragon dynamic equivalence esv formal equivalence gender gender accuracy genesis genesis 1 : 1 gnb god ' s word grammar greek greek grammar hebrew hebrew grammar idiom imagery isaiah isaiah 7 : 14 job joel m . hoffman john 3 : 16 jps king james version kjv leviticus 18 : 22 linguistics lxx matthew matthew 1 : 18 metaphor modern hebrew nab nephesh niv niv2011 njb nlt nrsv parthenos poetry proof text psalm 23 rashi reading level sarx semantics sin song of solomon song of songs son of god syntax ten commandments the message tniv to ' evah translation translation theory translation traps travel virgin birth word order year in review\nliolaemus parthenos abdala , baldo , ju\u00e1rez & espinoza 2016 liolaemus boulengeri cei 1973 : 464 , in part liolaemus boulengeri \u2014 cei & roig 1976 : 71ff , in part liolaemus boulengeri \u2014 cei & castro 1978 : 9 , 21 , map 16 , in part liolaemus boulengeri \u2014 cei 1986 : 220\u2013221 , in part liolaemus boulengeri \u2014 schulte et al . 2000 : 79 , 87 ; table 1 ; figs . 4\u20136 liolaemus sp . nov . morando et al . 2004 : 845 ; table 1\u20133 ; figs . 2 , 8 liolaemus sp . abdala & diaz g\u00f3mez 2006 : 29 ; fig . 3 liolaemus sp . 3 . abdala 2007 : 51ff ; figs . 32\u201336 liolaemus cf . darwinii \u2014 pincheira - donoso et al . 2007 : 32 ; fig . 3 liolaemus cf . darwinii \u2014 schulte 2013 : 5 ; fig . 1 liolaemus sp . 3 olave et al . 2014 : 329 , 331 ; figs . 4 , 6\nin both males and females , the upperside dark olive - green . the forewing with two broad black streaks from base , a transverse black line across cell followed by a white bar and two white spots beyond , a broad oblique discal band formed of large white spots bordered with black from costa , just before the apex , to interspace 1 , terminating in a bluish patch . finally , post - discal and terminal black bands . hind - wing : a basal and sub - basal transverse black streak , a transverse series of black spots decreasing in size anteriorly and two subcostal white spots . the discal area is marked with dark brown paired streaks in the interspaces , confluent outwardly , followed by a post - discal series of triangular dark spots and a terminal broad dark band . underside : pale bluish green , the black streaks from base of wings wanting , the markings otherwise as on upperside but less well defined . head , thorax and abdomen olive green barred with black ; beneath whitish . parthenos sylvia virens is the southern india form , very much resembling p . sylvia gambrisius but of a bronze green on the upperside and pale greenish grey on the underside fading to ashy grey towards the terminal margin of the forewing .\nceylon , w . ghats , nilgiris , e . bengal , assam , burma , malaya , philippines , new guinea . see [ maps ]\ncyaneformis tytler , 1939 ; entomologist 72 : 78 ; tl : andaman i .\nlarva on modecca [ bir ] , cucurbitaceae , ( new guinea ) [ baur ] adenia palmata , tinospora cordifolia [ bmp ] , ? tinospora , adenia , passiflora vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 201\n? nymphalis sylla westwood , 1838 ; donovan , insects china ( new edn ) : 69 , pl . 38 [ missp . ? ]\npapilio gambrisius fabricius , 1787 ; mantissa insectorum 2 : 12 ; tl : e . india\nminetra nodrica boisduval , 1832 ; in d ' urville , voy . astrolabe ( faune ent . pacif . ) 1 : 126 ; tl : ? buru\nminetra salentia hopffer , 1874 ; stettin ent . ztg 35 ( 1 - 3 ) : 35 ; tl : toli - toli\n773x894 ( ~ 220kb ) thailand , phuket , the khao phra theo national park , the lower reaches of bang pae brook . 27th february 2009 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\n1290x1095 ( ~ 440kb ) thailand , phuket , the khao phra theo national park , the lower reaches of bang pae brook . 27th february 2009 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\nwest irian ( humboldt bay ) - nw . new guinea . see [ maps ]\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nvoyage de d\u00e9couvertes de l ' astrolabe ex\u00e9cut\u00e9 par ordre du roi , pendant les ann\u00e9es 1826 - 1827 - 1828 - 1829 , sous le command\u00e9ment de m . j . dumont d ' urville . faune entomologique de l ' oc\u00e9an pacifique , avec l ' illustration des insectes nouveaux recueillis pendant le voyage . l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res in d ' urville ,\nthe butterflies of the malay peninsula . fourth edition revised by j . n . eliot with plates by bernard d ' abrera\na list of the lepidopterous insects collected by mr . ossian limborg in upper tenasserim , with descriptions of new species\non the lepidoptera in the tring museum sent by mr . a . s . meek from the admiralty islands , dampier and vulcan islands\nnatural history of the insects of china , a new edition with additional observations & c . ; by j . o . westwood , f . l . s\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nis found in west irian and papua new guinea . it almost certainly also occurs on many of the surrounding islands .\nthis species is found in primary rainforest , usually in the vicinity of rivers , at elevations between sea level and about 800 metres .\ni have no data regarding tigrina . the lifecycle is likely to be very similar to that of sylvia as follows :\nthe larva is brown , speckled with white dots and has broad greenish dorsal and lateral stripes . each segment bears 4 multi - branched spines , purplish brown at the base and red on the outer half . the larval foodplants include adenia ( passifloraceae ) and tinospora\nthe chrysalis occurs in 2 forms , either pale green or dark olive . it is plain in appearance , without protuberances , and is suspended by the cremaster from beneath a leaf .\na powerful and fast flying butterfly . the flight consists of short periods of gliding , alternating every few seconds with shallow but rapid flickering wing beats .\nall photographs , artwork , text & website design are the property of adrian hoskins ( unless otherwise stated ) and are protected by copyright . photographs or text on this website must not be reproduced in part or in whole or published elsewhere without prior written consent of adrian hoskins / urltoken\nthe project has been funded by european commission under the \u201c h2020 \u2013 eu . 1 . 4 . 1 . 1 . \u2013 developing new world - class research infrastructures \u201d call .\ntraining modules and resources for researchers , educators , managers , and policy makers who want to learn more about research infrastructures and related issues and topics .\nthe ssk is designed to support researchers in selecting and using the appropriate standards for their particular disciplines and work flows .\nthese are just some of the most common questions we get asked . for anything else , make sure to read our full faqs and please feel free to contact us .\n\u2022 develop common standards to ease exploitation ; \u2022 coordinate joint activities among research projects ; \u2022 harmonize policy definition and implementation ; \u2022 pool methods and services ; \u2022 share solutions to the same problems ; \u2022 bring people and their expertise together .\n\u2022 a coherent set of tools for carrying out research using and re - using data .\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license cc by - nc 4 . 0\nwebster\u2019s new world college dictionary , 4th edition . copyright \u00a9 2010 by houghton mifflin harcourt . all rights reserved .\nirregular verbs are verbs that do not form the past simple tense and the past participle by adding - ed to the base form . the three main groups of irregular verbs in group a , the base form , the past . . .\nimpress your friends , family and colleagues with this unusual collection of football lingo .\ncatch up on the latest words in the news this june with robert groves .\nall the latest wordy news , linguistic insights , offers and competitions every month .\nurltoken unabridged based on the random house unabridged dictionary , \u00a9 random house , inc . 2018\ncollins english dictionary - complete & unabridged 2012 digital edition \u00a9 william collins sons & co . ltd . 1979 , 1986 \u00a9 harpercollins publishers 1998 , 2000 , 2003 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2009 , 2012\ndiodorus siculus , library of history 5 . 62 . 1 ( trans . oldfather ) ( greek historian c1st b . c . ) :\npseudo - hyginus , astronomica 2 . 25 ( trans . grant ) ( roman mythographer c2nd a . d . ) :\ntheoi project \u00a9 copyright 2000 - 2017 aaron j . atsma , netherlands & new zealand\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\ni saw a teaser on the history channel about a bible show coming up . they said that the virgin birth is a translation mistake . is this really true ?\nthe short answer is no , it\u2019s not true . the longer and more interesting answer is that a mistranslation does come into play , but only indirectly .\nthe bible show is \u201cbible secrets revealed . \u201d ( incidentally , i\u2019ll be in it . more on that later . ) and i presume this is the teaser brian saw : bible secrets revealed : sneak peek . about 20 seconds in ( not counting the annoying ad ) , dr . francesca stavrakopoulou repeats a claim she\u2019s made to the bbc in the past : \u201cthe idea the jesus must have been born of a virgin is essentially a mistranslation . \u201d but it\u2019s not .\nthe text displayed as dr . stavrakopoulou speaks is isaiah 7 : 14 , which originally referred to a young woman even though it is often wrongly translated as \u201ca virgin shall conceive . \u201d the mistranslation as \u201cvirgin\u201d dates back to the greek version of the bible known as the\n( \u201cvirgin\u201d ) . it\u2019s not the only place the septuagint makes this and similar mistakes . but because matthew ( 1 : 23 ) highlights the greek here , this mistranslation is well known .\nin a recent piece on the bbc , interviewer nicky campbell spoke with dr . francesca stavrakopoulou , professor of hebrew bible and ancient religion at the university of exeter . responding to a question about the virgin birth , dr . stavrakopoulou said that , \u201cbasically , the virgin birth idea is a mistranslation . \u201d\nthe nab\u2019s decision to change \u201cvirgin\u201d to \u201cyoung woman\u201d in isaiah 7 : 14 has once again brought up the virgin birth , mary , and the nature of prophesy , as well as the role of translation in accurately conveying the text of the bible .\nmost reports i\u2019ve seen recently , though , confuse what are really three separate issues here .\nthe first issue is the text of isaiah 7 : 14 . the hebrew there reads : \u201can alma \u2026 will bear a son and call him ` emmanuel . ' \u201d it has long been known that alma does not mean \u201cvirgin . \u201d rather , the hebrew word applies to any young woman . so the english translation of that line should read along the lines of \u201ca young woman \u2026 will bear a son\u2026\u201d ( the evidence is widely known and readily available , including in my and god said . )\nbased on this mistranslation , though , most modern translations \u2014 going back to the kjv and including the recently published niv \u2014 translate \u201ca virgin \u2026 will bear a son\u201d here . ( the niv has a footnote , \u201cor young woman . \u201d ) the new nab ( \u201cnabre\u201d ) is a notable exception . that version now has , \u201cthe young woman , pregnant and about to bear a son , shall name him emmanuel . \u201d their choice to go with \u201cyoung woman\u201d reflects the correct understanding of the original hebrew ( though i do have problems with their phrasing of the rest of the line ) .\nimportantly , though , isaiah 7 : 14 is not the description of \u201cthe virgin birth\u201d of jesus . rather , we find the virgin birth first in matthew 1 : 18 - 25 , which brings us to the second issue .\nas part of the description of jesus\u2019 birth , the text in matthew cites isaiah 7 : 14 , noting that jesus\u2019 birth \u201cfulfilled\u201d ( plirow ) the phrophet isaiah\u2019s words ( a point i return to below ) .\nthese combine to create a clear account : jesus was born to a virgin .\nthe text in luke 1 : 26 - 38 is similar in nature . though again \u201cvirgin\u201d is replaced with a euphemism ( \u201cmary asked the angel , ` how [ is it possible that i will conceive ] since i do not know [ ginosko ] \u201d any men ? ) , the text is clear , adding for emphasis that \u201cwith god nothing is impossible . \u201d\nthe actual descriptions indicate a virgin birth , regardless of what the words in isaiah 7 : 14 mean .\nthe third issue is how to reconcile the virgin birth with isaiah 7 : 14 , which is cited in matthew 1 : 23 .\nthe most straightforward way is to note that even though isaiah 7 : 14 refers to a \u201cyoung woman , \u201d not a \u201cvirgin , \u201d the text doesn\u2019t say that she wasn\u2019t a virgin . she could have been . ( by comparison , the text also doesn\u2019t say that the woman had long hair , but she might have . ) in other words , isaiah 7 : 14 , even with the better understanding of the original text , doesn\u2019t contradict anything in the nt .\nthe more nuanced way to reconcile the two texts is to recognize what the verb in matthew 1 : 22 , plirow , really indicates . though the word is commonly translated \u201cfulfill\u201d ( as in , \u201call this took place to fulfill what the lord had said through the prophet [ isaiah ] \u201d ) , better is \u201cmatch , \u201d as i describe here ( \u201c what happens to prophecies in the new testament ? \u201d ) . i won\u2019t go through the whole explanation again , but for now i think it suffices to note that matthew knew that the details in isaiah 7 : 14 differed from those he was describing . after all , the name of the child in isaiah 7 : 14 was immanuel , not jesus .\neither way ( and even though it\u2019s not really my place to say ) , i don\u2019t see a huge theological problem here . and even if there were a problem , i would still be in favor of an accurate translation .\nit seems pretty clear to me that isaiah 7 : 14 mentions a pregnant woman ( who , at least as far as translation can take us , may or may not have been a virgin ) and that the nt refers to the virgin birth of jesus . it seems equally clear that the lack of perfect harmony between the texts is in keeping with other kinds of prophesy in the nt .\nstill , from the international stage ( \u201ctraditionalists may see [ the nabre\u2019s change from \u201cvirgin\u201d to \u201cyoung woman\u201d in isaiah 7 : 14 ] as a step away from the original meaning\u201d ) to local communities ( \u201cif the meaning of the language is changed to reflect that mary may not have been a virgin , you\u2019ve just denied the divinity of christ\u201d ) the discussion seems skewed to me . it seems to start with theology , and then ask how the translations can be doctored to match that theology , while i think an accurate translation should stand on its own .\nor to put it another way , it seems to me that basing theology on a translation designed solely to support that theology is both bad translation technique and bad theology .\nit has long been known that the kjv translation \u201cvirgin\u201d for the pregnant woman in isaiah 7 : 14 is inaccurate , and many modern translations opt instead for \u201cyoung woman\u201d or at least a footnote along those lines . the nrsv , for example , translates : \u201ctherefore the lord himself will give you a sign . look , the young woman is with child and shall bear a son , and shall name him immanuel . \u201d and though the niv 2011 translates \u201cvirgin , \u201d it also offers the footnote \u201cor young woman . \u201d\n\u201cteenager\u201d is the wrong translation , though . for one thing , in antiquity there were no teenagers as we think of them now , because people generally only lived until about age 40 . as i explain in and god said :\naccordingly , people didn\u2019t have time as they do now to spend their first decade as care - free children , then find themselves in their teen years , explore the world as twenty - somethings and settle down as thirty - somethings . they\u2019d be dead before they ever really started living .\nrather , people [ in antiquity ] were \u201cchildren\u201d and then they were \u201cadults . \u201d ( and then they were dead . )\nfor another thing , \u201ca pregnant teenager\u201d in english carries connotations that the hebrew did not . ( also , we don\u2019t have a word in english for a \u201cfemale teenager . \u201d )\nthere\u2019s an old adage in linguistics that even a big mouse is smaller than a small elephant . in our current case , we want to keep in mind that \u201cyoung\u201d is relative , too .\nas i personally use the phrase , \u201cyoung woman\u201d usually applies to a woman in her 20s or even older . by this reckoning , \u201cyoung woman , \u201d at least in my dialect , is \u2014 surprisingly \u2014 too old for alma .\nthere\u2019s also another aspect to consider . did alma refer to age , or to stage in life ? i think it\u2019s the latter , and i think the stage in life was the one at which a woman normally got married .\nin other words , isaiah 7 : 14 is about a woman getting pregnant just at the age one might expect . does \u201cyoung woman\u201d in english convey that ? i don\u2019t think so , both because it may convey the wrong chronological age , and because it emphasizes \u201cyoung\u201d in a way that the hebrew does not .\naccordingly , i think \u201cwoman\u201d is a better translation : \u201ca pregnant woman will give birth to a son , and call him immanuel . \u201d\nthe bible doesn\u2019t say that : 40 biblical mistranslations , misconceptions , and other misunderstandings .\ngod didn\u2019t say that ( @ goddidntsaythat ) is an online forum for discussing the bible and its translations , mistranslations , interpretations , and misinterpretations .\ndr . joel m . hoffman ( @ joelmhoffman ) is the chief translator for the ten - volume series my people\u2019s prayer book , author of and god said : how translations conceal the bible\u2019s original meaning , and editor of the unabridged bible . writing under \u201c j . m . hoffman , \u201d he is author of the thriller series the warwick files . he holds a phd in theoretical linguistics and has taught at brandeis university and huc - jir in new york city . he presents widely to churches , synagogues , and other groups . more\u2026\nhave a question or a topic you\u2019d like addressed ? click on \u201c about \u201d here or to the far upper right and leave a comment .\na police chief with a secretive past . a quiet new york city suburb . and , officially , no spies .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nthis page was last edited on 25 april 2016 , at 18 : 27 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nblue letter bible offers several daily devotional readings in order to help you refocus on christ and the gospel of his peace and righteousness .\nrecognizing the value of consistent reflection upon the word of god in order to refocus one\u2019s mind and heart upon christ and his gospel of peace , we provide several reading plans designed to cover the entire bible in a year .\npar - then ' - os ; of unknown origin ; a maiden ; by implication , an unmarried daughter : \u2014virgin .\nthe kjv translates strong ' s g3933 in the following manner : virgin ( 14x ) .\n, on which ( last ) word cf . , besides gesenius , thesaurus , p . 1037 , credner , beitr\u00e4ge as above with ii . , p . 197ff ;\n; so of joseph , in fabricius , cod . pseudepigr . vet . test . ii . , pp . 92 , 98 ; of abel and melchizedek , in\nthayer\u2019s greek lexicon , electronic database . copyright \u00a9 2002 , 2003 , 2006 , 2011 by biblesoft , inc . all rights reserved . used by permission . urltoken\nshall be with child , and shall bring forth a son , and they shall call his name emmanuel , which being interpreted is , god with us .\ni have no commandment of the lord : yet i give my judgment , as one that hath obtained mercy of the lord to be faithful .\nmarry , she hath not sinned . nevertheless such shall have trouble in the flesh : but i spare you .\nage , and need so require , let him do what he will , he sinneth not : let them marry .\nthese are they which were not defiled with women ; for they are virgins .\nthese are they which follow the lamb whithersoever he goeth . these were redeemed from among men ,\ntranslations available : king james version , new king james version , new living translation , new international version , english standard version , christian standard bible , new american standard bible , new english translation , revised standard version , american standard version , young ' s literal translation , darby translation , webster ' s bible , hebrew names version , reina - valera 1960 , latin vulgate , westminster leningrad codex , septuagint , morphological greek new testament , and textus receptus .\nnote : mla no longer requires the url as part of their citation standard . individual instructors or editors may still require the use of urls .\nusernames should only contain letters , numbers , dots , dashes , or underscores .\nthank you for registering . a verification email has been sent to the address you provided .\nyour partnership makes all we do possible . would you prayerfully consider a gift of support today ?\nour website uses cookies to store user preferences . by proceeding , you consent to our cookie usage . please see blue letter bible ' s privacy policy for cookie usage details .\nblue letter bible study tools make reading , searching and studying the bible easy and rewarding .\nwebster ' s new world college dictionary , fifth edition copyright \u00a9 2014 by houghton mifflin harcourt publishing company . all rights reserved .\nplease set a username for yourself . people will see it as author name with your public flash cards .\nwho shows interest in domestic affairs is admired by her community , since\nit is from such things that a good reputation among people / springs up , giving pleasure to your father and the lady your mother\n( [ text not reproducible in ascii ] .\nen atenas , pero este es el unico ejemplo de un posible\nhelpergroup '\nen sarcofagos etruscos .\nis expressed through the conjoined notions of the dog and the sea as undomesticated , one as a companion who can at times become rebellious and hostile to his human master , the other as treacherous to sailors .\n( applied to the goddess artemis , for instance ) , is not ' virgin ' but ' unmarried woman ' ( frazer , 1911 , p .\n, ou seja , uma deusa virgem , possuindo assim a caracteristica principal da arete feminina que e a virgindade .\nrepresentations of athena in black - figured amphorae of the sixth century bce : an exercise of iconographic / representacoes de atena em anforas de figuras negras do seculo vi a . c . : um exercicio de analise iconografica\n,\nvirgin\ninstead of\nyoung woman\n) to talk about the upcoming birth of jesus .\n( la doncella , de ahi la voz partenon ) como portadora de la muerte .\ngriega , la virgen en su significado arcaico de autonoma , la que se sustrae al dominio patriarcal , la libre , selvatica o silvestre que mata fieras , pero en ocasiones tambien a hombres .\nall content on this website , including dictionary , thesaurus , literature , geography , and other reference data is for informational purposes only . this information should not be considered complete , up to date , and is not intended to be used in place of a visit , consultation , or advice of a legal , medical , or any other professional .\nrajkamal goswami , ashoka trust for research in ecology and the environment , bangalore .\ndescribes average size , max , range ; type of size ( perimeter , length , volume , weight . . . ) .\nin both males and females , the upperside dark olive - green . the forewing with two broad black streaks from base , a transverse black line across cell followed by a white bar and two white spots beyond , a broad oblique discal band formed of large white spots bordered with black from costa , just before the apex , to interspace 1 , terminating in a bluish patch . finally , post - discal and terminal black bands . hind - wing : a basal and sub - basal transverse black streak , a transverse series of black spots decreasing in size anteriorly and two subcostal white spots . the discal area is marked with dark brown paired streaks in the interspaces , confluent outwardly , followed by a post - discal series of triangular dark spots and a terminal broad dark band . underside : pale bluish green , the black streaks from base of wings wanting , the markings otherwise as on upperside but less well defined . head , thorax and abdomen olive green barred with black ; beneath whitish .\nbut of a bronze green on the upperside and pale greenish grey on the underside fading to ashy grey towards the terminal margin of the forewing .\ndescribes the general appearance of the taxon ; e . g body plan , shape and color of external features , typical postures . may be referred to as or include habit , defined as the characteristic mode of growth or occurrence associated to its environment , particularly for plants . comprising its size , shape , texture and orientation . example : tree , shrubs , herbs . may also be referred to include anatomy .\ngeneral description of the sites where the species is found ( ecosystem , forest , environment or microhabitat ) . includes realm ( e . g terrestrial etc ) and climatic information ( e . g boreal ) ; also includes requirements and tolerances ; horizontal and vertical ( altitudinal ) distribution . also includes information referring to territorial extension of the individual or group in terms of its activities ( feeding , mating , etc . ) , associated mostly to vertebrates .\nincludes abundance information ( population size , density ) and demographics ( e . g . age stratification ) .\ndescribes the likelihood of the species becoming extinct in the present day or in the near future . population size is treated under population biology , and trends in population sizes are treated under trends . however , this is the preferred element if an object includes all of these things and details about conservation listings .\nkehimkar , i . ( 2008 ) the book of indian butterflies . bombay natural history society and oxford university press , mumbai .\nkunte , k . and u . kodandaramaiah . 2011 . history of species pages on butterflies of india website . in k . kunte , s . kalesh and u . kodandaramaiah ( eds . ) . butterflies of india , v . 1 . 05 . indian foundation for butterflies . url : http : / / ifoundbutterflies . org .\nbingham , c . t . ( 1905 ) fauna of british india . butterflies . vol . 1 .\nantram , c . b . ( 1924 ) butterflies of india , t hacker , spink & co , calcutta .\ninayoshi y . 2012 . a check list of butterflies in indo - china . url : urltoken\nthe present study was made to assess the butterfly diversity of peringome vayakkara panchayath loca . . .\ndiversity of butterflies ( order : lepidoptera ) in assam university campus and its vic . . .\nthe paper provides information on butterfies sampled during random surveys from november 2014 to se . . .\nin a preliminary study on the butterflies of dakshina kannada district , located in the southwestern . . .\nthe present study was conducted to understand the species richness of butterflies in the kerala agr . . .\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nlafontaine jd , schmidt bc ( 2010 ) annotated check list of the noctuoidea ( insecta , lepidoptera ) of north america north of mexico , p . 18 .\nronka , k . , j . mappes , l . kaila , n . wahlberg , 2016 . putting parasemia in its phylogenetic place : a molecular analysis of the subtribe arctiina ( lepidoptera ) . systematic entomology , 41 ( 4 ) : 844 - 853 .\ndistribution in canada list of provinces and territories ( u . of alberta , using cbif data )\nannotated check list of the noctuoidea ( insecta , lepidoptera ) of north america north of mexico .\nputting parasemia in its phylogenetic place : a molecular analysis of the subtribe arctiina ( lepidoptera ) katja r\u00f6nk\u00e4 , johanna mappes , lauri kaila , and niklas wahlberg . 2016 . systematic entomology .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\non apple osx , or right click on the text above to copy the link .\nfound in boreal mixed - wood and parkland habitats . also occurs in moist , shrubby arctic tundra .\n. the extent of the dark areas of the hindwing and light markings on the forewing can vary , and have been named as several ' varieties ' ( brower , 1973 ) .\nthis species is semivoltine , overwintering first as a 5th instar and again as an 8th instar larva . almost all alberta and b . c . records for this species are from even - numbered years , suggesting it has a biennial phenology .\n) and paper birch ( mcgugan , 1958 ) . successful lab hosts include snowberry (\nfrom labrador south to north carolina , west to alaska . south along the rocky mountains to arizona .\ncomments are published according to our submission guidelines . the eh strickland entomological museum does not necessarily endorse the views expressed .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ntype specimens : type [ north america ] : ? locality , [ type ( s ) lost ] . .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\ntype locality : argentina , mendoza province , san rafael department , collected on the dunes next to el nihuil dam on provincial route 180 , 35\u00b02\u201919 . 77\u2019\u2019 s , 68\u00b040\u201912 . 60\u2019\u2019 w , 1305 m elevation .\noviparous . reproductively active females ( well - developed eggs in oviducts ) were observed in january ( n 1\u20444 5 ) , and non - reproductive females were found in december and february ( n 1\u20444 13 ) . however , in a different year , abdala et al . 2016 found females with oviducts full of developing eggs in december ( n 1\u20444 11 ) . these observations suggest that the reproductive period begins in november and lasts until late january . < br / > < br / > parthenogenesis : abdala et al . 2016 examined more than 300 specimens ( of which 65 specimens were collected and preserved ) , but no males were encountered . l . grosseorum or l . laurenti are the suspected maternal ancestros and l . darwinii and l . laurenti may be the maternal ancestors , but this needs to be confirmed .\nholotype : fml 16221 , adult female , c . abdala , j . abdala , and e . malovini , january 2001 ( fig . 1 ) . paratypes . \u2014fml 16222\u201324 , same data as holotype ; ibaunc 9772\u201373 , 9775\u201377 , argentina , mendoza province , san rafael , department , 10 to 60 km s of el nihuil , 35\u00b07\u20190 . 71\u2019\u2019s , 68\u00b041\u20194 . 28\u2019\u2019w to 35\u00b033\u201949 . 47\u2019\u2019s , 68\u00b041\u201915 . 14\u2019\u2019w , 1400\u20131600 m , 25 november 1973 ; ibaunc 11431\u201335 , argentina , mendoza province , san rafael department , pampa del diamante , 34\u00b054\u201944 . 39\u2019\u2019s , 68\u00b051\u201938 . 58\u2019\u2019w , 1400 m , 17 february 1975 ; mhnsr 78\u201382 , argentina , mendoza province , san rafael department , club de pescadores , el nihuil , 35\u00b02\u201910 . 54\u2019\u2019s , 68\u00b042\u201933 . 84\u2019\u2019w , 1325 m , 1 january 1975 .\nsynonymy after abdala et al . 2016 . similar species : l . darwinii with which it nests in some phylogenetic analyses ( abdala et al . 2016 : 491 ) and l . laurenti . sympatry : aurivela longicauda ( teiidae ) , diplolaemus sexcinctus , leiosaurus bellii ( leiosauridae ) , liolaemus gracilis , l . grosseorum . oxyrhopus rhombifer , philodryas trilineata , xenodon semicinctus , bothrops ammodytoides . karyotype : triploid with 3n 1\u20444 49 chromosomes ( 19 macrochromosomes + 30 microchromosomes ) ( abdala et al . 2016 ) .\nabdala , cristi\u00e1n s . ; diego baldo , ricardo a . ju\u00e1rez and robert e . espinoza 2016 . the first parthenogenetic pleurodont iguanian : a new all - female liolaemus ( squamata : liolaemidae ) from western argentina copeia 104 ( 2 ) : 487\u2013497 - get paper here\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 2636, "summary": [{"text": "the satin bowerbird ( ptilonorhynchus violaceus ) is a bowerbird endemic to eastern australia .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "a rare natural intergeneric hybrid between the satin bowerbird and the regent bowerbird is known as rawnsley 's bowerbird . ", "topic": 22}], "title": "satin bowerbird", "paragraphs": ["lateral view of a female satin bowerbird ( photo courtesy of y . english )\nsatin bowerbird ( ptilonorhynchus violaceus ) occurrence records from continental australia suitable for species distribution modelling .\na brightly coloured male satin bowerbird ( ptilonorhynchus newtoniana ) stands in front of his bower , while a less colourful female watches him . satin bowerbirds are endemic to eastern australia .\nmale satin bowerbird moulting into breeding plumage ( photo courtesy of b . hensen ) [ katoomba , nsw , january 2014 ]\nfemale satin bowerbird hollowing out an apple ( photo courtesy of r . druce ) [ tenterfield , nsw , february 2013 ]\nthe scientific name of the satin bowerbird is ptilonorhynchus violaceus and it is from the family ptilonorhynchidae , the family of bowerbirds .\nattractive without being showy , the satin bowerbird gets its name from the sheen on the male\u2019s smart , blue - black plumage .\nclose - up portrait of a female satin bowerbird ( photo courtesy of r . druce ) [ tenterfield , nsw , february 2013 ]\nlateral view of a fledgling satin bowerbird ( photo courtesy of b . hensen ) [ st . albans , nsw , december 2013 ]\nadventurous satin bowerbird chick outside its nest ( photo courtesy of b . hensen ) [ st . albans , nsw , december 2017 ]\nxc201468 this first sample features typical whistles , buzzes and squelches from a satin bowerbird . recorded in wollemi national park , new south wales .\ndescription : the satin bowerbird is probably the best known species of this family . the male\u2019s displays around the bower are an amazing spectacle .\nfemale satin bowerbird in flight , displaying its underwing pattern ( photo courtesy of r . druce ) [ tenterfield , nsw , february 2013 ]\nlateral view of an immature satin bowerbird ( photo courtesy of a . ross - taylor ) [ mt . tamborine , qld , december 2013 ]\nfemale satin bowerbird feeding a dependent young ( photo courtesy of r . plumtree ) [ ensay south , east gippsland , vic , march 2017 ]\ndorsal view of a male satin bowerbird ( photo courtesy of m . eaton ) [ queen mary falls , near killarney , qld , june 2017 ]\nfemale satin bowerbird on its nest ( photo courtesy of l . scott ) [ roseberry creek valley , near toonumbar np , northern nsw , january 2017 ]\nfemale satin bowerbird on its nest ( photo courtesy of l . scott ) [ roseberry creek valley , near toonumbar np , northern nsw , december 2017 ]\nrichly adorned bower of a male satin bowerbird ( photo courtesy of m . eaton ) [ queen mary falls , near killarney , qld , june 2017 ]\nthe satin bowerbird\u2019s elaborate \u201cbower\u201d is overshadowed by the vogelkop gardener bowerbird of new guinea , which builds an astonishing courting place \u2014 a \u201chut\u201d up to 5\u2032 wide with a moss \u201cfront garden\u201d on whic he arranges flowers and fruits . macgregor\u2019s bowerbird builds a 2\u2032 - high twig \u201cmaypole\u201d ringed by a circular \u201cdance floor . \u201d\nview image of regent bowerbird ( credit : david tipling / naturepl . com )\nview image of great bowerbird ( credit : tim laman / naturepl . com )\nvanderwal , j . ( 2013 ) . satin bowerbird ( ptilonorhynchus violaceus ) - current and future species distribution models . centre for tropical biodiversity & climate change , james cook university . [ data files ] urltoken bowerbird ( ptilonorhynchus violaceus ) / suitability\na male satin bowerbird only develops his wonderful satiny sheen after seven years . up until this time , the males possess the same plumage and colouring as the females .\nflight : the satin bowerbird flies rapidly from tree to tree . when flying in flocks , they fly clearly above treetops with the typical flap - glide undulating flight .\nfronal view of a female satin bowerbird bringing food for her fledgling chick ( photo courtesy of b . hensen ) [ st . albans , nsw , december 2013 ]\nfrontal view of a male satin bowerbird in its bower ( photo courtesy of m . eaton ) [ queen mary falls , near killarney , qld , june 2017 ]\nvanderwal , j . ( 2013 ) . satin bowerbird ( ptilonorhynchus violaceus ) - occurrence records filtered for species distribution modelling . centre for tropical biodiversity & climate change , james cook university . [ data files ] urltoken bowerbird ( ptilonorhynchus violaceus ) / occurrences\nview image of great bowerbird bower ( credit : tim laman / naturepl . com )\na male bowerbird , notice the piercing blue eyes and black plumage . image : wiki\nfemale satin bowerbird collecting nesting material , probably for lining the nest ( photo courtesy of a . ross - taylor ) [ mt . tamborine , qld , december 2013 ]\nthis female satin bowerbird has developed a taste for commercial budgerigar seed mix ( photo courtesy of k . davison ) [ glen iris , melbourne , vic , may 2013 ]\nawc protects populations of satin bowerbirds at mount zero - taravale , brooklyn and curramore .\nfrontal view of a male satin bowerbird ( photo courtesy of a . ross - taylor ) [ o ' reilly ' s plateau , gold coast , qld , november 2013 ]\nclose - up near - lateral view of a male satin bowerbird ( photo courtesy of r . druce ) [ queen mary falls , near killarney , qld , october 2015 ]\nclose - up near - frontal view of a female satin bowerbird ( photo courtesy of r . druce ) [ queen mary falls , near killarney , qld , october 2015 ]\nclose - up near - frontal view of a female satin bowerbird ( photo courtesy of m . eaton ) [ queen mary falls , near killarney , qld , june 2017 ]\nview image of bower of vogelkop bowerbird ( credit : tim laman / naturepl . com )\na male satin bowerbird needs a swanky pad to land the perfect mate . he ' ll bribe her with many a trinket . . . will a ring finally seal the deal ?\nvellenga re ( 1980 ) distribution of bowers of the satin bowerbird at leura , nsw , with notes on parental care , development and independence of the young . emu 80 : 97\u2013102\nsatin bowerbirds are found along most of the eastern and south - eastern coast of australia .\nsatin bowerbirds are found within wet sclerophyll forests and rainforests along the eastern coast of australia .\ndiet : the satin bowerbird feeds primarily on fruits , flowers , leaves , seeds , nectar , and takes insects during the breeding season . they feed by gleaning and sallying for invertebrates .\nnear - frontal view of a male satin bowerbird ( photo courtesy of a . ross - taylor ) [ o ' reilly ' s plateau , gold coast , qld , november 2013 ]\nclose - up lateral portrait of a male satin bowerbird ( photo courtesy of r . plumtree ) [ old gap road , swifts creek north , east gippsland , vic , october 2017 ]\nthe satin bowerbird lives in rainforests and the edges of drier forests on the coast and adjacent ranges of eastern australia . it is found from cooktown in queensland to near melbourne , in victoria .\nfull - frontal view of an adult male satin bowerbird ( photo courtesy of a . ross - taylor ) [ o ' reilly ' s plateau , gold coast , qld , november 2013 ]\nfemale satin bowerbird , left , with food ( possibly a piece of an apple ) for a dependent juvenile ( photo courtesy of r . druce ) [ tenterfield , nsw , february 2013 ]\nthe satin bowerbird is mainly resident in its range . the birds of woodlands may move into more open habitats and form flocks during winter . some local seasonal movements to lower altitudes are observed too .\nthe satin bowerbird is fairly common in most of its range . chief threats to its future are forest clearance and shooting by fruit growers , which has led to the extermination in some localized areas .\nclose - up near - frontal view of a female satin bowerbird ; note the characteristic dark bill ( photo courtesy of r . plumtree ) [ south ensay , east gippsland , vic , april 2014 ]\nprotection / threats / statuts : the satin bowerbird is relatively common in remained habitat , but it is vulnerable to habitat loss with deforestation and fragmentation of forests . however , this species is not currently threatened .\nthe plumage of a mature seven year old male satin bowerbird is a deep blue - black colour , while females and younger males have a colour combination of olive - green and brown , patterned with cream .\nwe have not seen a satin bowerbird where we live , at eulah creek , 20 km east of narrabri , nsw , but some locals who have lived in the area for a long time report having seen satin bowerbirds , including males with bowers , in the eulah creek and bullawa creek area in the past .\na male satin bowerbird ( ptilonorhynchus violaceus ) puts on a display next to his bower . he collects brightly coloured objects to adorn his display arena , using them to catch the attention of passing females . australia .\ndorsal view of a female satin bowerbird in bad light on a rainy day ; this bird was seen taking the seeds of a birch ( photo courtesy of r . druce ) [ tenterfield , nsw , february 2013 ]\nview image of golden - fronted or yellow - fronted bowerbird ( credit : tim laman / naturepl . com )\nboth male and female satin bowerbirds have bright lilac - blue eyes , but here the similarities end . the mature male satin bowerbird is about 30 centimetres long , and his plumage is black with a glossy purple - blue sheen . until he moults into this plumage during his seventh year , his plumage resembles that of the female .\nthe best males will have it all ,\nsaid coleman , who conducted a three - year satin bowerbird study in the australian bush . the top male bowerbirds have what might be called artistic talent and vigorous courtship routines .\na female satin bowerbird typically lays one to three eggs each year , of a brown to cream colour with dark markings , in a nest that it builds in trees ; and the eggs and young are cared for by the female .\nthe male great bowerbird builds an elaborate bower and uses false perspective illusions to improve his mating success . photograph : laura kelley\ndonaghey rh ( 1981 ) the ecology and evolution of bowerbird mating systems . phd dissertation , monash university , victoria , australia\nsatin bowerbirds can interbreed with regent bowerbirds . the offspring of such pairs are called\nrawnsley ' s bowerbirds\n.\nthe satin bowerbird male attracts a female partner through its bower and colourful objects , as well as a special \u2018dance\u2019 it performs , and younger females are more attracted to bower aesthetics , while older females favour a better dance performance when determining their mate .\nr . druce reports spotting satin bowerbirds , race\nviolaceus\n, in tenterfield , northern nsw , in february 2013 .\nthis dataset consists of current and future species distribution models generated using 4 representative concentration pathways ( rcps ) carbon emission scenarios , 18 global climate models ( gcms ) , and 8 time steps between 2015 and 2085 , for satin bowerbird ( ptilonorhynchus violaceus ) .\ngreat bowerbird ( chlamydera nuchalis ) male performing a peripheral display around his bower while holding a red plastic cap . queensland , australia .\nbowerbirds are very closely related to birds of paradise , and species of bowerbird are found in many parts of australia and new guinea .\nsatin bowerbirds can imitate the calls of other birds , and they also make sounds that resemble hisses , whistles , and buzzes .\nmale satin bowerbirds festoon the front terraces of their bowers with shiny or colored objects , preferring those of a vivid blue hue .\nhabitat : the satin bowerbird frequents humid forests and woodlands and their edges . it is also found in nearby open areas . during winter , flocks frequent open habitats such as parks , gardens and orchards . the bower sites are usually dispersed through suitable rainforest and woodlands .\nthe bowerbirds are among the most fascinating birds in the world . some are spectacular , such as the male regent bowerbird ( left ) of eastern australia whose colors are shocking in the deep wet forest . australia is home to six species of\navenue - builders .\nthese\navenues\nare rows of sticks imbedded in the earth between a narrow passageway . colorful objects are placed at either end to attract females to and then into the gallery . many males\npaint\nthe inside walls with plant juice to add color . representatives are satin bowerbird ( male in his bower . large photo below ) and great bowerbird ( male just below , left , and his bower , just below , right ) . satin bowerbird prefers humid climes and just loves the color blue ( even a blue bottle - cap or toothbrush ! ) while great bowerbird lives in the dry rain - shadow west of the atherton tablelands and prefers white and orange .\nthe satin bowerbird ( ptilonorhynchus violaceus ) is a chunky , medium - sized bird found in forests along the east coast of australia . adult male satin bowerbirds have a stunning , shiny deep - blue plumage which can appear plain black at first glance . females and immature males are predominantly ashy green and olive on the upperbody and scalloped green and buff underneath . both sexes have striking violet - coloured eyes .\nsatin bowerbirds prefer the wetter forests and woodlands , and nearby open areas , although those around the atherton tableland are largely rainforest inhabitants .\n\u2022 the bowerbird family has 18 species in new guinea and australia , but not all build bowers . four species known as catbirds , because of their catlike calls , form a stable pair bond ; the other 14 species don\u2019t . bowerbirds lack the splendid plumes of closely related birds of paradise , but some , like the male i regent bowerbird , are boldly colored . macgregor\u2019s bowerbird ehas dun plumage and a flame - orange crest .\nthis dataset includes observations of satin bowerbird ( ptilonorhynchus violaceus ) that are sourced from the atlas of living australia ( ala ) database . rather than raw observations , these have been filtered such that they are assumed to be suitable for species distribution modelling exercises . the cleaning process included :\nk . davison reports sighting satin bowerbirds , race\nviolaceus\n, in glen iris , suburban melbourne , vic , in may 2013 .\nthe same two satin bowerbirds as shown above ( photo courtesy of b . hensen ) [ st . albans , nsw , december 2013 ]\nvogelkop bowerbird is a member of the\ngardener bowerbird\ngroup , which includes the\nmaypole\nbuilding amblyornis and the\nmat\nbuilding archboldia , restricted to high mountains of new guinea . all are generally plain birds although some have exotic erectible head plumes . the photo ( right , by will betz ) shows a netted macgregor ' s bowerbird high the cloud forests of new guinea , where it was banded and released . the sometimes concealed orange crown feathers as shown nicely here . some great photos of a displaying macgregor ' s bowerbird are in coates ( 1990 ) .\nthe male bowerbird builds a bower from twigs that it finds on the ground and tries to lure the female into its lair with its wooing display .\nfrontal view of a male satin bowerbirds with a fruit ( photo courtesy of r . plumtree ) [ near kyogle , nsw , july 2013 ]\nthe bowerbird feeds mainly on a wide variety of fruits and berries , but will also snap up any insects that it finds , including beetles , moths and termites . the chicks , which need a high - protein diet for their rapid development , are fed chiefly on insects . the bowerbird forages mainly in the forests where it breeds . outside the nesting season , birds flock up to a hundred and search for figs and other fruit . when fruit is scarce , the bowerbird normally resorts to a diet of buds , flowers and even leaves . insect additives the bowerbird searches for grubs on the forest floor .\na male satin bowerbird constructs a display structure , known as a \u2018bower\u2019 , that it builds with sticks on the ground , and it has two sides facing each other with a pathway through the middle , and while it is often thought of as a nest , it is never used for this purpose .\nsatin bowerbirds make a variety of calls including mechanical churring and buzzing , harsh grating calls , and loud descending whistles . listen to some examples below :\nb . hensen reports spotting satin bowerbirds , race\nviolaceus\n, at st . albans , nsw , e . g . in december 2013 .\nsatin bowerbirds have blue eyes , and the mature males have a creamy yellow to green coloured beak , while the females have a dark coloured one .\ndecorating a bower doesn\u2019t end at displaying objects . some satin bowerbirds mix plant material with saliva to make a \u201cpaint\u201d they spread over their bower walls .\nmany birds have spectacular courting displays , but only the bowerbird builds and decorates an elaborate bower that serves as a dance hall and shop window for his trinkets .\nlike other members of the bowerbird family , satin bowerbirds exhibit complex courtship behaviour . this species builds an avenue - type bower and decorates it with carefully selected ornaments , preferring items which are blue or yellow . in bowers near human habitation , blue plastic straws and plastic bottle lids are often the most common decorations .\nthe \u2018lek\u2019 mating system drives rapid sexual selection in bowerbirds and other species with similar breeding behaviour , such as the birds of paradise . these species typically evolve elaborate plumage and courtship behaviours , as the most \u2018persuasive\u2019 males end up fathering most of the young . the satin bowerbird displays both striking plumage and elabourate courtship rituals .\nwhen courting , the male satin bowerbird prances and struts around his bower . he offers the female items from his collection of blue objects , while making a series of hissing , chattering and scolding noises . mating takes place in the avenue of the bower , and the male may mate with several females in a single season .\nwhen courting , the male regent bowerbird fans his tail and spreads his wings . he sometimes beats his wings to display their brilliant colours while churring , chattering and wheezing .\nsatin bowerbirds have an amazing variety of sounds , including whistles , buzzing and hissing , as well as mimicry . the male also gives a loud\nweeoo\n.\nsatin bowerbirds are vulnerable to predation from feral cats and foxes because their bowers are constructed on the ground . large parts of their habitat have been lost to clearing .\nl . scott reports finding satin bowerbirds , race\nviolaceus\n, breeding in the roseberry creek valley , near toonumbar np , northern nsw , in january 2017 .\nsatin bowerbirds are a species of bird , native to the eastern states of australia , and they are typically found in forest habitats , especially wet or rainforest areas .\na great bowerbird ( chlamydera nuchalis ) bower decorated with unusual and colourful objects such as green glass , a plastic toy elephant and even a toy soldier . queensland , australia .\na male satin bowerbird performs his courtship display and mating dance for a female around his well - decorated bower . the bower was built beneath some scrub just a few metres from a camp site in the ettrema wilderness region of morton national park , nsw , australia . filmed 20 / 12 / 2016 . check out more of my photography : urltoken\nthe satin bowerbird may forage alone or in family groups , and even with other fruit - eater birds . at food sources , the younger birds are dominated by adult males . during the breeding season , the male feeds mainly on insects in close vicinity of its bower . during winter , they feed in large flocks of up to 200 birds , taking mainly plant matter .\nbehaviour : the satin bowerbird feeds mainly on plant matter such as fruits , flowers , leaves , seeds and nectar . during the breeding season , numerous insects are added to this vegetal diet . this species forages and feeds at all levels , and fruits are often taken in canopy , 18 - 20 metres or more above the ground . insects are caught by gleaning and sallying .\nb05h12m02s this recording is the display song of an adult male satin bowerbird at the bower . normally this fast , repetitive , mechanical call is preceded by a long series of strange squeaky notes and churring calls ( as in the following example ) , but the main part of the song was extracted so it could be highlighted here . recorded in barren grounds nature reserve , new south wales .\nin contrast , spectacular plumages are shown by color - soaked males in some of the\navenue - builders .\nperhaps the brightest bowerbird is the bright orange flame bowerbird sericulus aureus of mid - elevations in new guinea ; missing it was one of the bigger disappointments on an otherwise productive trip to irian jaya in 1994 [ wonderful photos of the male and his bower are in coates 1990 ] .\nsatin bowerbirds feed mostly on fruits throughout the year . during summer ( breeding ) the diet is supplemented with a large number of insects , while leaves are often eaten during the winter months .\na male orange flame bowerbird ( sericulus aureus ) , whilst performing his dance , produces wheezing calls from his throat and pulses his pupil size in an effort to seduce a female . papua new guinea .\nr . plumtree has found satin bowerbirds , race\nviolaceus\n, near kyogle , northern nsw , in july 2013 . they are also spotted occasionally around ensay south , east gippsland , vic .\nvarious contributors report spotting satin bowerbirds , race\nviolaceus\n, regularly at o ' reilly ' s plateau , lamington np , gold coast , qld and in other locations in south - eastern qld .\nsatin bowerbirds generally reach a height of 27 to 33 centimetres ( 10 . 6 to 13 inches ) , and their diet consists primarily of fruit , and they also eat seeds , leaves and insects .\na male golden - fronted bowerbird ( amblyornis flavifrons ) will decorate his bower with coloured fruit , hoping to attract a mate . they were first photographed in 2005 and are endemic to the foja mountains , indonesia .\nfrith , c . & frith , d . ( 2018 ) . satin bowerbird ( ptilonorhynchus violaceus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nsatin bowerbirds feed mostly on the fruits of rainforest plants such as lilly - pillies ( syzygium species ) throughout the year . during summer , which is the breeding season , their diet is supplemented with insects .\nfemale satin bowerbirds feeding in grassland ; the bird on the left is displaying its dorsal plumage in flight ( photo courtesy of r . plumtree ) [ ensay south , east gippsland , vic , august 2012 ]\nendemic to australia and new zealand , the satin bowerbird is considered one of the most intelligent birds found in nature . mature males are very easy to spot because of their bright blue eyes , while their bodies are uniformly covered in black , although sometimes light diffraction makes the bird\u2019s feathers turn almost into a metallic sheen . what sets these birds apart is their remarkable courtship ritual , and the male\u2019s seemingly obsessive fixation for blue .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto the satin bowerbird has wide repertoire of sounds such as whistles , buzzing and hissing . it may perform mimicry of both avian and human - made sounds . the advertising song of the male is a clearly whistled \u201cquoo - eeeew\u201d , and we can also ear a loud \u201cweeoo\u201d . the female at nest sometimes mimics the calls of potential predators . outside the breeding season , flocks are vocally noisy .\n. . . that bower sites persist for years and are therefore traditional is established for several bowerbirds : satin bowerbird bowers persisted at one site for up to 30 years ( vellenga 1980 ) ; spotted chlamydera maculata and great bowerbirds c . nuchalis > 13 years ( frith et al . 1996b ) . golden bowerbirds are no exception , with 84 % of traditional bower sites ( n = 25 ) persisting for 20 seasons . . . .\nthe satin bowerbird is probably the best known of all australian bowerbirds , as it occurs along the densely settled east coast . males construct an intricate and carefully decorated bower to use as a courtship arena during the breeding season . the bower is an arching structure built on the ground out of interlaced sticks , decorated with blue and / or interesting objects : parrot feathers , flowers and brown snail shells in nature ; clothes pegs , drinking straws and bottle tops around human habitation .\nthe male satin bowerbird spends most of his life looking after his bowers and the ' treasures ' he has brought there . if something bad happens \u2014 for example , an australian brushturkey walks right across the threshold \u2014 he will berate the intruder until it leaves ( right ) , then hop down to discard ' junk ' such as a scrubturkey feather mistakenly left there ( below left ) , and then go to work to strengthen the ' avenue ' ( below right ) .\nlarge numbers of satin bowerbirds , race\nviolaceus\n, were seen in july 2009 at dandabah , bunya mountains np , qld . this loaction is on the western edge of , if not outside , the species ' general range .\nimmature or female satin bowerbirds can resemble green catbirds , but are distinguished by a blue eye , a darker bill and a more scalloped patterning on the underbody . they also tend to be more olive - green rather than a bright green .\nthe head , back and flight feathers of the male regent bowerbird are coloured in a rich golden - yellow , with the remainder of the bird being black with a purple sheen . its forehead is sometimes tinted crimson , and it has bright yellow eyes .\non the arrival of a female , the male satin bowerbird leaps into a ritualised display of exaggerated movements , such as strutting and bowing , with wings outstretched and quivering , and accompanied by a variety of mechanical - sounding calls , such as buzzing and rattling interspersed with mimicry . one of the bower decorations is usually carried in the male ' s bill . if impressed , the female moves into the bower avenue for mating and then leaves to perform the nesting duties on her own , while the male readies himself for courting more prospective females .\nthe male peacock is well known for its courtship displays , during which it fans its colourful tail feathers to attract a mate . but not all birds are so spectacular , and males of other species employ different means . male bowerbirds use their intelligence to impress the females , constructing elaborate structures called bowers to attract mates . they are not on master builders , but also accomplished artists . males of some species decorate their bowers lavishly with flower petals and sparkly manmade objects . the satin bowerbird even paints the walls of his bower with charcoal or chewed up berries .\nthe cone - shaped bower of a vogelkop bowerbird ( amblyornis inornata ) can reach a metre high , with a one and a half metre diameter . this bower has its entrance , or lawn , decorated with bright flowers . they are named after the vogelkop peninsula in western new guinea , indonesia .\nthe green catbird , another member of the bowerbird family , gets its name from its cat - like wailing call . males and females are various shades of green , flecked with black on the head and face ; and white on the nape , neck and wing tips . their eyes are red .\nsatin bowerbirds are medium - sized birds reaching 27 \u2013 33 cm in length . adult males have glossy blue - black plumage and a violet - blue iris . this plumage is likely to be particularly impressive in ultraviolet , which birds can perceive . young males resemble females with olive - green plumage above , off - white feathers with dark scalloping below , brown wings and tail . satin bowerbirds have an amazing variety of calls including whistles , buzzes and hisses ; they are mimics and imitate the sounds of other birds . males also have a loud descending\nweeoo\ncall .\nirestedt , m . , h . batalha - filho , c . s . roselaar , l . christidis , and p . g . p . ericson . 2015 . contrasting phylogeographic signatures in two australo - papuan bowerbird species complexes ( aves : ailuroedus ) , zool . scripta 45 : 365 - 379\nmale satin bowerbirds often \u2018paint\u2019 the inside of their bower , often with a mix of saliva and plant material ; and they are notable for collecting objects , generally of a blue colour , though yellow or metallic coloured objects may also be gathered , to place in and around their bower as decoration .\nwe have spotted satin bowerbirds , race\nviolaceus\n, in various locations on the eastern slopes of the great dividing range in nsw , such as e . g . dorrigo np , nsw . also seen in bald rock np and also in littoral rainforest , e . g . at iluka nr .\na new study finds that a young , inexperienced , female bowerbird judges a male by the manner in which he decorates his bachelor pad . once she ' s aged and mated a few times , this affinity for a swanky domicile fades , and she then relies on courtship routine\u0097a vigorous song and dance\u0097to select the most worthy suitor .\nlots of species will go all out to land a mate , but few courtship routines are as elaborate as that of the bowerbird . these birds craft nest - like structures , known as bowers , and decorate them with attention - getting items . females tour many of these local bowers , assessing both structure and suitor before selecting a mate .\nthe mature male satin bowerbirds are mostly solitary , but the ' green ' birds are often seen in groups or quite large flocks . in winter ( outside of the breeding season ) , birds move to more open country , and occasionally enter orchards . at this time , mature males may join the ' green ' bird flocks .\nwhen not foraging for food , the male bowerbird is mostly busy building intricate mating grounds called \u2018bowers\u2019 out of twings , berries , flowers and feathers . it then decorates the bower with saliva , charcol and any objects it can find . if it\u2019s around humans , the bowerbird will often steal anything blue to make his love avenue . typically , blue plastic caps , straws or clothing get collected by the male , then stitched together in a pattern that only the bird seems to know . it\u2019s worth mentioning that only dominant males build bowers , and sometimes other males in the vicinity might drop by and look after the bower like a caretaker . they may not use it though for conjugal affairs .\nduring autumn and winter , satin bowerbirds leave their forest habitat and move into open woodlands to forage for fruit , leaves and insects . however , with the arrival of the spring breeding season they collect together in small groups , inhabiting territories which they apparently occupy year after year . each mature male bird protects and tends his own bower throughout the year .\nsatin bowerbirds are medium - sized bowerbirds . their plumage is dimorphic , i . e . males and females are different . male satin bowerbirds are all glossy blue - black . the eyes have blue to purple irises ; the almost straight bill is yellowish , with a bluish base . the legs and feet are the colour of skin . female satin bowerbirds have a highly crypic plumage . the front is light - green and buff , with copious dark - brown scalloping . the ear coverts and lores are rufous , with darker streaking . the frons and crown are dark - brown with a light - green tinge . the back , i . e . mantle , shoulders and rump , is light - green to turquoise , with faint brown scalloping . the flight feathers and tail are brown . females have eyes with blue irises similar to those of the males , but they have a dark - grey bill and grey legs and feet . juveniles and immature birds resemble females until the fourth year . immature males take another 3 years moulting gradually into their first adult plumage .\nit is apparent that bowerbirds exist in a wide variety of habitats in australia and new guinea . in the hot , dry\nred center\nof australia lives western bowerbird ( male , below ) . the species builds\navenue\nbowers . this male has come to eat fruit at a picnic table . it shows its lilac - colored nuchal crest in this photo , although the crest is not erected here .\n. . . individually marked bower - owning male satin and tooth - billed bowerbirds have been known to occupy a particular court site for > 20 years ( vellenga 1980 ; marchant 1992 ; frith & frith 1995 ) . this kind of behaviour is thought to be unusual in that it appears to be based on male self - advertisement and not defence of resources required by females ( emlen & oring 1977 ) . . . .\nnortheast australia has another species with lovely plumage : golden bowerbird ( left in a fine shot by murray lord ) . the male builds a\ndouble maypole\nand is an odd offshoot of the papuan\ngardeners .\nmales build these bowers to attract and mate with as many females as they can . they spent 9 - 10 months of the year constantly working on , improving , and rearranging their creations \u2014 or stealing jewels from nearby bowers .\nchicks of satin bowerbirds start to moult from natal down in the nest in december and january . their first - year plumage is achieved through the post - juvenile moult in the first three months of the year . the second - year plumage is achieved through the first annual moult , starting about july agd being completed by early in the next year . thereafter annual moults take place from november to march . . . [ show full abstract ]\nwhen his satisfied with his bower and females are nearby , the blue - eyed male praces and struts around his avenue . he then tries to woo the female by offering her all sorts of objects , all while making weird hissing , chattering noises . this incredible national geographic program embedded below shows for instance a male bowerbird courting a female using a blue ring , most likely from some plastic bottle . if the female is pleased , she will mate with the male in the bower .\nexactly why a better illusion improves a male great bowerbird ' s mating success is not fully clear . apart from making its builder appear bigger and stronger , an effective forced perspective illusion may be an indicator of the male ' s intellectual prowess and , therefore , his ability to find food for his mate and their offspring . the more time a female spends in a bower , the more likely she is to mate with its builder , so alternatively the illusion may increase the male ' s chances of mating by holding her attention for longer periods of time .\nplan\u2026 the bower is aligned north - south , possibly to give the best , dazzle - free views from either end in early morning . build\u2026 the bird takes two days to build the 5\u2033 - wide avenue of his bower , formed between two 12\u2033 - high , inw arching walls made from twigs . decorate\u2026 the bird constantly adds and rearranges feathers , flowers and man - made objects \u2014 usually blue to match his own color . paint the bowerbird finishes the walls of the bower by painting them with berry juice or a dark paste he makes from bushfire charcoal .\n. . . even among the avenue building species , one male bowerbird carried about 2 , 0005 , 000 sticks to a bower ( frith & frith 2004 ) . to date most behavioural studies of bowerbirds have investigated the relationship between mating success and the characteristics of bowers and decorations ( vellenga 1970 , 1980 , borgia 1985 , 1995a , 1995b , borgia & mueller 1992 , doucet & montgomerie 2003 , madden 2003 . however , bowers and display courts provide a stage for male behavioural displays that include plumage , acoustical and locomotive elements , directed at a female during courtship . . . .\nsatin bowerbirds are medium - sized birds . the adult male has striking glossy blue - black plumage , a pale bluish white bill and a violet - blue iris . younger males and females are similar in colour to each other , and are collectively referred to as ' green ' birds . they are olive - green above , off - white with dark scalloping below and have brown wings and tail . the bill is browner in colour . young males may begin to acquire their adult plumage in their fifth year and are not fully ' attired ' until they are seven .\nsatin bowerbirds are endemic to australia . they are found along the east and south - east coast of the australian continent . the range of nominate race\nviolaceus\nextends from near melbourne , vic , along the south and east coast and the great dividing range , through all of nsw . to the north of the clarence river in northern nsw , they are not found on the coast , but only the eastern slopes of the ranges , up to just south of rockhampton , qld . race\nminor\nis found on the tablelands around cairns , qld , from about daintree np to wooroonooran np .\na bower bird builds his \u201cbachelor pad . \u201d overall , there are 17 kinds of bower birds in australia and on the neighboring island of new guinea . some are known as catbirds , while others are called \u201cgardeners\u201d or \u201cstagemakers . \u201d each builds its own shape of bower and prefers a different decorating scheme . a few , for instance , surround their bowers with carefully planted lawns of moss . others have been known to steal shiny coins , spoons , bits of aluminum foil \u2014 even a glass eye \u2014 in an effort to create the perfect romantic mood . some , like the iridescent blue satin bower bird , the star of\nmale satin bowerbirds tend their bowers throughout the breeding season . a number of bowers are usually found in one area ( a \u2018lek\u2019 ) , such that females can readily evaluate the quality of competing males . when a female approaches a bower , the male will leap into a ritualised display of exaggerated movements , strutting and bowing with wings outstretched and quivering , accompanied by a variety of mechanical - sounding calls , buzzing and rattling interspersed with mimicry , while carrying one of the bower\u2019s decorations in his bill . if suitably impressed , the female moves into the bower avenue to mate . females perform the nesting duties on their own while males devote their time to courting prospective partners .\n, even \u201cpaint\u201d the walls of their structures with chewed berries or charcoal . for the male satin , which builds a u - shaped bower from parallel walls of twigs , the favored color is blue . to decorate its \u201cavenue , \u201d as scientists call it , he collects blue feathers , berries , shells , and flowers . while some of these decorations are found in the forest , others are stolen from the bowers of other males ; young males , in particular , are prone to this petty thievery . however obtained , the precious knickknacks are then scattered around the bower . the male then waits , passing time by constantly fine - tuning his structure and rearranging the decorations . for many males , the effort will be mostly futile . a younger male , for instance , may be able to seduce only a single one of his dozens of visitors \u2014 or none at all . indeed , many males get not even a single glance : in a recent study , 75 percent of female birds visited only one bower before mating . in contrast , older males often have potential mates constantly stopping by for a peek . these more experienced suitors may mate with dozens of different females in a single breeding season .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nchristidis , l . and boles , w . e . 2008 . systematics and taxonomy of australian birds . csiro publishing , collingwood , australia .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be locally fairly common ( flegg and madge 1995 ) . trend justification : this population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthe female places a loose nest of sticks in a tree or bush , up to 30 m \u2013 35 m above the ground .\npizzey , g . and knight , f . 1997 . field guide to the birds of australia . angus and robertson , sydney .\nschodde , r . and tideman , s . c . ( eds ) 1990 . reader ' s digest complete book of australian birds ( 2nd edition ) . reader ' s digest ( australia ) pty ltd , sydney .\nstrahan , r . ( ed ) 1996 . finches , bowerbirds and other passerines of australia . angus and robertson and the national photographic index of australian wildlife , sydney .\nsimpson , k and day , n . 1999 . field guide to the birds of australia , 6th edition . penguin books , australia .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nthis australian songbird lives to lure females to his bower , an avenue of sticks built with one purpose in mind\u2014mating .\nbut no self - respecting female is going to set foot in this bare bones bachelor pad .\nbut for this female , a ring seals the deal . . . at least until the next girl comes along .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2015 national geographic society . \u00a9 2015 - 2016 national geographic partners , llc . all rights reserved . learn about our nonprofit work at urltoken\nin the forests of new guinea and australia are some very unusual birds . named after the elaborate structures , or bowers , built and decorated with colourful objects by the males , bowerbirds have one of the most unique courtship rituals in the animal kingdom .\nmale regent bowerbirds ( sericulus chrysocephalus ) decorate their bowers with blue / green saliva , sometimes \u2018painting ' it on with leaves . queensland , australia .\ntwo years ago , john endler of deakin university and his colleagues reported that the males use visual illusions when constructing their bowers . they do so by arranging the objects covering the floor of the court in a particular way , so that they increase in size as the distance from the bower increases . this positive size - distance gradient creates a forced perspective which results in false perceptions of the geometry of the bower , which is visible only to the female when she is standing in the avenue . from her point of view , all of the objects in the court appear to be the same size . consequently , she may perceive the court as being smaller than it actually is , and the male to be bigger .\nendler and his colleagues manipulated the decorative objects in the bower to reverse the gradient , with the large objects placed closest to the bower and the smaller ones further away , and found that the birds re - arranged the objects to restore the original pattern . this happened very quickly \u2013 in all cases , the positive gradient was restored within three days and the pattern was almost identical to the original by two weeks . the researchers were unsure about the function of the illusion , but speculated that it is important for females ' selection of a mate . they have now tested this hypothesis , and their results have just been published in the journal science .\nfor the new study , endler and his colleague laura kelley observed the bowers built by 20 males in a eucalyptus wood on a queensland cattle ranch and monitored the birds ' mating behaviours using motion - sensitive digital video recorders . over a two - month period in late 2010 , they collected over 1 , 600 hours of footage , containing 129 courtship displays and 23 matings . they also took photographs of the bowers so that they could analyse the arrangement of the objects and the quality of the illusions they produced from the perspective of the females .\nanalysis of these data revealed that the geometry of the bower was directly related to the mating success of its builder . the most successful males were the ones that had arranged the objects to form the most regular patterns on the floor of the court . there was also a direct relationship between the regularity of the pattern formed by the objects in the court and the strength of the forced perspective illusion .\nbetter gradients produce more even patterns when seen from within the avenue ,\nsays endler , adding that the males go to great lengths examining their work and rearranging objects to make the pattern as even as possible .\nmales spend most of their time on the bower going into the avenue and looking out , then moving objects , going back into the avenue , and so on . when in the avenue , they also sometimes fix the twigs in the walls , too .\nthe researchers still don ' t know if this results in an improvement of the illusion , however , but endler says they are now investigating this .\nas well as making the court seem smaller , the illusion created by a regular pattern may make the male ' s displayed objects stand out more , because a regular background pattern is less distracting than an irregular one . kelley and endler also note that the displayed objects are slightly larger than the perceived size of the objects arranged on the floor of the court . this may produce another illusion of relative size perception , called the ebbinghaus illusion , whereby an object is perceived as larger when viewed next smaller ones , or smaller when next to larger ones .\nduring his courtship display , the male waves objects towards the female , causing their apparent size to increase . the researchers suggest that the ebbinghaus illusion could enhance the apparent size increase , making the display objects even more conspicuous to the female . they will be investigating this in the near future , says endler , by analysing the video footage to get more precise values of the relative and absolute size of the objects .\nchickens , thrushes , pigeons and parrots have all been shown be sensitive to various illusions , and males of many species display themselves to females at a characteristic angle and distance . this suggests that the use of illusions might be widespread in birds . females of many bird species are know to prefer males with larger coloured patches on their bodies , and it is possible that the ebbingaus illusion could be used by males of those species to increase the apparent size of their patches . so , too , could the related wundt - jastrow illusion , in which an object appears smaller when its shorter edge is next to the longer edge of an object of the same size .\nreference : kelley , l . a & endler , j . a . ( 2012 ) . illusions promote mating success in great bowerbirds . science , doi : 10 . 1126 / science . 12124\n\u00a9 2018 guardian news and media limited or its affiliated companies . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 2637, "summary": [{"text": "the northern banana salamander ( bolitoglossa rufescens ) , also known as common dwarf salamander or rufescent salamander , is a species of salamander in the family plethodontidae ( lungless salamanders ) .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "it is found in the atlantic slopes of meso-america from san luis potosi , veracruz , and northern chiapas in mexico continuing on to the southern part of guatemala , belize , and northern honduras .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "however , its range south of mexico is uncertain because the records may refer to other species . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "northern banana salamander", "paragraphs": ["is endemic to the northern end of the yucatan peninsula in northern campechs and quintana roo .\nnorthern minute salamander - thorius boreas the northern minute salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nsuzanne cogen \u00a9 found this california giant salamander eating a banana slug at 3 pm in mid december in sonoma county .\nnancy gribler discovered this large adult california giant salamander eating a banana slug one night in her back yard . \u00a9 nancy gribler\nnorthern two - lined salamander - eurycea bislineata the northern two - lined salamander has a yellow belly . source : nh fish and game intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nnorthern two - lined salamander - eurycea bislineata the northern two - lined salamander is found in from southern quebec and new brunswick to northern virginia , and west from new england to northeastern ohio . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nnorthern two - lined salamander - eurycea bislineata the northern two - lined salamander is a small salamander , usually not over 3 . 5 inches in length . source : usgs intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ncoastal giant salamander ( dicamptodon tenebrosus ) . there are some amazing photos online showing dicamptodontids eating enormous banana slugs . photo by jeffrey - marsten and in public domain .\nnorthern dusky salamander - desmognathus fuscus the northern dusky salamander is found along woodland streams under logs , rocks , moss , and wet leaves . source : nh fish and game intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nnorthern two - lined salamander - eurycea bislineata the northern two - lined salamander is found in wooded areas near bogs , springs , streams , and lakes . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nthis california giant salamander was found on a hiking trail in marin county on a foggy mid may afternoon wet with fog drip . it was observed for about 20 minutes as it slowly attempt to eat the banana slug . banana slugs are very sticky and their slime causes numbness , which makes it difficult to swallow them . \u00a9 bill west\nthe northern banana salamander ( bolitoglossa rufescens ) is a species of salamander in the plethodontidae family . it is found in belize , guatemala , honduras , and mexico . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , and plantations . it is threatened by habitat loss .\nit lives mainly in bromeliads in tropical and subtropical wet forests , as well as in citrus orchards , banana plantations , and pine plantations . it breeds by direct development .\nnorthern dusky salamander - desmognathus fuscus the northern dusky salamander is found from southern new brunswick and quebec , along the east coast to north carolina , and west to ohio , southern indiana , kentucky , and tennessee . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe blackbelly salamander is found from southern west virginia to northern georgia . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nthe northern zigzag salamander ( plethodon dorsalis ) is identifiable from the zigzagging stripe down its back which is either red or yellow in appearance . this salamander also has orange markings around the base of its front legs . the northern zigzag salamander grows to around 11 cm long and is found throughout the united states . this salamander prefers living in damp rocky forests and around cave entrances .\nthis species occurs on the atlantic slopes of meso america from san luis potosi and veracruz to northern chiapas , mexico southwards to guatemala and belize , reaching northern honduras . it occurs from sea level up to 1 , 500m asl , but generally favours low altitudes .\npatch - nosed salamander - urspelerpes brucei the patch - nosed salamander is found in the appalachian foothills of northern georgia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nnorthern banana salamander ( liner , 1994 , herpetol . circ . , 23 : 11 ; frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 30 ; lee , 2000 , field guide amph . rept . maya world : 56 ; liner and casas - andreu , 2008 , herpetol . circ . , 38 : 29 ) .\nis widely distributed from the gulf slope in tamaulipas south through central america to northern argentina and eastern brazil . it is highly variable geographically .\nranges on the caribbean side of mexico , from veracruz south through belize and guatemala to northern nicaragua . it occurs at tikal in guatemala .\ngao , k . & shubin , n . h . 2001 . late jurassic salamanders from northern china . nature 410 , 574 - 577 .\nthe three - lined salamander is found from virginia south to northern florida and west to tennessee and louisiana . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\ncampbell , j . a . ( 1998 ) amphibians and reptiles of northern guatemala , the yucat\u00e1n , and belize . university of oklahoma press , norman .\nthe northern slimy salamander is often found beneath stones and decaying logs in wooded areas and alongside streams . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\na common invertebrate found on this site is the banana slug , which is a mature forest specialist . a number of other invertebrate species , including beetles , harvestman , spiders , millipedes , and freshwater mussels are also specialists throughout these sites .\nshasta salamander - hydromantes shastae the shasta salamander is found in small area in northern california in the headwaters of shasta reservoir drainage in shasta county , california . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngarden salamander ( n ) _ _ _ _ _ _ bc ( in mexico , only in far - northern baja california ) batrachoseps m . major family ambystomatidae : ( the\nmole salamanders\n)\nthe cave salamander is found from eastern oklahoma to northern virginia , north to central indiana , and south to central alabama . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nthere are no major threats to this species , which is listed as of least concern by iucn ( 2010 ) . salamandrella keyserlingii is a widespread and common species in northeastern china and russia . it is also distributed in the northern hokkaido island of japan , mongolia , and northern korea . in kazakhstan it is a rare species deserving conservation .\nthe northern redback salamander has a red stripe that runs from the back of its head almost to the tip of its tail . . source : usgs intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nthis site is characterized by low reptile diversity with only northern alligator lizard , rubber boa , and california mountain king snake being found at the site . streams , shaded seeps , and ample downed wood in various states of decay provide habitat for a variety of amphibians , including clouded salamander , california slender salamander , ensatina salamander , black salamander and tailed frog .\nnorthern redback salamanders don ' t have an aquatic larval stage . source : connecticut dept . of energy & environmental protection intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nthe northern redback salamander is found from minnesota and western ontario east to to southern quebec and newfoundland and south to north carolina and northeastern tennessee . source : nh fish and game intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\njuan , it\u2019s most likely a spotted salamander or yellow - spotted salamander ( aka ambystoma maculatum ) .\ncaiman lizards are known for their specialized diet of aquatic snails , but they will also take in other food items as well . in captivity these lizards will eat a varied diet that includes canned snails for reptiles , canned shrimp , superworms , crickets , and canned tegu and monitor food . fruits such as kiwi , banana , mango , papaya and , red banana can be offered as well . supplement the diet weekly with a reptile multi vitamin and twice a week with reptile calcium supplement . food can be offered in a dish but some lizards will happily take it from feeding tongs as well .\nthe vernacular name comes from mt . hakuba of the hida mountains , a subdivision of the northern japanese alps ( goris 2004 ) . [ 3684 ] hynobius tenuis is now included in this taxon .\nthe only way i remember to identify this particular kind of salamander is black + yellow = spotted salamander .\nred salamander - pseudotriton ruber the red salamander is found in the eastern united states from northern alabama , georgia , south carolina , and north carolina , to western ohio , pennsylvania , new jersey , and southern new york . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe northern slimy salamander is found from illinois east to new york and south to louisiana and florida . it may also be found in rindge in southern new hampshire . source : nh fish and game intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\na list compiled by armas hill upper right photo : a yarrow ' s ( or mountain ) spiny lizard , photographed during a font tour . this species occurs in sonora , in northern mexico . ( photo by doris potter )\na north american plethodontid montage . from top to bottom : red salamander ( pseudotriton ruber ) , a spelerpine ; four - toed salamander ( hemidactylium scutatum ) , the only extant member of its lineage ( and hence sometimes given its own \u2018subfamily\u2019 , hemidactylinae ) ; and northern dusky salamander ( desmognathus fuscus ) , one of many desmognathus species within plethodontinae . all images by rosemary mosco and used with kind permission .\nthe clouded salamander ( aneides ferreus ) grows to around 5 inches in length and has a pale gray coloration with gold , red or olive green blotches . younger species of the clouded salamander also features a brass colored streak on its back which disappears as the species ages . the clouded salamander has a prehensile tale and longer legs than many other salamander species . this salamander species can be found in the western united states from the columbia river to the northern tip of california . this salamander lives under rocks and logs . eggs of the clouded salamander hatch within two months and before hatching the eggs can be cared for by one or both parents . the clouded salamander is considered to be of near threatened conservation status .\nthe wandering salamander ( aneides vagrans ) looks similar in appearance to the clouded salamander and grows to a total length of 5 inches . this salamander species has a prehensile tail and can be found clambering in trees . the wandering salamander varies in color from brown to grey and features bronze markings that can be marbled , mottled or speckled on the salamanders back . as with the clouded salamander , young wandering salamanders also have a bronze stripe down their backs . this salamander species is found in oregon , northern california and on vancouver island . the wandering salamander can be found living on forested lands or forest edges but also thrives on recently cleared forest areas . this salamander species is considered to be of near threatened conservation status .\nthis species ranges from the north of european russia ( arkhangelskaya province ) through the polar urals and siberia to chukotka peninsula , then southwards along the pacific coast to northeastern china ( heilongjiang , jilin , liaoling and inner mongolia provinces ) , northern democratic people ' s republic of korea , central mongolia , southern siberia , and through northern kazakhstan to nizhegorodskaya province in european russia . the species is also present in kushiro marshland in hokkaido , japan , and the disputed island of kunashiri .\ni have seen stuff about spotted salamanders and on this website it says that a spotted salamander is not a type of salamander .\nhas a wide range and a pronounced geographical variation . it is distributed from the southeastern & central us south through mexico & central america to venezuela , with disjunct populations in the west indies , and in southeast brazil , uruguay , & northern argentina .\nthe species ranges from tamaulipas , mexico south to northern honduras , and on corn island off the coast of nicaragua . at no place other than at the cave in the yucatan , is it known to be restricted its entire life to the inside of a cave .\nsalamandrella keyserlingii has the widest distribution of all recent amphibian species . it is found in russia , kazakhstan , mongolia , china , north korea and japan . its range extends across the ural mountains , well into the european part of russia ; the eastern limit is formed by the chukotski mountains near the bering strait . the northern limits are the chaunski lowlands along the east siberian sea in chukotski and the kolyma river - kolyuchinskaya tundra zone . the southern limits are northern kazakhstan , the altay and tuva areas of southern russia , the hangayn mountains in northern mongolia , inner mongolia and heilongjiang provinces in north - eastern china . the changbai mountains in northern north korea may be home to s . tridactyla . salamandrella keyserlingii further occurs on sakhalin island , and some of the kuril islands : paramushir , kunashir and shikotan islands , as well as in the kushiro wetlands in hokkaido , japan ( kang et al . , 1975 ; sato , 1993 ; borkin , 1999 ; fei et al . , 1999 , 2006 ; kuzmin & maslova , 2003 ; song , 2007 ) .\nthe hakuba salamander or japanese mountain salamander ( hynobius hidamontanus ) is a species of salamander in the hynobiidae family . this salamander is also synonymous with the mountain salamander ( hynobius tenuis ) . it is endemic to japan . its natural habitats are temperate forests , rivers , swamps , freshwater springs , and plantations . it is threatened by habitat loss .\nthe garden slender salamander is small , slim salamander . source : california herps intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nblue ridge two - lined salamander - eurycea wilderae the blue ridge two - lined salamander is a small , slender salamander . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nwhat remains of the historic mammalian carnivores are the fisher and the raccoon . other mammals common to this vegetation community are the fog shrew , trowbridge shrew , shrew - mole , silver - haired bat and northern flying squirrel . sensitive mammal species include fisher , marten , and mountain beaver .\nthe green salamander or ( aneides aeneus ) is the only salamander within its genus to live in the eastern united states . this species is considered to be near threatened as far as conservation status . the green salamander ranges between 8 to 12 cm in length and is light blue to yellow in color with green blotches on its skin that look like lichen . this species prefers to live in moist and shaded areas such as in rock crevices and are located from southwestern pennsylvania down to northern alabama and northeastern mississippi .\nthis species originally inhabited forest , including dry forest and lowland wet forest , but with the loss of these habitats from much of its range it is now most commonly found in shaded coffee and banana plantations , and in sugarcane fields ( 1 ) ( 8 ) . salvin\u2019s mushroomtongue salamander has been observed climbing on heliconia leaves and other large - leafed plants ( 3 ) , and has been recorded at elevations of around 600 to 1 , 250 metres ( 1 ) ( 8 ) ( 10 ) ( 11 ) .\nthe red - legged salamander ( plethodon shermani ) is a dark grey salamander that is identified by its bright red legs and light grey cheeks . this salamander species measures anywhere between 3 \u00bc and 7 \u00bc inches long . the red - legged salamander lives in moisture rich forests preferring to live in mossy logs . this salamander species is prevalent in the extreme southwestern corner of north carolina .\nthe very distinctive spectacled salamander salamandrina terdigitata and northern spectacled salamander s . perspicillata , both endemic to western italy , are generally recovered as forming the sister - group to the salamandrine + pleurodeline clade ( zhang et al . 2008 , pyron & wiens 2011 ) . these unique salamandrids are proportionally long - tailed , only have four toes on the hindfeet , and display their bright red ventral tail surfaces by forming a vertical loop with the tail when disturbed .\nclouded salamander - aneides ferreus the clouded salamander has a prehensile tail . source : usgs intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nguaramacal salamander - bolitoglossa guaramacalensis the guaramacal salamander is found in venezuela . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nmombacho salamander - bolitoglossa mombachoensis the mombacho salamander is found in nicaragua . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\npijol salamander - bolitoglossa porrasorum the pijol salamander is found in honduras . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nazulita salamander - bolitoglossa spongai the azulita salamander is found in venezuela . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nspring salamander - gyrinophilus porphyriticus there are four subspecies of spring salamander . source : usgs intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nyoro salamander - nototriton barbouri the yoro salamander is found in honduras . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nworm salamander - oedipina tomasi the worm salamander is found in honduras . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nmorelos salamander - pseudoeurycea altamontana the morelos salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nleprous salamander - pseudoeurycea leprosa the leprous salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nadmirable salamander - pseudoeurycea praecellens the admirable salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ntamaulipan salamander - pseudoeurycea scandens the tamaulipan salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nfemale gregarious slender salamanders lay their egs in communal nests under rocks , logs , bark , or leaf litter . source : california herps intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no san simeon slender salamander - batrachoseps incognitus the simeon slender salamander is found in central coastal california in the santa lucia range in southwestern monterey county and northern san luis obispo county . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nel cusuco salamander - bolitoglossa diaphora el cusuco salamander is found in honduras . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngreen salamander - aneides aeneus the green salamander is blac with bright green markings . source : usgs intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nsardinian cave salamander - atylodes genei the sardinian cave salamander is found in italy . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncarabobo climbing salamander - bolitoglossa borburata the carabobo climbing salamander is found in venezuela . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncelaque climbing salamander - bolitoglossa celaque the celaque climbing salamander is found in honduras . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\noak forest salamander - bolitoglossa cuchumatana the oak forest salamander is found in guatemala . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncoban climbing salamander - bolitoglossa helmrichi the coban climbing salamander is found in guatemala . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nmeliana climbing salamander - bolitoglossa meliana the meliana climbing salamander is found in guatemala . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\namazon climbing salamander - bolitoglossa palmata the amazon climbing salamander is found in ecuador . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nbroadfoot climbing salamander - bolitoglossa platydactyla the broadfoot climbing salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nnorthwestern climbing salamander - bolitoglossa sima the northwestern climbing salamander is found in ecuador . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nla palma salamander - bolitoglossa subpalmata la palma salamander is found in costa rica . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nfinca chiblac salamander - bradytriton silus the finca chiblac salamander is found in guatemala . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ndwarf splayfoot salamander - chiropterotriton dimidiatus the dwarf splayfoot salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nterrestrial splayfoot salamander - chiropterotriton terrestris the terrestrial splayfoot salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncortes moss salamander - cryptotriton nasalis the cortes moss salamander is found in honduras . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nbaja verepaz salamander - cryptotriton veraepacis the baja verepaz salamander is found in guatemala . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncommon bromeliad salamander - dendrotriton bromeliacius the common bromeliad salamander is found in guatemala . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nchuj climbing salamander - dendrotriton chujorum the chuj climbing salamander is found in guatemala . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncuchumatanas bromeliad salamander - dendrotriton cuchumatanus the cuchumatanas bromeliad salamander is found in guatemala . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nguatemalan bromeliad salamander - dendrotriton rabbi the guatemalan bromeliad salamander is found in guatemala . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nxolocalca bromeliad salamander - dendrotriton xolocalcae the xolocalca bromeliad salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nbarton springs salamander - eurycea sosorum the barton springs salamander is found in texas . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\npe\u00f1a verde salamander - pseudoeurycea aurantia the pe\u00f1a verde salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nsierra juarez salamander - pseudoeurycea juarezi the sierra juarez salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nmexican slender salamander - pseudoeurycea lineola the mexican slender salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nroyal salamander - pseudoeurycea rex the royal salamander is found in guatemala and mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nimperial cave salamander - speleomantes imperialis the imperial cave salamander is found in italy . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nitalian cave salamander - speleomantes italicus the italian cave salamander is found in italy . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nsupramonte cave salamander - speleomantes supramontis the supramonte cave salamander is found in italy . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngolden minute salamander - thorius aureus the golden minute salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\natoyac minute salamander - thorius infernalis the atoyac minute salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nomiltemi minute salamander - thorius omiltemi the omiltemi minute salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\npapalo minute salamander - thorius papaloae the papalo minute salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nsan gabriel slender salamander - batrachoseps gabrieli the san gabriel slender salamander ' s tail will grow back if it is broken off . source : california herps intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no gabilan slender salamander - batrachoseps gavilanensis\nalvarado ' s salamander - bolitoglossa alvaradoi alvarado ' s salamander is arboreal and nocturnal . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nmillville climbing salamander - bolitoglossa cerroensis the millville climbing salamander is found in costa rica . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nrio quiri salamander - bolitoglossa gracilis the rio quiri salamander is found in costa rica . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nsilverstone ' s salamander - bolitoglossa silverstonei silverstone ' s salamander is found in colombia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nwalker ' s salamander - bolitoglossa walkeri walker ' s salamander is found in colombia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncomal blind salamander - eurycea tridentifera the comal blind salamander is found in central texas . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nvaldina farms salamander - eurycea troglodytes the valdina farms salamander is found in southern texas . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nberry cave salamander - gyrinophilus gulolineatus the berry cave salamander is found in eastern tennessee . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nlimestone salamander - hydromantes brunus the limestone salamander is found in mariposa county , california . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nmonteverde moss salamander - nototriton gamezi the monteverde moss salamander is found in costa rica . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nla fortuna worm salamander - oedipina gephyra la fortuna worm salamander is found in honduras . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nsan martin minute salamander - thorius narismagnus the san martin salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthis mature california tiger salamander larva is eating a sierran treefrog tadpole . \u00a9 mark gary\ni found a salamander on the east coast of quebec , just below labrador . it is black with yellow spots . anyone know what kind of salamander this might be ?\nthe body of the siberian salamander survives extreme cold temperatures via ' antifreeze ' chemicals .\noregon slender salamander - batrachoseps wrighti the oregon slender salamander is found in north central oregon . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nalvarado ' s salamander - bolitoglossa alvaradoi alvarado ' s salamander is found in costa rica . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncoal - black salamander - bolitoglossa anthracina the coal - black salamander is found in panama . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nmushroom - tongued salamander - bolitoglossa pandi the mushroom - tongued salamander is found in colombia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nblanco river springs salamander - eurycea pterophila the blanco river springs salamander is found in texas . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngeorgia blind salamander - eurycea wallacei the georgia blind salamander is found in florida and georgia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nsanta barbara moss salamander - nototriton limnospectator the santa barbara moss salamander is found in honduras . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncerro saslaya moss salamander - nototriton saslaya the cerro saslaya moss salamander is found in nicaragua . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nagile moss salamander - nyctanolis pernix the agile moss salamander is found in guatemala and mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nlos diamantes worm salamander - oedipina carablanca los diamantes worm salamander is found in costa rica . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nsulcate false brook salamander - pseudoeurycea cephalica the sulcate false brook salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nlongtail false brook salamander - pseudoeurycea longicauda the longtail false brook salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncofre de perote salamander - pseudoeurycea naucampatepetl the cofre de perote salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nrufescent salamander ( lee , 1996 , amph . rept . yucatan peninsula : 43 ) .\ncerro pando salamander - bolitoglossa compacta the cerro pando salamander is found in costa rica and panama . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nconant ' s salamander - bolitoglossa conanti conant ' s salamander is found in guatemala and honduras . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nholy - mountain salamander - bolitoglossa heiroreias the holy - mountain salamander is threatened by habitat loss . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\njackson ' s climbing salamander - bolitoglossa jacksoni jackson ' s climbing salamander is found in guatemala . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\ncamron climbing salamander - bolitoglossa lignicolor the camron climbing salamander is found in costa rica and panama . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ndwarf climbing salamander - bolitoglossa minutula the dwarf climbing salamander is found in costa rica and panama . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncerro pital salamander - bolitoglossa synoria the cerro pital salamander is found in el salvador and honduras . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nmonzon ' s moss salamander - cryptotriton monzoni monzon ' s moss salamander is found in guatemala . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nwake ' s moss salamander - cryptotriton wakei wake ' s moss salamander is found in guatemala . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nsanta barbara bromeliad salamander - dendrotriton sanctibarbarus the santa barbara bromeliad salamander is found in western honduras . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ntexas blind salamander - eurycea rathbuni the texas blind salamander is found in south - central texas . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nvolcan cacoa moss salamander - nototriton guanacaste the volcan cacoa moss salamander is found in costa rica . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nmud salamander - pseudotriton montanus the mud salamander is found in the southeastern united states . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nambrosi ' s cave salamander - speleomantes ambrosii ambrosi ' s cave salamander is found in italy . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ntaylor ' s minute salamander - thorius troglodytes taylor ' s minute salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe red hills salamander ( phaeognathus hubrichti ) is the official state amphibian of the state of alabama . this salamander is a terrestrial salamander and has been known to grow as long as 10 inches long . this is a gray brown salamander that has coloration almost like a worm . this salamander species is found in two specific geographic locations in southern alabama . the red hills salamander prefers to live on the slopes of ravines and in siltstone crevices . males of this species are mature within a year whereas females take a year to become sexually mature .\nthe siberian newt possesses the widest geographical range of any recent amphibian species , ca . 12 million square km . it lives in russia , the north of kazakhstan , mongolia , china , korea and japan . the northern margin of the range extends from the russian plain ( arkhangelsk province ) eastwards to the arctic part of the urals ( tyumen province , south of yamal peninsula ) through the south of taimyr peninsula , krasnoyarsk region ( avam river ) to the north of yakutia republic and chukotka peninsula . the southern margin of the range runs from the north - east of kostroma province through kirov and perm provinces of russia to the southern urals and northern kazakhstan near omsk province ( russia ) , then through the south of siberia , northern and central mongolia , heilonjiang and girin provinces of china and north korea . the species inhabits wet conifer , mixed , deciduous forests in the taiga zone and riparian groves in tundra and forest steppe . at the margins of its range , the existence of populations depends on the presence of permanent stagnant pools in the valleys of rivers .\nlincoln ' s climbing salamander - bolitoglossa lincolni lincoln ' s climbing salamander is found in guatemala nd mexico . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no crater salamander - bolitoglossa marmorea the crater climbing salamander is found in costa rica and panama . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nhi , we do mention the spotted tail salamander which is commonly referred to as the cave salamander ( eurycea lucifuga ) . was there a different type of spotted salamander we missed ? if so please let us know more and we can update the article ! thanks for reading !\nblack salamander - aneides flavipunctatus the black salamander is found from extreme southwestern oregon south through northwestern california . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nwandering salamander - aneides vagrans the wandering salamander is found from british columbia , canada south through california . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nkern plateau salamander - batrachoseps robustus the kern plateau salamander is found near small permanent creeks and springs . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\ntexas salamander - eurycea neotenes the texas salamander is found in the edwards plateau region of central texas . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nwest virginia spring salamander - gyrinophilus subterraneus the west virginia spring salamander is found in southeastern west virginia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncerro pando worm salamander - oedipina grandis cerro pando worm salamander is found in costa rica and panama . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nshenandoah salamander - plethodon shenandoah the shenandoah salamander is found in shenandoah national park in virginia . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nnorthwest italian cave salamander - speleomantes strinatii the northwest italian cave salamander is found in france and italy . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe female produces a pair of egg sacs , connected to one another with a short mucous stalk , by which the clutch is attached to twigs and grasses . one sac of the clutch is spiraled clockwise , the other counter - clockwise . non - spiraled , banana - form egg sacs found in the primorye and khabarovskii regions belong to a separate form , recently recognized as a species and now named salamandrella tridactyla ( berman et al . , 2005 ; kuzmin & maslova , 2003 ; poyarkov & kuzmin , 2008 ; matsui et al . , 2008 ) .\ngreen salamander - aneides aeneus the green salamander is found in the appalachian mountain region from pennsylvania through georgia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nchannel islands slender salamander - batrachoseps pacificus the channel islands slender salamander is pinkish - brown to brown . source : california herps intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nkings river slender salamander - batrachoseps regius the kings river slender salamander is found in fresno county , california . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nkern plateau salamander - batrachoseps robustus the kern plateau salamander is found in the southern sierra nevadas in california . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ndunn ' s climbing salamander - bolitoglossa dunni dunn ' s climbing salamander is found in guatemala and honduras . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nengelhardt ' s climbing salamander - bolitoglossa engelhardti engelhardt ' s climbing salamander is found in guatemala and mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nfranklin ' s climbing salamander - bolitoglossa franklini franklin ' s climbing salamander is found in guatemala and mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nhartweg ' s climbing salamander - bolitoglossa hartwegi hartweg ' s climbing salamander is found in guatemala and mexico . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nmuller ' s climbing salamander - bolitoglossa mulleri muller ' s climbing salamander is found in guatemala and mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nred - footed climbing salamander - bolitoglossa pesrubra the red - footed climbing salamander is found in costa rica . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nshadowy web - footed salamander - bolitoglossa sombra the shadowy web - footed salamander is found in costa rica . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nsiskiyou mountains salamander - plethodon stormi the siskiyou mountains salamander is found in the siskiyou mountains in southern oregon . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe western red - backed salamander is found from british columbia , canada south to southern oregon .\nbell ' s false brook salamander - pseudoeurycea bellii bell ' s false brook salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngadow ' s false brook salamander - pseudoeurycea gadovii gadow ' s false brook salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nwerler ' s false brook salamander - pseudoeurycea werleri werler ' s false brook salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\narboreal salamander - aneides lugubris the arboreal salamander is an excellent climber and is often found in the tree canopy . source : usgs intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ninyo mountains salamander - batrachoseps campi the inyo mountains slender salamander has a wide head and snout and large eyes . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nthe santa lucia slender salamander , like other species of slender salamander , will coil itself up when disturbed . source : california herps intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nlesser slender salamander - batrachoseps minor the lesser slender salamander is found in san luis obispo county in california . . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nlesser slender salamander - batrachoseps minor the lesser slender salamander is found at elevations above 1 , 300 ft . source : california herps intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ntehachapi slender salamander - batrachoseps stebbinsi the tehachapi slender salamander is 3 . 5 - 5 inches in length . source : california herps intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ntwo - lined climbing salamander - bolitoglossa biseriata the two - lined climbing salamander is found in colombia and panama . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\ndoflein ' s salamander - bolitoglossa dofleini doflein ' s salamander is found in belize , guatemala , and honduras . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nyellow - legged climbing salamander - bolitoglossa flavimembris the yellow - legged climbing salamander is found in guatemala and mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nlong - nosed climbing salamander - bolitoglossa rostrata the long - nosed climbing salamander is found in guatemala and mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncascade caverns salamander - eurycea latitans the cascade caverns salamander is found in the edwards plateau region of central texas . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ntexas blind salamander - eurycea rathbuni the texas blind salamander is around 3 - 5 inches in length . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\naustin blind salamander - eurycea waterlooensis the subterranean austin blind salamander is found in barton springs in austin , texas . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncerro pozo de agua moss salamander - nototriton brodiei the cerro pozo de agua moss salamander is found in guatemala . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ncheoah bald salamander - plethodon cheoah the cheoah bald salamander is found in graham and swain counties in north carolina . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nfourche mountain salamander - plethodon fourchensis the fourche mountain salamander is found in fourche and irons fork mountains in arkansas . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nblack - spotted false brook salamander - pseudoeurycea nigromaculata the black - spotted false brook salamander is found in mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ninyo mountains salamander - batrachoseps campi the inyo mountains salamander is found in the inyo mountains , inyo county , california . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nred hills salamander - phaeognathus hubrichti the red hills salamander is found in the red hills of south - central alabama . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nred - cheeked salamander - plethodon jordani the red - cheeked salamander is found in western north carolina and eastern tennessee . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nred - legged salamander - plethodon shermani the red - legged salamander is found in western north carolina and eastern tennessee . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngoebel ' s false brook salamander - pseudoeurycea goebeli goebel ' s false brook salamander is found in guatemala and mexico . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthese two coastal giant salamanders were found locked in combat beside a coastal creek in humboldt county in mid july in what is probably an attempt by the large salamander to eat the smaller salamander . the smaller salamander bites onto the large salamanders leg while the large salamder bites onto its middle . \u00a9 alyssa semerdjian\nthe salamanders are here . clockwise from top left : chinese giant salamander ( andrias davidianus ) , jefferson salamander ( ambystoma jeffersonianum ) , blue - spotted salamander ( a . laterale ) , eastern newt ( notophthalmus viridescens ) . andrias photo by markus b\u00fchler , remainder by rosemary mosco , used with permission .\nsan gabriel slender salamander - batrachoseps gabrieli the san gabriel slender salamander is found in the san gabriel mountains in southern california . source : ambhibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nholy - mountain salamander - bolitoglossa heiroreias the holy - mountain salamander is found in el salvador , guatemala , and honduras . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nallegheny mountain dusky salamander - desmognathus ochrophaeus the allegheny mountain dusky salamander is found at elevations of 600 ft . and higher . source : usgs intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\npygmy salamander - desmognathus wrighti the pygmy salamander is found in the blue ridge mountains and the great smoky mountains . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\njunaluska salamander - eurycea junaluska the junaluska salamander is found in the blue ridge mountains in southwestern north carolina and southeastern tennessee . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\npigeon mountain salamander - plethodon petraeus the pigeon mountain salamander is found on the eastern slope of pigeon mountain in northwestern georgia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nvan dyke\u2019s salamander ( plethodon vandykei ) grows up to 6 . 2 cm long and has a dark colored underbelly . the topside of this salamander varies in color depending upon the local climate of the habitat of the salamander but can be rose and salmon , yellow and orange or yellow striped with black sides . the van dyke\u2019s salamander is most active at night and is most often found near water bodies living underneath logs , tree bark and rocks . this salamander species is most often found in washington , montana and idaho .\ni have a salamander i got a week before halloween . i found him in the woods in oakridge . he is a tanish brown on the top and a dark orange on the bottom . his colors were brighter when i found him , it seems like they have darkened since i got him . is that a bad thing ? i\u2019m keeping my salamander in a tank without a lid , on my back porch . he has about two inches of water in the bottom of the tank . he also has a banana peel , two rocks , a ladybug [ dead ] , and some fish food i put in about 45 min ago . he is cute and fun ! my mom hates him so i can\u2019t bring him in the house . his name is pumpkin pie . please help me how ever you can to help him .\nblackbelly slender salamander - batrachoseps nigriventris the blackbelly slender salamander is found on santa cruz island and the southern coastal mountains of california . source : amphibiaweb intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no"]}
{"id": 2645, "summary": [{"text": "galaxiella munda is a species of fish in the galaxiidae family .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is endemic to inland waters of southwest western australia , and known as the western mud minnow .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "in 1999 the mud minnow was not included in the list of threatened species under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act , but is listed as near threatened on the iucn red list . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "galaxiella munda", "paragraphs": ["mean genetic divergences between populations of galaxiella munda for cytochrome b calculated using p - distances .\ninformation on the western mud minnow ( galaxiella munda ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nmartin f . gomon & dianne j . bray , galaxiella munda in fishes of australia , accessed 10 jul 2018 , urltoken\nbiology of galaxiella munda mcdowall ( teleostei : galaxudae ) , including a comparison of the reproductive strategies of this and three other local species .\nwestern dwarf galaxias , galaxiella munda . source : stephen beatty / freshwater fish group & fish health unit , murdoch university . license : all rights reserved\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - western mud minnow ( galaxiella munda )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - western mud minnow ( galaxiella munda )\ntitle =\narkive species - western mud minnow ( galaxiella munda )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nwager , r . 1996 . galaxiella munda . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 18 may 2011 .\nberra , t . m . & g . r . allen . 1989 . clarification of the difference between galaxiella nigrostriata ( shipway , 1953 ) and galaxiella munda mcdowall , 1978 ( pisces : galaxiidae ) from western australia . rec . west . aust . mus . 14 : 293\u2013297 .\nberra , t . m . & g . r . allen . 1989 . clarification of the difference between galaxiella nigrostriata ( shipway , 1953 ) and galaxiella munda mcdowall , 1978 ( pisces : galaxiidae ) from western australia . rec . west . aust . mus . 14 : 293\u2013297 .\nmean genetic divergences between populations of galaxiella nigrostriata for cytochrome b calculated using p - distances .\nmean genetic divergences between western lineage populations of galaxiella pusilla for cytochrome b calculated using p - distances .\nmean genetic divergences between eastern lineage populations of galaxiella pusilla for cytochrome b calculated using p - distances .\nmolecular phylogeny and phylogeography of the australian freshwater fish genus galaxiella , with an emphasis on dwarf galaxias ( g . pusilla )\nmolecular phylogeny and phylogeography of the australian freshwater fish genus galaxiella , with an emphasis on dwarf galaxias ( g . pusilla )\nmale blackstriped dwarf galaxias , galaxiella nigrostriata . source : gerald r . allen / western australian museum . license : all rights reserved\ngalaxiella munda mcdowall 1978 , j . r . soc . n . z . 8 ( 1 ) : 119 , figs . 1 - 2 . type locality : pool in jarrah forest , about 8 km north of scott river , between nanup and augusta , 34\u00b013 ' s , 115\u00b029 ' e , western australia .\npen , l . j . , gill , h . s . , humphries , p . & potter , i . c . 1993 . biology of the black - stripe minnow galaxiella nigrostriata , including comparisons with the other two galaxiella species . journal of fish biology 43 : 847\u2013863 . urltoken\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - dwarf galaxias ( galaxiella pusilla )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - dwarf galaxias ( galaxiella pusilla )\ntitle =\narkive species - dwarf galaxias ( galaxiella pusilla )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ngill , h . s . & neira , f . j . 1994 . larval descriptions of three galaxiid fishes endemic to south - western australia : galaxias occidentalis , galaxiella mund a and galaxiella nigrostriata ( salmoniformes : galaxiidae ) . marine and freshwater research 45 : 1307\u20131317 . doi : 10 . 1071 / mf9941307\nsaddlier s , jackson j , hammer m . melbourne : state of victoria department of sustainability and environment ; 2010 . national recovery plan for the dwarf galaxias galaxiella pusilla .\nwager , r . 1996 . galaxiella nigrostriat a . in : iucn 2012 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2012 . 2 . . downloaded on 14 may 2012 .\npen , l . j . , gill , h . s . , potter , i . c . & humphries , p . ( 1993 ) . growth , age composition , reproductive biology and diet of the black - stripe minnow galaxiella nigrostriata ( shipway ) , including comparisons with the other two galaxiella species . journal of fish biology 43 : 847 - 864 .\ngalaxiella munda and g . nigrostriata show even more extreme examples of population differentiation . overall though , patterns were broadly similar to those in g . pusilla . some proximate populations had low divergences ( e . g . , sites 32\u201333 , 34 and 36 , 38\u201339 ) . populations 24\u201325 were unusual in that they are separated by considerable distance , yet they were genetically quite similar ( fig . 3 and table s5 ) . most other populations had high genetic divergences , typically from 0 . 7 % to 3 . 0 % ( tables s4 , s5 ) . interestingly , despite being more common in elevations closer to sea level , g . nigrostriata displayed a higher degree of genetic differentiation than g . munda ( table s1 ) .\ngill , h . s . & morgan , d . l . 1996 . threatened fishes of the world : galaxiella nigrostriata ( shipway , 1953 ) ( galaxiidae ) . environmental biology of fishes 47 : 344 .\ngaleotti dm , mccullough cd , lund ma ( 2010 ) black - stripe minnow galaxiella nigrostriata ( shipway 1953 ) ( pisces : galaxiidae ) , a review and discussion . j r soc west aust 93 : 13\u201320 .\nsummary of pairwise comparisons of allele frequency between sites for galaxiella pusilla west . site 9 was excluded from the analysis due to small sample size and lack of a geographically - proximate neighbour . format as for table s8 .\ncolour varies in relation to the water inhabited . in tannin - stained waters g . munda is dark brown on the back and sides with a silvery - white belly . may also be greenish olive dorsally with a longitudinal silvery stripe , a brownish - orange stripe ( usually during the breeding season ) and a narrow dark stripe with a silvery belly .\nsmith , k . d . 1996 . an outlying population of galaxiella nigrostriata ( pisces : galaxiidae ) at melaleuca park , western australia : causes of habitat fragmentation . honours thesis , department of zoology , the university of western australia . 115 pp .\nfish fact : the muddy , or western mud minnow ( galaxiella munda ) is the closest rellie to the black - strip minnow , but instead of being found in ephemeral waterbodies , it is found in spring - fed headwater streams that are the result of groundwater expression . take the yaragadee as an example , these species is most secure in yaragadee aquifer - fed streams . at least we aren ' t drawing that aquifer down - phew . the species has a one year life - cycle so if something negative happens in their streams then they are likely to go kaput . big worry considering our recent year of climate change .\ngaleotti , d . m . 2013 . metapopulation theory explains black - stripe minnow ( pisces : galaxiidae , galaxiella nigrostriata ) distribution in seasonal wetlands in south - west western australia . msc thesis , edith cowan university , perth , western australia , 165 pp . urltoken pdf\ngaleotti , d . m . , m . a . castalanelli , d . m . groth , c . mccullough & m . lund . 2014 . genotypic and morphological variation between galaxiella nigrostriata ( galaxiidae ) populations : implications for conservation . marine and freshwater research urltoken abstract\nthompson gg , withers pc ( 1999 ) the metabolic response to hypoxia and emersion of aestivating fishes ( lepidogalaxias salamandroides and galaxiella nigrostriata ) and a non - aestivating fish ( bostockia porosa ) from south - western australia . australian journal of zoology 47 : 295 - 305 .\ngill , h . s . & morgan , d . l . 2003 . ontogenetic changes in the diet of galaxiella nigrostriat a ( shipway , 1953 ) ( galaxiidae ) and lepidogalaxias salamandroides mees , 1961 ( lepidogalaxiidae ) . ecology of freshwater fish 12 : 151 - 158 .\nthe ml analyses of each gene recovered a nearly identical interspecific topology , with the only incongruence being among brachygalaxias relationships . cyt b placed b . gothei and b . bullocki as sister species , whereas s7 placed b . gothei in between the two b . bullocki lineages . bootstrap support was high ( > 98 % ) for all deep nodes in the cyt b dataset , with the exception of the node uniting g . munda and g . nigrostriata ( 52 % ; fig . 2 ) . our tcs networks provided a more detailed pattern of the relationships between cyt b haplotypes within each galaxiella species , highlighting the large number of nucleotide differences between many populations ( fig . 3 ) .\ncitation : unmack pj , bagley jc , adams m , hammer mp , johnson jb ( 2012 ) molecular phylogeny and phylogeography of the australian freshwater fish genus galaxiella , with an emphasis on dwarf galaxias ( g . pusilla ) . plos one 7 ( 6 ) : e38433 . urltoken\ngaleotti , d . m . , mccullough , c . d . & lund , m . a . 2010 . black - stripe minnow galaxiella nigrostriata ( shipway 1953 ) ( pisces : galaxiidae ) , a review and discussion . journal of the royal society of western australia 93 : 13\u201320 .\nmaximum likelihood trees for galaxiella based on analysis of cytochrome b ( a ) and s7 ( b ) sequences and a neighbour joining tree for allozymes ( c ) . panel a shows the complete tree with operational taxonomic units ( otus ) for each galaxiella species collapsed . expanded trees within each species are shown below , with the lower scale bar applying to each of the four subtrees . bootstrap values are based on 1000 pseudoreplicates . trees are rooted with brachygalaxias . each otu code is based on the sampling location number and name in table 1 and fig . 1 , while the coloured symbols match figs . 1 , 3 and 5 .\nunmack pj , bagley jc , adams m , hammer mp , johnson jb ( 2012 ) molecular phylogeny and phylogeography of the australian freshwater fish genus galaxiella , with an emphasis on dwarf galaxias ( g . pusilla ) . plos one 7 ( 6 ) : e38433 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0038433\nsmith , k . d . , pen , l . j . & knott , b . 2002 . genetic and morphological study of the black - stripe minnow , galaxiella nigrostriata ( salmoniformes : galaxiidae ) , including a disjunct population near perth , western australia . records of the western australian museum 21 : 285\u2013290 . pdf open access\nknott , b . , jasinska , e . j . & smith k . d . 2002 . limnology and aquatic fauna of epp 173 , melaleuca park , refuge for an outlier population of the black - stripe minnow galaxiella nigrostriata ( pisces : galaxiidae ) in southwestern australia . records of the western australian museum 21 : 291 - 298 .\nunmack pj , bagley jc , adams m , hammer mp , johnson jb ( 2012 ) molecular phylogeny and phylogeography of the australian freshwater fish genus galaxiella , with an emphasis on dwarf galaxias ( g . pusilla ) . plos one 7 ( 6 ) : e38433 . pdf open access doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0038433\nsmith , k . d . , knott , b . & jasinska , e . j . 2002 . biology of the black - stripe minnow , galaxiella nigrostriata ( shipway ) , in an acidic , black - water lake in melaleuca park near perth , western australia . records of the western australian museum 21 : 277 - 284 . pdf available open access\ngaleotti , d . m . , mccullough , c . d . & lund , m . a . 2008 . current state of knowledge of the black - stripe minnow galaxiella nigrostriata ( pisces : galaxiidae ) in western australia . edith cowan university , centre for ecosystem management report 2008 - 12 , unpublished report to kemerton silica sands pty . ltd . , perth , western australia . 36 pp\noccur in slow - running , tea - colored streams usually in sandy areas . also found in swamps , small ponds and roadside ditches . also lives in the vegetated shallows of some freshwater lakes . water is typically acidic ( ph 4 . 5 - 6 . 5 ) and darkly tannin - stained . an inhabitant of temporary waters , capable of aestivating in damp bottom sediments over summer . spawning habits similar to g . munda . most individuals perish after their first spawning ( ref . 44894 ) . feed on small insects , larvae of aquatic insects and micro - crustaceans . breeding is associated with winter rains . males take on a bright color pattern at the start of the breeding season ( ref . 33842 ) .\nrefer to table 1 for corresponding locality details . each species is represented by a different symbol , with populations from both lineages of g . pusilla color coded to match figs . 2 , 3 and 5 . shaded areas refer to the general distribution of each galaxiella species . low sea level drainage patterns are shown to the minus 135 m bathymetric contour . bathymetry predicts a large depression that we refer to as lake bass . the small inset of australia shows the relevant biogeographic provinces , and the black central southern region represents the extent of the eucla basin .\nsummary of genetic diversity of cytochrome b sequences sampled within galaxiella pusilla populations and clades in this study . locality numbers , the number of individuals sampled , number of haplotypes ( h ) , haplotype diversity ( hd ) with its standard deviations , nucleotide diversity ( \u03c0 ) with its standard deviations , and the results of coalescent simulations of three neutrality statistics , tajima\u2019s d , fu\u2019s f s , ramos - onsins and rozas\u2019 r 2 , are shown . within - population values only represent genetically polymorphic sites ; unlisted populations were monomorphic ( h = 1 ; hd = \u03c0 = 0 . 000 ) .\nsummary of pairwise comparisons of allele frequency between sites for galaxiella pusilla east . due to their small sample sizes , sites 16 and 20 were pooled with a geographically - proximate neighbour ( sites 15 and 21 respectively ) . lower triangle = number of loci displaying statistically - significant differences in allele frequency ( p < 0 . 05 after bonferroni correction ) . upper triangle = results of determining p - value for each population pair across all loci ( fisher\u2019s method ) after bonferroni correction ; * * * = p < 0 . 001 , * * = p < 0 . 01 ; ns = not significant .\nallozyme frequencies at all variable loci for the 22 sites surveyed for galaxiella pusilla . site codes follow table 1 . frequencies of all but the rarer / rarest alleles are expressed as percentages and shown as superscripts ( allowing the frequency of each rare allele to be calculated by subtraction from 100 % ) . maximum sample sizes per site are shown in brackets ( asterisks indicate sample sizes of n = 3 for the designated sites and loci ) . a dash indicates insufficient enzyme activity at this locus . invariant loci : ald1 * , ald2 * , enol * , gapd1 , glo * , gp , gpi2 , pgam * , and pk * .\na very small galaxiid found creeks and streams of south - west western australia .\nadults are brownish - grey above with a white belly , and have several whitish blotches along the upper side , and a broad coppery - brown stripe edged in fine olive brown stripes just below the midline from behind the eye to the tail base .\nvideo of western dwarf galaxias by the freshwater fish group of murdoch university , western australia .\nendemic to temperate freshwaters of south western australia , from the albany district ( 118\u00b010\u2019e ) to north of perth ( 31\u00b050\u2019s ) .\nthe western dwarf galaxias prefers swift - flowing streams in karri forests , near submerged vegetation . the water in these streams is usually acidic ( ph 3 . 0 - 6 . 0 ) and darkly tannin - stained , and the water temperature fluctuates widely with the seasons . it also occasionally occurs in ponds , swamps and roadside drains .\ndorsal fin 7 - 10 ( usually 8 - 9 ) ; anal fin 11 - 15 ( usually 12 - 14 ) ; pectoral fin 9 - 12 ( usually 10 - 11 ) ; pelvic fin 5 - 7 ( usually 6 ) ; gill rakers16 - 20 .\nbody elongate , slender , almost tubular ; body depth at anus 10 . 5 - 14 . 3 % sl ; head short , snout short and bluntly rounded ; mouth small , oblique , reaching to front of eyes ; jaws equal in size with no enlarged canine teeth ; eye large , upper margin at head profile ; gill rakers long and slender ; pyloric caeca absent ; compressed behind the vent ; caudal peduncle longer than deep ; scales absent .\nfins small and membranous ; low membranous fold along caudal peduncle almost to dorsal and anal rays dorsal fin short - based ; dorsal fin origin behind anal fin origin ; caudal fin long , truncate to rounded ; pectoral fins narrow - based , small and rounded , inserted high laterally ; ventral fin very small , inserted at mid - body .\ncarnivore - feeds on small insects , aquatic insect larvae and microcrustaceans - usually near vegetation at the edges of streams .\nthe western dwarf galaxias has a year - long life cycle that is completed entirely in freshwater . the sexes are separate and fertilisation is external . spawning occurs between june and october , with a peak during august and september . females spawn several times , depositing several batches of eggs in flooded vegetation over several weeks . adults die soon after spawning .\nallen , g . r . 1989 freshwater fishes of australia . t . f . h . publications , inc . , neptune city , new jersey .\nallen , g . r . , midgley , s . h . & allen , m . 2002 . field guide to the freshwater fishes of australia . perth : western australian museum 394 pp .\ngill , h . s . & f . j . neira 1998 galaxiidae ( galaxiinae ) : southern galaxias . p . 70 - 77 . in f . j . neira , a . g . miskiewicz & t . trnski ( eds . ) larvae of temperate australian fishes : laboratory guide for larval fish identification . university of western australia press . 474 p .\nmcdowall , r . m . ( 1978 ) a new genus and species of galaxiid fish from australia ( salmoniformes : galaxiidae ) . j . r . soc . n . z . 8 ( 1 ) : 115 - 124 .\nmcdowall rm , frankenburg rs ( 1981 ) the galaxiid fishes of australia . rec aust mus 33 : 443\u2013605 .\nmcdowall , r . m . & j . m . waters . 2004 . phylogenetic relationships in a small group of diminutive galaxiid fishes and the evolution of sexual dimorphism . journal of the royal society of new zealand 34 ( 1 ) : 23 - 57 .\nmerrick , j . r . & g . e . schmida 1984 australian freshwater fishes : biology and management . griffin press ltd . , south australia . 409 p .\nmorgan , d . , gill , h . & potter , i . ( 1996 ) . the distribution of freshwater fish in the southwestern corner of australia . report to water and rivers commission . waters and rivers commission , perth , western australia .\nmorgan , d . l . , gill , h . s . & potter , i . c . ( 1998 ) . distribution , identification and biology of freshwater fishes in south - western australia . records of the western australian museum . supplement no 56 , perth , western australia .\npaxton , j . r . , d . f . hoese , g . r . allen & j . e . hanley 1989 zoological catalogue of australia . volume 7 . pisces . petromyzontidae to carangidae . australian government publishing service , canberra . zoological catalogue of australia . volume 7 . v . 7 : i - xii + 1 - 665 .\ngreek , galaxias , ou = a kind of fish , diminutive ( ref . 45335 )\noceania : endemic to australia . known only from the southwestern part in coastal streams between albany and ellen brook .\nmaturity : l m 4 . 7 range ? - ? cm max length : 6 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 44894 ) ; common length : 3 . 5 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5259 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 6 - 8 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 9 - 12 ; vertebrae : 38 - 43 . adults are brown - grey dorsally and white ventrally with several whitish blotches near the dorsal midline , and a broad brown stripe just below midline from behind eye to caudal - fin base .\nallen , g . r . , 1989 . freshwater fishes of australia . t . f . h . publications , inc . , neptune city , new jersey . ( ref . 5259 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5625 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 \u00b10 . 36 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 3 . 70 ; tm = 1 ; tmax = 1 ; mean fec = 65 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 14 of 100 ) .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - western mud minnow in tank\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - western mud minnow in tank\ntitle =\narkive photo - western mud minnow in tank\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nthe western mud minnow is classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nyearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,\ncodes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases\n, pp . 15 pp . + appendices\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 218dbd9a - 2f11 - 4aac - 9152 - ba6b7bf0856e\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 56971364 - 49d1 - 461d - bdcb - f0ab57bbb461\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : eb73da7f - fd1b - 43a1 - 853d - 74dfe09019d4\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 607ec6ae - 18b6 - 43e8 - 9e02 - 23f946aabdf7\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 312261\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\ninformation on the dwarf galaxias is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\npeter j . unmack , 1 , 2 , * justin c . bagley , 2 mark adams , 3 , 4 michael p . hammer , 3 , 5 and jerald b . johnson 2 , 6\nconceived and designed the experiments : pju mph jbj . performed the experiments : pju ma . analyzed the data : pju jcb ma . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : pju mph ma jcb jbj . wrote the paper : pju jcb ma .\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are properly credited .\nsouthern australia provides an excellent geological setting for studying biogeographic patterns . long - term aridity since the oligocene created a vast desert region in southern australia , isolating two moist temperate regions in the southwestern and southeastern parts of the continent . the biota that occupy these two regions have been isolated since at least mid - miocene (\nfor corresponding locality details . each species is represented by a different symbol , with populations from both lineages of\ncolor coded to match figs . 2 , 3 and 5 . shaded areas refer to the general distribution of each\nspecies . low sea level drainage patterns are shown to the minus 135 m bathymetric contour . bathymetry predicts a large depression that we refer to as lake bass . the small inset of australia shows the relevant biogeographic provinces , and the black central southern region represents the extent of the eucla basin .\nspecies is differences in the width of the continental shelf . regions with narrow continental shelf should present limited opportunities for drainage connections during low sea levels , since few rivers are likely to connect (\n) , whereas a broader continental shelf allows a greater area for rivers to traverse and potentially interconnect . much of southern australia has a relatively narrow continental shelf , thus most drainages remain isolated during low sea levels (\nare widespread across southern australia . as presently defined , the genus consists of three species of small , stout - bodied galaxiid fishes\nis usually found in smaller creeks and can occur further inland . both species overlap to a limited extent in floodplain habitats that have seasonal connections to more permanent water bodies\n, a more integrative approach is needed ; one that blends phylogeny and phylogeography . although obviously relevant , previous single - and multi - locus phylogenetic analyses of\nused limited within - taxon sampling ( one sample / species ) . previous within - species comparisons in the two western\nemployed good sampling with 10 individuals from each population but included only three populations outside of victoria . here , we improve on previous studies of the biogeography and population genetics of\nfishes . first , we use gondwanan fragmentation and the well known geology of southern australia to derive geologically - based calibration points for analyses and thereby estimate a time frame for diversification within the genus based on broader within - taxon sampling . this amounts to a \u2018congeneric phylogeographical\u2019 sampling approach . this has been shown to present a viable means of increasing systematic accuracy and improving historical inferences , by the recovery of polyphyly and \u2018cryptic\u2019 lineages , within vertebrate species\nspecies based on more extensive geographic sampling . third , we investigate phylogeographic patterns within each\nspecies in southern australia . specifically , if shelf width is important then populations of\nin the western portion of their range in southeastern australia will have a high level of genetic divergence between drainages . in contrast , populations of\npermission to undertake field work and collect specimens was obtained under the following permits : victorian fisheries research permit rp 581 , victorian flora and fauna permit 10002072 , victorian national parks permit 10002154 , tasmanian inland fisheries service permit 2003 / 12 , tasmanian department of primary industries , water and environment permit tfa 03106 , south australian primary industries and resources - section 59 exemption , western australian license to take fauna for scientific purposes sf006928 . specimens were obtained under arizona state university institutional animal care and use committee ( iacuc ) approval 09 - 1018r , brigham young university iacuc approval 070403 and university of adelaide animal ethics committee approval s - 32 - 2002 .\nthe rarity and conservation status of these species limited our sample sizes . in many cases , there were only one or a few populations known per river basin . our primary goal was to include one population per major drainage where each species is found . we examined samples of\nwere provided by david galeotti ( edith cowan university ) . fishes were collected with seine and dip nets and either frozen whole in liquid nitrogen or preserved in 95 % ethanol in the field . our sampling ranged from 1\u201311 individuals per locality , with most sites represented by 10 individuals within\n, plus two sequences from genbank for a total of 219 ingroup samples . based on their close relationships to\n{\ntype\n:\nentrez - nucleotide\n,\nattrs\n: {\ntext\n:\njn232599 . 1\n,\nterm _ id\n:\n363585397\n,\nterm _ text\n:\njn232599 . 1\n} }\n{\ntype\n:\nentrez - nucleotide\n,\nattrs\n: {\ntext\n:\njn232707 . 1\n,\nterm _ id\n:\n363585613\n,\nterm _ text\n:\njn232707 . 1\n} }\n{\ntype\n:\nentrez - nucleotide\n,\nattrs\n: {\ntext\n:\nnc _ 008448 . 1\n,\nterm _ id\n:\n115531623\n,\nterm _ text\n:\nnc _ 008448 . 1\n} }\n{\ntype\n:\nentrez - nucleotide\n,\nattrs\n: {\ntext\n:\njn232601 . 1\n,\nterm _ id\n:\n363585401\n,\nterm _ text\n:\njn232601 . 1\n} }\n{\ntype\n:\nentrez - nucleotide\n,\nattrs\n: {\ntext\n:\njn232709 . 1\n,\nterm _ id\n:\n363585617\n,\nterm _ text\n:\njn232709 . 1\n} }\n{\ntype\n:\nentrez - nucleotide\n,\nattrs\n: {\ntext\n:\njn232602 . 1\n,\nterm _ id\n:\n363585403\n,\nterm _ text\n:\njn232602 . 1\n} }\n{\ntype\n:\nentrez - nucleotide\n,\nattrs\n: {\ntext\n:\njn232710 . 1\n,\nterm _ id\n:\n363585619\n,\nterm _ text\n:\njn232710 . 1\n} }\n. the location column gives the general location of each sample . station code refers to the field number or sama ebu code that samples are catalogued as . the last three columns provide the number of individuals ( n ) examined for each marker . abbreviations : ck , creek ; hwy , highway ; r , river ; rd , road ; sa , southern australia ; tas , tasmania ; vic , victoria ; wa , western australia .\nwe employed a gis approach to quantify several environmental factors needed to evaluate our hypotheses linked to changes in sea level . datasets used to generate maps ( e . g . ,\nand manipulated in arcinfo and arcmap version 10 ( environmental systems research institute , redlands , ca ) . bathymetric data were obtained from a 30 arc - second ( ca . 1 km ) dataset gebco 08 ( september 2010 release ,\nwe extracted genomic dna from muscle tissue for each specimen using dneasy tissue kits ( qiagen inc . , chatsworth , ca ) . we amplified the mtdna cytochrome\n. when this failed to produce sufficient pcr product , the gene was amplified in two halves using glu21 - hd . gp ggrttgtttgagcctgtytcgt and gp . 505\nwe also used the forward primers glu18 taaccaggactaatgrcttgaa or glu31 tgrcttgaaaaaccaccgttgt with hd . gp as well as the internal forward primer sal . 484 caatgaatttgagggggrttctc or gn . 484\n. we also included the first two introns and the second exon of the nuclear s7 gene . all nuclear sequences were obtained by nested pcr using the following primers : 1f\nin the second reaction . in a few cases , we had to use the internal primers 1f . 2 and 2r . 67 tacctgggarattccagactc , and 2f . 2\n. the first of these nested reactions were 25 \u00b5l . final concentrations for polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ) components per 25 \u00b5l reaction were as follows : 25 ng template dna , 0 . 25 \u00b5m of each primer , 0 . 625 units of taq dna polymerase , 0 . 1 mm of each dntp , 2 . 5 \u00b5l of 10x reaction buffer and 2 . 5 mm mgcl\n. data files containing all individuals sequenced as well as various analysis files were deposited in dryad , doi : 10 . 5061 / dryad . c3g8h .\nto reconstruct a species tree and to date clade divergences and coalescence times to the most recent common ancestor . we combined the data from cyt\nand s7 , included all individuals sequenced , then ran analyses using a relaxed molecular clock in beast 1 . 6 . 1\n. the full datasets for each gene were imported into beauti 1 . 7 ( prerelease ) , which we used to generate the input file for beast . we incorporated two calibrations based on geological events . the first was the root of the tree , representing the split between\n, as potentially congruent with the separation of australia , antarctica and south america . the terrestrial separation of australia and antarctica occurred at approximately 52 ma\n. three separate analyses were conducted using both calibration points in the same analysis , plus one analysis with each calibration used individually . analyses were also conducted excluding the sequence data to check that posterior distributions were not heavily driven soley by our priors rather than the sequence data . we used an uncorrelated lognormal relaxed molecular clock based upon a lognormal prior using the \u2018speciation birth death\u2019 process . both lognormal prior calibrations had a mean of 1 . 0 , with standard deviations of 1 . 5 for the calibration of 52 ma and 1 . 0 for the 14 ma calibration . the best - fitting model of molecular evolution for each gene ( cyt\n: gtr + i + g ; s7 : gtr + g ) was estimated via aic in modeltest . analyses were run for 200 million generations , with parameters logged every 10 , 000 generations . multiple runs were conducted to check for stationarity and that independent runs were converging on a similar result . output from beast was examined in tracer 1 . 5 with 10 % burn - in and the tree results were summarized using treeannotator 1 . 7 ( prerelease ) .\nwe used multiple methods to examine within and between population genetic patterns in order to investigate the role of sea level changes in structuring genetic variation . we explored patterns of genetic variation in\npopulation and clade , and for all populations combined . to test the relative contribution of genetic variation to within and between population structure in\n. if genetic structuring is driven by isolation among drainages due to drainage basin boundaries , then we expect to see high levels of structuring among drainages . cases where high amounts of variation can be explained between groups suggest an important historic barrier to gene flow exists coincident with the structure of the model . to evaluate movement between drainage basins , we combined populations into 15 groups based on drainage basins or close geographic proximity ( i . e . , the following populations were combined : 1\u20134 , 11\u201312 , 13\u201314 , 15\u201316 , 17\u201318 ;\nsince frozen tissues were available for virtually all g . pusilla , we were able to obtain comparative allozyme profiles for this species . these were used to independently assess the finding by coleman et al . [ 35 ] of a major east - west dichotomy , and provide more appropriate molecular data for assessing whether any dichotomy reflected the presence of cryptic species . three specimens of an outgroup species , galaxias olidus , were also included in this analysis . we conducted allozyme electrophoresis of muscle homogenates on cellulose acetate gels ( cellogel\u2122 , milan , italy ) following richardson et al . [ 66 ] . details of all enzyme and locus abbreviations , electrophoretic conditions , and stain recipes are contained in richardson et al . [ 66 ] or wallman and adams [ 67 ] , while the allozyme nomenclature follows hammer et al . [ 68 ] .\nthe genetic relationships among all sites were initially assessed by constructing a neighbour - joining ( nj ) tree from a pairwise matrix of nei\u2019s [ 69 ] unbiased genetic distances ( nei d ) , following the methodology of hammer et al . [ 10 ] . we then used genepop 4 . 0 [ 70 ] to assess the raw allozyme genotypes for statistically - significant departures from hardy - weinberg expectations , for evidence of linkage disequilibrium at each individual site ( for n > 4 ) , and to detect statistically significant differences in allele frequency among sites within each of the two major lineages evident within g . pusilla . threshold probability values were adjusted for the use of multiple tests using sequential bonferroni correction [ 71 ] . finally , we employed the multivariate ordination technique principal coordinates analysis ( pco ) to visually assess the genetic affinities among all individuals within each lineage ( details in [ 10 ] ) .\nour molecular datasets provided clear discrimination among all described species . in addition , they revealed major and concordant genetic discontinuities consistent with cryptic speciation in g . pusilla as per coleman et al . [ 35 ] .\n) . removal of fish with identical haplotypes within populations reduced the dataset to 66 individuals . the number of individuals from a population with a given haplotype is provided after the population name in\n. based on this reduced dataset , 680 characters were invariant , 28 characters were variable but parsimony uninformative and 433 characters were parsimony informative . both\ncodon , while the latter also had a premature stop codon in the third - to - last codon position ( codon 378 ) . neither change is unusual for cyt\namong fishes ( p . j . unmack , pers . obs . ) or across various animal groups\n) and was obtained via whole mtdna amplification , which minimizes the chance of amplifying nuclear pseudogene copies ( masaki miya , pers . comm . ) . maximum likelihood recovered one tree for cyt\n( a ) and s7 ( b ) sequences and a neighbour joining tree for allozymes ( c ) . panel a shows the complete tree with operational taxonomic units ( otus ) for each\nspecies collapsed . expanded trees within each species are shown below , with the lower scale bar applying to each of the four subtrees . bootstrap values are based on 1000 pseudoreplicates . trees are rooted with\n) . inclusion of individual alleles from 14 heterozygous individuals increased the dataset to 66 sequences . the number of heterozygous positions within an individual varied from one to three ( all heterozygous individuals were phased into individual alleles prior to ml analyses ) . based on this dataset , 535 characters were invariant , 10 characters were variable but parsimony uninformative and 354 characters were parsimony informative . maximum likelihood recovered one tree for s7 with a likelihood score of \u22123378 . 210082 (\n( a ) is color - coded relative to figs . 1 , 2 and 5 . circle size represents haplotype abundance ; the key to circle size is in the center of panel a . the ancestral haplotype in each network is indicated by a box . haplotype counts are given in parentheses when multiple populations share the same haplotype . haplotype labels consist of the population number and name from\n) , with bayesian posterior probabilities equal to 1 . 0 for all internal nodes . divergence dating results obtained using * beast are presented in\n. running the analysis with the same settings , but without data confirmed that our input settings actually produced the desired prior probability distributions on our calibrated nodes and that our data were responsible for our results rather than our priors . most statistics from all three analyses had ess scores > 400 , demonstrating the chain was well sampled . results were substantially different depending on the calibration used . when the single calibration of 14 ma was used , all dates were much younger (\nthe first line presents results based on both calibration points of 52 and 14 million years , while the second and third rows represent results under each individual calibration . the mean and 95 % highest posterior densities are given for each node ( in millions of years ) , and we report the per lineage mean rate of evolution per million years for each gene in the last two columns .\n\u00b1 one standard deviation ( s . d . ) = 0 . 212\u00b10 . 090 ; mean \u03c0\u00d7100\u00b1 s . d . = 0 . 059\u00b10 . 014 ) , but moderate genetic diversity within each clade (\n) . results from our amova analyses found high levels of among - group structure consistent with the effects of strong isolation between populations . when all groups ( n = 15 ) were compared , among - group comparisons accounted for 95 . 8 % of the genetic variation . within eastern\n( n = 7 ) among - group comparisons accounted for 90 . 2 and 72 . 8 % of the variation respectively . all three among - group amova values were statistically significant ( p < 0 . 05 ) .\n< 0 . 0001 ) , supporting demographic - spatial expansion . neutrality tests showed a similar pattern across\n. comparing bsps to constant demographic models supported bsp patterns . bsp models provided a better fit to the data within each\nmean posterior n e estimates for each species ( darker lines ) are bounded by upper and lower 95 % highest posterior densities ( g . pusilla west , pink shading ; g . pusilla east , blue shading ) . the x - axis represents units of time in thousands of years ago ( ka ) , scaled according to posterior mutation rates estimated in beast . the y - axis shows estimated population size in hundreds of thousands , calculated assuming a g . pusilla generation time equal to 1 . 0 . the fish shown is a male g . pusilla west ( by mph ) .\n. no site displayed any statistical evidence of either linkage disequilibrium or of genotype frequencies being incompatible with hardy weinberg expectations . these data unequivocally recovered the same two primary clades (\n) ; lineage e1 comprised victorian sites 11\u201318 , while lineage e2 consisted of the two most southerly victorian sites ( 15 and 16 ) plus all tasmanian sites ( sites 19\u201322 ) . these two lineages were diagnosable by near - fixed differences at two loci (\n) , as well as by major differences in allele frequency ( \u03b4p > 40 % ) at three other loci . lineage e2 was further divisible into two sub - lineages e2a ( sites 15 , 16 , 19 , 22 ) and e2b ( sites 20 , 21 ) , diagnosable by a fully - fixed difference at a single locus (\n) plus major differences in allele frequency at three other loci . importantly , this phylogeographic structure is concordant with the cyt\nwest ( b ) individuals . relative pco scores are plotted for the first and second dimensions , which individually explain 41 % and 10 % ( a ) and 25 % and 17 % ( b ) respectively of the total multivariate variation present . individuals are colour - coded relative to\nwest also revealed statistically significant differences in allele frequency , usually involving multiple loci , in all but four instances ( sites 6 vs . 7 , 1 vs . 2 , 1 vs . 3 , 2 vs . 4 ;\n) . here lineage w2 consisted of the most easterly site ( site 10 ) , while lineage w1 comprised all other sites . additional phylogeographic structure was detectable within the widespread lineage w1 , although only one of the three sub - lineages ( w1b = site 5 ) was allozymically well - differentiated from the other two sublineages ( w1a = four western sites , w1c = four eastern sites ) by major differences in allele frequency at multiple loci (\nbased on a single individual per taxon , although their dataset included two additional genes ( rag1 and 16 s ) and morphological characters . our results , showing a deep divergence between\nwest using a suite of non - hypervariable nuclear genetic markers ( and therefore more suitable for assessing species boundaries ) , were also consistent with the conclusions of coleman et al .\nbased on mtdna coi and nuclear microsatellites . we therefore refer to these lineages hereafter as distinct candidate species . our results were strongly supported , with s7 and the combined analysis having high bootstrap values ( 100 and 1 . 0 respectively ) for all between species relationships . high support from the cyt\nour divergence estimates varied greatly depending on whether we used the separation of australian and south american species ( min . age set to 52 ma ) or the east - west separation between\nspecies ( min . age set to 14 ma ) . essentially , analyses using the older calibration point recovered mean ages slightly more than double those recovered using the younger calibration (\n) . when both calibrations were included , estimates were up to \u223c10 % lower , especially on the upper 95 % highest posterior distribution ( hpd ) . while we present results from all three calibration combinations , we favour the results obtained using a single calibration of 52 ma . the separation of southeastern and southwestern australia by the formation of the nullarbor plain (\nmay have separated long before that event . indeed , it has already been suggested that east - west separation of some groups predates this event by potentially tens of millions of years\n. we are more confident that continental drift was responsible for their separation than some form of oceanic dispersal . neither\nhave any proclivity for marine environments today , nor do they possess any traits that imply a potentially diadromous life cycle . it is certainly not impossible that they were once diadromous , although this implies a substantial convergence in morphological and ecological characteristics , perhaps driven by adaptation to similar habitats . our age estimates based on continental drift are similar to burridge et al .\n, they obtained a slightly older mean age than our analysis ( 58 vs . 55 . 8 ma ) . however , their credibility interval was broader ( 45\u201372 vs . 52\u201366 ma ) , probably due to their much larger dataset with multiple calibration points . the remaining divergences between each\nwere all younger than our results , with their mean ages usually being similar to our lowest 95 % credibility interval values . in contrast , the age for both\nspecies was similar in both studies . it is also important to recognise that our estimate of 52 ma for the separation of australian and south american clades is only a minimum estimate . it is quite likely that the true divergence would have occurred earlier . this implies that all of our age estimates would be underestimated if the continental separation is an appropriate calibration point .\nspecies across southern australia at a mean age of 34 . 3 ma ( 95 % hpd of 24 . 5\u201344 . 5 ma ,\nare adapted to exploit more ephemeral environments , they might be expected to persist under more arid conditions . however , increasing aridity would also increase the likelihood of extirpation , given\nspecies are more reliant on ephemeral habitats i . e . , seasonally wet and dry on an annual basis . as aridity intensified across southern australia\n, these ephemeral habitats would be less reliably rewatered , thus eliminating populations through extended droughts .\nwas estimated to have a mean age of 22 . 5 ma ( 95 % hpd of 15 . 2\u201330 . 5 ma ,\nadapted to survive in temporary habitats . alternatively , if aestivation was ancestral , then\nevolved the ability to compete and survive in permanent habitats . it seems likely that temporary habitats like those used by\nspecies had a mean age of 5 . 7 ma ( 95 % hpd of 2 . 2\u20139 . 1 ma ,\n, with populations from mount emu creek / hopkins river representing the western species . this contrasts strongly with patterns in other co - distributed fishes , where species - level separations or western range limits occur at the eastern side of the lake bass drainage\n, at least within freshwater fishes . no other fish species have divergences of this scale ( i . e . , species level differentiation ) at this location , although within - species genetic breaks are present in several groups\n, consistent with this boundary representing a barrier that is not frequently crossed by aquatic organisms . one major exception to the separation on the western edge of lake bass is population 10 from the barwon river , which is thought to have become part of the lake bass drainage during low sea levels (\nspecies at first seems perplexing , as it runs counter to predictions from current drainage patterns . based on the unique signature found at all molecular markers examined here (\n, it seems unlikely that population 10 represents a recent translocation . instead , this outcome infers that the geomorphic history of the barwon river basin differs somewhat from that of adjacent basins . while several authors\n, the lake expansion hypothesis needs to be re - examined geomorphically now that more accurate elevation and geological mapping is available . clearly though , evidence does support some faunal exchange via lake corangamite .\nand allozyme analyses were broadly congruent , although they differed in details . the extent of within - species genetic divergence differed between species as well as markers ; for cyt\nhad an average within - group genetic divergence of 0 . 8 % , while the western\npopulations relative to the western species ( 90 . 2 % vs . 72 . 8 % respectively ) . five groups of populations had shared or closely related cyt\n( p - distance of 0 . 5 % ) ; however allozymes grouped sites 6\u20139 together (\npopulations , which only differed from each other based on allele frequencies . coleman et al .\nagainst expectations , we found that neither inferred phylogenetic patterns , nor patterns of genetic structuring , corresponded very closely to predictions based on estimated low sea level drainage patterns . we predicted that populations 10\u201316 , plus 19\u201320 would essentially show a low degree of genetic structure , since hydrological models predict that they would have been part of a larger continuous drainage system during historical periods of low sea level (\n) . lastly , populations 1\u20139 were expected to show relatively higher levels of genetic divergence . although the latter pattern was indeed evident based on cyt\n) . one extreme example is the relationship between sites 11\u201314 and 17\u201318 , which are quite geographically distant . based on low sea level drainage patterns , these populations should not have any lowland connections ("]}
{"id": 2650, "summary": [{"text": "the siberian sturgeon ( acipenser baerii ) is a species of sturgeon in the acipenseridae family .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "it is most present in all of the major siberian river basins that drain northward into the kara , laptev and east siberian seas , including the ob , yenisei ( which drains lake baikal via the angara river ) lena , and kolyma rivers .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is also found in kazakhstan and china in the irtysh river , a major tributary of the ob .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the species epithet honors the german russian biologist karl ernst von baer . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "siberian sturgeon", "paragraphs": ["bogan , e e . 1939 . contribution to the biology of the siberian sturgeon (\nmenshikov , m . i . 1947 . on geographical variation of the siberian sturgeon .\nthis guide from the fao cultured aquatic species information programme provides information on farming siberian sturgeon .\ninformation on the siberian sturgeon is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nen - siberian sturgeon , fr - esturgeon de sib\u00e9rie , sp - esturi\u00f3n de siberia .\nthe siberian sturgeon is listed as ' endangered ' on the iucn red list of threatened species .\nthe future of seafood : farming siberian sturgeon for more than just caviar - food . curated .\nmeet jim michaels , the program manager of mote marine laboratory\u2019s siberian sturgeon program in sarasota , fl .\nl . i . sokolov and a . s . novikov , \u201cmaterials on the biology of siberian sturgeon (\na . b . zakharov , m . d . tumanov , and s . k . shalaev , \u201csiberian sturgeon\nl . i . sokolov and n . v . akimova , \u201con the methods of age determination in the siberian sturgeon\nfeed your sturgeon plenty of the correct food all year round . for more information about feeding your sturgeon see our sturgeon food and feeding page .\nakimova , n . v . & g i ruban . 1993 . the condition of the reproductive system of the siberian sturgeon .\nl . i . sokolov and s . m . kashin , \u201ccomparative analysis of some morphobiological indices in the population of siberian sturgeon\nhealthy earth is farming siberian sturgeon with sustainable methods to make black opal caviar in sarasota , florida . photo by jeremy scott .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - siberian sturgeon ( acipenser baerii )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - siberian sturgeon ( acipenser baerii )\ntitle =\narkive species - siberian sturgeon ( acipenser baerii )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ngisbert , e . and williot , p . 2002 . advances in larval rearing of siberian sturgeon . journal of fish biology , 60 : 1071 - 1092 .\nakimova , n . v . & g . i . ruban . 1995 . disturbances of siberian sturgeon generative system resulted from anthropogenic influence . pp . 74\u201379 .\nsiberian sturgeon ( acipenser baerii ) is a farmed caviar from marky ' s with a pleasing nuttiness and hints of ocean flavor , a refined delicacy for true caviar experts .\none of the sturgeon family ' s notable members is the siberian sturgeon ( acipenser baerii ) , which lives in siberian rivers , lakes , and adjacent seas . this sturgeon ( sometimes known as the siberian osetra ) is not notable among its relatives for either its size or its life span . the largest recorded fish , at 60 years old , was 2 m long and weighed around 210 kg , moderate statistics compared to wild - caught beluga or kaluga , which can grow to quite gargantuan size and great age .\nthe farmed siberian sturgeon caviar price is already remarkably modest compared to the most expensive wild - caught caspian caviars , but an even better bargain is our set consisting of french siberian sturgeon caviar ( 2 oz . ) , russian original handmade blini ( a pack of 36 pcs . ) , and cr\u00e8me fra\u00eeche ( 7 - 8 oz . ) .\nchupretov , v . m . & v . a . slepokurov . 1979 . on winter distribution of the siberian sturgeon in the ob and taz bays . pp . 270\u2013271 .\nruban , g . i . 1997 . species structure , contemporary distribution and status of the siberian sturgeon , acipenser baerii . environmental biology of fishes , 48 : 221 - 230 .\ni . i . smol\u2019yanov , technology of formation and use of brood stock of siberian sturgeon in warm - water farms ( vniiprkh , moscow , 1987 ) [ in russian ] .\noriginating from pure siberian sturgeon stock of the lena , baerii is deep mahogany to black in color , small to medium in grain , and expresses a clean , focused flavor brimming in taste .\ndryagin , p . a . 1949 . biology of the siberian sturgeon . its reserves and rational utilization . izvestiya vsesouznogo instiuta ozernogo i rechnogo rybnogo khozyaistva 29 : 3\u201351 ( in russian ) .\nthe siberian sturgeon ( acipenser baerii ) is one of the most common species seen for sale , it is easier to breed than other species and it grows very quickly with very few health problems .\nruban , g . i . - 1997 . species structure , contemporary distribution and status of the siberian sturgeon , acipenser baerii . environ . biol . fish . . 48 : 221 - 230 .\nthis paper provides a brief description of the history of home sturgeon aquaculture and the assessment of the role in its development of russian scientists , lebedev , in particular , whose ideas served as the scientific basis of the introduction of siberian sturgeon acipenser baerii in culture . the main stages of works on obtaining fertilized eggs of sturgeon under field conditions , their transportation from the spawning grounds to fish farms , as well as the elaboration of biotechniques of the introduction in culture of the species are described . principal causes of the failure of acclimatization works with siberian sturgeon are analyzed .\nl . s . berdichevskii , v . s . malyutin , i . i . smol\u201dyanov , et al . , \u201cresults of fish - cultural - acclimatization works with the siberian sturgeon , \u201d in biological foundations of sturgeon husbandry ( nauka , moscow , 1983 ) , pp . 259\u2013269 .\nakimova , n . v . , g . i . ruban & yu . v . mikhalyev . 1995 . analysis of the state reproductive system of the siberian sturgeon in central siberia . pp . 93\u201398 .\nl . i . sokolov and v . s . malyutin , \u201cspecific features of population structure and characteristics of siberian sturgeon spawners in the lena river in the area of the spawning grounds , \u201d vopr . ikhtiol .\nsiberian sturgeon caviar is harvested from farmed sturgeon but is easily a match for wild - caught caviar in terms of taste . the glittering medium - sized light to dark gray eggs boast a tender , melting texture , bathing your palate with its subtle , nutty flavor , refreshing with its clean sea notes .\nt . a . detlaf and a . s . ginzburg , embryonic development of acipenserids ( starred sturgeon , sturgeon , and white sturgeon ) in connection with issues of their cultivation ( an sssr , moscow , 1954 ) , p . 204 [ in russian ] .\nsiberian sturgeon caviar italy comes from the offspring of the original siberian osetra fingerlings carefully raised on one of the world ' s largest aquafarms , located in italy . owing to the carefully maintained conditions and scrupulously selected natural diet , farmed italian caviar differs little from wild - caught siberian osetra caviar . the traditional malossol preparation further enhances the delicate buttery savor of this world famous caviar . its grains are medium - sized and tender . they burst effortlessly in the mouth , releasing their incredible flavor .\naquafarms provide an ideal environment , controlled and secure in a way the sturgeons ' natural habitat is not . the fish are provided with drinking - quality water and regular and sufficient feed with strictly controlled content . most of the fish in the worlds ' aquafarms derive from fingerlings imported from the siberian rivers , so it is nothing less than perfect truth to describe our products as 100 % authentic siberian sturgeon , with the original flavor and quality of siberian caviar . we offer three different products in this category :\nthe siberian sturgeon grows very quickly and will soon out grow the average pond . the skin is brownish grey to black in colour and the ventral ( under side ) is whitish , sometimes with grey spots . the silver siberian is seen for sale occasionally and , if you can afford it , makes a very beautiful silver grey specimen although they do sometimes darken with age .\nmeet jim michaels , the program manager of mote marine laboratory\u2019s siberian sturgeon program in sarasota , fl . jim has been working for over a decade on an eco - friendly and sustainable solution for growing farm - raised sturgeon in the united states . a solution to meet the growing demand for caviar around the world , and one that they hope will help take pressure off over - fishing the endangered wild sturgeon stocks in the caspian sea .\nmain siberian rivers from the ob to kolyma , in lake baikal , and rarely in the pechora ( reshetnikov et al . , 1997 ) .\ni tried the caviar , but not the meat . i\u2019m trying to get the lobster place to source their sturgeon from them . sturgeon is a fresh water fish . not saltwater . interesting no ?\nalthough the siberian sturgeon is an anadromous species that can live in a marine environment and migrate into rivers to spawn , they are most commonly found in the deep parts of the middle to lower sections of rivers , preferring moderate to strong currents .\nyegorov , a . g . 1941 . baikal sturgeon . rybnoe khozyaistvo 5 : 22\u201323 ( in russian ) .\n: sturgeon fishery in water bodies of the ussr . izdatelstvo akademii nauk ussr , moscow ( in russian ) .\nsiberian sturgeon caviar france is harvested from sturgeons bred in the world famous french aquafarms . this caviar is praised by connoisseurs for the unique clean , sweet , crisp and nutty flavor of its medium - sized eggs whose pearlescent envelope ranges in color from medium gray to nearly black .\nthe siberian sturgeon inhabits the northern river systems of siberia from the river ob in the west , including the yenisei and lena rivers , to the river kolyma in the east and in lake baikal in southern russia . there are some non - migrating populations in the irtysh river system .\ndormidontov , a . s . 1963 . fishery utilization of the lena river sturgeon . pp . 182\u2013187 . in : sturgeon fishery in the water bodies of the ussr . izdatelstvo akademii nauk sssr , moscow ( in russian ) .\nin order to preserve the species and protect production based on farmed animals , a form of legal recognition and a statute for farming them should be established . the siberian sturgeon is non - indigenous almost everywhere . however , regulations governing the rearing of non - indigenous species vary from country to country , leading to unfair competition .\naccording to ruban ( 1997 ) , at present the siberian sturgeon consist of three subespecies : the nominal a . baerii baerii brandt , 1869 from the ob river basin , a . baerii baicalensis nikolskii , 1896 from the lake baikal basin , and a . baerii stenorrhynchus nikolskii , 1896 from other siberian waters . this author consider that the initial spelling of this species , a . baerii , should be preserved . birstein & bemis ( 1997 ) , accept the three subespecies of a . baerii proposed by ruban ( 1997 ) .\nthe wide dispersal of the species has resulted in some animals escaping into zones that are far distant from their original habitat : the baltic and north seas , the gironde - garonne - dordogne basin in france and the rio negro in uruguay . it is interesting to note that , despite the intensive restocking that took place in some parts of the baltic sea during the 1960s , the species does not seem to have become established there ; one reason for this is probably the considerable ease with which it can be caught . the construction of dams , overfishing and pollution are responsible for a major deterioration in the state of natural populations , which are considered as vulnerable or endangered . globally , most sturgeon species are threatened , and the siberian sturgeon is no exception . the siberian sturgeon does not have a clear international market identity ; it is in competition with other sturgeon species that have a greater growth potential and / or an established commercial image .\nin the wild the siberian sturgeon can grow to a length of 2m ( 6 ' 6\n) and weigh around 200kg ( 440lb ) . in garden ponds a length of 1m ( 3 ' 3\n) - 1 . 5m ( 4 ' 6\n) and 10kg ( 22lb ) in weight is considered a large specimen .\ndryagin , p . a . 1947 . sturgeon catches in the water bodies of siberia . rybnoe khozyaistvo 1 : 34\u201338 ( in russian ) .\nthe most common sturgeon health problems are food and / or oxygen related , get these two vital things right and your sturgeons should remain fit and healthy .\ntchuprov , s . m . 1986 . ecological and morphological characteristics of fishes from eastern siberian reservoirs ( krasnoyarskoe and sayanskoe reservoirs ) . candidate biol . sci . dissertation thesis , moscow . 27 pp . ( in russian ) .\nyegorov , a . g . 1963 . state and perspectives of development of the sturgeon fishery in the baikal lake and angara river system . pp . 188\u2013195 .\nn . l . gerbil\u2019skii , \u201cexperimental and methodical foundations of development of sturgeon husbandry in the lower course of the kura , \u201d tr . lab . osnov rybovodstva\n: i . a . baramikova & l . , s . berditchevsky ( ed . ) biological foundations of sturgeon management , nauka , moscow ( in russian ) .\ngreat to see fish other than tilapia being grown in an aquaculture system . also , sturgeon are saltwater fish right ? so that\u2019s another unique aspect to this system .\nthough there are no reliable statistics , the trend is towards increased production . the production from these activities might be included in the fao statistical category ' sturgeons nei ' , partly because the countries concerned do not state the exact species farmed and partly because some of the production is from hybrids . in 2003 , some unofficial and most accurate estimates for the various siberian sturgeon products are provided in the table shown below .\nv . s . malyutin , \u201cthe state and perspectives of commercial sturgeon husbandry in the country , \u201d rybn . khoz . , no . 7 , 20\u201329 ( 1991 ) .\n. 1983 ) . at the main sturgeon rivers of siberia ( ob and yenisei ) the high level of poaching was noted ( krokhalevskii and mikhalev pers . com . ) . at the ob river , natural reproduction of the sturgeon has also declined due to a high level of abnormalities in development and functioning of reproductive system caused by water pollution ( ruban 2005 ) .\nso enjoy my in - depth educational piece on the future of farmed seafood . if any of you are interested in trying mote\u2019s siberian sturgeon or caviar , you can find a list of purveyors from nyc , fl and the west coast on their website . the fact that many well - known caviar houses , like petrossian , have agreed to sell their product says a lot about the taste and quality . i , for one , can vouch for it myself .\navoid strong chemical treatments such as formalin / formaldehyde , potassium permanganate , copper sulphate or any treatment that states not to be used with golden orfe ( leciscus sp . ) or rudd ( scardinius reythrophathalmus ) , these will probably kill your sturgeon . salt is the safest treatment to use with sturgeons . for more information about treating your sturgeon see our medications and treating sturgeons page .\nthese days such old specimens are rarely to be met with in the wild , as for several decades now human activity has drastically depleted sturgeon populations . industrial pollution contaminating the waters of the fishes ' home rivers , dams cutting off migration routes , and uncontrolled fishing and poaching have nearly wiped out many sturgeon species , leading to the imposition of strict regulations on their commercial use . the clear solution to this troubling situation , one that takes the pressure off the wild stock while continuing to supply sturgeon products to the clamorous market , is an emphasis on farm - raised fish .\ngreat video liza ! i never knew that sturgeon take 5 - 7 years to mature , that\u2019s quite an investment by mote . hopefully more programs like this will help wild stock to recover .\nnatural resources defence council , wildlife conservation society , seaweb ( dec , 2000 ) roe to ruin : the decline of sturgeon in the caspian sea and the road to recovery . available at : urltoken\nsiberian sturgeons will quickly outgrow smaller ponds of 2 , 000 - 3 , 000 gallons ( 9 , 000 - 13 , 500 litres ) that the sterlet ( acipenser ruthenus ) , with their slower growth rate , would do well in for longer . they may be kept in a pond of 3 , 000 - 6 , 000 gallons ( 13 , 500 - 27 , 000 litres ) for some time but a pond of 6 , 000 - 8 , 000 gallons ( 27 , 000 - 36 , 500 litres ) or more is recommended to keep siberian sturgeons into maturity .\na good fish for the larger pond as it grows very quickly and is hardy . it will go with bigger fish without any problems and is not a threat to other smaller fish . extra oxygenation in the summer months is essential . siberian sturgeons do not tolerate strong treatments such as formalin .\ngundrizer , a . n . , a . g . egorov . v . g . afanaseva , s . a . enshina , yu . v . mikhalev , r . i . setsko & a . a . khakimullin . 1983 . perspectives of reproduction of siberian sturgeons . pp . 241\u2013253 .\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 2 ) . subspecies : acipenser baerii baerii and the baikal sturgeon ( a . b . baicalensis ) are listed as endangered ( en ) , and the lena river sturgeon ( a . b . stenorrhynchus ) is listed as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\ni . a . barannikova , \u201chisto - physiological foundations of repeated and single hypophysary injections in sturgeon husbandry , \u201d tr . vses . nauchno - issled . inst . morsk . rybn . khoz . okeanogr .\nand one last note , mote is always looking for new seafood markets and restaurants to sell their farm - raised sturgeon to . so be sure to contact them if you or if anyone you know are interested .\ndettlaff , t . a . , ginsburg , a . s . and schmalhausen , o . i . 1993 . sturgeon fishes . developmental biology and aquaculture . springer - verlag , berlin , germany , 300 pp .\n. in : birstein v . j . , waldman j . r . , bemis w . e . ( eds ) sturgeon biodiversity and conservation . developments in environmental biology of fishes , vol 17 . springer , dordrecht\nthe convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ( 7 ) imposed a six - month ban on sturgeon catches in june 2001 , but conservationists are concerned that this has not gone far enough to save the beluga sturgeon ( 6 ) . the majority of the sturgeon population is now supported artificially ( 8 ) ; hatcheries may be the sole reason belugas still persist in the caspian sea ( 9 ) . the united states is the biggest importer of caviar and the fish and wildlife service is currently considering listing the species under the endangered species act , effectively banning importation ( 6 ) , but time is running out in the fight to save this ancient fish\na . baerii is often sold under the common name of\nlong nose\nor\nlongnose sturgeon\n, which is somewhat unhelpful in species identification because some other species on sale have equally long or even longer snouts .\nbut if chris cogan , the ceo of healthy earth in sarasota , florida has his way , the state that\u2019s famous for its citrus fruit and other produce will someday be as well known to top chefs for its farmed sturgeon roe .\nvotinov , n . p . 1963 . biological foundations of artificial reproduction of the ob river sturgeon . trudy ob - tazovskogo otdeleniya gosudarstvennogo nauchno - issledovatelskogo instituta ozernogo i rechnogo rybnogo khozyaistva , novaya seria 3 : 5\u2013102 ( in russian ) .\nthis species is known from all siberian rivers draining to the kara , laptev and east siberian seas : basins of the ob , taz , yenisei , pyasina , khatanga , anabar , olenyek , lena , yana , indigirka , alazeya ( rarely ) and kolyma rivers , lake baikal ( the yenisei river basin ) and rivers flowing to the lake \u2013 the selenga , barguzin and upper angara . it is most abundant in the ob , yenisei and lena rivers . this species is also native to the the irtysh river , in the northwest of xin jiang province , china . however , wild populations were extirpated from here in the 1950s ; the small population that remains here is from stocking ( chen 2007 ) .\nbronzi , p . , rosenthal , h . , arlati , g . and williot , p . 1999 . a brief review on the status and prospects of sturgeon farming in western and central europe . journal of applied ichthyology , 15 : 224 - 227 .\ntrue black caviar is harvested from members of the sturgeon family , whose historic habitats are river and sea basins from the subtropical to the subarctic zones of north america and eurasia . the acipenseridae family numbers 27 species , though only a select few produce this most opulent and coveted delicacy .\nthe startup didn ' t create the caviar business from the ground up . instead , it acquired the sustainable sturgeon farming operation developed by the mote marine laboratory and aquarium , an independent , nonprofit research center located on a gorgeous , sprawling campus in sarasota , replete with palm trees and spanish moss .\na healthy sturgeon diet must contain a high level of animal protein , sturgeons need a minimum protein content of 40 % and an oil level of 15 % or more . a a small percentage of the protein can be obtained from soya but the majority needs to be from fishmeal or other animal sources .\nwilliot , p . , sabeau , l . , gessner , j . , arlati , g . , bronzi , p . , gulyas , t . and berni , p . 2001 . sturgeon farming in western europe : recent developments and perspectives . aquatic living resources , 14 : 367 - 374 .\ngessner , j . , debus , l . , filipiak , j . , spratte , s . , skora , k . e . and arndt , g . m . 1999 . development of sturgeon catches in german and adjacent waters since 1980 . journal of applied ichthyology , 15 : 136 - 141 .\npodlesnyi , a . v . 1963 . state of reserves of sturgeons in the yenisey river and ways to increase them . pp . 200\u2013205 . in : e . n . pavlovskii ( ed . ) sturgeon fishery in water bodies of the ussr , izdatelstvo akademii nauk ussr , moscow ( in russian ) .\nvotinov , n . p . , v . n . zlokazov , v . p . kasyanov & r . i . setsko . 1975 . status of sturgeon reserves in the rivers of siberia and measures aimed to increase these reserves . sredneuralskoe knizhnoe izdatelstvo . sverdlovsk . 94 pp . ( in russian ) .\nbut , the recirculating aquaculture technology mote is developing for their sturgeon program also serves a greater purpose . as jim will tell you , it\u2019s not just for the caviar . the hope with this program is to eventually drive down the cost of the technology so that this type of farming can be applied to other species of fish , and encourage more farmed seafood production within our borders .\nthe total population of siberian sturgeon is unknown . direct counts and fishery statistics exist but are incomplete . however , a decline in catches of sturgeons within the main rivers of siberia has been observed from the 1930s ( ruban 2005 ) . based on commercial catch data , it is estimated that the ob river basin contains more than 80 % of the global population of this species ( chen 2007 ) . in the ob river basin , catches declined by ~ 99 . 5 % from 1410 tonnes in 1935 to 6 . 7 tonnes in 1996 . in the yenisei river catches declined from 504 tonnes in 1934 to 10 - 12 tonnes in 2000s ( a ~ 97 . 5 % decline ) . in the lena river catches declined from 190 tonnes in 1943 to about 10 tonnes in recent years ( a ~ 94 . 5 % decline ) ( ruban 2005 ) . this species was extirpated from the northwest parts of xin jiang province , china in the 1950s . the small population that remains here exists through stocking ( chen 2007 ) .\nthe population decline all over the species range is a result of overfishing , damming ( ob , yenisei , angara ) and poaching . currently commercial fisheries are banned in the basins of the ob and yenisei rivers and the lake baikal . a decline in area of occupancy was observed in upper reaches of the ob , yenisei and lena rivers ( ruban 2005 ) . dam construction at the ob river resulted in 40 % of sturgeon spawning grounds being lost ( gundrizer\nmarketed sturgeon products vary considerably , according to the country . the fish may be sold live ( between one and two kilos in china ) , or whole , filleted or smoked . there is a market for fertilised eggs and alevins for rearing purposes . alevins are also produced for restocking ( russian federation ) and for aquarists . finally , juveniles are used for the stocking of lakes for recreational fishing . fish farms can obtain \u20ac3 to 4 per kilo in western and central europe for fish of a size suitable for human consumption , while in russia and china the value seems to be higher ( \u20ac8 to 11 per kilo ) .\nthe beluga ( huso huso ) is the largest sturgeon in the world and the largest european freshwater fish ; it can reach up to five metres in length ( 2 ) . this ancient fish has an elongated body shape and a flattened , slightly upturned snout ( 3 ) , with the mouth located underneath ( 4 ) . there are five rows of bony plates ( or ' scutes ' ) that run the length of the body , one along the back , one on each flank and two on the undersurface ( 3 ) . the short , fleshy barbels in front of the mouth are feathered at the ends ( 2 ) . the body is predominantly dark grey or greenish whilst the belly tends to be white ( 3 ) .\nsturgeon have survived since the time of the dinosaurs but some populations of the beluga are today threatened with commercial extinction , principally as a result of overfishing ( 9 ) . the eggs are highly prized as caviar , for both their quality and quantity ( 4 ) . the beluga is the most famous of the caviar sturgeons , and is featured in the guinness book of records as the most expensive fish ( 3 ) . previously effective management of caspian sea fisheries have recently collapsed and illegal fishing is now rife ; the u . s fish and wildlife service estimated in 1998 that more than 50 percent of worldwide caviar trade was illegal ( 9 ) . in addition , habitat destruction through the pollution of coastal habitats and the alteration of river systems through dams , pollution and silting have further affected beluga numbers ( 4 ) . the volgograd dam for example , has blocked almost all beluga spawning grounds ( 9 ) .\nsince the 1940s , this species has attracted considerable attention because of its plasticity ; in the 1950s , tests were carried out to introduce the species into various open stretches of water ( baltic sea ) or closed areas ( lakes ) . the farming of this species began in the former ussr in the 1970s . it was also at this time that the first individuals ( from parents that had originated in the river lena ) arrived in france , as a biological model in the context of a franco - soviet scientific cooperation programme . since then , the dispersal of the species has accelerated and , in addition to the russian federation ( its country of origin ) it is known to be present in europe ( belgium , france , italy , germany , hungary , poland , and spain ) , america ( united states , uruguay ) and asia ( china ) . it is highly likely that it is also present in other countries , at least in an experimental capacity . the species has also been the subject of hybridisation . few companies cover the entire production cycle and market all possible products . some only produce eggs and / or alevins ; others specialise in producing the fish for meat ; in many western countries , caviar has become the main purpose of rearing sturgeon .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthis species can be found in all types of freshwater benthic habitats in large rivers and lakes . it spawns in strong - current habitats in the main stream of large and deep rivers on stone or gravel bottom . numerous spawning sites are located in lower and middle reaches of rivers . spawning peaks at beginning of june , continuing until end of july . spawning periodicity is 3 - 5 years in females and 2 - 3 years in males . the generation length of the species ranges from 25 - 30 years ( chen 2007 , ruban 2005 ) . in northeastern populations , females are twice the age of males ( ruban 2005 ) . the average age at maturity for females is 11 ( in lena river ) to 22 ( in lake baikal ) , and 9 - 19 years for males .\ncurrently used for traditional chinese medicine in china , japan , korea and singapore . in the northern parts of china , especially along the amur river , stocks of this species are farmed , the skin is used for making boots , gloves , hats and some kinds of decoration ( zhu pers . comm ) . aquaculture ( in outdoor indoor rearing tanks ) is independent of wild - caught material , since artificial reproduction is possible and f2 and higher generations are now used in aquaculture .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis site requires javascript to function correctly . please enable javascript in your browser and try again .\nacipenser baerii has 10 - 12 dorsal scutes , 32 - 62 lateral scutes , 7 - 16 ventral scutes , 30 - 56 dorsal fin rays and 17 - 33 anal fin rays .\nthe back and sides are a uniform dark grey - brown to black , with the scutes and fin edges being very close in colour to the surrounding skin . the belly is whitish and may have some grey spots . the snout is long and pointed with a white tip that may be slightly upturned and rounded .\nthe growth rate is dependent on food quality and temperature but when young they can grow like weeds , putting on 8 - 10 inches ( 20 - 25cm ) over a year , given the right food and environment . the growth rate slows down once the fish has reached about 3ft in length .\nsturgeons do not , as some people would have you believe , eat banket weed or ' clean the bottom of the pond ' . sturgeons need to be fed all year round , they need 2 - 3 % of their body weight of good quality food per day in the summer , less in the winter .\nstellatus ( acipenser stellatus ) and sterlets ( acipenser ruthenus ) have smaller throats ; use a size smaller for them .\nuse an oxygen test kit to make sure there is enough oxygen in the water . follow the instructions that come with the kit to ensure correct results . do not assume that there is plenty of air just because you have an air pump running . many things can affect the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water so testing is the only way to be certain . warm water holds less oxygen than cold water so be vigilant during hot weather , especially stormy nights when the oxygen may drop to dangerously low levels suddenly .\nprovide the best possible water quaility for you fish . run the pump and filtration all year round and keep a spare back up pump in case of main pump failure . for more information about water quality see our water quality page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2000 - 2018 urltoken all rights reserved . protected by uk copyright service registration no : 311386\nlinks | credits | site map | copyright \u00a9 2000 - 2018 urltoken . all rights reserved . uk copyright service registration no : 311386\nspiracle present . snout and caudal peduncle subconical . gill membranes joined to isthmus . mouth transverse and lower lip with a split in the middle . the barbels are either smooth or slightly fimbriate . the length of the snout is highly variable ( 33 . 3 - 61 per cent head length ) . 20 - 49 gill rakers fan - like , each terminated by several tubercles . d : 30 - 56 . a : 17 - 33 fin rays . 10 - 12 dorsal scutes ; 32 - 62 lateral scutes ; 7 - 16 ( 20 ) ventral scutes . the scutes of young specimens are sharply tipped , but no in adult ones . numerous small bony plates are scattered between the rows of scutes . there is a great variability in the colouration : from light grey to a dark brown on back and sides , and from white to yellowish on the underside .\nthe map shown below is constructed from fao statistical data for this species . farming activities also occur in many other countries , including the russian federation , italy , germany , poland , spain , the united states of america , china , belgium and hungary . however , the production from these activities are included in the fao statistical category ' sturgeons nei ' , partly because the countries concerned do not state the exact species farmed and partly because some of the production is from hybrids .\nthere is currently no particular pathology associated with this species . however , it is sensitive to various bacteriosis [ yersiniosis , vibriosis and myxobacteriosis ( now called flavobacteriosis ) ] . treatments are available to control the development of these diseases and vaccinations enable preventive action to be taken . at the larval stage , good food management is likely to decrease these risks by preventing the development of cannibalism . a very small percentage of animals present deformities , which can eventually lead to a loss of balance , difficulty in feeding and ultimately death . the origin of this pathology , which is not specific to this species , remains unknown . suppliers of pathology expertise no information supplied .\nthe international caviar market , estimated during the 1980s to be between 200 and 300 tonnes per year , appears to have decreased due to a lack of interest on the part of air transporters . competition between the various caviar producers will soon increase .\nbirstein , v . j . , bemis , w . e . and waldman , j . r . 1997 . the threatened status of acipenseriformes species : a summary . environmental biology of fishes , 48 : 427 - 435 .\nchebanov , m . and billard , r . 2001 . the culture of sturgeons in russia : production of juveniles for stocking and meat for human consumption . aquatic living resources , 14 : 375 - 381 .\nsokolov , l . i . and vasil ' ev , v . p . 1989 . acipenser baeri brandt , 1869 . in j . holcik ( ed . ) , the freshwater fishes of europe : general introduction to fishes acipenseriformes . aula - verlag wiesbaden , germany . pp . 263 - 284 .\nwilliot p . 2002 . reproduction . in r . billard ( coord . ) , esturgeons et caviar , pp . 63 - 90 . lavoisier tec & doc , paris , france .\nwilliot , p . and bourguignon , g . 1991 . production d ' esturgeon et de caviar , \u00e9tat actuel et perspectives . in ( p . williot ed ) , acipenser , pp . 509 - 513 . cemagref editions , antony , paris , france .\nwilliot , p . and sabeau , l . 1999 . elevage d ' esturgeons et production de caviar : exemple de l ' esturgeon sib\u00e9rien ( acipenser baerii ) en france . compte rendu acad\u00e9mie agriculture de france 85 ( 8 ) , s\u00e9ance du 27 nov . 1999 : 71 - 83 .\nin the past few years the world of online aquaculture academia has been increasingly blighted by non - peer - reviewed papers masquerading as real science . here\u2019s what you can do to avoid the worrying tre\u2026\nbiomar has opened a state - of - the - art marine fish larval trial unit for both larval rearing and the production of live feed .\nthe team behind a project that aims to improve the health of farmed sea bass and sea bream in the mediterranean has launched an discussion forum on sparicotylosis today .\na project that has developed a pioneering device to monitor the temperature of seafood in transit and improve the quality of aquaculture products is showing promising results .\n\u00a92000 & hyphen ; 2018 & hyphen ; 5m publishing , benchmark house , 8 smithy wood drive , sheffield , s35 1qn , england .\n5m enterprises inc . , suite 4120 , cbot , 141 west jackson boulevard , chicago , il , 60604 - 2900 , usa . & hyphen ; a benchmark holdings plc . company\nno part of this site may be reproduced without permission . co . registration 3332321 vat no . 100 1348 86\nfreshwater ; brackish ; demersal ; ph range : 7 . 0 - 7 . 5 ; dh range : ? - 20 ; potamodromous ( ref . 57765 ) ; depth range 0 - 200 m ( ref . 57765 ) , usually 1 - 8 m ( ref . 57765 ) . temperate ; 1\u00b0c - 19\u00b0c ( ref . 57765 ) ; 74\u00b0n - 46\u00b0n , 64\u00b0e - 162\u00b0e\nasia : siberia , rivers ob , irtysh , yenisei , lena , kolyma , khatanga , pyasina , anabar , olenyok , yana and lake baikal ( ref . 57765 ) . non - migratory populations exist in all river systems ( ref . 57765 ) .\nmaturity : l m 86 . 9 , range 65 - 167 cm max length : 200 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 40476 ) ; max . published weight : 210 . 0 kg ( ref . 59043 ) ; max . reported age : 63 years ( ref . 57765 )\nextended snouts ; four barbels in front of the mouth ( ref . 4639 ) . the back is light grey to dark brown colored . the belly color varies from white to clear yellow . five row s of scutes : 10 - 19d , 32 - 59l , 7 - 16v . small star - like scutes between the main ones . clearly slit inferior lip ( ref . 40476 ) .\nfound in deep and shallow parts of rivers , with moderate to swift current usually at depths of 1 to 8 m ( ref . 57765 ) . adults live essentially in freshwater although some fish frequently occur in estuaries . males are sexually mature between 9 and 29 years ; females between 9 and 34 years ( ref . 57765 ) . spawn in main river channel over stone - gravel or gravel - sand bottom and with strong current ( ref . 59043 ) .\nanadromous species . in a natural environment , males reach sexual maturity at 9 - 1 5 years of age and females at 16 - 20 years ( in water recirculation systems , sexual maturity can first occur at 5 years ) . spawning happens in the summer and generally every two years . membranes on eggs become increasingly more sticky after fertilization and this allows them to stick to the substratum . this can become a problem in nurseries , but it is solved by washing the eggs in clay or diatomaceous earth suspensions . caviar ( not fecundated ovocites ) can be over 1 0 % of the corporal weight of a mature female . incubation lasts about 1 6 days ( at 10 - 1 5\u00b0 ) . larvae development lasts about 20 days ( at 18\u00b0 ) . egg size 3 . 0 - 3 . 6 mm , larval length at hatching 10 - 12 mm .\nbaillie , j . and b . groombridge ( eds . ) , 1996 . 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals . iucn , gland , switzerland . 378 p . ( ref . 12255 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00263 ( 0 . 00152 - 0 . 00454 ) , b = 3 . 27 ( 3 . 12 - 3 . 42 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 2 se ; based on diet studies .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : very low , minimum population doubling time more than 14 years ( tm = 7 - 34 ; tmax = 63 ; fec = 16 , 500 - 420 , 000 ; k = 0 . 03 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 24 , 2 sd range = 0 . 08 - 0 . 67 , log ( r ) = - 1 . 43 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 52 , based on : 3 k , 62 tgen , 1 tmax , 18 fec records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : very high vulnerability ( 85 of 100 ) .\nvisit our showroom 687 n . e . 79th street , miami , fl , 33138\nthis site requires javascript to function properly . please enable javascript in your web browser .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\neach caviar gift basket from caviar express is individually designed in order to create a truly unforgettable experience . our gift packages come in either a woven basket or a wood box , and are delicately assembled for each unique recipient . all gift packages are wrapped in ribbons and transparent decorations along with a personalized handwritten greeting card .\nbased in southern california , caviar express has been a family run business since its inception in 1967 . with over 40 years of experience in the caviar industry , we have earned our reputation as one of the premier caviar importers and retailers in the u . s . by consistently providing our customers with the \ufb01nest caviar and customer service that can be derived only from a family - owned and operated business . we are sincerely proud to share our passion for caviar with you .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\n, as a bioindicator . voprosy ikhtiologii 32 : 102\u2013109 ( in russian . english translation : j . ichthyol . 33 : 15\u201324 ) .\n: a . d . gershanovich & t . i . j . smith ( ed . ) proceedings of the international symposium on sturgeons , 6\u201311 september 1993 , moscow - kostroma - moscow , vnlro publishing , moscow .\n: i . a . shilov ( ed . ) northern ecosystems : structure , adaptations . stability , izdatelstvo moskovskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta , moscow ( in russian ) .\nandriyashev , a . p . 1954 . fishes of the northern seas of the ussr . izdatelstvo akademii nauk ussr , moscow leningrad . 566 pp . ( in russian ) .\nbelykh , f . i . 1940 . lake lama and its fishery use . trudy nauchno - issledovatelskogo inststituta polyarnogo zemledeliya , zhivotnovodstva i promyslovogo khozyaistva . seriya promyslovoe khozyaistvo 11 : 73\u2013100 ( in russian ) .\nberg , l . s . 1926 . fishes of the khatanga basin . material komissii an sssr po izucheniyu yakutskoi assr 2 : 1\u201322 ( in russian ) .\nberg , l . s . 1948 . the freshwater fishes of the ussr and adjacent countries , vol , 1 . part 1 . akadenmia nauk sssr , moscow & leningrad ( in russian . english translation published by israel program for scientific translations . jerusalem . 505 pp . )\nbrandt ) of the irtysh river basin . uchenye zapiski permskogo gosudarstvennogo unisversite teta 3 : 145\u2013163 ( in russian ) .\nborisov , p . g . 1928 . fishes ofthe lena river . trudy komissii an sssr po izueheniyu yakutskoi respubliki 9 : 1\u2013181 ( in russian ) .\nbrandt , j . g . 1869 / 1870 . einige worte ber die curopisch - asiatischen strarten ( sturionides ) . bull . acad . imper . sci . st . - petersbourg 14 : 171\u2013175 .\nburmakin , e . v 1941 . some little commercial and noncommercial fishes of the gyda bay system . turdy nauchno - lssledovatelskogo instituta polyarnogo zemledeliya , zhivotnovodstva i promyslovogo khozyaistva , seriya promyslovoe khozyaistvo 15 : 149\u2013158 ( in russian ) .\n: v . i . lukyanenko ( ed . ) stu rgeon fishery in inland water bodies of the ussr , abstracts of papers at the 2nd all - union conference , astrakhan ( in russian ) .\ndryagin , p . a . 1933 . fish resource of yakutiya . trudy soveta po izueheniyu proisvoditelnykh sil 5 : 3\u201394 ( in russian ) .\ndryagin , p . a . 1948b . commercial fishes of the ob - lrtysh river basin . izvestiya vsesouznogo lnstituta ozernogo i rechnogo rybnogo khozyaistva 25 ( 2 ) : 3\u2013104 ( in russian ) .\nkalashnikov , yu . e . 1978 , fishes of the vitim river basin . nauka press , novosibirsk . 190 pp . ( in russian ) .\nkarantonis , f e . , e . n . kirillov & f b . mukhomediyarov . 1956 . fishes of the middle lena reaches trudy instituta biologii yakutskogo filiala an ussr 2 : 3\u2013144 ( in russian ) .\nkirillov , f . n . 1950 . fishes of the tiksi bay . uchenye zapiski tomskogo universiteta 15 : 155\u2013162 ( in russian ) .\nkirillov , e n . 1953 . fishes ofthe lndigirka river and their fishery . candidate of biol . sci . dissertation thesis . yakutsk . 13 pp . ( in russian )\nkirillov , e n . 1964 . species composition of fishes of the aldan river . pp . 73\u201382 ,\nkirillov , f . n . 1972 . fishes of yakutiya . nauka press , moscow . 360 pp . ( in russian ) .\nkirillov , e n . & n . g . solomonov ( ed . ) 1979 . biology of the vilyui water reservoir . nauka press , novosibirsk . 270 pp . ( in russian ) .\nkolosov , a . m . ( ed . ) 1983 . rsfsr [ russian federation ] red data book . animals . rosselkhozizdat , moscow . 455 pp . ( in russian ) .\nkozhov , m . m . 1950 . fresh waters of east siberia . ogiz press , irkutsk . 367 pp , ( in russian ) .\nlogashov , m . v . 1940 . lake melkoe and its utilization for fishery . trudy nauchno - issledovatelskogo instituta polyarnogo zemledeliya , zhivotnovodstva i promyslovogo khozyaistva , seriya promyslovoe khozyaistvo 11 : 7\u201371 ( in russian ) .\nlukyanchikov , f . v . 1967 . fishes of the khatanga river system . trudy krasnoyarskogo otdeleniya sibniirkh 9 : 11\u201393 ( in russian ) .\nmaak , r . u . 1886 , vilyui region of the yakutsk district , part 2 . st . - petersburg . 366 pp . ( in russian ) .\nmayr , e . 1969 . principles of systematic zoology : mcgraw - hill , new york . 428 pp .\nsp . nov . ) . ezhegodnik zoologicheskogo museya akademii nauk 1 : 400\u2013405 ( in russian ) .\nbrandt . sbornik trudov gosudarstvennogo zoologicheskogo muzeya pri mgu 5 : 136\u2013148 ( in russian ) .\nostroumov , n . a . 1937 . fishes and fishery of the pyasina river . trudy polyarnoi komissii an ussr 30 : 1\u2013115 ( in russian ) .\npetkevich , a . n . , v . n . bashmakov & a . ya . bashmakova . 1950 . sturgeons of the middle and upper reaches of the ob river . trudy barabinskogo otdeleniya vsesoyuznogo nauchno - issledovatelskogo otdeleniya instituta ozernogo i rechnogo rybnogo khozyaistva 4 : 3\u201354 ( in russian ) .\na . nikolsky ) of the yenisey river . voprosy ikhtiologii 4 : 21\u201340 ( in russian ) .\npodlesnyi , a . v . 1958 . fishes of the yenisey river , conditions of their life and utilization of them . trudy vsesoyuznogo nauchno - issledovatelskogo instituta ozernogo i rechnogo rybnogo khozyaistva 44 : 97\u2013178 ( in russian ) .\nroskin , g . i . & l . v . levinson . 1957 . microscopic techniques . sovetskaya nauka , moscow . 468 pp . ( in russian ) .\n, of the lena river basin . voprosy ikhtiologii 29 : 48\u201355 ( in russian , english translation : j . ichthyol . 29 : 48\u201355 ) .\n, in the indigirka river . voprosy ikhtiologii 31 : 596\u2013605 ( in russian , english translation : j . ichthyol . 31 : 118\u2013129 ) .\n, from the kolyma river . voprosy ikhtiologii 33 : 84\u201392 ( in russian , english translation : j . ichthyol . 33 : 66\u201380 ) .\ndrjagin ( acipenseriformes , acipenseridae ) , in the yenisey and lena rivers . voprosy ikhtiologii 34 : 469\u2013478 ( in russian , english translation : j . ichthyol . 34 : 58\u201371 ) .\nsedelnikov , a . k . 1910 . lake zaisan . zapiski zapadno - sibirskogo otdela imperatorskogo russkogo geograficheskogo obshchestva 35 : 1\u2013253 ( in russian ) .\n, from the aldan river . voprosy ikhtiologii 26 : 55\u201364 ( in russian , english translation : j . ichthyol . 26 : 55\u201364 ) ."]}